2 
 
THE 
 
 English Cyclopaedia. 
 
 YOL. Y. 
 
 BIOGEAPHY. 
 
 AA — FYT. 
 
THE 
 
 English 
 Cyclopedia H 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF 
 
 VOL. V. 
 BIOGKAPHY. 
 
 (AA— EYT.) 
 
 LONDON 
 
 Bradbuky, Agnew, and Company. 
 9, bouverie street, e.c. 
 
 'Jf'HNLEICHION.F.CS 
 
038, 
 y,5- 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 The asterisk " prefixed to the name indicates that the subject of the memoir it still living. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 The alphabetical arrangement in the first portion of this volume is 
 followed by another containing the additional and supplementary information. 
 When referring to any subject, it is therefore necessary to consult both. 
 
 is to be found in the dook 01 H.XOUUP, MLl i w Uv 
 
 of the Pentateuch. 
 
 ABA'NO, PIE'TRO DI, or Petrus Ap6nus, was born in 1250 at 
 Abano, the Roman name of which was Ap6nus, a village which is 
 5| miles from Padua. He studied first at Padua, then went to Con- 
 stantinople to learn Greek, and afterwards to Paris, where he devoted 
 himself to mathematics and mediciue. He travelled in England and 
 Scotland, whence he was recalled to Padua, in 1303 or 1304, to take 
 the professorship of medicine, then vacant. His reputation was very 
 great, and his charges for attendance very high. He combined astrology 
 with astronomy, and perhaps made some pretence to magic. At all 
 events he was regarded as a magician, and in 1306 he was brought 
 before the tribunal of the Inquisition as a heretic and atheist ; but 
 defended himself so well ai to obtain an acquittal. In 1314 he 
 removed to Treviso, in compliance with the invitation of the inhabit- 
 ants. In 1315 another accusation was brought against him before the 
 Inquisition ; but he died before the inquiry was completed, in the 
 year 1316, at the age of 66. His judges however continued the inquiry 
 after his death, found him guilty, and ordered his body to be burnt. 
 Abano wrote several works on philosophy and medicine, and made 
 translations of ancient and Arabic medical writers. In his expositions 
 there is little of his own observation or of original thought ; but in 
 the knowledge acquired from the works of others he was not surpassed 
 by any physician of his time. 
 
 ABA'Tl, or ABBA'TI, NICCOLO', was born at Modena in 1512. 
 He is more frequently called Dell' Abate, but erroneously according 
 to the showing of Tiraboschi, as his family name was Abati. Before 
 Tiraboschi, Niccolo's surname was supposed to be unknown, and the 
 name of De 11' A I ate was given to him from the circumstance of his 
 being less known for his own works than as the assistant of Priuia- 
 ticcio, who was called V Abate by the Italians, after he was made 
 Abbe" of St. Martin near Troyes, by Francis L of France. Abati 
 executed in fresco the Adventures of Ulysseg and other works from 
 the designs of Primaticcio, for the palace of Fontainebleau, the decora- 
 tion of which was entrusted to Primaticcio after the death of II Rosso. 
 Prints from the Adventures of Ulysses, by Van Thulden, were pub- 
 
 bioo. niv. vor . 1. 
 
 trom Ariostu mu ^ u 
 
 have been engraved by Gajani. These with some conversation-pieces 
 and concertos in the Institute of Bologna, a Nativity of Christ under 
 the portico of the Leoni Palace, and a large symbolical picture in 
 the Via di San Mamolo, in the same city, are the only frescoes now 
 extant by Abati ; and his oil-pictures are likewise very scarce. 
 
 Of the works in the Institute, Zanotti has written an account — 
 'Delle Pitture di Pellegrino Tibaldi e Niccolo Abbati,' &c, in which 
 there arc engravings of them : Malvasia also has given a laudatory 
 description of them : they have been compared with the works of 
 Titian. The Nativity of the Leoni Palace, which has been engraved 
 by Goiidnlfi, is mentioned in the highest terms by Count Algarotti, 
 who discovered in it " the symmetry of Raphael, the nature of Titian, 
 and the grace of Parmegiauo." Of his easel-pictures in oil the most 
 celebrated is the Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul, a large picture 
 on wood, which was painted for the Church of the Benedictines at 
 Modena in 1546. It is now in the Dresden Gallery, and has been 
 eng: aved by Folkema for the ' Recueil d'Estampes apres les plus 
 c^lebres Tableaux de la Galerie de Diesde.' 
 
 From about 1546 until 1552, when he accompanied Primaticcio to 
 France, Abati lived in Bologna, and his Bologuese works were painted 
 during this interval: he died in Paris in 1571. 
 
 Abati's principal faculty was paintiug in fresco, in which he had 
 surprising facility. According to Vasari he never retouched his works 
 when dry, which cannot be said of many fresco-painters ; yet, says 
 Vasari, the paintings of an entire apartment were executed with such 
 uniformity that they appeared to be the work of a single day. Abati 
 excelled in landscape, for his period ; there is a Rape of Proserpine 
 in the Duke of Sutherland's collection, of which the background is 
 an extensive landscape ; it was formerly in the Orleans Gallery, and 
 was sold at the sale iu this country for 160i. 
 
 Several of Abati's relations also distinguished themselves as painters : 
 his brother Pietro Paolo was a clever horse and battle painter ; his sou 
 Giulio Camillo, his grandson Ercole, and his great grandson Pietro 
 Paolo the younger, were all painters of ability, especially Ercole, who 
 
 788434 
 
038, 
 v. 5" 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 The asterisk * prefixed to the name indicates that the subject of the memoir is still living. 
 
 AARON. 
 
 AARON, the firat high-priest of the Jews. He was the elder brother 
 of Moses, and was, by the express appointment of Heaven, asso- 
 ciated with that illustrious legislator in the enterprise of delivering 
 their countrymen from Egyptian bondage, and conducting them to 
 the promised land. Under the direction of his brother, Aaron, who 
 was a ready and eloquent speaker, announced the command of God 
 to Pharaoh, and attested it by the series of miracles recorded in the 
 earlier chapters of the book of Exodus. During the sojourn in the 
 wilderness he was far from manifesting the steady confidence and 
 undaunted disregard of popular clamour which characterised the 
 conduct of Moses ; but, notwithstanding his timidity and weakness, 
 in yielding to the demand of the multitude that he would make them 
 a golden calf to worship, he was consecrated to the priesthood, of 
 which the highest office was made hereditary in his family. Having 
 ascended the summit of Mount Hor, in company with Moses and his 
 eldest son Eleazar, he died there, after Moses, as commanded by God, 
 had stripped him of his sacerdotal robes, and put them upon his son. 
 This event happened when Aaron was in the 123rd year of his age, 
 forty years after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, and, 
 according to the commonly received chronology, in the year B.o. 1451, 
 or 2553 years from the creation of the world. The history of Aaron 
 is to be found in the book of Exodus, and the three following books 
 of the Pentateuch. 
 
 ABA'NO, PIE'TRO DI, or Petrus Aponus, was born in 1250 at 
 Abano, the Roman name of which was Ap6nus, a village which is 
 54 miles from Padua. He studied first at Padua, then went to Con- 
 stantinople to learn Greek, and afterwards to Paris, where he devoted 
 himself to mathematics and mediciue. He travelled in England and 
 Scotland, whence he was recalled to Padua, in 1303 or 1304, to take 
 the professorship of medicine, then vacant. His reputation was very 
 great, and his charges for attendance very high. He combined astrology 
 with astronomy, and perhaps made some pretence to magic. At all 
 events he was regarded as a magician, and in 1306 he was brought 
 before the tribunal of the Inquisition as a heretic and atheist ; but 
 defended himself so well as to obtain an acquittal. In 1314 he 
 removed to Treviso, in compliance with the invitation of the inhabit- 
 ants. In 1315 another accusation was brought against him before the 
 Inquisition ; but he died before the inquiry was completed, in the 
 year 1316, at the age of 66. His judges however continued the inquiry 
 after bia death, found him guilty, and ordered his body to be burnt. 
 Abano wrote several works on philosophy and medicine, and made 
 translations of ancient and Arabic medical writers. In his expositions 
 there is little of his own observation or of original thought ; but in 
 the knowledge acquired from the works of others he was not surpassed 
 by any physician of his time. 
 
 ABA'TI, or ABBA'TI, NICCOLO', was born at Modena iu 1512. 
 He is more frequently called Dell' Abate, but erroneously according 
 to the showing of Tiraboschi, as his family name was Abati. Before 
 Tiraboschi, Niccolo's surname was supposed to be unknown, and the 
 name of Dell' A I ate was given to him from the circumstance of his 
 being less known for his own works than as the assistant of Prima- 
 ticcio, who was called L' Abate by the Italians, after he was made 
 Abbe" of St. Martin near Troyes, by Francis L of France. Abati 
 executed in fresco the Adventures of Ulyss' s and other works from 
 the designs of Prirnaticcio, for the palace of Fontainebleau, the decora- 
 tion of which was entrusted to Prirnaticcio after the death of II Rosso. 
 Prints from the Adventure3 of Ulysses, by Van Thulden, were pub- 
 bioo. niv, vol . 1. 
 
 ABATI. 
 
 lished in Paris in 1 630 : the original works were destroyed with the 
 building in 1738, to make room for a new structure. 
 
 Abati's own works however, in Modena and Bologna, were produc- 
 tions of the greatest merit, according to the Carracci ; and in a sonnet 
 of Agostino, which is a sort of recipe for making a great painter, he is 
 mentioned in conclusion as combining in himself all the required 
 excellences. There are few of Abati's works remaining, and these are 
 chiefly frescoes; he seems to have painted comparatively little in oil. 
 It is not known who his master was, or whether he had any other 
 master than his father Giovanni Abati, who was an obscure painter 
 and modeller of Modena. From a similarity in his works to the style 
 of Corregyio, some have supposed that he was a pupil of Correggio ; 
 he is aLo said to have studied under the sculptor Begarelli : if so he 
 was probably well acquainted with Correggio, with whom Begarelli 
 wai intimate. 
 
 His earliest essays upon his own account were in partnership with 
 another painter, Alberto Fontana, a practice not unusual at that period 
 in Italy, when there was little or no distinction between artists and 
 artisans in the manner of employing them or estimating their works. 
 In 1537 he painted with Fontana, at Modena, some frescoes in the 
 butchers' market, by which he obtained some reputation ; and he 
 acquired great distinction by some frescoes in the Scandiano Palace, 
 from Aiiosto and the yEneid of Virgil, which are still extant; they 
 have been engraved by Gajani. These with some conversation-pieces 
 and concertos in the Institute of Bologna, a Nativity of Christ under 
 the portico of the Leoni Palace, and a large symbolical picture in 
 the Via di San Mamolo, in the same city, are the only frescoes now 
 extant by Abati ; and his oil-pictures are likewise very scarce. 
 
 Of the works in the Institute, Zanotti has written an account — 
 'Delle Pitture di Pellegriuo Tibaldi e Niccolo Abbati,' &c, in which 
 there are engravings of them : Malvasia also has given a laudatory 
 description of them : they have been compared with the works of 
 Titian. The Nativity of the Leoni Palace, which has been engraved 
 by Goudolfi, is mentioned in the highest terms by Count Algarotti, 
 who discovered in it " the symmetry of Raphael, the nature of Titian, 
 and the grace of Parmegiano." Of his easel-pictures in oil the most 
 celebrated is the Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul, a large picture 
 on wood, which was painted for the Church of the Benedictines at 
 Modena in 1546. It is now in the Dresden Gallery, and has been 
 eng: aved by Folkema for the ' Recueil d'Estampes apres les plus 
 cdlebres Tableaux de la Galerie de Diesde.' 
 
 From about 1546 until 1552, when he accompanied Prirnaticcio to 
 France, Abati lived in Bologna, and his Bologuese works were painted 
 during this interval : he died in Paris in 1571. 
 
 Abati's principal faculty was painting in fresco, in which he had 
 surprising facility. According to Vasari he never retouched his works 
 when dry, which cannot be said of many fresco-painters ; yet, says 
 Vasari, the paintings of an entire apartment were executed with such 
 uniformity that they appeared to be the work of a single day. Abati 
 excelled iu landscape, for his period ; there is a Rape of Proserpine 
 in the Duke of Sutherland's collection, of which the background is 
 an extensive landscape; it was formerly in the Orleans Gallery, and 
 was sold at the sale in this country for 1601. 
 
 Several of Abati's relations also distinguished themselves as painters: 
 his brother Pietro Paolo was a clever horse and battle painter ; his son 
 Giulio Camillo, his grandson Ercole, and his great grandson Pietro 
 Paolo the younger, were all painters of ability, especially Ercole, who 
 
 S 
 
 788434 
 
3 
 
 ABAUZIT FIRMIN. 
 
 ABBAS THE GREAT. 
 
 4 
 
 was born in Modena in 1563, and died in 1 G 1 3 ; he executed with 
 
 B. Schidoue the frescoes of the council-hall of Modena. 
 
 (Vedriani, Vile de' Pittori di AJodcicsi ; Tiraboschi, Notizie de' 
 Pit tori, <kc, di Modena.) 
 
 ABAUZIT FIRMIN, born 1679, died 1767, aged 87. His family 
 was descended from an Arabian physician, who settled at Toulouse in 
 the 9th century. He was born at Uzos, in Languedoc, of protestant 
 parents in good circumstances, and lost his father when he was only 
 two years of age. In 1685, after the revocation of the Edict of Nautz, 
 he and his brother wire seized by the authorities for the purpose of 
 being educated in the Catholic faith. After some time however his 
 mother was enabled to effect his escape, and send him to Geneva 
 For this she was imprisoned, until she also contrived to escape and 
 follow her sou. Abauzit applied himself to almost every branch of 
 human knowledge. In 1698 he visited Germany, Holland, France, 
 and England, and trained tho esteem of many eminent men, among 
 others of Bayle and Newton. King William wished to retain him in 
 England, but he decided to return to Geneva. There he took part in 
 the translation of the New Testament, which appeared in 1726, and 
 received the thanks of the clergy for his exertions. In 1727 the 
 government of Geneva bestowed on him the rights of citizenship. 
 He is one of the most remarkable instances on record of a combina- 
 tion of universality and depth of learning. Every man who talked 
 with Abauzit on his own particular study, imagined that, whatever 
 his general learning might be, his special attention had been reserved 
 for that which they were discussing. Newton addressed himself to 
 Abauzit as a proper person to decide between him and Leibnitz. 
 Pococke, the Oriental traveller, thought he had passed his life in the 
 East. Rousseau imagined that he had devoted himself to the study 
 of ancient music. In his temper he was siugularly mild and enduring 
 to excess. For a man of his attainments we have not much remaining 
 of Abauzit. With the exception of some antiquarian papers, in Spoil's 
 ' Histoire de la Ville de Geneve* and the * Journal llelvdtique,' he 
 printed nothing himself. Some theological works were published after 
 his death, but the greater part of his manuscripts were burnt by his 
 heirs, whose religious opinions differed from his own, which were 
 Unitariau. (Bioyraphie Uniremclle.) 
 
 ABBA THULLE, king of tho Pelew Islands, became known to 
 Europeans in consequence of the wreck of the East India Company's 
 ship Antelope, on the island of Oroolong, one of the group of the ' 
 Pelevvs, on the 10th of August, 1783. The unfortunate mariners were 
 well treated by the natives, and were soon honoured with a visit from 
 the king. As he had never seen a white man, nor any vessel larger 
 than a canoe, his surprise was unbounded; but it was the effect of 
 fire-arms which most attracted his attention. It was not long before 
 he induced Wilson, the captain of the Antelope, to grant him assistance 
 in his wars with the neighbouring islanders in four several expeditions, 
 which were generally under the command of Abba Thulle himself. 
 The novil mode of attack of the strangers proved so effective, that on 
 the last occasiou the people of Artingall, the island against which the 
 attack was directed, submitted without resistance to the king of Pelew. 
 While this was going on, the rest of the Antelope's crew, and all at 
 other times, were engaged in building a vessel, their own haviug gone 
 to pieces, in which they hoped to be able to take passage to China ; 
 and in this work Abba Thulle, who took a great interest in it, rendered 
 them every assistance. When the vessel was completed, he declared 
 his intention to confide his second son, Lee Boo, to his new friends, 
 that he might accompany them and see the wonders of Europe. On 
 the 12th of November, 17S3, the Oroolong (so called from the islaud 
 where it was built) proceeded on its voyage, in presence of the king 
 and a large concourse of the people of Pelew, who took an affectionate 
 leave of their friends, and loaded them with presents. Lee Boo, after 
 a tender parting with his father, accompanied them ; but a seaman, 
 named Blauchard, delighted with his prospects at the islands, insisted 
 on remaining behind. Before sailing, Abba Thulle had proclaimed 
 Oroolong to be ' Englishman's Land,' and it was formally taken posses- 
 sion of in the name of King George III. Captain Wilson brought Lee 
 Boo to England, but he unfortunately died soon afterwards. In 1790 
 the East Iudia Company resolved to send out an expedition to Pelew, 
 with the double object of informing Abba Thulle of the death of his 
 son, and of testifying the Company's sense of his kindness to the 
 Antelope's crew, by presenting him with a quantity of live stock, and use- 
 ful seeds and implements. Accordingly the ' Panther' and ' Endeavour,' 
 commanded by Captain M'Cluer, and having among their officers 
 Messrs. White and Wedgeborough, who had been with Captain Wilson, 
 arrived at Pelew on this service. Abba Thulle received the news of 
 the death of Lee Boo with resignation, pausing for a time, and then 
 exclaiming only " Weel, weel, weel, a trecoy ! " (Good, good, very good). 
 A great battle had been fought since the departure of the Oroolong, 
 in which the people of Pelew had defeated those of Pelelew, with the 
 loss of Raa Kook, the king's brother, Qui Bill, his eldest son, and 
 many persons of distinction. Abba Thulle was highly delighted with 
 the presents, most of which he distributed among his nobles; but it 
 soon became his great object, as before, to obtain the assistance of the 
 English in war. After one refusal it was conceded ; but the appearance 
 alone of the dreaded strangers before the capital of Artingall was suffi- 
 cient to induce the enemy to capitulate, and the great cause of the 
 war, a small stone to which some idea of sovereignty was attached, 
 
 was given up to Abba Thulle without bloodshed. The expedition left 
 Pelew in 1791, but returned in 1793. Abba Thulle had died in the 
 meantime, about three months after the expedition had left Pelew, or 
 in August, 1791. He was supposed to be nearly seventy years of age, 
 and was succeeded by his only surviving brother, who had been till 
 then " clow arra kooker," or, general of the troops Abba Thulle has 
 been called the Peter the Great of Pelew, but it would be hard to say 
 for what reason ; his thoughts ran upon war, and war only, and much 
 of his hospitality to Wilson and his crew may be attributed to the 
 assistance they gave him against his enemies. (Keate, Account of the 
 Pelew hlandt.) 
 
 ABBAS THE GREAT, or, with his full name, Shah Abbat Bahadur 
 Khan, w;is the fifth King of the SuS dynasty which ascended the 
 throne of Persia in the year 1501 of our era. During the latter part 
 of the reign of Shah Mohammed Khodabende, his father, ho filled the 
 situation of governor in the province of Khorasan ; and on the death 
 of that prince in 1586 succeeded him in the government. Khorasan 
 had just then hen occupied by fhe Usbiks, and it was the first object 
 of Shah Abbas to recover possession of it. But his efforts proved for 
 a time ineffectual. Not being able to take Herat, the capital of Kho- 
 rasan, from the U.-bcks, he was obliged to content himself with leaving 
 a garrison at Meshhed, and even this town, considered as sacred by the 
 Shiites on account of the tomb of a celebrated Mohammedan saint, 
 Imam Ali lie/a, fell again into the hands of the enemy. About the 
 same time tho internal peace of Persia was interrupted by a revolt at 
 Istakhar, which was however soon repressed, and terminated with the 
 execution of the prime mover, Yakub Khan. The year 1590 was 
 distinguished by victories in Gilau and Azerbijan over the Turks, who 
 had collected a considerable force on the banks of the river Kur, aud 
 threatened Persia with an invasion. The Turks lost, through this 
 campaign, their influence in Gilan, but retained for the present posses- 
 sion of the fortresses of Nuhavend, Tebriz, Tiflis, and almost the 
 whole of Azerbijan and Georgia. During this time, one of the generals 
 of Abbas conquered the province of Lar in the south, and the Bahrein 
 Islands in the Persian Gulf, important on account of their pearl 
 fishery. 
 
 The Usbeks still remained masters of Khorasan, and, owing to their 
 desultory mode of carrying on their attacks, many attempts at bringing 
 them to a regular action had failed. At last however in the year 
 1597, they were totally defeated by the Persian troops, near Herat, and 
 Khorasan was for a long time released from their predatory incursions. 
 
 Two English knights, .Sir Anthony, aud his brother Sir Robert 
 Shirley, arril ed about this time as private travellers in Persia. They 
 were honourably received by Shah Abbas, whose confidence they soou 
 gained to such a degree, that while Sir Robert Shirley remained in 
 Persia, his brother Sir Anthony was sent as envoy from the Persian 
 court to the Christian princes of Europe, to offer them the Shah's 
 friendship, cLiefly with a view to some future common undertaking 
 against the Turks, who were then the terror of Europe. [Shirley.] 
 
 Between Persia and Turkey hostilities were still carried on. Nuha 
 vend, Tebriz, and Baghdad were taken ; a Turkish army of 100,000 men 
 was defeated by about half that number of Persians; Abbas recovered 
 Azerbijan, Shirwan, part of Georgia, and Armenia, and subsequently 
 also Kurdistan, Mo-sul, and Diarbekir ; and the Turks were ever after 
 this victory kept in check. They formed a league with the Tartars of 
 Kaptchak, but the united forces of both were vanquished in a battle 
 fought between Sultanieh and Tebriz, 1618, the last memorable battle 
 that occurred during the reign of Shah Abbas. Negotiations were 
 then commenced between Abbas and the Sultan at Constantinople ; 
 but insurrections and conflicts in the frontier provinces, fomented and 
 secretly instigated by the Turkish government, still continued for 
 some time. 
 
 Shah Abbas encouraged the trade of Europeans with Persia : he 
 protected the factories which the English, the French, and the Dutch 
 had at Gombroon ; but he looked with jealousy on the flourishing 
 establishment of the Portuguese on the small island of Ormuz, situated 
 near the entrance of the Persian Gulf, which had been in their posses- 
 sion ever since 1507, when Albuquerque occupied it, and had now 
 become the emporium of an exteusive commerce with India, Persia, 
 Arabia, and Turkey. This settlement the Persians and the English 
 East India Company agreed to attack with joint forces. The English 
 furnished the naval, the Persians the military, forces ; and the island 
 was taken on the 22nd April, 1622. For this service the English 
 received part of the plunder, and a grant of half the customs at the 
 port of Gombroon; but their hopes of further advantages for their 
 commerce in these parts were frustrated, and the mission of Sir 
 Dodmore Cotton from England to the Persian court, in 1627, likewise 
 failed in procuring them. 
 
 After a reign of upwards of forty years, Shah Abbas died at Kaswin 
 in 1628. Like most of the monarchs of the Sufi dynasty, he was exces- 
 sively cruel, and hasty in awarding capital punishment, often on very 
 slight grounds. All his sons fell victims to his suspicion and jealousy ; 
 only one grandson survived him, who succeeded him on the throne as 
 Shah Sufi. Abbas was a zealous Shiite, and used to make frequent 
 pilgrimages to the tomb of Imam Ali Reza, at Meshhed ; but he 
 showed great tolerance to those that professed other religions, and 
 especially to Christians. His belief in astrology was so firm that he 
 once even vacated the throne for a short period during which it had 
 
5 
 
 ABBASIDES. 
 
 ABBASIDES. 
 
 6 
 
 been predicted that danger menaced the life of the Shah. He made 
 Isfahan the capital of the empire, and embellished that town by magni- 
 ficent gardens and palaces. He favoured commerce, and rendered 
 the communications in the interior easier by caravanserais and high- 
 ways. 
 
 (Malcolm, History of Persia.) 
 
 ABBASIDES. The name of this family of sovereigns is derived 
 rom their ancestor, Abbas ben Abil-al-Motalleb, a paternal uncle of 
 the Arabian prophet Mohammed. On account of their descent from 
 80 near a relation of the prophet, the Abbasides had, ever since the 
 introduction of the Islam, been held in very high esteem among the 
 Arabs, and had at an early period begun to excite the jealousy of the 
 Ommaiade ka'ifs, who, after the defeat of Ali ben Abi-Taleb, the son- 
 in-law of Mohammed (a.d. 661), occupied the throne of the Arabian 
 empire. The Abbasides had already for some time asserted their claims 
 to the kalifat, in preference to the reigning family, when, in 746, they 
 formed a strong party, and commenced open hostilities against the 
 government of the Ommaiades in the province of Khorasan. Three 
 years afterwards (749) the Abbaside Abul-Abbas Abdallah ben Moham- 
 med, surnamed Al-Saffab, or ' the bloodshedder,' was recognised as 
 kalif at Kufa. A battle on the banks of the river Zab, not far from 
 Mosul (in the same neighbourhood where, more than a thousand years 
 brfore, the battle of Gaugamela had made Alexander master of the 
 Persian empire), decided (Jan. 750) the ruin of the Ommaiades. 
 Merwan II., the last kalif of that lineage, fled before the advancing 
 forces of Al-Saffah from Mosul to Emesa, thence to Damascus, aud 
 finally to Egypt, where he was overtaken and killed. So great was the 
 hatted of the victorious party against the vanquished royal family, 
 that not less than ninety Ommaiades were doomed to a cruel aud igno- 
 minious death, while even the remains of those that were already dead 
 were tiken out of their tombs, and publicly insulted. A survivor of 
 the fallen dynasty, Abd-alrahman, a grandson of the kalif Hesham, 
 escaped to Spain, the westernmost province of the Arabian empire. 
 There his name procured him a favourable reception ; he was saluted 
 as king, and an Ommaiade lineage continued to reign for nearly three 
 centuries (756-1031) over the eight Mohammedan provinces of Spain. 
 
 Al-Saffah died in 753, and was succeeded in the kalifat by his 
 brother Al-Mansur (753-774), who removed the seat of government 
 from Damascus to the new-built city of Baghdad. He was successful 
 in wars with the Turcomans, and with the Grecian empire in Asia 
 Minor ; but the internal tranquillity of hi3 reign was often disturbed 
 by insurrections in the distant provinces. In the reign of his son, 
 Mohdi (774-784), a Mohammedan army, under the command of the 
 youthful Harun-al-Rashid, penetrated the Grecian provinces of Lesser 
 Asia as far as the Hellespont. During the short reign of Mohdi's son, 
 Hadi (784-7S6), an attempt at an overthrow of the Abbaside dominion 
 was made at Medina by Hossein, a desceudant of Ali ben Abi-Taleb. 
 
 Hadi was followed by the celebrated Harun al-Rashid, a grandson 
 of Al-Mansur, whose early military exploits have already been alluded 
 to. When called to the throne, he soon displayed a love of justice aud 
 peace, and a zeal for literature and the arts, which corresponded to his 
 vslour as a military commander. He opened friendly communications 
 with Charlemagne ; the presents which he sent him (amon;' others a 
 curious sort of clock, a description of which is given by Eginhard), 
 while they show the regard which he entertained for his great Euro- 
 pean contemporary, afford at the same time an illustration of the 
 progress which the mechanical arts must at that time have made 
 among the Arabs. In conducting the internal affairs of his empire, 
 Haruu was chiefly guided by his two ministers, Yahya and Jafar, of 
 the ancient Persian family of the Barrnekides, whose ancestors had 
 through many generations, previous to the introduction of the Islam, 
 held the hereditary office of priests at the fire-temple of Balkh. But 
 the high degree of popularity which the Barrnekides enjoyed aroused 
 Harun's jealousy, and the rashness and cruelty with which he indulged 
 himself in his suspicion by putting to death not only the two ministers, 
 but almost all their relations, form an odious exception to the praise 
 of mildness and equity with which his memory is honoured by eastern 
 chroniclers. The epoch of his reign has, in the remembrance of 
 Mohammedan nations, become the golden fge of their dominion. The 
 wealth and the adopted luxury of the conquered nations had given to 
 social life that refinement, and to the court of Baghdad that splendour, 
 of which such lively pictures are exhibited in inauy of the tales of 
 the ' Arabian Nights.' Flourishing towns sprung up in every part of 
 the empire; traffic by laud aud by sea increased with the luxury of 
 the wealthy classes; and Baghdad rivalled even Constantinople in 
 magnificence. 
 
 To wage war against the infidels was with the Arabs a matter of 
 religion and of faith ; as soon therefore as a conquered nation embraced 
 the Mohatnrnedan belief, it was no longer regarded as subject to the 
 victors, but was raised to an equality with them, and formed an 
 integral part of the same body. The different elements of the empire 
 were thus held together by the tie of a common religion, and tho 
 language of the Koran (wbiuu the Mahommedans have always deemed 
 it unlawful to profane by translations) became the medium of commu- 
 nication for the nations from the banks of the Indus to those of the 
 Tagus and the Ebro. The supreme pontificate and the secular sove- 
 reignty, the two elements whose conflict forms the prominent feature 
 u the history of the Christian world during the middle ages, were in 
 
 the Mohammedan empire united in the person of the kalif, who, 
 invested with the mantle, signet, and staff of the Prophet, and bearing 
 the title of Emir-al-Mumenin (that is, Commander of the Faithful), 
 wielded the supreme spiritual and temporal rule without any other 
 restriction or control besides the ordinances of the established religion. 
 The only formal recognition of the sovereignty of the kalifs (and sub- 
 sequently of all other independent Mohammedan princes) was the 
 prerogative of having the money of the state stamped with their name, 
 and of having their name also introduced into the public prayers at 
 the mosques. According to the ancient Persian plan, the several pro- 
 vinces of the empire were governed by delegates, with military and 
 administrative powers. But this system soon proved fatal to the 
 kalifat; for the lieutenants in the distant parts of the empire would 
 often revolt, and aspire to independent authority. On an expedition 
 to Khorasan, undertaken against such a disloyal satrap, Harun died 
 at Tus, in 808. 
 
 The throue was for some years contested between his two sons, 
 Amin and Mamun ; but in 813 Mamun came to the sole and undis- 
 puted possession of it. His reign (813-833) forms an important epoch 
 in the history of science and literature, the cultivation of which was 
 conspicuously patronised by that kalif. The Arabs were avowed bor- 
 rowers in science; they were chiefly indebted to the Hindoos and the 
 Greeks; and even what they received from these nations seems often 
 to have exceeded their comprehension. Their claims to originality of 
 invention, aud to the merit of having made real additions to the stock 
 of our knowledge, are not great ; but they are entitled to our gratitude 
 for having kept alive and diffused the light of letters, and for haviug 
 preserved a sort of scientific tradition from classical antiquity, during 
 an age when science and literature in Europe lay buried under ignor- 
 ance and barbarism. Mamun founded colleges and libraries in the 
 principal towns of his dominions, such as Baghdad, Bassora, Kufa, and 
 Nfchabur. Syrian physiciaus, and Hindoo mathematicians and astro- 
 nomers, lived at his court ; and works on astronomy, mathematics 
 metaphysics, natural philosophy, and medicine, were translated from 
 the Sanscrit and Greek into Arabic. Mamun took personally a parti- 
 cular interest in astronomy. He built observatories, had accurate 
 instruments constructed, improved by their means the astronomical 
 tables, and caused a degree of the meridian to be measured iu the 
 sandy desert between Palmyra aud Kacca on the Euphrates. At his 
 command, Mohammed-ben-Musa wrote an elementary treatise on 
 algebra, the earliest systematic work extant on that branch of mathe- 
 matics, for their knowledge of which, as well as for much of their 
 astronomy, the Arabs seem to be chiefly indebted to the Hindoos. 
 The investigation of the structure of their own language, and the 
 systematic development of the Mohammedan theology and jurispru- 
 dence, both founded chiefly on the Koran, afforded an opportunity of 
 applying practically the principles of the Aristotelian philosophy. 
 
 The period of prosperity which the Arabian empire eujoyed under 
 Harun-al Rashid and Mamun was only of short duration. The chival- 
 rous enthusiasm with which Mohammed had inspired his nation became 
 soon extinguished under voluptuousness and love of enjoyment. Many 
 provinces in the west (Spain, Fez, aud Tunis) had already shaken off 
 their allegiance to the kalifat, and the attachment of others in the East 
 was likewise doubtful. From the north the empire was threatened 
 by the Turks, some tribes of whom had been compelled to adopt the 
 Mohammedan religion. Turkish youths were soon brought as merce- 
 naries to Baghdad, and Motasem (833-842), the brother aud successor 
 of Mamun, formed of them a body-guard, which, under the reign of 
 Vathek (842-846), Motawakkel (846-861), aud Moutaser (861, 862), 
 became to the kalifat what the praetorian guards had been under 
 the Roman emperors. Mostaia (862-866) was obliged to concede to 
 them the privilege of electing their own commander, and thus lost 
 much of his authority at home, while the provinces of his empire were 
 infested by invasions from the Greeks. Under his successor, Motaz 
 (866-868), a native of Sejestau, Yakub-al-Laitb, surnamed Al-Soffar 
 (that is, the brazier), made himself master of Khorasan, Kerman, Persia 
 proper, and Khuzistan, and united these provinces into an independent 
 kingdom, with Nishabur for its capital, which continued in the posses- 
 sion of his family (the Suffarides) till 917. 
 
 The successors of Motaz were Mohtadi (868, 869), Motamed (869- 
 892), Motadhed (892-902), Moktafi (902-907), Moktader (907-932), and 
 Kahir (932-934). Under the reign of Radui (931-940) the disorder of 
 tho empire had reached such a height, that the kalif, iu order to 
 restore public order aud tranquillity, was obliged to call Mohammed- 
 ben-Rayek, the governor of Wasith, to Baghdad, aud to confide to him, 
 with the title of Emir-al-Omara, or Commander of the Commanders, 
 an almost unlimited authority iu the government. From this time 
 the kalifat became a mere nomiual diguity ; all the efficient power ma 
 in the hands of the mighty Emirs-al-Omara. After the short reigu of 
 Mottaki (940-943), Mostakti (943, 944) came to the kalifat; but he was 
 soon dethroned by Moiz/.eddaida the Buide (properly Bawaihide), 
 who, in concert with his two brothers, had rendered himself master 
 of a great part of Persia and Irak. Moizzeddaula conferred the kalifat, 
 nuw limited to the mere pontifical dignity aud to the possession of the 
 town of Baghdad, on Mothi Lillah (946-973), and reserved to himself 
 the powerful office of Emir-al-Omara, which continued hereditary in 
 his family during the kalifat of Tayi-lillah (973-991), and Kadir-billah 
 (991-1031), till the year 1056, when, in the kalifat of Kaim-biamr-illah 
 
ABBOT. CHARLES. 
 
 ABDALLATIF. 
 
 (1031-1074), Baghdad was occupied by the Seljukes under Togrul Beg, 
 whose family retained the authority of Emir al-Omara till 1152, while 
 the nominal sovereignty of the kalifat passed from Kaim-Kiainr-illah 
 successively into the hands of Moktadi (1074-1094), Moatajer (1094- 
 1118), Mostarshed (1118-1134), Rashid (1134, 1135), and Moktafi 
 (1135-1160). The sovereigns of those principalities into which the 
 Arabian empire had now dissolved itself, either still recognised the 
 kalif at Baghdad as Iman, or Supreme Pontiff, and thus showed him a 
 sort of spiritual allegiance, or they were Shiites, that is, partisans of 
 the cause of Ali ben Abi-Taleb and his descendants, and as such exe- 
 crated the dominion of the Abbasides. Of the first kind were the 
 Tulunides and Ikshicles in Egypt and Syria, and the Tahiiidcs, Soffa- 
 rides, Sauiiuides, and Gasuevides, iu Persia and Khorasan ; to the 
 second description belonged the Assassines, and the Fatimides in 
 Africa. Moktafi's son, Mostanjed (1100-1170), was succeeded in the 
 kalifat by Mostadhi (1170-1179), and Nasir (1179-1220), during whose 
 reign the Tartars under Gengis Khan invaded Persia. Dah'r occupied 
 the kalifat only for a few months. His successor, Mostanser (1 226- 
 1242), offered for a time a vigorous resistance to the advance of the 
 Tartar conquest; but his son Mostasern was defeated and killed by the 
 Tartar Hulaku, who took Baghdad, and put an end to the government 
 of the Abbasides. 
 
 Ahmed, a son of the kalif Dahir, fled to Egypt, where Sultan Bibars, 
 the Mamluk (12G0), recognised him as kalif. But he soon met his 
 death at Baghdad iu an attempt to establish his right to the throne of 
 his ancestors ; and Bibars conferred the title of kalif on another 
 Abbaside, Hakcm-bi-amillah, whose descendants, under the protection 
 of the Honolulu, retained possession of the almost nominal kalifat in 
 Egypt till 151 7, when the Osmau Turks conquered Egypt. Sultau 
 Selim took the last Abbaside kalif, Motawakkel, to Constantinople, 
 where he kept him for some time as a prisouer, but afterwards allowed 
 him to return to Egypt, where he lived at Cairo till his death, in 1538. 
 
 ABBOT, CHARLES. [Colchester, Loud.] 
 
 ABBOT, CHARLES. [Tenteuden, Lokd.] 
 
 ABBOT. GEORGE, an English prelate of the 17th century. He 
 was born in 1502, at Guildford, in Surrey, where his father was a 
 poor clothworker. From the grammar-school of his native town he 
 preceded to Balliol College, Oxford, iu 1578, and in 1597 obtained his 
 first preferment by being elected Master of University College. After 
 this he was three times appointed Vice-Chancellor of the University. 
 The high standing which he enjoyed has been attributed as much to 
 the zeal with which he opposed Popery and Arminianism as to his 
 superior ability or learning. There had already commenced between 
 him and Laud that violent opposition of theological sentiment, which, 
 involving them eventually in political hostility and in a contest of 
 personal ambition, made them rivals and enemies for life. The Master 
 of University College, however, must have been in considerable esteem 
 for his erudition as well as for his orthodoxy, seeing that we find him 
 in 1604 among the persons charged with the new translation of the 
 Bible. He was one of eight to whom the whole of the New Testa- 
 ment, with the exception of the Epistles, was intrusted. In 1608 he 
 was appointed chaplain iu the establishment of the Earl of Dunbar, 
 at this time the king's chief favourite. Soon after the earl was 
 despatched to Scotland iu order to commence that attempt to bring 
 about a uniformity between the two national churches which so greatly 
 contributed to the disastrous fate of the line of Stuart. Abbot 
 accompanied him on this mission, aud gave himself to its object with 
 so much zeal as to secure the highest approbation and favour both 
 from the earl and the monarch. He had in 1609 obtained the deanery 
 of Gloucester, aud in December of the same year he was made Bishop 
 of Lichfield and Coventry. In the February following he was trans- 
 ferred to the see of London, and, in little more than a month after- 
 wards, was elevated to the archbishopric of Canterbury. Abbot, 
 although his theology was of a different complexion from that of his 
 predecessor Bancroft, soon showed himself scarcely less inclined to 
 stretch to their utmost extent all the powers and prerogatives of his 
 office. In the Court of High Commission his conduct was as arbitrary 
 and oppressive towards certain descriptions of delinquents as that of 
 any one who had ever presided over that ecclesiastical tribunal; and 
 he manifested the most marked disposition to set up its authority as 
 superior to that of both the statute and the common law. It is also 
 an accusation brought against him, that, never having held a parochial 
 charge himself, he was apt to be inattentive and overbearing towards 
 the inferior or working clergy. In other respects, he was active and 
 zealous in the performance of the duties of his high station. Before 
 obtaining the archiepiscopal dignity, he had professed the doctrines of 
 divine right and passive obedience in their most comprehensive and 
 slavish form. Now, however, when circumstances placed him in 
 opposition to the rising influence of his old adversary Laud, he came 
 to adopt and act upon principles in politics, as well as in religion, 
 removed as far as possible from those of that headlong zealot of 
 arbitrary power. 
 
 The bright fortunes of Abbot were, however, clouded by an occur- 
 rence of which his enemies took signal advantage. On the 24th of 
 July, 1622, the archbishop was engaged in a stag-hunt in Lord Zouch's 
 park at Harringworth, in Hampshire, when a barbed-arrow from Lis 
 cross-bow struck one of the park-keepers, Peter Hawkins, in the fleshy 
 part of the left arm, and occasioned the man's death in less than an 
 
 hour. The party to whom Abbot was opposed, employed every effort 
 
 to turn this accident to his disadvantage, both with the public and 
 with the kim; ; and James, although he very sensibly remarked that 
 " an angel might have miscarried in this sort," found it necessary to 
 appoint a commission to consider the case of the archbishop, and to 
 determine whether he had not, by this act of chance medley, inca- 
 pacitated himself, as Laud and his partisans asserted, for discharging 
 the duties of his office. The adjudication of the commissioners was, 
 that nothing more than an irregularity had been committed, but that 
 it would be necessary for the archbishop to receive the king's pardon, 
 and also a dispensation before he could resume the exercise of his 
 functions. These forms were accordingly gone through ; but the 
 affair gave great vexation and distress to Abbot, both from the scandal 
 to which it subjected him, and from the feelings with which he natu- 
 rally contemplated the event of which he had been unintentionally 
 the cause. It is said that, throughout the remainder of his life, he 
 observed a monthly fast on the day of the week which had thus 
 Btained h's hand with blood ; and he also settled a pension of twenty 
 pounds for life on Hawkins's widow. After this he withdrew for some 
 time from his attendance at the Council Board, and took no part in 
 public affairs. The following year, however, on hearing it reported 
 that the king intended to proclaim a toleration to the Papists, he 
 wrote a letter to his majesty, dissuading him from that measure. He 
 also, soon after this, strenuously opposed in parliament the projected 
 match between the Prince of Wales and the Infanta of Spain. On 
 the 2nd of February, 1626, Abbot crowned Charles I. in Westminster 
 Abbey, Laud officiating as Dean of Westminster. The new reign 
 confirmed the ascendancy of Laud and Buckingham, and left the 
 archbishop and his politics less influence at court than ever. In these 
 circumstances he selected and steadily persevered in that iudependent 
 path iu which alone he was now to find either honour or safety. In 
 
 1627, when Dr. Mauwariug was brought to the bar of the House of 
 Lords, and sentenced to be fined, admonished, suspended, aud im- 
 prisoned, for a sermon in which he asserted that " the king is not 
 bound to observe the laws of the realm concerning the subject's rights 
 and liberties, but that his royal will and command in imposing loans 
 and taxes, without common consent in parliament, doth oblige the 
 subjects' conscience upon pain of eternal damnation," Abbot, in 
 reprimanding tlie culprit, by order of the House, expressed in energetic 
 terms his abhorrence of so audacious a doctrine. He also refused to 
 license another discourse of a similar description, which bad been 
 preached at Northampton by Dr. Sibthorp, and for this he was sus- 
 pended from his archiepiscopal functions, and ordered into confine- 
 ment in one of his country houses. This most arbitrary and oppressive 
 treatment was mainly the work of his vindictive enemy Laud, whose 
 character, accordingly, the archbishop has delineated with a pen dipped 
 in gall, in a narrative of the affair which he drew up in his own 
 vindication, and which Rushworth has printed. It was found neces- 
 sary however, soon after, to restore him to favour, and he received 
 his summons as usual to the parliament, which assembled in March, 
 
 1628. During the rest of his life he continued the same course of 
 opposition to the arbitrary and oppressive measures of the court. 
 He died at his palace of Croydon, on Sunday, the 4th of August, lo33, 
 and was buried in Trinity Church, Guildford, where a costly monu- 
 ment was erected to his memory. He was the founder of a well- 
 endowed hospital, which still exists in that town; and other instances 
 are recorded of his charity and munificence. 
 
 Archbishop Abbot is the author of several literary productions, 
 among which aro an ' Exposition on the Prophet Jonah,' published 
 in 16U0, aud 'A Brief Description of the whole World,' published 
 in 1636. 
 
 (Biographia Briiannica ; Wood, Athence Oxonienses, by Bliss; Fuller, 
 English Worthies; Bayle, Dictionnaire Critique; Rushworth, Col- 
 lection; Southey, Book of the Church.) 
 
 ABDALLATIF, or, with his full name, Mowaffikeddin Abu Moham- 
 med Allatif ben Yussuf ben Mohammed ben Ali ben Abi Said, a 
 distinguished Arabic writer, whose name has become familiar to us 
 chiefly through an excellent description of Egypt, of which he is the 
 author. The Baron Silvestre de Sacy has appended to his French 
 translation of this treatise, a notice of the life of Abdallatif, taken 
 from the bibliographical work of Ebn-Abi-Osaibia, who knew Abdal- 
 latif personally, and to a great extent quotes an account of his life 
 written by himself. 
 
 We learn from this notice that Abdallatif was born at Baghdad iu 
 a.h. 557 (a.d. 1161). From his earliest years he received a lettered 
 education. Agreeably to the prevailing fashion of his age and country, 
 which considered a thorough familiarity with the copious and classical 
 Arabic language as the indispensable groundwork for every liberal 
 acquirement, he was led to commit to memory the Koran, the much- 
 admired Makamat, or novels of Hariri, and other compositions dis- 
 tinguished for the purity aud elegance of their diction, besides several 
 works professedly treating on style or grammar. Next to these 
 philological studies, he had already bestowed some atteution on 
 Mussulman jurisprudence, when the arrival at Baghdad of Ebn-al- 
 Tateli, a naturalist from the western provinces of the Arabian empire, 
 attracted his curiosity towards natural philosophy and alchemy, of 
 the illusory nature of which latter pursuit he seems not till late, and 
 after much waste of time and labour, to have convinced himself. 
 
ABD-EL-KADER, 
 
 Damascus, the residence of Saladin, had about this titri", through 
 the liberality of that celebrated sultan, become a rallying point for 
 learned men from all parts of the Mohammedan dominions. It is 
 here that we find Abdallatif commencing his literary career by the 
 publication of several works, mostly on Arabic philology. But the 
 celebrity of several scholars then residing in Egypt, among others the 
 Rabbi Sloses Mairaouides, drew him to that country to seek their 
 personil acquaintance. A letter from Fadhel, the vizir of S dadin, 
 introduced him at Cairo, and he was delivering lectures there while 
 Saladin was engaged with the crusaders at Acca (St. Jean d'Acre). 
 Soon, however, the news of Satadin's truce with the Franks (1192) 
 in luced Abdallatif to return to Syria, and he obtained from Saladin 
 a lucrative appointment at the priucipal mosque of Damascus. After 
 the death of Saladin, which took place in the next year, we find 
 Abdallatif going back to Cairo, where he lecture 1 on medicine and 
 other sciences, supported for a time by Al-Aziz, the sou and successor 
 of Saladin. It was during this residence at Cairo that Abdallatif 
 wrote his work on Egypt. But the troubles of which Egypt now 
 became the scene, induced Abdallatif to retire to Syria, and subse- 
 quently to Asia Minor, where he seems to have lived for a long time 
 quietly at the court of a petty prince, Alaeddin Daud, of Arzenjan. 
 After the death of that prince (1227) he went to Aleppo, to lecture 
 there partly on Arabic grammar, and partly on medicine and on the 
 traditions, an important branch of Mohammedan theology and juris- 
 prudence. Four years after this, Abdallatif set out on a pilgrimage 
 to Mecca, and took his rou e through Baghdad, to present so ue of his 
 works to the then reigning kalif Mostanser, when he died there 
 in 1231. 
 
 Ebn-Abi-Osaibia has given a list of the works compose 1 by Abdal- 
 latif, which, in the Arabic appendix to Barou de Saey's translation, 
 fills three closely-printed quarto pages. The description of Egypt, 
 through which his name has become so familiar to all friends of 
 antiquarian research in Europe, and in which he displays an accuracy 
 of inquiry, and an unpretending simplicity of description almost 
 approaching to the character of Herodotus, is dedicated to the kalif 
 Nasir-ledin-illah. It is divided into two books : th s first treats, in 
 six chapters, on Egypt generally, on its plants, its animal-", its ancient 
 monuments, peculiarities in the structure of Egyptian boats or vess-ls, 
 and on the kiud of food used by the inhabitants ; the second book 
 gives an account of the Nile, the causes of its rise, &c, and coucludes 
 with a history of Egypt during the dreadful famines of the years 
 1200 and 1201. 
 
 The only manuscript copy of this work, of the existence of which 
 we are aware, is preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. From 
 this manuscript the Arabic text was edited for the first time at Tubin- 
 gen, in 1787, by Paulus, and again, with a Latin translation, by Pro- 
 fessor White, at Oxford, 1800, 4to. The French translation published 
 by B iron de Sacy, under the title ' Relation de 1' Egypt?,' &c (Paris, 
 1810, 4to), besides its greater fidelity, has through the copious notes 
 added to it becom3 one of the most important works that the scholar 
 can consult on the geography, the history, or the antiquities of 
 Egypt. 
 
 • ABD-EL-KADER (Sidi-el-HadjiOalcd-Mahiddin), formerly Emir 
 and Bey of Mascara, and celebrated for his protracted resistance to 
 the French arms in Algiers, was born in the early part of 1807, in the 
 neighbourhood of Mascara, in what is now known as the province of 
 Oran. [Algi':rie, L', iu Gkogkaphical Diviston of Eng. Cyc. vol. i. 
 col. 206.] He was the third sou of a marabout, of the Arab tribe of 
 Hashem, nam -d Sidi el-Hadji-Mahiddin, who had acquired great influ- 
 ence on account of his sanctity as well as his rank. Over the early 
 days of Abd-el-Kader has been thrown something of the romantic 
 colouring which would seem of right to belong to an Oriental hero, 
 and one who has figured so conspicuously in the annals of France. 
 He had in iufancy accompanied his father in a pilgrimage to the birth- 
 place of the prophet. From his boyhood he had been carefully 
 trained in both the secular and sacred learning of his race. By open- 
 ing manhood he had obtained the reputation of a scholar well instructed 
 in the history and the literature of Arabia ; and he had crowned his 
 study of the Koran and its commeutators by a second pilgrimage, in 
 1828, to Mecca, and received in consequence the title of Hadji, or 
 saint. At the same time, so far from neglecting equestrian and mili- 
 tary exercises, though of small stature and little physical strength, he 
 had rendered himself remarkable even in those arts in which all his 
 countrymen excel — the management of the horse, the lance, and the 
 yataghan. 
 
 When the French began seriously to push their conquests into the 
 interior of Algiers, Abd-el-Kader was living in retirement with his 
 wife and two children, distinguished by the austerity of his manners 
 and his strict observance of all the precepts of the Koran. But when 
 the severe measures of the Duke of Rovigo caused a general rising of 
 the native tribes, he joined his countrymen in arms. The father of 
 Abd-el-Kader had for some time been exerting all his influence to 
 effect a union of the tribes ; urging them to make a great and com- 
 bined effort to drive the French out of the country, as then, from the 
 humiliated condition to which the Turks had been reduced, the Arab 
 might again with little trouble become the ruler of the laud. The 
 confederation of the tribes was formed, and the chiefs besought 
 Mahiddin to take the direction of it. He refused however, pleading 
 
 ABD-EL-KADER. w 
 
 that his advanced age unfitted him to act as a military leader at such 
 a juncture ; but he directed them to his son as one designated by 
 nature and education for the purpose : and he repeated to them 
 various omens which hid marked his birth and childhood, and relat-'d 
 how during the pilgrimage to Mecca an aged fakir had solemnly 
 announced to him that he should become Sultan of the Arabs. The 
 tribes acquiesced, and Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed Emir at Mascara. 
 
 Accompanied by his father he at ouce began to preach a Holy War, 
 and to call on the faithful to assist iu the expulsiou of the infidels. 
 By the spring of 1832 Abd-el-Kader found himself at the head of 
 10,000 warriors. His first blow was struck iu May of that year 
 against Orau, or Warran. The assault was several times repeated with 
 great impetuosity during three succ -ssive days, but wa3 each time 
 repelled with heavy loss to the Arabs. Abd-el-Kader though un- 
 successful as far as the capture of Oran was concerned, acquired great 
 reputation by his personal skill and daring, ami the siege is said to 
 have done much towards accustoming the Arabs to face artillery, 
 from which they had previously shrunk. Before making another 
 determined effort to dislodge the invaders, he resolved to t-xtend the 
 basis of his power, by persuading or compelling the tribes of the 
 interior to acknowledge his supremacy ; and after some opposition he 
 appears to have succeeded with both Kabyles and Arabs. The French 
 on their part were chiefly anxious to secure the cities and strong- 
 holds along the coast, and left the Emir to take his own course in the 
 interior. So strong indeed was the desire of the French governor of 
 Orau, General Desmichels, to obtain a respite from any further attack 
 while carrying out this purpose, that he entered into a treaty (Febru- 
 ary 26, 1834,) with Abd-el-Kader, by which he agreed, on his acknow- 
 ledging the French supremacy, to recognise him as Emir of Mascara, 
 including the sovereignty of Oran, except such portions of the coast 
 as were in the possession of the French. Aloug with the sovereignty 
 was also ceded to him the monopoly of the commerce with the interior. 
 This treaty was disapproved in Paris, but to Abd-el-Kader it was of 
 great advautage, from the vast accession of consequence he derived iu 
 the eyes of the natives from this formal recognition of his sovereign 'y 
 by the French authorities. But it also aroused jealousy and fear 
 among the chiefs, and several of them refused to submit to his preten- 
 sions. By one of these, Mustapha-Ben-Ismail, chief of the Douaires, 
 he was surprised in a night attack, aud his forces routed ; the Emir 
 himself only escaping with extreme difficulty. Other chiefs ou 
 receiving news of this defeat also rose against him, but he quickly 
 collected a considerable body of troops, and General Desmichels bavirg 
 supplied him with muskets aud powder, he soon forced them to 
 succumb. 
 
 It lias been disputed whether the French or Arab general first broke 
 the terms of the treaty. Probably each regarded it as nothing more 
 than a convenient armistice, to be kept only as long as suited his 
 purpose. Certain it is, that Abd-el-Kader having availed himself to 
 the utmost of the opportunity to secure his influence over the tribes, 
 and to put his army into an efficient state — including the training for 
 the first time among Arabs of a regular infantry corps, aud an artillery 
 service— crossed the Shellif and entered Medayah iu triumph, announc- 
 ing that he was about to expel the French. General Trezel who had 
 succeeded Desmichels, at ouce took the field against him. The armies 
 met ou the banks of the Sig. That of the Emir was much the more 
 numerous ; but the superior discipline of the French amply com- 
 pensated for the disparity of numbers, aud Abd-el-Kader, after a 
 resistance which extorted the admiration of his enemies, was compelled 
 to fall back. Trezel was however in no condition to pursue his 
 success. He had lost 240 men; aud the army of the Emir though 
 defeated, was stdl much the larger and well kept together. Trezel 
 decided to retreat towards Arzew ; aud the Emir followed him. At 
 the Pass of Makta, where Trezel, cumbered with wounded and 
 baggage, was at a manifest disadvantage, the Emir fell upon him iu 
 force (Juue 28, 1S35), and it was only by the most desperate exertions, 
 and with a loss of 500 men, that the French general was able to 
 extricate a portion of his army. This, tne first serious check wtiicu 
 the French had suffered in Africa, produced the great st excitement 
 among the native population, in 1'aris, ou the other hand, it caused 
 much irritation, aud Marshal Clausel was despatched with imperative 
 orders to inflict a striking punishment on Abd-el-Kader. On arriving 
 iu Algiers the Marshal appointed a liey of Oran, with a view to weaken 
 the authority of the Emir by raising up a native rival. Clausel then 
 marched with a considerable force upon Mascara ; but the Emir 
 caused the inhabitants to quit the city, aud when Clausel eutered it, 
 December 6, 1 835, he found little more than bare walls. Unable to 
 hold the city, Clausel completed the work of ruin by setting it on 
 fire. Abd-el-Kader now made Tremeoeii, or Tlemseu, ou the borders 
 of Marocco, his head-quarters; but on the approach of Olausel he wa-i 
 forced to evacuate it, aud retreat Still farther into the interior. 
 Clausel continued his pursuit, and thj Emir was again compelled to 
 break up his camp. Soon after a large auxiliary force, including 
 several thousand horsemen, who had come from Marocco to unite with 
 the Emir in the Holy War, was surprised and d feated ; and Clausel 
 returned to Algiers, boasting in his bulletins that he hail effectually 
 destroyed the power of the redoubtable Emir. But Abd el-Kader bud 
 continued to follow at a distance the movements of tne French, and 
 he now showed that he was still formidable, by attacking aud 
 
11 
 
 ABD-EL-K A DER. 
 
 ABD-EL-KADER, 
 
 13 
 
 defeating, with preat loss, on the 24th and 25th of April, a convoy sent 
 under General d'Arlanges, with supplies and reinforcements for the 
 garrison at Tlemsen. 
 
 The French government now despatched General Bugeaud with 
 instructions to reduce the Emir to quiet either by treaty or by force. 
 Bugeaud made some pacific overtures, but they were unheeded ; and 
 as he proceeded he found that his indefatigable adversary was laying 
 the country waste before him. But Bugeaud had provided a large 
 Dumber of camels and mules, and an ample supply of much-needed 
 provisions for the garrison of Tlemsen, and his convoy exceeded 6000 
 men. He continued his march therefore, and Abl-el-Kader still 
 retreating, permitted him to advance unmolested as far as the pass of 
 Sikknk ; but in that strong position the Emir resolved to offer battle. 
 Bugeaud entered the pass on the 6th of July, 1836. At first the French 
 were thrown into confusion, but they soon rallied, aud though Abd- 
 el-Kader at the head of his infantry, which he bod kept under his own 
 command as a reserve, made the most strenuous efforts to recover the 
 day, he was compelled to a rapid retreat, leaving behind him above 
 1200 killed and wounded. He did not venture again to encounter 
 the French in the open field ; and they, on their part, had found a 
 new and formidable opponent in the Bey of Constantine, whom from 
 his proximity it was necessary to crush without delay. In order to 
 prevent their two opponents from making common cause, General 
 Bugeaud was soon after sent with direct proposals to Abd-el Kader for 
 an arrangement. A meeting accordingly took place on the bauks of 
 the Tafna, at which, after some discussion, a treaty was drawn up with 
 all formality, and duly signed and sealed, May 30, 1837, by which 
 Abd-el-Kader agreed to acknowledge the sovereignty of Franco, and to 
 pay a tribute of a certain quantity of corn and cattle ; and, on the 
 other hand, he was confirmed in his title of Emir, and received a 
 considerable accession of territory, his sovereignty now being extended 
 over the whole of Oran and Titteri, and a portiou of Algiers, except 
 certain towns, including Oran, .Mustigannim, Arzew, and some others 
 along the coast, which were to remain in the hands of the French. 
 
 Abd-el- Kader* B first care, on being released from the uece-sity of 
 watching the proceedings of the French army, was to receive the 
 submission of the tribes throughout the country assigned to him. 
 Generally they readily gave in their allegiance, but against some he 
 found it necessary to resort to severe measures ; and one tribe, that 
 of Ouled-Zeitoun, he was charged by his enemies with having mas- 
 sacred. Marshal Vallde, the French governor-general, took umbrage 
 at these proceedings; and in order to overawe the Emir, aud to 
 re-assure the tribes in alliance with France, established a camp of 2000 
 men upon the heights of Khamis. In consequence of the strong 
 remonstrances of the marshal, who charged him with a breach of the 
 treaty, Abd-el-Kader sent an agent to Paris, bearing rich presents to 
 Louis Philippe aud the queen, and authorised to negotiate a modification 
 or explanatory supplement to the treaty. 
 
 Matters being thus arranged, Abd-el-Kader addressed himself to the 
 task of organising a system of administration for his territory. He 
 ruadeMedayah the ceutre of his government, placing it under a kalif ; 
 then apportioned the country into five divisions, in each of which he 
 placed a subordinate chief ; and these divisions he again broke up 
 into smaller sections, each of which he placed under an aghir, with 
 immediate civil and military command ; thus providing as far as 
 possible ready means of calling out the strength of his subjects, and 
 checking any incipient insubordination. At the same time he is said 
 to have endeavoured in every way to encourage the practice of agri- 
 culture and the industrial arts. It is certain however that he never 
 for a moment relaxed his military preparation?. 
 
 The peace lasted little more than two years. The French had 
 observed with constant suspicion the efforts of the Emir to strengthen 
 his position by the erection of a chain of fortresses, and to extend his 
 influence over the tribes not directly subject to him. With a view, aa 
 it seemed, to counteract in some measure the increasing influence of 
 the Emir, a powerful French army, with the Duke of Orleans at its 
 head, was marched into the interior, and the prince received with 
 great ceremony the submission of various chiefs. This was followed 
 by an expedition, in which the army passed through a noted defile 
 called the Biban, or Iron Gates, through which the Turks in the height 
 of their power had never passed without paying tribute to the Arabs. 
 The passing of the Iron Gates made, as was intended, a profound 
 impression on the native races, and Abd-el-Kader availed himself of 
 this and the other proceedings of the French to arouse their fanaticism 
 into action. He is commonly said to have recommenced hostilities 
 without warning, but he appears to have written a letter to Marshal 
 Vallee, announcing that he could no longer restrain his people ; that 
 the entire Mussulman race had resolved on a Holy War against the 
 French ; and that his fidelity to the Koran obliged him to take his 
 part in it. This announcement was speedily followed by a general 
 attack on the French outposts. The farms and colonies were ravaged 
 and burnt, and the Arabs remained masters of all the country outside 
 the fortifications ; but they were able to effect nothing against the 
 fortified places. 
 
 This outbreak occurred in December, 1839. Marshal Valine, though 
 unprepared, put his forces in motion. Abd-el-Kader met with several 
 reverses in the ensuing campaign, but the year 1840 passed over with- 
 out any material success on either side. This protracted and desultory 
 
 warfare was causing a large expenditure of men and money, and loud 
 
 murmurs were raised in France against the inefficient manner in which 
 it was conducted. The government announced that it had determined 
 no longerto bear with Abd-el-Kader, and in December 1840 it replaced 
 Marshal Vallde by General Bugeaud. From this time the war was 
 carried on with the utmost vigour. A very large body of troops was 
 sent from France, and a half-indigenous corps, the Zouaves, was raised 
 with a view to check the active irregular Arabs by soldiers possessing 
 all their peculiar vivacity and rapidity of motion, but more scientifi- 
 cally trained. Bugeaud made it his object in the campaign of 1841 to 
 secure in succession as many as possible of the strongholds of the 
 Emir, to detach from him by promises and threats the native tribes, 
 and wherever any refused their adhesion to France, to destroy their 
 crops and ravage their villages. It was a merciless, but it was an 
 effectual course. By the end of the year the general had overrun a 
 considerable portion of the Emir's territory, and wherever the French 
 arms had peuetrated, the country had become an ally or a waste. Iu 
 the speech to the Chambers, February 1842, it was formally announced 
 that Algiers was annexed to the French crown; and from this time 
 the Emir was treated as a rebel. 
 
 His condition seemed indeed to have become utterly desperate. The 
 French occupied all his cities, most of his fortresses, and four-fifths of 
 his territory ; his regular army had been nearly destroyed ; and a large 
 proportion of the tribes had submitted to the enemy. But Abd-el- 
 Kader seemed to gain energy from despair. No longer venturing to 
 meet the French army in a regular encounter, he constantly harassed 
 them by rapid descents upon outposts, detachments, and convoys, 
 and by destructive inroads upon the countries of the friendly tribes; 
 while the rapidity and unexpectedness of his movements baffled alike 
 precaution and pursuit. But the lines were being drawn steadily 
 more aud more closely about him. His camp of reserve was already 
 on the edge of the desert ; and the French had now an army of 
 100,000 men accumulated in the country, besides a large body of 
 auxiliaries. The razzias of the French continually destroyed his 
 resources ; more than once all his presence of mind and daring, and 
 the devotion of his followers, had scarcely sufficed to prevent him from 
 falling into the hands of his opponents. On one occasion, in May 
 1843, the Duke of Aumale, at the head of a body of cavalry, had even 
 succeeded, by a brilliant imitation of the Emir's tactics, iu surprising 
 his smala, or camp, during the absence of the great body of his Arabs. 
 Abd-el-Kader, as usual, escaped ; but with the loss of almost every- 
 thing. His Arabs and Kabyles however quickly rallied around him, aud 
 he contrived to inflict in numerous desultory attacks heavy blows upon 
 the French, who indeed during this summer lost an unusual number 
 of officers. But he was now unable to briug more thau a small force 
 into the field at any one time ; and a defeat which he suffered at 
 Oued-Malah, and in which his most-trusted lieutenant, Kalif-ben- 
 Allah, the One-Eyed, was killed, completed his ruin, though it did not 
 put an end to his efforts. 
 
 Forced to take refuge within the frontier of Marocco, he set about 
 preaching there a new outbreak of hostilities against the infidels. The 
 emperor, if he did not directly sanction, did not oppose his proceed- 
 ings ; and several members of the court entered with ardour into his 
 views. Au army was soon raised ; but the French declared war 
 against Marocco, bombarded several of its coast towns, defeated its 
 army at Islay, and before the close of 1844 had compelled the emperor 
 to agree to use his best efforts to prevent Abd-el-Kader from again 
 annoying the French in Algiers. Abd-el-Kader once more took to the 
 open country. He continued for above two years longer to evade the 
 pursuit of the French ; but every effort to make head against his foes 
 proved unavailing. The Emperor of Marocco was at last compelled 
 by the French to put in motion an army against him, and seized his 
 kalif, Bou Hamedi, whom he had sent to endeavour to obtain terms. 
 Abd-el-Kader in reprisal made a night attack (November 11, 1847) 
 upon the Moorish camp, which by a daring stratagem he succeeded 
 in throwing into confusion. But though he achieved a momentary 
 success, the mass of troops was too great for him to produce a perma- 
 nent impression. A body of natives who attempted to prevent his 
 retreat he had little difficulty in defeating ; but when he found the 
 French cavalry had got between him and the desert, he acknowledged 
 that, closely pressed as he was on every other side, it would be useless 
 to offer further resistance, and sent messengers to General Lamoriciere, 
 the French commander, offering to surrender on condition of being 
 sent to Alexandria or St. Jeau-d'Acre. Lamoriciere acceded to the 
 terms ; and on the 23rd of December Abd-el-Kader yielded himself 
 with his family into the hands of the general. 
 
 The Due d'Aumale, governor-general of Algiers, in the despatch 
 in which he announced to the French government the surrender of 
 the Emir and his arrival at Algiers, says, " I have ratified the promise 
 given by General Lamoriciere, and I firmly trust the government of 
 his majesty will add its sanction. I announced to the Emir that he 
 must embark the next day for Oran with his family: he submitted, 
 but not without emotion and repugnance— it is the last drop in the 
 chalice." Not quite the last drop. The French government refused 
 to ratify the engagement, and the Emir was transferred, with his 
 family, a prisoner to Fort Lamalgue, at Toulon. After the revolution 
 of February 1848, Abd-el-Kader presented a formal requisition to 
 the republican government for the performance of the engagement 
 
IS 
 
 ABDU-L-MEJID. 
 
 ABDU-L-MEJID. 
 
 14 
 
 npon which he had surrendered. His request was not acceded to, 
 but he was removed to a healthier prison, first at Pau aud then at 
 Aniboise, and his confinement was rendered much less irksome. 
 When Louis Napoleon was elected president, Abd-el-Kader renewed 
 his claim, and though he was not immediately successful, he received 
 the most marked attention, and became a prisoner in little more than 
 Dame. Finally, in October 1852, Napoleon granted him his freedom, 
 on condition that he gave a solemn promise not to return to Algiers 
 or to conspire against the French power in Africa ; and Brussa in 
 Asia Minor was named as his future residence. For that place he 
 embarked in the beginning of 1853, and there he continued to reside 
 until June 1855, when, in consequence of the destruction of that city 
 by an earthquake, he received permission from the French govern- 
 ment to remove to Constantinople. In the autumn of 1855 he paid 
 a short visit to Paris to view the Exposition, and received from the 
 Emperor a distinguished reception. He is said to have resigned him- 
 self to his fate with true eastern calmness, but his health has been 
 permanently broken by his reverses and his imprisonment. 
 
 Abd-el-Kader is beyond question a man of remarkable ability and 
 force of character. He has displayed many of the evidences of great 
 military genius, self-reliance, activity, indomitable energy, marvellous 
 resources in d- feat as well as in victory, power of wielding the wills 
 of others and of controlling his own ; and he seemed to possess mueh 
 of that administrative ability which men of superior military power 
 often exhibit But he had a rude and uncivilised people to govern 
 and to employ, and he had the first and most highly trained military 
 power in Europe to contend with ; and all her greatest commanders 
 were in succession sent against him, and all her resources called into 
 exercise, and he failed where succe.-s was hardly conceivable. But 
 for fifteen years he maintained this unequal struggle; he has borne 
 his reverses manfully, and his old ( pponents are foremost in render- 
 ing homage to his great ability, and in testifying to his honourable 
 fulfilment of his share of the final ngagement. 
 
 ,ABDU-L-MEJID, reigning Sultan of Turkey, was born April 23, 
 1823, and was the eldest son of Mabmud II., whom he succeeded on 
 the 1st of July, 1839. As is customary with the sons of the sultan, 
 the early years of Abdu-l-Mejid were spent in the harem. His father 
 is said to have desired that he should receive a European education, 
 but the repugnance of the Mohammedan priests to such au innovation 
 compelled him to give way. The education of Abdu-l-Mejid has 
 therefore been necessarily very imp rfect; but he has done what he 
 could to make up for his deficiencies by surrounding himself with 
 men of attainments, and seeking to acquire the information which he 
 believes himself to need. 
 
 Abdu-l-Mejid ascended the throne at a time when the affairs of 
 Turkey were in a very threatening condition. The reforms of his 
 father had hardly become sufficiently consolidated to withstand the 
 strong tide of fanaticism which was setting in against them. Tiie 
 battle of Nezib, June 24, 1839, which had resulted in the total defeat 
 of the Turkish army, by that of the Pasha of Egypt, had been 
 followed within a week by the death of the Sultan, whose determined 
 character and unflinching will had served hitherto to keep in awe the 
 opponents of the new order of things ; and these were now, it was 
 believed, prepared to make common cause with Mehemet AH, whom 
 they, in common with the great bulk of the Mohammedan race, 
 regarded as the true representative and champion of the ancient faith. 
 The road to Constantinople was open to the Egyptian army; the 
 inhabitants were in a disturbed state ; and the new Sultan, a lad of 
 Bixteen, was scarcely seated on his tlirone when the Turkish fleet, by 
 an unparalleled act of treachery on the part of its commander, was 
 placed in the hands of the enemy. Fortunately the Pasha refraiued 
 from striking the blow which the weakness of the Sultan seemed to 
 invite ; and the leading European powers stepped in to offer their 
 me'iVion, which Abdu-l-Mejid at once accepted. Mehemet Ali 
 refused the terms proffered, and a treaty was signed in London, July 
 15, 1840, in accordance with which an Anglo-Austrian fleet bom- 
 barded several of the fortified towns on the coast of Syria, and com- 
 pelled Mehemet Ali to submit. The ancient dynasty was saved, and 
 the arrangement then made between the Sultan and the I'asha has 
 not again been disturbed. 
 
 The dangers which threatened the young Sultan from domestic 
 treason, though fomented, as was thought, by Russian agents, were 
 as effectually averted. On his death-bed Mahmud had sent for his son, 
 and earnestly entreated him to pur. ue the course of reform which he 
 had commenced. The adherents of the old system, on the other 
 hand, reckoned confidently on being able, under Mahinud's feeble 
 successor, to uproot all which the late Sultan had so long laboured 
 to effect. An end was soon put to all suspense. A hatti-sheriff, 
 solemnly published at Gulhaue' on the 3rd of November 1839, gave 
 to the civil reforms of Mahmud a definite and tormal shape, and added 
 somewhat to them. This measure guaranteed to all the subjects of 
 the Sultan, without regard to rank or religion, security for person and 
 property; and promised to introduce a regular and impartial system 
 °f taxation, public administration of justice, the right of free trans- 
 mission of property, and the removal of many of the hardships of 
 the conscription, as well as other improvements. Convinced that 
 there was to be no recession from the path of reform, but rather a 
 great advance, the more determined «ealots organised a powerful con- 
 
 spiracy with the view to effect an entire revolution; and by the aid 
 of the priests set about exciting the populace by assurances that the 
 concessions to the unbelievers were an assault upou the true faith. 
 But the conspiracy was detected, several of the leaders were put to 
 death, and tranquillity was gradually restored. In two or three years 
 Abdu-l-Mejid had outlived the suspicion with which he had at first 
 been regarded, and become, as he has since remained, exceedingly 
 popular with all classes of his subjects. Partial revolts occurred in 
 1840 and subsequent. years in Syria, Bosnia, and Albania; but they 
 were suppressed without much difficulty, and in their suppression it 
 was that Omar Pasha first displayed his remarkable military skill. 
 The tanzimat, as the system of reform is called, has been carried out 
 in little more than name beyond the immediate circle of the capital; 
 but Abdu-l-Mejid has always evinced a strong desire to improve the 
 condition of his subjects, though the general spread of rapacity and 
 corruption among the ruling classes, and the progress of decay 
 throughout the kingdom, have almost rendered it a hopeless task. 
 Among the objects on which the attention of the Sultan is said to 
 have been most fixed, is that of the extension of education in Turkey. 
 In 1846 he established a council of education, and he at that time, 
 or subsequently, founded a university, extended the system of primary 
 schools, and established military, medical, and agricultural colleges. 
 The privileges conceded to Christians by the tanzimat, the Sultan has 
 always firmly defended ; and when opportunity served he has shown 
 his readiness to extend them. The Earl of Shaftesbury, speaking in 
 the House of Lords, March 10, 1854, as the representative of several 
 of the leading Protestant religious societies, bore warm testimony to 
 the liberality with which Protestants have been, during the present 
 Sultau's reign, on all occasions treated by the Sublime Porte; and in 
 the almost continual disputes between the Latin aud Greek churches, 
 the Sultan appears to have endeavoured to act strictly as a mediator, 
 or arbitrator, aiming to satisfy the wishes of each party as far as was 
 compatible with the demands of the other. Siuce the commencement 
 of the war with Russia the Porte has directed that the evidence of 
 Christians shall be received in courts of justice, and issued other 
 orders, which altogether have gone as far as the prejudices of his 
 Moslem subjects would at present allow in the path of tolerance, and 
 much farther than mauy Christian states have advanced. The army 
 reforms and other changes, some of which, unquestionably, in the 
 present state of the country, have been of very doubtful advantage, 
 have also been steadily persevered in. 
 
 We have not dwelt on the great historic events which have occurred 
 during the reign of Abdu-l-Mejid, they having been already fully 
 noticed xinder Turkey, in the Geographical Division of the 
 English Cyclopaedia, vol. iv., cols. 927-8. Here it may be enough 
 to mention, that after having continually advanced step by step 
 towar.is reducing Turkey to the position of a dependent state, the 
 Emperor Nicholas of Russia availed himself, in the early part of 1853, 
 of a difference respecting the guardianship of the 'Holy Places' to 
 claim the protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey ; and 
 when this was refused by the Porte, though with every effort at con- 
 ciliation compatible with the retention of sovereignty, the Russian 
 troops were at once sent to occupy the principalities of Moldavia and 
 Wallachia as a ' material guarantee.' War was declared by the Porte 
 on the 5th of October, 1853, with the full accord of the governments 
 of England and France, whose assistance had been formally invoked. 
 In November following the Turkish fleet iu the Black Sea was attacked 
 off Sinope by an overwhelmingly superior Russian fle.et and totally 
 destroyed. Before Silistria, however, at Giurgevo, and elsewhere, the 
 Russian army was on several occasions defeated by the Turks. In 
 March 1854, England aud France, iu order to "support the sovereign 
 rights of the Sultan," declar d war against Russia, aud soon after 
 despatched armies to the assistance of the Porte. On the 14th of 
 September, 1854, an Auglo- French army landed in the Crimea, and, 
 after winning the battle of the Alma on the 20th, proceeded to invest 
 Sebastopol on the 26th. The army, strengthened by very large rein- 
 forcements from France and England, by a Turkish army, and by a 
 Sardinian contingent (that power having joined the alliance iu the 
 early part of 1855), has continued the siege up to the end of 1855; 
 and during this time has defeated the Russians in every engagement 
 in the open field, and, in September 1855, succeeded in compelling 
 them to evacuate the southern side of Sebastopol, thereby inflicting 
 on them an enormous loss of men and property. The successes of the 
 Anglo-French fleets in the Black Sea, the Sea of Azof, and the Baltic 
 call only for a reference. In Asia, the Turkish army met, during the 
 early part of the campaign, with several serious reverses, and endured 
 much suffering, chiefly, as is believed, through the incompetency and 
 peculation of the Turkish officers. Subsequently, chiefly by the skill 
 and energy of an English officer, General Williams, tho Turkish garri- 
 son of Kars, about 12,000 strong, notwithstanding the most terrible 
 privations, succeeded during several months in sustaining a close siege 
 by a Russian army of 35,000 men ; and repulsed, in the most brilliant 
 manner, a grand assault made by it, causing a loss to the Russians of 
 more than 6000 killed. Somewhat later, Omar Pasha defeated a strong 
 Russian force which opposed his progress towards the interior. But 
 the garrison of Kars were compelled by famine to surrender in Novem- 
 ber, 1855. 
 
 However great may be the effect of this war on the future destiny 
 
16 
 
 ABEL. 
 
 ABEL, NIELS HENRIK. 
 
 19 
 
 of Turkey, it owes but little of its conduct, determination, or probable 
 continuance to the character of the Sultan. When he appealed to 
 such powers as France and England, and they embarked in a war of 
 Biich tremendous magnitude, its management, as a necessary conse- 
 quence, passed into their hands; but it may be hoped, that when it 
 shall be brought to a satisfactory conclusion, an important result of 
 it will be to ensure to the Sultan what the Western Powers declared 
 to be a leading object of their interference — his rights as a sovereign 
 within his own territory ; due security being taken for the establish- 
 ment of those equal rights which have been promised to all classes of 
 his subjects. 
 
 Abdu-l-Mejid is described as somewhat above the middle height; 
 slender in early manhood, but now inclining to corpulence ; slightly 
 marked with the small pox, pale, with black beard and moustache, 
 and large black eyes. In manm r he is said to be calm and mild, with 
 an appearance of settled melancholy. The Earl of Carlisle (' Diary in 
 Turkish and Greek Waters,' p. 6'2) speaking of an interview with him 
 in 1853, says, " The impression his aspect conveys is of a man gentle, 
 unassuming, feeble, unstrung, doomed ; no energy of purpose gleamed 
 in that passive glance ; no augury of victory sat on that still brow." 
 But this placidity of bearing at an interview, is the first lesson in 
 etiquette which the young Turk has to learn, and through life he is 
 always careful to maintain it ; its exhibition therefore at the formal 
 reception of a distinguished English nobleman, when there was 
 nothing to excite passion of any kind, is certainly no evidence of 
 feebleness of purpose. It would appear however, from what is said 
 by those who have had opportunities of fairly estimating his character, 
 that the Sultan is of an habitually mild disposition, and prone to leave 
 the management of affairs to his ministers and the relatives who sur- 
 round his person; but that when aroused he can display sufficient 
 energy and decision of purpose. The refusal to surrender the Hun- 
 garian and Polish refugees, after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, is 
 generally said to have been the personal act of Abdu-l-Mejid; and he 
 persisted in that refusal, despite the imperious demands of Russia and 
 the threats of Austria, until Lord Palmerston, then foreign minister, 
 backed his support of the Sultan's resolution bv moving the English 
 fleet into the Dardanelles, aud thus settled the dispute. During the 
 continuance of the present war, so trying to the resources of his 
 kingdom, the conduct of the Sultan has been invariably firm, frank, and 
 honourable alike towards his subjects aud the allies. [See Supplement.] 
 
 ABEL, the second son of Adam. His history is contained in the 
 fourth chapter of Genesis, where we are informed, that, he being a 
 keeper of sheep, while Cain was a tiller of the ground, the two 
 brothers offered sacrifices together to the Lord ; the former brii giug 
 of the fruit of the ground for that purpose, aud the latter of the first- 
 lings of his flock. The offering of Abel alone was accepted ; and the 
 preference thus shown so excited the envy of Cain, that, as they were 
 together in the field, he rose up ajainst his brother and slew him ; 
 thus for the first time staining the earth with human blood. Abel's 
 offering was an act of faith. (Heb., iL 4.) It had respect to the 
 aunouueemeut previously made of the suffering and glory of the 
 Saviour of the Woild. This obedience of faith pervaded his life. 
 Our blessed Lord (Matt., xxiii. 35) designates him "righteous Abel," 
 aud we are told (1 John, iii. 12) that Cain slew his brother "because 
 his own works were evil, and his brother's righteous." 
 
 ABEL, CHARLES FREDERICK, a native of Germany, and a 
 pupil of Sebastian Bach, was much distinguished as a composer and 
 performer in the middle and towards the close of the last century. 
 He served for some years in the celebrated band of the electoral king 
 of Poland, at Dresden ; but his talents being very inadequately 
 rewarded, he quitted that service in 17.i8, with only three dollars in 
 his pocket, and reached England the following year, where he soon 
 met with encouragement that did not end in empty praise. When 
 the queen of George III. had her establishment fixed, Abel was 
 appointed chamber musician on it, at a salary of 200/. per annum ; 
 and shortly after he united with J. Christian Bach in forming a weekly 
 subscription concert, which for many years continued to be highly 
 patronised and liberally supported. His chief instrument was the 
 viol da gamba, a small violoncello with six strings, now fallen into 
 disuse. With this he produced an effect on his auditors which scarcely 
 any one since has been able to achieve on bowed instruments, and 
 principally by means of his adagios, or slow movements. " His com- 
 positions," Dr. Burney tells us, "were easy and elegantly simple; for 
 he used to say, ' I do not choose to be always struggling with diffi- 
 culties, and playing with all my might.' " In nothing was he so 
 superior to all othwr musicians, the historian of music adds, •' as in 
 ■writing and playing an adagio, in which the most pleasing yet learned 
 modulation, the richest harmony, and the most elegant and polished 
 melody, were all expressed with such feeling, taste, and science, that 
 no musical production or performance with which I was then 
 acquainted seemed to approach nearer perfection." (' Hist, of 
 M usic, vol. iv.) The critic however of the present day, who has 
 compositions of the same kind by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, de- 
 menti, Dussek, Cramer, &c, fresh in his memory, will not deny the 
 vast superiority of these latter productions. Abel — judging him by 
 his remains — possessed more taste than imagination ; more knowledge 
 of his art, and elegance in his manner of performance, than vigour of 
 conception Even Dr. Burney admits that "his later productions, 
 
 compared with those of younger composers, appeared somewhat lan- 
 guid and monotonous." But we suspect the fact to be, that they were 
 more accurately estimated when compared with the productions of a 
 more advanced age. Abel was intemperate in the use of fermented 
 liquors, and brought his life to a hasty close in the year 1787. 
 
 ABEL, NIELS HENRIK, was born Augu»t 5th, 1802, in Norway, 
 at Findoe, in the diocese of Christiansand, of which parish his father 
 was then minister. He was sent in 1815 to the cathedral school of 
 Christiania, where he did not show any remarkable sign of progress, 
 until 1818, when M. Holmboe, a newly-appointed professor of mathe- 
 matics, afterwards the writer of Abel's life, and editor of his works, 
 discovered his talent for mathematics, and aided him in pursuing 
 those sciences beyond the elements. In July, 1821, he went to the 
 University of Christiania, whcie, his father having died and left him 
 without the means of continuing his studies, he was first maintained 
 by a subscription of the professors, and afterwards, for two years, by 
 a pension from the government. His earliest mathematical essay was 
 an attempt at the old question of the solution of the equation of the 
 fifth degree, in which, after discovering his own failure, he determined 
 either to find a solution, or to show the impossibility of finding any; 
 and produced his celebrated paper on the last point, of which we shall 
 presently speak. In July, 1825, he obtained an increased pension 
 from the government to enable him to travel He first went to 
 Berlin, where he formed an acquaintance with Crelle, which became 
 an intimate friendship. The mathematical journal, now so well known, 
 which bears the name of the latter, was commenced in 182G, aud 
 Abel was one of the earliest and principal contributors. Abel continued 
 his travels through Germany, Italy, and Switzerland : ho arrived at 
 Paris in July, 182(3, where he made acquaintance with the most distin- 
 guished French mathematicians. He returned home by way of Berlin, 
 iu January, 1827, aud continued his private studies (which his journey 
 had not interrupted) with an activity of which there is the most extra- 
 ordinary evidence. In December, 1828, he went to the iron-foundries 
 of Frol md, near Areudal, where resided the family of a lady to whom 
 he was betrothed. He was there seized with illness, in January, 
 1S29, and died of consumption on the 6th of April of the same year. 
 M. Holmboe gives the most direct contradiction to the statement 
 which has several times been made, that Abel was neglected by the 
 Swedish government, and died iu extreme poverty. He was, when he 
 died, pro tempore professor of mathematics, during the absence of 
 Hansteen in Siberia, and would have succeeded to the first vacant 
 chair. A few days after his death, a most honourable invitatiou 
 arrived from the Prussian government, to remove his residence to 
 Berlin. In the obituary published by Crelle, in his 'Journal,' he 
 states distinctly that the large number of important memoirs which 
 Abel had ready for publication was the immediate reason of the 
 'Journal' being undertaken. 
 
 The Swedish government published the works of Abel in 1839, in 
 two volumes, 4to, and in the French language. The first volume 
 contains all that he published himself (iu ' Crelle's Journal ' and else- 
 where, mostly in German), translated, as just remarked. The second 
 volume contains all that he left in manuscript, finished or unfinished. 
 Nothing can be a severer trial to a mathematician's character than the 
 publication of his loose papers ; but, however crude the speculation, 
 Abel is never lowered. He had read comparatively so little, that all 
 which he has left bears the stamp of his own most oiiginal power. 
 
 The great point to which Abel turned his attention was the theory 
 of elliptic functions. Legendre, who had devoted a large part of his 
 life to the development of these functions, and to the formation of 
 tables by which to use them, found himself, when his toil was just 
 finished, completely distanced by the young Norwegian, of whom no 
 one had ever heard. The frankness of the acknowledgment made by 
 Legendre, and the spirited manner in which the old man set to work 
 to incorporate the new discoveries into his own books, will never be 
 forgotten by any biographer of Abel. It is unnecessary to specify the 
 particular methods of the latter ; all who study the subject of elliptic 
 functions are fully aware how much is due to him. 
 
 The number of different ways in which Abel turned aside from this 
 subject into questions of development, definite integration, &c, makes 
 the sum total of his labours an astonishingly large quantity, if the age 
 at which he died be considered. He appears to have fully developed 
 in his own mind the subject of the separation of symbols of operation 
 and quantity, not indeed to the extent of founding its results upon an 
 algebraical theory, but to that of giving the theory a wider amount of 
 application. He was a daring generalise^ and sometimes went too 
 far : had he lived, he would have corrected some of his writings. Ano 
 yet he appears to have been deeply impressed with the notion that a 
 great part of mathematical analysis is rendered unsound by the em- 
 ployment of divergent series. 
 
 The celebrated attempt at the proof of the impossibility of repre- 
 senting under one formula the five roots of an equation of the fifth 
 degree involves some rather obscure considerations. It can hardly be 
 said to be generally admitted ; perhaps it has not been generally read ; 
 for proofs of negative propositions, when complicated, are not usually 
 of a high order of interest. Sir W. Hamilton (' Trans. R. I. A.,' 
 vol. xviii.) has examined Abel's proof at great length, and arrives at 
 the same conclusion, though with some degree of departure from his 
 principle. 
 
17 
 
 ABELARD. 
 
 ABENCERAGES. 
 
 18 
 
 ABELARD, or ABATLARD, PIERRE, was born in 1079, at Palais, 
 in Brittany. His father was a man of some rank and property, and 
 spared no expense in the education of Abelard. He left Palais before 
 he was twenty years of age, and went to Paris, where he became a 
 pupil of Guillaume de Champeaux, a teacher of logic and philosophy 
 of the highest reputation in those times. At first the favourite disciple, 
 by degrees Abelard became the rival, and finally the antagonist of 
 Champeaux. To escape the persecution of his former master, Abelard, 
 at the age of 22, removed to Melun, and established himself there as 
 a teacher, with great success. Thence lie removed to Corbeil, where 
 his labours seem to have injured bis health ; and he sought repose and 
 restoration by retirement to his native place, Palais, where he remained 
 a few years, and then returned to Paris ; the controversy between the 
 two antagonists was then renewed, and the contests continued till 
 Champeaux's scholars deserted him ; and he retired to a monastery. 
 Abelard having paid a visit to his mother at Palais, found on his 
 return to Paris in 1113, that Champeaux had been made bishop of 
 Chalons-sur-Marne. 
 
 The dialectic conflicts having now ceased, Abelard commenced the 
 study of divinity, under Anselm, at Laon. Here also the pupil became 
 the rival of his master, and Anselm at length had him expelled from 
 Laon, when he returned to Paris, and established a school of divinity, 
 which was still more numerously attended than his former schools 
 had been. Guizot says, " In this celebrated school were trained one 
 pope (Celestiue II.), nineteen cardinals, more than fifty bishops and 
 archbishops, French, English, and German ; and a much larger number 
 of those men with whom popes, bishops, and cardinals, had often to 
 contend, such as Arnold of Brescia, and many others. The number 
 of pupils who used at that time to assemble round Abelard has been 
 estimated at upwards of 5000." 
 
 Abelard was about thirty-five or thirty-six years of age, when he 
 formed an acquaintance with Heloise, the niece of Fulbert, a canon in 
 the cathedral of Paris. She was probably under twenty years of age. 
 Abelard fell in love with Heloise, and got himself introduced into the 
 house of Fulberc as the tutor of his niece. The result was a criminal 
 intercourse between the two lovers, which was at length discovered by 
 Fulbert, and Heloise was removed by Abelard to the residence of his 
 sister in Brittany, where she gave birth to a boy. 
 
 Fulbert insisted that the wounded honour of his mere should be 
 repaired by a marriage, to which Abelard assented willingly ; but 
 Heloise with more reluctance, probably from a fear that his prospects 
 would be ruined, the highest dignities of the church in those days 
 being exclusively bestowed on unmarried ecclesiastics. The marriage 
 took place at Paris, and it was agreed to be kept secret ; but Fulbert 
 took pains to make it public, while Heloise, who resided with him, 
 denied it; the consequence of which was that her uncle treated her 
 with great harshness, and Abelard took her away and placed her in 
 the convent of Argenteuil, near Paris. Fulbert, who seems to have 
 thought that he intended to make her a nun in order to get rid of 
 the incumbrance of a wife, vowed a cruel revenge, which he soon 
 found means to execute. The valet having been bribed, admitted 
 Fulbert. and his party into Abelard s bed-room by night, when they 
 performed a mutilation upon his person. The perpetrators fled, but 
 the valet and another were taken, and were punished by putting out 
 their eyes and the infliction of a similar mutilation. The canon 
 Fulbert was bani.-hed from Paris, and all his property was confiscated. 
 Abelard recovered from the wound ; but as the canon law rendered 
 _ him incapable of holding any ecclesiastical prefi rmeut, he entered 
 the abbey of St. Denis as a monk, and Heloise became a nun in the 
 convent of Argenteuil. 
 
 The abbot and monks of St. Denis were dissolute, and Abelard 
 reproved them in a course of lectures which he delivered in a cell 
 detached from the abbey ; the monks got up a charge of heresy against 
 a work which he wrote on the Trinity, and by a council held in 1121 
 at Soissons, in which he was not permitted to defend himself, the book 
 was condemned and ordered to be burnt. Abelard had also den^d 
 that the abbey of St. Denis was founded by Dionysius of Athens, the 
 Areopagite, as the monks asserted. This enraged the monks and 
 abbots still more, and by a series of persecutions and threats Abelard 
 was compelled to fly from St. Denis and place himself uuder the pro- 
 tection of the Count of Champagne. In a solitary spot of the territory 
 of Troyes he erected a small oratory of wickervvork and thatch, and 
 commenced giving lectures, to which numerous scholars crowded from 
 far and near; the wickerwork was then changed into a building of 
 Btone and timber, and Abelard named it Paraclete, or the Comforter. 
 But persecution still attending him, he left the Paraclete to become 
 superior of the monks in the abbey of St. Gildas of Iluys, near Vaunes, 
 in Britanny. 
 
 Heloise too was not without her share of troubles. The convent 
 of Argenteuil. of which she had been made prioress, was claimed by 
 an abbot as belonging to his abbey, aud Heloise and her nuns were 
 ordered to leave it. Abelard gave thern the oratory of the Paraclete, 
 and there they were established, Abelard himself, after eleven years 
 of separation from Heloise, officiating in the ceremony of consecration. 
 
 Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, whose monastery was not far from 
 the Paraclete, having objected to some of the forms of prayer used 
 by Heloise and her nuns, Abelard defended them; and this led to a 
 controversy with the abbot, who eventually accused Abelard of heresy. 
 
 BIOO, DIV. YOU I ,/ /' 
 
 Abelard appealed to a council, which was held in the year 1140, in 
 the cathedral of Sens, in Champagne, where he defended himself. But 
 the influence of Bernard was more powerful than the logic of Abelard ; 
 he was condemned by the assembly ; but he appealed to the Pope, and 
 set out on his journey to Rome, which however he never reached, 
 having been induced by Peter the Venerable to remain in his monastery 
 at Cluni, near Macon. The Pope confirmed the sentence of the council 
 of Sens, and Abelard was ordered to be confined, all his works to be 
 burned, and he himself was prohibited from writing anything more. 
 Peter the Venerable addressed a remonstrance to the Pope, Innocent II., 
 and the sentence was suspended. During thi3 suspension Abelard was 
 removed to the priory of St. Marcel, near Chalons, for change of air, 
 and there he died April 21, 1142, in the sixty-third year of his age. 
 He was at first interred by the monks of Cluni in their monastery, but 
 his remains were afterwards removed to the Paraclete. 
 
 Heloise lived twenty years afterwards as prioress of the Paraclete, 
 and when she died was buried, at her own request, in Abelard's tomb. 
 The remains of Abelard and Heloise continued undisturbed for upwards 
 of 300 years, till in 1497 they were removed to the church of the abbey, 
 aud were afterwards shifted to other places. In 1800 they were re- 
 moved to the garden of the Muse"e Francais at Paris, and in 1817 were 
 placed in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where they still remain 
 beneath their gothic tomb. 
 
 Abelard was a proficient in the scholastic learning of the times, a 
 dexterous dialectician, and a subtle thiuker. His theological works 
 gave an impulse to the age, and though his writings are of little value 
 now, they belong to the history of philosophy and the progress of 
 the human mind. The disputes of that age turn largely on verbal 
 trifles, but these disputes form part of the effort of philosophy to 
 emancipate itself from the fetters of religious intolerance. Though 
 Abelard possessed a large share of the learning of the times, it is 
 probable that he knew little of Greek or Hebrew, and yet Heloise, 
 according to his testimony, knew Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The 
 personal character of Abelard is best shown by his le ters and those 
 of Heloise. When he had once transgressed the bounds of his duty 
 by his illicit commerce with Heloise, he lost all self-control, and appears 
 a sensualist. When his misfortunes drove him from the world, he 
 became cold and unfeeling towards the noble-minded woman, whose 
 passion aud ardent attachment show that she was capable of the most 
 unbounded devotion to him whom she loved. The most complete 
 edition of their works is 'Petri Abelardi et Heloisae Conjugis ejus 
 Opera, nunc primum edita ex MSS. Codd. Fraucisci Ambce^i,' Paris, 
 1616, 4to. M. Victor Cousin has also published ' Ouvrages Inddits 
 d'Abailard,' Paris, 1836. There are several other editions, some of 
 which have portions, such as the 'Letters,' translated. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary, published by the Useful Knowledge 
 Society; Biographie Universelle ; Bayle, Dictionary.) 
 
 ABEN ESRA, or with his complete name, Abraham ben Me'ir ben 
 Esra, a celebrated Jewish scholar, was born at Toledo, probably in 
 1119, and died about 1194, at the age of seventy-five years. A con- 
 siderable portion of his life was spent in travelling. He visited Mantua 
 in 1145, and the island of Rhodes in 1156 ; in 1159 he was in England, 
 and in 1167 at Rome. His celebrity among his contemporaries, as a 
 scholar and as an accomplished writer of the Hebrew language, was 
 very great. Among ourselves Aben Esra has become known chiefly 
 through his great commentary on the Old Testament, which it seems 
 he wrote at different periods, between the years 1140 aud 1167. It 
 has been printed in the great Rabbinical editions of the Bible, which 
 have appeared at Venice, Bale, and Amsterdam ; and there have been 
 besides many separate editions of single parts of it. Aben Esra wrote 
 also on mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, philology, and 
 aotrology. His treatise in verse on the game of chess, translated by 
 Thomas Hyde (Oxford, 1667, 1694), affords us a specimen of his skill 
 in poetic composition. For an enumeration of the works of Aben 
 E^ra, which are still preserved in manuscript in several of the libraries 
 of Europe, see the article Aben Esra, by Hartmann, in Ersch and 
 Gruber's ' Encyclopaedia.' 
 
 ABKNCERAGES (Beni Serraj), is the name given by Spanish 
 chroniclers and romance writers to a noble family in the Arabic king- 
 dom of Grenada, several members of which distinguished themselves 
 during the period immediately preceding the fall of the Mohammedan 
 empire in Spain. The history of the Abencerages is intimately con- 
 nected with that of the then reigning dynasty of Grenada. In the 
 year 1423 of our era, died Yussuf III., a wise aud valiant prince. He 
 was succeeded by his son Mohammed VII., surnamed Al-Haizari, or 
 the L ft-Handed, who followed the example and advice of his father 
 in maintaining friendly relations with the Christian court of Castille, 
 and with the Arab princes on the northern coast of Africa, but lost 
 the affection of his subjects by Ids pride and tyranny. The discon- 
 tent which soon manifested itself against the youthful monarch, was 
 for a time kept in check by the watchfulness of his principal chamber- 
 lain, Yussuf'-ben-Zerragh, then the chief of the noble family which 
 probably derived from him the common designation of the Abencer- 
 ages. But, in 1427, an open revolt broke out, which had been incited 
 by one of the king's cousins, Mohammed-al-Zaghir. The royal palace, 
 called the Alhambra, was invested by the conspirators. Moham- 
 med VII., disguised as a fisherman, escaped to Africa, where the King 
 of Fez, Mulei-ben-Fariz, kindly received him, while Mohammed al- 
 
 0 
 
1? 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, JOHN, M.D. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH. 
 
 20 
 
 Zaghir ascended the throne of Grenada. Yussuf-ben-Zerragh, with 
 most of the Abencerages, fled from his persecutions to Castille ; and 
 some members of the family who had remained at Grenada were 
 put to death. John II., then King of Castille, yielding to the repre- 
 sentations and entreaties of Yussuf-ben-Zerragh, negociated through 
 him a treaty with the King of Tunis, to replace Mohammed VII. on 
 the throne* of Grenada. This plan succeeded. Mohammed VII., 
 supported by his two allies, recovered his paternal dominions, and 
 Al-Zachir suffered death for his treason. But the friendly relations 
 between Grenada and Castille were soon interrupted, in consequence 
 of the refusal of Mohammed VII. to fulfil certain engagements which 
 he had entered into with John IL Hostilities broke out, and John 
 declared himself in favour of Yussuf-ben-Alhamar, an aspirant to 
 the throne, who had formed a strong party in the kingdom of Grenada. 
 Yussuf-ben-Zerrag hied the troops of Mohammed Vll. to encounter 
 the united forces of his opponents. But he fell in a deceive battle, 
 which he lost, and Yussuf-ben-Alhamar occupied Grenada, while 
 Mohammed VII. fled to Malaga. This second interruption of Moham- 
 med's reign was however only of short duration. He regained his 
 throne a second time after the death of Yussuf-ben-Alhamar, which 
 took place within six months. Fresh hostilities with Castille soon 
 commenced. The frontier provinces of Grenada were much infested 
 by the incursions of the Castilian commander Cazorla. A son of 
 Yussuf-ben-Zerragh, at the head of a select band of valiant knights, 
 drew out his troops against Cazorla, and fell in a battle (143S), in 
 which the Castilians sustained much loss. New disturbances soon 
 broke out in the interior of Grenada. Mohammed VII. was (in 1444) 
 once more dethroned by one of his nephews, Osmin-al-Ahnaf. But 
 the claims of the latter to the throne were contested by another 
 aspirant, Mohammed-ben-Ismail, who was supported by John II., and 
 finally, in 1453, prevailed over his opponent Soon after this, John II. 
 was succeeded in the government of Castille by Henry IV., who was 
 adverse to Mohammed-ben-Ismail, and renewed the hostilities, which, 
 from this time, took a turn decidedly unfavourable to the kingdom of 
 Grenada. The Spanish historians mention that, about this time, an 
 attempt at a revolution was made in Grenada by the Abencerages, 
 which had for its object to confer the crown on one of their own family, 
 Mohammed-ben Zerrgh, and that the Castilian commander, Medina 
 Sidonia, took advantage of these disturbances to occupy the fortress 
 of Gibraltar. The Arabic chronicles say nothing of such an event, 
 and the whole story appears doubtful. If there be any truth in the 
 report, it may be, that the Abencerages made another effort to place 
 Mohammed VII. once more upon the throne, which, from their steady 
 attachment to the cause of that unfortunate prince, seems not 
 improbable. 
 
 Of the feuds of the Abencerages with the Zegrie3, another noble 
 Arabian family in the kingdom of Grenada, who traced their de?cent 
 from the MoLammedan kings of Cordova, of the massacre of thirty- 
 six Abencerages, caused through the perfidy of their opponents, and 
 how the survivors of the family ultimately embraced the Christian 
 religion, and entered the service of Ferdinand of Castille, a highly 
 interesting story is told in the ' Guerras Civiles de Granada,' by Uines 
 Perez de Hyta, a work which professes to be a translation from an 
 Arabic manuscript, but is of doubtful authenticity. The work 
 properly consists of two volumes, but in most editions only the first 
 is reprinted, and copies of the second are said to be now extremely 
 rare even in Spain. An English translation of the first part, by 
 Thomas Rodd, appeared under the title of ' The Civil Wars of Granada,' 
 &c. London. 1803. 8vo. 
 
 (Conde, Iliitoria de la Domination de lot Arabes en Espana, vol. iii.) 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, JOHN, M.D., Fellow of the Royal Colleges of 
 Physicians and Surgeons of Edinburgh, &c, was born on the 11th of \ 
 November, 1781. He was the son of the Rev. Mr. Abercrombie, for \ 
 many years one of the town-ministers of Aberdeen. Abercrombie 
 studied medicine in Edinburgh, and took his degree there on the 
 4th of June, 1803. He entered into practice subsequently in E liu- 
 burgh, and became a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in the 
 year 1805, thus qualifying himself to teach surgery, and taking the 
 highest professional rauk in that class. However, though he bo far 
 combined the practice of a surgeon with that of a physician even in 
 his early career, according to a common Scottish custom, his dispo- 
 sition was better suited to the pursuits of the pure physician ; and 
 into these he fell altogether soon after the decease of the celebrated 
 Dr. Gregory, in 1821. From that time Dr. Abercrotnlie b:'gan to 
 occupy the most prominent position as a practising and consulting 
 physician, not only in Edinburgh but in all Scotland, and ho was often 
 called to great distances in the country. He became a licentiate of tho 
 Royal College of Physicians in 1823, and in 1824 was admitted u 
 Fellow of the body. While receiving subsequent honours from his 
 colleagues, his high position in after-life also gained for him many 
 complimentary distinctions from other quarters. In 1834 the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford marked their estimation of his character nnd talents 
 by conferring on him the honorary degree of Doctor of Mediiino — ft 
 somewhat rare murk of rospect to the alumni of Scottish universities. 
 In the year 1 *:!5 Dr. AbcnTomhic was elected Lord Hector of the vene- 
 rable Marischal College of Aberdeen. Of the other honours bestowed 
 on him by public and private bodies, wo nerd only notice his appoint- 
 ment to tho vice-presidency of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and 
 
 to the office of physician in ordinary to her Majesty for Scotland- 
 In the numerous religious and benevolent societies of Edinburgh he 
 held a high and honourable position. Dr. Abercrombie died sud- 
 denly, on Thursday, November 14, 1814, at his house in York Place, 
 Edinburgh. The immediate cause of his death was the bursting of 
 the coronary artery of the heart 
 
 The writiugs of Dr. Abercrombie contributed no less to the esta- 
 blishment and maintenance of his fame than his very useful career as 
 a practical member of his profession. In the early part of bis course 
 he confined his literary labours to the ' Edinburgh Medical and 
 Surgical Journal,' and other periodicals in his own department of 
 science. His first distinct work of moment, leaving out of consider- 
 ation published cases of disease and similar minor treatises, was one 
 entitled ' Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of the 
 Brain and the Spinal Cord,' Edinburgh, 1S28, 8vo. In this work, 
 which is characterised by no ordinary degree of purely scientific 
 knowledge, he also gave an indication of the bent of his genias to the 
 study of mind and its relations to the body. He published about 
 the same time another professional volume, and one which elevated 
 him still more highly among the modern cultivators of medicine, 
 styled ' Pathological and Practical Researches on the Diseases of the 
 Intestinal Canal, Liver, and other Viscera of the Abdomen,' Edin- 
 burgh, 1828, 8vo. He now began to throw together the medical facts 
 accumulated in the course of his extensive experience and reading, 
 and to examine their bearings on the various metaphysical and moral 
 systems that have been established. The result of his labours is to 
 be found in two works : the one entitled 1 Inquiries concerning the 
 Intellectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth,' Edinburgh, 1830, 
 8vo; and the other called 'The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings,' 
 London, 1833, 8vo. The latter is in some measure a sequel to the 
 first, and the whole composes a view of human nature intellectually 
 and morally, in which the facts of science and the revelations of 
 religion are shown to harmonise. Dr. Abercrombie also published 
 several tracts or essays on religious topics, which manifest the depth 
 of his piety and his earnestness in the promotion of the welfare of 
 his fellow-men. In the disruption of the Scottish Established Church, 
 in 1843, Dr. Abercrombie took part with the Free Church, of whose 
 eldership he was, as he had been for many years in the Established 
 Church, one of the most active and exemplary members. For range 
 of acquirements Dr. Abercrombie perhaps stood unequalled among 
 the Scottish physicians of his day. He earned by his writiugs a name 
 that will not soon be forgotten, and he will long be remembered, as a 
 private individual, for his piety and benevolence. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH, a British general, distinguished for 
 many gallant and important services. He was the son of George 
 Abercromby, Esq., of Tullibodie, in Clackmannanshire, where he was 
 born in 1733. After receiving a liberal education, he entered the 
 army in March, 1756, as a cornet in the 3rd regiment of Dragoon 
 Guards. By the year 1787 he had reached the rank of major general. 
 When the war with France broke out, in 1793, Abercromby was sent 
 to Holland, with the local rank of lieutenant-general, in the expe- 
 dition commanded by the Duke of York. His bravery during the 
 prosperous commencement of this attempt was not more conspicuous 
 than the humanity with which he exerted his best energies in the 
 disastrous sequel to alleviate, as far as possible, the miseries of the 
 sick and wounded troops, whom he was charged to conduct in their 
 retreat. 
 
 Soon after his return to England, in April, 1795, he was made a 
 Knight of the Bath ; and in August of the same year he was sent 
 out to the West Indies, as commander-in-chief of the forces there, 
 aud by February, 1 797, he had taken in succession Grenada, Demerara, 
 Essequibo, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad. He then returned 
 to Europe, having been previously raised to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general, and on reaching England he received the command of tho 
 Scots Greys, and the appointment of lieutenant-governor of the Isle 
 of Wight. In 1798, on the breaking out of the rebellion in Ireland, 
 Sir Ralph proceeded thither as commander-in-chief ; but after a short 
 time he was transferred to the chief military command in Scotland, 
 and the governorship of Fort Augustus aud Fort George. He was 
 soon however called agaiu to active service abroad, on occasion of the 
 second expedition sent against the French in Holland, in August, 
 1799, with tho conduct of which ho was entrusted before the arrival 
 of the Duke of York. It proved, as is well kuowu, equally unfortu- 
 nato with the former ; but it did not the less afford many oppor- 
 tunities to General Abercromby of displaying his activity, intrepidity, 
 and Ugh military talent. In 1801 he was employed to command the 
 English forces despatched for the relief of Egypt; and, in spite of 
 tho utmost exertions of tho French to prevent his design, he effected 
 the landing of his troops, on the 8th of March, at Aboukir, though 
 not without the loss of 2000 men. A few days after, the enemy 
 made a general attack upon the invading forces, as they lay encamped 
 near Alexandria, but wore speedily repulsed. On the 21st was fought, 
 on the same ground, the more obstiuato ami sanguinary engagement, 
 usually designated the battle of Alexandria, in which tho French 
 were agaiu driven back at all points. Sir Ralph was unhorsed and 
 severely wounded at an early period of tho action, by one of the 
 enemy, whom notwithstanding ho disarmed, delivering his sword to 
 Sir Siduoy Smith, whom he soon after met Then remounting his 
 
n ABERDEEN, EARL OP. 
 
 horse, he concealed his situation from those about him till long after 
 the action was over, when he fainted through weakness and loss of 
 blood. The injuries which he had received, and which he thus nobly 
 bore in silence, were past the skill of surgery : he was immediately 
 conveyed to the ship of the Admiral, Lord Keith, and there lingered 
 till the 28th, when he expired. His body was interred in the burial- 
 ground of the Commaudery of the Grand Master, under the walls of 
 the Castle of St. Elmo, near the town of La Valetta, in Malta. A 
 monument has since been erected to his memory, by order of the 
 House of Commons, in St. Paul's Cathedral. Sir Ralph Abercromby, 
 whose private character was as excellent as his public merits were 
 great, left four sons. His widow was created Baroness Abercromby, 
 with remainder to her issue male by her late husband. A pension 
 of 2000?. a year was also settled upon Lady Abercromby and the three 
 succeeding inheritors of the title, of whom the present baron is 
 the last. 
 
 ABERDEEN", GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, EARL OF, was 
 born January 23, 1784, and succeeded to the title on the death of 
 his grandfather in 1S02 : he was created Viscount Gordon in the 
 peerage of the United Kingdom in 1814, and it is by this title that he 
 sits in the House of Lords. After completing his education, the Earl 
 of Aberdeen spent some time in travelling. Both in Greece and Italy 
 he paid considerable attention to the study of the remains of anti- 
 quity ; and he was one of the original members of the Athenian 
 Club. These circumstances gave the point, such as it was, to Lord 
 Byron's notice, in Lis ' Hours of Idleness,' of " the travell'd thane 
 Athenian Aberdeen." The result of the tarl s antiquarian pursuits 
 was given to the world in an 'Introduction' to Wilkins's transla- 
 tion of Vitruvius's ' Civil Architec;ure,' 1812 ; and this ' Introduction ' 
 having been revised aud extended, his lordship published as a distinct 
 work in 1822 un er the title of 'An Inquiry into the Principles of 
 Beauty in Grecian Architecture.' In 1813 the earl was sent to Vienna 
 on a special miss ion, and he was instrumental in obtaining the adhe- 
 sion of Austria to the alliance against Fiance, the prehminary treaty 
 for which he signed as the representative of England, at Toplitz, in 
 October of that year. As the English Ambassador-Extraordinary to 
 the Emperor Francis I., he shand m the negociations which preceded 
 and followed the return of Napoleon to France from Elba. Subse- 
 quently to his retirement from the embassy, the Earl of Aberdeen 
 was known in politics as a steady adherent of the tory party, and on 
 the formation of th« Duke of Wellington's first administration in 
 January, 1828, the earl accepted the office of Secretary of State for 
 Foreign Affairs, which he held till the resignation of the ministry in 
 November, 1830. His first act in office was to express his disapproval 
 of the policy which led to the destruction of the Turkish fleet at 
 Navarino; and the passage in the king's speech (January 29, 1828), 
 which termed that an " untoward event," and expressed the deter- 
 mination of the government to uphold the independence of Turkey, 
 has been generally attributed to him. In this his first term of office 
 it fell to the lot of the earl to assist in establishing the independence 
 of Greece, and to acknowledge the "constitutional monarchy" of 
 France as the result of the revolution of 1830: and the prompt and 
 frank recognition of both of these measures did much to secure the 
 good-will of those countries. In the short-lived administration of Sir 
 Robert Peel (November 1834 to April 1835) the Earl of Aberdeen 
 held the office of Colonial Secretary. When Sir Robert Peel was 
 restored to office, September 1841, the Earl of Aberdeen again re- 
 ceived the appointment of Foreign Secretary, and continued to hold it 
 until the defeat of the ministry in July 1846. His administration of 
 foreign affairs may be said g ur rally to have been marked by a 
 cautious pacific policy, but at the same time there is no other evidence 
 than the heated language of political opponents to show that he was 
 ever neglectful of the honour and dignity of the country. In the 
 dispute with the United States on the Oregon question he took a firm 
 yet conciliatory position, and the credit of the satisfactory settle- 
 ment, of what at one time threatened to be a serious difficulty, is due 
 to him. At a very early period, as is shown by his despatch to Lord 
 Heytesbury, the English ambassador at St. Petersburg, dated Oct. 31, 
 1829, the Earl of Aberdeen had suspected if he had not clearly pene- 
 trated the designs of the Emperor Nicholas upon Turkey; and it 
 was probably with a view more effectually to counteract those designs, 
 that he laboured, during his possession of office, to strengthen as 
 much as possible the alliance with Austria. From his long connection 
 with Sir Robert Peel, the Earl of Aberdeen had come to be regarded 
 not merely as the exponent of that statesman's views on foreign 
 policy, but as, nest to the Duke of Wellington, his chief supporter and 
 representative in the House of Lords ; and on the death of Sir 
 Robert, the earl was selected as the president of the great public 
 meeting of his friends and admirers held at Willis's Rooms, July 23, 
 1850. From this time the Earl of Aberdeen may be regarded as 
 virtually the head of what was known as the Peel party ; aud on the 
 defeat of the Derby miuistry, in December 1852, he was entrusted 
 with the formation of the new administration. This he effected by 
 inducing a number of the leaders of the whigs to unite with his own 
 followers, thus forming a coalition ministry which lasted rather more 
 than two years, and is likely to remain long a theme of as much con- 
 troversy as other coalition ministries, whose acts and policy have so often 
 exercised the pens and tongues of political writers and debaters. As 
 
 ABERNETHY, JOHN. 21 
 
 at every other period of his political life, the earl was as prime 
 minister earnestly bent on the maintenance of peace ; yet, despite of 
 his best efforts, " the country drifted into war," and a war, the mag- 
 nitude of which few probably better appreciated than himself. But 
 Lord Aberdeen, even after war was officially declared, clung to an 
 early restoration of peace, and rested for that purpose on his favourite 
 expedient of the Austrian alliance, more than was probably wise or 
 justifiable— at any rate more than the public liked to see ; and this, 
 with the general feeling that the war was not being prosecuted with 
 the vigour which its importance and the character of the country 
 demanded, deprived the Aberdeen ministry of all support, except 
 from their immediate followers ; so that when the earl resolved to 
 treat Mr. Roebuck's motion (January 29, 1855) for an inquiry into the 
 state of the army before Sevastopol, as a vote of want of confidence, 
 and Lord John Russell seceded from the Cabinet, the motion was 
 carried by a majority greater probably than ever before defeated the 
 most unpopular ministry. The earl at once resigned, and has not 
 during the remainder of 1855 taken any prominent part in public 
 affairs. The war overturned all the earl's calculations, and arrested 
 most of those measures of social and political improvement, which he 
 had taken aD early opportunity of announcing as the basis of his 
 system of policy. Yet his administration will be remembered as 
 having effected an important change in the government of India; 
 largely and beneficially modified the exclusive system of Oxford 
 University ; carried several measures tending to improve the con- 
 dition of the people ; extended still further the principles of free 
 trade ; and laid the foundation of a better system of admission to, 
 and improved management of the civil service of the country. 
 
 The Earl of Aberdeen has never been eminent as an orator. His 
 influence in the House of Lords has been due to his high personal 
 character, administrative ability, and social position. With foreign 
 potentates, with whom he has been brought into contact as a minister, 
 he has always been a favourite. Since the publication of his work on 
 Grecian architecture, the Earl of Aberdeen has not publicly evinced 
 any partiality for literature or its practitioners ; and his government is 
 rather badly distinguished by his having appropriated to decayed 
 members of aristocratic families the larger portion of the fund pre- 
 viously set apart for the reward of persons eminent in literature and 
 science. His lordship, however, holds various honorary offices usually 
 bestowed on the patrons of intellectual pursuits : he is Chancellor of 
 King's College, Aberdeen, President of the British Institution, and a 
 governor of Harrow School and the Charterhouse; and for some years 
 he was President of the Society of Antiquaries. [See Supplement.] 
 
 ABERNETHY, JOHN, a distinguished surgeon, born in the year 
 1763-4, either at the town of Abernethy in Scotland, or at that of 
 Derry in Ireland, for each claims the honour of having been the place 
 of his birth. He died at Enfield, after a protracted illness, on the 
 18th of April, 1831, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. In early 
 youth he removed from the place of his birth, and resided with his 
 parents in London, in which city his father was a merchant. He 
 received the elements of grammatical and classical instruction at a 
 day-school in Lothbury, and also attended school at Wolverhampton. 
 At the usual age he was apprenticed to Sir Charles Blick, surgeon to 
 St. Bartholomew's Hospital, under whom, and especially in the wards of 
 that hospital, he had ample opportunities of acquiring a thorough 
 knowledge of his profession, of which he availed himself with dili- 
 gence. Competent judges, who observed at this early period the 
 qualities of his mind and his habits of study, predicted that he would 
 one day acquire fame, if not fortune. Though he appeared before the 
 public early as an author, and though his very first works stamped 
 him as a man of genius, endowed with a philosophical and original 
 mind, yet he did not rise into reputation nor acquire practice with 
 rapidity. In 1786 he succeeded Mr. Pott as assistant-surgeon to St. 
 Bartholomew's Hospital, and shortly afterwards took the place of 
 that gentleman as lecturer on anatomy and surgery. For a consider- 
 able time he had but few pupils, and he was at first by no means a 
 good lecturer, his delivery being attended with a more than ordinary 
 degree of hesitation. On the death of Sir Charles Blick, his former 
 master, he was elected surgeon in his room ; and subsequently 
 St. Bartholomew's Hospital obtained under him a reputation which it 
 had never before acquired. On the 9th of January, 1800, Abernethy 
 married Miss Ann Threlfall. 
 
 Abernethy was a pupil of John Hunter, and the earnestness and 
 delight with which, at an early age, he received the lessons of this 
 his great master, were indications of the soundness of his own judg- 
 ment. It was from this profound and original thinker, who exercised 
 an extraordinary influence over the understanding, tastes, aud pur- 
 suits of his young pupil, that Abernethy derived that ardent love of 
 physiology, by the application of which to surgery he was destined to 
 convert a rude art into a beautiful science. He made himself 
 thoroughly acquainted with anatomy, but it was that he might be 
 admitted into the then new world of physiology ; he studied structure, 
 but it was that he might understand function ; and the moment he 
 had obtained a clear insight into these two sciences, he saw the appli- 
 cations of which they were capable to the treatment of disease. 
 From that moment he looked with contempt on the empiricism then 
 almost universal in surgery ; he ridiculed its jargon ; he exposed the 
 narrowness of its principles, if it be at all allowable to designate by 
 
ABERNETHY, JOHN. 
 
 ABINGER, LORD. 
 
 24 
 
 such a term the ignorant dogmas which alone regulated ine practice 
 of the surgeon. But ho did not content himself with deriding what 
 truly deserved contempt; he laid the foundation of, and mainly con- 
 tributed to build up. a now edifice. By the diligent study of nature, 
 and by continual reflection on what he saw, and, as he himself ex- 
 pressed it, the concatenation of what he saw, he reduced to order 
 what he found a chaos. Hitherto the surgeon had looked upon the 
 class of diseases which it was his part to treat, diseases which almost 
 always have a local scat, as diseases which have also a local origin, 
 and consequently as diseases which are to be cured by local applica- 
 tions. To Abernethy belongs the great merit of first perceiving, in 
 its full extent, the utter incompatibility of this notion with the true 
 phenomena of disease, and the inertness, or, when it ceased to be 
 inert, the mischievousuess of the treatment that grew out of it. In 
 a work abounding with acute and original observation, and exhibiting 
 comprehensive and philosophical views, entitled, 'The Constitutional 
 Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases,' he lays down and establishes 
 this great principle : — That local diseases are symptoms of a dis- 
 ordered constitution, not primary and independent maladies; and 
 that they are to be cured by remedies calculated to make a salutary 
 impression on the general frame, not by topical dressing, nor any 
 mere manipulations of surgery. This single principle changed tho 
 aspect of the entire field of surgery, and elevated it from a manual 
 art into the rank of a science. And to this first principle he added 
 a second, the range of which is perhaps somewhat less extensive, but 
 the practical importance of which is scarcely inferior to that of the 
 first— namely, that this disordered state of the constitution either 
 originates from, or is rigorously allied with derangements of the 
 stomach and bowels, and that it can only be reached by remedies 
 which first exercise a curative influence upon these organs. Tho 
 benefit daily and hourly conferred upon mankind by the elucidation 
 and establifhment of these two principles, both by the prevention and 
 the mitigation of disease and suffering, it were vain to attempt to 
 estimate, and it is not easy to pay to their author the debt of gratitude 
 which is his due. 
 
 Further, the same philosophical view of the structure and functions 
 of the human frame, which enabled this acute physiologist so greatly 
 to improve the theory and practice of surgery, suggested, and at the 
 same time armed him with the courage to perform, two operations in 
 surgery bolder than any that had ever before been achieved, and the 
 repetition of which has since been attended with splendid success — 
 namely, the tying the carotid and the external iliac arteries. The 
 announcement of the performance of these capital operations at once 
 established his reputation as a surgeon, and increased the esteem of 
 the English school throughout Europe. 
 
 Great however as was the reputation which this distinguished man 
 acquired as an anatomist, physiologist, and surgeon, it is probable 
 that he owed his celebrity chiefly to his success as a teacher. Gifted 
 with the genius to master and extend his science, he was endowed 
 with the still rarer capacity of communicating to others in a clear, 
 succinct, impressive, anil fascinating manner, whatever ho himself 
 knew. Easy and fluent, yet not inelegant — abounding with illustra- 
 tion and anecdote, yet methodical — logical, yet often witty, and occa- 
 sionally humorous almost to coarseness — seldom impassioned, yet 
 always impressive, and never allowing the attention of his audience 
 to flag for a single moment,— it was rare, indeed, that he failed to 
 convince whoever heard him, and as rare that he failed to make 
 ' hoever was convinced a decided partisan. Nevertheless, a highly 
 competent witness, speaking apparently from a careful and mature 
 examination of the impression made upon his own mind by the prelec- 
 tions of his master, gives the following account, which, if true, is 
 decidedly unfavourable as to the ultimate result of the mode and 
 spirit of his lecturing. "He so eloquently expounded some of the 
 highest truths," says Dr. Latham; "he so nicely disentangled the 
 perplexities of many abstruse subjects ; he made that so easy which 
 was before so difficult, — that every man who heard him feels perhaps 
 to this day that for some important portion of his knowledge he is 
 indebted to Mr. Abernethy. But he reserved all his enthusiasm for 
 his peculiar doctrine; he so reasoned it, so acted it, and so dramatised 
 it (those who have heard him will know what I mean) ; and then in 
 his own droll way he so disparaged the more laborious searcheis after 
 truth, calling them contemptuously 'the Doctors,' and so disported 
 himself with ridicule of every system but his own, that we accepted 
 the doctrine in all its fulness. We should have been ashamed to do 
 otherwise. We accepted it with acclamation, and voted ourselves by 
 acclamation the profoundest of medical philosophers, at the easy rate 
 of one half-hour's instruction. The great Lord Chatham, it is said, had 
 such power of inspiring self-complacency into the minds of other men, 
 that no man was ever a quarter of an hour in his company without 
 believing that Lord Chatham was the first man in the world, and 
 himself the second ; and so it was with us poor pupils and Sir. Aber- 
 nethy. We never left his lecture-room without thiukin>_! him the prince 
 of pathologists, and ourselves only just one degree below him." 
 
 If this were, indeed, the ordinary result, then it must be admitted 
 that the excellence of Mr. Abernethy, as a teacher, was, after all, but 
 ~f a secondary order. He only teaches well who sends his pupil away 
 thirsting after truth, determined to search for it, feeling that he 
 has a clear conception of the manner in which he is to get at it, and 
 
 at all events in no mood to be satisfied with anything but the entire 
 
 truth. 
 
 Tho private character of Mr. Abernethy was blameless. He was 
 
 highly honourable in all his transactions, and incapable of duplicity, 
 meanness, artifice, or servility. His manners in the domestic circle 
 were gentle, and even playful ; he gave to those about him a large 
 portion of what his heart really abounded with — tenderness and affec- 
 tion ; and on his part he was tenderly beloved by his children and by 
 all the members of his family. In public, and more especially to his 
 patients, his manners were coarse, capricious, churlish, and sometimes 
 even brutaL It would not be difficult to account for this anomaly 
 were there any use in pursuing tho investigation : his conduct in this 
 respect merits unqualified censure. 
 
 For a list of the various Tracts published by Mr. Abernethy, see 
 Watt's ' Bibliotheca Britannica.' A collected Edition of his Surgical 
 Works appeared in 1815, 2 vols. 8vo. ('Memoirs of Abernethy," by 
 George Ma. 'il wain. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1853.) 
 
 ABINGER, LORD. James Scarlett was a native of Jamaica, where 
 his family was wealthy and of long standing. He was the second son 
 of Robert Scarlett, Esq., and was born in or about the year 1769. His 
 mother's name was Elizabeth Anglin. The family estates went, it may 
 be presumed, to the eldest son ; a third son, who also remained at 
 home, and followed the profession of the law in Jamaica, became Sir 
 William Angliu Scarlett, and Chief Justice of Jamaica, and died there, 
 after having held that office for many years. James was at an early 
 age sent to England. Having finished his elementary education, he 
 was, about the year 1786, entered a Fellow Commoner at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge; and he was also, a year or two after, admitted a 
 student of the Inner Temple. He took his degree of B.A. in 1790; 
 was called to the bar 8th July, 1791; and graduated MA. in 1794. 
 His success at the bar was very decided from the first, and every year 
 added to his reputation and his emoluments. It was soon discovered 
 that, from whatever cause, no young barrister gained so large a propor- 
 tion of verdicts. Even while he was still a junior counsel, he was 
 very frequently entrusted with the sole conduct of important cases. 
 At last, in 1816, he received a silk gown ; and from that date he was 
 recognised as the leader of his circuit (the Northern), and as occupying 
 also a foremost place in Westminster Hall. 
 
 He had made an attempt to be returned to parliament for the 
 borough of Lewes at the general election in October, 1812, but was 
 defeated by Mr. George Sbiffner, who was brought in, as second member, 
 by a majority of 164 to 154 ; and he failed also in a second attempt on 
 the same borough when a vacancy was occasioned in 1816 by the 
 death of the other member, Mr. T. R. Kemp, being then defeated by 
 Sir John Shelley. He was first introduced to the House of Commons 
 in 1818, as one of the members for tho city of Peterborough, under 
 the patronage of Earl Fitzwilliam. He did not however make a figure 
 in parliament corresponding to his eminence at the bar ; nor was he 
 a frequent speaker, although he supported both Sir Samuel Romilly 
 and Sir James Macintosh in their efforts to mitigate the severity of the 
 criminal law, and also occasionally took part in debates on financial 
 subjects. 
 
 He was returned again for Peterborough at the general election in 
 1820 ; but he resigned his seat in 1822 to stand for the University of 
 Cambridge, when, however, he was left at the bottom of the poll. 
 Upon this he was re-elected for Peterborough, but not till after a 
 contest with Mr. Samuel Wells. Up to this time he had been consi- 
 dered as distinctly belonging to the Whig party, although to the most 
 moderate section of it ; but his opinions gradually assumed more of a 
 Conservative complexion, and when the new Tory or mixed adminis- 
 tration of Canning came into power in April, 1827, Mr. Scarlett, having 
 been again returned for Peterborough at the general election in the 
 preceding year, accepted the office of attorney-general. He was at the 
 same time knighted. Having been once more returned for Peter- 
 borough he retained his place throughout the administration of Lord 
 Goderich ; was succeeded by Sir Charles Wetherell when the Duke of 
 Wellington became premier in January, 1828; but was reinstated in 
 May, 1829, upon the dismissal of Sir Charles for his opposition to the 
 Roman Catholic Emancipation Bill ; and, having been returned for 
 Maldon at the general election in 1830, he remained attorney-general 
 till the accession to office of the Whigs in November of that year, when 
 he was succeeded by Mr. (afterwards Lord) Denman. 
 
 At the general eleetion in May, 1831, Sir James Scarlett was returned 
 to parliament for Cockermouth. At the next, which took place after 
 the passing of the Reform Bill, in December, 1832, he was returned, 
 after a contest, for Norwich, along with Lord Stoimont (now Earl of 
 Mansfield). When this parliament was dissolved in December, 1834, 
 on Sir Robert Peel being appointed premier, Sir James Scarlett was 
 made Chief Baron, and a peer by the title of Baron Abinger, of Abin- 
 ger, in the county of Surrey, and of the city of Norwich. 
 
 Lord Abinger died of a sudden attack of illness at Bury lit. Edmunds, 
 while on the circuit, on the 7th of April, 1844. He had been twice 
 married; first in August, 1792, to the third daughter of Peter Camp- 
 bell, Esq., of Kilmorey, in Argyleshire, who died in March, 1829 ; 
 secondly, in September, 1843, to Elizabeth, daughter of Lee Steere 
 Steere, Esq., of Jays, Surrey, and widow of the Rev. H. J. Ridley, of 
 Ockley. By his first wife he had three sons and two daughters. His 
 eldest son succeeded to his title and estates ; his eldest daughter, the 
 
ABINGTON, FRANCES. 
 
 wife of Lord Campbell, was created a peeress in 1836 by the title of 
 Baroness Stratheden. 
 
 Lord Abiuger was a skilful and dexterous rather than an eloquent 
 advocate, and while on the bench he was more distinguished for the 
 clearness with which he summed up a case to a jury than for the pro- 
 foundness or subtlety of his legal views. Yet he was considered also 
 a sound and good lawyer. In the great art of gaining verdicts he was 
 unrivalled ; and no practitioner at the bar had ever before received so 
 large a sum in fees iu any year as he drew in the height of his practice. 
 His conduct as attorney-general under the Tories in 1829, when he 
 filed a number of criminal informations against the opposition news- 
 papers, naturally exposed him to some severe animadversions from 
 those who still continued attached to the more democratic political 
 creed which he had originally been accustomed to profess. 
 
 (Gent. M ag. for June, 1844.) 
 
 ABINGTON, FRANCES, was born in 1731, or, according to some, 
 in 1738. Her maiden name was Barton, and her father, although of 
 respectable descent, is said to have been only a common soldier. Early 
 in life she obtained her livelihood by running on errands, and one of 
 her places happening to be at a French milliner's, she soon contrived 
 to pick up the language. She was afterwards a flower-girl in St. 
 James's Park, London. Her first appearance on the stage was as 
 Miranda in the ' Busy Body,' at the Haymarket Theatre, on August 21st, 
 1755. Not making much impression on the public, she went to Dublin, 
 previously to which she was married to Mr. Abington, who had become 
 known to her as her music-master, and from whom she separated in a 
 few months. At Dublin she made her first step to fame, as Kitty, in 
 ' High Life below Stairs,' which was brought out for the benefit of 
 Tate Wilkinson, who has left an animated account of her great success. 
 The more fashionable theatre in Crow-street wa3 soon deserted for the 
 obscure house in Smock Alley; the head-dress that Mrs. Abington 
 wore was copied by every milliner, and the "Abington cap" in a few 
 days figured in every shop window, aud on the head of every lady 
 who had any pretensions to fashion. Mrs. Abington continued a first- 
 rate favourite at both the Dublin theatres until her return to England, 
 in 1765, when she was warmly welcomed by Garrick. In a few seasons, 
 by the retirement of Mrs. Pritchard and Mrs. Clive, the field was left 
 0|>en to her, and she quickly became the first comic actress of her 
 day ; a station which she Ion,' retained. Her last public appearance 
 was on the 12th of April, 1799. She died at her house in Pall Mall, 
 Loudon, 4th March, 1815. She left a legacy to each of the theatrical 
 funds. 
 
 ABLANCOURT, PERROT NICOLAS D', one of the most esteemed 
 French translators of the classic authors in the 17th century, was 
 born at Chalons-sur-Marne, iu Champagne (now in the department of 
 Marne), in 1606, and died at Ablancourt in November, 1664. Ablau- 
 court commenced his career at the bar, but quitted it almost imme- 
 diately for literary pursuits ; and at the s.ime time abandoned the 
 Protestant creed, in which he had been brought up. He returned 
 however to his fir.-t belief ; for six years afterwards he studied with 
 the deepest attention, under the learned Stuart for three years, at the 
 end of which time he abjured the Roman faith, aud immediately 
 after retired into Holland, to be near the learned Saumaise, and enjoy 
 the society of that famous scholar; perhaps also to let the scandal of 
 his second abjuration die away. From Holland he repaired to England, 
 and thence to Paris, where he became intimately acquainted with Patru, 
 one of the most celebrated writers and distinguished lawyers of that 
 day, and also with other eminent literary characters. In 1637 he was 
 received a member of the French Academy, and gave his whole atten- 
 tion to the translation of the works of Tacitus ; but being soon 
 obliged to quit Paris on account of the war which broke out, he went 
 to reside at his seat at Ablancourt, iu Champagne, for the remainder 
 of his life, with the exception of the time he spent in Paris during 
 the printing of his works. Of his numerous translations, those most 
 known are, the whole of Tacitus, of which there have been ten 
 editions; four orations of Cicero; Caesar; the Wars of Alexander, 
 by Arrian — the most esteemed of his translations as regards the style ; 
 Thucydides ; the Anabasis of Xenophon ; and an imitation, rather 
 than a translation, of Lucian. DuriDg his life he appears to have been 
 held iu general estimation as a translator, but his versions are very far 
 from accurate, and are now obsolete. 
 
 In 1662 Colbert proposed him to Louis XIV. as the historian of his 
 reign, but Louis would not have a Protestant to commemorate its 
 events. However, he did not deprive him of his pension of 120/. per 
 annum, which had been granted to him as historiogapher. ' Ablan- 
 court's life was written by his friend Patru. 
 
 ABRAHAM (originally Abram), the great ancestor and founder of 
 the Jewish nation, and the first depositary of the divine promises in 
 favour of the chosen people. He was the son of Terah, the eighth in 
 descent from Shero, the eldest son of Noah, and was born probably at 
 Ur, a town of Chaldasa, about 2000 years before the Christian era. 
 His history occupies about a fourth part of the book of Genesis, 
 namely, from the 11th to the 25th chapters inclusive. Having mar- 
 ried Sarah (originally Sarai), the daughter of his brother Haran, he 
 accompanied his father and his nephew Lot to Haran, where Terah 
 •iksd ; and then, at the command of God, taking Lot along with him, 
 he left Haran, and proceeded towards the south till he reached the 
 plain of Moreb, in Canaau. The epoch of the commencement of this 
 
 ABU-BEKR. 2e 
 
 journey, which happened when he was 75 years old, is called by chro- 
 nologists the Call of Abraham. Soon after, a famine forced the 
 patriarch to make a journey into Egypt, from which country, when 
 he had returned to the place of his abode in Canaan, he found that 
 the increase of his own flocks, and those of his nephew, made it 
 necessary that they should choose separate settlements ; and accord- 
 ingly, by mutual consent, Lot withdrew towards the east, aud 
 established himself among the cities in the plain of Jordan, while 
 Abraham removed to the plain of Mamre, in Hebron. He had reached 
 his 99th year, and his wife (who had been hitherto barren) her 89th, 
 when God appeared to him, and declared that there should yet spring 
 from them a great nation — a promise which was confirmed by the 
 birth of Isaac the following year. The severe trial of Abraham's 
 faith, in the command given him to sacrifice this beloved son, so 
 beautifully related iu the 22nd chapter of Genesis, is familiar to every 
 reader. Some time before this he had given another striking proof of 
 his submission to the divine will and his implicit reliance on the 
 promises of God, in his dismissal of his son Ishmael, whom he had by 
 Hagar, the Egyptian bondwoman, on the assurance of his Heavenly 
 Father, that of him too would he make a nation, because he was the 
 patriarch's seed. The Arabs claim to have sprung from Ishmael, as 
 did the Hebrews from Isaac. After the death of Sarah, at the age of 
 127, Abraham married Keturah, and by her had six other sons. The 
 venerable patriarch died at the age of 175, and was buried, by Isaac 
 and Ishmael, in the tomb which contained his first wife in Mamre. 
 
 ABU-BEKR, properly called Abdallah-Atik-ben-Abi-Kohafah, but 
 better known under the name of Abu-Bekr (that i->, 'Father of the 
 Maiden,' in allusion to his daughter Ayeshah, whom the Arabian 
 prophet married very young), was the first kalif or successor of 
 Mohammed in the government of the new empire founded by him. 
 Mohammed died in a.d. 632, without leaving any male issue. The 
 succession to the sovereignty was at first contested between his father- 
 in-law, Abu-Bekr, and Ali-ben-Abi-Taleb, his cousingerman, who was 
 also, through marriage with the prophet's daughter Fatima, his son- 
 iu-law. Between the two rivals themselves the dispute was settled 
 without an appeal to arms. Abu-Bekr prevailed, and Ali, though 
 disappointed, submitted to the authority of his successful opponent. 
 But among the Mohammedans the respective claims of the two com- 
 petitors became a point of perpetual controversy, and gave rise to 
 the great division of the whole Mohammedan community iuto Suunites 
 and Shiites ; the former asserting the right of Abu-Bekr and his two 
 successors, Omar and Othman, while the Shiites condemn these three 
 kalifs as unlawful intruders, and maintain the exclusive right of Ali- 
 ben-Abi-Taleb and his lineal descendants to the commandership over 
 the Faithful. [Ali-ben-Abi-Taleb.] 
 
 After the death of Mohammed, only the three important towns of 
 Mecca, Medina, and Tayef declared themselves for Abu-Bekr. It was 
 the first and principal object of the newly-appointed sovereign to 
 establish his authority iu the other parts of Arabia, especially iu the 
 countries of Yemen, Tehama, Oman, and Bahrain. In reducing to 
 obedience these refractory provinces, Abu-Bekr was powerfully sup- 
 ported by Omar, afterwards his successor, and especially by Khaled- 
 ben-Walid, a military commander of extraordinary courage aud 
 presence of mind. Besides this rebellion of some of its members, the 
 Mohammedan state had to encounter other difficulties from several 
 new pretenders to prophetship. Mosailamah seems to have been the 
 most formidable of these enemies of the Islam. He was however 
 defeated by Khaled, and killed in a battle near Akrabah. This con- 
 flict is memorable on another account. The precepts promulgated 
 at different times by Mohammed had till then been in a great measure 
 preserved by oral tradition, or handed about in fragments written on 
 palm-leaves, or pieces of parchment. Many of the personal associates 
 of Mohammed, who were from memory familiar with his doctrine, 
 fell in the war with Mosailamah ; and Abu-Bekr, in order to obviate 
 any future uncertainty about the genuine text of the ordinances, 
 caused all the fragments to be collected, the passages remembered by 
 heart to be written out, and the whole to be embodied in the volume 
 known under the title of the Koran. 
 
 Abu-Bekr, auxious to increase the Mohammedan dominions, dis- 
 patched Khaled into Irak, where he subdued several of the frontier 
 provinces along the Euphrates. Two other commanders, Yezid-ben- 
 Abi-Sofyan and Abu-Obeidah, entered Syria and defeated the troops 
 of the Grecian emperor Heraclius. After a decisive victory over a 
 Greek army of 70,000 men, near Ajnaidain, the capture of Damascus 
 by the united forces of Abu-Obeidah and Khaled established the 
 dominion of the Arabs over Syria, aud in fact over the whole country 
 between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean. 
 
 On the day of the capture of Damascus (August 23rd, 634) Abu- 
 Bekr died, at the age of 63 years. Not one of his three sous, Abdallah, 
 Abd-al-rahman, and Mohammed, survived him ; and in his will he 
 appointed Omar as his successor. Eastern writers praise the simplicity 
 of his habits and manners, and his disregard of wealth and the luxu- 
 ries or even comforts of life. Every Friday he distributed all the 
 surplus of his income among such persons as he thought deserving of 
 it. His short reign, of little more than two years, forms au eventful 
 epoch in the history of Mohammedanism ; and oriental authors have 
 vied with one another in recording details about the early conquests 
 of the armies of the Faithful. The volume of the great Arabic 
 
27 
 
 ABULFARAGIUS. 
 
 ACHARD, FRANCOIS-CHARLKS. 
 
 chronicle of Tabari, edited and translated by Kosegarten (Qreifswald, 
 1831, ita), is entirely occupied with only the earlier part of Abu- 
 Bekr's reign ; the latter part, or the history of the conquests of Irak 
 and Syria, still remains unpublished. A highly interesting account of 
 the siege and capture of Damascus, derived chiefly from the Arabia 
 chronicle of Wakedi, may be found in Ockley's ' History of the 
 Saracens.' 
 
 ABULFARA'GIUS (properly Mar Qregorius Abuffaraj, also called 
 Greyorius Barhehrwus), was an oriental writer of much celebrity, who 
 livei t in the 13th century of Our era. II.- was born in 1226, at Malatia, 
 or Melite, a town situated near the western hank of the Euphrates in 
 Les>er Asia, where his father, Aaron, followed the profession of a 
 physician. Though t he offspring of a Jewish family, he embraced the 
 Christian belief, to wbieh, notwithstanding a surmise to the contrary, 
 he continued faithful till his death. Abulfaraj studied theology, philo- 
 sophy, and medicine. He spent the greater part of his life in Syria. 
 At the early age of twenty he was appointed bishop of Guba, and 
 subsequently of Aleppo. In 126G he was elected Primate of all the 
 Jacobite Christians in the East. Ho died at Meragha in Azorbijau, 
 in 1286. 
 
 Abulfaraj was the author of a great number of Arabic and Syriac 
 w oiks, but the composition through which his name has become best 
 known among us is a universal history, written in Syriac, but trans- 
 lated by the author himself into Arabic, to which he has given the 
 title of 'History of the Dynasties.' It is divided into ten sections : 
 the first of which gives some account of the patriarchs ; the second, 
 i f the Jewish commonwealth under the judges; and the third, of the 
 Jews under the kings; the fourth contains the history of the Chal- 
 dteaUB; the fifth, of the Persians; the sixth, of the Greeks; the 
 seventh, of the Romans; the eighth, of the Christiau Grecian empire; 
 the ninth, of the Mohammedan Arabs; and the tenth, of the Moguls. 
 In the early part of the work many errors are observable, into which 
 the author has fallen through his ignorance of the classical languages 
 and literature. Though written by a Christian, this work is held in 
 high esteem among Jews and Mohammedans in the East, To us its 
 chief interest consists in the curious details which it contains con- 
 cerning the history of science among the Arabs, particularly under 
 the three Abbaside kalifs, Mansur, Harun-al-Rashid, and Marnun. An 
 edition of the Arabic text of the ' Dynasties,' accompanied with a 
 Latin translation, was published by Edward Pococke, at Oxford, in 
 1663, 4to. ; the Syriac text, likewise with a Latin version, was edited 
 by Bruns and Kirsch, at Leipzig, in 1789, 4to. 
 
 ABUL-FAZL, son of Sheikh Mobarik, was the vizir of the 
 celebrated Mogul emperor Akbar, who reigned from ad. 1555 to 
 1605. In 1602, when returniug from an expedition to the Deccan, he 
 was murdered in the district of Nurwar by banditti, and, it was sus- 
 pecttd, by the contrivance of Akbar's sou Selim, who aft rwards 
 succeeded his father on the throne, under the name of Jehaugir. 
 The extensive and valuable works which Abul-Fazl found leisure to 
 write, have insured him a conspicuous place among the best authors, 
 as well as among the most enlightened statesmen, of the East. His 
 principal work is the ' Akbar-Nameh,' which exists as yet only in 
 manuscript, and contains a history of the reign of the sovereign 
 whom he served, and to whom he was most devotedly attached ; this 
 history Abul-Fazl carried down till very near the time of his own 
 death, and it was afterwards continued by Sheikh Enaietullah in a 
 supplement, entitled ' Takmileh-i-Akbar-Nameh.' But the work 
 which has most contributed to make his name familiar to us is the 
 ' Ayin-i-Akbari,' or Institutes of Akbar, a statistical and political 
 description of the Mogul empire, and of the several branches of 
 its administration. Abul-Fazl was a friend to the oppressed Hindoos. 
 In his Persian prose translation of the great Sanscrit heroic poem, 
 the ' Mahabarata,' Abul-Fazl has left us a curious and valuable 
 monument of the persevering diligence which a Mohammedan states- 
 man deemed it worth his while to bestow on the literature of the 
 conquered nation, in the government of which he was called to 
 assist by his counsels. Another of his works, less interesting to us, 
 though much admired in the East on account of its refined and 
 florid style, is the ' Ayar-i-Danish,' or Touchstone of Intellect, a 
 Persian translation from the Arabic of the well-known fables of 
 Bidpa'i, or Pilpay. 
 
 ABU'LFEDA, or, with his full name, Emad-eddin Abulfeda Ismail- 
 ben-Ali, was the descendant of a collateral branch of the Ayubite 
 dynasty, which Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) in 1182 appointed to the 
 sovereignty of the three towns, Hamah, Maarrah, and Barin, in Syria, 
 and which continued to hold that dignity even after the Bahrite 
 Mamluks, under Azz-eddin-lbek, had in 1254 put an end to the Ayu- 
 bite dominion over Syria and Egypt. Abulftda was born in 1273 at 
 Damascus, whither his family had fled before the Mogols, who then 
 threatened Syria with an invasion, but were successfully repelled by 
 the Bahrite sultan Bibars. Mohammed-ben-Basel, once sent as ambas- 
 sador to the German emperor Frederick II., is mentioned as having 
 been one of his teachers. He began at an early age to display a war- 
 like disposition, and to join in the expeditions against the remains of 
 the Christian kingdom founded in Syria by the Crusaders. In 1285 
 he was present at the siege of Markab ; in 1289 at that of Tripoli; 
 and in 1291 at the taking of Akka (St. Jean dAcre) ; at a later period 
 (1298) he accompanied his cousin, ModhafFar then the reigning prince 
 
 of Hamah, on an expedition against the Mogols. After the death of 
 
 ModhafFar, in 1299, the Bahrite sultan Nasir declared the fief which 
 the Ayubites held under him to have become extinct, and assigned a 
 small pension for their maintenance. When however, ten years after- 
 wards, Sultan Nasir became personally acquainted with Abulfeda, he 
 not only restored to hitn (1310) the former dignity of his family, but 
 soon after, as an acknowledgement for his services, raised him to the 
 rank of malik, or king. In 1316 Abulfeda was obliged to give up the 
 town of Maarrah and its territory to the Arab Emir Mohamined-Ben- 
 Isa, who demanded this boon a* a reward for his defection from the 
 Mogols; but ho retained Barin and Hamab, and with his troops often 
 rendered military seivic s to Sultan Nasir. He continued on the most 
 friendly terms with Nasir till he died in 1331. The numerous works 
 which he has left behind attest the extent and variety of his informa- 
 tion. Among them we find mentioned works on medicine, Mohammedan 
 jurisprudence, mathematics, and philosophy : those most commonly 
 known are — a treatise on geography, entitled ' Takwim-al-boldan,' or 
 'Disposition of the Countries;' and an historical work called 'Mukhtasar 
 fi akhbar al-bashar,' that is, ' A Compendium of the History of Mankind.' 
 The geographical treatise consists of an introduction ami twenty eight 
 sections on particular countries, each containing, first, a table, showing 
 the latitudes and longitudes of the most remarkable places, and after- 
 wards detailed statistical and topographical notices respecting them. 
 In the description of such places as he had not seen himself, he takes 
 c ire to name the authorities from whom he draws his information. 
 The descriptions of single countries have been edited by Gravius, 
 Heiske, Rommel, Kcehler, Michaelis, and others. The historical work 
 is a chronicle after the usual comprehensive plan of oriental works of 
 this kind. Its main object is the history of Mohammed, and of the 
 Arabian empire, which it carries down as far as the year 1328. The 
 earlier centuries of the Mohammedan power are but briefly treated. 
 Farther on the narrative becomes fuller aud richer in interesting details. 
 For the history of the Crusades it is one of the most important oriental 
 sourc s which we possess. The latter part of the work, or the history 
 of Mohammedanism, was translated by Heiske, and edited with the 
 Arabic text by Adler, at Copenhagen, in five volumes, 4to, 1789-1794 ; 
 an edition and translation of the ante Islamitic part has been published 
 by Fleischer, Leipzig, 1831, 4to. 
 
 ABVDE'NUS (' A&vZriv6s), a Greek historian who wrote a history of 
 Assyria ('ArravpiaKa), of which some fragments are preserved by Euse- 
 bius, Cyrillus, Sy ucellus, aud Moses of Chorene. His work was valuable 
 for chronology, and a fragment found iu the Armenian translation of 
 the Chrouiconof Eusebius settles some difficulties in Assyrian history. 
 The time at which he lived is not certain ; he must however belong to 
 a later period than Berosus, one of his authorities, who lived about 
 B.C. 250. The fragments of his history are collected inScaliger's work, 
 ' De Emendatione Temporum,' and more completely in J. D. G. Richter, 
 ' Berosi Chaldoei Historis quae supersunt,' &c, Leipzig, 1825, 8vo, p. 
 38, &c, and p. 85, &c. 
 
 ACHARD, FRANCOIS-CHARLES, a chemist and experimental 
 philosopher, supposed to have been of French extraction, was born at 
 Berlin in 1753 or 1754, and died in 1821. He was the author of various 
 works, written in the German language, on experimental physics, 
 chemistry, and agriculture ; and he was long an active contributor to 
 different scientific journals, particularly the ' Memoirs' of the Academy 
 of Berlin. Iu 1780 he published at Berlin a work entitled ' Cuymisch- 
 Physische Schriften,' which contains a great number of experiments 
 on the subject of the adhesion of different bodies to each other. Tables 
 containing the results of these experiments, which seem to have been 
 conducted with great care, may be seen in the ' Encyclopddie Metho- 
 dique (Chimie 1 ,' torn, i., p. 469. 
 
 Achard is however chiefly known for his proposal to extract sugar 
 from beet-root. Another Prussian chemist, Margrafif, had discovered 
 the existence of a certain portion of sugar in this root as early as 1747. 
 He communicated his discovery to the Scientific Society at Berlin ; 
 but he himself thought it of little practical importance, as he declared 
 he could not produce sugar under 100 francs the pound. Achard, who 
 in this paiticular appears to have been somewhat of a visionary, on the 
 contrary, described the beet-root as "one of the most bountiful gifts 
 which the divine munificence had awarded to man upon the earth." 
 He affirmed that not only sugar could be produced from beet-root, but 
 tobacco, molasses, coffee, rum, arrack, vinegar, and beer. The Institute 
 of Paris, in 1800, gave Achard thehonour of a vote of thanks ; but after 
 a series of careful experiments they reported that the results were so 
 unsatisfactory, that it would be unwise to establish any manufacture 
 of sugar from beet-root. But Napoleon I. in 1812 succeeded in forming 
 au imperial manufactory of sugar at Rambouillet, when his decrees 
 had deprived France of the produce of the West Indies. The sugar 
 made at home was sold at a great price ; and consequently, after the 
 peace, when foreign sugar was once more introduced, its cheapness put 
 an end to the beet-root establishments. The government of France 
 however chose to levy high duties upon the sugars of English colonies 
 to protect thosfe of Martinique, Guadaloupe, and Bourbon ; and the 
 tax upon English colonial sugar, being 95 francs the 100 kilogrammes, 
 or about half a franc per pound, amounted to a prohibition. The 
 beet-root manufacture therefore was revived, and, with some fluctu- 
 ations, has continued to increase. The same duty is now levied upon 
 beet-root sugar as upon French colonial sugar, but the consumption of 
 
X ACHILLES. 
 
 sue»r in France is very limited in comparison with that of England. 
 In 1850, 160.917,000 lbs. of beet-root sugar were made in France. The 
 average yearly consumption in France is less than 10 lbs. for each 
 individual; in the United Kingdom, in 1850, it exceeded 30 lbs. each. 
 Beet-root sugar is also made extensively in Belgium, Russia, Prussia, 
 and Germany. The improvements in the processes for the manufac- 
 ture of beet-root sugar have led to attempts being made to introduce 
 its use into the United Kingdom. A company carries on operations 
 in Ireland on a scale of some magnitude. 
 
 ACHI'LLES, one of the most celebrated characters of the mythic 
 age of Greece ; a distinction due rather to his having been selected by 
 Homer as the hero of the ' Iliad,' than to the number or wonderful 
 nature of the exploits ascribed to him. He belongs to that interme- 
 diate period between truth and fiction, during which it is generally 
 hard to say how much is real, how much imaginary. In the cir- 
 cumstances of his life however, as they are told by Homer, there is 
 scarcely anything impossible, or even improbable, allowing for poetical 
 en bellishment. 
 
 The story of Achilles, as we find it in Homer, is soon told. He 
 was the son of Peleus, king cf Phthia, and the adjoining parts of 
 Ttessaly, and of Thetis, a sea-goddess, daughter of Nereus. He was 
 educated by Phoenix, a refugee at his father's court. From his mother 
 he learned that his fate was to gain renown before Troy, and die 
 early ; or to enjoy a long but inglorious life. He chose the former 
 alternative, and joined the Grecian army, in which he was pre-eminent 
 in valour, strength, swiftness, and beauty. During the first nine years 
 of the Trojan war we have no minute detail of his actions ; in the 
 tenth year a quarrel broke out between him and the general-in-chief, 
 Agamemnon, which led him to withdraw entirely from the contest. 
 The Trojans, who before scarcely ventured without their walls, now 
 waged battle in the plain, till they reduced the Greeks to extreme 
 distress. The Greek council of war sent its most influential members 
 to soothe the anger of Achilles, but without effect. He allowed his 
 friend and companion Patroclus, however, clothed in the celestial arms 
 which Hephaestus (Vulcan) gave his father, Peleus, to lead the Myr- 
 midons, his followers, out to battle. Patrocluswas slain, and stripped 
 of these arms by Hector. Page and grief induced Achilles to return 
 to battle. Thetis procured from Hephaestus a fresh suit of armour 
 for her son, who at the close of a day of slaughter killed Hector, and 
 dragged him at his chariot-wheels to the camp. Here ends the history 
 of Achilles, so far as it is derived from Homer, except that we may 
 infer, from a passage in the last book of the ' Odyssey,' that he was 
 slain in battle under the walls of Troy. But the genuineness of the 
 last book of the 'Odyssey' has, on good grounds, been disputed by 
 some excellent ancient and modern critics. 
 
 By later authors a variety of fable is mixed up with this simple 
 narrative. Thetis is said to have dipped him, while an infant, in the 
 Styx, which rendered him invulnerable except in the heel, by which 
 she held him, and he was killed at last by a wound in the heel. The 
 centaur Chiron is made his tutor instead of Phoenix, and feeds him upon 
 the marrow of lions and other wild beasts, to improve his strength and 
 courage. From this singular instructor he learned music and a number 
 of sciences, even before the age of nine years; at which time Thetis, 
 anxious to prevent him going to Troy, removed him, disguised as a 
 girl, to the court of Lycomedes, king of the island Scyros. Here he 
 became the father of Neoptolemus, or Pyrrhus, by the king's daughter, 
 Deidamia, rather precociously ; for he had not been a year on the island 
 when Ulysses was sent by the confederate Greeks to seek him, in con- 
 sequence of an oracle which declared that Troy could not be taken 
 without the help of Achilles. Ulysses arrived at the island, discovered 
 him among the females of Lycomedes's household, and carried him 
 away to join the army. He was betrothed to Iphigenia, daughter of 
 Agamemnon. The manner of his death is variously told. Some make 
 him fall in battle; others say that he was treacherously slain in a 
 temple, on the occasion of his nuptials with Polyx- na, daughter of 
 Priam ; but it h generally agreed that he was killed by Paris, Apollo 
 directing the arrow. He was entombed on the promontory of Sigaeum, 
 and a mighty barrow raised over his remains, which still rivets the 
 attention of travellers ; though it must always remain doubtful to 
 whose memory this mound of earth was really raised. Here Alexander 
 of Macedon celebrated splendid games in honour of the hero whom he 
 affected to emulate. 
 
 ACHI'LLES TA'TIUS, a Greek astronomer, who lived probably in 
 the first half of the 4th century of our era, and wrote a treatise on 
 the sphere. There is still extant afragmentof Achilles Tatius, entitled 
 'An Introduction to the Phenomena of Aratus ;' it may be seen in the 
 'Uranologion ' of Petauus. Suidas confounds this Achilles Tatius 
 with another, called by him Achilles Statius, who wrote a Greek 
 romance, 'The History of Leucippe and Clitophon.' This Achilles 
 was a native of Alexandria, and must have been later than Heliodorus, 
 whose romance he imitated. He probably wrote near the close of the 
 5th century. His romance is in eight books, and is preferred by some 
 of the earlier critics to that of Heliodorus. This latter, however, 
 appears to us one of the most tedious stories that ever was written. 
 The Greek romance writers give us no vivid picture of their own timeB, 
 but a distorted image of earlier forms of society, without any of the 
 spirit of historic truth. (Schoell, Hist. Greek Lilt. ; Foreign Quarterly 
 Review, No. 9.) 
 
 ADAM. 80 
 
 ACOSTA, JOSEPH D', a Spanish writer of the 16th century. He 
 was born at Medina del Campo in Leon, about the year 1539 ; and, 
 before attaining the age of fourteen, entered the Society of the Jesuits, 
 to which his four elder brothers already belonged, fie was remark- 
 able for his rapid progress both in literature and science ; and on 
 finishing his course, he became professor of theology at Orana. In 
 1571 he went as a missionary to South America, and became eventually 
 provincial of his order at Peru. During his residence in South 
 America, till 1588, he wrote an account of that continent, which was 
 published at Seville, in 4to, in 1590, under the title of ' Historia 
 Natural y Moral de las Indias.' This work, which is highly esteemed 
 as an authority on the early condition of South America, has been 
 translated into French, Italian, German, Dutch, and English. There 
 is a Latin translation of the work in Part IX. of De Bry's ' Collec- 
 tiones Peregriuationum in Indiam.' Acosta, after his return to his 
 native country, became a great favourite of Philip II., and had suc- 
 cessively the dignities of Visitor of his order for Arragoh and 
 Andalusia, Superior of Valladolid, and Rector of the University of 
 Salamanca. He died February 15th, 1600. Besides the work we have 
 mentioned, he is the author of another on the same subject, published 
 in 1589 in Latiu, under the title of 'De Natura Novi Orbis Libri 
 Duo,' which was translated by himself into Spanish, and inserted in 
 his History. He is also the author of several theological treatises ; 
 and, among the rest, of a volume of sermons, in Latin. (Moreri ) 
 Biog. Univ.; Robertson, America; Biblioth. Scriptor. Soc. Jesu, a 
 Ribadeneira AUer/ambe, et Sotvello.) 
 
 ACTON, JOSEPH, the prime minister of the court of Naples for 
 several years, was the son of an Irish gentleman who practised medi- 
 cine at Besanjon, in France. He was born in 1737. He was originally 
 in the French naval service ; but subsequently obtained the command 
 of a frigate from Leopold, Duke of Tuscany. In an unsuccessful 
 expedition against Algiers, in 1774, in which the government of 
 Tuscany co-operated with that of Spain, Acton commanded the 
 Tuscan vessels ; and by his gallant conduct succeeded in saving 3000 
 or 4000 Spanish soldiers, who must otherwise have perished. His 
 good conduct here was the cause of his advancement. He was recom- 
 mended to the service of the King of Naples. His intriguing disposi- 
 tion secured him the favour of the King and Queen of Naples ; and 
 he wr.s successively minister of the navy, of war, of finance, and 
 ultimately became prime minister. In his policy he was constantly 
 opposed to the French party in Italy. Many of the persecutions for 
 political opinions, and the violations of justice, which occurred at 
 Naples subsequent to the period of the French invasion in 1799, are 
 ascribed to the power or the influence of Acton. He is said to have 
 died in obscurity iu Sicily, in 1808. 
 
 ADAIR, SIR ROBERT, was the son of Robert Adair, sergeant- 
 surgeon to George III., by a daughter of the second Earl of Albe- 
 marle, through whom he became connected with many families of 
 political influence. He was born in London on May 24, 1763, and 
 was educated at Westminster school, whence he proceeded to Gottin- 
 gen to complete his studies. On his return in 1780 he became 
 acquainted with Mr. Fox, took his side in politics, and wrote a pamphlet 
 or two, one of which, a letter to Mr. Burke, brought on him the 
 ridicule of Canning in the Anti-Jacobin. But in February 1806, 
 when Fox succeeded to power, he was sent as minister to Vienna, 
 where he conducted himself ably, and of which mission he published 
 a memoir in 1845; aud in 1808, Canning, when in office, though he 
 had rediculed his appointment to Vienna, selected him for a special 
 mission to the Porte, with Mr. Canning (now Lord Stratford de 
 Redcliffe) and Mr. Morier as assistants, where he negociated the 
 treaty of the Dardanelles, concluded in 1809, and of this mission 
 he has also published an account. On its successful termination he 
 was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. In April 
 1809 he was appointed ambassador at Constantinople, which office he 
 held till 1811. In July 1831 he was despatched by Earl Grey on a 
 special mission to Belgium, where Prince Leopold, recently elected to 
 the throne of that kingdom, was besieged in Liege by the Dutch 
 troops under William Prince of Orange. Sir Robert urged Prince 
 Leopold to fly ; but he declined, saying, that " flight ought not to be the 
 first act of his reign ; he was ready to fight, but would allow him to 
 negociatc," and Sir Robert, fastening a handkerchief to a ramrod, 
 sought the hostile army, and in an interview with Prince William, 
 succeeded in gaining his connivance for Leopold to withdraw to 
 Malines, whither he accompanied him. In this post he remained till 
 1835, when he retired with the rank of privy councillor, and a pen- 
 sion of 2000£. per annum. He died on October 3, 1855, after a short 
 illness. Sir Robert had represented Appleby in 1802, and Camelford 
 in 1806 and 1807. In 1805 he had married Angelique Gabrielle, 
 daughter of the Marquis of Hazincourt, but left no issue. Sir Robert 
 possessed a wide range of information, and his views with regard to 
 Russia have been remarkably confirmed by recent events. 
 
 ADAM, the first man, and progenitor of the human race, whom 
 God formed of the dust of the ground, on the sixth and last day of 
 the creation, as related in the first and second chapters of Genesis. 
 The whole of the authentic history of Adam is contained in the first 
 five chapters of that book. His loss of the state of innocence and 
 felicity which he originally enjoyed, is commonly known by the name 
 of 1 The Fall.' It was after this event, and his expulsion from (ha 
 
91 ADAM, ALEXANDER, LL.D. 
 
 Garden of Eden, or the terrestrial Paradise, that his eldest son Cain 
 was born. His second son was Abel, and his third Seth, or Sheth, 
 who was born when he was 130 years old. He is also stated to have 
 had other sons and daughters, whose names are not given. He died 
 at the age of 930, and therefore, according to the commonly received 
 computation, in the year 3074 before the birth of Christ. Many fables 
 have been invented, and idle questions raised, by the rabbinical writers 
 and others, respecting Adam, for which there is no warrant whatever 
 in Scripture. The reader who may be curious to see some of these 
 may consult the articles in Bayle, and in Calmet's ' Dictionary of the 
 Bible.' The word Adam means ' to be red,' and it is supposed that in 
 allusion to the signification of this Hebrew verb, the earth out of 
 which Adam was made was called ' Adaniah ; ' while others think that 
 the name ' Adam ' contains an allusion to the reddish colour of a 
 healthy person. See the use of tho word ' adorn ' iu the ' Song of 
 Solomon,' v. 10. According to Ludolf, 'Adamah,' in the Ethiopic, 
 means ' beautiful, elegant,' &c. ; denoting man to be the chief work 
 of God. In the New Testament the expressions " the last Adam," 
 "tho second man," are used to designate our Saviour, as the head of 
 the new creation, in the kingdom of heaven. 
 
 ADAM, ALEXANDER, LL.D., an eminent teacher of Latin, who 
 was born in June, 1741, at Coats of Burgie, in the parish of Rafford, 
 Morayshire, Scotland. Having acquired the ordinary knowledge of 
 Latin in the parish school, he proceedtd to Aberdeen, iu the hope of 
 obtaining one of the bursaries which are open for annual competition 
 at King's College. Disappointed in this expectation, he entered him- 
 self at the University of Edinburgh in the winter of 1758. His 
 difficulties and privations while attending college were very great; 
 but although sometimes reduced to such destitution as not to know 
 where to obtain a mouthful of bread, ho manfully persevered till he 
 gained the reputation of being one of the best scholars in the Uni- 
 versity. His merits were at length rewarded by his appointment, in 
 1761, to the office of one of the teachers in Watson's Hospital, an 
 institution in Edinburgh for the education and support of the sons of 
 decayed burgesses. In 1767 he was chosen assistant to the Hector of 
 the High School, the chief classical seminary of the city. In 1771, 
 on the death of the Rector, Adam was elected by the magistrates as 
 his successor ; aud in this honourable post he remained throughout 
 the rest of his life. The first years of his rectorship however were 
 somewhat stormy. In 1772 he published a little work entitled, 'The 
 Principles of Latin and English Grammar,' and introduced it into the 
 school as a substitute for ' Ruddiman's Grammar.' The four under- 
 masters resisted this innovation, and, after repeated applications to 
 the magistrates, as patrons of the school, obtained, iu 1736, a prohibi- 
 tion against the Rector's book. It has nevertheless gone through 
 several editions, and has been to some extent used in the other schools 
 of Scotland. Dr. Adam also published the following works : — In 
 1791 a volume entitled 'Roman Antiquities,' which has gone through 
 several editions, and been translated into German, French, and Italian ; 
 in 1794, a ' Summary of Geography aud History,' also several times 
 reprinted; in 1800, a Dictionary of Classical Biography ; and, in 1805, 
 a Latin Dictionary, under the title of ' Lexicon Linguae Latiuae Com- 
 peudiarium,' being an abridgment of a larger work on which he had 
 been long engaged. A second edition of this lust has been published 
 since the author's death, with very considerable alterations, both in 
 the way of addition and of curtailment. Both this dictionary and 
 the ' Roman Antiquities ' are much used in the schools of Scotland. 
 No person filling a public situation was more universally respected 
 and esteemed in Scotland than Dr. Adam in his latter days. His 
 character was one of great manliness ; so much so, as to make him 
 sometimes perhaps indiscreetly bold in the expression of whatever he 
 felt. His political opinions were of a strougly liberal complexion; 
 and he has been accused of not scrupling sometimes to give them 
 vent with considerable emphasis in the presence of his class. But 
 such was the general regard felt for him, that this charge, which, 
 especially at the time when it was made, would have seriously injured 
 almost any other schoolmaster, scarcely affected his influence or use- 
 fulness. He was carried off by apoplexy on the 18th of December, 1809, 
 iu his sixty-ninth year, and was honoured by his fellow-citizens with 
 a public funeral. A memoir of his life was published in 8vo, in 1810. 
 
 Of the four works just enumerated, the most valuable and the best 
 known is the treatise on Roman Antiquities. Few books in so small 
 a compass contain so large a mass of useful information ; and the 
 matter, multifarious as it is, is in general well digested and arranged. 
 The chief defect, perhaps, and it is one which pervades many parts of 
 the work, is an inattention to the effects of time in changing the 
 customs of the Romans. Not perceiving how the meaning of terms 
 varied in the different ages, he has often so arranged the passages 
 extracted by him from Latin authors on this subject, as entirely to 
 mislead both himself and his reader. Some corrections and many 
 additions are required in the section on the Roman year, particularly 
 for the periods prior to the J ulian correction. No little caution should 
 be observed in reading the remarks on Roman money, a subject of 
 especial difficulty, iu which it is often more prudent to be satisfied 
 with ignorance, than to adopt the ordinary interpretations. The 
 value and names of the Roman coins were constantly changing, and 
 this not consistently. Besides, the numerical notation employed by 
 the Romans is particularly liable to corruption in the manuscripts ; 
 
 ADAM, ROBERT. 82 
 
 and, even where the text is not corrupted, the interpretation is un- 
 certain. With all these drawbacks, the work is of great Value to 
 all who read the history or the literature of Rome, and does great 
 credit to Dr. Adam. It ought not to detract from his reputation 
 that he has not anticipated the important discoveries made by the 
 Germans since he wrote. 
 
 The treatise on classical biography is intended chiefly for the illus- 
 tration of Roman history. It deserves a much more extensive circu- 
 lation than we believe it possesses in England. We may say the same 
 of Dr. Adam's Latin dictionary, notwithstanding its inconvenient 
 arrangement, which often neglects the alphabetical order to bring 
 together words etymologicallv connected. The summary of history 
 aud geography, published by Dr. Ada n, has in parts great merit, but 
 it aims at much more than can bo fairly executed within the limits. 
 We need only say that it professes to give, — 1st, A summary of all 
 history, ancient and modern, Grecian, Roman, Persian, English, French, 
 German, Indian, American, &c. &e., with the manners and customs of 
 these nations; 2ndly, the mythology of the Greeks; 3rdly, the 
 geography of all ages and all countries, not excluding even the local 
 situations of remarkable cities; 4thly, an account of the progress of 
 astronomy and geography, from tho earliest periods to the present 
 time, with a brief account of the planetary system. Not satisfied 
 with all this, the publishers have added an extensive index of geography, 
 and 13 maps of little value. When we look at all that Dr. Adam 
 did, we can fairly say, that no writer in the British Islauds has ever 
 done more to assist the young student of Latin, or, what is perhaps 
 still more important, to connect that study with the attainment of 
 general knowledge. 
 
 ADAM, JAMES, an architect, who is chiefly known as the partner 
 and associate of his brother Robert, the subject of the following 
 article. He died in 1794. 
 
 ADAM, ROBERT, was born at Kirkaldy, in Fifeshire, accordiug to 
 some authorities, and, accordiug to others, at Edinburgh, in the year 
 1728, and was the son of William Adam, Esq., of Maryburgh, near 
 Kirkaldy, who is said to have furnished the designs for Hopetouu 
 House aud the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh ; but whether he was 
 himself professionally an architect or not does not appear. Robert 
 received his literary education at the University of Edinburgh ; and, 
 from his father, William Adam, it seems most likely that he derived 
 instruction in the principles and practice of his future profession. 
 
 When he was in his 26th year Mr. R. Adam went to Italy, and 
 remained there several years. His contemporaries, James Stuart and 
 Nicholas Revett, were, at the time of Adam's residence in Italy, en- 
 gaged in exploring, and preparing for publication, the architectural 
 remains of Athens ; but so little was Greciau architecture known and 
 appreciated, that he went, instead, to Spalatro in Dalmatia, to measure 
 aud delineate the ruins of the palace of Diocletian there, a structure 
 indicating alike the decline of civilisation and the progress of bar- 
 barism. In this tour he was accompanied by Clerisseau, a French 
 architect, whose name is connected with a work on the remains of 
 a Romau temple at Niames, iu Languedoc. Mr. Adam returned from 
 the continent about the year 1762, and settled in London, and ghortly 
 after published there, in a large folio volume, engraved representations 
 aud descriptions, with attempted restorations, of the Dalmatian palace. 
 
 About t!/e same time, 1763-4, Mr. R. Adam was appointed architect 
 to the kiug. In the course of a very few years he designed, and, in 
 conjunction with his brother James, executed a great many public 
 and private buildings in England and in Scotland. In 1773 the 
 brothers commenced the publication of their works, in large folio 
 engravings, with letter-press descriptions and critical and explanatory 
 notes, iu numbers, which were continued at intervals down to 1778. 
 The principal designs included in these are, the screen fronting the 
 high road, and the extensive internal alterations of Sion House, a seat 
 of the Duke of Northumberland, near Brentford in Middlesex; Lord 
 Mansfield's mansion at Caen-Wood, or Kenwood, also in Middlesex; 
 Luton House, iu Bedfordshire, erected for Lord Bute; the screen to 
 the Admiralty Office, London; the Register Office, Edinburgh; Shel- 
 burne House, now Lansdowne House, Berkeley-square, London ; the 
 parish church of Mistley in Essex, &c. &c. At a later period the Messrs. 
 Adam designed the Infirmary at Glasgow, and some extensive new 
 buildings in the University of Edinburgh, though their practice, after 
 the year 1780, lay principally in London, where a great many of their 
 productions still exist, and are easily recognised by any one accustomed 
 to discriminate architectural design. Portland, Stratford, and Hamil- 
 ton Places, the south and east sides of Fitzroy-square, and the build- 
 ings of the Adelphi, are the most extensive of their works. Their 
 interest in, and connection with, this last-mentioned expensive under- 
 taking, is intimated by the name Adelphi, which is the Greek term 
 for ' brothers.' The Messrs. Adam were among the first, if they were 
 not themselves the very first, to make use in London of a stucco in 
 imitation of stone, for external architectural decorations. 
 
 The style of architecture introduced by the Messrs. Adam was 
 peculiar to themselves, and very faulty; but there is nevertheless 
 an air of prettiness, and some good taste in it ; and the credit may 
 certainly be claimed for its authors of having done much to improve 
 the street architecture of London, for which species of composition 
 their style was better adapted than for detached and insulated 
 structures. 
 
S3 ADAM. 
 
 Mr. R. Adam did not retain the appointment of architect to the 
 king more than four or five years, for he resigned it on being returned 
 to parliament for the county of Kinross in 1768. This latter circum- 
 stance however does not appear to have interrupted his professional 
 avocations, for we find that he continued to be actively engaged in 
 busiuess down to the period of his death, which took place in March 
 1792. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, in the south transept of 
 which is a tablet to his memory. 
 
 As an architect Mr. Adam displayed an original and independent 
 mind ; for it required in his day no small degree both of originality 
 and independence to break through the trammels which had been 
 imposed upon architecture. This Adam did nevertheless, ffnd though 
 the result was that he became a mannerist, after a very peculiar and 
 not very elevated or classical style of his own, the eifect on English 
 architecture was on the whole good. With Mr. Adam we believe ori- 
 ginated the idea of giving to a number of unimportant private edifices 
 the appearance of one imposing structure, by external architectural 
 arrangements; and he certainly has the credit of having carried this 
 principle extensively into effect in several of the instances we have 
 mentioned. 
 
 ADAM (Sculptors). There were three brothers of this name, who 
 all enjoyed some reputation as sculptors in France in the early part 
 of the last century. They were the sons of a sculptor named Jacob- 
 Sigisbert Adam, who lived at Nancy. The eldest, Lambert Sigisbert, 
 was born there in 1700, and made his first appearance at Paris in 
 1719. After remaining in that city for four years, he gained the first 
 prize in the Academy, and proceeded to Rome on a pension allowed 
 him by the king. Here he spent about ten years, and among other 
 works furnished the design which was adopted by Clement XII., one 
 of sixteen which were presented for the intended fountain of Trevi. 
 The offers of the French government then induced him to return to 
 Paris. On the 25th May 1737 he was admitted a member of the 
 Academy, and he was afterwards appointed professor in that institu- 
 tion. The two best known of this sculptor's productions are — a group 
 of Neptune and Amphitrite, which he executed for the basin of Nep- 
 tune at Versaille, and on which he spent five years; and a figure of 
 St. Jerome, originally intended for the Hospital des Iuvalides, but now 
 placed in the church of St. Roch at Paris. They are fair specimens 
 of the French school of that age, which however was one of the 
 least brilliant periods in the history of modern art. Adam published 
 in 1754 a work entitled ' Recueil de Sculptures Antiques Qrecques et 
 Romaines.' He died in 1759. Nicolas Sebastian, the next brother, 
 was born in 1705. He came to Paris at the age of 18, and went to 
 Rome in 1726, where, two years after, he obtained one of the prizes 
 at the Academy of San Luca. Having remained there for nine years, 
 he returned to Paris; and after some time was also, like his elder 
 brother, received into the Academy. Among the designs which he 
 produced was one for the Mausoleum of the Cardinal de Fleury. His 
 two principal works were a tomb for the wife of King Stanislaus of 
 Poland, and his Prometheus chained to the Rock (which has been 
 commonly assigned by mistake to his elder brother). For the latter 
 work he had an offer from the King of Prussia of 30,000 francs ; but 
 hi declined accepting it, on the ground that the sculpture belonged to 
 his own sovereign, for whom it had been at first intended. He died 
 in 1778. The third brother, Francois-Gaspard, was born in 1710. 
 He made his way, like his elder brother, to Rome, and also on his 
 return from Italy fixed his residence in Paris. He worked for some 
 years at Berlin, in the service of the King of Prussia, and died at 
 Paris in 1795. (Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 ADAMS, JOHN, a distinguished American statesman. He was 
 born in the town of Braintree, near Boston, in Massachusetts, on the 
 19th October 1735, of a family which had come from England at the 
 first settlement of the colony. At the usual age he was sent to Har- 
 vard College, in the neighbouring town of Cambridge ; after leaving 
 which, he proceeded to study the law, and was in due time called to 
 the bar. He soon raised himself in the profession which he had thus 
 chosen to great reputation and extensive practice. In 1765, when the 
 first opposition of the people of America was excited by the Stamp 
 Act, Mr. Adams took an active part in those measures of constitutional 
 opposition which eventually forced the repeal of that obnoxious statute. 
 An offer of the lucrative office of Advocate-General in the Court of 
 Admiralty, made to him the following year by the Crown, with the 
 view of detaching hirn from the popular cause, was instantly rejected. 
 He was one of the select men, or state-representatives, deputed by 
 the several towns of the province, who in 1770 met in convention at 
 BostoD, on the announcement of the intention of the British govern- 
 ment to station a military force in that town, in order to control the 
 populace, exasperated by the new Act imposing duties on glass, paper, 
 tea, 4c, which had been passed in 1767, and by the other measures 
 which indicated a determination in the mother-country to maintain 
 at least the principle of her late aggression. Soon after this however 
 Mr. Adams gave a proof both of his intrepidity and of the modera- 
 tion which was associated with his zeal, by undertaking the defence 
 of Captain Preston and his men, who, on the 5th of March 1770 had 
 killed several of the people of Boston in a riot — a transaction which 
 used to pass under the name of the Boston massacre. He delivered a 
 ▼ery powerful speech on this occasion, when the jury acquitted all 
 the prisoners of murder, and only found two of them guilty of man- 
 
 BIOO. Div. VOL. I. 
 
 ADAMS, JOHN. 34 
 
 slaughter. To the honour of his countrymen, the part he had thus 
 taken did not diminish his popularity or influence; and he continued, 
 during the remaining first years of the struggle, to exert himself con« 
 spicuously in the front rank of the friends and supporters of the 
 colonial cause. In 1773, and again in 1774, he was returned by tho 
 House of Assembly a member of the Council of the State ; but ou 
 both occasions the governor, General Gage, put his negative ou the 
 nomination. The latter year however he was elected one of the four 
 representatives from the province of Massachusetts Bay to the General 
 Congrfcss, which met at Philadelphia on the 26th of October, and 
 which, amoDg other proceedings, entered into a resolution to suspend 
 the importation of British goods ; and he was also a member of the 
 second assembly of the same nature, held some time after, which took 
 measures to enrol the people in an armed national militia. In 1775 
 he was offered the appointment of Chief Justice of his State ; but 
 this he declined, feeling that he could better serve his country iu 
 another sphere. It had already become evident to many indeed that 
 the contest with Great Britain must finally be decided by the sword; 
 and Adams seems to have been one of the first who adopted this con- 
 viction. He was accordingly one of the chief promoters of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, passed on the memorable 4th of July 1776. 
 The motion was made by Mr. Lee of Virginia, and seconded by Mr. 
 Adams ; who, along with Mr. Jefferson, was appointed the sub-com- 
 mittee to prepare the declaration. It was actually drawn up by Mr. 
 Jefferson. In November 1777 Mr. Adams proceeded to Paris as a 
 Commissioner from the United States to that court ; and after remain- 
 ing for a short time in France returned to America, when he was 
 elected a Member of the Convention for preparing a new constitution 
 for Massachusetts. In 1780 he was sent by the United States as their 
 ambassador to Holland; from which country, about the end of 1782, 
 he proceeded to France, to co-operate with Dr. Franklin and his brother 
 commissioners in the negociations for peace with the mother country. 
 In 1785 he was appointed the first ambassador from the United States 
 to Great Britain; and he had his first audience with his Majesty in 
 that character on the 2d of June. He remained in England till 
 October 1787. In 1789, when Washington was elected President of 
 the Union, Mr. Adams was elected Vice-President, and he was re- 
 elected to the same office iu 1793. In 1797, on the retirement of 
 Washington, he was chosen President; but he failed to be re-elected 
 on the expiration of his first term of four years, his competitor, Mr. 
 Jefferson, who had also been opposed to him on the former occasion, 
 having a majority of one vote. The general tone of the policy of 
 Adams had been opposed to that of the democratic party, which was 
 represented by Jefferson; but he does not appear to have given com- 
 plete satisfaction to the other great party whose leading principles he 
 espoused. On failing in being re-elected President, he retired from 
 public affairs to the quiet of his country residence at Quincy ; 
 declining, although nominated, to stand candidate at the next annual 
 election for the governorship of Massachusetts. The rest of his life 
 he spent in retirement. For some years before his death his health 
 had become extremely feeble, and at last little more ivmained of the 
 once active and eloquent statesman than the mere breath of life. In 
 this state he was when the morning arrived of the 4th of July, 1826, 
 the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Awakened 
 from sleep by the ringing of bells and other rejoicings of that grand 
 jubilee, the venerable patriot was asked if he knew the meaning of 
 what he heard. "Oh, yes," he replied, the glow of old times seeming 
 to return to him for a moment, " It is the glorious 4th of July ! — 
 God bless it — God bless you all ! " Some time after he said, — " It is 
 a great and glorious day, — adding, after a pause apparently of deep 
 thought, "Jefferson yet survives." These were the last words he was 
 heard to utter. About noon he became alarmingly ill, and at six iu 
 the evening he expired. The same day also terminated the career of 
 Jefferson, his fellow-labourer in laying the foundations of the inde- 
 pendence of their common country, and afterwards his successful 
 rival. ' Except for a short time, however, these two distinguished men 
 were friends throughout life. Mr. Adams was the author of a work 
 first printed in 3 vols. 8vo., in 1787, while he was in this country, 
 under the title of ' A Defence of the Constitution and Government of 
 the United States,' but afterwards remodelled and reprinted in 17S4, 
 with the new title of a ' History of the Principal Republics of the 
 World.' It is designed to serve, by an ample induction from history, 
 as a vindication of the federal principles of the American Constitu- 
 tion, an attachment to which, indeed, has always been considered the 
 distinctive characteristic of this statesman and his party. 
 
 ADAMS, JOHN, sometimes called ' the Patriarch of Pitcaim's 
 Island.' When H.M.S. 'Bounty' was seized by a part of her crew, 
 in April, 1789, John Adams was one of the mutineers. He had not 
 been previously aware of the intentions of the ringleader, Christian, 
 and was in his hammock when the mutiny broke out, where he 
 rcmaiued until the distribution of arms among the men, when he 
 joined the rest, and assisted in keeping watch over the officers on 
 deck, while Captain Bligh was secured below. [Bligh.] After Bligh 
 and those who adhered to him had been set adrift in an open boat, 
 the ci y was raised " Huzza for Otahcite ! " and the ' Bounty ' shaped 
 her course accordingly. Provisions having been obtained there, the 
 mutineers sailed for the island of Toobooai, on which they intended 
 to settle ; but the hostility of the natives preventing this, they 
 
 D 
 
ADAMS, JOHN*. 
 
 ADAMS, SAMUEL. 
 
 returned to Otaheite. Most of the men resolved to remain at that 
 place, but Christian foreseeing the danger, in case Bligh should reach 
 Europe, persevered in the plan of founding a colony in some of the 
 numerous islands of tho South Seas, out of the usual track of 
 voyagers. Eight of his companions, among whom was Adams, joined 
 with him, and the rest offering no objection to their taking the 
 vessel, they set sail iu the ' Bounty,' carrying with them six male 
 and ten female natives of Otaheitc. Arriving at l'itcairn's Island, 
 which is in 25° 3' 37" N. lat., 130" 8' 9" W. long., they found a 
 fruitful soil, plenty of wood and water, and mountain fastnesses capa- 
 ble of defence against any numbers; and here they resolved to fix 
 their abode. They landed their stores, and on the 23rd Jannaiy, 
 3 790, set fire to the 'Bounty,' and thus cut off all communication 
 with the world : a village was built, and the whole land of the island 
 was distributed among the white men. Tho Otalieitans were treated 
 as slaves. Dissension soon broke out among them, which commenced 
 iu consequence of the wife of one of the Otaheitans being seized by a 
 white man, whose own wife had died. This led to a plot among the 
 Otaheitans for the destruction of their masters, wh'ch was discovered 
 and foiled, and two of tho Otaheitans were killed. Tho oppression 
 of the whites continued to be so galling, that a second attempt to 
 destroy them was made, which resulted iu the death of Christian 
 and four of his companions. On this occadon Adams was shot 
 through tho body, and otherwise desperately wounded, but he escaped 
 to the mountains, and only returned upon a promise of the Otaheitans 
 to spare his life. He soon recovered of his wounds. The men of 
 the two races were now equal in .number, but the whites, by taking 
 advantage of quarrels among the Otaheitans, and by treachery, suc- 
 ceeded at length in killing the Otaheitans, the last two being butchered 
 iu cold blood by Adams and anothi r white man, on the 3rd of October, 
 1793. Even after this, the death of the white men was repeatedly 
 plotted by the Otaheitan women, but without effect. During 1 798, one 
 of the men discovered a method of distilling spirit from a root, which 
 gave rise to continual drunkenness, and was the cause of his own 
 death. Shortly after, one of the three remaining original settlers 
 ha\ ing attempted the lives of the other two, they put him to death. 
 
 The two survivors, Adams and Young, disgusted at the scenes which 
 they had witnessed, and reflecting deeply on their situation, resolved 
 to effect a thorough change. During Christian's lifetime divine Bervice 
 had been performed only once; they now determined to introduce 
 daily morning and evening prayers, with divine service every Sunday, 
 and to train up the children in habits of piety and virtue. Young, 
 who had been an officer on board the 'Bounty,' was very useful in the 
 execution of this scheme, but he died one year after the plan was 
 commenced. John Adams felt the death of his companion deeply, 
 "but it only confirmed him in his resolution. There were now nineteen 
 children on the island, many of them between eight and nine years of 
 age. His exertions were attended with great success ; the Otaheitan 
 women displayed an unexpected docility in receiving the doctrines of 
 Christianity, and the children were so ardent in the pursuit of scrip- 
 tural knowledge, that he had soon no further trouble than to answer 
 their questions. They grew up in habits of strict morality, and became, 
 under the guidance of Adams, a model of a well-regulated society. 
 
 In 1 SOS the American whale-ship ' Topaz' accidentally touched at 
 ritcairn's Island ; but the accounts which the captain, Folgier, gave 
 of this community attracted little attention, until in 1814 the British 
 frigates 'Briton' and 'Tagus' also visited the island. In an interview 
 with the captains, Adams expressed a wish to be taken to England, in 
 order, as he expressed it, to see his native land once more, although he 
 felt convinced he should be hanged for his share in the mutiny ; and 
 it was only on seeing the pain which his determination caused, espe- 
 cially to his daughter, that he gave up the design. In December, 
 1825, Captain Beechey, iu the ' Blossom,' anchored at Pitcairn's Island, 
 where he remained sixteen days, most of which he passed on shore 
 with Adams. The account of Adams and his colony in the narrative 
 of Bcechey's voyage is the most complete that we possessed till the 
 appearance of Mr. Murray's interesting little volume. A long grace 
 was said before and after every meal by John Buffet, a seafaring man, 
 who had recently settled on the island, and the utmost care was 
 taken that not even a bit of bread should be eaten without prayer. 
 On Sunday divine service was performed five times, the prayers on 
 each occasion being exceedingly long, and the exhortation and hymns 
 in proportion. At this time Buffet acted as a sort of chaplain, and 
 when Captain Beechey attended, read the sermon three times over, to 
 be certain of making an impression ; but Adams himself read prayers, 
 which were selected from the English Ritual, and included all the 
 occasional prayers, whether appropriate or not. Captain Beechey 
 describes the attention of the congregation as most exemplary ; and 
 says that even the smallest children showed the greatest seriousness. 
 At sunset every evening service was also performed, and hymns sung, 
 and again at a later hour. Marriage was strictly regulated ; the cere- 
 mony was performed by Adams, who had with one ring united all 
 the couples then on the island. His own conscience was so troubled 
 on this point, that he requested Captaiu Beechey to read the service to 
 him and the Otaheitan woman with whom he lived, and who was now 
 old and bedridden, which was done to his great satisfaction, and the 
 marriage duly registered by Buffet. 
 
 The islanders were exceedingly tall, stroDg, and muscular; the women 
 
 scarcely less so than the men, though feminine in appearance, and 
 with considerable pretensions to beauty. They were fully occupied 
 in attending to their crops of yams and taro-root, on which they 
 chiefly subsisted, in fishing, repairing their houses, nets, &c, andi n 
 their religious duties. Adams spent several days on board the 
 ' Blossom,' the wind not serving for his return to land ; and among 
 his countrymen he displayed his cheerfulness without restraint, joining 
 with great spirit in all the songs and dances of the forecastle. He 
 still retained the habits of a man-of-war's-man, stroking down his bald 
 forehead whenever addressed by an officer, and showing much embar- 
 rassment when spoken to familiarly by those whom he had of old been 
 accustomed to consider so much above him. 
 
 On leaving the island, presents of useful articles were made to all 
 the inhabitants, and Captaiu Beechey became the bearer of a request 
 from Adams to the British government to give its aid in removing 
 them to some larger island, as the population, then amounting to CO, 
 had already begun to press on the means of subsistence. The propo- 
 sition was favourably considered ; but before any determination could 
 be como to John Adams died, in March 1829, at the age of 69. An 
 Englishman named Nobbs, who had recently come to the island, 
 became his successor, and is now a regularly ordained minister. Iu 
 1851 the population amounted to 200, nearly all descendants of the 
 original settlers, and all speaking and reading English. 
 
 There is a characteristic portrait of Adams in Becchey's 'Voyage,' 
 with a fac simile of his hand-writing, as attached to his own narrative 
 of the mutiny and its consequences. The name John Adams, by 
 which he is universally known, was an assumed one; his real name 
 was Alexander Smith. The change was made after Captain Folgier 
 had touched at the islaud, in order probably to avoid recognition, 
 although he seems never to have concealed his share iu the mutiny. 
 The incidents of his life have been frequently made the subject of 
 dramatic representation. The subsequent history and present con- 
 dition of the island are noticed in the article Pitcairn's Island, in the 
 Geoo. Div. Eng. Cvc. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge ; Rev. E. Murray, Pitcairn, Loudon, 1853.) 
 
 •ADAMS, JOHN COUCH, ono ot the discoverers of the planet 
 Neptune, was born at Laneast, on the Bodmin Moor*, Cornwall, 
 about 181 7. He entered at St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1839, 
 where he soon distinguished himself iu those studies which have since 
 placed him iu the foremost rank of modern astronomers. In July, 
 1841, he formed a design of investigating the irregularities in the 
 motion of Uranus, and commenced his task, after taking his degree, 
 iu 1843. In September of 1845, and 1846, he communicated the 
 results of his calculations to the astronomer royal, and in November 
 of the latter year a paper to the Astronomical Society, entitled 'An 
 Explanation of the Observed Irregularities in the motion of Uranus,' 
 &c, in which the existence of the supposed remoter planet (Neptune) 
 was mathematically demonstrated. But as Le Verrier's investigation 
 of the same subject was first made public, he is regarded as the first 
 discoverer. There is however no doubt that each one made his 
 discovery perfectly iguoraut of what the other was doing. 
 
 Other valuable papers by Adams are printed in the 'Mpmoirsof 
 the Astronomical Society.' In 1853 he sent to the Royal Society a 
 paper ' On the Secular Variation of the Moon's Mean Motion,' in 
 which a question left "essentially incomplete" by Laplace is rectifie /. 
 This paper appears in the ' Philosophical Transactions.' 
 
 Iu November, 1845, Adams was elected a Fellow of the Astrono- 
 mical Society, was made Vice-President in 1848, and President in 
 1851. In 1 8 J 8 the Royal Society gave him their highest scientific 
 award — the Copley medal. He was elected a Fellow of that society iu 
 1849, and was named of the Council the same year. In 1860 ho *\as 
 appointed Lowndes' Professor of Astronomy at Cambridge. 
 
 ADAMS, JOHN QUIXCY, the eldest son of John Adams, the 
 second President of the United States, was born in Massachusetts, 
 June 11, 1767. Some of his early years were spent iu Europe, whither 
 he accompanied his father. Iu 1801 and 1802 he was minister pleni- 
 potentiary from the United States to Berlin, and during this time he 
 travelled through Silesia, which country, its manufactures, and more 
 particularly its educational establishments, were described by him in 
 a series of letters addressed to his brother at Philadelphia. These 
 letters, which were originally published in a journal called ' The 
 Portfolio,' were collected in a volume aud published in 1804. During 
 the presidency of Jefferson, Adams was recalled fr om his embassy at 
 Berlin. Upon hi3 return he became a professor iu Harvard College, 
 and was subsequently elected a deputy to Congress for Massachusetts. 
 Having been previously attached to the federalist party, he now allied 
 himself to the democratic party. He was next charged with a 
 mission to Russia, and in 1814 joined the Congress at Vienna as 
 plenipotentiary of the United States. In 1815 he was ambassador at 
 the Court of St. James's. In 1817 he became secretary of state for 
 the interior; and in 1825 he succeeded Mr. Monroe as President of 
 the Union. He was not however re-elected, his place being supplied 
 by General Jackson. In 1830 he was elected deputy to Congress, 
 where he distinguished himself until his death by hi3 advocacy of the 
 abolition of slavery. He died at Washington, February 17, 1848. 
 
 ADAMS, SAMUEL, a conspicuous actor in the American revolution. 
 He was born at Boston on the 27th of September, 1722, and received 
 
AD ANSON, MICHAEL. 
 
 his education at Harvard College. On tlie first outbreaking in his 
 native province of the irritation and disturbances occasioned by the 
 Stamp Act in 1765, Adams threw himself with zeal and determination 
 on the popular side. From that moment the forwarding and main- 
 taining the cause of his country's independence became the business 
 of his life. His name appears subscribed to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence in 1776. After the conclusion of the war he was nominated 
 a member of the convention for settling the constitution of Massachu- 
 setts ; and he afterwards occupied a seat iu the senate of that state, 
 and presided over it for some years. In 1789 he was elected to the 
 office of lieutenant-governor, and in 1791 to that of governor, to which 
 he was re-elected annually till 1797, wheu he retired from public life. 
 He died at Boston on the 2ud of October, 1803. Samuel Adams was 
 one of the firmest and most active patriots of the revolution, and 
 powerfully contributed to the happy termination of the great cause 
 to which he devoted his life. But he was not a politician of very 
 enlarged views ; and useful as he proved iu the subordinate sphere in 
 which he acted, there can be little doubt, from many parts of his 
 conduct, that the national struggle would hardly have been brought 
 to the successful issue with which it was eventually crowned, if it had 
 not been guided by wiser heads than his. He was actuated iu the 
 whole course of hi3 political career almost exclusively by one idea or 
 feeling — jealousy of delegated power, however guarded. " Samuel 
 Adams," says one of his friends and admirers, " would have the state 
 of Massachusetts govern the Union, the town of Boston govern 
 Massachusetts, and that he should govern the town of Boston, and 
 then the whole would uot be intentionally ill-governed." 
 
 ADANSON, MICHAEL, a French naturalist of high reputation, 
 was born at Aix in Provence, April 7, 1727. He was of Scotch 
 extraction, but his family had become exiles in consequence of the 
 troubles that distracted Scotland in the early part of the 18 th century. 
 At a very early age he was placed in the University of Paris, under 
 the care of the celebrated Reaumur and of Bernard de Jussieu ; and 
 it is supposed that from these preceptors he imbibed that love of the 
 study of natural history by which he afterwards became distinguished 
 in so eminent a degree. His successes iu carrying off the academical 
 prizes from his competitors soon attracted attention, and Needham, 
 the well-known microscopic observer, having upon one occasion been 
 witness to hi3 triumph, presented him with a microscope, accom- 
 panied, it is said, by these prophetic words — " Young man, you have 
 studied books enough ; your future path will be among the works of 
 nature, not of man." At this time great originality of thought and a 
 strong bias for systematic arrangement had already begun to develop 
 itself. Emulous of the reputation of Linnteus, which had already 
 found its way among the French, young Adanson is said, when only 
 14, to have sketched out not leas than four methods of classifying 
 plants. Hi3 friends had destined him for the church, but a feeling 
 that his pursuits, and perhaps his temper, were but ill adapted to the 
 duties of the priesthood, induced him to resolve upon seeking some 
 other employment, in case hi3 slender patrimony should prove 
 insufficient for his wants. 
 
 The genius of Adanson was much too active to allow him to remain 
 in the walks of quiet life. An opportunity occurring of visiting the 
 country whence ivory, and gums, and frankincense were procured, he 
 eagerly embraced the occasion, although at the expense of a consider- 
 able portion of his fortune. At that time the natural history of 
 Africa was almost unknown, except from such of its commercial 
 products as were brought to Europe. In 1748 he embarked for 
 Senegal, being then 21. Five years were spent by him in this colony, 
 during which time he succeeded in forming considerable collections 
 in every branch of natural history. Not only were botany and 
 zoology the objects of his attention, but he amassed a large store of 
 meteorological observations ; he made himself acquainted with the 
 language of the native tribes, and carefully preserved their respective 
 vocabularies ; he traced the river Senegal to a considerable distance in 
 the interior, formed charts of the country, aud finally returned to 
 Paris in 1753, rich in knowledge, but impoverished in worldly means. 
 His ' Natural History of Senegal,' published at Paris four years after- 
 wards, is a mass of original views, and of valuable practical informa- 
 tion. Among other things, it contained the first attempt upon record 
 of classifying shells according to the animate they contain, instead of 
 their external forms alone. The opinions that Adanson had early held 
 of the insufficiency of the classifications in natural history at that time 
 received in Europe, had become confirmed by his discoveries in Africa. 
 He saw that however easy and complete the systems of Linnjeus and 
 Tournefort might seem to those acquainted with the European Flora 
 only, they were both essentially defective when applied to vegetation 
 in a more extended manner. He perceived that the sexual system of 
 Linnaeus was founded upon incomplete and partial views. To the 
 method of Tournefort the objections appeared fewer, aud accordingly 
 he determined to attempt a classification of hi3 own, of which that of 
 Tournefort might serve as the basis. This appeared in 1763, in two 
 volumes 8vo, under the name of ' Families of Plants.' Iu this work 
 Adanson particularly insisted upon the indispensable necessity of a 
 •yittern being so far in accordance with nature, that all those objects 
 which most resemble each other may be classed together; he demon- 
 •trated that, to effect this, it is absolutely necessary for a system to be 
 founded upon » consideration of all the parts of the objects which it 
 
 ADDISON, JOSEPH. 3d 
 
 comprehend*, aud that it cannot bo confined to differences in the 
 nature of a few organs only ; the artificial system of Linnceus he for 
 that reason most justly considered inferior to the method of Tourne- 
 fort. In many respects this work of Adauson's deserves the eu'.ogiura 
 passed upon it by one of his historians, who pronounces it a production 
 not more brilliant than profound. Unfortuuately for its author, and 
 still more for science, his views were more advanced than those of his 
 contemporaries; his perceptions of botanical truths, however just, 
 were of a nature not to be valued by those who had less experience 
 or acuteness than himself; he also attempted to introduce a barbarous 
 nomenclature, which, it must be confessed, was at variance with com- 
 mon sense ; and what was worse than all, he had unceremoniously 
 rejected that sj stem of Liunreus which had become tho basis of the 
 botanical creed of almost all Europe. For these reasons, notwith- 
 standing the high character of Adanson's ' Familiea of Plants,' they 
 have scarcely had any circulation beyond France ; and when, in 1789, 
 the ' Genera Plantarum * of Jnssieu made its appearance, the utility 
 of his work generally ceased. 
 
 From this period we have little to record concerning the scientific 
 career of Adanson. A few miscellaneous papers, a chimerical project 
 of a vast ' Encyclopaedia of Natural History' to contain 40,000 figures, 
 and a portion of the early part of the botanical division of the ' Sup- 
 plement to the French Encyclopedia,' are all that he has executed. 
 Up to the period of the French revolution, he appears to have been 
 chiefly occupied in amassing collections for the stupendous work he 
 had in contemplation, and in making experiments upon vegetable 
 physiology. That political catastrophe overwhelmed him in the ruin 
 it brought for a time upon his country; the little that remained of his 
 fortune was annihilated ; he had the mortification to see his plantations 
 of mulberry-trees, which had been long the object of his simple care, 
 destroyed by a ferocious rabble ; and he fell into so lamentable a state 
 of destitution, that wheu, upon the establishment of the Institute of 
 France some years after, he was invited to become one of the earliest 
 members, he was obliged to refuse the invitation to attend "because 
 he had no shoes." In his latter days he enjoyed a small pension from 
 the French government; but his constitution was broken by the cala- 
 mities he had undergone : a complication of maladies tormented him, 
 a softening of the bones confined him to his bed, aud on the 6th of 
 August 1806 he was finally released from his afflictions by the hand 
 of death, in the 80th year of his age. 
 
 As a philanthropist, his name will always be respected by every 
 friend of civil liberty ; for he was among the first to plead the cause 
 of the slaves, and to iosist upon the impolicy, as well as injustice, of 
 forced labour. In 1753 a plan, very like that upon which the new 
 American colony of Liberia has been established, was presented by 
 him to the French government, for the whole of the French provinces 
 iu Africa. The ministers of such a sovereign as Louis XV. were not 
 the men to listen favourably to a project of this nature, and it fell to 
 the ground. Such was his love of his couutry, that, although his cir- 
 cumstances do not seem ever to have been very good, he had firmness 
 enough to resist offers from the Emperor of Austria, Catherine of 
 Russia, and the King of Spain, to enter into their service. Under the 
 cruel misfortunes that attended his latter days he is represented to have 
 exhibited great patriotism aud magnanimity, which was the more to be 
 commended because he was of an impetuous and irascible temper. 
 
 (Blbl. Univ., vol. i. ; Spreng., Hist. R. Herb., v. ii. ; Art. 'Adanson,' 
 in Rees's Ctjcl. Suppl.) 
 
 ADDINGTON. [Sidmouth, Lord.] 
 
 ADDISON, JOSEPH. This eminent writer was the sou of the Rev. 
 Lancelot Addison, a clergyman of considerable learning, who eventually 
 obtained the deanery of Lichfield, but was at the time of the birth of 
 his son rector of the parish of Milston, near Amesbury, in Wiltshire. 
 Here Addison was born on the 1st of May, 1672. After having been 
 put first to a school in Amesbury taught by the Rev. Mr. Nash, aud 
 then to that of the Rev. Mr. Taylor at Salisbury, he was sent to the 
 Charterhouse, at which seminary he first became acquaiuted with his 
 afterwards celebrated friend Steele. From this school he went about 
 the age of fifteen to Queen's College, Oxford, and removed to Magdalen 
 College upon obtaining a scholarship two years afterwards. He is 
 said already to have obtained considerable facility in the writing of 
 Latin verse; aud this talent, which he continued to cultivate aud exer- 
 cise, first brought him into reputation at the university. Several of 
 his Latin poems, most of which were probably produced before he had 
 attained his 26th year, were afterwards published in the second volume 
 of the collection entitled 'Musarum Anglieanarum Analecta.' The 
 first composition which he gave to the world in his native language 
 was a copy of verses addressed in 1694 toDryden,- which procured him 
 the acquaintance aud patronage of that distinguished poet. He soon 
 after published a translation in verse of part of \ irgil's Fourth 
 'Georgic;' .and he had also the honour of writing the critical dis- 
 course on the ' Georgics,' prefixed by Drydeu to his translation, which 
 appeared in 1C97. But before this Addison had made himself known 
 to one of the most enlightened aud influential patrons of literature in 
 that day, the Lord Keeper Somers, by a poem which he addressed to 
 him on one of the campaigns of King "William. He was also intro- 
 duced by Cougreve to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Montague, 
 afterwards Lord Halifax. The advantageous connections which he 
 had thu3 formed seem, together with other considerations, to hava 
 
89 
 
 ADDISON, JOSEPH. 
 
 ADDISON, JOSEPH. 
 
 induced him to abandon bis original intention of going into the church. 
 In 1099 Lord Somers procured him a pension of 300/. a year from the 
 crown, aud he then net out ou a tour to Italy. Here he remained till 
 the death of King William, in the spring of 1702, deprived him of his 
 pension, aud also put au end to bis expectation of being appointed to 
 a place near the person of Prince Eugene, then commanding the 
 imperial troops iu Italy. Meanwhile be had addressed from that 
 country his well-known political 'Letter' to Lord Halifax, which was 
 greatly admired both in England and Italy, aud was translated into 
 Italian by the Abbate Salviui, Greek professor at Florence, Soou after 
 his return homo he also published his ' Travels,' which be dedicated 
 to Lord Somen, His friends being out of power, be now remained for 
 Koine time without employment; but at length the victory of Blen- 
 heim, in August, 1704, excited a wish in the ministers to find some 
 poet who might adequately celebrate its glories; aud the Treasurer 
 Godolphin having mentioned the matter to Lord Halifax, the latter 
 recommended his friend Addison as the fittest person to execute the 
 task. He was immediately applied to, and the consequence was the 
 production of bis poem entitled ' The Campaign,' which appeared 
 before the close of the year. Godolphin, upon seeing it when little 
 more than half finished, was so much pleased with the performance 
 that he immediately made the author a Commissioner of Appeals. Iu 
 the following year Addison accompanied Lord Halifax to Hanover; 
 and in 1700 he became under secretary to .Sir Charles Hodges, ou the 
 appointment of the latter as secretary of state. He continued to hold 
 the same place under the Earl of {Sunderland, by whom fSir Charles 
 was iu a few months succeeded. But although he had thus fairly 
 entered upon a political career, he did not desert literature. His next 
 production was his English opera, entitled ' Rosamond ;' and he also 
 assisted his friend Steele iu his play of the ' Tender Husband,' not only 
 with a prologue to the piece, but with several of its most effective 
 scenes. In 1707 an able anonymous pamphlet appeared under the 
 title of ' Tho Present State of the War, aud the Necessity of an 
 Augmentation considered,' which has siuce been printed among Mi'. 
 Addison's works, aud was no doubt the production of his pen. In 
 3 709 he went over to Ireland as secretary to the new Lord Lieutenant, 
 the Marquis of Wharton ; the Queen also bestowed upon him the 
 office of Keeper of the Records iu that kingdom, with au increased 
 salary of 300/. Ho was in Ireland when the first number of 'The 
 Tatler' appeared on the 12th of April (o.s.) in that year — the happy 
 idea of Steele, whose connection with the publication AddlSOD is said 
 to have detected from an observation on Virgil which he hail himself 
 communicated to his friend. The active part which he immediately 
 took iu the conduct of this periodical work is well known. The change 
 of ministry iu 1710, by releasing him from his official duties, and 
 Allowing him to return to England, enabled him to make his contri- 
 butions still more frequent. In tho course of this and the following 
 year he is also understood to have contributed several papers to the 
 political work, 'The Whig Examiner,' which was started about this 
 time in opposition to the famous Tory print, 'The Examiner,' in 
 which Swift exercised his powerful pen. These papers, which are five 
 iu all, are printed among his collected works. ' The Tatler' terminated 
 on the 2nd of January, 1711 ; but on the 1st of March following 
 appeared its still more celebrated successor, ' The Spectator,' which 
 was continued till the 6th of December, 1712, aud of which during 
 the w hole of that time Addison was undoubtedly the chief support. 
 ' The Spectator' was followed by ' The Guardian,' of which the first 
 number was published on the 12th of March, and the 175th aud last 
 on the 1st of October, 1713; and in this also his pen was actively 
 employed. Au anonymous pamphlet directed against the commercial 
 policy of the ministry, and bearing the title of 'The late Trial and 
 Conviction of Count Tariff,' which appeared this year, is likewise 
 believed to be Addison's, and has been printed among his works. 
 The same year he acquired still greater fame than any of his former 
 productions had brought him by his celebrated tragedy of ' Cato,' which 
 was received with extraordinary applause, both on the stage and when 
 it issued from the press. It was played thirty-five uights iu succession 
 — a run of popularity for which it was doubtless iu part indebted to 
 its political as well as to its poetical merits; and it was also translated 
 soon after into French, Italian, Latin, and German. On the 18th of 
 June, 1714, appeared the first number of a continuation of 'The 
 Spectator,' iu which Addison also assisted till its termination on the 
 20th of December in the same year. His elegant poetical address to 
 Sir Godfrey Kneller on his picture of the king was also published about 
 this time ; and on the 23rd of December, 1715, soon after the breaking 
 out of the Rebellion, he commenced a periodical publication in support 
 of the government, under the title of ' The Freeholder,' which he con- 
 tinued without assistance, at the rate of two papers a week, till the 
 29th of June in the following year. He had now indeed for some time 
 been again engaged in public affairs, having on the death of Queen 
 Anne, in August 1714, been appointed their secretary by the Lords 
 J u3tices ; and after the coming over of the new king, having again gone 
 to Ireland as secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant, the Earl of Sunderland. 
 The earl was soon after recalled, and Addison was then made a Lord 
 of Trade. In 1716 he married the Dowager-Countess of Warwick, 
 and in April the following year he was nominated one of his Majesty's 
 principal secretaries of state. He soon however found it necessary to 
 resign this high employment — retiring professedly on the ground of 
 
 ill health, but iu reality, as has been generally understood, in conse- 
 quence of his entire inaptitude both for debate in parliament and for 
 the ordinary business of his office. His health however had also been 
 for some time impaired by attacks of asthma, the effects of which wero 
 probably iu no slight degree aggravated by a habit of over-indulgence 
 in wino. He left office in March, 1718. It was hoped at first that his 
 release from business would have brought about his restoration, and 
 for some time the expected effect seemed to follow. In the course of 
 the year 1719 he was so far recovered as to be able to engage iu a 
 somewhat acrimonious controversy with his old friend Steele ou the 
 subject of the bill for the limitation of the peerage, then under dis- 
 cussion in parliament, which Steele had attacked in a paper called 
 ' The Plebeian.' Addison's defence of the measure appeared in two 
 successive auouymous pamphlets, bearing the title of ' The Old Whig.' 
 They are not printed among his collected works, but are undoubtedly 
 bis. He again however fell ill, and after lingering for some time, at 
 last expired at Holland House, Kensington, ou the 17th of June, 1719, 
 when just commencing his forty-eighth year. He left a daughter by 
 the Countess of Warwick. 
 
 Soon after Addison's death his works were collected and published 
 in four volumes quarto by his friend Mr. Tickell, upon whom he had 
 expressly devolved that duty. Besides the compositions already men- 
 tioned, and some translatious from Ovid and other poetical pieces, 
 this edition contains a ' Treatise ou Ancient Medals,' in the form of 
 dialogues, which is understood to have been prepared by the author 
 many years before his death ; aud a portion of a work which he had 
 commenced iu defeuco of the Christian religion, being that which is 
 commonly known by the name of his ' Evidences.' The comedy of 
 ' The Drummer, or the Haunted House,' which had been published 
 anonymously in his lifetime, with a preface by Sir Richard Steele, was 
 soou after reprinted by Sir Richard, and declared to be Addison's. 
 
 Addison however has been charged with having been the author of 
 a poetical translation of the first book of the ' Iliad,' which was pub- 
 lished iu 1715 by Mr. Tickell, theu his private secretary ; aud by which 
 it has been said be intended to aim a covert blow at the popularity 
 and success of Pope's ' Iliad,' the first volume of which had then just 
 issued from the press. The celebrated character of Atticus, now 
 iuserted iu the ' Epistle to Dr. Arbuthuot,' is said to have been com- 
 posed by Pope after this, aud sent by him to his former friend. Tho 
 clearest examination which this story has received will be fouud in a 
 long and elaborate note in Dr. Kippis's edition of the ' Biographia 
 Britaunica,' (vol. i. p. 86, &c.) which is known to have been contributed 
 by Sir William Blackstone. The learned judge has undoubtedly suffi- 
 ciently refuted many points iu the common statement ; but still it is 
 certain that a coolness did arise between Addison and Pope not long 
 after the appearance of Tickell's book, and there is also reason to 
 believe that their separation was not unconnected with that somewhat 
 injudicious aud ill-timed publication. As for the authorship of the 
 translation however, it was probably Tickell's own. 
 
 Anecdotes of Addison's private life, aud traits of his habits and 
 character, have been handed down in great abundance by Spence and 
 othei'3. The strongest testimony has been borne by those who knew 
 him intimately to the charms of his conversation when he felt himself 
 free from all restraint. "He was," says Steele, "above all men in 
 that talent called humour, and enjoyed it in such perfection that I 
 have often reflected, after a night spent with him apart from all the 
 world, that I had had the pleasure of conversing with an intimate 
 acquaintance of Terence aud Catullus, who had all their wit and 
 nature, heightened with humour more exquisite aud delightful than 
 any other man ever possessed." (Preface to 'The Drummer.') Lady 
 Mary Wortley Montague told Spence that " Addison was the best 
 company in the world." ('Anecdotes,' p. 232.) Dr. Young's account 
 was, that, though he was rather mute in society on some occasions, 
 " when he began to be company, he was full of vivacity, and went on 
 iu a noble stream of thought aud language, so as to chain the attention 
 of every one to him." (p. 335.). " Addison," said Pope, " was perfect 
 good company with intimates; and had something more charming in 
 his conversation than I ever knew in any other man." (p. 50.) But 
 this was only when there was no one by of whom he was afraid. 
 "With any mixture of strangers," Pope added, "and sometimes only 
 with one, he seemed to preserve hi3 dignity much, with a stiff sort of 
 silence." Young admitted that " he was not free with his superiors." 
 Johnson quotes Lord Chesterfield as somewhere affirming that " Addison 
 was the most timorous and awkward man that he ever knew." Coarser 
 minds, again, from the formality and stiffness of manner in which he 
 wrapped himself up from their inspection, were led to set him down 
 for a mere piece of hypocrisy aud cant. Mandeville, the author of the 
 ' Fable of the Bees,' after an evening's conversation with him, charac- 
 terised him as "a parson in a tye-wig;" and Tonson, who hated parsons 
 in any kind of wigs as much as Mandeville, and who, besides, had 
 quarrelled with Addison, and did not like him, used to say of him 
 after he had quitted his secretaryship, " One day or other you'll see 
 that man a bishop ! I'm sure he looks that way ; and, indeed, I ever 
 thought him a priest in his heart." (Spence, p. 200.) It must be 
 acknowledged that this caution and cowardice spoiled Addison's charac- 
 ter iu some points of great importance; he was not a man on whom 
 his friends could rely ; and the way in which he lost or offended more 
 than one of them was not to his credit. In his conduct both to Pope 
 
a 
 
 ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH. 
 
 ADONIS. 
 
 and to Steele, there was something; underhand and treacherous — 
 something of the " willing to wound, but yet afraid to strike," which 
 the former had imputed to him. To Gay, again, he seems to have 
 behaved ill without having been either detected or suspected at the 
 time. A fortnight before his death he sent Lord Warwick for Gay, 
 who had not gone to see him for a great while; and when they met, 
 Addison told him " that he had desired this visit to beg his pardon ; 
 that he had injured him greatly ; but that if he lived he should find 
 that he would make it up to him." (Spence, p. 150.) Here again we 
 nee the conscientiousness of the man struggling with, and, in the end, 
 very nobly mastering, his more ignoble propensities; for it would be a 
 great mistake to conclude from these instances of deceit and littleness, 
 that the regard he professed for virtue was not both real and deeply 
 felt. The pious composure in which he died, as evinced by the anec- 
 dote of his parting interview with the young nobleman, his stepson, — 
 first told by Dr. Young in his ' Conjectures on Original Composition,' 
 published in 1759, though previously alluded to by Tickell in his 
 Elegy on Addison — is known to most readers. Dr. Young's words 
 are : — " After a long and manly but vain struggle with his distemper, 
 he dismissed his physicians, and with them all hopes of life. But with 
 his hopes of life he dismissed not his concern for the living, but sent 
 for a youth nearly related, and finely accomplished, but not above 
 being the better for good impressions from a dying friend. He came; 
 but, life now glimmering in the socket, the dying friend was silent : 
 after a decent and proper pause, the youth said, 'Dear Sir, you sent 
 for me ; I believe and hope that you have some commands : I shall 
 hold them most sacred.' May distant ages not only hear but feel the 
 reply. Forcibly grasping the youth's hand, he softly said, ' See in 
 what peace a Christian can die.' He spoke with difficulty, and soon 
 expired.'' Lord Warwick did not long survive hi3 step-father. 
 
 Addison's writings present something of the same struggle of opposite 
 principles or tendencies which we find in his character as a man, re- 
 sulting likewise in the same general effect, of the absence of everything 
 offensive combined with some qualities of high, but none perhaps of 
 the highest excellence. Notwithstanding all the hesitation and em- 
 barrassment he is said to have shown on some occasions in the 
 performance of his official duties, so that a common clerk would have 
 to be called in to draw up a dispatch which could not "wait for his 
 more scrupulous selection of phraseology, he usually wrote easily and 
 rapidly. " When he had taken his resolution," Steele has told us, 
 "or made his plan for what he designed to write, he would walk 
 about a room and dictate it into language with as much freedom and 
 ease as any one could write it down, and attend to the cohereuce and 
 grammar of what he dictated." (Preface to 'The Drummer.') Pope 
 told Spence however that, though he wrote very fluently, "he was 
 sometimes very slow and scrupulous in correcting." " He would show 
 his verses," said Pope, " to several friends, and would alter almost 
 everything that any of them hinted at as wrong. He seemed to be 
 too diffident of himself, and too much concerned about his character as 
 a poet; or, as he worded it, 'too solicitous for that kind of praise, which, 
 God knows, is but a very little matter after all.' " ('Anecdotes,' p. 49.) 
 
 The literary greatness of Addison iu the estimation of his contempo- 
 raries probably stood upon somewhat different grounds from those 
 upon which it is now usually placed. In his own day he was looked 
 upon as a dramatist and a poet of a very high order; and appears to 
 have been not so much admired for anything else as for being the 
 author of ' Cato.' That stately but frigid tragedy has long ceased to 
 give the same pleasure, by its sonorous declamation and well-expressed 
 common-places, which it seems to have afforded to our ancestors. The 
 taste which then prevailed iu poetry was the most artificial which has 
 distinguished any age of Englisii literature. The quality which chiefly 
 drew admiration was a cold and monotonous polish — the warmth of 
 genuine nature was accounted rudeness and barbarism. The return 
 of the public mind to truer principles of judgment in such matters 
 has been fatal both to the dramatic and to the poetical fame generally 
 of Addison ; and although his verses are still read with pleasure as 
 the productions of an elegant and accomplished mind, they are not 
 felt to possess any high decree of that power which we now look for 
 in poetry. His glory is now that of one of our greatest writers in 
 prose. Here, with his delicate sense of propriety, his lively fancy, 
 and above all, his most original and exquisite humour, he was in his 
 proper walk. He is the founder of a new school of popular writing ; 
 in which, like most other founders of schools, he is still unsurpassed 
 by any who have attempted to imitate him. His ' Tatlers,' ' Specta- 
 tors,' and ' Guardians,' gave us the first examples of a style possessing 
 all the best qualities of a vehicle of general amusement and instruc- 
 tion; easy and familiar without coarseness, animated without extra- 
 Tagance, polished without unnatural labour, and from its flexibility 
 adapted to all the varieties of the gay and the serious. 
 
 (Biographia Britannica; Life by Johnson; Spence's Anecdotes; 
 Works by Tickell.) 
 
 ADELUNG, JOHANN C'HPJSTOPH, grammarian and universal 
 linguist, was born at Spantekon, a village near Auklam in Pomerania, 
 on the 8th of August, 1732. He received his first education at the 
 town school of Anklam, and at Kloster-Berge, near Magdeburg; and 
 afterwards visited the university of Halle. In 1759 he was appointed 
 a professor in the evangelical gymnasium at Erfurt: but he held this 
 utuation only till 1701, when, in consequence of a dispute with the 
 
 Catholic town-magistrates about a point of difference in religion, he 
 found himself under the necessity of leaving Erfurt. Adelung now 
 went to Leipzig, where he continued to reside till 1787. He supported 
 himself by literary labours, and chiefly by translations of valuable 
 . works of foreign literature. The number of volumes which he thus 
 prepared for the press and many of which he enriched with extensive 
 additions of his own, is surprisingly great. The works by which he 
 is best known in this country, are ' Deutsche Sprachlehre fur Schulen,' 
 Berlin, 1781, 8vo., and ' Umstiindliches Lehrgebaude der Deutschen 
 Sprache,' Leipzig, 1782, 2 vols. 8vo., &c. In 1787 Adelung was called 
 to Dresden, and appointed principal librarian to the electoral library 
 there. Adelung died on the 10th of September, 1806. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, JOHN, was born in 1770 and died July 17, 1845. 
 Mr. Adolphus was a barrister of high standing in the criminal courts, 
 and at his decease was father of the Old Bailey bar. He was a keen 
 advocate, a fluent speaker, and a good lawyer. His practice, previously 
 very considerable, wa3 highly increased by the manner in which he 
 distinguished himself as leading counsel for Thistle wood and the other 
 prisoners charged with a treasonable conspiracy in 1820, though he 
 was retained on their behalf only a few hours before the trial. As a 
 literary man Mr. Adolphus is best known as the author of the 
 ' History of England from the Accession of George III.,' originally 
 published in 3 volumes in 1805, but which he subsequently revised 
 and greatly extended. Of this enlarged edition the seventh volume 
 appeared just before his death, but it left the work unfinished, and 
 the conclusion has not been published. It is a work of considerable 
 research and very carefully executed, but it does not exhibit very high 
 historical powers. He was also the author of ' Biographical Memoirs 
 of the French Revolution;' ' Political State of the British Empire,' 
 4 vols., 1818 ; 'Memoirs of John Bannister'; and some fugitive pieces 
 and pamphlets. 
 
 ADONIS, the name of a personage of considerable importance in 
 Pagan mythology, of whose story the following is a brief sketch : — 
 Adonis, son of Myrrha, daughter of Cinyras, king of Cyprus, was 
 born in Arabia, whither his mother had fled iu consequence of cer- 
 tain transactions which it is not necessary to relate. Before the 
 birth of her son she was transformed into a tree which produces 
 the fragrant gum called by her name ; this however did not hin- 
 der his being brought into the world in due season ; he grew up a 
 model of manly beauty, and was passionately beloved by Aphrodite 
 (Venus), who quitted Olympus to dwell with him. Hunting was his 
 favourite pursuit, until, having gone to the chase against the entreaties 
 of his mistress, he was mortally wounded in the thigh by a wild boar. 
 After death he was said to stand as high in the favour of Persephone 
 (Proserpine) as before in that of Aphrodite ; but the latter being incon- 
 solable, her rival generously consented that Adonis shoukl spend half 
 the year with his celestial, half with his infernal mistress. The fable 
 has been variously interpreted. One explanation makes the alternate 
 abode of Adonis above and under the earth, typical of the burial of 
 seed, which in due season rises above the ground lor the propagation 
 of its species; another, of the annual passage of the sun from the 
 northern to the southern hemisphere. In the time of Pausauias, in the 
 2nd century of our era, there existed an ancient temple of Adonis 
 and Aphrodite, at Amathus, in Cyprus. 
 
 The story of Adonis appears to have been introduced into Greece 
 from Syria. According to Pausauias, Sappho sung of Adonis ; and 
 his name, with allusion to his rites, occurs in a fragment of Alceeus. 
 But it is by the Greek poets of later date, Theocritus and Bion, and 
 their Latin imitators, Ovid and others, that his story has been expanded, 
 and invested with the elegance which is the peculiar character of 
 Grecian mythology. The Adonia are mentioned by Aristophanes 
 among the Athenian festivals, and this is, we believe, the earliest 
 mention of them, except some notice in the poems attributed to 
 Orpheus (the epoch of which is however too doubtful to be received 
 as authority), and the songs attributed to Sappho and Alcajus. The 
 rites began with mourning for the death of Adonis — (thus Ezekiel, 
 viii. 13, " He brought me to the door of the Lorel's house . . . and 
 behold, there sat women weeping for Thammuz") ; then changed into 
 rejoicing for his return to life and to Aphrodite ; and concluded with 
 a procession, in which the images of Adonis and Aphrodite were car- 
 ried, with rich offerings, in separate couches; after which the former 
 appears to have been thrown into the sea. (See Theocritus, ' IdylL' xv.) 
 In the time of Pausanias, the women of Argos, in the Peloponnesus, 
 lamented Adonis. 
 
 In Syria we know the worship of Adonis (if, according to the 
 received notion, he be the same personage as Thammuz) to be probably 
 of much older date. We know, from the passage in Ezekiel already 
 quoted, that the adoration of the latter was one of the abominations 
 of Judah six centuries before Christ. Whatever resemblance there 
 may have been between the early Syrian and Grecian rites, the former 
 were far more deeply polluted by the atrocities of a brutish supersti- 
 tion, to which the natives of Syria were unusually prone. 
 
 Adonis (Nahr-el-Ibrahim) is also the ancient name of a river in 
 Syria, which rises iu the mountains of Lebanon. Byblos, a town near 
 the river Adonis, was one of the chief seats of the worship above 
 mentioned, which was intimately connected with a peculiarity incident 
 to the river. Its waters, at a certain period of the year, as*uutt a 
 deep red, and were said to be discoloured by the blood of Adonis. 
 
fi ADRIAN. 
 
 " Thammuz came next behind, 
 Whoae annual wound in Lebanon allured 
 The Syrian damsels to lament his lute 
 In amorous ditties all a summer's duy, 
 While smooth Adonis from his native rock 
 Ear. purple to the sea, supposed with blood 
 Of Thalliums', yearly wounded." 
 
 ' Paradise Lost,' i. HO. 
 
 The phenomenon has been observed by modern travellers, and la 
 attributed to the rains, whieh bring a quantity of red earth into the 
 stream. (Sue Maundrell's 'Travels.') This, which probably is the 
 true solution, was suggested even it. the time of Lucian (' De Dea 
 Syria,' § 8). 
 
 ADRIAN'. [Hadrianus, Klius.] 
 
 ADRIAN I., Pope, born at Rome, succedod Stephen III. in 772. 
 Like his predecessor, he had to struggle against the power of the 
 Longobards, who had invaded the Exarchate and other provinces 
 bestowed by Pepin, king of the Franks, on the Roman see. Devastat- 
 ing with lire and sword Sinigaglia, Urbiuo, and other cities, they 
 advanced as far Bl Otricoli, on the Tiber, and threatened Romo with 
 the same fate. Desiderius, king of the Longobards, had taken under 
 his protection the two sons of Carloman, the deceased brother of 
 Charlemagne, and ho wished Adrian to cou.-ccrate them as kings of 
 the Franks, in opposition to their uncle. Adrian refused to do this, 
 and hence arose the bitter enmity of Desiderius. Adrian applied to 
 Charlemagne for assistance. The king of the Franks crossed the Alps 
 by the way of Susa, defeated Desiderius, and overthrew the kingdom 
 of the Longobards in Italy, in 774. Charlemagne then wont to Rome, 
 where he arrived on Easter eve, and was received by Adrian with 
 great honours. They repaired together to the Basilica of St. Peter, 
 where Adrian acknowledged Charles as king of Italy, and ' Patrician 
 of Rome,' and the latter renewed the grant of the provinces bestowed 
 on the Roman see by Pepin. Charlemagne paid another visit to 
 Adrian at Rome in 787 when his son Pepin was christened by the 
 Pope. In 7s7 the seventh general council of the church was held at 
 Uicsea, in Pithy uia, where Adrian sent his legates, and in which the 
 wor.-bip of images was coulirmed, and the iconoclasts were excoui- 
 uiuuieatcd. In 791 there was a dreadful inundation at Rome caused 
 by the overflowing of the Tiber, and Adrian exerted himself in 
 supplying the inhabitants with provisions, by means of boats, which 
 plied to the various parts of the city. He also rebuilt the walls and 
 towers of Rome, and was liberal to the poor. lie died aft r a long 
 pontificate of nearly 21 years, on Christmas-day, 795. Charlemagne 
 was much grieved at the news of his death, and wrote his epitaph in 
 Latin verses, in which ho affectionately calls him 'father.' Adrian 
 was a man of talent and dexterity. Under him Rome began to 
 breathe again after the continual alarms caused by the Longobards, the 
 last of the barbarian invaders of the Western Empire. (See ' Anasta- 
 sius' in Muratori's lierum Italicarum Scriptures, torn, iii.) 
 
 ADRIAN II., born at Rome, succeeded Nicholas I. in the papal 
 chair, in 867. He had been married, and had a daughter by his wife 
 Stephauia, from whom he afterwards separated in order to live in 
 celibacy. After his election, his wife and daughter continued to live 
 at Rome in a separate house, when an unprincipled man, called 
 Eleutherius, carried off the girl by violence, and on the pontiff re- 
 taking his child, forced his way into the house and murdered both 
 mother and daughter. The murderer was tried and sentenced to 
 death by the imperial commissioners, who still exercised the high 
 judicature at Rome. It was during Adrian's pontificate that Photius, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, withdrew from the Church of Rome, 
 thus forming the schism between the Greek and Latin churches, 
 which continues to this day. Adrian died in 872, and was succeeded 
 by John VIII. 
 
 ADRIAN III., born at Rome, succeeded Marinus in 884, and died 
 the following year on his journey to attend the imperial diet at 
 Worms, after a pontificate of only fifteen months. 
 
 ADRIAN IV., an Englishman, whose name was Nicholas Ereak- 
 speare, succeeded Auastasius IV., in 1154. He had been a monk, and 
 was made Bishop of Albano by Eugenius III., who sent him as bis 
 apostle, as a legate was then called, to Denmark and Norway. On his 
 return he was elected Pope much against his inclination. Rome was 
 then in a very disturbed state. Arnaldo of Brescia, a monk and a 
 disciple of Abelard, had begun to preach a reform in the church as 
 early as 1139, but being driven out of Rome by Pope Innocent II., 
 had taken refuge at Zurich. In 1143 however he was recalled by the 
 Roman people, who had revolted against Innocent, and had proclaimed 
 a Roman republic, which Arnaldo contributed to constitute. Several 
 successive Popes, Celestin II., Lucius II., and Eugenius III. kept up a 
 sort of desultory struggle against this popular reformer. Lucius in 
 an affray was pelted with stones, and died of the injury received. 
 His successor, Eugenius, was obliged to leave Rome and retire into 
 Sabina. During the confusion that prevailed in the city, the popu- 
 lace plundered and afterwards pulled down the houses of many 
 nobles, cardinals, and citizens, and committed other acts of violence. 
 Ad rian IV., after his election, placed Rome under interdict on 
 account of these disorders, and caused all religious services to 
 ceaue ; which measure led the citizens to banish Arnaldo, who took 
 refiyje with some barons of Campania; and Adrian then came to 
 
 ^ELFRIC. 44 
 
 reside in the Lateral! palace. Frederic of HohenBtauffen, known iij 
 Italian history by the name of Barbarosaa, had lately been elected 
 emperor by the Ccrman Diot, and was on his way to Romo to be 
 crowned. The Pope's legates met him on the road, and among other 
 remonstrances, requested that the heretic Arnaldo should be given up 
 by the Viscount of Campania, in order to be tried. Frederic assented 
 to this, and issued orders in consequence; others say that Cardinal 
 Gerard took Arnaldo prisoner, after an obstinate resistance. He was 
 brought to Rome, and delivered to the prefect of the city, by whose 
 sentence he was hanged, his body burnt, and the ashes scattered to 
 the winds, in the year 1155. Meantime Frederic approached Rome 
 with his army, and Adrian went to meet him near Sutri, where, on 
 the latter dismounting, Frederic refused to hold his stirrup, a ceremony 
 on which the pop' s always insisted, as a mark of respect for their 
 spiritual supremacy. The Pope, on his side, refused to salute the 
 Emperor with the 'kiss of peace,' upon which the cardinals were 
 terrified and ran away to Civita Castellana. The question of the 
 ceremonial was debated for two days, when Frederic, baviDg ascer- 
 tained that such had bceu the practice with his predecessors, agreed 
 to conform to it. They met, therefore, again at Nepi, and Frederic 
 having held the stirrup, Adrian gave him the ' 03culuin pacis/ and 
 both proceeded towards Rome. Froderic with his army took posses- 
 sion of the Leonine city on the north bank of the Tiber, aud of St. 
 Peter's church, where he was crowned by the Pope on tho following 
 day. The Romans took no part iu the ceremony, but after having 
 held a council iu the Capitol, sallied out aud attacked the Qermau 
 soldiers unawares. A general battle took place, and continued with 
 great slaughter on both side', till night separated the combatants. 
 The city continuing iu a disturbed state, both the Pope aud Emperor 
 withdrew to Tivoli, whence Frederic returued towards Lombardy. 
 Adrian went afterwards to Benevento, where he made peace with 
 William I., king of Sicily, whom he ha I excommuuicated ; and upon 
 their reconciliation he agreed to give him the investiture of Sicily, 
 Calabria, and Apulia, iu 1166, on condition of the latter paying a 
 yearly tribute to the see of Rome. The Pope returned loaded frith 
 rich presents of silks, gold, and silver, aud passing through Rome, 
 went to reside at Orvieto, which was subject to the Romau see. 
 Frederic now complained that the Pope had violated his faith, by 
 receiving ambassadors and entering into treaties with the King of 
 Sicily aud the Greek Emperor, without his participation. He also 
 resented the pretensions of the Pope and his legates, who seemed to 
 assume that the imperial crown was granted as a bencficium, or fee of 
 the sec of Rome. Adrian, on his part, complained of the exactions of 
 the imperial commissioners who wera sent to administer justice at 
 Rome without his participation ; he maintained that the patrimony 
 of the church should be exempt from paying fudcvu.ui, or feudal 
 tribute to the Emperor; and, lastly, he claimed the restitution of the 
 lands aud revenues of Countess Matilda, of the duchy of Spoleti, and 
 even of Corsica aud Sardinia. Thus arose that spirit of bitter 
 hostility between the popes aud the house of Hoheustauffen, which 
 lasted until the utter extinction of the latter. Adrian died in the 
 beginning of September, 1159, in tho town of Auagui, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Alexander III. From the above sketch it may be seen that 
 Adrian IV. stretched the papal prerogatives as fan as any of his 
 predecessors had done, Gregory VII. not excepted. (See Fleury, 
 Histoire Ecclcsiastiquc, and Itaumcr, Geschickte der Huhcnstauffen und 
 Hirer Zeit.) 
 
 ADRIAN V., a Genoese, succeeded Innocent in 1276, and died five 
 weeks after his election. He was succeeded by John XX. 
 
 ADRIAN VI., born at Utrecht in the Netherlands, of an obscure 
 family, advanced himself by his talents to the post of vice-chancellor 
 of the University of Louvain. The Emperor Maximilian chose him 
 as preceptor to his grandson, afterwards Charles V. Ferdinand of 
 Spain gave him the bishopric of Tortosa. Aft;r Ferdinand's death 
 he was co-regent of Spain with Cardinal Xitnenes. He was elected 
 pope in 1522, afer the death of Leo X., chiefly through the influence 
 of Charles V. whose authority was then spreading over Italy. Adriau 
 endeavoured to reform the numerous abuses of the court and clergy 
 of Rome, practised a severe economy, and lived frugally. By so doing 
 he displeased the Romans, who had been accustomed to the luxury 
 and prodigality of Leo; and when he died, in September, 1523, after 
 a short pontificate, the people could not conceal their joy. They 
 styled his physician, ' the saviour of his country.' He was succeeded 
 by Clement VII. Adrian appears to have been an honest conscienti- 
 ous man, who fell upon evil time3, and was unequal to the difficulties 
 which he had to encounter. He was desirous of maiutaiuing peace, 
 and of stopping, if possible, the schism of the Lutherans by reforming 
 the church, but he did not live long enough to effect anything essential. 
 Burmaun published his life at Utrecht, in 1727. 
 
 iEGINHARD. [Eginhard.] 
 
 jELFRIC, an eminent Saxon prelate. He is said to have been the 
 sou of an Earl of Kent, but at an early age he embraced a devotional 
 life, and assumed the habit of the Benedictines, in the monastery of 
 Abingdon. In 963, when Athelwold, the abbot of that house, became 
 Bishop of Winchester, he took iElfric along with him, and made him 
 one of the priests of his cathedral. Here he remained till 987, when 
 he removed to Cerne Abbey. Next year he was made Abbot of St. 
 Albans, and soon after was promoted to the bishopric of Wilton. 
 
4? 
 
 JELIANUS. 
 
 -<ENEAS. 
 
 Finally, in 994. Le was translated to the archbisbopric of Canterbury, 
 over which see he presided with great ability till his death, on the 
 16th of November 1005. iElfric was one of the most learned eccle- 
 siastics of that age, and distinguished himself throughout his life by 
 a very praiseworthy zeal and activity in the diffusion of knowledge. 
 The following are the principal works which have been attributed to 
 him : — 1. A Latin and Saxon Glossary, printed by Somner at Oxford, 
 in 1659. 2. A Saxon translation of most of the historical books of 
 the Old Testament, part of which was printed at Oxford in 1698. 
 3. A charge to his clergy, in articles, commonly called bis Canons, 
 wEich wa3 published by Spelmau in the first volume of his ' English 
 Councils.' 4. Two volumes of Saxon Homilies, translated from the 
 Latin fathers. 5. A Saxon Grammar in Latin. There were however 
 other Saxon ecclesiastics of his name, and it has been doubted if all 
 the works enumerated were the productions of the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. 
 
 ./ELIA'NUS. A person of this name wrote a book on the military 
 tactics of the Greeks, which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian. 
 There are several editions and translations of this work. A German 
 translation, by A.H. Bautogiirtner, appeared in his complete collection 
 of the Greek writers on military tactics, Frankenthal and Mannheim, 
 4to., 1779. There is an English translation by Lord Dillon, 4to., 1814. 
 
 JELIA'NUS, CLAUDIUS, a Roman citizen and a native of Prse- 
 neste (Palestriua), probably lived about the middle of the 3rd century 
 of the Christian era. Like Cicero, Atticus, and many other Romans, 
 lie made himself so completely master of the Greek language as to 
 write it with ease and correctness. There is extant a work of his in 
 fourteen books, entitled ' Various or Miscellaneous History,' which 
 is a compilation or collection of extracts made by the author in his 
 extensive reading. The value of it does not consist in what the com- 
 piler ha3 written, but in the passages of lost writers that he has been 
 the means of preserving. An edition of this work was published at 
 Paris in 1805, 8vo., with Heraciides of Pontus and Nicolaus of Damas- 
 cus by the learned Greek Corny. There is a French translation of 
 ./Elian's work, by M. B. T. Dacier, Paris, 1772, 8vo., with notes. 
 
 Another work of ^Elian's, in seventeen books, also written in Greek, 
 is entitled ' On the Peculiarities of Animals.' Though the author 
 cannot claim the merit of being a scientific naturalist, he has pre- 
 served a number of curious facts, collee*ed from the works he had 
 read. Some critics are of opinion that the two works belong to dif- 
 ferent authors. (Sclioell, vol. ii. ' Greek Lit.') J. G. Schneider 
 published an edition of the woik on animals in 1784 ; but the latest 
 edition of the Greek text is by F. Jacobs, Jena. There are also 
 twenty Greek letters extant attributed to ./Elian. 
 
 jEMI'LII. the name of a patrician gens, or clan, in ancient Rome, 
 who pretended to derive their origin from Mamercus, the son of 
 Pythagoras. Of the families iucluded in this gens, the most distin- 
 guished were the Pauli, or Paulli, the Lepidi, and the Scauri. [Letidi ; 
 SCAUBtra] Among the Paulli the most worthy of notice was Lucius 
 ^Emiliua Paulino, the son of the consul bearing the same name, who 
 fell in the battle near Cannes (B.C. 210), after using his utmost efforts 
 to check the rashness of his colleague. Young iEmilius was a mere 
 boy at the death of his father, yet by his persoual merits and the 
 powerful influence of his friends he eventually attained to the highest 
 honours in his country. His sister yEmilia was married to Publius 
 Cornelius Scipio, the conqueror of Hannibal, who was consul for the 
 second time B c. 194; ai d this very year yEmilius, though he had 
 held no public office, was appointed one of three commissioners to 
 conduct a colony to Croton, in the south of Italy, a city with which 
 he might claim some connection on the ground of his descent from 
 the Pythagoreans. Two years after, at the age of about thirty-six, 
 he was eh cted a curule aediln, in preference, if we may believe Plu- 
 tarch, to twelve candidates of such merit that every one of them 
 became afterwards consul. His acdileship was distinguished by many 
 improvements in the city and neighbourhood of Rome. The follow- 
 ing year, B.C. 191 , he held the office of proctor, and in that capacity 
 was governor of th; south-western part of the Spanish peninsula, 
 with a considerable force under his command. The appointment was 
 renewed the year after, with enlarged powers, for he now bore the title 
 of Proconsul, and was accompanied by double the usual number of 
 lictors. In an engagement however with the Lusitnni, C000 of his 
 men were cut to pieces, and the rest only saved behind the works of 
 the camp. Put this disgrace was retrieved in the third year of his 
 government by a signal defeat of the enemy, in which 18,000 of their 
 men were left upon the field. Eor this success a public thanksgiving 
 was voted by the senate in honour of /Emilius. Soon after he returned 
 to Home and found that he had been appointed, in his absence, one of 
 the ten commis-ioners for regulating affairs in that part of western 
 A-ia which had lately been wrested by the two Scipios from Antiochus 
 the Great. yEmilius was a member also of the college of augurs from 
 an early age, but we do not find any means of fixing the period of his 
 election. As a candidate for the consulship he met with repeated 
 repulses, and only attained that honour in B.C. 182, nine years after 
 holding the office of praetor. During this and the following year he 
 commanded an army in Liguria, and succeeded in the complete reduc- 
 tion of a powerful people called the Ingauni, who have left their name 
 in the maritime town of Albenga, formerly Albium Ingaunum. A 
 public thanksgiving of three days was immediately voted, and on his 
 
 return to Rome he had the honour of a triumph. For the next ten 
 years we lose sight of ./Emilius, and at the end of this period he is 
 only mentioned as being selected by the inhabitants of Farther Spain 
 to protect their interests at Rome, an honour which at once proved 
 and added to his influence. It was at this period, B.C. 171, that the last 
 Macedonian war commenced, and though the Romans could scarcely 
 have anticipated a struggle from Perseus, who inheiited from his 
 father only the shattered remains of the great Macedonian monarchy, 
 yet three consuls, in three successive years, were more than baffled by his 
 arms. In B.C. 168 a second consulship, and with it the command against 
 Perseus, was entrusted to -d'hnilius. He was now at least sixty years 
 of age, but he was supported by two sons and two sons-in-law, who 
 accompanied him to the war in Macedonia, and contributed in a marked 
 manner to his success. Perseus was strongly posted in the range of 
 Olympus to defend the passes from Perrhsebia into Macedonia, but 
 he allowed himself to be outmanoeuvred. iEmilius made good his 
 passage through the mountains, and the two armies were soon in view 
 of each other near Pydna. On the night before the battle an eclipse 
 of the moon occurred. The Roman soldiers, forewarned of its occur- 
 rence, regarded it with amusement rather than fear. In the Mace- 
 donian camp, on the other hand, superstition produced the usual effect 
 of horror and alarm ; and on the following day the result of the battle 
 corresponded to the feelings of the night. In a single hour the hopes 
 of Perseus were destroyed for ever. The mouarch fled with scarcely 
 a companion, and on the third day reached Amphipolis. Thence he 
 proceeded to Samothrace, where he soon after fell into the hands of 
 the conqueror. The date of the battle of Pydna has been fixed by 
 the eclipse to the 22d of June. After reducing Macedonia to the form 
 of a Roman proviuce, ./Emilius proceeded on his return to Epirus. 
 Here, under the order of the senate, he treacherously surprised seventy 
 towns, and delivered up to his army 150,000 of the inhabitants as 
 slaves, aud all their property as plunder. On his arrival in Rome 
 however he found in this army, with whom he was far from popular, 
 the chief opponents of his claim to a triumph. This honour he at 
 last obtained, and Perseus with his young children, some of them too 
 young to be sensible of their situation, were paraded for three succes- 
 sive days through the streets of Rome. But the triumphant general 
 had a severe lesson from affliction in the midst of his honour. Of 
 two sous by a second wife (he had long divorced Papira), one, a"ed 12 
 died five days before the triumph ; the other, aged 1 4, a few days after ; 
 so that he had now no son to hand down his name to posterity. .Emi- 
 lius lived eight years after his victory over Perseus, in which period 
 we need only mention his censorship, B.C. 161. At his death, b c. 160 
 his two sons, who had been adopted into other families, Falmis and 
 Scipio, honoured his memory in the Roman fashion by the exhibition 
 of funeral games; and the ' Adelphi' of Terence, the last comedy the 
 poet wrote, was first presented to the Roman public on this occasion. 
 ^Emilius found in his grateful friend Polybius one willing aud able to 
 commemorate, perhaps to exaggerate, his virtues. Few Romans have 
 received so favourable a character from history. (Polybius; Livy ; 
 I'lutarch.) 
 
 ^ENE'AS, a Trojan prince of the royal blood, son of Ancliises and 
 Venus. According to Homer he commanded the Dardanians, and his 
 name occurs frequently in the ' Iliad,' but not in the first rank of 
 heroes. He owes his celebrity to those stories which make him the 
 founder of the Roman empire in Italy, aud to his being the hero of 
 Virgil's poem. According to the Latin poets, on the night when Troy 
 was taken, or, as others say, before its capture, ^Eneas quitted the city, 
 bearing on his shoulders his aged father, and the images of his house- 
 hold gods, accompanied by his wife Creusa, who perished by the way, 
 aud his son lulus, also called Ascauius. The older authors do not 
 speak of the multitude of followers and number of ships with which 
 Virgil has adorned his narrative. According to them he quitted the 
 Trojan shores in a single ship to seek his fortune in the unknown 
 regions of the west. After many wanderings he readied the coast of 
 Latium with 100 followers, and was favourably received by Latiuus, 
 king of the country, who assigned a small tract of ground as a settle- 
 ment for the Trojans. But war soon broke out between the strangers 
 aud the natives. Turnus, prince of the Rutnli, joined Latiuus to 
 expel the foreigners ; but the allied princes were defeated, and Latinus 
 was slain in the first battle. Lavinia, his daughter, became the bride 
 of the victor, and the citadel of Laurentum fell into his hands, J&neaa 
 now built the city of Lavinium, which was hardly completed when 
 Turnus again appear d in arms, assisted by Mezentius, king of Caere. 
 Another battle ensued, in which Turnus fell ; but the Latins were 
 defeated, and A-neas was drowned, or at least disappeared iu the river 
 Numicius. He was afterwards adored as Jupiter Indiges : a temple 
 was raised to him on the bank of the river ; aud the Latins, and in 
 later ages the consuls of Rome, offered yearly sacrifices to him under 
 that name, lulus, his son by Creusa, succeeded to the throne, aud 
 founded a city, celebrated in the history of Latium, called Alba Longa. 
 He was succeed-d by Sylvius, son of JEneas and Laviuia, from whom 
 a long line of Latin kings descended. Such is a sketch of the chief 
 traditions about this reputed Trojan prince aud his settlement in Italy, 
 (Niebuhr, Roman History, vol. i. p. 176. Hare and Thirhvall's 
 translation.) 
 
 The only allusion in Honurto the history of iEueas after the Trojan 
 war, is a prediction that he aud his children shall reign for cen'uries 
 
47 
 
 over the Trojaus ; nothing ia said of the place of their settlement. 
 Some have supposed that he remained in the Troad, and that the story 
 of his emigrating to Italy is entirely destitute of foundation. 
 
 ^EPI'NUS, FRANCIS MARIA ULRIC THEODORE, a celebrated 
 electrician of the 18th century, who was boru at Roetock in Lower 
 Saxony, December 12, 1721, but of whose life few particulars have 
 been preserved ; he died at Dorpat in Livonia, in 1802. 
 
 Several memoirs by ^Epinus, relating to mathematical and philo- 
 sophical subjects, were printed in the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th volumes 
 of the ' Novi Commentarii Petropol.,' and in the ' Mdmoires' of the 
 Berlin Academy for 1755 and 1756. In the volume for the latter yoar, 
 and also in a ' Recueil de Mdmoires,' published at St. Petersburg in 
 1762, is his paper entitled 'De quibusdam Experiinentis Electricis,' &c, 
 which contains the discovery of the electrical polarity of tourmaline, 
 a mineral which has since been so much noticed on account of its 
 properties with respect to polarised light. .(Epiuus found that on 
 exposing a piece of the mineral to a heat between 99i"and 212" Fahr., 
 one extremity of it acquired the vitreous and the other the resinous 
 electricity. In the 10th volume of the ' Novi Comment.' is his paper 
 concerning the effect of parallax on the duration of a transit of Venus 
 over the disc of the hud, in consequence of the position of the 
 observer on the earth's surface; and in the same volume is one on 
 the accidental colours produced by looking directly at the suu. Also, 
 in the 12th volume of the same work there is contained an account of 
 the electrical properties of the Brazilian emerald, a crystal which has 
 been since found to be merely a variety of tourmaline. In 1758 he 
 published at St. Petersburg an academical discourse concerning the 
 similarity of electricity and magnetism; and in 17(51, at the same 
 place, a treatise entitled ' Cogitaliones de Distributiouo Caloris per 
 Tellurem.' 
 
 But /Epinus is chiefly distinguished by his ' Tentamen Theorise 
 Electricitatis et Magnetistui,' which, in 1759, was published also at 
 St. Petersburg. In this work he sets out by assuming that there 
 exists in all bodies a fluid whose particles mutually repel one another 
 with forces decreasing as the distances between them increase, and, 
 according to the same law, attract the particles of the bodies with 
 which they are in combination. He assumes also that the electrical 
 fluid penetrates with difficulty through the bodies called electrics, as 
 glass, resin, &c. ; and that it meets with no sensible obstruction iu 
 passing through such as are called non-electrics or conductors, as the 
 metals, unbaked wood, &c. ; and he has succeeded in showing, by the 
 strict process of mathematical analysis, that the phenomena of elec- 
 tricity depend chiefly on the tendency of the fluid to attain a state of 
 equilibrium, by passing from a body which contains au excess to those 
 about it which may have less than the natural quantity. The intricate 
 subject of the distribution of electricity and magnetism on the surfaces 
 of bodies of given forms, as spheres or spheroids, is however left un- 
 touched ; and though the results of the investigations, so far as they 
 extend, accord satisfactorily with phenomena, yet there remains an 
 unsurmounted difficulty in the fact that, when a body is deprived of 
 the electrical fluid, its particles are held together by cohesion, while 
 the theory requires that in such a state the particles should exert on 
 one another repulsive forces. 
 
 In the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for 1771, there is an elaborate 
 paper containing a mathematical theory of electricity, on the same 
 principles as those assumed by ^Epinus, which was written by 
 Air. Cavendish without any knowledge of what had been previously 
 done by the continental philosopher ; and an abridgement of the 
 Theory of jEpinus was published by M. Hauy in 1787, under the title 
 ' Exposition de la Thcorie de 1'ElectriciteV 
 
 uEpinus discovered the means of charging a plate of air with 
 electricity, when it is confined between two boards. He appears to 
 have directed his attention to mechanical subjects ; for he discovered 
 that when any forces, acting upon the arms of a balance, keep them in 
 equilibrio, the sum of the forces, decomposed in the direction of the 
 arms, is a maximum. 
 
 (Biographie Universelle. The brief notices of the discoveries of 
 iEpinus are taken from the works named above.) 
 
 ^ESCHINES, the Philosopher, was one of the scholars of Socrates, 
 and, as the story goes, the son of a sausage-maker. Three dialogues, 
 still extant, that have usually gone under his name, after passing 
 through the furnace of modem criticism, have been declared not to 
 be written by him. The language of these dialogues proves them 
 however to belong to an age when Greek was still written with great 
 purity. 
 
 iE'SCHINES, commonly called the Orator, was born at Athens, 
 B.C. 393. The name of ^Eschines's father was Atrometus. According 
 to the account of his enemies, he had been a slave, and had obtained 
 his freedom ; but his son asserts that he was a true-born Athenian. 
 However this may be, he was poor enough to be a schoolmaster, with 
 which Demosthenes upbraids his rival as if it were a low and sordid 
 profession. ^Eschines, when he was a little older, if we trust the 
 testimony of Demosthenes, became a kind of clerk to some of the 
 inferior magistrates. His next step was somewhat bolder : having a 
 good voice and a fine person, he tried his fortune on the stage. 
 Whether he stepped from the stage direct into the more busy theatre 
 of public life, we do not know; but he did finally come forward, 
 though not at an early age, as a public man. By having discharged 
 
 his functions as a clerk, and having been in the service of the orators 
 Aristophon and Eubulus in some similar capacity, ho had acquired 
 some knowledge of the laws of his country. In short, he was a bold 
 adventurer, gifted with many of those qualities that are calculated to 
 insure success in the dubious game of political warfare. 
 
 Only three orations of ilischines are extant, all of which relate to 
 important events in his public life. He was accused by Demosthenes, 
 one of his fellow ambassadors, of malversation and corruption in his 
 second embassy to King Philip, the object of which was to obtain 
 Philip's ratification of the treaty of peace, and to this attack he 
 replied in his oration entitled ' On Malversation in his Embassy.' 
 Timarchus, a friend of Demosthenes, had joined in the attack on 
 JEschines ; but the orator speedily rid himself of this adversary by 
 prosecuting him for a disreputable course of life. ^Eschiues gained 
 his cause, and Timarchus, according to some accounts, concluded the 
 affair by hanging himself. The oration on this subject is called 
 ' Against Timarchus.' The delay caused by the prosecution of Timar- 
 chus deferred the prosecution of ^Eschines till about three yaars after 
 his return from the second embassy, which was no doubt favourable 
 to the accused, as it tended to destroy the popular feeling against 
 -lEschines, who finally escaped from a verdict against him. Tho third 
 oration id entitled 'Against Ctesiphon,' but is in fact an attack on 
 Demosthenes, who replied iu his famous oration called 'The Crown.' 
 The pretext on which /Eschines attacked Ctesiphon wa3 this : — For 
 some public services which Demosthenes had rendered to the state, it 
 was proposed by Ctesiphon that he should receive a golden crown, 
 but this proposition was considered by iEschines to contain clauses 
 contrary to existing laws. He also denied the claim of Demosthenes 
 on the ground of public services. As eirly as B.C. 338, TEschines had 
 declared his intention to prosecute Ctesiphon, but the cause was not 
 tried till ls.c. 330, after the death of Philip, whilst Alexander was in 
 the mid>t of his Asiatic conquests. yEschiuea lost his cause, and not 
 having obtained one-fifth part of the votes of the jury, he was com- 
 pelled to leave Athens, being unable to pay the penalty in that case 
 required by the law. He retreated to the island of Rhodes, where, it 
 is said, he resumed the profession of his earlier days, by opening 
 classes for instruction in elocution, and became the founder of a 
 school of eloquence. Ha is said to have died at Samoa, B.C. 317. 
 [Demosthenes.] 
 
 The Greek and Roman critics considered the Rhodian school of 
 eloquence, of which ..Eschines was the reputed founder, to be charac- 
 terised by a happy mean between the florid Asiatic and the dry and 
 more sententious Athenian style. The style of ^Eschines is distin- 
 guished by great perspicuity and correctness of language. His 
 narrative and descriptive powers deserve high praise, nor are we 
 disposed to undervalue his powers of abuse, though in this he falls far 
 below his great rival. We have the strongest testimony to his per- 
 sonal qualifications as an orator, in the reluctant but unambiguous 
 manner iu which Demosthenes acknowledges his own inferiority. 
 
 There are numerous editions of ^Eschines : the latest and best, as 
 far as the mere text is concerned, is included in Bekker's edition o/ 
 the 'Attic Orators,' Oxford, 1822. One of the best editions of 
 ^Eschines alone is by J. H. Bremius, 1824, 2 vols., 8vo. The Abbe" 
 Auger translated the orations and letters of ^Eschines into French, 
 and inserted them in the second volume of his ' Demosthenes.' The 
 oration of ^Eschines against Ctesiphon, with the reply of Demosthenes, 
 was translated into Latin by Cicero, and into German by Fr. Raumer, 
 1811. The oration against Ctesiphon has been translated into English 
 by Portal and Leland. 
 
 There are twelve letters extant attributed to ^Eschines, the genuine- 
 ness of which, we fear, would not stand the test of a thorough 
 examination. It was usual, in the later ages of Greek literature, for 
 teachers of rhetoric to employ themselves on fictions of this kind. 
 
 ^E'SCHYLUS, the son of Euphorion, and a native of Eleusis in 
 Attica, was born about B.C. 525, and died in Sicily probably about 
 B.C. 456. As the great father of the Athenian drama, ^Eschylus 
 occupies one of the most prominent places in the history of the lite- 
 rature of his country. The particulars of his life that have come 
 down to us are however few and unimportant, with the exception that 
 he fought bravely in the battles of Marathon and Salamis. At 25 
 years of age he contended for the prize of Tragedy. In his 41st year 
 he gained his first victory, which was followed by twelve similar 
 triumphs. In his 57th year, indignant at the prize being awarded to 
 his younger rival, Sophocles, he retired to the court of Hiero, king of 
 Syracuse, who, being a patron of poets and learned men, had collected 
 around him the most illustrious writers of that day, such as Pindar 
 and Simonides. An odd story is told of the cause of the poet's death: 
 an eagle carrying off a tortoise let it fall on the great dramatist's head, 
 mistaking the bald pate for a stone. 
 
 Seven tragedies of iEschylus, out of a very Large number that he 
 wrote, still remain, entitled respectively, 'The Prometheus Bound,' 
 ' The Seven against Thebes,' ' The Persians,' ' The Female Suppliants,' 
 ' The Agamemnon,' 'Choephori' (libation-bearers), and ' Eumenides,' 
 or ' Furies.' The three last form a continuous drama or action, which 
 contains (1) the return of Agamemnon from Troy, and hi3 murder by 
 his wife Clytemnestra ; (2) the revenge of Orestes, the son of Aga- 
 memnon, who kills his mother and the adulterer ^Egisthus ; and (3) 
 the persecution of Orestes by the Furies, and his release th*- ,- efrom by 
 
49 
 
 .ESCULAPIUS. 
 
 J5S0PUS. 
 
 SO 
 
 the sentence of the high court of Areopagus, and the casting vote of 
 Minerva. It was usual with the candidates for the dramatic prize at 
 Athens to write three tragedies on some connected subject, to which 
 they added a fourth, called a satyric drama, ou some subject treated 
 in a tragi-comic style. The 'Prometheus Bound ' of /Eschylus belongs 
 to a set of this description, for we know that there was a play entitled 
 'Prometheus the Fire-stealer,' and a third named ' Prometheus 
 Loosed.' 
 
 The Greek drama, in it3 origin, consisted simply of a chorus or 
 company, who celebrated the festivals of a deity or hero by appro- 
 priate songs and dances. The introduction of a personage to tell 
 some story or history was an innovation, and the connecting this 
 narrator more closely with the choius was another step towards the 
 drama, a Greek word, which signifies an action, or, in its more 
 technical sense, the representation of a series of events ending in 
 some striking catastrophe. But vEschylus carried improvements still 
 further, by introducing a second speaker, and thus making the 
 dialogue, as it really is, the essential part of tragedy. To the chorus 
 however ^Eschylus still allowed a great degree of importance, as we 
 may see from his extant plays, in which the choral songs occupy a 
 large part. He adds also to stage effect by improving the dress of the 
 actors, and giving them masks. Thespis, his predecessor, went about 
 the country in a waggon, and daubed the faces of his company with 
 lees of wine. 
 
 The plot or plan of his plays is exceedingly simple ; the personages 
 are few in number, and the events follow one another without any 
 complexity or occasioning any great surprise. His language is always 
 forcible, and the dialogue clear where the Greek text has escaped 
 damage ; but unfortunately few works of ancient writers have suffered 
 more serious injury from frequent copying than the plays of ^Eschylus. 
 In consequence of this the choral parts are often exceedingly obscure, 
 and this obscurity is increased by the wild and gigantic conceptions 
 of the poet, which often seem as if they strove with the imperfections 
 of language, and endeavoured to find utterance by a heaping together 
 of strong epithets and the use of long compound words. In spite of 
 these defects, which make the poetry of ^Eschylus at time3 border ou 
 bombast, and afforded a fair subject of ridicule to Aristophanes in his 
 play called the ' Frogs,' we may often admire a real sublimity of con- 
 ception, a boldness of imagination, and a power to paint what is grand 
 and terrific, in language which for force, simplicity, and truth, has 
 never been surpassed. 
 
 The play of the 'Persians' derives a peculiar interest from being 
 the only extant Greek tragedy which treats of a subject contempora- 
 neous with the age of the writer. It wa3 written or acted probably 
 about eight years after the battle of Salamis, and may be considered 
 as the most durable monument of the defeat of the Asiatic invader. 
 The poet writes as he fought, with a noble spirit of patriotism. 
 
 There are numerous editions of the works of ^Eschylu3. The first 
 was printed at Venice in 1518, 8vo, at the press of Aldus, after his 
 death; but the 'Agamemnon' and 'Choephori' are both incomplete 
 in this edition, and what there is of the ' Agamemnon' is oddly enough 
 tagged to the ' Choephori,' which has lost its beginning, consequently 
 this edition contains only six plays. The best recent editions arc by 
 Well auer, Lips., 1S23; W.Dindorf, Lips.,1827; and Scholefield, Catnb., 
 1830. There is an English poetical version of zEschylus by John 
 Potter, and also several poetical versions of the 'Agamemnon.' A prose 
 version is published in ' Bohn's Classical Library.' The Germans have 
 several poetical translations of /Eschylus ; the latest is by Voss, 1826. 
 There is a translation of the 'Agamemnon' (1816) by William 
 Humboldt. 
 
 ./ESCULA'PIUS, or, according to the Greek form of his name, 
 Aiclepios, was the god of medicine in ancient mythology. Several 
 ^Esculapii are said to have existed ; and it would not be easy to deter- 
 mine whether tradition pointed to so many distinct persons, or merely 
 banded down different versions of the parentage of the same man. 
 Cicero mentions three : the first, son of Apollo, invented the probe, 
 and the art of bandaging wounds ; the second, son of Mercury, was 
 struck dead by lightning; the third was of mortal parentage, son of 
 Arsippus and Arsinoe, and first practised purging and tooth-drawing. 
 The Egyptians also had their ^Esculapius (as the Greeks call him), 
 the son of Hermes. Of the most important of these we proceed to 
 give a brief sketch. 
 
 Asclepios was the sou of Apollo by Coronis, daughter of Phlegyas. 
 Hia mother, having succeeded in concealing her pregnancy, exposed 
 the child upon Mount Myrtium, afterwards called Titthium, in Argolis, 
 near Epidaurus. A shepherd, missing his dog and one of his goats, 
 sought the wanderers throughout the country ; and at last found them, 
 the dog keeping watch over a child enveloped in flames, which the 
 goat was suckling. The herdsman, " thinking that it was something 
 divine," and being frightened, went away ; but he spread the marvel 
 abroad, and it was soon noised over all the globe that Asclepios could 
 Heal every disease, and besides bring the dead to life. 
 
 Another version of the story says that Apollo, in a fit of jealousy, 
 having caused the mother's death, the unborn child was snatched by 
 Mercury (or, according to Pindar, by Apollo himself) from her funeral 
 pile. This circumstance may be connected with the other story, which 
 assigns the parentage of ^Esculapius to Mercury. 
 
 According to Pindar, Apollo sent the child to be educated by the 
 BI00. D1V. VOL. L 
 
 Centaur Chiron, who instructed him in medicine, as at an after-period 
 he did Achilles. Having reached manhood, he went with Castor and 
 Pollux ou the Argonautic expedition. Returning to Greece, ho prac- 
 tised with eminent success ; not merely curing all diseases, but recalling 
 the dead to life. Among others, he did this service to Hippolytus, sou 
 of Theseus. The gods regarded this as an invasion of their privileges, 
 and at last Zeus (or Jupiter) struck the bold practitioner dead with 
 lightning, in consequence of a complaint lodged by Pluto, that the 
 infernal regions were depopulated by these new proceedings. Apollo 
 revenged the death of his sou by killing all the Cyclopes, who forged 
 thunderbolts for Zeus. Finally, Asclepios was raised to heaven, and 
 made a constellation, under the name of Ophiuchus, the serpent- 
 holder ; though some say that Ophiuchus is Hercules. 
 
 In the latter ages of paganism, when scepticism was very prevalent, 
 and it was the fashion to see allegory in every mythological story, the 
 whole was thus explained : — iEsculapius signified the air, the medium 
 of health and life. The Sun was his father, because the sun, shaping 
 his course agreeably to the changes of the seasons, produces a healthy 
 state of the atmosphere. The same spirit is visible in the names given 
 to his daughters, which all but one bear reference to the father's art: 
 — Hygieia, health ; Panakeia, universal remedy ; Iaso, healing ; Aigle, 
 splendour. 
 
 In Greece, the original seat of Asclepios's worship was in the neigh- 
 bourhood of his birthplace at Epidaurus, where a splendid temple was 
 erected to his honour, adorned with a chryselephantine (or gold and 
 ivory) statue. He was represented sitting ; one hand holding a staff, 
 the other resting on a serpent's head ; a dog couched at his feet. In 
 coins and other ancient remains he is commonly seen with a long beard, 
 holding a staff with a serpent twined about it. Often he is accompanied 
 by a cock ; sometimes by an owl. The cock was commonly sacrificed 
 to him. These animals seem meant to typify the qualities which a 
 physician should possess ; the owl being emblematic of wisdom, the 
 cock of vigilance, the serpent of sagacity, and, besides, of long iife. 
 The serpent was especially sacred to Asclepios. At Epidaurus there 
 was a peculiar breed of yellowish-brown snakes, of large size, harmless, 
 and easily tamed, which frequented the temple, and iu the form of 
 which the god was supposed to manifest himself. In this shape he 
 was conveyed to Sicyon, and at a later period, about B.C. 400, to Rome, 
 when that city, being afflicted by pestilence, sent an embassy, at the 
 command of an oracle, to fetch Asclepios to their help. On the 
 ambassadors being introduced into the temple, a serpent came from 
 under the statue, and glided through the city, and on board their ship. 
 Arriving in the Tiber, he swam ashore to the island upon which his 
 temple afterwards was built. A few inscriptions have been found in 
 this island relating cures, and the means employed. The means are 
 of such a nature that the cures must have been impostures, or have 
 been wrought by the force of imagination. It was customary to place 
 similar inscriptions in all temples of Asclepios. At Epidaurus there 
 were stones in the sacred precinct erected in commemoration of cures 
 performed by the god, recording in the Doric dialect the names and 
 diseases of the patients, and detailing the methods of cure employed. 
 Six of these remained when Pausanias visited the place, and, besides, 
 an ancient pillar, commemorating the gift of twenty horses by 
 Hippolytus, iu gratitude for his restoration to life. 
 
 Of the extent of Asclepios's knowledge, and of his method of practice, 
 or rather of that which prevailed in the early ages before the Trojan 
 war, we know little. His sons, Maebaon and Podaleirios, who fought 
 before Troy, and are often mentioned iu Homer, seem only to have 
 meddled with external injuries. Pindar, in a passage of rather doubtful 
 meaning, seems to confine the father's skill within the same limits, 
 when he speaks of him as healing those afflicted with self-produced 
 ulcers, wounds from brass or stone, or injuries from summer heat or 
 cold. His remedies, ou the same authority, were incantations, soothing 
 drinks, external applications, and the knife. There is a remarkable 
 passage iu which Plato ('Rep.,' iii. § 14), inveighing against the 
 effeminacy of his own times, contrasts the attention of physicians to 
 diet, exercise, &c, with the negligence of the sons of Asclepios in 
 these respects ; quoting a passage from Homer, in which Machaon, 
 returning from battle severely wounded, partakes immediately of a 
 mess of meal and cheese, mixed up in strong Pramnian wine. (' II.,' 
 xi. 6L!U.) 
 
 For some centuries after the Trojan war medical science, if it deserves 
 that name, seems to have been confined to the temples of Asclepios, in 
 which his descendants, the Asclepiadaj, who formed the priesthood, 
 were alone allowed to practise ; until in later times pupils were admitted 
 into the brotherhood, having been solemnly initiated, and sworn to 
 conform to its rules. The most celebrated temples, besides that at 
 Epidaurus, were those of Rhodes, Cnidos, and Cos, where Hippocrates, 
 a native of tho island, is said to have profited by the records preserved 
 in tho temple. Croton and Cyrene also possessed schools of medicine. 
 The practice seems to have buen intended chiefly to work ou the 
 imagination. The god often gave his own prescriptions in dreams and 
 visions, and the patients were to be prepared by religious rites for this 
 diviue intercourse. 
 
 ^ESO'PUS, now commonly called xEsop, a Grecian author, who lived 
 about the middle of the 6th century before Christ, contemporary with 
 Solon and Pisistratus. He is usually acknowledged as the inventor 
 of those short moral fictions to which we especially approm-iate tho 
 
 E 
 
I] 
 
 iESOPUS. 
 
 AETIU8. 
 
 name of 'Fables.' The popular stories of him are derived from a 'Life ' 
 written and prefixed to a collection of Fables, bearing the name of 
 vEsop, by Maximus Planudes, a Constantinopolitan monk, about the 
 middle of the 14th century. This contains a distorted view of the 
 few incidents Ifi his history which can be said to bo known, mixed 
 with a long series of dull buffoonery, and improbable or impossible 
 adventures; and represents .Esop himself as a monster of personal 
 deformity, apparently for the sake of contrasting his wit and acuteuess 
 with his bodily defects. This life is now given up, by general consent, 
 as totally unworthy of credit. There is no allusion to these personal 
 peculiarities in any classical author, and strong negative reasons have 
 been urged for behoving that none such existed. See Bentley's 
 Dissertation upon xEsop/ subjoined to that upon Phalaris. 
 the place of his birth, like that of Homer, is matter of question • 
 bamos, Sardis, Gotixum in Phrygia, and Mesembria in Thrace, layinc 
 c airn alike . to that honour. The early part of his life was spent in 
 slavery and the names of three of his masters have been preserved ■— 
 Dmarchus, an Athenian, in wliose service he is said to have acquired a 
 correct and pure knowledge of Greek ; Xanthus, a Samian, who figures 
 in 1 lanudes as a philosopher ; and ladmon, or Idmon, another Samian 
 by whom he was enfranchised. He acquired a high reputation iu 
 Greece for that species of composition which, after him, was called 
 -Lsopiau, and in consequence was solicited by Crcesus to take up his 
 abode at the Lydian court. Here he is said to have met Solon, and 
 to have rebuked the sage for his uucourtly way of inculcatiu" moral 
 lessons. ° 
 
 YEsop is said to have visited Athens during the usurpation of 
 1 lsistratus, and to have composed the fable of 'Jupiter and the Frogs' 
 for the instruction of the citizens. (Phxdrus, i. 2.) Being charged 
 by Croesus with an embassy to Delphi, in the course of which he was 
 to distribute a sum of money to every Delphian, a quarrel arose between 
 bim and the citizens, in consequence of which he returned the money 
 to his patron, alleging that those for whom it was meant were unworthy 
 of it. The disappointed party in return got up a charge of sacrilege 
 upon which they put him to death. A pestilence which ensued was 
 attributed to this crime, aud in consequence they made proclamation 
 at all the public assemblies of the Grecian nation, of their willingness 
 to make compensation for -Esop's death to any one who should appear 
 to claim it. A grandson of his master ladmon at length claimed and 
 received it, no person more closely connected with the sufferer having 
 appeared. 1 his singular tale rests on the authority of Herodotus 
 
 The time of ^Esop's death is uncertain. Some place it as early as 
 the 53rd Olympiad, about b.c. 565. If however there be auy truth 
 in the scattered notices which we have combined, he was at Athens 
 during the usurpation of Pisistratus, and met with his death in the 
 service of Croesus, and therefore before the capture of Sardis and fall 
 L y ,han , k'ngdom. This, according to Newton's chronology, 
 would fix his death in the 57th or 58th Olympiad, between the years 
 B.C. 5o0 and 554. The Athenians erected to his honour a statue from 
 the hand of the celebrated sculptor Lysippus. 
 
 There is abundant proof t hat fables passing under the name of .Esop 
 were current and popular in Athens during the most brilliant period 
 ot its literary history, and not much more than a century after the 
 death of the supposed author. The 'drolleries of /Esop ' (A<Va,™a 
 7*Aom) are mentioned by Aristophanes in terms which lead us to 
 suppose that they were commonly repeated at convivial parties 
 Socrates in prison, turned into verse "those that he knew " and 
 Plato, who banishes the fictions of Homer from his ideal republic 
 speaks with high praise of the tendency of those of ;Esop. Demetrius 
 Pbalereus made a collection of yEsopean fables ; aud we hear of two 
 metrical versions of them of still later date, one by an anonymous 
 author, the other by Babrius. Phjedrus published a collection of 
 fables in Latin verse in the time of Tiberius, the materials of which 
 he professes to have taken from iEsop ; and it is not improbable that 
 the nearest approach to the substance of the original apologues may 
 there be found. Another collection was written in elegiac verse hi 
 the 4th century, by Avienus. 
 
 There is no ground whatever for believing that the Greek prose 
 fables which pass under the name of ^Esop are really of his compo- 
 w ion- at least, that they came from his hands in their present state 
 lhose which are substantially the same with the fables of Phsfedrua 
 the oldest to which we can assign a certain date, may be believed, for 
 the reasons already assigned, to have originally emanated from the 
 Grecian author. I he total number of them is about 200 or 300 and 
 they may be divided into two principal parcels : those published 
 by Planudes, in number 144, which contain internal evidence that, as 
 Jar as composition is concerned, they are of late date, and probably 
 written by Planudes himself; aud a second collection, of 136, first 
 publrshed m 1610 by Neveletus from manuscripts at Heidelberg It 
 is to be observed that not one of these manuscripts contains the fables 
 published by Planudes; and that the editor expresses his belief that 
 they are the work of different hands. Some he attributes to the 
 monks because they contain allusions to the monastic life, which is 
 at least sufficient evidence of their late date. This edition, which is 
 !,n S ° r . ?! ^'Y'sfo^lwum, contains 297 fables ascribed to ^Esop, and 
 40 ot the rhetorician Aphthouius, who lived in the 3rd century 
 besides various metrical versions in Greek and Latin. 
 The eastern philosopher and fabulist Lokman is supposed by many 
 
 63 
 
 to have been the same person as TEsop. The former, by the Moham- 
 medan authorities, is made contemporary with David and Solomon- 
 but his history is too uncertain for us to speculate upon it. The same 
 fables are to be found current under the names of each, and the cor- 
 respondence between their personal histories, as commonly told, is too 
 close to be entirely accidental. [Babiuus; Lokman.] Many transla- 
 tions of the fables attributed to yEsop have been made in most modern 
 languages : the most recent English translation is by the liev. Thomas 
 James. 
 
 AETION ('AenW), a celebrated Greek painter, and, according to 
 Lucian, one of the best ancient colourists. That writer mentions 
 Action, Apclles, Euphranor, and Polygnotus, as the most successful 
 of tho ancient Greek painters in the mixing aud laying on of colours. 
 Action's exact time is uncertain, although, from the manner in which 
 he is mentioned by Lucian, notwithstanding the names he is associated 
 with, he lived probably in Lucian's own time, or at most very shortly 
 before him. He speaks of him as the most distinguished painter of 
 his time, and describes a very celebrated picture by him of the marriage 
 of Alexander and Koxana, which the painter exhibited at the Olympic 
 games, and which pleased Proxenidas, one of the judges, so much that 
 he gave Action his daughter in marriage. " It may be asked," says 
 Lucian, " what was there so marvellous in that painting, as should 
 induce a man of such high rank to reward the painter, who withal 
 was a stranger, by bestowing on him his daughter ? Tho picture is 
 still in Italy, and I am able to Bpeak of it from personal inspection. 
 It represents an extremely magnificent bed-chamber with a nuptial 
 bed. Iu it is seen sitting Koxaua, the most beautiful virgin that can 
 be conceived. Her eyes arc modestly fixed on the ground before 
 Alexander, standing near her. She is surrounded by several smiling 
 Cupids. One of them behind her lifts up the bridal veil from her 
 forehead, and shows it to the bridegroom. Another, in the attitudo 
 of a slave, is officiously employed in drawing off her shoes, that she 
 may no longer bo detained from lying down. A third has hold of 
 Alexander's robe, pulling him with all his might towards Boxana. 
 The king presents the maiden with a crown, and beside him stands 
 Hephfcstion as a brideman, holding a lighted torch in his hand, sup- 
 ported by a wonderfully fine youth, whom I guess to represent the 
 god of marriage, for the name is not beneath. On the other side of 
 the piece aredrawn several more Cupids, playing with the arms of 
 Alexander. Two of them carry his spear, and seem almost overbur- 
 dened with the weight of it. Another couple take his buckler, with a 
 figure like the king Btretched upon it, trailing it along by the handles. 
 Another creeps backwards into the coat of mail, where he seems to 
 lurk iu order to frighten the two little porters as they come on." 
 "These collateral incidents," continues Lucian, "are by no means 
 the mere wantonness and idle sport of the artist's fancy ; they are to 
 show the martial disposition of the bridegroom, and that his love for 
 Boxana had not effaced his passion for arms and military elorv" 
 (Tooke's Translation.) 
 
 From tli is description Baphael is said to have made a design, of 
 which there are duplicates or copies, aud it was executed in fresco in 
 the so-called Villa of Baphael, iu the garden of the Villa Borghese at 
 Borne ; but the composition is puerile, and does not at all merit the 
 praises which Luciau has given to the ancient performance of Aetion : 
 it has been several times etched or engraved by J. Caraglio, Volpato 
 and others. ' 
 
 Lucian in the above description remarks, that he guesses a fine 
 youth to represent the god of marriage, as "the name is not beneath." 
 He alludes to an ancient custom which prevailed among the Greeks, 
 of attaching the names in their pictures to the figures represented •' 
 the names in most cases were probably written below the feet of the 
 figure. In the pictures on vases we find the name sometimes written 
 by the side of the figure, but the practice was not universal. Iu this 
 case, from Lucian's remark, it would seem that some of the figures 
 had names attached to them, as he speaks of the other characters with 
 certainty, and guesses only at the god of marriage, because there was 
 no name attached. It was a practice however seldom if at all had 
 recourse to in later times, and in case of its employment the name was 
 probably so placed as not to disturb the pictorial effect. Sometimes 
 sentences were inscribed on pictures, as for instance Zeuxis wrote 
 upon his picture of Helen three lines from Homer, celebrating her 
 extraordinary beauty. ('Iliad,' iii. 150-158 ; Valerius Maximus, iii. 7 
 § 3.) There are similar examples on works of the middle ages, and 
 also of much later times: inscriptions below allegories are very 
 common. 
 
 The circumstance that Pliny has not mentioned Aetion is an addi- 
 tional reason for concluding that he lived about Lucian's own time, or 
 in the early. half of the 2nd century of our era, subsequent to Pliny. 
 Some however have supposed that the Echion of Pliny and Cicero is 
 the Aetion of Lucian, especially as the former was celebrated for a 
 picture of a bride distinguished for the modesty of her expression ; 
 but this implies a great blunder in Lucian, who speaks of him as a 
 painter of his own time, aud there is no sufficient reason for such a 
 supposition. 
 
 (Luciau, Herodotus or Aetion, Dc Mercede Conductis, 42, and Imag. 7; 
 Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 10, 36 ; Cicero, Brutus, 18 ; Parad. v. 2.) 
 
 AE'TIUS ('Actios), of Amida in Mesopotamia, a Greek writer on 
 medicine, who probably lived about the end of the 5th and the begin- 
 
AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE. 
 
 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 64 
 
 nin" of the 6th century of our era, as we may infer from the persons 
 whom he mentions in his work. He studied medicine at Alexandria, 
 then the seat of the most celebrated medical school, and afterwards 
 he went to Constantinople, where he appears to have been raised to a 
 high office at the court, since Photius (' Biblioth. Cod.' 221) calls him 
 hums tyixlov, comes obsequii, a title belonging to the principal officer 
 attending on the emperor. Aetius was a Christian, but not free from 
 the superstitions which at that time were introduced into Christianity 
 from Egypt, and which were connected with his profession. His work 
 contains some curious examples of the pretension to cure diseases by 
 means of superstitious ceremonies. The work of Aetius which has 
 come down to us entire bears the title of BifJAi'a larpuca or fiifix'iov 
 \arput6v, and consists of 16 books. The whole however was afterwards 
 divided by some editor into four sections, each of which contained 
 four books, from which the work is also called Tetrabibli (TerpdfliPXoi). 
 According to Photius (1. a), who gives a brief summary of the work, 
 it is a compilation made from the writings of Oribasius, Galen, Archi- 
 gene3, Rufus, Dioscorides, Herodotus, and other eminent medical 
 authors; but the compilation is made with judgment, and Aetius 
 appears to have introduced into it some original matter. The book 
 is a kind of systematic encyclopaedia of medicine, embracing the whole 
 ran?e of medical and surgical knowledge of the ancients. A complete 
 edition of the Greek original has never been published. The first 
 eight books appeared at Venice (1534, fol.), and particular chapters 
 have been edited at different times. Complete translations of the 
 whole work appeared at Venice (1534, 4to., 1543, &c, 8vo.), Basle 
 (1534 and 1539, fol.), Lyon (1549, fol.), and at Paris (1567, fol.) 
 among H. Stephens's ' Medicae Artis Priucipes.' — (Fabricius, ' Biblioth. 
 Groec.' ix. p. 228, &c, where a full account of the modern literature 
 on Aetius is given.) 
 
 AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE, archbishop of Paris, was born at 
 St.-Rome, in the department of Tain, Sept. 27, 1793. At an early 
 age he evinced a desire to devote himself to the Church, and he 
 became a student at the seminary of St.-Sulpice. He was ordained 
 priest in 1 SIS, and discharged a variety of ecclesiastical functions till 
 he became archbishop of Paris in 1840. Although a man of ability 
 and learning, and the author of several treatises (amongst which was 
 one on Egyptian hieroglyphics), he would scarcely have found a 
 place in the history of his time3, but for the lamentable circumstance 
 of his death on the 27th June, 1848. Paris was then the scene of a 
 fearful contest between the soldiery and a vast body of insurgents. 
 The archbishop wa3 induced to apply to General Cavaiynac, proposing 
 to stand between the contending bodies as a messenger of peace. 
 The general told him that the course was full of danger. " My life," 
 he replied, " is of small consequence." Some hours afterwards the 
 firing of the soldiery having ceased at his desire, the archbishop 
 mouuted a barricade erected at the entrance of the Faubourg St. 
 Antoine : he was preceded by M. Albert, a national guard, wearing a 
 workman's dress, carrying in his hand a green brauch as an emblem 
 of peace ; and he had at his side a faithful servant named Pierre 
 Sellier. The devoted ecclesiastic was not received with the confidence 
 that he expected to inspire. Some indeed of the combatants stretched 
 out their hands, but others remained silent, while others groaned and 
 hooted. The prelate endeavoured to speak a few words ; but the 
 insurgents, fancying themselves betrayed, opened a fire upon the Garde 
 Mobile, and the archbishop fell. Then a cry of horror went up from 
 the crowd, and many, even of the insurgents, rushed to his aid. 
 Albert and Sellier were leading him away, when Sellier was also 
 struck by a ball. The insurgents who surrounded the archbishop 
 cried out that the Garde Mobile had .inflicted the wound, and that 
 they would avenge him. " No, no, my friends," he replied ; " there 
 has been blood enough shed; let mine be the la«t that is spilt." He 
 was carried to the archiepiscopal palace, and died the same day. The 
 National Assembly issued a decree announcing its profound grief at 
 the event of hi3 death, and his public fuueral took place on the 7th 
 of July, amidst the deepest feelings of popular regret. (Nuuvelle 
 Biographie Univenelle, 1852.) 
 
 AFRICAN US, LEO. [Leo, John.] 
 
 AFRICANCS, SEXTUS C^ECILHIS, a Roman jurist. Many 
 excerpts from his Nine Books of ' Quacstiones' are Contained in the 
 'Digest.' He was a pupil or friend of Salvius Julianus, whose 
 opinions he often cites. ('Digest' 25, tit. 3, s. 3.) This fixes the 
 period of Africanus to the reign of Hadrian, who died a.d. 138, and 
 to that of his successor Antoninus Pius. As Julianus belonged to 
 the legal sect of the Sabiniaui, it is probable that Afric:inus also 
 did. Aulus Gellius (xx. 1) has given the substance of a discussion 
 between Sextus Caecilius, a distinguished jurist, and Favorinus, a 
 philosopher, on the Tvvolve Tables; and the date of the Twelve 
 Tables i3 fixed in this discussion as near 700 years prior to the 
 time of Gellius. As Gellius probibly was not living later than 
 A-D. 170, arid the Laws of the Twelve Tables were finally euacte 1 
 B.C. 449, the number of 700 is too much by a century for the age of 
 Gellius. This error is no objection to our concluding that the Sextus 
 Oaeciliua mentioned by Gellius is Sextus Caicilius Afncanus. Lam- 
 pridiug ('Alex. Sev.' 68) makes Africauus a disciple of Papiuian and 
 a friend of Alexander Severn*, but Cujacius exposes the anachronism 
 by an extract from Africanus founded on a legal maxim which was no 
 longer in force in the time of Papiuian. The Excerpts of Africauus 
 
 treat of many subtle legal points, and have been well illustrated by 
 Cujacius ('Opera,' torn, i , tract 9). 
 
 AFRICANUS, SliXTUS JULIUS, a Christian writer of the 3rd 
 century, is considered by some authors to have been a native of 
 Africa, and was, according to Cave, bishop of Emmaus, a.d. 232. 
 Clavier, in the 'Biographie Uuiverselle,' makes him the descendant 
 of an African family, and born in Palestine. Between 218 and 222 
 Africauus was employed in an embassy to the Emperor lleliogabalus 
 for the restoration of Emmaus, which city, in consequence of his 
 entreaties, was rebuilt under the name of Nicopolis. He attended the 
 lectures of Bishop Heraclius at Alexandria before the year 231. 
 
 Eusebius ascribes to Africanus a work which contains, under the 
 title 'Kesti' (embroidered girdles), a collection of passages from 
 various authors, chiefly on physical and mathematical questions, and 
 topics which belong to domestic economy ; medicine, botany, miuera- 
 logy, and the military sciences. Fragments of this work are printed 
 among the 'Mathematical Veteres,' Taris, 1693, folio, and reprinted 
 in the 7th volume of the works of Meursius, Florence, 1746, but it is 
 not quite certain whether this work contains the real ' Kesti ' of 
 Africanus. The section on the military art has been translated by 
 Guischardt, in his ' Memoires Militaires des Grecs et des Romains*' 
 1758, 4to. There is a translation by Africauus of the book of Abdias 
 of Babylon, under the title ' Historia Certaminis Apostolici,' 1566, 8vo. 
 
 Africauus wrote a chronological work in five sections under the 
 title of ' Pentabiblos,' containing, as some learned men think, an 
 abridgment and a continuation of Manetho's work. The ' Pentabiblos ' 
 was a sort of universal history, composed to prove the antiquity of 
 true religion and the novelty of paganism. Fragments of this chro- 
 nology are extant in the works of Eusebius, Syucellus, Malala, 
 Theophaues, Cedrenus, and in the ' Chronicon Paschale.' The ' Penta- 
 biblos' commences with the creation, B.C. 5499, and closes with A.D. 
 221. The chronology of Africanus places the birth of Christ three 
 years before the commencement of our era. But under the reigu of 
 Diocletian ten years were taken from the number which had elapsed, 
 and thus the computation of the churches of Alexandria and Antioch 
 were reconciled. According to Fabricius, ' Bibl. Gr.,' ed. nova, viii. 
 p. 9, there exists at Paris a manuscript coutaining an abstract of the 
 ' Pentabiblos.' Scaliger has borrowed, in his edition of Eusebius, the 
 chronology of Africauus extant in ' Geo. Syncelli Chrouographia ab 
 Adamo ad Dioclesianum, h, Jac. Goar, Gr. et Lat.,' Paris, 1652, fol. 
 
 Africanus wrote a learned letter to Origen, in which he disputes the 
 authenticity of the apocryphal history of Susannah. This letter has 
 been printed at Basle, in Greek and Latin, lo'74, 4to. A great part 
 of another letter of Africanus to Aristides, reconciling the disagree- 
 ment between the genealogies of Christ in Matthew and Luke, is 
 extant in Eusebius's ' Ecclesiastical History.' Iu order to reconcile 
 the difference between the genealogies, he has recourse to the law of 
 adoption among the Jews, by which brothers were obliged to marry 
 the wives of their brothers who died without children. 
 
 The fact of a man so learned aud intelligent as the chronologer 
 Africauus being a Christian, refutes the error of those who think that 
 all Christians in the first centuries of our era were illiterate. The 
 criticisms of Airicanus upon the apocryphal books seem to attest that 
 he did not receive the canonical writings of the New Testament 
 without previous examination ; and from his manner of reconciling 
 the different genealogies of Christ, it appears certain that he recog- 
 nised the authenticity of the Gospels in which they occur. 
 
 AGAMEMNON, king of Mycenaj, and commauder-iu-chief of tho 
 Grecian army at tho siege of Troy. According to the fabulous 
 genealogies of the poets, he was fourth in descent from Jupiter, and 
 grandson to Pelops, who came from Asia into Greece, aud laid the 
 foundation of a new dynasty of princes, which soon supplanted the 
 older race of the Danai. Pelops acquired the kingdom of Pisa by 
 marriage. Atreus, sou of Pelops, being banished from his father's 
 house for having slain his brother Chrysippus, fled to Mycenae, whero 
 his sister's son Eurystheus, grandson of Perseus, then reigned. He 
 ingratiated himself so much with the people, that he was chosen king 
 on the death of Eurystheus, and left the sceptre to his eldest sou 
 (or, some have said, grandson) Agamemnon. The dominion of 
 Mycenai comprehended the northern part of Argolis, Corinth and 
 Sicyou, with the territories anuexed to them, aud -lEgialoa, afterwards 
 called Achaia ; thus including the whole northern coast of Pelopon- 
 nesus. Jlenelaus, second sou of Atreus, obtained the kingdom of 
 Lacedxmon by marriage with Helena, daughter of Tyndareus aud 
 Lcda. The southern aud larger portion of Argolis, though governed 
 by a mouareh of its own, was probably dependent to a great degree 
 on its more powerful neighbour of Mycenso. It does not appear who 
 inherited the kingdom of Pisa after Pelops; none of the four chiefs 
 who led the Eleiaus to Troy were of his family, so that the degree of 
 influence which the Pelopid princes possessed over Elis can hardly be 
 ascertained. A large portion of Messeuia, according to Stiabo, was 
 occupied by colonists who followed Pelop.s from Asia. Thus, in at 
 least four, probably iu five, of the six principal divisions of Pelopon- 
 nesus (Arcadia being the one excepted), the house of Atreus had a 
 direct family interest aud influence. 
 
 The history of Agamemnon, before the Trojan war, is comprised in 
 two sentences : he was the sou of Atreus, whence he aud his brother 
 were called AtmUc; and he married Clyteinnestra, sister of Helen. 
 
The Trojan war arose out of the abduction of Helen hy Paris other- 
 wise called Alexandres, son of Priam, king of Troy. It is commonly 
 mud that a number of the princes of Greece having been drawn 
 together as suitors by the extraordinary beauty of Helen, Tyndareus 
 exacted an oath from then,, that on whomsoever the choice should 
 fall, if the maid should be carried off all the rest should unite to 
 recover her; and that, in virtue of this oath, the confederate princes 
 assembled under the command of Agamemnon. In reference to this 
 
 2u .'.'T J T f ex P ressed his belipf > " that Agamemnon got 
 
 together that fleet, not so much for that he bad with the suitor 
 
 of Helena bound th-vlo by oath to Tyndareu , „ forthi that he 
 exceeded the rest in power." In continuation, the historian lays 
 great stress upon his naval power, as evinced by his being, in Homer's 
 words, king Of many islands," and by his leading sixty ships to the 
 Arcadians, besides conducting a hundred filled with his own followers 
 a larger number than was led by any other chief 
 
 The assembled fleet was detained at Aulis by contrary winds The 
 
 Tverted fn^V, ", lg , C0,,9 " ltcd ««• «W* <>f the gods might be 
 
 averted, and the de ay obviated, declared that Iphigenia, daughter of 
 Agamemnon who had incurred the displeasure of Diana by killing 
 
 leluc ance of the lather was overcome by importunity and ambition: 
 and the intended victim was summoned to Aulis, under pretence erf 
 betrothing her to Achilles. At the point of death she was miraculously 
 saved by Diana, whose priestess she afterwards became among a savage 
 
 h£ 6 , c 'i 1 le - d the T aml TI,iH st0 'y is rM »<y 
 
 Homci nor Hesiod ; ft rests however on the early authority of Pindar 
 ( Pytn., 11.) and iEschylus; and is pregnant with too important con- 
 sequences to be omitted, since the alienation of Clytemnestra from 
 her husband is said by those authors to have originated in her horror 
 n "" at " ral actlou - The siege of Troy was protracted for ten 
 yearn I he most memorable event of it is the quarrel between 
 Agamemnon and Achilles, the subject of the 'lliad, ! in which Aea- 
 memnon placed himself completely in the wrong. Homer represents 
 bun as brave and expert in arms, insomuch, that when a Grecian 
 warrior was selected by lot who should contend with Hector in single 
 combat, it was the general prayer that the lot might fall on Aiax 
 I lomedes or Agamemnon. .Still it is as the command,,-, rather than 
 as the soldier that he ,s presented to our notice, and usually with 
 
 -me reference to his wealth and power : 'king of men' is the distin- 
 finishing epithet constantly added to his namefas 'swift-footed' is , 
 
 Oljmpian god has given strength to the descendants of .Eacus 
 wealth to those of Atreus. Returning from Troy, with CaasandS 
 
 e f?,f er ° f fPT' 116 WaS mUrdered ^ biB wh0 "»d formed 
 Thi« ^7 US , atta ° h ^ eUt J? ^Bthns, son of his uncle Thyeste. 
 S«f « P * e V h ° SllbjeCt 0f tl,e 'Agamemnon' of ,Eschylus, 
 one of the most sublime compositions in the range of the Grecian 
 
 carZ huT 6S ' 80 ? ft ° f A ^ ai — t'^n a child^was saved by he 
 caie of his tutor After passing seven years in exile, he returned in 
 
 . H filtber S ^ by the "H* te * ° f -other and 
 ot^Lgisthus, and recovered his paternal kingdom, which he ruled 
 with honour. These legends of the hou.e of Agamemnon formed a 
 favourite subject with the Greek tragedians " 
 
 known AS Tlf,: 1°?* SCU,| l t ^' ° f E P he9us < who * e W « not accurately 
 known. The statue now at Rome called the Borghese Fighter which 
 is a fine specimen of skill in representing a figure in ac for, , m Wso 
 shows a careful study of external anatomy, is the work of his Iga'ias 
 Greek - ^SJ^ ^J^l is the m "™S inscription in 
 
 *AG'A~ssiz e t mnl son ° f PSP"" of E P hesus made it: 
 
 the pre,™ 1 H * * f the ™st distinguished naturalists of 
 cne present day. He was born about the beginning of the present 
 century, in Switzerland, and was for many yeais Professor of ^Natural 
 History at Neufchatel. About the year ftfi he accep cd a» nvit ion 
 to become professor in an American college, and he is now Professor 
 of Natural History at Cambridge, Massachusetts. His public career as 
 a naturalist da es from 1828, in which year he publkhed desSont 
 of two new fishes in the ' Isis ' and 'LWa,' two foreign Ter oSs 
 devoted to natural history. In 1829 he assisted Spix and Mart fin 
 describing the genera and species of fishes found in the Ms l " 
 
 Lrr raS ° v' 6 find - the gl ' eat transcendental anatomUt Oken 
 bnngn g Agassiz's discoveries before the Berlin meeting of Gel- man 
 
 ^* hi8 , tiQie , ti]1 ™ his publications upon varfou 
 departments ol ichthyology have been constant and most important 
 Amongst the most valuable of these contributions to the k n oX g e of 
 fishes, may be reckoned his researches upon fossil fishes. The Suits 
 of these researches have been published in various forms in the "natural 
 history journals of the day, and in the Transactions of scientific ^societies 
 2S rf these labours have been directed to the sUata of 
 
 b S B t l l a * n ' f Zl ^7 0i Z hlch ""J** iu the remain * ^ Ashes belong- 
 ing to the past periods of the world's history. In 1834 he published a 
 
 E°A the .' F0 '° si . 1 Fi f h of Scotland,' i/the ' TransactiS of the 
 
 he as published 011 t01 ' f & f d r C6ment ° f SdenCe ' SiHCe that time 
 184 V Z ■ d : , , eVeral Va uabIe Pal* 1,8 in the same Transactions. In 
 
 H st D v T Ti! +1°' i ° f th / S eo,0 S ical formations. [Fish, in Nat. 
 of the old n i q C ? Ume . for 1842 ' a re P° rt a PP eared on the 'Fishes 
 of the Old Red-Sandstone,' and in 1844 a report upon those found in 
 
 AGASSIZ, LOUIS. 
 
 SO 
 
 the Lo n d on CIay- Agasaiz waa the first to propose the division of 
 lossil fishes according to the forms of their scales, and has thus placed 
 in the hands of the paleontologist a ready means of distinguishing bv 
 their scales alone, fishes belonging to the Cartilaginous and Osseous 
 tribes. His papers ou this subject will be found in the 13th and 14th 
 volumes of the second series of the ' Annalcs des Sciences Naturelles ' 
 
 ."IJ I £ ra £ teS l l( : ndu8 ' for 1840 > and ^ the 28th volume of the 
 Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.' His researches have not 
 however been confined to fossil fishes; and numerous papers scattered 
 through the scientific periodicals of Europe and America attest his 
 knowledge of recent as well as fossil forms. 
 
 Another family in both their recent and fossil forms, has attracted 
 the attention of AgaesiZ, and these are the Star-Fishes, or Echino- 
 dermata His researches upon this family have resulted in a great 
 work containing illustrative figures, entitled ' Monographes d'Echiuo- 
 derates Vivans et Fossiles,' and published in parts, from 1837 to 1842 
 Several papers on this family attest the zeal and care with which he' 
 has studied these animals, which have through successive periods of 
 time played an important part amongst the organic beings of the globe 
 
 Although the attention of Professor Agassiz has been chiefly directed 
 to objects not requiring microscopic investigation, he has successfully 
 investigated many of the forms of Infusoria, which are only seen by 
 means of this instrument. He was not only one of the earliest to 
 confirm Mr. Shuttleworth's curious discovery of the existence of 
 animalcules among the red snow of the Alps, but also to point out 
 the existence of higher forms of animal life (such as the Roll/era) 
 than ha<l been suspected by that observer. [Snow, Run, in Nat 
 rli.yr. Diy.j I,, some recent researches upon the habits and structure 
 Of animalcules, he has even proposed to abolish the class of Infusoria 
 altogether endeavouring to show that all these beings may be placed 
 amongst the J'oh/i.ifcra, R/nzopoda, plants, and ova of higher animals 
 [Infusoria, in Nat. Hist. Dir.] 
 
 His researches upon fossil animals would naturally draw his attention 
 to the circumstances by which they have been placed in their present 
 position J ho geologist has beeu developed as the result of natural ' 
 history studies. Surrounded by the ice-covered mountains of Switzer- 
 land, his mind was naturally led to the study of the phenomena which 
 they presented. The moving glaciers, and their resulting morains, 
 furnished him with facts which seemed to supply the theory of a large 
 number of phenomena in the past history of the world. He saw in 
 other parts of the world, whence glaciers have long since retired 
 proofs of their existence in the parallel roads and terraces, at the bases 
 o. hills and mountains, and in the scratched, polished, and striated 
 surface of rocks. Although this theory has been applied much moro 
 extensively than is consistent with all the facts of particular cases by 
 his disciples, there is no question iu the minds of the most competent 
 geologists of the present day that Agassiz has, by his researches ou 
 this subject, pointed out the cause of a large series of geological pheno- 
 nema His papers on this subject are numerous, and will be found in 
 the Irausactions of the British Association' for 1840, in the 3rd 
 volume of the ' Proceedings of the Geological Society,' in the 18th 
 volume of the ' Philosophical Magazine ' (third series), and in the 6th 
 vofume of the 'Anuals and Magazine of Natural History.' 
 
 In his writings Professor Agassiz shows a strong tendency to gene- 
 ralisation j and if a suspicion has grown up of the unsoundness of his 
 views in certain departments of natural history inquiry, it has arisen 
 from this peculiar mental disposition. He has embraced the doctrine 
 ot the successive creation of higher organised beings upon the sur- 
 face of the earth, and a paper of his on this subject will be found 
 in the thirty-third volume of the 'Edinburgh New Philosophical 
 Journal.' A more detailed account of his views on this subject will 
 be found in the 'Outlines of Comparative Physiology,' written by 
 Professor Agassiz in conjunction with Mr. A. A. Gould. This work 
 originally published in America, has been republished in England, with 
 notes and additions by Dr. T. Wright. It is unnecessary to say here 
 that these views have upholders and opponents in England. Amongst 
 the most distinguished of the former are Professor Owen and Professor 
 Sedgwick, whilst the latter number amongst them the late Professor 
 Edward Forbes and Sir Charles Lyell. Both parties are equally 
 opposed to the theory of organic development, as proposed in an 
 anonymous work called 'The Vestiges of the Natural History of 
 Creation.' Professor Agassiz has written in this controversy with 
 great sagacity, and brought his researches on the ' Embryology of the 
 Salmomdae to bear upon the argument. This work was published at 
 Neufchatel in 1842. 
 
 Another general subject on which Professor Agassiz has entered with 
 his usual enthusiasm, is the question of the origin of the human race 
 from a single pair. Although the doctrine of a multiplicity of stocks 
 must always be received with more than usual suspicion when coming 
 from persons living in communities where slavery is legalised, it il 
 only fair to Professor Agassiz to say that, before his residence in 
 America, he maintained the theory of the creation of the same species 
 m several distinct centres, both in time and space. It is therefore not 
 to be wondered at that he should uphold the same theory with regard 
 to man. His views on this subject will be found most distinctly 
 enunciated m a paper forming part of a volume published in America 
 in 1854 under the title of ' Types of Mankind,' and edited by Dr. Notfc 
 and Mr. Gliddon. 
 
AGATHARCHIDES. 
 
 Amidst all his original labours, Professor Agassi/, has found time to 
 devote himself to the general literature of natural history. In 1842 
 he published his ' Nomenclator Zoologicus,' which contains the syste- 
 matic names of the genera of animals both living and fossil, with 
 references to the authors and the books in which they are described. 
 He also laid the foundations of the great work entitled ' Bibliograpbia 
 Zoologise et Geologise,' which has been published in England, edited 
 by the late Hugh E. Strickland and Sir \V. Jardine, Bart., in the series 
 of works issued by the Ray Society. It consists of four volumes, 
 comprising an alphabetical list of all writers on Geology and Zoology, 
 with a list of their works. We must refer to this work for a com- 
 plete list of Professor Agassiz's own writings up to the time the first 
 volume was published in 1818. 
 
 When the chair of natural history in Edinburgh became vacant by 
 the death of the late Professor Edward Forbes, it was offered to 
 Professor Agassiz ; but he declined accepting it, preferring his honour- 
 able and wide sphere of usefulness in the New World to returning to 
 Europe, where he won the first triumphs of his great reputation. 
 
 AGATHARCHIDES, a Greek writer on geography, a native of 
 Cnidos in Asia Minor. He lived in the time of Ptolemy Philometer, 
 king of Egypt (who reigned from B.C. 181 to 145), and wrote 
 numerous works on geography, and among them one on the 
 Erythraean Sea. 
 
 This work is only known to us by extracts from the first and fifth 
 books preserved by the Greek patriarch Photius, and some extracts in 
 Diodorus. The works of Agatharchides contained a great deal of 
 useful information, as we may fairly infer from the fragments which 
 remain. He is the earliest writer who attributes the annual rise of 
 the Nile to the periodical rains in the upper regions of that river. 
 (Diodorus, i. 41.) He has left a very minute account of the mo le of 
 working the gold-mines which lay between the Nile and the Red Sea; 
 and he is the first writer who mentioned the giraffe, a quadruped 
 peculiar to the African continent. His remarks on the mode of 
 hunting elephant*, aud on the inhabitants of the Red Sea coasts, 
 prove him to have been an inquisitive and careful writer. 
 
 What remains of Agatharchides may be seen in Hudson's 'Minor 
 Greek Geographers,' vol. i. The description of the gold-mines is also 
 to be found in Diodorus, iii. 12. 
 
 AGATHARCHUS, a Greek painter, who apparently, from a passage 
 in Vitruvius, may be considered, if not the inventor, at least the first 
 artist who applied the laws of perspective practically in painting. He 
 painted a dramatic scene for ./Eschylus iu perspective, which was the 
 first work of the kind exhibited to the Greeks; as the contemporary 
 of iEschylus therefore, he was a man of mature years about B.C. 480. 
 
 The words " scenam fecit," in the passage in Vitruvius referred to, 
 have been interpreted, "he constructed a stage," but this interpretation 
 is shown by the context to be incorrect. The whole passage is as 
 follows : — " When ^Eschylus was exhibiting tragedies at Athens, 
 Agatharchus made a scene, and left a treatise upon it. With the 
 assistance of this treatise, Democritus and Auaxagoras wrote on the 
 same subject, showing how the extension of rays from a fixed point of 
 eight should be made to correspond to lines according to natural 
 reason, so that the images of buildings in painted scenes might have 
 the appearance of reality ; and although painted upon flat vertical 
 surfaces, some parts should seem to recede and others to come 
 forward." 
 
 This kind of scene-painting was termed Scenography (aKrivoypatp'io.) 
 by the Greeks, and was sometimes practised by architects ; Diogenes 
 Laertius mentions Clistheues of Eretria as scenograph aud architect. 
 Aristotle gives Sophocles the credit of introducing scene-painting; he 
 may have first treated it as indispensable in a dramatic representation, 
 and rendered the practice common, or Vitruvius may have erroneously 
 ascribed its introduction to ^Eschylus instead of Sophocles. 
 
 There was another Greek painter of the name of Agatharchus, who 
 lived about half a century later than the above. He was contem- 
 porary with Zeuxis, and Plutarch relates an anecdote of the two, how 
 Zeuxis reproved Agatharchus for boasting in company of the rapidity 
 with which he painted, by quietly observing that he (Zeuxis) painted 
 very slowly. This Agatharchus is the painter whom Alcibiades shut 
 up in his house until he had painted certain pictures iu it. The 
 circumstance is noticed by Plutarch and by Andocides, but they give 
 different accounts of the conclusion of the affair. 
 
 (Vitruvius, vii., Prcrf. ; Diogenes, ii. 125; Aristotle, Poetic, iv. ; 
 Plutarch, Pericles, 13, Alcih., 16; Andocides, Oral, in Alcib., 7.) 
 
 AGATHKMERUS, a Greek writer who lived about the middle of 
 the 3rd century, and wrote a short treatise on general geography. 
 His work, as we possess it, is a collection of heads, or rather a kind 
 of syllabua for a set of lectures. There are two books extant, of 
 which the second is so confused and contradictory, that critics are 
 disposed to assign it to a pupil of Agathemerus. His first chapter- 
 contains a sketch of the history of geography, with the names of 
 those who had rendered the most eminent services to the science. 
 His sixth chapter treats of the spherical figure of the earth, and what 
 is now called the doctrine of the sphere, &c. (HudsoD, Minor Geo- 
 graphers, vol. ii.) 
 
 AGATHIAS, a Greek historian and poet, who lived under the 
 emperors Justinian and Justinus the Younger. He was a son of 
 Memnonius, and born at Myrina in Asia Minor, about a.d. 536, but 
 
 AGATHOCLES. 68 
 
 he received his education at Alexandria, whence he went in a.d. 664 to 
 Constantinople, where his father seems to have settled during his son's 
 stay at Alexandria,. Agathias now commenced studying the law, and 
 afterwards distinguished himself as a speaker in the courts of justice. 
 The title of Scholasticus (Sxo\aimic6s), which some writers give him, 
 and which appears in the manuscripts of his work, refers to his pro- 
 fession of advocate, for Scholasticus at that time signified an advocate. 
 But notwithstanding the great reputation he acquired, he never liked 
 his profession, which he practised, according to his own account, only 
 for the sake of gaining a livelihood : his favourite pursuits were poetry 
 and history. He was esteemed by many of the most distinguished 
 men of the time, aud seems to have been rather given to courting the 
 great. Some of his epigrams contain incontrovertible proofs that 
 Agathias was a Christian. He died a short time before the death of 
 Tiberius Thrax and the accession of Mauritius, a.d. 582. 
 
 Agathias was the author of the following works: — 'Daphniaca' 
 (Acupviana.), or a collection of erotic poems in hexameter verse. It 
 consisted of nine books, but is completely lost. He calls it a juvenile 
 production. 2. 'Cyclus' (KiVAos), a poetical anthology, in which he 
 collected the poems of his contemporaries, especially of his illustrious 
 friends, and also many of his own. The collection is lost, with the 
 exception of the introduction, vvs epigrams, which are still extant 
 in the ' Greek Anthology,' may nave formed a part of the ' Cyclus : ' 
 they show that Agathias had considerable poetical talent and wit. 
 3. ' History of his Own Time,' is the most important among his works, 
 and is complete. It breaks off abruptly in the 25th chapter of the 
 fifth book, probably in consequence of the author's death ; for he states 
 that this history was commenced at a late period of his life. It con- 
 tains the history of the short period from a.d. 553 to 559. He appears 
 throughout this work as a good and honest man, aud as a faithful 
 writer, but wanting iu historical and geographical knowledge, especially 
 with regard to the West of Europe. His language is a compound of 
 nearly all the dialects of ancient Greece, in which however the Ionic 
 predominates. Among the editions of this work the most important 
 are that of Bonaventura Vulcauius (Lugdun. 1594), those in the Paris 
 and Venice collections of the Byzantine writers, and above all that of 
 B. G. Niebuhr, which forms the third volume of the ' Corpus Scrip- 
 torum Histories Byzantinae' (Bonn, 1828, 8vo.), and contains a good 
 account of the life of Agathias, and also his Epigrams. 
 
 AGATHOCLES, a Syracusan of low extraction, who became ruler 
 of Syracuse and great part of Sicily. The principal events in his life 
 range between B.C. 330 and 289. He was the son of a potter, and is 
 said to have worked at his father's trade. He was remarkable for 
 beauty, strength, and capacity for enduring labour. In the outset 
 of life he belonged to a baud of robbers ; afterwards he served as a 
 private soldier, and iu that capacity gained the favour of a patron 
 named Damas, who, being chosen general of Agrigentum, advanced 
 him to the rank of chiliarch, or commander of a thousand men. On 
 the death of Damas, who bequeathed his great wealth to his wife, 
 Agathocles married the widow, and became one of the richest citizens 
 of Syracuse. In this state of his fortune he distinguished himself by 
 his eloquence in the assembly of the people. But his conduct now 
 was as seditious as his former life had been profligate. 
 
 The constitution of Syracuse, as established by Timoleon, was 
 democratical ; but in the outset of Agathocles' political life, the 
 aristocratical party, headed by Sosistratus, a personal enemy of his 
 own, drove him into exile; and he retreated into Italy, where for some 
 time he lived as a soldier of fortune. The restoration of democracy, 
 and the banishment of Sosistratus and his friends, enabled him to 
 return. The Carthaginians interfered in behalf of these new exiles ; 
 and a war ensued, in which Agathocles bore a distinguished part : but 
 he was suspected of aiming at the tyranny, and was a second timo com- 
 pelled to quit Syracuse. In banishment he collected an army which 
 overawed both Carthage and Syracuse. After frequently defeating the 
 troops of the former, he was recalled, under the pledge of an oath 
 that he would attempt nothing against the democracy ; and he was 
 chosen general and protector, for the ostensible purpose of reconciling 
 or putting down faction. Strong in the support of his own mercenary 
 troops, united with some of the poorest and most desperate of the 
 citizens, he proceeded to arrest and execute by military process the 
 leaders of the aristocratical party, aud gave up their adherents to the 
 fury of his soldiery. Four thousand persons are said to have been 
 murdered, aud six thousand to have lied. The wives and children of 
 the latter, those of them who were unable to accompany the fugitives, 
 fell victims to the soldiery. 
 
 Agathocles now declared his intention of retiring into private life ; 
 but he knew that the partners of his crimes could not maintain them- 
 selves without his countenance. At their call he consented to retain 
 his office, on condition of holding it without a colleague (b.c. 317). 
 He did not assume the state of a monarch, but exercised the powers 
 of the most absolute king, with the title of ' autoerator;' that is, 
 ruler according to his own pleasure. He had risen as the champion of 
 the poor; and he fulfilled his promises by the abolition of debts and 
 the distribution of lands. lie aimed at the dominion of the whole 
 island ; and succeeded in reducing all except the subjects of Carthage. 
 But the Carthaginians made a strong effort to crush him. He waa 
 defeated with great slaughter (B.C. 309), his subjects nearly all revolted, 
 aud he was obliged to shut himself up in Syracuse. In the following 
 
E9 AQATHOD^EMON. 
 
 year he adopted the bold plan of carrying the war into Africa: but 
 money was required for this purpose; and bis contrivance for raising 
 it seems borrowed from the habits of his early life. He offered to 
 let all who feared the hardships of a siege, retire from Syracuse, ami 
 he sent an armed force to plunder and murder those who availed 
 themselves of the permission. By this atrocious act he at once gained 
 supplies, and revenged himself upon his enemies. 
 
 On his landing in Africa he burnt his ships, that his soldiers might 
 have no hope but in victory. He took several towns, defeated a power- 
 ful Carthaginian force sent to opposo him, and threw Carthage itself 
 into great alarm. But a new danger threatened the rule of Agathocles, 
 from the powerful city of Agrigentum, which profited by the exhaus- 
 tion of Carthage and Syracuse to invite the Sicilians to shake off the 
 dominion of both. Agathocles returned in haste, and reduced some 
 of the revolted cities. But the forces of the rest under the command 
 of Deinocrates, a Syracusan, proved too strong for him. Moreover, 
 his presence was again required in Africa, where the Carthaginians had 
 repaired their losses, and regained their ascendancy. He saw the pro- 
 bability that the Syracusans might call iu Deiuoerates iu his absence. 
 In this dilemma he took advantage of a public festival to ascertain 
 who were his enemies, and put to deatli the chief men of the party to 
 the number of 500. 
 
 He was received on his return \o Africa by a mutiny among his 
 troops, in consequence of his son Archa^athus having been dilatory in 
 furnishing their pay. He harangued the soldiery, saying that they 
 must get their pay from the enemy, and that the booty should be iu 
 common. But the necessity of recovering the good will of his army 
 betrayed him into imprudences. He attacked the Carthaginians unad- 
 visedly, and lost the battle, and a large portion of his men. He was 
 compelled to retfeat to his camp, where he saw that his rashness had 
 set the soldiers against him ; and he had reason to fear that they would 
 renew the mutiny on account of the arrears of pay. He therefore fled 
 in the night, accompanied by Aivhagathus. They were pursued, and 
 the son was taken : the father, with better fortune, reached the ships 
 in which he had returned from Sicily, and escaped. All his sous were 
 murdered by the enraged soldiers, who then made terms with the 
 Carthaginians. Agathocles avenged himself in kind ou the murderers 
 of his sons, by slaying the kindred of those who had served with hiin 
 in Africa. 
 
 On his return to Sicily, he found that a large portion of the troops, 
 and several of the cities, had gone over to Deiuoerates, who himself 
 aspired to the sovereignty. He therefore made peace with the Cartha- 
 ginians, and commenced a war against the exiles, whom he defeated, 
 and treacherously slew to the number of 7000, after they had laid 
 down their arms under assurance of safety. But he received Deino- 
 crates with favour, and appointed him his general. After this he 
 undertook an expedition into Italy against the Bruttii, laid the Lipari 
 Islands under contribution, and made himself master of Crotona, but 
 was obliged by severe illness to leave his main designs uncompleted. 
 His ambition was to render Sicily a great naval power; and he had 
 advanced far in the prosecution of this attempt when he died, by one 
 account of a miserable aud wasting sickness, by another of poison 
 administered by Macnon, one of his associates, in concert with his own 
 grandson. His death took place in the year B.c. 2S9, at the age of 7-, 
 after a reign of 2S years. 
 
 AGATHODyEMON, of Alexandria, a map-maker, and apparently the 
 author of the maps found in the oldest manuscripts of the geography 
 of Claudius Ptolemacus. There can be no doubt that the work of 
 Ptolernfcus was accompanied by maps ; if indeed it is possible that a 
 tabular system of geography like his could be without them. Maps 
 on plates of copper are mentioned by Herodotus, who wrote above 
 f.00 \ ears before Ptolemaeus. But as we know nothing at all about 
 the age of Asathodocmon, we cannot conclude, as some do, that the 
 maps of PtolemEeus were constructed by him. It is more likely that 
 he was a later editor or ameuder of them. In the Vienna and Vene- 
 tian manuscripts the following note in Greek is found at the end of 
 the maps : — "According to the eight books of the Geographical works 
 of Claudius rtolemceus, Apathodacmon of Alexandria delineated th6 
 whole earth." It has been inferred from this, that Agathodaemon was 
 a contemporary of Ptolemacus. But this does not seem to be quite 
 conclusive. The shape which Agathodaemon gave to the different 
 countries of the earth maintained its ground on modern maps till the 
 system of regular surveys became in use : and indeed till of late years, 
 many features of our maps were only the traditional delineations of 
 the old map-makers of Alexandria. (Schoell, vol. ii. ; Heeren, De 
 Fonlibus Ptohmai : Ptolem.eus, Claudius.) 
 
 AGATHON, a native of Sicily, succeeded Domnus iu the see of 
 Pome a.d. 678. The Emperor Coustantine Pogonatus having con- 
 voked a general council at Constantinople, A.D. G80, Agathon sent 
 legates to it, who concurred in condemning the heresy of the Mono- 
 thelitcs, who contended that, in consequence of the union of the two 
 natures in the person of Christ, there was in him only one will and 
 one operation, an opinion which appears to have been till then coun- 
 tenanced by many prelates, and even by Pope Honorius I. These 
 subtle metaphysical distinctions, to which the minds of the Orientals 
 were prone, seem to have puzzled at times the more sober and matter- 
 of-fact divines of the West. Constantine remitted in favour of Agathon 
 the usual fine which the see of Rome paid to the emperor at every 
 
 AGESILAUS. ea 
 
 new election previous to obtaining the imperial confirmation of the 
 bishop elect. The confirmation itself however continued to be re- 
 quired for a considerable time after, if not from the emperor, at least 
 from tho exarch of Ravenna, who was the emperor's representative iu 
 Italy. Agathon died a.d. GS2. He is uumbercd by the Church of 
 Borne among its saints. (Saudini, Vitce Pontificum Romanoru.ni ex 
 Antiqnis Monumcntis Cullcctw.) 
 
 AGESILA'US, younger son of Archidamus, king of Lacediemon, 
 succeeded his brother Agis, B.C. 398, to the exclusion of In nephew 
 Leotychides, who laboured under the stigma of bastardy, being believed 
 to be the sou of Alcibiades, and not of Agis, his reputed father. As 
 the crown descended in direct line from father to son, the succession of 
 Agesilaus seemed, iu his youth, to be barred ; aud his education was 
 conducted as that of a private person, iu all the strictness of Spartan 
 discipline. He was lame, and advantage was taken of this to excite a 
 prejudice against hiua ; yet so high was his personal character, or so 
 general the belief in the spurious birth of Leotychides, that by a 
 vote of the general assembly, the heir apparent was passed over, 
 and Agesilaus was appointed king. 
 
 In the first year of his reign a plot was formed to effect a change of 
 government. The political constitution, established by Lycurgus, had 
 degenerated into an oligarchy of a peculiar kind. Almost all political 
 power, with the exclusive right to hold hLjh civil or military office, 
 was engrossed by those families who boasted to be of pure Spartan 
 blood, the term Spartan being opposed to Lacedaemonian. The Lace- 
 daemonians are conjectured to have been the progeny of enfranchised 
 Helots, strangers associated into the citizenship, a remnant of the 
 Acluei, and in a word, all who could not trace an unblemished line of 
 Spartau descent to the early ages of the monarchy. Foreigners might 
 become members of the community and Lacedaemonians ; but they 
 could never become Spartaus ; at least, Herodotus only knew of two 
 instances up to this timo (ix. 33, 35). The object of Cinadon's con- 
 spiracy, who complained that he counted only forty Spartans in the 
 agora, or place of assembly, and that these were all official persons, 
 was to extend the right of holding their high offices to all citizens. 
 The plot was discovered before it was ripe ; Ciuadon, the author aud 
 ringleader, was executed, aud the Spartans held fast their mouopoly. 
 
 In order to prosecute more effectually the war with Persia (B.C. 
 396), Agesilaus was sent to command iu Asia. At setting out, he 
 pledged himself either to conclude an honourable peace, or to disable 
 his enemies from giving any further disturbance to the Greeks. His 
 first object was to conciliate the Asiatic cities by prudent manage- 
 ment aud liberality ; and he succeeded iu reconciling their factious. 
 It may be doubted whether the design of Agesilaus was limited to 
 the protection of the Greek states of Asia. But the war that broke 
 out in Greece, after he had been about two years in Asia, did not 
 allow him to follow up his successes. 
 
 The intrigues of the Persians and the hatred of the Spartan influ- 
 ence had occasioned a dangerous league to be formed against Sparta. 
 Thebes, Argos, and Coiinth declared against the Lacedaemonians, and 
 Athens followed the example at the pressing instance of the Thebans. 
 The ephori ordered Agesilaus home; iu the height of his glory, and 
 with the prospect of victory, he iustantly obeyed. The Lacedae- 
 monians and their enemies met near Coroueia in Bccotia, and a fierce 
 battle took place (August, B.C. 391). The Thebans alone made a 
 gallant resistance. The Spartan king was wounded, and obtained only 
 a doubtful victory. He returned to Sparta, not importing with him 
 the luxuries of Asia, but adhering to the temperance and frugality 
 characteristic of his country's discipline. The probability of Athens 
 recovering her former power after her walla were rebuilt (B.C. 392), 
 iuduced the Spartans to send Antalcidas (B.C. 387) with proposals to 
 Persia, favourable to themselves, but disadvantageous to the rest of 
 Greece. The bearer of these offers was the personal enemy of A gesi- 
 laus, and was supposed to have a mean pleasure in lessening his 
 power and tarnishing his glory. The Persians dictated the treaty 
 iu the language of conquerors (Xen. ' Hellen.' v., i. 31), and Artaxerxes 
 concluded with denouncing war against those who should not submit 
 to his terms. The Thebans refused ; but their steadiness was shaken 
 by preparations for coercion on the part of the ephori, invidiously 
 recommended by Agesilaus, in revenge for a former affront. Sparta 
 had now, though not worthily, recovered her power in Greece. Her 
 virtues, indeed, were to be found rather in adversity than prosperity; 
 nor did she profit by her own experience, that tyranny leads to tlie 
 destruction of the tyrant Phcebidas, one of her generals, on his 
 march into Thrace against Olynthus, was encamped in the neighbour- 
 hood of Thebes, while parties were so nearly balanced, that Ismeuias 
 and Leontiades, the heads of opposite factious, exercised the chiel 
 magistracy together. Leontiades, who courted the friendship ol 
 Lacedaemon, secretly introduced Phcebidas aud his troops iuto the 
 C'admeia, the citadel of Thebes (B.C. 382). This at once gave 
 the superiority to that party of which he was the head ; Lmeuias 
 was apprehended, and 400 of his friends immediately fled to Athens?. 
 Complaint was made at Sparta of this treacherous aggressiou iu time 
 of peace. Agesilaus was, in general, more just and liberal than the 
 rest of his countrymen ; but lie contended that it was necessary to 
 examine whether the possession of the Caduicia was of advantage to 
 Sparta. The decree of the Spartaus was, as we might expect, iu 
 their own favour. The assembly resolved to ke j p the citadel, aud to 
 
61 
 
 AGIS I. 
 
 AGIS IV. 
 
 briug Ismenias to trial. But a counter-revolution was soon effected ; 
 and the Spartans were compelled to evacuate the citadel. 
 
 That the Lacedaemonians, when now at the height of power, were 
 all at once iuvolved in a train of misfortunes which effectually broke 
 their supremacy, is ascribed by Xenophon to the diviue auger against 
 their perfidious seizure of Thebes. Agesilaus probably had come 
 round to the same opinion ; for he excused himself from the com- 
 mand of the army sent to reduce the Theban revolutionists, on the 
 plea of being weighed down by age. His colleague, Cleombrotus, was 
 appointed in his stead. The events which occurred during the absence 
 of Agesilaus, form no part of the present subject. Ou returning 
 home, Cleombrotus left Sphodrias at Thespiae, in command of part of 
 his army. Sphodrias, whether from his own folly, or, as many 
 believed, induced by Pelopidas, made a most unwarrantable and faith- 
 less inroad upon Attica. The Athenians complained to Sparta, and 
 Sphodrias was recalled, and brought to trial. Unfortunately, Agesilaus 
 was persuaded to exert hi3 influence in the delinquent's favour, and 
 he was acquitted ; at which the Athenians were so much offended, 
 that they immediately concluded an alliance with Thebes against 
 Sparta. Agesilaus then resumed the command and held it through 
 two successive campaigns, till obliged to resign through failing 
 health. 
 
 The battle of Leuctra (b.c. 371), in which the Lacedaemonians under 
 Cleombrotus were overcome by inferior numbers, produced a striking 
 instance of Spartan character. The news arrived at Sparta during a 
 religious festival, but the ephori did not allow the celebration of it to 
 be interrupted. The list of the slain was sent to the houses of their 
 kindred, and the women were told to bear their sorrows in silence. 
 Those parents whose children had met with a glorious death went 
 abroad the next day to receive congratulations ; the friends of the 
 survivors kept their houses, as if in shame and sorrow. On this 
 occasion, a number of the combatants having fled, Agesilaus was 
 allowed to suspend the law which visited cowardice with disgraceful 
 punishment. He prudently announced that it might sleep for one 
 day only, and then resume its power. 
 
 There was a proverb, frequently repeated by Agesilaus, that "a 
 Spartan woman had never seen the smoke of an enemy's carnp;" 
 but he had the mortification to see his proverb belied. The Theban 
 army increased daily by the defection of the allies of Sparta ; it pene- 
 trated into Laconia, and laid waste the whole country ; the city how- 
 ever was saved by the prudence of Agesilaus, who shut himself up in 
 Sparta, and avoided an engagement. Epamiuondas did not venture 
 to assault the city; and at last, his allies growing weary of the service, 
 the winter approaching, and relief coming to Sparta from Athens, the 
 Theban general found it necessary to retreat. 
 
 After the death of Epaminondas, at the battle of Mantinea (b.c. 362), 
 the weariness of all parties produced a partial cessation of hostilities. 
 Agesilaus was now above eighty years old, but he had still vigour enough 
 left to lead an army into Egypt, to assist the Egyptians who had 
 rebelled agaiust the Persian king. According to Plutarch, Agesilaus 
 went expressly to help Tachos against his master King Artaxerxes II. ; 
 but a rival to TachoB startiugup in the person of Nectanebos, another 
 Egyptian. Agesilaus found it convenient to chauge sides. After esta- 
 blishing Nectanebos in the government of Egypt, the old king set out 
 on his voyage homewards, loaded with money and presents, the reward 
 of his services and his treachery. Being driven by contrary winds on 
 the coast of Africa, he died there at the advanced age of eighty-four. 
 His attendants preserved the body in melted wax, and took it to Sparta 
 to be buried, consistently with the usages of their country, which did 
 not allow the body of a king to rest in a foreign land. 
 
 The character of Agesilaus is exalted by Xenophon far above its 
 merits. The historian was on terms of personal intimacy with the 
 Spartan king, and was besides no great admirer of the constitutional 
 forms of Athens, his native city, which he loved to contrast disadvan- 
 tageously with those of Sparta. We may admire the energy and 
 vigour of Agesilaus, and grant him a full share of those peculiar 
 yirtues which characterised his country. He may have been temperate 
 in his habits, kind to his friends, and not cruel to his enemies ; but 
 more than one public act of his life throw suspicion on his integrity 
 as an individual and a statesman. 
 
 (Plutarch, Life of Agesilaus; Xenophon, Hellenica, and Panegyric 
 on Agesilaus ; Pausanias, iii. 9.) 
 
 AGIS I., king of Sparta, was the son of Eurysthenes, and grandson 
 of Aristodemus, to whom Laconia was allotted after the Heracleid 
 invasion. Aristodemus had two sons, Eurysthenes and Procles : and 
 this Agis was, therefore, the second in one of the series of that double 
 race of kings, which reigned conjointly. His reign is said to have 
 commenced about B.C. 1032, but no certain dates can be assigned to 
 these early times. Agis deprived the conquered people of the equal 
 political rights to which his father had admitted them. The inhabit- 
 ants of the town of Helo3 having attempted to regain their freedom 
 were reduced by him to the abject bondage so long endured by the 
 class of the Helots. (Pausanias, iii. 2.) 
 
 AGIS II., the son of Archidamus II., reigned from B.C. 427 or 420 
 to 397. In the fourteenth year of the Peloponnesian war the Lace- 
 daemonians endeavoured to recover their influence in Peloponnesus, 
 and marched out with all their force under Agis. The Argeian army, 
 against which his operations were directed, was completely hemmed 
 
 in. Two Argeians went privately to Agis, and pledged themselves to 
 effect a reconciliation if he would grant a truce of four months. To 
 this he consented. The order to retreat was heard with astonish- 
 ment by the army of Agis, and the Argeians, on their part, wero 
 highly incensed against their countrymen for having defrauded them 
 of an opportunity, as they thought, of destroying the enemy. Agis 
 was called to account, and it was proposed to fine him, and demolish 
 his house ; but his humble demeanour and earnest entreaty prevailed, 
 and he was allowed to resume the command, under the mortifyiug 
 restriction of a superintending council. He made amends, a short 
 time after, by defeating the Argeians, and their allies the Athenians, 
 iu the great battle of Mantineia. Thucydides, v. ; Pausanias, iii. 8.) 
 At the siege and surrender of Athens b. c. 404, accompanied with the 
 mortifying demolition of the long walls, and the fortifications of 
 Peirasus, Pausanias and Agi3, the two kings of Sp'arta, conducted the 
 operations by laud, while Lysander blockaded the city with his fleet. 
 Iu B.C. 401 Agis conducted an army into Elis, which yielded him 
 abundant spoil, since, as the scene of the Olympic games, it had 
 usually been held sacred, and exempted from the ravages of war. 
 Having gone to Delphi to dedicate a tenth of the spoil, he fell sick 
 on his return, and died a few days after he reached Sparta. Agis 
 was succeeded by his brother Agesilaus. 
 
 AGIS III., the son of Archidamus III., reigned from B.C. 338 to 
 331 or 330. At the time of the battle of Issus (333) he communi- 
 cated with the Persian commanders in tne ^Egean, to obtain supplies 
 for carrying on the war against Alexander in Greece. While Alex- 
 ander was engaged in his fourth campaign in Asia, Agis laid siege to 
 Megalopolis, a town in Peloponnesus, which held out till the arrival 
 of Antipater, the governor of Macedonia. A bloody battle was fought, 
 in which the Lacedaemonians behaved with their accustomed gallantry, 
 but were overpowered by superior numbers. Agis fell after his 
 phalanx was broken, and with him above 5300 of the Lacedaemonians 
 and their allies. The Laced aeinonians sued for peace, and obtained 
 it ; giving hostages that they would submit to Alexander's decision on 
 their fate. (Pausan., iii. 10 ; Arrian, ii. 13.) 
 
 AGIS IV., son of Eudamidas II., reigned from B.C. 244 to 240. 
 The year after his accession he was defeated in an engagement with 
 Aratus, the general of the Aclia3an league. But the chief iuterest of 
 his reign lies in the attempt he made to restore the institutions of 
 Lycurgus. Public manners had degenerated from their ancient 
 severity ; the privileged class, to whom the name of Spartans was 
 confined no longer, enjoyed the equal portion of land prescribed by 
 the ancient discipline. Of 700 families, to which their number was 
 now reduced, not more than 100 possessed estates. These were rich, 
 haughty, and licentious ; the poor were oppressed and burdened with 
 debt. The two great features of the proposed reformation were, a 
 new partition of the lands, and the abolition of all debts. Agis also 
 proposed to abolish the distinction between Spartans and Lacedaenio- 
 nians, retaiuing that between the Lacedaemonians and the Periceci, or 
 people of the smaller towns. These latter, however, were to be 
 trained in the strict discipline of Lycurgus, and to succeed to the 
 privilege of citizenship as vacancies occurred. In laying his propo- 
 sals before the senate Agis recommended them by the offer of the 
 first personal sacrifice, in the contribution of his own lauds and money 
 to the common stock. His mother and his kindred followed his 
 example. The multitude applauded : but his colleague Leonidas and 
 the rich men opposed the plan, and persuaded the senate to reject it ; 
 the question was lost by a majority of only a single vote. To rid 
 himself of Leonidas, Agis contrived to get Lysauder appointed one 
 of the ephori ; who forthwith accused Leonidas of having violated the 
 laws, by marrying a stranger, and residiug for a time in a foreign 
 land ; two acts forbidden to the race of Hercules. Leonidas could 
 not venture to make his appearance : he was therefore deposed, and 
 his crown devolved to his son-in-law, Cleombrotus, who co-operated 
 with Agis in his measures of reform. On the expiration of Lysander's 
 office, a reaction took place. As the reformers despaired of succeeding 
 by mild means, Agis and Cleombrotus went to the place of assembly, 
 plucked the ephori, now of the anti-reforming party, from their seats, 
 and placed others in their room. The life of Leonidas, who had 
 returned into the city during the short triumph of his faction, was 
 threatened ; but Agis himself protected him from assassination, 
 meditated against him by Agesilaus, who was the uncle of Agis. 
 The want of sincerity in this unworthy relation of the reforming 
 king occasioned the failure of the scheme, when all its difficulties 
 seemed to have been nearly overcome. Agesilaus was deeply in- 
 volved in debt : he therefore persuaded the two kings to burn all 
 deeds, registers, and securities in the first instance. When the divi- 
 sion was proposed he devised repeated pretexts for delay. Before the 
 first measure, owing to these underhand practices, could be completed, 
 the Achaeans, who were allies of Sparta, applied for assistance against 
 the .iEtolianB, who threatened to lay waste the country of Pelopon- 
 n< sus. Agis was sent to command the army, and exhibited the same 
 republican virtues in his military office as in his civil administration. 
 He joined his forces to those of Aratus, whose over-caution gave no 
 opportunity for enhancing the glory of the Lacedaemonian soldiery : 
 but the conduct of the troops, and the rigid performance of every 
 duty on the part of their commander, impressed both the allies and 
 the enemy with respect for the commonwealth. 
 
88 
 
 AQLAOPHON. 
 
 AQRICOLA, CNvEUS JULIUS. 
 
 On the returu of Agis, he found that a change had taken place in 
 the condition of his country. The poor, disgusted hy finding, that 
 although Agesilaua was again one of the ephori, tho lands were not 
 divided according to promise, hud thrown themselves into the party 
 of their own enemies, and suffered I hem to dethrone Olooinbrotus 
 and restore Leonidas to power. A '.'is was compelled to fly to sanc- 
 tuary. Some treacherous friends entrapped him, and dragged him to 
 prison. Being questioned by the ephori, whether he did not repent of 
 having introduced innovations ? he replied, that in the face of death 
 he would not repent of so worthy an enterprise. He was con- 
 demned, and executed with indecent haste; tho plea for this was tho 
 danger of a rescue. One of his executioners was moved to tears. 
 Agis said to him, " Lament mo not; suffering unjustly, I am happier 
 than my murderers." The cruelty of the victorious party did not 
 end here : his mother and grandmother were strangled on his body. 
 His widow was forcibly taken out of her house by Leonidas, and 
 married against her will to his son Cleomenes. Though a husband 
 by compulsion, Cleomenes was attached to his wife, whose conversa- 
 tion inspired him with the desire of accomplishing the projected 
 reform. [Clkomenks.] (Plutarch, Life of Agii.) 
 
 A'GLAOPHON. There were two distinguished Greek painters of 
 this name, who were probably related, liijttiger supposes that the 
 younger was tho grandson of tho elder, and the sou of Aristophon the 
 brother of Polygnotus. 
 
 The elder Aglaophou lived about B.C. COO, and was a native of the 
 i-laiul of Thasos, where his son Polygnotus was also born. Aglao- 
 phon's greatest distinction is that of having been the father and the 
 instructor of I'olygnotus, who is tho first painter recorded in history 
 w ho attained great fame. Quintilian is the only writer who speaks of 
 the style of Aglaophon, but he indiscriminately couples him with 
 Polyguotus. He says, "Notwithstanding the simple colouring of 
 Polygnotus and Aglaophon, which was little more thau the crude 
 beginning of what was afterwards accomplished, many have, certainly 
 with some affectation, preferred their workB to those of the greatest 
 masters who succeeded them." There can be as little doubt that this 
 passage refers to the elder, as that the following, from Cicero, refer3 to 
 the younger : Cicero says, speaking of styles, Aglaophon, Zeuxis, and 
 Apelles were all different in their several styles, yet each was perfect 
 in his own style. 
 
 None of the works of the elder Aglaophon are particularly mentioned, 
 unless the winged Victory spoken of by the scholiast on the ' Birds 1 
 of Aristophanes (v. 573) may be attributed to him. 
 
 The two pictures of Alcibiades mentioned by Athenseus must have 
 been by the younger. After Alcibiades, says Athenseus, returned to 
 Athens a victor at the Olympic games, he exhibited two pictures of 
 himself, one representing Olympias and Pythias crowning him, and in 
 the other he was painted extremely beautiful, lying on the knees of 
 Nemea. Plutarch attributes the latter of these pictures to Aristophon, 
 the brother of Polygnotus, and the supposed father of the younger 
 Aglaophon ; but as the account of Athemcus accords better with the 
 time, it is more probably correct, at least under the supposition that 
 there were two artists of this name. The beautiful horse spoken of by 
 ..Elian was probably the work of the younger Aglaophon. 
 
 (Suidas; Quintilian, Inst. Orator, xii. 10, 3; Athenajus, xii. 534 ; Plu- 
 tarch, Ahibt ades, 16 ; Cicero, De Oral, hi. 7; Lilian, DeAnim. in EpHogo.) 
 
 AGNESI, MAMA GAETANA, was born at Milan in 1718. When 
 very young, she distinguished herself by the acquisition of the Latin, 
 Greek, Hebrew, French, German, and Spanish languages. She then 
 turned her attention to mathematics and philosophy, and at the age 
 of 19 wrote in defence of 191 theses, which were published in 1738, 
 under the title of ' Propositiones Philosophical ' In 1748 she pub- 
 lished her most celebrated work, ' Iustituzioni Analitiche ad Uso della 
 Gioventii Italiaua,' in two volumes 4to. The first volume contains 
 the elements of Algebra, with the application of Algebra to Geometry; 
 the second contains an excellent treatise on the Differential and Integral 
 Calculus. In 1750, her father, who was then a professor of the univer- 
 sity of Bologna, being ill, she obtained permission from the Pope 
 Benedict XIV. to supply his place. She ended her career, but in what 
 year we cannot ascertain, by retiring into a convent, and taking the 
 veil. She died in January, 1799, aged 81. 
 
 The second volume of the 'Analytical Institutions' was translated 
 into French by D'Antelmy, with additions by Bossut, and published 
 at Paris in 1775. The whole was translated into English, and pub- 
 lished at the expense of Baron Maseres in 1801. 
 
 AGNOLO, BACCIO D', a Florentine, was at first a wood-engraver, 
 and afterwards an architect. He was born in 1460, and had already 
 acquired considerable reputation in the practice of his earlier profes- 
 sion at Florence, when he was attracted to the study of architecture, 
 and went to Rome to pursue it among the remains of antiquity there. 
 He appears, nevertheless, during his residence in Rome, to have con- 
 tinued to employ himself in his art and business as a wood-engraver, 
 probably for the means of subsistence, and his studio, or workshop, 
 was frequented by the most eminent men of tasie and learning then 
 iu Rome. Among these were Raffaelle, Michel Angelo, Sansoviuo, and 
 the brothers Sangallo. 
 
 On settling himself a3 an architect iu Florence, Baccio was engaged 
 iu several works of importance there, aud acquired notoriety of a 
 disagreeable nature through deviations from the ordinary practice of 
 
 the time. He adorned the windows of a mansion or palaz/.o (as the 
 Italians term tho large town-houso of a distinguished person), in the 
 Piazza di Santa Triuitix, with frontispieces, and put a frontispiece, 
 consisting of columns with a regular entablature, to tho portal, in tho 
 manner, indeed, which has been so commonly practised ever since, 
 aud is at the present time in vogue, but which had been restricted to 
 churches up to this time. All the wits iu Florence set upon poor 
 Baccio, who was lampooned and ridiculed in every possible way, for 
 making, as it was said, a palace into a church ; indeed, he was almost 
 induced to retrace his steps, but being conscious that ho had dono 
 well, "he took heart and stood firmly." It was a novelty, and as the 
 biographer of all the architects says, " like almost all other novelties, 
 it was at tho first scorned and afterwards worshipped." But the same 
 writer is somewhat severe* on him for making perhaps too bold a 
 crowning cornice to the front of this idoutical edifice, saying that it 
 looked like a boy with a huge hat on his head. 
 
 Baccio had been engaged to complete the architectural arrangements 
 about tho tholobate or drum of the cupola of the metropolitan church 
 of Santa Maria del Fiore, which were left incomplete by Brunelleschi, 
 and whose design for that part was lost. Baccio was about to supply 
 what was wanting after his own invention, and had beguu to cut away 
 the toothiugs left by Brunelleschi in tho work because they did not suit 
 what he proposed to do. At this juncturo Michel Angelo happened 
 to come to Florence from Rome, and attacked him so violently on the 
 unfitness of his design, that Baccio was stopped, and in consequence 
 of subsequent disputes on the subject, the edifice, iu that particular, 
 still remains incomplete. 
 
 Baccio d'Agnolo died iu 1543, being eighty-three years of age, and 
 left a son Giuliano, an engraver and architect, who succeeded to the 
 direction of his father's works. The most esteemed of Baccio's pro- 
 ductions are the villa Borghesini, near Plorence, and the campanile 
 or bell-tower of the cburch di Santo Spirito (a production of Brunel- 
 leschi's), in Florence. By some writers, the great palazzo Salviati, in 
 the Transtiberine portion of Rome, is attributed to this architect, 
 but it is more commonly referred to Nanui di Baccio Bigio, a man of 
 far inferior merit aud reputation to Baccio d'Agnolo. 
 
 AQRICOLA, CN.FUS JULIUS, was born June 13, a.d. 37, at 
 Forum Julii, now Frdjus, iu Provence. His father was Julius Gra> 
 ciuus, a writer of somo eminence on agriculture, and distinguished as 
 a senator for his eloquence and integrity. His virtues were the cause 
 of his destruction. The emperor Caligula, desirous to get rid of his 
 father-in law, M. Silauus, called upon Gracious to undertake the accu- 
 sation which was to be the pretext for his destruction. Graicinus 
 refused, aud met with the same fate as the unfortunate Silanus. 
 Agricola was an infant at the time of his father's death. His mother 
 was Julia Procilla, who appears to have watched with great care over 
 the education of her sou. After having studied philosophy at Massilia, 
 now Marseilles, the principal seat of learning iu Gaul, Agricola wa3 
 sent to Britain, where he served under the immediate eye of Suetonius 
 I'auliuus, the period of his service including* the grand insurrection 
 under Boadicea, in 61. Iu 62 he returned to Rome, where he married 
 Domitia Decidiana, a lady belonging to one of the first families. In 63 
 he went as quxstor to Asia, where he proved his integrity by refusing 
 to unite with the procousul Salvius Titianus in the system of extortion 
 so common in the Roman provinces. During the latter part of Nero's 
 reign he was tribune and prator, but from a regard to the jealousy 
 of the emperor remained comparatively inactive. On the accession of 
 Galba in 68 he was appointed to examine the property of the temples, 
 aud to restore whatever had been taken away by Nero. In the con- 
 tests between Otho aud Vitellius his mother was murdered by a detach- 
 ment from Otho's fleet, which landed in Liguria and ravaged the estates 
 of the family near Intemelium (Vintimiglia). On his way from the 
 funeral of his mother, he learned that Vespasian had been proclaimed 
 by the legions of the east. He declared in his favour, and was rewarded 
 by the command of the 20th legion in Britain. On his return to Rome 
 about 73 he was enrolled by the emperor among the patricians, and 
 appointed governor of Aquitania, a province which included the south- 
 western part of Gallia, from the Pyrenees to the Loire. After a suc- 
 cessful administration of nearly three years, he was recalled to receive 
 the still higher honour of the consulship. His daughter was now 
 betrothed to the historian Tacitus, and the next year she was given 
 to him in marriage. Agricola, at the expiration of his consulship, was 
 appointed governor of Britain, and proceeded thither about 78. He 
 passed seven or perhaps eight summers iu Britain ; in the first of 
 which he added North Wales aud the sacred island of Anglesey to the 
 Roman province. By the end of the fourth campaign the whole island 
 south of the Clyde and the Forth was secured to the Romans by a line 
 of forts running from the one testuary to the other. Every summer 
 extended the dominion of the Roman arms, but it was only iu the last 
 year of his government that he entirely broke the spirit of the Britons 
 by the defeat of Galgacus on the Grampian Hills. At the close of 
 this campaign a Roman fleet, for the first time, sailed round the island. 
 Agricola taught the Britons to settle in towns, to improve their dwell- 
 ings, to erect temples, aud to cultivate the arts of civilised life. Ho 
 set up a system of education for the sons of the chiefs, who adopted 
 in time the language and the dress of Rome. By these means he in a 
 great measure reconciled tho natives to the yoke which they had pre- 
 viously so ill endured. These splendid successes were unpalatable to 
 
the suspicious Domitian, and Agricola was honourably recalled, under 
 the pretext of being sent as governor to Syria. By order of the 
 emperor he entered Rome at night, and, after a cold reception, retired 
 into private life. WIipii his consular rank a few years after entitled 
 him to the proconsulship of Asia or Africa, he wisely declined an 
 appointment which had been fatal to the previous possessor. He died 
 on August 23, a d. 93, in the 56th year of his age, not without suspicion 
 of poison. The emperor could not endure the presence of one who was 
 universally regarded as the only man equal to the exigency of the 
 times. Dion Cassius asserts that he was killed by Domitian. His 
 property was left between his wife Djmitia, his only child the wife of 
 Tacitus, and the emperor Domitian. All that we know of Agricola, 
 with the exception of a single chapter in Xiphilin (66, 20), which is 
 very inaccurate, is from the pen of Tacitus, whose interesting narrative 
 exhibits him in the character of a great, wise, and good man. 
 (Tacitus, Agricola.) 
 
 AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS, one of the most learned and remark- 
 able men of the 15th century, was born at a village variously written 
 Bafflon, BafFeln, Bafflen, Baffel, or Bafflo, two or three inile3 from 
 Grouingen, in Friesland, about the end of August, 1443, not in 1412, 
 as often stated. (See the inscription on hi3 tombstone as given in 
 M. Adam's 'Apograph. Monument. Haidelburgens,' p. 22.) In a short 
 notice of Agricola by M. Guizot, in the ' Biographie Universelle,' it is 
 said, but we do not know upou what authority, that his name was 
 properly Huesmaun. His first master is also there said to have been 
 the famous Thomas a Kempis. After distinguishing himself at school 
 he proceeded to the college of Louvaiu, where he remained till he took 
 his degree of Master of Arts. He was then solicited to accept a professor- 
 ship in that college, which he declined, and set out on his travels. He 
 went to Paris, whence, after remaiuing some time, he proceeded to 
 Italy, and arrived in 1476 at Ferrara, where he resided during that 
 and the following year, and attended the prelections of Theodore Gaza 
 on the Greek language. He also extended his own reputation by giving 
 a similar course on the language and literature of Rome. The favour 
 of the duke, Hercule3 D'Este, and the admiration of the most famous 
 scholars of Italy, were liberally bestowed upon the accomplished 
 foreigner, who used to contend, we are told, in amicable rivalry with 
 the younger Guarino in writing Latin prose, and with the Strozzis in 
 verse. After visiting Rome and some of the other cities of Italy, he 
 left that country, probably in 1479. On his return to Holland he 
 appears to have occupied a chair for a short time in the university of 
 Groningen, and be was also chosen a syndic of that city, in which 
 capacity he spent about half a year 'it the court of the emperor 
 Maximilian I. In the year 1482 he removed -to Heidelberg on the 
 invitation of Joannes Dalburgius, the bishop of Worms, whom he 
 had taught Greek, and by whom he was appointed to one of the pro- 
 fessorships in the university of Heidelberg. The remainder of his life 
 seems to have been spent partly at Heidelberg and partly at Worms, 
 where he lodged in the blouse of his friend the bishop. At the request 
 of the Elector Palatine, who greatly delighted in his conversation, he 
 composed a course of lectures on ancient history, which he delivered 
 at Heidelberg, the Elector being one of his auditors. He also, after 
 comiug to reside in the Palatinate, commenced the study of the Hebrew 
 tongue. In thi3 new study Agricola had made great progress, when a 
 sudden attack of illness carried him off at Heidelberg on October 28, 
 1485, at the early age of 42. There was certainly no literary name out 
 of Italy so celebrated as that of Agricola duriug his age; and, if we 
 except Politian and Miraudola, perhaps not even Italy could produce 
 a scholar equal to him. The most eminent cultivators of classical 
 learning in the next age have united in placing Agricola among the 
 first of hi3 contemporaries. We need only mention Cardinal Bembo, 
 Ludovico Vives, the elder Sciliger, and, above all, Erasmus. Agricola 
 indeed may be regarded as the immediate forerunner of the last great 
 writer, and in some degree as the model on which he was formed. 
 Agricola, in the same manner as Erasmus, appears to have clearly 
 discerned many of the ecclesiastical abuses of his time, and to have 
 anticipated the revolution in the opinions of men that was at hand, 
 although he refrained from doing anything to urge on the crisis. 
 Besides his skill in aucient learning, Agricola was a skilful practitioner 
 of the arts of music and painting. His collected works were published, 
 as it is commonly stated, in two volumes 4to at Cologne, in 1539, under 
 the title of ' R. Agricola; Lucubrationes aliquot,' &c. According to 
 Gesner's ' Bibliotheca Universalis,' and the ' Bibliotheca Belgica ' of 
 Foppens, the principal contents of this collection are his three books 
 'De Inventione Dialectica ;' some letters, orations, and poems; and 
 some translations from Aphthonius, Lucian, Isocrates, and other 
 Greek authors. It does not appear to contain, as commonly stated, 
 his abridgment of ' Universal History.' The work ' De Inventione 
 Dialectica' is the most celebrated of Agrieola's performances. It has 
 been repeatedly printed with ample scholia : in 1534 a compendium of 
 it, by Joannes Visorius, appeared at Paris ; and an Italian translation 
 of it was publi-hed in 4 to at Venice, in 15C7, by Oratio Toscanella. It 
 is considered to have been one of the earliest treatises which attempted 
 to change the scholastic philosophy of the day. Morhof speaks of it 
 is having anticipated in several respects the ' Logic ' of Peter Ramus. 
 Iu the injunctions given by Henry VIII. to the University of Cambridge 
 hi 1535, the 'Dialectics' of Agricola and the genuine 'Logic' of Aristotle 
 are ordered to be taught in-.tcad of »he works of Scotus and BarUcu.s; 
 
 lilOC. DIV. VOL. 1. 
 
 and in the statutes of Trinity College, Oxford, founded some years 
 later, we find a similar recommendation. 
 
 (Besides the works already mentioned, the following authorities may 
 be referred to for further information respecting Agricola : — Baylc, 
 Dictionnaire ; Baillet, Jagemens des Savans ; Vita: Germanorum Philo- 
 sophorum, a Melchiori Adamo ; Vie d'Erasme, par Burigny, Paris, 
 1757, vol. i., p. 17 ; Vita R. Agricola; autore Ger. Geldenhaurio Novio- 
 niago, in Virorum Eruditione ct Doctrina Illustrium Vilis, Francfoit, 
 1536, p. 83, &c. See also an interesting letter on the habits and cha- 
 racter of Agricola, from Melancthon, dated Frankfort, March 28, 1539, 
 in the edition of Agrieola's works published at Cologne.) 
 
 AGRIPPA, HENRY CORNELIUS, a remarkable personage, who 
 may be ranked with his contemporaries, Paracelsus and Cardan, as at 
 once a man of learning and talent, and a quack. Agrippa was born 
 at Cologne, of a noble and ancient family, on September 14, 1486. 
 His first employment was as secretary at the court of the Emperor 
 Maximilian, after which he served in the wars in Italy, wheiv, having 
 repeatedly signalised himself by his bravery, he obtained the honour 
 of knighthood. About his 20th year he seems to have assumed the 
 character of a scholar, and to have commenced a wandering life. The 
 profession which ho took up was that of a physician; but he allowed 
 himself also to be regarded as an alchemist, an astrologer, and even as 
 a practitioner of magical arts. Not satisfied with this extensive range, 
 he thought proper to set up likewise for a great theologian, as well as 
 to indulge himself with occasional excursions into other departments 
 of literature and science. The effect of all this pretension, supported 
 as it was by unquestionable talent and by real acquirements of great 
 extent, was to raise Agrippa, for a time at least, to high estimation 
 and importance. Pressing invitations were sent to him by several 
 monarchs that he would enter into their service— by our Henry VIII. 
 among the rest. He appears to have visited England before this, one 
 of his pieces being dated from London in 1510. His excessive impru- 
 dence however was continually involving him in difficulties ; and 
 especially, having by some of the effusions of his satiric spirit pro- 
 voked the enmity of the monks of the church, he experienced the 
 consequences to the end of his days. After having led for many 
 years what may almost be called a fugitive life, he died at Grouoble, 
 in 1535. He had been thrice married, and had several children. The 
 works of Agrippa were published in two volumes, 8vo., at Leyden, in 
 1550, and also at Lyon in 1600. The most remarkable of them, and 
 the only one which is now remembered, is his treatise ' On the Vanity 
 of the Sciences,' which is a caustic satire on the kinds of learning 
 most in fashion in that age. 
 
 (Bayle, Dictionnaire Historique, art. Agrippa ; Gabriel Naude, 
 Apolugy for the Great Men who have been suspected of Magic.) 
 
 AGRIPPA, HEROD. (Heiiod.] 
 
 AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS, was born B.C. 63, within a 
 few months of Octavius, afterwards the Emperor Augustus, with 
 whom throughout life he was so intimately associated. They studied 
 together at Apollonia iu Illyria. The death of Julius Csesar brought 
 them both to Rome, and Agrippa was charged by Octavius to receive 
 the oath of fidelity from the legions that were favourable. In B.C. 43 
 he was chosen consul, and conducted the prosecution of Cassius, one 
 of the murderers of Csesar. Two years later he had a command as 
 praetor, iu the war against Lucius Antonius, whom he besieged in 
 Perusia. In B.C. 40 the town was taken by him, and towards the close 
 of the same year he recovered Lipontum from M. Antonius. In 
 B.C. 38 he added to his reputation by a victory over the Aquitani, and 
 rivalled the glory of Julius Caesar by leading a second Roman army 
 across the Rhine. Octavius, now Octavianus, offered him a triumph, 
 which he declined; but the consulship was conferred ou him in b c 37. 
 Sextus Pompeius, being at this time master of the sea, Agrippa was 
 charged with the construction of a fleet. By cutting a passage through 
 the barrier of Hercules, which separated the Lucrine Lake from the 
 sea, he converted that lake and the interior Like of the Avernus into 
 a serviceable harbour, giving it the name of Portus Julius. Having 
 there prepared a fleet and exercised his mariners, he, iu B.C. 36, 
 defeated Sextus Pompeius at Myla;, and completely broke his naval 
 supremacy at Naulochus, on the coast of Sicily. For these victories 
 lie received a naval crown, and wa9 most probably the first on whom 
 that honour was conferred. In the year B.C. 33, though of consular 
 rank, he accepted the office of sedile, his administration of which was 
 distinguished by the restoration of the numerous aqueducts, and the 
 erection of fountains throughout the city. The victory of Actium, 
 B.C. 31, which left Augustus without a rival, was mainly owing to the 
 skill of Agrippa as admiral of the fleet. In reward for his services, 
 he shared with Maecenas the confidence of Augustus, who associated 
 him with himself iu the task of reviewing the senate ; and in B.C. 28 
 again raised him to the consulate, giving him, at the same time, iu 
 marriage his own niece, the sister of the young Marcellus. Agrippa 
 had been previously married to the daughter of Cicero's friend, 
 Atticus. Attica, by whom he had Vipsania, afterwards the wife of 
 Tiberius, may have been dead, or it is not improbable that he divorced 
 her to make room for Marcella. A third consulate awaited him the 
 year following, iu which he dedicated to Jupiter, in commemoration 
 of the victory near Actium, the celebrated Pantheon, which remains 
 to the present day, perhaps the most beautiful speciuitu of Roman 
 architecture'. It is now called, from its form, Santa Maria dellu 
 
 X 
 
N 
 
 Rotonda, but still bears tho inscription, " M. Agrippa L. F. Cos. 
 tertium fecit." In B.C. 25 be assisted Augustus in the reduction of 
 tbe Cantabri, and afterwards had the honour of representing the 
 emperor at the marriage between the unfortunate Julia and Marcellus, 
 who seemed thus marked out as the successor of Augustus. Yet the 
 notion of any claim, founded upon hereditary descent, was not yet 
 established among the Romans; and the splendid deeds of Agrippa, 
 independently of his connection with Mareella, gave him in some 
 respects a superior title. A rivalry sprang up between them, which 
 was encouraged by the ambiguous conduct of Augustus, more especially 
 during his severe illness in B.C. 22, when, apparently on his death-bed, he 
 publicly tent his ring to Agrippa. On the recovery of the emperor, 
 Marcellus regained his influence, and Agrippa was pent by Augustus 
 into honourable exile as governor of Syria. Death in a few months 
 removed his rival, and he was not merely recalled to Rome, but, at the 
 request of the emperor, divorced his wife Marcella to marry the young 
 widow Julia. In B.C. 19 he finally subdued the Cantabri, who had 
 again been in arms for more than two years. Agrippa was now looked 
 upon as the undoubted successor of Augustus; and in the following 
 year was so far associated in the imperial dignity as to s-har.) the 
 tribuniciau power with the emperor for five years. In B.C. 17 he pro- 
 ceeded a second time to the Kast, where his administration seems to 
 have given general satisfaction, more especially among the Jewish 
 nation, who benefited largely by his protection. On his return he 
 received the tribunieian power for a second period of five years. His 
 last military duty was to quell an insurrection among the Pannoiiians, 
 for \vhich his presence was sufficient. After this expedition he 
 returned to Campania, where he died suddenly in March, B.C. 12. His 
 family by Julia were Caius and Lucius, whom Augustus adopted, 
 Julia, Agrippina, and Agrippa Postumus, born, as his name imports, 
 after the death of his father. It has been observed that every 
 one of these came to a premature end. (Appian, Plutarch, Dion, 
 Suetonius, &c.) 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, the 
 only chihl of Augustus, married Germanicus, the son of Drusus, and 
 nephew of Tiberius, to whom she bore nine children. Of these three 
 died in their infancy, but among the remaining six were Caligula, 
 afterwards emperor, and the second Agrippina, the mother of Nero. 
 On the death of Augustus, a.d. 14, Germanicus and his wife were 
 with the army on the banks of the Rhine, where they had much 
 difficulty in restraining the soldiery from proclaiming Germanicus in 
 opposition to his uncle. On this occasion Agrippina, by her deter- 
 mined bearing, showed herself worthy of her descent from Augustus, 
 and the following year she had an opportunity of evincing the same 
 spirit, in a panic occasioned by a report that the army of Caecina had 
 been cut off by Arminius, and that the victorious Germans were on 
 the point of crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul. It was proposed 
 to destroy the bridge ; but Agrippina, in the absence of her husband, 
 prevented the disgraceful expedient, and herself received the worn-out 
 troops of Crccina, supplying them with clothing, and all that was 
 necessary for the cure of their wounds. In a.d. 17 Agrippina accom- 
 panied her husband to the East, and was with him in Syria when he 
 fell a victim, as he suspected, to the arts of the emperor and his 
 mother, Livia. Disregarding his entreaty that she. would restrain her 
 resentment, she proceeded to Italy, and landing at Brundisium with 
 two of her children, and bearing herself the funeral urn of Germani- 
 cus, seemed to court the attention of the people, who received her in 
 crowds. Two prrctoriajj cohorts, sent by Tiberius for the purpose, 
 accompanied her to Rome, where she was met by the consuls, the 
 senate, and a large body of the citizens. The subsequent tenor of 
 her conduct was such as to exasperate Tiberius, and when her cousin 
 Claudia Pulchra (a.d. 26) was about to be the object of a prosecution 
 encouraged by the emperor, she ventured to express her resentment 
 to him in person in no measured terms. Agrippina had now remained 
 in widowhood for seven years, when she asked his permission to 
 choose another husband. But Tiberius knew too well that the hus- 
 band of Agrippina would be a dangerous enemy, and he parted from 
 her without giving any answer. The artifices of Sejanus completed 
 the breach between them. By his agents he induced her to believe 
 that Tiberius intended to remove her by poison, and Agrippina fatally 
 offended the emperor by openly exhibiting her suspicions. She was 
 banished to the island of Pandataria, and at last closed her life by 
 starvation October 18, a.d. 33. Her two eldest sons, Nero and Drusus, 
 were also the victims of Tiberius. (Tacitus ; Suetonius.) 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the daughter of Gei •manicus and the Agrippina of 
 the preceding article, was born in the chief town of the Ubii, which 
 she afterwards raised to the rank of a Roman colony, calling it after 
 herself Colonia Agrippineusis, now Cologne. She was but fourteen 
 years of age when Tiberius gave her in marriage, a.d. 28, to Cn. 
 Domitius ^Enobarbus, by whom she had a son, who at first bore the 
 name of his father, but afterwards under that of Nero became Emperor 
 of Rome. After the death of Domitius, a.d. 40, her disgraceful 
 conduct was made by her brother Caligula a pretext for banishment ; 
 but on the accession of Claudius, she was recalled from exile, and 
 became the wile of Crispus Passienus. By assassinating her husband 
 Passieuus she soon made herself again a widow, and now directed her 
 efforts to gaining the affections of her uncle, the Emperor Claudius. 
 Such a connection was held to bo incestuous, but on the death of 
 
 MeBsaliua it was legalised by a decree of the senate, and Agrippina 
 became the fifth wife of the emperor. Her first object was to secure 
 to her own son those expectations to which Britaunicus, the son of 
 Claudius by the infamous Messalina, was more equitably entitled. 
 The marriage of Domitius to Octavia, daughter of the emperor, and 
 his adoption by the emperor himself, from which he derived the name 
 of Nero, at once placed him above Britannicus ; and in the year 54 
 Agrippina completed the object of her ambition by poisoniug her 
 imperial husband. Her power over her son, who was now at the 
 head of the empire, soon disappeared ; and though for a time she 
 partially recovered it by means of an incestuous intercourse with him, 
 the beauty of Popprca destroyed even this influence ; and in the sixth 
 year of his reign Nero determined, under the encouragement of 
 PoppSBO, to remove his mother by her own arts. But it was not easy 
 to poison one, who, familiar herself with poison, was ever on her 
 guard. Nero therefore changed his course. After an unsuccessful 
 attempt to effect her death near Baia; by means of a vessel with a 
 false bottom, she was dispatched by assassins in March in the year 60. 
 Her last words, as she presented herself to the sword of her 
 murderer were, " Ventrem feri," strike the womb (which gave birth 
 to such a son). To enumerate all her debaucheries, murders, and 
 other crimes, would require a much larger space than we think it 
 necessary to assign to them. Agrippina wrote some commentaries 
 concerning herself and her family, which Tatitus says he consulted. 
 They are also quoted by Pliny, vii. 8. (Tacitus; Suetonius; Dion.) 
 
 AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D', a chancellor of Franc?. 
 He was born November 27, 1668, at Limoges, the priucipal town of 
 the then province of Limousin, and now the chief town of the depart- 
 ment of Haute- Vienne. His father, who was intendant of that 
 province, devoted himself to the education of his son. The abilities 
 of Aguesseau brought him early into notice. At the age of twenty- 
 one he was admitted an advocate at the Chatelet ; and, three mouths 
 after, he was made one of the three advocates general. It has been 
 said that this high office was conferred upon him through the recom- 
 mendation of his father, in whom Louis XIV., the then reigning 
 monarch, placed great confidence. During ten years that he filled 
 the situation, he obtained the great reputation which secured his 
 future elevation. 
 
 In the year 1700 he was appointed Procureur-Ge'iie'ral (Solicitor- 
 General). His opposition to the registration in parliament of the 
 papal bull Uuigenitus, which he considered as an assumption of the 
 papacy inconsistent with the rights of the French nation, and de- 
 structive of :he independence of the Gallican church, had nearly 
 caused his disgrace with tbe king. But he maintained his position 
 by the force of his talents and integrity. He employed his authority 
 as Procureur-Gduo'ral in most cases wisely and honestly. He reformed 
 the system of the management of public hospitals; improved the 
 discipline of courts of justice; and instituted a quicker mode in the 
 investigation of criminal cases previous to their being brought to 
 judgment. Aguesseau aspired through life to the high but difficult 
 reputation of a legal reformer : and it is in this particular that his 
 character has the greatest claim upon our respect. His principal 
 objects were to define the limits of particular jurisdictions; to intro- 
 duce uniformity in the administration of justice through the various 
 provinces; and to secure the right to the subject of a just testa- 
 mentary disposition of his property. His praiseworthy attempts were 
 resisted no doubt by all those whose mistaken interests suggested to 
 them that the attainment of justice ought to be kept expensive and 
 uncertain, instead of being rendered cheap and secure. He is said 
 to have confessed that he did not go so far as he wished, because he 
 did not like to reduce the profits of his professional brethren. This 
 was a mistake even in mere worldly policy; for when law, as well 
 as any other article of exchange, is dear and worthless, the purchasers 
 will be few. D' Aguesseau was not much before his age, probably, in 
 the knowledge of political economy, or he yielded to popular clamour. 
 During the famine which afflicted France in 1709, he carried on 
 vigorous prosecutions against what were called forestallers and mono- 
 polists, that is, holders of corn— a class of persons who, by equalising 
 the price of corn, by buying in times of plenty, and selling at a profit 
 in times of scarcity, have done the only thing which could relieve 
 the pressure of bad harvests upon the people. 
 
 In 1717 Aguesseau succeeded Voysin in the chancellorship. His 
 appointment to this high office by the Regent (Due d'Orle'ana), in 
 the minority of Louis XV., gave general satisfaction. However he 
 did not retain it long, for he was dismissed and exiled the following 
 year, on account of his opposition to Law's financial system. His 
 perception of the fallacy of this adventurer's schemes for substituting 
 fictitious wealth for real ■ capital showed that in some points of 
 political philosophy his views were sound. Hi3 recall, two years 
 afterwards, at the moment of the great crisis broueht about by Law's 
 system, was a signal triumph for Aguesseau. His high sense of 
 integrity and justice would not allow him to hear of a national bank- 
 ruptcy : he insisted on making good the government obligations, or 
 at least allowing those who held its paper to lose only a proportionate 
 part ; and, by thus preventing a bankruptcy, he contributed in some 
 degree to restoring general confidence. 
 
 New agitations were again raised on account of the bull Unigenitus, 
 the registering of which parliament still opposed. Aguesseau, by 
 
60 AHASUERUS. 
 
 endeavouring to conciliate both parties, exposed himself to the charge 
 of a change of opinion in this matter. The parlite-iSnt were on the 
 eve of being exiled to Blois, when they at last consented to register 
 the bull with modifications. 
 
 Cardinal Dubois, the unworthy favourite of the Regent, claimed 
 precedence in the council; and Ague^seau retired from office in 1722, 
 rather than yield to him. He lived in the quiet cultivation of his 
 literary tastes at Fresne, until 1727, when he was reappointed chan- 
 cellor. From his reappointment to office, till 1750, he continued to 
 administer justice uninterruptedly ; he was then eighty-two years of 
 age, and feeling himself unable to discharge the high duties of his 
 Btation, he sent in his resignation to the king, who accepted it, and 
 granted him an annuity of 100,000 francs. This he did not enjoy 
 long, as he died the following year, on the 9th of February. Agucsseau 
 was buried by the side of his wife, in the churchyard of his parish 
 church ; but during the first French revolution the remains of the 
 chancellor were removed to another place, into which they were 
 thrown with the bones of thousands. A statue of him was erected 
 in front of the Palai3 Legislatif, by command of Napoleon, by the 
 side of the one erected in honour of L'Hopital. 
 
 The principal features of Aguesseau's character, says the Due of 
 St. Simon, were much natural talent, application, penetration, and 
 general knowledge; gravity, justice, piety, and purity of manners. 
 According to Voltaire, he was the most learned magistrate that France 
 ever possessed. Independently of his thorough acquaintance with 
 the laws of Lis country, he understood Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Italian, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, &c. His knowledge of general literature, assisted 
 by his intimacy with Boileau and Racine, gave an elegance to his 
 forensic speeches which was previously unknown at the French bar. 
 His works now extant form 13 vols. 4to : they consist principally of 
 his pleadings and appeals (' re'quisitores'), when advocate and solicitor- 
 general, and of his speeches at the opening of the sessions of 
 parliament. 
 
 AHASUERUS, or ACHASHVEROSH, is the name of the Persian 
 monarch whose feastiugs, revelry, and decrees are recorded in the 
 book of Esther. The apocryphal additions to that book, as well as 
 the Septuagint, and Josephus, call him Arthasastha or Artaxerxes. 
 He is probably the same king as the Artaxerxes Longimauus of the 
 Greek historians, whose reign commenced B.C. 465. The name Achash- 
 verosh occurs also, Dan. ix. 1, where some interpreters take it for 
 Astyage3, king of the Mede3 ; and Ezr. iv. 6, where Cambyses seems 
 to be meant by it. (Eichhorn's ' Repertorium fur Biblische und 
 Orientalische Literatur,' vol. xv. p. 1, seq.) The word Achashverosh 
 has been explained by means of the modern Persian as signifying ' an 
 excellent or noble prince.' (Winer's ' Lexic. Hebr.,' s. v.) This would 
 nearly agree with the explanation given by Herodotus (vi. 98) of the 
 name Artaxerxes, which according to him means a great warrior. 
 The signification of the name accounts for its being given to various 
 monarchs. 
 
 AHAZ, or ACHAZ, the son of Jotham (2 Kings, xv. 38 ; xvi. &c), 
 a king of Judah, who reigned B.C. 742-726, and was contemporary 
 with the prophets Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah. (Isaiah, i. 1 ; vii. 1, 
 Hos. i. I, Mich. i. 1.) He made the dial mentioned Is. xxxviii. 8. 
 Another Achaz is mentioned, 1 Chron. viii. 35 ; ix. 42. 
 
 AHAZIAH, also written ACHAZIAH or AHAZIAHU, the son of 
 Ahab, a king of Israel, who reigned B.C. 897-890 (1 Kings, xxii. 40 ; 
 2 Chron. xx. 35). Another Ahaziah, the son of Jehoram, was king of 
 Juduh, B.C. 884-883 (2 Kings, viii. 24; ix. 16), who occurs also under 
 the name of Jehoahaz (2 Chron. xxi. 17) and Azariah (xxii. 6). The 
 name, according to its Hebrew etymology, is interpreted as signifying 
 'the property or possession of the Lord.' 
 
 AHMED I., the fourteenth sultan of the Ottoman empire, was the 
 son of Sultan Mohammed III. He came to the throne in the year 
 1603, and contrary to the practice of many of his predecessors, spared 
 the life of his brother Mustafa. He was unfortunate in a war with 
 Shah Abba3 of Persia, during which he lost the important town of 
 Erivan. [Abbas.] He at the same time supported an insurrection in 
 Hungary and Transylvania against the German emperor, Rudolph II. : 
 in 1606 however a treaty of peace was concluded at Ivomorn and 
 Situarok between the two monarchs. The efforts of Ahmed's govern- 
 ment were then directed towards the suppression of revolutionary 
 movements in the Asiatic part of the Ottoman dominions, which had 
 been instigated chiefly by two daring adventurers Kahnder Ogli and 
 Janbuladzade : both were finally subdued, and in 1609 tranquillity 
 was restored in the interior of the empire. Ahmed I. died in 1617. 
 He wa3 of a mild and moderate disposition, and fond of the enjoy- 
 ments of a quiet and luxurious life: it is said that his seraglio con- 
 tained 3000 women, and that not less than 40,000 falconers were in 
 his pay. A magnificent mosque, which he built at Constantinople, 
 and a richly-oruarnented curtain which he sent to the sanctuary at 
 Mecca, attest, at the same time, that he was not indifferent about the 
 Mohammt dau religion. 
 
 AHMED II., the son and successor of Sultan Soleimau III., occupied 
 the throne of the Ottoman empire from 1691 till 1695. He owed his 
 elevation to the throne chiefly to the influence of the celebrated 
 grand-vizir Kiuprili or Kiuperli, who soon afterwards fell in a battle 
 against the Austrian^ near Salaukemen or Slankeinent. Ahmed II. 
 was a weak and superstitious prince. His reign is marked by many 
 
 AIKIN, JOHN, M.D. 70 
 
 disastrous events. The plague, a famine, and an earthquake desolated 
 the empire, and the capital was afflicted with a destructive fire. The 
 Beduius of the Arabian desert, in defiance of the imperial safeguard, 
 dared to attack the caravan of the Mecca pilgrims; and at sea the 
 Turkish empire was infested by the Venetians, who took possession 
 of the island of Chios, and even threatened Smyrna. Ahmed II. died 
 it is said, from grief, in 1695, at the age of 50 years. His successor 
 was Mustafa II., who reigned from 1695 till 1702. 
 
 AHMED III., the son of Sultan Mohammed IV., was raised to the 
 throne of the Ottoman Empire in consequence of a revolt of tho 
 Janissaries, in 1702. When, after the loss of the battle of Pultowa 
 (1709), King Charles XII. of Sweden took refuge at Bender in the 
 Turkish dominions, he was well received by Ahmed, who even made 
 him .a present of ready money to the amount of 16,000 ducats. 
 Charles XII. succeeded in kindling a war between the Ottoman Porte 
 and Russia, which turned out favourably for the Turks. During 
 several days Czar Peter the Great was cut off, and placed in a most 
 emb irrassing situation ou the banks of the river Pruth, almost withiu 
 the grasp of the Turkish army; and though tho unskilfulness of the 
 Turkish commander Battaji Mohammed let him escape from this 
 difficulty, he was yet soon afterwards obliged to resign to the Turks 
 the important town of Azof. Ahmed III. was also fortuuate in a war 
 with the Venetians, who were compelled to quit the Morea, and to 
 give up the islands of Cerigo and Cerigotto, and their possessions in 
 Candia. But he failed in an attempt to take Hungary from tho 
 Austriaus. Prince Eugene of Savoy won an important victory over 
 the Turks near Belgrade, and by the subsequent peace (made at Passa- 
 rowitz, in 1718) that town, as well as Orsowa, and part of Servia and 
 Wallachia, came uuder the Austrian dominion. In 1723 Ahmed 
 entered iuto a treaty with Russia, and soon afterwards commenced a 
 war with Persia, which brought the frontier towns and provinces of 
 Erdilan, Kermanshah, Hamadan, Urmia, Ardebil, and Tebriz into the 
 possession of the Turks, and a peace subsequently concluded with the 
 Persian king, Ashraf Khan, secured to the victors the possession of 
 their conquests : but Nadir Shah, the successor of Ashraf Khan, 
 disregarded these stipulations, and by degrees retook the conquered 
 provinces. The news of the capture of Tabriz by the Persians caused 
 a revolt at Constantinople, in consequence of which Ahmed III. abdi- 
 cated the throne in favour of his nephew, Mahmud I. (1730). He died 
 six years afterwards in prison at the age of 74. 
 
 " AIKIN, ARTHUR, the eldest son of John Aikin, M.D., the subject 
 of the following article, was born in 1784. Arthur Aikin began his 
 literary career, we believe, as editor of 'The Annual Review;' upon 
 the title-page of the first six volumes of which — 1803-1808 — his name 
 appears as editor. His earliest scientific work was ' The Manual of 
 Mineralogy,' of which the first edition was published in 1814. Besides 
 these he is the author of a ' Tour in North Wales,' a ' Dictionary of 
 Chemistry and Mineralogy,' and a ' Dictionary of Arts and Manufac- 
 tures ;' and also of numerous papers in various scientific journals. 
 For a long series of years Mr. Aikin was the resident secretary of the 
 Society of Arts, and a frequent contributor to its ' Transactions.' He 
 was also one of the oldest fellows of the Linnaeau and Geological 
 societies. Mr. Aikin was a man of quiet retiring habits, and outlived 
 his scientific reputation ; but was well known in scientific circles as 
 one of the most regular frequenters of the meetings of the learned 
 societies in the metropolis, and was generally esteemed. He died at 
 his house in Bloomsbury April 15, 1854, in his eighty-first year. 
 
 AIKIN, JOHN, M.D., born in 1747, was the only son of the Rev. 
 John Aikin, D.D., for many years tutor in divinity at the dissenting 
 academy at Warrington, in Lancashire. He was educated chiefly at 
 Warrington, and having chosen the medical profession, he studied at 
 the University of Edinburgh, and was subsequently a pupil of Dr. 
 William Hunter. As a surgeon, he first settled at Chester, and after- 
 wards at Warrington; but finally took the degree of Doctor of Medi- 
 cine at Leyden, and established himself as a physician in London. He 
 is now chiefly remembered as a popular author; and to him, in con- 
 junction with his sister, Mrs. Barbauld, we owe some of the first and 
 best attempts to take science out of the narrow confines of the profes- 
 sionally learned, and to render it the means of enlarging the under- 
 standings and increasing the pleasures of the general body of readers. 
 The most popular as well as the most useful of Dr. Aikin's works 
 still maintains its reputation, ' Evenings at Home.' The volumes of 
 this work appeared successively, the sixth and last in June, 1795. 
 This was the joint production of Dr. Aikin and Mrs. Barbauld, whose 
 contributions however did not exceed half a volume in the whole. 
 The object of these volumes was a favourite one with their authors, 
 who desired to teach things rather than words. In the execution of 
 their task they presented, in a manner sufficiently attractive to engage 
 the attention of young persons, a good deal of natural history, with 
 some of the elements of chemistry and mineralogy ; but the principal 
 charm and value of the work consist in its just views of human cha- 
 racter, and in the uncompromising integrity visible in every line. 
 Another work of Dr. Aikin's has been the foundation of many descrip- 
 tions of the appearances of nature; but none have surpassed ' The 
 Natural History of the Year' in conciseness and accuracy. 
 
 The professional success of Dr. Aikin seems to have been impeded 
 by his zealous endeavours to obtain a recognition from the state of the 
 great principle of liberty of conscience ; he was, moreover, of delicato 
 
AIMOIN. 
 
 health. In 1798 he relinquished li is profession, and passed the 
 remainder of his life at Stoke Newington, constantly employed iu 
 various literary undertakings, of which the entire number was very 
 large. He died of a stroke of apoplexy, December 7, 1822. 
 
 AlMOIN, a benedictine monk, and a historian. He was a native 
 of Ville-Franche, in the province of Perigord. He wrote, or rather 
 began, a history of the French, which he dedicated to his patron and 
 principal, Abbou, abbot of Fleuri-sur-Loire. It is said iu his preface 
 that he intended to give an account of the origin of the French nation, 
 and to bring his narrative down to Pepin le-Bref, father of Charlemagne 
 (741) ; but what we have of the work brings us down only to the six- 
 teenth year of Clovis II. (050). Two books were afterwards added by 
 an unknown writer. This history of Aimoin is incorrect, and he does 
 not dwell sufficiently on the events he has to relate. His best and 
 most interesting work is an account of the life of Abbou. Aimoin 
 died in 1008. 
 
 AINSWORTH, ROBERT, the author of a well-known 'Latin 
 Dictionary.' He was born at Woodvale, about four miles from Man- 
 chester, in September, 1660. Having completed his education at 
 Pol ton, he afterwards taught a school for some time in that town. He 
 then came to Loudon, and formed an establishment at Bethnal Green, 
 from which he removed, first to Hackney, and afterwards to other 
 village s in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. About 1714 he was 
 induced by the offers of the booksellers to commence the compilation 
 of his Dictionary ; but the execution of the work was frequently 
 suspended, anil it did not appear till 1736. Aiusworth died near 
 London on the 4th of April, 1743, and was buried at Poplar, where 
 an inscription of his own composition, in Latin verse, was placed over 
 his remains and those of his wife. Having acquired a competency, 
 he had retired from teaching for some time before his death. Dr. 
 Kippis, in his edition of the 'Biographia Britanuica,' says, from 
 private information, that iu the latter part of his life he used to be 
 fond of rummaging in the shops of the low brokers ; by which means 
 he often picked up old coius and other valuable curiosities at little 
 expense. He is s:ud to have written some Latin poems ; and he also 
 published ' Proposals for making Education less Chargeable,' and some 
 other treatises, the list of which may be seeu in Watt's ' Bibliotheca ;' 
 but his Dictionary is the only work for which he is now remembered. 
 A second edition of it, edited by Mr. Samuel Patrick (with a notice of 
 Ainsworth's life prefixed), appeared in two volumes, 4to, 1746, and it 
 has since been frequently republished. One edition, which came out 
 in 1752, is iu two folio volumes, and used to be in some request as a 
 handsome specimen of typography. It was superintended by the 
 Rev. 'William Young, the supposed original of Fielding's Parson 
 Adams. Another, in two volumes, 4to, was published in 1773, by 
 Dr. Thomas Morell. Both Young and Morell also edited abridgments 
 of Ainsworth's Dictionary, which, until lately, were much used in 
 schools. The best eilitiou of the larger work is that which appeared 
 in 1816, in one volume, 4to, under the care of Dr. Carey. This 
 Dictionary, regarded as a mere word-book, is a laborious and useful 
 work ; but it has no claim to be considered as a philosophical exposi- 
 tion of the etymology of the Latin language, or as anything like a 
 complete exhibition of the usage of words by Latin authors. Not- 
 withstanding the corrections which it has received from the labours 
 of its successive editors, it still remains disfigured by many errors 
 and deficiencies, which leave the book a great way behind the present 
 state of philological learuing. 
 
 •AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON, was born at Manchester, 
 in February 1805. He was originally intended for the profession of 
 a barrister, but he at an early age quitted his legal studies for the 
 more attractive pursuits of literature. For some time he was chiefly 
 known as a prolific contributor of essays and sketches to the Maga- 
 zines ; but his first novel, Rookwood, published in 1834, at once gave 
 him a place among the most popular novel writers of the day. His 
 peculiar popularity arose mainly from the circumstance of his having 
 selected as the heroes of his tales Jack Sheppard and others who 
 figure in the annals of crime. Hence also his novels were seized upon 
 with avidity by a certain class of dramatists as furnishing the stimu- 
 lating condiment so much in request at the lower suburban theatres — 
 and thus Mr. Ainsworth's reputation came to be coupled in the public 
 mini) with his heroes rather more unpleasantly than the novels alone 
 would perhaps have effected. In later tales, as the 'Star Chamber,' 
 the ' Tower of Loudon,' and the like, he went beyond the Newgate 
 Calendar for his materials. A collected edition has been published, in 
 a cheap form, of Mr. Ainsworth's novels and romances. 
 
 *A1RY, GEORGE BIDDELL, the present Astronomer-Royal, wae 
 born at Alnwick, Northumberland, in July, 1801. He received his early 
 education at various private schools, ending with the Grammar school 
 of Colchester, and at the age of 18 entered Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, as Sizar. He took his degree of B.A., and won the distinction 
 of Senior Wrangler, in 1823. In the following year he was elected 
 Fellow of the College; and, after taking his degree of M.A. in 1826, 
 was appointed to the Lucasian Professorship, of which chair he may 
 be said to have re-created the duties by delivering courses of public 
 lectures on Experimental Philosophy, among which the prelections on 
 the Undulatory Theory of Light are especially remarkable. Mr. Airy 
 resigned this appointment in 1828, on being elected Plumian Professor 
 of Astronomy — a post which, retaining the Experimental Lectures, 
 
 involved also the management of the then newly-erected Cambridge 
 Observatory. He devoted himself earnestly to that work, and devised 
 a system of calculation aud publication of his observations so much 
 more complete and serviceable than any preceding that it has been 
 adopted by other observatories; and he introduced many important 
 improvements in the mounting of the instruments. 
 
 In 1835, on the resignation of Mr. Pond, then Astronomer-Royal, 
 Mr. Airy was appointed to the honourable post, which he has since 
 held, with signal advantage to science and to our national reputation. 
 Under his administration, the observatory at Greenwich has become 
 second to none in the world. The yearly observations are published 
 iu a form and with a regularity never before attempted ; and, zealous 
 for the cause of science, Mr. Airy has reduced and published the 
 long-neglected observations of the Moon and Planets from 1750 to 
 1830, "by which" — to quote the words of Admiral Smyth — "an 
 immense magazine of dormant facts, contained in the annals of the 
 Royal Observatory, are rendered available to astronomical use," and 
 from which " we may perhaps date a new epoch in planetary 
 astronomy." The observatory itself, with new methods and new 
 instruments, is more efficient than ever ; and since 1843 magnctical 
 and meteorological observations have been taken, as well as astronomi- 
 cal, and regularly published. 
 
 A long list might be written of Mr. Airy's claims to scientific 
 distinction. His writings on mechanics aud optics are well known. 
 He wrote the articles ' Figure of the Earth' aud ' Tides and Waves ' 
 for the ' Encyclopaelia Metropolitana,' and 'Gravitation' for the 
 ' Penny Cyclopaedia ; ' and, to mention but a few of his labours 
 which have a national character : he has been for many years Chair- 
 man of the Commission for the Restoration of the Standards of 
 Weight aud Measure; he reported on the comparative merits of the 
 broad and narrow gauge of railways, and on the national clock to be 
 erected at Westminster ; he has undertaken the determination of 
 longitude by means of the electric telegraph ; has suggested a remedy 
 for the deviation of the compass in iron ships ; and has accomplished 
 a series of pendulum experiments for the determination of that 
 difficult question, the density of the earth. On the two latter sub- 
 jects he has communicated elaborate papers to the Royal Society ; and 
 the ' Philosophical Transactions,' the ' Memoirs of the Astronomical 
 Society,' and the ' Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical 
 Society,' contain numerous highly valuable papers from his pen. 
 
 Mr. Airy was elected a Fellow of the Astronomical Society in 1828, 
 and became President in 1835, since when he has repeatedly filled the 
 Chair and sat on the Council. He has received two of the Society's 
 medals— one for the planetary observations before mentioned; the 
 other, " for his discovery of the long inequality of Venus and the 
 Earth," the investigation of which was published in the 'Philosophical 
 Transactions.' He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, 
 has received their Copley and Royal medals, and has been often 
 chosen into the Couucil. He has also received the Lalande medal 
 of the French Academy of Sciences; he is a corresponding member 
 of the Academy, aud a member of other scientific societies in Europe 
 and America. 
 
 AJAX, a son of Telamon, and third in direct male descent from 
 Jupiter, was one of the most renowned heroes of the Trojan War. 
 According to Horner and Pindar, he was next in beauty and in war- 
 like prowess to Achilles. He is said by later poets to have been 
 invulnerable. Pindar (Isthm. 6) relates the story fully ; but, as in the 
 case of Achilles, it is not found in Homer. Telamon, banished from 
 ^Egina by his father ^Eacus, for killing his brother Phocus, retired to 
 the island of Salamis, aud was chosen king. During his father's life, 
 Ajax led the forces of Salamis to Troy, in conjunction with the Athe- 
 nians. His chief exploits, recorded in the ' Iliad,' are his duel with 
 Hector, in the 7th book, when the Trojan prince challenged any of 
 the Greek army to single combat ; aud his obstinate defence of the 
 ships, iu the protracted battle described in the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 
 ami 17th books. In the funeral games of Patroclus he contended for 
 three prizes : in wrestling with Ulysses, single combat with Diomedes, 
 aud throwing the quoit ; but without obtaining the prize in any. 
 Blunt in manners, rugged in temper, and somewhat obtuse in intellect, 
 his strength aud stubborn courage made him a most valuable soldier, 
 but no favourite ; and his confidence in these qualities iudueed him 
 to despise divine aid, by which he roused the anger of Pallas, the 
 author of his subsequent misfortunes. After Achilles's death, the 
 armour of that hero was to be given as a prize to him who had 
 desevred best of the Greeks. Ajax and Ulysses alone advanced their 
 claims : the former depending on hi3 pre-eminence in arms ; the latter, 
 on the services which his inventive genius had rendered ; the assembled 
 princes awarded the splendid prize to Ulysses (Ovid's 'Met.' b. 14.) 
 Ajax was so much mortified at this, that he went mad, and in his fury 
 attacked the herds and flocks of the camp, mistaking them for the 
 Grecian leaders, by whom he thought himself so deeply injured. On 
 recovering his senses, and seeing to what excesses he had been trans- 
 ported, he slew himself with the sword which Hector had given him 
 after their combat. This catastrophe is the subject of that noble 
 tragedy of Sophocles, 'Ajax the Scourge-Bearer.' The circumstances 
 of his death are differently told by other authors. The Greeks 
 honoured him with a splendid funeral, and raised a vast tumulus on 
 the promontory of Rhseteum, opposite that of Achilles, on the pro* 
 
AJAX. 
 
 7-1 
 
 montory of Sigeum. He left a son named Eurysaces, who succeeded 
 Telamon on the throne of Salamis. One of the Attic tribes was 
 Darned after Ajax. Some of the most illustrious Athenians, as Mil- 
 tiades, Cimon, and Alcibiades, traced their descent from him. He 
 was worshipped as the tutelary hero of Salamis, where there was a 
 temple to him with a statue; and with all the ^Eacidae, or descendants 
 of -Eacus, was honoured as a demi-god in Attica. The traditions 
 concerning him supplied not only themes to the poets, but subjects to 
 the painters and sculptors of antiquity. (Herod., viii. 64, 65.) 
 
 AJAX, son of Oileus, a leader in the Trojan War, remarkable for 
 swiftness of foot, and skill in using the bow and javelin. He is called 
 the Lesser Ajax, and fills a less important part in the ' Iliad ' than his 
 namesake, though he is distinguished by his defeuce of the ships in 
 company with Ajax, son of Telamon. At the sack of Troy he offered 
 violence to Cassandra in the temple of Pallas. For this profanation, 
 the goddess, on his voyage home, raised a tempest, which wrecked his 
 vessel, with many others of the Grecian fleet. Ajax escaped to a rock, 
 and might have been preserved, had he not said he would escape in 
 Bpite of the gods. Neptune cleft the rock with his trident, and 
 tumbled him into the sea. ('Od.' iv. 502.) Virgil relates his death 
 differently. (' JEo.' i. 39.) Some authors say that the charge of 
 violating Cassandra was a fiction of Agamemnon's, who wished to 
 secure her for himself. 
 
 AKBAR, JALAL-UD-DIN MOHAMMED, the greatest and wisest 
 of all the monarchs who have swayed the sceptre of Hindustan. At 
 the early age of 13 he succeeded his father Humayun, Feb. 15, 1556. 
 About the time of Akbar's birth, his father Humayun, a mild and 
 lenient prince, was deprived of his kingdom through the restless 
 ambition of his brothers Kamran and Hiudal. The dissensions thus 
 excited enabled Sher Khan, a Patan, or Afghan chief, to usurp the 
 government of India. Humayun, attended by a few faithful adherents, 
 became a wanderer and an exile. In his flight through the western 
 desert towards the banks of the Indus, he and his little band experi- 
 enced a train of calamities almost unparalleled. The country through 
 which they fled being an entire desert of sand, they were in the 
 utmost distress for water. Some went mad, others fell down dead. 
 At length those that lived reached the town of Amerkote, where, on 
 Oct, 14, 1542, the wife of Humayun gave birth to a son, Akbar. 
 Humayun sought shelter in Persia, where he was hospitably received 
 by Shah Tahmasp. After twelve years' exile, he wag once more 
 restored to his throne at Delhi, but in less than a year died from the 
 effects of a fall down the palace stairs. When Akbar ascended the 
 throne the whole empire of India was in a very distracted state ; and 
 though he was possessed of unusual intelligence for his age, he was 
 incapable of administering the government. Sensible of his own [ 
 inexperience, he conferred on Bahrain Khan, a Turkoman noble who 
 had ever proved faithful to his late father, a title and power equivalent 
 to that of regent or protector. Bahram for some time proved him- 
 self worthy of the young king's choice; but he was more of the 
 soldier than the statesman, and there were numerous complaints of 
 his arbitrary if not cruel disposition, though these qualities were 
 essential fur maintaining subordination in his army, which consisted 
 of licentious adventurers, and for quelling the rebellious chiefs who 
 abounded in every province of the empire. In the course of a few 
 years the energy of Bahram succeeded in restoring the country to 
 comparative tranquillity. Hitherto hi3 domination was submitted to 
 even by Akbar himself, because the general safety depended on his 
 exercise of it; but now that tranquillity was restored, the pressure of 
 his rule became less tolerable. Akbar therefore, in 1558, made a 
 successful effort to deliver himself from the thraldom which he had 
 hitherto endured. He concerted a plan with those around him, and 
 took occasion, when on a hunting party, to make an unexpected 
 journey from Agra to Delhi on the plea of the sudden illness of his 
 mother. He was no sooner beyond the reach of his minister's 
 influence than he issued a proclamation announcing that he had taken 
 the government into his own hands, and forbidding obedience to any 
 orders not issued under his own seal. The proud Bahram perceived, 
 when too late, that his authority was at an end. He endeavoured to 
 establish an independent principality in Malwa ; but, after two years 
 of unsuccessful rebellion, he came, in the utmost distress, to throw 
 himself at the feet of his sovereign. Akbar, mindful of his former 
 services, raised him with his own hands, and placed him in his former 
 station at the head of the nobles. He gave him his choice of a high 
 military command iu a distant province or an honoured station at 
 court. Bahram replied that the king's clemency aud forgiveness were 
 a sufficient reward for his former services, and that he now wished to 
 turn his thoughts from this world to another. He therefore begged 
 that his majesty would afford bim the means of performing the 
 pilgrimag.; to Mecca. The king assented, and ordered a proper retinue 
 to attend him, at the same time assigning him a pension of 50,000 
 •■upeeg. 
 
 The first objects of Akbar's attention were to establish his authority 
 over his chiefs, and to recover the various portions of his empire that 
 had b en lost during so many revolutions. When he ascended the 
 throne his territory was limited to the Panjab and the provinces of 
 Agra and Delhi. In the fortieth year of his reign, according to Abu-1- 
 razl, the empire comprised fifteen fertile provinces, extending from the 
 Hindu-Ocosh to the borders of the Deccan. and from the Brahmaputra 
 
 to Candahar. These provinces were not recovered without great 
 efforts and the sacrifice of many lives, yet we have no reason to attri- 
 bute this career of conquest to mere restless ambition on the part of 
 Akbar. The countries which he invaded had been formerly subject 
 to the throne of Delhi, and he would have incurred more censure, than 
 praise among his contemporaries if he had not attempted to recover 
 them. To every province thus recovered a well-qualified subahdar, 
 or viceroy, was appointed, whose duty it was to administer justice and 
 give protection to all, without any regard to sect or creed. Thus his 
 conquests, when once concluded, were permanent, for good govern- 
 ment is the surest safeguard against rebellion. Of the vigilance with 
 which Akbar watched the proceedings of his viceroys, and the extreme 
 attention which he paid to the administration of his more remote pro- 
 vinces, we have ample proofs in his letters preserved by Abu-l-Fazl. 
 Unlike most eastern princes, his fame is founded on the wisdom of 
 his internal policy, not on the vain-glorious title of subduer of regions. 
 One of the most striking traits in his character as a Mohammedan 
 prince was the tolerant spirit which he displayed towards men of other 
 religions, and he felt great interest in all inquiries respecting the 
 religious belief and forms of worship prevalent among maukindl In 
 the summer of 1582 he wrote a letter to the " wise men among the 
 Franks," that is, the Portuguese ecclesiastics at Goa, requesting them 
 to send him a few of their more learned members, with whom he 
 might converse respecting the Christian religion. This curious docu- 
 ment is preserved iu Abu-l-Fazl's collection, and was translated by 
 Fraser in his ' History of Nadir Shah.' Fraser makes a mistake 
 however iu saying that it was addressed to the king of Portugal. 
 Accordingly, on the 3rd of December following, three learned padres, 
 by name Aquaviva, Mouserrate, and Euriques, departed on this im- 
 portant mission. Travelling by easy stages by way of Surat, Mandoo, 
 and Ougein, they reached Agra in about two months. They were 
 immediately admitted into the presence of Akbar, who gave them a 
 most gracious reception. The missionaries then solicited a public 
 controversy with the mullas, or doctors of the Mohammedan religion, 
 which was readily granted. Of this disputation the Christians aud 
 Mohammedans give different accounts. Akbar, who is strongly sus- 
 pected to have sought amusement as well as instruction from these 
 discussions, informed the padres that an eminent mull a had under- 
 taken to leap into a fiery furnace with a Koran in his hand, to prove 
 by this ordeal the superior excellence of his faith ; and he trusted that 
 they would do the same with the Bible. The worthy fathers, who had 
 duriug the discussion made some pretensions to supernatural powers, 
 were considerably embarrassed by this proposal, which however they 
 wisely declined. Abu-l-Fazl says that " the disputants having split on 
 the divinity of their respective scriptures, the Christian offered to walk 
 into a flaming furnace bearing the Bible, if the Mohammedan would 
 show a similar confidence in the protection of the Koran ; to which 
 the Moslems only answered by a torrent of abuse, which it required 
 the emperor's interference to stop. He reproved the mullas for their 
 intemperate language, and expressed his own opinion that God could 
 only be worshipped by following reason, and not yielding implicit faith 
 to any alleged revelation." The missionaries seeing that Akbar showed 
 so little partiality to the Mussulman religion, naturally concluded that 
 they had made him a convert. At that time however his attention 
 was distracted by disturbances in Cabul and 'Bengal, and his visitors 
 returned under a safe conduct to Goa, which they reached in May, 
 1583. It appears that Akbar requested and received two other similar 
 missions iu the course of his reign, which, after going through the same 
 round as their predecessors, returned without any further result. It 
 would appear also that at Akbar's request one of the missionaries, 
 Jeronymo Xavier, remained at Agra, for the purpose of translating 
 the Gospels into Persian. He was assisted in his task by Mulana 
 'Abd-ul-sitar-ben-Kasim of Lahore, and the work was completed in 
 1602. It is very much on the plan of our Diatessaron, and divided 
 into four books. The first book is entirely occupied with the history 
 aud life of the Virgin Mary, and our Saviour's infancy. These puerile 
 legends have been long declared apocryphal even by the Church of 
 Rome, aud it is difficult to conceive why the worthy padre should 
 have ventured to interweave them with the sublime truths of the 
 Gospel : yet this compilation, such as it is, has had considerable cir- 
 culation among the Moslems of India, who have naturally viewed it as 
 a standard authority in judging of the Christian religion, from the 
 circumstance of its being issued forth under the patronage of Akbar. 
 
 Of the encouragement which general literature received under this 
 enlightened monarch there are numerous monuments extant. He 
 established schools throughout the country, at which Hindoo as well 
 as Moslem children were educated, each according to his circumstances 
 and particular views in life. He encouraged the translation of works 
 of science and literature from the Sanscrit into Persian, the language 
 of his court. In this he was ably seconded by the two brothers Faizi 
 aud Abu-l-Fazl ; the former the most profouud scholar aud the latter 
 the most accomplished statesman then existing. Faizi was the first 
 Moslem who applied himself to the lauguage aud learning of the 
 Brahmins. Assisted by qualified persons, he translated into Persian 
 two works on algebra, arithmetic, aud geometry, the 'VijaGanita' 
 and ' Lilavati,' from tho Sauscrit of Bhaskara Acharya, an author of 
 the 12th century of our era. Under Fairi's able superintendence wero 
 also translated the Vedas, or at least the more interesting portions of 
 
75 
 
 AKBAR, JALALUD-DIN MOHAMMED. 
 
 AKENSIDE, MARK. 
 
 76 
 
 them ; the great epics of the Mahabharata and Rurnayana ; and also 
 a curious history of Cashmere during the 4000 years previous to its 
 conquest by Akbar, remarkable as the only specimen of historical 
 composition in the Sanscrit language. Abu-1-Fazl long held the highest 
 rank, both military and civil, under Akbar. His great work, the 'Akbar 
 Naiua,' is a lasting monument of his master's fame, and of his own 
 distinguished talents and industry. Manuscript copies of it have been 
 multiplied in abundance, particularly the third volume called the 
 ' Ayiu-i-Akbari,' which is descriptive of the Indian empire. 
 
 For a more ample and detailed account of the mauy admirable 
 works, original and translated, which were written under the patronage 
 of Akbar, the reader is referred to the first volume of Gladwin's trans- 
 lation of the ' Ayin-i-Akbari.' But of all the measures of Akbar's 
 reign, perhaps there is none which redounds more to his true glory 
 than hi3 humane and liberal policy towards the Hindoos, who formed, 
 as already stated, the majority of his subjects. This injured race had 
 long been subjected to a capitation tax, imposed upon them by their 
 haughty conquerors as a punishment for what they were pleased to 
 call their infidelity. This odious impost, which served to keep up 
 animosity between the people and their rulers, was abolished early in 
 Akbar's reign. He at the same time abolished all taxes on pilgrimages, 
 observing " that it was wrong to throw any obstacle in the way of the 
 devout, or of interrupting their mode of intercourse with their Maker." 
 But though Akbar showed every indulgence to the Hindoos in the exer- 
 cise of their religion, he was not blind to the abuses of the Br diminical 
 system. He forbade trials by ordeal, and the slaughter of animals 
 for sacrifice. He also enjoined widows to marry a second time, con- 
 trary to the Hindoo law. Above all, he positively prohibited the burning 
 of Hindoo widows against their will; and used every precaution to 
 ascertain, in the case of a suttee, that the resolution was free and 
 uninfluenced. It is stated in the ' Akbar Kama' that on one occasion, 
 hearing that the raja of Joudpoor was about to force his son's widow 
 to the pile, he mouuted his horse, and rode with all speed to the spot 
 in order to prevent the intended sacrifice. It may be observed, that 
 all those cases in which Akbar interfered with the religion of the 
 Hindoos were really abuses originating with the Corrupt priestcraft of 
 later times. Such prohibitions, being of a purely beuevoleut nature, 
 would nowise affect the loyalty and attachment of the great body of 
 the people. In fact, we have an interesting memorial of the impression 
 made upon the Hindoos by the mild sway of Akbar in a spirited remon- 
 strance, addressed a century after to the bigoted Aurungzebe, by the 
 descendant of the very raja of Joudpoor above mentioned. The then 
 raja says : — " Your ancestor Akbar, whose throne is now in heaven, 
 conducted the affairs of his empire in equity and security for the space 
 of fifty years. He preserved every tribe of men in ease and happiness, 
 whether they were followers of Jesus or of Moses, of Brahma or of 
 Mohammed. Of whatever sect or creed they might be, they all 
 equally enjoyed his countenance and favour ; insomuch that his people, 
 in gratitude for the indiscriminate protection which he afforded them, 
 distinguished him by the appellation of ' Guardian of Mankind.' " 
 
 In the revenue department Akbar effected vast reforms. He estab- 
 lished a uniform standard of weights and measures, and caused a 
 correct measurement of the land to be made throughout the empire. 
 He ascertained the valuo of the soil in every inhabited district, and 
 fixed the rate of taxation that each should pay to government. He 
 strictly prohibited his officers from farming any branch of the revenue, 
 the collectors being enjoined to deal directly with individual culti- 
 vators, and not to depend on the headman of a village or district. 
 For the administration of justice he appointed courts composed of 
 two officers with different powers ; the one for conducting the trial 
 and expounding the law, and the other, who was the superior authority, 
 for passing judgment. These were enjoined to be sparing of capital 
 punishment, and, unless in cases of dangerous sedition, to inflict none 
 until the proceedings were sent to court, and the emperor's confirma- 
 tion returned. He also enjoined that in no case should capital punish- 
 ment be accompanied by any additional severity. Akbar was fully 
 sensible of the importance of commerce, which he greatly promoted. 
 He improved the roads leading to all parts of the empire, and rendered 
 travelling safe by the establishment of an efficient police. Above all, 
 he abolished a vast number of vexatious imposts which merely fettered 
 trade without enriching the treasury. He strictly prohibited his 
 officers from receiving fees of any kind, and thus cut off one great 
 source of abuse. Among the numerous efforts made by Akbar for 
 the improvement of his country, perhaps the least successful was his 
 attempt to promulgate a new religion. On thi3 subject the reader 
 will find ample information in the ' Transactions of the Literary Society 
 of Bombay,' vol. ii., contributed by Colonel Kennedy of that presidency. 
 It does not appear that Akbar's faith made any great progress beyond 
 the precincts of his palace. In fact it had numberless foes to encounter 
 among the priesthood both of Mohammed and Brahma, who throve 
 by the existing superstitions of their respective flocks. Hence on 
 Akbar's death it expired of itself, and the Mohammedan faith resumed 
 all its splendour and intolerance under Jehan-ghir. Akbar had three 
 sons, by whose misconduct the latter days of his life were embittered. 
 Two of them were cut off in early youth through habits of dissipa- 
 tion, and Selitu, the survivor (afterwards Jehan-ghir), repeatedly raised 
 the hand of rebellion against his father. These afflictions, together 
 with the loss of many of his intimate friends, began to prey upon 
 
 Akbar's mind. He died in September 1605, in the G4th year of his 
 age, after a prosperous and beneficent reigu of half a century. In 
 person Akbar is described as strongly built, with an agreeable expres- 
 sion of countenance and very captivating manners. He was possessed 
 of great bodily strength and activity ; temperate in his habits, and 
 indulging in little sleep. He frequently spent whole nights in those 
 philosophical discussions of which he was eo fond. His early life 
 abounds with instanci s of romantic courage, better suited to a knight 
 errant than the ruler of a mighty empire. The first half of his reign 
 required almost his constant presence at the head of his army, yet he 
 never neglected the improvement of the civil government; and by a 
 judicious distribution of his time he was enabled not only to dispatch, 
 all essential business, but to enjoy leisure for study and amusement. 
 
 (Ayin-i-Akbari; Klphinsfone, History of India; Ferishta, History ; 
 and Transac' ions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. ii.) 
 
 AKENSIDE, MARK, was the second son of Mark Aktnside, a 
 butcher of Newcastleon-Tyne, and of his wife Mary Lumsden, and 
 was born in the street called Butchers' Bank in that towD, on Nov. 9, 
 1721. The Rev. John Brand, who was also a native of Newcastle, 
 states, in his ' Observations on Popular Antiquities,' that a halt which 
 Akenside had in his gait was occasioned by the falling of a cleaver 
 from his father's stall upon him when he was a boy; and " this," adds 
 Brand, who was himself bred a shoemaker, " must have been a per- 
 petual remembrance of his humble origin." It is said that Akenside 
 was far from regarding the ever-present memento either with com- 
 placency, or even with the most philosophic composure. The butcher 
 was a strict Presbyterian ; and young Mark's original destination wa3 
 to be a clergyman in that communion, with which view, according to 
 the common account, he was sent to a dissenting academy in his native 
 town, whence, at about the age of eighteen, that is to say, probably in 
 November 1739, he proceeded to the University of Edinburgh. But 
 it appears from a Memoir of Richard Dawes (the author of the ' Mis- 
 cellanea Critica') by the Rev. Mr. Hodgson, in the 2nd volume of the 
 ' Archa?ologia ./Eliana,' 4to., Newcastle, 1832, that Akenside was a 
 pupil under Dawes, who was appointed head master of the Royal 
 Grammar School at Newcastle in July 1733. If this was the case, his 
 attendance at the school could not have been long. The expense of 
 his residence at Edinburgh, or part of it, was defrayed by the Dissen- 
 ters' Society. But after studying divinity for one session, he deter- 
 mined to change his intended profession, and the remaining two years 
 of his attendance at college were given to the medical classes. He 
 afterwards returned the money he had received from the Dissenters' 
 Society. In 1742 he went to finish his medical course at Leyden, and 
 he was admitted by the university to the degree of M.D. May 16, 1744, 
 on which occasion he published a thesis, or Latin inaugural discourse, 
 on the human foetus (' De Ortu et Incremento Fcetus Humani '), in 
 which he is said to have displayed eminent scientific ingenuity and 
 judgment in attacking some opinions of Leeuwenhoek, and other 
 authorities of thotime, which have now been generally or universally 
 abandoned. But if the date of his graduation (given by Johnson, and 
 copied by all his subsequent biographers) be correct, Akenside had 
 already made a brilliantly successful literary debut before the appear- 
 ance of this professional essay. His English didactic blank ver3e poem, 
 in three books, entitled ' The Pleasures of Imagination,' which, accord- 
 ing to one account, he had begun, and even, it is absurdly said, finished, 
 while he was on a visit to some relations at Morpeth, before he went 
 to college at Edinburgh, was published at London in February 1744. 
 He had taken to verse-making at an early age; in the 7th volume of 
 the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' published in 1737, is a poem, entitled 
 ' The Virtuoso, in imitation of Spenser's Style and Stanza,' dated 
 from Newcastle, having the signature of Marcus, and stated to be the 
 production of a writer in his sixteenth year, which i3 undoubtedly his ; 
 this was followed by other poetical contributions to the same miscel- 
 lany ; and while at Edinburgh he had written some of the odes and 
 other minor pieces which have since been printed among his works. 
 But he had as yet published nothing in a separate form or with his 
 name, and was consequently altogether unknown, when he took or 
 sent his ' Pleasures of Iinagiuation' to Dodsley the bookseller, with a 
 demand of 120i. for the copyright. Johnson, who mentions this, says 
 that he had heard Dodsley himself relate that, hesitating to give so 
 large a price, "he carried the work to Pope, who, having looked into 
 it, advised him not to make a niggardly offer, for this was no every- 
 day writer." Pope, who died in the end of May of the year in which 
 it appeared, lived nevertheless long enough to see hi3 judgment ratified 
 by the extraordinary success of the poem. It reached a second edition 
 in May, and continued in constant demand. The poem was first pub- 
 lished anonymously, and a story is told by Boswell, on Johnson's 
 authority, of the authorship being claimed by a person of the name 
 of Rolt, who is even said to have had an edition of it printed in Dublin 
 with hi3 name on the title-page; but in England, at least, the name of 
 the true author appears to have been very well known all along. Aken- 
 side was certainly in England before his poem was published : if the 
 date of his graduation be correct, he probably returned to Leyden to 
 go through that ceremony. His first attempt to commence practice 
 as a physician was at Northampton ; but he only continued there for 
 about a year and a half, during which he appears to have written 
 more poetry than prescriptions. It seems however to have been before 
 he settle'! at Northampton that he wrote his 'Epistle to Curio,' a satire 
 
77 AKENSIDE, MARK. 
 
 on Pulteney, recently created Earl cf Bath, which wa3 published by 
 Dodsley in a quarto pamphlet in 1744. While at Leyden, Akenside 
 had formed an intimacy with one of his fellow-studeuts, Jeremiah 
 Dyson, a man of fortune, who afterwards became clerk of the House 
 of Commons, then one of the members for Horsham, subsequently 
 secretary to the Treasury and a lord of the Treasury, aud ultimately 
 cofferer to the household and a privy councillor. They had returned 
 from Holland together, and on Akenside, shortly after the publication 
 of his great poem, being attacked by Warburton in a preface to a new 
 edition of his ' Divine Legation,' for something he had said in a note 
 iu support of Shaftesbury's notion about ridicule being a test of truth, 
 Dyson took up his pen in defence of his friend, and published, anony- 
 mously, ' An Epistle to the Reverend Mr. Warburton, occasioned by 
 his Treatment of the Author of the " Pleisures of Imagination." ' 
 Warburton took no notice of this appeal; but he afterwards reprinted 
 his strictures at the end of his ' Dedication to the Freethinkers' in 
 another edition of his work. Dyson now gave Akenside a more sub- 
 stantial proof of his friendship by making him an allowance of 300i. 
 a year, to be continued till he should be able to live by his practice. 
 Thus secured in an income, he came up to Loudon, and established 
 himself in the first instance at Hampstead, and after being two years 
 and a half there he removed to Loudon, and fixed himself iu Blooms- 
 bury-square, where he resided till his death. This change of residence 
 occurred in 1748. In 1745 he had published, iu quarto, ten of his odes, 
 under the title of ' Odes on Several Subjects ;' his ' Ode to the Earl of 
 Huntingdon' appeared in 1743 in the same form; and several others 
 of his poems appeared afterwards from time to time in ' Dodsley's 
 Collection,' then in course of publication. An ' Ode to the Country 
 Gentlemen of England,' 4to., 1758, and an 'Ode to Thomas Edwards, 
 Esquire, on the late Edition (by Warburton) of Mr. Pope's Works,' 
 fol. 1766, are almost his ouly separate poetical productions after this 
 date. Besides being admitted by mandamus to the degree of M.D. in 
 the University of Cambridge, he became in course of time physician 
 t0 St. Thomas's Hospital, a Fellow of the College of Physicians, and 
 dne of the physicians to the Queen ; but he was probably indebted for 
 these honours as much to his literary as to his professional reputation. 
 His practice is said never to have been considerable. The late Dr. John 
 Aikin, who himself attempted to combine the pursuit of literature 
 with the practice of physic, says, in his 'Select Works of the British 
 Poets,' " It is affirmed that Dr. Akenside assumed a haughtiness and 
 ostentation of manner which was not calculated to ingratiate him with 
 his brethren of the faculty, or to render him generally acceptable." 
 Another account that has been given is, that his manner in a sickroom 
 was so grave and sombre as to be thought more depressing and inju- 
 rious to his patients than his advice or medicines were serviceable. 
 Yet his latest and most elaborate biographer, Mr. Bucke, has noted 
 that he had practice enough to enable him, with his pension, to keep 
 a carriage; and he also sustained his reputation at a respectable point 
 by various professional publications. In 1755 he read the Gulstonian 
 Lectures before the College of Physicians; and an extract from them 
 containing some new views respecting the lymphatic vessels being 
 afterwards read before the Royal Society (of which he was elected a 
 fellow in 1753) was published in the ' Philosophical Transactions' for 
 1757. This publication drew Akenside into a controversy with Dr. 
 Alexander Monro of Edinburgh, who in a pamphlet, entitled 'Obser- 
 vations Anatomical and Physiological,' both accused him of some 
 inaccuracies, and also insinuated a charge of plagiarism from a treatise 
 of his own published the preceding year. Akenside replied to these 
 charges in a small pamphlet published in 1758. In 1759 he delivered 
 the Harveian Oration before the College of Physicians; and it was 
 published by Dodsley, in 4to, in the beginning of the next year, under 
 the title of ' Oratio Anniversaria,' &c. An ' Account of a Blow on the 
 Heart, and its Effects,' by Akenside, appeared in the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions' for 1763. In 1764 he published, iu 4 to, what is 
 accounted the most irnportaut of his medical works, his treatise on 
 dysentery, in Latin, ' De Dysenteria Commentarius,'— " considered," 
 says Johnson, "a3 a very conspicuous specimen of Latiuity, which 
 fntitled him to the same height of place among the scholars as he 
 possessed before among the wits." It has been translated into English 
 both by Dr. Dennis Ryan and by Motteux. To these performances 
 are to be added several papers in the first volume of the ' Medical 
 Transactions,' published by the College of Physicians in 1767; and, 
 having been appointed Krohnian Lecturer, he also delivered three 
 lectures before the college on the history of the revival of learning, 
 which have not been printed. He might probably have risen to 
 greater professional eminence and more extended practice if his life 
 „ad been protracted ; but he was cut off by a putrid fever on the 23rd 
 of June, 1770, in his forty-ninth year. 
 
 As a poet, Akenside has been very differently estimated. He must 
 be judged of principally by his 'Pleasures of Imagination,' which is 
 admitted on all hands to be his greatest work. Johnson, who hated 
 both the kind of ver.«e in which it was written and the politics of the 
 author, which, always whig, were at the time when it was composed 
 lluiost republican, admits that " he is to be commended as having 
 few<r artifices of disgust than most of his brethren of the blank song;" 
 but seems to regard the poem on the whole as having more splendour 
 than substance, more sound than sense. Akenside had a warm and 
 BUKCf-ptible, but not a creative imagination ; there Is probably not iu 
 
 ALARCON Y MENDOZA, DON JUAN RUIZ DE. 7S 
 
 his whole pootry a thought which can properly be called his own, or 
 even a new aud striking image or metaphor, or a felicity of expression 
 not borrowed or imitated. He interests and affects his readers chiefly 
 through the sympathetic glow which he excites by his enthusiasm in 
 behalf of truth aud beauty, and other elevating conceptions; he ha:; 
 no touches of nature, no pathos, no dramatic power, little or no 
 invention ; and even his pictures of natural scenery, which are 
 perhaps what he has done best, are brought out always by an elabo- 
 rate accumulation of details, never by those happy characteristic 
 strokes which flash forth at once the lineaments and spirit of a scene 
 like sudden sunshine. All is operose, cumbrous, and cloudy, with 
 abundance of gay-eolouring and well-sounding words, but filling the 
 eye oftener than the imagination, and the ear oftener than either. 
 Something of all this was natural enough in a poem written at so 
 early an age as the ' Pleasures of Imagination ; ' aud Akenside him- 
 self, after a time, became so dissatisfied with the work, that he 
 proceeded not so much to rewrite it as to compose a new poem on the 
 same subject. Of this second poem, which was to have been much 
 more extended than the first, he had finished three books and part of 
 a fourth before his death ; and he had even printed the first and 
 second books, although he did not publish them. Both poems were 
 published by his friend Mr. Dyson, in a complete edition of Akenside' s 
 works, 4to and also 8vo, London, 1773; but his admirers have con- 
 tinued to prefer their original favourite, its rapid flow being felt to 
 have more of pleasurable excitement than the greater correctness and 
 more matured thought of the later composition. Akenside's minor 
 pieces have the same beauties and defects with his chief work. They 
 are mostly odes and hymns, and are full of lofty sentiments aud 
 swelling verse, which are farther made impressive by a spirit of 
 earnestness and ardour coming from the thorough conviction aud 
 sincerity of the writer. A few are in a less ambitious style, consisting 
 of plain sense neatly expressed ; but, although he sometimes 
 attempted the gayer flights of the muse, he had no wit or humour, 
 and what he has done in this way is wholly unsuccessful. 
 
 (Kippis, Biograpliia Britunnica ; Johnson, Lives of the Poets ; Bucko, 
 Life, Writings, and Genius of Akenside, 8vo, Loudon, 1832.) 
 
 AKEUBLAD, JOHN DAVID, a Swedish scholar, who distin- 
 guished himself by his researches in Ruuic, Phoenician, Coptic, and 
 hieroglyphic literature. He enjoyed in early life an opportunity of 
 travelling over several countries in the East in cousequL-nce of being 
 appoiuted secretary to the Swedish embassy at Constantinople. While 
 holding this appointment he made a journey to Jerusabrn, in 1792. 
 In 1797 he visited the Troad. Some years after he was appointed 
 Charge" d' Affaires to the king of Sweden in France. He spent his last 
 days iu Rome, where he was supported by the bounty of the Duchess 
 of Devonshire and other admirers of his talents. He died in that 
 city at an early age, on the 8th of February, 1819. The following 
 are the titles of some of his publications : — ■' Lettre a M. Silvestre de 
 Sacy sur l'Ecriture cursive Copte,' published in the 'Magasin Eucy- 
 clope'dique' for 1310. ' Inscriptions Phcenicise Oxoniensis Nova 
 Interpretatio,' Paris, 1802; 31 pp. 8vo. 'Lettre sur lTnscription 
 Egyptienne de Rosette, adressee a M. Silvestre de Sacy,' Paris, 1802; 
 70 pp. 8vo. ' Notices sur Deux Inscriptions en Caracteres Runiques, 
 trouvees a Venise, et sur les Varauges ; avec les Remarques de 
 M. d'Ausee de Villoison,' Paris, 1804 ; 55 pp. 8vo. ' Inscrizione 
 Greca sopra una Lamina di Piombo, trovato iu uno Sepolcro nelle 
 Vicinauze d'Atene,' 4to, Rome, 1813. He was preparing a new aud 
 enlarged edition of this work at the time of his death. 'Lettre sur 
 uno Inscription Phdnicienne trouve'e h. Athe-nes,' Rome, 1817 ; 23 pp. 
 4to. M. Akerblad is said to have been able to speak as well as read 
 various eastern aud European languages. He was a corresponding 
 member of the French National Institute, and a member of several 
 other learned societies. 
 
 ALARCON Y MENDOZA, DON JUAN RUIZ DE, a Spanish 
 dramatic writer of the reign of Philip IV. Of the writers of Spain, 
 unless pre-eminent iu reputation as well as talent, biographical notices 
 are by no means abundant. Nicolas Antonio did not know the place 
 of his birth nor the time of his death, but supposed him to have been 
 a native of Mexico. Ferdinand Denis however, in the ' Nonv<-lle 
 Biographie Universelle,' states, that he was born towards the end of 
 the 16th century, at Tlasco, or Tlachco, iu the ancient province of 
 Mexico, of a noble family, which was originally from the little town 
 of Alarcon, in the province aud diocese of Cueuza in Spain. His 
 time is generally fixed about the middle of the 17th century ; but in 
 a preface to a second volume of his 'Comedias,' published in 1634, he 
 says that he is the autiior of twenty pieces, aud complains that some 
 of them had been attributed to others, as indeed they had, by certain 
 booksellers, to Lope de Vega and Moutalvan. This fact carries back 
 his labours to a much earlier date, and places him among the compe- 
 titors of the most celebrated dramatists of his country; and it also 
 iudicates the reputation he enjoyed. It has been conjectured that he 
 was an actor; but of this there is no sufficient evidence. He was a 
 licentiate, a jurisconsult by profession, aud instances appear in hia 
 dramas of research into the ancient laws of Spain. Though without 
 positive data, we have a strong persuasion that he was a cadet of the 
 noble family of Ruiz de Alareon ; but his best history is iu his works. 
 They show, not only that his attainments were of a very high order, 
 but that he was deservedly esteemed for his noble qualities and 
 
re 
 
 ALARIC. 
 
 ALARIC II. 
 
 80 
 
 generosity. It is generally admitted that the best picture of Spanish 
 manners during the reign of the Philips is contained in the Spanish 
 dramatists. Traitors to the divine unities, as Boileau and La Harpe 
 denounced them, they nevertheless truly "held the mirror up to 
 nature, and showed the very age and body of the time his form and 
 pressure;" and they were also no mean historians of the chivalrous 
 ages which preceded them ; they gave the best parts of the vigorous 
 chroniclers of their ancestors, in their own sonorous and majestic 
 vetse, for every Spanish drama is a piece of lyrical poetry. Alarcou 
 has left many portraitures of that dignified deportment, that generous 
 and manly sentiment, that punctilious sense of honour, and that 
 horror of breach of faith, which characterised the old nobility of his 
 country (aquellos Christianos viejos) ; and he has sketched them with 
 no less fidelity and spirit than Lope, Calderon, and Dc Castro. No 
 writer has ever more beautifully delineated that true and delicate 
 regard for female character in the high-born Spanish cavalier, for 
 which he has been and is still distinguished. 
 
 There is moreover in most of his dramas a tone of morality which 
 does him honour, and places them unquestionably among the best 
 examples of this branch of literature. It has been truly observed 
 by a Spanish annotator, "His pieces not only amuse, but generally 
 convey a useful moral." The chastisement of the backbiter in ' Las 
 Paredes oyen' ('Walls have Ears'), and of the Liar in ' La Verdad 
 sospechosa' ('Suspicious Truth'), are examples of this. It is no 
 small proof of the merit of the last-named piece, that Corueille, who, 
 to use his own phrase, partly translated, partly imitated it for the 
 Parisian stage, under the title of ' Le Menteur,' affirms that he had 
 often said he would give two of his best pieces if he could call the 
 invention of that drama his own. Alarcon's plots are ingenious, his 
 characters well marked, his style nervous, pure, and elegant, and his 
 versification easy and harmonious. His pieces are also free from the 
 affectation and extravagance which disfigure the works of most of his 
 contemporaries, and the object of which seems to have been to mys- 
 tify and teize, rather than to instruct and delight. Among the 
 numerous Spanish poets of this class, none could be more fitly 
 selected as a model for a real national drama than Alar COO. Huerta 
 gives the titles of thirty of his comedies. The ' Ganar Amigos,' 'La 
 Verdad sospechosa,' ' Las Paredes oyen,' and ' El Examen de Maridos,' 
 are best known. The 'Tejedor de Segovia' was very popular. Like 
 Schiller's ' Robbers, 1 to which it bears a great resemblance, it has been 
 the subject both of much censure and much praise. No complete 
 edition of Alarcon's works has appeared, nor any volumes except the 
 two mentioned in the article. His pieces are only found iu miscel- 
 laneous collections. 
 
 (Nicolaus Antonius, Billiotheca Hispana ; Cokccion General de 
 Comedias, Madrid, 1826-34.) 
 
 ALARIC, one of the most eminent of those northern chiefs who 
 successively overran Italy during the decline of the western empire, 
 and the first of them who gained possession of imperial Rome. He 
 learned the art of war under the celebrated emperor of the East, 
 Theodosius, who curbed the depredations of the Goths, settled them 
 in different provinces of the empire, and recruited his armies from the 
 youth of the nation ; but they threw off the yoke as soon as the 
 powerful hand which had imposed it ceased to hold the sceptre, and 
 Alaric, born of one of the noblest families of the nation, was chosen 
 by his countrymen as their leader. Under his guidance the Visigoths, 
 the division of the Gothic nation to which he belonged, issued from 
 Thrace, where they had been settled, and overran Greece, a.d. 396. 
 Alaric took Athens ; but instead of treating it with severity and 
 destroying its edifices, as has sometimes been asserted, it is most 
 probable that he did very little damage to its works of art, although 
 he carried off such as were moveable. The Goths were soon com- 
 pelled by Stilicho to evacuate that country, and to return into Epirus. 
 About the year A.D. 398, Alaric, on the grounds of his high military 
 character, was proclaimed KiDg of the Visigoths'; and about the same 
 time Arcadius, the successor of Theodosius, alarmed at his repeated 
 successes, attempted to identify his interests with those of the empire 
 by declaring him Master-General of the Eastern Illyrian Prefecture. 
 The Visigoths who obeyed his orders were thoroughly organised as an 
 army, but as yet had few claims to the civil character and stability of 
 a nation. They threatened both empires equally at the same time, 
 and sold their alliance to each alternately. Alaric at last determined 
 to make his way into the empire of the west, for the purpose of 
 establishing a kingdom by conquest. 
 
 Early in the year a.d. 403 he appeared before Milan, which was 
 immediately evacuated by the Emperor Honorius. Besieged in the 
 fortress of Asta, Honorius was on the point of surrendering, when 
 Stilicho came to his assistance, with an army hastily recalled from the 
 frontiers of Gaul and Germany. On Easter-day, a.d. 403, was fought 
 the battle of Pollentia. The testimony of historians varies as to the 
 event of it ; but the advantage seems to have been on the side of the 
 Romans. In a subsequent battle, near Verona, Alaric was completely 
 defeated by Stilicho, and was compelled by the voice of his people to 
 accept terms which his pride would have rejected— to ratify a treaty 
 with the empire of the west, and to retire from Italy with the remains 
 of his army. (Claudian, ' De Bello Getico.') 
 
 After his retreat from Italy, Alaric concluded a precarious peace 
 With Honorius, and even entered into his service, being nominated 
 
 Master-General of the Western Illyrian Prefecture. In this capacity 
 he was required to enforce the claims of the court of Ravenna to 
 certain provinces held by the eastern empire ; but his efforts were 
 ineffectual, and at the end of a few years, when his army was recruited 
 by the German youths who were attracted by his fame, he renewed 
 his design of establishing himself in Italy. Claiming an extravagant 
 reward for the services which he had performed, he plainly intimated 
 that war would be the consequence of a refusal. The demand was 
 made in the year a.d. 408. The emperor was then at Rome, and it 
 was debated in the senate what steps were proper to be taken. The 
 majority were for war; but by Stilicho's advice it was determined to 
 buy off the enemy by a contribution of four thousand pounds weight 
 of gold. One of the senators exclaimed, in the language of Cicero, 
 "This is not a treaty of peace, but a contract of slavery." The 
 minister maintained the demand to be nothing more than just, as 
 Alaric had remained three years in Epirus for the service of Honorius. 
 While '.he Visigoths were at the foot of the Alps, the cowardly and 
 weak Honorius procured the assassination of Stilicho, the only man 
 who could still have defended the empire. His son and almost all his 
 officers were murdered along with him. Those Visigoths who were 
 serving in the pay of the empire had left their wives and children in 
 the Roman cities : they were all massacred at the same time. Ail the 
 treaties concluded by Stilicho with Alaric were annulled, and the 
 court of Ravenna seemed to take pleasure in provokiD!* an enemy 
 whom it was unable to resist. Alaric crossed Venetia without encoun- 
 tering any Roman soldiers; with the rapidity of a traveller who meets 
 with no obstruction, he advanced under the very walls of Rome, and 
 formed the siege. An application for terms was made on the part of 
 the Romans, with an intimation that if once they took up arms they 
 would fight desperately. Alaric returned this pithy answer : " The 
 closer hay is pressed, the more easily it is cut." He demanded all 
 the wealth of Rome. The ambassadors asked what he would leave 
 to the inhabitants ; — " Their lives." He at length however consented 
 to retire, on condition of receiving a heavy ransom. But Honorius, 
 although he had taken no measures for the defence of his capital, 
 refused to ratify the treaties by which it might have been saved. 
 Alaric laid siege to Rome a second time in a.d. 409. The imposing 
 name of the Eternal City seemed to inspire the barbarian with 
 involuntary respect. He endeavoured to save it from the consequences 
 to which he was otherwise pledged, by appointing a new emperor in 
 the person of Attalus, prefect of the city ; but the weakness of Attalus 
 rendered it necessary for the Visigoth conqueror to undo the work of 
 his own hands, and Honorius was reinstated on a powerless throne. 
 A treacherous attack on the Goths at Ravenna, while the conferences 
 were still open, exhausted the patience of Alaric. The city was a 
 third time besieged, and Alaric entered at midnight on the 24th of 
 August, 410, when he gave the town up to be pillaged for six days, 
 but with orders to his soldiers to be sparing of blood, to respect the 
 honour of the women, and not to burn buildings dedicated to religion. 
 After the limited period of plunder and vengeance he hastened to 
 withdraw his troops, and led them into the southern provinces of 
 Italy ; but he died in the course of a few months, after a very short 
 illness, while besieging Cosenza in Calabria. Alaric not only displayed 
 great courage and military skill in his various campaigns, but was 
 distinguished by his moderation and justice in the intervals of peace. 
 The works of art and the usages of civilised life were respected by 
 him, and his humanity restrained not a little the excesses of his 
 followers. He showed by his reverence fur the churches of Rome 
 during the sack of the city, that he was in some measure under the 
 influence of the Christian faith, which he had learned from Arian 
 teachers, and while some regarded him as an instrument of vengeance 
 against the remaining paganism of Rome, he seems to have made 
 pretensions at times to au impulse from Heaven. 
 
 (Zosimus; Claudian ; Jornandez, Be Rebus Geticis; Gibbon, ch. xxix., 
 xxxi.) 
 
 ALARIC IL, ALARICUS, king of the W T est Goths, succeeded his 
 father Eudcs in A.D. 484. Gothia, the then name of the West Gothic 
 kingdom, had been considerably enlarged by Eudes, and extended 
 over Hispania Tarraconensis and Ba;tica, and in Gaul as far as the 
 Loire and the Rhone, by which rivers it was separated from the king- 
 doms of the Franks, the Burgundians, and the East Goths, who were 
 masters of the province. If we can trust Isidorus, Alaric had spent 
 his youth in idleness and luxury, though the truth seems to be that, 
 preferring a peaceful reign to war, which in the eyes of the Goths was 
 the only occupation worthy of kings, he incurred that reproach because 
 he was not fond of bloodshed. He was an Arian, like most of his 
 countrymen, but very tolerant, as we see from the acts of the Council 
 of Agde, which was held in a.d. 506, and by which many privileges 
 were granted to the orthodox Catholics. Clovis, king of the Franks, 
 having overthrown the last remnants of the Roman power in Gaul, 
 coveted the fine countries west of the Loire ; and there being still 
 many Catholics in Gothia who were dissatisfied because thtir king 
 did not adopt the Catholic faith, he declared war against Alaric. The 
 old East Gothic king, Theodoric the Great, whose daughter Theudi- 
 gotha was the wife of Alaric, foresaw the war, and tried to prevent it 
 by conciliatory means : the letters which he wrote to that effect to 
 the kings of the Franks, the West Goths, and the Burgundians, are 
 given by Cassiodorus; but his endeavours were in vain, aud the war 
 
ALBA, DUKE OF. 
 
 83 
 
 broke out in 507. In a pitched battle near Vougle', in the environs 
 of Poitiers, the result proved fatal to King Alaric, whose army was 
 entirely defeated. Alaric fled, but was overtaken and killed. The 
 Goths made a halt at Narbonue, and quarrelled among themselves 
 about the choice of a new king. One part of them chose Gesalic, or 
 Gisolec, the elder but bastard sou of Alaric ; and another Amalaric, 
 the lawful son of Alaric and Theudigotha. This prince being too 
 young to rule, the regency over the West Gothic kingdom was 
 intrusted to his grand lather, the East Gothic king Theodoric, who 
 drove out Gesalic, aud compelled the Franks to restore their con- 
 quests. A proof that Alaric was peaceful because he appreciated the 
 bles?iugs of peace, aud that he was able to consolidate that peace 
 by a regular 9j stern of legislation, is the code called Breviarium 
 Alaricianum. 
 
 (Oassiodorus, Yariar. 3, ep. 1, &c. ; Gregorius Turoneusis, ii. 36; 
 Procopius, De Bell. Goth. ii. 12; Joruandez, De Reb. Guth. p. 129; 
 Mascou, Hist, of the Ancient Germans, translated by Lediard; Asch- 
 bacb, Geschichte der Westgothen.) 
 
 ALAVA, MIGUEL RICARDO D', was born at Vitoria, in Spain, 
 in 1771. He first entered the naval service of his country, in which 
 he attained the rank of captain of a frigate, which he then exchanged 
 for a corresponding rank in the army. At the beginning of the 
 French occupation of Spain in 1807, Alava, as a member of the 
 assembly of Bayonne, signed the new constitution given on the 
 nomination of Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain ; and he subse- 
 quently accompanied Joseph to Madrid. He soon however saw reason 
 to be dissatisfied with the side he had taken, aud he joined the army 
 of the independents. In the progress of the war the Duke of Wel- 
 lington appointed him one of his aides-de-camp, in which capacity, 
 after the battle of Vitoria, he was enabled to save his native town 
 from pillage ; he ultimately attained the rank of general of brigade. 
 When Ferdinand VII. was restored, he remembered Alava's first 
 defection more vividly than his recent services, and he was thrown 
 into prison, but tbe intervention of the Duke of Wellington procured 
 his liberation within a few days. Alava at length succeeded in ingra- 
 tiating himself with Ferdiuand, who appointed him ambassador to 
 the Netherlands, where his kindness to his banished countrymen 
 occasioned, it is said, his recal in 1819. At the commencement of 
 the revolution of 1S20 he was elected member of the Cortes for the 
 province of Alava, and was President in May 1822. When in June of 
 that year the insurrection took place against the Cortes, he fought 
 with Ballasteros and Murillo against its enemies at Madrid, and 
 followed the Cortes to Cadiz, whither they had conveyed the king. 
 When Cadiz was invested by the French army in 1823, Alava was 
 commissioned by the Cortes to negociate with the Due dAngouleine, 
 and under the assurance of the Due that he would use his influence 
 to obtain from Ferdinand (whose liberty was first stipulated for) a 
 constitution insuring the freedom of Spain. Ferdinand was conveyed 
 to the quarters of the French general, having previous to his leaving 
 Cadiz repeated the assurances in proclamations published in his name. 
 Arrived in the French camp, Ferdinand lost no time in declaring the 
 promises null, as well a3 all the acts of the government during his 
 captivity. Alava, with many other members of the Cortes, retired to 
 Gibraltar, and thence to England. After the death of Ferdiuand VII. 
 he returned to Spain, embraced the cause of the Queen Dowager and 
 her daughter against Don Carlos, was appointed ambassador to 
 London in 1834, and to Paris in 1835. After the insurrection of La 
 Granja he refused to take the oath of allegiance to the constitution 
 of 1812, retired to France, and died at Bareges in 1843. 
 
 (Nouielle Bioyraphie Universelle, 1852.) 
 
 ALBA, or ALVA, FERNANDO ALVAliEZ DE TOLEDO, DUKE 
 OF, General of the imperial army, and Minister of State of Charles V., 
 was born in 1508. He was the son of Don Garcia, and grandson of 
 Don Fadi ique, or Frederic, who was first cousin of King Ferdinand 
 the Catholic, and the second Duke of Alba de Tormes. His father 
 haviDg lost his life in an engagement against the Moors of Gelvez, 
 his grandfather superintended his education. He entered very young 
 into the service of the emperor, and accompanied him in his expe- 
 ditions to Algiers, Tunis, and Pavia. He afterwards followed him to 
 Hungary; and it is said that the emperor promoted him to the first 
 rank in the army, more as a mark of favour than from any considera- 
 tion of his military talents. His reserved disposition, and the pecu- 
 liar bent of his mind to politics, had at first given an unfavourable 
 idea of his talents as a general. On the emperor wishing to know 
 big opinion about attacking tbe Turks, he advised him rather to build 
 them a golden bridge than offer them a decisive battle. Through his 
 wise measures, however, the emperor obtained a complete victory 
 over Frederic of Saxony at Muhlberg, where the elector was made 
 prisoner. Alba subsequently commanded at the siege of Mentz. 
 
 About 1556 Pope Paul IV. had deprived the house of Colonna of 
 their states, and added them to the territory of the church. The 
 French favoured the Pope ; and the duke was ordered by Philip II. 
 to proceed thither against the united French and papal army. Having 
 obtained the title of Lieutenant of all the Austrian dominions iu 
 Italy, with unlimited power, he entered the Italian territory. Imme- 
 diately upon hi3 arrival, he obliged the Count of T.risac to raise the 
 *iege of Ulpian ; placed Milan in a state of security ; and, proceeding 
 to Naples, where the Pope by his intrigues had caused serious distur- 
 
 lsioo. div. VOL. I. 
 
 bances, he restored tranquillity, and secured respect for the Spanish 
 authority. He then entered the Papal States, and made himself 
 master of the Carapagua of Rome, with a determination to humble 
 both the Pope aud the French; but having received fresh orders from 
 his court, he was obliged to conclude an honourable treaty of peace 
 with the Pope, not without telling his master that timidity and scru- 
 pulousness were incompatible with the policy of war. This proud 
 warrior, before whom the bravest trembled, was subjected to the 
 humiliation of asking the Pope's pardon ; and, as he himself con- 
 fessed, was so struck with awo at the ceremony, that he could scarcely 
 utter a word. 
 
 About 1560 the Flemish provinces of Spain began to manifest 
 symptoms of discontent. Philip, a bigoted Catholic, was determined 
 to maintain the Roman religion in all its purity throughout his 
 dominions. He disliked the Belgians as much as his father had been 
 well-disposed towards them ; and his whole conduct was calculated 
 rather to alienate than to gain their affection. He attempted to 
 destroy their liberty aud privileges, and to establish the Inquisition at 
 auy hazard. When one of his ministers represented to him, that if 
 he did not abolish the inquisitorial edicts, he exposed himself to the 
 risk of losing the states, he answered, that he " would rather have 
 no subjects at all than have heretics for his subjects." A rebellion 
 was the result of this ungenerous policy. To quell it, Alba was 
 furnished with troops and money, and invested with unlimited powers. 
 He set sail from Spain iu 1567, and landed at Genoa, where he 
 strengthened his army with some Italian troops, and proceeded to 
 Brussels. On his arrival, the country, which, through the mild and 
 conciliatory measures adopted by the amiable regent, .Margaret of 
 Parma, was comparatively tranquil, became full of alarm. Events 
 proved that the fears of the people, were not unfounded. The Prince 
 of Orange fled to Germany, and iu vain urged the counts of Egmont 
 and Horn to do the same. Alba summoned a council of state to his 
 house, to consult about the best means of restoring tranquillity and 
 repressing sedition. The two counts came as councillors, when Alba 
 seized them, with the secretary, Cassenbrot, and put them iu prison. 
 The princess-regent, seeing herself deprived of her authority, retired 
 to Italy, and left the government of the country iu the hands of 
 the duke. 
 
 Immediately upon the imprisonnent of D'Egmont, Alba instituted 
 a council, composed of twelve judges, whom he named 'Judges of 
 the Tumults;' by his victims they were called the 'Court of Blood.' 
 He was himself president. He summoned the Prince of Orange, and 
 all the other nobles and citizens who had fled from the country, to 
 appear before his tribunal, under the penalty of confiscation of their 
 property. All the prisons were filled with victims, who were speedily 
 condemned and executed. The principal cities were fortified, and 
 filled with soldiers ; and a country which had hitherto enjoyed all the 
 benefits of rational liberty, under one of the mildest governments of 
 Europe, was now converted into a military camp. More than 30,000 
 persons sought refuge in the neighbouring countries. All the laws 
 which curb the strong and protect the weak, were virtually abolished : 
 there was no other rule but the will of the tyrant. 
 
 The Prince of Orange had collected an army iu Germany, with 
 which he advanced into Friesland, and defeated a body of Spaniards 
 at Groningen. The news of this reverse exasperated the duke. He 
 hurried the trials of the counts of Egmont and Horn to a speedy 
 conclusion. They were condemned and beheaded ; and the secretary 
 of D'Egmont was torn alive by four horses. The Prince of Orange 
 was desirous to give battle to the Spaniards, but the duke avoided an 
 engagement ; and by his prudent movements, without losing a single 
 man, he caused the patriot army to disband. Alba returned to 
 Antwerp to carry on the fortifications of the citadel. The works 
 weie soon finished; and in the middle of the fortress the duke 
 caused his own statue in brass to be erected. This statue represented 
 him in full armour, and at his feet a two-headed monster, referring 
 allegorically to the nobility and the people. The whole was sup- 
 ported by a pedestal of marble, with the following inscription : — " In 
 honour of the Duke of Alba, for having restored the Belgians to 
 their allegiance to the king and the church, and the country to tran- 
 quillity, peace, and justice." This insult was greater than a nation 
 could endure. It was so revolting, that it alienated even his friends ; 
 aud from that moment his dictatorship was virtually ended. His fall 
 was hastened by the cruelty practised towards the inhabitants of 
 Haarlem, where he caused more than 2000 persons to be executed, 
 after having led them to expect forgiveness if they surrendered. 
 
 He now began to encounter misfortunes and disappointments on 
 every side. His health was in a weak state ; the greater part of 
 Holland had openly revolted, aud proclaimed the Prince of Orange 
 stadtholder ; his armies had ceased to be invincible; and he earnestly 
 requested to be recalled. In December, 1573, he published a general 
 pardon, and left a country which he had rendered desolate ; in which 
 he had deliveretl into the hands of the executioners 18,000 victims, 
 and kindled a war which raged for thirty-seven years, and cost Spain 
 the blood of her best troops, immense treasures, aud the final loss 
 of some of her richest provinces. The first act of his successor's 
 authority was to demolish his statue; so that nothing remained in 
 Flanders after his departure but the memory of his cruelty. 
 
 On his arrival in Spain, far from being well received at court, ha 
 
 Q 
 
83 ALBANI. 
 
 was sent as a prisoner to his castle of Uceda. Four years after his 
 arrest, Henry II. of Portugal died, leaving no rightful heir. 1'hilip II. 
 of Spain put in a claim, which he enforced by the sword. Alba was 
 now Summoned from his retirement, and at the head of 12.000 men 
 entered Portugal by Rlvas. Jn two weeks he placed Philip in pos- 
 session of the crown of Portugal. Three years after, 1583, he died 
 at Lisbon, at the advauced age of 74. 
 
 The Duke of Alba was undoubtedly the ablest general of his age. 
 He was principally distinguished for his skill and prudence in choosing 
 his positions, and for his rigid enforcement of the strictest discipline 
 in his army. He often obtained by patient stratagem those advantages 
 which would have been thrown away or dearly acquired by a pre- 
 cipitate encounter with his enemy. Being at Cologne, and avoiding, 
 as he always did, an engagement with the Dutch troops, the arch- 
 bishop urged him to fight. " The object of a general," answered the 
 duke, "is not to fight, but to conquer; lie fights enough who obtains 
 the victory." During a career of so many years' warfare, he never 
 lost a battle. The firmness, energy, and caution of such a character 
 as Alba, surrounded as he was by all the evil circumstances which 
 belong to intolerance and despotism, were only instruments to render 
 the bigot and tyrant more dangerous and odious. Under more favour- 
 able states of society, they might have produced a just and benevolent 
 statesman. 
 
 (Mariana, Hist, de Esp. ; Bentivoglio, Guerr. di Flandr. ; Do Campo, 
 JTist. de Portugal.) 
 
 ALBANI, a patrician Roman family, originally from the town of 
 Urbino. One of its members, Cardinal Gian Francesco Albani, was 
 raised to the papal see in 1700, when he assumed the name of 
 Clemens XT! Since that time the Albani have been classed among 
 the Roman princes, and have furnished the Ciiureh of Home witli a 
 succession of cardinals, who have been in general men of taste and 
 abilities. Cardinal Alessaudro Albaui, in the last century, was known 
 as a patron of the arts. During the course of fifty years he enriched 
 his villa outside of Porta Salaria with a magnificent collection of 
 objects of art, which rendered the Villa Albani one of the most 
 interesting spots about Rome. When the Frencli republican army 
 invaded Rome in 1798, this villa was stripped of all its treasures. 
 The cardinal, however, escaped to Naples. After the death of Pius VI., 
 Cardinal Albaui repaired .to the conclave at Venice, which elected 
 This VII., and soon after died at an advanced age. The lay repre- 
 sentative of the Albaui family is possessed of the estate of Soriano 
 near Viterbo, and of other domains in the papal states. [Clement XL] 
 . ALBANI, FRANCESCO, was born at Bologna, March 17, 1578, 
 and was placed under the tuition of Denys Calvert, to be instructed 
 iu painting. Guido Reui was studying at the same time under that 
 master, and being more advanced in art than Albani he was enabled 
 to afford him effectual assistance iu his studies. The two youth3 
 quitted Calvert, and placed themselves under Ludovico Carracci, whose 
 school began about this time to be conspicuous in Lombardy, and 
 under that great master they pursued their studies with an emulation 
 advantageous to both. Having made considerable proficiency, Guido 
 proceeded to Rome, whither he was followed by Albani, whose taleuts 
 soon excited attention iu that metropolis of art. Annibale Carracci 
 had been employed to ornament the chapel of San Diego, iu the 
 National Church of the Spaniards; but being disabled by illness, he 
 recommended Albaui to continue the work, which he finished so 
 successfully as to obtain universal applause. He afterwards painted 
 several large pictures at Rome, Mantua, and Bologna, but it is on his 
 small pictures that Albani's reputation is chiefly founded. The natural 
 bent of his mind was towards subjects of feminine and iufantine 
 softness, to high finishing rather than bold effect. All his latter works 
 are small aud elaborate; they became extremely fashionable during 
 his day. Albani was well acquainted with ancient sculpture, but 
 displays no indication of such knowledge in his male figures; his 
 women and children are better drawn. He might have become a good 
 colourist, but for that anxious and elaborate mode of finishing which 
 impairs the brilliancy of his tints, and gives his flesh the appearance 
 of ivory. There are at Burghley House, the seat of the Marquis of 
 Exeter, some tapestries from his designs. Three of his pictures, 
 namely, the Three Marys at the Sepulchre, and two Holy Families, 
 are well engraved by Sir Robert Strange. Albani died Oct. 4, 1GG0. 
 (Malvasia, Felsina Pit trice J Passeri, Vite de Ptttori, &c.) 
 
 ALBANY, LOUISA, COUNTESS OF, daughter of Prince Stolberg 
 Gedern, in Germany, was born in 1753, and was married in 1772 to 
 Charles James Edward, called the Young Pretender, grandson of 
 James II. They resided at Rome, and had a little court, by which 
 they were addressed as king and queen. In 1780 Louisa left her 
 husband, who was much older than herself, and with whom she did 
 not agree, and retired to a convent. She afterwards went to France ; 
 but upon her husband's death in 1788, she returned to Italy, and 
 lastly settled at Florence. She was then secretly married to Count 
 Alfieri, the Italian poet, who died at her house iu 1803. She however 
 went by the name of Countess of Albany, as the widow of the hist of 
 the Stuarts, up to the time of her death, which happened at Florence, 
 Jan. 29, 1824. She was fond of literature and of the arts, and her 
 house was resorted to by the most distinguished persons at Florence. 
 She caused a fine monument by Canova to be erected in 1810, in the 
 church of Santa Croce, tu iLo memory of Alfieri. 
 
 ALBERONI, CARDINAL. M 
 
 ALBATEGNIUS (Astronomer). D'Herbelot calls him Mohammed 
 Bi n Giabor, but Mr. Gayangos, who has given more particulars of hirr 
 than any one else (in the ' Biogr. Diet.' of the Society for D. U. K.), 
 names him Mohammed Ibn. Jdtir I bit Sendn Abfi Abdillah. The term 
 A.lbategniu.8 is the Latinised form of El Batani, or El Bateni, from 
 Baten in Mesopotamia, where he was born. He lived in parts of the 
 9th and 10th centuries, beginning his astronomical observations in 
 a.d. 877, and contiuuing them till his death in 929. He generally 
 resided at Rakkah (Aracta) or at Baghdad. His writings comprise 
 abridgements of Ptoletnaous and Archimedes, with comments; a work 
 on astronomy, chronology, and geography; a treatise on the rising of 
 the constellations, aud various other points of astronomy; an elemen- 
 tary treatise on astronomy, and one on astrology, with minor works. 
 The treatise on the rising of the constellations (Lalande in verb. 
 'Delambre'j was translated from Arabic by one Plato Tiburtinus, but 
 badly (as was detected by Halley). This translation wastwice printed : 
 first as ' Alfragaui Rudimcnta Astronomiai, et Albategnii Liber de Motu 
 Stellarum . . . cum Job. de Regiomonte Oratione Introductoria . . . 
 Norimbergao, 1537,' 4to: next as 'Albategnii de Seientia Stellarum 
 Liber, cum aliquot Additionibus J. Regiomontani . . . edidit Bernar- 
 dinus Ugulottus, Bononiae, 1G45,' 4to. Both editions leave out the 
 tables which the book was written to explain, from which it is difficult 
 to form a very accurate idea of the labours of Albategnius ; but th re 
 is enough to show that lie was an astronomer cf great merit, and of a 
 very independent turn of thought : it is likely that ho was among the 
 first, if not the very first, to find out that the data used by Ptolemaeus 
 required correction. He seems to have had no other guide : the Indian 
 numerals are not found iu his work, bo that it is difficult to suppose 
 that he derived any astronomy from that quarter. 
 
 He was the first who rejected the chords, and substituted sines in 
 their place, anil of this apparently trifling improvement we are reaping 
 the fruits to this day : he also used versed sines and (though without 
 seeing the full extent of their utility) tangents. He determined the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic with the parallactic instrument as described 
 by l'tolema?us, in such manner that his observation, compared with 
 those of our time, gives 0'505" for the annual diminutiou of that 
 element; our modern tables give it, at this time, 0'475". His sines 
 gave trigonometry, even in his own hands, quite a new appearance 
 and a new power; and he had a much greater number of methods in 
 spherical trigonometry than the Greeks. It is most likely that he 
 invented these himself, for he distinctly intimates himself to be the 
 first who abandoned the chords : the rule3 for finding the third side 
 from two sides and the included angle, and the augles from the sides, 
 must be attributed to him; with great simplifications in the doctrine 
 of right-angled triangles. He determined the length of the tropical 
 year, making it only 2m. 26s. too short ; a result much more exact 
 than that of Ptolemaeus. The same may be said of his determina- 
 tions of the precession of the equinoxes, of the place of the solar 
 apogee, and of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit. Looking at his 
 determinations of the two latter, and se ing that he does not infer 
 that they are changeable elements, we are left to conclude that he 
 attributed the difference between himself and Ptolemaeus to errors of 
 observation. But as it is by the research of Albategnius that succeeding 
 astronomers were able to infer the variability in question, and as the 
 only reason for his not inferring it was his well-grounded want of 
 confidence in Ptolemacus's results, he has the merit of the discovery. 
 Several writers have affirmed that he did announce it; but incorrectly. 
 The changes which he made iu the lunar theory of Ptolemaeus are 
 slight, and in his plnnetary theory he has very little success. For a 
 fuller account of his work, see Delambre, ' Hist, de l'Astrou. Moyenne,' 
 p. 10-62. This learned aud excellent historian, who rarely lets an 
 author go without stripping a few leaves from his crown, shows 
 Albategnius to great advantage in comparison with Ptolemaeus as an 
 observer, and with his European follower Regiomoutanus as a theorist: 
 and the subject of our article may fairly take rank as the greatest of 
 the Arabic school, which forms the link between that of the Greeks 
 and our own. 
 
 ALBEMARLE, DUKE OF. [Monk.] 
 
 ALBERONI, GUILIO, CARDINAL, was born in the state of 
 Piacenza, in May, 1664. He was bred to the church, and became 
 curate of a country parish. The Duke of Vendome, who commanded 
 the French army in Italy during the war of the Spanish Succession 
 in 1702-1704, happening to be in the states of Parma, and being in want 
 of corn for his troops, sent for Alberoni. The curate had become 
 personally known several years before to Campistron, the poet, one of 
 the duke's followers, when the latter, travelling through Italy, and 
 being stripped by rjbbers in the same neighbourhood, was kindly 
 taken home by him, and his wants supplied. Alberoni, who was a 
 man of natural abilities and quickness, rendered himself useful to the 
 French general ; on which account however he became obnoxious to 
 the opposite, or imperial party. When Vendome was recalled from 
 Italy he took Alberoni with him, and obtained for him a pension of 
 1000 French crowns from Louis XIV. Alberoni followed the duke 
 into Spain, where the war was then raging in Catalonia. Vendfime 
 employed Alberoni in his negociations with the court of Philip V., 
 where at that time the Princess des Ursins enjoyed the greatest influ- 
 ence. Alberoni found favour with the princess, whose intriguing mind 
 was congenial to his own, and he became her confidant. Through her 
 
IE ALBERT I 
 
 means he was constituted agent of tho Duke of Parma at the court 
 of Madrid, in which capacity he was instrumental in bringing about 
 the marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth Farne^e, daughter of the 
 Prince of Parma. He set off for Parma to stipulate the marriage- 
 contract in the king's name. In the meautime the Princess des Ursius, 
 having understood that the character of the future bride was not so 
 mild as it had been represented by Alberoni, and that she was likely 
 to endanger her own influence at court, prevailed on the king to 
 despatch a courier to Parma, with orders to Alberoni to suspend the 
 negociation. The courier arrived on the eve of the day appointed for 
 affixing the signatures. Alberoni, it was said, by threats or bribe, 
 prevailed upon the man not to make his appearance until the day 
 after. The marriage-contract was signed in December, 1714, and the 
 new queen set off for Spain. The first favour she asked of her husband, 
 in writin?, was to dimiss the Princess des Ursins from court. The 
 latter, who had set off from Madrid to meet her, received an order 
 from Philip to quit Spain immediately. The new queen, in gratitude 
 to Alberoni, had him appointed a member of the king's council, bishop 
 of Malaga, and, lastly, prime minister of Spaiu. He now devoted all 
 his energies to rouse Spain from the state of weakness into which she 
 had fajlen during the preceding century, and make her act a principal 
 part in the affiiirs of Europe. Alberoni was not scrupulous about 
 means. In violation of the Peace of Utrecht he suddenly invaded the 
 island of Sardinia, which had been secured to the emperor, and after- 
 wards in like manner conquered Sicily — the Duke of Savoy being then 
 at peace with Spain. All Europe was astounded at this new war stirred 
 up by Alberoni; England, France, and the emperor resented his con- 
 duct; and an alliance was formed against Spain in 1719. Alberoni 
 defied them all : he favoured the Pretender, in order to find employ- 
 ment for the English at home ; he tried to excite disturbance iu 
 France, especially among the Protestants in the south, by claiming 
 for Philip V. the regency of that kingdom during the minority of 
 Louis XV. ; and he even corresponded with Ragotski of Transylvania, 
 and with the Sultan, in order to divert the attention of the Emperor. 
 The latter sovereign was in consequence obliged to recal Prince Eugene 
 in the midst of his successful campaigns against the Turks, and to 
 conclude with the latter a disadvantageous peace at Passarowitz. The 
 clamour against Alberoni, on account of these intrigues, was universal. 
 Pope Clement XL, who had been induced by Philip V. to make Albe- 
 roni a cardinal, was loud in his remonstrances against him. The fall 
 of Alberoni was resolved by the allied powers as the only means of 
 restoring peace to Europe. The Duke of Parma was prevailed upon 
 to use his influence with the court of Spain, and especially with the 
 queen, who being already weary of the haughty and overbearing tone 
 of the cardinal-minister, induced Philip V. to write with his own hand 
 an order for Alberoni' s deposition, and his banishment from the Spanish 
 territories. This happened at the end of 1719, after Alberoni had been 
 minister about three years. Alberoni repaired to Italy, where he had 
 transmitted large sums of money. Orders had been given by the Pope 
 for his arrest, which Alberoni however evaded. A process was insti- 
 tuted at the same time against him at Rome, which he also contrived 
 to protract. Pope Clement XI. having died in March, 1721, Alberoni 
 suddenly repaired to Rome to attend the conclave, to the astonishment 
 of the people, who crowded to see this famous personage. The new- 
 elected Pope, Innocent XIII., quashed the proceedings against him. 
 
 Some time after, Alberoni was sent as legate to Romagna. But he 
 had not yet totally forgotten his habits of intrigue ; and being now 
 unable any longer to disturb the peace of Europe, he contrived to 
 embroil the diminutive republic of San Marino, which unfortunately 
 was placed in the neighbourhood of his government. Under the pretence 
 of remedying some discontents he entered the town of San Marino, and 
 called upon the citizens to swear allegiance to the Pope. Some ran 
 away, others refused, and the rest complied through fear. The Pope 
 however disapproved of Alberoni's conduct, and sent another legate, 
 who reinstated the republican government. This occurred at the 
 beginning of 1740. Alberoni after this retired to Piacenza, his native 
 country, where he lived iu affluence, and built a large religious house. 
 He remained in retirement, forgotten by the world, till the 26th of 
 June, 1752, when he died at the advanced age of 88. 
 
 Alberoni left a quantity of manuscripts, from which a work, called 
 his 'Political Testament,' published at Lausanne in 1753, was said to 
 be derived. He i.s remarkable as one of the most prominent examples 
 of that class of statesmen who rose to power by the most pitiful 
 intrigues; and who, being uncontrolled by public opinion, thought 
 their own ambition and their pretended zeal for their despotic masters 
 a sufficient motive to plunge the people of Europe into continual 
 wars, in which they had no real interest, and whose effects have so 
 long retarded the natural progress of mankind in civilisation by the 
 efforts of peaceful industry. 
 
 (Muratori, Annali d' Italia ; Botta, filoria d' Italia ; Cox, Memoirs of 
 the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon.) 
 
 ALBERT I., Duke of Austria, and afterwards Emperor of Germany, 
 was the son of Rudolf of Hapsburg, the founder of the imperial Austrian 
 dynasty. Albert married the heiress of the former dukes of Austria. 
 After his father's death in 1291 ho assumed the imperial title, in oppo- 
 sition to the votes of the electors, who had chosen- Adolphus of Nassau. 
 After several years' war between the two competitors, Albert defeated 
 Adolphus, who was killed in battle in 1298. Albert then ascended the 
 
 ALBERT, PRINCE. g* 
 
 imperial throne, and received after many difficulties the confirmation of 
 the Pope, Boniface VIII. 'He was next engaged in wars with the Bohe- 
 mians, whose country he attempted to conquer, but without success. 
 Soon after this the Swiss forest cantons revolted, on the 1st of January, 
 1308, against Albert's lieutenants, whose government was arbitrary and 
 oppressive : this was the beginning of the Swiss Confederation. [Swit- 
 zerland, in Geoo. Div.] Albert, Cull of indignation, came with troops 
 to chastise them : he advanced as far as Baden in Aargau, where he 
 summoned his vassals, and held a council for the reduction of the 
 revolted cantons. On the 1st of May, 1308, Albert left Baden to 
 return to Rheinfelden, where the Empress Elizabeth was. As he 
 crossed the river Reuss at Windisch in a boat, he was separated from 
 the greater part of his suite, his nephew, John of Hapsburg, and three 
 other noblemen only, crossing over with the emperor. John, who had 
 lately come of age, had been importunate with his uncle to restore to 
 him his father's estates in Suabia, which Albert seemed determined 
 to keep in his own possession. The nephew, despairing of justice, 
 had formed a conspiracy with the three noblemen already mentioned ; 
 and as the party landed on the opposite bank of the Reuss, the con- 
 spirators fell upon the emperor and murdered him, in sight of his 
 attendants on the other side of the river, who could give their master 
 no assistance. Albert expired in the arms of a poor countrywoman 
 who happened to pass that way. The murderers fled : two of them 
 were afterwards taken and executed, as well as a number of other 
 persons mostly innocent, who were suspected to have been concerned 
 in the conspiracy. Agnes, Albert's daughter, and queen of Hungary, 
 carried her vengeance for her father's death to a most dreadful extent. 
 Nearly one hundred noble families, and one thousand persons not 
 noble, of every age and sex, were involved in this inhuman proscription. 
 The executions lasted several months. After this butchery Agnes'built 
 a monastery on the spot where Albert had been murdered, which was 
 called Konigsfelden, and here she shut herself up for the rest of her 
 days. The remains of this monastery and church are still to be seen, 
 as well as the apartments which Queen Agnes occupied. Konigsfelden 
 is on the high road from Basle to Baden and Zurich in Switzerland, 
 and in sight of the castle of Hapsburg, whence the house of Austrh 
 originally sprung. (Johann Muller, Geschichte der Schweitzer.) 
 
 ALBERT, Archduke of Austria, son of the Emperor Maximilian II., 
 was made a Cardinal and Archbishop of Toledo. He was appointed 
 by Philip II. in 1596 governor of the Low Countries, and succeeded 
 the Duke of Parma in the difficult task of carrying on the war against 
 the Dutch, who had revolted from Spain. He resigned the cardinal- 
 ship, and married Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Philip II., who 
 brought him Flanders and Franche-Comte as her dowry : he thus 
 became sovereign, nominally at least, of the Belgian provinces. In 
 July, 1600, he fought the battle of Nieuport against the Dutch under 
 Maurice of Nassau : this engagement, in which Albert was defeated, 
 decided the independence of Holland. Albert next besieged Ostend, 
 which he took after a long and murderous siege, in which 100,000 
 men are said to have lost their lives on both sides. In 1609 Albert 
 concluded a truce with the Dutch for twelve years, before the expiration 
 of which he died, in 1621. He left no children, and the dominion of 
 Flanders reverted to Spain. 
 
 ALBERT, Prince of Mecklenburg, was called to the throne of 
 Sweden in 1364 by the nobility who had deposed King Magnus. The 
 partisans of the latter, joined with Haquiu, kiug of Norway, carried 
 on the war for several years ; at last Magnus formally gave up the 
 crown to Albert iu 1371. Waldemar, king of Denmark, dying in 1376, 
 his daughter Margaret, widow of Haquiu, king of Norway, became 
 queen of both Denmark and Norway ; and soon after the Swedes, beiu" 
 dissatisfied with Albert, who favoured his German countrymen at their 
 expense, offered to Margaret the crown of Sweden. After several more 
 years of war, a decisive battle was fought at Talkoping in West Goth- 
 land, in which the queen's forces defeated Albert, and took him prisoner 
 in 1388. Peace however was not re-established in Sweden till 1395, 
 when Albert consented to give up his claims to the crown. He then 
 retired into Mecklenburg, where he died. Margaret of Waldemar thus 
 united the three northern kingdoms under one sceptre. 
 
 ALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg, and first duke of Prussia, was 
 bora in 1490. He was elected in 1511 Grand Master of the Teutouic 
 Order, who held dominion over Prussia proper, that part of the present 
 kingdom of Prussia which borders on the Baltic Sea. He fought 
 against Sigismund, king of Poland, for the defence of his order, who 
 had been for ages at war with the Poles. Peace was made in 1525 at 
 Cracow, in which Albert managed to have the duchy of Prussia secured 
 to himself and his descendants as a fief of the crown of Poland, thus 
 laying aside the rights of the order. Albert some time after embraced 
 the Protestant faith, and married a princess of Denmark. One of his 
 descendants, Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg, threw off the 
 allegiance of Poland ; and his son, Frederic I., changed the title of Duke 
 into that of King of Prussia in 1701. [Brandenburg, in Geoo Div 1 
 
 ALBERT DUHER. [DBm] 
 
 ♦ALBERT, PRINCE. Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel, 
 prince cf Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and consort of Queen Victoria, was born 
 August 26, 1819, and was the second son of the Duke Ernest I , who 
 died in 1 844. Prince Albert was educated along with his elder brother, 
 Prince Ernest, the present Duke-regnant of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, under 
 the Consistorial Councillor Florschutz, and subsequently at the 
 
87 
 
 University of Bonn. His studies are described as including, besides 
 the languages and history, the physical and natural sciences ; and also 
 music and painting, in both of which arts ho attained considerable 
 proficiency. Prince Albert was married to Queen Victoria on the 10th 
 of February 1810 at St. James's chapel, having a few days before been 
 naturalised by Act of Parliament. l?y an Act which received the royal 
 assent August 4, 1840, it was provided that, in case of the demise of 
 her Majesty before her next lineal descendant shall have attained the 
 age of eighteen, the l'riuce is to be Regent until such nge is reached. 
 The Prince was not unmindful of the grave responsibilities which his 
 position cast upon him, or of those which might possibly accrue. 
 Almost immediately after his settlement in this country he read a 
 course of English constitutional history and law with one of our highest 
 authorities, Mr. Selwyn ; and whilst he has most judiciously held him- 
 self aloof from nil political parties, he lias at different times shown an 
 intimate acquaintance with the general bearing of great public move- 
 ments, such as could only result from a careful study of the principles 
 of our social economy, a clear knowledge of English institutions, and 
 a considerate observance of the progress of events. In many of those 
 public questions which are distinct from party politics, and in nearly 
 all those which bear on the improvement of the physical condition of 
 the poorer classes, on the progress of the mechanical and fine arts, 
 and in various benevolent projects, the Prince has taken a very active 
 part ; and his speeches on public occasions have always shown an 
 intelligent appreciation of the objects sought to be accomplished. As 
 the head of the Fine Arts Commission the Prince did much towards 
 Retting in motion that effort to reach the higher purposes of art which 
 has characterised the painting and sculpture of the last twelve or 
 fourteen years ; and he has, by his zealous patronage of schools of 
 design, evinced an equal desire to aid in raising the artistic character 
 of our manufactures. But it was as the Chairman of the Council of 
 the Great Exhibition of lSol that his activity and knowledge found 
 its widest scope aud fullest development ; and it seemed to be admitted 
 by all who were intimately connected with the origin and progress of 
 that great undertaking, that it owed very much of its high position 
 and ultimate success to the taste, judgment, and tact of Prince Albert. 
 
 The Prince is a field-marshal iu the English army and a colonel of 
 the Grenadier Guards, and he is said to take much interest iu the state 
 of the army and the condition of the soldier ; but his tastes and pur- 
 suits are for the most part entirely of a pacific character. The fine 
 aud mechanical arts do not, however, engross his attention. His 
 name appears iu the lists at the Smithfield Club, and other leading 
 agricultural exhibitions, as a competitor, and generally as a successful 
 competitor, for the prizes annually adjudicated for superior breeds of 
 cattle, &c. He has indeed given a good deal of time to agricultural 
 pursuits, aud his 'model farms' at Windsor are said by practical 
 farmers to be really entitled to their designation. 
 
 Besides those above mentioned, the Prince holds several offices under 
 the crown. He was elected in 1S42, after a Bharp contest, Chancellor 
 of the University of Cambridge ; and he is president of the Society of 
 Arts, of the Archaeological Institute, and patron or president of various 
 benevolent and other institutions. [See Supplement.] 
 
 ALBERT I, LEON BATTISTA, a distinguished mathematician, but 
 more celebrated as an architect, and hardly less so as a philosopher, 
 poet, painter, and sculptor. He was of the ancient aud noble family 
 of the Alberti of Florence, but was bora in Genoa in 1401. He was 
 nephew of the Cardinal Alberto degl' Alber.ti, and he himself became 
 a canon of the metropolitan church of Florence. Having devoted 
 much of his attention to the acquisition of the principles of architec- 
 ture, by the observation and admeasurement of the remains of ancient 
 edifices in various parts of Italy, Alberti became distinguished among 
 the promoters of the then new style, which has been called a restoration 
 of the ancient and classical. When at Rome be was employed by the 
 Pope, Nicholas V., to repair the ancient aqueduct of the Aqua Vergine, 
 aud to construct the Fontana diTrevi; but the structure was so much 
 decorated by Salvi, in the pontificate of Clement XII., that not a 
 vestige now remains of the design of Alberti. 
 
 At Florence, Alberti succeeded to the direction of several works 
 which had been commenced by Brunellesohi, and left unfinished at 
 his death. He himself designed and executed in Florence the Palazzo 
 Rucellai, the choir and tribune of the church of the Annunciation ; 
 aud some attribute to Alberti the principal front of the church of 
 Santa Maria Novella. At Mantua he executed several edifices for the 
 Duke Ludovico Gonzaga. But the most esteemed architectural work 
 of Alberti is the church of St. Francis at Rimini, which he was 
 emplojed to decorate by Sigismondo Malatesta, lord of that city. He 
 wrote a work on sculpture, ' Delia Statua,' which was followed by 
 another on painting, ' De Pictun'i,' which he calls " prtedilectissima 
 et nunquam satis laudata arte " (" a most delightful art, never suffi- 
 ciently praised"); but his last and most esteemed work is his treatise 
 on architecture, ' De Re -<Edincatoria.' This was not published until 
 after his death, when it was edited by his brother Bertrand, and at 
 his own desire dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici. He died in 1472. 
 The monument of his family yet exists iu the church of Santa Croce, 
 at Florence. 
 
 (Vasari, Vile de' Pillori, &c, ed. Schorn. ; Tiraboschi, &c.) 
 ^ ALBERTI NELLI, MAHIOTTO, one of the best of the early 
 Florentine painters, was bora r.t Florence about 1475. He was the 
 
 pupil of Cosimo Roselli, but he became eventually the friend and 
 imitator of Fra Bartolomeo, whom he assisted in some of his works. 
 In tone Albertiuelli equalled, if he did not excel, Fra Bartolomeo. 
 There are three of his works in the gallery of the academy at 
 Florence, one of which, the Annunciation of the Virgin, is a master- 
 piece in tone. He excelled for his period also in design, and some of 
 his works are drawn in a style worthy of the best of the Cinquecen- 
 tisti, as the Italians term the painters of the 10th century. He drew 
 from the antiques in the garden of Lorenzo de' Medici. His master- 
 piece is considered the Visitation of Elizabeth to the Virgin, in the 
 imperial gullery of Florence; it contains however only the two saints, 
 but beueath it is a predella in three compartments, illustrating in 
 small figures tho Annunciation, the Nativity, and the Presentation in 
 the Temple ; it has been engraved by V. della Bruna. 
 
 Albertiuelli was of a very singular disposition, and of dissipated 
 habiu. At one time he forsook painting, having taken offence at 
 some criticisms upon his works, aud turned publican, an occupation 
 however which he soon exchanged for his original profession. He 
 painted several works in partnership with his friend Fra Bartolomeo, 
 aud when that painter joined the order of the Dominicans, Alberti- 
 uelli completed his unfinished works, among which was the Last 
 Judgment, for the cemetery of Santa Maria Nuova, which, says 
 Vasari, many suppose to have been the entire work of Bartolomeo. 
 Albertiuelli was so much distressed at losing the society of Bartolomeo, 
 when the latter turned monk, that his friends had much difficulty in 
 preventing him from following his example. Vasari says that he died 
 about 1520, aged 45, the victim of his own debaucheries. He had 
 some distinguished scholars ; the best was Visino, who, according 
 to Vasari, died in Hungary ; others were Giuliano Bugiardini, 
 Frauciabigio, and Innocenzio da Imola. 
 
 Albertiuelli painted in fresco in Florence, in Viterbo, and in Rome. 
 Visari mentions a very excellent portrait by him of the mother of 
 Lorenzo de' Medici, Donna Alfonsina Oreini, daughter of Roberto 
 Orsiui, the constable of Naples. A picture in the Louvre by him is 
 inscribed " Maricocti Debertinellis Opus. Anno. Dom. M.D.VI." In 
 the chapter-house of the Carthusians at Florence, a crucifixion iu 
 fresco, with the same date, is marked " Mariotti Florentini Opus." 
 
 (Vasari, Vile de' Ptttori, &c.) 
 
 ALBERTRANDY, JAN CHRZCICIEL, or JOHN CHRISTIAN, 
 bishop of Zenopolis, was born at Warsaw in the year 1731. His 
 father was by birth an Italian. On the death of his mother, which 
 occurred when ho was very young, he was placed entirely under the 
 care of the Jesuits, and educated in their public school. Here his 
 progress was so rapid, and the ability he displayed so extraordinary, 
 that at the age of 15 he was admitted into the order, and immediately 
 on the completion of his novitiate, namely, in his 19th year, was seut 
 as public tutor to the college of Pultusk ; he subsequently filled the 
 same important post at Plovzko, Nieswiez, and Wilna. In the year 
 176U, Bishop Zaluski, having determined to throw his extensive library 
 open for the benefit of the public, appointed Albertrandy his librarian. 
 This post he occupied four years, during which time he drew up a 
 very elaborate catalogue of the entire collection, stated to contain 
 200,000 volumes. In 1764 the Prince Lubienski confided to his 
 charge his grandson, Count Felix Lubienski, afterwards minister of 
 justice in the duchy of Warsaw. In the ye.ar 1770 he accompanied 
 his pupil into Italy, to the Academy of Siena, and afterwards to 
 Rome. The growing inclination of the young Lubienski for the study 
 of antiquities, particularly numismatics, attracted the attention of his 
 instructor, who applied himself with redoubled diligence to this 
 science, and in the course of two years gained for himself a place 
 amongst the first numismatists of Europe. Two years later, Count 
 Felix Lubienski, having presented his collection of coins to King 
 Stanislaus, with a request that they might be continued under the 
 care of Albertrandy, the king appointed him keeper of his medals, and 
 subsequently his lecturer and librarian, and keeper of his prints. 
 Albertrandy, anxious to avail himself of the royal confidence for the 
 good of his country, proposed to the king to collect from foreign 
 countries the various scattered notices relating to Poland. He was in 
 consequence sent into Italy in 1782, and in the course of three year3 
 had gleaned from the Vatican and sixteen other libraries in Rome, and 
 also from various collections in other places, their most important 
 contents relative to Poland. He shortly afterwards went to Sweden 
 upon a similar mission. The product of these two journeys formed 
 a most valuable collection of historical materials in almost 200 folio 
 volumes, which are stated to have been deposited in the library of 
 Pulawy, by Prince Czartoryski. King Stanislaus, as an acknowledg- 
 ment of the extraordinary merit of Albertrandy, presented him with 
 the great medal of merit, and the cross of the order of St. Stanislaus, 
 and made him Bishop of Zenopolis. When 70 years of age he was 
 unanimously called upon to preside over the newly-formed Royal 
 Society of the Friends of Science of Warsaw, and he continued to 
 direct its operations with the greatest activity and zeal, enriching its 
 transactions with numerous papers, until his death, which took place 
 on the 10th of August, 1808. (Biographical Dictionary of the Society 
 for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS. It is a matter of controversy whether 
 this celebrated scholar derived his laudatoiy name from the admi- 
 ration of his coutempai-aries, or whether it was a Luticised fjrm of 
 
63 
 
 ALBINUS, BERNARD SIEGFRIED. 
 
 ALBOIN. 
 
 5.D 
 
 the surname Groot, or Grot. He was born at Lauingeu, in Suabia, 
 according to some in 1205, according to others in 1193. In 1222 he 
 entered the order of Dominicans. During a long series of years he 
 gave public lectures at Cologne, which were frequented by the prin- 
 cipal scholars of the age; and he filled many places of trust and 
 diguity. He was however unambitious of worldly honours, and he 
 resigned even a bishopric which was forced upon him by the Pope, 
 that he might enjoy the retirement of his cell, teach, and compose 
 books. He died in 1280. His works form 21 volumes in folio, and 
 are devoted to logic, physics, metaphysics, and theology. 
 
 There is great difficulty in classifying the works of Albertus, so as 
 to obtain a correct estimate of his system, owing to his having been 
 more a man of great erudition than a comprehensive and coherent 
 thinker. He had read more than he had thoroughly digested ; his 
 mind in some measure broke down beneath the extent and variety of 
 his learning. He had a taste for information of every kind ; but the 
 multiplicity of inquiries into which this universality prompted him 
 to enter, rendered it impossible for him to retain them except by the 
 mere formal memory. When any branch of science was mentioned, 
 his tenacious memory recalled what the authors he had read delivered 
 concerning it, their arrangement, and manner of dividing the subject. 
 He had a vigilant and sharp eye to the phenomena of external nature, 
 and a singular talent for clear exposition. His style and manner are 
 too formal ; the logical framework is pedantically ostentatious ; but 
 what he knows himself he makes clear to others. 
 
 All that we know of Albertus as an author or as a man is calculated 
 to inspire us with respect for him. If his writings do not evince the 
 subtle intellect of his scholar Thomas Aquinas, or the comprehensive 
 genius of his master Aristotle, they evince an eothusiastic love of 
 knowledge, an extraordinary power of persevering labour, and a pure 
 and elevated disposition. Though frequently called to take part in 
 public business, both civil and ecclesiastical, he was free from 
 ambition ; his cloister-cell was his favourite abode ; adding to his 
 store of knowledge, and communicating it to others, his favourite 
 occupations. Yet such was his reputation for integrity, that laymen 
 selected him as umpire in disputes with dignitaries of the church who 
 were his personal friends, and popes consulted him even when the 
 interests of his order might have been supposed to bias his opinion. 
 When, in addition to these qualities, his influence in promoting the 
 progress of knowledge in Europe is taken into account, his being the 
 first to present the students of the middle ages with an encyclopaedia 
 of knowledge, it is easy to enter into the feelings of those who 
 bestowed upon him the name of ' Great.' There are not many 
 among those to whom that abused epithet has been applied who have 
 bo well deserved it. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 A L BIN US, BERNARD SIEGFRIED, one of the most celebrated 
 anatomists of the 18th century, was born at Frankfurt, in the year 
 1697. His father wa3 professor of the practice of medicine in the 
 University of Frankfurt, but subsequently filled the chair of anatomy 
 at Leyden, then the most celebrated school of medicine in Europe. 
 The position of his father afforded him the advantage of studying 
 from his early youth under the greatest masters of the age — Boerhaave, 
 Ruysch, and Rau. In 1718 he went to Paris to study at the hospitals, 
 but in the following year was recalled to Leyden to take the office of 
 reader in anatomy and surgery. In 1721, on the death of his father, 
 he was unanimously elected to the professorship of those sciences, 
 and for more than twenty years from that time he entirely devoted 
 himself to the study and teaching of them. In 1745 he was chosen 
 professor of therapeutics, and he remained in this office till his death 
 in 1770. 
 
 Bernard Siegfried Albinus, though the best anatomist of his time, 
 was not a great discoverer. The knowledge of many single facts is 
 due to his investigations ; but he was not the author of any important 
 principle in anatomy or physiology. His merit consists in the accuracy 
 with which he investigated all the subjects of his study, the clearness 
 and completeness of his descriptions, and the care which he bestowed 
 on the delineation of the various structures of the body. In all these 
 he was unequalled ; aud he thus contributed more than any of his 
 predecessors to render descriptive anatomy an exact science. The 
 commencement of that close study of anatomy by which it is now 
 nearly perfected in its adaptation to surgery may be traced in the 
 publication of hi3 works. The engravings of the bones and muscles, 
 by Vaudelaar, have never been surpassed in fidelity, and have rarely 
 been equalled in beauty of execution. They are said to have cost 
 Albinus 30,000 florins, for the artist lived several years under his roof, 
 and many of the fir.-.t engravings were destroyed for trivial inaccuracies 
 or defects. (For a list of the works of Albinus, see Watt's ' Biblio- 
 theca Britannica,' vol. L p. 14, z.) 
 
 ALBITTE, ANTOINE LOUIS, one of the most violent Jacobins of 
 the French revolution, and afterwards a humble satellite of the Emperor 
 Napoleon I. At an early age the violence of his principles procured 
 his election as a member of the Legislative Assembly for the depart- 
 ment of the Lower Seine, in Ssptember, 1791. His profession was 
 that of an advocate, which he carried on at Dieppe. On the morning 
 after the memorable 10th of August, 1792, he and his colleague Sers 
 proposed and carried the resolution that every statue of a king should 
 
 be destroyed, and a statue of Liberty erected in its stead. He was 
 sent in September with Lecoiutre-Puyraveau to the department of the 
 Lower Seine, to disarm suspected persons, and deport the priests who 
 refused to take the oath. He executed bis commission with great 
 severity, and in return was elected by the department to the National 
 Convention. Here he was of the number of those who voted, on the 
 21st of December, against allowing Louis XVI. counsel on his trial, 
 and shortly afterwards for putting him to death. On the 23rd of 
 March, 1793, he carried the decree that emigrants taken prisoners in 
 foreign countries should be massacred, whether found with or without 
 arms. In Paris he was always the ardent opponent of the Girondins, 
 and the proposer or supporter of the most violent measures ; but it 
 was in the country, and as commissioner to the armies of the republic, 
 in which he attained the military rank of adjutant-general, that hia 
 atrocities were carried farthest. He was present in this character at 
 the siege of Lyon, and at the partial demolition of that city after its 
 capture, at the operations of Carteaux against the insurgents of the 
 south, and at the opening of the siege of Toulon, where he made the 
 acquaintance of Bonaparte, which was useful to him in after-life. His 
 cruelty was accompanied with luxury and avarice : at Bourg he is said 
 to have bathed every morning in the milk that was brought for the 
 consumption of the town. His success and his excesses seem at this 
 time almost to have turned his brain : he amused himself by having 
 the pope, the king of England, &c, guillotined in effigy ; aud when one 
 day at the Theatre Fraugais, the pit applauded the hemistich in 
 Chenier's ' Caius Gracchus,' which may be translated " Let us have 
 laws, not blood," he rose in auger, and vociferating imprecations on the 
 audience, shouted out, " Let us have blood, not laws." On the fall of 
 Robespierre numerous denunciations of his conduct were sent in to 
 the Convention from the departments, and one from the adminis- 
 trators of the district of Bourg was referred to a committee. Albitte, 
 thus pressed by danger, joined in a conspiracy to re-establish the reign 
 of terror, which burst out in the insurrection of the first of Prairial 
 in the year 3 (the 20th of May, 1795), one of the most terrible days of 
 the whole revolution. It was on this occasion that the insurgents 
 broke into the Convention, compelled that assembly to pass several 
 decrees at the point of the sword ; and after murdering Ferand, one of 
 the members, presented his head on a pike to the president Boissy 
 d'Anglas. After a desperate contest in the hall of the Convention, 
 the insurgents were defeated and driven out ; and the legislative body 
 revoked the decrees it had passed under the influence of force, and 
 voted, at the proposal of Tallien, the instant arrest of the members 
 who had dared to bring them forward, or to countenance the conduct 
 of the insurgents. Albitte was ably defended by his younger brother 
 Jean Louis, also a representative of the Lower Seine, who, on this 
 occasion, broke through a course of habitual inaction; the decree for 
 his arrest was nevertheless passed, but it was found that during the 
 confusion he had escaped. He was condemned in default of appear- 
 auce; his colleagues were sentenced to death, and committed suicide 
 in a body to avoid the guillotine. Albitte remained concealed till the 
 general amnesty for revolutionary offences issued on the 26th October, 
 1795 (the 4th Brumaire, year 4), soon after which he was appointed 
 by the Directory municipal commissary at Dieppe. On the overthrow 
 of the Directory by Bonaparte, he became a warm partisan of his old 
 acquaintance, who rewarded his zeal by naming him sub-inspector of 
 reviews, a post which he maintained during the imperial government. 
 He accompanied Napoleon L in this capacity iu the invasion of Russia, 
 and died of cold, fatigue, and hunger, on the retreat from Moscow, on 
 the 25th December, 1812. It is said that he maintained existence 
 during three days with the remains of a flask of brandy, which in his 
 last moments he shared with one of his unfortunate companions, the 
 only act of benevolence that is recorded iu his history. (Abridged 
 from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ALBOIN, one of those northern princes who established kingdoms 
 in Italy upon the ruins of the Roman empire. He wa^ the son of 
 Audoin, king of the Lombards [Longobards], who, about the middle 
 of the 6th century, were settled in Pannonia. Here they became 
 engaged in hostilities with the rival monarchy of the Gepidte ; and in 
 the early stage of this contest, Alboin, then a youth, signalised his 
 courage, strength, and skill in arms ; and the prince of the Gepidas fell 
 by his hand. After his accession to the Lombard throne he became 
 enamoured of Rosamond, daughter of Cuuimond, king of the Gepidse, 
 aud sister of him whom he had slain, aud sought her in marriage. His 
 suit being rejected, he carried her off by force. The Gepidae, supported 
 by a Roman army, were strong enough to compel the restoration of 
 the princess. But the love or resentment of Alboin led to the renewal 
 of hostilities : he obtained the assistance of the Avars ; the Gepidse, 
 abandoned by the Romans, were defeated with great slaughter (a.d. 566), 
 and their name and nation passed away. Cunimond fell by the hand 
 of Alboin ; and Rosamond became the bride of the victor, whose savage 
 temper led him to fashion the skull of the deceased monarch into a 
 drinking-cup, long preserved as a trophy by the Lombard princes. 
 
 In the year 568 Alboin led the Lombards into Italy, and overran 
 the whole inland district, to the gates of Rome and Ravenna, without 
 meeting an army iu the field. Milan opened its gates on the 4th of 
 September, 569. Before Pavia he was detained more than three 
 years; and, iu anger, he vowed to put all the inhabitants to the sword. 
 
ALBORNOZ, GIL CARRILLO DE. 
 
 The city at length yielded to famine. As bo entered the gate his 
 horse fell, and could not be raised from the ground ; and the humanity 
 of one of his attendants, who interpreted this accident as a token of 
 Heaven's wrath against his bloody design, induced him to counter- 
 mand the iuteuded massacre. Delighted with the situation, he fixed 
 his abode at Pavia, and it remained for some ages the chief city of the 
 Lombard dominions. 
 
 By the justice and mildness of his government Alboin secured the 
 affections of his subjects. The conquest of the Lombards was in some 
 sort the epoch of the regeneration of the people. Independent princi- 
 palities, communities, and republics, began to be formed on all sides ; 
 a principle of life was infused into the country, which had been so 
 long buried in lethargic slumber. The series of monarchs who suc- 
 ceeded Alboin were long distinguished by their prudence, and by 
 making the laws their rule of conduct. 
 
 Alboin's life was terminated by domestic treachery. Having drunk 
 deep at a feast with the chief of his countrymen, he called for the cup 
 of victory, the skull of Cunimond ; and when it had passed round the 
 circle, ordered itto be carried to Rosamond, with his request that she 
 would taste the wine, and rejoice with her departed father. The 
 queen obeyed, but she determined on revenge. One evening, when 
 Alboin, oppressed by wine and sleep, had retired to his chamber, she 
 unbolted the door to her paramour, the king's armour-bearer, after 
 she had herself fastened his sword to the scabbard. Alboin was the 
 best and bravest of the Lombard warriors; but, unarmed and sur- 
 prised, he fell an easy victim. His valour, generosity, and successes 
 were celebrated in the songs of the German nations even to the age of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 (Paul Warnefrid, Be Gestis Langobardorum ; Muratori ; Gibbon, 
 chap. xlv. ; Menzel, History of Germany, Lond. 1849.) 
 
 ALBORNO'Z, GIL CARK1LLO HE, a celebrated cardinal, was 
 born at Cuenca, about the beginniug of tho 14th century, and became 
 Archbishop of Toledo. In those days churchmen were sometimes 
 warriors, as well as politicians. Albornoz saved tho life of his king, 
 Alphonso XL, in an engagement with the Moors at Tarifa; was at tho 
 siege of Algeciras; and was dubbed a knight by the king himself. 
 Driven from Spain "by his conscientious opposition to the criminal life 
 of Peter the Cruel, he sought refuge in Avignon with Pope Clement VI., 
 and was created a cardinal. In 1353 he was appointed legate, and 
 entrusted with tho important mission of the reconquest of the Papal 
 States. When Urban V. came to Italy, Albomoz went to meet him 
 at Viterbo, and the Pope called his legate to give him an account of 
 his administration. The cardinal ordered a cart loaded with old keys 
 and locks to be brought into the court of the house, and showing 
 it to the pontiff, said, "I have spent all my funds in placing your 
 holiness in possession of all the towns and castles, the keys of which I 
 present to you." The pope, sensible of hi3 ungrateful mistrust towards 
 a man who had done so much for him, embraced him cordially, and 
 always after entertained for him the greatest esteem. Having been 
 appointed legate of Bologna, he gave to that city a new constitution, 
 and at his own expense founded there a college for the Spaniards. 
 Cardinal Albornoz died at Viterbo in 1364. 
 
 ALBRECHT, WILHELM, was born in Germany, in 1786. He 
 was one of the most distinguished pupils of Thaer, in the agricultural 
 school at Moghin, in Prussia; and he afterwards taught rural economy 
 in Fellenberg's school at Hofwyl. In 1819 he was employed by the 
 government of Nassau to edit a weekly publication devoted to agri- 
 cultural subjects; and in the following year he was made director of 
 an experimental agricultural school, established at Idstein. The 
 experimental farm was transferred to Geisberg, near Wiesbaden, and 
 it became at once distinguished as the source of agricultural improve- 
 ments for the west of Germany. As it was found impossible con- 
 stantly to employ all the pupils on the farm, Albrecht determined to 
 open the school, during the six winter-months, for instruction in the 
 theory of agriculture ; while in April of each year the students went 
 to the homes of their parents, or to some farming establishment, in 
 order to familiarise themselves with the practical labours of an agri- 
 culturist. During the life of Albrecht the school was highly success- 
 ful. " The best students for our institute," said he, " are young men 
 from about eighteen to twenty-two, who, after distinguishing them- 
 selves at the primary schools, have followed agriculture for some 
 years at home, or on some well-managed farm ; they bring a well- 
 disposed mind, not fatigued with study, nor distracted by too many 
 pursuits." While managing these establishments, Albrecht, besides 
 his weekly paper, edited the ' Annals of the Agricultural Society of 
 Nassau ; ' to which society he was perpetual secretary. Albrecht 
 died in 1848, at his house in Franconia, whither he had retired on 
 resigning the direction of the establishment at Geisberg, a short time 
 previously. (Nouvelle Biographie Universelle, 1852.) 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, ALFONSO DE (or, as the Portuguese write his 
 name, AFFONSO D'ALBOQUERQUE), surnamed 'the Great,' and 
 '0 Marte Portuguez' (the Portuguese Mars), owing to his great 
 exploits, was born in 1453, at a country villa near the town of 
 Alhandra, about 20 miles from Lisbon, and not at Melinda, in Africa, 
 as generally stated. He was the second son of Gonzalvo d' Albu- 
 querque, lord of Villaverde, descended of a bastard branch of the 
 royal family of Portugal. In his youth he was first esquire to King 
 John II.; but he first becomes well known to us in the year 1503, 
 
 when, in conjunction with Francisco Albuquerque, his cousin, or 
 
 uncle, he conducted a fleet to India, and secured tho King of Cochin 
 on his throne, which had been endangered by his powerful neighbour, 
 tho Zamorin of Calicut. In gratitude for their services they obtained 
 leave to build a fort at Cochin, which, according to the Portuguese 
 authors, is to be considered as the foundation of their national empire 
 in the East. Francisco Albuquerque was wrecked on his voyage home. 
 Alfonso reached Lisbon safely, July 16, 1504, and was favourably 
 received by the king, who sent him out to India again, in 1506, in 
 command of a squadron of five ships, composing part of a fleet of 
 sixteen, under the orders of Tristan da Cunha. For a time the 
 generals carried on a prosperous warfare against the Moorish cities on 
 the eastern coast of Africa. Da Cunha, sailing for India, left Albu- 
 querque to command in the Arabian seas; who appeared before 
 Ormuz, 25th September, having already in his course reduced most of 
 the chief trading towns between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. 
 The terms of his message to the prince whose territory he invaded 
 are worthy of attention. He came, he Baid, not to bring war, but 
 peace, — peace however to bo obtaiued only by paying tribute to the 
 King of Portugal, instead of the King of Persia; but then the Portu- 
 guese monarch was so great a lord, that it was better to be his vassal 
 than to command empires. Zeifadin, king of Ormuz, was obliged to 
 submit, after tho shipping and part of the town had been burnt. 
 Cogi-Atar, his prime-minister, however, concerted a revolt, which 
 proved successful. Albuquerque was compelled to evacuate the 
 place; and after an unsuccessful attempt to reduce it by famine, 
 returned to the island of Socotra, off Cape Guardafui, leaving his 
 chief purpose unaccomplished. 
 
 Being joined by three ships bound to India, he set sail for the 
 Malabar coast, in 1508. He had received a secret commission, 
 authorising him to supersede Don Francisco d'Almeida, governor of 
 the Indies, when the period of his commission should have expired. 
 On arriving at Cauanor he informed Almeida of this ; but the governor 
 received him very coldly, declined either to surrender the govern- 
 ment, or to accept his services in any subordinate capacity, and finally 
 threw him into prison, where he remained three months. The arrival 
 of tho Grand Marshal of Portugal, with a powerful fleet, restored him 
 to liberty. Almeida returned home, and Albuquerque was acknow- 
 ledged General and Commander-in-Chief in India. 
 
 This fleet was intended to act against the Zamorin of Calicut, whose 
 long-continued hostility had made him very obnoxious to the Portu- 
 guese. The fleet accordingly was divided into two squadrons, of 
 which the marshal commanded one. Albuquerque's division gained 
 the start in landing, and emulation induced the marshal to venture 
 too far with a small number of followers, in hopes of gaining possession 
 of the Zamorin's palace. He succeeded in this ; but the Indians 
 rallied, and he was surrounded and slain; with most of his principal 
 officers. Albuquerque, in attempting to rescue him, was desperately 
 wounded ; and the Portuguese were forced to return to their vessels 
 with considerable loss, having done much injury to the town and 
 shipping. 
 
 The court of Portugal had now divided their Indian government 
 into three portions — one comprehending the eastern coast of Africa 
 and the coast of Asia, from the tropic of Capricorn to Cambay ; the 
 second, Hindustan, which wa3 allotted to Albuquerque ; the third, the 
 rest of India east of the Gauges. Its chief object was to prosecute 
 its conquests in the Red Sea, and to monopolise the Indian trade by 
 destroying that carried on between India and Egypt. With this view 
 the greater part of the reinforcements sent to the East were ordered 
 to act in the Red Sea, under the command of George d'Aguiar ; and 
 Albuquerque thus seemed placed in a secondary command : but by 
 good fortune and good policy he succeeded in frustrating, in some 
 degree, the designs of the court, and contrived to gain nearly as 
 extensive authority as his predecessors had held. After some intrigues 
 to avoid assisting his unsuccessful coadjutors, he resolved to sail to 
 Goa ; and that rich and prosperous city fell into his hands almost 
 without resistance. His energy may be judged from the rapidity 
 with which -his enterprises were conducted. He appeared before 
 Calicut January 2, 1510, and though severely wounded there, he 
 entered Goa February 17th following. But he was unable to hold it. 
 That town, in name belonging to the Deccan, was governed by a 
 Moor named Idalcan, who, like other powerful Indian subjects, paid 
 little obedience to his nominal sovereign. He was absent when Albu- 
 querque took his town, but he lost no time in collecting a powerful 
 force, and by dint of numbers regained possession of it, and shut the 
 Portuguese up in the citadel. Albuquerque's difficulties were in- 
 creased, and in great measure produced, by the discontent, mutinous 
 conduct, and almost treachery, of his officers. At last he was reduced 
 to the alternative of abandoning the citadel and taking to his ships, 
 or suffering the river to be blocked up, and all chance of escape lost. 
 He chose the former. But the bar being impassable during the south- 
 west monsoon, which had already set in, he was obliged to remain in 
 the harbour, compelled by the enemy's fire constantly to shift his 
 place, and exposed to all the evils of famine. His energy and the 
 bravery of his troops triumphed over their embarrassments; and 
 they maintained their ground, though not without much loss and 
 suffering, till the navigation was again open. Finally he left the 
 harbour, August 15, 1510. 
 
ALBUQUERQUE, ALFONSO DE. 
 
 In the course of the year strong reinforcements were sent out from 
 Portugal, and, at the same time, Lemos was recalled, and his com- 
 mand made over to Albuquerque. The same autumn Albuquerque 
 attacked Goa a second time, and carried it by storm, Nov. 25. Early 
 in the next year he meditated new conquests. A detachment of the 
 fleet, which had been sent out in the preceding year, was especially 
 ordered to proceed to Malacca under the command of Diego de 
 Vasconcellos. This Albuquerque forcibly prevented, seizing Vascon- 
 cel'103, and sending him back to Portugal, and three of his officers 
 were put to death. As soon as Vasconcellos was removed, Albu- 
 querque sailed himself on the expedition against Malacca, which 
 hitherto he had put off on different pretexts, and, with some diffi- 
 culty, captured the town, which was given up to plunder. Immense 
 wealth was obtained. The fifth of the booty, which was set apart for 
 the king, was valued at 200,000 gold crusadoes, exclusive of naval 
 and military stores, among which 3000 cannon were said to have 
 been found. In this expedition his troops amounted only to 800 
 Portuguese, and 200 Malabar auxiliaries : the Malayan prince is said 
 to have had 30,000 men under arms. 
 
 Albuquerque had it much at heart to establish the Portuguese 
 power as firmly at Malacca as at Goa. He built a citadel, coined 
 money, established a new system of law and police, and lost no oppor- 
 tunity of conciliating the natives. He received and sent embassies 
 to the kings of Siam, Pegu, and other neighbouring princes, who 
 were deeply impressed by the rapid growth of the power of these 
 European strangers. After remaining at Malacca near a year, he set 
 sail for Goa. On his voyage he encountered a violent storm ; his ship 
 was wrecked, and he himself, washed into the sea, narrowly escaped 
 with his life. He reached Cochin with the scattered remains of his 
 squadron at the end of February, 1512. His first object was to proceed 
 to the relief of Goa, which in his absence was hard pressed by Idalcan, 
 and where he arrived Sept. 13, 1512. He was received with lively 
 joy ; his presence soon removed all cause for disquietude, and estab- 
 lished the power of the Portuguese more firmly than ever. He 
 relaxed the king's dues, and gave every encouragement to commerce, 
 and Goa soon became the most flourishing city of the Portuguese 
 dominions. It was observed, even then, that the king's revenue was 
 increased, instead of suffering, by the reduction of duties. Idalcan 
 and the Zamorin of Calicut, thinking further resistance hopeless, sued 
 for peace, and the Portuguese influence was effectually and surely 
 established along the Malabar coast from Cape Comoriu to Goa. 
 
 The orders of the court were still urgent to prosecute the war in 
 the Red Sea; and seeing India quiet, he now, iu 1513, directed his 
 efforts to the reduction of Aden, a considerable commercial town 
 of Arabia. Hi3 force, much larger than usual, consisted of 20 ships, 
 and 1000 Portuguese and 400 Malabar troops (Barros, ' Decad.' 
 II. lib. vii. cap. 9); but he reaped neither honour nor profit by this 
 voyage. Repulsed at Aden, he entered the Red Sea, leading the first 
 European fleet that ever sailed in its waters ; but he experienced 
 much hardship and danger from heat, want, and difficulty of naviga- 
 tion, and returned to India without striking a blow. 
 
 His last enterprise was a second attempt upon Ormuz, in which he 
 succeeded (1507) without recourse to arms, by the effects of terror 
 and negociation ; and the place remained in the hands of the Portu- 
 guese till it was taken from them iu 1622, by the English and Shah 
 Abbas. [Abbas.] 
 
 Albuquerque, after his fir-t failure, vowed never to cut his beard 
 till he had regained Ormuz, and it is said that he wore it till he could 
 kuot it to his girdle. Soon after the accomplishment of this favourite 
 with he fell sick, and was obliged to returu to Goa. At the mouth of 
 the Gulf he met a vessel bearing dispatches from Europe. They 
 signified his recall; that Lopez Soarez d'Albergaria was nominated 
 his successor ; and that Diego I'ereira and Diego Mendez de Vascou- 
 celloa were appointed to high offices. His proud spirit was deeply 
 hurt. " What ! " he said, " Soarez governor ! Vasconcellos and 
 Pereira, whom I sent home as criminals, sent out again in posts of 
 honour ! I have gained the hate of men for the love of the king, 
 and am disgraced by the king for the love of men. To the grave, 
 miserable old man ! to the grave, it i3 time ! " He might have seen 
 something more in this— a just return for his unworthy treatment of 
 Vasconcellos. His illness, aggravated by vexation, proved fatal. He 
 died December 16, 1515, in his sixty-third year. His body was con- 
 veyed to Goa, and buried in the church of Our Lady, which he had 
 built; and in future years — a touching testimony to the uprightness 
 of his government — Moor3 and Indians repaired to his tomb, as to 
 that of a father, to implore redress from the injustice and tyranny of 
 hia successors. His bones, more than fifty years after his death, 
 were transported to Portugal. 
 
 Albuquerque ha.s undoubted claims to the name of a great man. As 
 a public servant he was scrupulously honest; as governor of an 
 obedient people, scrupulously just; though his temper was austere 
 and arbitrary, and his punishments were awfully severe. His views 
 »s a statesman were enlarged and judicious, his skill great as a 
 general, his courage as a soldier daring to rashness. On the other 
 baud, where territory was to be gained to his country, or renown to 
 liimself, he was stopped by no considerations of right or wrong. 
 The attack on Malacca admits of justification ; but the capture of 
 Ormuz and Goa were provoked by no acts of hostility, and can be 
 
 ALCAMENES. 04 
 
 sanctioned by no law but that of the longest sword. His character 
 is well exemplified in a scheme which he is said to have proposed to 
 the Emperor of Ethiopia for destroying the commerce of Egypt by 
 turning the course of the Nile into the Red Sea, and thus converting 
 that fruitful land into a barren desert. The project is called grand 
 by historians : it is certainly great ; but the very idea of such an im- 
 possible undertaking throws some discredit upon the General's know- 
 ledge. And it seems never to have occurred either to them or to him, 
 that there would have been any moral guilt in blotting out from the 
 earth a fertile, populous, and extensive country, to gratify the grasping 
 thirst for monopoly of a second-rate European kingdom. 
 
 (The second decade of Barros's History of the Portuguese Conquests 
 in the East is entirely occupied by the transactions of which we have 
 here given a short sketch, from the sailing of Da Cunha and Albu- 
 querque to the death of Albuquerque. Those who do not read 
 Portuguese may consult Maffei, Historia Indica ; Lafitau, Hist, des 
 Conquetes des Portugais dans le Nouveau Monde; and the Modern 
 Universal History.) 
 
 ALCiEUS, one of the most celebrated lyric poets of Greece. Of 
 his compositions, once so much admired, nothing but fragments 
 remain, consisting for the most part only of a few lines, or even words. 
 These have been preserved iu quotations by later authors. Horace 
 makes frequent mention of him, and always in terms of the highest 
 admiration. Alcreus was a native of Mitylene, in Lesbos ; and wrote 
 about the forty -fourth Olympiad, or B.C. 600 ; being the contemporary 
 and countryman, and, it is said, the admirer also, of the celebrated 
 poetess Sappho. He is spoken of by ancient writers as a brave and 
 skilful warrior, although in a battle with the Athenians he sought 
 safety in flight, and he threw away his armour, which the victors 
 dedicated in the temple of Athene, at Sigeum. From Alcceus, the 
 Alcaic, one of the most beautiful of lyric metres, derives its name. 
 His poems, we learn from Quintilian and Horace, were more severe 
 and elevated in style and subject than those of most of the followers 
 of the lyric muse; of the fragments preserved however, many are in 
 praise of wine. The most striking is one which has been finely 
 expanded by Sir W. Jones. Alcseus aspired to be the poet of liberty; 
 and directed the full vigour of his genius against Pittacus, who had 
 raised his power above that of his fellow-citizens, or in Greek language 
 made himself tyrant of Mitylene. (The best collection of the frag- 
 ments of Alcceus is in the Cambridge Museum Criticum, vol. i. p. 421, 
 and in Gaisford's Minor Poets, Leipzig, 1823. For additional frag- 
 ments see the Rhenish Museum for 1829, 1833, and 1835; Jahn's 
 JahrbucA fur Philolog. for 1830 j and Camer's Anecdota Grwca, vol. i. 
 Oxf. 1835.) 
 
 Other persons of the name of Alcscus are named by ancient writers. 
 We shall only mention two — a comic poet, also of Mitylene, who con- 
 teuded with Aristophanes for the prize, when he produced the ' Plutus,' 
 01. 98-1, B.C. 388; and a Messenian, the author of a number of 
 epigrams in the Greek anthology. He was contemporary with 
 Philip III. of Macedonia, against whom several of his epigrams are 
 directed. 
 
 ALCA'MENES, a celebrated ancient sculptor, and a native of 
 Athens. He was the pupil of Phidias, and lived therefore in the 
 middle of the 5th century, B.C., and later. Phidias, Alcamenes, and 
 Polycletus, were the three greatest sculptors of ancient Greece ; 
 Alcamenes survived Phidias some time, as he was still living in the 
 95th Olympiad, according to Pausanias, about 400 B.C., for he made 
 two colossal statues of Minerva and Hercules, to commemorate the 
 victory of Thrasybulus over the thirty tyrants, which he dedicated 
 in the temple of Hercules at Thebes ; this victory took place in the 
 second year of the 94th Olympiad, or B.C. 403. 
 
 Alc.imenes was sculptor in marble and statuary La bronze; his 
 most celebrated work was a Venus, known as the 'Venus in the 
 Gardens,' it was in the temple of Venus Urania at Athens. In the 
 dialogue of the Portraits, Lucian makes 1'olystratus term this statue 
 the noblest of all the works of Alcamenes. Many other ancient 
 writers speak of this statue. Pliny says that Phidias finished it ; by 
 which must be understood that he made, a few alterations ou the 
 finished statue of Alcamenes, which, according to his riper judgment, 
 it required ; mere technical finishing is not the work of a great 
 master. 
 
 Alcamenes contended, according to Tzetzes, with Phidias ; the 
 subject was a statue of Minerva; and the work of Alcamenes was at 
 fir3t, on account of its higher finish and proportions, preferred to the 
 work of his master, but when fixed in their destined places, the 
 superiority of the statue of Phidias was evident; the latter gained 
 effect, the former lost it. Iu this instance, Phidias gave Alcamenes 
 a lesson, from which modern artists might derive a benefit. The 
 great majority of the statues and works of sculpture in the modern 
 churches or other buildings of Europe, appear to have been made 
 without any allowances for either the elevation or the distance from 
 the eye, of the destined locality of the work : that a work in which 
 this principle is carried fully out is unfitted for any but a similar 
 situation, is not a sufficient apology for its neglect, though it may 
 satisfy the artist's vanity. 
 
 Another celebrated statue by Alcamenes was one of Dionysus, of 
 ivory and gold, placed in a temple to that god in Athens. Tho 
 sculptures also of the posterior pediment of the temple of Jupiter at 
 
95 
 
 Olympia, representing the fight of the Lapithce and the Centaurs, 
 were by Alcamenes. Pausanias mentions besides at Athens a statuo 
 of Mars in the temple of Mars ; a triple-bodied statue of Hecate on 
 the Acropolis, the first in that form ; and statues of Procno and Itys, 
 in the same place. There was also a Vulcan or Hephaestus at Athens, 
 in which the lameness was expressed without destroying the beauty 
 of the statue ; it is noticed by Cicero and by Valerius Maximus. 
 Tausauius mentions also an yEsculapius at Mautiuea, and l'liny 
 speaks of a bronze figure of a pentathlete, or victor in the pentathlon, 
 or five athletic exercises, which was called Encrinoinenos; these five 
 games weiv — leaping, running, the discus or quoit, throwing the 
 javelin, and wrestling. 
 
 (Pliny, Ilist. Nat. xxxiv. 8, xxxvi. 5 ; Lucian, Imagines, 4, 6 ; Pau- 
 sanias, i. 8, 19, 20, 24, 33 ; v. 10 ; viii. 9; ix. 11; Cicero, Nat. Dcor. i. 
 30; Valerius Maximus, viii. 11 ; Tzetzes, Okil. viii. 193 ; Winckelmann, 
 Werke, vol. vi. ; Thiersch, Ejioche der bildenden Kunst, &c.) 
 
 ALCEDO, ANTONIO DE. Less is known than could be desired 
 of the life of this deserving geographer. He was a native of Spanish 
 America. He published his ' Dictionary of American Geography ' at 
 Madrid, 1780, after having been twenty years engaged in compiling it. 
 He was at the time of its publication a colonel in the royal guard, and 
 states, in his preface, that his studies had been often interrupted by 
 his military avocations. This brief account comprehends almost 
 everything that is known of him. Alcedo mentions that some of his 
 accounts of places were drawn from personal observation, but more 
 obtained from the library of printed and manuscript works relative to 
 America, and communications of a distinguished person who had filled 
 for forty years high offices in the Indies. He also states that he had 
 access to official documents, and had received valuable original 
 information. The work is compiled with a good deal of critical 
 accuracy, and fills a gap in the history, as well as the geography, of 
 Spanish America. The jealousy of the Spanish government occa- 
 sioned the suppression of the work. There are two copies of the 
 Spanish Alcedo (17S6) in the library of the British Museum. It has 
 been translated into English by Mr. G. A. Thompson, whose trans- 
 lation (with considerable additions from more recent authors) was 
 published in London, in five volumes, in 1812-15. An atlas to Alcedo 
 was published in 181 G by A. Arrowsmith. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, son of Cleiuias, an Athenian remarkable for his 
 ability as a soldier and statesman, for the great and varied influence 
 which he exercised over the fortunes of Greece, and for the versatility 
 and splendour of his talents, was born about B.C. 452-50, when Athens 
 was rapidly rising to its highest power. In early youth he seemed 
 marked out for distinction by the most brilliant endowments of per- 
 son, of station, and of intellect. Though high ancestry conferred no 
 direct political privileges, it was not indifferent in his own eyes, or 
 those of his fellow- citizens, that he descended from the noblest 
 families of Athens. By his father's side he traced his ancestry into 
 the heroic ages, through Ajax up to Jupiter; and his mother, Deiuo- 
 mache, was one of the Alcmaionidae. He inherited one of the largest 
 fortunes in Athens, swelled by the savings of a long minority ; and 
 with his wife, Hipparete, daughter of Hipponicus, he received ten 
 talents, the largest dowry that had been given in Greece. His person 
 was remarkable for beauty, an advantage which he abused to licen- 
 tiousness. His powers of mind were extraordinary, and he enjoyed 
 peculiar advantages in their cultivation, being the ward of Pericles, 
 who was connected with him on the mother's side, and the favourite 
 pupil and companion of Socrates. But his great qualities were alloyed 
 by a frivolity of mind, shown in the importance which he attached to 
 pre-eminence and display, and in a childish love of notoriety, which 
 constantly led him into wanton and offensive excesses ; and he is 
 liable to the graver charge of an intense selfishness, which postponed 
 truth, justice, and patriotism to self-aggrandisemeut, or to the gratifi- 
 cation of a headstrong will. The advice which he is said to have 
 given to Pericles, when at a loss in what palatable shape to render 
 his accounts to the state, may be taken as an index of his character : 
 "It would be better to study how to avoid rendering them at all." 
 
 The life of Alcibiades by Plutarch begins with a long series of very 
 amusing stories, to which we can only refer. At the age of 18, 
 according to the Athenian law, he attained his majority. In B.C. 432 
 he served at the siege of Potidsea, in company with Socrates, who 
 there saved his life in battle. On that occasion, the crown and suit of 
 armour, the prize of the most distinguished combatant, was awarded 
 to Alcibiades, at the instance of Socrates, to whom it appears to have 
 been more justly due. Eight years later, at the battle of Delium, 
 Alcibiades in his turn saved the life of the philosopher. Their inti- 
 macy has caused Alcibiades to fill a prominent place in the dialogues 
 of Plato. They sought each other's society from widely different- 
 motives : " Socrates saw in him many elements of a noble character, 
 which might be easily perverted ; abilities which might greatly serve 
 or fatally injure his country ; a strength of will capable of the most 
 arduous enterprises, and the more dangerous if it took a wrong 
 direction ; an ardent love of glory, which needed to be purified and 
 enlightened ; and he endeavoured to win all these advantages for 
 truth, virtue, and the public good. It was one of the best tokens of 
 a generous nature in Alcibiades, that he could strongly relish the 
 conversation of Socrates, and deeply admire his exalted character, not- 
 withstanding his repulsive exterior, and the wide difference of station 
 
 and habits by which they were parted. ..... But their intimacy 
 
 produced no lasting fruits." 
 
 To keep himself before the eyes of the peopie suited both the 
 temper and the policy of Alcibiades. Many of his eccentricities seem 
 to have been directed to this end. He served, like all Greek citizens, 
 in the army, and, as has been stated, with credit. Ho had a powerful 
 aud persuasive eloquence, which he used unscrupulously, " flattering 
 the people in the mass," says Andocides, "and despitefully using any 
 individual." He lavished his wealth, sometimes in idle frolic or pro- 
 digal magnificence, sometimes in a more serious and well-considered 
 splendour. " He was not only liberal to profusion in the legal and 
 customary contributions with which at Athens the affluent charged 
 themselves, as well to provide for certain parts of the naval service aa 
 to defray the expense of the public spectacles, but aspired to dazzle 
 
 all Greece at the national games He contended at Olympia 
 
 with seven chariots in the same race, and won the first, second, and 
 third or fourth crown success unexampled as the competition. He 
 afterwards feasted all the spectators ; and the entertainment was not 
 •more remarkable for its profusion, and for the multitude of the guests, 
 than for the new kind of homage paid to him by the subjects of 
 Athens. The Ephesiaus pitched a splendid Persian tent for him ; the 
 Cliiaus furnished provender for his horses ; the Cyzicenes, victims for 
 the sacrifice ; the Lesbians, wine aud other requisites for the banquet. 
 .... Reflecting men could not but ask, whether any private fortune 
 could support such an expenditure, and whether such honours were in 
 harmony with a spirit of civic equality." (Thirlwall, ' History of 
 Greece.') And such a doubt might well be increased by his light and 
 fearless violations, not only of individual rights and persons, but of 
 the majesty of the public tribunals and of religion. "At these things," 
 says Plutarch, " the best citizens of Athens were much offended, aud 
 were afraid withal of his rashness and insolency;" and he goes on to 
 quote a passage from ^Eschylus applied to Alcibiades by Aristophanes, 
 to the effect that a lion's whelp should not be brought up in a city, but 
 that whosoever rears one must let him have his own way. 
 
 The fauiily of Alcibiades had been connected with Sparta by the 
 respected tie of hereditary hospitality. That tie, which had been 
 broken by his grandfather, Alcibiades wished to renew, aud to consti- 
 tute himself the head of the Spartan party. But the Spartan govern- 
 ment, jealous probably of his temper and ignorant of his power, 
 preferred to retain their connection with Nicias, the recognised leader 
 of the aristocratic party ; and thereon Alcibiades went over to the 
 opposite extreme. His first public measure seems to have been a 
 proposition for increasing the tribute paid by the Athenian allies, 
 which was doubled in amount, he being one of the commissioners 
 appointed to effect the change. This appears to have been before the 
 peace between Athens and Sparta, B.C. 421. Soon after that peace he 
 came forward as the advocate of the democratic party against the 
 Spartan alliance ; and by a clever and unscrupulous trick, in which he 
 outwitted the Spartan ministers, obtained the enactment of a treaty 
 of alliance with Argos, Elis, and Mantineia (b.c. 420). This meant 
 little less than a declaration of hostilities against Sparta, and soon led 
 to open war. In B.C. 419 Alcibiades was elected one of the board of 
 generals (strategos), aud he bore an active part in the complicated 
 wars and negotiations carried on in Peloponnesus duriDg the next 
 three years, a period unmarked by any leading events in his personal 
 history. He is however charged with having been a leading agent in 
 procuring the atrocious decree by which the male citizens of Melos 
 were put to death by the Athenians, their lands occupied by Athenian 
 settlers, and their families enslaved — a transaction infamous in history 
 under the name of the Melian massacre. 
 
 At this time Alcibiades and Nicias were the unquestioned leaders of 
 the democratic and aristocratic, the war and peace parties ; the latter 
 desirous above all things to secure, by a good understanding with 
 Sparta, that power and wealth which had grown up so wonderfully iu 
 some sixty years ; the former eager to extend them, and open new 
 prospects of conquests, gain, and glory to the young, the needy, aud 
 that large class of citizens who were in one way or another to be fed 
 at the public expense. The only man who could be formidable to 
 either was Hyperbolus, Cleon's successor as leader of the lowest class 
 of citizens. He had the boldness to threaten Alcibiades with ostra- 
 cism, but was himself banished under that strange law, through the 
 co-operation of the two leaders, of whom Nicias hated him on political 
 as heartily as Alcibiades on personal grounds. Soon after (B.C. 415), 
 the cardinal event of the war came under discussion, the interference 
 of Athens with the affairs of Sicily. That she did interfere was 
 principally due to Alcibiades, whose arguments are presumed to be 
 faithfully represented by Thucydides, in the speech ascribed to him 
 (vi. 16-18). A powerful armament was voted, in the command of 
 which he was joined with Nicias and Lamachus ; but before it sailed, 
 the general exultation was damped by a strange occurrence, never 
 clearly explained. One morning most of the Hermse (stone figures of 
 Mercury placed in the streets as guardian images) were found defaced. 
 This wa3 a great sacrilege, and raised an extraordinary commotion. 
 Inquiry was made ; rewards were offered to witnesses and informers ; 
 and finally a charge of profaning the Eleusiniau mysteries, connected 
 with the mutilation of the Hermse and the existence of a plot against 
 the democracy, was brought against Alcibiades. To the charge of 
 profanation the excesses of his youth gave colour ; the rest of it had 
 
97 
 
 ALCMAN. 
 
 9b 
 
 not even plausibility. Alcibiades begged for t trial before be was sent 
 out in so high a command; but his enemies had the ear of the people, 
 and it was not their object to give him a fair hearing; it was therefore 
 voted that he should proceed with the fleet, and return when sum- 
 moned to answer the things laid to his charge. On reaching Sicily, 
 those hope3 of powerful support by which the expedition had been 
 recommended were found to be futile. The commanders differed in 
 their views : finally, those of Alcibiades were adopted; but before his 
 talents could tell he was recalled to stand hia trial, and trial, m the 
 then temper of the people, he held equivalent to condemnation. He 
 escaped on the voyage ; and, not appearing, was pronounced accursed, 
 and sentenced to death with confiscation of property. 
 
 Whether or not Alcibiades was capable of carrying to a prosperous 
 issue the great hopes with which the Sicilian expedition was under- 
 taken is doubtful, but his colleagues and successors proved unequal to 
 the task. [Nicias ; Demosthenes.] He threw his talents into the 
 opposite scale, and appeared at Sparta as the enemy of his country. 
 (Thucyd., vi. 89-92.) By his advice, a Spartan was given to command 
 the Syracusans, a very sparing yet effectual aid ; and a permanent 
 station was fortified and garrisoned by the Spartans at Deceleia, a 
 town of Attica, about 15 miles from Athens, to the great inconvenience 
 and injury of that city. The total los3 of the Sicilian armament 
 (B C. 413) gave new spirits both to the open enemies and the discon- 
 tented allies of Athens. By the ready agency of Alcibiades, the 
 islauds and Ionia were urged into revolt ; and a treaty was concluded 
 between Sparta and Tisaaphernes, satrap of Ionia, on terms more 
 favourable to the Peraian interests than to the honour of Greece 
 (B.c. 412). But about this time the cordiality and unity of purpose 
 of Alcibiades and the Spartans declined. By the annual change of 
 magistrates, a party unfriendly to him came into office ; and the king, 
 Agis, hated him, believing him to have seduced his wife, Timcea. 
 This indeed Alcibiades is said to have avowed, intimating that he 
 was governed not so much by any preference for the lady as by 
 ambition that his posterity should fill the throne of Sparta ; and it is 
 & remarkable but not solitary instance of the levity with which he 
 would let the indulgence of a whim cross deep schemes of policy. In 
 this, and in other respects, he strikingly resembles a man much 
 inferior to himself, the second duke of Buckingham. According to 
 the secret and crafty policy of Sparta, the commander of the army in 
 Asia was instructed to get rid of Alcibiades as a dangerous person ; 
 but he was warned of the danger, and took refuge with Tissaphernes, 
 the Persian satrap above named. 
 
 Whatever party Alcibiades attached himself to, that party always 
 seems to have taken a start from that moment. Such had been the 
 case when he was driven from Athens ; such was now the case when 
 he was driven from Sparta. He soon estranged Tissaphernes from 
 his new alliea ; made him reduce their pay, upon which the Spartan 
 power of maintaining a fleet greatly depended ; and led him to see 
 that the policy of Persia was, not to substitute the ascendancy of 
 Sparta on the coaata of Asia Minor for that of Athens, but to preserve 
 the one to counterpoise the other. He fascinated Tissaphernes by 
 hia unrivalled talenta of social intercourse; and the notoriety of his 
 favour, and belief in his power, soon reached and made a deep impres- 
 sion in the Athenian armament then quartered at Samos. Of the 
 rich Athenians a large proportion was disgusted by the length of the 
 war, and by the pressure upon property which it occasioned. One 
 heavy burden was the obligation of acting as trierarch, or captain of 
 a ship, which involved a great expense for the equipment of the vessel, 
 and was compulsory upon men of a certain fortune. An influential 
 party in the Samian armament was therefore well disposed to embrace 
 the advantages consequent on the restoration of Alcibiades, backed 
 by the wealth of Persia: and that he coupled his restoration with 
 the establishment of an oligarchy, professing that he could not feel 
 secure so long as the government rested in the party which had 
 banished him, was probably an additional inducement to further his 
 placB. A deputation was sent to Athens, headed by Pisander, who 
 speedily obtained a decree by which he with ten others was authorised 
 to negotiate with Tissaphernes and Alcibiades. But nothing was 
 effected, in consequence of the excessive demands of Alcibiades, who 
 appears to have resor ted to that method of concealing the truth, that 
 his influence was not sufficient to induce the satrap to break abso- 
 lutely with the Peloponnei-iana. Meanwhile that revolution at Athens 
 still proceeded which lodged (B.C. 411) the sovereign power in the 
 council of Four Hundred. But the temper of the Samian armament 
 was changed. Thrasybulus aud Thrasyllus, officers of subordinate 
 rank, but men of talent, had gained a commanding influence in the 
 absence of the leading oligarchists. An o.ith to support the demo- 
 cracy was imposed upon persons suspected of favouring the new 
 government; and Alcibiades was recalled by a vote of the soldier- 
 citizens, who, in the abeyance of the constitution, claimed the 
 sovereignty as vested in their assembly. His first action was an 
 important benefit to his country, inasmuch as he prevented the army 
 from returning to Athens to restore the constitution by civil war. 
 And in the course of the same year which had witnessed the revolu- 
 tion, the Four Hundred were overthrown without the agency of the 
 •nay ; the sovereign power was vested in a selected body of 5000 
 citizens ; and Alcibiades and other exiles were recalled. 
 
 His promises to bring the gold of Persia to relieve the Athenian 
 
 BOO. DJV. YOU I. 
 
 exchequer proved vain : as Tissaphernes had deserted the Pelopon- 
 nesian, so now he deserted the Athenian interest. But under tho 
 command of Alcibiades a succession of brilliant victories — at Cynos- 
 sema and Abydoa (B.C. 411); at Cyzicus (b.o. 410); in the two 
 following years the acquisition of Chalcedon and Byzantium ; the 
 renewal of Athenian supremacy throughout the Hellespont and Pro- 
 pontis, whereby the control of the Euxine, and a lucrative revenue 
 derived from tolls levied on ships passing through the straits, were 
 secured ; — all these successes testified the ability with which the 
 affairs of Athens were now conducted. Four years after his recall 
 (B.C. 407), Alcibiades for the first time since his banishment returned 
 to Athens : he was enthusiastically received ; his property was 
 restored ; the records of the proceedings against him were sunk in 
 the sea ; the curse publicly laid on him was as solemnly revoked, and 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces by land and sea. 
 He signalised hia abode in Athens, where he stayed four months, by 
 conducting the annual procession to celebrate the mysteriea at Eleuais ; 
 a ceremony which had been discontinued since the occupation of 
 Deceleia. Returning to the scene of war, his first action was an un- 
 successful attempt on the island of Andros. Soon after, while the 
 fleet was quartered at Notium, near Ephesus, a general engagement 
 was brought on, in his absence aud against his express orders, by the 
 rashness of his lieutenant, Antioehus ; when the Peloponneaian fleet, 
 commanded by Lysander, gained the advantage. This, though 
 attended with no material loss, was enough to disgust the Athenians, 
 who seem to have considered Alcibiades' past successes only as giving 
 them a claim on him for more brilliant exploits. It was urged that 
 the wealth of the state was squandered upon himself and his favourites; 
 and the luxurious indulgence of his habits gave plausibility to the 
 charge. He was superseded, and thereon retired to his estates in the 
 Thracian Chersonese, on which, in anticipation of such an event, he 
 had built a castle, thinking it unsafe to return to Athens. Formerly, 
 when he made his escape on being recalled from Sicily, he is reported 
 to have replied to the question, whether he did not dare trust his 
 country? "In everything else; but as to my life, not even my mother, 
 lest by mistake she should put in a black ball for a white." 
 
 Here ends the public life of Alcibiades. He held no further office ; 
 and the only thing recorded of him is that he endeavoured by hia 
 advice, being then resident on the spot, to prevent the final defeat of 
 the Athenians at ^Egos-potami, B.C. 405. After the capture of Athens 
 and the establishment of the tyranny of the Thirty he was condemned 
 to banishment. Not thinking himself safe in Thrace, he passed into 
 Asia, and was honourably received by Pharnabazus. He was about 
 to visit the court of Persia, or probably had begun his journey, 
 apparently with the hope of gaining over Artaxerxes to help in the 
 enfranchisement of Athens, when the house in which he slept waa 
 surrounded at night by a band of men, who set it on fire, and when 
 he rushed out sword in hand (for no one, says Plutarch, awaited his 
 onset) despatched him with missiles, B.C. 404. The authors of this 
 deed are unknown : it is charged severally upon the jealousy of 
 Pharnabazus, the fear and hatred of the Spartan government, and 
 the revenge of a noble family, one of whose sisters he had seduced. 
 Alcibiades left a son of the same name, of no repute or eminence, and 
 a fortune which, contrary to public expectation, proved smaller than 
 his patrimony. From the terms of the statement we may infer that 
 his patrimony had not been greatly diminished, which is quite as 
 surprising. A speech in defence of the younger Alcibiades was written 
 for him by Isocrates. Two of the speeches of Lysias (xiv. and xv.) are 
 against him. 
 
 (Thucydides; Xenophon, Hellen. ; Plutarch, A Icibiades ; Thirlwall, 
 Hist, of Greece, vols. iii. and iv. ; Biographical Dictionary of the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ALCMAN, the lyric poet of Sparta, was originally a Lydian of 
 Sardis, and for some time a slave in the house of Agesidas, a Spartan. 
 He was however subsequently emancipated, though it ia not probable 
 that he gained the full right3 of Spartan citizenship. In one of the 
 fragments (No. 11) of his poetry, still extant, he makes a chorus of 
 virgins say of himself "that he was no man of rough and unpolished 
 manners, no Thessalian or iEtolian, but sprung from the lofty Sardis." 
 The statement of Suidas that he was of Messoa, one of the districts 
 of Sparta, is incorrect, or only means that the residence of his old 
 master was situated there. According to the ancient chronologists, by 
 some of whom he is called Alcmaeon, he lived about b.c. 671 — 631, 
 and was a contemporary of the Lydian king Ardys. This period 
 agrees with the statement in Suidas, that he was older than Stesi- 
 chorua and the preceptor of Arion ; aud there are some allusions in 
 hia extant poems which refer to the same age : consequently he lived 
 at a time when music had already been improved by the Spartan 
 poets Thaletas and Terpander, and when the Spartans themselves, 
 after the successful termination of the first Messenian war, had both 
 leisure and inclination for the arts and refinements of life. From 
 some of the fragments of his poetry it would appear that he devoted 
 himself to the cultivation of poetic art, and invented some new 
 metrical forms. According to the Latin metrical writers, several 
 different forms of verses were known by the name of ' Alcmanica 
 metra.' The poetry which he composed was generally choral, and 
 consisted of Parthenia, or songs sung by choruses of virgins, besides 
 hymns to the gods, peeans, prosodia, or processional songs, and bridal 
 
90 ALCUIN. 
 
 hymns. These were generally sung or represented hy choruses of 
 young men or maidens, who however were not, as in the choral odes 
 of Pindar, invariably identified with the character of the poet, nor 
 the mere organ by which he expressed his thoughts and feelings. On 
 the contrary, many of Alcmnu's Parthenia contain a dialogue between 
 a chorus of virgins and the poet, and in most cases the virgins speak 
 in their own persons. Still he was both the leader and teacher of 
 his choruses; and sometimes we meet with addresses of the maidens 
 to the poet, sometimes of the poet to the maidens joined with him. 
 In one beautiful fragment written in iambics he thus addresses them : 
 " No more, ye honey-tongued holy-singing virgins, are my limbs able 
 to bear me ; would that I were a Cerylus, which with the halcyons 
 skims the foam of the waves with fearless breast, the sea-blue bird 
 of spring." Alcmau was also noted for erotic poems, of which he 
 was by some considered the first Greek writer, and to the licentious 
 spirit of which his character was said to correspond. (Atheuxus, 
 xiii. COO, ed. Diud.) These were probably sung by a single performer 
 to the cithara. Another species of his compositions was the clepsi- 
 ambic, consisting partly of singing and partly of common discourse, 
 the accompaniment of which was an instrument similarly named. 
 (HesychiuB, s. v.) In this, as well as in other forms of his poetry, he 
 is thought to have imitated an older poet, Archilochus. The metre 
 of the peculiar anapaestic verses sung by the Spartans as they advanced 
 to battle, was also attributed to Alcmun ; but we cannot from this 
 infer that he composed war-songs, for there is no trace of it in any of 
 his fragments, nor anything corresponding in the general character of 
 his poetry ; and though he made use of the anapaestic metre, it was 
 only in connection with other rhythms, and not in the same way as 
 the war-poet Tyrtoaus. It appears, then, that the compositions of 
 Alcmau were somewhat varied in metre and poetic character, as they 
 were in dialect. 
 
 The extant fragments of Alcman, though some of them are very 
 beautiful, scarcely warrant the admiratiou which the ancients have 
 expressed of him ; but this may be from their extreme shortness, or 
 because they are very unfavourable specimens. They are however 
 distinguished by lively conceptions of nature, and abound in those 
 personifications of the inanimate which characterised the earliest Greek 
 poetry : thus the dew (in Greek ' hersa') is called by him the daughter 
 of Zeus and Selene, of the god of heaven and the moon. Muller ('Lite- 
 rature of Greece,' p. 197) thus speaks of him : — "He is remarkable for 
 simple and cheerful views of human life, connected with an intense 
 enthusiasm for the beautiful in whatever age or sex, especially for the 
 grace of virgins. A corrupt, refined sensuality neither belongs to the 
 age in which he lived nor to the character of his poetry ; and although 
 perhaps he is chiefly conversant with sensual existence, yet indications 
 are not wanting of a quick and profound conception of the spiritual." 
 We may however observe, that the terms in which the ancients spoke 
 of the licentiousness of Alcman's erotic poetry are so strong that we 
 cannot well acquiesce in such a favourable representation of it. 
 According to Plutarch and other writers, Alcmau died of the same 
 kind of disease as Sulla, the morbus pedicularis. The Fragments of 
 Alcman were first printed in H. Stephens's ' Collection of the Poems 
 of the Nine Chief Lyric Poets' Paris, 1050, 8vo. The last edition is 
 by F. T. Welcker, Giessen, 1815, 4to. 
 
 (Pausanias, iii. 15, 2; Suidas, Alcman; Eusebius, Citron. Amen. 
 Olymp., 30, 4 ; Pliny, Hist. Nat, xL 33 ; Plutarch, Sulla, c. 36 ; 
 Clinton, Fast. Hell, i. 189, 195.) 
 
 (From the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ALCUIN, or, as he called himself in Latin, Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus, 
 was one of the most learned persons of the 8th century. He appears 
 to have been born about the year 735, and probably in the city of 
 York or the neighbourhood, though some authorities make him a 
 native of Scotland. He tells us himself that he received his education 
 at York, where he had successively for his masters Egbert and Elbert, 
 who were afterwards successively archbishops of that see. He there 
 acquired a knowledge of the Latin language, and some acquaintance 
 also, it would appear, with the Greek and the Hebrew. He afterwards 
 became himself master of the school, and taught with much reputation. 
 He was also appointed keeper of the library which Egbert had founded 
 in the cathedral, of the contents of which he has given us a minute 
 and curious account in one of his poems. Being equally eminent for 
 piety as for learning, he was likewise ordained a deacon of the cathe- 
 dral ; and we may mention here that through modesty, as is stated, 
 he never afterwards would accept of any higher rank in the priesthood. 
 Having been sent by Aelbert's successor, Eanbalde, to Rome to procure 
 for him the pallium, Alcuin on his return passed through Parma, where 
 the Emperor Charlemagne then was. At the invitation of the emperor 
 he consented, as soon as he should have executed his mission, to come 
 to France; and accordingly in the same year (780) he proceeded to 
 that country. Soon after his arrival his patron bestowed upon him 
 the abbeys of Ferrieres in the Gatiuois and of St.-Loup at Troyes, and 
 the little monastery of St.-Josse in Ponthieu ; but the principal occu- 
 pation of Alcuin was as a public teacher of what was then called the 
 totum scibile, or entire circle of human learning. In this capacity he 
 was frequently attended at his lessons by the emperor, his children, 
 and the lords of the court. The place where he principally taught 
 ■was probably Aix-la-Chapelle, which was the chief residence of the 
 
 ALCUIN. 100 
 
 emperor. The school flhus established by Alcuin is considered by 
 French antiquaries as the germ from which the University of Paris 
 originated ; and the example and exertions of this foreigner were 
 undoubtedly mainly instrumental in rekindling in the country of his 
 adoption the extinguished light of science and literature. Much of 
 Alcuin's time was also occupied in theological controversy and other 
 labours connected with his clerical calling. In 796, on the death of 
 Ithier, abbot of St. Martin of Tours, the emperor gave him that abbey 
 also ; and some time after, having obtained leave to retire from court, 
 he established a school here, which soon became greatly celebrated. 
 In his old age Alcuin gave himself up almost exclusively to theological 
 studies; and besides composing many treatises in that department, 
 copied with his own hand the whole of the Old and New Testaments, in- 
 troducing numerous corrections as he proceeded. This edition came to 
 be looked upon as a standard, and many transcripts were made from it. 
 There is still to be seen in the library of the Fathers of the Oratory 
 of St. Philip of Neri, at Rome, a Bible, which is believed to be, as 
 some verses written on it state, a copy given by Alcuin to Charlemagne. 
 Alcuin died on the 19th of May, 804, and was buried in the church 
 of St. Martin. 
 
 Of the writings of Alcuin several have been printed separately, both 
 in France and England ; but the first edition of his collected works 
 was that published at Paris in 1617 by Andre" Duchesne (Andreas 
 Quercetanus), in one volume, folio. A much more complete edition 
 however appeared at Ratisbon, in two volumes, folio, in 1777, under 
 the superintendence of M. Froben, the priuce-abbot of Ratisbon. It 
 contains many pieces which had never before been published, but 
 which were found in manuscript in the libraries of France, England, 
 and Italy. The epistles of Alcuin in Froben's edition amount to 232, 
 among which are included a few epistles of Charlemagne in answer to 
 Alcuin. There is prefixed to them a ' Synopsis Epistolarum,' which 
 gives a general view of the contents of each letter : the period which 
 they comprise extends from the year 787 to the beginning of the next 
 century. It is however certain that this is not a complete collection 
 of Alcuin's epistles, and iudeed Pertz has since discovered others. The 
 correspondence of Alcuin generally relates to topics of business or to 
 ecclesiastical matters ; it never assumes the character of learned dis- 
 quisition or philosophical discussion. The letters are addressed, among 
 others, to popes Adrian I. and Leo III. ; Ofi'a, king of the Mercians; 
 and to various bishops and other ecclesiastical persons. In one of 
 them, addressed to Bishop Agiuus, he respectfully reminds him of his 
 promise to give him some relics of saints (" aliquas sanctorum 
 reliquias "). The letters to Charlemagne, thirty in number, are the 
 most interesting in the collection. The mild temper, the sincere piety, 
 and the unaffected humility of the man, are apparent in all his cor- 
 respondence. Towards Charles his letters show the most profound 
 devotion and respect, and yet the correspondence between the great 
 king and his teacher i3 in the style of friendship. Alcuin addresses 
 Charles by his assumed name of David, to which he sometimes adds 
 " most beloved " (dilectissimus). Though his Latin style is far from 
 being free from unclassical expressions, it is flowing and perspicuous : 
 he wrote Latin with ease and perfect freedom from all affectation. 
 His letters are often concluded by some Latin verses. They are among 
 the best specimens of the Latinity of the middle ages. 
 
 Alcuin, the most learned man of his age, was the friend and adviser 
 of one of the most energetic and able princes that ever sat on a throne. 
 In his enlarged schemes for the restoration and encouragement of 
 learning, Charles was aided by the industry and knowledge of Alcuin. 
 Theology was the principal pursuit of Alcuin, but with him it was 
 practical rather than speculative : its object was to secure a virtuous 
 life. From some ill-understood expres>ions of his own, and from a 
 passage or two in the anonymous ' Life,' it has been inferred that 
 Alcuin was unfavourable to secular studies. That the founder of 
 schools, the restorer of ancient learning, the diligent student of Roman 
 antiquity, should, even in his old age, have condemned or discouraged 
 such pursuits, would require strong evidence. The fact is exactly the 
 reverse. He distinctly states that secular learning is the true founda- 
 tion on which the education of youth should rest ; grammar and dis- 
 cipline in other philosophical subtleties are recommended; and he 
 states, consistently enough, as any Christian may do at the present 
 day, that by certain steps of (human) wisdom the scholar may ascend 
 to the highest point of Christian (evangelical) perfection. With him 
 everything is subordinate to religion ; and, when secular studies come 
 in comparison with theological, the superiority of the theological is 
 emphatically asserted. But this does not lead to the inference, and 
 his writings distinctly contradict it, that he was unfavourable to the 
 studies in which he excelled, and which he recommended by his pre- 
 cepts and his teaching. The activity of Alcuin was the striking part 
 of his intellectual character. In originality, in large and comprehensive 
 views, he was eminently deficient ; he did not possess more than a 
 reasonable amount of dialectic skill; abstruse speculation and philoso- 
 phical inquiry were beyond his sphere. He was too good a son of the 
 Church to transgress the limits which were prescribed to her children. 
 His learning and his prodigious industry made him the first man of 
 his age, and his honesty of purpose and his services to education entitle 
 him to our grateful remembrance, 
 j A list of the editions of Alcuin is given by Mr. Wright in his very 
 useful work entitled ' Biographia Britannica Literaria,' London, 1842. 
 
101 
 
 ALDAY, JOHN. 
 
 The latest life of Alcuin is by F. Lorenz, Halle, 1829, which was trans- 
 lated into English by Jane Mary Slee, London, 1837, 8vo. A particular 
 account of Alcuin's works is given in the ' Biographical Dictionary of 
 the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,' from which passages 
 of this article have been taken. 
 
 ALDAY, JOHN. We know nothing of this writer except as the 
 translator of a French work that was highly popular in the middle of 
 the 16th century — 'Theatrum Mundi; the Theatre or Rule of the 
 World, wherein may be seene the running Race and Course of every 
 Man's Life, as touching Miserie and Felicitie, &c, written in the French 
 and Latin Tongues by Peter Boaistuau,' &c. There were three editions 
 of this translation, the last and the most correct of which appeared at 
 London in 1581. Boaistuau's work contains many passages of quaint 
 satire upon the manners of his age, which Alday has trauslated with con- 
 siderable spirit. (See extracts in Dibdin's edition of More's ' Utopia.') 
 There are also in Boaistuau's work several pieces in verse, which are 
 also translated by Alday with some elegance. (See Ritson's ' Biblio- 
 graphia Poetica,' also 'Bibliographical Memoranda,' Bristol, 1816.) 
 Dr. Dibdin is of opinion that there are resemblances between particular 
 passages in Burton's ' Anatomy of Melancholy' and Alday's translation 
 of Boaistuau ; and he gives a page or two in support of this opinion, 
 referring generally to Burton's ' Love Melancholy,' which occupies more 
 than two hundred pages of that remarkable work. Burton, the most 
 voracious of readers, was no doubt familiar with Alday's book. But 
 such supposed general resemblances are often more fauciful than real. 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ALDEGRE'VER, HEINRICH, a celebrated German painter and 
 engraver of the 16th century, was born at Soest in Westphalia in 
 1502. He became the pupil of Albert Durer, being attracted to Niirn- 
 berg by the great fame of that artist ; and he imitated his style so 
 closely that he acquired the name of Albert, or Albrecht, of West- 
 phalia — a circumstance which has misled some writers to call him 
 Albert Aldegrever. There can be no doubt of his name having been 
 Heinrich, or Henry, as it is so engraved in two different portraits both 
 executed by himself. As a painter, Aldegrever executed little; he 
 was chiefly occupied in engraving his own designs. His plates are 
 generally small, and are executed in a very minute and laboured 
 manner, whence he is reckoned among the so-called little masters, of 
 whom he is one of the most distinguished. His prints are very nume- 
 rous, exceeding three hundred, and they bear dates between 1522 and 
 1562, which is supposed to have been the year of his death ; it is how- 
 ever a mere conjecture. His designs are conspicuous for the sharp and 
 angular lines of the gothic style ; but though hard and wiry, many of 
 his figures display good anatomical drawing. His subjects are sacred 
 and profane. Thirteen plates of the Labours of Hercules are among 
 his very best works : they are very scarce. A print of the Count 
 D'Archambaud, just before his death, killing his son lest he should 
 leave the paths of virtue for those of vice, is also a remarkably good 
 plate. Among the portraits engraved by Aldegrever are those of 
 Luther, dated 1540; Melancthon ; John of Leyden, king of the Ana- 
 baptists; and the fanatic Bernard Knipperdolling. He engraved also 
 many designs for silversmiths and for booksellers. 
 
 His paintings are in the same style of design as his engravings, but 
 they impress, still more than his prints, with the feeling of the pains 
 they cost him : his colouring is very high. In the gallery at Berlin 
 there is a small picture of the Last Judgment by hiui ; in the gallery 
 of Munich there is an excellent portrait of a man with a red beard ; 
 there are a few of his works at Schleissheim, at Vienna, and at 
 Nurnberg, and at Soest, in some churches. 
 
 In a print of Titus Manlius ordering the execution of his son, 
 Aldegrever has introduced an instrument very similar to the guillotine 
 used by the terrorists of the b'reuch revolution : it is dated 1533. 
 
 (Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes dont nous avons des Estampes ; 
 Bartsch, Peintre-Gravcur.) 
 
 ALDI'NI, GIOVANNI, uephew of Galvani, the discoverer of gal- 
 vanism, and brother of the Count Antonio Aldiui, a distinguished 
 Italian statesman, was born at Bologna on the 10th of April, 1762. 
 From his earliest years he showed a predilection for the study of 
 natural philosophy. In 1798 he was appoiuted to succeed Canterzani, 
 who had been his own instructor in physics, in the university of 
 Bologna. He was one of the earliest and most active members of the 
 National Institute of Italy, to the foundation of which he contributed ; 
 and in 1807 he was made a kuight of the Iron Crown, and a member 
 of the Council of State at Milan. Though thus in favour with Napo- 
 leon's government, he preserved, like his brother, his credit with the 
 Austrians ; and continued in the enjoyment of their patronage and 
 protection till his death on the 17th of January, 1834. He left his 
 philosophical instruments and a large sum in money to found a public 
 institution in Bologna for the instruction of artisans in physics and 
 chemistry. 
 
 The most conspicuous merit of Aldini was his activity in endea- 
 vouring to render public such discoveries eith> r of himself or others 
 as he conceived likely to be of public use. He was will acquainted 
 with the modern languages, fond of travelling, and indefatigable in i 
 conveying scientific intelligence from one end of Europe to the other. 
 The three principal objects which engaged his attention at different 
 periods were — the medical uses of galvanism, the discovery of his 
 
 illustrious uncle ; the utility of gas, particularly in the illumination of 
 lighthouses ; and the advantages of a fire-proof dress for persons 
 engaged in extinguishing conflagrations. Several of his treatises were 
 published in English, and were derived from observations and experi- 
 ments made in England. 
 
 ALDRICH, HENRY, eminent as a scholar, a divine, and a musician, 
 the son of a gentleman of the same name in Westminster, was born 
 there in 1647, and educated in the collegiate school of that city under 
 Dr. Busby. He was admitted a student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 
 1662, and having been elected on the foundation, took his master of 
 arts degree in 1669. He soon afterwards took holy orders, and obtained 
 the living of Wem in Shropshire ; but he continued to reside in his 
 college, of which he became one of the most eminent tutors and dis- 
 tinguished ornaments. On the 15th of February, 1681, he was installed 
 a canon of Christ Church, and in the following May took the degrees 
 of bachelor and doctor in divinity. During the reign of James II. he 
 was a consistent and able champion of Protestantism, both by preaching 
 and writing ; and when, on the accession of King William, Massey, 
 the Roman Catholic dean of Christ Church, fled his country, Dr. Aldrich 
 was appointed his successor, and was installed on June 17, 1689. For 
 the remainder of his life he continued to discharge the duties of his 
 station in the university with dignity, urbanity, and assiduity ; he was 
 zealous to improve and adorn his college, to increase its usefulness, to 
 extend its resources, and to perpetuate its reputation. In 1702 he 
 was chosen prolocutor of the convocation, and closed his laborious 
 and exemplary career at Christ Church on the 14th of December, 
 1710. 
 
 Himself a sound and accomplished scholar, he endeavoured by 
 every means in his power to foster the love of classical learning among 
 the students of his college, and presented them annually with an 
 edition of some Greek classic which he printed for this special purpose. 
 He also published a system of logic for their use, and at his death 
 bequeathed to his college his valuable classical library. Dr. Aldrich 
 was a proficient in more than one of the arts : three sides of what is 
 called Peckwater Quadrangle, in Christ Church College, and the 
 church and campanile of All Saints in the High-street, Oxford, were 
 designed by him ; and he is also said to have furnished the plan, or 
 at least to have had a share in the design, of the chapel of Trinity 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 Dr. Aldrich, among other sciences, cultivated music with ardour 
 and success. As dean of a college and a cathedral he regarded it as a 
 duty, as it undoubtedly was in his case a pleasure, to advance the 
 study and progress of church music. His choir was well appointed, 
 and every vicar, clerical as well as lay, gave his daily and efficient aid 
 in it. He contributed also largely to its stock of sacred music ; and 
 some of his services and anthems, being preserved in the collections 
 of Boyce and Arnold, are known and sung in every cathedral in the 
 kingdom. His musical taste was founded on the best and purest 
 models of church writing — those especially which Palestrina and 
 Carissimi have bequeathed to the world ; and, in addition to his own 
 compositions, he adapted words from the English version of the 
 Scriptures to many movements from their masses and motets, a task 
 which he executed with consummate skill. Of these it is to be 
 regretted that a few only are in print or in use. Nor did Dr. Aldrich 
 disdain to employ his musical talents in the production of festive and 
 social harmony. Catch singing was much in fashion in his time ; and 
 the well-known catch, ' Hark, the bonny Christ Church Bells,' is his 
 production. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ALDROVANDUS, ULYSSES (Aldrovandi), a great naturalist, was 
 born of a noble family at Bologna, on the 11th of Septembr", 1522. 
 He lost his father at the age of six years, and his mother placed him 
 out as page in the family of a bishop. He occupied this situation 
 only a short time, and when twelve years old was placed with a 
 merchant at Bresse. He was however soon tired of a mercantile life ; 
 and during his early years applied himself first to legal and subse- 
 quently to medical studies. He travelled much; and especially made 
 botanical collections. In 1553 he graduated in medicine, and in 1560 
 he was appointed lecturer on natural history in the chair that had 
 been occupied by Luca Gbino. In 1568 he succeeded in inducing the 
 senate of Bologna to establish a botanic garden. 
 
 Whilst Aldrovandus was thus publicly engaged, in private he was 
 pursuing natural history with an ardour that has been seldom 
 equalled, perhaps never surpassed. The great object of his life was 
 to obtain a knowledge of the external world, and to this object he 
 devoted his time, his talents, and his fortune. He travelled much 
 himself in search of objects of natural history, and employed others 
 to collect for him. In this way he formed an extensive museum, 
 which to this day remains at Bologna, a monument to his industry 
 and perseverance. His dried plants alone occupied sixty large volumes. 
 He spared no expense in obtaining the first artists of the day to make 
 original drawings in natural history. Christopher Coriolanus and 
 his nephew of Nurnberg were employed as his engravers. By these 
 means he was prepared for the gigantic task of becoming the histo- 
 rian and illustrator of all external nature. The first work that he 
 published, in 1599, on natural history, was devoted to birds. His 
 next work was on insects, in 1603. A third work came out in 1606, 
 
103 
 
 ALDUS. 
 
 101 
 
 on the lower animals. This was the last work that was published 
 during his lifetime. He, however, left abundance of materials for 
 further works, and the senate of Bologna, who had liberally assisted 
 Aldrovandus when alive, appointed persons to edit his works. The 
 subsequent volumes all appear in his name, with the addition of that 
 of the editor : the only difference consists in styling Aldrovandus 
 patrician in the posthumous volumes, whereas he is called professor 
 in those published in his lifetime. 
 
 The great merit of the writings of Aldrovandus is their complete- 
 ness ; their great fault is the credulity of the author. Cuvier says 
 the works of Aldrovandus might be reduced to one-tenth without 
 injury, and BuiFon ridicules his comprehensive mode of treating his 
 subjects in the following language : — " In writing the history of the 
 cock and the bull," says Buflon, " Aldrovand tells you all that has 
 ever been said of cocks and bulls ; all that the ancients have thought 
 or imagined with regard to their virtues, character, and courage ; all 
 the things for which they have been employed ; all the tales that old 
 women tell of them; all the miracles that have been wrought upon 
 or by them in dim rent religions; all the superstitions regarding them ; 
 all the comparisons that poets have made with them ; all the attri- 
 butes that certain nations have accorded them ; all the representations 
 that have been made of them by hieroglyphics or in heraldry ; in a 
 word, all the histories and all the fables with which we are acquainted 
 on the subject of cocks and bulls." This is hardly an overdrawn 
 picture of the manner in which Aldrovandus treats each animal, 
 plant, and mineral in his ponderous volumes. But these works must 
 not be criticised as if they were something which they are not. They 
 are not manuals, outlines, or introductions to natural history: they 
 profess to be histories of the subjects on which they treat, and as such 
 they are the most precious storehouse of facts, references, and obser- 
 vations in natural history extant. Nor are these works mere compila- 
 tions. They are illustrated with many hundreds of original drawings ; 
 references are made to objects in the museum of Aldrovandus, aud he 
 has given the result of numerous dissections made with his own 
 hand. 
 
 Aldrovandus regarded objects in nature more as individuals than 
 in their relations to each other, and hence he made no progress in 
 systematic arrangement ; and in this respect his works are not. supe- 
 rior to those of Aristotle or Gessuer. He has however supplied facts, 
 and whatever may be the confusion in which they are arranged, on 
 account of the period at which they are recorded, they still claim 
 the attention of every naturalist. 
 
 Aldrovandus died on the 10th of November, 1607, in his eighty- 
 fifth year. Nearly all his biographers state that this event occurred 
 in the hospital at Bologna, where he was compelled to spend his last 
 days on account of the great expense he had been at in eolheting his 
 museum and publishing his works. The secret archives of the senate 
 of Bologna, as quoted by Fantuzzi, proved that they assisted Aldro- 
 vandus in the most liberal manner. They doubled his salary soon 
 after his appointment to the chair of natural history, and when he 
 was no longer able to lecture, they appointed a successor but con- 
 t inued his salary. At various times they granted him no less than 
 4 0,000 crowns to carry on his researches and publish his works. He 
 was buried with great pomp, at the public expense, in the church of 
 1st. Stephen in Bologna ; and all the works that appeared after his 
 death were published under the direction and at the expense of the 
 senate. From these circumstances we are inclined to think, that if 
 Aldrovandus did die in an hospital, it may have arisen from some- 
 thing peculiar in his case, and not from any want of public sympathy 
 or gratitude. 
 
 (Fantuzzi, M ernorie della Vita Ulissi Aldrovandi ; Jbcher, Allgem. 
 Gelehrten- Lexicon, and Adelung, Supp. ; Carrere, Bibliothique de la 
 Medicine; Bayle, Historical Diet.; Haller, Bibliotheca Botanica.) 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ALDUS. [Manotius.] 
 
 ALEMAN, MATEO. This celebrated Spanish writer was born at 
 Seville, about the middle of the 16th century. He held an important 
 office in the financial department, under Philip II., which he filled 
 with honour for a long period. Disgusted at last with the broils of 
 the court, he requested his dismissal; and having obtained it, he 
 retired to devote himself entirely to study. In 1604 he published the 
 ' Life of St. Antonio de Padua.' We are ignorant of the motive or 
 object of his voyage to Mexico, and only know, that in 1609 he pub- 
 lished there an ' Ortografia Castellana.' But the work which entitles 
 him to the notice of posterity is his ' Guzman de Alfarache,' which he 
 published at Madrid in 1599. This amusing and interesting work is 
 a bitter satire on the corrupted manners of Spain at that period. 
 The enterprising genius of Charles V. had inspired the Spanish youth 
 with an ambition for military glory, and drawn them off from the 
 cultivation of the useful arts and sciences. His successors were inca- 
 pable of preserving the immense empire raised by him, and the huge 
 edifice began to fall already under his son. The nation was then 
 swarming with a multitude of men, who, thinking it degrading to earn 
 an honest livelihood, did not scruple to live by cheating and swindling. 
 This was the origin of the multitude of those novels called 1 Picarescas' 
 which, from the beginning of the 16th to the latter end of the 17th 
 'lenturies, appeared in Spain, intended to describe the life and man- 
 
 ners of rogues, vagabonds, and beggars, bringing also the other classes 
 of society upon the stage, either as their victims, abettors, or pro- 
 tectors. Aleman seems in his retirement to have recurred to past 
 scenes, aud to have set down the vices, the follies, and the hypocrisies 
 of the more elevated classes which he had witnessed, while at the 
 same time he details with extraordinary minuteness the tricks and 
 adventures of rogues of inferior degree. Guzman is a worthy follower 
 of Lazarillo de Tormes, and a precursor of Gil Bias. The hero is of 
 doubtful descent, with the prsenomen of one of the proudest families 
 of Spain; tenderly reared, he throws himself, a boy, upon the world; 
 becomes successively stable-boy, beggar, porter, thief, man of fashion, 
 soldier in Italy, valet to a cardinal, and pander to a French ambas- 
 sador ; is subsequently a merchant and becomes bankrupt, then a 
 student at the university of Alcalii, marries, is deserted by his wife, 
 commits a robbery, is sent to the galleys, is liberated, and then writes 
 an account of his life. The narrative is interwoven with shrewd 
 maxims and acute observations. The author is classed by Mayans 
 among the prose writers best adapted for the formation of a good 
 Castilian style, and is named by him, which is no small merit, with 
 Fray Luis de Leon, Hurtado do Mendoza, Cervantes, Mariana, and 
 Herrera, the great masters of this rich, harmonious, and noble 
 language. The book was first printed in 1599, went through five and- 
 twenty editions in Spain, and was translated into all the languages of 
 Europe; it appeared in London, in 1623, as from an anonymous 
 translator, for the Spanish name affixed, Don Diego Puede-ser (May- 
 be-so), is evidently assumed ; probably by the indefatigable Howell, 
 who was at Madrid immediately prior to the date of its publication. 
 (Nieolao Antonio, Bibliotheca 1/ispana Nova.) 
 
 ALE.MBEKT, JEAN-Lli-KOND D\ On Nov. the 17th, 1717, a 
 new-born infant was found exposed in a public market by the church 
 of St. Jeau-le-Rond, near the cathedral of Notre-Dame, at Paris. 
 This infant was the celebrated D'Alembert, and from the place of his 
 exposure he derived his christian name. How he obtained his sur- 
 name is not mentioned. He was found by a commissary of police, 
 and instead of beinj? conveyed to the hospital of Eufans-Trouves, was 
 intrusted to the wife of a poor glazier, on account of the care which 
 his apparently dying state required. It has been supposed that the 
 discovery, as well as the exposure, was arranged beforehand, as in a 
 few days the father made himself known, and settled an allowance of 
 1 200 francs a-year for his support. Other accounts state that the 
 abandonment was the act of the mother, and that the father, upon 
 hearing it, came forward for the protection of his eon. This father 
 was M. Destouches, commissary of artillery ; the mother was Madame 
 or more properly Mademoiselle de Tencin, a lady celebrated for her 
 talents and adventures, and authoress of eeveral works, in one of 
 which, ' Les Malheurs de l'Amour,' she is supposed to have given a 
 sketch of her own life. She was sister of Peter Guerin de Tencin, 
 Cardinal Archbishop of Lyons, and took the veil in the convent of 
 Montfleuri, near Grenoble, which place she afterwards quitted, and 
 settled at Paris, where she became more celebrated for wit than 
 virtue. It is said that when D'Alembert began to exhibit proofs of 
 extraordinary talent, she sent for him, and acquainted him with the 
 relationship which existed between them ; and that his reply was, 
 " You are only my step-mother ; the glazier's wife is my mother." 
 
 D'Alembert commenced his studies at the College des Quatre 
 Nations, at the age of twelve years. The professors were of the 
 Jansenist party, and were not long in discovering the talents of their 
 pupil. In the first year of his course of philosophy, he wrote a 
 commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, from which, as Condorcet 
 remarks, they imagined they had found a new Pascal ; and to make 
 the resemblance more complete, turned his attention to mathematics. 
 The attempted parallel probably never existed except in the ingenious 
 head of the author of the 'Eloge;' for D'Alembert himself informs 
 us, that bis professors did their best to dissuade him both from 
 mathematics and poetry, alleging that the former, in particular, dried 
 up the heart, and recommending as to the latter, that he should 
 confine himself to the poem of St Prosper upon Grace. They per- 
 mitted him, nevertheless, to study the rudiments of mathematics, and 
 from that time he persisted in the pursuit. When he left college, he 
 returned to his foster-mother, with whom he lived altogether forty 
 years, and continued his studies. Not that she gave him much 
 encouragement, for when he told her of any work he bad written, or 
 discovery which he had made, she generally replied, " Vous ne serez 
 jamais qu'un philosophe ; et qu est ce qu'un philosophe? e'est un fou 
 qui se tourmente pendant sa vie, pour qu'on parle de lui lorsqu'il n'y 
 sera plus ;" which we may English thus, " You will never be anything 
 but a philosopher — aud what is that but a fool who plagues himself 
 all his life, that he may be talked about after he is dead ?" 
 
 With nothing but his income of 1200 francs, and the resource of 
 the public libraries for obtaining those books which he could not 
 buy, he gave up all hopes of wealth or civil honours, that he might 
 devote himself entirely to his favourite studies. Here he was 
 dispirited by finding that he had been anticipated in most of what he 
 imagined to have been his own discoveries. In the meanwhile his 
 friends urged him to enter a profession, to which he at last agreed, and 
 chose the law. After being admitted an advocate, be abandoned this 
 profession and took to physic, as more congenial to his own pursuits. 
 Petermined to persevere, he sent all his mathematical books to a 
 
105 
 
 ALEMBERT, JEAN-LEROND D\ 
 
 ALEMBERT, JEAN-LE-ROND D'. 
 
 108 
 
 friend, resolved that the latter should keep them till he was made 
 doctor ; but he soon found that he could not send his mathematical 
 genius with them. One book after another was begged back, to 
 refresh his memory upon something which he found he could not 
 keep out of his head. At last, finding his taste too strong for any 
 prudential consideration, he gave up the contest, and resolved to 
 devote himself entirely to that which he liked best. The happiness 
 of his life, when he had made this resolution, is thus described by 
 himself. He says that he awoke every morning thinking with pleasure 
 on the studies of the preceding evening, and on the prospect of con- 
 tinuing them during the day. When his thoughts were called off for 
 a moment, they turned to the satisfaction he should have at the play 
 in the evening ; and between the acts of the piece he meditated on 
 the pleasures of the next morning's study. 
 
 Some memoirs which he wrote in the years 1739 and 1740, as well 
 as some corrections which he made in the ' Analyse De'montre'e ' of 
 Reynau, a work then much esteemed in France, procured him admis- 
 sion to the Academy of Sciences, in 1741, at the age of twenty-four. 
 From this time may be dated the career of honour which ranks him 
 among the greatest benefactors to science of the last century. We 
 will now interrupt the order of his life to specify his principal works. 
 In 1743 appeared his ' Treatise of Dynamics,' founded upon a general 
 principle which afterwards received the name of ' D'Alembert's 
 Principle.' The deductions from this new and fertile source of 
 analytical discovery appeared in rapid succession. In 1744 he pub- 
 lished his ' Treatise on the Equilibrium and Motion of Fluids.' In 
 1746 his ' Reflections on the General Causes of Winds' obtained the 
 prize of the Academy of Berlin. This treatise will always be remark- 
 able, as the first which contained the general equations of the motion 
 of fluids, as well as the first announcement and use of the calculus of 
 partial differences. In 1747 he gave the first analytical solution of 
 the problem of vibrating chords, and the motion of a column of air ; 
 in 1749 he did the same for the precession of the equinoxes and the 
 nutation of the earth's axis, the latter of which had been just dis- 
 covered by Bradley. In 1752 he published his 'Essay on the Resist- 
 ance of Fluids,' a treatise originally written in competition for a prize 
 proposed by the Academy of Berlin, but the decision- of which was 
 postponed, and finally awarded to a production which has not since 
 gained any reputation for its author. A misunderstanding between 
 Euler and D'Alembert is asserted by some French writers as the 
 ground of this rejection, which, resting on the well-known character 
 of Euler, we must be permitted to doubt. In the same year he also 
 edited Rameau's ' Elements of Music,' though his opinions did not 
 entirely coincide with that celebrated system. In 1747 he presented 
 to the Academy of Sciences his ' Essay on the Problem of Three 
 Bodies,' and in 1754 and 1756 he published 'Researches on Various 
 Points connected with the System of the Universe.' We must com- 
 plete the list of his mathematical works by mentioning his ' Opus- 
 cules,' collected and published towards the end of his life, in eight 
 volumes. Though D'Alembert wrote no large system of pure analysis, 
 the various methods and hints which are so richly scattered in his 
 pbysico-mathematical works have always been considered as rendering 
 them a mine of instruction for mathematicians. 
 
 We now turn to his philosophical productions. The French ' Ency- 
 clopedic,' as is well known, was commenced by Diderot and himself, 
 as editors, and it is needless to speak of his celebrated Introductory 
 Discourse, a work which, a3 Condorcet expresses it, there are only 
 two or three men in a century capable of writing. D'Alembert con- 
 tributed several literary articles; but on the stoppage of the work by 
 the government, after the completion of the second volume, he 
 retired from the editorship, nor would he resume his functions when 
 permission to proceed was at length obtained. From that time he 
 confined himself entirely to the mathematical part of the work, and 
 his expositions of the metaphysical difficulties of abstract science are 
 among the clearest and best on record. While engaged on this under- 
 taking, he wrote his 'Melanges de Philosophie,' &c, 'Memoirs of 
 Christina of Sweden,' ' Essay on the Servility of Men of Letters to 
 the Great,' ' Elements of Philosophy,' and a treatise on ' The De- 
 struction of the Jesuits.' He also published translations of several 
 parts of Tacitus, which are admitted by scholars to possess no small 
 degree of merit. In 1772, when elected perpetual secretary of the 
 Academy, he wrote the ' Eloges ' of the members who had died from 
 1700 up to that date. His correspondence, and some additional 
 pieces, were published after his death. The whole of his works have 
 been collected in one edition by M. Bastien, in eighteen volumes, 
 octavo, Paris, 1805. 
 
 In 1752 Frederic of Prussia, who had conceived the highest esteem 
 for his writings, endeavoured to attract him to Berlin. D'Alembert 
 refused the offer, but in 1754 he accepted a pension of 1200 francs. 
 In 1756, through the friendship of M. D'Argenson, then minister, he 
 obtained the same from Louis XV. In 1755, by the recommendation 
 of Benedict XIV., he was admitted into the Institute of Bologna. In 
 1762 Catharine of Russia requested him to undertake the education of 
 her son, with an income of 100,000 francs. On his declining the 
 offer, she wrote again to press him, and says in her letter, " I know 
 that your refusal arises from your desire to cultivate your studies and 
 j our friendships in quiet. But this is of no consequence : bring all 
 your friends with you, and I promise you that both you and they 
 
 shall have every accommodation in my power." D'Alembert was too 
 much attached to his situation and his income of 150^ a-year to accept 
 even this princely offer. The letter of Catharine it was unanimously 
 agreed to enter on the records of the Academy of Sciences. In 1759 
 Frederic again pressed his coming to Berlin, in a letter in which he 
 says, " I wait.in silence the moment when the ingratitude of your own 
 country will oblige you to fly to a land where you are already natu- 
 ralised in the minds of all who think." In 1763, when D'Alembert 
 visited Frederic, the latter again repeated his offer, which was again 
 declined ; the king assuring him that it was the only false calculation 
 he had ever made in his life. 
 
 We now come to relate the history of a connection which ended by 
 embittering the last years of the life of D'Alembert, and finally, it ia 
 supposed, had no small share in sending him to his grave. At the 
 house of a common friend he was in the habit of meeting Mile, de 
 l'Espinasse, a young lady whose talents caused her society to be sought 
 by the elite of the literary world of Paris. Between her and D'Alem 
 bert a mutual attachment grew up, which though, as appeared after- 
 wards, not very strong on her part, became the moving passion of his 
 future life. When, in 1765, he was attacked by a violent disorder, 
 she insisted on being his attendant, and after his recovery they lived 
 in the same house. It is said that friendship was their only bond of 
 union ; and this may be believed, since in the then state of opinion, 
 the assertion, if untrue, would have been unnecessary. The friend- 
 ship, or love, of the lady however found other objects ; and though 
 D'Alembert still retained all his former affection for her, she treated 
 him with contempt and unkindness. Her death left him inconsolable; 
 and his reflections upon her tomb, published in his posthumous work, 
 present the singular spectacle of a lover mourning for a mistress 
 whose regard for him, as he was obliged to admit to himself, had 
 entirely ceased before her death. After that event, he fell into a 
 profound melancholy, nor did he ever recover his former vivacity. 
 His death took place October 29, 1783. Not having received extreme 
 unction it was with great difficulty that a priest could be found to inter 
 him, and then only on condition that the funeral should be private. 
 
 The character of D'Alembert was one of great simplicity, carried 
 even to bluntness of speech, and of unusual benevolence, mixed with 
 a keen sense of the ridiculous, which exerted itself openly and without 
 scruple upon those who attempted the common species of flattery. 
 He was the friend of Frederic of Prussia, because that monarch 
 exacted no servility ; and to him only, and two disgraced ministers, of 
 all the great ones of the earth, did D'Alembert ever dedicate a work. 
 He was totally free from envy. Lagrange and Laplace owed some of 
 their first steps in life to him ; though the former had settled a 
 mathematical controversy in favour of Euler and against him. In his 
 dispute with Clairaut on the method of finding the orbit of a comet, 
 and with Rousseau on the article 'Calvin' in the ' Encyclopedic,' he 
 gave his friends no reason to blush for his want of temper. It was 
 his maxim, that a man should be very careful in his writings, careful 
 enough in his actions, and moderately careful in his words ; his 
 observance of the last part of the maxim sometimes made him enemies. 
 The Due de Choiseul, when minister, refused the united solicitations 
 in his favour of the Academy of Sciences for a pension vacant by the 
 death of Clairaut, for more than six months, because he had said, ia 
 a letter to Voltaire which was opened at the post-office, " Your 
 protector, or rather your protege, M. de .Choiseul." He cared nothing 
 for those in power, at a time when the latter exacted and obtained 
 deference in very small matters. Madame de Pompadour, who hated 
 all the friends of Frederic, refused the request of Marmontel that she 
 would employ her influence with the king in favour of D'Alembert 
 on one occasion, alleging that the latter had put himself at the head 
 of the Italian party in music. It was his maxim that no man ought 
 to spend money in superfluities while others were in want ; and a 
 friend, who knew him well, declared to the editor of his works, that 
 when his income amounted to 8200 francs, he gave away the half. 
 His attentions to his foster-mother, to the end of her life, were those 
 of a son. In his account of his own character, a singular mixture of 
 vanity and candour, written in the third person, he speaks as follows : 
 " Devoted to study and privacy till the age of twenty-five, he entered 
 late into the world, and was never much pleased with it. He could 
 never bend himself to learn its usages and language, and perhaps even 
 indulged a sort of petty vanity in despising them. He is never rude, 
 because he is neither brutal nor severe ; but he is sometimes blunt, 
 through inattention or ignorance. Compliments embarrass him, 
 because he never can find a suitable answer immediately ; when he 
 says flattering things, it is always because he thinks them. The basis 
 of his character is frankness and truth, often rather blunt, but never 
 disgusting. He is impatient and angry, even to violence, when any- 
 thing goes wrong, but it all evaporates in words. He is soon satisfied 
 and easily governed, provided he does not see what you are at ; for 
 his love of independence amounts to fanaticism, so that he often 
 denies himself things which would be agreeable to him, because he is 
 afraid they would put him under some restraint; which makes some 
 of his friends call him, justly enough, the slave of his liberty." This 
 account agrees very well with that of his friends. 
 
 D'Alembert has been held up to reprobation in this country on 
 account of his religious opinions. But ou this point we must observe, 
 that there is a wide line of distinction between him and some of his 
 
107 ALEXANDER. 
 
 colleagues in the ' Encyclopddie,' such as Diderot and Voltaire. When 
 we blame the two latter, it is not for the opinions they held (for which 
 they are not answerable to any man), but for their offensive manner 
 of expressing them, and the odious intolerance of all opinions except 
 their own which runs through their writings. Men of the best aud of 
 the worst lives appeared to be equally offensive to them, if they pro- 
 fessed Christianity. The published writings of D'Alembert contain 
 no expressions offensive to religion ; they have never been forbidden 
 on that account, as La Harpe observes, in any country of Europe. 
 Had it not been for his private correspondence witli Voltaire and 
 others, which was published after his death, the world would not 
 have known, except by implication, what tho opinions of D'Alembert 
 were. On this point we will cite two respectable Catholic authorities. 
 The Bishop of Limoges said, during the life of D'Alembert, " I do not 
 know him personally ; but I have always heard that his manners are 
 simple, aud his conduct without a stain. As to his works, I read them 
 over and over again, and I find nothing there except plenty of talent, 
 great information, and a good system of morals. If his opinions are 
 not as sound as his writings, he is to be pitied, but no one has a right 
 to interrogate his conscience." La Harpe says of him, " I do not 
 think that he ever printed a sentence which marks either hatred or 
 contempt of religion ; but we may cite a gre at many passages where, 
 apparently drawn into enthusiasm by the heroes of Christianity, he 
 speaks of them with dignity, aud, what in him is even more strange, 
 with sentiment." — " I knew D'Alembert well enough to be able to 
 say, that he was sceptical in everything except mathematics. He 
 would no more have said positively that there was no religion than 
 that there was a God : he only thought the probabilities were in 
 favour of theism, aud against revelation. On this subject ho tolerated 
 all opinions, and this disposition made him think the intolerant 
 arrogance of the atheists odious aud unbearable." — " He has praised 
 Massillon, F6uelon, Bossuet, Fldchier, and Fleury, not only as writers, 
 but as priests. He was just enough to be struck with the constant 
 and admirable connection which existed between their faith aud their 
 practice, between their priestly character and their virtues." To these 
 testimonies we need add nothing, except to desire the reader to turn 
 to the part of the letter of the Empress Catharine which we have 
 quoted, and then to recollect that it was the same Empress Catharine 
 who refused a visit from Voltaire, saying, " that she had no Parnassus 
 in her dominions for those who spoke disrespectfully of religion." 
 
 The style of DAlembert as a writer is agreeable, but he is not placed 
 by the French in the first rank. His mathematical works show that 
 he wrote as he thought, without taking much trouble to finish. His 
 expression was, " Let us find out the thing, there will be plenty of 
 people to put it into shape;" an assertion abundantly verified since 
 his time. He said of himself that he had " some talent and great 
 facility." He liked the mathematical part of natural philosophy 
 better than any other, and took but little interest in purely experi- 
 mental researches. Hence he remained in ignorance of some of the 
 most striking facts discovered in his day ; and when laughed at on 
 the subject, he always said, " I shall have plenty of time to learn all 
 these pretty things." The time however, as Bossuet remarks, never 
 arrived. 
 
 Those readers who would know more of D'Alembert should consult 
 the first volume of Bastien's edition of his works. 
 ALEXANDER. [Paris.] 
 
 'ALEXANDER L, son of Amyntas I., said to be the tenth king of 
 Macedon, was alive at the time of the great Persinn invasion of Greece, 
 B.C. 480. His history, as far as it is known, and his share in the 
 troubles of the Persian wars, are contained in the last five books of 
 Herodotus. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., the sixteenth king of Macedonia, was the son 
 ■ of Amyntas II., and ascended the throne about B.C. 370. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., surnamed the Great, king of Macedonia, was 
 the son of Philip and Olympias, and born at Pella in the autumn of 
 the year B.C. 356. On his father's side he was descended from 
 Carauus the Heraclid, who was the first king of Macedonia; his 
 mother belonged to the royal house of Epirus, which traced its 
 pedigree up to Achilles, the most celebrated hero of the Trojan War. 
 She was the daughter of Neoptolemus, prince of the Molossians, and 
 the sister of Alexander of Epirus, who lost his life in Italy. The 
 historians of Alexander regard it as a significant coincidence that 
 Philip on the same day received the intelligence of the birth of his 
 son, of the victory of his General Parmenio over the Illyiians, aud of 
 his own victory at the Olympic games; on the same day also the 
 magnificent temple of Diana at Ephesus was burnt down. Occur- 
 rences like these were afterwards thought to be indications of the 
 future greatness of Alexander, and various marvellous stories were 
 fabricated, which were believed and eagerly spread by the flattery or 
 the superstition of the Greeks, and readily listened to by Alexander 
 himself in the midst of his wonderful career of conquest. Many 
 persons were engaged in the early education of Alexander, but the 
 general conduct of it was intrusted to Leonidas, a relation of Olympias, 
 and a man of austere character. Lysimachus, an Acavnauian, appears 
 to have insinuated himself into the favour of the royal family of 
 Macedonia and of his pupil by vulgar flattery : he is reported to have 
 called Alexander always by the name of Achilles, and Philip by that 
 of Peleus. About the time when Alexander had reached his thirteenth 
 
 ALEXANDER IIL 108 
 
 year, Philip thought It advisable to procure for his son the best 
 
 instructor of the age, and his choice fell upon Aristotle. A letter 
 which Philip is said to have written to this philosopher on the occa- 
 sion is preserved in Gellius. Under the instruction of such a master 
 the powerful mind of Alexander was rapidly developed, and enriched 
 with stores of practical and useful knowledge. With the view of 
 preparing his pupil for his high station, Aristotle wrote a work ou 
 the art of government, which is no longer extant. No royal pupil 
 ever had the advantage of such a master. His short life was spent in 
 gigantic undertakings, and iu the midst of war ; but the results of 
 Aristotle's teaching are apparent in all Alexander's plans for consoli- 
 dating his empire : his love of knowledge manifested itself to the 
 last months of his life and in the midst of all his labours. His 
 physical education also was not neglected. In horsemanship he is 
 said to have excelled all his contemporaries ; and it is a well-known 
 story, that when the celebrated horse Bucephalus was brought to the 
 Macedotiian capital, no one but young Alexander was able to manage 
 him. His alleged descent from Achilles, and the flattery of those by 
 whom he was surrounded, made a deep and lasting impression upon 
 his youthful mind; the 'Iliad' became his favourite book, and its 
 hero, Achilles, his great model. Ambition was his ruling passion ; 
 everything which appeared to limit the sphere within which he hoped 
 to gain distinction, seemed to him an encroachment upon his own 
 rights. When intelligence was brought of his father's victories, ho 
 would lament that nothing would be left for him to do : he refused 
 to contend for the prize at the Olympic games because he could not 
 have kings for his competitors. In the same spirit he regretted that 
 Aristotlo published one of his profound works, because the wisdom 
 which he wished to possess alone was thus communicated to many. 
 He would always pardon and honour an enemy whose resistance had 
 added to his own glory, but a cowardly opponent was the object of 
 his contempt. 
 
 Head of Alexander the Great, enlarged, from a coin in the Bodleian Library, 
 Oxford. The head is repeated beneath, with the reverse, showing the size of 
 the coin. 
 
 When Alexander had reached his sixteenth year, Philip was obligea 
 to leave his kingdom to carry on a campaign against Byzantium ; and 
 as his son had already shown extraordinary judgment in public affairs, 
 Philip intrusted him with the administration of Macedonia. During 
 the absence of his father, he is said to have led an army against 
 some revolted tribe, and to have made himself master of their town. 
 The first occasion on which he specially signalised himself was two 
 years later, in the battle of Chseronea (B.C. 338), aud the victory on 
 that day is mainly ascribed to his courage ; he broke the lines of the 
 enemy, and crushed the sacred band of the Thebans. Philip was 
 proud of such a son, and was even pleased to hear the Macedonians 
 call him their king, while they called Philip their general. But the 
 good understanding between him and his father was disturbed during 
 the last years of Philip's life, owing to his father repudiating Olym- 
 pias, and giving his hand to Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus. A 
 reconciliation took place, but on the very day that it was to be sealed 
 by the marriage of Philip's daughter with a brother of Olympias, 
 Philip was assassinated (B.C. 336), and it was even reported that 
 Alexander was compromised in the conspiracy. There is however no 
 evidence to prove the truth of this report, though it is possible that 
 Alexander at least knew of the plot, notwithstanding the severe 
 punishment which he inflicted o-z most of the guilty persona 
 
ALEXANDER III. 
 
 ALEXANDER IIL 
 
 110 
 
 At the age of twenty Alexander was thus suddenly called to the 
 throne of Macedonia. Bat while the attachment of the people of 
 Macedonia, who had always been accustomed to look up to him with 
 admiration, was secured by a reduction of taxes and other politic 
 measures, dangers were threatening on all sides, and he had to secure 
 by wars the throne which was his lawful inheritance. His father had 
 during the last years of his life made extensive preparations for 
 invading Persia, and Attalus and Parmeuio had already been sent into 
 Asia with a force. The realisation of these plaos, in the midst of which 
 Alexander had grown up to manhood, and in which he had taken a 
 most lively interest, now devolved upon him ; but before he could 
 carrv them into effect it was necessary to secure his own dominions. 
 Attalus, the uncle of Cleopatra, aimed at usurping the crown of 
 Macedonia, under the pretext of securing it to Philip's son by Cleo- 
 patra ; Greece was stirred up by Demosthenes against Macedonia, and 
 the barbarians in the north and west were ready to take up arms for 
 their independence. Everything depended upon quick and decisive 
 action. Alexander was well aware of this, and at the same time he 
 was determined not to surrender any part of his dominions, as some 
 of his timid or cautious friends advised him. His first measure was 
 to send his general, Hecatseus, with a force to Asia, with instructions 
 to bring Attalus back to Macedonia either dead or alive. All the 
 professions of attachment and fidelity that Attalus made were of no 
 avail ; he was put to death, and his army joined that of Parmenio, 
 who had remained faithful. While this took place in Asia, Alexander 
 marched with an army into Greece. Thessaly submitted without 
 resistance, and transferred to him the supreme command in the pro- 
 jected expedition against Persia. After having marched through the 
 pass of Thermopylae, he assembled the Delphic Amphictyous, and 
 was received a member of their confederacy, and the decree of the 
 Thessalians was confirmed by a similar one of the Amphictyons. 
 Advancing into Bceotia, he pitched his camp in the neighbourhood of 
 the Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes. His sudden appearance struck 
 terror into the Thebans, who had been indulging in di earns of recover- 
 ing their liberty. The Athenians also, who, pretending to despise 
 young Alexander, had talked much about war, but as usual had made 
 no preparations for it, were greatly alarmed when they heard of his 
 sudden arrival before the gates of Thebes. They immediately des- 
 patched an embassy to beg his pardon for not having sent ambassadors 
 to the assembly of the Delphic Amphictyons, and for not having 
 conferred upon him the supreme command against Persia in their 
 Dame also. Alexander received their ambassadors kindly, and only 
 required the Athenians to send deputies to a general council of the 
 Greeks which was to be held at Corinth. At this meeting all the 
 states of Greece, with the exception of Sparta, transferred to the 
 Macedonian king the command of all their forces against Persia, an 
 office which they had before conferred upon his father. The Greeks 
 overwhelmed the young king with assurances of attachment, marks 
 of honour, and the meanest flattery. The refusal of the Spartans to 
 Join the other Greeks did not make Alexander in the least uneasy ; he 
 knew that he had nothing to fear from them, and that they were 
 without the power to give effect to their wishes. 
 
 After having thus settled the affairs of Greece, he returned in the 
 spring of B.C. 335 to Macedonia, to put down an insurrection of the 
 northern barbarians. He marched from Amphipolis towards Mount 
 Haemus (Balkan), which he reached in ten days. He forced his way 
 across the mountains, penetrated into the country of the Triballiaus, 
 and pursued their king Syrmus as far as the Danube, where the 
 barbarians took refuge in a strongly fortified island in the river. 
 Before Alexander attacked them there, he wished to subdue the 
 Getse who occupied the north bank of the river. A fleet which had 
 been sent up the Danube from Byzantium enabled him to cross the 
 river. The Getse, terrified at seeing the enemy thus unexpectedly 
 invading their territory, left their homes and fled northward. Laden 
 with booty, Alexander and his army returned to the south bank of 
 the Danube, where he received embassies from the tribes which 
 inhabited the plains of the Danube, and from king Syrmus, suing 
 for peace and alliance. After having secured this frontier of his 
 kingdom he hastened against Clitus and Glaucias, the chiefs of the 
 lllyrians and Taiilantians, who were threatening an attack upon 
 Macedonia, while another tribe was to engage the army of Alexander 
 on his return from the north. This plan however was thwarted, and 
 Alexander compelled the barbarians to recognise the Macedonian 
 supremacy. 
 
 While he was thus successfully engaged with the barbarians to the 
 north and west of Macedonia, new dangers threatened in the south. 
 The spirit of insurrection, stirred up by Demosthenes and other 
 friends of the independence of Greece, had revived, especially at 
 Thebes, which perhaps suffered more than any other Greek city from 
 its Macedonian garrison ; and on the arrivat of a report that Alex- 
 ander had lost his life in his Illyrian campaign, some of the Greek 
 ■tateg resorted to hostile measures. The Thebans expelled their 
 Macedonian garrison and sent envoys to other Greek states to invite 
 them to aid in recovering their independence. Their summons was 
 favourably received by most of the Greeks, but they were slow in 
 carrying their resolutions into effect ; and before a force was assembled, 
 and even before the intelligence of Alexander being still alive reached 
 Thebet, he was with his army at Onchestus in Bceotia, He immedi- 
 
 ately marched against Thebes, and attempted a peaceful reconciliation ; 
 but the Thebans answered him with insult. Perdiccas, one of 
 Alexander's generals, availed himself, without his master's command, 
 of a favourable opportunity for an attack with his own detachment, 
 out of which a general engagement arose. Notwithstanding the 
 brave resistance of the Thebans the city was taken, and this event 
 was followed by one of the most bloody massacres in ancient history. 
 The city, with the exception of the citadel, the temples, and the 
 seven ancient gates, was razed to the ground ; C000 Thebans, men, 
 women, and children, were put to the sword ; and 30,000 others were 
 sold as slaves. The priests, the friends of the Macedonians, and the 
 descendants of Pindar alone retained their liberty. Of the private 
 dwelliugs none was spared except the house of Pindar. 
 
 The other Greek states which had been willing to join Thebes, and 
 more especially Athens, sought and obtained pardon from the con- 
 queror, who afterwards showed on several occasions in his behaviour 
 towards some of the surviving Thebans that he had not destroyed 
 their city out of wanton cruelty. Convinced that the fearful fate of 
 Thebes was a sufficient warning to the rest of Greece, Alexander 
 returned to Macedonia to devote all his energy to preparations for the 
 war against Persia. His friends advised him, before setting out for 
 Asia, to marry, and give an heir to the throne of Macedonia ; but he 
 had already been too long prevented from carrying his Asiatic expe- 
 dition into effect, and he thirsted for the possession of Asia. Before 
 setting out he lavished nearly all his private possessions among his 
 friends, and when Perdiccas asked him what he meant to retain for 
 himself, he answered, "Hopes." Antipater was appointed regent of 
 Macedonia during his absence, with a force of 12,000 foot and 1500 
 horse. Alexander set out for Asia in the beginning of the spring, 
 B.C. 334, with an army of about 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, which 
 mainly consisted of Macedonians and Thessalians, while the infantry 
 consisted of 7000 allied Greeks, Thracians, Agrianians, and a number 
 of mercenaries. His financial means were very small. The army 
 advanced along the coast of Thrace, and after a march of twenty 
 days reached Sestos on the Hellespont, where the Macedonian fleet 
 lay at anchor ready to convey the army to the coast of Asia. This 
 fleet consisted of 160 or, according to others, of 180 triremes, and a 
 number of transports. While the greater part of the army landed at 
 Abydos and encamped near Arisbe, Alexander, accompanied by his 
 friend Hephsestion, paid a visit to the mound which was believed to 
 contain the remains of Achilles, whose successor it was his ambition 
 to be considered by his soldiers. As soon as he had joined his army 
 again, he began his march against the Persians, who, although they 
 had long been acquainted with the plans of the Macedonians, were 
 not fully prepared, and had a force of about 20,000 horse and as 
 many Greek mercenaries stationed near Zeleia. There was in the 
 Persian army a Rhodian Greek, of the name of Memnon, whose, 
 military talent might have made him a formidable opponent to Alex- 
 ander ; but his advice to retreat before the Macedonians, who were 
 scantily supplied with provisions, and to lay waste the country, was 
 rejected by the Persians, and they advanced as far as the river 
 Grauicus, in order to check the progress of the invader. Alexander 
 found the Persians drawn up in order of battle on the east bank of 
 the river, and without listening to the advice of his cautious friend 
 Parmenio, he boldly forced a passage in the face of the enemy with 
 his cavalry, which kept the enemy engaged until the infantry came 
 up. The discipline of the Macedonians, and the impetuosity of their 
 attack, broke the line of the Persians, who were completely beaten, 
 although the number of their dead was not very great : they are said 
 to have lost about 1000 horsemen; but the mercenaries, who, as long 
 as the Persians were engaged had, by the command of the Persians, 
 been obliged to remain inactive, were for the most part cut down, and 
 2000 of them were made prisoners and sent to Macedonia to be em- 
 ployed as public slaves for having engaged in the service of the 
 Persians against their own countrymen. Alexander had himself been 
 active in the contest, and killed two Persians of the highest rank ; 
 after the victory he visited his soldiers who had been wounded. The 
 parents and children of those who had fallen in the battle were 
 honoured with privileges and immunities. In the first assault twenty 
 of the king's horse-guard (iraipoi) had fallen, and he honoured their 
 valour by ordering Lysippus to execute their figures in bronze, which 
 were erected in the Macedonian town of Dium, whence they were 
 afterwards carried to Rome. 
 
 Before advancing into the interior of Asia Minor, Alexander wished 
 to make himself master of the western and southern coasts of the 
 peninsula. As he proceeded southward, nearly all the towns on the 
 coast opened their gates to him ; and to show that he had really 
 come as their liberator, he established in all the cities a democratical 
 form of government. Miletus was taken by storm. In the mean 
 time a Persian fleet, consisting principally of Phoenician ships, lay off 
 Mycale. The king, contrary to the advice of his generals, would not 
 engage in a sea-fight, but kept his fleet quiet near the coast of Miletus; 
 he thus prevented the Persians from lan ling and taking in water and 
 provisions, the want of which compelled them to retreat to Samos. 
 It was now late in the autumn of the year B.C. 334, and Alexander 
 wanted to take possession of Caria and the capital Halicarnassus. 
 The occupation of the country was easy enough : a princess of the 
 name of Ada surrendered it to him without resistance, for which sho 
 
Ill 
 
 ALEXANDER III. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. 
 
 112 
 
 was rewarded with the title of Queen of Caria ; but Halicarnassus, 
 the siege of which is the most memorable event of this campaign, 
 held out to the last under the command of Memnon, but was taken. 
 As the winter was approaching, and Alexander had no apprehension 
 of having to encounter another Persian army during this season, he 
 allowed his Macedonians who wished it to spend the winter with their 
 families in Macedonia, on condition of their returning at the beginning 
 of spring with the reinforcements which were to be levied in Mace- 
 donia. A small detachment of the r> mainder of the army, which had 
 been greatly increased by the Asiatic Greeks, was allowed under 
 Parmenio to take up their winter quarters in the plains of Lydia. 
 Alexander himself marched along the coast of Lycia. From Phaselis 
 he chose the road along this dangerous coast to Pamphylia, took the 
 towns of Perga, Side, and Aspendus, and, forcing his way through the 
 mountains of Pisidia, which were inhabited by barbarous tribes, into 
 Phrygia, he pitched his camp near Gordium, on the river Sangarius. 
 Here he dexterously availed himself of a prophecy which in the eyes 
 of the credulous made him appear as the man called by the Deity to 
 rule over Asia. The acropolis of Gordium contained the Gordian 
 knot by which the yoke and collars of the horses were fastened to the 
 pole of the chariot. The sovereignty of Asia was promised to him 
 who should be able to untie this complicated knot. After vainly 
 attempting to untie the knot, Alexander relieved himself from his 
 difficulty by cutting it, according to one account ; but the particulars 
 of the story vary. It was considered however that he had fulfilled 
 the oracle, and the general opinion was confirmed by a storm of 
 thunder and lightning. 
 
 In the spring of the yea|^ B.O. 333, the various detachments 
 assembled at Gordium. Together with those who returned from 
 their visit to their homes, there came from Macedonia and Greece 
 3000 foot, 300 horse, and 200 Thessalians, and 150 allies from Elis. 
 Alexander led his army along the southern foot of the Paphlagonian 
 Mountains to Ancyra, received the assurance of the submission of the 
 Paphlagonians, and crossing the river Halys entered Cappadocia. 
 Satisfied with making himself master of the south-western part of 
 this province, he directed his march southward to the Ciliciau Gates, 
 or one of the mountain passes which led over Taurus from Cappadocia 
 into Cilicia, and proceeded as far as Tarsus on the Cydnus. Here his 
 life was endangered by a fever which attacked him either in conse- 
 quence of his great exertions, or, according to other accounts, in 
 consequence of having bathed in the cold water of the river Cydnus ; 
 but the skill of his physician Philip, an Acarnanian, soon restored 
 him to health. The possession of Cilicia was of the greatest import- 
 ance to him on account of the communication with Asia Minor. 
 While therefore Parmenio occupied the Syrian Gates or pass in the 
 south-eastern corner of Cilicia, Alexander compelled the western parts 
 of the country to submission. About the time that his conquests in 
 this part were completed, he received intelligence of king Darius 
 having assembled an immense force near the Syrian town of Sochi. 
 The Persian king had now lost the ablest man in his service. Mem- 
 non, who after the taking of Halicarnassus had fhd to Cos, and with 
 his powerful fleet had gained possession of nearly the whole of the 
 iEgean, died at the moment when he was on the point of sailing to 
 Eubcea ; a movement by which Alexander would perhaps have been 
 compelled to give up for the present all thoughts of Eastern conquests. 
 Darius had levied all the forces that his extensive empire could fur- 
 nish, hoping to ciush the invaders by his numerical superiority. 
 Though he possessed no military talent, he commanded his own army, 
 which is said to have consisted of 500,000-nr 600,000 men, among 
 
 dus in Syria. Darius left his favourable position in the wide plain of 
 Sochi, contrary to the advice of Amyntas, a Greek deserter, and 
 entered the narrow plain of Issus, east of the little river Pinarus. 
 By this movement he was in the rear of Alexander's army, who had 
 left behind him at Issus those who were unfit for further service. 
 Darius had probably been led to this unfortunate step by the belief 
 that the long stay of Alexander in Cilicia was the result of fear. 
 The Macedonians at Issus fell iuto the hands of the Persians, and 
 were treated cruelly. Darius now hastened to attack Alexander, 
 apprehending that he might make his escape ; but Alexander, without 
 waiting for the approach of Darius, returned by the same road by 
 which he had come. The armies met in the narrow and uneven plain 
 of the river Pinarus — a position most unfavourable to the unwieldy 
 masses of the Persians. The contest began at day-break, in the 
 autumn of the year B.C. 333. Notwithstanding the great resistance of 
 the enemy, especially of the 30,000 Greek mercenaries, Alexander, 
 towards the end of the day, gained a complete victory. The number 
 of the slain on the part of the Persians was prodigious; the loss of 
 the Macedonians is Btated to have been very small. As soon as 
 Darius saw his left wing routed he took to flight, and was followed by 
 the whole army. The Persian king escaped across the Euphrates by 
 the ford at Tbapsacus. His chariot, cloak, shield, and bow were after- 
 wards found in a narrow defile through which he had fled ; his 
 mother, Sisygambis, his wife Statiia, and her children, fell into the 
 hands of Alexander, who treated them with the utmost respect and 
 delicacy. The booty which Alexander made after this victory was 
 very great, but yet was insignificant compared with the treasures 
 which Parmenio found at Damascus, whither they had been carried by 
 the Persians before they left the plain of Sochi. 
 
 The Persian army was now dispersed, the Greek mercenaries had 
 fled, and Asia was thrown open to the invader. For the present 
 Alexander did not think it necessary to penetrate into the interior : 
 he wished first to make himself complete master of the coasts of the 
 Mediterranean. He therefore advanced into Phoenicia, where all the 
 towns opened their gates. Tyre alone, which was situated on an island 
 about half a mile from the main land, and was strongly fortified by 
 lofty walls, for some time checked his progress, and it was not till after 
 the lapse of seven months (about August of the year B.C. 332) that he 
 succeeded in taking tho city by constructing a causeway to connect 
 the island with the continent, and by the use of a fleet which had been 
 furnished him by other Phoenician towns and by Cyprus. The cause- 
 way of Alexander still remains, and Tyre is now part of the main land. 
 The obstinacy of the Tyriaus, the immense exertion and expense which 
 their resistance rendered necessary, and the cruelty with which they 
 had treated the Macedonians who fell into their hands, were followed 
 by the most fearful revenge : 8000 Tyrians were put to death, and all 
 the rest of the population sold into slavery ; the highest magistrates 
 alone and some Carthaginian ambassadors were spared, who had taken 
 refuge in the temple of Hercules. The city itself was not destroyed, 
 but received a new population consisting of Phoenicians and Cyprians; 
 and Alexander, who knew the importance of the place, encouraged 
 the revival of its commerce and prosperity. 
 
 During the siege of Tyre, Darius had sent to Alexander with pro- 
 posals of peace, but the humiliation of the Persian king only convinced 
 Alexander of his weakness. All the proposals of Darius were rejected 
 with the declaration that the Persian king must petition and appear 
 in person if he wished to ask for favour. During the siege of Tyre, 
 Alexander had also made excursions with separate detachments of his 
 army against other towns of Syria and some Arab tribes about the 
 
 From a Mosaic found at Pompeii, supposed to represent the Battle of Issus. 
 
 whom there were about 30,000 Greek mercenaries. Alexander I southern foot of Lebanon. In the autumn he proceeded with his army 
 marched from Tarsus aloDg the Bay of Issus to the town of Myrian- j southward along the coast of Palestine, and, according to Josephus, ho 
 
113 ALEXANDER IIL ALEXANDER III. 114 
 
 paid a visit to Jerusalem, where he worshipped and sacrificed in the 
 Temple, and was made acquainted with an ancient prophecy, that a 
 king of Greece should conquer the king of Persia. But this long 
 episode in Josephus is not supported by any other testimony. In 
 the same autumn Alexander besieged the strong town of Gaza, near 
 the southern frontier of Syria. It was vigorously defended for two 
 months by the Persian commander Batis, and did not surrender until 
 nearly all the garrison had fallen. Alexander, who had himself been 
 severely wounded during the siege, sold the inhabitants as slaves, and 
 repeopled the town with Syrians from the neighbouring country. 
 
 The last province of Persia on the coasts of the Mediterranean that 
 now remained was Egypt. In seven days Alexander marched with his 
 army from Gaza through the desert to the gates of Pelusium, on the 
 north-eastern frontier of Egypt, where he found the fleet at anchor, 
 with which Phoenicia and Cyprus had supplied him. The Persian 
 satrap of Egypt, having no means of defence, surrendered to Alex- 
 ander without striking a blow. The Egyptians themselves, who had 
 always hated the oppressive rule of the intolerant Persians, were little 
 inclined to take up arms, and gladly surrendered to the invader, who 
 justified their confidence in him by the restoration of several of their 
 civil and religious institutions which the Persians had suppressed. 
 The Greeks, of whom great numbers resided in Egypt, may also have 
 helped the matter. After having paid visits to Heliopolis and Memphis, 
 he sailed down the Canopic, or most western branch of the Nile, to 
 the Lake of Marea, and here he founded, on a strip of barren land, 
 the city of Alexandria, which still exists as a fiourishiug place of trade. 
 The place was judiciously selected for the purpose of the Mediter- 
 ranean trade on the one side, and the communication with the Red 
 Sea through the Nile on the other. After the foundations of the new 
 city were laid, Alexander marched along the coast to Paraetonium, and 
 thence in a southern direction, and through the desert to the renowned 
 oracle of Jupiter Ammon in the oasis now called Siwah. What may 
 have induced him to visit this sacred island of the desert is only matter 
 of conjecture ; but it is not improbable that it was the desire to see 
 his wishes respecting the sovereignty of the world sanctioned by the 
 oracle of Jupit r Ammon, and thus to inspire his soldiers with con- 
 fidence ; or it may be that the visit was connected with the foundation 
 of Alexandria, and had a commercial object, as Ammonium was the 
 centre of a considerable inland trade. Whatever his wishes may have 
 been, Alexander was perfectly satisfied with the results of his visit : 
 there was a report that the oracle had declared him the son of Jupiter 
 Ammon, and promised him the sovereignty of the world; a report 
 which must have been of incalculable advantage to Alexander with 
 his soldiers and the inhabitants of Asia. After having richly rewarded 
 the temple and its priests, he returned to Memphis, according to Aris- 
 tobulus, by the same road by which he had gone ; but according to 
 Ptolemaeus he took the shortest way across the desert. 
 
 In the spring of the year B.C. 331, after having received fresh rein- 
 forcements from Macedonia and Greece, Alexander set out on his 
 march towards the interior of Asia. He visited Tyre, from whence 
 he marched to the Euphrates, which he crossed at the ford of Thap- 
 sacus. From Thapsacus his march was in an eastern direction, across 
 the plain of Mesopotamia towards the river Tigris, in the direction of 
 Gaugamela, a distance of no less than 800 miles from Memphis. 
 Darius had again assembled an immense army, the amount of which 
 is stated at 1,000,000 infantry, 40.000 horse, 200 chariots with scythes, 
 and about 15 elephants. He had chosen a favourable position in the 
 plains of Gaugamela, east of the Tigris, on the banks of the small 
 river Bumadus. After having allowed his soldiers four days' rest, 
 Alexander moved in the night against the enemy, whom he found, 
 drawn up in battle array. On a morning of the month of October, 
 in the year B.C. 331, the battle which put an end to the Persian 
 monarchy began. Some parts of the Persian army fought courage- 
 ously, and the Macedonians sustained some loss : but when Alexander, 
 by an impetuous attack, succeeded in breaking the centre of the Persian 
 army, which was commanded by Darius himself, the king took to 
 flight, and was followed by his army in utter confusion. Alexander 
 pursued the fugitives as far as Arbela (Erbil), about fifty miles east 
 of Gaugamela, where he found the treasures of the king, and got an 
 immense booty. Darius fled through the mountainous country to 
 Ecbatana (Hamadan). The loss of the Persians on this day is said to 
 have been enormous : that of the Macedonians is stated to have been 
 very inconsiderable. It now only remained for Alexander to subdue 
 the Persian satraps whose provinces had not yet been conquered, and 
 who continued faithful to their king. In accomplishing this he was 
 greatly assisted by the policy that he adopted ; he promised to leave 
 the satraps who would submit in possession of their former power, 
 with the exception of the military command, which was given to 
 Macedonians. The attachment of the people was gained in another 
 way. Alexander, elated by his succoss, began to surround himself 
 with all the pomp and splendour of an eastern king ; he respected 
 the religion and customs of his new subjects, and protected them from I 
 the oppression to which they had long been subjected. From this time 
 a great change is manifest in the character and conduct of Alexander. 
 He exercised no control over his passions; he commited acts of 
 cruelty and excess such as are common with eastern despots. But he 
 did not sink into indolence : active occupation, both mental and physical, 
 remained now as before the only element in which he could sxir.t. 
 
 BIOO. D1V. VOL. I. 1 
 
 From Arbela, Alexander marched southward to the ancient city of 
 Babylon, which opened its gates without resistance ; and he gained 
 the good-will of the people by ordering the temple of Belus, which 
 had been damaged by the Persians, to be restored, and by sacrificing 
 to the god according to the rites of the Chaldseans. After a short Btay 
 there he set out for Susa (Sus) on the Choaspes (Kerah, or more pro- 
 perly Kerkhah), which he reached after a march of twenty days, and 
 where he found immense treasures, which had been accumulated in 
 this ancient capital. The Macedonians, following the example of their 
 master, plunged into the enjoyment of the pleasures of this wealthy 
 city ; and the more readily, as they had hitherto been exposed to all 
 kinds of hardship, with scarcely any interval of repose. Towards the 
 end of the year Alexander left Susa for Persepolis, the original seat of 
 the Persian kings, and where many of them were buried. The road 
 which he took is described thus : — He first marched towards the river 
 Pasitigris (Karoon), and thence along the valley of Ram-Hormuz to 
 the mountain pass now called Kala-i-Sifid, which forms the entrance 
 into Persia Proper. After having met with some resistance at thin 
 spot, he took Persepolis by surprise, so that none of the treasures were 
 carried away before his arrival. To avenge the destruction of the 
 Greek temples by the Persians, Alexander, contrary to the advice of 
 his friend Parmenio, set fire to the palace of Persepolis, and part of 
 it was burnt down. According to another account he was instigated 
 to this act of madness by Thais, an Athenian courtezan, during the 
 revelry of a banquet. Immense ruins (Tchil-Minar) still point out 
 the site of this ancient city ; but its complete destruction, which is 
 usually ascribed to Alexander, belongs most probably to a much later 
 period. After a stay of four months, during which he subdued Persia 
 and several of the neighbouring mountain tribes, he left, as he had 
 done at Babylon and Susa, the country under the administration of 
 a Persian satrap. Early in the year B.C. 330 he began his march on 
 Ecbatana, where Darius, on seeing that Alexander after the battle of 
 Gaugamela turned to the south, had collected a new force with which 
 he hoped to maintain himself in Media. But while he was expecting 
 reinforcements from the Scythians and Cadusians, he was surprised by 
 the tidings of Alexander's arrival on the frontiers of Media. Unable 
 to maintain his ground, Darius fled through Rhagac(Rey, near Tehran), 
 and the mountain pass, called the Caspian gates (the Elburz moun- 
 tains), to his Bactrian provinces. After a short stay at Ecbatana, 
 where he dismissed his Thessalian horse and other allies who had 
 served their time, with rich presents, Alexander hastened after the 
 fugitive king ; but on reaching the Caspian gates he was informed that 
 Darius had been made a prisoner by his own satrap, Bessus. The 
 Macedonians continued their pursuit with great rapidity through the 
 arid deserts of Parthia, and when they were near upon Bessus and his 
 associates, who were unable either to make a stand against Alexander 
 or to carry their victim any further, the traitors wounded the king 
 mortally, left him near a place called Hecatompylos, and dispersed in 
 various directions. Darius died before Alexander came up to the spot. 
 Moved by the misfortunes of the Persian king, Alexander covered the 
 body with his own cloak, and sent it to Persepolis to be buried in the 
 tomb of his ancestors. 
 
 From this moment Alexander was in the undisputed possession of 
 the Persian empire : all the satraps, who had hitherto been faithful to 
 their king, now seeing that resistance had become hopeless, submitted 
 to Alexander, who knew how to value their fidelity, and he rewarded 
 them for it. Bessus, who had escaped to Bactria, assumed under the 
 name of Artaxerxes the title of king, aud endeavoured to get together 
 an army. Alexander marched into Hyrcania, where the Greeks who 
 had served in the army of Darius were assembled. After some nego- 
 ciation Alexander induced them to surrender ; he pardoned them for 
 what was past, and engaged a great number of them in his service ; 
 but some Laceda3monians who had been sent as ambassadors to Darius 
 by their government were put into chains. At Zadracarta, the capital 
 of the Parthians, the site of which is unknown, Alexander spent fifteen 
 days; after which he proceeded along the northern extremity of the 
 great salt desert towards the frontier of Aria, which submitted to him. 
 He left this province in the hands of its former satrap, Satibarzanes, 
 and marched farther east towards Bactria ; but he was soon called 
 back by the news that Satibarzanes had revolted, had formed an alli- 
 ance with Bessus, and had destroyed the Macedonians who had been 
 left in his province. In order to secure his rear, Alexander hastened 
 back with almost incredible speed, and in two days surprised the 
 faithless rebel in his capital of Artacoana. The satrap took to flight, 
 and Alexander, after having appointed a new governor, instead of 
 returning on his former road to Bactria, thought it more expedient to 
 secure the south-eastern part of Aria. After a march through an 
 almost impassable country — to ascertain the precise road is impossible 
 — he took possession of the countries of the Zarangae, Drangse, Dragogae, 
 and other tribes on the banks of the river Etymandrus (Helmund), 
 which flows into the Lake of Aria (Zerrah). During his stay at 
 Prophthasia, the capital of the Drangae, things occurred which showed 
 the altered character of Alexander in the light in which we are only 
 accustomed to see an oriental despot. Philotas, the son of Alexander's 
 friend Parmenio, was charged with having formed a conspiracy against 
 the life of the king. He was accused by Alexander before a court of 
 Macedonians : distinct proof was not produced, though circumstantial 
 evidence seemed to warrant the truth of the charge. Philotas was 
 
 t 
 
115 ALEXANDER III. 
 
 tortured, confessed the crime, and was put to death. So far all mi^ht 
 be just: but Pannenio, who was then with a part of the army at 
 Ecbatana to guard the treasures conveyed thither from Persis, was 
 likewise put to death by the command of Alexander, apparently only 
 because Alexander feared lest the father might avenge the death of 
 his son. Some other Macedonians charged with having taken part in 
 Ifcho conspiracy of Philotas, and Alexander, son of Aeropus, were also 
 put to death. These occurrences also show the state of feeling that 
 began to spread among the Macedonians in the army. They must 
 have felt grieved at their king abandoning the customs of their native 
 land, and their grief was increased by envy and jealousy as they saw 
 the Persians of rank placed by Alexander on the same footing with 
 themselves. 
 
 From Prophthasia the army advanced probably up the river Etyman- 
 drus through the country of the Ariaspians into that of the Arachoti, 
 whose conquest completed that of Aria. The detail of this campaign 
 is unknown, but it is evident that Alexander must have had to contend 
 with extraordinary difficulties. On his inarch towards the mountains 
 in the north he founded a town, Alexandria, which is supposed to be 
 the modern Candahar. He was now separated from Bactria by the 
 immense mountains of the Paropamisus, tho western ranges of the 
 Hindoo Coosh. Alexander crossed these lofty mountains, which were 
 covered with deep snow, and did not even supply his army with fire- 
 wood. After fourteen days of great exertions and sufferings the army 
 reached Drapsaca, or Adrapsa, the first Bactrian town on the northern 
 side of the Paropamisus. Bactria submitted to the conqueror without 
 resistance, for as soon as Bessus had heard of the approach of Alex- 
 ander he had fled across the Oxus to Nautaca in Sogdiana. Here he 
 was overtaken and made prisoner by Ptolemreus, the son of Lagus, and 
 was brought by Alexander before a Persian court, which condemned 
 him to death as a regicide. 
 
 Iu the month of May or June, B.C. 329, Alexander with his whole 
 army crossed the river Oxus, which seems to have been swelled by the 
 melted snow of the mountains, as Arrian states that its breadth was 
 about six stadia. Boats or rafts could not be constructed for want of 
 materials, and the passage was- effected in the space of five days by 
 means of floats made of the tent-skins of the soldiers, filled with light 
 materials. Previous to crossing this river, Alexander sent home those 
 Macedonians and Thessaliau horsemen who were no longer fit for 
 service. When he reached the northern bank of the Oxus he directed 
 his course to Maracanda, the modern Samarcand, then the capital of 
 Sogdiana. After several engagements with the warlike inhabitants of 
 that province, he advanced as far as the river Jaxartes (Sir), which he 
 meant to make the frontier of his empire against the Scythians. 
 Cyropolis on the Jaxartes was taken by storm ; and, to strike terror 
 into the Scythians, he crossed the river, defeated the Scythian cavalry, 
 and pursued the enemy until his own army became exhausted in 
 those dry steppes, and began to suffer from thirst and the unwhole- 
 some water of the country. After founding a town, Alexandria, on 
 the Jaxartes, which was to be a frontier fortress against Scythia, he 
 returned to Zariaspa, where he spent the winter of 329 and 328. 
 During the winter months he received various embassies from distant 
 tribes, and reinforcements for his army, which had been somewhat 
 diminished by the garrisons which he had been obliged to leave in 
 several places. During this same winter Alexander gave another 
 proof of his ungovernable passion by the murder of Clitus. Arrian 
 remarks that, among other Asiatic customs, the king had adopted the 
 Persian fashion of hard drinking, while the miserable flatterers, by 
 whom he was surrounded, encouraged his vanity by exalting him 
 above the demigods and heroes of Greece. Clitus, who was drunk 
 himself, had the boldness and imprudence to deny Alexander's claim 
 to such extravagant honours, and the furious king, whom his attend- 
 ants were unable to restrain, pierced his friend through with a javelin 
 on the spot. Unavailing honours to the dead, and bitter remorse on 
 the part of the murderer, were the natural termination of this tragical 
 story. 
 
 In the spring of B.C. 328 Alexander again marched into Sogdiana 
 across the river Oxus, near a spot which was marked by a fountain of 
 water and a fountain of oil. Sogdiana abounded in mountain fortresses, 
 and Alexander had to take them before he could be said to have pos- 
 session of the country. As the winter in those regions is too cold for 
 military operations, he took up his winter quarters at Nautaca. In 
 the following spring he renewed his attacks upon the mountain for- 
 tresses, and in one of them, which was situated upon a steep and almost 
 inaccessible rock, and was compelled, or rather frightened, into a 
 surrender, Alexander made Oxyartes, a Bactrian prince, and his 
 beautiful daughter Roxaua, his prisoners. Alexander was captivated 
 by the beauty of Roxana, and made her his wife, to the great delight 
 of his eastern subjects. After having reduced all the strongholds in 
 Sogdiana, he returned through Bactria and across the Hindoo Coosh 
 to Alexandria in Aria, which he reached after a march, it is said, of 
 ten days. During the ensuing winter new symptoms of the dissatis- 
 faction of the Macedonians with their king showed themselves. While 
 he was making preparations for an expedition to India, the plan of 
 which he had been maturing for the last two years, a conspiracy was 
 formed against him, in which even those individuals took part who 
 had before been his most contemptible flatterers, as Callisthenes of 
 Olynthus. Hermolaus was at the head of it, and in conjunction with 
 
 ALEXANDER IIL U8 
 
 a number of the royal pages a plan was formed for murdering tho 
 king. But the conspiracy was discovered, and Callisthenes and 
 Hermolaus with his young associates were put to death. 
 
 The time for his Indian expedition had now come, as all the con- 
 quered countries continued obedient to their new master. Late ill 
 the spring of B.C. 327, he set out from Alexandria in Aria with an 
 army of about 120,000 men, of whom about 40,000 Macedonians 
 formed the nucleus. Ptolemoeus and Hephaestion were sent a-head with 
 a strong detachment to make a bridge of boats across the river Indus. 
 Alexander and his army marched to a place called Cabura, which was 
 henceforth called Nicasa, crossed the rivers Choaspes and Gyraeus, and 
 on his road took Aornos, another mountain fortress, notwithstanding 
 the obstinate resistance of the besieged. He then crossed the Indus, 
 probably a little north of the modern place called Attock, where the 
 river is very deep, and about a thousand feet wide. It must have 
 been early in the year 326 when Alexander entered India, or rather 
 that part of it which is now called the Panjab, that is, the Five 
 Rivers. 
 
 His march towards the Indus had not been accomplished without 
 various struggles with the mountain tribes ; while on the other hand 
 several Indian chiefs, such as Taxiles of Taxila, welcomed him with 
 rich presents and surrendered their cities. In this manner Alexander 
 got possession of Taxila, the largest place between the Indus and the 
 Hydaspes. Alexander proceeded from Taxila to the river Hydaspes 
 (now Behut, or Bedusta), whither the boats which had been used on 
 the Indus had been conveyed by taking them in pieces. On the 
 Hydaspes he met a most resolute enemy in the Indian king Porus, who 
 possessed the whole country between the Hydaspes and Acesiues, and 
 was hostile to Taxiles, which circumstance seems to have induced 
 Taxiles to surrender to Alexander and make him his friend. On 
 reaching the Hydaspes, Alexander perceived the immense army of 
 Porus drawn up in battle array on the opposite bank. The river was 
 much swollen, and there seemed to be no possibility of crossing it. 
 But Alexander contrived to cross it unobserved with a detachment 
 of his troops and with his invincible cavalry in a place somewhat above 
 the part where Porus was posted. Porus began the attack with his 
 best troops, 200 elephants and 300 war chariots. But Alexander, who 
 was superior in cavalry, drove back upon their infantry the Indian 
 cavalry, which, as well as the elephants, had been placed in front of 
 their lines; and these were thrown into utter confusion. After a hard 
 struggle Alexander gained a complete victory, in which the Indians are 
 said to have lost 23,000 men, and among them their best generals and 
 two sons of Porus. The war chariots were destroyed, and the elephants 
 partly killed and partly taken. The loss of the Macedonians is esti- 
 mated by Arrian so low that it is scarcely credible, and we are probably 
 justified in preferring the statement of Diodorus, according to whom 
 the Macedonians lost upwards of 1200 foot and 300 horsemen. Porus 
 was among the last who fled from the field : he was taken by the 
 soldiers of Alexander, who, full of admiration at his courage, not only 
 restored to him his kingdom, but increased it considerably afterwards, 
 in order to make him a faithful vassal. But by this means he excited 
 a jealousy between Taxiles and Porus. 
 
 After this victory Alexander stayed thirty days on the Hydaspes, 
 where he celebrated sacrifices aud games, and founded two towns, one 
 on each bank of the Hydaspes ; that on the western bank was called 
 Bucephala, in honour of his famous war-horse, and the other Nicaja, 
 to commemorate the victory over Porus. Hereupon the army advanced 
 towards the third river of the Panjab, the Acesines (Cheuaub), which 
 was crossed in boats and on skins. Alexander then traversed the barren 
 plain between the Acesine3 aud Hydraotes (Ravee), the latter of which 
 rivers he likewise crossed to attack a new enemy. But the second 
 Porus, who ruled over the country between these two rivers, had fled 
 across the Hydraotes on the approach of Alexander, and his dominions 
 were given to the first Porus. Alexander thus met with no obstacle 
 until he reached the eastern bank of the Hydraotes. Here the Cathsei, 
 the most warlike of the Indian tribes, made a most resolute resistance. 
 Their army was stationed on an eminence in their capital Sangala, 
 which was surrounded by walls and a triple line of waggons ; but 
 this fortress was taken, and the power of this brave tribe, whose 
 descendants some modern travellers have supposed that they have 
 discovered in the modern Kattia, was broken, and their territory 
 was divided among those Indian tribes which had submitted without 
 resistance. Alexander had now pressed forward as far as the river 
 Hyphasis (Garra), and the reports of a rich country beyond it offered 
 a temptation to cross this river also. But his exhausted army did not 
 feel the strength of the temptation. The troops had suffered so much 
 from the incessant toil and marches through barren and hostile coun- 
 tries, and their hopes and expectations had so frequently been dis- 
 appointed, that they were determined to proceed no farther, and neither 
 persuasion nor threats could induce them to move. Alexander at last, 
 advised, as he said, by the signs of the sacrifices, determined not to 
 lead his army farther. Twelve gigantic towers were erected on the 
 banks of the Hyphasis to mark the limits of his adventures. He 
 returned acroai the rivers which he had passed before in a western 
 direction as far as the Hydaspes, and the whole country between this 
 river and the liyphasis was given to the brave Porus, who thus became 
 the most powerful prince of India. 
 
 On reaching the Hydaspes the army did not march farther west, as 
 
ALEXANDER IIL 
 
 tlfl 
 
 Alexander wished to conquer the country around the Indus and to 
 explore the course of the river down to its mouth. This had been 
 his plan when he crossed the Hydaspes for the first time, and he had 
 accordingly given orders to build a fleet on the Hydaspes, for which 
 there were then, as there are now, abundant materials. On his arrival 
 a gre.it number of ships were ready for sailing, and after a short time 
 their number was increased to 1800, or, according to others, to 2000. 
 In the beginning of November, B.C. 326, the army began to move. 
 Alexander himself embarked in the fleet with about 8000 men, under 
 the admiral Nearchus, who commanded the ship in which the king 
 sailed. The remainder of the army was divided between Craterus 
 and Hephaestion, the former of whom led his forces along the right, 
 and the latter on the left bank of the river. The tribes through 
 whose territory the army passed submitted without resistance, except 
 the Malli, whom Alexander hastened to attack before they were fully 
 prepared. Their greatest and best fortified place — perhaps the modern 
 Moultan, or Malli-than — was taken by an assault, iu which Alexander 
 himself was severely wounded. This accident threw the army into 
 the greatest consternation ; but he was soon restored, and the rest of 
 the Malli sent envoys with offers to recognise his sovereignty. The 
 submission of the Indian tribes south of the Malli took place without 
 any difficulty. When the army reached the point where the four 
 united rivers join the Indus, he ordered a town, Alexandria, and 
 dockyards to be built, which were garrisoned by some Thracians under 
 the satrap Philip, to keep the country in subjection. After having 
 reinforced his fleet, he sailed down the Indus, and visited Sogdi, where 
 he likewise ordered dockyards to be built. All the Indian chiefs on 
 both sides of the river submitted. Musicanus, one of them, was 
 seduced by the Brahmins to revolt, but he was taken and put to death. 
 All the important towns that fell into the conqueror's hands received 
 garrisons. 
 
 Before Alexander reached the territory of the Prince of Pattala, 
 who submitted without a blow, about the third part of the army was 
 sent, under the command of Craterus, westward through the country 
 of the Arrachoti and Drangae into Carmania. At Pattala, the apex 
 of the Indian delta, Alexander built a naval station, and then sailed 
 down the western branch of the river into the Indian Ocean, a 
 voyage which was not without danger on account of the rapid changes 
 of the tides. He then also explored the eastern branch of the river 
 as well as the delta inclosed by the two arms. The end he had in 
 view was the establishment of a commercial communication by sea 
 between India and the Persian Gulf. For this purpose he ordered 
 dockyards to be built, wells to be dug, and the land round Pattala to 
 be cultivated. Pattala itself was garrisoned. Nearchus now received 
 orders to sail with the fleet from the mouth of the Indus through the 
 unknown ocean to the Persian Gulf [Nearchus], while Alexander 
 moved from Pattala, in the autumn of 325, and took the nearest road 
 to Persia through the country of the Arabitae and Orita?, whose prin- 
 cipal town, Rauibacia, he extended and fortified. After having 
 appointed a governor he proceeded towards Gedrosia (Mekran). As 
 the army advanced, the country became more barren and desolate, and 
 the roads were almost impassable. The march through the arid and 
 sandy desert of Gedrosia in the burning heat of the sun, while water 
 and provisions were wanting, surpassed all the difficulties and suffer- 
 ings which the army had hitherto experienced. Alexander did every- 
 thing in his power to alleviate the sufferings of his men, but during 
 Bixty days of exhaustion and disease a considerable part of the army 
 perished. After unspeakable sufferings they at last reached Pura. 
 Here the soldiers were allowed a short rest, and then proceeded with- 
 out any difficulty to Carmana (Rinnan), the capital of Carmania, 
 where Alexander was joined by Craterus with his detachment aud 
 the elephants. Soon after Nearchus also landed on the coast of 
 Carmania near Harmozia (Ormuz). The king, delighted with the 
 success of his bold enterprises, offered thanks and sacrifices to the 
 gods, and rewarded his men by festivities and amusements. 
 
 After a short stay Nearchus continued his voyage along the coast 
 to the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates ; Hephaestion led the 
 greater part of the army, the beasts of burden, and the elephants 
 along the sea-coast to Persis ; and Alexander, with his light infantry 
 and his horseguards, took the nearest road across the mountains to 
 Pasargadae, the burial-place of the great Cyrus. His tomb had been 
 plundered by robbers, aud the body thrown out of the golden coffin. 
 Alexander ordered the body to be restored to its place of rest, and 
 the damage of the tomb to be repaired by skilful artists. After 
 having paid this honour to the dead, he went to Persepolis, where he 
 is said to have felt bitter remorse at seeing the destruction which 
 he had caused. As few ha 1 expected that Alexander would return 
 from his Indian expedition, some of the Persian satraps had during 
 bis absence oppressed their provinces. The Persian governor at 
 Persepolis was put to death, and the Macedonian, Puucestas, was 
 appointed in his stead, who, by adopting the manners of the Persians, 
 gave great satisfaction to the people. From Persepolis Alexander 
 marched to Susa on the Choaspes, in B.C. 324. Here the army was at 
 length allowed to rest and recover from their fatigues, which the king 
 mad : them forget by brilliant festivities. All the governors who had 
 misconducted themselves during bis absence wero severely punished, 
 and after this was over, he began the great work of consolidating the 
 Onion between the Western and Eastern world by intermarriages. 
 
 The king himself set tho example, and took a second wife, Barsine, 
 the eldest daughter of Darius, and according to some authorities, a 
 third, Parysatis, the daughter of Ochus. About eighty of his generals 
 also received each an Asiatic wife, who was assigned by the king, and 
 Hephaestion, the dearest friend of Alexander, received another daughter 
 of Darius, that their children might be of the same blood. About 
 10,000 other Macedonians chose Persian women for their wives, with 
 whom they received rich dowries from the king. These marriages 
 were celebrated with the most brilliant festivities and amusements 
 that Greek taste and ingenuity could devise. Another step was also 
 taken towards establishing a union between Europeans and Asiatics. 
 The Asiatics, who had hitherto been regarded as an inferior race, and 
 only served as auxiliary troops in the army of Alexander, were now 
 trained and armed in the European fashion : they were organised in 
 separate regiments, and partly incorporated with those of the Mace- 
 donians, and placed on an equality with them. This policy was wise 
 and necessary ; for, not to mention more obvious reasons, Macedonia 
 must at that time have been nearly exhausted by the frequent rein- 
 forcements sent into Asia. While he was thus engaged in Persia, 
 Alexander did not neglect his plans for the extension of commerce ; 
 he made the rivers Eulaeus and Tigris more suitable for navigation by 
 removing the bunds, or masses of masonry, by which the current of 
 the water was impeded, for the purpose of irrigation. To carry his 
 plans into effect, and to gain a clear view of the matter himself, ho 
 sailed down the Eulaeus and returned up the Tigris as far as Opis. 
 
 The Macedonians were dissatisfied with the new arrangements 
 which Alexander had made in the army, and also with his conduct : 
 he seemed to despise the customs of his forefathers. They only 
 waited for an opportunity to break out in open rebellion. This 
 opportunity was offered in 324, during a review of the troops at Opis, 
 when Alexander expressed his intention to dismiss the Macedonians 
 who had become unfit for further service, which they took as an 
 insult. He succeeded however in quelling the mutiny, partly by 
 severity and partly by prudence, and at last a solemn reconciliation 
 took place, and 10,000 Macedonian veterans were honourably sent 
 home under the command of Craterus, who at the same time was to 
 take the place of Antipater as governor of Macedonia, while Antipater 
 was to come to Asia with fresh reinforcements. Soon after the 
 departure of these veterans Alexander paid a visit to Ecbatana, and 
 while in the autumn the festival of Dionysus (Bacchus) was cele- 
 brated there, his friend Hephaestion died : an event which caused 
 Alexander the deepest grief, and is said to have thrown him into a 
 state of melancholy from which he never recovered. Hephaestion's 
 body was conveyed to Babylon, and buried there in a manner worthy 
 of the friend of Alexander. Soon after the king with his army like- 
 wise marched to Babylon, and on his way thither he endeavoured to 
 dissipate his grief by warring with the Cossaei, a race of mountaineers, 
 whom he nearly extirpated. Before he reached Babylon, there 
 appeared before him ambassadors from the remotest parts of the 
 world to do homage to the conqueror of Asia. Among other nations 
 of Western Europe the Romans also are said to have honoured him 
 with an embassy : and there is indeed nothing surprising in this, for 
 at that time the name of Alexander must have been familiar to all 
 nations from the shores of the Atlantic to the borders of China. 
 
 On the arrival of Alexander at Babylon vast plans of conquest, and 
 the establishment of useful institutions in his new dominions, occu- 
 pied him, and he seems now more than ever to have required active 
 occupation. His next object was the conquest of Arabia; and to 
 open the navigation from the Persian Gulf round the Peninsula of 
 Arabia into the Red Sea. This conquest, according to some accounts, 
 was to be followed by expeditions against Africa, Sicily, Italy, and 
 Iberia. Babylon, as the centre between the Western and Eastern 
 world, was chosen for the capital of this gigantic empire, and prepara- 
 tions were made to restore the ancient splendour of the city. But 
 Alexander's body sank under the exertions which were required for 
 the superintendence of his great preparations, combined with excesses 
 in which he is said to have endeavoured to forget his grief. At the 
 end of May B.C. 323, he was attacked by a fever which terminated 
 his life in the course of eleven days. Alexander died at the early age 
 of thirty-two years, after a reign of twelve years aud eight months, 
 during which he had extended his empire from the coasts of the 
 Mediterranean to the eastern tributaries of the Indus. He died 
 without having declared his successor, which was probably owing to his 
 having lost the power of speech during the last days of his illness. 
 He gave his seal-ring to Pcrdiccas ; but this may have meant no more 
 than that Pcrdiccas should be regent duriug the minority of the 
 lawful heir; Roxaua was pregnant at the time of Alexander's death. 
 His body was embalmed, and in B.C. 321 it was conveyed to Memphis, 
 and thence to Alexandria. A sarcophagus now in the British Museum, 
 which was brought over from Alexandria, has been called the sarco- 
 phagus of Alexander, but without sufficient evidence. 
 
 Alexander belongs not to the history of Macedonia only. From tho 
 borders of China to the British islands in the West, his name appears 
 in the history of the early poetry of every country. In Asia he is 
 still the hero of ancient times ; and the tales of the great exploits of 
 Iskander are even now listened to with delight by tho people of Asia. 
 As a military commander he had great merit. His movements were 
 rapid and well directed. He knew what might be neglected, and 
 
119 
 
 ALEXANDER L 
 
 ALEXANDER JANN-5SUS. 
 
 What must be accomplished, before he could safely advance. When 
 the unwieldy masses of the army of Darius were once broken, con- 
 tusion must follow • and accordingly in his campaigns he made great 
 use of h» irresistible cavalry, that arm to which he mainly owed all 
 his victories. He could adapt himself to all circumstances, he was 
 never deficient in resources, and always ready to avail himself of every 
 opportunity. His conquests made a lasting impression upon Asia 
 and Africa; and although his empire was dismembered after his 
 death, the Greet colonies he had founded long survived him. From 
 the ruins of his empire Greek kingdoms were formed as far as India, 
 and maintained themselves for centuries. New fields were opened to 
 science and discovery ; and to him it is owing that Eastern Asia became 
 accessible to European enterprise. 
 
 There is scarcely an ancient writer after the time of Alexander 
 Jpom whom some information respecting him may not be collected. 
 Many of his contempoiaries and companions wrote of his life and 
 exploits but all these original works are lost. The biographies of 
 Alexander, as that by Plutarch, Arrian, Curtius, and what is told of 
 lam m Diodorus and Justin, are compilations derived from earlier 
 sources. Ihe most important and most trustworthy work for the life 
 of Alexander is the 'Expedition of Alexander,' by Arrian, who pro- 
 fesses to follow the accounts of Ptolemaeus, the son of Lagus, and of 
 writer CassaEdria > and who is himself a careful and judicious 
 
 ./'SKS?^ ^nary of tke Society for tkc Biffusion 
 ALEXANDER I surnamed BALAS, or BaAA„ y , rci-rned as king of 
 
 LTrfnTv a 150 t0 , 145 - L . Accor(li »K *« Bomo' authorities, Alex 
 ander took his surname from his mother Bala or Balle. Others regard 
 
 120 
 
 by Ptolemaeus, escaped into Arabia, where he was murdered by an 
 Arabian ch;efta.n in the town of Abas, which was afterwards called 
 Motho ( his death ). Demetrius II., surnamed Niketor, then ascended 
 
 tne throne of Syria. 
 
 Justin (xxxv 12) states that Balas was the original name by which 
 Alexander was known during the period of his private life Ho is 
 called by Strabo Balas Alexandres; where the word Balas appears to 
 be used by him as synonymous with king. In the British Museum 
 there are many silver and copper coins of Alexander Balas. On some 
 coins the head of Alexander Balas is associated with that of Cleopatra 
 who occupies the foreground with a modius on her head,-an indica- 
 tion of his subordination to this proud woman 
 
 ALEXANDER II ZEBINAS, or ZEBIN^US, reigned over a 
 part of the kingdom of Syria from b.o. 128 to 122. The inhabitants of 
 Apamea, Autiocheia, and some other cities, disgusted with the tyranny 
 of Demetrius II., requested Ptolemaeus Physcon to appoint another 
 king. I tolemaeus sent them the son of a broker, Protarchos of Alex- 
 andria, whom he represented as having been adopted by Antiochus 
 
 ii ft l be l . preten , der took tho name Alexander; but the people 
 called him Zebinas, the ' bought one,' from a report that he had been 
 purchased by Ptoleraacus as a slave. Demetrius being defeated near 
 Damascus fled to 1 yre, where he was murdered. Zebinas thinking his 
 kingdom firmly established, refused the annual tribute to Ptolemleus 
 who now encouraged Antiochus VIII., the son of Demetrius IL 
 Zebinas was in his turn defeated by the Egyptian army, and retreated 
 to Antioch , ; where being unable to pay his troops, he permitted them 
 to pihage the temp e of Victory, and took for himself the golden statue 
 desertpH K £ X P elled \ the P e °P le <>' Antioch from their city, and 
 v!«p1 d » y n 8 tr °u P !' he endea ™"red *° escape on board a small 
 wf? % ? ree ° e ' bu l Was teken fa y a P irute > and delivered into the 
 hands of 1 tolemaeus, who put him to death. The British Museum 
 contains eilver and copper coins of Alexander Zebinas. 
 
 Alexander Balas. 
 
 VA m t . si S nif > iB ? lord °r ting. The governor of Babylon 
 Heraclides, being exiled to Rhodes by Demetrius I, persuaded S 
 ander, who was of low birth, to feign himself a 'son of Antiolhus 
 Epiphanes, and to claim as such the right of succeeding him The 
 fheTetrt ' £ VeDSe themselves on Demetrius, acknowledged 
 the pretender on his appearing at Rome. The edict in his favour 
 nduc d Anarathes, king of Cappadocia, Ptolemaeus, and Attain 
 11., king of Pergamus, to send troops to assist him. Mauv dis- 
 contented Syrians joined his army. Demetrius L as well as 
 Alexander Balas, endeavoured to obtain the support of Jonathan 
 the Maccabee, who headed at that time the JewEfh patriots Jona-' 
 than embraced the party of Alexander, who conferredupon him the 
 h>gh priesthood, styled him friend of the king, and presented Thim 
 With a purple robe and a diadem. Alexander Bala? havino been 
 defeated in the first battle, 152, received reinforcements and gained 
 a decisive victory rn the year 150. Demetrius I., who was wooded 
 
 L the LTanfof'S ^ ^ ^ hU * 0 ™> but th ™ SK 
 
 Demetriu^II lS • P-r°? 8 °V. he laSt kiuS ' the elder of wt ° m > 
 .uernetiius 11. landed in Cihcia, whilst the governor of Ccelesvrii 
 
 Apollomus, rebelled against Balas in the year B.C. 148 ApoUonius 
 
 was beaten by Jonathan, but Balas himself was obliged to march 
 
 against Demetnus II. Ptolemaaus, who had apparentl/come to assS 
 
 Alexander Balas. 
 
 Alexander Zebinas. 
 
 ALEXANDER JANNiEUS, third son of Johannes Hyrcanus, suc- 
 ceeded his brother Aristobulus I., as king of the Jews, and as high- 
 priest, in B.C. 104, having put to death a brother who claimed the 
 crown. Taking advantage of the disturbances in Syria, he attacked 
 Ptolemais (Acre), which, with some other cities, had made itself inde- 
 pendent. The inhabitants called Ptolemaeus Lathyrus, of Cyprus, to 
 their assistance, by whom Alexander Jannaeus was beaten on the banks 
 of the Jordan, and Palestine horribly ravaged, until, by the aid of 
 Cleopatra, the mother of Lathyrus, Alexander was enabled to repel 
 his enemy. Alexander then conquered Gaza, burned the city, and 
 massacred the inhabitants who had joined the party of Lathyrus 
 Jaumeus embraced the party of the Sadducees ; and, of course/was 
 hated by the Pharisees and by the people. On the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles, after being pelted by the people with lemons, and insulted by 
 the.r opprobrious language, he caused 6000 men to be cut down, and 
 m future protected himself by a body-guard of Libyans and Pisidians. 
 Having lost his army in an unfortunate expedition against the Ara- 
 bians the Pharisees made an insurrection, and carried on for six vears 
 
 L C1V 1 r r ^l alD8t u the kiDg ' in whioh 50 > 000 Jews are ^id to have 
 perished. Ihe rebels, supported by the Arabians, the Moabites, and 
 by Demetrius Eukaeros, compelled Alexander to escape into the moun- 
 tains. .But a part of the auxiliaries coming over to the king's party 
 he was now enabled to crush the rebels; and to gratify his vengeance 
 he crucified on one day 800 of the most distinguished captives. Their 
 wives and children were massacred before their eyes; whilst the king 
 dined with his wives in sight of the victims. On account of this 
 cruelty he was surnamed 'the Thracian.' 
 
 Alexander Jannams. 
 
 Alexander after this engaged in several wars, by which he enlarged 
 his dominions. Desirous to reconcile his subjects, he asked them what 
 
121 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER I. 
 
 122 
 
 he should do to make them quite content ? " Die," they replied. He 
 did die at the siege of Ragaba, in Gerasena, in consequence of his 
 gluttony, in the 27th year of his reign. He had two sons ; but left 
 the government to his widow. (Joseph., ' Archasolog.,' xiii. c. 12-15.) 
 There is a small copper coin of Jannaeus in the British Museum, but 
 the Samaritan inscription between the rays of the stars, mentioned by 
 others, is not discernible. (Compare Bayeri ' Viudicise Num. Hebr.,' 
 plate, fig. 5.) There is another coin extant, which shows that Jona- 
 than was his Htbrew name, aud that Alexander was the name assumed 
 by him according to the prevalent custom. 
 
 ALEXANDER, a son of king Aristobulus II., and grandson of 
 Jannasus, was taken captive in Judrea by Pompaeus, who intended to 
 exhibit him with his father and brother in his triumph at Rome. 
 Alexander escaped on the journey, and returned to Judoea, where he 
 raised an army of 10,000 foot and 1500 horse to attack Hyrcanus, who 
 had been appointed by Pompseus to govern Judsea. Alexander took 
 several castles in the mountains; but Hyrcanus imploring the assist- 
 ance of the Romaus, Marcus Autonius, who was sent by Gabinius, 
 governor of Syiia, defeated Alexander near Jerusalem, B.C. 57, and 
 besieged him in Alexandrion, a small town with a fine castle, about 
 six miles south of Tyre, where he capitulated. After his father Aris- 
 tobulus had escaped from Rome to Judcea, and been again defeated 
 and put into prison, Alexander once more took up arms, conquered 
 Judtea, put many Romans to death, and besieged the rest in Garizin. 
 But his army of 30,000 men was finally defeated by Gabinius, in a 
 battle near Mount Tabor, in which 10,000 Jews perished. Alexander 
 at last fell into the hands of Metellus Scipio, and was beheaded at 
 Antioch. in the year B.C. 49. 
 
 ALEXANDER POLYHISTOR. [Polthistor.] 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS. [Severus.] 
 
 ALEXANDER I., one of the earliest bishops of Rome, succeeded 
 Evaristus about the beginning of the 2nd century of our era, but the 
 precise epoch is not well ascertained. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., a Milanese, succeeded Nicholas II. in 1061. 
 This was at the beginning of the dispute between the see of Rome and 
 the emperors of Germany, concerning the investitures. The imperial 
 party assembled a conclave at Basle, where they elected Cadalous, 
 bishop of Parma, who took the name of Honorius II. Cadalous was 
 taken prisoner, and confined in the castle of St. Angelo at Rome, aud 
 Alexander was generally acknowledged as pope. He died in 1073, and 
 was succeeded by Gregory VII. 
 
 ALEXANDER ILL, Cardinal Rinaldo of Siena, succeeded A drian IV. 
 in 1159. His long pontificate of twenty-one years was agitated by 
 wars against the emperor Frederick I., and by a schism in the church, 
 during which three successive antipopes were raised in opposition to 
 Alexander. The latter took part with the Lombard cities in their 
 struggle against Frederick. [Frederick L, Barbarossa.] At last 
 peace was made, and Alexander was universally acknowledged as pope. 
 He held a great council in the Lateran palace in 1180, when a decretal 
 was passed, that two-thirds of the cardinals should be requisite to 
 make an election valid. He died at Rome in 1181, and was succeeded 
 by Lucius II. Alexander took part with Thomas a Becket in his 
 contest with King Henry II., and canonised him after he had been 
 murdered. 
 
 ALEXANDER IV., of Anagni, succeeded Innocent IV. in 1254. 
 He inherited the ambition, but not the talents of his predecessor. 
 He manifested the same inveterate hostility against the house of 
 Suabia, and its representative Manfred, king of the Two Sicilies, but 
 did not succeed in his attempt at overthrowing the latter, which 
 became the work of his two immediate successors. Alexander died in 
 1261, and was succeeded by Urban IV. 
 
 ALEXANDER V., a native of Candia, and monk of the Franciscan 
 order, was elected in 1409, and died the following year. He was suc- 
 ceeded by John XXIII. 
 
 ALEXANDER VI., Roderic Borgia, of Valencia in Spain, a man of 
 great personal wealth, and of some ability, but of loose conduct. He 
 had been made a cardinal by his uncle Calixtus HI., and was elected 
 pope in 1492, after the death of Innocent VIII. At the time of his 
 election, he had four children by his mistress Vanozia ; and, during 
 his reign, he made no scruple at employing every means in his power 
 to confer on them honour and riches. The politics of the pope were 
 capricious and faithless in the extreme. At first he was hostile to the 
 house of Aragon then reigning at Naples, and showed himself favour- 
 able to the French, who were at that time attempting to invade Italy, 
 but afterwards his younger son, Gioffredo, having married a daughter 
 of Alfonso II. of Naples, Alexander allied himself with the latter, for 
 the purpose of arresting the progress of the invaders. As, however, 
 Charles VIII., at the head of his army, advanced upon Rome, the 
 pope received him with honour, and promised him his support for the 
 conquest of Naples, and even gave him his son, Cardinal Caesar, as a 
 hostage. But the cardinal found means to escape ; and Alexander 
 joined the league formed in the north by the Venetians aud Sforza 
 against the French, which led to the expulsion of the latter. He 
 afterwards allied himself to Lewis XII. of France, successor of 
 Charles VIII., who wanted the pope's sanction for divorcing his first 
 wife : he was also a party to the double treachery by which Ferdinand 
 of Spain first betrayed the cause of his relative, Frederic of Naples, 
 partitioning that kingdom between Lewis XII. and himself ; and then. 
 
 breaking his engagement with the French, he seized upon the whole of 
 the conquest by means of his general, Gonsalvo. Alexander's internal 
 policy was, if possible, still more perfidious. He was bent upon thfl 
 destruction of the great Roman families of Colonna, Orsini, and 
 Savelli ; and either by treachery or open violence he succeeded in 
 putting most of them to death, and seizing on their extensive pos- 
 sessions. He sent his son, the Duke Valentine, into the Romagna, 
 where, by means of similar practices, the latter made himself master 
 of that country. Alexander gave his only daughter, Lucrotia Borgia, 
 in marriage, first, to Giovanni Sforza, Lord of Pesaro, whom she after- 
 wards divorced ; then to a prince of the house of Aragon, who was 
 murdered by her brother Cassar. She was married a third time, in 
 1501, to Alfonso d'Este, son of Hercules, duke of Ferrara, to whom 
 she brought as a dowry 100,000 golden pistoles, besides jewels. Alex- 
 ander's eldest son, John, duke of Gandia, was murdered one night 
 while returning from a debauch, by unknown assassins, and thrown 
 into the Tiber. (Roscoe's ' Leo X.,' vol. i.) At last Alexander himself 
 died on the 18th of August, 1503, being 74 years of age. It was 
 said, and several historians have repeated the assertion, that he died 
 of poison which was intended for his guest, the Cardinal of Corneto. 
 This crime however is not clearly proved. He was succeeded nomi- 
 nally by Pius III., who died twenty-six days after his election, and 
 then by the famous Julius II. The pontificate of Alexander VI. is 
 certainly the blackest page in the history of modern Rome. The 
 general demoralisation of that period, of which abundant details are 
 found in John Burchard's ' Diarium,' as well as in Panvinius, Mura- 
 tori, Fabre's continuation of Fleury's ' Ecclesiastical History,' and 
 other writers, Catholic as well as Protestant, appears in our time3 
 almost incredible. 
 
 Alexander VI. 
 
 ALEXANDER VII., Fabio Chigi of Siena, succeeded Innocent X. 
 in 1655. He embellished Rome, and protected learning, but was accused 
 of favouring too much his relatives aud connexions. He was embroiled 
 in a dispute with the imperious Louis XIV. of France, in consequence 
 of some insult which had been offered by the populace to the Duke of 
 Crequi, French ambassador at Rome. He died in May, 1667, and was 
 succeeded by Clement IX. 
 
 ALEXANDER VIII., Cardinal Ottoboni of Venice, succeeded 
 Innocent XI. in 1689. He assisted his native country in its wars 
 against the Turks. He died in February, 1691, at the age of eighty- 
 two, and was succeeded by Innocent XII. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., king of Scotland, was a younger son of 
 Malcolm III. (Canmore), and succeeded his eldest brother Edgar, who 
 died without issue, on the 8th of January, 1107. In those times, in 
 Scotland, as well as in other countries, the succession to the throne 
 was frequently regulated, at least to a certain extent, by the will of 
 the reigning king ; and Edgar, at his death, left part of his dominions 
 to his younger brother David. Lord Hailes thinks that David's share 
 was only the Scottish portion of Cumberland ; but it probably included 
 the whole territory that was considered subject to the Scottish crown 
 to the south of the Forth, except the Lothians. Alexander eventually 
 acquiesced in this apportionment. The instructions of his mother, 
 Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling, and the advantages which he 
 enjoyed from the society of the English exiles, who crowded, after the 
 Conquest, to his father's court, had given to Alexander a degree of 
 literary cultivation which none of his predecessors had possessed. 
 His natural talents seem also to have been of a superior order ; while 
 he possessed in an eminent degree the energy of character suited to 
 the times in which he governed. His reign was agitated by successive 
 insurrections; every one of which, however, he promptly put down. 
 One of the most serious was that excited in the district of Moray, in 
 1120, by Angus, the grandson of Lulach, son of the wife of Macbeth, 
 and the occupant of the throne for a few months after the death of 
 that usurper. Angus claimed the crown in virtue of this descent ; 
 but Alexander speedily quelled the attempt. From hia energy on 
 
133 
 
 ALEXANDER II. 
 
 ALEXANDER JAROSLAWITZ NEVSKOJ. 
 
 Ibis occasion, he derived the epithet or surname by which he is known 
 In Scottish history. The old chronicrer, Wynton, says — 
 
 " Fra that day forth his lieges all 
 Used him Alexander the Fierce to call." 
 
 Alexander showed equal spirit in resisting foreign encroachments 
 upon tbe independence of his kingdom. During his reign the arch- 
 lnshops of Canterbury and York claimed episcopal jurisdiction iu 
 Scotland ; but the determination of the Scottish king at length com- 
 piled the English prelates to give up tbe contest. St. Andrew's, and 
 several of tbe other ecclesiastical foundations of Scotland, were largely 
 indebted to the bounty of Alexander. He founded a church, in 1123 
 on the isle of Iuchcolm, in the Frith of Forth, in the neighbourhood 
 of which he had nearly perished in a tempest. He died at Stirling, 
 without leaving any legitimate issue, on the 27th of April, 1124, and 
 was succeeded by his brother David L Alexander had married 
 Sibilla, the natural daughter of Henry L of England. She died sud- 
 denly, at-Lochtav, on the 12th of June, 1122. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., king of Scotland, was born at Haddington on 
 the 24th of August (St. Bartholomew's Day), 11 93. He succeeded 
 his father, William the Lion, on tbe 4th of December, 1214, and was 
 crowned at Scone on tbe following day. He began bis reign by enter- 
 ing into a league with tbe English barons who were confederated 
 against King John— engaging to aid them in their insurrection, on 
 condition of being put in possession of the northern counties of 
 England. This led to several devastating incursions into each other's 
 dominions by tbe two kings. The death of John, in October, 1216, 
 put an end to their hostilities ; and tbe following year Alexander con- 
 cluded a treaty of peace with Henry III., one of the conditions being 
 that Alexander should espouse Henry's eldest sister, the Princess 
 Joan. This marriage accordingly took place on the 25th of June, 1221. 
 In the course of the following thirteen years Scotland was disturbed 
 by insurrections which broke out successively in Argyle, in Caithness, 
 in Murray, and iu Galloway; all of which, however, Alexander put 
 down. His connexion with the royal family of England preserved 
 peace between the two countries, and led to considerable intercourse 
 between tbe Scottish king and his brother-in-law, whom be repeatedly 
 visited at London. The death of Queen Joan without issue, on the 
 4th of March, 1238, and the marriage of Alexander, on the 15th of 
 May in the following year, with Mary, daughter of a French nobleman, 
 Ingclraui de Couci, broke this bond of amity ; and after some years of 
 mutual dissatisfaction and complaint, the two kings prepared to decide 
 their differences by arms iu 1244. By the intervention however of 
 some of the English nobility, bloodshed was prevented, after Alex- 
 ander had approached the border with an army, it is said, of 100,000 
 men ; and a peace was concluded at Newcastle in August of that year. 
 In 1247 another insurrection broke out in Galloway, which Alexander 
 soon suppressed. In the summer of 1249 he had set out at tbe bead 
 of an army to repress a rebellion raised by Angus, Lord of Argyle, 
 when he was taktn ill at Kerarry, a small island off the coast of 
 Argyle, and died there on the Sth of July. By his second marriage 
 he left an only son, his successor, Alexander III. Alexander II. bears 
 a high character iu the pages of tbe ancient historians and chroniclers 
 of Scotland ; and he appears to have been a prince endowed with many 
 great qualities. Besides the ability with which he preserved both the 
 independence and the internal order of his kingdom, he is particularly 
 celebrated for bis regard to justice, and the wisdom and impartiality 
 which he secured iu the administration of the laws among all classes 
 of his subjects. This virtue in a king or governor never fails to attract 
 popular attachment and respect ; accordingly, we are told by a con- 
 temporary English writer, Matthew Paris, that Alexander was deserv- 
 edly beloved, not only by his own subjects, but by the people of 
 England likewise. He is usually characterised as altogether one of 
 the ablest and best of the Scottish kings. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., king of Scotland, the son and successor of 
 Alexander II., was born at Roxburgh on the 4th of September, 1241. 
 Although only eight years old at his father's death, he was crowned at 
 Scone by David de Berneham, bishop of St. Andrew's, on the 13th of 
 July, 124 9, having previous to that ceremony been knighted by the 
 same ecclesiastic. He had already, when onlv a year old, been betrothed 
 to Margaret, the eldest daughter of the English king, Henry III.; and 
 notwithstanding the youth of both parties, the celebration of the'mar- 
 nage took place at York on the 25th of December, 1251. The con- 
 nexion thus formed, together with the minority of his son-in-law, gave 
 Henry a plausible pretext for interfering, as he was anxious to 'do, in 
 the affairs of Scotland ; and the distracted state of that kingdom, 
 occasioned by the factious among the nobility, facilitated his views! 
 In August, 1255, he approached the borders at tbe head of an army ; 
 and by a course of intrigue with the political parties contending for 
 the regency, endeavoured to subjugate Scotland to the English crown. 
 It was the commencement of the design so perseveringly pursm d by 
 Henry and his successor, to reduce the Scottish kings to the condition 
 of vassals. The eminent talents however which Alexander began to 
 display as soon as the administration of affairs came into his own 
 hands, together with his determination to maintain his own rights and 
 the independence of his dominions, effectually thwarted the further 
 prosecution of such views. Meanwhile he kept on good terms with 
 his father-in-law. In 1260 he visited London with his queen. In 
 
 February, 1261, the queen was delivered at Windsor of a daughter, 
 
 who was named Margaret. 
 
 On the 1st of October, 1 264, Haco, king of Norway, after having 
 ravaged the Western Islands, approached the coast of Ayrshire at the 
 head of a numerous fleet. Every preparation had been made by the 
 Scottish king to meet this formidable armament ; but when only a 
 small portion of the Norwegian troops had landed, a tempest of unu- 
 sual fury suddenly arose, and drove nearly all the ships on shore or 
 otherwise destroyed them. The attack of the Scottish soldiers and 
 peasautry completed the destruction of the invading force; and Haco 
 with difficulty made his escape, only to die of a broken heart a few 
 mouths afterwards. Next year, Magnus, Haco's successor, agreed to 
 relinquish to the king of Scotland the Hebrides and the Isle of Man 
 for the sum of 4000 marks, and a small yearly quit-rent. In 1282 the 
 peace between the two kingdoms was further consolidated by the 
 marriage of Alexander's daughter, Margaret, to the Norwegian king 
 Eric, then a youth of fourteen. Margaret died in 1283, but left a 
 daughter of the same name, commonly designated the ' Maiden of 
 Norway,' who eventually became the successor of her grandfather on 
 the Scottish throne. 
 
 The successful resistance which, seconded by his clergy, he offered 
 to an attempt of the l ope to levy certain new imposts in his dominions, 
 is almost the only other act in Alexander's reign which history has 
 commemorated. Under his sway, Scotland appears to have enjoyed 
 a tranquillity to which she had long been a stranger, and which she 
 did not regain for many years after his decease. The death of his 
 daughter Margaret however was the first of a succession of calamities. 
 Soon after her nuptials, Alexander, the prince of Scotland, the king's 
 only son, who was bom in 1263, had espoused Margaret, daughter of 
 Guy, earl of Flanders ; but he also died without issue on the 28th of 
 January, 1284. On the 15th of April, 1285, the king, having some 
 time before lost his first wife, married Joletta, daughter of the Count 
 de Dreux, in the hope of leaving a male heir. But on the 16th of 
 March, 1286, as he was riding in a dark night between Burntisland 
 and Kiughorn, on the banks of the Frith of Forth iu Fifeshire, he was 
 thrown with his horse over a precipice, at a turn of the road about a 
 mile west from Kiughorn, and killed on the spot. The place, which is 
 called the King's Wud End, is still pointed out. A cross was erected 
 upon the spot, but it has long since disappeared. The death of Alex- 
 ander, followed as it was in a few years by that of the Maiden of 
 Norway, left Scotland to contend at once with the internal distractions 
 arising from a disputed succession, and with all the art and force 
 employed by a powerful neighbour to effect its subjugation. Alex- 
 ander was also lamented by his subjects on account of his own wisdom 
 and virtues. The country had never before enjoyed such prosperity, 
 and Scotland may be said, duriug this reign, to have passed from semi- 
 barbarism to civilisation. It was then that its intercourse with England 
 first became considerable, and that it began to acquire an acquaintance 
 with the arts and manners of what we may call European life. Alex- 
 ander also improved and completed the system for the dispensation of 
 justice which had been introduced by his father; he divided the 
 country into four districts for that purpose, and made an annual pro- 
 gress through it in person for hearing appeals from the decisions of 
 the ordinary judges. He was long affectionately remembered in Scot- 
 land ; and the old chronicler Wynton has preserved the following 
 verses respecting him, which are extremely interesting, as being the 
 most ancient specimen of the Scottish dialect now extant : — 
 
 " Qulun Alexandyr oure King was dede, 
 Dat Scotland led in luwe (love) and le (law), 
 Away wes sons of ale and brede, 
 Of wyne and wax, of gamyn (gamboling) and gle. 
 
 Oare gold was changed into lede. 
 Chiist, born into virgynyte, 
 Succour Scotland, and remede, 
 Dat stad (placed) is in perplexyte." 
 
 ALEXANDER JAROSLAWITZ NEVSKOJ enjoyed a high renown 
 among his countrymen for bravery, prudence, and religious zeal : he 
 has been celebrated in many a Russian ballad, and is still venerated 
 by the present generation. He was the second sou of the Grand Duke 
 Jaroslaw II. Wscladowitz, and was born at Vladimir in 1219. At the 
 period when his father ruled over Novogorod (in 1237), the Tartars, 
 with a very large army, under the command of the Khan of Kaptshak, 
 a grandson of Gengis Khan, invaded Russia, desolated the country in 
 the most cruel manner, overran it even to the Upper Volga, and 
 exacted the most degrading submission from the Russian princes. 
 Jaroslaw, though not immediately attacked by the Tartars in his own 
 Principality of Novogorod, found it advisable to repair to the great 
 Tartar horde stationed at that time in the region of the modern city 
 of Kasan, to pay homage to Batu-Khan. From this khan he received 
 the grand duchy of Vladimir, to be held as a fief, made Perjaslawl his 
 residence, and as his elder son Feodor had died in 1232, he entrusted 
 Alexander the younger with the government of Novogorod. Returning 
 a second time to the great horde, and there remonstrating against 
 certain unreasonable Tartariau commands, he met with ill treatment, 
 and died on his homeward journey, in the month of September, 1245. 
 
 Alexander succeeded his father in the fief of Vladimir, the pos- 
 session of which was confirmed to him by Batu-Khan. Alexander, 
 while his father was still alive, had distinguished himself by two great 
 
125 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 12« 
 
 victories — one over the Swedes, and another over the united order of 
 the Livonian and Teutonic Knights of the Sword. A crusade against 
 the Russians had been instigated by Pope Gregory IX., who, by a bull 
 of 1229, enjoined the bishops of Lubeck, Linkjoping, and Livlond, to 
 prohibit all intercourse and commerce with the schismatic Russians, 
 as long as they should resist the conversion of the apostate Finlanders. 
 This however was only a negative measure ; but the bull of the 14th 
 of May, 1237, by which the Livonian and Esthonian Knights of the 
 Sword were united to the Teutonic order, evidently by way of strength- 
 ening them for a Russian crusade, tended in a more direct and positive 
 manner towards the destruction of the Greek Church in the north-east 
 of Europe. The Roman Court also opened negociatious with Eric XL, 
 king of Sweden, who, at the Pope's instigation, gladly sent an army 
 against the Finlanders, which landed near the mouth of the Neva, on 
 the spot where St. Petersburg has since been built. Alexander marched 
 against this army, and, on the 15th of July, 1240, totally defeated it 
 at the confluence of the Ishora and the Neva. By this victory he 
 obtained the honourable surname of Nevskoj, or Alexander of the 
 Neva. While he was thus engaged, the Knights of the Sword, com- 
 manded by their chief, Hermann von Balk, had taken Pleskow. Early 
 in the year 1241, Alexander marched against them from Novogorod, 
 and drove them out of Pleskow; but having allowed his army to dis- 
 perse in the autumn, he next winter saw the enemy again in the 
 field. The Knights of the Sword had advanced within thirty versts of 
 the city of Novogorod. With great speed Alexander again collected 
 his army, pursued the retreating enemy, and on the 5th of April, 1242, 
 fought them on the ice of the lake of Peipus, where he gained a deci- 
 sive victory : four hundred Teutonic Knights were slain, and fifty 
 were taken prisoners ; those of the prisoners who were Germans were 
 pardoned, but the Esthonians Alexander ordered to be hanged, con- 
 sidering them as Russian rebels. Alexander returned in triumph to 
 Pleskow, having liberated that city and its commerce, which at that 
 time was considerable, from the yoke of foreigners. 
 
 Arms proving unavailing, the Roman Court had recourse to diplo- 
 macy as a surer means for converting Alexander. Several attempts 
 of this kind had been made in vain with his predecessors, by the popes 
 Innocent III., Honorius III., and Gregory IX. Innocent IV. made a 
 new trial, and in the year 1251 sent two cardinals, who in Russian 
 chronicles are called Gald and Gemont, as ambassadors to Alexander 
 Nevskoj ; they brought a letter from this pope, dated January 23, 1248, 
 probably so long antedated in order to show how long his Holiness had 
 been big with the scheme of the embassy, but Alexander remained 
 inflexible, and the cardinals returned without effecting anything for 
 the Church of Rome. 
 
 Though Alexander was successful against the Pope, he continued a 
 vassal of the Tartars as long as he lived. It does not however appear 
 *hat Russia was, during his reign, actually invaded or plundered by 
 fhem. 
 
 He repaired to the gTeat horde three times, and died on his return 
 from the last of these journeys at Kassimcow in 1263; from that 
 place his body was removed to Vladimir, and there interred. It is a 
 tradition that shortly before his death be took holy orders ; but it 
 probably has no good foundation. Alexander's wife was a daughter 
 of Wrateslaw, Prince of Polotsk, by whom he had four sons — Vassilj, 
 Dmitrij, Andrej, and Danilo. It is uncertain whether the valiant 
 Jueje (George) who ruled over Novogorod till 1270, was also his son. 
 The foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703, on the very spot where the 
 national hero had gained such an important victory, naturally recalled 
 the memory of Alexander Nevskoj in a lively manner. The Czar 
 Peter on this occasion instituted St. Alexander Nevskoj's Order of 
 Knighthood, but did not himself give that decoration to any man ; 
 this was first done after his death by his consort Catharine. There is 
 also in St. Petersburg a St. Alexander-Nevskoj Monastery, which is well 
 endowed, to which is attached a seminary for the education of young 
 divines, called St. Alexander-Nevskoj's Academy. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Emperor of Russia, called by his countrymen 
 Alexander Paulowitsch (that is, the son of Paul), was born on the 23rd 
 of December, 1777. He was the son of the emperor Paul and of Maria, 
 daughter of Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg. From his infancy he was 
 distinguished for a gentle and affectionate disposition, and a superior 
 capacity. His education was directed not by his parents, but by his 
 grandmother the reigning empress, Catharine II., who lived until he 
 had attained his nineteenth year. Under her superintendence he was 
 carefully instructed by La Harpe and other able tutors in the different 
 branches of a liberal education, and in the accomplishments of a 
 gentleman. 
 
 Catharine was succeeded, in 1796, by her son Paul, whose mad reign 
 was put an end to by his assassination on the 24th of March, 1801. 
 No doubt can be entertained that Alexander, as well as his younger 
 brother Constantine, was privy to the preparations which were made 
 for the dethronement of his father, which had indeed become almost a 
 measure of necessity ; but all the facts tend to make it highly impro- 
 bable that he contemplated the fatal issue of the attempt. The imme- 
 diate sequel of this tragedy was a slight domestic dispute, occasioned 
 by a claim being advanced by the widow of the murdered emperor to 
 the vacant throne, who had not been admitted into the conspiracy. 
 After a short altercation she was prevailed upon to relinquish her 
 pretensions; and the Grand Duke Alexander was forthwith proclaimed 
 
 Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias. This collision does not 
 seem to have left any unpleasant traces on the mind either of Alex- 
 ander or his mother, to whom during his life he always continued to 
 show respect and attachment. The Empress Maria survived her son 
 about three years. 
 
 The history of the reign of Alexander is the history of Europe for 
 the first quarter of the present century. We can here only attempt a 
 slight outline of the course of events during that busy time, with a 
 reference to the movements of the Russian emperor. When Alexander 
 came to the throne he found himself engaged in a war with England, 
 which had broken out in the course of the preceding year. He imme- 
 diately indicated the pacific character of his policy by taking steps to 
 bring about a termination of this state of things, which was already 
 seriously distressing the commerce of Russia ; and a convention was 
 accordingly concluded between the two powers, and signed at St. 
 Petersburg on the 17th of June, 1801. The general peace followed on 
 the 1st of October, and lasted till the declaration of war by England 
 against France on the 18th of May, 1803. Meanwhile Georgia, hitherto 
 under the protection of Persia and Turkey, had been occupied, on the 
 invitation of the people themselves, by the troops of Russia, and incor- 
 porated with that empire. Alexander also, during this interval, showed 
 his disposition to extend the influence of Russia in another direction, 
 by entering into a negociation with France respecting the compensa- 
 tion to be granted to certain of the minor powers of Germany, with 
 which country he was connected both through his mother and through 
 his father, who was born head of the house of Holstein-Qottorp. It 
 was in the course of these negociations that he had his first interview 
 with the king of Prussia, which is understood to have laid the founda- 
 tion of an intimate friendship between the two sovereigns, and to have 
 established a concurrence of views which powerfully influenced the 
 future policy of each. In a dispute with Sweden, with regard to the 
 frontier of Finland, although hostilities were averted by the con- 
 cession of the Swedish king, the extensive military preparations which 
 were immediately made by Russia, showed how little that power was 
 disposed to allow the invasion of any of her rights. 
 
 Alexander did not immediately join England in the war against 
 France; but even in the early part of 1804 symptoms began to appear 
 of an approaching breach between Russia and the latter country. On 
 the 11th of April, 1805, a treaty of alliance with England was con- 
 cluded at St Petersburg, to which Austria became a party on the 
 9th of August, and Sweden on the 3rd of October following. This 
 league, commonly called the third coalition, speedily led to actual 
 hostilities. The campaign was eminently disastrous to the allied 
 powers. A succession of battles, fought between the 6th and the 1 8th 
 of October, almost annihilated the Austrian army before any of the 
 Russian troops arrived. Alexander made his appearance at Berlin on 
 the 25th, and there, in a few days after, concluded a secret convention 
 with the king of Prussia, by which that prince, who had hitherto pro- 
 fessed neutrality, bound himself to join the coalition. Before leaving 
 the Prussian capital, Alexander, in company with the king and queen, 
 visited at midnight the tomb of the great Frederick, and, after having 
 kissed the coffin, is said to have solemnly joined hands with his brother 
 sovereign, and pledged himself that nothiug should ever break their 
 friendship. He then hastened by way of Leipzig and Weimar to 
 Dresden, from whence he proceeded to Olmutz, and there, on the 18th 
 of November, joined the emperor of Austria. On the 2nd of the fol- 
 lowing month, the Austrian and Russian troops, commanded by the 
 two emperors in person, were beaten in the memorable and decisive 
 battle of Austerlitz. The immediate consequences of this great defeat 
 were the conclusion of a convention between France and Austria, and 
 Alexander's departure to Russia with the remains of his army. 
 
 Although Alexander did not accede either to the convention between 
 France and Austria, or to the treaty of Presburg, by which it wai 
 followed, he thought proper, after a short time, to profess a disposition 
 to make peace with France and negociations were commenced at Pari* 
 for that object. But after a treaty had been signed on the 20th of 
 July, 1806, he refused to ratify it, on the pretence that his minister 
 had departed from his instructions. The true motive of his refusal 
 no doubt was, that by this time arrangements were completed with 
 Prussia and England for a fourth coalition ; and it is even far from 
 improbable that the negociations which led to the signature of the 
 treaty had from the first no other object beyond gaining time for 
 
ALEXANDER. 
 
 129 
 
 preparations. On the 8th of February hostilities recommenced, and 
 the victory of Jena, gained by Bonaparte a few days after, laid the 
 Prussian monarchy at his feet. When this great battle was fought, 
 Alexander and his Russians had scarcely reached the frontiers of Ger- 
 many ; on receiving the news they immediately retreated across the 
 Vistula. Hither they were pursued by Bonaparte, and having been 
 joined by the remnant of the Prussian army, were beaten on the 8th 
 of Fi bruary, 1807, in the destructive battle of Eylau. Finally, on the 
 14th of June, the united armies were again defeated in the great battle 
 of Friedland, and compelled to retreat behind the Niemeu. This 
 crowning disaster terminated the campaign. An armistice was arranged 
 on the 21st; and five days after, Alexander and Napoleon met in a 
 tent erected on a raft in the middle of the Niemen ; and at that inter- 
 view not only arranged their differences, but, if we may trust the 
 subsequent professions of both, were converted from enemies into 
 warmly-attaclied friends. A treaty of peace was signed between the 
 two at Tilsit on the 7th of July, by a secret article of which Alexander 
 engaged to join France against England. He accordingly declared 
 war against his late ally on the 26th of October following. The treaty 
 of Tilsit indeed converted the Russian emperor into the enemy of 
 almost all his former friends, and the friend of all his former enemies. 
 Turkey, though supported by France, had for some time been hard 
 pressed by the united military and naval operations of England and 
 Russia; but upon Alexander's coalition with the French emperor, a 
 truce was concluded between Turkey and Russia at Slobosia, August 
 24th, and the Turkish empire was saved from the ruin which threatened 
 it. A war with Persia, commenced in 1802, continued to be carried 
 on with varying success. The meeting of the emperors of France and 
 Russia at Tilsit is an important event not only in the life of Alex- 
 ander, but in the history of Europe. It produced a total change in 
 the policy of Russia, as well as in the personal sentiments of the two 
 emperors, who from deadly enemies became to all appearance cordial 
 friends. At their first interview, on the 25th of June, 1807, each left 
 the banks of the Niemen in a boat attended by his suite. The boat 
 of Napoleon cleared the distance first ; and Napoleon, stepping on the 
 raft appointed for the conference, passed over, and receiving Alexander 
 on the opposite side, embraced him in the sight of both armies. The 
 first words of Alexander were directed to flatter the ruling passion of 
 Napoleon. " I hate the English," he exclaimed, " as much as you do : 
 whatever you take in hand against them, I will be your second." 
 " In that case," replied Napoleon, " everything can be easily settled, 
 and peace is already made." In the first conference they remained 
 together two hours ; the next day they met a^ain, and Alexander pre- 
 sented to Napoleon the King of Prussia, who was soon after joined 
 by his queen. During the remainder of the conferences, which lasted 
 twenty days, the two emperors were daily in the habit of meeting and 
 conversing on terms of intimacy ; while the King of Prussia was 
 treated by Napoleon with haughtiness, and the queen with rudeness, 
 and Alexander appeared almost ashamed to make any exertion in their 
 favour with his new friend. He even concluded a separate treaty with 
 Napoleon to the bitter mortification of Frederick William, the treaty 
 made with whom soon after was of a very different character from 
 that between the two emperors. 
 
 On the 24th of February, 1808, Alexander, in obedience to the plan 
 arranged with Napoleon, declared war against Sweden ; and followed 
 up this declaration by dispatching an army to Swedish Finland, which, 
 after a great deal of fighting, succeeded in obtaining complete possession 
 of that country. On the 27th of September the Russian and French 
 emperors met again at Erfurt. Many of the German princes, with 
 representatives of the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria, 
 also attended the Congress, which continued to sit till the loth of 
 October. On this occasion a proposal for peace was made to England 
 in the united names of Napoleon and Alexander, but the negociations 
 were broken off after a few weeks. 
 
 The friendly relations of Alexander with France continued for nearly 
 five years ; but, notwithstanding fair appearances, various causes were 
 in the meanwhile at work which could not fail at last to bring about 
 a rupture. The Russian autocrat having failed in the plan of policy 
 with which he had begun his reign, and which seems to have contem- 
 plated the avoidance of war, but at the same time the exercise of a 
 powerful foreign influence, appears to have resolved to try another 
 game, and to see what he could gain by entering into confederacy 
 with the great conqueror of nations. But the peace of Tilsit, and the 
 new relations into which Russia was thrown, however much they may 
 have been to the mind of the sovereign, entailed such privation and 
 commercial suffering, on the people of that country, by severing the 
 connection with England, as made it at length impossible to persist 
 in this course of policy. In the meanwhile however the treaty of 
 Vienna, signed on the 14th of October, 1809, which, following the 
 battles of Esling and Wagram, dissolved the fifth coalition against 
 France, increased the Russian dominion by the annexation of Eastern 
 Gallicia, ceded by Austria. The war with Turkey also, which had 
 Deen recommenced, continued to be prosecuted with success. But by 
 the end of the year 1811 the disputes with the courts of Paris, which 
 ostensibly arose out of the seizure by Bonaparte of the dominions of 
 the Duke of Oldenburg, had assumed such a height as left it no longer 
 doubtful that war would follow. A treaty of alliance having been 
 previously signed with Sweden, cm the 19th of March 1812 Alexaud?r 
 
 declared war against France; and on the 24th of April he left Sfe 
 Petersburg to join his army on the western frontier of Lithuania. On 
 the 28th of May peace was concluded at Bucharest on advantageous 
 terms with Turkey, which relinquished everything to the left of the 
 Pruth. The immense army of France, led by Napoleon, entered the 
 Russian territory on the 25th of June. As they advanced the inha- 
 bitants fled as one man, and left the invaders to march through a 
 silent desert. In this manner the French reached Wilna. On the 14th 
 of July Alexander had repaired to Moscow, whence he proceeded to 
 Finland, where he had an interview with Bernadotte, then crown prince 
 of Sweden. Here he learned the entry of the French into Smolensk. 
 He immediately declared that he never would sign a treaty of peace 
 with Napoleon while he was on Russian ground. " Should St. Peters- 
 burg be taken," he added, " I will retire into Siberia. I will then 
 resume our ancient customs, and, like our long-bearded ancestors, will 
 return anew to conquer the empire." " This resolution," exclaimed 
 Bernadotte, " will liberate Europe." 
 
 On the 7th of September took place the first serious encounter 
 between the two armies, the battle of Borodino, in which 25,000 men 
 perished on each side. On the 14th the French entered Moscow. In 
 a few hours the city was a smoking ruin. Napoleon's homeward march 
 then commenced, and terminated in the destruction of his magnificent 
 army. Not fewer than 300,000 Frenchmen perished in this campaign. 
 The remnant, which was above 150,000, repassed the Niemen on the 
 16th of December. 
 
 In the early part of the following year Prussia and Austria succes- 
 sively became parties to the alliance against France. Alexander, who 
 had joined his army while in pursuit of Bonaparte at Wilna, continued 
 to accompany the allied troops throughout the campaign of this 
 summer. On the 26th and 27th of August he was present at the battle 
 of Dresden, and on the 18th of October at the still more sanguinary 
 conflict of Leipzig. On the 24th of February, 1814, he met the King 
 of Prussia at Chauraont, where the two sovereigns signed a treaty 
 binding themselves to prosecute the war against France to a successful 
 conclusion, even at the cost of all the resources of their dominions. 
 On the 30th of March 150,000 of the troops of the allies were before 
 the walls of Paris, and on the following day at noon Alexander and 
 William Frederick entered that capital. 
 
 We shall not enter into the detail of the transactions which followed 
 this event. Alexander, owing in a great measure to his engaging 
 affability, as well as to the liberal sentiments which he made a practice 
 of professing, was a great favourite with the Parisians. The conquerors 
 having determined upon the deposition of Bonaparte, and the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons, Alexander spent the remainder of the time he 
 stayed in inspecting the different objects of interest in the city and its 
 vicinity, as if he had visited it in the course of a tour. He left the 
 French capital about the 1st of June, and proceeding to Boulogne, was 
 there, along with the King of Prussia, taken on board an English 
 ship of-war, commanded by the Duke of Clarence, and conveyed to 
 Calais, from which port the royal yachts brought over the two sove- 
 reigns to this country. They landed at Dover on the evening of the 
 7th, and next day came to London. They remained in this country 
 for about three weeks, during which time they visited Oxford and 
 Portsmouth, and wherever they went, as well as in the metropolis, 
 were received with honours and festivities of unexampled magnificence, 
 amidst the tumultuous rejoicings of the people. From England Alex- 
 ander proceeded to Holland, and thence, after a short stay, to Carlsruhe, 
 where he was joined by the Empress. On the 25th of July he arrived 
 at his own capital St. Petersburg, where his appearance was greeted 
 by illuminations and other testimonies of popular joy. 
 
 The Congress of European sovereigns at Vienna opened on the 3rd 
 of November, 1814. In the political arrangements made by this 
 assembly Alexander obtained at least his fair share of advantages, 
 having been recognised as King of Poland, which country was at the 
 same time annexed to the Russian empire. Before the members of the 
 Congress separated however news arrived of Bonaparte's escape from 
 Elba. They remained together till after the battle of Waterloo ; when 
 Alexander, with the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, 
 proceeded to Paris, where they arrived in the beginning of July, 1815. 
 On the 26th of the following September, the three sovereigns signed 
 an agreement, professedly for the preservation of universal peace on 
 the principles of Christianity, to wnich, with some presumption, if not 
 impiety, they gave the name of the Holy Alliance. On leaving Paris 
 Alexander proceeded to Brussels, to arrange the marriage of his sister, 
 the Grand Duchess Anne, with the Prince of Orange ; and thence, by 
 the way of Dijon and Zurich, to Berlin, where he concluded another 
 family alliance, by the marriage of his brother Nicholas, afterwards 
 emperor, with the Princess Charlotte, daughter of the King of Prussia. 
 On the 12th of November he arrived at Warsaw, and after publishing 
 the heads of a constitution for Poland, he left this city on the 3rd of 
 December, and on the 13th reached St. Petersburg. 
 
 No great events mark the next years of the reign of Alexander. 
 On the 27th of March, 1818, he opened in person the first Polish diet 
 at Warsaw, on the close of which he set out on a journey through the 
 southern provinces of his empire, visiting Odessa, the Crimea, and 
 Moscow. The congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, at which he was present 
 with the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, met in Septem- 
 ber, and on the 15th of the following montn promulgated a declaration 
 
ALEXANDER II. 
 
 threatening, in reference to the then state of Spain, the suppression of 
 all insurrectionary movements wherever they might take place. The 
 cougresses held in 1820 and 1821 at Troppau and Laybach, on the 
 affairs of Naples and Piedmont, and that of Verona in 1822, were also 
 mainly directed by the Russian autocrat. Meanwhile the insurrection 
 of the Greeks in 1820, although, publicly condemned by Alexander, 
 was attributed by Turkey to the secret encouragement of Russia, aud 
 seemed to threaten a renewal of hostilities between the two countries ; 
 but for the present Alexander determined to persevere in his pacific 
 policy. In 1823 several tribes of the Kalmucks, who had formerly 
 acknowledged the sovereignty of China, exchanged it for that of 
 Russia. 
 
 In the beginning of the winter of 1825 Alexander left St. Petersburg 
 ou a journey to the southern provinces, and on the 25th of September 
 arrived at Taganrog on the Sea of Azof. From this town he some 
 time after set out on a tour to the Crimea, and returned to Taganrog 
 about the middle of November. Up to nearly the close of this latter 
 excursion, he had enjoyed the highest health and spirits. But he was 
 then suddenly attacked by the common intermittent fever of the 
 country, and when he arrived at Taganrog he was very ill. Trusting 
 however to the strength of his constitution, he long refused to submit 
 to the remedies which hi3 physicians prescribed. When he at length 
 consented to allow leeches to be applied, it was too late. During the 
 last few days that he continued to breathe, he was insensible ; and on 
 the morning of the 1st of December he expired. 
 
 It was for some time rumoured in foreign countries that Alexander 
 had been carried off by poison ; but it is now well ascertained that 
 there is no ground whatever for this suspicion. It appears however 
 that his last days were embittered by the information of an extensive 
 conspiracy of many of the nobility and officers of the army to subvert 
 the government, and even to take away his life ; and it is not improbable 
 that this news, which is said to have been brought to him by a courier 
 during the middle of the night of the 8th, which he spent at Alupta, 
 may have contributed to hasten the fever by which he was two or 
 three days after attacked. For full details upon this subject, and a 
 translation of the Report of the Commission appointed to inquire 
 into the affair by the Emperor Nicholas, we refer the reader to vol. ii. 
 pp. 333-435 of Webster's ' Travels in the Crimea, Turkey, and Egypt,' 
 Loudon, 1830. 
 
 The death of Alexander took place exactly a century after that of 
 Peter the Great, under whom the civilisation of Russia may be said to 
 have commenced. The state of the empire did not change so com- 
 pletely during Alexander's reign as it did during that of Peter ; but 
 still the advancement of almost every branch of the national pros- 
 perity in the course of the quarter of a century during which Alexan- 
 der filled the throne was probably, with that one exception, greater 
 than had ever been exhibited in any other country. He founded or 
 reorganised seven universities, and established 204 gymnasia, and 
 above 2000 schools of an inferior order. The literature of Russia was 
 also greatly indebted to bis liberal encouragement, although he con- 
 tinued the censorship of the press in a modified form. He greatly 
 promoted among his subjects a knowledge of and taste for science and 
 the fine arts by his munificent purchases of paintings, and anatomical 
 and other collections. The agriculture, the manufactures, aud the 
 commerce of Russia were all immensely extended during his reign. 
 Finally, to Alexander the people of Russia were indebted for many 
 political reforms of great value. Certain checks were applied to the 
 arbitrary authority of the monarch, by rights granted to or recognised 
 in the senate; the provincial governors were subjected to more effective 
 control ; the laws were improved by a mitigation of the severity of the 
 old punishments, and in various other respects; personal slavery was 
 entirely abolished ; and even of the serfs attached to the soil, great 
 numbers were emancipated, and arrangements made for the eventual 
 elevation of all of them to a state of freedom. Under Alexander also 
 both the extent and the population of the Russian dominions were 
 greatly augmented ; the military strength of the nation was developed 
 and organised ; and the country, from holding but a subordinate rank, 
 took its place as one of the leading powers of Europe. 
 
 Alexander was married on the 9th of October, 1793, to the Princess 
 Louisa Maria Augusta of Baden, who, on becoming a member of the 
 Imperial family, assumed the name of Elizabeth Alexiewna. By her 
 however he had no issue. On his death, his next brother, the Grand 
 Duke Constantine, was proclaimed king at Warsaw ; but he imme- 
 diately surrendered the throne to his younger brother, the late Emperor 
 Nicolas, according to an agreement made with Alexander during his 
 lifetime. 
 
 * ALEXANDER II., surnamed NICOLAEWITCH, the present 
 Emperor of all the Russias, was the eldest son of the late Emperor Nico- 
 las and the Empress Alexandra Fcodorowna. This name his mother 
 assumed on her marriage, as it is the custom with females ou marrying 
 into the Imperial family to change their names with their religion on 
 being admitted into the Greek Church ; before marriage she was the 
 Princess Frederics Louisa Charlotte Wilhelmina, sister to the present 
 Frederick William IV., king of Prussia. Alexander was born on the 29th 
 of April, 1818, was educated with great care, and entered very early into 
 the military service, in which of course during his father's lifetime he 
 was invested with a numerous variety of honorary commands, but is 
 •aid not to have evinced any remarkable military aptitude, though by 
 
 BIOQ. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 ALEXANDER, EARL OF STIRLING. iso 
 
 no means destitute of talent or intelligence. On the 28th of April, 
 1841, he married Maximilienne Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria 
 (now Marie Alexaudrowna), daughter of Louis II., Grand-Duke of 
 Hesse, by whom he has had four sons and a daughter ; the eldest son, 
 Nicolas Alexandrowitch, now the Czarowitch, or Crown Prince, was 
 born on September 20, 1843. Ou the death of the Emperor Nicolas, on 
 March 2, 1855, Alexander succeeded to the throne, and to the conduct 
 of the war against the united forces of Turkey, France, England, and 
 Sardinia. As Crown Prince he had been represented as opposed to 
 the warlike policy of the late Emperor ; but almost his first step after 
 his accession was to issue a proclamation expressing his determination 
 to carry out completely the plans and intentions of his predecessor, 
 aud to this determination he has hitherto held with great firmness. 
 On September 8, 1855, the allies obtained possession of Sebastopol, as 
 they had somewhat earlier of Kertch and Yenikale, and somewhat 
 later of Kuiburn. In October and November following he in person 
 visited the scene of the most active hostilities, Nicolaieff, Odessa, and 
 the Crimea, encouraging the soldiery to renewed efforts, and at other 
 times has made progresses through various parts of his dominions, 
 endeavouring to lessen as much as possible the unpopularity of the 
 contest with a great portion of his subjects, occasioned by the enor- 
 mous conscriptions levied upon them in order to supply the terrible 
 losses experienced by his armies. [See Supplement.] 
 
 ALEXANDER, WILLIAM, EARL OF STIRLING, was the son 
 of Alexander Alexander of Menstrie. The date of his birth is not very 
 satisfactorily fixed. His father died in 1594. An engraved portrait 
 of the Earl of Stirling found in a few copies of the collected edition of 
 his poems published in 1637, bears the inscription " setatis sute 57." 
 According to this very imperfect evidence, he would have been born 
 in 1580. But the priut is of extreme rarity and very high value, being 
 considered the finest production of William Marshall, the celebrated 
 engraver of that day. The probability therefore is, that it was not 
 originally attached to the edition of 1637, and, bearing no date itself, 
 does not fix the age of the person represented. William Alexander, 
 having succeeded to his father's landed property in the counties of 
 Clackmannan aud Perth, travelled for some time with Archibald the 
 seventh Earl of Argyle. After his return to Scotlaud, he published 
 in 1603 ' The Tragedy of Darius;' which was followed in 1604 by two 
 other tragedies, ' Julius Csesar' and ' Croesus.' In 1604 he published 
 'A Parsenesis to the Prince,' the object of which was "to speak of 
 princely things," and especially to enforce the choice of patriotic and 
 disinterested councillors. In the same year he also printed 'Aurora, 
 containing the first Fancies of the Author's Youth, William Alexander 
 of Menstrie.' A collected edition of his plays, including a fourth, called 
 'The Alexandrsean Tragedy,' was published in London in 1607, under 
 the title of ' The Monarchicke Tragedies.' These were reprinted in 
 1616, and again in 1637, when they appeared with 'Doomsday,' a 
 poem (originally published in 1614), containing something more than 
 ten thousand lines ; the ' Paraenesis ; ' and ' Jonathan,' an unfinished 
 poem. This collection was entitled ' Recreations with the Muses.' 
 In these successive editions of his works, Alexander took very com- 
 mendable pains to free them from those Scotticisms with which they 
 originally abounded. Langbaine, speaking of the ' Darius,' says : " It 
 was first composed in a mixed dialect of English and Scotch, and even 
 then was commended by two copies of verses. The author has since 
 polished and corrected much of his native language." In the last 
 collected edition of these plays it is almost impossible to detect any 
 of this dialect, which Langbaine seems to have considered as another 
 tongue. 
 
 The poems of Alexander can scarcely now be regarded in a higher 
 light than as literary curiosities. The quantity of verse which this 
 author poured out in the course of ten years is remarkable enough ; 
 and this apparent facility is more remarkable, when it is considered 
 that he was composing in a language which in many respects was to 
 him a foreigu one. But to this circumstance may be attributed not 
 only what the critics of a later generation would have called the 
 correct&ess of his versification, but the circumstance that the author 
 is always labouring to express the commonest thoughts in the most 
 high-sounding words, and by the most wearisome circumlocutions. It 
 is in vain that we turn over his pages to find a single natural image 
 expressed with force and simplicity. His genius, if genius it can be 
 called, was exclusively of the didactic character. All his productions, 
 whatever form they assume, are a succession of the most cumbersome 
 preachments, unenlivened by any variety of illustration ; without 
 adaptation, when they take the dramatic form, to the character of his 
 speakers, and altogether wanting in applicability to the habits and 
 feelings of maukiud, and the practical business of human life. It is 
 almost incomprehensible how such productions as the 'Four Monarch- 
 icke Tragedies ' could have appeared in the ago of Shakespeare and 
 his great dramatic contemporaries. Their author must undoubtedly 
 have fancied that he was doing a higher and a better thing than 
 presenting a poetical view of real life, when he produced such a tragedy 
 as his 'Julius Csesar,' where the great iuterest of the action is utterly 
 lost in the tumid dialogues aud interminable soliloquies, aud tho 
 personages talk, not only unlike Romans, but uulike mon. OMys, who 
 has written hi:s life in the ' Biographia Britannica,' says of bis plays : 
 " He calculated them not for the amusement of spectators, or to be 
 theatrically acted, so much as for readers of the highest rank; who, 
 
 K 
 
132 
 
 Vy the wisest counsels and cautions that could he drawn from the 
 greatest examples, of the ill effects of tnisgovernment, and confident 
 reliance upon human grandeur, might bo taught to amend their own 
 practices, to moderate their own passions and their power over all in 
 subjection to them ; and if they have but this end with such readers, 
 to term them historical dialogues, or anything else, can be no discredit 
 to them." Alexander was evidently composing these tragedies upon 
 a totally false theory of art; but it was one suited to his natural 
 powers and his acquirements. The character of a poet, with which he 
 choso to invest himself, had in his view no regard to the highest 
 objects of poetry. Verse was for him a conventional tiling, suited as 
 he thought for the delivery of a scries of lectures upon state policy 
 rod the moral virtues, in which the introduction of historical names 
 as the speakers of the said lectures might give the sentences a greater 
 authority than if they appeared to come wholly from the mouth of 
 William Alexander. In our great age of dramatic poetry, these 
 trag. dies, therefore, offer a remarkable contrast to the living spirit 
 which informs the acting plays of even the humblest of Alexander's 
 contemporaries. A singular notion has prevailed, nevertheless, that 
 Shakespeare borrowed from Alexander, particularly in his own 'Julius 
 Ccesar.' Malone suspects this, although he has the good sense to 
 observe that what he calls the parallel passages " might perhaps have 
 proceeded only from the two authors drawing from the same source.'' 
 Another critic, of whom it would be difficult to say whether his 
 presumption or his ignorance is the most conspicuous, affirms the 
 resemblance more dogmatically: "There is a great similarity between 
 the 'Julius Cae-ar' of Shakespeare and that of Lord Stirling. Which 
 was written the fir3t ? In other words, which of these writers borrowed 
 
 from the other? This, we fear, cannot be ascertained The 
 
 probability is, that Shakespeare borrowed from the northern poet." 
 (Laidner's ' Cyclopa?di i :' ' Literary and Scientific Men,' vol. ii.) 
 
 The poems of Alexander were sufficiently bepraised in his own day. 
 One calls him "the monarch-tragic of this isle;" another compares 
 him with Sophocles, Euripides, and ^Eschylus. Even Drummoud 
 ai.ldres-.es him with — 
 
 "Thy PhoBnix muse, still ning'd with wonders, flies." 
 
 John Davis of Hereford, in his Epigrams published about 1011, thinks 
 that Alexander the Great had not won more glory by his sword than 
 this Alexander with his pin. Yet in less than forty years after his 
 death his poems were forgotten. Edward Phillips, the nephew of 
 Milton, docs not even mention him in his ' Theatrum Poetarum,' 
 although Drummond is spoken of as writing in a style "sufficiently 
 smooth and delightful." 
 
 Alexander began to pay to King James the homage of verse adula- 
 tion at the exact moment when the king was in a condition to confer 
 substantial benefits in return. In 1604 he addressed two poems to 
 James, which have not been reprinted in his collected works : the 
 'Monarchieke Tragedies' are dedicated to his Majesty in * poem of 
 fourteen stanzas, in which the kiug is told — 
 
 " The world long'd for thy birth three hundtclb. years." 
 
 Honours and substantial offices were bestowed by James on the 
 man whom he called "his philosophical poet.'' Alexauder became 
 gentleman-usher, in 1613, to Prince Charles; and in the same year 
 was knighted, and made Master of the Requests. The subsequent 
 public career of Sir William Alexander is altogether very singular. 
 In 1 621, Kiug James, by charter, granted to him the whole territory 
 of Nova Scotia, coupled with the famous scheme of extending the 
 order of baronets by granting purchased honours in connection with 
 the Dew colony. The scheme was however laid aside during the last 
 years of James's reign ; but it was revived by Charles ; and Sir William 
 Alexander held out the greatest inducement to adventurers in his 
 pamphlet, published in 1625, entitled 'An Encouragement to Colonies.' 
 In the first year of his reign Charles created Sir William Alexander 
 lieutenant-general of New Scotland. In a few years afterwards he 
 had the remarkable privilege granted him of coining small copper 
 money. In 1626 he was appointed secretary of state for Scotland. 
 In 16S0 he was created Viscount Stirling, and in 1633 Earl of Stirling. 
 In addition to his grant of Nova Scotia, he i-eceived a charter of the 
 lordship of Canada in 1628 and obtained from the council of New 
 England another grant of a large tract of country, including Long 
 1-land, then called the island of Stirling. He applied himself with 
 great energy, in concert with his eldest son, to colonise this island, 
 and to fouud a settlement on the St. Lawrence. But he does not 
 appear to have derived any permanent advantage from these projects, 
 and the labours of his son brought on a disease which terminated in 
 liia death. Nova Scotia was sold by Sir William to the French, and 
 its beguiled baronets lost the territoiial grants which were to have 
 been attached to the dignity. As might be suspected, a good deal of 
 odium was attached to the schemes of Alexander. In a very extra- 
 ordinary book written by Sir Thomas Urquhart, the translator of 
 Rabelais, and published in 1652, under the title of 'The Discovery of 
 a most excellent Jewel. &c, found in the Kennel of AVorcester Streets,' 
 he is spoken of with great fieedom, although the chief object of the 
 book ie the commendation of Scotsmen. 
 
 The countrymen of Lord Stirling seem to have had a notion that 
 hi* i«*ftry find h'-i financial projects were equally conducive to the 
 
 art of money-making. His base copper coins were called 'turners,' 
 and Douglas in his ' Peerage' tells us that the favourite of James and 
 Charles having built a large house in Stirling on which he inscribed 
 " Per mare, per terras," his motto, it was whimsically read " Per 
 metre, et turners." He certainly obtained very substantial tokens of 
 the royal favour, for, besides the American grants, the baronies of 
 Meustries, of Largis and Tullibody, of Tullicultrp and of Gartmore 
 were successively conferred upon him ; and in addition to his office 
 of secretary of state, he was keeper of the signet, commissioner of 
 exchequer, and an extraordinary lord of session. Yet after his death, 
 which took place in 1610, his family estates were given up to his 
 creditors by his third son, Anthony. By his wife Janet, the daughter 
 of Sir William Erskine, the Earl of Stirling had seven eons and two 
 daughters. The eldest son, William, died in the lifetime of his father, 
 and the grandson succeeded to the earldom, but died about a month 
 after the subject of this article. The second son, Henry, became then 
 Earl of Stirling. The title is now extinct; the last of the male 
 descendants died in 1739. 
 
 (Recreations with the Muses, 1637; Encouragement to Colonies, 1625 ; 
 Map and Delineation of New England, 1630; Urquhart, Discovery of 
 a most exquisite Jewel, &c, 1652; Langbaine, Dramatic Poets ; Kippis, 
 Bioyrapliia Britannica.) 
 
 ALEXKI MICHAILOWITZ, born at Moscow in the year 1630, was 
 a son of the Czar Michrtilo Feodorowitz Romanow, the first of the 
 house of Romanow that held the sceptre of Russia, and of his second 
 consort, Eudokia Lukianowna Streshuew. At the death of his father, 
 July 12th, 1615, he succeeded to the crown, and as he was still very 
 young, he was mainly guided by the advice of his councillors, Morosow, 
 his tutor and brother-in-law; Miloslawskoj ; and Plessow, a judge in 
 one of the high courts at Moscow. The excessive avarice and des- 
 pot i -m of the^e men caused an insurrection in Moscow, in 1618, in 
 which Plessow and several of their creatures were murdered. The 
 C/.ar's intercession with difficulty saved Morosow from the people's 
 fury. 
 
 The reign of Alexei was disturbed by two pretenders to the throne, 
 of whom one was the celebrated Demetrius; the other was Ankudi- 
 now; and the support of their pretended claims by Poland led to a 
 war with (hat country, in which the Polish commander-in-chief, John 
 Radzivil, was completely defeated at Sklovo; the Russians took 
 Smolensko in 1654, and almost the whole of Lithuania was conquered 
 and devastated by them. The Poles, being at this time severely 
 pressed by the Swedes, found it advisable, after two years' war, to 
 agree to an armistice, which was concluded at Nienietz, in November, 
 1056, Austria being on this occasion the mediator. The Poles agreed 
 to cede the provinces of Smolensko, Tshernigow, and Seweria to the 
 Russians, for a sum of money. 
 
 Alexei's second war was against Charles Gustav of Sweden, which 
 commenced before the armistice with Poland was concluded. The 
 cause of complaint on the part of the Russians was, that Gustav had 
 hindered the operations of their army in Lithuania. The war was 
 long and destructive, but inconclusive, and Alexei at length agreed 
 to an armistice with Sweden, which was signed on the 23rd of April, 
 1658, and three years after, on the 21st of June, 1661, was converted 
 into a treaty of peace at Kardis, by which their former possessions 
 were mutually secured to each party. A peace had also been con- 
 cluded between Poland and Sweden, in 1060, at Oliva; but before its 
 conclusion, the war between Russia and Poland had been renewed ; 
 this war was occusioned by the Cossaks on the Dnieper, who had 
 revolted from Russia, and sought protection from the Poles. It lasted 
 till 1667, and by an armistice concluded at Andruszow, Russsia gained, 
 in addition to former conquests, that part of the Ukraine on the other 
 side of the Dnieper of which she had already got possession. 
 
 Immediately after the conclusion of the Polish war a formidable 
 insurrection broke out among the Don Cossaks. Stenko Raziin, a 
 Cossak, resented the death of his brother, who had been executed by 
 order of a Russian general, aud seduced his countrymen to revolt ; 
 they burnt aud devastated the country from the lower Wok'a to Jaik, 
 took Astrakhan in 1670 (where Stenko ordered the Woiewod Proso- 
 rowskoy to be thrown over the walls), and several other cities. 
 
 Hopes were held out to Stenko which prevailed on him to present 
 himself at Moscow, where he was executed as a traitor and rebel; 
 after this, tranquillity was easily restored amongthe Cossaks. Alexei's 
 last war was against the Turks. Led by their hetman Dorosensky, 
 the Saparogian Cossaks had revolted against the Poles, and made a 
 treaty of alliance with Mohammed IV., receiving from him the pro- 
 vince of Ukraine in fief. From this cause naturally arose a war 
 b< t .veen the Poles and the Turks; and Russia was not slow in inter- 
 fering, and demanded that Azow, which originally belonged to Russia, 
 and in 1612 had been taken from the Cossaks by the Turks, should 
 again be ceded to Russia. But Mohammed's success did not dispose 
 him to listen to the demands of Russia : he took the Polish frontier 
 fortress Kaminieek, conquered the whole of Podolia in le;s than two 
 months, aud alarmed the Russians by the rapidity and success of his 
 operations. The King of Poland, Michael, drew no advantage from 
 the victory over the Tartars gained by Sobiesky at Kaluszo on the 
 18th of October, 1072, but made a hasty peace which was disgraceful 
 to his country. But the KiDg of Poland's peace was rejected by the 
 Polish diet, and Alexei was glad to assist even a constitutional power 
 
ALEXEI PETROWITZ. 
 
 in renewing hostilities against the formidable Turks; but finding his 
 expected advantages not so great as he anticipated, his zeal abated, 
 and ho died before a peace with the Turks was concluded, on the 10th 
 of February, 1676, in his forty-sixth year. 
 
 Alexei Michdilowitz did much for the improvement of Russia ; 
 agriculture and manufactures were constant objects of his solicitude : 
 he invited many foreigners to Russia, especially mechanics, artists, 
 and military men, whom he treated liberally. He ordered many 
 works, particularly on applied mathematics, military science, tactics, 
 fortification, geography, &c, to be translated into Russian ; he enlarged 
 the city of Moscow, and built two of its suburbs. He likewise com- 
 pletely reformed the Russian laws. He moreover commenced and 
 partly effected an extensive ecclesiastical reform, chiefly in matters 
 concerning the liturgy. Alexei was twice married : his first wife 
 was Maria Iljinishna Miloslawskoy, by whom he had five sons (two of 
 whom, Feodor Alexeiewitz and Iwau Alexeiewitz, were his successors 
 on the throne of Russia), and seveu daughters. His second wife was 
 Natalia Kirillowna Narishkin, by whom he had one son, Peter Alexeie- 
 witz (Peter the Great), and one daughter, Natalia Alexeiewna. 
 
 ALEXEI PETROWITZ, the eldest son of Peter the Great of 
 Russia, and of Eudoxia the first wife of that monarch. He was born 
 at Moscow, in 1695. From his boyhood Alexis showed a headstrong 
 disposition, and an inclination for low pleasures, which, as he grew up. 
 assumed the character of a decided aversion and opposition to that 
 reformation of the ancient manners of the country which it was the 
 object of Peter's life to effect. It was in 1716 however, while the 
 Czar was absent on his second tour through Europe, that the Prince 
 may tfe said to have first thrown off hi* allegiance, by secretly quitting 
 Russia, and taking flight to Vienna, whence he some time after retired 
 to Naples. Peter, having returned from abroad, foresaw the confu- 
 sion and mischi.-f which this conduct in the heir apparent might 
 eventually occasion, and went to work with his usual energy to 
 counteract and defeat a plan which threatened the destruction of 
 whatever he had done for the impi-ovement of Russia. It was some 
 time uefore he succeeded in discovering his son's retreat; but having 
 at length learned where he was, he gave instructions to some noble- 
 men, who proceeded to Naples, and induced the prince to return to 
 Russia, and to solicit his father's forgiveness. The determined 
 character of Peter's extraordinary mind now displayed itself with 
 fearful sternness. As soon as he had secured the person of his son, 
 he proceeded to treat him as a criminal. Being deprived of his sword, 
 he was brought before an assembly of the clergy and nobility, and 
 there compelled to execute a formal resignation of his pretensions to 
 the crown. At the same time, effectually to crush the sedition of 
 which he was the head, his principal partisans were all arrested, and 
 some of them put to death. His mother was shut up in a monastery. 
 But all this was not deemed enough. The prince himself was fiually 
 brought to trial, and condemned to suffer death. This was iu the 
 year 1718. The day after he was informed of bis sentence, Alexis 
 was found dead in prison, and it was given out that he had been 
 carried off by some natural illness ; but suspicious have been naturally 
 enough entertained that a private execution accomplished the end, 
 without incurring the risks or inconveniences of a public one. The 
 Prince, whose unhappy career was thus terminated, left a son, a child 
 of three years old, who in 1727, on the death of Catharine L, became 
 emperor under the title of Peter II. He only reigned for three years. 
 After the death of Alexis, Peter declared his second son his heir, but 
 he also died soon after, to the great grief of his father. These events 
 opened the succession to the Empress, who, on the death of her 
 illustrious husband in 1725, assumed the title of Catharine I. 
 
 ALEXIS COMNENUS L, Emperor of Constantinople, ascended 
 the throne in 1081. The Comn< ni were a family of Italian origin 
 transplanted into Asia Minor. Isaac Comnenu3 I., whose father 
 Manuel had served the empire with distinction, was elected Emperor 
 in 1057 by the troops, in opposition to Michael VI. Isaac having 
 abdicated two year3 after, and his brother John having declined to 
 succeed him, the imperial purple was assumed by Coustantiue Ducas, 
 a friend of the Comneni. After several reigns interrupted by revolts, 
 Alexis, the third son of John Comnenus, was raised by the soldiers 
 to the throne, from which his predecessor, Nicephorus Botauiates, 
 himself a usurper, was hurled down, and forced to retire into a 
 monastery. 
 
 Alexis assumed the reins of the empire at a critical moment. The 
 Turks had spread from Persia to the Hellespont ; the frontiers of the 
 Danube were threatened by swarms of barbarians; the Normans, who 
 were masters of Apulia and Sicily, attacked the provinces on the 
 Adriatic; and, to crown the whole, the first crusade came with its 
 countless multitudes, threatening to sweep away the eastern empire, 
 and Constantinople itself, in their passage. " Ye*, iu the midst of 
 these tempests, Alexis steered the imperial vessel with dexterity and 
 courage. At the head of his armies he was bold in action, skilful in 
 stratagem, patient of fatigue, ready to improve his advantages, and 
 rising from his defeat with inexhaustible vigour. The discipline of 
 the camp was revived, and a new generation of men and soldiers was 
 created by the example and the precepts of their leader. In a long 
 reign of thirty-seven years he subdued and pardoned the envy of his 
 equals; the laws of public and private order were restored ; the arts 
 of wealth and science were cultivated ; the limits of the empire were 
 
 ALFIEUI, VITTOI1IO. m 
 
 enlarged iu Europe and Asia, and the CoBU) nian sceptre was trans- 
 mitted to his children of the third and fourth generation." (Gibbon's 
 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' ch. xlviii.) 
 
 The most important event of Alexis's reign is the passage of the 
 Crusaders through his dominions. His conduct on that occasion has 
 given rise to the most conflicting statements by various historians. 
 Alexis had solicited some assistance from the western princes against 
 the invading Turks ; but he was alarmed at the approach of hundreds 
 of thousands of undisciplined and riotous fanatics led by Peter the 
 Hermit, who ravaged the Christian countries on their way with as 
 little scruple as if they had been Mohammedan. This promiscuous 
 multitude however was safely passed by Alexis's care across the 
 Bosporus into Asia, where they were drawn by the Turks into the 
 plains of Nicea, and there destroyed in 1090. The regular part of the 
 expedition cameafter in several divisions, under the command of Godfrey 
 of Bouillon, of several French princes, and of Bohemond and Tancrcd, 
 son and nephew to Robert Guiscard, the Norman conqueror of Sicily. 
 After a long and painful march the Crusadera encamped under the 
 walls of Constantinople. Alexis supplied them with provisions, but 
 carefully guarded the city against any surprise on th~ir part. Fre- 
 quent affrays however took place between the Franks and the Greeks, 
 who looked upon their unwelcome guests with as much fear and 
 aversion as they did on the Turks. The leaders of the crusaders were 
 admitted to the imperial presence, where they paid homage to Alexis, 
 who found means to tame and to conciliate the rude chiefs by gifts, and 
 by promises of assistance in their expedition to the Holy Land, while 
 he induced them one after the other to pass quietly over to Asia. This 
 being accomplished, Alexis assisted them in the capture of Nicea from 
 the Turks, which conquest however he kept for himself. In the same 
 manner he profited by the progress of the Crusaders, following as it 
 were in their wake, and reconquering from the Turks all the coasts of 
 Asia Minor and the neighbouring islands, and driving the Turkish 
 sultans into the interior to the foot of Mount Taurus. While intent 
 upon this, Alexis neglected or forgot to lend any further succour to 
 the Crusaders, who were fighting on their own account in Syria and 
 Palestine. The Latin historians therefore accuse him of bad faith, 
 whilst his daughter, Anna Comnena, who wrote her father's life, extols 
 his wise policy, dwelling with haughty indignation on the insolence 
 and rapacity of the western barbarians. The Byzantine Greeks were 
 a refined, but effeminate and corrupt race ; cunning, suspicion, and 
 dissimulation were their principal weapons of defence against the 
 headlong violence of the feudal semi-barbarous Frauks. Alexis died 
 iu_1118, and was succeeded by his son John Comnenus, a good and 
 wise prince. His other son, Isaac, was the father of another John, 
 who apostatised to the Turks, and married their sultan's daughter, 
 and through whom, apparently, Mahomet II., centuries after, boasted 
 of his Comnenian descent; ami of the famous Andronicus, who, after 
 a most adventurous career, usurped the throne in 1183, causing his 
 relative, the youthful heir Alexis Coram-nus II., to be strangled, 
 together with his mother Maria, the Emperor Manuel's widow. 
 Andronicus was himself overthrown and put to a cruel death three 
 years after, and in him ended the Imperial line of the Comneni on the 
 throne of Constantinople. Audronieus's posterity reigned afterwards 
 over the province of Trebizoud, with the pompous title of Emperor. 
 
 (See the various Histories of the Crusades, and the collection of the 
 Byzantine Historians ; and particularly the History of Anna Comnena.) 
 [Anna Comnena.] 
 
 ALFENUS VARUS, one of the Roman jurists whose Excerpts are 
 contained in the 'Digest.' He was one of the most distinguished 
 pupils of the great jurist Servius Sulpicius, the friend of Cicero. 
 Pomponius (' Dig.' i. tit. 2) states that he became consul, and it is 
 generally assumed that he is the P. Alphinius who was consul a.d. 2, 
 and the same person as the P. Alfinius, or Alfenus Varus, of Dion 
 Cassius (lib. lv. Index). But as Sulpicius, the master of Varus, was 
 born B.C. 106 and died B.C. 43, it is not probable that Alfenus the 
 jurist could be consul so late as a.d. 2. 
 
 Acron, the scholiast (Horatius, 'Sat.,' i. 3., v. 130), has a story that 
 Alfenus was a shoemaker at Cremona, who came to Rome, where he 
 became the pupil of Servius Sulpicius, and attained such distinction 
 for his legal knowledge that he was made consul and had a public 
 funeral. The passage of Horace and the remark of the scholiast 
 have occasioned much discussion. (Wieland, ' Horazens Satiren iiber- 
 setzt,' note on ' Sat.,' i. 3., v. 130 ; Heindorf, 'Des. Q. Horatius Satiren 
 erklart.') It is very difficult to form any conclusion from the passage 
 of Horace, though it may perhaps be assumed that he docs refer to 
 the jurist Alfenus; but this will not determine whether the story of 
 his early life as given by Acron and alluded to by Horace i< true, 
 
 Alfenus wrote a work entitled ' Digesta,' in forty books. He is 
 often cited by other jurists. The Excerpts in the ' Digest' show that 
 his style was clear. 
 
 ALF1ERI, VITTORIO, was born at Asti, iu Piedmont, Jan. 17, 
 1719, of a noble and wealthy family. He lost his father when a child, 
 and his mother having married again, young Vittorio and his sister 
 Julia were placed under the guardianship of their uucle, Pellegrino 
 Al fieri. Vittorio at 9 years of age was sent as a boarder to the 
 Academia, or College of the Nobles, at Turin. At the age of 13 he 
 was admitted to study philosophy iu the university of Turin. At 
 the age of 14, by the laws of Piedmont, he was master of his own 
 
J35 ALFIERI, VITTORIO. 
 
 income, and only subject to his guardian in so far as he could not 
 alienate his property. He then entered the army, as all young noble- 
 men were bound to do, with the rank of ensigu in a provincial 
 regiment, which in time of peace only assembled for a few days twice 
 in the year. 
 
 At the age of 17 he obtained the king's leave to travel under the 
 escort of an English Roman Catholic tutor. He went first through 
 Italy, and, having got rid of the tutor, next pioeeeded to France, 
 where he was introduced at the levee of Louis XV. at Versailles. 
 He was struck with " the Jupiter ! ike superciliousness of that 
 monarch, who stared at the persons introduced to him without con- 
 descending to say a word to them." Alfieri's pride was evidently 
 hurt. From France he came to England, with which country he was 
 pleased from the hist. After spending in England tlio winter of 17G8, 
 he crossed over to Holland, which country he liked best next to 
 England. He attributed the advantages of both to their institutions, 
 and the long habit of rational freedom. His life was for several years 
 after restless and dissipated. 
 
 In 1773 he returned to Turin, and began to write some sceues of a 
 drama on the subject of Cleopatra. This was his first essay in Italian 
 versification. In 1777 he went first to Siena and then to Florence, 
 where he applied himself seriously to dramatic composition. He there 
 also made the acquaintance of a lady who fixed his heart for ever. 
 This was the wife of Charles Edward Stuart, called the Young 
 Pretender [Albanv, Countess of], at whose house most foreigners 
 visited. The lady afterwards separated from her husband, and retired 
 into a convent at Home. Alfieri continued attached to her, and 
 followed her to several places ; at last, after her husband's death in 
 1788, it appears that they were privately married, although the 
 marriage was never made public, and by some is doubted. 
 
 In 1782 Alfieri had completed fourteen tragedies, ten of which were 
 printed at Siena. In 1785, the Countess of Albany having gone to 
 live in France, Alfieri also repaired thither, and resided first at a villa 
 near Colmar, and afterwards iu Paris, where he superintended the 
 edition of his tragedies by Didot. Soon after he published his other 
 miscellaneous works at Kehl. Alfieri and the countess were living 
 quietly at Paris, when the French revolution drove them away. 
 
 Alfieri and his companion hastened through Belgium and Germany 
 back to Florence, from which city he never stirred after. Here he 
 wrote his 'Misogallo,' a collection of satirical sonnets, letters, and 
 epigrams, iu which he has embodied all his early prejudices and his 
 more recent feelings of dislike to the French people. At 46 years of 
 age he began studying Greek, and by his own unassisted application 
 he was enabled in two years to understand and translate the Greek 
 writers. He lived quietly at Florence, seeing nobody except the 
 countess and his old friend the Abbate Caluso, till 1803, when an 
 attack of the gout, to which he was subject, added to his constant 
 application and an extremely sparing diet, terminated his life on the 
 8th of October, at the age of 55. He expired without much pain, his 
 constitution being evidently worn out. The Countess of Albany was 
 by his side in his last moments. He was buried in the church of 
 Santa Croce, the Florence Pantheon, where many years before the 
 sight of Michel Angelo's mausoleum had inspired him with a desire 
 for literary fame. The Countess of Albany caused a fine monument 
 by Canova to be erected to his memory. 
 
 Alfieri gave to Italy the first tragedies deserving the name. The 
 unities are strictly preserved, the characters are few, the action one, 
 no by-play or subordinate incidents ; and yet, notwithstanding all this 
 meagreness, there is so much power in the sentiments, so much 
 nervousness in the language, such a condensation of single passion, 
 that the performance of one of Alfieri's tragedies keeps the audience 
 spell-bound. Such at least is the effect they produce upon an Italian 
 audience. 
 
 The ' Saul ' is the finest of Alfieri's plays ; the author has imparted 
 an oriental and biblical colouring to the language and the situations of 
 his personages, which, together with the fine lyric passages expressive 
 of the changes in Saul's mental alienation, give a peculiar and epic 
 interest to this play. The ' Filippo ' is considered as the next in 
 merit. Most of the others are on Greek and Roman subject*. Two 
 are taken from the history of Florence. Alfieri's classic drama is very 
 different from that of the French stage; it is chiefly distinguished by 
 
 ALFONSO VI. 138 
 
 its extreme simplicity, the absence of all superfluous declamation and 
 tedious narrative, and the exciting abruptness of his blank verse. This 
 arrangement of words, which has been called harsh, was by him 
 
 purposely studied, to supply the deficiencies of the measure. 
 
 Alricri's abhorrence of the excesses of the French during the first 
 revolution, and of their subsequent servility under military despotism, 
 has caused some to imagine that he had renounced all his liberal ideas 
 before his death. Altieri's idea of liberty was inseparably connected 
 with that of order and security for persons and property, and ho saw 
 the latter violated every day both in Fiance and in Italy. His violent 
 temper led him sometimes into paradox and seeming contradictions ; 
 but he was. upon the whole, an independent, candid, honest-hearted 
 writer, and his example ami his precepts gave a temper to the Italian 
 mind which has not been lost. * 
 ( Vita di Vdtorio Alfieri da Asti, scrilta da E.iso.) 
 ALFONSO is the name of several kings of Spain and Portugal, and 
 of some kings of Naples and Sicily. This name is written by the 
 Spaniards, Ildefonso, Alphonso, Alfonso, and Alonso; and by the 
 Portuguese, Affonso. We have chosen the form Alfonso, as being 
 that in most common use. 
 
 ALFONSO I., surnamed the Catholic, was chosen King of Asturias 
 and Leon iu 739. He was the son-in-law of Pelayo, and a descendant 
 of King Leovigild. He wrested from the Moors Lara and Saldafia in 
 Castile, extended his empire over nearly one-fourth of Spain, and 
 inflicted a severe retribution on the descendants of the sanguinary 
 hordes of Tarik and Muza. Alfonso founded new churches in the 
 towns which he conquered, and rebuilt or repaired the old- it is 
 owing to his zeal for religion, that the epithet of Catholic was given 
 him. He died iu 757, and was succeeded by his son, Fruela I. 
 (Mariana, vii. 6.) 
 
 ALFONSO II., called the Chaste, elected King of Asturias aud 
 Leon in 791, was the nephew of Bermudo the Deacon. His reigu 
 was a contiuual scene of warfare both against the Moors and against 
 his rebellious subjects. To this king is attributed the abolition of the 
 disgraceful tribute of a hundred maidens, which the Spaniards were 
 bound from the time of Mauregato to pay to the Moors. The amours 
 of his sister Donna Ximena with the Count of Saldaha — the wonderful 
 exploits of Bernardo del Carpio, who was the offspring of this love, 
 against the no less famous French hero Roland — also belong to this 
 period. All this history however is considered by the best critics as 
 belonging to the region of fable and romance. Alfonso died about 
 the year 813 ; he was succeeded by Ramiro I., son of Bermudo the 
 Deacon. (Mariana, vii. 9, 12.) 
 
 ALFONSO III., surnamed El Magno (the Great), king of Asturias 
 and Leon, succeeded his father Ordono I. in 866, at the age of four- 
 teen. Successful against his rebellious subjects and his Christian 
 enemies in the beginning of his reign, Alfonso next turned his attention 
 to the Mohammedans, and in thirty years of continual warfare his 
 anna were always crowned with victory. He extended the boundaries 
 of bis empire to the banks of the Guadiana. But his son Garcia, 
 aided by the ever-rebellious barons, by his father-in-law the Count of 
 Castile, by his brother Ordoho, governor of Galicia, and even by his 
 own mother, attempted to dethrone the aged monarch. Alfonso suc- 
 ceeding in crushing the rebellion and taking his son prisoner; but 
 fearing the evils of a civil war, he called a junta in 910, and abdi- 
 cated the crown in favour of Garcia. After his abdication, he led the 
 troops of his son against the Moslems, and gained a brilliant victory, 
 shortly after which he died at Zamora, in 910. (Mariana, vii. 17-20.) 
 
 ALFONSO IV., called El Monge, the Monk, king of Leon, suc- 
 ceeded Fruela II. in 921. Six years after his accession to the throne, 
 he abdicated in favour of his brother Ramiro, and retired to the 
 monastery of Sahagun. Within two years he attempted to regain bis 
 kingdom, but was defeated by his brother, who consigned him to a 
 monastery, and sentenced him to the loss of his eyes. He died ten 
 years afterwards. (Mariana, viii. 5.) 
 
 ALFONSO V. succeeded his father Bermudo on the throne of Leon 
 in 999, being only five years of age. The government, during hia 
 minority, was intrusted to a regency, which was a very eventful one. 
 During it, the great Al-Mansur was defeated, and this success led to 
 the conquest of Cordova. Alfonso V. rebuilt and repeopled the city 
 of Leon, and made some salutary laws in the Cortes at Oviedo in 
 1020. He was killed at the siege of Viseu in 1028; his son Ber- 
 mudo III. succeeded him. (Mariana, viii. 10, 11.) 
 
 ALFONSO VI. was the son of Fernando I. He was crowned king 
 of Leon in 1066. Fernando had committed the same fault as his 
 father in dividing his states among his children. He left Leon to 
 Alfonso, Castile to Sancho, Galicia to Garcia, aud the cities of Toro 
 and Zamora to Urraca and Elvira, his two daughters. Alfonso and 
 Sancho lived in peace with each other only two years. In 1068 
 Sancho invaded the states of his brother, took him prisoner after 
 some vicissitudes, and confined him in the monastery of Sahagun, 
 from which he escaped, and sought a refuge at the Moorish coui't of 
 Toledo. Iu 1072 Sancho was assassinated while besieging Zamora, 
 aud Alfonso hastened from his exile to take possession of the vacant 
 throne. Asturias, Leon, and Castile acknowledged his authority. He 
 invited his brother Garcia to his court, and shut him up in the castle 
 of Luna, where he remained until his death, and Galicia was thu» 
 added to the spates of Alfonso. 
 
137 
 
 ALFONSO VII. 
 
 ALFONSO IL 
 
 EaviDg remained undisputed lord of so large a portion of the 
 peninsula, Alfonso turned his arm3 against the Saracens. He invaded 
 Portugal, and made most of the Moorish petty chiefs his tributaries. 
 He afterwards took Coria, and theu attacked Toledo ; and had not 
 the Almoravides with a powerful army invaded Spaiu, he would have 
 expelled the Moors from the peninsula. He gave his illegitimate 
 daughter, Theresa, in marriage to Henry, count of Besangon, with his 
 conquests in Portugal, and the title of count. During his reign the 
 famous hero Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, suruamed the Cid or Sidi, the 
 Moorish word for Lord, performed those exploits which have fur- 
 nished abundance of materials to romance-writer*. 
 
 King Alfonso died in 1109, at Toledo, in the seventy-ninth year of 
 his age. His son Sancho having fallen in a battle against the Moors, 
 the crowns of Leon and Castile fell to his eldest daughter Urraca. 
 (Mariana, ix., x., ch. 8-20 ; 1-8.) 
 
 ALFONSO VII. [Alfonso I., of Aragon.] 
 
 ALFONSO VIII., king of Castile and Leon, styled the Emperor. 
 At the death of his mother, Queen Urraca, he became king iu 1126. 
 The misrule of that princess's government, and the wars which had 
 devastated Castile during the latter part of the preceding reign, ren- 
 dered the beginning of his own very stormy. Several places were 
 held by his step-father, Alfonso VII., until they were subdued, but 
 at last the two princes were reconciled, and Alfonso VIII. remained 
 sovereign lord of Castile and Leon. About the year 1137 he was 
 obliged to march an army into Galicia against the Count of Portugal, 
 Alfonso Henriquez. Though the Portuguese had the advantage, 
 Henriquez sued for peace, which Alfonso readily granted. 
 
 In 1140 he attempted to conquer Navarre, but failed. Iu his wars 
 with the infidels, Alfonso was more successful. He obtained many 
 signal victories over them, and advauced the Castiliau frontiers to 
 Andalusia. His last battle against the Almohades was undecisive; 
 after which he returned towards Toledo, aud died in his tent in 
 August, 1157. At the close of his reigu, the military order of Alcan- 
 tara, to which Christian Spain owed so much, was instituted. He 
 was succeeded in Castile by Sancho III., and in Leon by Fernando II. 
 (Mariana, x., xi., 8-20; 1-7.) 
 
 ALFONSO IX., king of Leon, succeeded his father Fernando in 
 1188. He was dubbed a knight by his cousin, Alfonso III. of 
 Castile. For a short time the two relatives lived on good terms ; but 
 in 1189, a dispute about the possession of some territory iu Estreuia- 
 dura led to repeated wars. Alfonso first married the Princess 
 Theresa of Portugal, from whom he was forced to separate by Pope 
 Celestine III. ; he then married the daughter of his cousin of Castile, 
 and the marriage was again annulled by the Pope on the same plea 
 of relationship. Alfonso then conquered Merida, Caceres, aud other- 
 important places iu Estremadura, and while on his road to Santiago, 
 he died at Villanueva de Sarria, in 1230. His sou Fernando 111. 
 succeeded to the crowns of both Leou and Castile. (Mariana, xi., xii., 
 16-22; 1,2; Chronicle of Alfonso el Sabio.) 
 
 ALFONSO X. of Castile and Leon, surnamed 'El Sabio' (the 
 Learned), owing to his legislative, scientific, aud literary labours, was 
 the son of Ferdinand III., whom he succeeded in 1252. One of the 
 first acts of his reign was so dishonourable that it throws an indelible 
 spot on bis character. Being discontented with his queen, Dona 
 Violaute of Aragon, because she had no children, he sent his ambas- 
 sadors to the King of Denmark, stating that he was about to divorce 
 his wife, and requesting him to send him one of his daughters as a 
 bride. The Princess Christina accordingly set out from her father's 
 court, and having traversed Fiance and Germany arrived at Valla- 
 dolid. By this time the queen had a daughter, and Alfonso was 
 reconciled to her, and the Princess of Denmark, mortified aud dis- 
 appointed in her hopes of an honourable marriage, died a few months 
 after. In 1253 Edward, the son of Henry III. of England, paid him 
 a visit. He was magnificently entertained by that prince, who con- 
 ferred on him the honour of knighthood, aud married him to his 
 daughter, Leonor, commonly called Eleonor. In 1256 he became a 
 competitor for the imperial crown, but Richard, earl of Cornwall, was 
 elected by a small majority of the Diet. On the death of Richard in 
 1271, Alfonso renewed his application, but Rudolph of Habsburg was 
 elected. In vain did Alfonso, who had assumed the title of emperor, 
 protest against the validity of this new election; in vain did he 
 lavish his wealth to form a party iu his own favour ; his pretensions 
 only served to involve him in perpetual dispute with the secular 
 princes of the empire, as well as with the Pope, who, weary of his 
 importunities, went so far as to excommunicate his adherents. The 
 enormous expense which the ambitious projects of Alfonso entailed 
 upon him, and the adulteration of the coin, to which he is known to 
 have resorted in order to raise money, made him unpopular with his 
 subjects, who began loudly to complain of his expensive follies. 
 This state of things was taken advantage of by a few discontented 
 barons who formed a league against Alfonso, at the head of which 
 ■was his own brother the Infante Don Felipe. Having obtained the 
 assistance of Mohammed I., sultan of Granada, who promised to make 
 • diversion in their favour on the frontiers of Castile, they rose in 
 arms in 1270; but upon Alfonso promising them that their grievances 
 fbould be redressed, they dispersed, and the most turbulent retired 
 to Granada, wh'-re they were kindly received by the Moorish king. 
 
 In 1275, during the absence of Alfonso on a fruitless visit to Pope 
 
 Gregory, then at Beaucaire in France, respecting his pretensions to 
 the empire, his eldest sou, the Infante Fernando de la Cerda, die«U 
 This was the cause of fresh disturbances, for a question now arose 
 whether the offspring of the Infante, who had left two sons by a 
 French princess, was to be preferred to the second son, Don Sancho. 
 This led to a series of distressing civil wars. Sancho was disinherited 
 by a junta at Seville aud was solemnly cursed by his father, but he 
 succeeded in reducing Alfonso to such extremity that he applied to 
 Abti Yusuf, sultan of Marocco, and requested his aid in money and 
 troops, offering to pawn him his crown. The African crossed tho 
 straits at the head of considerable forces; Sancho, on the other hand, 
 concluded an alliance with Mohammed II. of Granada, and the civil 
 war which now raged was rendered more than usually destructive 
 and atrocious by the interference on both sides of foreign powers 
 professing a hostile religion. Both parties ravaged the country 
 without gaining any decisive advantage, until at length Alfonso was 
 prevailed upon to pardon his rebellious sou, and to restore him to his 
 favour. He died shortly after, in 1284, in the eighty-fir-i year of his 
 age. The character of Alfonso was a curious compound of weakness 
 and viudictiveuess, and of the best as well as of the worst qualities 
 of human nature. Upon the whole, fickleness rather than incapacity 
 seems to have been his leading fault. That iu the midst of such 
 troubles Alfonso should have been able not only to devote himself to 
 the cultivation of science and literature, but to acquire learning so 
 extensive for the age in which he lived, is really wonderful. Not- 
 withstanding the few moments of rest which his immoderate ambition 
 and the revolt of his subjects allowed him, he conferred such services 
 both upon his own country and upon the world at large, as few royal 
 persons have done. Spain owes to him not only her earliest national 
 history, and a translation of tho Scriptures, but the restoration of her 
 principal university, that of Salamanca, the iutroductiou of the ver- 
 nacular tongue in public proceedings, aud the promulgation of an 
 admirable code of laws. Science is greatly indebted to him for the 
 celebrated astronomical tables known by his name, which were still 
 universally used iu Europe at the beginning of the 16th century. It 
 is probable that Alfonso employed in their construction several 
 Moorish astronomers of Granada, who visited his court for the express 
 purpose of superintending, if not of making them. Their epoch i3 
 the 30th of May, 1252, the day of his accession to the throne. They 
 were printed for the first time at Venice, 1492, 4to, and went subse- 
 quently through several editions. It has been asserted by Salazar 
 (' Origen de las Dignidades Seculares de Castilla y Leon,' p. 105) that 
 iu the promulgation of the body of laws known as ' Las Siete 
 Partidas,' because it is divided into seven sections or parts, Alfonso 
 had only a small share, that code having been begun in the reign of 
 his father Ferdinand III. But this has since been discovered to be 
 an error. Ferdinand perceived, no doubt, the defects of the Visigothic 
 code, but he never attempted to remedy them, aud the task was 
 reserved for his sou. The revival of the study of Roman law, which 
 was then taught in the Italian universities, and his wish to appear as 
 a legislator in the hope of obtaining the imperial crown, the favourite 
 object of his ambition, urged him on to the arduous task of legis- 
 lating for a warlike aud chivalrous nation. How cautiously he pro- 
 ceeded in his great design will appear from the fact that his first 
 compilation for actual use was the ' Fuero Real,' which consisted of 
 ordinances or laws taken from the local 'fueros' or charters, with a 
 few monarchical axioms from the Justinian code, and that neither 
 Alfonso nor his immediate successors, Don Sancho el Bravo aud 
 Fernando IV., attempted to enforce them as the law of the land. 
 
 ALFONSO XL, king of Castile aud Leou, succeeded his father 
 Fernando IV. in 1312, being only a few months old. A long series 
 of convulsions attended his minority. When he came of aje he 
 quieted the intestine disturbances, and seriously pursued the wars 
 against the Infidels. He took Tarifa and Algeciras from them, but 
 died of the plague while besieging Gibraltar, in 1350. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his sou Pedro the Cruel. (Villasan, Cronica del Rey Bon 
 Alfonso el Onceno; Mariana, xv.) 
 
 ALFONSO I., king of Aragon, surnamed El Batallador, ' the 
 Battler,' succeeded his brother Pedro in 1104, aud marrying Queen 
 Urraca of Castile and Leon, was styled king of those proviuces also. 
 This marriage was anuulled in 1114. In a succession of victories he 
 rescued from the Mohammedans almost all the territory south of the 
 Ebro. He laid siege to Saragossa, aud after four years of struggle he 
 entered it by capitulation in 1118, and made it the capital of Aragon. 
 In 1120 he defeated a numerous army of the Almoravides near 
 Daroca. Tarragona, Meguiueuza, and Calatayud were also among his 
 conquests; and he carried his victorious anus even to Andalusia. 
 
 In 1134 he invested Fraga, when the wali of Valencia, Aben Gama, 
 advanced with a considerable force to relieve the town. A battle 
 took place, in which the Christians were defeated and Alfonso killed. 
 He was succeeded by his brother Ramiro II. 
 
 (FloreZ, Etpaiia Sagrada ; Chronica Adefonsi Imperatoiis, vol. xi. ; 
 Rodericus Toletanus, De Rebus U ispanicis ; Mariana, x. 8.) 
 
 ALFONSO II. succeeded his mother Petronila on the throne of 
 Aragon when he was only eleven years of age. He extended the 
 frontiers of his kingdom on the side of the Mohammedans, penetrate 1 
 into the territory of Valencia, aud aided Alfouso IX. of Castile in 
 investing Cuenca. For this important service Aragon was madu 
 
129 
 
 ALFONSO IIL 
 
 ALFONSO V. 
 
 140 
 
 exempt from paying homage to Castile. Alfonso died in 1196; and 
 was succeeded in his Aragon and Ms Spanish dominions by his eldest 
 bod, Pedro 11. (Rodericus Toletauus; Mariana, si. 9-13.) 
 
 ALFONSO III. was the son of Pedro III., king of Aragon. At 
 the death of his father in 1285, he was at Majorca, where, he had 
 been sent by his lather to dethrone his uncle Jaime, who had usurped 
 the sovereignty of that island. Having succeeded in his expedition, 
 he returned to Aragon, and found the Cortes assembled at Saragossa. 
 This body sent a deputation to meet him at Valencia, to express 
 their surprise at his having assumed the title of king previous to his 
 taking the customary oath before the Corte? of the realm. Not 
 without gre;it difficulty, and after many tumultuous debates, Alfonso 
 was acknowledged king, upon submitting to all the conditions 
 required by that body. His reign was occupied with wars against 
 Fiance, the Pope, and the dethroned King of Majorca, productive of 
 no other result than the distress of the people. He died at Barcelona 
 in 1291, and was succeeded by his brother, Jaime II. (Zurita, Analcs 
 de Aragon, vii. ; Mariana, xiv.) 
 
 ALFONSO IV., son of Jaime II., ascended the throne of Aragon 
 in 1327. The Genoese not only fomented dissension in his new 
 conquests of Sardinia, but even dared to attack him in his own king- 
 dom. They made various descents on Catalonia and Valencia, but 
 were repulsed. At home, his sou and successor Pedro raised the 
 standard of revolt against him, because his father had given some 
 possessions to his half-brother Alfonso. These dissensions were in a 
 great mea-ure the cause of his death, which took place iu Barcelona 
 in 1336. He was succeeded by his son, Pedro IV. (Zurita, Analcs, 
 vii. ; Mariana, xvi.) 
 
 ALFONSO V. of Aragon, and I. of Sicily, succeeded, in 1416, his 
 father, Ferdinand I., who had annexed the crown of Sicily to that of 
 Aragon. To these two Alfonso added that of Naples. Queen 
 Joanna II. having adopted him for her heir and successor, Alfonso 
 repaired to Naples, but was driven away by the party of the Aug< wins, 
 headed by the famous Sforza Attendolo, and the Queen was compelled, 
 in 1423, to name as her successor Louis III. of Anjou. At the death 
 of Joanna, iu 1435, Alfonso renewed his claims, but was oppo-ed by 
 ] lend of Anjou, who after Louis's death had been called to the throne 
 by the last will of the Queen. The court of Koine declared for Rene\ 
 Alfonso's Meet was attacked near the island of Ponza by the Genoese, 
 who had taken Rene's part, and was totally defeated, Alfonso him- 
 self being taken prisoner. The Genoese sent him to Philip Maria 
 Visconti, duke of Milan, who was then also lord of Genoa. Alfonso 
 found favour with his keeper, who was pleased with his acuteness of 
 mind and his superior address, and who, being also jealous of the 
 French dominion at Naples, not only restored him to liberty, but 
 made an alliance with him. Alfonso repaired to Gaeta, which his 
 Meet had taken by surprise, and thence he went into the Abruzzi and 
 Puglia, where he found partisans among the nobility. The war 
 between him and Rene was carried on in those remote provinces for 
 several years, till at last the treachery of the younger Caldora, a cou- 
 dottieri chief, ruined the affairs of Rene\ and Alfonso advanced 
 against Naples in 1442. His soldiers entered the city through an old 
 aqueduct, and Rend escaped by sea to Provence, where he reigned till 
 his death, the last king of the house of Anjou. Alfonso now fixed his 
 residence at Naples, aud for the first time since the Sicilian Vespers, 
 Sicily aud Naples were united under the same monarch. Alfonso 
 applied himself to re-establish order aud justice throughout the king- 
 dom, which had long been a prey to misgovernment and confusion 
 under the weak and corrupt reign of Joanna II. In order to strengthen 
 himself with the nobles, whose power was very great, he extended 
 their feudal privileges, and he also increased largely the number of 
 the feudatories of the crown. In return he obtained of them parlia- 
 mentary grants of money, or gifts, as they were called, and fresh taxes 
 to supply his expenditure. 
 
 Alfonso was engaged in frequent disputes with the Popes, which 
 were terminated by the treaty of Terracina in 1443, when he joined 
 the Papal troops against Francesco Sforza, the sou of his old anta- 
 gonist, and dispossessed him of the Marches. Sforza having after- 
 wards become, first, general, and then Duke of Milan, Alfonso joined 
 the Venetians against him aud his allies, the Florentine?. The most 
 favourable feature of Alfonso's reign is his patronage of letters. He 
 also was fund of the arts, and to him Naples owed several embellish- 
 ments. 
 
 Alfonso had no legitimate children, having early separated from 
 his wife. For his natural son, Ferdinand, he procured the Pope's 
 bull of legitimacy, and left him as his successor to the throne of 
 Naples; his brother John remaining heir to the crowns of Aragon, 
 Valencia, Sardinia, and Sicily. This John was afterwards succeeded 
 oy Ferdinand, called the Catholic, who reconquered the kingdom of 
 Naples, which continued to be a dependency of Spain for several 
 centuries. 
 
 In 1457 Alfonso sent a fleet against Genoa, to favour the party of 
 the Adorni faction, which had been exiled ; the city was hard pressed 
 by the besiegers, when Alfonso died at Naples, on the 17th June, 
 1458. 
 
 ALFONSO III., of Castile (previous to the union of Castile and 
 Leon) was only three years of age at the death of his father, Saucho 111., 
 in 1158. His minority was a very stormy one. The two families of 
 
 Ga*tros and Laras quarrelled for the guardianship of the young king, 
 and caused much blood to be shed. Alfonso married Eh auor, daughter 
 of Henry II. of England, in 1170, and from that time he exercised 
 the regal authority without control. Iu 1195 he was defeated by the 
 Almohades at Alarcos, but he avenged this affront in the famous 
 battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, where he destroyed the most nume- 
 rous army that ever crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, after the fir.jt 
 invasion. [At.moiiades.] Shortly after this memorable victory, he 
 died at Garci Mufioz, iu 1214 ; he was succeeded by his son Eurique I. 
 (Mariana, xi., xii.) 
 
 ALFONSO I., king of Portugal, was the son of Henry, count of 
 Besancou, who held Portugal iu fief with the title of count. At his 
 father's death, in 1090, Alfonso being only two years old, his mother 
 governed the state in his minority, and he was forced to apply to arms 
 before he could wrest the sovereignty from her. 
 
 After a short war with Castile, he assembled his army at Coimbra, 
 with a view to attack tho Infidels. The King of Badajoz and four 
 other Moorish chieftains also mustered an army, far superior in num- 
 bers to that of the Portuguese. The struggle was severe on both 
 sides, and at last victory declared for the Christians. An incredible 
 multitude of Africans remained dead on the field, the number of 
 which is estimated by the Portuguese historians at 200,000. In the 
 exultation of victory, the Count was proclaimed King by his followers, 
 which title he assumed from that day. This battle was fought in the 
 plains of Ouriqu-e, in the province of Alemtejo, in the year 1139. 
 
 •Iu 1146 Alfonso took by assault the fortress of Santarem from the 
 Saracens, and put to the sword all its inhabitants without distinction 
 of ago or sex. In the next year he took Lisbon, when the fleet of 
 Engli.-h crusaders, who were going to the Holy Laud, rendered him 
 very effectual assistance, lie afterwards reduced Cintia, crossed the 
 Tagus, aud possessed himself of several towns in Lstremadura aud 
 Alemtejo. In 1158 he reduced Alcazar-do-Sal after a siege of two 
 months. In short, Alfonso almost frei d all Portugal from the yoke of 
 the Saracens. 
 
 This king, the founder of the Portuguese monarchy, was not a 
 warrior only — he was also a legislator. Under his reign a code of 
 laws was promulgated at the Coitesof I.amego. 'these laws chiefly 
 treated on the succession to the crown, the duties of the nobles and 
 the people, and the independence of the kingdom. 
 
 Alfonso died in 1185, at Coimbra. He was succeeded by his Bon 
 Sancho I. 
 
 (Braudaon, Monarchic), Lusitana ; Chronicon Lusilanum ; MariaDa, 
 x., xi. ; Lemos, ix.) 
 
 ALFONSO II. ascended the throne of Portugal in 1211, on the 
 death of his father Saucho I. The principal event of his reign was 
 his dispute with the church by attempting to subject the clergy to 
 personal military service, and their possessions to contribute the 
 same as the laity towards the support of the state. The consequence 
 of these measures was that Pope Honorius III. placed the kingdom 
 under an interdict. Alfonso was forced to yield, and was pardoned on 
 his promise of making ample satisfaction for his past offences. Before 
 he could fulfil his promise he died, in 1223, aud was succeeded by his 
 son, Sancho II. (Rodericus Toletauus, viii. ; Lemos, xii.) 
 
 ALFONSO III. succeeded his brother Saucho II., in 1248. Before 
 his acces-ion, he was a poor exile in France. His brother having 
 been deprived by a decree of the Pope, Alfonso sailed for LisboD, aud 
 on his arrival was received with enthu>iasm by all clas?et< of the 
 nation. Sancho finding himself deserted by his subjects, retired to 
 Toledo, where he died in 1248. Allbuso made some few conquests 
 fi'om the Mohammedans, aud died in 1279; he was succeeded by his 
 son Dennis. (Chronicon Conimbricense ; Mariana, xiii. ; Lemos, xiii.) 
 
 ALFONSO IV., surnamed the Brave, ascended the throne of 
 Portugal on the death of his father Dennis in 1325, agaiust whom he 
 had been iu rebellion several times. Through the intrigues of the 
 Infante Juan Manuel, he became embroiled with his son-in-law 
 Alfonso XI. of Castde ; and scarcely was his dispute with the Castihan 
 settled, when he had to encounter disturbances of a more serious 
 nature, in the unlawful intercourse of his son Pedro with Inez de 
 Castro his mistress. His own weakness, and a mistaken zeal for the 
 welfare of his kingdom, induced him to give his consent to the 
 barbarous murder of that unfortunate lady, which plunged the state 
 into a civil war. Pedro raised the standard of rebellion against his 
 father, and possessed himself of almost all the north of Portugal. 
 After much bloodshed a reconciliation was effected between father and 
 son, and not long after Alfonso died, tormented by the remembrance 
 of his murderous deed. His death took place iu 1357, and he was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Pedro I. (Chronicon Conimbricense ; Lemos, xvii.) 
 
 ALFONSO V. was the son of Duarte. At the death of his father 
 in 1438 he was only six years of age. His minority was very disturbed 
 and eventful. Iu 1440, Alfonso having reached his fourteenth year, 
 seized the reins of government, and suppressed a rebellion raised by 
 his uncle Pedro the late regent. In 1457 Alfonso fitted out an expe- 
 dition against the Moors. He landed in Africa with 20,000 men, and 
 took Alcazar, Seguer, aud Tangier. He also engaged iu au unfortunate 
 war with Castile ; aud not long after, having concluded a peace with 
 that nation, died of the plague in 1479. He was succeeded by big 
 son Joao II. (Ruiz de Pino, Chronica do Scnhor Rey Djui Jjfwwo V.f 
 Mariana, xxi. ; Lemos, xxvi.) 
 
141 
 
 ALFONSO L 
 
 ALFRED. 
 
 142 
 
 ALFONSO I., of Naples. [Alfonso V., of Aragon.] 
 
 ALFONSO II., of Naples, son of Ferdiuaud I., and grandson of 
 Alfonso I., was the chief cause of the famous revolt of the barons 
 under his father's reign, and of the cruelties that followed. On the 
 death of Ferdinand in 1494, he succeeded to the throno ; but the 
 approach of the French under Charles VIII. frightened him, and he 
 ran away before he had completed one year of his reign. He retired 
 to a convent at Messina, and died soon after. Ferdinand II., his son, 
 succeeded him, and, with the assistance of the Spaniards, drove away 
 the French ; but dying in 1496, was succeeded by his uncle Frederic, 
 Alfonso H.'s brother. (Guicciardini, Storia d'Jtalia; Porzio, La Con- 
 giura dei Baroni.) 
 
 ALFRAGAN1US. properly AL-FARGANI, or with his complete 
 same, Ahmed-ben-Kothair-Al-Fargani, was a celebrated astronomer, 
 who nourished under the reign of the Abbaside Kalif Maumn, in the 
 earlier part of the 9th century of the Christian era. He was called 
 Al-Fargani from his native pla e, Fargana, a town and province in 
 Transoxiana. We possess an elementary treatise on Astronomy by 
 him, chiefly founded on the system of Ptolemaeus, which was printed 
 with a Latin translation aud notes by Golius in 1C69. 
 
 ALFRED, AELFRED, ELFRED, or ALURED, surnamed the 
 Great, king of the West Saxon's in England, was born in 848 or 849, 
 at Wanading, or Wannating, in Berkshire, generally supposed to be 
 the village now called Wantage, which was then a royal town, and 
 had been originally a Roman station. His father was King Ethel- 
 wulf, the son and successor of E.'bert the Great; his mother was 
 Osburga, or Osbcrga, daughter of Oslac the Goth, who held the high 
 office of royal cupbearer (famosus pincerna), and was of the race of 
 the sub-kings of the Isle of Wight, who were sprung from a nephew 
 of Cerdic, the founder of the West Saxon kingdom. Ethelwulf, who 
 had been brought up as a monk, had come to the throne above twelve 
 yeare before the birth of Alfred, who was the youngest of his four 
 sons. The favourite of both his parents, Alfred is supposod to have 
 been from the first designed by Ethelwulf to succeed him on the 
 throne ; and it wa3 probably with this view that the boy was sent to 
 Rome with a splendid retinue in 853, when, we are told by his bio- 
 grapher Asser, the Pope Leo IV. bestowed upon him the royal unction, 
 and adopted him as his son; and that two years after Ethelwulf him- 
 self took him a second time to Rome, and remained with him there a 
 whole year. It was in returning through France from this visit that 
 Ethelwulf fell in love with Judith, the young and beautiful daughter 
 of Charles the Bald, king of that country, and wa3 married to her in 
 October 856, after a courtship of three months. It is natural to sup- 
 pose that his former wife, Osberga, must have been dea l when he 
 contracted thi3 new alliance. Yet Asser tells a story of Alfred having 
 been first induced to learn his letters in hi3 twelfth year by his 
 mother (mater sua) tempting him and his brothers with the promise 
 of a Saxon book of poetry, which she said she would give to the one 
 who should first learn to understand and recite its contents. At this 
 date Judith had ceased to be even Alfred's step-mother; Ethelwulf 
 had died cot long after his return home, and she had become the 
 wife of Ethelbald, hi3 eldest son. In 868, in his twentieth year, Alfred 
 married Alswitha, Elswitha, or Ealswitha, the daughter of Ethelred, 
 surnamed Mucil (that is, the 'large '), a nobleman of Mereia. Alswitha' a 
 mother, Eadburh, was of the blood of the Mercian kings. During 
 the festivities at the celebration of his marriage, Alfred, as Asser tells 
 us, was suddenly seized before the assembled multitude with a dis- 
 tressing malady for which the physicians had neither name nor cure, 
 and the attacks of which continued to torment him daily down to the 
 time at which the biography professes to be written, when Alfred wa3 
 in his forty-fifth year. 
 
 King Ethelbald had been succeeded in 860 by his next brother 
 Ethelbert; and Ethelbert having also died in 866, the throne at the 
 time of Alfred's marriage was filled by Ethel wulf's third surviving son, 
 Ethelred, or Ethered (notwithstanding that Ethelbert appears to have 
 1ft at least one son). At the time of his marriage, Alfred, Asser tells 
 ns, held the rank of Secundarius, whatever that may mean. This 
 title or rank, which he retained till he became king, ho appears to 
 have enjoyed even before Ethelred came to the throne; for a little 
 lower down he is spoken of as having been Secundarius while his 
 brothers lived. During the reign of Ethelred he probably took a 
 more active part than the king himself in the direction of public 
 affairs ; As3er'a narration at least represents him as associated with 
 his brother on all occasions, both iu war and negotiation. Ever since 
 the last years of the reign of Egbert, who died in 835, the Scandi- 
 navian sea rovers, or Dane*, as they were called, had harassed England 
 with one descent afrer another ; on some occasions wintering in the 
 country, and holding tho district where they settled iu complete 
 
 subjection. Indeed it is probable that the effect of these invasions had 
 already been to iutermix a considerable number of foreigners with 
 the native population of the eastern and northern counties. But tho 
 first year of the reign of Ethelred saw a hostile armament approach 
 the coasts so formidable as to be evidently designed for nothing less 
 than the entire conquest of the island. It was under the command of 
 three of the sons of the celebrated Ragnar Lodbrog, twenty-eight 
 others of whose relations aud associates, styling themselves kings and 
 earls, were captains in the fleet. Disembarking iu East Anglia, the 
 foreigners passed the winter in that kingdom ; in the spring of the 
 next year marched into aud overran Northumbria ; and iu 868 crossed 
 the fiumber, and occupied part of Mereia. Both Mereia and East 
 Anglia, the only other kingdoms of the old Heptarchy, with the excep- 
 tion of Northumbria, that ?till subsisted, had ever since the reign of 
 Egbert been accustomed to look up to Wessex as, if not actually their 
 superior in the feudal sense, at least the leading member of the Anudo- 
 Sixon confederacy of states; and in this emergency Burrhed the 
 Mercian king and his nobles immediately sent messengers to King 
 Ethelred aud his brother Alfred to supplicate their a>sistauce iu 
 repelling the invaders. The two brothers th-reupon collected an army, 
 with which they advanced as far a.s the town of Nottingham (Scnoten- 
 gaham), where the Daues lay ; but the pagans, to use Asser's terms, 
 refused to come out to battle, and the Christians were not strong 
 enough to force their entry into the town; so that the latter found 
 themselves obliged to return home without effecting anything, and 
 the Mercians ma le the best peace they could with their enemy. The 
 Danes now retired to York, in the dominion of the Northumbrian^, 
 and remained there a wholo year. In the spring of 870, embarking 
 on the Humber, they landed at Humberstan in Lincolnshire, devastated 
 all the eastern part of Mereia, and then passed into East Anglia, where 
 they in like manner carried everything before them, and having seized 
 and put to death King Edmund (the St. Edmund of the calendar), 
 set Godrun, or Gnthrun, one of their own leaders', on the vacant 
 throne. After wintering in Thetford, their army, in the spring of 
 871, advanced into the dominions of the West Saxons, and taking 
 possession of the royal towu of Reading (Raedigam), on tho third 
 day after their arrival, sent out part of their force mounted to plunder 
 in the neighbourhood, while auother band employed themselves in 
 erecting a defensive rampart on the right (that is, the west) side of 
 the town from the Thames to the Kennet (Cynetan). The latter were 
 attacked by Ethelwulf, earl of Berkshire, near the village of Ingles- 
 field, and after a sharp conflict defeated, with the loss of one of their 
 captains. Four days after, Ethelred and Alfred appeared with their 
 forces before Reading, when another engagement took place, which 
 ended in the defeat of the Christians, Earl Ethelwulf being among 
 the slaiu. After four days more the two armies met again at a place 
 called Aescesdun (probably Aston, near Walliugford), when the impe- 
 tuosity of Alfred, who commanded one of the two divisions of the 
 Saxon furce, and who, Asser says, on the relation of an eyewitness, 
 led his men to the attack with the courage of a wild boar, nearly 
 lost the day; but, Ethelred coming up (after baying his prayers with, 
 unusual deliberation)', the Saxons recovered themselves, aud iu tho 
 end the foreigners were defeated with great slaughter, and pursued 
 back into Reading. A fortnight afterwards however, in another 
 battle fought at Basing in Hampshire, the victory fell to the Danes ; 
 and soon after this they were joined by another body of their country- 
 men from beyond seas. Another battle, not noticed by Asser, but 
 mentioned both in the Saxon Chronicle and the Chronicle of Mailros, 
 took place about two mouths after at Mertune (probably Morton, to 
 the north-west of Reading), in which the Danes were again successful ; 
 aud iu this conflict King Ethelred received a wound, of which he died 
 soon after Easter 871. Upon this Alfred was immediately declared 
 king, with the universal consent of all ranks of the people. Asser 
 intitnate.3 that he accepted the crown with some reluctance, as dread- 
 ing that he should never be able alone to sustain the hostility of the 
 pagaus. 
 
 The first seven years of Alfred's reign abundantly justified this 
 apprehension. The events of this space, as far as they are to be 
 collected from Asser, the Saxon chronicler, and other early authorities, 
 whose narratives however are iu many particulars very confused and 
 indistinct, are as follows : — In the course of the year in which Alfred 
 ascended the throne (including apparently the portion of it that had 
 elapsed before the death of Ethelred) eight or nine great battles, 
 besides innumerable skirmishes, were fought between the Saxons aud 
 the Danes, in most or all of which the Saxons seem to have been 
 worsted. All that we are told is, that, after this course of ill success, 
 Alfred made a peace with the invaders, on condition that they should 
 leave Wessex: it is probable that he bought them off by a payment 
 in money, or at least engaged to stand aloof while they fought out 
 their qu invls with the other states. We know, at any rat e, that they 
 now overran the rest of the country without any further attempt ou 
 his part to interfere with them. Having collected their forces at 
 London, aud wintered there, they waited for another year, till their 
 strength had grown by accessions from their native north, and thi n 
 sallying forth, they soon reduced both Mereia aud Northumbria, 
 pushing their conquests iu the latter direction as far as to the Briti.-h, 
 kingdom of Strathclydc, in the heart of what is now called Scotland. 
 Alfred appears to have remained ci'.et till the year 875, when we are 
 
H3 ALFRED. 
 
 told by Aescr lie engaged sis of the slaps of the pagans at sea, and took 
 one of them, the others making their escape. This seems to have brought 
 them down again upon Wessex. The next year, issuing from their 
 winter quarters at Cambridge, (Grantebrycge) by night, a powerful 
 body of them, taking to sea and sailing along the south coast, Bur- 
 prised the castle of Wareham in Dorsetshire, and Alfred was obliged 
 to bribe them by a sum of money to leave his dominions. They did 
 not however keep their oaths, though he had sworn them both in the 
 pagan and the Christian fashion, but soon after, attacking him in the 
 night, they slew all his cavalry, and seizing the horses, rode away on 
 them to Exeter, where they settled for the winter. Encouraged by 
 his late naval success, Alfred ordered boats aud galleys to be built 
 in different ports, and manning them. Asser tells us, with pirates, 
 stationed them to guard the sea, while, in the spring of 877, he 
 inarched at the head of a laud force to Exeter, to expel the intruders. 
 According to Asser, the fleet attacked 120 ships of the Danes which 
 were coming to the assistance of their countrymen, and drove them 
 ou shore, when all on board perished; but it does not appear that the 
 Euglish king ventured to besiege those who had taken possession of 
 Exeter ; all that is stated is, that another treaty was concluded, and 
 another promise given by them on oath that they would soon take 
 their departure ; aud in fact in the month of August they removed 
 into Mercia. But they returned in the beginning of the next year, 
 878, in augmented numbers; aud now they appear to have met with 
 no resistance. Marching to Chippenham, they took possession of that 
 royal town, and making it their head-quarters, sent out thence their 
 marauding bauds over all the surrounding country. Of the natives 
 some fled beyond seas ; those who remained behind universally sub- 
 mitted to the invaders, and Alfred himself, at first attended only by a 
 few of his nobility and soldiers, afterwards without any followers, 
 wandered about in the woods aud marshes, till at last he found what 
 proved a secure hiding-place in the hut of a poor peasant, who with 
 his wife tended a few cows ou a small elevated piece of ground rising 
 among the marshes ou the north bank of the Tone in Somerset-hire, 
 and still known by the name of Athelney; that is, Atheling-Eye, 
 meaning the island of the nobles, or the royal island. He is said to 
 have represented himself to the cowherd as one of the king's thanes, 
 escaped from a rout of his countrymen. 
 
 Statements are found iu various old writers which distinctly impute 
 to Alfred up to this time of his life a character aud conduct in some 
 respects very different from what he afterwards displayed. Mr. Sharon 
 Turner, who was the first among the modern biographers of Alfreel to 
 notice this circumstance, has, in his ' History of the Anglo-Saxons,' 
 collected aud exhibited the concurring testimonies in question with 
 diligence aud clearness, and with a good sense and right feeling, very 
 unlike the spirit in which his discoveries have been seized upon, and 
 absurdly produced as a proof that all the so-called greatness of the 
 Anglo-Saxon king is the mere creation of modern ignorance and 
 bombast. It is conjectured by Mr. Turner that the facility with 
 which the Danes appear to have at last obtained complete possession 
 of Wessex may be accounted for on the supposition that Alfred 
 had lost the attachment of his subjects through his misgovernment 
 and his immoralities ; anil he rests this upon the belief that Asser 
 says that he believed this adversity which befel the king happened 
 to him not undeservedly, " because," he goes on, " iu the first part 
 of his reign, when he was a young man, and governed by a youthful 
 mind, when the men of his kingdom and his subjects came to him and 
 besought his aid in their necessities, when they who were depressed 
 by the powerful implored his aid and patronage, he would not hear 
 them, nor afford them any assistance, but treated them as of no esti- 
 mation." This part of the proof may be set aside ; it having been 
 ascertained that the passage is an interpolation of a later period. (See 
 Preface to ' Monumenta Historica Britanuica.') The well-known story 
 of his being scolded one clay by the cowherd's wife for allowing some 
 loaves, or cakes, to burn which she had left him to watch, is told in the 
 ancient Saxon and Latin 1 ,£ves of St. Neot, which are in the Cotton 
 Library. According to William of Malroesbury and other later chro- 
 niclers, the cowherd, whose name was Denulf, having afterwards, on 
 Alfred's recommendation, applied himself to letters, wa3 made by 
 him Bishop of Winchester, and was the same Denulf who died occupant 
 of that see in 909. After some time Alfred appears to have discovered 
 himself to some of his friends, or to have been discovered by them ; 
 and he was also joined in his retreat by his wife, if another story be 
 true which is told by Ethelward, Ingulfus, and Simeon of Durham, 
 about his one day orderiug their scanty store of bread to be divided 
 with a beggar who came hungry to the door, although they had no 
 immediate prospect of a further supply; an act of kind-heartedness 
 which, as might be expected, the monkish narrators make to have been 
 forthwith bountifully recompensed by Heaven, besides embellishing 
 the iucident with sundry other miraculous circumstances. It is cal- 
 culated that Alfred remained at Athelney about five months; but 
 during the latter part of his time he had an ai med body of his sub- 
 jects with him, and the place had been converted into a well-defended 
 stronghold, from which incursions were frequently made into the 
 neighbouring country, the beeves and granaries of Dane or recreant 
 Saxon serviug indifferently, we are told, to replenish the royal larder. 
 At last Alfred resolved to attack their maiu army, which was encamped 
 on and around Biatton Hill, between Eddingtou and Westbury in Wilt- 
 
 ALFRED. U4 
 
 shire. His principal adherents having gathered on his summons at ? 
 place known by the name of Egbert's Stone in Selwood Forest, he led 
 his united forces to a hill at a short distance from that occupied by 
 the Danes, encamped on it for the night, and next morning conducted 
 them to the attack. The Northmen were defeated with great slaughter, 
 and those who escaped were beleaguered in a neighbouring fortified 
 place in which they had shut themselves up, and after a short time 
 were compelled to surrender at discretion. The romantic adventure, 
 mentioned by several of the old historians, of Alfred making his way 
 into the Danish camp, and into the tent of the king, Gorm, Guthrun, 
 or Godrun, in the disguise of a harper, is said to have happened the 
 day before this victory of Eddington, or Ethandune, gained early in 
 May 878, which restored him to his throne, and compelled the 
 foreigners to quit Wessex without another blow. Godrun even 
 consented to Alfred's proposition that he and his followers should 
 become Christians ; he himself was baptised by the name of Athelstan, 
 Alfred standing as his godfather ; and it was thereupon agreed that 
 the converted Danes should occupy in peace the whole of the country 
 called East Anglia, including the modern counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, 
 Cambridge, aud perhaps Essex, with the small portions of Huntingdon, 
 Bedford, and Hertford, that might lie to the eastward of the old 
 Homan road called Watling-street. A formal treaty to that effect, the 
 terms of which have been preserved, was concluded between the two 
 parties. 
 
 The effect of this arrangement was, that the Danes, no longer 
 regarded as foreigners, were established in the dominion of a consider- 
 able portion of England, and in the occupation of the country to a 
 much greater extent; for the population both of the northern counties 
 constituting the kingdom, or the two kingdoms, of Northumbria, and 
 of the midland districts forming the kingdom of Mercia, was also by 
 this time in great part Danish as well as that of East Anglia. The 
 only part of the country that remained purely Saxon was the kingdom 
 of Wessex (with which Kent aud Sussex had long been incorporated), 
 comprehending the region to the south of the Thames, or the modern 
 counties of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hants, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, 
 Devon, and so much of Cornwall, as had been wrested from the Britons. 
 It has however been held by some that even in East Anglia Alfred was 
 understood to have reserved to himself the supreme dominion ; and 
 it appears that, at iea.^t withiua few years from this time, the whole 
 or nearly the whole of Mercia fell under his power, and was given by 
 him to be ruled by Ethelred, to whom he afterwards gave his daughter 
 Ethelfleda in marriage. In Northumbria also he exercised a predo- 
 minant influence ; and in 893, after the death of Guthred, whom he 
 had appointed kiug ten years before, he took the government of the 
 country into his own hands. Meanwhile Guthrun had continued to 
 reign in East Anglia till his death in 890, when, according to the Danish 
 historians, he was succeeded by another prince of the same name ; but, 
 a few years after this kingdom also appears to have returned under the 
 sway of Alfred, w ho may therefore be regarded as having been from 
 about the year 891 king of all England. In the interval between his 
 restoration to his ancestral throne of Wessex and this date he had been 
 unremitting in his exertions both to re-establish order within his king- 
 dom, and to strengthen it against external enemies. Ingulfus states 
 that he divided it into hundreds and tithings, with a view both to 
 police and to military defence; and that he not only restored the 
 cities and castles which had been destroyed or had fallen into ruin 
 during the recent wars and confusions, but constructed additiona, 
 fortifications wherever they were required. He also engaged with 
 ardour in the building of ships, so that he was in a few years master 
 of a respectable navy; and, if we may rely on the accounts of Asser, 
 the Saxon chronicler, and other ancient authorities, Alfred may be 
 regarded as the true founder of this great Euglish arm of war. 
 
 In 894 a new invasion of Northmen, under a leader, Hastings, who 
 had already made his name terrible by various descents on the coast 
 and incursions into the heart of France, once more involved England 
 in a war, which was protracted over more than three years, and in the 
 course of which nearly every part of the country, of the interior as 
 well as of the coasts, was at one time or other the scene of bloodshed 
 and devastation. The Northmen made their appearance in two fleets ; 
 one consisting of 250 vessels, which landed its armed multitude on 
 the south-west coast of Kent, near Romney Marsh ; the other of 
 80 ships, under the conduct of Hastings himself, who, leading them 
 up the Thames, and thence into the East Swale, disembarked his 
 forces at Milton, near Sittingbourne. Alfred immediately threw him- 
 self between the two armies ; and when, after confining itself for 
 some time to its encampment, the one which had landed on the south 
 coast suddenly plunged into the interior, and attempted to cut across 
 the couutry and effect a junction with the other by a route to the 
 west of where he was stationed, he pursued and overtook it at Farn- 
 ham, in Surrey, where an engagement took place, which soon ended in 
 the defeat aud flight of the Danes. The pursuit was continued across 
 the Thames, aud then across the whole of Essex, till the foreigners 
 took refuge in the small Isle of Mersey, at the mouth of the Colne. 
 While Alfred lay blockading them here, an armament of a hundred 
 ships, fitted out by the revolted Danish colonists of East Anglia, 
 passed the North Foreland, and, sailing along the southern coast as 
 far as Exeter, attacked that city ; and another fleet of forty vessels, 
 which had set sail from Northumbria, had made its way round by 
 
145 ALFRED. 
 
 the northern extremity of the island, aud reached the Bristol Channel. 
 On receiving this intelligence, Alfred immediately marched across the 
 country to Exeter; aud he soon rid that city of its assailants, who, 
 sailing away to the east, attacked Chichester, but were there driven 
 off by the inhabitants. Meanwhile, Hastings had got out of the 
 Swale, and, having been joined by his countrymen from the Isle of 
 Mersey, had sailed up the Thames, aud was devastating Mercia ; but 
 Alfred was soon after them, and pursued them till they threw them- 
 selves into a fortress at Buttiugton ou the Severn, whence, after being 
 penned up for some weeks and reduced to extremities, they endea- 
 voured to cut their way out by a desperate sally, iu which some 
 thousands were slain and driven into the river. Hastings however and 
 a small number escaped to the coast of Essex, where they were joined 
 by a large force of East Anglians aud Northumbrians, and whence 
 they soon after marched across the island in a new direction, and took 
 possession of the town of Chester ; but to this point too they were 
 followed by Alfred, and, after ravaging part of North Wales, they 
 returned by a circuitous route through Northumbria and East Anglia 
 to the Isle of Mersey, where they wintered. Here also they appear 
 to have lain quiet during the whole of the year 895, watched by 
 Alfred, who, by digging new canals for the river, is said to have 
 drawn off the water from their ships, which were moored in the Lea, 
 so that they were left immoveable, and had to be abandoned. But in 
 the summer of 896 they agaiu suddenly left the east coast, aud, takiug 
 their way through Mercia, fixed themselves at Bridgeuorth in Shrop- 
 shire, and, though blockaded by Alfred, maintained their ground there 
 throughout the following winter. The strength and hopes of the 
 invaders however were now nearly worn out. Their leader Hastings 
 indeed appears to have withdrawn to Frauce before this time, and the 
 long coutest which Alfred had to sustain was terminated iu 897 by the 
 dispersion of some and the capture of others of a number of Danish 
 vessels which attempted to plunder the coast of Wessex. He sent out 
 against them, the Saxon Chronicle tells us, ships of war of a new con- 
 struction, neither like those of the Danes nor the Frisians, but twice 
 as long, aud also higher, some of them holdiug sixty rowers or more. 
 Those of the Danish sailors, it is said, that fell into his hands he 
 treated as pirates, seudiug them to instant execution. 
 
 After the Danes were thus got rid of, a depopulating pestilence 
 ravaged the country for three years ; aud the lapse of this space, 
 unmarked by any other memorable events, also brought the life of 
 Alfred to a close. He died on the 28th of October, most probably in 
 the year 901, although one account gives 900 and another 899 as the 
 year; nor is there any documentary or other evidence by which the 
 matter can be absolutely determined. By his queen Al.switha he is 
 said to have had four sons: — Edmund, who died in the lifetime of his 
 father; Edward, who succeeded him on the throne; Athelstan, of 
 whom little or nothing is known ; aud Ethelward, who became a 
 scholar : and three daughters : — Ethelfleda, married to Ethelred, earl 
 of Mercia ; Ethelgora, who became abbess of the monastery of Athel- 
 ney, founded by her father; and Elfreda or Ethelswitha, who married 
 Baldwin the Bald, earl of Flanders. 
 
 Putting out of view the imputations already noticed, which refer 
 exclusively to the fir.-t few years of his reign, and, rightly considered, 
 rather set off and enhance the conquest over himself which he after- 
 wards achieved, the lustre of Alfred's character, both as a man and as 
 a king, is without spot or shade. He is charged with no vice; and, 
 besides the cheerful aud unpretending exhibition of all the ordinary 
 virtues iu his every day life, the untoward circumstances iu which he 
 was placed, and the afflictions with which he was tried, were con- 
 tinually striking out from his happy nature sparks aud flashes of the 
 heroic and sublime. He triumphed over pain as he had triumphed over 
 passion ; his active exertions in arms, and his uniutermitted labours 
 of every other kind, were carried ou while he was suffering under the 
 torment and debility of a disease which never left him, aud which 
 probably at hist brought him to his grave. The field iu which he 
 acted was limited and obscure ; but that too makes part of his glory; 
 for of all the rulers who have been styled ' the Great,' there is no one 
 to whom the epithet has been given with more general acclamation 
 than to this king of the West Saxons. His fame transcends that of 
 most conquerors, although he won it all by what he did for his own 
 subjects and within his own petty principality; but probably no king 
 ever did more for his country thau Alfred, at h ast if we measure 
 what he accomplished by his means aud his difficulties. His preserva- 
 tion of it from conquest by the Northmen in the latter part of his 
 reign was perhaps as great an achievement as his previous recovery of 
 its independence when all seemed to be lost, and the foreigner had 
 actually acquired the possession of the soil ; the latter contest at least 
 was much the more protracted one, aud appears to have called for and 
 brought out more of Alfred's high qualities — his activity, his vigilance, 
 bia various military talent, his indomitable patience aud endurance, 
 his spirit of hope that nothing could quench, as well as his mere 
 Valour. That contest with Hastings too was marked by several 
 generous actions on the part of Alfred, not admitting of notice in a 
 brief outline, which displayed the magnanimity of his character in 
 the strongest light. Nor let it be said that Alfred's heroic efforts 
 after all proved ineffectual, inasmuch as England notwithstanding was 
 at last subjugated by those Danish invaders whom he twice drove off: 
 this did not happen till after more th:.u a century of independence 
 Bioo. 1UV. VOL. I, 
 
 ALFIiED. lift 
 
 and freedom obtained by his exertions ; aud at any rate his success, 
 even if the Anglo-Saxons had preserved their liberties for a much 
 shorter time, would still have given to the history of the world one 
 of its most precious possessions, another example of persevering 
 courage and strength of heart winning the battle over the darkest and 
 most disastrous circumstances. This was a lesson of hope and encou- 
 ragement which those who came after him could never lose by any 
 change of fortune. The actual improvements iu the department of 
 the national defence for which his country was indebted to Alfred 
 were the already mentioned commencement of the royal navy, various 
 improvements in the building of ships, the protection of the coast by 
 (it is said) no fewer than fifty forts or castles erected iu the course of 
 his reign on the most exposed or otherwise important points, and the 
 establishment of a regular order of military service, according to 
 which one half of the male population of the proper age was called 
 to the field aud the other allowed to remain at home iu turns, instead 
 of the whole, as formerly, beiug obliged to serve for a limited time. 
 In this way the demands both of war and of agriculture were pro- 
 perly provided for. Alfred has been commonly represented as a great 
 innovator iu the civil institutions of the Anglo-Saxons ; but it is 
 probable that he attempted little, if anything, more iu this depart- 
 ment than the restoration of the old laws and establishments of police, 
 which had falleu into inefficiency in the confusions and troubles that 
 preceded his reign. The body of laws which professes to be of his 
 enactment consists almost entirely of a selection from those of Ethel- 
 bert of Kent, Iua of Wessex, Offa of Mercia, aud other preceding 
 kings, with the addition of some portions of the Mosaic code. 
 Ingulfus aud other later writers attribute to him the division of the 
 country into shires, hundreds, aud tithiugs, and the establishment of 
 a system which made every man in some degree responsible for the 
 peace of his district and for the conduct of every other inhabitant ; 
 but it is iu the highest degree probable that all this, iu so far as it 
 does or ever did actually exist, is of much earlier Origin. We may 
 however believe that Alfred maintained a strict and efficient police in 
 his dominions, without takiug literally what is asserted by William of 
 Malmesbury, that a^ purse of money or a pair of golden bracelets 
 would in the time of this king remain for weeks exposed iu the high- 
 way without risk of depredation. It may also be true, as Ingulfus 
 relates, that he first appointed a justiciary, or special officer for tho 
 hearing of causes in every shire; dividing the authority which had 
 formerly resided in a single goveruor between that functionary and 
 the viscount or sheriff. But that Alfred, as has often been said, was 
 the founder or inventor of trial by jury, is certainly au erroneous 
 notion ; the jury trial of the Anglo-Saxons was altogether a different 
 thing from what is now kuown by that name, and was also undoubtedly 
 much more ancient thau the time of Alfred. The most important of 
 Alfred's patriotic services, and those at the same time of which we 
 have the best evidence, consist in what he did for the literature of his 
 country, aud the intellectual improvement of his subjects. Iu addition 
 to the establishment of schools in all the principal towus, having him- 
 self at the late age of 39 began the study of Latin under the direction 
 of some of the learned men whom ho iuvited to his court from all 
 parts — Grimbold or Grimbald of St. Omer and John of Corvei from 
 the continent, as well as Asser from St. David's iu Wales, aud Pleg- 
 mund, Werferth, and others from Mercia— he did not rest satisfied 
 till he had turned his new acquirements to accouut by translating into 
 the popular tongue such treatises as he conceived to be best suited for 
 his countrymen. The following translations by Alfred have come 
 down to us : — 1. The Pastorale, or Liber Pastoralis Cura3, of Pope 
 Gregory the Great, a directory or manual of instruction for bishops 
 and other clergymen. Of this all that has been priuted is Alfred's 
 highly curious and interesting preface. It is given iu Latiu iu various 
 editions of Asser, aud in other works ; and, with au English trans- 
 lation, iu Mr. Wright's 'Biographia Britanuica,' 8vo, London, 1812. 
 " When I thought," says Alfred, in the conclusion of this preface (to 
 adopt Mr. Wright's rendering), "how the learning of the Latin 
 language before this was decayed through the English people, though 
 many could read English writing, then I began, among other divers 
 aud manifold affairs of this kingdom, to translate iuto English tho 
 book which is named iu Latin Pastoralis, and iu English Herdsman's 
 Book, sometimes word for word, sometimes meaning for meaning, as 
 I learnt it of Plegmund my archbishop, and of Asser my bishop, and 
 of Grimbold my presbyter, aud of John my presbyter. After 1 had 
 thus learnt it so that I understood it as well as my understanding 
 could allow me, I translated it into English ; aud I will seud one copy 
 to each bishop's see iu my kingdom," &c. 2. The treatise of Boethius, 
 entitled ' De Consolatione Philosophise.' Alfred's translation of this 
 work is throughout very free, aud contains many additions to the 
 original — a fact which, we believe, was first noticed by Mr. Turner, 
 who has given au ample analysis of tho performance in his 'History 
 of the Anglo-Saxons.' The following is tin: proeemium or preface to 
 the Boethius, as translated by Mr. Cardale : — " Alfred, king, was 
 translator of this book, aud turned it from book Latiu into English, 
 as it now is done. Sometimes he set word by word, sometimes 
 meaning of meaning, as he the most plainly and most clearly could 
 render it, for the various aud manifold worldly occupations which 
 ofteu busied him both iu mind and iu body. The occupations are to 
 us vtTy difficult to be numbered which in his days came upon the 
 
 L 
 
141 
 
 kingdoms which ho had undertaken ; and nevertheless, when he had 
 learned this book, and turned [it] from Latin into the English 
 language, he afterwards composed it in verse, as it is now done. And 
 lie] now prays, and for God's sake implores every one of those whom 
 it lists to read this book, that he would pray for him, and not blame 
 him if he more rightly understand it than he could. For every man 
 must, according to the measure of his understanding, and according 
 to his leisure, speak that which he speaks, and do that which he does." 
 Notwithstanding what is here said, the version published by Mr. Car- 
 dale exhibits no verse; and Mr. Wright has stated some considerations, 
 from which he concludes that the verse translations of tho metrical 
 passages in tho original, which are given in Kaulinson's edition, cannot 
 have been composed by Alfred. 3. The General History of Orosius, 
 publish.*! by the Hon. Haines Barrington, under the titlo of 'The 
 Anglo-Stoion Version from the Historian Orosius, by Aelfred the 
 Great ; together with an English Translation from the Anglo-Saxon,' 
 8vo, LondjM, 1773. This translation is remarkable as containing, in 
 addition to the original text, a sketch of the geography of Germany in 
 Alfred's own day, and a curious relation of two voyages made in the 
 northern seas, as given to Alfred by the navigators themselves, Ohthere 
 and Wulfstan. These voyages had been previously printed more tliau 
 once. 4. The Ecclesiastical History of the English by Bedc. This is 
 also a very freo translation, but its deviations from the original con- 
 sist more frequently of abridgements than of additions. 5. A trans- 
 lation of a selection from the Soliloquies of St. Augustine, mentioned 
 by Mr. Turner as extant in the Cottonian manuscript Vitellius, A 15. 
 Of other works which have been attributed to Alfred, some, if they 
 ever existed, are lost, and others, such as the metrical version of the 
 Psalms, translations of other parts of Scripture, and the collection of 
 verses entitled ' Alfred's Proverbs,' are not believed to be genuine. 
 Alfred's will was published in 4to, at Oxford, in 1788, with a trans- 
 lation and notes by the Rev. Owen Manning. Alfred's Laws are in 
 the collection published by Wilkins, fob, Loudon, 1721 ; and also in 
 the new Record Commission edition by Mr. Benjamin Thorpe, foL 
 
 (Asserus, De Aelfredi Rebus Gcstis ; Chronicon Saxonieum ; Iugul- 
 phus, Historia Monasterii Croylandensis ; WilL Malmsburiensis De 
 Gestis Regnm Anylorum; Life of Alfred, by Sir John Spelman, 8vo, 
 Oxford, 1709 ; Turner, History of the Anglo-Saxons ; Wright, Biographia 
 Britavnica Lilcraria ; Paulli, Life of Alfred.) 
 
 ALFRIC, AELFUIC, or ELFRIC, styled Abbas, or the Abbot, and 
 also Grammaticus, or the Grammarian, is the author, or supposed 
 author, of more of the Anglo-Saxon literature that has come down to 
 us than any other writer. Eighteen distinct works have been attributed 
 to him. It is not quite certain however that all even of the works 
 that bear the name of Alfric are by the same writer. In the greater 
 number of them the author calls himself Alfric the Abbot (in Saxon, 
 Abboth; in Latin, Abbas); in others, Alfric the Monk (Monachus or 
 Monuc); in a few, Alfric the Bishop (Episcopus or Biscop). The 
 biography of the Alfric whom these several designations have com- 
 monly been all supposed to indicate is extremely obscure, and has 
 been the subject of much controversy. He was probably born before 
 tho middle of the 10th century; and, if we may believe Matthew 
 Paris, he was of very noble descent, his father being ealderman or 
 earl of Kent. In his Preface to Genesis he speaks of having once had 
 a fecular or mass priest for his teacher, who scarcely understood Latin ; 
 but he afterwards became one of the scholars of the learned Ethel- 
 wold, as he has himself mentioned, both in a Latin preface to his 
 Homilies and in another to his Grammar. He probably studied under 
 Ethelwold both at Abingdon, aud afterwards in the more famous 
 school which that person superintended at Winchester, of which see 
 he became bishop in 963. The next fact regarding him that is cer- 
 tainly known is that about the year 988 he was sent by the then 
 bishop of AVinchester, Alfheh, to take charge of the abbey of Cerne 
 in Dorsetshire, at the request of its founder, Ethelmer, earl of Corn- 
 wall. This he tells us himself, in a Saxon preface to his Homilies. 
 He is also supposed to have been the Alfric who was bishop of 
 Wilton (now Salisbury), and then archbishop of Canterbury, and who 
 died in 1006; while others suppose he was the Alfric, archbishop of 
 York, who died in 1051. The latest investigation of the history of 
 Alfric the Grammarian, and the most complete account that has been 
 given of his works, is contained in Mr. Wright's 'Biographia Britannica 
 Literaria,' vol. i pp. 4S0-494, under the head of 'Alfric of Canterbury.' 
 
 The writings of Alfric attracted the attention of the reformers in 
 the 16th century, by some passages (in his Paschal Sermon and else- 
 where) which are opposed to the Roman Catholic doctrine of trausub- 
 stantiation ; and the discovery of these passages appears to have had a 
 main influence in reviving the study of the Anglo-Saxon language and 
 literature. The author of the Preface to Archbishop Parker's edition 
 of the ' Paschal Sermon,' states some curious facts, making it probable 
 that the passages m question owed their preservation to the circum- 
 stance of the monks since the Norman Conquest having been unable to 
 read them. Alfric's writings also contain many notices of the manners 
 and customs of the time in which he lived ; and some of them are of 
 considerable interest and importance in a philological point of view. 
 His ' Homilies,' Mr. Wright observes, " are written in very easy Anglo- 
 Saxon, and form on that account the best book for the student who is 
 beginning to study the language." 
 
 ALGARDI, ALESSANDRO, an Italian sculptor and architect, 
 
 chiefly distinguished however as a sculptor. He was the son of a silk- 
 mercer of Bologna, where he was born about 1C00, or even earlier, but 
 the dates given by the various writers who have written notices of him 
 are so contradictory, that it is impossible to give a preference with any 
 degree of certainty. He entered the celebrated school of the Carracci, 
 but finding that sculpture was more suitable to his taste than painting, 
 he became the pupil of Giulio Cesare Conventi, a sculptor of celebrity 
 in his day. "At the age of twenty," says Bellori, "he accompanied 
 Gabrielle Bertazzuoli, the architect, to Mantua, and was introduced to 
 tho Duke Ferdinand, with whom he apparently became a favourite, 
 as he received many small commissions from him for models, and was 
 afterwards sent by him to Rome witli an introduction to the pope's 
 nephew, Cardinal Ludovisi : lie arrived in Rome in 1625. The cardi- 
 nal employed him chiefly in the restoration of ancient statues; and he 
 received some employment from the Roman jewellers. His first 
 original productions in Rome were two statues in stucco, for the 
 Capella Bondiui iu the church of San Silvestro on Monte Cavallo. He 
 obtained these commissions through the intercession of his friend 
 Doinenichino : they were a John the Baptist, and a Magdalen, and 
 obtained for Algardi a considerable reputation ; he had however still 
 to depend upon the jewellers for support. His patron Ferdinand, 
 duke of Mantua, died shortly after his arrival in Rome; he quarrelled 
 with Doinenichino, aud for many years he had no other occupation as 
 a sculptor than that of restoring ancient fragments. But about 1640 
 his prospects changed ; he was chosen by Pietro Buoncompagni to 
 execute the statue of San Filippo Neri for the sacristy of the Padri 
 dell' Oratorio of Rome ; he made a group in marble of two cohmal 
 figures, the saint, and an angel kneeling by his side presenting him a 
 book ; and he displayed so much judgment aud taste in working the 
 marble, that he raued himself to an equality with the most favoured 
 of his contemporaries ; and the Cardinal Benardino Spada, in conse- 
 quence of the success of this group, gave him a commission to execute 
 a colossal group iu marble of two figures representing the decapitation 
 of St. Paul, for the church of the Padri Beruabiti at Bologna. St. Paul 
 was represented kneeling, with his hands bound together before him; 
 the executioner, entirely naked, was behind the saint, with his sword 
 raised ready to strike. The success of this group was complete; it is 
 technically a work of very great excellence, but in the attitudes it is 
 forced or affected ; it however established for Algardi the reputation 
 of the greatest sculptor of his age. He now produced many works in 
 rapid succession, chiefly iu metal, both for Bologua and Rome. The 
 principal of these were the monument of Leo XI. in St. Peter's, and 
 Attila checked by St. Leo, au alto rilievo of enormous size, for one of 
 the altars of the same church. 
 
 Algardi's prosperity increased after the accession of Innocent X. 
 in 1644, whose niece, Costanza Paufili, was married to Algardi's friend 
 and patron, Prince Nicolo Ludovisi, the nephew of Gregory XV., 
 aud himself a Bolognese. Don Camillo Paufili, another of the pope's 
 nephews, entrusted to Algardi the erection of a villa without the gate 
 of San Pancrazio, now well known as the Villa Panfili. As an archi- 
 tectural design it is a work of little merit, though it is Algardi's 
 most successful effort in architecture : it is richly ornamented with 
 sculpture. 
 
 Algardi executed also the bronze statue of Innocent X., which was 
 decreed by the Roman people or senate in consideration of his having 
 completed the CapitoL Innocent built the north-east wing, or Nuovo 
 Palazzo de' Conservatori. The senate had voted the execution of the 
 work to Francesco Mochi : why it was not executed by Mochi does 
 not appear ; Innocent probably interfered in Algardi's favour. The 
 first casting failed ; the second however was completely successful. 
 Innocent is represented sitting, giving the papal benediction, and is 
 placed in that part of the Capitol which was built by him. Wheu the 
 statue was completed, the pope was so well satisfied with it that he 
 placed with his own hands a cros3 and chaiu of gold upou Algardi's 
 neck, and created him a Cavaliere dell' Abito di Cristo. 
 
 The Attila, or La Fuega d' Attila, as it is called, is the largest alto- 
 rilievo in the world ; the two principal figures of St. Leo and Attila 
 are about ten feet high. The design contains many other figures, aud 
 is treated pictorially, which treatment however iuvolves many disa- 
 greeable effects, as the parts in high relief cast their shadows upon 
 those in low relief, which are intended to be at a greater distance froos 
 the spectator, and destroy their effect entirely ; the high light also of 
 the principal figuivs coming in immediate contrast with their deep 
 shadows, gives an insignificant and mottled effect to the accessory 
 parts. In addition to these objections, there is another still more 
 detrimental to pictorial effect, that is, the fact of the shadows being 
 vertical as well as horizontal, for they fall upou the ground to which 
 the figures are attached, as well as upon that on which they stand. 
 This alto-rilievo, however, which is iu marble, is of itself a work of 
 great merit, though it may not deserve all the praises it has obtained ; 
 nor perhaps, on the other hand, does it merit all the censure it has 
 received. Count Cicognara has severely criticised it. 
 
 Algardi received for it 10,000 scudi, a sum probably equivalent at 
 that time to 5000i. sterling now, and more than two hundred times as 
 much as his old friend Domenichino received a few years before for 
 his 'Communion of St. Jerome,' one of the finest pictures in Rome. 
 The rilievo was executed in great part by Domenico Guidi of Naples, 
 aud was finished in 1650. 
 
149 
 
 ALGAROTTI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 ALT PASIIA. 
 
 160 
 
 Algardi died of a fever iu 1654. His biograpliers speak of Lis cha- 
 racter as generally good, though when he became rich he became also 
 avaricious ; he was never married, and in his youth he was very dissi- 
 pated. The bulk of his property was inherited by a sister, whose 
 marriage against Algardi'a consent was partly or perhaps chiefly the 
 cause of his death. Algardi's reputation is nearly exclusively that of 
 a sculptor, and as such he ranks amongst the greatest of the moderns. 
 His de-ign is vigorous and natural, and his draperies are well studied ; 
 but his style, when Compared with the antique, is somewhat vulgar 
 and affected. He excelled in representing infants. His architectural 
 designs, of which there are not many, are purely ornamental; the 
 design itself is subservient to its ornaments; they want mass and 
 feature. 
 
 (Passeri, Vile de' Pittori, &c. ; Bellori, Vite de' Pittori, &c. ; Cicog- 
 nara, Storia ddla Scull wa ; Milizia, Opere.) 
 
 ALGAROTTI, FRANCESCO, was born at Venice in 1712. His 
 father was a wealthy merchant. He studied at Rome and Bologna, in 
 which latter place he had for instructors Eustachio Manfredi and 
 Francesco Zanotti, who afterwards continued his friends and corre- 
 spondents. Algarotti made great progress in the study of languages, 
 the mathematics, astronomy, and anatomy. Being at Paris at the age 
 of twenty-one, he there wrote hia ' Neutonianismo per le Dame,' or 
 explanation of the system of Newton, adapted to the taste and under- 
 standing of female students. This is still considered as his best work. 
 He ni-xt proceeded to London, whence he accompanied Lord Balti- 
 more to St. Petersburg. He gave an account of thi3 journey in his 
 'Letters on Russia.' a country then comparatively little known. From 
 Russia he went to Germany, where he became acquainted with Frederic, 
 then Crown Prince of Prussia, who was living iu philosophical retire- 
 ment at Rheinsberg. The prince was so much pleased with his society, 
 that tour days after his accession to the throne, he wrote to Algarotti, 
 who was th n in England, inviting him in the most pressing manner 
 to come to Berlin. Algarotti accepted the invitation, and remained 
 afterwards in the Prussian capital or at Potsdam the greater part of 
 his life, not as a servile courtier, but as the friend and confidant of 
 Frederic. The king gave him the title of count, made him his cham- 
 berlain, and employed him occasionally in diplomatic affairs. He wa3 
 also commissioned by the Elector of Saxony to collect objects of art 
 throughout Italy for the gallery of Dresden. For five-andtwenty 
 years from Alg;irotti's first acquaintance with Frederic to the moment 
 of his death, their mutual friendship and confidence were never inter- 
 rupted. Towards the latter part of his life, Algarotti, finding the 
 climate of Prussia too cold for his declining health, returned to Italy, 
 where he lived first in his own house iu Venice, afterwards at Bologna, 
 among his literary friends, and lastly at Pisa, where the mildness of 
 the »ir induced him to remain, a3 he was evidently sinking under con- 
 sumption of the lungs. There he corrected the edition of his works 
 then publishing at Leghorn ; the study of the fine art3 and music filled 
 up the remainder of his time. In this calm retirement he waited for 
 death, which came on the 3rd of May, 1764, in his fifty second year. 
 Frederic, to whom Algarotti had bequeathed a fine painting, ordered a 
 monument to be raised to him in the Campo Santo, or great cemetery 
 of Pisa, where it is to be seen. It is asserted by Ugoni, in his biogra- 
 phy of Algarotti, that Frederic forgot to pay Count Bonomo the 
 expense of this mausoleum. Algarotti was an honorary member of 
 many universities and academies of Italy, Germany, and England. 
 He was the friend and correspondent of most of the literary men and 
 women of hia time, among others, of Voltaire, Maupertuis, Metastasio, 
 Bettinelli, Lord Chesterfield, Lady AVortley Montague, Madame du 
 Bocage, &c. Besides the two works above mentioned, he wrote 
 'Letters on Painting,' in which he has described several frescoes which 
 are now lost ; he also wrote a number of essays on various subjects. 
 His works have been swell-d, by the insertion of his extensive corre- 
 spondence, into sevent en volumes, octavo, Venice, 1791. Algarotti's 
 style seldom rises above mediocrity ; his chief merit is that of having 
 rendered science and literature fashionable among the upper classes of 
 his time and country. He was a man of much information and con- 
 siderable t.»3te, but of a cold imagination, and not profound in any 
 particular branch of learning. 
 
 ALHAZEN, or ALLACEN, properly Al-Hasan, or, with his com- 
 plete name, Abu Ali al-Ifasan ben alrHasan ben Hailam, a distinguished 
 mathematician, who lived during the earlier part of the 11th century. 
 He was a native of Basra. Having boasted that he could construct a 
 machine by means of which the inundations of the Nile could be 
 predicted and regulated, the Fatimide kalif, Hakim biamr-allah, sent 
 for Lira, in order to carry his plan into effect. But Al-Hasan soon 
 found that he had undertaken an impossibility, and in order to avoid 
 the consequences of Hakim's anger at his disappointment, he feigned 
 insanity till Hakim died (AD. 1020). He lived at Cairo, where he 
 supported himself by copying books, and devoted his leisure hours to 
 study and original composition. He died in 1038. A long list of his 
 works maybe found in Casiri's ' Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escu- 
 rialensis,' vol. i. p. 415. A treatise on optics, by Al-Hasan, was trans- 
 lated into Latin by Risuer, and printed at Basil, under the title of 
 'Opticae Thesaurus,' iu 1572. 
 
 ALI BEN ABI TALEB, surnarned by the Arabs Asud Allah, and 
 by the Persians Shir-i-Khoda, that in, the Lion of God, was the fourth 
 salif or successor of Mohammed in the government founded by him, 
 
 and occupied the throne during the years 35- J 0 after the Hegira, 
 a.d. 055-060. He was the consiu-german of Mohammed, lived from 
 childhood under his care, and when ten or eleven years old, was, 
 according to tradition, the first to acknowledge him as a prophet. 
 From these circumstances, and also on account of his marriage with 
 Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed, Ali appeared to have strong 
 claims to the commandership over the Faithful, when the Prophet 
 died, in 632, without leaving male issue. Three other associates of 
 the Prophet, Abu Bekr, Omar, and Othman, were however successively 
 appointed kalifs, before Ali came to the throne in 655. The contro- 
 versy concerning the respective rights of Abu Bekr, Omar, and Othman, 
 on the one side, and of Ali ben Abi Taleb and his lineal descendants 
 on the other, gave rise to the schism of the Sunnites and Shiites in the 
 Mohammedan community. [Abu Bekr.] Othman had been kdled 
 during a revolt at Medina, where a number of malcontents from dif- 
 ferent parts of the empire were assembled; those from Egypt succeeded 
 in elevating Ali to the kalifate. Two of his competitors, Zobair and 
 Talha, at first acknowledged him as sovereign ; but when Ali refused 
 to appoint them governors of the important towns of Basra and Kuf'a, 
 by the inhabitants of which their claims to the kalifate had been 
 chiefly supported, both deserted him, and iu common with Ayeshah, 
 the widow of Mohammed, formed a strong party against Ali. They 
 had already made themselves masters of Basra, when Ali, at the head 
 of an army of 30,000 men, defeated them iu a battle near Khoraiba in 
 656. Talha and Zobair were killed : Ayeshah, who had been present 
 at the conflict, was taken prisoner, and sent to Mecca. 
 
 New disturbances soon arose at Damascus, where Moawia, a near 
 relative of Othman, had by a strong party been appointed Amir, or 
 chief. Ali encountered him near Saffein in 657, iu the neighbourhood 
 of which place nearly a whole year was consumed iu skirmishes 
 between the two armies, but no decisive battle ensued. At last the 
 two opponents agreed to withdraw, appointing each a delegate to 
 arrange the controversy in a peaceable convention. This measure 
 excited much dissatisfaction among the adherents of Ali, many of 
 whom seceded, and assembled at Naharvan' under the command of 
 Abdallah ben Waheb. They were however dispersed after a decisive 
 battle in 658, in which Ali was victorious. 
 
 The caution with which the governor of Egypt, Saad ben Kais, had 
 conducted himself during these disputes rendered him suspected by 
 the kalif. Ali removed him in 658, aud appointed Mohammed, the 
 sou of Abu Bekr, who behaved with such rigour towards the adherents 
 of Moawia, that much discontent was excited in Egypt. Moawia 
 availed himself of this opportuuity to send an army into Egypt under 
 the command of Amru ben al-As, who vanquished aud killed Moham- 
 med. Soon afterwards Moawia took possession also of Basra, which 
 Ali's governor, Zayyad, made but a feeble effort to defend. Abdallah 
 ben Abbas however reconquered that town for the kalif. 
 
 In 660 Moawia sent an army under the command of Bosr ben Artha 
 into Hejaz, who took possession of the two sacred cities, Mecca aud 
 Medina, and on his return defeated and killed Abdallah ben Abbas, 
 the governor of Basra. 
 
 About this time three of the zealots of Naharvan, with the design 
 of restoring unity, entered into a conspiracy to murder Amru ben 
 al-As, the kalif Ali, aud Moawia. Amru ben al-As and Moawia escaped, 
 but Ali was struck with a poisoned sword iu his residence at Kufa, 
 and died after three days, iu 060, at the age of fifty-nine, or according 
 to others, sixty-five years. 
 
 Ali had by Fatima three sons, Hassan, Hossain, and Mohsen. Hassan 
 succeeded his father for a short time in the government, and with him 
 terminated, according to Arabic historians, the legitimate kalifate, that 
 is, the succession of those kalifs who had been appointed by tho free 
 choice of the Faithful. 
 
 ALI, HYDER. [Hyder All] 
 
 ALI PASHA, a celebrated Albanian chief, was born about 1750, in 
 the little town of Tepelen, iu the pashalic of Berat, on the left bank of 
 tho river. Voioussa, the ancient Aous, at the foot of the Klissoura 
 Mountains. Ali's family was distinguished by the name of Hissas, 
 and had been for ages settled in the country ; it belonged to the 
 Albauian tribe or clan of the Toske or Toxide, who boast of being old 
 Mussulmans. One of Ali's ancestors, after being for some time a 
 klephtis, or high way- robber, made himself master of Tepelen, and 
 assumed the title of Bey, holding it as a fief of the pacha of Berat. 
 Ali's grandfather distinguished himself in the Ottoman service by his 
 bravery, and was killed at the siege of Corfu against the Venetians, in 
 the beginniug of the 18th century. His son, Vehli Bey, the father of 
 Ali Pasha, was a good, quiet, liberal-minded mau, very partial towards 
 the Greeks. The neighbouring beys or feudal Albauian chiefs com- 
 bined against him, aud deprived him of the greater part of his estates; 
 but the mother of Ali was a woman of masculine courage, though of 
 cruel disposition, and, on her husband's death, secured the succession 
 to her own son Ali, then fourteen years of age, by the adoption of the 
 most unscrupulous means. 
 
 The early life of Ali was passed in the usual vicissitudes of predatory 
 warfare, aud sufficiently varied by a succession of adventures possessing 
 the interest of romance, though marked by ferocity, treachery, and most 
 other atrocities. His power however continued to become gradually 
 consolidated, and several of the surrounding districts submitted to 
 him, until at length his riches gave him the means of intriguing at 
 
161 
 
 ALI PASHA. 
 
 ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD. 
 
 161 
 
 the Porte, He then obtained the secret commission of executing the 
 'firmauu of death' against Selim Pasha of Delvino, In reward for 
 this Bervice lie was appointed lieutenant to the new Derwend Pasha 
 ofRoumili, in which office he enriched himself by sharing with the 
 klephtis the produce of their spoils. Iti consequence of this traffic 
 the roads soon swarmed with robbers; repeated complaints reached 
 the Porte, and the Derwend Pasha was recalled and beheaded. The 
 lieutenant also, being summoned, instead of appearing, sent presents 
 to several members of the divan, and thus evaded punishment. 
 
 All's reputation for bravery and decision was however established 
 at Constantinople, and when the war broke out in 1787, between the 
 Porte and the two courts of Austria and Russia, he WHS appointed to 
 a command in t he army under the vizier Jussuf. J laving distinguished 
 himself in the field, he was next appointed to the pashalic of Trieala 
 in Thessaly, and was moreover named Derwend Pasha of RoumilL 
 Jle now raised a body of 4000 men, all Albanians and old klephtis, 
 with whom he soon cleared the roads of robbers, and thus won merit 
 with the Porte. lie now turned his views towards .lanuina, the 
 Capital of southern Albania, or Bpirus, where utter anarchy prevailed. 
 Assisted by his friends in the town, he entered it and took possession 
 of the citadel. He then, by bribery and other means, got himself 
 confirmed in the pashalic which he had usurped ; and by a vigorous 
 despotism extinguished all fact ions, restored tranquillity, and the people 
 were satisfied with the change. The l'orte, seeing this so long turbu- 
 lent province reduced to subjection, forgave Ali for a deception of 
 which the divan had been apprised only when it was too late. 
 
 Ali extended his dominion over all Kpirus, and abo into Ararnania 
 and vEtolia, or western Greece, by successfully attacking the revolted 
 Aruiatoles or Greek militias who, under the corrupt and supine Turkish 
 government, infested instead of protecting the country. He attacked 
 the Suliotes, a people inhabiting a mountainous district about 30 
 miles S.S.W. from .Tanniua. After a brave and protracted resistance 
 of more than ten years, the Suliotes agreed to evacuate their country 
 in December, 180,3, but on attempting to retreat, in order to embark 
 at Parga, Ali's soldiers fell upon them, and the scenes that followed 
 were dreadful. None of the Suliotes surrendered ; almost all perished. 
 In one instance, a small party, being completely surrounded, retreated 
 towards a precipice, the women leading the way; being arrived on the 
 blink, they first threw their children into the abrss below, after which 
 they all, husbands and wives, fathers and sons, brothers and sisters, 
 linked hand in band, ran down the declivity, and mutually impelled 
 each other into the precipice, in sight of their disappointed enemies. 
 Only a few, who escaped before the attack, managed to reach Parga, 
 and thence embarked for Corfu, at that time occupied by the Russians. 
 A remnant of these unfortunate exiles were subsequently, under the 
 auspices of England, restored to their native country. But Ali was 
 shackled on the sea-side of his dominions: he therefore attacked and 
 reduced in succession the fortress towns on the coast of the Adriatic 
 and the Gulf of Arta, which, formerly dependencies of Venice, were 
 then in the hands of the Freuch, of which Prevesa aud Parga were 
 the most eminent. Their capture was attended with almost every 
 circumstance of ferocity and cruelty that can make war revolting. 
 
 Ali extended his dominions to the north into Albania Proper, by the 
 conquest of the pashalic of Be rat, which he effected more by intrigue 
 than by force. He likewise occupied the government of Ochrida in 
 Upper Albania, by joining in the attack ordered by the Porte against 
 the rebellious pasha of Skodra, or Scutari, aud then kept it for himself. 
 The Porte was obliged to wink at these usurpations. Ali was even 
 appointed for a twelvemonth Roumili-Valicy, or supreme inspector of 
 the principal division of the empire, aud he went to reside at Mouastir, 
 at the head of 24,000 men. His extortions in Roumelia were very 
 great. His own dominious in the latter part of his life extended over 
 all Epirus, one half of Albania Proper, part of Thessaly, aud the whole 
 of western Greece, from the Lake of Ochrida on the north, to the 
 Gulf of Lepanto on the south, and from Mount Piudus to the Adriatic. 
 Ali was now vizier or pasha of three tails : his second son, Vehli, was 
 made pasha of the Morea ; aud his elder son, Mouktar, a thorough 
 soldier, distinguished himself in the service of the Sultan during the 
 campaign of 1809 against the Russians. The youngest of all, Salih 
 Bey, who was his father's favourite, and destined to succeed him, was 
 brought up with particular care under good tutors and teachers. 
 Ali Pasha, although hated by the Porte, might have ended his days in 
 peace; his power made him feared, aud his advanced age was an 
 inducement to the Sultan to wait patiently for his natural death. But 
 an attempt to procure the assassination of one of his confidants who 
 had abandoned him, and obtained an appointment in the seraglio at 
 Constantinople, aroused the ire of the Sultan. Ali was excommuni- 
 cated, and all the pashas of Europe were ordered to march against 
 him. This was at the begiuning of 1820, and at length Ali was com- 
 pelled to abandon Jannina, and to surrender himself on being promised 
 the Sultan's pardon. His own perfidy was now retorted on himself. 
 He was murdered ; his head was cut off, aud sent to Constantinople, 
 where it was exhibited before the gate of the seraglio. His sons 
 ehared their father's fate. Thus Ali Pasha, at seventy-two years of 
 age, closed his guilty but extraordinary career, in February, 1822. 
 
 The character of such a man is easily ascertained from the account 
 of his life. The cruelty of his reveuge was even fiendish. His 
 administration rested upon the principles of terror ; he certainly extir- 
 
 pated the robbers and other criminals, and rendered his territories 
 perfectly Beoure from all depredations but his own. This security, in 
 a country like Turkey, was felt as a boon, and commerce improved in 
 some measure by it. Jannina became one of the most flourishing 
 towns of Turkey, aud its population had increased to 40,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Ali was a Mussulman only by name : he fully protected the 
 Greeks, and other Christians, in the exercise of their religion, and 
 allowed them to havo schools, and even a lyceum and a library. Ali 
 treated all his subjects, Albanians, Turks, or Greeks, alike, aud without 
 partiality; the Turks were perhaps those who liked him the least, 
 becau e be did not allow them to ill-use the rest of the people, as in 
 other parts of Turkey. 
 ALIMENTUS, C1NCIUS. [Cincius Aumbntus.] 
 ALISON, REV. ARCHIBALD, was born in 1757 in Edinburgh, of 
 which city his father, Andrew Alison, was a magistrate. In 1772 
 Archibald was sent to the University of Glasgow, whence he proceeded 
 with an exhibition to Balliol College, Uxford, where he matriculated, 
 November <»t,h, 1 775. He took the degree of A.M. aud that of LL.B. 
 March 23rd, 1781, in which year he entered into holy orders, aud 
 married the daughter of Dr. John Gregory of Edinburgh. He was 
 soon afterwards appointed to the curacy of Brancepeth, Durham. He 
 obtained the perpetual curacy of Kenley in Shropshire in 1790, a 
 prebendal stall in Salisbury Cathedral in 1791, the vicarage of Ercall 
 in Shropshire in 1791, and the living of Roddington in Shropshire in 
 1797. In 1800 he was invited to become senior minister of the epis- 
 copal chapel, Cowgate, Edinburgh. He accepted the invitation, and 
 continued to officiate for the congregation, which afterwards removed 
 to St. Paul's chapel, a handsome new gothic building iu York-place, 
 till 1831, when severe illness compelled him to withdraw from the 
 performance of his public duties. He died iu 1839, at the age of 82. 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Alison was the author of ' Essays on the Nature and 
 Principles of Taste ;' ' Sermons, chiefly on Particular Occasions,' 2 vols. 
 8vo., 1814, 1815, and several editions since; aud 'A Memoir on the 
 Life and Writings of the Hon. Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Wood- 
 housclee,' in the ' Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,' 
 1818. 
 
 His literary reputation chiefly depends on his ' Essays on Taste,' 
 which were first published iu 1790, but which made little impression 
 on the public till the second edition, with additions, came out iu 1811, 
 when the work became the subject of an encomiastic article by Jeffrey 
 iu the ' Edinburgh Review,' aud it then became popular ; its popularity 
 however was but evanescent. The work consists of two essays; the 
 first ' Of the Nature of the Emotions of Sublimity and Beauty,' the 
 second ' Of the Sublimity and Beauty of the Material World ;' the 
 whole work is divided into chapters, sections, and parts, with much 
 appearance of philosophical accuracy, but with little cither of compre- 
 hensiveness or precision iu the treatment of the subjects. His notion 
 of sublimity is vague ; sometimes he seems to understand the word iu 
 the common acceptation, as super-eminent grandeur of any kind ; 
 sometimes in the sense in which it is used by Longinus, as anything 
 calculated to produce a powerful emotion. The vagueness of his 
 uotiou of beauty may be more easily excused, since, as the term is 
 generally applied to any object of nature or art calculated to produce 
 a pleasing feeling in the mind, the causes of the emotion of beauty are 
 necessarily multifarious, aud subject to no general rule. Alison does 
 not treat of taste as an appreciating and discriminating faculty of the 
 mind depending on the judgment, or as the judgment applied to the 
 fine arts aud to the objects and scenes of nature about which those 
 art3 are conversant ; but as an emotion caused by objects or scenes 
 calculated to excite certain associations of ideas and trains of thought, 
 which, according to him, are the real causes of the emotion. His 
 views are indeed little better than a series of opinions formed with 
 little power of thought, and falsified in many parts by the application 
 of the doctrine of association, which, however true as applied to parti- 
 cular cases, is not true when applied as the primary cause of the 
 emotions of sublimity and beauty, or as the leading principle of taste 
 itself. His style is not unpleasing, but it is diffuse, and deficient in 
 distinctness and precision. 
 
 *ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD, Bart., son of the preceding, was 
 born December 29, 1792, at Kenley, Shropshire, of which place his 
 father was then vicar. His father removed to Edinburgh in 1800, 
 and carried his son with him. In the schools and university of that 
 city the future historian received his education; and there, in 1814, 
 he was called as an advocate to the Scottish bar. His earliest literary 
 appearance was as a writer on the criminal law of Scotland, and as a 
 contributor to the periodical publications. But the work on which 
 his literary reputation depends is the ' History of Europe, from the 
 Commencement of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration 
 of the Bourbons in 1815,' the first volume of which appeared in 1839. 
 This work supplied a want in contemporary historical liteiatuie, aud 
 achieved a great success. It has already passed through numerous 
 editions, the latest being a library edition (the eighth), in fourteen 
 volumes, an edition of smaller size, in twenty volumes, besides a 
 cheap edition ; aud it has been translated into most of the European 
 aud more than one of the Eastern languages. The history is written 
 with a strong party bias, is singularly verbose aud perplexed in style, 
 aud is deficient iu many of the qualities of a historical work of a high 
 class ; but it is full of matter, the result of great aud comprehensive 
 
153 
 
 ALKMAR, HENRY VAN. 
 
 ALLAN, DAVID. 
 
 164 
 
 industry — displays constant animation, and an evident desire to deal 
 fairly with all parties and persons concerned in the events described. 
 No other English history of the period can be turned to with equal 
 confidence for information, and the tendency to euforce a pre-couceived 
 theory is counterbalanced by free quotations or fair statements of the 
 views of opposing parties, and full references to original authorities. 
 In 1852 Sir Archibald published the first volume of a continuation of 
 his history, to the accession of Louis Napoleon, aud four more volumes 
 have since appeared. But the continuation has little chance of obtain- 
 ing the popularity of the earlier work, of which it possesses all the 
 faults with scarce any of the merits. In describing the conflict of 
 opinions, Sir Archibald loses the animation which sustains him in 
 narrating the more exciting events of the revolutionary war ; and the 
 history becomes a series of heavy disquisitions, which tax the patience 
 of the most persevering reader, yet add little to the knowledge of the 
 least instructed. The other more important of Sir Archibald's works 
 are — a 'Life of Marlborough,' iu two volumes, which has reached a 
 third edition ; ' Essays : Historical, Political, and Miscellaneous,' origi- 
 nally published in 'Blackwood's Magazine,' in three volumes; aud 
 the ' Principles of Population,' in two volumes. 
 
 Mr. Alison was created a Baronet soon alter the formation of the 
 Derby administration in 1852. In 1828 he was appointed Sheriff of 
 Lanarkshire. In 1851 he was elected Rector of Glasgow University ; 
 and he has received the honorary degree of D.U.L. from the 
 University of Oxford. 
 
 ALKMAR, HENRY VAN, or, as he himself wrote his name, Hinrek 
 van Alkmar, is the person to whom Germany owes the first edition and 
 translation of the celebrated poem, 'Reynard the Fox.' He lived 
 during the latter half of the 15th century, but of his circumstances 
 we know no more than what he himself states in the preface to his 
 'Reineke V033' — that he was a schoolmaster and teacher of virtue in 
 the service of the Duke of Lorraine, and that he translated the poem 
 from the Walsch (probably the Wallon) aud French into German at 
 the request of his master. He further divided the whole poem into 
 four parts and into chapters, each of which is preceded by a sort of 
 commentary explaining the poet's meaning aud the moral of the tale. 
 This first German edition of ' Reynard the Fox ' is iu Low German, 
 and embellished with woodcuts. It was printed at Lubeck iu 1498 iu 
 small quarto. The only copy which is known to exist of this edition 
 is in the library of Wolfeubuttel. A reprint of it was edited by F. A. 
 Von Hakemann, Wolfenbiittel, 1711. The second edition, which was 
 perhaps made in the life of Alkmar himself, is that published at 
 Rostock, 1517, 4to., of which also there exists only one copy iu the 
 library of Dresden. The waodcuts of this edition are somewhat better 
 than those in the Lubeck edition. 
 
 As to the faithfulness of the translation we are unable to judge, as 
 the original which Alkmar used is unknown ; but it is certain that 
 Alkmar produced one of the most spirited and beautiful poems that 
 exist in the German language. 
 
 The version printed in 1498 at Lubeok bears the title of 'Reineke 
 Voss.' It is written in the Frisian dialect, which is only a modification 
 of that spoken in Lower Saxony, and it consists of four books, each 
 of which is subdivided into chapters. The verses consist of iambics 
 mixed with numerous spondees aud anapaests. The poem consists of 
 the picture of a court of animals, of which Nobel, the Lion, is king, 
 aud at which many animals complain of the injuries suffered from the 
 intrigues and rapacity of Reineke the Fox. He is summoned to 
 Court, and after exercising his ingenuity in punishing the messengers 
 he appears, is sentenced to be hung, but gets released by promising to 
 di-cover a concealed treasure to the king. On the deception being 
 discovered he is again summoned, appears, defends himself by an 
 ingenious series of falsehoods, and ultimately undertakes a siugle 
 combat against his principal opponent, the Wolf, whom he conquers 
 by a vile trick, and is restored to the king's favour, with which the 
 poem ends. The moral conveyed is of a low character, that cunning 
 i'ud fraud constitute the true wisdom; but an interest is raised for 
 Reineke as he acts a sort of retributive part, the sufferings of his 
 victims being as much the consequence of their own evil dispositions 
 as of his tricks, except in the cases of Lampe the hare and Bellin the 
 ram, towards whom hi3 excuse i.s that they were "stupid." His 
 apology for his own conduct usually rests upon the bad example set 
 by others, particularly by priests. The great number of editions which 
 appeared in Germany after the first publication of it, and still more 
 the numerous bad paraphrases iu prose, which were sold by thousands 
 at every fair, show the immense popularity which the story had in 
 Germany. 
 
 The best edition was edited by Hoffmann von Fallerslebeu (Breslau, 
 1834), with an introduction, glossary, and commentary. The text is 
 a correct reprint of the first edition. Guthe has made a most beautiful 
 trauslatiou of ' Reineke Fuchs ' into modern High German, in hexa- 
 meters (Berlin, 1794); D. W. Soltau lias made another in doggrel verse 
 (lierhn, 1803), a much improved edition of which appeared at Braun- 
 •chweig, 1823. It has also been translated into Latin by Hartmann 
 Scliopper, under the title, 'Opus Poeticum de Admirabili Fallacia et 
 Astutia Vulpeculic Reinekes,' &c, Frankfort, 1574; this translation 
 lia-i often been reprinted. In 1700 there appeared in London a 
 metrical English translation from the Latin of Schopper. 
 
 The German veraiou of ' Reineke ' was, notwithstanding the state- 
 
 ment of its author, formerly thought to bo an original composition ; 
 but the subject was known for many centuries and in several countries 
 before the German poem was printed. A Dutch edition of the story 
 of ' Reiueke ' in prose, interspersed with occasional verses, was printed 
 in 1485 at Delft; it was reprinted iu 1783 at Lubeck and Leipzig, 
 under the title ' Die Historic va Reinaert de Vos.'. The author of this 
 Dutch version, which is in many respects superior to the German, and 
 has probably served as the source from which the German poet drew 
 his materials, calls himself William Matok, and also refers to a French 
 work which had served him as his model. But oven this Dutch version 
 cannot have been the first; for Caxton (1481), in his English trans- 
 lation, states that he kept closely to a Dutch original. It may be 
 inferred from the various subsequent corrected and enlarged editions 
 of this poem, as well as from the allusions of our early dramatists, that 
 it gained considerable popularity iu England also. The Flemish like- 
 wise possess au excellent metrical version, which was published in 1836 
 at Ghent by Willems, with a very valuable introduction. The early 
 French literature, however, is the richest in poems founded on the 
 story of Reynard. Moon, in his ' Roman du Renard ' (Paris, 1826), 
 has shown that most of these poems belong to the 13th century, and 
 more modern researches have proved that the story was known as 
 early as the 9th century. The .subject is oue which so readily presents 
 itself to the imagination, that it would be impossible with any proba- 
 bility to assign its invention to auy particular time or nation. When- 
 ever a work of fiction of commanding interest appears, unpoetical 
 minds are always ready to seek some real history disguised under it ; 
 and this has been the case with this poem ever since its publication, 
 until Jacob Grimm, in his ' Reiuhart Fuchs ' (Berlin, 1834), showed 
 that there is no ground whatever for such a supposition. 
 
 (Hogel, Gcschkhte dcr Kunuselicn Littratw ; Jordeus, Lexikon 
 Dentscher Dtchtcr and Pivsaislen ; Carlyle, Miscellanies, vol. iii., p. 
 197, &c.) 
 
 ALLAN, DAVID, called the Scottish Hogarth, was born at Alloa 
 in Clackmannanshire in 1744, where his father was shore-master. The 
 choice of his profession was partly owing to au accident : he burnt his 
 foot, aud while he was being nursed at home, having nothing else to 
 do, he amused himself with drawing with a piece of chalk upon the 
 floor; an amusement he got so much attached to, that when he 
 recovered he had a very great objection to going to school. But he 
 soon obtained a happy release from this obligation, for his old school- 
 master turned him away from the school for making a caricature of 
 him punishing a refractory boy. Mr. Stuart, collector of the customs 
 at Alloa, was so much struck with the caricature that he recommended 
 Allan's father to send him to the academy of Robert aud Andrew 
 Foulis at Glasgow to learn to become a painter. He was accordingly 
 apprenticed iu 1755 to Robert Foulis. Allan remained at this academy 
 nine years, and when he returned home he had the good fortune to be 
 introduced by Lord Cathcart as a native prodigy to Erskine of Mar, 
 on whose estate he was born, aud by whom he wa3 generously sent as 
 a pensioner to prosecute his studies at Rome. Here he obtained first 
 a silver medal for a drawing iu the academy of St. Luke, aud after- 
 wards the gold medal for a painting. The subject was the legend of 
 the Corinthian maid who drew the profile of her lover around his 
 shadow cast by a lamp upon the wall. The picture was well painted, 
 and a good engraving of it by Cuuego spread Allan's reputation 
 throughout Italy ; aud his praises reached even his own countrymen : 
 it was however the first aud last good picture he ever painted. His 
 subsequent works were distinguished for humour and feeling, but in 
 execution, whether as paintings or engravings, they are very inferior. 
 
 He painted two other pictures at Rome, the ' Prodigal Son' for Lord 
 Cathcart, and ' Hercules and Omphale ' for Erskine of Mar; and 'he 
 made also four humorous designs illustrating the Roman Carnival, 
 which through Paul Saudby's prints of them became popular, and 
 gained Allan a considerable reputation for broad humour. But he no 
 more deserved the title of the ' Scottish Hogarth,' which for these and 
 a few other similar designs he obtained in Scotland, than his historical 
 pictures would warrant his being called the Scottish Raphael. " He 
 is among painters," says Allan Cunningham, " what Allan Ramsay is 
 among poets — a fellow of infinite humour, and excelling in all manner 
 of rustic drollery, but deficient in fine sensibility of conception, and 
 little acquainted with lofty emotion or high imagination." 
 
 In 1777 Allan visited London, which however he left for Edinburgh, 
 after practising there for a short time as a portrait-painter. After the 
 death of Ruuciman iu 1786, Allan succeeded him as master of the 
 Trustees' Academy, which office he held for ten years until his death 
 in 1796. He left a son and daughter; the former went in 1806 as a 
 cadet to India. 
 
 Allan's most popular designs are his twelve illustrations of Ramsay's 
 'Gentle Shepherd,' which he engraved himself iu aquatinta, and pub- 
 lished with au edition of the poem, with some prefatory remarks as a 
 sort of apology for the humbleness of the style of his designs. He 
 made also some designs for the lyric poems of Burns, who compli- 
 mented the painter in his letters to his friend Thomson on more than 
 one occasion. Burns however found fault with Allan's ' stock aud 
 horn,' a rude musical instrument which he put into the hands of some 
 of his characters. Burns offered to scud him a real one, such as the 
 shepherds used in the braes of AthoL "If Mr. Allan chooses," says 
 Burns, " I will send him a sight of mine, as I look on myself it be a 
 
158 
 
 kind of brother brush with bin:. ' Pride in poets is nae sin ;' and I 
 will say it, that I look on Mr. Allan and Mr. Burns to be the only 
 genuine and real painters of Scottish costume in the world." But 
 Allan did not think that Burns' s ' stock and horn ' were any improve- 
 ment upon his own ; be said it was only fit for " routing and roaring." 
 (Cunningham, Lives of British Painters, &c.) 
 
 ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM, was born in Edinburgh in 1782. After 
 receiving his early education at the High School, he was placed with 
 a coaeh-paiuter ; but displaying a strong attachment to art, he was 
 entered as a pupil in the Trustees' Academy, where Wilkie was his 
 fellow-student. When his term expired he proceeded to London, and 
 became a student of the Royal Academy. In 1805 his first picture 
 of a ' Gipsy Boy and Ass 1 appeared at the exhibition of that institution. 
 Not succeeding in at once attracting public attention, Allan resolved 
 !o try his fortune abroad, and selected St. Petersburg for the scene of 
 his experiment ; incited partly, it is said, by the expectation of finding 
 novel and picturesque objects for the exercise of his pencil. He 
 remained in Russia nearly ten years, making occasional journeys to 
 distant parts of the country, to Turkey, Tartary, the shores of the 
 Black Sea, and everywhere iudustriously employing himself in 
 gathering materials for his art. 
 
 On his return to Scotlaud in 1814, he made a public exhibition of 
 his sketches and finished pictures of Russian, Tartarian, and Circassian 
 scenes and costrrme. Among the pictures was a large one of 'Circassian 
 Captives,' which at the 6upge>tion of Sir Walter Scott was purchased 
 by one hundred gentlemen, who subscribed ten guineas each; it fell 
 to the lot of the Ear l of Wemyss, in whose possessron it now is. From 
 this time Allan settled in his native city, sending regularly some of his 
 works to the exhibition of the Royal Academy. For a while his pencil 
 was chiefly employed on pictures suggested by the couutries in which 
 he had travelled ; be then turned to the annals of hi.s native land, and 
 for several years was mostly engaged in illustrating the history or the 
 romance of Scotland. To this period belong the ' Murder of Arch- 
 bishop Sharpe,' 'Parting of Prince Charles Stuart and Flora MacdonaM,' 
 ' Knox admonishing Mary Queen of Scots,' ' Murder of the Regent 
 Murray,' and others of his best works. In consequence of a disease 
 in the eyes he was compelled for a year or two to cease from painting, 
 find being advised to try a change of climate, he visited Italy, Asia 
 Mirror, and Greece. On resuming his pencil, his 'Slave Market at 
 Constantinople,' and pictures of a like kind, showed that he had 
 profited by his travels. 
 
 Meanwhile he had been gaining the distinctions awarded to success 
 in his profession. In 1825 he was elected associate of the Royal 
 Academy. In 1835 he became R.A. In 1838 he was chosen, on the 
 death of Mr. Watson, to be president of the Scottish Academy. On 
 the death of Wilkie in 1S40 Allan was appointed to succeed him as 
 her Majesty's Limner for Scotland ; and in 1812 he received the honour 
 of knighthood. Sir William Allan was best known by his Russian and 
 Circassian ijcnre pieces, and by his Scottish historical works. In all of 
 them ther e is much skill and refinement, but in none any very e\ident 
 marks of a high order of genius. But he was also a very successful 
 painter of a special class of portraits, such, for instance, as his ' Scott 
 in his Study Writing,' and its courpanion, 'Scott in his Study Reading;' 
 and in his later years he essayed with success- the more laborious task 
 of depicting scenes of actual warfare. Of these the most important 
 were two pictures of the ' Battle of Waterloo,' which met with the 
 marked approval of the Duke of Wellington, and one of which his 
 grace purchased ; the ' Battle of Preston Pans ;' ' Nelson Boarding the 
 San Nicolas ;' and the ' Battle of Bannockburn,' a large painting, on 
 which he was engaged at the time of his death. One of his last con- 
 siderable works, ' Peter the Great teaching his Subjects the Art of 
 Ship building,' was a commission from the Emperor of Russia. 
 
 Sir William Allan died orr the 23rd of February, 1S50. As a painter 
 he was generally acknowledged by his countrymen to be at the head 
 of Scottish art, by right of his talent as well as of his office. 
 
 ALLATIUS, LEO, an eminent literary man of the 17th century. 
 He was a Greek, born in the island of Chios in 1586. Being carried 
 over to Italy at an early age, he was taken under the protection of a 
 powerful family in Calabria, and educated in the Greek college at 
 Rome. He revisited bis native country, but soon returned to Rome, 
 where, after a succession of literary employments, he was appointed 
 librarian to the Vatican. For thi3 post he was well fitted by great 
 industry and a retentive memory ; and, in a long life, he edited manu- 
 scripts, translated Greek authors, and published many original works, 
 which display more learning and power of collecting materials than 
 taste or judgment. A Greek by birth, he was one of the mo3t 
 etrenuous and bigoted upholders of the Roman Church and of papal 
 infallibility, and hesitated not to invoke fire and sword as the legiti- 
 mate means of converting obstinate heretics. (See- his treatise ' De 
 Ecclesiae Occidentals et Orientalis perpetua Consensione.') He founded 
 a college in the isle of Chios, and died at Rome in the year 1669, 
 aged 83. 
 
 ALLECTUS, one of the officers of Carausius, king of Britain, in 
 the time of Diocletian. Constantius Chlorus (whom Diocletian and 
 his colleague Maximian had raised to the dignity of Csesar, and 
 appointed to the command of Gaul and the conduct of the war 
 against Carausius), having attempted to cross over to Britain (a.D. 
 292), had been obliged, by stress of weather, to return. During the 
 
 interval which succeeded this aUeiaui/t, Carausius wa3 murdered by 
 Allectus (a.D. 293), who was afraid of being punished with death foi 
 some crimes of which he was conscious. Allectus now assumed the 
 sovereignty, and stationed his fleet near the Isle of Wight to prevent 
 the enemy from crossing ; but Constantius sent forward Asclepiodo- 
 tus, praetorian pracfect, with a portion of his fleet and army, who, 
 under cover of a dense fog, effected a landing. Allectus, fearing the 
 arrival of that part of the expedition which was under Constantius 
 himself, leaving bis fleet and the harbour near which he was encamped, 
 marched against Asclepiodotus, who had burned his fleet immediately 
 after landing, that his men might have no resource but in victory. 
 Allectus did not attempt to draw up his forces in regular order, but 
 rushed at once to the encounter, and was defeated and slain with a 
 great number of his men. He had laid aside his imperial robes, so 
 that his body was recognised with some difficulty. Scarcely any of 
 Asclepiodotus's soldiers fell. If the statement of Eutropius and 
 Orosius be correct, that Allectus held the sovereignty of the island 
 for three years, we may place his death in the year 296. Constantius 
 landed shortly after the fall of Allectus, and was received with great 
 demonstrations of joy; and the imperial authority was fully re- 
 established in the island. (Eutropius, Hidorice Romance Breviarium ; 
 Orosius, Jlistoria.) 
 
 ALLEGRI, C. ANTONIO. [Corregoio.] 
 
 ALLEN, JOHN, M.D., a writer on subjects connected with meta- 
 physics, history, and physiology, was born in January, 1770, at Red- 
 ford, in the parish of Colinton, near Edinburgh. The domain of 
 Redford, situated on the slope of the Pentland Hills, was his paternal 
 property, and the mansion-house still attests the moderate but sub- 
 stantial wealth of his ancestors. He studied at Edinburgh, where he 
 took a degree in medicine in 1791. He soon afterwards connected 
 himself with the movements in Scotlaud for the furtherance of 
 parliamentary reform. In 1795 he published 'Illustrations of Mr. 
 Hume's Essay concerning Liberty and Necessity, in answer to Dr. 
 Gregory of Edinburgh, by a Necessitarian.' This Bmall tract is in 
 many respects characti ristic of his subsequent more distinguished 
 works, in the felicity with which it adopts a broad and comprehensive 
 view, as well as in the clearness with which it adheres to one unbroken 
 Hire of reasoning, and keeps clear of divergencies and incidental 
 questions. In 1801 he translated from Cuvier, whose friendship he 
 enjoyed, ' Au Introduction to the Study of the Animal Economy.' 
 It appears to have been about the commencement of this century that 
 he for med an intimacy with Lord Holland, with whom he continued 
 to reside until that nobleman's death. After the peace of Amiens, 
 Dr. Allen accompanied Lord and Lady Holland through France and 
 Spain, and resided with them in the latter country until the year 
 1805. He made large collections relating to the past history of Spain, 
 and to its social and political position. He became an extensive 
 contributor to the ' Edinburgh Review,' on subjects chiefly connected 
 with the British constitution, and with French and Spanish history. 
 Forty-one articles in that periodical are attributed to him, and his 
 researches in a great measure served to establish and characterise its 
 opinions on constitutional questions. His earliest papers were ou 
 Spanish and South American subjects. The earliest article on con- 
 stitutional subjects attributed to him is that ou the Regency question, 
 May, 1811. In the number for June, 1816, au elaborate essay on the 
 constitution of parliament, full of original investigation, is believed 
 to have been from his pen. He wrote in the same periodical some 
 papers on the ' History of England ' by Lirrgard, which occasioned a 
 pamphlet controversy with that author, chiefly relating to the massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew, the authorities for which he charged Lingard 
 with having referred to at second hand. The latest article which he 
 is supposed to have contributed to the Review is that on Church 
 Rates, October, 1839. He wrote the History of Europe in the 
 ' Annual Register ' for 1806 ; and iu 1820 a 'Biographical Sketch of 
 Mr. Fox.' In 1830 he published a small but valuable constitutional 
 work, called au ' Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal 
 Prerogative iu England,' which has been republished, with his final 
 revisions, since his death. Dr. Allen published several other pam- 
 phlets, some of them on subjects of compar atively temporary interest. 
 For some years before his death he held the lucrative appointment of 
 Master of Dulwich College. He was a member of the Record Com- 
 mission ; and he held the office of under-secretary of the com- 
 missioners for treating with America in 1806. He died April 3, 
 1843. Hi.s character hai been eloquently drawn by his friend Lord 
 Brougham, in the third series of the 'Historical Sketches of the 
 Statesmen of the Time of George III.," pp. 342-348. 
 
 ALLEN, JOSEPH W., a landscape painter of considerable repu- 
 tation, was born at Lambeth, Surrey, in 1803. His father was a 
 schoolmaster, and the son was designt d to follow the same profession. 
 Having completed his education at St. Paul's school, he for a time 
 practised as an usher at Taunton, but he soon threw aside the pen 
 and the ferula, and returned to London in the hope of maintaining 
 himself by the pencil. While acquiring the technicalities of his art 
 he was often reduced to great straits. At first he was constrained to 
 paint signs and transparencies for blind-makers ; and when he was 
 more advanced he had for a long period to manufacture paintings for 
 picture-dealers. Under the necessity of producing many showy 
 pictures at low prices he soon acquired considerable mechanical 
 
i e7 ALLEN, WILLIAM. 
 
 dexterity, and be was led not unnaturally to turn his attention to I 
 scene-painting for theatres— then a very popular branch of art. After 
 working for a while as assistant to Stanfield aud others, he obtained 
 the situation «f principal sc?ne-painter at the Olympic Theatre, when 
 that establishment first came under the management of Madame 
 Vestris ; and his clear style and vigorous pencil did much to secure 
 the success of the brilliant spectacles which formed the distinguishing 
 feature of the management. Allen's early oil-paintings were gene- 
 rally of small size, and represent quiet, homely, pastoral scenery, 
 which was rendered with great delicacy and a nice appreciation of 
 the freshness of natural colour. Bat though they found purchasers 
 among well-known patrons of art, his reputation extended slowly, 
 and he attributed his tardy progress to the placing of his pictures at 
 the annual exhibition of the Koyal Academy. He joined himself 
 therefore to the newly-founded Society of British Artists, and became 
 one of its most ardeut supporters. All his more important works 
 were thenceforward exhibited in the first instance on its walls ; and 
 he eventually became its secretary. 
 
 Allen did not attain the position his early pictures promised. His 
 inclination and his forte lay towards pastoral scenery. He loved and 
 he could well depict those fresh, open, country scenes, so characteristic 
 of our 'home counties,' which Milton describes as affording constant 
 delight to the city dweller. For these Allen had all a Londoner's 
 relish, aud while he painted them with continual reference to the 
 reality, his pictures commanded the sympathy of all who enjoy this 
 style of art. But when he had obtained skill in producing those 
 "brilliant effects," which are so attractive in conjunction with gas- 
 light and theatrical ' properties,' he began to employ them in his 
 pictures, and though he succeeded by such means In sparing himself 
 much thought and labour, while he rendered his pictures more 
 attractive in the exhibition-room, it was at the expense of those 
 higher qualities of truth and propriety which are essential to lasting 
 fame. And the evil was fostered and strengthened by another influ- 
 ence under which he fell, when he appeared to be about to escape from 
 that of the theatre. From the first establishment of the Art-Union 
 his landscapes won the favour of the prize holders. Seldom possess- 
 ing any knowledge of art, their taste is commonly caught by glare 
 and glitter ; and Allen permitted himself to be driven by the pressure 
 of his circumstances to paint more and more with a special regard 
 to them. His earlier pictures have many admirable qualities, and 
 his latest display great technical and manipulative skill ; but his life 
 was not one of artistic progress, and his is not a name that can 
 permanently take a high place among the artists of England. 
 
 Allen died August 26, 1852, of disease of the heart, at the early 
 age of 49 ; leaving a widow and eight children, for whom unhappily 
 he had not been able to secure a sufficient provision. 
 
 ALLEN, WILLIAM, was born August 29, 1770. His father was 
 a silk-manufacturer in Spitalfields, aud a member of the Society of 
 Friends. Having at an early period shown a predilection for chemical 
 and other pursuits connected with medicine, William was placed in 
 the establishment of Mr. Joseph Gurney Bevan, in Plough-court, 
 Lombard-street, London, where he acquired a practical knowledge of 
 chemistry. He eventually succeeded to the business, which he carried 
 on in connection with Mr. Luke Howard, aud acquired great reputa- 
 tion sa a pharmaceutical chemist. About the year 1804 Mr. Allen 
 was appointed lecturer at Guy's Hospital on chemistry and experi- 
 mental philosophy, and he did not wholly retire from this institution 
 until 1827. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society iu 1807, 
 and the Society's 'Philosophical Transactions' contain accounts of 
 Beveral of the more important of his chemical investigations, which 
 were carried on in conjunction with his friend Mr. Pepys. They 
 established the proportion of carbon in carbonic acid, which was 
 different from that adopted at the time in all systems of chemistry ; 
 aud they also demonstrated that the diamond was pure carbon. The 
 'Philosophical Transactions' for 1829 contain a paper by Mr. Allen, 
 based on elaborate experiments and calculations which lie had made 
 on the changes produced on atmospheric air and other gase3 by 
 respiration. Mr. Allen was mainly instrumental in establishing the 
 Pharmaceutical Society, of which he was president at the time of his 
 death. Besides his public labours as a practical chemist, he pursued 
 with much delight in his hours of relaxation the study of astronomy. 
 Many years before his death, Mr. Allen purchased an estate near 
 Liml field, Sussex, and withdrew from business. Here, while still 
 zealously engaging in public schemes of usefulness and benevolence, 
 he carried out various philanthropic plans for the improvement of 
 his immediate dependants and poorer neighbours. He erected com- 
 modious cottages on his property, with an ample allotment of land 
 attached to each cottage; and he established schools at Liudfield for 
 beys, girls, and infants, with workshops, out-houses, and play grounds. 
 About three acres of land were cultivated on the most approved 
 system by the boarders, who also took a part in household work. 
 'Ihe subjects taught were land-surveying, mapping, the elements of 
 botany, the use of the barometer, rain-gauge, &c., and there was a 
 good library with various scientific and useful apparatus. Mr. Allen 
 died ar. hU house near Liudfield, December 30, 1843. (Pharmaceutical 
 Journal and Transactions for February, 1844 ; Memoirs of William 
 Allen; Minutes of Committee of Privy Council, 1842-3, 'Lindfield 
 School,' p. 551.) 
 
 ALLEYN, EDWARD. 1E8 
 
 ALLEYN, EDWARD. The lives of actors are seldom associated 
 with any circumstances of permanent interest. They strut and fret 
 their little hour, are applauded, and are forgotten. It is of small 
 consequence to us now, that Nashe, in 1593, says that "the name of 
 Ned Alleyn on the common stage was able to make an ill matter 
 good; " that Ben Jonson compares Alleyn with the great actors of 
 Rome, and Thomas Heywood pronounces him — 
 
 " Proteus for shapes, and Rosciu9 for a tongue ; " 
 
 that a grave chronicler, Sir Richard Baker, says of Burbage and 
 Alleyn, " They were two such actors as no age must ever look to see 
 the like;" and that Fuller writes, "He wa3 the Roscius of our age, 
 so acting to the life that he made any part, especially a majestic one, 
 to become him." Strong as these testimonies are to the professional 
 merits of Alleyn, they would scarcely warrant any lengthened notice 
 of him, were there not circumstances connected with his public 
 history aud his private character which lend an interest and import- 
 ance to his career rarely attaching even to the most celebrated of his 
 class. 
 
 Alleyn was born in 1566, iu the parish of St. Botolph without 
 Bishopsgate, London. The register of this parish shows the day of 
 his birth, Sept. 1, which corresponds with entries in his own Diary. 
 His father, Edward Alleyn, was a citizen and inn-holder in this parish, 
 as we learn from his will, dated the 10th of September, 1570, and 
 proved on the 22nd of the same month. He bequeathed to his wife 
 a life interest iu all his lauds and tenements, and afterwards to his 
 three children. Mrs. Alleyn, who was of a good family iu Lanca- 
 shire, married a second time. Her husband, whose name was Brown, 
 is described as a haberdasher, but he was also an actor ; and thus 
 Fuller was no doubt correct when he states that Edward Alleyn was 
 bred a stage-player. Born only two year3 later than his great con- 
 temporary Shakspere, and labouring in the same vocation with him 
 for nearly thirty years, the career of Alleyn must offer many parallel 
 circumstances with the career of Shakspere ; and it thus acquires a 
 secondary interest of no inconsiderable value. John Alleyn, the eider 
 brother of Edward, was, like his father, an inu-holder, as we learn 
 from a document bearing the date of 1588-89, in which Edward 
 Alleyn purchases of one Richard Jones, for the sum of thirty-seven 
 pounds ten shillings, his share of " playing apparels, play books, 
 instruments," &c, which Richard Jones has jointly with the brother 
 and stepfather of Edward. Mr. Collier conjectures, with great 
 probability, from the circumstance of John being mentioned as an 
 inn-holder whilst he was evidently engaged in a theatrical specula- 
 tion, that " the old- practice of employing inn-yards as theatres had 
 not then been entirely abandoned ; and it is not at all impossible that 
 in the time of their father, the yard of his inn had been converted to 
 that purpose, and was so continued by his son John, who succeeded 
 him." John Alleyn however became a distiller in 1594 ; and before 
 this his brother is celebrated by Nashe (in another passage besides 
 that just quoted) as "famous Ned Alleyn." It is established that 
 he was famous in Greene's ' Orlando Furioso ' and Marlowe's ' Jew of 
 Malta,' both of which belong to the early period of the drama. In 
 1592 he married Joan Woodward, the daughter of Agnes Woodward, 
 a widow, who previous to this period had become the wife of Philip 
 Henslowe, one of the principal theatrical managers of that day. 
 Alleyn and Henslowe now entered into partnership in their stage 
 concerns. Within six months after his marriage the plague broke 
 out iu London, aud all the theatrical houses being as usual closed, to 
 prevent the spread of infection, Alleyn and his company, then known 
 as Lord Strauge's players, went upon a strolling expedition into the 
 provinces. In the collection of papers in Dulwicb. College there are 
 letters to and. from Alleyn at this period, which are printed in Mr. 
 Collier's ' Memoirs.' Alleyn left his wife and his father-in-law behind 
 him during this temporary emigration, and it is not improbable that 
 Henslowe, who appears to be an ignorant and rapacious person, had 
 infringed the order against dramatic exhibitions, for Alleyn writes to 
 his wife :— "Mouse, I little thought to hear that which I now hear 
 by you, for it is well known, they say, that you were by my lord 
 mayor's officer made to ride in a cart, you and all your fellows, which 
 I am sorry to hear." At this period the players were in constant 
 dispute with the corporation, and this was probably some petty exer- 
 cise of tyranny from which the company of Henslowe aud Alleyn 
 were not protected. Even the queen's players, of whom Shakspere 
 was one, supported as they were by the highest authority, had often 
 to contend with the municipal love of power. And yet at this period, 
 leading a life which was denominated vagabond as far as his pro- 
 vincial excursions were concerned, Edward Alleyn was a man of 
 property, derived either from marriage or inheritance, or from both. 
 In 1596 he sells " the lease of the parsonage of Firle," near Bedding- 
 ham in Sussex, for the large sum of 3000/., to be received in 
 twenty annual payments of 150/. He was probably the lay impro- 
 priator. Here alone was an ample provision for Alleyn and his 
 family, according to the value of money in those days, yet for many 
 years he continued an actor and theatrical manager. The theatre 
 which he and Henslowe owned from the period of his marriage was 
 the Rose on the Bankside; but in 1600 they budt a new theatre, the 
 Fortune, in Cripplegate, near Red Cross-street. The inhabitants of 
 the neighbourhood petitioned the Privy Council to sanction tLia 
 
160 
 
 theatre, and the parochial favour seerns to liave been very skilfully 
 acquired. The householders approved the scheme " because the 
 erectors of the said house are contented to give a very liberal portion 
 of money weekly towards the relief of our poor," and " because our 
 parish is not able to relieve them." Wa may thus form some idea of 
 the profits of the early dramatic performances when audiences were 
 contented to be delighted and instructed with the words of a play 
 without the aid of costly decorations. But Alleyn and his father-in- 
 law had other sources of profit : they were the owners of the dogs 
 and bears which were exhibited at Park Garden, and in time Heuslowe 
 and Alleyn became patentees of the office of "the mastership of His 
 Majesty's games of bears, bulls, and dog."." In 1G0:S the plague again 
 drove Alleyn and Ids company out of Loudon, and a letter from his 
 wife to him at this period brings us closer to Shakspere than any 
 other contemporary record. The good lady says, in this torn and 
 mutilated paper, " Aboute a weeke a goe there came a youthe who 
 said he was Mr. FrauDcis Cbalouer, who would have borrowed x 1 '' to 
 have bought tilings for .... and said lie was known unto you, and 
 
 Mr. Shakespeare of the Globe, who came said he knewe hym 
 
 not, onely he herde of hym that he was a roge so he was 
 
 glade we did not lend him the rnouney." After the accession of 
 James, Alleyn's company became ' the Prince's l'layers,' as Shaks- 
 pere's was the King's; aud having purchased the patent office of 
 master of the king's game", Senslowe and Alleyn, in 1006, rebuilt 
 Paris Garden for those disgusting exhibitions in which the court and 
 the populace equally delighted. The patentees hud the right of 
 sending bear -wards into the country ; and accounts at Dulwich exhibit 
 the expense and profits of such exhibitions. Thus accumulating 
 property in various ways, Alleyn was so thriving a man in 1606 as 
 to have purchased the manor of Dulwich from .Sir Francis Calton. 
 Upon the death of Henslowe in 1616, ami of his wile in the following 
 year, Alleyn succeeded to the greater part of their theatrical property ; 
 and he had previously acquired other property of the same nature, 
 particularly by a large purchase in the Lilackfriars Theatre in 1012, 
 which Mr. Collier suppose s was Shakspere's share, sold by him on bis 
 retirement from Loudon. There is, however, no distinct evidence for this 
 assumption. It is nowhere stated to whom the money, being a total of 
 5992. 6& 8(/., was paid for this portion of the lease aud other property. 
 
 Alleyn commenced the building of Dulwich College in 1013. 
 Previous to this he appears to have discontinued appearing on the 
 stage as an actor; but Aubrey, in his 'Miscellanies,' connects the 
 foundation of Dulwich College — ' the College of God's Gift," as 
 Alleyn called it — with a circumstance which strongly recommends 
 itself to the imagination of the credulous antiquarian : " The tradition 
 was, that playing a demon with six others in one of Shakspere's plays, 
 he was in the midst of the play surprised by an apparition of the 
 devil, which so worked on his fancy that he made a vow which he 
 performed at this place " (Dulwich). This is clearly an adaptation of 
 the story told with great solemuity by Prynne, in his ' Histrio-Mastix,' 
 in his recital of the judgments against players aud play haunters : 
 " Nor yet to recite the sudden fearful burning, even to the ground, 
 both of the Globe and Fortune playhouses, no man perceiving how 
 these fires came : together with the visible apparition of the devil on 
 the stage at the Bel Savage playhouse, in Queen Elizabeth's days (to' 
 the great amazement both of the actors aud spectators), whiles they 
 were there profanely playing the History of Faustus (the truth of which 
 I have heard from many now alive, who well remember it), there being 
 some distracted with that fearful sight." It is evident that Alleyn, 
 having considerable riches and no family, had, before he resolved 
 upon the particular appropriation of his wealth, not only acquired a 
 reputation for benevolence, but intimated an intention to make an 
 endowment for some charitable institution. Samuel Jeyuens, pro- 
 bably a clergyman, applies to Alleyn to render some assistance for the 
 completion of Chelsea College, by letter, in the beginning of which 
 he says, " Blessed be God, who has stirred up your heart to do so 
 many gracious and good deeds to God's glory." The object of Chelsea 
 College was "that learned men might there have maintenance to 
 answer all the adversaries of religion." The same writer adds, " Or, 
 if I might move another project to yourself, that it would please you 
 to build some half a score lodging rooms, more or less, near unto 
 you, if it be no moro but to give lodging to divers scholars that come 
 from the university." Alleyn took his own course. In 161G he had 
 nearly completed his establishment at Dulwich, and in the autumn of 
 that year the Earl of Arundel writes to him with a familiarity which 
 shows the respect entertained for Alleyn's character, and the know- 
 ledge amongst the higher ranks of his benevolent purposes. The earl 
 addresses the player as his " loving friend," and says, " Whereas 
 I am given to understand that you are in hand with an hospital for 
 the succouring of poor old people aud the maintenance and education 
 of young, and have now almost perfected your charitable work, I am 
 at the instaut request of this bearer to desire you to accept of a poor 
 fatherless boy to be one of your number." The incumbent of St. 
 Botolph's, the parish in which Alleyn was born, was at this period 
 Stephen Gossou, who six and thirty years before was the furious adver- 
 sary of poets and players, and " such like caterpillars of a common- 
 wealth. " The papers of Dulwich College show that Alleyn was 
 solicitous to give a preference to the poor of his native parish in 
 selecting the inmates of his hospital; and that Gossou was particu- 
 
 larly diligent in recommending individuals to his favour. There 
 were legal difficulties in the establishment of ' God's Gift College' as 
 a foundation ; and no less a person than the Chancellor Bacon thought 
 it his duty to resist the completion of Alleyn's wishes. The chan- 
 cellor thus writes to the Marquis of Buckingham : " I now write to 
 give the king an account of the patent I have stayed at the seal : it 
 is of license to give in mortmain eight hundred pounds land, though 
 it be of tenure in chief, to Allen that was the player, for an hospital. 
 I like well that Allen playeth the last act of his life so well, but if 
 His Majesty give way thus to amortize his tenures, the Court of 
 Wards will decay, which I had well hoped should improve. But that 
 which moved me chiefly is, that His Majesty now lately did abso- 
 lutely deny Sir Henry Saville for two hundred pounds, and Sir Edward 
 Sandys for one hundred pounds, to the perpetuating of two lectures, 
 the one in Oxford, the other in Cambr idge, foundations of singular 
 honour to His Majesty, and of which there is great want; whereas 
 hospitals abound, aud beggars abound never a whit less. If His 
 Majesty do like to pass the book at all, yet if he would be pleased to 
 abridge the eight hundred pounds to five hundred pounds, and then 
 give w.iy to the other two books for the universities, it were a princely 
 work, and I would make an humble suit to the king, and desire your 
 lordship to join in it, that it might be so." The opposition of the 
 chancellor was however overruled, and Alleyn was allowed to dispose 
 of his munificent endowment of eight hundred poundsayear according 
 to his own wishes. The college was for the support and maintenance 
 of one master, one warden, aud four fellows, three of whom were to 
 be ecclesiastics, and the other a skilful organist; also six poor men, six 
 women, and twelve boys to be educated iu good literature. The 
 patent passed the great seal on the 21st of June, 1619; and on the 
 18th of the following September Alleyn formally aud publicly dispos- 
 sessed himself of this the greater part of his property, and thence- 
 forward he aud his wife lived in this foundation upon a footing of 
 equality with those whom they had raised into comfort aud compara- 
 tive opulence. Thomas Heywood, in his 'Vindication of Actors' (a 
 remodelling of his 'Apology for Actors '), says, "When this college 
 was finished, this famous man was so tqually mingled with humility 
 and charily that he became his own pensioner, humbly submitting 
 himself to that proportion of diet aud clothes which he had bestowed 
 ou others." Alleyu appears to have had a full and earnest enjoyment 
 iu his rare munificence. Iu his diary, under the date of May 26, 
 1020, is this passage: ''My wife aud 1 acknowledge the fine at the 
 Common Pleas' bar of all my lands to the college : blessed be God 
 that has lent us life to do it." He had property enough to bestow on 
 other charitable objects. In 1G20 we find him founding almshouses 
 in Finsbury. His diary gives us a curious picture of his habits after 
 his retirement to Dulwich. He was still master of the king's games; 
 aud thus we find him ou one day baiting before the king at Green- 
 wich ; on another, giving the twelve brothers aud sisters of the 
 college their new gowns ; aud ou another, going to Croydon fair to 
 sell his brown mare. His property still went ou accumulating. In 
 1620 he bought the manor of Lewishain. In 1621 the Fortune 
 Theatre, of which he was the chief proprietor, was burnt. He enters 
 the fact iu his diary, without a single observation, and quietly sets 
 about rebuilding it. His wife Joan died in 1623. He was very soon 
 married again, to a lady whose Christian name was Constance, and 
 who is supposed to have been a daughter of the celebrated Dr. Donne. 
 Alleyu lived with his second wife only about two years. His will, 
 dated November 13, 1626, states that he was sick in body; and on 
 the 25th of the same mouth he died, and was buried in the chapel of 
 his college, called Christ Chapel, in a plain manner, accoiding to his 
 special direction. By his will he endowed twenty almshouses, teu in 
 the parish of St. Botolpb, and ten in St. Saviour's, Southwark ; and 
 he left considerable legacies to his wife and other relations. Fuller, 
 some forty years after the death of Alleyn, when the opinions of the 
 Puritans had thrown discredit upon the noblest as well as the mo-t 
 innocent actions of those who had been connected with the theatre, 
 thus writes of the founder of Dulwich College : " He got a very great 
 estate, and in his old age, following Christ's counsel (on what forcible 
 notice belongs not to me to inquir. ), 'he made friends of his un- 
 righteous mammon,' building theiewith a fair college, at Dulwich in 
 Kent, fur the relief of poor people. Some, I confess, count it built 
 ou a foundered foundation, seeing iu a spiritual sense none is good and 
 lawful money save what is honestly and industriously gotten. But per- 
 chance auch who condemn Master Alleyn herein have as bad shillings 
 in the bottom of their own bags, if search were made therein." 
 
 The fouuder of Dulwich College had a singular partiality for persons 
 bearing his own name. Advautage was probably taken of this 
 peculiarity, which we must call a weakness. Dekker writes to him to 
 introduce the son of a Kentish yeoman : "He is a young man loving 
 you, being of your name, aud desires no greater happiness than to 
 depend upon you." Howes, the continuator of Stow's 'Chronicle,' 
 mentions about 1614, that Alleyu was buildiug his college, and that, 
 he intended the master always to be of the uauie of Allen, or Alleyu. 
 This limitation continues to exist. Dulwich College now possesses 
 very large revenues ; and the situation of master especially is one of 
 great value. Alleyn left a collection of pictures there, to which 
 additions Wrre gradually made; but iu 1^10 Sir Fraueis Bourgeois 
 bequeathed to the col eje his valuable culle ti m, which he had pro- 
 
IU ALLINGHAM, JOHN TILL. 
 
 viously offered, but without success, to the government, upon the con- 
 dition of building a gallery for its reception. This collection is easily 
 accessible to the public, without fee. 
 
 Within the last few years considerable discussion has arisen with 
 reference to the proper distribution of the funds of the college, and 
 at the beginning of 1S56 a scheme was recommended by the Charity 
 Commissioners, with consent of the college authorities, for the future 
 management of the charity. The present members are to be paid 
 annually as follows : — Master, 1015?. ; Warden, 855?. (to be raised to 
 1015?. should he survive the master) ; First and Second Fellows, 500?. ; 
 Third and Fourth Fellows, 466?. ; poor brethren and sisters, 150?. 
 from Michaelmas next for their respective lives. Twelve governors 
 are to be appointed : an upper, or classical, sehool to be constituted, 
 the head-master with a salary of 350?. a year, and 30s. half-yearly for 
 each scholar over fifty, to have the general superintendence of the 
 charity, subject to the governors ; the under-master to have 250?., 
 with 10s. half-yearly for each boy above fifty, in addition to his own 
 pupils. Day scholars and boarders to be admitted to this school. 
 Foundation scholars, not to exceed twenty-four in number, may be 
 maintained at the expense of the charity. Scholarships, not exceed- 
 ing eight in number, at 100?. a year each, tenable for four years, may 
 be provided for scholars (not private boarders) in the upper school. A 
 lower school, for foundation scholars and day boys, is to be carried on 
 at Dulwich, the master to receive 150?. a year, and 10s. half-yearly 
 for every boy exceeding fifty. Twelve boys may be allowed exhibi- 
 tions, or scholarships, not exceeding 30?. a year each, for four years. 
 The number of alms-people not to exceed twenty-four in the first 
 instance, half to be brethren, and the other half to be sisters; who 
 are to have residences and a weekly stipend not exceeding 20s. Out- 
 pensioners may be appointed, not exceeding sixteen, with stipends of 
 not more thau 10s. weekly. 
 
 The papers at Dulwich College, whether in the writing of Alleyn or 
 his partner Henslowe, throw some light upon the literary history of 
 the drama. Alleyn appears to have taken much of the management 
 with regard to the authors who wrote for the theatres in which he 
 was so deeply interested. For example, there is an entry in Henslowe's 
 papers, u Lent unto my sonne E. Alleyn, the 7th of November, 1602, to 
 give unto Thomas Deckers for mending of the play of Tasso, the 
 some of xxxxs. : '' and again, " Lent unto Mr. Alleyn, the 25th of 
 September, 1601, to lend unto Benjamin Johnson, upon his writing of 
 his adycions in Jeronymo, xxxxs." Henslowe again lends unto " Ben- 
 gemy Johnsone, at the apoyntment of E. Alleyn and William Birde," 
 in earnest for plays undertaken, " the some of x?." The caution with 
 which the elder partner makes his son-in-law a sort of security for 
 needy authors is very curious. Alleyn appears to have been a man of 
 a kindly heart towards those with whom he was brought in contact ; 
 and all these documents show that the theatrical writers — men who 
 have earned their immortality — were for the most part poor and 
 wretched. The partners however in all probability screwed their 
 authors very hard. There is a letter from Robert Daborne to Henslowe, 
 in which he earnestly begs for twenty shillings, saying, " Good sir, con- 
 sider how for your sake I have put myself out of the assured way to get 
 money, and from twenty pounds a play am come to twelve." There 
 is a heart rending document also from Field, Daborne, and Massinger, 
 in which they earnestly beg for five pounds to deliver them from prison. 
 The number of eminent men who were associated with Henslowe and 
 Alleyn in producing dramatic novelties was very great, including 
 Munday, Drayton, Dekker, Chettle, Massinger, Jonson, Rowley, Hey- 
 wood, Porter, and Chapman. These men were dependent upon the 
 players for the small gratuities which they received for works of high 
 genius and laborious art. Yet Alleyn is not to be blamed for this 
 penurious reward of authors. The writers for the theatres were 
 almost innumerable ; and excellence up to a certain point was very 
 generally attainable by them. Perhaps some of the higher excellence 
 of Shakspere may be attributable to the fact that he was at ease in 
 pecuniary matters; that almost alone he could produce the most 
 attractive novelties for his own theatres ; that he was not dependent 
 upon managerial caprice ; that in fact he was making a fortune, as 
 Alleyn himself was making it, by his property in a species of enter- 
 prise which had universal supporters, and which in his case had the 
 especial support of the wealthiest and best educated of the com- 
 munity. The details of the life of Alleyn ought to be attentively 
 studied by those who desire to form a competent notion of that 
 unequalled chapter in literary history, the annals of the English 
 stage during the half century of its greatness. 
 
 (Fuller, Worthies of England; Kippis, Biographia Britunnica ; 
 Collier, Memoirs of Alleyn, published by the Shakespeare Society; 
 Malone, Historical Account of the English Stage.) 
 
 ALLINGHAM, JOHN TILL, a very successful dramatic writer, 
 some of whose farces especially were what is called stock pieces at 
 the beginning of the 19th century. They have no great pretensions 
 to wit or humour ; but they are full of liveliness and bustle, and were 
 adapted to the peculiar talents of the most popular comedians of the 
 time. ' The Weathercock ' and ' Fortune's Frolic ' are the best known 
 of his productions. Allingham was the son of a wine-merchant in 
 London, and was brought up to the legal profession. We neither can 
 ascertain the date of his birth nor the exact period of his death. In 
 »n edition of ' Fortune's Frolic,' forming one of the series of dramatic 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 ALMAGRO, DIEGO DE. Ut 
 
 pieces published by a bookseller named Cumberland, about twelve 
 years ago, we find this notice of Allingham : " We remember him 
 some twenty years since in the ousy throng about 'Change, in the 
 capacity, we believe, of a stock-broker. He has been dead some 
 years." 
 
 ALLORI, the name of two distinguished Italian painters, father 
 and son. The father, Alcssantlro, was born at Florence in 1535, and 
 was brought up by his uncle Angelo Bronzino, likewise a very dis- 
 tinguished painter. Allori, from his connection with his uncle, was 
 also frequently called Bronzino, and he sometimes wrote the name 
 upon his pictures. He was one of the most distinguished painters of 
 the anatomical school, and was a devoted admirer of Michel Angelo ; 
 but he appropriated nothing more of that great master than his 
 affected display of anatomy, which Allori seems to have considered 
 the greatest quality in art. In 1590 he published a treatise upon 
 anatomy for the use of artists. He died in 1607, and his portrait by 
 himself was placed in the Florentine gallery of painters' portraits. 
 
 Allori's works, both in oil and fresco, are numerous, and many on a 
 large scale. His greatest work is the Montaguti Chapel in the church 
 of the Annunciata, painted in oil in 1582. He has painted there, a 
 Last Judgment, Christ disputing with the Doctors, and Christ driving 
 the Money Changers from the Temple. In the second he has intro- 
 duced the portraits of Michel Angelo and Giacomo da Pontormo in 
 their own costume, besides several other portraits of his contem- 
 poraries. He was an excellent portrait-painter, and he constantly 
 introduced portraits of his friends into his historical pieces. 
 
 The son, Cristofano Allori, born at Florence in 1577, was a better 
 painter than his father, whose style he abominated ; he used to call 
 him a heretic. He studied with Gregorio Pagani, and rivalled that 
 painter in richness of colour, and surpassed him in delicacy of execu- 
 tion. But he was idle and fastidious, and his works are scarce. In 
 execution he was equal to anything, and he had of course a corre- 
 sponding skill in copying. He is said to have made some copies of 
 Correggio's Magdalen with some slight alterations in the background, 
 which now pass as duplicates by Correggio ; he generally made a slight 
 variation in the background ; the original of this work is at Dresden. 
 Cristofano was an excellent landscape-painter. His master-pieces are 
 considered the Miracle of San Giuliauo, in the Pitti gallery ; San 
 Manetto, in the church de' Servi ; J udith and Holophernes ; and a 
 Magdalen, which was the portrait of his own mistress, a very beauti- 
 ful woman. The Judith is also her portrait, and the Holophernes was 
 painted from himself: it was engraved by Gondolfi for the 'Musee 
 Napoleon.' He died in 1621 ; his portrait is likewise in the Floren- 
 tine portrait gallery. 
 
 (Baldinucci, Notizie da Professori del Disegno, &c. ; Lanzi, Storia 
 Pittorica, &c.) 
 
 ALLSTON, WASHINGTON, a distinguished American historical 
 and landscape painter, was born in South Carolina in 1779, and was 
 educated at Harvard College, which he entered in 1796, having spent 
 a preparatory term, by the advice of his physicians, at Newport, 
 Rhode Island. Having determined to follow painting as a profession, 
 he resolved to visit England for that purpose ; he accordingly set out 
 in 1801 with another artist for London, and entered the Royal Academy 
 of Arts of London as a student, in which he remained three years, 
 during the presidency of West. 
 
 In 1801 he went with a friend to Paris, and thence to Rome, where 
 he remained four years. In 1805 he attracted considerable notice 
 there by a picture of 'Jacob's Vision.' He excelled chiefly in colouring, 
 and is said to have created considerable sensation among the painters 
 in Rome, by the peculiar effects which he accomplished, through a 
 great use of asphaltum after the manner of Rembrandt. He painted 
 several pictures at Rome, which were admired for their colour and 
 chiaroscuro ; among them a portrait of himself, and several landscapes. 
 
 In 1809 Allston returned to America, and at Boston married the 
 sister of Dr. Channing. In 1811 he again visited England, where he 
 obtained the 200 guineas' prize from the British Institution for a 
 picture of the ' Dead Man raised by Elisha's Bones,' which was after- 
 wards bought by the Pennsylvanian Academy of the Arts for 3500 
 dollars. In 1813 he had the misfortune to lose his wife, at a time 
 when he was himself in a very weak state of health. In 1814 he pub- 
 lished a book entitled ' Hints to Young Practitioners in the Study of 
 Landscape Painting.' In 1817 he paid a second visit to Paris, with 
 Leslie the Academician ; and he returned in the following year to 
 America, to Cambridgeport, a village in Massachusetts, where he 
 resided until his death in July, 1843. He was an Associate of the 
 Royal Academy of London ; his election took place in 1818. 
 
 Allston was regarded with deep affection by friends in England. 
 Of him Coleridge said he was " gifted with an artistic and poetic 
 genius unsurpassed by any man of his age." His residence was not 
 far removed from Boston or from Harvard University ; but Allston 
 lived in much seclusion. The American writers notice that, although 
 somewhat neglected by his countrymen, Lord Morpeth (Earl of Carlisle), 
 Mr. Labouchere, and M. de Tocqueville, sought him in his retreat to 
 offer their tribute of respect. 
 
 ALMAGRO, DIEGO DE, one of the adventurers who went from 
 Spain to the conquest of America. He was a foundling and brought 
 up by a clergyman of Almagro, according to Gomara ; but according 
 to Zaratc, of Malagon. When the success of Columbus's voyag* 
 
 M 
 
AL-MAMUN. 
 
 ALMEIDA, FRANCISCO. 
 
 became kuown iu Spain, numbers of adventurers, prompted either by 
 religious zeal, or by ambition for military glory, or the desire of gain, 
 flocked to the new world ; and many remained in obscurity until an 
 opportunity was offered to them to become known. Of Almagro 
 nothing is said by the historians previous to the year 1525, when he 
 entered into a sort of partnership with Pizarro and a wealthy clergy- 
 man, named Hernando de Luque, at Panam;!, to undertake jointly 
 the conquest of Peru. Pizarro took the command of the troops ; 
 Almagro engaged to procure the supplies of men, arms, provisions, 
 &c. ; and Luque was to remain at Panamd, to forward, with the gover- 
 nor of that place, the interests of the company. Pizarro set out first, 
 and Almagro afterwards joined him. Some time after the execution 
 or murder of the Peruvian Atahualpa, Francisco Pizarro was informed 
 of the arrival of Pedro de Alvarado with some troops to undertake 
 the conquest of Peru, and sent Almagro to them to ascertain their 
 intentions. Almagro met them on the coast, near the present port of 
 Callao. After some negociation, the greater part of the troops of 
 Alvarado being from Estremadura, and tempted with the offer of 
 100,000 gold crowns to be divided among them, joined their fellow- 
 countrymen, and marched together to Cuzco. 
 
 Almagro was informed by one of his party that he had been 
 appointed governor of Nueva Toledo. He interpreted this to mean 
 that Cuzco also was part of his governorship, and assembling the 
 Ayuntamieuto, openly declared to them his views. The two brothers 
 of Pizarro, J uan and Gonzalo, refused to obey the self-made governor, 
 and were put under arrest. Francisco Pizarro, upon hearing this 
 news, left Truxillo, where he then was, and proceeded to Cuzco in 
 great haste ; when Almagro acknowledged his fault, and Pizarro not 
 only pardoned him, but even lent him a considerable sum of money. 
 Pizarro and Almagro entered now into au agreement by which the 
 latter promised upon his solemn oath to leave Cuzco, and never to 
 return within thirty leagues of it, even though the Emperor Charles 
 should order him to do so. In 1535 he was sent to the conquest of 
 Chili, which he partially effected, after having suffered much fatigue 
 and privation ; and it is said that he was presented by several caciques 
 with 000,000 ducats iu pieces of gold. 
 
 Five mouths after, Juan de liada and Rui Diaz, whom he had left 
 at Cuzco to recruit men for his army, brought him the intelligence 
 that Fernando Pizarro, whom his brother Francisco had sent to Spain 
 to solicit honours and titles for the discoverers, had returned from 
 thence, bringing the title of Marquis of Peru for Pizarro, Governor of 
 Nueva Toledo lor Almagro, and Bishop of Peru for Luque. Some of 
 Almagro's friends advised him to return to Cuzco. On his way thither 
 he met Noguera, an officer who had been sent by Pizarro to ascertain 
 whether he was in want of any assistance to pursue his conquests, 
 Pizarro himself being then employed in building Lima. Almagro 
 availed himself of this opportunity to get full information of the state 
 of affairs at Cuzco, the safety of which, at that time, was much endan- 
 gered by a revolt of the Indians; and having ascertained that he might 
 easily obtain possession of that city, he immediately proceeded thither. 
 Having subdued the Indians, he entered Cuzco without opposition ; 
 imprisoned Gonzalo and Fernando Pizarro, and pillaged their house. 
 Francisco Pizarro, upon hearing of these events, sent from Lima two 
 successive detachments against Almagro ; and after having obtained 
 the liberty of his two brothers, joined the army with the rest of 
 his forces; successfully attacked Cuzco; and, having taken Almagro 
 prisoner, caused him to be tried by a court-martial, which condemned 
 him to death for having rebelled against his general and abandoned 
 his post. This sentence was executed at Cuzco on the 25th April, 
 1536, Almagro being then iu the seventy-fifth year of his age. 
 
 Almagro is described both by Gomara and Zarate as a brave, liberal, 
 and open character. He never married, but left a son by an Indian 
 woman, wh*o was also called Diego de Almagro, and had as eventful 
 a life and as tragical an end as his father. 
 
 (Gomara, Ilistoria General, &c, ch. 125-128; Zarate, Historia de 
 la Conquisla del Peru, b. iii. ; Pizarro, Varones Ilustres del Nuevo 
 Mundo.) 
 
 AL-MAMUN. [Abbasides.] 
 
 ALMANSOR, properly Al-Mansur, or, with his complete name, 
 Abu Jafar Abdullah al-Mansur, the second kalif of the Abbaside 
 dynasty [Abbasides], was born at Homaima in Syria, a.d. 713, and 
 succeeded his brother and predecessor Al-Saffah, in 753. His reiga 
 was occupied chiefly with contests for the throne, and in repressing 
 insurrections, some of which were of a sectarian character. From one 
 of these he took a dislike to his residence at Kufa, and laid the founda- 
 tion of the town of Baghdad, which became from this time the abode 
 of the kalifs. 
 
 Al-Mansur died, September, 776, at Bir Maimuna, on a pilgrimage 
 to Mecca. His son Al-Mohdi succeeded him in the kalifat. Al-Mansur 
 first showed that predilection for literature which for several centuries 
 became a distinguishing feature in the character of the Mohammedan 
 sovereigns. During his reign translations into Arabic were commenced 
 of the works of ancient Greek writers on metaphysics, mathematics, 
 astronomy, and medicine. 
 
 ALMEIDA, FRANCISCO, seventh son of the Conde de Abrantes, 
 was the first Portuguese viceroy of India. In his youth he distin- 
 guished himself against the Moora in the Peninsula, particularly in the 
 conquest of Granada. In 1505, while paying a visit to his brother, 
 
 the Bishop of Coimbra, he was sent for by King Manoel, or Emanuel, 
 and intrusted with tho important office of viceroy of the recently 
 acquired possessions in India. On the 25th of March, 1505, he set 
 sail from Lisbon. " His embarkation," says Barros, " was the most 
 brilliant that had ever taken place in Portugal. His force consisted 
 of 1500 men, all belonging to very respectable families; many of them 
 were noblemen of the king's household, all anxious to serve under so 
 distinguished a leader." 
 
 After a prosperous voyage Almeida arrived at Quiloa, on the 22nd 
 of July. The Moorish king of that city Habraemo, or Ibrahim, was 
 not friendly to the Portuguese. Almeida complained of his not having 
 paid due respect to the Portuguese flag, when Ibrahim apologised, and 
 promised to visit the viceroy on the morrow. But instead of the king, 
 a messenger from him came to make a fresh apology. Almeida told the 
 messenger to inform his master that he himself would pay him a visit 
 at his own house. At tho approach of the Portuguese, Ibrahim fled, 
 and Almeida gave the crown of Quiloa to Mohammed Anconi, a worthy 
 man, and a great friend of the Portuguese. Almeida received the 
 homage of the new king in the name of his master, built a fortress to 
 keep the inhabitants in subjection, and then proceeded to the town of 
 Mombaza, which he destroyed. On his arrival at Cananor, on the 
 Malabar coast, ho received an embassy from the King of Bisnagur, 
 who was desirous to form an alliance with the Portuguese. Almeida 
 erected here another fortress to protect the factories, or commercial 
 establishments, of Cananor, Cochin, and Coulan, and loaded eight 
 vessels with spicery, which ho sent to Portugal. This squadron on its 
 way to Europe discovered the island of Madagascar. 
 
 The governor of Cochin, Trimumpara, had resigned in favour of one 
 of his relations, and the viceroy went to that town with the object of 
 renewing the alliance with the new king. Almeida sent his son 
 Lorenzo against the King of Calicut, who had offered some injuries to 
 the Portuguese merchants. Lorenzo, after having taken ample satisfac- 
 tion for the insult, went to make an establishment at Ceylon, and also 
 took the Maldive Islands. At the same time, four vessels, which had 
 come from Portugal, formed a commercial alliance with the King of 
 Malacca, and established two factories in the island of Sumatra. 
 
 The Soldan, or kalif of Egypt, with the aid of the republic of Venice, 
 which always looked with an envious eye on the success of the Portu- 
 guese, had fitted out a naval expedition, and given the command of it 
 to an experienced Persian, named Mir Hocem. The King of Calicut, 
 expecting this .assistance, made preparations for war, upon which the 
 viceroy sent his son against him. When Lorenzo was in the port of 
 Chaul, the Egyptian fleet, which had been reinforced with twenty-four 
 vessels of the governor of Diu, appeared. Lorenzo at first mistook 
 them for the squadron of Albuquerque, which he was expecting. 
 The fire of Mir Hocem however soon made him discover his error. 
 The two Bquadrons fought till night-fall without any considerable 
 advantage on either side. Some of his officers advised Lorenzo to 
 avail himself of the obscurity of night in order to cross the bar, and 
 get out into the sea; but the gallant young man, though severely 
 wounded, said, that to go away at night was nothing else than to run 
 away, and that was a thing which he never would do. As the Portu- 
 guese squadron w°as sailing out in the morning, the Egyptians opened 
 a brisk fire upon it. Lorenzo's vessel was the last, and the enemy 
 directed their principal fire against her. At last she was separated 
 from the rest of the vessels in a very sandy and rocky place. As the 
 tide was running out with great rapidity, the other vessels could not 
 render her any assistance, and the enemy showered their fire upon her 
 with a sure aim. Lorenzo was requested by his men to save himself 
 in the boat, but he would not consent to abandon them. A shot 
 carried off one of his legs. He caused himself to be tied to the mast, 
 where he continued to animate his men until another shot carried off 
 the left side of his chest. The galley was by this time upon a sand- 
 bank ; it was boarded without difficulty, and twenty-four men, who 
 remained in it, were carried away captives. The rest of the vessels 
 proceeded to Cananor, and informed Almeida of the disaster. He bore 
 it with fortitude, and was making preparations to revenge his loss, 
 when Alfonso de Albuquerque, who was appointed governor of India 
 in his place, arrived. Almeida received him very coolly, and a quarrel 
 ensuing, Albuquerque was sent to Cochin, where he was kept three 
 months under arrest. [Albuquerque.] 
 
 Almeida, whose only object now was to gratify his vengeance, sailed 
 to Onor, where he burnt some vessels of the king of Calicut, entered 
 the port of Dabal, or Dabul, belonging to the king of Goa, on the 13th 
 of December, 1508, took the town, and after having plundered it 
 reduced it to ashes. He then went in search of the Egyptian fleet, 
 and found it near Diu in the kingdom of Cambay, and obtained a 
 complete victory over it. Mir Hocem, with only twenty-four men, 
 escaped : eight of his vessels were taken, and the rest sunk. 
 
 Almeida, having thus punished his enemies, returned to Cochin, 
 where Marshal Coutinho, who had arrived from Portugal, urged him 
 to return home. The viceroy released Albuquerque, surrendered his 
 government, and sailed from Cochin on the 13th of November, 1509. 
 On his way to Portugal, after having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, 
 he stopped at Saldanha Bay to procure a supply of fresh water. His 
 soldiers had a dispute with the natives, and an affray ensued. One of 
 his officers, Mello, seeing the venerable old man alone iu the midst of 
 that inhospitable country, observed to him in a sarcastic manner, 
 
168 
 
 ALMOHADES. 
 
 ALMOHADES. 
 
 166 
 
 " Here I should wish to see by your side one of those whom you 
 favoured in India." Almeida very composedly answered, " This is not 
 the time to think of that ; think rather how to save the royal standard ; 
 as for me, I am old enough, both in years and in sins, to die here, if 
 that be the will of the Lord." From this moment Mello never aban- 
 doned either the standard or his general, until Almeida fell pierced by 
 a lance. 
 
 " That the man who had trampled over countless thousands of the 
 Asiatics," says a contemporary writer, " who had humbled their sove- 
 reign princes, and annihilated in the seas the powers of the Egyptian 
 Soldan, should perish on an obscure strand, by the hands of a few 
 savages, should be a salutary lesson for human ambition." 
 
 Almeida was a man of noble appearance, prudent, courteous, and 
 very much esteemed for his generosity. During his administration of 
 India he made the Portuguese name respected. He is represented by 
 gome writers as a conceited man, who thought nobody so well qualified 
 to govern India as himself; but perhaps we only do him justice in 
 believing that his ruling motive was a desire to elevate the fame and 
 power of his native state. 
 
 (Barro3, History of the Portuguese Conquests in the East, decade i., 
 book 8 to the end — ii., book 1-4 ; Damian a Goes, Chronica do Senkor 
 Bey Bom Manoel ; Mariana, book xxix. chap. 16 ; Lardner, Cabinet 
 Cyclopedia, History of Spain and Portugal, vol. iii., p. 306.) 
 
 ALMOHADES, the name of a Mohammedan dynasty, which began 
 in Africa and Spain with Abdelmumen, in the year 542 of the Hegira, 
 a.d. 1147. Mohammed-ben-Abdallah, a native of Herga, in Africa, 
 was the son of a lamplighter in a mosque. He received his education 
 at Cordova ; and having finished his studies, he travelled to the East 
 to improve his knowledge, and visited Cairo and Baghdad. , In Baghdad 
 he attended the school of the philosopher Abu-Hamid-Algezali, who 
 had written a book on the revival of learning and the law, which was 
 condemned at Cordova as dangerous to the faith of Islam. Ali, the 
 Almoravidian king of Cordova, approved of this decision, and the book 
 was given up to the flames. Algezali perceiving a stranger in hi3 
 school, and having ascertained that he was from the west, asked him 
 whether he had ever been at Cordova, and heard of his book. Abdal- 
 lah informed him of the fate of his work. The doctor turned pale, 
 tore the book which he had in his hands, and looking to heaven, 
 exclaimed, " May God thus tear the kingdom from the impious Ali ! " 
 Abdallah joined him in his prayer, and added, " Pray God to make me 
 an instrument of thy vengeance." 
 
 After three years' residence at Baghdad, Mohammed returned to 
 Mauritania in 510 (A.D. 1116), where he rendered himself conspicuous 
 by the simplicity of his dress, by his austerity, and by his bold preach- 
 ing against the vices both of the king and the people. On his arriving 
 at a village called Tejewa, he met a youth of prepossessing appearance, 
 by name Abdelmumen, who was going with his uncle to study in the 
 East. Abdallah promised to give him the instruction which he 
 desired, but taught him all that was most conducive to his own 
 designs. He communicated to him a prophecy in which it was fore- 
 told that the empire of life and of the law would only arise with 
 Abdelmumen. Having thus prepared him, he named him his vizier. 
 They both went to Fez, and thence to Marocco. Entering one day 
 into the mosqu£ of the latter city, Mohammed placed himself in the 
 seat of the Imam. One of the ministers represented to him that 
 nobody could occupy that place except the king of the faithful. 
 Mohammed answered him with much gravity in these words of the 
 Koran, "Inna '1 mesajida lillahi" — " certainly the temples only belong 
 to God." Shortly after the king entered, and prayers being said, 
 Mohammed arose, and addressing himself to Ali, said to him, " Put a 
 remedy to the evils and injustices prevailing in thy kingdom, for God 
 will require of thee an account of thy people." The king at first 
 treated him with contempt ; but as he continued to preach and attract 
 the multitude, Ali at last assembled his council, and though severe 
 measures were proposed, the king contented himself with expelling 
 him from the city. 
 
 Mohammed now built a hut in a burial-ground, and multitudes 
 flocked there to hear his doctrine. He preached to them about the 
 coming of the great Mehedi, who was to establish the empire of justice 
 upon earth. The king ordered him to be imprisoned and beheaded, 
 but he escaped to Agmat, and thence to Tinmal in the land of Sous. 
 One day while he was expounding the prophecy of the coming of the 
 great Slehedi, Abdelmumen observed, " That prophecy evidently 
 applies to thee ; thou art the true Mehedi." Upon this, Abdelmumen, 
 with fifty others of his disciples, acknowledged him as their Mehedi. 
 After these, seventy more swore allegiance to him. Mohammed estab- 
 lished two councils. The fifty who first acknowledged his authority 
 were those with whom he entrusted the affairs of greater consequence, 
 and to the latter seventy he confided those of less importance. 
 
 He then went to the mountains, preaching the unity of God, and 
 ■was followed by 20,000 men of the tribe of Masamuda, to whom he 
 gave the name of Mowahedun, that is, Unitarians, from which the 
 name of Almobades is derived. The command of this army was given 
 to Mohammed Alakhir. 
 
 Abu-Is'hac-Ibrahim, Ali's own brother, marched against the rebels; 
 and the two armies were ready to fight, when a sudden terror seized 
 the foremost ranks of Ibrahim, who, turning their horses, began to fly 
 in all directions, trampling down their own fellow-soldiers. The 
 
 Almohades possessed themselves of the rich baggage, and in conse- 
 quence of this success several other tribes joined them. Ali now 
 called his brother Temin from Spain, and with a powerful army sent 
 him against the Mehedi, who had retired to the mountains. This 
 general, though more successful than the preceding, neviT could defeat 
 the Almohades. They fortified themselves at Tinmal, and from this 
 place they sallied forth to devastate the surrounding country. 
 
 In 1125 (513 of the Hegira), they laid siege to Marocco, but were 
 defeated in a vigorous sally made by the besieged. Three years after- 
 wards, Abdelmumen marched at the head of 30,000 men, and obtained 
 a complete victory over the Almoravides. On his return to Tinmal, 
 the Mehedi came out to greet the victorious general ; and the next 
 day he called his men at the mosque, and took his last leave of them. 
 Shortly after Abdelmumen waited upon him. The Mehedi gave him 
 the book of Algezali, and departed from this world. He had made 
 several reforms in the Mohammedan religion, among which was the 
 adoption of a more simple profession of faith, and of prayers which 
 they were allowed to say on their "march, and even when fighting, 
 which gave them a superiority over their enemies. 
 
 The chiefs of the Almohades now assembled to determine the form 
 of government they should adopt after the death of the Mehedi; and 
 having decided in favour of a moderate monarchy, the election fell 
 upon Abdelmumen, who was declared Imam and Amir-al-Mumenin. 
 He pursued his conquests with vigour, and in three years reduced the 
 empire of the Almoravides to very narrow limits. He took Oran and 
 Fez, and laid siege to Marocco, the only city now left to the Almora- 
 vides in Africa. Whilst Abdelmumen was engaged in reducing that 
 city, he sent Abu-Amran with a numerous army to invade Andalusia. 
 Many of the petty chiefs of Spain joined the Almohades. In the mean 
 time the siege of Marocco was pursued with 7igour, and the inhabit- 
 ants defended it heroically. The besieger swore he would not retire 
 until he had sifted the town through a sieve. Famine had carried off 
 three-fourths of the population, and the remaining part could make 
 but a feeble defence, when the city was taken by a general assault in 
 the year 543 of the Hegira, a.d. 1148. The young emperor Ibrahim 
 was put to death, the few surviving inhabitants inhumanly massacred, 
 and the town demolished. According to Marmol, Abdelmumen lite- 
 rally fulfilled his oath. He afterwards rebuilt the city, and called 
 some tribes from the desert to re-people it. 
 
 The arms of the Almohades were not less successful in Spain than 
 in Africa, Almost all Andalusia acknowledged their dominion. Cor- 
 dova, the last hold of the Almoravides, was taken by Abu-Amran, 
 and Abdelmumen was proclaimed sovereign both of Mauritania and 
 Spain. 
 
 Not content with the territory he possessed in Spain, Abdelmumen 
 published in 557 (a.d. 1161) the Jihdd, or holy war, with an intention 
 of subduing the whole of the Peninsula. He levied an army of 100,000 
 horse and 300,000 foot, but in the midst of his preparations death 
 overtook him in 558. 
 
 His youngest son, Yussef-Abu-Yacub, succeeded him. This prince, 
 not being so warlike as his father, dismissed the army which he had 
 assembled at Sul£, and in the first few years of his reign he cultivated 
 the arts of peace. In 566 (a.d. 1170) however, he invaded Spain, and, 
 after conquering the rest of the Mohammedan dominions in the 
 Peninsula, fell in an engagement with the Christians. 
 
 Yussef-hen-Yacub, better known by the name of Almansor, landed 
 at Algeciras, and defeated Alfonso III. of Castile in the plains of Alarcos. 
 The prisoners he had made in this battle he immediately restored to 
 liberty — an example of very rare occurrence among the Mohammedans. 
 After this signal victory he took Calatrava, Guadalajara, Madrid, and 
 Salamanca, and afterwards returned to Africa, where he died in 595 
 (a.d. 1198). This prince was the ornament of his age, and the most 
 liberal and magnanimous of the Almohadian dynasty. 
 
 His son Mohammed-Abu-Abdalla, who succeeded him, though an 
 effeminate and weak prince, was not insensible to the glory of arms. 
 He mustered a most powerful army, one of the five divisions of which, 
 if we are to give credit to the Arabic and Spanish historians, amounted 
 to 160,000 men: his design was to conquer the whole Peninsula. 
 Such was the terror which this vast armament inspired among the 
 Christians, that Innocent III. proclaimed a crusade, and several bishops 
 went from town to town to rouse the Christian princes. The kings of 
 Castile, Aragon, and Navarre, with a numerous body of foreign volun- 
 teers, advanced to stop the progress of the Moslems. The two armies 
 met in Las Navas de Tolosa, between Castile and Andalusia ; and on 
 the 12th of June, 1211, the Christians obtained so complete a victory 
 over the Africans, that Mohammed himself had a narrow escape, and 
 left no less than 170,000 men on the field ; the rest fled for safety. 
 After this signal defeat he retired to Marocco, gave up the care of the 
 government to his son, Yussef-Abu-Yacub, who was only eleven years 
 of age, and passed the last days of his life iu licentious pleasures. 
 He died in 610 (1213). 
 
 Abu-Yacub died without issue in 620 (1223). His death was the 
 signal of a civil war which ended with the destruction of the Almo- 
 hades. After several disputes, Almamun-Abu-Ali, brother of the 
 governor of Valencia, was proclaimed emperor. He projected a reform 
 in the constitution, and prepared the way towards it by writing a 
 treatise against the institutions of the Mehedi. The two councils 
 instituted by the Mehedi, against whom Almamun's reform was princi- 
 
167 
 
 ALMORAVIDES. 
 
 ALOMPRA. 
 
 I6S 
 
 pally directed, deposed him, and chose Yahya-ben-Anasir in his stead, 
 supplying him with troops to oppose Almamun. Yahya landed in 
 Andalusia, and was defeated by the emperor near Medina Sidonia. 
 Almamun speedily crossed over to Africa, and arriving at Marocco 
 unexpectedly assembled the senate, and after upbraiding them for 
 their conduct, caused them to bo beheaded in the court of the palace. 
 All the walis suspected of partiality for this body underwent the same 
 fate, and their heads were left to putrefy on the ramparts of Marocco. 
 
 In Spain, Ibn-Hud, an Andalusian sheik, who had formed the project 
 of rescuing the country from the yoke of the Almohades, after a scries 
 of victories expelled them from the Peninsula. Almamun, harassed 
 by so many disasters, died in 029 (1231). His successors in Africa 
 lived in a continual state of intestine warfare. The last of them waa 
 Idris, who fell in a battle against the Marini, and with him ended the 
 dynasty of the Almohades. 
 
 (Casiri, Bi 01 iolhcca AraOico-IJispana ; Conde, ITisloria de la Domi- 
 nation de los Arabcs cnEspaua, ii. 26-58 ; Marmol, Description General 
 de Africa; Rodcricus Toletanus, Dc Rebus Hispanicis ; D'Herbelot, 
 Bibliotheque Oricntalc.) 
 
 ALMORAVIDES, an Arabian tribe, who came out of the country of 
 Ilimyar, aud established themselves in Syria in the time of the first 
 kalif, Abu-bekr. They passed afterwards into Egypt, penetrated into 
 Africa towards the west, and settled about the Desert of Sahara. They 
 extended themselves gradually, and gave the name to a sect called 
 Molthemiu, or Molathemin, on account of their wearing veils. Their 
 religion seems at a very early period to have been Christian, but by 
 mixing with, the Mohammedans they lost every trace of it; and even 
 of the religion of Islam they hardly knew anything beyond the formula, 
 ' La ilah ilia Allah Mohammed raaul Allah;' that is, ' There is but one 
 Go 1, and Mohammed is his envoy.' 
 
 Yah ya-ben- Ibrahim, a very patriotic man of the tribe of Qudala, 
 w hich was one of these tribes, on his return from Mecca, meeting with 
 AbuArnran, a f.imous Fakih (that is, lawyer and theologian), of Fez, 
 informed him of the state of ignorance of his tribe, and of their tract- 
 able disposition, aud requested him to send some teachers. Abdallah- 
 l en-Yassim, a disciple of another Fakih, offered to accompany Yahya. 
 Having met with an enthusiastic reception from the tribe, he induced 
 them to wage war against the tribe of Lametounah, who were made 
 to acknowledge his spiritual authority ; aud he gave his followers the 
 name of Mai abauth, or Morabitin, which signifies men devoted to the 
 Service of religion. Abdallah having fallen in battle in the year 450 
 of the Hegira, a.d. 1058, Abu-bekr-ben Omar-Lametouni was appointed 
 sovereign prince. This chief led his tribe westward, established the 
 seat of his empire at the city of Agmat, and laid the foundation of 
 Marocco. 
 
 The tribe of Gudala had declared war against that of Lametounah, 
 aud Abu-bekr marched speedily to its assistance, leaving the command 
 of the army to his relation, Yussef-ben-Taxfin. Yussef subdued the 
 Berbers, completed the building of the city of Marocco, and entirely 
 expelled the Zeierides, commonly known by the name of Zegries, from 
 Mauritania. Having by his exploits and by his affability won the 
 affections of his men, he declared himself sovereign prince, and married 
 the beautiful Zaiuab, sister of Abu-bekr. This chief having returned 
 from his expedition, encamped before Agmat ; but finding his oppo- 
 nent too strong to be attacked, had an interview with Yussef, and 
 returned to his native deserts. Yussef made him a magnificent present, 
 which he continued to send to Abu-bekr every year till his death. 
 
 Yussef now assumed the title of Amir-al-Muslemin, or ' Prince of 
 the Believers.' Having been invited by some of the Mohammedan 
 kings of Spain to assist them against Alonso VI., he sailed in 1086 at 
 the head of a numerous army, landed on the coast of Andalusia, and 
 marched to Estremadura. King Alonso hastened from Aragon to stop 
 his progress, and met the Almoravides in the plains of Zalaca. The 
 Christians fought like heroes, but were compelled to retreat at night- 
 fall, and the king himself was severely wounded. 
 
 Yussef was called back to Africa, and left the command of the 
 Almoravides to Syr-beu-Abu-bekr. The next year he returned with 
 considerable reinforcements, and defeating one by one the Moorish 
 kings of Spain, established the seat of his empire at Cordova, and 
 caused his son Ali to be proclaimed his successor. Yussef died at 
 Marocco in the year 1106, at the advanced age of 97. Clemency and 
 humanity were prominent virtues in his character. Contemporary 
 historians state that he never pronounced a sentence of death. The 
 vast empire of the Almoravides, which now reached from Mount Atlas 
 to the Sierra Morena, was destroyed by the Almohades in the year 543 
 of the Hegira, a.d. 1148. [Almohades.] 
 
 (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale; Cond£, Domination de los 
 Arabcs en Esr>ana; The Chronicle of Rodericus Toletanus; Casiri, 
 Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana.) 
 
 ALOMPRA, founder of the reigning dynasty of Birma, appears to 
 have been born about the year 1711. When Beinga Dalla, king of 
 Pegu, conquered Birma (1750-52), Alompra was known by the desig- 
 nation Aumdzca, or ' the huntsman.' He was at that time chief of the 
 inconsiderable village of Moncbaboo, situated to the west of Keoum- 
 meoum, and about twelve miles distant from the Irawaddy. The 
 terms of the proclamation issued by Beinga Dalla on reaching his 
 capital, announcing that Birma was annexed as a conquered province 
 to his kingdom, excited great exasperation among the Birmese. 
 
 Alompra, who had collected a band of about one hundred devoted 
 followers, strengthened and repaired the stockade around his village. 
 There was a garrison of about fifty Peguau soldiers placed in Mon- 
 cbaboo, which Alompra attacked and captured unexpectedly some 
 time in the autumn of 1753, putting every man to the sword. 
 Apporaza, the brother of Beiuga Dalla, and governor of Birma, gave 
 directions to place Alompra in strict confinement when he should be 
 brought in by the party which had been dispatched against Monchaboo 
 as soon as the massacre of the garrison had been heard of. The Peguan 
 troops expected no resistance from the much inferior force assembled 
 in Monchaboo, and were confounded at finding the stockade closed 
 and manned against them. At daybreak next morning Alompra made 
 a sally, and, taking the besiegers by surprise, defeated and pursued 
 them for the space of about two miles. Returning to Monchaboo, he 
 sent emissaries to all the neighbouring towns and villages, inviting the 
 Birmese to join his standard. Many hesitated to engage in what 
 appeared a desperate undertaking, but as many obeyed the summons 
 as placed him at the head of a thousand men. Dotachew, the son of 
 Apporaza, who was at the head of three thousand men, hesitated 
 whether to advance and crush the insurrection, or wait for reinforce- 
 ments. Alompra, learning his indecision, took the bold part of march- 
 ing at once upon Ava. Before he reached the city Dotachew fled from 
 it, aud the Birmese rose and overpowered the troops he left behind 
 him. Alompra, on receiving this intelligence, sent his second son 
 Shembuan to take possession of Ava, and returned to Monchaboo. 
 All these events took place before the close of 1753. 
 
 A large force was assembled at Pegu, placed under the command of 
 Apporaza, and dispatched up the Irawaddy in war-boats. The fleet 
 set sail in January, 1754, at the time of the year when the river is 
 lowest and barely navigable. The obstructions it met with left the 
 Birmese time to collect their forces. Alompra recruited his army, and 
 assembled a fleet at Keoum meoum. In the vicinity of Ava the Peguans 
 were molested by frequent desultory attacks; but their leader, after 
 summoning the city without effect, judged it more advisable to proceed 
 at once against the main force of the enemy than to waste time on a 
 siege. A battle took place near Keoum-meoum, which, although only 
 the fleets were engaged, was obstinate and bloody, and ended in the 
 defeat of the Peguans. Apporaza, with the wreck of his army, sought 
 shelter within the frontier of Pegu. 
 
 The Peguans avenged themselves by a massacre of all the Birmese 
 within their power. On the 13th of October they put to death the 
 King of Birma, who was a prisoner at Pegu, and several hundreds of 
 his subjects of both sexes and all age3. The Birmese, who were 
 numerous in the frontier towns, flew to arms and revenged their friends 
 with equal barbarity. The eldest son of the murdered king found his 
 way to Monchaboo at the head of a strong body of Quois. He attempted 
 to assert his hereditary claim to the throne; but seeing Alompra deter- 
 mined not to recognise it, and doubtful of his personal security, he 
 retired to Siam. After the departure of the prince, Alompra caused 
 nearly a thousand of the Quois to be put to death, alleging that they 
 had conspired against him. Their kinsmen threatened vengeance, and 
 at the same time Alompra received intelligence that a fleet from Pegu 
 had blockaded Pronie. A Birmese officer, dispatched by Alompra, 
 succeeded in throwing a reinforcement of men and provisions into 
 Prome ; and in the space of forty days Alompra collected his troops, 
 left his two eldest sons in command of Ava and Monchaboo, and 
 descended the river at the head of a formidable fleet. Immediately 
 on his arrival at the blockaded town he attacked the fleet of Pegu. 
 The enemy fled; he pursued them immediately, and without loss of 
 time pushed on his troops to within a few leagues of Bassein. Beinga 
 Dalla retired to Pegu, and his forces, discouraged by his retreat, 
 evacuated Bassein on February 17, 1755. On the 23rd the Birmese 
 entered the town, and having set it on fire, returned the same day to 
 a station where the branch of the river flowing towards Syriam sepa- 
 rates from that which passes Bassein. About the middle. of April he 
 defeated Apporaza at Synyagong, and obliged the forces of Pegu to 
 fall back upon Syriam, leaving the whole delta west of that town in 
 possession of the Birmese. Early in May Alompra fixed his head- 
 quarters at Dagon, a few miles from Syriam, to which he afterwards 
 gave the name of Rangoon. 
 
 About the middle of June Alompra was obliged to leave his post 
 at Dagon by an insurrection in Birma, and a simultaneous advance of 
 the Siamese upon his frontier. Having restored tranquillity he made 
 some stay at Monchaboo, where in the month of September he con- 
 cluded an alliance with the envoy of the British resident at Negrais, 
 and immediately afterwards returned to Dagon. 
 
 Alompra remained apparently inactive before Syriam till the month 
 of July, 1756; the enemy, imagining he calculated on reducing it by 
 famine, were lulled into security. Availing himself of their negligence, 
 he carried the place by a night attack. Advancing thence, he shut up 
 the King of Pegu in his capital, cut him off from all communication 
 with his own fertile territories of Dalla and Bassein, and from the 
 possibility of foreign aid. As soon as the rainy season was at an end, 
 and the swamps of Syriam and Pegu had emerged from the inundation, 
 Alompra ordered his general, Meinla-Meingaing, to advance upon Pegu 
 with a strong detachment. He followed himself with the whole army 
 in a few days. The surrounding country was laid waste, the city 
 invested, and shortly afterwards taken by storm. 
 
193 
 
 ALP- AIIS LAN. 
 
 ALSTROMER, JONAS. 
 
 170 
 
 On his return to Monchaboo, Alompra spent some months in that 
 town, which he had enlarged and made his capital. In l7c>3 a revolt 
 in Pegu broke out. His presence crushed the insurrection ; but the 
 impression entertained by the Birmese that it had been excited by 
 foreign intrigues, stimulated Alompra to seek revenge on other 
 enemies. , 
 
 The English at Negrais were suspected. An alliance, offensive and 
 defensive, had been concluded between Alompra and the British 
 resident at Negrais ; notwithstanding which it was alleged that British 
 traders had supplied the people of Pegu with arms. The position ot 
 the British government in India at that time had rendered it expedient 
 to recal the resident at Negrais (he reached Calcutta on May 14, 1759), 
 but a few persons were left to preserve the right of possession in case 
 it should be resolved at any future period to re-establish the settle- 
 ment. On the 6th of October following, Negrais was treacherously 
 attacked by a party of Birmese who had entered it as guests, a number 
 of Europeans and Hindoos slain, the rest carried off prisoners, and 
 the place destroyed, though it does not appear that this assault was 
 made by command of Alompra, or even with his previous knowledge ; 
 but he tacitly sanctioned the outrage after it had been committed. 
 
 The Siamese too were suspected of having stirred up the insurrection 
 in Pegu ; upon them Alompra sought to take open vengeance. Mergui 
 and Tenasserim fell an easy prey ; and, inspirited with these successes, 
 the victor resolved to carry the war into the heart of Siam without 
 delay. The enemy harassed his army as it advanced, but did not 
 venture upon a general engagement. They retarded its march how- 
 ever, and a month elapsed before he approached Bankok. Two days 
 after the Birmese had completed their lines of circumvallation and 
 erected their stockades, Alompra was taken ill. He felt that his 
 disease was mortal, and anxious to reach his capital in order to settle 
 the succession, and take other precautions for averting civil disorder 
 after his death, he broke up the siege, and commenced his retreat by 
 the, most direct route. The progress of his disease however was so 
 rapid that death overtook him within two days' march of Martaban, 
 about May 15, 1760. , 
 
 Alompra at the time of his death had not completed his nttietn 
 year. It is said that his person did not exceed the middle size, but 
 was strong and well proportioned ; that his features were coarse and 
 dark. He was prone to anger, severe in punishing. He was as deceitful 
 and reckless of human life as most Asiatic conquerors. He was a 
 braggart, like all his successors ; but he did something to brag of. As 
 a soldier, he commanded success by the promptitude and vigour of 
 his movements. "The wisdom of his councils," says Major Symes, 
 speaking of his civil government, "secured what his valour had 
 acquired; he reformed the Rhooms, or courts of justice ; he abridged 
 the power of the magistrates, and forbade them to decide at their 
 private houses on criminal causes, or property where the amount 
 exceeded a certain sum ; every process of importance was decided in 
 public, and every decree registered." 
 
 (Symes, Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the Year 
 1795; Crawfurd, Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and 
 Cochin-China.) 
 
 ALP-ARSLAN (that is, 'the Brave Lion'), or, with his complete 
 name, Mohammed-beii-Daud-Alf-Arslan, born in 1030, was the nephew 
 of the Seljukide Sultan Togrul-Beg, whom the Abbaside Kalif Kaim- 
 biamr-illah had, for the protection of his throne, invested with the 
 dignity of Emir-al-Omara, or Commander-in-Chief of the whole 
 empire, and who, when nearly 75 years old, had also married a very 
 young daughter of that kalif. Togrul-Beg died in 1063, and, as he 
 left no children, his nephew, Alp-Arslan, who had till then been 
 governor of Khorassan, succeeded him as Sultan of the Seljukes. 
 Alp-Arslan restored the youthful widow of Togrul-Beg to her father, 
 demanding at the same time to be appointed Emir-al-Omara in the 
 place of his uncle, a request which the kalif could not refuse. One 
 of the first acts of Alp-Arslan's reign was to put to death the grand 
 vizir of Togrul-Beg, together with 600 of his adherents. Nizam-al- 
 Mulk, who was chosen for that office by Alp-Arslan, has earned the 
 reputation of one of the greatest statesmen of the East. Alp-Arslan 
 was about to extend his dominions by conquests in Transoxiana, when 
 a revolt in Azerbijan, instigated by Kutulmish, required his presence 
 there. He defeated the rebellious prince near the city of Rei, and 
 resumed in the ensuing year (1065) hi3 conquests in Transoxiana, 
 while his vizir Nizam-al-Mulk endeavoured to promote the welfare of 
 the interior, and to advance the interests of literature and education 
 by establishing colleges in the principal towns of the empire. The 
 greater part of Syria was at this time already in the hands of the 
 Turks, and the troops of the Greek emperor offered but little resist- 
 ance to their further progress. Romauu3 Diogenes, who came to the 
 throne in 1063, resolved to take more vigorous measures against them. 
 He joined his army in person, and defeated the Turks in several battles 
 in Cilicia and near Malatia; but he was unsuccessful in an expedition 
 against Khelat, and was, in 1071, taken prisoner in a battle near 
 Malazkurd (or Melez^'liird) in Armenia. Alp-Arslan treated him 
 generously, and on his promise to pay a considerable ransom, released 
 him and all the noble prisoners from their captivity. But the Greeks 
 had in the meantime placed Michael Parapinacius upon the throne, 
 by which circumstance Diogenes was prevented from fulfilling his 
 engagement. This caused a renewal of hostilities, Alp-Arslan's son, 
 
 Malek-Shah, conquered Georgia, while the Sultan himself was pre- 
 paring an expedition against Turkistan. lie crossed the Jihon, and 
 commenced the war by taking the fort of Berzem ; its governor, 
 Yussut'-Kothual, was led before Alp-Arslan as a prisoner, and when 
 reproached by him for the trouble he had given him by his long and 
 useless resistance, became so incensed, that he rushed upon the Sultan 
 and with a dagger inflicted a mortal wound upon him, of which he 
 died (1072). Alp-Arslan was buried at Merw in Khorassan. His son 
 Malek-Shah succeeded him in the government. 
 
 ALSTROMER, JONAS, was born on Jan. 7, 1685, at Alingsccs, at 
 that time a small town of about 150 inhabitants. His parents were 
 so poor, that after being taught to read and write, he was sent to 
 service at the house of a colonel in the neighbourhood ; but he soon 
 left this place for the shop of a small trader in Eksjo, where he con- 
 tinued till the ill-treatment of his master forced him to leave : after a 
 few more changes he set out for Stockholm to seek his fortune. Here 
 a merchant of the name of Alberg, who had resolved to set up in 
 business in London, engaged him to accompany him as book-keeper. 
 The young adventurer assumed the name of Alstrom, from the name 
 of the stream on which he was born, being the first of the family who 
 had aspired to the dignity of a surname. On his passage he took his 
 share of work with the sailors, a circumstance which had nearly 
 turned much to his injury, for he had scarcely set foot on land in 
 London, May 1, 1707, when he was laid hold of by a press-gang, and 
 rescued with difficulty out of their hands by a comrade, who could 
 'hardly persuade them that he was a clerk. In the course of three 
 year3 Alberg failed. In the same year, 1710, the clerk set up in 
 business on his own account as a ship-broker, and procured letters of 
 naturalisation. His first thought, on his success, was to impart a 
 share of it to his family. His father was dead, but he sent support 
 to his mother, who was still living, aud he invited over to England 
 his younger brother and two sisters. The brother he instructed in 
 trade, and then sent out to Portugal, where he died in 1716. Of the 
 two sisters, the elder managed the household affairs, and the younger 
 learned book-keeping and trade, at which she became so clever, that 
 during Alstrbm's occasional absences from the counting-house she 
 used to carry on the business and maintain an extensive correspond- 
 ence. Alstrom was now comfortably settled, if it had not been for 
 the contrast which he could not help drawing between the prosperity 
 of the country he lived in and the misery of that he had left behind. 
 "As a citizen he was an Englishman," says his biographer, "but he 
 was at heart a Swede." He watched impatiently for the return of 
 Charles XII. from his captivity at Bender to lay before him his plans 
 of improvement ; and when the welcome news arrived he hurried off 
 to Sweden, but soon found that during the life of that king there was 
 no chance of his schemes being listened to. He did not return how- 
 ever without effecting something ; for, having observed that the 
 English woollen manufactures constituted the principal exports to 
 Sweden, he took with him a stock of thirty sheep for the purpose of 
 improving the Swedish wool, and presented them to friends at Gotten- 
 burg and Uddevalla; and this flock was the origin of a great improve- 
 ment in the wool of Sweden. On leaving Stockholm he went to 
 Germany, and the ship in which he sailed being captured on the 
 voyage by a Danish cruiser, he claimed and obtained his liberty in the 
 character of an English merchant. For the next four or five years he 
 travelled in different parts of Europe, still with the view of finding 
 manufactures to transplant, and then found it necessary to attend 
 closely for two or three years to business in London, where he was 
 nominated Swedish consul. In 1723 he left London for Paris, and 
 sent on before him to Sweden a Dutchman, who established the first 
 cotton-printing manufactory in the country at Sickla. From Paris he 
 wrote to Stockholm to obtain the privileges he considered necessary 
 for the establishment of a factory for weaving, and at St.-Germain 
 engaged some English stocking-weavers to acpompany him to Sweden. 
 The privileges were granted, and in 1724 weaving was fairly com- 
 menced at Alingsces, the native place of Alstrom, which he had 
 selected eight years before as an eligible spot for his purpose : after 
 a time he found that his capital was not sufficient to carry on the 
 undertaking, and his neighbours were more disposed to be a hindrance 
 than a help. When just on the point of throwing everything up aud 
 returning to England, he heard that a meeting of forgemasters was 
 about to take place at Carlstad on business, and he determined to 
 make a last effort. He travelled to Carlstad, got into conversation 
 with one of the forgemasters, and by his assistance the whole body 
 was prevailed on to advance Alstrom some money for present needs, 
 and appoint a meeting at the fair of Christinsehamn. The crisis was 
 now past; at the fair a joint-stock company was formed, and soon 
 after the king, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, took forty shares, and as a 
 matter of course, many of the nobility and the senate followed the 
 royal example. From this time the main interest of Alstrom's 
 biography ceases, and nothing remains to be told but a series of useful 
 efforts and merited honours. He procured, with difficulty and 
 expense, we are told, a skilful 'spinster' from England, who first 
 instructed the Swedish women in the art of spinning wool. He 
 imported flocks of sheep from England, Spain, and Eiderstedfc, and 
 goats from Angora. He made experiments for the introduction of 
 different kinds of dyeing-plants, and also of tobacco and potatoes. 
 Ho introduced improvements in the manufacture of cutlery, iu 
 
171 ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT. 
 
 tanning, and in ship-building, from foreign countries. By these multi- 
 farious occupations he contributed more to the benefit of his country 
 than to the augmentation of his own fortune. What he lost in wealth 
 however was made up in honour. Iu 1739 he was made a member of 
 the Council of Commerce, with an understanding that he was to give 
 as much of his time to it as he could spare from the factory at Aling- 
 sces ; but he took such an interest in the occupation that he often 
 gave all his time to the Council. In 1748, when the royal order of 
 the North Star was instituted, he was one of the earliest knights; and 
 in 1751, at the coronation of King Adolphus Frederick, he was 
 ennobled, and also honoured, as is customary on such occasions, with 
 an additional syllable to his name, which was changed from Alsstrom 
 to Alstromer. From that time he had a great influence on all the 
 resolutions of the states with regard to commerce and manufactures, 
 and they testified their regard to him on various occasions. So early 
 as 1749, when a great part of the buildings at Alingsces was destroyed 
 by fire, they voted a public contribution for their restoration. In 
 1700 they passed a resolution that a bust of Alstromer should be 
 made at the public expense, and placed iu the Exchange at Stockholm. 
 About the same time the Academy of Sciences ordered a medal to be 
 Btruck in his honour. He did not long survive the distinctions 
 awarded him by the States and Academy. He died on June 2, 1701. 
 He was twice married, and had six sons and two daughters, but only 
 four of the sons survived him, tin eo of whom, Patrick, August, and 
 Clas, but more especially Clas, rose to eminence. It is stated by 
 Hirschiug, that at the time of their father's death, 18,000 persons 
 were employed in the silk and woollen manufacture in Sweden. 
 
 Alstromer was the author of a few short works on the practical 
 questions which occupied his life. 
 
 (Kryger, Aminnelse-Tal vfver J. Alstromer ; Roseuhane, Anleclnhigur 
 hbrande till Vctcnskaps-Akudemiens Ilistoria, pp. 173, 444 ; Aurivillius, 
 Cattdogus Bihliolhecce Upsaliensis, i. 23 ; Hirschiug, J/Utoriscli-Litera- 
 rischis Hatidbuch, i. 36.) 
 
 ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT, painter and engraver, and one of the 
 most celebrated of the old German masters, was born at Altdorf in 
 Bavaria iu 1488. This has been shown by Heineken, who acquired 
 his information from a senator of Regensburg (Ratisbou), who found 
 documents concerning the family of Altdorfer iu that city. Those who 
 speak of him as a Swiss have been misled by Sandrart, who was the 
 originator of the error. 
 
 Altdorfer was himself a member of the interior senate of Regens- 
 burg, of which city he was enrolled a burgess in 1511 ; he was also 
 architect to the city of Regensburg. He was probably the sou of 
 Ulrich Altdorfer, an artist of Regensburg, who gave up his right of 
 burghership iu 1491. 
 
 Altdorfer did not paint much, but his pictures show a surprising 
 patieuce and industry. There is in the Pinakothek at Munich a picture 
 by him, representing Alexander's battle of Arbela, of which the labour 
 is prodigious. It bears the date 1529; it is not of large dimensions, 
 but contains almost an innumerable mass of small figures, all in the 
 German military costume of the day, every article of dress or military 
 implement being made out with the greatest exactness; and all the 
 various and probable incidents of a battle profusely introduced. 
 There is perhaps not another picture in existence which contains so 
 many figures ; the design is however strictly gothic, and Altdorfer has 
 wholly neglected the powerful aid of aerial perspective. This picture 
 was formerly at Schleissheim, whence it was taken by the French to 
 Paris, and Napoleon was so much delighted with it, that he ordered 
 it to be hung up in his bath-room at St. Cloud, where it remained 
 until 1815. Though one of the most interesting and remarkable pro- 
 ductions of German painting, it has never been engraved; the very 
 sight of it however would probably appal many engravers. His other 
 pictures are in a similar style; he scarcely ever painted large figures: 
 the Saviour with Mary and John, St. Peter, St. Catherine, and another 
 saint, at the convent of Molk, which are the size of life, are the only 
 known exceptions, and these have been attributed to Albert Diirer, 
 who is supposed by some to have been the master of Altdorfer, but 
 it is a mere conjecture. 
 
 There are several of Altdorfer's pictures at Schleissheim, near 
 Munich ; some at Niirnberg and Regensburg ; a Birth of Christ at 
 Vienna, and a Susannah and the Elders in the Pinakothek at Munich. 
 
 As a wood-engraver Altdorfer is more generally known, and he is 
 inferior to Albert Diirer alone, of the old German or little masters; 
 he is called by the French Le Petit Albert : his cuts, amounting to 
 about eighty, are slight, and occasionally ill drawn, but they are 
 executed with great freedom. Holbein is said to have studied Alt- 
 dorfer's cuts, which, from a certain similarity of style, notwithstanding 
 the superiority of Holbein, is not improbable. 
 
 His metal plates on copper and pewter are more numerous than his 
 woodcuts, and amount to about 112, but they are inferior to his cuts, 
 and very inferior also to the engravings of Durer and Aldegrever ; they 
 are extremely hard, occasionally very badly drawn, and generally bad 
 in the extremities. 
 
 From the dates on his works he appears to have been in earlier life 
 an engraver, and in about the year 1525 to have given up engraving 
 for painting. His prints are dated from 1500 to 1525, and on two of 
 his principal pictures we have the dates 1526 and 1529 : 153S, the 
 reported year of his death, is found upon one picture. He lived 
 
 ALTHEN, EH AN. 172 
 
 chiefly at Regensburg, and died without issue. Regensburg at one 
 time possessed many of Altdorfer's works, but they have been removed 
 to Munich; among them is uearly a complete collection of hia prints, 
 which were presented to the town library by the Stadtgerichts-Assessoi 
 Peuchel. The subjects of Altdorfer's prints are historical, sacred and 
 profane, and mythological ; with a few landscapes, and some designs 
 for goldsmiths. Heineken, Huber, and Bartsch have given lists, more 
 or less complete, of Altdorfer's prints, 
 
 (Sandrart, Tcutsche Academic, &c. ; Heineken, Dictionnaire des 
 Artistes, &c. ; Fiorillo, Geschichtc da- Zeichnenden Kiinste, &c. ; Huber, 
 Manuel des Amateurs, &c. ; Bartsch, Peintre-S raveur.) 
 
 ALTHEN, EHAN, or JEAN, who introduced madder into France, 
 was born in Persia in 1711; died 1774. His infancy and the first 
 years of his life were passed amidst luxury and opulence. The son 
 of the governor of a province, he might anticipate the most brilliant 
 future, aud confidently hope to succeed to the honours of his father, 
 who had been ambassador at the court of Joseph L of Germany. The 
 usurpation of Thamas-Kouli-Khan overthrew the Persian empire, and 
 witli it the fortunes of the Althen family. They were all massacred, 
 with the exception of Ehan, or Jean, who escaped by flight, but only 
 to fall into the hands of a horde of Arabs, who, without pity for his 
 tender age, sold him into slaveiy. He was carried into Anatolia, where, 
 for fourteen years, he laboured in the cultivation of madder aud of 
 cotton ; but even the hard condition of a slave could not break his 
 spirit, nor drive from his heart the remembrance of the past, and the 
 hope of a happier future. Eudowed with that persevering character, 
 that true energy which obstacles only tend to stimulate, he succeeded 
 iu escaping from his master's house, aud took refuge in Smyrna with 
 the French consul. He was afterwards brought under the notice of 
 the French ambassador at the Porte ; the ambassador wrote to the 
 consul at Versailles, and Jean Althen embarked in a vessel bound for 
 Marseille. He carried with him the means of amply repaying the 
 hospitality of France : among his modest luggage he had secreted 
 some of the madder-seeds, taken from the soil of Smyrna. In thus 
 acting he endangered his life ; for the exportation of these precious 
 seeds was punishable with death. It so happened however that he 
 eluded all the researches of a suspicious and despotic power; but on 
 arriving at Marseille he met with no support in that city ; and want 
 of money prevented his proceeding to Versailles, where the recom- 
 mendations of the ambassador were already forgotten. 
 
 The Persian was not discouraged. He knew the power of an ener- 
 getic will, and trusted to time and his own exertions. He wearied 
 the authorities with constant solicitations. But an unlooked-for event 
 promoted his views more than all his own endeavours. He was young 
 and handsome ; a youug girl of Marseille fell iu love with the foreigner : 
 she became his wife, and brought him a portion of a hundred thousand 
 crowns. Marriages of a nature similar to this were of frequent occur- 
 rence, and no ouc in Marseille was astonished at it. Althen embraced 
 the Catholic religion. 
 
 He then went to Versailles ; the letters of the ambassador and the 
 consul, to which he referred, gave him access to the ministerial saloons : 
 he even obtained an audience of Louis XV. This audience lasted two 
 hours, and the Persian's judicious language made a lively impression 
 on the king, who was not wanting in sense and penetration. Althen 
 gained the permission he desired. He wished to introduce a new 
 system for the cultivation and manufacture of silk. He began his 
 enterprise near Montpellier, but the prejudices of an ignorant popu- 
 lation impeded his progress. Louis XV. forgot him ; the government, 
 absorbed in important matters, gave him no pecuniary aid. Althen 
 consumed his wife's patrimony in fruitless endeavours. He wrote, he 
 implored, he made several journeys to Versailles ; he was invariably 
 repulsed. 
 
 He returned to Marseille. In his various journeys he had several 
 times passed through the Comtat Venaissin; he was struck by the 
 similarity of the nature of this soil and that of Smyrna; the tem- 
 perature and the climate were similar. He thought that madder might 
 be cultivated successfully in the Comtat. With the promptitude with 
 which he carried out all his decisions, he immediately converted into 
 money the remainder of his property and went to Avignon, which was 
 then included in the States of the Church. He there met with power- 
 ful patronage from Madame de Clausenette, who allowed him to make 
 his first experiment on one of her estates. The cultivation of madder 
 was successful. 
 
 In 1763 another attempt at the cultivation of madder was made on 
 the left bank of the Rhone, upon an estate belonging to M. de Cau- 
 mont; the trial was successful, but there was as yet no market for 
 this produce. It was the union of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin 
 with France, the immense rise in the cotton trade produced by the 
 continental blockade, and the development of every kind of manu- 
 facture, which caused the cultivation of -madder to yield, in the 
 department of Vaucluse, on an average twenty million francs a year 
 in agricultural produce. One fact will suffice to prove the immense 
 service which Althen rendered to the Comtat. The whole territory 
 of Monteux, iu the arrondissement of Carpentras, has since increased 
 one hundred-fold in value. Althen could foresee these results, which 
 were fast realising, whilst his own life was closing in circumstances 
 bordering on indigence. He expired at Caumont, leaving au only 
 daughter, who died as poor as her father. 
 
173 ALTHORP, LORD. 
 
 At last, in 1821, the council-general of Vaucluse remembered Althen, 
 and to acquit its debt of gratitude, voted a marble tablet to be placed 
 in the Calvet Museum at Aviguon, with the following inscription : — 
 " To Jean Althen, a Persian, who introduced and first cultivated madder 
 in the territory of Avignon, under the auspices of M. le Marquis de 
 Caumont in ii.dcc.lxv., the Council-General of Vaucluse m.dccc.xxi." 
 
 (Portraits et Histoires des Hommes Utiles, publies par la Society 
 Montyon.) 
 
 ALTHORP, LORD. [Spencer, Earl.] 
 
 ALUNNO, NICCOLO, one of the old Umbrian painters of the 
 15th century, less known than he deserves to be. There are very few 
 of his works extant, and Vasari notices him only in the 'Life of Pin- 
 turicchio,' and treats him as his contemporary. Mariotti however, in 
 his ' Lettere Pittoriche Perugine,' states that Alunno was established 
 as a painter at Foligno as early as 1460, and that he painted at least 
 two years before that date. He was a native of Foligno, and his works 
 are signed ' Opus Nicolai Fulginatis,' or ' Nicolai Fulginatis Opus ;' 
 but there was a Niccolo Deliberatore, likewise of Foligno, and there- 
 fore all the works with this signature may not be by Alunno. 
 
 His chief works were in a chapel of the cathedral of Assisi, of which 
 there is now scarcely a trace left ; Vasari speaks of a Pieta as a part, 
 with two angels bearing torches, and weeping so naturally, that in his 
 opinion no painter could have done them much better. Besides which 
 Vasari mentions as capital works, a Nativity, in the church of Sant' 
 A costino, at Foligno ; an altar-piece for San Francesco, and another 
 fur the high altar of the cathedral of Assisi. There is still at Foligno, 
 over a side altar of the church of San Niccolo, a picture of that saint 
 and the infant Christ, which was painted by Alunno in 1492 : it had 
 formerly a predella, or a long picture in various compartments, which 
 serve 1 it originally as a base, according to the old Italian custom with 
 altar-pieces; but being one of the paintings which the French thought 
 fit to send to Paris, it wa3 returned at the general restoration of the 
 plundered works of art, without its predella, which is now in the 
 gallery of the Louvre. It contains six pictures, one of which is an 
 allegorical piece, of two angels holding a scroll, upon which are written 
 gome verses which are legible with difficulty, celebrating the abilities 
 of Alunno, and the generosity of a lady of the name of Bressida. The 
 other five pictures are from the life of Christ. They are drawn in a 
 dry and meagre style, and are very brown in colouring, and have 
 strong contrasting lights; but they have much expression, and are 
 executed with facility. Alunno excelled in expression ; he was in the 
 habit, in his large pictures, of painting the heads from the life, which 
 gave them a truth and reality not found in the works of many of his 
 contemporaries. The period of his death is not known, but he painted 
 after 1500; he painted in the old manner in water-colours, or a tem- 
 pera. Alunno painted also some standards used in religious proces- 
 sions ; they are called Gonfaloni. There is still extant a gonfalone 
 of this description by him, made of very fine canvass, in the church 
 of Santa Maria Nuova, at Perugia, with the inscription — " Societas 
 Annunciata fecit fieri hoc opus, 1466." 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c. ; Lanzi, Storia Pillorica, &c. ; Rumohr, 
 Italienische Forschungen.) 
 
 ALURED, ALRED, or ALFRED, of Beverley, an English historian, 
 who lived in the 12th century. He is the author of an Epitome of 
 British History, from the time of the fabulous Brutus to the 29th year 
 of the reign of Henry I., which Thomas Hearne published at Oxford 
 in 1716, under the title of ' The Annals of Alured of Beverley.' It 
 is written in a Latin style remarkable for its correctness, considering 
 the age in which the author lived : and more attention appears to be 
 paid in it to the dates of the events recorded than in most of our 
 ancient chronicles. It exhibits however in many places so strong a 
 resemblance to the similar work which bears the name of Geoffrey of 
 Monmouth, that Leland, and others after him, have considered it to 
 be merely an abridgment of Geoffrey's work. On the other hand, it 
 would rather seem that Alured's History was really published before 
 that of Geoffrey, so that, where they agree in expression, the plagiarism 
 or copying ought probably to be charged upon the latter. Geoffrey's 
 work has always been regarded as principally a translation from a 
 British or Armoric original; and he and Alured may have drawn their 
 information, to a considerable extent, from the same sources. Of the 
 personal history of Alured, the little that has been handed down rests 
 entirely on the worthless authority of Bale, in his ' Illustrium Magnee 
 Britannia? Sciiptorum Catalogus, a Japheto, per 3020 Annos.' He is 
 said to have been born in the town of Beverley, in Yorkshire ; to have 
 received his education at Cambridge, where he became distinguished 
 for his skill in divinity, as well as in various branches of profane 
 learning; and having afterwards turned secular priest, to have been 
 made one of the canons and treasurer of the church of St. John in 
 his native town. H13 death is conjectured to have taken place in 
 1129, the year in which his annals terminate. Bale makes him the 
 author of many other works; but the catalogue appears to be manu- 
 factured by the process of representing each of the books of his annals 
 as a distinct treatise. Among the works that have been attributed to 
 Alured is a History of St. John of Beverley ; which the writer of his 
 life in the 'Biographia Britannica' considers to be a collection of 
 charters and other records respecting that ecclesiastical foundation 
 ■till preserved among the Cottoniau manuscripts in the British 
 M'wum. But for the opinion that this collection is the history said 
 
 ALVARADO, PEDRO DE. 174 
 
 to have been written by Alured, there do not appear to be sufficient 
 grounds. 
 
 ALVARADO, PEDRO DE, one of the most distinguished of the 
 companions of Hernan Cortes in the conquest of Mexico. He was 
 bom at Badajoz in Spanish Estremadura at the close of the 16th cen- 
 tury. His father was a knight of the order of St. James, and had the 
 ' Encomieuda' of Lobon in that province. Pedro was one of many 
 sons. Having, with four or five of his brothers, crossed the Atlantic, 
 he was at Cuba in 1518, and was appointed to one of three vessels 
 fitted out by Velasquez, the governor, for exploring the American 
 coast, under the command of Grijalva. After touching at the island 
 of Cozumel (or Acozamil, the ' Isle of Swallows'), and several places 
 in Yucatan, they sailed up the rivers Tabasco and de Bauderas. They 
 were so much pleased with the appearance of the country, the culti- 
 vation of the fields and inclosures, the beauty of the Indian edifices, 
 and the signs of civilisation, that Grijalvi gave it the name of New 
 Spain. Here the Spaniards first heard of Montezuma aud his exten- 
 sive empire. Alvarado was despatched to Cuba with a report of the 
 regions which they had explored ; and all the gold which they had 
 collected. As Grijalva, by his instructions, was strictly forbidden to 
 colonise, he continued his course along the coast, visiting several points 
 and collecting more treasure. 
 
 In February 1519 Cortes sailed from Havauna with 11 vessels; his 
 force amounted to 508 officers and soldiers, aud 109 seamen and 
 artificers. Alvarado had command of one of the vessels, and four 
 of his brothers embarked with him. The fleet was separated by a 
 storm, and Alvarado arrived at Cozumel, the appointed rendezvous, 
 three days before the rest. Cortes here reviewed his little army, held 
 council with his eleven captains, and prepared for immediate service. 
 
 As Alvarado, although eminently distinguished in this campaign, 
 was only a secondary personage, the main events of it belong to the 
 biography of Cortes, but we occasionally fall upon individual traits 
 of a marked character peculiarly his own, and which, painting to the 
 life the Spanish soldier of the age of Charles V., deserve a briet 
 record. In the first voyage with Grijalva he entered alone the river 
 Papaloava, and trusting himself among the natives, who were in that 
 quarter of doubtful temper, obtained from them fish, fruits, and other 
 supplies. Grijalva reprimanded him for running into danger ; but the 
 sailors, admiring his intrepidity, gave the river the name of the young 
 officer, which it still retains — El Rio Alvarado, the mouth of which 
 is about forty miles to the south-east of Vera Cruz. The estimation 
 in which he was held by Cortes is attested by the unbounded con- 
 fidence which he reposed in him. At the fight of Tabasco, the great 
 battle of Otumba, and the final reduction of the capital city after many 
 aud great difficulties, dangers, aud reverses, Alvarado was intrusted 
 with the most important operations, aud mainly contributed to success. 
 When the shrewd vigilance of Cortes prompted him to oppose per- 
 sonally any interruption to his great design — for the envious spirit 
 of Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, caused him frequent anxiety and 
 trouble — on all such occasions he left the command with Alvarado, who 
 discharged his duties with unswerving fidelity. 
 
 When Cortes was called away to meet Narvaez, who had been sent 
 by the governor of Cuba, with a force very superior to his own, to 
 dispossess him of his command, he left the city aud the royal captive 
 iu Alvarado's charge, with a force of a hundred and fifty men, accord- 
 ing to Herrera, but by Solis stated not to have exceeded eighty. During 
 the absence of the chief a dangerous commotion took place in the 
 capital, and when Alvarado sent messengers to tell Cortes that he was 
 hard pressed by the Mexicans, Montezuma sent with them others to 
 say that he could not restrain the fury of his subjects, but that he 
 was well content in the hands of Alvarado, aud had no desire to be 
 separated from him. 
 
 Las Casas charges Alvarado with an atrocious attack upon the 
 Mexicans for the purpose of plunder ; but Herrera and Solis assure 
 us that a plot was laid for the massacre of the Spaniards, and that 
 Alvarado kept the whole Mexican population at bay with his small 
 baud until the return of Cortes from his victory over Narvaez, and 
 with the troops of that captain incorporated with his own. Iu the 
 valuable series of original memoirs published at Paris by Mous. 
 Ternaux-Compaus, there are statements by native Mexican authors, 
 contemporary and other, which increase the difliculty of coming to a 
 satisfactory decision on many points of the conquest of Mexico. 
 
 Alvarado was ^n every fight until the final reduction of Mexico. 
 Afterwards, iu 1523, he was sent with 300 foot, 160 horse, and four 
 pieces of cannon, with some Mexican auxiliaries, against the tribes of 
 Indians on the coast of the Pacific iu the direction of Guatemala. He 
 reduced the provinces of Zacutulan, Tecoautepcc (now Tehuautepec), 
 Soconusco, aud Utlatlan. Iu a conflict at Cayacatl ou the coast of 
 the Pacific, where the Indians fought with great courage, Alvarado 
 was lamed in one of his legs by an arrow, aud it was ever after three 
 inches shorter than the other. Haviug beaten oil' all opponents, he 
 passed on to Guatemala, called by the natives Quahtemallau, aud on 
 the border of the Lake Atitlan took some Indian prisoners. He sent 
 them to their chiefs with overtures of peace. The chiefs answered 
 that they had never been conquered, but siuce he behaved so bravely, 
 they were willing to be his friends ; accordingly their chiefs came, 
 touched his hands, and remained peaceable. As he proceeded, all the 
 people round the lake brought him presents, aud assurances 01 
 
r,5 
 
 I7fl 
 
 friendship were reciprocated. He then founded a city, which he called 
 Santiago de los Caballcros (now Guatemala la Vieja), with a church of 
 the same name, and Cortes sent him 200 Spaniards to increase its 
 population. Alvarado also sent his brother Diego to form a settle- 
 ment in Tecultran, which he called San Jorge, and he then established 
 a port on the Pacific, fifteen leagues from the city of Santiago, which 
 he called Puerto de la Posesiou. He then embarked for Spain, where 
 lie was received with a distinction worthy of his fame. The Emperor 
 Charles V., on his landing, desired he would go post haste to court. 
 In acknowledgment of his services, Alvarado obtained the governor- 
 ship of Guatemala, and all the gold and valuables which he had 
 brought were declared his own. During this visit he formed a matri- 
 monial alliance with Dona Beatriz de la Cueva, a lady of an-ancient 
 and noble Spanish house, from which the dukes of Albuquerque are 
 descended, and shortly afterwards he*retumed with a numerous band 
 of knights, gentlemen, kinsmen, and friends, to Guatemala, which 
 speedily became a handsome and prosperous city ; and the province, 
 says Herrera, flourished while he had the command of it. ('Dec' 4, 
 lib. 2, cap. 3.) 
 
 Great enterprises were still in prosecution in South America under 
 ri/.arro and Almagro, who had gained possession of Peru, and pro- 
 jected the conquest of Chili. Alvarado was not of a temper to be 
 idle while others were in arms. Quito with its rich city was not 
 considered within the boundary of Pizarro's command ; and Alvarado, 
 having authority from the Emperor Charles to extend his discoveries, 
 but with special caution not to interfere with the conquests of other 
 captains, determined to go thither. After sending one of his officers, 
 Garcia de Holguin, who had signalised himself in the Mexican cam- 
 paigns, to reconnoitre, and receiving from him encouraging accounts, 
 he embarked on the Pacific with 500 soldiers, 227 of whom were 
 horsemen, with an intention to land at Puerto Viejo ; but the voyage 
 being unpropitious, and a mortality spreading among the horses, he 
 landed at a bay called Bahia de los Caraques, near Cape San Francisco, 
 sending on at the same time his pilot, Juan Fernandez, to ascertain 
 the limits of Pizarro's government, on which he declared he had no 
 wish to intrude. From Caraques he marched into the interior, and 
 with a courage and perseverance almost without a parallel, which may 
 be read with interest in the 'Decads' of Herrera, he reached the 
 country he was in quest of. Notwithstanding all his care (for he set 
 an example to the hardiest of his men by frequently dismounting his 
 horse and placing a sick man upon it), he lost in the morasses near 
 the coast and in the snows of the Andes seventy-nine of his soldiers; 
 six Spanish women also who accompanied them perished, and many 
 horses. On ascending the Andes, Alvarado learnt that an armed 
 force under Almagro was in readiness to meet him. He took some of 
 their scouts, treated them well, and sent them back, with a civil 
 message that he did not come to breed disturbances, but only to dis- 
 cover, uuder the royal commission, new lands along the South Sea, 
 and that he was ready to meet them on friendly terms. They met at 
 Riobamba. on the plain of that name, and it was adjusted that Alva- 
 rado should relinquish his project, leave such of his followers as were 
 willing to remain, together with all the vessels except those necessary 
 for his return, and receive 120,000 castellanos, or pieces of eight, as 
 an indemnification for his outlay and losses. This he did, as he 
 affirmed, to avoid injury to his sovereign, and the evils of civil war- 
 fare. Pizari'0 came up with an additional force, but being informed 
 of what had taken place, the affair ended with lively rejoicings, and 
 Alvarado departed with valuable presents. 
 
 His renown spreading throughout the Spanish possessions, he was 
 called to Honduras to help the settlers out of some difficulties. He 
 was received with givat joy, and the government was resigned into 
 his bands. He founded there a town, which he called ' Gracias a 
 Dios,' because his men, having suffered much in travelling over 
 barren mountains, exclaimed, when they reached that place, "Thanks 
 to God, we are come into a good land." He also formed another 
 settlement, which he called San Juan de Puerto de Caballos, in the 
 Bay of Honduras. 
 
 Ferdinand Pizarro having, in 1534, gone to Spain with a great 
 amount of treasure from Peru, and represented among other things 
 the circumstances of Alvarado's expedition to Quito, the emperor 
 had declared it an entire contravention of his orders, and expressed 
 great indignation. Hehad sent out orders for Alvarado's arrest, and 
 it was on this account, it is said, that he so readily answered the 
 call to go to Honduras. The affairs of that district being brought 
 into good order, Alvarado resolved to visit Spain a second time. He 
 embarked with his wife at the port of Truxillo in Honduras Bay, on 
 board a caravel bound for Havanna, and thence proceeded to his 
 destination. He found means, by his arguments, or by the influence 
 of his friends, so to soften the Emperor, that not only his dis- 
 obedience was overlooked, but his government was enlarged with the 
 addition of the province of Honduras to that of Guatemala. He 
 returned with his wife, and landed at Puerto de Caballos. Honduras 
 was again in great disorder, but he restored it to order, and "from 
 that time," says Herrera, "Honduras, which had been continually 
 troubled with broils' and suffered great oppression, was peaceable 
 under the government of Alvarado." These matters being adjusted, he 
 proceeded to Guatemala, and set about new discoveries. He equipped 
 a fleet of twelve large ships o.nd two row-galleys, one of twenty, the 
 
 other of thirteen benches, and embarked at El Puerto de la Posesion, 
 with 800 soldiers, 150 horses, and a considerable retinue of Indians. 
 He sailed along the coast, but, the weather being very unfavourable, 
 put into the port of Los Pueblos de Avalos on the coast of Michoacan. 
 At this period (1511) the Chichiinecas of New Galicia, a brave race 
 of men, from whom, according to Clavigero, the Tlascalans, allies of 
 Cortes, were descended, had revolted. Onate had marched against 
 them, and been worsted : hearing that Alvarado was on the coast, he 
 sent him advices of what had happened. Alvarado immediately 
 landed at Los Pueblos with a part of his horse and foot, crossed in a 
 night and a day the morass of Tonala, generally reckoned a three 
 days' march, and on reachiug the encampment of the Spaniards, held 
 a consultation with the officers. The Indians had withdrawn, and 
 fortified themselves on the mountain tops in a position difficult of 
 access : they were numerous, obstinate, hardy, expert bowmen, and 
 very dexterous in the use of the javelin. The Spaniards and their 
 Indian allies attacked them with vigour, but were repulsed and driven 
 back to the plain. The Indians followed in great numbers, and the 
 ground being marshy and unfit for cavalry operations, the Spaniards 
 continued their retreat to a river, which they forded; but the farther 
 bank was so steep, that the troopers were compelled to dismount and 
 lead their horses up it. Alvarado stayed, as usual, to bring up the 
 rear : a horse climbing the bank slipped, and fell upon him. As he 
 was in armour, the weight of the animal crushed his breast so severely 
 thut he died in three days. His death put a stop to the expedition. 
 
 (Herrera, Hiatoria General de los Castellanos, &c. ; Solis, Vonquista de 
 Mexico; Humboldt, Political Essay on New Spain; Histoire des 
 Cliichiiniques par Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, publie'e en 
 Fraucais par H. Ternaux-Compans, Paris, 1840.) 
 
 ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO, was mass priest and chaplain to Dom 
 Manuel, king of Portugal, about the year 1515. He was a native of 
 Coimbra, and at that time advanced in life. (Damiam de Goes calls 
 him "senex moribus inculpatis.") Of his early history nothing is 
 known. In the year above mentioned Alvarez was appointed by the 
 king to accompany Duarte Galvam on a mission to the Negus of 
 Abyssinia, or as he was at that time called by the Portuguese, ' ho 
 Preste Joam.' The mission, along with the Armenian, Mattheus, who 
 had visited Portugal as ambassador from the Negus, arrived at Goa 
 in 1516 ; but Lopo Soarez, who was at that time governor of the 
 Portuguese possessions in India, detained it there under various pre- 
 tences. After the death of Soarez, his successor, Diogo Lopez de 
 Sequeira, undertook to accompany the mission in person to the Red 
 Sea. The expedition reached Massua on the lGth of April, 1520. 
 Duarte Galvam died a few days previously at the island of Camaran, 
 and Rodrigo de Lima was nominated to proceed to the court of 
 Abyssinia in his stead, by De Sequeira, who said to the new ambas- 
 sador, " Dom Rodrigo, I do not send Father Francisco Alvarez with 
 you, but you with him, and you are to do nothing without his advice." 
 
 The mission was detained in Abyssinia till April 25, 1526, on which 
 day it sailed from Massua on its return. Alvarez had gained the con- 
 fidence of the Negus to such a degree, that he was accredited by him 
 as the envoy to the Pope, along with a native Abyssinian, whom he 
 calls at first Zagajabo, and afterwards (possibly a title) Licacante. The 
 mission sailed to Cananor, and thence to Lisbon, where it arrived on 
 the 25th of July, 1527. Dom Joam III., who had succeeded his father 
 on the throne of Portugal in 1521, was in no hurry to forward the 
 Abyssinian ambassador and Alvarez to Rome. The former, in spite of 
 his urgent remonstrances, was detained in Portugal till 1539 ; but 
 Alvarez was sent in 1533 to Clement VII., into whose hands he 
 delivered his credentials in the January of that year, at Bologna, in 
 the presence of the Emperor Charles V. Of the year of Alvarez's 
 death no mention is made by any contemporary and trustworthy 
 author, but Goes, in a memorial addressed to Paul III., and dated 
 at Louvaine, Sept. 1, 1540, speaks of him in a way that leads us to 
 infer that he was then dead. 
 
 According to Ramusio, Ludolf, and Leon Pinello, Alvarez compiled 
 an ' Itinerary 1 of the mission in five books, which was never printed. 
 The book entitled ' Ho Preste Joam das Indias : Verdadera Infor- 
 macam das Terras do Preste Joam,' printed ' in the house of Luis 
 Rodriguez,' publisher to the King of Portugal, in October, 1540, con- 
 sists merely of extracts from the larger work. Ramusio procured 
 from Damiam de Goes another imperfect copy of Alvarez's work, 
 which he represents as differing materially from that published in 
 Portugal. Both, he says, were in the highest degree mutilated and 
 corrupt. The ' Journey in Ethiopia,' by Francisco Alvarez, in Ramu- 
 sio's collection (first edition, 1550), is compiled from these two 
 abridgments. What became of the original ' Itinerary ' does not 
 appear. Goes says that Paulus Jovius had undertaken to translate it 
 into Latin, and possibly it may have fallen into his hands. 
 
 Ramusio's compilation consists of 149 chapters ; the book published 
 in Portugal in 1540 contains 141 chapters, which—bring down the 
 narrative to the departure of the mission from Massua on its return ; 
 and nine additional chapters narrating its return to Portugal, and its 
 reception there, which correspond pretty closely with the last eight 
 chapters of Ramusio. The main difference between the Portuguese 
 and Italian versions consists in the additional matter contained in 
 some of Ramusio's chapters. The Italian has added little to the 
 information respecting Abyssinia given in the Portuguese edition, but 
 
177 
 
 A.LVAREZ, DON JOSE. 
 
 AMADEUS. 
 
 178 
 
 he has inserted aome digressions which throw important light on the 
 history of the early discoveries under the auspices of the kings of 
 Portugal. The names of places in Abyssinia are written in the Portu- 
 guese version in a manner that corresponds pretty closely with that 
 adopted by the most recent and accurate Oriental scholars: in 
 Ramusio's version they are much disfigured. 
 
 The extracts from the 'Itinerary' have been made in a manner 
 which fully justifies the harsh terms in which Ramusio speaks of 
 them. They contain a good deal of the transactions of 1521, very 
 little of those of 1521, and a good deal of those of 1526. They con- 
 vey some valuable information relative to the history and constitution 
 of the Abyssinian government, and some pregnant hints respecting 
 the geography of the country. The style of the Portuguese version 
 evinces a manly aud judicious spirit, that leads us to regret the loss 
 of the entire work. A search in the archives of Portugal, or the 
 library of the Vatican, might le^.d to its recovery. 
 
 (Leon Pinello, Epitome de la Biblioteca Oriental y Occidental, fol. 
 Madrid, 1737 ; Damiam de Goes, Fides, Religio, Moresque jEthiopum, 
 &c, Paris, 1541; Ramusio, Viaggi e Navigations fol. Venice, 1613; 
 IIo Prcste Joam das Indias, Verdadera Informacam das Terras do 
 Preste Joam segundo vio e escrcrco ho Padre Francisco Alvarez, Capel- 
 lam del Rey nosso Senkor. Impresso em Casa da Luis Rodriquez 
 Livreiro de sua Alteza, fol. 1540.) 
 
 ALVAREZ, DON JOSE, a very distinguished Spanish sculptor, 
 and one of the most eminent artists of the 19th century, was born at 
 Priego, in the province of Cordova, in 1768. His father was a stone- 
 mason, and Alvarez's youth was spent as a labourer, in that business, 
 as his father was too poor to support him otherwise. He however 
 evinced an ability for sculpture at an early period, and employed what 
 time he could spare from his daily labour with a view to educate him- 
 self as a sculptor. In his twentieth year he made such progress as to 
 obtain admission into the academy of Granada, in which he soon 
 distinguished himself for his ability in modelling. A lion destroying 
 a serpent, which he made for a fountain at Priego, obtained for him 
 the patronage of Don Antonio de Gongora, the bishop of Cordova, 
 the founder of the academy of that place, who took Alvarez into his 
 house, and caused him to be elected a member of the academy. Not- 
 withstanding his proficiency however, in 1794 he left Cordova and 
 entered as a student into the academy of San Fernando at Madrid, of 
 which as ' the Andalusian ' he soon became the most distinguished 
 student. He obtained the first prize of the academy, for a basso- 
 rilievo of the procession of Ferdinand I. and his sons carrying bare- 
 footed the miraculously discovered body of St. Isidore to the church 
 of San Juan de Leon. 
 
 In 1799 he was granted a pension of 12,000 reals by Charles IV. to 
 enable him to prosecute his studies in Paris and in Rome. In Paris 
 he paid great attention to anatomy, and studied in the public dissect- 
 ing-rooms ; and he gained there additional academical honours. He 
 obtained the second great prize in sculpture awarded by the Institute. 
 Alvarez was a devoted admirer of the sculptures of the Parthenon 
 which Choiseul Gouffier had brought to Paris from Constantinople ; 
 he made many drawings of them, and hi3 improved taste was manifest 
 in a statue of Ganymede, which he made in 1804, aud by which he 
 acquired the reputation of one of the first of modern sculptors. 
 Napoleon I., then emperor, paid two visits to the studio of Alvarez, 
 and presented him with a gold medal of the value of 500 francs. 
 Notwithstanding this personal honour, Napoleon's after-conduct 
 regarding Spain excited in Alvarez an invincible aversion to him ; he 
 would never model his bust, and when Joseph Bonaparte was pro- 
 claimed King of Spain, Alvarez, then at Rome, was imprisoned in the 
 castle of St. Angelo for refusing, as a pensioner of the Spanish govern- 
 ment, to take the oath of allegiance to the new king; he waa however 
 released shortly afterwards. After the completion of his statue of 
 Ganymede, Alvarez's pension was increased to 28,000 reals, and he 
 left Paris for Rome, where he thenceforth chiefly resided. In Rome 
 he executed or modelled many much-admired works, the best of which 
 was a group of Antilochus and Memnon in 1818, for which he was 
 nominated court-sculptor by Ferdinand VII., who commissioned him 
 to execute the group in marble : it is now in Madrid. 
 
 In 1825 he was appointed principal sculptor to the king of Spain, 
 and was decorated with the cross of Civil Merit. In 1826 he visited 
 Madrid for the purpose of selecting the best statues and other sculp- 
 tures in the king's palaces to be placed together in the museum of the 
 Prado ; but he died within twelve months of his arrival, in the 60th 
 year of bis age. From his office, the circumstances connected with 
 his death, and the honourable commision about which he was engaged, 
 it is evident that the reports which appeared in the French newspapers 
 at the time of his death about his extreme poverty bordering upon 
 destitution must be false. There are many of his works at Madrid ; 
 •everal from ancient mythology, some full-length statues, and a few 
 busts. Busts he did not willingly model, but the few he did are 
 reputed excellent likenesses, and among them are those of Rossini, 
 the composer, and Cean Bermudez, the author of tho ' Dictionary of 
 Spanish Artists.' 
 
 It is generally admitted that Alvarez excelled in many qualities of 
 a high order — in invention, in expression, and iu design ; and he is by 
 his admirers compared with Canova. That he is less generally known 
 than many of his more fortunate or moro renowned contemporaries, 
 
 BIOO. DI v VOL. u 
 
 is probably more owing to an ignorance of his works than to their 
 inferiority. He was a member of the Institute of France, of tho 
 Academy of St. Luke of Rome, and of the academies of Carrara and 
 Naples. He left three sons, who were allowed to retain a portion of 
 their father's pension. The eldest, who promised to be a sculptor of 
 ability, died at Burgos in 1830, in his 25th year. 
 
 There was another distinguished Spanish sculptor of this name, 
 Don Manuel Alvarez, who was born at Salamanca in 1727. After 
 acquiring the rudiments of his art with two sculptors of Salamanca 
 he repaired to Madrid, and became the pupil of Don Felipe de Castro, 
 the king's sculptor, whom he assisted in many of his works. He 
 obtained the first prize of the academy of San Fernando in 1754, by 
 which he wa3 entitled to study in Rome, with a pension from the 
 Spanish government ; but he declined the advantage on account of 
 the weak state of hi3 health. In 1757 he was elected a member, in 
 1762 Vice-Director, in 1786 Director of the Academy of San Fer- 
 nando ; and in 1794 sculptor to the king. He died in 1797, generally 
 regretted, in the 70th year of his age. His statues and busts are very 
 numerous in the churches, palaces, and monasteries of Spain, espe- 
 cially at Salamanca, Toledo, Zaragoza, and Madrid. Alvarez was 
 commonly called by his fellow artists El Griego, or 'the Greek,' on 
 account of the purity and vigour of his design, and his accuracy of 
 execution — a great compliment. 
 
 {Archive fur Oeschichte, &c, 1829, No. 15 ; Seminario Pintoresco 
 Espanol, No. 52 ; Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico de los mas 
 Ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en Espana.) 
 
 ALYATTES, a king of Lydia, the father of Crcesus, who seems to have 
 been some time associated with him in the government ; he died about 
 B.C. 562, after a reign of fifty-seven years. On his accession he con- 
 tinued a war with Miletus, which was left unfinished by his father 
 Ludyattes. In the fifth year of the conflict a temple of Minerva was 
 burnt by him. Soon after he sent for advice under sickness to the 
 oracle at Delphi, but was refused a response till the temple was 
 restored. He rebuilt the temple, recovered from his sickness, and 
 made peace with Miletus. From B.C. 590 he was engaged during five 
 years in a war with Cyaxares, king of Media, in consequence of 
 receiving some Scythians who had offended that monarch. In the 
 course of hostilities Alyattes expelled the Cimmerians from Asia, 
 captured Smyrna, and attacked Clazomenaj. A battle between the 
 forces of the three kings was interrupted by an eclipse of the sun. 
 This event led to a peace, which was consummated by a marriage 
 between Aryenis, the daughter of the Lydian king, and Astyages, the 
 son of Cyaxares. The place where the eclipse was seen is not men- 
 tioned by Herodotus; but we may fairly conjecture it was in the 
 upper latitudes of Asia Minor, and between the Halys and the higher 
 waters of the Euphrates. This eclipse was predicted by Thales of 
 Miletus, but all that the historian can be made to signify is that he 
 predicted the year. 
 
 Near the Lake Gygrea, which is a few miles north of Sardis, now 
 Sartis, in Asia Minor, is still seen the immense mound of earth which 
 was raised to his memory. Herodotus, who gives the first account of 
 it (i. 93), says, that the circuit round the base was 3800 Greek feet, 
 aud the width 2600 feet ; the height is not given. It rested on a 
 foundation of great stones, which are now covered by the earth that 
 has fallen down ; but the mound still retains its conical form, and 
 rises up like a natural hill. 
 
 AMADEUS (Ital. Amedeo), the name of nine sovereigns of Savoy. 
 Amadeus I. was count of Maurienne in Savoy; it is uncertain whether 
 he survived his father, Humbert the Whitehanded, who was living in 
 1030; but he styled himself count in an undated deed, and is reckoned 
 by historians among the ancestors of the house of Savoy. Amadeus II. 
 was the nephew of the preceding, the second son of Oddo, count ol 
 Maurienne, and of Adelaide, marchioness of Susa, with whom, after 
 his father's death, he governed the territories, and who survived him. 
 He died in 1078. Amadeus III. succeeded his father, Humbert II., 
 in 1103; joined in the crusade with Louis VII. of France, and died 
 in Cyprus on his return in 1148. Amadeus IV., born in 1197, suc- 
 ceeded his father Tomaso I. in 1233 ; he considerably increased his 
 possessions, and died in 1253. His brother Peter was long in England, 
 being uncle to Eleanor, queen of Henry III., by whom he was made 
 Earl of Richmond, and built the Savoy palace in London. Amadeus V., 
 born in 1249, succeeded his uncle Filippo in 1285; he acquired the 
 county of Bress,e and the district of Asti ; he died in 1323. 
 Amadeus VI., ' the Green Count,' born iu 1334, succeeded his father 
 1343 ; he defeated the French at Arbrette in 1354 ; he nearly doubled 
 his territories in Piedmont, and extended them in other directions ; 
 he died in 1383. Amadeus VII, 'the Red Count,' born iu 1360, suc- 
 ceeded his father in 1383; he acquired Nice in 1388, and died in 1391. 
 Amadeus VIII, born in 1383, succeeded his father 1391. By the 
 extension of various branches of his family, whose possessions he 
 inherited, he came to rank among the great powers of Europe, and 
 was created Duke of Savoy, 1416. He was the legislator of his 
 dominions, and published a code in 1430 called 'Statuta Sabaudkc.' 
 In 1434 he resigned the sovereignty, and retired to a monastery at 
 Ripaille. In 1439 he was elected Pope, and proclaimed as Felix V. ; 
 this occasioned a schism which lasted till 1449, when he resigned the 
 papacy, and again retired to Ripaille. He died in 1451. Amadeus IX., 
 born in 1435, succeeded his father Louis, son of Amadeus VIII., in 
 
 N 
 
AMADIS DE GAULA. 
 
 AMARA 
 
 180 
 
 1465. After a reign troubled by the insurrections of his brothers he 
 died in 1472. (For a more detailed account of these sovereigns, see 
 the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 AMAUIS DE GAULA, the hero of an old romance of chivalry, 
 •written in Spanish prose by Vasco Lobeira, towards the end of the 
 12th century. It was afterwards corrected and edited in more modern 
 Spanish by Garcia Ordonez of Montalvo, about the beginning of the 
 16th century, and became a very popular book in Italy aud France; 
 it was translated into French by D'llerberay, and printed in 1555, 
 with many additions, under the mis-translated title of ' Amadis des 
 Gaules,' meaning France. In the original Spanish romance Gaula is 
 Wales ; and the subject, characters, and localities are British. The 
 Btory alludes to fabulous feats between the Welsh aud the English, 
 previous to those of Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table; 
 the Romans and Saxons are united against the Priuce of Gaula or 
 Wales, and the Saxons are represented as faithless aud treacherous. 
 It is probable that Vasco Lobeira took the groundwork of his story 
 from some older British or Welsh legend. The ' Amadis ' is con- 
 sidered as one of the most interesting works in the whole library of 
 chivalry and romance. The French version of D'Herberay was trans- 
 lated into English by Anthony Muuday (1619), and part of this 
 version was freely rendered into verso by William Stewart Rose 
 (1803). In 1803 Southey published a prose translation from the 
 Spanish version of Garcia Ordonez. 
 
 AMALARIC, the last Visigoth king of Spain, was the son of 
 Alaric II., and grandson of Theodoric II. At the death of his father, 
 a.I'. 506, he was only five years of ago ; and Gensaleic, a bastard son 
 of Alaric, was elected king of the Goths in Spain. Theodoric, who 
 was then in Italy, sent his general Theudis with a powerful army to 
 protect the rights of his grandson. Gensaleic was defeated, and 
 Theudis was entrusted with the guardianship of the child and the 
 government of Spain. When Amalaric became of age he was acknow- 
 ledged king of the Goths, both in Spain and in Gothic Gaul. In 
 order to secure his French possessions he solicited aud obtained the 
 baud of Clotilda, daughter of Clovis, king of the Franks ; but this 
 marriage proved in the end an unfortunate one. It is stated that in 
 consequence of religious differences he barbarously treated his queen. 
 Her brother Childebert, or Childibert, king of Paris, mustered a large 
 army and marched against his brother-in-law. The two armies met, 
 according to some authors, in Gothic Gaul, and, according to others, 
 in Catalonia. Both French and Spaniards fought with equal valour 
 and obstinacy. At last the Spaniards were defeated, and Amalaric 
 took refuge in a church, where he was killed, in the year 531. The 
 conqueror, after having plundered the Arian churches, returned to 
 France with his sister. 
 
 Amalaric was the last of the Visigoth kings, and the first who 
 established the court at Seville. On his death, Theudis, an Ostrogoth 
 or Eastern Goth, was elected king. 
 
 (See Mariana, v. 7 ; Procopius, De Bcllo Goihorum, i.) 
 
 AMALIE, ANNA, princess of Prussia, was a daughter of Frederick 
 William I., king of Prussia, and sister of Frederick the Great. She 
 was born on the 9th of November, 1723. The Princess Amalie showed 
 great talent from her childhood, and especially for music, which she 
 cultivated so perseveringly that, at least in theoretical and historical 
 knowledge, she was scarcely equalled in her time. Music was through- 
 out life almost her sole occupation. At the age of twenty-one she 
 became princess-abbess of Quedliuburg, where she devoted all her 
 time to music, with the exception of what she had to give to the 
 administration of the extensive estates of the abbey. She died March 
 30, 1787. 
 
 AMALIE, wife of the Duke of Saxe Weimar, lo3t her husband when 
 she was hardly twenty years of age, and found herself at the head of 
 the government in troubled times, during the wars between the two 
 great German powers, Austria and Frederick of Prussia. The Duchess 
 of Weimar however contrived to direct in safety the affairs of her little 
 state, and after the restoration of peace she turned all her thoughts to 
 the internal improvement of her country. The city of Weimar became 
 the resort of the most distinguished literary men of Germany, whom 
 the duchess encouraged by her liberal patronage to come and reside 
 at her court. Wieland, GSthe, Herder, and Schiller, formed a con- 
 stellation of genius of which any city might be proud. Wieland was 
 appointed tutor to the two sons of the duchess. Gothe was induced 
 to settle at Weimar in 1775, where he resided ever after, and filled a 
 distinguished place in the ducal council. Herder was appointed court 
 chaplain, consistorial councillor, and inspector of the schools. The 
 Duchess Amalie withdrew from public life in 1775, having given up 
 the sovereign authority to her eldest son, then of age : she retired to 
 her delightful country residence of Tieffurth, where she continued to 
 surround herself with men of talent and learning. In 1788 she under- 
 took a journey to Italy, partly to restore her health, and paitly to 
 gain a more direct knowledge of the works of art in which Italy 
 abounds. She returned from this journey in 1790, accompanied by 
 Gothe, and henceforth continued to live surrounded by poets, 
 scholars, and artists, and devoting her own time to the cultivation of 
 literature, until the year 1806, when the misfortune of the battle of 
 Jena, and the humiliation of Germany, broke her heart. Gothe says 
 that, although she did not complain of illness, and showed no symptom 
 
 of suffering, she gradually wasted away. Her death took place on the 
 
 10th of April, 1807. 
 
 AMALRIC, or ARNAULD, an influential chief of the crusade 
 against the Albigenses, was born about the middle of the 12th cen- 
 tury, and died September 29, 1225. He was first Abbot of Poblet iu 
 Catalonia, then of Grandselve, and lastly of Citeaux. He was in the 
 enjoyment of this last dignity when in 1204 Innocent III. associated 
 him with the legates Raoul and Pierre do Castelnau in the mission to 
 extirpate, throughout France, the heresy of the Albigenses. He 
 preached a crusade against them ; many of his contemporaries, several 
 of whom were princes and lords, took part in it; and he was nomi- 
 nated generalissimo of the crusaders. In 1209, after taking several 
 castles and many times routing the enemy's forces, he besieged and 
 took Bdziers. Sixty thousand inhabitants were massacred, and the 
 town, plundered and depopulated, wir made a prey to the flames. 
 Before the commencement of the massacre the crusaders inquired of 
 their commander Amalric how they were to distinguish the Catholics 
 in the town from the heretics, '' Kill them all," replied the abbot; 
 " God knows his own." On the termination of this bloody expedition 
 Amalric conducted his army to Carcassoue, to which place he laid 
 siege. The garrison, commanded by the Viscount Raimond Roger, 
 after a long and obstinate resistance, was obliged to capitulate. 
 Amalric permitted them to pass out of the town in their shirts and 
 trousers ; but, contrary to the conditions of the treaty, he detained 
 the viscount, whom he caused to perish ia close confinement. Amalric 
 was presented to the archbishopric of Narboune in 1212; thence he 
 went into Spain witli the troops, and contributed to the defeat of a 
 Moorish king. On his return to Franco he embroiled himself in a 
 quarrel with Count Simon de Montfort about the title of Duke de 
 Narbonne, which he had assumed. Amalric excommunicated Simon, 
 and entered into a league against him with the Count of Toulouse. 
 {Nouvelle Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 AMALTEO, POMPONIO, a distinguished painter of the Venetian 
 school, boru at San Vito iu the Friuli, in 1505. He was the scholar 
 of Pordenoue, and painted much in the style of that master, though 
 he wa3 less bold in execution, and inferior to him in invention. His 
 Three Judgments however, in the court of justice, or loggia, at 
 Ceueda, which were completed in 1536, were long supposed to be the 
 works of Pordenone, both on account of their style and the mis-state- 
 ment of Ridolfi. They are the Judgment of Solomon, the Judgment 
 of Daniel, and a Judgment of Trajan; and are considered Amalteo's 
 masterpieces. Vasari praises, in the ' Life of Pordenone,' some 
 frescoes by Amalteo in the castle of San Vito, for which he was 
 ennobled by Cardinal Grimani, the signor of San Vito, and patriarch 
 of Aquiloa. Amalteo was distinguished for good drawing, a quality 
 rare among the Venetian painters. The date of his death is not 
 known. 
 
 Pomponio's brother and pupil, Girolomo Amalteo, who died young, 
 had also great ability, but he generally painted small pictures highly 
 
 finished. 
 
 (Altan, Mcmorie inlorno alia Vita di Pomponio Amalteo, in the 
 Opuscoli Calogeriani, vol. xlviiL ; Renaldis, Delia Pittwa Friulana; 
 Lanzi, Storia Pittorica.) 
 
 AMAN, JOHANN, an architect who executed many important 
 buildings in Germany, was born at St. Blasien iu Baden, in 1765. In 
 his early practice as an artist he was remarkable for his ability as a 
 painter on glass. His practice as an architect commenced in 1791, 
 and he was employed by various German princes, and by the Emperor 
 of Austria, till his death in 1834. 
 
 AMARA, or AMARASINHA, an ancient Hindoo grammarian, and 
 author of one of the oldest and most esteemed original vocabularies 
 of Sanskrit nouns, called after his name, ' Amara Kosha,' that is, the 
 Thesaurus of Amara, but sometimes quoted under the title of ' Tri- 
 kanda,' that is, the Tripartite. Owing to the almost total want of 
 records on the internal history of India, the era at which Amara lived 
 can only be ascertained by conjecture. Numerous authorities assert 
 that he was a contemporary of king Vikramaditya ; and his name is 
 included in a memorial verse among the Nine Gems, or nine distin- 
 guished poets and scholars who adorned the court of that prince. The 
 exact date of this Vikramaditya's reign is however still subject to discus- 
 sion, as in Indian history several kings of that name occur. Tradition 
 places Amara and the Nine Gems generally under the first Vikrama- 
 ditya, 56 years before our era. Mr. Bentley ('Asiatic Researches,' 
 vol. viL pp. 242-244) supposes the Vikramaditya under whose reign 
 Amara lived, to be the successor of Raja Bhoja-deva, as sovereign of 
 Dhara in Malwa, who reigned during the latter part of the 1 1th century. 
 Mr. Colebrooke ('Algebra from the Sanskrit,' Introd. pp. 45-51) from 
 astronomical data in the work of Varahamiliira (another of the Nine 
 Gems), has assumed the close of the 5th century, or about the year 
 472, as the probable epoch when that astronomer wrote, and Vikra- 
 maditya and the Nine Gems lived. This opinion, with regard to 
 Amara, is supported by the frequent reference made to his Dictionary 
 as to an ancient and classical work of standard authority, by numerous 
 writers, to many of whom an antiquity of several centuries at least 
 can be confidently attributed. 
 
 Of Amara's life little is known. He embraced the tenets of the 
 Buddhas, a heterodox sect; and all his compositions, with the excep- 
 tion of his Dictionary, perished in the persecutions raised by the 
 
AMARAL, ANI/llES DO. 
 
 Brahmans against the persons and writings of the Buddhas, which 
 began in the 3rd century, and reached their height during the 5th and 
 6th centuries. 
 
 Like other origiual Sanskrit vocabularies, that of Amara is iu metre 
 to aid the memory. The whole is divided into three books. In the 
 first two, words relating to kindred objects are collected in one or more 
 verses, and placed in chapters. Thus the first book commences with 
 words for heaven; nest follow the names and attributes of the several 
 deities; then come terms for space, the cardinal points of the compass, 
 &c. The third book is supplementary : it contains epithets, a list of 
 homonymous words (arranged alphabetically like many Arabic diction- 
 aries, according to the final consonants), particles, and adverbs (consi- 
 dered as indeclinable nouns by the Hindoo grammarians), and remarks 
 on the gender of substantives. The Sanskrit dictionaries or ' Koshas,' 
 do not include the verbs of the language, the stems or roots being 
 arranged and explained in separate lists. The ' Amarakosha ' contains 
 only about 10,000 different words. In a language so copious as the 
 Sanskrit this number appears small ; but in consequence of the gi - eat 
 regularity and consistency with which, in this language, compound 
 nouns and derivatives are formed, very few of these require to be 
 inserted and explained in a dictionary. Real deficiencies in the list of 
 Amara are supplied partly by commentaries on it, and partly by more 
 recent dictionaries, one of which, the ' Trikandasesha,' by Purusbot- 
 tamadeva, is, what its title implies, purposely compiled as a supplement 
 to the tripartite work of Amara. 
 
 An excellent edition of the ' Amarakosha,' with marginal explana- 
 tions and notes in English, and an alphabetic index, was published by 
 Mr. H. T. Colebrooke at Serampore, 1808, 4to.; reprinted, 1829, 8vo. 
 An edition of the mere Sanskrit text, and table of contents likewise in 
 Sanskrit, appeared at Calcutta in 1813 in a volume with three other 
 original Sanskrit vocabularies. 
 
 (Asiatic Researches, vii. p. 214, seq. ; Wilson, Sansh-it Dictionary, 
 Preface, p. 5, seq., first edit.) 
 
 AMARAL, ANDRES DO, a Portuguese by birth, and knight of the 
 order of St. John of Jerusalem, of that branch called 'the language of 
 Castile,' at the time that the order was in the possession of the island 
 of Rhodes. In the year 1510 he was sent on an expedition against the 
 fleet of the sultan of Egypt, then lying in the Gulf of Ajasso, in 
 company with Villiers de l'lsle Adam, with whom he quarrelled. On 
 the death of Carretta, the forty-second grand master, in 1521, Amaral 
 put himself forward as candidate; but Villiers de l'lsle Adam was 
 chosen by a large majority. Stung by his failure, Amaral seems to 
 have conceived a deadly hatred not only of his successful rival, but of 
 the whole order. On the day of the election, Jan. 22, 1521, he said in 
 the church of St. John, where it took place, to one of his friends, a 
 knight of Castile, that L'lsle Adam would be the last grand master of 
 Rhodes. Rumours arose of approaching danger to Rhodes from a 
 large armament in preparation by Sultan Solyman I. On June 26, 
 1522, all uncertainty was dissipated by the appearance of the Turkish 
 fleet off the island, consisting of four hundred vessels, and carrying an 
 army of one hundred and fifty thousand men. To oppose this force, 
 L'lsle Adam had about five thousand soldiers, including six hundred 
 knights. The Turks landed without opposition, and the siege of the 
 city began ; but after repeated losses, the Turkish commanders were 
 compelled to call for the sultan himself to animate the courage of his 
 troops, and on the 28th of August, Solyman arrived to assume the 
 command in person. The Turks sustained, nevertheless, a defeat on 
 September 24, and were, it was thought, about to retire from the 
 siege. On October 30, some of the guard having for some days before 
 noticed a servant of Amaral's, named Bias Diez, going frequently to a 
 part of the fortifications called the bulwark of Auvergne at unseason- 
 able hours, with a bow or arblast in his hand, conceived misgivings of 
 bis purposes, and carried information to the grand master, who ordered 
 his immediate arrest and examination. He would confess nothing till 
 he was " put to the Gehenna," and then he revealed a startling tale. 
 Since the election of L'lsle Adam, his master had, he stated, com- 
 menced and kept up a secret correspondence with the Turks : it was 
 he who, by means of a Turkish captive, had apprised the sultan of the 
 weak Btate of the order, and had invited him to come and conquer 
 Rhodes ; who had since informed him of the most secret councils in 
 which he had taken part as grand prior of Castile; had pointed out 
 the weak parts of the fortifications ; and finally, since the failure of the 
 assault in September, had exhorted him to persevere, and success was 
 certain. His master was in the habit, he stated, of communicating 
 with the Turkish camp by means of letters fastened to arrows and 
 shot from the bulwark of Auvergne. Amaral was instantly arrested, 
 and the grand master ordered him to be examined by two of the grand 
 cross knight*, in conjunction with the magistrates of the town. There 
 was other circumstantial evidence, and both his servant and himself 
 were sentenced to death. Dicz was hung on November 4, and on the 
 same day Amaral was solemnly stripped in the church of St. John of 
 his robes of knighthood, and delivered over to the secular arm : on the 
 next day he was beheaded. 
 
 The evidence seerns quite sufficient to prove the crime of Amaral, 
 but in later times his guilt has been doubted. Though the order 
 continued to exist for some centuries, the prediction was verified that 
 L'lsle Adam would be the last grand master of Rhodes. By the 
 advice of his council, though against hia own opinion, he surrendered 
 
 AMARI, MICHELE. 1S3 
 
 the place on honourable conditions, and on Christmas-day, 1522, Sultan 
 Solyman took possession of Rhodes. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 *AMARI, MICHELE, an Italian historian, was born at Palermo, 
 July 7, 1S06. He was educated at home till the age of fifteen, his 
 studies being guided by Professor Domenico Scina. In his sixteenth 
 year he obtained a situation in a government office. Soon after this, 
 in 1822, his father was condemned to death for being engaged in a 
 conspiracy for effecting the independence of Sicily. Seven of his com- 
 panions were executed, but the sentence of the cider Amari was com- 
 muted to thirty years' imprisonment. Michele was not deprived of 
 his office, but the duty of supporting his mother and family of three 
 younger children out of his scanty salary devolved upon him. Rendered 
 reckless by the misfortune which had fallen upon his family, Michela 
 now abandoned study, and devoted his leisure hours to the practice 
 of bodily exercises, with a view to fit himself for a guerilla leader. 
 But from this morbid state he is said to have been aroused by an 
 attachment he formed for au English lady ; and though unsuccessful 
 in his suit, it led him to the ardent study of the English language, of 
 which the first-fruit was a translation of 1 Marmion,' published at 
 Palermo in 1832. He now devoted himself to the study of English 
 and French literature, and especially moral philosophy and history; 
 and an answer which he published to a pamphlet which asserted that 
 Sicily had always been dependent upon Naples, gained so much 
 applause, that he determined to undertake a history of Sicily from 
 the commencement of the Bourbon dynasty. In this work he had 
 made some progress when he abandoned it, in order to investigate 
 thoroughly the subject of the Sicilian Vespers. In 1837 Palermo was 
 ravaged by the cholera, and the populace, excited by political agitators, 
 rose in revolt and expelled the Neapolitan garrison. The insurrection 
 was soon suppresseel ; but though Amari had been among the most 
 active of the officials in endeavouring to arrest or palliate the disease, 
 and took no part in the political proceedings, he was deprived of his 
 office, and transferred to a different department at Naples. Here he 
 steadily prosecuted his historical labours. Having completed his task, 
 he obtained leave to visit his family at Palermo ; and there, in April 
 1842, published his history under the title of ' La Guerra del Vespro 
 Siciliano.' The book had received the licence of the censors ; but a few 
 months after its publication it was discovered by the authorities that in 
 describing the French dominion the author had been really discussing 
 that of Naples, and under the mask of Charles of Anjou he had been 
 tracing a likeness of Ferdinand II. The book accordingly was prohi- 
 bited ; the censors who had permitted it to pass were dismissed from 
 their offices ; five journals which had reviewed it were suppressed ; 
 the publisher was banished to the Isle of Ponza, where he soon after 
 died ; and Amari himself was summoned to Naples, but he fortunately 
 succeeded in escaping to France. 
 
 Amari had, there can be little doubt, like many other authors living 
 under a strict censorship, written of the past with a constant though 
 latent reference to the present ; but the great object of his history 
 was to rectify what he believed to be the erroneous view commonly 
 taken of the Sicilian Vespers. For centuries it had been the received 
 opinion that the great massacre so named was the result of a widely- 
 extended conspiracy, the work of John of Procida. Amari, on the 
 contrary, undertook to prove — we quote his own words — " that the 
 Vespers were not the result of any conspiracy, but rather an outbreak 
 occasioned by the insolence of the ruling party, and owing its origin 
 and its important results to the social and political condition of a 
 people neither used nor inclined to endure a foreign and tyrannical 
 yoke ; and this view is undoubtedly confirmed by new documents 
 which throw light upon the causes of the revolution — the letter of 
 Charles himself, that of the Sicilians, and several inedited papal bulls. 
 It was to her people, not to her nobles, that Sicily owed the revolution 
 which in the 13th century saved her from the extreme of misery and 
 degradation, from servile corruption, and from sinking into insignifi- 
 cance." The ' History of the Sicilian Vespers' at once excited general 
 attention, and its bold denial of the common theory — supported as it 
 was by a large body of new documents — though much canvassed, 
 gained almost universal acquiescence. In Italy the prohibition ensured 
 for it a wide circle of readers ; it was translated into German by Dr. 
 J. F. Schroder of Hildesheim, and into English under the care of the 
 Earl of Eliesmere. A fourth edition of the original, with a new 
 preface anel additional documents, was published at Florence in 1851. 
 
 At Paris Amari applied diligently to the study of Arabic, in order 
 to fit himself for the preparation of a history of Sicily during the 
 Mussulman occupation. He succeeded in mastering the language, and 
 formed large collections of original materials for his projected history 
 from the libraries of Paris, London, and Oxford. These he was busily 
 employed in collating and digesting when intelligence reached him of 
 the revolution iu Sicily, January 1848, and he at once cast aside his 
 books and proceeded to the seat of war. Before he could reach Palermo, 
 however, the Neapolitans had for the time succumbed. Amari had 
 in his absence been namcel by the provisional government professor of 
 jurisprudence in the university of Palermo. He was now named a 
 member of the revolutionary committee, and elected a deputy for 
 Palermo to the parliament which at its meeting in April decreed the 
 deposit jn of the Bourbon dynasty. He soon after received the office 
 
183 AMASIS. AMBERGER, CHRISTOPH. 134 
 
 of minister of finance, but though he refused the salary of his office, 
 and did his best to perform his duties, he found it impossible to satisfy 
 the popular expectations ; and after enduring what he calls official 
 martyrdom for five months, he was glad to exchange his post for a 
 mission to Paris. The object of this was to obtain the intervention 
 of the republican government; but iu this he failed, and at the renewal 
 of hostilities in Sicily, March 1849, he again repaired to Palermo. He 
 saw at once that further resistance was hopeless, and be left the city 
 April 22, the day before it surrendered to the Neapolitan general. 
 He reached Paris iu safety, and once more returned to his literary 
 pursuits. Soon afterwards he published a political brochure, ' La 
 Sicile et les Bourbons.' His subsequent publications have been sug- 
 gested by his Arabic researches: 'Solwan-al-Mota, ossia conforti politici 
 di Ibn-Zafer, Arabo-Siciliano del XII secolo ;' and some papers in tho 
 ' Asiatic Journal.' 
 
 AMASIS, or AMOSIS, the eighth king, according to Africanus, of 
 the twenty-sixth dynasty of Egyptian kings, reigned from B.C. 569 to 
 B.C. 525. Amasis was a native of Siouph, in the nomos (district) of Sais, 
 in the Delta. Being sent by Apnea (the Pharaoh Hophraof Scripture, 
 Jerem. xliv. 30) to stop a mutiny in the Egyptian army, he was pro- 
 claimed king by the rebels, and defeated his master, who was sup- 
 ported by a force of 30,000 Carians and Ionian Greeks. Amasis 
 became King of Egypt, and Apries, being surrendered to the Egyptians, 
 was put to rleath. 
 
 Amasis married a Greek wife from Cyrene, and allowed Greek 
 merchants to fettle at Naucratis, and to build temples and bazaars. 
 Pythagoras and Solon are aaid to have visited Egypt in his reign. 
 Amasis decorated Sais with magnificent propyloea to the temple of 
 Atlienrca, with colo.-si and nndrosphinxes, and a monolith (one-stone) 
 temple brought 000 miles down the river from the quarries of Syene. 
 Sais, the royal residence of Amasis, which is now called Sa-elHajar, 
 or Sa, • the Rock,' exhibits only mounds of rubbish and pottery, and 
 sun-dried bricks. 
 
 He placed a colossus 75 Greek feet long, flanked by two figures 
 30 feet high, in front of the temple of Hephoestus (Phtha) at Memphis. 
 He placed another at Sais, of the same size. Amasis also extended 
 the commerce of Egypt by the conquest of Cyprus. Agriculture no 
 less flourished during bis reign. He was succeeded by his son Psam- 
 menitus, who was conquered by Cambyses the Persian, B.C. 525. 
 
 (Description de VF.gyptc, Antiquitts, vol. v. ; Herod., ii. 162-182.) 
 
 AM ATI, the name of a family of violin-makers, resident at Cremona 
 from the first half of the 16th to the termination of the 17th century, 
 of which the brothers Andrea and Nicolo appear to have been the 
 first who rivalled the eminent Tyrolese workmen. 
 
 Andrea Amati was a violin-mnker previous to the year 1551, for in 
 1789 the Baron de Bagge possessed an instrument which bore hi8 
 name and that date. For some years afterwards, Andrea, in con- 
 junction with his brother Nicolo, continued the manufacture of 
 violins, violas, aud violoncellos, which to this day are justly valued by 
 all connoisseurs for their excellent form and finish, and their sweet 
 aud brilliant tone. Of their violoncellos few at present are known to 
 exist, and these are highly admired and prized. Nicolo, whose repu- 
 tation is more especially identified with these instruments, is some- 
 times erroneously confounded with his great nephew of the same 
 name. 
 
 Antonio Amati, son of Andrea, was bom at Cremona in 1565, and 
 for some time worked with his brother Geronimo. The violin which 
 Antonio made for Henry IV. of France is still in existence, richly 
 ornamented and in perfect order. Its date is 1595. The instruments 
 of Geronimo Amati are considered less valuable than those of his 
 brother. Nicolo Amati, the son of Geronimo, was living in 1692, at 
 a very advanced age. He followed the form and proportions of the 
 violin which his ancestors had adopted, and which are thus describtd 
 by Jacob Otto of Weimar, who, in the course of his business as a 
 violin-maker, professes to have had thirty of their instruments pass 
 through his hands : — " All their instruments were constructed after 
 the simplest rules of mathematics, and the sis which came into my 
 possession unspoilt were made after the following proportions. The 
 belly was strongest where the bridge rests ; it then diminished about 
 a third at that part where the / holes are cut, and where the belly rests 
 on the sides it was half as thick as in the middle. The same proportion 
 is observed in the length. The thickness is equally maintained all 
 along that part on which the base bar is fixed ; from whence to the 
 upper and under end blocks the thickness decreases to one half. 
 These proportions are best adapted for producing a full, clear, and 
 brilliant tone." 
 
 (Fetis, Biographie Universelte des Musiciens ; Otto, On the Violin; 
 Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge?) 
 
 AMATO, GIOVANNI ANTONIO D', a distinguished painter of 
 the early half of the 16th century, and one of the best of the Nea- 
 politan painters, was born at Naples in 1475. His master is not 
 known ; he seems to have educated himself chiefly by studying the 
 works of Maestro Buono, who died in 1485, and an altar-niece of 
 Pietro Perugino, which is in the cathedral of Naples. 
 
 Amato possessed that reverential feeling which associated art with 
 religion. He never commenced a picture of the Madonna and Bam- 
 bino, his most favourite subject, without first taking the sacrament, 
 
 and thus purifying himself for the holy task. He carried his feeling 
 of propriety so far aa to consider it wrong to paint even a partially 
 naked woman ; and impressed with thia feeling he refused to paint 
 the decorations of the triumphal arch which was erected in honour 
 of Charles V. when he visited Naples : he recommended Andrea da 
 Salerno to the authorities in his place. 
 
 Though as a painter he lived chiefly in tho HJth century, his style 
 is more that of the quattrocentisti, and is very similar to that of 
 Perugino, but, with equally good colouring, the forms of Amato are 
 fuller than those of Perugino. He painted in oil and in freaco, but 
 hia frescos have almost all disappeared : they have either been white- 
 washed, or have disappeared in the repairing of their localities. Ilia 
 best picture is considered to be the Dispute on the Sacrament, in the 
 Cathedral of Naples. 
 
 Amato was a man of general acquirements, and devoted much of 
 his time with assiduity aud delight to the cultivation of letters. He 
 wrote a commentary upon difficult passages in the Sacred Scriptures. 
 He died at Naples in 1555, aged 80. 
 
 Of Amato's numerous scholars, his own nephew of the same name, 
 born in 1535, was one of the moat distinguished. He was called II 
 Giovane, the Young, to distinguish him from his uncle, who, however, 
 was himself sometimes called II Vecchio, or the Elder. The nephew 
 after the death of his uncle studied with Gio. Bernardo Lama, an older 
 scholar of the elder Amato. His best work is a large and admirable 
 altar-piece of the Infant Christ, in the church of the Banco de' Poveri 
 at Naples : he was a beautiful colourist. He died at Naples in 1598. 
 
 (Dominici, Vite de' Pittori, &c, Napolitani.) 
 
 AMATO, or AMATUS, JOANNES RODERICUS, often called 
 Amatus Lusitanus, a very eminent physician of the 16th century. 
 Amato was of a Jewish family, and was born at Castel-Branco, in the 
 province of Beira in Portugal, in 1511. Like many of his nation, con- 
 cealing his religious faith, he was educated at Salamanca ; after leaving 
 which he travelled in France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. 
 He remained for some time both at Venice and Ferrara, giving lectures 
 on the medical art. Before 1549 Amato had removed to Ancona, 
 where he resided and practised his profession till 1555. While here 
 he had the honour of being several times called to Rome to attend 
 the Pope, Julius III. Dread of the Inquisition, however, whose 
 notice had been attracted to him as a concealed Jew, induced him, in 
 1555, to withdraw to Pesaro. From Pesaro he some time after 
 retired to Ragusa, and from thence, in 1559, to Thessalonica (Saloniki), 
 where he made open profession of the religion of his forefathers. He 
 is ascertained to have been alive in 1561, but no notice of him occurs 
 after that date, and it is not known when he died. Amato is the 
 author of two works, both of which were long ranked among the most 
 esteemed medical treatises of modern times. The one is entitled, in 
 the first edition, printed in 4to, at Antwerp, in 1536, 'Exegemata in 
 Priores duos Dioscoridis de Materia Medica Libros ;' and in subse- 
 quent editions, ' Enarrationes in Dioscoridem.' The other is hi3 
 ' Curationum Medicinalium Centurise Septem.' Iu both these works 
 the author is said to show an intimate acquaintance with the writings 
 of the Greek and Arabic physicians ; and they are also stated to con- 
 tain many curious notices both in medicine and in natural history. 
 Some of his biographers mention a translation into Spanish by Amato 
 of the 'Roman History ' of Eutropius. 
 
 AMAZIAH, or AMAZIAHU, means literally 'one strengthened 
 by Jehovah,' and is the name of the ninth king of Judah, who began 
 to reign when he was twenty-five years old, about the year B.C. 838, 
 after his father Joash had been murdered in the house of Millo by 
 his own servants Jozachar and Jehozabat. (2 Kings, xiv.) Amaziah 
 reigned twenty-nine years in J erusalem ; his mother's name was Jeho- 
 addan of Jerusalem. He fought with the Edomites, of whom he slew 
 20,000, and took Selah, and called it Joktheel. The name of Selah is 
 translated Petra, ' rock,' by the Greeks. The remains at this place 
 in Arabia Petrcea, between the Dead Sea and the Elanitic Gulf, are 
 described by Irby and Mangles (' Travels,' p. 336, &c.) 
 
 Amaziah next declared war against Jehoash, the king of Israel, but 
 was defeated and taken prisoner. Jerusalem wa3 also taken and 
 plundered. Amaziah, however, recovered his liberty, and reigned 
 fifteen years after the death of Jehoash, when a conspiracy having 
 been formed against him, he fled to Lachish ; but he was pursued and 
 slain there, and buried in Jerusalem. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Azariah, ' help of Jehovah,' or Uzziah, ' power of Jehovah,' who was 
 sixteen years old (2 Kings, xiv.; 2 Chron. xxv. ; Jos., 'Antiq.,' ix. 
 9, 10). 
 
 AMBERGER, CHRISTOPH, a celebrated old German painter of 
 the 16th century, was of a family of Amberg in the Ober Pfalz, whence 
 his name ; but Amberger himself was, according to Von Mechel, born 
 at Nurnberg about 1490. His father was a stonemason, and his grand- 
 father was a carver in wood at Amberg. Nothing is known of 
 Amberger's early history previous to 1530, when he was already a 
 painter of some note, and in great employment at Augsburg. The 
 works which he executed at this time however were chiefly in dis- 
 temper. He painted the exteriors of some houses in this manner ; 
 and, upon canvas, twelve pictures of the history of Joseph in Egypt, 
 which are still at Augsburg. 
 
 Amberger painted also in oil and in fresco. His oil pictures are 
 chiefly portraits, much in the style of Holbein, whose portraits he 
 
1S5 
 
 AMBOISE, CARDINAL GEORGES D\ 
 
 studied and copied. Fiorillo states that many of Amberger's copies 
 pass as the originals of Holbein. His historical pieces in oil are very 
 Email, and executed in the hard manner and sharp gothic style of the 
 period in Germany, without any feeling for aerial perspective, though 
 the rules of linear perspective are well observed in his works : his 
 colouring is rich. His best works are at his native place, Amberg, 
 in the Church of St. Martin and in the Franciscan convent there. 
 
 Amberger is generally supposed to have died about 1563 at Augs- 
 burg : he was however still living in 1568, according to some judicial 
 records in that place. 
 
 (Sandrart, Teutsche Academie, &c. ; Mechel, Catalogue des Tableaux, 
 &c. de Vienne; Waagen, Gemalde Sammlung zu Berlin; Nagler, 
 Kiinstler- Lexicon. ) 
 
 AMBOISE, CARDINAL GEORGES D', an eminent French eccle- 
 siastic and statesman. He was born in 1460, at the chateau of 
 Chaumont on the Loire, the seat of his family, which was one of the 
 most illustrious in France. Being a younger son he was educated for 
 the church, and was made Bishop of Montauban by the time he had 
 attained the age of fourteen. His first preferment at court was given 
 him by Louis XL, who made him his almoner. After the death of 
 this prince, however, in 1483, having connected himself with the 
 Duke of Orleans, who unsuccessfully disputed the regency with Anne 
 of Beaujeu, he shared the misfortunes of his party, and was along 
 with the duke himself put into confinement, from which he was not 
 released till six or seven years after, when the new king, Charles VIII., 
 attained his majority. Soon after being restored to liberty he was pro- 
 moted to the archbishopric of Narbonne, which, in 1493, he exchanged 
 for that of Rouen. Here, besides presiding over his diocese, he acted 
 as the deputy of his friend the Duke of Orleans, who held the office 
 of governor of Normandy, and in that capacity introduced several 
 valuable reforms into the administration of the province. In 1498 
 the duke became king by the title of Louis XII., and from this time 
 DAmboise may be considered as pi'ime minister of France. The 
 memorable events of the reign of Louis XII. are connected with the 
 assertion of his rights to the duchy of Milan, and the protracted wars 
 which he carried on in Italy to maintain that claim. In this part of 
 his conduct it is probable that Loui3 acted rather according to his 
 own views than by the advice of his minister ; but he seems to have 
 intrusted to the latter almost the entire management of the domestic 
 affairs of his kingdom. In this department DAmboise displayed 
 equal ability and disinterestedness. By the financial reforms which 
 he effected he was enabled both considerably to reduce the customary 
 imposts, and to supply the heavy demands of the war without any 
 increase of taxation. He exerted himself also, with considerable 
 success, to rectify the existing corruptions both in the law and the 
 church, introducing various regulations, with a view to diminish the 
 length of processes iu the former, and by his example as well as by 
 his authority discountenancing the scandalous rapacity of the higher 
 order of ecclesiastics. He would never accept any other benefice in 
 addition to his archbishopric; and even the greater part of his epis- 
 copal revenue he distributed among the poor, or devoted to other 
 pidus purposes. With all this moderation, however, in regard to the 
 more common objects of human desire, he was far from being without 
 ambition. Very soon after the accession of Loui3 XII. he had obtained 
 a cardinal's hat, and subsequently the Pope appointed him to the 
 high office of legate. But on the death of the infamous Alexander VI., 
 in 1503, it appeared that the chair of St. Peter itself was the place 
 which he aspired to occupy. He failed however in this object through 
 a piece of mismanagement, which made him at the time very much 
 laughed at, though it was only discreditable to him as a politician. 
 A large military force of the king his master occupied Rome, by 
 placing which in an imposing attitude he might easily have controlled 
 the election ; but the Cardinal de la Rovere having suggested to him 
 that such a mode of securing his object would both have a bad look, 
 and was moreover quite unnecessary, inasmuch as he would most 
 certainly be elected for his own merits, if he left the matter to the 
 free voices of the conclave ; he followed this crafty advice, and with- 
 drew the troops. The result was that in a few weeks the Cardinal de 
 la Rovere was Pope himself, with the title of Julius II. No other 
 vacancy in the ecclesiastical throne occurred during the life of DAm- 
 boise, who died in the convent of the Celestines at Lyons, on the 25th 
 of May, 1510. It is said that, on his death bed, he expressed his 
 sense of the vanity of those worldly honours which he had sought so 
 anxiously during his life — exclaiming, as he named the monk who 
 attended him, " Brother John ! ah, why have I not all my life been 
 brother John ? " He was buried in the cathedral of Rouen, where 
 his mausoleum is still to bo seen. Notwithstanding some faults and 
 weaknesses, DAmboise was undoubtedly a great benefactor to France. 
 This his countrymen themselves so strongly felt, that they used 
 affectionately to call him 'the people's father.' Most of the accounts 
 of his life that have appeared in France are written in the most 
 panegyrical style. One is by an author who calls himself the Sieur 
 des Montagnes, printed in 12mo, at Paris, iu 1631. There i3 another 
 work, entitled ' A History of the Administration of the Cardinal 
 DAmboise,' by the Sieur Michel Baudier, historiographer to his majesty, 
 published in 4to, at Paris, in 1634. The letters of Louis XII. and 
 Cardinal D'Amboise were published at Brussels in 4 vols, 8vo, by 
 Jean Godefroy, in 1712. 
 
 AMBRO'SIUS, ST., commonly called Ambrose, was born in Gaul, 
 probably at Treves, about a.d. 340, his father, a noble native of Rome, 
 being then praetorian prefect of Gaul. His infancy was signalised by 
 a prodigy similar to that recorded of Plato ; while he wa3 sleeping in 
 his father's palace, a swarm of bees invaded his cradle and rested on 
 his lips, and then suddenly ascending high into the air disappeared. 
 Another tale is also told prophetic of his ecclesiastical dignity. One 
 day, while yet a boy, he stretched forth his hand to his mother and 
 sister, and bade them kiss it, in homage to the futuro bishop. His 
 education however was that usually bestowed on distinguished 
 civilians, and his first profession was the law. His rank and character 
 personally recommended him for advancement, and at an early age 
 he was made consular of Liguria, a province comprehending the 
 North of Italy from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, and having 
 Milan for its capital. 
 
 The con flict between the Catholics and the Arians was then raging, 
 and in A.D. 374, Auxentius, the Arian archbishop of Milan, died. The 
 choice of a successor occasioned the most violent tumults, and the 
 presence of the governor was necessary to appease them. He assembled 
 the people in the principal church ; and when he had addressed them 
 on the subject of their civil duties, the necessity of social order and 
 public discipline, they replied with unanimous acclamation, " We will 
 have Ambrose for our bishop." Ambrose was then a catechumen 
 only, and as far as is known, without much theological instruction. 
 He professed, besides, the most determined repugnance for the pro- 
 posed dignity. He yielded however at length to the persevering 
 entreaties of the people ; and on the eighth day after his baptism, 
 having passed with the shortest canonical intervals through the inter- 
 mediate steps, he was ordained to the see. That which he had obtained 
 by the popular voice he preserved by popular talents and virtues — a 
 commanding eloquence, which inflamed the souls of the faithful — 
 daring and unconquerable firmness— humanity, where the interests of 
 humanity were consistent with those of the orthodox faith — perfect 
 contempt for wealth, and unbounded benevolence to the poor and 
 afflicted. He renounced his private property, and on one occasion 
 sold some of the sacred utensils for the redemption of prisoners. It 
 is also related that he possessed, and sometimes exercised, the gift of 
 miracles. He immediately proclaimed his adhesion to the Catholic 
 faith, and laboured for the extirpation of Arianism. The empress 
 Justina, an Arian, demanded that one church should be appropriated 
 at Milan to herself and those who held the same opinions. Ambrose 
 refused, and a long and violent struggle ensued, in which the civil and 
 military authorities were successfully opposed and thwarted by the 
 energy of the prelate, armed only with spiritual power and supported 
 by the enthusiastic devotion of his faithful people. 
 
 This was his first triumph ; his second, though accomplished with 
 less risk, has gained him more celebrity. In a.d. 390 Theodosius I. 
 commanded an indiscriminate massacre of the inhabitants of Thessa- 
 lonica, and many thousands suffered. Ambrose was shocked by the 
 enormity of the crime, and determined that the church ought not to 
 overlook it, even iu a wise and powerful Catholic emperor. He 
 remonstrated ; and when the prince pleaded for his sin the example 
 of David, Ambrose replied, " Since thou hast imitated his offence, 
 imitate likewise his penitence ; " and stopped him as he was entering 
 the sacred precincts. Theodosius submitted. For the space of eight 
 months he was debarred from the holy offices, and finally, after some 
 other humiliations, he condescended to the performance of public 
 penance, as the condition of reconciliation with the church. This 
 was, indeed, a signal display of spiritual authority at a period scarcely 
 fourscore years removed from the last persecution, and long preceding 
 the origin of that system of ecclesiastical despotism so generally 
 ascribed to the ambition of Rome. But it was the flagrancy of the 
 crime which gave colour and success to the prelate's audacity 
 Ambrose, as well as Martin of Tours, expressed his indignation at 
 the persecution of Priscillian and his followers ; his humanity was 
 offended by the execution of the heretics. Yet had he no compre 
 hension of what we call toleration. The severe laws of Gratian 
 against heretics are by Tillemont ascribed to his influence; and in 
 390 he held a council for the condemnation of the opinions of Jovinian. 
 His ecclesiastical principles were as high and as rigid as those of the 
 Gregories and the Innocents, but a milder disposition tempered them 
 in execution. 
 
 Ambrose died in 397, at no advanced age, beloved by his faithfu 
 people, and even by the princes whom his virtues awed, and respected 
 by the barbarians themselves. He left behind him what the church 
 has commonly considered as a model of the episcopal character. His 
 works, which are numerous, by no means reflect the vigour and energy 
 of his actions ; they are rather remarkable for the excellence of their 
 principles and precepts, than for power of thought or diction. The 
 most remarkable is that 'De Officiis,' which his panegyrists have 
 not feared to compare with the ' Offices ' of Cicero. It is, of course, 
 a Christian work, and the first proposition is the following : — " The 
 proper office of a bishop is to teach the people." He composed some 
 very voluminous expositions of Scripture. Many lives of Ambrose 
 are extant. The most ancient is one by Pauliuus, a priest of Milan, 
 and the secretary of the prelate. The best edition of his works is in 
 2 vols. fol. Paris, 16S6— 1690. There is also one by Erasmus in 2 vols, 
 fol. apud Froben, 1527. 
 
167 AMBROSIUS, AURELIANUS. 
 
 The name of Ambrosius is connected with the earliest improve- 
 ment of church music. The writings of the early fathers concur in 
 recording the employment of music as a part of public worship, 
 although no regular ritual was in existence to determine its precise 
 form and use. This appears to have been first supplied by Ambrosias, 
 who instituted that method of singing known by the name of the 
 'cantus Atnbrosianus,' which is said to have had a reference to the 
 modes of the ancients, especially to that of Ptolemacus. This is 
 rather matter of conjecture than certainty, although the eastern 
 origin of Christianity and the practice of the Greek fathers render 
 the supposition probable. The effect of the Ambrosian chant is 
 described in glowing terms by those who heard it in the cathedral of 
 Milan. "The voices," says Augustine, "flowed in at my ears, truth 
 was distilled into my heart, and the affection of piety overflowed in 
 sweet tears of joy." Whether any genuine relics of the music thus 
 described exist at the present time is exceedingly doubtful ; the style 
 of singing it may however have been preserved ; and this is still said 
 to be applied at Milan to compositions of a date comparatively recent. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 AMBROSIUS, AURELIANUS, a British chieftain at the time of 
 the Saxon invasion in the 5th century. It is difficult amid the 
 obscurity of the history of that period, to obtain a satisfactory account 
 of him. It is probable however that he was a descendant of Con- 
 sUutine, or a branch of his family. 
 
 The account given by the author of the ' Flores 1 and by Geoffrey, 
 is, that Ambrosius, on the usurpation of the sovereignty of Britain by 
 Vortigern, took refuge in Armorica, whence he returned with a strong 
 force ; that after being elected king in a general assembly of the 
 Britons (a.d. 4G5) he besieged Vortigern, who had taken refuge in a 
 castle built by him in Wales, and destroyed him by fire (466) ; 
 that he. then fought against the Saxon Ilengist with dubious success 
 at Wippedeflete (473), against another band of Saxons under 
 Ella, with better but yet not with decisive success (485) at 
 M> arcredes-burn, and finally, with complete success (487), at Mais- 
 bely, and on the banks of the Don (489), both in the north of 
 England, against Hengist, who was in the last battle taken and put to 
 death ; that after this he besieged Octa, son of Hengist in Eboracum 
 (York), and having obliged him to surrender, granted to him and his 
 followers a settlement on the Scottish border ; that he defeated a body 
 of Saxons, whom l'ascentius, the sou of Vortigern, had brought over; 
 and that he died (497) of poison administered by a Saxon, an 
 emissary of the same Pascentius, who had landed with a fresh body 
 of auxiliaries from Ireland, to dispute with him the crown of Britain. 
 This narrative appears to be so corrupted by fabulous intermixture as 
 to make it very difficult to extract from it the historical truth. 
 
 That he was a competitor with Vortigern for the supremacy of 
 South Britain is probable from an expression of Nennius, who enu- 
 merating the embarrassments which led Vortigern to call in the aid 
 of the Saxons, say?, " he was pressed by the attacks of the Romans, 
 and also by the fear of Ambrosius." 
 
 It is tolerably certain that Ambrosius succeeded Vortigern in the 
 supremacy of the British chieftains, and that he was engaged in the 
 warfare directed against the Saxon settlers in the south part of 
 Britain. The battles of Wippedeflete and Mearcredes-burn are recorded 
 in the 'Saxon Chronicle,' which assigns them to the years 465 and 
 485 respectively; and from the same authority it appears that in the 
 first, Hengist and his Jutes, and in the second, Ella and his South 
 Saxons, were opposed to the Britons ; it is also probable that Ambro- 
 sius commanded the latter on these occasions, as Bede records that he 
 was the leader of the natives in their struggle against the invaders, 
 though he notices only one particular battle, that of Mons Badonicus, 
 supposed to be near Bath, which is reckoned by Nennius and others 
 among the victories of the semi-fabulous Arthur. That Ambrosiub 
 was supported by Vortimer and Catigern, the sous of Vortigern, as 
 allies, is also probable from the accounts of Nennius and Huntingdon. 
 The ' Saxon Chronicle ' makes Vortigern the leader of the British 
 hosts against Hengist ; but this is in all probability an error, arising 
 from the similarity of the names Vortigern and Vortimer. 
 
 The story of the Yorkshire victories of Ambrosius, the capture 
 and death of Hengist, and the surrender of the Saxons in York, is 
 utterly irreconcileable with the ascertained circumstances of the time. 
 Of the death of Ambrosius nothing certain is known. Amidst the 
 uncertainty which prevails as to the life, actions, and death of Ambro- 
 sius, all historians who notice him appear to agree in praising him. 
 Gildas (in a passage however of somewhat doubtful genuineness) 
 describes him as " comes, fidelis, fortis, veraxque," "affable, faithful, 
 brave, and true." In an undoubtedly genuine passage he speaks of 
 him as " vir modestus," "a man of well-regulated desires; " and Bede 
 repeats the encomium. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 AMEILHON, HUBERT PASCAL, was born in Paris August 5, 1730, 
 and died there December 23, 1811. He originally intended to enter 
 into the clerical profession, but afterwards relinquished that intention. 
 He published, while yet young, a ' History of the Commerce and 
 Navigation of the Egyptians under the Ptolemies,' a work which was 
 the occasion of his introduction, in 1766, into the Academy of Inscrip- 
 
 AMERBACH, JOHANN. 188 
 
 tions and Literature. In 1793 he was Dominated a member of the 
 Commission of Monuments. He warmly espoused the revolutionary 
 cause. He had the merit of saving from destruction more than 
 800,000 volumes out of private libraries and religious corporations, 
 confiscated during the revolution. 
 
 He was charged to collect in central dep6ts the libraries of all the 
 suppressed religious houses. He was allowed only three hours for 
 carrying off the library of St. Victor ; at the end of that period the 
 books were to be tossed out of the windows. Ameilhon by his repre- 
 sentations obtained with difficulty three days ; he immediately placed 
 all kinds of vehicles in requisition, and transported the books to a 
 neighbouring hospital. He transformed several churches into book 
 magazines, and deposited all the confiscated libraries in them. He 
 had thus the satisfaction of saving the libraries of Malesherbes and 
 Lavoisier, and several others, which, when tranquillity was re-estab- 
 lished, were restored to their rightful owners. Six or seven years of 
 his life were devoted to the assorting and classification of the books 
 intrusted to his care. Ho saved the triumphal arch of the Porte St. 
 Denis, Paris, from destruction ; and he had the courage to oppose the 
 mob when it sought to enter the church of the Jesuits, where his 
 books were deposited, under pretext of destroying the fleurs-de-lys. 
 
 When the Institute was organised in 1797, the city of Paris 
 presented its library to that body. Ameilhon was immediately 
 elected librarian to tho Arsenal, an appointment which he held till 
 his death. 
 
 The ' History of the Navigation and Commerce of Egypt under the 
 Ptolemies,' and the last five volumes of the ' History of the Lower 
 Empire,' begun by Le Beau, are the only books published by Ameilhon. 
 But his contributions to the periodical literature and the academical 
 memoirs of his country were numerous and valuable. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, ABRAHAM NICOLAS, apoliti- 
 cal writer, was born at Orleans in 1634. He accompanied the 
 President of St. Andr(S, appointed ambassador of France at Venice in 
 1669, as secretary. A stay of several years in that city having 
 enabled him to become acquainted with its history and politics, 
 probably induced him to translate Velferus's ' History of the Govern- 
 ment of Venice,' and to add historical and political notes, which, at 
 the same time that they threw a great light on the Venetian govern- 
 ment, gave such offence, that, it is said, a formal complaint was made 
 to Louis XIV., who sent Amelotto the Bastille. No other particulars 
 of Amelot's life are recorded ; all that is known is that he was 
 extremely poor, and subsisted on the bounties of an Abbe;. He died 
 at Paris in 1706. 
 
 He left the following works : — Sarpi's ' History of tho Council of 
 Trent,' translated from Newton's Latin version. 1 The Courtier,' 
 translated from the Spanish. ' The Prince,' translated from Machiavelli. 
 He endeavoured also to vindicate the author, by maintaining that he 
 had only described what princes do, and not what they ought to do. 
 A translation of Tacitus, with historical and political notes. He did 
 not complete this work ; the six last volumes are by Francois Bruys. 
 ' Memoirs, Historical, Political, Critical, and Literary.' This work is 
 also incomplete; it is arranged alphabetically, but does not go beyond 
 half the letters. There are also some other works of no great interest, 
 of which a list is given in ' Memoires de Mieron,' vol. xxxv. 
 
 AMERBACH, JOHANN, an early printer, in great repute for the 
 typographical correctness of his editions. He was born at Reutlingen 
 in Swabia, studied at Paris under Jean de Lapierre, or Lapidanus, the 
 prior of the Sorbonne, who had the honour of first inviting printers 
 to that city, and took the degree of master of arts. Amerbach carried 
 on the trade, or rather in his case the profession, of printing, at Basle, 
 from 1481 till 1515, in which year he died. His chief publications 
 were the works of St. Ambrose, issued in 1492, and those of St. 
 Augustine in 1506, the latter the first edition of the collected works 
 of that author, and a conspicuous undertaking. " The magnitude of 
 the expence deterred the printers," says Erasmus, in a prefatory epistle 
 to an edition of Augustine of the date of 1529. " The first who ven- 
 tured on this great undertaking was John Amerbach, a man of singular 
 piety, amply endowed with wealth, but still more with the stores of 
 intellect, whom neither the immense expence of the work, the difficulty 
 of procuring copies from all quarters, the fatigue of collating them, 
 the necessary attention to other affairs, nor any other motive, could 
 deter from the endeavour of making all Augustine common to all. 
 This man was not led by the love of gain, but by a sincere piety, the 
 spirit of which breathes in all his prefaces, and a desire to revive the 
 original fathers of the church, whom he grieved to see become almost 
 obsolete." Unfortunately Amerbach was unable to procure good 
 manuscripts for his edition, and its critical value is therefore, after 
 all his exertions, very small. The type in which it was printed was 
 novel, and is still known among foreign printers by the name of the 
 St. Augustine. 
 
 Amerbach was desirous of publishing a collection of the works of 
 St. Jerome, and had his three sons, Bruno, Basil, and Boniface, all 
 youths of great abilities, carefully instructed in the Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew languages, in order that they might be fit to correct the press ; 
 a circumstance which calls forth from Maittaire a burst of admiration, 
 and an indignant exclamation at the degeneracy of the printers of bio 
 
180 
 
 AMES, FISHER. 
 
 AMIGONI, JACOPO. 
 
 190 
 
 own time, rather more than a hundred years ago. All three became 
 not only excellent scholars, for which we have the testimony of Eras- 
 mus, but so enthusiastic in favour of Jerome, that they spared neither 
 their wealth nor their health for his sake. The good old man, at hi3 
 decease in 1515, recommended the edition to their care, with an injunc- 
 tion to apply what property he left towards it. The edition was issued 
 in the course of the ten years from 1516 to 1526, from the press of 
 Froben, whom Amerbach had first invited to Basle. 
 
 (Letter on Basil by Boniface Amerbach in Hunsterus, Coimographia 
 Universalis, lib. vi.; Erasmus, Opera Omnia, edition of Le Clerc, iii. 
 1249, &c. ; Maittaire, Annales Typographici, torn. i. parsi. 37-42, where 
 all the original authorities are referred to.) 
 
 AMES, FISHER, was born at Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 9th 
 of April 1758.' At the age of seven he lost his father, whose widow 
 was left with a large family in straitened circumstances. Fisher, the 
 youngest son, was sent to Harvard College at the age of twelve; and 
 afcer remaining there four years, during which he studied hard, he 
 took his degree, and quitted college with a high reputation for his 
 attainments. His wish was to enter the legal profession, but for 
 several years the urgent necessity of providing for his maintenance 
 compelled him to act as teacher iu a school. At length, in 1781, he 
 was enabled to enter on t the practice of the law. The display of 
 his ability as a speaker, and the notice he attracted by political con- 
 tributions to the public journals, combined to procure for him, iu 
 1 7 >S, a seat in the Massachusetts Convention for ratifying the con- 
 stitution. In due course he became a member of the House of 
 Representatives iu the State Legislature. In this position his talents 
 were soon so widely known, that he was sent from the district of 
 Suffolk as their first representative to the Congress of the United 
 States. Iu this situation he remained for eight years, the whole period 
 of the presidency of Washington, of whose measures he was an ardent 
 supporter. As a speaker he was soon acknowledged as second to none 
 iu the Congress, and as a practical man of business his services were 
 most valuable. He was always a thorough advocate for British con- 
 nsction, and entertained the utmost horror of the excesses of the 
 French Revolution. 
 
 On Washington's retirement Fisher Ames also quitted public life, 
 and retired to Dedham, where he both occupied a farm and practised 
 his profession until increasing debility obliged him to give it up. In 
 1804 he was elected president of Harvard College, but decliued the 
 honour on account of ill health. He continued in an increasing state 
 of debility until the 4th of July 1803, when he died, completely worn 
 out. His remains were carried to Boston, and honoured with a public 
 funeral. 
 
 In 1809 'The Works of Fisher Ames' were published. They con- 
 sist entirely of his speeches and letters, collected from the journals of 
 the day. 
 
 AMISS, JOSEPH, was the son of Mr. John Ame3 of Yarmouth, 
 where he was born on the 23rd of January 1689. His father appears 
 to have afterwards settled in London, where he died when his son was 
 in his twelfth year. At thi3 time he was at a little school iu Wappiug. 
 When fifteen he was put apprentice to a plane-maker, near Guildhall, 
 in the city of London. Having served out his time, he then settled 
 in Wappiug, Horace Walpole says, as a ship-chandler ; but according 
 to other accounts, as an ironmonger. Whatever was his business, he 
 seems to have pursued it with success, and to have attained by it, if 
 not wealth, at least a competency. He also found time to supply the 
 defects of his early education by reading; and this led at length to 
 authorship. The study to which he was most attached was that of 
 antiquities, and particularly those of his own country. He had formed 
 uu acquaintance with the Reverend John Lewis ; and it is this gentle- 
 man who is said to have first suggested to him, about the year 1730, 
 tho preparation of a history of English printing, the execution ot 
 which became the object of his life. The work, in a quarto volume 
 of above 600 pages, appeared in 1749, under the title of ' Typo- 
 graphical Antiquities; being an Historical Account of Printing in 
 England, with some Memoirs of our Ancient Printers, and a Register 
 of the Books printed by them, from the year 1471 to 1600; with au 
 Appendix concerning Printing in Scotland and Ireland in the same 
 Time.' This is Ames's principal work, and still indeed serves as the 
 basis of the only elaborate history we have of English printing. ■ It 
 has probably preserved a good many title-pages, and other facts con- 
 nected with its subject, that would have been lost had the recording 
 of them been longer deferred ; and it is, upon the whole, creditable 
 to the industry of its compiler. But the task, to be well performed, 
 icquircJ much more learning than Ames possessed. The most valuable 
 part of his book has been added to it by its subsequent editors, and 
 especially by Mr. Herbert, whose edition, extended to three volumes 
 quarto, appeared in 1785, 1786, and 1790. A still more augmented, 
 and much more splendid, edition was published by the Reverend Dr. 
 Dibdin, in 4 vols., 4 to., 1810-12. Ames's next most considerable work 
 is that entitled ' Parentalia; or, Memoii'3 of the Family of Wren,' 
 folio, 1750. The book professes to be ' by Stephen Wren, Esq.' (the 
 grandson of Sir Christopher), ' with the care of Joseph Ames ; ' but 
 Ames is understood to have been really the writer. Ho is also the 
 author of a ' Catalogue of English Hea ls,' 8vo., 1748 ; of a ' Catalogue 
 of English Printers,' in two leaves quarto, and of an 'Index' to the 
 Catalogue of Lord Pembroke's Cgins, printed, but not published. 
 
 Mr. Ames was a Fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and 
 secretary to the latter from 1741 till his death. He died' suddenly, on 
 the 7th of October, 1759. 
 
 {Life of A mes, by Mr. Gough, prefixed to Herbert's edition of the 
 Typographical Antiquities, and since republished with additional notes 
 in that of Dr. Dibdin.) 
 
 AMHERST, JEFFERY, BARON, a distinguished British military 
 commander, was the son of Jeffery Amherst of Riverhead, in Kent, 
 Esq., and was born on the 29th of January 1717. He received his 
 ensign's commission in 1731, and having some years after gone to 
 Germany as aide-de-camp to General Ligonier, was present at the 
 battles of Dettingeu and Fontenoy. In 1756, while still abroad, he 
 received the colonelcy of the 15th Regiment of Foot. Two years after 
 he was recalled from the continent and sent to America as major- 
 general of the troops destined for the siege of Louisburg in Cape 
 Breton. After the reduction of Canada in 1760, to which he had 
 materially contributed, he received the thanks of the House of Com- 
 mons, and was made a Knight of the Bath. Soon after he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of all the forces in America. On the peace in 1763 
 he returned to England, when he received from the king the governor- 
 ship of Virginia. A misunderstanding with his majesty in 1768 occa- 
 sioned his sudden dismissal from the army ; but the matter having 
 been cleared up, he was in a few months reinstated both in his former 
 rank and in the royal favour. In 1770 he was made governor of 
 Guernsey, aud, two years later, lieutenant-general of the ordnance and 
 commander-in-chief of the forces in England. In 1770 he was created 
 Baron Amherst of Holmesdale in the county of Kent. He retained 
 his appoiutment of commander-in-chief till the breaking up of the 
 North administration in 1782, when, on his resigning it, the king gave 
 him the office of gold stick in waiting. In 1787 he received a second 
 patent of nobility, with the title of Baron Amherst of Montreal in 
 Canada, and with remainder to his nephew. On the 22nd of January 
 1793 he was again appointed to the command of the army, which he 
 held till the 10th of February 1795, when he was succeeded by the 
 Duke of York. On this occasion it is understood that an earldom and 
 the dignity of field-marshal were offered to him, both of which honours 
 he decliued at the time, though the following year he accepted the 
 field-marshal's baton. Lord Amherst died at his seat at Montreal 
 near Sevenoaks, Kent, on the 3rd of August 1797, in the eighty-first 
 year of his age. 
 
 (Gentleman's Magazine for 1797, p. 800; and Chalmers, Biographical 
 Dictionary.) 
 
 AMHURST, NICHOLAS, was a native of Harden, in Kent. Tho 
 date of his birth is not recorded, but he became a pupil at Merchant 
 Taylor's School, in London, iu 1713, aud was elected from it to St. 
 John's College, Oxford, in June 1716. While at college Amhurst 
 published several poems and tracts, and displayed his enmity to the 
 high church clergy in a poem entitled ' Protestant Popery ; or, the 
 Convocation,' in five cantos, which is a satire directed against all the 
 writers who had opposed Bishop Hoadley in the Bangorian contro- 
 versy. He subsequently discovered this temper more fully in ' A 
 Congratulatory Epistle from His Holiness the Pope to the Rev. Dr. 
 Snape, faithfully Translated from the Latin Original into English 
 Verse.' In June 1719 Amhurst was expelled from college, apparently 
 upon a charge of libertinism, irregularity, and insulting behaviour to 
 the president ; but, according to his own account, because of the libe- 
 rality of his sentiments on religious and political subjects. 
 
 Amhurst's resentment was violent and lasting. In 1721 he displayed 
 it by the publication, in fifty semi-weekly numbers, of a periodical 
 intended to satirise the learning and discipline of the University of 
 Oxford, and to libel the characters of some of its principal members. 
 The title of this work was ' Terra Filius.' 
 
 After leaving Oxford, Amhurst settled in London, aud became a 
 writer by profession. His principal literary undertaking was the politi- 
 cal paper called ' The Craftsman.' He conducted it for several years, 
 during which it was more read than any other publication of the kind. 
 It reached a sale of ten or twelve thousand copies, and had a consider- 
 able effect in rousing the popular indignation against Walpole's 
 administration. 
 
 The political services of Amhurst were overlooked by the party to 
 which he had devoted himself, when, early in the year 1742, they came 
 into office; aud his early death, which took place at Twickenham, on 
 the 27th of April in that year, is attributed in a great measure to the 
 effect of this neglect. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of Useful Knowledge Society.) 
 
 AMIGU'NI, JA.'OUPO, one of those painters who, by some chance 
 not quite apparent, obtained a popularity iu his lifetime immeasurably 
 beyond his deserts, according to more modern critics. He was born 
 at Venice in 1675. After he had acquired some reputation in Venice, 
 he added considerably to it in tho service of the elector of Bavaria by 
 some work3 he executed in Munich, and particularly some fresco 
 ceilings at Schleissheim. He met with equil success in London, 
 where he came iu 1729, aud painted a few staircases in fresco, aud 
 many portraits in oil. He painted also Shakspere and the Muses 
 over the orchestra of the then new theatre at Coveut Garden. He 
 returned to Venice in 1739, having saved 5000/. during his ten years' 
 stay in Loudon. In 1747 he went to Madrid, with the appointment 
 of painter to tho king, Ferdinand VI. He died at Madrid in 1752. 
 
m 
 
 AMILCAU. 
 
 AMMANATI, BARTOLOMEO. 
 
 102 
 
 Amigoni's frescoes are purely ornamental, mere variegated deco- 
 rations. He painted some small conversation pieces in the style of 
 some of the Dutch painters, which Lanzi prefers to his larger 
 works. Of the latter, one of the best is a Visitation, at the Padri 
 di San Filippo at Venice. The prints after Amigoni are very 
 numerous. 
 
 (Zanetti, Delia Pittura Veneziana, &c. ; Bermudez, Diccionario 
 Historico, kc. ; Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting in England, &c. ; 
 Lanzi, Storia, Pittorica, &c. ; Heinekeu, Diclionnaire des Artistes, &c.) 
 
 AMILCAR. [Hamit.car.] 
 
 AMIOT, or AMYOT, JOSEPH, a Jesuit missionary to China, 
 ■was born at Toulon in 1718. At the close of 1750 he arrived at 
 Macao in company with two Portuguese missionaries, sent also by the 
 Jesuits, and the brethren of that order already established at Peking 
 presented a petition to the reigning emperor, Koen-Loong, to the 
 effect that the new comers were well acquainted with mathematics, 
 music, and medicine, and might be found useful to the empire. A 
 persecution against the Christians was going on at the time, but the 
 reply of the emperor to this representation was favourable, and he 
 directed the missionaries to be conveyed to Peking at the public 
 expense. Amiot gives au interesting account of the journey in a 
 letter inserted in the collection entitled ' Lettres Edifiantes et 
 Curieuses,' from which these particulars are taken. On arriving at 
 the capital, where an underhand sort of toleration was extended to 
 the missionaries at the very time that their religion was proscribed 
 elsewhere, he applied himself to the study of the Chinese, and after- 
 wards to the Mauchoo-Tartar language and literature, in both of 
 which he made great proficiency. From that time he appears to have 
 acted rather as a missionary of learning than of religion. While his 
 name scarcely figures at all in the ' Lettres Edifiantes,' not a year 
 seems to have passed without his dispatching to Europe some informa- 
 tion on the history and manners of the Chinese and Tartars, to the 
 illustration of which he contributed more than any other writer of 
 the 18th century. He remained at Peking for forty-three years, during 
 which time the order to which he belonged was dissolved, and more 
 than one vigorous persecution was directed against the Christians in 
 China. At the time of Lord Macartney's embassy, in 1793, Amiot 
 (for though his name is not mentioned by Staunton, the person 
 described by him can be no other) wrote a letter to the ambassador 
 on his arrival in Peking, "expressive of the most ferveufc wishes for 
 his success, and offering every assistance that his experience could 
 supply ; " but he was then so infirm as not to be able to wait on Lord 
 Macartney. In the following year, 1794, he died at Peking, at the 
 age of 76. 
 
 AMIR-OMRAH. [Emir-al-Ojiraii.] 
 
 AMLETH, a prince of Jutland about the second century before 
 Christ, according to Saxo Grammaticus, who relates his adventures 
 at great length. By Saxo's account he was the son of Horvendill, a 
 feudatory prince of Jutland, who had married Gerutha, the daughter 
 of Roric, his superior lord, the fifteenth king of Denmark from Danus. 
 Fengo, the brother of Horvendill, inflamed with envy, treacherously 
 murdered him ; and, persuading Gerutha that he had done the deed 
 because her husband meditated putting her to death, succeeded to her 
 bed and to the princedom. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's 
 fate, counterfeited madness ; and Saxo relates a number of stories to 
 show with what remarkable sagacity he gave his speeches and actions 
 the appearance of insanity, while they were in reality full of meaning. 
 A courtier of Fengo's suggested a plan of ascertaining if the madness 
 were assumed, by admitting Amleth to an interview with his mother, 
 and he offered to play the spy on their meeting, concealed from both. 
 Fengo consented, and the courtier hid himself in the straw on the 
 floor of Gerutha's apartment. Amleth, suspicious of treachery, when 
 he met his mother began crowing like a cock, and jumping idiotically 
 about the room, till he jumped on the unhappy spy, who, being thu3 
 detected, paid for his officiousness with his death. Amleth then 
 addressed his mother on the enormity of her marriage with his 
 father's murderer, aroused her to repentance, and made her the con- 
 fidant of his intended revenge. Fengo, still disquieted with suspicion, 
 but afraid of provoking Gerutha, conceived the plan of sending 
 Amleth on a mission to England, in company with two of his 
 courtiers, who carried with them letters cut in wood (literas ligno 
 insculptas), requesting the king of England to take Amleth's life. On 
 the voyage Amleth got possession of the letters, and substituted 
 others, requesting the king to put his companions to death, but to 
 grant to himself his daughter in marriage. The altered instructions 
 were obeyed ; and, after a year's time, Amleth unexpectedly made his 
 reappearance at the court of Jutland, where he had long been sup- 
 posed to be dead. At a feast which was given in honour of his 
 return he kept himself sober, while he took care to make all the 
 nobles drunk ; and while they lay about, he loosened a curtain made 
 by his mother which hung above the hall, and, letting it fall on their 
 prostrate bodies, fastened it tight by pegs to the ground, and set the 
 building on fire. He then hastened to the bedchamber of Fengo, 
 who had retired at an earlier period of the evening, aroused him from 
 Bleep, informed him of the destruction of all the courtiers, and told 
 him he came to take revenge for the murder of his father. After 
 slaying Fengo he at first concealed himself; but finding that the 
 usurper's death was not much lamented, he made a speech to the 
 
 people, unfolding to them the whole of the course he had taken, and 
 
 was afterwards elected to the throne of his father. 
 
 This is only the first part of the story of Amleth in Saxo. His 
 subsequent adventures have no relation to the story upon which 
 Shakspere founded his great tragedy of 'Hamlet.' That such a par- 
 son as Amleth existed seems to be supported by national tradition. 
 Saxo mentions that there was in his time (about 1200) in Jutland "a 
 field distinguished by the burial and tho name of Amleth." Whatever 
 may be thought of Saxo's story, his chronology must be rejected. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 A'MMAN, JOST, a very celebrated Swiss engraver and designer of 
 the lGth century, born at Zurich in 1539. Though a Swiss by birth, 
 he was a German by adoption, for he established himself in Niirnberg 
 in 1560, and gave up his right of burghership in Zurich in 1577. As 
 is the case with most of the old German masters, little or nothing is 
 known about Amman's life. Many writers speak of him as a painter, 
 yet there is not a single painting of hi3 known. Sandrart and Doppel- 
 mayr speak of him as a painter on glass only. Amman's designs are 
 extremely numerous : a painter of Frankfurt, of the name of Keller, 
 who lived with Amman four years, told Sandrart that the drawings he 
 made whilst he was with him would fill a large waggon. Though ho 
 did not live long, he surpassed every artist that preceded him in the 
 number of his designs. There are about a thousand woodcuts attri- 
 buted to him, but whether he cut all or even any of them himself is 
 not known. Bartsch also doubts whether all the etchings attributed 
 to Amman are etched by him ; he supposes some to have been etched 
 by Stephen Hermann. His designs generally appeared as the illus- 
 trations of books ; few books were published in Amman's time 
 without illustrations. Siegmund Feyerabend of Frankfurt was the 
 publisher of most of Amman's works ; many of them were published 
 after his death. He died at Niirnberg in 1591. 
 
 His works comprise nearly every subject — history (sacred and 
 profane), general co'stume, military coBtume, field-sports, natural 
 history, heraldry, and other subjects. His drawing is generally 
 good, and in the costume very accurate, and evidently drawn from 
 nature ; his animals also are executed with much spirit Strutt, 
 speaking of his style of engraving, says, " It is neat and decided ; but 
 if his strokes are more regular than was usual with the engravers on 
 wood of his time, it is to be feared that as much as he gained by 
 the pains he took with this part of his execution, he lost in freedom 
 and spirit." 
 
 Amman was also an author. He wrote a book on poetry, painting, 
 and sculpture, which was published at Frankfurt, first in 1578, and 
 later as a Manual of Painting, ' Artis Pingendi Enchiridion.' 
 
 (Sandrart, TevXsche Acadhnie, &c. ; Doppelmayr, Historische Na- 
 chricht, &c. ; Strutt, Dictionary of Engravers ; the Dictionaries of 
 Heiueken, Fussli, and Nagler ; and Le Peintre-Graveur of Bartsch.) 
 
 AMMANA'TI, BARTULOME'O, sculptor and architect, was born 
 at Florence in 1511, and bred in the very height of the golden age of 
 Italian art. Thus educated in such a uursery, with Baccio Bandinelli 
 and Sansovino for his tutors, he could not easily fail to produce works 
 worthy of his opportunities and his education. His father, Antonio 
 da Setignano, died when Bartolomeo wa3 young, but he left him master 
 of sufficient property to be in a condition to choose his own pro- 
 fession and to follow it. 
 
 When Ammanati returned from Venice to Florence, Michel Angelo 
 was at the height of his reputation as a sculptor, and Ammanati became 
 one of his most devoted admirers and imitators, and, like many other 
 painters and sculptors, catching chiefly the defects of Michel Angelo's 
 style, fell into the error of treating the limbs as the most essential 
 part of man. In this spirit Ammanati exeevfted several works in 
 various cities in Italy. Ammanati was much employed in Rome 
 by several popes — by Paul III., Julius III., and afterwards by 
 Gregory XIII. During the interval between the two periods that he 
 was employed by these pontiffs, he attained great fame at Florence as 
 an engineer and an architect. He constructed the celebrated Ponte 
 della Trinita, which spans the Arno in three light and elegant elliptical 
 arches, calculated to allow the sudden floods of that river to pass 
 without the slightest risk; it still exists, and withstood in 1844 the 
 most impetuous flood that had visited the Arno for centuries, in 
 which even the newly-constructed iron suspension-bridge was swept 
 away. Ammanati made also some additions to the Pitti Palace, which 
 had been commenced from a model by Brunelleschi, and has been 
 finished only within the last thirty years. At Rome he built the 
 Palazzo Ruccellai, afterwards Ruspoli; the court and facade of the 
 Collegio Romano, built by the Jesuits by order of Gregory XIII. ; and 
 the Palazzo Sacripanti for the Corsini family. His principal works of 
 sculpture in Rome are the figures of Justice and Religion and the 
 other sculptures of the tomb of the Cardinal del Monte in the church 
 of San Pietro in Montorio. 
 
 The wife of Ammanati, to whom he was married in 1550, was the 
 celebrated Laura Battiferri of Urbino, distinguished as a poetess. She 
 died at Florence in 1589, aged 65 years. Ammanati survived her 
 three years, and died, according to Buldinucci's copy of the inscription 
 on his monument, in 1592, aged 81. 
 
 (Baldinucci, Notizie dei Profcssori del Disegno, &c. ; Cicognara 
 Storia della Scultura.) 
 
189 
 
 AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS. 
 
 AMORY, THOMAS. 
 
 AMMIA'NUS MARCELLI'NUS, a soldier and author who lived in 
 the 4th century, and wrote a history of the emperors from the acces- 
 sion of Nerva, a.d. 96, to the death of Valens in 378 ; the last profane 
 history written by a Roman subject in the Latin language. He was 
 of a Greek family, and born at Antioch ; at least Libanius claims hitn 
 as a fellow-citizen. At an early age he entered the army, in the distin- 
 guished service of the household guards of Constantius, son of Constan- 
 tine. He was peculiarly attached to the fortunes of Ursicinus, the 
 master of the horse, under whom he served, first in the East in 350, 
 afterwards in Gaul, whither he went in 355. He was again sent with 
 Ursicinus into the East, and served under the Emperor Julian in his 
 Persian war, which he related at length and with considerable power. 
 Later in life he retired to Rome, where he wrote his history, in 
 thirty-one books. The first thirteen are lost, which contained an 
 epitome of the history of two centuries and a half. The fourteenth 
 begins just before the death of Constantius, and the transactions of the 
 reign of Julian extend nearly to the end of the twenty-fifth. The 
 • question whether Ammianus was a Christian or a Pagan has been 
 agitated. Though he has not expressly stated his sentiments, yet 
 from the terms he applies to the heathen deities, it seems evident that 
 at least he was not a Christian. In style he is inflated and vicious ; 
 but passages of considerable effect and eloquence occur in his work, 
 which has every appearance of being a faithful and unprejudiced narra- 
 tion of public transactions, in many of which he had been personally 
 engaged. Gibbon calls him " an accurate and faithful guide." Some 
 suppose the Greek life of Thucydides to be written by him. The 
 edition of Gronovius, 4to., Lugd. Bat., 1693, contains the life and 
 prefatory matter of the Yalesii. This has been the base of two other 
 editions, with the notes of later commentators, both published at 
 Leipzig, one by Ernesti in 1773, one by Erfurdt in 1808. There is an 
 old English translation by Philemon Holland (Lond. 1609), and a 
 French one by Moulines (Berlin, 1775 ; Lyon, 1778). 
 
 AMMO'NIUS, an eminent ancient surgeon of Alexandria, Tjhose 
 date is not exactly known, but who must certainly have lived some 
 time before Christ, and who (from the date of the other surgeons with 
 whom his name i3 coupled by Celsus, 'De Medic' vii. Prafat. p. 368, 
 ed. Argent.) may be conjectured to have lived in the reign of Ptole- 
 maeus Philadelphus, B.C. 283-247. He is said (Celsus, lib. vii. cap. xxvi. 
 8. 3, p. 436) to have been the first person who thought of breaking a 
 calculus in the bladder, and so extracting it piecemeal, when it was 
 found to be too large to be taken out entire. For this invention he 
 received the cognomen of Lithotomus, a word which is used by the 
 ancients in reference to the operation called by the moderns ' litho- 
 trity,' and not to that of lithotomy. His mode of operating is described 
 by Celsus with tolerable minuteness, and very much resembles that 
 introduced by Civiale and Heurteloup ; proving that, however much 
 credit they may deserve for bringing it out of oblivion into public 
 notice, the praise of having originally thought of it belongs to the 
 ancients. (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AMO, ANTONY WILLIAM, a negro born in Guinea about the 
 year 1703, was brought when an infant to Amsterdam, and presented 
 in 1707 to Antony Ulric, duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, who gave 
 him to his son Antony William. At a proper age he was sent to study 
 at the university of Halle, where in 1729 he sustained a thesis and 
 published a dissertation ' De Jure Maurorum.' He afterwards removed 
 to the university of Wittenberg, where in 1734 he published another 
 treatise, on the occasional absence of sensation in the human mind 
 while still present in the body. In the same year Amo was prases at 
 a thesis sustained by John Theodore Mainer, 'on those things which 
 are suitable to the mind or body.' He was afterwards made a coun- 
 cillor of state by the court of Berlin ; but on the death of his patron, 
 the Duke of Brunswick, ho quitted Europe. In the life of David Henry 
 Gallandat, the founder of the Zealand Scientific Society, it is stated 
 that in 1753, on a voyage to the Gold Coast, he visited Amo at Axim. 
 "He was living there like a hermit," according to Winckelman, the 
 biographer of Gallandat, " and had the reputation of being a sooth- 
 sayer-. He spoke several languages — Hebrew, Greek (?), Latin, French, 
 German, and Dutch.'' He was then about fifty years of age. Amo 
 afterwards left Axim, and removed to St. Sebastian, a fort belonging 
 to the Dutch at Chamah, another town on the Gold Coast, after which 
 nothing further is known of him. (Biographical Dictionary of the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AV1ONT0NS, GUILLAUME, a diligent mechanician and experi- 
 menter in natural philosophy, was born at Paris in August, 1663. He 
 was, during all his life, afflicted with deafness, in consequence of a fever 
 in his childhood ; and, after a sicknf.ss which lasted but a few days, he 
 died in October, 1705, being in the forty-third year of his age. 
 
 The taste of Amontons led him, at first, to the study of architecture 
 and the processes of land-surveying; and he appears to have been 
 occasionally employed in the practice of both those branches of art. 
 It is said that he was induced to apply himself to the study of mathe- 
 matics by the desire of constructing a machine which should exhibit a 
 perpetual motion : an opinion of the possibility of such a machine 
 certainly lingered among the half-learned of that age; and, if Amontons 
 really attempted to form one, his failure had the good effect of disposing 
 him to cultivate the legitimate branches of science. 
 
 At that time the instruments employed for measuring the d jnsity, 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 temperature, and humidity of the atmosphere were in an imperfect 
 state; and several years of the life of Amontons were spent in improving 
 them or in devising others. He invented a barometer, consisting of a 
 slender conical tube of glass containing a column of mercury whose 
 length varied by the variations in the upward pressure of the atmos- 
 phere on the base of the column ; the open end of the tube, which was 
 the greatest, being below, and the mercury being retained in the tube by 
 a leathern bag. He also invented one, consisting of a tube bent so as 
 to form three parallel columns, of which the first and the third con- 
 tained mercury, and the intermediate one only air. Amontons 
 contrived what he called a 'universal thermometer;' it was a tube of 
 glass, 30 inches long, containing mercury, and to which was adapted 
 a scale of inches ; and, by comparing its indications with those of a 
 column of mercury in an ordinary barometer, he was able to deter- 
 mine the expansion due to temperature alone : he also invented a 
 species of hygrometer, consisting of a coloured fluid contained in a 
 glass tube which terminated below in a leathern bag. The contraction 
 or expansion of this bag, in consequence of variations in the humidity 
 of the air, produced corresponding variations in the length of the 
 column of fluid. 
 
 But the most remarkable circumstance in the life of Amontons i8 
 his invention of what must be considered as a species of telegraph. 
 His proposal was to have signal-posts established at intervals between 
 the two extreme stations, which were to be Paris and Rome : a man 
 at each post, being provided with a telescope, was to observe the 
 signal (a letter of the alphabet) made at one station, and to repeat it 
 to the next ; the process being carried on thus along the whole line. 
 Two experiments are said to have been made by him in 1702, in 
 presence of the royal family of France, but it is not said with what 
 success. Dr. Hooke had however anticipated the discovery about 
 eighteen years. 
 
 The only work which Amontons published is one entitled 'Remarques 
 et Experiences Physiques sur la Construction d'une Nouvelle Clepsydre, 
 sur les Barometres, Thermometres, et Hygrom&tres,' Paris, 1695. He 
 was, subsequently to the publication of this work, chosen a member 
 of the Academie des Sciences ; and among the ' Mdmoires ' of that 
 body are those of Amontons on the Expansion of Fluids by Heat, 
 on the Muscular Strength of Men and Animals, and on the Friction of 
 Materials. 
 
 (Biographie Universelle ; Fontenelle, Eloge d' Amontons.) 
 
 AMOROS, COLONEL FRANCIS, the first establisher of gymnastic 
 education in France, was born at Valencia in Spain in 1769. He 
 entered the military service of his country in 1787, and was raised by 
 successive steps, each one the recompense of some distinguished action, 
 until he attained the rank of colonel. When called upon to serve in an 
 administrative capacity he was successively employed by Charles IV. 
 and by Joseph-Napoleon as councillor of state, governor of a province, 
 minister of police, and commissary-royal of the army in Portugal. In 
 1807 he was entrusted with the education of the Infant Don Francisco 
 de Paula. Forced to quit his country when the French were expelled, 
 he sought an asylum in France, and there he endeavoured to establish 
 an institution till that time wanting. After subduing numerous diffi- 
 culties by great perseverance, he at length, under the auspices of the 
 government, established a gymnasium for the development of the 
 physical forces, to which at the same time he gave the most useful 
 direction. In 1831 he was appointed director of the normal military 
 gymnasium at Paris. He wrote and published several works upon 
 administratior and upon education, besides his ' Manual of Physical 
 Education, gymnastic and moral,' Paris, 1830. He died at Paris in 
 1843. 
 
 AMORY, THOMAS. This eccentric individual was the son of Coun- 
 cillor Amory, who attended William III. in Ireland, and was appointed 
 secretary for the forfeited estates in that kingdom, where he possessed 
 extensive property in the county of Clare. Thomas was not born in 
 Ireland, as some accounts state ; but little is recorded of his early life. 
 He was born about 1691, and is said to have been educated for the 
 profession of physic, though it does not appear that he ever followed 
 that or any other profession. About 1757 he was living in a very 
 secluded way upon a small fortune in Westminster ; and he had also 
 a country residence at Bedfont, near Hounslow. He was married, and 
 had a son named Robert, who practised for many years at Wakefield 
 in Yorkshire as a physician. He died at the age of ninety-seven, on 
 November 25, 1788. 
 
 In 1755 Amory published, in 1 vol. 8vo, ' Memoirs of several Ladies 
 of Great Britain.' The ladies whose memoirs are given were all, like 
 Amory himself, zealous Unitarians, in addition to which they are 
 made beautiful, learned, and ingenious. 
 
 In 1756 appeared, in 8vo, the first volume of 'The Life of John 
 Buncle, Esq. ; containing various Observations and Reflections made 
 in several parts of the World, and many extraordinary Relations;' 
 the second volume was published in 1766. This book, in which it 
 has been supposed Amory intended to sketch a picture of his own 
 character and adventures, may be considered in some measure as a 
 supplement to his 'Memoirs.' A writer in the ' Retrospective Review' 
 styles his 'Memoirs' and 'Life of John Buncle' two of the most 
 extraordinary productions of British intellect ; and, without disputing 
 his enthusiastic promulgation of Unitarian principles, assigns to him a 
 deep veneration for the New Testament, an intense conviction of its 
 
 p 
 
195 
 
 AMOS. 
 
 AMYOT, JAQUES. 
 
 198 
 
 truth, a vivacious temperament, a social heart, great erudition, and acute 
 reasoning powers : on the other hand, Chalmers, in his ' Biographical 
 Dictionary,' calls them the effusions of a mind evidently deranged. 
 
 (Bicgraphical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 AMOS, the prophet, was a native of the town of Thekoa, which was 
 about six miles south of Bethlehem. He was not a prophet's sou, but 
 a herdsman, and a gatherer of sycamore fruit, and the Lord took him 
 as he followed the flock, to prophesy unto Israel. (Amos vii. 14, 15.) 
 Amos saw his visions concerning Israel in the days of Uzziah, king of 
 Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam II., king of Israel, two years 
 before the earthquake. (Amos i. 1.) This earthquake is mentioned 
 by Zachariah (xiv. 5), and happened, according to the opinions of the 
 later Jews, when Uzziah went into the temple to burn incense upon 
 the altar; and Azariah, the priest, went in after him, and with him 
 fourscore priests, valiant men, who withstood Uzziah, and said, It 
 appertaiueth not unto thee to burn incense, but to the priests that are 
 consecrated : go out of the sanctuary. Then Uzziah was wroth, 
 leprosy rose in his forehead, and the priests thrust him out from 
 thence. (2 Chron. xxvi.) It is probable that the prophecies of Amos 
 were delivered between tho years 798-784 before Christ. 
 
 Many having repeated St. Jerome's saying, that Amos was "rude in 
 speech, but not in knowledge," Bishop Louth, in his twenty-first lecture, 
 shows that Amos was not behind the chief prophets in eloquence. The 
 book of Amos is written in an excellent Hebrew style, but the ortho- 
 graphy differs occasionally from tho usual standard. Amos, the herds- 
 man, has taken many figures from pastoral life, but he alludes also 
 to history, geography, and astronomy. 
 
 AM'PERE, ANDRE MARIE, was one of the many scientific men 
 who since the commencement of the present century have distinguished 
 themselves by the application of the highest brauches of mathematical 
 analysis to physical propositions, and particularly to such as relate to 
 electricity, magnetism, and light. 
 
 Of his private life little is known ; and his history, like that of most 
 of the men who have passed their days in scientific pursuits, consists 
 merely in statements of his birth and death, with a list of the works 
 which he composed. He was born at Lyon in 1775 ; and it appears 
 that he resided in or near that city till about the year 1804, when he 
 removed to Paris, where he died in 1836. Before this removal he was 
 professor of physics in the central school of the department of Ain, 
 and subsequently he held the appointment of professor of analysis in 
 the Polytechnic School of Paris. 
 
 His first publication is entitled 'Considerations sur la Thdorie 
 Mathdmatique du Jeu' (Lyon, 1802), in which it is satisfactorily proved 
 that, if a person play habitually in society, he must infallibly, even 
 though he play on equal terms, be ruined ; since he is, as it were, 
 playing with finite means against an opponent who may be considered 
 as infinitely rich, and who therefore may continue the game indefi- 
 nitely. In 1805 Ampere presented to the Class of Physical and Mathe- 
 matical Sciences of the National Institute a paper entitled ' Recherches 
 sur 1' Application des Formules Gdndrales du Calcul des Variations aux 
 Problcmes de Mdchanique ;' and in the 'Annales de Chimie' (1814), 
 there is published his letter to Berthollet on the subject of 'Definite 
 Proportions, or the Atomic Theory.' 
 
 Some connection between the electric, galvanic, and magnetic powers 
 in nature had been long suspected, on account of the observed effects 
 of lightning on the directive property of a magnetised needle ; and in 
 1819 M. Oersted observed that the wire connecting the opposite poles 
 of a galvanic or voltaic battery caused a magnetised needle, suspended 
 near it, to deviate from that position which it assumes when beyond 
 the influence of any disturbing power. This remarkable phenomenon 
 being made public, the philosophers both of this country and of the 
 continent repeated the experiment in various ways ; and aimost imme- 
 diately, by the discoveries to which their researches led, raised up a 
 new branch of science. Among the earliest of these philosophers was 
 Ampere, who in September, 1820, read before the Acaddmie Royale 
 des Sciences a paper in which it was stated that the voltaic pile, or 
 galvanic trough itself, produced a like effect on a needle suspended 
 near it, when its opposite poles are connected by a wire ; and soon 
 »fterwards he communicated an important discovery which proved 
 that some, at least, of the phenomena of magnetism could be repre- 
 sented by electricity alone. He showed that if two wires connect the 
 opposite poles of a battery, they attract one another when so disposed 
 that the currents pass along them in the same direction, and repel one 
 another when the currents flow in contrary directions ; and he con- 
 trived a delicate apparatus by which the phenomena were exhibited. 
 
 Faraday having discovered that if a wire be suspended over one pole 
 of a magnet, and the galvanic fluid be made to pass along the wire, or 
 if the wire be fixed and the magnet suspended over it, the wire in one 
 case, and the magnet in the other, would revolve about the fixed 
 object; Ampere, to whom the discoveiy was communicated, immedi- 
 ately repeated the experiment, and subsequently contrived an appa- 
 ratus in which the suspended magnet was, by the influence of the wire, 
 made to revolve on its own axis. He also invented the well-known 
 apparatus, consisting of a copper cylinder surrounding one of zinc, 
 and containing diluted sulphuric acid, both of which cylinders being 
 supported by conical points over one end of a magnet, placed in a 
 vertical position, revolve about the magnet ; from right to left if the 
 
 north end be uppermost, and in a contrary direction if the south end 
 be uppermost. M. Arago afterwards, in conjunction with or at the 
 suggestion of Amp6re, succeeded in communicating magnetism to a 
 needle by placing it within a helix of copper wire, the extremities of 
 which were connected with the poles of a battery. 
 
 From the mutual attractions and repulsions existing apparently in 
 electrical, or, as they may be called, electro-magnetic currents, Ampere 
 inferred that such currents revolve continually about a magnet; at 
 first he supposed that the centres of their revolutions wore in the axis 
 of tho magnet, but he was subsequently led to consider that current* 
 revolve about each atom in planes a little iuclined to the general axis 
 of the magnet : setting out with this principle, he satisfactorily 
 deduced, by analytical processes, the phenomenon of electro-magnetism, 
 or, as he designated the science, electro-dynamics. He conceived more- 
 over that the magnetic action of the earth is the result of currents 
 circulating within it, or at its surface, from east to west in planes 
 parallel to the magnotio equator : he also imagined that these currents 
 act on balanced or suspended bodies which, like magnetised needles, 
 contain electric currents, causing them to place themselves in such 
 positions that the currents on their under sides may flow in the same 
 directions as those of the earth. He contrived several ingenious 
 machines in which terrestrial magnetism was an agent : among others, 
 he disposed a wire, bent in the form of a rectangle or a spiral, so that 
 the plane might turn on a vertical axis ; and, placing it in the position 
 of the magnetic meridian, he allowed the electric current to enter at 
 either extremity, when, exactly as a magnetised needle would do, it 
 turned till it became at right angles to that meridian. He also exhi- 
 bited to the Royal Academy of Sciences a copper wire bent in the 
 form of a helix which possessed the properties of a magnet ; the two 
 extremities of the wire returned along the axis of the helix, each way, 
 to the middle, whence they passed out in opposite directions, and 
 served as pivots on which the spiral might turn. When the pivots were 
 connected with the poles of a battery, each end of the helix, on a pole 
 of a common magnet being presented to it, was attracted or repelled. 
 
 Ampere published at Paris, in 1822, a work entitled ' Recueil 
 d' Observations Electro-Dynamiques ;' in 1824, one which was desig- 
 nated ' Prdcis de la Thdorie des Phdnomenes Electro-Dynamiques ' 
 (both of these are in 8vo.) ; and in 1826, in 4to, ' Thdorie des Phdno- 
 menes Electro-Dynacuiques.' Two years afterwards he published a 
 ' Mdmoire sur la Determination de la Surface Courbe des Ondes 
 Lumineuses,' &c. ; and faix years subsequently an ' Essai sur la Philo- 
 sophic des Sciences,' &c. Besides these works there were published 
 separately several memoirs relating to his experiments in electro- 
 dynamics; also, in the ' Mdmoires de l'lustitut,' in the 'Journal de 
 l'Ecole Polytechnique,' and in other works, are many papers relating to 
 Mechanics, Optics, and Natural History. 
 
 (Address of H. R. II. the Duke of Sussex to the Royal Society of 
 London, 1836 ; Barlow, Essay on Magnetic Attraction* ; Turner 
 Elements of Chemistry.) 
 
 AMURATH. [Mukad.] 
 
 AMYOT, JAQUES, is chiefly known in our times for the high 
 merit which belongs to him as having been one of the most distin- 
 guished among those early writers of French prose whose works gave 
 consistency and elegance to the modern language. He was born at 
 Melun in 1513; and overcoming, it is said, formidable obstacles inter- 
 posed by poverty, studied successively at Paris and at Bourges. His 
 first preferment was the professorship of Greek and Latin in the uni- 
 versity of Bourges, au appointment obtained for him through the 
 patronage of Francis I.'s sister, the Princess Marguerite. While he 
 held that office he extended his literary reputation by translations 
 from Heliodorus and Plutarch, and having apparently by this time 
 entered the church, he was intrusted in 1551 with a delicate mission 
 to the Council of Trent, which he discharged with so happy a mixture 
 of boldness and dexterity as to earn the character of a skilful diplo- 
 matist and man of business. Possessing such a combination of accom- 
 plishments, he had excellent claims to the appointment which he 
 received about the year 1558 as tutor to Henry II.'s sons (afterwards 
 Charles IX. and Henry III.) ; and contriving to retain the favour of 
 his royal pupils as they successively ascended the throne, he continued 
 during the remainder of his life to receive one lucrative and dignified 
 office after another. His most considerable preferments were — the 
 post of Grand Almoner of France, conferred upon him in 1560 ; and 
 the bishopric of Auxerre, to which he was raised in 1570. During this 
 most prosperous period of his life he is represented as having exhibited 
 a rapacity in seeking wealth, and a parsimony in using it, which, as 
 well as his readiness of wit, the memoirs of the time depict in several 
 characteristic anecdotes. Upon one occasion, when he asked from 
 Charles IX. a new abbacy, in addition to several which he had already 
 held, the king demurred to granting the application. " Did you not 
 once assure me," he asked, " that your ambition would be quite satis- 
 fied with a revenue of a thousand crowns?" "True, sire," replied 
 the bishop ; " but there are some appetites which grow as you feed 
 them." Amyot died at the seat of his diocese in 1593, leaving a fortune 
 which for the times was very considerable. 
 
 As a literary man, Amyot stands very high. His translation of 
 Plutarch's ' Lives,' which was made from the Latin, is spirited and 
 elegant, and is still read in modern editions. It is remarkable that 
 what we may call the best translation of Plutarch in English, North's 
 
167 
 
 AMYOT, THOMAS. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I. 
 
 198 
 
 is made from Amyot's French. His other works consist of French 
 translations of other Greek works, of which the principal are the 
 'JSthiopic History of Heliodorus,' seven books of Diodorus, the 
 ' Pastoral Loves of Daphnis and Chloe,' &c. He has besides given an 
 'AccouDt of his Journey to Trent,' in a letter addressed to M. de 
 Morveilliers. He composed a treatise on ' Royal Eloquence ' for the 
 use of his pupil, Henri III., which was printed for the first time only 
 in 1805, under the reign of Napoleon I. It was at the suggestion of 
 Amyot that Henri III. founded in 1575 a Greek and Latin library. 
 
 AMYOT, THOMAS, was born at Norwich about 1775, and settled 
 in that city as a solicitor. In 1802 he was appointed law-agent for 
 Mr. Windham in a contested election, and this led, on Windham's 
 becoming Secretary-at-War in 1806 in the Grenville administration, to 
 his being appointed his private secretary. His tenure of this office 
 was something less than a twelvemonth, but during it he had obtained 
 also one of the ordinary clerkships in the Colonial Office ; and in 1807 
 he was appointed Registrar of Records in Upper Canada, an office 
 executed by deputy. In 1810 Mr. Windham died; and in 1812 Mr. 
 Amyot published the speeches in parliament of his late patron, with 
 a short sketch of his life. Mr. Amyot's leisure was now devoted to 
 the study of the antiquities and history of his country, all his other 
 works being contributions to the ' Archseologia,' his principal papers 
 being on the Bayeux Tapestry, and on the asserted existence of 
 Richard II. in Scotland. In 1823 he was appointed treasurer of the 
 Society of Antiquaries, an office which he filled very effectively till 
 within a short time of his death, which took place in London, Sep- 
 tember 28, 1850. 
 
 ANACHARSIS, a Scythian of princely family, was, according to 
 Herodotus, a son of Gnurus, or, according to others, of Daucetas, aud 
 the brother of Sauliua, who was king of the Scythians. Notwith- 
 standing the great aversion of the Scythians to everything foreign, 
 especially Greek, the natural good sense and talent which Herodotus 
 ascribes to all the Scythians, and which Anacharsis possessed in a higher 
 degree than any of his nation, created in him such a desire of know- 
 ledge that he broke through the custom of his people, and went to 
 Greece for the purpose of satisfying his wishes. He arrived at Athens 
 just at the time when Solon was engaged upon the work of his legisla- 
 tion, and is said to have formed an intimate friendship with him. 
 The novelty of his appearance, his natural wit, which contrasted with 
 the more refined and artificial manners of the Athenians, his humour, 
 aud his anxiety to learn, created a great sensation among the Greeks. 
 Many of his witty sayings are recorded in Diogene3 Laertius, Plutarch, 
 Athenaeus, and Lucian. He is said to have likened the legislation of 
 Solon to a spider's web, in which the weak might be caught, but which 
 the strong would break through. The fact that at Athens political 
 matters were discussed by the prytanes before they were laid before 
 the people for their approbation, led him to say that at Athens wise 
 men deliberated, but left the decision to fools. Some writers reckoned 
 Anacharsis one of the seven sages of Greece, and it was probably more 
 to these and similar sayings than to anything else, that he owed his 
 reputation as a wise man and a philosopher. It is said that he was 
 the only barbarian that ever received the Athenian franchise, and was 
 initiated in the Eleusinian mysteries : but Lucian justly doubts the 
 correctness of the statement. His fondness for religious mysteries 
 however is said to have been the cause of his death. On his journey 
 homewards, when he reached Cyzicus, the inhabitants were celebrating 
 the mysteries of Cybele, the mother of the gods. Anacharsis prayed 
 to the goddess, and vowed that if he reached home in safety, he would 
 solemnise these mysteries in the same manner. He carried his vow 
 into execution in a wooded district called Hylaea, but he was discovered 
 by a Scythian, and denounced to the king, his brother. The kiDg 
 came to the spot to convince himself ; and when he saw Anacharsis 
 performing the Greek rites, he shot him dead with an arrow. The 
 Scythians were so indignant at the conduct of Anacharsis, that, as 
 Herodotus says, they afterwards pretended not to know him if anybody 
 asked them about him. 
 
 There once existed several works which were ascribed to Anacharsis. 
 Among them are some letters addressed to various illustrious personages 
 of the time. Aldus, in his collection of the Greek ' Epistolographers ' 
 (Venice, 1499, 4to), published nine letters under the name of Ana- 
 charsis. But Beutley has justly remarked that, like other ancient pro- 
 ductions of the same class, they are forgeries. The other works ascribed 
 to Anacharsis, such as an epic poem of eight hundred verses, a work 
 on war, on the laws of the Scythians, and some Greek customs, are 
 now lost; but they were unquestionably not more genuine than the 
 letters and the numerous inventions that were ascribed to him. 
 
 (Herodotus, iv. 46, 76 ; Cicero, Tusculanee Qiuest tones, v. 32; 
 Strabo, vii. 301, 303; Plutarch, Solon, 5 ; Diogenes Laertius, i. c. viii. ; 
 Athenseup, iv. 159, x. 428, 437, xiv. 613, ed. Casaub. ; ^Eliau, Varies 
 Uittortie, v. 7; compare Lucian, Scytha, seu Conciliator Hospitii' and 
 Anacharsis, sive de Exercitationibus.) • 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of Useful Knowledge Society.) 
 
 ANACKEON was a native of Teos, a maritime town of Ionia in 
 Asia Minor, and born, according to the common opinion, about B.C. 
 560. He spent his early life in his native town, and there imbibed the 
 light and volatile spirit and the love of enjoyment which characterised 
 the Ionic nation. About B.C. 540, when Ionia fell under the yoke of 
 the Persians, and Teos was taken by Harpagua, the general of Cyrus, 
 
 most of the Teians quitted their native town, and settled at Abdera in 
 Thrace, and Anacreon is said to have joined his countrymen in their 
 emigration. If this statement is true, Anacreon cannot have remained 
 long at Abdera, for it was about the same time (b.o. 540) that Poly- 
 crates became tyrant of Samos ; and it is stated that Anacreon was 
 invited from Teos by the father of Polycrates, at the request of Poly- 
 crates, and before he became tyrant, to be his instructor and friend. 
 Hence the account of his emigration to Abdera is rejected by some 
 critics. Anacreon remained in Samos till after, or at least till shortly 
 before, the murder of his friend and patron iu B.C. 522. About the 
 time of the death of Polycrates, Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus, 
 is said to have invited Anacreon to Athens, and to have sent a ship 
 of fifty oars to Samos to bring him over. At Athens he lived for some 
 time. His death is said to have been occasioned by a dried grape, 
 which choked him. The statement that he was a lover of Sappho is, 
 if not impossible, at least in the highest degree improbable, and arose 
 from the practice, so common among writers of antiquity, of placing 
 persons of the same character in some sort of relation to one another. 
 His native town, proud of the poet, placed his full figure and sometimes 
 his bust only on its coins, some of which are still extant. On the 
 acropolis of Athens there was likewise a statue of Anacreon, repre- 
 senting him in a state of intoxicated joy ousness. 
 
 We still possess numerous fragments of the genuine poems of 
 Anacreon, which enable us to form a notion of the character of his 
 poetry, and which justify the universal admiration of antiquity. The 
 praise of beauty, love, and wine, was the substance of his poems from 
 his earliest to his latest age ; and the cheerful and joyous old man, as 
 Anacreon describes himself in some of his latest productions, has made 
 so strong an impression, that we can scarcely picture him to ourselves 
 in any other form than that of an old man, although the greater part 
 of his fragments belong to the period which he spent at Samos and 
 Athens. 
 
 Besides the numerous fragments of the genuine poems of Anacreon 
 preserved in ancient writers, there is a collection of fifty-five odes, 
 which have been generally considered as poems of Anacreon, most of 
 which however are productions of a much later age. This collection 
 was first published by H. Stephens at Paris, 1554, 4to, from two manu- 
 scripts, which he describes very vaguely, and which no one else has 
 seen. The same poems however were subsequently found in the 
 ' Codex Palatiuus' (now at Heidelberg) of the Greek Anthology, though 
 arranged in a different order from that in the edition of Stephens. 
 Most of these fifty-five poems are pretty in their way, but exhibit very 
 little of the character and spirit which we perceive in the genuine 
 fragments of Anacreon ; and all modern critics are agreed that they 
 are not the work of this poet, although they have been translated into 
 all European languages, and have with the majority of persons been 
 the groundwork upon which they have formed their notions of Ana- 
 creon. Of those who have attempted to present Anacreon in an 
 English dress, the most celebrated, and the most successful, are Cowley, 
 who translated twelve odes, and Moore. But the translations of the 
 former should rather be called paraphrases ; and the version of the 
 latter is too much loaded with ornament, too studiously brilliant, to 
 convey an exact idea of the style of his original. Some pretty speci- 
 mens of the poet (including one or two of Cowley's translations) will 
 be found in Meri vale's ' Anthology.' The genuine remains of Anacreon 
 are published iu several collections of the minor Greek poets ; the best 
 separate edition is that of Theod. Bergk, Leipzig, 1834, 8vo. 
 
 (Miiller, History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, i. 180, &c. ; 
 Bode, Geschichte der Lyrischen Dichtkunst der Hellenen, i. 350, &c. ; 
 Wolper, Be Antiquitate Carminum Anacreonteorum, Leipzig, 1825, 
 8vo.) 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society.) 
 
 ANANl'AS, a convert to Christianity at Jerusalem in the apostolic 
 age, was struck dead, with his wife Sapphira, for falsehood. (Acts v. 
 1-11.) 
 
 ANANl'AS was son of that Onias, the high priest, who being 
 exiled from Jerusalem, built a Jewish temple near Heliopolis, in Lower 
 Egypt, and founded the town of Onion on the eastern frontier of the 
 Delta. Ananias and his brother Helcias, or Chelcias, were appointed 
 the commanders of the Egyptian army, by Cleopatra, when she warred 
 against her son Lathurus, in the year B.C. 102. Anauias remonstrated 
 against the intention of Cleopatra to seize the dominions of her con- 
 federate Alexander Jannseus, and assured her that the Jews would 
 take revenge if she succeeded in killing Jannseus. Cleopatra, consider- 
 ing that Ananias and Jannseus were related to each other, and that 
 many Jews served in her army, gave up her treacherous plan. (Jost, 
 Geschichte der Juden, vol. ii. p. 309-311.) 
 
 ANANl'AS, the sou of ISIebedseus, was high-priest from the year 
 50 to 66 after Christ. He was sent to Rome by Quadratus, the governor 
 of Syria, in order to exculpate himself concerning the quarrels of 
 the Jews with the Samaritans. Agrippiua interceded for Ananias, 
 and he was set at liberty. He condemned the apostle St. Paul. (Acts 
 xxii. 23, 24 ; and xxv. 1.) At the commencement of the Jewish war, 
 Ananias and his brother concealed themselves in an aqueduct, but 
 were discovered and killed. 
 
 ANASTA'SIUS I., emperor of Constantinople, succeeded Zeno, 
 a d. 492, through the interest of Ariadne, Zeno's widow, who after- 
 wards married him. Anastasius was then sixty years of age. He was 
 
199 
 
 ANAXIMANDER. 
 
 200 
 
 called Silentiarius, because he had been one of the officers whose duty 
 it was to maintain peace and silence within the precincts of the im- 
 perial palace. Lougiuus, Zeno's brother, who aspired to the throne, 
 ■was sent to Alexandria, where he took prieBt's orders. The beginning 
 of Anastasius's reign was favourable ; he abolished several obnoxious 
 taxes, and checked the abuse introduced by Zeno of selling the public 
 offices to the highest bidder. He also encouraged men of letters, and 
 was himself a man of some learning. Theodoricus, king of the Goths, 
 who, after defeating Odoacer, hail made himself master of all Italy, sent 
 an embassy to Anastasius, who recognised his title to the kingdom of 
 Italy, and sent him the purple in token of it. But their good under- 
 standing did not last long. Theodoricus invaded part of Illyria and 
 Mceaia, and defeated the Greek troops near the river Margus, now the 
 Morava, in Servia. Auastasius, on his side, sent a fleet and army, 
 which ravaged the coast of Italy as far as Tai entum, in 508. 
 
 Auastasius became obnoxious, on account of his avarice, to the 
 people of Constantinople, who pulled down his statues and dragged 
 them through the streets; and he was himself assailed with a shower 
 of stones while in the Circus, and with some difficulty saved his life. 
 To add to his misfortunes, the empire was attacked by the Bulgarians, 
 the Arabs, and the Persians. The Persians invaded Armenia, and 
 took the town of Amida, or Diarbekr, on the Tigris, but were defeated 
 by Justiuus, who afterwards became emperor. A truce was concluded 
 between Anastasius and Cabades, king of Persia, which lasted twenty 
 years. Anastasius, like many other Byzantine emperors, had the 
 vanity of appearing as a theologian, and of meddling in religious con- 
 troversies. This nearly cost him his crown ; his attempt to introduce 
 some changes in the liturgy occasioned tumults at Constantinople, 
 attended by fires and bloodshed. Several provinces also revolted, and 
 raised to the command one Vitalianus, a Scythian, who advanced to 
 the gates of Constantinople, and Auastasius only obtained peace on 
 condition of becoming reconciled to the church. He had involved 
 himself in disputes with Pope Syminachus, for defending the memory 
 of Acaciue, the late Patriarch of Constantinople, who had been excom- 
 municated by Pope Felix II., under the reign of the emperor Zeno. 
 The Council of Calchedon having declared the Bishop of Constanti- 
 nople to be next in place to him of Home, Acacius had contested this 
 decree, and had endeavoured to assert his own precedence, which 
 became a source of schism between the two sees. Anastasius's 
 religious principles however seem to have been very unsteady, and he 
 was even accused of favouring Manicheism. Anastasius died suddenly, 
 in 518, at a very advanced age, and was succeeded by Justiuus I. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II., emperor of Constantinople. His original same 
 was Arteruius, while he was secretary to the emperor Philippicus 
 Bardanes. After the deposition of Philippicus in 713, he was pro- 
 claimed emperor, and sent a new exarch to Italy, and declared him- 
 self a follower of the Western Church. Constantinople being threatened 
 by the Saracens, Anastasius, to effect a diversion, sent a large fleet 
 with an army to Alexandria, but the troops revolted on arriving at 
 Ehodes, and returned to Constantinople, where they proclaimed 
 emperor one Thcodosius, a receiver of the taxes, who however alarmed 
 at his dangerous promotion, ran away from them. The insurgents 
 plundered and burnt part of the city, and Anastasius having retired 
 to Nicaea, in Bithynia, was defeated and obliged to surrender, with 
 permission to retire to aconvent, and become £ monk. TheodosiusIII. 
 was then proclaimed emperor in 716, but being unequal to the task, 
 he resigned the crown the following year to Leo, called the Isaurian. 
 Anastasius, from his convent at Thessalonica, made an attempt to 
 recover the throne, and having obtained assistance from the Bulgarians, 
 appeared before Constantinople. Leo however bribed the chiefs of 
 the Bulgarians, who delivered Anastasius into his hands. Anastasius 
 was beheaded, with several of his followers, and their property was 
 confiscated by Leo, in 719. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., Pope, a native of Rome, succeeded Siricus about 
 the year 398. He was a contemporary of St. Jerome, who speaks 
 highly of his probity and apostolic zeal. He condemned the doctrine 
 of Origen, and excommunicated Kufinus, who in a controversy with 
 Jerome had been the advocate of Origen. Rufinus wrote an apology, 
 which is found in Constant's collection of the ' Epistles of the Popes.' 
 Anastasius died in 402, and was succeeded by Innocent I. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II., a native of Rome, succeeded Gelasius I. in 496. 
 He endeavoured to put an end to the schism then existing between 
 the see of Constantinople and that of Rome about the question of 
 precedence. Two letters written by him on the occasion to the 
 emperor Anastasius, are still extant. He also wrote a congratulatory 
 letter to Clovis, king of the Franks, on his conversion to Christianity. 
 He died, after a short pontificate, in 498. 
 
 ANASTASIUS III., likewise a Roman, succeeded Sergius III. in 
 911, and died the following year. 
 
 ANASTASIUS IV., Cardinal Conrad, bishop of Sabina, was elected 
 Pope in 1153, after the death of Eugenius III. Rome was then in a 
 very disturbed state, owing to the schism of Arnaldo of Brescia and 
 his followers. Anastasius died in 1154, and was succeeded by 
 Adrian IV. 
 
 ANAXA'GORAS, a philosopher of the Ionic school, born at Clazo- 
 mentc, one of the Greek towns of Ionia, in the first year of the 17th 
 Olympiad, or in B.C. 500, three years before the death of Pythagoras, 
 and ten years before the battle of Marathon, Born both to rank and 
 
 wealth, he had leisure to apply himself to philosophy and astronomy, 
 under the instruction of Anaximenes. In the twentieth year of his 
 age (that of the battle of Salamis) he went to Athens, where he con- 
 tinued thirty years, engaged in the propagation of his philosophical 
 opinions. He numbered among his hearers Pericles, Euripides, Socrates, 
 Archelaus, who succeeded him as head of the school known by the 
 name of Ionic, and some say, Democritus. He obtained the surname 
 of vovi (the mind). It is said that he was the first who taught the 
 distinction between mind and matter; but this is improbable, unless 
 we understand the first who taught the doctrine at Athens. Of the 
 persecutions which drove him from that city there are different 
 accounts. One is, that he was accused of being in communication 
 with the Persian king, and condemned to death in his absence; 
 another, that he was banished for his opinions, and starved himself to 
 death at Lampsacus; a third, that he was found guilty of impiety for 
 his opinions respecting the sun, and condemned to death, but saved 
 by the intercession of Pericles ; while Plutarch affirms that Pericles 
 was his only accuser. Montucla, without citing his authority, says it 
 was for an eBsay on the cause of eclipses that he was condemned. 
 However this may be, he departed from Athens, and lived at Lamp- 
 sacus on the Hellespont till his death, a, period of twenty-two years 
 He died B.C. 428, aged 72. 
 
 A writer in the ' Biographical Dictionary of the Society of Useful 
 Knowledge,' gives the following analysis of the philosophical opinions 
 of Anaxagoras : — " Anaxagoras wrote a treatise, in the Ionic dialect, 
 on Nature, which was highly valued. Several fragments of it have 
 been preserved by ancient writers, especially by Simplicius. He denied 
 that there wa3 either generation or destruction; there was only uniou 
 and separation of things already existing, so that generation ought to 
 be called union or mixture of things, and destruction ought to be 
 called separation. He began his treatise by representing all things as 
 originally in a state of mixture or confusion, till Nous gave them 
 order. These elemental things were infinite in number and minute- 
 ness, and, as all things were mixed, nothing was perceptible owing to 
 its minuteness. As he supposed the primal elements to be infinitely 
 small, he did not adopt an atomic theory, for, as Bayle has correctly 
 said, the atomic theory, though it supposes the whole number of atoms 
 to be infinite, involves the supposition of the number being finite iu 
 any given body. He denied that there was chance or accident ; these 
 were only name3 for unknown causes. Yet he did not assume a fate 
 or necessity. He maintained that there was a moving power, and he 
 called it N0113. Nous was conceived as the cause of the union and 
 separation of things ; it has given order to all that has been, and is, 
 and will give order to all that is to be. He conceived matter to be 
 infinite in quantity, duality, and minuteness, and Nous as arranging 
 it in order, and so producing the beautiful and the good. Thus he 
 distinguished between the moved and the moving power, which itself 
 had no motion, and thus he established two independent principles in 
 opposition to the sole principle of Anaximander. His general doctrine 
 as to Nous is expressed with sufficient clearness in a passage preserved 
 by Simplicius : ' Nous is infinite, self-potent, and unmixed with any 
 thing. It exists by itself. For, if it did not, but were mixed with 
 anything else, it would have a part in all things by being mixed with 
 any one ; for in all there is a portion of all.' He adds that ' Nous is 
 the most subtle and the purest of all things, and has all knowledgo 
 about all things, and infinite power (icrxuei niyicrTov).' He may have 
 conceived Nous as diffused through all things, but not mixed with 
 anything." 
 
 Among the particular opinions attributed to Anaxagoras are the 
 following : — That all substances are composed each of their proper 
 parts, which are small and capable of infinite divisibility (Lucretius, i. 
 830, &c.) — that the stars are stone? torn from the earth, and set on 
 fire by the ether which pervades the whole upper part of the universe 
 — that the sun is a burning plate or globe, bigger than the Pelopon- 
 nesus — that the moon receives light from the eun (Plato says this 
 opinion is anterior to him), and ha? seas, hills, and valleys of her own 
 — that the milky way is the shadow of the earth thrown upon the 
 heaven ; others say, he thought it consisted of stars of too feeble 
 light to be seen by day— that the rainbow is caused by th*» clouds 
 being held before the sun a3 a mirror — that winds are caused by the 
 sun's heat rarefying the air — that earthquakes are caused by the effort 
 of confined air to ascend — that snow is not white, but black (thi? 
 opinion of his is reported by Cicero) — that the earth is flat, and that 
 its inclination is the cause of the seasons — that the soul has an aerial 
 body— and that sound and echo are conveyed to us by the air. 
 Montucla protests against many of these opinions being supposed to 
 be those of Anaxagoras, but we cannot see with what reason. That 
 they are given by very various and doubtful authorities is true ; but 
 there is nothing so absurd in the opinions themselves, compared with 
 others which we know to have existed at the same time, to warrant us 
 in rejecting any one of them on that ground. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER was a native of Miletus. According to Apollo- 
 dorus, he was born in B.C. 610, and lived to be somewhat more than 
 sixty-four years of age. He is said to have been the disciple or 
 friend of Thales, who was about thirty years older. The facts of his 
 life are few and doubtful. He is mentioned as having conducted a 
 colony to Apollonia. Strabo, Diogenes Laertius, and Agathemerus 
 attribute to him the invention of geographical tables, or a kind of 
 
30i ANAXIMENES. 
 
 map ; and, according to Diogenes, he set up a dial at Lacedsemon, 
 though Pliny attributes this to Anaximenes ('Hist. Nat.' ii. 70), who, 
 he adds, discovered the use of the gnomon ; but this is not consistent 
 with the statement of Herodotus, who attributes the invention of the 
 gnomon to the Babylonians. Pliny also states somewhat obscurely 
 that he discovered the obliquity of the ecliptic. He considered the 
 earth to be spherical and in the centre of the universe; that the 
 moon received her light from the sun ; and that the sun was not less 
 than the earth, and was pure fire. Plutarch states his opinion of the 
 magnitude of the sun somewhat differently, and by no means intel- 
 ligibly ; and, according to some authorities, he made the earth a 
 cylinder, with a length three times that of its diameter. Pliny states 
 that he predicted a great earthquake, which happened at Sparta. He 
 briefly recorded his opiuions in a small book, which is the oldest 
 prose work on philosophy that is mentioned among the Greeks. 
 
 He is said to have introduced the use of the word Arehe (apxv) for 
 the universal principle, which he considered to be infinite, and which 
 it seems he viewed as a mixture of various parts, out of which things, 
 as we call them, were formed by the union of similar parts. All 
 things, considered as all, were an eternal unit. The objects of our 
 sensuous perceptions were the product of the moving power that 
 belonged to this unit ; this motion separated like from unlike, and 
 brought like and like together. Thus generation was only a change 
 of relative position among the infinite parts of the eternal unit : 
 generation was no change in the nature of the elements. This view 
 is in accordance with the notions of the other mechanical philosophers, 
 such as Anaxagoras and Empedocles, and opposed to the dynamical 
 school. According to Anaxagoras, warm and cold were first separated ; 
 the cold occupied the centre, and the warm lay all around ; the pro- 
 cess of separation went on till sea and earth were formed, aud all the 
 heavenly bodies. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ANAX'IMENES, the son of Eurystratus, a native of Miletus. The 
 time of his birth is variously given. According to Apollodorus he 
 was born in the 63rd Olympiad (B.C. 52S-525.) 
 
 Anaximenes wrote in the Ionic dialect in a simple style, and Theo- 
 phrastus compiled a work on his opiuions. This is all that we know 
 of his life. His doctrines are to be collected from writers of various 
 ages, many of whom certainly had very inexact notions of his 
 doctrines, the blame of which may belong both to Anaximenes and 
 themselves. 
 
 The opinions of Anaximenes belong to that branch of the Ionic school, 
 if this term may be used, which is called the dynamical, as opposed 
 to the mechanical, to which Anaximander belonged. According to 
 Anaximenes, the primal principle was Aer, of which all things are 
 formed, aud iuto which all things are resolved. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ANCILLON, DAVID, a learned French Protestant clergyman. He 
 was born March 17, 1617, at Metz, where his father was an eminent 
 lawyer. Having attended for some years the Jesuits' College there, 
 he went to Geneva in 1633, to complete his studies in philosophy and 
 theology; and in 1641, was licensed to preach by the synod of 
 Charentou, and appointed minister of Meaux, the most important of 
 the stations under their jurisdiction then vacant. Here he remained 
 till 1653, having in the meantime married a lady of large fortune. In 
 1653, however, he accepted a call to his native town of Metz; and 
 here he continued to officiate with great reputation till the revocation 
 of the Edict of Nantes, in 1685, when he retired to Frankfort. He 
 was soon after chosen minister of the French church at Hanau. He 
 afterwards proceeded to Berlin, where he was received with great 
 favour by the Elector of Brandenburg. Here he continued to reside 
 till his death, on the 3rd of September, 1692. He was the author of 
 aeveral works, principally in defence of the reformed faith. Perhaps, 
 however, the most favourable impression of his varied learning is to 
 be obtained from the work, entitled ' Melange Critique du Literature, 
 recueilli des Conversations de feu M. Ancillon,' published at Basle, in 
 1698, by his son Charles, who was a lawyer of reputation, and a man 
 of some literary distinction. 
 
 ' ANCILLON, JOHANN PETER FRIEDREICH, was born at Bu-lin 
 on the 30th of April, 1766. He belonged to the celebrated French 
 family of the Ancillons. His father, Ludwig Fried rich Ancillon, who 
 Was himself a man of great talent and kuowledge, gave his son an 
 excellent education. Friedrich Ancillon (as he is commonly called) 
 studied theology, and on his return from the university he was 
 appointed teacher at the military academy of Berlin, and preacher at 
 the French church of the same town. He began his literary career 
 by a work entitled ' Melanges de LitteVature et de Philosophic,' Berlin, 
 1801, 2 vols., 8vo. As the French language was always spoken in the 
 family, Ancillon spoke French with the same eloquence and facility as 
 German. A few years after the publication of his fir.it work, which 
 Was soon followed by others, in which he showed a great knowledge 
 of modern history and of the political relations of Europe, he was 
 elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and was at 
 the same time appointed its historiographer. In 1800 he was appointed 
 instructor of the Crown Prince of Prussia, aud was further distinguished 
 by the title of Councillor of State. During the unfortunate period for 
 
 ANCUS MARCIUS. 
 
 Prussia which almost immediately followed the battle of Jena, Ancillon 
 did not yield in patriotism to any genuine Prussian, aud, with othor 
 men of influence, he exerted himself to raise Prussia from its fallen 
 state, and to promote its regeneration. In 1814, when he accompanied 
 the Crown Prince to Paris, he met with the most honourable reception. 
 On his return to Berlin he was appointed actual privy councillor of 
 legation in the ministry for foreign affairs, and became a member of 
 the commission which was appointed to draw up a constitution for 
 the kingdom of Prussia. The labours of this commission however, 
 as well as those of a second commission appointed in 1819, of which 
 Ancillon was likewise a member, were not followed by auy results. 
 In the conflict of opinions during that period, in which so many hopes 
 were disappointed, Ancillon was one of the few statesmen who were 
 bold enough to publish their views on constitutional freedom, and he 
 examined the questions relating to it fairly and calmly. In 1825 he 
 was placed at the head of the business department of the foreign 
 office, and in 1831 he was intrusted with the direction of the depart- 
 ment of foreign affairs, and in this exalted position he continued to 
 his death on the 10th of April, 1837. (Biographical Dictionary of the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ANCRE, MARECHAL and MARQUIS D'. To this hi-h military 
 rank and title was raised a poor aud obscure Florentine gentleman of 
 the name of Conciui dei Conciui, son of a notary. He came to Paris 
 in the suite of Maria de' Medici, whom Henri IV. of France espoused 
 after he had repudiated Marguorite de Valois. Concini soon after his 
 arrival married Eleonora Galigai, one of the queen's women of the 
 chamber. Both were ambitious, persevering, aud endowed with those 
 abilities which at that time insured success at court. On Maria de' 
 Medici becoming regent after the assassination of Henri IV., the 
 elevation of Conciui was extremely rapid. He was first made equerry 
 to the queen, then master of the horse, and soon after his purchasing 
 the marquisate of Ancre (under which name he is known in history) 
 he was made first gentleman of the king's chamber. The dignity of 
 Mare'chal of France was also conferred on him by the queen-regent. 
 Such sudden elevation and rapid accumulation of immense wealth not 
 only gave rise to suspicions very unfavourable to his character, but 
 excited the jealousy of the court. His insolence to the young king, 
 and his overbearing manner to the nobles, were the cause of that 
 hatred which brought him to a dreadful end. For some time attempts 
 were made, but in vain, to hurl the Italian adventurer from his envied 
 elevation; the princes themselves joined against him without success. 
 However, a young man of the name of Luynes (known afterwards as 
 Due de Luynes), who was in great favour with the young king, per- 
 suaded him to deliver the queen-mother from the power of her 
 favourite ; aud urged his insolent bearing to the nobility and his per- 
 nicious influence with so much success, that at last Louis XIII. ordered 
 the mare'chal to be arrested, and even to be put to death if he resisted. 
 Vitry, a captain of the king's guard, was intrusted with this commis- 
 sion, which he executed to its fullest extent. Ancre was shot dead as 
 he was entering the palace of the Louvre. On hearing the shot the 
 king looked out at the window, and expressed hi3 satisfaction, which 
 he testified by raising Vitry to the rank of Mare'chal of France. The 
 body of the murdered man was first secretly buried at St. Germain 
 l'Auxerrois, but was soon after torn from the tomb by the infuriated 
 mob, who dragged it through the,streets on hurdles, aud then threw 
 it iuto the highway. Concini's son, sixteen years of age, was obliged 
 to fly to Florence, after haviug been exposed to all sorts of insults, 
 and deprived of his father's titles and nche3. Eleonora soon shared 
 the misfortunes of her husband. She was accused and convicted of 
 sorcery, judaism, and corruption; aud was executed on the Place-de- 
 Greve on the 8th of July, 1617. During her trial, and at the moment 
 of her execution, she displayed the greatest firmness of mind, saying, 
 the only sorcery she had used towards the queen " was the power of 
 a strong mind over a weak one." It is said that she was the first 
 instrument of the fortune of Richelieu. 
 
 ANCUS MARCIUS, the fourth king of ancient Rome, belongs to 
 a period when it is difficult to separate history from fable. The reigns 
 of the kings of Rome seem to mark the chief stages of progress in the 
 political constitutions of the state, rather than the succession of indi- 
 vidual monarchs. The names of Romulus, Numa, and Tullus Hostilius 
 are respectively couuected with the origin of the three patrician tribes, 
 the Ramne3, the Tities, and the Luceres, and with their settlement 
 upon the several hills called the Palatine, the Quirinal, and the Ceeliau. 
 Thus, under the first three kings, the patrician part of the Roman 
 constitution had received its full development. To Ancus Marcius 
 tradition assigned the honour of laying the first foundation of the 
 plebes, or commonalty — that important element iu the state to which 
 Rome, under the commonwealth, owed nearly all her greatness. His 
 predecessor, attentive solely to war, had neglected the religious insti- 
 tutions established by Numa, aud for his impiety had been destroyed 
 by a thunderbolt with all his family. Ancus Marcius, whose mother, 
 according to the tradition, was the daughter of Numa, restored the 
 neglected rites, and endeavoured in all respects to imitate the pacific 
 policy of his grandfather. But the neighbouring states, mistaking his 
 love of peace for timidity or sloth, provoked him to hostilities by 
 repeated aggressions ou the Roman territory. In the successive wars 
 with the Latins, the Veieutines, and other states, which ensued, he 
 was invariably successful. From the Latins he took the towna Poli- 
 
203 ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN. 
 
 torium, Telletifc, Ficana, Medullia, and transferred their inhabitants to 
 his capital, giving them as a place of abode, not indeed any ground 
 within the walls, but a part of the Aventine and the valley near the 
 temple of Venus Murtia which separated that hill from the Palatine. 
 Ancus was thus the founder of the plcbe8, and his assignment of part 
 of the public domain to that body procured him in after times from 
 one party the title of the 'Good Ancus' (Ennius, in Festus, v. 'Sos,' 
 quoted too by Lucretius, iii. 1038) ; others condemned his unworthy 
 love of popularity. (Virgil, ' JEn.,' vi. 816.) The Latin towns just 
 mentioned are supposed to have been situated between Home and the 
 coast ; and indeed the conquest of the king extended to the mouth of 
 the Tiber, where he established a colony under the name of Ostia, 
 thus securing to Rome the navigation of the river. In his war against 
 Vcii he was equally successful ; and to protect his people on that side 
 he fortified the Jauiculum, and connected it with the city by means 
 of the Sacred Bridge called the Pons Sublicius, in the construction of 
 which no brass or iron was used. This bridge, repaired from time to 
 time under the direction of the college of priests called Pontifices 
 (bridge-makers), who religiously adhered to the principle of excluding 
 all metal, lasted until the year B.C. 23, when it was carried away by 
 an extraordinary inundation of tho Tiber, and its place supplied the 
 following year by a stone bridge erected by the censor ./Emilius Lepidus. 
 A still more durable monument connected with the name of Ancus is 
 the prison formed out of a quarry in that side of the Capitoline hill 
 which overlooks the Forum. It would be idle to copy from Dionysius 
 the detailed account of the transactions which are said to have filled 
 the reign of twenty-three or twenty-four years assigned by the chrono- 
 logists to this monarch. It has been already stated that Ancus Marcius 
 was said to be the grandson of Numa. In this tradition Niebuhr sees 
 a trace of the regulation by which the kings of Rome were chosen 
 alternately from the two leadiug tribes. The plebeian family of the 
 March vainly endeavoured to refer their origin to this king. 
 
 (Livy, i. 35-45 ; Dionysius, iii. 36-45 ; with Niebuhr's Roman 
 History, translated by Hare and Thirlwall, vol. i., pp. 346-350.) 
 
 •ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN, was born at Odense, in FiineD, 
 Denmark, April 2, 1805. His father, who was a shoemaker and in but 
 humble circumstances, having died while Hans was yet a child, he was 
 removed from school almost as soon as he had learned to read, and 
 placed in a workshop. As the boy grew up he evinced an increasing 
 fondness for books, and found friends who encouraged his inclination ; 
 but the reading of some plays having excited in him a fancy for the 
 life of an actor, he contrived to save from his earnings a few shillings, 
 and with these in his pocket he set out when fourteen years of age for 
 Copenhagen. His application for employment at the theatres was 
 unheeded, and his stock of money becoming exhausted, he was glad 
 again to find employment at a handicraft. After a time however 
 Professor Siboni, who had heard him sing, and was pleased as much 
 with his manner as with his voice, offered to train him as a singer, and 
 iutroduce him to the stage. For more than a year Hans pursued his 
 musical studies, when his voice broke, and his tutor told him he must 
 give up all thoughts of succeeding as a vocalist. He now took to 
 preparing occasional pieces for the stage ; but from this ill-paid 
 drudgery he was rescued by some literary friends, who procured him 
 admission as a royal scholar to the gymnasium, and subsequently to 
 college. Here he distinguished himself by his poetical exercises, and 
 on the publication of a volume of poems in 1831, Oehlenschlager and 
 some other eminent Danish writers having brought their merits before 
 the king of Denmark, his majesty granted Andersen a sum sufficient 
 to enable him to travel through Germany, France, Switzerland, and 
 Italy. During his travels he formed an intimacy with several eminent 
 artists and literary men, and laid up a rich store of observations. Of 
 these journeys he, soon after his return to Copenhagen, published 
 various sketches, which secured for him considerable reputation. The 
 ' Improvisatore,' suggested by his Italian travels, marked him out as 
 the possessor of an original turn of genius ; which his '0. T.,' ' Only 
 a Fiddler,' 'Danish Fairy Legends and Tales,' &c, established beyond 
 dispute. Other works, chiefly short tales and sketches, followed in 
 quick succession, and his name began to be heard of beyond his own 
 country. In 1840 he travelled into the East, and on his return gave 
 to the world as the fruit of his journey the ' Poet's Bazaar.' In 1845 
 he received from his old patron, the king of Denmark, a pension 
 which placed him beyond the risk of pecuniary need. In the next 
 year he travelled through Rome, Naples, and the Pyrenees, and wrote 
 his ' True Story of My Life.' The following year he visited England, 
 and met with a hearty reception. His English visit appears, from 
 subsequent writings, one of which he entitled ' Christmas Greetings to 
 my Friends in England,' to have afforded him singular pleasure ; and 
 he has since written one of his longest works, the ' Two Baronesses,' 
 in the English language. His ' Hyldemoer ; ' 'En Nati Roeskilde;' 
 ' Ole Lukoie,' and other phantasies and vaudevilles are written in 
 prose and verse. 
 
 Andersen's writings are very numerous. The collected edition of 
 his works, published at Leipzig in 1847, is in 35 volumes 12mo., and 
 he has since added considerably to the number. He is undoubtedly a 
 man of original genius, but his genius is less comprehensive than he 
 himself imagines, or his admirers are always ready to allow. He is 
 greatest in fairy tales and brief stories. In them his poetical spirit, 
 bright and lively imagination, earnestness of manner, quaint humour, 
 
 ANDERSON, ALEXANDER, M.D. 204 
 
 always supported by kindliness of feeling and often by deep pathos, 
 and his thorough geniality of temper, with the wholcsomeness of pur- 
 pose which they plainly though unostentatiously exhibit, never fail to 
 delight every class of reader ; and at the same time they have an 
 artistic finish and completeness which place them as works of art 
 among the foremost of their class. In his longer works he so magnifies 
 tho common place, so elaborately depicts the ordinary incidents of 
 every-day life, so indiscriminately paints all the minuter details, that 
 while the parts are tiresome tho whole is unimpressive. Even his 
 travels, pleasant as they are at first, become, like the naive vanity of 
 the author, after a time wearisome from the constant iteration. But 
 in his own peculiar style Andersen is one of the most original writers 
 of the day, and few have delighted so wide a circle of readers. His 
 more popular stories have been translated into most of the European 
 languages, and everywhere they have speedily become favourites with 
 both young and old. 
 
 ANDERSON, ADAM, was born in Scotland, in 1692. Having 
 come to London, he obtained tho situation of clerk in the South Sea 
 Hou30, with which establishment he continued to be connected for 
 forty years, having risen at last to be Chief Clerk of the Stock and 
 New Annuities. In the charter, granted in 1732, for the establish- 
 ment of the colony of Georgia in America, Mr. Anderson was appointed 
 one of the trustees to carry that object into execution ; and he also 
 held a seat in the court of assistants of the Scotch Corporation of 
 London. He died, at his house in Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, on 
 the 10th of January, 1765. The chief occupation of many years of 
 Mr. Anderson's life wu- the composition of his voluminous and well- 
 known work, the ' Historical and Chronological Deduction of Trade 
 and Commerce,' which was first published in two vols., folio, in 1762. 
 In a work written before the publication of the ' Wealth of Nations,' 
 by a man who was a laborious searcher after facts and not a philoso- 
 pher, it will readily be supposed that there are many politico-econo- 
 mical errors. The theory of a balance of trade is carefully adhered 
 to, and a nation's prosperity is estimated by the excess of the exports 
 over the imports. Anderson was an enthusiastic admirer of the 
 colonial system, and believed that foreign possessions were a benefit at 
 any cost, while he was totally unconscious of the influence of capital 
 on the extent of a nation's trade. On the other hand, he held 
 many opinions on important subjects which the progress of political 
 economy has not subverted, and which procured him from Adam 
 Smith the character of a " sober and judicious writer." He viewed 
 landed wealth as the creature of industry, and considered rent as a 
 per centage on the commercial transactions of a country. He was 
 alive to the danger of any issue of inconvertible paper currency ; he 
 supported a labour-test as a sound principle in poor-laws; and he 
 attacked all internal monopolies and restrictions on trade. ' The 
 Annals of Commerce,' published by Macpherson in 1805, are merely 
 an improved and corrected edition of Anderson's book. 
 
 ANDERSON, ALEXANDER, a native of Aberdeen, Scotland, 
 who, in the beginning of the 17th century, while yet a young man, 
 appears to have settled as a private teacher of the mathematics in 
 Paris. Neither the year of his birth nor that of his death is known. 
 He is the author of the following works : — ' Supplementum Apol- 
 lonii Redivivi,' 4to., Paris, 1612; "AiTio\oyia, pro Zetetico Apollo- 
 niani Problematis a se jampridem editio in Supplemento Apollonii 
 Redivivi,' 4to, Paris, 1615; 'Ad Angularium Section um Analyticen 
 Theoremata KaBoAiKwrepa, a Francisco Vieta Fontenseensi primum 
 excogitata, at absque ulla Demonstratione ad nos transmissa, jam 
 tandem Demonstrationibus confirmata,' 4to, Paris, 1615; 'Vindicise 
 Archimedis,' 4to, Paris, 1616 ; ' Exercitationum Mathematicarum 
 Dicas Prima,' 4*o, Paris, 1619. All these works are very scarce. 
 Mr. Anderson also appears to have been selected by the executors of 
 the eminent Vieta, who died in 1603, to superintend the publication of 
 his unprinted manuscripts. Two treatises of Vieta accordingly, entitled 
 ' De .iEquationum Recognitione et Emendatione,' appeared at Paris, 
 in 4to, 1615, with a dedication, preface, and appendix by Anderson. 
 
 ANDERSON, ALEXANDER, M.D., for many years superintendent 
 of the botanic garden in the island of St. Vincent. He was early in 
 life sent to the Caribbee Islands, and made many observations on their 
 geological character and vegetation. In 1789 he communicated a paper 
 to the Royal Society of London, which was printed in the ' Philoso- 
 phical Transactions,' being an 'Account of a Bituminous Lake or 
 Plain in the Island of Trinidad.' In this paper, in addition to the 
 account of the remarkable mass of bituminous matter occupying a 
 space of three square miles, he describes the existence of several hot 
 springs, and the general geological features of the island. In 1798 
 he forwarded a paper to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts 
 and Manufactures, on ' The state of some of the most valuable Plants 
 in his Majesty's Botanic Garden in the Island of St. Vincent.' Among 
 the plants described was the bread-fruit tree of Otaheite (Artocarpus 
 incisus). For this paper a silver medal was awarded him by the 
 Society of Arts, and he was made a corresponding member. The 
 paper was published in the 16th volume of the Society's ' Transactions.' 
 In 1802 two papers appeared in the 20th volume of the Society's 
 ' Transactions ' by Dr. Anderson. One of the papers was on the 
 clove-plant (Cavyophyllus aromaticus), as cultivated at St. Vincent's. 
 This was one of the first attempts that had been made to cultivate 
 the clove in the West Indies. The second paper was on the cinnamon- 
 
ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND. 
 
 tree, as cultivated at St. Vincent's. For these papers the gold medal 
 of the Society of Arts was awarded in 1802. Anderson died about 
 the year 1813. (Trans. Soc. of Arts, xvi. xx. ; Phil. Trans., 1789; 
 Callisen, Medicinisches ScJirifisteller Lexicon.) 
 
 ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND, an eminent lawyer of the 16th 
 century, in the early part of which he was born at Broughton, or, as 
 other authorities state, at Hixborough, in Lincolnshire. His father, 
 Thomas Anderson, Esq., was a gentleman of good estate, and the 
 family was of Scotch descent. Edmund, who was a younger son, 
 was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, after leaving which he 
 entered of the Inner Temple, and, having in due course been called to 
 the bar, passed through the usual promotions, until, in 1582, he was 
 made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. This high office he held 
 till his death, on the 1st of August, 1605. Chief Justice Anderson 
 was one of the ablest and most learned of Queen Elizabeth's judges; 
 but he was also one of the most rigid of the high prerogative lawyers 
 of that time. He particularly distinguished himself by the zeal 
 which he showed in favour of the Established Church, and the 
 unwise harshness with which he endeavoured to put down dissent. 
 He seems, by his severity, to have made himself unpopular and 
 odious with all parties. His printed works are, ' Reports of Cases 
 argued and adjudged in the time of Queen Elizabeth, in the Common 
 Bench,' folio, London, 1644 ; and ' Resolutions and Judgments on the 
 Cases and Matters agitated in all the Courts of Westminster, in the 
 latter end of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth,' 4to, London, 1653. Both 
 books are reckoned of great authority. Three families, descended 
 from this chief justice through two of his sons, received baronetcies 
 in the reigns of Charles I. and II. J and by his four daughters, who 
 lived to be married, he became the ancestor of the earls of Pontefract, 
 the Sheffields, dukes of Buckinghamshire, the earls of "Warrington, 
 and the lords Monson. (Biographia Britannica.) 
 
 ANDERSON, JAMES, was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of 
 August, 1 662 ; his father, the Rev. Patrick Anderson, was one of the 
 ministers of that city. Having been educated for the law, he was 
 admitted a writer to the signet in 1690. In 1705 he made his first 
 appearance as an author by the publication of ' An Essay showing 
 that the Crown of Scotland is Imperial and Independent,' being an 
 answer to W. Atwood's tract, entitled the ' Superiority and direct 
 Dominion of the Imperial Crown and Kingdom of England over the 
 Crown and Kingdom of Scotland,' which had appeared the preceding 
 year. As the subject discussed was one in which the people of 
 Scotland at that moment took a warm interest, the parliament, 
 besides bestowing upon Anderson a pecuniary reward for his perform- 
 ance, ordered its thanks to be publicly returned to him by the lord 
 chancellor, in the presence of Her Majesty's high commissioner and 
 the estates ; Atwood's book being at the same time ordered to be 
 burnt by the common hangman. Anderson was further honoured 
 by the commands of the parliament to collect and publish such 
 ancient documents as he might deem to be illustrative of the national 
 independence ; and an assurance was given that the cost of the under- 
 taking would be defrayed from the public treasury. He therefore 
 relinquished his profession. Soon after the Union, Anderson removed 
 to London, where for many years hi3 time was divided between the 
 labours of completing his project, and a series of unsuccessful efforts 
 to get his claims attended to by government. In Lockhart's 'Memoirs,' 
 L 371, the following curious illustratiou is given of the disappointments 
 he wa3 subject to : — "This gentleman, by his application to the sub- 
 ject of antiquities, having neglected his other affairs, and having in 
 search after ancient records come to LondoD, almost all the Scots 
 nobility and gentry of note recommended him as a person that highlie 
 deserved to have some beneficiall post bestowed upon him ; nay, the 
 queen herself (to whom he had been introduced, and who took great 
 pleasure in viewing the fine sealls and charters of the ancient records 
 he had collected), told my Lord Oxford she desired something might 
 be done for him, to all which his lordship's usuall auswer was, that 
 ther was uo need of pressing him to take care of that gentleman, for 
 he was thee man he designed, out of regard to his great knowledge, to 
 distinguish in a particular manner. Mr. Anderson being thus put off 
 from time to time for fourteen or fifteen months, his lordship at 
 length told him that no doubt he had heard that in his fine library he 
 had a collection of the pictures of the learned, both ancient and 
 modern, and as he knew none who better deserved a place there than 
 Mr. Anderson he begged the favour of his picture. As Mr. Anderson 
 took this for a high mark of the treasurer's esteem and a sure presage 
 of his future favours, away he went and got his picture drawn by one 
 of the best hands in London, which being presented was graciously 
 received (and perhaps got its place in the library), but nothing ever 
 more appeared of his lordship's favour to this gentleman, who, having 
 thus hung on and depended for a long time, at length gave himself no 
 furder trouble in trusting to or expecting any favour from liim ; from 
 whence when any one was asked what place such and such a person 
 was to get, the common reply was, a place in the treasurer's library." 
 
 While the great object of Anderson s life remained uncompleted, he 
 was enabled to publish ' Collections relating to the History of Mary, 
 Queen of Scotland,' 4 vols., 4to, 1724-1728— a collection of documents 
 well known to those who study the history of the period. Anderson 
 died in 1728. The editing of his great work was entrusted to Thomas 
 Ruddiman, the learned grammarian ; and it at length appeared at 
 
 ANDERSON, JAMES, M.D., A.M. sot 
 
 Edinburgh in 1739, in the form of a magnificent folio, with the title 
 of ' Selectus Diplomatum et Numismatum Scotia) Thesaurus.' An 
 elaborate preface was prefixed by Ruddiman. Anderson held the 
 situation of postmaster-general for Scotland from 1715 to 1717. 
 
 ANDERSON, JAMES, LL.D., a writer on political economy, agri- 
 culture, and natural science, and one of the founders of the Scotch 
 system of husbandry, was born in 1739, at the village of Hermiston, 
 in the vicinity of Edinburgh. He lost his parents in early life, and at 
 the age of 15 took on himself the management of a farm which the 
 family had cultivated for several generations. At the early age at 
 which he commenced practical farming, he began to perceive the 
 utility of a knowledge of chemistry to the agriculturist, and he some- 
 what surprised Dr. Culleu with the novel spectacle of a young farmer 
 attending the chemistry class in the University of Edinburgh, with a 
 view to the pursuit of his profession. He was a very young man when 
 he introduced among the Mid Lothian farmers the use of the small 
 two-horse plough without wheels, now commonly known by the name 
 of the Scotch plough. The use of this instrument is perhaps the 
 most conspicuous single element in the superiority of the agriculture 
 of Scotland. In 1763 he left his native place, and settled in Aber- 
 deenshire, on a farm called Monkshill, consisting of 1300 acres of land 
 almost wholly in a wild state. It was while residing here that he 
 made his first attempt as a public writer in a series of essays on 
 Planting, which he contributed in 1771 to the ' Edinburgh Weekly 
 Magazine,' under the signature of Agricola. These essays he collected 
 and published in 1777. From this time both his communications to 
 periodical works and his separate publications were very frequent. In 
 1780 the degree of Doctor of Laws was bestowed upon him by the 
 University of Aberdeen. Three years after he removed to Edinburgh. 
 In 1784, in consequence of a pamphlet which he had printed on the 
 ' Encouragement of the National Fisheries,' a subject which he had 
 some years before discussed at greater length in a quarto volume, he 
 was employed by government to make a survey of the western coast 
 of Scotland, with a reference especially to that object. Ia 1791 he 
 commenced the publication of the 'Bee,' a periodical which coutiuued 
 to appear till 1794. In 1797 Dr. Anderson took up his residence in 
 the neighbourhood of Loudon; and, in April 1799, established a 
 periodical under the title of ' Recreations in Agriculture,' which was 
 continued till March, 1802. Dr. Anderson died on the 15th of 
 October, 1808, having been for some years before much broken down 
 through the effects of the intense literary labour of many years. The 
 list of his numerous publications attests the remarkable activity of his 
 mind ; and most of his writings evince great fulness of thought, 
 varied information, and some of them no slight degree of ingenuity 
 and originality. The most valuable papers in the ' Recreations ' were 
 contributed by himself. The work has lately attracted considerable 
 attention from the circumstance that the doctrine as to the origin of 
 rent, afterwards promulgated by Malthus, West, and Ricardo, had 
 been there fully developed by Anderson. The exposition is contained 
 in an essay called ' A Comparative View of the Effects of Rent and of 
 Tythe in influencing the Price of Corn,' contained in the 30th num- 
 ber of the ' Recreations,' v. 401-428. In this essay, the principle that 
 the portion of the value of the produce of land which goes to the 
 proprietor in the form of rent, consists of the difference between the 
 cost of raising produce on the more fruitful, and that of raising it on 
 the less fruitful soils brought into cultivation, is clearly laid down, 
 with a precision which no later political economist has surpassed. 
 Anderson had promulgate 1 the same theory at an earlier date in a 
 tract now very rare, published by him in 1777, called 'An Inquiry 
 into the Nature of the Corn Laws, with a View to the Corn Bill pro- 
 posed for Scotland.' The passage containing this explanation of the 
 theory is printed by Mr. M'Culloch in his edition of Smith. There 
 can be no question also that to the zeal and labours of Dr. Anderson 
 was greatly owing the increased attention to the subject of agricul- 
 ture which grew up after he began to write. His writings consist of 
 between twenty and thirty separate works, besides numerous con- 
 tributions to the ' Encyclopasdia Britannica,' the ' Monthly Review,' 
 and other periodicals, together with several tracts upon subjects of 
 temporary interest. 
 
 ANDERSON, JAMES, M.D. and A.M., physician-general of the 
 East India Company's army at Madras. The exact date of his birth 
 and death are not known. He was distinguished for the zeal and 
 ability with which he laboured for the purpose of increasing the pro- 
 ductive resources of the British possessions in Hiudustau. His first 
 published work on this subject was a series of fourteen letters to Sir 
 Joseph Banks, who was then president of the Royal Society, on the 
 subject of the cochineal insect, which Dr. Anderson had discovered at 
 Madras. These letters were published at Madras in 1787, 8vo. 
 
 The cultivation of the mulberry-tree for the purpose of rearing 
 silk-worrns, Dr. Anderson prosecuted with great diligence, and had the 
 satisfaction of seeing his suggestions acted on with great vigour in 
 various districts of the Madras presidency. In his published corre- 
 spondence he treats on the introduction and cultivation of plants 
 which yield articles of commerce adapted to the climate and soil 
 of the various districts of Hindustan, and more particularly those of 
 the Madras presidency. Amongst the principal of these may be men- 
 tioned the sugar-cane, the coffee-plaut, American cotton, and the 
 European apple. Dr. Anderson is believed to have died in August,lS09. 
 
21.7 ANDERSON, JOHN. 
 
 ANDERSON, JOHN, the founder of the Anderaonian Institution 
 of Glasgow, and one of the earliest promoters of that popular 
 instruction in science which has so greatly elevated the character of 
 British artisans, was born in the parish of Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, 
 in 1726. He was grandson of the Rev. John Anderson, an eminent 
 Scotch Presbyterian minister and theological writer, and the first 
 minister of the Ram's J lorn church, now St. Stephen's, Glagow. He 
 was left an orphan at an early age, and was educated at Stirling by an 
 aunt, and while there he became an officer in a burgher corps, raised 
 in February. 1710, to defend the town against the forces of the young 
 Chevalier Stuart. Ho received the more advanced branches of his 
 education in the University of Glasgow; in 1756 he was appoiuted 
 Professor of Oriental Languages there, and in 1760, when residing at 
 Toulouse, he was appoiuted to the chair of Natural Philosophy, to the 
 duties of which, on his return to Glasgow, he applied himself with 
 the utmost ardour. Not contented with the ordinary duty of lecturing, 
 he employed himself iudefatigably in studying and exemplifying the 
 applications of science to the useful arts, visiting the workshops of 
 intelligent artisans, and exchanging his scientific information for their 
 experimental knowledge. The better to carry out his views of popular 
 education, Anderson commenced, in addition to his ordinary class, one 
 which he styled his anti-toga class, for the instruction of artisans and 
 others unable to enter upou a regular academical course, to whom he 
 delivered familiar extempore lectures illustrated by experiments. 
 Mechanics were allowed to attend these lectures in their working- 
 dress, Anderson appears to have had a taste for military sci'-nce, 
 which he displayed in designing fortifications (which have long since 
 been removed) to defend the town of Greenock from an anticipated 
 attack from the French ; in experiments upon various projectiles ; 
 and in the invention of a cannou in which the recoil produced by 
 filing was rendered harmless, by the condensation of air in the body 
 of the carriage. This contrivance, alter an ineffectual attempt to 
 introduce it to the notice of the British government, he took to Paris 
 in 1791, and presented to the National Convention, who dignified it 
 with the title of ' The Gift of Science to Liberty.' On this occasion 
 Anderson witnessed, and in some cases participated in, some of the 
 earlier scones of the French revolution. He was present when 
 Louis XVI. was brought back from Varennes on the occasion of his 
 attempted flight from Paris, and afterwards sung ' Te Deum' with the 
 Bishop of Paris when the king took the oath to the Constitution in 
 the presence of an immense assemblage. Among the ingenious 
 suggestions recorded as having emanated from Anderson was a plan, 
 which was actually carried into effect, for conveying newspapers and 
 other communications from France into Germany by means of 
 small paper balloons inflated with gas, and thereby evading the 
 vigilance of a cordon of troops employed to intercept all ordinary 
 means of communication. 
 
 In 1786 Anderson published a popular work, entitled 'Institutes of 
 Physics,' which passed through five editions within ten years. He 
 wrote many articles for periodicals, and a paper upon the Roman anti- 
 quities between the Forth and the Clyde, which was appended to 
 General Roy's ' Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain,' pub- 
 lished in 1793, and also reprinted separately in 1800. He also wrote 
 ' Essays upon War and Military Instruments,' which are said to have 
 been translated and published in French, but of which we find no 
 English edition referred to. Anderson closed his useful career on the 
 13th of January, 1796, in the 70th year of his age, after a connection 
 with the University of upwards of forty years, during which time the 
 liberality of his opinions led to some disagreements with his brother- 
 professors. He was buried at Glasgow. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Scottish Society 
 of Antiquaries, and a member of several other scientific bodies ; and 
 he had the academical degree of A.M. Shortly before his death he 
 devised his whole property by will to 81 trustees, for the establish- 
 ment in Glasgow of an institution to be denominated Anderson's 
 University, for the continued provision of those facilities for the 
 unacademical classes of his townsmen which he had so long supplied 
 by his own personal exertions. His comprehensive design was for an 
 institution consisting of four colleges, with nine professors each, for 
 aits, medicine, law, and theology ; but as the funds proved insufficient 
 for so extensive a scheme, operations were commenced in 1797 on a 
 limited scale, by the appointment of Dr. Thomas Garnett as professor 
 of natural philosophy. His first course of lectures was attended by 
 nearly a thousand persons of both sexes. In the following year a 
 professor of mathematics and geography was appointed ; and, though 
 the institution has never attained the magnitude contemplated by the 
 founder, it has progressively increased and extended its usefulness, and 
 has been productive of much public benefit. Dr. Garnett was suc- 
 ceeded in 1799 by Dr. Birkbeck, on occasion of his removal to the 
 Royal Institution in London, which was formed on a similar model to 
 that established by Anderson ; and Dr. Birkbeck, who introduced a 
 new course of instruction for 500 operative mechanics, free of all 
 expense, was succeeded in 1804 by Dr. Ure. A portrait of Anderson 
 was published in the 3rd volume of the ' Glasgow Mechanics' Maga- 
 zine,' which contains a memoir, upon which the above sketch is chiefly 
 founded. Fuller memoirs are also given in Chambers's ' Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,' and in the ' Biographical Dictionary 
 of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.' 
 
 ANDRE, JOHN. 208 
 
 ANDO'CIDES, the son of Leogoras, of a noble Athenian family, 
 was born about b.o. 468. We find hiin, during the war of the Corcy- 
 rajans and Corinthians, commanding jointly with Glaucou an Athenian 
 squadron which was sent to aid the Corcyraeans. (Thucyd. i. 51.) 
 After this he appears to have been employed as ambassador on nume- 
 rous foreign missions. During the Peloponnesian war (about B.C. 415) 
 Andocides was involved in the charge of mutilating thi Henna 
 [Alcibiades], and, according to Plutarch, he saved himself by accusing 
 his real or imaginary accomplices. The history of all this transaction 
 is obscure. After this event Andocides went abroad, and visited many 
 foreign parts. On his return to Athens, the Four Hundred (b.o. 411) 
 directed the administration of affairs, and Andocides was accused, 
 apparently on frivolous grounds, and thrown into prison. On the 
 overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants by Thrasybulus (b.o. 403), Andocides 
 returned to Athens, and recovered all the influence which talents and 
 eloquence naturally gave an unprincipled man in the Athenian demo- 
 cracy. The remainder of his life is obscure. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the events of this orator's rambling life are 
 not better known. The times during which he lived were full of 
 important occurrences, and a minute account of his life and adventures 
 would have thrown great light on the internal history of Athens and 
 that of other states also. There is little doubt that he was a man of 
 ability, but without any principle. 
 
 Four extant orations are attributed to Andocides : ' On the Myste- 
 ries : ' On his (second) ' Return to Athens : ' ' On the Peace with the 
 Lacedasmonians : ' and that ' Against Alcibiades.' The authenticity of 
 the third and fourth are disputed, that of the third at least, perhaps 
 with good reason. The orations of Andocides were first published in 
 the collection of Aldus, Venice, 1513, fol. They have been printed in 
 the collections of H. Stephens, Reiske, and Dobson. The best edition 
 of the text is by Imm. Bekker in his ' Attic Orators,' 1822, 8vo. They 
 were edited separately by C. Schiller, Leipzig, 1835, 8vo. ; and by 
 J. G. Baiter and Herm. Sauppe, Zurich, 1838, 8vo. The oration on 
 the Mysteries was pronounced when Andocides was about seventy years 
 of age, in reply to an accusation brought against him by Callias of 
 violating a law respecting the temple of Ceres at lileusis. The oration 
 contains, besides the immediate subject of the defence, much informa- 
 tion on other parts of the orator's life. It is an admirable specimen 
 of simple and perspicuous language, and equally remarkable for the 
 skill with which the defence is conducted. 
 
 ANDRE, JOHN, was born in Loudon, in 1751, of parents originally 
 from Geneva. He was sent to Geneva for his education, but returned 
 to England before the age of eighteen, and was thrown by the chance 
 of residence into the literary circle of Miss Anna Seward, at Lichfield. 
 He there formed an attachment for Miss Honora Sneyd, a young and 
 accomplished friend of Miss Seward's. An intended marriage was 
 prevented by the interference of the friends of the parties on the ground 
 of their youth, and it was arranged that Andre" should engage in 
 mercantile pursuits, with a view of making some provision for his 
 intended wife. He accordingly entered his father's counting-house in 
 London ; but he soon gave up all thoughts of business, and entered 
 the army. According to Miss Seward, this step was the result of 
 despair on hearing that Miss Sneyd had married another; but this is 
 disproved by the object of the lady's choice, Mr. Lovell Edgeworth, 
 who in his ' Memoirs ' observes that Andre's first commission bears 
 date on the 4th of March, 1771, while his own marriage to Miss Sneyd 
 did not take place until more than two years afterwards. Andre" 
 joined the British army in America, and in 1775 he was taken prisoner 
 at the capture of St. John's. He was a considerable time in prison, 
 and on his release became aide-de-camp, first to General Grey, and then 
 to Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander-in-chief, who esteemed 
 him so highly that, on a vacancy occurring by the resignation of Lord 
 Rawdon, he appointed Andre" to the important post of adjutant-general, 
 and almost forced the government to bestow the rank of major upon 
 him, without which the office could cot be held. 
 
 Soon after Andre engaged in the service which led to his untimely 
 end. Sir Henry Clinton confided to him the management of the 
 correspondence with the American general Arnold, who proposed to 
 deliver up the important fortress of West Point to the British, with 
 the magazines, including, among other things, the whole stock of 
 gunpowder of the American army. In conducting this correspondence, 
 which was facilitated by the circumstance of Andre's having been 
 acquainted with Arnold's wife previous to her marriage, Arnold 
 assumed the name of Gustavus, and Andre that of Anderson, while 
 the real objects of the parties were concealed under the disguise of 
 mercantile terms, as though the correspondence referred entirely to 
 commercial affairs. So well was the secret kept, that the Americans 
 had not the slightest suspicion of Arnold's fidelity. At length every- 
 thing was so far arranged, that it only remained to settle the time and 
 means of carrying the design into execution ; and for this purpose 
 Arnold required a personal interview with a confidential agent. Andre" 
 undertook the dangerous mission ; and accordingly, on the 20th of 
 September, 1780, a British sloop of war, the ' Vulture,' proceeded up 
 the Hudson River nearly to the American lines, having on board 
 Andre" and Colonel Beverly Robinson, a loyalist officer, whose house 
 was at that moment in possession of the Americans, and the head- 
 quarters of Arnold. It had been intended that the landing and the 
 interview with Arnold should be effected under cover of a flag of 
 
109 ANDRE, JOHN. 
 
 truce, the ostensible object being to effect some arrangement as to the 
 sequestrated property of the colonel. For this purpose a letter was 
 Bent from Robinson to Arnold, soliciting a meeting; but it happened 
 to reach the hands of Arnold while in company with General Washing- 
 ton, instead of, as had been anticipated, after Washington's departure 
 to pay a visit to the French General Rochanibeau. To keep up appear- 
 ances, Arnold judged it best to show the letter to Washington, aud 
 ask his advice upon it ; and Washington strongly recommended him 
 not to grant the request, but to refer Robinson to the civil authorities. 
 This advice being publicly given, Arnold did not venture to act against 
 it, and he therefore took measures for bringing about a secret inter- 
 view. He prevailed on Mr. Joshua H. Smith, who resided within the 
 American lines, to go on board the ' Vulture ' at night, and deliver a 
 packet to the parties he would find on board. Smith asserts, in a 
 narrative of the transaction which he published at London in 1808, 
 that he was the bearer of a flag of truce, but he assigns no reason for 
 its being sent in the dark. He delivered his letters to Colonel Robin- 
 son, and was desired to return with Andre - , who passed as Mr. Anderson, 
 but wore his uniform. Arnold met them on the shore, and it was 
 arranged that the attack on West Point should be made on the 24th 
 or 25th of that month (September, 1780), about which time the return 
 of Washington was expected ; and proper passwords and signals were 
 agreed upon. Arnold also delivered to Andre, for Sir Henry Clinton, 
 a number of papers relating to the fortress, with maps and plans, and 
 memoranda of the weakest points, as well as of the positions to which 
 the American troops would be ordered by Arnold so as to assure the 
 easiest success to the British forces. Andre" intended to return to the 
 'Vulture' in the boat which had brought him ashore, but in the 
 meanwhile the sloop, galled by a fire from the American posts, had 
 dropped lower down the Hudson, and the boatmen refused to row the 
 distance. In this dilemma it was arranged that Andre should pass 
 the day at Smith's house, a measure which made it necessary to enter 
 the American lines, and should return nest night to New York by 
 laud, the papers being concealed, at Arnold's suggestion, in the major's 
 boots ; and his military coat, also by Arnold's wish, being replaced 
 by a plain coat of his host's. To prevent detention on the journey at 
 auy of the American outposts, both Andre" aud Smith, who was to be 
 his guide, were provided with regular passports from Arnold. They 
 started accordingly, but came in contact with an American party 
 during the night, the captain of which represented the danger of night- 
 travelling to be so great, that, for fear of awakening his suspicion, 
 they thought it best to remain where they were till morning. The 
 next day they proceeded to Pine's Bridge, a village on the Croton 
 River, not far from the English lines, where Smith took his leave of 
 Andre", as all danger seemed to be over. Andre" had nearly reached 
 Tarntown, and was within sight of the English lines, when three 
 American militiamen, who were on the watch for any well-dressed and 
 mounted passenger who might possibly be an Englishman, rushed from 
 a thicket and stopped his horse. A moment's presence of mind would 
 have saved him, but instead of assuming the character of an American, 
 he inquired to which party they belonged. They answered "To 
 below," implying that they belonged to the English posts, and Andre" 
 exclaimed " So do I ; I am an English officer on urgent business, and 
 I do not wish to be detained." On being undeceived, he produced the 
 passport of Arnold. But it was now too late; and he soon still further 
 betrayed himself by offering them large sums of money if they would 
 Jet him go. His offers were refused ; he was dragged into the thicket, 
 and his boots being drawn off, the papers were discovered. The 
 militiamen took their prisoner at once to the commander of the out- 
 posts, Colonel Jameson, who, confused and bewildered, sent on Andre" 
 to his superior officer, General Arnold. The arrival aud prompt inter- 
 ference of Captain Talmadge — an officer who lived long after to claim 
 his share of credit in the transaction — alone prevented this; and at his 
 suggestion Andre" was sent for back, and the papers were forwarded to 
 Washington. Colonel Jameson however thought it proper to send 
 word to Arnold, that " John Anderson, the bearer of hi3 passport, had 
 been detained." This message saved Arnold's life ; ou receiving it he 
 fled on board the ' Vulture,' aud joined Sir Henry Cliuton at New 
 York. When Washington on his return reached We>t Point, and 
 found it without a commander, the arrival of the messenger with the 
 papers from Jameson cleared up the whole affair. 
 
 Andre" retained bis assumed character until he judged Arnold beyond 
 reach, when he declared his real name aud rank as adjutant-general 
 of the British army. Washington referred hi3 case to a board of general 
 officers, who reported that, in consideration of his having been taken 
 in disguise, and under a false name, with iuforuiation obtained under 
 that dii-guise within the American lines, he was a spy, aud in conformity 
 with the law of nations should suffer death. The most strenuous 
 exertions were made by the British commander to save him : and, 
 among other proceedings, General Robertson was despatched on a 
 mission to Washington to represent that Andre" having arrived in the 
 American lines under a flag of truce, aud having been directed in all 
 his movements within them by a general in the American service — 
 Arnold himself— he could not be considered a spy according to the 
 rules of war. Sir Henry Clinton also permitted Arnold to forward 
 two letters on the same subject, but their contents, those of one espe- 
 cially, which assumed a threatening tone, were not calculated to do 
 any good. The American commander was inflexible. Washington 
 
 ^BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 ANDREOSSI, COUNT. 210 
 
 did indeed cause it to be intimated to Clinton that there was one way 
 of saving Andre's life, by exchanging Arnold for him ; but such a 
 proposition of course could not be listened to. 
 
 Andre" suffered death at Tappau, in the state of New York, on the 
 2nd of October, 1780, in his twenty-ninth year. He displayed the 
 utmost firmness, which was shaken only for a moment when he knew 
 that he was to perish by the halter, an ignominious death which he 
 had most strongly entreated Washington, by a letter written almost 
 in his last moments, to spare him. His fate excited the deepebt 
 sympathy even among the Americans. Among his own countrymen, 
 aud iudecd throughout Europe, his death excited a powerful sensa- 
 tion ; while the conduct of Arnold was viewed with almost equal 
 detestation by the English and the Americans. 
 
 The whole British army went into mourning for Andre". A monu 
 ment was raised to his memory in Westminster Abbey, and in the 
 year 1821 his remains were disinterred at Tappan, and conveyed to a 
 grave near his monument at Westminster. His friend Miss Seward 
 published a mouody on his death, which had great popularity in its 
 day, aud succeeded for a time in drawing down some share of popular 
 indignation on Washington, more especially for refusing the only 
 favour Andre" asked, a soldier's death. In her ' Letters,' published 
 after her death, Miss Seward withdrew her charges, and asserted that 
 Washington, after the peace of 1783, sent one of his aides-de-camp to 
 her purposely to disabuse her of the prejudices she entertained; 
 among other things to assure her that he was outvoted by the rest of 
 the council on the question of hanging Major Andre;. It is by no 
 means clear that Washington sat on or interfered with the council 
 which originally condemned him; nor was Washington a man who 
 would shrink from the infliction of a punishment which he judged to 
 be necessary in order to show the world that America claimed and 
 would exercise the powers of an independent nation. He held Andre" 
 to be a spy, and for a spy the punishment is death by the halter and 
 not by the bullet. To have remitted the ignominious portion of the 
 punishment would have argued some doubt as to its justice. To Miss 
 Seward's 'Monody' are attached three letters of Audreys, written in 
 his nineteenth year ; but, however interesting in other points of view, 
 as literary compositions they are without merit. He was more suc- 
 cessful in his own published work, a satirical poem called ' The Cow 
 Chase' (New York, 1780), the last canto of which was published in 
 Rivington's 'Royal Gazette' on the very day of his arrest. It is a kind 
 of parody on ' Chevy Chase,' devoted to the ridicule of an exploit of 
 the American general Wayne, in attempting to drive off some cattle 
 from the loyalists. 
 
 Andre" was an artist of considerable ability. A miniature of Honora 
 Sneyd, painted by himself, was the only portion of his effects which 
 he preserved after his first capture by the Americans in 1775, and he 
 succeeded only by secreting it in his mouth. A portrait of himself, 
 sketched with much freedom in pen and ink, is engraved in Sparks's 
 ' Life and Treason of Arnold,' from the original preserved in Yale 
 College. It was drawn on the morning originally appointed for his 
 execution, in order to be presented to an American friend — for he had 
 many such during his imprisonment— and it is doubly interesting as 
 affording proof of his powers aa an artist, and of his courage at so 
 trying a moment. 
 
 {Biographical Dictionary of Useful Knowledge Society.) 
 
 ANDREA DEL SARTO, or ANDREA VANUCCHI. [Sarto.] 
 
 ANDREOSSI, COUNT, was born at Castelnaudary, in the province 
 of Lauguedoc, in March, 1761. ' His family was of Italian descent. 
 At the age of twenty he was made lieutenant of artillery. In the 
 beginning of the French revolution he shared in the general enthusiasm 
 for the new order of things, and he afterwards served under Bona- 
 parte in the early Italian campaigns, where he distinguished himself at 
 the siege of Mantua, in 1796. He next followed Bonaparte to Egypt, 
 where he took a conspicuous part both in the military aud the scientific 
 labours of that celebrated expedition. He was appointed a member 
 of the Institute of Cairo, and wrote several memoirs, ' On the Lake 
 Menzaleh,' ' On the Valley of the Natron Lake,' ' On the Waterless 
 River,' &c. When Bonaparte returned secretly to France, Andreossi 
 was one of the few officers who accompanied him, and he ever after 
 proved devoted to the fortunes of his great commander. Andreossi 
 served in the so-called Gallo-Batavian army under Augereau, on the 
 banks of the Mayne. After the peace of Amiens he was sent as 
 ambassador to England. When Napoleon assumed the imperial crown, 
 Andreossi was made inspector-general of artillery, aud a count of the 
 new empire. He went afterwards as ambassador to Vienna, and 
 having quitted his post when the war broke out again between Austria 
 and France in 1809, he was present in the campaign of that year, and 
 was appointed governor of Vienna after the taking of that city. He 
 was next sent as ambassador to the Ottoman Porte, in which import- 
 ant situation he won the general e3teem of both Franks aud Turks. 
 After the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, Louis XVIII. recalled 
 Andreossi from Constantinople, and sent him at the same time the 
 cross of St. Louis. Andreossi was living in retirement when Napoleon 
 landed from Elba, but he theu appeared again on the political stage 
 to assist his old master in his last struggle. He was created a peer 
 during the hundred days. After the battle of Waterloo he withdrew 
 again to private life, and busied himself in revising and publishing 
 several interesting memoirs which he had written during his residence 
 
 r 
 
211 
 
 ANDREWS, LANCELOT. 
 
 iu Turkey. His work on 1 Constantinople et le Bosphore de Thrace ' 
 
 is deservedly esteemed. His memoir ' On the Springs and Conduits 
 by which Constantinople is supplied with Water,' contains much 
 curious iu formation on the art of hydraulics as practised by the Turks. 
 Andreossi had written also in 1810 a 'History of the Canal of Lan- 
 guedoc,' in which he claimed for one of his ancestors, Francois 
 Andreossi, the principal merit in the planning of that great work, 
 which had till then been ascribed to the engineer Riquet. This book 
 was the occasion of much controversy with Riquet' s descendants, in 
 which the astronomer De la Lande sided with the latter. Count 
 Andreossi died in September, 1828, at Montauban. 
 
 ANDREW, SAINT, one of the apostles, the brother of St. Peter. 
 His father's name was Janus. From the iirst chapter of St. John's 
 Gospel, he appears to have been one of the followers of John the 
 Baptist, whom he left at the call of Jesus, being the first disciple 
 whom the Saviour is recorded to have received. Andrew introduced 
 Peter to Jesus. According to St. Matthew and St. Mark, Jesus fouud 
 Peter and Andrew together, following their occupation of fishermen, 
 as he was walking by the Sea of Galilee, and called them, when they 
 immediately left their nets and followed him ; but this is supposed to 
 have happened some time after the first interview recorded by St. 
 John. That evangelist mentions Andrew as the disciple who intimated 
 the presence of the lad with the few loaves and fishes, when the 
 miracle of feeding tho five thousand was performed. Such is nearly 
 all that is stated respecting this apostle in Scripture. 
 
 The ecclesiastical historians however have professed to give us 
 accouuts in considerable detail of the latter part of his life. Accord- 
 ing to Theodoret, he employed himself for some years in journeying 
 and preaching the faith throughout Greece ; but Eusebius and other 
 writers speak of Scythia as the province of his missionary labours. 
 Tho common statement however is, that ho suffered martyrdom at 
 Pairs, now Patras, in Achaia, having been put to death by order of 
 Egajus, the pro-consul of that province. The year in which this event 
 took place is not mentioned ; but both in the Greek and in the Latin 
 church the festival commemorative of it is held on the 30th of 
 November. 
 
 ANDREWS, JAMES PETIT, an historical and miscellaneous 
 writer, was a younger son of Joseph Andrews, of Shaw House, near 
 Newbury, Berks, where he was born in 1737. He was educated under 
 a private tutor, the Rev. Mr. Matthews, rector of his native parish. 
 In 1788 he published a pamphlet calling attention to the hardships 
 suffered by chimney-sweepers' apprentices, which is said to have pro- 
 duced the act passed during the same year (28 Geo. 3. c. 28) for their 
 protection. In 1789 he published ' Anecdotes, &c. Ancient and Modern, 
 with Observations,' Loudon, 8vo, dedicated to his brother, Sir Joseph 
 Andrews. In 1794 he published ' The History of Great Britain con- 
 nected with the Chronology of Europe ; with Notes, &c. containing 
 Anecdotes of the Times, Lives of the Learned, and Specimens of 
 their Works. Vol. i. from Caesar's Invasion to the Deposition and 
 Death of Richard II.' 4to. London. In 1795 he published a con- 
 tinuation, part 2, of vol. i. ' From the Deposition and Death of 
 Richard II. to the accession of Edward VI.' The work is thus in- 
 complete. It must have been a very useful fragment at the time 
 when it appeared, and nothing but the progress which discovery in 
 relation to British history has made in recent years would prevent it 
 from still being so. A brief narrative of the internal civil and military 
 history of England is given in what printers call the even page, and 
 on the opposite or odd page there is a corresponding general chrono- 
 logy, to enable the reader to synchronise English history with that of 
 the rest of the world. The continuous narrative is followed at inter- 
 vals by a chapter containing ' incidents, biographical sketches, 
 specimens of poetry,' &c, and another containing 'anecdotes and 
 observations relating to the religion, government, manners, &c. of 
 Great Britain.' In these departments the author shows au extensive 
 knowledge of English literature and the history of legislation, and 
 much research among county histories and in other obscure quarters, 
 for illustratiom of national manners. Andrews Seems to have discon- 
 tinued this work for the purpose of completing Henry's 'History,' 
 which, in 1796, he brought down to the accession of James I. On the 
 establishment of the London police magistracy in 1792, he was 
 appointed magistrate for Queen Square and St. Margaret's, West- 
 minster. He died in London, August 6, 1797. 
 
 ANDREWS, LANCELOT, an eminent English prelate, was 
 descended from an ancient Suffolk family, and was born in the parish 
 of All-hallows, Barking, London, in 1555. His father, who had spent 
 the most part of his life at sea, was, towards the close of his life, 
 Master of the Trinity House at Deptford. Young Andrews was 
 educated first at the Coopers' Free school at Ratcliff, and then at 
 Merchant Tailors' school, from which he was sent to Pembroke Hall, 
 Cambridge, by Archdeacon Watts, on one of the exhibitions founded 
 by the latter in that college. He greatly distinguished himself at the 
 University by his studious habits and extensive acquirements ; and 
 also in certain lectures which he read as cateehist displayed tLe first 
 promise of that talent for pulpit oratory for which he was afterwards 
 celebrated. Having taken orders, he soon became known as a preacher ; 
 he was rapidly preferred, and was Dean of Westminster when James I. 
 came to the throne. With that monarch he immediately became a 
 great favourite, and the bishopric of Chichester having become vacant, 
 
 he was presented to it, and was consecrated on the 3rd of November, 
 1605. The king at the same time made him his lord almoner. In 
 1609 he was translated to the see of Ely; and was soon after made a 
 privy-councillor both for England and Scotland. When James, in 
 1617, visited the latter kingdom, Bishop Andrews was one of tho 
 persons by whom he was accompanied. Iu 1618 he was advanced to 
 the bishopric of Winchester, and was at the same time made dean of 
 the chapel royal. He died at Winchester-house, in Southwark, on 
 the 25th of September, 1626, aud was buried in the church of St. 
 Saviour's. 
 
 The principal work which Bishop Andrews published during his 
 life was a thick quarto volume, printed in 1609, with the title 
 ' Tortura Torti ; ' being an answer to a treatise in which Cardinal 
 Bellarmiu, under the name of Matthew Tortus, had attacked the 
 doctrine laid down by king James in his 'Defence of the Rights of 
 Kings, respecting the authority of Christian princes over persons and 
 causes ecclesiastical.' Andrews undertook his performance on the com- 
 mand of his majesty ; aud was considered to have executed his task with 
 great ability. The work by which he is now best known is his 
 'Manual of Private Devotions and Meditations for every day in the 
 Week,' aud a 'Manual of Directions for the Visitation of the Sick.' 
 After his death, a volume, containing ninety-six of his sermons, was, 
 by the direction of Charles L, printed, under the care of Bishops 
 Laud and liuckeridge ; and another volume, consisting of a collection 
 of his tracts and speeches, also appeared in 1629. His work entitled 
 ' The Moral Law Expounded, or Lectures on the Ten Commandments,' 
 was first published in 1642. His "A7r«<nra<r/uaTia Sacra, or Collection 
 of Posthumous and Orphan Lectures, delivered at St. Paul's, aud St. 
 Giles's, Cripplegate,' appeared in a folio volume, in 1657. Bishop 
 Andrews was also one of the authors of the common translation of 
 the Bible. The portions iu which he was concerned were the Penta- 
 teuch, and the historical books from the Book of Judges to the Books 
 of Kings inclusive. 
 
 Bishop Audrews was indisputably the most learned of his English 
 contemporaries, excepting Usher, in the Fathers, ecclesiastical antiqui- 
 ties, and canon law. He was the head of that school which began to 
 rise in England iu the 16th century, which appealed to antiquity and 
 history in defence of the faith of the Church of England in its con- 
 flicts with Rome. To express his theological teuets briefly, he was 
 of the school which is generally called the school of Laud, holding 
 the doctrines of apostolic succession, that " the true and real body of 
 Christ is in the Eucharist," and entertaining high notions of ecclesi- 
 astical authority. He was opposed to the Puritans, who in consequence 
 called his doctrine irrational, atheistical, and worse than that of 
 Arminiaus. They also charged him with popery and superstition, 
 because of the ornaments of his chapel, aud the ceremonies there 
 practised. But Andrews was a man of more moderation than Laud, 
 as this circumstance will suffice to show. In 1625 Laud urged King 
 Charles to have the five predestinarian articles, which had been 
 determined upon by the synod of Dort, debated in the convocation 
 of the clergy, to show that they were never at any time the 
 received doctrines of the church. The king recommended Laud 
 to consult Andrews as to the propriety of the measure. Andrews 
 strongly opposed the renewal of the disputation, which he said 
 had already done too much mischief, and Laud ceased to agitate the 
 subject. 
 
 All the writings of Bishop Andrews display abundant learning ; but 
 his eloquence, notwithstanding the delight it appears to have afforded 
 his contemporaries, is but little calculated to please the present age. 
 Overspread as it k with verbal conceits and far-fetched allusions, aud 
 exhibiting in this way a perpetual labour of ingenuity, it altogether 
 wants that simplicity and directness of effect which is the soul of good 
 writing. Not that there is not a great deal of excellent sense wrapped 
 up in its tinsel tropes, and other puerile and grotesque decorations ; 
 but the whole life and spirit of every thought is most commonly 
 suffocated under a load of dead verbiage. The bishop's style how- 
 ever would seem to have wonderfully fascinated every body in his 
 own times. Fuller, who is greatly taken with it, and who affirms 
 that Dr. Andrews was an " inimitable preacher in his way," in an 
 anecdote which he tells with the view of showing how difficult or 
 impossible it was for those who attempted to copy him to match 
 their model, unconsciously records a severe and, at the same time, 
 well-deserved condemnation of the manuer of writing which he so 
 much admires. " Pious and pleasant Bishop Felton," he says, " his 
 contemporary and colleague, endeavoured in vain in his sermons to 
 assimilate his style, and therefore said merrily of himself, ' I had 
 almost marred my own natural trot by endeavouring to imitate his 
 artificial amble.' " 
 
 Casaubon, Cluverius, Grotius, Vossius, and other eminent scholars 
 of the time, have all highly eulogised the extensive erudition of 
 Bishop Andrews, which was wont, it appears, to overflow in his con- 
 versation, as well as iu his writings. He was also celebrated for his 
 talent at repartee, of which the following instance is told by tb.3 
 writer of a life of Waller, the poet, prefixed to his works. Waller 
 having one day gone to see James I. at dinner, saw the Bishop of 
 Winchester and Dr. Neale, bishop of Durham, standing behind the 
 king's chair, and overheard the following conversation. His majesty 
 asked the bishops, — " My lords, cannot I take my subjects' money 
 
ANDRIEUX, FRANCOIS-GUILLAUME. 
 
 ANDRONICUS COMNENUS. 
 
 whea I want it. without all this formality in parliament?" The 
 Bishop of Durham readily answered, "God forbid, sir, but you 
 should; you are the breath of our nostrils." Whereupon the king 
 turned, and said to the Bishop of Winchester, " Well, my lord, what 
 gay you?" " Sir," replied the bishop, "I have no skill to judge of 
 parliamentary cases." The kiDg answered, " No put offs, my lord ; 
 answer me presently." " Then, sir," said he, "I think it is lawful for 
 you to take my brother Neale's money, for he offers it." 
 
 Bishop Andrews adorned his learning and shining talents by the 
 highest reputation for piety, hospitality, charity, and munificence. 
 One of Milton's early Latin poems is an elegy on the death of this 
 distinguished prelate, in which he is bewailed in a strain of the most 
 impassioned regret and admiration. 
 
 ANDRIEUX, FRANCOIS-GUILLAUME-JEAN-STANISLAS, pro- 
 fessor of belles-lettres, was born at Strasbourg on the 6th of May, 
 1759. He studied in the college of Cardinal-le-Moine at Paris. At 
 the close of his academical course he was, in his seventeenth year, 
 placed in a proctor's office, with a view to make him master of the 
 technical details of law, his ultimate destination being the bar. His 
 master had no reason to complain of his progress ; but he composed 
 verses during his leisure hours, some of which appeared in the 
 ' Mercure ' and in the ' Almanach des Muses.' He was admitted 
 avocat by the parliament of Paris in 1781. 
 
 In the following year he became private secretary to the Due 
 d'Uzes. The death of his father, who had left his family in straitened 
 circumstances, compelled Andrieux to accept this situation. In 1785 
 he resumed his atteudance on the courts, as an assistant to the 
 eminent lawyer Hardouin. The weakness of his constitution and 
 voice confined him in a great measure to the business of a consulting 
 lawyer and preparer of written pleadings. In 1786 he was employed 
 in the latter capacity in the celebrated process of the diamond neck- 
 lace. In 1789 his subordinate career under Har.louin terminated. 
 During this apprenticeship to the practice of the courts Andrieux 
 still continued to make verses. His comedy, ' Les Etourdis,' was 
 brought upon the stage in 1787, and favourably received. 
 
 Andrieux was about to enter into the full privileges of his pro- 
 fession, when the Revolution swept away, with other institutions of 
 the old monarchy, the parliaments and the order of avocats. His 
 career from 1789 to the establishment of the empire in 1801 was that 
 of many other professional men, called upon to discharge the legal 
 and political functions to which they were educated, according to the 
 forms prescribed by the ephemeral governments which succeeded each 
 other with dizzy rapidity. His first appointment wns financial 'chef 
 de bureau de la liquidation g^uerale : ' this he resigned after the revo- 
 lution of the 31st of May. In 1796 he was elect d a member of the 
 Tribunal de Cassation. In 1798 the Electoral College of Paris elected 
 Andrieux one of the Council of Five Hundred. He appears to have 
 resigned his judicial situation previously, for in the national almanack 
 for 1798 his name stands at the head of the practitioners in the 
 Tribunal de Cassation. As a member of the Council of Five Hundred 
 he supported the re-organisation of primary schools and the appoint- 
 ment of teachers by election ; supported Berlier's motion on the 
 liberty of the press ; sought to modify the law regarding the deporta- 
 tion of priests; advocated the claims of public functionaries to an 
 adequate remuneration ; and in short distinguished himself by his 
 support of moderate and national views and by irreproachable integrity 
 at a period of universal excitement. In 1800 he was nominated one 
 of the tribunes, and soon after their secretary. Andncux's conduct 
 in this capacity was similar to that which he pursued in the Council 
 of Five Hundred; his independence gave umbrage to Napoleon, and 
 he was removed from the tribunate before the body was finally 
 suppressed. 
 
 This was a severe blow to him, who possessed no private fortune, 
 and who had to support two daughters, an aged mother, and a sister. 
 He does not appear to have made any effort to resume his profession 
 of the law or to re-enter the field of politics. Foucbe" offered him the 
 appointment of censor of the press, but his offer was declined. For 
 the remainder of his life Andrieux was exclusively devoted to literary 
 pursuits. His active career, the only memorials of which are to be 
 found in some printed pleadings and reports preserved in collections 
 of the pamphlets of the Revolution, closes here. Joseph Bonaparte, 
 who had learned to esteem Andrieux in the Council of Five Hundred, 
 appointed him his librarian, with a salary of 6000 francs, and obtained 
 for him the Cros3 of the Legion of Honour. In 1804 he was made 
 librarian to the senate, and soon after professor of grammar and 
 belles-lettres to the Ecole Polytechnique. 
 
 Andrieux was the first literary professor attached to the institu- 
 tion ; the course of education having been previously confined to the 
 physical sciences and pure and applied mathematics. He rendered 
 the class extremely popular with the students, who used to quit their 
 recreations to attend his lectures. The task of analysing the exercises 
 its composition of the scholars, candidates for commissions, was dele- 
 gated to Andrieux by the examiner, and was for nearly twelve years 
 discharged exclusively by him. He was deprived of his chair at the 
 restoration, and Aime' Martin was appointed his successor. 
 
 He retained however the appointment of professor of literature in 
 the College de France, to which he had been called by the concurring 
 votes of the college itself, the institute, and the minister of the 
 
 interior. He continued to officiate as a highly popular lecturer in this 
 chair for nineteen years. It was no uncommon circumstance to see 
 all the places filled two hours beforo the commencement of the 
 lecture. His organs of speech were remarkably weak, but as he said 
 of himself, " I know how to make my hearers understand, by making 
 them listen." He died on the 10th of May, 1833. 
 
 Andrieux was as indefatigable a writer during the revolution, under 
 the empire and the restoration, as in his earlier life. His works may 
 be classified as dramatic, professorial, and miscellaneous. His plays 
 are fifteen in number. His professorial works are only three : 
 ' Lectures on Grammar and Belles-Lettres for the Use of the Poly- 
 technic School ; ' ' A Report on the Continuation of the Dictionary of 
 the French Academy;' and ' Lectures on the Philosophy of the Belles- 
 Lettres,' which does not appear to have been published. The miscel- 
 laneous works of Andrieux — his occasional poems, prose tales, dloges, 
 and reviews — are very numerous. The collections of Andrieux's 
 works, though published by himself, are not complete. One appeared 
 in 1817, in three octavo volumes, to which a fourth was added in 
 1823. Another was published, in six volumes 18mo, a few years later. 
 There is nothing in the writings of Andrieux to account for the popu- 
 larity of his lectures. There is a good-humoured air of pleasantry in 
 the lighter pieces, but nothing brilliant or original ; though by some 
 of his countrymen he is placed next after Moliere, Regnard, and 
 Destouches : his best pieces are ' Les Etourdis,' and ' La Comedienne.' 
 The tragedies and didactic writings are common-place in the last 
 degree. 
 
 ANDRO'MACHE, the wife of Hector. It is also the title of one 
 of the extant tragedies of Euripides. 
 
 ANDRO'MACHUS, a native of Crete, and physician to the emperor 
 Nero. He was the inventor of a celebrated compound medicine 
 called Theriake (QrtpiaK-q), the preparation of which he described in a 
 poem which has been preserved in the collection of Galen's works. 
 
 ANDKONI'CUS was the advocate of the Jews under the reign of 
 Ptolemseus Philometor in their proceedings against the Samaritans in 
 Egypt, who, by asserting the authority of the temple on Mount 
 Garizim, or Gerizim, against the temple at Jerusalem, occasioned a 
 controversy which terminated in bloodshed. The Egyptian Jews 
 (although they had built, about the year B.C. 150, an heretical temple 
 of their own, in the province of Heliopolis) zealously defended the 
 authority of the temple at Jerusalem. After the arguments were 
 exhausted, both parties took up arms, and having found that blows 
 could not decide the matter, they appealed to the king, Ptolemseus 
 Philometor, who appointed a solemn day of judgment. In full court 
 it was agreed, that those who were found in error should be killed 
 for the bloodshed already committed. The Samaritan advocates, 
 Sabbai (Sabbseus) and Theodosius, lost their cause against Andronicus, 
 and were put to death. The arbitrary administration of justice in 
 those times, and the character of Ptolemjeus Philometor, render this 
 account not quite incredible. (Josephus, Antiquities, lib. xiii. cap. 7, 
 ed. Aureliae Allobrog., p. 434 ; Jost, Qeschichte der Juden, vol. ii. 
 pp. 308-309.) 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS COMNE'NUS, emperor of Constantinople, was 
 grandson of Alexis I. In his youth he distinguished himself in the 
 army under his cousin, the Emperor Manuel, against the Turks and 
 Armenians, but having entered into a treasonable correspondence with 
 the king of Hungary, he was arrested and confined in a tower of the 
 palace, where he remained twelve years. He contrived to escape, and 
 after several romantic adventures arrived at Kiew, in Russia, where 
 he won the favour of the Grand Duke Jaroslaus. Andronicus, in hi? 
 exile at Kiew, became instrumental in forming an alliance between 
 the Russian prince and the Emperor Manuel, and thus obtained his 
 pardon from the latter. He led a body of Russian cavalry from the 
 banks of the Borysthenes to the Danube, and assisted the emperor 
 against the Hungarians at the siege of Semlin. After the peace, 
 having returned to Constantinople, he protested against the adoption 
 of Bela, prince of Hungary, who had married the only daughter of 
 the emperor, as presumptive heir to the throne. Andronicus was 
 himself next in the order of succession. The Emperor Manuel how- 
 ever, having married a second wife, Maria, daughter of Raymund of 
 Poitou, prince of Antioch, had by her a son, who was afterwards 
 Alexis II. From his dissolute conduct and his intrigues he excited 
 the anger of the emperor, and was at length banished to Ginoe, a town 
 of Pontus, on the coast of the Euxine, between Cape Heraclium and 
 Cape Jasonium, where he remained till the death of Manuel in 11S0, 
 and the disorders of a disputed succession, induced the patriarch, and 
 the principal patricians, to recall Andronicus, as the only man who 
 could restore peace to the empire. He arrived in the capital in the 
 midst of acclamations, acknowledged the young Alexis as emperor, 
 but arrested the empress-mother, who had been in some measure the 
 cause of the troubles. Andronicus was associated in the empire as 
 colleague and guardian to Alexis. He then developed his ambitious 
 views. He first caused the empress-mother to be tried on a false 
 charge of treasonable correspondence. She was condemned unheard, 
 and was strangled, and her body thrown into the sea. He next 
 murdered young Alexis himself, and then assumed the undivided 
 authority as emperor in 1183. He married Agnes, Alexis's widow, 
 and sister to Philippe Augusta of France, who was still almost a child. 
 " Andronicus's short reign," says Gibbon, " exhibited a singular 
 
215 
 
 ANDRONICUS CYRRHESTES. 
 
 ANGLESEY, MARQUIS OF. 
 
 contrast of vice and virtue ; when he listened to his passions, he was 
 the scourge, when he consulted bis reason, the father of his people. In 
 the exercise of private justice he was equitable and rigorous ; he 
 repressed venality, and filled the offices with the most deserving candi- 
 dates. The provinces, so long the objects of oppression or neglect, 
 revived in prosperity and plenty, and millions applauded the distant 
 blessings of his reign, while he was cursed by the witnesses of his daily 
 cruelties. The ancient proverb, that bloodthirsty is the man who 
 returns from banishment to power, was verified again in Andronicus." 
 (' Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.') Individuals and towns, 
 for the gratification of Mis revenge, were treated with the greatest 
 barbarity. At last, so many terrors drove the people of Constantino- 
 ple to revolt. Isaac Angel us, one of the proscribed and a descendant 
 in the female line from Alexis I., took refuge in the church of St. 
 Sophia. A crowd assembled and proclaimed him emperor. Andro- 
 nicus was then, with his young wife, in one of the islands of the 
 Propontis; he rushed to Constantinople, but was overpowered, taken 
 prisoner, and dragged to the presence of Isaac Angelas, who, without 
 any form of trial, gave him up to the personal revenge of hia enemies. 
 He was insulted aud tormented in every possiblo manner ; his teeth, 
 eyes, and hair were torn from him, and lastly, ho was hung by the 
 feet between two pillars. In his painful agony he was heard to appeal 
 to heavenly mercy, entreating it " not to bruise a broken reed." At 
 last some one ran a sword through his body, aud put an end to his 
 sufferings. This dreadful catastrophe happened in September, 1185 ; 
 Andronicus was theu past sixty years of age. 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS CYRUHESTES, an architect who constructed, or, 
 at least, a person whose name is attached to, one of the existing 
 remains of ancient Athens, commonly called the Tower of the Winds. 
 This monument stands to the north of the Acropolis, and is thus 
 described by Vitruvius : — " Those who have paid most attention to 
 the winds make them eight in number, and particularly Andronicus 
 Cyrrhestes, who built at Athens an octagonal marble tower, and cut 
 on each face the figure of the several winds, each being turned to the 
 quarter from which that wind blows; on the tower he erected a 
 marble column (meta), on which he placed a Triton of bronze, holding 
 out a rod iu his right hand ; and he so contrived it, that the figure 
 moved round with the wind, and constantly stood opposite to it; the 
 rod, which was above the figure, showed in what direction the wind 
 blew." 
 
 This building was intended for a sun-dial, and it also contained a 
 water-clock, which was supplied with water from the spring under 
 the cave of Pan on the north-west corner of the Acropolis. Colonel 
 Leake is disposed to assign the date of this building to about B.C. 159. 
 
 (Leake, Topography of Athens; Elgin 3[arbles, vol. i. p. 29, in 
 Library of Entertaining Knowledge.) 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS LIVIUS. [Livius.] 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS PALiEO'LOGUS, the Elder, son of Michael, 
 emperor of Constantinople, was raised by his father as his colleague 
 to the throne in 1273; aud after Michael s death, in 1282, he reigned 
 forty-six years more. The reign of Andronicus was disturbed by 
 religious controversies and wars. In 1303 a body of Catalonian and 
 other adventurers came to Constantinople to assist Andronicus against 
 the Turks. They defeated the Turks in Asia, but they ravaged the 
 country, and behaved worse than the Turks themselves. Andronicus, 
 partly by force and partly through bribes, succeeded at last in getting 
 rid of these allies. In 1320, Michael, son of Andronicus, having died, 
 Michael's son, Andronicus, distinguished by the historians by the 
 appellation of ' the Younger,' revolted against his father ; and alter 
 several years of war, was crowned as colleague to the old emperor in 
 1325. Another sedition broke out in 1328, which ended in the abdi- 
 cation of the elder Andronicus, who retired to a convent. He died 
 in his cell four years after his abdication, and in the seventy-fourth 
 year of his age. During these disastrous wars between the two 
 Andionici, the Ottomans effected the conquest of all Bithynia, and 
 advanced with>in sight of Constantinople. Andronicus, the Younger, 
 died in 1341, in the forty-fifth year of his age, leaving by his wife, 
 Jane or Anne of Savoy, a boy, John Pakeologus, who was put under 
 the guardianship of John Cantacuzenus. (Gibbon, Decline and Fall; 
 the Byzantine Historians; Hammer, Geschichte des Osmanischen 
 Reichcs.) 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS RHO'DIUS, or the Rhodian, is said to have first 
 arranged the works of Aristotle, after they had been brought to Rome 
 in the library of Apellicon of Teos, by Sulia, B.C. 81. The manuscripts 
 Lad been committed to the care of Andronicus by Tyrannion, the 
 grammarian, who seems to have been originally employed to put them 
 in order. Some authorities also refer to Commentaries of this 
 Andronicus on certain of Aristotle's works. The last work however 
 supposed to be by this writer, which was recovered in modern times, 
 was a short treatise, published by David Hoeschelius, in 12mo, at 
 Augsburg, in 1594, under the title of ' Audronici Rhodii Peripatetici 
 Libellus Uepi TlaQuv.' There is also a Greek treatise on the ' Nico- 
 macheau Ethics ' of Aristotle, which is attributed to this Andronicus. 
 It was translated into English by W. Bridgmau, London, 1807. 
 ANGELICO. [Fiesole, Fba Giovanni da.] 
 ANGELO, MICHEL. [Buonarroti, Michel Angelo.] 
 ANGELO'NI, LUIGI, born about the year 1758, at Frosinone, in 
 the Campagna of Rome, was the sou of a merchant of Lombardy, 
 
 who had settled and married in that town. He lived quietly till 1798, 
 when the French republican armies, under Berthier and Massena, 
 invaded the Roman States, and drove away the Pope, and set up the 
 pageant of the ' Roman Republic,' under the protection of France. 
 They appointed consuls, senators, and tribunes, from among those 
 who were favourable to republican principles, and Angeloni being 
 chosen as one of the tribunes, went to live at Rome. 
 
 In September, 1799, the Neapolitan troops took Rome, and the Roman 
 Republic was at an end. The French garrison and the members of the 
 republican government were allowed to embark at Civita Vecchia, and 
 proceed to France. Thus Angeloni, with many of his countrymen, be- 
 came an emigrant. He repaired to Paris, where Bonaparte having upset 
 the Directory, had made himself First Consul of France. Bonaparte 
 showed little favour to the Roman emigrants, whom he considered pro- 
 bably as unmanageable enthusiasts; and they, on their part, becoming 
 intimate with other republicans, both Italian and French, hatched a 
 conspiracy against him. Angeloni and other Roman emigrants became 
 implicated, and they were arrested ; but no proof being elicited against 
 them, they were released. Ho was subsequently arrested upon another 
 charge, and was imprisoned fourteen months. In 1810, FoucW, when 
 sent by Napoleon in a sort of honourable banishment to Rome, offered 
 to take Angeloni with him, but Angeloni refused. In 1811 Angeloni 
 published at Paris a work of considerable erudition on the life and 
 works of Guido d'Arezzo, the restorer of music. In 1814, after the 
 downfall of Napoleon, Angeloni published a pamphlet, suggesting the 
 manner in which he fancied that Italy ought to be governed. He 
 was at the same time one of the first to claim for Italy, and especially 
 for Rome, the restitution of the sculptures, paintings, and manu- 
 scripts taken away by the French in 1797-98. After the revolutionary 
 attempts of Naples and Piedmont of 1820-21, a number of Italian 
 refugees went to Paris, where they often met at Angeloni's house. 
 Angeloni had previously, in 1819-20, been in correspondence with 
 some of the leading men who figured in the movement of Piedmout. 
 All this excited the suspicion of the French police; and Angeloni, 
 with others, was in March, 1823, escorted by gendarmes to the sea- 
 coast, and there shipped off for England. From that time till his 
 death he resided chiefly in London. Angeloni having superadded to 
 bis democratic ideas certain phrenological notions which he laid hold 
 of from Dr. Gall's writings and conversation, upon which he com- 
 mented in his own way, came to the conclusion, that right and wrong, 
 morality and immorality, are mere conventional names ; that force 
 constitutes right, and that men act and must ever act according to 
 the disposition which nature gave them in shaping their brain. With 
 a tenacity which increased with age, he continued to foretell the 
 advent of universal democracy, for that was with him a fixed idea, 
 which no disappointments could remove. Augeloni died in London 
 at the beginning of 1842. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, MARQUIS OF, 
 eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, was born May 17, 1768. 
 He was educated at Westminster school, and Christchurch, Oxford ; 
 and entered Parliament as member for the Caernarvon boroughs in 
 1790. His predilection was however for a military life, and it fouud 
 free scope at the outbreak of the revolutionary war in 1793, when he 
 eagerly set about raising from his father's tenantry a regiment called 
 at first the Staffordshire Volunteers, but which was admitted into the 
 establishment as the 80th Foot. Of this regiment he was appointed 
 lieutenant-colonel on its having marie up it3 complement of 1000 men. 
 At the same time he received corresponding preferment in the army, 
 his lieutenant-colonel's commission bearing date September 12, 1793. 
 In 1794 he joined the army of the Duke of York in Flanders, and 
 greatly distinguished himself during the remainder of that campaign. 
 
 On his return to England, Lord Paget was transferred to the com- 
 mand of a cavalry regiment, and commenced the career which at do 
 distant day caused him to be regarded as the first cavalry officer in the 
 service. As commander of the cavalry he accompanied the Duke of 
 York into Holland in 1799. This short and disastrous campaign 
 afforded few opportunities of acquiring distinction, but iu the general 
 attack Lord Paget succeeded in defeating a much superior body of the 
 enemy's cavalry ; and in the retreat, where he occupied the rear, he 
 gained a signal triumph over a much larger force under General Simon. 
 From this time he remained at home diligently occupied in training 
 the regiment of which he was colonel, and in carrying out the system 
 of cavalry evolutions which he had introduced, until near the end of 
 1808, when, having previously been made major-general, he was sent 
 into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join the army of Sir John 
 Moore. In forming this junction General Paget was perfectly suc- 
 cessful, and on the road he succeeded in cutting off a party of French 
 posted at Rueda — this being the first encounter between the English 
 and French in Spain. On joining Sir John Moore the cavalry under 
 Lord Paget was pushed forward, and on the same day, December 20, 
 came up with a superior body of French cavalry, and defeated it, 
 taking above 150 prisoners, including two lieutenant-colonels. These 
 victories gave the English cavalry an amount of confidence in them- 
 selves and their commander which in the subsequent retreat was of 
 the utmost value. During the retreat Lord Paget with his cavalry 
 formed the rear-guard. After the infantry and heavy artillery had 
 
217 
 
 ANGLESEY, MARQUIS OF. 
 
 ANGOULEME, DUC D'. 
 
 218 
 
 quitted Benevente he received intelligence that the enemy had arrived, 
 and that their cavalry were crossing the Ezla. Lord Paget hastened 
 to the ford, and directed the 10th Hussars under General Stewart to 
 charge the Imperial Guard, who had crossed the stream. The French 
 were driven hack with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and pri- 
 soners, among the latter being General Lefebvre Desnouettes, com- 
 mander of the Imperial Guard. At the battle of Corunna Lord Paget 
 had the command of the reserve, and his charge in support of the right 
 wing, which was menaced by a far superior force, decided the fortune 
 of the day. 
 
 Lord Paget returned to England in 1809, and did not again serve 
 abroad during the Peninsular war. In 1810 he was divorced from his 
 first wife, by whom he had had eight children. Soon after the divorce 
 Lady Paget married the Duke of Argyll, and Lord Paget married Lady 
 Cowley, who had just been divorced from Lord Cowley. In 1812 he 
 succeeded, by the death of his father, to the title of Earl of Uxbridge. 
 
 In the early part of 1815 the Earl of Uxbridge commanded the troops 
 collected in London for the suppression of the corn-law riots ; but a 
 more important service soon devolved upon him. When Napoleon 
 escaped from Elba, and startled Europe by the ease with which he 
 re-assumed the imperial crown, the armies of the allied sovereigns 
 were at once set in motion against him. The Earl of Uxbridge was 
 appointed commander of the cavalry of the English army, and his 
 management of this arm of the service excited general admiration. 
 At the battle of Waterloo his gallantry, as well as his skill, was con- 
 spicuous amidst the almost unequalled gallantry of which that field 
 was the theatre. It was the final charge of the heavy brigade, led by 
 the earl, that destroyed the famous French Guard, and with it the 
 hopes of the emperor. Almost at the close of the battle a shot struck 
 the earl on the knee, and it was found necessary to amputate his leg. 
 The limb was buried in a garden by the field of battle, and some 
 enthusiastic Belgian admirers erected on the spot a monument, with 
 an inscription commemorating the circumstance, which is always one 
 of the objects shown to visitors to Waterloo. The service rendered 
 by the earl at Waterloo was generally recognised and duly rewarded. 
 Immediately the despatebeo of the commander-in-chief were received 
 the earl was raised to the dignity of Marquis of Anglesey, aud nomi- 
 nated a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath ; while he received 
 from the emperors of Austria and Russia, and other European sove- 
 reigns, corresponding knightly dignities. In 1818 he was elected 
 Knight of the Order of the Garter; in 1819 he attained the full rank 
 of general ; at the coronation of George IV. he held the office of Lord 
 High Steward of England ; and in 1826 he received the sinecure office 
 of Captain of Cowes Castle. 
 
 When Conning became prime minister, April 1827, the Marquis of 
 Anglesey formed one of his cabinet, having succeeded the Duke of 
 Wellington as Master-General of the Ordnance ; but this office he 
 resigned in the following spring to become, under the ministry of the 
 Duke of Wellington, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. To the duties of 
 this important station the marquis addressed himself with characte- 
 ristic energy, and by his zeal, impartiality, and ardent temperament, 
 won a remarkable share of popularity. But his ardour outran his 
 discretion. He had already in conversation expressed opinions which 
 the ministry regarded as imprudent, and found to be inconvenient ; 
 end when, in December 1828, he wrote a letter to the Roman Catholic 
 primate directly favourable to Roman Catholic emancipation, he was 
 at once recalled. The day of his departure from the castle was kept 
 in Dublin as a day of mourning ; the shops were closed, business was 
 suspended, and his embarkation was attended by large numbers of all 
 classes of the citizens. In the House of Lords the marquis was a warm 
 advocate of the measure which his letter had done much to hasten 
 forward. Earl Grey became prime minister in November, 1830, aud 
 the Marquis of Anglesey was restored to his vice-regal office. But his 
 popularity did not return to him. He set his face against the pro- 
 ceedings of O'Connell, and his former services were forgotten. The 
 coercion acts which he thought it needful to obtain for securing the 
 public peace in Ireland led to great dissatisfaction : misunderstandings 
 and recriminations occurred between O'Connell, who declared himself 
 tricked, and the ministry, and in consequence Earl Grey resigned July, 
 1833; and with him the Marqui3 of Anglesey, who was regarded as 
 the cause of the ministerial break-up, also quitted office. Of the 
 thorough honesty of purpose of the marquis's administration of his 
 Tice-regal functions, after the temporary clamours against him had 
 subsided, there has been nowhere any doubt. That he displayed any 
 high order of statesmanship there can be no pretension raised. The 
 institution by which his tenure of office is most likely to be remem- 
 bered is the Irish Board of Education, which was originated aud care- 
 fully fostered by him, and which has proved one of the greatest benefits 
 conferred on Ireland in recent years. 
 
 From this time the marquis took little part in public affairs until 
 the formation of the administration of Lord John Russell in July, 
 1846, when he again became Master-General of the Ordnance ; the 
 duties of which office he sedulously performed till February, 1852, 
 when the Russell ministry was replaced by that of Lord Derby. He 
 was made colonel of the Horse Guards in 1842, and was advanced to 
 the dignity of field-marshal in 1846. He died full of years and honours 
 April 29, 1854. By his first wife the Marquis of Anglesey had issue 
 two sons aud six daughters; by his second wife he had six sons and 
 
 four daughters. He was succeeded in his title, and as lord-lieutenant 
 
 of Anglesey, by his eldest son, the present marquis. 
 
 ANGOULEMK, DUC aud DUCHESSE D'. Louis Antoine de 
 Bourbon, Due d'Angouleme, and afterwards Dauphin of France, the 
 son of the t'ornte d'Artois (afterwards king by the name of Charles X.), 
 and of Marie The'r6se de Savoie, was born at Versailles on the 6th of 
 August, 1775, and died at Goritz on the 3rd of June, 1844. He was 
 fourteen years of age when the revolution broke out. The Comte 
 d'Artois, in order to protest by his absence against those concessions 
 for which he blamed his brother, the king, emigrated in 1789; his two 
 sons followed him to Turin, the court of their grandfather, where for 
 some time they devoted themselves to the military sciences. In 1792 
 the young duke received a command in Germany, but attained no 
 distinction. The ill success of this campaign induced him to return 
 to a state of inaction, in which he continued until 1814. In 1799 ho 
 married his cousin, the unhappy orphan of the Temple, whose whole 
 life had been one continued series of misfortunes. 
 
 Marie Therese Charlotte, the daughter of king Louis XVI. by his 
 marriage with Marie Antoinette of Austria, and who from her cradle 
 bore the title of Madame Royale, was born at Versailles on the 1 9th 
 of December, 1778, and died October 19th, 1851. She was not fourteen 
 years old when the events of the 10th of August, 1792, overthrew her 
 father's throne, aud drove her entire family from the pomps of Ver- 
 sailles to the prison of the Temple. Her parents were led thence to 
 the scaffold; and the young princess had successively to deplore her 
 father, her mother, her aunt Elizabeth, and her brother. At last 
 Austria remembered the grand-daughter of Marie Therese ; negoci- 
 ations were made in her favour; and on the 26th of December, 1795, 
 at Riehen, near Bale, they effected an exchange of the daughter of 
 Louis XVI. for four members of the National Convention. Arrived 
 at Vienna, the princess remained there more than three years, living 
 on a legacy bequeathed to her by her aunt, the Duchess of Saxe 
 Teschen. She married her cousin at Mittau on the 10th of Juue, 
 1799. The newly-married couple remained at Mittau till the com- 
 mencement of 1801. They then sought an asylum at Warsaw. Fortune 
 tossed them from place to place. Given up by Prussia, they returned 
 to Mittau in 1805 ; and the following year the Emperor Alexander, in 
 his turn, abandoned them. England, to which the power of Napoleon 
 could not reach, alone offered them a lasting refuge. Here Louis XVIII. 
 repaired towards the end of 1806, and some time after purchased a 
 residence at Hartwell, in Buckinghamshire, where all the family were 
 soon re-united. There the Duke and Duchess d'Angouleme lived in 
 the most profound retirement, until the Anglo-Spanish army passed 
 the Pyrenees, when the Duke d'Angouleme joined it, having landed 
 at a Spanish port on the Mediterranean. 
 
 After the restoration of the Bourbon family the Duke and the 
 Duchess d'Angouleme were at Bordeaux, which was regarded as an 
 eminently royalist town, and very favourable to the Bourbon cause, 
 when on the 9th of March the news of Napoleon's landing was con- 
 veyed to them from Paris. Having been appointed the preceding year 
 colonel-general of the Cuirassiers and Dragoons, and high-admiral of 
 France, the duke then received the extraordinary powers of a lieute- 
 nant-general of the kingdom. He immediately formed a government 
 for the southern provinces, collected troops, and on the road to Lyon 
 gained several advantages over the Bonapartists. On her part, the 
 duchess eviuced great resolution; reviewed the troops, visited tliem 
 in barracks, and endeavoured to rekindle the dying spark of love for 
 the Bourbons. It was no doubt concerning this conduct that Napoleon 
 remarked of her, that she was " the only man of her family." Her 
 efforts were however as fruitless as those of her husband. But the 
 second abdication of Napoleon after the battle of Waterloo decided 
 the question without a civil war. 
 
 On the accession of Charles X., September 16th, 1824, the Duke 
 d'Angouleme took the ancient title of Dauphin. 
 
 The decrees of the 25th of July, 1830, re-opened the road which was 
 for the third time to conduct the royal family to the land of exile. 
 They arrived in England on the 23rd of August, and were received as 
 private individuals. Charles X. asked and obtained leave to take up 
 his abode, when at Edinburgh, in Holyrood Castle. 
 
 They soon after removed to the continent, and fixed their residence 
 at Goritz, in Hungary. The duchess survived her husband seven 
 years. 
 
 ANGOULEME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUC D', the natural son 
 of Charles IX. of France aud Marie Touchet, was born April 28, 1573, 
 about a year before the death of his father. Being educated for the 
 church, he was at the age of fourteen made abbot of Chaise-Dieu, and 
 two years after Grand Prior of France, that is, head of the Order of 
 the Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, or Knights of Malta, in that 
 kingdom. This same year however, having received by the bequest 
 of Catherine de Medicis the earldoms of Auvergne and Lauraguais, he 
 relinquished his ecclesiastical condition ; aud henceforth he appears 
 chiefly in a military character. He was one of the first to give in his 
 allegiance to Henry IV., in whose cause he fought with distinguished 
 gallantry at Arques, at Ivry, aud at Fontaine-Fraucoise. After the ter- 
 mination of the war however he is charged with having been concerned 
 both in the conspiracy of the Marshal de Biron in 1602, aud in that 
 fomented iu 1604 by the Marchioness de Verneuil, Henry's mistress, 
 who was Augouleme's halt-sjater. being a daughter of Marie Touchet. 
 
110 
 
 ANGUISCIOLA, SOFONISBA. 
 
 A NIELLO, TOMMASO. 
 
 220 
 
 For his share in the first of these attempts he was sent to the Bastille, 
 but was soon set at liberty ; on the next occasion sentence of death 
 was passed on him, but the punishment was commuted into perpetual 
 imprisonment. In 1606 the possessions which had been left him by 
 Catherine de Mcdicis were taken from him by a decree of the parlia- 
 ment, and bestowed upon the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. In 
 1616 however he was released by that king from his long imprison- 
 ment; and in 1619 he was made Due dAngouleme, having till then 
 borne the title of Comte d'Auvergne. He was also appointed general 
 of the Light Dragoons of France, and in 1620 was Beut on a special 
 embassy to the court of the Emperor Ferdinand II. He afterwards 
 resumed his military career. It was he who in August 1628 commenced 
 the famous siege of Rochelle, where the Huguenots held out atrainst 
 the royal forces till they were obliged to surrender after an obstinate 
 defence of nine months. After this he served for some years in 
 Langnedoc, Germany, and Flanders, in the war against the house of 
 Austria, which occupied the last years of Louis XIII. and the com- 
 mencement of the reign of his successor. He died at Paris, September 
 24, 1650. The following works by the Due d'Angouleme were pub- 
 lished during his life : — ' Les Harangues prononcdes en l'Assemblde 
 de MM. lea Princes Protestants d'Allemagiie,' par le Due d'Angoulome, 
 8vo, 1620 ; ' La Gdndrale et Fidele Relation de tout ce qui s'est passe' 
 on l'lle de Rd, euvoyde par le Roi h, la Heine sa Mere,' 8vo, 1627; and 
 ' Relation de l'Origine et des Succds des Sehdrifs, et de l'Etat des 
 Royaurjes de Maroc, de Fez, et de Tamdant, dcrite en Espaguol par 
 Diego de Torres, et traduite par M. C. D. V. D'A.' (M. Charles de Valois 
 d'Angouldme), 4to, Paris, 1636. In 1667 an account of the duke's 
 embassy to Ferdinand II. was published at Paris in a folio volume by 
 Henri, comte de Bdthune, grandson of Philippe, comte de Bdthune, 
 who was associated with Angoulume on that occasion, and who took 
 indeed the chief management of the uegociation. The Duke of Angou- 
 leme was married first, on March 6, 1591, to Charlotte, daughter of 
 the Constable Henri de Montmorency; and s condly, on February 25, 
 1614, to Franchise de Narbonne, who survived him many years, dying 
 August 10, 1715, at the age of 92. 
 
 ANGUI'SCIOLA, SOFONISBA, a celebrated painter of Cremona, 
 where she was born of noble parents about 1533. She was instructed 
 first at Cremona with her sister Helen (who subsequently turned nun) 
 by Bernardino Campi, and afterwards at Milan by Bernardino Gatti, 
 called Soiaro. She had great ability for painting, especially portraits, 
 in which she was one of the best artists of her time. Indeed she 
 acquired so great a reputation by her portraits, that she was invited 
 by Philip II. to Spain to enter into the service of the queen. 
 
 Sofonisba was in such favour with the king that he gave her a 
 husband in the person of Don Fabrizzio di Moncada, a Sicilian noble- 
 man, and a dowry of 12,000 scudi ; and allotted her a pension of 1000 
 scudi, or crowns. After her marriage she left Spain to reside in 
 Palermo, but her husband died after she had resided there a few years. 
 Having obtained leave from Philip II. to return to her own country, 
 some time after her arrival in Genoa she was married to the captain 
 of the galley in which she sailed, Orazio Lomellino. In Genoa she 
 continued to paint and add to her reputation. When she grew old 
 she became blind, but was still cheerful, and constantly received com- 
 pany : her house was a rendezvous of the virtuosi oT Genoa. Vandyck 
 when he was in Italy attended her parties, and is reported to have 
 said, that he learnt more from the conversation of an old blind woman 
 thau by studying the great masters of Italy. There is nothing of that 
 feebleness of drawing in the works of this lady which characterise 
 those of Angelica Kauffmann. There are extant several portraits of 
 Sofonisba by her own hand ; one of them is at Althorp, Northampton- 
 shire, in which she is playing upon the harpsichord. She died about 1620. 
 
 ANGUS, EARLS OF. [Douglas.] 
 
 A'NHALT, PRINCES AND DUKES OF. The house of Anhalt 
 is one of the oldest Saxon dynasties in Northern Germany, and is now 
 divided into the branches of Anhalt-Bernburg and Anhalt-Dessau, 
 both of which have the title of Duke, and were sovereign members of 
 the German Confederation. In the middle ages this dynasty ruled 
 over the greater part of Northern Germany, being invested with the 
 duchy of Saxony and the margraviate of Brandenburg. The branches 
 of Saxony and Brandenburg became extinct in the 14th and in the 
 15th centuries; and the branch of the dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg, who 
 were descendants from the dukes of Saxony, became extinct towards 
 the end of the 17th century. Of the minor branches, Anhalt-Zerbst 
 became extinct in 1793, and Anhalt-Kothen in 1847, the property in 
 both cases reverting to the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau. 
 
 ANIELLO, TOMMASO, called by contraction Masaniello, a young 
 fisherman, and a native of Amalfi, lived at Naples towards the middle 
 of the 17th century, under the government of the Duke d'Arcos, 
 viceroy of Philip IV. of Spain. Naples was then suffering all the 
 evils of delegated absolute power; its treasures went to Spain, its 
 youth were sent to fill up the ranks of the Spanish army, and both 
 were wasted in ruinous war3 for the ambition and selfish views of a 
 distant court. The people were oppressed with taxes, and suffered 
 from the injustice and wanton tyranny of the officers and other agents 
 of a foreign power. In the year 1647 the Duke d'Arcos, in order to 
 defray the expenses of a war against France, thought as a last expe- 
 dient to levy a tax on fruit and vegetables, the common articles of 
 food of the Neapolitan people. The edict which announced this fresh 
 
 impost occasioned the greatest ferment, especially among the poorer 
 classes of inhabitants. An old priest of the namo of Genoino, who 
 had been in prison for some former offence, contributed to inflame the 
 general discontent. Masaniello, who was then about 25 years of age, 
 and who by his humour and natural quickness was a great favourite 
 among the people of the Mercato, the great market-place of Naples, 
 spoke aloud among bis friends against the new tax. Hia wife had 
 been arrested some time before at the gates of the city, as Bhe was 
 tryiug to Bmuggle in some flour, which like everything else was a 
 taxed article. She was kept in prison several days, and her husband 
 had to pay in order to obtain her release. Masaniello had accordingly, 
 as we might expect, conceived a violent hatred against the Spanish 
 government. . 
 
 Masaniello was at the head of a troop of young men who were 
 preparing for the great festival of Our Lady of the Carmel, by 
 exhibiting sham combats, and a mock attack on a wooden castle. On 
 the 7th of July, 1647, he and his juvenile troop were standing in the 
 market-place, where, in consequence of the obnoxious tax, but few 
 countrymen had come with the produce of their gardens ; the people 
 looked sullen and dissatisfied. A dispute arose between a country- 
 man and a customer who had bought some figs, as to which of the 
 two was to bear the burden of the tax. The ' eletto,' a municipal 
 magistrate, acting as provost of the trade, being appealed to, decided 
 against the countryman, upon which the latter in a rage upset the 
 basket of figs on the pavement. A crowd Boon collected round the 
 man, who was cursing the tax and the tax-gatherers. Masaniello ran 
 to the spot, crying out " No taxes, no more taxes I " The cry was 
 caught and repeated by a thousand voices. The eletto tried to speak 
 to the multitude, but Masaniello threw a bunch of figs in his face, the 
 rest fell upon him, and he and his attendants escaped with difficulty. 
 Masauicllo then addressed the people around him in a speech of coarse 
 hot fiery eloquence ; he described their common grievances and 
 miseries, and pointed out the necessity of putting a stop to the oppres- 
 sion and avarice of their rulers. " The Neapolitan people," said he, 
 " must pay no more taxes I " The people cried out, " Let Masaniello 
 be our chief 1 " The crowd now set itself in motion, with Masaniello 
 at their head ; it rolled onwards, increasing its numbers at every step ; 
 their rage fell first on the toll-houses and booths of the tax-collectors, 
 which were burnt, and next on the houses and palaces of those who 
 had farmed the taxes or otherwise supported the obnoxious system. 
 Armed with such weapons as they could procure from the gunsmiths' 
 shops and others, they proceeded to the viceroy's palace, and forced 
 their way in spite of the guards ; and Masaniello and others of his com- 
 panions, having reached the viceroy's presence, peremptorily demanded 
 the abolition of all taxes. The viceroy assented to this ; but the 
 tumult increasing, he tried to escape, was personally ill-treated, and at 
 last contrived by throwing money among the rioters to withdraw 
 himself into the Castel Nuovo. The palaces were emptied of their 
 furniture, which was carried in the midst of the square and there 
 burnt by Masaniello's directions. Masaniello was now saluted by 
 acclamation as ' Captain-General of the Neapolitan people,' and a 
 platform was raised for him in the square, where he sat in judgment 
 in his fisherman's attire, holding a naked sword in his hand ; thence 
 he issued his orders, and his will was law. The citizens in general, 
 besides the populace, obeyed him ; a sort of commonwealth was 
 organised, and the men were armed and distributed into regiments. 
 The few Spanish and German troops of the viceroy were defeated, and 
 obliged to defend themselves within the ca a tles. The viceroy in this 
 extremity proposed Cardinal Filomarino, the archbishop of Naples, 
 who was a man of abilities, and withal popular, to act as mediator 
 between him and the people. Articles were drawn up under Masa- 
 niello's direction, by which all imposts upon articles of consumption 
 were abolished, and the privileges granted by Charles V. restored, 
 besides an amnesty to all concerned in the insurrection. It was 
 agreed that these were to receive the viceroy's signature, and an early 
 day was fixed for the purpose. The cardinal, accompanied by Masa- 
 niello, dressed in splendid attire and mounted upon a fine charger, 
 proceeded to the Castel Nuovo, followed by an innumerable multitude. 
 The viceroy received Masaniello with every mark of deference, and 
 the conditions were examined and accepted. As Masaniello loitered 
 within the castle, the populace outside grew impatient and tumultuous, 
 when the chief of the people appeared at a balcony, and by a sign of 
 his hand silenced them immediately; at another sign all the bells 
 tolled, and the people shouted " vivas ; " and again, as he placed his 
 finger across his lips, they all became mute. The viceroy being now 
 convinced of the astonishing power of this man, the negociation was 
 soon concluded, after which the Duke d'Arcos put a gold chain round 
 Masaniello's neck, and saluted him as Duke St. George. Masaniello 
 returned in triumph to his humble dwelling, and peace was momenta- 
 rily restored. 
 
 But Masaniello's mind gave signs of fatal decay : his sudden and 
 giddy elevation, the multiplicity of questions that were referred to 
 him, his total inexperience of business, the heat of the season, his want 
 of sleep — all helped to derange his intellect. He had already com- 
 plained of a sensation " like that of boiling lead in his head ; " he 
 became suspicious, and was in continual dread of traitors, especially 
 after the attempt made by a troop of banditti who had mixed with 
 the people to shoot him on his tribunal in the market-place. He 
 
221 
 
 ANJOU. 
 
 ANJOU. 
 
 22a 
 
 became capricious, absurd, and cruel, though cruelty does not appear 
 to h;ive been a vice natural to his character. He began to lose his 
 credit with the multitude; the rebel government besides required 
 monev, aud, as the only expedient, taxes upon eatables were resorted 
 to again from sheer necessity. Masaniello at times felt his growing 
 weakness; he talked of abdicating his power aud returning to his 
 fishing-nets ; but he had gone already too far. Some betrayers, among 
 whom was the old priest Genoirio, who had been bribed to effect 
 Masauiello's ruin, encouraged him in his mad career. On July 15th 
 he repaired as usual to his judgmeut-seat ; the people still clung to 
 him, and he was still all-powerful ; but he behaved so outrageously 
 on that day that his friends became convinced of his insanity, and 
 watched him duriug the night. On the morning of the 16th, being 
 the great holiday of the Virgin, Masaniello escaped from the care of 
 hid friends, and ran to the church del Carmine, where the archbishop 
 was performing mass. At the end of the service Masaniello ascended 
 the pulpit, with a crucifix in his hand, and harangued the numerous 
 audience. He earnestly and pathetically reminded them of what he 
 had done for them ; he tore bis clothes, bared his breast, aud showed 
 his body, extenuated by watching and continual anxiety. He entreated 
 them not to abandon him into the hands of his enemies. The people 
 were affected by his address ; but all at once Masaniello relapsed into 
 one of his fits of aberration ; he lost the thread of his discourse, aud 
 talked incoherently and wildly. The people began to laugh, and many 
 left the church. Masaniello was taken down from the pulpit by the 
 priests ; the archbishop spoke to him kindly, and advised him to rest 
 and calm himself awhile in the adjoining convent. He was taken 
 into one of the cells, where a change of clothes was given to him, and 
 he lay down on a couch and rested a few minutes. He soon started 
 up again, and stood looking out of a window in a melancholy mood 
 upon the tranquil and beautiful Bay of Naples which lay stretched 
 before him, thinking perhaps of the happier times when he used to 
 glide on the waters in his fishing-boat, when all at once cries were 
 heard in the corridor calling him by name. Armed men appeared at 
 the cell-door. Masaniello turned towards them: "Here I am; do 
 my people want me?" A discharge from their arquebuses was the 
 answer ; and Masaniello fell, exclaiming, " Ungrateful traitors ! " and 
 expired. His head was cut off, fixed on a pole, aud carried to the 
 viceroy, the body dragged through the streets by a troop of boys, as 
 he had himself foretold a few days before, and then thiown into a 
 ditch. The revolt however was not quelled ; the people, after appoint- 
 ing the Prince of Massa for their chief, whom they soon after mur- 
 dered, chose Geunaro Anuesse, one of the villaius who had plotted 
 against Masaniello's life. This chief was 60on superseded by the Duke 
 of Guise, who c;ime to try his fortune at Naples as the representative 
 of the ancient house of Anjou. [Ancos, 1)' ; Guise.] 
 
 AN JO U, the Dukes and Counts of, were amongst the earliest noblesse 
 of France. Some chronicler gives the title to the famous Rolaud. 
 Charles the Cold, it is said, bestowed the province upon one of his 
 courtiers, from whom the first family of counts, in general named 
 Fulke, were descended. One of this name was amongst the peers who 
 raised Hugh Capet to the throne. A count of Anjou, also styled Fulke, 
 joined the early crusades, and became king of Jerusalem. His son 
 Geoffrey married (in 1127) Matilda, or Maud, daughter and heiress of 
 king Henry I. of England, to the crown of which kingdom he gave as 
 heir, Henry ITantagenet. Thus merged the first house of Anjou. 
 Soon after the conquest of the province by the French, it was bequeathed 
 by Louia VIII., in 1226, to his fourth son, Charle3 of Aojou, who 
 commenced the second house of Anjou. He espoused tfie daughter of 
 Kaymond Berenger, last count of Provence, and through her inherited 
 that extensive fief, including the greater part of the south of France. 
 He accompanied his brother St. Louis in his crusade to Egypt, when 
 he was taken prisoner with that monarch, but was soon afterwards ran- 
 somed. He was subsequently selected by the Pope for the throne of 
 Naples, in opposition to Manfred aud Conradin, the last of the Hahen- 
 stauffen. Charles of Anjou therefore made his preparations in men and 
 money for the couque.it of Naples, whilst his ally, the Pope, opened to 
 him his spiritual treasures, by preaching a crusade in favour of Charles 
 against Manfred. The Angevin prince invaded Italy with an army of 
 30,000 men, in 1265 ; but that year, and almost another, passed away 
 before tb..; French entered the kingdom of Naples. Manfred, with a 
 force of Neapolitans, Saracens, aud Arabians, took post not far from 
 Beneventum, in the plain of Crandella. The French accepted with 
 alacrity the battle that was offered, and it was fought with the utmost 
 gallantry on both sides, but Manfred was slain, aud victory declared 
 for Charles, who made a rno3t cru. 1 use of it. Not only was no mercy 
 shown in the field, but the neighbouring town of Beneventum was 
 given up with its population to the brutal fury and avarice of the 
 boldiers. After this consummation of his cru3ad ■, Charles of Anjou 
 made his triumphant entry into Naples. Hi.s government bore the 
 same stamp with his conq.iest ; it was but a succession of oppression 
 and rapine. 
 
 Charles of Anjou, as head of the Guelphic party in Italy, was more 
 than sovereign of Naples. Ramifications of the two great parties dis- 
 puted Tuscany also, and Charles marched to chase his enemies, the 
 Glabellas, from that country. Iu this enterprise also he succeeded, 
 and the Guelphs of Florence procured his nomination as political chief 
 of that city for a period of ten years. 
 
 The Ghibelin party however rallied. They summoned young Con- 
 radin, nephew of Manfred, from Germany to support their cause, and 
 the young prince advanced with a small but valiant army of Germans 
 into Italy. The armies met at Tagliacozzo, 5000 on the German, and 
 3000 on the Neapolitan side. Of these 3000, Charles placed 800 in 
 ambush, and with them waited till the Germans, having routed the 
 rest, were scattered iu the pursuit. He then quitted his ambush, and 
 gained an easy victory. Conradin was taken in flight. Charles did 
 not blush to bring his young competitor to a mock trial, when he was 
 of course condemned to death. This infamous sentence, pronounced 
 against the rightful prince, so stirred up the indignation even of 
 Charles's friends, that his very son-in-law, Robert of Flanders, struck 
 the judge whilst iu the aet of pronouncing the sentence, with a blow 
 that proved mortal. Charles of Anjou was present with all his court 
 at the execution of this sentence, in one of the public squares of 
 Naples. When Conradin laid down his head for the executioner, he 
 flung his glove amongst the weeping crowd, thus challenging an avenger. 
 The glove was picked up and carried to Don Peter of Aragon, who had 
 married the daughter of Manfred, and who, under this claim, became 
 the competitor of the house of Anjou. 
 
 For the time however Charles reigned without opposition, not only 
 over Naples, but over the whole of Italy. An interregnum of the 
 pontificate left Rome at his disposal, whilst almost all the cities of 
 Lombardy imitated Florence in acknowledging him as their protector, 
 aud in swearing allegiance to him. His superstition however led him 
 astray ; he was guilty of great crimes, and he could not neglect an 
 opportunity of washing them away. This induced him, when his 
 brother St. Louis set out upon a new crusade, to assume the cross. 
 Charles however arrived in Tunis only iu time to take command of the 
 army which the death of St. Louis had left without a leader, and having 
 satisfied his vow, Charles hastened to make peace on condition that 
 Tunis should be tributary to Sicily. Gain was ever his first object. In 
 returning, he confiscated all the vessels of his allies, the Genoese, which 
 had been wrecked in a storm, claiming them as waifs, although they 
 had been damaged in the service of transporting his army. 
 
 But Charles's power, aud his dream of founding an empire in Italy, 
 were overthrown by the hands that had raised him. A pope was 
 elected (Gregory X.) who had at heart the interests of Christianity 
 more than those of a party. Instead of crushing the Uhibelins, he 
 sought to reconcile them to the Guelphs; and in order to remove the 
 auarchy of Germany, he procured the nomination of an etnperor in 
 the person of Rodolph of Hapsburg, which materially checked the 
 projects of Charles. 
 
 A vacancy of the pontificate enabled Charles to rally his party, and 
 recommence his machinations for empire, and he succeeded in procuring 
 the nomination of a pope iu his interests. From Martin IV. (so the 
 new pontiff was called) he obtained the preaching of a new crusade, 
 directed against Greece. It was by occupying the throne of Constan- 
 tinople that Charles hoped to rise superior to Rodolph, and make good 
 eventually his imperial claim on Italy itself. While engaged in prepa- 
 rations for this great project, Peter of Aragon was making similar 
 preparations for attacking Sicily aud Naples. 
 
 Charles had raised au enemy amongst his own subjects more active 
 and deadly than any kingly rival. This was John of Procida, a Sicilian 
 noblp, a partisan of the house of Hohenstaufleu, who had suffered 
 confiscation and exile on that account. This man never rested, even 
 during the years of Charles's greatest triumph and power, from exciting 
 dissatisfaction towards him, aud he succeeded iu procuring for the 
 king of Aragon a subsidy from the Greek emperor. Peter fitted out a 
 powerful fleet. But au accideut in the meantime set fire to that train 
 of disaffection and rebellion which John of Procida had prepared in 
 Sicily. 
 
 It was on Easter Monday, in the year 1282, a day consecrated in 
 Catholic countries to a mixture of gaiety and religion, that the citizens 
 of Palermo set out, according to custom, to hear vespers at the church 
 and village of Moutereale, not far distant. The French soldiers and 
 authorities unsuspectingly joined the procession, and according to 
 their custom did not refrain from taking liberties with the young 
 females whom they met or whom they accompanied. One Frenchman, 
 more bold thau the rest, under pretence of searching for arms, for- 
 bidden to a Sicilian, seized a young girl, and thrust his hand into her 
 bosom. The betrothed of the girl instantly pierced the Frenchman 
 with his own sword. This act was a signal ; it corresponded so fully 
 to the intentions and feelings of all present, that the cry of " Death 
 to the French " ran from mouth to mouth. The deed accompanied 
 the word, and every Frenchman in the procession was assassinated, 
 whilst the vesper bell was still sounding. Excited by blood, the 
 assassins rushed back to Palermo to complete the massacre. Not a 
 Frenchman, save one, escaped : all, to the number of 4000, were 
 butchered ; and even Sicilian women, who had married Frenchmen, 
 suffered the same fate, in order that the progeny of the hated strangers 
 might be eradicated from the island. 
 
 This massacre, notorious under the name of the ' Sicilian Vespers,' 
 was of course the signal of revolt. John of Procida hastened to Peter 
 of Aragon, who after some delay lauded in Sicily, and assumed the 
 title of its monarch. His admiral, Roger de Loria, sailed for Messina, 
 to which place Charles had laid siege, and experienced no difficulty ia 
 capturing Charles's fleet, aud defeating all his projects of vengeance. 
 
223 
 
 ANJOU. 
 
 ANKARSTROM, JOHAN JAKOB. 
 
 224 
 
 He was furious at his loss, and challenged Peter of Aragon to single 
 combat; and Peter, whose object was to gain time, accepted the chal- 
 lenge, but subsequently declined it, and whilst Charles was struggling 
 against repeated disasters, he died at Foggia, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 at the age of seventy-five, in the early part of 1285. 
 
 The posterity of Charles of Anjou continued, notwithstanding, to 
 fill for a time the throne of Naples and also that of Hungary, and 
 thus became strangers to this province, aud to France itself. In con- 
 sideration of this, king John of France reunited Anjou to the crown, 
 giving it soon alter in appanage to his son Louis, who thus commenced 
 the third house of Anjou. The county was elevated into a duchy, by 
 an ordinance of John, in 13G0, and Louis is thus the first of the ducal 
 house. He was born in 1339, was taken prisoner with his father at 
 the battle of Poitiers, aud remained long in England, but at length 
 broke his parole, and fled. On the death of his brother Charles V., 
 ho became regent, but used his power chit fly to recover the kingdom 
 of Naples, to which Jeanne, the heiress of the last bouse of Anjou, 
 had given him a title by adoption. The pope, as usual, seconded the 
 attempt of the French priuce, and Louis was accordingly crowned 
 king of Sicily and Jerusalem at Avignon in 1382. He then led his 
 armies to the conquest of Naples, but they perished, as Louis did him- 
 Belf, by disease, in 1384. 
 
 His son, Louis II., duke of Anjou, was also crowned king of Sicily 
 by the pope, but he failed in establishing himself, and died in 1417. 
 
 Louis III., son of the last duke, attacked Naples in 1420, but was 
 equally unsuccessful, aud died at Cosenza in 1431. 
 
 He was succeeded, not so much in his kingdom as in his claim, by 
 his brother Bend, suruamed the Good King Bend, who not only failed 
 in recovering the Italian empire of his family, but was dispossessed of 
 Anjou itself by Louis XI. [Benis.] 
 
 From the clays of Louis XI. the title of Anjou lay dormant, whilst 
 the sovereigns of France themselves prosecuted their claiius to Italian 
 dominion, as heirs of the Angevin princes. AVith Francis I. these 
 hopes expired. His successor, Henri II., bestowed the duchy of Aujou 
 upon his third son, who bore tbis title when elevattd to the throne of 
 Poland. As this prince however succeeded to the throue of France, 
 he is better known under the name of HjfNBI 111. Henri's younger 
 brother, at first duke of Alencon, succeeding to the title of Aujou, id 
 best known under this latter name. 
 
 This prince was born in 1554, aud was first chiistened Hercules, a 
 name that was afterwards changed for that of Francis at confirmation. 
 He had the stnall-pox when very young, aud was so 1 horribly spoiled' 
 that his mother, Catherine of Medicis, took a dislike to the boy, and 
 sent him to Amboise to be educated apart from bis brothers anil from 
 the court. Having once visited this place, Catherine spoke of him as 
 ' a little moricaud (black), who had nothing but war and tempest in 
 his head.' The young prince naturally returned his mother's aversion ; 
 and this may have been the original cause of his liberality of opinion, 
 since it threw him into the confidence aud friendship of Catherine's 
 enemies, the Huguenots. He was subsequently proposed as a husband 
 to the queen of England, but the massacre of St. Bartholomew, which 
 soon after occurred, created a distance and aversion between the two 
 courts. 
 
 On that occasion the Duke of Alencon maintained an honourable 
 part. He so openly expressed his abhorrence of the event, and his 
 admiration for Coligny, that he became as much an object of suspicion 
 as any of the Huguenots. He was sent against La Rochelle, as to a 
 school of martial orthodoxy, where he was nearly killed by a shot from 
 the ramparts, but the Huguenots continued to entertain a favourable 
 opinion of him. Charles IX. was lingering under a mortal malady ; 
 his brother, the next hiir, was in Poland. The Protestants hoped to 
 elevate the Duke of Alencon to the throne in his place ; thus exchanging 
 a monarch whom they detested for one who favoured their own 
 opinions. A plot was accordingly formed, which utterly failed through 
 the perfidy aud weakness of him whom it was designed chiefly to 
 benefit. The Duke of Alenjon, instead of escaping at the appointed 
 moment, hurried to his mother's feet, and confessed the whole affair. 
 The consequence was the arrest of all who were implicated, and the 
 failure of the enterprise. To render the act more base on the part of 
 Alencon, the whole weight of vengeance fell upon his confidants and 
 followers. He however reaped no advantage from the act. Catherine 
 of Medicis took him and Henry of Navarre with her, when, after the 
 death of Charles IX., she went to welcome Henri III. on his return to 
 Poland. She presented them as prisoners to the new king, who at first 
 seemed severe, but inflicted no punishment. At length the Duke of 
 Alencon became reconciled to the Huguenots. He escaped from court 
 in the autumn of 1575, aud placed himself at the head of the armies 
 raised by the reformers. A truce first, and a peace afterwards, were 
 the fruit of a year's show of hostility. The Duke of Alencon secretly 
 proposed to d sert his party once more; but the Huguenot chiefs 
 insisted upon favourable terms, which they obtained, in name at least, 
 in 1576. The duke on his part obtained advantages equally favour- 
 able, letters patent being soon after issued, which gave him the 
 duchies of Anjou, Tourraiue, aud Berri. 
 
 In this arrangement however the negociators on both sides may be 
 said truly ' to have reckoned without their host.' The Catholics, dis- 
 gusted with the weakness of the monarch, formed the ' league,' which 
 soon after rendered the articles of peace null. The Protestants on 
 
 their Bide, little trusting to empty promises, kept armed and in an 
 hostile posture, and Henry of Navarre was now rising among them to 
 fill the place of honour that the new Duke of Anjou had ceded. War 
 in consequence recommenced, aud, strange to say, the Duke of Aujou 
 himself appeared in command of a Catholic army. 
 
 Catherine of Medicis and Henri III., reconciled to their son and 
 brother, now laboured to procure for the Duke of Anjou those very 
 prizes that Coligny had before sought to give him — the sovereignty of 
 Flanders, and the hand of Queen Elizabeth. At the head of a French 
 army the Duke of Anjou marched against Don John of Austria. He 
 had at first some success, but not being so well received by the Flemings 
 as he expected, his career of conquest was suspended. In pursuance 
 of the other part of his scheme, he had deputed to Elizabeth his envoy, 
 Simier. The French manners and gallantry of this personage quite 
 won the English queen, who threw off much of her habitual prudery, 
 and began to entertain serious thoughts of marrying Anjou. 
 
 He was elected sovereign of the Netherlands in 1581, and took 
 possession of Cambray in spite of the Prince of Parma. Thus, crowned 
 with honour, the duke hastened over to England to terminate in person 
 his suit with the queen. Nothing could be more brilliant or warm 
 than his reception. Elizabeth detained him for months, feasted, and 
 promised, aud avoided him ; beguiling him and, perhaps, herself, with 
 hopes of a union which her prudence could never permit. 
 
 At length the Duke of Anjou took his departure from England to 
 govern the Netherlands. Unaccustomed to the free display of popular 
 aud personal independence, he mistook the rival influence of the 
 Prince of Orange, aud of the citizens of the several towns, for insults 
 to his dignity and treason to his rights. Instead of making use of 
 such means to overcome them, a3 were allowed and might have suc- 
 ceeded with the Flemings, he proposed to seize the Flemish fortresses 
 by means of his soldiers, and thus to bridle the turbulence of an inde- 
 pendent people. But he mistook the character of the people. The 
 Flemish citizens mastered his soldiers everywhere ; the people of 
 Antwerp especially made a successful resistance, and not only Anjou 
 himself, but the French were expelled by the united force, and amidst 
 the general execrations of the country. 
 
 From this hour the Duke of Anjou sunk into insignificance. He 
 was too low iu fortune and in character to mingle, or to have influence 
 with any party, or in any struggle. He expired soon after, in 1584, at 
 Chateau Thierry. 
 
 ANKARiTltOM, JOHAN JAKOB, the assassin of Gustavus III. 
 of Sweden, was the son of a Swedish noble, and was born in the year 
 1759. He early entered the army as an ensign in the Royal Blue 
 Guards, but quitted the service iu a very few years. After leaving the 
 army, he visited various parts of Europe, and resided for a short time 
 iu England, where he was reduced to great poverty. On his return 
 to Sweden, he became connected with a large body of disaffected 
 nobles, who, disgusted with the two regal revolutions of 1772 and 
 1789, and partaking of the Jacobinical opinions just then so triumphant 
 in France, were ready to adopt any desperate measuies to take venge- 
 ance on Gustavus for his past acts, and to prevent his threatened 
 interference by arms in favour of Louis XVIII. His assassination was 
 resolved on, and Ankarstrom was pitched upon to do the deed. Two 
 others of the conspirators, Count Ribbing and De Horn, it is said, drew 
 lots with Ankarstrom for what they considered an honour. 
 
 After two or three ineffectual attempts, the assassination took place 
 on the lGth of March, 1792, during a masked ball at the Opera House 
 at Stockholm. Tho king had received an anonymous letter in the 
 morning, cautioning him not to go to the ball, as his life would be 
 attempted; but he was too courageous to allow himself to appear 
 afraid, aud he resolved to go. He had been only a short time in the 
 room, when, notwithstanding his mask aud domino, he was easily 
 recognised, and a number of masks began to crowd around him. One 
 of them (Count de Horn) tapped him on the shoulder, with the saluta- 
 tion, " Bon soir, beau masque," which was the signal agreed on among 
 the conspirators, and Ankarstrom immediately fired a pistol, fully 
 charged with powder, balls, and rusty nails, point blank at the king. 
 Gustavus fell into the arms of his favourite, the Count d'Essen, and 
 the conspirators raised a preconcerted cry of " Fire ! " in order to 
 escape in the confusion. The doors however were quickly closed, and 
 no one was permitted to depart, until he had been registered by the 
 police, and had signed his name in a book. Ankarstrom waa the last 
 to quit the place, aud he passed with so easy and confident an air as 
 to avoid all suspicion. After it was cleared of visitors the room was 
 searched, and a pair of pistols, one loaded, the other not, and a formi- 
 dable dagger, was found on the floor, where they had been left by the 
 assassin. They were soon recognised as belonging to Ankarstrom by 
 the gunsmith and cutler of whom he had bought them, and his arrest 
 immediately ensued. On his examination he displayed great firmness, 
 at once avowing and glorying in his crime, but denying that he had 
 any accomplices. The researches of the police however in a short time 
 led to the apprehension of between twenty and thirty of the principa 
 conspirators. 
 
 The king survived his wounds twelve days. As his son was only 
 thirteen years old, his brother, the Duke of Sudermauia, became regent, 
 aud the dying Gustavus is said to have exacted a promise from him 
 that only the actual murderer should suffer death. Ankarstrom, 
 after a lengthened trial, was condemned, on the 29th of April, to suffer 
 
225 
 
 ANNA BOLEYN. 
 
 ANNA IWANOWNA. 
 
 22« 
 
 a death of torture. He was ordered to be exposed to the people on 
 three successive days in the streets of Stockholm, with the pistols 
 and dagger suspended over his head, together with the inscription 
 " KonuDgs Mordar " (" Murderer of the King ") ; to be beaten on each 
 day with rods ; and on the fourth day to be beheaded, his right hand 
 being first cut off; to be then quartered, and his head and quarters 
 set on wheels, according to the Swedish custom, in the chief places of 
 the capital. The other conspirators were sentenced to various punish- 
 ments. Counts de Horn and Ribbing, and Colonel Lilienhorn, the writer 
 of the anonymous letter, were condemned to suffer imprisonment for 
 life. Another conspirator, Baron Bjelke, had committed suicide before 
 he could be taken. 
 
 Ankarstrom suffered with undaunted courage, having continued 
 to declare his satisfaction in having " rid his country of a tyrant " to 
 the last. Though his crime was held in detestation by the common 
 people, many of the nobles regarded it with admiration. 
 
 There are numberless versions in books of the period, and of later 
 date, of the motives of Ankarstrom in committing this murder, em- 
 bracing almost every imaginable variety ; but none appear to rest upon 
 much better authority than mere conjecture. It is hardly necessary 
 to search further for the exciting cause than the revolutionary spirit 
 of the period, especially when the assassination is viewed in connection 
 with the events which speedily followed in other countries. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ANNA BOLEYN. [Boleyn.] 
 
 ANNA COMNE'NA, the daughter of Alexius Comnenus I., empe- 
 ror of Constantinople, born December 1, 1033, best known as the 
 author of the ' Alexiad,' a work written in Greek, containing the 
 history of her father's life. She was the favourite child of Alexius, 
 and her talents were sedulously cultivated by an education compre- 
 hending the study of eloquence, poetry, mathematics, natural science, 
 and the philosophy of Plato aud Aristotle (see her preface to the 
 'Alexiad'). She married Nicephorus Bryennius, a man of high birth, 
 and of high literary attainments. Presuming on parental partiality, 
 she solicited Alexius to name her husband for his successor, to the 
 exclusion of her brothers, John and Isaac ; and in this attempt she 
 was assisted by her mother, the Empress Irene. Pressed on this subject, 
 the dying emperor uttered some allusion to the vanities of the world, 
 which drew from Irene the unfeeling speech, " You die, as you have 
 lived, a hypocrite." Alexius died August 15, 1118, and John Comnenus, 
 the lawful heir, possessed himself of the royal signet, and became 
 ' master of the palace, and of the empire. Disappointed ambition drove 
 Anna to conspire against her brother's life. All was prepared, but fear 
 or remorse induced Bryennius to absent himself at the moment of 
 action; and in her passionate disappointment the princess exclaimed, 
 " that nature had mistaken the two sexes, and endowed Bryennius 
 with the soul of a woman." On the discovery of the meditated treason, 
 the life and fortune of Anna became justly forfeited. Her life was 
 spared by the clemency of John, and the guilty princess escaped with 
 no further punishment than a forced retirement from the world, and 
 exclusion from the splendour and intrigues of a court. Thus thrown 
 on herself, she relieved the heaviness of her solitary hours by composing 
 the 'Alexiad/ a history of her father's life and reign in 15 books, 
 from 10C9, twelve years before he ascended the throne, to his death 
 in 1118. She completed it in 1148, and died in the same year. The 
 'Alexiad ' is distinguished by an air of filial piety both as regards the 
 person and the fame of Alexius. The book is overloaded by rhetorical 
 display, and by the affectation and misplaced obtrusion of science. 
 Individuality of character is lost in indiscriminate panegyric, and the 
 likeness is rendered suspicious by the barefaced flattery of the portrait. 
 The most curious and important part of Anna's history, as of her 
 father's reign, is that which relates to the first crusade. It is often at 
 variance with the Latin authorities, and on no point more so than on 
 the character of Alexius. 
 
 The ' Alexiad ' forms a part of the collection of Byzantine historians. 
 The first complete edition of it was published at Paris, 1651, by the 
 Jesuit Poussines, with a Latin translation and glossary. A series of 
 valuable notes on it, by the learned Du Fresne, will be found at the 
 end of the ' Historiae ' of John Cinnamus, containing an account of the 
 reigns of John and Manuel Comnenus. 
 
 ANNA IWANOWNA, empress of Russia, was the second daughter 
 of the Czar Iwan or John I., the elder brother of Peter the Great, and 
 for some time his associate on the throne. She was born on the 8th 
 of February (O S.), 1694. In 1710 she was married to Frederic William, 
 duke of Courland, who died in 1711. On the death, without issue, of 
 the Emperor Peter II., on the 29th of January, 1730, after an attempt 
 by the family of the Dolgorukys to elevate the princess Catherine of 
 that house, who had been betrothed by the late king, to the throne, 
 and a second attempt by a party of the nobles to limit her authority, 
 the conditions of which she had signed, but declared to be null as 
 fraudulently obtained, and the authors of which were dismissed from 
 her councils, she began to reign with all the privileges and authority 
 of her ancestors. 
 
 The government of the empress for the first three years of her reign 
 was mild and popular. The council of state, most of the members 
 of which anticipated death a3 the consequence of their failure, *vas 
 abolished, three of the four Dolgorukys were banished to distant parts 
 
 Bioa. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 of the empire, and these were the only punishments inflicted for the 
 attempt at revolution. The administration was entrusted to five 
 departments of the senate, controlled after the second year of Anna 
 by a cabinet, which had nearly the same powers as the former council 
 of state. The army underwent a complete reformation under Marshal 
 Munnich; the emoluments of Russian officers were equalised witl) 
 those of foreigners, which had hitherto been double those of natives, 
 and the obligation of serving in it was lightened. The gentry wera 
 allowed a greater freedom in the sale and disposal of their estates, 
 arrears of taxes were remitted to the merchants, and the poll-tax was 
 considerably diminished for the serfs. The empress established peace 
 with Denmark by relinquishing the interests of the Prince of Holstein, 
 the widower of Anna Petrovna, and with Persia, by giving up to Nadir 
 Shah, then reigning, the provinces which Peter the Great had conquered, 
 but from which the Russian nation then derived more disadvantage 
 than benefit. After this prosperous period of three years everything 
 altered for the worse, not through any change in the empress's charac- 
 ter, or any reverse in fortune, but through the influence of Biren, who, 
 from passing his time in indolence and luxury, took it into his head 
 to manage the affairs of state, and was allowed by the weakness of his 
 mistress to gratify his cruelty, ambition, and avarice to their full 
 extent. This Biren (or Biron, as he called himself) was the grandson 
 of a groom ; he had been her acknowledged favourite at the court 
 of Courland, and had followed her to Moscow very soon after her 
 accession. On the death of Augustus II., king of Poland and elector 
 of Saxony, in 1733, the empress declared against the election of his 
 son as king of Poland, and in favour of the elevation of a native Pole 
 to the dignity ; but on the promise of the new elector to second her 
 views in Courland, where she had the project of inducing the states 
 to raise Biren to the dukedom, she at once espoused his cause. In 
 consequence of the indignation of the Poles at her conduct, they unani- 
 mously elected Stanislas Leszczynski. the old enemy of Russia, who had 
 once before been placed on the throne by Charles II., and who was 
 now the father-in-law of the king of France, Louis XV. The Russians, 
 under the command of Marshal Munnich, entered Poland ; Stanislas 
 was besieged in Danzig, from which he hardly escaped with his life ; 
 aud the elector of Saxony, Augustus III., was seated on the throne. 
 The Russian arms were equally successful in a war agaiust the Turks 
 and Tartars, begun iu 1736, and conducted by Marshal Munnich, who 
 conquered Moldavia, and took Azof and Ochakof or Oczakov. The 
 ill success of the arms of Austria, however, the ally of Russia, obliged 
 the empress, who found the whole power of Turkey on the point of 
 being directed against her, to relinquish her conquests. At the sugges- 
 tion of Biren, she sent full powers to the marquis of Villeneuve, the 
 French ambassador to the Porte, to settle a peace with Turkey, which 
 was accordingly concluded at Belgrade in 1739. 
 
 It was in the interior arrangements of the empire however that the 
 influence of Biren was most pernicious. His tyranny was carried to a 
 height which diffused universal terror throughout the empire. To 
 gratify his revenge, which still brooded over the project of the Dolgo- 
 rukys to exclude him from following the empress to Moscow, that 
 unfortunate family was recalled from banishment to perish on the 
 scaffold. They were accused of forging a will of Peter II. in favour of 
 Catherine Dolgoruky ; some were beheaded : Vasily Lukich and Ivan 
 were broken on the wheel. Even after this, one of the cabinet ministers, 
 of the name of Boluinsky, ventured, in 1740, at a council in which 
 Biren took the part of the Poles, to throw out a sarcasm, that as he 
 was not a vassal of Poland, he did not think himself obliged to defend 
 the cause of the enemies of Russia. Biren felt the sarcasm was directed 
 against himself as holding from Poland the fief of Courland, the 
 dukedom of which his mistress had procured for him. He trumped 
 up a set of charges against Boluinsky, one of which was that he had 
 dared to present a Russian translation of Macchiavelli's ' Prince ' to 
 the empress, and the minister was condemned to death. The empress 
 long refused to confirm his death warrant, and burst into tears when 
 it was repeatedly brought for her signature. Biren at last demanded 
 it with a threat, in case of refusal, to leave Russia for ever, and 
 Boluinsky perished. It is easy to suppose that after this Biren met 
 with little opposition in the cabinet. While he loaded his coffers with 
 treasure, the revenues of the state were insufficient to support the 
 expenditure, and the taxes were collected by the most violent means. 
 Soldiers were directed, in place of receiving pay, to live at free quarters. 
 " Whole villages," says Ustrialov, " were laid waste, mauy were burned, 
 the inhabitants were sent to Siberia." Twenty thousand persons were 
 driven into this species of exile by Biren. But during his time of 
 power exile was almost to be considered a slight punishment : "many," 
 says Ustrialov, " were knouted, many had their tongues cut out, many 
 perished beneath the axe of the executioner, and not a few were broken 
 on the wheel." The number of persons who lost their lives through 
 Biren's tyranny is computed at eleven thousand. The conscience of the 
 empress was touched by the death of Boluinsky, whom she knew so 
 well and knew to be innocent, and it is supposed by many that remorse 
 on that account brought her to the grave. She died at St. Petersburg 
 on the 29th of October, 1740, in the forty-seventh year of her age, and 
 left the crown to Joauu Antonovich, the grandson of her elder sister, 
 Catherine, from whom, according to her own doctrine of hereditary 
 right, she had usurped it. As guardian of the prince, aud regent 
 during his minority, she nominated Biren. 
 
tar 
 
 ANNE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 ANNE. 
 
 The Empress Anna bas the character of having been a humane and 
 judicious princess, but her criminal affection for her worthless favourite 
 made her reign as great a curse to her subjects rs if she had been the 
 most remorseless tyrant. The last seven years of her reign are spoken 
 of with horror by Russian historians, who are not disposed to exagge- 
 rate the faults of the great. During her reign several public improve- 
 ments were introduced. The senate was divided into departments, 
 the army was much improved, the cadet establishment at St. Peters- 
 burg for the education of the higher classes was founded, schools for 
 singing and music were established in Malorussia. In 1739 the Middle 
 and Lesser Hordes of Kirghiz Tartars submitted themselves to Russia. 
 The empress received embassies from Persia and China. She patronised 
 navigation, and during her reign Borne of tho Kurile islands wero 
 explored and surveyed by Russians. 
 
 ANNE OF AUSTRIA, queen of Louis XIII. of France, and regent 
 during the minority of Louis XIV., was daughter of Philip II. of 
 Spain ; she became the wife of the young Louis XIII. iu the year 1G15. 
 The great Henry IV. of France had for his darling project the 
 bumbling of the House of Austria. His queen, Mary of Medicis, 
 was averse to this policy, and no sooner was Henry iu his grave than 
 she took measures for a reconciliation with Spain, and sealed it by 
 a double marriage, one of which was that of young Louis XIII. with 
 Anne of Austria. The administration however fell in a few years 
 into the hands of that master spirit, Cardinal Richelieu, who resumed 
 Henry IV.'s views of humbling the pride and ambition of the House 
 of Austria. In this he instantly found an enemy in Anne of Austria, 
 and a struggle ensued betwixt them, in which Anne, though a queen, 
 and a queen regnant, was compelled to yield, as long as he lived, to 
 the great minibter. 
 
 Had Anne been a woman of greater talents or more pleasing 
 character, it might have been otherwise, but her Spanish education, 
 her coldness and gravity of demeanour, which only covered frivolity 
 of thought, alienated, rather than attracted Louis XIII. Upon this 
 feeling Richelieu worked, and he was able at once to inspire Louis 
 with dislike and with jealousy of his queen. AVheu it was generally 
 known that the queen was iu disgrace, and was the object of Riche- 
 lieu's anger and mistrust, this was sufficient to rally around her the 
 host of malcontent nobles, with Gaston, the king's brother, at their 
 head. It does not appear that Anne was more privy to their plan of 
 resistance and rebellion than she could have avoided being. But her 
 name was unavoidably implicated, and the artful cardinal made of 
 this a specious tale for the king's ear. He represented Anne as dis- 
 gusted with her royal husband, and endeavouring to get rid of him 
 through conspiracy, in order to place Gaston, duke of Orleans, iu his 
 stead. 
 
 What gave most force to Richelieu's tale, was the court which the 
 duke of Buckingham had openly paid to the queeu of France. On 
 one occasion, after having taken leave on his return to Loudon, he 
 hurried back from Amiens, found his way into the queen's sleeping- 
 room, where it was usual for her to receive visits, flung himself on 
 his knees by the bedside, and gave full vent to a passion that shocked 
 the attendants, as passing beyond the bounds of etiquette. Anne 
 gave but a gentle reprimand. Neglected by her husband (who par- 
 took not of her bed for twenty-three years after their marriage), Anne 
 was not insensible to the chivalric attachment of a noble and a states- 
 man, and might perhaps have given some handle to malicious insinu- 
 ation. At all events, she remained without influence, alienated from 
 the king's affections and council, till death took away monarch and 
 minister, and left to Anne, as mother of the infant monarch, the 
 undisputed reins of power. 
 
 There was then a change of policy similir to that which had taken 
 place on the death of Henry IV. Mary of Medicis had counteracted 
 and abandoned all his schemes for humbling Austria, by making peace 
 with that rival power. Anne, of Austrian blood, now did the same, 
 from hatred to Richelieu's memory, as much perhaps as from family 
 affections. She did this with less abruptness, indeed, than Mary, 
 having the good fortune and good sense to have and to choose for her 
 minister a man bred in Richelieu's school, one who had learned his 
 address, but who had never been endowed with his disinterestedness 
 and high views. This was Mazarin. 
 
 Anne of Austria's policy in this choice, though perhaps the wisest, 
 was still not the less fraught with danger. It alienated from her at 
 once the party of the noblesse, which, crushed by Richelieu, had 
 made common cause with Anne in her disgrace, and now raised its 
 head to claim vengeance and spoil. Mazarin's advice compelled his 
 mistress to resist the unreasonable demands of these, her former 
 partisans ; and the consequence was a general conspiracy against the 
 queen and her minister. Mazarin, like his predecessor, might have 
 triumphed over the noblesse alone ; but this class now called to its 
 aid a new, and hitherto neglected body, that of the citizens, or burgess- 
 class. These were easily inflamed against Mazarin as a foreigner, and 
 as a. financier, fertile in the invention of new taxes. In addition to 
 this, the great offices of the judicature, which had become venal, had 
 fallen into the hands of the middle or citizen-class, and the magistracy, 
 being possessed of the power of sanctioning or resisting the royal 
 edicts, made common cause with the citizens, and thus a powerful 
 combination was raised against the authority of Anne. An attempt 
 on her part to treat the magistrates as she had treated the duke of 
 
 Beaufort, by imprisoning them, gave birth to a popular insurrection, 
 which proved successful. The queen and court wero for a time 
 prisoners iu the Palais Royal, and compelled to submit to the dictates 
 of the mob. The queen threatened at first to fling the heads of the 
 captive magistrates to the mob, rather than deliver their persons, but 
 she was compelled to smother both pride and anger. The people had 
 their will. The court however took the first opportunity of escaping 
 from Paris and recurring to arms. A civil war commenced between 
 Anne, her minister, and their adherents on one side ; and the noblesse, 
 the citizens, and people of Paris on the other. 
 
 One might thiuk that tho advantage in such a quarrel must neces- 
 sarily remain to the latter. But Anne and Mazarin's address, after 
 many vicissitudes of fortune, came off triumphant. The Frondeurs, 
 as the insurrectionists wero playfully called, wore not very earnest in 
 their rebellion. Tho young noblesse considered the campaign as a 
 frolic, and a suspension, or rather a cessation of hostilities, was pro- 
 duced by the retirement of Mazarin. 
 
 He returned however, for Anne was but a cypher without her 
 minister ; and the war again broke out. The court had secured a 
 defender in Turenne, who triumphed even over all the valour of the 
 young noblesse, headed by the great Condd. The result of the 
 rebellion, and of Anne of Austria's administration, was, that the 
 nobles and middle classes, vanquished in the field, were never after- 
 wards able to raise their heads, or to offer resistance to the royal 
 power, up to the period of the great revolution. Louis XIV. is, in 
 general, said to have founded absolute monarchy in France. But it 
 was rather the blunders and the frivolity of those who idly espoused 
 the cause of freedom during that monarch's minority which produced 
 this effect. Anne of Austria's triumph was that of monarchy. She, 
 or at least the events of her regency, contributed far more to it, than 
 all the subsequent imperiousness of Louis XIV. ; and hence the epoch 
 of Anne's administration is one of tho most important in French 
 history. 
 
 Anne must have been of pleasing exterior, as her portrait in the 
 Vienna gallery testifies. Though not a woman of talents, she was 
 at least fortunate in her regency ; above all, in her choice of Mazarin. 
 Her influence over the fate and the court of France continued for a 
 long time ; her Spanish haughtiness, her love of ceremonial, and of 
 all the pride of power, were impressed by education upon the mind 
 of her sou, Louis XIV., who bears the blame and the credit of much 
 that was hers, Anne of Austria died at the age of sixty-four, in the 
 year 16C6. 
 
 ANNE, queen of England, the second daughter of James II. by 
 his first wife Anne Hyde, was born at Twickenham on the Cth 
 February, 1664. She was educated in the religion of the Church of 
 England; and, in 16S3, was married by the Bishop of London to 
 prince George, brother of Christian V., king of Denmark. At the 
 revolution in 1C88, Anne and her husband adhered to the dominant 
 party of her brother-in-law William III. ; and, by the act of settlement, 
 the English crown, in default of issue to William and Mary, wa3 
 guaranteed to her and her children. During the reign of William she 
 appears to have lived in much discomfort, neglected by her sister, 
 and treated with coldness by the king ; and she sustained the heavier 
 affliction of losing all her children in infancy, except one son, the duke 
 of Gloucester, who died at twelve years of age, in 1699. This event, 
 as well as the previous death of queen Mary, rendered necessary an 
 alteration in the act of settlement ; and the princess Sophia, dowager 
 electress of Hanover, and her descendants being Protestants, were 
 declared next heirs to the throne, in default of direct heirs to William, 
 and his sister-in law Anne. [George I.] The exiled king James II. 
 died on the 16th November, 17ui ; and Louis XIV. of France having 
 recognised the claims of James's son to the English throne, William III. 
 commanded the return of his ambassador from France, and dismissed 
 the French ambassador from England. Another cause of hostility 
 between France and England had arisen in the recognition by 
 Louis XIV. of the claim of his grandson, Philip of Anjou, to the 
 crown of Spain, contrary to the Partition Treaties agreed to between 
 France, England, and Holland, in 1693 and 1700, by which Joseph 
 
".19 
 
 ANNE. 
 
 230 
 
 Ferdinand, electoral prince of Bavaria, and upon the death of Joseph 
 Ferdinand, the archduke Charles, was declared heir-presumptive to the 
 Spanish crown. The will of Charles II. of Spain, who died Novem- 
 ber 1, 1700, by giving the crown to Philip of Anjou, had materially 
 disturbed the balance of power in Europe established by the Peace 
 of Ryswick in 1697; and the recognition by France of this testa- 
 mentary disposition, in violation of the partition treaties, united, in 
 1701, England, Holland, and other European powers, against this 
 attempt to bestow upon the French monarchy such a formidable 
 preponderance. 
 
 Under these circumstances, Anne ascended the throne, upon the 
 death of William III., on the 8th March, 1702. The hostility between 
 the whig and tory factions at home, which went on increasing in vio- 
 lence to the end of the reign of Anne, was in its commencement 
 greatly mitigated by the united opinion of the country in favour of 
 the war with France and Spain. On the 4th May, within two months 
 after Anne had succeeded to the throne, war was declared by England, 
 the Empire, and Holland, against these powers. This memorable 
 war bore the name of the War of the Succession. The extraordinary 
 ;ampaigns in the Low Countries and Bavaria, by which the military 
 glory of England was raised higher than at any period since the days 
 of Edward III., belong to the life of Marlborough ; the successes of 
 the English arms in Spain to that of Charles Mordaunt, lord Peter- 
 borough. Of the naval exploits of this war, the more signal examples 
 were the capture of Gibraltar and Port Mahon. 
 
 The legislative union of Scotland and England, completed on the 
 27th July, 1706, was one of the most important events in the reign of 
 Anne. 
 
 During the period of Marlborough's conquests, the spirit of politi- 
 cal intrigue was stifled by the enthusiasm of the people. But as the 
 War of the Succession slowly proceeded, Marlborough gradually lost 
 his popularity, from the belief that his own avarice and ambition were 
 the principal causes of the burdens which the war necessarily entailed 
 upon the nation. A formidable party, too, had arisen, who asserted 
 the supremacy of the church and the doctrine of the right divine of 
 kiugs and the passive obedience of subjects — opinions which had 
 expelled Jame3 II. from his kingdom, and had placed his childless 
 daughter upon the throne. These opinions however were supposed to 
 be indirectly encouraged by the queen, and were exceedingly popular 
 amongst the people. The impeachment of Dr. Sacheverel for preach- 
 ing these opinions — his mild punishment, which had the effect of a 
 real acquittal — and his subsequent triumphant progress through the 
 kingdom, furnished an unerring presage of violent changes. In the 
 elections of 1710 the tory supremacy was established. The duchess 
 of Marlborough, to whose talents and decision of character the queen 
 had long submitted, was thrust out by the new favourite, Mrs. Masham. 
 The ministry of Godolphin and Sunderland was displaced by that of 
 Bolingbroke and Oxford. The command of the army was taken from 
 Marlborough and bestowed upon the duke of Ormond. During the 
 progress of these convulsive changes, which must have been distracting 
 ■enough to the quiet temper of Anne, she was deprived of the sympathy 
 of her placable husband. Prince George of Denmark died on the 
 2Sth October, 1708. 
 
 The first act of the tory ministry was to enter upon arrangements 
 to bring the war to a conclusion. In 1711 negociations were entered 
 into with France, amidst the protestations of the allies of Great 
 Britain ; and these negociations, after various difficulties, were termi- 
 nated by the memorable treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713. 
 
 The subsequent events of Anne's reign are exceedingly interesting 
 with reference to the intrigues for bringing back the Stuart?, to the 
 exclusion of the House of Hanover. 
 
 The Pretender, whom the treaty of Utrecht obliged Louis XIV. to 
 send out of France, had taken up his residence in Lorraine, which 
 was nominally a separate country, but which was to all intents and 
 purposes a part of France, and his residence in which was a complete 
 evasion of tho treaty. From here he carried on his intrigues in 
 England with aa much facility as he could have done at St. Germain. 
 In the last parliament addresses had been sent to the queen by both 
 Lords and Commons, praying her to endeavour to procure the Pre- 
 tender's dismissal from the Duke of Lorraine's dominions. The new 
 parliament speedily took up this subject, and eagerly pursued it. 
 During this last year of Anne's reign the arrival of the Pretender in 
 England was constantly expected : and great as the danger then 
 appeared, facts which have been since brought to light show that 
 it was even greater than was then supposed. The Stuart papers, 
 contained in Macpherson's ' Original Papers,' and the extracts from 
 Sir Jame3 Mackintosh's manuscript collections from tho French 
 archives, which were published in the ' Edinburgh Review,' vol. lxii. 
 p. 1-36, prove that a design was on foot, of which Bolingbroke and 
 Lady Masham were the chief promoters, in which all the principal 
 ministers of state were more or less concerned, and which received 
 countenance from Anne herself, to secure the succession to the Pre- 
 tender, on the condition of his renouncing the lioman Catholic 
 religion, — a condition to which the Pretender would not assent, but 
 which, if he had been a person disposed to assent to it, would, it may 
 be concluded, have been nugatory. The friends to the Hanoverian 
 succession thought it necessary to bestir themselves, and among these 
 Were several members of the tory party, and almost all tho bishops, 
 
 who joined with the whigs in the various motions now made in both 
 houses against the government. By the advice of the leading friends 
 of the house of Hanover in England, Schutz, the Hanoverian resident, 
 applied to the lord chancellor for the electoral prince's writ of sum- 
 mons to the House of Peers as Duke of Cambridge, in order that he 
 might come over and take his seat. This step caused great con- 
 sternation and anger in the mind of Anne, and the scheme was 
 given up. 
 
 On the 9th of July, Anne prorogued parliament ; and the proroga- 
 tion was almost immediately followed by the fall of Oxford, the 
 victim of the intrigues of Bolingbroke and Lady Masham. Oxford 
 had not entered with sufficient heartiness into the Jacobite intrigues 
 to satisfy the favourite ; but having made fair promises, had always 
 endeavoured to put off their fulfilment by excuses, and, while pro- 
 fessing to be favourable to the Pretender, had maintained a corre- 
 spondence with the house of Hanover likewise. There had been 
 jealousies, moreover, almost from the commencement of their joint 
 ministry. The immediate cause of Oxford's dismissal is said to have 
 been offence given to Lady Masham by opposition to a scheme from 
 which she would have derived pecuniary benefit. Irritated by this, 
 Lady Masham told Oxford, whom she had herself raised to royal 
 favour and power, that he had never done the queen any service ; and 
 was incapable of doing her any. Oxford replied, " I have been 
 abused by lies and misrepresentations : but I will leave some people 
 as low as I found them." The altercation lasted till two in the morn- 
 ing m the queen's presence ; and at the end of it, Anne demanded of 
 Oxford the treasurer's staff. This was on the 27th of July. Three 
 days after, the queen was seized with an apoplectic fit, and the day 
 after she died. Immediately after Oxford's fall, Bolingbroke had 
 made a number of new appointments, and the persons whom he had 
 selected had been all Jacobites. The treasury was put into com- 
 mission, Sir William Wyndham being made the chief commissioner, and 
 Dr. Atterbury was appointed lord privy seal. The queen's illness, 
 foreboding immediately a fatal result, came upon Bolingbroke before 
 he could mature his plans for the restoration of the Pretender ; and, 
 unnerved by the suddenness of the crisis, he shrunk from the execu- 
 tion of his designs before the bold and firm measures taken to secure 
 the succession of the House of Hanover by the dukes of Argyll, 
 Somerset, and Shrewsbury. The day before the queen's death the 
 council met at Kensington in a room close to that in which the queen, 
 was dying. The dukes of Argyll and Somerset, who had not been 
 summoned, presented themselves at the council, pleading the queen's 
 danger as their apology; and the Duke of Shrewsbury immediately 
 thanked them for coming, and invited them to take part in the 
 deliberations. The dukes of Argyll and Somerset then urged the 
 necessity of the appointment of a lord-treasurer at a moment so 
 critical for the country, and named the Duke of Shrewsbury as the 
 person most fit to be recommended to the queen for the appointment. 
 The council then adjourned to the queen's bed-side, Bolingbroke 
 offering no opposition, and recommended to Anne to appoint Shrews- 
 bury lord-treasurer. Anne nodded, and her nod was construed into 
 assent. The council then returned to the room in which they had 
 before sat, and, on the motion of Argyll, resolved to summon every 
 privy-councillor who might be in London or the neighbourhood, to 
 attend immediately. The aged and venerable Somers at once obeyed 
 the summons, and many members of the whig party followed him. 
 Prompt and vigorous measures were now taken, by order of the 
 council, to prevent any attempt that might be made by the Pretender; 
 and the heralds-at-arms, and a troop of Life-Guards, were kept in 
 readiness to proclaim George I. the moment after Anne's death. 
 Thus, in this critical moment, was the peaceful succession of the 
 house of Hanover secured, after all the doubt and danger that had 
 threatened it. 
 
 Anne died on the 1st of August, 1714, in the fiftieth year of her 
 age. Her husband, Prince George of Denmark, had died about six 
 years before. They had been unfortunate, to a degree which seldom 
 occurs, in respect of children ; for out of seventeen to which Anne 
 gave birth, the greater number were still-born, and out of the remain- 
 der only one survived infancy, and that one was carried off at the age 
 of eleven. 
 
 Anne had no abilities which enabled her to give of herself either 
 impulse or direction to that great development of the national mind 
 which, equally in politics and in literature, marked the period of her 
 reign. And with every allowance for the strong bias of revenge in 
 the Duchess of Marlborough, who has principally furnished what is 
 known of Anne's habits and dispositions and private conversations, it 
 cannot be said that the virtues of her character are so many or so 
 great as to atone for her intellectual deficiencies. The influence which 
 she exercised on public events was exercised through favourites, who 
 for a time ruled everything. With Anne, reason did not determine 
 her first choice of her favourites ; and the disgrace of the Earl of 
 Oxford, no less than that of the Duchess of Marlborough, proves that 
 no amiable feeling moderated the whimsical passion which would 
 suddenly turn her boundless love and confidence into aversion. Such 
 was the queen to whom it may indeed be said to have been a happy 
 accident that for a time her armies were led by Marlborough, and her 
 councils guided by Somers and Gololphiu, and whose reign is marked 
 out in the history of England by the lustre of the literary names 
 
231 ANNIUS. ANSELM. 23a 
 
 which embellished it — Swift, Pope, Addison, Steele, Prior, Gay, 
 Arbuthnot, and Bolingbroke. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ANNIUS of Viterbo, a well-known Dominican monk, who lived in 
 the 15th century. Hia real name was Giovanni Nanni, but in con- 
 formity with the cuBtom of the age he Latinised it, and dropped the 
 first letter, in order to render it more completely classical. He was 
 born at Viterbo in 1432, and died in 1502. He entered early into the 
 Dominican order, and became famous for his acquaintance with the 
 Eastern as well as the Greek and Latin languages. His works are 
 voluminous : the most remarkable is entitled ' Antiquitatum Rariorum 
 Volumina XVII., cum Commentariis Fr. Joannis Annii Viterbiensis.' 
 This collection professes to contain a number of historians of high 
 antiquity — Berosus, Manetho, Myrsilus the Lesbian, Fabius Pictor, 
 Marcus Cato, and others. That these pretended historians were 
 forgeries, there can now be no doubt. He published two other works 
 which excited a great sensation from the circumstances of the times, 
 and the recent capture of Constantinople, one entitled ' Tractatus de 
 Imperio Turcorum,' the other ' De Futuris Christianorum Triumphis 
 in Turcos et Saracenos ad Xystum IV., et Omnes Principes Chris- 
 tianos.' 
 
 ANNO. [Hanno.] 
 
 ANQUETIL DU PERRON, ABRAHAM HYACINTHE, was born 
 at Paris on the 7th December, 1731. He received his early education in 
 that capital. M. de Caylus, then bishop of Auxerre, induced him to 
 study divinity, for which purpose Anquetil visited two theological 
 seminaries. But his fondness for the literature of the East, especially 
 the Arabian and Persian, did not allow him long to pursue his theo- 
 logical studies ; and he returned to Paris, where he made use of the 
 ample stores of oriental learning collected in the Biblioth6que du Roi. 
 A French army being fitted out for India, Anquetil resolved to avail 
 himself of this opportunity to visit India, and enrolled himself as a 
 private soldier, in which capacity he quitted Paris on the 7th of 
 November, 1754. It was only after his departure that his friends 
 obtained for him a small pension (500 livrcs) from the French govern- 
 ment, to assist him in the pursuit of his inquiries. Anquetil dis- 
 embarked at Pondicherry, on the Coromaudel coast, the 10th of 
 August, 1755 ; hence he proceeded to Chandernagor, in Bengal, but 
 was di-appointed in his hope of finding there an opportunity of learn- 
 ing the Sanscrit language. At this place he was taken ill, and the 
 capture of Chandernagor by the English soon obliged him to leave. 
 He went to Surat, where he became acquainted with some ' desturs,' 
 or Parsi priests from Guzerat, whose assistance enabled him to make 
 the necessary preparations for the translation of the Zend Avesta, 
 which he published after his return home. The progress of the 
 British power induced Anquetil to leave India. He embarked for 
 Europe, aud on the 4th of May, 1762, returned to Paris. The Abbe" 
 Barthele'my procured him an appointment in the Bibliotheque du 
 Roi, and in 1763 he was elected a member of the Academie des 
 Belles-Lettres. From this time Anquetil devoted himself entirely to 
 literary labours. In 1771 he published his principal work, a transla- 
 tion into French of the ' Zend Avesta/ or the sacred writings of the 
 Parsis, attributed by them to Zoroaster. The question concerning 
 the genuineness or authenticity and the exact date of these writings 
 is not yet ultimately settled. Of Anquetil's other works we shall 
 here only notice his ' Recherches Historiques et Geographiques sur 
 i'lude,' which he published in 1786 ; and his Latin interpretation of 
 Dara Shekuh's Persian translation of the Sanscrit ' Upanishads,' or 
 ancient and sacred treatises on the theology of the Brahmans, which 
 appeared under the title 'Oupnekhat sive secretum tegendum,' &c. 
 (Strasbourg, 1804, 2 vols. 4to.) Anquetil died on the 17th of 
 January, 1805. 
 
 ANQUETIL DU PERRON, LOUIS PIERRE, the elder brother 
 of the subject of the preceding article. He was born at Paris in 
 1723, and was, at an early age, appointed director of the Episcopal 
 Seminary at Rheims. From this place he was removed in 1759 to 
 the Priory of La-Roe in Anjou, and thence to that of director of the 
 College of Senlis. He then became Cure - of Chateau-Renard near 
 Montargis. The new ecclesiastical arrangements made at the revolu- 
 tion transferred him from this village to that of La-Villette near Paris ; 
 and here he remained till 1793 ; when, in the general proscription of 
 the clergy, he was seized and thrown into the prison of St.-Lazare. 
 The catastrophe of the 9th Thermidor (27th of July, 1794) delivered 
 Anquetil along with the other victims of the overthrown tyranny. 
 On the establishment of the Institute of Belles-Lettres in 1795, he 
 was nominated one of the members of the second class. He was 
 soon after appointed to a place under government in the foreign office, 
 and this he held till his death on the 6th of September, 1808, at the 
 age of 84. He is the author of a considerable number of historical 
 works, of which, however, only one or two are now held in much 
 esteem. 
 
 ANSALO'NI, GIORDA'NO, was born about the beginning of the 
 17th century at St. Stefano, a town in the diocese of Girgenti, in 
 Sicily. He early entered the order of Preachers, and having heard 
 of the persecutions suffered by the Roman Catholics in Japan, he 
 oecame anxious to die a martyr in the cause of Christianity. With 
 shis express view he removed to Spain to a convent of hia order at 
 
 Truxillo, and in 1625 obtained permission to go out as a missionary 
 to the East. On his arrival in the Philippines he was sent for soma 
 time on duty to the hospital of the Chinese at Manilla, where, says 
 Aduarte, he did not content himself with learning to talk their 
 language, but learned to read and write their characters also, " a thing 
 in which very few people have succeeded." He was thus enabled to 
 pass for a Chinese on his entering Japan, in 1632, in company with 
 some real Chinese, and dressed in their fashion. For two years he 
 continued to officiate as a priest in Japan, but on the 4th of August, 
 1634, was discovered and made prisoner in the city of Nangasaki. 
 After suffering a variety of the most dreadful tortures, he was hung 
 up with the head downwards, and left to starve, in which horrible 
 condition he lived seven days, dying on the 18th of November, 1634. 
 Another priest, his companion, Father Tomas de San Jacinto, was 
 executed in the same manner, and at the same time sixty-nine 
 Christians were beheaded for their faith. 
 
 ANSELM, archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of William Rufus 
 and Henry I., commonly called St. Anselm, was by birth an Italian, 
 and a native of Aosta, a town of the Alps belonging to the Duke of 
 Savoy. He took the monastic habit in 1060, at the age of 27, at 
 Bee in Normandy, where Lanfranc, afterwards archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was prior. Three years after, when Lanfranc was promoted to 
 the abbacy of Caen, Anselm succeeded him as prior of Bee ; and when 
 Herluin the abbot of that monastery died, Anselm became abbot of the 
 house. Anselm came to England about 1092 by the invitation of 
 Hugh Lupus, earl of Chester, who requested his aid in sickness. Soon 
 after his arrival William Rufus also required Anselm's assistance, and 
 finally nominated him (though with great difficulty of acceptance on 
 Anselm's part) to the see of Canterbury, which had lain vacant from 
 Lanfranc's death in 1089. Anselm, having first stipulated for the 
 restitution of the possessions of the see as they had stood in his pre- 
 decessor's time, was consecrated with great solemnity, December 4th, 
 1093. In the following year a stinted offer, as the king thought it, of 
 500i., was the first cause of the royal displeasure towards Anselm ; 
 followed by further discontent when Anselm desired leave to go to 
 Rome to receive the pall from Pope Urban II., whom the king refused 
 to acknowledge as pope. Anselm, seeing no probability of terminating 
 his disputes with the king, proposed a visit to Rome to consult the 
 Pope, but was personally refused the royal permission to depart. His 
 resolution however was fixed : he went a second time to court to ask 
 for leave, and was again refused, but gave his blessing to the king, 
 and embarked at Dover. As soon as the king had ascertained that 
 Anselm had crossed the channel he seized upon the archbishopric, 
 and made every act of Anselm's administration void. The archbishop 
 got safe to Rome, and was honourably received by the Pope, whom he 
 afterwards accompanied to Capua. Here he wrote a book upon our 
 Saviour's incarnation ; subsequent to which he assisted the pope at the 
 synod or council of Bari, where he prevented Urban from excommu- 
 nicating the king of England for his various and frequent outrages 
 upon religion. The king however by presents and promises finally 
 bribed the court of Rome to desert Anselm, who retired to Lyon, 
 where (with the interval of an attendance at a council at Rome in 
 1099) he continued to reside till he heard of William Rufus's death, 
 with that of Pope Urban shortly after. Henry I. immediately upon 
 his accession invited Anselm to return to England, but fearing his 
 brother Robert's arrival as a competitor for the throne, he was crowned 
 by another prelate. The archbishop was received in England with 
 extraordinary respect both by the king and people, but refusing to be 
 re-invested by the king, and to do the same homage with his prede- 
 cessors, he again fell under the displeasure of the court. Notwith- 
 standing this, Anselm summoned a synod to meet at Lambeth, in 
 which it was determined that the king might lawfully marry Matilda, 
 the eldest daughter of Malcolm, king of Scotland, although she was 
 generally reported to be a nun ; he also rendered signal service to king 
 Henry in other respects. In 1102 another national synod was held 
 under Anselm at St. Peter's, Westminster, which was attended by the 
 king and principal nobility. In the year following, at the request of 
 the king and barons, Anselm himself took a voyage to Rome, to arrange 
 if possible an accommodation ; the king at the same time, in distrust, 
 despatching an agent of his own to the papal court, who arrived before 
 the archbishop. The Pope still continued inexorable, but wrote a 
 ceremonious letter to the king, promising compliance in other matters 
 if the king would but waive the matter of investiture. Anselm in 
 chagrin again took up his residence at Lyon, while a fresh embassy to 
 Rome from the king was still more unsuccessful than the former, the 
 Pope levelling the heaviest censures of the Church against different 
 persons of the English court who had dissuaded the king from parting' 
 with the investitures. Anselm now removed from Lyon to the court 
 of Adela, countess of Blois, the king's sister, who during a visit which 
 Henry L made to Normandy contrived an interview between him and 
 Anselm, July 22, 1105, at the castle of L'Aigle, when the king restored 
 to him the revenues of the archbishopric, but refused permission for 
 Anselm to return to England unless he would comply with the inves- 
 titure. Anselm, still refusing, remained in France, retiring to the abbey 
 of Bee ; and though the English bishops, who till then had sided with 
 the king, now changed their minds, and pressed Anselm to return, he 
 refused, till he was further informed of the proceedings of the court 
 of Rome. At length the Pope, adopting a middle course, refused to 
 
233 
 
 ANSON, LORD. 
 
 ANSON, LOUD. 
 
 234 
 
 give up the investitures, but was willing so far to dispense as to give 
 leave to bishops aud abbots to do homage to the king for their tempo- 
 ralities. This was in 1106. The king now invited Anselm to England, 
 but the messenger finding him sick, the king himself went over into 
 Normandy, and made him a visit at Bee, where all their differences 
 were adjusted. Anselm, being recovered, embarked for England, and, 
 lauding at Dover, was received with extraordinary marks of welcome. 
 From this time little that is remarkable occurred in the life of Anselm, 
 excepting a dispute with Thomas, elected archbishop of York in 1108, 
 who, wishing to disengage himself from dependency upon the see of 
 Canterbury, refused to make the customary profession of canonical 
 obedience. Before the termination of this dispute Anselm died at 
 Canterbury, April 21, 1109, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 
 
 The works of Archbishop Anselm were published first at Nuremberg, 
 folio, 1491 ; at Cologne in 1573 and 1612 ; at Lyon in 1630 ; by Father 
 Gerberon at Paris in 1675, reprinted in 1721 ; and again at Venice, 
 1744, in two volumes folio. 
 
 Anselm was the first who restrained the marriage of the English 
 clergy, by passing the ecclesiastical canons of the years 1102 and 1108. 
 The canonisation of Anselm took place in the reign of Henry VII. at 
 the instance of Cardinal Morton, theu archbishop of Canterbury — a 
 singular mark of veneration for one who had been dead so long. 
 
 (Godwin, Be Prcesulibus; Biogr. Brit., edit. 1778, vol. i., p. 205; 
 Henry, Hut. Brit, b. iii., c. 2; Chalmers, Biographical Dictionary, 
 voL ii, p. 2S0.) 
 
 ANSON, GEORGE, LORD ANSON, BARON SOBERTON, third 
 son of William Anson, Esq., of Shugborough in Staffordshire, was born 
 at the manor of Shugborough on the 23rd of April, 1697. The history 
 of his boyish days is a blank. He entered the navy at an early age, as 
 his name appears on the books of the Ruby in January, 1712. On the 
 9th of May, 1716, he was made second lieutenant of the Hampshire 
 ship of war. From this period till the year 1724 George Anson saw a 
 good deal of service in various seas, and advanced in rank with the 
 equable, and not tedious, progress of a respectable officer who has good 
 connections to back him. In 1718 he was promoted to be master and 
 commander of the Weazel sloop, and in 1724 he was raised to the rank 
 of post-captain, and the command of the Scarborough man-of-war. 
 
 During the greater part of the period which intervened between 1724 
 and 1735, Captain Anson was placed on the Carolina station. In his 
 various employments he appears to have acted with an ability and 
 discretion that gave general satisfaction. He acquired a considerable 
 property in South Carolina, on which he erected a town, Ansonburgh, 
 which subsequently gave name to a county. The high opinion enter- 
 tained at the Admiralty of Anson's prudence, spirit, and seamanship, 
 occasioned his being recalled in 1739, the year in which war was 
 declared between Great Britain and Spain. The original intention of 
 government was to dispatch one squadron under Anson by way of the 
 East Indies, and another of equal force under Cornwall by way of Cape 
 Horn, to rendezvous at Manilla and await further orders, after having 
 done the utmost possible damage to the trade and settlements of the 
 enemy on their respective routes. The execution of this scheme was 
 deferred, and ultimately fell to the ground. But the part of the plan 
 intended to have been intrusted to Cornwall was still to be carried 
 into effect, and Anson and his squadron were to be employed on that 
 service. 
 
 The war of 1739 was forced upon Walpole by the mercantile inte- 
 rests, who were eager to share in the riches which they imagined Spain 
 derived from her possessions in the South Sea. The expedition 
 intrusted to Anson was of a motley character : viewed in one light it 
 was little better than a buccaneering expedition against the Spanish 
 trade and settlements ; viewed in another, it was the first step in that 
 brilliant career of maritime discovery in which Cook, Vancouver, and 
 others have earned such laurels, and of busy colonisation to which their 
 discoveries have ultimately led. Anson entered upon this charge in 
 a spirit worthy of its fairer features. Before sailing he took care to 
 furnish himself with the best printed and manuscript accounts he 
 could procure of the Spanish settlements on the coasts of Chili, Peru, 
 and Mexico. But the persons upon whom devolved the charge of fitting 
 out the expedition appear to have been animated solely by the avaricious 
 disposition which had wrung its undertaking from a reluctant minister. 
 
 Several of the vessels were inadequate to the voyage ; they were insuf- 
 ficiently mauned ; and the troops sent on board were worn-out pen- 
 sioners from Chelsea. The proper season was allowed to elapse before 
 the fleet set sail. And what most of all revealed the character of 
 those with whom the expedition originated, two persons, denominated 
 agent victuallers, were sent along with it. They obtained permission 
 to carry out goods to the value of 15,000i. on board the squadron to 
 barter for supplies, and this mixing up of private interests with the 
 general object of the expedition became subsequently the occasion of 
 much suffering and loss of life. 
 
 The expedition sailed from St. Helen's on the 18th of September, 
 1740. Anson came to anchor at Spithead, after sailing round the 
 world and encountering numberless hardships, ou the 15th of June, 
 1744. This is not the place to give a detailed account of the adven- 
 tures of the voyage. In doubling Cape Horn his ship (the Centurion) 
 was separated from the fleet, part of which never rejoined him. By 
 the time he reached Tinian his squadron was reduced to a single ship. 
 His crew and soldiers had beeu picked up at random, instead of being 
 selected with care for a voyage capable of trying the best constitutions. 
 His ship was so deeply laden, iu part with the merchandise of the 
 victualling agents, as, in the words of Sir John Pringle, " not to admit 
 of opening the gun-ports, except in the calmest weather, for the benefit 
 of air." The misfortunes, increased by misarrangement against which 
 A.nson had in vain remonstrated, paralysed the expedition for any 
 achievement of national importance ; but afforded the commander an 
 opportunity of showing what a powerful character can accomplish wheu 
 thrown upon its own resources. 
 
 Before quitting St. Catherine's (Brazil), he gave directions to the 
 other captains that would have rendered it unnecessary to abandon 
 the undertaking even if he had been lost. When staying at Juan 
 Fernandez, after the passage of Cape Horn, he set his officers the 
 example of labouring with his own hands, aud obliged them, without 
 distinction of rank, to assist in carrying the sick on shore. His assiduity 
 iu sowing vegetables and planting fruit-trees on the island for the better 
 accommodation of his countrymen who might afterwards touch there, 
 looks like a renewal of the taste which had made him a coloniser in 
 South Carolina. He had every coast and road he visited surveyed 
 according to his directions and under his eye, and he collected all the 
 Spanish charts and journals he could procure. With his weak equip- 
 ment he took Paita and a number of ships, among others the famous 
 Manilla galleon. His conduct towards his prisoners, and especially 
 the females, was humane and delicate as that of a hero of romance. 
 When his ship drifted out to sea at Tinian, leaving himself with many 
 officers aud part of the crew on the shore, and when in the moment 
 of victory the Centurion took fire near the powder-room, he displayed 
 the most imperturbable serenity and fertility of resource. At Macao 
 he proved himself an able negociator. In short, his conduct was such 
 that in perusing the narrative of his voyage, the fact of its being a 
 total failure in so far as the objects contemplated in fitting it out were 
 concerned, is entirely forgotten ; the reader feels only the personal 
 triumph of a man over difficulties and dangers besetting him on all 
 sides, the victory gained by his conduct over the misapprehension of 
 the English character entertained by the Spanish Americans, and the 
 re-discovery of the Pacific Ocean to the English public. In so far as 
 the hero of this adventurous voyage was concerned, it ended most 
 successfully. He conquered a fortune on board the galleon, and suc- 
 ceeded iu carrying hi3 acquisitions safely, u:ider the shelter of a fog, 
 through the midst of a French fleet cruising in the channel at his 
 return. 
 
 A few days after Anson's return he was created rear-admiral of the Blue, 
 aud in a short time he was elected member of parliament for Heydon in 
 Yorkshire. When the Duke of Bedford was appointed first lord of the 
 Admiralty (27th of December, 1744), Anson was made one of the com- 
 missioners of the Admiralty. In June 1749 he was made vice-admiral, 
 also a civil appointment. On the 12th of June 1751 he was made first 
 commissioner in the room of Lord Sandwich, and he retained the office 
 till the change of ad-ministration in November, 1756. While a member 
 of the Admiralty he made two naval campaigns. He commanded the 
 channel fleet during the winter of 1746-47. A plan which he had formed 
 for attacking the French fleet under Admiral d'Anville was frustrated 
 through the intelligence conveyed to the enemy of Ansou's station and 
 intention by the master of a Dutch vessel ; but he had an opportunity 
 of displaying on this harassing service the same patience and perse- 
 verance which had rendered his voyage round the world illustrious. 
 In the spring of 1747 he was again at sea, and falling iu with a French 
 fleet bound to the Indies with merchandise, treasure, and warlike 
 stores, off Cape Finisterre, obtained a brilliant victory on the 3rd of 
 May. Six French ships of war carrying 2719 men and 340 guns, and 
 three East Indiamen fitted out as men-of-war, carrying 400 men and 
 80 guns, were captured. In reward for this severe blow to the naval 
 power of France, Ausoa was created a peer in the month of June 
 under the title of Lord Anson, baron of Soberton, in the county of 
 Southampton. In his administrative capacity Anson was of still more 
 use to the service he belonged to thau at sea. He carried into the 
 discharge of his official duties the same provident and scientific spirit 
 with which he had prepared himself for the expedition round Cape 
 Horn. In common with his colleagues, he was loudly accused of 
 having been the main cause of Byng's discomfiture off Minorca. H* 
 
235 
 
 ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER. 
 
 ANTIGONUS. 
 
 23H 
 
 and they were however acquitted of any blame or neglect of duty by 
 the House of Commons, after an inquiry instituted subsequent to their 
 resignation. The general justice of this verdict may be questioned ; 
 but it seems clear that any faults committed attached to the higher 
 branches of administration, not to the Admiralty. On the 24th of 
 February 1757 Anson was made admiral, and on the 2nd of July he 
 was re instated at the head of the Admiralty, where he remained for 
 the rest of his life. 
 
 He was created Admiral of the Fleet on the 30th of July, 1701 ; and 
 sailed in a few days from Harwich in the Charlotte yacht to convey 
 the future queen of George III. of England. In February 1702 he 
 was ordered to accompany the queen's brother, Prince George of Meck- 
 lenburg, to Portsmouth ; and on this visit of ceremony he caught a 
 cold which, settling upon his lungs, carried him to his grave on the 
 0th of June, 1702. Lord Anson married in April, 1748, Elizabeth, 
 eldest daughter of Lord Hardwieke, who died without issue on the 1st 
 of June, 1700. 
 
 ' Lord Anson's Voyage Round the World ' went through four large 
 impressions the first year, and has been translated into most European 
 languages. It was written by Mr. Benjamin Robins from materials 
 furnished by Lord Anson, and digested under his own inspection. A 
 ' Journal of Anson's Voyage' was published in 1745 by Thomas Pascoe, 
 teacher of the mathematics on board the Centurion. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society.) 
 
 ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER, the author of a poem of almost 
 unequalled popularity in its day, ' The New Bath Guide,' was born 
 on the 31st of October, 1724. He was the son of the Rev. Christopher 
 Austey, D.D. of Briuklcy, Cambridgeshire ; received the rudiments of his 
 education at the Five school at Bury St. Edmunds; was subsequently 
 a king's scholar at Eton, and in due time became a scholar and a fellow 
 of Kind's College, Cambridge. In 1740 he took his bachelor's de- 
 gree. He was refused his master's degree, in consequence of a some- 
 what absurd opposition to the authorities of the university, who, 
 having required the bachelors of King's to deliver certain declama- 
 tions, Anstey recited an incoherent rhapsody instead of the composi- 
 tion which was required. His biographer says that he was " exem- 
 plary and regular in his moral conduct at the university." He held 
 his fellowship till 1754, when, upon succeeding to the family estates 
 of his maternal grandfather, he resigned it, and quitted Cambridge. 
 Two years afterwards he married. During the next ten years he was 
 an occasional resident at Bath ; but his celebrated poem was originally 
 printed at Trumpiugton, near Cambridge, at which place he lived upon 
 his own property. The first edition appeared in 1700, when the author 
 was at the mature age of 42. Its success was decided. It is easy to 
 understand the reason of this success. Without any knowledge of 
 the personalities involved in some of the descriptions, ' The New 
 Bath Guide ' may still be read with pleasure, as a lively picture of a 
 past state of society, droll if not witty, sparkling if not profound, and, 
 with some exceptions, not more malicious in its satire than is agreeable 
 to the mere reader for amusement. It is difficult however at the pre- 
 sent day to understand how some of its grossnesses could ever have been 
 tolerated. Its chief subjects of ridicule were doctors and Methodists. 
 All the world was ready to laugh, and without any great harm, at the 
 clever caricature of a fashionable community whose rulers were the 
 physicians ; where the bumpkin of fortune who is come to drink the 
 waters sends for the doctor, and the doctor sends for the nurse, and 
 the nurse recommends a consultation, and they all meet together to 
 talk politics, till the patient begs them to think of his stomach and 
 nerves. 
 
 In his gross satire upon the followers of Wesley and Whitfield, who, 
 in the cant of that day, were universally called hypocrites, the author 
 refers as an authority to Bishop Laviugton's ' Enthusiasm of Methodists 
 and Papists Compared.' It is a worthy authority — worthy of an age 
 when all religious earnestness was held to be folly or cunning ; and 
 the orthodox teaching interfered in no degree with worldly gratifica- 
 tion. The son of a doctor of divinity was no doubt held to do good 
 service, by writing indecent verses against those who Bought, however 
 mistaken they might appear in some points, to rouse men from the 
 prevailing indifference to all things that belong to their spiritual 
 nature. The last editor of ' The New Bath Guide,' Mr. Britton, omits 
 some of the more offensive of these passages ; but it is difficult to 
 purify what is radically corrupt. Mr. Anstey published several other 
 poems, amongst which is the ' Election Ball.' Some of his own poems 
 were translated by him into Latin verse, as well as some of Gay's 
 ' Fables,' and Gray's ' Elegy.' All his works were reprinted in 1808 
 in one volume quarto, with a memoir by his son, John Anstey, who 
 was himself the author of a poem which used to be familiar to 
 students of the inns of court, ' The Pleader's Guide.' Christopher 
 Anstey lived to the age of eighty-one, dying in 1805 at Chippenham. 
 He was buried at Walcot, Bath ; and there is a monument to him in 
 Poet's Corner, Westminster Abbey, erected at a period when the world 
 was not very discriminating in awarding the honours of that hallowed 
 spot. 
 
 ANTAR, an Arabian warrior, best known to Europeans as the hero 
 of a romance,, translated into English in 1819 by Mr. Hamilton, 
 oriental secretary to the British embassy at Constantinople. The 
 hero is not a completely fabulous person : he was the son of an 
 Arabian prince by a negro slave. Born therefore to his mother's 
 
 condition, and for a long time disowned as an Arab, and ill-treated 
 by his father, he yet raised himself to high consideration by his extra- 
 ordinary strength, courage, and poetical talent. He lived at the close 
 of the 5th and beginning of the 0th century. 
 
 The romance of Antar is conjectured to have been put together in 
 its present form, from the original legendary tales, about the time of 
 the famous Caliph Harun-al-Rashid. This poem is curious, as pre- 
 senting an early picture of the manners of the Bedouin Arabs ; but 
 there is too much sameness in it to render it, in it3 English form, 
 very interesting to the reader. 
 
 ANTHE'MIUS, a distinguished mathematician and architect of the 
 6th century. He is sometimes called Anthemius Trallianus, from his 
 birthplace Trallcs, in Lydia. Anthemius was the most distinguished 
 of the architects employed by Justinian at Constantinople ; he began 
 to rebuild the church of St. Sophia, after it was destroyed by the 
 populace in 531, and it was completed after his designs by Isidorus 
 of Miletus, after the death of Anthemius, which seems to have taken 
 place in the year 534. The church was not finished until 537, but the 
 dome fell in twenty years afterwards, through the shock of an earth- 
 quake ; it was however again rebuilt by Isidorua, and the dome then 
 raised was the first that was ever built upon arches and piers, and still 
 remains; it is 108 feet in diameter, and is built of stone. The me- 
 chanical genius of Anthemius is praised by Agathias, and he must 
 have been distinguished also as a mathematician, as Eutocius has 
 addressed to him his commentaries on tho Conica of Apollonius 
 Pergajus. 
 
 ANTHONY, ST., the first institutor of the monastic life, was born 
 at a village in Upper Egypt in the year 251. His parents, who were 
 wealthy, are said to have prevented him, when young, from acquiring 
 any other language than his native Coptic. Having understood some 
 passages of our Saviour's precepts in their literal sense, he distributed 
 the property which came to him by inheritance, at an early age, partly 
 among his neighbours and partly to the poor ; and having placed a 
 sister who was committed to his charge in a house of virgins, retired 
 to a solitude in the neighbourhood of his native village, where he is 
 represented to have been tempted by the devil in a great variety of 
 shapes. He is said to have erected his first monastery at Phaium, 
 near Aphroditopolis, about the year 305. 
 
 In 312, during the persecution under Maximinus, he went to 
 Alexandria to encourage and give consolation to the Christians, who 
 were suffering martyrdom ; and about the same time built a second 
 monastery called Pispir, near the Nile. 
 
 After a long residence in the place of his first retreat, he withdrew 
 farther from his native village, to Mount Colzum, near the Red Sea, 
 where he made a ruined sepulchre his residence. 
 
 Towards the close of life, about the year 355, St. Anthony again 
 went to Alexandria, at the request of Athanasius, to defend the faith 
 against the Arians. At this time he is said to have converted many 
 to Christianity. Declining to accept an invitation from the Emperor 
 Constantine to visit Constantinople, he returned to his cell, where he 
 died in the year 356. 
 
 Seven of St. Anthony's letters, written originally in Coptic, but 
 translated into Latin, are extant in the ' Bibliotheca Patrum.' Hi3 
 life was written by his friend St. Athanasius. 
 
 Among the miracles believed to have been wrought by his inter- 
 cession, was the cure of the distemper called the sacred fire, since that 
 time called St. Anthony's fire, and in modern days erysipelas. In 
 1095 a religious order was founded in France, called the Order of 
 St. Anthony, the members of which were to take care of persons 
 afflicted with this disorder. 
 
 ANTI'GONUS, surnamed Cyclops, or the ' one-eyed,' was the son 
 of Philip, a prince of Elymiotis in Macedonia, and was born about 
 B.C. 382. He accompanied Alexander the Great on his Asiatic expedi- 
 tion as commander of the allies ; and at the siege of Halicarnassus 
 (B.C. 334) he was among those who had distinguished themselves by 
 their courage. In B.C. 333 this post was given to Balacrus, the son of 
 Amyntas, and Antigonus was appointed satrap of Phrygia. After the 
 battle of Issus (B.C. 333) some of the generals of Darius collected 
 their scattered forces and attempted to recover Lydia, but Antigonus, 
 although he had few troops at his command, gained three successive 
 victories over the barbarians, and dispersed the enemy. The year 
 following he made a successful campaign in Lycaonia. This is all we 
 know about Antigonus during the reign of Alexander the Great, and 
 the time in which he displayed his energy and ambition does not 
 begin till after the death of Alexander. In the division of the empire 
 which was then (B.C. 323) made, Antigonus obtained Lycia, Pam- 
 phylia, and the Greater Phrygia. Eumenes, a friend of Perdiccas, 
 was to have Cappadocia, and Antigonus was commanded by Perdic- 
 cas to assist him in gaining possession of it ; but Antigonus disobeyed 
 the command of Perdiccas, who assumed the authority of sovereign, 
 to which Antigonus was unwilling to submit. Perdiccas making 
 preparations to punish him, Antigonus fled with his son Demetrius, 
 afterwards surnamed Poliorcetes, to Antipater, the regent of Mace- 
 donia, who was at war with the ./Etolians (B.C. 321). Antipater 
 Craterus, and Ptolemseus, who were themselves in danger, espoused the 
 cause of Antigonus, and war broke out between these confederates and 
 Perdiccas, but Perdiccas was murdered in the same year. Antipater, 
 who succeeded him as. regent of the empire, restored to Antigonus 
 
ANTIGONUS. 
 
 ANTIGONUS. 
 
 239 
 
 his satrapy, and gave him the command of the greater part of the 
 armies in Asia, for the purpose of making war against Eumenes 
 and the other friends of Perdiccas. Antigonus gradually gained over 
 nearly the whole army of Eumenes, who was at last besieged in the 
 stronghold of Nora in Cataonia. Leaving a portion of his troops to 
 maintain the siege, Antigonus marched with the rest of his forces 
 into Pisidia to attack Alcetas and Attalus, who, as friends and rela- 
 tions of Perdiccas, still held out against Antipater. Both were 
 defeated in the course of the winter of B.C. 320 and 319, and Antigo- 
 nus came into the possession of a great power. The death of Anti- 
 pater in B.C. 319 was a favourable event for Antigonus, who had for 
 some time entertained the intention of making himself independent 
 of the regent. When Polysperchon became the successor of Anti- 
 pater, and Cassander, the son of Antipater, laid claims to the regency, 
 Antigonus also refused to recognise Polysperchon in his new dignity, 
 and allied himself with Cassander. Their alliance was joined by 
 Ptolemseus, and Antigonus perceiving the advantage which he might 
 derive if Eumenes also, whom he had blockaded in Nora, could be 
 induced to join them, made overtures towards a reconciliation and 
 offered favourable terms. Eumenes, unshaken in his adherence to the 
 royal house of Macedonia, and unwilling to submit to a man who 
 seemed to wish to usurp the throne, commenced negociations, but 
 availed himself of an opportunity which occurred during the transac- 
 tions, and escaped from Nora into Cappadocia. Polysperchon now 
 appointed Eumenes commander of the troops in Asia, and empowered 
 him to make use of the royal treasures, which were kept in a place in 
 Cilicia, and guarded by the Argyraspids, the veterans of Alexander's 
 army, under Antigenes and Teutamus. Eumenes was well received 
 on his arrival in Cilicia by the commanders of the Argyraspids, raised 
 troops, and soon put himself in possession of nearly the whole of 
 Phoenicia. But when Antigonus, who had gained a victory near | 
 Byzantium over Clitus, the admiral of Polysperchon, in the year B.C. 
 317, advanced, Eumenes withdrew to Upper Asia. Here the satraps 
 of Persia, Carmania, Aria, and Bactria were in arms against Pithon of 
 Media and Seleucus of Babylonia. Eumenes joined the satraps, and 
 Antigonus allied himself with Pithon and Seleucus. On his arrival 
 in Susiana Eumenes was joined by his allies. A considerable force 
 was thus assembled, and if union had existed, the partisans of 
 Eumenes might have maintained themselves agaiust their enemy. 
 But while they were considering who was to have the command, Anti- 
 gonus, who had already arrived in Mesopotamia, hastened to meet 
 Eumenes, hoping to overtake him before he was joined by his allies. 
 The news that this junction had already taken place delayed his 
 march a little, and he rested his exhausted troops. At Babylon he 
 was joined by the troops of Pithon and Seleucus, and then crossed 
 the Tigris towards Susa. The intelligence of his approach induced 
 Eumene3 to retire towards the mountains of the Uxii, along which 
 the Paaitigris flows, and to leave the citadel and the treasures of 
 Susa in the care of Xenophilus. Eumenes took up his position on 
 the eastern bank of the Pasitigris. On his arrival at Susa, Antigonus 
 made Seleucus satrap of the province of Susiana, and giving him a 
 sufficient army to besiege the citadel, he marched against the enemy. 
 It wa.s in the heat of the summer (B.C. 317), and it was not without 
 great difficulty that he reached the river Copratas, the modern river 
 of Dizful, a western tributary of the Pasitigris (the river of Shuster). 
 Antigonus sent a part of his troops across the river, and Eumenes 
 in the mean time recrossed the Pasitigris, and defeated that part of 
 the army of Antigonu3 which had crossed the Copratas. Antigonus, 
 who was unable to assist hi3 troops which had crossed the Copratas, 
 withdrew towards the town of Badaca, which Diodorus places on the 
 Eulscus (the modern Shapur), where the army rested for several days, 
 and then marched into Media, through the country of the Cossaeans, 
 to join Pithon. This march of nine days was through narrow defiles 
 between high mountains, in which the troops were constantly attacked 
 by the natives and suffered severe losses. The soldiers became dis- 
 heartened and discontented, but Antigonus succeeded in inspiring 
 them with fresh confidence, and on their arrival in Media a supply 
 of provisions and pay restored their courage. The army of Antigonus 
 received also great reinforcements here. Eumenes in the meantime 
 marched to Persepolis, where Peucestas treated the army with the 
 utmost liberality. About the autumn (B.C. 317), Antigonus marched 
 into Persia, and Eumene3 and his allies set out to meet him. The 
 two armies encamped at a short distance from one another. Several 
 days passed without any thing decisive, and Eumene3 broke up in the 
 night and marched towards Gabiene, to prevent Antigonus joining 
 Seleucus. On discovering this diversion, Antigonus hastened in pursuit 
 of the enemy. In Gabiene the two armies met, and a great battle 
 was fought which, though indecisive, lasted during a whole day. In 
 the following night the two armies quietly retreated. Antigonus, 
 although his losses were greater than those of Eumenes, appeared 
 master of the field, and withdrew to the district of Gadamarta in 
 Media, where he found ample provisions and a favourable place for 
 winter quarters. Eumenes took up his winter quarters in Gabiene, 
 but liis army was dispersed over the whole province, and the soldiers 
 abandoned themselves to pleasure. Antigonus, who was informed of 
 this, thought it a favourable opportunity for crushing his enemies. 
 With a view to surprise them he broke up at the close of the year, 
 and marched with the greatest precaution through the great salt 
 
 desert towards Gabiene. But Eumenes was informed of his move- 
 ments, and hastily assembled his troops. Antigonus determined to 
 fight a decisive battle at any cost. The elephants of Eumenes, while 
 they were driven to his camp, nearly fell into the hands of Antigonus. 
 The armies met in the neighbourhood of Gadamarta, and a fierce 
 battle ensued. Antigonus had a decided advantage, and in the even- 
 ing Eumenes retreated in order to deliberate on his future operations. 
 No resolution was come to, and, on the next day (b.c 316), the dis- 
 contented and treacherous Argyraspids delivered Eumenes aud their 
 own commanders into the hands of Antigonus, who put to death 
 Eumenes, Antigenes, and several other men of distinction. 
 
 Silver Coin. British Museum. 
 
 Antigonus, who had now the whole army of Eumenes at his com- 
 mand, was by far the most powerful among the generals of Alexander. 
 He was however unwilling to share his booty with allies whom he 
 treated as if he was their master. Pithon, dissatisfied with such 
 conduct and dreading to fall into a state of complete dependence, 
 endeavoured to raise the troops against Antigonus. Antigonus receiv- 
 ing intelligence of this, contrived to entice Pithon to come to him, 
 and had him sentenced to death as a traitor by a court-martial. 
 Seleucus, the other ally, with whom Antigonus purposely sought to 
 quarrel by calling him to account for his administration, dreaded a 
 conflict with his powerful and crafty rival, and fled to Ptolemseus in 
 Egypt. Antigonus now distributed the satrapies of Asia according 
 to his own pleasure, and laden with immense booty returned to 
 Western Asia. His power induced all those who were anxious to 
 maintain themselves in independence, to demand of him the recogni- 
 tion of their rights to certain provinces, and an equal division of the 
 royal treasures ; but Antigonus refused all negociations, and a coalition 
 was formed against him consisting of Ptolemseus, Seleucus, Lysima- 
 chus, Asander, and Cassander. Vigorous preparations were made to 
 crush him by the united forces of these generals. The long struggle 
 began in B.C. 315, and was carried on with one interruption, with great 
 energy and varying success, partly in Syria and Phoenicia, partly in 
 Asia Minor, and partly in Greece. Asander was defeated and capitu- 
 lated in B.C. 313, and in B.C. 311 a general peace was concluded with 
 Cassander, Ptolemseus, and Lysimachus, according to which Alexander 
 ^Egus, for whose rights Antigonus pretended to have fought, was 
 recognised as king of the whole empire, aud Cassander as his chief- 
 general in Europe, until the young king should be of age. Lysimachus 
 received the command in Thrace, Ptolemseus in Egypt and the adjoin- 
 ing countries of Libya and Arabia, and Antigonus had all Asia. The 
 Greek towns were to be left free, in order that none of the rulers 
 might possess them, all being anxious to gain possession of them. 
 Seleucus, who is not mentioned in this peace, had established him- 
 self the year before in Eastern Asia, and it was probably after the 
 conclusion of the peace, that Antigonus made war upon him, but he 
 had not time to strike a decisive blow ; for (b.c. 310) fresh hostilities 
 broke out in the west and called for his presence there. Hostilities 
 were commenced by Ptolemseus, who took possession of several Greek 
 towns in Asia Minor on the ground that they were still occupied by 
 garrisons of Antigonus notwithstanding the peace which secured their 
 independence. Cassander induced Ptolemseus, the nephew of Antigonus, 
 who commanded the forces on the Hellespont, to abandon the cause 
 of his uncle ; Polysperchon also was persuaded by Cassander to revolt 
 against Antigonus and to poison Hercules, the son of Alexander the 
 Great by Barsine, who had been set up as a pretender, for Alexander 
 jEgus and his mother Roxana had been murdered by Cassander soon 
 after the peace. Demetrius and Philip, the sons of Antigonus, soon 
 recovered those parts of Asia Minor which had been taken by Ptole- 
 mseus. Ptolemseus had for some time entertained the plan of marrying 
 Cleopatra, the sister of Alexander the Great, which would have increased 
 his power and influence ; and in order to prevent the marriage, Anti- 
 gonus, who himself had at one time wished to marry her, caused her 
 to be put to death. The last member of the royal family being thus 
 got rid of, the bond which had hitherto united the distracted empire 
 was broken, and the ambition of the generals was now undisguised. 
 Greece seemed to be lost to Antigonus, since Cassander and Ptolemseus 
 had got possession of it. But Antigonus determined to send a large 
 force into Greece, and in order to gain the good will of the people, 
 he declared his intention to carry into effect the terms of the peace 
 of the year B.C. 311, and to restore all the Greek towns to independ- 
 ence. The command was given to his son Demetrius, who had 
 scarcely accomplished the liberation of Athens and Megara when he 
 was called back by his father (b.c. 306) and ordered to take possession 
 
23 D 
 
 ANTIGONUS OARYSTIUS. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS II. 
 
 210 
 
 of the island of Cyprus, which had been occupied by Ptolemaeus. The 
 fleets of Demetrius and Ptolemceus met off Salamis, in Cyprus, and a 
 great battle was fought in which Ptolcmrous was completely defeated. 
 After this victory Antigonus assumed the title of kintr, and gave the 
 same title to his only surviving son Demetrius. Their example was 
 followed by Ftolemccus, Seleucus, and Lysimachus; but Cassauder did 
 not venture to do the same, apparently from fear of the Macedonians. 
 Elated by his success in Cyprus, Antigonus now resolved to crush 
 Ptolenifcus. In the year of the victory off Salamis, Antigonus marched 
 into Egypt as far as the Nile, while Demetrius sailed with his fleet 
 towards the mouth of the river. But the undertaking failed. The 
 measures of Ptolemceus rendered it impossible for Antigonus to cross 
 the river with his troops, and the fleet under Demetrius was scattered 
 by a storm. Antigonus was obliged to return to Syria, and Ptolemaeus 
 celebrated a victory which he had won without striking a blow. In 
 B.C. 305 Antigonus directed his forces against the island of Rhodes, 
 partly to punish the islanders for having refused to join him in tho 
 Egyptian war, and partly to destroy their commerce, and thus in- 
 directly to injure Egypt. The Rhodians refused to submit to the 
 humiliating terms proposed by Antigonus, and Demetrius laid siege to 
 tin.- town of Rhodes. But his military skill was ineffectual against the 
 brave defence of the islanders, and when at last the Athenians and 
 yEtolians petitioned Antigonus to raise the siege and send more forces 
 to Greece, where Cassauder assumed a threatening position, Anti- 
 gonus commanded his son to sail to Greece. After having concluded a 
 peace honourable and favourable to the Rhodians in B.C. 304, Demetrius 
 sailed to Greece, and, without much difficulty, got possession of the 
 most important towns, such as Athens, Argos, Sicyon, and Corinth 
 [Demetrius.] Cassauder soon found himself pressed so hard, that he 
 sued for peace. The haughty Antigonus demanded unconditional 
 surrender. This demand roused the last energies of Cassauder ; he 
 formed an alliance with Lysimachus in Thrace, whose own dominions 
 were exposed to danger if Macedonia fell into the hands of Antigonus, 
 and the two allies sent ambassadors to Seleucus and Ptolemaeus. These 
 kings had learned by experience to view Antigonus as their most 
 dangerous enemy, and the new coalition against him was soon formed, 
 B.C. 302. Antigonus, now eighty years of age, determined to fight a 
 decisive battle against Lysimachus, who had crossed into Asia Minor, 
 before Seleucus could arrive from Upper Asia. But this plan was 
 frustrated, and the whole of the year B.C. 302 was passed in inactivity. 
 In the mean time Seleucus joined Lysimachus, aud Antigonus was 
 obliged to call his son Demetrius from Greece. The hostile armies 
 met in B.C. 301, in the plains of Ipsus in Phrygia. The aged Anti- 
 gonus, who had always gone to battle with great calmness, entered 
 on the decisive contest with dark forebodings. The great battle of 
 Ipsus was fought in the summer of the year B.C. 301, and Antigonus 
 lost his empire and his life. Demetrius fled with his mother Strato- 
 nice, and the dominions of Antigonus were divided : Seleucus received 
 the countries from the coast of Syria to the Euphrates, together with 
 portions of Phrygia and Cappadocia, and Lysimachus the greater part 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
 Antigonus was a bold and successful soldier, unprincipled and cruel 
 when he had an object to accomplish. But he was not one of the 
 worst men of the age in which he lived. He had a strong intellect 
 and great knowledge of men. He despised flatterers, and he was not 
 dazzled by his extraordinary success, which nearly raised him to the 
 sovereignty of the empire of Alexander the Great. When a flatter- 
 ing poet once called him a god and a son of the sun, he replied, " My 
 servant knows nothing about it." In his old age he had learned that 
 gentle means were necessary to keep together what he had acquired 
 by conquest. 
 
 (Arrian, Analasis, i. 30; Curtius, iv. 1, 5, v. 2, x. 10; Diodorus 
 Siculus, xviii. — xx. ; Plutarch, Eumenes and Demetrius; Mannert, 
 Geschichte der unmittelbaren Nachfolger Alexanders, Leipzig, 1787, 
 8vo. ; Droysen, Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders, books i. — iii. ; 
 Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. vii. On the subject of the campaign 
 of Antigonus and Eumenes in Susiana, and the identification of the 
 livers of Susiana, see Major Rawlinson, London Geog. Journal, vol. is. ; 
 and Professor Long, vol. xii.) 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society.) 
 
 ANTI'GONUS CARYSTIUS, probably a native of Carystus in 
 Eubcea, is the reputed author of a work entitled a 'Collection of 
 Wonderful Histories.' Antigonus is generally supposed to have lived 
 in the age of Ptolemaeus II. of Egypt. This collection, which on the 
 whole is of very little value, was last edited by J. Beckmann, Leipzig, 
 4to, with a commentary. 
 
 ANTI'GONUS DOSON ('about to give') so named, because his 
 promises were more ready than his performance, is said to have been 
 the son of a Demetrius, who was the eon of Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
 and of course the brother of Antigonus Gonatas. Being appointed 
 guardian to Philip, the infant son of Demetrius II., he was called to, 
 vr usurped, the throne, B.C. 229 ; but he acted the part of a kind of 
 protector to Philip, who succeeded him. He enlarged the limits of 
 the Macedonian monarchy, and took an important share in the affairs 
 of Greece, for the most part in concert with Aratus and the Achaean 
 league. He died B.C. 221 (Feb. 220, Clinton, 'Fasti Hellenici ') 
 regretted by the friends of Macedonia, and leaving a fairer character 
 than belonged to most of the princes of that age. 
 
 ANTI'GONUS GONA'TAS, so named from being bora at Goni, or 
 Gonnos (Strab. p. 440), in Thessaly, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 After the death of his father there were various claimants to the 
 Macedonian throne, which was finally seized by Ptolemaeus Ceraunus, 
 to the exclusion of Antigonus (b.c. 281). Coraunus was slain in battle 
 against the Gauls. After the great overthrow of the barbarians in 
 Thessaly, Antigonus defeated another division of them in Macedonia, 
 and soon after gained possession of his paternal kingdom (b.c. 277), 
 in spite of the opposition of Antiochus, whose sister Phila he soon 
 after married. Ho was driven out of Macedonia by the celebrated 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, B.C. 272, and fled into Peloponnesus, where, 
 like his father, he possessed a powerful interest. On the death of 
 Pyrrhus before Argos, B.C. 271, he recovered Macedonia, but was again 
 expelled by Alexander, son of Pyrrhus, and reinstated by his own son 
 Demetrius. During the latter part of his life he held his own domi- 
 nions in peace ; but he was continually employed iu extending his 
 influenco in Peloponnesus, both by force and fraud, and was brought 
 into frequent collision with the Achaean league. He died B.C. 243, or 
 239 (Clinton, ' Fasti Hellenici '), leaving a son, Demetrius II., who 
 reigned ten years. 
 
 ANTI'NOUS, a native of Bithynia, and favourite of the emperor 
 Hadrian, the extravagance of whose attachment was shown by the 
 institution of divine honours to Antinous after his death. Respecting 
 the circumstances of his death there are many stories, but it seems 
 generally agreed that he was drowned in the Nile while Hadrian was 
 in Egypt. The town near which he died was rebuilt by the emperor, 
 and called Antinoe or Antinopolis, instead of Besa, its former name. 
 Its remains exist under the name of Ensene". A new star was said to 
 have been discovered in the heavens, which waa called the ' soul o£ 
 Antinous.' Oracles were delivered by him, which must be taken aa 
 forgeries invented by Hadrian himself, or according to his order. 
 Among the remaining treasures of ancient sculpture, the statues of 
 Antinous, nearly as numerous as those of the Venus, and very similar 
 to each other, rank among the most beautiful. That originally in the col- 
 lection of Cardinal Alexander Albani, the most perfect perhaps of those 
 executed for the Roman nobles, for the purpose of paying their court 
 to the emperor, is a standing figure in marble. The head looks down- 
 wards, with a melancholy expression, which they all bear ; the hair 
 in all of them is arranged in the same manner, covering the forehead 
 nearly as low as the eyebrows. The busts of Antinous are also very 
 fine. (Xiphilinus ; Bayle, Diet. Hist., and the authorities there quoted ; 
 Winkelmann, iL p. 464, &c, French trans.) 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS, a name best known from its being borne by many 
 Syrian monarchs of the Seleucidan dynasty ; but otherwise not 
 uncommon in ancient history. 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS I., surnamed Soter, or Preserver, was the son of 
 Seleucus Nicator, who, after the death of Alexander, raised Syria into 
 an independent kingdom. [Antigonus.] 
 
 Silver. British Museum. 
 
 Upon the murder of Seleucus, while engaged in his expedition to 
 subdue Macedonia, B.C. 280, Antiochus succeeded to the throne and 
 reigned nineteen years. He prosecuted his father's claim to the king- 
 dom of Macedonia against Antigonus Gonatus, son of Demetrius, and 
 his own brother-in-law ; but the dispute was accommodated by a mar- 
 riage between Antigonus and Phila, daughter of Seleucus and 
 Stratonice, in consideration of which the Macedonian prince was 
 allowed to retain the peaceable possession of his throne. Demetrius, 
 the son of Antigonus, also married Stratonice, the daughter of 
 Antiochus. The reign of Antiochus is distinguished by his defeat of 
 the Gauls, who had crossed into Asia and obtained a settlement in the 
 province named after them, Galatia. He was subsequently engaged 
 in an unsuccessful war with Eumenes, king of Pergamus. He died 
 B.c. 261. 
 
 (Appian, Syriaca ; Justin, book xxvii. ; Anc. Univ. Hist., vol. viii.) 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS II., surnamed Theos, or God, son of the former, 
 succeeded to the throne upon his father's death. His reign is chiefly 
 memorable for the revolt of the Parthians, B.C. 250, under Arsaces, 
 who succeeded ultimately in expelling the Macedonians, and thus 
 became the founder of the formidable Parthian empire. The remote 
 province of Bactria, and others lying eastward of the Tigris, followed 
 this example; and Antiochus, apprehensive of the final loss of those 
 regions, concluded a treaty of peace with Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, 
 B.C. 252, by which he agreed to rej u liate his wife Laodice, and to 
 marry Berenice, daughter of the king of Egypt, settling the crown 
 upon bis children by the latter. These conditions were fulfilled ; but 
 
241 
 
 ANTIOCHUS III. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS IV. 
 
 212 
 
 on the death of Ptolemoous, two years afterward?, Antiochus restored 
 Laodice to her conjugal rights, and in return was poisoned by her, 
 B.C. 247, with the view of securing the succession to her eldest sou, 
 Seleucus Callinicus. (Schlosser, Remarks on the Reign of Antiochus II., 
 Universalhistorisclie Uebcrsicht, &c.) 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS III., surnamed the Great, wa3 the son of Seleucus 
 Callinicus, and succeeded his brother Seleucus Ceraunus, B.C. 223. 
 Antiochus owed his safety and his throne to the honesty" of his cousin- 
 german Acbseus, who, though pressed by the army to assume the 
 crown, retained it subject to the legitimate heir. The first care of the 
 young king, or his advisers, was to appoint governors to preside over 
 the several districts of the Syrian empire, which during preceding 
 reigns had lost much of its original greatness. The kingdom of Per- 
 gamus had especially profited by the weakness of the Seleucidan 
 dynasty ; but under the able management of Aehaeus, those provinces 
 which had been wrested from the Syrians were recovered, and Attalus 
 was again confined within the limits of his proper kingdom. 
 
 Achseus, who had formerly so signalised his fidelity, finding that his 
 distinguished successes had excited jealousy, and that plots were laid 
 against his life by those who were in the king's confidence, proclaimed 
 himself king of those provinces in Asia Minor which he had recovered, 
 and which had been entrusted to his charge. Ptolemseus Philopator 
 still held Ccelesyria and Palestine, which had been conquered by his 
 predecessor, Ptolemseus Euergetes. By the advice of his council, the 
 young monarch turned his arms first against Egypt. He marched 
 into Ccelesyria, and, assisted by the defection of Theodotus, the 
 governor of that province, gained possession of the greater part of it, 
 including the capital, Damascus. The campaign was terminated by a 
 truce for four months, and negotiations for a treaty of peace were set 
 on foot ; but the truce expired before anything was agreed to. War 
 was resumed B.C. 218. At first Antiochus carried all before him ; he 
 penetrated into Phoenicia, forcing the passes of Mount Libauus ; 
 gained possession of Galilee, and subdued the inheritance of the tribes 
 beyond Jordan. But these advantages he lost in the following year 
 in a great battle fought at Raphia, near Gaza, in which he was defeated 
 with great slaughter, and obliged to retreat to Antioch with the wreck 
 of his army. Ccelesyria and Palestine returned to their allegiance to 
 Ptolemseus; and the Syrian king, pressed at the same time by Achseus, 
 was compelled to sue for peace with Egypt, which he obtained ou 
 condition of resigning his claim to the contested provinces. Being 
 now at leisure, Antiochus turned his whole attention to the destruc- 
 tion of Acbaaus, whom he overpowered and put to death : by this act 
 the provinces of Asia Minor were again annexed to the Syrian empire, 
 B.c. 213. 
 
 Arsaces, the son of him who established the Parthian empire, had 
 overrun Media while Antiochus was engaged in the wars against 
 Ptolemseus and Achseus. He was unable to withstand the attack of 
 Antiochus in person, aud was soon driven out of his new conquest. 
 The Syrian monarch in his turn invaded Parthia, and after several 
 campaigns a tr< aty was concluded, by which Arsaces was left in quiet 
 possession of Hyrcania, on condition of his assisting Antiochus to 
 recover the rest of the revolted provinces. After an unsuccessful 
 attempt to recover Bactria from Euthydemus, with whom he at last 
 concluded a treaty, he crossed the mountains of Paropamisus (also 
 called Caucasus) into India, formed a treaty of alliance with the king 
 of that portion of the country, and, directing his march homeward 
 through the provinces of Arachosia, Drangiana, and Carmania, inter- 
 mediate between the Indus and Persia, re-established the supremacy of 
 Syria in those distant regions. He returned through Persia to Antioch, 
 having been employed for seven years in these eastern campaigns, and 
 earned by his successes the most specious claim to the title of Great. 
 
 Ptolemccus Epiphanes, a child of five years old, succeeded to the 
 throne of Egypt (b.c. 205) on the death of his father, Ptolemseus 
 Philopator. Antiochus and Philip, king of Macedonia, united in a 
 design to expel him, and share the Egyptian dominions between 
 themselves. Antiochus regained possession of the provinces of Pales- 
 tine and Ccclefyria in the course of two campaigns, and upon entering 
 Jerusalem (B.c, 198) was received by the Jewish people with great 
 joy. Antioihus now proposed a treaty of marriage between his 
 daughter aud the young king of Egypt, to be consummated when both 
 carne of age, by which Ccelesyria and Palestine were to be given with 
 the princess as a dowry. Having thus purchased the neutrality of his 
 most powerful enemy, he proceeded with a powerful fleet round Asia 
 Minor. He crossed the Hellespont, and took possession of the 
 Thracian Chersonese (B.C. 190); and here he came in contact for the 
 first time with the power before which his own was compelled to 
 retire. The Romans had already reduced Macedonia to the condition 
 of a subject kingdom, wheu Antiochus crossed into Europe, and 
 wrested the Chersonese from the impaired power of Philip. Jealous 
 of this new interferer in the affairs of Europe, the Romans sent 
 ambassadors to require restitution, not only of all that Antiochus had 
 taken from Philip, but of all that he had taken from Ptolemseus, 
 whose guardians, soon after his accession to the throne, had placed 
 him under the wardship of the Romans, a3 a protection against the 
 ambition of his Syrian neighbour. Antiochus replied to those requi- 
 sitions in terms as haughty as those in which they were made; and it 
 waa evident that the quarrel would soon end in an appeal to arms. 
 (Polybius, xviii. 33.) 
 
 BIOO. D1V. VOL. I. 
 
 In the following year, B.C. 195, Hannibal, driven from Carthnge, 
 came to Ephesus to seek the protection of the king of Syria, and his 
 representations induced Antiochus to match his strength against tho 
 redoubted power of Rome. In the winter of B.C. 192 Antiochus was 
 invited by the ^Etolians to pass into Greece. He crossed over with an 
 army, posted himself in the town of Demctrias, and was chosen by 
 the .iEtoliaus as their commander-in-chief. Antiochus appears to have 
 managed affairs badly. He might have made the king of Macedon his 
 friend instead of his enemy ; and after his capture of Euboca, instead 
 of pushing on his conquests, he spent his time at Chalcis, and in 
 negotiating with the petty states around him. The Roman consul, 
 Acilius Glabrio, with Cato for his legate, now advanced against the 
 Syrian king, who made a stand at Thermopylse, but was utterly 
 routed and compelled to retire to Asia, B.C. 191. The next year 
 L. Cornelius Scipio was elected consul, and appointed to conduct 
 the Syrian war; and his brother, the celebrated Africanus, served 
 under him in the quality of lieutenant. Antiochus withdrew hi3 
 forces from Lysimachia, in Thrace, and from the strong cities on the 
 Hellespont, and thus gave the Romans free access into Asia. Yet 
 they had no sooner crossed the Hellespont, than, struck with terror, 
 he sent ambassadors to endeavour to negociate a peace. The terms 
 he offered, though tolerably humiliating, were not such as satisfied 
 the ambition of the Romans, whose conditions Antiochus refused to 
 accept, and, collecting his whole force, he met the consul Scipio 
 (B.C. 190) in a pitched battle near Magnesia of Sipylus, in which ho 
 was defeated with immense slaughter. This was decisive ; he retired 
 hastily to Syria, and again sent to negociate for peace, which he 
 obtained on terms not materially harder than those before offered. 
 He was to resign the provinces west of Mount Taurus ; to pay 18,000 
 Euboic talents for the expenses of the war ; to deliver up to the 
 Romans his elephants and ships of war : and to place in their hands 
 Hannibal and other foreigners who had taken refuge at his court. 
 Hannibal, with another, preserved his safety by timely flight ; the 
 rest were delivered up, together with hostages for the observance of 
 the treaty, of whom Antiochus Epiphanes, the king's younger son, 
 was one. 
 
 In collecting means to pay the heavy burden imposed upon him, 
 Antiochus was led to plunder a wealthy temple in the province of 
 Elymais. Indignant at the sacrilege, the people of the place rose in 
 arms, and massacred him and his attendants (b.c. 187), in the 37th 
 year of his reign and 52nd of his age. Antiochus did more to restore 
 the greatness of the Syrian kingdom under the first Seleucus than any 
 other of his dynasty ; but he was unfortunate in meeting the first 
 shock of that iron power before which all the great monarchies of the 
 known world were destined to fall. 
 
 (Polybius, lib. 5, &c. ; Appian, Syriaca; Liv., lib. 36, 37; Raleigh, 
 Hist, of World; Anc. Univ. Hist., vol. viii.) 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS IV., surnamed Epiphanes, or Illustrious, the second 
 son of Antiochus the Great, succeeded his elder, brother, Seleucus 
 Philopator (B.C. 175 or 176). Antiochus was, at the time of his 
 brother's death, on his way from Rome, where he had been detained 
 as a hostage. 
 
 Coin of Antiochus Epiphanes. British Museum. 
 
 The first events of his reign which require notice, are his hostilities 
 with Egypt, which then reclaimed the provinces of Palestine aud 
 Ccelesyria, wrested from her by Antiochus the Great. In the first 
 campaign (b.c. 171), he routed the Egyptians between Mount Casius 
 and Pelusium, and fortified the frontiers of Palestine against further 
 aggression. In the next year he overran all Egypt, except the strong 
 city of Alexandria, and gained possession of the person of Ptolemseus 
 Philometor, the young king. In the same year he sacked Jerusalem, 
 and profaned and plundered the temple, as related iu Maccabees i. c 1, 
 aud ii. c. 5; after which he appointed Philip the Phrygian governor 
 of Judsea. After the capture of the reigning prince, the Alexandrians 
 having raised Ptolemseus Euergetes, commonly called Physcon, his 
 brother, to the throne, Antiochus, under pretence of restoring the 
 kingdom to Ptolemseus Philometor, renewed the war (b.c. 169), 
 defeated the Egyptians, and laid siego to Alexandria. Being unable 
 to reduce that city, he left Philometor as the nominal king of tho 
 country, but the rival brothers, seeing through his ambitious designs, 
 agreed to hold the kingdom in common, and Egypt was restored for a 
 time to its former tranquillity. Hereupon Antiochus undertook a 
 fourth expedition (b.c. 168), entered and subdued Egypt, and was ou 
 the point of laying siege to Alexandria, when he was met by auibas- 
 
 B 
 
213 
 
 ANTIOCHUS V. 
 
 EM 
 
 sadors from Rome, who peremptorily required him to depart from 
 Egypt, and the imperious mandate was obeyed. Returning through 
 Palestine in the same year, he vented his spleen by ordering that 
 great persecution of the Jews related in the second book of Macca- 
 bees. The steady and successful resistance of that high-spirited people 
 drained Syria of army after army ; and the difficulties of the king 
 were increased by revolts in Armenia and Persia. Dividing his dis- 
 posable force into two parts, he sent one under the command of Lysias 
 into Judrca; and led the other himself into the revolted provinces, 
 which he soon brought back to their allegiance. While thus employed, 
 he received tidiDgs of the total defeat of his armies in Judaja. Trans- 
 ported with passion, he hastened towards Antiocb, when he was seized 
 with violent internal pains, and he died at a town called Tabaj, B.C. 
 165, in dreadful agony both of body and mind. He was a prince of 
 dissolute and undignified character, as well as stained with the darker 
 vice of cruelty ; he received from his subjects the nickname of Epi- 
 manes, or the Madman, in parody of his assumed title of Epiphanes, 
 or Illustrious. (Livy, xlii^ kc; I'olybius.) 
 
 ANTIOCHUS V., surnamed Eupator, or well-fathered, son of A. 
 Epiphanes, was a child nine years old when he succeeded to the 
 throne, under the guardianship of Lysias. After a nominal reign of 
 nearly two years he was dethroned, and put to death by his cousin- 
 german, Demetrius Soter, son of Seleucus Philopator, who succeeded 
 to the crown in B.C. 162. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS VI., the son of Alexander Balas, who was raised up 
 by Diodotus, surnamed Tryphon, as a stalking horse, by the help of 
 which he might displace Nicator, and make his own way to empire. 
 The young pretender was at this time but seven years old ; but he 
 was readily raised to the throne, for the excesses of the reigning prince 
 had alienated his subject?. After a nominal reign of two years he 
 was put to death by Tryphon, who assumed the crown, (b.c. 144-2.) 
 
 ANTIOCHUS VII., surnamed Sidete?, was a younger son of Deme- 
 trius Soter, and brother of Demetrius Nicator. After the latter was 
 expelled by Antiochus VI., A. Sidetes married his wife, Cleopatra, 
 laid claim to Syria, and expelled Tryphon (B.C. 138), who had held it 
 f-iuce the murder of Antiochus VI. His reign was comparatively 
 prosperous and tranquil. He reduced many cities, which had taken 
 advantage of the civil wars to assume independence, and among them 
 Jerusalem (b.c. 134). He defeated Phraates, king of Parthia, in three 
 battles, and recovered all which had been wrested from Syria, except 
 the province of Parthia ; but his life and reign were brought to an 
 untimely close in a sudden onset made by the enemy upon his winter 
 quaiters. He perished, B.C. 129 or 128, leaving a fairer character for 
 justice, generosity, and bravery, than belongs to most of the princes 
 of this most profligate age. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS VIII., surnamed Grypus. After the death of A. 
 Sidetes, Syria was again distracted by civil wars. Demetrius Nicator 
 escaped from Parthia, and resumed the crown ; but he was soon 
 dethroned by Alexander Zebinas. Cleopatra, the wife successively of 
 Balas, D. Nicator, and A. Sidetes, retained possession, however, of a 
 portion of Syria ; and Seleucus, her son by D. Nicator, regained some 
 districts contiguous to those held by his mother, and proclaimed him- 
 self King of Syria. This raised her jealousy, and she murdered him 
 with her own hand ; then she recalled from Athens, her son Antio- 
 chus Grypus (named also Philornetor, and, on his medals, Epiphanes), 
 B.C. 125. Grypus soon expelled Alexander Zebinas. Cleopatra then 
 became jealous of him also ; aud perished, being compelled to drink a 
 poisoned draught, which she herself had offered to her son. Grypus 
 then reigned in peace for eight years ; at the end of which a fresh 
 competitor for the throne started up in the person of his half-brother. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS IX., surnamed Cyzicenus, from being educated at 
 Cyzicus, the son of Cleopatra by A. Sidetes. After a sharp contest 
 the brothers agreed to divide the empire, B.C. 113 or 112: A. Cyzice- 
 nus occupied Coelesyria and Palestine ; A. Grypus, the rest of the 
 empire. Grypus was assassinated, B.C. 96. A. Cyzicenus was defeated 
 and slaiu by Seleucus, the son and successor of A. Grypus, B.C. 95. 
 Seleucus perished after a reign of seven months. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS X., surnamed Eusebes the Pious, son of A. Cyzicenus, 
 proclaimed himself King of Syria upon his father's death. For a 
 time he disputed the throne with his cousins, Philip and Demetrius 
 Eukceros, sons of A. Grypus: but (b.c. 88) he was compelled to fly 
 into Parthia. He returned (b.c. 86), Eukaeros being dead or banished : 
 and while he was engaged in war with Philip, another Antiochus, sur- 
 named Dionysius, full brother to Philip, seized upon Coelesyria. The 
 latter was soon slain in a war against the Arabians. After a brief 
 period, the Syrians, wearied by the desolating feuds of the Seleucidan 
 princes, invited Tigranes, king of Armenia, to take possession of the 
 country. Eusebes then fled into Cilicia (B.C. 83), and passed the 
 remainder of his life in obscurity. The events of this reign are very 
 confused. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS XL, surnamed Asiaticus, was the son of A. Eusebes. 
 Tigranes being obliged to withdraw his troops from Syria to make 
 head against the Romans, A. Asiaticus gained possession of part of 
 the kingdom, B.C. 69. He retained it for four years, at the end of 
 which Syria was reduced by Pompeius to the condition of a Roman 
 province, B.C. 65. In Antiochus Asiaticus, the Seleucidan dynasty 
 ended, having ruled Syria for 247 years, reckoning from the time 
 when Seleucus Nicator began his reign in B.C. 312. (For the chro- 
 
 nology of the Syrian kings the reader should consult Clinton's ' Fasti 
 
 Hellenici.') 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS OF COMMAGENE. [Commaoene.j 
 ANTI'PATER, Regent of Macedonia. He was a son of Iolaus, and 
 a man of great talent. In his early years he had the advantage of the 
 instruction of Aristotle. The prudence which he displayed in all 
 his conduct, aud his attachment to the royal house of Macedonia, 
 gained him the favour of Philip II., who made Antipater his friend, 
 general, and minister. The king's confidence in him appears from an 
 anecdote, according to which Philip ono day after getting up rather 
 late, said, " I have slept soundly, but Antipater was awake." After 
 the battle of Chscronea, in B.C. 338, Antipater and Alexander the son 
 of Philip, were sent to convey to Athens the bonea of those Athenians 
 who had fallen in the battle, and to conclude a treaty of friendship 
 and alliance with the Athenians. Alexander had the same esteem for 
 Antipater as his father, and when the young king was preparing for 
 his Asiatic expedition, Antipater, with other men of influence, en- 
 treated him to marry, and give a successor to the throne of Mace- 
 donia, before embarking in his great uudertaking. The advice was 
 disregarded, but on setting out Alexander appointed Antipater regent 
 of Macedonia, aud placed at his disposal an army of 12,000 foot, and 
 1500 horse for the protection of the kingdom. In B.C. 331, Antipater 
 was engaged in a war with some rebellious tribes of Thrace under 
 Memnon, which the Spartans considered a favourable opportunity for 
 recovering their supremacy in Greece, and accordingly Sparta, under 
 her king, Agis III., and her Peloponuesian allies, rose against Mace- 
 donia. Antipater settled the affairs in Thrace as speedily as possible 
 by a peace, aud hastened to the Peloponnesus. In the neighbourhood 
 of Megalopolis in Arcadia he gained a complete victory over the 
 Greeks. Agis fell in battle, and the Greeks were compelled to keep 
 quiet. [Aois III.] The position of Antipater a3 regent of Macedonia 
 was difficult, on account of the arrogance, the perpetual interference, 
 and the petty jealousies of Queen Olympias, the mother of Alexander. 
 Each often complained of the other by letters and messengers to 
 Alexander. Whether it was that the accusations of Olympias or 
 Antipater's own conduct raised suspicions in the king's mind, or that 
 Alexander merely intended to put an end to these quarrels by re- 
 moving the regent, in the year B.C. 323, when Alexander was at Babylon, 
 he sent orders to Antipater to bring recruits to Asia, and appointed 
 Craterus to lead back the Macedonian veterans, and succeed Antipater 
 as regent of Macedonia. It is not improbable that Antipater's own 
 conduct may have afforded grounds for suspicion, as it cannot be 
 supposed that he was indifferent to the execution of his son-in-law, 
 Alexander, son of Aeropus. But before Alexander's orders were 
 carried into effect, he died at Babylon in B.C. 323. There is a tra- 
 dition that Antipater was implicated in the death of Alexander the 
 Great, and it is said that Aristotle, who was hurt by the king's 
 conduct towards him, induced Antipater to administer poison to 
 Alexander at Babylon, through his son Iollas, who was the king's cup- 
 bearer. But this report is contradicted by the best authorities, and 
 it is not improbable that it arose several years after the death of 
 Alexander through the slander of Olympias, the implacable enemy of 
 Antipater and his family. 
 
 In the division of the empire after the death of Alexander, it was 
 agreed that Antipater, in conjunction with Craterus, should have the 
 government of the European parts, with the exception of Thrace, 
 which was given to Lysimachus as a separate satrapy. The arrival of 
 the news of Alexander's death had encouraged the Greeks once more 
 to take up arms to recover their independence, and Antipater had 
 now to carry on a war against a powerful confederacy of the Greeks, 
 which was headed by the Athenians and .<Etolians. The war which 
 broke out is called the Lamian war, from the town of Lamia in Thes- 
 saly. The command of the army of the confederates was given to 
 Leosthenes of Athens. Near Thermopyte he defeated the Macedo- 
 nians, and Antipater was obliged to throw himself into the town of 
 Lamia. The town was besieged, and its surrender was daily expected. 
 But the death of Leosthenes, and the withdrawal of the ^Etolians, 
 gave a favourable turn to the war for Antipater, who maintained him- 
 self in Lamia until Leonnatus came with an army to his relief. The 
 Greeks now raised the siege, turned against Leonnatus, and an engage- 
 ment with him ensued, in which he was defeated and killed. But 
 discord among the Greeks prevented their following up this victory, 
 and Antipater was enabled to join the remainder of the defeated army. 
 He now withdrew beyond the river Peneus, where he was joined by 
 Craterus. His forces became thus superior to those of the Greeks, 
 whose disunion, though the battle of Cranon, which was now fought, 
 was scarcely decisive on either side, destroyed all their hopes. The 
 moderation with which Antipater used his victory induced the Greeks, 
 with the exception of the jEtolians, to submit again to Macedonia. 
 The confederacy was dissolved B.C. 322, as Antipater refused to treat 
 with it, and each separate state had to implore his mercy. The 
 Athenians obtained the alliance of the Macedonians only on the hard 
 conditions of surrendering the leaders of the insurrection, and among 
 them Demosthenes, who however made his escape, recalling the exiles 
 of the Macedonian party, and paying a heavy contribution to defray 
 the expenses of the war. In addition to all this, the democratical 
 constitution of Athens was abolished, an oligarchy, headed by the 
 faithful partisans of the Macedonians, was established, and a Mace- 
 
245 ANTIPATER. 
 
 donian garrison took possession of Munychia. The iEtolians had 
 retreated to their mountains to wait for a favourable opportunity for 
 renewing the contest. 
 
 After the close of the Lamian war, Antipater gave his daughter 
 Phila in marriage to Craterus, in order to unite the interests of his 
 colleague with his own. The two regents invaded -dStolia, B.C. 322, 
 but they had scarcely entered the enemy's country, when Autigonus 
 informed them that Perdiccas, the supreme regent of the Macedonian 
 empire, entertained the plan of making himself master of the empire 
 by marrying Cleopatra, the sister of Alexander, crushing all the other 
 satraps, and divorcing Nicaea, the daughter of Antipater, whom he 
 had married only a short time before. This intelligence induced 
 Antipater to conclude peace with the iEtolians on terms favourable 
 to them, and to direct all his efforts against Perdiccas. Antipater and 
 Craterus immediately prepared to march into Asia, and entered into an 
 alliance with Ptolemceus of Egypt, whom Perdiccas intended to attack 
 first. In the spring of B.C. 321 the two regents of Macedonia crossed 
 the Hellespont. Eumenes, the friend of Perdiccas, had received 
 orders to oppose them, for Perdiccas was already on his march to 
 Egypt. Neoptolemus, an officer who had deserted from Eumenes, 
 assured the invaders that it would be an easy matter to defeat 
 Eumenes ; and trusting to this Antipater divided the Macedonian 
 forces, and giving the command against Eumenes to Craterus, he him- 
 self marched through Cilicia towards Egypt. While Antipater was 
 in Syria he received intelligence of Perdiccas being murdered by his 
 own troop*, and that Pithon and Arrhidaeus had been appointed to 
 the supreme regency in his stead. Near the town of Triparadisus, 
 Antipater joined the army of Perdiccas, which was returning from 
 Egypt, and as the two supreme regents were unable to contend against 
 the perpetual interference of Queen Eurydice, who, together with her 
 husband, Philip Arrhidreus, and the young king Alexander -<Egus, was 
 still with the army in Asia, they resigned their office, which was 
 conferred upon Antipater. Immediately after, Antipater had to put 
 down a mutiny of the army, which Eurydice endeavoured to turn to 
 her own advantage and against Antipater. While at Triparadisus the 
 regent made several new regulations respecting the satrapies which 
 had become vacant by the recent occurrences ; he left Antigonus to 
 prosecute the war against Eumenes and the other partisans of Perdic- 
 cas, and returned to Macedonia in B.C. 321, together with Philip 
 Arrbidacus and Alexander iEgus. He arrived in Macedonia about the 
 epring of B.C. 320, and the peace which had been disturbed during his 
 absence by the ^Etolians had already been re-established by his gene- 
 rals. Soon after his arrival, he was seized by an illness which ter- 
 minated his life, early in the year B.C. 319. During his illness the 
 Athenian orator Demades came to him as ambassador from Athens, 
 to petition for the withdrawal of the Macedonian garrison from 
 Munychia, and Antipater had him put to death on the ground of 
 having kept up a treacherous correspondence with Perdiccas. [De- 
 mades.] In his last days Antipater appointed Polysperchon his 
 successor in the regency of the Macedonian empire : to his son Cas- 
 sander he gave only the office of chiliarch. This slight to his own 
 son may be accounted for in various ways. It may be that Antipater 
 acted in this manner out of consideration for the interests of the royal 
 family of Macedonia, which Cassander hated, or that he foresaw the 
 troubles that would arise between Cassander and the Macedonians. 
 The haughty and intractable character of Cassander was well known 
 to the Macedonians, and he was much disliked by them. 
 
 (Flathe, Geschichte Macedoniens, i. ; Droysen, Geschichte Alexanders 
 des Grossen, and Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders; Thirl wall, 
 History of Greece, vii. ; which works contain the references to all the 
 ancient authorities.) 
 
 ANTI'PATER, son of Antipas, the governor of Idumsea, was him- 
 self a native and governor of that province during the high-priest- 
 hood of Alexander Jannseus. After that prince's death, his sons, 
 Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, disputed the succession. Antipater was a 
 zealous partizan of the former, who, after a bloody contest, was 
 established in the high-priesthood by Pompeius the Great. This 
 favourable issue was very mainly owing to the prudent management 
 of the Idumaean, and he was rewarded by the confidence of his weak 
 master under whose name he ruled in Judaea. When Caesar, during 
 the celebrated siege of Alexandria, was himself besieged in his camp 
 by the inhabitants of that city, Antipater came to his help, and 
 found opportunity to perform good service, and signalise his own 
 courage. Caesar in return obtained for him the citizenship of Rome, 
 and appointed him to the administration of Judaea, which enjoyed 
 tranquillity and prospered under his care. He was poisoned by a Jew 
 Darned Malchus, B.C. 49, through jealousy of his influence with Hyr- 
 canus. The guilt of the crime was heightened by the ingratitude of 
 the murderer, who had been indebted for his life to the man whom 
 he poisoned, and had received other benefits at his hands. Antipater 
 left four sons, of whom two are known in history — Phasael, governor 
 of Jerusalem, and the infamous Herod, king of the Jews. 
 
 These are the two most remarkable persons bearing the name of 
 ADtipater; but it is one of common occurrence in ancient history. 
 
 ANTI'PATER, L. COELIUS, a Roman historian of the Second 
 Punic War. [Coelius.] 
 
 ANTI'PHILUS, a celebrated Greek painter, who lived in Egypt in 
 the time of Ptolemteua Philopator, at the close of the 3rd century B.C. 
 
 ANTIPHON. 248 
 
 He is praised by Quintilian for the facility with which he painted, 
 and Pliny mentions several of his works, in various styles. Antiphilus 
 wa3 the inventor of a kind of caricatures called ' Grylli.' They were 
 a species of grotesque monsters, part man and part animal or bird, of 
 which the Greeks and Romans appear to have been fond. Antiphilus 
 therefore added variety of stylo to facility of execution. He was a 
 native of Egypt, and his time is fixed by a circumstance connected 
 with him, mentioned by Lucian in his ' Treatise against Calumny.' 
 
 ANTIPHON, the son of Sophilus, is called the oldest of the ten 
 Attic orators. He was born at Athens about B.C. 479, and belonged 
 to the demus of Rhamnus in Attica, whence he is called Rhamnusius. 
 He had a school of rhetoric at Athens, and among his pupils was the 
 historian Thucydides, whom some careless Greek compilers have made 
 the master of Autiphon. When Quintilian (' Instit. Orator.,' iii. 1.) says 
 that Autiphon was the first who wrote orations, he must be understood 
 to mean the first who wrote speeches to be delivered in the courts of 
 justice, for Gorgias had preceded him in the composition and publica- 
 tion of other kinds of orations. In the uncritical life of Autiphon, 
 attributed to Plutarch, the events of his public life are vaguely 
 recorded. He is said to have done good service in the Peloponnesian 
 war, to have gained many victories, which however are not mentioned 
 by Thucydides, and to have brought over many states to the alliance 
 of Athens. Diodorus mentions Antiphon as archon epouymus iu the 
 year B.C. 418 ; but this may either be Autiphon of Rhamnus or another 
 of the name. The statement of Thucydides rather leads to the con- 
 clusion that Antiphon took no active part iu public affairs, though he 
 was a busy manager behind the scenes. The chief event of his life 
 was the overthrow of the Athenian democratical constitution and the 
 establishment of the Council of the Four Hundred (b.O. 411), the 
 planning and execution of which revolution Thucydides attributes 
 solely to Antiphon, who employed Pisauder and others as his agents. 
 Antiphon, Phrynichus, and Theramenes were among the Four Hundred. 
 But dissension soon arose in the new council. Theramenes and his 
 party wished to recal Alcibiades from exile, a measure which Antiphon 
 and his friends opposed, foreseeing that the consequence of the return 
 of Alcibiades in the present state of affairs would be the restoration 
 of the old constitution. To strengthen themselves at home, Antiphon, 
 Phrynichus and ten others, went on an embassy to Sparta, for the pur- 
 pose of making peace with the Lacedaemonians on any terms that they 
 could, and at the same time they provided for the fortification of 
 Eetioneia, a projecting point of laud which commanded the entrance 
 to the Piraeus, with the view of securing a landing-place for the 
 Lacedaemonian forces, as Theramenes and his partizans said. The 
 embassy failed, Phrynichus was assassinated soon after his return, in 
 open day-light, the government of the Four Hundred overthrown after 
 a short duration of four months, and Alcibiades was recalled to Athens 
 (b.c. 411). In the same year Antiphon and Archeptolemus were brought 
 to trial on the charge of high treason. Antiphon, says Thucydides, made 
 an admirable defence. Thucydides does not mention the result of the 
 trial, but we learn from the authority of the rhetorician Cascilius, who 
 is quoted by the Pseudo-Plutarch, that Antiphon was condemned and 
 executed, his property was confiscated, his house levelled to the ground, 
 and the site was marked out by boundary stones, on which was in- 
 scribed Antiphon the Traitor. All his descendants, both legitimate 
 and illegitimate, were declared incapable of civil rights. This sen- 
 tence, which was engraved on a bronze tablet, is preserved in an 
 extract from Coacilius iu the Pseudo-Plutarch. Cascilius was a con- 
 temporary of Cicero. Thucydides (viii. 60) says that Antiphon was 
 inferior in virtue to none of his contemporaries; that he was equally 
 distinguished by wisdom in counsel and by eloquence. Sixty of his 
 orations were known to Caecilius and others, but twenty-four of them 
 Coecilius considered to be spurious. Only fifteen orations are now 
 extant, three of which relate to real cases. The other twelve are 
 divided into tetralogies, or sets of four, and as they contain no proper 
 names, we may assign them to the class of sophistical exercises, such 
 as we learn from Cicero that Antiphon wrote. But all the speeches, 
 real and imaginary, relate to cases of murder; and thus, according 
 to a system of classification common among the Greek grammarians, 
 they have all been put together, and are the only works of Antiphou 
 that have been preserved. Each tetralogy consists of four orations, 
 an accusation of the plaintiff, a reply of the defendant, a replication 
 of the plaintiff, and the defendant's rejoinder. The arguments on 
 each side turn mainly on the probabilities for and against, which 
 may be derived from evidence insufficient in itself to establish the 
 guilt or innocence of the accused party. These exercises are charac- 
 terised by great acuteness in invention ; they are in fact practical 
 specimens of the method of discovering topics (the loci communes 
 of Cicero) in argumentation. The titles of many of Antiphon's other 
 speeches have been preserved. Considering the position which he 
 occupies among the Attic orators, the loss of his orations is much 
 to be regretted, especially that which he delivered ou his trial, 
 which was entitled 'On the Revolution :' it is several times cited by 
 Harpocratiou. Antiphou was also the author of a ' Treatise on 
 Rhetoric,' in three books at least, which is often cited by the ancient 
 writers. Autiphon was hardly an orator in our sense of the term, 
 nor was he a public speaker, like Pericles. His profession was the 
 composition of speeches, which were delivered by others. There was 
 no body of men at Athens who resembled the modern lawyer or even 
 
247 
 
 ANTOMMARCHI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 243 
 
 the Roman orator, and those who had business in the courts, either as 
 plaintiffs or defendants, had in the main to manage their own causes. 
 The necessity of getting assistance to draw up a statement in the best 
 form, and to enforce it by the strongest arguments and a reference to 
 the law, called up a class of persons who were professional speech- 
 writers ; and of these Autiphon is said to have been the first at Athen8. 
 The study of the laws was thus in some measure made a special 
 business, and the speech-writer may be considered as in some measure 
 corresponding to the modern lawyer ; yet there never was a scientific 
 study of law at Athens as there was at Uoine, nor was there ever a body 
 of men like the great Roman jurisconsults. The method and style of 
 Autiphon should be studied in connection with the speeches in the work 
 of his pupil Thucydides, and these two writers furnish the chief mate- 
 rials for the early history of Attic oratory. Clearness, energy, and the 
 absence of rhetorical ornament, or figures of speech, are the character- 
 istics of the old Attic oratory. But though the periods of Antiphon 
 and Thucydides are unlike the full rounded sentences of the later 
 orators, they are not constructed without reference to some principles 
 of art. The argument is fully elaborated by the accumulation of every 
 thing that is material to it, and though the nicer connection of the 
 parts of sentences is wauting, which marks the style of the late 
 orators, there is no want of due order in the arrangement of the 
 thoughts. There is also a symmetrical balancing of the parts of 
 sentences, with the view of giving on the one hand completeness to 
 the form of expression, and on the other hand, precision by opposition 
 or contrast. Thus there is a general parallelism or antithesis observ- 
 able in all the writings of the old Attic orators, which indeed was 
 never abandoned by their successors, though it was rendered less 
 prominent by the introduction of more rhetorical ornament. 
 
 The orations of Antiphon were first printed in the collection of 
 Aldus, Venice, 1513, folio; they are also in II. Stephens' collection of 
 the Greek orators, 1575 ; in that of Rciske, 1773, of Dobson, and in 
 that of Imm. Bekker, 1822. One of the most recent editions of Anti- 
 phon is by J. G. Baiter and H. Sauppe, Zurich, 1838, 8vo. They 
 were trauslated into French by Auger, with the orations of Isocrates, 
 1781. 12mo. (Biographical Dictionary of Useful Knowledge Society.) 
 
 ANTI'STHI-.NES, the master of Diogenes, and commonly reputed 
 the founder of the Cynic school. The time of his birth, as well as 
 that of his death, is uncertain ; but he was the contemporary of 
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon, &c, and may be said in general 
 terms to have flourished about B.C. 380. Diodoru3 Siculus mentions 
 him as still alive B.C. 3G6. He was born at Athens, of which his 
 father, named also Antisthenes, was a citizen. His mother was a 
 native of Thrace, or, as Plutarch says, of Phrygia. He first attended 
 the school of the rhetoriciau Gorgias ; but, leaving him after some 
 time, he became a follower, and eventually one of the most distin- 
 guished disciples, of Socrates. His dwelling was in the Piraeus, and 
 he used to walk daily the forty stadia (above four miles) to Athens to 
 hear his new master, to whom he faithfully adhered to the end of his 
 life. Diogenes says that he was the cause of the banishment of Anytus 
 and the death of Melitus, the two chief accusers of his master Socrates ; 
 but the statement is vaguely made and not supported by other evi- 
 dence. The time of his death is not mentioned : he is said to have 
 reached his seventieth year. 
 
 Antisthenes is reckoned among the genuine scholars of Socrates, 
 or those who preserved at least a portion of their master's doctrines 
 and manner of teaching. He was a man of stubborn character, and 
 he carried his opinions to extremes ; yet he was an agreeable com- 
 panion, according to Xenophon, and distinguished by temperance in 
 all things. Socrates, perhaps, gives us an intimation of one of his 
 failings in a story recorded by Diogenes Laertius. On one occasion, 
 when he had turned his cloak so as to show the holes in it, Socrates 
 said to him, " Antisthenes, I see your vanity through your cloak." 
 Antisthenes is introduced in the ' Symposium' and the ' Memorabilia' 
 of Xenophon as conversing with Socrates aud others ; and these, which 
 are the best sources for the little that is really known of his character 
 and principles, represent him in a favourable light. He is also men- 
 tioned in the ' Pbasdon ' of Plato as present at the death of Socrates. 
 
 After the death of Socrates (B.C. 399) he established a school in the 
 gymnasium of Cynosarges, adjoining the temple of Hercules, which he 
 selected apparently for two reasons : the Cynosarges was the gymna- 
 sium for those Athenians who were not of genuine Attic stock, and 
 Hercules was the ideal model of manly excellence to Antisthenes, and 
 formed the subject of at least one of his treatises. The followers of 
 Antisthenes were first called Antistheneii, and afterwards Cynics 
 (kwikoi), a term that either had reference to the name Cynosarges, or 
 to the Greek word Kvciy (dog), which may have been given to the 
 disciples of Antisthenes on account of the coarseness of their manners. 
 Antisthenes was poor, but he boasted that he was really rich, for 
 man's wealth and poverty, he said, were not in his house but in his 
 rnind ; and it was his practical philosophy to limit his wants as much 
 as possible. He is said to have worn a single garment, aud to have 
 adopted the wallet and staff, though some writers attribute to others 
 the adoption of these external characteristics of the Cynics. It is not 
 quite clear what is meant by the story of Antisthenes being the first 
 who doubled his cloak (Tp'ifiwv), but it seems that it was done to render 
 it a more complete dress, for it was his only garment. 
 
 Many sayings of Antisthenes are recorded by Diogenes. They are 
 
 marked by a sententious brevity, a play on words, and a caustic 
 humour, which may have contributed to atlix on him and his followers 
 the appellation of Cynic or snarling. He advised the Athenians to 
 pass a decree that should declare asses to be horses ; and when his 
 proposal was treated as absurd, he replied, " Why, you have generals 
 who know nothing, and are only elected to be such." In reply to one 
 who told him that many persons spoke well of him, he said, " What 
 vicious act have I done?" On being reproached for keeping bad 
 company, ho replied, " Physicians are with their patients, and yet they 
 don't take the fever." 
 
 The doctrines of Antisthenes had chiefly a moral and a practical 
 end. It is not possible to state them in anything like a systematic 
 form from such evidence as we have. He had probably no great 
 originality as a thinker ; and the best part of his moral philosophy 
 harmonises with that of Socrates. But, as in other like cases, many 
 things may have been attributed to Antisthenes as the founder of a 
 sect which belongs to the later Cynics. 
 
 ANTOINE DE BOURBON, duke of Vendome, married, in 1548, 
 Jeaune d'Albrct, only child of Henry II., king of Navarre. Henry, 
 Prince of Bdaru, afterwards Henry IV. of France, was the offspring of 
 this marriage. Autoine assumed the title of king of Navarre in right 
 of his wife. The Bourbons were collaterals of the Valois dynasty, 
 being descended from Robert, count of Clermont, a younger son of 
 Louis IX. As such, Autoine dc Bourbon aspired to be at the head of 
 the administration of France after the accession of the youthful king 
 Francis II. ; but being himself of an indolent, wavering disposition, 
 he was supplanted by the more enterprising and ambitious Guise', 
 uncles to the young queen, Mary Stuart. After the death of Francis II. 
 in 1560, the king of Navarre was named Lieutenant-General of the 
 kingdom, and adviser to the queen-mother (Catherine de Medicis) 
 during Charles IX.'s minority. When the civil and religious war broke 
 out in 1502, the king of Navarre commanded the king's troops, aud 
 received a wound at the siege of Rouen, of which he died in November 
 of the same year. [See Bourbon, and Henry IV.] 
 
 ANTOINETTE, MARIE. [Marie.] 
 
 ANTOMMARCHI, FRANCESCO, a surgeon of some reputation as 
 an anatomist, but more likely to be remembered in his capacity of 
 physician to Napoleon I. at St. Helena. Antommarchi, a native of 
 Corsica, studied medicine at Pi3a, and was towards the close of the 
 year 1812 elected auatomical dissector to the hospital of Santa Maria 
 Nuova of Florence, attached to the university of Pisa. This appoint- 
 ment rendered him the principal assistant of his anatomical teacher, 
 Mascagni. In 1818 the Chevalier Colonna, chamberlain to Madame 
 More, made overtures to Antommarchi for the purpose of inducing 
 him to accept the appointment of surgeon to the Emperor Napoleon I., 
 and he accepted the offer. The history of Antommarchi, from this 
 time till his return to Europe in 1821, is part of the biography of 
 Napoleon. Immediately on his return he was involved in a dispute 
 with the heirs of Mascagni, who wished to reclaim from him the plates 
 and manuscript of the ' Grande Anatomia,' which he had undertaken 
 to edit, and he eventually gave them up. In 1825 a series of anato- 
 mical plates, the size of life, by Antommarchi, were announced as on 
 the eve of publication at the lithographical establishment of Count de 
 Lasteyrie at Paris. The heirs of Mascagni forthwith published a letter 
 to the count, in which they asserted that Antommarchi's lithographed 
 drawings were mere copies from the plates of Mascagni. A favourable 
 report of the work however was presented to the Acade'mie des Sciences 
 by Magendie and Dunienl. Fifteen parts of this work were published 
 with the title, ' Planches Anatomiques du Corps Humain,' Paris, 1823- 
 1826, royal folio, including forty-five finished and thirty-five outline 
 lithographed drawings of inconsiderable merit. The controversy appears 
 to have died away, through lapse of time, without a positive decision 
 being pronounced in favour of the claims of either party. During the 
 Polish revolution he went to Warsaw, where he was appointed general 
 inspector of military hospitals. 
 
 The following account of another curious controversy, in which 
 Antommarchi was engaged, is translated from the ' Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Universelle,' Paris, 1852: — "Soon after the revolution of July," 
 says Doctor Bourdon, " Antommarchi remembered that he had taken 
 a cast of the head of the dying hero. Now, about nine years after 
 his return from St. Helena, he first decided on publishing this cast of 
 the emperor. It created a great sensation [in Paris], and for a time 
 drew Antommarchi from his obscurity, probably also relieving him 
 from pecuniary distress ; but at the same time it greatly injured Lis 
 reputation. As it did not appear from this cast that Napoleon's skull 
 presented that phrenological conformation which, according to Gall, 
 ought to have indicated the most glorious and least contested of his 
 faculties, the adversaries of that science made use of it as an argument 
 against Gall and Spurzheim ; and thence sprang the disputes which 
 still continue. The fact is, that there were some reasons for doubting 
 whether the cast published by Antommarchi had really been moulded 
 at St. Helena after the death of the emperor : it was found to bear 
 more resemblance to Bonaparte the first consul than to the illustrious 
 exile, worn out by six years of sorrow and want of sleep, emaciated by 
 disease, and with the furrows ploughed by fifty-two years. Neither 
 does this cast of Antommarchi accord with what Dr. O'Meara and 
 General Montholon have related of the thinness of Napoleon, and of 
 the alteration of his features in the lattev ptrt of his existence. Sua» 
 
249 
 
 ANTONELLO DA MESSINA. 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS. 
 
 2:0 
 
 picions were set afloat of Antomrnarchi's veracity; it was affirmed that 
 he had unlawfully assumed the title of professor, and that nobody 
 had been able to find two works that he said he had published — the 
 one a treatise on the cholera, the other concerning physiology. The 
 advocates of the new science of phrenology, in their spiteful ardour, 
 went so far as to throw a suspicion upon the identity of the cast con- 
 sidered with regard to the material. ' Your cast,' they said to him, 
 ' is of a fine plaster ; it is white and pure, such as is only to be seen at 
 Lucca, where beautiful statuettes are formed of it ; you could not have 
 found any such at St. Helena.' Wearied with all these vexations, 
 Antommarchi about 1836 took the desperate step of emigrating, in 
 order to practise homceopathically at New Orleans, and afterwards at 
 tnc Havannah." He died at San Antonio, in Cuba, about 1844. 
 
 ANTONELLO DA MESSI'NA, a celebrated Italian painter, dis- 
 tinguished as the first Italian who painted 'in oils,' as it is termed. 
 Neither his name nor any date connected with events of his life are 
 exictly known. He was born at Messina about the year 1414, and was 
 instructed in painting by his father, Salvatore d' Antonio; he then 
 st idied in Rome, and returned to Messina an accomplished painter for 
 h .s time, and acquired considerable reputation by some works which 
 he executed at Messina and at Palermo. In about the year 1442 he 
 had occasion to visit Naples, where, in the possession of the king, 
 Alfonso I., he saw a picture executed in a manner and with materials 
 quite new to him : this was a picture of the Annunciation by Giovanni 
 da Bruggia, as Vasari names John Van Eyck. Antonello no sooner 
 saw this picture than he was possessed with an invincible desire to 
 learn by what means it was painted ; and having learnt the name and 
 place of residence of the painter, he immediately set out for Flanders, 
 where, by means of presents of Italian drawings and other works of 
 the kind, he was not long in obtaining Van Eyck's secret. Antonello 
 seems to have remained with Van Eyck until his death in 1440, when 
 Antonello returned to Sicily for a few years ; but before 1450 he was 
 in Venice, by which time he had communicated the new method to 
 Domenico Veneziano, who was murdered in Florence in 1464 by 
 Andrea del Castagno, after he had obtained the secret of the new 
 method from him. From Venice Antonello repaired to Milan, where 
 he probably dwelt some years, and about the year 1470 he returned to 
 and established himself at Venice. In Venice he lived upwards of 
 twenty years in the enjoyment of the reputation of one of the most 
 distinguished paintei-s of his age. He died, aged 79, probably in 1493, 
 just as he was about to execute some works for the palace of the 
 signory of Venice. 
 
 Antonello appears to have made no secret of his new method of 
 painting after his second visit to Venice, for in 1473 Bartolomeo 
 Vivarini painted a picture in the new manner for the church of San 
 Giovanni and San Paolo, and Antonello himself marked his pictures 
 ' 00 pinxit.' There is at least one so marked in the possession of a 
 gentleman at Utrecht : it represents Christ between the two thieves, 
 and ' Antonellus Messaneus me 00 pinxit, 1475,' is inscribed upon it; 
 it is a small picture painted upon a panel of wild chestnut. The ' 00 ' 
 evidently signify 'oleo,' or in oil; a word however calculated to mis- 
 lead, as the method of painting simply in oil was very old, and that 
 of Van Eyck was not merely painting in oil; it was, according to 
 Vasari, painting in varnish. Vasari says that Van Eyck, by boiling 
 linseed, poppy, and nut-oils, with other mixtures, obtained that varnish 
 which he in common with every other paiuter in the world had long 
 desired. From this sentence it is evident that 'painting in oil' is 
 strictly a misnomer, and it was adopted only as sufficiently descriptive 
 in contradistinction to the then prevailing method of water-colour, or 
 ' a tempera ' painting. 
 
 Antonello's works were distinguished for tone, for brilliancy of 
 colour, and for the excellence of their impasto, but those which remain 
 are much darkened. In design they are similar to the works of the 
 Bellini. Antonello's life was long, and he was industrious; the extreme 
 scarceness therefore of his works cannot be otherwise accounted for 
 than by supposing them to be attributed to other masters, or vaguely 
 designated as of the school of Van Eyck — a veiy frequent designation 
 in the continental galleries. 
 
 ANTO'NIA MAJOR, the elder daughter of Antonius the triumvir, 
 by Octavia, the half-sister of Augustus, born B.C. 39. She married L. 
 Domitius, the son of Cn. Domitius, who supported the interests of 
 Antony in the disputes with Augustus, until a short period before the 
 battle of Actium, and the grandson of L. Domitius, who fell in the 
 flight from Pharsalia. Among the descendants of Antonia were some 
 of the most illustrious personages in Rome. One of her daughters, 
 Domitia Lepida, was the mother of Messalina, afterwards married to 
 the Emperor Claudius ; and her son, Cn. Domitius, marrying Agrip- 
 pina, became the father of the Emperor Nero. We have called this 
 Antonia the elder in agreement with Suetonius and Plutarch. Tacitus, 
 on the contrary, speaks of her as the younger daughter. (' Ann.,' iv. 
 44; xii. 64.) 
 
 ANTO'NIA MINOR, the sister of the preceding, born B.C. 38 or 37. 
 She married Drusus Nero, the brother of the Emperor Tiberius, by 
 whom she became the mother, 1, of the celebrated Germauicus; 2, of 
 Livia, or Livilla, who was first married to Caius Caesar, the grandson 
 of Augustus, and after his death to her cousin Drusus, the son of Tibe- 
 rius; and, 3, of the Emperor Claudiua Caligula, being the 3on of 
 Qermanicun, was her grandson. 
 
 Antonia was not fortunate in her domestic relations : she lost hor 
 husband B.C. 9, before she was thirty years of ag.?, by a fall from his 
 horse. Early in the reign of Tiberius (a.d. 19) she saw the widowed 
 Agrippina return from the east with the ashes of her son Germanicus. 
 In 23 her daughter Livia, corrupted by Sejanus, assisted in the murder 
 of her own husband Drusus ; but her guilt remained unknown to the 
 world until eight years after, when Antonia herself became indirectly 
 the cause of the discovery. Sejanus was then preparing to execute 
 his final schemes for the destruction of Tiberius, when his intrigues 
 became known to Antonia, who communicated her information through 
 the freedman Pallas to the emperor. The ruin of the favourite brought 
 many past crimes to light, among others the murder of Drusus ; and 
 Livia met the fate which she deserved, her own mother, if we may 
 believe one of the accounts given by Dio, opposing herself to the pardon 
 offered by the emperor. Under the reign of her grandson Caligula she 
 was at first highly honoured, receiving every distinction which had 
 formerly been conferred on the celebrated Livia; but respect soon 
 changed to coldness and ill-treatment ; and at last her death was sup- 
 posed to be hastened by his neglect, if indeed it was not brought about 
 by more direct means. If we place her death in the first year of 
 Caligula, she was about soventy-five years of age. The Emperor 
 Claudius had experienced from her when a child little of maternal 
 affection, but he honoured her memory when he came to the throne 
 in every way that the flattery of the age permitted. Pliny speaks of 
 a temple dedicated to her. Of the private life of Autouia little is 
 known. She was celebrated for her beauty, and still more for her 
 chastity, in an age too when that virtue was not common amongst 
 women of her rank. The beautiful head of Antonia is taken from a 
 gold medal in the British Museum. 
 
 ANTONPNUS LIBERA'LIS probably lived under the Antonines. 
 He is the author of a work in Greek, entitled ' A Collection of Meta- 
 morphoses : ' this collection is borrowed from a variety of authors, 
 and is curious for containing many passages of poets whose works are 
 now lost. The best edition is that of H. Verheyk, Leyden, 1774, 8vo. 
 
 ANTONPNUS PIUS, or, with his full name, Titus Aurelius Fulvus 
 Bojonius Antoninus Pius, was the son of Aurelius Fulvus and Arria 
 Fadilla. He was born September 19, a.d. 86, in the reign of Domitian, 
 at Lanuvium (now Lavinia), a town of Latium, a few miles south of 
 the Alban Lake. His youthful years were spent at Lorium (a town 
 on the north side of the Tiber, not far from its mouth), under the care 
 of his paternal and maternal grandfathers, T. Aurelius Fulvus, who 
 had twice been consul, and Arrius Antoninus, who also had twice 
 attained the same honour. 
 
 Gold. British Museum, Diameter doubled. 
 
 Through his extensive family connexions he inherited great wealth, 
 and was speedily raised to the successive dignities of quaestor, praetor, 
 and consul. His taste however was for a country life. When Hadrian 
 intrusted the administration of Italy to four men of consular rank, he 
 gave to Antoninus the government of that part in which his pos- 
 sessions lay. During his consulship and his subsequent government 
 of the province of Asia as pro-consul, there were, as his credulous 
 biographer informs us, many strange presages of his future elevation. 
 On his return to Rome he was often consulted by Hadrian on public 
 matters ; and finally he was adopted as the emperor's successor, on 
 condition of adoptiug himself, Marcus Antoninus, the son of his wife's 
 brother, and Lucius Verus, the son of -<Elius Verus, who had been 
 adopted by Hadrian, but had died prematurely. He then became 
 
251 
 
 ANTONIO. 
 
 25? 
 
 associated with the emperor iu the government of the Roman world. 
 On Hadrian's death (a.d. 138) he became emperor, with the title of 
 Antoninus Augustus, to which the name of Pius is added on his 
 medals. He seems never to have left Italy after his elevation, but his 
 officers maintained the security of the provinces, and protected the fron- 
 tiers from aggression. In Britain, Lollius Urbieus confirmed the former 
 conquests; the Moors of Africa were compelled to sue for peace; and 
 the attempts at rebellion in Germany, Greece, Judrca, and Egypt, were 
 checked by the vigour of his governors. One of the most curious 
 events in the foreign affairs of the reign of Antoninus is his helping 
 the Olbiopolitse, or inhabitants of Olbia, a Greek colony on the Bory- 
 stheucs, against a nation called the Tauro-Scythje, probably a nomadic 
 race of the Dnieper and the Don. The Tauro-Scythse were compelled 
 by the Roman emperor to give hostages to the people of Olbia. The 
 emperor died at Loiium iu the seventy-fifth year of his age (seventieth; 
 according to Capitolinus, who has written an ill-digested biography of 
 this emperor), B.C. 161, and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, com- 
 monly called Antoninus the Philosopher. Antoninus was buried in 
 the tomb of Hadrian, one of the architectural monuments with which 
 he adorned Rome. 
 
 Antoninus married Annia Faustina, the daughter of Annius Verus, 
 by whom he had four children, one of whom, Faustina, became the 
 wife of M. Aurelius. The conduct of Antouinus's wife gave occasion 
 to scandal ; but on her death, in the third year of the emperor's reign, 
 the senate paid her the usual compliment of divine honours, and 
 decreed the erection of a temple, with statues of gold and silver, to her 
 memory. A temple erected to Antoninus and Faustina still exists iu 
 part iu the Campo Vaccino at Rome. The general character of the 
 policy of Antoninus was beneficent and just, and the Roman world 
 perhaps never had a more iudulgent and amiable master. He con- 
 tinued the governors of provinces for many years in office when their 
 conduct was satisfactory ; and the provinces themselves enjoyed under 
 his reign freedom from all exorbitant taxation. He surrounded him- 
 self with a council of chosen friends, without whose advice he took no 
 public measure of any kind. Their counsels directed him in drawing 
 up the imperial decrees (furmcc), which were to have the force of law. 
 Judges who discharged their duty faithfully were never removed. In 
 his elevated station the emperor maintained the simple character of 
 his early life, mingling in the society of his friends like one of the 
 same rank, aud using his unlimited power more like a private citizen 
 intrusted with it by his fellow-countrymen than u the undisputed 
 master of the empire. Antoninus continued the then existing practice 
 of bestowing pensions or allowances, and gave salaries and honorary 
 distinctions to the professors of rhetoric and philosophy in all the 
 provinces. Apollonius the Stoic was specially invited from Chalcia to 
 superintend the education of M. Aurelius. But the idle and worthless 
 who had obtained public allowances felt the effect of the prudent 
 emperor's reforms, who remarked, " that nothing was more disgraceful, 
 nothing more cruel, than for a man to feed on the public property 
 who had done nothing to improve it." 
 
 Gold. British Museum. Diameter doubled. 
 
 Under the reign of Antoninus, the lawyers Umidius Verus, Salvius 
 Valeus, Volusius Metianus, Ulpius Marcellus, and Diabolenus, were 
 employed by the emperor in improving the laws. One of the empe- 
 ror's regulations of sanitary police is worth recording : he forbade the 
 burying of dead bodies in cities. His policy towards the Christians 
 was mild. He embellished the imperial city with various edifices, and 
 extended his liberality also to remote cities of the empire. Antoninus 
 was tall and handsome in person, and his habits were abstemious and 
 regular. He was honoured with the name of Divus (God) at his 
 death, and all the tokens of respect paid to the best emperors were 
 given to his memory. He appears to have been one of the moat 
 amiable princes whom history has recorded. 
 
 (Julius Capitolinus, Life of Antoninus; and Schlosser, Universal- 
 historiscAe Ucbcrsicht, vol. iii. part 1.) 
 
 ANTONIO, one of the claimants to the throne of Portugal after 
 the death of King Sebastian, was the natural son of the Infante Don 
 Luiz, son of King Manuel. Antonio accompanied his cousin, King 
 Sebastian, in his unfortunate expedition to Africa, and was there 
 taken captive iu 1578. Concealing his real name and rank, he suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining his deliverance; but on his return to Lisbon, 
 
 found his uncle, Cardinal Enrique, who had been appointed regent by 
 Sebastian, in possession of the throne. Antonio immediately claimed 
 the crown ; and, by the advice of the Pope's nuncio, appealed to the 
 Archbishop of Lisbon, reserving the final decision to the Pope. The 
 cardinal-king declared Antonio a traitor, degraded him from his rank, 
 and exiled him from Portugal. Autonio fled to Spain, where he pro- 
 posed to give up his claim to the crown in favour of the king of Spain, 
 Philip II., for an annual pension of 300,000 ducats and the regency of 
 Portugal during his life. This extravagant proposal was naturally 
 rejected. In the mean time the cardinal-king assembled the Cortes 
 of the realm at Lisbon, in April, 1579, to decide the question of the 
 succession ; but before the Cortes had pronounced their judgment the 
 king died, on the 1st of January, 1580. 
 
 The Cortes was at this time at Almerin. Antonio, who had already 
 returned from Spain, hastened to Lisbon, where he summoned the 
 authorities to receive him as king. Not succeeding here he repaired 
 to Santarem, where the deputies of the third estate had removed from 
 Almerin ; aud hero he succeeded in inducing the multitude to recognise 
 him, and he was proclaimed king. 
 
 Antonio now proceeded to Lisbon, and was proclaimed king in that 
 capital. The Duke of Alba, at the head of the Castilian army, in the 
 mean time invaded the kingdom to take possession of it in the name 
 of Philip, aud reduced Elvas, Villaviciosa, Estremos, Moutemor, and 
 other places ; while several important towns opened their gates to the 
 Spanish forces. The Marquis of Santa Cruz, with the Spanish fleet, 
 had also taken possession of other place3 on the coast. Antonio, at 
 the head of 12,000 men, courageously opposed the invaders; but he 
 was defeated, and the duke entered Lisbon by capitulation. Antonio 
 retreated, and proceeded to Oporto, where he knew he had some 
 adherents. The success of the Castilian arms however had changed 
 the dispositions of the iuhabitant3, and they refused to admit Antonio; 
 but some of his partisans having opened one of the gates, he entered 
 the town like an enemy, and his soldiers committed the most violent 
 excesses. The Spaniards soon arrived before Oporto, and Antonio's 
 diminished and undisciplined forces fled before the Spanish veterans. 
 Antonio escaped to Viana do Miuho, where he embarked ; but the 
 sea was so rough that he was forced back to land. Ho disguised him- 
 self in a sailor's dress, and by mixing only with the lower orders was 
 able to remain for some months in Portugal, until at last he escaped 
 to France. 
 
 At Paris he published a manifesto in Latin, French, and Dutch, and 
 sent it to Holland and England, whence he expected assistance. This 
 document bears the date of 1585. In 1588 he came to England, soon 
 after the destruction of the Spanish armada. He was favourably 
 received by Queen Elizabeth, who was at last persuaded to equip a 
 fleet, in which she sent the exile back to his country. In 1589, the 
 expedition, consisting of 120 vessels with about 20,000 volunteers, 
 sailed from Plymouth under the command of Sir Francis Drake and 
 Sir John Norris ; but being repulsed in an attack upon Lisbon, and 
 not receiving the adhesion of the inhabitants, as Antonio had led 
 them to expect, they gave up the enterprise and returned home. 
 Antonio retired to France, where he ended his days in obscurity and 
 indigence, on the 2Gth of August, 1595. 
 
 (Lemos, Historia General de Portugal, vol. xvii. ; Antonio de 
 Herrera, Historia de Portugal ; Mariana.) 
 
 ANTONIO, NICOLAS, or NICOLAO, a Spanish writer, born at 
 Seville, in 1617. He received his early education at the Dominican 
 school of that city, where he also studied divinity two years. In 
 1636 he went to the University of Salamanca, where he studied civil 
 and canon law under the celebrated jurist Ramos del Manzano. In 
 1639 he was made a Bachelor of Arts. He returned afterwards to 
 Seville, and devoted his time entirely to the collection of materials 
 for his chief work, of which the best edition is entitled, ' Bibliotheca 
 Hispann, vetus et nova, sive Hi-panoruin Scriptorum, qui ab Octaviano 
 Augusti sevo ad Annum Christi MDCLXXXIV. floruerunt, Notitia. 
 Curante Francisco Perezio Bayerio.' Matriti, Joachimus Ibarra, 1788, 
 4 vols, folio. ('Bibliotheca Hispaiia, Ancient and Modern, or au 
 Account of the Spanish Writers who have flourished since the age of 
 Octavianus Augustus to the year 1684.') Of this book, Baillet says 
 that he prefers it to all the works of the kind in existence. For 
 Spanish literature, there is certainly neither a better nor a safer guide. 
 He also wrote a work, when he was 23 years of age, on ' Banishment, 
 and the Condition and Rights of the Exiled.' In 1646 he was created 
 a Knight of Santiago, and in 1659 Philip IV. appointed him general 
 agent for the court of Spain at Rome, which office he held with 
 honour until he was recalled by Charles II. He was then made a 
 canon of Seville, and created a counsellor of Castile. He resided after- 
 wards for some time at Seville; subsequently he went to Madrid, where 
 he died of epilepsy on the 13th of April, 1684. 
 
 Antonio was a man of a liberal and charitable disposition. Not- 
 withstanding the lucrative offices he had held, he died so poor that 
 he did not leave his heirs sufficient property to enable them to print 
 part of the works which he left unpublished. Cardinal Aguirre, the 
 author's friend, defrayed the expenses of the publication. 
 
 (The author's own book; the Biogr. Univ. ; Bayle, Dictionary.) 
 
 ANTONIUS, CAIUS, surnamed Hybrida, son of Marcus Antonius, 
 the orator, was the colleague of Cicero in his consulship (B.C. 63). It 
 became his duty, under the orders of the senate, to conduct the war 
 
253 
 
 ANTONIUS, MARCUS. 
 
 254 
 
 against Catiline ; but on the day of the battle he was prevented, or 
 pretended to be prevented, by illness from appearing on the field, and 
 the command devolved upon Lis lieutenant, Petreius. On the termi- 
 nation of the war, he proceeded (B.C. Gl) as proconsul to the province 
 of Macedonia, which had originally fallen to Cicero's lot, but had been 
 transferred by him to Antonius, from a patriotic desire to attach him 
 to the cause of his country. Such at least is the assertion of Cicero. 
 Antonius, on the contrary, gave out that it was a matter of mere 
 bargain and sale, and that Cicero had stipulated for the payment in 
 return of a large sum of money, a charge which Cicero's ambiguous 
 language and conduct on the occasion seem not to discountenance. 
 To raise this money, Antonius was guilty of great extortion, and bis 
 conduct gave such general dissatisfaction that, after holding the 
 government of the province for two years, he was formally brought 
 to trial, and, though defended by Cicero, was found guilty, and 
 condemned to perpetual exile. 
 
 ANTO'NIUS, MARCUS, the orator, was born B.C. 142. In B.C. 99 
 he was the colleague of C. Postumius Albinus in the consulship ; and 
 in the following year he defended M. Aquilius on a charge of extortion 
 during the servile war in Sicily. In B.C. 97 he was censor, and he fell 
 a victim to the fury of Marius aud Cinna, when they took forcible 
 possession of Rome in B.C. 87. His eloquence is celebrated by Cicero 
 in his 'Brutus,' chap. 37, 38. Two of his sons appear prominently in 
 the history of Rome. 
 
 ANTO'NIUS, MARCUS, son of the orator, and father of the 
 triumvir. After Mithridates had been subdued by Sulla, a general 
 system of piracy arose in the Grecian seas and the adjoining coasts, 
 aud, in the year B.C. 75, Antonius was intrusted with the duty of 
 protecting all the coasts of the Mediterranean. Crete was the chief 
 scene of his operation?, where, though his successes for a time gained 
 him the honorary title of Creticus, the outrages and extortions of 
 which he was guilty led at last to an insurrection in which he lost his 
 life, about E.c. 69 ; and the credit of reducing the island was reserved 
 for Metellus. 
 
 ANTO'NIUS, MARCUS, the Triumvir, was the son of M. Antonius, 
 surnanied Creticus, and Julia, a member of the patrician house of the 
 Caesars, sister of L. Julius Caesar, the consul of B.C. 64. The year of 
 his birth is somewhat uncertain, being assigned by different authors to 
 B.C. 86, 83, and 81. His father dying while he was yet young, he 
 received the greater part of his education under the direction of his 
 mother J ulia, who was at that time married to Cornelius Lentulus. 
 
 Gold. British Museum. Diameter doubled. 
 
 Early in life Antony formed an acquaintance with young Curio, 
 which led him into a course of extravagant dissipation, and he was 
 Boon deeply involved; but Curio, being surety for the debt, prevailed 
 upon his father, by the intercession of Cicero, to discharge it. Among 
 the Roman nobles who were put to death by Cicero as accomplices of 
 Catiline, one of the most distinguished was Antony's step-father, 
 Cornelius Lentulus, then praetor of Rome. Antony attached himself 
 to Clodius when that powerful tribune was employed in bringing 
 Cicero to punishment ; but not approving of the violence to which 
 Clodius resorted, he went over to Greece, where he diligently applied 
 himself to the two pursuits most important to a Roman, oratory and 
 military science. From thence he was invited to join Gabinius, who 
 as proconsul of Syria was engaged in protecting his province from the 
 ravages of Aristobulus and his son Alexander (B.C. 57, 56). Antony in 
 this war commanded the cavalry, and evinced great spirit and military 
 talent. In the course of the following year Gabinius undertook to 
 restore Ptolemy Auletes to the throne of Egypt, and again the credit 
 of his success was chiefly due to Antony, who secured the only road 
 from Syria into Egypt, and made himself master of Pelusium. Gabinius 
 returned to Rome in the autumn of B.C. 54, but Antony, as soon as 
 hostilities ceased in E^ypt, hastened to Gallia, the theatre of a still 
 more important war. In the year B.C. 52 we find Antony acting as 
 one of Cccsar's lieutenants at the siege of Alesia. He now became a 
 candidate for the quajstorship, and even aspired to a place in the 
 College of Augurs. Hi.s election to the qutcstorship being completed, 
 he hastened back to Gallia, where at the close of the year he was left 
 by Caesar at the capital of the yEdui in the command of the troops 
 there quartered. The following year he was employed under Cajsar 
 in extinguishing the last embers of the Gallic war ; and so fully had 
 
 | he gained the support of the general, that through his interest and 
 that of Curio he was elected early iu B.C. 50 into the College of Augurs. 
 Through the influence of the same powerful friends Antony was raised 
 to the dignity of a tribune. The tribunes entered upon their office on 
 the 10th of December, whereas the consular authority commenced 
 upon the first day of the year. Antony employed this interval in 
 advocating the just rights of Crxsar with the people. When the 
 kalends came, however, the senatorian party put to the vote the fatal 
 motion that Caesar should disband all hi.s troops by a given day, or be 
 treated as a public enemy. Antony and his colleague Cassius inter- 
 posed their tribunitial veto, but the senate was now prepared to break 
 down all the popular barriers of the constitution; the two tribunes 
 were allowed but six days to consider their veto, and on the 7th of 
 January the decree was passed which at once suspended all the laws 
 of the state, and gave to the senatorian party despotic and irrespon- 
 sible power over all the citizens. The tribunes fled iu disguise to 
 Caesar, whose army in a few weeks drove the authors of the late 
 revolution from Italy. 
 
 On the first expedition of Ca3sar into Spain, Antony was left in the 
 military command of Italy, which was again intrusted to him in the 
 winter of the same year, when Caesar crossed into Epirus. In the per- 
 formance of this duty he distinguished himself by his able defence of 
 Brundisium and its port against aPompeian fleet under Libo, and soon 
 after he crossed the Adriatic with reinforcements for Caesar, and on 
 many occasions rendered the most efficient service. In the following 
 year Caesar, being appointed dictator, selected Antony as his Master 
 of the Horse. During this period he showed his firmness in checking 
 the violent proceedings of Dolabella. Plutarch indeed attributes Lis 
 conduct to a feeling of revenge, in consequence of a supposed intrigue 
 between Dolabella and his wife Antonia, for he had married his own 
 cousin, the daughter of C. Antonius Hybrida. He accordingly divorced 
 Antonia, and gave way to the most open licentiousness. At a subse- 
 quent period he married Fulvia, the widow of Clodius. During the 
 second war in Spain (B.C. 45) against the sons of Pompey, when Cicero 
 was induced by some exaggerated accounts of their successes to 
 meditate an escape from Italy, he was checked by the interference of 
 Antony, whose letter on the occasion still exists. The next year 
 Antony was the colleague of Caesar in the consulship, but the sena- 
 torian party again dreamed of recovering their power, and the idle 
 affair of the Lupercalia was seized as a pretext for the conspiracy 
 against Caesar. Cicero has not scrupled to accuse Antony of joining 
 Trebonius in a conspiracy to murder Caesar, but we have the authority 
 of Trebonius himself, as reported by Piutarch, for saying that Antony 
 refused overtures on the subject made to him by Trebonius. As Antony 
 was not likely to join in assassinating Caesar, it was next proposed to 
 make him also a victim, but this was prevented by M. Brutus ; and it 
 was finally determined to engage him in conversation outside of the 
 senate-house while the assassination of Caesar was committed within. 
 
 Antony saw that it was necessary to act guardedly with men who 
 accomplished their ends by assassination ; he therefore waited, knowing 
 that the people would soon recover from their first alarm, aud rise 
 against the murderers of their benefactor. The real power of Antony 
 indeed lay in the detestation in which tho senatorian oligarchy was 
 held. The self-styled patriots were soon afraid to appear in Rome, 
 and Antony, supported by his two brothers, Caius aud Lucius, who 
 at this time held the offices of praetor and tribuue respectively, had a 
 prospect of establishing himself in a station scarcely inferior" to that 
 from which Cscsar had been thrown down. But he found his most 
 powerful opponent in young Octavius (afterwards Augustus), the great- 
 nephew and adopted son of the late dictator, who with a skill beyond 
 his years managed to unite the support of the most opposite parties, 
 the oligarchy and the veterans. After numerous intrigues on all sides, 
 Antony left Home in October to meet at Brundisium four of the veteran 
 legions from Greece ; but Octavius, or, as he now called himself, Caesar, 
 found other veterans in the colonies of Campania ready to support one 
 who bore so auspicious a name ; aud two of the four legions from 
 Greece suddenly passed over to him from Antony. Before the year 
 was closed hostilities commenced in the north of Italy, where Antony 
 besieged Decimus Brutus in Mutina. Three actions were fought, iu 
 the second and third of which Antony was worsted. 
 
 The senatorian party were already enjoying their triumph, when the 
 scene unexpectedly changed. The two consuls had fallen iu the late 
 contest. Decimus Brutus, though relieved fiorn the siege, was without 
 cavalry or commissariat, aud uuable to pursue; and Caesar, never 
 sincere in the cause of the senate, at last threw off the mask. Antony 
 wa3 joined by Ventidius with three legions, by the troops of Lepidus, 
 and by the legions under the command of Plancus and Pollio. Thus 
 Antony, who had fled from Mutina, now retraced his steps across the 
 Alps at the head of seventeen legions, the greater part veterans, 
 leaving behind him six others to guard the important province of 
 Gallia. Decimus Brutus, on the other hand, had only ten legions to 
 oppose him. In the mean while, Caesar had put an end to the equivocal 
 conduct of the senate by marching upon Rome, and extorting the 
 consular fasces. 
 
 In the autumn of this year the celebrated triumvirate was estab- 
 lished between Antony, Lepidus, and Caesar. Iu the proscription, 
 which was one of the first acts of the triumvirate, Antony, who3e 
 conduct on so many occasions was distinguished for clemency and 
 
S55 ANTONIUS. MARCUS. 
 
 generosity, must bear Lis share of the guilt, more particularly in rela- 
 tion to Lucius Caesar and Cicero. The former of these, his maternal 
 uncle, was saved indeed by the bold interference of his mother, Julia ; 
 but Cicero, who had escaped from Rome when Caesar appeared there 
 with his army, was overtaken by his pursuers on the coast, and his 
 head and right hand were cut off and fixed on the rostra of the Roman 
 forum. 
 
 In the division of the provinces between the triumvirs, Antony 
 received the whole of Gallia Citerior and Ulterior, with the exception 
 of Gallia Narbonensis. To him and Caosar was assigned the conduct 
 of the war against Brutus and Cassius; and in the following year this 
 war was brought to a close by two battles in the neighbourhood of 
 Philippi, in both of which the success was due almost exclusively to 
 Antony. Antony remained some time in Greece, particularly at 
 Athens, where he ingratiated himself with the citizens. He then 
 crossed into Asia, and Ephesus became the scene of more than Asiatic 
 luxury. At Tarsus he saw the fascinating Cleopatra, whoso influence 
 so fatally affected his fortunes. He had summoned her to answer some 
 accusations brought against her of assisting Cassius in the late war ; 
 and the queen, in obedience to the command, appeared in her gorgeous 
 barge upon tho Cydnus attired as the goddess Venus. Antony was led 
 captive to Alexandria, where he lost sight of all that was going on in 
 the world around him. He was at last roused from his voluptuous 
 revels. A Parthian army under tho guidance of Labienus, a Roman 
 of the senatorian party, had overrun all the proviuces from Syria to 
 Asia. Antony set out to oppose them, but had scarcely arrived in 
 Phoenicia when he was induced by the urgent solicitations of Fulvia 
 to proceed with a fleet of 200 sail towards Italy to oppose Caesar. But 
 the war in this quarter was at an end before his arrival. The death 
 of Fulvia, who, with Autony's brother Lucius, had been the chief 
 cause of the war, led to a speedy reconciliation between Antony and 
 Caesar, which was cemented by the union of Antony with Octavia, the 
 half-sister of Caesar, herself but recently a widow by the death of Mar- 
 cellus. On this occasion a new division of the empire was made, in 
 which Antony received as his portion all the provinces east of the 
 Adriatic. 
 
 Leaving the management of affairs at home to Caesar, Antony pro- 
 ceeded with Octavia to Greece. His lieutenant Ventidius, to whom 
 he had left the conduct of the Parthian war, was highly successful in 
 the years B.C. 39 and 38. As these successes had been obtained by a 
 lieutenant under the auspices of Antony, the latter was entitled, by the 
 established principles of Roman warfare, to the honour of the triumph ; 
 but Antony, guided by a more generous feeling, sent Ventidius to 
 Rome to enjoy this honour. Another of his lieutenants, Sosius, was 
 scarcely less successful in a Jewish war against Antigonus, for which 
 he likewise triumphed a few years after (B.C. 34); and a third, Cani- 
 dius, had recovered Armenia, and carried the arms of Rome to the 
 foot of the Caucasus. On the other hand, the siege of Samosata, 
 which was partly conducted by the general in person, rather detracted 
 from than added to his military fame by the long and determined 
 defence of the Commagenian prince Antiochus. But Antony was 
 again called to Italy by the suspicious conduct of Caesar. After his 
 arrival a second reconciliation was effected by the mediation of 
 Octavia, and Julia, the mother of Antony, who at the same time be- 
 longed to the house of Caesar. This new arrangement took place at 
 the end of B.C. 37, or in the following spring. The most important 
 article was the renewal of the triumviral power for a second period of 
 five years, commencing from the last day of the year 38, the day on 
 whieh the first period of their triumvirate terminated. Caesar now 
 conducted the war against Pompey, while Antony directed his arms 
 against the Parthians. His preparations for the invasion of the Par- 
 thian empire were on the largest scale, but the influence of the 
 Egyptian queen, by causing delay, produced the most disastrous 
 effects. After a campaign in which the soldiers showed the greatest 
 spirit, and the general, on some occasions, no little military talent, a 
 retreat was effected with great loss. 
 
 In the following year, Antony was anxiously looking out for an 
 opportunity of revenging himself upon the king of Armenia, whose 
 desertion in the Parthian invasion had greatly weakened his strength. 
 A quarrel between the king of Media and the Parthians seemed to 
 offer a favourable opportunity. The following year, the invasion of 
 Armenia took place, and by treachery, Antony got the king into his 
 power. In the mean time, Caesar, by the overthrow of S. Pompeius 
 and the usurpation of the provinces assigned to Lepidus, was at last 
 prepared for a contest with Antony himself. In B.C. 33, Antony 
 again commenced an invasion of Parthia, but as soon as he had reached 
 the Araxes, he retraced his steps to prepare for the war that now 
 threatened him from the west. Still a second year was passed in pre- 
 parations ; and in B.C. 31, the possession of the Roman world was 
 decided by the victory off Actium. From that day the fate of Antony 
 was fixed. In August, B.C. 30, Caesar appeared with a fleet and army 
 before Alexandria, to which Antony had retreated ; and the desertion 
 of his fleet and of his cavalry before his eyes left him only the poor 
 hope of sustaining a siege. A false report of the death of Cleopatra 
 completed his despair, and he killed himself with his own sword. 
 Cleopatra likewise saved herself by suicide from adorning the triumph 
 of the conqueror. Antony's age at his death was a little more than 
 fifty ; that of Cleopatra thirty-nine, He was four times married, or 
 
 ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D\ 256 
 
 indeed, five times, if we may admit his marriage with Fadia, on the 
 authority of Cicero. Of his two children by Fulvia, Antyllus the 
 elder was put to death; and the younger, lulus Antonius, to whom 
 Horace has addressed an ode, after long enjoying the favour of Augus- 
 tus, suffered for his intimacy with Julia, the emperor's daughter. By 
 Octavia, he had at least two daughters ; and by Cleopatra, a daughter 
 of the same name, and two sons, Alexander and Ptolemy Philadelphia. 
 Of these, the daughter married the learned African prince Juba. 
 
 The heads of Antony and Cleopatra are taken from a silver coin in 
 the British Museum, in which the expression of Cleopatra's face fully 
 agrees with the assertion of Plutarch, that her fascinating powers 
 depended not so much on her beauty, in which she was inferior to 
 Octavia, as on the charms of her manner and conversation. Plutarch 
 also mentions the remarkable aquiline nose of Antony. 
 
 (Cicero, Litters and Orations; Caesar; Velleius; Livy, Epitomes; 
 Plutarch, Life of Antony, Dion, Appian, &c. ; and Clinton, Fasti.) 
 
 ANVILLE (JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D'), a distin- 
 guished geographer, was born at Paris in 1697. From his boyhood he 
 showed a strong bias for geographical studies. At twelve years of 
 age, while at college, a map which he happened to see determined his 
 pursuits. He began alone and without assistance to draw maps of 
 the countries mentioned in the Latin classics which he was then 
 studying. For this exercise he sometimes neglected his regular tasks, 
 and he was once caught in his favourite employment by the pro- 
 fessor of his class, who perceiving on the rough sketch before him 
 evident signs of the genius of his pupil, gave him encouragement to pro- 
 ceed. After leaving college, he became acquainted with several learned 
 men, particularly with the Abbe" de Longuerue, a laborious investi- 
 gator of antiquities, at whose request he set about drawing several 
 maps of France and its various provinces, for the Abbd's work ; ' Des- 
 cription Qdographique et Historique de la France Ancienne et 
 Moderne.' At the age of twenty-two, he was appointed one of the 
 king's geographers. Soon after, his map of the kingdom of Aragon 
 was published by desire of the duke of Orleans, regent of France, and 
 against D'Anville's judgment, who did not consider it as sufficiently 
 accurate. He was employed by the Jesuits to make an atlas of China 
 for the edition of Duhalde's History of that empire. This Atlas 
 (' Nouvel Atlas de la Chine,' &c.) was also published at the Hague in 
 1737. But the work that established his reputation, was his map of 
 Italy, which he published in 1743. In 1744, D'Anville published his 
 ' Geographical Analysis of Italy,' in illustration of his map. He drew 
 several maps of sacred geography, namely, ' Ecclesia Africana,' and 
 the four Patriarchates of Constantinople, Antiochia, Jerusalem, and 
 Alexandria, for the ' Oriens Christianus' of Father Le Quien. A full 
 catalogue of D'Anville's works and maps is given by Barbie" do Bocage 
 in his ' Notice des Ouvrages de M. D'Anville preeddee de son Eloge 
 par M. Dacier,' Paris, 1802. He published one hundred and four maps 
 on ancient, and one hundred and six on modern geography. He wrote 
 about forty works, including several memoirs, which are inserted in 
 the ' Recueil de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres.' The 
 following are the most important among his works, all published at 
 Paris, 'Analyse Geographique de l'ltalie,' 1744, 4to., already mentioned; 
 'Dissertation sur l'Etendue de l'Ancienne Jerusalem,' 1747, 8vo.; 
 ' Memoire sur la Carte des Cotes de la Grece,' 1751, 4to. ; ' Notice de 
 l'Ancienne Gaule, tiree des Monumens Romains,' 4to., 1760 ; a work 
 much and deservedly esteemed, in which the author however confines 
 himself to Gaul as it was under the Roman empire. To this must be 
 added, ' Eclaircissemens Gdographiques sur l'Ancienne Gaule,' 1743, 
 12mo. ; 'Memoire sur l'Egypte Ancienne et Moderne, suivi d'une 
 Description du Golfe Arabique,' 1766, 4to. Mr. Ripault, one of the 
 scientific men who accompanied Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt, 
 says that they were struck with the accuracy of D'Anville's positions. 
 The navigator Bougainville, gave a similar testimony in favour of 
 D'Anville's map of Asia, especially with regard to the Molucca Islands, 
 and the coast of New Guinea. 'Geographie Ancienne Abre'ge'e,' 1768, 
 3 vols. 12mo., and 1769, fob, translated into English under the title of 
 'Compendium of Ancient Geography,' London, 1791, 2 vols. 8vo. ; 
 'Traite" des Mesures Itineraires Anciennes et Modernes,' 1769, 8vo., a 
 most valuable work, in which he estimates and compares the itinerary 
 measures which have been in use in various ages, among the nations 
 of Europe and Asia, and ascertains the variations which each had 
 undergone in the course of time ; ' Etats Forme's en Europe apres la 
 Chute de l'Empire Romain en Occident,' 1771,' 4to. ; a useful book 
 for the history of what are termed ' the dark ages,' from the 5th to 
 
ANWARI. 
 
 the 12th centuries, and forming a link between ancient and modern 
 geography ; ' L'Empire de Russie Considere" dans son Origine et ses 
 Accroissemens,' 1772, 12mo. ; 'L'Empire Turc Conside're' dans son 
 Etablissement et ses Accroissemens,' 1772, 12mo. From the want of 
 observations, he seems to have fallen into considerable errors in his 
 map of Turkey, and also in bis map of Asia Minor. To the neck or 
 isthmus of Asia Minor he assigned a breadth from north to south 
 which was less than the truth by one whole degree ; this fundamental 
 error necessarily deranged many of his positions, especially in the 
 eastern part of that peninsula. Considering the want of full and 
 accurate observations existing in his time, the geographical works of 
 DAnville are remarkable productions. For the many disadvantages 
 under which he laboured he made up in a great measure by his inde- 
 fatigable researches in the authors of antiquity, as well as of the 
 middle ages, who could afford any information on geographical matters, 
 and by a rare sagacity and judgment in eliciting truth out of conflict- 
 ing statements and opinions. He was greatly assisted by his wonder- 
 ful memory. Geography made under him rapid strides towards 
 accuracy ; he used himself to say, for he was somewhat of an egotist, 
 that " he had found a geography made of bricks, and left one of gold." 
 (See his ' Eloge,' by Dacier, already mentioned.) 
 
 But it was only on the subject of his favourite science that he 
 showed any vanity; in all other matters he was simple and un- 
 assuming. It is remarked by the biographer of D'Anville (' Biog. 
 Universelle ' ) that his style is not good, and that owing to this and 
 other causes there is often a want of method and clearness in bis 
 dissertations. In this opinion we entirely concur : his language some- 
 times is very inelegant and not very correct. In 1773 the French 
 Academy of Sciences elected him, then 76 years of age, into their 
 body, and the same year he succeeded to the vacant place of first 
 geographer to the king. In 1777 he published his 'Considerations 
 sur l'Etude et les Connoissances que demande la composition des 
 Ouvrages Ge"ographiques,' a sort of legncy for those who should follow 
 him in the same career. In 1779 Louis XVI. purchased his valuable 
 collection of maps, which he had collected in the course of sixty years 
 devoted to science. D'Anville's constitution, naturally delicate, be- 
 came now exhausted, his sight failed, and he at last fell into a state of 
 physical and mental imbecility, from which death relieved him in 
 1782, at the age of 85. His wife, with whom he had passed fifty-one 
 years of his life, died the year before, without his being sensible of 
 her loss. He left only two daughters. There are two more works 
 translated or compiled in English from D'Anville, besides the 
 'Compendium' already mentioned, namely, 'A Complete Body of 
 Ancient Geography,' including the * Orbis Fvomauus, Orbis Veteribus 
 Notus,' of D'Anville, with additions, London, 1775, and the ' Geography 
 of the Greeks and the Romans in the time of Alexander and Augustus,' 
 London, 1816. 
 
 ANWARI, or ENWERI, properly AWHAD-ED-DIN ANWARI, 
 a celebrated Persian poet, who flourished in the 12th century of our 
 era. He was born at Bedna, a village in the district of Abjurd, in 
 Khorasan, and received his education in the college of Mansur, at 
 Tus. A visit of the Seljukide sultan Sanjar to Tus furnished him the 
 first opportuuity of making himself known by a poem in praise of the 
 sultan, which is by oriental critics considered one of his best pro- 
 ductions. Sanjar, who was fond of poetry, enlisted him among his 
 auite, and bestowed honours and ample rewards upon him. Anwari 
 followed the sultan to Merw, then the lvsideuce of the Selpikides. 
 Here the poet devoted himself to astrology, but was not fortunate in 
 bis predictions, aud at length retired from Merw to Balkh, where he 
 died in the year 597 of the Hegira (ad. 1200-1201). Manuscript 
 copies of the 'Diwan,' or collection of poems of Anwari, are not un- 
 frequently met with. It consists chiefly of ' kasidas,' or long poems, 
 mostly panegyric ; and of ' ghazels,' or shorter lyrical effusions. In 
 the ghazels the style of Anwari is simple and comparatively easy, 
 while his kasidas abound in metaphors and conceited historical allu- 
 sions. It deserves to be remarked, that the language of Anwari, 
 though he is one of the earlier Persian poets, is as full of Arabic 
 expressions as that of almost any subsequent writer ; whereas, in the 
 'Shahnameh' of Firdusi, who lived only a little more than 150 years 
 before Anwari, we find the Persian in a state of unadulterated purity. 
 
 APELLES, one of the most celebrated Greek painters, is generally 
 considered to have been a native of the little island of Cos in the 
 A'. j- iu sea. Nearly all that we know about him, with the exception 
 of some few scattered notices, is contained in the 10th chapter and 
 the 35th book of Pliny's ' Natural History.' The time of his birth 
 is not fixed, but we are told that he was at the height of his reputa- 
 tion in 01. cxii., or about B.C. 332 ; and as he painted a great many 
 portraits of Philip, the father of Alexander, he could not be a very 
 young man in B.C. 336, the time of Philip's death. He also survived 
 Alexander, who died B.C. 323. 
 
 His chief master was Pamphilus, a Macedonian, and a distinguished 
 artist. Apelles received instruction from him at Sicyon, a city which 
 for some time before and after this date had a high reputation as a 
 school both of sculpture and painting. We are told that his diligence 
 was unwearied, and that he never passed a day without doing some- 
 thing; " ut non lineam ducendo exerceret artem : " Winkelmann 
 interprets these words to mean, " that he never passed a day without 
 trying to improve himself as a draughtsman," a sense which the 
 
 BIOO DIV, VOL. L 
 
 APHTHONIUS. 258 
 
 words will very well bear. Apelles is much praised for the frank- 
 ness and plain-dealing of his character. A story is told of him 
 having given rise to the well-known saying, that a shoemaker should 
 not go beyond his last. Apelles placed a picture which he had finished 
 in a public place, and concealed himself behind it in order to hear 
 the criticisms of the passers-by. A shoemaker observed a defect in 
 the shoe, and the painter forthwith corrected it. The cobbler caims 
 again the next day, and being somewhat encouraged by the success of 
 his first remark, began to extend his censure to the leg of the figure, 
 when the angry painter thrust out his head from behind the picture 
 and told the shoemaker to keep to his trade. 
 
 Apelles excelled in grace and beauty. The painter, who laboure 1 
 incessantly, as we have seen, to improve his skill in drawing, probably 
 trusted as much to that branch of his art as to his colouring : he only 
 used four colours, as we are told (Pliny). His favourite subject was 
 the representation of Venus, the goddess of love, the female blooming 
 in eternal beauty ; and the religious system of the age favoured the 
 taste of the painter. Apelles paiuted many portraits of Alexander 
 the Great, who often visited his paiuting-room, and would not sit to 
 anybody else. But it is not very easy to reconcile Alexander's 
 rambling life with this account, unless we suppose that Apelles fol- 
 lowed him into Asia ; a supposition not altogether improbable. 
 
 Apelles painted a portrait of King Antigonus (see his medal — 
 Antigonus), which he placed in profile to hide the defect of the want 
 of one eye. We may form some idea of the state of art in that day 
 from that medal, and by the fame of Apelles which has survived his 
 works ; it is not an unlikely hypothesis, that the figure of Antigonus 
 on his coins would be in harmony with his portrait by Apelles. 
 Antigonus was represented on horseback, and this picture was reckoned 
 his master-piece. The next most celebrated was the Venus rising 
 from the sea, first placed in the temple of Esculapius at Cos, and taken 
 thence by Augustus, in lieu of a tribute of 100 talents. It was 
 damaged in its transition to Rome, but was placed in the temple of 
 Julius Ccesar, and having decayed, was replaced by a copy about 350 
 years afterwards. It was thenceforward lost. 
 
 The great picture of Alexander by Apelles was in the temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus ; other pictures by Apelles were in Samos and 
 Rhodes, and Rome contained several in the time of Pliny. A Hercules 
 in the temple of Antonia was attributed to him. Apelles published 
 a work on painting, which has been lost. He was accustomed to use 
 a varnish for his pictures, which brought out the colours, and pre- 
 served them at the same time. The date of his death is unknown. 
 
 APEL'LICON, a personage principally memorable for his connection 
 with the preservation of the works of Aristotle. According to Strabo 
 (book xiii., p. 608, &c. Casaub.), he was a native of Teos, but went to 
 Athens, and was admitted a citizen of that state. He was very rich, 
 and his vanity seems to have led him to seek distinction by the 
 assumption of the literary character. He spared no expense in 
 amassing books ; but Strabo says that he was rather Philobiblos (a 
 lover of books), than Philosophos (a lover of wisdom). Among other 
 libraries which he purchased was that which had been collected by 
 Aristotle more than 200 years before ; and which, enriched as it was 
 by the manuscripts of that philosopher himself, and of his pupil 
 Theophrastus, had, according to the improbable story, been long con- 
 cealed by the persons into whose hands the collection had fallen. 
 Having been deposited in a cellar under ground for about a century 
 and a half, the books had suffered much from their long entombment, 
 and the copyists whom Apellicou employed to transcribe them were 
 not very well qualified to restore the passages which had been ren- 
 dered illegible. When thus for the first time published, they conse- 
 quently appeared in a very faulty state. When Sulla conquered 
 Athens (B.C. 86) he carried to Rome, among other literary treasures, 
 the library of Apellicon, who had just died ; and this particular col- 
 lection, Plutarch says, he retained as his own property. Several care- 
 less copyists made transcripts of some of the works for publishers 
 (Bibliopoloi) of that day, but it was not until Andronicus of Rhodes 
 [Andkonicus], who was an acquaintance of Tyrannion, the gram- 
 marian, undertook the task of correcting the writings and putting 
 them in order, that they were given to the world in anything like a 
 correct form. Athenoeus (v., p. 214, Casaub.), informs us that Apel- 
 licon was discovered to have got into his possession the originals of 
 many of the ancient public decrees from the city archives, which so 
 enraged the Athenians against him, that he was obliged to run away 
 to save his life. The iufluence of his friends and his own wealth 
 however soon obtained his return ; aud he was invested with the 
 command of the island of Delo3. During his government the Romans 
 effected a descent upon the island, and, falling upon the garrison while 
 they were asleep, put nearly all of them to the sword. Apellicon 
 succeeded in making his escape; and, having returned to Atheus, he 
 died there a short time before the capture of the city by Sulla 
 Athenoous says that Apellicon embraced the opinions of the Peri- 
 patetics; and a work of his, in defence of Aristotle, is quoted in a 
 passage of another ancient writer preserved by Eusebius. (Bayle, in 
 articles 'Andronicus' and ' Tyrannion.' Aristotle.) 
 
 APHTHO'NIUS, a Greek rhetorician of Antioch, whose epoch seems 
 rather difficult to fix; some place him about the end of the 2nd cen- 
 tury a.D. ; others, as Fabricius, in the 3rd, and the other critics still 
 later. We know with certainty that he lived after Hermogenes, 
 
 B 
 
259 APIAN. 
 
 because he quotes this rhetorician, and in fact worked up the ' Progym- 
 nasmata' of Hermogeues into a new shape, also entitled ' Progymuas- 
 mata.' There is a curious passage in Aphthonius about Alexandria. (De 
 Saoy, ' Abd-Allatif,' p. 182.) Aphthonius has also left forty Greek 
 fables. The work of Aphthonius is an elementary treatise on rhetoric ; 
 in the 16th and 17th centuries it was much iu use, and there were 
 numerous editions of it. Aphthonius was first incorporated by the 
 elder Aldus with the other rhetoricians : ' RbetoreB Graoci.,' Venice, 
 1508, fol. The latest edition is by J. Scheffer, Upsal, 1670 and 1680, 
 8vo., with the ' Progymnasmata of Theon.' 
 
 APIAN, or APPIAN, PETER, an astronomer, and, we may add, 
 astrologer, born at Leipzig, died at Iugolstadt, where he was professor 
 of mathematics, in 1552, aged 57. His real name was Biencwitz, some- 
 times misspelt Binewilt. 'Biene' in German signifies a ' be",' whence 
 the Latin Apianus. He was in favour with Charles V., who gave him 
 an order of knighthood and the title of Count, as well as more sub- 
 stantial rewards. He is principally remarkable for his observations of 
 comets, and is said to have been the first who observed that their tails 
 are generally turned from the sun. He also attempted the solution 
 of astronomical problems by mechanism, as described in his ' Opus 
 Caesarcum,' and is said moreover to have pointed out the use which 
 might be made of lunar observations in navigation. His sou Philip 
 succeeded him at Ingolstadt, which place he was obliged to quit in 
 1558, ou account of his embracing the Protestant religion. He enjoyed 
 eome celebrity as an astronomer and mathematician, and died profes- 
 sor at Tubingen in 1589. (Biographic Universelle, and the work of 
 Teissier.) 
 
 API'CIUS. There were three Romans of this name, all of them 
 celebrated for their love of good eating. The first was contemporary 
 with Sulla ; the second with Augustus and Tiberius ; the third with 
 Trajan. Of these the second is the most famous, being celebrated by 
 Seueca, Pliny, Juvenal, Martial, &c. Athemeus (p. 7, Casaub.) places 
 him under Tiberius, and mentions (/hat certain cakes were named after 
 him, ' Apician.' Seueca says that he was alive in his time, and iufected 
 the age by establishing a regular school of professors and pupils in 
 the science of good eating iu Rome, from which, in the days of 
 simplicity and severity, even philosophers had been expelled as the 
 corruptors of youth. The inordinate expense of his culinary estab- 
 lishment reduced his fortune and involved him in debt; when, finding 
 that, after clearing off his incumbrances, he should have left a pittance 
 utterly inadequate to keep such a body and soul together, he took 
 poison in preference to pining after unattainable luxuries. The third 
 Apicius is to be honoured as the inventor of the art of pickling oysters 
 (Athen. 7). 
 
 The name of Apicius became familiar as a household and culinary 
 word ; it was preserved by the spirit of party ; and the cooks of ages 
 after were divided into Apicians and anti-Apiciaus. A treatise, 'De re 
 Culinaria,' is extant under the name of Caelius Apicius. It is con- 
 sidered by critics as ancient, although not written by any of the three 
 whom we have mentioned. Martin Lister republished it in London in 
 1705, with the title ' De Obsoniis et Condimentis, sive de Arte Coquin- 
 aria.' The humorous Dr. King ridiculed it in a poem, entitled ' The 
 Art of Cookery.' 
 
 (Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 A'PION, son of Poseidonius, was born in Oasis, a town in Libya, 
 seven days' journey from Thebes, probably the modern Oasis, called 
 El-Wah. Apion was educated at Alexandria, and wished to pass for a 
 Greek native of that city, although he was of Egyptian extraction. 
 \pion was a disciple of Apollonius, the son of Archibius, and of 
 Didymus, from whom he imbibed his fondness for the poetry of 
 Homer. Under the emperor Claudius, who reigned a.d. 41-54, he 
 succeeded the Grammarian Theon at Rome. When the Greek 
 inhabitants of Alexandria endeavoured to deprive the Jews who 
 resided there of the privileges conferred upou them by Alexander 
 the Great at the foundation of the city, and confirmed by the 
 Ptolemies and the Caesars, Apion was appointed to advocate their 
 cause against the Jews. On this occasion he endeavoured to kindle 
 the wrath of the emperor Caius Caligula, by pointing out that the 
 Jews would neither erect statues to the emperor nor swear by his 
 name, whilst they preferred to worship the head of an ass made of 
 solid gold, which was of immense value, and was stated to have been 
 first discovered when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple at 
 Jerusalem. Apion also recounted some monstrous fables respecting 
 alleged practices of the Jews in connection with this idol worship. He 
 did not however fully succeed against Philo, who was sent to Rome by 
 the Jews of Alexandria to plead their cause. Philo, who was at the 
 head of the embassy of the Alexandrian Jews, commenced his reply 
 to Apion's accusation, but the emperor Caius insultingly commanded 
 him to leave the imperial presence. The emperor sent Petronius, the 
 successor of Vitellius, as legate to Syria, with orders to place his 
 statue in the temple at Jerusalem. Petronius marched an army into 
 Judaea, but was so much touched with the iutreaties of the Jews not 
 to profane their sanctuary, and with their readiness rather to die than 
 to admit the emperor's statue, that he delayed the commencement of 
 the war, and requested the emperor to revoke his orders. Caius 
 granted this revocation to his favourite Herodes Agrippa, but com- 
 manded Petronius to commit suicide for his disobedience. The news 
 of Caligula's death arrived in Syria before the letter in which Petro- 
 
 APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, ST. 860 
 
 nius was ordered to kill himself if he would avoid the tortures 
 prepared for him. Thus Apion's plan to hurt the Jews was pro- 
 videntially foiled. (Joseph., ' Archacologia,' 1. xviii. cap. 8.) 
 
 Apion was esteemed for his learning ; but already, before his 
 contest with Philo, he was known at Rome as a man of ostentatious 
 character. Tiberius named him Cymbalum Mundi (Cymbal of the 
 Universe), on account of his vain boastings; but Pliny, Apion's dis- 
 ciple, calls him rather Publicao Famas Tympanum, or the Kettle-Drum 
 of Fame. Of his writings, there have only been preserved the story 
 of 'Androclus and the Lion' (Gellius, v. 14), and the 'Dolphin at 
 Dicoearchia ' (Gellius, vii. 8), with fragments from the work against 
 the Jews, preserved by Josephus iu his reply. Josephus's refutation 
 of the misrepresentations of Apion and his authorities is contained iu 
 the commencement of the second of his two books on the 'Antiquities 
 of the Jews.' 
 
 (Seueca, ep. 88; Plin., Prwf. Wist. Nat., and lib. xxxvi. c. 12; 
 Suidas, ed. Kiister, L p. 267.) 
 
 APOLLINARIS, or APOLLINARIUS, a native of Alexandria, 
 taught grammar at Berytus, a town ou the coast of Phoenicia, and 
 afterwards in Laodicea of the same country. Apollinaris married and 
 became presbyter of Laodicea. His son, likewise called Apollinaris, 
 was one of the greatest orators, poets, and philosophers of his age. 
 Apollinaris the younger became professor of eloquence at Laodicea 
 before a.d. 335, and afterwards lecturer of the Christian congregation. 
 Both father and sou continued their intercourse with learned heathens 
 after their ordination. They were friends of Libanius, and attended 
 the lectures of Epiphanius the sophist, who taught at Laodicea, and 
 afterwards in Athens. On this account, and especially because they 
 were present when Epiphauius recited a poem in praise of Bacchus, 
 they were excommunicated by Theodotus, bishop of Laodicea; but 
 were agaiu, on doing penance, admitted iuto church-fellowship. 
 Georgios, the successor of Theodotus, a.d. 350, being an Arian, 
 banished them, either on account of their continued intercourse with 
 Epiphauius, or on account of their adherence to the Nicene Creed and 
 the friendship of the younger Apollinaris for Athanasius. This 
 friendship had commenced in 349, at the time that Athanasius passed 
 through Laodicea. When Julian forbad the Christians to interpret 
 the Greek classics, the Apollinaris, father and son, composed imitations 
 for the use of schools. The father wrote a grammar for Christians. 
 Socrates (' Hist. Eccles.,' iii. 16) attributes to the father some epic 
 poems and tragedies founded on the history of the Old Testament ; 
 but Sozomenus (' Hist. Eccles.,' v. 18) ascribes these productions to 
 the son, who transformed also the New Testament into the manner 
 and style of Platonic dialogues. After the death of Julian the classics 
 were read again, and the imitations of Apollinaris forgotten. 
 
 The younger Apollinaris is mentioned (in ' Athanas. Ep. ad Antio- 
 chenos,' torn. i. ; ' Opp. ed. Montfaucon,' vol. ii., p. 776) as orthodox 
 bishop of Laodicea in 362, whilst Pelagius was bishop of the Arians in 
 that city. He was esteemed by, and had some epistolary correspondence 
 with, Athanasius, Basilius Magnus, and other great men of that age. 
 Apollinaris distinguished himself especially by polemical and exegetical 
 writings ; for instance, by his work on ' Truth,' against the Emperor 
 Julian and the heathen philosophers. Apollinaris's thirty books 
 against Porphyrius, against the Manichaeans, Arians, Marcellus, and 
 others, were highly esteemed. Hieronymus himself, during his resi- 
 dence at Antiochia in 373 and 374, enjoyed the exegetical instructions 
 of Apollinaris, then bishop of the neighbouring Laodicea. The inter- 
 pretations of Apollinaris, quoted in the commentaries of Hieronymus, 
 were peculiarly valuable in those days on account of his knowledge of 
 the Hebrew tongue. 
 
 In the latter part of his life, Apollinaris, who had strenuously 
 defended the Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity, himself incurred 
 the reproach of heresy, because he taught that the divine logos occu- 
 pied in the person of Christ the place of the human souL According 
 to him, Christ was (ei/aapKos) incarnate, but not (Zfnpvxos) insouled. 
 His disciples, who were very numerous, were called ApoUinarists. His 
 heresy became generally known in 371. Apollinarism wa3 first con- 
 demned at the synod held at Rome in 375, which induced Apollinari3 
 to form a separate congregation, over which he ordained the presbyter 
 Vitalis as bishop. Hence the ApoUinarists are also called Vitalians. 
 They are also called Dimcerites, because they were accused of dividing 
 the nature of Christ into two parts. Before the death of Apollinaris, 
 which happened between 3S2 and 392, the ApoUinarists formed in 
 Syria and the adjacent countries several separate congregations having 
 their own bishop. By imperial command the public worship of the 
 ApoUinarists was impeded in 388 and 397, and in 428 in all towns 
 entirely prohibited. 
 
 APOLLINARIS SIDO'NIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS, ST. (some 
 manuscripts add the name of Modestus, which they place before Apol- 
 linaris). He was born at Lyon on the 5th of November, 430, but his 
 family seems to have been originally of Auvergne, and was one of the 
 most distinguished in Gaul. His grandfather, Apollinaris, was the 
 first of the family who embraced Christianity, and he was praefect of 
 the Gauls in the reign of the tyrant Constantiue. His father was 
 tribune and secretary of state under the emperor Honorius, and 
 praefect of the Gauls under Valentiuian III. Apollinaris received an 
 education suitable to his birth. He was taught philosophy by Euse- 
 bius ('Epist.,' iv. 1), from whom perhaps he also learned arithmetio 
 
Ml 
 
 APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, ST. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, BERGLEUS. 
 
 232 
 
 astrology, and music, which Apollinaris says are essential parts of 
 education (' Carmen,' 14). He acquired enough of Greek to translate 
 it into Latin; but poetry was the favourite subject of Apollinaris. 
 He was also ambitious, and he thought of rising to posts of honour. 
 It is probable that he chose the profession of the bar. But before he 
 obtained any office he married Papianilla, daughter of that Avitus 
 who was afterwards emperor. She brought him as a dowry the domain 
 of Avitac in Auvergne, which Apollinaris has described in one of his 
 letters (' Epist.,' ii. 2). He was not tvventy when he married, and he 
 had at least four children. 
 
 His father-in-law, Avitus, was declared Augustus on the 10th of 
 July, 455, and Apollinaris followed him to Rome, where he pronounced 
 his panegyric in verse in the presence of the Roman senate and people 
 on the first day of the next year, on which Avitus commenced his 
 consulship. The only reward which he received for this poem, which 
 he wrote at the age of twenty-five, was, as he complains, the erection 
 of a bronze statue, which was placed near the statue of Trajan, under 
 the portico which led to the Greek and Latin libraries. The reign of 
 Avitus, by whom Apollinaris expected to be advanced, was of short 
 duration. Before the end of the year 456 Avitus was dethroned by 
 the intrigues of Count Ricimer, and Majorian succeeded him. A part 
 of the Gauls took up arms to avenge Avitus, and Apollinaris went to 
 Lyon, which declared for Avitus, and received within its walk a body 
 of Visigoths, sent by the Visigoth king, Theodoric II. The city was 
 besieged by the Romans, and compelled to surrender. When Majorian 
 came to Lyon in 458 the poet pronounced a panegyric upon him in 
 verse (' Carmen,' 5), upon which Majorian granted him his petition in 
 behalf of Lyon. This emperor raised Apollinaris in 461 to the dignity 
 of a count, and gave him some other offices about his court. In 461 
 Ricimer caused Majorian to be assassinated, and placed the diadem 
 on the head of Severus. It appears that Apollinaris took this oppor- 
 tunity of quitting the Roman court, and that he passed the whole 
 reign of Severus in his domain of Avitac, occupying himself with lite- 
 rature, his domestic affairs, and the society of his friends. (' Epist.,' 
 ii. 9 ; ' Carm.,' 23, v. 439, 490-501.) 
 
 Upon Anthemius becoming emperor in 467, Apollinaris, who was 
 then at Lyon came to Rome, and pronounced a panegyric in verse 
 upon the emperor the 1st January, 468 ('Carmen,' 2). Antheinius 
 made him chief of the senate, praefect of the city, and after some time 
 patrician. 
 
 Apollinaris had now obtained every honour to which a private 
 person could aspire, except the consulship, when he gave up all, and 
 passed, as he says himself, from a secular life and the first offices of 
 the court to the humility and sanctity of a bishop (' Epist.,' iii. 1). 
 Towards the close of the year 471, he was elected bishop of Clermont, 
 though not yet admitted among the clergy. He renounced profane 
 literature, and even poetry ; he wrote verses rarely, and such as he 
 did write were generally in honour of the saiuts and martyrs (' Epist,' 
 ix. 16). He contented himself with composing letters in prose, and 
 he sought to form a style more suitable to his profession, less studied 
 and more approaching to common conversation than he had used 
 before (' Epist.,' iv. 3). He became a man of prayer, of fasting, and 
 charity. The greatest prelates of the church in those days, St. Lupus 
 of Troyes, St. Remigius of Reims, St. Patiens of Lyon, corresponded 
 with him and were his friends. In 474, the city of Clermont was 
 besieged by Euric, king of the Visigoths. It suffered greatly. Winter 
 forced Euric to raise the siege : but the city was distracted by two 
 factions ; one party wished to abandon the town, another to stay and 
 defend it. Apollinaris brought from Lyon the priest Constantius, 
 who, by his eloquence, restored concord amongst the inhabitants. The 
 country through which the Visigoths had passed was entirely devas- 
 tated; more than 4000 Burgundians came to Clermont, destitute of 
 every thing. The bishop sold even his silver plate secretly to supply 
 the necessities of his people. But Papianilla, when she heard of this, 
 bought back the plate, and returned it to her husband. In order to 
 implore divine mercy, Apollinaris now established in his diocese the 
 ceremony of rogation*, in imitation of St. Mamert, who had just 
 instituted it at Vienn-: in Dauphine" ('Epist.,' vii. 1). But Julius 
 Nepos, the emperor of the West, bought peace with Euric by the 
 cession of Auvergne, and the Visigoths became masters of Clermont 
 before the end of the reign of Nepos, that is, before the 2Sth of 
 August, 475. Apollin iris demanded of Euric, who was an Arian, that 
 the Catholics, who now passed under his dominion, should be allowed 
 to elect their own bishops. Euric refused and sent him prisoner to 
 the castle of Livia not far from Carcassone, where he remained for a 
 year. When he was restored to his diocese, he endeavoured to assuage 
 the sufferings of his people under the barbarian rule. Nothing is 
 known of the last years of his life, except that he experienced much 
 trouble from two priests who endeavoured to get possession of his 
 bishopric, but did not succeed. Apollinaris died on a Saturday, 
 which was the 21st of August. This is the day on which his memory 
 is honoured by the church of Clermont, which has placed him among 
 ite saints. The year is uncertain, but it is probable that he died in 
 the year 488, which was the fifty-eighth of his life and the eighteenth 
 of his episcopate. 
 
 Apollinaris wrote several works which are lost. Those which are 
 extant he published himself. They are:— 1. 'Carmina XXIV.' 
 These poems appeared before the letters at different periods, and 
 
 before Apollinaris became a bishop. Some other pieces of poetry, 
 epitaphs, and inscriptions are inserted among his letters. The most 
 remarkable of these poems are the panegyrics upon the three emperors, 
 Avitus, Majorian, and Anthemius. They are not printed in chrono- 
 logical order. 2. ' Epistolse.' There are nine books of letters, and 
 two others are inserted among the verses. Apollinaris published these 
 books separately and at different periods after he became a bishop. 
 The last book was probably published in 483, as may be inferred from 
 the twelfth letter of the ninth book ; but Apollinaris in the publica- 
 tion of his letters observed no order either of subject or chronology. 
 The literary merit of his works is not great. His style is tumid, 
 obscure, and affected, too full of antithesis and points; yet there is 
 considerable eloquence, fire, and conciseness in his diction. The real 
 value of his works is this, that they contain historical facts which can- 
 not be found elsewhere ; and although Apollinaris mentions the events 
 of his age very briefly, yet his writings throw considerable light on 
 the political and literary history of the 5th century. Gibbon and the 
 other historians who treat of that period refer continually to him. 
 
 The editions of his works are numerous. The best are — one pub- 
 lished with notes by Savaron, Paris, 4to., 1609; and another by Sir- 
 mond, with valuable notes, 8vo., Paris, 1614. The works of Apollinaris 
 form a part of the ' Bibliotheca Patrum ' of Gallandius, torn. x. p. 
 463, &c, Venice, 1774. There is no English translation ; but the 
 French translation, with the Latin text on the opposite side, by Gre- 
 goire and Collombet, 8vo. Paris, 1836, three vols., contains a good 
 life and introduction to the works of Apollinaris. 
 
 (Histoire LU.6r.aire de la France, torn. ii. p. 550-573 ; Gre"goire and 
 Collombet, CEuvres de C. Sollias Apollinaris Sidonius, &c.) 
 
 APOLLODO'RUS, a celebrated grammarian of Athens, of whom 
 an account is given by Suidas. He was a pupil of Ari^tarchus. Of 
 his voluminous writings, only three books of his ' Bibliotheca,' a 
 mythological work, have come down to us. He wrote a chronicle or 
 history in Iambic verse, extending from the destruction of Troy 
 (B.C. 1184) to his own times (about B.C. 144). (' Scymuus Chius,' 
 v. 19-49.) The first edition of Apollodorus was by B. ^Egius of 
 Spoleto, 1555, 8vo, Rome. The best editions are by Heyne, 
 1782-1783, 4 volumes, and 1802, 2 volumes, 8vo ; and that by Clavier, 
 Paris, 1805, 2 volumes, 8vo, with a French translation. 
 
 APOLLODORUS, an eminent Athenian painter, who lived about 
 four centuries B.C. (Pliny, Natural History, xxxv. 9.) 
 
 APOLLODORUS, a celebrated architect in the reigns of Trajan 
 and Hadrian, was born at Damascus. The magnificent stone bridge 
 built over the Danube, a.d. 104, by order of Trajan, was executed 
 under his direction. The remains of this bridge stdl exist near the 
 junction of the Aluta or Alt and the Danube. He is also said to 
 have been the architect of the Forum Trajauum, in which the column 
 of Trajan stands, and to have built a library, a music-hall (Odeum), 
 baths, and aqueducts. It is said that Hadrian put him to death on 
 some false and frivolous pretence. Apollodorus is the author of a 
 work on besieging towns, printed in the collection of Thevenot. 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, a celebrated sculptor of the island of Rhodes, who, 
 along with his brother Tauriscus, executed a group in marble which 
 represented Zethus and Amphion binding Dirce to the horns of a 
 furious bull, to avenge their mother, Antiope, whom she had cruelly 
 persecuted. This group, described by Pliny (xxxvi. 4), is supposed, 
 with much probability, to be what is known to us under the name of 
 the Toro Farnese, found during the reign of Paul III. in the ruins of 
 the Baths of Caracalla. The lower half of the figure of Dirce, the 
 two trunks, and a leg of Zethus and Amphion, were the only remnants 
 of the ancient sculptures, but enough remained to prove that the art 
 was then in its highest state of perfection. The group has been 
 restored by a Milanese artist, Batista Bianchi. (Piranesi, Statue; 
 Maffei; Winkelmann, vi. i. p. 128 ; Muller, Handbuch der Archdologie, 
 &c, p. 137.) 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, a celebrated statuaiy, the son of Nestor of Athens, 
 only known to us from his name being inscribed on the fragments of 
 a statue whieh was discovered in the 15th century, and is now called 
 the Torso Belvedere. It has neither head, arms, nor legs, and yet it 
 is considered one of the master pieces of antiquity. Michel Angelo 
 made it his grand object of study; and so enthusiastic was he in his 
 admiration of it, that even after his sight failed him, he used to be 
 led to it that he might enjoy the pleasure of feeling it with his hands. 
 All agree as to its being one of the finest specimens of ancient 
 sculpture, but there is some doubt as to the period when Apolloniua 
 lived. (Meyer, History of Ch-eek Sculpture, p. 296 ; Visconti, Pio 
 Clemcnhno, t. i. plate x. ; Winkelmann, x. iii. s. 15 ; Thiersch, KunsU 
 Ejiochen, p. 333.) 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, the Sophist, supposed to have lived at Alexandria 
 in the time of Augustus, is the author of a Lexicon of Homeric words. 
 It was first published by Villoison at Paris, in 1773, in two vols. 4to, 
 accompanied by a commentary and prolegomena. The work was re- 
 printed at Ley den in 1788, 8vo, with notes by Tollius, but with the 
 omission of Villoison's Latin translation and prolegomena. 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, BERG.<EUS, after Archimedes the most original 
 and profound of all the Greek geometers, was born at Perga in 
 Pamphylia, while Ptolemseus III., commonly called.Euergetes, was king 
 of Egypt. Ptoletnseus began his reign B.C. 247. Apollonius was in 
 the zenith of his fame about the end of the reign of Ptolemseus (IV.) 
 
268 
 
 APOLLONIUS, BERG.EUS. 
 
 APOLLONIUS RHODIUS. 
 
 264 
 
 Philopator, who died B.C. 205. Apollonius and Hannibal were nearly 
 contemporary both as to birth and achievements in their different 
 lines. Archimedes died B.C. 212, at which time Apollonius was living; 
 it is not known when the latter died. 
 
 The life of Apollonius was passed at Alexandria, in the school of 
 the successors of Euclid, under whom he studied. With respect to 
 a charge of plagiarism from Archimedes, brought against Apollonius, 
 it is said by Kutocius, Lis commentator (about a.d. 540), who cites 
 the charge, that it was well known that neither Archimedes nor 
 Apollonius pretended to be the first investigators of the conic 
 sections. 
 
 Of the most interesting part of an eminent man, — his opinions on 
 disputed subjects, — we know but little in the case of Apollonius. 
 Gassendi, in his life of Copernicus, mentions an opinion attributed 
 by the latter to the Grecian geometer, and which is said to have been 
 also that of Philolaus, that the sun and moon only moved round the 
 earth, but all the other planets round the sun. We cannot find any 
 other authority for attributing this opinion to Apollonius, except 
 Weidler in his 'Historia Astronomise,' who however cites Gassendi 
 as his authority. Vieta conjectures with great probability that there 
 is a confusion of words. That this system was called ' Apollonian ' 
 from its reference to the sun (Apollo.) But Apollonius certainly paid 
 attention, at least, to the then received system, since known by the 
 name of the Ptolemaic, for Ptolemaeus has preserved some theorems 
 of his on the method of finding the stationary points of the planets, 
 supposed to move in epicycles. Proclus, in his commentary on Euclid, 
 mentions that Apollonius attempted to prove the axioms, and cites 
 his investigation of the theorem, that things which are equal to the 
 same are equal to one auother, in which, as may be supposed, propo- 
 sitions are assumed not more obvious than the theorem itself. Vitru- 
 vius cites Apollonius as the inventor of a species of clock which he 
 terms 'pharetra.' 
 
 The great work of Apollonius which now remains is seven books 
 of his treatise on conic sections, of which we shall presently speak. 
 But besides this, he is known to have written treatises, according to 
 Pappus, ' De Bationis Sectione,' ' De Spatii Sectione,' ' De Sectione 
 determinata,' ' De Tactionibus,' ' De Inclinationibus,' 'De Planis 
 Locis,' and according to Proclus, 'De Cochlea,' and ' De perturbatis 
 Bationibus.' Of these, the first only is known to us, having been 
 found in Arabic, and published in Latin by Halley in 1708, with an 
 attempt to restore the second. But Mcrsenne, cited by Vossius, says 
 he read, in an Arabian author, Aben Eddin, an assertion that all the 
 works of Apollonius, more in number than those mentioned by 
 Pappus, were in Arabic at the beginning of the 11th century. 
 
 About the end of the 16th century, it was a very common exercise 
 of mathematical ingenuity to endeavour to restore these and other lost 
 treatises, that is, from the fullest notion which could be gathered, to 
 guess at the propositions which they might have contained. Such 
 attempts gave rise to the 'Apollonius Gallus ' of Vieta, the 'Apol- 
 lonius Batavus' of Snellius, aud other works of Maurolico, Ghetaldi, 
 Adrianus Bomanus, Fermat, Schooten, Anderson, Halley, B. Simson, 
 and others. 
 
 The conic sections of Apollonius are in seven books, the first four 
 of which are extant in Greek, with the commentary of Eutocius of 
 Ascalon, above-mentioned. The next three were supposed to be lost, 
 till the middle of the 17th century, when James Golius, a celebrated 
 oriental professor of Leyden, returned from the East, with the whole 
 seven books in Arabic. Some delay took place in their translation 
 and publication, during which, in 1658, Borelli accidentally discovered 
 an Arabic manuscript in the Medici library at Florence, of the same 
 seven books. It does not a little serve to illustrate the use made of 
 public libraries, that while one author after another had for years 
 expressed regret at the loss of the last four books, three of them 
 should be lying in one of the most celebrated libraries in Europe, in 
 the heart of a capital city, with an Italian title-page. Borelli, and 
 Abraham Echellensis, an oriental professor at Borne, translated it from 
 the Arabic, and published their version in 1661. At the time of the 
 discovery, Viviani was engaged in restoring the lost books, and when 
 it was made known, he prevailed on the Grand Duke of Tuscany to 
 mark all his papers, and to order Borelli to keep the contents of the 
 new books secret. The work of Viviani, well known as an acute and 
 accomplished mathematician, was found (Montucla, i., 250) to fall 
 short of that of Apollonius on several important points, though, as 
 might be expected, the views of the Italian of the 17th century were 
 more extensive in many cases than those of the Greek. The eighth 
 book was still wanting, and a note to the version imported by Golius 
 informed the reader that it had never been found, even by the Arabs, 
 in the Greek. But when the Oxford press, at the commencement of 
 the last century, was employed upon the magnificent versions of the 
 Greek geometers, which are still the best in public use, Dr. Aldrich, 
 observing that the preliminary Lemmas of Pappus to the seventh 
 book were asserted to belong to the eighth, and also that the latter 
 appeared, from the words of Apollonius himself in his introduction, 
 to be a continuation of the former, proposed to Halley that he should 
 endeavour with these lights to re-establish the missing book. Halley 
 was tlien employed iu completing the edition of the work, which the 
 dtath of Dr. Gregory had interrupted, and he acceded to the sug- 
 gestion, The whole appeared at Oxford, in 1710, with the commentary 
 
 of Eutocius, the Lemmas of Pappus, and in addition, the work of 
 Serenus on the same subject. This is the only edition of the Greek 
 text. 
 
 The contents of the work are thus briefly described by Apollonius, 
 of whose words we give a free translation. "The first four books are 
 elementary : the first contains the generation of the three sections of 
 the cone, and of the sections which are styled opposite, and their 
 principal distinctive properties, which have been treated by us more 
 fully and generally than by any of our predecessors. The second 
 book contains the properties of the diameters and axes, as well as of 
 the asymptotes, and other matters of general utility : you will hence 
 see what I have called diameters, and what axes. The third book 
 contains many and wonderful theorems, which are useful in the compo- 
 sition of solid loci, of which the majority aro both new and beautiful. 
 The fourth book shows in what manner sections of a cone, or of 
 opposite cones, may cut one another, and the circumference of a circle, 
 on the whole of which nothing has been delivered by those who went 
 before us. The remaiuiug four books treat of the higher part of the 
 ^science : the fifth, on maxima and minima : the sixth, on equal and 
 similar sections : the seventh, on di eristic theorems, or theorems 
 useful in the solution of problems : and the eighth, on the problems 
 thus solved." 
 
 Apollonius wa3 the first who used the words ellipse and hyperbola, 
 of which Archimedes does not take notice, though he uses the term 
 parabola. He also, as we see above, first distinguishes the diameters 
 of the section from the axes. It was, moreover, in his time, and 
 perhaps first by himself, that the general sections of the cone were 
 considered ; for previously it had been usual to treat only of those, 
 the planes of which were at right angles to one of the sides of the 
 cone ; so that an ellipse could only come from an acute-angled cone, 
 and so on. 
 
 The most remarkable book in the whole work is the fifth, which 
 treats of maxima aud minima. With a little licence it might be called 
 a complete treatise on the curvature of the three sections, for in con- 
 sidering the number of maxima and minima which can be drawn to 
 the section from any point in its plane, the space inside and outside 
 of the evolute has different properties. There is only wanting the 
 addition of a name for the curve which separates the spaces (which 
 we now call the evolute). This book, and the quadrature of Archi- 
 medeB, are the highest points of the Grecian geometry. 
 
 The work of Apollonius was lightly spoken of by Descartes, who is 
 supposed to have seen the first four books only ; but it was held in 
 particular estimation by Newton, and Cardan places its author seventh 
 among all the men who have ever lived : in his own age he was called 
 the great geometer. 
 
 We now bri'-fly mention some of the principal editions of the 
 conies. The celebrated Hypatia, daughter of Theon, wrote a com- 
 mentary upon them. We have already mentioned Pappus aud Euto- 
 cius as commentators, Borelli and Halley as editors. Among the 
 Arabs, it was first translated by Thebit-ben-Cora, under the Kahf Al- 
 Maimun in the 9th century : by Abalphat in the 10th century ; and 
 two editions, of little celebrity, appeared in Persian in the 13th 
 century. In Europe, it was first translated, but badly, by Memmius, 
 a Venetian, in 1537; by Maccolyco about the same time, but we 
 cannot learn that this edition was ever published ; also by Com- 
 mandine in 1566 (mis printed 1666, in Murhard), and by the Jesuit 
 Claude Bichard in 1655. Montucla is incorrect in saying that this 
 edition was announced and never published. In 1679, Barrow pub- 
 lished the first four books. 
 
 Apollonius appears to have improved the notation of arithmetic, 
 if we may judge from the praise given to him by Eutocius, in his 
 commentary upon the quadrature of Archimedes, for a work which 
 he calls CLkvt6^oov. Pappus more explicitly states that the improve- 
 ment consisted in a simplification of the method proposed by Archi- 
 medes for representing very large numbers, which brought the system 
 nearer to that of the moderns. (Delambre, ' Hist. Ast. Anc' ii. 9.) 
 Eutocius also says, that Apollonius extended the quadrature of the 
 circle given by Archimedes. 
 
 APuLLO'iSIUS DY'SCOLUS, or ALEX ANDB1 NTJS MINOR, a 
 grammarian, who was born at Alexandrina in the 2nd century of the 
 Christian era. He was the sou of Mnesitheus and Ariadne, and is 
 said to have been so poor that he was unable to afford money sufficient 
 even to purchase paper. It was probably this state of poverty which 
 had an effect on his temper, and procured him the name of Dyscolus, 
 or the morose. He was the author of many works ; he was called by 
 Priscian ' Princeps Grammaticorum,' and afforded to that grammarian 
 many hints for his ' Latin Grammar.' Of his four remaining works 
 the chief is a 'Treatise on Syntax,' in four books, the first edition 
 of which is by Aldus, 1495, Venice. An improved edition was made 
 by Sylburgius, with a Latin translation of J&m. Portus, 1590 ; the 
 last is by Bekker, Berlin, 1817. At the end of the 'Treatise on 
 Greek Dialects,' by Maittaire, Hague, 1718, Lips. 1807, there are some 
 extracts of the Grammar of Apollonius, which were procured by 
 Vossius from a manuscript of the Boyal Library of Paris. 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS RHO'DIUS, a Greek epic poet. It is not ascer- 
 tained whether he was a native of Alexandria in Egypt, or of Naucritis, > 
 a small town on the Canopic branch of the Nile, but from his long 
 residence in the island of Bhodes he obtained his surname. He was 
 
ME 
 
 APOLLONIUS. 
 
 APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA. Z69 
 
 the son of Silleus, and spent his early years at Alexandria und^r the 
 direction of the poet Calliinachus. He had afterwards a quarrel with 
 his former teacher : it is said to have been respecting the ' Argonau- 
 tica' of Apollonius, which was net sufficiently admired by Callimachus. 
 In what way the disappointed poet took his revenge we are not told ; 
 but it produced a bitter retort from Callimachus. His poem entitled 
 'Ibis' was directed against Apollonius, aud though no fragments of it 
 remain, we can form some opinion of its character and leading features 
 from the 'Ibis' of Ovid, which is said to be an imitation of this poem. 
 Apollonius left Alexandria probably in consequence of this quarrel, 
 and took up his residence at Rhodes, where he lived for many years, 
 and was at last recalled, B.C. 194, to occupy the place of the learned 
 Eratosthenes as keeper of the great library of the Ptolemies at 
 Alexandria. 
 
 Of the works of Apollonius Rhodius, which do not appear to have 
 been very numerous, the ' Argonautica,' in four books, is the only one 
 lhat has come down to us. As regards the materials of the ' Argo- 
 nautica,' Apollonius, like all the poets of that period, collected them 
 by extensive reading. The legends they took for their subjects had 
 ceased to live in the minds of the people, and had become the exclu- 
 sive property of the learned, who gathered them from the early poets, 
 logographi-rs, historiau3, and geographers, and combined them into new 
 forms. The Scholia on Apollonius seldom lose an opportunity of telling 
 us from what source the particular statements are derived. The arrange- 
 ment of the materials in the 'Argonautica' is of the simplest kind: 
 there is no artificial contrivance for the purpose of ruakiug a plot; 
 and at first sight it might even appear that the plan of the ' Argonau- 
 tica' is simpler than that of the 'Odyssey.' The course of the narrative 
 is seldom interrupted by episodes, and generally speakitig they are not 
 introduced except where they are essential, and they are scarcely ever 
 mere ornaments. The interference of the gods in the events described 
 is very rare, and occurs only incidentally. The interest of the whole 
 poem therefore does not lie in its plot, but in the manner in which the 
 whole subject and each part is treated, and in the peculiar interest 
 which is attached to the story. But as this interest was no longer 
 sufficiently fresh to secure popularity, Apollonius enlivened it with his 
 descriptions of the tender passion of love, and of the emotions of the 
 heart, which are rarely introduced in the earlier epics. The portions 
 of the poem containing such descriptions are executed with great 
 felicity, and the 'Argonautica' on the whole shows that the author 
 was superior to most of his contemporary poets. But, notwithstand- 
 ing these and other excellencies, the narrative is occasionally tedious ; 
 and notwithstanding all the variety of character aud incident, the poem 
 wants that freshness of conception aud execution which in the best 
 epic poem secures the interest and wins the sympathy of the reader. 
 We cannot help feeling that it is the work of labour rather than of 
 faith and inspiration : the poet proceeds throughout with the utmost 
 caution. Even Quintilian and Longinus appear to have felt this, for 
 Quintilian speaks of the mediocrity that pervades the whole poem; 
 and Longinus speaks of his thoughtfulness, which indeed prevented 
 him from rushing into errors and inconsistencies, but is at the same 
 time one of the causes of his inferiority to the earlier epic poets. 
 The style and language are imitations of Homer; but the language 
 is cramped by the aim of the author to be brief and grammatically 
 correct. Apollonius however is free from all studied obscurity aud the 
 learned pomp and ostentation of the poets of that period. 
 
 Many learned Greeks wrote commentaries on Apollonius : and the 
 Latin poet Valerius Flaccus closely imitated him in his work entitled 
 'Argonautica.' Terentius Varro translated it into Latin: in still 
 later times it was turned into Iambic verse by Mariauus. The first 
 edition of this work was published at Florence, 1496, aud is of great 
 value to book collectors. Editions were published at Leipzig in 1797 
 and 1828. It has b en translated into English by Greeu, Fawkes 
 (1797), and Preston (1803); into Italian by Flaugini (Uoma, 1791) ; into 
 German by Bo Imer (Zurich, 1779) ; aud into French by Caussiu (1797). 
 
 (Schbnemann, Comment, de Geograph. Argon., (jotting., 1788; Ger- 
 hard, Lecliones Apollonian^, Lips , 1816; Weichert, Ueber das Lebeii 
 md das Gcdichl des Apollonius von Rhodus, Meissen, 8vo., 1821.) 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS of Tyana, a Pythagorean philosopher, who lived in 
 the first century after Christ. He appears to have been a compound of 
 the philosopher, the fanatic, aud the impostor, respecting whom authen- 
 tic accounts were sufficiently scanty to leave plenty of room for fiction 
 (o play in, while what was known of him was remarkable enough to 
 give an air of credibility to the most extravagant fictions of a later 
 and uncritical age. We have what professes to be an historical account 
 of him in a circumstantial narrative of his life by Flavins Philostratus 
 the elder. This work wa< undertaken at the desire of Julia Domua, 
 the wife of the emperor Septimius Severus, who leut Philostratus an 
 account of the travels and adventures of Apollonius, written by an 
 Assyrian named Damis, who had accompanied him. His account seems 
 to have been the groundwork of the narrative of Philostratus. His 
 biographer has written down in his book many absurdities and impos- 
 sibilities. On a rock of Mount Caucasus, Apollonius saw the chains 
 of Prometheus. King Bardanes, his priests, and magi honoured him 
 at Babylon. In Taxila, a town of India, he met with the king, Phra- 
 ortes, a descendant of Porus. In India he saw also a woman conse- 
 crated to Venus, who was black from the head to the chest, and white 
 from the chest to the feet. He joined a party who hunted dragons by 
 
 magic. The eyes and scales of these dragons shone like fire, and were 
 talismans. He saw the animal ' martichoras' (mentioned four centuries 
 before by Ctesias), with the head of a man and the body of a lion, 
 fountains of golden water, men who dwelt below the ground, griffins, 
 the phcenix, the precious stone pantarbas casting rays of fire, and 
 attracting all other gems, which adhered to it like swarms of bees. 
 So preposterous are most of these fictions, that some have even doubted 
 the personal existence of Apollonius himself. That such a person 
 however lived, aud by his ascetic habits and pretended supernatural 
 gifts attracted not merely the wonder but the adoration of the vulgar 
 appears unquestionable. The assertion of Dion Cassius that he lived 
 in the time of Domitian, and the religious reverence paid to him in 
 many temples, are inconsistent with any other supposition. The 
 following is a narrative of his career, as described by Philostratus : — 
 
 Apollonius was born, at the commencement of the Christian era, 
 in Tyana, a town of Cappadocia. At the age of fourteen, his father, 
 Apollonius, sent him to Tarsus to study grammar and rhetoric under 
 Euthydemus, a Phceuician. Dissatisfied with the luxury aud indolence 
 of the citizens, Apollonius obtained his father's permission to retire to 
 JEggs (Ayas), a town near Tarsus, where he became acquainted with 
 the doctrines of various philosophers, and observed the Pythagorean 
 rules strictly, took up his abode in the temple of -<Esculapius at ^Egae, 
 famous for miraculous cures, abstained from animal food and wine, 
 lived upon fruits and herbs, avoided in his dress every article made 
 of animal substauce, walked barefoot, and let his hair and beard grow. 
 Apollonius recommended his moral and ascetic doctrines by example, 
 and by an appeal to the heathen gods. He healed a young Assyrian 
 afflicted by a disease which was a consequence of intemperance, by 
 teaching him that the gods were willing to give health to all who were 
 willing to receive this gift. Having finished his studies at -lEgse and 
 other cities of Cilicia and Pamphylia, Apollonius travelled by laud to 
 India. At Nineveh he met with Damis, who became his interpreter 
 and travelling companion. 
 
 Apollonius returned from India by sea, was much admired in the 
 towns of Asia Minor, conversed at the grave of Achilles with the ghost 
 of this hero, enchanted the demons, and uttered prophecies. The 
 Greek priests at Athens, in the Peloponnesus, the oracles at Paphos, 
 Pcrgamus, and Colophon, heaped their marks of honour upon Apol- 
 lonius. He afterwards went to Crete, and finally arrived in the reign 
 of Nero at Rome, where he and his followers being questioned by the 
 magistrates concerning the object of their journey, overcame their 
 mistrust by restoring to life the dead body of a noble lady, and pre- 
 dicting an eclipse of the suu. When Nero left Rome for Greece, he 
 ordered all foreign philosophers to quit the city. Apollonius went 
 to Spain, and stirred up a rebellion against Nero and the Romans. 
 He then visited Africa, the south of Italy, and Sicily, where he heard 
 of the death of Nero. Apollonius again visited Athens, and was 
 initiated by the hierophant of Eleusis into the mysteries of that place. 
 He next visited Kgypt and Ethiopia, and sought for the sources of the 
 Nile. In Egypt he joined Vespasian, who probably found it politic to 
 gain a man whose sanctity aud miracles had raised him to the rank of 
 a deity ; for during his lifetime, and still more after his death, Apol- 
 lonius enjoyed this distinction. (' Life of Alexander Severus,' by Lam- 
 pridius, cap. 29.) Afterwards he revisited Asia Minor and Rome, where 
 he was accused of high treason against Domitian, and cast into prison. 
 On his r. lease he removed to Puteoli, where he met his followers, Damis 
 aud Demetrius. He again visited Sicily, Greece, and Asia Minor, per- 
 formed miracles, and had many adventures, until he died, eighty, or 
 ninety, or one hundred, or, as some accounts say, one hundred and 
 seventeen years old, either at Ephesus, or at Lindus in the temple of 
 Pallas. 
 
 A great deal of the celebrity of Apollonius has arisen from the 
 circumstance that several attempts have been made to set him up as 
 a rival to Our Saviour. Such au attempt was made by Hierocles of 
 Nicomedia, iu the time of Diocletian, a refutation of whose work by 
 Eusebius, bishop of Csesarea, we still possess. The attempt has been 
 renewed by deistical writers of modern times : for example, Blount 
 aud Lord Herbert. Blount wrote a translation of the life of Apollo- 
 nius by Philostratus, accompanied by a commentary. In consequence 
 of the deistical tendency of the latter, the work was suppressed after 
 the publication of the first two books. (Note I. in Bayle's ' Diet. 
 Grit.,' art. ' Apollonius de Tyaue.') The coincidence between many 
 circumstances in the narrative of Philostratus and those recorded in 
 the evangelical history, has led many to suppose that he wrote his 
 account of Apollonius with a similar view. It contains however no 
 sufficient traces of an intention on the part of the writer to institute 
 any comparison at all between Apollonius and Christ. It is at all 
 events clear that he did not write with any feeling of hostility towards 
 Christianity. If he intended to draw any parallel at all, it was pro- 
 bably between Apollonius and Pythagoras. He seems to have borrowed 
 from all sources any wonderful circumstances which promised to 
 give interest to his narrative (as may be shown with regard to Ctesias, 
 Agatharchides, and others), and amongst the rest he has taken several 
 from the history of Jesus Christ recorded by the evangelists. The 
 absurdities and incongruities of his story have been pointed out by 
 several writers, as Bishop Lloyd (in a letter to Bentley), Bishop Parker, 
 and Du Pin. 
 
 APPENDl'NI, FRANCESCO MARIA, born near Turin, in 1768, 
 
267 
 
 APIIAXIN, STEPAN THEDOROVICH. 
 
 2(18 
 
 studied at Rome, where he entered the order of the Scolopj, and was 
 after a time sent to fill the chair of rhetoric at Ragusa, a town which 
 then maintained a close connection with Italy. He became a great 
 proficient in the Slavonian language, and published a grammar of the 
 Illyric language, that is to say, of the Dalmatian dialect of the 
 Slavonian. But his principal work concerns the history of his 
 adopted country, Ragusa, and it gives a very interesting account of 
 that now almost forgotten little Btate, which governed itself for 
 centuries as a republic, aud cultivated the arts and retained the man- 
 ners of civilised Europe on a narrow nook of land on a barbarous 
 coast, surrounded aud yet respected by the Ottoman power. (' Notizie 
 istorico-critiche sulle Antichita, Storia, e Letteratura dei Ragusei,' 
 2 vols., 4to, 1802-3.) 
 
 When Napoleou I. took military possession of Ragusa, and sub- 
 verted that ancient republic, Appendini was retained as rector of the 
 college of Ragusa. After the Aiutrians had superseded the French in 
 1S14, Appendini was commissioned by the imperial government to 
 establish a school for teachers at Zara, with the view of providing 
 masters for the various schools of Dalmatia. Consequently he 
 removed from Ragusa to Zara, where ho died in 1837. 
 
 (Tipaldo, Biogvafia deyli Italiani Illustri del Seculu XVIII. e dei 
 Contcmporavri.) 
 
 APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES, a writer on sporting subjects of 
 considerable reputation, better known by the pseudo-name of Nimrod, 
 was the second son of Thomas Apperley, a Welsh country gentleman, 
 and was born at his father's seat of Plasgronow, in Denbighshire, in 
 the year 1777. At Rugby school he acquired some kuowledge of the 
 classical languages, and much more of the sports of the field. In 
 1801 he married the daughter of William Wynne, Esq., and in 1801 
 he took up his residence at Bilton Hall, once the country-seat of 
 Addison, in Warwickshire. Here he devoted himself so entirely to 
 the chase that for some years bis only pursuit was that of a fox-hunter. 
 He often rode thirty or forty miles to distant covers, and he contrived 
 to defray the expenses of the sport by disposing of hunters, after he 
 had ridden them for some time, to those of his friends whose know- 
 ledge of the horse was not so intimate as his, and who therefore could 
 not trust their own judgment in the purchase of an untried animal. 
 In 1821 he removed into Hampshire, and commenced farming on a 
 large scale ; and in the same year he began to write for the press. 
 His contributions to the 'Sporting Magazine,' especially his Hunting 
 Tours, attracted so much attention that the circulation of the work 
 was doubled in two years ; and Mr. Pittman, the proprietor of the 
 magazine, not only remunerated him handsomely, but also paid the 
 expenses of his tours, and kept for him a stud of hunters. On 
 Mr. Pittman's death differences followed, which led to a suit by his 
 representatives for money advanced, the result of which was that, to 
 avoid a prison at home, Nimrod was compelled to take up his 
 residence in France. In 1830 Mr. Apperley established himself at a 
 chateau called St-Pierre, near Calais, where he chit fly resided for the 
 remainder of his life, supporting himself by his pen. He died in 
 London on the 19th of May, 1843. 
 
 Nimrod's superiority consisted in his perfect knowledge of his 
 subject, and in a certain air of good humour, which won upon the 
 reader. His works are made up almost entirely of anecdote, and par- 
 take of a gossipping character. His knowledge of fox-hunting could 
 not be disputed, for previous to his leaving England he had hunted 
 with no less than eighty-two different packs, in every quarter of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Almost all Mr. Apperley's works were written for periodicals, but 
 many afterwards appeared in a collected shape. ' The Chase, the 
 Turf, and the Road,' may be classed as Nimrod's best productions. 
 They were written for the ' Quarterly Review,' in 1827, and their 
 appearance in so grave a periodical excited no small sensation. The 
 liveliness with which they were written however carried them through 
 triumphantly, and the result was a considerable addition to the num- 
 ber of Nimrod's admirers, as a consequence of his introduction to a 
 new and wider circle of readers. 
 
 APPIA'NI, ANDRE'A. a fresco painter, was born at Milan in 1754. 
 After visiting and studying in the principal cities of Italy, he chose 
 Correggio for his model. From 1795 until 1813 he worked at Milan ; 
 but in the latter year he was compelled to desist from his labours by 
 a stroke of apoplexy, a second attack of which, in 1817 or 1818, 
 caused his death. 
 
 Appiani was Napoleon's principal painter in Italy, for which office 
 he received an annual pension of 6000 francs. He was a knight of the 
 Iron Crown, and a member of the Legion of Honour. He however 
 died in poverty, having lost his pension in consequence of the 
 Restoration in 1814. 
 
 His principal frescoes are in the church of Santa Maria Vergine, 
 and in the royal palace of Milan ; the latter have been engraved by 
 Rosaspina. He was also an excellent painter in oils ; there is a 
 portrait of Napoleon I. by him, which has been engraved by 
 Bartolozzi. 
 
 APPIA'NI, FRANCESCO, another distinguished fresco painter of 
 the 18th century, was born at Ancona in 1702. He was employed by 
 Benedict XIII. at Rome ; but he lived chiefly at Perugia, where he 
 continued to paint until his 90th year and his death, in 1792. 
 
 APPIA'NO, JACOPO the founder of an Italian family of the 
 
 middle ages, which rose to the rank of sovereign princes. Jacopo 
 d'Appiano was, in the latter part of the 14th century, the confidential 
 secretary and friend of Pietro Garubacorta, the then chief magistrate 
 of Pisa, who appointed him chancellor of that republic. He con- 
 spired however against his benefactor, and had him killed, together 
 with his sous, A.D. 1392. D'Appiano then assumed the title of Lord 
 of Pisa, being supported in his usurpation by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, 
 duke of Milan, who needed the assistance of Pisa against the 
 Florentines. Jacopo d'Appiano died in 1398, and was succeeded by 
 his son Gherardo, who sold Pisa to the Duke Visconti for 200,000 
 florins, reserving for himself the sovereignty of Piombino on the sea- 
 coast and of the island of Elba opposite. He assumed the title of 
 Prince of Piombino, which his descendants retained for two centuries 
 after. When Cosmo I. became grand-duke of Tuscany, he coveted 
 the possession of Piombino ; but Jacopo V. d'Appiano, then prince of 
 that state, placed himself under the protection of Charles V. as a 
 feudatory of the empire. It afterwards came into subjection to the 
 Spaniards, on the extinction of the family of Appiano. (Tronci, 
 Memurie htoviche di Pisa ; Botta, Storia d Italia.) 
 
 APPIA'NUS, a native of Alexandria in Egypt, the author of an 
 extensive history of the Roman empire iu the Greek language. The 
 time iu which he lived may be fixed from several passages iu his 
 writings as extending from the time of Trajan (as he speaks of the 
 vengeance of Trajan on the Jews, A.D. 116, 117, as occurring in his 
 lifetime) to that of Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-151). Appian practised 
 as an advocate at Koine under more than one emperor ; aud he so far 
 won the favour of the court that he was sent to his native country in 
 the important office of procurator, or imperial treasurer. His history, 
 instead of embracing the Roman empire as a whole, treats of the 
 several provinces separately, taking them up in succession as they 
 become connected with Roman history, and then giving a continuous 
 account of their relations with Rome. But to make his work a com- 
 plete whole, he found it necessary to give a preliminary view of Rome 
 under the kings, and to devote a book to the wars of Hannibal, which, 
 running over so many countries, would otherwise have been ludi- 
 crously mutilated. The same motive led him to assign five books to 
 the civil wars of Rome. This history is composed of twenty-two 
 books, of which the sixth, seventh, eighth, the latter part of the 
 ninth, the eleventh, twelfth, aud those written on the civil war3, still 
 exist, besides some fragments of the others. The work entitled 
 ' Parthica,' which is u.-ually published with his works as part of the 
 eleventh book on Sj ria, consists merely of extracts from Plutarch's 
 ' Lives of Crassus and Antony,' to which some impostor of the middle 
 ages has prefixed a short prefatory introduction stolen from Appian's 
 'Syrian History.' Appian's long professional residence at Rome, as 
 well as his Roman name, affords evidence that he had one advantage 
 over Plutarch as an historian, in possessing a perfect knowledge of the 
 Latin language ; but his merits in other respects are not great. His 
 views of history are in general very superficial ; and as a geographer, 
 his igno^uce is startling, when compared witb the means of informa- 
 tion which his age and circumstances offered. 
 
 The best edition of Appian is that of Schweigbseuser, Leipzig, 1785, 
 3 vols., 8vo. This edition contains a Latin translation, taken chiefly 
 from that of Gelcnius, and a large body of notes. An English trans- 
 lation of Appian's ' Ancient History,' &c, was printed by Raufe 
 Newbery and Henrie Bynniman, in 1579, 4to; and a translation by 
 J. D. was published in folio, 1696. 
 
 APRAXIN, STEPAN THEDOROVICH, the son of a stolnik or 
 seneschal, was born on the 30th of July (o.s.) 1702. In the seventeenth 
 year of his age he entered the army. He served in the campaign of 
 1737 against the Turks, under field-marshal Count Miinnich, and was 
 present at the taking of Oczakow by storm. After the conclusion of 
 the war, he was appointed commander of the forces in the government 
 of Astrakhan ; in 1741, he welcomed, in that capacity, the ambassadors 
 of Nadir Shah of Persia, and in the following year he visited the court 
 of Nadir, as the ambassador of Russia. Iu 1748 he took an active 
 share, with the chancellor Bestuzhev, in occasioning the fall of Lestocq, 
 the favourite of the Empress Elizabeth, and was president of the 
 committee of inquiry into his alleged crimes. He advanced rapidly 
 through the various stages of military rank to that of field-marshal in 
 1756; and in 1757 he was entrusted with the chief command of the 
 Russian army intended to act against Frederick the Great. At this 
 time he is described in the despatches or Mr. Williams, afterwards Sir 
 Charles Hanbury Williams, the English ambassador at St. Petersburg, 
 as " lazy, luxurious, and certainly not brave." Williams soon after 
 opened a correspondence with the Grand Duchess Catharine, the wife 
 of Peter, the heir to the reigning Empress Elizabeth, to bribe the 
 field-marshal. Whatever means were employed to induce him to 
 delay his march, were ineffectual, for Apraxin entered Prussia iu May, 
 1757, at the head of a Russian arn\y said to consist of 97,000 men. 
 On the 5th of August he took Memel ; on the 28th he passed the 
 Pregel, drove back the Prussian field-marshal Lehwald, who was at 
 the head of an army of 30,000 men, aud encamped at Grossjagew- 
 dorf. Here the atrocities which from want of discipline his army 
 committed against the peasantry drove Lehwald to hazard a battle. 
 On the 30th of August, early in the morning, the Prussians in a 
 body 20,000 strong attacked the Russian army which was three 
 times that number, according to Prussian authorities ; the Russians 
 
!!6P 
 
 270 
 
 state their own numbers at 50,000, and the number of the Prussians 
 at 30,000. Success was at first with the Prussians, but they pur- 
 sued it so warmly as to entangle themselves : a skilful movement of 
 General Rumiantzov, who commanded the Russian reserve, decided 
 the contest, which ended in the complete defeat of the Prussians, 
 who lost twenty-nine pieces of cannon. There was now nothing to 
 hinder the Russians from advaucins to Konigsberg, and even taking 
 Berlin, but to the amazement of Europe, the army first remained 
 immoveable in its camp, then contented itself with a few insignificant 
 incursions, and finally, on the 11th of September, withdrew to winter 
 quarters in Courland, leaving nothing behind but a garrison of 10,000 
 men in Memel. The explanation of these events soon followed. At 
 the time of the victory, the Empress Elizabeth was dangerously ill ; 
 her heir, the Grand Duke Peter, was well known to be an uncom- 
 promising admirer and supporter of Frederick the Great, and the 
 chancellor Bestuzhev, anxious to pay his court to the rising sun, had 
 sent secret orders tc Apraxin to retire. The empress on her recovery, 
 was indignant to find her anticipations of revenge on Frederick so 
 unexpectedly disappointed. She banished Bestuzhev to a village, and 
 ordered Apraxin to resign his command to Count Fermor, and repair 
 to Narva to give an account of his proceedings. A commission of 
 inquiry was nominated, and Apraxin, whose death occurred soon after, 
 on the 26th of August (o.s.), 1753, is said to have died of apoplexy 
 occasioned by the shock of their first questions. (Abridged from the 
 Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 APRAXIN, THEDOR MATVAYEVICH, was one of the three 
 sons of Matvay Vasilivich Apraxin, stolnik or seneschal at the court of 
 the czar, whose daughter Maria Matvayevua was married to the Czar 
 Thedor Alexayevich, the eldest brother and predecessor of Peter the 
 Great. The family of the Apraxins was descended from a Tartar prince 
 of the Golden Horde, who in the year 1301 had been converted to 
 Christianity and married the sister of the Russian prince of Riazan. 
 
 Thedor Matvayevich was born in the year 1671, and at the age of 
 ten wa3 appointed stolnik to the Czar Thedor, his brother-in-law, 
 after whose death in 1682 he passed into the service of Peter the 
 Great, whose inseparable companion and favourite he became. In 
 1692 he was appointed governor of Archangel, the only port in Russia 
 which then carried on foreign commerce, and here he caused to be 
 built a merchant vessel to the great delight of Peter, whom he accom- 
 panied on some sailing excursions on the White Sea. When Peter in 
 1697 left Russia to study foreign countries, Apraxin was appointed 
 chief superintendent of ship-building at Voienezh, and on the return 
 of the czar, he took part in August, 1699, in the first manoeuvres of 
 the Russian fleet at Taganrog. In 1700 he wa3 appointed governor of 
 Azof, at the same time that he held many other important offices ; 
 and during the six years following, while the czar was carrying on his 
 wars against the Swedes in the north, Apraxin held almost unlimited 
 command of the south, and fully justified tho confidence that his 
 master reposed in him. During that time he added many new vessels 
 to the Azof fleet, he rebuilt Azof, he built Taganrog with a haven for 
 the reception of vessels of war, and a fortress towards the land-side, 
 he provided the ship-building wharfs at Vorenezh with docks and 
 sluices, and he acted in every respect as a worthy lieutenant of Peter 
 the Great. In 1707, on the death of Count Alexayevich, he was named 
 in his place admiral and president of the Admiralty. In 1708, by his 
 judicious measures, he saved the infant city of St. Petersburg from 
 the sudden attack of the Swedish general Liibecker, a service for which 
 Peter caused a medal to be struck in his honour. It was to him that 
 in the following year Peter directed the news of the battle of Poltava. 
 In 1710, after a hard siege, he captured in command of an army of 
 11,000 men, the important city of Wyborg, the capital of Carelia. 
 In his subsequent operations on the coast of Finland, Apraxin had the 
 honour of seeing Peter serve under him a3 vice-admiral. On the 
 breaking out of the war between Russia and the Porte in 1711, he was 
 recalled to the south. After the disastrous campaign which ended in 
 the treaty of the Pruth, Apraxin was employed to destroy Tuganrog 
 and to give back Azof to the Turks, iu pursuance of the conditions of 
 that treaty. He had however secret instructions not to carry the 
 latter provision into effect till the Turks had ejected Charles the 
 Twelfth from their dominions, and he had thus the embarrassing task 
 of contriving delays for a whole year in the face of the pressing 
 remonstrances of the Turkish officers. On his return to the north iu 
 1712, he was entrusted with the command of all the forces in the 
 conquered Swedish provinces by land and sea, and in 1713, with a 
 fleet of 200 vessels, he spread terror along the shores of Finland, taking 
 Helsingfors and Uorgo, and on the 6th of October (o.s.), defeating the 
 Swedish fleet at the mouth of the river Pelkin. In the next year he 
 gained another naval victory over the Swedes, at which the Czar Peter 
 was present. Apraxin on his return to the capital, after a dreadful 
 tempest in which many of his ships and men were loat, had the morti- 
 fication, and unfortunately a deserved one, of being subjected to an 
 examination on a charge of embezzlement. He was found guilty, and 
 condemned to a fine, which was only a nominal punishment, as Peter 
 withdrew none of his favour, and in 1716 presented him with the 
 estates which had belonged to his sister, the Czaritza Maria, on the 
 occasion of the czaritza's death. 
 
 In 1717, Apraxin rose to the dignity of president of the college of 
 
 the Admiralty, with the title of general, admiral, and senator, and in 
 1718 he was the second member of the commission of inquiry into the 
 affair of the Czarevich Alexis, which condemned Alexis to death. His 
 elder brother Peter, who had served in several wars against the Tartars 
 and was governor of Kazan, was implicated in the affairs of Alexis, but 
 after a strict investigation was pronounced innocent, released from 
 prison, and restored to his employments. The trial of Alexis was 
 succeeded by another demonstration against tho " oppressors of the 
 people," as Peter called the embezzlers, and Menshrikov and Apraxin, 
 the two most conspicuous, were again condemned to fines, which they 
 were well able to pay, while others were sent to Siberia, and some were 
 put to death. Notwithstanding this second condemnation, Apraxin 
 was appointed in 1719 governor-general of Esthonia. By his active 
 measures as admiral, in 1720 and 1721, he greatly contributed to the 
 triumph which Russia obtained at the conclusion of the peace of 
 Nystad. In 1722 he accompanied Peter in his Persian war, and nearly 
 lost his life by the dagger of a captive Lesgian at the siege of Derbend. 
 In 1723 he returned to St. Petersburg, and took the command of the 
 fleet, then consisting of 5 frigates and 24 ships of the line, in which 
 Peter, who had raised the whole of this great force from nothing, now 
 took his last excursion by sea. 
 
 After the death of Peter, Apraxin was present at the marriage of 
 Anna Petrovna with the Duke of Holstein to give away the bride. 
 His last marine expedition was iu 1726, when he was ordered with the 
 fleet to Revel, to protect that port from an apprehended attack by the 
 English. Iu the February of the following year, Apraxin retired to 
 Moscow, where ou the 10th of November (o.s.), 1728, he died, in the 
 fifty-seventh year of his age. He left his house at St. Petersburg to the 
 reigning Emperor Peter the Second, the son of the prince whom he 
 had condemned to death, and the rest of his property to his younger 
 brother Audrey Matvayevich Apraxin. Thedor was never married 
 and left no issue, his elder brother Peter left none but in the female 
 line, and the present family of the Apraxins is descended from the 
 youngest brother Andrey, the least known of the three. Though so great 
 a favourite with Peter, Thedor Apraxin enjoyed, what is so rare in tho 
 case of favourites, a,n unbounded popularity among his contemporaries. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Udtful Knowledge ; Halein, Leben Peters des Qrossen, ii. 13, 
 136, 257, &c.) 
 
 A'PRIES, an Egyptian king, the son of Psammis (Herod., ii. 161), 
 otherwise called Psammuthis : he was the eighth king of the twenty- 
 sixth dynasty (Eusebius), or the seventh according to Africanus. His 
 name is also written Ouaphres by the Greeks, and he appears in the 
 Hebrew history under the name of Pharaoh Hophra (Jeremiah, xli v. 30). 
 Apries succeeded his father B.C. 593, and reigned twenty-five years. 
 Early in his reign (B.C. 586) Jerusalem was plundered by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar ; after which a great number of the people of Judah took refuge 
 in Egypt under the conduct of Johauan, who carried the prophet Jere- 
 miah with him to Tahpanhes (Daphnse), then the residence of the 
 Egyptian king. Near the close of his reign he sent an army against 
 the Greeks of Cyrene, which was defeated with great loss. This caused 
 a revolt among the Egyptians, which ended in the dethronement and 
 execution of Apries about B.C. 569 or 568. [Amasis.] He was buried 
 in the tombs near the great temple of Atheneea at Sais. (Herod, 
 ii. 169.) 
 
 APULEIUS, LUCIUS, a Platonic philosopher. He lived in the 
 2nd century, and was born at Madaurus in Africa. He studied first at 
 Carthage, then at Athens, and afterwards at Rome, where he acquired 
 the Latin language without the aid of a master. He travelled exten- 
 sively, aud sought to obtain initiation in the various mysteries, as they 
 were called, by which the peculiar tenets of many religious and philo- 
 sophical sects were veiled. Having spent nearly his whole fortune on 
 these journeys, he returned to Rome, and was admitted as a priest 
 into the service of Osiris. He practised at Rome for some time as an 
 advocate, and then returned to seek his fortune iu his native country, 
 Africa. Here he met with distinguished success; but he set himself 
 more at ease by a prudent marriage than even by his professional gains. 
 A widow, by name Pudentilla, neither young nor handsome, had 
 wealth, aud wanted a husband. She took a fancy to him; but the 
 marriage involved him in a vexatious law-suit. The lady's relations 
 set up a plea that he had attacked her heart and money with the 
 weapons of sorcery ; and they accused him of being a magician before 
 Claudius Maximus, pro-consul of Africa. Apuleius made a spirited 
 defence ; and his ' Apology,' or ' Oratio de Magia,' still extant, is a 
 curious and valuable specimen of the literature of the age. The 
 ' Golden Ass,' otherwise called the 1 Metamorphosis,' the be3t known 
 work of Apuleius, is a running satire on the absurdities of magic, the 
 crimes of the priesthood, the amorous intrigues of debauchees, and the 
 systematic outrages of thieves and robbers. The episodes are the most 
 valuable portions of the piece, especially that of Psyche. Many per- 
 sons have taken all that is related iu it for true history ; St. Augustin 
 himself had his doubts on this head, and did not feel satisfied that 
 Apuleius had designed this book only as a romance. Apuleius was an 
 unwearied student, and has touched many passages with a masterly 
 hand. His works are enumerated in the dissertation 'De Vita et 
 Scriptis Apuleii,' prefixed by Wower to his edition, aud adopted into 
 the Delphin. Besides his 'Golden Ass' and his 'Apology,' his work 
 ' De Dogmate Platouis,' containing three treatises ; his books, ' De Deo 
 
271 
 
 AQUIBA. 
 
 Socratis,' ' De Mundo,' which is a translation from Aristotle, and his 
 'Florida,' have survived. He took great pleasure in declaiming, and 
 was heard with universal applause. The people of Carthage were so 
 delighted with his eloquenco that they perpetuated the remembrance 
 of it by erecting his statue. The editions of his works are very nume- 
 rous ; that in most general use is the Delphin, in two volumes, quarto. 
 The 'Golden Ass' has been frequently translated into Italian, Spanish, 
 German, Flemish, and English. \V. Adlingtou's English translation, 
 first printed in 15GG, was reprinted in 1571, 1532, 1596, 1639, and 
 probably later also. The translation by Thomas Taylor, London, 
 1822, one volume 8vo., contains also the treatise on the 'God of 
 Socrates,' and other treatises, with a life of Apuleius prefixed. The 
 latest translation is by Sir George Head. 
 
 AQUIBA, or Akiba/i len- Joseph, called Barakiba by EpiphaniuB and 
 Hieronymus, lived at the end of the 1st and at the beginning of the 
 2nd century, and was president of the academy of Lydda and Tabae, 
 as disciple and successor of rabbi Gamaliel, and one of the most 
 famous doctors of the Mishnah. He joined the pseudo-MeBsias, Bar 
 Cocheba (Coziba), who raised disturbances in Judaea. The Emperor 
 Hadrian, in whose time the insurrection took place, after taking 
 Bethara, put many Jews to death, and ordered Akibah to be killed by 
 iron combs, with which his skin was taken oil'. Akibah was buried in 
 Tiberias, where his tomb was annually visited by Ins admirers between 
 Easter and Pentecost. The book Jezirah, which some ascribe to Akibah, 
 is the chief book of cabalistic doctrines. The last two editions of this 
 famous work are by Rittangel, with a Latin translation and commen- 
 tary, Amsterdam, 1642-14 ; and by Friderich von Meyer at Fraukfurt- 
 on-the-Maine, with a German translation, 1832, 4to. 
 
 A'QUILA was, according to Epiphauius (' De Ponderibus et Men- 
 suris,' cap. 15), a relative of the emperor Hadrian, and converted from 
 idolatry to Christianity, but afterwards excommunicated on account 
 of his idolatrous astrology. He embraced Judaism, was circumcised, 
 aud translated the Old Testament literally into Greek (Iren. iii. 24 ; 
 Euseb., ' Demonst. Evang.,' vii. 1 ; Hieronymus, ' Ep. ad l'ammach'); 
 and consequently the Jews preferred bis translation to the Septuagint. 
 It appears also from Ireuosus, iii. 24, that the Ebionites used the 
 translation of Aquila in order to support their Judaising tenets. The 
 remains of this translation have been edited by Montfaucon, Martianay, 
 aud others, in the ' Hexapla ' of Origen. 
 
 A'QUILA, JULIUS, a Roman jurist, whose period is uncertain. He 
 is one of the jurists who were used for the compilation of the ' Digest;' 
 but the ' Digest' contains only two excerpts from him, both of which 
 belong to his ' Book of Answers' — 'Liber Responsorum ' ('Dig.,' 26, 
 tit. 7, s. 34 ; tit. 10, s. 12). He is called Galluo Aquila in the ' Floren- 
 tine Index.' 
 
 * AQUI'NAS, THOMAS, that is, Thomas of Aquino, in Naples. This 
 famous theologian was of distinguished birth, being a younger son of 
 Landulf, count of Aquino, and lord of Loretto and B lcastro, who was 
 nephew of the Emperor Frederic I., the celebrated liarbarossa. He 
 was born in 1227, some authorities state in the town of Aquino, others 
 in the castle of Rocca Secca, the seat of his family, near the monastery 
 of Monte Casino. Having been sent at five years of age to the neigh- 
 bouring monastery to receive the rudiments of his education, he 
 remained there till he was nearly thirteen, when he proceeded to the 
 university of Naples, which had been founded in 1230 by his relation, 
 the Emperor Frederic II., grandson of Barbarossa, aud had already 
 acquired great reputation. From his earliest years he had shown a 
 love of study, and the circumstances of the times were in various 
 respects such as naturally tended to encourage the preference which 
 he was thus led to form for a literary, or at least a meditative, life. 
 About 1217 the order of preaching friars, called after his name, had 
 been founded by St. Dominic ; and of this body, already in the enjoy- 
 ment of vast popularity, the young nobleman proposed to become a 
 member. On his earnest entreaties the superior of their convent at 
 Naples was prevailed upon to admit him as a novice. He was at this 
 time in his fifteenth year, and the important step upon which he had 
 ventured was taken without the knowledge of his parents, who made 
 extraordinary efforts to induce him to relinquish his object, but with- 
 out success. In 1243 he made profession, and went to Cologne to 
 attend the theological and philosophical lectures delivered by Albertus 
 Magnus in the Dominican convent there. Here, from his silence, he 
 is said to have been named by his fellow-students the Dumb Ox. His 
 teacher however detected the genius that was wrapped up under this 
 taciturnity, and remarked that if that ox should once begin to bellow 
 the world would be filled with the noise. After remaining a few years 
 at Cologne he accompanied Albert on a visit toPaiis, from which they 
 returned together in 1248. Aquinas was then ordained a priest. He 
 returned to Paris in 1253. Soou after this he published the first work 
 by which he distinguished himself as a writer, a treatise in defence of 
 the monastic life, in answer to a doctor of the Sorbonne, who had 
 attacked the privileges of the new mendicant orders. In 1255 Aquinas 
 received from the university of Paris his degree of doctor in theology, 
 and he afterwards spent several years in that city, lecturing publicly 
 with immense applause. In 1272 however he returned to Italy, and 
 for two years tat-ght theology at Naples. Pope Gregory X. having 
 then requested his presence at the general council which had been 
 summoned to meet at Lyon, with the object of affecting a union 
 between the eastern and western churches, he prepared to set out for 
 
 that city ; but first paid a visit to his niece, Frances of Aquino, the 
 wife of the Count Annibal de Ceecano. Having arrived at their resi- 
 dence, the castle of Mageuza, he was there suddenly attacked by fever, 
 ou which he desired to be removed to the neighbouring Cisterciau 
 monastery of Fossi-Novi, in the diocese of Terracino ; and here he 
 expired on the 7th of March, 1274, in the forty-eighth year of his age. 
 
 The honours paid to Thomas Aquinas, both during his life and after 
 his death, comprise nearly all the highest distinctions by which men 
 have ever testified their admiration of intellectual greatness. Popes, 
 kings, emperors, learned bodies, and great cities, contended for his 
 presence during his life ; and as Boon as he had ceased to live, the 
 order to whicli he belonged, the monks of the abbey in which he died, 
 and the university of Paris, of which he had been an alumnus and a 
 graduate, disputed the right to the possession of his body. It was nut 
 till nearly a century afterwards that this latter controversy was termi- 
 nated by the removal of his remains, on the 28th of January, 1369, to 
 the Dominican convent of Toulouse, where a magnificent tomb erected 
 over them still remains. Before this he had been canonised by Pope 
 John XXII. by a bull dated the 18th of July, 1323% Pope Pius V. 
 also declared him a doctor of the church in 1567. 
 
 The piety and moral virtues of St. Thomas Aquinas have received 
 the warmest commeudations from his contemporaries. His religious 
 sincerity and fervour appear to have been accompanied by unaffected 
 humility, and also by a mildness of temper that has not always been 
 the grace of eminent theologians. The popularity of his writings was 
 formerly so gr< at, that there have been at least five or six editions of 
 the complete collection. The be.-t edition is considered to be that 
 printed at Rome iu 1570 in seventeen volumes, folio. Various of his 
 treatises have also been repeatedly printed separately. Of the whole 
 the most famous is his ' Sumtna Theologian,' which is still a favourite 
 authority iu the Catholic Church. A good mauy of the works that 
 have been attributed to Aquinas are now admitted to be spurious, and 
 doubts have even been entertained as to whether the 1 Summa Theo- 
 logian ' be really his. Of the theological opinions which he maintained, 
 the most memorable is his assertion of the supreme and irresistible 
 efficacy of divine grace. This doctrine was afterwards opposed by 
 Duns Scotus; and it formed for ages a matter of violent controversy 
 between the Thorn ists and the Scotists, as the followers of the two 
 doctors called themselves. His t;deuts too appear to have been as various 
 as they were powerful. He wrote in verse as well as in prose, and some 
 of the Latin hymns still used in the service of the Romish Church are 
 of his composition. He seems also to have been celebrated for his ready 
 aud pointed repartees. One which has been preserved is his reply to 
 Pope Innocent IV. when that pontiff, ou some money being brought 
 in one day when they were together, remarked, " You see that the age 
 of the Church is pa3t when she could say, 'Silver or gold have I none.' " 
 " Yes, holy father," answered Aquinas, " and the day is also past when 
 she could say to the paralytic, ' Take up thy bed and walk.' " There 
 are other stories of the absence of mind which he sometimes showed 
 in company when absorbed in some of his profound speculations. 
 One day, while dining with Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), he 
 suddenly, after a long silence, struck the table with violence, and called 
 out, " A decisive argument ! the Manichaeans could never answer it !" 
 Reminded of where he was by the priof of the Dominicans, who was 
 also pre-eut, he asked pardon of the king; when his majesty expressed 
 himself only anxious to get hold of the unanswerable argument against 
 the Manichaeans, and, calling in a secretary, had it taken down imme- 
 diately. Rabelais alludes to another anecdote of this kind. The titles 
 of Aquinas, in the list of the scholastic doctors, are — the Angelic 
 Doctor, and the Angel of the Schools. 
 
 ARAGO, FRANyOIS JEAN DOMINIQUE, was born in the 
 commune of Estagtl, near Perpignan, province of Roussillon (now 
 the department of the Eastern Pyrenees), on the 26th of February, 
 1786. His father, a licentiate in law, supported a numerous family 
 on the income derived from a small landed property. Francois, the 
 son, acquired the rudiments of reading, writing, and vocal music at 
 the primary school of hi3 native place, and in private lessons at home. 
 He became an eager reader, and at an early age conceived a taste for 
 a military life, which was nourished by the continual passing of troops 
 on the march to or from the frontiers of Spain. When but seven 
 years old ke attacked with a lance the leader of a few Spanish troopers 
 who had ridden by mistake into the village after a battle, and was only 
 saved from a sabre-stroke by the arrival of the neighbours armed with 
 hay-forks. His father having been appointed Treasurer of the Mint in 
 Perpignan, the family removed to that town, where the boy entered 
 as out-door pupil at the municipal college, and pursuing hi3 literary 
 studies, made himself acquainted with the classic authors of his native 
 country. But walking one day on the ramparts, a little incident 
 occurred that confirmed his military inclinations. Seeing a youthful 
 officer directing the repairs of the walls, and surprised at one so youug 
 wearing an epaulette, he inquired by what means it had been won, and 
 was answered — By study at the Polytechnic School, which was open 
 to those who had passed a preliminary examination. From that time 
 Arago, then in his twelfth year, betook himself to the study of mathe- 
 matics and geometry, not in elementary manuals, but in the original 
 works of the best authors, and mastered their contents with charac- 
 teristic energy. He soon outstripped the abbe' who taught mathematics 
 in the school; and assisted by the kind advice of a neighbouring 
 
J73 
 
 ARAGO, FRANCOIS JEAN DOMINIQUE. 
 
 ARAGO, FRANCOIS JEAN DOMINIQUE. 
 
 proprietor, who was a mathematician, he familiarised himself with the 
 writings of Legendre, Lacroix, and Gamier. His real master, to quote 
 ■ passage from his autobiography, " was a cover of Garnier'a ' Treatise 
 of Algebra.' This cover consisted of a printed sheet, on the outside 
 of which blue paper was pasted. The reading of the uncovered side 
 inspired me with a desire to know what the blue paper concealed. 
 I damped it, and removing it with care, read underneath this advice 
 given by D'Alembert to a young man who was telling him of the diffi- 
 culties he met with in his studies : ' Keep on, sir, keep on, and con- 
 viction will come to you ; ' which was for me a ray of light. Instead 
 of trying obstinately to comprehend at first sight the propositions 
 that came before me, I kept on, and was astonished the next day at 
 understanding perfectly that which, the evening before, had appeared 
 to me wrapped in thick clouds." 
 
 In eighteen months Arago was ready for his examination, but the 
 examiner b.aving been detained by illness, a delay occurred, during 
 which his friends sought to divert him from the pursuit he had 
 chosen. He kept on, however, and studied the works of Euler and 
 Laplace, and took lessons in fencing and dancing, having heard that 
 these accomplishments were essential to an officer. In the summer of 
 1803 he was examined by Monge at the university of Toulouse, and 
 passed with high commendations first of his class. He repaired forth- 
 with to Paris, and entered the Polytechnic School, where, after a 
 few months, he came off as triumphantly from an examination by 
 Legendre as from that at Toulouse. In either case, his readiness and 
 familiarity with the subjects required, overcame the prejudices of the 
 examiners. 
 
 He was studying for the artillery branch of the service when, in 
 1801, the post of Secretary to the Observatory at Paris, then under 
 Bouvard's direction, having fallen vacant, he was persuaded, but with 
 great reluctance on his part, to undertake the duties. The temporary 
 appointment, as he thought it, effected an entire change in his pur- 
 suits, for he remained attached to the Observatory for the rest of his 
 life. At the instance of Laplace he worked with Biot, who was assistant- 
 observer, at experimental researches for determining the refractive 
 power of different gases — an inquiry commenced by Borda — the results 
 of which formed the subject of a paper presented to the Academy of 
 Sciences, and printed in their 'Memoirs' for 1806. In the same year 
 the two young men were appointed by the government to extend and 
 complete the measurement of the arc of the meridian, which, carried 
 from Dunkirk to Barcelona by Delambre and M^chain, had been inter- 
 rupted by the death of the latter. It was now to be extended from 
 Barcelona to the Balearic Isles, and from thence to Formentera, by an 
 immense triangle, the measurement of which had been thought impos- 
 sible. The fatigues of this survey in a wild mountain region, exposed 
 to heat, cold, and storm, were excessive. For six months Arago was 
 stationed on an elevated peak in the Desierto de las Palmas, watching 
 for the light set up on Ivica, which, owing to a defect in fixing the 
 mirror, was seldom visible. A space of about seventy-five square yards 
 wag all the ground he had for exercise ; and two Carthusian monks, 
 who, forgetting their vow of silence, used to ascend the mountain to 
 converse with him in the evenings, were his only society. The work 
 involved frequent journeys, in which, apart from the fierce heats, 
 much risk was incurred owing to the hostile feeling between France 
 and Spain, and from parties of brigands. On two occasions a noto- 
 rious robber-chief intruded himself as a nightly guest on the zealous 
 surveyor. 
 
 The geodesical union from the mainland to Ivica, and thence to 
 Formentera — an arc of parallel of one degree and a half in one 
 triangle — was successfully accomplished. Biot had returned to Paris 
 when, in the summer of 1803, the Sre-signals on Mount Galazo in 
 Majorca were suspected to be advices to the French army then invading 
 the Peninsula, and Arago was denounced as a spy. To escape the 
 threatened violence, he obtained permission from the governor to 
 imprison himself in the citadel of Belver. Having a safety-pass from 
 the English Admiralty, he escaped in a half-decked boat to Algiers in 
 July. In August he sailed for France iu an Algerine frigate, and was 
 in sight of the coast of Provence wheu the vessel was captured by a 
 Spauish privateer, and carried into Ro-as. Here he was again exposed 
 to great danger : the authorities, bitterly suspicious, subjected him to 
 repeated examinations, and consigned him to the hulks at Palamos, 
 where his sufferings from want of food were, as he tells us, aggravated 
 by the sight of the Pyrenees, and the thought that his mother might 
 then be looking up at their pi aks, anxious for her son. 
 
 Being liberated on demand of the dey, he sailed once more for 
 France on September 28, and was off the port of Marseille when the 
 iihip, caught by the mistral, was drifted all across the Mediterra- 
 nean to the coast of Africa. Arago landed at Bougie, and having 
 travelled to Algiers, found a new dey in power, who would have sent 
 birn to the galleys but for consular int rference. Here he lingered, 
 waiting for an opportunity to return home, until June, 1809, when he 
 again sailed, and though chased by an English cruiser, lauded at Mar- 
 seille on the 2nd of July, with his manuscripts and instruments. For 
 eleven months had he been tossed about amid hardships and priva- 
 tions, of all of which he has left a narrative, interesting as a romance, 
 in his ' L'Histoire de ma Jeuuesse.' 
 
 While yet in the lazaretto, he received a letter from Humboldt— the 
 commencement of a lasting friendship with the illustrious Prussian, 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 Tenderly attached to hi3 mother, his first visit was to her at Perpignan. 
 She had mourned him as dead. 
 
 Arago hastened to Paris to communicate his observations to the 
 Academy and the Bureau des Longitudes. Though but twenty-three 
 years of age, he had already gained a reputation by his labours and 
 misfortunes ; and the death of Lalande having left a vacancy in the 
 Academy, he was elected a member by 47 out of 50 votes on the 17th 
 of September, and had the honour of the usual presentation to the 
 emperor. Thereafter Arago's influence was felt in the learned body ; 
 and his opposition to unworthy candidates brought him at times into 
 collisiou with some of the most eminent of his colleagues. Before the 
 close of 1809 he was appointed assistant astronomer to the Observatory, 
 and to succeed Monge in the chair of analytical mathematics at the 
 Polytechnic School. 
 
 In 1811, taking up the researches of Malus, he read a paper to the 
 Academy in which knowledge of the laws of light was greatly extended, 
 and the changes described that take place in polarised rays on passing 
 through different kinds of crystalline plates. The phenomena of 
 colour, of intensity, of rotation, and of reflection were examined, and 
 in a way that laid the foundation of that branch of physical optics 
 known as 1 chromatic polarisation ; ' and the interesting fact was first 
 announced, that " while the light from a clouded sky undergoes no 
 modification, that reflected from the atmosphere when the sky is 
 unclouded is polarised, the intensity of the polarisation varying with 
 the hour of the day and the position of the point with respect to the 
 sun." 
 
 In 1812, authorised by the Bureau des Longitudes, Arago com- 
 menced that course of lectures on astronomy and kindred subjects 
 which he continued up to 1845 with the most brilliant success. The 
 high and the low thronged to hear him ; the learned to catch his ani- 
 mated manner and lucid style — the many to be charmed. As the 
 present emperor said, when a captive at Ham, Arago " possessed in a 
 high degree those two faculties so difficult to meet with in the same 
 man — that of being the grand-priest of science, and of being able to 
 initiate the vulgar into its mysteries." The effect was heightened by 
 the tall commanding form of the lecturer, his full sonorous voice, hia 
 striking features, and dark piercing eyes, shaded by thick bushy brows. 
 
 Conjointly with Gay-Lussac, Arago established the ' Annales d» 
 Chimie et de Physique' in 1816 — a serial still published, and much 
 valued by scientific men. In the same year he announced what has 
 been received as a crucial experiment, demonstrating the truth of the 
 undulatory theory of light over the rival theory of emission. Young 
 had shown in his experiments that the interposition of an opaque 
 screen in the path of a ray under certain circumstances, prevents the 
 formation of fringes. Arago found that the ray was only retarded, 
 and that by a modification of the apparatus the fringes were still 
 discernible. 
 
 In 1816, also, Arago for the first time visited England, where he 
 made the acquaintance of Young and other eminent men of science. 
 With a Frenchman's feeling, he had a painful dislike to hear any allu- 
 sion to the battle of Waterloo ; and while in London he positively 
 refused an invitation to see Waterloo Bridge. His entertainers adopted 
 the stratagem of proposing an excursion on the Thames, which, being 
 accepted, the party descended the river admiring the prospect, and 
 presently coming to the imposing structure of granite then stretching 
 fresh and new from side to side, Arago was asked for his opinion of it. 
 He perceived the trick, and replied — " Your bridge has at least an arch 
 too many ; and that one, to be in its place, should be transported to 
 Berlin." 
 
 Another task commenced by Arago in 1818, again in conjunction 
 with Biot, was the connection of the French arc with the English arc 
 by a system of signals and measurements from one side of the channel 
 to the other. The results, together with those of the Spanish triangu- 
 lation, were published by order of the Bureau des Longitudes, in a 
 volume entitled ' Recueil d'Observations Ge"odesiques, Astronomiques, 
 et Physiques.' In 1819, jointly with Fresnel, Arago published a series 
 of experiments on the action exercised by polarised rays on each other, 
 singularly remarkable for the ingenuity of the methods employed. 
 Space fails here to give the details ; but it was by means of these experi- 
 ments that Fresnel was enabled to give a complete explanation of the 
 production of colours in crystalline plates, which had been referred by 
 Youug to the interference of transmitted rays. The co-operation of 
 the two savants produced happy results ; for Arago, though rich in 
 inventive faculty, lacked the perseverance which works a thought out 
 to its ultimate consequences. " We complete one another," he used 
 to say ; " I know how to point out the difficulty, and Fresnel how to 
 conquer it." 
 
 In 1820 Arago took up a new line of inquiry. Having witnessed a 
 demonstration of Oersted's discovery at Geneva, he repeated it before 
 the Academy, and with further results. The Danish philosopher had 
 shown that a voltaic current passing along a wire would deflect a 
 magnetic needle : Arago found that non-magnetic substances were 
 equally affected ; that bars of iron aud steel became temporary mag« 
 nets, aud lost their magnetism with the cessation of the current. He 
 proved moreover the best magnet to be a steel bar inclosed by a helix 
 of copper-wire, to which we owe the discovery of the electro-magnet, 
 and all that has since been accomplished thereby. Four years later 
 other facts were published. Arago showed that metals not magnetio 
 
 r 
 
275 
 
 ARAM, EUGENE. 
 
 ARANDA, COUNT OF. 
 
 276 
 
 exert a powerful influence on the magnetic needle, particularly when 
 
 in movement. Such metals appeared to become magnetic by mecha- 
 nical motion— a phenomenon which has since been referred by Faraday 
 to general laws of magnetic induction. 
 
 In 1822 Arago was chosen a member of the Bureau des Longitudes, 
 and from 1824 till his death the ' Annuaire,' published by the board, 
 contained a notice on some scientific subject from his pen as delightful 
 as instructive. " They will always be reperused," says M. Combes, 
 president of the academy, " with the same pleasure by men of science 
 and by the ordinary reader. In them we find an admirable clearness, 
 with an erudition as correct as it is extensive, and joined thereto the 
 most rigorous accuracy in the statement of the phenomena, and the 
 consequences which result from them." Arago won the position and 
 honour he most prized in 1830, when on the death of Fourier he was 
 elected Perpetual Secretary of the Academy. And now the duty 
 devolved upon him of writing those 'doges' of deceased members 
 which are auiong the most interesting of his literary productions- 
 graceful in style, and abundant in anecdote and illustration. They 
 appeared to bo written with a fluent pen ; but he was a slow composer, 
 and only acquired his felicities of expression by real and repeated hard 
 work of mind and hand. In the same year he was appointed Director 
 of the Observatory. 
 
 In 1834 Arago visited England a second time, and attended the 
 meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh. He continued his 
 scientific researches, among which are— the discovery of a neutral point 
 in the polarisation of the atmosphere— determination of the synchro- 
 nous perturbations of the magnetic needlo at places wide apart, by 
 observations carried on simultaneously with Kupffer at Kasan— and 
 the suggestion of a decisive proof of the truth of the undulatory 
 theory, which has since been demonstrated by Foucault— besides other 
 points of photometry and astronomy. 
 
 The later years of Arago's life were passed amid much bodily suf- 
 fering, when, with failing sight and afflicted with diabetes, he set 
 himself to finish his incomplete papers. In the summer of 1853 he 
 went, attended by his niece, to his native place, seeking relief in change 
 of air; but the hope was disappointed : he returned to Paris and died 
 on the 2nd of October, aged 67. He was buried in the cemetery of 
 Pere-la-Cbaise, followed by a concourse of 3000 persons to the grave 
 where Flourens pronounced the fuueral oration. 
 
 Arago was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1818 
 In 1825 their Copley medal was awarded to him for his " discovery of 
 the magnetic properties of substances not containing iron ;" and their 
 Rumford medal in 1850, for his "experimental investigations of pola- 
 rised light." The Royal Astronomical Society elected him one of their 
 associates m 1 822 ; he was also a member of some of the leading scientific 
 societies on the continent. Arago was once married : his wife died in 
 1829, leaving two sons, who still survive. He had been accused of 
 hoarding up wealth, but he left no other fortune to his relatives than 
 a name and reputation of which they may be justly proud. His entire 
 works are easily accessible, as they have been collected and published 
 in a series of octavo volumes in French and English. It is said that 
 he has left a narrative of his later years, not less interesting than that 
 to which reference has been made above, for publication when the 
 fitting time shall arrive. 
 
 _ National vanity and an impassioned nature at times involved Arago 
 in bitter controversies with other savants, in which he too often lost 
 sight of truth and justice. It ia certain also that he was occasionally 
 tempted to sacrifice accuracy to effect. In politics he was an ardent 
 republican, to which he owed his election to the Chamber of Deputies 
 after the ' Three Days ' of July, 1S30. By his eloquent advocacy the 
 observatory at Pans was placed on its proper footing among the obser- 
 vatories of Europe, and the works of Laplace and Format were pub- 
 lisned at the national expense. His voice was always raised in favour 
 of science. To him Melloni, the Italian philosopher, owed his return 
 to JSiaples from a wearisome exile. In 1840 he became a member of 
 the Council-General of the Seine ; and in 1848 he was chosen into the 
 Provisional Government, in which he discharged the functions of 
 minister of war and marine. In bitterness of spirit he despaired of 
 the republic on witnessing the popular caprice. He refused to take 
 the oath of allegiance after the coup-d'e"tat of 1852, and justified his 
 refusal in a memorable letter to the government, which elicited a con- 
 cession alike gratifying to his conscience as a politician and his dignity 
 as a philosopher. "A special exception," so wrote the minister 
 authorised by the Prince-President, " would be made in favour of a 
 philosopher whose labours had rendered France illustrious, and whose 
 existence the government would be loath to sadden." 
 
 ARAM, EUGENE, was bom in 1704, at Ramsgill, in Yorkshire 
 He spent a very short time at school, but he early discovered a great 
 thirst for learning, which he endeavoured to gratify even while acting 
 as assistant to his father, a gardener. His attention was first directed 
 to the mathematics, but was soon drawn away to poetry, history and 
 antiquities. On marrying, he settled as a schoolmaster in his native dis- 
 trict of Netherdale ; there he taught himself Latin and Greek, commit- 
 ting to memory the grammars which he used, and when he commenced 
 to construe, making it a rule never to pass a word or sentence with- 
 out thoroughly mastering its meaning, though his progress was so 
 Blow, that five hues often occupied him for the whole day. Thus he 
 read through the Greek Testament, and the principal poets and histo- 
 
 rians. In 1734 he removed his school to Knaresborough, where he 
 remained till 1745. In that year one Daniel Clark, a shoemaker 
 taking advantage of the credit he enjoyed in consequence of his 
 marriage with a woman possessed of a small fortune, obtained from 
 his fellow-townsmen a quantity of valuable goods, and then suddenly 
 disappeared. Aram being known as an intimate friend, was suspected 
 of having aided him, and, his garden being searched, part of the 
 property was found concealed. He was apprehended, aud although 
 discharged for want of evidence, he thought proper to quit Knares- 
 borough, leaving his wife behind him. Aram proceeded to London, 
 and thence to various parts of England, earning his bread as a school- 
 usher, and all the while prosecuting his laborious studies. He obtained 
 a good knowledge of heraldry and botany, and of the Chaldee, Arabic, 
 Welsh, and Irish languages. His researches in etymology led him to 
 conceive the idea of compiling a ' Comparative Lexicon of the English, 
 Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic Languages;' for which he made 
 extensive collections, having compared above 3000 words, and detected 
 a close similarity between th(yn. In the midst of his studies, and 
 when engaged as usher in an academy at Lynn, in Norfolk, he was 
 suddenly arrested on the charge of murder. 
 
 A skeleton having been dug up in February, 1759, hear Knares- 
 borough, was suspected to be that of Daniel Clark, and Aram's wife 
 having often darkly intimated that her husband and a man named 
 Houseman were privy to the mystery of Clark's disappearance, 
 Houseman was apprehended. On being taken before the coroner, he 
 was desired to declare his innocence while holding a bone of the sup- 
 posed murdered man. He took up one accordingly, and exclaimed, 
 " This is no more Dan Clark's bone than it is mine 1 " in so peculiar 
 a manner, that he was at once suspected of knowing at least where 
 Clark's bones were. On being pressed, he acknowledged to have been 
 present at the murder of Clark by Aram and a man named Terry, and 
 affirmed that the body had been buried in a particular part of St. 
 Robert's Cave, a well-known spot near Knaresborough. On digging 
 there a skeleton was discovered in the exact place indicated. Aram 
 being apprehended, was tried at York, August 3rd, 1759, Houseman 
 being the principal witness against him. Aram called no witnesses, 
 but delivered an elaborate defence, not referring so much to the case 
 in hand, as to the general fallibility of circumstantial evidence, especi- 
 ally that relating to the discovery of human bones, of which he 
 brought together a great number of instances. He was notwithstand- 
 ing found guilty, and ordered for execution on the Monday following, 
 August 6th. After condemnation he acknowledged his guilt to two 
 clergymen^ who attended him, but intimated, as all believed, that 
 Houseman's share in the murder was larger than he acknowledged. 
 His motive he stated to have been the discovery of a guilty com- 
 merce between Clark aud his own wife. On the night before his 
 execution, Aram attempted to commit suicide, by opening two vein.3 
 in his arm, but he was discovered before he had bled to death, and 
 his sentence was carried into effect. Before the attempt he had written 
 a defence of suicide. He left three sons and three daughters. 
 
 The defence on his trial proves Aram to have been possessed of 
 considerable literary attainments. The style in which it is written, 
 though deformed by the stiffness of the period, is exceedingly good; 
 and a Bketch of his life, which, at the request of some friends, he 
 composed in the interval between condemnation and execution, is dis- 
 tinguished by the same excellence. The ' Comparative Lexicon ' has 
 not been preserved, but passages from the preface, which are extant, 
 show that part at least to have been bpth well considered and well 
 written. His poetry, from the few specimens known, does not appear 
 to have had much merit. The interest attached to the history of 
 Aram has been revived and increased in our own day by Thomas 
 Hood's powerful ballad of ' The Dream of Eugene Aram the Murderer,' 
 and Sir E. Bulwer Lytton's romance of ' Eugene Aram.' Such is the 
 effect they have produced, that St. Robert's Cave is always eagerly 
 inquired for by visitors to Knaresborough. 
 
 (Biographia Britannica, edit. Kippis, i. 230 ; Genuine Account of 
 the Trial of Eugene Aram, &c, London, 1759.) 
 
 ARANDA, DON PEDRO PABLO ABARCA DE BOLEA, 
 COUNT OF, descended from a very ancient and noble family in 
 Aragon, was born about the year 1718, had embraced the profes- 
 sion of arms, had been severely wounded in 1743 in an action against 
 the Austrians near Bologna, and had fallen into disgrace under 
 Ferdinand VI. After the accession of Charles III. to the crown of 
 Spain in 1759, Aranda was appointed ambassador to Frederic Augus- 
 tus II., elector of Saxony aud king of Poland, the father-in-law 
 of Charles III., where he remained some years. On his return to 
 Spain, he was sent to Portugal to supersede the Marquis Sarria 
 in the command of the Spanish army then invading Portugal. In 
 August, 1762, he reduced Almeida and other places ; and soon after 
 peace was made. In 1765 Aranda was appointed captain-general 
 of Valencia, and in the following year he was called to Madrid, that 
 capital being then in a state of violent commotion against the minister 
 Squillace. He was made president of the council of Castile, and not 
 only succeeded in restoring tranquillity in the capital, but by making 
 a new municipal division of the city, by the establishment of a per- 
 manent garrison, and by other prudent regulations, the count prevented 
 the recurrence of similar riots. During his travels in Europe, Aranda 
 had improved his natural talents and knowledge. With a courage, 
 
ARANTIUS, JULIUS CESAR. 
 
 firmness, and perseverance which no obstacle could daunt, he under- 
 took the reform of abuses in every branch of the administration, and 
 the adoption of those improvements of which his country stood so 
 much in need. He diminished the asylums, confining their number 
 to two churches in the capital of every province, and he reformed the 
 municipal system by the establishment of the ' diputados del com- 
 mun,' or deputies of the commons. Among other important reforms 
 may be mentioned the abolition of the order of the Jesuits, and the 
 establishment of new houses of education. The thickets of the 
 Sierra Morena, until then the abode of wolves and desperate banditti, 
 were colonised with an industrious population of Germans, Swiss, and 
 French, through the efforts of the philanthropic Olavide. Aranda 
 also endea^ured to check the papal power in Spain by reforming the 
 tribunal called the ' nunciatura,' which he composed of six native 
 ecclesiastics proposed by the king, aud confirmed by the pope, instead 
 of a body of Koman jurists appointed by the pope alone, of which it 
 formerly consisted ; and by establishing a law that no papal decree 
 should be valid in Spain without having first received the sanction of 
 the council of Castile. The ' pasos de semana santa,' or holy week 
 dramatic processions, the ' rosarius,' and other pious or rather impious 
 exhibitions, were also abolished by him, and the power of the inqui- 
 sition was greatly diminished by the establishment of a political censor- 
 ship. These measures and an imprudent publication of a confidential 
 communication to Voltaire, D'Alembert, and others as to his inten- 
 tions with regard to the Inquisition, raised such a ferment against 
 Aranda, that foreseeing his ruin unavoidable, he obtained the appoint- 
 ment of ambassador to France, and retired from the administration in 
 1773. 
 
 During his ministry Aranda had been the constant antagonist of 
 England, with which he regarded Spain as able to cope on terms of 
 equality ; and he was in favour of the war on account of the Falkland 
 Islands in 1770, when the dismissal of Choiseul, aud the declaration of 
 Louis XV. for peace, finally compelled the Spanish cabinet to give 
 way. As ambassador to Paris during the American war, he had 
 ample opportunities of evincing his opposition to England, and, 
 among other things, said to Mr. Fitzherbert, afterwards Lord St. 
 Helen's, when at Paris to negociate for peace, " The king, my master, 
 from personal as well as political motives, is determined never to put 
 a period to the present war till he shall have acquired Gibraltar either 
 by treaty or by arms." This demand was not altogether rejected by 
 the British government, but after a series of negociatious, which 
 threatened to end in a fresh rupture, De Vergennes, the French 
 minister, summoned Aranda to an interview, in which he informed 
 him that the British ultimatum was received, and that they offered 
 him the choice of Gibraltar or the two Floridas. Aranda, in profound 
 meditation, stood for half an hour without speaking, his head resting 
 on his hands and his elbows on the chimney-piece, and at last he 
 exclaimed, " There are moments in which a man must offer his head 
 to his country. I accept the two Floridas in place of Gibraltar, 
 though it is contrary to my instructions; and I sign the peace." This 
 anecdote is related by Flassan. The count, though always a bitter 
 enemy to England, had nevertheless been throughout opposed to the 
 part which Spain took in this war, on account of the dangerous 
 example which it set to her own colonies. Immediately after signing 
 the peace he addressed a secret memoir to the king, in which he 
 declared it impossible that Spain could much longer hold America on 
 the existing terms, and proposed the establishment of three inde- 
 pendent monarchies of Mexico, Peru, aud Tierra Firma, the kings to 
 be selected from the royal family of Spain. 
 
 Aranda returned from Paris in November, 1787, but still remained 
 in disgrace, with the honorary title of counsellor of state. After the 
 accession of Charle3 IV. in 1788, Aranda superseded count Florida 
 Blanca in the office of prime minister (1792); but he was not long 
 after dismissed through the intrigues of Godoy. He died, according 
 to some authorities, in 1794 ; according to others, which appear more 
 to be depended on, in 1799, leaving behind him a wi'iow, without any 
 children. 
 
 AKA'NTIUS, JU'LIUS CAESAR, ARANZIO, or ARANZI DEI' 
 MAGGI, was born at Bologna about the year 1530. He studied 
 anatomy from an early age under hio unci ; Bai tolomeus Maggius, and 
 afterwards under Vesalius. He received the degree of Doctor of 
 Philosophy and Surgery in the university of Bologna, in which, in 
 1556, he was appointed professor of anatomy and medicine. He held 
 the office till near the time of his death in 158'J. Arantius, who is 
 said to have been a man of remarkable energy in the study of 
 anatomy, was among the most successful and eminent of the pupils 
 of Vesalius j and his works, though small, possess considerable 
 interest. A minute professional account of tuetn is given in the 
 1 Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.' 
 
 ARA'TUS, eon of Cleiuias, was born at Sicyon B.C. 271. His 
 native city, distinguished in the history of Gieece as a school of art 
 more than forits political importance, had long been harassed by the 
 conflicting pretensions of various persons, who in succession became, 
 to use the language of Greece, its tyrants or princes. Cleinias held 
 that precarious dignity for a short time ; but he was killed by Aban- 
 tidas, who assumed his power, and, suffering a like fate, gave way to 
 Paseas, who was succeeded by Nicocie*. Aratus was but seven years 
 
 ARATUS. 278 
 
 old at his father's death. He fled in the tumult, and, falling into 
 humane and honourable keeping, was concealed for a time and then 
 conveyed to Argos. There he grew up to manhood, distinguished for 
 his bodily powers, a frequenter of the ' paltcstra,' or place of exercises, 
 and a frequent victor in the rough games which the youth of Greece 
 loved to practise and were proud to excel in. Meditating the bold 
 enterprise of restoring himself to his native country, he endeavoured 
 to associate in his views the numerous exiles who had been banished 
 from Sicyon in its successive changes of masters. When his plans 
 were ripe, he made a night march from Argos to Sicyon, with a small 
 number of followers, whom his own resources and those of his friends 
 enabled him to arm and retain. In this spirited enterprise he scaled 
 the walls, forced his way to the tyrant's residence, and mastered his 
 guard. Nicocles escaped by secret passages. Aratus immediately 
 sent round the city to summon his friends, and at break of day the 
 population assembled in the theatre, where proclamation was made 
 that Aratus, son of Cleiuias, invited the citizens to resume their 
 liberties. This striking revolution was effected (B.C. 251) without the 
 loss of a single life, either in the heat of contest or as a measure of 
 policy or revenge. 
 
 To secure the continuance of the new order of affairs, Aratus 
 procured the enrolment of Sicyon as a member of the Achaean con- 
 federacy. Aratus had cultivated the friendship of Ptolemceus Euer- 
 getes, king of Egypt, by sendiug presents of the most valuable 
 productions of Grecian art ; and he now undertook a voyage to 
 Egypt, and gained so much upon the king's esteem that he presented 
 him with a large sum of money (150 talents), part of which Aratus 
 employed on his return to Greece in satisfying the indigent exiles and 
 re-establishing concord. The restored exiles erected a brazen statue 
 of him, with a laudatory inscription, in testimony of their gratitude. 
 
 Aratus was soon appointed captaiu-geueral (' strategus ') of the 
 Achaean league, which under his prudent counsels grew up from a 
 confederacy of a few insignificant cities for mutual defence into a 
 formidable body exercising a powerful influence in Greece. He held 
 this office for the first time B.C. 245, in which year he invaded Locris 
 aud Calydonia, on the northern side of the Corinthian Gulf. Being 
 re-elected in B.C. 243, after the necessary interval of a year, he con- 
 ceived the project of wresting Corinth from Antigonus. The bold 
 attempt proved successful, though not without much difficulty, and 
 the advantage gained was secured by the arrival of a larger body of 
 Achaean troops, to whom the Corinthians gladly gave admittance. 
 Early in the morning the citiz ns assembled in the theatre, and 
 Aratus, appearing on the stage in his armour, was received with the 
 warmest demonstrations of joy and gratitude. He restored to them 
 the keys of the city, which siuce the reign of Philip of Macedon they 
 had not had in keeping, and invited them to join the Achaean league. 
 They acceded to the proposal ; and the Acrocorinthus was thence- 
 forward occupied by au Achaean garrison. Aratus also gained 
 possession of Lechaeum, one of the ports of Corinth, and before the 
 end of his year of office prevailed on the state of Megaris to join the 
 league. Troezen and Epidaurus soon followed the example, and the 
 confederacy was further strengthened by the friendship and support 
 of the king of Egypt. 
 
 The powerful city of Argos had long been held by a succession of 
 tyrants. In" the year B.C. 227, Aristomachus, being tyrant for the 
 time, was induced by the counsels of Aratus to resign his power, and 
 bring over Argos to the Achaean league. Cleonae, au ancient city of 
 the Argian territory, had become a member of it some time before. 
 Phlius was admitted to it at the same time. The resignation of 
 Aristomachus was probably prompted by the example of Lysiadas, 
 tyrant of Megalopolis, who, emulating the virtues and the reputation 
 of Aratus (if Plutarch rightly represents his motives), had retired 
 into private life, and induced his city to join the league, B.C. 232. 
 Lysiadas was rewarded by the popular favour, and was three times 
 chosen strategus, alternately with Aratus. In prosecution of his 
 favourite policy, Aratus made several attempts to drive the Mace- 
 donians from Athens. That which he could not obtain by arms he 
 effected by money, soon after Antigonus, surnamed Doson, began to 
 reign (B.C. 237), when Diogenes, the Macedonian governor, delivered 
 up the fortresses which he held, together with the isle of Salamis, for 
 a bribe of 150 talents, of which Aratus contributed 20 from his private 
 fortune. At the same time ^Egiua, Hermione, and a considerable 
 part of Arcadia joined the Achasan league. 
 
 Thus during a period of about twenty years, iu which the affairs of 
 the Achaean league had been chiefly managed by Aratus, that body 
 had grown up from the union of a few weak cities for mutual defence 
 into a powerful confederation, including the whole northern coast of 
 Peloponnesus from the promontory of Araxus to Scyllaeum, with the 
 lands of Corinth and Megara, and the greater part of Arcadia. Thia 
 change was wrought in a great measure by the probity aud high per- 
 sonal character of Aratus, who, as we are told by Plutarch, even 
 during those y<ars when the forms of the constitution prevented his 
 having the name of strategus, still had the authority of the office, 
 " because the people saw that he set neither glory, nor wealth, nor the 
 frieudsiiip of kings, nor the good of his own country, nor any other 
 thing, before the general advantage of the Achaean league." Accord- 
 ingly, he was elect d general oftencr, it should seem, than the law 
 strictly allowed ; for iu a period of thirty years from his first 
 
279 
 
 ARATUS. 
 
 ARATUS. 
 
 IM 
 
 elevation (B.C. 245) to his death (b.o. 213) he held the office seventeen 
 times. The leading feature of his policy was to exclude the Mace- 
 donians fium Peloponnesus, and to give vigour to the Greek nation by 
 uniting them in one confederacy of well-organised commonwealths. 
 He succeeded to a great extent in this virtuous, judicious, and truly 
 patriotic design; but he was constantly opposed by the Macedonian 
 kings, Autigonus and his son Demetrius, and very frequently by the 
 iEtolians, a warlike and turbulent people, who derived much of their 
 wealth from plunder, and were ever opposed to peace and to good 
 order. Hence, though sometimes led to alliance with the Acbaeans 
 by a common jealousy of the power of Macedon, they were much 
 more frequently arrayed against them ; and in one of their predatory 
 incursions into Peloponnesus they were defeated by Aratus at Pellene 
 with considerable slaughter. By this victory Aratus acquired con- 
 siderable renown ; for the most part however he was unsuccessful in 
 the open field, and cautious to excess in his movements, although on 
 many occasions bold and sagacious in emergencies. According to 
 Polybius, qualities totally opposite were united in him, and in different 
 circumstances he was no longer the same man. 
 
 Shortly after the accession of Argos to the Achaean league, war 
 broke out (b.C. 226) between tho Lacedaemonians and Achae.ius; a 
 war to which neither party seems to have been averse. In the first 
 campaign the Acbaeans declined giving battle, although four times the 
 number of the Lacedaemonians. In the following campaigns Cleomenes 
 was generally successful. He defeated Aratus at Mount Lyceum in 
 Arcadia ; but the Achaean general retrieved this mishap by gaining 
 possession of Mautineia in his retreat. Soon after, another battle was 
 won by Cleomenes under the walls of Megalopolis, in which Lysiadas 
 was killed ; and on this occasion Aratus was loudly, and it would 
 seem justly, censured for his slackness and want of enterprise. The 
 war languished while Cleomenes was occupied by the revolution in 
 Sparta; but when that was completed, he resumed his successful 
 career. He regained Mantineia, invaded Achaea, and won a great 
 victory at Dyme; he took Pellene and some other towns; Argos, Phlius, 
 Epidaurus, Trcezen, Hermione, went over to him ; and Corinth passed 
 into his hands, with the exception of the Acrocorinthus, which still 
 remaiued in custody of the Acbaeans. Aratus refused to accept the 
 office of strategus, to which he had been again elected, but though 
 ostensibly in a private station, he continued to exercise his usual con- 
 trolling influence. To extricate himself from the difficulties "in which 
 he was involved, he adopted the disgraceful expedient of inviting back 
 the Macedonians, whom he had been at so much pains to expel from 
 the Peloponnesus. He advised the Acbaeans to make application to 
 Antigonus for assistance. Antigouus however required that the Acro- 
 corinthus should be placed in his hands as the price of his services. 
 This condition, though on other grounds not to be accepted, was agreed 
 to in consequence of the voluntary revolt of the Corinthians. Antigo- 
 nus entered Peloponnesus unopposed (b.o. 224), took several cities in 
 Arcadia, and going to iEgium to confer with the Achaean congress, 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of the confederate army. In the 
 following year he took Tegea, Orchoinenus, and Mantintia ; but this 
 success was counterbalanced by the loss of Megalopolis, which Cle- 
 omenes plundered, and almost destroyed. In the following year, 
 B.C. 222, Antigonus defeated Cleomenes in the decisive battle of 
 Sellasia, which put an end to the war. The Macedonian king entered 
 unopposed into Sparta, but he contented himself with undoing the 
 changes which Cleomenes had made. Cleomenes fled to Egypt, where 
 he died, and Antigonus died shortly after in Macedonia, enjoining 
 Philip, his nephew and successor, to regulate his policy in Greece 
 strictly by the counsels of Aratus. 
 
 Peace followed the battle of Sellasia, and for a time Peloponnesus 
 was quiet. This however was of short duration. The character and 
 habits of the ^Etolian tribes were not favourable to tranquillity. A 
 series of gross provocations induced the Acbaeans to declare war against 
 these turbulent mountaineers. Aratus took an active part in urging 
 this measure, and being elected strategus for the ensuing year, he 
 fcastened his march against the yEtolians, who were already engaged 
 in ravaging Messina. He failed signally in the conduct of this campaign. 
 Great complaints were made at the next congress; and Aratus himself 
 seems to have been sensible that his conduct was open to exception, 
 since, in defending himself, he urged his former services as a plea for 
 passing lightly over his error, if it should be judged that any fault 
 had been committed by him. The appeal was probably successful ; 
 and he continued to retain his wonted influence. 
 
 In the course of this war, Philip II., the young king of Macedonia, 
 acted as general of the Macedonian and Achaean army. For some time 
 he observed his uncle's dying commands, and regulated his own 
 conduct strictly after the counsels of Aratus; but his enemies at 
 court at length induced Philip to procure the election of Eperatus as 
 etrategus, an avowed opponent of Aratus, to the exclusion of Aratus 
 himself. The successful candidate was a person of little estimation, 
 and humble ability, and affairs went on so ill in his hands, that Philip 
 was forced to seek a reconciliation with Aratus. Th« war was then 
 prosecuted with success both in ^Etolia and Peloponnesus. All parties 
 however became desirous of repose. Peace was concluded B.C. 217, 
 each party retaining what they then possessed. 
 
 The extensive prospects of ambition opened to the Macedonian king 
 wrought a change in his policy towards his Grecian allies; henceforth 
 
 his desire was to reduce all Greece under his power, and he scrupled 
 at few things which promised to forward his views. The counsels of 
 Aratus became distasteful to him, and Aratus withdrew entirely from 
 his court and society, fearing to incur the odium of the crimes which 
 he was constantly committing. Still the recollection of Aratus checked, 
 and rendered him uneasy ; and to rid himself of this restraint (if Plu- 
 tarch's tale be true, and it is confirmed by Polybius), he procured the 
 death of his old friend and guide by a slow poison. Aratus felt the 
 blow, and knew the author ; but feeling that complaint was useless, he 
 endured it in silence, with the single exception that he once observed 
 to a friend who was shocked at seeing him spit blood, " Such, Ceplialon, 
 are the rewards of the friendship of kings." (Polyb. viii. 14.) He died 
 B.C. 213. The honour of being his burial-place was disputed between 
 Sicyon and ^Egium in Achaea, where he died, and adjudged by the 
 Delphian oracle to the former. He was splendidly interred there, and 
 a monument erected to him. He was honoured by the Sicyonians as 
 the father, founder, and saviour of their city ; and twice a year, on the 
 anniversary of his birth, and of the restoration of liberty to the city, 
 a religious festival was celebrated in his honour. 
 
 He wrote a history of his own times, entitled 'Commentaries' 
 (ending with the year B.C. 220), which has not come down to us. It 
 has received high praise from Polybius, as containing " very faithful 
 and clear memorials of his own times;" and from the close of this 
 work Polybius chose to commence his own history. Particulars of the 
 life of Aratus will be found in Polybius, lib. ii. to ix. inclusive ; and in 
 Plutarch, ' Lives of Aratus, and Cleomenes.' 
 
 In reference to the d;ites in this notice, we have followed Clinton, 
 in his ' Fasti Hellenici, from the 124th Olymp. to the death of Augus- 
 tus;' see also Schlosser's Universalhistorisclie Uebersicht (ii. L). 
 
 ARA'TUS, the author of an astronomical poem in Greek, which 
 has come down to us. It is supposed that be lived about the time of 
 the first Punic war, and must be placed, as to the time of his notoriety, 
 between Euclid and Apollonius of Perga, with both of whom, in the 
 most extended sense, he may have been contemporary. There are 
 three anonymous lives of Aratus, besides notices in Suidas and Eudocia. 
 He was born in Cilicia, some say at Tarsus, others at Soli (afterwards 
 called Pompeiopolis) ; his calling was medicine; and he spent the latter 
 part of his days at the court of Autigonus Gonatas, king of Macedon, 
 son of Demetrius Poliorcetes. It is stated that he was educated by a 
 Stoic named Dionysius Heracleotes in the principles of that sect. 
 
 By the desire of Autigonus, Aratus turned the ' Phaenomena ' of 
 Eudoxus into verse. It does not appear whether he had any remark- 
 able astronomical qualification for the task. It is a question whether 
 he made any original observations or not ; but it is certain, from the 
 commentary of the celebrated Hipparchus, which is yet extant, that 
 he made many alterations : for this commentator frequently cites the 
 prose of Eudoxus and the poetry of Aratus together. The work of 
 the former has not come down to us; in fact, Aratus is the second 
 Greek writer on astronomy extant, Autolycus being the first. We are 
 inclined to think that Aratus was neither an observer nor a mathe- 
 matician, and for this reason, that, in his description of celestial 
 phenomena, he uses no higher degree of precision than might have 
 been attained by a mere spectator of the heavens. 
 
 The poem of Aratus is divided into two parts ; the ' Phaenomena,' 
 and the ' Prognostics ; ' the first contains 732 lines, the second 417 lines. 
 It opens with a declaration of the dependence of all things upon 
 Jupiter, " whose children all men are,'' and who has given the stars as 
 the guides of agriculture. This passage (rov yap Koi yivos lay.iv) is 
 remarkable as having been, at a much later period, quoted by St. Paul 
 in his address to an Athenian audience (Acts of the Apostles, chap. xvii. 
 v. 28), "For in him we live, and move, and have our being : as certain 
 also of your own poets have said, For we are also his offspring." If 
 these words represent the correct text, they remarkably serve to show 
 the notoriety of the poem, if it be recollected that Paul was a country- 
 man of Aratus ; but some manuscripts of the New Testament (see 
 Griesbach's edition) support the reading Kaff ^uSs (our own poets). 
 
 Aratus then proceeds to lay down the doctrine of the immoveability 
 of the earth and the motion of the heavens round a fixed axis. He 
 describes the names and configurations of all the constellations then 
 in use, their relative times of rising and setting, the march of the sun 
 through the zodiac, and the milky way, which is described as one of 
 the great circles of the heavens. The planets are simply mentioned 
 as bodies having a motion of their own, but no idea is given of the 
 length of periods. There is nothing on the orbit of the moon, or on 
 the unequal motion of the sun in longitude. There are many mistakes 
 as to the placing of the stars ; for example, it is said that Lyra has 
 none but small, and Cygnus none but moderate, stars, though there 
 is one of the first magnitude in both- The book of 'Prognostics' 
 consists of predictions of the weather from observation of astronomical 
 phenomena ; except that the celebrated cycle of 19 years is mentioned 
 in it, it adds nothing to our knowledge of the existing state of astro- 
 nomy. There is not a word of astrology either in the ' Phaenomena ' 
 or the ' Prognostics.' 
 
 Aratus is also said to have written poems on Homer, on the ' Iliad,' 
 on osteology, on medicine, a hymn to Pan, a funeral ode on his brother 
 Myris, and a poem called 'Scythian.' More than thirty epistles of his 
 were extant at the time of his anonymous biographer, whose account 
 of Aratus is printed by Petavius in has ' Uranologion.' 
 
281 
 
 ARAUJO D'AZEVEDO, ANTONIO. 
 
 ARAUJO D'AZEVEDO, ANTONIO. 
 
 282 
 
 The number of commentators upon Aratus is very great. The 
 elegance of the verse caused his work to be for a long time in circula- 
 tion among the Greeks. Petavius gives a list of thirty-six commentaries 
 in Greek; among the authors of which are Aristarchus, Geminus, 
 Eratosthenes, and Hipparchus. The last has come down to us, and 
 owes its origin to the difference which Hipparchus had observed 
 between the descriptions of Aratus and his own observations. 
 
 A full account as well of Aratus as of his commentators will be 
 found in Delambre's 1 Histoire de l'Astronomie Aucienne.' 
 
 The 'Phsenomena' was translated into Latin by Cicero when a very 
 young man. Several fragments of this translation still exist, and are 
 given by Grotius in his edition of Aratus. It was also translated by 
 Germanicus Csesar and by Festus Avienus, both of which versious are 
 to be found in the same edition, which was published at Leyden in 
 1600, and contains also the original Greek with notes. 
 
 There are numerous editions of Aratus. J. H. Voss published a 
 critical edition of the Greek text of Aratus, at Heidelberg, 1824, 8vo., 
 and accompanied it with an excellent German poetical version. 
 
 ARAUJO D'AZEVE'DO, ANTO'NIO, afterwards Count da Barca, 
 was born at Ponte de Lima, according to Mendo Trigoso, on the 14th 
 of May, 1754. He belonged to a family which was of noble origin, 
 but not in good circumstances. At the age of eleven he was sent to 
 Oporto, and placed under the care of his uncle Brigadier Antonio 
 Luis Pereira Pinto, under whose able instruction he became a pro- 
 ficient in the French, Italian, and English languages, while at the 
 same time he studied Latin, and also, under Professor Lany, the 
 language and literature of Greece. He attended the lectures on 
 philosophy at Coimbra for one year, but without matriculating. 
 Returning to Oporto he pursued his studies in history, mathematics, 
 and his favourite science, natural history. In 1779, about the same 
 time that the Royal Academy of Sciences was founded by the duke 
 de Lafoens, at Lisbon, Araujo assisted the Archbishop of Braga in 
 founding at Ponte de Lima an ' Economical Society of Friends of the 
 Public Good.' Araujo took an active share in a project to render the 
 river Lima navigable, and another for the planting of mulberry trees 
 on a lari:e scale, with a view of introducing the culture and manufac- 
 ture of silk; and his correspondence on these subjects with Corrta 
 de Serra was the means of introducing him to the notice of the founders 
 of the academy, who placed him. early on the list of members. This 
 circumstance encouraged Araujo, who was now beginning to think 
 seriously what course of life he should adopt, to seek his fortune 
 in Lisbon, where the Duke de Lafoens, who was delighted with his 
 talents, introduced him to the queen Donna Maria, and in 1787 he 
 was named ambas-ador of Portugal to the Hague. 
 
 His presence at his post does not seem to have been considered of 
 argent necessity, for he spent two years after his appointment at 
 Lisbon, in the study of diplomacy ; and when in 1769 he left Portugal, 
 his first visit was to England, to make himself acquainted with arts 
 and manufactures. " In England," says his Portuguese biographer 
 Mendo Trigoso, " nine months passed away with the rapidity of nine 
 days." He spent every Sunday afternoon alternately in the houses of 
 Sir Joseph Banks and Lord North, and improved his knowledge of 
 politics by listening to Pitt, Fox, and Dr. Price. He kept a minute 
 journal of what he heard and saw, particularly of what related to 
 manufactures and commerce. From London he went to Paris, where 
 the constituent assembly was at that time in the midst of its momen- 
 tous proceedings, and became acquainted with iNecker and Bailly, 
 Lavoisier, aDd Fourcroy, Delille, and Marmontel. After this he 
 repaired to his post at the Hague, which he felt dull after London and 
 Paris, and he set himself to collect a library, execute a Poituguese 
 translation of the odes of Horace, and to assemble around him a 
 select society of literary men, of French emigrants and of his 
 countrymen. 
 
 Araujo was now summoned from literature to politics. The 
 Spaniards, who under the management of Godoy had rashly engaged in 
 a contest with the French republic, in which Portugal had assisted 
 them, insisted, when, after the conclusion of the treaty of Basel with 
 France, in 1795, they declared war on Great Britain, that Portugal 
 should follow them in their change of politics. To avoid the dangers 
 with which it was menaced, Portugal submitted, and Araujo wa3 sent 
 to Paris to negociate a peace with France. He arrived there in the 
 summer of 1797, and in the month of August he signed a treaty with 
 Charles Lacroix, the foreign minister of the French Directory, by 
 which peace was granted to Portugal, on what were, on the whole, 
 advantageous terms. The revolution of the 18th Fiuctidor put out 
 of the way Barbd-Marbois, who was opposed to the negociations, and 
 the French legislative body ratified the treaty on the 12th of Septem- 
 ber; but the court of Lisbon delayed its consent, the English ministry 
 having declared that it would consider its ratification as an act of 
 hostility, and an English squadron having entered the Tagus and 
 taken possession of Fort St. Julien. The success of the French at 
 length determined the Portuguese to risk the displeasure of the 
 British government, and the ratification was signed on the 1st of 
 December, at Lisbon, more than a month previous to which the 
 directory, indignant at the delay, had cancelled the treaty, and ordered 
 Araujo to quit the territory of the republic. He had still however 
 remained without molestation in Paris ; and on receiving the ratifica- 
 tion, and with it a large sum in diamonds, he was imprudent enough 
 
 to allow it to be said in public that the French ratification was certain, 
 as the director Barras and two of his colleagues had agreed to pr<x 
 cure it for a stipulated sum. So many reports of the same kind had 
 recently been in circulation, that the directors thought proper t-> 
 affirm their innocence by an act of severity ; and under the pretence 
 that Araujo had forfeited his diplomatic character by remaining in 
 Paris after being ordered to depart, he was sent on the 31st of Decem- 
 ber, 1797, to prison in the temple. After remaining there some months 
 he was set at liberty, and returned unmolested to the Hague. It 
 appears that he had only been empowered to act by the prince regent 
 of Portugal and two of his cabinet, Seabra de Sylva and the Duke de 
 Lafoens, without the consent or knowledge of the foreign minister 
 Pinto ; and it was proposed in the cabinet of Lisbon to bring him to 
 trial for illegal conduct. The prince regent did not venture openly to 
 avow that Araujo had acted by his command, but he bestowed on him 
 a ' commenda,' or benefice conferred on knights of the military orders 
 which much improved his fortune. 
 
 Araujo now obtained permission to leave the Hague and travel in 
 Ge rmany, where he visited Hamburg, Weimar, Dresden, Freiburg, 
 and Berlin ; studied miueralogy, botany, chemistry, and the German 
 language; and made the acquaintance of Klopstock, Wieland, Gothe, 
 Herder, Schiller, Kotzebue, Werner the mineralogist, Klaproth the 
 chemist, and Willdeiiow. He is mentioned at the time in Zach'a 
 ' Astronomical Correspondence,' with admiration for his extensive 
 knowledge of English, French, and German literature. On his return 
 to Portugal, after more than ten years' absence, he was entrusted with 
 a mission to effect a peace with Bonaparte, then first consul ; but on 
 arriving for that purpose at L'Orient, on board a Portuguese frigate, 
 he was refused even permission to land. Bonaparte had previously 
 declared that the Portuguese should pay with tears of blood for the 
 insults they had offered the French republic. When he returned to 
 Portugal, Araujo found that his old antagonist Pinto had, by the use 
 of the same means as himself, sheer bribery, obtained a treaty of 
 peace, but a most disgraceful one, from Spain, which was signed on 
 the 6th of June, 1801, at Badajoz, and was followed by another 
 between France and Portugal, signed at Madrid on the 29th of Septem- 
 ber. After the peace of Amiens, Araujo was named Portuguese 
 minister at St. Petersburg, from which he was recalled in 1803 to the 
 cabinet of Lisbon as secretary of state; and on the death of the Count 
 de Villaverde in 1806, he was appointed his provisional successor in 
 two departments of the ministry which he had held, so that in fact 
 Aiaujo was at the head of the Portuguese cabinet. 
 
 In this situation he occupied himself in promoting the internal 
 improvements of the country, in improving the navigation of the 
 Tagus and Lima, patronising the introduction of the glass, paper, 
 cotton, and wool manufactures, and various other measures of the 
 same character, which, in more peaceful times, might have attached 
 honour to his name. He procured a decree for the formation of a 
 collection of books, models of machines, &c, for the royal chamber 
 of commerce, and became director of the school of engraving, which 
 Bartolozzi, at his recommendation, was invited over from London to 
 superintend. He patronised Brotero, the Portuguese botanist, in the 
 publication of his ' Phytographia Lusitana ; ' in return for which 
 Brotero bestowed on a new genus of Plauts the name Araujia. He 
 appeared, in the meanwhile, to have totally lost sight of the dangers 
 which impended over Portugal from the ambition of Spain and the 
 still more dangerous and reckless ambition of France. In 1806, 
 Talleyrand threatened Lord Lauderdale, in the negociations then 
 carrying on, that if peace was not agreed upon, the French army, then 
 at Bayonne, should immediately march for the conquest of Portugal. 
 The news had no sooner reached Mr. Fox, who was then on his death- 
 bed, than orders were dispatched to Lord St. Vincent to sail for the 
 Tagus; an English army of 10,000 men intended for Sicily was counter- 
 manded, with the view of changing its destination for Portugal, and 
 the English embassy at Lisbon had orders to make offers to the Portu- 
 guese government of unlimited pecuniary aid. Araujo insisted that 
 the apprehensions of the English government were merely the effect 
 of a panic terror, and positively rejected both its military and pecuni- 
 ary assistance, on the ground that it would compromise the neutrality 
 of Portugal. Souza, count de Funchal, the Portuguese ambassador at 
 London, states that he did not dare to ask anything from the British 
 government for fear of being disavowed by the ministry at home. A 
 mere accident led to Fuuchal's obtaining permission from Canning for 
 the Portuguese to close their ports against the English if it should 
 be necessary ; and this permission, which he at once sent off to Lisbon, 
 arrived there about two days before, on the 12th of August, Araujo 
 was shocked by the sudden and imperious demand of Rayneval, the 
 French, and Campo-Alange, the Spanish, ambassador, to close his 
 ports against the English, seize all of that nation then in Portugal, 
 and declare war against it in twenty days. He delayed the order to 
 close the ports till four English convoys had sailed with all the British 
 subjects who chose to leave the kingdom, and then availed himself of 
 the permission the English cabinet had given. It is said that Araujo, 
 one of whose offices was that of minister of war, was unaware that a 
 French invading army had entered Portugal till the 26th of November, 
 when it was close upon Lisbon. It was to Lord Strangford, the 
 English ambassador, that the Portuguese court was then indebted for 
 the news of Bonaparte's declaration, that the house of Braganza had 
 
283 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, JOHN. 
 
 284 
 
 ceased to reign, on wbich, the resolution was taken to sail for Brazil. 
 The public indignation was so strong against Araujo, that he was 
 obliged to embark under cover of night on board of the squadron, 
 which a favourable chauge of wind enabled to leave the Tagus on the 
 29th, just in time to escape the advanced guard of the French, which 
 entered Lisbon at nine o'clock on the following morning. 
 
 Araujo took with him to Brazil his mineralogical collection, which 
 had been arranged by Werner, and a printing apparatus, which he 
 had recently imported from London. At the time of his arrival there 
 was no other printing apparatus in Rio Janeiro. He had now ample 
 time to occupy himself iu the quiet pursuits of science, as the prince 
 regent was compelled to dismiss him from his offices, though he was 
 still retained as a member of the council of state. His favourite 
 study was chemistry, which he pursued with such success as to be able 
 to establish a new manufactory of porcelain, and found a school of 
 chemistry and pharmacy, which had been much needed in Brazil. He 
 introduced the cultivation of tea into the royal botanic garden of 
 Alagoa de Freitas, and cultivated in his own between 1200 and 1400 
 plants. He introduced a machiuo for sawing wood, and imported 
 from England a Scotch alembic, which, with his improvements, was 
 in general use in the sugar-works of Brazil. The whole of this time 
 however he felt deeply that he was under disgrace, and, in the year 
 1810, he addressed to the priuce regent a paper in which he defended 
 himself against the count de Liuhares and other calumniators. In 
 reply he received from the regent a letter of approbation, concluding 
 with his promotion to the grand cross of the order of Christ. Four 
 years after, in 1814, he was named to the vacant ministry of Marine 
 and the colonies, and in 1815, created C ount da Barca. On the death 
 of the Marquis de Aguiar, iu January, 1817, he was entrusted with 
 all the three secretaryships of state, or, in other words, became sole 
 minister. He died at Bio Janeiro on the 21st of June, 1817, and was 
 buried at the church of St. Francisco de Paula in that city. 
 
 As a minister in Brazil, Araujo repaired iu some small degree the 
 errors he had committed iu Portugal, and he became popular from 
 the affability of his manners; but it is evident from the whole course 
 of his history, that he was eminently unqualified to direct the affairs 
 of a nation in times of difficulty. Even as a diplomatist, the reputa- 
 tion which he acquired for procuring from the revolutionary govern- 
 ment of France, a tieaty favourable for Portugal, was lost by his 
 imprudence in allowing the means of success to become known, and 
 so destroying it. 
 
 Araujo had a taste for poetry, and aspired to the honours of a poet. 
 During his residence at the Hague, he had commenced two tragedies, 
 which he completed at Brazil. He translated Dryden's 1 Ode on St. 
 Cecilia's Day,' iuto Portuguese, as well as several poems of Gray, 
 including his ' Elegy.' 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARBLAY, MADAME D'. [Bdrney.] 
 
 ARBOGAST, LOUIS FRANCJOIS ANTOINE, was born at Mutzig 
 in Alsace, in 1759. He was successively professor of mathematics at 
 the school of artillery at Strasburg, and rector of the university of the 
 same town. He afterwards represented the department of the Lower 
 Rhine in the National Convention, where however he took no pro- 
 minent part in politics, aud his name only appears to some reports on 
 scientific subjects. After the dissolution of the convention, he became 
 professor of mathematics in the central school of his department at 
 Strasburg, where he died April 8, 1803. 
 
 Arbogast's first work was presented to the Academy of Sciences, 
 under the title of ' Essai sur de Nouveaux Principes de Calcul Diffe'- 
 reutiel et Integral, ind^pendauts de la Theorie des infiniment Petits, et 
 de celle de Limitea.' This essay is not printed, but from bis own 
 account of it in the preface to the ' Calcul des Derivations,' it appears 
 that he had, partially at least, anticipated the leading points of the 
 ' Theorie des Fonctions' of Legrange. 
 
 In 1790 (Lacroix, ' Calc. Diff',' 1792; ' Biog. Univ.') he gained the 
 prize proposed by the Academy of St. Petersburg for an essay on the 
 nature of the arbitrary functions contained in the integrals of partial 
 differential equations. In this paper he takes, and in the opinion of 
 Lacroix finally establishes, the view maintained by Legrange and 
 Euler against D'Alembert, in favour of the discontinuity (Lacroix, 
 ' Calc. Diff.,' vol. ii., p. 686). 
 
 But his great work is the ' Calcul des Derivations,' published at 
 Strasburg in 1800. Its main object is the law of derivation of the 
 successive co-efficients of a development from one another, when the 
 expression is more complicated than a function of a binomial. There- 
 fore Taylor's theorem and common differentiation are particular cases 
 of Arbogast's method. It is an embarrassing work to read, on account 
 of the number of new notations, and the complexity of the algebraical 
 part ; but it contains much that is elegant, and which may eventually 
 become useful. 
 
 The ' Calcul des Derivations ' contains the first use of the separation 
 of symbols of operation and of quantity, which has since thrown so 
 much light on the connection of various parts of analysis. 
 
 ARBO'RIO, MERCURI'NO, better known as Count di Gattinara, 
 exercised an important influence upon public affairs in Germany at the 
 epoch of the Protestant Reformation. He was bora at Vercelli in 
 Piedmont in 1465. He was a son, and became by inheritance the 
 
 head, of the noble family of Arborio. Mercurino studied law profes< 
 sionally ; but from an early age ho was immersed in the business ol 
 the state ; aud his reputation as a jurisconsult was soon eclipsed by 
 that which he gained as a statesman aud diplomatist His first public 
 employment was in the council of the Duke of Savoy; and while thus 
 engaged he became known, both in his official character and through 
 professional services, to Margaret of Austria, Duke Philibert's wife. 
 That princess, after her husband's death, on receiving from her father, 
 the emperor Maximilian, possession of her mother's heritage, the 
 duchy of Burgundy, appointed Arborio, in 1507, to be president of 
 the parliament of the duchy. In the course of the next year he was 
 employed by the emperor as a negociator with foreign powers. Thence- 
 forth he continued to be closely connected with the imperial court; 
 and the connection became more intimate after the year 1518, when, 
 partly in consequence of discontents among the Burgundian nobles, 
 ending in an insurrection, he was removed from his place in the 
 administration of that province. When Charles V., in 1520, came to 
 Aix-la-Chapelle to be crowned, he appointed the Count di Gattinara 
 to be his chancellor and a member of his privy council ; and he also 
 commissioned him to compose and deliver the formal address of thanks 
 to the electors. The chancellor soon acquired Charles's unlimited con- 
 fidence, which he enjoyed without interruption during the whole 
 remainder of his life. He was consulted and employed in all the most 
 difficult and important emergencies of the emperor's active reign. In 
 1529 he was the principal agent of Charles iu negotiating the treaty 
 of Cambray, and iu effecting arrangements with the pope and the 
 other powers of Italy. Indeed it is said that there was only one im- 
 portant transaction of his time iu which he had no share ; and the 
 nature of this solitary exception was such as to show strikingly the 
 independence aud firmuess of his character. He declined taking part 
 in negotiating the treaty of Madrid, settling the terms of the libera- 
 tion of Francis I. Guicciardini asserts further that he peremptorily 
 refused to affix his official signature to it, alleging that his office did 
 not authorise him to do acts injurious or dishonourable to his master. 
 
 Gattinara was always the advocate of lenient and conciliatory mea- 
 sures towards the Protestant Reformers. The rigorous proceedings 
 against Luther at the diet of Worms took place before he had time to 
 acquire much of Charles's confidence, aud in the subsequent progress 
 of the struggle we see him again and again referring to the conse- 
 quences of the edict of Worms, as proving how little good could be 
 done by severity. In direct communications with the papal see like- 
 wise, he insisted on the necessity of summoning a free council of the 
 church, aud of u-ing other means for a reform in ecclesiastical con- 
 stitution and discipline. He ought probably to be rauked among those 
 numerous spectators of the contest, who saw that the time had arrived 
 for sweeping changes, but who conceived that nothing was required 
 beyond a compromise, leaving the foundations of the church unre- 
 moved. As might be expected of such a man, he was a friend and 
 correspondent of Erasmus. The German leaders of the Reformation 
 however were extremely reluctant to regard the eloquent and powerful 
 chancellor as thus indifferent to the great principles which they held. 
 Luther, in one of his letters, goes so far as to say, that perhaps God, 
 to help them, had raised up this man to be like Naaman the Syrian, 
 who believed in the Lord of Hosts, although he went in with his master 
 to bow himself in the house of Rimmon. 
 
 Whatever may have been the chancellor's tendencies, he never gave 
 way to them so far as either to diminish his favour with his master, 
 or to place himself in hostility to the court of Rome. The emperor 
 continued to heap honours and rewards on him to the last, conferring 
 on him several lordships in addition to his hereditary possessions. 
 Shortly before his death Pope Clement VII. sought to attach him to 
 his interests by the strongest ties which were at his command. Gat- 
 tinara was no ecclesiastic, and had married in early youth. His wife 
 however must have been dead in 1529, for he then accepted a cardi- 
 nal's hat. What effect the scarlet might have had upon his mind, 
 there was not time to determine. He had been in bad health for 
 some time, being afflicted severely with gout, aud being carried in a 
 litter to his reception in the college of cardinals. He exerted himself 
 to the utmost in his public duties notwithstanding his bodily suffer- 
 ings, and set out to accompany the emperor to the diet of Augsburg. 
 The fatigues of the journey brought his disease to a crisis; and he 
 died at Innsbruck in June 1530, aged sixty-five years. 
 
 The reputation of Gattinara as au orator must be received upon the 
 report of his contemporaries. We possess hardly any of his writings. 
 His address of thanks to the electors of the Holy Roman Empire for 
 the election of Charles has been preserved in what seems to be a 
 genuine form. It will be found in the memoirs of him by Hane and 
 Gerdes, being taken from Sabinus's account of the emperor's coro- 
 nation, in Schard's ' Rerum Germanicarum Scriptores' (ii. 14). In 
 the memoirs there are likewise two letters of Gattinara to Erasmus. 
 Adelung gives the titles of two treatises of his still existing in 
 manuscript. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, JOHN. It is rarely that a man attains eminence 
 in a professional pursuit, and yet reaches a greater distinction among 
 his contemporaries as an elegant writer and a wit. Arbuthnot was 
 one of these exceptions to an ordinary rule. He was the son of a 
 
285 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, JOHN. 
 
 ARC, JOAN OP. 
 
 clergyman of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, and is said to have 
 been born at Arbuthnot, near Montrose, in 1675. He was educated at 
 Aberdeen, and there took his degree as Doctor of Medicine. His father 
 lost his church preferment through the changes of the revolution ; 
 and the young doctor had to push his way in the great world of Lon- 
 don. His common scholastic acquirements, in the first instance, gave 
 him bread. The future companion and correspondent of Swift and 
 Pope, of Harley and Bolingbroke, was for some time an obscure teacher 
 of mathematics. In that day the science of geology was built rather 
 upon bold speculation than systematic and patient observation. It 
 was an age of theories of the earth ; and tbe universal deluge was one 
 of the great points of disputation. In 1697 Dr. Arbuthnot took the 
 field against Dr. Woodward, by the publication of ' An Examination 
 of Dr. Woodward's Account of the Deluge,' &c. The tract brought 
 him into notice. He gradually obtained some professional practice ; 
 and the circumstance of his being called in to attend Prince George of 
 Denmark in a sudden illness, he happening to be at Epsom at the 
 same time with the prince, led the way to court honours and rewards. 
 He was appointed physician in ordinary to Queen Anne in 1709 ; and 
 about the same time was elected a member of the London College of 
 Physicians. His attendance upon the queen probably led to his inti- 
 mate association with the Tory party at court. Never did a govern- 
 ment more actively employ the weapons of wit and sarcasm in the 
 direction of public opinion. The great party war of the last days of 
 Queen Anne was fought not more with parliamentary thunder than 
 with squibs and pamphlets — 
 
 " The light artillery of the lower sky." 
 
 The ephemeral politics of the day have attained a permanent interest 
 through the taleut displayed in these wit-combats. On the 10th of 
 March 1712, Swift writes to Stella, " You may buy a small two-penny 
 pamphlet called ' Law is a Bottomless Pit.' It is very prettily written." 
 This two-penny pamphlet is now better known by its second title, 
 ' The History of John Bulk' A second, third, and fourth parts were 
 published in the same year. Swift again says, " I hope you read 'John 
 BulL' It was a Scotch gentleman, a friend of mine, that wrote it ; 
 but they have put it upon me." The Scotch gentleman was Arbuthnot. 
 It is impossible to read this political jeu d'esprit even now without a 
 lively interest. There have been many subsequent attempts to make 
 the quarrels of nations intelligible, and at the same time ridiculous, 
 by assimilating them to the litigations of individuals. Never was the 
 humour of such a design more admirably preserved than in Arbuth- 
 not's delineations of John Bull the Clothier, and Nick Frog the Linen- 
 draper, and Philip Baboon the successor of Lord Strutt, and Louis 
 Baboon, who " had acquired immense riches which he used to squander 
 away at back-sword, quarter-staff, and cudgel-play, in which he took 
 great pleasure, and challenged all the country." The summer of 1714 
 saw Arbuthnot living in the sunshine of court influence, soliciting the 
 Lord Treasurer for a place for one, persuading Bolingbroke to bestow 
 a benefice on another, and enlightening Lady Masham upon the claims 
 of his friend Swift to be historiographer to the queen. In a few months 
 the death of Anne put an end to all these prospects of ambition. The 
 party wa3 ruined ; some impeached, some driven into exile, all crest- 
 fallen. Arbuthnot, of course, lost his appointment. For some time 
 his natural cheerfulness forsook him; but he soon found content in a 
 little house in Dover-street, in exchange for his residence at St. James'. 
 There is bitterness in the mode in which Arbuthnot first writes to 
 Swift, under the great change produced by the death of the queen : 
 "I have an opportunity calmly and philosophically to consider that 
 treasure of viieness and baseness that I always believed to be in the 
 heart of man." But shortly after he wrote to Pope, " This blow has 
 bo roused Scriblerus that he has recovered his senses, and thinks and 
 talks like other men." Arbuthnot appears to have taken to the pro- 
 ject of the Scriblerus Club with abuudant heartiness ; and thus in his 
 misfortunes he looks around for opportunities to make merry with the 
 ignorance of the learned and the follies of the wise : " It is with some 
 pleasure that he contemplates the world still busy and all mankind at 
 work for him." The great project in which he engaged with Swift and 
 Pope, to write a satire on all the abuses of human learning, would 
 probably, under the most favourable circumstances, have been an 
 abortive scheme. Warburton thus speaks of its failure : " Polite 
 letters never lost more than by the defeat of this scheme, in which 
 each of this illustrious triumvirate would have found exercise for his 
 own peculiar talent, besides constant employment for that they all held 
 in common. For Arbuthnot was skilled in everything which related to 
 science ; Pope was a master in the fine arts ; and Swift excelled in a 
 knowledge of the world. Wit they had all in equal measure ; and 
 this so large, that no age perhaps ever produced three men to whom 
 nature had more bountifully bestowed it, or art had brought it to 
 higher perfection." Arbuthnot contributed towards this project the 
 first book of the ' Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus ; ' and it is from this 
 contribution that we may principally estimate the correctness of the 
 praise which Warburton has bestowed upon him. Nothing can be 
 more perfect than this fragment. Its very extravagance is the result 
 of profound skill, contrasting and heightening the pungency of the 
 more subtle wit with which the merely ludicrous is clothed. And yet 
 a continuity of such irony and burlesque would probably have been a 
 failure, as far as regarded the success of a satire upon the abuses of 
 
 human learning. ' Gulliver's Travels ' was intended as a portion of 
 this satire; yet who enters into the companionship of Mr. Lemuel 
 Gulliver with any desire to find out that beneath the surface of his 
 inimitable narratives is concealed an attack upon some book-man or 
 society of book-men? Arbuthnot wrote to Swift: "Gulliver is in 
 every body's hands. Lord Scarborough, who is no inventor of stories, 
 told me that he fell in company with a master of a ship who told 
 him that he was very well acquainted with Gulliver ; but that the 
 printer had mistaken, that he lived in Wapping, and not in Rotherhithe. 
 I lent the book to an old gentleman, who went immediately to his 
 map to search for Lilliput." This, after all, is higher praise than if 
 Arbuthnot had written to his friend that the Royal Society was raving 
 against his description of Laputa. 
 
 The reputation of Arbuthnot as a wit is in a great measure tradi- 
 tional. What he has left us is admirable in its kind; but it can chal- 
 lenge no comparison with the more systematic labours of Swift and 
 Pope. We scarcely indeed know with certainty what Arbuthnot did 
 write. There is a collection entitled ' The Miscellaneous Works of 
 the late Dr. Arbuthnot,' which was published at Glasgow, in two 
 volumes, in 1751, but the genuineness of some of these pieces was 
 expressly denied by Arbuthnot's son. It is probable, from the manner 
 in which he speaks of himself as Scriblerus, that he had a larger share 
 in the planning, if not in the execution, of the several parts of the 
 memoirs and pieces connected with them, than has usually been 
 assigned to him. Dr. Warto'n gives certain portions to Arbuthnot, 
 "as they contain allusions to many remote and uncommon parts of 
 learning and science with which we cannot imagine Pope to have been 
 much acquainted, and which lay out of the reach and course of his 
 reading." Arbuthnot continued his medical practice almost to the 
 last; and he published in 1731 'An Essay on the Nature and Choice 
 of Aliments,' and in 1733 'An Essay on the Effects of Air on Human 
 Bodies.' He died in February 1735, leaving a son, George, who held 
 an office in the Exchequer, and two daughters. His son John died 
 two years before himself. Arbuthnot had many and warm friends, 
 whom he had won not more by his talents and acquirements than by 
 his benevolent and generous nature. His integrity was as universally 
 recognised as hi3 wit. The fortitude displayed in his letters to Pope, 
 written almost on his death-bed, could have been inspired only by a 
 conscience void of offence, and the calm retrospect of a well-spent life. 
 Among the other works of Arbuthnot are the following : — 1. ' Tables 
 of the Grecian, Roman, and Jewish Measures, Weights, and Coins,' &c. 
 London, 1705, 8vo., which is still a useful work. It was republished 
 in 1727, in 4 to. It was also translated into Latin by Daniel Konig, 
 and published at Utrecht in 1756, with a preface by Reitz. 2. 'An 
 Argument for Divine Providence, drawn from the equal Number of 
 Births of both Sexes,' in the ' Philosophical Transactions.' There is a 
 list of Arbuthnot's works in Watt's ' Bibliotheca.' 
 
 {Miscellanies, by Pope, Swift and Arbuthnot ; Swift, Letters ; Pope, 
 Letters.) 
 
 ARC, JOAN or JEANNE OF, surnamed the ' Maid of Orleans,' 
 from her heroic defence of that city, was bom about the year 1410 or 
 1411, in the little hamlet of Domremy, near the Meuse, and about 
 three leagues south from Vaucouleurs, on the borders of Champagne. 
 Her parents were humble and honest peasants. The district was 
 remarkable for the devout simplicity of its inhabitants, as well as for 
 those romantic superstitions which in a rude age are so often allied 
 with religion. It appears from the copious depositions of witnesses 
 from the neighbourhood of Domremy, examined at Joan's trial, that 
 she was unremitting in her prayers, and other religious exercises, and 
 was strongly imbued, at a very early age, with the prevailing super- 
 stitions of her native place. 
 
 During that period of anarchy in France, when the supreme power 
 which had fallen from the hands of a monarch deprived of his reason 
 was disputed for by the rival houses of Orleans and Burgundy, the 
 popular feeling was at first undecided ; but when, on the death of 
 Charles VI., the crown fell to a youug prince who adopted the 
 Armagnac side, whilst the house of Burgundy had sworn allegiance 
 to a foreigner (Henry V.) as king of France, then, indeed, the wishes 
 
ARC, JOAN OF. 
 
 AltC, JOAN OF. 
 
 288 
 
 and interests of the French were in favour of the Armagnacs, or the 
 truly patriotic party. The remote village of Domremy was decidedly 
 Armagnac. Political and party interests were thus forced upon the 
 enthusiastic mind of Joan, and mingled with the pious legends which 
 she had caught from the traditions of the Virgin. A prophecy was 
 current, that a virgin should rid France of its enemies ; and this 
 prophecy seems to have been realised by its effect upon the mind of 
 Joan. The girl, by her own account, was about thirteen when a 
 supernatural vision first appeared to her. She describes it as a great 
 light, accompanied by a voice telliug her to be devout and good, and 
 promising her the protection of heaven. Joan responded by a vow of 
 eternal chastity. In this there appears nothing beyond the effect of 
 imagination. From that time the voice or voices continued to haunt 
 Joan, and to echo the enthusiastic and restless wishes of her own 
 heart. Her own simple and early account was, that 'voices' were 
 her visitors and advisers ; and that they prompted her to quit her 
 native place, take up arum, drive the foe before her, and procure for 
 the young king his coronation at Rheims. A band of Burgundians, 
 traversing and plundering the country, compelled Joan, together with 
 her parentB, to take refuge in a neighbouring town ; when they 
 returned to their village, after the departure of the marauders, they 
 found the church of Domremy in ashes. Such incidents were well 
 calculated to arouse the indignation and excite the enthusiasm of Joan. 
 Her voices incessantly directed her to set out for France; but to com- 
 mence by making applications to De Baudricourt, commander at 
 Vaucouleurs. Her parents attempted to force her into a marriage ; 
 but she contrived to avoid this by paying a visit to an uncle, in whose 
 company she made her appearance before the governor of Vau- 
 couleurs, in May, 1428. De Baudricourt at first refused to see her, 
 and, upon granting an interview, treated her pretensions with con- 
 tempt. She theu returned to her uncle's abode, where she continued 
 to announce her project, and to insist that the prophecy, that " France, 
 lost by a woman (Isabel of Bavaria), should be saved by a virgiu from 
 the frontiers of Lorraine," alluded to her. 
 
 The fortunes of the dauphin Charles at this time had sunk to the 
 lowest ebb ; Orleans, almost his last bulwark, was besieged and 
 closely pressed, and the loss of the 'battle of Herrings' seemed to 
 take away all hope of saving the city from the English. In this crisis 
 Baudricourt no longer despised the supernatural aid promised by the 
 damsel of Domremy, and gave permission to John of Metz and 
 Bertram of Pouleugy, two gentlemen who had become converts to the 
 truth of her divine mission, to conduct Joan of Arc to the dauphin, 
 and Joan set out from Vaucouleurs on the 13th of February, 1429. 
 Her progress, through regions attached to the Burgundian interest, 
 was perilous, but on the eleventh day after her departure from 
 Vaucouleurs, she reached Chinon, where the dauphin then held his 
 court. 
 
 Charles, though he desired, still feared to accept the proffered aid, 
 because he knew that the instant cry of his enemies would be, that 
 he had put his faith in sorcery, and had leagued himself with the 
 infernal powers. He caused her to be examined by ecclesiastical and 
 legal commissioners to ascertain whether her mission was from heaven 
 or from the devil ; for none believed it to be merely human. Joan 
 was frequently asked to do miracles, but her only reply was, " Bring 
 me to Orleans, and you shall see. The siege shall be raised, and the 
 dauphin crowned king at Rheims." 
 
 They at length granted her request, and she received the rank of 
 a military commander. A suit of armour was made for her, and she 
 sent to Fierbois for a sword, which she said would be found buried in 
 a certain spot within the church. It was found there, and coaveyed 
 to her. The circumstance became afterwards one of the alleged proofs 
 of her sorcery or imposture. It was Joan's desire to enter Orleans 
 from the north, and through all the fortifications of the English, but 
 Dunois and the other leaders at length overruled her, and induced 
 h -r to enter the beleaguered city by water. She succeeded in carrying 
 with her a convoy of provisions to the besieged. The entry of Joan 
 of Arc into Orleans, at the end of April, was itself a triumph. Joan 
 announced her arrival to the foe by a herald, bearing a summons to 
 the English generals to be gone from the land, or she, the Pucelle, 
 would slay them. The indignation of the English was increased by 
 their terror ; they detained the herald, and threatened to burn him, 
 as a specimen of the treatment which they reserved for his mistress. 
 In the meantime the English allowed the armed force raised and left 
 behind by Joan, to reach Urleans unmolested, traversing their iutrench- 
 ments. Under her banner, and cheered by her presence, the besieged 
 marched to the attack of the English forts one after another. That 
 of St.-Loup was first taken. On the following day, the 6th of May, 
 Joan, after another summons to the English, signed ' Jhesus Maria 
 and Jehanne La Pucelle,' renewed the attack upon the other forts. 
 The French being compelled to make a momentary retreat, the 
 English took courage, and pursued their enemies : whereupon Joan, 
 throwing herself into a boat, crossed the river, and her appearance 
 was sufficient to frighten the English from the open field. Behind 
 their ramparts they were still however formidable ; and the attack 
 led by Joan against the works to the south of the city is the most 
 memorable achievement of the siege. After cheering on her people 
 for some time, she had seized a scaling-ladder, when an English arrow 
 struck her between the breast and shoulder, and threw her into the 
 
 fosse. When her followers took her aside, she showed at first some 
 feminine weakness, and wept ; but seeing that her standard was in 
 danger, she forgot her wound, and ran back to seize it. The French 
 at the same time pressed hard upon the enemy, whose Btronghold 
 was carried by assault. The English commander, GladcbUalL, or 
 Glacidas, as Joan called him, perished with his bravest soldiers in the 
 Loire. The English now determined to raise the siege, and Sunday 
 being the day of their departure, Joan forbade her soldiers to molest 
 their retreat. Thus in one week from her arrival at Orleans was the 
 beleagured city relieved of its dreaded foe, and the Pucelle, hence- 
 forth called the Maid of Orleans, had redeemed the most incredible 
 and important of her promises. 
 
 In compliance with the earnest entreaties of Joan, although against 
 the opinion of the ministers and warriors of the court, she was placed 
 at the head of a body of troop*, with which, early in June, she 
 attacked the English at Jargeau. They made a desperate resistance, 
 ami drove the French before them, till the appearance of Joan chilled 
 the stout hearts of the English soldiers. This success was followed 
 by a victory at Patay, in which the English were beaten by a charge 
 of Joan, and the gallant Talbot himself taken prisoner. The strong 
 towu of Troyes, which might have repulsed the weak and starving 
 army of the French, was terrified into surrender by the sight of her 
 banner ; and Rheims itself followed the example. In the middlo of 
 July, only three months after Joan had come to the relief of the 
 sinking party of Charles, this prince was crowned in the cathedral 
 consecrated to this ceremony, in the midst of the dominions of his 
 enemies. Well might an age even more advanced than the 15th cen- 
 tury believe, that superhuman interference manifested itself in the 
 deeds of Joan. 
 
 In September of the same year, wo find her holding a command ia 
 the royal army, which had taken possession of St. Denis, where she 
 hung up her arms in the cathedral. Soon after, the French generals 
 compelled her to join in an attack upon Paris, in which they were 
 repulsed with great loss, and Joan herself was pierced through the 
 thigh with an arrow. It was the first time that a force in which she 
 had served had suffered defeat. About this time a royal edict was 
 issued, ennobling her family, and the district of Domremy was declared 
 free from all tax or tribute. In the ensuing spring, the English aud 
 Burgundians formed the siege of Compiegne ; and Joan threw her- 
 self into the town to preserve it, as she had before saved Orleans, 
 from their assaults. She had not been many hours in it when she 
 headed a sally against the Burgundian quarters, in which she was 
 taken by some officers, who gave her up to the Burgundian com- 
 mander, John of Luxemburg, who placed her in hi3 fortress of 
 Beaurevoir, near Cambray. Her capture appears, from the records of 
 the Parisian parliament, to have taken place on the 23rd of May, 1430. 
 Joan, after having made a vain attempt to escape, was at length 
 handed over to the English partizans, and conducted to Rouen. The 
 University of Paris called loudly for the trial of Joan, and several 
 letters are extant, in which that body reproaches the Bishop of Beau- 
 vais and the English with their tardiness in delivering up the Pucelle 
 to justice. 
 
 The zeal of the University was at length satisfied by letters patent 
 from the king of England and France, authorising the trial of the 
 Pucelle, but stating in plain terms that it was at the demand of public 
 opiuiou, and at the especial request of the Bishop of Beauvais and of 
 the University of Paris— expressions which, taken in connection with 
 the delay in issuing the letters, sufficiently prove the reluctance of 
 the English council to sanction the extreme measure of vengeance. 
 After several months' interrogatories, the judges who conducted the 
 trial drew from her confessions the articles of accusation, which were 
 founded chiefly on her alleged visions and revelations. Upon these 
 charges her accusers wished to convict her of sorcery. Moreover, 
 they drew from her answers, that she declined to submit to the 
 ordinances of the church whenever her voices told her the contrary. 
 This was declared to be heresy and schism, and to merit the punish- 
 ment of fire. 
 
 The articles were dispatched to the University of Paris, and all 
 the faculties agreed in pronouncing them impious, diabolical, and 
 heretical. This judgment came back to Rouen; but it appears that 
 many of the assessors were unwilling that Joan should be condemned ; 
 aud even the English in authority seemed to think imprisonment a 
 sufficient punishment. At length she was brought forth on a public 
 scaffold at Rouen, and the bishop of Beauvais proceeded to read the 
 sentence of condemnation, which was to be followed by burning at 
 the stake. Whilst it was reading every exhortation was used, and 
 Joan's courage for once failing, she gave utterance to words of contri- 
 tion, aud expressed her willingness to submit, and save herself from 
 the flames. Her sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment. 
 After two days' confinement her religious enthusiasm returned in all 
 its force, and filled with remorse and shame, she avowed her resolve 
 no longer to belie the powerful impulses under which she had acted. 
 " W hat I resolved," said she, " I resolved against truth. Let me 
 suffer my sentence at once, rather than endure what I suffer in prison." 
 
 The Bishop of Beauvais lost no time in exercising his power while 
 Joan was within his jurisdiction. The crime of relapse was considered 
 sufficient to warrant her execution. A pile of wood was prepared in 
 the old market at Rouen, and scaffolds placed round it for the judges 
 
239 
 
 ARCADIUS. 
 
 ARCESILAUS. 
 
 2-0 
 
 and ecclesiastics. Joan was brought out on the last day of May, 1431; 
 she wept piteously, but no mercy was shown. They placed on her 
 head the cap used to mark the victims of the Inquisition, and the fire 
 goon consumed her body. Her ashes were gathered and thrown into 
 the Seine. 
 
 It is difficult to say to what party most disgrace attaches on account 
 of this barbarous murder : whether to the Burgundians, who sold the 
 Maid of Orleans ; the English, who permitted her execution ; the 
 French, of that party who brought it about and perpetrated it ; or the 
 French, of the opposite side, who made so few efforts to rescue her to 
 whom they owed their liberation aud their national existence. An 
 essay however has recently appeared ('Doute Historique,' by O. Dele- 
 pievre, 1855, privately printed), in which some curious, though certainly 
 not conclusive, facts are urged against the belief of Joan having been 
 actually burned. M. Delepievre's statement is that, in 1645, the Pere 
 Vignier, while examining some of the archives of Metz, chanced upon 
 a document which related how, in the year 1436, on the 20th of May 
 (five years after the date assigned for the burning), there came to Metz 
 "the maid Jeanne;" and on the same day came her two brothers, 
 Pierre, a knight, and Petit Jehan, an esquire, " who thought she had 
 been burned." They were all well received, " and she was known by 
 many signs to be the maid Jeanne de France, who had conducted King 
 Charles to Rheims to be crowned." The document at some length 
 details her movements to Cologne, to Erlon (Luxembourg), and other 
 places ; but at length, at Erlon, she was married to the Sieur Hermoise. 
 Not much importance was attached to this document, nor even to 
 another discovery of the Pere Vignier, made subsequently, in the 
 muniment chest of a certain M. des Armoises of Lorraine, of a marriage 
 contract between " Robert des Armoises, knight, with Jeanne dArcy, 
 suraamed the Maid of Orleans." But in 1740, in the archives of the 
 H6tel-de-Vil!e at Orleans, were found two entries ; the first, under the 
 dates of 1435 and 1436, of two sums paid, one to a messenger, " who 
 had brought letters from Jeanne the Maid ;" the other to John de Lils 
 (or Lys, the name by which the family of Dare, or DArc, was ennobled), 
 "to help him on his way back to his sister :" the second entry is in 
 1439, of a gift of 210 livres to Jeanue Darmoises, " for services rendered 
 by her at the siege of the said city." The authenticity of these docu- 
 ments is of course open to doubt, and M. Langlet du Fresnoy has 
 decided against them. M. Delepievre however has yet some collateral 
 evidence not open to the same objection. In 1444, Pierre, the brother 
 of the Maid, petitioned for the restitution of some property; and he 
 urges, in support of his claim, that " he had left his native place to 
 enter into the service of the king and the duke [of Orleans], in com- 
 pany with his sister, Jeanne the Maid, with whom, up to the time of 
 her absence, and from that time to the present, he had risked his life," 
 &c. The application succeeded, and the document was found by 
 Pasquier among the accounts of the domain of Orleans. As negative 
 evidence, M. Delepievre also mentions that a belief certainly existed at 
 the time that a criminal was substituted ; and there were several pre- 
 tenders to her name, Bome of whom were punished as impostors, while 
 Jeanne des Armoises was certainly not meddled with; and in 1455, 
 when the papal condemnation of the sentence was published, no refer- 
 ence whatever was made to the execution. Whether executed or not, 
 however, the discredit to all the parties concerned is lessened but 
 slightly ; and in spite of this circumstantial relation, which is given by 
 M. Delepievre with singular candour and absence of partisanship, it 
 will be difficult to establish a belief contrary to the popular one, which 
 is founded upon what appears the best historical evidence. 
 
 It is asserted (' Biog. Univ.,' art 'Jeanne d'Arc'), and probably cor- 
 rectly, that there is no genuine likeness of Joan of Arc extant. Our 
 medal is taken from a French work, ' Les Families de la France illus- 
 treVs par les monumens, &c ; Tirees des plus rares et curieux cabinetz 
 du Royaume,' &c. Par J. de Bie, Calcographe, Paris, 1634. There is 
 a monument of the Maid at Rouen, and the graceful statue by the 
 daughter of Louis Philippe, multiplied in many popular shapes, keeps 
 up the memory of the heroine. 
 
 The works on the subject of Joan of Arc are very numerous ; M. 
 Chaussard enumerates upwards of four hundred, either expressly 
 devoted to her life or including her history. Voltaire's poem of ' La 
 Pucelle ' is an attempt to degrade by ribaldry and profaueness the 
 heroic enthusiasm which he could not understand ; Schiller's tragedy 
 more worthily goes to the other extreme ; and Southey's early poem is 
 a respectable mediocrity, which is neither history nor poetry. In 
 Shakapere's ' Henry VI.' we find the proper English view of her cha- 
 racter, mingled with a higher estimate than belongs to the chronicles 
 of the period. 
 
 Of her numerous biographies, that of M. Lebrun des Charmettea is 
 the fullest, 1815. The publication by M. Laverdy of extracts from 
 manuscripts in the Bibliothcque du Roi contains everything relating 
 to the trials of the Pucelle, and ia a aource at once ample and respect- 
 able. The story is told by Barantd (in his 'Histoire des Dues de 
 Bourgogne,' vol. iv. pp. 328-344) with great spirit ; and in that valuable 
 work will be found much documentary proof relating to the examin- 
 ations that preceded the abominable execution of the sentence of the 
 Church. 
 
 ARCA'DIUS, emperor of Constantinople, son of Theodosius the 
 Great, whom he succeeded A.D. 31*5. The genius of Rome expired 
 with Theodosius; he was the last of the successors of Augustus and 
 
 bioo. oiv. vol. i. 1 
 
 Constantine who was acknowledged by the whole Roman empire, and 
 who appeared at the head of its armies. By his will he divided this 
 mighty empire between his two young sons, Arcadius and Honorius. 
 Arcadius became emperor of the East, reipning over the provinces of 
 Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, aud Egypt, from the Lower Danube to the 
 confines of Persia; Honorius became at least nominal emperor of the 
 West. The accession of Arcadius marked the final establishment of 
 the empire of the East, which subsisted, till the taking of Constanti- 
 nople by the Turks, during a period of 1058 years, in a state of con- 
 tinual decay. 
 
 The history of the reign of Arcadius is nothing else than that of the 
 men to whom he entrusted the affairs of his empire. He was at first 
 the submissive tool of Rufinus, who had raised himself by his talents 
 to the notice of Theodosius, aud was employed by him to direct the 
 studies of the young prince Arcadius. Rufinus employed all his influ- 
 ence to inveigle Arcadius into a marriage with his daughter; but failing 
 in this object, he was accused of inviting the Huns and the Goths into 
 Asia and Greece, and was at last murdered in the presence of the 
 emperor by the soldiers of the celebrated Stilicho. His place was 
 supplied by an eunuch, Eutropius, who exceeded even Rufinus in 
 oppression and cruelty. Arcadius saw everything with equal indiffer- 
 ence, and cared neither for his own honour nor the security of hi3 
 subjects, provided he was allowed to enjoy the pompous luxury in 
 which he delighted, and which is forcibly described in the eloquent 
 sermons of St. Chrysostom, an eye-witness of the scenes which he 
 narrates. In the later years of his life Arcadius was entirely under 
 the control of his wife, Eudoxia, whose character is best shown by 
 the fact that she persecuted the virtuous St. Chrysostom. Arcadius 
 died May 1, 408, leaving his empire to his infant son, Theodosius. 
 The facts of his life are given by Claudius, Suidas, and Theodoretus. 
 
 ARCA'NO, MAURO D', usually called IL MAURO, was one of the 
 most famous among the burlesque poets of Italy in the 16th century. 
 He is supposed to have been born about the year 1490. His first 
 Christian name is disputed, some calling him Giovanni, and others, 
 seemingly by mistake, Francesco. He was descended from a noble 
 family in Friuli, from whose castle he derives his name of Arcano; 
 but his life appears to have been spent in dependence. After having 
 been educated in his native province, he emigrated to Bologna, and 
 thence to Rome. There he lived almost constantly afterwards, being 
 successively in the service of the Duke of Amalfi, Cardinals Grimani 
 and Cesarina, and other powerful and wealthy persons of his time. 
 In the celebrated academy of the Vignaiuoli or Vinedressers, of which 
 Berni was the ruling spirit, Mauro was a distinguished member; and 
 he lived in intimate friendship with that witty poet, and with those 
 other men of letters who, in the first half of the century, formed the 
 characteristic style of burlesque poetry called Bemesque, from its 
 inventor and most successful cultivator. [Berni.] 
 
 II Mauro died at Rome, in 1536, in consequence of a fall from his 
 horse while hunting. His works, besides a burlesque letter printed in 
 two collections of the time, consist of twenty-one ' capitoli,' or bur- 
 lesque poems in Italian terza rima, which will be found in the common 
 editions of the poems of Berni and the writers of his school. 
 
 ARCESILA'US was born at Pitana, a city of iEolis in Asia Minor. 
 Of his personal history we are able to collect a few facts from Suidas 
 and his life by Diogenes Laertius. He was born B.C. 316, and began, 
 according to Apollodorus, to attract the attention of the learned by 
 the acuteness of his remarks before he had reached the age of 17. He 
 died B.C. 241, at the age of 75. He was the pupil of the mathematician 
 Autolycus, and afterwards proceeded to Athens to study rhetoric, but 
 preferring philosophic studies, he became the pupil of Theophrastus 
 the peripatetic, and then of Crantor. He attached himself more par- 
 ticularly to the Academic sect, and became one of their leading 
 philosophers, though he introduced so many changes, that he was con- 
 sidered the founder of what has been called the Middle Academy. 
 The Academic sect was instituted by Plato, and continued through 
 Speusippus, Xenocrates, Crantor, Polemo, and Crates, to Arcesilaiis. 
 We think that Mr. Clinton (' Fasti Hellenici,' vol i. p. 367) satisfactorily 
 proves that Arcesilaiis established his school at the death of Crantor, 
 who died before Polemo and Crates ; that from this period he was 
 the rival of Zeno and Epicurus ; that Polemo and Crates, strictly 
 speaking, had no successors; that the old academy expired with them, 
 and was superseded by the school of Arcesilaiis, which had been 
 founded in their lifetime. 
 
 Arcesilaiis revived the Socratic mode of teaching, which had fallen 
 into disuse ; he propounded no dogmatic principles of his own, but 
 discussed with much eloquence and art the points proposed to him by 
 his pupils. He brought forward all the arguments that could be 
 suggested on both sides of a question, and endeavoured to prove that 
 there was no certainty in philosophical knowledge, and that in all 
 purely speculative subjects we must refrain from coming to a decision, 
 because tho mind of man cannot sufficiently distinguish truth from 
 falsehood. In the every day affairs of life however he appears to have 
 admitted that we must act as others do. The saying of the philoso- 
 pher Cleanthes respecting him, clearly proves that his doctrines were 
 not carried beyond his closet, and that in the world he was strictly 
 attentive to all the duties of life. " Leave him to himself," says 
 Cleanthes to some who lamented the tendency of his doctrines, " for 
 if Arcesilaiis loosens the ties of morality by his words, he knits them 
 
 u 
 
291 
 
 ARCHELAUS. 
 
 293 
 
 again by his actions." Ho was succeeded in his school by Lacydes, 
 B.C. 241. The reader may consult the fourth book of Cicero's 
 1 Academic Questions ' for an eloquent and masterly exposition of the 
 arguments for and against the philosophical doctrines of Arcesilaiis 
 and the sect which he founded. 
 
 ARCET, JEAN D', was born at Douazit, in the present department 
 of Landes in France, on the 7th of September, 1725. He received his 
 early education at the college of Aiue, where he was distinguished for 
 the ardour with which he pursued his various studies. His father, 
 who was a magistrate, wished, as he was his eldest son, to educate him 
 in such a manner that he might fill his own position, and for this 
 purpose he was sent to study at Bordeaux. Here a taste for natural 
 science was developed in young DArcet, the indulgence of which his 
 father forbade to him on pain of being disinherited. But he chose to 
 run the risk of being for ever driven from his home, rather than give 
 up his favourite pursuits. His father kept his word, and without 
 friends or money, D'Arcet taught a few pupils Latin, to enable himself 
 to pursue his studies. Ho however soon made friends, and became 
 acquainted with Roux, who was then a young man. Roux subsequently 
 introduced him to Montesquieu, who appointed him tutor to his son. 
 In 1742 he came to Paris with Montesquieu, and from the position of 
 tutor in his family became his intimate friend. Montesquieu died in 
 the arms of DArcet, and confided to him the care of his manuscripts. 
 
 After the death of Montesquieu, DArcet devoted himself to the 
 study of the medical sciences, more particularly chemistry, and took 
 his degree of doctor in the faculty of medicine iu Paris in 17G2. Most 
 of his time was given up to chemistry. After spending some time 
 with the army in Germany he returned to his laboratory ; devoted 
 himself to study the manufacture of porcelain; and having made 
 analyses of the best specimens from China, Japan, and other p:irts of 
 the world, succeeded iu producing a porcelain equal to that from other 
 countries. These analyses led him into a long course of experiments 
 on the properties of minerals, and the result of his labours was pub- 
 lished in two Memoirs in 1700 and 1768. In a subsequent work he 
 first announced the perfect combustibility of the diamond. Newton 
 had inferred from the refractive power of the diamond that it was 
 combustible; Boyle and others had partially succeeded in burning it, 
 but DArcet seems to have been the first who perfectly performed 
 this interesting experiment. 
 
 Besides the works referred to, he was the author of several others, 
 and was the inventor of a metallic alloy which sometimes bears his 
 name ; it melts in boiling water, and has been employed in making 
 stereotype plates. On the death of Macqucr, DArcet was appointed 
 director of the Sevres manufacture of porcelain at Sevres, and elected 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences. He also succeeded Gillet as 
 inspector of the public mint, and was inspector of the tapestry manu- 
 facture of the Gobelins. Both in the porcelain and the tapestry 
 manufacture he suggested several improvements. 
 
 DArcet narrowly escaped the guillotine during the reign of terror. 
 The Duke of Orleans had been his patron, and this was sufficient to 
 render him " suspect." The order was signed for his arrest, but 
 through the bold defence set up for him by Fourcroy, the chemist, 
 who was then a member of the convention, he was saved. He died on 
 the 12th of February, 1801. He left behind him two daughters and a 
 son, who died iu 1S44. The son's writings on chemistry, and on 
 subjects of public utility, such as the amelioration of the food of 
 hospitals, &c., gave him a deserved celebrity. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARCHELA'US, commonly called of Miletus, though he may have 
 been a native of Athens, was the son of Apollodorus or, according to 
 others, of Mydon. He was the first man who introduced the physical 
 philosophy from Ionia to Athens, from which circumstance probably 
 he was called Physicus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras, and a teacher 
 of Socrates. The Physical philosophy terminated in him, and the 
 Ethical was introduced by Socrates. These few facts about his life 
 rest on the authority of Diogenes Laertius. There is the testimony of 
 Porphyry to the fact of Socrates having become the pupil of Archelaus 
 when Socrates was seventeen years of age, and of having continued to 
 be his pupil for several years, which will fix B.C. 451 (the seven teeth 
 year of Socrates), as one of the years in which Archelaus was at Athens. 
 Diogenes also says that when Socrates was young he visited Samos in 
 company with Archelaus. Though various authorities speak of Arche- 
 laus as a master of Socrates, neither Xenophon, nor Plato, nor Aristotle 
 mentions him. 
 
 Archelaus is said to have left writings, but no fragments have been 
 preserved, and it is impossible to form a true judgment of his system 
 from the scanty notices contained in Diogenes and other writers. Of 
 his particular opinions a few are recorded : he considered the sun to 
 be the largest of the heavenly bodies ; the sea was formed by oozing 
 through the earth ; voice was formed by the impulse of the air, an 
 opinion which is also attributed to Anaxagoras. 
 
 His general principles show that his system resembled that of 
 Anaxagoras and Anaximander. He admitted two principles of gene- 
 ration or production, cold and heat; these two principles separate 
 from one another ; heat moves and cold remains at rest. The mode 
 in which he supposes the earth and the air to be formed is unintel- 
 ligible as stated by Diogenes ; but the text may be corrupt. Animals 
 
 wero first formed from the earth acted on by heat, and afterwards 
 
 were continued by generation. In some way men were separated from 
 other animals and formed political communities. Nous ia in all 
 animals. Plutarch states one of the general doctrines of Archelaus 
 thus : air is infinite, and its properties are condensation and rarefaction, 
 from which respectively result fire and water. 
 
 Archelaus is also said to have taught the ethical part of philosophy, 
 but we know nothing of his opinions. There is attributed to him the 
 doctrine that the just and the bad are not by nature but by institution 
 (ou (pica a\Ka i>6/jto>). As we do not know in what sense he used these 
 two words ($>vais and vd/xos), we cannot determine the meaning of this 
 dogma. A conjecture is given by Ritter as to the senso iu which 
 Archelaus used these terms. 
 
 Ritter in his ' History of Philosophy,' vol. I, has collected most of 
 the passages relating to Archelaus, and his remarks show how little is 
 known about him. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ARCHELA'US, son of Perdiccas, king of Macedon, who succeeded 
 his father B.C. 413 (Clinton), early in the year. The chronology of 
 his reign has been a subject of controversy ; and some writers have 
 erroneously supposed that he was succeeded by a sou of the same 
 name. Thucydides says that " Archelaus, son of Perdiccas, having 
 become king, built the fortifications now in the land, and cut straight 
 roads, and set the military affairs of the nation on a better footing, as 
 to the provision of arms, horses, and other equipments, than all the 
 eight kings who had preceded him." (lib. ii. 100.) He besieged the 
 town of Pydna, a valuable sea port of Macedonia, which had revolted, 
 and took it, B.C. 410; and to diminish the chance of future insurrec- 
 tions, by rendering it harder to call in foreign aid, he removed the 
 city farther inland by a distance of twenty stadia, about two miles. 
 The tragic poet Euripides resided for some time at his court, and died 
 there. Plato is said to have been " very dear " to him ; and he sent 
 a pressing invitation to Socrates, who declined to accept it. Zeuxis 
 visited and executed many pictures for his palace, which became a 
 place of great resort for strangers. He established games at Dium in 
 honour of Jupiter and the nine Muses, which are described by Diodorua 
 (xviL 10) as " magnificent religious festivals and dramatic contests." 
 
 From a silver coin in the British Museum. 
 
 The character of this prince has been drawn in dark colours by 
 Plato, who says, that Archelaus was of illegitimate birth, the son of 
 Perdiccas by a slave, and that he gained the kingdom by a series of 
 murders. (' Gorg.' 471, vol. hi. p. 208, ed. Priestly.) Archelaus died 
 B.C. 399, after a rei^n of fourteen years. (Mitford, chap, xxxiv. sect. 1; 
 Clinton, 'Appendix' 4; and the authorities above quoted.) 
 
 ARCHELA'US, an eminent general in the service of Mithridates, 
 king of Pontus, and the opponent of Sulla when the Mithridatic war 
 was carried on in Greece. In the celebrated siege of Athens, when 
 that city was taken by Sulla, he threw himself into the Peirseus, and 
 defended it obstinately. Compelled at last to evacuate his stronghold, 
 he retreated into Thessaly. He was twice defeated by Sulla, after 
 which he receivtd instructions from his master to make peace on the 
 best terms which could be obtained. Being apprehensive of danger 
 from the jealous temper of Mithridates, he went over to the Romans, 
 by whom he was well received. (See Appian, Milhridatica ; Strabo, 
 1. xii. and xvii.) 
 
 ARCHELA'US, son of the preceding, obtained the dignity of high- 
 priest of the temple of Comana in Pontus, where there was a temple 
 sacred to Enuo. He served in the expedition to Egypt of Gabinius, 
 to reinstate Ptolemoeus Auletes on the throne then occupied by his 
 daughter Berenice; but having gained the affections and the hand of 
 Berenice under the false pretence that he was the son of Mithridates, 
 he went over to her party, and after a six months' reign was slain in 
 battle against the Romans. 
 
 ARCHELA'US, son of the above, succeeded him as high priest of 
 Comana, and was expelled by C'gesar, B.C. 47, to make room for Nico- 
 medes the Bithynian. Between his wife, Glaphyra, and Mark Antony 
 an intrigue is said to have subsisted. 
 
 ARCHELA'US, son of Archelaus and Glaphyra, received from Mark 
 Antony the kingdom of Cappadocia, B.C. 36. He fought on Antony's 
 side at the battle of Actium, and yet retained his kingdom under 
 Augustus, and even enlarged it by the acquisition of the lesser Armenia 
 and part of Cilicia. Incurring the displeasure of Tiberius, he was 
 summoned to Rome, where he died a.d. 16. (Tacitus, Ann. ii. 42 
 Dion, lvii. ; Bayle, An. Un. Hist.) 
 
 ARCHELA'US, the second son of the fifth wife of Herod the 
 Great; his mother, Malthaka, was a Samaritan. His father's last 
 
ARCHELAUS 
 
 ARCHILOCHUS. 
 
 201 
 
 will declared him heir to the throne. Immediately after tho death of 
 Herod, a.D. 3, he exercised the regal power, but did not assume the 
 title till his nomination should be confirmed by the Roman emperor, 
 in the meantime conciliating the Jewish people by fair promises, 
 which his cruel and tyrannical proceedings soon belied. On the fea^t 
 of the Passover a number of factious Jews stationed themselves in the 
 temple, and instigated the populace to demand that Archelaus should 
 aveu.-e the death of two favourite teachers who were executed during 
 Herod's reign for having destroyed a golden eagle. Archelaus sent a 
 party of his guards to seize the ringleaders, but the rabble killed 
 most of the soldiers. Upon this he employed the whole force of his 
 arms against the rioters, and 3000 of them were massacred. The rest 
 escaped to the neighbouring mountains. 
 
 Archelaus presented himself in person before Augustus at Rome, 
 and" solicited the ratification of his power on the grounds of being the 
 successor appointed by his father, and of his attachment to the 
 Roman customs and government. His claim was disputed by many 
 members of his family, and the Jewish nation presented petitions, 
 deprecating his appointment, and requesting an alteration in the form 
 of government. The emperor declined to accede to the demands of 
 the Jews, but he placed only the districts of Judrca Proper, Idumaea, 
 aud Samaria, forming about half of the dominions of Herod, under 
 the government of Archelaus. The rest, with some small exceptions, 
 was divided between Herod Antipas and Philip. These three princes 
 were not called kings but ethnarchs, and their territories were not 
 called kingdoms but ethnarchies. Irritated by the conduct of Arche- 
 laus, and weary of the oppressive tyranny of his administration, in 
 the tenth year of the reign of Archelaus the Jews again appealed to 
 Augustus, and the emperor dispossessed Archelaus of his authority, 
 banished him to Vienna in Gaul, and confiscated his property. It is 
 supposed that he ended his days iu the place of his exile, leaving no 
 posterity. 
 
 To understand the history of Archelaus in connection with pre- 
 ceding and subsequent events, the reader must refer to Josephus, 
 'On the Jewish War,' from book L chapter 28, to book iL chapter 8 ; 
 and the ' Antiquit.' book xvi. 
 
 ARCHELA'US, bishop of Carrhse in Mesopotamia, is remarkable 
 only for his dispute with the heretic, Manes, about A.D. 278. He 
 published the controversy in two books, entitled 'Acta Disputationis,' 
 fee., in Syriac, which were translated into Greek by Hegemonius. A 
 fragment of this work is extant, edited by Valesius, in the notes to 
 his Socrates (pp. 197, 203, lib. i. c. 22) ; and again in a more complete 
 form by Zaccagnius, in his ' Collectanea Monumentorum veterum 
 Ecclesiae Graecse,' Rom. 1698. (Fabricius, Bill. Gr.) 
 
 ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON, was born at Danzig 
 in 1745. He entered the Prussian army, in which he served during 
 the whole of the seven years' war, and was made a captain. He after- 
 wards retired from the service, and travelled over a considerable part 
 of Europe, and at last settled at Hamburg, where he published several 
 works, which became very popular in Germany. The first work that 
 established his literary reputation was his ' England und Italien,' pub- 
 lished in 1785, in which he gave, not the journal of a tour, but a 
 methodical description of the two countries, especially with regard to 
 their social and moral features, and their political institutions. Archen- 
 holz had visited England repeatedly and stayed there nearly six years 
 between 1769 to 1779. He had been likewise several times in Italy, 
 and had resided there about three years. The work went through 
 several editions, and was translated into French. In the preface to 
 the second German edition, 1787, Archenholz replied to the charges 
 of injustice and asperity towards Italy with which he had been 
 reproached. Archenholz's admiration of England, on the other side, 
 displeased many persons on the continent, although he points out 
 many faults in the English institutions at that period, aud exposes 
 with no sparing hand the vices and follies of Loudon. His ' History 
 of the Seven Years' War' was published at Hamburg in 1788. 
 Archenholz aho wrote a history of Gustavus Vasa, preceded by a 
 summary of the history of Sweden from the oldest records to the 
 end of the 16th century. It wa3 published at Hamburg in 1801. 
 About the time of the French revolution he became editor of the 
 'Minerva,' a German literary journal, published at Hamburg, which 
 enjoyed considerable reputation for many years. During this period 
 he wrote other works, chiefly historical. He possessed a lively and 
 entertaining style, and hi3 works were very popular in Germany ; and 
 several of them were translated into English and French. Archenholz 
 died in 1812. 
 
 A'RCHIAS, A LICTNIUS, a Greek poet of Antioch in Syria. 
 Archiaa came to Rome in the consulship of Marias and Lutatius 
 Catulua, B.C. 102, and lost no time in recommending himself to these 
 leading persona by a poem celebrating their victories over the Cimbri. 
 He was the intimate friend of Lucullus, and we find him chanting 
 the praises of that luxurious Roman in a poem on the Mithridatic 
 war. He waa admitted to the freedom of Heraclea, one of the most 
 powerful Greek cities in the south of Italy, and one whose citizens 
 were entitled to all the privileges of Romans. It was thus that 
 Archiaa became a naturalised citizen of Rome. Why a certain Gratius 
 should have contested this right, we have no means of discovering; 
 hut as the public archives of Heraclea had been destroyed by fire, 
 Archiaa waa unable to produce any legal document in proof of his 
 
 claim. It was in this case that Cicero's beautiful oration was pro- 
 nounced. The epigrams published under the name of Archias in tho 
 'Authologia Grajca,' are in general below mediocrity, but as there 
 were several of the same name as the poet, we cannot decide to whom 
 they really belong. These epigrams have been published separately 
 by Ilgen, 'Auimadvers. lliator. et Critic, iu Cic. Orat. pro Arch ia,' 
 Erfurt, 1797; and by Hiilsemann, in his edition of 'Cicero's Oration 
 for Archias,' Lemgo, 1800, 8vo. The discovery by Angelo Mai, in the 
 Ambrosian library of Milan, of a commentary on Cicero's oration on 
 behalf of Archias by Asconius Pedianus, who flourished A.D. 30, seems 
 to establish the genuineness of the oration, of which some doubts 
 have been raised. 
 
 ARCHIDA'MUS. Five kings of Sparta, of the royal line of the 
 Proclidae, are known to us by this name. The first lived before the 
 historical age of Sparta, and his name, mentioned by Herodotus (viii. 
 131), is the only memorial left of his existence. 
 
 ARCHIDA'MUS IL, son of Zeuxidainus, succeeded to the throne 
 when his grandfather, Leotychides, was banished from Sparta for 
 allowing his military proceedings in Thessaly to be influenced by a 
 bribe from his opponents. Archidamus reigned from B.C. 469 to 
 427. Prudence and foresight, steadiness of purpose, and gravity of 
 deportment, are the more prominent qualities which he displayed. In 
 the fourth year of his reign (B.C. 464) Sparta was nearly annihilated 
 by the violence of an earthquake, an opportunity which the Messeni- 
 ans seized in the hope of regaining their independence. The presence 
 of mind displayed by Archidamus on this occasion saved what remained 
 of the city from the hands of an exasperated foe ; but it was not till 
 ten years had elapsed, that this Third Messenian War, as it is called, 
 was brought to a close, when the Messenians evacuated their citadel, 
 Ithome. (Diod. Sic. xi. 64, Thucyd. i. 103.) Archidamus spoke for 
 peace in the important council held by the Lacedaemonians before they 
 resolved on the Peloponnesian war (B.C. 431), but so much confidence 
 had they iu Archidamus, that they placed him at the head of the 
 troops to be led against the Athenians. He was their general also 
 in their second (B.C. 430) aud third expeditions (b.c. 428). He was 
 succeeded by his son Agis IL, probably in B.C. 427. (Thucyd. i. 79 
 
 ii. 10-20, 71, iii. 1.) 
 
 ARCHIDA'MUS III., the son of the celebrated Agesilaus, succeeded 
 his father B.C. 361, and died B.C. 338. In B.C. 367, during his father's 
 lifetime, we find him in command of the Spartan troops, and gaining 
 a battle against the Arcadians and Argeians, which is known in history 
 as 'the tearless victory.' Not one of the Spartans fell, but of the 
 enemy a large number were killed. (Xeuoph., ' Hell.,' vii. 1. 28-32.) 
 In B.C. 338, he was sent to Italy to assist the inhabitants of Tarentum, 
 then engaged in war with their neighbours the Lucanians. He fell 
 fighting bravely at the head of his troops ; and a statue was erected 
 to his honour, at Olympia, by his countrymen. He was succeeded by 
 his son Agis III. (Diod. Sic. xvi. 24, 63; Strabo, vi. 280; Paus. 
 
 iii. 10.) 
 
 ARCHIDA'MUS IV., the son of Eudamidas, is mentioned by Plu- 
 tarch, who states that he was defeated (B.C. 296) by Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes; and Archidamus V., son of another Eudamidas, was put to 
 death by his royal colleague, Cleomenes III., somewhere between 
 B.C. 236-220. In him ended the line of the Proclidae, for though he 
 left five sons, they were passed over, and Lycurgus, not of the royal 
 family, was raised to the throne. (Polyb. iv. 2, v. 37.) 
 
 ARCHI'GENES of Apamea, a medical author aud practitioner, who 
 enjoyed a great reputation at Rome during the reign of the emperor 
 Trajan. He must have held a very distinguished rank among his 
 contemporaries, as appears from several passages in the ' Satires of 
 Juvenal ' (vi. 236, xiii. 98, xiv. 259), in which his name is employed 
 to denote a great physician generally. Archigeues followed the prin- 
 ciples of the Pneumatic sect, founded by Athenoeus of Attalia, and is 
 known to have written a considerable number of treatises on patho- 
 logy, the practice of medicine and surgery. The only remains of his 
 works which we now possess are fragments contained in the works of 
 Galen, ^Etius, and Oiibasius. Some of the surgical fragments have 
 been collected by Cocchi, ' Gr;ecorum Chir. libr.' 
 
 ARCHI'LOCHUS, one of the most celebrated lyric poets of Greece. 
 He was son of Telesicles by Enipo, a slave, and he was born in Paros, 
 an island of the /Egean Sea. By Herodotus (i. 12) and Tatian he is 
 made contemporary with Gyges, king of Lydia, Olympiad 23, or about 
 B.C. 688. Between B.C. 710 and B.C. 700, he settled in Thasos, and 
 described with much feeling the sufferings caused by the ambition of 
 the Tbasians in their attacks on their neighbours. He was, indeed, 
 more formidable with his pen than his sword ; like Alcseus and Horace, 
 he thought life preferable to honour, and did not hesitate to turn his 
 back on an enemy. This event iu the life of Archilochus took place, 
 according to the old scholiast on Aristophanes, in an expedition against 
 a people called Sai, in Thrace. Archilochus, it would appear, defended 
 himself by boldly declaring that it was better to lose one's shield 
 than life, aud Plutarch, in his account of the Spartan republic, states 
 that Archilochus was banished from Sparta for such a remarkable 
 opinion. His poetry was full of energy, terse in its language, and 
 vivid in its images. Of his satirical powers no doubt can be enter- 
 tained, if we credit the story of Lycambes. He had promised his 
 daughter iu marriage to Archilochus, but having changed his inten- 
 tion, the poet directed such a severe satire against the offenders, that 
 
ARCHIMEDES. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES. 
 
 203 
 
 the daughters hung themselves. It was after this that Archiloclms 
 went to Thasos. He then went to Sparta, to Siris in Lower Italy, and 
 at length returned to I'aros, where he fell in au action between the 
 Parians and Naxians. (Plut. ' de Sera Num. Vind.' c. 17.) It was in 
 Iambic verse that the poet chiefly excelled; he is said, indeed, to 
 havo been the inventor of it, and was one of the three poets whom 
 Aristarchus esteemed most highly in this species of poetry (Veil. 
 Patera i. 5 ; Quintil. x. 1). Some specimens of Archilochus, trans- 
 lated with much spirit, may be seen in Meri vale's ' Anthology,' London, 
 1832. Some fragments are found in the 'Analecta Vet. Poet. Qrsec.' 
 of Brunck, Ardent, 1785, and they are published separately by Liebel, 
 * Reliquiae Archilochi,' Vienna, 1819, 8vo. ; also in Gaisford's 'Minor 
 Greek Poets,' vol. i. ; and in Boissonnade's ' Collection,' vol. xv. 
 
 ARCHIME'DES, the most celebrated of the Greek geometers, and 
 one of the few men whose writings form a standard epoch in the 
 history of the progress of knowledge, was born in Sicily, in the Corin- 
 thian colony of Syracuse, in the year B.C. 287 : he was killed when that 
 town was taken by the Romans under Marcellus, n.c. 212, aged seventy- 
 five years. Euclid died about the time of the birth of Archimedes, 
 and Apollonius of Perga was about forty years his junior. Eratos- 
 thenes was born about ten years before him. 
 
 The life of Archimedes was written, according to Eutocius, his 
 commentator, by Heraclides, but the work has not come down to us, 
 and all that is known of him has been collected from various authors, 
 of whom the principal are Polybius his contemporary, Livy, Plutarch, 
 and Cicero. We acknowledge our obligations to the life of Archimedes 
 in Rivault's edition of his works, Paris, 1C15 ; and also to that in 
 M. Peyrard's translation, Paris, 1809. 
 
 Archimedes was related to Hieron, the second prince of that name, 
 who came to the throne of Syracuse when Archimedes was a very 
 young man. The reign of this prince, including the time that his son 
 Gelon also bore the royal title, lasted about fifty-five years, during 
 the greater part of which Archimedes remained at Syracuse under 
 their patronage. All that we know of his life during this period, inde- 
 pendently of the results of his studies, of which we shall presently 
 speak, is contained in the following incidents. The well-known story 
 of Hieron's crown (or Gelon's crown, according to some), is as follows : 
 Hieron, or Gelon, had delivered a certain weight of gold to a work- 
 man, to be made into a votive crown. The latter brought back a 
 crown of the proper weight, which was afterwards suspected to have 
 been alloyed with silver. The king asked Archimedes how he might 
 detect the cheat ; the difficulty being to measure the bulk of the crown 
 without melting it into a regular figure ; for silver being, weight for 
 weight, of greater bulk than gold, any alloy of the former, in place of 
 an equal weight of the latter, would necessarily increase the bulk of 
 the crown. While thinking on this matter, Archimedes went to bathe, 
 and on stepping into the bath, which was full, observed the very 
 simple fact, that a quantity of water of the same bulk as his body 
 must flow over before he could immerse himself. It immediately 
 struck him that by immersing a weight of real gold, equal to that 
 which the crown ought to have contained, in a vessel full of water, 
 and observing how much water was left when the weight was taken 
 out again, and by afterwards doing the same thing with the crown 
 itself, he could ascertain whether the latter exceeded the former in 
 bulk. In the words of Vitruvius, " As soon as he had hit upon this 
 method of detection, he did not wait a moment, but jumped joyfully 
 out of the bath, and running naked towards his own house, called out 
 with a loud voice that he had found what he sought ; for as he ran he 
 called out in Greek, EvpriKa, Evpy/co. ('I have found it, I have found 
 it')." According to Proclus, Hieron declared that from that moment 
 he could never refuse to believe anything that Archimedes told him. 
 
 The apophthegm attributed to him, that if he had a point to stand 
 upon, he could move the world, arose from his knowledge of the pos- 
 sible effects of machinery, and however it might astonish a Greek of 
 his day, would now be readily admitted to be as theoretically possible 
 as it is practically impossible. 
 
 He is said to have travelled into Egypt, and while there, observing 
 the necessity of raising the water of the Nile to points which the river 
 did not reach, to have invented the screw which bears his name. He 
 also invented a screw, according to Proclus, which enabled Hieron 
 himself to move a ship which all the Syracusans were unable to stir. 
 The screw now applied to steam-vessels, and which has been connected 
 with the name of Archimedes, has only this in common with the great 
 geometer, that he is said to have been the first who moved a ship with 
 a screw. 
 
 After the death of Hieron, the misconduct of his successor Hiero- 
 nymus, the son of Gelon, provoked a rebellion, in which he was killed. 
 The successful party sided with the Carthaginians, and the Romans 
 accordingly dispatched a land and naval armament against Syracuse 
 under Appius and Marcellus. Among all the extraordinary stories 
 which have been told of the siege, so much seems clear :— that it 
 lasted three years in spite of the utmost efforts of the besiegers ; that 
 this successful resistance was principally owing to the machines con- 
 structed by Archimedes; and that the city, after the siege had been 
 some time converted into a blockade, was finally taken by surprise, 
 owing to the carelessness of the besieged during the festival of Diana. 
 Polybius states that catapults and balistaa of various sizes were suc- 
 cessfully used against the euemv ; that in their nearer approach they 
 
 were galled by arrows shot not only from the top of the walls, but 
 through port-holes constructed in numerous places; that machines, 
 which threw masses of stone or lead of a weight not less than ten 
 talents, discharged their contents upon the Roman engines, which had 
 been previously caught by ropes; that iron hands (or hooks) attached 
 to chaius, were thrown so as to catch the prows of the vessels, which 
 were then overturned by the besieged ; and that the same machines 
 were used to catch the assailants on the land side, and throw them to 
 the ground. Livy and Plutarch give much the same account ; but 
 the curious story of setting the Roman ships on fire by mirrors, is 
 first mentioned by John Tzetzes and Zonaras, writers of the 12th 
 century, who cite Diodorus and others for the fact. But Galen, in the 
 2nd century, though he mentions that Archimedes set the enemy's 
 ships on fire, says it was done with irvpia, which may refer to any 
 machine or contrivance throwing lighted materials. Lucian also, who 
 lived in the 2nd century, mentions the burning of the ships, but with- 
 out saying how it was effected. 
 
 After tho storming of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed by a Roman 
 soldier, who did not know who he was ; Marcellus, it is said, had given 
 strict orders to preserve him alive. According to Valerius Maximus, 
 when the soldier asked who he was, Archimedes, being intent upon a 
 problem, begged that his diagram might not be disturbed ; upon which 
 tho soldier put him to death. According to another account, he was 
 in the act of carrying his instruments to Marcellus, when he was killed 
 by some soldiers who suspected he was concealing treasure. At his 
 own request, expressed during his life, a sphere inscribed in a cylinder 
 was engraved on his tomb, in memory of his discovery that the solid 
 content of a sphere is exactly two-thirds of that of the circumscribing 
 cylinder. By this mark it was afterwards found, covered with weeds, 
 by Cicero, when he was residing in Sicily as quoestor. 
 
 The fame of Archimedes rests upon the extraordinary advances 
 which he made, considering the time in which he lived, in pure geo- 
 metry, in the theory of equilibrium, and in numerical approximation. 
 In pure geometry he made as near an approach to the fluxioual or 
 differential calculus as can possibly be done without the aid of alge- 
 braic transformations. In the theory of mechanics he was the only 
 one among the ancients who reduced anything to demonstration from 
 evident first principles ; indeed, up to the time of Stevinus and Galileo, 
 no further advance was made. The works of Archimedes which have 
 come down to us, of whioh the first seven are in Greek, are : — 
 
 1. Two books 'On the Sphere and Cylinder.' 2. 'On the Measure- 
 ment of the Circle.' In this work is given the celebrated approximation 
 to the proportion existing between the circumference and the diameter 
 of a circle. Archimedes gives the ratio as between 3'1428 and 3 - 1408. 
 It is now known to be 3'1416 very nearly. 3. ' On Conoids and Sphe- 
 roids.' In this treatise is shown, probably for the first time, how to 
 find the area of an ellipse by means of that of a circle. 4. ' On Spirals.' 
 5. Two books ' On the Equilibrium and Centre of Gravity of Plane 
 Surfaces.' 6. ' Psammites,' better kuown by its Latin name ' Arena- 
 rius.' 7. ' On the Quadrature of the Parabola.' 8. Two books ' On 
 Bodies Floating in a Fluid.' There is also a book of ' Lemmas ' attri- 
 buted to Archimedes, translated from the Arabic in 1659, and repub- 
 lished by Borelli in 1661. The works of Archimedes are written in 
 Doric Greek, the prevailing dialect in Sicily. The text is for the most 
 part in tolerably good preservation ; the style is clear, and has been 
 considered better than that of any of the other Greek geometers. M. 
 Peyrard, in calling Archimedes the Homer of Geometry, ha3 made a 
 simile which is perfectly admissible as to the strength of praise it 
 conveys, if in no other point. The commentaries of Eutocius which 
 have come down to us are those on the ' Sphere and Cylinder,' the 
 ' Measurement of the Circle,' and the ' Equilibrium of Planes.' 
 
 We can only briefly touch upon several remaining points. It is 
 known from Ptolemy that Archimedes observed or calculated several 
 solstices, for the determination of the length of the year. He is said 
 to have been the first who constructed a machine for representing the 
 motions of the sun, moon, stars, and perhaps of the planets. A large 
 number of works which have not come down to us is attributed to 
 him, a list of which may be found in Fabricius ; particularly a treatise 
 on ' Burning Mirrors,' and a treatise on the ' Parabola,' published at 
 Louvain in 1548. There is no great evidence in favour of the genuine- 
 ness of either. The ancients attributed to him more than forty mecha- 
 nical inventions, among which are— the endless screw; the combination 
 of pulleys ; an hydraulic organ, according to Tertullian ; a machine 
 called the helix, or screw, for launching ships, according to Athenaeus ; 
 and a machine called loculus, which appears to have consisted of forty 
 pieces, by the putting together of which various objects could be 
 framed, and which was used by boy3 as a sort of artificial memory. 
 It is impossible to understand what is meant by such a description. 
 This constant tendency to attribute inventions to Archimedes suffi- 
 ciently shows the impression which his name left on posterity. 
 
 Among the priucipal editions of the works of Archimedes we must 
 notice the partial edition of Tartaglia, Venice, 1543 ; the first com- 
 plete edition, reviewed by Regiomontanus, accompanied by the com- 
 mentary of Eutocius ; the whole Greek and Latin, Basle, 1544. 
 There are editions by Commandine, Venice, 1558 (containing only part 
 of his works) ; by Rivault, Paris, 1615 (containing the Greek of Archi- 
 medes in the preliminary addresses and enunciations only, the demon- 
 straiions being the Latin of Rivault, except in the ' Arenarius/ which 
 
397 
 
 ARCHYTAS. 
 
 ARDEN, EDWARD. 
 
 293 
 
 ia complete); by Torelli, Oxford, 1732, the best perhaps of all. The 
 last-mentioned edition was purchased by the University of Oxford 
 after the death of the editor, and is the only one which contains the 
 various readings. We have also the Latin translation of Borelli, 1661; 
 and the French translation of Peyrard, Paris, 1809, undertaken at the 
 request of the Institute, and revised by Delauilire, being for public 
 use by much the most convenient version which has yet appeared. A 
 German translation of all the works of Archimedes, by Ernst, appeared 
 at Stralsuud in 1824, in 4to. 
 
 (Montucla cites the following lives of Archimedes : — Mazuchelli, 
 Nutizie Historicfte alia Vita, <bc, d'Archimede, 4to., 1735 ; and an 
 unfinished work of M. Melot, Mem. de L'Acad. des Belles Leltres, 
 vol. XV.) 
 
 ARCHY'TAS, a native of the Greek city Tarentum in Italy. All 
 incieut accouuts concur in regarding him as uniting the merits of a 
 philosopher, mathematician, statesman, and general. He appears to 
 have been contemporary with the younger Dionysius and with Plato. 
 Archytas belonged to the Pythagorean school, and was himself pro- 
 bably the founder of a sect. He ia distinguished more particularly for 
 his knowledge of mathematics, and for his discoveries in practical 
 mechanics. Among the mathematical problems he attempted to solve 
 was the duplication of the cube, but in too complicated a manner to 
 be explained here : the wooden pigeon that could fly was the most 
 ■celebrated of his mechanical inventions. Many works are ascribed to 
 Lim, and we have still several small pieces under his name, but there 
 seems good reason to doubt whether they are the genuine productions 
 of Archytas. A list of the works of Archjtas is given by Pabricius in 
 Lis ' Bibliotheca Graeca,' i. 831. There is a ' Treatise on the Ten 
 Categories, or on the Nature of The All,' published in Greek by 
 Cainerarius (Lips., 1564, Venet., 1571); and a fragment on Mathe- 
 matics, edited, with some other Opuscula, by Stephens (Paris, 1557), 
 reprinted at Copenhagen, 1707. A complete collection of the frag- 
 uieuta ascribed to Archytas was published by J. Cu. Orelli, Leipzig, 
 1821, 8vo. ' The Political Fi'agments of Archytas,' &c, translated 
 torn the Greek by Thomas Taylor, was published at Loudon, 1822, 
 in 8vo. 
 
 ARC ON, JEAN CLAUDE D', a native of Pontarlier in Franche- 
 Couite, born in 1733, showed an early inclination for the military pro- 
 fession. He became an expert engineer, and wrote several treatises, 
 among which may be enumerated, ' Correspondance sur l'Art de la 
 Guerre,' and ' Reflexions d'un Ingenieur en Response a un Tauticien,' 
 ^iiao, Amsterdam, 1773. In 1780, when the Spaniards wore besieging 
 Gibraltar, D'Arcou devised a plan of attack, by means of floating bat- 
 teries, which were to be incombustible and not liable to sink. His 
 scheme being approved by the Spanish government, the batteries were 
 commenced at Algesiras about the 12th of May, 1782, by striking the 
 topmasts and cutting down the poops of ten ships of war, from 600 to 
 1400 tons burden : the larboard side of each was entirely covered with 
 green timber to a thickness of six or seven feet, the pieces being fastened 
 with iron bolts, and the whole was covered with layers of junk and 
 raw hides. Over the deck also was built a shell-proof blindage, or roof, 
 of strong timbers, forming two inclined planes with a ridge along the 
 middle ; and above the lower deck, the starboard side, or that which 
 was to be turned from the fortress, was left open. Port-holes were 
 formed for guns, the number of which in the different batteries varied 
 from nine to twenty-one ; and a large reservoir was formed in each, 
 whence by pumps water could be thrown over the roof and sides so as 
 to keep the timber constantly wet. It was imagined that the thick 
 masses of wood forming the sides, which were exposed to the fire from 
 the fortress, would prevent the vessels from being suuk, and that the 
 pumps would secure them against being set on fire, The ten battering 
 ships were to have been moored within half gun shot of the walls by 
 iron chains, and to have been supported by teu Spanish ships of the 
 line, besides bomb-vessels aud gun-boats. Large boats filled with 
 troops, protected by mantelets, were to be in readiness ; and the man- 
 telets being provided with hinges, were to be let down when the boats 
 approached the shore, in order to facilitate the lauding of the men. 
 
 The combined fleets of France and Spain, consisting of forty-seven 
 sail of the line, besides frigates, gun-boats, and the ten battering ships, 
 came before the fortress on the 12th of September; and on the fol- 
 lowing morning the latter got under weigh in order to proceed to their 
 stations, D'Arcon himself keeping ahead in a small boat, and taking 
 the soundings. The garrison of the fortress, which during the siege 
 was commanded by General Elliot, in the meantime lighted the fur- 
 naces which had been prepared for heating shot. The two greatest 
 ships anchored about nine hundred yards from the ramparts ; but from 
 insufficiency of sail or want of skill in the commanders, the eight others 
 remained at a greater distance. As soon as the ships were moored 
 the firing commenced on both sides, the garrison discharging red-hot 
 shot, carcasses, and shells. For several hours however very little effect 
 seemed to be produced on the floating batteries, the heaviest shells 
 often rebounding from the roofs; and thii tytwo-pouuder shot made 
 no visible impression on the hulls of the vessels ; but in the afternoon 
 » red-hot ball lodged in the side of the Talla Piedra, and could not be 
 extinguished. An order was then precipitately given to wet the powder 
 in the magazine, and the guns in consequence ceasing their fire, the 
 ship was no longer covered with srnoke, so that it became completely 
 exposed to the artillery of the garrison. D'Arcon, who was in the 
 
 ship, proposed to send out an anchor for the purpose of warping her 
 beyond the range of the English guns, but a sufficient number of men 
 could not be obtained to perform the duty ; he then, about midnight, 
 went to the admiral's ship to solicit assistance, but ho could obtain 
 none ; and during the night, or in the following morning, all the ten 
 ships either blew up or were burned to the water's edge. In his 
 ' Me moires pour servir a l'Histoire du Siege de Gibraltar,' which he 
 published at Cadiz in the following year, General D'Arcon ascribes the 
 disaster to the jealousy of the Spaniards ; and the fact that the bat- 
 tering ship3 were not supported by the rest of the fleet affords some 
 giound for the charge. 
 
 D'Arcon afterwards served in the French army at the time of the 
 Revolution, and assisted in the conquest of Holland. In 1795 he pub- 
 lished ' Considerations Militaires et Politiques sur les Fortifications,' 
 in which he condensed all that he had previously written on the sub- 
 ject. He was made a senator in 1799, and died the following year at 
 his estate near Auteuil. 
 
 ARDEN, EDWARD, descended from a very ancient and honourable 
 family seated at Parkhall in Warwickshire, was born in 1531. He 
 succeeded his grandfather, Thomas Arden, in the family estate in 1563. 
 Thomas Arden, his grandfather, was squire for the body to Henry VII. ; 
 and he was the son of Walter Arden, who married Eleanor, daughter 
 of John Hampden of Buckinghamshire. The younger brother of 
 Walter Arden was the great-grandfather of Mary Arden, the mother 
 of William Shakspere ; aud thus there was a family connection between 
 the great poet of the days of Elizabeth and the staunch opposer of the 
 claims of Charles I. to tax the people without consent of parliament. 
 Edward Arden married Mary, the daughter of Sir George Throck- 
 morton. At the Reformation he held to the old forms of religion, but 
 this did not prevent him filling the office of Sheriff of Warwickshire 
 in the year 1568. The Earl of Leicester was Arden's neighbour. He 
 was an enemy of the Throckmortons (Sir John and Sir Kicholas), and 
 Arden, who appears to have beeu a man of high spirit, not only par- 
 took of the general dislike of his wife's family to that nobleman, but 
 openly quarrelled with Leicester, called him an upstart, and, as it 
 would appear, publicly reflected upon his connection with the Countess 
 of Essex. One of Edward Arden's daughters was married to John 
 Somerville, a young gentleman of family and fortune in Warwickshire, 
 a Roman Catholic, of violent temper. In Whitsuntide 15S3 Somer- 
 ville and his wife were at Mr. Arden's, and Hugh Hall, Ardeu's priest, 
 appears to have persuaded Somerville to attempt the death of Queen 
 Elizabeth, as an incorrigible heretic, as one who was daily growing 
 worse, and whom it would be a service to the cause of true religion to 
 destroy. Somerville appears to have brooded upon this after his return 
 home till he became so melancholy, that his wife wrote to Hall to 
 come and converse with him. Hall did not come, but he wrote to 
 Somerville a long letter to incite him to prosecute his plan for the 
 destruction of Elizabeth ; and this letter seems to have produced the 
 effect intended, for Somerville immediately set out for London ; but 
 when he got to Warwick he attacked some Protestants with his sword, 
 and was seized. Somerville's wife after his departure had found Hall's 
 letter, and took it to her father Arden, who threw it into the fire. On 
 the 30th of October 1583 Somerville was committed to the Tower on 
 a charge of high treason, and having on his apprehension said some- 
 thing of his father-in-law and mother-in law, orders were sent into 
 Warwickshire for their apprehension. On the 4th of November Hall 
 was committed to the Tower, and on the 7th Arden. On the 16th 
 Mary, Ardeu's wife, Margaret, Somerville's wife, aud Elizabeth, Somer- 
 ville's sister, were committed. On the 23rd Somerville was tortured 
 in the Tower, and on the following day Hugh Hall also. On the 16th 
 of December Edward Arden, Mary his wife, John Somerville, aud Hugh 
 Hall, were tried for high treason in Guildhall; they were all found 
 guilty on the confession extorted from Hall, aud were all sentenced to 
 death. On the 19th of December Arden and Somerville were removed 
 from the Tower to Newgate. Here Somerville was strangled, by his 
 own hands, as it was given out, but by others who were afraid of what 
 he might say, as was suspected. Un the 20th of December, 1583, 
 Arden was executed in Suiithfield. He asserted that Somerville was 
 murdered, that he himself was innocent, and that he was to be exe- 
 cuted, not for conspiring against the queen, but for his firmness in 
 maintaining and asserting his religion as a Roman Catholic. He 
 excited general commiseration. His head was set on London bridge, 
 his quarters on the city gates. Somerville's head was also set on 
 London bridge, but his body was interred iu Moorfields. Mrs. Arden 
 was pardoned, but the queen gave away her husband's estate to Edward 
 Darcy. Hall, the priest, was also pardoned ; aud it was said that 
 Leicester tried to induce Chancellor Hatton to bauish him, but without 
 success. 
 
 Holliushed, Stow, and others speak of Arden as a traitor justly con- 
 victed, but Camden says :—" The woful end of this gentleman, who 
 was drawn in by the cunning of the priest, aud cast by his evideuce, 
 was generally imputed to Leicester's malice. Certain it is that he had 
 incurred Leicester's heavy displeasure, aud not without cause, for he 
 had rashly opposed him in all he could, reproached him as an adulterer, 
 and defamed him as a new upstart." The account which Dugdale gives 
 of him is as follows: — '"Which Edward, though a gentleman not infe- 
 rior to the rest of his ancestors iu those virtues wherewith they were 
 adorned, had the hard hap to come to au untimely death in 27 Elix, 
 
210 
 
 ARDEN, ROBERT. 
 
 ARETINO, PIETRO. 
 
 300 
 
 the charge laid against him being no less than high treason against the 
 queen, as privy to some foul intentions that Master Somerville, his 
 son-in-law (a Roman Catholic), had towards her person : for which he 
 was prosecuted with so great rigour and violence, by the Karl of 
 Leicester's means, whom he had irritated iu some particulars (as I 
 have credibly heard), partly in disdaining to wear his livery, which 
 many in this country of his rank thought, in these days, no small 
 honour ; but chiefly for galling him by certain harsh expressions, 
 touching his private accesses to the Countess of Essex before she was 
 his wife ; that through the testimony of one Hall, a priest, he was 
 found guilty of the fact, and lost his life iu Sraithfield." 
 
 (Camden, History of Elizabeth, Queen of England; 1 Biographia 
 Britannica ; Dugdale, Antiquities of Warwickshire.) 
 
 ARDEN, ROBERT, the son of Edward Arden, was a lawyer, and is 
 said to have succeeded in recovering from Darcy by law suits the 
 greater part of his father's estates. 
 
 ARDEN, RICHARD PEPPER, LORD ALVANLEY, was the 
 second son of John Arden, Esq., and was born in 1745 at Bredbury, 
 near Stockport. He received his early education at the grammar 
 school iu Manchester, and in 1763 was admitted as gentleman-com- 
 moner of Trinity College, Cambridge. He was admitted a member of* 
 the Society of the Middle Temple in the year 1762, and was called to 
 the bar in 17C9. At tho commencement of his professional life he 
 became the associate and friend of Mr. Pitt) and his intimacy with that 
 statesman was undoubtedly the efficient cause of bis success. In 1776 
 he was appointed a judge on the South Wales circuit in conjunction 
 with Mr. Justice Barrington, and in 1780 he became king's counsel and 
 a bencher of the Middle Temple. When Mr. Fox and Mr. Burke, with 
 other members of the Whig party, seceded from the administration in 
 
 1782, upon the death of the Marquis of Rockingham, Mr. Arden was 
 appointed solicitor-general ; and in the same year he first came into 
 parliament as member for Newtown in the Isle of Wight. In April, 
 
 1783, when the coalition between Lord North and Mr. Fox was formed, 
 he resigned his office of solicitor-general, and became one of the most 
 constant and strenuous supporters of Mr. Pitt in his opposition to that 
 ministry. Upon-Mr. Pitt being again placed at the head of the govern- 
 ment, Mr. Arden was re-appointed solicitor-general. This occurred in 
 December, 1783; and in March of the following year he became 
 attorney-general, and chief justice of Chester upon the removal of 
 Mr. Kenyon to the Rolls. At the new parliament, which was called 
 in May, 1784, he sat for Aldborough in Yorkshire. He retained the 
 office of attorney-general for four years, and when Lord Kenyon was 
 appointed lord chief justice of the King's Bench, in the summer of 
 1788, Mr. Arden, after considerable opposition on the part of Lord 
 Thurlow, then Lord Chancellor, became Master of the Rolls. On 
 receiving this promotion Mr. Arden was knighted, and was again 
 returned to parliament for Aldborough. In the new House of Com- 
 mons, which assembled in November, 1790, he sat as one of the 
 members for Hastings. 
 
 Shortly after the close of Easter term, 1801, Lord Eldon having 
 relinquished the office of Lord Chief Justice of the Court of Common 
 Pleas, Sir Richard Pepper Arden succeeded him, and was created a 
 peer by the title of Baron Alvanley of Alvanley in the county palatine 
 of Chester. He presided in the Court of Common Pleas less than three 
 years. He was suddenly seized with an inflammation of the bowels, 
 and died on the 19th of March, 1804, after an illness of a few days. 
 
 Lord Alvanley married in 1784 a daughter of Richard Wilbraham 
 Bootle, Esq., and sister of Lord Skelmersdale. By this lady he had 
 two sons and three daughters, who all survived him. 
 
 ARET^EUS, surnamed Cappadox, or the Cappadocian, one of the 
 most valuable medical writers of antiquity, is supposed to have lived 
 in the latter part of the 1st and the beginning of the 2nd century 
 after Christ. It seems to be a peculiar merit of this physician to 
 have remained free from the predominant influence of any one of the 
 prevailing theoretical schools, and to have preserved a praiseworthy 
 independence in the observation and treatment of diseases. Aretasus 
 was an original observer; his writings bear no traces of compilation; 
 and if some of the information which he affords belongs to the age 
 in which he lived, a great part of it seems to be the result of his own 
 personal experience. 
 
 Aretseus regarded a knowledge of the structure and functions of 
 the body as a necessary step towards the study of disease; his anato- 
 mical remarks however betray sufficiently the imperfect state of this 
 science in his time. He concurred with the Pneumatic physicians and 
 the Stoic philosophers, in believing the heart to be "the principle of 
 life and strength," and the seat of the soul. He gave a full account of 
 the distribution of the vena portarum, and regarded all veins as having 
 their origin in the liver; he also was aware of the numerous com- 
 munications which exist in various parts of the venous system, which 
 led him to refute the notion that particular veins in the arm are con- 
 nected with particular internal organs, and the consequences which 
 were drawn from this notion as to bloodletting. Aretseus looked upon 
 the liver as the organ destined to prepare the blood, and the spleen as 
 fitted to purify that fluid. He regarded both the stomach and colon 
 as organs of digestion, and bestowed much attention on the morbid 
 affections of the latter organ. He knew that the kidneys had a glan- 
 dular structure. He stated the nerves to be the organs of sensation 
 and motion. The fact that injuries of the head are apt to produce 
 
 paralytic affections on the opposite side did not escape his observation, 
 and, in order to account for it, he stated that the nervous fibres in 
 the brain form a decussation in the shape of tho Greek letter X, whilst 
 the nerves arising from the spinal marrow proceed directly to the 
 organ for which they are designed. Notwithstanding these curious 
 remarks on the functions of the nervous system, Aretseus evidently 
 did not make any clear distinction between the nervous and tendinous 
 parts ; the latter are undoubtedly alluded to, when he says that, 
 besides the nerves proceeding from the brain, there are others which 
 pass from one bone to another, and are the principal sources of motion. 
 
 The descriptions which Aretseus has given of the diseases to which 
 the human economy is subject are accurate delineations, evidently 
 taken from nature, and distinguished by a peculiar liveliness, elegance, 
 and conciseness of diction. He is thought to have excelled all ancient 
 authors, not even excepting Hippocrates, in the art of describing dis- 
 eases, and may still be regarded as a model in this species of litera- 
 ture. His account of epilepsy, tetanus, acute and chronic headaches, 
 hoomoptysis and causus, or burning fever, are peculiarly happy speci- 
 mens of his manner of writing. 
 
 In the treatment of diseases, Aretseus regarded experience as the 
 best guide, and he repeatedly refers to the necessity of following the 
 hints which nature gives to the physician. His methods of treatment 
 seem to have been energetic where it appeared necessary, but always 
 simple; and he was averse to that farrago of medicines to the use of 
 which some of his contemporaries were addicted. 
 
 He frequently employed emetics, purgatives, and clysters; and he 
 was aware that emetics not only evacuate the contents of the stomach 
 and intestines, but derive a great part of their efficacy from the shock 
 which the act of vomiting produces in those parts. He was fond of 
 bloodletting in chronic as well as acute diseases, but cautious with 
 regard to the quantity of blood which he took away : he advises the 
 blood to bo stopped before fainting supervenes, and recommends in 
 apoplexy not to take away too much blood at one bleeding. He also 
 mentions the practice of opening a vein on the back of the hand, and 
 he practised the operation of arteriotomy. He employed cupping- 
 glasses and leeches, aud ho is the first author who mentions blistering 
 with cantharides. 
 
 Scarcely any internal medicines were employed by Aretseus in the 
 treatment of acute diseases ; but he paid strict attention to diet and 
 regimen: among his dietetical prescriptions, those on the use of the 
 different kinds of milk deserve to be mentioned. In treating chronic 
 diseases he more frequently had recourse to the aid of medicines; we 
 find him prescribing diuretics, sndorifics, and several of the compound 
 stimulating preparations which were in vogue in his time. 
 
 Of the writings of Aretojus, only four books on the causes and 
 symptoms, and as many ou the treatment, of acute and chronic diseases 
 are extant; nor have they been preserved in a perfect form : — chap. i. 
 — iv., and part of chap. v. of the first book on the causes, and several 
 passages in the books on the treatment, of diseases are lost. In this 
 work the author alludes to his treatises on surgery, on pharmacy, on 
 fevers, and on the diseases of women, of all which works not a single 
 fragment now remains. Had they been handed down to our times, 
 they would have formed most important additions to medical literature. 
 Aretasus wrote in the Ionic dialect of the Greek language. 
 
 The eight books of Aretseus were first edited from the Parisian 
 manuscripts by J. Goupyl, and published at Paris, 1554, 8vo. The 
 standard edition is that of Mr. John Wigan, student of Christ Church, 
 Oxford : it was undertaken by the advice and with the assistance of 
 Dr. Freind, and printed at the Clarendon Press, 1723, folio. Wigau 
 gave a very good Latin translation, notes, and a valuable dissertation 
 ' de Aretaei setate, secta, in rebus anatomicis scientia, et curandi ratione.' 
 Aretseus also forms the 24tb volume of Kiihn's edition of the Greek 
 medical authors, Lips., 1828, 8vo. An English translation of Aretseus, 
 by John Moffat, was published at London, 1785, 8vo. 
 
 ARETI'NO, PIETRO, was one of the most notorious men of letters 
 who lived in the 16th century. The admirers of his literary talents 
 called him ' the Divine.' The political position he was supposed to 
 hold was indicated by his other title, 'the Scourge of Princes.' Both 
 titles were, like the life of the man, thoroughly deceptive. He was a 
 person of much natural genius, of very little learning, of no industry, 
 and almost utterly destitute of moral principle. The favourable cir- 
 cumstances in his history are chiefly to be gathered from his own 
 correspondence, the unfavourable ones from bitter libels on him written 
 by his enemies. 
 
 Pietro was born at Arezzo in 1492, and is believed to have been the 
 natural son of a gentleman named Luigi Bacci. Till his twentieth 
 year he lived poor and neglected, working for some time as a book- 
 binder in Perugia, picking up such fragments of education as he could, 
 and distinguishing himself by one or two acts of audacious disrespect 
 for the religion of his country. For about fifteen years after this 
 period he was a wanderer through Italy, serving the great in capa- 
 cities of a very subordinate kind, and repeatedly involving himself in 
 disgrace by misconduct, but still contriving to impress on all who 
 knew him a very high opinion of his natural endowments. After 
 having acquired the patronage of the papal court, he lost it in 1523 
 by writing obscene sonnets, to accompany the equally obscene engrav- 
 ings made by Marcantonio from drawings of Giulio Romano. An 
 attempt to recover the favour of his Roman patrons was defeated by 
 
301 
 
 ARETINO, PIETRO. 
 
 ARGAND, AT ME. 
 
 302 
 
 a low amour, in the course of which he was dangerously wounded by 
 a rival ; and the same incident was indirectly the cause of embroiling 
 him with Berni, II Mauro (Arcano), and some other poets of the Ber- 
 nesque school, who were thenceforth through life his determined 
 enemies and unscrupulous maligners. Through all these mishaps 
 however Pietro was able to acquire and retain the patronage, not only 
 of some of the Medici, but of Francis I. of France. 
 
 In March 1527 he took up his abode at Venice. There, with no 
 interval of absence exceeding a few weeks, he resided till his death, 
 which took place in that city in 1557, when he had completed his sixty- 
 fifth year. These last thirty years of his life were spent in what he 
 himself desired to describe as literary labour, but of which the greater 
 part was quite unworthy of so honourable an appellation. He did 
 iudeed compose and publish a few works properly literary, but the 
 composition of these was one of his least important employments ; 
 and so idle and debauched a person can hardly be supposed to have 
 been influenced in writing them by any higher motive than this, that 
 the acquisition of a certain amount of literary reputation was neces- 
 Bary for effecting the great end which he kept steadily in view. He 
 dii indeed likewise associate with literary men and artists : in fact, 
 intellectual society had real charms for him ; and it is plain that in 
 such society he was eminently qualified to shine. He acquired and 
 retained the friendship, or seeming friendship, of most of those men 
 of genius who adorned Italy in his time ; his list of literary friends 
 including such names as that of Bernardo Tasso, while Titian was his 
 constant companion, and Michel Angelo his frequent correspondent. 
 But all these pursuits and companionships, although embraced perhaps 
 in some degree from genuine liking, were most assiduously cultivated 
 for their bearing on other objects, and to these they were skilfully made 
 subservient. 
 
 The great aim of Pietro's life at Venice was the acquisition of wealth : 
 wealth he desired ardently, not that he might hoard it, but because 
 without it he could not purchase sensual gratifications. His method 
 of earning money was one which the vocabulary of modern times 
 might enable us to describe by a very plain and undignified term. He 
 was a writer of begging letters. This was exactly the fact : there was 
 nothiug to elevate it except the rank of the parties to whom the 
 mendicant addressed himself, and the singular success with which his 
 applications were crowned. Among Pietro's benefactors were many 
 nobles and statesmen : but his favourite correspondents were persons 
 higher still. He established a correspondence, not only with every 
 reigning prince in Italy, but with the emperor of Germany, the king 
 of France, the kings or royal families of Poland, Portugal, Spain, and 
 England. He received gifts or pensions from most of these illustrious 
 persons, as well as from Sultan Solyman and Barbarossa the pirate. 
 From the gains thus procured he supported himself during the thirty 
 years of his residence in Venice, not merely in comfort, but in the 
 profuse luxury of a debauchee. 
 
 His letters, which he published in six successive volumes, explain 
 distinctly how this improbable result was brought about. The machinery 
 was bo cumbrous, that it is here quite impossible to expose all its in- 
 ternal mysteries ; but the principal parts of the moving power may 
 be easily exhibited. We mistake Pietro's position entirely if we accept, 
 as in any sense literally true, his favourite title of ' Scourge of Princes.' 
 He wished to be considered capable of becoming their scourge, but in 
 addressing them he was their abject flatterer. He never went farther 
 in his endeavours to extort favours, than insinuating that his praise of 
 other princes would imply dispraise of those whom he addressed ; and 
 that his praise must be earned by liberality, the first of kingly virtues. 
 The point most difficult to be understood is, how he was able to make 
 Lis royal patrons believe that it was worth while to purchase either 
 his praise or his silence. Even this point could be in no small degree 
 elucidated by an exposition of the relation in which Pietro stood to 
 the literary world of his time ; but that relation was so complicated 
 i hat its details cannot be entered into. The principle however upon 
 which he acted was abundantly plain ; and it is not uufairly described, 
 when it is called a system of deliberate imposture. It consisted in 
 diffusing, in all accessible quarters, and by every conceivable artifice, 
 an exaggerated opinion of his literary powers, both a3 a panegyrist 
 and a satirist. He did contrive to make himself estimated, in both 
 capacities, infinitely beyond the worth of anything which he ever 
 really performed. The means by which this effect was produced are 
 interesting and curious in the extreme, as illustrations of human 
 character, whether we regard the actor in the plot, or those upon 
 whom he worked. 
 
 Very seldom did any unpleasant collision mar the animal repose of 
 hia life in Venice. He was too cautious, or rather too timid, to risk 
 anything of the sort. He attempted again and again, and in some 
 cases successfully, to conciliate even his literary foes ; but after all 
 these men could only vilify his moral character, and he understood 
 his own position too well to feel any serious uneasiness on that score. 
 With persons of higher rank and greater power he never took liberties 
 unless when he believed he might do so with impunity ; and if he 
 found that this expectation was groundless, he lost no time in making 
 •ubmiggions. When he libelled Pope Clement VII., the pope was 
 Besieged in the Castel Sant' Angelo ; and he was able to be on terms 
 of euch favour with Julius III. that he was admitted to an interview, 
 •nd had, soon afterwards, the impudence to ask for a cardinal's hat; 
 
 on the refusal of which he pasquinaded the pope and his family. Ho 
 slandered the exiled Pietro Strozzi ; but he lay hid in his house for 
 weeks on learning that Pietro had threatened to cut his throat. His 
 most unlucky encounter was with Harvell, the English ambassador at 
 Venice, who, on learning that Pietro had charged him with misappro- 
 priating a gift sent by Henry VIII., waylaid the libeller, and made his 
 servants beat him soundly. 
 
 The best and most systematic account of Pietro's life and writings 
 is the elaborate and accurate memoir by Mazzuchelli, ' La Vita di 
 Pietro Aretino/ first published in 1741, and again with great additions 
 and improvements, at Brescia, in 1763, 8vo. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARETI'NO, SPINELLO, one of the most distinguished of the early 
 Italian painters, was born at Arezzo in 1316. He was the pupil of 
 Jacopo del Casentino, whom however he surpassed even as a boy. He 
 obtained a reputation very early by some frescoes illustrating tlie life 
 of San Niccolo, which he executed in a new church of that saint 
 built at Arezzo by Dardano Acciajuoli, and which procured him an 
 invitation from Baroni Capelli, a citizen of Florence, to paint the 
 principal chapel of Santa Maria Maggiore, with subjects from the life 
 of the Virgin, and of Sant' Antonio Abate. He executed some fi escoes 
 in the monastery of San Miniato, near Florence, which still remain ■ 
 others in the monastery of San Bernardo, at Arezzo ; and others in 
 distemper, in the mouastery of Monte Oliveto near Florence. He 
 executed also six of the series of frescoes illustrating the life of San 
 Ranieri, in the Campo Santo at Pisa, which Vasari reckons among his 
 best works; scarcely anything of them now remains, but there are 
 prints of them in Lasinio's ' Pitture a Fresco del Campo Santo di Pisa.' 
 The principal works of Spiuello are not mentioned by Vasari ; they are 
 in the town-hall of Siena, and are from the lite of Pope Alexander III. 
 Rumohr describes them in his 'Italian Researches.' Aretino was 
 still painting them in 1408, which probably was the year of his death. 
 Vasari says he died about 1400, aged 92; on the other hand, sums' 
 recent inquirers think he could not have been born before about 
 1330. Aretino excelled in expression, and, in the opinion of Vasari, 
 was a better painter than Giotto, and equal to him in design. (Vasari' 
 Vitede'Pittori, &c , and the Notes to Schorn's German translation; 
 Rumohr, Italienische Forschnngcn.) 
 
 ARFE, the name of two very distinguished Spanish silversmiths, 
 and the designers and constructors of several of the most costly taber- 
 nacles which do or did adorn the cathedrals of Spain. 
 
 Henrique de Arfe, the elder, and the grandfather of the other, Juan 
 de Arfe, made, between 1506 and 1524, the silver tabernacles of the 
 cathedrals of Leon, Cordova, aud Toledo. The last, which is a gothio 
 design, and hexagonal, is ornamented with 260 small statues, besides 
 bas-reliefs and other embellishments; it weighs rather more than 5292 
 ounces. It was gilded by Fiancisco Merino in 1599. 
 
 Juan de Arfe y Villafanc, the grandson, was born at Leon in 1535; 
 his father Antonio, likewise a silversmith of ability, was his instructor! 
 
 He is the artist of three of the finest tabernacles in Spain those of 
 
 Avila, Seville, and Osmas. That of Seville is the largest and most 
 costly in Spain; it is 12 feet high, and its whole weight in 1668 was 
 rather more than 17,397 ounces. It was completed in 1587, and Arfe 
 himself published an account of it. He made also tabernacles for 
 the cathedrals of Burgos and Valladolid, and one for the church of 
 St. Martin at Madrid. Arfe was much employed by Philip II. and 
 Philip III. ; the former appointed him assayer of the Mint of Segovia. 
 About 1590 he made the tabernacle of Osmas, in which he was assisted 
 by his son-in-law Lesmes Fernandez del Moral. He also wrote two 
 works connected with the theory of his profession—' Quilatador de 
 Oro, Plata, y Piedras,' Valladolid, 1572; and ' Varia Commeusuracion 
 para la Escultura y Arquitectura,' Seville, 1585. The date of his death 
 is not known. 
 
 (Ponz, Viage de Espaiia, &c. ; Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Histo- 
 rico, &c.) 
 
 ARGAND, AIME, was the inventor of the kind of lamp which 
 commonly bears his name, although for some time he was partially 
 deprived of the credit due to him by the substitution of another. He 
 was a native of Geneva, but is said to have been in England when, 
 about the year 1782, he produced the first lamp on his improved 
 principle, the main feature of which is that the wick, and consequently 
 the flame also, is in the form of a hollow cylinder, and that a current 
 of air is allowed to pass up the centre of the cylinder, so as to admit 
 a free supply of oxygen to the interior as well as the exterior of the 
 flame. This arrangement obviates the difficulties attending the pro- 
 duction of a large flame either by the use of a single large wick or a 
 series of small ones arranged in a straight line, neither of which will 
 produce equally perfect combustion or equal brilliancy of light ; and 
 also, by occasioning the complete combustion of the oil by which the 
 flame is fed, it prevents the emission of smoke. From a paper on the 
 Argand lamp in tho 'Penny Magazine,' it appears that the lamp did 
 not satisfy the expectations of its ingenious inventor until the acci- 
 dental discovery, by his younger brother, of the glass chimney, which, 
 by confining the air immediately surrounding the burner, occasions an 
 upward current outside as well as inside the cylindrical flame, and 
 thereby causes the flame to rise high above the wick, and to yield the 
 greatest possible amount of lijrht Shortly after Argand contrived hia 
 
303 
 
 ARGENS, MARQUIS D\ 
 
 804 
 
 lamp, his invention appears to have become known to Ambroise 
 Bonaventure Lange", of Paris, distiller to the king, who claimed the 
 perfecting of the discovery by the use of the glass chimney for himself, 
 and obtained a very favourable report upon the improved lamp from 
 the Academy of Sciences, in which he was stated to bo the inventor. 
 Hearing this, Argand went to Paris to contest his claitn ; but after 
 much contention, finding his opponent very determined in his preten- 
 sions, he consented to share the profits of the invention with him, and, 
 accordingly, on the 5th of January, 1787, letters patent were granted 
 to Argand and Lange - , giving them the exclusive right to make and 
 Bell tlie new lamps in France for fifteen years. The statement made 
 on obtaining this joint patentgave the credit of the invention to Argand, 
 stating that he communicated his first trials to the chemist Macquer 
 in August, 1783, and that he subsequently perfected the lamp by the 
 addition of the glass chimney while in England. The superiority of 
 the new lamps soon brought them into such general use, that in 1789 
 the tinmen of Paris endeavoured to overthrow the patent, and for 
 this purpose published an abusive memoir, in which it was contended 
 that as Argand and Langd had so long disputed the credit of the 
 invention, it could not belong to either of them ; a course of reasoning 
 ■which led Argand, in a printed reply, to allude to the long-pending 
 dispute between Newton and Leibnitz respecting the differential 
 calculus, in which case he pleads that no such conclusion was drawn. 
 Argand was however soon deprived of advantage from his patent by 
 the abolition of all exclusive privileges which took place during the 
 Revolution, and he also lost for a time the honour of his invention, the 
 lamps being called after a person of the name of Quinquet, who intro- 
 duced some modifications of form. Argand retired to England, where 
 chagrin so preyed upon him that he at length returned to his native 
 country with broken health, and died there on the 21th of October, 
 1803. In the brief memoir in the ' Biographic Universelle,' Argand 
 is styled a physician aud chemist, and is said to have invented some 
 useful processes for the improvement of wines. It is also related there 
 that he became melancholy and visionary towards the close of his life, 
 devoting himself to the occult sciences, and seeking to obtain from the 
 bones and dust of the sepulchre the means of prolonging life. (Biogia- 
 phie Universelle, Supplement, vol. i. ; Penny Mayazine, iii. 120.) 
 
 ARGENS, JEAN-BAPTISTE DE BUYER, MARQUIS D', was 
 born at Aix in Provence, on the 24th of June, 1701. His father was 
 procureur-gdneral to the parliament of Aix. The parents of D'Argens 
 wished him to follow the profession of the law, but he refused, and 
 entered the army at the age of fifteen. After various adventures he 
 for a time quitted the military profession ; but resuming it in 1733, 
 was at the siege of Kehl in 1734, and was slightly wounded ; but some 
 time after at the siege of Fhilipsburg on the Rhine, he was so seriously 
 disabled by a fall from a hoise that he was obliged to leave the service. 
 Disinherited by his father, he went to Holland, and gained his liveli- 
 hood by his pen. Here he wrote his ' Lettres Juives,' aud his ' Lettres 
 Chinoises,' and the ' Lettres Cabalistiques.' In December, 1741, he 
 arrived at Berlin, with a recommendation to Frederick II., king of 
 Prussia, whose offers induced him to fix his abode in the Prussian 
 capital. Frederick made him chamberlain, and co-director of the 
 academy, and gave him a salary of six thousand livres. D'Argens 
 soon became one of the most intimate of Frederick's associates ; his 
 conversation was remarkable for a certain lonhommie and vivacity 
 which rendered it very agreeable. But Frederick was fond of playing 
 him practical jokes, and he vised to rally D'Argtns most unmerci- 
 fully on the hypochondriac humours to which he gave way. At the 
 age of nearly sixty D'Argens married an actress named Mademoiselle 
 Cochois, without Frederick's knowledge, a step which the king never 
 entirely forgave. Though he had agreed with the king, on entering 
 his service, that he should be at liberty to retire at a certain age, and 
 he had passed the stipulated period, still he could not venture to 
 apply for his dismissal, but solicited leave of absence, and with great 
 difficulty obtained it, for six months (1769). Towards the end of the 
 appointed time he was returning, when he was taken very ill at Bourg 
 en Bresse. His wife was so occupied in attendance upon him, that 
 she forgot to write to Frederick to explain the cause of his prolonged 
 absence, and Frederick, concluding that the marquis had given him 
 tlie slip, struck out his name from the pension li»t. D'Argens, irri- 
 tated at this return for his long services, went back immediately to 
 Provence, aud lived about two years at Eguilles on a small estate 
 which his brother, the President of Eguilles, had given him, although 
 he had been disinherited by his father. D'Argens died at Toulon 
 January 11, 1771, of indigestion. When Frederick heard of his death, 
 he ordered a marble monument to be erected to his memory at 
 Eguilles. It is said that D'Argens asked for the sacrament in his last 
 sickness ; that he often read the Gospel, and was admitted as a peni- 
 tent by a certain brotherhood. He left an adopted daughter 
 
 D'Argens was master of seveml languages, had some knowledge of 
 chemistry and anatomy, and painted pretty well. His works are very 
 numerous, and are enumerated by Quirard in ' La France LitteYaire.' 
 His ' Memoirs ' and 'Letters' contain notices of the lives, acts, and 
 peculiarities of numerous writers that can only be found elsewhere by 
 consulting a variety of authors. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARGE'NSOLA, BARTOLOME LEONARDO DE, *as a native of 
 
 Barbastro in Aragon, and descended from a noMe family, originally 
 from Ravenna in Italy. He was born in 1566. He studied at the 
 university of Huesca, and entered the ecclesiastical profession. Through 
 the iuQuence of his brother he was made a chaplain to the Princess 
 Maria of Austria, and rector of Villaliermosa, He followed his brother 
 to Naples, aud remained in Italy threo years after his death. In 1616 
 he returned to Spain, and was made a canon of Zaragoza, in which 
 town he died, according to some authorities in 1633, and according to 
 others in 1631. 
 
 Argensola left behind him a continuation of the ' Annals of Aragon,' 
 by Zurita, a ' History of the Conquest of the Molucca Islands,' some 
 letters, satires, and other poetical effusions. The continuation of the 
 history of Zurita, in point of style exceeds the original, and the events 
 are related with no less accuracy than freedom. As poets, himself and 
 his brother are among the first that Spain has produced. Their poetry 
 is marked by singular correctness of taste, on which account they have 
 been styled the Horaces of Spain. 
 
 ARGE'NSOLA, I.UPERCIO LEONARDO DE, brother of Bar- 
 tolomd, was born in 1565, and began his studies at the university of 
 Huesca. He afterwards went to Zaragoza, where he studied Greek, 
 history, and rhetoric. Before he had attained his twenty-fifth year he 
 went to Madrid, where ho became secretary to the Princess Maria of 
 Austria. The archduke Albert of Austria made him his chamberlain, 
 and Philip III. appointed him historiographer of Aragon. The count 
 of Lemos having been appointed viceroy of Naples, took Argensola 
 with him, and made him his secretary of state, and also secretary for 
 war. In 1613 he died at Naples. He left behind him three tragedies, 
 some poems, and other works. 
 
 ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS, LORDS OF. This family traces its lineage 
 to an individual of their name who in the 12th century married the 
 daughter of a Gaelic chieftain, and got with her the lordship of Lochow 
 iu the shire of Argyll. From that period the heads of the family and 
 many of its members have taken an active part in public affairs. The 
 more distinguished of them, however, are the following : — 
 
 Archibald Campbell, eighth Earl of Argyll, was born in the 
 year 1598, aud from his earliest years was noted for his piety and 
 devotion. In 1628, when bearing the title of Lord Lorn, his father 
 Archibald, the seventh earl, having left the kiDgdom, he resigned into 
 the king's hands his father's hereditary office of lord justiciar, or, as 
 it came to be styled, justice-general of Scotland. 
 
 In 1633, the Earl of Argyll having declared himself a convert to the 
 Roman Catholic faith, was obliged to make over his estates to his boii, 
 reserving only a suitable maintenance to himself; and the following 
 year Lord Lorn was appointed by the king one of the extraordinary 
 lords of session. In the month of April, 1638, when the national cove- 
 nant was framed and sworn to by nearly the entire population of 
 Scotland, he was called up with others to London to give advice to 
 the king under the existing circumstances of the kingdom ; when Lorn 
 alone spoke freely and honestly, and recommended the utter abolition 
 of those innovations which his majesty had made on the constitution 
 of the Scottish church. He returned to Scotland on the 20th of May; 
 aud on his father's death, the same year, succeeded to all his honours 
 and possessions. He attended the meeting of the general assembly at 
 Glasgow that year, and there openly joined the church against the 
 court. It was at this assembly that the oppressive policy of two 
 reigns was subverted, episcopacy abolished, and presbyterianism estab- 
 lished. To repress the rising of the M'Donalds and the Earl of Antrim 
 in aid of the invasion of Scotland by the royalists, which afterwards 
 followed, Argyll proceeded to his own country, where he raised a force 
 of 900 of his vassals, part of which he stationed in Kintyre, part in 
 Lorn, and with the remainder he passed over to Arran, which he 
 secured by seizing upon the castle of Brodick. He subsequently 
 traversed with a force of about 5000 men and a small train of artillery, 
 the districts of Badeuoch, Athol, and Mar, levying the taxes imposed 
 by the estates of Scotland, aud enforcing submission to their authority. 
 
 When the king came to Scotland in 1641, with a view to the settle- 
 ment of the kingdom, Argyll was qualified by his learning and talents, 
 no less than by his services, for the post of lord-chancellor, then vacant, 
 but the king was afraid to aggrandise one already so powerful, and the 
 place was bestowed on Lord Loudoun. Argyll however was created a 
 marquis, by the title of Marquis of Argyll. In the disturbances and 
 civil war which soon afterwards followed, Argyll in 1644 took part 
 against the king, and commanded the army sent against Montrose, 
 whom he proclaimed a traitor, and offered a reward of 20,000i. for 
 his head. Montrose, whose forces were inferior, retreated northwards, 
 and Argyll showed no disposition to risk an action until, having been 
 joined by additional troops under the Earl of Lothian, he attacked 
 Montrose near Castle Tyvie in Aberdeenshire, but was defeated, left 
 the army, aud returned to Edinburgh. He however resumed the 
 command shortly afterwards, aud on February 2nd, 1645, was again 
 routed, fled, and carried the intelligence of his own defeat to the par- 
 liament at Edinburgh. They expressed their dissatisfaction so loudly 
 that Argyll resigned the commission which he held from the Estates 
 as general of the army; and in February, 1646, was sent over to Ire- 
 land to bring home the Scotch troops which had been directed thither 
 to assist in repressing the turbulence of the Catholics. He returned in 
 May following; and in the month of July in the same year, when the 
 king had surrendered himself to the Scottish army, Argyll went to 
 
905 
 
 ARGYLL, EARL OF. 
 
 ARIALDUS. 
 
 806 
 
 Newcastle to pay his respects to him, aud he was afterwards employed 
 hi the conference with the parliament of England on the articles pre- 
 sented by the Estates to the king. He took also a leading part in the 
 installation of Charles II., on whose head he placed the crown at Scone 
 on January 1, 1651. He submitted however to the subsequent usurpa- 
 tion of Cromwell, and under Richard sat in parliament for the county 
 of Aberdeen. For these compliances he was at the Restoration indicted 
 for high treason, and, being convicted, he was beheaded on Monday, 
 May 27, 1661. 
 
 Archibald Campbell, ninth Earl of Argyll, was the eldest 
 sou of the marquis. During his father's life he had served in 
 the army with the king's friends ; Cromwell had exempted him from 
 bis act of grace, and Monk required him to give sureties for his peace- 
 able conduct. His father had not beeu attainted, and he was restored 
 to the estate and title of Earl of Argyll in 1663. He shared also 
 largely in the profits and preferments which followed on the king's 
 restoration. He was also appointed one of the lords of council, but 
 took no prominent part in public affairs until 1681, when he gave 
 much offence to the covenanters by voting in the council for the execu- 
 tion of Donald Cargill, one of their most valued preachers. In the 
 same year the Duke of York arrived in Scotland, shortly after which 
 the Test Act was introduced to the parliament of Scotland, and 
 though Argyll opposed it strenuously, it was carried and passed in 
 oue day — August 31st, the time for taking it being limited to 
 January 1st, 1682. All the privy councillors took it in September 
 except Argyll, who waited on the Duke of York to explain his scruples, 
 and represented that the limited time had not nearly expired. On 
 November 3 however he took it with the reservation of ' as far as con- 
 sistent with the Protestant faith,' and thereupon resumed his seat as 
 a privy councillor. On November 8 he was indicted for treason 
 aud leasing-making, tried, and condemned to death on December 12. 
 He made his escape from confinement however in the train of his 
 step-daughter, Lady Sophia Lindsay, disguised as her page, and 
 escaped to Holland. He afterwards returned, in April, 1685, and, at 
 the head of a considerable force, made a descent into Argyllshire ; but 
 being made prisoner, he was executed, ou the 30th of June, on a 
 single day's notice, on his former sentence. His own son had offered 
 to serve in the royal army against his father, when he invaded Scot- 
 land previous to his execution. This son was Archibald, tenth Earl 
 of Argyll, so acknowledged by parliament before the reversal of his 
 father's attainder. He also sat in the Convention of lG89assuch; 
 and was one of the commissioners deputed by the estates to offer the 
 crown of Scotland to the Prince of Orange, aud to tender the corona- 
 tion oath. The next year he was made a lord of the treasury, and in 
 1694 an extraordinary lord of session. In 1696 he was appointed 
 colonel of the Scots Horse Guards ; and afterwards raised a regiment 
 of his own clan, which greatly distinguished itself in Flanders. On 
 the 23rd June, 1701, he was created Duke of Argyll; and died in 
 September, 1703. 
 
 John Campbell, second Duke of Argyll, was bom October 10th, 
 1678, and succeeded his father in 1703, was sworn of the king's 
 privy council, appointed captain of the Scots Horse Guards, aud, 
 though scarce twenty-fi vo years old, raised to the seat occupied by his 
 father as an extraordinary lord of session. This last place however 
 he not long afterwards resigned in favour of his brother, Archibald 
 Campbell, then lord high treasurer of Scotland, who, in the end of 
 1706, was created Viscount and Earl of Hay, for his services in further- 
 ing the Union with England. For the like services Argyll had, in 
 1705, been created an English peer, by the titles of Baron Chatham 
 and Earl of Greenwich. His grace after this served four campaigns 
 under the Duke of Marlborough in Flanders, where he rose to the 
 rank of lieutenant-general, and honourably distinguished himself in 
 the battles of Ramillies, Oudenard, and Malplaquet, and at the sieges 
 of Ostend, Meenen, Lisle, Ghent, and Tournay. On the change of 
 ministry in 1710 he joined the court, and was appointed ambassador 
 and generalissimo in Spain ; and on the same occasion his brother, 
 the Earl of Hay, was made lord justice-general of Scotland for life. 
 On his return from Spain, where he effected very little, he changed 
 his political party again, and was in consequeuce deprived of his 
 Korernment offices. When the Hanover family attained the throne, 
 lie was appointed commander-in-chief of all the king's forces in Scot- 
 land; and in repre.-sing tho rebellion of 1715 behaved with great 
 energy and decision, defeating the Earl of Mar, at Dumblane on Novem- 
 ber 13th of that year. On the 13th April, 1719, he was advanced to 
 the dignity of Duke of Greenwich. After several changes in the 
 political world he retired in a great degree from public life, though 
 after the affair of the Porteous mob he earnestly advocated the cause 
 of the city of Edinburgh, which it was proposed by the ministry to 
 punish severely. He died on September 3rd, 1743, when, leaving no 
 male issue, his English titles of Duke and Earl of Greenwich and 
 Karon Chatham became extinct. His other titles passed to his brother 
 already noticed, Archibald, Earl of Hay, and third Duke of Argyll. 
 By these two brothers, as has been well remarked, the views of a 
 certain party in Scotland at the Union to perpetuate their authority 
 over their countrymen were actually realised, the whole kingdom 
 having become subject to them through the servility of the few mem- 
 bers which Scotland long returned to parliament. The latter, indeed, 
 had the affairs of Scotland so entirely at his disposal, that he obtained 
 
 BIOO. DIY. VOL. L 
 
 the appellation of King of Scotland. He died on the 15th April, 1761, 
 and, leaving no issue, his own immediate honours became extinct, 
 while those of his family descended to his cousin. 
 
 * George John Douglas Campbell, eighth Duke of Argyll, was 
 born in 1823. He was the second son of John Douglas Edward 
 Henry, the seventh duke, who succeeded his brother in 1839, and the 
 elder brother of the present duke died young. Early in life, as Marquis 
 of Lome, he took a decided part in the controversies of the Presbyterian 
 Church of Scotland relating to patronage, and was looked upon by 
 Dr. Chalmers as an important and valuable adherent. On January 15, 
 1842, he published 'A Letter to the Peers, from a PeerVSou, on tho 
 duty aud necessity of immediate Legislative Interposition in behalf 
 of the Church of Scotland, as determined by Considerations of Con- 
 stitutional Law.' This pamphlet is an historical view of the church, 
 particularly in reference to lay patronage ; in it he strongly condemns 
 the Earl of Aberdeen's proposed measure for "removing doubts" on 
 the subject, aud recommends the abolition of lay patronage by legisla- 
 tive acts. But though thus decided in his opinion, he was by no means 
 disposed to accompany Dr. Chalmers in his separation from the church. 
 Accordingly, after it had taken place, in the same year (1812), he pub- 
 lished ' A Letter to the Rev. Tho mas Chalmers, D.D., on the present 
 Position of Church Affairs in Scotland, aud the Causes which have led to 
 it. By the Marquis of Lome.' In thisjsamphlet he continues strongly in 
 favour of the anti-patronage principle, but declines to designate " the 
 absolutely arbitrary location of ministers" by the term 'intrusion,' as 
 being unfair : he also contends for the right of the church to legislate 
 for itself, but condemns the Free Church movement, which had just 
 taken place at the General Assembly. Dr. Chalmers had said " lay 
 patronage and the integrity of the spiritual independence of the church 
 had been proved to be — like oil and water — immiscible." From this 
 extreme view he dissents, and declines to leave the church. In 1848 
 he published ' An Essay on the Ecclesiastical History of Scotland since 
 the Reformation ;' a careful and clever expansion of his first pamphlet. 
 
 In 1847 the Marquis of Lome succeeded his father in the dukedom, 
 as also in the sheriffdom of Argyleshire, and as master of the queen's 
 household in Scotland, both hereditary offices. After taking his seat 
 in the House of Peers, he frequently took part in the debates, and 
 distinguished himself as an effective speaker. On the accession of 
 Lord Aberdeen to office iu 1852, he was appointed Lord Privy Seal. 
 On the breakiug-up of that ministry in February 1855, by the seces- 
 sion of Lord John Russell, and the appointment of Mr. Roebuck's 
 Committee, in consequeuce of dissatisfaction with the ministers for 
 their conduct of the war against Russia, the duke retained his office 
 under the prime-ministry of Lord Palnierston, which he continued to 
 hold till November 1855, when he exchanged it for that of Postmaster- 
 General, but in 1859 resumed his former office. 
 
 The Duke pf Argyll married in 1844 Elizabeth Georgiana, the eldest 
 daughter of the Duke of Sutherland, by whom he has issue. His 
 grace has always shown a marked attention to literary and scientific 
 pursuits. He usually attends and takes a part in the business at the 
 meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 
 of which he was president in 1855, when it met at Glasgow; aud he 
 was elected Chancellor of the University of St. Andrews in 1851, and 
 Rector of the University of Glasgow in 1854. The present duke has 
 maintained and added to the improvements in planting and agriculture, 
 which were largely carried on in Argyleshire by his uncle, Duke 
 William, who died in 1839. 
 
 ARI or ARA or ARE HIN FRODI, or the Learned, the earliest 
 historian of Iceland whose writings have come down to us, was born in 
 Iceland in the year 1068. In the time of Gissur, the second bishop of 
 Iceland, Ari took priest's orders, and afterwards married aud had a 
 family. He died on the 9th of November, in the year 1148, at the age 
 of 80 years. Only some of the writings of Ari are preserved. The 
 ' Landnamabok ' and the ' Islendinga Bok,' which are still extant, are 
 sufficient to attest the value of the labours of Ari. The ' Landnama- 
 bok ' is a history of the colonisation of Iceland. It was commenced 
 by Ari, continued by Kolskeg, Brand, Styrmir hin Frodi, and Sturla 
 Thordsson, and completed by Haco Erlendisson. The ' Islendinga- 
 Bok ' or ' Book of the Icelanders ' is a small treatise of ten chapters 
 and a preface only, in which Ari speaks of the first occupation of 
 Iceland, the names of the earliest colonists, the laws they established, 
 their expeditions to Greenland, the first introduction of Christianity 
 into Iceland, aud the names of the earliest bishops. (Abridged from 
 the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ARIALDUS was a deacon of the church of Milan, said to have been 
 of the family of AlciatL He made himself conspicuous in the schism 
 concerning discipline which broke out in that church in the latter half 
 of the 11th century. It was the practice in the province of Lombardy, 
 which was spiritually subject to the Archbishop of Milan, to grant 
 priests' orders to married men who had married only one wife, she 
 being a spinster aud not a widow. If a priest became a widower, he 
 was not allowed to marry again, under pain of being interdicted the 
 exercise of his clerical functions. Such was likewise the practice of 
 the eastern church long before its separation from Rome, and such it 
 has continued to this day. In the west celibacy was strenuously 
 enforced upon the clergy, but its obligation was not universally 
 acknowledged until the latter part of the 11th century, when the 
 
 x 
 
807 
 
 AllIALDUS. 
 
 ARIALDUS. 
 
 308 
 
 determined will of Gregory VII. surmounted all obstacles, established 
 It as a canon of the church, and enforced its observance by means both 
 of the spiritual and temporal powers. 
 
 Wido de Velate was made Archbishop of Milan after the death of 
 the famous Heribei t in 1045. Wido was a worldly man, fond of case, 
 and not very strict in matters of discipline. The church of Milan, 
 like most other churches of that age, was very corrupt. Simony was 
 openly and commonly practised. Independently of the priests who 
 were legally married, many others kept concubines, and some zealous 
 men, indignant at the abuse, thought that the strict enforcement of 
 universal celibacy among the clergy was the only cure for the evil, 
 whilst other considerations of ecclesiastical polity contributed to make 
 clerical celibacy appear desirable. But in their declamations against 
 the licentiousness of the clergy, they and the historians aud canonists 
 who came after them, have often confounded the married priests with 
 those who kept concubiues, and have thus disfigured the historical 
 facts. Among those who first raised their voice against the corruptions 
 of the clergy was Anselmo da Baggio, a canon of the church of Milan, 
 and a man of learning and piety. Archbishop Wido, anxious to avoid 
 popular tumults, contrived to remove Anselmo from Milan by having 
 him appointed Bishop of Lucca. But the deacon Arialdus took up 
 the question concerning the clergy, and soon became a principal in it. 
 He found an associate in Landulfus, a man of noble birth and a ready 
 speaker. A third person is mentioned, named Nazarius, a wealthy 
 banker who supplied the two others with money to carry on their 
 agitation. It was in the year 1056 that Arialdus and Landulfus began 
 publicly to harangue the people of Milan, and to descant on the licen- 
 tious lives of the clergy. Arialdus, on a day of festival, entered a 
 church at the head of a mob, while the priests were officiating, chased 
 them about, and seized those who could not escape. He then pub- 
 lished a resolution binding all priests and deacons to separate from 
 their wives and live in celibacy, and he compelled all whom he caught 
 to sign the paper. The archbishop convoked a provincial synod at 
 Fontaneto in the district of Novara, before which Arialdus and Lan- 
 dulfus were summoned to appear and state their charges against the 
 clergy, and as they did not obey the summons, they were both excom- 
 municated by the synod in 1057. Upon this Arialdus repaired to 
 Rome, where Pope Stephen X. was then holding a council. Both 
 Arialdus and a deputation from the clergy of Milan appeared before 
 the council. The spokesman of the deputation acknowledged that 
 there was much reason and soundness in the doctrine supported by 
 Arialdus, but he complained of his manner, and of his intemperate 
 and factious zeal, which was exciting a schism in the church. Arialdus 
 having replied, the pope imposed silence, and, saying little about the 
 grounds of the quarrel, he pronounced the sentence of excommunica- 
 tion against Arialdus and Landulfus to be null. He then appointed 
 Anselmo, bishop of Lucca, and Cardinal Hildebrand (afterwards 
 Gregory VII.) as legates to Milan, to investigate the matter in dispute, 
 and he ordered Arialdus to go with them. The legates were not well 
 received at Milan. Having investigated the conduct of the clergy, 
 they returned to Rome to make their report, leaving at Milan Arialdus 
 and Landulfus, whom they encouraged to persevere in their work. It 
 seems that the two reformers succeeded in making converts even 
 among the clergy, and that several priests who had purchased livings, 
 resigned them, and that others separated themselves from their wives 
 or dismissed their concubines. 
 
 In 1059, Nicholas II., then pope, sent as legates to Milan the learned 
 Petrus Damianus and Bishop Anselmo. A tumult broke out soon after 
 their arrival. Damianus in his work ' Contra Clericorum Intempe- 
 rantiam ' exhibits the difficulties of his position. " The fat bulls of 
 the church of Lodi beset me, bellowing out, ' We have the sanction of 
 the council of Tribur, which allows clergymen to have wives ; ' to which 
 I replied ' that the authority of the alleged council was of no avail, 
 if it disagreed from the decretals of the Roman pontiffs.'" Anew 
 difficulty presented itself. Damianus having claimed precedence of 
 the Archbishop of Milan on public occasions, had given offence, not 
 only to the whole clergy, but to the people also, who did not like to 
 see the humiliation of their ancient see. It was one of the objects of 
 the mission of Damianus to enforce the supremacy of Rome, and he 
 has reported in his works the principal ai'guments of which he made 
 use for that object. It seems that the clergy remained silent, if not 
 convinced, and Damianus proceeded to expedite the affairs of dis- 
 cipline. As the whole clergy, including the archbishop, were guilty of 
 simony, it being an old received custom at Milan to give and receive 
 fees for ordinations and preferments, Damianus obtained from the 
 heads of the clergy their written promise to desist from the practice 
 in future, and contented himself with awarding them certain canonioal 
 penances for past transgressions. Much was said on this occasion 
 against simony, but little about the married priests ; only the arch- 
 bishop in his declaration promised to endeavour, as much as in him 
 lay, to make all priests and deacons give up the company of their 
 wives and concubines. Soon after, the Archbishop Wido repaired 
 to the council held at Rome in April, 1059; and although Arialdus, 
 who was also there, complained of the continuance of the irregularities 
 of the clergy, Wido was well received by Pope Nicholas, who invested 
 him with the pallium and the pastoral ring. By a canon of that 
 council, priests and deacons keeping concubines were declared to be 
 bOspended from their functions. 
 
 In 1061, after the death of Nicholas, Anselmo, bishop of Lucca, was 
 made pope by the name of Alexander II. One of his first acts was to 
 write a pastoral letter to his townsmen, the clergy and peoplo of 
 Milan, full of kind sentiments, but expressing his confident hope that 
 clerical chastity would be permanently honoured, and the opposite 
 vice be cast off among other heresies. Previous to this the agitation 
 against tho clergy had somewhat subsided, as Arialdus was deprived 
 of the active support of Landulfus, who became afflicted with a dis- 
 order of the chest, by which he lost his voice. At this juncture a 
 brother of Landulfus, named Erlembaldus, happening to return home 
 from a pilgrimage to Palestine, Arialdus fixed upon him as a fit 
 champion, and urged him to gird on his sword " like a new Matathias 
 to fight for the good cause." After some hesitation Erlembaldus 
 resolved to go to Rome and abide by the decision of the pope. Arialdus 
 went with him. Alexander II. received them affectionately, and 
 having assembled a consistory, in which Cardinal Hildebrand took the 
 lead, ho appointed Erlembaldus gonfaloniero or standard-bearer of the 
 Homan and universal church, and delivered to him the standard of 
 St. Peter, commanding him to unfurl it against the enemies of the 
 church whenever it should be necessary to resort to force. 
 
 On arriving at Milan, Arialdus and Erlembaldus began to exercise 
 their mission, being supported by a large party among the people. 
 They separated by force the priests and deacons from their wive3 and 
 concubines, and they scourged many with whips studded with nails, 
 according to Arnulfus. The priests had also their partisans, and fre- 
 quent encounters took place, and confusion raged in the city. In the 
 following year (1063) Pope Alexander wrote two more letters, oue to 
 the clergy aud the other to the people of Milan, forbidding the faithful 
 to attend the service of mass when performed by concubinarian or 
 simoniacal priests, declaring the latter to have lost their benefices if 
 they persisted in their guilty course, and enjoining the heads of the 
 clergy to enforce these decisions. The clergy however, being ill- 
 disposed to obey, Arialdus proposed a conference. The archdeacon 
 Guibert, a canon, and another clergyman, came forward to argue with 
 Arialdus and Landulfus, who appears again on the stage on this occa- 
 sion. Nothing came of the conference. Arialdus complained that 
 there was hardly a clerical man who would join him, and that he was 
 only supported by laymen. Both he and Erlembaldus were in frequent 
 correspondence with Rome, and especially with Cardinal Hildebrand, 
 and also with Peter Damianus. 
 
 In 1066 Arialdus wrote to the pope complaining that the clergy of 
 Milan and the archbishop himself persisted in their old simoniacal 
 practices, and that many of the priests did not observe celibacy. 
 Erlembaldus went himself to Rome with the letter, and returned with 
 a papal bull of excommunication against Archbishop Wido. The prelate 
 communicated the fact to the astounded congregation from his place 
 in the cathedral on Whit-Sunday morning, holding the bull in his 
 hand, and telling the assembled multitude that this sentence of their 
 common degradation and ruin was the result of the intrigues of those 
 men who stood before them, pointing to Arialdus and Erlembaldus, 
 who had taken a conspicuous place opposite the archbishop ; that out 
 of respect for Ambrose, the church of Milan had never before been 
 subject to Rome ; and that those who conspired to strip that ancient 
 see of its independence, deserved to be cast out of the land of the 
 living. Cries of " Death to them ! " resounded from various parts of 
 the church. The scene that followed is variously related, but it would 
 appear that both the archbishop and Arialdus were roughly used. A 
 day or two after, the archbishop laid an interdict upon the whole dio- 
 cese of Milan as long as Arialdus remained in it ; church-service was 
 discontinued everywhere. The people, horror-struck, took the part 
 of their archbishop. Arialdus and Erlembaldus thought it prudent 
 to leave in the night, and they repaired to Legoano, which was a 
 domain of Erlembaldus. But as they were surrounded by enemies, 
 Arialdus asked a country priest of his acquaintance to conceal him in 
 his church. The priest betrayed him to the emissaries of the arch- 
 bishop. Arialdus was arrested, tied on a horse, and carried to the 
 castle of Arona on the Lake Maggiore, and brought before a niece of 
 the archbishop, called Oliva, who ordered him to be taken to a desert 
 island on the lake, one of the now beautiful Borromeo islands, and 
 gave secret instructions to the guards to kill him. It is said that he 
 was offered his life if he would retract what he had said against the 
 archbishop, to which Arialdus replied that he would not save his life 
 by a lie. It is added that the guards hesitated to murder him, when 
 two priests or deacons of his enemies were sent in a boat by Oliva to 
 see that he was put to death, and they killed him after cruelly muti- 
 lating him. His body was thrown into the lake. This happened oa 
 the eve of St. Peter's day, June 28th, 1066. Unusual signs and prodi- 
 gies, it is said, caused the body to be found uncorrupted ten months 
 after, when Erlembaldus, at the head of an armed multitude, carried 
 the body to Milan, where it was solemnly interred. Erlembaldus con- 
 tinued to agitate Milan for years after. The Archbishop Wido, worn 
 out with age and anxiety, resigned ; and a new schism broke out con- 
 cerning the election of his successor. At last Erlembaldus was killed 
 in an affray in 1076. Arialdus was inserted in the catalogue of 
 martyrs by Pope Alexander II., and he is registered by the Bollandists 
 among the saints of the month of June. The result of the contest 
 was that the see of Milan became subject to that of Rome, like the 
 other sees of Italy, and its discipline was made uniform with that of tho 
 
MM 
 
 ARIAS MONTANUS. 
 
 ARIOSTO, LUDOVICO. 
 
 310 
 
 rest. Nothing further is said about the married priests, a class which 
 became gradually extinct, as no more married mrn were ordained. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society fur the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 A'RIAS, MONTA'NUS, BENEDICTUS, in Spanish Benito Arias 
 Montano, was a celebrated Catholic divine and orientalist, who pos- 
 sessed vast erudition in Jewish antiquities, and chiefly distinguished 
 himself as editor and interpreter of the sacred Scriptures. He was 
 born, in 1527, of noble but poor parents, in a village called Frexenal 
 de la Sierra, in Estremadura, Dear the Andalusian border, in a moun- 
 tainous district ; and hence his surname Montano. He studied for 
 gome time at Sevilla, and subsequently he took up his residence at 
 Alcala de Henares (Complutum), where he obtained the degree of 
 Doctor of Divinity. He acquired a knowledge of Arabic, Syriac, and 
 Chaldaic ; at a later period, while journeying through France, England, 
 Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, he acquired several modern 
 tongue3. On account of his great scholarship, the bishop of Segovia, 
 Martin Perez Ayala, took him for his companion to the council of 
 Trent. After his return to his own country he determined to live in 
 seclusion and devote his time to literature, but at the request of 
 Philip II. he proceeded to Antwerp to superintend the splendid and 
 expensive edition of the ' Polyglott Bible,' which, at the suggestion of 
 a most diligent and enlightened printer, Christopher Plantin, was to 
 be executed in that city. Arias devoted four years to this under- 
 taking, and presented the finished work to Pope Gregory XIII. in 1572. 
 During his sojourn in the Netherlands, he was also president of the 
 committee, which, by the order of the Duke of Alba, governor of 
 the Netherlands, prepared the ' Index Expurgatorius.' The edition 
 of the ' Polyglott Bible ' which Arias gave to the world, in every 
 respect justified the high expectation which had been formed of it; 
 but in a voyage from the Netherlands to Spain nearly all the copies 
 were lost. The king remunerated Arias's labours by giving him a 
 yearly pension of 2000 ducats, besides other honorary rewards and 
 lucrative offices. Arias was an upright, sincerely orthodox Catholic, 
 but he was a declared enemy of the Jesuits, and that ambitious order 
 omitted no opportunity to take revenge on so dangerous a foe — -the 
 more powerful, because his orthodoxy had never been questioned, and 
 was supported by uncommon erudition. He died at Sevilla, in the 
 year 1598, as prior of the convent of St. Iago, being then seventy-one 
 years of age. His library, which was extensive, was incorporated in 
 that of Escurial. 
 
 Arias's numerous and extensive literary works chiefly belong to 
 theological, but partly also to classical literature, but his Polyglott 
 certainly holds the principal place ; it is generally called the ' Antwerp 
 Polyglott/ or, from the patronage bestowed on it by Philip II., 'Biblia 
 Regia,' and sometimes also after the printer, ' Biblia Plantiniana.' 
 
 ARI'ON, a native of Lesbos, the inventor of the dithyrambus, and 
 a great musician, was contemporary with Periaoder of Corinth, and 
 with Alyattes, king of Lydia (B.C. 628-571). He travelled as far as 
 Taras (Taranto) in Southern Italy, and acquired considerable wealth 
 by his professional skill. (Herod, i. 23 ; ^Elian., Hist. Anim. xii. 45.) 
 
 ARIUSTI, ATTl'LIO, a dramatic composer of some celebrity, was 
 a native of Bologna. He was intended by his family for the priest- 
 hood, and in compliance with their wishes became a Dominican friar. 
 But his heart was devoted to music, his time was spent in its cultiva- 
 tion, and at length he was freed by a papal dispensation from the 
 rules of his order, and left to follow his favourite pursuit as he chose. 
 His bent was towards dramatic composition, and in 1696 he set to 
 music Apostolo Zeno's ' Dafn>',' which was performed in his native 
 city. Two years afterwards he entered the service of the electress of 
 JJrandenburg, and his ballet 'La Festa d'Imeneo,' and his opera of 
 'Atis'were produced at Berlin during the short period that he 
 remained there. " To a portion of the latter," says Hawkins, " Ariosti 
 adapted a composition called 'Sinfonia Infernale,' the modulation of 
 which was so singular, and withal so masterly, that the audience 
 were alternately affected with terror and pity in exact correspondence 
 with the sentimeuts of the part and the design of the representation." 
 During his residence at Berlin, Ariosti became acquainted with 
 Handel, then a youth, and the friendship thus early formed was un- 
 impaired in after life when they met as rivals. On his return to Italy 
 he composed ' Nebuchadonasar,' an oratorio, for Venice ; and his 
 opera, ' La piii gloriosa Fatica d'Ercole/ for Bologna. He quitted 
 Italy again for Vienna, when, in 1708, he brought out the opera of 
 'Amor tra Nemici.' On the 12th July, 1716, the ' London Courant/ 
 announced his performance of a solo on the viol d'amour at the 
 Italian opera house, on the sixth representation of Handel's ' Amadigi.' 
 During this, his first visit to England, Ariosti appears only to have 
 attracted attention as a skilful performer on an instrument little 
 known there. In 1720 a plan was formed in London for patronising 
 Italian operas, and enlisting in their composition and performance the 
 choicest musical talent of Europe. For this purpose the sum of 
 60,000i. was raised by subscription, George I. contributing lOOOi. ; and 
 the associated subscribers gave the establishment the title of the 
 Royal Academy of Music. A lyric poet was engaged, the best singers 
 that Europe could supply were brought to London, and three eminent 
 composers were enlisted in the service of the academy. Bononcini, 
 as he himself states, was invited from Rome, Ariosti from Germany, 
 and Handel, who at this time resided with the Duko of Chandos at 
 
 Caunons, was not only included in the arrangement, but was com- 
 missioned to engage the principal singers. The following year, 
 Handel having returned from his mission, the libretto of ' Muzio 
 Scevola' wa3 divided between these three composers; the first act 
 having been assigned to Ariosti, the second to Bononcini, and the third 
 to Handel. Ariosti's ' Ciro ' was the first new opera after the run of 
 ' Muzio Scevola,' and its songs were printed by Walsh. To this suc- 
 ceeded the ' Floridante ' of Handel, and then the ' Crispo ' of Bonon- 
 cini. In 1723 Handel's ' Otho ' was followed by the ' Coriolano ' of 
 Ariosti; then came Bononcini's 'Ermiuia,' the 'Flavio' of Handei, 
 and, in 1724, the ' Vespasiano ' of Ariosti. This successive occupa- 
 tion of the Italian opera stage by the three rivals continued till 1727, 
 when Bononcini having produced his 'Astyanax' and Ariosti his 
 ' Lucio Vero,' they relinquished their engagements, and left Handel in 
 undisputed possession of the field. 
 
 Of the various operas which Ariosti wrote, ' Coriolano ' was the 
 most popular. " The prison scene," says Hawkius, " is wrought up 
 to the highest degree of perfection that music is capable of, and is 
 said to have drawn tears from the audience at every representation." 
 This was supposed to have been parodied by Gay in the ' Beggar's 
 Opera,' and to have been alluded to in this sentence from his introduc- 
 tion : " I have introduced the similes that are in all your celebrated 
 operas ; and besides I have a prison scene, which the ladies always 
 reckon charmingly pathetic." 
 
 Bononcini, after ceasing to write for the stage, found, for a time, 
 patronage and support among his titled admirers, especially from the 
 Marlborough family. Ariosti was less fortunate. He issued pro- 
 posals for publishing a collection of cantatas, and a set of lessons for 
 the viol d'amour, but with little success. No reputation is more 
 transient than that of a composer for the Italian opera, and the three 
 rivals, whose contending claims for supremacy for several years 
 agitated the fashionable world, were iu turn destined to encounter its 
 neglect. Ariosti, soon after this disappointment to his hopes, quitted 
 England, and of his future fate nothing is recorded. 
 
 "Ariosti," says Dr. Burney, "seems to have been a perfectly good 
 harmonist, who had treasured up much excellent music in his head, 
 but had little invention. I can sometimes trace Corelli in his works, 
 but, as for his immediate cotemporaries, there appear, on a general 
 reading, so many claimants for the favourite passages of the day, that 
 it is difficult to assign them to the right owners : Handel, Bononcini, 
 and Ariosti all adopted the same divisions in songs of execution." 
 In proof of this assertion, Buruey has subjoined the 'Aria d'agilita,' 
 sung by Senesino in ' Vespasiano,' in which the alleged community of 
 style and passage is sufficiently conspicuous. 
 
 That Bononcini and Ariosti should have been invited to England as 
 joint composers with Handel to the Italian opera at a time when the 
 latter was residing in London, and had given some evidence of his 
 power as a dramatic writer, may seem to argue a needless prodigality 
 of expenditure on the part of its noble directors ; and that there 
 should have been enlisted on the side of Handel's competitors a 
 formidable array of partisans may also appear to indicate a strange 
 want of ability to estimate the real capacity and merit of the three 
 rivals. But it must be remembered that the works which have im- 
 mortalised Handel had not, at this period, been called into existence. 
 He is now known, preeminently, as a choral writer; his name i3 
 associated with whatever is grand and majestic iu hi3 art. He was 
 then known and estimated solely as a composer of operas for the 
 Italian stage, forming his style upon Italian models, governed and 
 restricted by the rules which then regulated the lyric drama of that 
 country, and venturing upon no demonstration of that power which 
 he afterwards so copiously displayed. It is true that in Handel's 
 operas his genius occasionally blazes out, that the vigour of his mind 
 and the extent of his resources are disclosed, that we feel the spirit 
 and strength of the ' giant Handel ; ' but these indications of power 
 are, nevertheless, rare, and a comparison of his operas with those of 
 his rivals will show a pervading sameness of style and of phrase suffi- 
 cient to account for their having shared with him, for a time, the 
 favour of the London public. The operas of Handel, Ariosti, and 
 Bononcini are now almost equally unkuown, and are fouud only in the 
 libraries of collectors. 
 
 (Geber, Lexicon der Tonlciinstler ; Hawkins, History of Music; 
 Burney, History of Music; Life of Handel ; Libretti del Teatro Real, 
 1720-1730.) 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AllIOSTO, LUDOVICO, was born at Reggio, near Modena, Sept. 8, 
 1474. He was the son of Nicol5 Ariosto of Ferrara, a military officer 
 in the service of Duke Hercules I. d'Este, aud governor of the citadel 
 of Reggio ; his mother, Daria Malaguzzi, was of a noble family of 
 Reggio. Ludovico was the eldest born of a family of five brothers and 
 five sisters. He early showed a disposition for poetry, aud wrote in 
 his boyhood a drama on the sut ject of Py ramus and Thisbe, which he 
 and his brothers rehearsed before their parents. Ludovico was designed 
 for the profession of the law, but after spending live years iu prepara- 
 tory legal studies at Padua he was allowed to follow his own inclination. 
 Being then past twenty, aud but little acquainted with the aucient 
 writers, he put himself under the tuition of Gregorio da Spoleti, by 
 whose assistance he made great progress in Latin. Greek he acquired 
 
311 
 
 313 
 
 later in life. On the death of his father, about the year 1500, he found 
 himself charged with the guardianship of his younger brothers and 
 sisters, and the management of a very inoderato patrimony — a task 
 which he entered on with brotherly affection, and which he fulfilled 
 ■with integrity. Some lyric compositions, written at this time, attracted 
 the notice of Cardinal Ippolito d'Kste, younger son of Hercules I., and 
 brother to Alfonso, the heir to the ducal crown of Ferrara. The 
 cardinal in 1503 appointed Ariosto one of the gentlemen of his retinue, 
 and employed him in important affairs and missious both for himself 
 and for his brother Alfonso, whose father had died in 1505. Alfonso 
 having joined in 1509 the famous league of Cam bray against the 
 Venetian republic, Cardinal Ippolito took the command of his brother's 
 troops, and Ariosto was present at the campaign of that year on the 
 banks of the Lower l'o, the atrocities of which, perpetrated chiefly by 
 the Slayouian mercenaries in the service of Venice, ho feelingly 
 describes at the beginning of the thirty-sixth canto of his great poem. 
 In December of the same year he was sent on a mission to Home to 
 request the assistance of Julius II. against the Venetians, but the Pope 
 had already changed his mind, and become jealous of his French and 
 German allies. Cardinal Ippolito however in the meantime defeated 
 the Venetians, and destroyed their flotilla on the l'o, and the object of 
 Ariosto's mission of course ceased. 
 
 ■From a bronze Italian medal in the British Museum. 
 
 The following year, 1510, Popo Julius, having openly joined the 
 Venetians against his former allies, excomtnuuicated the Duke of 
 Ferrara for refusing to follow his example, and assembled an army in 
 the Ilomagua to attack Alfonso's territories. Ariosto was now sent 
 again to deprecate the wrath of the pontiff, but the reception he met 
 with induced him to make a hasty escape from Rome. The war con- 
 tinued till the death of Julius, iu the beginning of 1513, delivered 
 Alfonso from his bitterest enemy. Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici being 
 raised to the pontifical throne by the name of Leo X., Ariosto went to 
 Rome to congratulate the new pope, whom he had known at Florence 
 and at Urbino. He was received most graciously by the pope ; but 
 becoming tired of waiting for some more substantial mark of friend- 
 ship, Ariosto left Rome, and returned to Ferrara to resume his studies. 
 He had long before this begun a poem, in ottava rima, on the fabulous 
 1 adventures of the knights and paladins, Moors and Christians, of 
 Charlemagne's age — an inexhaustible theme, which had occupied the 
 pens of many Spanish, French, and Italian ballad and romance 
 writers. 
 
 In Italy, Pulci, Bojardo, and Bello had each written a poem on the 
 wars between Charlemagne and the Saracens, which tradition had con- 
 founded with the previous wars of Charles Martel and Pepin, and in 
 which Orlando, or Roland, appeared as a prominent character, and the 
 champion of the Christians. Bojardo took Orlando for the hero of his 
 poem, and made him fall in love with Angelica, an infidel princess, of 
 exquisite beauty and of consummate coquetry, who had come all the 
 way from Asia for the purpose of sowing dissension among the Chris- 
 tian knights. Bojardo introduced numerous episodes into his narrative, 
 iu the midst of which he broke off the story of Angelica, in the fiftieth 
 canto of his ' Orlando Innamorato,' and never resumed it, although he 
 had carried his poem to the sixty-ninth canto at the time of his 
 death. Ariosto took up the thread of Angelica's story where Bojardo 
 had left it, and making the jilt fall in love herself with Medoro, an 
 obscure youthful squire, he represents Orlando as driven mad by 
 jealousy and indignation : he continues in this state during the greater 
 part of the poem, committing a thousand absurdities, until he is 
 restored to reason by Astolfo, who brings back his wits in a phial from 
 the moon. Orlando's madness however is rather terrific and lament- 
 able than ludicrous ; for the poet, often jovial and humorous in his 
 episodes, never loses sight of the dignity of his narrative, nor descends 
 to the low burlesque. But the madness of Orlando is not the prin- 
 cipal subject of the poem, although it has furnished the name for it ; 
 the war between Charlemagne and the Saracens is continued through- 
 out the narrative, of which it forms a most important and consecutive 
 action, ending with the expulsion of the Moors from France, and the 
 subsequent death of their king Agramante and their other chiefs. 
 The poet has interwoven with these a third subject, which some 
 critics, who are determined to find a unity of action in a poem which 
 is not an epic, have a&sumed to be the principal one, namely, the Joves 
 
 of Ruggiero, a young Saracen knight born of Christian parents, and 
 Bradamante, a Christian Amazon, and Riualdo's sister. After nume- 
 rous adventures, crosses, and narrow escapes, he makes them marry in 
 the last or forty-sixth canto of the poem ; and from their union he 
 derives the genealogy of the house of Este. 
 
 Intermixed with these three subjects, or tales, are numerous and 
 some long episodes of knights and damsels, of their fights and loves, 
 of their strange adventures, some heroic, some ludicrous, and other* 
 pathetic ; there are magicians and giants, enchanted palaces and 
 gardens, flying horses and harpies, and other monsters ; and the reader 
 finds himself in the midst of a new world, created as it wore by the 
 wand of an enchanter. The poet has the art of sketching and parti- 
 cularising every creature of his fancy with features and attributes so 
 apparently appropriate and consistent with their supposed nature, as 
 to remove the feeling of their improbability. He appears himself 
 deeply interested in his fantastic creation, and at times so entangled 
 in his own labyrinth, that he loses himself, as he ingenuously confesses, 
 and is obliged to break off in the midst of a most interesting story, to 
 run after some other personages, whom he left in a desert islaud, or 
 on a dangerous voyage, or on the eve of a mortal combat, and to bring 
 them again to the view of his readers. Yet he contrives to wind off 
 all his threads at last with admirable skill. It is not always an easy 
 tiling to follow such a guide ; but we wander along from tale to tale, 
 from description to description, delighted with the present and uncon- 
 scious of the ultimate object of our journey. Such is the 'Orlando 
 Furioso ' (as far as an idea of it can be given in a few words), the first 
 of all the poems of chivalry and romance. A knowledge of Bojardo's 
 ' Innamorato ' is however required for the proper understanding of 
 the ' Furioso.' 
 
 Ariosto, after spending ten years in writing his poem, published it 
 in one volume quarto, at Ferrara, in April, 1516, in forty cantos, which 
 he afterwards increased to forty-Bix. He sold a hundred copies of it 
 to the bookseller Gigli of Ferrara for twenty-eight scudi, about fifteen 
 pence per copy. He dedicated it to Cardinal Ippolito, who however 
 had no taste for poetry ; he was a busy man of the world, and he told 
 Ariosto that " he would have felt better satisfied if, instead of praising 
 hiin in idle verse, he had been more assiduous in his service." 
 (Ariosto, 1 Satira,' ii.) 
 
 In 1517 the cardinal, being about to set off for Gran in Hungary, of 
 which he was archbishop, asked Ariosto to follow him there ; but the 
 poet excused himself on the pica of his health, which was very delicate. 
 His brother Alessandro however accompanied the cardinal. Ariosto's 
 refusal offended his patron, and some time after his departure a small 
 pension which he had allowed him was stopped. Cardinal Ippolito 
 had however proved himself a friend to Ariosto by many substantial 
 benefits. After the cardinal's death his brother the duke called Ariosto 
 to his own service, and through his munificence the poet was enabled 
 to build himself a house, surrounded by a pleasant garden, opposite 
 the church of San Benedetto, at Ferrara. In other respects also the 
 duke behaved to him with great kindness and liberality. In February 
 1521 Ariosto published a second edition of his poems with many cor- 
 rections, but still in forty cantos only; this edition is now extremely 
 rare, and even more so than the first. 
 
 In 1522 Ariosto was appointed governor of the mountain district of 
 Garfagnana, a dependency of Modena, situated on the western slope 
 of the Apennines, and bordering upon Lucca. Here he remained nearly 
 three years, during which he seems to have conciliated the minds of 
 the rude population, and to have restored order among them. Being 
 once stopped in the mountains by a band of robbers, his name and 
 reputation proved his protection ; the outlaws, on learning who he 
 was, showed him much respect, and offered to escort him wherever he 
 chose. In 1524 he returned from his government to Ferrara, where 
 it appears he remained ever after, nominally iu the duke's service, but 
 enjoying leisure for his studies. He now wrote his comedies, which 
 were performed with great splendour before the court, in a theatre 
 which the duke built for the purpose. In October 1532 Ariosto, after 
 correcting and revising hi3 poem for sixteen years, published the third 
 edition in forty-six cantos, which, in spite of some misprints of which 
 Ariosto bitterly complains, remains the legitimate text of the ' Orlando 
 Furioso.' The apparent ease of Ariosto's verse is the result of much 
 labour. Scarcely had Ariosto completed his third edition, when he 
 found himself grievously ill with a painful internal complaint; and 
 after lingering several months he died on the 6th of June, 1533, in 
 his fifty-ninth year. He was buried in the old church of San Bene- 
 detto, attended by the monks. Forty years later, after the church had 
 been rebuilt, Agostino Mosti of Ferrara, who had studied under Ariosto, 
 raised a handsome monument to him in the chapel, which is to the 
 right of the great altar, to which spot the poet's bones were transferred 
 with great solemnity. In 1612 Lodovico Ariosto, grand-nephew of the 
 poet, raised another monument to his memory more magnificent than 
 the first, in the chapel to the left of the great altar, to which place 
 Ariosto's remains were finally removed. 
 
 Besides the three Ferrara editions above-mentioned, printed under 
 Ariosto's superintendence, several reprints of his poem were published 
 iu various parts of Italy in his lifetime. Numerous editions followed 
 after his death ; all however more or less incorrect, and some of them 
 purposely alterated and mutilated. The Aldine edition, of 1545, is 
 one of the best of that age. The best modern edition of the ' Orlando 
 
8i» AEIOVISTUS. 
 
 Furioso' is that of Milan, in 1818, in quarto, in which the learned 
 editor Morali has faithfully restored the original text of 1532. The 
 'Orlando Fuiioso' has been translated into most European languages, 
 though seldom successfully. Of the English translations, that by 
 Harrington is spirited and much superior to Hoole's, but the transla- 
 tion by Mr. S. Rose is considered the best, and is generally faithful. 
 
 Ariosto is considered one of the best Italian satirists. The tone of 
 his satires resembles that of Horace rather than that of Juvenal. He 
 introduces several of the principal occurrences of his life, and exhibits 
 'the manners and vices of his time and country. He speaks of popes, 
 princes, and cardinals, with great freedom, but in language generally, 
 though not always, decorous. His satires, seven in number, and 
 addressed to his brothers and other friends, were first published in 
 1534, after his death, and have often been repriuted, both separately 
 and with the rest of his works. He wrote five comedies in blank verse, 
 'La Cassaria,' 'I Suppositi,' 'La Lena,' 'II Negromante,' and 'La 
 Scolastica.' Cardinal Bibbiena, Ariosto, and Maehiavelli, all three 
 contemporaries, were the first writers of regular comedy in Italy. 
 They adopted the manner of Plautus and Terence; and they preserved 
 the unities. The language is often grossly indecent, and yet these 
 plays were performed before the court and chivalry of those times. 
 There are some other minor works of Ariosto, which are all found in 
 the Venice editions of Ariosto's works of 1741 and 1766, edited by 
 Barotti. 
 
 Ariosto left two natural sons, Virginio, whom he had legitimated by 
 public act in 1530, and who afterwards became a canon of the cathe- 
 dral of Ferrara ; and Giovanbattista, who was made a captain in the 
 Duke's service. The number of commentators, critics, and biographers 
 of Ariosto, is very great; some of the best have been mentioned in 
 the course of this article. Baruffaldi junior has also written a life of 
 Ariosto ; Ferrara, 1807. 
 
 ARIOVISTUS, a German chief, whom Caesar encountered and 
 defeated in Gaul in the first year of his proconsulship, B.C. 58. It is 
 not known t:> which of the Germanic nations Ariovistus belonged. He 
 was invited or rather hired to enter Gaul by the Sequani (the ancient 
 inhabitants of Franche-Cornte"), who, in alliance with the Arverni (the 
 ancient inhabitants of Auvergue), were struggling with the ^Edui (who 
 inhabited Burgundy) for the supremacy of Gaul. The first band of 
 Germans who were induced by the promises and gifts of the Sequani 
 to cross the Rhine amounted to 15,000, but subsequent reiuforcements 
 in the course of years swelled the number to 120,000 of various 
 nations — Triboces or Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes, Sedusii, Harudes, 
 Marcomans, and Suevi. Three of these nations, the Tribocci, Vangiones, 
 and Nemetes, we fiud at a subsequent period settled on the Gallic side 
 of the Rhine. 
 
 The aid of Ariovistus and his forces gave a decided superiority to 
 the Sequani. The ^Edui were defeated in several engagements, with 
 the loss of all their nobiiity and cavalry, and were obliged to submit 
 to the demands of their victorious enemies. The Sequani were however 
 in no wise benefited by their victory. Ariovistus seized a third part 
 of their territory, in which he settled with his army, and eventually 
 reduced to'his sway all that part of Gaul which was near his settle- 
 ment. The chief of these events occurred probably some years before 
 Caesar's arrival in Gaul, since Ariovistus, "from long practice," was 
 accustomed to speak the Celtic language (Ccesar, 'De Bell. Gall.' i. 47), 
 and had married his second wife, a Noric woman, sister of Voctio or 
 Voccio, the king of the Norici, who inhabited Upper Bavaria and the 
 Tyrol. After his settlement in Gaul, in a message to Caesar, Ario- 
 vistus boasts that his unconquered Germans had not for fourteen years 
 dwelt in a fixed abode : but this will only imply that his army had 
 been embodied for so many years, not that they had been so long in 
 Gaul. He had anxiously sought, and in Caesar's consulship had obtained 
 the alliance of the Ro:nan senate and people, by whom he had been 
 acknowledged as king, which seems to imply an admission of his title 
 to the sovereignty of that part of Gaul of which he had taken possession. 
 Probably the Gallic princes, whose statements Caesar has recorded, 
 exaggerated both the power and the' cruelty of Ariovistus. When 
 Caesar had, in the first year of his proconsulship in Gaul, broken the 
 power of the Helvetii, he determined to pick a quarrel with Ariovistus 
 and attempt to drive him out of Gaul. Dion Cassius plaiuly intimates 
 that the quarrel was of Caesar's seeking ; but Caesar himself says that 
 he was induced to attack him by an application from the Gallic 
 princes, who came to congratulate him on his victory over the Helvetii. 
 The application has however every appearance of having been got up 
 for the purpose of furnishing an excuse for the war, and was sustained 
 by evidently exaggerated representations. Caesar's first step was to 
 demand an interview with Ariovistus, that they might confer on 
 matters of importance to both. Ariovistus replied, that if Caesar 
 wished for an interview he might come to him ; but that he (Ariovistus) 
 could not come into the Itoman territory. He also rejected the terms 
 on which Caesar proposed to renew the alliance of Rome with the 
 German prince. Caesar upon this determined on immediate hostilities, 
 being urged by the -<Edui to protect them from the Harudes, 24,000 
 of whom had just arrived in Gaul, for whom Ariovistus had demanded 
 another third of the Sequanian territory, and who were meanwhile 
 ravaging the country of the .fEdui. He had also received intelligence 
 that a hundred clans (' pagi ') of the Suevi had reached the bank of the 
 Rhine near the country of the Treviri (the electorate of Treves), and 
 
 ARISTARCHUS. 311 
 
 were attempting to cross that river. By a rapid march he anticipated 
 Ariovistus in occupying Vesontio (the modern Bcsaueon), an important 
 military post; and, by a well-timed address, dispelled a panic which 
 had seized his men, especially some of the young officers, who had 
 seen little service. Having converted the fear of his troops into 
 warlike ardour, he continued his march ; and Ariovistus, alarmed at 
 his approach, consented to an interview, which was broken off by a 
 report that the Germans were attacking the escort of the Roman 
 goneral. The German matrons, who were regarded by their country- 
 men as prophetesses, had foretold that an engagement could not be 
 successful if fought before the new moon, Ariovistus consequently 
 wished to decline fighting before that time; but Caesar, aware of the 
 superstition of his opponents, forced them to an engagement; and 
 after a severe, and for a time doubtful struggle, gave them an entire 
 defeat. The pursuit was continued with great slaughter on the banks 
 of the Rliiue, distant several miles. Ariovistus escaped in a little 
 boat across the river ; but his two wives and one of his daughters 
 perished in the flight, and a second daughter was taken prisoner. 
 Neither the force of the Germans nor their loss is stated by Caesar ; 
 but Plutarch and Appian give the loss at 80,000 and Orosius says that 
 the number and loss of the enemy and fierceness of the fight were 
 inconceivable. The subsequent history of Ariovistus is unknown. His 
 death was mentioned by Titurius Sabinus, about four years after, as 
 one cause of the hostility of the Germans towards Rome (Caesar, ' De 
 Bell. Gall.' v. 29.). 
 
 Caesar does not state any facts in confirmation of the character of 
 arrogance and cruelty which he has assigned to Ariovistus. Tried by 
 the maxims of his age and country, the German prince does not appear 
 to be chargeable with any peculiar guilt, except in the seizure of 
 Caesar's envoys, C. Valerius Procillus and M. Mettius, and in the design 
 which he is charged with entertaining of putting the former of the two 
 to death. But the only account we have of this transaction is from 
 Caesar himself. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowhdge.) 
 
 ARISTiE'NETUS, a Greek writer, a native of Nicsea, whose epoch 
 is not capable of being accurately determined. It has been conjec- 
 tured that the Aristsenetus to whom are attributed the ' Erotic ' or 
 ' Love Letters ' is the person to whom several of the letters of Libanius 
 are addressed, and who lost his life in the earthquake of Nicomedia, 
 a.d. 358 : some are inclined to place him at a later epoch. These 
 Letters, of which there are two books, are a species of rhetorical 
 exercise, and not real letters; they often exhibit bad taste, but are of 
 some value as presenting a picture of the manners, or at least of the 
 literature, of the age. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS of Samos, an astronomer, lived in the 3rd century 
 B.C., and was probably, during the latter period of his life, contem- 
 poraneous with Archimedes. In his work entitled ' Arenarius,' Archi- 
 medes attributes to Aristarchus the opinion that the earth moves round 
 the sun, which is supposed to have been previously held by Pythagoras 
 and Philolaus. His words are — " He (Aristarchus) says, that the fixed 
 stars and sun remain without motion, but that the earth is carried 
 round the sun in the circumference of a circle, the sun being in the 
 centre ; and that the sphere of the fixed stars, which has the same 
 centre as the sun, is so great that the circle described by the earth 
 bears no more proportion to the distance of the fixed stars, than the 
 centre of a sphere does to its surface." Archimedes then proceeds to 
 combat the singular notion contained in the last words. A passage in 
 Plutarch's treatise on the moon, states that Aristarchus supposed the 
 heavens to be fixed, and that the earth moved in an oblique circle, at 
 the same time revolving round her own axis. We learn also from 
 Archimedes that Aristarchus supposed the apparent diameter of the 
 sun to be the 720th part of the zodiac, that is, half a degree. This 
 is about two minutes too little. 
 
 One small work of Aristarchus has come down to us, ' On the Mag- 
 nitudes and Distances of the Sun and Moon,' which makes no mention 
 of the preceding hypothesis with regard to the earth's motion. The 
 scope of it will be shown in the following translation of the introduc- 
 tion (from Wallis's edition). The brackets contain remarks, mostly 
 from Delambro. " 1. The moon receives light from the sun. [This 
 was asserted before Aristarchus.] 2. The earth is a mere point or 
 centre when compared with the sphere of the moon. [This is wrong, 
 since the moon would then appear at the same point of the heavens 
 from different parts of the earth, which is not the case.] 3. When 
 the moon appears halved, the great circle separating the light and dark 
 part of the moon passes through the eye of the spectator. [A very 
 simple truth, but a great step in astronomy, as giving rise to the first 
 determination of the relative distances of the sun and moon, the 
 principle of which was correct.] 4. In the preceding case the angle 
 between the sun and moon is less than a quadrant by its thirtieth 
 part. [That is, the angle is 87°; whereas 89° 50' is nearer the truth.] 
 5. The apparent diameter of the earth's shadow [that is, the section 
 through which the moon passes in an eclipse] is twice that of the 
 moon. [This would give it 64' ; it is nearer to 82'.] 6. The moon 
 subtends the fifteenth part of a sign. [This would make the apparent 
 diameter 2°, which is four times too great.] Hence the distance of 
 the sun from the earth is more than eighteen times the distance of the 
 moon, and less than twenty times ; that is, when the moon appears 
 
816 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 halved. And the [real] diameter of the sun beare the same proportion 
 to the [real] diameter of the moon. The diameter of the buu bears 
 to that of the moon a greater proportion than 19 to 3, but a less 
 proportion than 43 to C, as appears from what has been found of the 
 ratio of the distances, the shadow of the earth, and the moon's sub- 
 tending the 15th part of a sign." 
 
 The preceding deductions follow correctly from the principles laid 
 down, and of course partake of their numerical inaccuracy. The 
 manner in which they are proved shows that the Greeks of this period 
 had no trigonometry whatever ; not even a table of chords, and the 
 limits given are not so close as those which might have been obtained 
 from the same data by a ruler and compasses. There are several pro- 
 positions on the relative bulks of the three bodies, deduced by common 
 methods. 
 
 There is a commentary of Pappus upon the work of Aristarchus, 
 which has been given (in part at least) by Wallis in his edition. 
 
 From an obscure passage in Plutarch (' l'latonic Questions,' 8), in 
 which the report of Archimedes is corroborated, Delainbre infers that 
 Aristarchus attributed day and night to the rotation of the earth. It 
 is hard to see how ho could do otherwise, if he supposed the sun 
 fixed. 
 
 There is another work attributed to Aristarchus, published by 
 Roberval at Paris in 1543, on the ' System of the World.' But this 
 is generally believed to have been written by Roberval himself. 
 
 Vitruvius speaks highly of Aristarchus, as the inventor of many 
 useful machines, and in particular of a dial which lie terms ' scaphe.' 
 This dial is described by Martianus Capella (cited by Weidler), from 
 which, and partly from the name, we should infer that it was a part of 
 a concave hemispher with a style ending in the centre, so that by 
 drawing the equato>, &c, inside the hemisphere, the sun's position 
 might bo found by lwarking the extremity of the shadow. Montucla 
 describes one, dug out at Tusculum in 1741, which, since Cicero des- 
 cribes such an instrument, is conjectured to have belonged to him. 
 (Mont.,' Hist. Matt ,' i. 721 ; a drawing is given.) 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, the critic, the son of Aristarchus, was born in the 
 island of Samothrace ; but he abandoned the narrow limits of his own 
 country, in order to settle in the wealthy and populous city of Alex- 
 andria. The time of his birth is not exactly known; but he is stated 
 to have flourished about B.C. 158. He was preceptor to the son of 
 Ptolemseus Philometor, king of Egypt, who reigned from B.C. 181 to 145. 
 Ptolemseus Euergetes II., who succeeded, put his nephew, the pupil of 
 Aristarchus, to death. Aristarchus was the disciple of Aristophanes 
 of Byzantium, the celebrated grammarian, who flourished about 
 B.C. 200, and was the first Grecian who laid the principles of philo- 
 logical criticism upon a sound and accurate basis. Aristarchus suc- 
 ceeded his master Aristophanes (for whose opinions he is stated to 
 have entertained great respect), as head of the grammatical and critical 
 school of Alexandria ; and obtained in that capacity, by his eminence 
 as a teacher and by his various writings, a reputation greater than 
 any other critic of antiquity. Forty grammarians are stated to have 
 proceeded from his school, who doubtless contributed to spread his 
 fame over Greece and the neighbouring countries. His name was also 
 highly celebrated among his contemporaries ; and after his death his 
 authority was so much esteemed, that Horace and Cicero used Aris- 
 tarchus as a general name -for a great critic, and Sextus Empiricus 
 mentions him with Plato and other such eminent names ; one of the 
 scholiasts to Homer likewise expresses an opinion (which a modern 
 critic has applied to other persons), that it is better to err with Aris- 
 tarchus than to be right with Hermapias, a grammarian of little note 
 ('Ad II.,' 235.) 
 
 The critical works of Aristarchus appear to have been very volumin- 
 ous, but they are now all lost, and are only known from extracts and 
 citations preserved in other writers. His chief work was his edition 
 of the 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey,' in which, 1, he revised the text, partly 
 by means of the comparison of manuscripts, and partly by conjecture; 
 2, he divided the two poems into twenty-four parts or books, each 
 distinguished by a letter of the Greek alphabet, which in the Alex- 
 andrine age contained twenty -four letters (' Incertus de Horn. Poesi,' 
 in Ernesti's 'Homer,' vol. v. p. 152) ; and 3, he placed certain critical 
 marks before certain lines, some denoting that the verses so marked 
 contained something worthy of notice, and others that they were 
 
 spurious; the last were merely straight lines thus , in the 
 
 form of a spit or of3e\6s, whence ofieXl^eii/ in Greek, and 'obelo notare' 
 in Latin, " to mark with an obelus," meant to mark as spurious. The 
 reasons for the changes which he made in the text, and for the marks 
 which he prefixed to the verses, and his explanations of doubtful pas- 
 sages, he appears to have given separately in some of his commentaries, 
 of which he is stated to have written more than 800 books. (Suidas 
 in v.) Probably these books were very short divisions, but the com- 
 mentaries included not only his labours on Homer, but also illustra- 
 tions of Hesiod, Archilochus, Alcscus, Anacreon, -<Eschylus, Sophocles, 
 Pindar, Aristophanes, Aratus, and other poets. Of these latter pro- 
 ductions of Aristarchus few remnants have been preserved ; of his 
 Homeric criticisms however a large part is extant in the Scholia to 
 Homer, from which a tolerably complete notion of his mode of 
 treating ancient Greek poets may be formed. One of the most remark- 
 able features of his criticism is the boldness with which he condemned 
 numerous verses as unworthy of Homer, and as manifest interpolations 
 
 ARISTEAS. Si« 
 
 of a later age. Various opinions have been formed on these judgments 
 of Aristarchus ; some moderns have thought that his method was in 
 the highest degree arbitrary and uncritical, while others have thought 
 that he exercised a sound aud modest discretion. There can be no 
 doubt that Aristarchus trusted chielly to his own sagacity in discover- 
 ing the traces of interpolation. Interpolations of the c .mstituent parts 
 of Homer's poems, if any such existed, were doubtless made before 
 the age when the ' Iliad' and ' Odyssey ' were first reduced to writing; 
 and therefore they could not be detected by the mere comparison of 
 manuscripts. Consequently Aristarchus ought not to be taxed with 
 rashness for condemning verses of Homer which might be found in 
 all the manuscripts : he rejected them because he thought them 
 unworthy of Homer, and inconsistent with the general character of 
 his poetry and language. If the existence of any additions to the 
 Homeric poems, of considerably later date than the body of the poem 
 (as the last book of the ' Odyssey'), is ever susceptible of proof, it can 
 only be established by such probable and indirect arguments as those 
 employed by Aristarchus in justification of his obeli. 
 
 The division of Homer into books was doubtless made -by Aris- 
 tarchus for the purposes of reference, which were important to critics 
 such as himself; aud it has been retained on that account ever since 
 his time. Aristarchus did not confine his criticism to grammatical 
 and metrical questions, but he also gave historical and geographical 
 illustrations of the author's text. His notes on the mythology and 
 geography of Homer, preserved in the Scholia, are very numerous. 
 (Lehrs., ' De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis,' pp. 167-256.) Aristarchus 
 published two editions of his recension of Homer, as appears from 
 numerous passages in the Scholia to Homer, where the differences 
 between the readings of the first and second editions are noticed. 
 (Lehrs., 'De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis,' p. 27). His recension 
 became the established text of the ' Iliad' aud 'Odyssey,' not only 
 among the grammarians of Alexandria, and their disciples; but among 
 the copyists from whose transcripts the modern versions of Homer 
 have been derived since the invention of printing. In the scholia to 
 the ' Iliad,' moreover, a constaut reference is made to the explanations 
 and obeli of Aristarchus, whose opinion is often stated without the 
 addition of his name, as if he was pre-eminently the commentator of 
 Homer. (Wolf, ' Prol. ad Horn.,' s. 47.) 
 
 Besides his edition of Homer and his Commentaries, he wrote some 
 short works addressed to individuals, with other productions, which 
 were considered less accurate and elaborate than his Commentaries 
 (Schol., 'II.,' ii. Ill ; Lehrs., ' De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis,' pp. 20-6). 
 He wrote also in defence of analogy in matters of criticism, against 
 Crates the grammarian, who defended the principle of anomaly. (Wolf, 
 ' Prol. ad Horn.,' p. 230.) He is likewise stated to have contended at 
 Bergamus with Crates, who was a native of that town. Late in his 
 life he appears to have retired from Alexandria to Cyprus, where, being 
 afflicted with a dropsy, he died of voluntary starvation at the age of 
 seventy-two ; leaving as his successor in the Alexandrine school his 
 disciple Ammonius. He had two sons, named Aristarchus and Arista- 
 goras, who were both idiots ; the former was sold as a slave, but 
 having been brought by his master to Athens, he was redeemed by 
 the Athenians, apparently out of respect for his illustrious father. 
 (Suidas in v.) 
 
 ARI'STEAS. Josephus, Epiphanius, and others call him Aristceus, 
 but in the work which bears his name he is called Aristeas. He seems 
 to have been a Cyprian by birth, and to have held a high place at the 
 court of Ptolemseus Philadelphus, king of Egypt. There is extant a 
 work which is generally entitled ' the History of the Seventy Inter- 
 preters.' It is a letter in Greek which professes to be written by 
 Aristeas to his brother Philocrates. This letter contains an account 
 of a translation which was made of the ' Jewish law,' that is the Pen- 
 tateuch, and not, as is commonly stated, of all the Old Testament, 
 by the command of Ptolemseus Philadelphus. The following account 
 of Aristeas is extracted from the letter : — " Ptolemaeus Philadelphus 
 was forming a vast library at Alexandria (B.C. 273), and he entrusted 
 the formation of this library to Demetrius Phalereus. Demetrius in 
 a conversation which he held with Ptolemaeus in the presence of 
 Aristeas, told the king that he had heard that a copy of the Jewish 
 laws deserved a place in his library, but that it would be requisite to 
 translate them, as they were written in the peculiar language of the 
 Jews, ' which,' said Demetrius, ' is generally considered to be Syriac, 
 but this is a mistake.' The king determined to write to the Jewish 
 high-priest on the subject. But at the suggestion of Aristeas, as a 
 preliminary step, he purchased the freedom of all the Jews in his 
 dominions who had been taken captive by his father or himself. They 
 amounted to more than 100,000, and the king paid six hundred 
 and sixty talents altogether. He gave twenty drachmae for each slave 
 to their several masters. He then sent Aristeas and Andreas the 
 commander of the royal body-guard, with magnificent presents, and 
 a letter to Eleazar the Jewish high-priest, in which he requested 
 Eleazar to send to Alexandria seventy -two interpreters, six elders from 
 each tribe, that their number might give authority to the work. The 
 seventy-two elders were sent. Their names are given in the letter. 
 They were well versed in both the Hebrew and Greek languages. They 
 brought a copy of the law consisting of ' different parchments, in 
 which the law was written in gold in the Jewish letters' (p. 790 D. 
 cd. Gallaudius). The king wheu he saw the work bent down in 
 
317 
 
 ARISTIDES. 
 
 ARISTIDES. 
 
 BIS 
 
 reverence before it about seven times, and wept from joy ; and aa 
 about this time he had gained a naval victory over Antigonus, he said 
 that the day of their arrival should be observed during his life as a 
 holy day, and heiuvited them to a rich banquet the same day. During 
 seven days, he entertained them at similar banquets, proposing to 
 them questions which they answered with great wisdom. Three days 
 after these banquets, Demetrius took them to an island, which from 
 the description was Pharos, in the harbour of Alexandria, but the 
 same is not stated in the letter. Here they were lodged all together 
 in a magnificent house, near the shore, far from all noise and tumult. 
 They laboured every day at the translation till the ninth hour, that 
 is, till three o'clock in the afternoon, and they finished their work in 
 seventy-two days. The translation was made in this manner. The 
 elders consulted together as to the meaning of a passage, aud when 
 they had fixed upon the translation, Demetrius wrote it down. When 
 the work wa3 ended, Demetrius summoned the Jews and their heads 
 to the house where the interpreters had lodged, and read to them the 
 translation. They approved of it. Curses were pronounced upon all 
 who should venture to add to or take anything from it. The Jews 
 requested permission of Demetrius to take a copy of the translation. 
 The king received it with reverence, and ordered it to be carefully 
 preserved, and after inviting the interpreters to come and visit him 
 frequently, he sent them home with ample gifts both for themselves 
 and Eleazar." This is the sum of the story of Aristeas. The letter 
 of Aristeas was first published in the original Greek, with a Latin 
 translation, by Simon Schardius, 8vo., Basle, 1561. The best edition 
 is given by Gallaudius, in his ' Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum,' torn. ii. 
 pp. 771-8*24. Itis founded chiefly on the Oxford edition of 1C92, 8vo. ; 
 but Gallandius has also made use of the edition by Fabricius, which 
 is appended to Haveroamp's edition of Josephus, aud of those by 
 Hody and Van Dale. 
 
 Although the ancient writers derive their account from the letters 
 of Aristeas, they not only differ from him more or less, but they also 
 disagree among themselves. The antiquity of the letter is shown by 
 its being quoted by Philo and Josephus. Josephus professes to derive 
 his account from Aristeas, and he has inserted iu his ' Jewish Anti- 
 quities,' the various letters which were written on the subject ; but his 
 edition of these documents differs materially from the copy which is 
 found in the work of Aristeas, as it is now extant. There is no 
 reason to doubt that we have now the original letter ascribed to 
 Aristeas. 
 
 The genuineness and authenticity of this letter were unanimously 
 believed by the ancient Church, nor were they called in question till 
 the 17th century. From this date the general opinion has been that 
 the letter attributed to Aristeas is a forgery, and that it is the work 
 of an Alexandrine Jew, who lived before the time of Christ, aud 
 whose object in forgiug the letter was to give authority to the Greek 
 "version, which was in use among the Hellenistic Jews. Au examina- 
 tion of the Septuagint version is sufficient to show that it was made 
 by different persons, and probably at different times. Even if the 
 Btory of Aristeas is true, it appears from the letter itself that the Pen- 
 tateuch alone was translated by order of Ptolemreus Philadelphus. 
 Josephus expressly declares that ' only the law ' was translated in the 
 time of Philadelphus, and such was the opinion of the learned in the 
 time of Jerome. (Jerome, 'In Ezec.' v. 12, xvi. 13.) There seems to 
 be no improbability in the story of the letter, if adopted up to a 
 certain point, that the Pentateuch was translated into Greek by order 
 of Ptolemseus Philadelphus for his library, aud that he invited Jews 
 from Judaoa who were learned in Hebrew to assist the Alexandrine 
 Jews, who knew Greek well, but Hebrew imperfectly. But the com- 
 mon opinion seems now to be that the version of the Pentateuch was 
 made by the Alexandrine Jews for their own use about B.C. 285, 
 during the reign of Ptolemaeus Sotcr. Under any supposition it is 
 probable that thia version was called ' the Septuagint,' because it was 
 approved by the Sanhedrim, or council of seventy, of the Alexandrine 
 Jews. The other books of the Old Testament were extant iu Greek 
 two centuries before the birth of Christ. The letter of Aristeas has 
 given rise to a great number of woiks. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society fur the 
 Diffmion of Us' fid Knowledge.) 
 
 ARISTl'DES, son of Lysimachus, a great Athenian statesman and 
 general, who took a leading part iu the delivery of Greece from the 
 Persian invasion. He was of the tribe Antiochis, and was born in 
 Alopece, a demos of Attica. Plutarch has given U3 little information 
 as to the steps by which Aristides rose to eminence iu the state. 
 Several anecdotes illustrative of his probity are told by that amusing, 
 but not very accurate author, which, according to this arrangement 
 of his life, ought to have occurred befors the Persian war; but the 
 date of their occurrence is not fixed, and they contain no distinct 
 mention of Aristides's public employments, except that he was twice 
 chosen treasurer of the public revenue of Athens. Tlutarch further 
 states, that Therniatoclea and others, whose malpractices he had ex- 
 posed, had influence enough to procure his condemnation on a charge 
 of malversation ; but that, by the exertions of the more virtuous 
 citizens, the fine imposed on him was remitted, and he was again 
 elected to the office of chief treasurer. The first distinct notice which 
 we possess of his public life is, that he was one of the ten commanders 
 who directed the Athenian army, B.C. 490, upon the occasion of the 
 
 Persian invasion under Datia and Artapherne3. This rests on the 
 authority of Plutarch, who ascribes to Aristides the honour of having 
 first yielded his turn of command to Miltiades, and by his example 
 aud authority having carried the dissentients with him. Plutarch 
 adds, that when the Athenians marched back to their capital in haste, 
 to prevent the flying Persians from making auy attempt on it by sea, 
 Aristides was left with the men of his own tribe to guard the valuable 
 spoil of the Persian camp ; being selected for that duty on account of 
 hia incorruptible honesty. It is singular that Herodotus, in his account 
 of the battle (vi. 109), never even mentiona Aristides's name, although, 
 he elsewhere (viii. 79) bears testimony to him as the " justest and best 
 man in Athens." This silence would lead us to doubt whether Aris- 
 tides did really act so important a part in the action as his biographer 
 would have us believe. That he did distinguish himself is however 
 rendered probable by his having been elected archon ' ep6nymos ' in 
 the following year. (Plut. Arist. c. 5.) 
 
 Of the transactions of his magistracy we have no account. In the 
 sixth year after it (B.C. 483), he was banished by the process called 
 ' ostracism.' A person less deserving of such treatment could hardly 
 have been found ; but the practices of Themistocles prevailed with the 
 suspicious temper of the Athenians, although, according to a story 
 told by Plutarch, the acknowledged probity of Aristides had already 
 acquired for him the appellation of " the Just." In the third year 
 afterwards (B.C. 480), the eventful transactions of the Persian invasion 
 under Xerxes took place. At the battle of Artemisium, Aristides was 
 still in exile ; but before the battle of Salamis he was recalled, with 
 other exiles. In the night preceding that memorable battle, he passed 
 from the island of iEgina through the Persian fleet, bearing intel- 
 ligence to his countrymen that they were surrounded, and that flight, 
 which they were then meditating, was no longer possible. (Herod, 
 viii. 79.) Aristides, at the head of a body of Athenians, landed on 
 the small island of Psyttaleia, near Salamis, aud put to the sword 
 the Persian troops stationed on that island. (Herod, viii. 95 ; Plut. 
 c. 9.) 
 
 Before the battle of Plataja, fought in September, B.C. 479, he 
 regained more than his former favour with his countrymen. The 
 answer returned to Mardonius's offer of peace and alliance with the 
 Athenians is said by Plutarch to have been dictated by him : " Tell 
 Mardonius that the Athenians say, while the sun goes in the same 
 course as he is now going, we will never make peace with Xerxes; but 
 we will fight him, trusting in the gods, who fight with us, and the 
 heroes, whose temples and statues he, making no account of them, has 
 burnt." (Herod, viii. 143.) Aristides was one of the ambassadors 
 sent to remonstrate with the Spartans for their tardiness in sending 
 succours to resist the threatened second invasion of Attica by Mar- 
 donius ; and at the battle of Platea, contrary to the general usage, 
 he was appointed sole general of the Athenian troops, and signalised 
 his moderation iu a dispute with the Tegeatce concerning the right of 
 occupying the left wing of the allied army, the second post in point of 
 honour, the right wing being always held by the Lacedemonians. 
 After stating the claims of the Athenians to the place of honour, he 
 referred the point to the decision of the Lacedaemonians. The Lace- 
 demonians answered by acclamation, that the Athenians were more 
 worthy than the Tegeata; to lead the left wing. (Herod, ix. 27.) It is to 
 be observed here (as of the answer returned to Mardonius), that what 
 Plutarch says of Aristides, Herodotus says of the Athenians generally. 
 It may be presumed however that on both occasions the people acted 
 under the guidance of their leader ; and that the words so full of 
 wisdom, spirit, and moderation, agreeing so well with the character of 
 Aristides, were really prompted or delivered by him. 
 
 Not long after the restoration of Athens, which had been destroyed 
 by Xerxes and Mardonius, au important change took place in the 
 constitution : though opposed to the principles of those with whom 
 Aristides generally acted, it was supported at least, if not brought for- 
 ward, by him. By Solon's laws, noble descent and a definite amount 
 of property were required as qualifications iu candidates for the higher 
 offices. The alteration proposed by Aristides was to the effect that 
 all classes of the citizens should be eligible to the archonship, without 
 regard either to birth or wealth. 
 
 Aristides was the colleague of Thucydides in an embassy to Sparta, 
 when the Spartan government interfered to prevent the rebuilding of 
 the walls of Athens, destroyed by the Persians. (Thucyd., i. 91.) 
 Cicero relates a story (' Off.,' iii. 11), told in a slightly different manner 
 by Plutarch aud by Diodorus, that Themistocles, after the end of the 
 war, announced to the assembly of the people that he had a scheme 
 to propose greatly advantageous to the state, but of such a nature that 
 it could not safely be made public. Upon this he was desired to 
 communicate it to Aristides, who reported that nothing could be more 
 advantageous, or less honourable; and the proposal was dropped 
 without further inquiry. The measure proposed, according to Cicero 
 and Valerius Maximus (vi.), was to burn the Lacedajmonian fleet 
 at Gythium ; according to Plutarch, to burn the dockyard of the 
 Grecians, by which we suppose the confederate fleet was meant. It is 
 difficult to conceive how either measure could be reconciled with 
 sound policy, any more than with justice. 
 
 In B.C. 477 the unpopularity of the Laced-emouians, especially of the 
 commander-in-chief Pausanias, induced the Ionian Greeks to decline 
 serving under him. They offered the command of the confederacy to 
 
819 ARISTIDES. ARISTIPPUS. 320 
 
 Athens, whose ships at that time were under the command of Aris- 
 tides ; and to his moderation and probity, and to the favourable opinion 
 entertained of the Athenian character mainly through his virtues, that 
 transfer of the command is chiefly to be ascribed, and the consequent 
 establishment of what is called by historians the Athenian rule in 
 Greece, which was overthrown seventy-two years afterwards, at the 
 end of the Peloponuesian war. Under this new arrangement the 
 Greeks of the west coast of Asia Minor, the islands, and Thrace, in 
 conjunction with the Athenians, engaged to maintain a fleet sufficient 
 to prosecute the war with Persia. Each state was assessed to furnish 
 a certain sum of money, amounting in the aggregate to 4G0 talents; 
 and the difficult task of making the assessment was executed by 
 Aristides with such fairness, that, according to Diodorus (xi. 47), he 
 obtained the highest praise for justice. 
 
 This is the last public office in which we know Aristides to have 
 been engnged. His death is stated by Nepos to have occurred in the 
 fourth year after the ostracism of Themistocles, which fixes it to 
 B.C. 467. Plutarch says that the tomb of Aristides was in his own 
 time to be seen at Phalerum, erected at the charge of the state, because 
 the patriot died so poor that nothing was found in his house to pay 
 for his burial. He left children — a son, Lysimachus, who is one of the 
 speakers in Plato's dialogue of ' Laches,' and two daughters (Plut., 27); 
 all of whom were provided for by the state. Aristides lived and died 
 in poverty, after having borne the highest offices of Athens, and pos- 
 sess! d the most tempting opportunities for peculation of any man in 
 Greece; a voluntary poverty, for he is said to have refused large sums 
 offered to him by private liberality, saying that " he could better boast 
 of his poverty than others of their riches, which many did use ill, and 
 few well ; and that it was a hard thing to find one man of a noble 
 mind that could away with poverty, and that such only might be 
 ashamed of poverty as were poor against their wills." (North's 
 ' Plutarch.*) 
 
 The character of Aristides (so far as we can trust our chief autho- 
 rity, Plutarch, who is supported by the more scanty testimony of 
 Herodotus and Thucydides) is one of the finest in antiquity. To him 
 belongs the rarest of all praises, that of observing justice, not ouly 
 between man and man, but betweeu nation and nation. He was truly 
 a patriot, for he preferred the good of his country to the gratification 
 of his own ambition. A candid enemy, an impartial friend, a just 
 administrator of other men's money, an observer of national faith, it 
 seems hardly worth while to add to this catalogue of virtues the more 
 common merit of being a brave and successful general, except that 
 this latter quality completed his character, and fitted it to the stormy 
 times in which he lived, giving to it a lustre and importance in the 
 eyes of the many which his peaceful virtues unassisted might have 
 failed to command. 
 
 (Herodotus; Plutarch; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Aristides; 
 Mitford, &c.) 
 
 ARISTPDES, a native of Thebe3, and one of the great Greek 
 painters, is said by Pliny (xxxv. 10) to have been the contemporary of 
 Apelles. His excellence consisted in giving character and expression 
 to his figures, and in the strong delineation of the passions : his 
 colouring was hard. One of his great pictures represented the capture 
 of a city. Among the most striking figures was that of a mother just 
 expiring from a wound; her infant still clings to her breast, and the 
 dying mother seems only anxious that her child should not suck the 
 blood that is streaming from her body. Alexander the Great had this 
 picture removed to Pella in Macedonia. He also painted an engage- 
 ment with the Persians : this picture contained one hundred figures, 
 and was liberally paid for by Mnason, tyrant of Elatea. The works 
 of Aristides were numerous, and many of them were transferred to 
 Rome with the rest of the plunder of Greece. At the capture of 
 Corinth by L. Mummius, Polybius, the Greek historian, who was pre- 
 sent on the occasion, saw with indignation the barbarians of Italy 
 playing at games of chance on the most costly pictures, which they 
 had spread on the ground. (Strabo, p. 381.) Among these were two 
 fine pictures by Aristides. (Athenasus, xiii. 567.) 
 
 ARISTPDES, iELlUS, a distinguished rhetorician of the 2nd cen- 
 tury, was born at Hadriani in Bithynia, probably about a.d. 117 ; but, 
 according to other opinions, a.d. 129. He studied at Smyrna under 
 Polemo, and at Athens under Herodes Atticus, after which he travelled 
 extensively in Asia and in Egypt : finally, he settled at Smyrna, where 
 he obtained the priesthood of /Esculapius. He also opened a lecture- 
 room, and gained such reputation by his rhetorical prelections, that by 
 his contemporaries he was placed on a level with Demosthenes, the 
 great Athenian orator. In A.D. 178 Smyrna was destroyed by an 
 earthquake, and Aristides, by addressing a letter on the subject, which 
 is still extant, to M. Aurelius, induced the emperor to restore the city. 
 Owing to his services on this occasion, and the high reputation which 
 he enjoyed as a rhetorician, statues were erected to his honour ; one, 
 now in the Vatican (Winckelmann, ii. 475, French, ed.) bears his 
 name. 
 
 Of his fifty-five defamations, oue entitled "Against Leptines,' is an 
 imitation of the great oration of Demosthenes, which bears the same 
 liame; and another, the ' Panatheuaikos,' was intended to show that 
 he could write in the style of Isocrates, and rival one of the most 
 famous specimens of that master. Aristides also wrote panegyrics on 
 many distinguished cities, such as Smyrna, Rome, &c. The latest ' 
 
 edition of the ' Declamations of Aristides,' together with his two looks 
 ' On Rhetoric,' is by W. Diudorf, Leipzig, 1829, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 The statue which we have hera assigned to ^Elius Aristides was 
 found in the ruins of Herculaneum, and is now in the Museo Borbonico 
 at Naples. The height is about 6 feet 6 iuches. It is called the statue 
 of Aristides the Just by G. Fiuati, in the work entitled ' Museo Bor- 
 bonico;' but from comparing the head with that of ^Elius Aristides 
 in the Vatican, and from the somewhat affected attitude, and the 
 general character of the figure, we are convinced it is not the old 
 
 V !' 1 ■ ' 1 1 1 GS 
 
 ARISTPDES QUINTILIA'NUS, a Greek writer on music, whose 
 age is uncertain. Some critics are of opinion that he was contempo- 
 rary with Plutarch. His work on Music in three books, is printed in 
 the collection of Meibomius, and is considered one of the most valuable 
 musical works of antiquity. 
 
 ARISTIPPUS, the son of Aritades, was born at Cyreue, a Greek 
 colony on the north coast of Africa, and came to Athens when a young 
 man in order to profit by the lessons of Socrates. Aristippus was a 
 hearer of Socrates for some time ; aud as he could not have been very 
 young when he went from Cyreue to the Olympic festival, and was 
 attracted from thence to Athens by a philosopher's fame, we may 
 suppose that he was at least twenty-five years old at the death of 
 Socrates, B.C. 399 ; which would make his birth as early as B.C. 424 
 or 425. 
 
 Although Aristippus was a disciple of Socrates, his mode of life 
 and his opinions were very different from those of his master. Instead 
 of imitating the chaste, frugal, aud temperate habits which distin- 
 guished Socrates, he was a lover of sensual pleasure ; and we learn 
 fiom a conversation between Aristippus and his master, reported in 
 Xenophon's 'Memorabilia,' that the former deliberately maintained in 
 argument the superioiity of his own habits of life and principles of 
 conduct. In this discussion, being pressed by the interrogations of 
 Socrates, he asserts that he does not wish to take any share in public 
 affairs, that his object is to be neither a governor nor a slave, but a 
 private citizen ; and that he lives out of his own country in order to 
 escape from all political duties. (Xen. 'Mem.' ii. 1, 1-18.) He appears 
 to have prided himself on his knowledge of the world, on the popu- 
 larity and versatility of his manners, and the ease with which he 
 could adapt himself to the company of all persons, and to all varieties 
 of fortune : hence Plato is reported to have said of him, that he was 
 the only man who could wear with equal grace both fine clothes and 
 rags. His principles aud conduct made him obnoxious to Xenophon, 
 with whom he is stated to have been on bad terms, and to Antisthenes, 
 the head of the Cynic school, whom he is reported to have constantly 
 ridiculed for the austerity of his manners. But Aristippus, although 
 on bad terms with Xenophon, Antisthenes, and Plato, entertained 
 friendly relations with yEschines, another disciple of Socrates and 
 recommended him as a teacher of philosophy to Dionysius, the tyrant 
 of Syracuse. (Diog. Laert. ii. 60, 82 ; Plutarch, ' De cohibenda Ira,' 
 i. p. 462.) He passed much time at the court of Dionysius of Syra- 
 cuse, and he is stated to have been taken prisoner by a satrap of the 
 Persian king in Asia Minor. (Diog. Laert. ii. 79.) He probably 
 retired late in his life to Cyrene, where we find his family and his 
 school after his death. (Diog. Laert. ii. 86.) 
 
 Aristippus differed from Socrates and the genuine Socratic philoso- 
 phers, not only in his mode of life, but also iu taking money for hij 
 instructions. Aristippus when blamed for teaching for money, 
 defended himself by saying that Socrates was provided for by the 
 
ARISTOBULUS. 
 
 ARISTOMENES. 
 
 82a 
 
 richest and greatest of the Athenians, whereas he had to provide for 
 himself. 
 
 There can be no doubt that Aristippus was the founder of a philo- 
 sophical school ; but it is doubtful whether he inculcated his opinions 
 in writing, or whether, like Socrates, he only imparted them orally to 
 his disciples. A list of his works, chiefly dialogues, is given by 
 Diogenes Laertius (ii. 85), on the authority of Panaetius and Sotion; 
 but Sosicrates of Rhodes, who lived somewhat later than Sotion, and 
 wrote on the same subject, stated that Aristippus left nothing in 
 writing. (Diog. Laert. ii. 84 ; Clinton, ' Fast. Hellen.' part iii.) The 
 doctrines of Aristippus were perpetuated after his death by his 
 daughter Arete, and by another disciple named Antipater of Cyrene. 
 Arete instructed her son Aristippus, who, to distinguish him from his 
 grandfather, was called ' metrodidactos ' (taught by his mother). 
 
 As no precise or detailed account of the doctrines of Aristippus has 
 been preserved, it is difficult to avoid confounding his opinions with 
 tho3e of his successors in the Cyrenaic school. The latter Cyrenaics 
 appear to have approached nearly to the doctrines of Epicurus : 
 Aristippus however though agreeing in substance with the moral 
 system of Epicurus, yet differed from it in many important particulars. 
 Aristippus is stated to have considered ethics as the only subject 
 which deserved the attention of a philosopher; and to have especially 
 despised mathematical and physical science, as not being concerned 
 about the happiness of mankind. (Aristot., ' Metaph.' ii. 2 ; Diog. 
 Laert. ii. 92.) The ancient Cyrenaics, however, though they confined 
 themselves to ethical philosophy, yet adhered to it only in name ; for 
 they divided ethic3 into five parts, namely, 1, on those things which 
 ought to be pursued or avoided ; 2, on the affections of the mind ; 3, 
 on moral actions; 4, on causes; and 5, on proofs; of which heads 
 the first three alone belong to moral philosophy, while the fourth 
 refers to physical, and the last to logical inquiries. Aristippus held 
 that the happiness of man consists in pleasure, and his misery in 
 pain : happiness being merely an aggregate of pleasures, and misery an 
 aggregate of pains. He held, that all pleasures, whether sensual or 
 intellectual, are equally good : one account even states that he con- 
 sidered the pleasures of the body as superior to those of the mind. 
 Hence he taught, that however immoral an action might be, still the 
 pleasure which it causes is a good, and desirable for its own sake. 
 He did not however recommend an unrestrained pursuit of pleasure : 
 true wisdom (he thought) consisted, not in abstaining from pleasure, 
 but in seeking it without being carried away by the love of it. He 
 condemned all care for the past or the future, all regret and all fore- 
 thought, as equally useless ; and said that a person ought to think 
 only of the passing day, and, if possible, only of the passing minute. 
 He recommended calmness of mind and moderation of desires ; and 
 he particularly cautioned his daughter Arete against covetousness 
 and love of money. He also thought that the wise man should be 
 free from the passions of envy and love, from superstition, and from 
 the fear of death. The doctrines of Aristippus do not appear to have 
 attracted very much attention in his own time. 
 
 (Diogene3 Laertius, Life of Aristippus, ii. 65-104, with Menage's 
 notes; Suidas; Ritter, Geschichte der Pkilosophie, vol. ii. pp. 87-103.) 
 
 ARISTOBU'LUS accompanied Alexander the Great in his campaigns, 
 of which he wrote an account after the king's death. This work, now 
 lost, is one of the chief authorities for Arrian's history of Alexander. 
 (Arrian, Preface to his Anabasis ) 
 
 ARISTOGI'TON, an Athenian closely connected with an important 
 event in Athenian history. Having conceived a mortal hatred against 
 Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus and brother of Hippias, who held the 
 tyranny of Athens (Thucyd. i. 20), he plotted, in conjunction with 
 another Athenian named Harmodius, the death of the brothers, and 
 succeeded in effecting the murder of Hipparchus at the Panathenaic 
 festival, B.C. 514. Harmodius was slain on the spot; Aristogiton 
 fled, but was subsequently taken and put to death by Hippias. After 
 the expulsion of Hippias, when the constitution of Athens was brought 
 nearer to a democracy, the memory of Harmodius and Aristogiton 
 was honoured as that of martyrs in the cause of liberty. Bronze 
 statues were erected to them in different part of Athens ; among 
 others, by the celebrated Praxiteles. (Plin. xxxiv. 8.) In the time 
 of Arrian the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton stood in the 
 Cerarnicus at Athens. (Arrian, iii. 16.) Various previleges and immu- 
 nities were conferred on their descendants ; and their exploit was 
 regularly celebrated in song at the Panathenaic festival (Philostratus, 
 'De Vit. Apollonii' viL 2 ; ap. Meursius, Pisist. c. xiv.), and became a 
 very favourite subject for the songs, called ' scolia,' with which the 
 Athenians enlivened their festive parties. One of these, composed by 
 Callistratus, is commonly printed among the fragments of various 
 authors at the end of the editions of Anacreon (see also Athenaous, xv. 
 695) ; and will be found translated in Bland and Merivale's ' Antho- 
 logy,' beginning 
 
 " I'll wreath my sword in myrtle bough." 
 
 The first stanza of this is ascribed by Meursius, ' Pisist.' c. xiv., to 
 Carcinus. We have however the testimony of Thucydides, that the 
 act of Harmodius and Aristogiton arose entirely out of a private 
 quarrel; and that, far from effecting the immediate delivery of Athens, 
 it made the sway of Hippias jealous and severe, instead of mild and 
 beneficent; and Herodotus speaks to the same effect (vi. 123). This 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 mistake, as to the motives and merit of their action, was perhaps as 
 Mitford supposes, fostered by the party of the Alcraaeouidae, the true 
 expellers of Hippias, with a view to the firmer establishment of their 
 own power. (Thucyd. vi. 54, 9; Mitford, ch. v. 5, ch. vii. 5.) 
 
 ARISTO'MENES, the hero of the second Messeuian war, was of the 
 royal house of ^Epytus. The first war between the Lacedaemonians 
 and Messenians was commenced by the Lacedaemonians attacking by 
 night, without having made any declaration of war, Ampheia, a Messe- 
 nian town on the borders of Laconia. The Lacedaemonian commander 
 was Alcamenes, the sou of Teleclus, who had been killed by the Messe- 
 nians. The war, thus commenced, was carried on for twenty years. 
 It was terminated by the capture of Ithome, in Messenia, in the first 
 year of the 14th Olympiad, or B.C. 723. The Messenians endured a 
 galling servitude for thirty-nine years. The new generation were eager 
 to rescue their country from slavery, and having obtained the assist- 
 ance of Argos and of the Arcadians, they revolted in the fourth year 
 of the 23rd Olympiad, or B.C. 685. The first battle was fought at 
 Derae, a place in Laconia, when Aristomenes performed surprising 
 feats of valour. His countrymen wished to make him king, but he 
 declined this dignity, and was chosen general with full powers. To 
 strike terror into the Lacedaemonians, he entered the city of Sparta 
 alone by night, and suspended a shield on the temple of Athene 
 Chalcioecus (Athene of the Brazen House), with an inscription pur- 
 porting that it was an offering to the goddess from the spoils of the 
 Spartans. In the following year another great battle was fought at 
 the Boar's Tomb, in the district of Stenyclerus in Messenia. The 
 Messenians gained a complete victory, which was chiefly due to Aristo- 
 menes and his chosen band of eighty Messenians, who led the way to 
 success by putting to flight king Anaxander and his bravest Spartans. 
 On returning to Messenia after this victory, Aristomenes was received 
 with great enthusiasm, particularly at the town of Andania, where he 
 had been brought up. 
 
 In the third year of the war, B.C. 683, the Messenians under Aristo- 
 menes sustained a total defeat at the Great Ditch, owing to the treachery 
 of their ally Aristocrates, whom Pausanias calls king of the Arcadians. 
 Aristomenes collected the Messenians who survived the battle, and 
 led them to the mountain fortress of Eira. The Lacedaemonians com- 
 menced the siege of Eira, which occupied them to the close of the 
 second Messeuian war. In a predatory incursion Aristomenes and his 
 chosen band surprised and plundered Amyclae. In another expedition 
 he was taken prisoner by the Lacedaemonians, and thrown with fifty 
 of his companions into a deep hole called Caeadas, which was the 
 punishment inflicted by the Spartans on great malefactors. The rest 
 of the prisoners were killed by the fall ; and Aristomenes, who escaped 
 unhurt, lay at the bottom of the chasm, awaiting his death by famine. 
 On the third day he saw through the dim light a fox preyiog on the 
 dead bodies. He caught the fox, and following in its track, discovered 
 a small hole through which it had entered. With his hands he made 
 the hole large enough for himself, and escaping from the place, he joined 
 his friends at Eira. The Lacedaemonians heard the rumour of his 
 escape, but they did not credit it, till they were informed of the sur- 
 prise and slaughter of a body of Corinthians who were coming to aid 
 them in the blockade of Eira. To commemorate this exploit, Aristo- 
 menes offered to Jupiter of Ithome for the second time the Hecatom- 
 phouia, a sacrifice which he alone was entitled to make who had slain 
 a hundred enemies. 
 
 One stormy night, in the eleventh year of the siege, a Spartan herds- 
 man, who had gone over to the Messenians, learned that the Messeuian 
 guards were obliged to leave their posts by the fury of the tempest. 
 He communicated this fact to the Lacedaemonians, who made an 
 attempt on the walls, and got into the place. The Messenians however 
 made a desperate struggle, in which they were aided by their own 
 women. On the third day, being exhausted by hunger and fatigue, 
 they resolved to leave the place. Aristomenes collected a part of the 
 Messenians, and, placing the women and children in the centre, put 
 himself at their head, and by his attitude siguified to the enemy that 
 he wished for a free passage, and was ready to go. The Lacedaemo- 
 nians, fearing to resist a desperate body of men, allowed them to depart. 
 Eira was taken, and the second Messeuian war terminated in the first 
 year of the 28th Olympiad, or B.C. 668. 
 
 When the Arcadians heard of the fall of Eira they urged Aristocrates 
 to lead them to the aid of the Messenians, but he had already sold 
 himself to the Lacedaemonians, and he refused. The Messenians were 
 hospitably received by their Arcadian friends. Aristomenes, who did 
 not yet despair, selected five hundred of his couutrymen, and asked 
 them, in the hearing of Aristocrates and the Arcadians, if they would 
 join him in an attempt on Sparta, which was left unguarded. Three 
 hundred Arcadians volunteered to go with him ; but the scheme was 
 frustrated by the treachery of Aristocrates, who gave the Lacedaemo- 
 nians notice of it. His treachery was detected by means of an inter- 
 cepted letter, and he was stoned to death by the Arcadians. 
 
 The Messenians assembled at Cyllene to deliberate on their future 
 plans, and there they spent the winter in the hospitable territory of 
 the Eleians. Receiving an invitation from Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhegiuni, 
 to come to Italy, they agreed to do so ; and Anaxilas, together with 
 the Messenians, took the town of Zancle, which was thenceforward 
 inhabited jointly by the Messenians and Zauclaeans, but received the 
 new name of Messene (Messina), which it retains to the present day. 
 
323 
 
 ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 Aristomenes had declined to put himself at the head of the exiles who 
 went to Italy. He went to Delphi to consult the oracle, and there met 
 Damngetus, king of Ialysus in Rhodes, who had also come to Delphi to 
 consult the oracle about the choice of a wife. Damagetus, being told to 
 marry the daughter of the bravest of the Greeks, married a daughter 
 of Aristomenes. Aristotnenes accompanied his son-in-law to Rhodes, 
 where he soon after died. Damagetus and the Rhodiaus erected a 
 splendid tomb to his memory, and paid him the honours due to a hero. 
 Pausauias saw his monument in the city of Messene. In the battle of 
 Leuctra (B.C. 370), in which the Thebans under Epaminondas defeated 
 the Lacedaemonians, we are told that Aristomenes again made his 
 appearance, and mainly contributed to the defeat of his old enemies. 
 Although the exploits of Aristomenes are evidently mingled with fable, 
 there seems no reason to doubt his existence, and that he was the hero 
 of the second Messenian war. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARISTO'PHANES, a celebrated comic poet of Athens, eon of 
 Philippus or Philippines. His first play was exhibited on the Athenian 
 stage B.C. 427, and his last B.C. 388. There seems every reason to 
 believe that he was a native of Athens. He had three sons, whose 
 names are recorded. His life was entirely devoted to literature, and 
 he produced numerous plays. He is the only writer of the old comedy 
 of whom we have any considerable remains, and it is chiefly through his 
 works that we are able to form an opinion respecting this particular 
 species of dramatic composition. 
 
 Aristophanes was the author of fifty-four comedies (Suidas), of 
 which eleven have been preserved. Suidas enumerates the same plays 
 that we now possess, and mentions no others as being extant. In the 
 fourth year of the Pelopounesian war, B.C. 427, the poet brought out 
 his first play, entitled Aairakus, holding up to public contempt tho 
 character of the spendthrift ; and next year he produced the ' Baby- 
 lonians,' in which he attacked in no measured terms the demagogue 
 Cleon and the constituted authorities of Athens. Of these plays we 
 possess only a few fragments. 
 
 In B.C. 425, during the sixth year of the Peloponuesian war, he 
 gained the first prize in a contest with Eupolis and Cratiuus. His 
 play was entitled the ' Acharnians,' in which he recommended to the 
 Athenians the cause of peace as openly and as strongly as the nature 
 of the people whom he addressed would permit. The scene lay chiefly 
 in Acharnse, one of the ' demi,' or small towns of Attica ; and the 
 object he had in view was pointed out by introducing on the stage the 
 rustic Dicseopolis, who, disapproving of the obstinacy of his fellow- 
 citizens, had concluded with the Spartans a separate peace, and is 
 exhibited in the full enjoyment of its fruits. The result of the 
 opposite line of conduct is shown in the sufferings of Lamachus, who 
 is exposed to the want of the first necessaries of life, and writhing 
 under severe wounds received in the field of battle. 
 
 Aristophanes had already made the demagogue Cleon writhe under 
 his satire; but it was not till B.C. 424 that he poured forth upon him 
 the full measure of his wrath. It was in that year that he produced 
 the ' Knights,' or, as Wieland more aptly designates it, the 
 ' Demagogues,' the most valuable perhaps of all his extant plays. 
 He held up before the Athenian people a faithful picture of their own 
 character with a boldness which we cannot but admire, knowing, as 
 we do, that they allowed any one to be brought upon the stage except 
 themselves. Athens is represented as a house, and its master is a 
 stupid old gentleman, Demos (people); Nicias and Demosthenes are 
 his slaves, and Cleon bis confidential servant, or slave-driver; Agora- 
 critus, a sausage-seller, is the person whose destiny it is to subvert the 
 demagogue. Thus the dramatis personse are few, and the plot is 
 perhaps still more meagre; it consists of humiliating pictures of 
 Cleon, and a succession of proofs to Demos that this favourite servant 
 is wholly unworthy of the trust and confidence reposed in him. As 
 an historical document however this play cannot be too highly valued, 
 as furnishing a strong and faithful, though by no means favourable, 
 picture of one of the most singular nations of antiquity. It is said 
 that no one was found with sufficient nerve to act the part of Cleon, 
 or to make a mask to represent him, and that Aristophanes was him- 
 self obliged to appear on the stage in that character with his face 
 merely painted. 
 
 Next year, B.C. 423, he produced another play, the ' Clouds,' which 
 only gained the third prize. It contains a powerful and severe attack 
 on the schools of the sophists, a race of philosophers who "could make 
 the worse appear the better reason; " but nothing, in our judgment, 
 can justify the personal attack which the poet makes on Socrates, 
 whose character, as far as we can form an opinion of it, was very 
 different from that which is represented in the play. The plot is 
 simple and clear; it is wrought up in a masterly style by a variety of 
 comic incidents, and the characters are full of humour. Strepsiades 
 is the most prominent ; his rusticity strangely contrasts with the 
 pedantry of the sophists. His son has ruined him by bis extrava- 
 gance, and he is willing to have recourse to any plan, however unprin- 
 cipled, which he thinks likely to extricate himself from his embarrass- 
 ments. He imagines that he has discovered a resource in the school of 
 Socrates, by the sophistry and chicanery of whose doctrines, he 
 expects to be relieved from the dunning of his creditors. He presents 
 himself before the philosopher whom he finds suspended aloft in a 
 
 basket; and the whole dialogue which follows between two characters 
 
 so forcibly contrasted is conceived in the very best style of the author. 
 At last however Strepsiades is convinced that hia genius does not lie 
 in that direction, and he determines to send his sou Pheidippides to 
 benefit by the philosopher's instructions. The youth makes great 
 proficiency, which he shows in his dealiugs with his creditors and by 
 beating his father, and then trying to convince tho old gentleman that 
 it is all right. The play closes with Strepsiades setting fire to the 
 school-house of Socrates and burning out all his disciples — a signifi- 
 cant hint which, coupled with the concluding verses of the play, was 
 well calculated to raise a religious persecution against Socrates. 
 (Wieland, 'Att. Mus.,' ii. 2; Hermann, Praef. xix. ; see also the 'Clouds' 
 of Aristophanes, by F. O. Welcker.) 
 
 In B.C. 422 appeared the ' Wasps,' an attack upon the jurisprudence 
 of Athens, levelled chiefly at that numerous class of citizens who 
 gained a livelihood by executing the office of 'dicast,' an office some- 
 what resembling that of our Westminster special jurymen ; but the 
 parallel to be complete would require that the same special jurymen 
 should be almost daily in attendance, and should be eager to discharge 
 the duty. Philocleon is described as absolutely phrensied with that 
 passion of which all his countrymen partook — a taste for litigation 
 and frequenting the courts of law. His son Bdelycleon endeavours to 
 reclaim him ; but force, persuasion, and argument, are all tried in vain. 
 At last the son proposes to convert his house into a court of justice, 
 and to supply it with all suitable pomp. The old gentleman is pleased 
 with the scheme, and the theft of a Sicilian cheese by a house-dog 
 enables him to put it into immediate execution. To understand this 
 play requires a tniuute acquaintance with the manners of the Athenians, 
 and also with their judicial system. This play furnished Racine with 
 the idea of his ' Plaideurs.' 
 
 The play of the ' Birds' was exhibited (B.C. 414) in the seventeenth 
 year of the Peloponnesian war, and during the absence of the 
 Salaminia, an official ship which was dispatched to bring back 
 Alcibiades from Sicily. (Thucyd. vi. 53.) In the 'Transactions of 
 the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin' (1827), there is an essay by 
 Siivera on the ' Birds ' of Aristophanes, the object, of which is to 
 demonstrate that the key to the true interpretation of the play is only 
 to be found by referring to the date of the exhibition and the mission 
 of the Salaminia. [Alcibiades.] 
 
 In B.C. 406 appeared the ' Frogs,' in which Aristophanes attacks, 
 with little generosity, the poet Euripides, who had lately died. 
 Bacchus descends to the infernal regions in search of a good tragic 
 writer, and, after listeniug to a trial of skill between iEschylus and 
 Euripides, decides that the merits of the former are far superior to 
 those of the latter. 
 
 The best of his other extant works is the 'Plutus,' which appeared 
 first in B.C. 408, and again twenty years afterwards B.C. 388. It does 
 not belong to the old comedy, not does it appear to have any reference 
 to political subjects, being intended probably to vindicate the conduct 
 of Providence in its ordinary distributions of wealth, and to show the 
 great tendency of riches to corrupt the morals of those who possess 
 them. The other plays which have been preserved are the ' Peace ' 
 (b.c. 419); ' Thesmophoriazusae ' (b.c. 411), an attack on Euripides, in 
 which the plot is better managed than in most of the other plays ; 
 ' Lysistrate ' (B.C. 411) ; ' Ecclesiazusse ' (B.C. 392). 
 
 Aristophanes is distinguished by the exuberance of his wit, his 
 inexhaustible fund of comic humour, and the Attic purity and great 
 simplicity of his language. His allusions are sometimes necessarily 
 obscure, and in many cases they are grossly obscene. The exact rank 
 which he ought to hold among ancient comic writers it is difficult to 
 assign, as none of their entire works have been preserved ; but if we 
 are inclined to trust the judgment of Plutarch, he was in every 
 respect inferior to Menander (vol ix. p. 387, ed. Reisk). Plato how- 
 ever is said to have had a high admiration of Aristophanes, and 
 recommended the perusal of his plays to Dionysius the younger as the 
 best mode of acquiring the purity of the Attic dialect. 
 
 The plays of Aristophanes, especially in the choral parts, often con- 
 tain passages of great poetical beauty, but his subject did not allow 
 such efforts to be either frequent or of any great length. Where 
 Aristophanes appears to be speaking in his own person, he is the 
 advocate of morality, and the unsparing censurer of the gross and 
 degrading habits of many of his countrymen. He was a friend to 
 peace, and, to his credit, the enemy of Cleon. The real test of his 
 character must be the ' Clouds.' We do not see how it is possible to 
 esteem the character of Socrates, and at the same time to believe that 
 Aristophanes was an honest man. All the explanations and apologies 
 with respect to this exhibition of Socrates appear to us unsatisfactory, 
 Probably Aristophanes may have turned the philosopher into ridicule 
 without knowing or caring what his doctrines were. Aristophanes 
 often introduces the gods in the most degrading situations, and he 
 m ikes an undisguised mockery of all the deities of Olympus. How 
 this was tolerated, even in his age, it is difficult to understand. 
 
 There are numerous editions of the plays of Aristophanes. The 
 first edition was printed at the Aldine press in Venice, 1498, folio, 
 containing only nine plays. One of the most complete, containing a 
 Latin version, an index, and a large collection of notes, is that of 
 Bekker, in 5 vols. 8vo., LoncL, 1829. The latest English edition of all 
 the plays is by Wheelwright into blank Terse, 2 vols. 8vo., 1837. 
 
S!5 
 
 ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 328 
 
 There are several prose translations of single playa. Aristophanes is 
 translated into French and German. 
 
 (Rbtscher, Aristophanes und sein Zeilalter ; eine Philologisch-Philos. 
 Abliandlung zur Alterlhumsforschimg. Berlin, 1827.) 
 
 ARISTO'PHANES of Byzantium, the pupil of Callimachus and 
 Zenodotus, the master of Aristarchus, and the founder of the Alex- 
 andrine school of criticism, was perhaps born about B.C. 240, or some- 
 what later. It is not known at what time he removed to Alexandria, 
 but probably he went there young. (Suidas). The invention of the 
 Greek accents, and the introduction of a system of punctuation are 
 attributed to Aristophanes. He was the first who attempted to arrange 
 the Greek writers into classes, according to the branches on which 
 they wrote, separating those of the highest authority from writers of 
 inferior merit. This canon of classical writers was afterwards cor- 
 rected and confirmed by his pupil Aristarchus. Perhaps we are in- 
 debted to Aristophanes and his more distinguished pupil not only for 
 the purer text, but also for the preservation of many of the best 
 writers, which, if they had not been stamped with their approbation, 
 might have been neglected for those of inferior merit. [Aristarchus.] 
 
 Nothing of Aristophanes remains except what may form a part of 
 the large commentary of Eustathius, the Venice Scholia, &c. (Villoi- 
 eon. ' Scholia,' II. L 298, 424, &c, where Aristophanes' edition of the 
 'Iliad' is referred to.) Aristophanes wrote a work on tvyyevina, or 
 'terms implying relationship' (Eustath. 'II.' z. p. 648). A mere frag- 
 ment of Aristophanes is printed in Boissonade's 'Emixepionol of Herodian, 
 1819, 8vo. 
 
 ARISTOTLE, or, in the Greek form of the name, ARISTOTELES, 
 was born at Stageira (the name, before Aristotle's time, appears to 
 have been Stageirus), a town on the west side of the Strymonic Gulf 
 id Chalcidice, in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, or B.C. 384. 
 Nicomachus, the friend and physician of Amyntas II., king of Mace- 
 donia, and the author of some medical treatises now lost, was his 
 father; his mother was named Phajstis; and they both belonged to 
 the race or clan of the Asclepiadse, who were supposed to derive their 
 origin from Asclepios, or ^Esculapius, the god of healing, and of 
 whose members many practised the medical art. Aristotle lost both 
 hi? parents at an early period of his life, and after their death he was 
 brought up under the care of Proxenus, a citizen of Atarneus, a city 
 of Mysia in Asia Minor, but who was then settled at Stageira. Aris- 
 totle testified his gratitude to Proxenus and his wife by directing in 
 his will that statues of them, as of his parents, should be set up at 
 his expense: he likewise educated their son Nicanor, he to whom he 
 gave his daughter Pythias in marriage. 
 
 Bust of Aristotle, from a statue of the natural size in the Spada Talaee at Rome. 
 
 In his eighteenth year (Olymp. ciii. 2, B.C. 367) Aristotle left Stageira 
 and went to Athens, attracted thither doubtless in great part by the 
 fame of the philosopher Plato. It appears however that during the 
 first three years of his residence at Athens, Plato was absent on a visit 
 to Sicily. Although Aristotle paid a particular attention to anatomy 
 and medicine, and may in his youth have practised the healing art, he 
 must from an early age have devoted his whole time to the study of 
 philosophy and the investigation of nature. We are told that his 
 master called him 'the intellect of the school,' and his house 'the 
 house of the reader;' that he said that Aristotle required the curb, 
 while Xenocrates (a fellow-disciple) required the spur. We are like- 
 wise informed that, when reading, he used to hold a brazen ball in his 
 hand over a basin, in order that, if he fell asleep, he might be awaked 
 by the noise which it made in falling. Although Aristotle did not, j 
 during Plato's life, set up any school in opposition to his master (as 
 •ome writers have falsely stated), he taught publicly in the art of ] 
 
 rhetoric, and by this means became the rival of the celebrated lac- 
 erates, whom he appears (although then at a very advanced age) to 
 have attacked with considerable violence, and to have treated with 
 much contempt. 
 
 Aristotle remained at Athens till Plato's death in B.C. 347, having at 
 that time reached hi3 37th year. Many stories are related respecting 
 an alleged enmity between Plato and Aristotle, but these rumours 
 appear to us to have no other foundation than the known variance 
 between the opinions and mental habits of the two philosophers ; and 
 particularly the opposition which Aristotle made to Plato's character- 
 istic doctrine of ideas : whence probably it was inferred that there must 
 have been an interruption of their friendly relations. In his Nicoma- 
 chean Ethics, which was probably one of hia latest works, Aristotle 
 says that ''it is painful to him to refute the doctrine of ideas, as it 
 had been introduced by persona who were his friends : nevertheless, 
 that it is hia duty to disregard such private feelings ; for both philo- 
 sophers and truth being dear to him, it is right to give the preference 
 to truth." (i. 6.) He is said to have erected an altar to his master, 
 inscribing on it that he was a man " whom the wicked ought not 
 even to praise." 
 
 It appears that during Aristotle's first residence at Athens he was 
 employed on an embassy to Philip, to whom he was attached by a 
 double tie, as being both a Macedonian subject and the son of hia 
 friend and physician. It is also stated that he was the means of 
 obtaining from Philip some favoura for the Athenians. He left 
 Athens about the time of Plato'a death, and remained some time at 
 the court of Hermeias, the prince of Atarneus, who had received 
 instruction from him in rhetoric at Athens. When Aristotle had been 
 about three years with this prince, Hermeias was betrayed to Artax- 
 erxes Ochus by Mentor, a Greek general in the Persian service. Artax- 
 erxes put Hermeias to death. In these circumstances Aristotle married 
 l'ythias, the sister of Hermeias, and making a rapid flight they took 
 refuge in Mytilene, the chief city of the island of Lesbos (Olymp. 
 cviii. 4, B.C. 345). For the patriotic and philosophic prince, Aristotle 
 had a fervent and sincere affection, and he dedicated to his memory a 
 beautiful poem, still extant, which, on account of the admiration 
 which he expreasea in it for the virtues of his lost friend, gave rise 
 at a late period of his life to the absurd charge that he had deified a 
 mortal, and was thus guilty of impiety. His wife Pythias died a few 
 years afterwards in Macedonia, leaving him a daughter of the same 
 name : he then took to his bed a domestic slave named Herpyllis, 
 and by her he had a son, Nicomachus, to whom he addressed his great 
 work on Ethics. 
 
 After two years' stay at Mytilene, Aristotle was (in Olymp. cix. 2, 
 B.C. 342) invited by Philip to Macedonia to superintend the education 
 of his son Alexander, then fourteen yeara old. There can be no doubt 
 that much of what was admirable in the character of Alexander the 
 Great is attributable to the influence of Aristotle. His love of litera- 
 ture, his veneration of great poets (instanced in hia sparing the house 
 of Pindar in the destruction of Thebes, and his destination of the 
 precious caaket in the Persian spoils to the works of Homer), hia 
 fondness for physical and even medical pursuits, aud his intimacy with 
 philosophers, were all doubtless the fruits of Aristotle's instruction, 
 and distinguish him most advantageously from those illiterate and 
 brutal conquerors who have been the scourge of the human race. 
 Lord Bacon, in his ' Advancement of Learning,' after citing some of 
 Alexander's wise sayings, adds, that he considers him " not as Alex- 
 ander the Great, but as Aristotle's scholar." Two letters between 
 Alexander and Aristotle are preserved by Plutarch (' Vit. Alex.' c. vii.), 
 and Aulus Gellius (xx. 5), in the first of which Alexander reproaches 
 his master with having made public the treatises which had served for 
 his education, aa he wished to surpass other men not less in know- 
 ledge than in power. To this Aristotle replies, that " they have 
 been published and not published : for that they are only intelligible 
 to those who have heard him explain them." Some writers have 
 suspected that these letters are spurious. It is stated that Aristotle 
 advised Alexander to consider all the Greeks as his friends, and all 
 barbarians (or foreigners) as his enemies : a maxim of policy which 
 Alexander unquestionably followed, so far as the direction of his con- 
 quests was concerned, and which agrees remarkably with Aristotle's 
 views as developed in the first part of hia 'Politics.' It was during 
 his residence with Alexander that Philip re established his native 
 town, Stageira, which had been demolished in war; in memory of 
 which benefit the Stagirites consecrated a festival, ' Aristotelia,' to 
 their great fellow-citizen, and called a month after his name. 
 
 Alexander probably did not enjoy Aristotle's instruction for more 
 than three or four years : aa from hia 17th or 18th year his time was 
 almost entirely occupied with public affairs and war. In B.C. 336, 
 when Philip was assassinated, he succeeded to the throne of Macedonia, 
 and two years afterwards he began his expedition into Asia, when he 
 parted for the last time from his master, who went to Athens, having 
 previously recommended to him aa a companion in his campaigns a 
 near relation of his own, the philosopher Callisthenes, who had 
 received his instruction with Alexander. Xenocrates had two yeara 
 before succeeded Speusippus, Plato's nephew, in the academy ; Aris- 
 totle however, on his arrival at Athena, resolved to open a school, 
 and chose a house which from ita proximity to the temple of Apollo 
 Lyceius waa called the ' Lyceum.' Attached to this building was a 
 
327 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 garden with walks (in Greek ' peripatoi '), where Aristotle used to 
 deliver his instruction to his disciples; whence his school obtained 
 the name of the 'Peripatetic.' It appears that his habit was to give 
 one lecture in the early part of the day on the abstruser parts of his 
 philosophy to his more advanced scholars, which was called the 
 ' morning walk,' and lasted till the hour when people drest and anointed 
 themselves; and another lecture, called the ' evening walk,' on more 
 popular subjects, to a larger and less select class. It was probably 
 during the thirteen years of his second residence at Athens that 
 Aristotle composed or completed the greater part of his works which 
 have descended to our days. Among the works which especially belong 
 to this period of his life are his treatises on natural history ; which, 
 as has been correctly observed by a writer on this subject (Dr. Kidd, 
 ' Bridgewater Treatise,' &c, p. 299), are not to be considered as con- 
 taining the result of his own observations only, but as a collection of 
 all that had been observed by others as well as by himself. It is stated 
 by Pliny (' Nat. Hist.,' viii. 7) that " Alexander the Great, being smitten 
 with the desire of knowing the natures of animals, ordered several 
 thousand persons, over the whole of Asia and Greece, who lived by 
 hunting, bird-catching, and fishing, or who had the care of parks, herds, 
 hives, stews, and aviaries, to furnish Aristotle with matcrialsfor a work 
 on animals." We are likewise Informed that Aristotle received from 
 Alexander the enormous sum of 800 talents to prosecute his researches 
 in natural history. Callisthenes, who, as we have already seen, attended 
 Alexander in his expedition to Asia, sent from Babylon to Aristotle, 
 in compliance with his previous injunctions, the astronomical obser- 
 vations which were preserved in that ancient city, and which, accord- 
 ing to the statement of Porphyrins, reached back as far as 1903 years 
 before the time of Alexander the Great ; that is, 2234 years before the 
 Christian era. (Simplicius in 'Aristot. de Ccelo.,' fol. 123, A. 1. 18, ed. 
 Aid. 1527.) The transmission of the observations to Aristotle is stated 
 by Simplicius as a known fact : the length of time he gives on the 
 authority of Porphyrius. We know however from Cicero (' De Rep.,' 
 i. 16) that astronomical observations were sometimes calculated back 
 by the ancient priests ; and consequently that observations stated to 
 be of remote antiquity may not be less fabulous than the adventures 
 of early kings and heroes. 
 
 Aristotle had at this time reached the most prosperous period of his 
 life. The founder and leader of the principal school of Greece, and 
 the undisputed head of Grecian philosophy, surrounded by his nume- 
 rous disciples and admirers, protected by the great conqueror of Asia, 
 and by him furnished with the means of following his favourite 
 pursuits and of gratifying his universal spirit of inquiry, he had 
 probably little left to fill up the measure of a philosopher's ambition. 
 But he did not continue to enjoy the favour of Alexander till the end. 
 Callisthenes had offended Alexander, and had been executed on a 
 charge of having conspired with some Macedonian nobles to take 
 away his life (Alexander ; Callisthenes) ; and the king's wrath 
 appears to have extended to his kinsman Aristotle, as being the 
 person who had originally recommended him. (Letter of Alexander 
 to Antipater in Plutarch's ' Alex.,' c. 55.) It is not however probable 
 that this circumstance caused any active enmity between the royal 
 pupil and his master ; indeed, Aristotle appears to have been consi- 
 dered to the last as a partisan of Alexander, and an opponent of the 
 democratic interest. When the anti-Macedonian party obtained the 
 superiority at Athena in consequence of Alexander's death, an accusa- 
 tion against Aristotle was prepared, the pretext being, as in the case 
 of Socrates, 'impiety' or ' blasphemy.' He was charged with having 
 paid divine honours to Hermeias, the prince of Atarneus ; and perhaps 
 with teaching some irreligious doctrines. In order to escape the danger 
 which threatened him, and to prevent the Athenians (as he is reported 
 to have said) from "twice sinning against philosophy," in the begin- 
 ning of B c. 322 he quitted Athens, and took refuge at Chalcis, in 
 Eubcea, an island then under the Macedonian influence, leaving 
 Theophrastus his successor in the Lyceum. Aristotle died at Chalcis 
 of a disease of the stomach, in the autumn of B.C. 322, being in the 
 sixty-third year of his age. His frame is said to have been slender and 
 weakly, and his health had given way in the latter part of his life, 
 having probably been impaired by his unwearied studies and the intense 
 application of his mind. The story of his having drowned himself in 
 the Euripus of Eubcea is fabulous. 
 
 The characteristic of Aristotle's philosophy, as compared with that 
 of Plato, is that, whereas the latter gave a free scope to his imagina- 
 tion, and by his doctrine of ideas independent of the objects which 
 they represent opened a wide door to the dreams of mysticism, the 
 former was a close and strict observer of both mental and physical 
 phenomena, avoiding all the seductions of the fancy, and following a 
 severe, methodical, and strictly scientific course of inquiry, founded 
 on data ascertained by experience. The truly philosophical character 
 of bis mind, and his calm and singularly dispassionate manner of 
 writing, are not more remarkable than the vast extent both of his 
 readiug and of his original researches. His writings appear to have 
 embraced the whole circle of the theoretical and practical knowledge 
 of his time, comprising treatises on logical, metaphysical, rhetorical, 
 poetical, ethical, political, economical, physical, mechanical, and 
 medical science : he likewise wrote on some parts of the mathematics; 
 and, besides a collection of the constitutions of all the states known 
 in his age, both Grecian and barbarian, he made chronological compi- 
 
 lations relating to the political and dramatical history of Greece. His 
 works however though embracing so large an extent of subjects, were 
 not a mere encyclopaedia or digest of existiug knowledge ; some of the 
 sciences which he treated of were created by himself, and the others 
 were enriched by fresh inquiries, and methodised by his systematic 
 diligence. To the former belong his works on analytics and dialectics, 
 or, as it is now called, logic ; to the invention of which science he 
 distinctly lays claim, stating that " before his time nothing whatever 
 had been done in it." (' Soph. Elench.' c. 31, § 6.) Nearly the same 
 remark applies to his metaphysical treatise. " But of all the sciences" 
 (we use the words of Cuvier) " there is none which owes moro to 
 Aristotle than the natural history of animals. Not only was he 
 acquaint) d with a great number of species, but he has studied and 
 described them on a luminous and comprehensive plan, to which, 
 perhaps, none of his successors has approached ; classing the facts, 
 not according to the species, but according to the organs and functions, 
 the sole method of establishing comparative results : thus it may be 
 said that he is not only the most ancient author of comparative 
 anatomy whose works have come down to us, but that he is one of 
 those who have treated this branch of natural history with the most 
 genius, and that he best deserves to be taken for a model." (Kidd, 
 1 Bridgewater Treatise,' c. 10, § 3, and' Appendix.' This author has given 
 a comparison of Aristotle's account of animals with the discoveries of 
 modern science.) Among the scieuces which Aristotle found partly culti- 
 vated, but which he greatly advanced, the more prominent are those 
 of rhetoric, ethics, and politics. Of rhetoric he defined the province 
 and analysed all the parts with admirable skill and sagacity ; his 
 treatise on the passions, in this short but comprehensive work, has 
 never been surpassed, if it has ever been equalled, by writers on 
 (what may be termed) descriptive moral philosophy. His ethical 
 writings contain an excellent practical code of morality; his remarks 
 on friendship are also deserving of especial notice ; a subject much 
 discussed by the ancients, but which has less occupied the attention 
 of philosophers since love has played a more prominent part in conse- 
 quence of the influence of the Germans and the introduction of the 
 manners of chivalry in western Europe. His treatise on 'Politics' is 
 not, like Plato's 'Republic' and the works of many later speculators 
 on government, a mere inquiry after a perfect state; but contains an 
 account of the nature of government, of the various forms of which it 
 is susceptible, and the institutions best adapted to the societies in 
 which those forms are established ; with an essay, though unhappily 
 an imperfect one, on education. This treatise is valuable not only 
 for its theoretical results, but also for tbe large amount of information 
 which it contains on the governments of Greece and other neighbouring 
 countries. 
 
 In these philosophical treatises Aristotle occasionally mentions 
 others of his writings, which he calls ' exoteric' From the manner 
 in which he sometimes speaks of them, referring to them on points of 
 no great obscurity or difficulty with a sort of contemptuous or conde- 
 scending tone it would seem as if they were not of a strictly scientific 
 character. ('Eth. Nic.' i. 13 ; vi. 4 ; ' Polit.' iiL 4; vii. 1.) In another 
 place he says, that he has often considered the Platonic doctrine of 
 ideas both in his exoteric and his strictly philosophical works (' Eth. 
 Eud.' i. 8). Plutarch and Cicero mention this class of Aristotle's 
 works, some of which appear to have been in the form of dialogues. 
 Hia systematic treatises, which formed a connected body of philosophy, 
 were called ' acroamatic,' that is, destined for lectures (though he 
 never himself uses that name in his extant writings) ; and were thus, 
 as Galen says, confined to his scholars and friends. This distinction 
 between the acroamatic and exoteric writings is mentioned by Gellius 
 (' N. A.' xx. 5), who states that the former included subjects of a 
 refined and abstruse philosophy, and physical and dialectical questions; 
 the latter rhetorical and sophistical exercises and political knowledge. 
 The distinction of these two kinds of treatises is referred to by several 
 ancient writers. It appears to have consisted chiefly in the form of 
 the work (most of the exoteric writings being dialogues), in the 
 selection of the arguments, and in the nature of the style. Cicero 
 particularly speaks of the copiousness and sweetness of Aristotle's 
 diction (' Topica,' c. 1); and Quintilian doubts whether Aristotle is 
 the more remarkable for the multiplicity of his knowledge, the 
 quantity of his writings, the sweetness of his style, the acuteness 
 of his discoveries, or the variety of his works (x. 1. 83) : in his extant 
 works, however (all of which belong to the acroamatic class), his 
 style is in most parts singularly dry and unattractive, and not unfre- 
 quently obscure, from the extreme conciseness of the expression and 
 the abruptness of the transitions. It seems, indeed, as if he was 
 sometimes intentionally negligent, and even ungrammatical, from his 
 contempt for all ornament or polish of style. These peculiarities of 
 style are doubtless attributable to the destination of his philosophical 
 writings, which often appear to be rather note-books for his lectures, 
 requiring further expansion and illustration, than finished treatises 
 prepared for publication. The obscurity of Aristotle, which has been 
 so much complained of, is in most parts like tbe obscurity of a mathe- 
 matical treatise, which appears so great to a beginner ; as in both cases 
 the difficulty of comprehension arises not from the defect of the 
 expression, but from the closeness and subtlety of the reasoning. The 
 works which were thus used as lecture-books probably never obtained 
 much circulatiop during Aristotle's lifetime, except among his disciples 
 
S29 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 ARIUS. 
 
 880 
 
 and friends; and they received from time to time additions and correc- 
 tions ; a circumstance alluded to by Cicero, and confirmed by allusions 
 contained in them, which indicate different times of composition. 
 (Cicero, ' De Fin.' v. 5 ; Niebuhr, ' Hist, of Rome,' vol. i. note 30.) 
 
 None of Aristotle's exoteric writings have come down to us. This 
 would be the more singular, if the story told by some ancient authors 
 with regard to the preservation of his writings were true. [Apellicon.] 
 The researches of recent scholars have shown that nearly all Aristotle's 
 scientific works were known to the followers of Theophrastus in the 
 Peripatetic school, and that there were numerous copies of them in the 
 Alexandrine library. Such facts are inconsistent with the supposition 
 that Aristotle's philosophical works were concealed from the world till 
 the time of Apellicon, more than two hundred years after his death. 
 
 Aristotle's genuine extant works may be divided into three classes : 
 1, those relating to the philosophy of the mind ; 2, those relating to 
 the physical sciences; 3, those relating to moral and political philo- 
 sophy. To the first class belong the Metaphysics, the Categories, the 
 treatise on Interpretation, or the Meaning of Propositions, the first 
 and second Analytics, the Topics, and the work on the Refutation of 
 Sophistical Arguments, which, with the exception of the first, obtained 
 the name of his ' Organon,' or instrument for the analysis of reasoning. 
 Under the second class come the Physics, the Treatises on the Heavens, 
 on Generation and Destruction, on the Soul, on Sensation and the 
 Objects of Sense, on Memory and Recollection, on Sleeping and 
 Awaking, on Dreams and Prophecy in Sleep, on Length and Shortness 
 of Life, on Youth and Old Age, on Life and Death, on Breathing. 
 The title of his great work on Natural History means, literally trans- 
 lated, ' Inquiries concerning Animals.' To the third class belong the 
 three ethical treatises, the Great, the Eudemian, and the Nicomachean 
 Ethics, which seem to have been written at different periods of his 
 life, the first being the most meagre, and the last, addressed to his son 
 Nicomachu3 (in which three books of the Eudemian Ethics are 
 embodied), the most complete and matured. 
 
 The most valuable of Aristotle's lost works, and indeed the most 
 valuable of all the lost works of Greek prose, is his collection of 158 
 Constitutions, both of Grecian and Barbarian States, the Democratic, 
 Oligarchical, Aristocratical, and Tyrannical being treated separately, 
 containing an account of the manners, customs, and institutioi 3 of each 
 country. (Cicero, ' De Fin.' v. 4.) The loss of his works on Colonies, 
 on Nobility, and on Royal Government ; of his Chronological Collec- 
 tions, and of his Epistles to Philip, Alexander, Antipater, and others, 
 is also much to be regretted. He likewise revised a copy of the 
 'Iliad,' which Alexander carried with him during his campaigns in a 
 precious casket : hence this recension (called the 'casket copy ') passed 
 into the Alexandrine Library, and was used by the Alexandrine critics. 
 (Wolf, 'Proleg. ad. Homer,' s. 45.) His entire works, according to 
 Diogenes Laertius, occupied in the Greek manuscripts 445,270 lines. 
 
 Writings contained in the collection of Aristotle's works falsely attri- 
 buted to him are— the treatise on the ' Universe,' the author of which 
 (Mr. Payne Knight remarks) has " retailed the common opinions of 
 his age in the common language of a common declaimer, and by a 
 strange inconsistency attributed them to the condensed, refined, and 
 abstruse Stagirite " (see also Lord Aberdeen on ' Grecian Architecture,' 
 p. 207); the 'Rhetoric to Alexander;' the second book of the '(Eco- 
 nomics;' and a treatise on Marvtllous Reports, written between the 
 time of Agathocles and the first Punic war, probably about the 130th 
 Olympiad, or B.C. 260. (Niebuhr, "Hist of Rome,' vol. i., p. 16, and 
 note 342.) An extract about Winds, from Aristotle on the ' Signs 
 of Bad Weather,' vol. ii., p. 973, ed. Bekker, is considered by Niebuhr 
 as spurious. (' Hist, of Rome,' vol. i., p. 15.) The genuineness of part 
 of the 'Physiognomies' has likewise been doubted. (Miiller, ' Archiio- 
 logie der Kunst,' s. 331, n. 1 ) A set of ''Epistles' is also attributed 
 to Aristotle, which, like those of Phalaris, Socrates, Euripides, and 
 others, are all spurious. 
 
 Aristotle's philosophical works many centuries after his death ob- 
 tained a prodigious influence, not only in Europe, but even in Asia : 
 they were translated into Arabic, and thence an abstract of his logical 
 system passed into the language of Persia. (Balfour in the 'Asiatic 
 Researches,' vol. viii., pp. 89 135, ed. 8vo., London.) In Europe they 
 acquired an immense ascendancy in the middle ages, and were con- 
 sidered as an authority without appeal, and only second to that of 
 Scripture : we are even informed that in a part of Germany his 
 'Ethics' were read in the churches on Sunday in the place of the 
 Gospel. Parts of his philosophy, which are the most worthless, as 
 his 'Physics,' were much cultivated; and his logical writings were in 
 many cases abused so as to lead to vain subtleties and captious con- 
 tests about words. The connection between some of his philosophical 
 tenets and the Roman Catholic theology tended much to uphold his 
 authority, which the Reformation lowered in a corresponding degree. 
 His doctrines were in general strongly opposed by the early reformers : 
 in 1518 Luther sustained a thesis at Heidelberg, ' Qui in Aristotele 
 vult philosophari prius oportet in Christo stultificari :' 'He who wishes 
 to philosophise in Aristotle must be first stultified in Christ' (Bayle, 
 'Aristotle,' n. Y. See also a curious passage of Luther's, containing a 
 moat scurrilous attack on Aristotle, cited in Bayle, ' Luther,' n. II.) 
 Luther gave way afterwards, and did not oppose Aristotle as to human 
 learning. Melancthon, who was however one of the mildest of the 
 reformers, was a great supporter of Aristotle. (' Moralis Philosoph. 
 
 Epitome,' Argentor., 1539 ; with the introductory address, and the 
 commentary on the fifth book of Aristotle's ' Ethics.') Many of his 
 doctrines were in the same century zealously att.cked by Pierre de la 
 Ramde [Ramus], a French philosopher; and Bacon afterwards, with 
 others of his followers, added the weight of their arguments and 
 authority. Aristotle's philosophy accordingly fell into undeserved 
 neglect during the latter part of the 17th and the whole of the 18th 
 century ; of late years however the true worth of his writings has been 
 more fully appreciated, and the study of his best treatises has much 
 revived. 
 
 The best edition of Aristotle's entire works is that by Bekker, 1831, 
 Berlin, 3 vols., 4to., in which the text is established on the authority 
 of more than a hundred manuscripts of Italy, France, and England. 
 
 The English translations of Aristotle are for the most part of little 
 value, on account of their unfaithfulness and inaccuracy. That of the 
 ' Poetic,' by Twining, should however be excepted. A translation of 
 all Aristotle's works, by Mr. T. Taylor, was published in 9 vols., 4to., 
 London, 1810. 
 
 ARISTO'XENUS of Tarentum, the earliest of the extant Greek 
 writers on music. He was a disciple first of his father Mnesias, who 
 was acquainted with music, and subsequently of Aristotle ; but, 
 according to Suidas, he never spoke well of his great master after the 
 latter had appointed Theophrastus as his successor. On the same 
 authority it is stated that he wrote 453 treatises on music, philosophy, 
 history, &c. He was the author of a work on the ' Elements of Har- 
 mony,' and the founder of a musical sect, usually called Aristoxenean, 
 in opposition to the Pythagorean. The disciples of Aristoxenus were 
 called Musicians by Ear, in opposition to the Pythagoreans, who were 
 termed Musicians by Rule. 
 
 The Pythagoreans had discovered the simplicity of the ratios which 
 exist between the notes of the diatonic scale. Founding their notions 
 entirely upon arithmetic, they laid down intervals, as concordant or 
 discordant, by theory alone, even to the extent of rejecting the interval 
 of an eleventh from among the consonances, though of course they 
 retained the fourth. They had also discovered the unequal intervals 
 which exist between the tones of the scale, and, had they considered 
 different keys, would have been obliged to invent a method of tem- 
 perament. In the entire rejection of the ear they were undoubtedly 
 wrong, and Aristoxenus was equally so in taking the other extreme. 
 He asserts that the octave consists of six whole tones, each of them 
 equal to the interval between the fourth and fifth to the tonic ; that 
 the fourth consists of two such tones and a half, the fifth of three and 
 a half. It is now sufficiently known that this system is erroneous 
 even in the judgment of the ear, and that the only mark of musical 
 tact displayed in it is the determination of the tone, not from the 
 unassisted ear, though on its principles that would be admissible, but 
 from the previous determination of a fourth and fifth. Six whole tones 
 are more than an octave, and three different tones would be derived 
 from the octave, fourth, and fifth, as defined by Aristoxenus. To put 
 it in the power of any one to try his system, we subj jin the number 
 of parts out of a thousand which each note requires; that is, calling 
 the length of the string which sounds C, 1000; the length (tension 
 being the same) corresponding to the several notes appears underneath 
 them : — 
 
 C DEF GABC 
 
 System of Aristoxenus 1000 891 794 749 667 595 530 500 
 Perfect Intervals 1000 889 800 750 667 600 533 500 
 
 Of course the system of Aristoxenus is, so far as it goes, that now 
 known by the name of ' equal temperament,' which Dr. Smith (a stern 
 theorist) prefers to all others, but of which the first principle is the 
 abolition of all distinction between the characters of the different keys. 
 The above is not on the exact principle of Aristoxenus, which cannot 
 be represented, because it disagrees with itself; but the practical truth 
 of the fourth and fifth of its scale (a mere accident) brings the pre- 
 ceding representation very close to it. The system of Aristoxenus had 
 its followers till the time of Ptolemaeus, who wrote against it in his 
 ' Harmonics.' There is an opinion attributed to Aristoxenus, that the 
 soul bears to the body some such relation as the sound of a string 
 to the string itself: this is perspicuous poetry, but rather cloudy 
 philosophy. 
 
 (Tenneman, Manuel, &c, Cousin's translation, who cites G. L. Mahne, 
 Diatr. de Arisloxeno Philos. Peripatetico, 8vo., Amsterdam, 1793.) 
 
 ARIUS was a native of Cyrenaica, in Africa : the date of his birth 
 seems to be unknown. He was distinguished for personal beauty, 
 graceful manners, extensive learning, logical eloquence, and ascetic 
 abstinence. He has been accused, but without sufficient ground, of 
 restless ambition, and a predilection for innovations. The doctrine 
 taught by Arius was not in his time a novelty, but had been propa- 
 gated in the Alexandrine school of divinity. Arius obtained the favour 
 of three successive patriarchs of Alexandria. The patriarch Peter 
 ordained him deacon, but prohibited him from the exercise of eccle- 
 siastical functions when in a.d. 306, he joined the party of Meletius. 
 The patriarch Achilles, moved by the repentance of Arius, made 
 him in 313 presbyter and pastor of the church Baucalis, at Alexandria; 
 and the patriarch Alexander gave him the first rank among hia 
 clergy. 
 
 The patriarch Alexander, in 318, having asserted, in a conference 
 
331 
 
 Minis. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD. 
 
 S33 
 
 with Lis clergy, the unity of substance in the throe persons in the 
 Deity, Anus, in reply, accused tlie patriarch of having fallen into the 
 error of Sabellius, who had confounded the three divine persons. 
 Alius maintained that the Son was created out of nothing before the 
 creation of the universe, and that he could be called God only on 
 account of his participation in extraordinary powers. This doctrine 
 Alius propagated in private, and after he had obtained many followers, 
 he preached it publicly in the church. In order to introduce his 
 opinions among the lower classes, he composed songs for sailors, millers, 
 and travellers, in the measure of popular melodies. The work of 
 Arius, called ' Thaleia,' contained his doctrine in prose and verse. 
 Alexander endeavoured to reclaim Arius by private admonitions in 
 letters and by conferences, but failing in his attempts, he cited him in 
 321 before a synod of nearly one hundred Egyptian and Libyan bishops, 
 convened at Alexandria, where his doctrine, his person, and his fol- 
 lowers, were anathematised. Among the followers of Arius were two 
 bishops, and several priests, deacons, and virgins. 
 
 Arius now began to travel through the neighbouring countries, whore 
 he excited sympathy for his misfortunes, and propagated his doctrine. 
 Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, to whom Arius wrote a letter, still 
 extant (Epiph., ' Haeres.,' 69, 6; Theodoret, 'Hist. Eccles.,' i. 4), 
 absolved him from the Alexandrine excommunication ; he also con- 
 vened in 323 a synod in Bithynia, probably at Nicomedia, in bis behalf; 
 wrote in his favour to all the oriental bishops, and to the emperor 
 Constantine the Great, who, being at that time yet unbaptised, con- 
 sidered the dispute as trifling in itself, and recommended peace in 324, 
 in a letter addressed to Alexander and Arius jointly. 
 
 Constantine commissioned Hosius, bishop of Corduba, to examine 
 this dispute at Alexandria. Hosius having made a report unfavour- 
 able to Arius, Constantine convened the bishops of his empire in 325 
 in order to settle the points in dispute betweeu Arius and Alexander. 
 In this council at Nicoca 318 bishops were assembled. Before this 
 body Arius btill persisted in rejecting all confessions of faith which 
 maintained the divinity of Clinst and the cousubstantiality of the 
 divine Word, and he opposed the expression which attributed to the 
 Son the same essence with the Father. Consequently he was again 
 anathematised by the synod, and exiled by the emperor to Illyricum, 
 together with two bishops, who continued to adhere to him. Capital 
 punishment was denounced against all who would not deliver up the 
 writings of Alius. After three years Constantine became reconciled 
 to Arius through the instrumentality of an Arian priest, who was 
 secretly sent to the emperor by Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, and 
 by his sister Constantia. A confession of faith, which seemed to be in 
 unison with the Nicene Creed, was drawn up and presented by Arius 
 in 330 to the emperor, by whom he was reinstated in his church at 
 Alexandria ; but Athanasius, then bishop of Alexandria, would not 
 admit him. The Bynods of Tyre and of Jerusalem in 335, through the 
 influence of Eusebius, re-admitted Arius into church communion, and 
 recommended him to Athanasius ; but Arius was sent by his opposers 
 from Alexandria to Constantinople, in order to exculpate himself on 
 account of the troubles excited by his presence at Alexandria. Arius 
 presented to the emperor in 336 a third confession of his faith, and 
 professed by oath to submit to the synod of Nice. It was accordingly 
 resolved that Arius should be received into church communion in a 
 solemn manner ; but, according to Athanasius, he died on the evening 
 preceding the Sunday on which he was to be received into church 
 communion. 
 
 Eusebius, who became Bishop of Constantinople in 339, obtained 
 permission for the Arians to celebrate public worship at Alexandria 
 and other places of the eastern empire. After the death of Constantine 
 in 350, and the fall of the pretender Magnentius in 353, Constantius 
 became rule r of the whole empire, and used his power to support the 
 Ariaus in the councils of Aries (354) and Milan (355), the decrees of 
 which he maintained by arms against the Athanasians. Many persons, 
 unable to understand the distinction between the doctrines of Athana- 
 sius and Arius, were influenced in the choice of their party by unworthy 
 motives. Most bishops, moved by the court, signed Arian creeds, 
 although some continued to teach Athanasian doctrine. The people, 
 except in occasional tumults, gave themselves little trouble about 
 debates which they did not comprehend. The strict Arians rejected 
 the doctrine of Christ being 6/j.owvctios ('of similar essence '), as well as 
 that doctrine which made him 6/j.oovtnos (' consubstautiate,' or ' of equal 
 essence ') ; but the Semi-Arians maintained the opinion of his being 
 ' homoiousios.' The strict Arians, called also Ariomanites, insisted 
 upon the Son being krepovaios (' of another substance '). The Goths, 
 Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and Lombards embraced Arianism, but 
 exchanged it afterwards for orthodoxy. 
 
 The history of Arianism may be divided into three periods : the first 
 commenced a considerable time before the life of Arius, having origi- 
 nated in the Alexandrine schools of divinity of which Origen was the 
 most splendid luminary. It terminated in the synod of Nicsea, in 325. 
 The second period began with the opposition of the Eusebians to the 
 council of Nicaea, and terminated in the second synod of Sirmium, in 
 357. During this period the following synods were held : one at Tyre 
 in 335, in which Athanasius was deposed and exiled to Gaul by Con- 
 stantine; and immediately afterwards one at Jerusalem, in which 
 Arius was received into church communion. 
 
 Another synod was held at Antioch in 341, in which the bishops 
 
 declared that they could not be followers of Arius, because, " how 
 could we, beiug bishops, be followers of a presbyter?" Iu this synod 
 four creeds were approved, in which an endeavour was made to steer 
 a middle course between the Nicaaau Homoousios, or Semi-Arian view, 
 and the definitions of Arius himself, as between the two extremes of 
 divergence from the views then generally received in the East rn 
 Church. These four creeds arc extant in Athanasius, ' De Synodis,' 
 § 22-25. A general council was again assembled at Sardica in Thrace, 
 in which the emperors Constantius and Constans endeavoured in vain 
 to reconcile the combatants for oriental and occidental orthodoxy. 
 The orientals retired to the neighbouring city of Philippopolis, leaving 
 their occidental opponents alone at Sardica. 
 
 Eusebianism was, under Constantius, as victorious in the east as the 
 Nicasan creed was under Constans in the west. After the death of 
 Constans in 350, and the victory over Magnentius in 353, Constantius 
 endeavoured to establish Eusebianism by violent means in the west. 
 In the Bynods of Aries (354) and of Milan (355) he compelled tho 
 assembled bishops to sign the condemnation of Athanasius. 
 
 The third period terminated with the suppression of Arianism by 
 Theodosius I. The last vestiges of Arianism in the Roman empire are 
 found iu a law of Theodosius II. in 428. 
 
 ARJONA, MANUEL DE, born June 12, 1761, commenced his 
 Btudies at the university of Osuna, his native town, and afterwards 
 completed them at that of Seville, where he took his degrees in civil 
 and canon law. Subsequently he entered the church, and was made 
 canon penitentiary in the cathedral of Cordova, and one of the chapter 
 of the chapel royal of San Ferdinand at Seville. In this last capacity 
 he accompanied the Archbishop of Seville to Rome in 1797, when he 
 received from Pius VII. the honorary appointment of one of hia 
 private chaplains. To scholastic erudition and classical learning 
 Arjona joined an acquaintance with general literature, and distin- 
 guished himself by his efforts to promote a taste for such studies 
 among his countrymen. He was one of the most active and influential 
 members of the Academia de Letras Humanas at Seville, which insti- 
 tution could boast of many of the most intelligent individuals of 
 that period. He is chiefly known by his poetical productions. His 
 death took place July 25th, 1820. (Quiutana, Tesoro del Parnaso 
 Espanol.) 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD, one of those extraordinary men 
 whose ingenuity has exerted a most powerful influence upou the con- 
 dition of civilised society, was born at Preston, in Lancashire, on the 
 23rd of December, 1732. His parents moved in an humble walk of 
 life; and as he was the youngest of thirteen children, we may suppose 
 that the amount of school learning which he received was exceedingly 
 scanty. About the year 1760 he quitted business as a barber, which 
 he had previously carried on iu the town of Bolton, and became an 
 itinerant dealer in hair. The profits of this business were increased 
 by means of a secret which he possessed for dyeing hair and pre- 
 paring it for the use of wig-makers. In reference to Arkwright's 
 pursuits at this period of his history, Thomas Carlyle in his charac- 
 teristic manner says, "Nevertheless in stropping of razors, iu shaving 
 of dirty beards, and the contradictions and contusions attendant thereon, 
 the man had notions in that rough head of his I Spindles, shuttles, 
 wheels, and contrivances, plying ideally within the same ; rather hope- 
 less looking, which however he did at last bring to bear. Not without 
 difficulty." 
 
 His first effort in mechanics has been supposed to be an attempt to 
 discover the perpetual motion, but Dr. Ure conjectures that Ark- 
 wright, alive to the importance of his cotton spinning apparatus, may 
 have during his earlier experiments disguised the real character of 
 his mechanism under that name. 
 
 - Up to the time we have mentioned, the cloths of English manu- 
 facture called calicoes, from Calicut, the place of their original pro- 
 duction, were formed by a mixture of linen and cotton ; tiie warp 
 was composed of linen and the weft of cotton, it being found im- 
 possible, by any means then known, to spin the fibres of cotton into 
 a thread sufficiently strong to be used as warp. The demand for the 
 cloth soon became so great, that the females in the weaver's family by 
 whom the carding and spinning processes were performed, could not 
 prepare sufficient weft to keep the looms employed, and the weaver 
 was obliged to engage additional hands for preparing the cotton. The 
 limit to which this species of employment could be carried was soon 
 reached, and if some more productive mode of spinning than that by 
 the one-thread wheel, then the only machine known, had not been 
 discovered, the progress of the cotton manufacture must have been 
 stopped, or at best would have been extremely slow. Mr. Guest, in 
 his ' History of the Cotton Manufacture,' tells us, that at this time 
 " it was no uncommon thing for a weaver to walk three or four miles 
 in a morning, and call on five or six spinners, before he could collect 
 weft to serve him for the remainder of the day." 
 
 Some have called in question the talents of Arkwright, and hia 
 merits as an inventor ; and he has sometimes been considered as a 
 plagiarist or pirate of other men's ideas. If however the evidence is 
 carefully weighed, this charge will be seen to rest on very slight 
 grounds, while the proofs which he exhibited of possessing talents of 
 the very highest order in the management of the va^t concerns in 
 which he was afterwards engaged, are unquestionable. A patent for 
 spinning by means of rollers was taken out in the year 1738, by Mr. 
 
833 ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD. 
 
 Charles Wyatt, of Birmingham, iu the name of Lewis l'aul, a foreiguer, ] 
 with whom Wyatt had formed a partnership. The specification of 
 . Wyatt' s invention has been published, an 1 there can be no doubt that 
 it contains the principle of Arkwright's patent to some extent. 
 Wvatt's contrivance had been tried in Birmingham and at Northamp- 
 ton in 1741, but was so far from being successful, that the machinery 
 was sold in 1743, and it is not known what became of it. In the 
 • Case ' which Arkwright drew up to be presented to Parliament in 
 17S2, he makes meution of the fact in these words: — "About forty 
 or fifty years ago, one Paul and others of London invented an engine 
 for spinning of cotton, and obtained a patent for such invention ; 
 afterwards they removed to Northampton and other places. They 
 spent many years and much money in the undertaking, but without 
 success : and many families who had engaged with them were reduced 
 to poverty and distress." This ' Case ' was drawn up at a time when 
 his patent-right was being constantly invaded, and it is incredible, that, 
 if he had possessed a knowledge of the particulars of Wyatt's patent, 
 he should have thus drawn public attention to it, since he must, 
 in that case, have known that the production of the specification 
 would at once have deprived him of every ground upon which he 
 attempted to establish his own rights as an inventor. 
 
 To assist him in making the movements for his first projected 
 machine, Arkwright employed a clockmaker, named Kay, first at 
 Preston and afterwards at Nottingham. From the year 1767, Ark- 
 wright gave himself up completely to the subject of inventions for 
 spinning cotton. In 1768 he set up his first machine at Preston. At 
 this time Arkwright's poverty was such, that, being a burgess of 
 Preston, he could not appear to vote during a contested election, till 
 the party with whom he voted gave him a decent suit of clothes. 
 Shortly after, apprehensive of meeting with the same kind of hostility 
 which had a short time previously been shown to a man named 
 Hargreaves, who also had invented a machine for abridging labour 
 in cotton-spinning, Arkwright went to Nottingham, where he made 
 arrangements with Messrs. Wrights, bankers in that town, for obtain- 
 ing the necessary supply of money; and soon after entered into 
 partnership with Mr. Need, a stocking manufacturer, and his partner, 
 Mr. Jedediah Strutt, the ingenious improver and patentee of the 
 stocking-frame invented by Mr. Lee. Several improvements suggested 
 by Strutt were adopted by Arkwright, and in 1769 he obtained his 
 first patent for spinning by rollers. The validity of this patent was 
 contested in 1772, on the ground of Arkwright not having been the 
 original inventor of the process, but a verdict was given in favour of 
 the patent, which no one afterwards attempted to disturb. 
 
 The most important feature of this machine was the use of two 
 pairs of rollers, technically called drawing-rollers, the first pair revolv- 
 ing slowly in contact with each other, and the second pair revolving 
 in like manner, but with greater velocity. The lower roller of each 
 pair was fluted longitudinally, and the upper one covered with leather, 
 and the two were pressed together with a gentle pressure by means of 
 weighted levers, in order that they might take sufficient hold of the 
 soft-cotton passed between them. The fibres of the cotton-wool were 
 first laid smooth and straight, by carding or combing, so as to pro- 
 duce a soft loose ribbon or cord called a sliver, the end of, which was 
 introduced between the first pair of rollers. In passing between them 
 it received no further change than a slight compression, but as from 
 them it was conducted to the second pair of rollers, moving with 
 twice, thrice, or more times the velocity of the first pair, it was 
 extended or drawn out to two, three, or more times its original length, 
 its thickness being reduced iu like proportion. As this action is 
 effected by the sliding of the fibres upon one another, the distance 
 between the two pairs of rollers must be so adjusted, in relation to 
 the average length of the fibres, that the two pairs may never have 
 hold of one fibre at the same time. By these processes the thick 
 soft sliver or carding is converted into a fine, hard, and compact yarn 
 or thread. 
 
 Arkwright's spinning-machine was, in the first instance, worked by 
 horse-power; but in 1771 the partners built a spinning-mill for work- 
 ing by water-power at Cromford, in Derbyshire, from which establish- 
 ment, " the nursing-place," as it has been styled, " of the factory 
 opulence and power of Great Britain," the machine took the name of 
 the water-frame, and the yarn produced by it that of water-twist. 
 
 Although previous to this time no establishment of a similar nature 
 had existed to which the same system of management was applicable, 
 Arkwright at once introduced a system of arrangement iuto his works 
 which has since been universally adopted by others, and which, in all 
 its main features, has remained unaltered to the present time. 
 
 The great invention, which has been described above, was followed 
 up by various improvements and combinations of machinery, for 
 which a second patent was obtained in 1775. His right to this pateni 
 was disputed in 1781, on the plea that some of the contrivances 
 which it comprehended were not original ; and his monopoly was 
 invaded to such an extent by other cotton-spinners, that to maintain 
 it he was obliged to bring actions against nine different parties. The 
 first of these actions was tried in July, 1781, when he was non-suited, 
 on the ground that the specification or description of the invention 
 which he had enrolled, did not contain a sufficiently full and particular 
 account of the invention. 
 
 The result of this trial occasioned Arkwright not only to abandon 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD. 331 
 
 the other eight actions which remained to be tried, but also, for a 
 time at least, to forego the rights derived from his second patent. It 
 was- on this occasion that he drew up and published a pamphlet, to 
 which allusion has already been made, and which he called bia ' Case.' 
 The object of this pamphlet was to impress the members of the 
 legislature with the propriety of interfering for his protection. 
 
 Having iu the beginning of 1785 obtained the testimony of several 
 competent persons in favour of the sufficiency of his specification, 
 Arkwright then commenced anew action, which was tried in February 
 of that year, and decided in his favour, thereby reinstating him in the 
 possession of his monopoly. The Lancashire cotton-spinners formed 
 an association for the purpose of contesting the point, and cancelling 
 the patent. They also engaged scientific gentlemen to discover the 
 technical defects of the patent and to arrange the evidence for its 
 overthrow. On this occasion Kay was brought forward to show that, 
 previously to his having been employed in 1767 to make a model for 
 Arkwright, he had been similarly engaged by another person, who 
 was likewise called to corroborate the fact, and upon this evidence the 
 jury found a verdict for the crown, and thereby annulled the patent. 
 A new trial was applied for in the following term, on the ground that 
 Arkwright had procured evidence to rebut that upon which the 
 verdict was grounded, but the motion was refused by the court. 
 
 Although the yarn which Arkwright made was so far superior to 
 that produced by the old method of spinning that it could be used 
 for warp, the manufacturers combined to discountenance its use. A 
 very considerable stock lay upon his hands in consequence, and he 
 and his partners were driven to undertake the conversion of this yarn 
 iuto manufactured goods. They first used it with perfect success in 
 making stockings, and soon after established the manufacture of cali- 
 coes, such as they are made at the present day. But here another 
 difficulty assailed them. Their orders for this description of manu- 
 facture, then new to England, were exceedingly great, but could not 
 be complied with, on account of the demand on the part of the officers 
 of excise of a duty of sixpence per yard, as being calicoes similar to 
 those imported, and upon which a like duty was levied, while other 
 English-made cloths were subject to only half that rate. It was not 
 until application for relief had been made to parliament that this 
 obstacle was removed, and a large accumulated stock of cloths was 
 disposed of. An Act of Parliament was passed, declaring the cotton- 
 manufacture " not only a lawful but a laudable manufacture," and 
 fixing the duty at " threepence per square yard on cotton printed, 
 painted, or stained with colours." 
 
 Five years expired from the first establishment of the works at 
 Cromford before any profit was realised, but after that time wealth 
 continued to flow in abundantly to the proprietors. The establish- 
 ments were greatly extended, several new one3 were formed, and, in 
 many cases, Arkwright took a share with other persons in the erection 
 and working of cotton-mills. This prosperity continued, notwith- 
 standing the adverse decision of the courts in regard to his patent. 
 For several years, the market prices of cotton twist were fixed by 
 Arkwright, all other spinners conforming to his scale. His partner- 
 ship with Mr. Strutt terminated in 1783, after which time he retained 
 the works at Cromford, which were subsequently carried on by his 
 son, while Mr. Strutt continued the works at Belper, which were 
 founded about 1776. How greatly the cotton-manufacture was ex- 
 tended by Arkwright's improvements may be conceived from the fact 
 that the imports of cotton-wool, which averaged less than 5,000,000 lbs. 
 per annum in the five years from 1771 to 1775, rose to an average of 
 25,443,270 lbs. per annum in the five years ending with 1790. In 
 1845 the imports of cotton-wool from all parts amounted to 
 713,020,161 lbs.; in 1849 to 755,469,012; and in 1860, the year 
 preceding the civil war in America, to 1,390,929,792 lbs. 
 
 Arkwright was a very early riser; devoted himself most assiduously 
 to business; was a severe economist of time ; was exceedingly sanguine 
 in his disposition ; and entertained an unbounded confidence iu the 
 wealth-producing powers of machinery and manufactures. To his 
 credit it is recorded that when upwards of fifty years of age he 
 made strenuous efforts to retrieve the deficiencies of his early educa- 
 tion ; redeeming time from the hours usually devoted to sleep in 
 order to apply one hour a day to grammar, and another to writing 
 and orthography. In 1786, on occasion of presenting an address to 
 George III. after the attempt on his life by Margaret Nicholson, he 
 received the honour of knighthood ; and in the following year he 
 served as high sheriff of Derbyshire. 
 
 Notwithstanding the increasing inconvenience which he experi- 
 enced from a severe asthma, with which he had been occasionally 
 afflicted from early life, Sir Richard continued to give the most unre- 
 mitting attention to business, and superintended the daily operations 
 of his large establishments, adding from time to time such improve- 
 ments to the machinery as were suggested by experience and obser- 
 vation. He sunk at length under a complication of disorders, 
 accelerated if not produced by his sedentary habits, and died in his 
 house at Cromford, on the 3rd of August, 1792, in the sixtieth year 
 of his age, leaving behind him a fortune estimated at little short of 
 half a million sterling. 
 
 Considering the difficulties in which he was placed by the deficiency 
 of his early education and the unfavourable tendency of his early 
 employment, Arkwright must be acknowledged to have been a very 
 
336 
 
 ARLAUD, JACQUES ANTOINE. 
 
 ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ. 
 
 330 
 
 extraordinary man. Even without claiming for him the honour of 
 having been an original inventor, —an honour which, upon the best 
 consideration we can give to the conflicting evidence brought forwa/d, 
 we are still inclined to award him, — we may certainly ascribe to him 
 the possession of a clear and comprehensive mind, as well as the most 
 unerring judgment. His plans were laid with skill, and pursued with 
 energy ; he displayed the most unwearied perseverance iu pursuit of 
 his object under difficulties which would have borne down most men ; 
 and he forms one among the bright instances afforded by the annals of 
 this country, that talent, when allied with patient energy and perse- 
 vering industry, will not fail to ensure ultimate success to its possessor. 
 
 Our information concerning Arkwright's private or personal 
 history is of limited extent. In early life he married Patience 
 Holt, of Bolton, who, in December, 1755, became the mother of his 
 only son Richard. After her death he married again, either in 1 760 
 or 1761, his second wife being Margaret Biggins, of Pennington, in 
 the parish of Leigh ; and from this wife, who is the only one men- 
 tioned by most biographers, ho separated, but when or under what 
 circumstances, is not very certain, although according to some accounts 
 it would appear to have been in consequence of some disagreement 
 arising from his adventurous scheming disposition. By his second 
 wife he had one daughter, who married Charles Hurt, Esq., and 
 inherited part of his property. He left directions to his son, the late 
 Richard Arkwright, Esq., for the completion of a church which he 
 was erecting at Cromford, and also of Willersley Castle, which he was 
 building as a family mansion. That gentleman inherited his father's 
 sagacity and aptitude for business, and became, it has been asserted, 
 the wealthiest commoner in England. He died on the 23rd of April, 
 1843, in his eighty-eighth year, leaving a large family ; and his property 
 was sworn, on the proving of his will, to exceed 1,000,000£., that being 
 however merely a nominal sum, taken because the scale of stamp 
 duties goes no higher. The probate bore a stamp of 15,750i. Further 
 information respecting the controverted points in the history of Ark- 
 wright and his inventions, may be found in the works of Baines, 
 Guest, and Dr. Ure, on the ' Hietory of the Cotton-Manufacture,' and 
 in a copious memoir in the ' Biographical Dictionary of the Society 
 for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.' 
 
 ARLAUD, JACQUES ANTOINE, a distinguished miniature painter, 
 born at Geneva in 1668, acquired a great reputation at Paris aad at 
 London. In Paris he was the instructor of the Regent Duke of 
 Orleans, and had apartments in the palace of St. Cloud. He came to 
 England in 1721 with letters of introduction to the Prince of Wales, 
 afterwards George II., and returned in 1729 to his own country with 
 a fortune of 200,000 francs : he died at Geneva, in 17 43, and be- 
 queathed many books, works of art, medals, and various curiosities 
 to the library of that place. Part of his bequest were some pieces of 
 a drawing of a Leda, which he made in Paris, said to have been 
 copied from a basso-rilievo by Michelangelo. Arlaud was originally 
 educated for the church ; he was a man of general acquirements, and 
 was well versed in languages. While in England he formed a friend- 
 ship with Sir Isaac Newton, who corresponded with him after his 
 retirement to Geneva. 
 
 (Descamps, La Vie des Peintres Flamand, &c. ; Walpole, Anecdotes 
 of Painting in England.) 
 
 ARMAGNAC, COUNTS OF, were descended from the ancient 
 dukes of Aquitaine and Gascony, and took their title from the county 
 of Armagnac. John I. increased the importance of his family by 
 marrying a daughter of the House of Bourbon. He was one of the 
 powerful chiefs, in the south-west of France, strongly opposed to the 
 claims of the English, and for this reason highly trusted by the 
 French king, by whom he was made governor of Languedoc. Al- 
 though we find him accompanying the Black Prince in his Spanish 
 expedition against Peter the Cruel, he was still the prince's enemy 
 when France and England renewed the contest. He died in 1373. 
 His grandson, John III., who married the heiress of the House of 
 Commiuges, led an army of adventurers into Italy, where he laid 
 siege to Alessandria, and fell under its walls in 1391. Bernard, 
 younger brother of John III., succeeded him : he became the most 
 celebrated of his family, and gave his name to the great party which 
 he headed in opposition to the Burgundians. His aunt married the 
 Duke of Berry, one of the French princes; and Bernard, in 1410, 
 gave his daughter in marriage to the Duke of Orleans, then too young 
 to head his party, and the task consequently fell to the Count of 
 Armagnac. The cruelty with which his rude Gascon bauds treated 
 the court and the people round Paris, inspired them with horror for 
 the cause of Orleans, and contributed in no small degree to give that 
 character of atrocity to the civil wars of the time in which they stand 
 unequalled. The Armagnacs were composed of a rustic or pastoral 
 population : the Burgundian cause was chiefly supported by the bur- 
 gesses of the north of France and Flanders ; and thus tha mutual 
 hatred of citizen and peasant increased the animosity between the 
 opposite parties. 
 
 In 1412 both Armagnacs and Burgundians courted the alliance of 
 England. The former made the higher offers, and stipvlated to 
 restore Aquitaine to Henry IV. of England, in return for his support. 
 In the following year, however, the excesses of the Burgundians 
 having disgusted the Parisians, the Armagnacs obtained for Uie first 
 time superiority in the capital ,and indeed throughout the kingdom. 
 
 The accession of Henry V. to the throne of England, his alliance 
 with Burgundy, his invasion of France, and the victory at Agincourt, 
 changed the face of affairs. The Count d' Armagnac, who hurried 
 from the south with a small army to defend the capital, was now the 
 sole reliance of the dauphin. He was accordingly created Constable 
 in the last days of 1415, and he soon showed himself an active and 
 severe leader. Towards the citizens, especially of Paris, he acted in 
 an extremely tyrannical manner. In the field however he was not 
 successful. The Earl of Dorset, with very inferior forces, put an 
 army of Armagnacs to disgraceful flight ; and the count, in his rage, 
 had no other satisfaction but that of hanging some of his own runaway 
 soldiers. His cruelties and his defeat weakened his party, and his 
 harshness made an enemy of the queen, who meditated on making 
 use of the authority of the dauphin to shake off the Armagnac yoke. 
 The dauphin, John, son of Charles VI., soon expired, it was said by 
 poison ; and at the same time the death of other foes or rivals directed 
 suspicion agaiust the count. 
 
 Queen Isabel, whom the Count of Armagnac had confined at Tours, 
 was not however without her revenge. She communicated to the 
 Duke of Burgundy her wish to escape from the bondage in which she 
 was held ; and an expedition undertaken by that prince rescued 
 Isabel from the hands of the count. The Burgundians soon drove 
 the soldiers of Armagnac from the open country, and compelled the 
 count to concentrate his force in Paris, where the Burgundians, with 
 the co-operation of the populace, mastered him, but not without a 
 struggle. At first the persons of the count and the chief members of 
 the Armagnac party were respected, but after a few days the popu- 
 lace, being exasperated by past struggles, and excited by recollection 
 of the tyranny of the Armagnacs, burst open the prisons, and massa- 
 cred all within, their proceedings being characterised by great bar- 
 barity. This took place on the 12th of June, 1418. More than 3000 
 persons are said to have perished in this revolution. 
 
 John, count of Armngnac, grandson of the preceding count, though 
 less powerful as a party chief, was equally notorious for his crimes 
 and his turbulence. An incestuous intercourse with his sister, which 
 he avowed, and sought to cover by a marriage, first drew upon him 
 the indignation of the Pope Pius II., and of his sovereign, Charles VII. 
 He was excommunicated, and forced by the royal troops to take 
 refuge in exile. A prosecution was commenced against him before 
 the parliament of Paris : lie first appeared to answer the charges, but 
 upon his again taking to flight, he was condemned, and his domains 
 confiscated. The count, by repairing to Rome, contrived to soften 
 the pope's anj.er, and procured the reversal of his sentence of excom- 
 munication. Under Louis XL, in 1461, the Count of Armagnac 
 obtained possession of his fiefs, but soon joined in the revolt against 
 that prince, which the Burgundians abetted. Louis XI. purchased the 
 cessation of his enmity at the price of 10,000 crowns — a sum bestowed 
 in vain. For several years Armagnac seemed an enemy in every 
 sense worthy of Louis XI., — revolting, defending himself bravely, when 
 overcome at last vowing submission once more, and again acting the 
 traitor. Cardinal d'Albi, who was sent against him by the king, 
 entered into negociations with him, and concluded terms of peace. 
 Relying on the cardinal's good faith, Armagnac relaxed in the vigilance 
 of his guard ; and the soldiers of the cardinal found means to intro- 
 duce themselves into the fortress of Lectoure, and to massacre the 
 count and his followers in 1473. The king's commands required the 
 total extermination of the Armagnac race. Jeanne de Foix, the 
 legitimate wife of the count, who was pregnant, was compelled to 
 swallow a draught of poison. His brother Charles was seized, tor- 
 tured, thrust into an unwholesome dungeon, but survived, and was 
 liberated after the death of Louis XI. 
 
 A descendant of the family was created cardinal under Francis I. ; 
 he was known as an upright administrator and a patron of letters. 
 He died in 1585, at a very advanced age. [Nemours, Dukes of.] 
 
 ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ, a descendant of Carl Armfelt, 
 and the eldest son of a Finnish nobleman, Baron Armfelt, major- 
 general in the Swedish service, was born at Juva in the government of 
 Abo, on the 1st of April, 1757, and educated in the college of cadets 
 at Carlskrona. In the Memoirs of Armfelt, written by himself, he 
 states that in his youth, when an officer of the guard, he was looked 
 upon so unfavourably by Gustavus, who commanded the regiment in 
 person, that he solicited permission to travel, and went to Paris, where 
 he remained till hearing of the arrival of the King of Sweden at Spa, 
 travelling incognito under the name of the Count of Haga, he went 
 thither to wait upon him, and so won upon Gustavus's favour that he 
 was invited to return to Sweden. He was soon appointed to a post in 
 the service of the Crown Prince, whose birth three years before had 
 disappointed the ambitious hopes of Charles, duke of Sudermania, the 
 king's brother, who had till then been looked upon as heir pre- 
 sumptive. By the king's influence he obtained to wife the heiress of 
 the noble family of De la Gardie, one of the first in Sweden, and the 
 numerous letters addressed to him, which are given in the published 
 correspondence of Gustavus III., show that he enjoyed a high place 
 in the favour of the king. When the war with Russia was commenced 
 by Gustavus in 1788. Armfelt was appointed commander of one of the 
 three divisions of the army. At Summa, near Fredrikshamn, he 
 defeated a Russian force. The successes of the Swedes were neu- 
 tralised by the confederation of Anjala, a conspiracy of the officers if 
 
33," 
 
 ARMFELT, GUSTAP MAURITZ. 
 
 ARMIN, ROBERT. 
 
 BH 
 
 the Swedish array, who sent to the king a letter, in which they 
 announced that they had dispatched Major Jiigerhoru to the Empress 
 Catherine with proposals for an armistice, and instructions to request 
 the empress to restore the Swedish constitution of 1720, which had 
 been overthrown by Gustavus in 1772. Two or three days after, the 
 news of a Danish war arrived, and before the confederates had time 
 to seize his person the king returned to the capital. To Armfelt was 
 committed the task of arousing the Dalecarlians, who in all the revo- 
 lutions of Sweden have taken such a distinguished part ; and he had 
 raised the country against the Danes, who after a few successes had 
 advanced considerably into the interior, when, much to his disappoint- 
 ment, an armistice was concluded between the two countries by the 
 mediation of England and Prussia. He soon after succeeded in 
 bringing a large body of the Dalecarlians to perform military duty 
 near the capital, ostensibly to supply the want of regular troops near 
 Stockholm, but in reality to overawe the states whom the king had 
 convoked, and in which he was apprehensive that his opponents would 
 have the upper hand. Armfelt's peasant allies were so unruly that he 
 describes his joy at getting rid of them as almost equal to that he 
 felt at seeing the states break up without having done anything 
 against the king. The war with Russia was resumed with vigour in 
 the campaign of 1789, when Armfelt surprised the pass of Karnakoski 
 in Finland, and defeated the Russians in an attempt to recover it. In 
 the next year he was severely wounded in an attack on Savitaipal, and 
 the Empress Catherine ordered the Russian general Igelstrom to send 
 and offer him whatever might be useful for his recovery. This offer 
 led to an exchange of letters, in which Armfelt, who knew that the 
 empress would see the correspondence, opened the way to negociations, 
 and his design succeeded. The recent successes of the Swedes, and in 
 particular their victory at Svensksund, enabled them to obtain more 
 favourable terms than would otherwise have been practicable, and the 
 treaty of Verela, signed by Armfelt and Igelstrom on the Hth of 
 August, 1790, was on the basis of restoring affairs to the same state as 
 before the war. The peace was no sooner made than the English 
 regretted to have made no better use of so favourable an opportunity 
 of diminishing the power of Russia, and proposed an offensive and 
 defensive alliance with Swtden for a fresh war, which was only broken 
 off by Gustavus demanding more than Pitt was willing to concede. 
 A treaty of alliance between Russia and Sweden was signed by Armfelt 
 at Drottningholm in August, 1791, during the absence of Gustavus, 
 who had gone to Aix-la-Chapelle and Spa to concert measures for 
 opposing the French revolution, against which this alliance was prin- 
 cipally directed. Affairs after these events were going on more 
 prosperously than for a long time before, when on the 16th of March, 
 1792, Gustavus was mortally wounded by the hand of an assassin. 
 
 Armfelt was named Governor of Stockholm, and was also one of the 
 provisional government nominated on the morning after by the king, 
 who was with the utmost difficulty prevailed upon to include in the 
 number his brother, the Duke of Sudermania. On the morning of his 
 death, the king having learned that he only had six hours to live, drew 
 up a codicil to his will, in which he directed that all affairs during the 
 minority of hia son, then a boy of twelve, should be carried on by a 
 council, whose opinion the regent, his brother, should on every 
 occasion be bound to ask in the presence of the young king himself, 
 and that all the transactions of this council should be placed on 
 record for the inspection of the young king when he had attained his 
 majority. In a final interview with Armfelt, after signing the codicil, 
 the king made him promise to be the friend of the son as he had been 
 of the father. On the same afternoon, when the will was opened, the 
 Duke of Sudermania expressed his surprise and dissatisfactiou at the 
 want of confidence in him shown by Gustavus, and talked of declining 
 altogether in consequence the post assigned him. It was only after a 
 long conversation, in which Armfelt dissuaded him from taking this 
 step, that he agreed to accept the regency with all the obligations 
 attached to it, on the condition that the codicil should not be made 
 public. The document was handed over to Lagerbring, a secretary of 
 state, who was afterwards gained over to the duke's interest, and it 
 disappeared. Armfelt was treated with apparent friendliness; but the 
 conditions of the will were ill-observed, and he was allowed few inter- 
 views with the young king. He solicited permission to travel to 
 Aix-la-Chapelle for the recovery of his health, which was still suffering 
 from the wound received in Finland, and he was afterwards named 
 Swedish ambassador to Naples. Before his departure, on the 15th of 
 July, 1792, he had a secret interview with the young king by night, in 
 which he cautioned him against the supposed designs of his uncle, and 
 they both parted with tears. 
 
 While in Italy, Armfelt, who found that immediately after the day 
 of his leaving Stockholm a considerable alteration had been made in 
 the ministry, and that Reuterholm, a friend of the French Jacobins 
 tnd a declared enemy of the late king, was now all-powerful with 
 Duke Charles, heard that a scheme was on foot for declaring the young 
 king unfit to reign from mental incapacity, and began to concert a 
 counter-scheme for shortening the regency of the duke, by inducing 
 the states to declare Gustavus of age to govern. With this view he 
 entered into correspondence with the Empress Catherine, as well as 
 with the Count-it Rudenskbld in Stockholm, and Ehrenstrom, one of 
 She royal secretaries. The whole was discovered by Duke Charles, 
 who in 1794 dispatched a vessel to Naples, to demand that his ambas- 
 
 BIOG. div. vol. t 
 
 sador should bo delivered up to him as a traitor. The Neapolitan 
 government gave Armfelt warning in time, and he fled first to Poland, 
 and afterwards to Russia, where he lived under a feigned name at 
 Kaluga. Some papers which he had left at Naples in the charge of 
 his friend Lord Hervey, the English ambassador, were abstracted from 
 the chest without Lord Hervey's kuowledge, and on the evidence 
 afforded by these aud by some correspondence seized at Stockholm he 
 was tried during his absence for high treason. The Countess Ruden- 
 skold, who was brought to trial for the same offence, was one of the 
 most beautiful women in Sweden, aud eighteen months before had 
 rejected the dishonourable offers of Duke Charles, who is reported 
 to have repeated them on the eve of her imprisonment, with a promise 
 of pardon if accepted, and of a terrible revenge if refused. The issue 
 of the proceedings, which were disgraceful to the duke aud to the 
 nation, was that Armfelt was condemned to death as a traitor ; that 
 he was declared an outlaw, and that it was decreed that his name 
 should be inscribed on the pillar of infamy, which is set up in the 
 principal Swedish towns. The Countess Rudenskbld was declared 
 infamous, and condemned to be publicly exposed on a scaffold sur- 
 rounded by four executioners, and imprisoned for life in the house of 
 chastisement or public bridewell. She sunk down after an hour's 
 exposure apparently dead from excessive agony, and the indignant 
 mob of Stockholm was only prevented from rescuing her by the strong 
 body- of soldiers who guarded the scaffold. Ehreustrom, who was 
 sentenced to death, received at the place of execution a commutation 
 of punishment into imprisonment for life. Armfelt, who appears to 
 have composed his memoirs shortly after these events had taken place, 
 concludes them by protesting, that "if righteous Heaven should ever 
 afford him the means of r-venge, the author of these atrocities should 
 not die before he had tasted in this world the torments of hell." 
 
 Armfelt left Russia, and resided in Germany till 1799, when 
 Gustavus IV., on attaining his majority at the age of 18, received 
 the crown from the hands of the regent, and immediately ordered a 
 revision of the trials for treason. The whole proceedings were 
 annulled, Armfelt restored to all his former dignities and his military 
 rank, and the countess and Ehrenstrom set at liberty. Armfelt was 
 afterwards appointed ambassador to Vienna, and in 1805 governor- 
 general of Finland. In 1807 he commanded a portion of the Swedish 
 army in Pomerania, and defended Stralsund against the French ; in 
 1S08 he was appointed to the command of the western army of 
 Sweden, which was intended to conquer Norway. The attempt 
 entirely failed; Bnd Sweden was itself invaded by the Norwegians, 
 under the command of the Prince of Augustenburg. Armfelt was 
 recalled and deprived of his command, and appears to have been living 
 in private life when the revolution of 1809 took place, by which 
 Gustavus IV. lost the crown, and Duke Charles of Suderraania 
 assumed it under the title of Charles XIII. No explanation seems to 
 be given of the fact, that from this prince, the very man whom Arm- 
 felt had sworn to pursue with the " torments of hr 11," he again 
 received the high command of which Gustavus IV. had deprived him, 
 and was also named President of the Military Council. Their friend- 
 ship however was not of long duration. The death of the Prince of 
 Augustenburg, who had been elected successor to the throne of 
 Sweden, was attributed by the populace to poison, and their suspicions 
 fixed upon the Countess Piper, Count Fersen, and Armfelt. Fersen, 
 as he followed in the funeral procession of the prince, was torn to 
 pieces by the mob, apparently with the connivance of Charle3 XIII., 
 whose soldiers did not attempt to defend him. An order was issued 
 for the arrest of Armfelt, who escaped by the back door of his house, 
 and fled, to the residence of the Russian ambassador, whose protection 
 he claimed as a native of Finland, which had in the preceding year 
 been torn by Russia from the Swedish crown. The protection was 
 given, aud Armfelt spent the rest of his life in the Russian service, in 
 which he was treated with distinguished honour. He was raised to 
 the dignity of count, made chancellor of the university of Abo, a 
 member of the Russian senate, and president of the Board of Finnish 
 Affairs at St. Petersburg, while his countess was appointed one of the 
 ladies of honour to the empress. After this life of strange vicissitudes 
 Armfelt died at Tzarskoe-Selo, on the 19th of August, 1814. 
 
 Armfelt wrote some memoirs of himself, which were printed in 
 Swedish in 1830, in the ' Handlingar rbrande Scandinaviens Historia,' 
 and in a German translation in the fourth volume of the third series 
 of the ' Zeitgeuossen.' The narrative supplies some explanation of 
 his course of action by the disclosures which it gives, but these dis- 
 closures only render more mysterious his subsequent career, some 
 parts of which will hardly admit of an explanation honourable to 
 Armfelt. Indeed he seems throughout the whole of his life to have 
 had a decided propensity to intrigue, and more than one circumstauco 
 proves that he cannot have been a man of high principle. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowltdy\) 
 
 ARMIN, ROBERT. The Bodleian Library contains the only known 
 copy of a tract entitled 'A Nest of Ninnies. Simply of themselves 
 without compound. Stultorum plena sunt omnia. By Robert Armin, 
 1608.' The Shakspere Society has reprinted this work, ''unwilling 
 that any volume of this description, of which no other exemplar is 
 known, should be exposed to the slightest risk of loss, however remote 
 or improbable." The tract thus snatched from " Time's devouring 
 
 Z 
 
S39 
 
 ARMINIUS. 
 
 ARMINIUS, JACOBUS. 
 
 Ml 
 
 maw," for a brief period, contains very little that we should be 
 anxious to preserve. It is a collection of very dull anecdotes of the 
 domestic fools of the author's own period, which indeed has this value 
 in connection with the writings of the dramatist who has informed 
 his fools with wit and sense that it affords evidence that he drew 
 nothing of these qualities from the recorded sayings of the fools of 
 real life. Armin was a player in Shakspere's company. His name 
 occurs with that of Shakspere in a certificate of 1589, and in King 
 James's patent to his players in 1603. He is mentioned by Nash, in 
 1592, as a writer of ephemeral stories and ballads, and in 1609 his 
 name appears to a translation of a little novel, ' The Italian Taylor 
 and his Boy.' Subsequently he published a dramatic piece, entitled, 
 'The History of the Two Maids of More Clacke.' The authorship of 
 a play called 'The Valiant Welchman 1 has also been assigned to him. 
 Armiu is among the names in the original list of the performers in 
 Shakspere's plays, given in the first folio edition ; and he is held to 
 have been the successor of Kempe in the representation of the most 
 popular of Shakspere's clowns. (Fools and Jesters ; with a Reprint of 
 Robert Armin' s Nest of Ninnies. Printed for the Shakspere Society, 
 1842.) 
 
 AliMPNIUS. [Hehmann.] 
 
 ARMPNIUS, JACO'BUS, from whom the system of doctrine called 
 Arminian has received its name, was born in the year 1560, at Oude- 
 water, a small town of Holland, throuu-h which the little river Issel 
 flows. His real name in Latin was Jacobus Hermanni, which in Dutch 
 is Jacob Harmensen. For Harmensen he adopted the Latinised form 
 Armiuius, evidently at an early period of his life. As Oudewater 
 means in Dutch ' Old Water,' Veteres Aquae, Arminius iB generally 
 surnamed in his works Veteraquinas. He lost his father, Hermann, 
 who was a cutler, in his infancy; and his mother, Angelica, was left 
 with two sons and a daughter in very straitened circumstances. But 
 the young Arminius found a protector in Theodorus ^Emilius, who 
 had once been a Roman Catholic priest, but had renounced his r li.'ion 
 because he considered the sacrifice of the mnss idolatrous. yEmilius 
 took Arminius with him to Utrecht, and sent him to the school of that 
 place. In his loth year Arminius lost his kind patron by death ; but 
 another protector, a native of Oudewater, named Rudolph Snellius, 
 took him under his care, and removed him to Marburg, the capital of 
 Upper Hesse (1575). Armiuius had scarcely arrived at Marburg when 
 he heard that his native town had been sacked by the Spaniards and 
 the inhabitants put to the sword. Hurrying back to Oudewater, he 
 found that his mother, sister, brother, and his other relations had been 
 killed. He returned to Marburg on foot. He went thence to Rotter- 
 dam, and was received into the house of Peter Bertius, the pastor of 
 the Reformed Church iu that town. In the same year (1575) he was 
 sent, with Peter Bertius the younger, who afterwards pronounced his 
 funeral oration, to the University of Leyden, which had just been 
 founded. After he had studied at Leyden for six years, " the directors 
 of the body of merchants" of Amsterdam undertook to bear the 
 expenses of his future education for the ministry, Arminius agreeing 
 that after he had been ordained he would not serve in the church of 
 any other city without the permission of the burgomasters of Amster- 
 dam. In 1582 he was sent to Geneva, which was then the great school 
 of theology for all the Reformed Churches, and where the doctrines 
 of Calvin were then taught in their most rigorous shape by Theodore 
 Beza. At Geneva, Arminius formed that close friendship which united 
 him through life with Uyttenbogaert of Utrecht. 
 
 During his residence at Geneva he gave great offence to some of the 
 Aristotelian teachers of the Geneva school, by advocating in public 
 and lecturing in private to his friends on the Logic of Ramus. He 
 had imbibed a love for the philosophical and logical principles of 
 Ramus from his patron Snellius. Thinking it advisable to leave Geneva 
 for a short time, he went to Basle, where the faculty of divinity offered 
 to confer upon him the decree of Doctor gratis ; but he declined it, 
 considtring himself too young, and in 1583 returned to Geneva, where 
 he continued his theological studies for three years more. In 1586 
 the fame of James Zabarella, who was professor of philosophy at Padua, 
 induced him to take a journey into Italy in the company of a friend. 
 They first went to hear the professor at Padua, and from Padua pro- 
 ceeded to Rome. After spending seven months in this journey, Armi- 
 nius came back to Geneva, and soon received an order from the burgo- 
 masters of Amsterdam to return to that town. He had taken this 
 journey without their knowledge, and rumours had spread abroad 
 that he had kissed the pope's slipper, held intercourse with the Jesuits, 
 and especially with Cardinal Bellarmin — that, in short, he had become 
 a Roman Catholic. The testimony of his friend cleared him from these 
 charges. Arminius used afterwards to say that he derived no little 
 benefit from this journey, as " he saw at Rome a mystery of iniquity 
 much more foul than he had ever imagined." He was ordained minister 
 at Amsterdam on the 11th of August 1588, when he was twenty-eight 
 years old, and he soon became distinguished as a preacher. 
 
 In 1589 Theodore Coornhert of Amsterdam published several works, 
 in which he attacked the doctrine of predestination, which was taught 
 by Beza and the Geneva school. To obviate Coornhert's objections, 
 some ministers of Delft proposed a change in Beza's doctrine. They 
 agreed with Beza that divine predestination was the antecedent, uncon- 
 ditional, and immutable decree of God concerning the salvation or 
 damnation of each individual; but whereas Beza represented that 
 
 man, not considered as fallen or even as created, was the object of this 
 unconditional decree, the ministers of Delft made this peremptory 
 decree subordinate to the creation and fall of man. They thought this 
 hypothesis would do away with Coornhert's objection, that the doctrine 
 of absolute decrees represented God as the author of sin — as such 
 decrees made sin necessary and inevitable, no less than damnation. 
 Arminius was requested to refute the work of the ministers of Delft. 
 He consented to do so, but as he examined the arguments of Beza 
 and the ministers, he began to doubt which of the two views to adopt, 
 and at length became inclined to embrace those views of the doctrine 
 which he had undertaken to refute. He therefore laid aside the design 
 of writing any answer. Meanwhile, on the 16th of September 1590, 
 he married Elizabeth Reael, daughter of Laurent Reael, a judge and 
 senator of Amsterdam. 
 
 In the course of his sermons at Amsterdam, Arminius commenced 
 an exposition of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, in which some of 
 the new views which he had adopted found expression, and led to 
 keen disputes with those who defended the Calvinistic views. In 1593 
 the consistory of Amsterdam gave an audience to the contending 
 parties, and ordered them to cease all controversy, until a general 
 synod could be sumtnoned to determine the subject of the dispute. 
 
 Arminius however did not publicly propound those peculiar doctrines 
 on predestination aud grace which constitute Arminianism, as distin- 
 guished from Calvinism, until the year 1604, when he was professor of 
 divinity in the University of Leyden. As early as 1591, soon after he 
 had read the works of Coornhert, he expressed doubts as to the Cal- 
 vinistic doctrine, but his election to the professorship at Leyden 
 proves that he had not yet opeuly proposed his whole theory. A 
 general suspicion of his heterodoxy had gone abroad, but he either 
 had not systematised his views, or he was afraid to- express them 
 fully. 
 
 In 1602 a pestilential disease raged at Amsterdam and the neigh- 
 bouring towns, during which Arminius showed the greatest courage 
 and kindness in visiting the sick. The disease carried off two of the 
 professors of the University of Leyden, Lucas Trelcatius, the elder, 
 and Francis Junius, professor of divinity. The curators of the uni- 
 versity turned their eyes upon Arminius as a fit successor to Junius; 
 but it was only after repeated applications on the part of the univer- 
 sity that the authorities of Amsterdam consented to give him permis- 
 sion to leave on the 15th of April 1603. As he was suspected of 
 holding heterodox opinions, before he was finally appointed he held 
 a conference with Francis Gomar, who was also professor of divinity 
 at Leyden, and who became afterwards his capital enemy, at the Hague, 
 the 6th of May 1603, and the result was, that Gomar declared the 
 suspicions entertained of Ariminius to be groundless. He underwent 
 another examination, a private one, conducted by Gomar, for the 
 degree of Doctor of Divinity, which he received the 11th of July 
 1603. Arminius was the first on whom the University of Leyden 
 conferred the degree of Doctor. 
 
 On the 7th of February 1604, Arminius propounded certain theses 
 on predestination, of which the sum was this : — " Divine Predesti- 
 nation i3 the decree of God in Christ, by which he has decreed with 
 himself from eternity, to justify, adopt, and gift with eternal life, to 
 the praise of his glorious grace, the faithful whom he has decreed to , 
 gift with faith. On the other hand, Reprobation is the decree of the 
 anger or severe will of God, by whidi he has determined from eternity, 
 for the purpose of showing his anger aud power, to condemn to eternal 
 death, as placed out of union with Christ, the unbelieving who, by 
 their own fault and the just judgment of God, are not to believe." 
 On the last day of October, Gomar openly attacked these positions of 
 Armiuius, and from this day may be dated the long series of tumults 
 which ensued. In 1605 Arminius was created Rector Magnificus of 
 the University, which offiee he quitted February 8th, 1606. Mean- 
 while the disputes continued. Festus Hommius, a minister of Leyden, 
 Janus Kuchlin, principal of the Theological College, and the uncle of 
 Arminius, were among his warmest adversaries. Deputies from the 
 churches of all the provinces of Holland, and deputies from the Synod 
 of Leyden, required from him a conference on the subject of hia 
 opinions. Preachers attacked him from the pulpit as a Pelagian, and 
 worse than a Pelagian. A National Synod, which had not been held 
 for twenty years, was demanded, to settle the disputes about predes- 
 tination. The States-General granted permission, on the 15 th of March 
 1606, to convoke the synod. On the 22nd of May 1607, an assembly 
 was held at the Hague, at which Arminius was present, to settle the 
 manner in which the synod was to be held. In 1608, Arminius him- 
 self and his friend Uyttenbogaert applied to the States of Holland to 
 convoke a synod, that these grave controversies might be settled. In 
 the same year Arminius and Gomar held a conference before the 
 Supreme Court of the Hague, which declared in its report that these 
 two professors differed on points of little importance, and unessential 
 to religion. Arminius gave in an account of his opinions to the States 
 at the Hague on the 30th of October 1608. 
 
 Before the proposed synod could be held Arminius died. All these 
 disputes embittered his life and hastened his end. The disease which 
 carried him off at last had long lain latent. It broke out on the 7th 
 of February 1609; but he recovered so far as to resume the usual 
 duties of his professorship, though still weak. At last he sunk under 
 his disorder and expired 19th October 1609. His death was most 
 
341 ARMINIUS, JACOBUS. 
 
 painful ; and to bodily pain was added mental anguish at the misre- 
 presentations, as he deemed them, of his religious opinions. Seven 
 eons and two daughters survived him. The curators of the University 
 of Leyden allowed his wife and children a pension. 
 
 In 1610 the followers of Arminius, who had become numerous, pre- 
 sented a petition to the States of Holland and West Friesland, which 
 was called a 'Remonstrance.' They were named Romonstrants in 
 consequence ; and as the Calvinists presented a ' Counter-Remon- 
 strance,' they were called Contra-Remonstrants. After the death of 
 Arminius the controversy between his disciples and their opponents 
 raged more fiercely. Attempts were made by the authorities to recon- 
 cile the two contending parties, by a conference between them at the 
 Hague in 1611, a discussion at Delft in 1613, and also by an edict in 
 1614, enjoining peace. At last the States-General issued an order for 
 the assembling of a National Synod. It met at Dort, in Holland, and 
 opened on November 13th, 1618, and its sittings continued through that 
 and the following year. This famous Synod condemned entirely ' five 
 Articles' in which the Arminians expressed their opinions. These 
 articles had been drawn up in 1610, presented in the conference at the 
 Hague in 1611, and finally laid before the Synod of Dort. To fix the 
 sense of the passages in the Scriptures which related to the dispute, a 
 new Dutch translation of the whole Bible, from the original Hebrew 
 and Greek, was undertaken at the command of the synod. This new 
 version was published in 1637. The Arminians being dissatisfied with 
 the version of the New Testament, made another version of the New 
 Testament from the Greek, which was published at Amsterdam in 
 1680. The Arminians were subjected to severe penalties. They were 
 all deprived of their sacred and civil offices, and their ministers were 
 forbidden to preach. Many retired to Antwerp and France : a con- 
 siderable body emigrated to Holstein, upon the invitation of Friede- 
 rich, duke of Holstein, and built the town of Frederickstadt in the 
 duchy of Schleswig. After the death of Maurice in 1625, the Armi- 
 nians were allowed to return by his brother and successor, Friederich 
 Heinrich. The exiles from France and the Spanish Netherlands came 
 back and established congregations in various places, particularly at 
 Rotterdam and Amsterdam. At Amsterdam they founded a school, 
 in which Simon Episcopius was the first professor of theology. 
 
 The works of Arminiu3 show that his followers expressed his senti- 
 ments on the points of predestination and grace in the famous Five 
 Articles. These articles are drawn up almost entirely in words which 
 may be found in his writings. The following is a literal translation 
 of them : — 
 
 1. God, by an eternal and immutable decree ordained in Jesus 
 Christ, his Son, before the foundation of the world to save in Christ, 
 because of Christ, and through Christ, from out of the human race, 
 which is fallen and subject to sin, those who by the grace of the 
 Holy Spirit believe in the same his Son, and who by the same grace 
 persevere unto the end in that faith and the obedience of faith; but, 
 on the contrary, to leave in sin and subject to wrath those who are 
 not converted and are unbelieving, and to condemn them as aliens 
 from Christ, according to the Gospel, John iii. 36. 2. To which end 
 Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world, died for all and each one, so 
 that he has gained for all, through the death of Christ, reconciliation 
 and remission of sins; on this condition however, that no one in 
 reality enjoys that remission of sins except the faithful man, and this, 
 too, according to the Gospel, John iii. 16, and 1 John ii. 2. 3. But 
 man has not from himself, or by the power of his free will, saving 
 faith, inasmuch as in the state of defection and sin he cannot think 
 or do of himself anything good, which is, indeed, really good, such as 
 saving faith is; but it is necessary for him to be born again and 
 renewed by God in Christ through his Holy Spirit, in his mind, affec- 
 tions or will, and all his faculties, so that he may be able to under- 
 stand, think, wish, and perform something good, according to that 
 saying of Christ in John xv. 5. 4. It is this grace of God which 
 begins, promotes, aud perfects everything good, and this to such a 
 decree that even the regenerate man without this preceding or adven- 
 titious grace, exciting, consequent, and co-operating, can neither think, 
 wish, or do anything good, nor even resist any evil temptation : so 
 that all the good works which we can think of are to be attributed to 
 the grace of God in Christ. But as to the manner of the operation 
 of that grace, it is not irresistible, for it is said of many that they 
 resisted the Holy Spirit, in Acts vii. 51, and many other places. 5. 
 Those who are grafted into Christ by a true faith, and therefore par- 
 take of his vivifying Spirit, have abundance of means by which they 
 may fight against Satan, sin, the world, and their own flesh, and obtain 
 the victory, always however by the aid of the grace of the Holy 
 Spirit; Jesus Christ assists them by his Spirit in all temptations, and 
 stretches out his hand; and provided they are ready for the contest, 
 and seek his aid, and are not wanting to their duty, he strengthens 
 them to such a degree that they cannot be seduced or snatched from 
 the hands of Christ by any fraud of Satan or violence, according to 
 that saying, John x. 28. " No one shall pluck them out of my hand." 
 But whether these very persons cannot by their own negligence desert 
 the commencement of their being in Christ, and embrace again the 
 present world, fall back from the holy doctrine once committed to 
 them, make shipwreck of their conscience, and fall from grace ; this 
 must be more fully examined and weighed by the Holy Scripture, 
 before men can teach it with full tranquillity of mind and confidence. 
 
 ARMINIUS, JACOBUS. 342 
 
 The last proposition the Arminians afterwards so completely modi- 
 fied as to assert explicitly that it is possible for a true believer to lose 
 his faith and fall from grace. The Arminians at first explained these 
 five propositions, in such manner that they taught the Lutheran 
 doctrine. But their adversaries asserted that they were Pelagians and 
 Socinians at heart. It cannot be denied that, after the Synod of Dort, 
 the chief Arminian teachers gave these propositions such an interpre- 
 tation that they seemed to differ very little from those who say that 
 men do not require divine aid to be converted and lead a holy life ; 
 aud some of their teachers, undoubtedly, incline towards Sociniauism. 
 
 Up to the time of the Synod of Dort these five points alone consti- 
 tuted the differences between the Arminians and the Calvinists. After 
 the Synod of Dort, Arminianism became a very indefinite thing, aud 
 the Arminians had no system of theology. They point to the ' Con- 
 fession,' which was drawn up by Episcopius, as their formula and rule 
 of faith : but it is capable of various interpretations, and their several 
 teachers interpret it in different ways; nor are they bound down to it 
 by any oath or promise. The only doctrine to which the Arminians 
 have adhered throughout is this — that the merits of the Saviour extend 
 to every one, and that none perish by any fixed and inevitable decree 
 of God, but all by their own fault. But even this doctrine of the 
 universal love of God to man is variously explained by their different 
 doctors. On other, and the most weighty, doctrines of Christianity, 
 their teachers advance very different opinions. The great object which 
 the Arminians openly professed after the time of the Synod of Dort, 
 was to unite into one family the various bodies of Christians, except- 
 ing the Roman Catholics, however they may differ in points of doctrine 
 or church government. With this view the leading principle which 
 they laid down is — that very few things are necessary to be believed 
 for salvation ; aud that every one may think as he pleases concerning 
 God and religion, provided he lives a pious and virtuous life. Some 
 suppose that the Apostles' Creed is the test which they offer for com- 
 munion; but "they are mistaken," says John le Clerc, one of the 
 most distinguished amon,' the Arminians ; " the Arminians offer com- 
 munion to all who receive the Holy Scripture as the sole rule of faith 
 and manners, and who are neither idolaters nor persecutors." (' Biblio- 
 theque Ancienne et Moderne,' torn. xxv. p. 119.) The Arminians 
 excluded the Roman Catholics from their communion, because they 
 held the Roman Catholics to be persecutors. 
 
 The man who drew up this system, and who was the greatest 
 Arminian teacher, was Simon Episcopius. But that the aim of 
 Arminius was to unite all sects of Christians, with the exception of 
 Roman Catholics, into one community, is manifest from a passage in 
 his will, where he says, "I have studied to inculcate everything which 
 might contribute, according to the word of God, to the propagation 
 and increase of truth, of the Christian religion, of the true worship 
 of God, of general piety, and a holy conversation among men ; and 
 finally, to that tranquillity and peace which befit the Christian name, 
 excluding Papacy, with which no unity of faith, no bond of piety, or 
 of Christian peace can be maintained." His enemies allowed that his 
 life was irreproachable. He fasted frequently. His motto was, " A 
 good conscience is Paradise." 
 
 The works of Arminius do not show any great knowledge of the 
 Fathers or ecclesiastical antiquity ; but they contain evidence of a 
 clear and vigorous mind. His manner is exceedingly methodical and 
 rather scholastic, but his style is characterised by that simplicity and 
 clearness which his followers have always regarded as one of the 
 chief excellencies of a theologian. No rhetorical ornaments are to be 
 found in the sermons, academical discourses, and treatises of Arminius. 
 Arminius either could not use them, or he considered them incon- 
 sistent with the simplicity of the Gospel. He was acquainted with 
 Hebrew and the Oriental languages, which he considered of great 
 importance for a theologian. He also wrote Latin verse. To obtain 
 a knowledge of his theological views, ' Disputationes Publicae et 
 Privatae ' should be particularly consulted. The opinion of Arminius 
 as to the divinity of Christ was, that he was abr6 &eos, if that word was 
 understood to mean ' true and real God,' but not if it meant ' God of 
 himself.' This last opinion, he says, was contrary to Scripture and to 
 antiquity, which taught that the divinity of the Son was derived from 
 the Father by eternal generation. He always repudiated all charges 
 of Pelagianism and Socinianism. 
 
 The earliest authority for the Life of Arminius is Petrus Bertius, 
 ' De Vita et Obitu J. Arminii Oratio.' The fullest and most accurate 
 account is given by Caspar Brandt, a minister of the church of the 
 Remonstrants at Amsterdam, in his ' Historia Vitae J. Arminii," 
 Amsterdam, 1724, 8vo., a posthumous work, which was published by 
 Gerhard Brandt, the historian, who was the son of Caspar. It was 
 republished, with a preface and some notes by the historian Mosheim, 
 Brunswick, 1725, 8vo. The chief historians of the whole controversy 
 between the Arminians aud Calvinists are as follows. The Arminian 
 writers are Gerhard Brandt, ' Historie der Reformatie,' &c, which is 
 the most copious account extant, and of which there are many epi- 
 tomes in English and French; Phil. Limborch, 'Historia Vitae Sim. 
 Episcopii,' Amsterdam, 1701, 8vo., and ' Relatio Historica de Origine 
 et Progressu Controversiarum in Foederato Belgio de Praedestina- 
 tione,' &c, which last work is subjoined to the later editions of his 
 ' Theologia Christiana;' Joannes Uyttenbogaert, ' Kerckelijeke His- 
 toric,' &o., p. 1071, &c, Rotterdam, 1647, fol. On the Calvinistic side 
 
i4a 
 
 ARMSTRONG, JOHN - . 
 
 ARMSTRONG, JOHN. 
 
 34 i 
 
 the chief works are, Jac. Trigland, ' Den recht-glieinatichden Christen,' 
 Amsterdam, 1615, 4to. ; Jacobus Leydekker, ' Eere van de Nationals 
 Synode van Dordregt,' Amsterdam, 1705-1707, 4to. ; 'Acta Synodi 
 Natioualis,' &c, Dort, 1G20, 4to. The writers on the Council of 
 Doi t m e enumerated by Fabriciua, ' Bibliotheca Graca,' lib. 6, c. 4, 
 vol. xi. p. 723. Burnet, on the Seventeenth Article of the English 
 Church, makes some judicious remarks on the question how far 
 its Articles and Formularies are Calvinistic or Armiuian. Mosheim 
 (' Ecclesiastical History ') had well studied the whole controversy, 
 and his account is impartial. Professor Stuart, of Andover, published 
 a favourable and able treatise on 'The Creed of Arminius, with a 
 brief Sketch of his Life and Times/ in the ' Biblical Repertory,' 
 Andover, 1831, vol. i. No. 2, p. 225-308. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARMSTRONG, JOHN, -was a native of Roxburghshire, being born 
 at Castleton in Liddlesdale. The date of his birth is generally placed 
 about 1709. His father was a clergyman of the Scotch church. He 
 completed his education at the University of Edinburgh, where he 
 studied physic, and took his degree in 1732. During the course of his 
 professional education he wrote verses, as most boys of talent have 
 ever done, and amused himself with drawing and flute-playing. Arm- 
 strong soon laboured to obtain professional reputation by various 
 publications; and in this walk he did not wholly confine himself to 
 dry disquisition, but attacked the ignorance of the apothecaries iu a 
 satire entitled ' An Essay for Abridging the Study of Physic.' This 
 was published anonymously in 1735. He was then settled in London 
 as a physician. His practice, it would appear, was very small ; and 
 probably he did not take the wisest course for professional success. 
 About 1737 he published the 'Economy of Love,' a poem which could 
 not be published in our days, and which was an outrage upon decency 
 a huudred and twenty years ago. The author probably thought that 
 he was justified in putting the drapery of elegant language and harmo- 
 nious versification upon a physiological subject. He was mistaken. His 
 second poetical production, ' The Art of Preserving Health,' which 
 appeared in 1744, redeemed his name from the somewhat just charge of 
 being a pander to licentiousness. It is upon this work that the reputa- 
 atiou of Armstrong rests. His medical dissertations are obsolete, and it 
 may be doubted if they ever possessed any great merit. His satires, 
 whether in prose or verse, have lost their poiut. But ' The Art of 
 Preserving Health ' still finds a place in those ponderous collections of 
 verses called ' The English Poets.' Until the commencement of the 
 present century it was held to be one of the finest didactic poems in 
 our language. It is creditable to our own age that didactic poems are 
 not read. A didactic poem is a species of composition that professes to 
 describe and explain, with inversion and circumlocution, with pompous 
 epithet and long-drawn simile, something that might be told with 
 much greater force and clearness in plain prose. The production of 
 such poems at all, and especially the success of them, are proofs of the 
 anti-poetical tendencies of the age in which they appear. There is no 
 doubt considerable vigour in some of Armstrong's best passages, as in 
 other productions of the same class ; but as a work of art to be regarded 
 as a whole, 'The Art of Preserving Health ' is worthless. Armstrong 
 appears to have continued in London till 1760, when he was appointed 
 physician to the army in Germany. This appointment he held until 
 the peace in 1763. It is said that he owed his advancement to the 
 interest of John Wilkes. He had the merit of subsequently quarrelling 
 with this profligate demagogue: and perhaps it is creditable to him 
 that Churchill was also amongst his enemies. On the other hand, he 
 enjoyed and retained the friendship of Thomson. Whatever might 
 be Armstrong's abilities and acquirements, he chiefly owed his want 
 of professional success to his imprudence and his indolence. In his 
 later years he was preserved from indigence by his half-pay as physi- 
 cian to the army ; and such was the extreme frugality of his habits, that 
 he was found, at his decease in 1779, to have saved upwards of three 
 thousand pounds. Armstrong's shorter poetical pieces were collected 
 under the title of ' Miscellanies,' in 1770. Under the name of Lancelot 
 Temple he published, in 1758, a collection of 'Sketches or Essays;' 
 and 'A Short Ramble through France and Italy,' in 1771. His last 
 publication was a quarto volume of 'Medical Essays,' 1773. The 
 immediate cause of his death, in 1779, was an accident which he met 
 with in getting into a carriage. (Aikin, General Biography ; Chalmers, 
 British Poets ; Watt, Bibliotheca Britann. ; Armstrong's Works.) 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARMSTRONG, JOHN, was born on the 8th of May, 1784, at Ayres 
 Quay, near the united towns of Bishopwearmouth and Sunderland in 
 the county of Durham. His father was the superintendent of some 
 glass-works, and was an uneducated man, but especially esteemed for 
 his abilities and integrity. John was the only survivor of several 
 children. His education was neglected till he was eight years of age, 
 when he was put under the care of a good master, and pursued his 
 studies with ardour and success. He early manifested an inclination 
 for the medical profession, and accordingly, on his leaving school at the 
 age of sixteen, he was put on trial with a surgeon and apothecary at 
 Monkwearmouth. This situation he soon quitted, contrary to the 
 wishes of his parents, and for the next two or three years led a desul- 
 tory life at home. At the age of eighteen or nineteen the savings of an 
 
 affectionate mother furnished the means for his entering as a medical 
 student in the University of Edinburgh, where he passed three seasons 
 absorbed in his professional pursuits. In Juno 1807 he took tha 
 degree of M.D., his thesis being ' Do Causis morborum hydropicoriun, 
 rationeque iis medendi.' In the same year he settled in loggings at 
 Bishopwearmouth, and there, commenced the practice of his profession. 
 Such was his success that at the end of four years we find him physi- 
 cian to the Sunderland Infirmary, living in a large house, setting up 
 his carriage, and marrying the daughter of a gentleman of his native 
 county. He had become the popular physician of his town and neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 His first appearance as an author was in a paper communicated to 
 the 'Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal for January 1813,' on 
 'The Brain-Fever produced by Intoxication;' and this was soon fol- 
 lowed by a volume on 'The Puerperal Fever,' which at once gained 
 for its author a reputation beyond the limits of his own neighbourhood. 
 Forty-three cases of puerperal fever had occurred within a few mouths 
 in the practice of five medical men of Sunderland, and of these cases 
 only five had terminated fatally. The unusual success of the treat- 
 ment was attributed by Dr. Armstrong to the bold and novel measure 
 of very free bleeding and purging in the stage of excitement. 
 
 In 1816 he published his work on ' Typhus.'. It became immediately 
 popular, passed through three editions in three years, and made his 
 name well known, so that a contemporary reviewer writes, " there is 
 scarcely a practitioner even in our most sequestered villages who has 
 not read Dr. Armstrong, or who does not profess to act upon his 
 maxims." (' Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal.') These maxims 
 consisted chiefly in recommending active depletion in the early stage 
 of typhus, a practice which had been previously gaining ground among 
 well-informed physicians, but possessed all the attractions of novelty 
 and boldness for the profession in general. His advice was probably 
 good at the time it was given, but he < rred iu laying down absolute 
 rules of treatment, instead of restricting their application to the then 
 prevailing epidemic. No judicious physician iu the present day 
 would treat typhus as Dr. Armstrong recommended, and he himself 
 lived to see a fever prevail in which active depletion was quite inad- 
 missible. A lasting benefit was conferred on medical science by his 
 distinction of the simple, inflammatory, and congestive forms of fever, 
 and by his clear description of their successive stages. The same 
 volume contains a chapter on Inflammation, in which he applies the 
 term sub-acute to those forms of inflammation where the symptoms 
 and effects are milder than in the acute, while the duration of the 
 disorder is not such as to entitle it to the term chronic. This distinc- 
 tion, one of practical importance in reference to the treatment, had 
 been previously established by Corvisart in inflammation of the peri- 
 cardium, but had not been stated with respect to inflammatory diseases 
 in general. 
 
 His professional ambition keeping pace with his growing reputation, 
 Dr. Armstrong repaired to London in February, 1818, and established 
 himself in lodgings in Great James-street. This was a trying period of 
 his life, for he was living alone, having left his wife and children behind 
 him at Durham. Nevertheless, his success was as remarkable, and 
 almost as rapid, as it had been in Sunderland, and that in spite of an 
 event which would have very differently affected the fortunes of most 
 men. On commencing practice in London it was necessary to become a 
 licentiate of the College of Physicians. Dr. Armstrong accordingly 
 presented himself for examination, and to the surprise of every one he 
 was rejected. It seems strange that a distinguished writer and practical 
 physician should have been unable to produce the little knowledge 
 which was usually required on these occasions; yet there is no doubt 
 that such was the fact. The mode of conducting the examination 
 orally in Latin may partly explain the failure of an imperfectly 
 educated man ; but no circumstances have transpired, which can 
 justify the resentment subsequently entertnined by Dr. Armstrong, 
 however natural the feeling may have been in one possessed of so huge 
 a share of self-esteem. It is probable that this rejection rather pro- 
 moted than retarded his professional success ; for the College of 
 Physicians was unpopular among those medical practitioners whose 
 support is most valuable to a young physician, and the event was 
 attributed rather to unworthy motives ou the part of the examineis 
 than to any imperfection in the knowledge of so popular an author. 
 Thus it happened that he was, soon afterwards, elected Physician to 
 the Fever Hospital, the trustees suspending, on his account, one of 
 their bye-laws which required the physicians to be members of the 
 Royal College. 
 
 In 1821 he joined with Mr. Edward Grainger in establishing the 
 Webb-street School of Medicine, where he lectured on the practice of 
 physic, and contributed no little to the success of the school. His 
 lectures were exceedingly popular. He was confident and earnest in 
 his manner; his language was fluent and expressive; and his general 
 arguments well illustrated by reference to particular facts. Such 
 merits were marred however by occasional bursts of egotistical and 
 bombastic declamation. He regarded himself as a great discoverer 
 — a great reformer — of medicine; and lectured in such a spirit as he 
 conceived to be becoming in a modern Sydenham. He professed the 
 utmost contempt for medical learning, and indulged in an unmeaning 
 ridicule of schools and colleges. He spoke of Cullen and other writers 
 in terms which displayed more ignorance of their works than fairness 
 
ARNALDO DE BRESCIA. 
 
 ARNAUD, HENRI. 
 
 310 
 
 of criticism. Besides his lectures on the practice of physic he ch livered 
 a course on the Materia Medico. These pretensions of Dr. Armstrong 
 to new and more enlightened views in medical science were much 
 discussed among his professional brethren, and not the less keenly as 
 his practice rapidly increased, and very opposite opinions were enter- 
 tains! of his merits. As a practical physician Dr. Armstrong was 
 deservedly valued. Exclusively devoted to his profession, kind and 
 attentive to his patients, acute in observing and prompt in acting, he 
 well earned his extraordinary professional success. In private life he 
 was retiring, and seems to have been most amiable. In the summer 
 of 1824 his health bad been seriously affected, but the signs of con- 
 firmed disease did not appear till December 1828. He rallied under 
 the influence of country air, and returned to his extensive practice; 
 but he gradually declined, and died of consumption on the 12th of 
 December 1829, at the age of 45 years. 
 
 Besides the work on ' Puerpural Fever ' and ' Typhus,' mentioned 
 above, Dr. Armstrong published three separate medical works, and 
 contributed several papers to the ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical 
 Journal,' the ' Medical Intelligencer,' and the ' Transactions of the 
 Associated Apothecaries of England and Wales.' He also published 
 Annual Reports of the Fever Hospital, alternately with Dr. Cleverley. 
 
 His lectures appeared in the ' Lancet,' 1825 ; and again, after his 
 death, in a separate form, edited by one of his pupils — 'Lectures on 
 the Morbid Anatomy, Nature and Treatment of Acute and Chronic 
 Diseases, by the late John Armstrong. M.D., edited by Joseph Rix,' 
 8vo. London, 1834. (Memoir of the Life and Medical Opinions of 
 J. Armstrong, M.D., &c, by Francis Boott, M.D., 2 vols. 8vo., London, 
 1834:) 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARNALDO DE BRESCIA was born in the town of Brescia about 
 the beginning of the 12th century. He studied in France under the 
 famous Abelard. Having returned to Italy, he became a monk. The 
 corruption of the clergy was very great at that time, and Arnaldo, 
 endowed with an impassioned mind and a great flow of oratory, began 
 to hold forth in public against the ambition, the temporal power, and 
 the luxurious life of abbots, prelates, and cardinals, not sparing the 
 pope himself. Arnaldo maintained that ecclesiastics as well as lay- 
 men ought to be subordinate to the civil power ; that the disposal of 
 kingdoms and principalities did not belong to the church of Christ ; 
 and that the clergy ought to be satisfied with their tithes and the 
 voluntary oblations of the faithful, and not to hold, as they then did, 
 sovereign lordships and feudal estates. To these doctrines he added 
 others of a mystical character about the Trinity and the nature of the 
 soul, which were eagerly laid hold of and perhaps distorted by his 
 enemies. By preaching against the temporalities of the church, 
 Arnaldo had excited the passions of the people ; Brescia revolted 
 against its bishop, the fermentation spread to other towns, and com- 
 plaints against the author of all this poured in at Rome. Arnaldo 
 was banished from Italy, and forbidden to return without the Pope's 
 permission. (See MoBheim's ' Ecclesiastical History,' translated by 
 Dr. Murdock, and the translator's note on the subject of ' Arnaldo.') 
 He proceeded to France, where he met with an unrelenting adversary 
 in St. Bernard, the zealous and vehement abbot of Clairvaux, who 
 denounced Arnaldo, wrote against him, and forced him to seek refuge 
 at Zurich, where he remained five years. He there resumed his 
 preaching against the abuses of the clergy, and found many favourable 
 listeners. But St. Bernard traced him there also, and caused the 
 bishop of Constance to banish him from his diocese. Arnaldo upon 
 this returned to Italy, and hearing that the people of Rome had 
 revolted against the pope, he repaired there, and put himself at the 
 head of the insurrection. Lucius II. had died of the wounds received 
 in a popular affray, and Eugenius III., a disciple of St. Bernard, suc- 
 ceeded him in the papal chair, but was driven away from the city 
 by the people and the senate. Arnaldo exhorted the Romans to 
 re-establish the Roman republic with its consuls, to reinstate the 
 equestrian order, and to emulate the deeds of their glorious ancestors. 
 The multitude, thus excited, hurried on to excesses which Arnaldo 
 probably had never contemplated. They attacked and demolished 
 the houses of the cardinals and nobles of the papal party, killed or ill- 
 treated the inmates, and shared the plunder among themselves in the 
 name of Brutus and Cato, Fabius and Paulus Emilius. Arnaldo how- 
 ever still remained poor ; he really despised wealth, his morals were 
 irreproachable, and it seems that he judged of others by himself — a 
 common delusion among honest popular leaders. 
 
 Rome continued for ten years in a state of agitation little differing 
 from anarchy. Eugenius III. died in 1153, and his successor Anas- 
 tasius IV. having followed him to the grave shortly after, Adrian IV. 
 was elected pope in 1154. He was a man of a more determined spirit 
 than his predecessors. A cardinal having been attacked and seriously 
 wounded in the streets of Rome, Adrian resorted to the bold measure 
 of excommunicating the first city in Christendom — a thing without a 
 precedent. The Romans, who had set at nought the temporal power 
 of the pope, quailed before his spiritual authority. In order to be 
 reconciled to the pontiff, they exiled Arnaldo, who took refuge among 
 ■ome friendly nobles in Campania. When the emperor Frederic I. 
 came to Rome to be crowned, the pope applied to him to have Arnaldo 
 arrested. Frederic accordingly gave his orders to the Margrave or 
 
 Viscount of Campania, and Arnaldo, being delivered into the hands of 
 the Prefect of Rome, was strangled, his body burnt, and the ashes 
 thrown into the Tiber, in the year 1155. [Adrian IV.] 
 
 ARNAUD, HENRI, the pastor and military leader of the Vaudois, 
 was born at the town of La Tour, or La Torre, in Piedmont, in the 
 year 1641, and was educated at the Latin school there. It is said that 
 before entering the Church he was in the military service of the Prince 
 of Orange, afterwards William III. of England. Little is known of his 
 personal history until the commencement of the renowned expedition 
 of the Vaudois for the recovery of their possessions in Piedmont, of 
 which he was both the military leader and the historian. Victor 
 Amadeus II. of Savoy was induced to imitate within his dominions 
 the principles on which Louis XIV. had revoked the Edict of Nantes, 
 and thus to adopt a harsher rule of compulsory conformity to the 
 Roman Catholic faith than that which had been followed by his imme- 
 diate predecessors. According to Arnaud's account ho imprisoned 
 14,000 of the Vaudois Protestants in the dungeons of Turin, of whom 
 3000 were afterwards allowed to emigrate, leaving 11,000, who are 
 said to have perished from the effects of thirst, cold, and hunger, and 
 the other evils incident to captivity. The number said to have so 
 perished is a manifest exaggeration. Of the 3000 permitted to emi- 
 grate, the greater part found an asylum in the west of Switzerland 
 and in the German states of the Upper Rhine ; the remainder accepted 
 the protection of the Elector of Brandenburg. It would appear that 
 at the commencement of Arnaud's expedition there were about 2000 
 of the Vaudois dispersed through the districts from which his follow- 
 ers were collected. Before they were united under the command of 
 Henri Arnaud, these people had made two unsuccessful efforts to 
 return to their native valleys. The first was a very rash enterprise ; 
 but the second appears to have been partially directed by Arnaud, 
 who in the end however recommended the giving up of the attempt, 
 and encouraged his followers to a better-arranged effort, by preaching 
 to them from the text, " Fear not, little flock." In the meantime he 
 made a journey to Holland, and communicated his project to the 
 Prince of Orange, who approved of it, and probably furnished the 
 money with which it was conducted. 
 
 The revolution of 1688, and the accession of William to the throne 
 of England, seemed to Arnaud the fit time for the commencement of 
 his enterprise. He was one of those men in whom religious enthusiasm 
 is united with great sagacity, and his arrangements for concentrating 
 his dispersed followers were designed with wonderful skill, and exe- 
 cuted with corresponding success. Their rendezvous was the great 
 forest of the Pays de Vaud, between Nyon and Rolle. There they 
 remained in concealment for some time. Before they embarked, their 
 retreat having been discovered by their neighbours, Arnaud turned 
 this circumstance to his advantage, by seizing for the use of his follow- 
 ers the boats of those who were led by curiosity to visit the spot. The 
 expedition embarked on the Lake of Geneva to the number of between 
 eight and nine hundred, on the night of the 16th of August, 1689, 
 headed by Arnaud, who, in his military capacity, adopted from his 
 native town the name of La Tour. They debarked between the towns 
 of Nernier and Ivoyre, and were formed by their leader into nineteen 
 companies, under so many captains. After meeting with many obstacles, 
 and encountering a good deal of opposition, they entered the valley of 
 San Martino on the 16th of September, the thirty-first day of their 
 march. On their way they had been harassed by a body of French 
 troops, about 3000 in number, and towards the close of their march 
 had been exposed to attack from a French force of 12,000 men on the 
 one hand, and a Piedmoutese army of 10,000 on the other. When 
 they halted, it was their leader's first business to draw up a memorial 
 to the court of Turin, representing the injustice of the removal of the 
 Vaudois from their ancient possessions, their peaceful and inoffensive 
 disposition, and their loyalty to the House of Savoy. On a table-land 
 at the top of a rock called in the narrative ' La Balsille," they con- 
 structed a strong line of fortification against the French troops, who 
 remained in their vicinity all winter, and harassed them with repeated 
 attacks. In 1690 a general assault was commenced on the 2nd of May. 
 The French were completely repulsed, and we are told the almost 
 incredible circumstance, that though the besieging army consisted of 
 22,000 men, of whom a multitude were destroyed, not one of the 
 Vaudois garrison received even a wound. In pursuance of their system 
 of extermination and defiance, the garrison stuck the heads of their 
 prisoners on palisades within sight of the enemy. One prisoner, how- 
 ever, Mons. de Parat, the commander of the assaulting detachment, 
 was too valuable to be sacrificed. He was wounded, and as there was 
 no surgeon in the camp of the Vaudois, he was told that he must send 
 for one to his own army. He did so ; a surgeon came, and as Arnaud 
 wanted the services of such a person, he was of course detained. At 
 the expiration of a week after their defeat, the French returned to the 
 siege of ' La Balsille,' and took the place, but found it empty. Arnaud, 
 whose spirit and sagacity seem to have been equal to every emergency, 
 had drawn off his forces in the night, conducting them down precipitous 
 banks and through wild ravines, the dangerous character of which 
 prevented such a project from being suspected. With numerous and 
 exasperated enemies at their heels, Arnaud's band proceeded to 
 Angrona, and when they had arrived there, at the moment when 
 every chance of their further safety seemed to be exhausted, they 
 received the gratifying intelligence that, owing to the exacting and 
 
847 
 
 ARNAULD, ANGELIQUE. 
 
 ARNAULD, ANTOINE. 
 
 318 
 
 domineering conduct of Louis XIV., Savoy and France were at enmity, 
 and that Victor Amadeus, who had taken up arms in favour of Austria, 
 was prepared to grant them an amnesty, and court their assistance 
 against his enemies. Thus ended this remarkable enterprise, of which 
 the leader and historian says, that in eighteen battles only thirty of 
 his followers were killed, while their opponents lost 10,000 men. 
 
 The Vaudois, after their reconciliation with Amadeus, had still to 
 encounter their exasperated enemies of France in several smart engage- 
 ments. The duke released the Vaudois who were imprisoned at Turin, 
 and allowed the whole people to re-establish themselves in their 
 ancient possessions, and to follow their own religion. William III. 
 gave Arnaud a colonel's commission. In this capacity he headed a 
 party of 120U Vaudois, who, in the breaking out of the war of the 
 Spanish succession, performed material services for the allied troops, 
 and assisted them in accomplishing the manoeuvres which led to the 
 victory of Blenheim. When the plan for attacking France from tho 
 side of Piedmont was formed, Arnaud and his Vaudois were placed 
 at the outposts of Eugene's army ; and when he withdrew his troops 
 by the passes of the Tyrol to join Marlborough, they had the perilous 
 duty of masking his retreat, and keeping the French in check. Not- 
 withstanding these services, the Duke of Savoy in 1698 concluded a 
 peace with France, one of the conditions of which was, that, in con- 
 sideration of his retaining undisputed possession of the valleys of 
 San Martino, Perosa, and some other portions of territory, he was to 
 dismiss the Vaudois who inhabited them. It is said that the exclu- 
 sion was intended to apply solely to those who were not natives of the 
 valleys, but it made 3000 exiles. After a uegociation with the Duke 
 of Wiirtemberg, in which he was aided by the representatives of 
 England and Holland, Arnaud prevailed on that prince to give the 
 exiles an asylum in his dominions. They were however subjected to 
 many hardships. Arnaud, after falling under the displeasure of the 
 Duke of Savoy, had pressing invitations to accept the patronage of 
 William III. and Prince Eugene; but he preferred to reman the 
 pastor of his devoted flock, and he took up his residence among the 
 exiles at the village of Schbuberg. lie appears to have permanently 
 joined them in the year 1709, and to have remained with them to the 
 end of his days. In this retirement he wrote the history of his enter- 
 prise, under the title ' Histoire de la glorieuse Heutree des Vaudois 
 dans leurs Valldes,' printed in 1710, and dedicated to Anne, Queen of 
 Great Britain. Tho French edition of this work is very rare : it has 
 been twice translated into English. 
 
 Arnaud died at Schbuberg in the year 1721, having accomplished 
 his eightieth year. The rude church in which he officiated, a monu- 
 ment within it beneath which his bones rest, and his dwelling-house, 
 were all preserved with pious care by the exiles and their descendants. 
 By an inventory and division of his property, preserved in the parish 
 church of Schbuberg, it appears that he was twice married, and left 
 behind him three sons and two daughters : one of his sons succeeded 
 him in bis clerical charge, and another studied law in London. The 
 whole property left by him amounted to 226Z. Ss.2d. in English money. 
 He was in the receipt of a pension of 122 florins, about 101. 15s., from 
 England. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARNAULD, ANGfiLIQUE, whose religious name was Angelique 
 de Saint-Jean, abbess of Port-Royal, and niece of the elder Angelique, 
 was born on the 28th of November, 1624, and was the fifth child of 
 Robert Arnauld d'Andilly and Catherine de la Boderie. At the age 
 of six she was placed by her father at Port-Royal, to be educated by 
 her aunts, Angelique aud Agnes. At the age of twelve she gave such 
 indications of a determined character, that her aunts said of her, " she 
 will do much evil, if she does not do good." She took the vows on 
 the 25th of January 1644. Towards the close of 1653 she was made 
 sub-prioress and mistress of the novices at Port-Royal-des-Champs. 
 In 1659 she removed to Port-Royal-de-Paris, where she held the same 
 offices. During the persecution which the nuns of Port-Royal endured 
 from 1661 till 1664, when they refused to sign the ' Formulary of 
 Alexander VII.' without some explanation expressive of the sense in 
 which they signed it, the nuns directed themselves by the advice of 
 Angdlique de Saint-Jean. At last the enemies of Port-Royal deter- 
 mined that twelve of the most refractory members should be removed, 
 and disposed in various convents. On the 26th of August 1664 Ange"- 
 lique was sent into the convent of the nuns called Annonciades, at 
 Paris, where she was kept a prisoner for more than ten months in a 
 state of complete solitude. She received no news of any of her friends. 
 The Annonciades, being under the spiritual guidance of the Jesuits, 
 were exceedingly prejudiced against Port-Royal; but while the other 
 nuns of Port-Royal continued to be harassed by solicitations to sign 
 the Formulary, no such attempts to induce Angelique were made, as 
 they were considered useless. On the 2nd of July 1665 the nuns were 
 sent back, by order of the Archbishop of Paris, to the monastery of 
 Port-Royal-des Champs. Angelique de Saint-Jean was thus reunited 
 to her friends ; but they had to endure a new kind of captivity in 
 their own monastery. On arriving at Port-Royal-des-Champs they 
 were surrounded by soldiers. Guards had been sent by the Archbishop 
 of Paris to watch the house, with strict orders to prevent the nuns 
 from holding any communication with persons out of the convent. 
 Port-Royal was thus garrisoned for three years and seven months, from 
 
 the 3rd of July 1665 till the 18th of February 1669. During all this 
 time the nuns were forbidden to partake of the Holy Communion, 
 and religious worship was in a great degree interdicted ; but towards 
 the close of 1668 appeared the edict of Clement IX. for the " peace of 
 the Church," as it was called, and the persecution of Port-Royal ter- 
 minated for a time. By an ordonnance dated the 17th of February 
 1669 the Archbishop of Paris freed the nuns from the surveillance of 
 their guards, permitted them to partake of the sacraments of the 
 Romish Church, and to exercise the privileges of a religious commu- 
 nity. One of their first acts was to elect au abbess. Marie de Sainte- 
 Magdeleiue du Fargis was elected abbess, and Angelique de Saint-Jean 
 prioress. This office she held for nine years. On the 3rd of August 
 1678 she was elected abbess. On the 15th of April 1679 the Duchesse 
 de Longueville, the great protectress of Port-Royal, died, and the per- 
 secution recommenced. From this time till her death Angelique, in 
 her position of abbesB, had much to endure. She had to console and 
 support the courage of her nuDS. She wrote letter upon letter to the 
 various authorities, and endeavoured in every way to avert the 
 destruction which was impending upon Port-Royal. One of the steps 
 taken for its destruction was this — no more novices were to be 
 admitted into the community, and the youug girls who had been sent 
 to the convent for education were removed. 
 
 The office of abbess was at this time triennial. When her first three 
 years were ended, Angelique was re-elected abbess (8th of August 
 1681), but she died before the second period of three years was com- 
 pleted. She had suffered much at the death of her aunt Agnes (19th 
 of February 1671), and her father, D'Andilly (27th of September 
 1674); but when her spiritual father, De Saci, died on the 4th of 
 January 1684, she sank under the blow. De Saci was buried at Port- 
 Koyal-des-Cliamps. Every day after the ceremony was performed 
 Angelique went to shed tears over his tomb. At the end of three 
 weeks she was seized with a mortal sickness. She died on the 29th of 
 January 1684, aged fifty-nine years and two mouths. The Port- 
 Royalists speak in the highest terms of her piety and capacity. They 
 extol her knowledge of scripture and ecclesiastical history, her humility 
 and charity, her severity towards herself and her kindness towards 
 others, the penetration of her mind, and the resoluteness of her cha- 
 racter. When her father, D'Andilly, spoke of her, he used to say, 
 "All my children aud myself are fools in comparison of Angelique." 
 
 Angelique de Saint-Jean was remarkable for the facility with which 
 she spoke and wrote. She has left several works. Of these, one, 
 perhaps the most valuable work relative to Port-Royal, is entitled, 
 ' Memoirs pour servir a l'Histoire de Port-Royal, et a la Vie de la 
 Rdvdrende Mere Marie Angelique de Sainte-Magdeleine Arnauld, 
 Reformatrice de ce Monastere,' Utrecht, 1742, 12mo., 3 vols. While 
 the ' Mdmoires' of Du Fosse, Fontaine, and Lancelot detail the external 
 history of Port-Royal, these ' Me'moires' represent its internal history, 
 with the mind and habits of its members, particularly of the elder Angd- 
 lique. The idea of writing these ' Memoires ' was conceived about the 
 year 1652. Angelique de Saint-Jean may be said to be the author of 
 the work, for she wrote a considerable part of the various ' Relations' 
 of which it consists, and revised those written by other nuns. The 
 'Me'moires' were edited by Barbeau de la Bruyere in 1742. The 
 originals, from which Barbeau de la Bruyere printed the ' Mdmoires,' 
 were preserved in the library of Saint-Germain-des-Pres at Paris. 
 Angelique de Saint-Jean took a great part in the composition of the 
 ' Ndcrologe de Port-Royal-des-Champs,' Amsterdam, 1723, 4to., and 
 wrote other works in defence of the monastery. (Memoires your servir A 
 l'Histoire de Purt-Rjyal, &c, torn, iii, p. 498, &c. ; Querard, La France 
 Liiteraire.) 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARNAULD, ANTOINE, a French theological and philosophical 
 writer of the 17th century, was born at Paris in 1612. His father, 
 named also Antoine Arnauld, was a distinguished advocate, and a great 
 antagonist of the Jesuits. The Jesuits met with an opponent in the 
 younger Arnauld as determined a3 his father had been. Arnauld, 
 after being ordained priest, was made Doctor of the Sorbonne in 1641 
 He exhibited an early disposition for theological controversy, by 
 writing the 'Thdologie Morale des Jesuits,' in which he exposed the 
 dangerous casuistry adopted by several moralists of that order. Soon 
 after, the disputes which broke out among the French clergy, about 
 Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, and his book ' Augustinus,' several pro- 
 positions of which concerning the intricate questions of grace and 
 free will had been condemned by the pope, gave Arnauld a fresh 
 opportunity of exercising his polemical talent. [Jansenics.] Arnauld 
 took the part of Jansenius in two letters, which were condemned by 
 the Sorbonne, and the writer, on his refusing to retract his opinions, 
 was expelled from that learned body. He then withdrew to Port- 
 Royal-des-Champs, a convent of nuns, not far from Paris, of which 
 his sister, Angelique Arnauld, was the abbess, and where Pascal, 
 Nicole, and other learned men of that time, who were friends of 
 Arnauld and shared his opinions, resorted for quiet and studious 
 retirement. There they wrote various works on literature, philosophy, 
 and religion, which bear the name of the works of MM. de Port 
 Royal. Arnauld wrote parts of several of these works, such as 
 the ' Grammaire Gendrale Raisonne'e,' ' Elemens de Gtjometrie,' and 
 1 L'Art de Penser.' He also had a share in the famous letters written 
 
319 
 
 ARND, JOHN. 
 
 ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE. 
 
 350 
 
 by Pascal against the Jesuits, which are known by the name of 
 *' Lettres Provinciales.' After the peace of Clement IX., which for a 
 time allayed the Jansenist controversy, and to which Arnauld con- 
 tributed by an eloquent memorial to the pontiff, he was presented to 
 the pope's nuncio, and also to Louis XIV., who received him graciously, 
 and invited him "to employ his golden pen in defence of religion." 
 EL's next work, in which he was associated with his friend Nicole, 
 ' De la Perpe"tuite de la Foi de l'Eglise Catholique touchant l'Eucha- 
 ristie,' was dedicated to the pope. This occasioned a warm contro- 
 versy between Arnauld and the reformed minister Claude, in the 
 course of which Arnauld wrote 'Du Renversement de la Morale de 
 J. C. par la Doctrine des Calvinistes touchant la Justification,' Paris, 
 1672. Arnauld at the same time continued his war against the Jesuits, 
 and wrote the greater part of the work styled ' Morale Pratique des 
 Je'suites,' 8 vols. 12mo, in which many authentic facts and documents 
 are mixed up with party bitterness and exaggeration. That powerful 
 and ambitious society did not bear this patiently, and they represented 
 Arnauld as a dangerous man. Harlay, the archbishop of Paris, assisted 
 in prejudicing the king against Arnauld, and Louis XIV. issued an 
 order for his arrest. Arnauld concealed himself for some time at the 
 house of the Duchess of Longueville, who esteemed him and appre- 
 ciated his talents; but in 1679 he repaired to Brussels, where the 
 Marquis of Grana, the Spanish governor of the Low Countries, assured 
 him of his protection. There he published in 1681 his 'Apologie 
 pour les Catholiques,' which is a defence of the English Catholics 
 against the charges of Titus Oates's conspiracy. In this work he 
 undertook the defence of his old antagonists the Jesuits, whom he 
 considered as having been calumniated in those transactions. Another 
 work, not so creditable to Arnauld's judgment, is one against the Prince 
 of Orange, William III. of England, whom he styled a new Absalom, 
 a new Herod, and a new Cromwell (8vo, 1689). It was published 
 anonymously, like most of Arnauld's works, and many persons did 
 not believe it to be his ; but it seems now ascertained that he was the 
 author. 
 
 From his retirement at Brussels, Arnauld made several excursions 
 into Holland. His reputation had spread everywhere, and he was 
 kindly received. About this time he entered into a controversy with 
 his old friend Father Mallebranche, who, in his metaphysical works, 
 had announced some peculiar doctrines on the subject of grace, pre- 
 destination, and other theological problems. In refutation of Malle- 
 branche's opinions, Arnauld wrote his 'Traitd des Vraies et des Fausses 
 Ide"es,' Cologne, 1683; and afterwards, ' Reflexions Philosophiques et 
 The"ologiques sur le Nouveau Systeme de la Nature et de la Grace du 
 Pere Mallebranche,' 1685 ; besides nine letters addressed to the Father 
 on the same subject. He continued to the last, although past 80 years 
 of age, to carry on his various controversies with the Jesuits, with 
 Mallebranche, with the Calvinists, and with the sceptic philosophers, 
 among whom was Bayle. His last work was ' Reflexions sur 1' Elo- 
 quence des Prddicateurs,' 1694. He died in his exile at Brussels, on 
 the 8th of August of that year, after receiving the sacrament from the 
 curate of his parish. His works, which filled more than 100 volumes 
 of various sizes, were collected and published at Lausanne and at Paris, 
 in 50 volumes, 4to, 1775-83. The last volume contains the author's 
 biography. Arnauld was one of the most learned men of his age, a 
 sincere but enlightened Catholic, pious without superstition or hypo- 
 crisy, exemplary in his conduct, and disinterested and simple in his 
 habits and manners. His brother, Henri Arnauld, bishop of Angers — 
 where he died in 1692, at the age of 95— bore the character of a most 
 benevolent and diligent pastor. Another and an elder brother, Robert 
 Arnauld d'Andilly, filled several offices at the E'rench court, but at the 
 age of 55 retired to Port Royal, where he died in 1674. He wrote 
 several religious works. Robert's son, Simon Arnauld, marquis of Pom- 
 pone, was employed in several diplomatic missions under Louis XIV., 
 and was made Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1672. He died 
 in 1699. 
 
 ARND, JOHN, was born December 2, 1555, at Ballenstadt, at the 
 foot of the Harz Mountains. He first studied medicine, but afterwards 
 applied himBelf to theology, and became a clergy man of the Lutheran 
 Church. Being grieved at the relaxed state of morals among the 
 Protestants of Germany, he wrote a book ' On True Christianity,' with 
 the object of giving the study of religion a practical influence on the 
 moral conduct of its followers. This work, first published in German, 
 has been translated into several languages, and has been highly praised 
 by Mosheim, Professor Frank of Halle, Dr. Spener, and other distin- 
 guished divines. John Wesley, in his ' Christian Library,' gives a co- 
 pious extract from it. It has been called the Protestant a Kempis. An 
 English translation was published in 1815 by William Jaques — ' True 
 Christianity, or the whole Economy of God towards Man, and the 
 whole Duty of Man towards God,' 2 vols., 8vo, London. Arnd was 
 minister at Quedlinburg, and afterwards at Brunswick. In the latter 
 place, his success as a preacher made him enemies, and he was obliged 
 to leave the town and to withdraw to the village of Isleb, where he 
 remained for some years. In 1611, George, duke of Luneuburg, pre- 
 sented him to the church of Zell, and afterwards appointed him 
 general superintendent of all the chinches of the duchy. .Arnd died 
 at Zell in 1621. He must not be confounded with Josiah Arndt, also 
 a Lutheran clergyman, born in 1626, who was a professor at Rostock, 
 and who published several works on philosophy, divinity, and history ; 
 
 among others, 'Lexicon Antiquitatum Ecclesiasticarum,' 4 to, Griefs- 
 wald, 1669. He died in 1685. 
 
 AUNDT, ERNST MORITZ, a distinguished German political 
 writer, was born at Schoritz, in the Isle of Riigen, December 26, 1769. 
 Here in the old-fashioned house of his father, who was steward to the 
 lord of the manor, the boy was trained in the austere mode then not 
 unusual in many of the more retired parts of Germany. After passing 
 through the gymnasium of Strasbund, he entered as a student of 
 theology and philosophy at Griefswald, and proceeded thence to tho 
 university of Jena. On the completion of his collegiate studies he 
 adopted the ecclesiastical calling; and then travelled during a year 
 and a half through Sweden, Austria, Hungary, France, and Italy. It 
 was in accounts of his observations made during these journeys, and 
 published at intervals from 1797 to 1804, that Arndt first appeared 
 before the world as an author. In 1806 he was appointed a professor- 
 extraordinary at Griefswald, where he had already delivered historical 
 lectures. Here he wrote a history of the system of serfage which 
 then prevailed in Pomerania and Riigen (' Geschichte der Leibeigen- 
 schaft in Pommern und Riigen '), in which he sternly denounced the 
 excessive privileges of the nobles in those provinces. His next work 
 was however of a far bolder character, and at once placed him high 
 among the literary leaders of the young Germans who were burning 
 with indignation at the state of thraldom into which Napoleon I. was 
 fast reducing their country. It was entitled the ' Spirit of the Time ' 
 (' Geist der Zeit'), and appeared originally in 1806 in a single volume, 
 but was subsequently expanded into four volumes (Berlin, 1813-18). 
 The freedom with which he in this work spoke of Napoleon, and 
 that at a time when most of the literary men of Germany had been 
 reduced to silence, and the fervour of his appeals to German patriotism, 
 produced a great effect in Germany, and gave so much offence to the 
 French emperor that Arndt found it necessary to seek refuge in Stock- 
 holm. Here his anti-gallican zeal soon after involved him in a quarrel 
 with a Swedish officer, the result of which was a duel, in which Arndt 
 was severely wounded. 
 
 He soon after returned under an assumed name to Germany, and 
 became one of the most active and successful literary members of that 
 patriotic organisation of which Baron von Stein was the head, and 
 which had for its object the uniting of the German people in a common 
 league for the deliverance of Germany from the foreign yoke. To 
 arouse the national feeling, Arndt wrote a large number of singu- 
 larly spirited songs and short poems, pamphlets, &c, which had 
 almost unbounded popularity, being circulated throughout Germany, 
 and everywhere read with the greatest avidity. Among the most 
 popular were, his famous song ' Was ist der Deutschen Vaterland ?,' 
 his ' Der Rhein, Deutschlands Strom,' his 'Soldaten Katechismus,' and 
 especially the pamphlet entitled ' Ueber Laudwehr und Landsturm, 
 which he wrote in support of Stein's project for a general levy. After 
 the peace, Arndt edited, at Cologne (1815-16), a journal called 'The 
 Watchman' ('Der Wiichter '). In 1818 he was appointed by the 
 king of Prussia Professor of Modern History in the University of 
 Bonn ; but he held that office for little more than a year, having in 
 1819 fallen under the suspicions of the police, and been subjected to 
 several domiciliary visits, examinations, &c, with a view to implicate 
 him in the charge of democratic conspiracy. It was found impossible 
 to sustain a legal accusation against Arndt; but he had inveighed 
 with his usual plainness of speech against the breach of the royal 
 promise to grant constitutional reforms, and he was suspended from 
 his professorship ; but, in consequence perhaps of his protests against 
 the legality of the proceedings, he was suffered to retain his salary. 
 It was not until twenty years had passed that the tardy justice was 
 done of restoring him to his professorial chair, with permission to 
 resume lecturing. These twenty years had been spent in studious 
 retirement ; and among other fruits of his industry had appeared his 
 ' Nebenstunden, eine Beschreibung und Geschichte der Schottland, 
 Inseln, und der Orkaden' (Leipzig, 1820); 'Christliches und Turkisches' 
 (Stutg., 1828); ' Die Frage iiber die Niederlande, 1831, Belgien, und was 
 daran hiiugt' (Leipzig, 1834); ' Schwedische Geschichten unter Gus- 
 tav III. und Gustav IV.' (Leipzig, 1839); and his ' Mahrchen und 
 Jugendcrinnerungen.' 
 
 After the revolution of 1848, the aged patriot was called once again 
 to take an active part in public affairs, having been elected a member 
 of the National Assembly at Frankfurt ; but he withdrew from the 
 Assembly with the rest of the Constitutional party represented by 
 De Gagern. In 1851 he published at Leipzig a pamphlet entitled 
 ' Anklage eiuer Majestatsbeleidigung des grossen danischen Volkes aus 
 dem Jahre 1845.' A characteristic idea of the genius, principles, and 
 labours of Arndt may be obtained from the ' Erinnerungen aus dem 
 iiuszern Leben ' (Leipzig, 1840) ; and a biographical sketch of his life, 
 with considerable selections from his prose and poetry, forms 
 volume 32 of the ' Moderne Klassiker : Deutsche Literaturgeschichte 
 der neuren Zeit,' published by Ernst Balde, at Cassel : ' Ernst Moritz 
 Arndt : Eine Biographie, von W. Neumann.' [Supplement.] 
 
 ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE, Doctor in Music, born in 1710, 
 was the son of an upholsterer in King-street, Covent Garden, and 
 educated at Eton, having been intended for the profession of the law; 
 but his bias towards music was strong, and finally prevailed. He 
 secretly practised on the spinnet, and took lessons of Michael Festing, 
 an eminent person in his day, on the violin, and the first intimation 
 
3 -a 
 
 ARNOBIUS. 
 
 ARNOLD, JOHN. 
 
 352 
 
 his father had of hia musical progress was at an amateur party, in 
 which young Arue was discovered playing tho first fiddle most skil- 
 fully. His father now supplied him with the means of continuing 
 his favourite pursuit in an advantageous manner. He soon imbued 
 his sister with a love of the vocal art, and qualified her to appear iu 
 Lampe's opera, 'Amelia,' in which her debut was of so promising a 
 kind, that her brother, though then only eighteen years of age, set for 
 her Addison's ' Rosamond,' in which she represented the heroine, and 
 shortly after became the celebrated Mis. Gibber. In 1738 Arne pro- 
 duced his ' Comus,' which established his reputation. In 1740 he 
 married Miss Cecilia Young, a pupil of Geininiani, and a performer of 
 eminence. In 1742 he went with her into Ireland, where both were 
 engaged by the Dublin manager, the one to sing, the other to compose. 
 In 1745 he acceded to the request of the proprietor of Vauxhall, who 
 thus added Mrs. Arne to the list of his vocal performers, her husband 
 at the same time becoming his principal composer. Subsequently, he 
 wrote his two oratorios, 'Abel' and 'Judith,' after which the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford conferred on him the degree of Doctor in Music. 
 His greatest work, or that which has most contributed to his fame, 
 ' Artaxerxes,' was composed in 1762, in imitation of the Italian 
 opera, and to prove the English language not so repugnant to recita- 
 tive as many had imagined. The attempt was bold, but triumphant ; 
 the decided approbation which crowned the composer's labours, and 
 the judgment pronounced on it by posterity, prove beyond dispute its 
 many and great merits. The drama is a translation, by Arne himself, 
 of Metastasio's ' Artaserse.' Dr. Arne also produced, in 1765, an 
 entire Italian opera at the King's Theatre, Metastasio's ' Olimpiade.' 
 The production entitled ' Love in a Village,' is a 'pasticcio,' or com- 
 pilation from various composers, but many pieces iu this still pleasing 
 ballad-opera are by Arne, and among these ' Gentle youth, ah 1 tell 
 me why?' can never become autiquated. Warren's collection of 
 canons, glees, &c, contains several of Arne's compositions, of which 
 ' Come, shepherds, we'll follow the hearse,' in Cunningham's elegy on 
 the death of Shenstone, must charm as long as vocal harmony retains 
 the power to please. His song and chorus, 'When Britain first at 
 heaven's command,' or ' Rule Britannia,' need hardly be mentioned as 
 the offspring of his genius ; it may be said to have wafted his name 
 over the greater half of the habitable world. Dr. Arne died in March, 
 1778, and was buried in St. Paul's Church, Covent Garden. 
 
 ARNO'BIUS, according to Hieronymus (' De Viris Illu*tribus,' c. 
 79), was a rhetorician and afterwards a presbyter of Sikka in Numidia, 
 in the reign of the Emperor Diocletian. His work ' De Rhetorica 
 lustitutione ' is not extant. Lactantius, the Cicero of the Fathers, 
 was the most distinguished disciple of Arnobius, the Varro of the 
 ecclesiastical writers. Arnobius w as as much superior in genius to this 
 pupil as he was surpassed by Lactantius in elegance of diction. 
 Hieronymus informs us, iu hi3 'Chronicle,' that Arnobius was in the 
 habit of attacking Christianity, until he had some remarkably impres- 
 sive dreams, which induced him to wait upon the Bishop of Sikka, 
 who, however, did not trust him, knowing his former enmity to the 
 gospel. Arnobius wrote his seven books of ' Disputations against the 
 Heathen ' in order to convince the bishop that he was really converted. 
 Iu the ' Disputations ' Arnobius shows a thorough acquaintance with 
 the literature of his age, and thus describes (1. i c. 39) his change : — 
 " Oh, blindness ! A short time ago I worshipped images coming out 
 from the furnace, and gods made with the hammer on the anvil. 
 When I saw a smooth and anointed stone I spoke to it as to a living 
 power, and prayed to the senseless stone for benefits ; and thus unwit- 
 tingly blasphemed even the false gods, by taking them for stocks, 
 stones, and bones, or fancying that they inhabited such things. Now, 
 I know what all those things are, since I am led by a great teacher 
 into the ways of truth." It appears that Arnobius came to a know- 
 ledge of the truth by carefully reading the New Testament, especially 
 the Gospels. 
 
 In his 'Disputations' he also refutes that accusation which had 
 excited the Diocletian persecution, namely, that the public calamities 
 of the empire were a consequence of the spread of the Gospel, which 
 caused a general neglect of the gods. Arnobius replies to this accu- 
 sation : — " If men, instead of relying upon their prudence, and follow- 
 ng their own propensities, would try to obey the doctrines of Christ, 
 which bring peace and salvation, the whole world would be soon 
 changed, and the iron taken from the service of war would be 
 employed in the works of peace." (1. iv. c. 36.) 
 
 Only one manuscript codex of Arnobius is known to exist ; this is 
 now at Paris. The first edition of the 'Disputations' of Arnobius is 
 that by Faustus Saboeus, Rome, 1542, fol. The editor has subjoined 
 the ' Octavius ' of Miuutius Felix as an eighth book, mistakiug Octa- 
 viu3 for Octavus. Numerous editions have since been published at 
 Basle, at Paris, at Antwerp, at Rome, at Geneva, 1597, and elsewhere. 
 The best edition of Arnobius is that published by Conrad Orelli, 
 Leipzig, 1816, in two volumes, 8vo. The ' Disputations ' of Arnobius 
 were translated into Dutch by Joachim Oudaer, Hurling, 1677, 8vo. 
 
 The works of the Semi-Pelagian Arnobius of Gaul have sometimes 
 been erroneously ascribed to Arnobius Afer. Arnobius of Gaul wrote, 
 about a.d. 460, a commentary on the Psalms, edited with a preface by 
 Erasmus, at Basle, 1537; at Paris, 1539 ; at Basle, 1560. The ' Anno- 
 tations in Locos Evangelistarutn e recognitione Andrese Schotti' 
 were printed with the preceding. He wrote also the following : 
 
 ' Con (1 ictus cum Serapione, do Deo trino et uno; de Duobus Sub- 
 stantiis in Unitate Personam et de Concordia Gratia) et Liberi Arbitrii, 
 cum Notis Feuardentii, Col. Agrippina;,' 1596. 
 
 ARNOLD, BENEDICT, was born in Connecticut in North America, 
 on the 3rd of January, 1740. Having been unsuccessful in business 
 as a horse-dealer, when the revolutionary war broke out he took up 
 arms, threw himself into the contest with great ardour, and raised a 
 company of volunteers at Newhaven, iu his native state. His activity, 
 boldness, and skill, soon brought him into notice ; and when in the 
 summer of 1775 it had been determined to attempt the capture of 
 Quebec, he and General Montgomery were fixed upon by Washington 
 to conduct the expedition. The march of Arnold across a then un- 
 known and pathless region at the close of the year, is one of the 
 boldest military exploits on record. The troops, consisting of about 
 1100 men, set out about the middle of September from Boston for 
 Newbury Port, at the mouth of the Merrimack ; from which point 
 they were conveyed by water to the mouth of the Kennebeck in New 
 Hampshire, a distance of 40 leagues. On the 22nd they embarked in 
 200 boats on the Kennebeck at Gardener's Town, and made their 
 way up the river in the face of great difficulties. After reaching the 
 head of the river, they had to pass the mountainous ridge which now 
 divides the territory of the United States from Canada. After cros- 
 sing these desolate heights they reached t^ie river Chaudiere, down 
 which they proceeded to the St. Lawrence, into which it falls. When 
 they at length reached a house, on the 3rd of November, they had 
 been thirty-one days without the sight of a human habitation. 
 
 Arnold distinguished himself greatly in the military operations that 
 followed ; and was severely wounded in the leg in the unsuccessful 
 assault upon Quebec on the 31st of December, in which General 
 Montgomery fell. On his return from this enterprise he continued in 
 active service. In one of the actions which immediately preceded the 
 surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga on the 16th of October, 
 1777, he was again wounded; and being thence unable for some time 
 to take the field, he was appointed by Washington to take the com- 
 mand of Philadelphia, which the English had evacuated. In this 
 situation he was guilty of such acts of rapacity and oppression, in 
 order to support the ostentation and luxury in which he indulged, 
 that he was brought to trial by a court-martial, and on the 20th of 
 January 1779 was sentenced to be reprimanded by the command, r- 
 in-chief. On this dishonour Arnold threw up his commission. The 
 embarrassment of his affairs however was so great, and the demands 
 of his creditors became so pressing, that he soon found it necessary to 
 attempt something to repair his broken fortunes. He resolved to 
 make an offer to the British General, Sir Henry Clinton, of his services 
 in betraying his country and the cause for which he had hitherto 
 fought, and his proposals were accepted. It was arranged that he was 
 to obtain the command of the important fort of West Point on the 
 Hudson, and then deliver it up to the euemy. He attained the com- 
 mand iu July 1780, by affecting a zealous patriotism, Washington 
 generously forgetting his former delinquencies. We refer to the 
 article Andre, for an account of the mauuer in which this treasonable 
 scheme miscarried. Major Andre, the officer intrusted by Clinton 
 with the active management of the negotiation with Arnold, was sent 
 up the Hudson in a sloop of war from JSew York, the head-quarters of 
 the army, and had an interview with the American general on the 
 bank of the river, near West Point, on the morning of Friday the 
 22nd of September. The next day, on his return to New York by 
 land, Andre" was taken by two Americans when he had nearly reached 
 the British lines, and the plot was detected by the discovery in his 
 boots of the plans and other papers which he had received from 
 Arnold. Andre" found means to convey an intimation of his capture 
 to Arnold, by whom it was received on the morning of the 25th, just 
 in time to permit him to make his escape. Taking a hurried leave of 
 his wife and infant child, he instantly rushed to the river, and leaping 
 on board a barge which he had iu readiness, he ordered himself to be 
 rowed to the English sloop, which he reached in safety. He was 
 allowed to retain in the British army the rank of brigadier-general, 
 which he had held in that of the United States. In the beginning of 
 the following year he was sent with an expedition into Virginia, where 
 he committed great devastation. After this he made a still more 
 destructive incursion into Connecticut, his native state. He served 
 afterwards in Nova Scotia, and also in the West Indies, where he was 
 taken prisoner by the French, from whom however he made his 
 escape. After the conclusion of the war he took up his residence iu 
 England. In July 1792 a duel was fought near Kilburn Wells, 
 between General Arnold and the late Earl of Lauderdale, in conse- 
 quence of certain expressions which the latter had used at a public 
 meeting, and would not retract. Arnold was atteuded by Lord 
 Hawke, and Lord Lauderdale by Mr. Fox. His lordship declined to 
 return his adversary's fire, but said, that if he was not satisfied he 
 might fire on till he was. On this the parties separated. Arnold 
 died in London, June 14, 1801. 
 
 ARNOLD, JOHN, one of the greatest improvers of the marine 
 chronometer, was born at Bodmin in Cornwall, in the year 1744. Ha 
 was apprenticed to his father, who was a watchmaker iu Bodmin : but, 
 having quarrelled with him, he went to Holland, where, being found 
 in very destitute circumstances by a person who took pity on him, 
 and interested himself in his behalf, he obtained employment for 
 
ARNOLD, SAMUEL. 
 
 ARNOLD, THOMAS, D.D. 
 
 861 
 
 several years at the Hague. Arnold returned to England, and obtained 
 a scanty living as an itinerant mechanic, by repairing watches, clocks, 
 guns, &c. Being at St. Albans, he was recommended to a gentleman 
 from London to put his repeater in repair. This gentleman, seeing his 
 superior talent, induced him to remove to London, where he established 
 him in business in Devereux-court, near the Temple, and introduced 
 him to the notice of George III., who presented him with a sum of 
 100/. to enable him to commence experiments for the improvement 
 of chronometers. He was subsequently assisted by several sums 
 from the Board of Longitude for the same purpose ; and he made 
 many chronometers for the East India Company, who then used in 
 their ships a far greater number than were required for government 
 vessels. 
 
 The improvements introduced by Arnold are too numerous and of 
 too technical a character to be fully described here ; but those which 
 attracted most notice were the detached escapement, which allows 
 the vibrations of the balance, which is the real measurer of time, to 
 be more free and equal than an ordinary timepiece, by completely 
 detaohing it, during the greater part of each vibration, from the train 
 of wheels ; and the expansion-balance, which, being formed of two 
 metals of unequal expansibility, varies in form in such a manner with 
 changes of temperature as to vibrate in nearly equal periods of time 
 at any degree of heat or cold to which a chronometer can be exposed. 
 Subsequent discoveries have proved that the principle of the expan- 
 sion-balance, as used by Arnold, is radically defective when the 
 instrument is liable to considerable changes of temperature ; yet it 
 was a great improvement upon the principle introduced by Harrison, 
 which consisted in applying a compensation for changes of tempera- 
 ture to the balance-spring, on the same plan as the regulator of a 
 common watch, excepting that the compensation apparatus was self- 
 acting, instead of having to be altered by hand. Since the time of 
 Arnold the compensation-balance has been used almost universally, 
 and with scarcely any alteration from the form in which he left it. 
 The French chronometer-maker Le Roy, appears to have invented 
 previously, but unknown to Arnold, both the escapement-balance, and 
 an inferior form of the compensation-balance. Two experimental 
 watches made by Arnold, and now in the possession of the Royal 
 Society, appear to contain his first attempts at the detached escape- 
 ment. 
 
 Another very important improvement introduced by Arnold, and 
 adopted by all his successors, was what is commonly called the cylin- 
 drical balance-spring, which is more perfect in its action than the 
 ordinary spiral balance-spring. He appears also to have been the 
 first to make balance-springs of gold, for the sake of avoiding corro- 
 sion; and he applied silver and platinum to the formation of balances, 
 in order to avoid the evils which had been discovered to arise, during 
 a thunder-storm, from the magnetism of steel. In addition to his 
 mechanical improvements, Arnold may be considered the first manu- 
 facturer of chronometers in England, or the first who, by systematising 
 the business of chronometer-making, reduced the price of those 
 important machines to such an amount as to render them generally 
 available. 
 
 In 1780 Arnold published, by permission of the Board of Longitude, 
 'An Account kept during Thirteen Months in the Royal Observatory 
 at Greenwich, of the going of a Pocket Chronometer' made by him, 
 with his newly-invented balance-spring, and his expansion-balance, in 
 which he observes that the greatest difference from mean time shown 
 by his chronometer in any one day had never amounted to four seconds 
 of time, or one mile of longitude, which, he observed, enabled it to 
 determine the longitude to as great precision as the latitude was 
 generally determined; aud during the thirteen months there were but 
 three days on which the difference amounted to three seconds a day. 
 The whole accumulated error of the thirteen months was not greater 
 than the difference to which two observations of the moon on the 
 same day were liable. He had then, he states, applied himself for 
 nearly thirteen years to the improvement of the chronometer, and he 
 continued to do so until his death, on the 25th of August, 1799. 
 Though a highly ingenious man, he was not a very expert or delicate 
 workman, and the models made by his own hand are comparatively 
 clumsy ; but Earnxhaw, who was one of his assistants, and who sub- 
 sequently obtained notice as a labourer in the same department of 
 ingenuity, was well able to make up for this deficiency of mechanical 
 dexterity. 
 
 Shortly after the death of Arnold, Earnshaw laid claims before the 
 Buard of Longitude, which Arnold's son, the late John Roger Arnold, 
 who died ou the 26th of February, 1843, thought fit to contest, in the 
 name of his father. The decision of the board in 1805 gave an equal 
 reward (3000/.) to both. In the following year the board published, 
 in a tUin 4to volume, illustrated with plates, ' Explanations of Time- 
 Keepers constructed by Mr. Thomas Earnshaw aud the late John 
 Arnold.' 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society -for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARNOLD, SAMUEL, Doctor in Music, was born in 1740, and 
 patronised from his birth by the princess Amelia, daughter of 
 George II., who placed him among the choristers of the royal chapel, 
 under Mr. Bernard Gates : he afterwards completed his musical studies 
 under Dr. Nares. His first production was an air, 'If 'tis joy to Wound 
 
 BlOd. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 a Lover,' which immediately spread itself far and wide, and made the 
 author popular. At the age of twenty-three he became composer to 
 Covent Garden theatre, and in 1706 also undertook to fill the same 
 office at the Haymarket, then the property of the senior Colrnan. In 
 the discharge of these duties he produced about forty musical pieces, 
 the most popular of which were — ' The Maid of the Mill ;' ' The Son- 
 in-Law ;' ' The Castle of Andalusia,' in which are ' Flow, thou regal 
 purple stream,' and ' The Hardy Sailor;' ' Inkle aud Yarico,' &c. Of 
 music of the graver cast, he composed Dr. Browne's sacred ode, ' The 
 Cure of Saul,' which was allowed to be the best work of the kind since 
 the time of Handel. This was followed by the oratorios of 'Abime- 
 lech,' 'The Resurrection,' and ' The Prodigal Son,' which were per- 
 formed at the Covent Garden and Haymarket theatres for several years 
 during Lent. The latter was chosen for performance at the installation 
 of Lord North as Chancellor of the University of Oxford, when the 
 composer was honoured witli the degree of Doctor in Music. Iu 1769 
 he purchased Marylebone Gardens, then a place of very fashionable 
 resort, for which he wrote many songs, &c. ; but he had to abandon 
 'this speculation with the loss of 10,000i. In 1783 he was appointed 
 organist and composer to the king. In 1789 he succeeded Dr. Cooke 
 as conductor of the Academy of Ancient Music, and in 1793 became 
 organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1786 Dr. Arnold commenced 
 publishing an edition in score of Handel's works, encouraged by 
 George III., -who liberally supported him in his arduous undertaking, 
 which proceeded to the extent of about forty volumes. He also 
 printed, in four large volumes, a collection of sacred music, as a con- 
 tinuation of Dr. Boyce's admirable work, to which it has proved a mo^t 
 valuable addition. During many years he carried on the oratorios at 
 Drury-lane theatre, and while these were in his hands he produced 
 'The Redemption,' a compilation from Handel's works; and ' The 
 Triumph of Truth,' selected from various composers. Dr. Arnold 
 died in 1802, and was interred in Westminster Abbey, with more thau 
 usual marks of respect. A simple tablet, near Purcell's monument, 
 marks the place where lie his remains. 
 
 ARNOLD, THOMAS, D.D. The events in the life of this able man 
 and distinguished schoolmaster are comparatively few. Thomas Arnold 
 was born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, June 13, 1795. His father, 
 William Arnold, was collector of the customs in that place, where the 
 family, originally from Lowestoft in Suffolk, had resided for two gene- 
 rations. His education when a child was under the direction of his 
 aunt. At the age of eight he was sent to Warminster, and four years 
 afterwards to Winchester College. As a boy he was remarkably shy 
 and indolent, a character which presented a strong contrast to the 
 frankness and activity of his subsequent life. At school his favourite 
 pursuits were history and poetry. Having written a play, and a long 
 poem after the manner of Scott, he was called Poet Arnold, to dis- 
 tinguish him from another boy of the same name. In 1811, iu his 
 sixteenth year, he was removed to Oxford, having obtained a scholar- 
 ship in Corpus Christi College. Here, stimulated by the love of the 
 real, which was one of the prominent features of his character, he 
 devoted his attention chiefly to the philosophers and historians of 
 antiquity, among whom his favourite authors were Aristotle and 
 Thucydides. He is represented by those who knew him to have been 
 at this time fond of discussion and vehement in argument; fearless in 
 advancing his opinions, and stiff in maintaining them ; extremely 
 liberal in his views, which he held with a firm conviction of their truth, 
 but which often startled the Church and State Tories by whom he was 
 surrounded. With this intellectual boldness and independence he 
 combined no arrogance or conceit, but a disposition so generous and 
 affectionate, that those who differed most widely from him in opinion 
 never failed to respect and love him. many of whom continued his 
 friends to the latest period of his life. In 1814 he took a first-class 
 degree, and the year after was elected Fellow of Oriel College. In 1815 
 and 1817 he was chancellor's prizeman for the Latin and English essays. 
 Having overcome certain scruples respecting some points in the Thirty- 
 nine Articles, with which he appears to have been harassed about the 
 time he graduated, he was ordained deacon in 1818, aud priest in 1828, 
 when he undertook the chaplaincy of Rugby school. In 1820 he mar- 
 ried Mary, youngest daughter of the Rev. J. Penrose, rector of Fled- 
 borough, Notts, having in the previous year settled at Laleham, near 
 Staines, where he employed himself in the preparation of seven or 
 eight young men for the universities. Here a great aud decisive 
 change came over his character. The indolence and restlessness by 
 which his early years had been marked entirely disappeared, and he 
 acquired those settled, serious, earnest views of the nature aud purpose 
 of life, which actuated him ever after. It was this " intense earnest- 
 ness " which gave him so much power over his pupils, aud which 
 roused every one who came within the sphere of his influence to the 
 consciousness that they had powers to cultivate, duties to discharge, 
 aud a mission to accomplish. The time which was not occupied with 
 his pupils was devoted to collecting materials for his edition of 
 ' Thucydides,' writing articles ou Roman history for the ' Encyclo- 
 paedia Metropolitana,' and preparing the way for his ' History of Rome,' 
 which he did not live to finish. 
 
 In August 1828 he entered upon his duties as head master of Rugby 
 School, to which he had recently been elected. Here his great talents 
 for instruction and the management of young men acquired a suitable 
 sphere for their activity. The result was soon apparent, not only in 
 
 2 A 
 
S65 ARNOLD, THOMAS, D.D. 
 
 the eminence which Rugby rapidly obtained, but in the beneficial 
 ihange which, by its example, was impressed upon other institutions 
 of a similar nature. Dr. Arnold retained the old classical basis of 
 tuition, but gave it breadth by connecting it with other departments 
 of learning ; inspired it with life and vigour by the practical views to 
 which he directed it ; and imparted to it elevation and dignity by 
 what had heretofore been wanting in public schools — the introduction 
 of a high moral and Christian element : so that Rugby became in the 
 true sense of the word the seat of an enlightened ami Christian educa- 
 tion. Ho treated his pupils with the affection of a friend and the 
 courtesy due to gentlemen, as well as with the authority of a master. 
 As he could not come into frequent personal contact with every one 
 among them, he governed the school, and made his influence felt 
 through the whole of it, by means of the sixth form, or highest class 
 of boys. To add to their authority, and for the sake of maintaining 
 order and government among the boys themselves, he kept up the 
 system of fagging ; but he stripped it of its repulsive features and 
 invested it with a moral force, l>y making it the ground of a solemn 
 responsibility on the part of those who exercised the power. His 
 views on this subject will be found in the 'Journal of Education,' 
 1834-5, to which there is a Reply by Professor Long, the editor of 
 that work. 
 
 In this occupation he spent the last fourteen years of his life : and 
 during that period, though so diligently engaged in bis own proper 
 duties, took the deepest interest in all the public events and political 
 questions of the time. Ho was one of the most decided opponents of 
 the Oxford new school of theology. His idea of a Christian church 
 was first given in his pamphlet on ' Church Reform,' which he was 
 induced to publish in 1S33, in consequence of the apprehensions he 
 entertained of the danger which then threatened the establishment. 
 His theory is much the same as Hooker's, that the church and state 
 are identical — that a church is a Christian state. His views on this 
 subject are apain stated in his t Fragment on the Church.' subse- 
 quently published ; in which the Tractarian opinions on the Gh an 
 priesthood are attacked with a vehemence arising, no doubt, firm his 
 own strong convictions. 
 
 In 1835 the office of a Fellowship in the Senate of the new London 
 University was offered to Dr. Arnold by Mr. Spring Rice, the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer, and the office was accepted. Dr. Arnold at 
 first consented to join the University " without insisting on a Scrip- 
 tural examination, on the alleged ground of fact, that such an examina- 
 tion was not practicable on account of the objections of different classes 
 of Christians, and on the hope, which he distinctly expressed, that the 
 Christian character of the University might be secured without it." 
 But he subsequently became convinced that " the Scriptural exam- 
 ination was both practicable and all but indispensable, and he gave 
 notice of his intention of recommending the introduction of the 
 Scriptures as a part of the classical examination for every degree." 
 In December 1837 he succeeded in carrying a resolution " that, as a 
 general rule, the candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Arts shall 
 pass an examination either in one of the Four Gospels or the A©ts of 
 the Apostles in the Original Greek, and also in Scripture History." In 
 consequence of the remonstrances from various bodies of Dissenters 
 and from the Council of University College, London, and partly in 
 consequence of the strong representation of the Secretary of State 
 (Lord John Russell), through whom an appeal had been made by the 
 remonstrants to the law officers of the Crown, a larger meeting of the 
 Senate of the University of London was held in February 1838, in 
 which the former motion was overruled, and in its place it was resolved, 
 " tha 1 examination in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, and in 
 the Greek text of the New, aDd on Scripture History, shall be instituted 
 in this University ; and that all candidates for degrees in arts may, if 
 they think proper, undergo such examination." The Senate imme- 
 diately proceeded to institute a voluntary examination, with prizes, 
 in the texts of the Old and New Testaments and in Scripture History. 
 Dr. Arnold finally withdrew from the Senate of the London Univer- 
 sity in November 1838, being led, " after the fullest consideration and 
 inquiry, to the conclusion that the voluntary examination would not 
 be satisfactory'' (Letter to the Earl of Burlington, Stanley's 'Life of 
 Arnold,' ii. p. 126), or, as he expresses himself in another passage of 
 the same letter, would not " satisfy, either practically or in theory, 
 those principles which appeared to him indispensable." The history 
 of this transaction is given at length in Stanley's ' Life of Arnold' 
 (ii. p. 10, &c), and Dr. Arnold's views and opinions appear from 
 various letters in the same volume (pp. 13, 83, 91, 94, 107, 126). 
 
 Dr. Arnold's mind was early directed to the social condition of the 
 working classes of this country ; and many efforts were made, and a 
 variety of plans devised by him, not only for improving it, but for 
 directing the attention of the public to a subject of so much import- 
 ance. For this purpose he gave lectures at the Rugby Mechanics' 
 Institute, started a newspaper in 1831 expressly for the use of the 
 lower orders, and in the same year, and also in 1832, wrote letters in 
 the 'Sheffield Courant' and subsequently in the 'Herts Reformer.' 
 He was one of the first to perceive the necessity of introducing a moral 
 element into the measures intended for the social benefit of the masses ; 
 without which the extension of the franchise would be useless, if not 
 pernicious. 
 
 The Whigs, to which party he was more nearly assimilated in opinion 
 
 ARNOTT, DR. NEIL. m 
 
 than to any other, offered him some preferment, which he did not 
 accept. The year before his death, however, he was appointed by 
 Lord Melbourne to the Regius-Professorship of Modern History at 
 Oxford — an appointment which gave him the most lively satisfaction. 
 But he lived to deliver only his introductory course of lectures. When 
 at the very summit of his reputation as a teacher, and at the time 
 when the odium in which, for the liberality of his religious and politi- 
 cal opinions, his name had been held by men of his own profession 
 was fast disappearing, and the grandeur of his character was every day 
 becoming more manifest and more distinctly understood, he was seized 
 with a fatal disease, which carried him off in a few hours. He died 
 on the 12th of June, 1842, of spasm at the heart, and was buried in 
 the chapel at Rugby. He left a widow, with five sons and four daugh- 
 ters. Scholarships to his honour, bearing his name, have been founded 
 by subscription. 
 
 His correspondence is the best record of his life, and affords the 
 most vivid representation of his character. It presents us with the 
 progressive development of his mind and views, till the one reaches 
 the vigour and the other the comprehensiveness for which at length 
 they became distinguished. He combined the intellectual and the 
 moral in a degree and with a harmony rarely found. The most 
 strongly-marked feature of his intellect was the strength and clearness 
 of his conceptions. It seemed like the possession of an inward light, 
 so intense that it penetrated on the instant every subject laid before 
 him, and enabled him to grasp it with the vividness of sense and the 
 force of reality. Hence what was said of his religious impressions 
 may be used to characterise his intellectual operations : — " He knew 
 what others only believed ; he saw what others only talked about." 
 Hence also perhaps arose in a great measure the vehemence with 
 which he oppo.-ed views and notions contrary to his own. Of his 
 moral nature, honesty and fearlessness, earnestness, and love of trutn 
 and justice, were the prominent qualities. And though these were 
 calculated to give an aspect of sternness to the outline of his character, 
 yet they w ere tempered with an expansive benevolence, and combined 
 with a tenderness of disposition, which rendered him an object of the 
 mo.it devoted attachment to all about him. It was said by one who 
 knew him well, that " he loved his family as if he had no friends, his 
 friends as if he had no family, and his country as if he had neither 
 family nor friends." 
 
 His great work, and the one by which he will be remembered, are 
 his three volumes of Roman History, comprehending the period 
 between the origin of the state and the end of the Second Punic War ; 
 with another volume comprising his contributions to the ' Encyclo- 
 paedia Metropolitana,' aud carrying on the history to the time of 
 Trajan. In the Notes and Dissertations to his edition of Thuoydides, 
 he has given a social and political as well as a critical interest to his 
 author. History and divinity — man and man's relation to God — were 
 his favourite studies. In both he preferred the practical to the theo- 
 retical. His five volumes of sermons demonstrate with what earnest- 
 ness and devotion he laboured to bring religion into the daily concerns 
 of men, and to invest every act of life with a Christian character. 
 
 His remaining productions are — a volume of ' Lectures on Modern 
 History,' delivered at Oxford, and ' Miscellaneous Works,' which 
 include many articles written for Reviews, &c, and Essays. 
 
 (Stanley, Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold.) 
 
 *ARN0TT, DR. NEIL, was born in 1788. Hie father was of the 
 Arnotts of Upper Dysart, near Montrose, on the east coast of Scotland, 
 of whom several had rank in the public service. His mother was the 
 daughter of Maclean in Inverness-shire. His early years were passed 
 partly at Dysart, and partly at the house of Blairs, on the Dee-side, a 
 few miles from Aberdeen. 
 
 In 1797 he went to the Grammar School at Aberdeen, where Lord 
 Byron happened to be then also a scholar. In 1801, having at the 
 annual examination obtained the first prize in his class, he left the 
 school for the University. In the competition for bursaries or scholar- 
 ships there, he was also a successful candidate. He then chose as his 
 business for life, the medical profession, and hi3 course of study was 
 shaped accordingly. Natural philosophy, as an important scientific 
 foundation, was a favourite study. In 1806, having taken his degree 
 of M.A., he went to London to complete his professional education. 
 He there became the pupil of Sir Everard Home, Surgeon of St. George's 
 Hospital. Through the influence of his preceptor he obtained at an 
 unusually early age the appointment of surgeon in the naval service 
 of the East India Company. This position afforded him not only 
 opportunities of witnessing the influence of climates on health and 
 disease, but also, during his residence in the many places visited, of 
 testing and amplifying the general scientific conceptions formed at the 
 University. Many of the striking facts and incidents in geology, 
 astronomy, natural history, navigation, &c, presented to him during 
 these voyages were used by him afterwards as illustrations in his work 
 entitled ' The Elements of Physics.' 
 
 In 1811 he settled in medical practice in London. The knowledge 
 which he had acquired of modern European languages served to widen 
 his connection amongst strangers in London. In 1813 he gave at the 
 then flourishing Philomathic Institution, near Tavistock-square, an 
 elementary course of lectures on chemistry and natural philosophy. 
 In 1815 he was appointed physiciau to the French embassy in London, 
 and subsequently also to the Spanish embassy. In 1823-24 views 
 
357 
 
 AROMATARI, JOSEPH OF. 
 
 ARRIANUS, FLAVIUS. 
 
 358 
 
 were promulgated by Sir David Barry, and others, on the circulation 
 of the blood, irreconcilable with the laws of hydraulics. Dr. Arnott' s 
 opinion was requested by Dr. Armstrong, then Lecturer of Medicine 
 at the Borough hospitals, and by others of his professional brethren. 
 He was induced by these circumstances to deliver a course of lectures 
 on Natural Philosophy in its application to medicine. In the year 
 ^ following he was requested to repeat these lectures; but not having 
 the time to spare, he published in 1827 the substance of bis course 
 with additions under the title of ' Elements of Physics, or Natural 
 Philosophy, General and Medical, explained in plain, or non-technical 
 Language.' Of this work five editions, amounting to 10,000 copies 
 were called for within six years, and the work was translated into all 
 the European languages except Italian. The author published origin- 
 ally only the first half-volume ; and he had become so occupied 
 professionally that the chapters on Light and Heat were ready only 
 with the third edition, and the two remaining chapters on Electricity 
 and Astronomy had to wait until still further leisure. Although the 
 profit was tempting, and the copies of the extant editions when met 
 with were selling for more than the original price, the author did not 
 choose to republish the work until he could complete it, and add the 
 account of various new appliances to physical means for attaining 
 professional objects which had occurred to him during his studies and 
 practice — such as, for instance, the water-bed, or floating mattress, 
 which in cases of patients confined to bed has been used with such 
 happy results. 
 
 In 1838, however, seeing that a large part of the art of guarding the 
 public health, or preventing disease, depended on the right manage- 
 ment of the great physical influences, among which temperature and 
 purity of air are the chief, he attempted to awaken public attention to 
 these, and the prevalent misconceptions regarding them, in a short 
 'Essay on Warming and Ventilating,' in which new means of avoiding 
 some common evils were described. Considerable progress has since 
 been made in this kiud of knowledge ; but the history of late attempts 
 to warm and ventilate the Houses of Parliament, shows how little 
 opinions are yet settled on the subject. 
 
 For the inventions and novel applications of Dr. Arnott above 
 referred to, and further modifications of these — of which the smokeless 
 fire is one — the Council of the Royal Society awarded to him in 1854 
 their Rumford Medal ; and for these and other novelties bearing on 
 the treatment of disease, and the preservation of the public health, 
 for medicine, surgery, and hygiene, the Jurors of the Class of the 
 Universal Exposition of Paris in 1855, awarded to him the great Gold 
 Medal, which was accompanied by the Cross of the Legion of Honour 
 gken by the Emperor. 
 
 In 1835 Dr. Arnott was placed by the Government among the 
 members of the Senate of the University of London then created. In 
 1""37 he was named one of the Physicians Extraordinary to the 
 Queen. In 1838 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and 
 hag twice been member of the Council. In 1854 he was requested by 
 the President of the General Board of Health to be one of his Medical 
 Council. He had now retired from the more active business of his 
 profession to complete his literary and scientific undertakings, and 
 more particularly the sixth edition of his ' Elements of Physics,' 
 which, as a completed work, was published in 1865. 
 
 One of the most remarkable characteristics of Dr. Arnott is the 
 disinterestedness with which he has thrown open his inventions for 
 th'e general benefit of mankind. In the case of the water-bed it 
 could scarcely have been otherwise, with one of such practical benevo- 
 lence. It was invented by Dr. Arnott upon a sudden emergency; and 
 it eared the life of the patient who was first placed upon it, as it has 
 raved many other lives.' But if the ' Arnott Stove ' and the ' Arnott 
 Ventilator ' had been patented, the inventor would have realised a 
 hrge fortune by their almost universal use. He judged otherwise ; 
 avl he has had something higher than a money-reward. A particular 
 notice of Dr. Arnott's contrivances for health and domestic comfort, 
 will be given in the division of Arts and Sciences. 
 
 AROMATARI, JOSEPH OF, a learned physician and naturalist, 
 was born about 1586 at Assisi, a town of the duchy of Spoleto, in 
 the Papal states. His father was a physician, and carefully trained his 
 son for the same profession. His studies were begun at Perugia, and 
 continued at Padua, where he studied successively logic, philosophy, 
 and medicine. He obtained his degree of Doctor of Medicine in his 
 eighteenth year, and immediately afterwards established himself as a 
 physician at Venice, where, notwithstanding the mo3t tempting offers 
 and solicitations made to him by the Duke of Mantua, the King of 
 England, and Pope Urban VIII., he coutiuued to practise until his 
 death, July 16, 1660. 
 
 During this long period he devoted himself to his profession, to the 
 rtudy of the mode of generation or reproduction of plants and 
 animals, and to literature. He accumulated an immense library, 
 extremely rich in manuscripts. Hi3 best known publication connected 
 with polite literature was, ' Riposte alle Consideration di Alessandro 
 Tassoni sopra le Rime del Petrarca,' Padua, 1611, 8vo. To which 
 Tassoni having replied under the assumed name of Crescenzio Pepe, 
 Aromatari answered under a fictitious name, in the following work : 
 ' Dialoghi di Falcidio Melampodio in riposta agli Avvertimenti dati 
 sotto nome di Crescenzio Pepe a Giuseppe degli Aromatari,' Venice, 
 1613, 8vo. He also under the pseudonym of Subasiano edited a col- 
 
 lection of the works of several authors, in 8 vols., 4to, Venice, 1643, 
 entitled, 'Raccolta degli Autori del ben parlari.' His contributions 
 to medicine and natural history consist in ' Disputatio de Rabie Con- 
 tagiosa, cui pracposita est Epistola de Geueratione Piautarum ex 
 Semiuibus,' Venice, 1025 ; and Frankfurt, 1626, 4to. The 'Epistle' 
 has been repeatedly reprinted ; it appears in the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions,' vol. xviii. p. 150, London, 1694. This ' Epistle,' addressed 
 to Dr. Bartholomew Nant, does not occupy more than three pages, 
 and gives only the outliue, or heads of chapters, of a large work which 
 he intended to write on generation, but which his numerous profes- 
 sional engagements and delicate health prevented his accomplishing. 
 But it is remarkable inasmuch as the views, however imperfectly 
 developed, are far more in accordance with those of the most dis- 
 tinguished vegetable anatomists and physiologists in the present day, 
 than many of those generally entertained for a long period subsequent 
 to the time in which he lived. He taught that the so-called seeds of 
 plants were not. as a whole, the new plant, but the ova of plants, 
 and that a very ttnall portion of a seed (the embryo) possessed the 
 principle of life, the rest, which he called the milk of the seed, being 
 intended for the nourishment of this part. The development of this 
 embryo, he says, takes place in a twofold direction, a portion of it 
 ascendini', and constituting the plumule, the other descending, and 
 constituting the radicle. His principles respecting the generation of 
 animals were adopted, and promulgated by Harvey in his treatise 
 'De Generatione.' His views respecting seeds appear to have been 
 overlooked, except by a very few. 
 
 ARPAD, the founder of the kingdom of Hungary, succeeded his 
 father Alom, a chief of the Magyars : according to some writers in 
 a.d. 889, according to others in 892. It was about the former year, 
 according to Mailath, that the Magyars, a wandering warrior trib j , 
 crossing the Carpathian Mountains from Galicia, first entered the 
 country, which they subsequently conquered, and which their descend- 
 ants have since retained. The country they entered was then subject 
 to many princes, mostly of Slavonic origin. Arpad sent an embassy 
 to one of them, named Zalau, offered him twelve white horses as a 
 present, and demanded in return all the land from his camp to the 
 river Sajo, which Zalan, unprepared for resistance, durst not refuse. 
 Gelo, prince of Transylvania, who returned defiance, was defeated and 
 slain, and Transylvania became subject to the Magyars. The emperor 
 Arnulf, instead of endeavouring to check the advance of the invaders, 
 invited their assistance against his Slavonic enemy, Zwentibold, prince 
 of the Marahans. The Magyars readily accepted the offer, and on their 
 march totally defeated Zalau, who, having collected an army, attacked 
 them at Alpar, in the hope of recovering his rash concession. They were 
 equally succesful against Zobor, the commander of Zwentibold's army, 
 whom, after their victory, they hung. The whole country between 
 the Theiss and the Danube was now in their power, but their career 
 of conquest was not yet finished; Glado, another Slavonic prince, wa3 
 vanquished, and his country taken possession of. Mardth, who suc- 
 ceeded in repulsing them on their first onset, fled on their second 
 approach, and sent large presents, offering his daughter as the wife of 
 Zoltan, Arpad's infant son. By the acceptance of this proposal his 
 domiuions tell as effectually under the Magyar power as if they had 
 been taken by the strong hand. Arpad fixed his residence in au 
 island of the Danube, called Tsepel, from which he thenceforward 
 governed all Huugary. Some of his chieftains afterwards pressed 
 onward into Italy and besieged Venice, but were repulsed ; others 
 broke into Bavaria, where they plundered without check, but were 
 afterwards defeated by the margrave Luitpold. Arpad died in the 
 year 907, leaving for his successor his son Z'tltan, then a boy of thirteen. 
 The line of Arpad continued to occupy the throne of Huugary till 
 the death of King Andrew III. in 1301. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARRHIDyEUS, a bastard son of Philip III. of Macedonia, who, on 
 the death of his half-brother Alexander (b.c. 323) was elected his 
 successor, under the name of Philip, by acclamation of the Mace- 
 donian troops (Diod. xviii. 2) and consent of Alexander's generals. 
 His title was strengthened by marrying Eurydice, grand-daughter of 
 Perdiccas, Philip's elder brother. Being of weak intellect, he was a 
 mere tool in the hands of others ; and at length, falling into the 
 hands of Olympias, was, with his wife Eurydice, put to death (b.c. 
 317). [Antigonus; Antipateb; Perdiccas.] 
 
 ARRIA'NUS, FLA'VIUS, a native of Nicomedia in Bithynia, was 
 born towards the end of the first century after Christ ; he probably 
 assumed the name of Flavius Arriauus when he acquired the rights of 
 a Roman citizen. He was governor of Cappadocia in the twentieth 
 year of Hadrian, or a.d. 136. Arrian was a pupil of Epictetus pro- 
 bably during that philosopher's residence at Nicopolis. Epictetus, 
 with other professors of philosophy, had been banished from Rome in 
 the reign of Domitian, a.d. 89, and it does not appear that he ever 
 returned there. Arrian first made himself known by publishing the 
 doctrines of his master Epictetus; and to the reputation which he 
 thus acquired, assisted probably by the friendship of the Emperor 
 Hadrian, who had been on intimate terms with Epictetus, he owed 
 his future promotion. He first obtained as a reward the Athenian 
 citizenship, subsequently that of Rome with the rank of senator. 
 According to Huliconius, who is cited by Suidas and Photius, he 
 
869 
 
 860 
 
 attained the consulship, but his name does not appear in the Fasti 
 Consulares. In a.d. 137, Cappadocia was disturbed by a native chief, 
 Pharasmenes, whom Dion Cassius (lxix. 15, Reimar's ed.) calls the 
 leader of the Albani ; but the disturbance was checked by fear of the 
 Roman governor. 
 
 Hadrian died in a.d. 138, and we hear no more of Arrian in public 
 life. He may have retired to his native city, where he held the priest- 
 hood of Deineter and Persephone — a post of honour, and probably of 
 profit also. It was in the latter part of his life that he wrote those 
 numerous works, some of which have come down to our time, and 
 have preserved his name and reputation. He lived to an advanced 
 ige, but the date of his death is unknown. The following are the 
 extant workB of Arrian : — 1. The History of Alexander's Conquests, 
 entitled ' The Anabasis, or Ascent of Alexander,' that is, into Asia, in 
 seven books, is a work of great merit, and if viewed with reference to 
 the importance of the subject, and the want of other trustworthy 
 authorities, one of the most valuable histories that are extant. The 
 contemporary historians of Alexander are lost, but Arrian's ' Anabasis' 
 supplies their place. It begins with the death of King Philip, B.C. 336, 
 and contains the events of Alexander's life from that date to the death 
 of Alexander at Babylon, B.C. 323. The narrative of Arrian is simple 
 and concise, without any affectation of rhetorical ornament; the 
 military operations are clearly described ; and a tone of good sense 
 ind moderation pervades the book. Alexander, his hero, is a favourite 
 with him, and his faults are gently touched, but they are not concealed. 
 Our preseut knowledge of Asia, and more particularly of the basin of 
 the Indus, enables us to test the accuracy of Arrian as a geographer, 
 and in this important requisite of an historian he is not deficient. 
 Some critics are of opinion that Arrian was a young man when he 
 wrote this work ; but this is very improbable, as well from the 
 character of the work as the account which he gives in it of himself 
 and of his previous employments. The first edition of the Greek 
 text of the 'Anabasis' was by V. Trincavelli, 1535, 8vo, Veuice. Ttie 
 most recent editions are by J. E. Ellendt, Konigsberg, 1832, 2 vols. 
 8vo ; and C. W. Kriiger, Berlin, 1835, 1 vol. 8vo, which contains the 
 text and the various readings. There are German, French, and Italian 
 versions of the ' Anabasis.' It was translated into English by John 
 Rooke, London, 1729, 2 vols. 8vo. 2. The little work entitled ' Indica' 
 contains a sketch of India, of the inhabitants, their habits, and the 
 animals and products of the country, founded on the authority of 
 Eratosthenes and Megasthenes. It also contains an abridgment or 
 Journal of the Voyage of Nearchus (c. 20, &c), who was appointed 
 by Alexander to conduct his fleet from the Delta of the Indus to that 
 of the Euphrates. This work is written in the Ionic dialect. It may 
 be considered a kind of Supplement to the 'Anabasis.' The 'Indica' 
 is one of the most interesting monuments of antiquity ; as, with the 
 exception of the brief notices in Herodotus and the strange stories in 
 Ctesias, it contains the first authentic account of the nations of India, 
 and also the details of the first European navigation along that deso- 
 late coast which lies between the Indus and the entrance of the Persian 
 Gulf. The authenticity of the Journal of Nearchus has been estab- 
 lished by Vincent, in ' The Voyage of Nearchus,' London, 1807. The 
 more exact acquaintance which we have obtained in recent times with 
 the coast along which the fleet of Nearchus sailed, has established the 
 veracity of the /warnal, in a way which will satisfy the most sceptical 
 critic. An edition of the 'Indica' by Schnieder, in 8vo, appeared at 
 Halle in 1798. The best modern editions of the ' Indica' are those by 
 Ellendt and Kriiger. 3. 'ThePeriplus of the Euxine Sea' contains a 
 brief account of Arrian's coasting voyage along the Black Sea from 
 Trapezus (Trebizond) to Dioscurias, then called Sebastopolis. The 
 rest of the Periplus to Byzantium is not founded on Arrian's personal 
 knowledge, but on other authorities, as is apparent from the work. 
 It is printed in Hudson's 'Minor Geographers,' &c, vol. i., with Dod- 
 well's Dissertation ' De Aetate Peripli Maris Euxini.' There is an 
 anonymous ' Periplus of the Euxine and Maeotis,' which is not by 
 Arrian. (Dodwell, ' Dissertatio de Auctore Anonymo Peripli Euxini 
 Maris.') 4. Of the 'Alan History' the fragment entitled 'The Order 
 of Battle against the Alans' is probably a fragment. Photius mentions 
 an Alan History by Arrian; and it is possible that the passage in Dion 
 Caseins, already referred to, in which he speaks of Pharasmanes, and 
 this fragment may refer to the same events. But the true reading 
 in the passage of Dion Cassius appears to be 1 Albani,' and not ' Alani' 
 (Dion Cassius, lxix. 15, ed Reimar, and the note); and perhaps this 
 work ought to be entitled ' Albanian History.' This fragment was 
 first edited by J. Scheffer, Upsal, 1664, 8vo; and it is contained in 
 Blancard's edition of Arrian's minor works, Amsterdam, 1683, 8vo. 
 6. The ' Discourse on Tactic' was written in the 20th year of Hadrian, 
 as the author states in a passage of the ' Tactic' What remains is 
 apparently only part of a large work ; it treats chiefly of the discipline 
 of the cavalry. It was first edited by J. Scheffer, Upsal, 1664, 8vo ; 
 and is printed in Blancard's collection. 6. The ' Discourse on Hunt- 
 ing' was written by Arrian in imitation of Xenophon's treatise on the 
 same subject, and to supply its defects. The author says that he 
 " bears the same name (Xenophon), and belongs to the same city, and 
 from his youth up has been busied about the same things (as the elder 
 Xenophon), hunting, generalship, and philosophy." The Greek text 
 was first edited by Lucas Holstenius, Rome and Paris, 1644, 4to, with 
 a Latin version. There is an English version of the treatise, which 
 
 was published at London, 1831, with notes, and embellishments froin 
 the antique. Oellius (i. 2) says that Arrian digested the discourses of 
 Epictetus (' Dissertationes Epicteti'), and Photius speaks of eight books 
 of the discourses of Epictetus by Arrian. There are now extant four 
 books of a work entitled the ' Epictetus of Arrian.' Photius also 
 attributes to him a work in twelve books ' On the Conversations of 
 Epictetus;' and Simplicius says that he wrote on the life and death 
 of Epictetus, but it is uncertain whether he means to say that this 
 was a separate work, or a part of one of the two works above 
 enumerated. The consideration of these works, and of the ' Manual 
 of Epictetus' belongs to the 'Life of Epictetus.' [Epictetus.] 
 
 Arrian was a voluminous writer. Besides his extant works he 
 wrote a work in seventeen books, entitled ' Parthica,' on the wars of 
 the Romans under Trajan against the Parthians : a history of the 
 events which followed the death of Alexander, in ten books, the loss 
 of which is much to be regretted, as there are few good materials for 
 the history of this busy period. Photius has preserved a list of the 
 contents of this work; the history of Timoleon's expedition against 
 Dionysius of Syracuse, and the history of Dion of Syracuse, and li is 
 contest with the second Dionysius, are mentioned by Photius ; a history 
 of Bithynia, his native country, in eight books, from the mythical 
 times to the death of the laBt king, Nicomedes, who bequeathed his 
 kingdom to the Romans ; and the Life of Tilloborus, a distinguished 
 Asiatic robber. 
 
 The ' Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' is printed in the first volume 
 of Hudson's ' Minor Greek Geographers,' with the dissertation of Dod- 
 well, ' Do Aetate Peripli Maris Erythraoi ejusdemque Auctore.' It 
 contains an account of the commerce which was carried on from the 
 Red Sea and the east coast of Africa to the peninsula of India, in the 
 first or second century of our era. The ' Periplus of the Erythraean 
 Sea ' was first published by Froben at Basle, 1533, with a Preface by 
 the editor Gelenius. Whatever maybe the authority for calling it the 
 ' Periplus of Arrian,' it can hardly be by Arrian of Nicomedia. The 
 author appears from the work to have been an Egyptian Greek, who 
 sailed from Egypt, as far at least as the Bay of Cainbay. The ' Peri- 
 plus of the Erythraean Sea' consists of two parts : one part compre- 
 hends the coast of Africa, from Myos Hormos on the Egyptian coast 
 of the Red Sea to Rhapta, and is elucidated in the first part of Dr. 
 Vincent's valuable work on the ' Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, con- 
 taining an account of the Navigation of the Ancients from the Sea of 
 Suez to the coast of Zanguebar,' London, 1807, 4to. The second part 
 also begins at Myos Hormos and follows the Arabian coast of the 
 Red Sea and the ocean, and then, passing to Guzerat, follows the 
 Malabar coast to Ceylon. It is elucidated in the second part of Vin- 
 cent's work " containing an account of the Navigation of the Ancients 1 
 from the Gulf of Elana in the Red Sea, to the Island of Ceylon." 
 Vincent is inclined to fix the date of the composition about the tenth 
 year of Nero's reign, and to place the alleged discovery of the Mon- 
 soons in the Indian Ocean by Hippalus, in the reign of Claudius. 
 This 'Periplus' is a valuable record of the commerce of the Indian 
 Ocean under the early Roman emperors. 
 
 In the fragment on the Alan War, Arrian calls himself Xenophon. 
 Xenophon, the son of Gryllus, was the model that he proposed to 
 himself, and the parallel between the elder and the younger Xenophon 
 is curious. The son of Gryllus was an Athenian by birth ; the Xeno- 
 phon of Nicomedia was made a citizen of Athens. Xenophon recorded 
 in his ' Memorabilia ' the moral doctrines of his master Socrates ; 
 Arrian has preserved those of his teacher Epictetus. Xenophon gave 
 to his history of the expedition of the younger Cyrus the title of the 
 Anabasis ; Arrian gave the same name to his history of Alexander. 
 Xenophon wrote ' Hellenica,' or a general history of Grecian affairs, 
 beginning from the point where the history of Thueydides ends; 
 Arrian wrote a history of Alexander's successors. Xenophon and 
 Arrian were both fond of field-sports, and both wrote treatises on 
 hunting. If the parallel is not complete in all its parts, it is complete 
 enough to show that Arrian came as near to his model as he could. 
 He imitated the plain and simple style of Xenophon, and not unsuc- 
 cessfully. He had a good share of vanity, and was courtier enough to 
 know how to forward his interests ; but he was apparently an honest 
 man, and as an historian, geographer, and moral writer, he ranks among 
 the distinguished names of the Greeks. 
 
 The complete edition of Arrian's works by Borheck, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 Lemgo, is of no value. The editions of the separate works are very 
 numerous. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARRIA'ZA, JUAN BAUTISTA, one of the most noted modern 
 Spanish poets, was born at Madrid in 1770. After his first studies at 
 the seminary of nobles in that capital he entered the military college 
 at Segovia, and on quitting it began to serve in the navy ; but owing 
 to an incurable defect of vision he was obliged to renounce that career 
 iu 1798, previous to which he had published a small volume of poems 
 entitled ' Las Primicias.' After quitting the navy he came to England 
 in quality of secretary to the Spanish embassy, and here completed 
 his ' Emilia,' a didactic poem, chiefly referring to the fine arts and 
 their influence (published at Madrid, 1803). After spending about 
 two years at Paris, he returned home in 1807, just before the breaking 
 out of the revolution in Spain, when he took an active and prominent 
 
ARROWSMITH, AARON. 
 
 ARSINOE. 
 
 302 
 
 part as a supporter of legitimate monarchy. He published his senti- 
 ments first in his ' Poesias Patrioticas,' wherein he abjured his country- 
 men to maintain their national independence ; and next in his prose 
 ' Discursos Politicos.' This zeal on behalf of monarchy and legitimacy 
 did not pass unrewarded by Ferdinand VII., who bestowed on him 
 various marks of favour, and among other appointments that of secre- 
 tary of council ; also a post in the ministry for foreign affairs. He 
 died at Madrid in 1837. 
 
 As a poet, Ariiaza ranks high among contemporary Spaviiah authors. 
 Six editions of his poems, exclusive of a Paris one, appeared in his life- 
 time. Independently of their political interest, to which undoubtedly 
 a large share of their popularity must be ascribed, they are remarkable 
 for felicity of style and beauty of versification. 
 
 ARROWSMITH, AARON, was born in Winston, Durham, on the 
 14th of July, 1750, and died on the 23rd of April, 1823. His father 
 dying while he was young, his mother married again, and the second 
 husband, a dissipated man, wasted the children's patrimony. Aaron 
 was thus early thrown on his own resources ; and the only instruction 
 he ever received, except in the mere elements of reading and writing, 
 was in mathematics, from the eccentric Emerson, who had ceased 
 teaching, but was so taken by the boy's anxiety to learn that he taught 
 him for a winter. Arrowsmith came to London about 1769 or 1770. 
 He soon obtained employment from Cary, for whose large county 
 maps he made most of the pedometer measurements and drawings. 
 Arrowsmith continued with Cary till near 1790, when he published 
 his large map of the world on Mercator's projection. He had by 
 miscellaneous reading, and by inquiries of naval officers and others, 
 accumulated a stock of materials that did not appear on any map, and 
 employed the hours he could save from his employer's task-work to 
 construct one of his own. When the map was ready he took a small 
 bouse in the neighbourhood of Leicester-square, and had it advertised 
 as published. For some time it hung upon his hands ; but the captains 
 of whaling ships soon appreciated its value and freely purchased it ; and 
 the map, from the distinctness of its engraving and the great additional 
 information it contained, attracted general attention. From this period 
 his career was one of uniform progress and prosperity. In 1794 he 
 published his great map of the world on a globular projection, with a 
 'Companion' of explanatory letter-press. This was followed in a short 
 time by his map of the northern regions of America. 
 
 Arrowsmith' s maps obtained a high reputation throughout Europe 
 for their distinctness, the result of good engraving and arrangement. 
 It has been the fashion of late to undervalue his acquirements as a 
 geographer; but though he is inferior to Berghaus, and some other 
 map-makers of the present day, he was superior to any one in Europe 
 at the time when he commenced his career. Those who depreciate 
 him owe great part of their own superior knowledge to the impulse 
 given to geography by the untiring assiduity of Arrowsmith in col- 
 lecting new information. He was not a profound mathematician or 
 man of science, but he had a complete understanding and mastery of 
 the theory and practice of his art, as is shown by his ' Companion to 
 a Map of the World,' published in 1794 ; his 'Memoir relative to the 
 Construction of the Map of Scotland,' published in 1807, which appeared 
 in 1809; and his 'Geometrical Projection of Maps,' published in 1825, 
 after his death. He lived in London, a city more than any other in 
 Europe favourable to the collection of geographical information, and 
 in the age of Dalrymple, Rennell, and other distinguished promoters 
 of geography, by whom he was appreciated and employed, and who 
 not only imparted their views to him, but freely communicated their 
 collections, while his European reputation as a constructor of maps 
 caused materials to flow in upon him from the travellers of every 
 country. His 'Memoir on the Map of Scotland,' published in 1807, 
 contains abundant proof of his diligence in collecting information, and 
 of the modesty and good faith with which he sought the advice and 
 assistance of men eminent in science or letters. This map is the first 
 map of Scotland that in the slightest degree approximated to accuracy. 
 Arrowsmith's maps exceed one hundred and thirty. The school atlases 
 and skeleton maps for Eton College, and the. manuals of geography, 
 ancient and modern, by Aaron Arrowsmith, are the works of his sou. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biojraphical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARSA'CES, the founder of the great Parthian monarchy, and whose 
 name was borne by all his successors, who were thence called the 
 Arsacidae. His descent is doubtful, but he was probably a Scythian. 
 Justin speaks of him as being " of doubtful origin, but tried valour, 
 used to live by robbery ; who, in the belief that Seleucus (Callinicus) 
 was conquered by the Gauls in Asia, attacked Andragoras, the governor 
 of the Parthians, and took possession of the empire of the nation." 
 (xli. 4.) According to Arrian (ap. 1'hot. ' Bibl.,' No. 58), a personal 
 and family quarrel led him to raise the standard of revolt from the 
 Syrian empire, B.C. 250, during the reign of Antiochus Theos, father 
 of Seleucus, who, busied with his Egyptian wars, neglected this new 
 •ource of disturbance until Arsaces had gathered a sufficient party to 
 resist him successfully. Seleucu3 Callinicus made two expeditions into 
 Pvihia; the first failed, and in the second he was defeated in a great 
 battle, taken prisoner, and died in captivity. The day of that defeat 
 was long observed by t.ie l'arihians as the commencement of their 
 independence. Arsaces reduced the neighbouring district of Hyrcania, 
 and died, according to Justin, in a ripe old age. 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 British Museum. Silver. 
 
 The small coin which we here give must rather be considered as a 
 specimen of the coinage of the dynasty than as one which can with 
 certainty be referred to any individual of the Arsacidaj. Eckhel 
 (' Catalog. Mus. Csesar Vindob.,' &c, i., p. 253) attributes this small 
 coin to Arsaces I. or Arsaces II. ; Frblich assigns it to Arsaces L 
 Visconti (' Iconographie Grecque ') assigns the large silver medal 
 (which is magnified to twice its linear measure) to Arsaces VII., and 
 the small one to Arsaces II. 
 
 From Visconti. 
 
 ARSE'NITJS, the son of Michael Apostolius, a Greek man of letters, 
 was bom, probably in the island of Crete, towards the end of the 15th 
 century. Arsenius conformed to the Latin church, and became an 
 ecclesiastic. He lived in Rome in the pontificate of Leo X., but 
 received no preferment from that pope. Under Paul III. he was made 
 archbishop of Malvasia, or Monembasia, a town on the eastern coast 
 of the Morea, not very far from the promontory of St. Angelo. He 
 published a collection of Apophthegms of remarkable men in Greek ; 
 the apophthegms were collected by his father, and Arsenius prefixed 
 to them a dedication in Greek to Leo X. He also published Scholia 
 on the first seven plays of Euripides, taken partly from Moschopulus, 
 Lascaris, and Thomas Magister — partly from earlier sources. Venet. 
 1534. This work was dedicated to his friend and patron Pope Paul III. 
 (Fabric, Bibl, Gr., vol. i., p. 655-56; vol. x., p. 222 and 491, &c. ; 
 Crusius, Turko-Oracke Libri Octo, 146-51; Chardon de la Rochette, 
 Melange de Critique et de Philologie, v. i., 238 ; Bayle.) 
 
 ARSI'NOE, a daughter of Ptoleinams L, son of Lagus, king of Egyp*, 
 and of Berenice, was born about B.C. 316; and was married about 
 B.C. 300 to Lysimachus, king of Thrace, then so far advanced in years 
 that his eldest son, Agathocles, had already espoused Lysandra, the half- 
 sister of Arsinoe'. In order to marry Arsinoe, Lysimachus had separated 
 from his wife Amastris, and on her death a few years afterwards he 
 presented Arsinoe with the cities of Amastris, Dium, and Heracleia. 
 Arsinoe desirous of securing the succession of her own children, 
 prevailed on Lysimachus to consent to the death of Agathocles. Lysi- 
 machus found himself involved in war with Seleucus in consequence 
 of this atrocious proceeding. He was defeated and killed on the 
 borders of Cilicia, B.C. 281, and his kingdom of Macedonia was taken 
 possession of by Seleucus. Seven months afterwards Seleucus was 
 assassinated by Ptoleinocus Cerauuus, the elder brother of Ptolemteus 
 l'hiladelphus ; who also treacherously put to death the two children 
 of his half-sister, Arsiuoe, after he had induced her under promise ol 
 marriage to admit him into the city of Cassandria in Macedonia, ol 
 
8fl3 
 
 ARSINOE. 
 
 which she held possession. Arsinoe succeeded, in escaping to the 
 sacred island of Sainothrace; whence she soon after went to Alexandria 
 in Egypt, to become the second wife of her brother, Ptolemseus II. 
 Philadelphus. This was the first example of an unnatural custom 
 which prevailed among the Greek kings of Egpyt, the origin of which 
 it is difficult to account for. Arsinoe, who was now advanced in years, 
 bore no children to her brother, but she was much beloved by him, 
 and he called one of the districts of Egypt by her name. The architect 
 Diuochares was employed by Ptolemseus to erect a temple to her 
 honour, and he intended it should be arched with loadstones, so that 
 her statue, made of iron, might have the appearance of being suspended 
 in the air. The death of the architect prevented its completion. We 
 thus find that the Mohammedans of Medina were not the first to 
 whom this strango idea bad occurred. (Plin. xxxiv. 14.) Strabo 
 (x. 400) attributes to this Arsinob the founding of a city called by her 
 own name on the banks of the Achelous in iEtolia. A statue of Arsinoe 
 existed at Athens in the time of Pausanias (i. 8). The beautiful medal 
 of Arsinoe, which we have given, with a cornucopia on the reverse, 
 confirms what Atheurcus says (xi. chap. 13), "that the kind of cup or 
 drinking vessel called Ruton was first devised by Ptolemseus Phila- 
 delphus as an ornament for the statues of Arsinoe;" but the word 
 ruton as applied to a kind of drinking cup is found much earlier. 
 
 British Museum. Gold. 
 
 ARSI'NOfi, daughter of Ptolemoous III. Euergetes, was married to 
 her brother, Ptoleinoous IV. Philopator : she is called Eurydice by 
 Justin, and Cleopatra by Livy. She was present at the battle of 
 Raphia, fought between her husband and Antiochus the Great, B.C. 217, 
 and is said to have contributed not a little to gain the victory. [Antio- 
 cnus.] Ptolemseus afterwards, seduced by tho charms of Agathoclea, 
 ordered Arsinoe to be put to death somewhere about B.C. 210. (Justin, 
 xxx. 1 ; Polyb. xv. 33.) 
 
 ARSI'NOE, a daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, was the 
 wife of Ptolemseus Philadelphus, by whom she had three children, 
 Ptolemseus, Lysimachus, and Berenice. Suspecting that she was 
 plotting against his life, Ptolemseus banished her to Coptos, or some 
 city of the Theba'is. (Schol. Theocr. xvii. 128.) Niebuhr and some 
 other authorities are of opinion that she escaped and fled to Cyrene, 
 where she was married to the king, Magas, who was the half-brother 
 of Ptolemseus Philadelphus. There is however great difficulty in 
 identifying Arsinoe the wife of Magas with the daughter of Lysimachus. 
 Magas, in order to put an end to the quarrel existing between Ptole- 
 mseus and himself, had betrothed his daughter Berenice to the son 
 of Ptolemseus ; but the death of Magas put an end to the negociations, 
 and Arsinoe gave her in marriage to Demetrius, son of Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, whom she summoned from Macedonia for this purpose. 
 Demetrius, on his arrival, according to Justin, gave his affections 
 to Arsinoe, instead of her daughter, which led to his assassination, and 
 the marriage of Berenice and Ptolemseus III., by which the kingdoms 
 of Cyrene and Egypt were again united. (Justin, xxvi. 3 : Schlosser, 
 Th. ii. ; Abth. i.) 
 
 ART AB A'N US, the last of the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacidaa, 
 succeeded his brother Vologeses IV. Herodiau relates that Caracalla, 
 the son of Septimius Severus, having asked and obtained in marriage 
 the daughter of Artabanus, entered the country with a Roman army, 
 and in the middle of the festivities gave orders for a massacre, a.d. 216, 
 in which numbers of the Parthians perished, and the king himself 
 escaped with difficulty. Indignant at this gross treachery, Artabanus 
 took the field with a numerous army. After a hard-fought and inde- 
 cisive battle of two days, the Romans came to terms, by informing the 
 Parthian king of the death of Caracalla, against whom he was chiefly 
 incensed, and offering to restore the treasures seized by Caracalla, as 
 well as to pay a large sum of money. But in this war Artabanus had 
 lost a large part of his army and prisoners and booty taken at Ctesiphon. 
 Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, took advantage of the losses sustained by the 
 Parthians to incite the Persians to revolt. The Parthians were defeated 
 iu three great battles, in the last of which Artabanus was, after three 
 days' hard fighting, taken, and put to death, a.d. 226. The Parthians 
 in consequence became subject to the Persians, after having been their 
 masters for 475 years. 
 
 ARTAXERXES, or ARTOXERXES, King of Persia, surnamed 
 Longimanus (in Greek Macrocheir), from his right hand being larger 
 than his left, was the second son of Xerxes I., and succeeded to the 
 throne on the murder of his father and his elder brother Darius by 
 Artabanus, B.C. 465. He himself narrowly escaped assassination from 
 the same hand, but his superior strength saved him in the struggle, 
 and Artabanus fell by a blow from hia dagger. This event was fol- 
 
 lowed by the insurrection of his only remaining brother Hystaspcs, 
 who was satrap of Bactria ; but the king soon succeeded in reducing 
 the rebellious province. The Egyptians, thinking the disturbed con- 
 dition of the kingdom afforded them a favourable opportunity to 
 recover their independence, of which they had been deprived by 
 Cambyses, rose in arms under Inaros, B.C. 460, and nearly freed their 
 country from the yoke of the Persians. They at the same time 
 received a numerous body of Athenian auxiliaries. Artaxerxes sent 
 his brother Achsemenes to reduce them to obedience, but he was 
 defeated and slain. In a second expedition which he sent under Arta- 
 bazus and Megabyzus, the Athenians were obliged to evacuate the 
 country, B.c. 455. They still however continued the war, and sent a 
 body of troops under Cimon to take possession of Cyprus. Cimon 
 defeated the Persians several times, and had nearly reduced the whole 
 of the island when he was cut off by disease, B.C. 449. Peace was 
 then concluded, according to the later Greek writers on very hutnilia- 
 ting terms : but of these Thucydidea was not aware, and they are 
 now generally regarded as a subsequent fabrication. Soon after peace 
 was concluded Megabyzus revolted, but was ultimately pardoned ; and 
 Artaxerxes seems to have spent the remainder of hia life in peace. 
 He died after a reign of forty years, B.C. 425, and was succeeded by 
 his son, Xerxes II. (Thucyd. L 104-110; Diodorua, lib. xi. xii; Ctesise, 
 Persica in Phot. Bibl., p. 119 ; or, Baehr'a ed. of Ctesias, 1824.)) 
 
 ARTAXERXES II., king of Persia, surnamed Mnemon from the 
 excellence of his memoiy, was the eldest son of Darius II. and Pary- 
 satis, and succeeded to the throne on his father's death B.C. 405. His 
 mother hoped to obtain the crown for her younger son, Cyrus, on the 
 ground of his being the first born after the accession of his father. 
 Artaxerxes suspected his brother, and would have put him to death 
 but for the intercession of his mother, who obtained his pardon, and 
 even his continuation in the command of the maritime provinces of 
 ABia Minor. At Sardis Cyru8 collected a large force with the inten- 
 tion of usurping the throne, and proceeded with these troops and a 
 body of above 10,000 Greek mercenaries to attack the king. This is 
 the celebrated expedition of which Xenophon has left us so interest- 
 iug an account. A decisive engagement took place at Cunaxa, B.C. 
 401, about forty miles from Babylon, in which Cyrus gained the 
 victory, but being himself slain in the battle, the result was the com- 
 plete establishment of Artaxerxes on the throne. The Lacedaemonians 
 were encouraged to enter Asia by the weakness of the Persian 
 monarchy, which the expedition of the 10,000 had revealed to all 
 Greece. Agesilaus, at the head of the Spartan troops, overran the 
 greater part of the western provinces of Aaia Minor, and would 
 probably have reduced the whole of the penin8ula, if Artaxerxes by 
 bribery had not succeeded in exciting a Grecian war against Sparta. 
 Agesilaus was recalled to the defence of his country, and the Persians 
 soon afterwards gained a naval victory near Cnidus, principally by the 
 assistance of Conon the Athenian, B.C. 394. The Spartans were at 
 last induced to sign a treaty, B.C. 387, which gave up everything for 
 which they had been contending. [Agesilaus.] The only war which 
 Artaxerxes conducted in person was an unsuccessful expedition against 
 the Cadusii, a people inhabiting the mountains on the west and south- 
 west side of the Caspian Sea. His efforts to reduce Egypt were fruit- 
 less. Artaxerxes was a weak and a licentious man. During the early 
 years of his reign he was under the influence of his mother, Parysatis, 
 who governed with excessive cruelty through the agency of slaves 
 and eunuchs. Artaxerxes had only three legitimate sons ; but according 
 to Justin he had by his concubines no less than 115 sons. He married 
 his own daughters, Amestris and Atossa, the first example in Persian 
 history of such an unnatural alliance. His son Darius he put to 
 death in consequence of a conspiracy which he had formed against 
 him. Artaxerxes died from grief on account of the bad conduct of 
 Ochus, the youngest of his legitimate sons, B.C. 362, and was succeeded 
 by Ochus. (Plutarch, Life of Artaxerxes ; Diodorus, lib. xiii.. xiv. ; 
 Ctesias ; Xenophon, Anabasis.) 
 
 ARTAXERXES III., called Ochus before he ascended the throne, 
 was the third son of Artaxerxes Mnemon. He began his reign by 
 putting to death all those of the royal family from whom he thought 
 himself likely to incur danger. He was cowardly as well as cruel, 
 but by means of his Greek generals he succeeded in subduing the 
 satrap Artabazus who had revolted, and in reducing Phoenicia and several 
 towns of Candia and Egypt. He was at length, B.C. 339, assassinated 
 by Bagoas, his favourite eunuch, an Egyptian by birth ; who placed 
 on the throne his youngest son, Arses. (Diodorus, lib. xvi. xvii. ; 
 Justin, x. 3 ; Plutarch, Agesilaus.) 
 
 ARTEDI, PETER, a distinguished naturalist, the second son of 
 Olaus Artedi, was born 22nd February, 1 705, at Anund in Angerman- 
 land, a province of Sweden. He was destined for the church, and in 
 1716 was sent to the school of Hernbsand, and thence in 1724 to the 
 University of Upsal ; but he gradually abandoned theology and at 
 length devoted himself entirely to natural history ; adopting however 
 medicine as his profession. Even when a school-boy he had spent 
 most of his leisure hours in the study of fishes and the collection of 
 plants ; and by constant attention he had made himself so far master 
 of the science that when Linnseus, who in 1728 went to Upsal to study 
 medicine, on inquiries who among the studenta was pre-eminent, all 
 answered Peter Artedi ; on which Linnseus sought his acquaintance. 
 At this time, according to Linnseus's description of him, he was tall, 
 
ARTEMIDORUS. 
 
 thin, with long black hair, and a countenance resembling that of 
 John Ray, judging by the portrait of the English naturalist. Their 
 friendship continued through the whole period of their residence at 
 Upsal, which was seven years. Their scientific studies were pursued 
 in concert. Physiology, chemistry, and mineralogy they studied 
 together. The Btudy of fishes and the amphibia was assigned to 
 Artedi, while Linnaeus gave his attention to birds and insects. In 
 testimony of their friendship, before the departure of Linnaeus for 
 Lapland and of Artedi for England, they mutually constituted each 
 other heir to their papers and collections of natural history, the 
 survivor pledging himself to publish whatever manuscripts might 
 Beem worthy of the public eye. 
 
 In September, 1734, Artedi sailed from Stockholm to London, where 
 he met with the most courteous reception, particularly from Sir Hans 
 Sloane, who gave him the free use of his fine museum. During his 
 stay in London he wrote the preface to his ' Ichthyologia.' In 1735 
 Linnaeus, after his Lapland tour, went to Leyden, where, after residing 
 a few weeks, he was agreeably surprised to find himself joined by his 
 friend Artedi. The means of Artedi being almost exhausted, he 
 meditated a return to his native land ; but a very different fate awaited 
 him. Albert Seba, an old and wealthy apothecary of Amsterdam, 
 who had collected an unrivalled museum of objects of natural history, 
 had published two volumes descriptive of quadrupeds and serpents, 
 and when about to publish a third volume on fishes, he requested the 
 assistance of Linnaeus ; but he, too much occupied with other matters, 
 declined the task, and recommended Artedi. Previous to this Artedi 
 had assisted Linnaeus in his great ' Systema Naturae,' particularly in 
 the departments of fishes, and in the umbelliferous plants. Having 
 entered upon his new office, he drew up for the work of Seba, the 
 descriptions, the synonymes, the genera, and species of nearly all that 
 remained. 
 
 About this time, Linnaeus, having finished his ' Fundamenta 
 'Botanica,' hastened to Amsterdam to show it to Artedi, who on his 
 part showed Linnaeus his ' Philosophia Ichthyologica,' which had 
 been the work of several years' labour. But this friendly interchange 
 of ideas soon experienced a melancholy interruption. Artedi, on the 
 21st September, 1735, when returning to his lodgings from the house 
 of Seba, fell into one of the canals of Amsterdam, and no assistance 
 being at hand, he was not discovered till morning. Thus, in the 
 thirtieth year of his age, perished one whom Linnaeus justly pro- 
 nounced an honour and ornament to his country. 
 
 Linnaeus found among the papers of Artedi the ' Philosophia Ich- 
 thyologica' alone finished; the ' Synonymologica,' a work of immense 
 labour, complete, but confused ; the ' Descriptions,' good ; the ' Biblio- 
 theca,' unfinished ; and the ' Systema' nearly complete. He devoted 
 more than a year to render these works complete, and then gave them 
 to the world, preceded by a well-written life of the author, in 1 vol. 
 8vo, Leyd. 1738. Linnaeus had previously availed himself of them, 
 for the department of fishes, in hi3 ' Systema Naturae,' published at 
 Leyden in 1735. The great work of Artedi was, as Cuvier observed, 
 the first which gave a truly scientific character to the natural history 
 of fishes, completing that which had been so well begun by Willoughby 
 and Ray. Artedi's was a strictly natural arrangement, having founded 
 his orders solely upon the consistence of the skeleton, upon the oper- 
 cula of the gills (branchiae), and the nature of the rays of the fins. 
 In his botanical labours Artedi was not so successful. The researches 
 of Sprengel, Kock, and Decandolle, have furnished an arrangement 
 of the umbelliferous plants much superior to that of Artedi. Linnaeus 
 called a genus of umbelliferous plants after his friend, Artedia, of 
 which only one species is known. A. squamata. Artedi's 'Ichthyo- 
 logia' was reprinted and enlarged by J. Waldbaum, three volumes 
 4to, Lubeck, 1788, 1789, 1792. 
 
 ARTEMIDO'RUS, surnamed Daldianus, from Daldis, a small town 
 of Lydia, which was the birthplace of his mother, is the author of a 
 work in five books, entitled ' Oneirocritica,' or ' The Interpretation of 
 Dreams.' He lived in the time of the Antonines, and collected his 
 materials by travelling in Greece, Asia, Italy, and other countries, and 
 registering such communications as he was favoured with by those 
 who studied the interpretation of dreams. (Lib. I. cap. i.) The 
 value of the work, which is written in very fair Greek, consists partly 
 iu the strange stories it tells, but more in the incidental notices of 
 manners and usages, and in the view which it gives of the superstition 
 about dreams in that age. It is also useful for the explanation of 
 several mythological allusions and symbols. The first edition was by 
 Aldus, 1518, 8vo; the last by Reiff, Leipzig, 1805, 2 vols., 8vo, one of 
 text and the other of notes. An English translation was published in 
 1644, in 12mo, under the title of 'The Interpretation of Dreams, 
 digested into five books, by that ancient philosopher Artemidorus.' 
 Of this work a tenth edition was published in 1690. Artemidorus 
 intimates that he wrote other works, but only the ' Oneirocritica ' has 
 come down to us. 
 
 ARTEMIDO'RUS of Ephesus wrote a treatise on general Geography, 
 in eleven books, besides some other works. He wrote probably about 
 B.C. 100. His geographical work is very often quoted by Strabo as 
 authority, by Pliny in his ' Natural History,' by Stephanus of Byzan- 
 tium in big ' Dictionary,' and by other writers. The passages thus 
 quoted are collected in Hudson's ' Minor Greek Geographers,' vol. i. 
 We can collect from Strabo that Artemidorus visited Spain, Rome, 
 
 ARTEVELD, JACOB. 8<M 
 
 and Alexandria. He was sent on an embassy from Ephesus to Rome, 
 in order to recover two valuable salt-lakes near the mouth of the 
 Cayster, which belonged to the temple of Diana, but had been seized 
 by the Roman publicani (farmers of the taxes). Artemidorus was 
 successful, and was rewarded with a golden statue placed in the temple 
 of the goddess. (Strabo, xiv. p. 642.) 
 
 ARTEMI'SIA, the daughter of Lygdamia, became queen of Halicar- 
 nassus when her husband died. She was one of the most distinguished 
 women of antiquity, if we may credit the account given by her 
 countryman Herodotus. She attended Xerxes in his expedition 
 against Greece, B.C. 480, and furnished five ships, which were second 
 only to those of the Sidonians. In the council of war before the 
 battle of Salamis, she strongly represented to Xerxes the folly of 
 risking a naval engagement, and the event justified her opinion. In 
 the battle she displayed such courage that Xerxes declared " the men 
 behaved like women, and the women like men." To her Xerxes 
 intrusted the care of his children, that they might be transported in 
 safety to his kingdom. (Herod, vii. 99, viii. 87-103.) She was repre- 
 sented in the Persian portico, which was erected to commemorate the 
 great defeat of the Persians. (Paus. iii. 11.) She is not subsequently 
 mentioned in history ; but of her death a fabulous account is given 
 by Photius : having become enamoured of a young man named 
 Dardanus of Mydos, and finding her passion not returned, she caused 
 his eyes to be put out whilst he slept. This provoked the anger of the 
 gods, and she was condemned by an oracle to go to the rock of Leucas, 
 whence she threw herself into the sea. Other unfortunate lovers in 
 antiquity, as will be remembered, are said to have followed her 
 example. But most modern scholars agree in regarding the phrase 
 of "leaping from the Leucadian rock" as merely a poetical expression, 
 without any foundation in historical fact. 
 
 ARTEMI'SIA, daughter of Hecatomnus, king of Caria in Asia 
 Minor, and wife of Mausolus, whom she succeeded on his death, 
 B.C. 352. She reigned two years, carrying out in all respects the policy 
 of her husband, for her attachment to whom she is indeed chiefly 
 celebrated in history. She is said by Pliny to have mixed his ashes 
 in her daily drink, and to have slowly pined away in grief for his loss. 
 She proposed two prizes for the best panegyrics on her husband, one 
 in poetry and another in oratory. The successful competitors were 
 Theopompus snd Theodectes. She caused a monument to be erected 
 at Halicarnassus to the memory of Mausolus, which, for its grandeur 
 and magnificence, was considered one of the seven wonders of the 
 world. It was called ' mausoleum ' from the name of her husband, 
 and hence the name mausoleum came to be applied to such funeral 
 monuments as are of more than usual splendour. 
 
 ARTEVELD, JACOB, a great popular leader in the early part of 
 the 14th century, was a native of Ghent. Louis, then count of Flan- 
 ders, had married a neice of Charles le Bel, king of France. On the 
 death of his grandfather, Robert de Bethune, a dispute arose between 
 Louis and Robert de Cassel, his uncle, about the succession, which 
 was decided by the parliament of Paris, supported by the king of 
 France's power, in favour of Louis. By his violent conduct Louis 
 had made himself obnoxious to his subjects, particularly in the great 
 commercial towns. The four principal chartered communes, or muni- 
 cipalities, of the county of Flanders, were Ghent, Ypres, Bruges, and 
 the country or district of Bruges which was called Le-Franc, or ' free 
 country.' Bruges repeatedly revolted against Count Louis, and at last 
 took him prisoner, and kept him till the people of Ghent, who were 
 then jealous of their neighbours of Bruges, rescued the count. Another 
 and a more general insurrection of the Flemish was put down by 
 Philip de Valois, who had succeeded Charles le Bel ; he defeated the 
 Flemish in a great battle at Mount Cassel in 1328, and obliged them 
 to surrender at discretion. The leaders were put to death, and the 
 towns were heavily taxed. 
 
 The war which broke out some years after between Philip de Valois 
 and Edward III. of England, gave occasion to another revolt of the 
 Flemish towns. This time Ghent took the lead, and the burghers 
 elected for their captain Jacob Arteveld, a brewer according to 
 Froissart, who superseded the authority of the count, and was in fact 
 the ruler of Ghent. Jacob had the great qualities, as well as the vices, 
 frequently found united in the character of a demagogue. He was 
 active, eloquent, and bold; but violent, overbearing, and tyrannical. 
 He flattered the people, proscribed the nobles, and divided their spoils 
 among those of his own party. Edward of England having sent 
 messengers to Flanders, for the purpose of bringing the Flemings to 
 act with him against Philip of France, Arteveld declared for him, and 
 induced the people of Ghent to form an alliance with the English 
 Count Louis, who was attached to King Philip, opposed Arteveld'a 
 intrigues, and in a diet held in the town of Bruges, he caused one of 
 the promoters of the English alliance to be seized and beheaded at 
 Ruppelmonde. The people of Ghent, infuriated at this proceeding, 
 marched to Bruges, and compelled its burghers to join the English 
 alliance ; and the insurgents, strengthened by the assistance of the 
 English, defeated the count and his nobles, who were obliged to 
 evacuate Bruges. The count withdrew to France, but returned again 
 in 1338, and made an attempt to conciliate his refractory subjects. 
 Having entered Ghent, he tried to persuade the popular leaders to 
 side with him and with Philip of France; but the buighers shut the 
 gates, made the count prisoner, and compelled him to sign a treaty ot 
 
867 
 
 ARTEVELD, PHILIP VAN. 
 
 ARTHUR. 
 
 368 
 
 alliance offensive and defensive with King Edward (December, 1339). 
 Louis Boon afterwards found means to escape from Ghent, and again 
 withiliew to Paris. In 1341, a truce being agreed upon, King Edward 
 went to Ghent to meet Count Louis, whom he tried to wiu over to his 
 aide, bJit without, success. After Edward's departure from Glient on 
 nis return to England, Count Louis, seeing his subjects wholly 
 estranged from him, and his authority openly set at nought by 
 Arteveld, once more withdrew to Paris. Arteveld now proposed that 
 Edward's son, the young Prince of Wales, afterwards called the Black 
 Prince, should be electeii governor of Flanders, on the understanding 
 that the country was to be made by Edward a sovereign duchy ; but 
 the Flemings mistrusting Arteveld's intentions, a dispute broke out at 
 Ghent between the various trades, in which the fullers were arrayed 
 against the weavers, and a battle was fought in the great market-place 
 between the two factions, which lasted all day: 1500 fullers were 
 killed, and the weavers, being victorious, abolished the corporation of 
 the fullers, and consequently excluded them from any share in the 
 government of the town. Arteveld had not taken an open part in the 
 contest, but being jealous of the rising authority of Gerrard Denys, 
 the dean of the weavers, he secretly introduced into Glient 500 
 English soldiers, whom he lodged in his premises. Denys and the 
 weavers cried out treason, attacked Arteveld, and killed him, with 
 many of his English soldiers, in July, 1345. Arteveld's authority in 
 Flauders lasted seven years, during which, in spite of many acts of 
 violence and injustice, the cities prospered in their trade, and enjoyed 
 great respect among their neighbours. (Froissart, Chroniques de la 
 France; Myer, Annates Rerun, F/andricarum ; Oudegherst, Chro- 
 niques et Annates de Flandre.) 
 
 ARTEVELD, PHILIP VAN, the son of Jacob Arteveld, was born 
 about 1340. Philippa, Edward III.'s queen, held him at the baptismal 
 font, and from her he received his Christian name. His father left 
 him wealth, and his mother, a woman of a prudent character, watched 
 over his youth. She negociated an early marriage for him with a lady 
 of good family, after which Philip lived quiet and happy with his wife 
 and mother, keeping aloof from all public affairs. But he had a name 
 which was connected with party feelings and recollections. A fresh 
 revolt broke out at Ghent in 1379 against Count Louis de Male, the 
 son and successor of CouDt Louis I., in opposing which the count suc- 
 ceeded in intercepting all supplies to the insurgent city, which was 
 reduced to great distress. Piet van der Bosch (the Pierre Dubois of 
 the French), and the other leaders of the Ghentese, finding that the 
 people were impatient of their assumed authority, thought of strength- 
 ening themselves by engaging Arteveld as the nominal chief of their 
 party. They proposed him to the people, and he was elected captain 
 by acclamation. After some desultury negociatious with the count, 
 in the course of which two deputies of Ghent who had proposed to 
 surrender the town, were stabbed in the market-place by Van der 
 Bosch, Arteveld, seeing that it was impossible to hold out any longer 
 for want of provisions, conceived the bold resolution of marching out 
 with a chosen body of men and attacking the count, who was then at 
 Bruges. He left Ghent on the 2nd of May, 13S2, with 6000 men, 
 determined to conquer or die, and halted in a good position, within 
 three miles of Bruges. The next day was a great festival in that city. 
 In the midst of the processions and rejoicings, news came of the 
 Ghentese being at hand. Hie count went out to encounter them with 
 a body of 800 knights aud squires, followed by a numerous but dis- 
 orderly multitude of the people of Bruges. The result was disastrous 
 for the count and his followers. He re-entered Bruges with only forty 
 horsemen, and the Ghentese poured in at the same time. It was now 
 night ; and before the citizens of Bruges had time to recover from 
 thtir panic, the city was given up to plunder. Arteveld succeeded in 
 stopping the indiscriminate slaughter in the morning; but the magis- 
 trates and nobles were sought after and led to execution as traitors 
 to their country. The commerce of Bruges was annihilated for 
 a time by this catastrophe. The count succeeded in effecting his 
 escape. 
 
 After the capture of Bruges, the other towns of Flanders, with the 
 exception of Oudeuarde, opened their gates to Arteveld. He now 
 assumed the state and pomp of a sovereign prince, taxed at will the 
 country people, but took care to keep the city of Ghent well supplied 
 with provisions at a low price. His camp abounded not only with all 
 necessaries, but also luxuries. He began the siege of Oudeuarde, in 
 ir which however he was unsuccessful. Meantime the people of the 
 jeighbouring states, Hainault, Brabant, Liege, &c. showed a disposition 
 to make common cause with the Flemings, and the spirit of revolt 
 »pread also into France, wlure the people were dissatisfied with the 
 exactions and oppressions of their nobles. The duke of Burgundy, 
 regent of France, easily induced the young king, Charles VI., to assist 
 Count Louis in putting down the Flemish insurgents, before the 
 English had time to join them. A large force was collected under the 
 command of Olivier de Clisson, a skilful but merciless commander ; 
 the oriflamme was displayed, and the campaign began in November, 
 1382. The French advanced to Roosebeke, between Courtray and 
 Ghent. Arteveld rashly advanced to attack them ; and on the 29th 
 of November the armies met. The Flemings, equal in numbers, but 
 inferior in military skill, were arrayed too closely, so that the greater 
 part of them had not room to wield their weapons. The battle lasted 
 only an hour, yet 25,000 Flemings were killed, most of them in the 
 
 pursuit. " The body of Arteveld," says Froissart, " being found under 
 a heap of slain, was suspended on a tree." 
 
 (Barante, Hisloire des Dues de Bourgogne de la Maison de Valoii.) 
 
 ARTHUR, king of Britain, the famous semi-fabulous hero of the 
 period which intervened between the departure of the Romans from 
 England and the settlement of the Saxon kings. So much of the 
 story of Arthur as told by the monkish chroniclers and mediaeval 
 poets and romancers, is even so absurdly fictitious, that Arthur himself 
 has long since been regarded by many writers (by Milton among others) 
 as a mythical personage. But there appears to be no sufficient ground 
 for such a supposition, and the Arthur of history is still to a certain 
 extent separable from the Arthur of romance. 
 
 Following then as well as we can the historic traces of his career, 
 it would seem that Arthur must have been born in the last quarter 
 of the 5th century. He is described as the son of a British prince, 
 but the name of his father does not occur in historic records. He 
 began his warlike career about the commencement of the 6th century. 
 Owen and Whitaker, who have drawn largely on their imaginations 
 in picking out a continuous biography of Arthur, make him to have 
 been elected pendragou or chief ruler of the British ; but there is no 
 evidence of any such election, though he appears at times to have 
 been recognised as their military chief. 
 
 The early history of Arthur is placed in the north, and there all his 
 earlier victories were achieved ; but after he became the recognised 
 chief of the British, all his exertions were devoted to stopping the 
 progress of the Saxons, led by the active and successful Cerdic, in 
 the south. He was commander-in-chief at the battle of Llongborth, 
 on the authority of Llywarch Hen, a well-known Welsh bard, who 
 fought in that battle, and composed an elegy, still extant, on the 
 death of his friend Geraint ap Erbin, who full iu it. Llywarch men- 
 tions elsewhere another battle, in which ' Arthur did not recede,' 
 fought on the river Llawen. The next and the most important battle 
 is that of Badou (commonly supposed to be Bath), the twelfth victory 
 over the Saxons iu the list of Nennius, corresponding to one mentioned 
 also by Gildas and Bede, and others, though Arthur is not named by 
 them. This battle checked the progress of Cerdic, and compelled 
 him to content himself with those provinces along the south coast 
 which he had already gaiued. From this time we hear no more of 
 Arthur, until the revolt of his nephew, Modred, or Medrod, which led 
 to the fatal battle of Camlan in Cornwall, in 542. Modred was slain, 
 and Arthur, mortally wounded, was conveyed by sea to Glastonbury, 
 where he died and was buried. A popular traditional belief was long 
 entertained among the Britons that he was not dead, but had been 
 carried off to be healed of bis wounds in Fairy-land, and that he 
 would re-appear to avenge his countrymen, and reinstate them in the 
 sovereignty of Britain. 
 
 The Arthur of romance is a very different person. He is the son 
 of Uther Pendragon by Igerna, wife of Gorlois, duke of Cornwall, 
 and owed his birth to a magical device, by which Uther assumed the 
 form of the lady's husband. He succeeded to his father when 15 
 years old, and immediately prosecuted hostilities against the Saxons in 
 the north of England. He defeated them on the banks of the river 
 Duglas, and again under the wails of Lincoln, and compelled them to 
 quit England and abandon their booty, as the price of their safety. 
 Breaking this agreement, they sailed round the island, aud landed at 
 Totness in Devonshire. Arthur hastened by forced marches to punish 
 this new aggression, and routed them with immense slaughter at the 
 great battle of Mount Badon, in which he slew 470 men with his good 
 sword Caliburn and his lance Rou. Again he hastened with all speed 
 to Scotland, to relieve Dunbarton (Alcluyd), besieged by the Scots 
 and Pihts. Having done this, aud pursued those barbarians into the 
 fastnesses of Loch Lomond, where he fitted out a fleet and obliged 
 them to surrender, he returned southward, kept his Christmas at York, 
 and employed himself in destroying the Pagan temples of the Saxons 
 and restoring the Christian churches. The following summer he con- 
 quered Ireland and Iceland, and then returned to Britain, where he 
 spent twelve years in peace, having taken a wife, Quenheveror Guanhu- 
 mara, the fairest woman in the island. We need not dwell on his 
 foreign conquests of Norway and Gaul, which occupied ten years 
 more. He then returned to England, and held a great festival at 
 Caerleon in Monmouthshire, where he was solemnly crowned, a multi- 
 tude of tributary kings attending him. Not long after the Romans 
 demanded tribute, on which he collected a mighty army and passed 
 into Gaul. There he defeated the Romans, and was preparing to cross 
 the Alps, when he received intelligence of the revolt of Modred, who 
 had allied himself with the Saxons. Scots, and Pihts. Arthur gained 
 two victories, one on the coast of Kent ami one near Winchester, and 
 forced Modred to fly into Cornwall, where a third engagement, fatal 
 to both, was fought on the river Camlan. 
 
 Such in brief, and omitting the more extravagant and absurd 
 inventions, is the story told by Geoffry of Monmouth, and much later 
 by Buchanan (' Historia Scotica'), and adopted, with a great deal of 
 additional fiction, by the romancers. The reader will see how widely 
 it differs from the particulars above related on earlier British 
 authorities. The famous story of the Round Table, with the tourna- 
 ment of the Knights, belongs wholly to the later romancers. It is 
 remarkable that in the Armoricau tales, from which Geoffry professed 
 to derive his information, we find more mention of the Pihts, Scots, 
 
SC9 
 
 ARTIGAS, FERNANDO JOSE. 
 
 ARUNDEL, THOMAS. 
 
 3/0 
 
 and Irish, than of the Saxons ; more traces of Arthur's presence in 
 the north than in the south of the island, though the southern districts 
 may be supposed to have been most familiar to the Breton bards. This 
 is also noticeable in the romances founded on those tales, ' Merlin,' 
 'Morte Arthur,' 'Lancelot,' and others. The fabulous history of 
 Arthur long retained its popularity in France, as well as in England, 
 and was among the earliest books printed in both countries. A French 
 version by Rusticien de Pise was printed at Rouen in 1488 ; and one 
 of the Roman du Roi, entitled ' Livre du Vaillant et Preux Chevalier 
 Arthur' appeared at Paris in 1493. The first English translation of 
 the story printed was from the press of Caxton in 1485. A list of the 
 principal romances about Arthur will be found in the Appendix to 
 Sharon Turner's 'History of the Anglo-Saxons.' The work of Geoffry, 
 and the earlier romances which relate to Arthur, are fully treated of 
 in Warton's ' History of English Poetry,' vol. i. ; Ellis's ' Specimens of 
 Early English Metrical Romances,' and Dunlop's ' History of Fiction.' 
 See also Whitaker, ' History of Manchester ; ' Owen, ' Cambrian 
 Biography ; ' Ritson, ' Life of King Arthur ; ' and De la Villemarque), 
 ' Contes Populaires dea Anciens Bretons.' 
 
 ARTI'GAS, FERNANDO JOSE, descended from a respectable 
 family, originally of Spain, was born at Monte Video, about the year 
 1760. He appears to have received little or no education ; to have 
 quitted his native town when very young, and to have joined the 
 gauchos, or shepherds, for whose roving life he had conceived a very 
 strong inclination. At the head of a band of the most resolute of 
 these men he carried on the trade of a contrabandista, or smuggler, 
 and every effort of the governor of Monte Video to put him down 
 proved unavailing. At length, on the intercession of his father and 
 family, the governor granted Artigas his pardon, and conferred on him 
 the rank of captain in the corps of Blendingues, a kind of irregular 
 light cavalry, which had been established with a view of checking the 
 excesses of the gaucho.s. 
 
 Artigas remained faithful to his trust until the breaking out of the 
 Revolution, when he placed himself again at the head of the gauchos, 
 over whom his boldness, sagacity, and unrivalled skill in all athletic 
 exercises had procured him unbounded influence. Having obtained 
 from the revolutionists of Buenos Ayres arms and ammunition, he 
 swept the country of the Spaniards, plundered their villages, and, 
 uniting his forces with those of General Jose" Rondeau, obtained several 
 advantages over the regular troops, captured the towns of Minas, San 
 Carlos, and Maldonado, and, in the month of May, 1811, gained a 
 complete victory at Las Piedras over 1200 men of the army of Elio, 
 the Spanish viceroy, with a far inferior force. In this action the 
 general-in-chief of the Spanish forces fell into the hands of Artigas. 
 Siege was now laid to Monte Video, but towards the end of the year 
 the approach of the Portuguese led to a suspension of hostilities, which 
 however recommenced in 1812. The siege of Monte Video was 
 resumed, and Artigas, with his irregular forces, again co-operated with 
 Rondeau. Disunion however soon took place between the two leaders. 
 Artigas insisted upon directing the siege as chief of the provincials, 
 Monte Video being situated in the Banda Oriental, while the general 
 of Buenos Ayres, as commander of the auxiliaries, should act under 
 his orders. By way of obviating this difficulty a member of the 
 supreme government was appointed commander-in-chief. General 
 Rondeau on his part convened an Oriental congress for the purpose of 
 nominating deputies for a national congress, and appointing a provin- 
 cial governor. Artigas could not brook this ititeference upon what he 
 considered his own territory. As chief of the Banda Oriental, he com- 
 manded the electors, in the name of the general government, to receive 
 their instructions from him at his head quarters, and annulled the 
 congress. The electors however assembled, the election of deputies 
 and a governor was proclaimed with military pomp in all the encamp- 
 ments, and the governor began to exercise his functions. Artigas, 
 deeply incensed, withdrew silently in the night with his men ; and 
 Posadas, the supreme director, issued a decree against him, by which 
 he declared him infamous, deprived of his offices, and an outlaw. 
 He further set a price upon his head of six thousand dollars. Artigas, 
 wben he left the camp before Monte Video, took with him about eight 
 hundred men ; as he advanced in the direction of the Entre Rios, the 
 gaucho population flocked to his standard, and he soon found his forces 
 increased to between two and three thousand. After several successes 
 in the field, Artigas occupied Monte Video ; invaded the province of 
 Buenos Ayres ; made himself master of Santa Fe" ; and compelled the 
 junta to acknowledge him as independent chief of the Banda Oriental, 
 to which dignity he added the title of Protector of Entre Rios and of 
 Santa Fe\ 
 
 In January 1815, Posadas resigned his office of supreme director, 
 and was succeeded by Colonel Alvear, who after a succession of 
 reverses, was deposed and banished. On the expulsion of Alvear, the 
 proclamation against Artigas was publicly burnt by the cabildo, and 
 overtures for a reconciliation made by the people of Buenos Ayres and 
 Pueyrredon, the new director. They were at first well received by 
 Artigas, but eventually proved fruitless. Towards the end of the year 
 1816 he was obliged to turn his attention towards the Banda Oriental, 
 over which district he had long exercised absolute authority. The 
 Brazilian government which had been called upon to interpose in order 
 to put an end to the long protracted civil war, now despatched General 
 Lecor with 10,000 men, to occupy the Banda Oriental. Artigas at 
 
 bioo. div vor, I 
 
 first repulsed the attack, and was on many occasions victorious; but 
 the advantage, upon the whole, was on the side of the Brazilians, who, 
 on the 20th of January, 1817, surprised Monte Video, and retained 
 possession of it. In 1818 Artigas experienced still greater reverses, 
 and was forced to treat with the general government. The news of 
 the revolution in Spain caused a new outburst of hostilities in the La 
 Plata provinces. The federalists turned to Artigas as their chief, and 
 availed themselves of the excitement to gain over a great number of 
 the officers and soldiers of Rondeau's army, who united themselves to 
 that of Artigas, and then marched upon Buenos Ayres in order to 
 complete the projected revolution. Pueyrredou and his party were 
 compelled to fly, and Juan Pedro de Aguira was named provisional 
 governor in his place. But the centralists soon again made head, and 
 the supreme power once more fell into the hands of the enemies of 
 Artigas. He again took the field ; but his career was now drawing to 
 a close. Towards the end of the summer of 1820, a lieutenant named 
 Ramirez, who was in command of a post in the Entre Rios, with 
 800 men, suddenly fell upon him, dispersed his troops, and seized ou 
 the government of the province. Artigas took refuge in the destroyed 
 Missiones, with about one thousand followers; and soon after made a 
 formal request of Francia, the Dictator of Paraguay, for an asylum for 
 himself and his followers in that district. The request was complied 
 with ; but Francia, distrusting the men, dispersed them in various 
 parts ; while refusing an interview with Artigas, he assigned to the 
 fallen chieftain a house with lands, with a pension, in the village of 
 Curuguaty, eighty-five leagues north-east of Assumption. The governor 
 of the circuit was ordered to treat him with respect, and to furnish 
 him with whatever accommodation he might require. He cultivated 
 his farm with his own hands — became the father of the poor of Curu- 
 guaty, distributing among them the greater part of his produce, and 
 rendering all the assistance in his power to such as were disabled by 
 sickness. In these acts of peace and benevolence he closed a life of 
 violence, disorder, and political strife, in the commencement of 1826. 
 Some writers have sought to elevate Artigas into a hero, and to attri- 
 bute to him many of the qualities of a statesman as well as a general. 
 But he was in truth just one of those bold unscrupulous semi- 
 barbarous soldiers of fortune, who have been called into existence 
 by the state of chronic hostility iu which the Argentine provinces have 
 for so many years unfortunately been struggling. He was perhaps 
 one of the most skilful, and notwithstanding his original calling, one 
 of the most honest. But he was essentially one of a class whose 
 existence has been a constant blight ou that fine but unhappy country. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ARUNDEL, THOMAS, Archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of 
 Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry V., was the second son of Richard 
 Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel, and was born at Arundel Castle in Sussex, 
 in 1353. His high birth and powerful connections obtained for him, 
 at a very early age, extraordinary preferments in the church. When 
 scarcely of age he was archdeacon of Taunton ; and before he had 
 completed his twenty-second year, he was promoted to the see of Ely 
 by the pope, who set aside the election of another bishop, whom the 
 chapter had chosen. He was consecrated at Otford in Kent, April 6, 
 1375, but not installed at Ely until two years afterwards: he is 
 believed to have been the youngest bishop ever consecrated in England. 
 He was a liberal benefactor to the diocese of Ely, gave many rich 
 presents to the church, and nearly rebuilt the episcopal palace iu 
 Holborn. In 1386, when Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, was 
 removed from the office of lord high chancellor by the pressing 
 remonstrances of the Parliament, the seals were given to Arundel. 
 In 1388 he was translated to the archbishopric of York by a papal 
 bull. In the following year he resigned his office as chancellor, but 
 was reappointed in 1391. In the execution of this office he incurred 
 much unpopularity by the temporary removal of the courts of justice 
 from Loudon to York, on the plea of the turbulence of the inhabitants 
 of London. 
 
 In 1396 Arundel was translated to the see of Canterbury, by the 
 pope's provision — a proceeding at that time at variance with the 
 statute law (of 1350). This was the first instance of a translation 
 from the see of York to that of Canterbury. Soon after his pro- 
 motion to the archiepiscopal see, Aruudel accompanied King Richard 
 to France to meet Charles VI. between Calais and Ardres; and there 
 on the 1st of November, 1396, he celebrated the king's marriage with 
 Isabella, the daughter of the French king. 
 
 The king had been for a long time at variance with his uncle the 
 Duke of Gloucester; and iu 1397 he resolved to destroy him and the 
 heads of his party. The blow fell severely upon the archbishop and 
 upon his family. While the Duke of Gloucester was in confinement 
 at Calais, the king seized the primate's brother, the Earl of Arundel, 
 and sent him to Carisbrook Castle, in the Isle of Wight, whence he 
 was removed to London, impeached of treason, and beheaded. On 
 the 20th of September the primate himself was also impeached by 
 the Commons of high treason. The charges preferred against him 
 were, that he had aided the Duke of Gloucester and the earls of 
 Arundel and Warwick, to obtain the commission of regency iu 1836, 
 and procured himself to be named one of the number ; that he had 
 advised the arrest and execution of Sir Simon Burley and Sir James 
 Berners, contrary to the will of the king ; and had committed these 
 
 2 B 
 
Bin 
 
 878 
 
 crimes while he was chancellor, and bound by his oath to support the 
 rights of the crown. He immediately rose in the House of Lords to 
 def( ud himself against these charges, but was not suffered to proceed 
 by the king, who, fearing the eloquence and weight of Arundel, pre- 
 tended to desire more time to consider the matter, on account of the 
 archbishop's dignity. Richard next persuaded him not to appear 
 again in Parliament lest he Bhould irritate his enemies, from whose 
 resentment he promised to protect him. Arundel, relying upon the 
 good faith of the king, did not attempt to vindicate himself in Parlia- 
 ment ; and the impeachment seemed to be at rest, until the Duke of 
 Gloucester' s confession was made known, when the Commons prayed 
 judgment against the primate. The king, so far from protecting him, 
 now declared that he had already acknowledged his guilt, and had 
 thrown himself upon the royal mercy ; upon which sentence was 
 pronounced, that he should be banished for life, that his temporalities 
 should be forfeited to the crown, and that he should leave the country 
 within forty days, on pain of death. 
 
 After a short retirement iu France, Arundel proceeded to Rome, 
 where Pope Boniface IX. entertained him with much kindness, and 
 endeavoured, but in vain, to restore him to the king's favour. Arundel 
 subsequently settled at Cologne ; but soon left his retirement to take 
 a leading part in the approaching revolution in his own country. 
 Henry of Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster, was then in banishment, 
 and the despotic conduct of King Richard led a strong party of the 
 nobility and people to look to Heury for their deliverance. The 
 leaders of this party drew up a letter to Heury, and entrusted its 
 presentation to Arundel, who secretly left his house at Cologne, and, 
 travelling to Paris in the disguise of a friar, obtained an interview 
 with Henry ; and when Henry feigned to be scrupulous as to the law- 
 fulness of the design, the learned churchman overpowered him with 
 precedents of rebellion, in ancient and modern times. His exertions 
 were soon rewarded : Henry of Bolingbroke was seated on the throne, 
 and Arundel restored to the see of Canterbury (1399). Of the thirty- 
 three articles preferred against King Bichard, two related to his 
 treatment of Arundel, in reference to the charges made against him 
 in Parliament, and the promises by which the king had induced the 
 archbishop to abandon his defence, together with the king's subsequent 
 promises, which were likewise broken. 
 
 When Henry laid claim to the crown in the House of Peers, 
 Arundel led him to the throne, and pronounced a discourse, exalting 
 the merits of Henry, and contrasting them with the faults of Richard. 
 At the coronation of Henry IV., Arundel, as archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, placed the crown upon the head of the usurper, and sat on the 
 right hand of his throne. The munificence of the primate, and his 
 firm defence of the interests of the clergy, made him very popular 
 with the clergy ; and early in the new reign he had two opportunities 
 of strengthening his claims to their affection. At York in 1402 by his 
 courage and resolution, he saved his brethren from being despoiled by 
 the soldiery, who had plotted together to seize upon the plate, equi- 
 pages, and money of the clergy who accompanied the king. In 1404 
 the king held a parliament at Coventry, kuown as the Parliamentum 
 Indoctum, or Lack-Learning Parliament, mainly for the purpose of 
 raising money. At this parliament the Commons expressed their 
 opinion that the king should seize the revenues of the church and 
 appropriate them to the public service. The archbishop warmly 
 defended the interests of the clergy, and ultimately obtained a 
 promise from the king that the church should not be despoiled. 
 Satisfied with the royal support, he again addressed the Commons, and 
 denounced their ' execrable scheme ' with such force, that they at 
 length asked the archbishop's pardon, and acknowledged the injustice 
 of their plan. 
 
 Arundel now found the doctrines of the church and its very exist- 
 ence threatened from another quarter. The Lollards, or followers of 
 Wickliffe, had been increasing in numbers, influence, and daring for 
 the last twenty years ; publicly denouncing the church and the clergy, 
 and appealing to the passions and the rapacity, as well as to the 
 religious feelings, of the people. In 1382 Wickliffe had presented a 
 petition to Parliament, praying " that the wants of the nation should 
 be supplied from the incomes of delinquent clergymen, and the 
 superfluous revenues of the church, which were in reality the patri- 
 mony of the poor : " and in 1395, after Wickliffe's death, his followers 
 had laid another petition before Parliament, urging the same principles, 
 and full of severe invectives against the clergy. The archbishop 
 became alarmed, and charged the bishops and clergy at Oxford to 
 root out the heresies of the new sect; and in 1408 resolved upon a 
 personal visitation of that University. The University of Oxford, a 
 stronghold of Wickliffe's doctrines, questioned the archbishop's right 
 of visitation; and on approaching the city he was met by the principal 
 members of the University, who courteously declined to acknowledge 
 his jurisdiction. The question beiug referred to the king, was decided 
 by Hem-y in favour of the archbishop. This decision, and the strong 
 remonstrances of a convocation of the bishops and clergy in London, 
 against the growth of heresy at Oxford, induced the University to 
 submit : they admitted delegates from the archbishop, and asked 
 pardon for their former contumacy. A committee of twelve persons 
 was then appointed to examine the writings of Wickliffe and others ; 
 Whose censures of the doctrines of the new sect were confirmed by 
 the archbishop, and eventually by the pope. Arundel next established 
 
 an inquisition at Oxford to inquire into the opinions of persons sus- 
 pected of heresy, and put in force the statute De heretico comburendo, 
 which had been passed at the beginning of the reign (2 Hen. IV. a 
 15, Rot. Pari. iii. p. 466). 
 
 The translation of the Bible into the vulgar tongue had been one of 
 Wickliffe's most powerful instruments of persuasion ; and Arundel 
 forbade, by synodical decree, the translation of the Scriptures iuto 
 English, and the reading them when translated. The insurrection of 
 the Lollards had in it some political as well as ecclesiastical elements, 
 and in 1413, disturbances occurred of which the leading promoters 
 were Lollards, headed by Sir John Oldcastle, the lord of Cobham. 
 Oldcastle having disregarded the summons of the spiritual court to 
 answer for his opinions, was finally seized by a military force, con- 
 ducted to the Tower, and arraigned before the primate as a heretic. 
 The conduct of the archbishop is described as being forbearing and 
 mild, and in this respect to have contrasted favourably with that of 
 the accused. Sir John persisted in his opinions, was prouounced an 
 obstinate heretic, and delivered to the civil magistrate, " to be burnt 
 on a high place before the people." After the sentence was pronounced, 
 Arundel obtained from the kiug a respite of fifty days. Thus respited 
 by the intercession of the primate, Sir John Oldcastle escaped from 
 the Tower, and raised the rebellion which is associated with his 
 name. Soon after the archbishop had pronounced sentence upou 
 Oldcastle, he was attacked with an inflammation of the throat, of which 
 he died on tho 20th of February, 1413, 0.8. He was buried in the 
 cathedral of Canterbury under a monument erected by himself in his 
 lifetime. 
 
 The character of Arundel was suited to the times in which he 
 lived ; he was bold, resolute, and active ; possessed very considerable 
 talents, was learned and virtuous enough to sustain his reputation as 
 a churchman ; and not more scrupulous or refined than a layman, in 
 temporal affairs. He was an active politician in the midst of the 
 intriguers and treasons of the reign of Richard, and foremost in tho 
 rebellion which cast that kiug from his throne. As a dignitary of the 
 church he was liberal and princely : each see in succession held by 
 him received ample marks of his munificence : he had scarcely rebuilt 
 the London palace of the bishops of Ely when he commenced the 
 building of a palace for the archbishops of York ; and made several 
 valuable offerings to the Minster. At Canterbury he built the Lanthorn 
 Tower and part of the nave of the cathedral, and presented it with 
 many rich gifts and endowments. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ASA, king of Judah, the third who reigned after the revolt of the 
 ten tribes, and the fifth king of the dynasty of David, was the son and 
 successor of Abijam or Abia. According to the chronology of Usher 
 and Jahn, which corresponds with that given in the margin of our 
 Bibles, Asa reigned from B.C. 955 to 914 ; but Hales dates his reign 
 from B.C. 970 to 929. In the early part of his reign Asa was under the 
 influence of his grandmother, Maacha, who encouraged the idolatrous 
 practices which had prevailed during the reigns of his father and 
 grandfather. But as soon as he took the government into his own 
 hands he set about rooting out idolatry throughout the kingdom. 
 After ten years of peace the land was invaded by Terah the Cushite, 
 at the head of a very large army, which Asa met and utterly overthrew. 
 In consequence of this victory, at the suggestion of the prophet 
 Azariah, Asa and the whole of his people renewed their covenant with 
 Jehovah. Asa was also for a long period engaged in hostilities with 
 Baasha, king of Israel, who at length reduced him to considerable 
 straits ; but Asa having purchased the assistance of Benhadad, king 
 of Damascus, Baasha was obliged to return to his own country, and 
 Asa destroyed his strong fortress of Ramah, and employed the mate- 
 rials in strengthening the towns of Geba and Mizpeh. For seeking 
 assistance from Benhadad he was severely rebuked by the prophet 
 Hanani, whereupon the king seized the prophet and cast him into 
 prison. The later years of his reign indeed appear to have been 
 marked by many deeds of cruelty and oppression ; and during these 
 years he suffered much from disease. The history of Asa will be 
 found in 1 Kings, xv. 9-24, and 2 Chronicles, xiv., xv., xvi. 
 
 ASCHAM, ROGER, was the third son of John and Margaret Ascham, 
 and was born in the year 1515 at Kirby Wiske, near Northallerton, in 
 Yorkshire, where his father resided as steward to the noble family of 
 Scroope. His parents, who were highly esteemed in their station, after 
 living together for forty-seven years, both died on the same day and 
 nearly at the same hour. Their son Roger displayed from his child- 
 hood a taste for learning, and was received into the family of Sir 
 Anthony Wingfield, who caused him to be educated with his own sons, 
 and in the year 1530 placed him at St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 then the most flourishing in the university. Ascham applied himself 
 particularly to the study of Greek, to which a great impulse had 
 recently been given by the dispersion of the learned Greeks through- 
 out Europe in consequence of the taking of Constantinople. He made 
 great proficiency in Greek as well as Latin, and he read Greek lectures 
 while yet a youth to students still younger than himself. He took 
 the degree of A. B. in February 1534, and on the 23rd of the next 
 month was elected fellow of his college. He took the degree of A.M. 
 in 1536, at the age of twenty-one ; and began to take pupils, in whose 
 instruction he was very successful. He also read Greek publicly in 
 
378 
 
 ASCLEPIADES. 
 
 the university, and privately in his own college. In 1544, on the 
 resignation of Sir John Cheke, he was chosen University Orator, an 
 office which he filled with general approbation. 
 
 In the following year (1545) appeared his 'Toxophilus, or the School 
 of Shootinge,' a treatise on archery, which he composed with a double 
 view : in the first place, to exhibit a specimen of English prose com- 
 position in a purer taste than then prevailed ; and in the second, to 
 attract the attention of king Henry VIII., then on the point of settiug 
 out on his Boulogne expedition, and to obtain the means of visiting 
 Italy, which he much desired. He succeeded perfectly in the first 
 object, and partially in the second ; for the king was so well pleased 
 that he settled on the author a pension of 10/. per annum, at that time 
 a considerable sum, especially to a poor scholar. Ascham about this 
 time acquired other great patrons. He enjoyed a pension from 
 Archbishop Lee, acted for some time as tutor to Henry and Charles 
 Brandon, the two sons of the Duchess of Suffolk, and attracted the 
 friendly regards of the Chancellor Wriothesley, and other eminent 
 men. 
 
 In 1548, on occasion of the death of William Griudal, who had been 
 his pupil at Cambridge, Ascham was appointed instructor in the 
 learned languages to the Lady Elizabeth, afterwards queen, a situation 
 which he filled for some time with great credit to himself and satis- 
 faction to his pupiL At the end of two years however, upon a disgust 
 he felt at the conduct of some of the princess's attendants, he suddenly 
 threw up his appointment, and retired to his college. He afterwards 
 had reason to regret the precipitancy of his conduct, which was perhaps 
 never entirely forgotten, though he succeeded in a great measure in 
 regaining the favour of Elizabeth. 
 
 In 1550, while on a visit to his friends in Yorkshire, he was recalled 
 to court by a letter informing him that he had been appointed to 
 accompany Sir Richard Morysine on his embassy to the court of the 
 Emperor Charles V. It wa3 on his way to London on this occasion 
 that he had his well-known interview with Lady Jane Grey, at her 
 father's seat at Broadgate in Leicestershire, where, according to his 
 beautiful relation of the scene in his ' Schole-Master,' he found her, a 
 young lady of fifteen, reading the ' Pbsedon' of Plato in the orginal 
 Greek, while the members of her family were hunting in the park. 
 Ascham embarked for Germany in the following September. He 
 accompanied Morysine as a kiud of secretary, though some of his 
 duties resembled those of a tutor. His spare hours he occupied in 
 preparing a ' Report on the Affairs of Germany,' which was subse- 
 quently printed. During his absence abroad his friends in England 
 procured not only the restoration of bis pension, which had ceased at 
 the death of Henry VIII., but the place of Latin secretary to 
 Edward VI. For these favours he was indebted, as appears by a letter 
 of A -chain preserved in the Lausdowne Manuscripts, to the inter- 
 ference of Sir William Cecil, the ambassador Morysine, and Sir John 
 Cheke. 
 
 The death of king Edward in 1553 led to the immediate recall of 
 the ambassador, with whom Ascham returned to England. By this 
 event he lost both his recent preferments, and the accession of a Roman 
 Catholic queen held out such dismal prospects for a zealous Protestant 
 like Ascham, that he retired to his college almost in despair. Matters 
 however took an unexpected turn. Sir William Paget, whose recom- 
 mendation of the 'Toxophilua' to King Henry had procured his pension 
 from that monarch, now exerted his influence in his favour with Gar- 
 diner, bishop of Winchester, who, notwithstanding Ascham's staunch 
 Protestantism was often represented to him, proved his steady patron. 
 Tbe ' Toxophilus ' was produced by the bishop at the council, and was 
 considered so useful a work that the objections to the author's advance- 
 ment were removed. Ascham's pension was not only restored, but 
 doubled, and he was appointed Latin secretary to king Philip and the 
 queen. By the influence of Gardiner he was also enabled to retain his 
 fellowship and his post of public orator at tbe university. 
 
 On the death of Queen Mary in 1558 Ascham was soon distinguished 
 by the notice of her successor. He was continued in office as Latin 
 secretary, and made tutor in Greek to her majesty ; and during the 
 rest of his life was a constant resident at court. He spent some hours 
 every day in reading Greek and Latin authors with the queen, and 
 often enjoyed the more envied honour of being her partner or opponent 
 in games of chance. He obtained from her several pieces of prefr- 
 ment, the principal of which was the prebend of Wetwang in the 
 cathedral of York, which he received in 1559. 
 
 Ascham had long been subject to a hectic disorder, accompanied 
 with want of sleep, and inability to study in the afternoon or evening; 
 but at the end of 1568 he imprudently resumed the practice of nigbt- 
 fttudy, in order to complete a poem which he intended to present to 
 the Queen on new year's day. This brought on an attack of ague so 
 severe as to cause his death, after only a week's illness, on the 30th of 
 December, 1568. The news of his death caused universal regret, and 
 Queen lilizabeth was so moved on hearing it, that she declared, most 
 characteristically, that " she would rather have thrown ten thousand 
 pounds into the sea than have lost her Ascham." 
 
 Ascham's greatest work, ' The Schole-Master,' did not appear until 
 after his death, when it was published by his widow, with a dedi- 
 cation to Sir William Cecil. The principal object of the work, besides 
 the reprehension of severity on the part of teachers and parents, 
 is the introduction of a new system of teaching the Latin language — a 
 
 system which has been partially revived of late years. Ascham pro- 
 poses, after teaching the rudiments of grammar, to commence a course 
 of double translation, first from Latin into English, aud shortly after 
 from English into Latin, correcting the mistakes of the student, and 
 leading to the formation of a classic style, by pointing out the differ- 
 ences between the re-translation and the original, aud explaining their 
 reasons. His whole system is built upon this principle of dispensing 
 as much as possible with the details of grammar ; and he supports his 
 theory by a triumphant reference to its practical effects, especially as 
 displayed in the case of Queen Elizabeth, whose well-known proficiency 
 in Latin he declares to have been attained without any grammatical 
 rules after the very simplest had been mastered. 
 
 Ascham wa3 in correspondence with most of the learned men of his 
 time, both in England aud on the continent, especially with Sturmius, 
 whose name he gave to one of his three sons. After his death a col- 
 lection of his Latiu letters was published by his friend Edward Grant, 
 master of Westminster School, together with a few poems, for the 
 benefit of Giles Ascham, who was then under Grant's tuition. To this 
 collection was prefixed a panegyric on Ascham, which is the principal 
 source for his life, though his letters, and numerous allusions scattered 
 through his works, contribute to a knowledge of his personal history. 
 
 Most of Ascham's works have passed through several editions. The 
 list includes: — 1. 'Toxophilus; the Schole of Shootinge,' London, 1545, 
 4to. This edition, printed by Edward Whytechurch, is very scarce, 
 and many bibliographers imagine a reprint by Marshe, 1571, to be the 
 first edition. 2. ' A Report and Discourse, written by Roger Ascham, 
 of the Affaires and State of Germany, and of the Emperor Charles his 
 Court, during certain years while the sayd Roger was there,' Lonilou, 
 fob, printed by Johu Daye. This work, which is in the form of a letter 
 to a friend, contains many curious particulars, especially as to the per- 
 sonal appearance of Charles V. and his courtiers. It bears no date in 
 the title-page, and, though written in 1552, was probably not published 
 for some years after. 3. ' The Schole-Master ; or Plain and Perfite 
 Way of teaching Children to Understand, Write, and Speake the Latin 
 Tongue, but specially purposed for the private bringing up of Youth 
 in Jentlemen and Noblemen's Houses,' London, 1571, fol. 4. ' Rogeri 
 Aschami Familiarium Epistolarum Libri Tres,' &c., prefixed to which 
 is Grant's ' Oratio de Vita et Obitu R.A., et ejus dictionis elegantia,' 
 12mo., London, 1576. The epistles have been several times reprinted. 
 5. 'Apologia pro Ccena Dominica contra Missam et ejus prastigias,' &c, 
 1577, 8vo. The English works of Ascham were reprinted iu a collected 
 form in 1 vol. 4to., in the year 1761, by Mr. J. Bentiet, schoolmaster 
 of Hoddesdon. A life of the author was appended, which bears in 
 every line such strong marks of the hand of Dr. Johnson, that there 
 can be no doubt as to its origin. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ASCLE'PIADES. This name was common to a great number of 
 persons, which has caused some confusion both in the ancient and 
 modern accounts of Asclepiades the celebrated physician, of whom 
 only we are going to treat. 
 
 Asclepiades was a native of Prusa in Bithynia, but the time of his 
 birth is unknown, nor can we ascertain which of the three towns of 
 Bithynia called Prusa claims the honour of his birth. He appears, 
 when young, to have spent some time at Alexandria, and at Pai ium, 
 on the Propontis; probably also at Athens, where, if the story told in 
 Athenseus (iv. p. 168) refers to him, he gained his living at first by 
 grinding at a mill during the night, in order that he might attend 
 the lecturers on philosophy during the day. Iu Athens be appears 
 to have been on terms of intimacy with Antiochus, the academi- 
 cian, the master of Cicero. He appears to have come to Rome about 
 the beginning of the first century ; he was there at least during 
 the earlier part of Cicero's life, but he was probably some years older 
 than the Roman orator. He is said to have in the first instance prac- 
 tised at Rome as a teacher of rhetoric, and net succeeding iu that 
 profession to have turned to the study of medicine. The date of his 
 death is not recorded, but he is said to have lived to a great age, 
 free from all disease, and to have died by accidentally falling down 
 stairs. 
 
 The fouudatiou of the healing system of Asclepiades was the doc- 
 trine of corpuscles, which he borrowed from Heraclides of Pontus. 
 His corpuscular elements, which he called 07/coi, differed from the 
 atoms of Epicurus : they were without form, but still divisible, and 
 subject to change. Disease, he argued, arose from inharmonious dis 
 tribution of the corpuscles and obstructions of the pores. He seems 
 to have been little acquainted with anatomy : he had no exact notion 
 of the difference between the veins and arteries, he was unacquainted 
 with the use of the nerves, and he confounded them with the liga- 
 ments. He is said to have been the first who divided diseases into 
 acute and chronic, aud to have considered them essentially different. 
 He observed the double-tertian fever which was so common in Rome ; 
 and he distinguished very accurately between the violent or febrile 
 dropsy, and the chronic one, unaccompanied with fever. 
 
 The practice of Asclepiades was in many respects that of an empiric, 
 but he was evidently a shrewd and observant man, and his mode of 
 treatment was no doubt often beneficial. He trusted more to dietetio 
 means than to the use of medicines ; often recommended a change in 
 the mode of living, in which he studiously attended to the most minute 
 
S7S 
 
 ASGILL, JOHN. 
 
 876 
 
 particulars ; disapproved of the frequent use of emetics and purges, 
 but he pretty freely adopted the practice of bleeding. He ascribed 
 great value to bathing and friction, and he rendered himself very 
 popular with the Romans by his free use of wine in many complaints. 
 Laughter, music, and singing he also considered as frequently efficacious 
 in the cure of diseases. The few fragments of his writings which have 
 come down to us have been collected and published by Gumpert in the 
 work cited below. 
 
 ACKAHniAAHC. 
 
 The buot of Asclepiades is only presumed to be his on the ground 
 of the name occurring upon it, and from the improbability of its 
 belonging to any other less eminent person of the same name. 
 
 (Sprengel, Versuch einer prae/matischen Geschiclde der Arzneikunde, 
 2nd ed., Halle, 1800, vol. ii. 6-27 ; and Asclepiadis Bithyni, Fragmenta, 
 by Gumpert, Weimar, 1794 ; Chr. F. Harless, Medicorum, velerum, 
 Asclepiades, &c, Bonn, 1828; Bostock, History of Medicine.) 
 
 ASCO'iSriUS, Q. PEDIA'NUS, one of the earliest commentators on 
 Cicero, is believed to have been born at Padua about the commence- 
 ment of the Christian era. From a passage in one of his commen- 
 taries ('Ad Orat. pro Scaur.,' p. 176, ed. Lug. Bat.), he appears to have 
 been employed on his work about a.d. 41, in the reign of Claudius. 
 Philargyrius, quoted by Servius (Virg., ' Eel.,' iii. 106), states that he 
 was in his youth the friend of Virgil ; but he must have been a mere 
 boy when the poet died, a d. 19. He became blind in his seventy-third 
 year, and survived the calamity twelve years. (Euseb., ' Chron. ad 
 Olymp.,' ccxiii. 3.) 
 
 Asconius was chiefly employed in the critical examination and 
 Illustration of the Roman writers. He was the author of a work 
 which has been lost, directed against the calumniators of Virgil, and 
 also of a life of Sallust (' Acron. ad Hor. Sat.,' 1, 2) ; but there seems 
 no reason to suppose that he was the author of the work ' Origo Gentis 
 Rornanse,' usually ascribed to Aurelius Victor. The most important of 
 his labours was his Commentary on the Orations of Cicero, which he 
 wrote for the instruction of his sons ('Ad Orat. pro Mil,' 6). Of this 
 work only fragments have been preserved, which, though in some of 
 them much disfigured by the glosses of some ignorant grammarian, 
 are still full of valuable information. We are indebted for the 
 greater part of what we possess of Asconius to Poggio, the Floren- 
 tine, who, during the Council of Constance, in 1416, happened to 
 discover an old manuscript of it at the monastery of St. Gall, 
 in Switzerland. It contained fragments of a commentary on nine 
 orations :— Divin. ; InVerrem, 3; Pro Corn.; In Tog. Cand. ; Contra 
 Pis. ; Pro Scaur. ; and Pro Mil. The general character of the com- 
 mentary is, that it refers chiefly to historical, legal, and constitutional 
 facts, and has preserved some curious information on various points, 
 with which we should not otherwise have been acquainted. We may 
 more particularly notice the, speeches of Csesar against Dolabella ; of 
 Brutus for Milo ; of Lucceius against Catiline ; and of Cominius against 
 Cornelius. The historians on whom he seems chiefly to depend for his 
 information are Livy, Sallust, and Fenestella. The commentary on 
 the orations against Verres is of so entirely different a character, both 
 in style and matter, from that on the others, that it seems most 
 probable, as Madvig conjectures, that it is the work of some later 
 writer, who perhaps availed himself partly of the labours of Asconius. 
 The first edition of Asconius was published, Ven., 1477; with the 
 'Scholia of Manutius,' Ven. 1547; by Haacke, Lugd. Bat, 1644. 
 
 (Fabric, BM. Lat., 11, 6 ; Madvig. 'De Q. Asconii Pediani etaliorum 
 veter. interp.,' in Cicer. Orat. Commcatariis Disput. critic, Havniae, 
 1828; Biihr., Geschichte der Rornischen Literatur, Carlsruhe, 1832; 
 Niebuhr, Prcefat, ad Front., p. xxxiv., not. 4. ed. Berl.) 
 
 ASELLI (or, according to the custom formerly prevalent of Latin- 
 ising the name, ASELLIUS), CASPAR, a physician who was born 
 about 1580, at Ticius, or Cremona, and died in 1626. He became 
 professor of anatomy at Pavia, but spent much of his time at Milan, 
 where he effected the discovery which has preserved his name. In 1622, 
 whilst dissecting a living dog, he for the first time observed the lacteals, 
 
 or the set of vessels which absorb or suck up the nutritious portion of 
 the food of animals, that is, the chyle, from the upper part of the intes- 
 tinal tube, in order to convey it to the heart and lungs, so that it may 
 become incorporated in the circulating fluid or blood ; distinguished 
 them from the other vessels, and demonstrated them in his lectures ; and 
 from the white colour of the fluid they contained, named them lacteals. 
 These observations were incidentally made by him in the course of dis- 
 sections for other purposes; and he does not appear to have traced the 
 lacteals accurately, but he recognised the importance of his discovery, 
 and gave himself up during much of the remainder of his life to the 
 elucidation of the real purpose of these vessels. The great value of 
 the discovery was not generally admitted by the profession for half a 
 century afterwards. Aselli drew up an account of his discovery, which 
 was priuted after his death. It is entitled ' De Lactibus; seu lacteis 
 venis, quarto vasorum meseraicorum geuere, novo invento, Dissertatio,' 
 with figures of the vessels in three different colours, 4to, Milan, 1627, 
 and has been several times reprinted. Aselli's death took place in 
 1626. He left a manuscript treatise on poisons, but it does not appear 
 to have been published. 
 
 ASGILL, JOHN, a political and miscellaneous writer, was born 
 about the middle of the i7th century. He was brought up to the 
 law, and became a member of the society of Lincoln's Inn, where he 
 recommended himself by his talents to the notice of Mr. Eyre, an 
 eminent lawyer, and afterwards one of the judges of the Court of 
 King's Bench, who assisted him in his studies. Asgill attained some 
 eminence in his profession early in the reign of William III., when he 
 began to display his humour and talents as a writer of pamphlets. 
 Among the earliest works published by him were a pamphlet entitled 
 ' Several Assertions proved, in order to create another Species of 
 Money than Gold or Silver,' published in 1696, which proposes to 
 employ securities on lands as a new circulating medium ; and ' An 
 Essay on a Registry for Titles of Lands,' which is said to have 
 appeared first in 1688. 
 
 An Act of Parliament being passed in the year 1699 for the re- 
 sumption of forfeited estates in Ireland, commissioners were appointed 
 to settle claims, and as Asgill had become embarrassed in his circum- 
 stances, and had also become involved in difficulties as the executor of 
 his eccentric friend Dr. Barebone, the builder of the new square iu 
 Lincoln's Inn, he determined to go to Ireland, where his merit and 
 the favour of the commissioners procured him very extensive and 
 lucrative practice, the whole country being engaged in law-suits, in 
 the most important of which he was retained. He had married the 
 daughter of Nicholas Browne, the attainted Viscount Kenmare, aud 
 he purchased of the crown, but avowedly as trustee for Lord Ken- 
 mare's infant son, his large estates in Ireland, and thereby acquired 
 so much influence, that he obtained a seat in the Irish parliament for 
 the borough of Enniscoithy. Prior to this time, however, he had 
 published 'An Argument proving that, according to the Covenant of 
 Eternal Life revealed in the Scriptures, Man may be translated from 
 hence into that Eternal Life without passing through Death, although 
 the humane Nature of Christ himself could not thus be translated 
 till he had passed through Death,' 8vo, 1700; a pamphlet which, 
 from its singular style, aud the wildness of the author's ideas, occa- 
 sioned an extraordinary sensation. Notwithstanding his repeated and 
 solemn assurances of his belief in and respect for the Scriptures, the 
 prevalent opinion occasioned by the appearance of this book was that 
 he was an atheist, and it was alluded to by Dr. Sacheverell as one of 
 the blasphemous writings which induced him to consider the church 
 in danger. The clamour raised against the work was so great, that 
 before Asgill could reach Dublin from Munster, to take his seat, the 
 Irish House of Commons had ordered it to be burnt as a blasphemous 
 libel, and, after he had sat four days, they expelled him on account of 
 it. This expul .on took place on the 11th of October, 1703, yet a 
 month later we find him petitioning the house to allow him to be 
 heard in support of his title to the Castle Rosse estate, which had been 
 impugned on behalf of Lord Kenmare's infant son. Asgill on this 
 occasion successfully maintained his title, but some years later the 
 claims of the Kenmare family were admitted. On his return to 
 England, in 1705, Asgill was elected member of parliament for the 
 borough of Bramber in Sussex, at which place he had obtained con- 
 siderable iut-rest as executor to Dr. Barebone. He sat in parliament 
 until, in 1707, when, during an interval of privilege, he was arrested 
 for debt, and committed to the Fleet, but was released by order of 
 the House of Commons (December 1 6). Previous to this (November 25), 
 his obnoxious treatise had been brought before the House, aud a com- 
 mittee had been appointed to report upon it ; and in consequence of 
 their report, notwithstanding a spirited defence made by Asgill on 
 resuming his place in the House, it was condemned to be burnt by 
 the common hangman, as profane aud blasphemous, and he was ex- 
 pelled from the House, on the 18th of December, 1707. After this 
 event Asgill's affairs grew desperate, and he was compelled to remove 
 to the Mint, after which he became a prisoner successively in the King's 
 Bench and the Fleet, within the rules of one or other of which prisons 
 he resided until his death, in November 1738, at the age of more 
 than eighty, according to the memoir quoted in the ' Biographia 
 Britannica,' which agrees also with the date of birth given above 
 (which may however have been deduced from it), or about 100,accord- 
 ing to a manuscript note in Sir W. Musgrave's ' Biographical Adversa- 
 
ASHBURNHAM, JOHN. 
 
 ASHBURTON, BARON. 
 
 ria.' During this time he transacted professional business, and also 
 published a great number of pamphlets, chiefly of a political character. 
 Of the numerous pamphlets upon various political and theological 
 subject* published by Asgill, many were of merely temporary interest. 
 Several were in defence of the Hanoverian succession, and against the 
 pretensions of the house of Stuart. Asgill also wrote some pamphlets 
 on the public funds, and among his more miscellaneous pieces may be 
 mentioned, ' Mr. Asgill's Defence on his Expulsion from the House of 
 Commons of Great Britain in 1707,' 8vo, 1712, and one or two others 
 defending his strange views on death ; ' An Essay for the Press,' 1712 ; 
 a pamphlet denouncing a proposed scheme for licensing and taxing 
 the press; 'A Question upon Divorce,' 1717; 'A Short Essay on the 
 Nature of the Kingdom of God within us,' 1718 ; ' The Computation 
 of Advantages saved to the Publick by the South Sea Scheme, as pub- 
 lished in the Moderator of Wednesday, the 26th of April, 1721, 
 detected to be fallacious; with a Postscript,' 8vo, 1721. A list of 
 these, with some curious particulars respecting Asgill, is given in 
 'Notes and Queries,' voL vi., pp. 3 and 300. An interesting notice of 
 Asgill, with copious extracts from his writings, will be found in 
 Southey's 'Doctor.' The chief authority for the life of Asgill is the 
 article by Dr. Campbell in the ' Biographia Britannica,' which is 
 avowedly founded on 'A Manuscript by Mr. A. N.' 
 
 {Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ASHBURNHAM, JOHN, was the eldest son of Sir John Ash- 
 burnham, of Ashburnham, in Sussex, where the family had long been 
 settled. Sir John died in 1620, after having run through all his 
 estates, leaving his widow and children in a state of destitution. 
 John, who, at his father's death was seventeen years of ag-, appears 
 to have gone to court in attendanoe on the Duke of Buckingham, 
 whose duchess was of the same family as Lady Ashburnham. In the 
 year 1628, through Buckingham's influence, lie was appointed groom 
 of the bedchamber to King Charles L, to whom he was already so 
 familiarly known that he both spoke and wrote of him as 'Jack 
 Ashburnham.' In 1610 he was elected member of parliament for 
 Hastings, aud for some time he was an active member of the long 
 parliament, and by his thorough support of the king, gave great 
 offence to the majority of the House. Iu 1642 orders were given 
 that he should be proceeded against for contempt of the summons of 
 the House; on the 5th of February 1643 he was 'disabled' for being 
 iu the king's quarters ; and in September of the same year an order 
 was issued that his estate should be sequestered, which was carried 
 into effect with so much rigour, that the petition of his wife for an 
 allowance sufficient to educate their children was rejected. At this 
 time Ashburnham was acting as treasurer aud paymaster of the royal 
 army. In 1641 he was one of the commissioners for the treaty of 
 Uxbridge, and in 1645 one of the four eomnii siouers named by the 
 king to lay propositions for a peace before the parliament. He was 
 employed also in many other missions of importance, and when the 
 king determined to leave Oxford to join the Scots army before Newark, 
 April 27, 1646, Ashburnham was his only attendant, with the exception 
 of Dr. Hudson, whose local knowledge was indispensable for the 
 journey. He attended Charles to Newcastle, but was compelled soon 
 after to make a precipitate escape, in consequence of the parliament 
 sending orders for his being arrested aud carried to London. He fled 
 to Fiance, and joined the court of the queen; but in 1647, when a 
 favourable turn in the king's affairs allowed him to do so, he resumed 
 his attendance on his master. He had a principal share in the con- 
 trivance and execution of the king's escape from Hampton Court, 
 November 11, 1647, and bis surrender to Colonel Hammond, Governor 
 of the Isle of Wight. The disastrous consequences of this measure 
 led to much blame being thrown upon all who were concerned in it, 
 but especially on Ashbuinham, who was supposed to have suggested 
 the surrender. He was even suspected of treachery, and a report was 
 spread that he had received 40,000<. to deliver the king into the hands 
 of his enemies. Those who did not credit this report, which indeed 
 the whole tenor of his life belied, supposed that he had been deceived 
 by Cromwell and Ireton, with whom he was in constant communica- 
 tion, as the king himself had been, duriug Charles's residence at 
 Hampton Court. Ashburnham was so stung by the imputations on 
 his honour, that in 1648 he printed 'A Letter to a Friend, concerning 
 his deportment towards the King at Hampton Court and the Isle of 
 Wight,' in which production he chi< fly confined himself to a denial of 
 the imputations upon his own character. 
 
 Ashburnham, who was confined by the parliament in Windsor 
 Ca-tle until he was released by an exchange of prisoners, remained 
 in England after the death of the king, which led many royali-ts to 
 Kive credence to the reports against him. He had however obtained 
 liave of Charles II. to remain, as the only method of preserving the 
 estates acquired by his second marriage with the dowager Lady 
 Poulett, which took place in 1649, aud he received no favour from the 
 party in power. He was compelled to compound for his estate at the 
 Unusually high rate of half its value; was three times banished to 
 Guernsey, and in 1654 committed to the Tower for transmitting money 
 to the king ; and was kept imprisoned until the death of Cromwell. 
 At the Restoration he became groom of the bedchamber to the King 
 Charles II., and received a grant of Ainpthill and other parks in Bed- 
 fordshire for eighty years, as a reimbursement of various Bums ex- 
 
 pended by him in the royal cause. He remained a familiar companion 
 of Charles II. until his death, which took place in the year 1671, in 
 his sixty-eighth year. He had repurchased the family estates which 
 his father had dissipated, and which are still enjoyed by his des end- 
 ants, now earls of Ashburnham : the first peer of the family was his 
 grandson, who was called to the upper house by William and Mary. 
 
 Besides the ' Letter,' published in 1648, Ashburnham wrote a long 
 justificatory narrative, which was handed about among his friends, 
 after the Restoration, par'ly to counterbalance a similar paper which 
 had been drawn up and circulated by Sir John Berkley, the other 
 attendant on the king in his flight from Hampton Court, on whom 
 suspicion had been thrown. Berkley's paper was printed before the 
 close of the 17th century, but Ashburnham's, after serving its tempo- 
 rary purpose, remained in manuscript until the year 1830, when it 
 was published by the late Earl of Ashburnham. It is entitled 'A 
 Narrative, by John Ashburnham, of bis attendance on King Charles I., 
 from Oxford to the Scotoh army, and from Hampton Court to the Isle 
 of Wight, never before printed. To which is prefixed, a Vindication 
 of his Character and Conduct from the Misrepresentations of Lord 
 Clarendon.' The Narrative and Vindication together amply suffice to 
 clear Ashburnham's character from the stain which had rested upon 
 it in consequence of the doubtful manner in which Clarendon gave 
 his opinion of his innocence. 
 
 A younger son of Sir John Ashburnham, Colonel William Ash- 
 burnham, was an active military commander for the king during the 
 Civil Wars, and in 1644, when governor of Weymouth, defended the 
 town for four months against the parliamentary army. He was after- 
 wards imprisoned by Cromwell, on a charge of being concerned in a 
 plot against his life. He died in 1679. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society fur the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING, BARON, was born 
 October 27, 1774, and was the second son of Sir Francis Baring, Bart., 
 an eminent merchant in the city of London. He was removed from 
 school at a rather early age, aud placed in the mercantile establish- 
 ment of his father. Having here completed his commercial training 
 he was sent to the United States, where, and in Canada, he for some 
 years conducted the American business of the firm. Here he acquired 
 much of that wide and varied commercial knowledge, which, later in 
 life, gave so much authority to his opinions on all matters connected 
 with trade aud commerce. In 1798 he married the daughter of 
 William Bingham, Esq., Senator of the United States; and on the 
 death of his father in 1810 he became the head of the great firm of 
 Baring, Brothers, and Co. 
 
 Mr. Baring entered Parliament in 1812 as member for Taunton, 
 which town he continued to represent till 1820, when he was returned 
 for Callington, and remained its representative until it was disfranchised 
 by the Reform Act. Prior to the introduction of the Reform Bill, 
 Mr. Baring had voted steadily with the whig party ; but he warmly 
 opposed that measure, and in future ranked among the supporters of 
 Sir Robert Peel. When Peel accepted office in December, 1834, he 
 acknowledged the advantage which he had derived from the adhesion 
 of his proselyte, by introducing Mr. Baring into his Cabinet as Presi- 
 dent of the Board of Trade aud Master of the Mint. The appoint- 
 ment was a popular one, especially in the City and with the House of 
 Commons, where Mr. Baring had long been regarded as a high authority 
 on all commercial subjects. But the ministry had but a short tenure 
 of office. Ptel resigned in April, 1835, and the President of the 
 Board of Trade of course went out with him — having however first 
 been created Baron Ashburton. When Sir Robert Peel returned to 
 office, September 1841, the differences of the United States respecting 
 the boundary question excited some anxiety, and Peel requested Lord 
 Ashburton to proceed to America as special commissioner, with powers 
 to conclude a definite treaty. Both in England and America the 
 nomiuatiou was received with satisfaction ; and Lord Ashburton con- 
 ducted the negociations in so conciliatory a spirit, that Sir Robert 
 Peel was able at the opening of the session of 1843 to announce that 
 a treaty had been concluded with the United States, in which " the 
 adjustment of the boundary question was far more favourable to this 
 country than the award of the King of the Netherlands,'" and that 
 the other poiuts under discussion between the two governments had 
 been arranged in an equally satisfactory manner. In the House of 
 Lords, Lord Ashburton continued to support the policy of Sir Robert 
 Peel until that statesman brought forward his bill for the repeal of 
 the duties on the importation of corn, when he gave to that measure 
 a resolute opposition. After it became law he took little part in 
 politics. He died May 13, 1848, and was succeeded in the title by his 
 son the present peer. Lord Ashburton cauuot be termed a statesman 
 in the proper acceptation of the term. But he brought to the con- 
 sideration of political questions a clear calm business-like understand- 
 ing and considerable experience, and though far from an eloquent 
 speaker, his extensive knowledge and unquestioned probit}', as well as 
 his high mercantile standing, caused him iu his place as a member of 
 either branch of the legislature to be always listened to with respect. 
 As a public man he will be remembered iu connection with the treaty 
 which is usually called by his name. Lord Ashburton was also well 
 known as a liberal patron of aits and artists, not neglecting while 
 forming a valuable collection of pictures by ancient masters to employ 
 
379 
 
 ASHMOLE, ELIAS. 
 
 ASHMUN, JEHUDI. 
 
 880 
 
 living painters. He held the office of trustee of both the National 
 Gallery and British Museum. 
 (Gentleman's Magazine for 1848.) 
 
 ASHMOLE, ELIAS, an eminent antiquary and herald, was bom 
 at Lichfield, May 23rd, 1617, and was placed at an early age as a 
 chorister in the cathedral of Lichfield. He was afterwards taken into 
 the family of James Paget, Esq., one of the puisne barons of the 
 Exchequer, who had married his mother's sister. At the age of 16 
 he commenced the study of the law; and in 1638 he married Eleanor, 
 daughter of Peter Maiuwaring, of Sinallwood in Cheshire, about which 
 time he was admitted to practice as a solicitor in Chancery. In 
 February 1641 he was sworn an attorney of the Common Pleas. He 
 lost his wife on the 5th of December the same year. A royalist in 
 principle, he became in 1645 one of the gentlemen of the ordnance 
 in the garrison at Oxford, whence he removed to Worcester, where he 
 was first a commissioner, and afterwards receiver and registrar of the 
 excise. He became soon after a captain in Lord Ashley's regiment, 
 and comptroller of the ordnance. In the midst of these employments 
 he entered himself of Brasenose College, Oxford, where he applied 
 himself with great vigour to the study of natural philosophy, mathe- 
 matics, and astronomy, and where his acquaintance with Mr. (after- 
 wards Sir George) Wharton led him to devote himself to the mysteries 
 of astrology. 
 
 In July 1640 Mr. Ashmole withdrew again for a few months to 
 Cheshire ; but, comiug to Loudon, he fell in with Mr. (afterwards Sir 
 Jonas) Moore, Mr. William Lilly, and Mr. John Booker, esteemed the 
 greatest astrologers of their time, and was by them caressed, instructed, 
 and admitted iuto their fraternity. In 1649 he married his second 
 wife, the Lady Maiuwaring (widow of Sir Thomas Mainwaring, Knight, 
 recorder of Beading), whose second son by a former husband, Mr. 
 Humphrey Stafford, made great opposition to the match. The large 
 fortune which he obtained with this lady (he was her fourth husband, 
 and much her junior in years) enabled him to open his house to the 
 learned and scientific persons, and especially to the many astrologers 
 who flourished in that time. In 1650 he published in 12mo a treatise 
 written by Dr. Arthur Dee upon the philosopher's stone, under the 
 title of 1 Fasciculus Chemicus ; whereuuto is added, the Arcanum, 
 or Grand Secret of Hermetick Philosophy. Both made English by 
 James Hasolle, Esq.,' in which name the letters of his own will be 
 found transposed, fie at the same time undertook to make a complete 
 collection of the works of such English chemists as had till then 
 remained in manuscript. He likewise employed a part of his time 
 in acquiring certain manual arts, such as engraving seals, casting 
 in sand, and the craft of a goldsmith. In 1652, believing that a com- 
 petent knowledge of Hebrew was necessary for understanding and 
 explaining such authors as had written on the hermetic science, he 
 applied himself to the study of that language. At length, towards 
 the close of 1652, his ' Theatrum Chymicum Britannicum' appeared, 
 a quarto volume, containing many pieces of our old hermetic philoso- 
 phers. This work gained him a high reputation, and among other 
 scholars to whom it extended his acquaintance was the celebrated 
 John Selden, with whom he lived in intimate friendship till his death. 
 Ashmole's marriage with the Lady Mainwaring, exclusive of mere 
 family opposition, involved him in several lawsuits, and at last in one 
 in Chancery with the lady herself. October 8th, 1657, he says, "The 
 cause between me and my wife was heard, when Mr. Serjeant Maynard 
 observed to the court that there were 800 sheets of depositions on 
 my wife's part, and not one word proved against me of using her ill, 
 nor ever giving her a bad or provokiug word." The lady's suit was 
 dismissed, and, notwithstanding the 800 sheets of depositions, Ashmole 
 and his wife continued thenceforward to live together with all the 
 usual appearances of harmony. 
 
 Ashmole now devoted himself to the study of antiquity and records. 
 This recommended him to Mr. (afterwards Sir William) Dugdale, 
 whom he accompanied about this time when making his survey of the 
 Fens. In 1658 he published a treatise on the philosopher's stone, 
 entitled ' The Way to Bliss ; in three books,' 4to ; a work in which he 
 took leave of his friends the astrologers and alchemists. He had 
 throughout life been a diligent collector of rarities, and somehow 
 induced the younger Tradescant and his wife in 1659 to make over to 
 him, by deed of gift, the remarkable museum of curiosities at South 
 Lambeth, which the two Tradescants, father and son, had been long 
 accumulating. The deed remained in Mrs. Tradescant's hands, and 
 after her husband's death Ashmole instituted a suit in Chancery to 
 compel the widow to transfer the collection to him. Mrs. Tradescant 
 replied to the bill, denying that such a conveyance had ever been 
 executed, and cited her husband's will, of a later date than the alleged 
 conveyance, in which the collection of rarities is left to her during 
 life, with power to bequeath it to Oxford or Cambridge university. 
 The lord chancellor (Clarendon) however gave judgment in favour of 
 Ashmole, and the widow was of course compelled to submit. 
 
 Upon the Restoration, King Charles II. bestowed upon him 
 (June 18, 1660) the place of Windsor herald, and a few days after 
 appointed him to make a description of the royal collection of medals. 
 On November 2, 1660, he was called to the bar in the Middle Temple 
 hall ; and in January, 1661, admitted F.R.S. Soon after this time he 
 had several new preferments bestowed upon him, and amongst them, 
 by warrant, February 9, 1661, the secretaryship of Surinam. His 
 
 second wife, Lady Mainwaring, dying in April 1668, Ashmole married 
 in the following November Elizabeth, the daughter of his friend Sir 
 William Dugdale. A wealthy and prosperous man, he was now 
 courted and esteemed by the greatest persons in the kingdom ; and 
 having finished his labours upon the ' History of the Order of the 
 Garter,' presented that work to the king. May 8, 1672, who, as a mark 
 of approbation for his toil and research, presented him with a privy 
 seal for 4001. In 1675 he resigned his office of Windsor herald ; and 
 in 1677, on Sir Edward Walker's death, might have been made garter 
 king of arms, but waived the appointment in favour of his father-in- 
 law, Sir William Dugdale. On the 26th of January 1679, a fire broke 
 out in the Middle Temple, in a set of chambers next to those in which 
 Mr. Ashmole resided, by which he lost the greater part of his library, 
 a cabinet of ancient and modern coins, aud a great collection of seals, 
 charters, aud other antiquities. His manuscripts however, and his 
 gold medals, were fortunately preserved, by being in the house which 
 had been Tradescant's at Lambeth. 
 
 In 1682, the University of Oxford having finished a building as a 
 repository for curiosities near the theatre, Ashmole sent thither the 
 collection of rarities which he had received from the Tradescants 
 (first however carefully removing everything that was likely to con- 
 nect their name with the museum), aud with it the valuable additions 
 he had himself made to the collection. He afterwards added the 
 donation of his manuscripts and library. This is still called the 
 Ashmolean Museum. In 1686, on the death of his father-in-law, Sir 
 William Dugdale, lie declined a second time the office of garter, which 
 he would have obtained for his brother-in-law, John Dugdale, but wa3 
 unsuccessful. He however procured for him the place of norroy king 
 of arms. This was one of the last public acts of Ashmole's life. He 
 died May 18, 1692, and was interred at Lambeth. 
 
 Besides the works already noticed, which were published during his 
 life, Ashmole left large collections in manuscript. Of these the two 
 following, which are the most important, have been published : — 
 ' The Arms, Epitaphs, Fenestra! Inscriptions, with the Draughts of the 
 Tombs, &c, in all the Churches in Berkshire,' penned in 1666, were 
 in part published afterwards under the title of ' The Antiquities of 
 Berkshire,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1717, 1723, and at Reading in folio, 1736; and 
 the diary of his life, which was first published in 12mo. in 1717, 
 under the title of ' Memoirs of the Life of the Learned Antiquary, 
 Elias Ashmole, Esq., drawn up by himself by way of Diary, with an 
 Appendix of Original Letters ; ' published by Charles Burman, Esq. ; 
 reprinted with Lilly's ' History of his Life and Times,' 8vo, London, 
 1774. It is from this diary, abounding in absurd and puerile memo- 
 randa, but affording equally abundant evidence of his shrewd regard 
 to his own iuterests, that the dates and facts in the preceding memoir 
 have been principally taken. 
 
 ASHMUN, JEHUDI, was born at Champlain, in the state of New 
 York, in the year 1794. He was the third of ten children of his 
 father, a farmer, who had settled at Champlain when the neighbour- 
 hood was a comparative wilderness. He early displayed a fondness 
 for books, and at the age of fourteen commenced preparing for 
 college. Four years afterwards he became a student at Middlebury 
 College, where he supported himself by teaching a school. In the 
 interim he had acted as clerk to an attorney, or in any capacity which 
 afforded a subsistence for the moment. He originally destined him- 
 self for the Christian ministry, but at different times studied both law 
 and medicine. He removed to the university of Vermont, at Burling- 
 ton, where he graduated with distinction. At the age of twenty-two 
 he became the principal of a theological seminary at Hampden, in the 
 state of Maine, called ' The Maine Charity-School,' and subsequently 
 acted as classical professor. He was married at New York on October 
 7th, 1818, to Miss Gray, but having promised marriage to another, his 
 conduct was regarded in so unfavourable a light in Maine, that he was 
 compelled to quit the state. He went to Baltimore, and after vainly 
 endeavouring to establish a superior seminary for girls, set up a 
 periodical called ' The Constellation,' which failed, leaving him deeply 
 in debt. He then removed to Washington, and after a time obtained 
 the editorship of ' The Repertory,' a monthly magazine, established 
 under the auspices of the clergy of the Episcopal Church, whose com- 
 munion he joined on the occasion. In this work he wrote much in 
 favour of the plan of the ' African Colonisation Society,' for founding 
 a settlement of liberated negroes on the west coast of Africa, and for 
 a short time his periodical was entirely devoted to the subject. In 
 1821 he also published a 'Life of the Rev. Samuel Bacon,' who had 
 fallen a victim in the original attempt to set the colony on foot. This 
 publication entailed a heavy loss on the author, already deeply involved 
 on other accounts. The desire to set hiinseif free by the profits of 
 commercial speculation, determined him to undertake a voyage to the 
 coast of Africa. He obtained also an appointment as one of their 
 agents from the African Colonisation Society. He landed at Cape 
 Mesurado, with a detachment of freed negroes from Baltimore, in 
 August, 1822, and finding the other agents had previously left the 
 coast, he assumed all the authority belonging to the sole representative 
 of the Society. From that moment his life was devoted to one object, 
 the prosperity of the infant colony. 
 
 At the time of his arrival, the whole population, the kite arrivals 
 included, amounted to 130 persons, of whom 35 only were capable of 
 bearing arms. Ashmun instantly set about building and fortifying, 
 
381 
 
 ASKEW, ANNE. 
 
 ASMON.EANS. 
 
 m 
 
 without at the same time forgetting to make arrangements for instruct- 
 ing the colonists, and even the surrounding natives, in the arts of 
 civilisation. His progress was stopped by sickness, which attacked all 
 but two of the recent immigrants, and carried off Mrs. Ashmun on the 
 loth of September. The colony was also subjected to several hostile 
 attacks from surrounding tribes, which Ashmun was able successfully 
 to resist, inflicting at the same time great loss upon the assailants. 
 From that time the colony was left in peace, and Ashmun devoted 
 himself entirely to the civil interests of the settlement. Although 
 retarded by frequent illness, which proved so fatal to others that on 
 seven different occasions he was the only white man left in the colony, 
 and although harassed by a misunderstanding with his principals at 
 home, he had the satisfaction to see it making rapid progress. By the 
 end of 1826 he had established a complete system of law ; had founded 
 new settlements inland, as well as on the coast ; had erected two 
 churches, besides a variety of other public buildings at the capital, 
 Monrovia ; had built a colonial schooner ; had set up a printing-press, 
 and opened a public library consisting of 1200 volumes. The popula- 
 tion had increased during his administration to upwards of a thousand, 
 and a considerable trade had sprung up. 
 
 Ashmun's constitution, which had been impaired even in his college 
 days by severe study and frequent preaching, was completely destroyed 
 by the climate of Africa and his never-ceasing exertions. In the midst 
 of his arduous duties, having still some idea of entering the legal pro- 
 fession, he spent four hours each day in the study of Blackstoue's 
 'Commentaries,' besides going through a great amount of miscellaneous 
 reading. His only relaxation consisted in a voyage to the Cape de 
 Verd Islands, in 1823, which greatly recruited his health. His 
 departure for his native land became at length a matter of necessity, 
 and on the 25th of March, 1828, he left the colony, then recently 
 named Liberia, in the brig ' Dorris.' After touching at the island of 
 St. Bartholomew, the brig reached Newhaven, Connecticut, in July. 
 Ashmun landed in a state of great c xhaustion, revived for a few days, 
 relapsed, and then expired on the 28th of August, 1828, in his thirty- 
 fifth year. His remains were honoured with a public funeral. A 
 memoir of his life, by R. R. Gurley, a fellow-labourer in the cause 
 of Liberia, appeared at Washington in 1835, in 1 voL 8vo, with a 
 portrait. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge 
 Society.) 
 
 ASKEW, ANNE, or Ascough, the second daughter of Sir William 
 Askew of Kelsey, in Lincolnshire, has obtained mention in most histo- 
 ries of England as one of those sufferers who, before the final completion 
 of the Reformation, abj ured in part the doctrines of the Romish Church. 
 She was more highly educated than was ordinary in that day, and by 
 study of the Scriptures became a convert to the opinions of the 
 reformers, at which her husband, one Kyme, a violent papist, was so 
 much displeased that he turned her out of doors. She came up to 
 sue for a separation, and although she did not obtain a legal divorce, 
 she refused to return to her husband, and resumed her maiden name. 
 She was arrested in March 1545, and accused of holding heretical 
 doctrines concerning the sacrament, and denying the corporal presence 
 of Christ's body in the elements after consecration ; and on this charge 
 she was committed to prison. Being examined before the chancellor, 
 the bishop of London, and other.*, she is said to have replied boldly 
 to the lord mayor's question, " Whether the priests cannot make the 
 body of Christ?" "I have read that God made man, but that roan 
 can make God I never yet read." (Strype, ' Memorials,' i. p. 387.) 
 Bishop Bonner was anxious to persuade her to recant, but her admis- 
 aions were not satisfactory, or at least not effectual, for she was soon 
 after again examined closely a3 to her belief and doctrines, and com- 
 mitted to Newgate. While there she was again strictly questioned as 
 to what ladies at court had shown her favour and encouragement. 
 Not being able to extract any information on this point, she was placed 
 on the rack and cruelly tortured ; and in a narrative drawn up by her- 
 self she states that, because she did not answer, " my lord cliaucellor 
 (Wriothesley) and Master Rich took pains to rack me with their own 
 hands till I was nigh dead." But her patience and fortitude could not 
 be shaken, nor does it appear that she had any disclosures to make. 
 She was burnt with four others at the stake in Smithfield, July 16, 
 1546. (The First Examinacyon of Anne Askewe, lately Martyred in 
 Smythfelde by the Romish Pope's Upholders, with the Elucydacyon of 
 Johan Bale; the Lattre Examinacyon, &c. ; Fuller, Church History, 
 book iv. ; Fox, Book of Martyrs.) 
 
 ASMONiEANS. The AsuioiiMan family derived their name from 
 Asamonaeus, a Levite of the class Joiarib, who has been supposed to 
 have been contemporary with the immediate successors of Alexander 
 the Great. The son of Asamonajus was Symeon, or Simon, whose son 
 Johannes was the father of Mattathias, the father of the Maccabees. 
 The name Asamonseus, or As/nonacus, had probably, like other Hebrew 
 names, a significative meaning ; the word Chahsmanim occurs only 
 once in the Old Testament, in Psalm lxviiL 32. It there means ' fat 
 ones ;' that ia, rich noblemen, princes ; hence the designation Asmo- 
 naeans implies nobles or princes emphatically so called. 
 
 The Jews, while subjected to the Seleucidao, or Greek kings of Syria, 
 depended upon the priests as the organ of every interest, and the high- 
 priest in Jerusalem was the head of the nation. The Jews had for 
 many years been subject to the arbitrary rule and cruelty of the Syrian 
 
 kings, when Mattathias and his five heroic sons, John, Simon, Judas, 
 Eleazar, and Jonathan, commenced their victorious resistance to tha 
 attempt of Antiochus Epiphanes to compel the Jews to exchange their 
 ancestral monotheism for the idolatry of their Syro-Macedonian 
 oppressors. This struggle is described in the books of the Maccabees, 
 which are included among the books of the Apocrypha. It is also 
 detailed in the 'Antiquities of Josephus,' from book xiL, cap. 6, to the 
 end of book xvi. 
 
 The power of the Asmourean dynasty lasted from the year B.o. 106 
 to B.C. 37, but the family survived the dynasty. The first descendants 
 of the Maccabees ruled without the title of king, but with sovereign 
 power : they united in their persons the functions of the high-priest, 
 the chief civil magistrate, and the chief commander of the army. The 
 later Asmonaean monarchs adopted the title of king, but they lost, 
 with the pious virtue of their ancestors, the love of the nation ; and 
 subsequently, by family discord, the kingdom itself. 
 
 After the death of Mattathias, Judas, at the head of those Jews who 
 had fled into the wilderness, made war (b.o. 166) against Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, overcame and killed Apollonius in battle, and thus became 
 chief of his people. The next year he vanquished Lysias and Gorgias, 
 two other generals of Antiochus ; he then purified the temple, and 
 restored the former worship. Antiochus, having heard of the defeat 
 of his troops, swore that he would destroy the whole nation. As he 
 was hastening to Jerusalem he died miserably, B.C. 164 or 165. Antio- 
 chus Eupator, his son, made peace with the Jews, but the war was 
 soon renewed. Demetrius Soter, having put Antiochus to death, 
 usurped his kingdom, B.C. 162, and conferred the high-priesthood on 
 Alcimus. In a battle against Bacchides, one of the generals of Deme- 
 trius, Judas was killed. [Judas Maccabeus.] Jonathan succeeded 
 his brother, and after some years of commotion was made high-priest, 
 B.C. 153. 
 
 Jonathan entered into an alliance, B.C. 150, with the usurper, 
 Alexander-Balas, who pretended to be the son of Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 Jonathan was afterwards killed by Tryphon, a professed supporter of 
 the claims of Antiochus, the son of Alexander-Balas. [Jonathan 
 Apphds.] Simon, B.C. 144, shook off the yoke of the kings of Syria, 
 and took the city of Gaza and the fortress of Jerusalem. He made an 
 alliance with Antiochus Sidetes; but it was soon after broken, and 
 Antiochus sent Cendebeus against him. Simon, now too old to go to 
 war, resigned the command to his sons, by whom Cendebeus was 
 defeated. Ptolemseus, the son-in-law of Simon, aspiring to reign in 
 his stead, invited his father and brothers-in-law to a feast, at which 
 Simon and his sons were assassinated, B.C. 135. [Simon Matthes.] 
 John Hyrcanus, the third son of Simon, not being with him when he 
 was murdered, escaped assassination. Ptolemaeus now called Antio- 
 chus Sidetes to his assistance. They besieged Jerusalem, which being 
 reduced to a state of famine, John was obliged to capitulate. John 
 went afterwards with Antiochus in an expedition against the Parthiaus; 
 and for his exploits against the Hyrcanians was surnamed Hyrcanus. 
 [John Hyrcanus.] 
 
 Aristobulus, the son of Hyrcanus, became high-priest after the 
 death of his father. Hyrcanus bequeathed the sovereign authority to 
 his wife, but Aristobulus caused her to be shut up ; and, contrary to 
 former custom, assumed both the diadem and regal title, B.C. 106. Ii 
 an expedition against the Itureans, he was attacked by illness, and 
 returned to Jerusalem, leaving his favourite brother Antigonus to 
 finish the war. The wife of Aristobulus took advantage of the absence 
 of Antigonus to weaken his iuflueuce with his brother ; and she 
 endeavoured to excite in her husband's mind the belief that Antigonus 
 sought to obtain the royal dignity. Under her influence Aristobulus 
 caused Antigonus to be murdered on his return from the Iturean 
 campaign. He afterwards suffered great remorse for this deed, which 
 aggravated his disorder, and he died at the close of the first year of 
 his reign. Three of his brothers whom he had kept in prison were set 
 at liberty on his death. The eldest, Alexander Jannaeus, succeeded 
 him in the royal title and office, B.C. 105. [Alexander Jann^eus.J 
 Alexander Jannaeus reigned twenty-seven years, and was succeeded by 
 his wife Alexandra, B.C. 79. His son Hyrcanus became high-priest. 
 Alexandra reigned nine years. Upon her death, B.C. 70, the government 
 devolved upon Hyrcanus II., a prince of a weak character and inactive 
 disposition, who was dispossessed of his regal authority by his brother 
 Aristobulus, but permitted to retain the office of high-priest, with an 
 ample revenue. Hyrcanus after some time, being assisted by Aretas, 
 king of Arabia, attempted to resume his former rank. Aretas besieged 
 Jerusalem, and Aristobulus was reduced to great straits ; but haviug 
 gained to his party Scaurus, one of the lieutenants of Pompseus, 
 Aretas was obliged to raise the siege and to return to defend his own 
 dominions. Thus commenced the Roman power in Judaea. The 
 authority of Aristobulus had not yet been sanctioned by the Romans ; 
 and on the appeal of Hyrcanus, Pompnous, having heard the arguments 
 of both parties, decided in favour of Hyrcanus, whom he reinstated in 
 the government under Roman protection. Aristobulus upon this shut 
 himself up in Jerusalem. Pompaeus besieged the city during three 
 months; and took it at last by fixing his engines on the Sabbath. The 
 Jews would not violate the sanctity of that day by offensive warfare, 
 although they were ready to repel attacks : Pompaeus accordingly 
 issued strict orders that nothing having the semblance of attack 
 should be suffered to occur, in order that the Jews might have no 
 
883 
 
 ASSAROTTI, BATTISTA. 
 
 pretext for disturbing his preparations. Aristobulus was carried to 
 Rome, and made to appear in the triumphal procession which cele- 
 brated, among other victories, the Jewish conquest; but finding means 
 to escape from Rome, he returned to Judaea, and excited fresh commo- 
 tion. Gabinius, the Roman general, took him prisoner, and sent him 
 a second time to Rome, where he died some time after from the effects 
 of poison. 
 
 The government of Hyrcanus was disturbed by continual commo- 
 tions, which he had not the ability to prevent. His minister Antipater, 
 the Idumean, wrested from him all but the name of ruler. Antigonus, 
 the son of Aristobulus, to revenge the death of his father, procured 
 the assistance of the Parthians and took Hyrcanus prisoner. Hyr- 
 canus was allowed to return to Jerusalem ; but was put to death 
 B.C. 30, at the age of eighty. On the death of Hyrcanus, Antigonus 
 became king ; but three years from the commencement of his reign, 
 he was put to death by the Romans, B.C. 37, to make way for Herod. 
 Herod had ingratiated himself so much with Julius Caesar, M. Antony, 
 and the Romans in general, that with their assistance he was enabled 
 to supplant tlie Asmonaeans, and to commence a new dynasty, a.d. 37. 
 To confirm his authority, he married Mariamne, grand-daughter of 
 Hyrcanus II., and made her brother Aristobulus III. high-priest, reserv- 
 ing to himself the regal power; but finding that Aristobulus retained 
 many partisans, he caused him to be drowned, B.C. 35. 
 
 Mariamne, who was distinguished by her beauty and talents, was 
 murdered by order of Herod on an unfounded suspicion of conspiracy 
 and adultery. Her sons were also put to death on a charge of rebel- 
 lious designs. But the Asmonaean family did not end entirely with 
 their power, for we read in the commencement of the auto-biography 
 of FL Josephus, '• By my mother I am of the royal blood ; for the 
 children of Asamonaeus, from whom that family was derived, had both 
 the office of the high-priesthood and the dignity of a king for a long time 
 together. I will accordingly set down my progenitors in order." After 
 giving his genealogy, in order to silence some who had, he admits, 
 denied his high descent, at length he says, " I have three sons — Hyr- 
 canus, the eldest, was born in the fourth year of the reign of Vespa- 
 sian ; Justin in the seventh, and Agrippa iuthe ninth." These are the 
 last traces of the Asmonaean family. 
 
 In the British Museum there is a number of Asmonaean coins, from 
 which the following drawings are taken :— 
 
 Silver. British Museum. 
 
 Brass. British Museum. 
 
 (The Five Books of the Maccabees, with Notes and Illustrations, by 
 Henry Cotton, D.C.L., Archdeacon of Cashel, Oxford, 1832. Two of 
 these books belong to the Apocrypha, which are frequently annexed 
 to the Old Testament. See Josephus, Antiq., xii. 6— xvi. end; Franc. 
 Terez. Bayer, Be Numis Hebrceo-Samantanis, Valentiae, 1781, p. 181. 
 folio; Franc. Perez. Bayer, Vindiciw Nvmorum Hebrceo-Samarita- 
 norum, 1790, folio; Spanheimii Dissertation.es de Prastantia et Usu 
 Numismatum, London, 1706, vol. i. p. 61, &c.) 
 
 ASPA'SIA, a native of Miletus, and the daughter of Axiochus, cele- 
 brated for her connection with Pericles. Of her early life nothing is 
 known. She came to reside in Athens, and there gained the affections 
 of Pericles. Having separated from his first wife with her own 
 consent, he attached himself to Aspasia during the rest of his life ; 
 but marriage with a foreign woman was expressly forbidden by the 
 law of Athens. There can be little doubt that she acquired great 
 ascendancy over Pericles, though the extent and character of it have 
 been much exaggerated. We are told little of her beauty; much of 
 her mental powers and cultivation. Plutarch says that Pericles 
 esteemed her " because she was a wise woman, and had great under- 
 standing in matters of government." Her house became a sort of 
 centre of intellectual society, and it is said, that notwithstanding the 
 seclusion in which Athenian matrons generally lived, many of them 
 accompanied their husbands to enjoy her conversation. Socrates 
 Bometiuies visited her in company with his friends. (Xen. 'Mem.' II. 
 vi. 36 ; and the ' Menexenus' of Plato.) The 'Menexenus' is written 
 to introduce a funeral oration ascribed to Aspasia, though the conclu- 
 
 sion of the dialogue seems to intimate that the author did not mean 
 that ascription to be implicitly believed. Socrates however, as one of 
 the speakers of the dialogue, gives Aspasia the high praise of " having 
 made many good orators, and one eminent over all the Greeks, Pericles, 
 the son of Xanthippua." 
 
 ACITACIA. 
 
 The connection of Pericles with Aspasia was a favourite subject of 
 invective with his enemies. The comic writers especially treated her 
 with great severity. Indeed one cf them, Hermippus, prosecuted her 
 on the charge of not believing in the gods, and also of being instru- 
 mental in debauching free women to gratify the lust of Pericles. And 
 Plutarch, w ho relates the story, adds " that nothing but the personal 
 exertions, the tear.-', and entreaties of Pericles procured her acquittal" 
 (' Pericles,' c. 24). These stories, however unfavourable alike to 
 Pericles and Aspasia, depend on the authority of late writers, as Plu- 
 tarch and Atheuacus : contemporary writers contain no hint of them, 
 with the exception of the comic writers, whose trade was scandal. 
 After the death of Pericles, Aspasia is said to have transferred her 
 affections to Lysicles, a man of low origin, who however by her 
 instructions, according to Plutarch, became for a time the popular 
 leader in Athens. By Pericles Aspasia had a son, also named Pericles, 
 who was legitimatised by a vote of the people. 
 
 ASSAROTTI, OTTA'VIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA, to whom 
 Italy owes the institution of schools for the deaf and dumb, was born 
 at Genoa on the 25th of October 1753. In 1771 he entered the fra- 
 ternity of the ' Scuole Pie,' a society of regular ecclesiastics devoted 
 to the instruction of the young, to whose care he owed his own instruc- 
 tion. His life was thenceforth spent in duties to which his profession 
 invited him. His talents and learning were appreciated by his supe- 
 riors. He taught successively, in the schools of bis order, at Voghera, 
 Savona, Albenga, and Genoa ; he was appointed by the archbishop of 
 Genoa to be examiner of the clergy in the diocese ; and about the 
 beginning of the present century he lectured on moral and dogmatic 
 theology to the students in the seminary of the ' Scuole Pie.' 
 
 About the year 1801, Father Assarotti's attention was drawn to the 
 labours of the Abbe" Sicard in the education of deaf-mutes. For years 
 he laboured almost unaided and alone at the self-imposed task of 
 instructing' such poor children of this class as his means allowed him 
 to maintain, and at the same time of instructing himself in the means 
 of imparting information to them. It was not till the 2nd December 
 1812 that Assarotti, with thirty pupils, was enabled to take possession 
 of the college-buildings assigned to them, with an endowment by 
 Napoleon L, in the ex-monastery Delia Misericordia. On the fall of 
 the French government, in 1814, the Deaf and Dumb College lost its 
 endowment ; but it retained possession of the buildings which had 
 been allotted to it ; and, after a suspension of four months, the 
 endowment was restored. Three or four years afterwards the king 
 of Sardinia bestowed on Father Assarotti himself a pension of 800 
 lire, and provided funds for maintaining eighteen deaf mutes gratui- 
 tously in the house. Assarotti's benevolent designs were now placed 
 beyond the risk of failure ; and, although already fallen into premature 
 decrepitude, he continued to devote himself to his philanthropic 
 labours during the remainder of his life. He died at Genoa on the 
 24 th of January 1829, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, having 
 bequeathed to his pupils the remnant of his small fortune. 
 
 Assarotti's Italian biographer enumerates a series of departments 
 of knowledge as having been taught by Assarotti in his later years, 
 which, as he truly observes, it could hardly be believed possible to 
 communicate to the unfortunate pupils. The list embraces the Latin 
 and modern languages, ancient and modern history, geography, algebra, 
 and geometry, the elements of astronomy, metaphysics and logic, and 
 the principles of religion, with the arts of drawing and engraving. 
 Several of Assarotti's pupils are named as having displayed a consider- 
 able degree of intelligence and knowledge. His scholar Ta'idei wrote 
 a religious book for his fellow-sufferers; Migliorini became the teacher 
 of a deaf and dumb school in Tuscany ; and Castelli obtained a com« 
 
385 
 
 ASSEMANI, GIUSEPPE SIMONE. 
 
 ASSER, 
 
 mission in the corps of engineers. Teachers who had been trained 
 under Assarotti were placed at the head of the schools in Turin, Milan, 
 Pisa, Siena, and Parma. Deaf and dumb schools, it is only right to 
 add, are now pretty general iu the chief cities of Italy. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ASSEMANI, GIUSEPPE SIMONE, a learned Maronite, native of 
 Syria, who came to Rome towards the beginning of the 18th century, 
 was made Archbishop in partibus of Tyre, and keeper of the Vatican 
 library, by Clemens XL He died at Rome in 1768 in his eighty-first 
 year. He was sent by Pope Clemens on a literary mission to Egypt 
 and Syria in the years 1715-16, and he brought back to Rome many 
 valuable manuscripts. He then set about compiling his ' Bibliotheca 
 Orientalis Clementino Vaticana,' four volumes folio, Rome, 1719 28, 
 being a biographical account of the Syrian writers, divided into three 
 classes, that is, Orthodox, Jacobites, and Nestoriaus, with copious 
 extracts in the Syriac text, and a Latin version, lists of their works, 
 and comments on the same. He intended to proceed with the Arabian, 
 Copt, and other eastern writers, but nothing appeared in print beyond 
 the Syriac. The fourth volume of the ' Bibliotheca ' is engrossed by 
 a learned dissertation on the Syrian Nestorians. His other more im- 
 portant published works are : — ' S. Ephraem Syri Opera omnia qute 
 extant,' six volumes folio, Rome, 1732-46. This edition of the works 
 of St. Ephraem, one of the old Syrian fathers, was begun by Ambarach, 
 another learned Maronite living at Rome, and better known as Father 
 Benedetti, and after his death was completed by Assemani. 'Kalen- 
 daria Ecclesise Universee, in quibus turn ex vetustis marmoribus, turn 
 ex codicibus, tabulis, parietinis, pictis, scriptis, sculptisve Sanctorum 
 nomina, imagines et festi per annum dies, Ecclesiarum Orientis et 
 Occidentis, prsemissis unius cuj usque Ecclesiae originibus, recensentur, 
 describuntur, et notis illustrantur,' six volumes quarto, Rome, 1755-57. 
 This is an elaborate and curious work, which originated out of a request 
 of the Marquis Capponi that Assemani would describe five pictures of 
 saints of the Russo-Greek Church in his collection. Assemani under- 
 took the task, wrote and published six large quarto volumes, yet left 
 his work unfinished : he had prepared six more quarto Volumes, but 
 they were destroyed in a fire which burnt a large number of his manu- 
 scripts in 1768. The first four and part of the fifth of the published 
 volumes are taken up with a learned history of the Slavonian Church. 
 ' Bibliotheca Juris Orientalis Canonici et Civilis,' four volumes quarto, 
 Rome, 1762-61. Some other of his writings were published, yet Vac- 
 colini states that, besides the large number of his manuscripts burnt 
 in the fire already referred to, there is still in the libraries of the 
 Propaganda and the Inquisition at Rome enough in Assemani's hand- 
 writing to fill a hundred volumes. 
 
 ASSEMANI, SIMONE, the nephew or grand-nephew of Giuseppe 
 Simone, was born in Syria in 1752. He studied at Rome, and, having 
 taken holy orders, spent some time in travelling iu the East. Of this 
 journey he gave what Meneghilli terms a truly oriental account. On 
 his return to Italy he was employed to draw up a catalogue of the 
 oriental manuscripts of Jacopo NanL He afterwards became professor 
 of oriental languages in the academy of Padua, and in 1807 was raised 
 by Napoleon I. to a similar professorship iu the university of that city, 
 which post he held till his death, April 7, 1821. Assemani was regarded 
 during his life, especially in Italy, as a great authority in Oriental lite- 
 rature. He published several works in Italian and in Latin on Arabian 
 literature and history. Of these perhaps the more important are : — 
 ' Saggio sull origine, culto, letteratura e costumi degli Arabi, avauti il 
 pseudo profeta Maometto,' 8vo, Padua, 1787; ' Catalogo dei codici 
 A1SS. Orientali nella biblioteca Naniana,' 4to, Padua, 1787-88 (to this 
 catalogue he added extracts from some of the more remarkable works 
 registered in it); 'Globus C'celestis, Cufico-Arabicus,' 4to, Padua, 1790, 
 being a description of the celestial globe iu the Borgia Museum at 
 Velletri, with a dissertation on the astronomy of the Arabs. It was 
 Simone Assemani who first exposed the forgeries of the Maltese Vella, 
 who pretended to have found an Arabic manuscript containing a diplo- 
 matic code of the Sicilian Saracens. Vella's imposture on further 
 inquiry being made clear, he was sentenced to imprisonment. (Vesa- 
 rotti Opere, voL xviiL ; Fundyraben dcs Orients, vol. i. ; AUgemeinen 
 Literaruchen Anzeigen for 1795; Sylvtstre de Sacy, Biographic Uni- 
 verielle — Supplement ; Moschini, Biograjia Universale, the latter being 
 a new life from original sources.) 
 
 ASSEMANI, STEFAN 0 EVODIO, nephew of Giuseppe Assemani, 
 was born at Tripoli about 1707. He studied at Rome, and returned 
 to Syria as a missionary of the Propaganda. He was present at the 
 Synod of Lebanon, 1736, at which his uncle acted as legate. Subse- 
 quently he spent some months in England. Having established him- 
 »elf at Rome, he was employed as assistant to his uncle at the Vatican; 
 and on his uncle's death succeeded him as upper keeper of the library. 
 He also became Bishop of Apamea. His literary reputation is not 
 very high. The only works of any consequence which he published 
 are the following : — ' BibliothecEe Mediceo-Laureutianaj et Palatinso 
 Codicum MSS. Orientaliurn Catalogue,' two volumes folio, 1742, with 
 notes by Gori ; 'Acta Sanctorum Maityrum Orientalium et Ocridenta- 
 lium,' two volumes folio, Rome, 174 8. To this work, which he com- 
 piled from manuscripts in the Vatican, he added the ' Acts of St. 
 Siujon,' called ' Styhte,' in Chaldaic and Latin. He also began a 
 general catalogue of the Vatican manmcriDts>. divided into three classes, 
 Bioo. niv vnt,. l 
 
 Oriental, Greek and Latin, Italian and other modern languages, of 
 which however he published only the first volume in 1756, a fire which 
 broke out in his chambers having destroyed his papers. Mai has 
 continued parts of this catalogue in his ' Scriptorum Veterum nova 
 collectio.' He died November 24, 1782. 
 
 ASSER, or more correctly ASHI. Ashi was the principal author of 
 the Babylonian Talmud, so called from the place of his residence. He 
 was born at Babylon A.D. 353 (a.m. 4113), and appears to have been 
 distinguished very early in life by intellectual powers and acquire- 
 ments. His Jewish biographers indeed relate that he was appointed 
 head of the College of Sori, in Babylon, at the age of fourteen ; but it 
 is scarcely necessary to discuss the probability of this unparalleled 
 instance of mental precocity. He held this post till his death in 426. 
 Rabbi Abraham-ben-Dior asserts, in his ' Kabbalah,' p. 68, that since 
 the days of Rabbi Jehuda-Hannasi, or Rabbenu-Hakkadosh, in no one 
 but Ashi had been combined at once knowledge of the law, piety, 
 humility, and magnificence. His fame attracted to his lectures many 
 thousands of students. The expositions of the Mishna which he 
 delivered in his lectures were collected, and form the basis of the 
 Babylonian Talmud. The continuation was the work of his disciples 
 and followers : it was completed seventy-three years after the death 
 of Ashi by R. Josd, president of the College of Pumbedita in Babylon. 
 (Compare the Tsemach David, first part, in the years 4127 and 4187 ; 
 Sepher Juchasin, fol. 117 ; Halichoth Olam, p. 18; Wolfii, Bibliotheca 
 Hebrcca, torn, i., p. 224.) 
 
 ASSER, or ASSERITJS MENEVENSIS, a learned monk of St. 
 David's, whence (the name of that place in Latin being written Menapia, 
 or Menevia) he obtained the appellation of Menevensis. Asser was 
 invited to the court of Alfred the Great, as is generally believed, in or 
 about the year 880, but probably earlier, merely from the reputation 
 of his learning. King Alfred, according to his own statement in the 
 'Life of Alfred,' first wished him to reside constantly at court; bub as 
 Asser would not consent to this, the king then desired that he would 
 apportion his time between the court and his monastery, passing six 
 months at each. It was finally arranged, in accordance with a sug- 
 gestion of his brother monks, that he should reside alternate quarters 
 at court and at St. David's. The king was at a place called Leonaford 
 when Asser entered on his new duties. Alfred received him with every 
 mark of distinction, and he remained at court eight months, reading 
 with him such books as the king possessed ; and henceforward he was 
 a pretty constant attendant at court, in the manner stipulated. Alfred 
 bestowed several preferments upon Asser, including the church of 
 Exeter. An Asser, bishop of Sherburne, is mentioned in the Saxon 
 Chronicle, and he is generally identified with the author of the ' Life 
 of Alfred,' though there are some difficulties in the way of connecting 
 the references in other authorities. It is probable that he held some 
 other see prior to that of Sherburne. In the epistle prefixed to Alfred's 
 translation of Gregory's ' Pastorale,' addressed to Wulfsig, bishop of 
 London, the king calls him 'my bishop;' acknowledging the help 
 received from him and others in that translation. He is also named 
 by king Alfred in his will as a person in whom he had particular con- 
 fidence. Those very doubtful authorities, Matthew of Westminster 
 and William of Malmesbury, make Asser, bishop of Sherburne, to have 
 died during the life of Alfred, in 883 ; but the more nearly contempo- 
 raneous and trustworthy authority, the Saxon Chronicle, assigns his 
 death to 910; and this is the date at which the decease of Asser 
 Menevensis is usually fixed. 
 
 The work which gives Asser his claim to an important place among 
 the early contributors to English history is the Latin ' Life of Alfred,' 
 or, as it is entitled in the best edition, that of Wise (Oxford, 1722, one 
 vol. 8vo), ' Annales Rerum Gestarum ^Elfredi Magni.' This is the 
 chief authority for the life of Alfred between the years 849 and 889, 
 and it contains much important information relative to the condition 
 of the country during that period. The work in its present state 
 contains much contradictory matter, and much which is not recon- 
 cilable with other authorities, as well as much which it is difficult to 
 conceive could have been written by a person in Asser's position. But 
 these things were generally regarded as corruptions and interpolations, 
 and the substantial value of the 'Annals' remained unquestioned till 
 1842, when Mr. Thomas Wright, first in the ' Archseologia,' vol. xxix., 
 and subsequently in his ' Biographia Britannica Litteraria ' (Anglo- 
 Saxon period), article ' Asser,' altogether impeached the authenticity 
 of the whole biography ; relying chiefly on the manifest contradictious 
 in the account which Asser gives of himself, his statements respecting 
 certain events, and the fact of the biography breaking off some years 
 before Alfred's death, though Asser survived that monarch eight or 
 nine years. The doubts of the genuineness of the ' Annals ' excited 
 much discussion. Mr. Wright's views have been formally and fully 
 met by Lingard in his ' History of the Anglo-Saxon Church,' ii. 42ti, 
 and by Dr. l'auli in the introduction to his ' Life of Alfred ;' and every 
 recent writer on our Anglo-Saxon history has referred at more or less 
 length to the subject. We think it may be fairly stated that the 
 opinion arrived at by the most competent authorities corresponds 
 pretty marly to that expressed by one of the highest, Mr. Kemble, iu 
 his valuable ' Saxons in England ' (vol. ii., 42), " that there is no good 
 reason to doubt the authenticity of Asser's ' Anuals,' or to attribute 
 them to any other period than the one at which they were professedly 
 composed." 
 
387 
 
 AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH. 
 
 ASTOLPHUS. 
 
 888 
 
 Bale and Pits give the titles of six works ascribed to our Assor. 
 One is of coarse 'The Life of Alfred :' the others are — 1, 'A Com- 
 mentary on Boethius,' but the existence of such a work is very doubt- 
 ful ; 2, 'Annales Britannia;,' only known by its having been mentionod 
 by Brompton ; 3, ' Aurearum Sententiarum Enchiridion,' no doubt the 
 Bort of commonplace book mentioned in the 'Annals' as having been 
 compiled for Alfred's use, and termed by him his ' Manual ;' 4, ' A 
 Book of Homilies;' and 5, 'A Volume of Letters.' The existence of 
 the ' Homilies ' and ' Letters ' is however unsupported by any other 
 authority. 
 
 AST, GEORG ANTON FRIEDRICH, an eminent German scholar, 
 was born in 1778 at Gotha, at the gymnasium of which place and 
 subsequently at the University of Jena he was educated. In 1802 he 
 began his career as an academical lecturer in the University of Jena; 
 and in 1805 he was appointed professor of ancient literature in the 
 University of Landshut, where ho remaiued until the transfer of that 
 institution to Munich, in 1812. He spent the remainder of his life at 
 Munich, where he died on the 30th of December, 1841. 
 
 Ast was one of the best and most industrious of modern scholars, 
 and a very excellent teacher. During the latter period of his life, 
 he devoted himself almost exclusively to the study of Plato, for 
 the elucidation of whose works he had done more than any other 
 scholar. His numerous works may be divided into two classes, 
 philosophical aud philological. Among the former we must notice 
 especially his ' Haudbuch dcr Aesthetik,' Landshut, 1807, 8vo; 
 'Gruudlinien der Philologie,' Landshut, 1808, 8vo, an excellent intro- 
 duction to the study of antiquity ; ' Gruudlinien der Grammatik, 
 Hermeueutik und Kritik,' Laudshut, 1S08, 8vo ; ' Grundlinien der 
 Philosophie,' 2nd edit., Landshut, 1825, 8vo ; ' Hauptmomente der 
 Gcschichte der Philosophie,' Munchcn, 1829, 8vo; ' Platonis Leben 
 und Schrifen,' Leipzig, 1816, 8vo, a very useful introduction to the 
 study of that philosopher. Among his philological works tho chief is 
 a complete edition of Plato's works (Leipzig, 1819-32), in 11 vols. 8vo, 
 with a Latin translation, and a commentary which occupies the last 
 two volumes. This work he followed by a ' Lexicon Platonicum,' 
 Leipzig, 1831-39, 3 vols. Svo., which is OQe of the best special dic- 
 tionaries that we have. In a critical point of view, his edition of 
 Plato is greatly surpassed by some of the more recent editions of that 
 philosopher. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge ; Conversations Lcxikon.) 
 
 ASTBURY, J., one of the great improvers in the manufacture of 
 pottery in this country, was born about 1678 ; but we have no infor- 
 mation as to his early history, or even as to his christian name. 
 
 Among the earliest improvers of this important branch of industry 
 were two brothers of the name of Elers, who came to England from 
 Nurnberg about 1690, and settled at Brad well, near Burslem, in the 
 Staffordshire Potteries, where they introduced a fine new red ware, 
 and made many improvements in other branches of the art. Their 
 operations were kept for some time strictly secret; but at length 
 Astbury, by assuming the garb aud manner of an idiot, obtained 
 admission to the works, and employment in some mean capacity. He 
 thus obtained free access to their machinery, aud a full knowledge of 
 their processes, and during a period of nearly two years he remained 
 in the works, making models and memoranda during his intervals of 
 absence. Having accomplished his purpose, he quitted the Elers' 
 works and established himself at Shelton, in the Potteries, where he 
 commenced the manufacture of red, white, and other wares, and 
 introduced, for the first time, the use of Bideford pipeclay for lining 
 culinary vessels, by which they were made very superior to those 
 glazed with lead or salt. He likewise made numerous improvements, 
 one of the most important of which was the use of calcined flint, which 
 he had been accidentally led to try, from observing the ostler at an inn 
 where he put up, burn a flint-stone till red-hot, then pulverise it, and 
 blow the fine powder into the eyes of the horse. Astbury's attention 
 was excited by the whiteness of the calcined flint, the ease with which 
 it was pulverised, and the clayey nature which it assumed when 
 moistened ; and, reasoning upon these circumstances, he produced, by 
 its employment, a very superior kind of ware. Astbury was eminently 
 successful in his business, and succeeded in realising a considerable 
 property by his improvements. He died in 1743, leaving a son 
 Thomas, who also made some valuable improvements in pottery. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ASTELL, MARY, was the daughter of a merchant at Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne, where she was born about the year 1668. Her father gave 
 her a good education, and an uncle, a clergyman of the Church of 
 England, perceiving her aptitude for learning, instructed her himself 
 in philosophy, mathematics, and logic, and to these acquisitions she 
 afterwards added the Latin language. She removed to London about 
 the time of the Revolution, and for the rest of her life resided either 
 there or at Chelsea. She assiduously continued her studies, especially 
 of the great writers of antiquity, and produced a considerable number 
 of works, several of which attracted attention. She died on the 11th 
 of May, 1731. 
 
 Mrs. Astell wrote a great number of religious and controversial 
 works, of which the principal were as follows :— ' A serious Proposal 
 to the Ladies, for the advancement of their true and greatest interest,' 
 
 12mo., London, 1697. In this Bhe proposes the establishment of a 
 
 kind of college for the education of females, as well as for their retire- 
 ment from the dangers of tho world. The plan was highly admired 
 by many, among others by Queen Anne, who manifested an intention 
 of presenting 10,000i. towards the foundation of the college. Bishop 
 Buruet however represented to her so strongly the great resemblance 
 of the proposed establishment to a nunnery, that the queen gave up 
 her intention, and the plan fell to the ground. Some of the writers in 
 the ' Tatler* held up Mrs. Astell to derision, uuder the name of 
 Madonella. ' Letters concerning tho Love of God, between the Author 
 of the Proposal to the Ladies and Mr. John Norris,' London, 1695, 
 8vo. Both Mrs. Astell and Mr. Norris were attacked by Lady Masham, 
 in ' A Discourse concerning the Love of God,' for a great portion of 
 which the authoress was said to have been indebted to the assistance 
 of Locke. Mrs. Astell replied in ' The Christian Religion as professed 
 by a Daughter of the Church of England,' 8vo, 1705. This is her 
 most elaborate work, and whatever its defects, it was universally 
 allowed that the work did great credit to the reasoning powers of the 
 author. 'Reflections on Marriage,' 8vo., 1705. Besides these larger 
 works, Mrs. Astell produced a number of controversial tracts. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ASTLE, THOMAS, was the son of Daniel Astle, keeper of Need wood 
 Forest, and was bora at Yoxall, in Staffordshire, in 1734. He was 
 sent to the office of an attorney in his native town, but his taste 
 inclining him to the study of general antiquities, he came to London ; 
 where, about the year 1763, he became known to Mr. Grenville, then 
 First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, and 
 was employed by him in the arrangement of papers, and other business 
 which required a knowledge of ancient baud-writing: in 1765 Mr. 
 Grenville gave him the office of receiver-general on the civil list. Soon 
 after this, Mr. Astle married the only daughter of the Reverend Philip 
 Morant, the author of the ' History of Essex,' and by this connection 
 he eventually inherited the property of his father-in-law, which was 
 considerable. In 1770, on the death of Mr. Morant, who had till then 
 superintended the printing of the Ancient Records of Parliament 
 begun five years before, Astle was appointed by the House of Lords to 
 take his place, and he presided over the publication till its completion 
 in 1775. He was then made chief clerk in the Record Office in the 
 Tower ; and some years after he succeeded to the place of Keeper. 
 He was, besides, a Fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and, 
 till his death, one of the Trustees of the British Museum. He died on 
 the 1st of December, 1803. Mr. Astle is the author of a number of 
 articles in the ' Archteologia,' and several separate antiquarian publi- 
 cations. But the work by which he is best known is his ' Origin and 
 Progress of Writing,' first published in quarto in 1784, and again in 
 1803. Mr. Astle inherited, with the estates of Dr. Morant, his library, 
 which he greatly extended. The printed books were purchased soon 
 after Mr. Astle's death for 1000Z. by the Royal Institution, of whose 
 library they now form a very important part. His immense collection 
 of manuscripts he left by will, in token of his gratitude to the Grenville 
 family, to the Marquis of Buckingham, on payment of the almost 
 nominal sum of 500Z. Combined with the collection of ancient Irish 
 manuscripts formed by Charles O'Conor, and others added by Mr. 
 Grenville, they formed an assemblage of original materials for the 
 history of the three kingdoms, unequalled in any private collection. 
 They were announced for sale with the rest of the Stowe library in 
 1849, but were previously purchased by Lord Ashburnham. 
 
 ASTOLPHUS succeeded his brother Ratchis as king of the Longo- 
 bards, A.D. 750, Ratchis having voluntarily abdicated, and retired into 
 the monastery of Monte Casino. Astolphus early formed the resolu- 
 tion to aim at driving away the Greeks from Italy, and with this view 
 broke the treaty made by his predecessor with the Byzantines. In 
 752 he took Ravenna, expelled the Exarch, and conquered the Penta- 
 polis, which comprised part of the present March of Ancona. He then 
 turned his arms against the duchy of Rome, which still acknowledged, 
 at least nominally, the authority of the eastern empire. The pope, 
 Stephen II., sent ambassadors to Astolphus with splendid gifts, and 
 obtained a truce for forty years. Four months after however, Astol- 
 phus broke the truce, and the pope, despairing of assistance from the 
 indolent Byzantine court, had recourse to Pepin, king of the Franks. 
 Stephen himself repaired to Paris in 753, where he crowned Pepin, 
 and bestowed on his two son3, Carlomann and Charles (afterwards 
 Charlemagne), the title of Patricians of Rome. Pepin soon after 
 marched an army into Italy, defeated Astolphus, and besieged him in 
 the city of Pavia. A treaty was concluded, which Astolphus failed to 
 observe, and in 755 Pepin crossed the Alps a second time, and again 
 besieged Astolphus in Pavia. Astolphus now sued for peace ; he paid 
 a large sum to Pepin for the expenses of the war, and gave up the 
 Exarchate, including Comacchio, as well as the Pentapolis, which were 
 bestowed by Pepin on the see of St. Peter. Pepin sent the abbot of 
 St. Denis, who received the keys of the various towns from Astol- 
 phus's commissioners, and deposited them with Pepin's act of dona- 
 tion on the altar of St. Peter at Rome. This was the origin of the 
 temporal power of the popes, as independent sovereigns. The terri- 
 tory thus given up included the country of Ravenna and the province 
 since called Romagna. The duchy of Rome was not included in it 
 Astolphus died in 756, owing to a fall from his horse. Astolphua, 
 
889 ASTLEY, PHILIP. 
 
 during his quarrels with the pope, founded several monasteries, in one 
 of which his daughters took the veil. (Muratori, Annali d' Italia; 
 Bigouius, De Regno Italia; Giannone; Manzoni.) 
 
 ASTLEY, PHILIP. As an inventor in his line of art, and as the 
 fouuder of Astley's amphitBeatre, a name known to all the sight- 
 seers of Great Britain, and part founder of Franconi's Cirque Olym- 
 pique, the equally celebrated establishment of Paris, Astley calls for 
 • notice which would else scarcely be bestowed upon an exhibitor of 
 equestrian feats. 
 
 Philip Astley was born at Newcastle-under-Lyne in 1742. In 1753 
 or 1754 he came to London with his father, who was a cabinet-maker. 
 He worked with his father till 1759, when he enlisted in the 15th, or 
 Elliot's Light-horse. He was already an expert horseman, having, as 
 he says in the Preface to his ' Modern Riding-master,' from infancy 
 made the management of horses his chief study. He was upwards of 
 six feet in height, and possessed of extraordinary muscular power. 
 He in consequence soon distinguished himself in the regimental 
 riding-school, and was made one of the teachers, roughriders, and 
 breakers to his regiment. He served on the continent during the 
 last three or four years of the Seven Years' War, and by various 
 serviceable deeds, exhibiting marked intelligence as well as courage 
 and presence of mind, he attracted the favourable notice of the 
 superior officers. For these services he was promoted to the rank of 
 serjeant-major, and on his return to England, in 1765, having solicited 
 his discharge, honourable mention was made of them in his certificate 
 of service. 
 
 While in the army he had been accustomed to amuse himself and 
 his comrades by repeating the equestrian feats which he had seen 
 displayed by Johnson, a performer whose career was almost as remark- 
 able as Astley's own ; and after obtaining his discharge he practised 
 them for a livelihood. General Elliot had presented him with a 
 charger, as a testimony of the high opinion he entertained of him ; 
 and with this horse, and another which he purchased in Smithfield, 
 Astley commenced his performances in an open field near the Half- 
 penny-Hatch, Lambeth, receiving what gratuities casual spectators, 
 or such as were attracted by his handbills, pleased to bestow ; and 
 eking out his scanty gains by working occasionally as a cabinet-maker 
 and breaking horses. He also exhibited 'a learned horse,' 'ombres 
 Chinoises,' and sleight-of-hand in the evenings, in a large room in 
 Piccadilly. After some time he engaged part of a large timber-yard, 
 on which he erected an unroofed wooden circus. His performances 
 here became very popular, and before 1775 they would seem to have 
 excited the curiosity of royalty ; as in the dedication to the king, pre- 
 fixed to his ' Modern Riding-master,' published in that year, he speaks 
 of having been commanded to exhibit his 'manly feats of horseman- 
 ship' before his majesty. In 1780 he opened a larger and more sub- 
 stantial building, though also constructed of wood, on the site of his 
 former one, and entitled it the 'Amphitheatre Ridiug-house,' in which 
 he introduced for the first time musical pieces, dancing, and pantomimic 
 action, as well as horsemanship ; he also added a stage and scenery. 
 Not being licensed, he was imprisoned under the Act 25th George II., 
 but was released, and obtained a licence, through the intercession of 
 Lord Thurlow, whose daughters he instructed in riding. In 1785 he 
 added sleight-of-hand performances to the attractions of his amphi- 
 theatre ; and in the same year he published ' Natural Magic, or 
 Physical Amusements Revealed,' explaining some of his tricks. The 
 Lame of the amphitheatre, which was from time to time increased in 
 size, and altered in its decorations, was changed by the proprietor, 
 first to ' The Royal Grove,' and afterwards to the ' Amphitheatre of 
 Arts : ' but the name given to it by the public, and which has sur- 
 vived both him and his family, was ' Astley's Amphitheatre.' 
 
 Id 1794 Astley made the campaign in Holland as a volunteer. He 
 published two works during that year: — 'Remarks on the Duty and 
 Profession of a Soldier;' and 'A Description and Historical Account 
 of the Places near the Theatre of War in the Low Countries, by Philip 
 Astley, Esq., of Hercules Hall, Lambeth, Londou.' In 1794, as in his 
 outhful campaign, Astley distinguished himself by his courage and 
 indly disposition. At the siege of Valenciennes he re-took a piece 
 of ordnance which the French had captured. The Duke of York gave 
 him two horses as a reward for his gallantry : Astley sold them, and 
 expended the money in providing comforts for the soldiers with whom 
 he was acquainted. In the winter he laid out a considerable sum in 
 providing every soldier in hia own troop with a flannel waistcoat, 
 having a shilling sewed in one of the pockets, and a packet of needles, 
 thread, and other little articles essential to their comfort. 
 
 During his absence his amphitheatre was burned down. This hap- 
 pened on the 16th of August 1794. As soon as he heard of the acci- 
 dent he obtained leave of absence, returned home, and rebuilt his 
 amphitheatre: he re-opened it on Easter Monday, 1795. A similar 
 misfortune befell him in September 1803, when he was absent in Paris, 
 and was repaired with the same energy and expedition. It was some- 
 what earlier than this that he had associated himself with Franconi in 
 founding the Cirque Olympique at Paris. His last literary work was 
 one on which he had been engaged for several years, ' Astley's System 
 of Equestrian Education,' published in 1801. He died at Paris of 
 gout in the stomach, on the 20th of October 1814. 
 
 It would be absurd to criticise Astley's books as literary produc- 
 tions ; but, in addition to their high merit as manuals of equestrian 
 
 ATAHUALPA. 890 
 
 instruction, they contain a fund of garrulous anecdote, and occasional 
 remarks indicative of an undeveloped artistical sense. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Useful Knowledge Society ; Biographic 
 Universelle.) 
 
 ASTRUC, JOHN, an eminent French physician, was born atSauve, 
 in Languedoc, March 19, 1684 : he studied in the University of Mont- 
 pellier, and took the degree of Doctor in Medicine in 1703. In 1706 
 he acted as substitute to Chirac, one of the university professors, who 
 had been forced to attend the French army. In 1710 Astruc obtained 
 by competition the chair of anatomy and medicine in the University 
 of Toulouse, where he revived the study of anatomy. The reputation 
 however which he now acquired caused him to be soon recalled to 
 Montpellier, where he occupied a medical chair from 1715 to 1728, 
 when he resorted to Paris ; but soon after was induced, by his love of 
 travel and a desire to extend his medical views, to accept the situation 
 of first physician to the king of Poland and elector of Saxony. After 
 a very short stay however he returned to Paris, and was in 1730 
 appointed a consulting physician to the king of France, and in 1731 
 professor of medicine in the College of France. He became a member 
 of the medical faculty of Paris in 1743, and died in 1766. 
 
 Although no great discovery is attached to Astruc's name, he 
 acquired great celebrity among his contemporaries, both as a teacher 
 and as an author; aud the integrity of his character was justly appre- 
 ciated. A simple and happy method in treating the subjects which 
 he taught, and an easy, clear, and eloquent language, recommended 
 him as a lecturer. His writings displayed a solid and extensive 
 acquaintance with the history of literature and science, the result of 
 the unvaried assiduity with which from his early youth, and during 
 the whole of his long career, he applied himself to bibliographical 
 learning. Astruc has left a considerable number of works on medi- 
 cine, on the long-standing controversy between the physicians and 
 surgeons of Paris, on the natural history of Languedoc, his native 
 country, on metaphysics, and even on sacred history. In 1710 he pub- 
 lished his first work on the theory of ' Digestion,' which he endeavoured 
 to explain according to the principles then prevalent of the philosophy 
 of Descartes. This was followed by a long succession of others, the 
 latest 'Memoires pour servir h, l'Histoire de la Faculte de Medicine de 
 Montpellier,' on which he had spent much time, and was most anxious 
 to complete, but left unfinished, having been published after his death 
 by Lorry. Among the subjects on which Astruc wrote most fully, 
 and on which he was long regarded as an authority, were the plague, 
 and the diseases of women. But his most extensive work, and that 
 which has chiefly served to establish his high reputation, is his ' De 
 Morbis Venereis,' first published in one volume 4to, Paris, 1736, and 
 afterwards enlarged to two volumes 4to, in the second edition, 1740. 
 The first edition of this work was translated into English by William 
 Barrowby, M.D., Lond., 1737, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 (A full account of Astruc's life has been given by Lorry in his post- 
 humous edition of that author's Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire 
 de la Faculte de Medicine de Montpellier, Paris, 1767. See also Hazon, 
 Notice des Hommes Celebres de la Fac. Med. de Paris, Paris, 1778, 
 p. 256 ; the Biographie Medicate, torn, i., and the Biographie Uni- 
 verselle, in which will be found a list of his writings.) 
 
 ATAHUALPA, the last Inoa of Petti, was the son of Huayna Capac, 
 the eleventh Inca, by a princess of Quitti, or Quito. His mother not 
 being of the royal family of Peril, Atahualpa could not, on this 
 account, succeed his father. But Huayna Capac, who loved him 
 passionately, was desirous that Atahualpa should succeed to the throne 
 of Quito, which kingdom had been added to his empire. The here- 
 ditary prince Huascar having been induced to assent, Atahualpa was 
 placed on the throne of Quito during the life of his father. But on 
 the death of the inca, which, according to Garcilaso, took place in 
 1523, Huascar insisted as the conditions of leaving his brother undis- 
 turbed in the possession of his kingdom, that he should not make any 
 new conquests on his own territory, and that he should render him 
 homage as his liege lord. Atahualpa agreed, and on pretence of 
 visiting Cuzco to celebrate the obsequies of their deceased father, and 
 to render homage to Huascar, he contrived to assemble at Cuzco a 
 force of more than 30,000 veterans who had served under his father. 
 Huascar was warned of these proceedings by some of the old governors 
 of the province, but before he had time to prepare himself, more than 
 20,000 men belonging to Atahualpa had crossed the Apurimac, and 
 were within a hundred miles of Cuzco. Huascar assembled as large 
 a body of troops as he could muster. The armies met in a plain six 
 miles from Cuzco. After an obstinate battle, victory was decided in 
 favour of Atahualpa. Huascar was taken prisoner, and kept in chains. 
 But Atahualpa had resolved to make himself Inca of Peru, and as by 
 the laws of the country he had no claim to the throne while there 
 were members of the family whose mothers were of the blood-royal 
 of Perd, he determined to rid himself of all who possessed this 
 double qualification. Accordingly he invited to Cuzco all the male 
 descendants of the incas, more than 200 in number, and then com- 
 manded them to be seized and put to death, without distinction of 
 age or sex. Some were beheaded, others precipitated from rocks, 
 women and children were hung by their hair from trees, and left to 
 die there. The servants of the household of the inca and the inhabit- 
 ants of all the towns in the neighbourhood of Cuzco, are also said by 
 the Spanish historians to have been destroyed. The date of these 
 
 i 
 
391 
 
 ATA-MELIK. 
 
 ATHANARIC. 
 
 m 
 
 atrocious proocedinga is not stated, but it must have been between 
 the death of Huayna Capac iu 1523 and the arrival of Pizarro iu 
 1532. 
 
 In the midst of these civil discords, the Spaniards arrived in Peru. 
 Atahualpa terrified at the accounts which he received of them, and 
 knowing that Huascar had sent secretly to entreat their assistance, 
 despatched an embassy, accompanied by a rich present, with a view to 
 gain the favour of the invaders. The ambassador was very civilly 
 received by Francisco Pizarro, who on his part sent his brother 
 Hernando to visit Atahualpa to offer him his friendship, and to 
 demand an interview. On the following day, November 16, 1532, 
 Atahualpa, accompanied by 8000 men unarmed, went to visit Pizarro. 
 On his arrival, Father Valverde, in a long harangue, endeavoured to 
 acquaint the Inca with the doctrines of the Catholic religion, and 
 declared to him that his kingdom had been given by the pope, the 
 vicar of God, to the mighty Emperor Carlos, ami that consequently 
 he was bound to surrender it, otherwise both he and his subjects 
 would be destroyed with fire and sword. The Inca commenced a 
 reply, through an interpreter, marked by a grave dignity, in which he 
 refused to acknowledge the right of the Spaniards to his throne. But 
 he was not permitted to finish his speech. The Spanish cavalry fell 
 upon the unarmed multitude who had assembled, attracted by the 
 novelty of the sight, sabring and trampling under the feet of their 
 horses old men, women, and children. Francisco Pizarro, at the head 
 of the infantry, attacked the guard of Atahualpa, who, at the com- 
 mand of their Inca, offered no resistance; and the Spaniards, after 
 seizing Atahualpa, and loading him with chains, conducted hiui as a 
 prisoner to the royal seat of the Incas at Caxamarca. 
 
 Atahualpa offered Pizarro, for his ransom, to cover the pavement of 
 his prison with vessels full of gold and silver ; and further, raising 
 his hand as high as he could reach, and making a mark in the wall, 
 promised to fill the room up to that height with the same precious 
 metals. Pizarro agreed to this proposal, and the Inca gave the neces- 
 saiy orders for procuring the ransom. Atahualpa though imprisoned, 
 was in communication with his generals, and ordered them to remove 
 his brother to Jauja, and soon after, on findiug that he was still seek- 
 ing the interference of Pizarro, commanded him to be put to death. 
 
 Atahualpa's own death was near at hand. A Peruvian renegado, 
 called Felipillo, who served as an interpreter to the Spaniards, and 
 who reckoned on obtaining as the price of his treachery one of the 
 Iuca's wives, falsely accused Atahualpa of having secretly given orders 
 to his subjects to arm against them. The Inca was accordingly 
 brought to trial before a court appointed by Pizarro, and of which be 
 constituted himself and Almagro the judges. Some of the Spanish 
 officers remonstrated against the injustice of such proceedings, and 
 represented the disgrace which would be brought on the Spanish 
 name if this conduct was persisted in, urging that if Atahualpa was 
 to be tried, he should be sent to Spain to be judged by the emperor. 
 Atahualpa was eventually tried by a military commission, at which 
 Pizarro and Almagro presided, and compelled the other members of 
 the commission to find the unfortunate Inca guilty of various false 
 aud ridiculous charges, the chief of which were the false one above 
 mentioned, and the murder of his brother. He was sentenced to be 
 burned to death. On his way to the place of execution, he desired 
 to be baptized, in consequence of which he was strangled only (Aug. 29, 
 1533). He exhibited great courage and firmness in his last moments. 
 Atahualpa is described by the Spanish historiaus as a man of hand- 
 some and noble presence, of a clear, quick, and penetrating mind, 
 cunning, sagacious, and brave. In estimating the character of Ata- 
 hualpa, it must be remembered that the only narratives of his conduct 
 which we possess are those of Garcilaso de la Vega and other Spanish 
 writers. The accounts given of his conduct from the personal obser- 
 vation of these writers certainly suggest the idea of a very different 
 person to the murderer of the royal family of Peru. Of the revolting 
 perfidy and brutality of Pizairo there can be no second opinion. 
 
 (Vega (El Inca Garcilaso), Comentarios Jlcales de los Incas, part i., 
 book 9, chap. 2 to the end ; part ii., book 10, chap. 17; Prescott, 
 Conquest of Peril, vol. 1.) 
 
 ATA-MELIK, or with his complete name, ALA-EDDIN ATA- 
 MELIK AL-JOWAIKI, was born (probably 1226 or 1227) iu the 
 district of Jowain near Nishabur in Khorasan, in which country his 
 father Poha-Eddin successively filled several offices of importance 
 under the Mogul government. Ata-Melik received a careful educa- 
 tion ; and Argun, the governor of Khorasan, chose him for his com- 
 panion on two journeys into Tartary, aDd in 1251 introduced him at 
 the court of the Mogul emperor Mangu Khan, at Karakorum. Here 
 Ata-Melik remained for a considerable time, and began to write his 
 great work on the history of the Moguls, on account of which he 
 undertook several excursions into Mawaralnahr, Turkistan, and the 
 ancient country of the Uighurs. When Argun was, iu 1255, again 
 called to the court of Mangu Khan, he left his son Kerai-Melik, with 
 Ata-Melik, in the camp of Sultan Hulaku, the brother of Mangu Khan, 
 as governors of Khorasan, Irak, and Mazenderau, during hi3 absence. 
 Ata-Melik soon gained the entire confidence of Hulaku, and accom- 
 panied him in his expedition against the Abbaside kalif Mostasem. 
 After the capture of Baghdad by the Moguls (1258), Ata-Melik was 
 appointed prefect of that city, the dignity of vizir being at the same 
 time conferred on his brother Shems-eddin. Both continued to hold 
 
 these offices under Abaka Khan, the successor of Hulaku, and the 
 province of Baghdad, which had suffered much from the incursion of 
 the Moguls, began to nourish again under their administration. Ata- 
 Melik died in 1282, his death beiug accelerated by hia having been 
 imprisoned and stript of all he possessed on a charge of peculation. 
 He was indeed not only freed from this charge by Sultan Ahmed, but 
 restored to lm former dignities. Subsequently however Ahmed was 
 defeated, and Argun, a son of Abaka Khan, having made himself 
 master of Baghdad, Ata-Melik was so excited by dread of a renewal of 
 the former proceedings, that he died a few days after Argun's entry 
 into the city. His work on the history of the Moguls, entitlod ' Jehan- 
 Kushai ' (that is, the conquest of the world), is by some of the most 
 esteemed Oriental writers (for example Abulfaraj, Mirkhoud, &c.) re- 
 ferred to as the principal authority on that subject. (There is a 
 memoir on the life aud writings of Ata-Melik, by Quatremere, in the 
 Mines de V Orient, vol, i., p. 220, &c.) 
 
 ATAULPHUS, ATAULF, or ADAULF, brother-in-law of Alaric, 
 king of the Visigoths, assisted him in his invasion of Italy. After 
 Alaric's death, near Cosenza, Ataulphus was elected his successor in 
 a d. 411. In the following year he led his bands out of Italy into 
 Gaul, with the intention, as it would appear, of joining Jovinus, who 
 had revolted against the empire. His aid beiug declined, Ataulphus 
 attacked and defeated Jovinus, who was taken and put to death. 
 Ataulphus married Placidia, the sister of the emperor Honorius, at 
 Narbo (Narboune) in southern Gaul, at the beginning of the year 414. 
 He appeared on the occasion dressed after the Roman fashion, aud 
 presented his bride with many vases full of gold aud jewels taken at 
 the plunder of Rome in 410. Ataulphus afterwards withdrew into 
 Spain, where he was treacherously killed at Barcelona by one of Ins 
 equerries, in 415. His widow Placidia was given by her brother 
 Honorius in marriage to the consul Constantius. (Jornandes; Zosimus; 
 Orosius ; Gibbon.) 
 
 ATHALIAH, queen of Judah, was the daughter of Ahab, king of 
 Israel and his wife Jezebel, and the wife of Jehoram, king of Judah. 
 When Athaliah heard that her son Ahaziah, who had succeeded his 
 father as king of Judah, had been slain by Jehu with other members 
 of the family of Ahab, she immediately seized the vacant throne and 
 caused all the males of the royal family to be murdered, with the 
 exception of Joash, who was rescued by Jehosheba, her daughter, and 
 secreted in the temple by the high-priest Jehoiada. Her reign appears 
 to have been an unquiet one, but she maintained her position for six 
 years. At length Jehoiada, having informed several of the leading 
 men of Judah of the existence of Joa3h aud secured their co-opera- 
 tion, on a day already agreed on, brought the young prince publicly 
 forward in the temple and solemnly anointed him King of Judah. 
 Athaliah hearing the shouts rushed to the temple, but the guards 
 seized her, and by direction of Jehoiada led her out of the temple 
 and put her to death. According to the chronology of Usher, Athaliah 
 reigned from B.C. 8S4 to 877 ; Hales makes her to have reigned from 
 B.C. 895 to 889. The history of her reign will be found iu 2 Kings 
 viii. 18, 26; xi. ; 2 Chronicles xxi., xxii., xxiii. 
 
 ATHANAGILDUS, a captain of the Spanish Goths, revolted against 
 his king, Agila, and being joined by a Roman force from Gaul, sent 
 by the emperor Justinian, defeated and killed Agila, near Seville, 
 a,d. 554. Athanagildus was then proclaimed king of the Goths in 
 Spain. He afterwards endeavoured, without success, to drive his 
 Roman allies out of Spain. He reigned fourteen years over that part 
 of the country which was occupied by the Visigoths, and his adminis- 
 tration has been spoken of by the historians as firm and judicious. 
 He had two daughters, one of whom, Galswinda, he gave in marriage 
 to Chilperic, the French king of Soissons ; and the other, Brunehault, 
 married Siegbert, king of Metz, or Austrasia, and became famous in 
 French history. [Brunehault.] Athanagildus died at Toledo in 567. 
 (Mariana, Hisloria General de Espana.) 
 
 ATHA'NARIC, a chief or judge of the Goths who had settled 
 themselves on the borders of the Roman empire, north of the Danube, 
 about the middle of the 4th century. HaviDg aided Procopius in his 
 rebellion, the Goths were attacked and defeated by the emperor 
 Valens in a.d. 369. They then sued for peace, and an interview took 
 place on this occasion between Vale us and Athanaric, in a boat in 
 the middle of the Danube. Some years after, the Huns having come 
 down from the banks of the Volga, threatening the territory of the 
 Goths, Athanaric opposed the barbarians at the passage of the river 
 Dniester, but he was surprised, and obliged to retire with a part of 
 his followers into the fastnesses of the Carpathian Mountains. The 
 rest of the Goths, under Fritigern, threw themselves on the empire 
 for protection, and were allowed to cross the Danube and settle in 
 Thrace. They afterwards quarrelled with the emperor Valens, whom 
 they defeated aud killed in the battle of Adrianople, in August, 378. 
 Athanaric remained in his fastnesses until 380, when he was compelh d 
 to fly before the barbarian hordes who poured down from the north. 
 Having obtained permission from Theodosius, he repaired to Con- 
 stantinople, where he was received with great pomp, in January, 381; 
 but haviDg, as is said, surfeited himself at the emperor's table, or 
 perhaps worn out with the hardships and fatigue he had previously 
 endured, he soon after died, aud was buried with great magnificence 
 by order o f Theodosius. (Gibbon, c. xxv.. xxvi., aud authorities there 
 cited.) 
 
393 
 
 ATHANASIUS, ST. 
 
 ATHANA'SIUS, ST., archbishop of Alexandria, was born at Alex- 
 andria, at the close of the 3rd century ; aud was first the pupil, and 
 afterwards the secretary, of the Archbishop Alexander. In 325 he 
 attended his patron to the council of Nice ; and there he acquired, by 
 his controversial acuteness and zeal, so general a reputation, that 
 Alexander did not hesitate to recommend him, notwithstanding his 
 youth, as his own successor in the see of Alexandria, and on the 
 death of that prelate in the following year he was duly elected by the 
 clergy and people ; and the act was confirmed without any opposition 
 by the hundred bishops of Egypt. When Arius was recalled from 
 exile, probably in 327, Athanasius, though scarcely installed in his 
 dignity, refused (as some say) to comply with the will or wish of the 
 Emperor Coustantine, that the heretic should be restored to com- 
 munioD. This strife, which had commenced at Nice, Athanasius con- 
 tinued to prosecute on every occasion, aud by every means in his 
 power, till the end of his days. But his enemies were powerful in 
 Syria aud Asia Minor. Several serious charges were alleged against 
 him, and he was summoned before a numerous council assembled at 
 Tyre in 334. He appeared, and was condemned ; and Constantine 
 exiled him to Gaul. This was his first persecution ; but it ended, in 
 about two years, with the life of the emperor. Athanasius returned ; 
 but, as the decision of Tyre was yet unrepealed, and as Constantius, 
 who after a short interval succeeded to the Eastern empire, was 
 opposed to the Nicene faith, a council of ninety Arian bishops 
 assembled at Antioch in 341, and confirmed the sentence of deposition. 
 The civil authority then again interposed, and the archbishop was 
 once more sent into banishment. His refuge on this occasion was 
 Italy; but there he found zealous supporters among the body of the 
 clergy, among the leading prelates, and in the orthodox Emperor 
 Coustans, His doctrine was asserted in 347 by the council of Sardica; 
 aud Constans was preparing to reinstate him by arms, when the 
 Emperor of the East relented, and recalled him to his see in 349. 
 The people of Alexandria, whose fidelity had never been shaken, 
 received him with triumphant exultation. His authority wa3 con- 
 firmed, and his reputation was everywhere diffused, to the most 
 r mote extremities of the Christian world. But when Constantius, 
 at his brother's death, acquired the greater portion of the Western 
 empire, he once more directed the whole weight of his power against 
 Atiianasius. Yet he ventured not even then to proceed by the exer- 
 cise of authority to his object : he temporised. He went in person 
 into the west; he summoned councils, first at Arle3, then at Milan, 
 and endeavoured to procure some act of ecclesiastical condemnation 
 against his subject. By much importunity, and means the most un- 
 worthy, he succeeded; aud Athanasius was denounced in 355, in that 
 city which, only twenty years afterwards, glorified in its spiritual sub- 
 jection to the orthodox rule of Ambrose. When the sentence was 
 enforced, some tumult3 arose at Alexandria, and blood was shed : but 
 the prelate, perceiving the inequality of the contest, withdrew from 
 his capital (for the third time), aud concealed himself in the deserts 
 of Upper Egypt. There, through the fidelity of the monastic disci- 
 ples of St. Antony and the reverence, almost superstitious, which he 
 seems to have inspired, he continued for six years to elude the impe- 
 rial officers, and employed his enforced leisure in composing some of 
 his principal writings ; and it would seem from his own statements 
 that he was present at the synods of Seleucia and Rimini. On the 
 death of Constantius in 361, he returned to his see; and though as 
 the great adversary, not then of Ariauism, but of Paganism, he was 
 f ir a while again driven from his charge by Julian, and was like- 
 wise compelled, by the violence of Valens, to seek safety for a few 
 months, as is said, in his father's tomb (and these are sometimes called 
 his fourth and fifth persecutions), he retained his dignity in com- 
 parative repose to the end of his long life, in 373. 
 
 Athanasius was unquestionably the brightest ornament of the early 
 church. And hia prudence was not the least remarkable of his 
 characteristics. With the most daring courage, and an unwearied 
 devotion to his cause, and perseverance in his purpose, he combined 
 a discreet flexibility, which allowed him to retire from the field when 
 it could be no longer maintained with success ; and to wait for new 
 contingencies, and prepare himself for fresh exertions. If he did not 
 passionately seek the crown of martyrdom, it was not that he loved 
 life for itself, but for the services which its continuance might still 
 enable him to render to the church. He was no less calm aud con- 
 siderate than determined ; and while he shunned useless dauger (see 
 hia 'Apology for his Flight'), he never admitted the slightest com- 
 promise of his doctrine, nor ever attempted to conciliate by any con- 
 cession even his imperial adversaries. And it should not be forgotten 
 that the opinion for which he suffered eventually prevailed, and has 
 been professed by the great majority of Christians from that day to 
 tbia. " In his life and conduct," says Gregory Nazianzenus, "he ex- 
 hibited the model of Episcopal government — in his doctrine, the rule 
 of orthodoxy." Again, the independent courage with which he re- 
 sisted the will of successive emperors for forty-six years of alternate 
 dignity and misfortune, introduced a new feature into the history of 
 Rome. An obstacle was at once raised against imperial tyranny : a 
 limit was discovered which it could not pass over. Here was a 
 refractory subject, who could not be denounced as a rebel, nor 
 destroyed by the naked exercise of arbitrary power ; the weight of 
 spiritual influence, in the skilful hand of Athanasius, was beginning 
 
 to balance and mitigate the temporal despotism ; and the artifices to 
 which Constantius was compelled to resort, in order to gain a verdict 
 from the councils of Aries and Milan, proved that his absolute power 
 had already ceased to exist. Athanasius did not, indeed, like the 
 Gregories, establish a system of ecclesiastical policy and power— that 
 belonged to later ages, and to another climate — but he exerted more 
 extensive personal influence over his own age, for the advancement of 
 the Catholic church, than any individual member of that church has 
 ever exerted in any age, except perhaps St. Bernard. " In all his 
 writings (says Photius) he is clear in expression, concise and simple ; 
 acute, profound, and very vehement in his disputations, with won- 
 derful fertility of invention ; and in his method of reasoning he treats 
 no subject with baldness or puerility, but all philosophically aud mag- 
 nificently. _ He is strongly armed with Scriptural testimonies and 
 proofs, which is chiefly apparent in his discourse against the Greeks, 
 in that on the ' Incarnation,' and in his ' Five Books against Arius,' 
 which are indeed a trophy of victory over heresy, but chiefly over the 
 Arian." Others of his numerous works throw much light on the 
 history of his times, such as his ' Disputation with Arius in the Council 
 of Nice;' his 'Narrative, concerning the same Council;' his 'Epistle 
 to Serapio on the Death of Arius ; ' his ' Epistle on the Synods of 
 Rimini and Seleucia,' and others. There are also Catholic epistles 
 and sermons ; a long ' Letter to the Solitaries,' and a ' Life of St. 
 Antony,' the founder of their institutions ; as well as controversial 
 writings against Meletius, Paul of Samosata, and Apollinarius; 'On 
 the Divinity of the Holy Spirit ; ' and ' Against every Denomination 
 of Heresy.' The earliest edition of any part of his works appeared at 
 Vicenza in 1482, and in Latin only; the whole, according to Hoffman, 
 were published at Paris in 1519, also in Latin : they were next pub- 
 lished in Greek, with the translation of Nannius, at Heidelberg, in 
 1601. The 'Four Orations against the Arians' were Englished by 
 Samuel Parker, 2 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1713. Translations of the Epistles 
 in defence of the Nicene definition, and some other of his shorter 
 writings, published by the Rev. J. H. Newman, Oxford, 1842, &c. 
 The two Creels, called the Nicene and the Athanasian, have been 
 vulgarly considered as being, iu part at least, if not entirely, the pro- 
 ductions of Athanasius. In respect to the former, there can be no 
 doubt that it wa3 composed — as far as the words " I believe in the 
 Holy Ghost," for what follows is of a later date — by the direction of 
 the Council of Nice and probably by members of that Council; and 
 therefore Athanasius, as one of those members, may have assisted in 
 the composition. But there is no ground to believe that the work 
 was peculiarly his own. In regard to the Creed called by the name 
 of Athanasius, all reasonable writers now agree that it appeared in a 
 later age than his, in the Western Church, and in the Latin language. 
 It contains definitions of faith, which are obviously borrowed from the 
 decisions of councils posterior to the death of Athanasius. And 
 respectable writers, as Vossius, Quesnel, and others, have ascribed it, 
 with no great improbability, to one Vigilius Tapsensis, also an African 
 bishop, who lived at the end of the 5th century. A complete list of 
 the works of Athanasius, including the doubtful and supposititious 
 as well as the genuine, is given in Fabricius, ' Bibl. Grsec.,' ed. Hales, 
 vol. viii., 184-215 ; Socrates, ' Hist. Eccles.,' L i. c. 8, 9, 23 ; 1. iii. c. 4, 
 et. seq. ; Sozomen, 'Hist. Eccles.,' L ii. c. 17, 25, 30; 1. iii. c. 2, 6; 
 Theodoret, ' Hist. Eccles.,' 1. i. c. 25, et seq. ; 1. ii. c. 6, 9, et seq. ; Philo- 
 storgius, 1. i. ii. iii. ; Sulpicius Severus, 'Historia Sacra,' 1. ii. ; Grego- 
 rius Nazianzenus, ' Orat.,' 3, xxi. ; Photius, ' Bibliotheca,' p. 1430, 
 edit. Genev., and fragment in the Preface to the Paris edition (1627) 
 of the 'Works' of Athanasius; Tillemout, 'MtSmoires Eccles.' torn. viii. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ATHANASIUS, the rhetorican, bishop of Constantinople, wrote a 
 work entitled ' Aristotelis Propriam de Animae Immortalitate Mentem 
 Explicans,' Gr. et Lat. 2 libris; Paris, 1641, 4to : and also ' Antepatel- 
 larus, seu de Primatu S. Petri ; Epistola de Unione Ecclesiarum ad 
 Alexandrise et Hierosolymorum Patriarcha3 ; item Anticampanella, in 
 compendium redactus,' Gr. et Lat., Paris, 1655, 4to. He died at Paris 
 in 1663, in his 92nd year. 
 
 ATHELSTAN, one of the mo3t illustrious of the Anglo-Saxon 
 sovereigns of England, was the eldest son and successor of Edward 
 the Elder, and the grandson of Alfred the Great. He was the first 
 who called himself king of the English ; his father and grandfather 
 having been content to call themselves kings of the Anglo Saxons, 
 whilst Egbert and the sovereigns between him aud Alfred, were only 
 styled kings of Wessex. Athelstan was born about 895, six years 
 before the death of Alfred. His mother appears to have been a per- 
 son of lowly birth, the daughter of a Saxon husbandman. 
 
 Edward, the only son of Edward the Elder who had arrived at 
 years of maturity except Athelstan, died a few days after his father. 
 Athelstan was nomiuated in his father's will as his successor, aud the 
 voice of the people and the vote of the Wittenagemote having sanc- 
 tioned Edward's nomination, Athelstan was crowned at Kingston- 
 upon-Thames iu 925. But his election had not been unopposed, aud 
 he had to defend his right to the throne against a party who espoused 
 the cause of some of the younger children of King Edward. Edwin, 
 one of his brothers, was lost in the English seas somewhere abouv 
 933, aud the memory of Athelstan is, by some of our early historians, 
 charged with his murder — Edwin having, it is alleged, been driven 
 
3Sfi 
 
 306 
 
 out to 8ea by bis orders in tempestuous weather in an open and 
 shattered boat, with only a single companion ; — but the story is beset 
 with difficulties. As far as the events of those times have come down 
 to us, it would seem that Athelstan contemplated making himself 
 master of the whole island of Britain, not excepting the parts which 
 formed the kingdom of Scotland. He did not accomplish all this, but 
 he gained territory from the chiefs who held Cornwall, and tribute (if 
 not territory) from Hoel, the then sovereign of Wales. The chroni- 
 clers represent him as permitting Hoel still to reign, and sayiug that 
 it was more glorious to make kings than to be a king. After some 
 successful attacks upon Sigtric, king of Northumbria, he consented to 
 terms of peace, and gave one of his sisters in marriage to that king. 
 Sigtric however soon died, when Athelstan seized upon his dominions, 
 Anlaff, the son of Sigtric, aud another son, being compelled to abandon 
 the island. Neither Scotland, nor any other of the neighbouring states 
 which still maintained a political independence, saw with satisfaction 
 the growing power of Athelstan; and Anlaff, the exiled son of Sigtric, 
 made every exertion to regain the sceptre which had been forcibly 
 wrested from him. A largo portion of the inhabitants of Northumbria 
 were of the Danish race, aud they yielded on that accouut the more 
 reluctantly to their new master. There was a national sympathy and 
 community of interest with the Danes aud Northmen generally, of 
 which Anlaff took advantage, and prevailed with them to send a very 
 powerful force to assist him in re-establishing the Northumbrian 
 sovereignty. On this occasion the Welsh, the Scots, and the Irish, all 
 combined to assist Anlaff. Athelstan had however by that time con- 
 solidated his power by his prudent counsels and good government, aud 
 the issue of the war contributed to establish still more securely his 
 power at home, and to extend his reputation abroad. He marched 
 against the confederated chiefs ; the armies engaged at a place called 
 by the early chroniclers Bruuenburgh, and Athelstan gained a com- 
 plete victory. The victory at Biunenburgh became known as the 
 Great Battle, and is celebrated alike in Saxon history and Saxon song, 
 and among the Saxon poems which have come down to us is a very 
 remarkable one devoted to the battle of Brunenburgh and the glory 
 of Athelstan. 
 
 One effect of this victory was to extend the name and reputation of 
 Athelstan beyond his own shores. He had from that time great 
 influence in the aflairs of neighbouring kingdoms. His sisters were 
 given in marriage to the son of the emperor of Germany, to the 
 princes of France and Aquitaine, and to a northern chief. Louis, 
 afterwards Louis IV., Hucoa, afterwards king of Norway, and an 
 expelled duke of Brittany took refuge in England, and sought 
 Athelstan's assistance for the recovery of their dominions; and the 
 evidence of foreign contemporary historians, as collected by Mr. 
 Sharon Turner in his ' History of the Anglo-Saxons,' shows the high 
 respect in which Athelstan was held by the continental sovereigns and 
 nations. He may indeed almost be said to have held the balance of 
 power for some years among the kings of the continent. 
 
 Athelstan died at Gloucester, October 25, 941, being only in his 
 47th year. He was buried under the altar of the abbey at Malmes- 
 bury. His life, as William of Malmesbury said, " was in time little, 
 in action great ; " and there cannot be a doubt that under him England 
 was advancing in consequence as one of the powers of Europe, and in 
 civilisation and improvement in her internal aflairs. Athelstan had 
 no family and was succeeded by Edmund, his brother. 
 
 Athelstan did not labour more to secure his throne and to extend 
 his power and political influence than to give security and legal govern- 
 ment to his people. Alfred had left a code of laws to which Athelstan 
 made additions, the principle on which he proceeded being to bring all 
 classes, the ecclesiastics as well as others, within the scope of certain 
 great principles. There are traces in his laws of a public provision 
 for some of the poorest and most destitute of his subjects. Himself 
 of a studious as well as religious turn, he promoted the erection of 
 monasteries, which was in fact at once to provide seats and centres of 
 religious ministration, and places for retirement and security to persons 
 devoted to study; and he encouraged the translation of the Holy 
 Scriptures into the vernacular tODgue. Two very ancient manuscripts, 
 which there is sufficient reason to believe once belonged to Athelstan, 
 are preserved among the Cottonian Manuscripts in the British Museum. 
 One of them is supposed to be the very copy of the Gospels on which 
 the Saxon kings took the oath at their coronation. 
 
 Silver. British Museum. 
 On thi9 coin the name is written ' Edelstan.* 
 
 ATHEN^EUS, a native of Naucratis in the Delta of Egypt, was a 
 contemporary of the Emperor Commodus, for he saw Commodus 
 riding in a chariot, equipped in the style of Hercules (' Deipuosoph.,' 
 xiL 537). Athenaeus went from Egypt to Rome ; but of his life nothing 
 
 further is known. Besides a history of the Syrian kings (v. 211), 
 which is lost, he wrote a work, in fifteen books, entitled AuwvchtoQia ral, 
 or 'Feast of the Wise Men,' as it is generally translated, although it 
 would be more conformable to the analogy of the language to translate 
 it the ' Feast-learned,' that is, the skilled in devising what is good for 
 a feast : it has also been rendered ' Contrivers of Feasts.' The first 
 two books and the beginning of the third are only extant in the form 
 of an epitome ; the rest of the work is complete, or nearly so. The 
 author represents himself as describing to his friend Timocrates an 
 entertainment at the house of Larensius, a wealthy and learned Roman, 
 who had been promoted by the Emperor Marcus Aurelius to the super- 
 intendence of sacred things and sacrifices. Larensius, it is also said, 
 was well acquainted with the learning of the Greeks, was the compiler 
 of a body of law from old enactments, and he possessed an unrivalled 
 collection of Greek books. The entertainment was not confined to 
 eating and driuking ; it was also a feast of words. Larensius collected 
 at his banquet many distinguished men, and proposed to them various 
 curious matters for discussion. In an introduction prefixed to the 
 first book, the epitomist gives a list of these distinguished guests, 
 among whom were Masurius, an expounder of law ; jEmilianus of 
 Mauritania; Zoilus ; Ulpianus of Tyre; Galenus of Pergamus, the 
 author of numerous philosophical and medical treatises ; Rufiuus of 
 Nicaea, and others. The death of Ulpian is mentioned in the work 
 (xv. 6S9), and it is generally assumed that this Ulpian is the distin- 
 guished Roman jurist. Ulpian, the jurist, was murdered by the 
 Praetorian soldiers in the presence of the emperor Alexander Severua 
 and his mother, in A D. 228. But there are no sufficient reasons for 
 supposing that this Ulpian is the jurist; and on the supposition that 
 he is, the chronological difficulties as to the date of the feast are con- 
 siderable, for the feast would be held, according to that supposition, 
 in a.d. 228, at the house of Larensius, a man who had received the 
 highest honours from Marcus Aurelius, at least forty-eight years 
 before ; and Athenaeus represents himself as present at the entertain- 
 ment. But in fact the passage in which Athenaeus speaks of Lareusius 
 being honoured by Marcus, rather implies that Larensius was then 
 enjoying his honours under Marcus, which would fix the supposed 
 date of the feast in the reign of Aurelius, and altogether dispose of 
 Ulpian the jurist. And this passage is probably the foundation of the 
 statement in Suidas that Athenseus lived in the time of Marcus. Com- 
 modus also was associated with his father in the empire, and Athenaeus 
 might therefore properly call him Imperator in his father's lifetime. 
 
 Athenaeus dramatised his dialogue, as his epitomist says, in imita- 
 tion of Plato. The first few lines of the first book are given in the 
 epitome in their original form, which begins with a conversation 
 between Athenaeus and Timocrates, and is manifestly an imitation of 
 the 4 Phaedon ' of Plato. Timocrates asks Athenaeus to report to him 
 the conversation at the table of Larensius, and accordingly Athenaeus 
 begins. The dramatic interest of a work could not be sustained on 
 such a plan, and in this respect the ' Deipnosophists' has no value. 
 The speakers discourse at great length, and are continually quoting 
 passages from the Greek writers. The object of the author was to 
 exhibit his extensive and multifarious reading, and with this view he 
 makes the conversation turn on all subjects. The summaries that are 
 printed in the editions of Schweighaeuser and Dindorf give as good a 
 notion of the diversified matter of the book as any longer description. 
 The first book begins, according to the epitome, with a list of the 
 guests, which is followed by a panegyric on the host ; it then men- 
 tions the libraries of certain persons, certain great banquets, verses 
 adapted to different dishes, the ' Gastronomia' of Archestratus, writers 
 on feasts, the gluttony of Philoxenus and Apicius, and so on. The 
 latter part of the first book treats of various kinds of wines, and the 
 subject is continued in the second book. This second book is curious 
 for the long list of vegetable products which were used at the tables of 
 the ancients. Though the pleasures of the table, and the eatables and 
 drinks that contribute thereto, are the main matter of the work (the 
 seventh book, for instance, is nearly all about fish), an infinite variety 
 of anecdotes and curious facts are interspersed. But the most valuable 
 part of the work consists in the numeroua extracts from lost writers. 
 It is said that the number of lost works which Athenaeus mentions is 
 fifteen hundred; and the whole number of writers that he cites is 
 about seven hundred, many of whom would be otherwise unknown. 
 Of the poets of the middle comedy, he says that he had read and 
 extracted above eight hundred plays (viii. 336). Such a work as this 
 enables us to form some estimate of the prodigious mass of Greek 
 literature, of which we only possess a small portion. 
 
 The authors from whom he gave extracts comprise a period extend- 
 ing from Homer ; the lyric poets Alcaeus and Sappho and Anacreon ; 
 the philosophical poets Xenophanes of Colophon and Empedocles ; the 
 historians Xanthus, Hecataeus of Miletus, and Herodotus, down to 
 Herodes Atticus, the rhetorician, who died probably about B.C. 180. 
 Hephaestion, the grammarian, is also mentioned as a contemporary 
 by Athenaeus. Though there is much about Alexander the Great, 
 Athenaeus does not quote Arrian, but this involves no difficulty, for 
 Arrian's work would not contain so much to his purpose as the then 
 extant works on Alexander's period. The quotations from the poets, 
 and especially the Attic comic writers, are the most numerous, but 
 there is also a considerable amount of extract from the orators and 
 historians. The fifteenth book contains many scolia and other small 
 
S97 
 
 ATHENSEUS. 
 
 ATHIAS, RABBI JOSEPH. 
 
 898 
 
 pieces, which the ' Deipnosophists ' recite ; among them is the famous 
 hymn on Hermeias, tyrant of Atarneus, by Aristotle, of which a copy 
 is also preserved in Diogenes Laertius. (Aristotle, lib. v.) If iElian 
 took from Athenseus, as it i3 said, it will be more consistent with the 
 probable chronology of ^Elian to place Athenseus in the reign of 
 Marcus and Commodus than of Antoninus Caracalla. [^Elianus, 
 Claudius.] If all the authors whom Athenseus cites were extant, his 
 work would be worthless ; but as so many of them r.re lost, this com- 
 pilation has become one of the most valuable relics of antiquity, and 
 a source of instruction and amusement to every scholar. 
 
 The first edition of Athenseus was published by the elder Aldus, 
 Venice, 1514, folio, with the assistance of Marcus Musurus : this 
 edition is of little value. In 1556 the first Latin translation appeared 
 at Venice ; but it is much inferior to that of Dalecampius (Jacques 
 d'Alechamp), Lyon, 1583, folio. The edition of Casaubon, Geneva, 
 1597, folio, contained only the test and the Latin version of Dalecam- 
 pius : the Commentary did not appear till 1600, Lyon, folio. Both 
 were reprinted several times. The latest edition, according to Casau- 
 bon's recension, is that of 1657, Lyon, folio. Casaubon did little for 
 the Greek text, but his commentary is useful. The edition of Schweig- 
 haeuser was founded on the collation of a new manuscript, which once 
 belonged to cardinal Bessarion, and is probably the original of all 
 other manuscripts of Athenseus. Schweighaeuser's edition, which 
 appeared between 1801 and 1807, in 14 volumes 8vo, consists of two 
 parts : the first part, in 5 volumes 8vo, contains the text, the revised 
 version of Dalecampius, and the various readings ; the first eight 
 volumes of the second part contain the commentary, which comprises 
 the best part of Casaubon' s commentary, and the editor's additions. 
 The fourteenth volume contains an index of the writers quoted by 
 Athenseus, and of their writings; an index of the titles of all the 
 works quoted by him; and an index of things and persons. The last 
 edition of Athenseus is by W. Dindorf, Leipzig, 1827, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 The text has been improved, and the various readings are given in 
 short notes at the foot of the page. It contains also the summaries 
 of the contents of the fifteen books, in Greek according to Aldus, and 
 in Latin according to Schweighaeuser, au Index Rerum founded on 
 that of Schweighaeuser, which in fact is founded on that in Casaubon, 
 and an index of the writers cited by Athenseus, with the addition of 
 all the works of each writer which are mentioned by Athenseus. 
 
 It appears that Eustathius either did not use or was unacquainted 
 with the genuine work of Athenseus, for he has often used the epitome 
 only. (Casaubon, ' Animadversiones,' lib. i., cap. 1.) Whether he was 
 entirely unacquainted with the complete work may not be quite 
 certain, but it is very evident that the archbishop of Thessalonica 
 derived much of his learning from the storehouse of Athenseus. 
 There is a French version of Athenseus by the Abbe" de Marolles, 
 Paris, 16S0, 4to. : this book is very rare. Another French version 
 was made by Jacques Adam, but he only revised the first two books ; 
 the rest were translated by Lefcbvre de Villebrune, and the whole 
 appeared at Paris in 1789-91. This translation has not a good 
 character. (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Grcsca, v. 602 ; Schoell, Oeschichte 
 der Griechischen Litteratur, ii. 508, contains a brief notice of the 
 contents of the several books of Athenseus ; Hoffman, Lexicon Biblio- 
 graphicum.) 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 ATHENSEUS, a Greek writer, probably contemporary with Archi- 
 medes. A work by him on engines of war (riepl tHrixavniiaruv) is 
 extant, and printed in the collection of Thevenot. This work is 
 addressed to M. Marcellus, supposed to be the conqueror of Syracuse. 
 
 ATHEN^E'US of Attalia (or according to Ccelius Aurelianus, of 
 Tarsus in Cilicia), a physician who flourished in Rome about the 
 middle of the first century, and established the Pneumatic school in 
 medicine. Of his works, which, according to Galen, were numerous 
 and highly valued, nothing remains except a few fragments preserved 
 by Oribasius and JEtius, and the allusions which are made to his 
 opinions in the writings of Galen. The theory, which originated with 
 Athenseus, and was transmitted by him to his pupils, Agatbinus and 
 Herodotus, and adopted by several other distinguished physicians 
 [AreTjEUs], derived its name from the ' pneuma,' or spirit, which 
 they regarded as a fifth element, and held to be the cause of health 
 ■nd disease. This 'pneuma' formed an important principle in the 
 physical science of the Stoic philosophers, from whom the Pneumatic 
 physicians seemed to have derived it, adopting at the same time, not 
 only the general philosophical tendency, but the difficult style and 
 dialectic abstruseness of the Stoic sect. The very scanty remains of 
 the Pneumatic doctrine, and their fondness for subtleties, render it 
 difficult to ascertain with any degree of definiteness the nature of 
 their doctrines. The 'pneuma' has been by many supposed to be 
 analogous to the ' vital principle ' of some modern physiologists. 
 (Leclerc and Sprengel, Histories of Medicine.) 
 
 ATHENA'GORAS was an Athenian philosopher, who having become 
 a convert to Christianity, wrote an apology for the Christians to the 
 •mperor Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus. He must have lived 
 therefore in the latter half of the 2nd century, and he probably com- 
 posed his apology about a.d. 177. The 'Apology' is a well-digested 
 and eloquently-written treatise. Athenagoras demands toleration for 
 the Christian?, and defends their doctrine and their lives against the 
 
 then usual accusations of atheism, incest, eating of the flesh of 
 slaughtered children, &c. The treatise of Athenagoras on the ' Re- 
 surrection of the Dead' is in some degree connected with the conclu- 
 sion of his ' Petition,' as the 'Apology' is entitled Athenagoras, in 
 his book on the Resurrection, shows the necessity of having the mind 
 freed from prejudice in order to arrive at truth, refutes the objections 
 made against the resurrection, and confirms it by argument. Semler 
 made a fruitless attempt to impugn the authenticity of the ' Petition ;' 
 but the objected quotations from the Prophets, and from heathen 
 mythology, as well as the title of philosopher, given to the emperor, 
 are quite appropriate in a Christian apology of the 2nd century. 
 Philippus Sidetes, an ecclesiastical writer, who lived about A.D. 420 at 
 Constantinople, is the only ancient writer who gires any biographical 
 notice of Athenagoras ; and he relates that Athenagoras was the first 
 teacher of the catechetic school at Alexandria; and that Clemens of 
 Alexandria was his disciple : but these assertions are inconsistent with 
 ascertained facts, and the authority of Sidetes is of little value. 
 
 The older editions of his writings are specified in Fabricii ' Biblio- 
 theca Grseca,' vol. v. p. 86, et seq. ; and in Oudin., ' Comment, de Script. 
 Eccl.,' vol. i. p. 203, et seq. The best are ' Ath. Legatio pro Christ, et 
 Ressurr. Mort.,' Gr. et Lat., edited by Henry Stephens, 1557, 8vo : 
 by Ed. Dechair. Ox., 1706-8, with notes of Gesner and others; re- 
 printed also in Gallandi ' Bibl.,' pp. t. ii. ; and in Justin Martyr's 
 Works, by the Benedictins, 1742, foL, with a very good introduction ; 
 ' Ath. Deprecatio, vulgo Legatio, pr. Christ.,' Gr. c. ind. et (valuable) 
 not. by Lindner, 1774-8 : ' Legat. et de llesurrectione ob. Oberthur,' Gr. 
 et Lat., 8vo, Wirreb, 1777, with Tatian, Theophilus, and Hermias: 
 1 The most excellent Discourse of the Christian philosopher Athena- 
 goras touching the Resurrection of the Dead ; ' Englished from the 
 Greek (he should have said Latin) of Peter Nannius, by Richard 
 Porder, 8vo, Lond. 1573 : ' The Apologetics' of Athenagoras — 1, ' For 
 the Christian Religion ; ' 2, ' For the Truth of the Resurrection,' &c, 
 by David Humphreys, 8vo, Lond. 1714. Several extracts of both 
 pieces are translated in Dr. Lardner's ' Credibility of the Gospel 
 History.' 
 
 ATHENION, a comic poet. Athenseus gives a long extract from 
 his ' Samothracians,' lib. xxiv. c. 80. 
 
 ATHENION, a painter, born at Maronea in Thrace, and pupil of 
 Glaucion of Corinth. Pliny gives him the extraordinary praise, that 
 " if he had lived to maturity, no one would have been worthy to bo 
 compared to him." (Nat. Hist, xxxv. 40, ed. Delph.) 
 
 ATHE'NION, a Sicilian slave, one of the principal actors in the 
 second Servile war which broke out in Sicily, and lasted from the 
 year B.C. 102 to 99. By birth he was a Cilician : he filled the station 
 of steward or overseer to two wealthy brothers, and had himself 
 acquired considerable wealth, which, with the skill in astrology to 
 which he laid claim, procured for him much influence among the 
 servile class. After the insurrection had commenced in other parts of 
 Sicily, he began his career by gaining over the slaves under his own 
 charge, to the number of 200. Other slaves flocked to his standard 
 from neighbouring properties, so that within five days his followers 
 amounted to 1000 men. He then assumed the title and state of a 
 king ; and enforced strict discipline among his followers. At the 
 head of a force of 10,000 slaves, he laid siege to Lilyboeum. In this 
 attempt he failed ; but by good management this check was made to 
 increase his power over his followers, by verifying the powers of 
 divination which he professed. Another slave leader, named Salvius, 
 at the head of a force of 30,000 men, now assumed the title of king, 
 and fixed his residence at Triocala. He summoned Athenion to serve 
 under his command, and Athenion prudently joined Salvius, or as he 
 now called himself Tryphon. Tryphon soon conceived a jealousy for 
 his new associate, whom he imprisoned ; but he restored him to his 
 command, when Licinius Lucullus, with an army of 16,000 or 17,000 
 men, was sent by the Senate to bring the war to a conclusion. In a 
 battle which ensued near Scirthsea the insurgents were defeated, and 
 Athenion severely wounded. Lucullus then laid siege to Triocala, in 
 which he met with no success. He was superseded by L. Servilius, 
 who did no better ; and both those generals were banished for their 
 misconduct or ill-success. On the death of Tryphon, Athenion suc- 
 ceeded him, and, unchecked by Servilius, extended his ravages over 
 great part of Sicily. But in b o. 102, the consul, Manius Aquilius, 
 took the field, and won a decisive victory over the insurgents, in which 
 Athenion was killed. Aquilius pursued the insurgents to their strong- 
 holds, and reduced them severally to submission. Thus ended the 
 Servile War in Sicily, in the fourth year, B.o. 99. (Diod., jEclogae, 
 lib. xxxvi. 1. ; Florus, iii. 19.) 
 
 ATHENION, son of a Peripatetic philosopher of the same name, 
 by an Egyptian slave. He was manumitted ; kept a school in Athens, 
 where he wa3 naturalised ; assumed the name of Aristion, and ulti- 
 mately became tyrant of Athens. He espoused the interests of 
 Mithridates, and in concert with Archelaus, the king of Pontus's 
 general, held out the city against Sulla, who finally put him to death. 
 [Sulla : the early history of Athenion is given by Athenseus, V. 
 c. 48-53.] 
 
 ATHIAS, RABBI JOSEPH, was a famous printer at Amsterdam, 
 who lived during the latter half of the 17th century. Assisted by 
 the most distinguished scholars of Amsterdam, he compared the old 
 editions and manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, and published in 1661 
 
ATKYNS, SIR ROBERT. 
 
 ATTALUS I. 
 
 400 
 
 a new edition, for which John Leusden wrote the summaries and a 
 preface. The second edition of this Bible, published in 1667, in two 
 volumes octavo, received considerable corrections. The editions of 
 the Bible published by Athias were more correct than any former 
 editions: they nevertheless contain many inaccuracies, especially in 
 the vowel points, and still more in the accents. The edition of Athias 
 was bitterly attacked by Samuel Maresius, in a letter published in 
 1669. A reply to this letter was published under the following title : 
 ' CiceAis de Coloribus, hoc est, Josephi Athiaa justa Defensio contra 
 iueptatn, absurdam, et iudoctam Reprehensionem Viri celeb. D. Sam. 
 Mareaii,' &c. It has been supposed that Leusden, writing in the name 
 of Athias, was the author of this reply. Notwithstanding its defects, 
 the Hebrew Bible of Athias had great merit, and lias been the basis 
 of all subsequent editions. The editions of Clodius, Jablonski, Van 
 der Hooght, Opitz, Michaelis, Hahn, Houbigant, Simonis, lleineccius, 
 Hurwitz, and others, may be considered as improvements upon that 
 of Athias. The Bible of Athias was the first iu which verses were 
 marked with Arabic cyphers, all former editions having only the 
 Jewish method of notation. 
 
 Athias printed the Bible also in Spanish, Jewish German (or that 
 jargon mixed with Hebrew which is spoken by the Russian and Polish 
 and some German Jews), and Engli.-h. On the completion of his 
 Hebrew Bible, the States General of Holland presented a gold chain 
 and medal to Athias. His death took place iu 1700, when he was 
 carried off by the plague. His son Emanuel Ben Joseph Athias suc- 
 ceeded him in his business, and fully maintained the reputation of the 
 establishment. The most celebrated production of his press was an 
 elegant little edition of the Hebrew Bible, edited by Nunez Torres, 
 with the commentary of Rashi, 4 vols. 18mo, a.m. 5460-5463 (1700- 
 1703.) 
 
 (Woolfi, Bibliothcca Hebraica, torn. i. p. 552-554 ; Le Long, BiMioth. 
 Sac, part i. p. 116, &c. ; Einlcilung in das AUe Testament, von Eich- 
 horn.) 
 
 ATKYNS, SIR ROBERT, a judge of the Court of Common Pleas 
 during the reign of Charles II., and Lord Chief Baron after the revo- 
 lution, was an eminent lawyer, distinguished for attachment to popular 
 rights and for uprightness and independence of conduct during a 
 period of judicial profligacy and subserviency. He was descended 
 from an ancient and opulent family in Gloucestershire; and it has 
 beeu remarked as a singular circumstance, that for more than 300 
 years consecutively, some member of this family always presided in 
 one of the superior courts of law. His father, Sir Edward Atkyus, 
 was a judge of the Court of Common Pleas during the Common- 
 wealth, and shared with Hale, Rolle, Wyndham, and other judges, 
 the merit of the various improvements in the administration of the 
 law which took place at that period. Immediately after the Restora- 
 tion, Sir Edward Atkyns was named as one of the judges in the special 
 commission for the trial of the regicides, and appointed a Baron of 
 the Exchequer. He continued to hold the office of Baron of the Ex- 
 chequer till his death, which took place in 1669, at the age of 82. 
 Sir Robert Atkyns was born in 1621; he received the rudiments of 
 his education at his father's house in Gloucestershire, and was after- 
 wards entered at Ballioi College, Oxford, where he spent several years. 
 He was called to the bar in 1645 by the Society of Lincoln's Inn, 
 of which his grandfather and father had been members. He was 
 made a Knight of the Bath at the coronation of Charles II., and 
 was returned to the first parliament of Charles II. for the horough 
 of East Looe. He continued to hold his seat till he was raised to 
 the Bench ; and from the frequent mention of his name on com- 
 mittees, and in the general business of the House, he appears to 
 have devoted much of his time to parliamentary duties. Long 
 before his appointment to the Bench he had acquired extensive prac- 
 tice and a high reputation at the bar. In 1661 he was chosen recorder 
 of Bristol; and in the early part of the year 1672 he was made a 
 judge of the Court of Common Pleas, having been for some time 
 before Solicitor-General to the Queen. In his judicial station he main- 
 tained his general character for learning and independence, though, 
 from his language and conduct on the trials of the Jesuit priests and 
 other persons charged with the Popish Plot in 1679, be appears to 
 have partaken of the delusion which pervaded the country respecting 
 that transaction. 
 
 In 1680 however the conduct of the court party, who were then 
 preparing the way by the corruption of the judges for the introduction 
 of arbitrary measures, drove him from the bench : but whether he 
 was dismissed or resigned voluntarily is unknown. In 1682 he re- 
 signed the recordership of Bristol. Having taken part in a civic 
 election there, the proceedings of which were alleged to be irregular, 
 the virulence of party-spirit led the mayor and corporation, who were 
 violent opponents of Sir Robert Atkyus, to indict him, with two other 
 persons, for a riot and conspiracy. He was tried at the Bristol assizes 
 and found guilty ; but on moving the case into the court of King's 
 Bench, judgment was arrested upon a technical error in the indict- 
 ment. But the party object was effected, for Sir Robert immediately 
 resigned his recordership. 
 
 On leaving the bench, Sir Robert Atkyns withdrew from all public 
 occupation to his seat in Gloucestershire, where he lived for some 
 years in great seclusion. It is clear however from his writings, that 
 during his retir«JiKint he viewed with deep interest the political tran- 
 
 sactions of the time; and he cannot be supposed to havs been indif- 
 ferent to the desperate course which the government weie pursuing. 
 Iu 1683, when the memorable trial of Lord William Russel took place, 
 Sir Robert Atkyns furnished the accused with a detailed note of such 
 points of law and fact as he might legally and prudently insist upon 
 on his trial. After the revolution he published two pamphlets, ( utitled 
 ' A Defence of Lord Russel'a Innocency,' in which he argues against 
 the sufficiency of the indictment and the evidence, and justifies the 
 reversal of the attainder, with gieat force of language and solidity of 
 reasoning. In 1689 he published a tract, entitled 'The Power, Juris- 
 diction, and Privilege of Parliament, and the Antiquity of the House 
 of Commons, asserted' The occasion of this tract was the prosecu- 
 tion of Sir William Williams by the attorney-general, for having, as 
 speaker of the House of Commons, and by express order of the House, 
 directed Dangerfield's ' Narrative ' to be printed. The object of 
 Atkyus' a argument, which displays much research and great legal and 
 historical learning, was to show that this was entirely a question of 
 parliamentary jurisdiction, of which the Court of King's Bench ought 
 not to take cognisance. The statement of Howell ('State Trial,' xiii. 
 p. 1380), that Sir Robert Atkyns personally argued the case for the 
 defendant, is undoubtedly a mistake. 
 
 In the reign of James II. he composed another legal argument, the 
 subject of which was the king's power to dispense with penal statutes, 
 and which was suggested by the well-known case of Sir Edward 
 Hales. In this treatise, he considers at large the doctrine of the kiug's 
 dispensing power. It is clearly and candidly written, and the truth 
 of the reasoning against the royal prerogative contended for by the 
 judges in Hales's case will hardly be denied at the present day. Sir 
 Robert Atkyns was returned to the only parliament called by James II., 
 as representative of the county of Gloucester; but he does not appeal 
 to have taken any active part in the debates. 
 
 After the revolution, Sir Robert Atkyns received numerous marks 
 of distinction. In 1689 he was appointed Chief Baron of the Ex- 
 chequer, and later in the same year, he was chosen speaker of the 
 House of Lords. During the long vacation in 1694, Sir Robert 
 Atkyus, being then in his 74th year, retired from public life and took 
 up his abode at his seat, Saperton Hall, near Cirencester, in Gloucester- 
 shire. He died early in the year 1709. Iu 1784 his published 
 writings were collected into one volume, under the title of ' Parlia- 
 mentary and Political Tracts.' By his second wife Anne, daughter of 
 Sir Thomas Dacres, of Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, he had a son, 
 Robert, who was knighted upon a visit of Charles II. to Bristol soon 
 after the Restoration, and who was the author of the ' History of 
 Glo'stershire.' He died in 1711, aged 65. 
 
 A'TTALUS, emperor of the West for one year, was born in Ionia, 
 and brought up a pagan, but received baptism from an Arian bishop. 
 He was a senator of Rome, under the reign of Honorius, and was sent 
 by the Romans to that emperor at Ravenna, to represent to him the 
 difficult situation of the capital, threatened at that time by Alaric, 
 and to advise him to fulfil the conditions of a treaty which he had 
 concluded with that Gothic chief. Honorius refused, and Alaric being 
 joined by his brother-in-law, Ataulphus, laid siege to Rome, of which 
 Attalus was then prefect. Alaric proclaimed Attalus emperor instead 
 of Honorius, and required the Romans to swear allegiance to him, 
 A.D. 409. On his coins he is called Flavius Priscus Attalus. After 
 assuming the title he went with an army of Romans and Goths to 
 besiege Honorius in Ravenna, when the emperor sent him messengers 
 offering to associate him in the empire, but Attains refused to listen 
 to the proposals. Attalus however having opposed Alaric in some of 
 his views, was immediately deposed by the Gothic chief. After this, 
 Alaric again besieged Rome, took it, and gave it up to pillage in August, 
 410. Upon Alaric's death, Attalus accompanied his successor, Ataul- 
 phus, into Gaul. When, in 414, Ataulphus married Placidia, the 
 sister of Honorius, in the town of Narbo, Attalus sang au epitha- 
 lamium which he had composed for the occasion. Ataulphus seeing 
 Honorius persisting in his hostility to him, proclaimed Attalus emperor 
 once more; but his restored dignity was merely nominal. After th* 
 death of Ataulphus, his successor, Vallia, concluded peace with Hono- 
 rius ; and Attalus endeavoured to escape the emperor's vengeance, but 
 was taken at sea in 416, and, by Honorius's order, banished to the 
 island of Lipari, after having had the thumb and forefinger of his 
 right hand cut off — a punishment with which he bad threatened 
 Honorius. (Zosimus ; Orosius ; Gibbon.) 
 
 A'TTALUS I., king of a small but wealthy and populous country in 
 the north-western part of Asia Minor, of which Pergamus (properly 
 Pergamum) was the capital. The name of Asia was specially applied 
 by the Romans to this country. Attalus was the son of Attalus, 
 youngest brother of Philetserus, and cousin to Eumenes I., whom he 
 succeeded B.C. 241. His mother's name was Antiochis, daughter of 
 Achseus (Strab., 624). Before B.C. 226 he had extended his authority 
 over the whole of Asia Minor, west of Mount Taurus (Polyb. iv. 48). 
 
 He first assumed the regal title after a victory over the Gauls, who 
 had taken possession of that part of the country called after them 
 Galatia (Liv. ; Polyb. ; Stiabo). At the time when the Rhodiaus and 
 inhabitants of Byzantium were preparing to make war on each other, 
 in consequence of the Byzantines having imposed a tax on all vessels 
 entering the Euxine (about B.C. 221), Attalus espoused the cause of 
 the Byzantines, thongh he could be of no essential service, as he had 
 
401 
 
 ATTALUS II. 
 
 ATTERBURY, FRANCIS. 
 
 40! 
 
 been defeated a little before by Achfeus, and confined within the 
 limits of Pergamus. Attalus still however continued the war with 
 Achseus; and having taken into pay a body of the Gauls called 
 Tectosages, he recovered several of the cities of ^Eolis, but was 
 stopped in the midst of his victorious career by an eclipse of the sun 
 (B.C. 218), which so alarmed the superstitious Gauls that they refused 
 to advance any further. He left them on the Hellespont, and returned 
 with his army to Pergamus. (Polyb. v. 77, 78.) We find him in alliance 
 (B.C. 216) with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, who was equally 
 anxious with himself to get rid of Achaeus (v. 107). In B.C. 208, he 
 took part with the iEtolians against Philip of Macedon, and was 
 appointed joint praetor of the ^Etolians with their general Pyrrhias. 
 He sent some auxiliaries, and towards the end of autumn made his 
 appearance at ^Egina with his fleet. Here he passed the winter ; but 
 as soon as the season permitted, he landed on the continent ; and 
 having taken the city Opus, the capital of the Locri Opuntii, with the 
 consent of the Romans, who were also in alliance with the ^Etolians, 
 allowed it to be sacked by his soldiers. While he was employed here 
 in collecting tribute from the surrounding chiefs, he was surprised by 
 Philip, and only escaped by a hasty flight. Hearing that Prusias, king 
 of Bithynia, had passed the frontiers of his kingdom, he left the 
 .iEtolians to their own resources, and returned to Asia. (Liv. xxvii. 
 30, 33 ; xxviii. 7.) Peace was soon afterwards concluded between the 
 .^Stolians and Philip, which was also acceded to by Attalus. When 
 the Romans were ordered (B.C. 205), by an oracle from Delphi, to 
 bring the Idosan Mother Cybele from Pessinus to Rome, it was to the 
 king of Pergamus that an embassy was sent, and through his means 
 the black stone representing the goddess was procured and conveyed 
 to Rome (xxix. 11, 12). Peace however did not continue; for we find 
 the Rhodians leagued with Attalus (B.C. 201) against Philip in the 
 Bea-fight of Chios. Attalus behaved with great bravery on this occa- 
 sion ; but having pursued a Macedonian vessel too far, he was forced 
 to abandon his ship and escape by land. Philip afterwards besieged 
 Attalus in Pergamus, but was forced to retire ; and Attalus passed 
 over to Athens (B.C. 200), where he was received with great honour, 
 and renewed his alliance with that people. He joined the Romans 
 with a considerable body of troops ; and tlie confederates laid siege to 
 Oreum, a strong city of Eubcea, which they took after an obstinate 
 resistance. Attalus continued to assist the Romans against Philip, 
 and (b c. 197) he appeared in the assembly of the Bccotiaus, with a 
 view of detaching them from the cause of Philip. In the midst of an 
 eloquent harangue, which he was pronouncing with great force, he 
 was seized with apoplexy ; and though be lingered long enough to 
 enable him to be conveyed to Pergamus, he died within a few weeks, 
 in the seventy-second year of hi3 age, having reigned forty-four years. 
 (Liv. xxxi. 14, 46; xxxii. 8 ; xxxiii. 2, 21.) He left, by his wife Apol- 
 lonis, four sons, Eumenc, who succeeded him ; Attains, who succeeded 
 hia brother Eumenesj Philetaerus; and Athenseus. 
 
 (Silver. British Museum. 
 
 A'TTALUS II., named PhiladelpJius, waB the second sen of 
 Attalus L He was born B.C. 220, and succeeded to the tbione of 
 Pergamus on the death of hia brother Eumenes (B.C. 159), as the son 
 of that prince, also called Attalus, was of too tender an age to hold the 
 reigns of government. His first act was to restore Ariarathes to his 
 kingdom of Cappadocia. (Polyb. xxxii. 23.) He pursued faithfully 
 the policy of his family, in maintaining an intimate alliance with the 
 Romans : and he was treated by them at all times with respect and 
 confidence. Prusias, king of Bithynia, made an attack on the territory 
 of Attalus (B.C. 156), and laid siege to Pergamus; but he was com- 
 pelled by the threats of the Romans to desist, and to indemnify 
 Attalus for the loss he had sustained. Thi3 war was however carried 
 on for several years ; the leading facts may be found in Appian's 
 ' Mithridatic War' (c. 3-7; also Polyb. xxxii. 25, 26, xxxiii. 1, 6, 10, 
 11). Five years afterwards (B.C. 149) we find Attalus assisting Nico- 
 medes against his father Prusias (Strab. xiii. 624). He lived to be 
 eighty-two years of age, and during his latter years was so much under 
 the influence of his minister Philopoomen, that the Romans used in 
 jest to inquire from those returning from Asia whether Attalus was 
 still the chief favourite of Philopoomen. (Plutarch, 'Mor.' p. 792.) 
 He wag the founder of Philadelphia in Lydia (Steph. Byz.), and of 
 Attaleia in Pamphylia (Strab. xiv. 667), and a liberal patron of the 
 arts : a kind of embroidered hanging or tapestry was invented by 
 Attalus (Plin. viii. 48.) He died B.C. 138. 
 
 ATTALUS III., named Philumetor, was the son of Eumenea 11. 
 
 •100. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 He succeeded (b.c. 138) to the throne of Pergamus on the death of 
 his uncle, Attalus II. ; but he is little known to us, except for the 
 madness and extravagance of his conduct. After having murdered 
 many of his friends and relations, he was seized with remorse, and 
 inflicted on himself every sort of penance which the most gloomy 
 superstition could inveut. He finally gave up all care of public 
 business, and devoted his time to sculpture and to gardening, with 
 which he became so well acquainted, that he wrote a work on the 
 subject, which is recommended by Pliny (xvii. 4), Varro (' R. R.,' lib. 
 i. 1), and Columella ('R. R.,' lib. i. 1). Having engaged with great 
 eagerness in the erection of a sepulchral monument to his mother 
 Stratonice, daughter of Ariarathes, king of Cappadocia, he exposed 
 himself to the violence of the sun's rays, was iu consequence seized 
 by a fever, and died, after a reign of five years, B.C. 133. In his will 
 was the expression "bonorum meorum Populus Romanus hasr-'s esto," 
 thereby making the Romans the heir of his moveable property; but 
 they insisted that it meant the kingdom of Pergamus. (Justin, 
 xxxvi. 4 ; Diodor. Sic. xxxiv., vol. x. p. 122, ed. Bip. ; Plin. xxxiii. 11.) 
 The kingdom was claimed by Aristonicus, an illegitimate sou of 
 Eumenes II., and he bravely maintained the contest for some time ; 
 but at last, being defeated and taken prisoner, he was carried to Rome, 
 and strangled in prison, B.C. 129. The kingdom of Pergamus thus 
 became the Roman province of Asia. (Clinton, ' Fasti Hellenici,' 
 vol. ii.) 
 
 ATTERBURY, FRANCIS, bishop of Rochester in the reigns of 
 Queen Anne and George I., was born on the 6th of March, 1662, at 
 Milton, near Newport Pagnel, in Buckinghamshire, of which parish 
 his father was rector. He was educated at Westminster, and elected 
 student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1680. In the year 16S7 he 
 appeared as a controversial writer in an answer to ' Considerations on 
 the Spirit of Martin Luther, and the Original of the Reformation ; ' a 
 tract published under the name of Abraham Woodhead, an eminent 
 Roman Catholic, but really written by Ohadiah Walker, master of 
 University College. Bishop Burnet, in his ' History of his own Times,' 
 ranks this vindication amongst the most able defences of the Protes- 
 tant religion. Atterbury himself, on his trial, appealed to this book 
 to exculpate himself from the suspicion of a secret leaning towards 
 popery. After taking his degree of B.A. iu 1684 and M.A. in 1687, 
 he bore some office iu the university, and was tutor to Charles Boyle, 
 afterwards Earl of Orrery, but complained of the narrowness of his 
 sphere of action. In 1690 he married Catherine Osborn, a near rela- 
 tive of the Duke of Leeds. Having taken orders, Atterbury, in 1691, 
 was elected lecturer of St. Bridge's; in 1693 he was elected minister of 
 Bridewell. His pulpit eloquence attracted general attention, and he 
 was soon after appointed chaplain in ordinary to their majesties. His 
 sermons on the 'Power of Charity to Cover Sin,' and ' The Scorner 
 Incapable of True Wisdom,' involved him iu controversies with 
 Bishop Hoadley and others. In 1698 he became preacher at the 
 Rolls chapel. In the same year appeared Mr. Boyle's 'Examination 
 of Dr. Bentley's Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris and the 
 Fables of ^Esop.' Though this work was published under Boyle's 
 name, it is shown by Bishop Monk ('Life of Bentley') that Atter- 
 bury had the chief share in the undertaking, and in fact wrote more 
 than half the book. Whatever credit we may give Atterbury for 
 ingenuity and humour, this work proves that he had not much 
 learning. 
 
 In the year 1700 Atterbury engaged in a long controversy with Dr. 
 Wake, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and others, concerning 
 the rights, powers, and privileges of convocations, Atterbury deuyiug 
 the authority of the civil power over ecclesiastical synods. His style 
 was acrimonious, and his wit and satire perhaps too freely indulged, 
 but his zeal for the interests of his order procured him the thanks of 
 the Lower House of Convocation, and the degree of Doctor in Divinity, 
 without exercise or fees, from the University of Oxford. 
 
 On the accession of Queen Anne, in 1702, Atterbury was appointed 
 one of her chaplains in ordinary, and in 1704 advanced to the deanery 
 of Carlisle. His characteristic impatience broke out remarkably on 
 this occasion. He took out his instruments before his predecessor 
 had resigned. Dr. Nicholson, compiler of the ' Historical Library.' 
 who was then Bishop of Carlisle, required the preceding dean's resig- 
 nation to be produced. When produced, it was found to be dated a 
 month subsequent to Atterbury's collation, which was therefore void. 
 Atterbury attempted in vain to obtain a clandestine alteration of 
 dates, but was at length admitted to his deanery without this error 
 of date being rectified. 
 
 In 1706 Atterbury was engaged in a dispute with Hoadly concern- 
 ing the advantages of virtue with regard to the present life. In a 
 funeral sermon he had asserted, that if the benefits resulting from 
 Christianity were confined to our present state, Christians would be, 
 of the whole human race, the most miserable. Hoadly on the con- 
 trary, maintained, in a printed letter to Atterbury, that it was a point 
 of the utmost importance to the Gospel itself, to vindicate the ten- 
 dency of virtue to the temporal happiuess of man. Iu 1707 Atter- 
 bury was made canon in the cathedral of Exeter. In the same 
 year he was involved in a fresh controversy with Hoadly, concern- 
 ing passive obedience. In 1710 Dr. Sacheverell's trial took place; 
 and it is stated in Boyer's 'History of the Life and Reign of Queen 
 Anne,' that the defence was generally thought to have been drawn up 
 
403 
 
 ATTERBURY, FRANCIS. 
 
 ATTICUS, T. P0MP0NIUS. 
 
 401 
 
 by Dr. Atterbury, in conjunction with Dr. Smalridge and Mr. Freind. | 
 Iu the sarne year Dr. Atterbury was chosen prolocutor to the lower 
 house of convocation. In 1712 he was made dean of Christ Church, 
 Oxford ; but owing to his imperious temper, discord soon broke out 
 in the college, and his removal was thought necessary for the restora- 
 tion of peace. Iu 1713, on Lord Oxford's recommendation, he was 
 promoted to the bishopric of Rochester, and the deanery of West- 
 minster. It has been generally thought that he aspired to the 
 primacy, and that he probably would have attained it had a vacancy 
 occurred during the queen's lifetime. Immediately on her death it 
 is asserted that he proposed to Boliugbroke to attempt to proclaim 
 James at Charing Cross ; and offered himself to head the procession 
 in his lawn sleeves. On the other hand it is said that he attempted 
 to gain the good graces of George I. ; but that his overtures were 
 rejected with marks of personal dislike. Certain it is, that from this 
 time he assumed a position of hostility to the House of Hanover, and 
 that all his energies were directed to bring about the restoration of 
 the Stuart dynasty. At the breaking out of the rebellion in 1715 the 
 other prelates published a declaration of abhorreuce of it, but Atter- 
 bury on the plea of its containing certain reflections on the High 
 Church party, refused his signature. In the House of Lords, he drew 
 up some of the most violent protests against the measures of the court 
 and ministry. Thus far his opposition was not unconstitutional ; 
 but he soon after incurred the suspicion of being deeply concerned in 
 a succession of plots for the restoration of the ejected family. The 
 report of a secret committee of the House of Commons charged him 
 with a treasonable correspondence, for the purpose of raising insur- 
 rection in the kingdom, and procuring invasion from abroad. The 
 evidence against him was decisive, but the ministry hesitated for 
 three months before issuing their warrant (August 21, 1722) for his 
 committal to the Tower. On his appearance before the council he 
 behaved with calmness and self-possession. The imprisonment of a 
 bishop caused much excitement, which was no doubt greatly increased 
 by the unnecessary harshness with which he was treated in the Tower. 
 In the course of the ensuing March, a bill of pains aud penalties 
 against him was brought into the House of Commons. Atterbury 
 raised a difficulty about appearing either iu person or by counsel ; 
 and this point of privilege was warmly debated in the Upper House, 
 but to his vexation it w is decided that the bishop being not a peer of 
 the realm, but only a lord of parliament, might make his defence 
 before the Commons without any detriment to the honour of the 
 peerage. He however acquainted the Speaker by a letter, that he 
 would give the Commons no trouble, but make his defence iu another 
 house, of which he had the honour to be a member. The bill passed 
 the Commons without a division. On the first reading in the Lords, 
 the bishop on his passage to Westminster was insulted by the mob ; but 
 a guard was appointed for his future protection, and for the remainder 
 of the week, through which the proceeding lasted, the populace was 
 Boftened into pity. His speech in his own defence was both argu- 
 mentative and eloquent ; his demeanour was firm and collected. 
 After a long and warm debate, the bill was passed by a majority of 
 83 to 43. It received the royal assent on the 27th of the same month, 
 May. This affair at the time excited the vehemence of party, but 
 the dispassionate view of the case seems to be, that the bishop was 
 really guilty of the political offence laid to his charge, but that proofs 
 neither sufficiently strong nor strictly legal could be adduced, and 
 that the proceeding was in its nature dangerous and unconstitutional. 
 A strong protest was entered on the Journals of the Lords. (' Histo- 
 rical Register,' and ' Debates of the House of Lords.') 
 
 The bill condemned him to deprivation from all his ecclesiastical 
 preferments, incapacitated him from performing any spiritual functions 
 or holding any civil appointment, and sentenced him to perpetual exile. 
 Accordingly in June 1723 he quitted England for Calais, accompanied 
 by his daughter, Mrs. Morrice, who was allowed to attend him on his 
 travels ; and, through the hands of her husband, he was permitted to 
 maintain an intercourse by correspondence with his native country. 
 After a short stay at Brussels he settled finally at Paris, where he 
 resided till his death, softening the severity of his banishment by study, 
 conversation, and correspondence with his old friends Swift and Pope, 
 and other eminent and learned men. In a collection of the bishop's 
 original letters, furnished by M. Thiriot, there is much able criticism 
 on several French authors. His avowed wish now was to live to him- 
 self and a few friends, but he in fact, for three or four years, was the 
 real though covert mauager of the Pretender's business. He was 
 consequently deeply implicated in the schemes for raising another 
 rebellion in the Highlands of Scotland, and other equally abortive 
 measures. But Atterbury was too plain-speaking a man, and too con- 
 scientious a Protestant, for James ; and the incapable favourites of 
 that weak and bigoted prince found little difficulty in undermining 
 his influence. A letter, dated June 16, 1727, is extant in which the 
 bishop, with a grave and sorrowful dignity, refers to his loss of favour, 
 and requests permission to " retire from that share of business with 
 which it has been hitherto thought not improper to intrust me." The 
 death of George I. however led to his deferring his resignation to the 
 following year, when he removed to Montpellier. Subsequently James 
 seems to have become aware of the error he had committed in alien- 
 ating from his service the most able man of his party, and he in 1730 
 •ucceeded hi inducing him to return to Paris. But Atterbury's spirits 
 
 had been broken by the death of his daughter, who had gono to France 
 to see him, October 1729 ; aud if he had retained more of hia old 
 vigour, the state of European politics would probably have prevented 
 him rendering any effectual service to the Pretender's cause. Hia 
 feelings of desolation aud hopelessness are strikingly shown in a letter 
 to James, dated November 12, 1731. Atterbury died at Paris on the 
 15th of February, 1732. He was buried privately at Westminster 
 Abbey; and no little public outcry was caused by the government 
 having caused his coffin to be opened and searched for Jacobite 
 papers which they asserted they had reason to believe were concealed 
 in it. 
 
 Atterbury has been somewhat absurdly charged, on the strength of 
 an improbable anecdote which Dr. Maty says Lord Chesterfield related 
 to him, with having been, at least in early" life, a sceptic; but the 
 whole tenor of his conduct, and every reference in his private as well 
 as public writings, contradict such a supposition. He was a worldly- 
 minded and ambitious man, but that he firmly believed the religious 
 truths which he so eloquently defended there can be no reasonable 
 doubt. His chief purpose was plainly to raise himself to a high 
 position in the Church, but it was as plainly for the sake of the Church 
 (considered as an ecclesiastical corporation), of which he was ever tlie 
 ardent and untiring advocate aud resolute champion. The conduct 
 of Atterbury with reference to the Stuart dynasty is the great blot 
 on hia public career, aud though perhaps illegally convicted, he was 
 undoubtedly guilty of the treason for which he was condemned. But 
 he waa sincerely devoted to the Stuart dynasty, and it was for no 
 selfish ends he adhered to its desperate fortunes. Nor was his conduct 
 wholly inconsistent with his position as a prelate of the English Church. 
 The plan on which he had fixed hia hope of securing tlie restoration 
 of the Stuarts was that of inducing James to educate his son iu the 
 Protestant faith : an absurd expectation undoubtedly, but it was cha- 
 racteristic of Atterbury to overlook obstacles when he had set his 
 heart on accomplishing a great purpose. In private life the haughti- 
 ness aud asperity of the politician and controversialist wholly disap- 
 peared, and no man ever succeeded in winning a more affectionate 
 attachment from friends as well as relations. As a preacher, a speaker, 
 and a writer, he had few rivals ; and Lord Mahon (' Hist of Eng.,' 
 c. xii.) hardly exaggerates hia literary merits when he says that " few 
 men Lave attained a more complete mastery of the English language 
 than Atterbury ; and all his compositions are marked with peculiar 
 force, elegance, and dignity of style." 
 
 ATTICUS, T. POMPO'NIUS, was descended from a very ancient 
 family, which formed one of the chief ornaments of the equestrian order. 
 He was born on the 9th of March, B.C. 109, being three years before 
 Cicero and Pompey, and nine years before Csesar. He is sometimes 
 called Q. Caecilius (Cic, ' Ad Att.,' iii. 20), a name which he derived, 
 B.C. 58, from his maternal uncle Cajcilius, who left him a considerable 
 estate. His early years were spent under the direction of his father, 
 whose taste for literature induced him to give his son the best edu- 
 cation which Rome could supply. He lived during the most stormy 
 period of Roman history, but he early came to the determination to 
 sue for no public honours, and to take no side in party or political 
 strife. He thus contrived to retain the friendship of the various 
 parties which in succession directed public affairs. He was on good 
 terms with Sulla, and with the younger Marius, with Caesar, Pompey, 
 M. Brutus, Cassius, Antony, and Augustus ; but his most intimate 
 friend waa Cicero, with whom he seems to have kept up a constant 
 correspondence from the year B.C. 68 down to Cicero's death. We 
 still possess the letters of Cicero to Atticus, in sixteen books, one of 
 the most valuable records of that important period. Atticus spent a 
 considerable portion of his life at Athens (from B.C. 85 to 65), having 
 withdrawn from Rome that he might not be forced to take any part 
 in the first civil war : it is probable that he derived the name of Atticus 
 from his residence at Athens. Atticus had also an estate in Epirus, 
 near Buthrotum, where he appears to have spent a considerable part 
 of his time. He returned to Rome B.C. 65 ; and there, as at Athens 
 and Buthrotum, his days were spent in the delights of literary retire- 
 ment. He married at a late period (Feb. 12, B.C. 56) Pilia, of whom 
 we know nothing more than the name (Cic, ' Ad Att.,' iv. 4), and that 
 her health appears not to have been very good. His daughter Pom- 
 ponia (called by Cicero also Caecilia and Attica) married M. Vipsanius 
 Agrippa, the intimate friend and able minister of Augustus ; and his 
 grand-daughter by this marriage, Vipsania Agrippina, was married to 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero, afterwards emperor, by whom she had Drusus. 
 After Vipsania was divorced from Tiberius she married Asinius Gallus, 
 by whom she became the mother of a numerous family. Pomponia, 
 the sister of Atticus, was married to Cicero's brother Quintas, but the 
 marriage was not a happy one. 
 
 Atticus died March 31, B.C. 32, at the age of 77, of voluntary 
 starvation, after he found that a disease with which he was seized w as 
 incurable. None of his works have been preserved. He wrote annals 
 which included a period of seven centuries; and though they referred 
 principally to the history of Rome, he gave in them an abridged 
 account of several of the more celebrated nations of antiquity. He 
 was particularly happy in the composition of short epigrammatic 
 inscriptions to be placed under the busts of illustrious men. He 
 wrote also a history of the Consulate of Cicero in the Greek language, 
 in a plaiu unadorned style. (Cic, ' Ad Att.,' ii, 1.) In his philoso- 
 
405 
 
 ATTILA 
 
 phic&l opinions Atticus belonged to the Epicurean sect, as we see from 
 various passages in Cicero's ' Letters ;' and, conformably to the views 
 of this sect, he avoided the troubles and the cares of public life. He 
 inherited from his father great wealth, and he knew well how to 
 increase it. His equestrian rank enabled him to hold a share in one 
 or more of those lucrative societies which farmed the public revenues. 
 He engaged also in mercantile pursuits, and he had a great number of 
 well-educated slaves, who served him as amanuenses and transcribers 
 of books, which he sold to the public. 
 
 (Held, Prolegom. ad Vitam Attic t quce vulgo Corn. Ncpoti adscribitur, 
 Vratislav., 1826; T. Pomp. Atticus, Eine Apologie, Eisenach, 1784; 
 Hisely, De Pontibus Corn. Nepotis, Drumann, Rom. v. V.) 
 
 A'TTILA. This formidable conqueror was the son of Mundzukun, 
 and nephew of Roas, a king or leader of the Huns, who at the begin- 
 ning of the 5th century was established with his hordes in Pannonia, 
 on the south bank of the Danube. Attila and his brother Bleda suc- 
 ceeded Roas about A.D. 430. The first act of their reign was to conclude 
 a peace with the Emperor Theodosius II., on terms disgraceful to the 
 majesty of the Roman empire. Being thus at liberty to pursue their 
 conquests in the north, Attila and Bleda extended their dominions from 
 the Danube eastward to the Volga, and northward even to the Baltic. 
 A doubtful provocation, or an unscrupulous ambition, urged them, in 
 violation of existing treaties, to cross the Danube ; and they led an irre- 
 sistible force through Mcesia into Thrace and Macedonia, on their way 
 defeating on three occasions the forces of the Eastern empire. The 
 whole coast of the Archipelago, from Thermopylae to Constantinople, 
 waa exposed to their ravages; and Tbeodosius in alarm retired into Asia. 
 In 445 Attila procured the assassination of his brother and coadjutor 
 Bleda, and in 446 Tbeodosius was forced to consent to terms of peace 
 Btill more humiliating than before, ceding the tract along the banks of 
 the Danube extending to the breadth of 15 days' journey, and consenting 
 to the payment of an increased tribute. In 448 the historian Priscus 
 accompanied ambassadors sent to apologise to Attila for the non-fulfil- 
 ment of some articles of this treaty ; and we derive from him some ac- 
 count of the domestic manners of the Huns. The palace of Attila, which 
 was situated in the plains of Upper Hungary, was entirely of wood : 
 the houses of the Huns were of the same or some meaner material, 
 and the only stone building was a set of baths erected by the king's 
 favourite Onegesius. But the wood was fashioned into columns, 
 carved and polished ; and the ambassadors could discover some 
 evidence of taste in the workmanship, as well a3 barbarous magni- 
 ficence in the display of the rich spoils of more civilised cations. 
 Aroi nd the palace a large village had grown up. The ambassadors 
 were invited to a sumptuous entertainment, at which the guests were 
 all served in silver and gold : but a dish of plain meat on a wooden 
 trencher was set before the king, of which he partook very sparingly. 
 His beverage was equally simple and frugal. The rest of the company 
 were excited into loud and frequent laughter by the fantastic extra- 
 vagances of two buffoons; but Attila preserved his usual inflexible 
 gravity. A Becret agent in this embassy was charged with the disgrace- 
 ful task of procuring the assassination of this formidable enemy. 
 Attila was acquainted with the real object of the mission ; but he 
 dismissed the culprit, as well as his innocent companions, uninjured. 
 The emperor Theodosius was compelled however to atone for his base 
 attempt by a second embassy, loaded with magnificent presents, 
 which the king of the Hun3 was prevailed on to accept, and he 
 even made some concessions in return. Theodosius died not long 
 after (July 450) and was succeeded by the more virtuous and able 
 Marcian. 
 
 Attila at this time was collecting an enormous army, and threatened 
 both divisions of the Roman world. To each emperor he sent the 
 haughty message, " Attila, my lord and thy lord, command? thee to 
 prepare a palace for his immediate reception." To this insult was 
 added a demand upon Marcian for the arrears of tribute due from the 
 late emperor Theodosius. Marcian's reply was in the same laconic 
 style, " I have gold for my friends, and steel for my enemies." Attila 
 determined to make war first on the emperor Valentinian. The 
 pretext for hostility was this. Valentinian's sister Honoria, who was 
 confined in Constantinople in consequence of some youthful errors, 
 had maintained a secret correspondence with Attila, and sent him a 
 ring in token of her affection. It now suited him to demand her 
 hand, with half the western empire as her dowry. The demand was 
 refused, and Attila profeised to be satisfied by the reasons assigned : 
 but he did not the less turn his arms against Gaul. Beginning by 
 craft what was to be carried on by violence and terror, he agreed to 
 give assistance to the son of Genseric, king of the Vandals, in attacking 
 Theodoric, king of the Goth3. Assuring Valentinian that his warlike 
 preparations were levelled against Theodoric only, he at the same time 
 exhorted Theodoric to join him against the Romans, as their common 
 foe. Meanwhile, he marched through Germany without halting till 
 he reached the Rhine, where he defeated the Franks, cut down whole 
 forests to build boats, and passing the river entered Gaul, several 
 cities of which opened their gates to him, on his professions of f'riend- 
 •hip to the Romans. He soon threw off the mask. The calamities 
 attendant on this invasion have been described in frightful colours by 
 Sidonius, a contemporary, afterwards bishop of Clermont, and by the 
 historians of France. The approach of the Romans and the Goths, 
 under the command of iEtius and Theodoric, compelled him to make 
 
 a hasty retreat from the siege of Orleans. The combined army came 
 up with him in the extensive plains surrounding Chalons-sur-Marne, 
 a country well adapted to the cavalry of the Huns. There took place 
 the last great battle ever fought by the Romans, and one of the most 
 sanguinary contests recorded in history. Theodoric was slain. Attila 
 was defeated and forced to retreat; he moved slowly to the Rhino 
 without molestation, and retired into Pannonia in 451. 
 
 After having reinforced his army, he returned to repeat his demand 
 of the princess Honoria in the plains of Italy. He mastered the 
 unguarded passes of the Alps, and advanced at once to Aquileia, the 
 metropolis of the province of Venetia, which he invested, and utterly 
 destroyed after a siege of three months. Verona, Mantua, Cremona, 
 Brescia, and Bergamo underwent the same fate. It has been con- 
 jectured that Venice owed its origin to the inhabitants of the main- 
 land taking refuge from his ravages on the islands in the Delta of the 
 Po. Milan and Pavia, Attila treated with unusual clemency : he 
 neither fired the buildings nor massacred the inhabitants. From 
 Milan he purposed to advance upon Rome : but as he lay encamped 
 on the banks of Lake Benacus, he was approached by a supplicatory 
 embassy, led by Avienus and Pope Leo I. [Avienus.] He received 
 them with kindness and respect, and consented to a truce with Rome, 
 the duration of which was to depend either on the fulfilment of his 
 claims on the princess Honoria, or the payment of a proportionate 
 ransom. Attila's troops, inured to the rigours of a northern climate, 
 and the rude simplicity of a pastoral life, began to melt away in the 
 luxurious plains of Italy : and the great ^Etius, unable to oppose his 
 progress, still hung on his march with a constant hostility. In these 
 circumstances he deemed it prudent, on the signature of the treaty 
 with Rome, to retire beyond the Danube. 
 
 The death of Attila took place in 453. The commonly received 
 account is that given by Jornaudes, that he died by the bursting of a 
 blood-vessel on the night of his marriage with a beautiful maiden, 
 whom he added to his many other wives; some, with a natural suspi- 
 cion, impute it to the hand of his bride. Priscus observes, that no 
 one ever subdued so many countries in so short a time. The vanity 
 of the Romans refused to honour Attila with the title of king ; they 
 only styled him general of their armies, disguising an annual tribute 
 under the specious name of military pay. His portrait, given by 
 Joruandes, presents the genuine features of the Mongolian race: he 
 was low in stature, broad-chested, and of powerful frame— dark-com- 
 plexioned, with a few straggling hairs in the place of beard — with a 
 large head, flat nose, and small eyes. His carriage was fierce and 
 haughty ; and no one could behold him without concluding that he 
 was sent into the world to disturb it. It was a saying of his own, 
 that the grass never grew on a spot where his horse had trod. His 
 empire was overthrown and disjointed immediately upon his death, 
 by the disputes and dissensions of his sons and chieftains— the fate of 
 most unwieldy empires hastily erected by violence. 
 
 (Jornandes, De Rebus Geticis, and Priscus, Excerpta de Legationibus, 
 furnish the best ancient materials for the history of Attila. For modern 
 compilations, see Buat, Histoire des Peuples de I'Ewope, and De Guig- 
 nes, Hist, des Huns ; Gibbon, cc. xxxiv. and xxxv.) 
 
 ATTIRET, JEAN DENYS, called Frere A ttiret, a French painter 
 attached to the Jesuit mission at Peking, in the middle of the 18th 
 century. He was born at Dole, in the Franche-Comte', July 31, 1702, 
 and was first instructed by his father, an obscure painter of Ddle. He 
 completed his studies at Rome, whither he was sent by the Marquis 
 de Broissia. After practising a short time at Lyon, he settled in 
 Avignon, and became a lay-brother of the Jesuits of that place ; and 
 when, in 1737, the French Jesuits of Peking requested their brothers 
 at home to send them a painter, Attiret undertook to go. In China, 
 Attiret soon obtained the favour of the emperor Keen-Loong, by pre- 
 senting him with a picture of the Adoration of the Kings, which he 
 ordered to be placed in one of his own apartments ; he however 
 expressed a dislike to the gloss of oils, and employed Attiret only ai 
 a water-colour painter. Attiret became an object of envy to hit 
 Chinese rivals from an order he received from the emperor to restor.t 
 a painting in one of the inner apartments of the palace. This com- 
 mission from the extreme inconvenience of the ceremonial etiquette, 
 which clogged his every movement, was as disagreeable as it was 
 honourable to the French painter. Attiret met also with many 
 vexations from the Chinese court painters until he employed them to 
 execute the secondary portions of his works, and conformed himself 
 in some degree to the Chinese taste. Between 1753 and 1760 the 
 emperor Keen-Loong was at war with the Tartars on the north- 
 western confines of his empire, and he commanded Attiret to join 
 him, and prepare some designs to illustrate his triumphs. Attiret 
 arrived at the seat of war in 1754, and made many accurate drawings 
 of triumphs, processions, festivals, &c, from which he afterwards 
 painted pictures, some of which were preserved in the palace, and 
 shown only by special permission of the emperor. Attiret painted the 
 emperor's portrait, and introduced into his drawings a great many 
 portraits of Chinese officers, many of whom had to journey as much 
 as 800 leagues merely for the purpose of being painted. Sixteen of 
 these drawings were engraved in France, by various artists, on a large 
 scale, and both prints and plates were sent back to China, a few 
 impre<sions only being reserved for the royal family of France and 
 for the Parisian library. They are defective in design, and it ia 
 
407 
 
 ATT WOOD, THOMAS. 
 
 AUBIGNE, THEODORE, AGRIPPA D'. 
 
 408 
 
 evident that Attiret aud his coadjutors, the Jesuits, Castiglione and 
 Sikelbar, paid too much defereuce to tho taste of the Chinese to 
 satisfy that of the Europeans. The emperor created Attiret a man- 
 darin, but by his position as a Jesuit it was impossible for him to 
 assume the distinction. ]le died at Peking, December, 17, 1768, aged 
 66, and the emperor gave 200 ounces of silver towards the expense of 
 his burial. ('Extrait d'une Lettre du Pere Amiot, du 1 Mars, 1769, 
 de Peking, contenaut l'dloge du Frere Attiret,' &c., inserted in the 
 'Journal des Scavans,' for June, 1771.) 
 
 ATTWOOD, THOMAS, an eminent musical composer, equally 
 distinguished by his productions for the church, the chamber, and 
 the theatre, was born in 1767, and commenced his professional 
 education as one of the ' children of the Chapel Royal,' under Dr. 
 Nares, and his successor Dr. Ayrton. On the change of his voice, 
 and consequent retirement from the king's service, he was sent abroad 
 by and at tho expense of his patron, the Prince of Wales, for the 
 purpose of completing his studies in the schools of Italy. At Naples 
 he continued two years, and afterwards proceeded to Vienna, where 
 he became a pupil of Mozart, with whom he formed an intimacy 
 which led to a daily intercourse, and to the imparting not only the 
 usual information, but also a knowledge of those deeper recesses of 
 the art which seldom, if ever, is, or can be, communicated in the 
 course of ordinary lessons. This happy result is manifest in all 
 Attwood's secular compositions, and was recognised by the great 
 master, who said— according to the report of Michael Kelly, the 
 singer — " Attwood partakes more of my Btyle than any pupil I ever 
 had." (Kelly's ' Reminiscences.') 
 
 Soon after his return to his native country, Attwood's royal patron 
 made him one of his chamber musicians, an appointment however 
 which he soon relinquished. On the arrival of the Duchess of York 
 in this country, he became her ' musical preceptor; ' and on the ill- 
 fated marriage of the Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) he 
 gave almost daily lessons in music to the princess. His conscientious 
 performance of this duty subsequent to the public estrangement, gave 
 offence to his patron, who for several years after made his resentment 
 felt. 
 
 In 1795 he was elected organist of St. Paul's cathedral, and in the 
 following year, on the death of Dr. Dupuis, he was appointed com- 
 poser to the Chapels Royal. For the solemnity of the coronation of 
 George IV., he was required officially to compose an anthem, when he 
 produced ' The King shall Rejoice,' a grand work, which has 6ince 
 been heard and admired in all parts of the kingdom. This restored 
 him to the favour of his early protector, who appointed him organist 
 of his private chapel at Brighton. For the coronation of William IV., 
 Mr. Attwood composed the anthem, ' 0 Lord, grant the King a long 
 life,' another great work, and in all respects equal to the former. In 
 1837 he was, without solicitation, appointed by the Bishop of London 
 to succeed Mr. Stafford Smith in the office of orgauist of the Chapels 
 Royal. In March of the following year he died, and his remains were 
 deposited in St. Paul's cathedral, under his own organ, with every 
 honour that the church to which he belonged, the choirs of the Royal 
 Chapel and Westminster Abbey, and the mo3t distinguished members 
 of his profession, could confer. 
 
 Mr. Attwood's compositions are numerous and of great merit. His 
 glees and songs were, aud many still are, very popular ; and his cathe- 
 dral works unite the elegance of the modern school with the becoming 
 Bobriety of English church music. 
 
 AUBENTON, D\ [DAobenton.] 
 
 *AUBER, DANIEL FRANCOIS ESPRIT, was born at Caen on 
 the 29th of January, 1782. He was educated with a view to his taking 
 in due time the mauagemeut of his father's business, that of a print- 
 seller, at Paris. At the age of twenty he was sent to London for the 
 purpose of acquiring commercial knowledge, but returned to Paris on 
 the rupture of the treaty of Amiens. By this time he had conceived 
 a strong dislike to commercial pursuits, but he did not relinquish them 
 until his father's death, which occurred some fourteen years later. 
 His leisure hours were however devoted chiefly to the study of music, 
 his associates including a large number of eminent professional and 
 amateur musicians. He soon became known in private circles by the 
 composition of various short pieces for the violin, violoncello, and piano- 
 forte. He is said by M. Denne-Baron to have composed about this 
 period for his friend Lamare, the celebrated violoncello player, all the 
 pieces which appeared under the name of Lamare. A concerto for the 
 violin excited a strong sensation at the Conservatoire de Musique, 
 where it was played by Mazas. Stimulated by the applause of his 
 friends, M. Auber at length essayed the composition of an opera, which 
 was played with success at the private theatre of the Prince de Chimay. 
 But he had now become awarothat his studies had been too superficial, 
 and he placed himself under the tutelage of Cherubini with great 
 advantage to his future style. 
 
 He made his first appeal to the public judgment in 1813 in a comic 
 opera, in one act, entitled ' Le Sejour Militaire,' which was played at 
 the Theatre Feydeau, but received so coldly that Auber did not again 
 appear as a composer for several years. But the death of his father 
 and severe reverses of fortune led him to adopt music as a profession, 
 giving lessons on the piano whilst he set about the composition of 
 another one-act opera for the Opera Comique. This was ' Le Testa- 
 ment et les Billets-Doux,' produced in 1819, and with uo more success 
 
 than the former. But Auber could not now afford to refrain from 
 composition out of ill-humour with tho public ; he therefore speedily 
 made another venture in a three-act opera entitled ' La Bergere Chate- 
 laine,' which wa3 produced at the Opera Comique in 1820 with entire 
 success. From this time every year at least one, often two, and some- 
 times three operas — varying in length from one to five acts — appeared 
 from the pen of this prolific composer, and in almost every instance 
 commanded a fair share of public applause. Several of his operas, as 
 is well known, have ranked among the most popular of his time; and 
 some, as the ' Muette de Portici' (Masaniello), ' Fra Diavolo,' and one 
 or two others, havo taken their place as stock pieces in the chief opera- 
 houses of Europe. 
 
 From nearly the period of M. Auber's regularly devoting himself to 
 his art, his works have been marked by a decided originality and 
 brilliancy which have won for them general favour, except of course 
 with those musical partisans who can only tolerate a particular school 
 of composition. The culminating point of his genius perhaps, as 
 regards sustained power, elevation, brilliancy, and breadth of style and 
 effect, was attained iu his ' Muette de Portici,' which was produced for 
 the first time at the Grand Opera, Paris, in 1828. The works in which 
 he has most successfully aimed to sustain his reputation as a composer 
 of the higher order are—' Fra Diavolo" (1830), ' Gustavus III.' (1833), 
 'Lestocq' (1834), ' Le Domino Noir' (1837), and 'Haydee' (1847). 
 But in the long list of works which followed the ' Muette de Portici ' 
 none perhaps have appeared which have not displayed the hand of a 
 master, however unequal they may have been in conception, originality 
 of thought, and artistic finish ; and somo are regarded by eminent 
 musicians as even moro decidedly works of genius, or more masterly 
 in execution, than either ' Fra Diavolo ' or ' La Muette.' 
 
 Auber has received a fair share of honorary as well as more sub- 
 stantial rewards. Besides those decorations which commonly fall to 
 the lot of the more eminent savants and artists of the continent, he 
 was elected in 1829 a member of the Institute, section of the Fine 
 Arts ; in 1842 he succeeded Cherubini as director of the Conservatoire 
 de Musique ; and during the reign of Loui3 Philippe he was director 
 of the court concerts. He is now director of the music of the Imperial 
 Chapel. His latest works include a March for the Exhibition of 1862, 
 and • La Fiancee du roi de Garbe,' 1864. 
 
 AUBIGNE, MERLE D*. [D'Aubigne.] 
 
 AUBIGNE, THEODORE AGRIPPA D', the Huguenot historian 
 of his time, was born on February 8, 1550, at St. Maury, iu the pro- 
 vince of Saintonge. The utmost care was bestowed upon D'Aubignd's 
 education, and some very absurd stories are told by himself and others 
 of his early proficiency in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. 
 His father was a bold and turbulent Huguenot, and had been engaged 
 in the conspiracy of Amboise. While conducting his son to Paris they 
 passed through this town. Perceiving the heads of his brother con- 
 spirators still exposed over the gates, the elder D'Aubignd adjured his 
 son " never to spare his head, in order to avenge those noble victims ;" 
 an exhortation which was not lost upon the son. After some time 
 spent in the colleges of the capital, young D'Aubignd was obliged to 
 fly from persecution. He succeeded in escaping to Orleans, where, in 
 the ensuing siege, his father received a wound, of which he died. He 
 was then placed for two years under the superintendence of De Beze 
 at Geneva. Hero, and afterwards at Lyons, he pursued a singular 
 course of study, consisting of the Rabbins, Pindar, mathematics, and 
 magic, the latter with the resolve of never making use of it. At the 
 breaking out of the third civil war he escaped from his guardian, who 
 had endeavoured to detain him, and joined the Huguenot bands, which, 
 in 1567, had assembled in the south of France, and with whom he 
 remained through 1568, enduring many dangers, resulting in fever 
 which had nearly proved fatal. 
 
 When peace returned, love put poetry into his head, and awakened 
 his scribbling propensities, but these again were put to flight by the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew. Soon afterwards he entered the service 
 of the king of Navarre, the future Henry the Fourth. Thus installed 
 at court, D'Aubignd rendered himself remarkable for his boldness, 
 talent, oddity, and impertinence. He abounded in repartee — his 
 hands were full of quarrels. He wrote a tragedy called ' Circe,' and 
 seems to have excited some admiration but little friendship. As a 
 partisan however, D'Aubignd was valuable, and as such Henry of 
 Navarre both prized and used him. When war broke out D'Aubignd 
 accompanied the armies, and even shared iu the personal adventures 
 of the prince. The king of Navarre had little wherewith to reward 
 such service, and D'Aubignd took advantage of his familiarity with 
 the prince to push his frankness to insolence : he vented his discon- 
 tent in sarcasms, and at last wore out the patience of the best-natured 
 of kings and companions. He quitted the service of Henry in 1577. 
 Soon after he fell in love with Mademoiselle de Lezay, married her, 
 and rejoined the king of Navarre, but the influence of his former 
 enemies again drove him from court. In order to be avenged, he 
 determined to turn Catholic if possible — a resolve that he ingenuously 
 avows ; and he betook himself to the perusal of the controversial 
 writers of that party, among whom Bellarmin made most impression 
 on him. The result of his efforts aud studies was however to render 
 him a firmer protestant than before. In 1587 we find D'Aubignd 
 again in the service of Henry, and engaged at the battle of Coutraa 
 In the following year he was rewarded with the government of Mail. 
 
409 
 
 AUBREY, JOHN". 
 
 410 
 
 lezais. He was however in a little time again at variance with Henry, 
 embracing the party of the Huguenots, and openly preferring their 
 interests to court favour. Nevertheless, when it was necessary to 
 confide the cardinal of Bourbon to a trusty guardian, Henry selected 
 D'Aubigne\ notwithstanding the expostulation of his counsellors, 
 adding, that D'Aubigne"s word was a sufficient guarantee for his 
 faith. 
 
 From the period of Henry's desertion of Protestantism, D'Aubigne" 
 was one of the firmest supports of the Huguenot interests. He asserts 
 that the ruin of the Huguenots and the downfal of their cause were 
 owing to the corruption of their chiefs ; nor does he exempt Sully 
 himself from this charge. As to D'Aubigne' himself, one thing is 
 certain, that he might have been rich, like his comrades, and that he 
 was almost the only one who remained poor. His voice was always 
 raised for Huguenot independence against the insidious proposals of 
 the court. It was during his residence at Maillezais that he wrote 
 his chief work, ' The History of his Own Times,' a valuable document 
 for the Huguenots of France. It is a lively picture of passing events, 
 feats of war, and intrigues of court, in which the characters of the 
 personages concerned are sketched by a satiric but lively pen. The 
 last volume was printed at Maillezais in 1619, and in the following 
 year it was condemned by the Parlement of Paris to be burned. 
 The publication increased the hatred of the queen to D'Aubigne. 
 The ministry had made frequent overtures to purchase the. possession 
 of his fortress ; and when at last he found it no longer tenable, he 
 gave it up, not to the court, but to the chief noble of the Huguenot 
 party, the Duke de Rohan. D'Aubigne" then retired to Geneva, where 
 he arrived in September 1620, and was most honourably received. 
 He lived in exile ten years, during which he employed his time in 
 study, in writing, and in directing the fortifications raised at that time 
 around Berne and Basle, and other Swiss towns, as bulwarks of the 
 Protestant interest. The French court ceased not to disturb and 
 persecute him : according to his own statement they procured in all 
 four judgments of death to be recorded against him ; but he seems 
 to have heeded them very little, and they were probably rather in- 
 tended to prevent his return to Paris than to affect his life. His last 
 years were embittered by the scandalous conduct of his son Constant, 
 afterwards the father of the celebrated Mad. de Maintenon. D'Aubigne" 
 died in 1630, and lies buried in the church of St. Rene at Geneva : over 
 him is a Latin epitaph written by himself. 
 
 The works of D'Aubigne" are numerous and various. They consist 
 of poems, dramas, controversial tracts, his great history, memoirs of 
 himself, and various satirical writings against his contemporaries. Of 
 these the principal are the ' Histoire Universelle depuis 1550 jusque 
 a l'an 1601,' published in Paris 1616; the ' Histoire Secrete,' men- 
 tioned above; the 'Confession Catholique deSieur De Sancy,' which is 
 chiefly directed against De Sancy, finance minister, and Cardinal du 
 Perron ; and ' Les Aventures du Baron de Fcenoste.' 
 
 AUBREY, JOHN, born at Easton Piers, in Wiltshire, on March 12, 
 1625-6. He was the eldest son of Richard, only son of John Aubrey 
 of Burleton, in Herefordshire. He received his education in the 
 grammar-school at Malmesbury, under Mr. Robert Latyiner, who had 
 also been preceptor to Thomas Hobbes, with whom afterwards, not- 
 withstanding disparity of years, Mr. Aubrey formed a lasting friend- 
 ship. In 1642 he was entered a gentleman commoner of Trinity 
 College, Oxford. Here he formed an acquaintance with Anthony a 
 Wood, to whose collections for the history of the university and its 
 writers he became a contributor (' Life of Wood,' prefixed to Bliss's 
 edit, of the 'Athenae Oxon.,' p. lx.), as well as to the ' Monasticon 
 Anglicanum,' then recently undertaken by Dodsworth and Dugdale. 
 By the death of his father, in 1652, he succeeded to several estates in 
 the counties of Wilt3, Surrey, Hereford, Brecknock, and Monmouth ; 
 and in his ' Miscellanies,' he acquaints us that he had also an estate in 
 Kent. In 1656 he became one of the club of commonwealth-men, 
 fjrmed on the principles of Harrington's 'Oceana,' printed in that 
 rear. (Wood, ' Athen. Oxon.,' edit. Bliss, vol. iii. col. 1119.) The club 
 however was broken up in 1659. In 1660 Mr. Aubrey went into 
 Ireland, and upon his return, in the month of September that year, 
 he narrowly escaped shipwreck near Holyhead. His notes inform us 
 that he afterwards suffered another sort of shipwreck. He says, " On 
 November 1, 1661, I made my first addresses in an ill hour to Joan 
 Sommer." When he married is uncertain ; but from this remark we 
 gather that in that state he enjoyed no great felicity. In 1662 he 
 became a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1664 he was in France. 
 His estates, between lawsuits and mismanagement — and perhaps, as 
 Wood intimates, his own expensive habits — now became encumbered, 
 and about 1666 he seems to have disposed of several. In the space of 
 four years he was reduced not only to straits, but to indigence. Yet 
 his spirit remained unbroken. " From 1670," he says, " I thank God 
 I have enjoyed a happy delitescency." This obscurity, which he calls 
 happy, consisted in following up the bent of his genius, while he 
 owed his subsistence to the kindness of hi3 friends ; and in labouring 
 to inform that world in which he knew not how to live. His chief 
 benefactress was the then Lady Long, of Draycot, in Wiltshire, in 
 whose house he had an apartment, and by whom he was generously 
 •imported as long as he lived. Dr. Rawlinson says ('Mem.,' p. xii.), 
 " that he was on his return from London to Lady Long's house, when 
 ms journey and life were concluded at Oxford, where it is presumed 
 
 he was buried, though neither the time of his obit nor his place of 
 burial can be yet discovered." The date of his death is variously 
 stated at 1697 and 1700. 
 
 Anthony a Wood gives a peevish character of Aubrey, and says, 
 " he was a shiftless person, roving and magotie-headed, and sometimes 
 little better than erased ; and being exceedingly credulous, would 
 stuff his many letters sent to A. W. with folliries and misinformations 
 which sometimes would guide him into the paths of errour." (' Ath. 
 Oxon.,' Bliss's edit. ' Life,' p. lx.) Hearne informed Baker, the Cam- 
 bridge antiquary, that it was Aubrey who gave Wood that account of 
 the lord chancellor Hyde, which chiefly occasioned the prosecutior 
 against him. Wood used to keep his vouchers. ('Ath. Oxon.,' iii. 644.) 
 Aubrey was doubtless both credulous and superstitious ; but he was 
 honest and diligent, and if his anecdotes require to be read with 
 critical distrust, there can be little doubt that he faithfully recorded 
 what he heard, and his very credulity has caused him to preserve 
 much which, if of no great value in itself, is curious as characteristic 
 of the age, and often not devoid of interest on its own account. He 
 was, it is said, regarded as one of the best naturalists of the day, but 
 much of his natural history reads very oddly now ; and he was for 
 the time a not unskilful antiquary. His collections have proved of 
 much service to antiquaries and literary commentaries. 
 
 Aubrey's published works are —I. 'Miscellanies,' 8vo, London, 1696; 
 reprinted with additions, 8vo, London, 1721 ; and 8vo, Loudon, 1784. 
 II. 'A Perambulation of the County of Surrey,' begun 1673 — ended 
 1692. Published by Dr. Richard Rawlinson, under the title of ' The 
 Natural History and Antiquities of the County of Surrey,' begun in 
 the year 1673, by John Aubrey, Esq.. F.R.S., and continued to the 
 present time, 5 vols., 8vo, London, 1719. 
 
 Dr. Bliss, in a note to Wood's Life prefixed to the ' Athense,' p. lx., 
 gives a detail of the manuscripts which Aubrey deposited in the 
 museum at Oxford. Most of the letters addressed to Anthony a Wood 
 have been printed in ' Letters transcribed from the Originals in the 
 Bodleian Library and Ashmolean Museum,' 2 vols., 8vo, Oxford, 1813. 
 Appendix, No. IV. 
 
 (Biographia Britannica; Chalmers, Biog. Diet.; Gough, Brit. 
 Topog. ; Manning, Hist, of Surrey ; Britton, Memoir of John Aubrey, 
 printed for the Wiltshire Topographical Society.) 
 
 AUBUSSO'N, PIERRE D\ grand master of the order of St. John 
 of Jerusalem, was born in 1423 of a noble French family, descended 
 from the old viscounts of La-Marche. He served while yet very youug 
 in the imperial army in Hungary against the Turks, and from that 
 time the prevailing idea of his mind seems to have been that of 
 fighting the Mussulmans, who then threatened to overpower Christian 
 Europe. D'Aubusson, having returned to France, was presented at 
 court by his cousin Jean d'Aubusson, chamberlain of Charles VIL, 
 and became a favourite of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, whom 
 he accompanied in his expedition to Switzerland in 1444, and was 
 present at the battle of St. Jacob, near Basle. After some years he 
 proceeded to Rhodes, when he entered the order of St. John of Jeru- 
 salem. He obtained a commandery, was afterwards made grand prior, 
 and in 1476, on the death of the grand master Orsiui, D'Aubusson 
 was elected to succeed him. In May, 1480, a large Turkish army, 
 said to be 100,000 strong, commanded by a Greek renegade of the 
 family of Palaeologi, landed on the island, and soon after invested the 
 town, the fortifications of which D'Aubusson had previously strength- 
 ened in every practicable way. The greatest bravery was displayed 
 on both sides. The Turks made the first assault on the 9th of June, 
 but were repulsed. A second and general assault was made on the 
 27th of July, after the greater part of the fortifications had been 
 levelled by a previous cannonade. Seven Turkish standards were 
 already planted on the ramparts, and the Turks were pouring into the 
 town, when D'Aubusson, attended by a chosen band of French knights, 
 rushed to the spot, and after a desperate contest, in which he received 
 five wounds, the Turks were driven out of the breach, and were pur- 
 sued by the knights and the Rhodians towards their camp. The 
 invaders soon after sailed away from the island This, which was the 
 first siege of Rhodes, lasted 89 days ; the Turks lost 9000 killed, and 
 carried away, it is said, 15,000 wounded. Mahomet II., greatly 
 irritated at the failure of the expedition, was preparing to renew the 
 attack in person, when he died at Nicomedia, in May, 1481. The 
 Turkish succession was disputed between his two sous, Bajazet and 
 Zizim ; and the latter being worsted iu fight, took refuge at Rhode?, 
 where D'Aubusson received him with great honour, and afterwards 
 sent him for safety to Bourgneuf, a commandery of the order in 
 Frauce. Bajazet made peace with the knights, and agreed to pay a 
 yearly sum for his brother's maintenance. Pope Innocent VIII. 
 demanded that Zizim should be intrusted to his guardianship ; and 
 D'Aubusson being obliged to comply, though unwillingly, the Turkish 
 prince went to Rome in 1488, where he was treated with all atten- 
 tion. D'Aubusson, in reward for his compliance, was made a cardinal. 
 It had been a long cherished object of D'Aubusson's to bring about a 
 general league of the Christian princes against the Sultan, and the 
 project seemed to be on the eve of accomplishment — D'Aubusson him- 
 self, despite his great age, having been appointed commander of thrf 
 forces — when the mutual jealousies and discordant ambitions of the 
 princes caused the frustration of the design. An ill-concerted attack 
 on Mitylene failed. Other objects of vexation, both abroad and at 
 
411 
 
 AUCHMUTY, GENERAL. 
 
 AUDLEY, LORD. 
 
 412 
 
 home, followed in succession, and D'Aubusson' s last years were spent 
 in a deep melancholy. He died at Rhodes, in July 1503, aged 80. 
 There is a narrative in Latin of the siege of Rhodes, which is 
 attributed to D'Aubusson, in the collection 'De Scriptoribus Germania),' 
 Frankfurt, 1602. Gulielmus Caorsiuus has written also an account of 
 the siege, printed at Ulm, 1496. Father Bouhours has written a life 
 of Pierre D'Aubusson. 
 
 AUCHMUTY, GENERAL SIR SAMUEL, was the son of the 
 Rev. Samuel Auchmuty, D.D., of New York, a minister of the Church 
 of England, and was born in 1756. In 1776 Samuel entered the 
 British army as a volunteer, in which capacity he served three cam- 
 paigns under Sir William Howe, and was present at several actions, 
 particularly those at White Plains and Brooklyn. He obtained an 
 ensigucy in 1778. From 1783 to 1796 he was in India, and at the 
 latter date had risen to the rank of lieutenant colonel. He came to 
 England in 1797, and in 1800 he was sent, with the rank of colonel, 
 to take command of a force to be despatched from the Cape of Good 
 Hope to attack the French posts at Kosseir and Suez, on the Red Sea. 
 On arriving at Jidda, his command merged in that of General Baird, 
 whom he found there at the head of the Indian army ; but he was 
 appointed adjutant-general, at first to that army, aud afterwards to 
 the whole British forces in Egypt. He remained in Egypt during 1801 
 and 1802, and in 1803, on his return to England, was honoured with 
 the Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1806 Sir Samuel Auchmuty was 
 ordered to take command of the British troops in South America, with 
 the rank of brigadier-general. On his arrival he found affairs in a 
 critical position, the main body of the troops already on the spot being 
 shut up in Buenos Ayres, on account of the recapture of that city by 
 the Spaniards. He landed on the 5th of January, 1807, on the island 
 of Maidouado, of which possession was still kept by the remnant of 
 the British forces. Seeing the necessity of instant action, he deter- 
 mined on the attack of Monte Video, a city so well fortified that it 
 was often called 'the Gibraltar of America.' The whole of his force, 
 amounting to 4800 men, was accordingly landed near the city on the 
 18th of January, and on the 20th it sustained au attack from a well- 
 appointed Spanish force of 6000 men, which was repulsed with creat 
 loss to the Spaniards. Regular siege was then laid to Monte Video, 
 and a breach effected, notwithstanding the great strength of the works, 
 which mounted 160 pieces of cannon. Intelligence arriving that 
 4000 men and 24 pieces of cannon were approaching for the relief of 
 the place, the general determined on an immediate assault, which, on 
 the morning of the 3rd of October, was made with complete success. 
 The British loss amounted to 600 ; on the side of the Spaniards there 
 were 800 killed, 500 wounded, and 2000 taken prisoners. After this 
 brilliant action little more was done by Sir Samuel Auchmuty until he 
 was superseded, on the 9th of May, by General Whitelocke, whose 
 incapacity caused the loss of the advantages which his predecessor had 
 gained. For the taking of Monte Video, Sir Samuel received the 
 thanks of both houses of parliament. 
 
 In 1810 Sir Samuel Auchmuty sailed again for India as commander- 
 in-chief in the presidency of Fort St. George, and in 1811 he com- 
 manded the troops at the reduction of the island of Java. For this 
 service also Sir Samuel received the thanks of both houses. In 1813 
 he returned to England, and was made lieutenant-general in the army, 
 but he was not afterwards engaged in active service. He died sud- 
 denly, in the Phoenix Park, Dublin, on the 11th of August, 1822, in 
 his sixty-sixth year. At the time of his death he was commander of 
 the forces in Ireland. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, was born in 1759, at Rochefort, 
 in France. His father was a dealer in provisions for the supply of 
 the shipping. Young Audebert, when seventeen years of age, went 
 to Paris to study the arts of design and painting, and soon excelled 
 as a miniature-painter, supporting himself honourably by his labours. 
 In 1789, M. Gigot d'Orcy, receiver-general of taxes, who was dis- 
 tinguished by his taste for natural history, having had an opportunity 
 of judging of the talents of Audebert, employed him to paint the 
 most rare objects in his magnificent collection, and afterwards sent 
 him to England and Holland, whence he brought back a great many 
 drawings, which were used in Olivier's ' Histoire des Insectes.' These 
 occupations gave a bias to Audebert in favour of natural history, 
 which soon amounted to au ardent passion. He now undertook on 
 his own account various important works, of which the first was 
 ' Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Galeopitheques,' one 
 vol. large folio, with sixty-two plates, the figures coloured, Paris, 1800. 
 The appearance of this work caused a great sensation among natural- 
 ists, for Audebert united in his own peison the characters of painter, 
 engraver, and author. The method he adopted of colouring the 
 engravings of objects of natural history was also far superior to any 
 former methods. He may indeed be said to have invented a new 
 mode, and to have carried it to the highest degree of perfection. He 
 placed all the colours on one plate at once, instead of using as many 
 plates as there were colours. He used oil instead of water colours, 
 and also succeeded in printing with gold, varying his colours in such 
 a manner as to imitate the most brilliant hues of the originals. In 
 his ' Histoire des Colibris, des Oiseaux-Mouches, des Jacamars, et des 
 Promerops,' 1 vol. large folio, Paris, the expression and position of 
 
 the birds are so perfect as to make them appear animated; and the 
 descriptions, of which he is likewise the writer, are worthy of such a 
 work. Two hundred copies only were printed in folio, in which the 
 name at the foot of each figure is printed in gold ; one hundred 
 copies in large quarto ; and only fifteen copies in folio, of which the 
 whole text is printed in gold. 
 
 Scarcely were these works commenced before Audebert began to 
 plan others — the history of Bird*, of the Mammiferae, and lastly that 
 of Man. He had thus chalked out for himself work enough to occupy 
 a long life; but in 1800 death carried him off in the forty-second 
 year of his age. He had begun the ' Histoire des Grimpereaux et de* 
 Oiseaux de Paradis,' &c, 1 vol., and the publisher, M. Desrayj who 
 was in possession of his materials and the processes which he had 
 discovered and employed, completed these two works in as perfect a 
 manner as those which had been finished by the author himself. The 
 text was edited by M. Vieillot, a naturalist, and friend of Audebert. 
 These two works are united under the common title of ' Oiseaux 
 Dores ou a reflets Me'talliques,' 2 vols, in large folio and large quarto, 
 Paris, 1802. Upon the same plan, and by the adoption of the same 
 processes, M. Vieillot published ' l'Histoire des Oiseaux de l'Amdrique 
 Septentrionale.' The Birds of Africa (' Les Oiseaux d'Afrique ') of 
 Lo Vaillant are indebted for their excellence to Audebert, who super- 
 intended the printing of the plates as far as the thirteenth part. 
 Other branches of natural history, and especially botany, were enriched 
 by the discoveries of Audebert, as may be seen in the splendid works 
 ' Le Jardiu de Malmaison,' by Venteuat, and the ' Liliacdes ' of 
 Redoutd. (Diog. Universelle.) 
 
 AUDLEY, or AUDELEY, SIR JAMES, one of the original knights 
 or founders of the Order of the Garter, appears to have been the son 
 of a Sir James Audeley, or de Audele, who served in the expedition 
 to Gascony in 1324, and in that to Scotland in 1327. He accompanied 
 Edward, the Black Prince, to France in 1316. Various incidental 
 notices in Froissart and other contemporary authorities, show that 
 Audley was frequently in personal attendance upon the Black Prince, 
 at various times between the above date and that of the battle of 
 Poictiers, in which his gallant conduct was eminently conspicuous. 
 In recording the preparations for that great battle, Froissart relates 
 that Sir James Audley so soon as he saw that the armies must certainly 
 engage, requested permission to quit the prioce, in order that he might, 
 in fulfilment of a vow which he had formerly made, stand foremost 
 in the attack, aud either prove himself the best combatant in the 
 English army, or die in the attempt. His request being granted, he, 
 with his four squires, performed prodigies of valour throughout the 
 battle, and he received numerous severe wounds in the course of the 
 day. Towards the close of the engagement his squires led him out 
 of the fight, aud laid him under a hedge to dress his wounds ; and 
 when it was over, he was, by the prince's request, borne in a litter to 
 the prince, who immediately, as a reward for his gallant bearing 
 retained him as his own knight, giving him an annual revenue of 500 
 marks, and declaring him the bravest knight on his side of the battle. 
 On returning to his tent, with chivalric disinterestedness, Audley 
 resigned his annuity to his attendant squires ; but when this act of 
 generosity was made known to the prince, he sent for Audley, and 
 bestowed upon him a further annual sum of 600 marks, for his 
 own use. 
 
 On the renewal of warlike proceedings in 1359, Audley was again 
 engaged in various sieges and other military operations. During the 
 expedition of the Black Prince into Spain, Audley was appointed 
 governor of Aquitaine ; and in 1369 he filled the high office of senes- 
 chal of Poitou. Among other engagements of that year, he took 
 part in the capture of La-Roche-sur-Yon, in Poitou, after which he 
 retired to his residence at Fontenay-le-Comte, where he died before 
 the close of the year. His funeral obsequies were performed with 
 great ceremony at Poictiers, the prince himself attending on the occa- 
 sion. On the formation of the Order of the Garter, about the year 
 1344, Audley was appointed one of the knights. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUDLEY, THOMAS, LORD AUDLEY OF WALDEN, Lord 
 Chancellor of England during the reign of Henry VIII. This noble- 
 man is said to have been born at Earl's Colne, in Essex, but of his 
 parentage or the events of his early life, we have little positive infor- 
 mation. He is said to have received a university education, but 
 whether at Oxford or Cambridge is uncertain ; and the first circum- 
 stance which Dugdale could discover concerning him was, that in the 
 eighteenth year of Henry VIII., about the year 1526, he became the 
 Autumn-reader in the Inner Temple. Lloyd intimates that he gained 
 reputation in this office by his reading on the Statute of Privileges, 
 which, he says, commended him to the king's service. About three 
 years later he was made Speaker of the House of Commons in that 
 Long Parliament which, continuing by prorogation until the twenty- 
 seventh year of the reign, effected the dissolution of all the smaller 
 religious houses the revenues of which did not exceed 200/. per 
 annum. In the twenty-second of Henry VIII., about 1530, he became 
 attorney for the Duchy of Lancaster, an appointment which appears 
 to have been given to him on the recommendation of the Duke of 
 Suffolk, to whom he was steward or chancellor ; and about the same 
 time he was advanced to the dignity of a sergeant-at-law, and speedily 
 
413 
 
 AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR. 
 
 AUDUBON. JOHN JAMES. 
 
 ill 
 
 appointed king's sergeant. In 1532, upon the resignation of Sir 
 Thomas More, he was knighted and made lord-keeper of the great 
 seal : and on the 26th of January, 1533, he was made Lord Chancellor 
 of England, an office which he held until within a few days of his 
 death, when he resigned the seals. Audley presided at the trial of 
 Sir Thomas More, was the Speaker of the Black Parliament, and was 
 on all occasions the ready instrument of the arbitrary measures of 
 Henry VIII. Respecting the rewards which he received for his 
 , servile and unscrupulous compliance with the king's will, Fuller 
 quaintly remarks that " In the feast of abbey lauds, King Henry VIII. 
 carved unto him the first cut, and that, I assure you," he observes, 
 " was a dainty morsel." It was the priory of canons of the Holy 
 Trinity, commonly called Christ Church, near Aklgate, in the city of 
 London, the site and precincts of which, together with all the plate 
 and lands belonging to the establishment, were, shortly after his 
 appointment to the chaucellor.-hip, bestowed upon Audley, who con- 
 verted the priory into a residence for himself. Among other prizes 
 he succeeded in securing for himself the great abbey of Waldeu, in 
 Essex, after pleading "that he had in this world sustained great 
 damage and infamy in serving the king, which the grant of that should 
 recompense ;" and having gained possession of this noble estate, he 
 was created, by letters patent bearing date the 29th of November, in 
 the thirtieth year of Henry VIII., 1538, Baron Audley, of Waldeu. 
 He was also invested, in 1540, with the Order of the Garter. He died 
 at his residence at Christ Church, and in 1544, according to the direc- 
 tions civen in his will he was buried at Walden. 
 
 Audley is the reputed founder of Magdalen College, Cambridge, the 
 patronage of which i3 vested in his representatives ; but the college 
 which bears that name was originally founded by Edward Stafford, 
 duke of Buckingham, about the year 1519, under the name of Buck- 
 ingham College. The institution was yet incomplete when, in 1521, 
 it came into possession of the crown upon the attainder of Buckingham. 
 In the 34th year of Henry VIII. (1542), Lord Audley entered into 
 articles of agreement with the king, by virtue of which the college 
 was regularly incorporated under the name of St. Mary Magdalen. 
 Audley assigned certain lands and tenements formerly belonging to 
 the priory of the Holy Trinity towards the support of the re-established 
 college. Audloy died without male issue, and consequently the barony 
 became extinct. HU daughter married, first, a younger sou of the 
 Duke of Northumberland, and subsequently Thomas, duke of Norfolk, 
 by whom she had a son Thomas, who was summoned to parliament as 
 Baron Howard of Walden, and who founded at Walden, upon the 
 ruins of the abbey, the stately mansion of Audley-End. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, was born at Paris on the 27th of 
 April, 1797. His early education was intended to fit him for the law, 
 but his inclinations were towards the study of organic nature, and he 
 accordingly gave up the law for the study of medicine. His mind was 
 early directed to the study of the natural history of insects. The 
 first paper which he published was a description of an animal belonging 
 to the class Insecta, in 1818, and from this date to the time of his 
 death, his labours in this branch of study were incessant. The results 
 of most of his investigations were published in the form of contribu- 
 tions to the various journals or in the Transactions of societies. These 
 papers were numerous, and they are all valuable. 
 
 His early papers on the anatomy of the Insecta, and especially those 
 on the Annelida, introduced him to the notice of Cuvier, Geoffroy 
 St. Hilaire, and Latreille, with whom he lived on terms of intimacy, 
 and from whose instruction he obtained tho^e enlarged views of the 
 relations of the animal kingdom which are so conspicuous in all his 
 writings. In 1826 he became connected with M. Milne-Edwards in 
 researches upon the Crustacea and Annelida, which resulted in a great 
 addition to existing knowledge on the subject of the minute anatomy 
 and functions of these animals. In the same year he became assistant 
 to Lamarck and Latreille in the Jardin des Plantes, and on the death 
 of the latter he was appointed professor of entomology in the museum 
 attached to that institution. In his lectures here he paid particular 
 attention to those insects which were injurious to vegetation. His 
 investigation of the economy of insects was very extensive, anil only a 
 imall portion of the matter he had collected wa3 published before his 
 death. He left behind him fourteen quarto volumes of manuscript on 
 this subject, with numerous drawings. Audouin, at the request of 
 the government of France, prepared and published a work, entitled 
 'Histoire des In-ectes nuisibles a la vigne, et particulierement de la 
 Pyralo qui ddvaste lea vignolles des ddpartemens de la Cote-d'Or, de 
 8a6ne-et-Loire, du Rhone, de l'Herault, des Pyrdndes-Orientales, de la 
 Haute-GaroDne, de la Charente-Infdrieure, de la Maine, et de Seine-et- 
 Oise.' It came out in six parts quarto. The first part appeared in 
 1840, but the last did not appear till some time after the author's 
 death, in 1843. The work treats not only of the natural history of 
 these insecta, but also of the means of preventing their increase and of 
 destroying them. It is illustrated with beautiful plates, after drawings 
 by the author, and, whether regarded as an example of careful obser- 
 vation, and the application of science to a practical subject, or for the 
 beauty of its illustrations, is probably one of the most valuable ever 
 contributed to entomology. 
 
 Audouin fell an early victim to the pursuit of his favourite science. 
 
 In the summer of 1841 he visited the south of France, for the purpose 
 of investigating the habits of the insects which injure the olive-planta- 
 tions. Here he exposed himself to wet and cold, which brought on an 
 attack of apoplexy, of which he died on the 9th of November, 1811. 
 On the day of his funeral orations were delivered at his tomb by 
 M. Serres, president of the Academy of Sciences; M. Chcvrcul, director 
 of the Museum of Natural History; by M. Milne-Edwards, and 
 M. Blanchard. Audouin had collected a fine museum, not only of 
 individual insects, but of specimens illustrating their economy. Thesis 
 were exhibited after his death at the museum of the Jardin des Plantes. 
 His library was 1 irge, and when sold by public auction at his decease 
 realised 20,000 francs. 
 
 It would be unjust to Audouin to regard him ;is a mere entomologist. 
 He was a comparative anatomist and naturalist, whoso power of acute 
 observation peculiarly adapted him for the study of the habits and 
 the structure of insects. In all his more important papers on entomo- 
 logy, it is evident that he did not regard insects as the end of his 
 inquiries, but that he looked upon them as agreat class of phajnomena, 
 illustrating the general laws that were deducible from the study of 
 the whole auimal kingdom. With him external forms were only 
 regarded as dependent on an internal structure, which in its develop- 
 ment, and the functions it performed, stood closely related to the 
 whole auimal kingdom. It was thu3 that he was led to investigate the 
 annulose subkingdom of animals, and succeeded in adding to science so 
 many important facts which assist in indicating the true relation of these 
 animals to one or the other division of the animal kingdom. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUDRAN, GIRARD, an eminent engraver, was born at Lyon, 
 August 2, 1640. He learned the principles of design and engraving 
 from his father Claude, who was one of a family of artists. At an 
 early age he went to Paris, where his talents soon obtained notice, and 
 procured him eventually the patronage of Le Brun, the king's painter, 
 who employed him to engrave the Battle of Constantiue, and the 
 Triumph of that emperor. He subsequently resided two years at 
 Rome, and improved himself in design in the school of Carlo Maratti. 
 Among many fine plates which he executed at this period, a portrait 
 of Pope Clement IX. excited pai'ticular admiration ; and M. Colbert, a 
 great patron of the arts, conceived so high an opinion of Audrau's 
 talents, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to France. On 
 his return he was appointed engraver to the king, and in the year 1631 
 was nomiuated councillor of the Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 
 1703, aged 63 years. 
 
 Girard Audran was unquestionably one of the greatest historical 
 engravers that has ever existed. His reputation perhaps rests chiefly 
 on the celebrated series of plates after Le Brun's Battles of Alexander, 
 respecting which the painter himself confessed that his expectations 
 had been surpassed. It is indeed impossible to contemplate without 
 the highest admiration the skill, intelligence, and extraordinary facility 
 exhibited by his burin throughout those immense aud intricate compo- 
 sitions. His style is composed of a bold mixture of free hatchings aud 
 dots, placed together apparently without order, but rendering, with 
 admirable effect, not merely the contours, but the mind and feeling of 
 the painter ; and his style is so entirely free from manner, that on 
 looking at his prints we lose sight of the engraver, and are reminded 
 only of the master whom he is transcribing. In the above-mentioned 
 Battles of Alexander, after Le Brun ; the Preservation of the young 
 Pyrrhus, after Nicholas Poussin ; the Plague, after Mignard ; and the 
 Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, after Le Sueur, the respective style of 
 each painter is rendered with the most distinct yet delicate discrimina- 
 tion. Girard Audran owed his extraordinary excellence not only to 
 his consummate skill in design, but in a great measure to his frequent 
 habit of painting from nature ; and several subjects which he engraved 
 from his owu designs attest the extent and versatility of hi3 powers. 
 
 He is also the author of a work on the proportions of the human 
 figure, published in folio, under the following title, at Paris, in 1683 : 
 ' Les Proportions du Corps humain, mesurees sur les plus belles 
 Statues de l'Antiquite.' There is an English copy of it, which has 
 gone through many editions ; it contains a preface and twenty-seven 
 plates of ancient statues, with the relative proportions of all the parts 
 marked upon them. 
 
 AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES, an emineut American naturalist, was 
 born in Louisiana, in the United States, on the 4th of May, 1780. 
 Both his parents were French. His father, who was an ardeut admirer 
 of the beauties of external nature, endeavoured from his earliest years 
 to foster in him a similar taste, aud especially directed his attention 
 to the many tribes of birds which inhabited that part of the stite iu 
 which they resided. The boy's passion for the study of birds and 
 everything connected with them, soon outran his father's promptings. 
 While still a child he obtained possession of several of the splendid 
 plumaged specimens of American binis, and cherished them as his 
 choicest treasures. At this period, when any of his birds died, his 
 chief regret was that he could no longer either himself retain what 
 had been so bright, or couvey to others a notion of the departed 
 brilliance. His lather having placed uuder his eyes a book of orni- 
 thological illustrations, the boy determined to become a draughtsman 
 himself. 
 
 Feeling his deficiency in the elements of drawing, he applied him- 
 
AURNBRUGOER VON AUENBRTTG. 
 
 AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES. 
 
 410 
 
 pelf with great assiduity to acquire the ability to draw well. At 
 length, when he was about fourteen, his father took him to Paris, and 
 placed him in the studio of the celebrated David. Here, though he I 
 neglected the study of the higher principles of art, he became a 
 skilful draughtsman ; and satisfied with having obtained the competence 
 necessary to his views, he threw aside the lessons of the famous master; 
 and, at the age of seventeen, returned to the ' birds of America/ 
 
 In 179S his father gave him a 'farm' in Pennsylvania, near the 
 river Schuylkil, but he sadly neglected his agricultural duties. Of 
 his occupations here, he says, " my rambles invariably commenced at 
 break of day, and to return wet with dew and bearing a feathered 
 prize, was, and ever will bp, the highest enjoyment for which I have 
 been fitted." About this time he married a very interesting and 
 accomplished youug lady, who shared his after honours. For nearly 
 twenty years he now pursued commerce (nomiually) ; and his success 
 V8s what may be easily supposed. He removed westward to Louis- 
 ville, and there first met Wilson, whose example excited still more a 
 zeal that needed no spur. In 1810 he sallied forth on a great exploring 
 expedition, and sailed down the Ohio with his wife and child, bird- 
 sk itching as he went. In the next year he explored Florida. Finding 
 th 3 joint pursuit of business and science impossible for him, ho at 
 length abandoned his nominal business altogether. 
 
 On the 5th of April 1824, he visited Philadelphia, where Dr. Mease, 
 hin only intimato friend in the place, introduced him to Charles 
 Lucien Bonaparte, prince de Musignano, himself an ardeut ornitholo- 
 gint, and who, as is well known, has published a splendid continuation 
 of ' Wilson's Ornithology.' The prince warmly encouraged him in 
 his plans, and he now began seriously to contemplate publication. 
 From Philadelphia he went to New York; aud thence, taking the 
 Hudson for his high-road, penetrated into the pathless forests. It was 
 uc>w he projected, iu a methodical manner, his famous publication of 
 illustrations, which he divided into numbers, to each number five 
 plates, according to the size of the objects. All Audubon's illus- 
 trations are of the dimensions of nature ; aud very often they are 
 presented also in the most capricious attitudes, but with the strictest 
 fidelity to nature. 
 
 After a ramble of eighteen months, he returned to his family in 
 Louisiana; explored all the surrounding forests, and then sailed to 
 Europe. Without the means of publishing his great work, the third 
 part of which, when it appeared, cost iOl. per copy to the purchaser, 
 he landed at Liverpool in 1826. His letters of introduction procured 
 him a cordial and even enthusiastic reception in that town, in Man- 
 chester, and in Edinburgh, where he commenced the publication of 
 his illustrations and descriptions of the ' Birds of America.' The 
 work, however, was quickly transferred to the hands of London artists. 
 In September 1828, he once more visited France, where he was 
 rapturously welcomed by the scientific world. Baron Cuvier pro- 
 nounced a panegyric of him before the Institute. Charles X., Louis 
 Philippe, and the Duchess of Orleans, the Duke of Messina, Cuvier, 
 Humboldt, the Institute, and others joined his subscription list. By 
 the 25th of November 1828, the eleventh number of the work, and 
 100 plates, had appeared. 
 
 He now determined to revisit America for the purpose of refreshing 
 some of his drawings, and of bringing his wife back with him to 
 Europe. On the 1st of April he set sail, and in about a year returned 
 with Mrs. Audubon. Having again gone back with his wife to 
 America in August 1831, he proceeded to Florida, explored the forests 
 of Maine, made a voyage to the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and the 
 coast of Labrador, and visited Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. On 
 the 28th of April 1833 he held at New York, where now the greatest 
 honour was paid to him, an exhibition of his illustrations of American 
 water-birds. In 1834 he again went to Florida, and thence to Texas. 
 The scientific fruits of Audubon's romantic rambles had procured 
 him many tokens of respect. He became a Fellow of the Linnsean 
 and Zoological Societies of London ; of the Lyceum of Natural 
 History at New York ; of the Natural History Society at Paris ; of the 
 Wernerian Society of Edinburgh; honorary member of the Society 
 of Natural History at Manchester, of the Royal Scottish Academy of 
 Painting, Sculpture, aud Architecture, and other less important asso- 
 ciations. Audubon's book was the largest and grandest which had been 
 published on Ornithology. Every sort of bird is engraved, male, 
 female, and young. The drawings are admirable ; and the descrip- 
 tions are second in merit to those of Wilson only. Audubon's peaceful 
 and enthusiastic life of exploration and study was prolonged to the 
 ripe age of 71. He died on the 27th of January 1851, at Minniesland, 
 near the city of New York. 
 
 AUENBRUGGER VON AUENBRUG, LEOPOLD (called AVEN- 
 BRUGGER by French and English writers), the inventor of percus- 
 sion as a means of detecting diseases of the chest, was born at Griitz 
 in Styria on the 19th of November 1722. The scene of his medical 
 labours was Vienna ; he was physician to the Spanish nation in the 
 Imperial Hospital of that city. 
 
 Three methods are practised in the present day for detecting and 
 discriminating diseases of the chest by the help of the sense of hearing. 
 They are called ' succussion,' 'percussion,' and 'auscultation.' 
 
 The first, succussion, is mentioned by Hippocrates, and seems to 
 have been commonly employed in his time for the diagnosis of empy- 
 ema, a disease in which the pleural cavity surrounding the lung is 
 
 partly occupied by a liquid. This mode of examination consists in 
 shaking the patient by the shoulders, and listening for the sound of 
 fluctuation. The second method of examining the chest, percussion, 
 was invented by Auenbrugger, and has gained for its author the 
 highest rank among the improvers of practical medicine. It was pub- 
 lished by him iu 1761, under tho title ' Iuventum novum ex Per- 
 cussione Thoracis humani ut signo abstrusos iuterni Peotoris Morboa 
 detegendi,' Vienna, 8vo, pp. 95. 
 
 The ' Iuventum Novum ' seems to have been well received at the 
 time of its publication. Yet strange as it may seem, notwithstanding 
 this early recognition of the value of percussion, its practice remained 
 almost in abeyance until, iu 1808, Corvisart published a French trans- 
 lation of the original work, together with long commentaries of his 
 own on each of its paragraphs (8vo, Paris). The example and pre- 
 cepts of this professor established percussion as a common practice in 
 France at a time when it seemed to have been almost forgotten in the 
 laud of its discovery. In England it was little known and less prac- 
 tised so late as 1824, when a translation of Auenbrugger's work and 
 Corvisart's Commentaries was published by Dr. John Forbes, together 
 with some original observations and illustrative cases. In the present 
 day percussion is uuiversally regarded as an indispensable process for 
 discriminating disorders of the chest; and its employment, in con- 
 junction with the more recent invention of Labnnec, auscultation, haa 
 led to a rapid advance in our knowledge of such diseases. Percussion 
 has also been practised of late years with great advantage in the ex- 
 ploration of diseases of the abdomen, and its application to this purpose 
 has been brought to remarkable perfection by M. Piorry. 
 
 Auenbrugger was the author of two works relating to insanity, and 
 furnished an article on an epidemic dysentery at Vienna to a medical 
 journal there in 1783. He wrote also a drama entitled ' Der 
 Rauchfangkehrer ' (the Chimney Sweeper). He died at Vienna, 
 May 18th, 1809. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUGE'R, ATHANA'SE, was born at Paris, December 12, 1734. 
 Having entered the clerical profession, and taken orders, he applied 
 himself indefatigably to the study of the Greek and Roman writers, 
 especially the orators. He was appointed professor of rhetoric in the 
 college of Rouen. The Bishop of Lescar having become acquainted 
 with him, made him his grand vicar, and used to call him jestingly his 
 vicar ' in partibus Atheniensium,' alluding to his Greek erudition, and 
 his passion for that language. Auger's first publication was a trans- 
 lation of Demosthenes and ^Eschines, 5 vols. 8vo, 1777. This was the 
 first French translation of all the works of those two great orators, and 
 Auger enriched it with treatises on the judiciary system and the laws 
 of the Athenians, and on the constitution of their republic. He now 
 settled at Paris, where he lived in modest seclusion upou a small 
 income, entirely devoted to his favourite studies. His next works 
 were a translation of Isocrates, 3 vols. 8vo, 1783, and one of Lysias, 
 8vo, the same year. He applied with equal zeal to the study of the 
 great Roman orator, and translated the whole of his ' Orations,' of 
 which he published selections. Upon the Abbe" Auger's merits as a 
 translator and anuotator of the Greek orators opinions are now unani- 
 mous. He was a man of good taste, good sense, and great industry ; 
 but he possessed neither acuteness nor comprehensiveness enough to 
 distinguish him highly as a classical critic, nor force or eloquence 
 enough to qualify him for doing justice to the master-pieces of Attic 
 oratory. 
 
 Auger likewise wrote a work on the constitution of Rome, ' De la 
 Constitution de Rome sous les Rois, et au Terns de la Republique,' 
 which was published after his death as an introduction to the whole 
 of Cicero's ' Orations,' 10 vols. 8vo, 1792-94. The study of Cicero and 
 of Roman history occupied in great measure the last thirty years of 
 Auger's life, and his labours on these subjects evince both industry 
 and talent. He however published in the meantime selections from 
 the works of the two Greek fathers, Chrysostom and Basil — ' Homelies, 
 Discours, et Lettres Choisies de St. Jean Chrysostome,' 4 vols. 8vo, 
 1785; and 'Homelies et Lettres Choisies de St. Basile le Grand,' 
 Svo, 1788. 
 
 When the first symptoms of the French revolution manifested them- 
 selves, Auger felt naturally favourable to the general principles of 
 constitutional liberty which were then promulgated, and he wrote 
 several pamphlets in favour of them. He was particularly interested 
 in the question of education, and in his ' Projet d'Education Publique, 
 prexe'de' de quelques Reflexions sur 1' Assemble Nationale,' 8vo, 1789, 
 he traced the outlines of two distinct plans : one for learned or classical 
 education, and another for general education without Latin and Greek. 
 In a subsequent little work, ' Catechisme du Citoyen Francais,' 16mo, 
 1791, he provided a manual for the instruction of the humbler ranks 
 of the towns' people and the rural population, whose education he 
 earnestly advocated. Auger died February, 7, 1792, regretted by all 
 who knew him. Herault de Sechelles, who afterwards figured as a 
 member of the Convention, and who had studied Greek under Auger, 
 composed his funeral eulogy. Auger was a man of great learning, with 
 the simplicity of a child. His last work, a treatise on Greek tragedy, 
 was published a few days after his death. 
 
 AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES, Duke of Castig- 
 lione aud Marshal of France, was born of humble parents in Paris on 
 
AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES. 
 
 the 21st of October, 1757. He first enlisted at the age of seventeen 
 in the French Carabineers, and from thence entered the Neapolitan 
 service. He obtained his discharge in 1787, but continued to reside 
 at Naples, where he gave lessons as a fencing-master. When the 
 French were exiled from Italy in 1792, Augereau volunteered into 
 the revolutionary armies of his country, and joined that which was 
 intended to repel the Spaniards. As all the officers had emigrated, 
 Augereau rose rapidly, and became in a short time adjutant-general. 
 During 1794 he distinguished himself by the capture of an important 
 foundry, and by extricating a division which, under another officer, 
 had fallen into a dangerous position. Augereau received two wounds 
 on this occasion. Soon after, the army was divided, and Augereau was 
 put in command of one division. He wa3 then removed to a more 
 important scene of warfare in Italy, and became one of the chief 
 instruments in executing the first bold manoeuvres of Bonaparte. 
 Among other brilliant exploits, Augereau's brigade, with himself at 
 its head, rushed upon the bridge of Lodi, and finally carried it in 
 the teeth of the enemy's batteries. He was foremost in the advance 
 into the Venetian territories ; and being despatched to repel the hosti- 
 lities of the papal troops, he took Bologna. At Lugo the desperate 
 resistance of the inhabitants prompted him to direct those excesses 
 that rendered the name of Frenchmen execrable in Italy. He gave up 
 the village to plunder and massacre. 
 
 In the field of battle Augereau's abilities found ample scope ; away 
 from it, he descended into the rank of common men ; and yet it was 
 ot merely as a subordinate g -neral, or as an executor of his com- 
 ands, that he rendered good service to Bonaparte. Ardent as Bona- 
 arte was, he felt that the French had advanced too far, and that it 
 as prudent for the present to retire before the fresh army under 
 urniser, which Austria was pouring into Italy. Augereau combated 
 he idea of retreat with all his energy ; he represented the spirit of 
 the army as invincible, and he at last decided Bonaparte to attack, 
 instead of retiring. The consequence was the battle and victory of 
 Castiglione, of the glory of which Augereau reaped the greater part, 
 "t also procured him the title which he afterwards enjoyed as grandee 
 of the French empire. The most brilliant action of this campaign was 
 he battle of Arcole, which took place in the middle of November, 
 he object was to pass a bridge, defended by batteries and by over- 
 anging walls and houses, from which the enemy sent a shower of 
 fatal musquetry. The French had been several times repulsed, when 
 Augereau, seizing a standard, bore it upon the bridge, followed by a 
 column, which nevertheless was unable to advance against the grape- 
 shot and musquetry. Although he was unable to effect the passage 
 over the bridge, he was rewarded by a decree of the Directory, granting 
 to him, in commemoration of his bravery, the standard that he had 
 borne on the occasion. 
 
 In the following year (1797) the attention and interest of the French 
 army were fixed upon the parties which disputed for supremacy at 
 home. The Royalists and the friends of constitutional liberty who 
 now began to rally to the cause of royalty, amongst other imprudent 
 acts, committed the mistake of provoking the hostility of the army. 
 Bonaparte was accused for his conduct towards Venice, and was treated 
 as an accomplice of the Directory. The general replied by offering 
 his services to the Directory, and by sending addresses from his soldiery 
 in favour of republicanism. In the camp of the army of Italy, Auge- 
 reau was so loud in his execrations of royalty, and so extreme in his 
 revolutionary ideas, that Bonaparte, at once to get rid of him, and to 
 provide the Directory with a useful agent, sent him to Paris. Here he 
 was soon named military commander of the district, which included 
 the capital. Knowing Augereau's character, the opposition endea- 
 voured, but in vain, to obtain his dismissal. The coup dY'tat, or 
 revolution of Fructidor, was planned by Barras, and ably executed by 
 Augereau. 
 
 Augereau was rewarded for this service by the command of the 
 army on the German frontier, but he displayed so dangerous a spirit 
 that the Directory was obliged to deprive him of the command, and 
 remove him to Perpignan. He was at Paris on Bonaparte's return 
 from Egypt. Yet discontented as he was with the Directory, and 
 connected as he had been with Bonaparte, the latter felt he could not 
 count upon his assistance in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. 
 Bonaparte distrusted his old comrade too much to appoint him again 
 to the army of Italy. During the campaign of Marengo, Augereau 
 commanded a division, for the most part Dutch, on the Lower Rhine. 
 After the treaty of Luneville, he retired to a property which he had 
 been enabled to purchase near Melun. In 1805, with the new dignity 
 of marshal, he commanded the division of the great army which 
 reduced the Voralberg. In 1806 he was engaged in the battle of Jena, 
 and commanded the division which subsequently took possession of 
 Berlin. In the advance through Poland he was frequently engaged, 
 and commanded the left of the French at Eylau. His division, which 
 was ordered to attack the centre of the Russians, advanced for that 
 purpose, when a thick shower of snow covered both armies, and totally 
 prevented Augereau from seeing. This, it is said, caused him to miss the 
 desired direction, but his fault was remedied by the quickness of his 
 commander, aa well as by his own courage ; though seized with sudden 
 illness and fever, and suffering from a wound, Augereau had himself 
 tied upon his horse, and remained to the last in the action. 
 
 After the battle of Eylau, Augereau was obliged to retire for the 
 
 MOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 AUGUSTI, CHRISTIAN JOHANN WILHELM. «8 
 
 recovery of his health. In the years 1809 and 1810 he commanded 
 in Catalonia, where he showed but little mercy to the Spaniards.. 
 Considering Augereau as a veteran general, Napoleon, instead of taking 
 him to Russia in 1812, left him to form a corps of reserve at Berlin. 
 But here the Cossacks found him in 1813, and it was with some diffi- 
 culty that he escaped. Notwithstanding his age, Augereau took part 
 in the campaign of Saxony, and made a valiant stand near Leipzig, 
 defending a wood against superior forces. In 1814 he was intrusted 
 with the defence of the south-east of France against the Austrians, 
 when he occupied Lyons, and organised its defence, which he main- 
 tained for some time, but was obliged at last to submit to superior 
 numbers. Napoleon considered his conduct on this occasion as little 
 short of treachery. It is certain that, of all the marshals, Augereau 
 was the least attached to a master who was so much his junior, and 
 who, by his usurpation, had blasted the ambition of the republican 
 general. Augereau made his peace with the Bourbons, was confirmed 
 in his dignities, and created a peer. On the return of Napoleon in 
 1815, Augereau, who commanded the 14th Division in Normandy, 
 issued a proclamation against him, but finding that the defection of 
 the army was general, he issued a new address to his soldiers, in which 
 he charged them to give in their adhesion to the great general who 
 had so often led them to victory ; and he departed to Paris to offer 
 his services to Napoleon, who however refused to employ him. 
 Louis XVIII. being a second time restored, Augereau reappeared, 
 when the painful task was imposed upon him of being one of the 
 council to try Marshal Ney. He died of water ou the chest in June, 
 1816. 
 
 AUGUSTA HISTO'RIA, the name given to a series of Roman 
 historians, or rather biographers, who wrote the lives of the emperors 
 from the accession of Hadrian to the death of Carinus, the immediate 
 predecessor of Diocletian : these lives comprise a period of 167 years 
 of the history of the Roman empire. They may be considered as a 
 continuation of Suetonius's ' Twelve Caesars,' except that between 
 Domitian the last in Suetonius, and Hadrian the first in the ' Historia 
 Augusta,' the reigns of Nerva and Trajan are not included in either of 
 the two series. 
 
 The writers generally included in the collections of the ' Historia 
 Augusta' are six in number; they lived under Diocletian and his 
 successors Constantius and Constantine. They are : — 1. .iElius 
 Spartianus, who wrote the lives of Hadrian and his colleague ..Elius 
 Verus; of Didius Julianus, of Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, 
 Antoninus Caracalla, and Antoninus Geta. It appears from the 
 beginning of his ' Life of Verus,' that he had written the lives of the 
 emperors who reigned before Hadrian, which however have been lost. 
 2. Julius Capitolinus wrote the lives of Antoninus Pius, of Marcus 
 Aurelius, of the second Verus, of Pertinax, of Clodius Albinus, of 
 Opilius Maximus, of the two Maximini, of the three Gordiaus, and of 
 Maximus and Balbinus. 3. ^Elius Lampridius, to whom are attri- 
 buted the lives of Commodus, Antoninus Diadumenus, Heliogabalus, 
 and Alexander Severus. G. Voss and Fabricius seem to think it not 
 unlikely that ^Elius Spartianus and JElius Lampridius are one and 
 the same writer. (See literary notices prefixed to the Bipont edition 
 of the ' Historia Augusta.') 4. Vclcatius Gallicanus, a senator of 
 Rome, of whom we have only the life of Avidius Cassius. 5. Trebel- 
 lius Pollio : we have fragments of his lives of Valerian the elder, and 
 his son Valerian the younger ; the lives of the two Gallieni ; and those 
 of the Thirty Tyrants, who assumed in various parts of the empire the 
 power and the title of Augusti during the distracted reigns of Vale- 
 rianus and Gallienus. Among these thirty Trebellius Pollio has reckoned 
 two women, the famous Zenobia of Palmyra and one Victoria. He has 
 also written the life of Flavius Claudius. 6. Flavtus Vopiscus of 
 Syracuse. He lived under Constantine, and wrote the lives of Aure- 
 lian ; of Tacitus, and his brother Florianus ; of Probus ; of the four 
 tyrants, Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonosus, who usurped the 
 supreme power in various parts of the empire under Aurelian and 
 Probus; and also of the three emperors, Cams, Numerianus, and 
 Carinus, who immediately preceded Diocletian. Here the collection 
 called 'Historia Augusta' generally ends. Some editors however have 
 added Eutropius and Paulus Diaconus, two writers of a very different 
 class from the preceding. (See the Milan edition of the ' Historia 
 Augusta,' 1475.) Others have included the lives of Trajan and Nerva, 
 translated from Dion Cassius. (See Aldine edition of the ' Historia 
 Augusta,' 1519.) There is a break in the 'Historia Augusta' occasioned 
 by the lives of Philippus, Decius, and Gallus, which are wanting. 
 
 (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina; Voss, De Historicis Latinis ; and the 
 Bipont edition of the Historia Augusta.) 
 
 AUGUSTI, CHRISTIAN JOHANN WILHELM, a celebrated 
 German theologian, was born on the 27th of October, 1771, at Eschen- 
 berge, a village near Gotha, where his father was pastor. After 
 receiving his preparatory education in the gymnasium of Gotha, in 
 1790 he entered the university of Jena, where, under Griesbach, he 
 devoted himself to theology and philology. After quitting the uni- 
 versity he had to struggle with great difficulties in gaining a liveli- 
 hood, but he still continued his studies with great activity. He began 
 his literary career by contributions to theological journals, and at 
 length in 1798 he resolved upon entering on the career of an acade- 
 mical teacher at Jena. In 1800 he was made professor extraordinary, 
 and in 1803 he succeeded Ugen in the chair of Oriental literature, 
 
 2 E 
 
410 
 
 AUGUSTINE, ST. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, ST. 
 
 MO 
 
 which he exchanged in 1807 for that of theology. The popularity of 
 his lectures, and the many valuable works which he published during 
 his residence at Jena, not only induced the Duke of Saxe-Weimar to 
 make him a member of his consistory, but other German universities 
 made great efforts to draw him from Jena. In 1811 he accepted the 
 chair of theology in the university of Breslau, to which he was invited 
 by the Prussian government, and in addition to which he was honoured 
 with a scat in the consistory of the province of Silesia. Augusti had 
 now ample opportunities for displaying the practical character of his 
 mind. His influence upon the university of Breslau, and upon all the 
 educational establishments of Silesia, was very great. At the time 
 when the French marched into Russia, Augusti was rector of the 
 university ; and it was owing to his intrepidity and patriotic spirit 
 that the property of the university was saved. The Prussian govern- 
 ment acknowledged its gratitude to him by various honourable dis- 
 tinctions. In 1819 Augusti was appointed chief professor of theology 
 in the newly-established university of Bonn, and received the title of 
 Councillor of the Consistory at Cologne. In 1833 he was placed at 
 the head of the ecclesiastical affairs of the Rhenish provinoe of Prussia 
 by being appointed director of the consistory of Coblenz. Notwith- 
 standing the numerous duties which this ofhee devolved upon him, he 
 still continued his lectures in the university until his death on the 28th 
 of April, 1841. 
 
 Augusti was one of the most voluminous theological writers of 
 Germany. He was originally led by the influence of Griesbach to join 
 the critical or philosophical school of theology, but this did not suit 
 his natural bias, which was more inclined to maintain things as they 
 are than to speculative investigations ; and during the last forty years 
 of his life he was a zealous, although not a bigoted, advocate of the 
 established form of religion. In doctrine he may be considered an 
 orthodox Lutheran. His writings, most of which are of an historical 
 or archaeological nature, are useful as works of reference; but they are 
 deficient in elegance and simplicity of form, and contain more evidence 
 of learning and industry than of the true spirit of an historian. The 
 most important of all his works is the ' Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der 
 Christlichen Archaeologie,' 12 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1817-31, which he 
 subsequently condensed into a ' Manual of Christian Archaeology.' 
 
 (Jenaische Allgemeins Literatur-Zeitung for June, 1841 ; Intelligenz- 
 llatt; Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge ; Conversations Lcxikon.) 
 
 AUGUSTINE, ST., also called Aurelius Augustinus, Bishop of 
 Hippo, and the most illustrious of the Latin fathers of the Church, 
 was born at Tagaste, now called Tajelt, a small town in the inland 
 part of Numidia, on November 13, a.d. 354. His father Patricius was 
 originally a heathen, but embraced Christianity late in life ; his mother 
 Mounica was a woman dUtinguished for her piety, who anxiously 
 endeavoured to instil religious knowledge and habits into the mind of 
 her son. At the beginning of his treatise, ' De Beata Vita,' Augustine 
 speaks of his son, named Adeodatus, and of his brother Navigius ; and 
 in his 109th epistle, of a sister who died an abbess. He prosecuted 
 his studies in his earlier years first at Tagaste, then at Madaura, and 
 latterly at Carthage, where his morals became corrupted, and his 
 illegitimate son Adeodatus was born in 371. The perusal of Cicero's 
 ' Hortensius,' about the year 373, first detached him from his immoral 
 habits ; and about the same time he became not only a proselyte to 
 the sect of the Manichaeaus, but for a short period a zealous and able 
 defender of their opinions. In the meantime he acquired fame as a 
 rhetorician, and taught eloquence successively at Tagaste, Carthage, 
 Rome, and Milan. At Rome he left the Manichaeans, and joined for 
 a short time, as he himself informs us, the sect of the Academics. 
 (' De Beata Vita,' torn, i., 212.) He arrived at Milan in 384, where 
 St. Ambrose was at that time bishop, whose sermons, added to the 
 tears and entreaties of his mother Monnica, about 386, entirely removed 
 the scepticism into which he had fallen, and effected Augustine's con- 
 version. He was accordingly baptised by St. Ambrose in April 387, 
 and his son Adeodatus, of whose remarkable genius he speaks with 
 enthusiasm, was baptised along with him. Soon after this Monnica, 
 his mother, died at Ostia Tiberina. ('Confess.,' lib. ix., c. 10.) He 
 now renounced his rhetorical pursuits, and devoted himself to the study 
 of the Gospel, going first to Rome, but afterwards spent three years in 
 seclusion at Tagaste, where he wrote several of his works. 
 
 Being at Hippo, Valerius, then bishop of that diocese, ordained him 
 a priest early in 391 ; and at a council held there in 393 he displayed 
 such learning and eloquence in defence of the faith, that the bishops 
 who composed it were unanimously of opinion that he should be 
 chosen one of their number. In 395 he became coadjutor to Valerius, 
 and in 396 succeeded him in the sole rule of the bishopric of Hippo. 
 He appears to have established about this time a kind of clerical com- 
 munity within his episcopal residence ; and was still active in his 
 opposition, not only to the heresies of the Manichaeans, but to those of 
 the Donatists and Pelagians. His great work, 'De Civitate Dei,' is 
 believed to have been begun in 413, and finished about 426. In 418, 
 after the general council held at Carthage, he produced his two works 
 against the Pelagians, ' De Gratia Christi ' and ' De Peccato Originali,' 
 from the former of which he received the appellation of the ' Doctor 
 of Grace.' His labours were continued both personally and by his 
 pen to the close of life. One of his latest works was his * Confessions,' 
 which contains his admirably written autobiography. 
 
 In the latter part of his career Augustine had other enemies to 
 contend with besides thoso of the Church. The Vandals had entirely 
 overrun Africa, and passed even into Spain, and Augustine had now 
 for his opponents the enemies of the empire. Carthage and Hippo 
 made resistance for a considerable time ; and St. Augustine, though 
 pressed by his associates, refused to quit his flock and escape by flight. 
 Still he saw the imminent danger to which Hippo was exposed ; and, 
 dreading that it would fall into the hands of the enemy, prayed to 
 God that before that calamity happened he might be taken away. 
 His prayer, it would appear, was answered, as he died during the 
 third month of the siege, of fever, August 28th, 430, at the age of 76. 
 The Vandals, who took Hippo in the year following, showed respect to 
 his library, his works, and his body. Victor Viteusis (' Hist. Persec. 
 VandalicaJ,' p. 6) says his library contained at that time 232 separate 
 books or treatises on theological subjects, besides an exposition of the 
 Psalter and the Gospels, and an innumerable quantity of homilies and 
 epistles. The Catholio bishops of Africa carried his body to the 
 island of Sardinia, the placo to which tbey were driven by Thrasa- 
 mond, king of the Vandals, in 500; and Luitprand, king of Lombardy, 
 caused it to be conveyed, about or soon after 721, from Sardinia to 
 Pavia. (Baronii ' Annates,' fol. Lucae, 1738 J 56, torn. xii. p. 320.) 
 
 St. Augustine's works were numerous, and have been printed in a 
 collected form repeatedly : at Paris, in 10 vols., folio, 1532 ; by 
 Erasmus, from Frobenius's press, 10 vols., folio, 1540-3 ; by the 
 divines of Louvain, 10 torn., folio, Lugd., 1586 ; and by the Bene- 
 dictines of the congregation of St. Maur, 10 vols., folio, Paris, 
 1679-1700; 12 vols., folio, Paris, 1688-1703; and 12 vols., folio, 
 Antwerp, 1700-3. 
 
 The commanding power which Augustine possessed over the minds 
 of his contemporaries may be ascribed to some rare combinations 
 which distinguished his own mind. With strong passion, he united 
 mildness and humanity ; with authority, much deference to the. feelings 
 of those over whom it was exercised; with a large expanse of intellect, 
 perfect logical strictness. The same is the character of his writings. 
 In the same work — often in the same page — we find him sublime and 
 almost puerile, giving loose to the full stream of a rapid imagination 
 and deep piety, and then arguing with African subtlety, or canvassing 
 some minute scruple. He remained to the end of his life almost 
 ignorant of Greek, and entirely so of Hebrew ; and his theological 
 acquirements were not profound. But his oral eloquence was of the 
 most effective description, for it embodied the heat and earnestness of 
 religious feeling, together with great rhetorical talents cultivated by a 
 rhetorical education. His habits were simple and frugal, but without 
 any affectation of austerity. 
 
 (Acta Sanctorwm, vol. vi. ; Memoires pour servir d. V Histoire Eccle- 
 siaslique, by M. Lenaine Tillemont, 4to, Paris, 1702, the 13th volume 
 of which is devoted to an elaborate account of his life and contro- 
 versies; Lardner, Credibility of the Oospel History, part i. vol. vi. 
 pp. 58 and 59, and vol. x. 198-303; Neander, Oeschichte der Christli- 
 chen Religion und Kirche.) 
 
 AUGUSTINE, ST., first archbishop of Canterbury, also by con- 
 traction called ST. AUSTIN, was prior of the Benedictine monastery 
 of St. Andrew at Rome, where he had been educated under Gregory, 
 afterwards Pope Gregory I. and St. Gregory. He is usually called the 
 Apostle of the English, because he was sent with about forty other 
 monks, Italians and Gauls, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to the 
 Christian religion. This mission was undertaken in the year 596, 
 under St. Gregory's immediate direction, who had himself projected 
 and undertaken the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, previous to his 
 advancement to the popedom. Augustine and his company soon felt 
 disposed to return rather than take so long a journey to a country, with 
 the manners and language of which they were unacquainted. Augus- 
 tine was accordingly despatched back to Rome to obtain the Pope's 
 leave for their return ; but Gregory disregarded his remonstrances, 
 and, providing him with new letters of protection, commanded him to 
 proceed. 
 
 Augustine and his companions having passed through France, 
 embarked for Britain, and landed late in 596 in the Isle of Thauet, 
 whence they sent messengers to Ethelbert, king of Kent, to inform 
 him of their arrival and of the object of their mission. Ethelbert's 
 queen, Bertha, daughter of Cherebert, king of the Parisii, was a 
 Christian ; and by the articles of her marriage (as early as 570) had 
 the free exercise of her religion allowed her. She had also a French 
 bishop of the name of Luidhard in her suite as chaplain, and had the 
 use of the small church of St. Martin without the walls of Canterbury. 
 Ethelbert ordered the missionaries at first to continue in the Isle of 
 Thanet; but some time after came to them and invited them to an 
 audience in the open air. Although he refused at first to abandon 
 the gods of his fathers for a new worship, he allowed them to preach 
 without molestation, and assigned them a residence iu Canterbury, 
 then called Dorobernia, which they entered in procession, singing 
 hymns. Thorn ('Script.,' x. col. 1759) says they took up their 
 residence in a street which has been since called Stable-gate, in the 
 parish of St. Alphage. These missionaries, who now applied them- 
 selves to the strict severity of monastic life, preached jointly in the 
 church of St. Martin, with the French Christians of Queen Bertha's 
 suite. After the conversion and baptism of the king himself, they 
 received license to preach in any part of of his dominions, which 
 
AUGUSTULUS. 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 422 
 
 Bede assures us (c. 25) extended (probably over tributary kingdoms) 
 as far as the river Humber ; and proselytes were now made in remark- 
 able numbers. 
 
 In 597, Augustine, by direction of Pope Gregory, went over to 
 Aries in France, where he was consecrated archbishop, and metro- 
 politan of the English nation, by the archbishop of that place ; after 
 which, returning into Britain, he sent Lawrence the presbyter and 
 Peter the monk to Rome, to acquaint the Pope with the success of 
 his mission, and to desire his solution of certain questions l-especting 
 church discipline, the maintenance of the clergy, &c, which Bede 
 (1. i. c. 27) has reported at length in the form of interrogatories and 
 answers. Gregory also, at Augustine's request, sent over more 
 missionaries, and directed him to constitute a bishop at York, who 
 might have other subordinate bishops, yet in such a manner that 
 Augustine of Canterbury should be metropolitan of all England. He 
 sent over also a valuable present of books, vestment-', sacred utensils, 
 and holy relics. He advised Augustine net to destroy the heathen 
 temples, but only to remove the images of their gods, to wash the 
 walls with holy water, to erect altars, deposit relics in them, and so 
 gradually convert them into Christian churches, not only to save the 
 expense of building new ones, but that the people might be more 
 easily prevailed upon to frequent those places of worship to which 
 they had been accustomed. He directed him further to accommodate 
 the ceremonies of the Christian worship, as much as possible, to those 
 of the heathen, that the people might not be too much startled at the 
 change; and, in particular, advised him to allow the Christian con- 
 verts, on certain festivals, to kill and eat a great number of oxen, to 
 the glory of God, as they had formerly done to the honour of the 
 devil. It is unnecessary to offer any remark on this mixture of pious 
 zeal and worldly policy. 
 
 Augustine having fixed his see at Canterbury, dedicated a church 
 which had been built in earlier times by some Roman Christians to 
 the honour of Our Saviour; and King Ethelbert founded an abbey, 
 dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul, but afterwards called St. Augus- 
 tine's. Augustine now made an attempt to establish a uniformity of 
 discipline and customs in the island ; and, as a necessary step, to gain 
 over the British, that is, the Welsh bishops to his opinion. For this 
 purpose a conference was held in Worcestershire, at a place since 
 called Augustiue's Oak, where the archbishop endeavoured to persuade 
 the British prelate? to make one communion, and assist in preaching 
 to the unconverted Saxons; but neither this nor a second conference, 
 in which he used much more peremptory language, and threatened 
 divine vengeance in case of non-obedience, was successful. In the 
 year 604, Augustine consecrated two of his companions, Mellitus 
 and Justus, the former to the see of London, the latter to that of 
 Rochester. He died at Canterbury, probably in 607, but the date 
 of his death is variously given from 604 to 614. He was buried in the 
 churchyard of the monastery which goes by his name, the cathedral 
 being not then finished ; but after the consecration of that church his 
 body was taken up and deposited in the north porch, where it lay till 
 1091, when it was removed and placed in the church by Wido, abbot 
 of Canterbury. (Thorn, 'Script.,' x. col. 1793.) The observation of 
 the festival of St. Augustine was first enjoined in a synod held under 
 Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury (Gervase, 'Act. Pontif. Cantuar.,' 
 Script, x. coL 1641), and afterwards by the Pope's bull in the reign of 
 Edward III. 
 
 (Bede, Historic, Ecclesiastica, lib. i. and ii. ; Gregorius, Epistolae, 
 L vii. ep. 5, 30, 1. ix. ep. 56 ; Joan Diacon., Vita 8. Greg., Vita S. Augus- 
 tini, auctore Gocelino Monacho; Acta Sanctorum, Mensii Maii, torn. vL 
 p. 378.) 
 
 AUGU'STULUS, the last emperor of the western portion of the 
 falling empire of Rome, was the son of Orestes, a Pannonian of birth 
 and wealth, who was secretary to Attila, and, on his death, entering 
 the Roman service, rose, step by step, to its highest dignities by favour 
 of the Emperor Julius Nepos. He returned the kindness of his 
 patron by stirring to mutiny the barbarian troops in the pay of 
 Rome. Nepos fled, and Orestes, instead of seizing on the vacant 
 throne for himself, established his son upon it, A.D. 475, retaining how- 
 ever the substantial power in his own hands. The young emperor, 
 who bore the lofty name of Romulus Augustus, possessed no qualities 
 to distinguish him except personal beauty ; and his character is aptly 
 expressed by the diminutive title Augustulus, under which he is 
 universally designated. He did not reign long, for within a year 
 Orestes having offended the licentious barbarians by refusing to dis- 
 tribute among them a third part of the lands of Italy, the celebrated 
 Odoacer, the first barbarian king of Italy, headed an insurrection, and 
 Orestes was besieged in Pavia, taken, and put to death. The help- 
 less and inexperienced Augustulus yielded at once, and Odoacer not 
 only permitted him to live, but allotted for his abode the celebrated 
 villa of Lucullus, on the promontory of Misenum, near Naples, with 
 a pension of 6000 pieces of gold. Of his ultimate fate nothing is 
 known. (Jornandes, ll.r. Oct. ; Gibbon, c. xxxvi.) 
 
 AUGUSTUS is properly only a title of honour which was conferred 
 upon the first emperor of Rome, and afterwards adopted by his suc- 
 cesnors. The meaning of the word semis to have been ' sacred,' as it 
 appears to be derived from ' Augur,' the prie-t who gave the sanction 
 of the gods to the persons of the Roman magistrates. The Greek 
 writers interpreted the word by ' sebastos (adorable), from ' sebas,' 
 
 adoration. But though the title was common to the emperors of 
 Rome, it is in history generally limited to the first who held it, and 
 is almost looked upon as his proper name. For this reason it will 
 be convenient to give an account of that emperor under the present 
 head, rather than under the names Octavius, Julius, or Csesar. 
 
 Gold. British Museum. Diameter doubled. 
 
 Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, was the son of C. Octavius, 
 and Atia, sister of the celebrated C. Julius Csssar, who was conse- 
 quently the great-uncle of Augustus. Augustus, or, to use his real 
 name, Octavius, was born at Velitrse on the 22ud of September, B.C. 
 63, in the consulship of Cicero. In B.C. 60, his father was appointed 
 as praetor to succeed C. Antonius in the government of Macedonia. 
 He died immediately after his return from his province, leaving 
 behind him Octavia the elder by his first wife Ancharia, and Octavia 
 the younger, together with the son of whom we are treating, then only 
 four years of aue, by his second wife Atia, who afterwards married 
 L. Marcius Philippus, the consul of B.C. 56. Philippus treated 
 Octavius as a father, and superintended his education. He was 
 inured to the manly exercises of the Roman youth, and his mind was 
 disciplined in the best studies of the day. He showed from his early 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 Gold. British Museum. Diameter doubled. 
 
 years a great capacity, and the prudence and foresight which charac- 
 terised bis subsequent career. Young Octavius, at the age of twelve, 
 pronounced a funeral oration on the decease of his grandmother Julia. 
 (QuintiL xii. 6.) In his sixteenth year he received the toga virilia, 
 and already in the year 46, we find him the object of Cajsar's regard, 
 who in his African triumph, allowed him to share the military rewards 
 given to his army, though he had not been present in the war. In 
 the following year he was present with his great-uuele at the defeat 
 of the sons of Pompcius near Munda; and during the remainder of 
 Caesar's life the educatiun of the young Octavius seems to have been 
 watched over by him with parental interest. Octavius was carrying 
 Oil his studies at Apollonia, on the Adriatic, under Apollodorus of 
 Pergamum, when he heard of the murder of his benefactor, and this 
 
423 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 424 
 
 was soon followed by the information that he had been appointed his 
 heir and adopted into the Julian family. He was only eighteen years 
 of age, and his step-father, in his letters from Rome, strongly recom- 
 mended him to keep away from public affairs ; yet, after a little 
 hesitation, he crossed over to Italy with his friend Vipsanius Agrippa, 
 and was moat favourably received by the legions at Brundisiutu. On 
 the 18th of April he had already reached Naples (Cic. 'ad Att.' xiv. 
 10), and two or three days after, Cicero saw him at the house of his 
 step-father. Antony at this period was beginning to lay aside the 
 hesitation which marked his conduct in the first surprise of the Ides 
 of March, and but for the arrival of young Octavius, the two parties 
 would probably soon have brought the dispute to some decided issue. 
 But the appearance of Octavius on the scene was the commencement 
 of a series of intrigues which even the historian has found it difficult 
 to uoravel. The connection of Octavius with his murdered bene- 
 factor might naturally have led to an alliauce with Antony ; while, on 
 the other hand, the marriage of his mother with Philippus brought 
 him at once into contact with the chiefs of the opposite party. In 
 this difficult situation a boy of eighteen played his part with an art 
 which baffled the prudence of the oldest statesmen of Rome. Already 
 at Naples, he persuaded Cicero that he was altogether devoted to his 
 councils, and yet by assuming the dreaded name of Caesar he threw 
 out a hint which was well understood by the veterans and the people 
 to whom that namo was dear. No sooner had he arrived at Rome 
 than he appeared before C. Antonius the praetor, and formally accepted 
 the dangerous inheritance of the dictator's name and property, so that 
 henceforward he was called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus — the last 
 epithet being added to mark his previous connection with the Octavii. 
 By Roman usage an adopted son was in all respects on the same foot- 
 ing as a son bom of a man's body, and accordingly Octavius after his 
 adoption was the representative of the Dictator, and in the eyes of 
 the Romans his true son. 
 
 The Dictator had left by his will a sum of money to each Roman 
 citizen, and Caesar declared his intention to pay the legacies and cele- 
 brate magnificent games. But Marcus Antonius, who affected to 
 manage everything his own way, refused to give up the money or 
 denied that he had it; he put obstacles in the way of realising the 
 sums necessary for the payment of the legacies : be opposed the passing 
 of a Lex Curiata, the object of which was to give to the adoption of 
 Caesar whatever legal s?-A«-tion it might require; and he also prevented 
 Caesar from being elected a tribune. Caesar celebrated, at hi* own 
 expense, the games in honour of the completion of the temple of 
 Venus, the ancestress of the Julian Gens; and dedicated a bronze 
 statue of his unele in the temple of Venus. The respect paid to the 
 memory of the Dictator by his adopted son, and his cautious policy, 
 gave him the advantage over his rival Antonius, with whom all parties 
 were disgusted. Antonius and Caesar were now using all their efforts 
 to gain the advantage over each other ; and the caution and prudence 
 of the youth prevailed over his older rival. Many of the soldiers 
 whom Antonius was about to lead into Cisalpine Gaul, went over to 
 the side of Caesar, including the whole of the fourth and the Martial 
 legion. Caesar had gone into Campania, where he got together a con- 
 siderable force of veterans who had served under the Dictator. On 
 his return to Rome, where he arrived before Antonius, he addressed 
 the people, recapitulated the great deeds of the Dictator, spoke in 
 modest terms of himself and attacked Antonius. He next set out 
 into Etruria to raise more troops. Thus a youth at the age of nine- 
 teen, without any authority, and at his own expense, raised an army, 
 with which he ventured to enter the city. The conduct of Antonius 
 during this struggle for popularity was vacillating, and betrayed the 
 want of a well-concerted plan. At last the defection of the fourth 
 legion decided him, and he hastened from Rome to bis province of 
 Cisalpine Gaul, fearing lest he might fail to find support there also, if 
 he stayed away any longer, Decimus Brutus, who was the actual 
 governor of Cisalpine Gaul, to which he had been appointed by the 
 Dictator, refused to give up the province to Antonius. Caesar hated 
 Decimus Brutus and Antonius equally, but the time was not yet come 
 for avenging his uncle's death, and he accordingly madi proposals to 
 aid Decimus if he would keep the province against Antonius. The 
 senate passed a vote of thanks to Decimus Brutus and to Caesar, and 
 the soldiers who had deserted Antonius. Cicero, who had been 
 wavering, now came forward as the supporter of the " boy Octavian,'' 
 and spoke strongly in his favour before the senate. On the 2nd of 
 January, B.C. 43, Caesar was invested with the rank of Propraetor, and 
 commissioned to command the troops which he had raised : he re- 
 ceived the rank of Praetor, and with it the privilege of voting in the 
 senate ; the law also which limited the age for attainiug the consul- 
 ship was so far repealed as to allow him to enjoy the office ten years 
 before the legal age. Before the close of the year B.C. 44, Antonius 
 was besieging Decimus Brutus in Mutina. The senate, on the 5th of 
 January, B.C. 43, sent proposals of peace to Antonius, which were sup- 
 ported by the advance of the consul Hirtius and his legions. Caesar 
 with his troops joined Hirtius ; the other consul, Pansa, arrived after- 
 wards with his troops. In the conflicts that ensued about Mutina, 
 Antonius was finally defeated, but both the consuls lost their lives. 
 Mutina being relieved, and Antonius driven across the Alps, the senate 
 now changed their tone towards Caesar. Decimus Brutus, who had 
 done nothing, received public thai ks, and the commission to follow 
 
 up the war against Antonius at the head of the consular army. The 
 name of Caesar was not mentioned. Caesar dissembled his vexation 
 at D. Brutus being appointed to the command ; he asked for a triumph, 
 and the senate refused it. Caesar now made overtures to Antonius ; 
 but he also aspired to the consulship, and he wrote to Cicero, urging 
 him to be his colleague. Cicoro was pleased with the proposal, and 
 he laid it before the senate; but the senate would not listen to it. 
 Antonius and Lepidus, after a short negociation, had become recon- 
 ciled, and they united their forces, on the 28th of May, B.C. 43, and 
 crossed the Alps iuto Cisalpine GauL The alarm of the senate on 
 receiving this intelligence was great; they made preparations to oppose 
 Antonius, and in order to pacify Caesar they named him to the joint 
 command with D. Brutus, simply for fear that he might join Anto- 
 nius. But Caesar was not to be pacified : he induced his soldiers to 
 ask the consulship for him, which the senate refused on the ground of 
 his youth. The army of Caesar was in a state of frenzy, and called 
 upon him to lead them to Rome. With his forces he crossed the 
 Rubicon, the little stream which then separated the province of 
 Cisalpine Gaul from Italy, and dividing his troops into two parts, left 
 one part to follow him, while with the other he marched rapidly upon 
 Rome. Thus, six years after Caesar crossed the Rubicon to enforce his 
 claims against the senate and his rival Pompeius, his adopted son, 
 who bore the same name, crossed the same sacred boundary of the 
 province to maintain a similar claim against the senate. The coin- 
 cidence is striking, and it is not passed unnoticed by Appian. Rome 
 was all in alarm : the Benate, as when the first Caesar crossed the 
 Rubicon, were unprepared; M. Brutus and Cassius, the great support 
 of their party, were now in the East ; and Cicero, who had been loud 
 and active, disappeared, as he did when the first Caesar was advancing 
 on the city. The senate now yielded ad that had been asked; but 
 the sudden arrival of two legions, which they had sent for from Africa, 
 again roused their drooping courage ; Cicero again showed himself, 
 and it was resolved to oppose Caesar by force, and to seize his mother 
 and sister as hostages, but they contrived to conceal themselves. The 
 treachery of the senate only irritated the army of Caesar, who in a 
 short time occupied, without any resistance, a position in front of the 
 city, in the neighbourhood of the Quirinal Hill; on the next day he 
 entered Rome with a small guard, and was greeted by his mother and 
 sister with the Vestal virgins in the temple of Vesta. There was no 
 further attempt at opposition. 
 
 Caesar knew his power, and he only laughed at his enemies. • He 
 brought his forces into the Campus Martius, and he showed all through 
 these trying circumstances the most perfect self-possession anil pru- 
 dence. Those who had taken the most active part again.-t him were 
 allowed to be unmolested: they were spared fjr the present. He dis- 
 tributed a large sum of money among his sol tiers, and he soon paid 
 the legacies which the dictator had left to the people. Caesar and 
 Quintus Pedius, his kinsman, were appointed consuls for the rest of 
 the year. The election took place in the month of August, B.C. 43, 
 when Caesar was in his twentieth year. Being now invested with 
 constitutional authority, he caused his adoption to be regularly con- 
 firmed by a Lex Curiata. He also caused a measure to be passed for 
 the relief of Dolabella, who had been declared an enemy; and in 
 pursuance of a Lex which was proposed by his colleague Pedius, a 
 regular prosecution was instituted against the assassins of Caesar and 
 their accomplices. The prosecution was conducted in due legal form, 
 and as none of the accused appeared, they were convicted pursuant 
 to law. Thus the conspirators were in effect declared enemies of the 
 Roman state, and there remained nothing but to enforce the sentence 
 by arms. But to accomplish this, Caesar wanted the aid of Antonius. 
 Accordingly he left the city and advanced towards Cisalpine Gaul, 
 while his colleague Pedius stayed at Rome to further his views. The 
 senate were induced by their fears to come to terms with Antonius and 
 Lepidus ; they repealed their own decrees by which Antonius and 
 Lepidus had been declared enemies, and they sent a friendly message 
 to Antonius and Lepidus. Caesar also wrote to Antonius, and offered 
 his assistance against Decimus Brutus. Antonius replied that he would 
 deal with Brutus himself, and then would join Caesar. The soldiers 
 of Brutus deserted to Antonius and Caesar ; Brutus himself fell into 
 the hands of a robber chief, who sent his head to Antonius. [Brdtus, 
 Decimus.] 
 
 Caesar, Antonius, and Lepidus had an interview in an island on a 
 small stream near Bononia (Bologna). They agreed that VentMiua 
 should take the place of Caesar as consul for the rest of the year, 
 B.C. 43 ; that the three should administer the state for five years with 
 equal powers with the consuls ; and that they should name the annual 
 magistrates for five years to come. It was also agreed to distribute 
 the provinces among them : Antonius was to have all Gaul, except a 
 part adjacent to the Pyrenees, which Lepidus was to have, together 
 with Spain : Caesar was to have Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily and the 
 small adjacent islands. Caesar and Antonius were to conduct the war 
 against M. Brutus and Cassius, and Lepidus was to be consul, and 
 conduct the administration in Rome with three of his legions. The 
 remaining seven were to be distributed between Caesar and Antonius, 
 so as to make up their numbers to twenty legions each. It was further 
 agreed to encourage their soldiers by promises of donations and of the 
 distribution of the lands of eighteen cities in Italy, which were named. 
 Finally, it was agreed that all their enemies at Rome should be 
 
425 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 AUGUSTU& 
 
 426 
 
 destroyed, that there might be no further danger from them. The terma 
 of this agreement were read to the soldiers, who were well content ; 
 but nothing was said of the intended massacres. 
 
 In order to secure the union of the two chief leaders, the soldiers 
 of Antonius also planned a marriage between Caesar and Clodia, the 
 daughter of Fulvia, the wife of Antonius, by Clodius. Coesar was 
 already betrothed to Servilia ; but he broke off that engagement, and 
 agreed to take Clodia for his wife. Clodia was yet very young, and 
 Caesar divorced her shortly after, without having consummated the 
 marriage. The Triumviri, as the three were called, made a list of 
 300 senators and about 2000 equites, who were to be put to death. 
 They then sent orders for the death of a small number of the most 
 distinguished of their enemies before they reached Rome, and Cicero 
 was among them. Some of them were immediately massacred, and 
 alarm spread through the city ; but Pedius, the consul, calmed the 
 fears of the citizens by publishing the names of those who were to 
 be proscribed, and declaring that these were to be the only sufferers. 
 But Pedius was not in the secret of his colleagues, and he died before 
 the Triumviri reached Rome. 
 
 The Triumviri entered Rome separately, each with hia praetorian 
 cohort and a legion : the city was filled with soldiers. A law was 
 hurriedly paased by which Caesar, Antonius, and Lepidus were invested 
 with consular power for five years, for the purpose of settling affairs, 
 and thus the Triumvirate was constituted in legal form. In the fol- 
 lowing night a list of 130 persons, who were proacribed, was set up 
 in many parts of the city ; and 150 more were soon added to the list. 
 Notice was given that the heads should be brought to the Triumviri, 
 and the bearer was to have a fixed reward ; if a freeman, money ; if a 
 slave, his liberty and money too. Rewards were offered to those who 
 should diacover the proacribed, and the penalty for concealing them 
 was death. Lepidus was foremoat in this affair, though Caesar and 
 Antonius were the most unrelenting after a beginning was made. As 
 soon as the lists were published, the gates of the city were closed, and 
 all the outlets and places of refuge were atrictly watched. And then 
 came a scene of misery such aa had not been witnessed even in the 
 times of Marius and Sulla. Every avenue in the city and all the 
 country round Rome waa scoured by soldiers eager to earn the rich 
 reward by carrying heads to the Triumviri. All the enemies of the 
 Triumviri who were unfortunate enough to be found, were sacrificed 
 to their vengeance. Many of those who escaped were drowned at 
 sea, but some reached Sicily, where they were kindly received by 
 Sextua Pompeius, the aon of the dictator's great rival. 
 
 Sicily, which had fallen to the share of Caesar in the distribution of 
 the Western provinces, was held by Sextus Pompeius, who had a well- 
 manned fleet. Cse3Lir sent his admiral Salvidienus Rufus against Sicily, 
 and went to Rhegium, where he met Salvidienus. A severe battle 
 took place in the strait, in which the loaa wa3 about equal on both 
 sides. Giving up Sicily for the present, Caesar sailed to Brundisium, 
 whence he crossed over to Dyrrachium to join Antonius. M. Brutus 
 and Cassius had now advanced from Asia as far as Philippi in Mace- 
 donia, where they heard that Antonius waa approaching, and that 
 Caesar had fallen ill and was detained at Dyrrachium. Caes ir arrived 
 before the battle, though he was still feeble. In the first of the two 
 engagements at Philippi, Cassius killed himself, thinking that all was 
 lost ; and in the second Brutus waa defeated, and put an end to hia 
 life. Many of their soldiers joined the armies of Caesar and Antonius. 
 This decisive victory, which broke the senatorial party, was mainly due 
 to the courage and generalship of Antonius. The battle of Philippi 
 was fought about the close of B.C. 42. A large body of the army of 
 Brutua and Cassius capitulated to Caesar and Antonius. 
 
 A new division of the provinces was now made. Caesar and Antonius 
 arranged matters their own way, and took from Lepidus what hud 
 been given to him. Antonius set out to the East to collect money ; 
 Coesar returned to Italy to superintend the distribution of the promised 
 lands among the soldiers. 
 
 Caesar fell ill at Brundisium, and a report reached Rome that he 
 was dead. Having somewhat recovered, he came to Rome, and pro- 
 duced letters of Antonius, pursuant to which Calenus, who held two 
 legions in Italy for Antonius, gave them up to Caesar, and Sextius was 
 ordered by the friends of Antonius to give up Africa to Caesar, which 
 Caesar gave to Lepidus. The soldiers who had aerved under Caesar 
 and Antonius were now impatient for their rewards, and they claimed 
 the lands which had been specifically promised. The occupiers (posses- 
 sores) urged that they ought not to be the only sufferers, and that all 
 Italy should contribute. But the promised lands were given to the 
 soldiers, and they were established as military colonies in due form. 
 Thousands were driven from their homes, and many of the ejected 
 cultivators fled to Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. Rome also was crowded 
 with them : they came to complain of the hardships of their lot ; 
 young and old, women and their children, filled the public places and 
 the temples with their lamentations. Caesar could only tell them 
 that they must submit to necessity ; the soldiers must be satisfied. 
 The sufferers were loud in their complaints against him, but he looked 
 •teadily at one object, to secure the favour of his soldiers. His 
 prudence and firmness stopped a mutiny at Rome which threatened 
 dangerous consequences. 
 
 In the year b.c. 41 the consuls were Publius Servilius and Lucius 
 iotouius, one of the brothers of Marcus. But Lucius, and Fulvia, the 
 
 wife of Marcus, who waa left by her huaband in Italy, really directed 
 the administration. Lucius and Fulvia were jealous of the popularity 
 which Caesar was gaining, and they now made an effort to destroy 
 him. Fulvia had also hopes that a war might bring back her husband, 
 who waa enslaved by Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. Caesar waa 
 supported by M. Agrippa, and by Salvidienus, who advanced from 
 Spain, and joined him with six legions. After some unsuccessful 
 movements on the part of Lucius Antonius, he threw himself with his 
 forces into the strong city of Perusia, which Caesar and his generals 
 blockaded. The place was obstinately defended, but famine at last 
 compelled a surrender, B.C. 40. Lucius waa pardoned; but three or 
 four hundred captives, among whom were the Decuriones of Perusia, 
 were put to death. It is told both by Suetonius and Dion Cassius that 
 they were slaughtered like victims at an altar erected to the honour 
 of the deified Dictator, and the day of the sacrifice was the memorable 
 Ides of March. 
 
 Italy being now clear, Caesar again thought of attacking Sextus 
 Pompeius in Sicily, but having no ships, and learning what the force 
 of Pompeiua was, he took another course. He foresaw that there 
 might be a contest with Antonius, and he wished to prepare the way 
 for a reconciliation with Pompeius. Accordingly he commissioned 
 Maecenas to negociate a marriage for him with Scribonia, the sister of 
 Lucius Scribonius Libo, who was the father-in-law of Sextus Pompeius. 
 Libo consented, and Caesar took for wife Scribonia, a woman much 
 older than himself, who had already had two husbands. 
 
 M. Antonius left his wife Fulvia ill at Sicyon. He had not a large 
 army with him, but he entered the Ionian Sea with two hundred 
 vessels, where he met with and received the submission of the fleet of 
 Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who had been an adherent of Brutus and 
 Cassius. The combined fleet came to Brundisium, which was occupied 
 by troops of Caesar, and strictly blockaded it. Pompeiua being 
 requested by Antonius to join him, sent Menodorus, or Menas, with a 
 strong force to Antonius, and also seized Sardinia, which belonged to 
 Caesar, and gained over two legions which were in the island. Caesar, 
 seeing the position of affairs, sent Agrippa into Apulia, and, following 
 with a considerable force, he seated himself down near Brundisium. 
 The soldiers of Caesar wished to effect a reconciliation between him 
 and Antonius, which was accomplished mainly through the interven- 
 tion of Cocceius, a common friend, and was facilitated by the arrival 
 of the news of Fulvia's death. It waa agreed that Antonius and Caesar 
 should again be friends, and that the sister of Caesar, Octavia, who 
 had just become a widow by the death of her husband Marcellus, 
 should marry Antonius. There were great rejoicings in both armies 
 on thia occasion. A new division of the provinces was made between 
 Caesar and Antonius : all to the west of Scodra, a town of Ulyricuin, 
 was to be administered by Coesar; Antonius was to have all to the east 
 of Scodra; Lepidus was to keep Africa, which Caesar had given him ; 
 and Caesar was to be allowed to prosecute the war against Pompeius 
 if he chose. Antonius and Caesar entered Rome, and the marriage ot 
 Antonius with Octavia was celebrated. 
 
 Rome was still afflicted with famine, and the usual supplies of grain 
 were stopped by Pompeius and bis partisans, who held Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and Corsica. The famine and the attempt to raise money by heavy 
 taxatiou caused great riots in the city, and both Caesar and Antonius 
 were pelted with stones by the populace. The riots were only put 
 down by force. At last, Coesar and Antonius went to Baiae to meet 
 Sextus Pompeius. The interview between the two Triumviri and 
 Pompeius took place at Puteoli. The first conference led to no result, 
 but they finally agreed to peace on these terms : Pompeius was to hold 
 Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, and the Peloponnesus, with the same powers 
 that Caesar and Antonius had in their respective administrations ; and 
 the exiles were to be allowed to return, with the exception of those 
 who had been condemned for the murder of Coesar. It was also 
 agreed to marry the daughter of Pompeius to Marcellus, the stepson 
 of Marcus Antonius, aud the nephew of Coesar. 
 
 In the following year, B.C. 38, war broke out between Cae3ar and 
 Sextus Pompeius, on various grounds of dispute. The campaign was 
 unfortunate for Caesar, and he lost more than half of his ships. 
 During this year he put away his wife Scribonia, who had borne him 
 a daughter, Julia ; aud married Livia Drusilla, the wife of Tiberius 
 Nero, who must have either divorced herself from her husband or 
 have been divorced by him ; for according to Roman law, a man 
 could not marry the wife of another. Livia was then six months gone 
 with child, with Drusus, the brother of the future emperor Tiberius. 
 Caesar remained attached to her as long as he lived, and she had always 
 great influence over him. In the spring of the year B.C. 37, Antonius 
 crossed over to Tarentum from Athens with three hundred vessels, 
 with the intention of assisting Caesar against Pompeius. Suapicions 
 had been growing up between them, which were partly removed by 
 Octavia visiting her brother. An interview followed between Anto- 
 nius aud Caesar on the river Taraa, which ended in a reconciliation. 
 Antonius gave Caesar a hundred and twenty ships, and Caesar gave or 
 promised Antonius 20,000 legionary soldiers from Italy. The period 
 of the five years' triumvirate was now near expiring, and they renewed 
 it for another five years. It was also agreed at this interview that 
 Antyllus, the eldest son of Antonius, should marry Julia, the daughter 
 of Caesar. 
 
 Coesar had been actively engaged in preparing for the war against 
 
427 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 123 
 
 Pompeius. Hostilities did not commence till the month of July. The 
 fleet of Caesar was shattered by a storm, but Pompeius continued in 
 his usual inactivity. Lepidus, who had been invited to aid in the war 
 against Pompeius, had lauded in Sicily before Caesar, with part of his 
 forc< s ; the fleet which was bringing the rest from Africa was met at 
 sea by Papius, one of the commanders of Pompeius, and dispersed or 
 destroyed. Agrippa was now in the command of the fleet of Caesar, 
 and, uud«r his able direction, Caesar was finally victorious. [Auiuppa, 
 M. Vii'Sanius.] Pompeius fled from Sicily, and many of his soldiers 
 deserted to Caesar and Lepidus. The force of Lepidus now amounted 
 to twenty-two legions, and he had a strong body of cavalry. He was 
 thus encouraged to claim Sicily, as he had lauded ou the island before 
 Caesar, and had reduced most of the cities. Caesar and Lepidus had 
 an interview, from which they parted in auger and with mutual 
 threats. A new civil war seein< d to be ready to break out ; but the 
 soldiers of Lepidus knew his feeble character, and they admired the 
 vigour which Caesar had recently displayed. Caesar had little diffi- 
 culty in gaining them over, and Lepidus himself, on the defection of 
 his troops, speedily submitted. Caesar sent him to Home stripped of 
 his military command, but still retaining his office of Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus ; and Lepidus was content to spend the rest of his days in 
 inglorious quiet. Caesar did not pursue Pompeius, who, after various 
 intrigues against M. Antonius, was taken prisoner in Asia Minor by 
 the generals of Antonius, and put to death (B.C. 35). 
 
 The force of Caesar now amounted to forty five legions, 25,000 
 horsemen, near 40,000 light troops, and 600 vessels. He gave his 
 troops rewards for their late services, and he promised more ; the 
 commanders of Pompeius received a pardon. But the army was dis- 
 satisfied, especially his old soldiers, who claimed exemption from 
 further service, and the same solid rewards which the soldiers had 
 received who fought at Philippi. Caesar was obliged to yield : he 
 pacified the officers ; and allowed those soldi* rs to retire who had 
 served at Philippi and before Mutina, to the number of 20,000, but ho 
 stnt them from Sicily immediately, that they might not corrupt the 
 rest of the army. The soldiers who were disbanded afterwards 
 received lands in Campania; the rest received a present of money, 
 which was probably paid out of the heavy contribution that was 
 levied on the conquered island. 
 
 Before the close of the year B o. 36, Caesar, now twenty-eight years 
 of age, returned to Rome, where he was joyfully received by all 
 classes. The Senate were profuse in voting him honours ; but he was 
 moderate in his wishes. He accepted a minor triumph, and a gilded 
 statue in the forum, which represented him in the dress in which he 
 entered the city. He also consented that there should be an annual 
 celebration of the Sicilian victories. He now turned his attention to 
 domestic affairs. Rome and Italy were infested with robbers and 
 pirates ; but they were put down by the vigour of Sabinus, who 
 received a commission for that purpose. The regular magistrates 
 now resumed many of their functions ; all evidence of the late civil 
 quarrels was burnt, and Caesar promised to restore the old consti- 
 tution when Antonius returned from his Parthian expedition. 
 
 While Antonius was occupied in the East, Caesar invaded Illyri- 
 cum (B.C. 35). He also marched against the Pannouians, whom he 
 compelled to submit. On his return to Rome, the Senate decreed 
 him a triumph, which he deferred for the present ; but he obtained 
 for his sister Octavia, who had been staying at Rome since Antonius 
 left Italy, and for his wife Livia, exemption from the legal incapaci- 
 ties of Roman women in the management of their own affairs, and 
 the privilege of their persons being declared inviolable, like the 
 tribunes. They were thus placed in the same rank witlr the Vestal 
 virgins. This measure, the object of which is not mentioned by the 
 historian, was intended as a mark of honour, and probably as a means 
 of safety in case of any reverse to Caesar. It is said by Dion, that 
 Caesar meditated an invasion of Britain after the example of the 
 Dictator ; and that he had advanced as far as Gaul, when he was re- 
 called by an outbreak of the Pannonians and Dalmatians. Agrippa 
 first marched against the Dalmatians, and he was followed by Caesar. 
 The Dalmatians made a brave resistance; and Caesar himself was 
 wounded in this campaign. 
 
 Rome now began to reap some benefit from peace ; and the public 
 improvements of Agrippa during his aedileship (b.c. 33) added both 
 to the salubrity and the splendour of the city. [Agrippa, M. V.] 
 The spoils of the Dalmatian war supplied the funds for the porch and 
 the library, which were called Octavian, in honour of the sister of 
 Caesar. A learned grammarian (Suetonius, ' De Grammat.' 21) was 
 placed at the head of the library. The year B.C. 33 was Caesar's 
 second consulship. 
 
 Caesar and Antonius had long foreseen that there would be a contest 
 between them, and the removal of Sextus Pompeius and Lepidus was 
 a preliminary to it. Neither of them now bad an enemy to contend 
 with, for Caesar was at peace in the West, and the Parthians were 
 quiet. Mutual causes of complaint and recrimination were not wanting. 
 Caesar procured war to be declared against Cleopatra, affecting to 
 regard Antonius as merely her slave. In the spring of B.C. 31 the fleet 
 of Caesar under the command of Agrippa swept the eastern part of the 
 Adriatic, and Caesar with his legions landed in Epirus. On the 2nd 
 of September he gained a complete victory at Actium over Antonius 
 and Cleopatra. A few days after the battle of Actium the land-forces 
 
 of Antonius surrendered. The conqueror used his victory with 
 moderation, and only a few were put to death, who were his declared 
 enemies. Maecenas was sent to Rome to maintain quiet in Italy, and 
 Caesar set out for Athens, whence he passed over to Samos on his route 
 to Egypt, whither Antonius and Cleopatra had fled; but a mutiny 
 among the veterans who had been sent to Italy under Agrippa recalled 
 him, and he reached Brundisium after a dangerous winter voyage. 
 Here he was met by the senators of Rome, and matters were settled 
 for the present by giving money to some of the soldiers and lands to 
 others. The spoils of Egypt afterwards supplied the demands of those 
 who consented to wait. 
 
 The year B.C. 30 was the fourth consulship of Caesar. After staying 
 twenty-seven days at Brundisium, he set out for Egypt by the route of 
 Asia Minor and Syria. His movements were so rapid that Antonius 
 and Cleopatra received at the same time the news of his return from 
 Asia to Italy, and of his second voyage to Asia. Caesar entered E:ypt 
 on the side of Pelusium, which he took ; but it was said that the city 
 was surrendered at the command of Cleopatra, who had some hopes 
 of conciliating or captivating the adopted son of her former lover the 
 Dictator. Tire events which followed, the death of Antonius, and that 
 of Cleopatra, belong to other articles. [Antonius, Marcus ; Cleo- 
 patra.] C&aar was much disappointed in not securing Cleopatra for 
 his triumph. She and Antonius were placed by his orders in the same 
 tomb. Caesar immediately put to death Autyllus, the eldest son of 
 Autonius by Fulvia, who was betrothed to his own daughter ; and 
 Cacsarion also, the son of Cleopatra by the Dictator Caesar, was over- 
 taken in his flight and killed. lulus, a younger son of Fulvia by 
 Antonius, and his children by Cleopatra, were spared. Egypt was 
 made a Romau province, of which Cornelius Gallus, who had assisted 
 in its reduction, was appointed the first governor. 
 
 Before leaving Alexandria Caesar saw the body of Alexander, which 
 was embalmed and kept in the city which he had founded. He placed 
 upon it a golden crown, and strewed it with flowers. He returned to 
 Asia Minor through Syria, and entered on his fifth consulship while he 
 was in Asia (B.C. 29). In the summer of this year he passed through 
 Greece to Italy. His arrival in Rome was celebrated in the mouth of 
 August by three triumphs on three successive days, for bis Dalmatian 
 victories, the victory at Actium, and the reduction of Egypt. The 
 temple of Janus was closed, and Rome was at peace with herself and 
 with the world. 
 
 Caesar, it is said, now thought of laying aside the power which he 
 had acquired, and he consulted his friends Maecenas and Agrippa. 
 Agrippa recommended him to resign his power; Maecenas advisid him 
 to keep it, and this advice or his own judgment be followed. In this 
 year (B.C. 29) he received the title of Imperator, not in the old sense 
 of that term as it was understood under the republic, but as indicating 
 a permanent and supreme power. With the aid of Agrippa, and acting 
 as censor, though perhaps without the title, he reformed the senate. 
 One hundred aud ninety unqualified members were induced or com- 
 pelled to retire. In his sixth consulship (B.C. 28) Caesar had for his 
 colleague Marcus Agrippa, and it was signalised by the solemn cele- 
 bration of a lustrum and the taking of the census, an improved 
 administration of the treasury, aud the construction of useful build- 
 ings, among which were the temple and the library of the Palatine 
 Apollo. But it is the seventh consulship of Caesar (b.c. 27) which 
 forms a memorable epoch in his life, and in the history of the empire. 
 He proposed to the senate to restore the old republican form, which 
 in effect was to restore to the senate the administration of the Roman 
 state; but he was urged by them to remain at the head of affairs, and 
 he consented to administer part of the empire, and to leave the rest 
 to the senate. A division of the provinces was made, according to 
 which those which were on the frontiers and most exposed were 
 administered by Caesar. In the west he had all the Gauls, and part 
 of Spain with Lusitania ; in the east he had Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia, 
 Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. Italy was not a province ; it was now all 
 Romanised, and was the seat of empire. Caesar would only undertake 
 the administration of these parts of the empire for ten years; but at 
 the end of the ten years the administration was given to him again, 
 and this was repeated to the end of his life. This was a great change 
 in the administration of the state, and Caesar thus obtained a power 
 which in extent no Roman had enjoyed before. On the 16th of 
 January, B.C. 27, Caesar received from the senate and the Roman people 
 the title of Augustus, the Sacred or the Consecrated, by which name 
 he is henceforth known on his medals, sometimes with the addition of 
 Caesar and sometimes without. The Augustan years were dated at 
 Rome from this time, which is also generally considered the commence- 
 ment of the empire. The title was conferred, as the historians state, 
 by the senate and the people, which means that the senate proposed 
 the measure and it was confirmed by a lex. 
 
 In the year B.C. 23, the eleventh consulship of Augustus, the senate 
 conferred on him the tribunitiau power for life. He was not made 
 tribune, but he received and exercised for thirty-seven years all the 
 authority of the office, as if he had been annually elected to it under 
 the old constitutional forms. The ordinary tribunes still continued to 
 be elected as before. His person was thus declared inviolable, aud he 
 could, according to the old constitutional forms, obstruct any measures 
 in the senate or prevent any enactment of any lex or plebiscitum by 
 the popular assemblies. 
 
AUGUSTUS. 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 no 
 
 In B.C. 12, on the death of Lepidus, Augustus was made Pontifex 
 Masimus, and probably was elected by the popular assembly, to whom 
 the choice of the Pontifex Maximus had been restored, B.C. 63. The 
 title of Pontifex Maximus, or the head of religion, like that of Tribu- 
 nitian Power, appears from this time on the medals of Augustus, and 
 on those of his successors. But it was not by mimes or titles, it was 
 by the accumulation of powers and offices in his own person, and by 
 hia prudent management, that Augustus was in effect the administrator 
 of the Roman state, while all the old forms were maintained. The effect 
 of the union of so much power, military and civil, in one person, was 
 what Tacitus has briefly characterised : he gradually assumed " the 
 functions of the Senate, of the Magistrates, and of the Laws." 
 
 The great events of the period of Augustus can only be briefly 
 mentioned in chronological order. They show his activity in the 
 administration of the state, and enable us to form a better estimate 
 of his character. In B.C. 27 he set out for Gaul, intending or pre- 
 tending that he would visit Britain ; but from Gaul he passed into 
 Spain, in which he established order. Augustus spent the years B.C. 
 26 and B.C. 25 in Spain, where he was engaged in a war with the 
 Astures and Cantabri, the warlike inhabitants of the Asturias and the 
 north-west of Spain. The successful conclusion of the war was 
 signalised by the temple of Janus being closed a second time by 
 Augustus, and by the settlement of veterans in the colony of Einerita 
 Augusta (Merida) on the Guadiana. The year B.C. 24 is memorable 
 for the expedition against Arabia Felix of ^Elius Gallus, who was then 
 governor of Egypt. The next year (b.c. 23), that in which Augustus 
 received the Tribunitian power for life, aud bis eleventh consulship, 
 brought a domestic calamity, the death of young Marcellus, the son 
 of his sister Octavia, and the husband of his daughter Julia. His 
 peace was also disturbed by conspiracies : that in which Murena was 
 engaged, or alleged to be engaged, belongs to the year B.C. 22. In B.C. 
 21 Augustus again left Rome for the purpose of settling the eastern 
 part of the empire. He first visited Sicily, and while he was there 
 great disturbances occurred at Rome during the election of the con- 
 suls, for the old forms of election were still maintained, as they were 
 during the lifetime of Augustus. The disturbance required his inter- 
 ference, but he did not return to Rome : he appointed Agrippa to the 
 administration of the city in his absence, and gave him his daughter 
 Julia in marriage. [Agrippa, M. V.] From Sicily Augustus passed 
 over into Greece, and thence to the island of Samos, where he spent 
 the winter. The year B.C. 20 is memorable for the restoration by the 
 Parthians of the standards which they had taken from Cras3us and 
 M. Antonius, and of the captive soldiers, an event which the flatterers 
 of Augustus have often commemorated ; and also for the birth of 
 Julia's son by Agrippa, Caius Caesar, as he was afterwards called. 
 Augustus spent another winter at Samos, where he received ambassa- 
 dors from the Scythians and the Indians. The Indians brought 
 presents, and among them some tigers, which the Romans had never 
 seen before. From Samos Augustus passed over to Athens, aud from 
 thence returned to Rome in the following year, B.C. 19. The Cantabri 
 had revolted in B.C. 22, and were finally subdued in this year (B.C. 19) 
 by Agrippa, who after sustaining several reverses nearly annihilated 
 all the Cantabrian warriors. In the year B.C. 18 the ten years had 
 expired for which Augustus had undertaken the administration, but 
 the period was renewed for five years, and Agrippa was associated 
 with Augustus in the Tribunitian power for the same period. With 
 the aid of Agrippa, he made another revision of the senate. In this 
 year Virgil died, on his return from Athens, where he had seen 
 Augustus. The carrying of the Lex Julia De Maritandis Ordinibus, 
 the object of which was to compel people to marry under penalties, 
 belongs to the year B.C. 18. In this year Julia bore another son, 
 Lucius, who, together with his brother Caius, was immediately adopted 
 by Augustus, and these youths are henceforth called Caius Caesar 
 and Luciu3 Caesar. Agrippa, with his wife Julia, set out for Syria, 
 being intrusted with the general administration of affairs in those 
 parts. In B c. 16 Augustus left Rome for Gaul, his main object being 
 to superintend warlike operations against the Germans, who had 
 defeated Marcus Lollius. Statilius was the governor of Rome and 
 Italy in his absence. The Rhaeti, an Alpine people, were subdued by 
 Tiberius and Drusus, the stepsons of Augustus : and many colonies 
 were established or restored in Gaul and Spain, the lands being given 
 to satisfy the claims of the old soldiers, who were continually asking 
 for grants. Augustus returned from Gaul in the year B.C. 13, and 
 gave to the senate a written account of his proceedings. In this year, 
 according to Dion, Augustus dedicated the theatre of Marcellus, and 
 games were celebrated, in which 600 wild beasts from Africa were 
 slaughtered. The year B.C. 12 is that in which Lepidus died, and 
 Augustus succeeded him as Pontifex Maximus : Agrippa also died in 
 this year, and in the following year his widow Julia was married to 
 Tiberius, the stepson of Augustus. The new bridegroom wa3 sent off 
 to fight against the Pannonians, whom he defeated, and the marriage 
 wag solemnised on his return. 
 
 In B.C. 10 Augustus was again in Gaul with his stepson and son-in-law 
 Tiberius. Drusus also prosecuted the war against the Germans in 
 this and the following year. He advanced as far as the Elbe, but his 
 career was cut short by a fall from his horse, which occasioned his 
 death. His body was carried to Rome, and Augustus pronounced 
 Lis funeral oration in the Circus Flaminius : he also wrote an epitaph 
 
 for his tomb and composed a memoir of his life. In the year no S 
 Augustus, with a show of unwillingness, accepted the administration 
 again for a period of ten years ; and this year is recorded as that 
 in which the month Sextilis received the name of Augustus, which 
 it retains. In this year also a census was taken. Tiberius now 
 conducted the military operations on the Rhine. Two more of the 
 friends of Augustus died this year, Maecenas and the poet Horace. 
 Maecenas had for many years been his faithful friend and adviser, aud 
 had been intrusted with the important office of Praafectus Urbi. It 
 was believed in Rome that Augustus, among his other amours, had an 
 adulterous commerce with Terentia, the wife of Maecenas, which 
 caused her husband some vexation, but it never made him break with 
 Augustus, and he left him the bulk of his immense fortune. Tiberius 
 received the title of Imperator for his German victories, and in the 
 year 6 he received the Tribunitian power for five years ; but instead 
 of staying at Rome, he retired to Rhodes, where he resided for seven 
 years. 
 
 In the year commonly reckoned B.C. 4, or, according to perhaps the 
 best authorities, in the year B.C. 3, Jesus Christ was born at Bethlehem 
 in Judaea. Some chronologists place this event in the year B.C. 2. 
 
 The year B c. 2 was the thirteenth consulship of Augustus, and in 
 this year L. Caesar received the toga virilis : Caius, the elder, had 
 taken it in B.C. 5. Thus Augustus had two grandsons, his sons by 
 adoption, who had attained the age of puberty, and he had a prospect 
 of securing in his family the succession to a greater power than any 
 man had ever yet acquired. But his happiness was marred by the 
 conduct of his daughter Julia, the mother of his adopted sons. In 
 the lifetime of Agrippa she had perhaps not been a faithful wife, but 
 now in the thirty-eighth year of her age she had broken through all 
 the bounds of decency and prudence. Her indignant father could 
 hardly restrain himself when he ascertained the extent of her degra- 
 dation. Many of her lovers were put to death, and among them 
 Antonius lulus, a son of M. Antonius by Fulvia. Julia was, under the 
 Lex Julia, banished to the small island of Pandataria, on the coast of 
 Campania, and afterwards to Rhegium, where she lived a life of 
 misery, aud yet survived her father. Her mother Scribonia, the long- 
 divorced wife of Augustus, voluntarily accompanied Julia in her exile. 
 Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus, his daughter's daughter, who 
 was married to L. ^Emilius Paullus, followed her mother's example, 
 aud suffered a similar punishment (a.d. 8). 
 
 In a.d. 1 Caius Caesar was sent to conduct the war in Armenia, and 
 Tiberius came from his retirement as far as Chios to pay his respects 
 to the adopted sou of Augustus. But the time was near when the 
 son of Livia was to become the representative of the Caesars. Lucius 
 Caesar died at Massilia, in a.d. 2, shortly after Tiberius had returned 
 to Rome. Caius died in Lycia, on his return from Armenia, in a.d. 4; 
 and Augustus, who in the year preceding had accepted the administra- 
 tion for another decennial period, now adopted Tiberius as his son, 
 and associated him in the Tribunitian power for ten years. At the 
 same time he compelled Tiberius to adopt Germanicus, the son of his 
 brother Drusus, though Tiberius had a son of his own. Tiberius was 
 sent to conduct the military operations on the German frontier : the 
 details of these events belong to his life. After a successful campaign 
 Tiberius returned to Rome, in a.d. 9, the same year in which Ovid was 
 banished from Rome. The success of Tiberius and the laurels won by 
 his adopted son Germanicus in this year and the preceding, were 
 overcast by the news of the defeat of Quintilius Varus and the destruc- 
 tion of his army. [Hermann.] This was the greatest reverse which 
 Augustus sustained in the long course of his administration. The war 
 on the German frontier continued, and in a.d. 12 Tiberius enjoyed a 
 triumph for his victories. In a.d. 13 Augustus for the fifth time 
 accepted the administration of the empire for ten years. He had now 
 lived long enough to see all his direct male descendants die, except one 
 grandson, Agrippa Postumus, a youth of unpromising disposition, who 
 was sent into banishment. But Claudius, the sou, and Caligula, the 
 grandson of his stepson Drusus, were already born, and both of them 
 became in time his unworthy successors. Even Vespasian, the eighth in 
 the series of the Roman Caesars, was born in the lifetime of Augustus. 
 
 In a.d. 14 Augustus held the third census, with the assistance of 
 Tiberius. He had for some time been in feeble health. In the summer 
 of this year, after superintending the celebration of some games at 
 Naples, he retired to Nola, where he died on the 19th of August, in 
 the seventy-sixth year of his age, aud in the same room in which his 
 father had died. Feeling his end near, he called his friends together, 
 and asked them if they thought he had played his part well in life; 
 and if they did, he added, give me then your applause. He died 
 while he was kissing Livia, and telling her to remember their union. 
 An accomplished actor undoubtedly he was, and he played a great 
 part. A rumour that he was poisoned by his wife his been preserved 
 by the historians, but not the slightest evidence is alleged in confirma- 
 tion of it. By his will he left Livia and Tiberius his heirs. 
 
 In this imperfect sketch some facts have been stated without any 
 limitations, which in a history would require a careful examination. 
 Of all periods this is one of the most eventful, and of all perhaps the 
 most fruitful in consequences, for it i3 the period in which was con- 
 solidated that system of government and administration which has 
 determined the character of European civilisation. It is remarkable 
 also for the personal history of the man, which, from the battle of 
 
431 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 AUGUSTUS L 
 
 432 
 
 Actium, comprised a period of near forty-four years, and from the time 
 of his landing at Brundisium in B.C. 44, a period of fifty-seven years. 
 Augustus was of middle stature, or rather below it, but well made. 
 The expression of his handsome face was that of unvarying tranquil- 
 lity ; his eyes were large, bright, and piercing ; his hair a lightish 
 yellow; and his nose somewhat aquiline. The profound serenity of 
 his expression and the noble character of his features are shown by 
 his gems and medals. He was temperate even to abstinence in eating 
 and drinking, and he thus attained a great age, though he was of a 
 feeble constitution ; but though a rigid father, and a strict guardian 
 of public morals, he is accused of incontinence. He was fond of 
 simple amusements, and of children's company. In all his habits he 
 was methodical, an economiser of time, and averse to pomp and 
 personal display. He generally left the city and entered it by night, 
 to avoid being seen. The master of so many legions — lie who directed 
 the administration of an e pire which extended from the Euphrates 
 to the Pillars of Hercules, and from the Libyan Desert to the German 
 Ocean — lived in a house of moderate size, without splendour or 
 external show. From his youth he had practised oratory, and was 
 well acquainted with the learning of his day. Though a ready speaker, 
 he never addressed the senate, the popular assemblies, or the soldiers 
 without preparation, and it was his general practice to read his speeches. 
 He was a man of unwearied industry, a great reader, and a diligent 
 writer. His successful encouragement of literature, especially in the 
 persons of Virgil and Horace, has procured the name of the Augustan 
 age for the brilliant period in which he lived. He was also himself 
 an author. Plutarch ('Anton.' 22) and Appian ('Bell. Civ.' iv. 110) 
 availed themselves of commentaries written by the emperor; and 
 Suetonius (85), most probably alluding to the same work, mentions an 
 autobiography in thirteen books extending down to the Cantabrian 
 war. He wrote also a poem in verse called 'Sicilia,' some epigrams, 
 and a tragedy called ' Ajax; ' the last did not satisfy him, and was 
 never published. The fragments of the emperor's works were collected 
 by J. Rutgers, and published by J. A. Fabricius, 172 1, 4to. 
 
 (Cicero, Letters; Horace; Virgil; Ovid; the Monumentum Ancy- 
 ranum ; Velleius ; Tacitus ; Plutarch, Life of A ntony, &c. ; Appian, 
 Civil Wars, books ii. iii. iv. v. ; Suetonius, Life of Octavius ; Dion 
 Cassius; Clinton, Fasti; Biographical Dictionary of the Society for 
 the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 As the relations of the members of the Augustan family are exceed- 
 ingly intricate, and yet a knowledge of them is essential to a full 
 understanding of the history of the Roman empire, we subjoin a 
 Btemma of the family drawn up by Lipsius. (See Oberlin's ' Tacitus,' 
 vol. ii. p. 581.) There are some difficulties about a few names, but they 
 are of no importance. 
 
 C. Octavius by Ancharia has Octavia the Elder; by Atia, daughter of Balbus, 
 he has Ottaoia the Younger, and O. Octavius, afterwards Augustus. From 
 which of the daughters the following progeny springs is uncertain. 
 I. Octavia . f\. II. Marcellus, married (1) Pompeia, daughter of Sextus 
 Pompeius, and (2) Julia, daughter of Augustus — has no 
 progeny. 
 2. Marcella the Elder. 
 
 a. By M. Vipsanius 
 Agrippa 
 
 b. By Julius Anto- 
 nius Africanus, 
 son of the Tri- 
 umvir 
 
 a. By C. Mar- 
 cellus 
 
 Children of names unknown. 
 
 L. Antonius Afri- 
 canus, father or 
 uncle of . 
 
 >S. Antonius 
 cunus ? 
 
 Afri. 
 
 ^3. Marcella the Younger. 
 
 b. By M. An- 
 tonius the 
 Triumvir . 
 
 , Antonia the El- 
 der, 
 
 By L. Domitius 
 jEnobarbus . 
 
 '1. Doynitia, married Crispus Passienus? 
 Domitia Lepida. 
 
 By M. Valerius \ Valeria Messallina, 
 Barbatus Mes- > m. Claudius, the 
 
 salla . . ) emperor. 
 By Ap. Junius None , 
 bilanus ? . j 
 
 , Antonia the 
 
 Younger, 
 By Drusus, bro-l 
 ther of Tiberius 
 
 3. On. Domitius, by ) Nerq 
 . Agrippina . . / 
 f\. Germanicus, adopted by Tiberioe. 
 By Agrippina, dr. \ 
 
 of Julia . . ) See below - 
 
 2. Livia or Livilla, 
 
 m. C. Caesar, and afterwards Drusus, 
 son of Tiberius, is betrothed to Se- 
 janus. 
 
 3. Claudius. 
 a. By Plautia Ur. 
 
 gulanilla 
 
 By ^Elia Peti- 
 na . 
 
 e. By Valeria Mes- 
 sallina . 
 
 1. Drusus, 
 Betrothed to dr. of 
 
 Sejanus. 
 
 2. Claudia. 
 ( Antonia, 
 
 ) m. Pompeius M. 
 | and Faustus 
 [ Sulla. 
 
 Octavia, 
 I Betrothed to L. Si- 
 <( lanus, m. Nero. 
 
 12. Claudius Britan- 
 nicus. 
 
 II. C. Octavius, afterwards C. Julius C<zsar Octavianun Auoustus, has no 
 children by his other wives ; by Scribonia, daughter of L. Scribonius Libo, 
 he has one daughter, Julia. Julia 
 
 a. By M. Marcellus, son of C. Marcellus and Octavia, has no progeny. 
 
 1. Caius Casar, adopted by Augustus, married Livia, sister of 
 Germanicus. 
 
 2. Lucius Casar, adopted by Augustus, betrothed to jEmilia 
 
 Lepida. 
 
 1< M. JEmilius Lepidus, m. Drusilla, dr. 
 
 of Germanicus. 
 2. Aimilia Lepida, 
 a. Betrothed to Claudius. 
 
 b. By M. Vip. 
 sanius Agrip-( 
 pa 
 
 3. Julia, 
 
 By L. jEmilius 
 Paulus, son of 
 the Censor 
 
 l>. By Ap. Junius 
 
 Silanus? . 
 
 (\. L. Silanus, 
 Betrothed to Oc- 
 tavia, daughter of 
 Claudius 
 
 2. if. Silanun, Pro- 
 consul of Asia. 
 
 3. Junia Calvi?ia, 
 married son of 
 Vitcllius. 
 
 4. Agrippina, 
 
 By Germanicus 
 
 \ 
 
 c. By Drusus, son 
 V. of Germanicus 1 
 ^ 1. Nero, married Julia, daughter of Dru- 
 sus, son of Tiberius. 
 
 2. Drusus, married Emilia Lepida. 
 
 3. Caius Caligula. 
 . 4. Agrippina, I 
 \ By Cn. Domitius / 
 
 5. Drusilla, married L. Cassius and M. 
 .l.iui'.iiis Lepidus. 
 
 6. Livia or Livilla, married M. Vicinius 
 V_ and Quinctilius Varus! 
 
 • None. 
 
 f Nebo. 
 
 5. Agrippa Postumus, adopted by Augustus. 
 
 c. By Tiberius, has none. 
 
 III. Tiberius 
 Claudius Nero, 
 By Livia 
 Drusilla 
 
 1. Tiberius Nero, adopted by Augustus. 
 
 a. By Vipsania 
 Agrippina, gr. 
 dr. of Atticus. 
 
 b. By Julia . 
 
 Drusus, 
 By Antonia the 
 Younger 
 
 Drusus, j 
 By Livia, sis- I 
 ter of Ger- | 
 manicus 
 
 ■ None. 
 
 1. Ti. Gemellus. 
 
 2. — Gemellus. 
 
 3. Julia. 
 
 a. By Nero, son 1 
 
 of Germanicus J "° e * 
 
 b. By Rubel- 1 Rubellius 
 liu8 Blandus . | Plautus. 
 
 See above. 
 
 In the person of the emperor Nero the Julian family became 
 extinct. As far as we have traced it here, the Julian blood descended 
 from a single female, the sister of the dictator Csesar. The dictator 
 had only a daughter Julia, who left no descendants. 
 
 AUGUSTUS I. of Saxony was the second son of Henri, the pious 
 duke of Saxony, of the junior branch of Attenburg, and was born 
 July 31, 1526. In 1544 he became administrator of the bishopric of 
 Messeburg ; and in 1553 he succeeded to the electorate on the death 
 of his elder brother Maurice, who had been made elector through the 
 influence of Charles V., in place of his cousin John Frederick, who 
 had fought against the emperor in the wars occasioned by the 
 Reformation, and was therefore deposed by the diet. [Maukice.] 
 John Frederick, son of the deposed elector, aspired to the succession, 
 but was obliged to satisfy himself with the duchy of Gotha and other 
 districts. Hence arose the division between the electoral, now royal, 
 house of Saxony, which continues in the successors of Augustus, and 
 the ducal houses of Saxe Gotha and Saxe Weimar, which are the 
 descendants of John Frederick. Augustus was vindictive, intolerant, 
 and selfish ; but his reign was peaceful and prosperous. Once only 
 was he obliged to take the field against his relative John Frederick, 
 who was induced, by the suggestion of a Frauconian adventurer 
 named Grumbach, who had been outlawed for the murder of the 
 Archbishop of Wiirzburg and the plunder of that town, to revolt 
 against the emperor Maximilian II. The emperor demanded of the 
 duke the outlaw Grumbach, and on the refusal of Johu Frederick to 
 give him up, he was put under the ban of the empire, and the elector 
 Augustus was charged with his punishment. He besieged Gotha, took 
 it, and made the duke prisoner. Grumbach and others were put to 
 death; John Frederick was shut up in a prison for life, and his 
 territories were divided between his two sons. 
 
 Towards the Calvinists, or Philippists, as they were called, from 
 Philip Melancthon, whose views they professed to follow, who had 
 spread into Saxony and other parts of Germany, Augustus was an 
 uncompromising persecutor. Some of the leaders he imprisoned, one 
 or two were tortured, and the rest of the sect he banished from his 
 dominions. He then caused a creed of Lutheran orthodoxy to be 
 drawn up, which was styled ' Formula Concordiae,' to which he com- 
 pelled all the clergy and schoolmasters of ducal Saxony to swear or 
 resign their functions. In other respects the sway of Augustus was 
 directed to the improvement of the condition of the people. He 
 respected the constitutions of his country, and consulted the assembly 
 
484 
 
 of the states on all important occasions, especially iu the raising of 
 subsidies. His law3 and ordonnances were also held in high esti- 
 _ation, and he was styled by some the Justinian of Saxony. He 
 mbellished Dresden, and built the fine palace of Augustenburg, and 
 et left the coffers of the state well filled at his death in 15S6. He 
 as succeeded by his son Christian I. 
 
 AUGUSTUS H. This is the title by which the monarch is 
 nerally known who united the crown of Poland with the electorate 
 of Saxony in 1697, although in Saxon histories he is more generally 
 still.- 1 Frederic Augustus I. He was the second son of John 
 George III., elector of Saxony, and was born at Dresden in 1670. 
 Distinguished in his youth by great personal advantages, Augustus 
 improved these by military campaigns, by travels through Europe, 
 and by a prolonged residence in its various courts. While at V'ienua 
 he formed a friendship with the future emperor, Joseph I. His lather 
 was somewhat mistrustful of the partiality shown by his son for 
 courtiers and personages hostile to the Protectant interest. For 
 similar reasons a jealousy existed between Augustus and Lis elder 
 brother, who succeeded to the electorate as John George IV. in 1691. 
 This prince dying iu 1691, made way for Augustus, who showed him- 
 self severe towards his brother's mistress and favourites. His first 
 step was an alliance with Austria, in whose behalf he raised troops 
 against France; but as he refused to serve under Prince Louis of 
 Baden, who commanded as imperial general upon the Rhine, the 
 court of Vienna intrusted him with an expedition against the Turks 
 in Hungary. Here he showed valour and obstinacy, but very little 
 skill, and obtained little success. His personal bravery however pro- 
 duced a marked impression on the Turks, who gave him the name 
 of the Iron-handed. 
 
 The death of the heroic Sobieski in 1696 left the throne of Poland 
 open to the ambition of candidates. His son, James Sobieski, was 
 thwarted in his hopes of succeeding to the royal heritage by the 
 avarice and enmity of his mother. The elector of Bavaria, and the 
 prince of Conti, both aspired to the throne. Augustus was induced 
 to become their competitor by Count Przebedowski, one of the chief 
 dignitaries of the kingdom, who promised that money would insure 
 success; and he was supported by all the influence of the court of 
 Vienna. Augustus, through his able envoy, Count Flemmiug, lavished 
 considerable sums at Warsaw : he thus obtained the advantage over 
 his rival, who could but promise ten millions of florius, while Augus- 
 tus paid them : the Protestant faith of the elector of Saxony was 
 still a serious obstacle ; but Augustus removed it by a public recanta- 
 tion at Baden, near Vienna, on Whit-Suuday, 1697. In addition to 
 the ten millions of florius, Augustus promised to support an army of 
 6000 men at the cost of Saxony, and to recover Kaminietz, VVallachia, 
 Moldavia, and the Ukraine. 
 
 Notwithstanding these promises, the great majority of electors, in 
 a diet held the 27th of June, 1697, gave their voices to the prince of 
 Conti. The minority however proceeded to proclaim Augustus, who 
 entered Poland at the head of 8000 Saxons; while the prince of Conti, 
 Bailing unattended to Danzig, arrived in time to hear ' Te Deum ' 
 chanted in honour of his rival's accession. Augustus was crowned 
 king on September 15, 1697, and made his entry into Cracow in a 
 dress valued at a million of florins. 
 
 The first aim of the new monarch was to keep bis promise of recover- 
 ing for Poland its lost possessions of Podolia, the Ukraine, and Kami- 
 nietz. War, conquest, the foundation of a great empire, and his own 
 magnificence, were the favourite dreams of Augustus. He commenced 
 by forming an alliance with Denmark, a measure which provoked 
 the hostility of Sweden, and then marched with an army of Saxons 
 and Poles to drive the Turks from Kaminietz. While proceeding on 
 this expedition, the Polish monarch met at Rava the Czar Peter re- 
 turning from his travels with all the plans and projects that were to 
 procure him the title of ' the Great.' The bold, frank, ambitious, yet 
 UDcrafty Augustus was the ally most suitable to Peter's views : a close 
 alliance was concluded between them, and a scheme of conquest, at 
 the expense of Sweden, was projected. The alliance with Russia 
 enabled Augustus to conclude the treaty of Carlovvitz, by which most 
 of the territories which he sought to recover were ceded to Poland. 
 The allied monarchs next proceeded to the completion of their pro- 
 jects against Sweden. This kingdom, under the rule of an iufant 
 prince, seemed likely to offer no formidable resistance; and to detach 
 Livonia from it seemed to Augustus to be an easy ta^k, more especially 
 asPatkul, a refugee Livonian, promised to rally bis countrymen in sup- 
 port of the Saxon cause. Augustus accordingly invaded Livonia, and 
 laid siege to Riga. The provocation had one of those electric effects 
 on human character that change the face of history : it roused young 
 Charles XII. of Sweden from the insignificance of youth, and excited 
 at once the prince and his people to a pitch of heroism, that rivalled, 
 or even surpassed, for a time the glories of the great Gustavus. 
 Charles defeated the Russians at Narva, and forced Augustus to raise 
 thexiegeof Riga; in the meantime he reoccupied Livonia, and in July 
 1701 defeated the Saxon army on the Duna, compelling it to abandon 
 fortresses and artillery. The Saxons were throughout made the 
 ■acrifice and the sufferers for others : for Augustus, failing to attach 
 to himself any of the greit parties of Poland or Lithuania, could 
 depend in his distresses upon the affection of his native kingdom 
 •lone. Lost in self-admiration, no one would have perhaps been 
 
 MOO. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 more worshipped than Augustus, had he been fortunate or great; in 
 adversity, none were more despised or forsaken. His last resource was 
 to send to Charles the Countess of Kcenigsmark, his mistress, in the 
 hope that the persuasions of beauty might soften the resolutions of 
 the Swedish king. Charles however refused to see the fair envoy : he 
 persisted in regarding Augustus as a usurper, and would grant no 
 peace to the Poles, except on the condition of their electing another 
 king. But Augustus resolved not to yield without another effort : he 
 flew to his native Saxony, drained it of fresh funds and soldiers, and 
 marched by the way of Cracow to the deliverance of Warsaw. The 
 armies met between Clissow and Binczow, on the 19th July, the very 
 day which, in the previous year, had been marked by the fatal battle 
 on the Duna. The result was now similar. The Poles, composing the 
 right wing of the Saxon army, fled, and the brunt of the battle falling 
 upon the Saxons, they suffered another disastrous defeat. A party 
 was then formed iu Poland, antagonistic to the claims of Augustus. 
 Charles allied himself with this party, and promoted the election of 
 its leader, Stanislaus Leczinski, to the throne of Poland. Stanislau* 
 was accordingly elected on July 12th, 1704. 
 
 The new monarch participated of course in his patron's hostility 
 towards Saxony and Russia, and both accordingly prepared to invade 
 the electorate, and by the conquest of Dresden itself force Augustus 
 to abandon all claim to the Polish crown. The elector of Saxony 
 however had not yet lost all hope : Russia was his ally, Austria his 
 friend, and the pope obstinately refused to recognise the right of his 
 competitor. A new army of Saxons, commanded by Schulenburg, 
 had been raised to defend the electorate, and the czar had promised 
 to second its operations. But the defeat of Schulenburg at Fraustadt 
 left Saxony completely exposed to the conqueror. After this disaster 
 Augustus began to consider submission as inevitable : he accordingly 
 sent agents to treat with Charles, secretly however, since he himself 
 was yet within the camp and the power of Russia. But before Augustus 
 could escape, the czar forced him to a measure calculated to interrupt, 
 or preveut altogether, a reconciliation with Charles XII. By the 
 advance into Saxony, the Swedish force in Poland had been much, 
 reduced ; its commander had moreover relaxed his vigilance, relying 
 upon the negociations which he was aware were carrying on. The 
 czar forced Augustus, however reluctant, to take advantage of the 
 moment and to attack the Swedes. He did so with success, and even 
 entered Warsaw in momentary triumph. But Augustus saw that an 
 advantage so gained was little likely to conduce to a permanent supe- 
 riority. Instead therefore of making use of it to raise his tone, or 
 diminish his concessions to Sweden, he on the contrary offered to make 
 amends for the aggression ; and at the same time accepted without 
 hesitation the conditions that Charles had already imposed. Abandon- 
 ing Russia, he hastened iu person to meet the Swedish monarch at 
 Altranstadt, and to conclude peace upon terms sufficiently humiliating. 
 Augustus abdicated the crown of Poland in favour of Stanislaus, pro- 
 mised to send this prince the crown jewels, and to congratulate him by 
 letter. He abandoned his allies and his fortresses, and was obliged to 
 give up the unfortunate Patkul to the vengeance of Charles. Charles 
 also, in imitation of his great predecessor Gustavus Adolphus, made 
 himself the Defender of the Protestant Faith ; and stipulated that 
 Augustus should respect the creed and privileges of his Protestant 
 subjects of Saxony. This peace was concluded ou September 24th, 
 1706. 
 
 Augustus now saw himself confined to his native dominions, and 
 condemned to political insignificance. He endeavoured to drown dis- 
 appointment in luxury and expense ; and by way of finding occupation 
 for himself and bis soldiers, in 1708 he placed a Saxon army of 9000 
 men at the emperor's disposal in the Netherlands. Schulenburg com- 
 manded them ; but Augustus himself served iu their ranks as a volun- 
 teer, and as such took part in the siege of Lille. His natural son, 
 Maurice of Saxony, made his first campaign on this occasion. The 
 battle of Pultowa, and the overthrow of the power of Sweden in 1709, 
 recalled Augustus to the throne of Poland. The pope released him 
 from his oath of abdication. Russia, Prussia, and Denmark supported 
 his preteusions ; and Stanislaus, instead of offering resistance, fled into 
 Turkey to join Charles. The first efforts of Augustus on his restora- 
 tion were to drive the Swedes altogether from Germany. In conjunc- 
 tion with Denmark, he marched into Pomerania ; but here he was 
 repulsed by Steinbock, the Swedish general. 
 
 Charles XII. himself soon after re-appeared upon the sceue ; but all 
 his heroism was less dangerous to the allies thau the intrigues of his 
 minister, the Count de Goertz, who almo-.t succeeded iu subverting 
 the existing alliances between the European states. He had nearly 
 dissolved the bond between Augustus and Russia, when the death of 
 Charles XII. occurred, and at once brought to a conclusion the struggles 
 of war and of political intrigue. The restoration of Augustus to 
 the throne of Poland aggravated the ills of that unhappy country. 
 If Stanislaus had been raised to the throne by the dictation of a 
 foreign power, Augustus was still more a foreigner, who relied upon 
 Russian support, and who first placed the country at the mercy of sur- 
 rounding states. Unable to rely on the Poles, Augustus endeavoured 
 to defend his authority by Saxon soldiers. Insurrection and civil 
 war followed; and then the country being evacuated by the Saxon 
 soldiers, and the national army of Poland, under the crafty counsel of 
 Russia, reduced from near 100,000 to the insignificant force of about 
 
 2 F 
 
435 
 
 AUGUSTUS FREDERIC III. 
 
 AUMALE, DUC D\ 
 
 484 
 
 20,000 men, the country was left in peace, but it was the peace of 
 inaction and death. 
 
 The interval between 1718, the year of Charles Xllth's death, and 
 that of Augustus, which took place in 1733, passed away without 
 being marked by any remarkable incidents. The unsuccessful effort 
 of Augustus to secure the duchy of Courland for his son Maurice, 
 was almost the only attempt at active policy. A marriage between 
 the king's eldest son and an archduchess of Austria was an opportunity 
 for Augustus to display all his magnificence. The procession was 
 such as no court in Europe could rival ; diamonds and embroidery 
 had never been seen in greater profusion. But the people of Dresden 
 could only look with discontented eyes on a scene of magnificence, 
 cruelly contrasted with their own recent and present misery. In 
 addition to this, the recantation of the young prince, and the favour 
 shown by the king to the Jesuits and high Catholic party in Poland, 
 filled the Lutheran population of Saxony with anxious fears for their 
 religious liberties. 
 
 Augustus was not beloved by his subjects in either of his king- 
 doms ; each complained that they were sacrificed to the other, while, 
 in reality, both were sacrificed to the vain-glory, luxury, licentious- 
 ness, and prodigious extravagance of the prince. In Saxony his prodi- 
 gality was favourablo to the arts ; the fine buildings of Dresden were 
 mostly erected by him ; and the porcelain manufacture of Saxony 
 (the rage with the princes of that day) may be said to have been 
 founded in his reign. Poland had not even this trifling recompense : 
 to that unfortunate country his election was an unalleviated mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 AUGUSTUS FREDERIC III., eon of Augustus II., elector of 
 Saxony and king of Poland, was born at Dresden, October 7, 1G90. 
 His father, wishing to give him the same accomplishments that had 
 distinguished himself, sent him in 1711 to visit the different courts of 
 Europe ; but the young prince gained from his travels only the love 
 of idleness and pleasure. The death of his father in 1733 made 
 Augustus elector of Saxony, and left him at the same time the 
 strongest pretensions to the throne of Poland. His indolent nature 
 shrunk, it is said, from struggling to attain this uneasy eminence ; 
 but his wife, a daughter of Austria, urged Augustus to become a candi- 
 date. He was supported by the courts of Vienna and St. Petersburg, 
 both anxious that Poland should have for a monarch a prince of easy 
 disposition, possessed of foreign and distaut dominions. France how- 
 ever favoured his father's old competitor Stanislaus, whose daughter 
 had become the wife of Louis XV., and the Polish nation eagerly 
 embraced the occasion to elect a native prince. But a Russian army 
 advanced to enforce the pretensions of Augustus III. ; the Poles dis- 
 puted gallantly but unsuccessfully the passage of the Vistula ; and 
 under Russian auspices a few of the Saxon partisans in Poland, meeting 
 in the village of Kaurien, proceeded to the counter-election of Augustus. 
 His competitor Stanislaus was obliged to take refuge in Danzig, which 
 he was compelled eventually to abandon, along with his pretensions to 
 the throne of Poland. Augustus did not become undisputed monarch 
 of Polaud till after the Diet of Pacification, held at Warsaw in 1736. 
 Though oppressed by foreign troops, the Poles showed themselves 
 jealous of their independence. They stipulated for the dismissal of 
 foreigners, and for the maintenance of only 1200 Saxon guards within 
 the kingdom. 
 
 The favourite adviser of Augustus had up to this time been the old 
 companion of his travels, Sulkowski ; but he was now superseded by 
 Count Bruhl, who henceforth monopolised all authority in Saxony and 
 Poland. Iu view of a probable dispute as to the succession to the 
 throne of Austria on the death of Charles VI., it was Sulkowski's 
 project to conquer Bohemia for Saxony. Bruhl at first abandoned 
 this scheme, and leagued with Austria to support the succession of 
 Maria Theresa. In a little time however he was tempted to throw 
 Saxony into the opposite party, and to resume the scheme of appro- 
 priating Bohemia, while Frederic was to have Silesia. Augustus 
 acquiesced. The Saxon and Prussian troops fought in alliance, but 
 had not been long in the field when Augustus learned to his astonish- 
 ment that his minister had again deserted Frederic. Soon after, in 
 1743, an alliance was concluded at Warsaw between England, Saxony, 
 and Austria, for the defence of the house of Hapsburg. The king of 
 Prussia instantly marched 100,000 men into Saxony, routed all that 
 opposed him, and made himself master of Dresden, December 1745 ; 
 whilst Augustus, with his minister, took refuge in Poland. The truce 
 of 1746 however restored to him the electorate ; and at the same period 
 took place the marriage of Augustus's daughter, Maria Josepha, with 
 the dauphin of France — a marriage from which sprung Louis XVI., 
 Louis XVIII., and Charles X. 
 
 In consequence of a fresh plot in conjunction with Russia against 
 Prussia, Frederic invaded Saxony in 1756, and succeeded in taking 
 captive the entire Saxon army in its entrenched camp at Pirna. 
 Augustus again fled to Poland. His reign in this latter country was 
 as pernicious as in Saxony. If Saxony was humbled in its pride, 
 stripped of its resources, an l ravaged by invading armies, Poland suf- 
 fered equal injury, though less violence. It was allowed to sink into 
 what Rulhieres calls ' a tranquil anarchy.' Its diets, which were seldom 
 held, were never allowed to come to a resolution or pass a law. It had 
 no court or king ; Augustus, who was passionately fond of the chace, 
 preferred the well-stocked forests of Saxony to the plains of Poland. 
 
 Saxony itself having fallen into insignificance, its monarchs sunk 
 into a state of dependence upon Russia, and St. Petersburg became the 
 capital to which the Poles resorted, rather than to Dresden. Thus 
 the supremacy of Russia was allowed silently to establish itself in 
 Poland under the empty government of Augustus. Pictures, porcelain, 
 fetes, and music, were the only cares of this weak and foolish prince, 
 who was to his father what Louis XV. was to Louis XIV., except that 
 Augustus III., though prodigal and luxurious, was no sensualist. 
 Rulhieres even reproaches him for his stupid constancy to his queen — 
 a singular specimen of tho French historian's own ideas of morality. 
 Augustus III. expired at Dresden in October 1763. 
 
 AUGUSTUS FREDERICK, Prince of Great Britain and Ireland 
 and Duke of Sussex, the sixth son and ninth child of George III., 
 was born at Buckingham Palace on the 27th of January 1773. After 
 having made some progress in his studies under private tuition, he 
 went to the University of Gottingen, and subsequently travelled in 
 Italy. During this tour, and while Btill under age, he contracted at 
 Rome a marriage with Lady Augusta Murray, second daughter of the 
 Earl of Dunmore in Scotland. The marriage ceremony was performed 
 at Rome by a clergyman of the Eoglish Church, in April 1793, and in 
 consequence of doubts having arisen whether a marriage performed by 
 a Protestant clergyman in Rome, where there is no British representa- 
 tive, could be valid, the ceremony was repeated at St. George's, Han- 
 over-square, London, on the 5th of December 1793. At the instance 
 of the crown, this marriage wat, in 1794, declared in the Prerogative 
 Court of Canterbury to be null and void, by the terms of the act 
 12 George III., cap. Ill, called the Royal Marriage Act. It is the 
 opinion of eminent lawyers that several important points in the ques- 
 tion involved were left untouched by the decision in this case. But 
 the decision was in effect affirmed, by the rejection of the House of 
 Lords of the claim of Sir Augustus D'Este to take his seat as a peer 
 of the realm. The duke was for some years separated from Lady 
 Augusta, who died on the 5th of March 1834, and the fruit of the 
 union was a son, Colonel Sir Augustus Frederick D'Este, born 13th of 
 January 1794, and a daughter, Ellen Augusta D'Este, born 11th of 
 August 1801, who both survived their parents. Prince Augustus was 
 raised to the peerage on the 27th of November 1801, when he received 
 patents as Baron Arklow, Earl of Inverness, and Duke of Sussex. 
 Parliament voted him an income of 12,000/. a year, which was after- 
 wards increased to 18.000Z. The Duke of Sussex early adopted, and 
 was to the last days of his life a steady and persevering advocate of 
 the liberal side in politics. In his votes and speeches, at various times, 
 he supported the abolition of the slave-trade and of slavery, and the 
 removal of the Roman Catholic and Jewish disabilities. He was a 
 friend to religious toleration in its widest sense. He took a warm 
 and active interest in the progress of the Reform Bill, and gave his 
 support to the principles of free trade. He was also connected with 
 many public and benevolent institutions. On his eldest brother 
 becoming Prince Regent in 1810, the Duke of Sussex became Grand 
 Master of the United Order of Free Masons of England and Wales. 
 In 1816 he became President of the Society of Arts. On the 30th of 
 November 1830 he became President of the Royal Society, which 
 office he relinquished iu 1839. Some years before his death he con- 
 tracted a second marriage, without acceding to the terms of the Royal 
 Marriage Act, with the Lady Cecilia Letitia Bug^in (widow of Sir 
 George Buggin), who, on the 30th of March 1840 was raised to the 
 dignity of Duchess of Inverness. His Royal Highness died at Ken- 
 sington Palace on the 21st of April 1843. The events of his life 
 portray his character. He was a man of most kindly disposition, and 
 singularly free from ostentation. He was bountiful to many institu- 
 tions for purposes of charity and social improvement ; and, notwith- 
 standing this drain on his comparatively limited means, he left behind 
 him one of the most magnificent private libraries in Britain, consisting 
 of upwards of 50,000 volumes, 12,000 of which were theological. An 
 elaborate catalogue of a portion of it, entitled ' Bibliotheca Sussexiana,' 
 was prepared by Dr. Pettigrew. The first volume, relating to theological 
 and biblical manuscripts, appeared in 1827 ; the second volume, relat- 
 ing solely to the unrivalled collection of printed bibles and portions 
 of bibles, was printed in 1839. (Abridged from the Biographical 
 Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUMALE, CHARLES DE LORRAINE, DUC D', sprung from 
 a branch of the ducal house of Lorraine, which had settled in France 
 about the beginning of the 16th century, when it was possessed of the 
 fief of Aumale. His father, Claude d'Aumale, was governor of Bur- 
 gundy, and uncle to Henry, duke of Guise, the head of the League. 
 [Guise, Dukes of.] Charles d'Aumale entered into the party of the 
 League, which, under pretence of suppressing the Huguenots, aspired 
 to the supreme power. After the assassination of the Duke of Guise, 
 in December 1588, D'Aumale and the Duke of Mayenne became th» 
 heads of their party. D'Aumale in 1589 took possession of Paris, 
 from which King Henry III. had been obliged to retire, when he 
 dissolved the parliament by force, and sent its members to the Bastille. 
 Shortly afterwards he marched from Paris with 10,000 men to attack 
 the town of Senlis, but was defeated by La Noue. For a short time 
 he defended Paris against the forces of Henri IV., who, after the 
 assassination of Henri III., succeeded to the crown. After the sur- 
 render of Paris to Henri IV., D'Aumale joined the Spaniards, who 
 had invaded the province of Picardy, for which he was declared guilty 
 
437 
 
 AUNOY, COMTESSE D*. 
 
 AURELIANUS, 
 
 433 
 
 of high treason by the parliament of Paris, and sentenced to be broken 
 on the wheel, which sentence was executed in effigy the 24th of July 
 1595. From this period DAurnale resided abroad, chiefly in Flanders, 
 enjoying the favour of the Spanish government ; and he died at 
 Brussels in 1631. (Laeretelle, Histoire de France pendant les Guerres de 
 Religion.) 
 
 AU.VOY, or AULNOY, MARIE CATHERINE, COMTESSE D', 
 was the daughter of M. le Jumel de Berne ville, and allied to mauy of 
 the first families of Normandy. She was born about 1650. After the 
 death of her father, her mother married the Marquis de Gadaigne, 
 and resided at the court of Madrid. Mademoiselle de Burneville 
 became the wife of Fraucois de la Mothe, count d Aunoy. The 
 countess was a distinguished ornament of the French court, as her 
 aunt, Madame Desloges, had been before her. She possessed great 
 facility in composition, and formed one of a coterie of court ladies, 
 who contributed very considerably to the light literature of their day. 
 The Countess d' Aunoy died at Paris in January 1 705, leaving behind 
 her four daughters, one of whom, Madame de Here, sustained the 
 family reputation by her wit and talents. 
 
 The literary fame of Madame d' Aunoy has been preserved to our 
 own day almost entirely by her ' Fairy Tales.' They are of the class 
 of composition introduced into France at the close of the 17th 
 century by Charles Perrault. The wit and vivacity of the Countess 
 D' Aunoy have secured for many of her tales a degree of popularity in 
 which they are surpassed only by those of Perrault himself. Among 
 the numerous productions of the countess we meet with one, at least, 
 ' The White Cat,' which rivals in estimation the best works of her 
 master; and several more, such as ' The Yellow Dwarf,' ' Cherry and 
 Fair Star,' and ' The Fair One with the Golden Locks,' which stand 
 first in the second rank. For the groundwork of her stories, Madame 
 d' Aunoy did not rely on her own invention; like Perrault, she resorted 
 for her plots to Italian sources, principally the ' Pentamerone ' of 
 Basile, and the 'Piacevoli Notti' of Straparola, both of which had not 
 long before been translated into French. The germ of one of her 
 stories, ' Gracieuse et Percinet,' may be found in the Cupid and 
 Psyche of Apuleius, and other fairy legends have been traced even to 
 a remoter origin. From whatever source the material was derived, 
 the French writers seem to have formed the mould which has giveu 
 shape to the fairy fiction of Europe. The writings of Madame 
 dAunoy have been much turned to account by writers for the stage, 
 especially in our own country, where they have formed the groundwork 
 of many of the most successful pantomimes, spectacles, and extrava- 
 ganzas which have been produced. 
 
 The first series of Madame d'Auuoy's 'Fairy Tales' was published 
 at Paris, in 4 vols., 12mo, in 1698, the year after the appearance of 
 Perrault's volume. The ' Nouveaux Contes des Fe"es,' and ' Les Fe'es 
 a la Mode, ou le Nouveau Gentilhomme Bourgeois,' rapidly followed, 
 completing her writings of this kind. The whole are reprinted in 
 vols, iii., iv., and v. of the collection called the 'Cabinet des Fe'es.' The 
 principal tales have run through numberless editions, and it would be 
 an impossible task to give a list of the translations of them into 
 various languages, or even into our own. The translation however by 
 J. R Planche" into English deserves a special exception for its excel- 
 lence. Mr. Planch^ has also the merit of being the best adapter of 
 them to the purposes of the modern stage. 
 
 Madame d'Auuoy wa3 a voluminous writer in another line of fiction 
 — the sentimental novel. Her principal work of this class, 'Hippolyte, 
 Comte de Duglas,' originally published in 1696, is still sometimes read, 
 and a new edition appeared at Paris in 1810. It is a miserable pro- 
 duction in every respect. Madame d'Aunoy's two other novels, 
 'L'Histoire de Jean de Bourbon, Prince de Carency,' and ' L'Histoire 
 du Comte de Warwick,' are of similar character. In the 'Memoires de 
 la Cour d'Angleterre,' the countess carried the system of mixing truth 
 and falsehood to a still greater extent than even in her novels. The 
 book opens with an apparently serious sketch of the court of 
 Charles II., in which the writer boasts of her intimacy with " Le Due 
 de Bouquinkam," " my Lady Heyde," and other real personages of 
 the time, and declares her intention to detail some of the most 
 remarkable incidents of their lives. The work is then almost imme- 
 diately transformed into a commonplace amatory romance, in which 
 half the characters are decorated with the real names which the 
 authoress has chosen to pitch upon, while the other half, with much 
 greater propriety, are distinguished by the merely fanciful names 
 usually bestowed on the heroes and heroines of romance. The 
 'Me"moires de la Cour d'Espagne,' and the 'Voyage d'Espagne,' are 
 both so written that it is impossible to tell where truth ends and 
 fiction commences. The same objection extends even to the countess's 
 works of a more decidedly serious complexion, especially to her 
 ' Memoires Historiques de ci qui s'est passe' en Europe, depuis 1672 
 jusqu'en 1679, tant aux guerres contre les Uollandois, qu'a la paix de 
 Nimegue,' 2 vols., 8vo, Paris, 1692, a work not at all to be depended 
 upon. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AURELIA'NUS. This emperor is usually known as Lucius 
 Domitius Aurelianus, but on at least one coin he is named Claudius 
 Domitius, while in a letter addressed to him by the emperor Claudius 
 (whom he succeeded), he is called Valerius Aurelianus. It is probable 
 
 that he assumed the names of Claudius and Domitius after his accession 
 to the empire. He was born probably about a.d. 212, it is commonly 
 said, at Sirmium in Paunonia; but some say in the Lower Dacia 
 (Ripensis), and others in Moesia. His father was a husbandman ; hia 
 mother priestess of a temple of the sun. At an early age he enlisted 
 as a common soldier. Tall, handsome, and strong, skilful and diligent 
 in all athletic and military exercises, temperate in his habits, and of 
 acute intellect, he rose from his humble station to the highest military 
 offices during the reigns of Valerian and Claudian. In 256 he was 
 commissioned by Valerian to make a general visitation of the military 
 stations, and in 258 he was for his services named consul by the same 
 emperor. He was distinguished by the soldiers from another Aurelian, 
 also a tribune, by the characteristic epithet ' sword in hand ' (' manu 
 ad ferrum '). As an officer his discipline was strict even to severity, 
 and he treated as a serious offence the least act of theft or extortion. 
 On the death of Claudius, honourably distinguished by the appellation 
 of Gothic, in 270, Quintillius, brother of Claudiue, assumed the purple, 
 but resigned it by a voluntary death, at the end of seventeen days, on 
 hearing that the legions of the Danube had raised Aurelian to the 
 imperial dignity. The new emperor suppressed an inroad of the Suevi 
 and Sarrnatse, and compelled them to retreat to the northern side of 
 the Danube ; but he withdrew the Roman troops from the province of 
 D acia, and thus doubly strengthened the frontier of the empire by 
 rendering the Danube its boundary, and by abandoning a district too 
 distant to be easily defended, and too thinly peopled to defend itself. 
 While thus engaged, Aurelian was recalled to the north of Italy by an 
 invasion of a German tribe, the Alemanni or MarcomannL After 
 various alternations of success, the force of the barbarians was entirely 
 destroyed iu 271. Aurelian then visited Rome, punished with a 
 ferocious severity the authors of a sedition which had disturbed the 
 city, and repaired the walls, including an additional space within their 
 limits. The disturbance at Rome was owing to the Monetarii, or 
 coiners, who appear to have had the management of the public coinage, 
 which they had probably debased for the sake of their own profit. 
 Aurelian afterwards issued a new and improved coinage. 
 
 Aurelian at this time was master only of the central portion of the 
 Roman world. Spain, Gaul, and Britain owned in name the authority 
 of Tetricus ; but he was little more than a pageant of a monarch, and 
 he himself invited Aurelian to relieve him from his splendid misery. 
 A battle was fought near Chalons in Champagne, at which Tetricus 
 betrayed his own army into a defeat, while he himself with a few friends 
 took refuge with his more powerful competitor. (Vopiscus, cap. 32.) 
 The west being secured, Aurelian betook himself to that war by the 
 successful issue of which he is best known — the reduction of the great, 
 flourishiug, and short-lived city of Palmyra. [Zenobia.] Odenathus, 
 who had raised his native city to this height of power, was dead, and 
 had been succeeded by his widow, the Celebrated Zenobia, a woman 
 of accomplished tastes and masculine talents. On his niarth Aurelian, 
 in passing through Illyria and Thrace, met and vanquished some of 
 the barbarian hordes who invested the frontier provinces of the Roman 
 empire. In Asia Minor and Syria many towns and districts submitted 
 to him, or were subdued by his arms. The hostile armies met at 
 Emesa in Syria, where Aurelian gained a decisive victory, and con- 
 tinued his march to Palmyra unopposed, except by the constant attacks 
 of the ' Syrian robbers.' The resistance of the city did credit to its 
 warlike fame. Vopiscus has preserved a letter from Aurelian himself, 
 in which he complains that the Romans talk of his waging war with a 
 woman, as if she fought with her own unassisted strength, and con- 
 tinues : — " It cannot be told what preparation for war, what store of 
 arrows, spears, stones, is here. No part of the wall but is occupied by 
 two or three balistee, and there are engines to cast fire. She does not 
 fight like a woman, nor like one who fears punishment ; but I trust 
 that the gods will assist the republic, who never have been wanting 
 to our undertakings." He offered favourable terms of capitulation, 
 but a haughty answer was returned in the Syrian language by the 
 queen, who threatened him with the promised help of the Persians, 
 Saraceni, and Armenians. But Zenobia was disappointed in her 
 expectations about these auxiliaries, and the skilful commissariat 
 arrangements of the emperor obviated the difficulties of procuring 
 subsistence for au army in the inhospitable deserts which surround 
 the oasis of Palmyra. When further resistance was seen to be hope- 
 less Zenobia tried to escape, but was taken on her way to Persia. The 
 Roman soldiers clamoured loudly for her death. Aurelian refused to 
 shed female blood ; but he took his revenge on those who had directed 
 her counsels, among whom perished the celebrated Longinus, who had 
 been Zeuobia's instructor in Grecian literature. The city surrendered 
 soon after the capture of its mistress in 273, and was treated with 
 comparative clemency, being neither plundered nor destroyed. Aurelian 
 was already returned into Europe when he heard that the Palmyre- 
 niaus had revolted, and massacred the small garrison of 600 archers 
 whom he had left in charge of their city. He returned in wrath, and 
 exceeded even his usual ferocity iu avenging this ill-judged insult. 
 Most of the inhabitants, men, women, and children, were put to the 
 sword. Aurelian was recalled a third time to the east by a rebellion 
 in Egypt, excited by Firmus, a merchant who had acquired immense 
 wealth by commerce iu India. This was immediately quelled by the 
 emperor's presence ; and having now cleared the Roman empire of all 
 rivals and pretenders to independence, and restored it to its ancient 
 
439 
 
 440 
 
 limits, he returned to Home, where he celebrated his various victories 
 ■with a triumph of more than usual magnificence. Gibbon, with some 
 other excellent modern authorities, makes the rebellion which occurred 
 in consequence of Aurelian's attempt to restore the coinage to its true 
 standard, to have happened after his triumph ; but the order of events, 
 and indeed the whole chronology of Aurelian's period, is very confused. 
 
 After this ceremony the emperor visited Gaul and Illyricum ; but 
 bis stay was short, for in a few mouths from the date of it we find 
 him leading an army against Persia, to revenge the defeat and degrada- 
 tion of Valerian. On his march between Heraclea and Byzantium he 
 was assassinated, in consequence of the treachery of one of his secre- 
 taries, named Mnestheus, whom he had threatened with punishment; 
 and the emperor's threats were known seldom to be made in vain. The 
 secretary forgt d a list of names — those of the chief officers of the army 
 ostensibly devoted to death ; and the restless character of Aurelian 
 caused the fraud to be readily believed, and promptly acted on. The 
 conspirators were those whose stations gave them a right to be near 
 his person ; he was murdered about the beginning of 275. He left a 
 single daughter, whose descendants remained at Rome when Vopiscus 
 wrote. 
 
 Aurelian is not ill-described by Eutropius as of a character " neces- 
 sary on some occasions rather than loveablc on any ; but harsh on all." 
 Yet he had many qualities noble and valuable in a ruler : he was 
 frugal in his expenses, temperato in his pleasures, moderate in providing 
 for friends and adherents, strict in preserving good order, and resolute 
 in repressing peculation, and punishing those who grew rich on pecu- 
 lation and the spoils of the provinces. But these good qualities were 
 obscured by a temper naturally harsh, and trained by a long and 
 exclusive course of military service into total cirelessness for the 
 Bufferings of others ; insomuch, that the Emperor Diocletian, himself 
 not over inclined to compassion, said on that account that Aurelian 
 was better suited to command an army than an empire. (Vopiscus, 
 in the ' Historia Augusta'; Eutropius; Aur. Victor; Gibbon, c. xi. ; 
 Crevier, ' Histoire des Empereurs Romaius,' vol. vi.) Vopi>cus 
 informs us (cap. i.) that his 'Life of Aurelian ' was founded on Greek 
 authorities (there having been no Latin history of Aurelian before his), 
 and on the Journals and Campaigns of the emperor, which were then 
 kept in the Ulpian Library at Rome. 
 
 Gold. British Museum. Diameter doubled. 
 
 AURE'LIUS ANTONINUS, MARCUS, was the son of Annius 
 Verus and Domitia Calvilla. Verus traced his pedigree to Nunia, and 
 Domitia hers to Malennius, a Salentine prince; the fathers of both 
 were consuls. Aurelius was born on Mount Ccelius, in Rome, on the 
 26th of April, a.d. 121, and was named Annius Verus. Hadrian, with 
 whom he was a favourite from infancy, familiarly called him Veris- 
 simus, a distinction which he even then merited. To his natural 
 disposition, habits, and early acquirements, which it is honourable to 
 the emperor to have perceived and cherished, he ow< d his adoption 
 into the Aurelian family by Antoninus Pius. Hadrian adopted Anto- 
 ninus Pius on the condition that he should adopt Annius Verus, and 
 also Lucius Verus, the son of a deceased favourite, L. Ceionius 
 Commodus (called, after his adoption by Hadrian, iElius Verus 
 Caesar), who was to have been his successor. [Verus.] The father of 
 Aurelius dying while he was young, his grandfather took charge of 
 his education, and gave him every advantage which the age he lived in 
 could afford. We learn from himself that he had masters in every 
 science and polite art, whose names and qualifications he has most 
 gratefully recorded, modestly attributing all his acquirements to their 
 instruction and example, and whose merits he did not fail to reward 
 when the means of so doing were in his power. (See Book L of the 
 'Meditations.') Two of them were raised to the consulate. These 
 men, therefore, were not only tutors, but models upon which the 
 character of Aurelius was formed ; the foundation of which however 
 he piously says was laid by his parents. Most of his teachers were 
 Stoics. One of the most distinguished of them, Rusticus, procured 
 him a copy of the works of Epictetus, which confirmed his natural 
 inclination to Stoicism, and became his inseparable companions. The 
 life and writings of the emperor rank him, indeed, amongst the best ' 
 teachers and brightest ornaments of the Stoical school. The work of | 
 Aurelius, in which he has most fully exhibited the rules and principles 
 of Stoicism as he understood and practised it, is divided into twelve 
 
 books, and written in Greek, and is generally known by the name of 
 his ' Meditations.' It appears to have been a private note-book, kept 
 chiefly to aid him in self-examination. But the ' Meditations ' contain 
 also the history of his education, and a collection of rules, dogmas, 
 theorems, comments, and opinions, put down as they were suggested 
 by passing events, reading, or conversation. They may be considered 
 as a supplement to Epictetus, and the two together form the best code 
 of moral discipline left to us by the ancient philosophers. This book 
 was first edited in Greek and Latin by Xylander, Zurich, 1558, then 
 by M. Casanbou in 1643, much improved; but still more by Gataker, 
 Camb. 1652, with some valuable tables of reference. Subsequent 
 editions of it, and translations into most modern languages, are 
 numerous. None of the English translations are above the merest 
 mediocrity. 
 
 Aurelius passed through all the offices usually given to persons of 
 his rank and pretensions, aud as he most punctually attended to his 
 duty in them, he obtained those facilities as a man of business for 
 which he was remarkable. In his fifteenth year the daughter of 
 Ceionius Commodus was betrothed to him by the dedre of Hadrian, 
 but the union was dissolved by Antoninus Pius after Hadrian's death. 
 After the death of Hadriau he married his cousin Faustina, daughter 
 of Antoninus Pius. Upon the death of Antoninus Pius in 161, he 
 took the name of Antoninus, and immediately associated Lucius Verus 
 with himself as partner in the empire : he also gave Verus his daughter 
 Lucilla in marriage. Aurelius accepted the throne at the request of 
 the senate, much against his inclination ; but having accepted it, he 
 never suffered hia fondness for study and philosophic retirement to 
 interfere with his public duty. A troublesome reign ensued, begiu- 
 ning with inundations, earthquakes, famine, and pestilence, causing 
 universal distress, which it required extraordinary exertion to alleviate. 
 The life of a man whose object was peace was almost entirely occupied 
 by war, owing to former emperors having conquered more countries 
 than they could unite in one empire. He felt however that the safety 
 of the empire depended upon its keeping all its provinces, for if its in- 
 ability to do so could be proved, common cause would be made 
 against it, and its destruction would follow. Aurelius by his activity, 
 fortitude, and a prudent choice of his lieutenants, suppressed the insur- 
 rections that broke out in all quarters : he was everywhere victorious; 
 and he took the best means in his power to make his victories effective, 
 by showing mercy and clemency to the conquered. 
 
 The calamities in Italy were not ended when the Parthian war 
 broke out ; Verus took the command iu this war, and returned vic- 
 torious, A.D. 166, but brought the plague with him to Rome. [Verus.] 
 Calpurnius Agricola was sent against the Britains, who threatened 
 insurrection ; and Aufidim Victorinus against the Catti. The two 
 emperors soon alter marched together against the Marcomanni, and 
 obliged them to sue for peace. In returning from this expedition 
 Verus died, a.d. 169. In the ye ir 170 Aurelius had to make war 
 against the German nations. The preparatious for the German war 
 were commensurate with the importance of the undertaking, and even 
 slaves and gladiators were enrolled among the troops. The details 
 of these wars are not well recorded ; but we know that the emperor 
 showed himself a brave soldier, a skilful general, and a humane man. 
 He drove the Marcomanni out of Paunonia, and also the S irmatians, 
 Vandals, and Quadi. The Marcomanni were almost annihilated while 
 they were retreating across the Danube ; and Dion (71, c. 7) makes 
 the same statement as to the Iazyg-'S, and describes a victory over 
 them obtained by the Romans on the frozen river. During this expe- 
 dition Aurelius resided for three years at Carnuntum on the Danube. 
 The great event of the German wars was the battle with the Quadi, 
 174, in which the emperor and his army were saved by a miracle. It 
 was in the heat of summer, while the emperor was carrying on the 
 campaign against the Quadi, probably in the country north of the 
 Danube, that the Romans were hemmed up in a dangerous position 
 by the enemy, and were in danger of perishing of thirst. On a sudden 
 the clouds collected, and a copious shower descended to refresh the 
 exhausted soldiers, whom the barbarians attacked while the Romans 
 were more intent on satisfying their thirst than on fighting. The 
 army would have b<-eu cut to pieces if a shower of hail accompanied 
 with lightning had not fallen on the Quadi. Thus fire and water 
 came down at the same time, fire on the barbarians and water on the 
 Romans ; or if the fire came on the Romans, it was quenched by the 
 water ; and if the water fell on the barbarians, it only added fuel to 
 the fire, as if it had been oil. The Romans gained a great victory, and 
 Aurelius, who was saluted Imperator for the seventh time, shortly 
 afterwards assumed the title of Germanicus, which appears on his 
 medals. He wrote, says Dion, an account of this miraculou-s deliver- 
 ance to the senate; and there is now extant a letter of Aurelius in 
 Greek, addressed to the senate, which commemorates this event. 
 
 The miracle is mentioned by all the authorities who mention the 
 battle ; but the heathen writers give the credit of it to their false gods, 
 and the Christian writers attribute it to the intercession of the 
 Christian soldiers in the emperor's army. Apolinarius, bishop of 
 Hierapolis, a contemporary of Aurelius, is cited by Eusebius as 
 evidence for this ; but Eusebius does not give his words. It is said 
 that there was a legion of Christian soldiers in the army, called the 
 legion of Melitene ; and Apoiinarius, according to Eusebius, adds, 
 that in consequence of their services on this occasion the emperor 
 
AURELIUS ANTONINUS. MARCUS. 
 
 AURUNGZEBE. 
 
 442 
 
 gave the legion the title of the Thunderbolt; and Xiphilinus, the 
 epitomator of Dion, says the same. But the twelfth legion had this 
 name at least as early as the time cf Trajan. Tertullian also speaks 
 of a letter which the emperor wrote, in which he ascribed the miracle 
 to the prayers of the Christians. Tertullian speaks of the letter as 
 if he had seen it ; yet Lardner iufers just the contrary from his words. 
 Eusebius has no information on the matter of the letter, except what 
 he gets from Tertullian ; and other writers speak 'of the letter as 
 existiug, but without being more particular. A letter in Greek, which 
 is extant, and printed after the ' Apologies ' of Justin, is admitted not 
 to be genuine by the best critics, even among those who maintain the 
 truth of the miracle, and that it was due to the prayers of a Christian 
 legion. The matter is worth notice, as it has always been, and still is, 
 a subject of controversy. 
 
 The German war was interrupted by an event which in an especial 
 manner called forth the clemency, justice, and sound policy of Aurelius. 
 This was the rebellion of Cassius, a brave and skilful general, high in 
 the confidence of the emperor, who, after an unsuccessful attempt to 
 get possession of the imperial power, was put to death by his own 
 officers (a.d. 175). Aurelius would not extend the usual penalties to 
 his family, nor suffer many of his accomplices to be punished. He 
 left the whole matter to the senate, recommending the greatest 
 clemency towards the guilty. [Cassius, Avidius.] 
 
 After the death of Cassius, the emperor made a journey into the 
 east. In his visit to Lower Egypt and Syria, he conciliated the good- 
 will and affection of his various subjects by his kindness and his 
 affable manners. During his return through Asia Minor, his wife 
 Faustina, who accompanied him, died at a place called Halale, at the 
 foot of Mount Taurus. Though her infidelity to the emperor was 
 generally believed, Aurelius lamented her loss as if she had been the 
 best of wives ; and the senate, in the usual style of adulation, decreed 
 a temple to her memory ; raised her to divine honours with the title 
 of Diva ; and decreed that silver statues of Aurelius and Faustina, 
 and an altar, should be erected, at which all the girls of the city at 
 their marriage should sacrifice with their husbands. It is only fair 
 to mention, in opposition to the accounts of Capitolinus and Dion 
 Cassius, that the emperor in his ' Meditations/ i. 17, extols the 
 obedience, affection, and simplicity of his wife. 
 
 At Smyrna, the emperor witnessed a display of the l-hetorical talents 
 of Aristides, who pronounced on that occasion his declamation in 
 praise of Smyrna, which still exists among his works. Two years after- 
 wards, when Smyrna was ruined by an earthquake, Aristides pre- 
 vailed upon Aurelius to extend to its suffering inhabitants the same 
 bounty that he had already bestowed on other cities. [Aristides ; 
 ^Elids.] From Smyrna Aurelius passed to Athens, where he appears 
 to have been admitted into the sacred mysteries of Ceres. During his 
 reign he showed his affection to this ancient seat of learning by found- 
 ing chairs of philosophy for the four chief sects, the Platonics, Stoics, 
 Peripatetics, and Epicureans; and also a professorship of rhetoric. 
 
 The close of the philosophical emperor's life was not spent in the 
 peaceful retirement which he loved, but in the midst of a northern 
 campaign against the Marcomauni, Hermunduri, Sarmatians, and 
 Quadi. His son Commodus accompanied him during these campaigns, 
 which appear to have lasted between two and three years. Aurelius 
 died, a.d. 180, after a short illness, at Vindebona (Vienna), in his fifty- 
 ninth year, having reigned ten years alone, and nine with his col- 
 league. His loss was regretted by the whole empire ; he was ranked 
 amongst the gods, and every house in Rome had his statue or picture. 
 One of the medals that we have given, bearing the inscription CON- 
 BECBATio, represents the apotheosis of Aurelius. 
 
 Brass. British Museum. Actual size. 
 
 British Museum. Actual size. 
 
 A question which has excited much discussion is that of the share 
 which Aurelius had in the persecution of the Christians. During the 
 time of Aurelius, Justin and Polycarp suffered death for their religion, 
 and the persecutions raged at Lyon in France with great fierceness. 
 There is no doubt that Aurelius was acquainted with the Christians 
 and with their doctrines in a general way. He speaks of them iu hii 
 'Meditations' (xi. 3), as persons who were ready to die from mere 
 obstinacy : a passage which seems to prove that he knew that they 
 had been put to death. The sufferings of the martyrs of Lyon are 
 told at great length by Eusebius, and though there are manifest 
 absurdities and exaggerations in the narrative, there is no reason to 
 doubt the main facts. Justin was executed at Rome, but it is not 
 agreed in what year. Justin and his associates were required by tho 
 pisefect to sacrifice to the gods, and on their refusal were sentenced to 
 be whipped and beheaded, pursuant to the emperor's edict — an expres- 
 sion which seems to have been sometimes misunderstood, and taken 
 to signify that the emperor sat in judgment. (' Acta Martyris Justini ; ' 
 Justinus, 'Opera,' ed. Haag, fol. 1742.) It is difficult to reconcile 
 the behaviour of Aurelius towards the Christians with the general 
 humanity and kindness of his character. There is indeed no satis- 
 factory evideuce of any edict being published by him against the 
 Christians, and the persecutions of Smyrna and Lyon were carried on 
 in places distant from Rome. Still it cannot be doubted that he was 
 well acquainted with what was going on iu the provinces, and he 
 must have heard of what took place at Lyon and Smyrna. There is 
 no evideuce that Aurelius encouraged these persecutions ; nor is there 
 any evidence that he prevented the persecutions or punished those 
 who were most active iu them. Aurelius did not like the Christians, 
 and he may have thought their assemblies dangerous to the state. Those 
 ecclesiastical historians who have judged him the most severely have 
 judged him unfairly; and yet the admirers of Aurelius will find it 
 difficult to give a satisfactory explanation of the sufferings of the 
 Christians in his time. 
 
 (Capitolinus, M. Ant. Philosophus ; Dion Cassius, lib. 71; Fabricius, 
 Bibliotheca Orceca, v. 500 ; Tillemont, Histoire des Empereuvs, &c.) 
 
 AURE'LIUS VICTOR. Four books are commonly published to- 
 gether under the name of Aurelius Victor. 1. ' Origo Geutis Ronianse,' 
 an imperfect work, beginning with Janus and Saturn, and going down 
 to the foundation of Rome. 2, ' De Viris Illustrious Urbis Romae,' 
 which contains short biographies of the most illustrious Romans, with 
 a few foreigners, from Romulus down to Pompeius. 6. ' De Caesari- 
 bus,' which contaius the lives of the emperors, from Augustus to the 
 appointment of Julian to govern Gaul, a.d. 356. 4. ' De Vita et 
 Moribus Imperatorum Romanorum,' or ' Aurelii Victoris Epitome,' 
 another history of the emperors, from Augustus to the death of 
 Theodosius the Great, a.d. 395. 
 
 That all these are not written by the same person is generally 
 acknowledged; by whom they are written it is harder to say. It is 
 pretty well agreed that the ' Origo ' is not written by the same person 
 as the 'Illustrious Men,' or the 'Caesars;' and some persons, on very 
 slight grounds, have attributed it to Asconius the critic. The ' Illus- 
 trious Men ' has been variously ascribed to Cornelius Nepos, Pliuy the 
 Younger, Suetonius, and the true Aurelius Victor, who is the un- 
 doubted author of the 'Caesars.' Of his life we know hardly any 
 thing ; he tells us (' De Caes.,' xx. 5) that he was " born in the country, 
 of a poor and unlearned father," and it is conjectured, from his abund- 
 ant praises of Africa, that he was a native of that province. The 
 'Caesars' seems, on the evidence of a passage written in the present 
 tense, to have been composed about the year 359 ; and there are other 
 grounds for supposing that Victor was alive at that time. It is said 
 in 'Ammianus Marcellinus' (xxi.) that the emperor Julian "appointed 
 Victor the historian prefect of Pannonia Secunda, and honoured him 
 with a brazen statue," and that some time after he was made prefect 
 of the city. An extant inscription shows that Aurelius Victor was 
 prefect of the city in the reign of Theodosius ; and it is probable that 
 these two notices refer to the same person. An Aurelius Victor was 
 consul with Valentiuian iu 373. The 'Epitome ' extends to the death 
 of Theodosius. In all the titles prefixed to the manuscripts it is 
 mentioned as ' Epitome ex libris,' ' Breviatus ex libris,' Sext. Aur. 
 Victoris ; and it agrees for the most part very closely with the ' De 
 Caesaribus,' but, as noticed above, is brought down some forty years 
 lower. Neither the style nor the contents of these books entitle the 
 author to a high place among historians. The most important 
 portion is that which contains the history of the empire, where the 
 frequent want of all contemporary authority renders a continuous 
 sketch, even though it be a meagre one, of the more value. The 
 editions of Aurelius Victor are numerous : among the best are the 
 Delphin, and those of Schott, Gruuer, Arntzeuius, Schoeuberger, and 
 .Scbroeter. Valpy's Delphin edition (vol. i.) contains a collection of 
 notices from various writers concerning the life of Victor, and the 
 authorship of the works bearing his name. 
 
 (Moller, Disputatio de Aurelio Victore, Altdorf., 1805.) 
 
 AURUNGZliBE was the last powerful and energetic sovereign that 
 ruled over the Mogul empire of Hindustan during the latter half 
 of the 17th century. His proper name was Mohammed ; but his 
 grandfather gave him the surname Aurungzebe (properly Auraug- 
 zib), that is, ' the ornament of the throne ; ' and when he became 
 emperor, he assumed the titles of Mohi-eddin, that is, ' the reviver 
 
148 
 
 AURUNGZEBK. 
 
 AURUNGZEBE. 
 
 of religion,' and Alem-gir, that is, 'the conqueror of the world.' 
 
 Aurungzebe was the third son of Shah-Jehan, the son and successor 
 •of the celebrated emperor Jehan-gir. He was born on the 22nd of 
 October 1618, and had just attained his tenth year when, upon the 
 death of Jehan-gir, his father ascended the throne (1st of February 
 1628). Aurungzebe appears from an early age to have aspired to 
 the throne of the Moguls ; but he concealed his ambitious designs 
 under an assumed air of piety and devotedness to religious duties. 
 During the last eight years of Shah-Jehau's reign, Aurungzebe was 
 intrusted with several high offices in the state, both military and 
 civil, in the discharge of which he was distinguished alike for his 
 valour and his diplomacy. At length, in 1657, the Emperor Shah- 
 Jehan was seized with an illness so serious as to leave no hope of his 
 recovery. Hia four sous, the eldest of whom was in his forty-second 
 year, the youngest about thirty years of age, now allowed their mutual 
 jealousies to have full scope. Ddra, the heir apparent, was a high- 
 spirited and generous prince, liberal in his opinions, and had he lived, 
 it is probable that he would have trodden the footsteps of his great- 
 grandfather, the illustrious Akbar. He had laboured to diminish the 
 acrimony that existed between the followers of Mohammed and 
 Brahma; and had written a work to prove that the two religions 
 agreed in all that was good and valuable, and differed only in things 
 that were of no real consequence. Availing himself of Ddra's laxity 
 of opinion, Aurungzebe avowed himself the champion of the ' true 
 faith,' being well assured of the support of the priesthood. Of his 
 brothers, Shujit and Murad, he had less to fear, as neither of them was 
 very popular ; the former being of the Shid sect, and devoted to the 
 forbidden juice of the grape; and the latter, though brave, addicted 
 to low and sensual pleasures. The illness of Shah-Jehan being consi- 
 dered mortal, Ddra on taking the reins of government, acted very 
 precipitately towards his brothers, of whom Shujd was then governor 
 of Bengal, Aurungzebe of ths Deccau, and Murad of Guzerat. All 
 communication with them was interdicted on pain of death ; and 
 their agents, papers, and effects at the capitajl were seized by his 
 order. Shujd at once took up arms. Aurungzebe's policy was, in the 
 first place, to allow Ddra and Shujd to exhaust their strength and 
 resources against each other ; and secondly, to play off Murad against 
 the victor. He accordingly persuaded Murad that his own views were 
 entirely directed to heaven, not to a throne; and that for the sake of 
 old affection, and for the promotion of the true faith, he was desirous 
 to aid Murad to his father's throne. Meanwhile Shujd was defeated 
 near the town of Mongeer by Suleimdn, Ddra's eldest son, and at the 
 same time intelligence arrived of the advance of a powerful army 
 from the south, under the joint command of Aurungzebe and Murad. 
 The imperial army, flushed with success, was immediately led against 
 the rebels, but Aurungzebe's valour and policy prevailed. Ddra soon 
 after led his whole forces in person against his two brothers, but his 
 principal generals being gained over by the intrigues of Aurungzebe, 
 his army was totally routed, and he himself compelled to seek shelter 
 in the city of Agra. But the aged emperor Shah-Jehan had in the mean- 
 time in some degree recovered from his illness. He was well aware 
 of Aurungzebe's crafty and ambitious character ; and with the hope of 
 drawing him into his power, he affected to overlook all that had 
 passed, and to throw the whole blame on his eldest son Ddra. Aurung- 
 zebe, on the other hand, affected the utmost loyalty, and under 
 pretence of paying a visit to his father, in order to obtain his blessing 
 and forgiveness, he at the same time gave instructions to his son 
 Mohammed, who, with a select body of troops, took possession of the 
 palace, and thus the aged monarch became a prisoner for life. Aurung- 
 zebe now seized and confined his brother Murad; and Ddra and 
 Shujd, after a vain struggle of two or three years' continuance, were 
 also secured; and all three were put to death. Thus the throne of 
 the Great Mogul became the undisputed possession of the crafty 
 usurper, who however for some time affected to require importuning 
 before he would accept the imperial diadem. At length in the garden 
 of Izzabad, near Delhi, on August the 2nd, 1658, Aurungzebe submitted 
 to receive the insignia of royalty, assuming at the same time the 
 pompous title of 'Alem-gir, or "conqueror of the world." It must be 
 confessed however that Aurungzebe's long reign of half a century, 
 notwithstanding the dishonourable means by which he acquired the 
 sovereign power, was upon the whole distinguished for its prosperity. 
 From the time that he was firmly established on the throne, the 
 vigilance and steadiness of his administration preserved so much 
 internal tranquillity in the empire, that historians have recorded few 
 events worthy of notice. The great drawback to the permanent well- 
 being of the empire, was the intolerant spirit of the ruliug power, and 
 the general want of confidence which the perfidy aud insiucerity of the 
 emperor had engendered. Even his own sons seemed to emulate him 
 in disobedience to their father and distrust of each other. Of all his 
 nobles, the one he dreaded most was Amir Jumla, with whom he 
 had been connected in frequent intrigues in the Deccan, and by whose 
 instrumentality he had been enabled to ascend the throne. On his 
 accession, Aurungzebe appointed this able man governor of Bengal ; 
 but to keep Lim in employment he recommended to him an invasion 
 of the kingdom of Asam, whose ruler had broken into Bengal during 
 the distractions of the empire, and still remained unchastised. Jumla, 
 who promised himself both plunder and renown from this expedition, 
 immediately undertook the task ; but after several victories on the 
 
 part of the Mogul troops, they were compelled to return, their number 
 greatly reduced by unfavourable weather and the violence of a disease 
 to which their leader at the same time fell a victim. On hearing the 
 news, the emperor remarked to the son of Jumla, whom he had 
 recently made commander-in-chief of the horse, " You have lost a 
 father, and I have lost the greatest and most dangerous of my friends." 
 
 In the third year of Aurungzebe's reign a severe famine, by which 
 the empire was visited in consequence of an extraordinary drought, 
 gave occasion for the manifestation of the nobler features of Aurung- 
 zebe's character. He remitted the rents aud other taxes of the hus- 
 bandmen ; he opened his treasury without reserve, and employed its 
 ample funds in purchasing corn in those provinces where it could be 
 obtained, aud in conveying it to such places as were most in want, 
 where it was distributed among the people at very reduced prices. At 
 his own court the utmost economy was observed, and no expense was 
 allowed for luxury and ostentation. From the day he began to reign 
 he had himself so strictly superintended the revenues and disburse- 
 ments of the state that he was now in possession of ample resources, 
 which he applied to the relief of his people. In the seventh year of 
 Aurungzebe's reign his father Shah-Jehan died ; and though the life 
 of the aged monarch had reached its natural period, yet Mill and some 
 other able historians have expressed their suspicion that his death was 
 occasioned by a draught of the pousta, a species of slow poison ; but 
 the suspicion is unsupported by good contemporary authority, and 
 there appears little reason why at such a time Aurungzebe should have 
 added to the list of his crimes that of parricide. During the whole 
 reign of Aurungzebe the northern part of India, which constituted the 
 Mogul empire under Akbar, continued in a peaceful aud apparently 
 flourishing state ; but the bigotry and illiberal policy of the ruler 
 towards his Hindoo subjects roused a powerful enemy iu the south, 
 which ultimately triumphed over the proud house of Timur. The 
 Mahrattas for the first time began to show a formidable aspect under 
 the guidance of the renowned chief Sevagi, who had been originally a 
 leader of plunderers inhabiting the mountain districts between Canara 
 and Guzerat. He had acquired considerable power and influence during 
 the civil wars that desolated tho country at the commencement of 
 Aurungzebe's reign. He at first tendered his allegiance to the usurper, 
 and was invited to court, where he was loaded with insults, and virtu- 
 all v, though not literally, imprisoned. With great address he managed 
 to effect his escape, and, in conjunction with other chiefs of his nation, 
 devoted the remainder of his life to the prosecution of a harassing and 
 successful guerilla war against Aurungzebe. 
 
 As he advanced in years Aurungzebe gradually withdrew from his 
 Hindoo subjects that toleration and kindness which had so endeared 
 to them the beneficent reign of Akbar and his two successors. He laid 
 upon them a heavy capitation tax called the ' jazia,' aud his pious zeal 
 rioted in the destruction of their ancient and magnificent temples, and 
 in offering every insult to their religious feelings. By this ill judged 
 procedure he completely forfeited the allegiance and affections of the 
 Rajputs, a brave, proud, and high spirited class of Hindoos, occupying 
 the central provinces of the empire. When acting as governor of the 
 Deccan under his father, Aurungzebe had employed his talents in 
 exciting discords and intrigues between the Mohammedan kings of 
 Bijapur and Golconda. These kingdoms, in the course of his reign, 
 he was enabled to seize and add to his already overgrown empire. 
 
 The latter years of the powerful monarch were passed in misery. 
 He was suspicious of every one around him, and more particularly of 
 his own children. The remembrance of Shah-Jehan, of Ddra, of Shujd, 
 and of Murad, now haunted him everywhere. How much he was 
 influenced by remorse for his share in their fate it is difficult to say, 
 but his actions sufficiently showed how much he feared that a like 
 measure might be meted out to himself. He expired iu the city of 
 Ahmednuggur on the 21st of February 1707, in the eighty-ninth year 
 of his life and fiftieth of his reign. Under Aurungzebe the Mogul 
 empire had attained its utmost extent, consisting of twenty-one pro- 
 vinces, with a revenue of about forty millions sterling. Yet with all 
 this outward show of prosperity the heart of the state was thoroughly 
 diseased. This was mainly owing to the character and conduct of the 
 ruler, whose government was a system of universal mistrust, every 
 man in office being employed as a spy on the actions of his neighbours. 
 This cooled the attachment of his Mohammedan nobles, while the 
 Hindoos were estranged by his intolerance to their religious system. 
 It is a curious fact that in the eleventh year of his reign Aurungzebe 
 imposed the strictest silence on all the historians within his realm, 
 " preferring," as it is said, " the cultivation of inward piety to the 
 ostentatious display of his actions." Yet to this very prohibition we 
 are indebted for the best and most impartial Indian history extant. 
 Mohammed Hdshim, a man of good family residing at Delhi, privately 
 compiled a minute register of all the events of this reign, which he 
 published some years after the monarch's death, in the reign of 
 Mohammed Shah. This work is a complete history of the house of 
 Timur; giving, first, a clear and concise account of that dynasty, from 
 the founder down to the close of Akbar's reign. The great body of 
 the work is occupied with the hundred and twenty years that suc- 
 ceeded the death of Akbar, where all the important occurrences of 
 each year are fully detailed. Mohammed Shah was so pleased with 
 this history that he ennobled the author with the title of Khdfi Khan 
 (the word khafi denotes ' concealer '). This valuable work became 
 
AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS. 
 
 known in Europe on the publication of the ' History of India ' by the 
 Honourable Mountstuart Elphinstone, in which the author, an accom- 
 plished Oriental scholar, has availed himself of Khan Khan's history, 
 and the result is a complete narrative of the reign of Aurungzebe and 
 his immediate successors. An excellent account of the commence- 
 ment of this monarch's reign will be found in Bernier's ' Travels in the 
 Mogul Empire.' The author, a well-educated Frenchman brought up 
 to the medical profession, passed twelve years in India, during eight of 
 which he acted as physician to Aurungzebe. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUSO'NIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS, was born at Burdigala, Bour- 
 deaux, some time early in the 4th century. His father Julius Ausonius 
 was a distinguished physician, eminent also for his acquaintance with 
 Grecian literature. The son was brought up with great care by his 
 maternal uncle. When about thirty Ausonius was employed to teach 
 grammar in the schools of Bourdeaux, and soon after was appointed 
 professor of rhetoric. He was naturally attached to that city ; and 
 has celebrated in a book of poems (' Commemoratio Professorum 
 Burdigalensium') all those who had taught in the schools of Bour- 
 deaux, and those natives of the place who had filled professorships 
 elsewhere. In a.d. 369 his reputation caused him to be selected by 
 the emperor Valentinian as tutor to his son Gratian. This connection 
 naturally led to his promotion ; and he was appointed praetorian prefect 
 of Italy in 377, and of the Gauls in the following year, and made 
 consul by Gratian in 379. After the death of Gratian he withdrew 
 from public life : and appears to have spent his last years in a rural 
 retreat near his native place. The date of his death is not known. 
 That he was alive in 388 is shown by his mention of the victory of 
 Theodosiu3 over Maximus. He is believed to have died about 394. 
 His son Hesperus rose to the highest dignities of the empire : his 
 daughter was successively the wife of two men of rank. 
 
 The poetical talents of Ausonius were highly esteemed during his 
 life : and the emperor Theodosius wished to obtain the same return 
 of flattery from him which Augustus received from Horace and Virgil. 
 But his style is vicious and full of conceits, and his subjects generally 
 too trifling to retain any interest. He wrote ' Epigrams,' which con- 
 tain more indecency than originality; 'Ordo Nobilium Urbium,' a 
 series of short poems on eminent cities : ' Idyllia.' of which the 
 best are — 'Cupid Crucified,' and the 'Moselle,' perhaps the oldest 
 specimen of a descriptive poem extant ; ' Epistoloe ; ' ' Gratiarum 
 Actio,' an address of thanks, in prose, to Gratian, which contains 
 many of the particulars of his life. Ausonius appears to have 
 been a Christian, though many critics have thought otherwise, but 
 some of his writings do little credit to his profession. Of the 
 numerous editions of this author, the Delphin, by Father Souchay, is 
 recommended as the best. The Variorum, 1671, and Bipout, 1785, 
 may also be recommended. 
 
 AUSTEN, JANE, was born December 16, 1775, at Steventon in 
 Hampshire, of which place her father was rector. Mr. Austen was 
 himself a man of more than average literary acquirements, and he 
 bestowed upon Jane an education superior to what was then general 
 among females of her rank in society; though she was perhaps deficient 
 in what are termed the accomplishments, which usually constitute so 
 large a portion of female education. She was possessed of considerable 
 beauty, both of features and person, with sweetness of disposition, 
 good sense, and a remarkably engaging manner. During the latter 
 yeara of Mr. Austen's life she resided chiefly at Bath, but after his 
 decease his wi low and her two daughters retired to Southampton, 
 where they continued till May 1817, and afterwards to the village of 
 Chawton, where Jane wrote her novels. There they remained until 
 her declining health rendered it desirable that they should remove to 
 Winchester for the sake of better medical advice. She died July 24 
 of that year, and was buried in the cathedral. 
 
 Miss Austen's novels were published anonymously, but soon 
 attracted the attention which their great merits deserved. ' Sense 
 and Sensibilty ' appeared in 1811, and soon after the authoress was 
 agreeably surprised at receiving 150/. from its profits. 'Pride and 
 Prejudice,' ' Mansfield Park,' and ' Einma,' succeeded at. regular inter- 
 vals—the last in 1816. Her name was first affixed to 'Northanger 
 Abbey' and 'Persuasion,' which were published together, after her 
 df-ath, in 1818. 'Northanger Abbey' was her earliest and feeblest 
 production. ' Persuasion ' was her latest composition, and, in many 
 respects, her best. The whole series was reprinted in 1833 in Bentley's 
 ' Standard Novels.' 
 
 The novels of Miss Austen are all of the domestic class, and consist 
 of delineations of every-day English life and actual society in the 
 middle ranks, and chiefly in the country or in proviucial towns. The 
 truth of her dialogue, the thorough preservation of character in every 
 action and in every speech of her dramatis personae, would almost 
 induce a belief that her scenes were transcripts from actual life, but 
 for the art with which it is finally found that they are made to 
 conduce to the working out of a plot, which in all her novels, but 
 her earliest, appears to have been fully constructed in the author's 
 mind before the first page was written. Her characters are 
 never of an extraordinary kind, either morally or intellectually ; her 
 pages are equally free from the very witty and the very absurd ; she 
 shows no power of delineating external nature ; she has no broad 
 
 AUTOLYCUS. m 
 
 humour, and (except perhaps in ' Persuasion ') no deep pathos. In a 
 letter to a friend, she herself compares her productions to " a little 
 bit of ivory, two inches wide," on which, according to her own 
 account, " she worked with a brush so fine as to produce little effect 
 after much labour." Her works are in fact exquisite miniatures, and 
 Miss Austen the most lady-like of artists. 
 
 The whole of Miss Austen's works have been translated into French. 
 The ' Quarterly Review ' (vol. xxiv.) contains an elaborate criticism on 
 Miss Austen, written by Dr. (now Archbishop) Whatcly. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for Ike 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AUSTEN, WILLIAM, an English metal-founder of the 15th cen- 
 tury. A very interesting document respecting Austen and other artists 
 has been preserved by Sir William Dugdale in his ' Warwickshire,' 
 Austen had a great share in the construction of the celebrated tomb 
 in St. Mary's church, Warwick, of Richard de Beauchamp, earl of War- 
 wick, who died in 1439. This document, which is the covenant 
 between the earl's executors and the artists to be employed in the 
 construction of the tomb, states that " Will. Austen, citizen and 
 founder of London, xiv. Martii 30 H 6, covenanteth, &c. to cast, work, 
 and perfectly to make, of the finest latten [brass] to be gilded that 
 may be found, xiv. images embossed, of lords and ladies in divers 
 vestures, called weepers, to stand in housings made about the tombe, 
 those images to be made in breadth, length, and thickness, &c. to xiv. 
 patterns made of timber. Also he shall make xviii. lesse images of 
 angells, to stand in other housings, as shall be appointed by patterns, 
 whereof ix. after one side, and ix. after another. Also he must mako 
 an hearse to stand on the tombe above and about the principal image 
 that shall lye in the tombe according to a pattern; the stufle and 
 workmanship to the repairing to be at the charge of the said WilL 
 Austen. And the executors shall pay for every image that shall lie 
 on the tombe, of the weepers so made in latten, xiii.s. iv.eZ. And for 
 every image of angells so made v.s. And for every pound of latten 
 that shall be in the hearse x.rf. And shall pay and bear the costs of 
 the said Austen for setting the said images and hearse. 
 
 " The said William Austen, xi. Feb. 28 H. 6, doth covenant to cast 
 and make an image of a man armed, of fine latten, garnished with 
 certain ornaments, viz. with sword and dagger; with a garter; with a 
 helme and crest under his head, and at his feet a bear musted 
 [muzzled], and a griffon perfectly made of the finest latten, according 
 to patterns ; all of which to be brought to Warwick and layd on the 
 tombe, at the perill [risk] of the said Austen ; the executors paying 
 for the image, perfectly mayd and layd, and all the ornaments in good 
 order, besides the cost of the said workmen to Warwick, and working 
 there to lay the image, and besides the cost of the carriages, all which 
 are to be born by the said executors, in total xl./i." 
 
 In the opinion of Flaxman, these works of Austen are equal to what 
 was done in Italy at the same time, although Donatello and Ghiberti 
 were then living; and though Austen is mentioned in the covenant 
 only as the founder, he was not improbably also the designer of the 
 figures, as the patterns spoken of in the covenant may have been mado 
 in relation to size and costume, and general design — the models, in fact, 
 prepared with the estimates, to be submitted to the parties at whose 
 cost the tomb was constructed. The pay of 13s. 4d, for making a 
 brass figure appears small, but it was at that time the price of an ox. 
 The tomb itself cost 125/., the figure of the earl 40/., and there was au 
 additional expense of 13/. for gilding. The whole expense of the tomb 
 and the chapel in which it is placed, called Beauchamp Chapel, wao 
 2458/. 4s. Id. The other artists employed in this monument were — 
 John Essex, marbler ; Thomas Stevyens, coppersmith; John Bourde, 
 of Corffe Castle, marbler ; Bartholomew Lambspring, Dutch goldsmith, 
 of London ; John Prudde, of Westminster, glazier and painter on 
 glass; John Brentwood, citizen and steyuer, of London; and Kristian 
 Coleburne, also a painter or steyner of London. The monument, one 
 of the earliest and best in England, is still in a state of preservation, 
 and is of brass ; the meaning therefore of the word ' latten,' which 
 has been disputed, is evidently brass. A cast of the monument is in 
 the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 
 
 (Dugdale, Antiquities of Warwickshire, p. 446.) 
 
 AUTO'LYCLTS, the mathematician, as Diogenes Laertius (who 
 mentions him incidentally as one of the teachers of Arcesilaus) calls 
 him, was a native of Pitane in iEolis, and lived somewhat before B.o. 
 300. Two extant works of his, ' On the Moving Sphere,' and 'On the 
 Risings and Settings,' are the earliest Greek writings on astronomy, 
 and the earliest remaining specimen of their mathematics. In the 
 first of these works the simplest propositions of the doctrine of the 
 sphere are enunciated and demonstrated ; in the second (which is in 
 two books) the risings and settings of the stars with respect to the 
 sun are discussed. There is nothing, as Delambre remarks, which 
 can serve as a basis for any calculation, much less any notion of 
 trigonometry. 
 
 The only Greek text of Autolycus is that of Dasypodius, in his 
 ' Sphericas Doctrinae Propositiones,' Strassburg, 1572, which contains 
 several other writers, but gives (as was very common) only the enun- 
 ciations of the propositions in Greek. There is an anonymous Latin 
 version of the second work, Rome, 1568, 4to ; a Latin version of both 
 (of the first, 1587, of the second, 1588, Rome, 4to.) by Giusepp* 
 Auria, from a Greek manuscript with notes by Maurolycus ; a reprint 
 
447 AUZOUT, ADMEN. 
 
 of the last, Rome, 1591, 4to., with ' cum scholiia antiquis ' in the title ; 
 finally, Paris, 1644, 4to., in the ' Universae Geometries Mixtscque 
 Matheseos Synopsis ' of Mersenne, there is a version of Autolycus, by 
 Manrolycus. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 AUZOUT, ADRIEN, was born at Rouen, but when is not known. 
 He had established Lis reputation as an astronomer in 1666, and was 
 one of tLe original members of the Academy of Sciences, founded in 
 that year. He died in 1691 or 1693, at Rome. Auzout is celebrated 
 as having, in conjunction with Picard, applied the telescope to the 
 mural quadrant. This rests on an admission of Picard to Lahire 
 (Moutucla, ii. 569), .asserted by the latter; but there is no mention of 
 it in Picard'a book ' On the Figure of the Earth.' Auzout also made 
 an independent invention aud application to the telescope of the 
 moveable wire micrometer, on which lie published a treatise in 1667. 
 Picard assisted him in perfecting this instrument. Huyghous has 
 been frequently stated as an inventor of this micrometer, but Lis 
 instrument is different from, and inferior in principle to, that of 
 Auzout. (Delambre, 'Ast. Mod., Disc. Prelim.' p. 47.) The prior 
 invention of Gascoyue is admitted, and was brought forward by 
 Hooke and others of the Royal Society, in opposition to the invention 
 of Auzout. 
 
 Auzout published observations and calculations of the comet of 
 1664, and the presentation of his results to Louis XIV. is said to have 
 given that prince the first idea of founding an observatory at Paris. 
 He also made a laborious comparison of the weights and measures of 
 France and other countries, which is to be found, together with Lis 
 own account of his micrometer, in the folio collection of Memoirs of 
 the Academy, entitled 'Divers Ouvrages de Mathdmatique et Physique,' 
 Paris, 1693. Among other results of the micrometer, he observed 
 and measured the diurnal variation of the moon's diameter, first 
 explained by Kepler. Besides the pree' ding works, we have left of 
 Auzout a letter on some new observations of Jupiter and Saturn, 
 Paris, 1664 ; and a letter to the Abbe Charles on a collection of obser- 
 vations published by Campaui, Paris, 1665. Auzout was a good 
 optician and maker of telescopes; and although the state of Lis 
 Lealth was never good, Le did much for astronomy. 
 
 AVANZ!, JA'COPO DI PAOLO D', a celebrated Italian painter of 
 the 14th century, who lived at Bologna, but whether he was a Vene- 
 tian or a Bolognese is doubtful. Jacopo was sometimes called Dalle 
 Madonne, because he painted at one time almost exclusively Madonnas. 
 Jacopo is generally mentioned in company with Simone da Bologna, 
 or Simone de' Croeifissi, or II Crocifissaio, as he was called, for the 
 same reason that Jacopo was called Dalle Madonne. They became 
 partners, and each painted a part of their joint productions, a circum- 
 stance which has led to the error of treating them as of one family; 
 Simoue's name was not Avauzi, but Beuvenuti, according to the 
 manuscript of Oretti. Most of Ja opo's works have perished. The 
 frescoes of the chapel of San Felice, formerly San Jacopo, in the 
 church of Sant' Antonio at Padua, which were long attributed to 
 Giotto, were painted by Jacopo in 1376. He painted also, in partner- 
 ship with Simone, many frescoes in the old church of the Madonna di 
 Mezzaratta, witLout the Porta San Mamolo at Bologna, which were 
 much praised with reference to their time by Michel Angelo and the 
 Varracci. Besides these Jacopo painted two triumphs in a public hall 
 at Verona, and some works in company witL Aldighieri da Zevio in 
 tLe chapel of San Giorgio in the church of S ant' Antonio at Padua. 
 The former were considered works of extraordinary merit by Man- 
 tegna; the latter were recovered from dirt aud oblivion by Dr. E. 
 Forster (' Kunstblatt,' pp. 16 and 22). Jacopo died probably in the 
 early part of the 15th century. There are two pictures attributed to 
 him in the gallery of Bologna. (Vasari, Vite de Pittori, &c, and the 
 Notes to Schorn's German translation ; Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice ; 
 Lanzi. Storia Pittorica, &c. ; Giordani, Pinacoteca di Bologna.) 
 
 AVEMPACE, or AVEN PACE, properly ABU-BEKR MOHAM- 
 MED-BEN-BAJAH, but better known in the East under the surname 
 of 1BN-AS-SAYEG, an Arabian philosopher and poet, was, according 
 to the Biographical Dictionary of Ibn-Khallican, a native of Saragossa, 
 or, according to Joannes Genesius Sepulveda, of Cordova. Of his life 
 very little is known. He practised as a physician at Seville till the 
 year 512 after the Hegira (a.D. 1119) ; then, after travelling some time, 
 went to Fez, to the court of Yahya, Ibn-Tashefin, whose vizier Le 
 became. Here Le died, according to Ibn-Khallican, in tLe year a.h. 
 533 (a.d. 1138), according to others in a.h. 525 (1130). Avempace 
 was a learned and accomplished m in. He is said to have known the 
 Koran by heart, but to Lave eutertained very free opinions respecting 
 its divine authority, and several other poiuts of the Mussulman faith. 
 He wrote several short dissertations and essays on philosophical sub- 
 jects, which were collected by Abu'l-Has?an-Ali, who preferred Avem- 
 pace to all Mohammedan philosophers that had preceded Lim. OtLer 
 more extensive works he left behind in an unfinished state ; among 
 these Ibu-Tophail notices a 'Treatise on the Soul,' one on 'Solitary 
 Life,' another on ' Logic,' and on ' Natural Science.' Several of his 
 works were known to the schoolmen by Latin translations, but no 
 translation of any of Lis works appears to Lave been printed. The 
 name Avempace, or Aven-Pace, is a corruption of Ibn-Bajah. (See 
 Philosophus Autodidactus, sive Epistolc A.bi Jaafar Ebn-Tophail, ed. 
 
 AVERROES. 443 
 
 Pocock, pp. 15-16, and preface; Nicol. Antonii, Bibliotheca Hispana 
 Vetus, Rome, 1696, vol. ii. p. 232; D'Herbelot, Bibliothe'que Orientale, 
 art. Saieg.) 
 AVENBRUGGKR. [Auenbrogger.] 
 
 AVENTI'NUS, JOHANNliS THURMAIER, the son of a publican, 
 was born at Abensberg, in Bavaria, in 1466. He studied at Ingol- 
 stadt, aud afterwards at Paris, where Le kok the degree of Master of 
 Arts : he afterwards taught eloquence aud poetry at Vienna, aud Greek 
 and mathematics at Kracow. In 1512 he was called to Munich by the 
 Duke of Bavaria, who intrusted Lim witL the education of his two 
 sons. He theu wrote, in Latin, his ' Anuales Boiorum,' or History of 
 Bavaria, which is much esteemed. In this undertaking, which en- 
 tirely occupied sixteen years of Lis life, he had access to, the best 
 sources of information, as the various archives, aud the libraries of 
 convent?, &c. were opened to him. He died in January 1534 ; but it 
 was not until 1554 that his great work was permitted to be printed for 
 the first time, and then the editor, Ziegler, suppressed ail those pas- 
 sages which were directed agaiust the popes or the RomisL church. 
 All these passages were however restored in the edition of 1580 by 
 Cisuer. Several other editions have been published ; and it has also 
 been published in German, but abridged. Aventinus wrote several 
 other learned works ; among the rest ' Numerandi per digitos 
 manusque, quia etiam loquendi, vetcrum consuetudiuis Abacus,' 4to, 
 1523 ; and ' Vita Heurici quarti Imperatoris cum ejusdem Epistolis,' 
 4to, 1518. This work is very rare. 
 
 AVENZOAR, or AVEN-ZOHAR (a corrupt form of Ibn-Zohr), is 
 tLe name of two Arabian physicians, father and son, who flourished 
 in Spain during tLe 12tL century. They were Jews by descent and 
 religion. The first and most celebrated of them is Abumeron Aven- 
 zoar, or with Lis complete name, and correctly written, Abu-Merwan 
 Moharamed-beu Abdu-l Malek-ben-Zohar. He was born at Seville, or 
 Penafior, near Seville, about a.h. 465 (a.D. 1072-3). He was instructed 
 in medicine by bis father, and lived as physician at the court of 
 Ibrahim-ben-Yussuf-ben-Tashfiu, the Almoravide sovereign of Marocco 
 and Cordova. He died at Seville in the year a.h. 557 (1162). He is 
 the autLor of several works on medicine, wLich were long held in 
 high esteem ; the most important of them is the ' Taislr,' or ' Intro- 
 duction,' wLicL is indeed one of tLe most valuable works of the 
 Arabiau physicians. A Latin translation of it made from an inter- 
 mediate Hebrew version, has been printed repeatedly — for the first 
 time by Joanues de Forlivio aud Gregorius, at Venice, in 1490, along 
 with the ' Colliget ' of Averroes. A manuscript of the Arabic original 
 of tbis work, besides a treatise on simple and compound medicines, 
 wbicL is likewise attributed to Avenzohar, is said to exist in the 
 Bibliotheque du Roi, at Paris. Latin translations of several other 
 works attributed to Avenzohar are enumerated by Nic. Antonius ; 
 among them we notice a treatise ' De cura calculi,' printed at Venice, 
 1497; aud other, 'De regimine sauitatis,' Basil, 1618. Sprengel, after 
 giving an account of the ' Taisir,' proceeds to observe that Avenzohar 
 has done less to improve tLe theory than the practice of medicine. 
 "Contrary to the custom of Lis countrymen, Le was a declared enemy 
 of sophisms and dialectic subtleties. Following the plan of his fatLer, 
 Le intrusted Limself to no otLer guide but experience; but in doubt- 
 ful cases Lad often recourse to Galenus. He was not free from 
 prejudice, and his practice sometimes approached to empiricism. 
 Avenzohar was the teacher of the celebrated Averroes. 
 
 The younger Avenzohar, called by Lis Arabian biograpbers Alhafid, 
 or the Descendant, was the son and pupil of the former. He was 
 born at Seville, a.h. 507 (1114), and educated under the guidance of 
 Lis father. He succeeded his father as chief physician to the sultan 
 Abdu-lMumen, and held the same office under his son and grandson. 
 Al-Mansur carried AvenzoLar witL Lim to Marocco, conferring on Lim 
 additional honours. He died in Marocco, a.h. 595 (1199), having it is 
 said been poisoned with Lis sister by the vizir of Al-Mansur, who was 
 jealous of the favour Le enjoyed witL the sultan. According to 
 Joannes Leo Africanus, he wrote, like his father, several works on 
 medicine ; amon; others, one on the treatment of the eyes. 
 
 (Nic. Antonii, Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus, t. ii. p. 232-235 ; Hottinger, 
 Bibltothecarius, p. 269-271 ; Sprengel, Histoire de la Medecine, t. ii. 
 p. 332-337; Casiri, Bibliotheca Escurialensis, t. ii. p. 232.) 
 
 AVERROES, or AVER R HOES, properly IBN-ROSHD, or with his 
 complete name, ABUL-WALID MOHAMMED-IBN AHMED-IBN 
 MOHAMMED-IBX-ROSHD, an Arabian philosopher and physician of 
 great celebrity, was born at Cordova, where his father filled the high 
 office of mufti or chief judge and priest of Andalusia. The date of 
 Lis birtb is commonly given as A.H. 543 (a.d. 1149), but if, as is said, 
 be was very old at Lis death in a.h. 595 (119S), he must have been 
 born much earlier. From various circumstances there can be little 
 doubt that Le was born in the first quarter of the 12th century. 
 Some of the most distinguished Arabian scholars of the age are 
 mentioned as his teachers. He studied Mohammedan jurisprudence 
 under the guidance of Lis fatLer; theology and philosophy under 
 Ibn-Sayeg (Aven Pace) and Tophail ; and medicine under Aveuzoar, th& 
 father. His diligence was indefatigable : Le devoted the greater part 
 of his time to the study of philosophy and medicine, and turned to 
 the perusal of works of history or poetry only by way of recreation. 
 ' As a Mussulman theologian, Averroes adopted the creed of the Ashlari 
 sect, the main principle of wLich is, that God, being the universal 
 
148 
 
 AVIANUS, FLAVIU8. 
 
 AYALA, PEDRO LOPEZ DE. 
 
 m 
 
 cause of everything, is also the author of all human actions ; hut that, 
 nevertheless, men being free, either acquire merit or incur guilt 
 according as they obey or disobey the precepts of religion. Averroes 
 at first succeeded his father as mufti of Andalusia, and at the same 
 time delivered lectures at Cordova. He was afterwards appointed 
 chief judge of Mauritania; but being charged with having expressed 
 heretical opinions, Averroes lost his office. He was compelled to 
 make a public recantation ; but was ultimately reinstated in his former 
 office, which he continued to fill till his death. Two of his sons are 
 said to have visited the court of the German emperor Frederic II. 
 
 Averroes entertained the highest respect for Aristotle, though in 
 studying and translating his works he seems to have placed too much 
 reliance on his commentators, Arnmonius, Themistius, and others. 
 The works of Averroes were very numerous. A list of them among 
 the oriental manuscripts of the library in the Escuvial, specifies not 
 less than seventy-eight distinct treatises. Many of them were early 
 translated into Latin, and studied by the schoolmen. An edition of 
 Averroes in Latin was published at Venice, 1562, in eleven volumes, 
 folio. His commentaries on Aristotle and on the ' Republic ' of Plato 
 seem to be the most generally known ; but he composed likewise 
 original treatises on philosophical subjects, and on Mohammedan 
 theology and jurisprudence. Among his medical works, the ' Kulliyat ' 
 (that is, ' The Total,' or Comprehensive System) is the most important, 
 a Latin translation of which, commonly called the 'Colliget Averrois,' 
 has been repeatedly printed along with the ' Taisir ' of Avenzoar, for 
 the first time (it seems) at Venice, by Joannes de Forlivio and Grego- 
 rius, in 1490. 
 
 (Nic. Antonii, Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus, t. ii. pp. 240-248 ; Hot- 
 tinger, Bibliothecarius quadripartitus, Figuri, 1664, 4to, p. 271-279; 
 Sprengel, Histoire de la Medecine, trad, par Jourdan, vol. ii. p. 337- 
 340; Wiistenfeld, Geschichte der Arabischen Aertze und Naturforscher, 
 §191.) 
 
 AVIANUS, FLAVIUS, the author of a collection of forty -two 
 ./Esopian fables in Latin elegiac verse, probably lived in the 5th cen- 
 tury after Christ. Flavius Avianus has been frequently confounded 
 with Rufus Festus Avienus [Avienus, Rufos Festus]; but besides 
 the great difference of their subjects, the whole mental character 
 of the men and the style of their writings are wholly dissimilar. 
 The only resemblance in fact is in their names. The fables are dull 
 and feeble, and far from pure in style. The first separate edition of 
 the 'Fables of Avianus' was printed by J. de Breda at Daventur, in 
 Holland, in 1494 ; but they had been previously printed with the 
 'Fables of jEsop ' about 1480. Caxton printed ' the Fables of Avian 
 translated into Englyshe,' at the end of his translation of ^Esop, 
 in 1483. 
 
 AVICENNA, named ABEN SINA by Hebrew writers, but pro- 
 perly IBN-SINA, or, with his complete name, ABU ALI AL- 
 HOSSEIN IBN ABDALLAH IBN SINA, called also by Arabian 
 biographers AL-SHEIKH ('the Doctor'), and AL-RAYIS ('the 
 Chief '), was a celebrated Arabian philosopher and physician, whose 
 name has ruled in the realm of science durisg a longer period than 
 that of any other writer, with the exception of Aristotle and Galen. 
 He was, according to the biographical dictionary of Ibn-Khallican, 
 born at Kharmatain, a village near Bokhara, in the year a.h. 370 
 (a.d. 980). He received the elements of his education at Bokhara. 
 He states in his autobiography, that when he had reached his 10th 
 year he was thoroughly versed in the study of the Koran, knew some- 
 thing of the elemeuts of Mussulman theology, of Hindoo arithmetic, 
 and algebra. About this time Abu-Abdallah-Al-Natheli, a scholar of 
 some note among his contemporaries, came to Bokhara, and Avicenna 
 was placed under his tuition. He studied under him logic, Euclid, 
 and the Almagest. When Al-Natheli left Bokhara, Avicenna, then 
 about 16 years old, began to turn his attention to the study of 
 medicine, but soon interrupted his medical pursuits to give another 
 year and a half to a course of philosophical study. In his auto- 
 biography he informs us, that so great was the zeal with which he 
 devoted himself to his studies, that during two years he never slept 
 an entire night ; if he was unable to find the solution of an intricate 
 problem he went to the mosque to pray, and then seldom failed to 
 overcome the difficulty. Before he had reached his 18th year, he had 
 mastered bis various studies ; and about the same time he cured 
 the Samanide Sultan of Bokhara, Ndh-ben-Mausur (who reigned 
 a.d. 975-997), of a dangerous disease. In his 21st year he wrote a 
 work, which Ca-iri styles an EncyclopEedia (the Arabic title is ' Kitab 
 al-Majmu,' that is, literally, ' The book of the sum total '). He subse- 
 quently compiled a commentary to it, which extended to about 20 
 volumes. When he was 22 years old, Avicenna lost his father, whom 
 he succeeded for a short time in the office of minister to the Sultan of 
 Bokhara; but after thu downfal of the Samanide dynasty, which 
 happened about the beginning of the 11th century, he quitted 
 Bokhara. He was for a time attached as physician to the court of 
 the Dilemite sovereign, Sbains-ul-Maali Kabus ben Washmgir. When 
 this prince was dethroned, which happened about 1012, Avicenna 
 retired to Jorjan, where he began to write his celebrated treatise on 
 medicine known under the title of the Canon (' Kitab al-Kanun 
 fi'l-Tibb,' that is, 'Book of the Canon in medicine '). He subsequently 
 lived for a time at Rai, Kazwin, and Hama'.lan. In the last place he 
 was appointed vizir to Shamseddaulab, the reigning sovereign of that 
 
 BIOO. DIT. VOL. L 
 
 town. On the death of that prince Avicenna took up his abode at 
 Ispahan, where he compiled several of his works. He was physician 
 to A19.-eddaulah, then the sovereign of Ispahan, and accompanied him 
 on a journey which that prince undertook to Hamadan. Avicenna, 
 whose health had been previously weakened, had an attack of cholic 
 on the road, of which he died shortly after his arrival at Hamadan, 
 a.h. 428 (a.d. 1037). Casiri (vol. i. p. 299) notices a list of the works 
 of Avicenna, in which 60 are enumerated ; Ibn-Khallican states the 
 total number of his great and short treatises at nearly 100, and men- 
 tions particularly the 'Shefa fi'l-hikmat,' the 'Nt-jat,' the 'Isharat,' 
 and the 'K&nun:' the titles of many others may be seen in Casiri 
 (vol. i. p. 270). Among them, the 'Kanun' acquired the greatest 
 celebrity, and became, even in Europe, for many centuries the stan- 
 dard authority in medical science, chiefly on account of its judicious 
 arrangement, and the comprehensive view which it afforded of the 
 doctrines of the ancient Greek physicians, at an age when the know- 
 ledge of the Greek language was very scanty. It was translated into 
 Latin by Gerardus Cremonensis, at Toledo. This translation, revised 
 and accompanied with a commentary, by Jacobus de Partibus, was 
 edited for the first time in 1498, at Lyons, in four large volumes in 
 folio, by two Germans, Johannes Trechsel and Johannes Klein; several 
 other editions have since appeared. An edition of the Arabic text of 
 the Canon was published at Rome, 1593, folio. Avicenna also wrote 
 extensively on philosophy and logic ; his largest and most important 
 philosophical work, ' Ash-Shefa/ or the ' Remedy,' has never been 
 printed, either in Arabic or in a translation ; but a nearly complete 
 manuscript copy of it is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. 
 
 (Ibn-Khallican, art. Al-Hossein-ben-Sina; Albufaraj, Ilistoria JDynas- 
 tiarum, ed. Pocock, pp. 229-233 ; Bar-Hebraei, Chronicon Dynastiarum, 
 t. i. pp. 231-233; Casiri, Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, t. i. p. 268, 
 &c. ; Hottinger, Bibliothecarius Quadripartitus, Tiguri, 1664, 4to, 
 pp. 256-261 ; Sprengel, Histoire de la Medecine, trad, par Jourdan, 
 t. ii. p. 305, &c. ; Freind, History of Physic ; Wiistenfeld, Geschichte 
 der Arabischen Aertze.) 
 
 Fardella's translation of an account of Avicenna's life by Ibn Joljol 
 Jorjani, Venice, 1595, is cited by Sprengel. 
 
 AVIE'NUS, RUFUS FESTUS, sometimes written ANIANUS, a 
 Latin poet who probably lived in the latter half of the 4 th century of 
 the Christian era. To him are ascribed translations of the ' Pheno- 
 mena ' and ' Prognostica ' of Aratus into hexameters ; a free translation 
 of the ' Periegesis ' of Dionysius, entitled, ' Descriptio Orbis Terra ;' 
 and a poem in iambic verse, entitled ' Ora Maritima,' of which only 
 the first book remains, containing a description of the Mediterranean 
 from the Straits of Gibraltar to Marseilles; and three or four short 
 fugitive pieces. The translations from Aratus will be found in many 
 of the editions of that author, and especially in that of Buhle, Lips., 
 1804. The ' Descriptio ' was edited by Friesemann, Amst. 1786 ; and, 
 together with the ' Ora Maritima,' is contained in the Oxford edition 
 of the ' Minor Greek Geographers.' 
 
 AVISON, CHARLES, a musician of considerable eminence both as 
 a critic and a composer, was born about the year 1710. When young 
 he visited Italy for the purpose of study, and after his return to 
 England became a pupil of Geminiani, under whom he acquired his 
 knowledge of score-writing. He settled at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
 having accepted in 1736 the place of organist of St. John's church in 
 that town, where he continued till his death. In 1752 he published 
 his ' Essay on Musical Expression,' a well-written work, which displays 
 much acuteness, and no small share of that taste which arises out of 
 good sense and deep reflection. Sir John Hawkins has given a very in- 
 accurate account of this work, and his statement has unfortunately been 
 copied in most biographical collections. His essay was answered by Dr. 
 William Hayes of Oxford, who exposed some errors which Avison had 
 fallen into respecting the established rules of musical composition ; 
 but the learned professor made his attack with too much asperity, and 
 his own views were singularly tinctured with pedantry. Avison in the 
 following year replied to Hayes in a short pamphlet written in a strain 
 of bitter sarcasm. Mr. Avison was the projector of the adaptation of 
 Marcello'3 ' Psalms ' to the English version, which Garth of Durham 
 undertook and published, much assisted by the former : the work met 
 however with little success. His own compositions consist chiefly of 
 five sets of ' Concertos for a Full Band,' forty-five in number, which 
 exhibit more elegance than originality, his style being avowedly 
 founded on that of Geminiani. Avison died May 9, 1770. 
 
 AYA'LA, PEDRO LOPEZ DE, the most popular of Spanish chro- 
 niclers, was the son of Fernando Perez de Ayala, adelantado of the 
 kingdom of Murcia, and was born in 1332. He was early a favourite 
 of Pedro, or Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, but passed over to the 
 party of Don Henry of Trastamarre, the illegitimate brother of Peter, 
 who revolted against that prince, and drove him from Castile. When 
 Peter returned, accompanied by an English army under the command 
 of Edward the Black Prince, and defeated Don Henry at the battle of 
 Najera, April 3, 1367, Ayala was present on Henry's side. He tells us 
 in his own chronicle that he fought on foot in the vanguard, and bore 
 the banner of the Vanda, a brotherhood of kuights, and in the list of 
 the names of the captives he gives his own. He was carried to England, 
 where he was kept in chains in a dark duugeon, the horrors of which 
 he describes in his poems. At length he was released by the payment 
 of a large ransom, and on his return to Castile became one of the 
 
451 
 
 AYESHAH. 
 
 AYLOFFE, SIR JOSEPH. 
 
 152 
 
 council of Don Henry, who by the assistance of Bertranci Dugijesclin 
 and a French army had finally triumphed over his legitimate brother. 
 In the reign of Don John L, the son of Henry, he was no less in favour, 
 and accompanied that king in his expedition to take possession of 
 Portugal, when the Master of Avis, the illegitimate son of King Peter 
 the Severe, laid claim to the crown, and with an inferior force totally 
 defeated the Castiliaus in the battle of Aljuharota, on the 14th of 
 August, 1385. On this occasion also Lopez de Ayala had the misfor- 
 tune to be taken prisoner. He served a fourth king of Castile, 
 Henry III., son of John I., in whose reign he died, in the year 1407, 
 at the age of 7 5, at Calahorra. He held for some time the office of 
 Chauciller Mayor, or High Chancellor. 
 
 Fernan Perez de Guzman, who is the original authority for most of 
 the facts relating to the life of Ayala, states that " he was very fond of 
 the sciences, and gave himself much to books and history ; so that, 
 although he was a good knight enough and of great discretion in the 
 ways of the world, he passed much of his time in reading and study, 
 not in works of law, but philosophy and history. Through him (por 
 causa del)," he adds, "some books are known iu Castile that were not 
 so before, such as Titus Livy, which is the most notable history of 
 Rome, the Falls of Princes, the Morals of St. Gregory, Isidore ' De 
 Summo Bono,' Boethius, aud the history of Troy. He drew up the 
 history of Castile from Don Peter up to Don Henry III., and he made 
 a good book on hawking, for he was a great hunter, and another book 
 called ' Rhymes of the Palace ' (Rimado del Palacio)." This passage 
 in Guzman has proved a fruitful subject of commentary to the investi- 
 gators of the literary antiquities of Spain. 
 
 Ayala's ' History of Castile ' ia considered the best of the old Spanish 
 chronicles. The most complete edition of it is that entitled 'Cronicas 
 de los Reyes de Castilla, Don Pedro, Don Enrique II., Don Juan I , 
 Don Enrique III.,' with the emendations of Zurita and the corrections 
 and notes of Don Eugenio de Llaguno Amirola, 2 vols. 4to., Madrid, 
 1779, 8vo. There was to be a third volume of Ayala, to contain justifi- 
 catory documents, an index, a full life of the author, and some of his 
 unpublished minor works, but it has never appeared. The first edition 
 of the ' Chronicles ' was published at Seville iu 1495, aud is so rare that 
 Mendrz, the historian of Spanish typography, knew of only two copies, 
 one of which is now in Eugland, in the noble collection bequeathed to 
 the British Museum by Mr. Thomas Grenville. Subsequent editions 
 appeared iu 1520, 1542, 1591, &c, but none of them contained the 
 reign of Henry III., which is given in that collated by Zurita. The 
 work of Ayala is written in pure Castilian, with much of the 'gravity' 
 to which the Spaniards attach so high a value. His narrative, if it 
 does not display all the liveliness aud vivid colouring of his contem- 
 porary Froissart, is on that very account perhaps the more trustworthy. 
 Ayala, as Llaguno Amirola has shown, certainly does not conceal the 
 faults of his own party. He is fortunate iu his subject, which 
 embraces the very period in the middle ages in which the history of 
 Spain was most closely connected with that of France and England. 
 It may therefore justly excite surprise that his valuable history has 
 never been translated into French or English. Of the book on hawking, 
 'De la Caza de las Aves,' two manuscript copies were known in 1788 
 to Bayer ; one in the hands of Llaguno Amirola, who probably intended 
 to publish it in the third volume of the ' Chronicles.' The ' Rimado 
 del Palacio' was for a loug time believed to be lost. Sanchez, the editor 
 of the ' Coleccion de Poesias Castellauas anteriores al Siglo XV.,' con- 
 jectured that an anonymous volume of poetry in the library of the 
 Escurial was the work in question, and the supposition was confirmed 
 \hortly after by the discovery of another copy with the author's name. 
 Sanchez intended to include it in his collection, but died before car- 
 rying his work so far. Argote y Molina, in his work on the ' Nobleza 
 de Andalucia,' refers to a manuscript work on genealogy ('Libro de 
 Linages ') by Lopez de Ayala, which appears to be lost. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AYESHAH, the favourite wife of Mohammed, was the daughter of 
 Abu Bekr, one of the earliest and warmest friends of the Moham- 
 medan prophet. She was only nine years old when she married him, 
 and is said to have been the only one of Mohammed's numerous wives 
 who was a virgin, owing to which circumstance her father, whose name 
 was Abdullah, was surnamed Abu-Bekr, or ' the father of the virgin.' 
 Although Mohammed had no children by Ayeshah, he was so tenderly 
 attached to her that he was often heard to say that she would be the 
 first of all his wives to enter Paradise ; and in his last illness he had 
 himself carried to her house and expired in her anus. Her enemies 
 accused her of adultery on a particular occasion, and the report gained 
 much credit, until Mohammed, in order to preserve the dignity of his 
 own character and his wife's reputation, produced a seasonable revela- 
 tion from heaven, attesting Ayeshah's innocence, after which he 
 punished the accusers sm calumniators. (' Koran,' chap, xxiv., entitled 
 ' the Light.') After the death of her husband, Ayeshah was held in 
 great veneration by all the Moslems, who surnamed her Ummu-l-mli- 
 menin (the mother of the believers), and consulted her on all important 
 occasions. For some reason Ayeshah conceived a mortal hatred 
 vgaiust the Kalif Othman, and took an active part in the plot which 
 deprived him of power and life. After the assassination of Othman 
 she vigorously opposed the accession of Ali, because he had believed 
 at first in the accusation brought against her. Uniting with Talhah, 
 
 Zobeyr, and others of Ali's enemies, who had taken up arms under 
 the pretence of avenging the murder of the Kalif Othman, she put 
 herself at the head of the insurgents, and, after a short contest, gained 
 possession of the city of Basrah. Her troop9 entered the principal 
 mosque, where the governor, Othman-Ibn-Honeyf, had taken refuge, 
 took him prisoner and dragged him to her presence. Ayeshah how- 
 ever spared the life of Othnidn in consideration of his great age and 
 of his having been the friend of the Prophet, but she gave orders that 
 forty of the principal inhabitants of the place, who were suspected of 
 being the partisans of Ali, should be put to death, which was done. 
 Meanwhile, Ali was advancing upon Basrah at the head of consider- 
 able forces, and in the battle which ensued, both Talhah and Zobeyr 
 were slain, and Ayeshah was taken prisoner. [Ali-Ben-Abi-Talkb.] 
 After mutual recriminations between her and Ali, Ayeshah was civilly 
 dismissed by the conqueror, who allowed her to fix her residence at 
 Medina or any other town of Arabia, on condition that she would not 
 meddle in affairs of state. She died at Medina in A.H. 58 (a.m. 077), 
 at the age of sixty-seven. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge. ) 
 
 AYL1FFE, JOHN, LL.D., an English jurist, of the circumstances 
 of whose life hardly anything is known. He styles himself Fellow 
 of New College, Oxford, and his works sufficiently attest his in- 
 dustry and learning. In 1714 he published in 2 vols. 8vo. 'The 
 Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford,' &c. ; a work 
 of which a great portion is avowedly an abridgment of Wood's 
 'Athenae.' In 1726 he published in folio 'Parergon Juris Canonici 
 Anglicaui, or a Supplement to the Canons and Constitutions of the 
 Church of England,' in which he brings much learning and research 
 to bear against the exercise of a separate and independent legislative 
 power by ecclesiastical bodies. In 1732 he published 'The Law of 
 Pledges and Pawns as it was in Use among the Romans ; ' and in 1734, 
 in a large folio volume, a ' Pandect of the Roman Civil Law, as anciently 
 established in that Empire,' &c. This volume, though it leaves the 
 work incomplete, is one of the most elaborate works on the civil law 
 in the English language. Ayliffe says that he spent thirty years on its 
 preparation. Ayliffe's books give an explanation of those scientific 
 terms of reference to the Corpus Juris which often puzzle casual 
 readers of the foreign civilians. 
 
 AYLMER, JOHN, bishop of London, was born at Tilney, in Norfolk, 
 in 1521. He studied some time at Cambridge, but took his degrees 
 of divinity at Oxford. He became chaplain to the Duke of Suffolk, 
 who appointed him tutor to his accomplished daughter, the Lady 
 Jane Grey; and her ladyship writes of her instructor in terms of 
 esteem and attachment. In 1553 Aylmer was preferred to the arch- 
 deaconry of Stow, in Lincolnshire, which he lost on the accession of 
 Queen Mary. He resided abroad during Mary's reign, pursuing his 
 studies, instructing youth, and corresponding with others of his 
 countrymen in exile. 
 
 When Elizabeth came to the throne, Aylmer prepared to return to 
 England, having previously printed a book at Strasbourg, entitled ' An 
 Harborowe for faithful and true subjects, against the late blown blast 
 concerning the government of women.' (4to, 1559). It was of course 
 a reply to John Knox's ' First Blast of the Trumpet against the Mon- 
 struous Regiment of Women,' and in it Aylmer with much learning 
 and argument urged the claims of women to the government of a 
 state ; and with flattering expressions of loyalty to the queen, he 
 promised " peace and prosperity under a princess of such admirable 
 parts and godly education." Aylmer soon became distinguished as 
 one of the most eminent adherents of the Reformed Church, and was 
 promoted to the archdeaconry of Lincoln, and in 1576 to the see of 
 London. Iu this office ho displayed great intolerance towards both 
 puritans and Catholics; and on more than one occasion his severity 
 was rebuked by the privy council. In the case of a clergyman named 
 Benison, who was imprisoned by Aylmer for a supposed irregularity 
 in regard to his marriage, the bishop was desired by the privy council 
 to make him compensation, lest in an action for false imprisonment, 
 he should recover damages " which would touch his lordship's credit." 
 By the Puritans Aylmer was ridiculed in pamphlets ; scandalous 
 reports were actively circulated to his injury; and frequent complaints 
 of his conduct were made to the privy council. Aylmer would gladly 
 have exchanged into a more retired diocese, but none of his plans for 
 this purpose succeeded ; and he was still Bishop of London when he 
 died on June 3rd, 1594, in the seventy-third year of his age, leaving a 
 large family of sons and daughters. He was a popular preacher, and 
 a man of considerable learning ; but his only publication is the one 
 named above. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AYLOFFE, SIR JOSEPH, an eminent English antiquary, described 
 as of Framfield, in Sussex, was descended from an ancient Saxon family 
 formerly seated at Bocton Alof, or Boughton Aloph, near Wye, in Kent. 
 He was born about the year 1708, was educated at Westminster 
 School, and was admitted of Lincoln's Inn in 1724. In the same year 
 he was entered a gentleman-commoner of St. John's College, Oxford, 
 which he quitted about 1728. He was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 Society in 1731, and in the following year a fellow of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. In 1751, when the latter Society received its charter of 
 
453 
 
 ATMAR, JAQUES. 
 
 AYMON. 
 
 464 
 
 incorporation, he was one of the first council, and some years after- 
 wards he became vice-president. 
 
 L'pon tha building of Westminster Bridge, in 1736, Ayloffe was 
 appointed secretary to the commissioners; in 1750 he was made 
 amJitor-general of the hospitals of Bridewell and Bethleni ; and upon 
 the establishment of the new State- Paper Office in 1763, when the 
 papers were removed from the old gate at Whitehall to apartments at 
 the Treasury, he was one of the three commissioners appointed for 
 their preservation ; an office which must have assisted him materially 
 In the compilation of a very useful work which he published, in 1772, 
 upon the national records. This work, which forms a large quarto 
 volume, with a very full index, is entitled ' Calendars of the Ancient 
 Charters, and of the Welch and Scottish Rolls now remaining in the 
 Tower of London,' with sundry other documents, embracing treaties 
 of peace between the kiDgs of England and Scotland; catalogues of 
 records brought to Berwick from the Royal Treasury at Edinburgh, 
 and of other Scottish records ; transactions of the Scotch parliament 
 from May 15, 1639, to March 8, 1650; and memoranda concerning the 
 affairs of Ireland, extracted from the Tower records. The volume, 
 which is illustrated with four plates containing fac-similes of writing 
 of different periods, has an ' Introduction ' of seventy pages, ' giving 
 some account of the state of the Public Records from the Conquest to 
 the present time.' His other writings were chiefly papers for the 
 works of the Society of Antiquaries, some of which were printed sepa- 
 rately. About 1748 he prompted Mr. Kirby, of Ipswich, to make 
 drawings of many monuments and buildings in Suffolk, some of which 
 were engraved and published, with a description, while others remained 
 unpublished in the possession of Sir Joseph, who purposed writing a 
 history of the county. About 1764 he drew up proposals for this 
 work, which did not however meet with encouragement, and being 
 disappointed in the supply of materials, Ayloffe abandoned the work. 
 Another work which was announced by him was a translation, with 
 considerable additions, especially of articles illustrative of the anti- 
 quities, history, laws, customs, manufactures, commerce, and curiosities, 
 of Great Britain and Ireland, of the ' Encyclope'die ' then publishing at 
 Paris, under the direction of Diderot and D'Alembert. But the project 
 was not well received by the public, and the undertaking was dropped. 
 Towards the close of his life Ayloffe wrote descriptions of some monu- 
 ments in Westminster Abbey, of which engravings were made for the 
 Society of Antiquaries ; but he died before three sheets of the work 
 had passed through the press ; it was however continued by Gough, 
 and forms his well-known - Sepulchral Monuments.' Nichols states 
 that besides the above-mentioned publications, Ayloffe superintended 
 or revised for the press Thorpe's ' Rcgistrum Roffense,' published in 
 folio, in 1769; a new edition of Leland's 'Collectanea,' in 6 vols. 8vo, 
 1770; and new editions published in the following year, of Hearne's 
 ' Curious Discourses,' in 2 vols. 8vo, and of the ' Liber Niger Scaccarii,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, to the latter of which he added the charters of Kingston- 
 on-Thames, of which place his father was recorder. He died at his 
 residence in Kennington Lane, Lambeth, on the 19th of April, 1781, 
 in his seventy-second year, and was buried, with his father and his 
 only son, at Hendon. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AYMAR, JAQUES, a peasant of Dauphine, who attracted the atten- 
 tion of all France, towards the close of the 17th century, by his 
 pretended powers of divination, wa9 born at St. Veran, on the 8th of 
 September, 1 662. He was bred to the business of a mason, but appears 
 to have soon forsaken it for the more profitable trade of wielding the 
 divining-rod. At first he confined his pretensions within the usual 
 limits, giving his assistance in the discovery of springs, mines, hidden 
 treasures, and obliterated boundaries ; but in course of time he pro- 
 fessed to have found a new and most importaut use of the magic rod. 
 By its help he not only pointed out where stolen property was hidden, 
 but followed the traces of the thieves until they were lodged in the 
 hands of the officers of justice. In 1688 and 1689 he is recorded to 
 have performed several feats of this nature in and around Grenoble, 
 but it was not until 1692 that his reputation rose to its height. On 
 the 5th of July in that year, at Lyon, a vintner and his wife were 
 murdered, and their shop robbed, under such circumstances that the 
 endeavours of the authorities to discover the perpetrators were fruitless. 
 At length Aymar was employed to trace the fugitives, of whom not 
 even the number was known. Provided with his rod, he proceeded 
 down the Rhone, pointing out to the officers every spot at which the 
 murderers, whom he pronounced to be three in number, had rested, 
 and the very vessels out of which they had drunk. Arrived at length 
 at the Camp of Sablon, he declared that the murderers were present ; 
 but, under pretence of the fear of ill-treatment from the soldiers, 
 should he then attempt to trace them more closely, he went back to 
 Lyon. Returning with a better attendance, he proceeded further 
 down the river, and at length stopped before the jail at Beaucaire, 
 which he declared to contain one of the objects of pursuit ; and the 
 rod finally selected a hunchbacked young man just confined for a 
 petty theft as the criminal. He was taken on the charge of murder, 
 and, although he at first asserted his innocence, he soon confessed that 
 he had planned the robbery, and watched the door of the vintner's 
 ■hop while the murders were committed by his accomplices, two 
 natives of Provence. Aymar was then despatched in pursuit of the 
 
 latter, but it was found, by the assistance of the rod, that they had 
 taken "ship. They were still pursued by sea until within sight of 
 Genoa, when it was evident the murderers had escaped out of the 
 French territory, and the officers were compelled to put back. Shortly 
 after their return, the hunchback was condemned to be broken alive 
 on the wheel ; a sentence which was carried into effect on the 30th of 
 August, 1692. 
 
 The sensation produced by these events throughout France, and 
 especially in the learned world, was similar in its nature to that 
 produced by 'table-turning' and other 'spiritual' proceedings in our 
 own day. The facts were admitted, and numerous theories were put 
 forth to explain the marvel. One section of theorists, almost exactly 
 as with recenj; '■ spiritual manifestations,' rejected all attempts at a 
 physical solution of the difficulty, and at once attributed Aymar's 
 performances to the direct agency of Satan. The Abbd Le Brun 
 produced an elaborate treatise on the subject, entitled ' Illusions des 
 Philosophes sur la Baguette.' An immense number of pamphlets on 
 both sides of the question flowed from the press in 1692 and 1693. 
 
 In the meantime Aymar was sent for to Paris, at the instance of the 
 Prince de Conde, who wished to see with his own eyes the wonders 
 of his art. The removal was fatal to his pretensions, for the rod now 
 failed in every trial. It indicated springs where nothing was found, 
 on digging, but dry earth ; pointed out treasures in spots where stones 
 and rubbish only were deposited ; and finally led the prince into great 
 trouble and expense in re -discovering treasures which had been hidden 
 in the garden with the view of testing Aymar's powers, and which his 
 rod had passed over unmoved. At length, all his arts failing him, 
 Aymar acknowledged himself an impostor, and fell back into his 
 original obscurity. 
 
 The affair of the hunchback executed at Lyon was never further 
 elucidated. It is not impossible that he was the innocent victim of a 
 prevailing excitemeut, in which he himself may have partaken. If 
 guilty, the probability is that Aymar knew of his participation in the 
 crime beforehand, and made use of the knowledge as a ready means 
 to gain credence in the powers of his art. Many of the treatises pub- 
 lished on the occasion of Aymar's performances with the rod betray a 
 degree of credulity which a very few years ago would have seemed 
 almost incredible. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AYMON, or HAIMON, Count of Ardennes, and his four sons, 'les 
 quatre fils Aymon,' named Alard, or Adalhard, Reguaud, Guichard, 
 and Richardet, are conspicuous among that class of half-historical 
 half-fictitious personages whose adventures form the subject of the 
 romances of chivalry which relate to Charlemagne's period, such as 
 the French romantic tales by Adenes, Huon de Villeueuve, and others, 
 and the more elaborate Italian romantic poems of Pulci, Bello, Tasso 
 (in his poem ' Rinaldo'), and above all the splendid epopees of Bo- 
 jardo and Ariosto, in which the sons of Aymon, and especially the 
 most illu3trious of them, Kegnault (Rinaldo in Italian), act a prominent 
 part. 
 
 The existence of Aymon, count of Ardennes, is mentioned by Arnold 
 Wion, a Benedictine historian and biographer, in his ' Lignum Vitse,' 
 or ' History of the Order of St. Benedict,' part ii., and by several other 
 historians. Cantimpre, or Thomas Cantipratanus, a Dominican monk 
 and miscellaneous writer of the middle of the 13th century, in his 
 work ' Miraculorum et Exemplorum Memorabilium sui Temporis libri 
 Duo,' edited by J. Colvenerius in 1605, asks, under the head of ' the 
 Folly of Tournaments,' those who piqued themselves on their feats of 
 horsemanship and jousting, " Whether they could ever expect to rival 
 the reputation of the famous horse Bayard, who lived in the time of 
 Charles, and had been dead more than five centuries, but whose memory 
 lived still ?" To this the editor Colvenerius adds this note in the 
 Appendix : " This horse Bayardus is commonly said to have belonged 
 to the four sons of Haimon, iu the time of Charlemagne, and is called 
 in Belgian ' Rosbeyaert ;' or in French ' rouge Bayard.' Fabulous tales 
 of this horse are repeated to the present day both in French and in 
 German." Traditions about Bayard and the quatre fils Aymon are 
 still preserved in Belgium. Several towns, and Mons among the rest, 
 have streets named ' des quatre fils Aymon.' In the county of Namur 
 there is a cliff, called the ' Roche a Bayard,' from which the horse, it 
 is said, leaped into the Maas. In the novel ' Les quatre fils Aymon,' 
 however, the story is that Charlemagne passing through Liege after 
 R guault had set out for the Holy Land, ordered Bayard to be thrown 
 from the bridge into the Maas, with a millstone round his neck ; but 
 Bayard stemmed the current, leaped on shore, and " is said to be still 
 alive in the forest of Ardennes." Bayard, or Ros-Beyaert in Flemish, 
 figured, and still figures, in some popular processions at Louvain, 
 Mechlin, and other parts of Belgium. 
 
 The novel ' Les Quatre fils Aymou' was written by Huon de Ville- 
 neuve, a French poet, who lived under Philippe Auguste, and wrote 
 several chivalric romances concerning Cliarlemagne and his Paladins. 
 These romances were afterwards turned into prose, and we have 
 numerous editions of the prose version of the ' Quatre fils Aymon.' 
 There is an English translation of the prose version : ' The right 
 Pleasant and Goodly Historie of the Foure Sounes of Aimon,' im- 
 printed at London by Wynkyn de Worde, 1504. 
 
 The name Rainaldus, or Reginaldus, appears frequently in the early 
 
465 ATTON, SIR ROBERT. 
 
 chronicles of the Carlovingian dynasty. A Count Rainaldus of Aqui- 
 tania, count of Nantes, is mentioned in Duchesne's ' Historiae Fran- 
 corum Scriptores,' as having fought under Charles the Bald against 
 the Bretons, and being killed in battle, a.d. 843. Near Aucenis, not 
 far from Nantes, is a place called Clairinont, which is the name ascribed 
 to the family of the Regnault of romance. Egiuhardt, in his ' Annales 
 Ludovici l'ii,' mentions a Rcginaklus, chamberlain to Louis the Pious, 
 who joined in a conspiracy against his sovereign, for which he had his 
 eyes seared out. In the Spanish ballad entitled 1 Don Reynaldos,' he 
 appears as banished from the court of Charlemagne, of whose injustice 
 he bitterly complains. He then resolves to accompany his cousin 
 Roland to fight against the Moors, and they both perform prodigies 
 of valour. A Rainaldus is meutioned by the historian Ordericus 
 Vitulis, under tho year 876, and is called, hyperbolically no doubt, 
 chief, or general, of all France, ' totius Francia) Dux.' Dudo of St. 
 Queutin, in Duchesne's collection, speaks of a Roginoldus, contem- 
 porary with the Rainaldus of Ordericus, as a celebrated warrior who 
 died in battle against the Normans, who had invaded France in tho 
 reign of Charles the Bald, and says that his standard-bearer Kotlandus 
 fell with him. Ordericus says that both Rainaldus and Rotlandus were 
 killed by the Normans of Rollo, the finishing blow to Rainaldus being 
 given by a fisherman of the Seine, who pierced him with a spear ; and 
 several other Raiualdi are mentioned. All these Rainaldi were pro- 
 bably confounded in one personage by subsequent romance writers, 
 who gathered their materials from old ballads and traditional legends. 
 In the same manner the weak and credulous character attributed in 
 most romances to Charlemagne belongs more properly to his successors 
 Louis and Charles the Bald, and the wars of Charles Martel against 
 the Saracens who had invaded France have been ascribed, through a 
 like anachronism, to the reign of Charlemagne. 
 
 In the romance ' Lea quatre fils Aymon,' by Huon de Villeneuve, 
 already mentioned, Aymon, count of Dordone, is represented as 
 having four valiant sons, Alard, Regnault, Guichard, and Ricbardet. 
 The sons had a cousin named Maugis (the Malagigi of Italian romance), 
 who equalled them in valour, and who was moreover a sorcerer or 
 enchanter. Beuve d'Aygremont, father of Maugis, had killed one of 
 the sons of Charlemagne, but had sued and obtained pardon. Some 
 time after Quennes (the Gano of the Italian poems), a relative of the 
 emperor, and a man of consummate wickedness, treacherously slew 
 Beuve with the connivance of Charlemagne. It happened, after this, 
 that Regnault was playing at chess with Bertholet, the emperor's 
 nephew, when the latter iusulted and struck him. Regnault, who 
 had not forgotten the murder of his uncle, seized the chess-board, 
 which was of solid gold, and struck Bertholet with it, and with such 
 violence that he clove his head iu two. In consequence of this, the 
 four brothers, as well as Maugis, were outlawed, and Aymon himself 
 was ordered by the emperor to march against his own sons. They 
 obtained possession of a castle called Montensor, in which they 
 defended themselves for seven years, and defeated their father's 
 vassals. Being obliged at last to evacuate the castle, they were 
 attacked in their retreat by the emperor in person, wheu Regnault 
 slew one of the emperor's squires, and nearly killed the emperor him- 
 self. The brothers then took shelter in a forest, where they lived as 
 banditti. They afterwards found protection from Yon, king of Bor- 
 deaux, who gave his sister Clarice in marriage to Regnault, whom he 
 allowed to build a strong castle in his dominions, which was called 
 Montauban (the Montalbauo of Italian romance). Yon however, being 
 hard pressed by Charlemagne, consented to betray the Fils Aymon. 
 Richardet was seized, and would have been hanged had it not been for 
 the timely assistance of Regnault. Maugis escaped by the help of his 
 sorcery, after which he turned hermit, and Regnault went to the Holy 
 Land, where he performed many exploits against the Saracens. On 
 bis return home he made peace with the emperor. He then killed 
 Foulques of Morillon, a traitor of the Maganza family, after which a 
 combat took place, in which Regnault's sons Ivon and Aymonet killed 
 the two sons of Foulques. Regnault then, being tired of the world, 
 repaired to Cologne to assist in the building of the cathedral of that 
 town, as a common workman, in expiation of his sins, and there he 
 was killed by his brother workmen, who were jealous of his superior 
 skill and address. His body afterwards performed miracles, and he 
 was canonised as a saint. 
 
 Such is the substance of this story, which, with many alterations 
 and additions, has been made the groundwork of subsequent romances, 
 through which the name of Regnault or Rinaldo has acquired a sort 
 of historical fame. 
 
 (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AYTON, or AYTOUN, SIR ROBERT, was born of a good family 
 at Kiualdie in Fifeshire, in 1570. He was a younger son, and was incor- 
 porated a student at St. Leonard's College, in the university of St. 
 Andrew's, with his elder brother, in 1584. He took the degree of 
 Master of Arts at St. Andrew's in 15S3, and afterwards studied in 
 France. In 1603 he addressed an encomiastic Latin poem in hexame- 
 ters to King James I., on his accession to the throne of England. 
 Ayton seems to have been an accomplished courtier, and he reaped 
 the reward of his adulation in being appointed to the offices of private 
 secretary to the queen, gentleman of the bed-chamber, and master of 
 requests. He was employed by King James to convey copies of one 
 
 AZARA, DON JOSfi NICOLAS. 460 
 
 of his works to the emperor and the various princes in Germany. He 
 became the proprietor of a small mountainous estate called Ovei 
 Durdie, in Perthshire ; but he probably continued to reside at court. 
 Aubrey says of him, that "he was acquainted with all the wits of his 
 time in England," and that " he was a great acquaintance of Mr. 
 Thomas Hobbes, of Malmesbury, who told me he made use of him 
 (together witli Ben Jonson) for an Aristarchus, when he drew up his 
 epistle dedicatory for his translation of Thucydides ; " and Jonson, in 
 his conversation with Drummond of Hawthornden, remarks that " Sir 
 Robert Ayton loved him dearly." In his Latin poems there are some 
 epitaphs and epigrams in which the names of other distinguished men 
 of the day, who appear to have been his friends, are commemorated. 
 He died in the palace of Whitehall, in March, 1638. The vernacular 
 poems of Ayton, for which alone his personal history is now an object 
 of any curiosity, appear to have never been considered by him worthy 
 of preservation, though many of his Latin poems were twice published 
 during his lifetime. With a trifling exception, such of his English 
 poems as have reached us have come down almost traditionally, and 
 have not retained their original orthography. During the last century 
 some pieces of poetry which found their way into poetical selections 
 were attributed on imperfect testimony to Sir Robert Ayton; a col- 
 lection of these was printed in the miscellany of the Bannatyne Club. 
 Some years ago a student of St. Andrew's purchased at a sale of books 
 a manuscript, which bore the title of ' The Poems of that worthy 
 gentleman Sir Robert Ayton, Knight, Secretary to Anna and Mary, 
 Queens of Great Britaiu,' &c. ; but this version is also of comparatively 
 late date, and in modern orthography. It contains some pieces which 
 are not in the Bannatyne collection, and has been very creditably 
 edited by the discoverer. Burns was a great admirer of some of the 
 poems attributed to Ayton ; and one of them is the original of his 
 ' Auld Lang Syne.' A monument to Ayton's memory, with an 
 inscription detailing some of the events of his life, stands in the south 
 side of the choir of Westminster Abbey, at the corner of Henry V.'s 
 chapel. (Abridged from the Biographical Dictionary of the Society 
 for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 AZA'RA, DON FELIX DE, was born at Barbunales, near Bal- 
 bastro, in Aragon, on May 18, 1746. He received his early education 
 at Huesca, and afterwards studied at the military academy of Barce- 
 lona. In 1764 he entered the army, and served as a lieutenant in the 
 expedition against Algiers under O'Reilly, in which he was wounded. 
 In 1780 he was sent, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, as one of the 
 commissioners appointed by Spain to define the limits of its pos- 
 sessions in Paraguay, which had been long a matter of dispute between 
 Spain and Portugal. While there, he undertook the task of making a 
 map of Paraguay, a labour which occupied him for thirteen years. 
 He had to explore vast and wild unknown regions, inhabited by Indian 
 tribes, often hostile, and in the midst of dangers and privations 
 of every kind. He was also exposed to annoyance and persecution 
 from the jealousy and ignorance of the Spanish authorities. Azara's 
 character however withstood these severe trials, and he rendered some 
 essential services to his government, especially in reconnoitring the 
 coast south of the Rio de la Plata, in the country of the Patagonians. 
 He was recalled to Europe in 1801. He then went to Paris, where 
 his elder brother, Nicolas de Azara, was ambassador for Spain ; and 
 he remained there until his brother's death in January 1803. After- 
 wards, Charles IV., king of Spain, called him to Madrid, and appointed 
 him a member of the council for Indian affairs. He died at Aragon 
 in 1811. 
 
 Azara's travels in South America were published in French at 
 Madrid in 5 vols., 8vo, 1802. A French version was published at Paris 
 in 1809 ; it was edited by C. A Walckenaer, to whom the author had 
 intrusted the revision of the work, with notes by G. Cuvier, an atlas, 
 and a life of Azara, 4 vols. 8vo. They contain a description of Para- 
 guay, and of the various Indian tribes scattered through that vast 
 region, their habits and characteristic varieties; with an account of 
 the Spanish discovery and conquest, and of the establishment of the 
 missionary colonies by the Jesuits, and of their singular system of 
 government. The second part of the work consists of a valuable 
 history of the quadrupeds and reptiles of that country, which had 
 been previously published separately in 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1801 ; it 
 was translated into French from the manuscripts of the author, by 
 Moreau St. Mery. An English translation of the first volume of the 
 Spanish edition of Azara's ' Natural History,' by Mr. P. Hunter, waa 
 published at Edinburgh in 1836 under the title of 'The Natural 
 History of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay and the River La Plata.' 
 
 AZA'RA, DON JOSE NICOLAS DE, was born at Barbunales in 1731. 
 He studied at Salamanca, where he attracted the attention of Don 
 Ricardo Val, minister of King Ferdinand VI., who gave him a place in 
 the department of foreign affairs. In 1760 he was sent to Rome, as agent 
 for the ecclesiastical affairs of Spain. Don Jose" Monino, known after- 
 wards as the Count of Florida Blanca, who was then Spanish ambas- 
 sador at the court of Rome, being soon after appointed prime minister 
 of Charles III., was succeeded in the embassy by the Duke Grimaldi, 
 but Azara performed all the real diplomatic business with the papal 
 court. He took an active part in the difficult negociations concerning 
 the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain. After Grimaldi's death, 
 Azara was appointed his successor. He enjoyed the full confidence 
 of Pope Pius VI., and had much influence oa the Roman politics of 
 
AZUNI, DOMENICO ALBERTO. 
 
 BABER. 
 
 that time. Azara was fond of literature and of the arts, and was 
 intimately connected with all the distinguished men who were then 
 in the Roman capital, such as cardinals De Bernis, Albani, and Borgia; 
 the archaeologists Winckelmann, Fea, Marini, and Visconti ; the artists 
 Canova, Angelica Kaufmann, Mengs, Volpato, &c. ; and the learned 
 Jesuits Arteaga, Andres, Clavigero, and Ortiz. He was especially the 
 friend and patron of Mengs. After the death of that artist, he pro- 
 vided for his family ; and he wrote a life of the deceased, which he 
 prefixed to a splendid edition of his works, made at his expense by 
 the printer BodonL Azara made a valuable collection of antiquities, 
 and he was successful in several excavations near Rome. In 1796, 
 when Bonaparte threatened Rome, Azara repaired to his head-quarters, 
 and succeeded in preventing the advance of the French, though at the 
 price of exorbitant contributions imposed on the Roman state by the 
 conqueror. Azara's influence at the papal court declined after this 
 transaction, he being regarded as having submitted to terms beyond 
 what the necessity of the case justified. When the French took pos- 
 session of Rome in 1798, Azara withdrew to Florence. In 1801 he 
 was appointed ambassador for Spain at Paris. He lost his situation 
 through the intrigues of Godoy, the favourite of King Charles IV., 
 and died in 1804, as he was preparing to set off for Italy to resume 
 his favourite studies. Besides the life of Mengs, he translated 
 Middleton's ' Life of Cicero,' and several other works into Spanish. 
 
 AZU'NI, DOMENI'CO ALBERTO, was born at Sassari, in the 
 island of Sardinia, on August 3, 1749. He applied early to the study 
 of the law, and paid particular attention to the maritime regulations, 
 which have often been matter of dispute between nations. Azuni 
 becoming known as a distinguished jurist, was made a senator and 
 judge of the tribunal of commerce of Nizza, in the continental states 
 of the King of Sardinia. In 1795, after the French had taken pos- 
 session of Nizza, Azuni published his ' Sistema universale dei Principii 
 del Diretto Marittimo dell' Europa,' in which he endeavoured to 
 
 reduce the maritime laws to fixed principles. He afterwards recast 
 his work, and published it in French at Paris, with the title of ' Droit 
 Maritime de l'Europe,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1805. This work on account of its 
 attack on what is called the assumption of superiority by the British 
 navy over the flags of other countries, its disregard of equal rights 
 on the seas, and especially of the rights of neutrals, as well as of its 
 defence of privateering, recommended Azuni to Napoleon's ministry, 
 who appointed him one of the commissioners for the compilation of 
 the new commercial code, and intrusted him with the part relativo to 
 maritime affairs. In 1807 Azuni was appointed president of the 
 Court of Appeal at Genoa, which city and territory had been annexed 
 to France. He was afterwards elected member for the same to the legis- 
 lative corps sitting at Paris. He there published an ' Essai sur l'Histoire 
 Geographique, Politique, et Morale de la Sardaigne,' 2 vols. 8vo, accom- 
 panied by a map of that island, the draught of which was taken from 
 the archives of Turin. The second volume is entirely occupied by 
 the natural history of Sardinia. In 1809 Azuni wrote a pamphlet, in 
 which he ascribed to the French the invention of the mariner's com- 
 pass. This engaged him in a warm dispute with those who maintained 
 the prior right of the Italians to the discovery, and especially with the 
 orientalist Hager, professor in the University of Pavia, who refuted 
 Azuni's book. Azuni next published a 'Dictionary of Mercantile 
 Jurisprudence,' of which a new edition was published at Leghorn in 
 1822. He continued his functions in the tribunal of Genoa until the 
 fall of Napoleon, when he withdrew first to Nizza, and afterwards to 
 his native island of Sardinia, where the late King Charles Felix 
 appointed him judge of the consulate of Cagliari, and librarian to the 
 University of the same city. He died at Cagliari in January 1827. 
 Besides the works named above, Azuni wrote ' Memoires pour servir 
 a l'Histoire Maritime des Marins Navigateurs de Marseille,' and some 
 others. (Biografia dcgli Italiani Vivenli.) 
 
 B 
 
 *D ABB AGE, CHARLES, was born in 1792; educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge; and graduated B.A. in 1814. In 1815 
 he communicated a paper — ' An Essay towards the Calculus 
 of Functions,' to the Philosophical Transactions, and in 1816 was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and afterwards, in 1822 and 
 1826, was chosen on the council. 
 
 In 1822 Mr. Babbage published a letter addressed to Sir H. Davy 
 on the ' Application of Machinery to Calculating and Printing Mathe- 
 matical Tables ; ' an important question in mechanical science. The 
 government, on the recommendation of the council of the Royal 
 Society in 1823, sanctioned grants for the construction of the calculat- 
 Bg machine, as proposed by the inventor, whose name has so long 
 been associated with the remarkable mechanism. A description of it 
 will be found under the head of Calculating Machines in the 
 division of Arts and Sciences. 
 
 Mr. Babbage was one of the founders of the Royal Astronomical 
 Society and of the British Association, and the originator of the 
 Statistical Society. In 1823 he was appointed Lucasian Professor in 
 the University of Cambridge, which post he resigned in 1839. Besides 
 the societies above-mentioned, he is a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
 Edinburgh, of the Koyal Irish Academy, the Cambridge Philosophical 
 Society, and the chief scientific societies of Europe and America. 
 
 Mr. Babbage's writings exhibit a wide range of learning and research. 
 Numerous valuable papers on mathematical subjects, on magnetic and 
 electrical phenomena, ' On a Method of Expressing by Signs the 
 Action of Machinery,' appear in the ' Philosophical Transactions ' from 
 1815 to 1826. The 'Journal' of the Royal Institution, the 'Transac- 
 tions' of the Astronomical Society, of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 
 and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, also contain papers from 
 his pen. He wrote the articles 'Diving Bell,' and 'Essay on the 
 General Principles which Regulate the Application of Machinery,' for 
 the ' Encyclopaedia Metropolitans.' His ' Reflections on the Decline 
 of Science in England,' appeared in 1830; the 'Economy of Manu- 
 factures and Machinery' in 1832. This work is now in its fourth 
 edition ; it was translated by order of the governments of Spain and 
 Prussia; two translations of it have appeared in French, and others 
 in Italian and Russian, as well as numerous reprints in the United 
 States. 'The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise' was published in 1837, it 
 has gone through two editions; and was followed in 1851 by 'The 
 Exposition of 1851; or, Views of the Industry, the Science, and the 
 Government of England,' which lias also passed through two editions. 
 Mr. Babbage has moreover written on geological subjects. His ' Obser- 
 vations on the Temple of Serapis, at Pozzuoli, near Naples ; with an 
 attempt to explain the causes of the frequent elevation and depres- 
 sion of large portions of the earth's surface in remote periods, and to 
 prove that those causes continue in action at the present time,' 
 appeared in the ' Proceedings of the Geological Society' in 1846. His 
 ' Passages from the Life of a Philosopher' appeared in 1864. 
 
 BABER, or BABUR, with his complete name ZAHIR-EDDIN- 
 MOHAMMED-BABER, the celebrated founder of the Tatar, or, as it is 
 
 often improperly called, the Mogul empire in Hindustan, was born on 
 the sixth of Moharrem, a.h. 888 (14th February 1483). His father, 
 Sultan Omar-Sheikh-Mirza, a great-great-grandson of the celebrated 
 Timur, or Tamerlane, was sovereign of Ferghana, a considerable pro- 
 vince situated on both sides of the river Sirr, the Jaxartes of the 
 ancients. Though only in his twelfth year when his father died, he 
 secured the possession of the greater part of his father's dominions in 
 spito of the opposition of his uncles, the sultans of Samarcand and 
 Bokhara; and of other hostile neighbours. The history of Baber's 
 reign till the twenty-third year of his age is a continuous succession 
 of vicissitudes, in which we find him alternately conquering and losing 
 Samarcand, Andijan, Khojend, and other places in or near his paternal 
 dominions. In the year 1503, Sheibani-Khan, a descendant of Gengiz- 
 Khan, by his eldest son, Tushi, or Jujikhan, the sovereign of Kipchak, 
 conquered not only Samarcand and Bokhara, but also the countries of 
 Ferghana and Uratippa ; and Baber, after wandering for nearly a year 
 as a fugitive among the mountains that separate Ferghana from Hissar 
 and Karatigiu, quitted his native country and resolved to try his 
 fortune in Khorasan (1501), which was at that time held by Sultan 
 Hussain Mirza, a powerful and distinguished prince of the family of 
 Timur. With less than 300 followers, and only two tents, Baber 
 crossed the river Amu, or Oxus, a little above Termez. He did not 
 receive from Sultan' Hussain-Mirza the support which he had antici- 
 pated ; but a number of Moguls in the service of Khosru-Shah, who 
 occupied Badakhshan, quitted the service of that chief, and, by 
 declaring for Baber, forced Khosru-Shah himself to submit to him. 
 Thus strengthened, Baber marched towards Cabul, which was sur- 
 rendered to him after a short siege (October, 1504). He allowed the 
 Afghan governor and the garrison to depart in safety, and divided the 
 country of Cabul among those chiefs who had lately entered his 
 service. 
 
 In the ensuing year (1505) Baber made an irruption into Hindustan, 
 advancing along the western bank of the Indus, as far as the tomb of 
 Pir-Kanu (probably near Dera-Ghazi-Kban, in 29° 50' N. lat.), return- 
 ing by Ghuznee to Cabul. In 1506 Sultan Hussain-Mirza died, and 
 Baber repaired to Khorasan, where he found occupation in repelling 
 an incursion of the Uzbeks. He also drove them out of Cabul, and 
 subsequently captured Candahar from the hands of two Afghan 
 noblemen. In September, 1507, Baber again set out to invade Hin- 
 dustan, but was stopped by the opposition of a predatory Afghan 
 tribe. We know little of Baber's movements till 1519, except that on 
 the death of Sheibani-Klian, in 1510, he succeeded in recovering part 
 of his former territory, which was however retaken from him by the 
 Uzbeks, under Timur Sultan, the sou of Sheibani-Khan. 
 
 In 1519 Baber uudertook another expedition with a view to conquer 
 Hindustan. He now for the first time crossed the Indus, probably a 
 little above Attok (February 17, 1519), but soon re-crossed it, having 
 taken a few places, and appointed governors in them. The next 
 invasion, in 1524, in which he conquered and burnt Lahore, brought 
 him beyond the Sutlej, as far as Sirhind, and gave him a permanent 
 
469 
 
 BABEUF, FRANCOIS NOEL. 
 
 BABINGTON, WILLIAM. 
 
 460 
 
 footing in the Punjab. But the overthrow of the Afghan dominion 
 in Hindustan was decided by the expedition which Baber undertook 
 in 1525. On the 10th of December of that year he passed over the 
 Indus ; then marching along the skirts of the Himalaya, and crossing 
 the rivers Behut, Cheuab, Kavee, and Beyali, he took the Afghan fort 
 of Milwat (January 5, 1526), where he left a governor and garrison. 
 Upon reaching Ddn, Baber resolved to march at once against Sultan 
 Ibrahim Lodi, the Afghan sovereign, in whose possession the throne 
 of Delhi and the dominions of Hindustan at that time were. Advancing 
 by the towns of Sirhind, Ambala, and Shahabad, he crossed the 
 Jumna by a ford near Siraaweh, and reached Panipat (April 12), a 
 town about 50 miles N.W. from Delhi. Here Sultan Ibrahim, with 
 his army, encountered him on the 21st of April, but was completely 
 defeated and killed in the battle. This victory decided the conquest 
 of Hindustan ; for, although there were many little principalities in 
 the hills, yet the Afghan government, which extended from the Indus 
 to Behar, was the only one of importance. Baber immediately 
 dispatched detachments to occupy the two principal cities, Delhi and 
 Agra; the latter town he himself entered on the 10th of May, and 
 took up his residence in Sultan Ibrahim's palace, while his son 
 Humaiun marched eastward against two Afghan chiefs who had 
 assembled an army of 40,000 or 50,000 men. They were defeated 
 and dispersed. Other important conquests were made ; and in 
 February 1527 Baber won a decisive victory at Biana, near Agra, 
 over Rana-Sauka, the most powerful of the native Hindoo princes, in 
 consequence of which he assumed the epithet of 'Gbazi,' that is, 'the 
 victorious in war against infidels.' The conquests of Bab< r, from the 
 Indus to the mouths of the Ganges, were made so rapidly, and they 
 comprehended so wide an extent of countries and so great a variety of 
 population, that to cement them into a firm union would have required 
 many more years than Baber lived. His sou Humaiun had difficulty in 
 maintaining possession of these extensive territories; and it was nut till 
 the reign of Baber's grandson, Akbar, that a regular administration of 
 the whole empire was established. 
 
 Towards the conclusion of his reign, Baber endeavoured to promote 
 the prosperity of his empire. He made or improved public roads, 
 with resting-places for travellers at suitable distances ; he caused the 
 land to be measured, in order to have a scale whereby to fix the 
 taxation ; he planted gardens, and introduced fruit-trees from abroad 
 into the several provinces of Hindustan ; and he ordered a regular line 
 of post-houses to be built from Agra to CabuL 
 
 Baber died at the Charbagh, near Agra, on the 26th of December, 
 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humaiun on the throne of the 
 empire. Baber was undoubtedly one of the most distinguished sove- 
 reigns that ever sat upon an Asiatic throne. In no common degree he 
 possessed benevolence, good-nature, and frank gaiety ; and with these 
 qualities he united the leading characteristics of a statesman and a 
 military commander. Of his literary accomplishments and general 
 information, the autobiographic memoir written by himself in his 
 native language, the ' Jaghatai Turki,' gives us a favourable idea : 
 there is perhaps no other work of this kind in existence which affords 
 a more accurate notion, not only of the life, character, and way of 
 thinking of its author, but of the whole aspect of his age, and of the 
 persons and objects surrounding him. 
 
 (Memoirs of Zehir-ed-dtn Muhammed Baber, translated by John 
 Leyden and William Erskine, London, 1826, 4to.) 
 
 BABEUF, FRANCOIS NOEL, is chiefly known in the history of 
 the French Revolution as the originator of the Babeuf conspiracy. 
 He was born at St.-Quentin, in the department of Aisne, in 1761. He 
 was apprentict d to an architect and surveyor in the town of Roye, in 
 the department of the Somme, but was soon drawn from that pursuit 
 by the commencement of the revolution, of which he began to advocate 
 the principles in a journal entitled the ' Correspondent Picard,' pub- 
 lished at Amiens. The violence he displayed in this journal caused 
 him to be prosecuted at Paris in 1790, but he was acquitted. He was 
 subsequently appointed administrator of the department of the Somme, 
 and shortly afterwards removed, with the same title, to Montdidier. 
 Being accused of forgery, he fled to Paris, was there arrested, and sent 
 before the tribunal of Aisne, where he was again acquitted. He 
 returned to Paris, and commenctd in July, 1794, a journal called ' The 
 Tribune of the People,' taking for its motto a maxim of Rousseau — 
 " the object of society is the general good;" and signing the articles 
 Caius Gracchus, a name by which he was afterwards generally known ; 
 and in this journal he developed the principles of an universal equality. 
 In 1796, he and his adherents, then become somewhat numerous, 
 instituted a secret committee, consisting of twelve, who were styled 
 chiefs of arroudissements. They placed themselves in connection with 
 the representatives of sections, who were wholly unknown to each 
 other, and also gained the adhesion of some regiments in garrison at 
 Paris and the environs. They counted also on the support of the 
 departments, where they had organised an insurrectionary army. 
 The proposed plan was to attack simultaneously the Directory, the 
 legislative body, and the chiefs of the staff. Their plans were carefully 
 prepared ; but one of the conspirators named Giisel betrayed the plot 
 to Barras at the moment when these plans were to be carried into 
 execution. Barras caused Babeuf and sixty-five of his fellow-conspira- 
 tors to be seized. They were tried before the high court of Vendome 
 on May 26, 1797. Babeuf and another named Durthe" were found 
 
 guilty, and sentenced to death, seven others were condemned to trans- 
 portation, and fifty-six were ultimately acquitted. Babeuf and Darth6 
 stabbed themselves at the moment of pronouncing the decree, on 
 May 27th, but were notwithstanding borne, bleeding and expiring, to 
 
 the scaffold. 
 
 Babeuf, going before the agitators of the present day, seems to have 
 wished to give the revolution that tendency which we call Socialism. 
 In all his writings he maintained a social equality, a community of 
 goods, no want, no riches. This idle theory can never become a prac- 
 tical condition of mankind ; for whatever interferes with the intellectual 
 liberty of the individual, restricting his choice of occupation and 
 restraining his desire for the acquisition of property, must inevitably 
 fail, being opposed to the elements of the human character. 
 
 BABINGTON, WILLIAM, a distinguished physician, was born in 
 June 1756 at Portglenone, a village on the Ban, near Coleraine, in the 
 north of Ireland. After acquiring the usual elements of general 
 education, he was apprenticed to a medical practitioner at London- 
 derry, and on completing his apprenticeship he proceeded to London 
 to pursue his medical education. Being provided with an introduction 
 to Mr. Frank, surgeon to Guy's Hospital, he became his dresser at that 
 institution. Thence he went to Haslar Hospital, and afterwards for a 
 short time to Winchester Hospital. A vacancy having taken place in 
 the office of apothecary at Guy's Hospital, Babington, although young, 
 received the appointment; and soon afterwards he was selected to 
 assist Dr. Saunders at the hospital in his lectures on chemistry. 
 While still there, by the advice of some friends, he purchased the 
 valuable collection of minerals which had belonged to the Earl of 
 Bute— perhaps the finest which at that time existed in England. On 
 obtaining possession of his purchase he proceeded to class the minerals 
 and to catalogue them. He also divided the cabinet into several 
 portions, which he disposed of at different times. His attention was 
 thus drawn to the subject of mineralogy, and he studied the subject 
 so well, as to be able to publish, in 1795, a work entitled ' A Systematic 
 Arrangement of Minerals, founded on the joint consideration of their 
 Chemical, Physical, and External Characters.' The arrangement was 
 presented in the form of tables. 
 
 In 1797 he resigned his office at Guy's Hospital, and having obtained 
 the degree of Doctor of Medicine, he commenced private practice as a 
 physician iu Freeman's -court, Cornhill, in the city of London. Soon 
 after he was elected one of the physicians to Guy's Hospital, where he 
 had continued to lecture on chemistry, in which duty he was joined 
 by Mr. William Allen. In 1799 he published his ' New System of 
 Mineralogy,' which may be considered a continuation of the former 
 work. In 1802 he published a ' Syllabus of the Course of Chemical 
 Lectures.' In 1796 he became a Fellow of the Medical Society of 
 London, and exerted himself zealously to promote the advancement 
 of the science of medicine. He removed to Basinghall-street, where 
 he became the neighbour and friend of Dr. Lettsom, the chief pro- 
 moter of the Medical Society. As his practice soon greatly increased, 
 he removed to a large house in Aldermanbury. To this house, in 
 1807, "with a view to enable Count Bournon, of whom he had been 
 a pupil, to publish his elaborate monograph on the carbonate of lime, 
 Dr. Babington invited a number of gentlemen the most distinguished 
 for their zeal in the prosecution of mineralogical knowledge. A sub- 
 scription was opened, and the necessary sum readily collected. This 
 object having been accomplished, other meetings of the same gentle- 
 men took place, for the joint purpose of friendly intercourse and 
 mutual instruction. From such small beginnings sprang the Geological 
 Society, and among the names of those by whose care and watchful- 
 ness it was supported during the early period of its history, that of 
 Dr. Babington must always stand conspicuous." (Mr. Greenough's 
 ' Address to the Geological Society,' 1834.) In 1822 he was elected 
 president of the society, having been vice-president in 1810 and the 
 three subsequent years. He enriched the museum and library with 
 liberal donations, and the 'Transactions' of the society contain several 
 papers by him. 
 
 A fine trait in Dr. Babington' s character was his readiness to learn 
 from others, although himself so well qualified to hi an instructor. 
 In this spirit he became a pupil of Mr. Webster, after he had quitted 
 the office of president of the Geological Society, and he attended the 
 course of chemical lectures at the London University in the year 1832. 
 In addition to the discharge of his duties as a physician, he continued 
 his studies in practical chemistry, especially pharmacy, geology, and 
 vegetable physiology. In order to promote the advancement of medical 
 science, Dr. Babington assisted in instituting in the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood of his residence a society called the Hunterian, for the 
 purpose of friendly meetings and the discussion of medical topics. He 
 also became a member of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, and the first 
 volume of their 1 Transactions ' contains a paper by him, ' A Case of 
 Exposure to the Vapour of Burning Charcoal,' 1809. While his 
 mornings were devoted to the practice of his profession, his evenings 
 were dedicated to study, or social intercourse with individuals distin- 
 guished by their attainments or love of science. He was the personal 
 friend of nearly all the most eminent scientific men of his day, and 
 he was justly esteemed by the public as an able and enlightened 
 physician. 
 
 The Royal Society admitted Dr. Babington as one of its fellows, and 
 the Royal College of Physicians testified their sense of his character by 
 
461 
 
 BABRIUS. 
 
 BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN. 
 
 482 
 
 electing him from among the ranks of the licentiates into the number 
 of the fellows. In 1831 he removed from Aldemianbury to Devon- 
 shire-street, Portland-place, continuing however to visit as their phy- 
 sician a few of his attached friends and patients. During the prevalence 
 of the fatal influenza in the spring of 1833 he zealously attended his 
 patients, till at last, from exposure to the evening air after being 
 present at a crowded scientific meeting, he was himself attacked by 
 that disease, and on the 29th of May expired at his house in Devonshire- 
 street, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. The general expression 
 of regret which followed the announcement of Dr. Babingtou's death 
 proved the estimation in which he was held for his personal character 
 as well as for his professional attainments. As a scientific man, 
 although he attained no very distinguished rank, yet he without 
 ostentation greatly contributed during nearly half a century to the 
 promotion of many branches of physical as well as medical science, 
 and L'ave an impulse to the study of mineralogy and geology, the 
 beneficial effects of which will long be felt. 
 
 (Memoir of the Life and Writings of William Babington, M.D., &c, 
 by his son-in-law, Hichard Bright, M.D.) 
 
 BA'BRIUS was the writer of a collection of iEsopian fables, which 
 he turned from prose into choliambics. The time at which he lived 
 is not known, but from the mention of him by Avianus in the preface 
 to his fables, and as some of the verses of Babrius are quoted by 
 Apollonius in his ' Homeric Lexicon,' it is most probable that he 
 lived somewhat before the Augustan age. Some of his writings were 
 used by the transcribers and in the middle ages, as the foundation of 
 their prose versions of ^Esopian fables, and have thus been preserved. 
 A few have likewise been preserved in an entire form, and several 
 fragments are cited in the ' Lexicon ' of Suidas. Collections of the 
 extant fables and fragmeuts of this poet have been made by several 
 scholars. (Tyrwhitt, 'Dissertatio de Babrio;' Schneider, 'Fabulse 
 iEsopias,' Vratislav., 1812; Berger, ' Babrii Fabularum Choliambica- 
 rum, libri tres : ' Bishop Blomfield in the 'Museum Criticum,' vol. i. ; 
 Mr. Burge8 in the 'Classical Journal,' vols. xxv. and xxvi. ; 'Philo- 
 logical Museum,' vol. i. pp. 280-304, which contains a detailed account 
 of the versification of Babrius, and an amended edition of his fables.) 
 The language of Babrius is extremely terse and elegant, and his style 
 of narration lively, pointed, and simple. Of late years a large addition 
 has been made to our stock of the writings of Babrius by M. Minoides 
 Minas, who among numerous manuscripts found by him in the con- 
 vents of Greece, alighted upon one which contained the choliambic 
 fables of Babrius. The monks of the convent of St. Liura on Mount 
 Athos, where the manuscript was found, asked, for tbe original a price 
 bo exorbitant, that M. Minas was content to take a copy of it, which 
 he brought to Paris in 1842. M. Villemain intrusted the office of 
 editing the fables to M. J. F. Boissonade, and the work appeared 
 towards the end of 1844 in one octavo volume. The Greek fables 
 which were thus rescued are not however the complete collection 
 which Babrius made. Their number is 123 ; they are arranged in 
 alphabetical order, that is, according to the initial letters of tbe fables, 
 and the present collection does not go further down than the 
 letter 0. A considerable number of fables is therefore still wanting. 
 The collection is divided into two sections, the one extending from 
 the letter A to L, and the other from M to 0 iuclusive, and each 
 of them is preceded by a prooemium. Boissonade has added a critical 
 commentary and a Latin translation : the title is BaPpiov Mu0la.fj.l3oi. 
 'Babrii Fabulae Iambicae CXXIII., nunc primum editae. J. F. Bois- 
 sonade recensuit, Latine convertit, annotavit,' Paris, 1844, 8vo. 
 (Classical Museum, part vi. p. 412, &c.) 
 
 BA'CCHIUS, sometimes incorrectly called Vacceus, is a Greek 
 writer on music. His work is entitled Eio-ayayt) rex^s /xovo-iKrjs, ' An 
 Introduction to the Art of Music,' in questions and answers. Bacchius 
 follows in general the system of Aristoxenus. His epoch is uncertain ; 
 Meibomius conjectured that he lived after Ptolemanis ; Fabrieius has 
 tried to identify him with tho Bacchius whom M. Aurelius Antoninus 
 mentions (' de Rebus suis,' i. 6) as his earliest teacher. The work of 
 Bacchius is contained in the collection of Meibomius — 'Antiquas 
 Musics Auctorea Septem,' Amsterdam, 1652. 
 
 BACCH Y'LIDES, a Greek poet and a nephew of the elder Simonides, 
 was a native of the island Ceos. He probably lived in the first half of 
 the 5th century before the Christian era, was a contemporary of Pindar, 
 though younger than that celebrated poet ; and is said to have resided 
 in the court of Hiero, king of Sicily. His compositions were numerous 
 and very various, consisting of hymns, dithyrambic poems, odes in 
 celebration of the Pythian victors, amatory poems, &c, all of which 
 are now lost except a few small pieces, twenty in number. The frag- 
 ments of Bacchylides were published separately by C. F. Neue, 
 |Bacchylidia Cei Fragmcnta,' Berlin, 1822, 8vo. They are translated 
 in Menvale's edition of Bland's ' Anthology,' pp. 75-80. 
 
 BA'CCIO DEL LA PORTA. This distinguished painter was so 
 named from having resided near the gate of St. Peter's, at Florence ; 
 but he is more generally recognised by the name of Frate Bartolomeo 
 <Ji Sin Marco. He was a native of the district of Savignauo, and born 
 in the year 1469. He passed some years under the tuition of Co.simo 
 Eosselli at Florence, but it was from the great father of modern art, 
 Leonardo da Vinci, that he obtained the first idea of that effective 
 •tyle of colour and chiar' oscuro by which his subsequent works are 
 distinguished. He attempted to acquire fixed principles of form and 
 
 ideal character from ancient sculpture ; and, in company with hie 
 friend, Mariotto Albertinelli, he drew and modelled from statues and 
 bassi-rilievi with indefatigable attention. He had acquired consider- 
 able proficiency in those studies when he made the acquaintance of 
 the celebrated Dominican, Savonarola, who exercised a considerable 
 influence over his mind, and induced him to destroy, on account of 
 their nudity, a prodigious number of studies which he had made of 
 the human figure. Subsequently to this period Bartolomeo seldom 
 treated subjects which exhibited the naked form, but the knowledge 
 he had previously acquired of it is perceptible in the fine understand- 
 ing of the figure, which is visible through his draperies. His early 
 works were of small dimensions, and distinguished by graceful com- 
 position and high finishing; but it was in the fresco of the Last 
 Judgment, painted for the chapel of Sta. Maria Nuova, that the 
 grandeur of his style and the extent of his powers were first mani- 
 fested. Shortly after the completion of this piece, Bartolomeo being 
 at work in the convent of St. Mark, a forcible entry was made into 
 the monastery by the pope's officers for the purpose of seizing the 
 person of Savonarola ; a formidable resistance was made by the monks, 
 but the unhappy zealot was borne away, and expiated his opinions at 
 the stake. This event affected Bartolomeo so strongly, that he deter- 
 mined on devoting himself to the cloister, and in 1500 he took the 
 habit of St. Dominic. In 1504 Raffaelle made a visit to Florence, and 
 an intimacy commenced between him and Bartolomeo, who commu- 
 nicated to his great contemporary his own principles of colouring, and 
 received from him in return some instructions in perspective. Shortly 
 afterwards Bartolomeo went to Rome, where his mind, naturally 
 timid and sensitive, appears to have been so overwhelmed by the con- 
 templation of the great works of Michel Angelo and Raffaelle, that 
 it was with difficulty he persuaded himself to make any practical 
 effort ; he painted however two single figures of St. Peter and St. 
 Paul, which were long preserved in the palace of the Quirinal. By 
 his visit to the Vatican he added a purer and more correct taste in 
 design to his own bold style of relief and powerful colouring, and the 
 sublime figure of St. Mark (now in the gallery of Florence) was alone 
 a sufficient proof that he had no reason to shrink from any competi- 
 tion. The great vice of the Florentine school was an ostentatious 
 display of anatomy, which not unfrequently gave to their works, both 
 in painting and sculpture, an appearance little short of disgusting. 
 The fine feeling and good sense of Bartolomeo led him to avoid this 
 error. The subjects in which Bartolomeo delighted were such as 
 most accorded with his strong religious feeling, and gentle temper — 
 Saints, Evangelists, and Madonnas, with the Divine Infant, surrounded 
 by angelic choirs. Bartolomeo died in the convent of St. Mark, in 
 1517, aged forty-eight. His works are numerous in Italy, and there 
 are some good specimens in the private galleries of England : but the 
 national collection is without any example of this great painter. 
 
 BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN, whose name holds so conspicuous 
 a place in the musical history of Germany, and from the various 
 branches of whose family have sprung more organists and able con- 
 trapuntists thau any one family ever produced, was born at Eisenach, 
 in the circle of Upper Saxony, in 1655. He belonged to a family in 
 which the musical faculty seems to have been very largely developed. 
 The founder was Veit Bach, a miller and baker at Presburg, in Hungary, 
 early in the 16th century, who, being obliged to quit his couutry on 
 account of religious troubles, settled at a village near Saxe Gotha. In 
 the ' Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung' (1823), is a curious genealo- 
 gical tree of the Bach family — John Sebastian appearing in the fifth 
 generation — which shows that, down to the middle of last century, 
 there were fifty-eight male descendants from Veit, all of whom, 
 according to Forkel, were professors of music. 
 
 When John Sebastian had not quite completed his tenth year, he 
 lost his father, musician to the court and town of Eisenach, and was 
 obliged to claim the protection of an elder brother, organist at Ordruff, 
 who gave him some instructions on the clavichord. His brother soon 
 dying, John Sebastian was again left destitute, when he accompanied 
 one of his schoolfellows to Luneburg, and entered the choir of St. 
 Michael's as a soprauo singer. There he for a while obtained a good 
 livelihood by his fine voice, but on its changing, he found himself 
 once more for some time without resource. In 1703 he became court 
 musician at Weimar; but exchanged this place the year following for 
 that of organist to the new church at Arnstadt. His reputation now 
 began to spread, and in 1708, the reigning Duke of Weimar, offering 
 him the appointment of court organist, he accepted the situation. 
 This afforded him an opportunity of communicating with and hearing 
 many of the great musicians of his day, and his studies continuing 
 unremitted, he became master of every branch of his science. In 
 1717 he was made director of the concerts, and iu executing the 
 duties of this office, he had to compose sacred music for the service 
 of tho duke's chapel. 
 
 About this time M. Marchaud, the celebrated French organist, 
 having visited Dresden, accepted a challenge for a musical contest 
 between himself and John Sebastian Bach ; but when the appointed day 
 arrived, and a large company had assembled, it was found that the 
 French musician had left Dresden that very day, without taking leavo 
 of a Bingle individual. The king desired that a present of 100 Louis 
 d'or should be sent to Bach, but they never came into his possession. 
 After this, Bach accepted the office of 'kapellmeister' to the Prince 
 
403 
 
 BAOH, FRIEDEMANN. 
 
 BACKHUYSEN, LUDOLPH. 
 
 of Anhalt-Cothen, in which he continued six years. In 1723 he was 
 appointed director of music and cantor to St. Thomas's School at 
 Leipzig, which place he held till his death. On the decease of Prince 
 Leopold of Anhalt-Cothen, he wrote a funeral cantata, in which are 
 some of his finest double choruses. He now accepted two situations 
 which were little more than honorary — kapellmeister to the Duke of 
 Weisseufels, and court composer to the King of Poland, elector of 
 Saxony. 
 
 Bach's second son, Carl Philipp Emanuel, entered the service of 
 Frederic the Great in 1740. The king often expressed a desire to 
 receive a visit from John Sebastian, who, after considerable delay, 
 went to Potsdam, just as the king's concert was on the point of com- 
 mencing; aud was cordially welcomed by Frederic, who suspended 
 the concert that he might at once witness his musical powers. During 
 the evening Bach asked his majesty for a subject on which ho might 
 play a fugue. This was immediately given, for the king wrote music 
 very readily, and the voluntary task was executed most satisfactorily. 
 The royal dilettante then asked for another fugue, to be in six parts, 
 which was immediately executed, to the astonishment of all present. 
 After his return to Leipzig he composed the subject given him by the 
 king, in three and six parts, and had it engraved, under the title of 
 ' Musikalisches Opfer ' (Musical Offering), and dedicated it to the 
 inventor. 
 
 Bach's uninterrupted studies affected his eyes, and an operation 
 which was tried on them having proved unsuccessful, he became quite 
 blind. His constitution was also affected, and he continued declining 
 for half a year. Ten days before hi-) death he was suddenly enabled 
 to see again ; but in a few hours he was attacked by apoplexy, and 
 after lingering some time, he expired on the 2Sth of July, 1750, in 
 the sixty-sixth year of his age. He was twice married, and had by 
 his first wife seven children; by his second, thirteen; in all, eleven 
 sons and nine daughters. 
 
 So great was Sebastian Bach as an organ-player, that he had only 
 one rival ; but that one was Handel, and something similar might be 
 Baid of him as a composer for the organ. Bach's compositions, in 
 almost every class, are very numerous ; of these, perhaps the most 
 generally known out of Germany are his ' Clavecin bien-Tempdtd,' or 
 Preludes and Fugues in all the tones and semitones, major and minor, 
 which were composed as exercise for his sons ; but his vocal works are 
 more likely to maintain his popularity with the general public. Among 
 them are the funeral cantata before mentioned, a magnificat, a motet, 
 Beveral 'chorals,' or psalm-tunes, and, above all, his ' Passionsmusik/ 
 which is a work of great genius as well as science. 
 
 Bach's fame has of late years been steadily advanciug with English 
 musicians, in proportion with the advance among them of a higher 
 scientific culture. In London, following the example of various cities 
 of Germany, there was in 1850 a Bach Society formed by several of 
 the leading members of the musical profession, for the special study 
 and practice of the compositions of Sebastian Bach. Some of his 
 gi-eat works have since been performed for the first time in London, 
 and listened to with interest by the general public. But it is not 
 to be expected that his works will ever be what is termed popular. 
 Their immense difficulty will always prevent his great works from 
 being frequently played ; and their grandeur is not likely to be felt 
 by the uninstructed auditor to whom their elaborate structure is un- 
 familiar. The greatness and power, and the consummate science of 
 Bach, can be appreciated only by the highly educated musician ; and 
 with him the name of Bach will be sure to stand among the very fore- 
 most in the list of musical composers. During the last few years 
 some approaches have been made towards collecting aud publishing a 
 complete edition of his numerous works ; several of his more important 
 vocal pieces, his grand mass in B minor, &c, have been issued- by the 
 Leipzig Bach Society ; and many of his instrumental pieces have 
 appeared under the editorial care of M. Peters of Leipzig. 
 
 BACH, FRIEDEMANN, eldest son of Sebastian, followed in his 
 father's footsteps as a performer. He preferred playing extempora- 
 neously, and therefore left but little behind him ; but some few fugues 
 which are published, are undeniable proofs of his knowledge and 
 talent. He died at Berlin in 1784, in very distressed circumstances. 
 
 BACH, CARL PHILIP EMANUEL, second son of Sebastian, was 
 born at Weimar in 1714. He was educated as a civilian, but adopted 
 music as his profession. In 1738 he went to Berlin, and entered the 
 service of Frederic the Great in 1740. In 1767 he succeeded Telemann, 
 as music-director at Hamburg, and likewise became 'kapellmeister' to 
 the king's sister — the Princess Amelia. He died in 1788. Emanuel 
 Bach composed much for the piano-forte, and it has been said that 
 Haydn was much indebted to him for his style ; but this may be 
 fairly doubted. His works scarcely seem to justify the panegyrics 
 which have been lavished on his powers of composition. 
 
 BACH, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, called Bach of Milan, and after- 
 wards of London, was not instructed by his father, but received his 
 musical education chiefly in Italy. He came to England in 1763, to com- 
 pose for the King's Theatre, and produced some operas, which were supe- 
 rior to most of the wor ks then in vogue, but have long been forgotten. 
 Soon after the marriage of George III., Christian was appointed music- 
 preceptor to Queen Charlotte, of which office he enjoyed the salary 
 till his death. In conjunction with Abel he commenced and carried 
 on for nearly twenty years a series of subscription concerts, which 
 
 were extremely successful. He composed much, and of all kinds, but 
 his works are now scarcely remembered. He died in London in 1782. 
 
 BACIOCCHI, MARIE ANNE ELISA BONAPARTE, the eldest 
 of the sisters of Napoleon I., born at Ajaccio in Corsica, in 1777, 
 received her early education in the Royal school of St.-Cyr, near Paris. 
 When that institution was suppressed by the National Convention, in 
 1792, Marie Anne Bonaparte returned to Corsica, whence she emigrated 
 with her mother and sisters to Marseille, the English having occupied 
 her native island. At Marseille she married, in 1797, her countryman 
 Captain Baciocchi, a retired officer of the former Royal Corsican 
 regiment. In the following year she removed to Paris, where her 
 brother Lucieu was a member of the Council of the Five Hundred, 
 and she undertook to do the honours of his saloon. Here she became 
 acquainted with several literary and scientific men, with whom she 
 loved to dispute upon all sorts of topics. She rose in rank aud station 
 with the rest of her family, in consequence of her brother Napoleon's 
 elevation to supreme power. After his assumption of the imperial crown, 
 Napoleon made Baciocchi and his wife Prince and Princess of Piombino, 
 anil soon after of Lucca, when Marie Anne assumed the name of 
 Elisa. In 1806 she received the principality of Massa and Carrara. 
 Her administration — for in it her husband had no share — was upon 
 the whole beneficial to Lucca, where she fixed her residence. In 
 March, 1809, Napoleon by a decree appointed the Princess Elisa to be 
 Grand Duchess of Tuscany, and to administer in his name the three 
 departments into which that country was divided as a part of the 
 French empire. Her husband was not named in the imperial decree. 
 In consequence of this new appointment, the Princess Elisa removed 
 to Florence, where she kept her court until the downfal of Napoleon. 
 She was by no means popular at Florence, partly, perhaps, because she 
 was there a mere lieutenant of her imperious brother, and as such was 
 obliged to enforce all his obnoxious measures — the conscription, the 
 burdensome taxation, the rigorous police, &o. But it seems also as if 
 her removal to a larger sphere of administration had rendered Elisa 
 more haughty, harsh, and self-willed. She became very fond of 
 military pomp and parade. In 1814, when the allied armies advanced 
 into Tuscany, Elisa left Florence, and in the following year went to 
 Heimburg, near Vienna, where her sister Caroline Murat had taken up 
 her residence. She afterwards removed to Bologna in the Papal States, 
 where she went by the name of Countess of Campugnano. She died 
 at Bologna, of a nervous fever, in August 1820, leaving a son, Frederic 
 Baciocchi, who died at Rome in 1833 of a fall from hie horse, and a 
 daughter, who married Count Camerata of the Papal States. The 
 father, Felice Baciocchi, purchased the splendid palace of Ranuzzi at 
 Bologna and the title of a Roman prince, and died there in 1841. 
 (Lesur, Annuaire Sistoriqice; Duchesse d'Abrantes, Salons de Paris; 
 Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 ♦BACK, SIR GEORGE, was born at Stockport in 1796, and entered 
 early into the naval service of his country. In 1809, when serving as 
 midshipman on board the ' Arethusa,' he was taken prisoner by the 
 French, and only recovered his liberty on the termination of the war. 
 Having little hope of employment during the peace, he turned his 
 energies into another direction. He accompanied Sir John Franklin 
 on his northern voyage in 1818; and afterwards in the first and second 
 voyages of the same commander (in 1819 and 1823) to explore the Arctic 
 Regions. Like the rest of his associates, he suffered great privations in 
 these voyages, and endured severe hardships, but his ardour was 
 unchecked. In 1833 he offered to undertake an overland journey in 
 search of Captain Ross, who had left England in 1829 to attempt the 
 North-West Passage, and had been long unheard of. Back's offer was 
 accepted : he left England in February, accompanied by Dr. King, and 
 proceeded by the North American lakes, and the Hudson's Bay Terri- 
 tories, to the shores of the Polar Sea. While on his way he was made 
 acquainted with the safe return of Captain Ross, but determined to 
 proceed for the purpose of extending the geographical knowledge of 
 those regions. From Sussex Lake he descended a river, now named 
 the Back River, impeded by rapids, dangerous falls, and sand-banks, 
 till he reached the Polar Sea at Cockburn Bay, in '67° N. lat, 90° 
 W. long. He carefully examined the coasts, and traced them as far as 
 Bathurst Inlet. He also made some interesting observations on the 
 aurora borealis, and its influence upon the compass. For these services 
 he was raised to the rank of captain in 1835. In 1836, Captain Back 
 received the command of the ' Terror,' in the expedition to examine 
 the coasts between Regent Inlet and Cape Turnagain : but he was 
 caught in the ice, and only with great difficulty saved his vessel. He 
 then returned to England, and in 1838 was knighted, and received a 
 medal from the Geographical Society for his exertions in extending 
 geographical knowledge. Sir George has written two works on the 
 subject of his labours — 'A Narrative of the Expedition along the 
 Shores of the Arctic Ocean in the years 1833, 1834, and 1835;' and 
 ' A Narrative of an Expedition undertaken with a View to Geographical 
 Discovery on the Arctic Shores.' 
 
 BACKHUYSEN, LUDOLPH, a celebrated marine-painter, was born 
 at Embden in 1631. Being intended by his parents for a mercantile 
 profession, he was sent to Amsterdam at the age of eighteen, and 
 placed in the counting-house of M. Bartholet, an eminent merchant ; 
 and it was while in the employment of that gentleman that he 
 first manifested the possession of a talent for painting. The latent 
 faculty however was stimulated by the picturesque objects which the 
 
MM 
 
 BACON, ROGER. 
 
 BACON, ROGER. 
 
 sea presented to young Backhuysen before the windows of his 
 office, and his first delineations were of shipping, done with a pen 
 in a style of extraordinary beauty and correctness. These drawings 
 excited such surprise and admiration, that it became a fashion to 
 possess them, and they were sold at the prices of 10, 20, and even 
 100 florins each. Backhuysen now determined on relinquishing his 
 commercial pursuits, and devotiug himself to art. His first instructor 
 was Albert Van Evendingen ; but he made acquaintance with all the 
 artists in the city, and spent a large portion of his time in their 
 studies, by this means acquiring a full mastery in the executive part 
 of his art. But his study was the gale and the storm ; nor did he 
 shrink from the perils which accompanied the study of Nature in her 
 sternest and most appalling aspects. By large rewards he was accus- 
 tomed to induce boatmen to put to Bea at times when no other person 
 would venture from shore. Amidst the dash of waves, the roaring of 
 breakers, and the danger of vessels, he it is said sat making his 
 sketches with perfect composure. He stamped, by this mode of study, 
 a character of truth on his works which could have been obtained by 
 no other means ; and he acquired the rare distinction of forming a 
 style peculiarly his own. So earnest was he in this course of practical 
 study, that the moment he landed from his marine excursions, he 
 hastened to his painting-room, nor would he admit the visits of his 
 most intimate friends until he had transmitted his impressions to 
 canvass. He was singularly industrious, and the number of his works 
 is astonishing. But one mischievous result of this unceasing labour 
 was that he fell into a sort of mechanical mannerism, which is very 
 unpleasantly evident in many of his later works. Still his pictures 
 possess, in a very high degree, the peculiar excellencies of the Dutch 
 school, — richness, transparency, delicate handling, and appropriate, 
 though in his case a somewhat heavy colour. Few artists have excelled 
 him in the art of giving depth without darkness : frequently, in his 
 pictures of an approaching storm, the very atmosphere seems to labour 
 with gloom, yet the clearness of effect is not in the least impaired. 
 
 Backhuysen's merits were fully appreciated in his own lifetime. 
 His works were eagerly sought after : among other important commis- 
 sions, he was employed by the burgomasters of Amsterdam to paint 
 a large picture, with a multitude of vessels, and a view of the city at 
 a distance; for which he received 1300 guilders, and a present also 
 of considerable value. This picture was sent, in 1665, as a present 
 to Louis XIV., who placed it in the Louvre. Many royal personages 
 honoured the artist by visiting his study, among them the king of 
 Prussia, and the Czar Peter ; the latter especially found his taste for 
 nautical affairs gratified by the frequent inspection of his works. He 
 Engaged Backhuysen to make designs of various vessels, and delighted 
 to converse with him on the mode of constructing and manoeuvring 
 them, in which Backhuysen was thoroughly skilled. At the age of 
 71, he amused himself with etching a set of views on the Y, near 
 Amsterdam. He died in 1709, aged 78 years. His pictures are nume- 
 rous in Holland, and not unfrequent in English collections. Many of 
 them have been engraved, and some were etched by himself. 
 
 BACON, ROGER, the greatest of English philosophers before the 
 time of his celebrated namesake, was born near llchester, in Somerset- 
 shire, about the year 1214. He wa3 educated at Oxford, and, according 
 to the usual custom of hi3 day, proceeded to Paris, which was then 
 the first university in the world. The course of study in vogue, 
 however unfavourable to independence of thought, did not give so 
 great a preponderance to the works of Aristotle as was afterwards the 
 case. The theology of the day had set strongly against philosophy of 
 every species. In 1209, a council at Paris condemned and burnt, if 
 not the works of Aristotle, at least the mutilated and interpolated 
 translations from the Arabic which then existed. But towards the 
 middle of the century, Latin versions of Aristotle's work3 began to 
 appear, and the philosophy contained in them to be warmly advo- 
 cated by the new orders of Franciscans and Dominicans, and particu- 
 larly by Albertus Magnus. The reputation of Aristotle from this time 
 advanced so rapidly, that he had gained the exclusive title of ' the 
 Philosopher' by the time Roger Bacon wrote his 'Opus Majus.' But 
 Bacon, who was better versed in the original than most of his contem- 
 poraries, freely criticises all he meets with (especially the merit of the 
 translations, all which he says he would burn, if he could), and is 
 himself an early and sufficient proof that the absurdities of his con- 
 temporaries ought not to be called 'Aristotelian,' any more than 
 Aristotle himself ' the Philosopher.' 
 
 After his return to Oxford, with a doctor's degree granted at Paris, 
 which was immediately also confirmed by the Oxford university, he 
 took the vows of a Franciscan in a convent possessed by that order at 
 Oxford, on the persuasion, it is said, of Robert Greathead or Grostete, 
 bishop of Lincoln. From the time of his return, which is stated to 
 have been in 1240, he applied himself closely to the study of languages, 
 as well as to experimental philosophy. Th^ vow of the Franciscans 
 was poverty, manual labour, and study ; but the first two were soon 
 abandoned. Bacon does not appear to have wanted means, for he says 
 himself that in twenty years he spent 2000 livres (French) in books 
 and instruments; a very large sum in those days. His brethren soon 
 began to manifest a spirit of enmity, a prohibition being issued against 
 Bacon's lectures in the University, as well as against the transmission 
 of any of his writings beyond the walls of his convent. The charge 
 made against him was that of magic, which was then frequently 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 brought against those who studied the sciences, and particularly che- 
 mistry. Brought up to consider philosophy as nearly allied to, if not 
 identical with, heresy itself, many of the clergy of that day were no 
 doubt honest believers in its magical power; but we can hardly doubt 
 that there were a few more acute minds, who saw that Roger Bacon 
 was in reality endeavouring to evoke a spirit whose influence would 
 upset the power they had acquired over the thoughts of men, and 
 allow them to read and reflect, without fear of excommunication, or 
 the necessity of inquiring what council had authorised the book. 
 The following detached passages of the ' Opus Majus' no doubt contain 
 opinions which its author was in the habit of expressing, and they 
 deserve attention as illustrative of the teaching of the father of English 
 philosophy : — " Moat students have no worthy exercise for their heads, 
 and therefore languish and stupefy upon bad translations, which lose 
 them both time and money. Appearances alone rule them, and they 
 care not what they know, but what they are thought to know by a 
 senseless multitude. — There are four principal stumbling-blocks in 
 the way of arriving at knowledge — authority, habit, appearances as 
 they present themselves to the vulgar eye, and concealment of igno- 
 rance combined with ostentation of knowledge. — Even if the first three 
 could be got over by some great effort of reason, the fourth remains 
 ready. — Men presume to teach, before they have learnt, and fall into so 
 many errors, that the idle think themselves happy in comparison — 
 and hence both in science and in common life we see a thousand 
 falsehoods for one truth. — And this being the case, we must not 
 stick to what we hear and read, but must examine most strictly the 
 opinions of our ancestors, that we may add what is lacking, and 
 correct what is erroneous, but with all modesty and allowance. — We 
 must, with all our strength, prefer reason to custom, and the opinions 
 of the wise and good to the perceptions of the vulgar : and we must 
 not use the triple argument ; that is to say, this has been laid down, 
 this has been usual, this has been common, therefore it is to be held 
 by. For the very opposite conclusion does much better follow from 
 the premises. And though the whole world be possessed by these 
 causes of error, let us freely hear opinions contrary to established 
 usage." 
 
 As might be supposed, Roger Bacon cultivated the acquaintance of 
 men who held similar sentiments. Among them was Grostete, bishop 
 of Lincoln, who usually resided at Oxford. Grostete, who was a good 
 mathematician, and a resolute opponent of undue interference on the 
 part of the see of Rome, had opposed Innocent IV., who attempted to 
 appoint his nephew, a boy, to a prebend at Lincoln. On being excom- 
 municated, Grostete appealed from the tribunal of Rome to that of 
 Christ. It is not unlikely that the subsequent imprisonment of 
 Bacon was prolonged in consequence of the feelings still cherished in 
 reference to the independent conduct of his friend Bishop Grostete. 
 In the year 1265, Clement IV. was placed in the papal chair. He 
 had previously, when cardinal-bishop of Sabina, been legate in England, 
 and had heard of Bacon's discoveries, and earnestly desired to see his 
 writings; but, as before stated, the prohibition of the Franciscaus 
 prevented his wish being complied with. After his election as head 
 of the Church, Bacon, conceiving that there would be neither danger 
 nor impropriety in disobeying his immediate superiors at the command 
 of the pope, wrote to him, stating that he was now ready to send him 
 whatever he wished for. The answer was a repetition of the former 
 request ; and Bacon accordingly drew up the ' Opus Majus,' of which 
 it may be presumed he had the materials ready. It appears that he 
 had mentioned the circumstances in which he stood ; for Clement's 
 answer requires him to send the work with haste, any command of 
 his superiors or constitution of his order notwithstanding, and also to 
 point out, with all secrecy, how the danger mentioned by him might 
 be avoided. The book was sent in the year 1267, by the hands of 
 John of London, a pupil whom he in one place commends as one of 
 the only two good mathematicians he knows. Before the ' Opus 
 Majus,' Bacon, according to his own account, had written nothing 
 except a few slight treatises, ' capitula qusedam.' 
 
 With the ' Opus Majus' he sent, it is said, also two other works, the 
 ' Opus Minus ' and the ' Opus Tertium,' the second a sort of abstract 
 of the first, and the third a supplement to it. These works exist in 
 manuscript in the Cottonian Library, but have not been printed. Of 
 the ' Opus Tertium ' a second manuscript was discovered a few year* 
 back in the library at Douay by M. Victor Cousin, who has given an 
 account of it and an elaborate criticism on Roger Bacon's writings and 
 character as a philosopher in the 'Journal des Savants' for 1848. The 
 Douay manuscript is incomplete, but it supplies the deficiencies in the 
 British Museum copy. It appears that, after the death of Clement, 
 which took place in November 1268, Bacon revised and augmented 
 the ' Opus Minus.' What reception Clement gave them is not cer- 
 tainly known, but he could scarcely have received the work before he 
 was seized with his last illness. 
 
 Till the year 1 278 Bacon was allowed to remain free from open per- 
 secution, but in that year Jerome of Ascoli, general of the Franciscan 
 order, afterwards pope under the title of Nicholas IV., being appointed 
 legate to the court of France, this was thought a proper opportunity 
 to commence proceedings. Bacon, then sixty-four years old, was 
 accordingly summoned to Paris, where a council of Franciscans, with 
 Jerome at their head, condemned his writings, and committed him to 
 close confinement. We cannot learn that any offer of pardon was 
 
467 
 
 BACON, ROGER. 
 
 BACON, ROGER. 
 
 made to the accused upon his recantation of the obnoxious opinions, 
 as usual in such cases, which, if we may judge from the ' Opus Majus,' 
 Bacon would have conceived himself bound to accept, at least if he 
 recognised the legality of the tribunal. A confirmation of the pro- 
 ceeding was immediately obtained from the court of Rome. During 
 ten years every effort made by him to procure his enlargement was 
 without success. The two succeeding pontiffs had short and busy 
 reigns, but on the accession of Jerome (Nicholas IV.) Bacon once more 
 tried to attract notice. He sent to that pope, it is said, a treatise on 
 the method of retarding the infirmities of old age, the only conse- 
 quence of which was increased rigour and closer confinement; but 
 that which was not to be obtained from the justice of the pope was 
 conceded to private interest, and Bacon was at last restored to liberty 
 by the intercession of some powerful nobles. Some say he died in 
 prison ; but the best authorities unite in stating that he returned to 
 Oxford, where he wrote a compendium of theology, and died shortly 
 after Nicholas IV., probably in 1292, as Anthony h. Wood states. He 
 was buried in the church of the Franciscans at Oxford. 
 
 Of the asserted works of Bacon there is a very large catalogue, cited 
 mostly from Bale and Pits, in the preface to Dr. Jebb's edition of the 
 ' Opus Majus.' They amount to 101 treatises in all, on a great variety 
 of subjects ; but probably most of these were extracts from the ' Opus 
 Majus,' &c, with separate titles, while others are improperly attributed 
 to Roger Bacon. The principal manuscripts of the ' Opus Majus ' are — 
 oue in Trinity College Library, Dublin, discovered by Dr. Jebb, which 
 forms the text of his edition; two in the Cottonian Library, one in 
 the Harleian, one in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge; 
 one in that of Magdalen College, two in the King's Library — all con- 
 taining various parts of the work. These are independent of the 'Opus 
 Minus ' and ' Opus Tertium ' in the Cottonian Library, already men- 
 tioned ; of some in Lambeth palace, in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, 
 and of several others at home and abroad. Pope Clement's letters are 
 in the Vatican library. 
 
 Of printed works we have found the following : — ' Perspectiva,' 
 Frankfurt, 1614; 'DeSpeculis' and 'Specula Mathematica,' Frankfurt, 
 1614, reprinted in 1671; ' De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Natura;,' 
 Paris, 1542; Girard, ' De 1' Admirable Pouuoir, &c, ou est Traicte" de 
 la Pierre Philosophale ' (translation of the preceding), Paris, 1557, 
 reprinted in 1629; ' Scripta quaedam de Arte Chemiae,' Frankfurt, 
 1603 and 1620; * Speculum Alchemiae,' and 'De Secretis Operibus Artis 
 et Naturae, et de Nullitate Magise,' in vols. iL and v. of Zetzner's 
 ' Theatrum Chemicum,' Strasbourg, 1659 ; the ' Opus Majus,' edited by 
 Dr. Jebb, London, 1733; ' De Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus,' 
 Oxford, 1590, translated by Dr. R. Browne, London, 1683. In a volume 
 of tracts on 'Alchemy,' Lyon, 1557, there are two attributed to Roger 
 Bacon; and there is one (the 'Speculum Alchemiae,' in English) iu a 
 similar collection, London, 1683. 
 
 It only remains for us to take a general view of the character of 
 Roger Bacon's writings, and of the contents of the ' Opus Majus.' It 
 is surprising how little is known of this work, the only one to which 
 we can appeal, if we would show that philosophy was successfully 
 cultivated in an English university during the 13th century. It is of 
 course in Latin, but in Latin of so simple a character, that we know 
 of none in the middle ages more easy to read ; aud it forms a brilliant 
 exception to the stiff and barbarous style of that and succeeding 
 times. 
 
 The charge of heresy appears to be by no means so well founded as 
 a Protestant would wish. Throughout the whole of his writings Bacon 
 is a strict Roman Catholic, that is, he expressly submits matters of 
 opinion to the authority of the Church. His zeal for Christianity, in 
 its Latin or western form, breaks out in every page ; and all science 
 is considered with direct reference to theology, and not otherwise : 
 but at the same time, to the credit of his principles, considering the 
 persecuting age in which he lived, there is not a word of any other 
 force except that of persuasion. He takes care to have both authority 
 and reason for every proposition that he advances ; perhaps indeed he 
 might have experienced forbearance at the hand of those who were 
 his persecutors, had he not so clearly made out prophets, apostles, and 
 fathers to have been partakers of his opinions. "But let not your 
 Serenity imagine," he says, "that I intend to excite the clemency of 
 your Holiness, in order that the papal majesty should employ force 
 against weak authors aud the multitude, or that my unworthy self 
 should raise any stumbling-block to study." Indeed the whole scope 
 of the first part of the work is to prove, from authority and from 
 reason, that philosophy and Christianity cannot disagree — a sentiment 
 altogether of his own revival, in an age in which all philosophers, and 
 mathematicians in particular, were considered as at best of dubious 
 orthodoxy. 
 
 The reasoning of Bacon is generally directly dependent upon his 
 premises, which, though often wrong, seldom lead him to the prevailing 
 extreme of absurdity. Even his astrology and alchemy, those two 
 great blots upon his character, as they are usually called, are, when i 
 considered by the side of a later age, harmless modifications, irrational J 
 ouly because unproved, and neither impossible nor unworthy of the 
 investigation of a philosopher, in the absence of preceding experiments. 
 His astrology is physical. " With regard to human affairs, true mathe- 
 maticians do not presume to make certain, but consider how the body 
 is altered by the heavens ; and the body being altered, the mind is 
 
 excited to public and private acts, free will existing all the same." 
 He appears to have firmly believed in planetary influence, and in 
 particular the effect of the constellations on the several parts of the 
 human body. 
 
 We must draw a wide distinction between the things which Bacon 
 relates as upon credible authority, and the opinions which he professes 
 himself to entertain from his own investigations. In almost every 
 page we meet with something now considered extremely absurd, and 
 with reason. But before the multiplication of books, and the free 
 interchange of facts and opinions by means of the printing-press, a 
 book which was written in one country found it3 way but slowly into 
 others, one copy at a time ; and a man of learning seldom met those 
 with whom he could discuss the probability of any narrative. The 
 adoption of the principle that a story must be rejected because it is 
 strange, would then have amounted to a disbelief of all that had been 
 written on physics — a state of mind to which we cannot conceive any 
 one of that age bringing himself. Nor can we rightly decide what 
 opinion to form of Bacon as a philosopher, until we know how much 
 he rejected as well as how much he believed. These remarks apply 
 particularly to his alchemy : he does not say he had made gol 1 him- 
 self, but that others had asserted themselves to have made it ; and his 
 account of the drink by which men had lived hundreds of years is a 
 relation taken from another. It is fair to notice that there is not in 
 Bacon's alchemy any direction for the use of prayers, fasting, or 
 planetary hours. 
 
 The great points by which Bacon is known are his reputed know- 
 ledge of gunpowder and of the telescope. With regard to the former, 
 it is not at all clear that what we call gunpowder is intended, though 
 some detonating mixture, of which saltpetre is an ingredient, is spoken 
 of as commonly known. The passage is as follows : — " Some things 
 disturb the ear so much, that if they were made to happen suddenly, by 
 night, and with sufficient skill, no city or army could bear them. No 
 noise of thunder could compare with them. Some things strike terror 
 on the sight, so that the flashes of the clouds are beyond comparison 
 less disturbing ; works similar to which Gideon is thought to have 
 performed in the camp of the Midianites. And an instance we take 
 from a childish amusement, which exists in many parts of the world, 
 to wit, that with an instrument as large as the human thumb, by the 
 violence of the salt called saltpetre, so horrible a noise is made by the 
 rupture of so slight a thing as a bit of parchment, that it is thought 
 to exceed loud thunder, and the flash is stronger than the brightest 
 lightning." ' Opus Majus,' p. 474. 
 
 There are indeed passages in the work ' De Secretis Operibus,' &c. 
 (cited by Hutton, ' Dictionary,' article ' Gunpowder '), which expressly 
 mention sulphur, charcoal, and saltpetre as ingredients. But inde- 
 pendently of the claim of the Chinese and the Indians, the receipt for 
 gunpowder is given by Marcus Graecus, who is mentioned by an Arabic 
 physician of the 9th century, in his work, ' Liber Ignium,' now existing 
 only in Latin translations from the Greek. 
 
 With regard to the telescope, it must be admitted that Bacon had 
 'conceived' the instrument, though there is no proof that he carried his 
 conception into practice, or ' invented' it. His words are these : — " We 
 can so shape transparent substances, and so arrange them with respect 
 to our sight and objects, that rays can be broken and bent as we please, 
 so that objects may be seen far off or near, under whatever angle we 
 please ; and thus from an incredible distance we may read the smallest 
 letters, and number the grains of dust and sand, on account of the 
 greatness of the angle under which we see them ; and we may manage 
 so as hardly to see bodies, when near to us, on account of the small- 
 ness of the angle under which we cause them to be seen ; for vision of 
 this sort is not a consequence of distance, except as that affects the 
 magnitude of the angle. And thus a boy may seem a giant, and a man 
 a mountain," &c. The above contains a true description of a telescope ; 
 but if Bacon had constructed one he would have found that there are 
 impediments to the indefinite increase of the magnifying power, and 
 still more that a boy does not appear a giant, but a boy at a smaller 
 distance. 
 
 It is worth notice, that these ideas of Bacon did, in after times, 
 produce either the telescope, or some modification of it, consisting in the 
 magnifying of images produced by reflection, and that before the date 
 either of Jansen or Galileo. Thomas Digges, son of Leonard Digges, 
 in his ' Stratiotikos,' London, 1590, p. 359, thus speaks of what his 
 father had done, in the presence, as he asserts, of numerous living eye- 
 witnesses: — "And such was his Felicitie aud happie successe, not ouly 
 in these conclusions, but also in y e Optikes and Catoptikes, that he was 
 able by Perspectiue Glasses, duely scituate upon conueuient angles, iu 
 such sort to discouer every particularitie of the country round about, 
 wheresoeuer the Sunne beames might pearse : as sithence Archimedes 
 (Bakon of Oxford onely excepted) I have not read of any in action 
 euer able by means natural to performe the like. Which partly grew 
 by the aid he had by one old written book of the same Bakou's Experi- 
 ments, that by strange aduenture, or rather Destiuie, came to his 
 hands, though chiefely by conioyning continuall laborious Practise 
 with his Mathematicall Studies." The same Thomas Digges, in his 
 ' Pantometria,' London, 1591, Preface, repeats the story with more 
 detail, omitting however all mention of Bacon. 
 
 The question has been agitated whether the invention of spectacles 
 is due to Bacon, or whether they had been introduced juat before he 
 
469 
 
 BACON, SIR NICHOLAS. 
 
 BACON, FRANCIS. 
 
 wrote. He certainly describes them, and explains why a plane convex 
 glass magnifies. But he seems to us to speak of them as already in 
 use. " Hence this instrument is useful to old persons and those who 
 have weak eyes." 
 
 The ' Opus Majus,' as published by Dr. Jebb, consists of six books 
 or parts. It begins with a book on the necessity of advancing know- 
 ledge, and a dissertation on the use of philosophy in theology. It is 
 followed by books on the utility of grammar and mathematics ; in the 
 latter of which he runs through the various sciences of astronomy, 
 chronology, geography, and music. The account of the inhabited 
 world is long and curious, and though frequently based on that of 
 Ptolemseus or the writings of Pliny, contains many new facts from travel- 
 lers of his own and preceding time3. His account of the defects in 
 the calendar was variously cited in the discussions which took place 
 on the subject two centuries after. The remainder of the work con- 
 sists of a treatise on optics and on experimental philosophy, insisting 
 on the peculiar advantages of the latter. The explanation of the 
 phenomena of the rainbow, though very imperfect, was an original 
 effort of a character altogether foreign to the philosophy of his day. 
 He attributes it to the reflection of the sun's rays from the cloud ; 
 and the chief merit of his theory is in the clear and philosophical 
 manner in which he proves that the phenomenon is an appearance, 
 and not a reality. Between the two last-mentioned books is a treatise, 
 ' De Multiplication Specierum,' entirely filled with discussions some- 
 what metaphysical upon the connection and causes of phenomena. A 
 seventh book on moral philosophy completed the work in its original 
 state; but this book has been lost or overlooked. M. Cousin says 
 that the Douay manuscript of the ' Opus Tertium,' noticed above, 
 makes express and precise reference to the treatise on moral philo- 
 sophy, of which the ' Opus Tertium ' professes to be an abridgment, 
 with certain emendations. 
 
 BACON, SIR NICHOLAS, father of Sir Francis Bacon, and Lord 
 Keeper of the Great Seal of England during the first twenty years 
 of the reign of Elizabeth, was descended from an ancient and wealthy 
 family in Suffolk, and was born in the year 1510 at Chiselhurst in 
 Kent. He received his scholastic education at Bene't (Corpus Christi) 
 College, Cambridge, and having finished his course of study there, 
 spent a considerable time abroad, and particularly at Paris, for the 
 purpose of completing his education. On his return to England he 
 kept his terms at Gray's Inn, and was called to the bar in that society. 
 In 1537, when he was only twenty-seven years of age, he wasappoiuted 
 solicitor to the Court of Augmentations, and in 1546 he was promoted 
 by Henry VIII. to the office of attorney of the Court of Wards, a 
 place of considerable emolument and responsibility, which he con- 
 tinued to hold during the reign of Edward VI. Upon the dissolution 
 of the monasteries in 1539, Sir Nicholas Bacon prepared and presented 
 to Henry VIII. a written project for the formation of a college for the 
 study of politics and diplomacy, to be endowed with part of the pro- 
 perty of the dissolved religious houses. This design miscarried, pro- 
 bably, as Burnet suggests, because the king, "before he was aware of 
 it, had so outrun his bounty, that it was not possible for him to bring 
 any such projects to effect." Having adopted the Protestant faith, 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon was excluded from all favour or public employ- 
 ment during the reign of Mary; but upon the accession of Elizabeth 
 he was selected, with Sir William Cecil, Sir Francis Kuollis, and several 
 others of the Protestant party, to be of her privy council, and to qualify 
 the influence of those of the Catholic party whom she thought it 
 prudent to retain as her advisers. With Cecil he was connected not 
 only by opinion and politics, but by relationship, as they both married 
 daughters of Sir Anthony Cooke, of Giddy Hall, iu Essex. In 
 December 1558 the queen gave the Great Seal to Sir Nicholas Bacon, 
 making the appointment by letters-patent, which rendered the office 
 p> l'mauent, and expressly gave him all the rank and authority of a 
 Lord Chancellor. 
 
 On the 25th of January 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon opened the first 
 parliament of Elizabeth with a temperate speech, recommending in 
 particular to the Lords and Commons a candid consideration of the 
 religious differences which then agitated the nation, with a view to 
 their satisfactory arrangement. This speech is a judicious perform- 
 ance, well calculated to conciliate contending factious and to remove 
 the difficulties by which Elizabeth's government was beset at the com- 
 mencement of her reign. One of the most serious of these difficulties 
 was the settlement of religion, and in thi3 work Sir Nicholas Bacon 
 was an important instrument both in council and in action. In March 
 1559 the queen appointed a public conference to be held iu West- 
 minster Abbey, for the purpose of discussing several controverted 
 points in the doctrines and ceremonies of the Church of Rome. It 
 was agreed that Dine divines should argue on each side, and Sir 
 Nicholas Bacon, as Lord Keeper, was nominated president, or mode- 
 rator. The conference, as is well known, ended abruptly, and without 
 any approach towards an agreement. 
 
 Bacon's intimacy with Sir William Cecil, as well as his own upright 
 and manly conduct, enabled him generally to retain the favour of the 
 queen; but in 1564 he was suspected of having approved, and even 
 assisted in writing, a book, published by one Hales, which questioned 
 the title of Mary, queen of Scotland, to succeed, after Elizabeth, to 
 the English throne. This was opposed to the sentiments at that time 
 held both by Elizabeth and the Earl of Leicester; and when the book 
 
 was expressly complained of by Mary's ambassador, the disapprobation 
 of the court made itself decisively felt. Hales was committed to the 
 Tower, and the Lord Keeper, who is said not to have had more hand 
 in the book than Sir William Cecil, was dismissed from the privy 
 council and from court, and discharged from all interference with 
 public affairs except in the Court of Chancery. At length however, 
 by the assistance of Cecil, who continued through life his firm friend, 
 Bacon succeeded in reinstating himself in the good opinion of the 
 queen ; and from that time until his death he appears to have enjoyed 
 her favour and full confidence without interruption. In 1577 the 
 queen visited him at the splendid mansion which he had lately built 
 at Gorhambury, in Hertfordshire ; and it was to that occasion that 
 the anecdote refers which is related by Lord Bacon in his 'Apoph- 
 thegms.' Upon the queen's telling him "that his house was too little 
 for him," he happily replied, " Not so, madam ; but your majesty has 
 made me too great for my house." 
 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon died on the 20th of February 1579, in the 
 70th year of his age. The character of his mind, as given by his son, 
 Lord Bacon, appears to be just and accurate, and is consistent with 
 the facts which are recorded of his life and conduct. " He was," says 
 he, " a plain mau, direct and constant, without all finesse and double- 
 ness, and one that was of a mind that a man, in his private proceedings 
 and estate, and in the proceedings of state, should rest upon the 
 soundness and strength of his own courses, and not upon practice to 
 circumvent others." 
 
 Many speeches of Sir Nicholas Bacon as Lord Keeper upon formal 
 occasions will be found iu the parliamentary history of the first twenty 
 years of Elizabeth's reign, and several addresses by him to judges on 
 being called to the bench are still extant in various depositories of 
 manuscripts. His addresses on these occasions are replete with good 
 sense. Of his decisions and judgments in the Court of Chancery few 
 records are preserved. Among the Harleian Manuscripts iu the 
 British Museum there is one (No. 39) which contains a very sensible 
 judicial opinion pronounced by Sir Nicholas Bacon upon the question 
 whether a peer of the realm is privileged from an attachment from 
 the Court of Chancery for disobedience to a decree or order of that 
 court. This question he decided in the negative. 
 
 BACON, FRANCIS, the youngest son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, was 
 born at York House in the Strand, on the 22nd of January, 1561. Iu 
 boyhood he was sprightly and intelligent beyond his years. Nothing 
 is known of his early education. Having however parents of a supe- 
 rior order — a father distinguished as a lawyer and a statesman, and a 
 mother gifted with uncommon abilities, and eminent for her learning 
 and piety — Bacon was placed favourably, from the first, for the forma- 
 tion of a learned and a virtuous character. In his 13th year he was 
 sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, and was placed under the tuition 
 of Dr. Whitgift, at that time master of the college, and afterwards 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. Here Bacon studied with diligence and 
 success. Dr. Rawley, his chaplain and biographer, tells us, on the 
 authority of Bacon himself, that when at the university, about sixteen 
 years of age, he conceived a dislike to the philosophy of Aristotle, it 
 being a philosophy (as he used to say) "only strong for disputations 
 and contentions, but barren of the production of works for the life of 
 man." This feeling he ever after retained, yet " ever ascribed all high 
 attributes to Aristotle himself." 
 
 On leaving Cambridge, Bacon entered Gray's Inn as a student of 
 law, but his attendance in London not being required for some years, 
 by the regulations of hi3 inn, he was sent, in compliance with a custom 
 at the time common among the nobility, to study the institutions and 
 manners of other countries. He went accordingly in the suite of 
 Sir Atnias Paulet, the British ambassador to the court of France. His 
 superior sagacity and discretion soon induced the ambassador to 
 intrust him with a message of some delicacy and importance to the 
 queen; a commission which Bacon executed so as to obtain the royal 
 approbation. On his return to Paris he made frequent excursions 
 into the country, spent some time in Poitiers, and busied himself iu 
 collecting information on the characters and resources of the different 
 princes of Europe. His work ' Of the State of Europe,' in which he 
 arranged and estimated the information thus collected, and which was 
 written when he was nineteen years of age, displays conspicuously the 
 industry, guided by deep penetration, which characterised his youthful 
 miud. 
 
 His studies abroad were interrupted by the death of his father in 
 1579. Returning to London on this occasion, he found himself the 
 only one of his family left unprovided for; his father having been 
 prevented by the suddenness of his death from purchasing an estate 
 with the money set aside for his youngest son. Instead of the whole, 
 Francis received only a fifth share of the money. This caused him 
 ' strait3 and difficulties ' in his youth. When a student in Gray's Inn, 
 he divided his time between law and philosophy, but law was his 
 principal study. Though when a student he sketched his great work 
 the ' Organon,' in a piece which his youthful pride entitled ' Partus 
 Temporis Maximus,' ' The Greatest Birth of Time,' hi3 studies were 
 chiefly directed to legal subjects. 
 
 On the 27th of June 1582, he was called to the bar. His practice 
 soon became considerable. In 1586, he was made a bencher. In his 
 twenty-eighth year he became counsel extraordinary to the queen. 
 In 1588 he was appointed a reader to his Inn; and again, in 1600, the 
 
BACON, FRANCIS. 
 
 BACON, FRANCIS. 
 
 #2 
 
 Lent double-reader ; appointments which were generally conferred on 
 men of eminence in the profession, and seldom on persons so young 
 as Bacon in years and practice, when he first received the honour. 
 His double reading on the Statute of Uses has been re published 
 several times, first in 1642; and in 1804 it was edited by William 
 Henry Rowe, as a work of high authority on the difficult subject 
 which it investigates. 
 
 Although connected with the most powerful family of Elizabeth's 
 reign — the nephew of Lord Burleigh, and the cousin of Sir Robert Cecil 
 — Bacon's advancement corresponded neither to the natural influence 
 of his talents nor the apparently favourable position in which he was 
 placed by his connections. The Cecils represented him to the queen 
 as a speculative man; a dangerous individual therefore in the realities 
 of business. All that they ever procured for him was the reversion 
 of the office of Registrar of the Star Chamber, an appointment the 
 salary of which, 1G00Z. per annum, he did not receive till after twenty 
 years had elapsed. The exertions of Essex in behalf of Bacon were 
 more hearty but less efficient. The office of solicitor-general becoming 
 vacant, Essex endeavoured to procure the place for his friend, and 
 when baffled by the superior influence of the Cecils, he generously 
 made him a present of Twickenham Park, worth about 1800£, and bo 
 beautiful a spot, that Bacon called it 'a Garden of Paradise.' 
 
 The friendship of Bacon for this nobleman was not one of mere 
 interest : and Essex made him this liberal present because he knew 
 that Bacon's friendship for him had been a bar to his promotion. But 
 a coldness came over their friendship owing to difference of policy 
 and opinion. Bacon in vain iutreated Essex to desist from the pro- 
 ceedings which caused his ruin. They parted on bad terms in conse- 
 quence. Bacon reckoned the last act of Essex no better than madness. 
 When ruin closed round upon him, Bacon did not desert him. Risking 
 and encountering the displeasure of the queen on behalf of a friend, 
 of whose conduct he did not approve, Bacon did everything that 
 ingenious remonstrance and affectionate intreaty could do with her 
 majesty in behalf of the ill-advised earl. Although officially called 
 to appear as one of her majesty's counsel against his former friend, 
 the opportunity which his position gave him of mitigating the severity 
 of accusation, and of more effectually securing the interests of his 
 friend at court, were not neglected by him, and the mildness of his 
 manner of conducting the case, his choice of a part the least pro- 
 minent possible, and the disinterestedness and dexterity with which 
 he urged the queen for the paidon and restoration of Essex, appear 
 to show that he tried at least to serve his friend in difficult circum- 
 stances. When commanded by the queen and her counsel to draw up 
 a declaration of the treasons of Robert Earl of Essex, it was found 
 necessary to alter and embitter it considerably, her majesty remarking 
 ou first reading it, " I see old love is not easily forgotten." By the 
 general public Bacon's conduct was much censured, and he thought 
 it incumbent on himself to address a letter, after the earl's execution, 
 to one of his most devoted friends in vindication of the part which 
 he had acted. But the vindication it must be owned is not grounded 
 on any very noble motives. 
 
 In 1592 Bacon was returned to parliament for the county of Middle- 
 sex, and he distinguished himself in the debates by taking the popular 
 side. His first political production, published in 1594, was occasioned 
 by a libel, entitled ' A Declaration of the Causes of the Great Troubles.' 
 Although charged with flattery to the queen and the ministry, the 
 pamphlet is more a vindication of England than of its government. 
 In 1597, his most popular work, 'Essays or Counsels, Civil and 
 Moral,' was published ; but this fir^t edition contains only ten essays, 
 and these in subsequent editions were enlarged to nearly double their 
 original dimensions. About the same time appeared his ' Maxims of 
 Law.' His circumstances at this time were very bad : he wa3 dis- 
 appointed in his attempts at forming a lucrative matrimonial connec- 
 tion, and was twice arrested for debt. Two years afterwards his 
 ' History of the Alienation Office ' was written : the manuscript is in 
 the Inner Temple Library. His « In Felicem Memoriam Elizabethae 
 Angliaj Reginas' was also written about this period, but was not 
 published until after his death. This work, entitled in English 
 * Felicities of Queen Elizabeth,' is a noble eulogium on the character 
 of an illustrious princess, covering all the parts of her history with 
 the eloquent praise of one whose admiration flowed fully, in spite of 
 the fact that she had constantly obstructed and retarded his ambitious 
 views and advancement. In his will he left directions for the publica- 
 tion of this work. 
 
 Shortly after the accession of James I. Bacon was knighted, being one 
 of 237 who received this accession of dignity. His eloquence and 
 information gave him great weight in the House of Commons. Having 
 been appointed by the House to make a representation of the oppres- 
 sions of the royal purveyors committed in the name of the king, he 
 executed his delicate task with a degree of address, which combined 
 prudence and boldness so well as to satisfy both the king and the 
 parliament. The parliament gave him a vote of thanks, and the king 
 made him one of his counsel, an appointment with which he also 
 received a small pension ; and he continued to rise in spite of the 
 opposition of Cecil, now Earl of Salisbury, and the powerful rivalry 
 of Sir Edward Coke, the attorney-general. ' The Advancement of 
 Learning ' was published in 1605. Two years after he was made 
 solicitor-general, and his practice in Westminster Hall now rapidly j 
 
 extended. About this time he married Alice, daughter of Benedict) 
 Barnham, Esq., a wealthy alderman of London. His popularity was 
 much enhanced by the tact which he displayed in stating the griev- 
 ances of the nation to the king, an undertaking intrusted to him by 
 the Commons ; and his clear address on the subject of exchanging the 
 ancient tenures of the crown for a competent revenue, advanced his 
 reputation still higher. Meantime he steadily kept in view the great 
 design of his life — the development of his improved plan for studying 
 the sciences. He published the ground-work of his ' Novum Organum 
 Scientiarum,' his ' Cogitata et Visa,' and sent copies of it to his 
 learned friends for examination and criticism. The 1 Filum Laby- 
 rinth! ' was the original draught of his ' Cogitata et Visa.' He exercised 
 a wise caution in the gradual unfolding of his views on philosophy, 
 and even took pains to gain a literary and philosophical reputation 
 by writing on less perilous subjects, with the intention, as he frequently 
 stated, of securing an amount of consideration and respect likely to 
 protect and bulwark his peculiar and original opinions from the 
 attacks to which they would necessarily be exposed on their first 
 publication. With this view he wrote and published, in 1610, 'The 
 Wisdom of the Ancients.' This production alike by its subject and 
 the eloquent expression which it gave to the original thoughts of the 
 writer on a theme somewhat hackneyed, had the effect of preparing 
 persons of all varieties of opinion for receiving with respect any thing 
 that came from his pen. 
 
 In the year 1611 Bacon was a joint judge of the Knight Marshals' 
 Court. In 1613 he was appointed attorney-general, and elected a 
 member of the privy council. An objection was made that a seat iu 
 the lower house of parliament was incompatible with the duties of 
 the attorney-general in the upper house. The objection was acknow- 
 ledged to be valid, but the Commons showed their regard for Bacon 
 by overruling the objection in his favour. At this period he must 
 have had a considerable income. His professional practice was great ; 
 the attorney-generalship was worth 6000Z. per annum; as Registrar 
 of the Star Chamber, he received 1600i. ; he had a good estate in 
 Hertfordshire, and his father's seat of Gorhambury had passed to him 
 by the death of his brother ; and in addition to these he had the 
 large fortune brought him by his wife. While he was attorney-general 
 Bacon was engaged professionally in several important cases. He wa4 
 the king's agent against Peachum, a clergyman who was prosecuted 
 for treason contained in a sermon never preached ; and he exerted 
 himself in getting the opinion of the judges before the trial, notwith- 
 standing the unwillingness of Chief Justice Coke, and the illegality 
 and injustice of such procedure. On the trial of the Earl and Countess 
 of Somerset for the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower, 
 he distinguished himself by the perspicuity and eloquence with which 
 he conducted the prosecution. 
 
 In 1617, Bacon was made keeper of the great seal, and on the 4th 
 of January 1618, he was appointed lord high chancellor of England, 
 and on July 11th of the same year, he was created Baron Verulam, 
 and took his seat among the peers. Egerton, the old lord chancellor, 
 had wished Bacon to be his successor, the influence of Buckingham 
 was exerted on his behalf, and it appears that Bacon himself wrote 
 to the king soliciting the place on the grounds of his superior fitness 
 for the office, and the ready flexibility with which he would accom- 
 modate himself to the will and wishes of his sovereign. On putting 
 the seals into his hands his majesty gave him three advices, first, 
 " never to seal anything without mature deliberation ; secondly, to 
 give righteous judgments between parties with dispatch; and thirdly, 
 not to extend the royal prerogative too far." Bacon entered on his 
 high office with great pomp, and delivered a long and eloquent speech 
 on the advices of the king, in presence of many of the nobility. 
 Anxious to secure the ' golden opinions ' of the profession, the new 
 lord chancellor invited the judges to a dinner, and requested that, 
 since it was not his intention to extend the power of the court of 
 chancery beyond its ordinary limits, they would inform him if ever 
 they were dissatisfied with hi3 proceedings, in order to a mutual and 
 satisfactory adjustment of matters. He introduced several reforms 
 into his court. On the 19th of November 1619, he got the farming 
 of the Alienation Office. Next year he was made Viscount St. Alban's. 
 In the beginning of 1620 he kept his birth-day with great state. Ben 
 Jonson, the poet, celebrated his virtues, according to the fashion of 
 the day, in some lines, which are part of a masque performed on the 
 occasion. Bacon chose this favourable moment for the publication of 
 his ' Organon,' the object of his life-long solicitude. At the height 
 and maturity of his genius, when possessing all the highest honours 
 which talent and learning could give him in his native land, we find 
 this 'servant of posterity' committing to its slow but infallible tri- 
 bunal a work which, in reference to science, has been almost universally 
 pronounced — the judgment of reason and experience in this rare 
 instance confirming the boastings of youth — ' the greatest birth of 
 time.' This work was the gradual formation of a creating spirit. It 
 was wrought up and polished with the sedulous industry of an artist 
 who labours for posterity. Besides the ' Partus Temporis Maximus,' 
 the ' Cogitata et Visa,' and the 'Filum Labyrinthi/ works which were 
 outlines and model-figures prepared at distant and different stages of 
 this long-studied production, Bacon copied his work twelve times, 
 revising, correcting, and altering it year by year before it was reduced 
 to the farm in which it was committed to the press. 
 
tf3 BACON, FRANCIS. 
 
 The reception of the work was such as, in the nature of things, 
 must always be given to a production of its class — mingled ridicule 
 and admiration. The geniuses aud professed wits laughed at it, and 
 some of the chancellor's friends remonstrated with him on the subject. 
 The pedantic king described it as like the peace of God, — it passeth 
 all understanding. Bacon presented a copy to Sir Edward Coke, on 
 which there is still to be seen, in the handwriting of this eminent 
 lawyer, the following reproof to the author for going out of his pro- 
 fession, with an allusion to his character as a prerogative lawyer, and 
 his coiTupt administration of the court of chancery. 
 
 " Edw. Coke ; ex dono authoris. 
 
 Auctori consilium. 
 Instaurare paras vetcrum documenta sophorum, 
 Instaura leges justiamque prius. — Oct. 1620." 
 
 Under a device, on the title-page, of a ship passing through the 
 pillars of Hercules, Coke wrote in a clumsy attempt at wit — 
 
 "It deserveth not to be read in schools, 
 But to be freighted in the ship of fools," 
 
 And he was represented by more than one man of distinction in 
 those times as " no great philosopher — a man rather of show than of 
 depth, who wrote philosophy like a lord chancellor." 
 
 He was understood by some. Ben Jonson, after the author's death, 
 described the book in terms of the highest praise. " Though by the 
 most of superficial men who cannot get beyond the title of nominals, 
 it is not penetrated nor understood, it really openeth all defects of 
 learning whatsover. My conceit of his person was never increased 
 towards him by his place or honours. But I have and do reverence 
 him for the greatness that was only proper in himself, and in that he 
 seemed to me ever by his work one of the greatest men and mo3t 
 worthy of admiration that had been in many ages." The king, 
 although he had expressed what doubtless he felt, the difficulty of 
 understanding the work, wrote to Bacon stating that he agreed with 
 him in many of his remarks, and assured him that he could not have 
 " made choice of a subject more befitting his place and his universal 
 and methodical knowledge." Sir Henry Wotton, on receiving three 
 copies, expressed himself thus : — " Your lordship hath done a great 
 and everliving benefit to all the children of nature, and to nature her- 
 self in her uppermost extent of latitude : who never before had so 
 noble nor so true an interpreter; never so inward a secretary of her 
 cabinet." On the continent the work was more highly honoured than 
 at home, being esteemed by many of the most competent judges, as 
 one of the most important accessions ever made to philosophy. 
 
 After this the glory of Bacon set for ever. He was ruined by his 
 improvidence, which gave him a perpetual craving for money to supply 
 the wants which it created, and at last undermined the principle of 
 honour and of honesty. Various writers have glozed over the dis- 
 graceful truths which belong to this period of an extraordinary life, 
 and have thu3 deprived the world of the warning and instruction 
 which they afford. Shortly after Bacon's elevation to the woolsack, 
 one Wrenham, agaiust whom he had decided a case in chancery, com- 
 plained to the king, and though, when inquired into, the circumstances 
 turned out in Bacon's favour, the industry and pertinacity of this 
 individual excited suspicions in several quarters of the integrity of the 
 chancellor. The House of Commons appointed a committee of inquiry, 
 which sat daily on the case, and made reports each day to the House 
 on the evidence brought before them. The first case reported on was 
 that of a poor gentleman of the name of Aubrey, who finding his suit 
 in chancery going on with a ruinous slowness, was advised to quicken 
 it by a gift to the lord chancellor. In his anxiety and distress he 
 borrowed 1 00Z. from a usurer; Lord Bacon received the mon y. Sir 
 George Hastings and Mr. Jenkins took the bribe in to the lord chan- 
 cellor at his lodgings in Gray's Inn, and on coming out again assured 
 the poor and anxious suitor in his lordship's name of thankfulness 
 and success. The case was decided agaiust him. When the chan- 
 cellor beard of the complaints of his victim, he sent for his friend 
 Sir George Hastings, and entreated hira, with many professions of 
 affection and esteem, to stay the clamour of the poor man whom he 
 had cheated. The evidence in the next case varied the form and 
 deepened the colours of the lord chancellor's guilt. Mr. Egerton had 
 several suits pending in chancery against Sir Ilowland Egerton, and 
 under the name of an expression of gratitude for past services, he 
 presented the chancellor with 300/. The case went in his favour, 
 until the opposite and losing party expressed his gratitude also to the 
 judge in the shape of 400/., when the superiority of four over three 
 turned the scales of equity against him. On one of these occasions, 
 when the decision was drawn out though not delivered, the influence 
 of a well-bestowed bribe induced the chancellor to reverse his decree. 
 The Lady Wharton, hearing that her suit was likely to go against her, 
 was too clever and high-spirited a woman to be defeated without a 
 struggle. She wrought a purse with her own hands, and having filled 
 it with 100/., waited upon Bacon at his apartments, aud begged his 
 acceptance of a purse of her own making. She gained her cause. 
 Before the end of the proceedings the cases against the chancellor 
 rose in number to at least twenty-four. 
 
 The discussion in the Commons issued in referring the whole of the 
 cases to the Peers, the only authority competent to subject the lord 
 chancellor to triaL The king told a deputation of the Commons to 
 
 BACON, FRANCIS. 474 
 
 proceed fearlessly whatever might be the consequences, and whoever 
 might be implicated; but he felt exceedingly for the chancellor, 
 received him with undiminished affection, and caused a short recess 
 of parliament to give him time for his defeuce. The spirit of Bacon 
 was crushed within him. His servants were undoubtedly the agents 
 who sought out the victims of his corruption ; and it is equally un- 
 doubted that their master was himself ruined by the rapacity and 
 extravagance in which he permitted them to indulge. During the 
 investigation of the charges, when Bacon one day entered his house, 
 and his costly menials rose up and saluted him, he said bitterly, " Sit 
 down, my masters, your rise has been my fall." He was great even 
 in such circumstances, and the native dignity of his mind shone out 
 even through the disgrace in which he had clothed himself. There is 
 something inexpressibly touching in the contrition which he expressed 
 in the general confession which he first sent to the lords appointed 
 to try him. In compliance with their demand, Lord Bacon sent also 
 a particular confession of each charge by itself, aud when a deputa- 
 tion of the lords waited upon him to inquire if this paper was his 
 own voluntary act, he replied, " It is my act — my hand — my heart. 
 Oh, my lords, spare a broken reed." He was stripped of his offices, 
 disqualified for public life, banished beyond the precincts of the court, 
 subjected to a fine of 40,000/., and to imprisonment in the Tower 
 during the king's pleasure. 
 
 He was confined for a short time in the Tower, and then discharged. 
 In the course of a few months he obtained a licence to come for a 
 time within the verge of the court. And though his sentence was 
 afterwards commuted by the king, his ruined fortunes were never 
 repaired, and we have seldom felt the degradation kito which Bacon 
 had sunk himself so painfully as when reading the words of his pardon 
 for all the frauds, deceits, impostures, bribes, corruptions, and other 
 mal-practices of which he had been found guilty. He was summoned 
 to attend parliament before he died ; but the remainder of his days 
 was spent chiefly in scientific pursuits, aud the society of the friends 
 whom adversity had left him. His name being high abroad, when the 
 Marquis d'Effiat brought into England the princess Henrietta Maria, 
 the wife of Charles I., he paid a visit to Bacon, and was received by 
 his lordship, who was lying sick in bed, with the curtains drawn. 
 " You resemble the angels (said that minister to him) ; we hear those 
 beings continually talked of, we believe them superior to mankind, 
 aud we never have the consolation to see them." His lordship replied, 
 " that if the charity of others compared him to an angel, his own 
 infirmities told him he was a man." Bacon's works on natural history, 
 his 'History of Henry VII.,' and some others, were published after 
 his disgrace. Scientific pursuits were his consolation, and at last 
 caused his death. The father of experimental philosophy was the 
 martyr of an experiment. The retort which he was using burst, aud 
 parts of it struck his head and stomach. Fever and defluxion were 
 the consequence. His last letter was written to the Earl of Aruudel, 
 in whose house at Highgate he expired on the 9th of April, 1626, in 
 his sixty-sixth year. In his will he says, "My name and memory I 
 leave to foreign nations, aud to my own countrymen, after some time 
 be passed over." Lord Bacon left no children. 
 
 The accomplishments of Lord Bacon were unrivalled in his day, 
 and his character displayed the phenomenon of great originality 
 combined with a most extensive range of acquirements. He was 
 an orator, a lawyer and a statesmau. In the philosophy of ex- 
 periment and of observation he was pre-eminent. The metaphysical 
 and the physical were both congenial to his geniu3 ; and although 
 the taint of his immorality has induced many to doubt the extent 
 and to depreciate the excellence of his knowledge aud ability in every 
 department, except his method of studying nature, an impartial and 
 searching examination will fill us with admiration as we successively 
 trace his steps in almost every branch of intellectual exertion. 
 
 The mind of Bacon was poetical : his works abouud in imagery. 
 But in writing in verse he makes free use of colloquialisms, which 
 not seldom convey a ludicrous where he intended to present an 
 impressive idea, and his poetry has consequently afforded abundant 
 scope for the merriment of small wits and juvenile critics. Lord 
 Bacon was certainly not a poet, but in his verses may be fuuud many 
 vigorous lines, and some passages of great beauty. 
 
 The merits of Bacon as an orator were, in the opinion of Ben 
 Jonson, the most competent critic of his age, confirmed as it is by 
 the testimony of Francis Osborne, and the effects of his eloquence, 
 undoubtedly not equalled in his own time. Sir Walter Raleigh 
 reckoned him the only man of his day who was equally eminent as a 
 writer aud a speaker. Jonson says that his speech was full of gravity 
 aud distinctness. The following passage, from Jonson, is remarkable 
 — " His hearers could not cough nor look aside from him without 
 loss. He commanded when he spoke; aud his judges were pleased 
 and angry at his devotion. No man had their affections more in his 
 power. The fear of every man that heard him was lest he should 
 make an end." Aud after enumerating all the great orators of England 
 from Sir Thomas More to Lord Chancellor Egerton, he declares that 
 Bacon "hath filled up all numbers ; aud performed that in our own 
 tougue which may be compared or preferred either to insolent Greece 
 or haughty Rome ... so that he may be named and stand as the 
 mark and acme of our language." 
 
 The observations and experiments of Bacon in physical science, 
 
475 
 
 BACON, FRANCIS. 
 
 BACON, JOHN. 
 
 ■170 
 
 ■viewed beside the results obtained by his immediate successors, do 
 not appear to great advantage. It is only when viewed with reference 
 to the general state of knowledge in his own times, that Bacon's 
 recorded experiments and observations can be fairly estimated. His 
 merits indeed would have been greater than those of any experimental 
 philosopher, were his discoveries at all equal to the method of studying 
 science which he taught. 
 
 In the first part of his great work on the ' Instauration of the 
 Sciences,' Bacon proposed to make a survey of knowledge as it then 
 existed, which was a necessary preliminary to the reform which he 
 contemplated. In this work he has made a distribution of all know- 
 ledge under the three heads of Memory, Imagination, and Reason. 
 This division has been occasionally adopted by subsequent writers, 
 though it does not appear to have the recommendation either of 
 exactness or utility. The ' Novum Organuin,' which is divided into 
 two books, is the second part of the ' Instauration.' In the first book 
 of the ' Organuin,' Bacon attempted to point out the states of mind 
 which caused the existence of a false and fruitless philosophy. He 
 saw causes of error in our common nature — in the peculiarities which 
 mark the individual — in the mental use of the symbols of thought, 
 and in those sectarian and party habits which the processes of asso- 
 ciation interweave with all the elements of the character, and harden 
 into the schools and creeds which exert a despotic sway over successive 
 generations. The influence of these mental states upon the interpreters 
 of nature, Bacon called the worship of an idol; and the states them- 
 selves, in his fanciful nomenclature, are idols of different kinds: those 
 which proceed from principles common to the specie s are idols of the 
 tribe; those produced by the peculiar character of the individual are 
 idols of the den; the commerce or intercourse of society by the use 
 of words causes the worship of the idols of the forum ; and the idols 
 of the theatre are the creatures of the imaginary and visionary sys- 
 tems of philosophy which have appeared. Some causes of error are 
 universal ; the undue love of simplicity, and the spirit of system, are 
 illusions influencing every mind, and therefore perpetually opposing 
 the advancement of real knowledge. Other causes of error are pecu- 
 liar. Some are disposed to mark the differences and others the resem- 
 blances of things, and the peculiar studies of a single mind are apt to 
 warp its views in other regions of thought. Words influence thoughts, 
 and the subtlety of the processes of the mind in using them is a 
 source of error affecting the operations of the intellect and the com- 
 munication of its results. The perverse influence of systems is 
 illustrated fully by the history of philosophy. The undue reverence 
 for antiquity, the authority of names, the pursuit of unattainable 
 objects, the examination only of the rare, the extraordinary, and the 
 great, together with superstition, which Bacon does not forget to 
 enumerate, had long opposed the progress of all true knowledge. 
 
 In the first part of the ' Organuin,' the true object of science is 
 clearly pointed out by Bacon: "It is impossible," he says, "to advance 
 with any profit in the race, when the point to be attained is not dis- 
 tinctly determined. In science, the true end is to enrich human life 
 with new discoveries and wealth." (' Orgauum,' lib. i. aphorism 81.) 
 In the second book Bacon proceeds to explain the method of studying 
 nature, which he proposed, for the advancement of science. The first 
 thing is to prepare, with great caution and care, a history of the 
 phenomena to be explained, in all their modifications and varieties. 
 Having brought together the facts, we must begin by considering 
 what things they exclude from the number of possible causes, or 
 forms as they are called iu the language of Bacon. Negative instances 
 in which the supposed form is wanting ought to be collected. "It 
 may perhaps," says Bacon, "be competent to angels or superior intelli- 
 gences to determine the form or essence directly by affirmations from 
 the first consideration of the subject. But it is certainly beyond the 
 power of man, to whom it is only given at first to proceed by negatives, 
 aud in the last place, to end in an affirmation after the exclusion of 
 everything else." 
 
 The observations and experiments of the natural philosopher— the 
 facts which he is to record in his inductive history — are witnesses 
 whose evidence, and the weight due to whose testimonies, vary in the 
 same way as in the evidences which form the grounds of moral 
 investigations. The facts, or instances, as Bacon calls them, vary in 
 clearness, in authenticity, applicability, &e. Bacon enumerates twenty- 
 seven different kinds of instances, and estimates the weight due to 
 each from the peculiar circumstances which constitute their value or 
 worthlessness as means of discovery and aids to investigation ; but it 
 is impossible, in this outline, to enter into a description of their nature 
 and importance. Of these twenty-seven instances, fifteen are enume- 
 rated to assist the understanding in estimating the value and forming 
 a right judgment of different facts ; five correct the fallacies of the 
 senses and instruct them in their observations; and the remaining 
 seven direct the hands " in raising the superstructure of art on the 
 foundation of science." This last division includes the use of instru- 
 ments in aiding the senses, in subjecting objects to alteration for the 
 purpose of observing them better, and in the production of that 
 alliance of knowledge and power which has, in our day, crowded every 
 part of civilised life with the most useful inventions. 
 
 Such were the principles which Bacon shaped into rules for the 
 conduct of experimental inquiries, when he was almost without an 
 example of success to confirm his confidence and encourage his efforts. 
 
 In the words of Professor Play fair, "the power and compass of the 
 mind which could form such a plan beforehand, and trace not merely 
 the outline but many of the most minute ramifications of sciences 
 which did not yet exist, must be an object of admiration to all suc- 
 ceeding ages. The great merit of Bacon undoubtedly consists in the 
 systematic method which he laid down for prosecuting philosophical 
 investigation ; and his services in this department cannot easily be 
 overrated. "Previous to the publication of the 'Novum Organ urn ' 
 of Kacon," observes Sir John Herschell, " natural philosophy, in any 
 legitimate and extensive sense of the word, could hardly be said to 
 exist; " and even at the present day, those especially who busy them- 
 selves with physical pursuits would often do well to recur to the 
 severe and rigorous principles of the ' Organum.' 
 
 The greater part of Bacon's works were written in English, but 
 some were written in Latiu, and others were translated into that 
 language. His ' felicities of Queen Elizabeth's Reign' was first 
 written in English, and then revised, corrected, and turned into Latiu. 
 His work on the ' Advancement of Learning' was partly written in 
 English and partly in Latin, and he caused the first part written in 
 English to be translated into Latin. His ' Cogitata et Visa' was 
 written in Latin. 'Of the Wisdom of the Ancients,' and the ' Novum 
 Organum,' were written and published in Latin, and several trans- 
 lations of them have appeared. An ' Account of Lord Bacon's Novum 
 Organum ' was published under the superintendence of the Society 
 for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and new translations of it have 
 been published within the last few years by Basil Montague aud J. 
 Devey, the latter for Bohu's 'Scientific Library.' The best edition of 
 his works is that edited by Messrs. Ellis, Spedding. and Heath, 7 vols., 
 8vo, 1857, &c, with the Life and Letters, by J. Spedding. 
 
 BACOX, JOHN, was born on the 24th of November 1740, at 
 Southwark. in Surrey, where his father carried on the trade of a cloth- 
 worker. He showed at a very early age a taste for drawing, and was 
 apprenticed when fourteen to Mr. Crispe, of Bow Churchyard, a 
 porcelain manufacturer, where he learned the art of painting on 
 china, and also of making those little ornamental figures in that 
 material which are still frequently seen on mantelpieces. So evident 
 was his talent, that in the second year of his apprenticeship he was 
 entrusted with the formation of all the models for the manufactory ; 
 and it is a still higher praise, that at this early age he contributed 
 essentially to the support of his parents, then in reduced circum- 
 stances. At that time it was the practice of sculptors to send their 
 clay models, for the purpose of being burnt, to the pottery where 
 Bacon was employed, and his attention being attracted by these works, 
 he set himself to acquire a knowledge of the sculptor's art, and from 
 this time his leisure was zealously devoted to his new pursuit. Iu 
 1758, being then eighteen, he ventured to send a small figure of Peace 
 to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts ; it was favourably 
 received, and he was rewarded with a premium of ten guineas. The 
 first premiums of this institution were adjudged to him on nine 
 different occasions. 
 
 The discovery of the art of making statues in artificial stone 
 (cement) has been ascribed to Bacon, perhaps incorrectly ; but he is 
 unquestionably entitled to the praise of having facilitated the process 
 of that art, and of rendering it popular. He laboured during a con- 
 siderable time in Coade's manufactory at Lambeth, where every species 
 of architectural and monumental ornaments, as well as statues, were 
 made in stone, and his skill and exertions were of essential service to 
 the establishment. On the institution of the Royal Academy in 1768, 
 he entered himself as a student, and the next year gained the first 
 gold medal for sculpture which was awarded by that society. In 1770 
 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy. He exhibited 
 about this time a statue of Mars, which brought him a great accession 
 of reputation, and procured him the personal notice of the Archbishop 
 of York, who commissioned him to execute a bust of George III. By 
 this prelate Bacon was introduced to the king, who sat to him, and 
 was personally impressed by the general simplicity and propriety of 
 his manners. Bacon subsequently took care to maintain the advantage 
 which he had thus obtained, and during his whole professional career 
 he succeeded in securiug the king's favour against all competition. 
 
 About this time Bacon married, and removed from the small and 
 inconvenient apartments which he had previously occupied to a 
 spacious house in Newman-street, the premises, it is said, having been 
 fitted up with studies, workshops, &c, without his knowledge, by the 
 liberality of a friend, who left tlie affair of payment to his own con- 
 venience. Every circumstance now tended to his prosperity : he was 
 employed by public bodies, as well as by various private individuals, 
 and his profits were greatly augmeuted by the use of an ingenious 
 instrument of his own invention, which facilitated the process of 
 copying the clay model in marble, and by which he was enabled to 
 execute his figures in little more than half the time previously 
 required. In 1777 he was engaged to erect a monument for Guy's 
 Hospital, Southwark, in honour of its founder. The merit of this 
 work procured him a commission for the monument of the Earl of 
 Chatham, now in Guildhall. This performance furnishes evidence of 
 Bacon's abilities, but it exhibits at the same time the prevalent defects 
 of his style. Lord Chatham's attitude is oratorical and commanding, 
 aud the allegory of Britannia receiving from Industry and Commerce 
 the contributions of the four quarters of the globe is as perspicuously 
 
477 
 
 BADALOCCHIO SISTO. 
 
 BAGLIONE, GIOVANNI. 
 
 478 
 
 expressed as such allegories usually are. There is a richness in the 
 whole by which the eye is attracted, but the flowing and redundant 
 lines which conduce to that impression are at variance with the simple 
 and severe principles of the highest style of sculpture. Bacon had 
 the good sense to disclaim any pretensions to that knowledge of the 
 antique which he was accused of wanting, asserting that in the study 
 of living nature he sought for excellence where the ancients had found 
 it. But there was another deficiency, which, though he would perhaps 
 more resent on being charged with, and which prevented him from 
 takiDg a place in the foremost ranks of his art, was no hindrance to 
 that which he perhaps valued more, immediate success and pecuniary 
 profit. His lack of imagination and his want of the refined perception 
 of beauty were indeed among the chief causes of his extraordinary 
 professional success. Bacon's power lay in the plain realities of life, 
 and whatever illustrations he employed were of the most popular 
 character, and understood at once by the multitude. " His Gene- 
 rosity," as one of his biographers has amusingly expressed it, "has her 
 pelican ; his Sensibility her sensitive plant, Commerce her compass, 
 and Manufacture her spinning-jenny." Symbols like these lay no tax 
 tither on the learning or the imagination of the spectator, and thus it 
 was that Bacon's works became universally popular. Bacon was 
 elected Royal Academician in 1778. 
 
 In 1780 Bacon received commissions for the monument to Lord 
 Halifax in Westminster Abbey; the statue of Blackstone for All 
 Souls' College, Oxford ; that of Henry VI. for the Ante-Chapel at 
 Eton ; and for the ornamental groups in front of Somerset House. 
 The recumbent figure of ' Thames' in the court-yard of that edifice is 
 also by him. When it was proposed by Government to erect a monu- 
 ment to the Earl of Chatham in Westminster Abbey, the various 
 artists were invited by the committee of taste to send in designs. The 
 power of deciding on this competition, and of nominating the artist to 
 be employed, was at that time conceded to the Royal Academy ; but j 
 Bacon forestalled the decision by availing himself of his private influ- 
 ence with the king, and having procured an audience for the purpose 
 of showing his model, obtained his Majesty's commands to make the 
 monument. His academic brethren were deeply indignant at this 
 manoeuvre, but they had too much policy to express their resentment. 
 Subsequently, Bacon, in the true spirit of a trading speculator, actually 
 made a proffer to Government to make all the national monuments at 
 a certain percentage below the parliamentary price. His proposal 
 was rejected, but neither with the promptitude nor the contempt 
 which was due to it. Bacon's rank as an artist has been steadily 
 6iuking ; his professional standing was never very high. But his 
 character, in the private relations of life, was said to be blameless; 
 and although it is admitted that he was somewhat penurious in the 
 management of his household, it is also said that he sometimes gave 
 large sums to public charities. He was eminently loyal, and during 
 the threat of French invasion he had his workmen armed and drilled 
 for military service, and he published some tracts with the view of 
 preventing the spread of revolutionary principles. 
 
 Among the principal works executed by Bacon, may be reckoned 
 the monument to the Earl of Chatham in Guildhall, the monument to 
 Lord Halifax in Westminster Abbey, the statue of Blackstone at All 
 Souls' College, Oxford, that of Henry VI. in the Ante-Chapel at Eton, 
 and those of Howard and Johnson in St. Paul's Cathedral. The two 
 last especially are good examples of the sculptor's power and of his 
 weakness. 
 
 Bacon died on the 7th of August 1799. He had been twice mar- 
 ried, and left two sons and three daughters by his first wife ; by his 
 second, three sons. The works which he left incomplete he directed 
 to be finished by his second son, John Bacon. His wealth, amounting 
 to 60,000/., he divided equally among his children. He was buried in 
 Whitfield's Chapel, Tottenham Court Road, London ; and the follow- 
 ing inscription, by himself, was placed on a plain tablet over his 
 grave : — " What I was as an artist seemed to me of some importance 
 while I lived ; but what I really was as a believer in Jesus Christ is 
 the only thing of importance to me now." 
 
 (Cecil, Memoirs of Bacon ; Allan Cunningham, British Painters, 
 Sculptors, <bc. vol. iii.) 
 
 BADALO'CCHIO, SISTO, an Italian painter and engraver, born at 
 Parma towards the close of the 16th century, was the pupil and 
 for some time the assistant of Annibal Caracci at Rome. He was 
 highly valued by Annibal as a draughtsman, who confessed that he 
 surpassed himself; but in painting he was much inferior to Guido or 
 Domenichino. His engravings arc not numerous ; the most celebrated 
 are the so-called ' Bible of Raphael,' which he executed in company 
 with Lanfranc, and dedicated to Annibal Caracci ; and the six prints 
 from Correggio's cupola at Parma. Of his paiutings the best was 
 ' Galatea,' in the Verospi Palace at Rome ; a ' San Francesco ' at the 
 Capncins of Parma, was also one of his best works ; but like his friend 
 Lanfranc, says Lanzi, he always did less than he was capable of doing. 
 He died about 1647. 
 
 (I-anzi, Storia Piltorica, &c. ; Malvaoia, Fdsina Pittrice ; Bartech, 
 Le Peinlre-Oravtw.) 
 
 BAFFIN, WILLIAM, an enterprising English navigator of the 
 17th century. Of his early life nothing is known. In 1612 he sailed 
 In the fourth voyage of Hall on discovery to the north-westward, of 
 which the only account we have was written by him. It is remark- 
 
 able as being the first voyage on record in which a method is laid 
 down (as then practised by Baffin) for determining the longitude at 
 sea by observations of the heavenly bodies. In 1613 he went on a 
 voyage to the coast of Greenland, in the narrative of which he notices 
 the extraordinary refraction of the atmosphere, the quantity of which 
 he calculated to amount to 26' as a maximum when a heavenly body 
 is on the horizon. In 1615 he was appointed mate and associate to 
 Robert Bylot on another voyage of discovery, for the account of 
 which we are also indebted to Baffin ; and in 1616 he again accom- 
 panied Bylot as pilot in an expedition which discovered and pene- 
 trated to the head of that extensive bay which bears his name. Of 
 this voyage Captain Ross observes that ho found all the positions and 
 descriptions of this able seaman remarkably accurate ; and the accu- 
 racy of Baffin has been attested with equal distinctness by other 
 eminent navigators. In 1618 Baffin was mate on a voyage from 
 Surat to Mocha; and in 1621 he engaged in an English expedition 
 acting in concert with the Persians to drive the Portuguese out of 
 the Persian Gulf, in the course of which he was killed at the siege 
 of Kismis, a small fort near Ormuz, while employed in measuring 
 the distance from the place, for the purpose of cannonading it. 
 (Purchas, Pilgrims.) 
 
 BAGGESEN, JENS, a writer of considerable distinction both in 
 Danish and German literature, was born at Corsoer in the island of 
 Zealand, February 15, 1764, and was educated at the University of 
 Copenhagen. From his earliest youth ha displayed unusual liveliness 
 of imagination, of which, together with satiric humour, his first pro- 
 duction, at the age of twenty, his ' Comic Tales,' gave evidence, and 
 obtained a most favourable reception from the public. Yet he him- 
 self says that he had no taste for the comic ; that in writing his tales 
 he consulted the taste of the public far more than his own, and that 
 he published them for the purpose of paying off his father's debts 
 and assisting the family : from which it would appear that thoy were 
 left in embarrassed circumstances. His course through life was very 
 unsettled, and he experienced many vicissitudes, arising in a great 
 measure from the want of having a fixed pursuit. Tne priuce of 
 Holstein-Augustenborg bestowed on him a small pension. In 1789, 
 being then in delicate health, he accompanied his countryman the 
 young Count Molthe, who was also an invalid, in a visit to Switzer- 
 land, returning home through France and Germany. Of this journey 
 he has given a full narrative, or rather picture, in his ' Labyrinthen,' 
 one of the most interesting of his works, it being, as he himself calls 
 it, his ' Digtervandringer,' or ' Wanderings of a Poet,' in which he 
 records his varied feelings, opinions, and contemplations, and portrays 
 his own character. In this work he refers at length to his acquaint- 
 ance with Sophia Haller, the granddaughter of the poet, whom he 
 married at Berne in March 1790, after which event he immediately 
 returned to Denmark. He soon set out again, and after leaving his 
 wife with her family at Berne, visited Paris, where he became acquainted 
 with many of the public characters of the day. On his second return 
 to Copenhagen in 1796 he obtained a professorship at the university, 
 but found it too irksome for his disposition, and as change of climate 
 was thought necessary for his wife's health, he set out the following 
 year for Germany, but lost bis wife at Kiel. After this bereavemeut 
 he proceeded to Switzerland, taking with him his two young children ; 
 and in 1798 again visited Paris, where he married Fanny Reibaz- 
 During his stay in France, which was prolonged till 1810, he com- 
 posed his chief German poems, one of which, published in 1806, the 
 ' Parthenais, oder Alpenreise,' an epic idyll, in twelve cantos, after the 
 manner of Voss's ' Luise,' and, like that, written in hexameters, was 
 most favourably received. His residence at Paris, during a part of 
 which he had been in prison for debt, was terminated iu consequence 
 of his being appointed professor of Danish literature at the University 
 of Kiel. He again returned in 1814 to Copenhagsn, where he was 
 most warmly received, yet soon embroiled himself in a violent feud 
 with Oehlenschlager, whom he opposed as the leader of the romantic 
 party iu poetry. This led him again to take up his abode at Paris, 
 making occasional visits to Copenhagen. In 1825 he went to Carlsbad 
 for the benefit of the waters, and was returning thence to Copenhagen, 
 when he died at Hamburg, October 3, 1826. After his death, but iu 
 the same year, appeared his 'Adam and Eve,' a most extraordinary 
 subject for a ' humorous epic ;' not less so for being chosen by one 
 who had told the public that he had naturally no relish for the comic 
 strain, in which he nevertheless indulged when on the verge of the 
 grave. The warm-heartedness and enthusiasm of his youth must have 
 been exchanged for a very different temper of mind before he could 
 have brought himself even to the contemplation of such treatment of 
 such a subject, and his rapturous admiration of Klopstock must 
 have evaporated altogether. He is said to have left in manuscript a 
 poem of similar and even stronger character, of which Faust was the 
 hero. His correspondence with Reiuhold and Jacobi, in 2 vols. 8vo, was 
 published by his sons in 1831 ; and a complete edition, in 12 volumes, 
 of his ' Danske Vajrker,' comprising all his Danish poems and other 
 writings in that language, his translation of Holberg's 'Niels Klim' 
 inclusive, was published by his sons and C. J. Boye, 1827-32. A well- 
 executed portrait of him is prefixed to it. 
 
 BAGLIO'NE, GIOVANNI, a Roman fresco- and oil-painter of the 
 17th century, now better known for his ' Lives' of his contemporaries 
 than for his paintings, though in his time he enjoyed the highest 
 
479 
 
 BAGLIONL 
 
 BAILLIE, ROBERT. 
 
 490 
 
 patronage. He was born at Rome about 1573, and was for a short 
 time the pupil of a Florentine painter, Francesco Morelli. He attracted 
 the notice of the popes Sixtus V. and Paul V., the latter of whom 
 created Baglione a Cavaliere del Abito di Cristo. In 1618 he was 
 elected Principe of the Academy of St. Luke. The date of his death 
 is not known : he was still living in 1642. He executed a great many 
 works in Rome, some at Naples, and some at Mantua ; but he painted 
 very few easel pictures, whence I i is works arc rarely seen in collections ; 
 he excelled in colour, and in light and shade. One of his best works 
 is the ' Resurrection of Tabitha,' in St. Peter's at Rome. 
 
 His book of Memoirs, of which he has written 81, is composed in an 
 extremely simple style, without any attempt at criticism; and if he 
 ever ventures upon a qualifying remark, it is sure to be one of com- 
 mendation. G. B. Passari published an edition of it at Naples in 1733, 
 witfi the addition of the 'Life of Salvator Rosa:' there is also a 
 memoir of Baglione, which contains a long list of his works. The 
 following is the title of tho book — ' Le Vito de' Pittori, Scultori, 
 Architetti, ed Intagliatori, dal Pontificate di Gregorio XIII. nel 1572 
 fiuo a' tempi di Papa Urbano VIII. nel 1642.' The editio princeps 
 was published at Rome in 1642, and, according to Orlandi, a second 
 appeared in 1649. 
 
 BAGLI'ONI, an historical family of Perugia in Italy, which in the 
 middle ages produced many distinguished warriors, several of whom 
 exercised supreme power over their native town. Perugia was in those 
 times one of the most populous and important cities of central Italy, 
 and governed itself as a municipal community, under the nominal pro- 
 tection first of the emperors and afterwards of the popes. Like most 
 other Italian cities it was distracted by two parties, that of the nobles 
 and that of the people. The Baglioni belonged to the nobles. We 
 find in the 12th century Ludovico Baglioni appointed Imperial Vicar 
 of Perugia by the emperor Frederic L (Barbaroasa), who in his diploma 
 styles him his relative, as being descended, like himself, from the ducal 
 house of Suabia. After the fall of the Suabian dynasty the nobles and 
 the popular party had frequent conflicts with alternate success. In 
 the year 1393 a general outbreak took place, when Pandolfo and Pellino 
 Baglioni, with seventy other gentlemen, were killed in a fight in the 
 streets, and their adherents being driven away, the popular party 
 remained in possession of the town until 1416, when Braccio Forte- 
 bracci, as the head of the nobles, re-entered the town by force, and was 
 proclaimed Lord of Perugia. Malatesta Baglioni, son of Paudolfo, was 
 one of the foremost followers of Braccio, whose niece he married. One 
 of his eons, named Braccio Baglioni, was appointed general of the Holy 
 See by Pope Callixtus III. : he defeated Francesco Sforza near Lodi in 
 1453, was made Lord of Spello by Sixtus IV., and died in 1474. His 
 brother Ridolfo left a son called Gian Paolo Baglioni, a condottiere, 
 or captain of an independent band of soldiers, who became conspicuous 
 iu the Italian wars of the beginning of the 16th century. Availing 
 himself of the civil dissensions of his native town to obtain supreme 
 power over it, he formed an alliance with some neighbouring rulers, 
 and with Cesare Borgia in his wars of the Romagna. But Baglioni 
 was soon glad to leave Perugia to Borgia, and to separate from that 
 unscrupulous chief. After a time he resumed his old profession of 
 condottiere, and in that capacity he served the Venetians for several 
 years in the war of the League of Cambrai. He was taken prisoner 
 by the Spaniards in 1513, but being released he returned to Perugia, 
 where he resumed his former ascendancy. In 1520 Leo X., hearing 
 repeated complaints of Baglioni's conduct, requested him to come to 
 Home, under pretence of consulting with him about weighty state 
 matters ; but on his arrival at Home he was arrested, put to the tor- 
 ture, and speedily condemned and beheaded. Perugia was then taken 
 possession of by the pope. After Leo's death, Malatesta and Orazio 
 Baglioni, the sons of Gian Paolo, recovered possession of Perugia. 
 Malatesta was saluted by the citizens as ' Pater Patriae,' and a medal 
 was struck in honour of him. Orazio afterwards obtained the com- 
 mand of the mercenary corps called the Black Bands in the service of 
 France, and followed Marshal Lautrec in his expedition against Naples 
 in 1528, in which he was killed. His brother Malatesta remained at 
 the head of the government of Perugia till September 1529, when he was 
 obliged to surrender it to the papal and imperial allied arms. At the 
 same time the Florentines chose him to be their captain-general against 
 the same enemies; but Baglioni, either through incapacity, or treachery, 
 or both, failed to defend Florence as he might, and in August 1530 was 
 dismissed from his command. He refused however to give it up, and 
 even turned the guns of one of the ramparts against the city. Florence, 
 worn out by famine and disease, was obliged to capitulate and submit 
 to the rule of the Medici. Baglioni returned to Perugia, where he 
 died in December 1531. He left a son, Ridolfo, who became general 
 of the troops of Cosmo L, grand duke of Tuscany. 
 
 Gentile Baglioni, grandson of Braccio above mentioned, was made 
 Bishop of Orvieto in 1505, but afterwards, in consequence of his three 
 brothers dying without legitimate issue, he renounced his dignity, 
 married Giulia Vitelli, and was for a time governor of Perugia for the 
 pope. He was driven away by his relative Orazio Baglioni, who 
 caused him to be put to death in 1527, with two of his nephews. 
 The various branches of the Baglioni family were in constant enmity 
 against one another. Gentile left two infant sons : one, Adrian, served 
 iu the papal troops, and died in 1574 ; the other, Astorre Baglioni, is 
 better known in history for his military reputation and his tragical 
 
 end. Astorre was brought up under the care of his uncle Alessandro 
 Vitelli, a distinguished general of his age, whom he followed to the 
 Hungarian wars against the Turks. He afterwards served Charles V., 
 and he rose high in the favour of Pope Paul III., who restored to him 
 his paternal estates. The republic of Venice intrusted him with 
 several important situations, and being governor of Famagosta in the 
 island of Cyprus when tho Turks besieged the place in 1570, he was 
 after a long and brave defence obliged to capitulate, in August 
 1571, on condition of being sent to Venice with his garrison. But 
 Mustapha Pasha, disregarding the capitulation, caused Baglioni and the 
 other Venetian officers to be beheaded, except Bragadino, who was 
 flayed alive. 
 
 (Crispolti, Perugia Augusta ; Sansovino, Delia Origine e del Falti 
 delle Famiglie Illustri d' Italia ; Vermiglioli, Vita e Imprese Mililari 
 di Malatesta Baglioni, Perugia, 1839; Fabretti, Biografie dei Gapitani 
 Venturieri dell' Umbria, Montepulciano, 1840.) 
 
 BAGLI'VI, GEORGE, a distinguished Italian physician, was born 
 at Ragusa in September 1669. He prosecuted his studies at the 
 universities of Salerno, Padua, and Bologna, and then visited almost 
 all the hospitals of Italy, Dalmatia, &c. He settled at Rome in 1692, 
 where he had the advantage of the instruction and friendship of the 
 famous Malpighi. Soon afterwards, although yet very young, he was 
 appointed by Pope Clement XL to be professor of anatomy at tb« 
 college of La Sapienza, called the Roman Archilyceum. 
 
 In the address prefixed to his ' Specimen Quatuor Librorum de 
 FMbra motrice,' Baglivi states that after the perusal of many works, he 
 at last confined his attention to the writings of Hippocrates, which he 
 learnt almost by heart ; and in his practice endeavoured to limit his 
 attention to a careful observation of the phenomena of disease, and to 
 found hii rules of treatment upon sound principles, dismissing the 
 theories which then held the medical profession in a state of fdavish 
 subjection to the authority of names. Such was his independence of 
 mind, that, notwithstanding his respect for Hippocrates, h» differed 
 from him and all previous writers in discarding the doctrines of the 
 humoral pathology, or that theory which ascribed all diseases to some 
 altered state of the fluids of the body. He, on the other hand, not 
 only from his own observation and reflection, but from learning the 
 mode of treating diseases in India and other parts of the East, the 
 success of wbich was entirely owing to an action on the solids 
 primarily, maintained that the solids were, in most oases, first affected, 
 and the fluids, when affected at all, only secondarily. These opinion" 
 he published in 1696, and strengthened them by further observations 
 and experience, which he made known in successive editious of his 
 work, of which six appeared before 1704. It must be allowed that 
 the ancient doctrine had be-n impugned in various works published 
 in England by Willis and by Glisson, and in France by Vieussen, not 
 long before Baglivi's time, but Baglivi brought to the consideration of 
 the subject more extended views, and more accurate principles. These 
 are detailed chiefly in his ' Specimen Quatuor Librorum de Flbra 
 motrice.' Valuable and just as are many observations and conclusions 
 in this treatise, he greatly erred in ascribing (lib. i., cap. v.) the con- 
 tractions and relaxations of the muscular fibres to certain imaginary 
 contractions and dilatations of the fibres of the dura mater. 
 
 His opinion, that the fluids are affected secondarily in consequence 
 of a previous affection of the solids, ba3 been gradually gaining ground 
 since the time it was first promulgated. It received important addi- 
 tions from Hoffmann, in Germany (Hoffmann's ' Medicina Rationalis 
 Systematica,' vol. iii., s. i., chap, iv.), and Cullen in England (' First 
 Lines of the Practice of rhysic,' Preface, et passim). Still the most 
 candid pathologists of the present time admit that in a few cases, 
 perhaps, the fluids are primarily affected, yet the opposite doctrine 
 may be considered as the current hypothesis of the present day, and 
 Baglivi the father of the modern system of solidism. 
 
 Baglivi died at Rome in 1707, at the early age of 38, worn out by 
 his arduous exertions. The first complete edition of his works is 
 that of Lyon, 1704, entitled 'Opera omnia Medico-practica et Anato- 
 mica,' 4to, which has been several times reprinted. Baglivi was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 BAILLIE, ROBERT, was born in Glasgow, April 30, 1602. He 
 was the son of Thomas Baillie, a citizen of Glasgow, and was educated 
 first at the grammar-school and afterwards at the University of 
 Glasgow, at which he was entered a student in March 1617. He 
 took his degree of M.A. in 1620; probably in 1623 or 1624 he entered 
 into holy orders; in August 1625 he was admitted to the office of one 
 of the masters or regents (as the professors were then styled) of the 
 college ; and this situation he held till the year 1631, when he was 
 presented by the Earl of Eglinton to the parish church of Kilwinning 
 in Ayrshire. At this time Baillie's sentiments on the subject of church 
 government were extremely moderate ; his ordination had been epis- 
 copal, and he was attached on principle, as well as by education and 
 habit, to that form of polity, which was indeed at this time the 
 established ecclesiastical system in Scotland. But when Charles I. 
 made his attempt in 1636 and 1637 to impose the new service-book 
 and canons upon the Scottish church, Baillie was induced to attend a 
 meeting of the Supplicants, as the opponents of the obnoxious 
 measures called themselves, which was held at Edinburgh on the 18th 
 of October, 1637; and this proved the turning point of his life. His 
 opposition to the new service-book was more on account of its doctrines 
 
4S1 BAILLIB, JOANNA. 
 
 than the forms it prescribed. His speech at this meeting so delighted 
 his audience that he was urged to send it to the press, and from this 
 time he took his place as one of the chief managers and leaders of 
 the Presbyterian and anti-court party. 
 
 At the celebrated General Assembly which met at Glasgow on the 
 21st of November, 1638, Baillie, who was one of the members for 
 the presbytery of Irvine, manifested so much of his original modera- 
 tion, that he stood alone in refusing to concur in the vote declaring 
 episcopacy to have been always abjured by the Scottish Church : he 
 proposed that it should be declared to be "removed now, but never 
 before abjured." The prevailing party however were aware of his 
 value, and he was soon entirely gained over. When arms were taken 
 up he appeared in the camp at Dunse Law, in the beginning of June 
 1639, in quality of preacher to a division of the troops. In the course 
 of the same month however a pacification was arranged at Berwick. 
 In April 16-40 Baillie published what may be considered to have been 
 an extension of his speech at the meeting of Supplicants, in a large 
 quarto pamphlet at Edinburgh, under the title of ' AuTOKaTaKpiais : the 
 Canterburians' Self-Conviction ; or, An Evident Demonstration of the 
 Avowed Arminianism, Popery, and Tyranny of that Faction, by their 
 own Confessions,' &c. In the following October, when the Scotch had 
 again taken arms, he proceeded, on the invitation of the earls of Rothes, 
 Montrose, and Argyle, to the council of war at Newcastle, taking with 
 him a number of copies of his book ; and here he was nominated one 
 of the four clerical commissioners who were deputed with nine laymen 
 to proceed to London, under the protection of the great seal, to nego- 
 ciate a treaty with the king. He reached London on the 16th of 
 November, and remained there till the beginning of June 1641, having 
 during his residence witnessed the trial of Strafford and other remark- 
 able occurrences, of which his letters contain very full accounts. In 
 one of his letters written during Strafford's trial he writes, in a some- 
 what sanguine as well as sanguinary strain, " When we get his head, 
 then all things will run on smooth." In June 1642 Baillie was 
 appointed joint professor of divinity in the university of Glasgow, but 
 immediately after this he was again dispatched to England as one of 
 the five clerical commissioners from the General Assembly to the 
 Westminster Assembly of Divines. He reached London on the 18th 
 of November, and he did not leave till the 6th of January 1645. He 
 was sent back again before the end of March, when, as he was pro- 
 ceeding by sea, the ship was driven towards the coast of Holland, and 
 forced to run up the Maas, which gave Baillie an opportunity of 
 spending a few days at Middelburg and Rotterdam. He remained in 
 London on this his last visit till December 1646, employing every 
 moment that was not taken up in attending the Assembly of Divines 
 in preaching and in writing sermons, pamphlets, and letters to his 
 friends in Scotland and elsewhere. He now resumed his duties as pro- 
 fessor of divinity, continuing also however to take an active part in 
 public proceedings. After the execution of the king he was one of 
 two clergymen sent over to the Hague in March 1649, with the com- 
 missioners of the Scottish estates (or parliament), to enter into nego- 
 tiations with Charles II. Upon this mission he was absent till July, 
 and during that interval he composed and published at Delft an 
 answer to a pamphlet against Presbyteriauism by Bishop Biamhall. 
 When Cromwell advanced upon Glasgow in October 1650, after the 
 battle of Dunbar, Baillie fled to the Isle of Cumray with Lady Mont- 
 gomery, but left, he tells us, all his family and goods to Cromwell's 
 courtesy, "which," he adds, "indeed was great; for he took such a 
 course with his soldiers that they did less displeasure at Glasgow nor 
 [than] if they had been at Loudon, though Mr. Zachary Boyd railed 
 on them all to their very face in the High Church." Under the new 
 government he was in January 1651 appointed first professor of 
 divinity on the removal of his colleague to a chair at Edinburgh; and 
 shortly after the restoration he was, in January 1661, promoted to 
 the office of principal of the university. About the end of August 
 1662 he died, in the sixty-first year of his age. He had beeu twice 
 married, and had eight children, of whom only one was by his second 
 wife. 
 
 _ Of Baillie'a works the most important, besides those already men- 
 tioned, are his ' Dissuasive from the Errors of the Time,' 4 to, London, 
 1645; his 'Anabaptism, the True Fountain of Independency, Brown- 
 iaui, Antinomy, Familism,' &c. (a Second Part of the Dissuasive), 4to, 
 London, 1647 ; his 'Appendix Practica ad Joannis Buxtorfii Epitomeu 
 Grammatical Hebraeac,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1653 ; and his ' Operis Historici 
 et Chronologiei Libri Duo,' folio, Amsterdam, 1663, and Basil, 16C9. 
 He also published several sermons and other short tracts. But of all 
 the produce of his pen by far the most interesting part consists of his 
 ' Letters,' written to various friends, and especially to his relation, the 
 Bev. Mr. William Spang, minister of the Scottish church at Campvere, 
 jod afterwards of the English congregation at Middelburg in Zeelaud, 
 which exteDd, with inconsiderable interruptions, from 1037 to within 
 a few mouths of the writer's death, and are among the most valuable 
 memorials of that important period of our national history. An edition 
 of the ' Letters' appeared in Edinburgh in 1775, but this was only a 
 selection, and not carefully edited. A complete edition was produced 
 under the care of David Laing, Esq., in 3 vols, crown 8vo, Edinburgh, 
 1841-42, with annotations, a life of Baillie (to which we have been in- 
 debted for the materials of this notice), and other illustrative matter. 
 BAILLIE, JOANNA, was born at the manse at Bothweli, near 
 
 BIOO. DiV. VOL. L 
 
 BAILLIE, JOANNA. 4s2 
 
 Glasgow, in 1702. She was the sister of Dr. Matthew Baillie, the sub- 
 ject of the following article. The history of her uneventful life is soon 
 told. The daughter of a Scottish clergyman and professor of divinity, 
 and of a mother in whose family superior iutelligence seemed a com- 
 mon property, Joanna, while trained in the strict manner usual in a 
 Scottish manse, not only received an excellent education, but from her 
 childhood was brought into constant intercourse with people likely to 
 call into activity her own mental gifts. Her career through life was 
 quiet, unobtrusive, domestic; her tastes were all studious, her dispo- 
 sition was gentle, kindly, and benevolent. At an early period she 
 removed to London, where her brother, Dr. Baillie, was settled as a 
 physician. After a time she with her sister Agnes took up her resi- 
 dence at Hampstead, which, while from its proximity to the metropolis 
 it allowed her to enjoy ready intercourse with the many friends her 
 literary fame drew about her, insured her at the same time a certain 
 amount of retirement ; and here the rest of her lengthened life was 
 spent. She was known and esteemed by the most eminent of her 
 contemporaries of more than two generations, and for very many years 
 even from the New World visitors, attracted by the charm of her 
 poetry, came to obtain her acquaintance and to listen to her conversa- 
 tion. Those who visited her out of admiration returned adding to that 
 sentiment feelings of affection and respect. She died at Hampstead ou 
 the 23rd of February, 1851, in her eighty-ninth year, having retained 
 her faculties to the last. 
 
 Though Joanna Baillie possessed in a large measure that keen and 
 sensitive interest in all that developed the feelings or touched the 
 destinies of others, and that sensibility and sympathy which are the 
 special heritage of dramatic poets, yet these sentiments had in her 
 instance more of peusiveness and of speculativeness than of fire, and 
 made her seek and find events in her own thoughts rather than in 
 action and experiment. Adventure may be, and has often been, the 
 school of poetry for men ; but a woman, and especially one of Joanna 
 Baillie's feminine and modest disposition, must invoke the muse with 
 a serener and more gentle worship. A close and penetrating observer, 
 and gifted with no common genius, yet not favoured with the highest, 
 nor endowed with the inspiration of ' many-mindedness,' which makes 
 poetry of the first order bear to philosophy the same relation that 
 intuition bears to calculation, Joanna Baillie early in life conceived a 
 literary project based on a principle essentially erroneous, but which 
 led to the production of her greatest works, the celebrated ' Plays ou 
 the Passions.' The principle on which all these plays were constructed 
 was to select some one of the more powerful passions that agitate man- 
 kind, and to exhibit it in full action, by making the hero of the drama 
 completely subjected to it, and by evolving out of the promptings to 
 which he is represented as paying undivided and uninterrupted allegi- 
 ance, every incident and situation. Admitting fully the noble poetry 
 with which these plays are filled, and even the deep interest of many 
 positions and events, it is evident that such characters must have a' 
 constrained, morbid, and unreal aspect ; since in life, as in the dramatic 
 creations of the highest genius, we constantly see that the dominant 
 passion is turned aside or suspended by, it may be transient, but for 
 the time irresistible, counter-thoughts or the force of circumstances ; 
 and this is a main reason why her plays have only achieved a partial 
 and temporary success on the stage. Yet the one master passion is 
 often admirably exhibited — laid bare in its most secret workings- 
 subjected to a keen aud searching analysis. 
 
 It was in 1798 that Mis3 Baillie published the first volume of her 
 ' Plays on the Passions.' She was then thirty-six years old. As a 
 book the production met with great success ; and a second edition 
 was called for in a few months. In 1802 she published a second 
 volume. Two years later, appeared her 'Miscellaneous Plays.' Among 
 these was the 'Family Legend,' a tragedy, which she used to term 
 " her Highland play." It was acted for the first time at Edinburgh, 
 in January 1810, with brilliant, but not durable, success. The pro- 
 logue was written by Sir Walter Scott, who interested himself most 
 ardently in it3 production on the stage ; and Mrs. Siddons sustained 
 the principal female part. In 1812 appeared the third volume of the 
 ' Plays on the Passions.' In 1836 she published three more volumes 
 of dramatic poetry. Previously to this, her tragedy of 'De Moutfort,' 
 perhaps the fiuest of her productions, had been brought out in London ; 
 and for eleven nights John Kemble sustained the character of the 
 hero. Again, in 1821, this play was put on the stage for Edmund 
 Kean to perform the same part. The 'Separation,' one of the Miscel- 
 laneous plays, aud ' Henriquez,' one of those on the passions, and 
 both tragedies, have also been acted. 
 
 Notwithstanding the originality of conception of Joanna Baillie's 
 great dramatic poems, and the fire aud inspiration with which passages 
 in all of them are composed, no perfect idea could be gathered of 
 the writer's powers from these performances alone. Her fugitive 
 pieces, her ballads, her occasional lines, and her songs, taken together, 
 afford the true measure of Joanna's powers, and the fairest proof of 
 her versatile genius. They are bright, fresh, simple, and genuine ; 
 often humorous; sometimes highly pathetic ; occasionally homely; 
 never low, common-place, or gross. We must add that, along with all 
 these natural gilts of the true poet, she possessed those acquired 
 advantages, which nothing but severe and constant labour can hestow. 
 Among her lighter effusions, the ' Woo'd and Married and a,' 'The 
 Kitten/ ' To a Child,' ' The Weary puud o' Tow,' aud ' Tarn o' the 
 
 2i 
 
BAILLIE, MATTHEW. 
 
 484 
 
 Linn,' are singularly illustrative of her style, so varied, yet always 
 bo simple and so arch. 
 
 In the year of her death, her works, which began to appear before 
 the close of the 18th century, being still young in public esteem, she 
 herself superintended their collective publication, prefixing a vigorous 
 nnd able introductory discourse. Her works have been reprinted 
 since her death in a single volume with a brief memoir. 
 
 BAILLIE, MATTHEW, an eminent anatomist and physician, was 
 born on the 27th of October, 1761, at the manse (or parsonage) of 
 Shotts, in Lanarkshire, Scotland. His father was the Rev. James 
 Baillie, at that time clergyman of the parish of Shotts, and his mother, 
 Dorothea Hunter, sister of the celebrated anatomists William and 
 John Hunter. Soon after his birth his father was removed to the 
 charge of the parish of Bothwell, and subsequently to that of Hamil- 
 ton, and after being Borne time there he was elected professor of 
 divinity in the University of Glasgow. Matthew's education was 
 carried on at the Bchool at Hamilton, and at Glasgow University. 
 
 Though originally inclined to adopt his father's profession, or to 
 enter the bar, his uncle, Dr. William Hunter, then the most eminent 
 teacher of anatomy in London, held out such inducements as deter- 
 mined him to choose the medical profession. Measures were taken at 
 Glasgow to procure for him an exhibition to Balliol College, Oxford, 
 which is in the gift of the professors of the University of Glasgow. 
 The death of his father about this time, and the consequent diminu- 
 tion of the family income, rendered such assistance very desirable. It 
 was at last obtained, and in March 177!) he intimated by letter to 
 his uucle, that he was ready to proceed to Oxford. This letter, asking 
 advice as to his studies and conduct on his first entrance into life, 
 displays good sense, correct principle, and a degree of tender feeling 
 towards his mother and sisters, which he continued to exhibit through- 
 out the whole of his and their lives. 
 
 On his way to Oxford he visited London, and for the first time saw 
 his distinguished uncle, from whom he received directions respecting 
 his studies, which he prosecuted for an entire year at Oxford. But 
 subsequently he visited the university only at term time, spending the 
 intervening periods in London with his uncles, whose lectures he 
 attended, as well as those of other eminent teachers in other 
 departments of medicine. Two years after he had commenced his 
 studies in London, he became a teacher in his uncle's anatomical 
 theatre in Great Windmill-street, in the capacity of demonstrator. 
 About a year after this time Dr. William Hunter died, and bequeathed 
 to his nephew the use of his splendid museum, his anatomical theatre 
 and house in Great Windmill-street, as well as a small estate in 
 Scotland (which Baillie generously gave up to his uncle John Hunter) 
 and an annuity of 1001. a year. Dr. Hunter, a short time before his 
 death, told his nephew, "that it was his intention to leave him but 
 little money, as he had derived too much pleasure from making his 
 own fortune to deprive him of doing the same." 
 
 Baillie, after the example of his distinguished relatives, devoted 
 himself with indefatigable industry and unremitting diligence to tho 
 work of investigating the healthy structure of the human body and 
 its functions, as well as the deviations from this in the various morbid 
 str uctures which are presented in the dissecting-room. The knowledge 
 thus acquired proved the foundation of his future usefulness and 
 fame, and from his own experience he was accustomed to inculcate 
 the duty of medical practitioners to make themselves minutely 
 acquainted with anatomy and physiology. In 1785, two years after 
 William Hunter's death, Baillie, in conjunction with Mr. Cruickshauks, 
 gave his first course of anatomical lectures. So well was he qualified 
 fur the office, although only in his twenty-fifth year, that the number 
 of pupils at the school was equal to the number which attended the 
 lectures of William Hunter. In his introductory lectures he seems 
 to have anticipated the now universally received opinion, that the 
 vital actions of the body, morbid as well as healthy, are carried on in 
 the extreme vessels, or more minute tissues of the organs. " It must 
 have occurred," he observes, ''whenever men were disposed to reason 
 ou the subject, that the actions of an animal body are not to be 
 referred to the larger parts, but to the smaller, of which these are 
 composed. Hence the examination of minute structure is evidently 
 more connected with physiology, and if ever the latter is to be known 
 at all, it must be through the medium of the former." He took every 
 opportunity of preserving morbid structure, and thus formed a museum 
 of great value. This collection, which now enriches the College of 
 Physicians of London, was liberally presented to that body by Dr. 
 Baillie during his lifetime, along with 400/. to keep it in a proper 
 state of preservation. To the same body, in his will, he bequeathed 
 his medical library. 
 
 In 1787, though only a Bachelor of Medicine, he was appointed 
 physician to St. George's Hospital, and two years afterwards he received 
 his degree of Doctor of Medicine from the University of Oxford, upon 
 which he became a Fellow of the College of Physicians. In 1789 he 
 married Sophia, the second daughter of Dr. Denman, at that time a 
 very eminent accoucheur in London. In the performance of his im- 
 portant duties at St. George's Hospital, his assiduity and natural 
 powers of observation, aided by his great knowledge, his clear percep- 
 tion, and correct reasoning powers, soon made him highly distinguished 
 for his power of discriminating diseases in the living body, or in what 
 is technically termed the * diagnosis' of diseases. 
 
 To render the collections of his uncles, as well as his own, useful to 
 the public, he, in 1795, published his ' Morbid Anatomy,' " a work 
 which, whether we consider the subject or the manner in which it is 
 treated, has been justly estimated as one of the most practically use- 
 ful and valuable acquisitions to medical science." (Wardrop.) It was 
 soon translated into French, Italian, and Gt-rman. About four years 
 after the appearance of this work he began to publish engravings for 
 its illustration : these, as well as the work itself, will remain a lasting 
 memorial of the zeal, the industry, and the talents of their author. 
 He also edited William Hunter's work on the ' Gravid Uterus' (left in 
 manuscript), to which he made some additions. To a second edition, 
 published in 1797, of his ' Morbid Anatomy,' he added the ' Symptoms' 
 of the different morbid lesions described in it, so far as they were 
 known. In 1799 he resigned his office of physician to St George's 
 Hospital, and gave up his anatomical lectures, his time being entirely 
 occupied in the practice of his profession. 
 
 The progress of a physician is proverbially slow ; and though no 
 man laboured more in early life than Dr. Baillie, and no one ever 
 commenced under more favourable circumstances, he was nearly forty 
 years of age before he found himself fully established in practice. 
 His progress from this time was rapid and his success complete. Dr. 
 Pitcairu, having been obliged to relinquish his practice and retire to 
 a warmer climate, recommended Dr. Baillie to his patients ; and though 
 Dr. Pitcairn was able to return partially to discharge the duties of his 
 profession, the death, which occurred in 1809, of this able physician 
 made a most favourable opening for Dr. Baillie. On this accession of 
 practice Dr. Baillie removed from Windmill-street to Grosvenor-street. 
 
 Dr. Baillie added to his great facility in diagnosis a knowledge of 
 the precise effects and extent of the powers of medicines. He excelled 
 in the art of delivering his opinion on a case, being concise, clear, and 
 practical, his language simple, and remarkably free from technicalities. 
 His manner was natural and unassuming, yet decided and impressive; 
 and he was the same to all persons and on all occasions. He was more- 
 over remarkable for the considerate attention which he paid to the 
 feelings of his professional brethren, more particularly to the younger 
 members of the profession. The consequence was, that he never 
 lessened the confidence of the patient in his ordinary attendant, while 
 he himself acquired the good will and esteem of all whom he met in 
 consultation. •' He used to narrate, in the most open manner, the 
 history of his own life, and to describe to the younger members of 
 the profession the rocks and shoals which he had met with, contrasting 
 these with his long-looked for but ultimate success. He pointed out 
 the necessity of competency, of integrity, and of industry, and the 
 slow progress of the most eminent men who had gone before them ; 
 and, on the other hand, the transitory fame of all those who had ever 
 attempted to gain professional reputation as if by storm." 
 
 During the period when he was most fully occupied, he frequently 
 exhibited however much irritability of temper ; but any display of 
 this kind was followed by sincere compunction, and by efforts to make 
 reparation to those who had suffered from it. It is difficult to say 
 whether, in cases where he considered remuneration for his services 
 beyond the means of the patient, his generosity, or the delicacy with 
 which he carried it into effect, was the greatest. His refined regard 
 for the feelings of the objects of his kindness greatly enhanced its 
 value. It was no unmerited eulogium which was passed upon him 
 by his distinguished contemporary Sir H. Davy, when he said of him, 
 " his highest ambition was to be considered as an enlightened and 
 honourable physician : his greatest pleasure appeared to be in pro- 
 moting the happiness and welfare of others." His physical frame was 
 feeble, compared with his mental powers. He was under the middle 
 stature, and of rather a slender form. His countenance was marked 
 with a great deal of sagacity and penetration. He continued in the 
 unremitting exercise (with a few occasional exceptions) of his profes- 
 sion till the spring of the year 1S23, when he became affected with 
 chronic inflammation of the trachea (or windpipe), for which he went 
 to Tunbridge, and afterwards to his estate in Gloucestershire, where 
 he died on the 23rd of September 1823, in the sixty-third year of 
 his age. 
 
 Dr. Baillie was frequently called upon to render his professional 
 services to members of the royal family. The Princess Amelia, 
 George III. (on whom he attended for ten years), and the Princess 
 Charlotte of Wales, appointed him their physician. His friends 
 erected a monument to him, with a suitable inscription, in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Dr. Baillie's works were published in 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1825, 
 edited by Mr. Wardrop, who prefixed a sketch of his life, from which 
 most of the above particulars are taken. A posthumous volume, of 
 which only 150 copies were (according to directions in his will) printed, 
 but not published, contains his two introductory lectures to his anato- 
 mical class, 1785 ; his Gulstonian lectures on the nervous system, 
 delivered before the College of Physicians in 1794 ; and some brief 
 observations on a number of diseases, in which he communicates the 
 result of his experience. 
 
 BAILLY, JEAN SYLVAIN, was born at Paris, September 15, 1736. 
 Having become acquainted with Lacaille, Bailly was led to attach him- 
 self to the study of astronomy ; but dazzled by the success of a young 
 friend, the youthful Bailly paid for a brief space ardent court to the 
 tragic muse. He had, in his 16th year, composed a couple of tragedies; 
 
466 
 
 BAILLY, JEAN SYLVAIN. 
 
 tee 
 
 but he prudently took counsel of La Noue, tho actor, who advised 
 him to devote himself to science. Bailly followed his advice, and to 
 good purpose, as his rapid progress showed. In 1762 he was able to 
 preseut to the Academy some lunar observations ; he was admitted to 
 the Academy in 1763, and in the same year reduced Lacaille's observa- 
 tions of zodiacal stars, and began to turn his attention to the theory 
 of the satellites of Jupiter. This was the subject of the prize offered 
 by the Academy for 1764 ; and Bailly, by applying the forumlse which 
 Clairaut had employed in his lunar theory, was enabled to deduce 
 from the hypothesis of gravitation several of the inequalities observed 
 by Bradley and Wargentin. The prize was gained by Lagrange, who, 
 by a new and more powerful analysis of his own, carried the theory 
 much farther; but the attempt of Bailly immediately placed him 
 among the successors of Newton. His essay ' Sur la Thdorie des Satel- 
 lites de Jupiter* was published in 1766. In 1771 he wrote a curious 
 and original paper on the light of the satellites of Jupiter, which he 
 had measured by finding how much the object-glass of a telescope 
 must be diminished in order to make these bodies disappear. In 1775 
 he published the first part of his ' History of Astronomy.' This work 
 was completed in 1787 by the publication of his ' Indian Astronomy ; ' 
 and the works which subsequently came from his pen were ' Lettres 
 sur l'Atlantide,' 1779; 'Lettres sur l'Origine des Sciences,' 1777; 
 ' Essai sur les Fables et sur leur Histoire,' written in 1781-82, published 
 posthumously in 1799. Their author was a candidate for the secretary- 
 ship of the Academy in 1781, at which time Coudorcet was preferred 
 by the exertions of D'Alembert; but Bailly was elected to the 
 AcadtSmie Francaise in 1784, and to the Acade"mie des Inscriptions, 
 &c, in 1785 — he and Fontenelle being the only two instances of 
 Frenchmen who belonged at once to all the three academies, and him- 
 self the only academician whose bust adorned their library during 
 the life of the original. Bailly furnished reports to the Academy of 
 Sciences on animal magnetism (1784), and on the plan of a new Hotel- 
 Dieu (1786), as well as his 'Eloges' of Charles V., Moliere, Corneille, 
 Lacaille, Leibnitz, Cook, and Gresset, which were collected and 
 published in 3 vols., 8vo, 1770. 
 
 At the election of the States-General in 1789, Bailly was the first 
 chosen for Paris. He was chosen president of the Tiers-Etat 
 (June 17, 1789), the day after that body declared itself a National 
 Assembly. He held this office during the memorable sittings at the 
 Jeu-de-Paume on the 20th, and at the church of St.-Louis on the 23rd, 
 during the personal attempt of the king to disperse the Assembly ; 
 at the consolidation of the three orders on the 27th, and till July 2nd. 
 His conduct pleased the people of Paris, who elected him mayor of 
 their city on the 15th of July, being the time when the king visited 
 Paris after the fall of the Bastille (July 14th). At this period Mirabeau, 
 Lafayette, and Bailly were the three most marked men of the revolu- 
 tion ; and Mignet calls the first the tribune of the people of Paris, the 
 second the general, and the third the magistrate. 
 
 During the period of his mayoralty, Bailly did not completely 
 satisfy either extreme, being charged with devotion to and contempt 
 of the royal cause by the two parties. The most remarkable incident 
 in his political career was that of the 17th of July, 1791. The attempt 
 at escape on the part of the king had irritated the republican party, 
 and the gathering of foreign troops on the frontier had lent colour to 
 their violence. A tumultuous assembly, headed by all the chiefs of 
 the Jacobins (as they were afterwards called), assembled in the 
 Champ-de-Mars to petition for the dethronement of the king. These 
 were, after remonstrance, fired on by the National Guard under 
 Lafayette and Bailly. The account of Bailly himself is, that the 
 firing took place against his consent. 
 
 The measure of the 17th was approved by the Assembly, but 
 Bailly offered his resignation on the 19th of September, and finally 
 relinquished his mayoralty on the 16th of November. He either 
 travelled abroad or retired to Nantes, according to different accounts, 
 till towards the middle of 1793. During this time he compiled 
 memoirs of the revolution and its causes, which were published in 
 1804. The execution of Louis XVI., on the 21st of January 1793, 
 made Bailly apprehensive as to his own safety. He wrote to Laplace, 
 who had retired to Melun, wishing to know whether he might safely 
 come there. Laplace answered that he might ; but, in the meanwhile, 
 the insurrection of the 31st of May established the armed power of 
 the Jacobins, and Laplace wrote again to Bailly, warning him not to 
 come, as a detachment of the revolutionary army was at Melun. In 
 spite of this warning he had the imprudence to venture. He was 
 recognised by a soldier in the streets, seized, and conducted after some 
 delay to Paris. He was charged, as well with the affair of the 17th 
 of July, already alluded to, as with conspiring in favour of the late 
 royal family. Being produced as a witness on the trial of Marie 
 Antoinette, he denied all accession to any scheme of the latter nature, 
 and declared his conviction of the falsehood of all the charges brought 
 against the queen. His own trial took place on the 10th of November. 
 The day preceding he published his justification, which is to be found 
 in the 'Proces Fameux,' vol. ii. The next day, or the next but one, 
 he underwent the common fate, attended by circumstances of unusual 
 Cruelty and insult. His demeanour is represented as having been 
 perlectly calm ; and he is said to have answered the remark, " Bailly, 
 you tremble," addressed to him by one of his persecutors, with, " My 
 friend, 'tis with cold." 
 
 Even in the time of his greatest popularity, Bailly appears to have had 
 enemies, who propagated the most absurd charges. His friends affirm 
 that he was retired, simple, and rather approaching to severity. But 
 the unusual aud solid respect paid him by his countrymen before his 
 political life began— the arduous employments which fell thick upon 
 him at the very first moment when a plebeian could be called into 
 public life —and the furious anger which he excited among the savages 
 of 1793 — are so many strong presumptions that he must have been 
 no common character, even among the distinguished. 
 
 The character of M. Bailly as a writer is that of one of the most 
 interesting and elegant among many. On the history of science no 
 man has treated so as to approach him in the agreeable qualities of 
 style. But his system is baseless, being built only upon surmises or 
 conjectural interpretations of fact. His most remarkable conjecture 
 is, that some nation, whose name is now lost, was the common original 
 of the Egyptian, Chaldean, Hindoo, and Chinese astronony. When 
 his ' History of Astronomy ' appeared, tho elegance of the style, and 
 the plausibility of the hypothesis, caught the whole world ; but the 
 praise which he received from the English and French writers had 
 little justification — one reason for it was that there was no work on 
 the subject in existence which could claim the title of history. The 
 work of Delambre soon dispelled the mist from the eyes of scientific 
 men. Still, were we to collect the sentiments of our most celebrated 
 works of reference on the merits of Bailly's ' History,' and compare 
 them with those expressed in France at the time of its appearance, as 
 well as at the present day, the reader would smile to see that we havo 
 been receiving the light of a star which has long been extinguished, a 
 phenomenon as likely to happen in morals as in astronomy. 
 
 *BAILY, EDWARD HODGES, R.A., was born at Bristol, March 10, 
 1788. Having early in life acquired the rudiments of the art of 
 modelling, Mr. Baily commenced his career as an artist by the produc- 
 tion in his native city of small wax portrait busts ; but wishing to 
 extend his knowledge of art, he obtained an introduction to Flaxman 
 in 1S07, and that eminent sculptor was so pleased with the specimens 
 of his skill which he submitted to him, that he invited him to London, 
 and for nearly two years admitted him into his studio as a pupil. At 
 the same time Mr. Baily entered as a student at the Royal Academy, 
 where in 1809 he obtained a silver medal, and in 1811 carried off the 
 gold medal with the stipend of 501. At first he chiefly exhibited 
 classical figures (Apollos, Nymphs, &c), which were much admired for 
 their grace, simplicity, correct proportions, and careful execution ; but 
 the work which fixed his rank among the first sculptors of the English 
 school, and rendered him generally popular, was the well-known figure 
 of ' Eve at the Fountain ' — now in the rooms of the Bristol Literary 
 Institution. This work was exhibited at the Royal Academy Exhi- 
 bition in 1818. The year before it appeared he had been elected an 
 Associate of the Royal Academy; in 1820 he was elected an Acade- 
 mician. About this time he was employed by George IV. to executa 
 the sculpture in the front of Buckingham Palace, as well as some for 
 the interior of the palace, and on the triumphal arch which stood in 
 front of it, but is now removed to Hyde Park Corner. During his 
 later years Mr. Baily has devoted the chief share of his time to the 
 production of busts and portrait statues. Many of the principal 
 statues which have been erected of late years in London and the pro- 
 vinces have been executed by him. Among these may be mentioned 
 those of Nelson, Telford, the Earl of Egremont, Earl Grey, and the 
 seated statue of Lord Mansfield at Chelmsford ; but many others 
 might be named of equal and some perhaps of higher excellence. But 
 Mr. Baily had seldom allowed an Exhibition of the Royal Academy to 
 pass without sending at least one poetic design, down to his with- 
 drawal, in 1862, to the position of ' Honorary Retired Academician.' 
 His ' Eve listening to the Voice ' (the companion to the ' Eve 
 at the Fountain') was exhibited in 1841; his 'Psyche,' 'Helena,' 
 ' Hercules casting Hylas into the Sea,' the ' Sleeping Nymph,' ' Mater- 
 nal Love,' ' Girl preparing for the Bath,' &c, may be named as among 
 the best known of these ; but the most remarkable, and in some 
 respects one of the very finest works of recent English sculpture, is 
 one of his latest works, ' The Graces Seated.' 
 
 BAILY, FRANCIS, was born April 28, 1774, at Newbury in Berk- 
 shire, where his father was a banker. Mr. Baily -is a remarkable 
 instance of successful application of talent, for while actively engaged 
 in business, as a stock-broker, in which ho accumulated a large fortune, 
 he gained a first-rate reputation in one species of mathematical appli- 
 cation, and laid the foundation of another, to be completed after his 
 retirement from the Stock Exchange at the age of fifty-one. He had 
 a good working knowledge of mathematics, in all the elementary 
 branches, and an extensive acquaintance with English writers on the 
 subject. He first published his 'Tables for the Purchasing and 
 Renewing of Leases' (1802, 1807, 1812, 8vo) ; next, the 'Doctrine of 
 Interest and Annuities' (1808, 4to) ; then the 'Doctrine of Life 
 Annuities and Assurances' 1810, 8vo); lastly, 'Appendix to the 
 Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurances' (1813, 8vo) ; also, 'An 
 Account of the several Life Assurance Compauies' (1810, 1811, 8vo), 
 which is an extract from the work on Life Assurance. He retired 
 from business in 1825. From this time till his death, he was engaged 
 with all tho energy of his character in the promotion of astronomy 
 Between the ages of lifty-one and seventy, when most men in his circum 
 stances would have been enjoying the leisure to which commercial meD 
 
BAINBRIDGE, CHRISTOPHER. 
 
 488 
 
 above all others are apt to look forward, be did tbe work of a lifetime. 
 He waa (in 1820) one of tbe founders of tbe Astronomical Society, and 
 paid very great attention to its affairs. He was one of those who 
 exerted themselves to produce a reformation and enlargement of the 
 Nautical Almanack, and whose efforts at last prevailed upon tbe 
 government to place it upon its present distinguished footing. In 
 pendulum experiments be was among tbe foremost of those who inves- 
 tigated tbe newly observed effects of the air upon that instrument. 
 The repetition of the Cavendish experiment was conducted in hi3 
 bouse and under bis superintendence. The Astronomical Society's 
 catalogue of stars was tbe suggestion of Mr. Baily and Mr. Gompertz, 
 and was superintended by Mr. Baily. The remarkable circumstances 
 attending the publication of Mr. Baily's 'Life of Flamsteed' are 
 detailed in anotbtr place. [Flamsteed.] He put the finishing band 
 to big revision of ancient catalogues in tbe 13th volume of the 
 'Memoirs of the Astronomical Society' wbicb is entirely bis own 
 work, and printed at bis own expense. He suggested to tbe British 
 Association the republication of the immense catalogue of Lalande, 
 called the ' Histoire Celeste,' combined with that of Lacaille ; the 
 two together containing 57,000 stars. He suggested to the same 
 body the extension of the Astronomical Society's catalogue to 10,000 
 stars, accompanied by the coefficients of reduction. He superintended 
 the construction of the tables and a portion of tbe printing, and he 
 left the preface to tbe latter completely written. All these catalogues 
 aro now published ; the Lalande and Lacaille very recently. He had 
 also undertaken the construction of the new standard scale, wanted by 
 the government in consequence of the destruction of tbe old one. 
 
 Mr. Baily died August 30, 1844. His last public appearance was at 
 Oxford, on the 2nd of July, to which place he went, w ith some diffi- 
 culty, to receive the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law. He was 
 never married. Mr. Baily was distinguished by great industry, which 
 was made more effective by bis methodical habits, and also by a 
 suavity of manner wbicb greatly enlarged the circle of his friends. 
 In tbe last twenty years of his life, he did much more and better 
 work than younger men of much greater original power have done in 
 twice the time. And, besides this, bis admirable personal qualities, 
 which made it so easy to co-operate with him, led to his being able to 
 make others do more than they could have done without him. His 
 high moral worth added to his power; and all these together made 
 him the most influential member of the astronomical world. The 
 history of the astronomy of the 19th century would be incomplete 
 without an account of bis valuable labours. Those who are well 
 acquainted with Delambre's history of the science will easily imagine 
 how much that severe judge would have abated of bis rigour, had 
 there come before him such models of patient thought, all but impec- 
 cable accuracy, careful research, and well-chosen objects, as the 
 writings of Francis Baily. A minute account of Mr. Bady's writings 
 is given in a memoir by Sir John Herschel, read to the Astronomical 
 Society in 1844. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, or BAMBRIDGE, CHRISTOPHER, archbishop of 
 York, and cardinal-priest of the Roman Church, was born at Hilton, 
 near Appleby, in Westmorland, and received his education at Queen's 
 College, Oxford, of which be became provost in 1495, and was created 
 Doctor of Laws about the same time. He was afterwards a liberal 
 benefactor to his college. In 1503 be became Dean of York ; in 1505 
 Dean of Windsor ; and, in tbe same year, Master of tbe Rolls and one 
 of the king's privy council. In 1507 be was advanced to the see of 
 Durham, and was translated tbe next year to tbe archbishopric of York. 
 
 Bainbridge distinguished himself chiefly by bis embassy from king 
 Henry VIII. to Pope Julius II., who created him cardinal of St. 
 Praxede, in March, 1511, and eight days afterwards appointed him 
 legate of the ecclesiastical army wbicb had been sent into the 
 Ferrarese, and was then besieging the fort of Bastia. His letter to 
 king Henry VIII., concerning the pope's bull giving him the title of 
 most Christian King, is extant in Rymer's 'Fcedera' (edit. 1704-35, 
 vol. xiii. p. 376). Cardinal Bainbridge died at Rome, July 14th, 1514, 
 and was buried in the English hospital (since called the English 
 college) there. His death was caused by poison administered by 
 Rinaldo de Modena, a priest whom he had employed in menial offices, 
 and who after confessiug that be was suborned to this act by Sylvester 
 de Giglis, bishop of Worcester, who was at that time envoy from king 
 Henry VIII. to Rome, committed suicide. The violence of tbe 
 cardinal's temper to those about him is particularly dwelt upon by 
 Oldoinus, the continuator of Ciaconius. 
 
 (Biographia Britannica, edit. 1778, vol. i. p. 515; Wood, Athena 
 Oxon. edit. Bliss, vol. ii. p. 702 ; Ellis, Original Letters, 1st series, 
 vol. i. pp. 99, 106, 108 ; 2nd series, vol. i. p. 226.) 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, JOHN, an astronomer of merit, was born in 1582 
 at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and died in 1643 at Oxford. He was tbe first 
 Savilian professor of astronomy in that university, leing appointed to 
 that office in 1619 by Sir Henry Saville himself. He was also a 
 Doctor of Medicine, and a good oriental scholar, having studied Arabic 
 for the purpose of reading the astronomers who have written in that 
 language. He published an ' Astronomical Description of the Comet 
 of 1618,' and several other works, of which, as well as of bis unpub- 
 lished manuscripts, a list is given by Hutton. (Martin, Biographia 
 Philosophica ; Hutton, Dictionary.) 
 
 BAIRD, SIR DAVID, Bart., general in the British army, and 
 
 K.C.B., was born on tbe 6th December 1757, at Newbyth, in Scotland. 
 He entered the service at fifteen years of age, as an ensigu in the 2nd 
 regiment of foot, and obtained a company in 1778, in tbe 73rd High- 
 land regiment. Before entering upon active service he spent some 
 months at an academy at Chelsea, then held in much esteem as a 
 school of military discipline, where he displayed some of that firm- 
 ness of character by which he was afterwards characterised. In 1779 
 Captain Baird accompanied his regiment to India, and was present 
 at the disastrous affair of Peramboucum, on tbe 10th September 1780, 
 when a handful of British troops, after a most gallant defence, were 
 perfidiously slaughtered by the army of Hyder Ali, after they had 
 surrendered to a force twenty times their number. As soon as the 
 British bad laid down their arms, the cavalry of Hyder, commanded 
 by his son Tippoo, rushed forward, and literally cut them to piecs. 
 Captain Baird received several severe wounds, and barely escaped 
 with life. He surrendered to some French officers in the enemy's 
 service, by whom he was treated with much kiudness. They had not 
 however the power of restoring the English prisoners to liberty. Tbe 
 strong fortress of Seringapatam was the destination of Baird and about 
 400 British soldiers. Here he endured with firmness and equanimity 
 a captivity of nearly four years' duration, embittered by every privation 
 and suffering which savage vengeance could devise. After his release 
 Baird visited England, and returned to India in 1791 with the rank 
 of lieutenant-colonel. Believing that the British authorities acted 
 oppressively in the affairs of the Rajah of Tanjore, he quarrelled 
 with them, and left India in disgust on the 17th October 1797, for 
 the Cape of Good Hope. He however returned soon after with the 
 rank of brigadier-general, and was engaged in active service under 
 General Harris in the war which again broke out between the British 
 government and tbe Sultan of Mysore, Tippoo, the son of Hyder Ali. 
 After various successes the British army encamped under the walls of 
 Seringapatam, a fortress of great strength, and defended by a numer- 
 ous aud confident army. The British commander determined to take 
 it by storm ; and the conduct of the dangerous enterprise was, at 
 bis own solicitation, given to Major-General Baird, the reserve being 
 intrusted to Colonel Wellesley, while Harris held himself prepared to 
 lead on the main body of the army in case of the failure of the assault. 
 Baird gallantly led the assault on the 4th of May 1799. Ascending 
 the parapet of the trenches in full view of both armies — "a military 
 figure," observes Colonel Wilks, " suited to such an occasion" — 
 aud drawing his sword with the gallant bearing of a knight of romance, 
 he shouted, in a tone that thrilled along the trenches, " .Now, my brave 
 fellows, follow me, and prove yourselves worthy the name of British 
 soldiers." Within a very brief space tbe English flag waved from 
 the outer bastion of the fortress ; and before night Seringapatam was 
 in possession of the besiegers. The skill and intrepidity displayed by 
 General Baird on this memorable occasion were only equalled by his 
 humanity towards the captives. 
 
 Throughout his professional career General Baird complained that 
 he had to endure many of those slights and mortifications to which 
 persons not of commanding birth and ministerial influence are too 
 frequently subjected in the British army. At the time of the taking 
 of Seringapatam, Lord Mornington (afterwards Marquis Wellesley) 
 was governor-general of India : bis brother, Colonel Arthur Wellesley 
 (the late Duke of Wellington, who even then displayed tbe qualities 
 of a skilful officer) commanded a corps of reserve under General 
 Baird. Usage entitled Baird to the command or governorship of the 
 town which he had taken, even had his services been less brilliant and 
 successful. Under this impression be took possession of the palace 
 of Tippoo, who was among the slain, as his head quarters. He waa 
 next day abruptly commanded to deliver up tbe keys of the town to 
 Colonel Wellesley, who, as it happened, had no active share in the 
 capture. " And thus," said Baird, "before the sweat wa3 dry on my 
 brow, I was superseded by an inferior officer." Whether tbe super- 
 seding of Baird was contrary to military etiquette or not, has been 
 warmly discussed. Baird himself was extremely annoyed at it, yet 
 it is asserted that he had requested to be relieved ; and it is certain 
 that Colonel Wellesley had already shown those powers of organisa- 
 tion, decision, and cool judgment so important in the commander of 
 a city just captured by assault, and for which Wellington was so 
 remarkable, and in which Baird was always deficient. Baird's friends 
 have however always maintained that Wellesley was appointed to the 
 command because he was brother to the governor-general, and not 
 because of his peculiar fitness. The storming of Seringapatam was 
 the great achievement of Sir David Baird's military life. He received 
 the thanks of Parliament and the East India Company for his brilliant 
 conduct at Seringapatam, and declined a pension from the company, 
 in the hope, which was not at that time realised, of being rewarded 
 by a red ribbon by bis sovereign. 
 
 In 1801 General Baird was sent from India to co-operate with the 
 British troops in Egypt against the French, but a truce having been 
 agreed to just as he was approachiug the British position, he returned 
 to India by way of the Red Sea, and landed at Calcutta July 31, 
 1802. Soon after bis arrival he was removed to tbe staff of the 
 establishment at Fort St. George, Madras, at his own request. He 
 was afterwards engaged in the hostilities against Scindiah and tho 
 Rajah of Rajpore. During this campaign, considering himself neglected 
 and thwarted, and having in vain remonstrated with the government 
 
±S9 
 
 BAKER, DAVID. 
 
 BAKER, THOMAS. 
 
 490 
 
 of Madras, lie applied for leave of absence, which being granted, he 
 relinquished hia command and returned to Europe. 
 
 In 1805 General Baird commanded an expedition directed against 
 the Dutch settlements at the Cape of Good Hope, took Cape Town, 
 aud was proceeding to organise his conquest when he was recalled for 
 having sanctioned an ill-judged expedition of Sir Home Popham 
 against one of the possessions of Spain in South America. In 1807 he 
 accompanied Lord Cathcart in the expedition of that year against 
 Denmark; and though wounded twice during the capture of Copen- 
 hagen, he is hardly mentioned in the despatches ; while General Wel- 
 lesley, his junior, who also had a command under Lord Cathcart, is 
 made the subject of an elaborate eulogy. On his return he was sent 
 to superintend a 'camp of instruction ' in Ireland; an employment 
 which would imply that his proficiency in the mechanical branches of 
 the military art was rated more highly, and probably with justice, by 
 his superiors than his fitness to command an army. In 1808 Baird 
 commanded a large force that was sent out to co-operate with Sir 
 John Moore, then commander-in-chief of the British army in the 
 Peninsula. This force formed part of Sir John Moore's army in his 
 retreat to Corufia, and shared in the glory of the battle of that name, 
 which vindicated the honour of the English arms. On the death of 
 that excellent officer, General Baird, as second in command, became 
 commander-in-chief, and the despatch relating to the battle was accord- 
 ingly written in his name. He was however too severely wounded to 
 take advantage of the accidental promotion ; for he received some 
 grape-shot in the left arm, which so shattered the bone of the arm and 
 shoulder, that amputation from the socket became necessary. On his 
 return he received the thanks of Parliament for his gallant conduct, was 
 gratified with the long-sought-for red ribbon, and created a baronet. 
 
 In 1810 Sir David Baird married Miss Campbell Preston, of Perth- 
 shire, with whom he received considerable estates in that county. In 
 1814, at the termination of the war, he applied for a peerage and 
 pension, considering the baronetcy and K.C.B. honour quite inadequate 
 to the length and importance of his services ; but he failed in his 
 application. In 1820 Baird was appointed commander-in-chief in Ire- 
 land, but remained in office only long enough to show that though an 
 intrepid and gallant soldier, he was wholly ignorant of the principles 
 of good government. He was removed from his command in 1821, 
 when the Marquis Wellesley became Lord-Lieutenant. From this 
 period till his death, in 1829, he lived in retirement. 
 
 (Life of General Sir David Baird, &c. ; Mill, British India ; Colonel 
 Mark Wilks, Historical Sketches of the South of India ; Napier, History 
 of the Peninsular War ; Notes on the Campaign of 1808-9 in the North 
 of Spain, by Colonel Sorrell, Baird's Military Secretary.) 
 
 BAKER, DAVID, an English Benedictine monk and ecclesiastical 
 historian, was born at Abergavenny, December 9th, 1575. He received 
 his early education at Christ's Hospital, London, whence, in 1590, he 
 went to Oxford, where he became a commoner of Broadgate Hall, now 
 Pembroke College. Here he is recorded by Anthony a Wood to have 
 fallen into vicious and disorderly habits. Having left the university 
 without a degree, he came to London, and joined his brother Richard, 
 a barrister of the Middle Temple, where he studied law, and, in 
 addition to the loose courses he had followed, became a professed 
 infidel. After the death of his brother, his father, who was steward 
 to Lord Abergavenny, got him appointed to the office of recorder of 
 the town of Abergavenny. Here, whilst returning home from holding 
 a court at a distant place, a miraculous escape from drowning recalled 
 him to a sense of religion, and led to his joining the Roman Catholic 
 Church. Taking a journey to London, he fell in with some Benedictine 
 fathers of the Cassine congregation, with one of whom he shortly 
 after repaired to Italy, giving no further notice of his intentions to 
 Lis father than that he was going to travel. At Padua he was 
 admitted to the habit of religion by the Abbot of Justina, May 27, 
 1605, about which time he changed his name from David to Augustine 
 Buker. The state of his health rendering it necessary that he should 
 return to England, he arrived at home just in time to reconcile his 
 father, who was dying, to the Roman Catholic faith. After providing 
 for his mother, and disposing of his own estate, he gave himself to the 
 duties of hi3 profession, residing partly in London and partly with 
 Roman Catholic families in the country for some years, after which 
 he retired for a time to Douay. Subsequently he became the spiritual 
 director of the convent of English Benedictine nuns at Cambray, and 
 also their confessor. With them he passed nine years, and then again 
 returned to Douay. 
 
 About 1621 an employment was recommended to him by the 
 superiors of his order, that of searching after and transcribing the 
 records of the ancient congregation of the Black or Benedictine monks 
 in England. Hia collections on this subject filled six volumes in folio. 
 They are said to have been lost; but Father Clement Reyner's ' Apos- 
 tolatua Benedictinorum in Anglia,' fol., Duac. 1626, was arranged and 
 methodised from them, and they supplied many of the materials of 
 Cresay's ' Church History,' foL, Roan, 1668. Baker's religious treatises 
 were numerous, filling nine folio volumes of manuscript : these, in 
 Wood's time, were preserved in the monastery of the English Bene- 
 dictine nuns at Cambray. Among the names of the literary friends 
 of Baker, those of Sir Robert Cotton, Sir Henry Spelman, Selden, 
 Cauid-n, and Godwin, are especially recorded. He died in Gray's 
 Inn lane, August 9th 1641, and was buried at St. Andrew's, Ho) born. 
 
 (Wood, Athenai Oxon., edit. Bliss, vol. iii. col. 7; Grainger, vol. ii 
 p. 200 ; Chalmers, Biog. Diet.) 
 
 BAKER, HENRY, whose name is familiar to those who are 
 interested in microscopic observations, was the son of William Baker, 
 a clerk in Chancery. He was born on the 8th of May 1698, in 
 Chancery-lane, London. In 1713 he was placed with a bookseller, 
 whom he left in 1720 to reside with Mr. John Forster, an attorney. 
 Here he first practised tuition on the deaf and dumb, an employment 
 which he afterwards followed with much success, his first pupil being 
 Mr. Forster's daughter. The names of some of the first families in 
 the land are to be found among his scholars. In 1724 and 1725 he 
 published some poems of a licentious character ; and from that time 
 to 1737 his labours appear to have been chiefly literary. In 1729 ho 
 married the daughter of the celebrated Daniel Defoe, and in 1740 was 
 elected first a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and soon after a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. He dow gave proof of his talent for 
 accurately observing objects of natural history ; and about two years 
 after his election he published the first edition of ' The Microscope 
 made Easy,' which was followed by his ' Employment for the Micro- 
 scope.' In 1744 he received from the hands of Sir Hans Sloane, 
 President of the Royal Society, the Copley medal, for hia microscopical 
 experiments on the crystallisations aud configurations of saline par- 
 ticles. His experiments upon the fresh-water polype (Hydra viridis), 
 and upon other minute animals, are very curious and instructive, and 
 his observations are still valued. He died in the Strand on the 25th 
 of November 1774, in his 77th year, and was buried in the churchyard 
 of St. Mary-le-Strand. His collection of natural productions, with 
 some antiquities, &c, occupied ten days in the sale, which took place 
 in 1775. The larger alpine strawberry and the true rhubarb (Rheum 
 palmatum) were introduced by Baker into this country ; he also made 
 us acquainted with the history of the Coccus Polonicus, or cochineal 
 of the north, transmitted by Dr. Wolfe. 
 
 BAKER, SIR RICHARD, the author of the ' Chronicle of the Kings 
 of England 'known by his name, was born about the year 1568. Wood 
 (' Athense Oxonienses '), the writer of the article 'Sir Richard Baker' 
 in the ' Biographia Britannica,' makes Sissiughurst in Kent his birth- 
 place ; but Fuller, who speaks of him as a personal acquaintance in 
 his ' English Worthies,' states that he was a native of Oxfordshire. 
 Sir John Baker, Chancellor of the Exchequer to Henry VIII., was one 
 of his ancestors. Richard Baker was educated at the university of 
 Oxford, knighted in 1603, and married and settled in Oxfordshire 
 before the year 1620. Being in pecuniary difficulties soon after his 
 marriage, he was thrown into the Fleet prison, where he spent the 
 remaining years of his life, and died Feb. 18, 1644-45 in a state of 
 extreme poverty. It was during his imprisonment, and as a means of 
 subsistence, that he wrote his ' Chronicle' and various other works. 
 
 Of the 'Chronicle,' the most celebrated of his works, the author has 
 himself said, " that it was collected with so great care and diligence, 
 that if all other of our chronicles should be lost, this only would be 
 sufficient to inform posterity of all passages worthy or memorable to 
 be known." Although Baker's ' Chronicle' is by no means entitled to 
 this high commendation, at the same time we are not surprised at the 
 great popularity which it enjoyed for more than a century after its 
 publication (1641) among the squires and ancient gentlewomen of the 
 school of Sir Roger de Coverley. The manner was new, and as the 
 author of the ' Historical Library ' remarked, in his coarse fashion, 
 "pleasing to the rabble;" meaning by the term 'rabble' all persons 
 not eminently learned. Holliushed was too bulky and Speed too dull 
 a writer to be popular ; and Sir Richard's residence in the Fleet was a 
 hindrance to the compilation of a book overloaded with those nume 
 rous references to authorities and antiquarian researches which perph-x 
 and weary the general reader, however acceptable to the learned. 
 Though full of errors, Baker's ' Chronicle ' was long the text-book of 
 English history to country gentlemen and their families, but it is now 
 little read. The other works of Sir R. Baker consist chiefly of medi- 
 tations, prayers, and other devotional books. In a posthumous work 
 published in 1662, the 'Theatrum Redivivum,' he endeavoured to show 
 that the fathers were not so opposed to dramatic representations as 
 Prynne had represented in his ' Histrio-Mastix.' 
 
 Sir R. Baker's ' Chronicle' brought the history of England down to 
 the death of James ; he wrote also a few lines of the reign of Charles I. 
 by way of introduction. A fourth edition of the 'Chronicle' was pub- 
 lished in 1665 by Edward Phillips, the nephew of Milton, bringing the 
 work to the coronation of Charles II. Phillips says (' Epistle to the 
 Reader'), that as to the transactions of Monk (duke of Albemarle), he 
 had permission to make 'u-e of his " Excellence's own papers, and 
 several other private Elections of persons active with him in that 
 service." 
 
 (Wood, Alhence Oxonienses; Fuller, English Worthies ; Biographia 
 Britannica.) 
 
 BAKER, THOMAS, the Cambridge antiquary, was born at Crooke, 
 in the parish of Lanchester, near Durham, September 14th, 1656. Hia 
 father was George Baker, Esq., aud his grandfather Sir George Baker, 
 Kuight, recorder of Newcastle. Thomas Baker was educated in the 
 free school at Durham, and afterwards sent, with his elder brother 
 George, to Cambridge, where he became a pensioner at St. John's 
 college, July 9th, 1674, and was elected fellow of his college in March 
 1679. He entered into orders in 1685, and in June 16S7 was collated 
 
 2 I* 
 
491 
 
 BAKEWELL, ROBERT. 
 
 BALBINUS, DECIMUS CAELIUS. 
 
 402 
 
 Dy Lord Crew, then bishop of Durham, to the rectory of Long Newtou 
 in that diocese, whicli lie resigned in 1690, upon refusing to take the 
 oaths to King William. He now retired to his fellowship at St. John's, 
 iti which he was protected till January, 20th, 1717, when again refusing 
 to take the oaths to a new government, he was ejected, in company 
 with several other learned men. Mr. Baker retained a lively sense of 
 this deprivation, which he expressed by writing iu the blank leaves of 
 ill the books whicli he afterwards gave to the college, " Tho. Baker 
 Coll. Jo. socius ejectus." He appears to have had the sympathy and 
 pecuniary assistance of Edward Lord Oxford and other friends after 
 this deprivation, but his only settled income was an annuity of 40/. a 
 year. His death took place on July 2nd, 1740. Or. Heberden, who 
 attended him, communicated a memorandum of his last illness and 
 death, which he had made at the time, to Mr. Cole, iu a letter dated 
 October 13th, 1777, still preserved among Cole's Manuscripts in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 !Beiug appointed one of the executors of his elder brother's will, by 
 which a large sum was bequeathed to pious uses, Mr. Baker prevailed 
 on the other two executors, who were his other brother, Francis, and 
 the Hon. Charles Montague, to lay out 1310/. of the money upon an 
 estate to he settled upou St. John's College for six exhibitioners. He 
 likewise gave the college 100/. for the consideration of six pounds 
 a-year (then legal interest) for his life; and to the library several 
 choice books, both printed and manuscript; medals and coins ; besides 
 what he left to it by his will, which were " all such books, printed and 
 manuscript, as he had, and were wanting there." 
 
 All that Mr. Baker printed was, 1, 'The preface to Bishop Fisher's 
 funeral sermon for Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby," 8vo, 
 Lond. 1708 ; 2, ' Reflections on learning, showing the insufficiency 
 thereof in its several particulars, in order to evince the usefulness and 
 necessity of Revelation,' 8vo, Lond. 1710, which went through eight 
 editions : both works were without his name. His manuscript 
 collections relative to the history and antiquities of the University of 
 Cambridge formed the great labour of his life, and chiefly entitle him 
 to a notice here. They amount to thirty-nine volumes in folio, and 
 three in quarto, closely written. The British Museum possesses twenty- 
 three volumes, which he bequeathed to the Earl of Oxford, his friend 
 and patrou ; the Public Library at Cambridge contains sixteen volumes 
 in folio and three in quarto, which he bequeathed to the University. 
 A minute account of the contents of every volume will be found in the 
 ' Catalogue of Mr. Thomas Baker's MS. Collections ' appended to 
 Masters's Memoir of him, and in the ' Biographia Britannica,' vol. i. 
 p. 521-25. The catalogue of the Harleian Manuscripts contains an 
 account of those deposited in the Museum. 
 
 The assistance which Mr. Baker gave to his contemporaries engaged 
 in literary pursuits was valuable and extensive ; such aid is more 
 particularly acknowledged by Walker in his ' Sufferings of the Clergy,' 
 by Bishop Burnet, Archbishop Wake, Strype, Thomas Hearne, Pro- 
 fessor Ward, Browne Willis, Peck, Le Neve, Bishop Kenuet, Dr. Conyers 
 Middleton, Dr. Waterland, Dr. Zach. Grey, &c. The Society of Anti- 
 quaries have a portrait of Mr. Baker, and there is another in the 
 picture-gallery at Oxford. 
 
 (Biographia Britannica ; Masters, Memoirs drawn from the Papers 
 of Dr. Zach. Grey, 8vo, Cambr., 1784; and Cole's MS. Collections, Brit. 
 Mus. vol. xxiii., xxvii., xxx., xxxi., with his Atheu. Cantabr. lett. B.) 
 
 BAKEWELL, ROBERT, a celebrated agriculturist and improver 
 of live-stock. He was born, about the year 1725, at Dishley, in Leices- 
 tershire, and died there October 1, 1795. Though it does not appear 
 that he contributed anything to literature, even on the subjects to 
 which he devoted his life, his efforts, particularly to improve the breed 
 of cattle, procured for him a widely-extended reputation : the long- 
 horned breed which he introduced is designated by the name of the 
 Dishley or New Leicestershire breed. He also paid much attention 
 to improving the breeds of horses, pigs, and sheep. He is to be distin- 
 guished from another Robert Bakewell, who, in 1S08, published 
 ' Observations on Wool,' with notes by Lord Somerville. 
 
 BALBI, ADRIEN", was bom at Venice on April 25, 17S2. At an 
 early period of his life he was appoiuted professor of geography and 
 also of natural philosophy in his native town. In 1820 he took up his 
 residence in Portugal. Here, from the archives of the kingdom, he 
 procured the materials for his ' Essai statistique sur le royaume de 
 Portugal et Algarve, compare 1 aux autres Etats de l'Europe,' pub- 
 lished in Paris iu 1822. After having settled iu Paris, and employed 
 himself iu collecting rich and varied materials for many years, he 
 published in 1826 the first volume of his 'Atlas ethnographique du 
 Globe ; or, Classification des Peuples anciens et moderues d'apre3 leurs 
 Langues.' This work first made the French public acquainted with 
 the researches of Adelung and other German philologists. Balbi how- 
 ever improved their arrangement, and added much information gathered 
 from the accounts of such travellers as A. Humboldt, Freycinet, and 
 others, as well as from linguists such as G. Humboldt, Remusat, 
 Champollion, Klaproth, &c. This work attained a deservedly high 
 reputation. Under the administration of Martignac, Balbi received 
 from the government such pecuniary assistance as rendered his circum- 
 stances easy. He had previously published, with the assistance of 
 others whose help he has scrupulously acknowledged, statistical tables 
 of the kingdoms of France, Russia, and the Netherlands. After finish- 
 ing his ' Abrege" de Geographic, rddigd sur un plan nouveau,' which 
 
 work has been translated into most of the principal languages of 
 Europe, he quitted Paris in 1832, and settled in Padua, where he died 
 on March 14, 1848. 
 
 We have mentioned the works on which Balbi's reputation rests, 
 but he produced several others, among them are : — ' La Monorchia 
 Francaise compare aux principaux Etats de l'Europe,' 1828 ; 'L' Empire 
 Russe comparde aux principaux Etats du monde,' 1829, and ' 'Ply 
 World compared with the British Empire,' 1830. 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographic Unirerselle.) 
 
 BA'LBI, GA'SPARO, a Venetian merchant and traveller, who liveo. 
 in the second part of the lGth century. He was a dealer in precious 
 stones, and the business of his trade led him to Aleppo, whence he 
 undertook a journey to India, which lasted several years. On his 
 return to Venice he published an account of this journey, ' Viaggio 
 all' Indie Orientali,' 8vo, Venice, 1590, which was reprinted in 1600. 
 Balbi's narrative is curious, as it refers to an epoch when India was 
 much less known than it is now, and was in a state very different 
 from the present. The Portuguese were then almost tho only Euro- 
 pean nation trading to India, and their establishments on the coasts 
 were numerous and strong. Those Venetian merchants who ventured 
 so far appear to have been on good terms with the Portuguese, and 
 to have enjoyed security under their protection. Balbi wrote in an 
 unpretending style, which bears marks of his candour as to what he 
 himself saw, and also of his credulity with regard to matters which he 
 knew only from hearsay. He is very minute and exact in every 
 particular of mercantile information ; but his statements are scanty 
 with regard to the history and geography of the countries which he 
 visited. 
 
 Balbi proceeded from Aleppo to Bir on the Euphrates, and then 
 embarked on the river, which he represents as dangerous, owing to 
 rapids and shallows. He landed on the left bank, at the distance of 
 one day and a half from Baghdad, which he calls New Babylon, and 
 to which city he proceeded by land. From Baghdad he descended 
 the Tigris to Bussora, and there embarked for Ormuz, where the 
 Portuguese had a fort, the sovereign of that barren little island being 
 tributary to them. From Ormuz he proceeded to Diu, another factory 
 of the Portuguese at the entrance of the Gulf of Cambay, and thence 
 to Goa, their chief settlement on the Malabar coast. He gives a full 
 and curious account of the trade in those places, of the various goods 
 brought to the markets, their prices in Venetian currency, the duties, 
 freights, &c. From Goa he went to Cochin, and thence round Cape 
 Comoriu to St. Thomas, or St. Thomd, as he calls it, another Portu- 
 guese factory. He gives a sketch of the missionaries, and their mode 
 of converting the people at that time, which was quite as much by 
 means of physical as of moral force. At St. Thomd Balbi embarked 
 with several Portuguese merchants for the kingdom of Pegu, where 
 he arrived in the year 1583. His account of that remote country is 
 the most curious part of his narrative. Pegu was then a powerful 
 kingdom; Ava was subject to it, and even Siam was its tributary. 
 The ship in which Balbi was having arrived at Negrais, the goods and 
 passengers were transferred into boats, in which they ascended the 
 river Irawaddi for eleven days, when they arrived at Meccao, and pro- 
 ceeded by laud to the capital of Pegu, which was twelve miles east 
 from the river. Balbi represents the town as very large, divided 
 into old and new : the new town was square, surrounded with walls 
 and ditches. A number of large crocodiles were he says kept in the 
 ditches to prevent any one from swimming over. The streets were 
 wide, the houses built of wood, and dirty inside. The king's palace 
 was in the middle of the new town : the old town was occupied by 
 the trading people. The town of Pegu has since been destroyed by 
 the Birmans, who conquered it about the middle of the 18th century, 
 and left standing only the great temple of Shomadoo. Balbi had au 
 audience of the king, who inquired about the traveller's native country, 
 and laughed heartily on being told that it was a republic and had no 
 king. He appears however to have heard something of European 
 politics, for he asked Balbi the name of the sovereign who had recently 
 conquered Portugal (Philip II. of Spain). The king, according to 
 Balbi's account, behaved very graciously to him, and made him a 
 present of a golden cup and several pieces of China damask silk, to 
 the great surprise of the natives. Balbi had brought from India some 
 fine emeralds, which the king purchased at the price set on them by 
 the brokers, and Balbi was paid partly in other precious stones and 
 partly in ' gansa,' or lead pieces, which were the currency of the 
 country. He wished to go on to Ava where the finest relics were to 
 be obtained, but was prevented by a war breaking out between Pegu 
 and Ava. Balbi, after remaining two years in Pegu, set off for 
 Martaban, and there embarked to return to Cochin. At Cochin he 
 was detained seven months before he could get a passage for Ormuz. 
 He tells many curious particulars of the people of the Malabar coast, 
 their superstitions, &c. Balbi returned home by the way of Ormuz, 
 Bussora, Baghdad, and Aleppo. He had left Aleppo in 1579, and 
 returned in 1588. 
 
 Balbi seems to have been the first traveller who gave an account of 
 Transgansetic Iudia. A Latin translation of his narrative is in De 
 Bry's ' Collection of Voyages and Travels to the East Indies,' Frank- 
 furt, 1590 94. 
 
 BALBI'NUS, DE'CIMUS CA'ELIUS, a Roman senator, after being 
 twice consul, was elected emperor by the senate in opposition to th« 
 
403 
 
 BALBOA, VASCO NUNEZ DE. 
 
 BALBOA, VASCO NUNEZ DE. 
 
 404 
 
 usurper Maximinus, who was supported by the legions in Germany. 
 Maximinus himself, hearing that the senate had outlawed him, was 
 preparing to march from Illyricum into Italy. Rome was in great 
 consternation. News had reached Rome that the elder Gordianus and 
 his son, who had been proclaimed shortly before in Africa with the ap- 
 probation of the senate, had both perished there. The senate in this 
 emergency elected two emperors — ClodiusPupienusMaximus, an expe- 
 rienced officer who had risen from a low station to the highest ranks, 
 and Balbinus, a man of fortune and connections, and of a mild con- 
 ciliatory character : but at the demand of the people and the soldiers, 
 who were attached to the memory of Gordianus, a third emperor, 
 Marcus Antonius Gordianus, a boy of twelve years of age, was also 
 appointed; after which Maximus set off for North Italy to oppose 
 Maximinus, and Balbinus remained at Rome. A serious tumult broke 
 out shortly after in the city, in consequence of two praetorian soldiers, 
 who entered unarmed the senate-house to listen to the discussions, 
 having been stabbed to death by some of the senators, who pretended 
 that they were spies of Maximinus. The praetorian guards rose to 
 avenge the death of their comrades ; and the people, on the other side, 
 excited by the senators, ran to attack the praetorians, who defended 
 themselves in their camp, and killed many of the citizens. The people 
 next cut off the conduits that supplied the camp with water ; but the 
 praetorians sallied out, repulsed the besiegers, and set fire to a district 
 of the city. The greatest disorder prevailed, when Balbinus, who at 
 first had remained inactive, came out to endeavour to part the com- 
 batants ; but he was assailed with stones, and wounded. As a last 
 expedient the senators thought of exhibiting to the multitude the boy 
 Gordianus, who was clad in the imperial purple, and lifted upon the 
 shoulders of a tall man. The veneration which both the people and 
 the eoldiers felt for the name of Gordianus produced the desired effect, 
 and the tumult was appeased. Meantime Maximinus had laid siege to 
 Aquileia, where he was killed in a mutiny by his own soldiers, who 
 afterwards made their submission to Maximus; and the latter returned 
 to Rome to enjoy a triumph for having, though without much exertion 
 on his part, ended the civil war, a.D. 238. The people of Rome were 
 overwhelmed with joy, but the soldiers were dissatisfied, seeing their 
 influence on the decline ; they remembered that Maximinus was an 
 emperor of their own choice, while Maximus and Balbinus were the 
 choice of the senate. A conspiracy was soon organised, and the two 
 emperors, jealous of each other's ascendancy, took no measures for 
 their mutual safety. Choosing the occasion of a public festival, when 
 most of the citizens had gone to witness the celebration of the Capi- 
 toline games, the praetorians sallied out to attack the palace of the 
 emperors. Maximus, being informed of this, sent for his trusty Ger- 
 mans; but Balbinus, through some suspicion of the designs of Maximus, 
 opposed the order. The praetorians forced their way into the palace, 
 seized both emperors, whom they dragged ignominiously towards their 
 camp, insulting and tormenting them by the way, and finally put them 
 both to death. They then took the boy Gordianus to their camp, and 
 proclaimed him emperor, a.d. 238, The two murdered emperors were 
 no more talked of, and no punishment was inflicted on the assassins. 
 Balbinus and Maximus reigned little more than one year, during which 
 time they had shown assiduity in their duties, attention to justice and 
 public security, and respect for the authority of the laws. Balbinus 
 was a man of elegant manners and cultivated taste, fond of luxury and 
 refiuement, and also a lover of literature : he appears to have been a 
 poet of no mean reputation in his time. His house, inhabited by his 
 posterity, was still existing in the time of Diocletian. (Julius Capito- 
 linus, ' Historia Augusta.') 
 
 Braei. British Museum. Actunl size. 
 
 BALBO'A, VA'SCO NU'NEZ DE, was born in Xerez de los Cabal- 
 lero?, in Estremadura, about the year 1475. His family, though 
 belonging to the class of hidalgos (or gentlemen), was not in very 
 affluent circumstances. Vasco in his youth held some office in the 
 house of Don Pedro Portocarrero, lord of Huelva; and in 1501 he 
 accompanied Rodrigo de Bastidas in his voyage of discovery to the New 
 World. It is not known whether Balboa remained with the expedition 
 till the time of the death of Bastidas, or whether he left it before, to 
 settle in Hispaniola (St. Domingo) ; but in 1510 Balboa was at Salva- 
 tion, one of the settlements in that island, and he was so reduced in 
 circumstances, that he had got considerably iu debt. About that time, 
 Aloneo de (Jjeda and Diego de Nicuesa projected a voyage of discovery, 
 the king having granted them the privilege of colonising and governing 
 all those territories which they might discover from Cape Vela (or de 
 
 la Vela), in 12° 5' N. lat., 72° 9' W. long, to Cape Gracias-a-Dios in 
 15° N. lat., 82° 45' W. long. One of Ojeda's coadjutors, Bachiller 
 Enciso, remained at Hispauiola to load two ships with men and 
 provisions. The governor of Hispaniola had made a law in that 
 island, that no one should quit it before he had paid all his creditors. 
 Balboa, who was anxious to get away from the island, hid himself in 
 a c \sk in Euciso's ship, and when the vessel was far from land presented 
 himself to Enciso, who, though much irritated at the trick, was at last 
 reconciled by the entreaties of Balboa and his friends. 
 
 Enciso, ou reaching Cartagena, where Ojeda's party had originally 
 proposed to settle, found that Ojeda had changed his plans in conse- 
 quence of the hostility of the natives, and had removed to the Gulf of 
 Darien; also that he had sailed thence to Hispaniola in quest of 
 Enciso. In Ojeda's absence, Enciso claimed the chief command; and 
 his men, after some resistance, submitted. He ordered them to proceed 
 to the gulf of Darien ; on entering which a violent storm overtook 
 them, and the vessel of Enciso was violently driven against a rock on 
 the coast. The men, 150 in number, saved themselves by swimming, 
 but on reaching the settlement, they found it reduced to ashes. They 
 next attempted to penetrate the country, but met with such resist- 
 ance from the natives that they were obliged to retire to the coast. 
 In this state of despair Balboa said, " I remember to have seen, when 
 I was on these coasts some years ago, a town situated by the side of a 
 large river on the west side of the gulf : the inhabitants were of a 
 mild character, and did not use poisoned arrows." The party eagerly 
 embraced Balboa's suggestion, that they should proceed in quest of 
 the place and take possession of it. After a very obstinate combat 
 with the Indians, the Spaniards put them to flight, entered the town, 
 and founded a settlement, which they called, in fulfilment of a vow, 
 Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien, in 8° 20' N. lat. The Spaniards, 
 after their establishment there, began to exchange with the natives 
 goods and trinkets for gold, and had already received to the amount 
 of 12,000 dollars, when Enciso, under pain of death, forbade the 
 exchange of anything for gold. On this his men deposed him, and 
 some of them elected Balboa and Zamudio for their leaders ; some 
 were for Enciso ; and others, again, were desirous to place themselves 
 under Nicuesa. In the midst of these disputes a ship arrived from 
 Spain with men and provisions for Nicuesa. The captain distri- 
 buted part of his stores among the settlers; and this circumstance 
 determined the parties iu favour of Nicuesa. They accordingly 
 dispatched the vessel in quest of that chief, and found him near Porto- 
 bello iu great distress; he accepted the invitation, but when he came 
 to the settlement he was refused permission to land. He however 
 went on shore secretly in spite of the advice of Balboa, but was seized 
 by order of his adversaries, and placed in a miserable vessel, with 
 seventeen men who chose to follow him. The vessel sailed for Spain, 
 and it is supposed to have been lost at sea. 
 
 The parties of Enciso and Balboa now resumed their dispute, and 
 Balboa gained the victory. Enciso was tried, and condemned to 
 imprisonment and the loss of all his property, for having usurped the 
 command of Ojeda, but Balboa was persuaded to grant lam his liberty, 
 on condition of his leaving Darien. Balboa now dispatched Zamudio 
 to Spain to give an account of what had taken place, and having sent 
 for the men whom Nicuesa had left at Portobello, he made a successful 
 expedition into the country. On that occasion Balboa became ac- 
 quainted with a very powerful cacique, who gave him muvh useful 
 information about his own country, and also about a very powerful 
 and rich state, which, as he said, was six suns, or (lays, to the south 
 of his own country. This was the first information the Spaniards had 
 of Peru. Balboa and his men returned to Darien, where he found a 
 reinforcement, which Columbus had sent from Hispaniola. The pro- 
 visions brought by that vessel were soon consumed, and scarcity 
 ensued in consequence of the loss of their harvest. Balboa now sent 
 to Columbus for a fresh supply of provisions and 1000 men, that he 
 might be able to remain in the country without being obliged to 
 destroy the natives, and also to undertake the conquest of the country 
 of which he had received intelligence. 
 
 In the beginning of September 1513, Balboa embarked on an explo- 
 ratory expedition, sailing direct to Coiba, au island near the coast of 
 Veragua, where he left the vessels, and proceeded into the interior. 
 By his prudent policy he won the good will of several tribes of Indians, 
 and after a painful journey of about a month, he arrived ou the 29th 
 of September at a mountain, from the summit of which the immense 
 expanse of the Pacific Ocean burst upon his view. Affected at the 
 sight, and falling upon his knees, he thanked the Almighty for having 
 granted him the favour of discovering those immense regions, and 
 then addressed his companions in congratulatory and encouraging 
 terms. They all embraced him, and promised to be faithful to the 
 last moment. He then cut dowu a large tree, and depriving it of its 
 branches, erected a cross upon a heap of stones, and wrote the names 
 of Fernando and Isabel ou the trunks of several trees round about. 
 Descending with his companions to the sea-shore, Balboa, iu full 
 armour, having in one baud his sword and the standard of Castile iu 
 the other, stood upon the sand until, the tide ascending, the water 
 reached his knees, and then, iu the hearing of his companions, declared 
 that he took possession of those seas and regions in the names of the 
 king and queen of Castile. The procedure was formally registered 
 by a notary, in order to insure the validity of the act of possession. 
 
405 
 
 BALDI, BERNARDINO. 
 
 BALDWIN. 
 
 Balboa, after visiting some of the islands in the gulf, returned to Darien, 
 which they reached on the 19th January 1514. The fatigues of the 
 journey brought upon Balboa a dangerous fever. 
 
 On arriving at Darien, Balboa gave those who had remained iu the 
 colony their proportionate Bhare of the riches acquired in the expedi- 
 tion ; he also sent a messenger to Spain, to give an account of Lis 
 discovery, and devoted himself entirely to the improvement of the 
 settlement. In the meantime Enciso had so excited the feelings of 
 the king against Balboa, that Zamudio, who attempted to exculpate 
 his friend, was ordered to be imprisoned, and was obliged to conceal 
 himself. The government determined to appoint a person to super- 
 sede Balboa, and to try him for his rebellion. That commission was 
 given to Pedrarias Ddvila, a nobleman. The squadron of Pedrarias, 
 consisting of 1500 men, arrived at Darien iu 1514. Such were the 
 reports of his ambition which the enemies of Balboa bad spread in 
 Spain, that Pedrarias expected to find him living iu the colony in 
 princely state, but on his lauding he was astonished to find him 
 dressed like the meanest of his men, directing and assisting some 
 Indians in roofing a house. 
 
 Pedrarias in execution of his orders placed Balboa under arrest 
 and brought him to trial. He was acquitted of the murder of Nicuesa, 
 which his enemies had attributed to him, but he was condemned in a 
 heavy fine as damages to Enciso, on paying which he was set at 
 liberty. Pedrarias however kept him without any employment in 
 the colony, the consequence of which was, that, through ignorance of 
 the country and mismanagement, the settlers experienced much 
 distress, and in one mouth seven hundred men died of sickness and 
 hunger. The new adventurers ranged the country in search of gold, 
 and not finding it treated the poor Indians with great cruelty. Thus 
 the chiefs and tribes who, owing to the prudeut and couciliating con- 
 duct of Balboa had been exceedingly friendly with the Spaniards, 
 were now changed into their enemies. 
 
 In the meantime, the friends of Balboa at home had so exerted 
 themselves in his favour, that they obtained for him, in 1515, the 
 appointment of governor under Pedrarias, of Darien and Coiba. 
 Pedrarias was however unwilling to give Balboa his authority, at 
 which the latter, highly displeased, sent his friend Garabito secretly 
 to Cuba, to procure sixty men, with the view of making a settlement 
 near the Pacific. When Garabito returned, Pedrarias had given to 
 Balboa his rank and title. Garabito landed his men about twenty 
 miles from Darien, and informed Balboa. The information, secret as 
 it was, reached the ears of Pedrarias, at which he was so indignant, 
 that he ordered Balboa to be imprisoned ; but on the entreaties of 
 the Bishop Quevedo, and his own wife, Balboa was released and 
 reconciled to his enemy. This reconciliation was further cemented 
 by the marriage of Balboa with the eldest daughter of Pedrarias, 
 then in Spain. Notwithstanding this apparent reconciliation, Pedra- 
 rias kept Balboa at Darien, and was always afraid of employing him. 
 In 1517, Pedrarias, having been unsuccessful in all his attempts to 
 reduce the country, sent Balboa in the direction of Port Careta, with 
 directions to found a colony there, and to build ships, in order to 
 visit some of the islands in the Pacific; but having been subsequently 
 informed by some of Balboa's enemies that he intended going on a 
 voyage of discovery on his own account, Pedrarias dispatched Francisco 
 Pizarro with an armed force to arrest Balboa, who was again tried on 
 the very charges on which he had before been acquitted. Although 
 the judge found him guilty, he recommended him to mercy, in con- 
 sideration of his services, but the inflexible Pedrarias answered the 
 judge, ''If he is a criminal, let him die for his crimes." He was 
 accordingly condemned to be beheaded. 
 
 Balboa died with the firmness of a hero, in his forty-second year. 
 Herrera says that Balboa was a tall and graceful man, of a pleasing 
 countenance, with flaxen hair ; and that he had an acute understand- 
 ing, and was possessed of great fortitude. In danger and fatigue he 
 always took the lead, and was the last in enjoying rest and comfort. 
 " He was," says Quintana, " rigid in his discipline, but when his 
 soldiers were sick or wounded, he visited and consoled them as a 
 brother, and he was on many occasions seen to go in pursuit of game, 
 and even to dress it himself, for his sick men." 
 
 (Herrera, Historia Ocneral de las Jndias Occidentales, Decada first 
 and. second, Quintana ; Vidas de Esfianoles Ilustres, torn. ii. ; Navar- 
 rete, Colecion de los Viages y Descubrimientos de los Espanoles. desde 
 fines del Siglo XV, vol. iii. Madrid, 1829.) 
 
 BA'LDI, BERNARDI'NO, was born at Urbino, June 6, 1553, of a 
 noble family. After having received his early education in his native 
 town he went to Padua, where he studied mathematics, jurisprudence, 
 and the languages, of which last his biographer Aff<5 saye he acquired 
 fourteen. His reputation in these branches of learning made him 
 known to Ferrante Gonzaga, lord of Guastalla, who engaged him as a 
 teacher of mathematics, and afterwards made him Abbot of Guastalla, 
 with the Pope's approbation. Baldi discharged the duties of this 
 office with great assiduity and zeal ; but in defending the prerogatives, 
 jurisdiction, and immunities of his abbey, he found himself entangled 
 in disputes with the community and lay authorities of Guastalla, and 
 with the prince himself. Annoyed perhaps at these controversies, he 
 repaired to Rome, where Cardinal Cintio Aldobrandini, nephew of Pope 
 Clement VIII., became bis friend, and invited him to live in his house. 
 Baldi resigned the abbacy of Guastalla, retaining an annual pension 
 
 from its income. Having returned to Urbino, the Duke Francesco 
 Maria della liovere sent him, in 1612, as his envoy to Venice, to 
 congratulate the new Doge Andrea Memmo. On this occasion Baldi 
 pronounced an elegant oration before the Venetian senate, which so 
 pleased the doge that he presented the orator with a massive gold 
 cliain of considerable value. He died at his native place, October 12, 
 1617. 
 
 Baldi wrote a vast number of works in prose and verse, the greater 
 part of which remain iuedited. Among those published are a poem 
 on navigation, and several eclogues, which are not without merit. He 
 painted the Italian rustics as rustics generally are, describing their 
 habits and employments, and deriving a moral from their coutented- 
 ness and their humble enjoyments. Baldi wrote also a poem called 
 ' Deifobe,' purporting to be a chronicle of the vicissitudes of Rome 
 from its foundation to the epoch in which he lived, in the form of a 
 prophecy. Of Baldi's prose works we have several dialogues — one on 
 • dignity ; ' and another on the qualities and duties required of a 
 prince, written with considerable freedom, considering the age and 
 country in which he lived. He also compiled a short chronicle of all 
 the mathematicians known from EuphorbiuB (mentioned by Diogenes 
 Laertius in his ' Life of Thales ') down to his own time ; and he 
 published two Latin works in illustration of Vitruvius — ' Scamilli 
 Impares Vitruviani a Bernardino Baldo nova ratione explicati/ Augs- 
 burg, 1612; and 'De Verborum Vitruvianorum Significatione,' ibid., 
 with a life of Vitruvius. Both have been inserted by the Marquis 
 Poleni in his ' Exercitationes Vitruvianae,' Padua, 1741. Two historical 
 works of Baldi were recently published for the first time — ' Vita e 
 Fatti di Guidobaldo I. di Montepeltro Duca d'Urbino,' 2 vols., Milano, 
 1821 ; and ' Vita e Fatti di Frederico di Montepeltro Duca d'Urbino,' 
 3 vols., Roma, 1824. He is likewise said to have prepared an Arab 
 and a Persian grammar, a Turkish vocabulary, and a translation of 
 the geography of Edrisi, and another of a Chaldean commentary on 
 the Targum of Onkelo3, the results of his assiduous study of the 
 Eastern languages, to which in the prime of his life he for a short 
 time devoted much labour. 
 
 (All'6, Vita di Bernardino Baldi.) 
 
 BALDI'NI, BA'CCIO, a Florentine goldsmith and engraver, was 
 born at Florence in 1436, and died there in 1515. He was one of the 
 first Italian engravers, whose works on that account have an historical 
 interest, but are otherwise of little value. Baldini was bred a gold- 
 smith, and was taught engraving by Finiguerra himself, who was the 
 inventor of the art according to the Italians. Baldini however, though 
 acquainted with the art, could derive no benefit from it, as he was 
 incapable of makiug a design ; he communicated it therefore to Ales- 
 sandro Botticelli, and the two entered into partnership — the one 
 designed and the other engraved. Such is the story of Vasari. The 
 first prints by him are the Months, 1465. The next, those in ' II Monte 
 Santo di Dio,' by Fra. Antonio di Siena, printed in 1477: and of an 
 edition of Dante, with the commentary of Landiui, published in 1481 : 
 both were printed at Florence by Niccolo di Lorenzo. In the 'Monte 
 Sauto' there are three engravings by Baldini, and for the Dante he 
 engraved 19, but only two were ready when the book was published- 
 the remaining 17, in the Vatican copy, have been pasted on the blank 
 places left for them. Niccolo di Lorenzo left a blank place for a print 
 at the head of every canto. Baldini executed many other prints, 
 which are noticed at length by Bartsch and other writers on prints. 
 Heiueken, Strutt, and others have published copies of some of 
 Baldini's engravings as specimens of the early Italian style. Accord- 
 ing to Duchesne (' Essai sur les Nielles '), Baldini also executed 
 numerous works in niello. (Vasari, Vtte de Pittori, &c. , in the 
 'Life of Marcantonio ;' Strutt, Dictionary of Engravers; Heineken, 
 Nachrichten von Kiinstlern ; Bartsch, Le Peinlre-Graveur ; Passavant.) 
 
 BALDUNG, HANS, called also Hans Griin, a celebrated old German 
 painter and wood-engraver, the contemporary and the friend of Albert 
 Durer. He was born at Gmiind, in Swabia, about 1470, or a few years 
 later, but lived chiefly in Switzerland, at Strasbourg, and its neigh- 
 bourhood. From the inscription upon a picture of the Crucifixion, in 
 the church of Freiburg in Breisgau, which is considered his masterpiece, 
 his full name appears to have been Hans Baldung Griin or Grien. It 
 is painted upon canvass glued upon wood. His woodcuts are variously 
 signed H. B., H. B. G., and H. G. His prints are rather numerous. 
 Bartsch mentions two engravings on copper, and 59 woodcuts ; and 
 Brulliot states that there are still many which have been overlooked 
 by Bart*ch. Baldung's latest cuts bear the date 1534. The earliest 
 date of bis cuts appears to be 1507. His latest works are the best. 
 
 As a painter he was little inferior to Albert Durer in expression, in 
 colouring, or in finish. He painted portraits and history, sacred and 
 profane : the heads are the best parts of his works. The year 1545 is 
 given in several works as the year of his death. There is in the gallery 
 of Carlsruhe a book of studies and portraits by him. 
 
 (Fiissli, AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexicon ; Heineken, EKctionnaire det 
 Artistes, kc. ; Bartsch, Le Ptintre Graveur ; Brulliot, Dictionnaire da 
 Monogrammes, &c. ; Nagler, Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexicon.) 
 
 BALDWIN, or BAUDOUI'N, great forester of Flanders, succeeded, 
 a.d. 837, his father Audacer in the government of that province, as 
 feudatory of the Emperor Louis, Charlemagne's successor. Baldwin 
 was called ' Iron-arm,' on account of his great strength ; some say, on 
 account of his being constantly in armour. Upon the death of Louis. 
 
«97 
 
 BALDWIN II. 
 
 BALDWIN I. 
 
 49S 
 
 in 840, Baldwin, having taken the part of Lotharius against his 
 brothers, was severely wounded in the battle of Fontenai. Shortly 
 after, Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, King of Aquitania and 
 of Neustria, having become a widow, by the death of her husband 
 Ethelwolf, king of England, was returning to her father in France, 
 when Baldwin, who had heard of her great beauty, went to meet her 
 at her landing. He prevailed on her to accompany him to the castle 
 of Haerlebeck, where they were privately married, as they had no 
 expectation of obtaining her father's consent. Charles incensed at 
 the news, sent his son, Louis the Stammerer, to make war upon 
 Baldwin, who defeated him near Arras. After the battle, Baldwin 
 caused several of Charles's barons, whom he had taken prisoners, to 
 be hanged, as the instigators of the war. The pope, Nicholas I., 
 having excommunicated him, at the request of Charles the Bald, 
 Baldwin made a journey to Rome with his wife Judith, and not only 
 obtained absolution, but succeeded in engaging the good offices of 
 Pope Nicholas I., who sent a legate to Charles of France, and effected 
 • reconciliation. Baldwin and his wife repaired to the court of Charles, 
 who received them kindly, and enlarged the limits of Flanders, erect- 
 ing it into a county, in 862. Baldwin built castles at Bruges and 
 Ghent, to defend the country against the Normans, who, under their 
 chief Hastings, had landed on the coast. Baldwin died at Arras 
 in 877. 
 
 BALDWIN II., Count of Flanders, son of the above, married 
 Alfrith, daughter of Alfred of England. He made war against Eudes, 
 count of Paris, who had usurped the French crown, and defeated 
 him. He had also disputes with Charles the Simple, the rightful heir, 
 after the latter had ascended the throne. Baldwin died in 919, and 
 was succeeded by his son Arnoul. 
 
 BALDWIN III., styled 'of the handsome beard,' succeeded Count 
 Arnoul the younger in 988, and died in 1034. He married a daughter 
 of the Count of Luxemburg. During the troubles that followed the 
 death of the Emperor Otho III., the Count of Flanders seized upon 
 Beveral places in the neighbourhood of his territories : among others, 
 upon Valenciennes, which he afterwards defended against the united 
 forces of the Emperor Henry, King Robert of France, and the Duke 
 of Normandy. It was finally agreed at last that he should retain 
 Valenciennes, as an imperial feud, as well as the island of Walcheren 
 and other parts of Zealand. Baldwin then obtained the hand of 
 Adele, daughter of Robert of France, for his son Baldwin. An 
 assembly of the prelates and nobles of Flanders, held at Oudenarde, 
 by Count Baldwin III., appears to be the first mention made of the 
 states of Flanders. 
 
 BALDWIN IV., called by some 'of Lisle,' and by others ' le De"bon- 
 naire,' was the son an,d successor of Count Baldwin III. He conquered 
 from the German territory several districts on the right bank of the 
 Scheldt, which he retained on condition of doing homage to the 
 emperor for the same ; and thus the counts of Flanders were vassals 
 of both the crowns of France and Germany. Baldwin gave his 
 daughter Mathilda to William of Normandy, afterwards king of Eng- 
 land. Henry I, of France, at his death, appointed Count Baldwin 
 guardian to his son Philip, then a minor. Baldwin fulfilled his trust 
 with great honour ; and defeated the Gascons, who had revolted. He 
 then accompanied his son-in-law, William, to the conquest of England ; 
 and for his services on that occasion William assigned him and his 
 successors a yearly pension of 300 marks of silver out of the English 
 treasury. Baldwin died in 1067, and was buried at Lisle. 
 
 BALDWIN V., called 'the Good,' and also 'of Mons,' from his 
 having married the Countess Richilda, of Hainault, who brought him 
 tlie lordship of Mons before he became Count of Flanders, succeeded 
 his father, Baldwin IV. He died in 1070, leaving two sons, Arnoul 
 and Baldwin. After his death, his brother Robert, called the Fries- 
 lander, from having conquered the principality of Friesland, invaded 
 Flanders, and defeated his nephews and Philip of France, who had 
 come to their assistance, in a battle near St. Omer. Arnoul was killed ; 
 and Baldwin, after a time, renounced his claims on the county of 
 Flanders in favour of his uncle and his descendants, and kept for 
 himself the county of Hainault, which he had inherited from his 
 mother. This Baldwin has been reckoned in the series of the princes 
 of his family as Baldwin VI. 
 
 BALDWIN VII., grandson of Robert the Frieslander, succeeded 
 his father, Robert the younger, as Count of Flanders, in the year 1111. 
 He was called Baldwin Hapkin, from the name of a kind of axe used 
 during his reign in the numerous public executions of the outlaws 
 who infested the country, among whom were many turbulent feudal 
 lords. Baldwin made war in Normandy in favour of William, son of 
 Robert Curthose, against Henry I. of England ; and being severely 
 wounded at the siege of Rouen, died soon after, in 1119. He 
 was succeeded in the county of Flanders by his cousin Charles of 
 Denmark. 
 
 BALDWIN VIII., Count of Hainault, was descended from Bald- 
 win VI., and became Count of Fland> rs after the death of Count 
 Philip, in 1194. Thus the line of Baldwin of Mons was restored, 
 and the two counties of Hainault and Flandei-3 were re united. Philip 
 of France, afterwards Philippe Auguste, manned Isabella, Baldwin's 
 daughter. Baldwin died in 1195, leaving his dominions to Baldwin 
 IX., afterwards Emperor of Constantinople. (Oudegherst, Cttroniques 
 et Annates de Flaiidre.) 
 
 JBIOO. DIT. VOL. I. 
 
 BALDWIN I., Emperor of Constantinople, was the son of Baldwin 
 of Hainault, and of Margaret countess of Flanders. He became 
 count of Flanders by the death of his mother in 1194, and the 
 following year succeeded his father as count of Hainault. Soon after 
 his accession he made war upon Philip II. of France for the recovery 
 of the province of Artois, which had been detached from Flanders 
 under count Philip his uncle, and with the help of Richard of 
 England succeeded in recovering a portion of the Artois, which he 
 retained by the treaty of Peronne in 1199. In 1200, Baldwin having 
 resolved to join the fourth crusade, appointed his brother Philip, 
 count of Namur, with other persons, to the regency of Flanders and 
 Hainault. Baldwin's wife, Mary of Champagne, followed him to 
 Venice, the appointed rendezvous of the Crusaders. As the sum for 
 which the Venetians engaged to furnish ships and provisions was more 
 than the Crusaders could pay, Baldwin exhorted his brethren in arms 
 to part with their private money, their jewels, and ornaments, and ho 
 set them the example himself. Still a large sum being wanting, 
 Dandolo, the doge of Venice, proposed that, on their way to the East, 
 the Crusaders should stop before Zara in Dalmatia, and assist the 
 Venetians in reconquering that place, which had revolted, and given 
 itself up to the king of Hungary. Many of the Crusaders refused 
 and left Venice : others, of whom Baldwin was one, agreed to the 
 proposal. The fleet sailed in October 1202, and having stopped at 
 Zara, the Crusaders and the Venetians took the town, where they 
 wintered. At Zara the Crusaders were applied to by messengers 
 from Alexius, son of Isaac Angelus, emperor of Constantinople, who 
 had been deposed, had his eyes seared out, and been thrown into a 
 dungeon by his brother Alexius III. The young Alexius implored 
 the Crusaders to deliver his father, and restore him to the throne, 
 engaging, on his part, to give them afterwards every assistance for 
 the recovery of Palestine, to pay them a large sum of money, and 
 to make the Greek Church acknowledge the supremacy of the Roman 
 See. At a great consultation, held by the chiefs of the Crusaders, 
 Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, Baldwin of Flanders, and the old 
 Doge Dandolo, supported the entreaties of Alexius, and the expedi- 
 tion to Constantinople was resolved upon. They then proceeded to 
 Corfu, where they were joined by young Alexius himself. In May 
 1203 the fleet, consisting of nearly 500 sail, left Corfu, and steered 
 for the Hellespont ; they entered the Propontis without meeting any 
 opposition, and cast anchor at Chrysopolis, opposite to Constantinople. 
 The plan of attack being formed, Baldwin, who had with him the 
 best archers and a numerous body of brave knights, was appointed 
 to lead the van. A rapid succession of events occurred ; the Greek 
 forces were defeated near Galata ; Alexius the usurper fled, and Isaac 
 was restored to the throne. Young Alexius finding some difficulty 
 in fulfilling all the promises he had made, the Crusaders became 
 impatient, and hostilities broke out between them in January 1204. 
 At the same time a revolution took place in the city. Young Alexius 
 Angelus was murdered, and his father, the Emperor Isaac, died, it was 
 said, of terror and grief. The throne was usurped by Alexius Ducas, 
 called Murtzuflos. The city was now invested by the Crusaders, who, 
 after a siege of three months, made a general assault, the city being 
 stormed from the harbour side. A dreadful slaughter ensued, much 
 of which was perpetrated by the depraved part of the town popula- 
 tion. The booty was divided between the Crusaders and the Vene- 
 tians ; the share of the former, after deducting their debt to the 
 republic, amounted to 400,000 marks of silver. The Latin conquerors 
 appointed twelve electors, six Venetians, and six Crusaders, to choose 
 a new emperor of the East. The Crusaders proposed at first the 
 gallant old Doge Dandolo, but the Venetians objected to his nomina- 
 tion, on the ground that the imperial dignity was incompatible with 
 that of first magistrate of tbeir republic. The choice then fell upon 
 Baldwin of Flanders, the most distinguished as well as the most power- 
 ful of the Crusaders. The authority of Baldwin however was much 
 circumscribed : not more than one-fourth part of the provinces of 
 the empire was appropriated to him, part of the remainder being 
 allotted to the Venetians, whose doge was proclaimed Despot of 
 Romania; and part was distributed among the adventurers of France 
 and Lombardy, while several provinces remained in the possession of 
 Greek princes, the relatives of the former emperors. Baldwin was 
 therefore rather a titular than a real emperor, and all his abilities 
 and good intentions, for which historians have generally given him 
 credit, could not prevent the disorders inherent to such a state of 
 things. Many of the Greeks were of course dissatisfied with the new 
 arrangements, and their discontent being abetted by John, or Joan- 
 nices, king of the Bulgarians and Wallachians, a vast conspiracy was 
 formed, and as soon as Henry, Baldwin's brother, had crossed over 
 to Asia on an expedition, taking with him the flower of his troops, 
 the Greeks of the towns of Thrace rose and massacred the Latins 
 who were scattered among them. Baldwin went out to meet Joan- 
 nices, who had crossed the Balkan, but he was defeated and taken 
 prisoner on the 15th of April 1205. Villehardouin, the marshal of 
 Romania, who has left a history of the whole expedition, and the old 
 Doge Dandolo, effected a gallant retreat with the scauty remainder 
 of their troops. Baldwin died a prisoner of the Bulgarians in the 
 following year. Innocent III. having written to Joannices, requesting 
 him to give up the emperor, was answered that "Baldwin had paid 
 the debt of nature." The manner of his death is unknown. Various 
 
 2 K 
 
409 
 
 BALDWIN II. 
 
 BALE, JOHN. 
 
 6M 
 
 stories were circulated respecting the way in which he had been put 
 to death, but none of them appear deserving of much credit. Henry, 
 Baldwin's brother, succeeded him as emperor of Constantinople. 
 Twenty years after a hermit appeared in Flander3, pretending that 
 he was Baldwin, but he was convicted of imposture and put to death. 
 Mary, Baldwin's wife, died before her husband on a pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem. Two contemporary historians, of the two opposite parties, 
 have each left us an account of the memorable events connected with 
 the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders; one is Villeliardouin 
 of Champagne above-mentioned, and the other Nicetas, a Greek, 
 who held a high rank in the imperial court. (Nicetas, books xix. 
 xx. xxi.) There are also letters from Baldwin, inserted in the Gesta 
 Jmiacentii III. (Lebeau, Histoire clu Bas Empire; Ducange; the 
 Venetian historians; Gibbon, ch. 60.) 
 
 BALDWIN II. was the son of Peter de Courtenay, count of 
 Auxerre, and of Yolande, sister of Baldwin I., the emperor, and was 
 born in 1217. After the death of Henry, Baldwin's brother and suc- 
 cessor in 1217, Peter de Courtenay was called to the imperial throne ; 
 but Peter never reached his destination, being treacherously arrested 
 in Epirus by Theodore Angelus, the despot of that country. He died 
 in captivity, but the manner of his death is unknown. His second 
 son Robert, who was called to succeed him on the imperial throne, 
 died in 1228. His brother Baldwin being yet a child, the barons of 
 Romania called to the throne John of Brienue, titular king of Jeru- 
 salem, on condition that young Baldwin should marry his daughter 
 and become his colleague and successor. John of Brienne died in 
 1237, and was succeeded by Baldwin. The empire of the Latins 
 might be said to be now confined to the walls of Constantinople, and 
 Baldwin had neither money nor abilities to retrieve his fortunes. 
 After visiting Koine and France in the vain hope of inducing the Pope 
 and Louis IX. to afford him aid, and wasting years of humiliating 
 reverses and fruitless negociations, he (in July 1261) was surprised 
 within his capital by the troops of Michael Pateologus, who ruled 
 over the Greeks of Asia Minor as well as of Thrace. Michael was 
 proclaimed emperor by the multitude, and Baldwiu had just time to 
 escape by sea to Eubcca, and thence to Italy. With him ended the 
 dynasty of the Latin emperors of Constantinople. In his exile, 
 Baldwin continued to retain the title of emperor, and it was used by 
 his descendants till the close of the 14th century. The last of these 
 titular emperors of Constantinople was James de Baux, duke of 
 Andria in the kingdom of Naples, who was descended from Baldwin II. 
 by his mother's side. (Gibbon, ch. 61, and his authorities; Du Bouchet, 
 JJistoire de la Maison de Courtenay, &c.) 
 
 BALDWIN I., King of Jerusalem, was the son of Eustace, count of 
 Bouillon, a feudal territory in the Ardennes, and of Ida of Lorraine. 
 He accompanied his two elder brothers, Godfrey, duke of Lower 
 Lorraine or Brabant, and Eustace, count of Boulogne, to the first 
 crusade in 1006. Baldwin distinguished himself in several actions 
 against the Turks of Asia Minor, and took Tarsus in Cilicia. On the 
 invitation of the Christiau inhabitants of Edessa, who were tribu- 
 taries to the Turks, he entered Mesopotamia, and was well received 
 by the Edessans, who soon after proclaimed him their lord. Upon 
 this Baldwin assumed the title of Count of Edessa, which county con- 
 tinued in the hands of the Christians for about half a century. After 
 extending the limits of his territory by fresh conquests, he joined the 
 rest of the Crusaders in attacking the Turks of Aleppo, but soon after 
 returned to Edessa, while the main army advanced against Jerusalem 
 in 1 099. After his brother Godfrey had been elected king of Jeru- 
 salem, Baldwin repaired with a large retinue to the Holy City, and 
 after having visited the sanctuaries returned to Edessa. In the 
 following year (1100) Godfrey died, and Baldwin being called to 
 succeed him, resigned the county of Edessa to his cousin Baldwin du 
 Bourg, and repaired to Jerusalem, where he was crowned on Christmas- 
 Day 1100. His reign, which lasted till 1118, was one of continual 
 warfare against the Turks, the Arabs, the Persians, and the Saracens 
 of Egypt, in which Baldwin displayed much bravery and perse- 
 verance, and indefatigable activity. He obtained several victories, 
 taking the towns of Acre, Tripoli in Syria, Sidon, Ascalon, and 
 Rhiuocolura, thus securing for the Christians possession of all the 
 coast of Syria, from the Gulf of Issus to the frontier of Egypt. 
 Baldwin, intending to carry the war into Egypt, advanced as far as 
 Rhiuocolura, which he took, but proceeded no farther. On his return 
 towards Jerusalem he was taken ill, and died at Laris, in the Desert, 
 in March 1118. Baldwin was a very different character from his 
 brother Godfrey, who was a sincere enthusiast, pure and disinterested. 
 Baldwin was ambitious and worldly, but at the same time brave, 
 clever, and firm. Tasso, in the first canto of his 'Gerusalemme ' 
 (st. 8-9), has faithfully portrayed the character of the two brothers. 
 (For the events of the first Crusade, and the reigns of Baldwin and 
 his successors, see William of Tyre, Gibbon, and Michaud, Histoire de* 
 Croisades.) 
 
 BALDWIN II., or Baldwin du Bourg, count of Edessa, succeeded 
 his cousin Baldwin I. on the throne of Jerusalem, when he resigned 
 the county of Eder-sa to Jocelyn of Courtenay. Under his reign the 
 military and religious order of the Templars was instituted for the 
 defence of the Holy Land. The order of St. John of Jerusalem had 
 been instituted many years before for pious and charitable purposes; 
 but it also now assumed a military character. ' Baldwin's reign, like 
 
 that of his predecessor, was one of almost constant warfare against the 
 Turks, Arabs, and Egyptian Saracens. In 1123 he went to the relief 
 of Edessa, which was attacked by the Turks, who had taken Jocelyn 
 of Courtenay prisoner. Baldwin was surprised by the Turks, and 
 taken also. Jocelyn however found means to escape, defeated the 
 Turks, and obtained Baldwin's release on his paying a ransom. Bald- 
 win abdicated the crown in favour of his son-in law, Foulques of 
 Anjou, in 1131, and retired to the monastery of the Holy Sepulchre, 
 where he soon after died. 
 
 BALDWIN III., the son of Foulques of Anjou, was born in 1130, 
 and succeeded his father in 1142. Under his reign the Christians lost 
 Edessa, which was taken by storm in 1145 by Zenghi, Turkish prince 
 of Aleppo, and father of the famous Noureddin. Baldwin had to 
 struggle during the greater part of his reign with the power and 
 abilities of Noureddin, of whom ho was sometimes the enemy aud 
 sometimes the ally against the Fatimite sultans of Egypt, who were 
 perpetually at war with the Abbaside kalifs of Baghdad, to whom 
 Noureddin bore allegiance. [Noureddin.] Louis VII. of France, 
 and Conrad III., emperor of Germany, undertook the second crusade 
 in 1147, at the exhortation of St. Bernard, for the purpose of sup- 
 porting their Christian brethren of Palestine. In this expedition they 
 lost the greater part of their men in their march through Asia Minor ; 
 aud having reached Palestine with the remainder, they joined Bald- 
 win's forces in an attempt upon Damascus, in which they failed. 
 Conrad and Louis then returned to Europe. Baldwin married 
 Theodora, the niece of Manuel Comnenus, emperor of Constanti- 
 nople. He died February 23, 1162, with suspicious symptoms, after 
 having taken some medicine from a Jewish physician at Antioch. He 
 was succeeded by his brother Amaury, or Amalric. 
 
 BALDWIN IV., son of Amaury, was born in 1160, and succeeded 
 his father in 1174. He was afflicted with leprosy and nearly blind, 
 yet in this distressed state he had to encounter the might of Salaeddin, 
 who had succeeded Noureddin, and had extended his power over both 
 Egypt and Syria. Baldwin however, after suffering several defeats, 
 obtained a truce from Salaeddin. He died in 1186, leaving for his 
 successor his nephew Baldwin, then a child, the son of his sister 
 Sybilla and of her first husband, the Marquis of Montferrat. This 
 Baldwin, who has been styled Baldwin V., died seven months after his 
 uncle, aud, it was suspected, by poison administered by Guy de Lusig- 
 nan, Sybilla's second husband, who next became king. Soon after 
 Guy's assumption the Christians lost Jerusalem, which was taken by 
 Salaeddin in 1187. 
 
 BALDWIN, Archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of Henry II. 
 and Richard I. This prelate was born of obscure parents at Exeter, 
 where he received a liberal education, and in his younger years taught 
 school. Having entered into holy orders, he was made archdeacon of 
 Exeter, but soon resigned this dignity, and became a monk in the 
 Cistercian abbey of Ford, in Devonshire, of which in a few years he 
 was elected abbot. In 1180, he was promoted to the bishopric of 
 Worcester; and in 1184 Henry II. translated him to the see of Canter- 
 bury. Baldwin had not been long settled in the see when he began 
 to build a church and monastery at Heckington, near Canterbury, in 
 honour of St. Thomas k Becket, intending it for the reception of 
 secular priests ; but the opposition of the monks of his cathedral, 
 supported by the authority of successive popes, caused him ultimately 
 to desist, and even to destroy the buildings which he had erected. 
 Urban III. afterwards made Baldwin his legate for the diocese of 
 Canterbury. On September 3, 1189, Baldwin performed the ceremony 
 of crowning Richard I. at Westminster ; and in the same year, when 
 that king's natural brother, Geoffrey, was translated from the see of 
 Lincoln to York, he successfully asserted the pre-eminence of the see 
 of Canterbury, forbidding the bishops of England to receive consecra- 
 tion from any other than the archbishop of Canterbury. In 1190 he 
 made a progress into Wales, to preach the crusade; and in the same 
 year, having held a council at Westminster, he followed king Richard I. 
 to the Holy Land. He embarked at Dover, March 25, 1191, abandon- 
 ing the important duties of his station, and, after suffering many 
 hardships on his voyage, arrived at Acre during the siege, where he 
 died, November 20, in the same year, and where his body was interred. 
 
 Giraldus de Barri, or Cambrensis, who accompanied Archbishop 
 Baldwin not only in his progress through Wales, but to the Holy Land, 
 tells us he was of a dark complexion, an open and pleasant aspect, a 
 middling stature, and a spare but healthful constitution of body; 
 modest and sober, of great abstinence, of few words, and not easily 
 provoked to anger. The only fault he charges him with is a remissness 
 in the execution of his pastoral office, arising from an innate lenity 
 of temper. Bishop Tanner has given a list of a great many treatises 
 by Archbishop Baldwin, which remain in manuscript, and has noticed 
 the different libraries in which they are deposited. The most important 
 were collected by Bertrand Tissier, and published, in 1662, in the 
 fifth volume of the ' Sciiptores Biblioth. Cisterciensis.' 
 
 (Biogr. Brit, edit. 1778, p. 530; Mat. Par., edit. 1640, pp. 141, 143, 
 154, 157, 161 ; Henry, Hist. Brit., 8vo, edit. 1805, vol. v. pp. 408, 
 423 ; Pits, De Illustr. Angl. Script., an. 1193 ; Wharton, Anglia Sacra; 
 Gervas, Act. Pontif.) 
 
 BALE, JOHN, in Latin BALiEUS, Bishop of Ossory in Ireland, was 
 born at Cove, a small village in Suffolk, about five miles from Dunwich, 
 November 21st, 1495. When he was twelve years of age he was placed 
 
501 
 
 BALE, JOHN. 
 
 BALEN. HENDRIK VAN. 
 
 602 
 
 in the monastery of Carmelites at Norwich, whence he was afterwards 
 gent to Cambridge, and entered of Jesiw College. In 1529 he is 
 mentioned as prior of the Carmelites of Ipswich. (Strype, ' Annals,' 
 Append., No. 25.) His education, of course, was in the Romish 
 religion; but sometime subsequent to 1529, at the instigation of the 
 Lord Wentworth, he turned Protestant, and gave proof of having 
 renounced one, at least, of the rules of the Catholic religion (the 
 celibacy of the clergy) by immediately marrying. This, as may be 
 conjectured, exposed him to the persecution of the Romish clergy, 
 against whom however he was protected by the Lord Cromwell. An 
 original letter from Bale to Lord Cromwell occurs in the Cottonian 
 volume (' Cleop.,' E. iv. 134), complaining of poverty, persecution, and 
 imprisonment, and asking favour and deliverance, in which he styles 
 himself doctor of divinity and " late parysh prest of Thornden in 
 Suffolk." After Cromwell's death, Bale retired to the Low Countries, 
 where he remained eight years, busying himself chiefly with his pen. 
 He was then recalled into England by king Edward VI., and obtained 
 \he living of Bishopstoke in Hampshire, and in 1552 the bishopric of 
 Ossory. Bale's zeal for the Protestant religion rendered him so 
 unpopular, that upon the arrival of the news of Edward VI. 's death, 
 his life was endangered : five of his servants were killed by the kernes, 
 who attacked hi3 house at Holmes Court, near Kilkenny; and he 
 himself was obliged to be escorted to Dublin by a hundred horse and 
 three hundred foot soldiers. Here also he found himself insecure, 
 and being assaulted in Dublin by the Roman Catholics, he at last made 
 his escape on board a trading vessel of Zealand in mariner's apparel. 
 After being captured and plundered by a Dutch man-of-war, and 
 running several risks, he got at last to Holland, where he was kept a 
 prisoner three weeks, and then obtained his liberty on the payment of 
 thirty pounds. From Holland he retired to Basle in Switzerland, and 
 continued abroad during the^hort reign of Queen Mary. On the acces- 
 sion of Queen Elizabeth he returned to England, but not to his bishopric 
 in Ireland ; preferring a private life, and contenting himself with a 
 prebend in the cathedral church of Canterbury, to which he was pro- 
 moted on the 1st of January, 1559-60. ('Rym. Feed.,' torn. xv. p. 563.) 
 He died in November, 1563, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, at 
 Canterbury, and was buried there in the cathedral. 
 
 Bishop Bale's fame now principally rests on his valuable collection 
 of British biography, first published under the title of ' Illustrium 
 Majoris Britannia Scriptorum, hoc est, Anglise, Cambrite, et Scotiae, 
 Summarium,' 4to, 1548. He has himself in this very work preserved 
 a long list of his other writing?, in Latin, which Fuller has translated 
 in his ' Abel Redivivus.' Bale divided them into, 1, those which he 
 had compiled while yet a papist ; 2, those which he wrote after he 
 had renounced popery ; 3, his comedies in English, in various kinds of 
 verse ; 4, his works in English in prose : adding that he had written 
 and translated many others which he could not bring to recollection. 
 The subjects only however of his writings are enumerated in this list, 
 and not their actual titles, so that it is impossible to ascertain distinctly 
 from it which among them are his printed works, and which were 
 those remaining in manuscript. 
 
 The following is the list of Bale's printed works, with their successive 
 editions, as far as they have been discovered. They are, most of them, 
 very rarely met with : — 
 
 1. 'A new Comedy or Interlude, concerning thre Lawes, of Nature, 
 Moises, and Chriate,' 8vo, Lond. 1538, 4to, Lond. 1562. 2. 'A brief 
 Comedy or Interlude, concernynge the Temptatyon of our Lord,' 8vo, 
 1538. 3. ' A Tragedie or Enterlude manifesting the chief Promises of 
 God unto Man,' 8vo, Lond. 1538, 4to, 1577. 4. ' Yet a Course at the 
 Romysh Foxe,' against Edmond Bonner, Bishop of London (under the 
 name of John Harrison), 16mo, Zurich, 1543. 5. 'A brefe Chronycle 
 concerning the Examination and Death of Sir John Oldecastell, Lord 
 Cobham,' 8vo, Lond. 1544 ; 12mo, Lond. W. Seres, n.d. 8vo, Loud. 
 1576 and 1729. 6. 'A Mystery of Iuiquyte contayned within the 
 Hereticall Genealogye of Ponce Pantolabus,' 16mo, Geneva, 1545. 7. 
 'The Actes of Englysh Votaryes,' 1st part, 8vo, Wesel, 1546, 8vo, 
 Lond. 1548 ; first two parts, 12mo, 1550, 1551, 1560. (No more parts 
 were published.) 8. 'The true Hystorie of the Christen Departyng 
 of the Reverend Man D. Martyn Luther,' translated from the Latin of 
 Ju-tus Jonas, Michael Celius, and Johannes Aurifaber, 8vo, Lond. 
 1546. 9. ' The first Examinacion of Anne Askewe, lately martyred 
 in Smithfield,' 8vo, Marpurg in He3se, 1546. 10. ' The lattre Exami- 
 nacion of Anne Askewe,' 8vo, Marp. 1547. 11. 'A brife and faythfull 
 Declaration of the true Fayth of Christ,' 16mo, Lond. 1547. 12. 'Illus- 
 trium Maioris Britannia Scriptorum, &c. Summarium, in quasdam 
 Centurias divisum,' 4to, Wesel, 1548 (at theend, ' Gippeuici in Anglia,' 
 1648), Five Centuries, fol. Bas. 1557 ; Nine Centuries, fol. Bas. 1559, 
 with a second part, carrying the work on to fourteen centuries. A 
 copy of the edition of 1548, corrected by Bale's own hand, is preserved 
 iu the library of the British Museum. 13. , The laboryouse Journey 
 and Serche of Johan Leylande forEnglande's Antiquities,' 16mo, Lond. 
 1549, reprinted in the 'Life of Leland,' 8vo, 1772. 14. 'A Dialogue 
 or Communycacyon to be had at a Table betwene two Chyldren, 
 gathered out of the Holy Scriptures by John Bale for his two yonge 
 Son nes, Johan and Paule,' 8vo, Lond. 1549. 15. ' The Confession of 
 the Synner after the Sacred Scriptures,'*8vo, Lond. 1549. 16. 'The 
 Apology of Johan Bale against a ranke Papyst,' 8vo, Lond. 1550. 17. 
 ' The Image of both Churches, 2 parts, 8vo, Lond. J. Daye ; 3 parts, 
 
 Svo, Lond. T. East (1550); 8vo, Lond. 1584. 18. 'An Expostulation 
 or Complaynte against the Blasphemyes of a frantic Papyst of Jlam- 
 shyre,' Svo, Loud. 1552; another edition, 1584. 19. 'The Vocacyou 
 of Johan Bale to the Bishoprick of Ossorie in Irelaude, his Persecu- 
 cions in the same, and finale Delyverauncc,' 12mo, Lond. 1553. 20. 
 ' A Declaration of Edmonde Bonner's Articles concerning the Cleargye 
 of London Dyocese,' 8vo, Lond. 1561. 21. 'Acta Romanorum Pouti- 
 ficum a dispersioue Discipulorum Christi usque *1 tempora Paull 
 quarti, ex Joannis Balsei Catalogo Anglicorum Scriptorum desumpta,' 
 8vo, Francof. 1567; 8vo, Leyd. 1615. 22. 'The Pageant of Popes,' 
 translated from the Latin of Bale, by I. S. (John Studley), 4to, Lond. 
 1574. Bale also himself translated Baptist Mantuan's ' Treatise on 
 Death,' 8vo, Lond. 1584. In 1548 he prefixed an epistle dedicatory to 
 the Princess Elizabeth's translation of the ' Meditations of Margaret, 
 Queen of Navarre,' published at London, 8vo, in that year. Wood 
 ('Athen. Oxon.,' edit. Bliss, vol. iii., col. 435) says Bale translated 
 Polydore Virgil's work ' De Rerum Inventoribus ' in the time of 
 Edward VI., but in old and rude English. He does not say whether 
 this translation was published. 
 
 Fox tells us ('Acts and Monuments,' 1st edit., p. 574) that Bale wrote 
 several books under the name of Harrison. Bale's father's name was 
 Henry Bale, and on that account perhaps Bale assumed the name of 
 Harrison. His 'Collectanea' (in his own handwriting) 'de Religione 
 Carmelitana, et Scriptoribus ejusdem,' 4to, is still preserved among the 
 Harleian Manuscripts in the British Museum, No. 1819. 
 
 No character has been more variously represented than Bale's. 
 Gesner, in his ' Bibliotheca,' calls him a writer of the greatest diligence, 
 and Bishop Godwin gives him the character of a laborious inquirer 
 into British antiquities. Similar praise is also bestowed upon him by 
 Vogler. (' Introd. Universal, in Notit. Scriptor.') Anthony a Wood 
 however styles him ' the foul-mouthed Bale.' Hearne (' Pref. to 
 Hemingf.') calls him ' Baleus in multis mendax.' And even Fuller 
 ('Worthies,' last edit, vol ii., p. 332) says "Biliosus Balseus passeth for 
 his true character." He inveighed with so much asperity against the 
 Pope and papists that his writings were prohibited by the Church of 
 Rome among those of the first class of heretical books; and his intem- 
 perate zeal, it must be acknowledged, often carried him beyond the 
 bounds of decency and candour. Fuller, in his ' Church History,' 
 cent. ix. p. 68, pleads for Bale's railing against the papists. " Old age 
 and ill usage," he says, " will make any man angry. When young, he 
 had seen their superstition ; when old, he felt their oppression. The 
 best is, Bale rails not more on Papists than Pits (employed on the same 
 subject) on Protestant writers ; and even set one against the other, 
 whilst the discreet reader of both, paring of the extravagances of 
 passion on each side, may benefit himself in quietness from their loud 
 and clamorous invectives." The greatest fault of Bale's book on the 
 British writers is its multiplication of their works by frequently giving 
 the heads of chapters or sections of a book as the titles of distinct 
 treatises. He has likewise put many persons down as authors who 
 had no claim to such distinction. 
 
 (Biogr. Brit, edit. 1778, vol. i. p. 532; Fuller, Aid Redivivus, p. 502- 
 511; Tanner, Bill. Brit. Hib., p. 68; Cole's Manuscript A thence Can- 
 tabr., lett. B; Granger, Biogr. Hist., vol. i. p. 139; Strype, Memorials 
 of Cranmer, pp. 206, 360 ; Chalmers, Biog. Diet.) 
 
 BALECHOU, JEAN JACQUES, a very celebrated French engraver, 
 born at Aries in 1715. After having practised some time in the estab- 
 lishment of a seal-engraver at Avignon he went to Paris, and placed 
 himself under the guidance of Bernard L'Epicid. Soon after com- 
 mencing to engrave on his own account he acquired great celebrity, 
 and his works are still eagerly sought after by collectors : his chief 
 merit however consists in his mastery of the graver. In the repre- 
 sentation of the natural appearances of objects, or in the imitation of 
 textures, he has been surpassed by many artists. 
 
 Balechou engraved both portraits and landscapes. Among the latter 
 are three from Joseph Veruet, of which the Storm and Calm are very 
 celebrated prints, and they deserve their celebrity. Of his portraits, 
 Balechou's masterpiece is the large upright print of Augustus III., 
 king of Poland, after the picture by Rigaud. It forms the frontispiece 
 to the ' Recueil d'Estampes apres Its plus celebres Tableaux de la 
 Galere de Dresde.' It was however the cause of Balechou's disgrace 
 at Paris, for he retained some of the impressions, and even damaged the 
 plate before he sent it to the king, at whose expense it was engraved. 
 His right of election to be a member of the French Academy of Paint- 
 ing, of which he was agre^, equivalent to our degree of associate, was 
 forfeited in consequence, and he retired to Avignon, where he died 
 August 18, 1765. 
 
 (Heineken, Diclionnaire des Artistes, &c. ; Watelet et Levesque, 
 Diclionnaire des Arts, &c; Huber, Manuel des Amateurs, &c. ; Strutt, 
 Dictionary of Engravers.) 
 
 BA'LEN, HENDRIK VAN, a distingui>hed Flemish historical 
 painter, and the first master of Vandyck and Suyders, was born at 
 Antwerp in 1560. He went early to Rome to study his profession, 
 having acquired the rudiments from Adam van Oort. fie was an 
 excellent colourist, a good draughtsman, and painted with great facility. 
 Of his paintings, which are numerous, one of the best is the St. John 
 in the Wilderness, an altar-piece in one of the chapels of the cathedral 
 of Antwerp : the background is by Velvet Breughel, who painted the 
 landscape backgrounds of many of Van Balen's pictures. He died in 
 
603 
 
 BALESTRA, ANTONIO. 
 
 BALFOUR, SIR JAMES. 
 
 604 
 
 1G32, and was buried in the church of St. Jacques at Antwerp. Van- 
 dyck painted his portrait, and it has been engraved by Paul Pontius. 
 The painter, Jan Van Baton, was the son of Hendrik. (Van Mander, 
 Levcn der Skildcrs ; Descamps, La Vie des Peintres Flamands, &c. ; 
 Heineken, Dictionrutire des Artistes, &c.) 
 
 BALESTRA, ANTO'NIO, a distinguished painter of Verona, where 
 he was born in 1666. He was brought up as a merchant, but before 
 his 21st year he had commenced to study as a painter under Bellucci 
 at Venice, with whom he remained three years, chiefly engaged in 
 making himself acquainted with the characteristics and methods of 
 practice of the great Venetian masters. He afterwards studied under 
 Carlo Maratta at Rome, and he eventually painted much more in the 
 style of the Roman than of the Venetian painters ; he aimed in fact 
 to combine the subdued splendour of Venetian colour with the 
 correctness and solidity of design of the Roman school. Balestra 
 was one of the most able painters of his time, and instructed at 
 Venice a numwrous school, in which were educated several very dis- 
 tinguished painters, as Giambattista Mariotti, Giuseppe Nogari, and 
 Pietro Longhi. Among his chief works are the Descent from the 
 Cross, at Venice ; an altar-piece in the cathedral of Verona ; a Virgin, 
 at Mantua; and a St. Theresa at Bergamo. He died at Verona, on 
 the 21st of April, 1740. Jkineken mentions many prints after the 
 works of Bala<stra. He engraved also a few plates himself, impres- 
 sions from which are now very scarce and valuable. (Zanetti, Delia 
 Pittura Vcneziana ; Lanzi, Storia Piitorica, &c. ; Heineken, Ifiction- 
 naive des Artistes, &c.) 
 
 BALFOUR, JAMES, of Pilrig, in Edinburghshire, was admitted an 
 advocate of the Scottish bar on the 14th of November 1730 ; and 
 was afterwards appointed sheriff substitute of the county of Edin- 
 burgh. Having occupied himself much with philosophical science, he 
 early became an opponent of the celebrated David Hume, whose 
 speculations he attacked in two anonymous treatises, the one entitled 
 a ' Delineation of Morality,' the other, ' Philosophical Dissertations ; ' 
 but his opposition was conducted with so much candour and good 
 feeling, that Hume wrote to him to express his feelings of esteem and 
 request his friendship. In 1754 Balfour resigned his judicial office, 
 having in August of that year been appointed to the chair of moral 
 philosophy, at Edinburgh. This he resigned, in May 1764, for the 
 chair of public law ; and soon afterwards he published what appear 
 to have been his lectures while in his former situation, under the title 
 of ' Philosophical Essays.' In the spring of 1779 he resigned the chair 
 of public law, and retired to Pilrig, where he died, 6th of March 
 1795, at the age of ninety-two, having spent (says the author of the ' Life 
 of Karnes,' who must have known him well) a long life in the practice 
 of those virtues which it was the object of his writings to inculcate. 
 
 BALFOUR, SIR JAMES, of Pittendreich, Lord President of the 
 Court of Session in Scotland, and the reputed author of Balfour's 
 ' Practicks of the Law,' was son of Sir Michael Balfour, of Pitten- 
 dreich and Montquhany, county Fife, and in his early years received 
 a liberal education for the church, in the course of which he distin- 
 guished himself particularly in the study of the canon and civil laws. 
 The clerical profession in Scotland had long engrossed some of the 
 first offices of the state, and, by the establishment of the Court of 
 Session, had brought to a favourable termination an arduous contest 
 with the lord justiciar for the supreme place of judicature. At the 
 commencement of the Reformation in Scotland, Balfour attached him- 
 self with great zeal to the partisans of the reformed doctrines, and 
 even joined the conspiracy led by Norman, eldest son of the Earl of 
 Rothes, against the Cardinal Beatoun. Being taken in the castle of 
 St. Andrews when that fortress surrendered to the French auxiliaries 
 in the end of the summer of 1547, he was put into the same galley 
 with Kncx, and carried prisoner to France. The cause of Scottish 
 Protestantism seemed now at an end, and the partisans of Rome were 
 filled with exultation, but their rejoicing was premature ; the evils 
 inflicted on the reformers proved only as the process of the winnowing 
 floor, which separates the chaff from the wheat. Accordingly, on the 
 peace of 1549, Knox, Balnavis, and others, returned to Scotland with 
 new ardour in the cause of the reformation. Balfour also returned, 
 but now that the old faith was in the ascendancy he professed him- 
 self a Roman Catholic, and even denied that he had been of the 
 Protestant party ; though, as Knox says, his own conscience and a 
 thousand witnesses could testify the fact. He was immediately 
 appointed official of St. Andrews within the archdeaconry of Lothian, 
 and in this situation, witli the zeal of a suspected confederate, he pro- 
 ceeded ex-officio against the poor old priest Walter Mylne for heresy, 
 because he had given up saying mass, and had him condemned to the 
 flames and burnt. 
 
 On the breaking out of the civil war between the congregation and 
 the queen-regent in 1559, Balfour took the part of the latter; yet it 
 appears he knew also all the transactions of the former. He escaped 
 the search of the reformers in Fife in February 1560; and was about 
 the same time appointed parson of Flisk in that shire. Soon after 
 the arrival of the young queen in 1561 he was appointed an extraor- 
 dinary lord of session, and on the 5th of November 1563 advanced 
 to the place of an ordinai-y lord in the same court. On the institution 
 of the Commissaries' Court of Edinburgh, in the room of the court 
 of the official of Lothian, he was constituted its chief judge ; and on 
 ti c -5th of July 1565 he was sworn of the queen's privy council. To 
 
 these various employments of privy councillor, judge, and priest, lis 
 seems to have added practice at the bar, for in January 1566 wo find 
 him in the court of justiciary as ' assister' of the crown in the criminal 
 prosecution against old Andrew Ballingall of Drumbarro, for wilful 
 absence from the ' raid ' of Stirling. (Pitcairn, ' Crim. Trials.') He 
 was with the queen at Holyrood on the night of Rizzio's assassination ; 
 and he shortly after had new honours conferred upon him, the queen 
 creating him a knight, and appointing him lord clerk register, in the 
 room of Mr. M 'Gill, who was one of the conspirators, and had fled. 
 In the same year Balfour was employed with Lesly, bishop of Ross, 
 in preparing, in obedience to a royal commission, a volume containing, 
 for popular information, the acta of parliament passed from 1424 to 
 1564. 
 
 With the quickness of perception characteristic of a thorough 
 courtier, Balfour attached himself to Bothwell, whose increasing 
 influence in the royal closet he was one of the first to observe. He 
 joined in the conspiracy against the youthful Darnley, who, with some- 
 thing like a presentiment of his fate, now urged the queen to accuse 
 Balfour of being accessary to the murder of Rizzio, and to dismiss 
 him from her councils. Balfour framed the bond for mutual support 
 eiitered into by the conspirators, and prepared the house in the kirk 
 of Field for the execution of the deed, but was not actually present 
 on the occasion. He was however distinctly charged as an accom- 
 plice in the crime, both in the Earl of Lennox's despatch and in a 
 popular placard put up in answer to the government offer of a reward 
 for a discovery of the perpetrators. Bothwell was brought to an 
 early trial, which no entreaty of Lord Lennox, his prosecutor, could 
 stay ; but as the evidence was not ready, his guilt was not established, 
 and he was acquitted. 
 
 On the 22nd of April 1567, the queen, under the influence of Both- 
 well, appointed Balfour captain of Edinburgh Castle, in the room of 
 Sir William Cockburn of Skirling, to whom she had given it in charge 
 only on the 8th of March preceding. Both the queen and Bothwell 
 however lived to repent of their confidence, and on their fortunes 
 falling sought to displace Balfour, who now disowned his lieutenancy, 
 and holding the fortress as " full master thereof," began to treat with 
 the associate lords for its surrender to them. On the defeat of Car- 
 berry, Eothwell dispatched a special messenger to the castle for 
 Mary's letters. These Balfour delivered; but, as Bothwell's influence 
 was now entirely gone, he first sent notice to the associate lords, who 
 watched the messenger's return, attacked him, and carried off the 
 famous casket with its contents, to which they ever after appealed in 
 proof of Mary's guilt, and in justification of their conduct towards 
 her. Balfour afterwards gave up the castle to the regent Murray on 
 the following extraordinary conditions : — 1st, a pardon for art and 
 part in Darnley 's murder ; 2nd, a gift of the priory of Pittenweem ; 
 3rd, an annuity to his eldest son out of the priory of St. Andrews; 
 4th, a large sum (Spottiswoode calls it 5000i.) in present hand ; and 
 5tb, delivery of the castle into the hands of Kirkcaldy of Grange, an 
 adherent of the queen's. Murray, on attaining the regency, became 
 an open supporter of the Reformation ; and in his first parliament 
 we find a commission issued, in which Balfour (now prior of Pitten- 
 weem) is named, to ascertain the jurisdiction of the church of Scotland. 
 Among other preferments which Balfour managed to obtain was that 
 of Lord President of the Court of Session, to create a vacancy in 
 which, Bailie of Provand was summarily displaced after two years' 
 occupancy, on the alleged ground of his not being a prelate, agreeably 
 to the institution of the court. In the exciting personal and political 
 questions of that day, no matter what party had, or appeared likely 
 to have, the preponderance for the time, Balfour was pretty sure to 
 have a prominent place in its ranks. Thus, in May 1568, we find 
 him with the regent in the vanguard at the battle of Langside, and in 
 the end of the same year he was agitating in the regent's absence for 
 the restoration of Queen Mary. In the opening of the year 1570 took 
 place the murder of ' the good regent' by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, 
 an event which appears to have inspired Mary's adherents with great 
 hopes. Of those Balfour was now one ; and on the 30th of August 
 1571, he and some others of that side were attainted in a parliament 
 held by the king's men. In September 1571 Mary was made regent; 
 but the aspect of affairs soon changed : an alliance was formed between 
 France and the Queen of England, who also at length openly declared 
 for the king's party, and lent her powerful aid to place Morton in the 
 regency. Morton, on his becoming regent, endeavoured to effect a 
 settlement with the queen's party ; but all his overtures were rejected 
 by Maitland and Kirkcaldy. Balfour however readily acceded to the 
 triumphant Morton, whom he also endeavoured to conciliate by acts 
 of shameless treachery. He was mainly instrumental in bringing about 
 the concord called the Pacification of Perth, in February 1572, whereby 
 his late coadjutors were again placed at the mercy of the regent; and 
 he revealed to Morton that Kirkcaldy's brother was about to land at 
 Blackness with a supply of money from France. In July 1572 Morton 
 brought his victims to trial for Darnley's murder, and had them sen- 
 tenced to the scaffold. Balfour however not only escaped a trial, but 
 the following year had his forfeiture annulled and himself restored 
 by act of parliament; and in 1574 the regent committed to him and 
 Skene a design for a general digest of the laws. What progress was 
 | made in this matter, and whether Balfour's ' Practicks ' was the result, 
 does not certainly appear. Balfour soon after repaired to France, dis- 
 
BALGUT, JOHN. 
 
 BALIOL, JOHN. 
 
 503 
 
 trusting his safety in Scotland. When the young king assumed the 
 reins of government, Balfour returned to his native country, and joined 
 the party who watched for the destruction of the yet formidable 
 Morton. The same year he was one of the arbiters chosen by the 
 earls of Argyll and Athol in the attempt then made to effect a recon- 
 ciliation. On the 5th of February 1573, we find him at the bar, as 
 one of the advocates, or 'prolocutors,' for the prosecution in the 
 criminal trial of one Thomas Turnbull for murder. The following 
 year Morton recovered his authority, and Balfour again fled from 
 before him. An act was thereupon passed in parliament, renewing 
 the forfeiture which had been pronounced in 1571, a proceeding against 
 which Balfour afterwards protested on the ground of his restoration 
 in 1573; and his plea, though not immediately, was ultimately suc- 
 cessful. The death of Morton, whose enemies daily increased both in 
 number and power, was now to be accomplished; and as Balfour had 
 taken care to preserve the bond by that nobleman and others in sup- 
 port of Bothwell in the murder of Darnley, a plan was speedily 
 devised : Morton was accused of treason, tried, convicted, and beheaded. 
 
 This was Balfour's last public act, and it too clearly shows that age 
 had in no degree dulled his capacity for intrigue or his thirst for 
 revenge. He died soon after, in the year 1583. After his death, he 
 was restored, against the forfeiture of 1579, by act of parliament; 
 but acts of parliament can wipe off those taints only which human 
 laws have created : they cannot remove the stains of profligacy, nor 
 wash away infamy from the memory of the corrupt. 
 
 (Knox, Hist, of the Reformation ; Keith, Hist, of the Reformation ; 
 Goodal, Preface to Balfour 's Practices ; Tytler, Life of Craig; His- 
 torical Account of the Senators of the College of Justice.) 
 
 BALGUY, JOHN, an eminent divine of the Church of England, 
 was born August 12th, 1686, at Sheffield; and was educated in the 
 grammar school of that place, partly under his father and partly under 
 the instruction of a Mr. Daubuz, who had succeeded his father as master 
 there. He became a member of St. John's college, Cambridge, in 1702, 
 and in 1706 was admitted to the degree of B.A. ; after which he ceased 
 to reside in the university, and for awhile taught in the grammar 
 school at which be was brought up. For some time he was private 
 tutor to Joseph Banks, Esq., grandfather to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., 
 President of the Royal Society. Mr. Balguy took orders in 1710; in 
 1711 he became private tutor in the family of Sir Henry Liddell, of 
 Ravensworth Castle, Durham, who afterwards bestowed upon him the 
 donative of Lamesly and Tanfield in that county ; and he married 
 in 1715. 
 
 Mr. Balguy's publications were chiefly controversial. Several of the 
 earliest of them were directed against Mr. Stebbing and Bishop Slier- 
 lock, and in defence of Bishop Hoadly, in the Bangorian controversy; 
 others were written in reply to deistical works. In 1726 he took the 
 degree of M.A.. and in the same year published ' A Letter to a Deist 
 concerning the Beauty and Excellence of Moral Virtue, and the Sup- 
 port and Improvement which it receives from the Christian Revelation.' 
 In 1728 Mr. Balguy was collated by Bishop Hoadly to a prebend in 
 the church of Salisbury. In 1727 or 1728 he preached an assize ser- 
 mon on the subject of ' Party Spirit,' which was printed by order of 
 the judges ; and in the latter year published a tract entitled ' The 
 Foundation of Moral Goodness,' in answer to Mr. Hutcheson's ' Inquiry 
 into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue;' of this tract he 
 published a 'Second Part* in 1729. In 1729 he became vicar of 
 Northallerton in Yorkshire, in which preferment he coutinued to his 
 death. In 1729 he also published 'The Second Part of the Founda- 
 tion of Moral Goodness,' illustrating and enforcing the principles 
 contained in the former part, which had been answered in some 
 remarks written by Lord Darcy. His next publication was ' Divine 
 Rectitude ; or a Brief Inquiry concerning the Moral Perfections of the 
 Deity, particularly in respect to Creation and Providence.' It was 
 followed by ' A Second Letter to a Deist concerning a late Book, 
 entitled " Christianity as. old as the Creation," more particularly that 
 Chapter which relates to Dr. Clarke.' To this succeeded ' The Law of 
 Truth, or the Obligations of Reason essential to all Religion ; to which 
 are prefixed some Remarks supplemental to a late Tract entitled 
 " Divine Rectitude." ' 
 
 Mr. Balguy collected his various treatises (except his assize sermon, 
 and the tracts on the Bangorian controversy), and published them in 
 one volume 8vo, London, 1734, with a dedication to Bishop Hoadly. 
 In 1741 appeared his ' Essay on Redemption,' in which he explains 
 the doctrine of atonement in a manner similar to that of Dr. Taylor 
 of Norwich ; but Hoadly was of opinion that he had not succeeded. 
 This and his volume of sermons, including six which had been 
 published before, were the last pieces committed by him to the press. 
 A posthumous volume was afterwards printed, which contained 
 almost the whole of the sermons he left behind him. While in pos- 
 session of the donative of Lamesly and Tanfield, for the first four 
 years he never intermitted one week without composing a sermon ; 
 but fearing that his son, who was afterwards in orders also, might not 
 follow his example, he destroyed almost his whole stock, and com- 
 mitted at one time two hundred and fifty sermons to the flames. 
 The third edition of Mr. Balguy's 'S-.rmons' (twenty in number) was 
 published in 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1790. He died at Harrogate, Sep- 
 tember 21st, 1748. 
 
 (Life, communicated by his son to the Biographia Britannica.) 
 
 BALGUY, THOMAS, D.D., only son of the Rev. John Balguy, was 
 born at Lamesly, in the bishopric of Durham, September 27tb, 1716, 
 and was educated at the free school of Ripon in Yorkshire. In 1734 
 he was admitted at St. John's College, Cambridge ; took the degree of 
 BA, 1738 ; M.A., 1741; D.D., 1758. In March 1740 he had been 
 elected Fellow of his college, upon Mr. Piatt's foundation, which he 
 vacated in 1748, upon being presented by his father (as prebend of 
 Salisbury) to the living of Stoke, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. He 
 was also for a time joint tutor of St. John's College. By the interest 
 of Bishop Hoadly he obtained a prebend in the cathedral of Win- 
 chester in 1757; became archdeacon of Salisbury in 1759; and 
 afterwards archdeacon of Winchester. In 1769 he published a sermon 
 preached at Lambeth at the consecration of Jonathan Shipley, D.D., 
 bishop of Llandaff, which was attacked by Dr. Priestley. In 1771 he 
 was presented by the dean and chapter of Winchester to the vicarage 
 of Alton in Hampshire, upon which he resigned the living of Stoke. 
 In 1772 he published 'A Defence of Subscription to Ai tides in Religion,' 
 in a charge delivered to the clergy of his archdeaconry. His sermon 
 at the consecration of Bishops Hurd and Moore, also published in 1775, 
 produced some 'Remarks by One of the Petitioning Clergy.' Iu 1775 
 he edited the sermons of Dr. Powell, master of Jesus College, Cam- 
 bridge, with a life of that divine prefixed. In 1781 the declining 
 state of his health, and particularly the decay of his sight, which ended 
 at last iu total blindness, prevented his acceptance of the bishopric of 
 Gloucester, to which his Majesty, without any solicitation, had nomi- 
 nated him upon the death of Bishop Warburton. In 1782 he published 
 ' Divine Benevolence asserted and vindicated from the Reflections of 
 Ancient and Modern Sceptics,' 8vo. In 1785 he republished his father's 
 ' Es-ay on Redemption,' with a preface, seemingly intended to bring 
 his father's sentiments nearer to the orthodox belief. A collection of 
 his sermons and charges appeared the same year, under the title of 
 ' Discourses on Various Subject-*,' 8vo. These were again printed iu 
 1822 at Cambridge, with additions, in two volumes, edited by the 
 Rev. James Drake. Dr. Balguy died January 19th, 1795, in his 
 seventy-ninth year, at his prebeudal house at Winchester, and was 
 buried in that cathedral. In 1831 a small portion of a couise of 
 lectures on the feudal laws and the English constitution, which Dr. 
 Balguy had composed while resident at Cambridge as tutor of his 
 college, was published under the title of — 1, ' Connected View of the 
 several Steps by which the Parliament of England obtained its present 
 Form ; 2, The Maxim that Power follows Property applied to the 
 History of the English Constitution.' 8vo. (Nichols, Life of B.wyer ; 
 Chalmers, Biog. Diet. ; Memoir of Dr. Balguy, prefixed by Mr. Drake 
 to his edition of the Discourses, 8vo, 1822.) 
 
 BALIOL, or BALLIOL, JOHN, the successful competitor with 
 Bruce for the crown of Scotland, was descended from an ancient 
 Anglo-Norman family that held large possessions in England, Nor- 
 mandy, and Scotland. He was the only son of John Baliol, lord of 
 Galloway, and was born about the year 1259. In 1290 he first becomes 
 an object of historical notice, as one of the claimants to the theu vacant 
 Scottish throne ; claiming in right of his grandmother, the eldest 
 co-heiress of the only son of David I., king of Scotland, that bad issue 
 living. 
 
 The recently-deceased king of Scotland, Alexander III., was married 
 to the daughter of Henry III. (father of Edward I.), then kiug of 
 England. In 1281 Alexander gave his only daughter Margaret iu 
 marriage to Eric, the youthful sovereign of Norway ; and, by the 16th 
 article of the treaty of marriage, it was stipulated that the issue 
 should succeed to the throne of Scotland in the event of failure in tho 
 male line. This failure shortly after took place by the death in 1284 
 of Alexander's only surviving son without issue ; by which circum- 
 stance the only child of Eric and the Scottish princess, a daughter 
 also called Margaret, and known in Scottish history and ancient 
 ballads by the appellation of the ' Maid of Norway,' became heir- 
 presumptive to the throne of Scotland. By the death of Alexander 
 himself in 1286 the Maid of Norway became rightful queen of Scot- 
 laud. She was at this time but three years old, and a council of 
 regency was appointed to execute the duties of the sovereign. 
 
 Edward I. of England, who had long regarded Scotland with the 
 eyes of a feudal superior, availed himself of the opportunity to assert 
 his claim. He was the nearest male relative on the mother's side of 
 the infant princess, who was his grand-niece ; and Eric, naturally 
 anxious for the interest of his daughter, solicited in her favour the 
 protection of the king of England. Ldward conceived that his long- 
 cherished design of uniting Scotland to the English throne might now 
 be realised by marrying the royal heiress to his eldest sou, the Prince 
 of Wales. But the scheme when on the point of being carried out, as 
 far as the age of the children permitted, by the concurrence of the 
 father of the princess, the vote of the Scottish parliament, and the 
 sanction of the pope, was suddenly overthrown by the untimely death 
 of the young queen in 1290, which opened a new scene of strife and 
 calamity to Scotland. By this event the posterity of the three last 
 kings of Scotland bec.ime extinct, and the throne became the pos- 
 session of the next iu kin or law. Thirteen candidates presented 
 themselves, each asseitiug the claims of birth and consanguinity ; but 
 the pretensions of the majority were so utterly groundless, that the 
 contest was soon reduced to two competitors— John Baliol, lord of 
 Galloway, and Robert Bruce, lord of Anuandale. The claims, relative 
 
607 
 
 BALIOL, JOHN. 
 
 BALIOL, EDWARD. 
 
 and direct, of these two noblemen will be seen in the following 
 table : — 
 
 David I., King. 
 I 
 
 Henry, prince of Scotland. 
 
 Malcolm IV., King, 
 eldest brother 
 (no issue). 
 
 I 
 
 William, King, 
 2nd brother. 
 I 
 
 Alexander II., King. 
 I 
 
 Alexander III., King. 
 I 
 
 Margaret, married l-.ric, 
 king of Norway. 
 I 
 
 Margaret, the Maid of 
 Norway (no issue). 
 
 I 
 
 David, Earl of Hun- 
 tingdon, 3rd brother, 
 who had three 
 daughters : 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1. Margaret, married Alan 
 of Galloway. 
 
 2. Isabella, married Robert 8. Ada. 
 Bruce. 
 I 
 
 Dervoigeld, or Dcrvorgille, married Robert Bruce. 
 
 John Baliol. 
 
 John Baliol. ^ 
 
 This table shows that Baliol was the grandson of the eldest daughter ; 
 Bruce the son of the second daughter : the point at issue therefore 
 was, whether the crown belonged of right to the representative of the 
 eldest daughter, though more remote by one degree, or to the repre- 
 sentative of the second, who was nearer by one degree — that is, in 
 fact, whether the crown descended in the order of birth, according 
 to the modern system of primogeniture, or was hereditary in the 
 order of proximity of blood. At the present day the question would 
 not admit of any dispute ; but in the 13th century the principles of 
 succession had not been definitely settled, and the claims appeared to 
 be so equally balanced that a decision in favour of Bruce would by no 
 means warrant the imputation of deliberate injustice. The estates of 
 Scotland were either afraid or unwilling to decide between the com- 
 petitors, and, alarmed at the prospect of civil war, they determined to 
 refer the decision of the controversy to the king of England. This 
 reference was extremely acceptable to Edward, as it gave him a position 
 in which his own views might be worked out, with strict regard to the 
 formalities if not the spirit of judicial procedure. Though there can 
 be no doubt that he employed his alleged feudal superiority as a 
 Tneans towards subjugating Scotland, he laboured to invest the pro- 
 ceedings with the garb of judicial deliberation and free agency. The 
 declaration which he compelled the estates of Scotland to subscribe 
 of their acts (by which his claim as lord paramount of his vassal 
 kingdom of Scotland was acknowledged without qualification) being 
 wholly uninfluenced by fear or force — a declaration which bears the 
 stamp of falsehood on the face of it — is a striking instance of his respect 
 for the external observance of justice. 
 
 After a tedious inquiry of nearly two years' duration, the delegates 
 to whom the English king referred the consideration, as a point of the 
 law of inheritance, of the claims of the several competitors to the 
 vacant throne, made their report unanimously in favour of the heir of 
 the eldest daughter — that is, in favour of primogeniture ; and accord- 
 ingly Edward gave judgment, not as arbiter, but as feudal superior, 
 that John Baliol, as the heir of the eldest daughter, should receive and 
 have seisin of the kingdom of Scotland and all its appurtenances. 
 This occurred on the 19th of November 1292. Next day Baliol swore 
 fealty to the kiDg of England as his feudal superior and sovereign lord 
 of the realm of Scotland. The new king was crowned at Scone on the 
 30th of November, and again went through the ceremony of vassalage 
 within less than a month after at Newcastle. It is but right to add 
 that the estates of Scotland and the other competitors, with Bruce 
 (the namesake and grandfather of the hero of Bannockburn) at their 
 head, had, in the first stage of the inquiry, fully acknowledged Edward's 
 claim as lord paramount; so that Baliol's oath of fealty after the 
 decision in his favour was only in keeping with the whole proceedings. 
 The claim of the kiDg of England's feudal superiority over Scotland 
 was of long standing, frequently acknowledged, and, though constantly 
 evaded, very seldom openly denied. 
 
 Baliol soon found that he had fallen into the hands of a master who 
 was determined to let his power be felt and his feudal superiority be 
 recognised by the Scottish people as well as their king. Suitors in the 
 courts of Baliol, who were dissatisfied with his judgment, were encou- 
 raged to appeal to the lord paramount, and found in Edward a willing 
 hearer. E\ en before Baliol had occupied the throne a single year, he 
 was served with no less than four citations to prove the legality of his 
 decisions in the courts of the lord paramount. Baliol was timid and 
 weak, but not mean in spirit. Being summoned to answer the com- 
 plaint of the Earl of Fife before the king of England, he attended, but 
 maintained that he was not bound to answer the appellant ; that it 
 was a matter which regarded the rights of the crown ; and that he 
 dared not answer without the advice of the good men of his realm. 
 
 He was reminded of his oath of fealty, but told that he might hav{ 
 time to consult his council. He replied that he would not ask fcf 
 either time or adjournment. Judgment for contempt and disobe- 
 dience to the authority of his feudal superior was formally given 
 against him by the English court, which he however continued to 
 ward off by requesting permission to consult his subjects. War ensued, 
 and he lost his kingdom before the judgment was acted upon. 
 
 In 1295 war broke out between France and England. The estates 
 of Scotland eagerly caught at so favourable an opportunity of assert- 
 ing the independence of their country, and prevailed upon Baliol to 
 conclude an alliance offensive and defensive with the French monarch. 
 The management of this was intrusted to a committee of nobles, the 
 nation having no confidence either in Baliol's patriotism or wisdom. 
 Edward made extensive preparations for chastising his rebellious 
 vassals. He first cited Baliol to appear before him at Newcastle. The 
 summons was unattended to, the Scottish barons detaining their king 
 in a kind of honourable captivity in the highlands. This was in March. 
 On tho 5th of April Baliol sent to the English monarch a formal 
 renunciation of homage in his own name and that of his barons. 
 Edward answered this by invading Scotland, when the Scotch were 
 everywhere defeated ; and Baliol after being compelled to perform the 
 most humiliating acts of feudal penance, had to Bign an instrument, 
 in which he acknowledged the right of Edward to enter into posses- 
 sion of his fee after the renunciation of homage, and transferred to 
 him the fealty which the Scottish barons and freeholders had sworn 
 to himself. This formal surrender of his kingdom of Scotland took 
 place on the 2nd of July 129G, just four years after his accession. 
 
 Edward's treatment of the deposed monarch was indulgent, and 
 showed that he regarded him as a mere puppet of royalty in the 
 hands of the lords of his council, who originated and conducted the 
 war. From Kincardine, where he signed the act of abdication, he 
 was transferred, with his son Edward Baliol, to the Tower of London, 
 where he resided for three years, with some state, and the liberty of a 
 circle of twenty miles. In accordance with his own wish he was in 
 1299 allowed to retire to his patrimonial estates in Normandy, on his 
 solemnly pledging himself never more to intermeddle in the affairs of 
 Scotland, and the pope becoming surety for the performance of 
 his promise. His death took place in 1314, just after the battle of 
 Bannockburn. 
 
 Baliol is usually held up to scorn by Scottish historians as a mean- 
 spirited prince, who purchased the empty honours of a throne at the 
 expense of his country and independence. But it required much 
 more firmness and ability than he possessed, and a much more favour- 
 able combination of circumstances than attended his elevation, to 
 defeat the ambitious designs of his powerful neighbour, and wield the 
 sceptre of Scotland in the unsettled times in which he lived. Tho 
 contemptuous epithet ' Toom Tabard,' ' Empty Jacket,' bears signifi- 
 cant testimony to the estimation in which he was held by hig 
 countrymen. 
 
 (Hemingford, Hist. ; Rymer, Fcedera ; Lord Hailes, Annals; Tytler 
 History of Scotland ; Lingard, History of England.) 
 
 BALIOL, or BALLIOL, EDWARD, shared his father's captivity 
 in the Tower, and accompanied him to his paternal residence in Nor- 
 mandy. With the exception of his visits to the English court in 1324 
 (when he was invited over by Edward III. with a view to intimidate 
 Robert Bruce), and in 1327, it would appear that he led a life of 
 retirement in Normandy till the year 1332, when we find him taking 
 an active part in the enterprise of the lords Wake, Beaumont, and 
 other ' querellours ' (as the disinherited lords were called), to take 
 forcible possession of their forfeited estates in Scotland. Many of the 
 Anglo-Norman barons possessed estates both in Scotland and England, 
 and during the war between the Bruce and the English kings, which 
 ended in favour of Bruce, their estates were seized by both the 
 belligerents. An express clause however in the treaty of North- 
 ampton in 1327, restored the forfeited Scottish estates of the English 
 lords Percy, Wake, and Beaumont; and under the sanction of this 
 clause, the last two noblemen, after having in vain claimed its fulfil- 
 ment from the regent and parliament of Scotland, determined to assert 
 their rights by force of arms. Edward Baliol having been induced to 
 join the enterprise, these bold confederates proceeded with a body of 
 300 horse and a few foot soldiers to invade a kingdom which was 
 then in the full flush of success and newly-achieved independence. 
 Small as the invadiDg force was, their progress was marvellous. They 
 entered the Frith of Forth, landed at Kinghorn in Fifeshire, defeated 
 the Earl of Fife, and, with an increased force not exceeding altogether 
 3000 men, marched boldly across the country to meet an enemy at 
 least ten times more numerous than themselves. The army of Baliol 
 encamped near Forteviot, with the river Earn in its front. On the 
 opposite bank the Earl of Mar lay encamped with a force of from 
 30,000 to 40,000 men ; while a second army, commanded by the Earl 
 of March, lay within eight miles of Baliol's flaok. Baliol relieved 
 himself from this perilous position by an act of extraordinary daring. 
 In the dead of night he crossed the Earn at a point where it was 
 fordable, and attacked unawares the sleeping and defenceless Scots. 
 The carnage was dreadful : 13,000 Scots, including the earls of Mar 
 and Moray, and many knights and barons, lay dead on DufHin Moor, 
 the scene of battle ; while the loss of the Euglish was extremely 
 smalL From Dufflin Moor Baliol and his confederate barons hastened 
 
£ 09 BALNAVIS, HENRY. 
 
 to Perth, where he was unsuccessfully besieged by the Earl of March, 
 whose followers soou after dispersed. The ancient adherents of Baliol's 
 family, and all persons disaffected to Bruce, now crowded to Baliol's 
 standard, and he was crowned King of Scotland at Scone, on the 24th 
 of September, only seven weeks from the day of his landing at Kinghorn. 
 Baliol did not hold the crown long at this period. Having privately 
 renewed to Edward III. all the forms of feudal subjugation imposed 
 on his father by the first Edward, and concluded an armistice for the 
 purpose of settling the kingdom by a convention of the states, he lay 
 carelessly encamped at Annan, where he was surprised by a body of 
 horse commanded by the young Earl of Moray, brother to the earl 
 who fell at Dufflin. Baliol with difficulty -escaped half naked to the 
 English Marches, once more an exile and a fugitive. This event 
 occurred on the 16th of December, within less than three months 
 from the date of his coronation. 
 
 Edward III. promptly interfered in favour of hia vassal ; and the 
 battle of Halidon Hill, July 10, 1333, again placed Edward Baliol on 
 the throne of Scotland. The loss of the Scots in this action was very 
 great, and probably Baliol's seat would have been firm had he not 
 outraged the national feelings by the extent of his concessions to his 
 royal benefactor. Besides renewing his feudal homage in the fullest 
 terms, he by a solemn instrument made an absolute surrender of the 
 fertile provinces of Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, Selkirkshire, Peebles- 
 shire, Dumfriesshire, together with the Lothians. Disgusted with 
 Baliol's subserviency to the English monarch, the nation centred its 
 hopes on David, the infant son of Robert Bruce. So long as Baliol 
 wa3 supported by the king of England he exercised a nominal sove- 
 reignty, but the moment the pressure of that monarch's iron hand 
 was withdrawn, the deep-rooted hatred of the Scots against their 
 vassal king broke out into fresh acts of resistance. Baliol himself 
 placed so little reliance on his subjects, that he fled to England at 
 every reverse of fortune. Baliol continued for some years to struggle 
 against the obstinacy of his opponents, and the lukewarmness and 
 perfidy of his adherents. In 1334 he was compelled to fly, in conse- 
 quence of a quarrel between the most powerful of his confederate 
 barons. He was soon after restored by the arms of his feudal master. 
 Next year Edward IIL again marched an army into Scotland, for the 
 double purpose of sustaining his vassal and securing the territories 
 which had been ceded to him. But happily for Scotland, the power 
 and ambition of this warlike and able monarch were soon after allured 
 by a more splendid prize, the conquest of France, which mainly 
 engrossed his attention and resources for several years ; during which 
 fortress after fortress fell from the hands of Baliol, and the cause of 
 King David, the heir of Bruce, daily acquired strength. 
 
 In 1355 Edward III. determined to put an end to the interruptions 
 which the Scottish wars had constantly offered to his operations in 
 France. He marched an immense army, composed, in great part, of 
 the victorious veterans in the French wars, with a view of effecting a 
 final conquest of the kingdom, and annexing it, as Edward I. had 
 annexed Wales, to the larger and richer portion of the island. As a 
 preliminary step he purchased Baliol's rights to the Scottish throne, 
 rights which Baliol, now, a king merely in name, advanced in years, 
 and without children or near of kin to inherit, gladly exchanged for 
 the retirement arjd calm suitable to the evening of life. For the 
 surrender of a barren and disputed title he received a present of 5000 
 marks, and an annuity of 2000/. sterling. His name does not again 
 appear in history. He retired into a peaceful though inglorious 
 obscurity; and died childless at Doncaster, in the year 1363. With 
 him ended the line of Baliol. 
 
 BALNAVIS, HENRY, of Halhill, an individual who, by his talents 
 and probity, raised himself from obscurity to a situation of the first 
 importance in the state of Scotland. He was born in 1520, of poor 
 parents, at Kirkaldy, in the county of Fife, and after some instruction 
 at one of the schools at St. Andrew's, he proceeded abroad. At 
 Cologne he got admission into a free school, where he received a liberal 
 education, together with instruction in the principles of the Pro- 
 tectant faith. He returned to his native place towards the latter end 
 of the reign of King James V., and having applied himself to the 
 study of tlie Roman jurisprudence, for some time acted as a procurator 
 in the courts of the then metropolitan city of St. Andrew's. About 
 the same time he married Christian Scheves ; and on the 10th August, 
 1539, he had a charter to himself and his spouse of the lands of 
 Halhill, in the county of Fife, from which he thereafter took his desig- 
 nation. From St. Andrew's he removed to Edinburgh, where he was 
 one of the earliest friends of the Reformation; aud notwithstanding 
 the jealousy of the papal clergy, hi3 reputation introduced him to the 
 court. On the 31st of July 1538, he was appointed a Lord of Session. 
 He sat in the parliament of 4th November 1538, by special commis- 
 sion ; and in the subsequent parliaments his name often occurs. In 
 January 1541, he was joined in a commission to adjust one of the 
 frequently-recurring disputes about the Borders. 
 
 On Mary's accession to the Scottish throne, in 1543, the Earl of 
 Arran was made regent of the realm, aud BalnaviB, who is said to 
 frave powerfully contributed to Arran's appointment, was promoted 
 fc> the situation of secretary of state. Balnavis and his party found 
 Aowever that the timid and yielding Arran was not one to be depended 
 upon for efficient support. Balnavis was instrumental to the passing 
 of the important act, introduced into the parliament by the Lord Max- 
 
 BALNAVIS, HENRY. 610 
 
 well, and passed, notwithstanding the opposition of the lord chancellor 
 and all the prelates, for allowing the Holy Scriptures, " baith the New 
 Testament and the Auld," to be translated and read by the people 
 in the vulgar tongue. In May of the same year he was one of the 
 commissioners dispatched by the parliament to the English court to 
 treat of a peace with England, and of a marriage between Prince 
 Edward and the young Queen of Scotland, both of which were quickly 
 agreed to, except as to the time of Mary's passage into England, on 
 which point new instructions were given and additional commissioners 
 appointed. These treaties were hailed as tokens of peace by the 
 friends of the Protestant faith, but they were with equal earnestness 
 deprecated by Cardinal Beaton and his coadjutors. When the 
 cardinal succeeded to the chaucellorate, he used all his influence to 
 get the treaties annulled by the parliament. Balnavis also was dis- 
 missed from his office by Arran, at the instigation of the regent's base 
 brother, John, abbot of Paisley, a bigoted Catholic, just returned 
 from France, and on whom the cardinal, sure of his influence over the 
 timorous regent, immediately conferred the privy seal, and soon after- 
 wards the post of lord treasurer. The same year Balnavis, the Earl 
 of Rothes, and the Lord Gray were seized at Dundee, and conveyed 
 to the castle at Blackness, on the Forth, where they in all probability 
 lay immured till the arrival of the English fleet in the river, in the 
 month of May following, set them at liberty. It has been asserted 
 that Balnavis entered into the conspiracy at the court of King Henry 
 for the murder of Beaton ; but of this there is no evidence, though 
 unquestionably he took refuge in the castle of St. Andrew's, like 
 Knox and several others who were not engaged in the conspiracy ; and 
 in all likelihood he participated also in the reformer's sentiments on 
 the fall of 'the bludie boucher.' (Knox, 'Hist.' 4.) 
 
 On the accession of Edward to the English throne, in January 1547, 
 the conferences for a peace and marriage were renewed ; and on the 
 9th of March following, Balnavis and others bound themselves to 
 endeavour to the utmost of their power to bring about the union, and 
 also, for the more effectually securing that object, to keep possession of 
 the castle of St. Andrew's : Edward, on the other hand, gave them 
 pecuniary assistance and a military force to defend the place. On the 
 15th of the same month also Balnavis and his friends bound themselves 
 to Edward to endeavour to get Mary into England to be educated 
 and brought up there until her marriage, and on the latter event taking 
 place, to deliver up the castle of St. Andrew's to the English monarch. 
 These proceedings have been condemned as treasonable by writers who 
 dislike Balnavis, and defended by his admirers as having been undoubt- 
 edly taken in good faith, and not for private or personal aggrandise- 
 ment, but for the public weal. Such a plea is however manifestly a 
 dangerous one, aud Balnavis must be content with such justification 
 as the general practice of persons in similar circumstances can 
 afford. In August however a fleet and land-forces from the king of 
 France appeared before St. Andrew's in support of the regent and the 
 papal faction, and those within the castle were, after a vigorous defence, 
 at length obliged to surrender. They were conveyed to France, and, 
 in violation of the articles of capitulation, sent to the castle of Rouen, 
 in Normandy, as prisoners of war. Here, as we are expressly assured 
 by Knox, who was one of the captives, solicitations, threats, and even 
 violence, were employed to make them recant their Protestant opinions, 
 but to no purpose. While in prison Balnavis employed himself in 
 writing a treatise on justification, and the works and conversation of 
 a justified man. Knox was so pleased with the performance that he 
 divided it into chapters, added some marginal notes and an epitome 
 of its contents, and to the whole prefixed a recommendatory preface. 
 The manuscript was discovered after Knox's death by his servant, 
 Richard Bannatyne, at the house of Cockburn of Ormiston, and printed 
 under the title of ' Confession of Faith, containing how the troubled 
 man should seek refuge at his God : compiled by M. Henry Balnavis, 
 of Halhill, one of the Lords of Council and Session of Scotland, being 
 a prisoner within the walls of the old pallaice of Roan (Rouen) in the 
 year 1548.' T. Vautrollier, Edin., 1584. 
 
 In 1554 Arran resigned the regency, to which the Queen Dowager, 
 Mary of Guise, was then raised ; aud she, to soothe her Protestant 
 supporters, recalled the laird of Grange and the other conspirators 
 from their banishment ; and the forfeiture which had been pronounced 
 against Balnavis was also rescinded. In the proceedings of the people 
 of Scotland which soon afterwards followed, Balnavis took a leading 
 part for the reformers ; aud on more than one occasion he was em- 
 ployed in confidential business by the Lords of the Congregation. For 
 awhile however the tide of prosperity again flowed in their favour, 
 and in the parliament of 1560 the reformed religion was established 
 by law. 
 
 On the 11th of February 1563, Balnavis was reappointed a lord of 
 session, in the room of Sir John Campbell, of Lundy, deceased ; and 
 on the 29th of December in the same year he was named by the 
 General Assembly of the Church of Scotland one of the commissioners 
 appointed by that venerable body to revise the ' Book of Discipline.' 
 He attended the regent Murray as one of the commissioners from 
 Scotland to York in relation to the charges against Mary for thb mur- 
 der of Darnley ; and he was one of the two afterwards sent to London 
 on the part of the regent in the same matter. According to one 
 account, Balnavis died in 1570; Mackenzie ('Lives,' vol. iii. p. 147) 
 says that he died in 1579. Besides the treatise above mentioned, 
 
611 
 
 BALTIMORE, LORD. 
 
 BAMBOCCIO. 
 
 Balnavis wrote a short poetical piece, entitled 'Advice to a Headstrong 
 Youth,' which the Scottish poet, Allan Ramsay, has transcribed into 
 his ' Evergreen.' 
 
 (Hymer, Fccdera, vol. xiv. pp. 781, 783, 786, 792; vol. xv. pp. 142, 
 1 44 ; Sadler, State Papers, vol. i. pp. 83, 430 ; Balf., Ann., vol. i. p. 305 ; 
 ffitt of King James VI., p. 35; Knox, Hist., pp. 35, 41 ; Keith, Silt., 
 p. 529 ; M'Crie, Life of Knox, p. 39, note ; Catalogue of Senators of 
 the Coll. of Just., p. 60, seq.) 
 
 BALTIMORE, LORD, founder of the colony of Maryland "in 
 North America. The family name of the Lords Baltimore was 
 Calvert, who were originally of Flemish extraction, but for a long 
 time were Bettled in Yorkshire. George Calvert, the first Lord Balti- 
 more, held several lucrative situations, and obtained extensive grants 
 of laud in Ireland and Newfoundland under James I. ; but having, 
 in the year 1624, become a Roman Catholic, he was compelled to give 
 up his office of secretary of state, and to abstain altogether from 
 interfering in public affaiis, the intolerant spirit of that age pro- 
 hibiting the open exercise of the Catholic worship. This circum- 
 stance, and the passion for colonisation which then prevailed in 
 England, led Lord Baltimore to turn his thoughts towards America. 
 The French having taken possession of a settlement in Newfoundland 
 upon which Lord Baltimore had expended a very large sum of money, 
 Charles I. made him a grant of all that tract of country which con- 
 stitutes the present state of Maryland ; but he died before the grant 
 was legalised, and the patent or charter was accordingly made out in 
 the name of his son Cecil, the second Lord Baltimore. This charter, 
 which is dated June 20th, 1632, invests Lord Baltimore and his heirs 
 with full powers over the new colony, " to be holders of us and our 
 heirs and successors as of our castle of Windsor, and in fee and com- 
 mon soccage, by fealty only, for all services, and not in capite, or by 
 knight's service ; yielding and paying therefor to us two Indian 
 arrows of those parts every year, on Easter Tuesday, and also the fifth 
 part of all gold and silver mines which shall hereafter be discovered." 
 
 Under this charter about 200 persons, of respectable family, and 
 mostly of the Roman Catholic persuasion, entered the Chesapeake 
 Bay in February 1634. Having purchased a village from the native 
 Indians, they proceeded to organise the new colony, called Maryland, 
 in honour of Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I. Liberty of con- 
 science was established, as respected the various Christian sects ; a 
 representative form of government was established ; and the settle- 
 ment made rapid progress. But the inhabitants of Virginia viewed 
 with a jealous eye the advances which the ' papist idolaters' of the 
 neighbouring state were making in population, wealth, and pro- 
 sperity; and as Maryland originally formed part of Virginia (taking 
 that term in its extensive sense), they were with difficulty restrained 
 from treating Lord Baltimore as a usurper of their rights and privi- 
 leges. When the civil war had extended itself to the colonies, the 
 triumph of the anti-Catholics was soon felt in the harsh measures 
 which were directed against the Catholics by the legislature of Mary- 
 land. At the restoration however the more liberal policy by which 
 the affairs of that settlement had been regulated prior to the Common- 
 wealth was again adopted ; and Lord Baltimore lived long enough to 
 6ee his most sanguine expectations with regard to its welfare realised. 
 He died in 1676, at an advanced age. Though proprietor of Mary- 
 land, Lord Baltimore never resided in it, nor, it is believed, ever even 
 visited it. 
 
 BALZAC, HONORE DE, a French novelist, was born at Tours 
 on May 20, 1799, the son of a clerk under the government of 
 Louis XV. At the college of Vendome, where young Balzac was 
 sent early, he gained the character of an idle and disobedient student, 
 and was removed to a private academy. On leaving school he was 
 placed with a notary in Paris, but he almost immediately commenced 
 writing articles for the journals. These are said to be rather testi- 
 monies of his perseverance than monuments of his genius. Between 
 1821 and 1827 he had published a number of tales, none of them 
 exciting or deserving much attention, under the assumed name of 
 Horace de St.-Aubin. In 1826, in connection with one Barbier, he 
 commenced business as a printer and bookseller, and among other 
 things published an edition of Fontaine's works, with a notice of 
 Fontaine, written by himself, and commenced the ' Annales Roman- 
 tiques.' His speculation was altogether unsuccessful. In 1829 he 
 appeared before the public for the first time, under his own name, 
 with the novel of 'The Last Chouan ;' the scene of which was laid 
 in La Vendue, which district he had visited. 
 
 It was not however till the publication of his ' Peau de Chagrin,' in 
 1829, also under his own name, that the Parisians became alive to the 
 piquant originality and lively fancy that distinguished his works. 
 From that period he was a general favourite in France, and many of 
 his productions have been translated into most of the languages of 
 Europe. He was indefatigable in supplying the public craving under 
 the title of ' Come'die Humaine.' He planned a series of compositions 
 that was to embrace every phase of human society ; and at this he 
 worked for twenty years. Among the most popular were ' La Femme 
 de Trente Ans,' and ' Le Pere Goriot.' 
 
 On the publication of the 'Mddexin de Campagne,' in 1835, Balzac 
 received a complimentary letter from the Countess Eveline de Hanska, 
 the wife of a Polish nobleman, possessing large estates in Russian 
 Poland. Balzac replied, and an intimate correspondence ensued. To 
 
 this lady his novel of ' Seraphita' was dedicated. The countess became 
 a widow, aud a few months after the revolution of February 1848 
 Balzac quitted Paris to bring her back as his wife. He inhabited a 
 large house near thi> Champs-Elysdes, which he adorned with a multi- 
 tude of chefs-d'eeuvres of art, and in which he hoped to find happiness 
 and peace. But even before his journey he had been attacked by a 
 disorder which it was found impossible to cure or to postpone — disease 
 of the heart — of which he died August 20, 1850. He was buried in tho 
 cemetery of Pere-la-Uhaise, an immense crowd atteuding the funeral ; 
 and Victor Hugo pronounced a critical eulogium over his grave. In 
 that eulogium he says Balzac " chastised vice, dissected passion, 
 fathomed aud sounded man in his soul, his heart, his feelings, his 
 brain — the abyss of each in its very essence." There is more asserted 
 here than an English reader can concur in. Balzac had a rich fancy, 
 but not a pure taste ; he was an acute observer, but wanted poetic 
 elevation; he was often extravagant, and sometimes wearisome. His 
 ' Contes Droslasticques ' — thirty short tales — are written in au anti- 
 quated form, a sort of resemblance to the ' Heptameron Francais ' of 
 Margaret of Navarre. The ' Contes Philosophiques et Romantiques ' 
 are much inferior to the talea of Marmoutel or of Voltaire, of which 
 they are in some degree imitations. His dramas, of which he wrote a 
 few, were failures. 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographic Universelle.) 
 
 BALZA'C, JEAN LUUIS GUEZ, Seigneur of Balzac, was born at 
 Angouleme in 1594. His father, Guillaume Guez, was attached to 
 the service of the Duke d'Epernon ; and young Balzac went early to 
 Rome as secretary to Cardinal La Valette. His residence of somo 
 years in Italy led him to compare the high polish which the language 
 of that country had attained, and the rich literature which it had 
 produced, with the rude and barren condition of the language and 
 literature of his native land. On his return to France he fixed him- 
 self at Paris, and then began writing. With the assistance of a culti- 
 vated taste, an extensive reading of the Latin classics, and a good ear, 
 he contrived to introduce a harmony and precision of style which were 
 before unknown in French prose, and which acquired him the name 
 of the most eloquent writer of his time, and the reformer of the 
 French language. His contemporary, Malherbe, effected a similar 
 improvement in French poetry. They were both the forerunners of the 
 great writers of the age of Louis XIV. ; but Balzac himself, to a reader of 
 the present day, appears almost insufferably affected, finical, and con- 
 strained. Balzac's merit made him known to the Cardinal de Richelieu, 
 who obtained him a pension of 2000 francs, with the honorary rank of 
 councillor of state. His works, in his own time, had many admirers, 
 and also many detractors ; the most violent among the last was 
 Father Goulu, a monk, who attacked Balzac with bitter invective. 
 Balzac replied with great temper in several pamphlets, bearing the 
 fictitious name of Ogier; but at last, disgusted with these polemics, 
 he quitted Paris, and went to live at his estate on the banks of the 
 Charente, near Angouleme. He there continued to write, and to 
 keep up a correspondence with his friends. He died in 1654, and was 
 buried, according to his own directions, in the cemetery of the Hospital 
 of Angouleme, to which institution he left a legacy of 12,000 francs. 
 He also left a gift of 2000 francs to the French Academy for the 
 purpose of establishing a prize for eloquence in prose writing. In 
 course of time most of Balzac's works fell into neglect, except his 
 ' Familiar Letters,' which have been repeatedly printed. There are 
 some of his other works which scarcely deserve to be buried in 
 obscurity. One of these is his 'Aristippe, ou de la Cour,' which ho 
 dedicated to Christina, queen of Sweden ; it is a series of discourses 
 on the duties of princes, ministers, and men in office ; on good and on 
 false politics, and on moral principles, with references to ancient and 
 modern history, interspersed with some curious anecdotes. He also 
 wrote 'Le Priuce;' a sort of commentary on the politics and events 
 of his time, and a eulogy of Louis XIII., who is represented as the 
 model of a good king. The other work of Balzac which deserves 
 mention is ' Le Socrate Chretien,' a series of discourses on the Christian 
 religion and morality, in which the author reprobates fanaticism, 
 hypocrisy, and persecution, as well as a too prying inquisitiveness 
 into the mysteries of faith. 
 
 A selection of the most important thoughts contained in the ' Aris- 
 tippe,' the ' Prince,' and the 'Socrate Chretien,' were made by M. Mersan, 
 and published under the title of ' Pens^es de Balzac,' 1 vol. 8vo, Paris, 
 1808. Balzac wrote also ' Le Barbon,' an amusing satire on pedants, 
 which he dedicated to Menage. He wrote Latin verses, epistles, 
 elegies, &c, which were published in one volume by Menage after 
 Balzac's death. An edition of Balzac's works, in two volumes folio, 
 was published by rAbbe" Cassagne. 
 
 (Bayle; Moren; Biographie Universelle; Malitourne, Notice sur la 
 Vie de Balzac, prefixed to his edition of Balzac's (Euvres Choisies.) 
 
 BAMBO'CC10,betterknownby his proper name, PETER DE LAER, 
 was born at Laeren, in Holland, in 1613. His disposition for art 
 manifested itself in early childhood, aud was encouraged by his parents, 
 who procured for him the requisite instruction in the elements of 
 design, and afterwards sent him to Rome. De Laer neglected classical 
 art, which was ill-suited to his temperament, but found a surer inspira- 
 tion in the freshness, novelty, and animation which the scenes of every- 
 day life presented to his pencil, and which he has exhibited with 
 wonderful truth and vivacity. It is not to be inferred however that 
 
Bll 
 
 BANCROFT, GEORGE. 
 
 BANDELLO, MATTEO. 
 
 De Laer drew ho advantages from his residence at Rome. He was 
 intimately acquainted with N. Poussin and Claude, and frequently 
 made excursions to the environs of Rome in company with those great 
 artists ; and there he found those beautiful studies of ruins, tombs, 
 temples, and aqueducts, with which he has so finely embellished his back- 
 grounds. But it was amidst the realities of active life that his genius 
 found its proper subjects. He delighted in fairs, hunting parties, the 
 exploits of banditti, rustic festivals, harvest-homes, and drolleries of 
 all sorts, subjects which the Italians comprise under the general name 
 of ' Bambocciate,' and from which the name given him in Italy was 
 derived, not, as some have asserted, from the deformity of his person. 
 De Laer was profoundly skilled in the art of graduating his objects, 
 whether through the medium of lines or colours. His effects of aerial 
 perspective are surprisingly just, and his skies are touched with a 
 depth, delicacy, and transparency which has rarely been excelled. In 
 the productions of De Laer, although they are generally on a small 
 scale, the figures are marked with all the precision, energy, and dis- 
 tinctness which might be expected in the largest performances. His 
 memory was remarkably retentive, and anything which he had once 
 marked as a fit subject for his pencil he could paint, at any distance of 
 time, 'with as much facility as if it was still before him. 
 
 De Laer's moral qualities gained for him no less respect than his 
 genius. His person was extremely deformed, but this misfortune did 
 not affect in the slightest degree the natural kindliness of his feelings, 
 or the cheerfulness of his temper. His amiable chai'acter was well 
 appreciated, and co-operated with his talents in procuring him the 
 patronage and friendship of the most eminent persons in Rome. He 
 protracted his residence in that city to sixteen years, and at length, 
 at the earnest entreaty of his friends in Holland, left it with regret 
 for his native country. He occasionally visited Amsterdam, but his 
 principal residence was at Haarlem. His latter years were embittered 
 by ill health and depressed circumstances, which caused him frequent 
 fits of despondency, in one of which he is stated to have thrown him- 
 self into a canal and been drowned. His death is said to have taken 
 place in 1673, or according to other accounts, in 1675. 
 
 De Laer made several admirable etchings from his own designs, 
 which usually bear his signature. The following may be enumerated : 
 a set of eight plates of animals and rural subjects, inscribed ' P. de 
 Laer, Roma, 1636 ; ' a set of six horses, same inscription ; a blacksmith 
 shoeing a mule, 'P. v. Laer, f . ; ' a blacksmith's shop, 'P. D. Laer, f., 
 Roma.' 
 
 * BANCROFT, GEORGE, an American historian, was born in 1800, 
 near Worcester, Massachusetts, where his father, Dr. Aaron Bancroft, 
 was a leading Unitarian minister. George Bancroft was entered at 
 Harvard College at the age of 13, and at the age of 17 graduated there 
 with first-class honours, and gained the theological prize — his education 
 having been conducted with a view to his adopting his father's pro- 
 fession. From Harvard he went to Gottingen, where for two years he 
 studied history and philology under Professor Heeren ; and hr. there 
 received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. During his residence in 
 Germany Mr. Bancroft formed the acquaintance of Savigay, Schlosser, 
 Schleiermacher, Varnhagen von Ense, Wolfe, and other eminent 
 scholars, from some of whom he derived valuable aid in his historical 
 studies. After travelling through Italy, Fiance, and England, he 
 returned to America in 1822. 
 
 For about a year after his return Mr. Bancroft officiated as Greek 
 tutor at Harvard College, and occasionally preached; but when he 
 resigned his tutorship he finally abandoned the ministry. He now 
 established a school at Round Hill, Northampton, Massachusetts, 
 which soon attained considerable celebrity, but which was not pecu- 
 niarily successful. Whilst here Mr. Bancroft devoted much attention 
 to his historical studios. He had not long after his return from Europe 
 made his first ventu.re in authorship by the publication of a volume of 
 poems, and he no%v published translations of several of Heeren's works, 
 and commenced, the composition of his ' History of America.' The first 
 volume of th\s work appeared in 1834, under the title of ' A History 
 of the Colonisation of the United States;' and successive volumes, car- 
 rying the history forward to the War of Independence, have appeared 
 at rather v ide intervals down to the present time. 
 
 The first volume of the ' History ' at once established Mr. Bancroft's 
 position a-nong the foremost literary men of America. But he was 
 not destined to lead a merely literary life. He had already entered 
 the politic al arena by being elected a representative in the General 
 Court of Massachusetts, and, after some oscillation, had taken his 
 stand as a « pure democrat.' On the accession of his party to office 
 in 1837, Mi. Bancroft was appointed by President Van Buren collector 
 of Boston. On the election of a new president, Mr. Bancroft of course 
 lost his colleotorship. In 1844 he was an unsuccessful candidate for 
 the governorship of Massachusetts; but about the same time, or 
 somewhat earlier, he was appointed by President Polk secretary of the 
 navy. In this office he is said to have displayed great administrative 
 ability, and the Astronomical Observatory of Washington, and the 
 Nautical School at Alexandria, are standing monuments of his tenure 
 of office. In 1 846 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to 
 England.^ Here ins chief political service was the negociation of a 
 modification of the acts regulating navigation. During the three 
 years of his stay "here, ho diligently explored the public libraries of 
 London and Paris, t as well as the state archives, for materials for his 
 
 bioo. div. vor.. r , 
 
 great work ; and to its completion he has since his return to tho 
 United States mainly directed his attention. 
 
 The ' History of America,' is a work of great research, and, while 
 the author states his own opinions decidedly and strongly, it is per- 
 vaded by a fair and just spirit. The style is vigorous, clear, and 
 frank— not often rising into eloquence, but frequently picturesque, and 
 always free from imitation aud from pedantry. It is in fact what it 
 professes to be— a national work, and it is worthy of its great theme. 
 Besides the ' History,' Mr. Bancroft has published several orations of 
 the usual order of American 'celebration' oratory, and has contributed 
 articles to various reviews and periodicals. His latest performance, 
 the oration delivered Feb. 12, 1866, on the assassination of President 
 Lincoln, is conspicuous for its bad feeling and worse taste 
 
 BANCROFT, RICHARD, Archbishop of Canterbury in the reign 
 of James I., was born at Farn worth, in Lancashire, in September 
 1544. He was first a student of Christ's College, Cambridge, where, 
 in 1567, he took tho degree of B.A., and thence removed to Jesus 
 College, where he commenced M.A. in 1570. In 1575 he was pre- 
 sented to the rectory of Teversham, in Cambridgeshire, by Cox, bishop 
 of Ely ; and instituted, in 1584, at the presentation of the executors 
 of Henry Earl of Southampton, to the rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. 
 In 1585 he was made treasurer of St. Paul's Cathedral, prebendary of 
 Brounsbury in St. Paul's in 1589, of Westminster in 1592, and of 
 Canterbury in 1594, about which time he distinguished himself by a 
 sermon preached at St. Paul's Cross against the ambition of the 
 Puritans. On May 8, 1597, he was consecrated Bishop of London. 
 From this time he had in effect the archiepiscopal power ; for Whit- 
 gift being then advanced in years, and unfit for business, committed 
 the sole management of ecclesiastical affairs to Bishop Bancroft. In 
 1600 Queen Elizabeth associated him with Dr. Parkins and Dr. Swale, 
 in an embassy to Embden, to put an end to the differences between 
 the English and Danes ; but the embassy had no effect. In the begin- 
 ning of King James's Feign Bancroft took part in the conference at 
 Hampton Court between the bishops and the Presbyterian ministers, 
 and carried himself m so imperious a manner that even James thought 
 it necessary to check him. According to Fuller however it was 
 observed, that " Bancroft, when out of passion, spake most politicly." 
 In 1604, upon Whitgift's death, he was promoted to the archbishopric 
 of Canterbury ; and in 160S was elected Chancellor of the University 
 of Oxford, in the room of the Earl of Dorset. He died November 2, 
 1610, of the stone, in his palace at Lambeth. 
 
 Bancroft filled the see of Canterbury with great reputation : he was 
 a learned controversialist, an excellent preacher, an acute statesman, 
 and a vigilant governor of the Church. He was however rigid in his 
 treatment of the Puritans, and on that account has been spoken o 
 with some severity. He was the chief overseer of the authorised 
 translation of the Bible. By his will he bequeathed his body to be 
 buried in Lambeth Chapel; and all the books in his study to the 
 archbishops for ever. His remains were however interred in Lambeth 
 Church. His published works were as follows : — ' Discovery of the 
 untruths and slanders against Reformation,' in a sermon preached 
 February 1588; 'Sermon on 1st John iv. 1,' London, 1588; 'Survey 
 of the pretended Holy Discipline,' London, 1593; 'Dangerous Positions 
 and Proceedings published under the pretence of Reformation, for the 
 Presbyterial Discipline,' London, 1595. 
 
 (Biogmphia Britannica, edit. 1778, vol. i. p. 577 ; Wood, Fasti Oxon.; 
 Bishop Kennett, MS. Collections, MS. Lansd. Brit. Mus. 983, fol. 155, 
 157; Chalmers, Biog. Diet.) 
 
 BANDE'LLO, MATTEO, was born at Castelnuovo di Scrivia, in 
 the province of Tortona, in North Italy, according to some authorities 
 in 1480. He entered the order of St. Dominic, of which his uncle was 
 a member. The young Bandello was an inmate of the Convent delle 
 Grazie at Milan at the time that Leonardo da Vinci was painting his 
 famous Last Supper in the refectory of that house, and he there 
 heard Leonardo relate a story which afterwards furaished him with 
 the subject of one of his novels. In 1501 his uncle, being elected 
 general of the whole Dominican order, took Bandello with him in the 
 travels which he was obliged to undertake in the discharge of his new 
 duties. They visited Florence, Naples, and other parts of Italy. 
 Having returned to his convent at Milan, Bandello was obliged to run 
 away when the Spaniards entered that city in 1525, his father having 
 taken part with the French. His apartments were plundered, and he 
 lost all his books and papers ; but he found an asylum with Cesare 
 Fregoso, an Italian officer in the French service, whom he accompanied 
 to several courts of Italy, and afterwards to France, where he obtained, 
 in 1550, from Henry II., the bishopric of Agen. Bandello left the 
 care of his flock to the Bishop of Grasse, reserving to himself part of 
 the income of his see. He died in the year 1562. Bandello's 'Novelle' 
 or tales are written somewhat after the manner of tlmse of Boccaccio, 
 though in less pure Italian. Iu fluency of narrative, and vividness of 
 description, Bandello rivals and even at time3 surpasses the Tuscan 
 novelist. On the score of morality, most of his tales are as excep- 
 tionable as those of Boccaccio. One of his pathetic tales is on the 
 subject of Romeo and Juliet, which however had been already treated 
 by Luigi da Porto, a contemporary writer, from whom it would seem 
 Bandello took it. The first edition of Bandello's novels is that of 
 Lucca, 1554, in 3 vols. 8vo. A fine edition of Bandello's novels was 
 published in London, 1740, 3 vols. 4to. Bandello was well acquaint d 
 
BANKS, SIR JOSEPH. 
 
 6W 
 
 with Greek literature, and made an Italian translation of the 'Hecuba' 
 of Euripides. He also wrote a vast quantity of Italian verses on 
 various subjects. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittort d' Italia.) 
 
 BANDINELLI, BACCIO, an eminent sculptor, was born at Florence 
 in 1487, and flourished during the brightest period of Italian art. He 
 was the son of a goldsmith of some standing, and as goldsmiths then 
 wrought from their own designs, it is probable that Baccio learnt at 
 least the rudiments of art from his father. At the usual age he 
 became a pupil of ltustici, who was not only a sculptor of celebrity, 
 but the intimate friend of Leonardo da Vinci ; and from the latter, 
 Bandiuelli is believed to have derived much valuable professional 
 knowledge. His progress under Rustici was rapid, yet he was so far 
 dissatisfied as for a time to turn from sculpture in order to practice 
 painting. But in this art ho was far from successful, though he 
 essayed both oil and fresco painting ; and he returned to the exclusive 
 practice of sculpture. 
 
 Bandinelli, notwithstanding the eminent ability displayed in his 
 works, and the admiration which they generally excited, was far 
 from popular with his brother artists. He is said to have been 
 arrogant, envious, and intriguing. It is however from contemporaries 
 who disliked him that our information respecting him is chiefly 
 derived ; and allowance must be made for the spirit in which his 
 character is portrayed. He was especially unfortunate in his oppo- 
 nents. He aspired to be the rival of Michel Angelo, and failing 
 to equal this great genius as au artist, displayed towards him the 
 keenest enmity, which the other returned by some contemptuous 
 criticism, although he admitted Bandiutlli's general merits ; and 
 Michel Angelo' s censure was not likely to be forgotten. But it is 
 chiefly from Benvenuto Cellini that the low estimate of Bandiuelli has 
 been derived. They appear to have been constant rivals and bitter 
 enemies ; and Cellini in his universally popular autobiography has 
 immortalised the feud. In his usual hyperbolical phraseology, Cellini 
 describes Bandiuelli as a compound of everything bad ; as excessively 
 ugly naturally, but becoming perfectly hideous, when giving expression 
 to his evil passions : and, in fact, not only as one if the worst men, 
 but also one of the most worthless artists on the face of the earth. 
 Such censure ought to carry with it its own condemnation, especially 
 when, as in this case, there are at any rate the works of the man to 
 appeal to as a refutation of the artistic criticism — and beyond doubt, 
 Cellini, one of the most self-willed, vainglorious, and passionate men 
 who ever existed, was far more competent to decide on the merits of 
 the artist, than of the man whom he regarded as at once a rival ;.nd 
 au enemy, and one whom he confesses to having been once on the poin 1 " 
 of assassinating. Yet it is from Cellini that the biographers have 
 usually taken their estimate of Bandinelli. Vasari however endorses 
 the character given to him for pride and jealousy, and there is no 
 reason to doubt that he had an undue share of both. 
 
 Bandinelli was largely patronised by Cosmo de Medici, Francis I., and 
 other eminent personages, during his long career, and produced a great 
 number of works. His most ambitious production was his Hercules 
 and Cacus, executed in rivalry with the David of Michel Angelo : 
 a work of no ordinary character though unfortunate in its competition ; 
 it was mercilessly attacked by the other Florentine sculptors. The 
 works by which he is now most favourably known are perhaps his 
 bassi-rilievi, especially those which adorn the screen of the high altar 
 in the Duomo at Florence, and some on a pedestal in the Place of San 
 Lorenzo in the same city. The figure of Christ at the Tomb in the 
 church of the Annunziata at Florence, which he completed shortly 
 before his death for his own tomb, is also a work of great ability. 
 His monumental statues of several of the dukes of Florence, his 
 Adam and Eve at the Tree, and others of the numerous productions 
 of his chisel, still to be seen in the palaces and churches of Florence, 
 his statues at Rome and elsewhere, attest his industry, mental 
 vigour, variety, and executive skill. Bandinelli does not take his place 
 in the very first rank of Italian sculptors, but he holds a prominent 
 place in the second rank. All his works are marked by largeness of 
 style, and great knowledge of anatomy and form, and often by grandeur 
 of conception ; but there is almost always a strongly marked mannerism, 
 often affectation, and sometimes extravagance. Bandinelli was created 
 a cavalier by Clement VII. and Charles V. He died towards the end 
 of 1559, aged 72 years. 
 
 (Benvenuto Cellini, Vita, and Trattato sopra la Scultura; V*sari, 
 Yite dei Pittori; Cicognara, Storia della Scultura, &c.) 
 
 BANE, or BENN, DR. JAMES, Archdeacon, afterwards Bishop, 
 of St. Andrews. In the former station we find him in 1319, when 
 the pope appointed him and certain other ecclesiastics to determine 
 a dispute between the monastery of Dunfermline and the Bishop of 
 Dunblane respecting tithes. In 1325 he was associated in an embassy 
 to France to renew the league with that crown, and is then called 
 ' Jacobus Bene, archidiaconus Sti. Andrese, et legum professor.' From 
 this, as well as from other sources of information, it appears that the 
 canon law was taught at St. Andrews nearly a century prior to Bishop 
 Wardlaw's foundation there, which Dr. M'Crie regards as the earliest 
 academical institution in Scotland. In 1328 Bane was chosen Bishop 
 of St. Andrews by free election of the canons ; but being himself at 
 the court of Rome at the time, he obtained the episcopate by the 
 collation of Pope John XXII., before an account of the election 
 arrived. Ho was bishop in 1329, and that year, in consideration of 
 
 a sum of 200 marks, he granted a charter of favour and protection, 
 with a general acknowledgment of existing immunities, to the priory 
 of Coldingham. (Chalmers, 'Caledonia,' vol. ii. p. 326.) In 1331 he 
 set the crown on the head of King David II., and was soon after con- 
 stituted Lord Chamberlain of Scotland, then an officer of great import- 
 ance, and vested with large powers both ministerial and judicial. He 
 died 22nd September 1332 at Bruges, whither he had fled on the 
 success of Edward Baliol, and was buried in the abbey of Eckshot, 
 
 BANKS, JOHN, was an attorney in London, but he quitted his 
 profession to write for the theatres. The seven tragedies which he 
 left in print bear dates extending from 1677 to 1696. He must 
 have died at some time in the reign of Queen Anne. Though Banks's 
 dramatic writings do not display much literary ability, they have given 
 excellent scope to the skill of great actors, and were in their day highly 
 popular with the play-going public. The worst has been said of Banks 
 when the censure of Steele in the ' Tatler' is repeated, that, in his 
 best known piece, ' The Unhappy Favourite, or the Earl of Essex,' 
 there is not one good line. His style gives alternate specimens of 
 vulgar meanness and of bombast. But even his dialogue. is not des- 
 titute of occasional nature and pathos ; and the value of his works 
 as acting plays is very considerable. It is admitted by Steele, that 
 tho play he speaks of was never seen without drawing tears; and the 
 apt choice of a touching story, and the natural and dramatic arrange- 
 ment of incidents, to which the success of that play was owing, were 
 much admired by the great German critic Lessing, who bestows on 
 the work au elaborate analysis. The 'Earl of Essex* kept its place 
 on the stage till the middle of last century, when it was superseded 
 by the plays of Jones and Brooke, who successively paid Banks the 
 compliment of stealing from him all the best parts of his tragedy. Of 
 his other works none was so popular, but even his extravagaut ' Cyrus 
 the Great' abounds in effective dramatic situations. 
 
 BANKS, SIR JOSEPH, an eminent naturalist and traveller, des- 
 cended from an aucieut Yorkshire family, was born in Argyle-street, 
 in the parish of St. James, Westminster, on January 4th, 1743. 
 After studying for awhile under a private tutor, he was sent at nine 
 years of age to Harrow School, and was removed when thirteen to 
 Eton. He is described, in a letter from his tutor, as being well-dis- 
 posed and good-tempered, but so immoderately fond of play, that 
 his attention could not be fixed to study. At fourteen years of age 
 however his attention was suddenly and very strongly attracted to 
 the 6tudy of botany by the beauty of the flowers which adorned the 
 lanes about Eton ; and from that time he devoted his leisure hours 
 to botanical studies. In his eighteenth year he was entered a gentleman 
 commoner at Christ Church, Oxford. His love of botany increased at 
 'the university, and there his miud warmly embraced all the other 
 by; uches of natural history. His ardour for the acquirement of 
 botanical knowledge was so great, that, finding no lectures were given 
 on that subject, he obtained permission of Dr. Sibthorpe, the botanical 
 professor, to procure a proper person, whose remuneration was to fall 
 entirely upon the students who formed his class. Banks accordingly 
 went to Cambridge, and brought back with him Mr. Israel Lyons, a 
 botanist and astronomer. This gentleman, many years after, procured, 
 through Mr. Banks's interest, the appointment of astronomer to the 
 voyage towards the North Pole, under Captain Phipps, afterwards 
 Lord Mulgrave. Mr. Banks soon made himself known in the univer- 
 sity by his superior knowledge in natural history. He left Oxford in 
 December 1703, after having taken an honorary degree. His father 
 had died in 1761, and he accordingly came into possession of his 
 paternal fortune in January 1764, when he became of age. On May 1, 
 1766, he was chosen into the Royal Society, and in the summer went 
 to Newfoundland with his friend Mr. Phipps, lieutenant in the navy, 
 who afterwards made the voyage towards the North Pole. The object 
 of this voyage was collecting plants. He returned to England the 
 following winter by way of Lisbon. It was after his return that the 
 intimacy commenced between him and Dr. Solander, a Swedish gentle- 
 man, the pupil of Linnseus, who, visiting London with strong letters 
 of recommendation, had been recently appointed an assistant librarian 
 of the British Museum. 
 
 Three or four years now elapsed before Mr. Banks again quitted 
 England. The interval was assiduously employed on the objects of 
 his established pursuit : his favourite relaxation was fisl ing. He 
 frequently passed days, and even nights, on Whittlesea Mt re, a lake 
 in the vicinity of his seat, Ravesby Abbey, Lincolnshire, and, when 
 in London, days, and sometimes nights, upon the Thames ; chiefly in 
 company with the Earl of Sandwich, who was his neighbour in the 
 country, and quite as ardent in the sport as himself. His intimacy 
 with that nobleman is said to have procured for him the opportunity 
 of gratifying his taste for maritime enterprise, which he had soon after 
 the pleasure of finding within his reach. The commencement of a 
 new reign, the peace of 1763, and the administration of Lord Bute 
 (himself a lover of science), had been marked in Eng\and by public 
 efforts to explore those parts of the ocean which were still wholly 
 unknown, or only partially discovered. The South >Sea having been 
 visited by Captain Wallace, and the position and gen eral character of 
 the island of Otaheite being ascertained, this spot was determined by 
 the English astronomers to be peculiarly well adapted for observing 
 the transit of the planet Venus over the disc of the: sun. The Royal 
 Society having made a representation to this effect t o the government, 
 
 T 
 
517 
 
 BANKS, SIR JOSEPH. 
 
 BANKS, SIR JOSEPH. 
 
 118 
 
 the idea was entertained and enlarged, so as to embrace a plan for a 
 general voyage of discovery ; in pursuance of which the Lords of the 
 Admiralty, at whose head was the Earl of Sandwich, commissioned 
 the ' Endeavour,' under the command of Captain Cook, for the pro- 
 jected service. Banks, by the interest of the Earl of Sandwich, wa? 
 appointed, in conjunction with Dr. Solander, naturalist to the expedi- 
 tion, in which capacity, attended by two draughtsmen and four servants, 
 he sailed from Plymouth Sound, August 26, 1768. 
 
 On touching at Rio de Janeiro, the jealousy of the Portuguese colo- 
 nial government forbade their exploring the South American shores; 
 but on arriving at Tierra del Fuego they disembarked, and, amid the 
 extreme rigours of the winter season in that extremity of the discovered 
 globe, acquired a splendid variety of botanical specimens. Here, in 
 the midst of a snow-storm, three of the attendants perished of cold, 
 and Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander narrowly escaped with their lives. 
 On the 12th April 1769, after sailing from Tierra del Fuego to Otaheite, 
 they finally anchored on one of the coasts of that island, and here, 
 during a space of four months, devoted essentially to the astronomical 
 objects of the visit, Mr. Banks acquired an intimate knowledge of the 
 natural history of the interior, as well as of the shores and waters of 
 the island. Nor was it only as a naturalist that he became con- 
 spicuous at Otaheite : his commanding appearance, frank and open 
 manners, and sound judgment, speedily obtained for him the regard 
 and deference of all classes of the natives, among whom he was fre- 
 quently the arbiter of disputes. The expedition quitted Otaheite on 
 the loth of August, and after traversing the seas surrounding New 
 Zealand, and New South Wales, came homeward by the way of 
 Batavia, and reached the Downs on the 12th of June 1771— the whole 
 period of the voyage having occupied nearly three years. Mr. Banks 
 was received iu England with the highest marks of respect, and the 
 specimens which he brought, at so much risk and expense, to enrich 
 the science of natural history, excited much interest. On the 10th of 
 August, by his majesty's express desire, Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander, 
 accompanied by Sir John Pringle, then president of the Royal Society, 
 attended at Richmond, where they had the honour of a private inter- 
 view, which lasted some hours. His majesty, at this time, conceived 
 a liking for the young traveller, which continued unimpaired to the 
 close of his public life. 
 
 Soon after the arrival of Mr. Banks in London, he became entangled 
 in a dispute with the relations of one of his draughtsmen, Sydney 
 Parkinson, who had died in the course of the voyage. Parkinson's 
 relations accused Mr. Bank3, by implication, of having unfairly taken 
 possession of various effects belonging to the deceased, independently 
 of drawings, which he claimed as the work of his own draughtsman. 
 Parkinson's relatives published his account of the voyage, with a 
 preface, containing their complaints of Mr. Banks's conduct, who 
 however appears not to have considered himself as called on to offer 
 any vindication of his conduct iu the affair. 
 
 After all the privations and dangers of this voyage, it required no 
 common strength of mind to encounter them a second time. Mr. 
 Banks however, at the solicitation of Lord Saudwich, made this offer 
 to government, which was accepted ; and such was the expense of his 
 outfit, and so extensive the preparations he made, that he was obliged 
 to raise money for that purpose. He engaged Zoffany the painter, 
 three draughtsmen, two secretaries, and nine servants, acquainted 
 with the modes of preserving animals and plants; but finding himself 
 thwarted by the comptroller of the navy, respecting the accommo- 
 dations in the 3hip3 (the ' Drake' and ' Raleigh' were commissioned), 
 he gave up in disgust all idea of going upon a voyage in the outset 
 of which he had received such personal ill-treatment. Yet, although 
 he relinquished the voyage, he exerted himself, in every way in his 
 power, to promote the objects of it. Dr. James Lind, a very able 
 uhy^-ician, had received the appointment of naturalist, with a grant 
 from parliament of 4000Z. This gentleman, upon Mr. Banks not 
 going, declined the offer, and Dr. John Reiuhold Forster and his son, 
 through the interest of Mr. Pants, received it. Upon Mr. Forster's 
 return, his drawings were purchased by Mr. Banks, and placed in his 
 library. 
 
 In expectation of being engaged in another voyage of discovery, 
 although not in a king's ship, Mr. Banks, with a view to keep hi.s fol- 
 lowers together, made a voyage to Iceland with hi3 friend Dr. Solander. 
 He arrived there in August 1772, and returned in six weeks. The 
 Hebrides, which skirt the north-west coast of Scotland, lay near the 
 track of the voyage, and these adventurous naturalists were induced 
 to examine them. Among other things worthy of notice, they disco- 
 vered the columnar stratification of the rocks surrounding the caves 
 of Staffa — a phenomenon till then unobserved by naturalists — an 
 account of which was published in the same year from Mr. Banks's 
 'Journal' by Mr. Pennant in his 'Tour iu Scotland' (pp. 261-269). 
 The volcanic mountains, the hot springs, the siliceous rocks, the plants 
 and animals of Iceland, were all carefully surveyed in this voyage ; 
 and a rich harvest of new botanical specimens compensated for its toils 
 and expense. But it was not to these objects alone that Mr. Banks 
 confined his inquiries : he purchased at this time a very large collection 
 of Icelandic books and manuscripts, which he presented in 1773 to tho 
 British Museum ; and he added another collection to it in 1783. 
 
 In 1777, when Sir John Pringle retired from the presidency of tho 
 Royal Society, Mr. Banks was elected to the vacant chair. The honour 
 
 was just such a one as a lover of scientific pursuits, who was at tho 
 same time a man of rank and fortune, might with laudable ambition 
 desire ; and Mr. Banks devoted himself to its duties with the utmost 
 zeal. His exertions had the effect of procuring numerous valuable 
 communications, and of gaining an accession of persons of rank and 
 talent to the list of members, as well as exciting the whole body to 
 great diligence and activity. From the time of this uppointment he 
 gave up all idea of leaving his country, and began to prepare for publi- 
 cation the rich store of botanical materials which he had collected. 
 
 In March 1779 Mr. Banks married Dorothea, eldest daughter of 
 William Western Hugessen, Esq., of Provender, in the parish of Norton 
 in Kent ; and in 1781 was created a baronet. In 1782 he lost his friend 
 and fellow-labourer Dr. Solander, who died of an apoplectic fit. This 
 loss was a severe blow, and in consequence of it he gave up all inten- 
 tion of proceeding with his botanical work, or of writing anything 
 further than a few short memoirs, published either in a detached form, 
 or as communications to the transactions of societies. 
 
 For the first three or four years of Sir Joseph Banks's presidency of 
 the Royal Society all went on harmoniously ; but notwithstanding the 
 zeal and assiduity with which he devoted himself to the duties of his 
 office, discontents began to rise against him even amongst the most 
 eminent members of the society. A variety of complaints were indus- 
 triously circulated in regard to his conduct. Those for which there 
 were perhaps the best grounds were, that the mathematical sciences, 
 the promotion of which was regarded as the chief object of the Royal 
 Society, were studiously kept in the background ; and that the presi- 
 dent had assumed the exclusive right of nominating new members, 
 and had exerted his power so as to introduce unlearned and trifling 
 men of rank and influence, to the exclusion of the working men of 
 science. This unfriendly feeling was brought to the test in a meeting 
 of the society held on the 8th of January 1784, Dr. Horsley (after- 
 wards bishop of St. Asaph) being one of the most earnest opponents of 
 Sir Joseph. The motion made in favour of Sir Joseph Banks was how- 
 ever carried by a great majority, and the dissension soon after subsiding, 
 the society returned with new zeal and unanimity to its labours. 
 
 On the 1st of July 1795 Sir Joseph Banks was invested with the 
 Order of the Bath, and on the 29th of March 1797 sworn of his 
 majesty's Privy Council. In 1802 he was chosen a member of the 
 National Institute of France. Towards the close of life Sir Joseph 
 Banks, who iu youth had possessed a robust constitution, was so 
 grievously afflicted by gout as in a great measure to lose the use of 
 his lower extremities. He endured the sufferings of disease with 
 patience and cheerfulness, and died at his house at Spring Grove, 
 June 19, 1820. He was buried at Heston, Middlesex. 
 
 All the voyages of discovery which were made under the auspices 
 of government for the last thirty years of Sir Joseph Banks's life had 
 either been suggested by him, or had received his approbation and 
 support. The African Association owed its origin to him ; and Led- 
 yard, Lucas, Houghton, and the unfortunate Mungo Park, all partook 
 of the care which he extended to the enterprising traveller. He devised 
 the means of carrying the bread-fruit to the West Indies for cultivation 
 from Otaheite, and the mango from Bengal. He transferred the fruits 
 of Persia and Ceylon also successfully to the West Indies and to Europe. 
 The establishment of our colony at Botany Bay originated entirely with 
 him. In the affairs of tho Board of Trade, of the Board of Agriculture, 
 and of the Mint, he was constantly consulted ; and he took a leading 
 part in the management of the Royal Gardens at Kew. He was a dis- 
 tinguished promoter also of the interests of the Horticultural Society 
 founded in 1804. His influence was frequently directed to soften to 
 men of science the inconveniences of the long war which followed the 
 French revolution ; to alleviate their sufferings in captivity ; or to 
 procure the restoration of their papers and collections when taken by 
 an enemy. Baron Cuvier, in his ' Eloge ' upon Sir Joseph Banks, 
 mentions that, no less than ten times, collections addressed to the 
 Jardin du Roi at Paris, and captured by the English, were restored by 
 his intercession to their original destination. His purse was always 
 open to promote the cause of science, and his library of natural history 
 always accessible to those who desired to consult it. His weekly con- 
 versazioni, during the sittings of the Royal Society, were attended by 
 persons the most distinguished in literature and science, whatever was 
 their rank in life or their country ; and during the forty-two years in 
 which he continued President of the Royal Society he was indefatigable 
 as an official trustee in the management of the British Museum ; to 
 which institution, after innumerable gifts, he made a contingent bequest 
 of his scientific library, together with his foreign correspondence. The 
 library and correspondence are now deposited iu the Museum. 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks published two single tracts : — 1. ' A Short Account 
 of the Cause of the Disease in Corn, called by the Farmers the Blight, 
 the Mildew, and the Rust,' 8vo, 1805, which was several times reprinted ; 
 in 1806, with additions; again, with marginal annotations by an agri- 
 culturist (Sir Thomas Hanmer, Bart.) in 1807; and in 1814. 2. 'Cir- 
 cumstances relative to Merino Sheep, chiefly collected from the Spanish 
 Shepherds,' 4to, London, 1809. This tract had been originally com- 
 municated to the Board of Agriculture. He communicated numerous 
 papers in the ' Transactions' of tho Horticultural Socioty, the Linnrean 
 Society's 'Transactions,' and tho ' Archseologia' of the Society of 
 Antiquaries.' 
 
 Among his inauuscripts, and that portion of his library (not sciea* 
 
520 
 
 tific) which was removed after his death to Lincolnshire, is a copy of 
 Minsheu, enriched with very copious manuscript notes ; and a copy of 
 Tusser's ' Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,' prepared by himself 
 for a new edition. 
 
 A catalogue of Sir Joseph Banks's library, compiled by Mr. Dryander 
 (another of Linnseus's pupils), who succeeded Dr. Solander as his libra- 
 rian, was published in 1800, entitled, ' Catalogus Bibliothecce Historico- 
 Naturalis Josephi Banks,' auctore Jona Dryander, A.M., Regis Societatis 
 Bibliothecario, in 5 vols. 8vo. A limited number only was printed, 
 and it is now a work of considerable rarity. The best likeness of Sir 
 Joseph Banks, in later life, is the statue of him in the hall of the 
 British Museum, by Sir Francis Chautrey. 
 
 (Eloge Historiquc dc M. Banks la A la Seance de VAcademie Royale 
 des Sciences, le 2 Avril, 1821, 4to; Biographie Univcrsclle, torn, lvii., 
 Supplem., p. 101; Sir Everard Home, JIunlerian Oration, Feb. 14, 
 1822; Gent. Mag., 1771, 1772, and 1820; Lodge, Portraits of Illus- 
 trious Persons ; Tilloch, Phdosoph. Mag., vol. xiv. 1820, pp. 40-4 G.) 
 
 BANKS, THOMAS, one of the first sculptors of Great Britaiu, was 
 bom on the 22nd of December 1735, at Lambeth. His father, who was 
 land-steward to the Duke of Beaufort, gave his three sous a liberal 
 education. The classical taste which Banks's works exhibit was 
 imbibed with his early studies. Young Banks was placed under Kent, 
 the landscape gardener and architect, as a pupil. The profession for 
 which his father designed him was exclusively that of an architect, 
 but his mind had already taken its unalterable bent; sculpture was 
 his vocation, and no traces are left of his architectural studies, except 
 that when objects connected with that art are introduced in his bas- 
 reliefs they are marked with scientific precision. 
 
 In 1708 the Royal Academy was established. Banks, who was then 
 iu his 33rd year, and whose style was already formed, had little to 
 learn from such an institution; nevertheless, he became a candidate 
 for its honours, and iu 1770 was the successful competitor for the gold 
 prize among mauy rivals. He exhibited in the same year two distinct 
 designs of ^Eueas rescuing Anchises from the flames of Troy, and the 
 fertility of his invention was evinced in his different modes of treating 
 the same story. His reputation was greatly increased in the ensuing 
 year by a group of Mercury, Argos, and 16; and his talents had 
 altogether made such an impression, that it was determined by the 
 members of the Royal Academy to send him to Rome at the expense 
 of that institution. 
 
 The time assigned by the Academy to its foreign students for study 
 is three years, with an allowauce of about 501. per annum. Accom- 
 panied by his wife, Banks arrived in Rome in August 1772, where 
 Gavin Hamilton, the painter, afforded him much assistance in his 
 studies, as he did to other students, as West, Fuseli, Wilton, and 
 Nollekens. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose admiration of Michel Angelo knew no 
 limit, had recommended Banks to an unremitting study of the great 
 works in the Sistiue chapel; but the sculptor soon perceived, that 
 however magnificent in themselves, these performances were only 
 available to a limited extent for his own art. He therefore studied 
 diligently those pure models of antiquity with which his genius natu- 
 rally sympathised, and with which Rome abounded. The Italian 
 artists at that time excelled our own in the process of working marble, 
 and Banks took lessons in that branch of his art of Capizoldi, a 
 distinguished professor. 
 
 The first work which Banks exhibited in Rome was a relief in 
 marble — Caractacus pleading before Claudius— a performance charac- 
 terised by grandeur and simplicity. The work however which most 
 excited the admiration of the Roman virtuosi was a statue of Psyche 
 with the Butterfly, which exhibited such grace, symmetry, and 
 classical elegance, that the artist was considered to have rivalled 
 the finest of the great models which had been the objects of his 
 imitation. The acquisition of fame however was attended with no 
 corresponding profit. Banks, after a residence of seven years in 
 Rome, during which he had been much admired aud little patronised, 
 returned to England in 1775. Here again disappointment awaited 
 him : Nollekens and Bacon had possession of the ground, nor was his 
 refined aud poetic style likely to make way against the plain and 
 popular performances of these established favourites. After an 
 unsuccessful experiment of two years he determined therefore to 
 accept an invitation which had been made him by the court of Russia, 
 and in 1784, being then in his 49th year, he departed for that country. 
 The empress Catherine gave him a flattering reception, purchased his 
 Psyche, which he had brought with him, and placed it in a temple built 
 for the purpose in her gardens at Czarscozelo. The empress commis- 
 sioned him to make a group in stone called the Armed Neutrality. This 
 work he executed ; but being apprehensive, perhaps, that a few more 
 such subjects would be imposed on him, he determined on making a 
 precipitate retreat, and accordingly returned to England. 
 
 Shortly after his return, he had completed, what perhaps is the 
 noblest monument of his genius, his figure of the Mourning Achilles, 
 now in the hall of the British Institution. This statue, when sent-to 
 Somerset House for exhibition, was by accident precipitated from the 
 car which conveyed it and broken to pieces. The artist, who had con- 
 centrated all his powers on this work, and who had founded on it 
 just hopes of awakening public attention, thus beheld his labours 
 destroyed in a moment. He returned home, never mentioned the 
 
 accident to his wife or daughter, nor were they led to suspect, by 
 any difference iu his demeanour, that a misfortune had happened. He 
 succeeded with much difficulty, and by his brother's assistance, in 
 restoring the statue; and this fine performance, in which pathetic 
 expression is united with heroic beauty, was duly appreciated by the 
 public. Mr. Johues of Hafod desired to have it executed in marble, 
 and a block was purchased for that purpose; but the patron recon- 
 sidered the matter, and determined to have, in its stead, a group of 
 Thetis dipping the infant Achilles. So far the sculptor concurred ; 
 but while he was tasking hia imagination to furnish a fine ideal head 
 of Thetis, he learned to his astonishment that his pains were unneces- 
 sary, and that the face of Mrs. Johnes was to supply his model. Her 
 female infant also was to furnish the head of Achilles. Banks how- 
 ever, who really esteemed his employer, proceeded in his task, and, in 
 spite of its individualities, the work was a beautiful one. Banks, 
 during his after life, was a frequent visitor at Hafod in the summer 
 months, but his practice of sketching and designing was never inter- 
 mitted, aud it was during one of those vacations that he made his 
 beautiful composition of Thetis and her Nymphs consoling Achilles. 
 It is an oval in alto-rilievo ; the goddess and her nymphs asceu l from 
 the sea like a mist — nor has the buoyant and elastic elegauce of those 
 figures been excelled in any work of ancient or modern art. Banks 
 was elected a member of the Royal Academy, November, 1784, and 
 presented to that institution a figure of a fallen giant, which is now in 
 their council-room. His next work was a monument to the daughter 
 of Sir Brooke Boothby, a beautiful aud interesting child who died in 
 her sixth year. In this monument, now in Ashbourne church, Derby- 
 shire, she is represented sleeping on her bed, and the figure conveys 
 all the touching interest excited by the sight of infant loveliness 
 doomed to early death. 
 
 The last public works on which Banks was engaged were the monu- 
 ments of Sir Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey, and those of Captaini 
 Westcott and Burgess in St. Paul's Cathedral. The former was 
 executed for the East India Company ; the two latter by order of the 
 Committee of Taste for His Majesty's Government. Banks was great 
 in subjects purely ideal, but he failed when he attempted to apply the 
 principles proper to that class of art to the plain realities of life. The 
 two captains are represented nearly naked, at once an offence to correct 
 taste and to popular feeling. In public monuments, of whatever mag- 
 nificence, common-place propriety should form a large ingredient; 
 and it was by the tact with which he combined those qualities that 
 Bacon, the contemporary of Banks, succeeded in bearing away the 
 general suffrage, however inferior to his rival in lofty imagination and 
 general power of intellect. It should be added, that the allegorical 
 figures iu those monuments, and a Mahratta captive in that of Sir 
 Eyre Coote's, are finely conceived, and in every way worthy of the 
 sculptor's reputation. 
 
 With the monument of Captain Westcott, which was finished in 
 1805, Banks terminated his career. He died on the 2nd of February 
 1805, in his 70th year, and was buried in Paddington churchyard. A 
 plain tablet was erected to his memory iu Westminster Abbey. 
 
 BAPTIST, JOHN BAPTIST MONNOYER, was born at Lisle, in 
 the year 1635. He commenced his studies at Antwerp, with the 
 intention of becoming an historical painter; but, growing diffident o 
 his powers in that branch of art, he had the good sense to relinquis 
 it, and to devote himself to an humbler walk, chiefly the representatio 
 of fruit and flowers, in which he showed great talent and acquire 
 high reputation. He went early to Paris, where the spirit and novelty 
 of his style soon attracted attention ; and he was engaged to ornament 
 the palaces of Versailles, Meudon, Marly, and Trianon. He was elected 
 into the Academy in 1663. At the invitation of Lord Montague, then 
 English ambassador at Paris, he accompanied that nobleman to England 
 where he commenced his practice by decorating Montague House, which 
 became afterwards the British Museum, with a beautiful series of em 
 bellishments. When the old house was pulled down, after the erection 
 of the present British Museum, these paintings were detached from 
 the walls and sold. Baptist continued in this country nearly twenty 
 years, enjoying uninterrupted patronage ; and his works form con- 
 spicuous ornaments in the mansions of the various nobility and gentry 
 by whom he was employed. There is at Kensington Palace a looking- 
 glass which he embellished with garlands of flowers in his happiest 
 manner for Queen Mary II., who was so pleased with observing the 
 progress of the work, that she sat by during nearly the whole time 
 that he was engaged on it. 
 
 Baptist was more employed in ornamenting halls, staircases, and the 
 interior of apartments, than in painting detached pictures. The bold- 
 ness and vivacity of his style are well adapted to that sort of embel- 
 lishment ; but even in his easel-pictures there is merit enough to rank 
 him among the most eminent practitioners in his branch of art. Hia 
 compositions of flowers are like the accidental combinations of nature 
 — varied, fluctuating, and graceful; his execution is fluent aud spirited 
 his touch firm and discriminating ; and his colouring has much of the 
 freshness of reality. 
 
 Baptist died in 1699, aged 64. He left a son, Anthony Monnoyer, 
 called Young Baptist, who practised in his manner, but who, although 
 by no means destitute of talent, fell far short of the excellence attained 
 by his father. 
 
 BAPTIST, JOHN GASPAR, was a native of Antwerp, and a pupil 
 
ESI 
 
 BARANTE, BARON DE. 
 
 BARBAROSSA, HORUSH. 
 
 m 
 
 of Boscbaert. He came to England during the civil wars, and served 
 in Lambert's army, but after the Restoration returned to his original 
 profession, and was much employed by Sir Peter Lely, in painting his 
 draperies and back-grounds. He worked occasionally also for Kneller 
 and Riley. He was not without original talent, and made designs for 
 tapestries which evince considerable skill in drawing. There is a 
 portrait of Charles II. in St. Bartholomew's Hospital by this artist. 
 He died in 1691. 
 
 * BARANTE, AM ABLE-GUILL ATJM E-PROSPER, BARON DE 
 BRUGIE R E, is the son of Claude Ignace, Baron Brugiere, a barrister and 
 prefect of Vaud and of Geneva. Amable was born at Riom, in the depart- 
 ment of Puy-de-D6me, on June 10,1782. He commenced his studies in 
 the military school at Effiat. On its being closed by the revolutionary 
 administration, his father instructed him in classics, and in 1798 he 
 was placed in the Polytechnic school at Paris. Here he continued 
 two years, and in 1802 entered the civil service of his country ; placed 
 at first in a subordinate situation, he rose rapidly. In 1806 he was 
 appointed auditor to the council of state, and under this title was 
 entrusted with various missions to Spain, Poland, and Germany. In 
 1S08 he was made prefect of Vienne; in 1813 prefect of Nantes; but 
 after the 20th of March 1815, he sent in his resignation. On the 
 return of Louis, after the Hundred Days of Napoleon, he was appointed 
 councillor of state, and secretary of the home department. In the 
 same year he wa3 chosen deputy for the departments of Puy-de-D6me 
 and Loire-Inferieure. In 1819 he was nominated a peer of France, 
 and in the following year he was offered the office of ambassador to 
 Denmark, which he did not accept; exercising indeed no other poli- 
 tical functions than those of a peer of France until 1830. After the 
 revolution of July, he resided as ambassador at the court of Sardinia, 
 and in 1S35 removed in the same capacity to the court of Russia. 
 Since the revolution of February 1848, he has retired wholly from 
 public life, and resides in Auvergne. 
 
 Whatever time M. de Barante has been able to abstract from his 
 public functions, has been sedulously devoted to literary pursuits. In 
 1808 he published anonymously the ' Tableau de la Littdrature 
 Francaise au dix-huitieme Siecle,' a work which passed through several 
 editions ; and which, brief as it is, is a masterly review of the literary 
 spirit of that period. In 1821 he issued a translation of the works 
 of Schiller ; and in the translation of Shakspere, published by M. 
 Guizot, that of 'Hamlet' was furnished by M. Barante. From 1824 
 to 1828 he published successively his most important work, in twelve 
 volumes, the ' Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne,' valuable alike for its 
 accuracy, its impartiality, the laborious research displayed in it, and 
 the lucidity of its style. These qualities have placed him in the first 
 rank of modern French historians. In 1850 he issued a volume 
 entitled ' Questions Constitutionuelles ; ' and since that ' Histoire de 
 la Convention Nationale,' in six volumes. M. de Barante was elected 
 a member of the French Academy in 1828, and has written notices of 
 Count Mollien and of Count A. St. Priest. His latest work is 'La Vie 
 politique de M. Royer-Collard,' 2 v. 1861, 2nd ed. 1863. 
 
 BARATIE'R, JOHN PHILIP, born in January 1721, at Schwabach, 
 in the Margraviate of Ansbach, was the son of Francis Bustier, 
 pastor of the French Protestant Church of Schwabach. His father, 
 who was a man of much information, devoted all his leisure time to 
 bis son's education. At four years of age the child spoke Latin with 
 his father, French with his mother, and German with the house 
 servant. Between four and five years of age he began to study Greek, 
 and in fifteen months was able to read the Scriptures in that language, 
 and to translate them into Latin. Towards the end of his sixth year 
 he began Hebrew, in the study of which he spent three years. He 
 then plunged into Rabbinical literature, and read with great avidity 
 the books of the Cabbalists, Talmudists, commentators, &c. At nine 
 years of age he made a dictionary of the most difficult Hebrew and 
 Chaldaic words. He next undertook the translation of the travels of 
 Benjamin of Tudela, a Hebrew writer of the 12th century. Two 
 Latin translations of this work, one by Arias Montanus and the other 
 by Coustantiu Lempereur, Leyden, 1633, were found to be incorrect. 
 Baratier wrote his in French, adding to it copious notes, and eight 
 dissertations at the end, upon subjects of a singular nature to be 
 treated of by a child eleven years old. He finished his work in about 
 six months in 1732, but it was not published till 1734, in two vols, 
 small 8vo, Amsterdam. After this Baratier turned his attention to 
 theological studies, and especially to the Greek Fathers and the early 
 Councils. After some time he undertook to refute Samuel Crellius, 
 a celebrated Unitarian divine, who had written a book styled Arte- 
 moniua. The title of Baratier's reply will show the subject of the 
 controversy: — ' Anti-Artemonius, seu Initium Evangelii S. Johannis 
 Apostoli ex Antiquitatc Ecclesiastica Adversus L. M. Artemonii, Neo- 
 Pnotiniani, Criticam Vindicatum atque Illustratum ; cui in Fine 
 accedit Dissertatio de Dialogis tribus, vulgo Theodoreto tributis.' 
 Nuremberg, 1735. Frederic William, king of Prussia, having 
 appointed Baratier's father to the French Protestant church at Stettin, 
 the family left Schwabach in the beginning of 1735. In passing through 
 Halle, young Baratier, whose fame had long before reached that uni- 
 versity, was made Master of Arts, after undergoing an examination 
 and sustaining a public disputation. On his arrival at Berlin the king 
 sent for him, and was delighted with his conversation. The Royal 
 So'ie'y of Sciences at Berlin named Baratier one of its members. 
 
 The king urged upon both father and son the propriety of the latter 
 applying himself to some regular profession, and he suggested that of 
 the law, for which purpose the family returned to Halle in April 1735. 
 During the next four years Baratier attended the courses of tlio four 
 law professors of civil, canon, public, and feudal law. He followed 
 his legal studies without any particular inclination for them, with the 
 exception of public law, in which he seemed to take an interest. He 
 at the same time found leisure to pursue his more favourite studies. 
 He had begun a ' History of the Heresies of the Anti-Trinitarians,' 
 which he left in manuscript. Several dissertations also on various 
 subjects of philology, history, and antiquities, were inserted in the 
 ' Bibliothcque Germaniquc.' The last work he published was on the 
 succession of the early bishops of Rome : ' Disquisitio Chronologica 
 de Successione antiquissima Episcoporum Romauorum, inde a Pctro 
 usque ad Victorem.' 4to. Utrecht, 1740. This was the beginning of 
 a great work which he designed on the history of the first centuries 
 of the church. He also began a ' History of the Thirty Years' War.' 
 
 Baratier's chest was naturally weak : a cold which he took brought 
 on an obstinate cough, and in October 1739, he spat blood. In Sep- 
 tember 1740, he became much worse; his weakness was extreme, and 
 he could no longer read, which was to him the greatest privation. On 
 the 5th of October he expired in his arm-chair, at the age of nineteen 
 years and eight months. The life of this extraordinary boy was 
 written by Mr. Formey, from the materials furnished by his father, 
 12mo, Halle, 1741, and a second edition was published at Frankfurt 
 and Leipzig in 1755. At the end is a long catalogue of the numerous 
 works which he left in manuscript, mostly unfinished. 
 
 BARBARO'SSA, HORUSH, was born in the island of Metelin 
 (Mytilene), about the year 1474, of Christian parents. His father, who 
 followed the trade of a potter, had a family of three sons and four 
 daughters. The eldest son, when twenty years of age, went on board 
 a Turkish privateer, embracing, at the same time, the Mohammedan 
 faith, where he assumed the Turkish name of Horusb. Having served 
 for several years, during which he distinguished himself by his bravery 
 and intelligence, he was appointed commander of a galliot, fitted out 
 for the purpose of cruising in the Archipelago against the merchant- 
 vessels of nations at war with the Porte. After he came out of the 
 Dardanelles, he persuaded the crew that they would have a better 
 chance and be more at liberty, if, instead of cruising in the Archi- 
 pelago under the eyes of the Sultan's officers, they took their station 
 off the coast of Africa. Having met another Turkish galliot, he 
 induced the master and crew to cruise in company with him and 
 under his direction. Arriving at Goletta, the harbour of Tunis, in 
 1504, he was well received by the reigning Bey, Muley Mohammed, 
 who was under apprehensions from the power of Spain. Horush 
 having sailed in his own galliot for the coast of Italy, fell in, off the 
 island of Elba, with two large papal galleys richly laden, and bound 
 from Genoa to Civitavecchia, which he captured without resistance, 
 and returned to the coast of Tunis with his two prizes. 
 
 Barbarossa's fame now rose high along the coasts of the Mediterra- 
 nean, and many Turkish and Moorish adventurers applied to serve 
 under him. In the following year he surprised and took a large 
 Spanish ship with money and soldiers on board. The fort of Goletta 
 was his head-quarters ; there he disposed of his prizes, paying a tithe 
 to the Bey of Tunis. Having built several more galliots, he assembled 
 a squadron of eight good ships, two of which were commanded by his 
 brothers. He was successful in his cruises, and in the course of a few 
 years he grew enormously rich. The Christian sailors, whose terror 
 he had become, gave him the name of Barbarossa. from the colour of 
 his beard, which was red ; or, as others say, from Baba (father) Horush, 
 as he was called by his own sailors. In 1510 the Bey of Tunis gave 
 him the government of the island of Jerbi, which had been attacked 
 shortly before by a Spanish expedition, though without success ; and 
 he accordingly made Jerbi his head-quarters. In 1512, when his 
 squadron consisted of twelve sail, he received a message from the 
 Moorish king of Bujeiah, near Algiers, who had been dispossessed of 
 his town by the Spaniards, and had taken refuge in the mountains. 
 Horush having mustered 1000 well-armed Turks, sailed for Bujeiah, 
 landed near the place, and being joined by a body of natives, attacked 
 the town ; but was repulsed, after having had his left arm carried of? 
 by a cannon-ball. On his way homeward he seized a Genoese vessel 
 richly laden, which so incensed the senate of Genoa that they sent 
 Andrea Doria with a squadron to attack Goletta, where Horush's 
 galleys were lying under the command of his brother Hadher, after- 
 wards famous under the name of Khair Eddin. Doria having landed 
 some troops, attacked Goletta by sea and by land, and obliged Hadher 
 to fly, after having sunk six of his galleys : Doria carried away the 
 rest. The two brothers however soon refitted a squadron, and in 1513 
 Horush made a second attack on Bujeiah, but was again repulsed; he 
 then repaired to the harbour of Jijil, in that vicinity, where he found 
 means so to ingratiate himself with the inhabitants, that they pro- 
 claimed him their sovereign. It had been long the object of Horush's 
 ambition to obtain an independent sovereignty on the northern coast 
 of Africa. The Spaniards at that time possessed the little island of 
 Algesiras in front of Algiers, greatly interrupted its trade, and levied 
 a tribute. The Algerines called to their assistance an Arab Sheik from 
 the interior, who in his turn applied to Horush for assistance. Horush 
 after some minor successes attended to the Sheik Selim's invitation, 
 
BARBAROSSA, KHAIR EDDIN. 
 
 514 
 
 and repaired with his faithful Turks to Algiers, where he was received 
 with great honour, and lodged iu Selim's palace. Here he soon began 
 to assume the tone of a master, while his men lived upon the citizens. 
 Selim, dissatisfied at this, escaped out of the town and joined his 
 Arab countrymen inland ; but Horush enticed him to an interview, 
 and treacherously put him to death ; after which the Turks, having 
 seized on the forts and gates of the town, proclaimed Horush Sultan 
 of Algiers. This happened in 1510, and was the beginning of the 
 Turkish dominion over Algiers. Several conspiracies were formed 
 against the usurped power of Horush, but they all failed, and the con- 
 spirators were punished with severity. Iu 1517 a Spanish armament 
 came into the Bay of Algiers, and landed some troops ; but a storm 
 dispersed the ships, and the men who had landed were either put to 
 death or taken as slaves. The mulatto king of Tenuez also attacked 
 Algiers by laud, but was defeated, and obliged to escape into tho 
 mountains, and Tennez submitted to Horush. 
 
 The next victory of Horush was over the Arab king of Tlemsen, 
 the most powerful chief iu the country. After their king's defeat, the 
 people of Tlemsen cut off his head, and opened their gates to the 
 conqueror. Horush now reigned over tho greater part of the present 
 s-tato of Algiers, and as far west as the frontiers of the kingdom of 
 Fez. The Spaniards of Oran, alarmed at the rapid success of such an 
 enterprising chief, demanded reinforcements from Spain, and Charles V., 
 in 1518, sent 10,000 men under the Marquis de Comares, with orders 
 to drive Horush out of Tlemsen. Horush was forced to retreat, hoping 
 to reach Algiers, but on the banks of the river Maileh lie was overtaken 
 by the Spaniards, totally defeated, and lost his life, after fighting 
 desperately. Horush, or Barbarossa, as ho is generally called, was 
 forty-four years of ago when he fell, fourteen years of which he had 
 speut on the coast of Barbary. He left no children. Merciless as he 
 was to his enemies or rivals, and totally unprincipled and reckless in 
 the pursuit of his ambitious schemes, he was not wantonly cruel. 
 Father Haedo, who was at Algiers in tho latter part of the same 
 century, renders full justice to Barbarossa's personal qualities. The 
 quality which most distinguished him, and which insured his success, 
 was his extraordinary activity and rapidity of movements, which 
 surprised his enemies before they were prepared to resist him. 
 
 (Haedo, Topogrofia e Jlistoria de Argd ; Marino), Description de 
 Africa; Morgan, History of Algiers.) 
 
 BARBARU'SSA, KHAIR EDDIN, brother of the preceding. His 
 name was Hadher, but in the course of his successful career he was 
 honoured by Sultan Solyman with the title of Khair Eddin, that is, 
 ' the good of the faith.' He is also styled by historians Barbarossa II., 
 having succeeded his brother in the sovereignty of Algiers, and being 
 known at sea by the same formidable name. On the news of Horush's 
 death, the Turks at Algiers immediately proclaimed his brother. The 
 following year (1519) a new armament from Spain appeared before 
 Algiers, but it met with the same fate as the former. Hadher, finding 
 himself insecure on his throne, made an offer of the sovereignty to 
 Selim I., sultan of Constantinople, on condition of being himself 
 appointed pasha or viceroy, and of receiving a reinforcement of troops 
 from the sultan. Selim accepted the offer, and sent him in 1519 his 
 firmaun of appointment as pasha or regent of Algiers, and a body of 
 2000 janissaries. From that time Algiers became subject to the high 
 dominion of the Porte, and the Turkish supremacy over the natives 
 was firmly established. In 1530, Hadher, after many attempts, took 
 at last the little fort on the island opposite Algiers, and seuteuced the 
 Spanish commander to a cruel death. He then joined the island to 
 the mainland by a mole, which rendered the harbour of Algiers safe. 
 In this labour he employed a great number of Christian slaves : he 
 also fortified the town by sea and by land. He made several expe- 
 ditious inland against the Beduins and Berbers, and against the 
 Spaniards of Oran : Bona also surrendered to him. Meantime his 
 galleys infested the Mediterranean, and especially the coasts of Spain. 
 
 In 1532, the people of Tunis being dissatisfied with their king, 
 Muley Hassan, invited Barbarossa, who landed at Goletta, drove 
 Hassan away, and took possession of Tunis in the name of Solyman, 
 sultan of the Turks. Solyman, in order to oppose Andrea Doria, 
 whom Charles V. had made his admiral, and who was then scouring 
 the seas of the Levant, appointed Barbarossa his ' pasha of the sea,' or 
 great admiral. Barbarossa, leaving the regency of Algiers to his friend 
 Hassan Aga, a Sardinian renegade, repaired to Constantinople, where 
 he assumed the command of the Turkish fleet. In 1534 he sailed for 
 the coast of Italy, passed the Strait of Messina, and, landing on several 
 points of the kingdom of Naples, ravaged the country and carried 
 away an immense booty. He assailed in the night the town of Foudi, 
 scaled the walls and plundered it, carrying away the inhabitants as 
 slaves. Barbarossa, returning to Tunis, was soon after attacked by 
 Charles V. in person, with Admiral Doria, Fen-ante Gonzaga, and 
 other captains. Doria took Goletta, and Barbarossa shut himself up 
 in Tunis ; but the numerous Christian slaves in the town having 
 revolted, he was obliged to escape, and the troops of Charles V. entered 
 Tunis, which was barbarously pillaged. Doria next took Bona, and 
 placed a garrison in it. Barbarossa having reached Algiers, put to sea 
 again in his own galleys, and made many prizes off the coast of Spain. 
 In 1537 Solyman collected a large force at La Vallona, on the coast of 
 Albania, for the invasion of the kingdom of Naples ; and Barbarossa 
 epairing there with the fleet, landed part of the troops near Castro, 
 
 in the province of Otranto, took the town, and devastated the country. 
 Disputes broke out soon after between Barbarossa and some Venetiau 
 ships of war which were sailing past the Turkish fleet ; and this led to 
 a war between Venice and the Porte, in which Barbarossa attacked 
 Corfu, and ravaged the island, but failed in taking the town. He 
 however plundered several of the islands in the Archipelago. In the 
 following year he sailed to tho Adriatic, where the fleets of Charles V., 
 Venice, and the 1'ope, had assembled at Corfu; but Barbarossa having 
 retreated to the Gulf of Arta, Doria, in command of the united fleet, 
 did not venture to attack him. This affair has been magnified by the 
 Turkish writer of the 'Tarikh al Othmaniah' ('History of the Otto- 
 mans') into a defeat of Doria by Barbarossa. In the next year, Bar- 
 barossa took by storm Casteluuovo, in the Gulf of Cattaro, where Doria 
 had left a Spanish garrison, which was all cut to pieces. In 1542 
 Francis I. of France having made an alliance with Sultan Solyman 
 against Charles V., the Turkish prince sent Barbarossa into the 
 Mediterranean with a fleet of 180 galleys and 10,000 soldiers, the 
 whole of which force ho put at the disposal of the king of France. 
 Barbarossa began by his usual course of devastation against the unfor- 
 tunate kingdom of Naples. He burnt Cotrone, Reggio, and other 
 towns, where hia men committed the most horrible excesses, in the 
 presence of the French envoy, who was on board Barbarossa's admiral's 
 ship. Barbarossa subsequently sailed for Marseille, where he was 
 received with great honour by the governor, Count of Enghien. A 
 French squadron of forty ships having joined the Turks, they sailed 
 on the 5th of August 1543, to attack the town of Nice, which belonged 
 to the Duke of Savoy. Nice was obliged to surrender by capitulation, 
 but the castle continued to defend itself until the report of Doria's 
 approach induced Barbarossa to raise the siege. He however plundered 
 the town in the night, against the articles of the capitulation, burnt 
 part of it, and carried off 5000 of the inhabitants. Soon after, tho 
 French and the Turks quarrelled, and Barbarossa resolved to leave his 
 allies and return to the Levant. On hia way back he plundered the 
 islands of Elba and Giglio, with those of Procida and Ischia, the coast 
 of Policastro, the island of Lipari, the town of Cariati in Calabria, and 
 other places. Barbarossa returned to Constantinople in 1544 ; and he 
 does not seem to have gone to sea afterwards. He died iu 1546, and 
 was buried at Beshiktash, near the entrance of the Black Sea, where 
 he had a country-house, and where his tomb was still to be seen not 
 many years since. 
 
 BARBAULD, ANNA L.ETITIA, was the eldest child and only 
 daughter of the Rev. Johu Aikin, D.D., and the shter of Johu Aikin, 
 M.D. Miss Aikin was born on the 20th of June 1743, at the village 
 of Kibworth Harcourt in Leicestershire, where her father was at that 
 time master of a boys' school. She enjoyed the advantage of having 
 iu both her parents persons williug and able to assist in developing 
 the natural talents of their daughter. 
 
 From her childhood Miss Aikin manifested great quickness of in- 
 tellect. At a very early age she acquired such a knowledge of Latin 
 as to be able to read works in that language with advantage, besides 
 which she gained some acquaintance with Greek. The quiet retire- 
 ment of Kibworth Harcourt afforded full opportunity for the indul- 
 gence of this taste, and the removal of her father with his family to 
 the town of Warrington when she was fifteen years of age, happened 
 soon enough to prevent any bad effects from the seclusion in which 
 her childhood had been passed. Miss Aikin had early shown a taste 
 for poetry, but it was not until the year 1773, when she was thirty 
 years of age, that she yielded to the pursuasions of her brother, and 
 consented to the publication of a selection from her poems. The 
 result fully justified this step, for within the year of its publication 
 four editions of the work were called for. This success at once estab- 
 lished her reputation, and Miss Aikin was induced, also in 1773, 
 to publish a volume in conjunction with her brother, under the title 
 of ' Miscellaneous Pieces in Prose,' by J. and A. L. Aikin ; a work . 
 which also met with a favourable reception, and ha3 been frequently 
 reprinted. The respective contributions of the authors have never 
 been distinguished or correctly assigned. 
 
 In 1774 Miss Aikin married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld, a dis- 
 senting minister, descended from a family of French Protestauts, who 
 had taken refuge in England in the reign of Louis XIV. Mr. Bar- 
 bauld was educated in the academy at Warrington, and at the time 
 of his marriage had been recently appointed to the charge of a dis- 
 senting congregation at Palgrave in Suffolk, near Disa in Norfolk, 
 where he had announced his intention of opening a boarding-school 
 for boys. This undertaking proved speedily successful, a result which 
 must in great part be attributed first to the reputation and afterwards 
 to the active exertions of Mrs. Barbauld. After a few years thus 
 devoted, Mrs. Barbauld was solicited to receive several little boys as 
 her own peculiar pupils ; and among this number may be mentioned 
 Lord Denman, the late Chief Justice of England, and the late Sil 
 William Gell. It was for the use of these her almost infant scholars 
 that she composed her ' Hymns in Prose for Children.' In 1775 Mrs. 
 Barbauld published a small volume, entitled ' Devotional Pieces, 
 compiled from the Psalms of David, with Thoughts on the Devotional 
 Taste, and on Sects and Establishments.' About the same time also 
 she wrote that admirable little volume, her ' Early Lessons,' a pub- 
 lication which has ever since been a standard work. At the time of 
 its first appearance there was a multitude of books professedly written 
 
■I 
 
 BARBERINI. 
 
 BARBOU. 
 
 for children, but not adapted to the comprehension of a child of very 
 tender age, that was not at the same time injurious from its folly or 
 puerility. 
 
 The success of the school at Palgrave remained unimpaired, but the 
 unceasing call for mental exertion on the part of the conductors 
 which its duties required, so much injured their health, that after 
 eleven years of unremitted labour an interval of complete relaxation 
 became necessary ; and Mrs. Barbauld accompanied her husband in 
 the autumn of 17S5 to Switzerland, and afterwards to the south of 
 France. In the following year they returned to England, and early 
 in 1787 took up their residence at Hampstead, where for several years 
 Mr. Barbauld received a few pupils. 
 
 In 1790 Mrs. Barbauld published an eloquent and indignant address 
 to the successful opposers of the repeal of the Corporation and Test 
 Acts. In the following year was written her poetical epistle to 
 Mr. Wilberforce on the rejection of the bill for abolishing the slave 
 trade. In 1792 she published 'Remarks on Mr. Gilbert Wakefield's 
 Inquiry into the Expediency and Propriety of Public or Social 
 Worship ; ' and in 1793 she produced a work of a kind very unusual 
 for a female — a sermon, entitled ' The Sins of Government Sins of the 
 Nation.' In all these works Mrs. Barbauld showed those powers of 
 mind, that ardent love for civil and religious liberty, and that genuine 
 and practical piety by which her whole life was distinguished. In 
 particular her remarks on Mr. Wakefield's ' Inquiry' may be noticed 
 as being one of the best and most eloquent and yet sober appeals in 
 favour of public worship that has ever appeared. 
 
 In the notice of Dr. Aikiu, it is mentioned that his sister supplied 
 several contributions to the ' Evenings at Home.' These contributions 
 were fourteen in number ; and they comprise all that Mrs. Barbauld 
 published till 1795, when she superintended an edition of Akenside's 
 'Pleasures of Imagination,' to which she prefixed a critical essay. In 
 1797 she brought out an edition of Collins' s 'Odes,' with a similar 
 introduction. 
 
 Mr. Barbauld became, in 1802, pastor of a Unitarian congregation 
 at Newington Green, and at this time he changed his residence to 
 Stoke Newington. In 1804 Mrs. Barbauld published a selection of the 
 papers contained in the 'Spectator,' 'Guardian,' 'Tatler,' and 'Free- 
 holder,' with a preliminary essay, which has been much admired for 
 its elegance and acuteness. In the same year Mrs. Barbauld prepared 
 for publication a selection from the correspondence of Richardson the 
 novelist, prefixing a biographical notice of him and a critical examina- 
 tion of his works. 
 
 About this time Mrs. Barbauld's husband, to whom she had been 
 united for more than thirty years, fell into a state of nervous weakness, 
 and at last died in November 1808. From the dejection occasioned 
 by thi3 loss Mrs. Barbauld sought relief in literary occupation, and 
 undertook the task of editing a collection of the 'British Novelists,' 
 which was published in 1810. To these volumes she contributed an 
 introductory essay, and furnished biographical and critical notices 
 of the life and writings of each author. In the next year she composed 
 and published the longest and mo3t highly-finished of her poems, 
 entitled ' Eighteen Hundred and Eleven.' It is written throughout 
 with great power and in harmonious language ; its descriptions are 
 characterised by deep feeling and truth, and its warnings are conveyed 
 with an earnestness which is the be3t evidence of the sincerity of the 
 author. 
 
 Although arrived at years which are assigned as the natural limit to 
 human life, Mrs. Barbauld's fancy was still bright, and she continued 
 to give evidence, by occasional compositions, of the unimpaired energy 
 of her mind. Her spirits were greatly tried during the latter years of 
 her life by the los3 of her brother, who died in 1822, and of several 
 cherished companions of early days who quickly followed. Her 
 constitution, naturally excellent, slowly gave way under an asthmatic 
 complaint; and on the 9th of March 1825, after only a few days of 
 serious illness, she died, in the eighty-second year of her age. Her 
 collected works, with a memoir prefixed, were published by her niece, 
 Mrs. Lucy Aikin, shortly after her decease. 
 
 BARBERI'NI, an Italian family, originally from Florence, which 
 was raised to a high rank among the Roman nobility in consequence 
 of the elevation of one of its members, Cardinal Maffeo Barberino, to 
 the papal chair in 1623, when he assumed the name of Urban VIII. 
 [Urban VIII.] Urban had three nephews, two of whom were made 
 cardinals, and the third prefect of Rome. Under the long pontificate 
 of their uncle the three brothers Barberini attained great power at 
 Rome, where they held the chief business of the government in their 
 hands ; and they had also considerable influence in foreign courts. They 
 became possessed of the fief of Palestriua, which had formerly belonged 
 to the Colonna family ; and they aspired also to the possession of the 
 duchy of Castro and Ronciglione, which belonged to the Farnese 
 family, who had received it a3 a fief from Pope Paul III. This led 
 to a war between the pope and Edward Farnese, duke of Parma, who 
 was joined by the dukes of Modena and of Tuscany, and by the 
 republic of Venice. Cardinal Antonio Barberini commanded the 
 papal troops, and showed considerable skill and personal courage. In 
 1644 peace was made by the interposition of France, and Castro was 
 restored to the Duke of Parma. After Urban's death in 1644, Inno- 
 cent X., who succeeded him, and who partly owed his elevation to the 
 influence of the two cardinals Barberini, instituted proceedings against 
 
 them for peculation and abuse of power during their uncle's pontifi- 
 cate. The Barberini took refuge in France, whero by Cardinal 
 Mazarin's influence Cardinal Antonio Barberini, the eldest brother, wag 
 made archbishop of Rheims and great almoner of France in 1645. 
 In 1652 Innocent X. again admitted the Barberini to his favour, and 
 they returned to Rome, where all judicial proceedings against them 
 were dropped. Lucrezia Barberini, niece of the two cardinals, married, 
 in 1655, Francis I. d'Este, duke of Modena. The Barberini have ever 
 since ranked among the first Roman nobility, several individuals of 
 their name having been successively raised to the rank of cardinals, 
 while the lay representative of the family bears the title of Roman 
 prince, and is possessed of estates at Palestrina, Albano, and in other 
 parts of the Roman state. 
 
 BARBEYRAC, JEAN, an eminent jurist, was born at Beziers in 
 Lower Languedoc, on the 15th of March, 1674. His parents were Cal- 
 vinists, and upon the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1686 they 
 took up their abode at Lausanne in Switzerland, at which place Bar- 
 beyrac was educated. His taste early led him to historical and juridical 
 studies, and induced him to attach himself to the faculty of jurispru- 
 dence. In 1697 he became teacher of the belles lettres in the French 
 college at Berne, where he remained about fourteen years. During 
 this period he published, in periodical repositories of France and Hol- 
 land, several small treatises upon subjects connected with natural and 
 international law; and in 1709 appeared the first edition of his ' Traito 
 du Jeu,' which excited much attention, and gave him considerable repu- 
 tation. Asecond edition (3 vols. 8vo.) of this work, enlarged and improved, 
 was published at Amsterdam in 1737. This siugular book consists of 
 an elaborate and erudite dissertation, applying at great length the rules 
 of religion, morals, and law, to establish the proposition that play, or 
 games in general, and even playing at games of chance, are not iu 
 themselves unlawful occupations. Barbeyrac also published French 
 translations of Puffendoiff's ' Abridgment of the Law of Nature and 
 Nations;' and of two discourses of Gerard Noodt, a learned professor 
 of law at Leyden, ' De Jure Summi Imperii et Lege Regia,' and ' De 
 Religione ab Imperio Jure Gentium Libera ;' all of which were accom- 
 panied with laborious and useful annotations by Barbeyrac. In 1711 
 he was appointed by the Senate of Berne to the chair of law and his- 
 tory, then lately established at the College of Lausanne. His inaugural 
 oration, ' DeDignitate et Utilitate Legis et Historiarum,' was published, 
 at the request of the senate of the college, in the following year. In 
 1713 Barbeyrac became a member of the Royal Society of Sciences at 
 Berlin, and in 1714 he commenced a new version of Grotius's treatise, 
 ' De Jure Belli et Pacis,' with notes, which display much historical 
 research and a profound acquaintance with the law of nations. By 
 this work, and also by his edition of Puffendorff, he established his 
 reputation as a jurist throughout Europe ; and in 1717 he accepted an 
 invitation to become professor of law at the University of Gioningen. 
 A few years after his establishment at Grouingen he compiled his 
 ' Histoire des Anciens Traitds,' consisting of a chronological collection 
 of ancient treaties from the earliest times of which there are any 
 authentic records to the death of Charlemagne, with full historical 
 notes and illustrations : it was published by him as a supplemental 
 volume to the 'Corps Univer'sel du Droit des Gens,' and appears to be 
 by far the most useful of his works. He also translated into French 
 Bynkershoek's ' Traite" du Juge competent des Ambassadeui s.' Bar- 
 beyrac took an active part in a controversy between the Dutch East 
 India Company and certain merchants of Ostend and other parts of 
 the Austrian Netherlands, which was carried on with considerable zeal 
 about the year 1725, in reference to the right of trading to India. 
 Bu-beyrac iu his tract, which is entitled 'Defense du Droit de la 
 Compagnie Hollandoise des Indes Orieutales contre les nouvelles Pre- 
 tensions des Habitans des Pays-bas Autrichiens,' defends the exclusive 
 title of the Dutch Company. Barbeyrac wrote also several tracts an. I 
 some anonymous pieces inserted in the 'Journal des Sjavans' and other 
 literary periodicals. Three discourses, delivered on academical occa- 
 sions at Lausanne in the years 1714, 1715, and 1716, were also published. 
 Barbeyrac died March 3, 1744. 
 
 BARBOU, the name of a family of printers, who long rendered 
 themselves famous for the correctness as well as elegance of the works 
 which issued from their presses. 
 
 John Barbou, the first of the name who is known, was settled at 
 Lyon, where he printed the works of Clement Marot, in the Italic 
 letter, in small 8vo, 1539. Hugh Barbou, son of John, left Lyon, and 
 established himself at Limoges, where, in 1580, he produced a beautiful 
 edition of Cicero's ' Letters to Atticus,' with notes by Simon Dubois 
 lieutenant-general of Limoges. 
 
 The first of the Barbous who settled at Paris was John Joseph, 
 who became a bookseller there iu 1704. He died in 1752. His brother 
 Joseph became a bookseller iu 1717, and a printer in 1723. He died 
 in 1737, when his widow succeeded him, but parted with the printing- 
 office in 1750. 
 
 Joseph Gerard Barbou, nephew of the two Barbous last-mentioned, 
 who became a bookseller in 1746, took in 1750 the printing-office of 
 his uncle Joseph's widow, and soon after engaged in the series of 
 classics which bears his name, and which was in fact the renewal of a 
 series begun in 1743 by M. Lenglet Dufresnoy, and printed by Cous- 
 telier, as rivals to the classics which had been published at an earlier 
 day by the Elzevirs, though of a size somewhat larger. 
 
627 
 
 BARBOUR, JOHN. 
 
 BARCLAY, JOHN. 
 
 C2S 
 
 There is a complete set of the Barbou Classics in the Royal Library 
 
 at the British Museum. The following is a chronological list of 
 them: — Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius, 1754 ; Lucretius, 1754; 
 Phscdrus, 1754; Martinlis, 2 torn. 1754; Eutropius, 1754 ; ' Cscsaris 
 Comment.' 2 torn. 1755 ; Quintus Curtius, 1757; Plautus, 3 torn. 
 1759 ; Tacitus, 3 torn. 1760 ; ' Selecta Seneca) Opera ' (in Gall, versa), 
 a French version with a Latin title, 1760; Ovidius, 3 torn. 1762; 
 Virgilius, 2_tom. 1767 ; ' Lucani Pharsalia (cum. Suppl. Tho. Maii),' 
 1767; Cornelius Nepos, 1767 ; ' Ciceronis Opera,' 14 torn. 1768; 'Plinii 
 Sec. Kpist.' 1769; Justinus, 1770; Sallustius, 1774 ; Horatius, 1775 ; 
 Titus Livius, 7 torn. 1775; ' Persii, Jevenalis, et Sulpicii Sat.' 1776; 
 Velleius Paterculus, 1777; 'Plinii Hist. Naturalis,' 6 torn. 1779. 
 Besides these, J. Q. Barbou printed a Latin Testament, and various 
 works of less note, chiefly between 1757 and 17S9, when he resigned 
 his business to his nephew Hugh Barbou, who dying in 1809, his heirs 
 disposed of the business of this tho last of tho Barbous to M. Auguste 
 Dilalain. 
 
 Two works from the press of Joseph Gerard Barbou (in similar 
 type and size with the classics) affect to have been printed in London: 
 'Sarcotis et Caroli V. Panegyris,' 1771; and 1 Erasmi Moriao Enco- 
 mium,' 1777. The latter undoubtedly, and probably tho former, was 
 a prohibited book. 
 
 BARBOUR or BARBER, JOHN, a divine, historian, and one of the 
 best poets of Scotland, was born, as is supposed, at Aberdeen, according 
 to Sir David Dalrymple, about the year 1 310 (' Annals,' vol. ii., p. 3) ; 
 according to other authorities, in or about the year 1330. Having 
 received a learned education, he entered into holy orders, and was 
 promoted by king David II. to the archdeaconry of Aberdeen in 1356. 
 But in order still further to prosecute his studies, he prevailed upon 
 his sovereign to apply to king Edward III. for permission to reside 
 fur a time at Oxford ; the letter of safe-conduct for which, with three 
 scholars in his company, all coming to perform scholastic exercises, is 
 preserved in Rymer's ' Facdera' (old edit., torn, vi., p. 31 : see also the 
 ' Rotuli Scotia),' vol. i., p. 808). By a deed dated at Fetherin in Aber- 
 deenshire, September 13, we find him appointed in the same year, by 
 the Bishop of Aberdeen, one of his commissioners to deliberate at 
 Edinburgh upon the ransom of the Scottish king. 
 
 Although the archdeacon was famed for his extensive knowledge in 
 the philosophy and divinity of the age in which he lived, he gained a 
 greater reputation even at that time by his poetry, in which he com- 
 posed a history of the life and glorious actions of King Robert Bruce. 
 Dr. Henry says it was written " at the desire of King David Bruce, his 
 son, who granted Barbour a considerable pension for his encourage- 
 ment, which he generously bestowed on an hospital at Aberdeen;" but 
 Dr. Jamieson ('Memoir of Barbour,' prefixed to 'The Bruce,' p. ix.) 
 shows that, although Barbour had two small pensions, there is no 
 evidence that these were granted by King David, or that Barbour 
 was ever commanded by that monarch to write the life of his father. 
 Barbour states in the work itself (b. ix., v. 890) that he finished it in 
 1375. While engaged in its composition he obtained permission and 
 safe-conduct from Edward III. in 1365 to travel through England 
 into Wales, with six horsemen, his attendants. Dr. Jamieson fixes 
 the date of Barbour's death, with seeming accuracy, at the close of the 
 year 1395. 
 
 The value of Barbour's work, as an historical record, was early 
 acknowledged (see the continuator of Fordun's ' Scotichronicon,' lib. 
 xii., c. 9, and Wyntown) ; and it is remarkable that, though Barbour 
 was a Scotchman, his versification and language are quite as intelligible 
 to a modern English reader as that of any other poet of the 14th 
 century, his great contemporary Chaucer scarcely excepted. The first 
 known edition of 'The Bruce' was published at Edinburgh in 1616 in 
 12mo, but an earlier one is believed to have existed. (See Jamieson's 
 ' Memoir,' p. x.) There have been several subsequent editions. The 
 best edition is that of Dr. Jamieson, 4to, Edinburgh, 1820. From some 
 passages in Wyntown's ' Chronicle,' it has been surmised that Barbour 
 also composed a genealogical history of the kings of Scotland ; but no 
 part of this is known to be extant. 
 
 BARCLAY, or BARKLAY, ALEXANDER, was an elegant writer 
 of the 16th century, but whether English or Scotch by birth is dis- 
 puted. He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, about 1495, when 
 Thomas Cornish, suffragan bishop of Tyne in the diocese of Bath and 
 Wells, was provost of that house. After finishing his studies there, 
 he went into Holland, and thence into Germany, Italy, and France, 
 where he applied himself assiduously to the languages spoken in 
 those countries, and to the study of their best authors. Upon his 
 return home, he became chaplain to Bishop Cornish, who appointed 
 him one of the priests or prebendaries of the college of St. Mary 
 Ottery, in Devonshire. After the death of his patron he became a 
 monk of the Benedictine monastery of Ely, where he continued till 
 the suppression of the monastery in 1539. Bishop Tanner (' Bibl. 
 Brit. Hib.' p. 74), from one of Bale's manuscripts, says he afterwards 
 became a Franciscan at Canterbury. There seems no doubt that he 
 subsequently temporised with the changes in religion. On February 
 7th, 1546, we find him instituted to the vicarage of Great Badow in 
 Essex, and on March 30th following to the vicarage of Wokey in 
 Somersetshire. On the 30th April 1552, he was presented by the 
 Dean and Chapter of Canterbury to the rectory of Allhallows, Lom- 
 bard-street, in London, but did not enjoy that preferment above the 
 
 space of six weeks. He died in the June following at Croydon, in 
 
 Surrey, where he was buried in the church. 
 
 Bale ('Script. Illustr.' edit. 1557, cent, ix, p. 66) has treated the 
 memory of Barclay with great indignity. He says, he remained a 
 scandalous adulterer under colour of leading a single life. Pita, on 
 the contrary, assures us that Barclay employed all his study in favour 
 of religion, and in reading and writing the lives of the saints. Both 
 accounts are probably tinctured with partiality. That Barclay was 
 one of the refiners of the English language, and left many testimonies 
 behind him of his wit and learing, cannot be denied. Among Barclay's 
 works may be noticed ' The Castle of Labour,' an allegorical poem, 
 translated from the French, the famous ' Ship of Fools of the 
 World,' partly a translation and partly an imitation of the German 
 work of the same title by Sebastian Brandt, ' The Mirror of Good 
 Manners,' tho ' Life of St. George the Martyr,' &c. 
 
 (Tanner, Bibl. Brit. Hib. ; Wood, Athence Oxon.; Herbert, edit of 
 Ames's Typogr. Antiq. ; Warton, Ilist. Engl. Poetry; Lysons, Env. of 
 London.) 
 
 BARCLAY, JOHN, was born at Pont-a-Mousson, in Lorrain, in 
 1582. He studied at the college of the Jesuits in his native place, 
 and the brethren of the order, observing the dawning of his genius, 
 attempted, according to their usual policy, to secure so promising a 
 disciple. This was opposed by his father, William Barclay, an eminent 
 civilian, noticed in a subsequent article [Barclay, William], who in 
 consequence, in 1603, returned to England, accompanied by his son. 
 John Barclay is said by Bayle to have written and printed, when 19 
 years old, notes on the 'Thebais' of Statius. In 1604, when his 
 father was paying court to King James, he presented that king with 
 encomiastic verses, which are printed in tho ' Delitia) Poetarum 
 Scotorum.' In the same year he dedicated to James I. part of the 
 famous Satyricon generally known by the name of Euphormio, which 
 he bestowed on himself as author. He professed a strong inclination 
 to enter the service of the English king, but their adherence to the 
 Roman Catholic faith was equally against his own and his father's 
 promotion. He went with his father to Angers in 1605, returned for 
 a short time to Britain, visited Paris in 1606, where he married Louise 
 Debonnaire, and afterwards settled in London. He dedicated the 
 second part of his satire to the Earl of Salisbury, with an encomium 
 in which few have concurred. What will now however, perhaps, be 
 considered the most interesting part of this curious work, is the 
 fourth book, which in 1614 he published under the title ' Icon 
 Animarum,' and dedicated to Louis XIII. It commences with 
 remarks on the pursuits and chai'acter of man at the different ages of 
 his life, and contains a series of sketches of the inhabitants of the 
 various known countries of the world. He writes in a clear lively 
 style, and is full of matter. In the ' Icon,' he dwells on the fertility 
 of the soil of England, and on the maritime character of Britain, and 
 the power the country is capable of exercising at sea. In the mean- 
 time, in 1606, Barclay published an account of the Gunpowder Plot — 
 'Series Patefacti divinitus Paricidii,' &c. In 1610 he edited his 
 father's work 'De Potestate Papae,' and in 1612 he defended the 
 opinions of the work and the memory of bis father against the attacks 
 of Cardinal Bellarmin and his followers. Of this work, called 'Pietas, 
 sive publicae pro Regibus ac Principibus, et Privates pro Gulielmo 
 Barclaio Parente Vindiciae,' he subsequently spoke with regret, as 
 exposing him to the displeasure of his own church. In 1615 he 
 passed through France and settled at Rome, where Bayle says he 
 enjoyed the patronage of Paul V. He there, in 1617, published 
 ' Paraenesis ad Sectarios,' a book more likely to be acceptable to the 
 Holy See than his others. In 1621 was published the first edition of 
 the work by which his name has been best known, ' Argenis.' This is 
 a romance full of incident and description, both the matter and style 
 of which have received the commendations of many of the greatest 
 scholars and poets. It is generally published with a key to the real 
 names supposed to be represented in fictitious characters ; but 
 ' Argenis ' appears to be entirely a romance, with only occasional allu- 
 sion to historical events. Its popularity was of long duration. An 
 edition published at Niirnberg in 1776 is the eighteenth. The admira- 
 tion of Cowper, Coleridge, and DTsraeli have made the name familiar 
 to modern English readers. In 1628 an English translation appeared, 
 with the title ' John Barclay, his Argenis, translated out of Latine 
 into English : the prose vpon his Maiesties command by Sir Robert 
 Le Grys, Knight, and the verses by Thomas May, Esq.' Another 
 translation appeared in 1636, and a third in 1772, with the title 
 ' The Phcenix, or the History of Polyarchus and Argenis,' said 
 to be by Clara Reeve, the authoress of the 'Old English Baron.' 
 It has been repeatedly translated into French, and Italian and 
 Spanish copies occur in catalogues. The author's latter days appear 
 to have been strangely occupied. He cultivated, with the hope of 
 great gain, bulbous-rooted plants, which from their being said to 
 have no perfume and to be valuable only for the beauty of their 
 colours may be presumed to have been tulips; but his treasures 
 were stolen, and his golden dream was dissipated. Barclay died at 
 Rome, on the 12th of August 1621, before he had completed his 
 40th year. 
 
 BARCLAY, JOHN, a Presbyterian clergyman, and founder of the 
 small sect called Bereans, whose peculiar standard of faith is contained 
 in the 11th verse of the 17th chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, 
 
629 BARCLAY, 110BERT. BARCLAY, ROBERT. 639 
 
 where it is said of the Jews of Berea, " That they received the word 
 with all readiness of mind, and searched the Scriptures daily, whether 
 those things were so." He was born at Muthill iu Perthshire, in 1734, 
 and studied at the University of St. Andrews, where he took the 
 degree of A.M. While attending the course of divinity taught at 
 that university, he became conspicuous as a supporter of Dr. Archibald 
 Campbell, a promulgator of doctrine? which his enemies charged with 
 savouring of Sociuianism. In 1759 he was licensed as a probationer 
 by the Presbytery of Auchterarder, and was for some time assistant 
 to Mr. Jobson, minister of the parish of Errol in Perthshire ; but 
 after some acrimonious discussion, arising apparently from Barclay's 
 inculcating his own peculiar views from the pulpit, that connection 
 was broken. In 1763 he became assistant of the minister of Fetter- 
 cairn in Forfarshire. Here he became the popular preacher and 
 religious leader of the district, and attracted crowds of auditors from 
 the neighbouring parishes. In 1766 he published a paraphrase of the 
 Book of Psalms, with 'A Dissertation on the best means of interpreting 
 that portion of Scripture.' Some tenets supposed to lurk in this 
 production brought upon him the censure of his presbytery. He sub- 
 sequently published pamphlets calculated to fan the flame he had 
 created against himself. On the death of the clergyman to whom he 
 wa3 assistant, in 1772, the presbytery not only defeated his attempt 
 to be appointed successor, but refused him the necessary testimonials 
 for accepting a benefice elsewhere, and he then left the Church of 
 Scotland, and became the leader of the sect called Bereans, of which 
 a few congregations still exist. He preached for some time in Edin- 
 burgh, and subsequently in London and Bristol. In Loudon he kept 
 open a debating society, where he supported his doctrines against all 
 impugners. He died on the 29th of July 1798. He published several 
 works in which he expounded his peculiar doctrines. Barclay was a 
 man of ardent and restless temper and strong dialectic powers. 
 
 BARCLAY, ROBERT, a distinguished writer of the Society of 
 Friends, was born December 23, 1643, at Gordonstown, in the shire of 
 Moray, and not in Edinburgh, as stated by AVilliam PeDn. His father, 
 Colonel David Barclay, of Ury, was the lineal representative of a family 
 which traced its ancestry to Theobald de Berkely, a gentleman of 
 Norman extraction. The grandfather of Robert Barclay having become 
 impoverished by his extravagances, wa3 obliged to sell estates which 
 had been in the family for upwards of 500 years. Upon these reverses, 
 David, who was the el lest of several sons, went into the army, and 
 served as a volunteer under Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. 
 Having attained the rank of major, he remained abroad till the civil 
 wars broke out in his own country, when he returned home, and 
 became Colonel of a Royalist regiment of horse. On the accession of 
 Cromwell's party to power, he retired from his military employments, 
 married, and purchased a house at Ury, near Aberdeen, which became 
 the seat of the family. 
 
 David Barclay had three sons. Robert, the eldest, after receiving 
 the rudiments of his education in his native country, was sent to 
 Paris to pursue his studies under the direction of his uncle, who was 
 rector of the Scots College in that capital. " Being ambitious of 
 knowledge, and having a certain felicity of undei-standing," to use his 
 own expressions, his proficiency wa3 so considerable as to obtain him 
 the notice and commendation of the professors. At the same time, 
 his deportment and character so endeared him to his uncle, that he 
 offered to make him his heir, and to settle a large estate immediately 
 upon him, if he would remain in France. When he found however 
 that his father was opposed to his continuance in a country where he 
 had been won over to the Roman Catholic faith, no temptation could 
 shake his resolution to return home, and he declined the offer which 
 bis uncle had made. When he left Paris he was in his 15th year. 
 
 While the son was deserting Calvinism for Popery, the father's 
 opinions were undergoing an equally remarkable change. During a 
 short imprisonment, from which he was liberated without anything 
 being laid to his charge, he was converted to the views of the Society 
 of Friends, a sect which had then existed only ten years. 
 
 After an interval of a few years Robert followed the example of his 
 father, and in the year 1667 avowed himself a Quaker. This change 
 of opinion gave a decided bias to his future studies. He learned the 
 Greek and Hebrew languages, in addition to the Latin and French, in 
 which he had made great proficiency in France. To his other acquire- 
 ments he added au acquaintance with the writings of the fathers, and 
 with ecclesiastical history. He soon found profitable use for his 
 knowledge and abilities in defence of his new associates. The Friends, 
 at their origin, did not adopt any peculiar marks ; they only dressed 
 like all the strictly religious people of that day, and abstained from all 
 extravagances ; they however adhered closely to this plainness, when 
 other people cast it aside, after the restoration of Charles II., under 
 the stigma of puritauism. But the vicinity of Aberdeen was not 
 more free thau other parts of Britain from that spirit which affected 
 to discover, under this garb and plainness of manners, a deep-rooted 
 aversion to religion and civil government. Tbe meetings of the society 
 were prohibited, and those who attended them were taken before 
 magistrates, and committed to prison. From such intolerance even 
 the family respectability of the Barclays did not preserve them. They 
 bore their share in the sufferings of those times. 
 
 Robert Barclay no sooner saw how much of this ill-will arose from 
 the misapprehensions of the public concerning the principles of the 
 
 BIOCI. DIV. VOL. l 
 
 Quakers, than he set himself to correct them. A bcok having been 
 written by a Scotch clergyman, embodying the principal charges which 
 had been brought against the doctrines and views of the Quakers, he 
 endeavoured to vindicate them, in a treatise published at Aberdeen in 
 the year 1670, under the title of 'Truth cleared of Calumnies.' A 
 reply being made to this publication, in which all the offensive state- 
 ments were repeated, Barclay put forth an able and learned rejoinder, 
 entitled ' William Mitchell Unmasked.' In 1670 he married Christian 
 Mollison, a lady whose character is highly spoken of. In 1672 he took 
 the extraordinary resolution of walking through the streets of Aberdeen 
 clothed in sackcloth and ashes, to which he states that he was enforced 
 by "the command of the Lord," that the inhabitants of Aberdeen might 
 be warned and exhorted to immediate repentance. 
 
 Barclay believed, as the Society of Friends now do, that divine reve- 
 lation is not incompatible with right reason, yet he believed, as the 
 Friends also now do, that the faculty of reason alone, unassisted by 
 divine illumination, is unable to comprehend or receive the sublime 
 truths relative to that redemption and salvation which came by Jesus 
 Christ. To show that the tenets held by the society were capable of 
 a rational vindication, Barclay employed all the powers of his intellect, 
 and produced a succession of works, designed and calculated to accom- 
 plish this object. The first was an exposition of the doctrines and 
 principles of the Quakers, bearing the following title, ' A Catechism 
 and Confession of Faith, approved of and agreed unto by the General 
 Assembly of the Patriarchs, Prophets, and Apostles, Christ himself 
 chief Speaker in and among them: ' in which the answers are all given 
 in the language of the Bible. This was followed by a more scholastic 
 work, called ' Theses Theologicce,' comprising, in fifteen propositions, 
 the doctrines maintained by the Quakers ; and as it met with a favour- 
 able reception, he made these propositions the heads of a more elabo- 
 rate treatise, brought out two years later, under the title of 'An 
 Apology for the true Christian Divinity as the same is held forth and 
 practised by the people called, in scorn, Quakers.' Both these per- 
 formances were originally printed in Latin, and afterwards translated 
 by the author and published in English. In style and execution they 
 have been deservedly admired. The effect produced by them iu 
 altering the tone of public opinion was not immediately visible ; but 
 it wa3 proved that this proscribed sect professed a system of theology 
 that wa3 capable of being defended by strong if not unanswerable 
 arguments. Some portions of it became the subject of controversial 
 discussion, the assumption of inward light being supposed by many 
 to set aside the superior authority of Scripture, and the denial of the 
 perpetuity of baptism and the Lord's Supper occasioning a suspicion 
 of infidelity. On this supposed tendency of the system it was acri- 
 moniously attacked by John Brown, in a work to which he gave the 
 title of ' Quakerism the Pathway to Paganism,' now little known and 
 less read. 
 
 The propositions in the 'Apology' being enunciated and maintained 
 with logical acuteness, were much canvassed in various seats of learn- 
 ing. In the Netherlands they met with an antagonist in Nicholas 
 Arnold, a professor in the University of Franeker, who published his 
 objections, to which Barclay replied : and in the same year they gave 
 rise to an oral discussion between some students in the University of 
 Aberdeen, on the one side, and the author, assisted by his friend George 
 Keith, on the other. No part of the 'Apology' was controverted by 
 so many opponents as that iu which the necessity of an inward and 
 immediate revelation was insisted upon. It was the only portion of 
 the work which could be considered original. The other doctrines 
 contained in it had all been maintained by abler defenders ; their 
 arrangement in the Quaker system of theology being the only point 
 in which they differed from the Arminian scheme. None of the 
 numerous publications in which this leading tenet of this new faith 
 was attempted to be disproved, called forth a reply from the writer; 
 but having been requested by Adrian Paets, an ambassador from the 
 court of the Netherlands, with whom he had some conversation on 
 the principles of the Friends, to re-consider the strength of some 
 objections which he had advanced against them, Barclay addressed 
 him in Latin on the subject, while he was in the prison at Aberdeen, 
 reviewed his former arguments, and declared himself more convinced 
 of their truth than he had ever been. The translation of this letter 
 into English was his last literary labour. 
 
 The discipline, or church government, of the Society of Friends was 
 as much defamed as their religious opinions. It could not be denied, 
 that in their forms of worship, of marriage, and of burial, there was 
 a wide departure from the customary ceremonial ; and it was generally 
 understood that the society carried its interference to a great extent 
 in the private concerns of those who belonged to it3 communion. 
 These regulations were vindicated by Barclay iu a work wherein he 
 contrasts the internal government of the Quakers with the anarchy 
 of the Ranter3, and the hierarchy of the Romanists, justifying the 
 discipline of his sect, and defending its members "from those who 
 accuse them of confusion and disorder, and from such as charge them 
 with tyranny and imposition." The publication of this treatise en- 
 gaged its author in a long altercation with some persons of his own 
 persuasion, who took offence at various parts of it, as tending to 
 violate the rightu of private judgment and to restrain the operations 
 of the Spirit. Their opposition, being discountenanced by the society, 
 soon passed away, and the work itself rose into such favour amon^ 
 
 2 M 
 
633 
 
 BARCLAY, WILLIAM. 
 
 BARETTI, JOSEPH. 
 
 532 
 
 the sect, that its title was changed, at one of its yearly meetings, to 
 ' A Treatise on Christian Discipline,' and it became the standard 
 authority on all matters to which it relates. 
 
 The importance attached by Robert Barclay to the internal order of 
 the body, and his desire to preach the gospel (which was indeed his 
 strong motive), induced him to accompany William Penn and George 
 Fox to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, for the purpose of consulting the 
 Friends in the Netherlands on some important regulations connected 
 with their system of church government. For the promotion of this 
 and other objects connected with the prosperity of the society, he 
 frequently went to London to attend its annual meetings. His 
 character and connections gave him influence in quarters where the 
 presence of such a man might be supposed to be least welcome. He 
 was known at court, where he was well received, and treated with 
 marked respect by Charles II. 
 
 In 1G79 Barclay obtained a charter from Charles II. for erecting his 
 lauds at Ury into a freo barony, with civil and criminal jurisdiction 
 for him and his heirs, which was afterwards ratified by act of parlia- 
 ment; and this privilege was enjoyed by the family until the tenure 
 of all such grants was extinguished in Scotland in the reign of 
 George II. During this year he was again employed in writing in 
 defence of his 'ApoL'gy,' and his treatise on ' Discipline ' — his two 
 chief works. He also wrote two tracts to prove that all war was 
 indefensible — one of which was addressed to the ambassadors of the 
 several princes of Europe then assembled at Nimegueu ; to each of 
 whom he forwarded his tract, accompanied with a copy of his principal 
 work, ' An Apology for the True Christian Divinity.' 
 
 In 1 682 he was appointed governor of the province of E;i3t Jersey, 
 in North America, by the proprietors, among whom was his particular 
 friend the Earl of Perth ; but he only availed himself of the power 
 with which ho was invested, of sending a deputy. His two brothers 
 afterwards went to settle there, the youngest of whom died on the 
 passage. The few latter years of Robert Barclay's life were spent in 
 the quiet of his family. He was iu London for the last time in the 
 memorable year of 1 CSS, and as usual paid a visit to James II. Being 
 with the king near a window, James looked out, and observed that 
 the wind was fair for the Prince of Orange to come over. Barclay 
 replied, " It was hard that no expedient could be found to satisfy the 
 people." The king declared he would do anything becoming a gentle- 
 man, except parting with " liberty of conscience, which he never would 
 while he lived." 
 
 Barclay died October 3, 1G90, iu the forty-second year of his age, 
 leaving three sons and four daughters, all of whom were living fifty 
 years after his death. The last of them, Mr. David Barclay, a mercer 
 in Cheapside, is said to have entertained three successive monarchs, 
 George L, II., III., when they visited the city on Lord Mayor's day. 
 
 The intellectual superiority of Barclay places him at the head of 
 the writers of his sect. His works contain the only systematic view 
 of their opinions and principles. In his moral character he was free 
 from reproach. Iu all the relations of life, and in his intercourse with 
 the world, he was conspicuous for the exercise of those virtues which 
 are the best test of right principles, and the most unequivocal proof 
 of their practical influence. 
 
 (Works of Rohert Barclay, 3 vols. 8vo ; Short Account of the Life and 
 Writings of Robert Barclay ; Jaffray, Diary, by John Barclay, above 
 referred to.) 
 
 BARCLAY, WILLIAM, a civilian, father of the author of 'Argenis,' 
 was born in Aberdeenshire iu 1540. In early life he attached himself 
 to the court of Mary Queen of Scots, but the misfortunes of that 
 princess closing the path to preferment, in 1573 he emigrated to France. 
 With many other Scotchmen of the period, he studied civil law under 
 Cujacius at Bourges. In 1578 he became professor of law in the then 
 recently erected university of Pont a-Mousson, of which his uncle 
 Edmund Hay was the first rector. In 1600 he published a work in 
 favour of despotic principles, ' De Regno et Regali Potestate, adversus 
 Buchananum, Brutum, Boucherium, et reliquos Monarchomachos, 
 Libri Sex.' Having quarrelled with the Jesuits, whom he charged 
 with a design to attach his distinguished son to their order, he resigned 
 his chair in 1603, and proceeded to England. He appears to have 
 expected to find favour with King James. His defence of despotic 
 power suited one of the leading opinions of this king. A denial of the 
 temporal authority of the popeharmonisedwith another. On this subject 
 Barclay wrote a book against Bellarmin, posthumously published by 
 his son in 1609, with the title ' De Potestate Papse, an et quatenus in 
 Reges et Principes seculares Jus et Imperium habeat,' which was sub- 
 sequently translated into English. It appears however that Barclay's 
 adherence to the Roman Catholic faith interfered with his receiving 
 any promotion directly from James. In 1605 he was appointed Dean 
 and Professor of Civil Law at Angers, where in the same year he pub- 
 lished in Svo a commentary in the titles of the Pandects ' De Rebus 
 Creditis' and 'De Jure-jurando,' dedicated to King James. In the 
 same year he died at Angers. 
 
 BARCO'CHEBAS (Shimeon Bar Cochba], the Sou of the Star, was 
 the title of a false Messiah, who applied to himself the prophecy of 
 Balaam, "There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall 
 rise out of Israel," &c. After the pretensions of Bar Cochba were 
 refuted by the event, he was called Ben Coziba, the Son of Lying. 
 
 Trajan persecuted both the Jews and the Christians. His animosity 
 
 towards the Jews was probably increased during his expedition against 
 
 the Persiaus, a.d. 107; at least we see that he became more zealous 
 iu his persecution about a.d. 108. The oppression experienced by the 
 Jews stimulated them to rebellious commotions, and they put to death 
 many thousands of Greeks in Cyprus, Cyrene, and other places, when 
 Trajan removed the legions from these provinces at the commencement 
 of hi3 second expedition against the Parthians, about 115 and 116. It 
 seems that the journey of Rabbi Aquiba, or Akiba, to Mesopotamia 
 was connected with the insurrectionary commotions among the Jews. 
 Aquiba preached the approach of tho kingdom of the Messiah, whom 
 he considered to have appeared in the person of Bar Cochba, and in 
 the same year a rebellion broke out in Mesopotamia. Lucius Quietu', 
 having subdued the rebels, was appointed by Trajan governor of 
 Palestine. Many rabbies were executed under the government of 
 Quietus in tho north of Palestine, especially in Chalcis. After the 
 death of Trajan in 118, the Emperor Hadrian deprived the ambitious 
 Quietus of his office, and appointed J. Aunius Rufus governor in his 
 stead. This man (whom the Talmudists erroneously call Turnus 
 Rufus, and whom some rabbies style emperor) adopted very harsh 
 measures against the Jews, who consequently began secretly to collect 
 arms. Aquiba, who had declared himself in favour of Bar Cochba, 
 was with mauy other rabbies cast into prison. Soon after the return 
 of Hadrian from his second journey to the east, about 130, the rebellion 
 broke out. Shimeon Bar Cochba gained influence partly by a repu- 
 tation for miraculous powers, and partly by his intrepidity. His 
 followers, the number of whom increased rapidly, fortified the sum- 
 mits of various bills and mountains, concealed arms in caves, com- 
 menced a guerilla warfare against the Romans, and cruelly persecuted 
 the Christiana who refused to join them. Bar Cochba took Jerusalem 
 about 132 without difficulty, as the garrison had probably left the towu 
 to attack the rebels. He issued coins, having on one side his own 
 name and on the other ' Freedom of Jerusalem.' In the British 
 Museum is a coin ascribed by some to Simon the Maccabee, corres- 
 ponding to the description given by Tychsen and others of a coin of 
 Bar Cochba. One side of this coin represents a portion of four columns, 
 iu the midst of which is a lyre; a serpentine stroke below is .said to 
 represent the brook of Kidrou, and a star seems to allude to Numbers 
 xxiv. 17. The other side has a vcs-el of manna and a leaf. Hunter 
 concluded, from a similar coin, that Bar Cochba had commenced the 
 rebuilding of the temple; but Nicaphorus Callist. ('Hist. Ecrf.,' iii. 
 c. 24) and Cedreuus (' Script. Byz.,' xii. p. 249) say only that the Jews 
 intended to rebuild the temple. Rabbi Abraham Ben Dior and other 
 Jewish writers state, but no credit is due to the statement, that after 
 the death of Bar Cochba his son Turnus succeeded to the throne, and 
 was himself succeeded by his own son Romulus. 
 
 The taking of Jerusalem so animated the courage of the friends of 
 liberty, that Rufus was no longer able to resist them. Tho rebels 
 occupied 50 fortified places, and 985 villages. 
 
 On this the Emperor Hadrian ordered his most able commander, 
 Julius Severus, to leave his post in Britain, and repair to Palestine; 
 but the time which elapsed during his journey was favourable to the 
 rebels. After his arrival, Juliu3 Severus prudently avoided battles, 
 but took a number of fortified places before he marched against 
 Jerusalem, which he took and destroyed after sustaining great losses. 
 The Jews, after the capture of the city, concentrated their forces in 
 the mountain-fortress of Bethar, which was probably the same as 
 Betharis, iu the neighbourhood of Bethron, on the north-west side of 
 Jerusalem. While Julius Severus was gradually reconquering the 
 country, Bar Cochba still played the king iu Bethar for three years, 
 and, on the unfounded suspicion of treason, executed the learned 
 Eleazar of Modaiu, who having prayed for the welfare of the fortress, 
 was slandered by a Cuthite (that is a Samaritan), as if he intended to 
 betray Bethar to Hadrian. According to Talmudical statements, 
 Bethar was taken in 135, by the Romans on the 9th day of the month 
 of Ab, the anniversary of the burning of the temple under Titus. It 
 has been stated that on this occasion 580,000 Jews perished ; but 
 this must be greatly exaggerated. Bar Cochba fell in the combat, 
 and his head was brought into the Roman camp. Aquiba, and many 
 rabbies, who were considered authors of the rebellion, were put to a 
 cruel death. [Aquiba.] 
 
 (Dr. J. M. Jost, Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes, vol. 
 ii., from a.d. 107 to 135; Sepher Juchasin, ed. Cracow, pp. 32, 35 ; 
 Seder Haddorolh, p. 43 ; Tsemach David, to the year of the Jewish 
 era 3880, and other Jewish chronographers, who refer to the respec- 
 tive passages of the Talmuds of Babylon and Jerusalem ; Tractalus 
 Talmudicus Babyl. Gittin. fol. 57, apud Joh. a Lent, de Jvdosorum 
 Pseudo-Mess.) 
 
 BARE'TTI, JOSEPH, was born at Turin on March 22, 1716. His 
 father intended him for the profession of the law, but young Baretti 
 feeling a dislike to it, left his father's house at the age of sixteen, and 
 went to Guastalla, where he had an uncle, who placed him as a clerk 
 in a commercial house. He applied his leisure hours to literature ; 
 and after a few years he left the counting-house, aud went to Milan 
 and Venice, where he became acquainted with Gasparo Gozzi, Passe- 
 roni, Parini, and other literary men of that age. At Venice he was 
 employed by a bookseller to translate Corneille's plays into Italian. 
 On his return to Turin, in 1747, he wrote a pamphlet against a pro- 
 fessor of that university, of the name of Bartoli ; but the pamphlet 
 
633 BARGAGLI, SCIPIONE. 
 
 was suppressed by the regent of the university, and Baretti being 
 reprimanded, determined upon leaving Italy. He had early applied 
 to the study of the English language, and in 1751 he came to London, 
 where he employed himself as a teacher of Italian. In 1757 he 
 published the ' Italian Library,' which was an account of the lives and 
 works of the most valuable authors of Italy, with a short history of 
 the Italian language : this work is valuable as a catalogue. Having 
 become known, he was appointed secretary for the foreign corres- 
 pondence to the Royal Academy of painting, sculpture, and architec- 
 ture. In 1760 he travelled through Portugal, Spain, and the south of 
 Fiance, to Italy ; and published au account of his journey in his 
 'Lettere Famigliari,' in 2 vols., 1762. He afterwards recast his work 
 into English, and published it with considerable additions, under the 
 title of ' A Journey from London to Genoa,' 4 vols. 12mo, Dublin, 
 1770. 
 
 Baretti spent several years after his return to Italy between Turin, 
 Milan, and Venice ; in which last city he bsgan a critical journal, 
 called ' Frusta Litteraria,' the Literary Scourge, which attracted much 
 attention in Italy. But he conducted his journal in a tone of bitter- 
 ness, became involved in personal quarrels with several writers of 
 note, and consequently thought it prudent to leave Venice. He took 
 up his abode at Ancona, where, in 1765, he went on publishing his 
 journal, affixing to it the false locality of Trento. Some time after- 
 wards he discontinued it, and returned to England. 
 
 In England he wrote ' An Account of the Manners and Customs of 
 Italy, with Observations on the Mistakes of Travellers with regard to 
 that Country,' 2 vols. Svo, London, 1769. His book is curious, inas- 
 much as it gives a pretty fair account by an Italian of the manners 
 and habits of his country long before the change that has taken place 
 in consequence of the political vicissitudes of the last century. He 
 also wrote a dissertation in French ' Sur Shakspeare et M. de Voltaire,' 
 in which he refuted many errors which Voltaire had made in speaking 
 of Shakspere, and exposed his flippancy in judging of the language 
 and literature of foreign nations, such as the English and the Italian, 
 with which he was very superticially acquainted, and into the spirit 
 of which he could not enter. Baretti published an 'Italian Grammar,' 
 and an ' Italian and English Dictionary,' in two vols. 4to, which super- 
 seded the former one of Altieri; it has since gone through several 
 editions, and is still much in use. He also compiled a ' Spanish and 
 English Dictionary,' fol., London, 1778. 
 
 One evening as Baretti was going to the Academy he found him- 
 self unexpectedly involved in a street brawL Being attacked by 
 several men, he drew his penknife and wounded one of the assailants, 
 who soon after died. He was tried on the capital charge, made his 
 own defence, and was acquitted by the jury. On the trial, Dr. John- 
 son, with whom for many years he was on terms of intimate friendship, 
 Mr. Burke, and Garrick, gave favourable evidence as to his character. 
 
 In 1782 Baretti obtained an increase of his salary as secretary to 
 the Royal Academy, which, added to the profits derived from his 
 literary labours, enabled him to live in decent comfort till May 5, 
 1789, when he died in London, in his seventy-fifth year. 
 
 BARGA'GLI, SCIPIO'NE, was born at Siena, in Tuscany, of a 
 patrician family, about the middle of the 10th century. He became 
 distinguished as an elegant writer, and was a member of the academy 
 of the Intronati of Siena, as well as of the Venetian academy which 
 was instituted at Venice in 1593. Bargagli's principal works are, 1. 
 'I Trattenimenti,' 4to, Firenze, 1581, and Venice, 1587, which by 
 some is called Bargagli's novels. The work is a series of tales, but it 
 begins with a powerful description of the horrors which the people of 
 Siena had to encounter in 1554-55, while besieged by the united forces 
 of Charles V. and of Cosmo, grand duke of Florence, previous to the 
 final extinction of their republic. It is a faithful historical account, 
 and ia calculated to excite the most intense interest. 2, 'Dell' 
 Imprese,' 4to, Venice, 1594. This is a work of considerable erudition 
 concerning the origin and symbolic language of devices and mottoes 
 which were assumed in the ages of chivalry, and is considered as one 
 of the best on the subject. The third work of Bargagli is 'II Turamino 
 ovvero del Parlare e dello Scriver Sanese,' 4to, Siena, 1602, a dialogue 
 on the various dialects of Tuscany, and especially on that of Siena, 
 explaining the principal differences of spelling and pronunciation 
 between that and the Florentine dialect, as well as the difference in 
 certain words used by each to signify the same objects. Bargagli wrote 
 other minor works both in prose and verse. He died October 1612. 
 
 His brother Girolamo, who was a professor of law, and afterwards 
 a counsellor of some note in his native city, was likewise an author. 
 He wrote a book called ' Dialogo dei Giuochi che nolle Vegghie Sanesi 
 ei usano di fare,' 8vo, Venice, 1575, which is an explanation of the 
 numerous social games which used to be and are still occasionally 
 played in Italy. This book has been by some erroneously attributed 
 to Scipione Bargagli. 
 
 (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.) 
 
 BAKHAM, REV. RICHARD HARRIS, was born December 6, 
 I 1788, at Canterbury, where his family had resided for many genera- 
 tions. He was an only son, and his father, who died in 1795, left him 
 a small estate. In 1802 bis right arm was severely shattered by the 
 upsetting of the Dover mail, in which he was travelling to St. Paul's 
 School, London. His life was despaired of for some time, but he 
 ultimately recovered, and regained the use of his arm. From St. Paul's 
 
 BARKER, EDMUND HENRY. 634 
 
 School he removed to Brasenose College, Oxford, where, during a ehcrt 
 but severe illness, he first entertained the thought of entering into tho 
 church, though he had previously to this intended to become a lawyer, 
 and did afterwards become for a short time a pupil to a conveyancer. 
 Having passed his examination for holy orders, he was admitted to 
 the curacy of Ashford in Kent, whence he removed to Westwell, a 
 few miles distant. Mr. Barham married in 1814, and shortly after- 
 wards was presented by the Archbishop of Canterbury to the rectory 
 of Snargate, and he obtained at the same time the curacy of Warebam, 
 the former in Romney Marsh, Kent, a district much frequented by 
 smugglers, and the latter on the verge of it. The breaking of one leg 
 and the spraining of the other by the overturning of a gig, gave him 
 occasion to employ himself in the composition of a novel entitled 
 ' Baldwin,' which was published without attracting any notice. Soon 
 afterwards he became a candidate for a vacant minor canonry in 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, and though his friends thought he had no chance 
 of success, he was duly elected in 1S21. He thenceforth devoted much 
 of the time not required by his professional duties to contributions in 
 prose and verse to the periodical publications of the day. He wrote 
 ' My Cousin Nicholas' in ' Blackwood's Magazine,' and about one third 
 of the articles in Gorton's ' Biographical Dictionary ' were written by 
 him. 'My Cousin Nicholas' has since been published in a separate 
 form in 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 In 1824 Mr. Barham received the appointment of a priest in ordinary 
 of the Chapel Royal, and shortly afterwards was presented to the 
 rectory of the united parishes of St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory 
 by St. Paul, London. 
 
 Till the year 1837, when the first number of Bentley's ' Miscellany ' 
 appeared, Mr. Barham had been an anonymous and comparatively 
 unknown writer ; but the ' Ingoldsby Legends,' a series of humorous 
 tales in verse, which appeared in rapid succession in that work, brought 
 him so much reputation that his pseudo name of Ingoldsby no longer 
 concealed him, and he became generally known as the author. In 
 1842 he was appointed divinity reader in St. Paul's Cathedral, and he 
 was permitted to change his living for the more valuable rectory of 
 St. Augustine and St. Faith, London. 
 
 On the 28th of October 1844, when the Queen visited the city to 
 open the new Royal Exchange, Mr. Barham, who was a witness of the 
 procession, caught a severe cold, from which he never recovered. He 
 died June 17, 1845. 
 
 Mr. Barham was personally acquainted with Theodore Hook, the 
 Rev. Sydney Smith, and several other of the distinguished wits of his 
 day, and was, like them, a frequent diner-out, a sayer of good things, 
 and a teller of droll stories ; but he never neglected his more serious 
 duties, and was much respected by those who knew him. 
 
 The 'Ingoldsby Legends' have been published in 3 vols, post 8vo. 
 ' A Memoir of the Rev. Richard Harris Barham,' by his son the Rev. 
 R. H. D. Barham, precedes the Third Series. 
 
 BARKER, BENJAMIN, a landscape painter of Bath, and the 
 brother of the more distinguished Thomas Barker, noticed in another 
 article. [Barker, Thomas.] His works are little known beyond the 
 circle of his acquaintances. He was however a painter of very great 
 ability, though his works exhibit many defects of execution. His 
 subjects were chiefly taken from near Wick Rocks, Claverton, Midford, 
 Weston, and Hampton Cliffs, and are remarkable for their fidelity, and 
 for the fine delicate feelings with which the characteristic aspect of 
 each has been selected. He published a set of 48 views, engraved in 
 aquatinta by Theodore Fielding. He died in March 1838, aged 62, at 
 Totness in Devonshire. (Art Union, February 1843.) 
 
 BARKER, EDMUND HENRY, was born in December 1788, at 
 his father's vicarage of Hollym in Yorkshire. He entered in 1807 as 
 a student of Trinity College, Cambridge, but did not take any degree. 
 Upon leaving the university he became amanuensis to Dr. Parr, in 
 whose house, at Hatton, he resided in that character for several years. 
 He then married, and settled at Thetford in Norfolk. The last few 
 years of his life were marked by painful reverses of fortune. They 
 were spent chiefly in London, where he died, after a short illness, on 
 the 21st of March, 1839. 
 
 Mr. Barker's writings in classical philology and criticism were nume- 
 rous. He was a constant and leading contributor to Mr. Valpy's 
 ' Classical Journal,' almost from its commencement till its close in 
 1829 ; and he furnished many papers also to other periodical publi- 
 cations. He edited, with English notes, for the use of schools, 
 portions of several of the classics, both Greek and Latin. He also 
 published a volume in which he believed himself to have disproved 
 Sir Philip Francis's authorship of the 'Letters of Junius ; ' and he was 
 the compiler or editor of the curious but undigested mass of literary 
 anecdotes and criticisms, devoted to the memory of his friend Dr. 
 Parr, and entitled ' Parriana,' 2 vols., Svo, 1828. 
 
 But Mr. Barker's name has been best known through his con- 
 tributions to Greek lexicography. The latest work of this kind in 
 which he engaged was the Greek and English Lexicon published iu 
 1831, in which he was the coadjutor of Professor Dunbar of Edin- 
 burgh. But an undertaking at once more laborious and more unlucky 
 was Mr. Valpy's spirited reprint of Henry Stephens's ' Thesaurus 
 Gnecao Lingua;,' Loudon, 1816-28, 10 vols., fol. Although the editor- 
 ship of this work was described as vested in more than one person, it 
 was understood universally that the duties involved iu the editorship 
 
 I 
 
ESS 
 
 BARKER, ROBERT. 
 
 BARLOW, JOEL. 
 
 were really performed by Mr. Barker almost without any assistance. 
 In 1819, after the publication of a few parts, the work was most 
 severely criticised in the 44th number of tho ' Quarterly Review.' 
 Mr. Barker himself maintained that the criticism was prompted by 
 resentment, and he defended himself against his supposed assailant 
 in an eccentric and desultory work called ' Aristarchus Anti- 
 Blomfieldianus.' 
 
 Mr. Barker's merit as an editor of classical works was that of the 
 collector, not that of the philosopher, or even the critic; but he earned 
 faithfully, and deserves to obtain without reserve, such praise as may 
 be challenged by unwearied and disinterested labour. No man 
 worked harder than Mr. Barker ; no man worked with a more single- 
 minded desire for disseminatiug that which he believed to be valuable 
 knowledge. 
 
 BARKER, ROBERT, born at Kells, in the county of Meath, 
 Ireland, was the inventor and patentee of panoramas. He practised 
 originally as a portrait painter in Dublin aud in Edinburgh. The first 
 picture of the kind which he painted was a view of Edinburgh, 
 exhibited in Edinburgh in 1788, and in London in 1789, but with 
 indifferent success. His second panorama was a view of Loudon 
 from the Albion Mills, and it was exhibited, with complete success, in 
 Castle-street, Leicester-square, and afterwards in Germany. Ho built, 
 and opened in 1793, with a panorama of Spithead, the present 
 (Clifford's) panorama exhibition-rooms in Leicester-square, which 
 after his death were for many years continued by his son, Henry 
 Aston Barker, who fully equalled his father in the same description of 
 painting. Mr. Robert Barker was assisted in many of his panoramas 
 by his sou, and by R. R. Reinagle, R.A., from whose sketches most of 
 his foreign views were painted, as Rome, the Bay of Naples, Florence, 
 Paris, Gibraltar, and the Bay of Algesiras. Nelson's battles of 
 Aboukir and Trafalgar were also among his most popular panoramas. 
 He died in London, in April 1800', aged 66. 
 
 BARKER, THOMAS, was born near Pontypool, Monmouthshire, 
 in 17C9. His father was by profession a barrister, but being a man of 
 desultory and expensive habits, he failed to obtain practice, and, 
 having wasted his property, he took to painting portraits of horses, 
 &c. Thomas Barker early imbibed a passion for art ; and some of h'u 
 drawings so much pleaded a Mr. Spackman, a wealthy coach-builder at 
 Bath, where the family then resided, that he took the youth under 
 his protection and kept him for several years in his house, affording 
 him at the same time the means and opportunity of pursuing his 
 artistic studies. When young Barker had arrived at the age of 21, 
 his generous patron sent him to Rome to complete his studies, fur- 
 nishing him with ample funds to maintain himself while there in 
 something like luxury. 
 
 Mr. Barker established himself as an artist in Bath. He painted 
 chiefly landscapes and rustic figures ; but he occasionally essayed, 
 though with less success, a more ambitious class of subjects. He 
 speedily obtained popularity aud patronage in Bath, and indeed 
 throughout the western and midland counties. He only occasionally 
 sent pictures to the London exhibitions, but his name was well known 
 in the metropolitan art-circles. Perhaps no contemporary painter 
 resident in the provinces (Bird excepted) gained so wide a measure of 
 celebrity. One of his pictures — the Woodman — formed one of the 
 most popular engravings of the day ; and the Woodman's well-known 
 figure was reproduced in ruder prints, upon jugs and plates, and nearly 
 every variety of earthenware, upon snuff- and tobacco-boxes, pocket- 
 handkerchiefs, and almost every kind of article upon which a design 
 could be painted or printed. Others of his designs were also very 
 extensively employed by manufacturers. As a painter, Mr. Barker 
 displayed in his own peculiar walk great originality, a vigorous though 
 somewhat rude style, considerable powers of colouring, and, above all, 
 the art of rendering his intention plainly perceptible to the general 
 spectator, and of impressing the sentiment strongly upon all. His 
 walk of art was not the highest, but his homely story was unaffectedly 
 aud forcibly told, and seldom failed to carry its simple lesson along 
 with it. 
 
 Mr. Barker always found ample and liberal patronage ; and, having 
 amassed a fair amount of wealth, he erected for himself a haudsome 
 mansion at Sion Hill, Bath, filling its apartments with a choice col- 
 lection of sculpture, pictures, engravings, and other productions of taste 
 and elegance. But the decoration which he specially prized was a large 
 fresco, 30 feet long by 12 feet high, which he painted upon the wall of 
 one of the rooms : it represents the Inroad of the Turks upon Scio, 
 in April 1822, and is a most elaborate composition. His friends and 
 admirers describe it as the noblest of his productions ; but neither the 
 character of his mind nor his training as an artist qualified him for a 
 painter of history. Mr. Barker died December 11, 1847, in the 79th 
 year of his age. 
 
 (Art Journal, 1848.) 
 
 BARLAAM. This person would be of very little consequence, but 
 for the fact that he is nearly the last of those who wrote in Greek on 
 mathematics, and that his work is a curious illustration of the arith- 
 metic which preceded the introduction of algebra and the Indian 
 notation. Bernard of Seminara in Calabria was born about the end 
 of the 13th century. He took the vows as a member of the order of 
 St. Basil at an early age, and the name of Barlaam at the same time. 
 He travelled to Greece to acquire the language, and resided for some 
 
 time at the court of the emperor Andronicus, at Constantinople. He 
 
 died probably about 1318. 
 
 The mathematical work of Barlaam consists entirely of arithmetic 
 aud arithmetical geometry, then called 'logistic.' It was written in 
 Greek, in six books. The first book is on the addition and subtraction 
 of fractions; tho second on their multiplication and division; the 
 third on the multiplication and division of sexagesimals ; the fourth 
 on operations with surfaces aud lines by means of numbers ; the fifth 
 on ratios ; the sixth on numerical data. Delambre has reviewed the 
 third book (' Hist. d'Astrom. Anc.,' v. i. p. 320). It altogether gives 
 us but a poor idea of the science of the age, and justifies Delambre's 
 remark, that Barlaam must have had more leisure than ingenuity. 
 
 Barlaam is said to have written a work on right-angled triangles ; 
 and there is in the catalogue of De Thou's library the title of a work 
 of his as follows: — 'Arithmetica Demonstratio eorum quce Euclidea 
 Libro II. in Lineis demonstravit.' (No date or place.) He also wrote 
 in Latin some controversial works. 
 
 BARLyE'US, CASPAR VAN BAERLE, was born at Antwerp, 
 February 12, 1584. His father, who was the town registrar of Ant- 
 werp, left it when it was taken by tho Spaniards, and settled in 
 Holland. Caspar studied theology at Leydon, and aftewards took 
 orders. In 1612 he was made sub-regent of the College of Theology 
 atLeyden; and in 1617 professor of logic in that university. Having 
 taken the part of the Arminians against the Gomarists, he was dis- 
 missed from his situation in 1019; and he then applied to the study 
 of medicine, in which he received his doctor's degree at Caen in Nor- 
 mandy. In 1631 he was made professor of philosophy and eloquence 
 iu the newly-established University of Amsterdam, where his lectures 
 were greatly applauded. He died at Amsterdam, January 14, 1648. 
 He wrote a number of works, chiefly in Latin : among others, pane- 
 gyrical orations in praise of the great men of his time, Gustavus, 
 Richelieu, Van Tromp, &c. ; several poems, 2 vols. 8vo, Amsterdam, 
 1615; an interesting history of Brazil, under the administration of 
 Maurice, count of Nassau, with the following title : ' Rerum per Octen- 
 nium in Brasilia et alibi nuper gestarum sub Praefectura J. Mauritii 
 Nassovicc Comitis, Historia,' fol. Amsterdam, 1647. Among his Latin 
 poems is one called 'Britannia Triumphans,' written on the accession 
 of Charles I. to the throne. His ' Epistolse ' were published after his 
 death, two vols. 8vo, Amsterdam, 1667. Of his controversial writings 
 we may mention the ' Autiputeanus,' 4to, 1633 ; and the 1 Lettres de 
 Vicquefort, avec les Reponses de Barlde,' in Latin and French. Accord- 
 ing to the then prevailing fashion among the learned, he latinised his 
 name, Baerle, into Barlaeus. 
 
 BARLOW, FRANCIS, a native of Lincolnshire, in which county 
 he was born about 1626. He received his artistic instruction from a 
 portrait-painter, but his own inclination was for landscapes, birds, 
 fishes, and animals, in which he excelled. As a colourist he wa3 
 indifferent ; on which account many of his works appear much better 
 in engravings than as pictures. John Overton published twelve prints 
 by Hollar, after Barlow, representing various sports, of hunting, hawk- 
 ing, and fishing. Barlow himself likewise engraved ; he etched some 
 of the plates of his own illustrations to Ogilby's translation of /Esop's 
 ' Fables,' and also part of the plates in the folio book of poems entitled 
 ' Theophila,' published for Edward Benlow in 1652. There is also a 
 book of birds by Barlow, engraved by W. Faithorn : ' Divers® Avium 
 Species studiosissime ad vitam delineate per Fran, Barlow, ingenio- 
 sissimum Anglum Pictorem. Guil. Faithorn, excudit, 1658.' 
 
 Barlow was employed by several noblemen and gentlemen to paint 
 cdliugs, with hawking subjects, or other scenes of birds on the wing 
 He painted also a few portraits, among them a half-length of General 
 Monk, first duke of Albemarle. Though he was much employed, and 
 had a considerable sum of mouey left him by a friend, he died poor 
 in 1702. 
 
 (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting ; Heineken, Bictionnaire da 
 
 Artistes, &c.) 
 
 BARLOW, JOLL, an American author and diplomatist, was born 
 at Reading, Connecticut, about 1755. He was a boy at school when 
 his father died. In 1774 he entered as a student at Yale College, 
 Newhaven, where he displayed such a ta3te for poetry and talent of 
 versification as introduced him to the particular notice of Dr. Dwight. 
 Having gone through the usual course of study, Barlow in 1778 took 
 the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and at first applied himself to the 
 study of the law. Four of his brothers were in the revolutionary 
 army, and he had himself been present at several skirmishes, and in 
 one of the severest conflicts that happened during the war. These 
 circumstances inclined him to listen to the suggestion of some influ- 
 ential friends, who advised him to qualify himself for the office of a 
 chaplain in the American army. Accordingly, he applied with dili- 
 gence to theological studies for about six weeks, at the end of which 
 he was licensed to preach as a congregational minister, and immediately 
 after repaired to the army. Barlow remained in this situation until 
 the end of the war. In 1781 he married Miss Baldwin of Newhaven. 
 During the progress of the war he had occasionally occupied himself 
 in the composition of patriotic songs and addresses, and had also 
 planned and nearly completed his poem on the discovery and prospect3 
 of America. 
 
 When Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United 
 States, and the American forces were disbanded in 1783, Barlow 
 
07 
 
 BARLOW, PETER. 
 
 BARNARD, SIR JOHN". 
 
 declined the duties of a parochial minister, and reverted to his original 
 profession of the law. With this view he proceeded to Hartford, and 
 there settled. But his habits of miud were not favourable to his 
 success at the bar, and he undertook the conduct of a weekly news- 
 paper. He also employed himself in preparing for the press the poem 
 to which we have alluded, 'The Vision of Columbus,' which was 
 published by subscription in 1787. It was republished in London a 
 few months after its appearance, and has since gone through a second 
 edition in America and one in Paris. The reputation he had by this 
 time acquired procured him a commission from the clergy of Connec- 
 ticut to adapt Dr. Watts's version of the Psalms to the use of the New 
 England churches, in which his improved version is in use at the 
 present day. In 1788 Barlow gave up his newspaper and law, in 
 order to proceed to Europe as the agent of a company for the sale of 
 certain extensive tracts of land on the Ohio River. During his stay 
 in London he formed a close connection with the large body of men, 
 who at that time held republican and revolutionary principles, and 
 among whom such a man was well calculated to acquire influence. 
 In 1791 and 1792 he produced some political works which increased 
 his reputation with his own party ; these were — ' Advice to the 
 Privileged Orders;' 'The Conspiracy of Kings,' a poem of about four 
 hundred lines, relating to the coalition of the continental sovereigns 
 against France ; ' A letter to the National Convention ; ' and ' Royal 
 Recollections ; ' all indicating rather more zeal than ability or 
 discretion. 
 
 Having been sent to France, with one Frost, to present to the 
 National Convention an address from the association calling itself the 
 'Constitutional Society,' in London; the fact was noticed in parlia- 
 ment in such a manner that Barlow did not consider it prudent to 
 return to England. In France, soon after his arrival, the rights of a 
 citizen were conferred upon him. He then accompanied the deputa- 
 tion of the national convention which was sent to Chambery to 
 organise the newly-acquired territory of Savoy as a department of 
 the republic. His stay there during the winter was marked by the 
 publication of a ' A letter to the People of Piedmont on the Advan- 
 tages of the Revolution, and the necessity of adopting its Principles 
 in Italy.' He also wrots at Chambery a mock-heroic poem in three 
 cantos, entitled ' Hasty Pudding,' which is described by some of his 
 own countrymen as the happiest and most popular of his productions. 
 
 In the following three years of his residence at Paris, he made a 
 translation of Volney's 'Ruins.' He next embarked in some com- 
 mercial speculations, which ultimately enabled him to realise a consi- 
 derable fortune, and to live in Paris with some degree of splendour. 
 He was in that city in 1795, when he received from his own country 
 the appointment of consul-general at Algiers, but he soon returned to 
 Paris, where he resumed his commercial operations, and continued to 
 reside till 1805, when, after an absence of seventeen years, he returned 
 to his native country. 
 
 After his return, Barlow appears to have chiefly employed himself 
 in altering his 'Vision of Columbus' into the form in which, in the 
 year 1803, it finally appeared under the title of ' The Columbiad.' 
 ' The Columbiad ' has not however attained the popularity and circu- 
 lation which the original ' Vision of Columbus ' enjoyed ; and in most 
 respects it is immeasurably inferior to the poem with which it may 
 best be compared — ' The Lusiad ' of Camocns. After the publication 
 of this his great work, Barlow employed himself in collecting materials 
 for 'A History of the United States,' a work which he had long 
 contemplated. In the midst of these pursuits, the President Madison, 
 who held him in high esteem, appointed him minister-plenipotentiary 
 to the court of France, and, in the year 1811, Barlow once more 
 embarked for Europe. 
 
 'He landed at Cherbourg in September, 1812, and immediately pro- 
 ceeded to Paris, where, in the absence of Napoleon I., he was received 
 by the minister of foreign affairs. His mission was to negociate a treaty 
 of commerce with France, and to obtain indemnity for former spolia- 
 tions. For this purpose it became necessary to have a personol 
 conference with the emperor, who had then commenced the Russian 
 campaign of 1812. He therefore set out for Wilna; but fell ill before 
 his arrival there, and died on the 26th of December 1812, at Zarna- 
 wica, a small village in the neighbourhood of Cracow, in the fifty-eighth 
 year of his age. 
 
 (Biographic Nouvclle des Conlemporains, &c.) 
 
 BARLOW, PETER, an eminent mathematician, was born in 1776, 
 at Norwich, in which city his father for many years held an engage- 
 ment with a manufacturing firm. Having had no other educational 
 advantages than those afforded by a respectable day school, he was 
 mainly indebted for his subsequent acquirements and position to his 
 own unassisted exertions. 
 
 In 1806 Mr. Barlow was appointed one of the mathematical masters 
 in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, became subsequently 
 professor, and filled the chair un'il 1847, when he retired after more 
 than forty years' service. The works which he published shortly after 
 his appointment exhibit proofs of his profound mathematical know- 
 ledge. In 1811 appeared his 'Elementary Investigation of the Theory 
 of Numbers, with its Application to the Indeterminate and Diophautine 
 Analysia,' &c. ; and in 1814 his ' New Mathematical Tables,' and ' A 
 New Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary.' In 1817 the ' Essay 
 on the Strength and Stress of Timbers,' &c, was published, which in 
 
 later editions embodies experiments on the strength of iron and its 
 application to railways. 
 
 A paper by Mr. Barlow, ' On the Effects Produced in the Rates of 
 Chronometers by the proximity of Masses of Iron,' was printed in the 
 ' Philosophical Transactions' for 1821, and followed by others, 'luring 
 fifteen years, on various magnetic phenomena, on fluid lenses for tele- 
 scopes, on important questions in optics and navigation, all of which 
 have contributed materially to the advancement of science. In 1823 
 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and sat in the council 
 at different periods from 1829 to 1839. In 1825 the society marked 
 their sense of his scientific and philosophical merits by the award of 
 their Copley Medal, for, to quote the official phrase, * various com- 
 munications on the subjects of magnetism." 
 
 Mr. Barlow's name will long be remembered for his method of com- 
 pensating compass-errors in ships, whereby the difficulty and danger 
 of navigation are in a great measure overcome. In his 'Essay on 
 Magnetic Attractions,' published in 1820, he was the first to reduce 
 these apparently anomalous phenomena to strictly mathematical prin- 
 ciples, and to show their application. For this valuable work the 
 then existing Board of Longitude gave him the Parliamentary reward 
 for useful discoveries in navigation. 
 
 In 1836, King AVilliam IV. appointed Mr. Barlow a member of the 
 Royal Commission for fixing on the most advisable lines of railway in 
 Ireland; and in 1839 he was chosen one of the commissioners for 
 deciding on the preference to be given to any one line, among the 
 several railways then projected for connecting the metropolis with the 
 manufacturing districts of England and Scotland. Again in 1845, he 
 was named by the royal authority on the Commission to inquire into 
 and determine the long-vexed question of the broad and narrow gauge. 
 Reports on these subjects have been printed. [See Supplement.] 
 
 Mr. Barlow was elected a Fellow of the Astronomical Society in 1829. 
 He was a member of the Academies of St. Petersburg and Boston (U.S.), 
 and a Corresponding Member of the Academies of Brussels and Paris. 
 
 BARNABAS, ST., though not of the number of the twelve chosen 
 by our Saviour, is nevertheless styled an apostle by the primitive 
 fathers, as well as by St. Luke, to whom that portion of the Scriptures 
 called the Acts of the Apostles is ascribed. (Acts xiv. 14.) Barnabas's 
 divine vocation, and the share he took in the apostolic labours, 
 obtained him this title. From St. Luke also we learn (Acts iv. 36) 
 that he was by descent a Levite of the country of Cyprus, then largely 
 inhabited by Jews, and that his first name was Joses, or Joseph. He 
 received that of Barnabas (meaning ' the son of consolation ') from the 
 apostles, as appropriate to his character for pre-eminence in works of 
 charity. The ' Laudatio S. Barnabce Apostoli,' by Alexander, a monk 
 of Cyprus, says that his parents brought him in his youth to Jeru- 
 salem, to Gamaliel, by whom he was instructed in the law and prophets 
 with St. Paul. (See also ' Baronii Aunal.' ad ann. xxxiv.) There is at 
 least probability in this, as he was the person to whom St. Paul 
 applied, shortly after his conversion, to introduce him to the society 
 of the apostles. The first mention of Barnabas in Scripture is in one 
 of the passages already quoted, where (Acts iv. 34) it is related that 
 the primitive converts at Jerusalem lived iu common, and that as 
 many as were owners of lands or houses sold them, and brought the 
 price, and laid it at the apostles' feet ; on which occasion, with the 
 exception of Ananias (in the next chapter), no one is particularly 
 mentioned but Barnabas. Barnabas afterwards preached the gospel in 
 different parts, together with St. Paul (Acts xv. 36); but upon a 
 dissension about the person who was to accompany them in a journey 
 which they proposed to the churches of Asia, which they had planted, 
 they separated from each other : Barnabas went with Mark (the 
 person about whom the dispute originated) to Cyprus; and Paul went 
 with Silas to Cilicia. What became of Barnabas after this, or whither 
 he went, is uncertain. The manner of his death is also uncertain. 
 His festival is kept by the Church of England on June 11. 
 
 There is still extant an epistle ascribed to St. Barnabas consisting 
 of two parts. The first is an exhortation and argument to constancy 
 in the belief and profession of the Christian doctrine ; particularly the 
 simplicity of it, without the rites of the Jewish law. The second part 
 contains moral instructions. This epistle was written in Greek ; but 
 Lardner says that the first four chapters, or sections, and a part of 
 the fifth, are wanting in the Greek copies. It is however entire in an 
 ancient version. Archbishop Wake has printed a translation of it. In 
 this epistle there is no express mention of any book of the New 
 Testament ; but there is a text or two of the New Testament in it, 
 witli a mark of quotation prefixed ; and the words of several other 
 texts are applied. From one passage it seems evident that the Temple 
 of Jerusalem was destroyed at the time of writing it. Lardner thinks 
 that this epistle is probably by Barnabas, and certainly ancient, and 
 written about a.d. 71 or 72. 
 
 BARNARD, SIR JOHN, a merchant of considerable eminence in 
 the city of London, was born at Reading in Berkshire in 1 685. His 
 parents being of the sect called Quakers, he was educated in a school 
 at Wandsworth in Surrey, under a teacher of that persuasion. In 
 his nineteenth year however he conformed to the Church of England, 
 and was baptised at Fulham by Dr. Compton, then bishop of London. 
 Previously to the event just mentioned, and when only fifteen years 
 of age, young Barnard was taken into the couuting-house of his father, 
 a wine-merchant in London. While engaged in this business the wine- 
 
580 
 
 BARNES, JOSHUA. 
 
 BARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN OLDEN'. 
 
 merchants of London petitioned the House of Lords on the subject 
 of a bill injuriously affecting their interests, and chose Mr. Barnard to 
 argue their cas<', which he did with so much ability and success, that 
 the bill was withdrawn. At this time Mr. Barnard was thirty-six 
 years of age. 
 
 A dissolution of parliament occurring in 1722, he was put in nomi- 
 nation as one of the candidates for the city. Out of six candidates 
 Mr. Barnard was second on the poll, and he continued to represent 
 the city in parliament during nearly forty year3. From his first election 
 he took an active part in the debates, aud owing to his knowledge upon 
 commercial and financial questions, proved a very useful member of 
 parliament ; he generally voted with the party opposed to the adminis- 
 tration of Sir Robert Walpole. 
 
 In 1732 Mr. Barnard, who four years before had been elected an 
 alderman of London, received the honour of knighthood on presenting 
 an address to the king congratulating him on his return from Germany. 
 In 1737 Sir John Barnard served the office of lord mayor of London. 
 
 Iu 1745, during the rebellion in Scotland, public credit received a 
 severe shock, and so much distrust was shown towards the Bank of 
 England, that the most serious consequences to that establishment 
 were apprehended. In this crisis Sir John Barnard came forward and 
 procured signatures from most of the leading merchants of London to 
 an agreement, binding themselves to receive tho notes of the Bank of 
 England in payment of all debts and bills, and thus the evil was 
 averted. In 1 75S Sir John retired from public life, and on that occa- 
 sion received a vote of thanks from his fellow-citizens for his long 
 and various services. He lived for six years in retirement, and died 
 at Clapham on the 29th August 1764, in the eightieth year of his age : 
 he was buried at Mortlake. His fellow-citizens had during his life 
 placed a statue of him in the Royal Exchange, which was destroyed 
 in the fire on January 10, 1838. 
 
 BARNES, JOSHUA, was born in London on June 10, 1C54. He 
 was educated at Christ's Hospital, and went in December 1071 to 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Here he distinguished himself by a 
 minute and grammatical knowledge of Greek, and he was eleeted 
 Regius Professor of Greek at Cambridge in the year 1 095. In 1700 
 he married Mrs. Mason of Heiningford, a widow lady with a good 
 jointure, a large part of which he devoted to the publication of his 
 Homer in 1710; in 1711 he wrote to Barley three letters, which are 
 preserved in the Harleian Collection (Br. M. 7523), praying for prefer- 
 ment, but in vain. He died in 1712, and his widow erected a monu- 
 ment to his memory at Hemingford. He wrote a considerable number 
 of works, including poems and sermons ; but the only ones requiring 
 notice, and these are only known to a few scholars, are the 'History 
 of Edward the Third,' aud annotated editions of Euripides, Anacreon, 
 and Homer. 
 
 BARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN OLDEN, was born at Amersfoort, 
 in the province of Utrecht, in 1547, and was descended "from an 
 ancient and noble stock," as he states himself in his ' Apologia.' In 
 1564 he went to the Hague to prosecute the studies of an advocate. 
 After spending five years in the study of the law, and, according to 
 the fashion of the times, of divinity, between Heidelberg and the 
 Hague, he settled as an advocate in the latter place in 1569. His 
 talents being of the first order, his practice soon became considerable : 
 he was appointed one of the advocates of the court, and in 1576 was 
 chosen counsellor and pensionary of Rotterdam. In 1575 Barneveldt 
 married a lady who did honour to bis choice, though he himself 
 declared that he was at the time much more influenced by the amount 
 of her property than her virtues ; an avowal which, taken with other 
 parts of his conduct, tends strongly to substantiate the accusation of 
 his enemies, that his character was not free from the taint of avarice. 
 
 While the struggle between the Netherlands and Philip II. was at 
 its height, Barneveldt-, who was early distinguished for his patriotic 
 ardour and impatience of the yoke of Spain, did not let either his 
 advocate's gown or his habits as a civilian prevent him from occasion- 
 ally discharging the duties of a soldier. In 1573 he assisted as a 
 volunteer at the memorable siege of Haarlem, and was only prevented 
 by illness from taking part in the still more memorable siege of Leyden 
 in 1575. In 1585 the prospects of the United Provinces were most 
 disheartening. They had just lost their leader, William of Orange, to 
 whose firmness, sagacity, aud unconquerable zeal for his country's 
 welfare, they were mainly indebted for their honourable position in 
 the eyes of Europe. William fell by the hand of an assassin on the 
 10th of July in the preceding year. The Spanish arms, directed by 
 the Prince of Parma, were almost everywhere triumphant, and it 
 appeared hopeless to continue the struggle without the aid of foreign 
 powers. Under these circumstances the States-General opened nego- 
 ciations with France and England, from whom they had received pro- 
 mises of assistance. Ambassadors were sent by the States to the 
 French and English courts. Henry III. was too much engaged with 
 the war of religious factions which then distracted his own kingdom 
 to aid the iusurgents, and accordingly referred them to the good offices 
 of the Q ueen of England. On the 29th of June, 1585, a deputation, 
 htaded by Barneveldt. made a formal offer of the sovereignty of the 
 revolted provinces to Elizabeth on their knees, beseeching her to accept 
 the people of the Netherlands for her subjects. Elizabeth refused the 
 proffered sovereignty, but entered into a treaty, by which she bound 
 herself to aid them with 5000 foot and 1000 horse, advancing at the 
 
 same time a considerable sum of money, to be repaid at the end of 
 the war. 
 
 Elizabeth intrusted this armament to the command of Dudley, earl 
 of Leicester. Barneveldt saw from the beginning that Leicester was 
 totally unworthy of the important trusts confided to him, and promptly 
 used his influence with the States to limit his real powers. By his 
 advice, and with a view to control Leicester's military authority, Prince 
 Maurice, the son of William of Orange, then but nineteen years of age, 
 was raised to the dignity of Stadtholder, Captain-General, and Admiral 
 of Holland and Zealand ; and he contrived that, though Leicester was, 
 according to tho treaty of alliance with Elizabeth, a member of the 
 Council of State, he had no share in the proceedings of that more 
 select council, consisting of the chief magistrates, in whom by his 
 advice the government of the Netherlands was actually vested. Barne- 
 veldt remonstrated with Leicester, upon the part of the States, for his 
 misgovernment; appealing to their violated privileges, ruined finances, 
 and to the neglected discipline of his army, for proofs of oppression and 
 incapacity. Leicester was indignant at being thus held responsible for 
 his conduct to saucy burghers and traders, and angrily dissolved the 
 Assembly of the States for presuming to meddle with measures beyond 
 their province. The States, by Barneveldt's advice, continued their 
 sittings. The quarrel continued to grow more inveterate, until the 
 States at length solicited Elizabeth to recall Leicester, and obtained 
 their request. 
 
 Barneveldt boasts that he alone opposed Leicester's mischievous 
 presumption, and that iu consequence he was rewarded by his invete- 
 rate hatred. He was at the time the first civil officer of the common- 
 wealth, having been promoted to the office of Advocate-General of 
 Holland and West Friesland on his return from his embassy to Eng- 
 land. Barneveldt tells us that he accepted this high office with great 
 reluctance. Affairs were at the time in great confusion ; the finances 
 of the provinces were at the lowest ebb ; and, as he urged upon the 
 States, his own fortune was unequal to maintain the rank and dignity 
 of his station in a manner calculated to command the respect of 
 foreigners. He was not however long at the head of affairs before 
 order was restored, trade revived, and the monied resources of the 
 state were improved. Haviog succeeded in restoring order and pro- 
 priety, he resigned his office in 1592; but the States were unanimous 
 in soliciting him not to .abandon a post of difficulty which he alone 
 was competent to fill. They strengthened their appeal to his patriotism 
 by increasing the salary of the office. Barneveldt continued to conduct 
 the affairs of the state till the year before his death with signal ability 
 and integrity. 
 
 In 1603 the States-General dispatched an embassy to England, 
 nominally to congratulate James I. on his accession, but in reality to 
 prevent his concluding a treaty of peace with Spain. This embassy 
 was on a scale of unusual splendour, and was composed of Princs 
 Frederick of Nassau, brother of Maurice the Stadtholder, Barneveldt 
 the Grand Pensionary, and Valck and Bredeiode, two of the first digni- 
 taries of the republic. The conduct of the embassy was trusted to 
 the sagacity and experience of Barneveldt. No ordinary address and 
 perseverance were required to overcome the feelings which James 
 entertained towards men whom he did not hesitate to denounce as 
 rebels. Fortunately for Barneveldt in this embarrassment, the cele- 
 brated Duke of Sully, then M. de Rosny, arrived as ambassador from 
 his master, Henry IV. As it was the interest of France that the 
 Netherlands should not be restored to the king of Spain, Barneveldt 
 had not much difficulty in persuading the French ambassador to use 
 his influence at the English court in favour of the revolted province?. 
 The result of these negociations was, that James attached his signa- 
 ture to a treaty drawn up by Sully, which bound the kings of France 
 and England to aid the States by a secret advance of money, to be 
 followed up by actual hostilities against the Spanish king if he should 
 resent this clandestine assistance. Barneveldt failed however to per- 
 suade either monarch to send an army to aid the brave defenders of 
 Ostend, then in the third year of its memorable siege. (Grotius's 
 celebrated 'Prosopopoeia of Ostend' in his Latin poems.) 
 
 The truce of twelve years between Spain and the United Provinces, 
 signed on the 9th of April 1609, which was effected almost entirely 
 through the influence and firmness of Barneveldt, exposed him to 
 unworthy suspicions. He was vehemently opposed by the army and 
 the military authorities, guided by Prince Maurice the Stadtholder. 
 Every artifice of delay and misrepresentation was resorted to with a 
 view to holding up the advocates of the truce with Spain as traitors 
 to the cause of national independence. Though Barneveldt had been 
 the means of extorting from the Spanish court a recognition of the 
 independence of the United Provinces as a preliminary condition to 
 all negociation, he was denounced as one who had received bribes from 
 that court for the purpose of establishing the Spanish yoke and the 
 Catholic faith; and so strong was the popular delusion, and so fierce 
 the opposition of Prince Maurice, that Barneveldt, at one period of the 
 negociation, resigned his office of grand pensionary in order to avert 
 the calamities of a civil war. At the solicitation however of the States- 
 General he resumed his office, aud, strongly supported by the ambas- 
 sadors of France and England, overcame all difficulties after a struggle 
 of two years, and the truce of twelve years was concluded. 
 
 The great services which William of Orange, the father of Maurice, 
 had rendered to the cause of independence, induced the States-General 
 
541 
 
 BARNEY, JOSHUA. 
 
 613 
 
 to invest him with almost supreme authority. His son, a bold and 
 ambitious prince, of great military capacity, bred up in camps and in 
 habits of command, succeeded to the same authority, but it soon 
 became manifest that, unless the ascendancy of the laws were firmly 
 established, the great struggle in which the nation had been so long 
 engaged against Spain would end in a mere change of masters. Hence 
 the nation was divided into two great opposing parties — the war and 
 the peace party; the contest in fact of the civil power with the mili- 
 tary — between Maurice the Stadtholder and Commander-in-Chief, and 
 Barneveldt the Grand Pensionary. Unfortunately for the issue of this 
 struggle, fanaticism, under the name of religion, became an element 
 of the contest. All the wars and intestine broils indeed of the 16th 
 century were more or less mixed up with sectarian controversy. 
 Though the progress of the Keformation led to measures favourable 
 to civil liberty, religious liberty was the growth of institutions and 
 habits of thought which found no favour in the eyes of the leaders 
 of the secession from the Church of Rome, many of whom, both in 
 theory and practice, were far from tolerant. This was particularly 
 the case in those countries (the Netherlands for example) in which 
 the change in religion was effected in opposition to the civil magis- 
 trate. Barneveldt had early braved the prejudices of the Calvinistic 
 clergy and the multitude, by his efforts to procure liberty of con- 
 science throughout the provinces, and by his open protection of 
 Arminius, in the controversy between that divine and his antagonist 
 Gomar. Prince Maurice, on the other hand, lent his aid to the 
 Gomarists, knowing that they were the more numerous and powerful 
 party, counting them by their voices in the States-General, though 
 there is every reason to suppose that he was in belief an Arminian. 
 
 It is not necessary to particularise the steps by which Maurice of 
 Nassau, after a struggle of ten years, triumphed over Barneveldt and 
 the States, and usurped the sovereign power. The army was ardently 
 devoted to him, and the ignorance of the populace, and the fierce 
 intolerance of the Calvinistic preachers, powerfully ministered to his 
 ambition. As the truce of twelve years was mainly owing to the 
 firmness and sagacity of Barneveldt, he was denounced by Maurice's 
 party as one who had sold himself and country to Spain and popery ; 
 and as he had openly espoused the doctrines of Arminius, he was 
 denounced by the Calvinist preachers as leagued with the Catholic 
 monarch in hi3 desigus against the Protestant worship. Still, however, 
 the weight of his character, his eloquence, and the undeniable benefits 
 which followed from his administration, enabled him to keep his 
 ground against all the attacks and stratagems of his adversaries. In 
 1616 Barneveldt's influence was increased by his having obtained from 
 James I. the restoration of the Cautionary Towns, which had been 
 given up to Elizabeth as securities for the money which she had lent 
 the States by the treaty of 1585. The debt due at the time by the 
 United Provinces to England amounted to 8,000,000 florins; but 
 Barneveldt, by adroitly taking advantage of James's necessities and 
 avarice, had the debt cancelled by a prompt payment of about one- 
 tbir.l of the amount. 
 
 It was about this time that Prince Maurice endeavoured to win the 
 consent of Barneveldt to his assuming the sovereignty of the republic. 
 For this purpose he sent his step-mother, the celebrated Louisa de 
 Coligny, to sound him as to his feelings ; but that princess, instead of 
 6educing Barneveldt from his duty to his country, was so convinced 
 by his arguments of the danger of such a measure, that she laboured 
 to divert Maurice from his purpose. Thus baffled and exposed, he 
 sought to remove Barneveldt, the great obstacle to his ambition. 
 
 The question upon which the great struggle between Barneveldt 
 and the Stadtholder finally turned was the calling a national synod, 
 to which the point at issue between the Arminians and the Gomarites 
 Bhould be referred. Barneveldt was well aware of the object which 
 those who clamoured for this assembly had in view ; he opposed it 
 with all his influence, as a project fraught with danger to internal 
 peace and the interests of true religion ; and would probably have 
 succeeded in defeating it altogether, but for the intrigues of Carleton, 
 the English ambassador, acting by orders of James L, who had been 
 grievously offended by Barneveldt affording protection to Vorstius, 
 one of James's literary antagonists. The point at issue between 
 Barneveldt and his opponents was simply whether any other form of 
 religion should be tolerated in the states save that of the Church of 
 Geneva. Barneveldt contended, that as the War of Independence 
 did not originate in religion, but in hostility to the political oppression 
 of Spain, in which even the Catholics were a3 eager as the Protestant 
 inhabitants, each state should be at liberty to choose its own form of 
 worship. He appealed to the declarations and conduct of William, 
 the late Stadtholder, who, to the last, had opeuly tolerated all forms 
 of worship, not excluding the Catholic. His opponents, on the other 
 hand, maintained that, by the act of union of the revolted provinces, 
 the Calvini-ttic religion was declared to be the national religion of the 
 new state. Barneveldt however induced the States of Holland and 
 Utrecht to act upon his view3, and moreover to issue a proclamation, 
 in which a veto over the appointment of the clergy was asserted by 
 the civil magistrate. Great disturbances followed this declaration in 
 some of the states : Barneveldt called upon Maurice, as the commander 
 of the military force, to aid the civil authorities in suppressing them ; 
 but Maurice encouraged the confusion, and the Arminians were every- 
 where assaulted and persecuted. 
 
 In this embarrassment Barneveldt formed a militia, composed of 
 the citizens, in Arnhem, Leyden, and Utrecht : this body was called 
 by the Dutch name of Waartgelders. Maurice immediately marched 
 his army against the militia, disarmed them, took possession of the 
 Arminian towns, deposed the Arminian magistrates, and openly 
 assumed absolute authority. The States-General, overawed by his 
 boldness, and jealous of the fame and influence of Barneveldt, ratified 
 all his proceedings, and at his bidding took decisive step3 towards 
 summoning a national synod, which met at Dort November 13, 1618. 
 Previous to this, Barneveldt and his friends Grotius and Hooger- 
 beets had been arrested (February 21, 1618) by the States-General, 
 acting under Maurice. This bold step induced the state of Holland, 
 which had at first opposed the Synod, to consent, under the influence 
 of fear and the violent measures of Maurice. 
 
 The trial soon followed. " Whatever becomes of the other prisoners," 
 writes Carleton, the English ambassador, who openly avowed that his 
 master approved of Maurice's proceedings, " Barneveldt is sure to lose 
 his head." Such seems also to have been Barneveldt's conviction all 
 his efforts being directed to save his family from the consequence of 
 this punishment. He expressed no regret at his own fate, except so 
 far as it might implicate his friends ; and was particularly concerned 
 for Grotius, then in the prime of life, and, like himself, devoted to 
 his country's welfare. The trial of the prisoners commenced on the 
 19th of November 1618. It was in vain that Barneveldt protested 
 that the whole proceedings were illegal, and that he triumphantly 
 refuted all the charges urged against him : he was found guilty, 
 among other things, for " having brought the church of God into 
 trouble," and sentenced to death. It was deemed however expedient 
 not to carry the sentence into effect till it had received the sanction 
 of the decision of the Synod, which then held its sittings. The Synod 
 closed its sittings on the 9th of May 1619, with a denunciation of all 
 those who had opposed the Calvinist clergy. On the 14th of May 
 Barneveldt was beheaded on a scaffold erected in the court-yard of 
 the Hague, meeting his fate with that calm courage which attended 
 him throughout life. A letter which he wrote the night before his 
 execution to his wife is still preserved, and is a touching monument 
 of his firmness and affection. 
 
 BARNEY, JOSHUA, a commodore in the navy of the United States 
 of America, was born at Baltimore on the 6th of July 1759. Bein» 
 one of fourteen children, he was taken from school at the early a°-e of 
 ten years, and was first sent for a short time to assist in a retail store 
 in Baltimore, and afterwards to be a clerk in a merchant's office in 
 Alexandria. About a year later, when only eleven years of a^e he 
 entered on board a pilot-boat. In his sixteenth year he was appointed 
 second mate of a ship which was dispatched with a cargo of grain 
 from Baltimore to Nice, in the Sardinian territory. The first mate 
 having left the ship, and the captain dying during the voyage, this lad 
 was left to his own energies for the due performance of the remainder 
 of the voyage. This he successfully accomplished, in the face of 
 many difficulties, and brought home the ship to the full satisfaction of 
 its owners. 
 
 On his return to America, Barney finding that the disagreements ot 
 the provinces with England had come to an open rupture, imme- 
 diately offered his services to the provincial government, and was 
 appointed master's mate in a sloop of war called the ' Hornet.' In 
 this he so signalised himself by his bravery and good conduct, that, 
 when scarcely seventeen, he obtained the commission of lieutenant in 
 the United States' navy. After this Lieutenant Barney was for some 
 time employed on board small vessels of war, and exhibited great zeal 
 and activity in the performance of his duty. In the course of four 
 years he was twice taken by the English and exchanged, and in 1780, 
 when not yet twenty-one years of age, he had married, and was again 
 in active service on board the United States' ship ' Saratoga.' This 
 vessel captured several British merchant vessels, and Barney bein^ 
 placed as prize-master on board one of these, which was in an almost 
 sinking condition, was again captured by an English ship, and sent as 
 a prisoner to England. 
 
 Having escaped from the prison in which he was confined, and 
 having spent some weeks in London, he embarked for Ostend, visited 
 France and Spain, and reached his home in March 1782. He was 
 immediately appointed to command a small ship of war, one of a 
 squadron fitted out for the protection of trade in the Delaware. 
 While thus employed, Barney was attacked by two ships and a brig 
 belonging to the British navy, and by a combination of stratagem and 
 bravery, succeeded in captun ig and securing one of the ships. For 
 this gallant action he received the thanks of the legislature of Penn- 
 sylvania, accompanied by a gold-hilted sword ; and his prize being 
 fitted out and commissioned in the American navy, he received the 
 command. 
 
 Commodore Barney was afterwards sent with dispatches to Dr. 
 Franklin at Paris, and returned to America with a British passport, 
 bearing dispatches which announced the signing of preliminary articles 
 of peace between England and America. 
 
 At this time the commodore was only twenty-five years of age, and 
 the public having no further occasion for his services, he embarked iu 
 commercial speculations connected with the sea, but was unsuccessful. 
 Iu the course of these pursuits he visited France iu 1794, and in the 
 following year received a commission as captain in the French navy. 
 
MS 
 
 BARONIUS, CAESAR. 
 
 B ARRAS, COUNT DE. 
 
 He afterwards obtained the rank of chef-de-division, and served as 
 commander of the French squadron in the West Indies. On his 
 return to Fiance he resigned his commission, and received the grant 
 of a pension for life, which however he would never touch. Return- 
 ing home, he agaiu engaged, with no better success than before, in 
 commercial undertakings, and after a time retired to the cultivation of 
 a farm. 
 
 When the war between England and America broke out in 1812, 
 Barney immediately fitted out a privateer, in which he made some 
 valuable prizes, and was shortly afterwards appointed by his govern- 
 ment to the command of a flotilla, to be employed for the protection 
 of Chesapeake Bay. While engaged in this service, Commodore 
 Barney, finding that a British expedition had landed, and was in full 
 march for Washington, left his flotilla in charge of his lieutenant, and 
 joined the land forces with 400 of his men. The hostile forces met 
 at Bladensburg, and the Americans were obliged to retreat, but owing 
 to a wound which the Commodore had received in the leg, ho was 
 taken prisoner by General Ross. Being liberated on bis parole, he 
 retired to his farm, where he received the thanks of the State of 
 Georgia and of the city of Washington. Except being afterwards 
 selected to convey dispatches to the American ministers in Europe, 
 Commodore Barney's public life terminated on the field of Bladensburg. 
 The wound he had received on that occasion never thoroughly healed. 
 Afterwards, when on a journey into Kentucky, he experienced a 
 sudden attack of spasms in the wounded limb, and on the following 
 day, the 1st of December 1818, he died at Pittsburg, in the sixtieth 
 year of his age. 
 
 BARO'NlUs, CAESAR, an eminent ecclesiastical writer, and cardinal 
 presbyter of the Roman Church, was born 31st October 1538, at Sora, 
 an episcopal town of the kingdom of Naples. He received his first 
 education at Veroli, and afterwards studied divinity and law at 
 Naples ; but the troubles of that kiugdom iuduced his father to remove 
 him in 1557 to Rome, where he continued those studies uudcr Cxsar 
 Costa, afterwards archbishop of Capua. Here he placed himself under 
 the discipline of St. Philip de Nei i, founder of the congregation of the 
 Oratory, by whom, after he was ordained priest, he was attached in 
 1564 to the congregation of the church of St. John the Baptist in that 
 city. He continued there till 1570, when he was transferred to the 
 church of Santa Maria del la Vallicella. In 1593, St. Philip de Neri, 
 having laid down the office of superior of the congregation of the 
 Oratory, appointed Barouius his successor; and Pope Clement VIII. 
 not only approved the choice, but some time after made Baronius his 
 confessor, advanced him to the dignity of cardinal, June 5th, 1596, 
 and finally made him librarian of the apostolic see. Upon the death 
 of Clement VIII., in 1605, Baronius had thirty vote? in the conclave 
 for his election as pope, but the Spaniards opposed his election on 
 account of his treatise ' De Monarchia Sicilisc,' in which he had argued 
 against the claim of Spain to that kingdom. Baronius's intense appli- 
 cation to study weakened his constitution, and he died at Rome, June 
 30th, 1607, aged sixty-eight years and eight months, and was interred 
 in the church of Santa Maria della Vallicella, on the 13th of July. 
 
 Baronius wns a man of sincere piety, great probity, learning, and 
 extensive reading, who laboured with success in the service of the church 
 to which he belonged, and in clearing up ecclesiastical antiquity. He 
 undertook his most celebrated work, his 'Annales Ecclesiastici,' when 
 he was thirty years of age, and continued for thirty years collecting 
 and digesting his materials. The first volume of this work, which 
 contains the first century after Christ, was published in 1588 ; the 
 twelfth and last, which concludes with the year 1198, was printed in 
 1607, under the pontificate of Paul V. These twelve volumes contain 
 the history of the twelve first ages of the church. Baronius left 
 materials for three more volumes, which were used by Raynaldus 
 (Odorico Rinaldi) in his Continuation of Baronius's Annals. 
 
 Mazzuchelli enumerates seventeen different works of Baronius in 
 print and twelve in manuscript. But his fame rests almost wholly on 
 his ' Annales Ecclesiastici,' of which numerous editions have been 
 published : the best is that by Odorico Rinaldi, in 19 vols., fol. Lucca, 
 1738-46, followed by an 'Index Universalis,' 3 vols. fol. Lucca, 1757-59, 
 and accompanied by ' Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Caes. Baronii Appa- 
 ratus,' 1 vol. fol. Lucca, 1740, and by Rinaldi' s Continuation ('Annales 
 Ecclesiastici ab anno MCXCVIII. ubi desinit Cardinalis Baronius '), 
 15 vols. fol. 1747-56. An abridgment of Baronius's first century of 
 his Annals ('Ridotti in Compendio'), by Francesco Panigarola, appeared 
 in 4to, Ven. 1593, and an abridgment of the whole, in Latin, by Hen. 
 Spondanus, at Paris, fol. 1612, and in numerous subsequent editions. 
 An epitome of the Annals, in Arabic, was published at Rome under the 
 auspices of the Propaganda Society, 3 vols. 4to, 1653-71. Two or three 
 more abridgments, in other languages, are noticed by Mazzuchelli. 
 
 The great work of Baronius has been severely criticised by Holstenius, 
 Isaac Casaubon, Comber, and others, on account of its alleged errors 
 and mistakes ; but these, perhaps, are not more numerous than »re to 
 be expected in a work of such great extent. In relation to contro- 
 versies, he was always a party writer; but his work is one of the most 
 useful and important on the subject, and Baronius is by some styled 
 the father of ecclesiastical history. Besides Riualdi's, there are two 
 other continuations of Baronius's Annals : one to the year 1572, by 
 Bzovius, 9 vols. fol. 1616-72; the other extending to 1639, 2 vols. fol. 
 Paris, 1639. 
 
 BARRA'S, PAUL FRANCOIS JEAN NICOLAS, COUNT DE, 
 a member of the French Directory, and an important actor in some of 
 the principal events of the French revolution, was born June 30, 1755, 
 at Lohempoux iii Provence. His family was one of the most ancient 
 among the nobility of Provenco. In 1775 he entered the army, and 
 sailed for the Isle of France, but the vessel was wrecked on her passage. 
 Owing partly to the exertions of young Barras, the crew and passengers 
 eventually reached Pondichorry in safety; but this place being shortly 
 after taken by the English, he returned to France. He again returned 
 to India, with Suffreiu ; but soon after left that country with the 
 intention of proceeding to the siege of Gibraltar, but not arriving iii 
 time he went to Paris. Here he expressed himself with so much 
 freedom respecting the conduct of the war in India as to expose him- 
 self to personal danger, which was only prevented by the exertions of 
 an influential friend. At this period the life of Barras was that of a 
 mau of pleasure, and in this career he soon wasted his moderate 
 fortune. The revolution at length commenced, and he immediately 
 became one of its warmest partisans. He was a member of the 
 Jacobins' Club from its commencement, and was engaged in the affair 
 of August 10, 1792, which virtually terminated tho existence of the 
 monarchy. Being sent to the National Convention as representative 
 of his nativo department, he voted unconditionally for the death of 
 Louis XVI. From the Convention he received various public com- 
 missions, in one of which he was engaged in the south of France at the 
 time when the English blockaded the town of Toulon. On this place 
 falling into the hands of the republicans, he was one of the five Con- 
 ventionalists who sat as a commission and carried into effect the 
 frightful orders of the Convention for the proscription and execution 
 of the Toulonese, when more than 400 executions took place. Only 
 he and another member escaped the denunciations which its proceed- 
 ings excited on the part of more than 300 of the political clubs with 
 which France was at that time covered. On his return to Paris, 
 Robespierre received him with a sneering compliment on his energy. 
 At this time terror reigned in the capital. The Girondists, and even 
 Danton, had perished on the revolutionary scaffold ; and Barras was 
 determined not to go to the Convention unarmed, where, by the bold- 
 ness of his character and other considerations, he was a personage of 
 considerable importance as one among the few opponents of the 
 terrorists. Robespierre, beginning to feel that his power was on the 
 decline, meditated a new proscription, and wished to strengthen him- 
 self with the support of Barras, who however refused, and made 
 known to his colleagues the proposition of Robespierre, adding, " He 
 is lost in spite of the Jacobins." Finding it impossible to treat with 
 Barras, Robespierre kept aloof from the committees, but after an 
 absence of two months he made his appearance. The celebrated 
 movement of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794) immediately followed. 
 On that day, Barras and some other deputies presented themselves to 
 the Convention. Tallien denounced Robespierre, whose arrest being 
 decreed, he was sent to prison, from which however he escaped. 
 Henriot, commander of the Parisian Guard, a creature of Robes- 
 pierre's, marched on the Convention, which, in its imminent peril, 
 named Barras general-in-chief, and charged him with its defence. The 
 fate of the day was soon decided ; and Robespierre, with some of his 
 most intimate partisans, was executed. Barras was afterwards 
 charged with the superintendence of the children of Louis XVI., 
 who were confined at the Temple, and his conduct towards them was 
 marked by consideration and kindness. Indeed, after the 9 th Thermi- 
 dor, he displayed great moderation ; and he obtained the erasure of 
 many names from the list of proscribed emigrants. He was named 
 successively secretary and president of the National Convention. In 
 his political principles he refrained from committing himself wholly 
 to any of the great contending parties. At the crisis of the 13th 
 Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795), the Convention again named Barras 
 general-in-chief. The success on this occasion was chiefly owing to 
 Bonaparte, to whom Barras, recollecting his services at Toulon, had 
 confided the command of the artillery ; and he afterwards obtained 
 for Bonaparte that of the army of Italy. The anarchists being put 
 down by the 13th Vende'miaire, the directoral government was formed, 
 of which Barras was a member. It did not work well ; and the coup 
 d'dtat of the 18th Fructidor (September 4, 1797) was resolved upon as 
 a means of effecting it3 more complete consolidation. For the third 
 time Barras was invested with dictatorial powers, and success again 
 attended his efforts. General Augereau invested the halls of the 
 legislative councils and arrested the obnoxious members. [Augereau.] 
 Two members of the Directory, Barthelemy and Carnot, about forty 
 members of the Legislative Council of Five Hundred, eleven members 
 of the Council of Elders, and other individuals, were ordered to be 
 transported to the swamp3 of Guiana, where several of them died. 
 Carnot escaped into Germany. The Council of Five Hundred, now 
 remodelled, proposed to get rid in a similar manner of such of the 
 nobility as still remained in the country, but Barras in this instance 
 successfully opposed their wishes. After the affair of the 30th Prairial 
 (May 18, 1799), the legislative councils resumed their independence, 
 curtailed the dictatorial power of the Directory, and obliged three of 
 i the directors to give in their resignation. Barras contrived to remain 
 in office, though he had opposed this movement ; but he and Sieyes 
 were united as to the necessity for overthrowing the constitution of 
 the year 3, since a new combination of the executive power seemed 
 
5« BARRELIER, JAMES. BARRI, GIRALDUS DE. 
 
 to them the only means of fixing themselves more firmly in the 
 government. General Bonaparte, being apprised of these intrigue* by 
 his brother Lucien, left the army in Egypt, aud arrived in Paris for 
 the purpose of carrying his own personal projects of ambition into 
 execution. Seconded by Sieves, he effected the revolution of the 18th 
 Brumaire (November 9, 1799), the immediate result of which was his 
 rfiomiuatiou as First Consul. From this period the power of Barras 
 was annihilated. Finding himself abandoned by everybody, he sent a 
 letter to the President of the Council of Elders, saying "that he 
 returned with satisfaction to the rank of a mere citizen, leaving the 
 destinies of the republic in the hands of the illustrious warrior whom 
 he had been so fortunate as to initiate in the career of glory." He 
 lived in retirement at Grosbois, refusing all the offers made to him 
 by the new government ; among others, the embassies of Dresden 
 and of the United States, the command of the army of St. Domingo, 
 and even a medal which Bonaparte had struck. He afterwards 
 removed to Brussels ; but this city not agreeing with him, he obtained 
 leave to retire to Marseille, where he lived, as before, under sur- 
 veillance, attending quietly to agricultural pursuits. In 1813 he was 
 inculpated in a conspiracy, and underwent some interrogations; after 
 which he was exiled to Rome, but remained still under the watchful 
 eyes of the French police. Here he was again accused of being con- 
 nected with a conspiracy, but the preliminary investigations into its 
 character and ramifications were broken up by the fall of Napoleon. 
 In 1814 he took up his residence at Paris. In 1815, foreseeing new 
 troubles, he withdrew from Paris, but returned on hearing of Napo- 
 leon's disembarkation. Afterwards he resided at Chaillot, near Paris. 
 He died in January 1829. Barras was more fond of pleasure than of 
 business, but he was not destitute of talent ; inclined to indolence, he 
 could show firmness and activity at times ; he was naturally humane 
 and good-natured, generous towards his friend?, and prodigal in his 
 expenditure. Notwithstanding his affectation of republicanism, his 
 manners and tastes were those of a nobleman of the old monarchy. 
 He could speak well and to the purpose ; and these qualities gave him 
 an ascendancy over his rougher colleagues. He possessed considerable 
 shrewdness and tact, which he employed in securing his own interests; 
 and it is illustrative of his character, that Barras was the only member 
 who, throughout the various changes which the Directory underwent, 
 kept his seat from its installation, at the end of 1795, to its final over- 
 throw by Bonaparte in November 1799. 
 
 BARRELIER, JAMES, was born at Paris in 1606. He commenced 
 the study of medicine, but when just about to receive the degree of 
 doctor, he abandoned the medical profession, gave himself up to the 
 Btudy of theology, and in 1635 took the vows of the order of Domini- 
 cans. Having studied the fathers of the church, he taught theology, 
 but devoted his leisure hour3 to the study of botany. In 1646 he was 
 appointed assistant to Father Thomas Tarco, the general of the order 
 of Dominicans, and accompanied him on his visits to the different 
 convents. In this way he traversed the south of France, Spain, and 
 Italy. During these excursions he collected plants and other objects 
 of natural history. He made drawings of the plants, which he caused 
 to be engraved, with a view to their publication. Having had his 
 head-quarters at Rome for twenty-five years, he returned to Paris in 
 1672, and took up his abode in the convent in the Rue St. Honored 
 Here he laboured to perfect his work, till he died of asthma, Septem- 
 ber 17tb, 1673. 
 
 His manuscripts and collections Barrelier bequeathed to the library 
 of the convent, but soon after his death all his collections were dis- 
 persed, and some were burnt. The copper-plates escaped, aud were 
 collected and published by Antoine de Jussieu, who supplied descrip- 
 tions in the place of those which had been destroyed. This work, to 
 which was prefixed a life of Barrelier, appeared in one volume folio : 
 ' R. P. Barrelieri Planta) per Galliam, Hispaniam, et Italiam observatae, 
 iconibus aeneis exhibits, opus posthumum ; accui ante Antonio Jussieu, 
 botanices professore, in lucem editum, et ad recentiorum normam 
 digestum, cui accessit ejusdem auctoris specimen de Insectis,' Paris, 
 1714. It contains 1324 figures engraved upon 334 plates, of which 
 three are of shells, the rest of plants. Some are copied from earlier 
 writers, but the greater part are new, or very rare, so that the volume 
 is still worth referring to. Barrelier composed a work, intended to 
 include descriptions of all the plants then known. He called it 
 ' Hortus Mundi,' but it was never published. He also left 700 figures 
 of fungi, and 300 of shells. A genus of plants belonging to the order 
 of A canthacece, was called in honour of him Barreleria. 
 
 (Haller, Bibliotheca Butanica ; Biographie Universale.) 
 
 BARRET, GEORGE, a landscape painter of great celebrity in his 
 time. He was born at Dublin in 1732, and commenced his career by 
 colouring prints for a priutseller of the name of Silcock. His first 
 landscapes were painted from the estate of his patron, Viscount 
 Powerscourt near Dublin. In 1764 he obtained a premium of fifty 
 guineas from the Society of Aits in London; the first premium given 
 by that society for landscape. He was one of the original members 
 of the Royal Academy, founded in 1768, and towards the close of his 
 life he was master painter to Chelsea Hospital, an appointment which 
 he procured through his friend Burke. Barret received largo sums 
 for his pictures at a time when Wilson with difficulty earned a bare 
 lubsistence. But he was extravagant, and got into various pecuniary 
 difficulties. He died at Paddington in 1784. 
 
 Biou. d:v. vol. i. 
 
 Barret's landscapes are bold and natural in design, but his colouring 
 is somewhat peculiar and heavy. Some of his lake scenes have great 
 excellence ; in them he succeeded very well in conveying the impres- 
 sion of vastuess, and his sombre colouring has sometimes in these 
 scenes a peculiarly characteristic effect. He also represented the disper- 
 sion of the mists in such places very happily. Barret painted 
 occasionally in water-colours, and executed a few etchings. 
 
 BARRI, GIRALDUS DE, or SYLVESTER GIRALDUS, more 
 generally known by the name of GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS, was the 
 fourth son of William de Barri, by Angharath, daughter of Nesta, 
 daughter of Rhys ap Theodor, prince of South Wales, and was bom 
 in or about 1146, at the castle of Manorbeer, in Pembrokeshire. 
 Being a younger brother, and intended for the church, he was sent to 
 St. David's, where his uncle, David Fitzgerald, at that time bishop of 
 the see, undertook the care of his education. Giraldus, in the history 
 of his own life, acknowledges that in early youth he was negligent and 
 playful, but his uncle and his masters remonstrated so sharply with 
 him that he became diligent, and soon surpassed his fellow-students. 
 When twenty years of age he was sent to the University of Paris, 
 where he remained for three years, and acquired great fame for his 
 skill in rhetoric and the belles-lettres. On his return to England, 
 about 1172, he entered into holy orders, and obtained soon after the 
 archdeaconry of St. David's and other preferments both in England 
 and Wales. He now devoted his whole mind to promote the interests 
 of the church. Finding the Welsh reluctant to pay tithes he obtained 
 from Richard, archbishop of Canterbury, the appointment of legate 
 in Wales to rectify these and other abuses. He executed this com- 
 mission with great spirit and success. He likewise attempted to 
 reform the morals of the clergy, and was peculiarly severe against all 
 priests who had wives ; these he called concubines, and insisted upon 
 their dismission. The old archdeacon of Brecknock, who opposed his 
 remonstrances on this account, was at first suspended, and afterwards 
 deprived, a sufficient maintenance only being assigned to him from his 
 former preferment, which was bestowed upon the officious legate. 
 
 On the death of David Fitzgerald his uncle, the canons of St. David's 
 met in council, and, after a long debate, elected Giraldus to be his 
 successor ; but the archdeacon thinking the election made too hastily, 
 and not according to the usual forms, went on the following morning 
 to the chapter, and, contrary to the advice of his friends, renounced 
 it. Hi3 reason was that the necessary application had not been pre- 
 viously made to the king or his justiciary for the royal assent. The 
 chapter however persisted in their choice, vyhich so displeased King 
 Henry II. that he threatened to dispossess them of their lands and 
 revenues. The king summoned a council, anci submitted the case to 
 the consideration of Richard, archbishop of Canterbury, and his 
 suffragan bishops, desiring them to recommend a fit person to fill the 
 vacant see. They unanimously recommended Giraldus as a man of 
 learning and spirit, but the king objected ; and Peter de Leia, a 
 Cluniac monk of Wenlock in Shropshire, was, in consequence, chosen 
 bishop of St. David's. Giraldus retired to the University of Paris, 
 and prosecuted his studies chiefly in civil and canon law, the professor- 
 ship of which last, in that university, was offered to him in 1179. He 
 returned home in 1180, and, proceeding to his archdeaconry, found 
 the diocese of St. David's in confusion. Peter de Leia had quarrelled 
 with the canons and inhabitants, and was driven from his see, the 
 administration of which was now committed by the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury to Giraldus. He held it three or four years, when the 
 bishop was restored. 
 
 About 1184 Giraldus was made one of the royal chaplains by King 
 Henry II.; and soon after was sent as a pacificator to Wales. In 1185 
 he was appointed preceptor to Prince John, whom he accompanied to 
 Ireland as secretary and privy -councillor; but when the prince returned 
 after a residence of some months, Giraldus remained to complete aud 
 digest the collections he was making for his two works on the topo- 
 graphy and conquest of Ireland. Previous to leaving that country 
 the prince offered Giraldus the Irish bishoprics of Femes and Leighlin, 
 either separately or consolidated, but ho refused both, having already 
 resolved to accept no other bishopric than that of St. David's. In 1187 
 he returned to England, when, having finished his work on the topo- 
 graphy of Ireland, he read its three divisions (distinctiones), on three 
 separate days, before public audiences in the University of Oxford. 
 On the first day he entertained all the poor of the town ; on the next 
 day the doctors and scholars of fame and reputation ; on the third 
 day the scholars of the lower rank, the soldiers and burgesses. 
 
 In 1188 Giraldus accompanied Baldwin, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 in a journey [Baldwin] through the rough aud mountainous parts 
 of Wales, in order to preach to the people the necessity of a crusade. 
 The more lasting fruit of this journey was his work entitled ' Itine- 
 rarium Cambria;.' In 1189 he attended King Henry II. in his expe- 
 dition into France, and remained there till after the king's death, when 
 Richard I. sent him back to preserve the peace of Wales, and even 
 appointed him coadjutor to William Lougchamp, bishop of Ely, in tho 
 regency of the kingdom. After refusing the bishoprics of Bangor and 
 Llandaff, in hopes to succeed to St. David's, his favourite object, that 
 sec became vacant in 1199, when he was unanimously elected to it 
 by the chapter, but he was again disappointed by the opposition of 
 Hubert, archbishop of Canterbury. This involved him in a contest 
 which lasted five years, during which he took three journeys to Rome, 
 
M7 BARRINGTON, THE HONOURABLE DAINES. 
 
 BARROS, JOAO DE. 
 
 548 
 
 and was at last defeated, the pope passing a definite sentence, and 
 
 declaring his election null. 
 
 Soon after this Giraldus resigned his archdeaconry in favour of 
 Philip, the youngest son of his brother, Philip de Barri ; but he re- 
 tained his other preferments. 
 
 Giraldus passed the last seventeen years of his life in study, revising 
 his former literary works and composing others, of which he has 
 himself given a copious index. In the midst of these occupations he 
 received once more an offer of the bishopric of St. David's, and 
 would have met with no opposition from the court ; but from the 
 dishonourable terms on which it was proffered, he refused the eccle- 
 siastical dignity which had so long been the object of his earnest wishes. 
 He died at St. David's, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was 
 buried in the cathedral church, where his effigy still remains upon an 
 altar tomb beneath an ornamental arch. Giraldus appears to have 
 been an upright and able man. As an ecclesiastic he was zealous, 
 active, and fearless in maintaining the rights and dignities of his 
 church; but he was at the same time honest and disinterested. As 
 a scholar he was learned, and as a collector of historical materials 
 diligent, far beyond the measure of his age. As au historian however 
 he was full of credulity, and as a man, as his works prove, one of the 
 vainest upon record. 
 
 Giraldus has himself given us a catalogue of his works, as well as 
 a long history of his actions, both printed by Wharton. Other lists 
 will be found in Fabricius's 'Bibliotheca Med. et Inf. Latinitatis,' edit. 
 Patav. 4to, 1754, torn. iii. p. 62, and in the notes to his life in the 
 ' Biogr. Britannica,' edit. 1778, vol. i. pp. 640, 612, 614. Sir Richard 
 Hoare has given us a full account of such manuscripts of his works 
 as exist in the several libraries in the British Museum, in the Archi- 
 episcopal Library at Lambeth, at Beue't (Corpus Chiisti) College, in 
 the public library at Cambridge, and in the Bodleian. Those printed 
 are, ' Itini rarium Cambria;,' 12mo, Lond. 1585, and in Camden's 
 'Angl. Norm. &c. Script.,' fol. Fraucof., 1602, pp. 815-878; ' Topo- 
 graphia Hibernine,' Camd. ut supr., pp. 692-754 ; 'Expugnatio Hibernia?,' 
 ibid., pp. 755-813 ; ' Descriptio Cambria,' ibid., pp. 879-892. Several 
 short pieces by Giraldus are printed in the second volume of Wharton's 
 ' Anglia Sacra.' The ' Gemma Ecclesiastica,' published at Mentz in 
 1549, without the author's name, under the title of ' Gemma Animac,' 
 is ascribed to Giraldus. John Stowe's translations from Giraldus's 
 historical works relating to Wales and Ireland are among the Harleian 
 Manuscripts in the Museum, Nos. 544 and 561, in his own hand- 
 writing. Sir Richard Colt Hoare, in 1806, published the 'Itinerary 
 of Archbibhop Baldwin through Wales,' translated into English, and 
 illustrated with views, annotations, and a life of Giraldus, 2 vols. 4to. 
 To this work the preceding account is much indebted, as well as to 
 the life in the ' Biographi* Britannica,' article 'Barry;' to Bale, 
 'Illustr. Script;' Wharton, 'Anglia Sacra,' vol. ii., pp. 457-513; and 
 Fabricius's 'Bibliotheca Med. et Inf. Latinitatis.' 
 
 BARRINGTON, THE HONOURABLE DAINES, a learned anti- 
 quary, lawyer, and naturalist, was the fourth son of John Shute, first 
 Viscount Barriugton, well-known from his connection with the Har- 
 burgh lottery (on account of which he was expelled the House of 
 Commons), and the author of the ' Miscellanea Sacra ' and various 
 other works. His mother was a daughter of Sir William Daines. 
 Daines Barriugton was born in 1727. After having concluded his 
 course of general education at Oxford, he was entered as a student at 
 the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar in Hilary Term, 1749. 
 Though he never acquired any eminence in practice, his family 
 obtained for him early in life several lucrative offices. In 1751 he 
 became Marshal of the Court of Admiralty, and resigned that office 
 on being appointed secretary for the affairs of Greenwich Hospital in 
 1753. He appears for a short time to have travelled the Oxford 
 circuit, and he was junior counsel for the prosecution on the well- 
 known trial of Miss Blandy, for the murder of her father, in 1752. 
 Shortly after receiving the appointment of secretary for Greenwich 
 Hospital he was elected Recorder of Bristol; and in 1757 was made a 
 puisne Welsh judge. He presided with Lord Kenyon at the great 
 sessions for Denbighshire, in 1783, when the trial of the Dean of 
 St. Asaph for a seditious libel was to have taken place, but was put off 
 on the ground of attempts to prejudice the minds of the jury. In 
 the year 1785, being possessed of an ample income, he gave up his 
 judgeship and all public employments except the place of commissary- 
 general of the stores at Gibraltar, and retired to his chambers in the 
 Inner Temple, of which society he was a bencher. He died in the 
 Temple on the 11th of March 1800. 
 
 The most important of Mr. Barrington's numerous writings is a 
 book entitled ' Observations upon the Statutes, chiefly the more 
 ancient from Magna Charta to the 21 Jac. I. c. 27,' which was first 
 published in 1766. Four editions subsequently appeared under the 
 superintendence of the author, in the course of which the work was 
 much enlarged and improved. The design was to introduce a project, 
 which is detailed in an appendix, for repealing obsolete and useless 
 Btatutes, and reducing acts which relate to the same subject to one 
 uniform and consistent law. The importance of the scheme and the 
 sagacity of its projector may be measured by the slow progress which 
 has been since made towards its realisation, notwithstanding numerous 
 earnest efforts by individuals and associated bodies to effect such an 
 essential reform. Mr. Barrington's work is one which fully deserves 
 
 the high reputation it has obtained ; the illustrations of tho statutos 
 noticed are extremely curious, and display not only extensive anti- 
 quarian research, but a familiar acquaintance with tho civil law and 
 the municipal institutions of Europe; and the whole subject is treated 
 in such a manner as to interest the general reader as well as the 
 professional student. Mr. Barriugton devoted much attention to the 
 investigation of the celebrated geographical problem respecting a» 
 North- West Passage. He examined several masters of vessels em- 
 ployed in the whale-fishery, and collected on this subject a great 
 mass of historical, traditionary, and conjectural evidence, which he 
 detailed in several papers read by him to the Royal Society ; and his 
 representations are said to have led to the fitting out by government 
 of an expedition under the command of Captain Phipps, afterwards 
 Lord Mulgrave, for the purpose of making discoveries in the North 
 Seas. Mr. Barriugton published the result of his researches in 1775 ; 
 and when this subject came again under discussion, in 1818, his tracts 
 were republished with an appendix by Colonel Beaufoy. Mr. Barring- 
 ton was also the author of several papers in the ' Archseologia' on 
 local antiquities, and of a great variety of essays in the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions,' and other periodical publications, on subjects connected 
 with natural history. Many of these were collected and published by 
 himself in 1781 under the title of ' Miscellanies on various Subjects.' 
 A particular enumeration of all Mr. Barrington's works is given in 
 Nichols's ' Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century,' vol. iii., 
 p. 3 (note), and in the 'Gentleman's Magazine,' vol. lxx., p. 291. 
 
 BARROC'CIO, FEDERIGO, an Italian painter, was the son of an 
 eminent sculptor, and born at Urbiuo in 1528. His first master was 
 Battista Venezano, under whom he studied till his twentieth year, 
 when he went to Rome, where a residence of four years enabled him 
 to make vast improvement in his art. Some works which he executed 
 soon after his return to his native town, particularly his picture of 
 St. Margaret, painted for the Confraternity of the Holy Sacrament, 
 procured him such reputation, that he received an invitatiou from Pope 
 Pius X. to assist in the embellishments of the Belvedere palace, on 
 which Zucchero was also engaged. Here he executed the Annunciation 
 in fresco on one of the ceilings, and a picture of the Holy Virgin with 
 the infant Saviour, with Saints, &c. Having finished these commis- 
 sions he returned to Urbino, and contributed to the cathedral of St. 
 Lorenzo and Perugia an altar-piece of the Taking Down from the Cross. 
 During the pontificate of Gregory XIII. Barroccio again visited Rome, 
 where he painted a picture of the Last Supper for the Chiesa della 
 Minerva; also, for the Chiesa Nuova, the Visitation of the Virgin 
 Mary to Elizabeth, and the Presentation in the Temple. These two 
 last are considered to be his finest performances. 
 
 Barroccio's style of colouring and effect was formed on that of Cor- 
 reggio, but presents a frequent fault of imitators in transmitting an 
 exaggeration of some of the master's prominent peculiarities. This 
 was noticeable in his drawing, but far more in his colouring. The 
 defects of Barroccio's style are chiefly chargeable against his smaller 
 performances, and there is a strong example of them in his picture of 
 the Holy Family in the British National Gallery. His large works 
 exhibit a richness of surface which Sir Joshua Reynolds has greatly 
 commended, and did not disdain to imitate. There is in the Vatican 
 a picture by Barroccio, of the size of life, representing a female pilgrim 
 overtaken by a tempest on the top of a mountain, painted with a 
 breadth and simplicity, both in respect to colouring and design, which 
 entitles it to rank among the finest works of art. The large pictures 
 of Barroccio are seldom offered for sale, and consequently fetch very 
 high prices. Barroccio died at Urbiuo in 1612, aged 84. He some- 
 times handled the graver, and has left several plates of sacred subjects 
 executed with great spirit and correctness, although somewhat deficient 
 in delicacy and finish. 
 
 BA'RROS, JOAO DE, an eminent Portuguese historian, was born 
 about 1496 of a noble family. He was placed while a boy in the court 
 of King Emmanuel as a page, and was attached to the service of the 
 Infante Dom Joao, afterwards King John III. Young Barros showed 
 an early disposition for study, and especially for the study of history. 
 The gallant achievements of the Portuguese in the East Indies attracted 
 his attention ; and the king himself, happening one day to see some of 
 his early attempts at historical composition, suggested that he might 
 employ himself in narrating the glorious actions of his countrymen. 
 In 1522 Barros was sent as governor to St. George da Mina, on the 
 Guinea coast. Three years after he was recalled to Lisbon, and 
 appointed treasurer to the colonial department, and afterwards agent- 
 general for the colonies. While he held this office he availed himself 
 of the valuable documents to which he had access in order to compose 
 his great work, ' Asia Portugueza,' or the history of the discoveries and 
 establishments of the Portuguese in the Indian Seas. He divided it 
 into four ' Decadas ' of ten books each. The first two Decades, pub- 
 lished in 1552-53, contain the discoveries and conquests from 1412 to 
 1515. The narrative begins with the discovery of Porto Santo and 
 Madeira in 1418-19, and contains the numerous expeditions of the 
 Portuguese to the coasts of Senegal, Guinea, Congo, and to the Cape 
 of Good Hope, which was at last weathered by Vasco de Gama in 1497. 
 Then comes the full tide of Portuguese enterprise along the coasts of 
 Mozambique, Mombaga, and on to the Malabar coast, followed by the 
 astonishing success of Albuquerque, and the establishment of Portu- 
 guese supremacy in the Indian se*s. Barros's second Decade is entirely 
 
W BARROT, CAMILLE-HYACINTHE-ODILON. 
 
 BARROW, ISAAC. 
 
 occupied with the history of Albuquerque's achievements till the death 
 of that great commander in 1515. The third Decade, published in 
 1563, contains the events from 1516 to 1526. Of the fourth Decade, 
 the manuscript wa3 purchased for 500 milreis, from Barros's daughter- 
 in-law in 1591, by King Philip II. of Spain, after his conquest of Por- 
 tugal. It was published in 1615 at Madrid, with notes and additions, 
 by Q. B. Lavanha. It carries on the history of Portuguese India to 
 the year 1539; but before this, Diego do Couto, historiographer of 
 India to Philip II. and Philip III. had commenced a continuation of 
 Barros's first three Decades, and had published a fourth Decade, which 
 he followed up with a fifth, and so on till the eighth, which comes 
 down to the year 1571. The best edition of Barros's work is that of 
 1778, from the royal press, Lisbon, 9 vols. 8vo, with the life of Barros 
 by Manoel Severim de Faria, and a copious index. Couto's continu- 
 ation, as far as the eighth Decade, was published also at the same press 
 in 8 vols. 8vo, 1778-83, with a life of Couto. Barros is considered by 
 the Portuguese as their beat historian, both for the matter of his his- 
 tory and the manner of his composition. His style is much admired, 
 and his language is considered as a model of Portuguese prose-writing : 
 the narrative is simple and unpretending. Barros died at his estate of 
 Alitem, near Pombal, 1570. He is spoken of as a man of high honour 
 and moral character, both by his biographer, Manoel de Faria, above 
 mentioned, and by Nicolao Antonio in his ' Bibliotheca Hispana,' 
 vol. i p. 498. He wrote also some moral dialogues and other minor 
 worlcs. 
 
 * BARROT, C AMILLE- HYACINTHE - ODILON, was bom at 
 Villefort, in the department of Lozere, on July 19, 1791, and educated 
 at St.-Cyr and the Lycee Napoleon. The son of a politician, he early 
 began to follow his father's course. At nineteen he pleaded before the 
 ordinary tribunals, and at twenty-three, by a dispensation, before the 
 Court of Cassation. Here he distinguished himself by his genius, his 
 boldness, and the liberality of his opiuions. In 1819 he defended 
 those Protestants of the south accused of not having decorated their 
 houses at the procession of the host on Corpus Chriati day, justifying 
 them on the ground of the freedom of religious worship. The Court 
 of Cassation sustained his argument by its deciaion. 
 
 A more advanced step in political life was when M. Barrot became 
 president of the society ' Aide-toi, le Ciel t'aidera,' to which he endea- 
 voured at first to give a direction slowly and legally progressive. At 
 the banquet however known as the Vendanges de Bourgogne, given to 
 numerous members constituting the opposition in the Chamber of 
 Deputies, he said, in the course of his address, that legal paths were 
 sufficient to lead to a triumph for liberty, but if those paths were 
 forcibly stopped by authority, there would be no resource but in the 
 valour of the citizens, and it would not be wantiug. In July 1830, 
 M. Barrot became secretary to the muuicipal commission, and he is 
 said to have influenced M. de la Fayette to refuse the presidency of 
 the republic. He was one of three commissioners charged to conduct 
 the unseated dynasty to Cherbourg. On his return he was nominated 
 Prefect of the department of the Seine, which office he held for six 
 months, marked by conflicts with M. Guizot, and the seditious tumult 
 at St.-Germain. As parliamentary deputy he was the leader of a 
 party opposed to M. Casimir Perier, combated the establishment of a 
 hereditary peerage, and protested against the use of the word ' subject' 
 when applied to the people, as being insulting and unconstitutional. 
 His opposition was continued to the successive ministers who succeeded 
 Pe>ier, until 1840, when M. Thiers was president of the council. At 
 this time he voted for the fortifying of Paris, but spoke against the 
 regency bill, and reproached the government with feebleness on the 
 question of the right of search, claimed by England, and which then 
 greatly interested the public mind. 
 
 But a new revolution, to which M. Barrot and his friends contributed 
 no little, chased the Orleans dynasty from the throne of France. The 
 question of the right of holding public banquets, became the cause of 
 a tumult which ended in the downfall of a monarchy. M. Barrot, 
 for a few hours, was named minister with M. Thiers, and pleaded in 
 vain before the chamber of Deputies for the regency of the Duchess 
 of Orleans. On December 10, 1848, M. Barrot became president of 
 the council and keeper of the seals, and he now, though hitherto so 
 strenuous an advocate of parliamentary power, advised the chambers 
 to dissolve. He also defended the expedition to Rome; presented 
 projects of law against the press; and after the 13th of June 1849, he, 
 the president of the reformist banquet, demanded the dismissal of 
 the National Guard who had met to petition oil the occasion of 
 the expedition to Rome. 
 
 In September 1849, M. Barrot felt compelled by failing health to 
 relinquish for a time his public employment. Returning as a deputy 
 merely, he has voted in favour of the law for the deportation of 
 political offenders ; and advocated a revision of the constitution, which 
 he desired to be les* republican. Since December 1851, he has with- 
 drawn from public affairs; but in 1861 he published a pamphlet, 'De 
 la Centralisation,' which excited much attention. 
 
 BARROW, ISAAC, an eminent English divine, was the eldest son 
 of Thomas Barrow, linendraper to Charles I., and descended of a 
 respectable Suffolk family. His uncle, Isaac Barrow, wa3 fellow of 
 Peterhouse College, Cambridge, from which he was ejected by the 
 Presbyterians about 1644, but after the Restoration he became succes- 
 sively bishop of Man a»<* St. Asaph, and died in 1680. Isaac Barrow, 
 
 the nephew, was born in 1630, and received his education first at the 
 Charter-house, and afterwards at Felstead school in Essex. In the 
 first he gave but little promise of excellence, his principal delight 
 being in fighting, and his general habits negligent ; so that his father 
 is reported to have wished, that if it pleased God to take any of his 
 children, it might be Isaac. At the second school he formed a good 
 character, and in December 1643, he was entered at Peterhouse 
 College, Cambridge, under his uncle above-mentioned. But by the 
 time (February, 1645) the nephew began his residence at the university 
 the uncle had been ejected, and the nephew accordingly removed to 
 Trinity College. His father, in the meanwhile, had suffered losses for 
 his adherence to the cause of Charles I., and it is said that young 
 Barrow was indebted for his support to the well kuown Dr. Hammond. 
 He was scholar of his college in 1647 ; B.A. in 1648 ; fellow in 1649 ; 
 and M.A. in 1652 ; 'ad eundem' at Oxford, 1653; B.D., 1661; D.D. 
 (by mandate), 1670. These testimonies to his merit (the two last 
 excepted) were the more remarkable, as he was, and always continued, 
 a staunch Royalist. 
 
 Barrow had at first intended to practise medicine, and had studied 
 accordingly, but on his accession to a fellowship he began to study 
 theology, as required by the statutes of the college. His desire to 
 investigate ecclesiastical chronology led him to the study of astronomy, 
 and that to the higher branches of mathematics. But he had in the 
 meanwhile closely studied the learned languages, so that ou the 
 resignation of the Greek professor he was recommended to that chair. 
 This he did not gain, being suspected of Arminiauism ; and the disap- 
 pointment, together with the unfavourable character of public events 
 to his views, induced him to go abroad. He travelled (1655-59) through 
 France and Italy to Smyrna and Constantinople, thence again to Venice, 
 and through Germany and Holland home. After his return he was 
 episcopally ordained, a little before the Restoration, but his claims 
 were neglected by those who were now the dispensers of patronage in 
 the church. In 1660 he was chosen Greek professor at Cambridge, 
 and in 1662 Gresham professor of geometry. This last he resigned 
 in 1664, holding its duties to be incompatible with those of the 
 Lucasian professorship, to which he was appointed by Mr. Lucas at 
 the institution of that chair in 1663. This again he resigned in 1669 
 in favour of a pupil, a young man whom he considered as of the 
 highest promise, aged 27, and named Isaac Newton : indeed his 
 whole history is one of resignations of profit upon principle. He had 
 previously been offered a good living upon condition of instructing 
 the son of the donor ; he rejected the offer as simoniacal. His uncle 
 gave him a small living in Wales, and Dr. Seth Ward, bishop of Salis- 
 bury, made him one of the prebendaries of that cathedral. He applied 
 the revenues of both preferments to charitable purposes, and resigned 
 them when Charles II., in 1672, appointed him master of Trinity 
 College. In this capacity he strenuously and successfully exerted 
 himself to form a library, the want of which had been long felt. He 
 likewise remitted to the college several expenses which statute or 
 custom might have compelled them to incur for the maintenance of 
 his office. He died very young, considering his reputation, May 4, 
 1677, aged about forty-seven, and was buried in Westminster Abbey: 
 he left his manuscripts to Tillotson (afterwards archbishop), and 
 Abraham Hill, his biographer. 
 
 Barrow's moral and personal character were of the highest excel- 
 lence. His energy of mind is sufficiently attested by the extent of 
 his writings — by the successful variety of his studies — by the extra- 
 ordinary opinion of him formed by his associates, when compared with 
 the degree of interest his writings present to posterity : which is 
 always, in our opinion, proof of a lustre cast upon writings by per- 
 sonal character — and by the erection of Trinity College Library above- 
 mentioned. The quarrelsome disposition of his boyhood subsided 
 into rational and even reasoning courage, under the discipline to which 
 he subjected his mind. Dr. Pope, who was personally intimate with 
 him, thus describes his appearance and habits : — " As to his person he 
 was low of stature, lean, and of a pale complexion, and negligent of 
 his dress to a fault. . . . He was of extraordinary strength, a 
 thin skin, and very sensible of cold ; his eyes grey, clear, and some- 
 what short-sighted ; his hair a light-brown, very fine, and curling. 
 He was of a healthy constitution, very fond of tobacco, which he 
 used to call his ' panpharmacon,' or universal mediciue, and imagined 
 it helped to compose and regulate his thoughts. If he was guilty of 
 any intemperance, it seemed to be in the love of fruit, being of opinion 
 that, if it kills hundreds in autumn, it preserves thousands. He slept 
 little, generally rising in the winter months before day." Dr. Barrow 
 never married : his fellowship prevented his doing so in earlier life, 
 and on his appointment to the mastership he had the permission 
 rescinded, which was granted in the patent. Mr. Hill says he judged 
 it contrary to the college statutes. His sermons were, even in those 
 days of long sermons, regarded as excetsively long. It is said that a 
 sermon on charity, which he delivered before the mayor and aldermen, 
 lasted three hours and a half ; and another, from the text, " He that 
 uttereth a slander is a liar," of which he was prevailed upon to preach 
 only the half relating to slander, leaving out that which treated on 
 lies, lasted an hour and a half. 
 
 The works which Dr. Barrow published during his life are as follows, 
 in which a few words of the Latin titles only are retained : — 1. ' Kucli- 
 dis Elementa,' Cambridge, 1655, contains all the books of Euclid; 
 
661 
 
 BARROW, SIR JOHN. 
 
 BARRY, JAMES. 
 
 552 
 
 translated, London, 16G0. 2. 'Euclidis Data,' Cambridge, 16.07, after- 
 wards appended to the preceding. 3. ' Lectiones Opticie XVIII.,' 
 Loudon, 1669, his celebrated lectures on optics; they were revised 
 and augmented by Newton before their appearance. 4. ' Lectiones 
 Geoinetricoe XII.,' London, 1670, containing his method of tangents. 
 Afterwards, 1672 and 1674, printed with the optics. 5. Edition of 
 Archimedes, Apollonius, and Theodorus, London, 1675. 
 
 The works of Dr. Barrow, published after his death, were — 1. ' Lectio, 
 in qua,' &c, London, 1678. This is Archimedes on the sphere and 
 cylinder, demonstrated by the ' indivisibles' of Cavalerius. 2. ' Mathe- 
 matical Lectiones,' &c. Tbe-»e are Lucasi an lectures at Cambridge, 
 aud the preface is the preliminary oration delivered by Barrow. 
 3. 'Works,' &c, edited by Dr. Tillotson, dean of Canterbury, Loudon, 
 1635, the Preface being Mr. Hill's Life of Barrow: they contain his 
 English theological works, being sermons, expositions, &c. ; these have 
 been several times reprinted. 4. ' Opuscula,' containing Latin sermons, 
 speeches, poems, &c. There is a list of manuscripts in the ' Bio- 
 graphia Britannica,' anil in Ward's ' Lives of the Gresham Professors.' 
 The ' Lectiones Geometricse' aud ' Mathematical have been translated, 
 the first by Stone, 1735, the second by Kirkby, 1734. 
 
 As a mathematician Dr. Barrow has by numerous English writers 
 been declared to be second only to Newton. This is much higher praise 
 than his mathematical writings will justify. Foreign writers have been 
 less partial, and not always just in their estimate of his attainments as 
 a mathematician. Barrow produced in a geometrical form that pre- 
 lude to the differential calculus which goes by the name of the method 
 of tangents It was, in point of fact, what was afterwards the funda- 
 mental notion of the differentials of Leibnitz, and, in Newton's lan- 
 guage, asserted the ultimate equality of the ratio of the differences 
 of two ordinates and abscissas to that of the ordinate aud subtangeut. 
 It was so like the previous method of Fermat that Montucla calls it 
 Fermat's method simplified. But if Barrow was not the great mathe- 
 matician many of his countrymen have been willing to believe, he 
 was very far from the 'obscure' mathematician, which the French 
 Encyclopaedists styled him. Barrow was neither au obscure mathe- 
 matician, nor second only to Newton. He was profoundly versed in 
 geometry, acquainted with all its elegaucies as well as all its depth, 
 and had a facility of application. " Nihil quod tetigit non oruavit ;" 
 and he carried his methods, as many others have done, into theorems 
 both curious and useful. In reference to the style of his geometrical 
 writings Montucla says — "The merit of these works is a singular 
 brevity (concision) which does not destroy their clearness" Barrow, 
 who in his theological writings is often painfully verbose, is one of 
 the first writers who attempted, by throwing away circumlocutions 
 and introduction of symbols, to distinguish between Euclidean rigour 
 and unnecessary load of language. 
 
 In the elucidation of principles Dr. Barrow is not so happy as in 
 his application of them. The ' Mathematics; Lectiones,' a commentary 
 on the first principles of geometry aud arithmetic, is a cloud of words, 
 filled with ancient learning of every kind ; aud, though souud aud 
 logical, difficult to understand. He sometimes complains of his own 
 prolixity, but this is a very poor compensation for so annoying a 
 defect; and we frequently feel the force of the self-accusing terms in 
 which he ends one of his geometrical lectures — " I think 1 hear you 
 exclaim — SA.Atjs' Spvi> f}a\dvi£e." 
 
 The character of Barrow as a theological writer has always stood 
 high among the Euglish divines. His sermons, as Le Clerc observes, 
 are rather treatises and dissertations than harangues ; aud he wrote 
 and re-wrote them three or four times. They are always cited as 
 exact and comprehensive arguments, the produce of a grasp which 
 could collect, aud of a patienc s which could combine, all that was to 
 be said upon the subject in question. But in addition to this, Barrow 
 was an original thinker of no mean character : learning falls into his 
 work, but a work there would have been if he had had no learning 
 at all. From his desire to set the whole subject before his hearers he 
 is often prolix ; the style is frequently redundant ; aud his sermons 
 require au amount of attention which neither hearer nor reader is 
 often disposed to afford to such productions, aud which in truth they 
 would very seldom repay. But the sermons of Barrow are store- 
 houses of thought, and they are often resorted to as storehouses by 
 popular preachers and writers. Nor are they often wanting in passages 
 which, as examples of a somewhat redundant, but grave, powerful, 
 aud exhaustive style, it would be difficult to parallel in the whole 
 range of English pulpit literature. 
 
 BARROW, SIR JuHN, was born at Dragley-Back, near Ulverstone, 
 North Lancashire, June 19, 1764. Having passed through the Town 
 Bank Grammar School, young Barrow was placed when about four- 
 teen years old as clerk and overlooker in au iron-foundry at Liverpool, 
 but quitted this situation two years afterwards to make a voyage in 
 a whaler to Greenland. Having removed to London, he for awhile 
 was employed as mathematical teacher in a school at Greenwich, when 
 he obtained in 1792, through the influence of Sir George Staunton, to 
 whose son he had given lessons in mathematics, the appointment 
 nominally of comptroller of the household to Lord Macartney in his 
 celebrated embassy to China ; but really to take charge of the various 
 philosophical instruments carried out as presents to the Emperor of 
 China. Of this journey he published an account some teu years later 
 in a thick quarto volume, entitled ' Travels in China.' In this embassy 
 
 Mr. Barrow secured so far the goodwill of Lord Macartney, that his 
 
 lordship made him his private secretary on being appointed Governor 
 of the Cape of Good Hope in 1797 ; aud when Lord Macartney quitted 
 the Cape in 1798 he left Mr. Barrow in the post of auditor-general 
 of public accounts. During his stay at the Cape Mr. Barrow devoted 
 his leisure hours to the study of the geography and natural history 
 of South Africa, and made several journeys into the interior. On his 
 return to England he published the results of his investigations in a 
 quarto volume entitled ' Travels in Southern Africa.' In 1804 Mr. 
 Barrow was appoiuted by Lord Melville to the responsible post of second 
 Secretary to the Admiralty, the duties of which he continued to dis- 
 charge for a period of forty years under thirteen administrations. In 
 this office Mi. Barrow was earnest aud indefatigable in the promotion 
 of every project which commended itself to his judgment as calcu- 
 lated to advance the progress of geographical or scientific knowledge. 
 Especially did he labour by every possible means to commend to the 
 various governments under which he served, and to the country, the 
 prosecution of the various voyages to the Arctic regions which have 
 so characterised the naval history of England during the forty years 
 of his connection with the admiralty; and though his services had 
 been fitly commemorated by associating his name with the point of 
 land, Cape Barrow, yet such was the sense entertained of them by 
 those officers who had been engaged in those voyages, that, on his 
 retirement from his secretaryship, they presented him with a costly 
 candelabrum, bearing a suitable inscription on the pedestal. 
 
 Mr. Barrow was a man of untiring industry. The leisure hours 
 afforded by his official employment were devoted to literary and 
 scientific pursuits ; and his literary labours would in extent have 
 seemed not unworthy of one whose whole time was given to literature. 
 Neither in literature nor science would he be regarded as having 
 attained a high place, but for many years he held a distiuguished 
 position in the literary aud scientific circles of the metropolis. He 
 was for a long period a member of most of the leading learned societies 
 of London. In 1805 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; 
 in 1830 he took a leading part in the foundation of the Geographical 
 Society, of which some years later he was chosen president. In 1835 
 he was created a baronet. 
 
 In the beginning of 1 S 45 Sir John Barrow, then in his eighty-first year, 
 resigned his office at the Admiralty, aud retired from public life. He had 
 as early as 1806 received in consideration of his Various public services, 
 the grant of a pension of 1000/. per annum, to bo deducted from the 
 emoluments of any place he might hold under government. He died 
 almost suddenly on the 23rd of November 1848, in the eighty-fourth 
 year of his age. Besides the works mentioned above, Sir John Barrow 
 published a ' Life of Earl Macartney;' ' Life of George Lord Anson;' 
 ' Life of Lord Howe ;' ' Life of Drake; ' ' Memoirs of Naval Worthies 
 of Queen Elizabeth's Reign;' 'Chronological History of Arctic 
 Voyages;' 'Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic 
 Regions ;' 'Sketches of Royal Society and Royal Society Club;' the 
 ' Life of Peter the Great;' and the 'Mutiny of the Bounty' in the 
 'Family Library;' and his ' Autobiographical Memoir,' written in his 
 eighty-third year. He was also for a long series of years a frequent 
 contributor to the ' Quarterly Review,' having in all furnished 195 
 articles to that journal, aud he wrote some papers for the ' Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica,' as well as for one or two other periodical publications. 
 
 (An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow, Bart. ; Sir G. T. 
 Staunton, Memoir of Sir John Barrow, edited by J. B. [John Barrow, 
 son of the subject of the above article].) 
 
 BAR It Y, JAMES, a distinguished historical painter, was born in 
 Cork, October 11, 1741. In his early youth he frequently accompanied 
 his father, who was a coasting-trader, in several voyages across the 
 channel. His father regarded his son's predilection for literature and 
 the aits with extreme aversion, yet the young Barry made such rapid 
 progress in his scholastic acquirements as to excite the att-ntiou of his 
 superiors. His power of application was intense, and he was accus- 
 tomed to sit up whole nights in succession drawing and transcribing 
 from books. At the age of two-aud-tweuty Birry went to Dublin, 
 where he exhibited, at the Society of Arts, an historical picture which 
 he had recently execute 1; tbe subject was drawn from a tradition 
 relating to the first arrival of St. Patrick iu Irelaud. This work intro- 
 duced Barry to Edmund Burke, who discerned in it such evidence of 
 genius as induced him shortly afterwards to take the artist with him 
 to England, where he procured for him in the first instance employ- 
 ment iu copying pictures for Athenian Stuart, aud gave him all the 
 advantages of his powerful patronage. In the ensuing year he sent 
 him to Rome, where he remained for five years at the joint expense of 
 Edmund Burke and his brother William. 
 
 Barry's irritable temper was from the first a constant source of 
 annoyance both to himself and others. Shortly after his arrival in 
 Rome he became involved in a series of disputes with the artists and 
 virtuosi, which being reported to Burke, that gentleman sent him a 
 long aud admirable letter of remonstrance and advice : but notwith- 
 standing these disputes Barry proceeded with iudefatigable diligence 
 to investigate the principles of the great works which surrounded him, 
 both in ancient and modern art. His moJe of study was singular. 
 He drew from the antique by means of a patent delineator, not aiming 
 to make academic drawings, but a sort of diagrams, in which a scale 
 of proportions was established, to which he might at all times refer as 
 
BBS 
 
 BARRY, JAMES. 
 
 BARRY, MARTIN. 
 
 554 
 
 tt guide and authority. Accustomed as we are to consider that a com- 
 petent skill in drawing is only to be obtained by the habitual exercise 
 of the eye and hand, this process seems absurd enough ; nevertheless 
 there can be no grouud for objecting to the means if the end be 
 obtained ; and no one who has seen the picture of the Victors of 
 Olympia can deny that Barry had a thorough knowledge of the human 
 figure, or that he was a correct and scientific draughtsman. The same 
 praise cannot be extended to his colouring : he never seems how- 
 ever to have suspected himself of any deficiency in that quality, 
 and says in answer to some animadversions made on him while 
 at Rome, " I made some studies from Titian, and soon silenced my 
 adversaries." 
 
 During his stay at Rome BaTy was elected a member of the Clemen- 
 tine Academy at Bologna, on which occasion he painted and presented 
 to that institution his picture of Philoctetes in the Isle of Lemnos, a 
 work which exhibits more genius than taste. In 1770 he returned to 
 England, destitute of all but art, but justly confident in his acquire- 
 ments, and anxious to distinguish himself. About this time a project 
 had been formed by Sir Joshua Reynolds and other leading artists, 
 for decorating St. Paul's Church with Scriptural paintings ; Barry was 
 associated in the undertaking, and he selected the subject of the Jews 
 rejecting Christ. The artists offered their work gratuitously, but this 
 liberal proposition was declined by the cathedral authorities. 
 
 During his residence on the continent, Barry's indignation had been 
 greatly excited by opinions prevalent there on the subject of British 
 genius. Winckelmann and Du Bos had proved the English, by what 
 they asserted to be the clearest reasonings, to be utterly incapable of 
 excellence in any of the higher walks of art ; and Barry, attaching 
 more importance than was due to such sweeping conclusions, under- 
 took to give them a regular refutation. In 1775 he published an 
 ' Inquiry into the real and imaginary Obstructions to the Acquisition 
 of ttie Arts in England.' In this work he traces and poiuts out with 
 great perspicuity the real causes, political and others, by which the 
 progress of the arts had been impeded in this country. Shortly after- 
 wards Barry proposed to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, 
 Manufactures, and Commerce, to paint gratuitously a series of pic- 
 tures, illustrative of the position, that the happiness of mankind is 
 promoted in proportion to t^e cultivation of knowledge. His offer 
 was accepted, and the works now decorate the great room of the 
 institution in the Adelphi. The series consists of six pictures, namely, 
 Orpheus reciting his verses to the wild inhabitants of Thrace; a 
 Grecian Harvest-home ; the Victors at Olympia ; the Triumph of the 
 Thames; the Society distributing their Prizes; and Final Retribu- 
 tion. These apparently dissimilar subjects are brought to bear on the 
 leading idea of the artist with great force and unity; and we are 
 impressed, while regarding them, with the conviction that such a 
 work could neither have been conc ived nor executed except by a 
 mind of a very high order. Barry's chief defect was, perhaps, that 
 in his eagerness to grasp at ethical illustration, he was apt to forget 
 those qualities which are essentially requisite to his own art — single- 
 ness of impression and simplicity of effect. In the picture of Final 
 Retribution the attention is bewildered amidst the accumulation of 
 characters and costumes ; but this deficiency in pictorial unity is to a 
 certain extent atoned for by the general grandeur of conception, by 
 its interesting groups, and diversified circumstances, to which we recur 
 again and again aj to a written volume. But the picture on which 
 Barry may rest his most indisputable claim to fame is that of the 
 Victors at Olympia. The picture is not only a fine example of pictorial 
 skill, but embodies whatever impressions have been transmitted to us 
 by poetry or history of those celebrations. Canova is said to have 
 declared when in England, that, had he known of the existence of 
 such a work, he would, without any other motive, have made the 
 voyage to England for the purpose of seeing it. The pictures are 
 doubtless open to severe criticism as works of high art, but the 
 remark made by Dr. Johnson on seeing them, admirably expresses 
 their real value : — " Whatever the hand may have done, the mind has 
 done its part. There is a grasp of mind there which you will find 
 nowhere else " — nowhere else, assuredly, amongst the English historical 
 paintings of the 18th century. 
 
 Having completed this work, Barry must have felt conscious that he 
 had at least secured that which had been the chief aim of his life — 
 the reputation of a great painter. This object was obtained by no 
 alight sacrifices; for his task had been pursued, through seven years, 
 amidst all the hardships of poverty and privation. It would be grati- 
 fying were we able to add that he received from public admiration or 
 sympathy a reward at all proportioned to his deserts. The result was 
 far different. He was ' permitted' by the society to whom he presented 
 this magnificent gift to exhibit his pictures in the room which they 
 decorate. The receipts of this exhibition scarcely amounted to 500/., 
 to which however the society added a vote of 200/., and this sum 
 comprises nearly the whole produce of his professional career. It can 
 excite little surprise that, under these circumstances, his natural irri- 
 tability became exasperated, or that the powers of his mind gradually 
 declined : that they did is too strongly attested by his last work — the 
 picture of Pandora receiving the Gifts of the Gods. Barry painted several 
 easel pictures, some of historical and others of poetical subjects ; and 
 a few portraits, of which that of Edmund Burke is one of the best. 
 Towards the close of his life he meditated a number of works from 
 
 Milton's 'Paradise Lost,' but he did not proceed beyond making the 
 
 sketches. 
 
 Barry's disputes with the Royal Academy were another source of 
 bitterness to him. He had beon elected Professor of Painting to that 
 body in 1782, and his altercations with the members were perpetual. 
 In 1797 he reiterated against the Academy the charge made by Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, that in every measure proposed by him for the 
 general advancement of art ho was opposed and outvoted by the 
 machinations of a mercenary cabal. The members felt so annoyed at 
 these allegations that they preferred against Barry a formal body of 
 charges, and iu a general assembly expelled him from the Academy. 
 
 Shortly after this event, the Earl of Buchan, moved by an impression 
 that Barry had b^en treated unjustly, as well as by admiration of his 
 talents, and knowing no doubt that he was even then living in solitude 
 and poverty, while age and still deeper distress were iu the future, set 
 on foot a subscription in his favour, which amounted to about 1000/. 
 With this sum it was proposed to purchase him an annuity ; but the 
 close of his career was at hand, and the kind intentions of his friends 
 were rendered unavailing. He died from the effects of a neglected cold 
 fit of pleuritic fever, on the 22nd of February 1806. His remains, after 
 lying in state in the great room of the Society of Arts, in the Adelphi, 
 were interred in St. Paul's cathedral. 
 
 Among the literary works of Barry may be mentioned his six 
 lectures delivered at the Royal Academy, and a fragment on Gothic 
 architecture, which Burke pronounced to be "as just as it is ingenious." 
 (Barry's ' Life and Works.') 
 
 BARRY'. MARI'E JEA'NNE GOMARD DE VAUBENIE'R, 
 COUNTESS DU BARRY, was born at Vaucouleurs, August 19, 1746. 
 Her father, or at least her reputed father, was an exciseman of the 
 name of Vaubenier. After her father's death her mother went to 
 Paris to look for employment, and the daughter was placed in a con- 
 vent, which she left when about fifteen, and obtained employment at a 
 fashionable milliner's. Soon after she became connected with a dis- 
 reputable house, where she was seen by Count Jean du Barry, a 
 notorious fashionable rake of his day, who made her his mistress for 
 a short time, and afterwards introduced her to Lebel, valet-de-chambre 
 to Louis XV., by whom she was presented to the king. She was then 
 remarkably handsome, and had an appearance of frankness, aud a tone 
 of familiarity, or rather vulgarity, which captivated the licentious 
 monarch. Louis wished her to have a title, in order that she might 
 appear at court, and .Guillaume du Barry, Count Jean's brother, con- 
 sented to lend himself to the wish of the king by marrying her, after 
 which she was introduced to the court at Versailles as Countess du 
 Barry in 1769. The court of France, which from the time of the 
 Merovingian founders of the monarchy had been, with the exception 
 of very few reigns, remarkable for its licentiousness, became during 
 the regency and the subsequent reign of Louis XV. the abode of the 
 most barefaced profligacy. Everything was sold, everything was 
 obtained, through the intrigues of vicious women. The accounts of 
 those scenes which have been transmitted to us in the memoirs of 
 several of the actors, and women too, seem almost incredible. The 
 greatest attention was paid to the Countess du Barry by the most 
 powerful courtiers. The Chancellor Maupeou, Marshal Richelieu, 
 and other courtiers, flattered her, in order to avail themselves of her 
 influence with the king, aud it was through her that Maupeou suc- 
 ceeded in dismissing and exiling the parliament in 1771. 
 
 When Louis XV. died, in 1774, the Countess du Barry was shut up 
 in a convent near Meaux ; but some time after Louis XVI. allowed 
 her to come out, restored to her the residence of Luciennes, which 
 had been built for her by the old king, and allowed her a pension. 
 After this Madame du Barry lived in retirement, and her conduct, as 
 far as is known, appears to have been regular. Among the persons 
 who visited her were several artists, whom she encouraged and assisted 
 in their pursuits. She was almost forgotten wheu the revolution 
 broke out, but she then showed herself grateful for the treatment she 
 had experienced from Louis XVI. by exhibiting a lively interest for 
 him and his family in their misfortunes; and she even repaired to 
 England, careless of danger, in 1793, in order to sell her jewels, the 
 produce of which she intended for the use of the queen aud her 
 children, who were then prisoners in the Temple. On her return 
 from England, she was arrested in July 1793, and iu November of the 
 same year she was brought before the revolutionary tribunal on the 
 charge of " being a conspirator, and of having worn mourning in 
 London for the death of the tyrant." She was condemned, and was 
 executed on the 6th of November. The absurdity and injustice of 
 the sentence made many who had before despised her pity her end. 
 
 BARRY, MARTIN, an eminent physiologist, was born at Fratton, 
 Hampshire, in March 1802. The strong bent which he early mani- 
 fested for scientific pursuits, led his parents to give up their scheme of 
 a mercantile life for their son, and he studied in the universities of 
 Edinburgh, Paris, Berlin, and other places iu Germany, and in the 
 medical schools of London. He entered warmly into the proceedings 
 of the scientific societies of the Scottish metropolis, and spent most Oi 
 his holidays in geological aud Dotauical excursions on foot among the 
 lakes aud mountains. He took his degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 
 1833, and in the following year, after a term of study at Heidelberg, 
 he rambled through Switzerland to Chamouni, where, though past the 
 middle of September, too late in the season as was thought, for sue- 
 
855 
 
 BARRY, SIR CHARLES. 
 
 cess, he went to the summit of Mont Blanc. This was the sixteenth 
 ascent ; and Humboldt was so ph-ased with the narrative of the adven- 
 ture published by Barry in 1836, that he personally requested him to 
 translate his 'Two Attempts to ascend Chimborazo' from German 
 into English. 
 
 Martin Barry has the merit of being one of the few physiologists 
 who devoted their attention to the difficult question of animal develop- 
 ment and embryology. He began by making himself well acquainted 
 with the literature of the subject ; and in the museums and labora- 
 tories of Wagner, Purkinje, Valentin, and Schwann, ho brought his 
 knowledge to the test of observation, and acquired that mastery over 
 the microscope which afterwards appeared in the importance and value 
 of his own researches. 
 
 Having published in the ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal' 
 for 1836, a translation of the first part of Valentiu'B ' Manual of the 
 History of Development,' he commenced his investigations into the 
 development of the mammalian ovum and embryo, at that time, as 
 truly described, " the darkest part of embryological science." The 
 results, communicated to the Royal Society of London, were printed 
 in the ' Philosophical Transactions 1 under the general title of 
 ' Researches iu Embryology.' These, as well as his papers ' On the 
 Corpuscles of the Blood,' 'On the Formation of the Chorion,' 'On 
 Fibre,' &c., will be found in the 'Philosophical Transactions' from 
 1838 to 1842. The most important — the discovery by which he will 
 be best remembered — ' Spermatozoa found wilhin the Ovum,' appears 
 in the volume for 1843. The Royal Society recognised the value of 
 Barry's researches by awarding him their royal medal in 1839, and 
 electing him a Fellow in the following year. 
 
 The ' Researches in Embryology ' exhibit proofs of the author's 
 skill in the grouping and selection of his facts, and of the perseverance 
 by which they were demonstrated. He explains the formation of the 
 ovum in the rabbit aud dog, and in some of the oviparous vertebrate 
 classes from the bird to the fish. He determined the order of forma- 
 tion of different parts of the ovum, and the nature and mode of its 
 growth from the ovisac ; and showed that the so-called ' disc of Von 
 B.ier' contained a rctinacula, or peculiar species of mechanism, by 
 which, as he supposed, the passage of the ovum into the Fallopian 
 tube was regulated. He described the changes that take place in the 
 ovum while on its passage — changes before unknown ; and Barry was 
 the first to throw light on this interesting process of animal develop- 
 ment. Not till his paper appeared iu 1839, was it known that the 
 segmentation of the yelk which had been observed in Batrachian rep- 
 tiles, was also true of mammals. It was an important discovery ; and 
 not less so that published in 1840 — the penetration of the ovum of 
 the rabbit, by spermatozoa, through an aperture iu the zona pellucida. 
 This at first was doubted ; but he confirmed it by further observation 
 in 1843 ; and it was eventually corroborated by the observations of 
 Nelson and Newport, accounts of which are also published in the 
 'Philosophical Transactions;' and Professor Bischoff, who had denied 
 the truth of Barry's conclusions, at last satisfied himself of their 
 accuracy, and accepted them in full. 
 
 The views expressed by Barry in his paper ' On Fibre,' are disputed 
 by physiologists. He assumed a spiral structure for muscular fibre 
 and other organic tissues, and brought speculative arguments to bear 
 iu favour of his opinions ; but other investigations show one and the 
 other to be fallacious. His speculations have however tended to 
 stimulate physiological research. Whatever may have been Barry's 
 feeling for his own favourite ideas, his character as an amiable and 
 benevolent man is beyond question. Ample private circumstances 
 placed him above the need of practising his profession ; and he devoted 
 much of his time to the poor, chiefly as house-surgeon to the Royal 
 Maternity Hospital in Edinburgh. From 1849 to 1853 he lived on the 
 Continent to recruit his health and eyesight, both having suffered from 
 long aud severe study. At Prague he renewed his examinations of 
 fibre conjointly with Purkinje ; with what result may be seen in 
 Miiller's ' Archiv.' for 1850. In 1852 he returned to Scotland, suffer- 
 ing much from neuralgia ; and having gone to rsside at Beccles, in 
 Suffolk, he died there on the 27th of April, 1855. 
 
 Barry was a member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of the 
 Wernerian and other societies, and the College of Surgeons in that 
 city. Some of his papers and translations are printed in the ' Edin- 
 burgh New Philosophical Journal,' and others in the works and 
 periodicals already mentioned. 
 
 BARRY, SIR CHARLES, architect ot the new Houses of Parlia- 
 ment, was born at Westminster in 1795. Having passed through the 
 ordinary course of scholastic and professional education, and made the 
 usual architectural tour of the continent, Mr. Barry entered on his 
 career as an architect in London, and soon distinguished himself by 
 the grace and finish of the structures erected by him, especially of 
 those constructed in the Italian style, for which he has always shown 
 a marked predilection. Of these, that which first attracted general 
 attention was the Travellers' Club-House, Pall Mall, erected in 1832, 
 the garden or Carlton-Terrace front of which excited great admiration. 
 This club-house, the first of these Italian palatial edifices erected in 
 London, has been eclipsed by its more magnificent neighbour the 
 Reform Club-House, another of Barry's more important works, erected 
 some fifteeh years later ; but the Travellers' remains one of the most 
 pleasing buildings of its class in London. One of the first buildings 
 
 by which Mr. Barry made his professional attainments evident was the 
 fine gothic church of St. Peter's at Brighton, yet he has since been 
 called upon to erect fewer churches than most among the more emi- 
 nent of his contemporaries. Of these may be mentioned, a church at 
 Islington and a chapel in Birmingham. Of the scholastic buildings 
 which Sir Charles has designed, the very spacious pile known as King 
 Edward's Grammar School, at Birmingham, a really grand and imposing 
 structure iu the Tudor collegiate style ; and the New Building*, in the 
 same style, at University College, Oxford, may be particularly noticed. 
 As belonging to this class of buildings, the Athenaeum at Manchester 
 may be named as one of the happiest of his Italian designs. The list 
 of private mansions erected or modified by Sir Charles Barry would be 
 of considerable length. It will be enough for our purpose to name 
 the very elegaut villa erected for Earl Tankerville at Walton-on- 
 Thames as one of his earlier, and Bridgewater House, by the Green 
 Park, erected for the Earl of Ellesmere, as one of his latest, and per- 
 haps in nearly all respects the finest as well as the most costly, of his 
 Italian palatial structures. We may also refer, as remarkable iu their way, 
 to the extensive and costly extensions, amounting to much more than 
 a rebuilding, of the Duke of Sutherland's seat at Trentham, Stafford- 
 shire ; the remodelling of the interior of his town mansion, Stafford 
 House; and the enlargement and almost entire reconstruction of the 
 celebrated Clifden House, near Maidenhead, also the property of the 
 Duke of Sutherland. Sir Charles has likewise remodelled some well- 
 known public buildings of some among the more eminent of his pre- 
 decessors ; and that his alterations have really in some instances been 
 improvements, a reference to the Treasury Buildings at Whitehall, 
 originally erected by Sir John Soane, will suffice to show. But im- 
 portant as many of these works are, that by which the architectural 
 rank of Sir Charles Barry will be finally determined is the new Palace 
 of Westminster, the largest, most important, aud by far the most 
 costly edifice which has been erected in this country for centuries. 
 The old Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire October 16, 1834; 
 aud the first stone of the present building was laid April 27, 1840. 
 Since that time the work has been prosecuted without intermission ; 
 the design continually growing in extent, aud the cost increasing in at 
 least an equal proportion. Some years will probably yet elapse before 
 the waole is completed, and until it is completed it cannot as a whole 
 be fairly judged. It has been, as was certain to be the case, exposed 
 to much severe and not a little malevolent criticism ; but the opinion 
 appears to be steadily gaining ground that, whatever be its faults, it 
 will worthily sustain in the judgment of posterity the reputation of 
 the architect and of the age. 
 
 Sir Charles Barry arrived somewhat slowly at academical honours. 
 He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1840, and an 
 academician in 1841. In 1849 he was elected a fellow of the Royal 
 Society. Sir Charles Barry was a member of the Institute of Archi- 
 tects, London ; of the Academies of the Fine Arts at Rome, Berlin, 
 St. Petersburg, Stockholm, and Brussels. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BART, JEAN, was born at Dunkerque in 1651. His father was a 
 seaman, and was killed in a naval action. Jean, yet a boy, left home 
 and went to Holland, where he served under the celebrated Admiral 
 de Ruyter, and became a thorough seaman. Great courage, activity, 
 and bodily strength, gave him the superiority over most of his comrades. 
 When Louis XIV. declared war against Holland in 1672, Bart refused 
 the offers made to retain him in the Dutch service, and returned to 
 Dunkerque. He there entered on board a privateer, which was very 
 successful in its cruise ; and much of the success was attributed to 
 Jean Bart. With the proceeds of his share of the prizes he fitted out 
 a sloop with 2 guns and 36 men, and having met a Dutch man-of- 
 war in the Texel, he boarded her, took her, and brought her into Dun- 
 kerque. He next joined several speculators who fitted out a 10-gun 
 ship, and gave him the command of it. Being equally successful in 
 this cruise, he was intrusted with the command of a small squadron 
 of five ships, with which he did great injury to the Dutch, taking both 
 their merchantmen and their armed vessels ; and among others a 
 36-gun frigate, which, after a desperate fight, he carried into Dun 
 kerque. His name now became known at court, and Louis XIV. sent 
 him a gold medal and chain, with the rank of lieutenant in the royal 
 navy. In the war against Spain he made several prizes in the Medi- 
 terranean, and when war broke out between France and England, i 
 1689, he and the Chevalier de Forbin, while commanding two ships o 
 war, were attacked by two English frigates. After a desperate fight, 
 the two French ships were taken and carried into Plymouth. Bart an J 
 Forbin escaped soon after by filing the bars of the window of thei 
 prison, and obtained a boat, in which they crossed over the Channe" 
 to France. On their return the king made them both captains. 
 
 In 1690 Bart had the command of a 40-gun ship in the Brest flee 
 under Admiral de Tourville, and contributed materially to the advan 
 tage obtained by the French off Dieppe over the English and Dutc" 
 allied squadrons on the 10th July. The following year Bart obtain 
 the command of a squadron of small vessels, which he had recom- 
 mended to be fitted out at Dunkerque, as better calculated to d 
 injury to the enemy. Passing through the English blockading squadron, 
 he went into the North Sea, where he made numerous prizes ; h 
 landed also on the coast of Scotland, wher« he plundered seve" 
 villages. After the defeat of the French at the battle of La Hogue, 
 at which he was not present, Bart sailed from, Dunkerque with tbr 
 
657 
 
 BARTAS, SIEUR DU. 
 
 BARTHEZ, PAUL JOSEPH. 
 
 GE8 
 
 frigates, made a descent on the English coast near Newcastle, and 
 plundered and burnt some villages. On his return homewards he fell 
 in with a Dutch fleet of merchantmen under convoy of several men- 
 of-war, and, according to his custom, made straight for the admiral's 
 ship, but was repulsed ; he however succeeded in taking several of the 
 merchant-vessels. In 1694 he attacked another Dutch fleet under 
 Rear-Admiral Vries, boarded the admiral's ship, and took her, after 
 having mortally wounded the admiral himself with his own hand. 
 This was one of the most desperate fights in which Bart was ever 
 engaged. By this victory he re-took from the Dutch a fleet of 300 
 vessels laden with corn from the Baltic, and bound to France, which 
 country was then suffering under a severe dearth. A medal was 
 struck to commemorate this event, and Louis XIV. granted letters of 
 nobility to Bart and his descendants. In 1697 Bart was commissioned 
 to take to Poland the Prince of Conti, one of the candidates for the 
 Polish crown, vacant by the death of John Sobieski ; but the Elector 
 of Saxony was proclaimed king of Poland before the Prince of Conti's 
 arrival. 
 
 The peace of Ryswick, in September 1697, having put an end to the 
 war, Bart retired to live with his family. He died at Dunkerque 
 April 27, 1702, at the age of fifty-one. He was one of the boldest 
 and most successful seamen that France has ever produced. He was 
 rough in his manners and illiterate, but clever, indefatigable, and 
 frank in his disposition. His eldest son, Francois, became a vice- 
 admiral, and died in 1755. 
 
 (Life of Jean Bart, translated from the French [of Andre-Richer], 
 by the Rev. Edward Mangin, M.A., London, 1828; Vandarest, Histoire 
 de Jean Bart ; Biographie Universelle and Dictionnaire Universel 
 LTistorique.) 
 
 BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALLUSTE, SIEUR DU, the son 
 of a treasurer of France, was born about the year 1544, at Montfort in 
 Armagnac, and brought up to the profession of arms, with which he 
 afterwards united diplomacy, and obtained considerable reputation in 
 both. Being of the reformed religion, he became gentleman of the 
 chamber to Henry IV. during that prince's contest for the throne ; 
 served him in several missions at foreign courts, and among others at 
 the English court, where James I. wished to retain him. He was 
 present at the famous battle of Ivry, where he received wounds of 
 which he died four months later (1590). Du Bartas is a striking 
 instance of the perishable nature of reputation founded on literary 
 fashion and a popular subject. In his own time his principal work, 
 giving an account of ' the Week, or Seven Days of the Creation,' and 
 founded probably on the ' Sette Giornate ' of Tasso, went through 
 thirty editions in less than six year3 ; was translated into Latin, 
 Italian, Spanish, German, and English ; and obtained the applause of 
 his most illustrious contemporaries, including Spenser. Yet his name 
 is now almost proverbial for barbarism of style and bad taste, and his 
 own countrymen treat it with contempt. They accuse him of utter 
 want of judgment ; of low, extravagant, and disgusting imagery; and 
 pedantic compounds of words, after the fashion of the ancients. 
 What was pedantry however in this respect with Du Bartas, might 
 have helped, in greater hands, to give fire and elevation to the French 
 language, had the idiom itself permitted it. The same compounding 
 of word3, which came to nothing in old French poetry, was so warmly 
 received in England, through the medium of Du Bartas's translator, 
 Sylvester, that, in conjunction with the like dariug in Chapman's 
 'Homer,' and Sir Philip Sydney's 'Arcadia,' it avowedly helped to 
 enrich the poetry of our native country ; and to Sylvester are traced 
 Borne of the most beautiful compound epithets of Milton and Fletcher. 
 Yet so little merit in this result had the genius either of Du Bartas or 
 his translator, that in Sylvester's version, which was once almost as 
 popular in England as the original was iu Frauce, and procured for 
 him the epithet, after his own fashion, of ' silver-tongued Sylvester,' 
 are to be found all the absurd and revolting defects noticed by the 
 French critics, in spite of an occasional fine verse or thought, acknow- 
 ledged by the critics of both countries. (Biographie Universelle; 
 Sylvester, Du Bartas, &c.) 
 
 BARTHELEMY, JEAN JACQUES, was born at Cassis, near 
 Aubagne, in Provence, 20th January 1716. At twelve year.? of age he 
 entered the College of the Fathers de l'Oratoire at Marseille, and 
 commenced his studies under Father Renaud, a man of considerable 
 learning. Being intended for the ecclesiastical profession, he went 
 next into the Seminary of the Jesuits, where he studied philosophy 
 and theology, and at the same time applied himself to the Greek and 
 Oriental languages. He afterwards studied numismatics under Cary, 
 a well-known antiquarian. In 1743 he proceeded to Paris, where he 
 made the acquaintance of Gros de Boze, secretary to the Academy of 
 Inscriptions and Belles Lettree, and keeper of the king's cabinet of 
 medals. In 1745 Gros de Boze took Bartheldmy as his assistant in the 
 cabinet, and after Gros' death, Bartheldmy succeeded him as keeper. 
 Meantime Bartheldmy had become known to the learned of Paris, and 
 had written several dissertations on ancient coins, and on the Phoenician, 
 Samaritan, and Palmyrene characters. In 1754 he was commissioned 
 by the Count d'Argenson to travel in Italy, chiefly for the purpose of 
 collecting medals for the king's cabinet. At Rome he became ac- 
 quainted with the learned Cardinals Passionei, Albani, and Spinelli, 
 and was presented to Benedict XIV. He made also the acquaintance 
 of Joseph Simon Aasemani, of Boscovich, Piranesi, and other distin- 
 
 guished men who were living in Rome at that time. He thence went 
 to Naples, and examined the newly-discovered antiquities of Pompeii 
 and Herculaneum. On his return to Rome he was introduced to the 
 Count de Stainville, then French ambassador to the papal court, and 
 his lady, and this acquaintance decided the future destiny of Barthe- 
 ldmy. The Count, on his return to France, became Duke of Choiseul, 
 and first minister of Louis XV. In his elevation he did not forget 
 Bartheldmy, for whom he had conceived a sincere esteem, but loaded 
 him with unasked favours. He bestowed on him several pensions, 
 made him treasurer of St.-Martin of Tours, and, lastly, secretary- 
 general to the Swiss and Grison regiments in the French service, which 
 last situation alone was worth 20,000 francs per annum. Bartheldmy 
 made a good use of his income ; he assisted many of his less fortunate 
 brethren in the career of science, he provided for his nephews and 
 nieces, and himself continued to live soberly and modestly. In 1760 
 he published a dissertation on the celebrated mosaic of Palestrina, 
 which he explained to be an allegorical representation of the arrival of 
 Hadrian in Egypt. The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettre3 
 received him among its members, and he contributed many disserta- 
 tions to the ' Mdmoires ' of that learned body. In 1766 he published 
 ' Lettres sur quelques Monumens Phdniciens et sur les Alphabets qui 
 en rdsultent.' He next published ' Entretiens sur l'Etat de la Musique 
 Grecque vers le Quatrieme Siecle,' 8vo, Paris, 1777; ' Essai d'une 
 Paldographie Numismatique ; ' and ' Dissertation sur une Inscription 
 Grecque relative aux Finances des Athdniens.' But the work which 
 has made his name popular is his ' Voyage du Jeuue Anacharsis en 
 Grece,' 4 vols. 4to, Paris, 1788, and 7 vols. 8vo, 1789; a work which 
 for many years formed a text-book in the French classes of most large 
 schools in this country. In his own country the work speedily became 
 extremely popular, and it was long said that the great mass of 
 moderately educated French people derived from it their notions of 
 the geography, laws, polity, commerce, and finances of the Greek 
 republics, and more especially of Athens ; of their education, habits, 
 and manners ; their amusements, theatres, games, and festivals ; their 
 religious rites ; of their philosophers and their various sects ; the state 
 of the sciences and arts, &c. But the form of the work, though 
 certainly attractive to the general reader, is not well calculated to 
 give sound information in a department of learning so extensive and 
 multifarious. The admixture of fiction with real facts is not very 
 favourable to strict historical accuracy. With regard to the pictures 
 of ancient manners, Bartheldmy says himself in his introduction, 
 "Such details are but faintly indicated in the ancient writers, and 
 they have occasioned numerous controversies among modern critics. 
 I have long discussed those sketches of manners which I have intro- 
 duced in my work, and I have afterwards suppressed part of them in 
 the revisal, but perhaps I have not gone far enough in the work of 
 suppression." And again, " Had I examined my strength, instead of 
 consulting my courage, and of being led away by the attractions of 
 the subject, I should never have undertaken this work." This 
 ingenuous confession renders criticism superfluous. 
 
 _ The great French revolution, which found Bartheldmy immersed in 
 his favourite studies, deprived him of his income of about 25,000 
 francs; but this affected him little. The gloom of despondency seized 
 him when he saw his best and oldest friends led to prison, and thence 
 to the scaffold. He himself, then nearly eighty years of age, was 
 denounced as an aristocrat, and suddenly taken to prison. The arrest 
 of the aged Bartheldmy however proceeded merely from some obscure 
 informer; the Jacobins themselves were ashamed of it; and Danton 
 the celebrated terrorist, procured his release the next day. Citizon 
 Pard, the pro tempore Minister of the Interior, even offered Bartheldmy 
 the place of chief librarian of the Royal, or, as it had then become, the 
 National Library. But he now felt weary of life; even literary and 
 scieutific pursuits had no longer any attractions for him ; and his desire 
 for death was not long withheld. He expired in his house at Paris, in 
 the arms of his nephew, on the 30th of April 1795. He was buried 
 without any ceremony, according to the custom of those times. 
 
 _ Bartheldmy's ' 03uvres Diverses,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1793, contain a 
 life of the author by a brother academician, and a catalogue of his 
 works, notes taken during his journey in Italy, dissertations on the 
 antiquities of Herculaneum and the tables of Heraclea, reflections on 
 some Mexican paintings, and researches on the distribution of the booty 
 in the wars of the Greeks and Romans. Another posthumous work 
 of Bartheldmy is the ' Voyage en Italie, imprimd sur ses Lettres 
 Originales dcrites au Comte de Caylus,' 8vo, Paris, 1802. 
 
 BARTHEZ, or BARTHES, PAUL JOSEPH, a physician and phy- 
 siologist, was born at Montpellier, December 11, 1734. He began the 
 study of medicine at Montpellier, in 1750, and obtained the degree of 
 doctor in 1753. After this he went to Paris, where he made the 
 acquaintance of some of the most distinguished literary persons then 
 in the metropolis. While there he wrote two essays, which were 
 rewarded with prizes from the Academy of Inscriptions. In 1756 he 
 was employed as physician to the army, which he soon quitted, after 
 being attacked with severe fever, and returned to Paris, where he 
 became associated with the leading philosophers of the day as joint 
 editor of the ' Journal des Savants,' and of the ' Encyclopddie 
 Mdthodique.' In 1759 he was appointed to a professorship at Mont- 
 pellier. In his lectures he promulgated the doctrines he had announced 
 in his early essays, which he afterwards enlarged and published, 
 
669 
 
 BARTHOLINE, ERASMUS. 
 
 BARTOLI, DANIELE. 
 
 600 
 
 namely, ' 0 ratio de Principio Vitali Hominis.'one vol. 4to, Montpellier, 
 1773 ; ' Nova Doctrina <ie Functiouibus Corporis Hutnani,' Mont- 
 pellier, 1774. In these works be endeavoured to point out, that the 
 actions in the human body are dependent upon a vital principle, and 
 that the functions of organised matter are to be Btudied in a different 
 way from the properties of inorganic matter. These doctrines he 
 correctly applied to vegetable as well as animal bodies, for he taught 
 vegetable physiology as well as medicine. Another work gave more 
 scope for the development of bis views, namely, ' Nouveaux Eldments 
 de la Science de l'llomme,' one vol. 8vo, Montpellier, 1778, of which 
 a second edition was published by him at Paris in two vols. 8vo, 1806. 
 By the dissemination of his views on these subjects, Barthez proved a 
 valuable coadjutor to Haller, Cullen, and the other eminent physio- 
 logists of that time. 
 
 In 1774 he was made assistant-chancellor, and afterwards sole 
 chancellor, of the University of Montpellier. In 1780 he was sum- 
 moned to Paris, to assume the duties of consulting physician to 
 the king, and first physician to the Duke of Orleans, lie continued 
 to practise his prof< ssion with increasing reputation for teu years, 
 when the struggles of the revolution drove him from the metropolis. 
 He took refuge at Carcassonne, where he practised medicine gratui- 
 tously, and devoted himself to study, the result of which was a 
 treatise, ' Nouvelle Meichanique des Mouvetnents de l'Homme et dea 
 Auiuiaux.' Some years afterwards, the faculties of medicine having 
 been re established, he was appointed honorary professor at Mont- 
 pellier, and in 1801 pronounced his ' Discours sur le Gduie d'Hippo- 
 crate.' In 1802 he was appointed physician to the Emperor Napoleon, 
 and soon after published a treatise, 'Des Maladies Goutteuses,' two 
 vols. 8vo, which is deemed inferior to his former publications. In 
 1806, after an attack of fever, he expired on the loth of October, in 
 the seventy-second year of bis age. 
 
 He left behind him two works, which were afterwards published — 
 1, 'Traitd du Beau,' one vol. 8vo, Paris, 1807; and, 2, 'Consultations 
 de Mddocine,' two vols. 8vo, Paris, 1810. 
 
 (Lordat, Exposition de la Doctrine Medicale de M. Barthez ; Bio- 
 graphic Universelle ; Thomson, Life of Cullen, vol. i. p. 445.) 
 
 BARTHOLINE or BARTHOLINUS, ERASMUS, born at Roskild 
 in Denmark, 1625, died in 1698 ; was the son of Gaspard Bartbolinus, 
 who, like several of his sons and grandsons, was known as a physician 
 and writer on medicine. Erasmus Bartholiue was professor of geometry, 
 and afterwards of medicine, at Copenhagen. ('Biog. Univ.') His prin- 
 cipal work is 'DeCometis,' Copenhagen, 1664-65, in which he treats 
 of comets after the manner of Descartes. (Weidlcr, p. 503.) He 
 published several other works. 
 
 BARTHOLI'NE, THOMAS, son of Gaspard, was boru at Copen- 
 hagen, 20th of Cctober, 1616. After some years' study at the uni- 
 vtrsity of his native place, following the example of his father, he 
 visited the most celebrated schools of Europe, at almost all of which 
 he published some work ; thus leaving at each a memorial of his 
 assiduity and talents. At Leyden, where he resided from 1637 to 
 1640, he re published his father's ' Anatomise Institutiones,' with addi- 
 tions, 1641, 1 vol. 8vo. He afterwards spent two years at Paris and 
 Montpellier. From France he went to Padua, where he lived three 
 years, and was greatly distinguished among the students. After 
 voting the greater part of Italy and passing over to Malta, he 
 returned to Padua, and thence proceeded to Basle, where he took the 
 degree of Doctor of Medicine, having chosen for his thesis ' De 
 Phrenitide,' 4to, Basle, 1645. In the following year he returned to 
 Copenhagen with a large collection of books, in addition to the stores 
 of knowledge which he had acquired. In 1647 he was appointed 
 professor of mathematics in the University of Copenhagen, which 
 situation he exchanged the following year for the chair of anatomy. 
 During the time he held this office he published a great many works, 
 particularly on subjects connected with anatomy and medicine. Some 
 of the.-e treat of anatomical discoveries then or recently made, the 
 most celebrated of which was the discovery of the 'lymphatic vessels,' 
 the merit of which he assigns to himself, though his claim is con- 
 tested in favour of Rudbeck, a Swedish anatomist, who, in October 
 and November 1650, and the greater part of the following year, made 
 many experiments to discover the course and termination of the 
 'lacteals,' and the testimony of Haller is in favour of Rudbeck. 
 Bartholine's work is entitled 1 Vasa Lymphatica in Homine nuper 
 inventa,' Hafnise, 1654. 
 
 Another important work of his is entitled ' Dissertatio Anatomica 
 de Hepate Defuncto novis Bilsionorum Observationibus Opposita,' 
 Hafnise, 1661, 8vo. Up to the time of Bartboline the liver was sup- 
 posed to be the sole organ of sanguification, a doctrine which he 
 disproved in this and other works. In 1661, his health being very 
 delicate, he resigned bis professorship, and retired to the country, of 
 which he was extremely fond. Surrounded by his books, he hoped 
 to spend the remainder of his life in study and tranquillity, but in 
 1670 a fire destroyed his house, his library, and bis manuscripts. 
 After this event he returned to Copenhagen, where the king appointed 
 him his physician; and in addition to his salary grauted him an 
 exemption from taxes. The University of Copenhagen nominated 
 bim librarian ; and in 1675 the king appointed him a member of the 
 grand council of Denmark. 
 
 He published many successive editions of his 'Anatomia,' which 
 
 was also reprinted in various countries of Europe, and it continued to 
 be the common text-book of anatomy till the publication of Verheyen 
 in 1693. Another important publication is the ' Historiarum Anato- 
 micarum Centuriae VI.,' of which there is a complete analysis in Haller's 
 ' Bibliotheca Medica,' vol. ii., p. 654. A valuable work of a similar kind, 
 but consisting entirely of morbid appearances found on dissection, was 
 unfortunately destroyed by the flames. This mode of extending our 
 knowledge he enforced in a subsequent work, ' Consilium de Anatome 
 practica ex cadaveris morbosis adornanda, cum Operum Auctoris 
 hactenus Editorum Catalogo,' Hafniee, 1674, 4to. Another interesting 
 work, though of an earlier date, is ' De luce Hominorum et Brutorum,' 
 Leidse, 1647, 8vo, and Hafnise, 1663, 1669; to which last edition is 
 appended Gesner's treatise, ' De raris et admirandis herbis quas noctu 
 lucent.' It treats of phosphorescent appearances. His works alto- 
 gether amount to sixty-six, one of the last of which was ' De Pere- 
 grinatione Medica,' Hafnia?, 1674, folio, being an account of his travels, 
 with advice to his two sons how to travel with advantage. 
 
 Bartboline died at Copenhagen, December 4, 1680, in the sixty-fifth 
 year of his age, leaving behind him five sons and three daughters, 
 most of whom became distinguished for their talents and learning. 
 
 (Encyclopedic Methodique ; Haller, Bibliotheca Medica, et B. 
 Anatomica.) 
 
 BARTHOLINE, or BARTHOLINUS, THOMAS, son of the pre- 
 ceding, boru in 1659, became eminent in the science of jurisprudence, 
 in the prosecution of which, after studying at the University of 
 Copenhagen, he proceeded to the universities of Leyden, Paris, Leip- 
 zig, and Oxford. Upon his return home he was appointed Professor 
 of History and Civil Law ; and held the offices of assessor of the 
 consistory, secretary to the king, antiquary, and keeper of the royal 
 archives. He died November 5tb, 1690. He published — 1. ' De 
 Longobardis,' 4to, 1676; 2. ' De Holgcro Dauo,' 8vo, 1677; 3. 'De 
 Equestris Ordinis Danebrogici a Cht istiano V. iostaurati origine,' foL ; 
 4. 'De Causis Mortis a Dauis gentilibus contemptse,' 4to ; 5. ' Antiqui- 
 tatum Dauicarutn Libri tres,' 4to, 1689; 6. 'De Legendis Libris;' 
 7. ' Orationes et Carmina.' He left also, but unfinished, an 'Eccle- 
 siastical History of the North.' It was from his work 'De Causis 
 Mortis,' &c, that Gray translated his ' Descent of Odin.' (Moreri, 
 Diction., ii. p. 90; Chalmers, Bioy. Diet, vol iv. p. 74.) 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, ST., the Apostle, is mentioned in the list of 
 the Twelve Apostles appointed by Christ, in Matthew x., Mark iii., 
 and Luke vi. In the first chapter of John the name of Bartholomew 
 is omitted, and that of Nathaniel inserted. It is generally supposed 
 that these names represent the same person. In Acts i. Bartholomew 
 is named as present at the gift of tongues. This is all that is posi- 
 tively known of him, except that he was a native of Galilee. Tra- 
 dition, as handed down to us by many ancient writers, records that 
 he proceeded to preach the Gospel in India. On his return, St. Bar- 
 tholomew met St. Philip at Hieropolis in Phrygia, aud Chrysostom 
 relates that he preached Christianity in some parts of A*ia. Nothing 
 certain is known of the time, place, or manner of his death. The 
 Greek and Roman Catholic churches agree in fixing the place at a town 
 on the Caspian Sea. The mode was crucifixion, according to the 
 Greeks ; the Roman Catholics adding being flayed alive. Michel 
 Angelo, in the Sixtine Chapel, has depicted the apostle as holding his 
 skin in one hand, and the cross in the other. No writings of any sort 
 have descended to us from St. Bartholomew. Two works, ' The 
 Writings of Bartholomew the Apostle,' aud ' The Gospel of St. Bar- 
 tholomew,' are mentioned by writers within the first four centuries of 
 the Christian era, but they no longer exist, and are deemed to have 
 been spurious. The English church holds the festival of St. Bartholo- 
 mew on the 24th of August. The relics of the saint, after many 
 changes, are said to rest under the high altar of St. Bartholomew's 
 church at Rome. 
 
 BAR'TOLI, DANIE'LE, was born at Ferrara, in 1608. At the age 
 of fifteen he entered the Order of the Jesuits. He was very desirous 
 to go to India, to join the missionaries of his order, who were then 
 engaged in spreading Christianity through the East; but his supe- 
 riors, judging that he would be more useful at home, employed him 
 as a preacher in various parts of Italy. As he was proceeding to 
 Palermo, to preach there during the Lent of 1646, he was ship- 
 wrecked on the island of Capri, and afterwards continued his voyage 
 in another vessel. Although he bad lost the manuscript of his 
 sermons, he contrived, by means of a few fragments which he had 
 preserved, and with the assistance of a good memory, to go through 
 his ' Quaresimale ' of about forty sermons, to the satisfaction of the 
 audience. In 1650 he wa3 sent for to Rome by the Father-General, 
 and commissioned to write the history of the Order in the Italian 
 language. He divided his subject by treating successively of the 
 different parts of the world in which the Order had established itself. 
 He began with Asia, ' Istoria della Compagnia di Gesu, l'Asia, parte 
 prima,' fob, Roma, 1653. In this volume he treats of the first mis- 
 sionaries sent by the Jesuits to the East, beginning with Francisco 
 Xavier, who was styled the Apostle of the Indies. He describes the 
 first success of the missions on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, 
 at Malacca, &c. The work may serve to a certain extent as a supple- 
 ment to Barros's ' Asia Portugueza.' Bartoli published next, ' II 
 Giappone, seconda parte dell' Asia,' foL, Roma, 1660; — perhaps the 
 most interesting of his works. The rapid diffusion of Christianity in 
 
Ml 
 
 BARTOLI, PIETRO SANTO. 
 
 BARTON, BENJAMIN SMITH. 
 
 Japan, and its subsequent total eradication by fire and sword, are 
 remarkable historical events. Bartoli's narrative embraces the whole 
 history of Christianity in Japan, from the landing of its first preacher, 
 Xavier, in 1549, till its complete extinction in 1637, when Japan was 
 closed against all Europeans, with the exception of the Dutch, who 
 were allowed to trade at the harbour of Nangasaki; an exception 
 which has contiuued in force till our own day, when the treaties of 
 England and America with Japan concluded in 1855, have in some 
 measure opened the country to the British and American commerce. 
 Bartoli gives a very good sketch of the character and habits of the 
 Japanese. 
 
 Bartoli's next publication was ' La Cina, terza parte dell' Asia,' fol., 
 Roma, 16C3. This work, which embraces also the missions to Cochin 
 China and Tonkin, concludes Bartoli's account of Asia — an account 
 replete with interest, for these may be looked upon as the heroic times 
 of the Order of Jesuits. He next published ' L'ltalia, prima parte dell' 
 Europa,' fol., Roma, 1673;— and 'Dell' Inghilterra, parte dell' Europa,' 
 fol., Roma, 1667. This is a history of the English Catholics, prin- 
 cipally under Elizabeth and James I. : the author passes rapidly over 
 the reign of Mary, "who," he says, "was obliged to use the sword, in 
 order to cut off the mortified limbs of the nation, for fear they should 
 infect the rest." Bartoli wrote also the life of Ignatius de Loyola, 
 the founder of the Jesuits, ' Vita e Istituto di S. Ignazio,' fol., Roma, 
 1689; and the lives of the Generals Caraffa and Borgia, and other 
 distinguished members of his order. These various works contain a 
 vast quantity of materials for the history of the first century of the 
 Society of Jesuits. But he wrote also several books on morality : ' La 
 Ricreazione del Savio;' Milano, 1660; being considerations on the 
 wonders of nature, from which he derives moral and religious argu- 
 ments for the conduct of a wise man ; ' Delia Geografia trasportata 
 al Morale;' Roma, 1664; and 'L'Uomo di Lettere difeso ed emendato,' 
 in which he gives much excellent advice to men of letters — on their 
 conduct, their pursuits, and their style. This work went through 
 many editions in Italian, and has been translated into English, by 
 Thomas Salisbury, 8vo, London, 1 668. 
 
 Bartoli wrote treatises on several physical phenomena — on sound 
 and hearing, ' Del Suono, de' Tremori armonici, e dell' Udito,' 4to, 
 Roma, 1679 ; on ice, ' Del Ghiaccio, e della Coagulazione,' 4to, Roma, 
 1681 ; on the depression and expansion of quicksilver in tubes, 'La 
 Tensione e la Pressione disputanti qual di loro sostenga l'Argento 
 Vivo ne' Cannelli dopo fattone il vuoto,' 12mo, Venezia, 1679. 
 
 Bartoli also wrote several works on the Italian language : ' II 
 Torto e il Diritto del non si, pu6,' 12mo, Roma, 1655, a work much 
 esteemed; and 'Dell' Ortografia Italiana,' ibid. 1670. He contributed 
 also to Mambelli's work called 'Cinonio, Osservazioni sulla Lingua 
 Italiana,' one of the best works on Italian grammar. An edition of 
 Bartoli's minor works, including some of his sermons, was published 
 at Venice, 3 vols. 4to, 1716-17. A new edition of Bartoli's works was 
 a few years back brought out in Italy. 
 
 Bartoli was appointed Rector of the Gregorian or Roman College 
 in 1671. He died at Rome, January 13, 1685, aged 77 years. 
 
 (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Tiraboschi, Storia della Lelteratura 
 Italiana ; and Bartoli's works above quoted.) 
 
 BA'RTOLI, PIETRO SANTO, an Italian painter and engraver, 
 born at Perugia in 1635. As an engraver he obtained a great repu- 
 tation, more however from the subjects and the number of his prints 
 than for any particular excellence of execution. He was the scholar 
 of Nicholas Poussin, from whom he probably, in some degree, derived 
 his great love of the works of ancient art. As a painter he did very 
 little beyond copying, in which he was so excellent, that even Poussin 
 himself is said to have had difficulty in distinguishing between his 
 own pictures and the copies made of them by Bartoli. Bartoli had 
 a correct appreciation of the merits of Greek design, and though 
 technically his prints have little excellence, they are in most cases 
 true to their originals. His prints, mostly etchings, which amount 
 to many hundred?, are chiefly from ancient basso-rilievi or paintings 
 in the ruins in or about Rome and other Italian cities. He was also a 
 printseller, and established a business in Rome, which was continued 
 after his death by his son Francesco Bartoli. P. S. Bartoli died 
 in 1700. 
 
 Winckelmann was a great admirer of the works of Bartoli, and 
 recommends young artists to study them in order to acquire a proper 
 appreciation of ancient art. They are free, but slightly executed, and 
 all in the same style. The following are among the principal col- 
 lections executed by Bartoli: — ' Admiranda Romanarum Antiquita- 
 tum ac Veteris Sculptnrse Vestigia,' with remarks by Bellori ; ' Romanae 
 Magnitudinis Monumenta; ' ' Veteres Arcus Augustorum triumphis 
 insignes, ex reliquiis quse Roma? adhuc supersunt ; ' ' Le Pitture 
 Antiche delle Grotte di Roma e del Sepulcliro de' Nasoni;' ' Qli Antichi 
 Sepolchri, ovvero Mausolei Romani ed Etruschi, trovati in Roma;' 
 and ' Recueil de Peintures Antiques imit<5es fidelemeut, pour lea 
 couleurs et pour les traits, d'apres les dessins colorids faits par P. S. 
 Bartoli,' Paris, 33 pi. folio, 1757. Of the last work thirty copies only 
 were published of the first edition : a second but inferior edition was 
 published in 1787, with a few additional plates. 
 
 (Pascoli, Vite d€ Pittori, <fcc. Modemi ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, &c. ; 
 Heineken, Dictionnaire del Artistes, &c.) 
 
 BARTOLOMEO, FRA. [Baccio, della Porta. 
 Bioa. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 BARTOLOZZI, FRANCESCO. This distinguished engraver was 
 born in Florence in 1728, or according to some authorities in 1725. 
 He received his first instructions in drawing under Gaetano Biagio 
 and Ignazio Hugford, in the Florentine academy. Here his acquaint- 
 ance commenced with Giovanni Cipriani, with whom his name became 
 afterwards intimately associated by their joint productions in art. 
 Bartolozzi commenced engraving under Joseph Wagner, of Venice, 
 and when the tern of his engagement with that master had expired, 
 he married a Venetian lady, and went to Rome, whither he had been 
 invited by Cardinal Bottari. Here he produced his fine plates from 
 the life of St. Nilus, and a series of portraits for a new edition of 
 Vasari. Having completed these works he returned to Venice, where 
 he was engaged by Mr. Dalton, librarian to George III., to engrave a 
 set of drawings by Guercino, which having accomplished, he accepted 
 an invitation from Mr. Dalton to remove to England, and to continue 
 engraving for him on a stipend of 3002. per annum. The series of 
 plates from Guercino were completed in this country. Some of the 
 earliest performances of Bartolozzi in England were designs for tickets 
 for the Opera House. Bartolozzi then produced his engraving of 
 Clytie, after Annibale Carracci, and that of the Virgin and Child, after 
 Carlo Dolce. These plates are well-known ; they are in the highest 
 degree brilliant and spirited, and would alone have been sufficient to 
 establish the name of Bartolozzi as an engraver of the very highest 
 order. A style of dotted engraving printed in red ink was introduced 
 about this time, a bad and meretricious practice, the success of which 
 was in great measure attributable to the example of Bartolozzi. A 
 prodigious number of the paintings and drawings of Cipriani, who 
 had likewise settled in England, were engraved by Bartolozzi ; the 
 styles of the painter and engraver harmonise admirably ; grace, 
 elegance, and suavity, are the characteristics of each, and their works 
 for a considerable time held almost unrivalled possession of the publio 
 favour. Bartolozzi showed however that when engaged on the work3 
 of more efficient masters he could transmit them to the copper with 
 adequate force and effect. Examples of this may be seen in the engrav- 
 ings of Prometheus devoured by the Vulture, after Michel Angelo; 
 the Adulteress before Christ, after Agostino Carracci ; Rebecca hiding 
 the Idols of her Father, after Pietro da Cortona ; St. Luke painting the 
 Portrait of the Virgin, after Cantarini ; and various others. One of 
 Bartolozzi's earliest patrons was Alderman Boydell, for whose Shaks- 
 pere Gallery he engraved a number of fine plates. Among his minor 
 works, his etchings in imitation of the great masters, and of the 
 Marlborough gems, are proofs of his versatile and exquisite taste. 
 
 In the year 1802 Bartolozzi received an invitation from the Prince 
 Regent of Portugal to settle at Lisbon, as superintendent of a school 
 of engravers, with a salary of 100^. per annum, to which was annexed 
 a handsome residence and the profits of the engravings. Bartolozzi 
 left England in his seventy-fifth year, and was received at Lisbon with 
 all the respect due to his distinguished talents. He died in that 
 capital in 1815. Bartolozzi's private character was in the highest 
 degree amiable, and it may be mentioued, among other instances of 
 his kind and generous disposition, that he finished gratuitously a plate 
 which had been commenced by Ryland, having been requested to do 
 so by that unhappy man when under sentence of death for forgery. 
 Several of Bartolozzi's pupils rose to eminence; among them Chees- 
 man, Sherwin, Tomkins, and the two Vendramini. 
 
 BARTON, BENJAMIN SMITH, was born in the year 1766 at 
 Lancaster, in Pennsylvania. His father was a respectable episcopal 
 clergyman, who divided his time between the duties of his sacred 
 office and the pursuit of natural history, especially of mineralogy ; 
 but he died when the subject of this notice was only fourteen years 
 old, leaving his children so ill-provided for, that the early part of his 
 son Benjamin's life was an incessant struggle with want and poverty. 
 In this struggle he, by indomitable perseverance, overcame the dif- 
 ficulties of his lot. After gaining the essential parts of a learned 
 education under Dr. Andrews of Philadelphia, Mr. Barton prosecuted 
 his medical studies in the university of that city, where he distin- 
 guished himself so much by his acquirements in science as to secure 
 the friendship of his uncle, Dr. Rittenhouse, who proved ever after 
 his father and supporter. In 1785 Mr. Barton accompanied his uncle 
 and the other American commissioners in fixing the western boundary 
 of Philadelphia. On this occasion he was led into some curious inves- 
 tigations concerning the manners of the American Indians, their 
 histoiy, and their traditional medicines, by which he gained consider- 
 able reputation. When about twenty-one, Mr. Barton proceeded to 
 Edinburgh, with a view to complete his medical education. He re- 
 mained there about two years, when, on account of some dissatisfac- 
 tion with two of the professors, who he fancied did not show him 
 sufficient attention, he went to Gottingen to graduate, although he 
 had distinguished himself at Edinburgh by gaining the Harveian prize 
 of the Royal Medical Society for his dissertation ou the medical quali- 
 ties of the henbane. Upon his return from Europe Dr. Barton 
 established himself in Philadelphia as a physician, and soon found 
 some practice. When only twenty-four he was appointed professor 
 of natural history and botany in the College of Philadelphia, and thus 
 was the earliest teacher of natural science in the transatlantic world, 
 an office the duties of which he continued zealously and successfully 
 to discharge for twenty-six years. In 1802 Dr. Barton was elected 
 vice-president of the American Philosophical Society ; when thirty 
 
663 
 
 BARTON, BERNARD. 
 
 BARUCH. 
 
 50 1 
 
 he became professor of materia medica ; upon the death of Dr. Rush 
 he succeeded him in the chair of the practice of medicine, which he 
 held till his death ; and in the year 1809 he became president of the 
 Philadelphia Medical Society, the highest mark of respect for profes- 
 sional talent which it was in the power of his fellow-citizens to bestow. 
 In a short time however his incessant labours, and the heavy duties 
 of his professional avocations, told upon his constitution. At last, 
 after visiting Europe in a vain attempt to restore his shattered powers, 
 he died in December 1815. 
 
 The writings of Dr. Barton consist chiefly of papers upon various 
 subjects relating to the natural history and antiquities of North 
 America, and an elementary work on botany, which passed through 
 two American editions. Dr. Barton was the first person to notice tlie 
 curious power of camphor when steeped in water to revive faded 
 flowers, showing it to be a vegetable stimulant of peculiar energy. 
 "When his circumstances became easy, Dr. Barton afforded valuable 
 assistance to those labourers in science who were less favourably 
 situated. At his private charge the late Frederick Pursh was sent 
 to the Alleghany Mountains and the western territory of the Southern 
 States for the sake of exploring their vegetable productions; on which 
 occasion he acquired the most valuable part of the materials from 
 which he subsequently prepared his American ' Flora.' In 1810 Dr. 
 Barton enabled Mr. Nuttall to visit the northern and north-western 
 parts of the United States and the adjoining British territories with 
 a similar object in view : how large an accession of discovery resulted 
 from this also is well known from the works both of Pursh and of 
 Nuttall himself. These two botanists agreed to name one of the finest 
 of their discoveries 'Bartonia,' in honour of their patron. 
 
 (Biographical Sketch of Professor Barton, by his nephew, Dr. William 
 P. C. Barton.) 
 
 BARTON, BERNARD, was born in London in 1784. His parents 
 were members of the Society of Friends, aud to the tenets of that sect 
 Bernard Barton always adhered. In 180G he went to Wood bridge iu 
 Suffolk; and there in 1810 he entered as a clerk the banking house of 
 Messrs. Alexander, in whose employment he continued almost to his 
 death. Bernard Barton first claimed public attention as a poet in 
 1812, by the publication of a volume of ' Metrical Effusions.' This was 
 followed in 1820 by a volume of ' Poems,' and thenceforward as long 
 as he lived he continued to issue at intervals either brief occasional 
 piece-", or, though much more rarely, a poem of greater length and 
 loftier pretensions. 
 
 Bernard Barton attracted an amount of attention and popularity 
 far beyond that to which his poetic merits would seem to have entitled 
 him. This was perhaps mainly owing to his presenting the then 
 unusual phenomenon of a Quaker poet — the title indeed by which he 
 came to be commonly known ; but it bkewise no doubt was partly due 
 to the evidently unaffected tone of simple religious earnestness which 
 pervades all his writings. He wrote with ease ; and like most easily 
 written poetry, his verses are more characterised by fluency than power. 
 But though often diluted almost to feebleness, there is a vein of 
 natural feeling and quiet unobtrusive benevolence running through his 
 verses, which render them pleasing to all but the more critical class 
 of readers. Barton was a man of refined habits ; a lover of nature, 
 and fond of paintings and other works of art to a degree then very 
 uncommon among members of his sect. His moral character was 
 blameless, and few men in his position of life won so wide and general 
 a share of esteem as did Bernard Barton. Some years before his death 
 he received, through the instrumentality of Sir Robert Peel, the grant 
 of a pension of 1 OOi. per annum. He died suddenly of spasm in the 
 heart, February 19, 1849. Besides the works noticed above, Barton 
 published 'Napoleon and Other Poems,' 1822; ' Poetic Vigils,' 1824 ; 
 ' Devotional Verses,' 1826 ; ' Household Verses,' ' New Year's Eve,' and 
 numerous occasional verses and pieces published separately, and in 
 magazines, annuals, &c. 
 
 (Memoir, prefixed to his Poems; Gentleman's Magazine, 1849.) 
 
 BARTON, ELIZABETH, the ' holy maid of Kent.' Respecting the 
 early life of this woman we possess no information. She first becomes 
 known to us in 1525, when, while a servant at an inn at Aldington 
 in Kent, she began to acquire a local reputation for sanctity and 
 miraculous endowments. She was subject to fits of an epileptical 
 character, and, iu the paroxysms of her disorder, vented her feelings in 
 incoherent phrases and exclamations, which one Richard Master, 
 parson of Aldington, took advantage of to make people believe that she 
 was an instrument of divine revelation. Master and Dr. Booking, a 
 monk of Canterbury, took her under their direction, and instructed 
 her in the tricks she should play. At first it is probable that she was 
 simply their instrument, but she soon appears to have become a kind 
 of accomplice, though we cannot perhaps fairly consider her, in any 
 part of her career, as of perfectly sound mind. A successful prediction 
 lent its aid to the general delusion. A child of the master of the inn 
 happened to be ill, when Elizabeth was attacked by one of her fits. 
 On recovering, she inquired whether the child was dead] She was 
 told that it was still living. " It will not live, I announce to you ; its 
 death has been revealed to me in a vision," was the answer. The 
 child died, and Elizabeth was immediately regarded as one favoured 
 by Heaven with the gift of prophecy. She soon after entered the 
 convent of St. Sepulchre's at Canterbury, and became a nun. 
 
 In this new situation her ecstacies and revelations were multiplied, 
 
 and she became generally known by the appellation of the ' holy maid 
 of Kent.' Several persons of distinction, " nobles as well as spiritual 
 persons," to quote from the statute, believed in her divine missioo. 
 Bishop Fisher, the most hone3t prelate of his time, and Archbishop 
 Warham, a learned and amiable man, countenanced her pretensions ; 
 and, above all, the strong iutellect and upright heart of Sir Thomas 
 More did not secure him against the errors of his age. (See Cromwell's 
 letter to Fisher in the Appendix to Burnet. Fisher's speech in defenca 
 of himself in the affair of the Maid of Kent is quoted at length in the 
 ' Parliamentary History,' vol. i. p. 520, from Collier.) At a subsequent 
 time, shortly before his execution, More changed his tone, and declared 
 her, in his letter to Cromwell, to be "a lewd nun," and a hypocrite. 
 
 Had this poor creature confined her prophecies to the common 
 occurrences of life, or even to the current topics of religious contro- 
 versy, it is more than probable that she would have been permitted to 
 die in peace ; but, led by her zeal, or more probably worked upon by 
 others, Bhe boldly prophesied against evil-doers in high places, and in 
 reference to the divorce from Catherine and marriage of the king with 
 Anne Boleyn, declared " that she had knowledge by revelation from 
 Heaven that God was highly displeased with our said sovereign lord, 
 aud that if he proceeded in the said divorce and separation and married 
 again, he should no longer be king of this realm ; and that, in the 
 estimation of Almighty God, he should not be king one hour, aud that 
 he should die a villain's death." She was at the time so popular, and 
 so extensively patronised by many of the clergy, and such pains were 
 taken on their part to diffuse her sentiments respecting the divorce, 
 that the government at length proceeded to take active measures 
 against her and her adherents. Accordingly, in November 1533, the 
 nun, with five priests and three lay gentlemen, her accomplices, were 
 brought before the Star Chamber aud sentenced to do public penance 
 as impostors at St. Paul's Cross. It is stated by the more zealous 
 anti-Romish writers, that the nun did confess herself to be an impostor, 
 and that she was tempted to claim inspiration at the instigation of 
 the devil : but it is much more probable that a false confession was 
 obtained from her with the hope of saving her lite, than that a simple 
 woman should have contrived and carried on, for many years, a 
 system of complicated mental and physical imposture. But the nun's 
 confession, whatever were its motives, availed her nothing. From the 
 pillory she and her companions were led back to prison, where they 
 lay till the followiug January, when they were attainted of high 
 treason. On the 21st April 1534, the nun was beheaded at Tyburn, 
 together with the five priests. 
 
 BARTSCH, ADAM VON, a distinguished designer and engraver, 
 was bora at Vienna in 1757. He was educated in the School of 
 Engraving at Vienna under Professor Schmiitzer, and distinguished 
 himself in his sixteenth year by a set of engravings of all the gold and 
 silver medals struck by order of the Empress Maria Theresa, through 
 which he obtained the appointment of scriptor in the royal library. 
 In 1781 he was appointed keeper of the prints of the royal collection, 
 which led eventually to the publication of his well-known work, ' Le 
 Peintre-Graveur,' in 21 vols. 8vo, 1803-21, the description of the 
 greater part of the works of the principal engravers of Europe, and to 
 which he now chiefly owes his reputation. He is also the author of 
 several similar works on a smaller scale, but they are all more descrip- 
 tive than critical. His etchings are numerous, amounting to 505, dating 
 from 1782 until 1815, including imitations of old etchings aud draw- 
 ings, prints from his own designs, aud from the works of other masters : 
 of these a catalogue «as published by his son in 1818. Bartsch com- 
 pletely re-arranged, and made considerable additions to, the immense 
 imperial collection of prints at Vienna. 
 
 In 1812 Bartsch was decorated with the order of Leopold, and in 
 1816 he was appointed principal Custos of the Imperial Library of 
 Vienna; he had also the titular rank of hofrath, or aulic-councillor. 
 He died at Vienna August 21, 1820. 
 
 Bartsch was the author of the following works, among others, pub- 
 lished at Vienna : — 'Catalogue Raisonne' des Desseins Originaux des 
 plus Grands Maitres Anciens et Modernes, qui faisoient partie du 
 Cabinet de Prince Ch. de Ligne,' 1794 ; ' Catalogue raisonne des 
 Estampes Gravees a l'Eau Forte par Guido Reni et ceux de ses dis- 
 ciples, S. Catarini, Jean Andre, Elizabeth Sirani, et Laurent Loli,' 
 1795; 'Catalogue raisonne' des Estampes qui forment l'GSuvre de 
 Rembrandt et ceux de ces principaux Imitateurs, compost par Ger- 
 saint, Helle, Glorny, P. Yver,' nouv. ed., 1797; ' Catalogue raisonne" de 
 toutes les Estampes qui forment l'CEuvre de Lucas de Leyde,' 1793. 
 He published also iu 1797 an edition of the ' Triumph of the Emperor 
 Maximilian I.,' with a French translation of the old German text, ' Le 
 Triomphe de l'Empereur Maximilien L, en une Suite de Cent Trente- 
 cinque Planches,' &c. 
 
 BARUCH. Among the various individuals called by the name of 
 Baruch, the most important was Baruch, the scribe and assistant of 
 the prophet Jeremiah. The warnings, denunciations, aud prophecies 
 of Jeremiah were continued during the reigns of Josiah, Jehoiakim, 
 Jehoiachiu, and Zedekiah, kings of Judah. In the fourth year of the 
 reign of Jehoiakim, about B.C. 607, while Jeremiah was closely confined, 
 he received a divine command to cause all the prophecies which he had 
 uttered to be written in a roll. He accordingly summoned Baruch, 
 the scribe, who wrote from the mouth of Jeremiah all the words of his 
 former denunciations. Baruch afterwards read the roll before the 
 
6 jS 
 
 BASAITI, MARCO. 
 
 BASILIUS. 
 
 rr.o 
 
 people, and also before the princes. Having heard the commencement 
 of the roll, Jehoiakim cut it in pieces, and cast it into the fire, Jehoi- 
 akiin commanded his servants to apprehend bath the prophet and the 
 Bcribe, but they were already concealed (B.C. C06). After the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem, when Nebuchadnezzar led the Jews captive to 
 Babylon, Baruch and his master Jeremiah obtained permission to 
 remain in Palestine; but both were afterwards carried into Egypt by 
 Jochanan-Ben-Kareach, B.C. 588. (Cornp. Jer. xxxii. 12-16; xxxvi. 4, 
 17, 27, 32 ; xliii. 3-6; xlv. 1, 2 : * Josephi Antiquitate3,' x. 9, 1.) From 
 some of these passages we learn that Baruch was present at the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem. Concerning the close of Baruch's life there exists a 
 diversity of opinion. According to one tradition, Baruch died in Egypt; 
 another asserts that he went from Egypt to Babylon, and died there 
 twelve years after the destruction of Jerusalem, leaving a celebrated 
 disciple in the person of Ezra, the scribe, and subsequent leader of 
 the Jews. 
 
 The most ancient copies of the book of Baruch still extant are written 
 in Greek ; but, on account of supposed Hebraisms in the style, some 
 learned men are of opinion that it was originally written in Hebrew. 
 It has been published, with the rest of the Apocrypha, in a Hebrew 
 translation, by Seckel Isaac Frcenkel, Leipzig, 1830. The authenticity 
 of the bock of Baruch was not recognised either by the ancient Jews 
 or the fathers of the Christian Church ; but the Council of Trent 
 anathematises those who exclude it from the canon of the Old Testa- 
 ment Further information concerning the book of Baruch may be 
 found in the ' Introductions' to the Old Testament by Eichhorn, Jahn, 
 Berthold, De Wette, and others. 
 
 (Gru.neberg,Exercitatio de Libro Baruchi Apocrypho,G'6tt. 1796, 8vo.) 
 
 BASAITI, MARCO, one of the best of the early Italian painters, 
 was born of a Gre^k family in the Friuli, probably about the middle 
 of the 15th century. He lived chiefly in Venice, where he was the 
 rival of Gian Bellini, to whom he was superior in some respects, espe- 
 cially in composition, in accessory groups, and in the management of 
 the landscape or scene. Some of Basaiti's works are still, for colour, 
 among the most brilliant paintings extant. There are several of his 
 works in Venice, upon one of which, in the church of San Pietro di 
 Castello, is the date of MDXX ; and in the church of San Giobbe there 
 is an excellent picture of Christ praying in the Garden, with the date 
 1510. Among his other best known paintings are an Ascension of the 
 Virgin, in the church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, and an Assumption, 
 in that of St. Peter and St. Paul ; but his masterpiece is the Calling 
 of St. Peter and St. Andrew, in the Academy of Venice, formerly in 
 the old church Delia Certosa; it is marked mdxi. m. baxit. There is 
 a repetition of it on wood in the Gallery of Vienna, marked, according 
 to Mechel, 'Marcus Baxaiti f. 1515.' There is a beautiful Deposition 
 from the Cross, by Basaiti, in the Gallery of Munich, cabinet xviii. 
 Moschini mentions a picture by Basaiti, dated 1520. 
 
 BASEVI, GEORGE, an eminent architect, was born at Brighton in 
 1794. He was placed as a pupil with Sir John Soane, R.A., in whose 
 office he remained for six years. He then made a professional tour 
 through Italy and Greece for three years. He commenced practice as 
 an architect in 1819. During his comparatively short career Mr. Basevi 
 was employed in the coustruction of various descriptions of buildings, 
 scarcely any one of which is without manifest evidence of careful study 
 and well-cultivated taste. Among the more extensive of his works 
 may be mentioned Belgrave-square, which was erected entirely from 
 his designs. The churches at Brompton, Twickenham, Hove, &c, 
 show his acquaintance with the requirements of ecclesiastical archi- 
 tecture. St. Mary's Hall at Brighton may also be mentioned among 
 his more successful efforts. But his great work is the Fitzwilliam 
 Museum at Cambridge, one of the most ornate yet chaste and effective 
 classical edifices erected in England during the present century. It 
 was not quite finished at his death, and, like the Conservative Club- 
 House, St. James's-street, another of his latest works, executed by him 
 in conjunction with Mr. Sidney Smirke, it shows that he was rapidly 
 throwing off the tramm-ls of precedent, and giving his fine taste and 
 attainments fuller and freer play. But his career was suddenly cut 
 short by a lamentable accident. Whilst examining, in company with 
 the Dean of Ely, the works in the Bell Tower of Ely Cathedral, the 
 restoration of which was being conducted under his direction, his foot 
 caught against a nail in a beam from which the flooring had been 
 removed, and he fell through an aperture on to the top of the arch 
 under the tower, a distance of 40 feet. He died almost instantly, 
 October 16, 1845, aged 51. The FitzwilHain Museum was finished 
 Under the direction of Mr. Cockerell. 
 
 (BuVder, 1845 ; Gentleman's Magazine, 1845.) 
 
 BASIL, or BASILI'US, bishop of Ancyra, A.D. 336, was ordained to 
 that office by the bishops of the Eusebian party in the room of 
 Marc llus, whom they had deposed ; but Basil was himself excom- 
 municated and his ordination annulled in the Council of Sardica in 
 347, though he still retained the see. In 351 he att nded the Second 
 Council of Sirmium, where he disputed successfully against Photinus. 
 He was one of the greatest enemies to the Arians, but was still con- 
 sidered as the head of the Semi-Arians, who maintained that the Son 
 was similar to the Father in his essence, not by nature, but by a pecu- 
 liar privilege. This opinion Basil procured to be established by a 
 council held at Ancyra in the year 358, and subsequently defended it 
 both at Seleuceia and Constantinople against the Eudoxiana and j 
 
 Acacians, by whom he was deposed in 360. St. Jerome informs m 
 that Basil wrote a book against Marcellus, his predecessor, a ' Treatise 
 on Virginity,' and some other smaller pieces, of which no remains aro 
 extant. 
 
 BASIL, or BASILI'US, commonly called ST. BASIL, and, on 
 account of his learning and piety, surnaraed the Great, was born at 
 Csesarea in Cappadocia, in the year a.d. 326; Lardner says in the year 
 328 or 329. His father was named Basilius, and his mother Emmelda. 
 In his earlier years he received instruction from his father, but went 
 afterwards and studied at Antioch, at Constantinople, at Cassarea, and 
 at Athens. At Athens Basil formed a close intimacy with Gregory of 
 Nazianzus. He returned to his native country about the year 355, 
 and taught rhetoric. Some time after this he travelled into Syria, 
 Egypt, and Libya, to visit the monasteries of those countries. Upon 
 his return home he instituted an order of monastic life in the province 
 of Pontus. Eusebius, who had succeeded to the bishopric of Caesarea 
 in 362, conferred the order of priesthood upon Basil, who some time 
 after, upon some difference with the bishop, retired to the solitu le of 
 his monastery, but was reconciled to him about three years after. 
 Upon Eusebius's death in the year 370, Basil was chosen his successor. 
 It was with some reluctance that he accepted this dignity ; but no 
 sooner was he raised to it than the emperor Valeus began to persecute 
 him because he refused to embrace the doctrine of the Arians, of 
 which he and Gregory of Nazianzus were strenuous opponents. 
 Valens ceased however at length to molest Basil, who now endea- 
 voured to bring about a re union between the eastern and western 
 churches, which had been divided upon some poiuts of faith, and in 
 regard to Meletius and Pauliuus, two bishops of Antioch. The western 
 churches acknowledged Paulinus for the legal bishop ; Meletius was 
 supported by the eastern churches. But all his efforts were ineffectual, 
 this dispute not being terminated till nine months after his death. 
 Basil was also engaged in some contests relating to the division which 
 the emperor had made of Cappadocia into two provinces. St. Basil 
 had likewise some disputes with Eustathius and Apollinaris, against 
 both of whom he wrote ; and in fact he took a part in most of the 
 controversies of hi3 age. He died January 1, 379, his constitution 
 being much impaired by the austerities of a monastic life. 
 
 Cave has given a list of St. Basil's works. Lardner says that many 
 writings have been ascribed to him without ground. Several of his 
 detached pieces were printed before the year 1500 ; but the first 
 edition of the Whole works, in Greek, issued from the press of Fro- 
 benius, fol., Basel, 1532, with a preface by Erasmus. The best edition 
 is that which was published by the Benedictines of the Congregation 
 of St. Maur, Greek and Latin, 3 vols., folio, Paris, 1721-30 ; the two 
 first under the care of Pere Garnier ; the third, after Garnier's death, 
 by Pere Maran. Garnier took great pains in distinguishing the spu- 
 rious from the genuine works of St. Basil. M. Herman, a doctor of 
 the Sorbonne, published a ' Life of St. Basil,' 2 vols., 4to, Paris, 1764. 
 
 Syncellus (' Chronog.,' p. 203) ascribes to Basil a new recension of 
 the ' Septuagint,' which he says was done with great care. The 
 correspondence of Libianus and Basilius is printed in the edition of 
 the 'Epistles of Libianus,' by J. C. Wolf, Amst., 1738, 1 vol. folio. 
 Though Libianus was not a Christian, this does not appear to have 
 disturbed the good understanding between Basil and the schoolmaster 
 of Antioch. 
 
 BASILI'US, the Macedonian, emperor of Constantinople, was born 
 of poor parents in a village of Macedonia, about a.d. 826. When 
 25 years of age he proceeded to Constantinople to seek for better 
 fortune. He there found a friend in the superior of a monastery, who 
 introduced him to the service of an officer of the court of the emperor 
 Michael III. Having become known to that sovereign by vanquishing 
 a giant Bulgarian in single combat, he quickly gained the emperor's 
 favour, and became his chamberlain in 861. He soon after took a wife, 
 who was a concubine of Michael. The patrician Bardas, a relation of 
 the emperor, and upon whom the title of Caa-sar had been conferred, 
 became jealous of Basilius, and the Macedonian adventurer, fearing 
 his machinations, anticipated him by accusing him of conspiring 
 against the emperor. Although exculpated, BarJas was soon after 
 assassinated in the emperor's tent by Basilius, who was made by 
 Michael his colleague in the empire in 866. Michael rendering himself 
 odious by his cruelty and debauchery, Basilius remonstrated with him 
 in vain ; and when the emperor attempted to depose him, Basilius, 
 with some officers of the palace, when the emperor one evening 
 retired to his room in a state of intoxication, murdered him in his 
 bed (807). 
 
 Basilius was now proclaimed emperor; and his conduct on the 
 throne, which he had obtained through crime, was wise and equitable. 
 He re-established order in the empire, enforced the strict administration 
 of justice, corrected the abuses that had crept into every branch of the 
 administration under the profligate reign of Michael, and began the 
 compilation of a code of laws, which was completed by his son and 
 successor Leo, but has retained the name of Basilica. He assembled 
 a general council at Constantinople in 869, to which Pope Adrian II. 
 sent his legates, in which a temporary reconciliation between the 
 eastern and the western churches was effected. Basilius carried on 
 the war in Apulia against the Saracens, at first as an ally of the 
 emperor Ludovicus II., but afterwards quarrelled with him and with- 
 drew his troops. He was more successful against the Saracens in 
 
867 
 
 BASILIUS II. 
 
 BASNAGE. 
 
 568 
 
 Asia, recovered the greater part of Asia Minor, and in 872 carried the 
 arms of the empire beyond the Euphrates, where they bad not been 
 seen for a long time. He defeated the Paulicians, a sect that had 
 established itself in Pontus, and had been for many years in a state of 
 revolt against the empire. Basilius entered into a treaty of friendship 
 with the Russians of Kiew, and pent them an archbishop, who con- 
 verted many of that nation to Christianity, and from that time the 
 Russians began to acknowledge the authority of the Greek Church. 
 In 880 the Greeks lost Syracuse, which was taken by the Saracens 
 after a long siege. Basilius died in 886, of wounds which he received 
 from a stag while hunting. He left a book of advice addressed to his 
 son Leo, which is divided into 66 short chapters, containing many 
 good maxims for his conduct. It has been published under the title 
 of ' Basilii Imperatoris Exhortationum Capita LXVI. ad Leonem 
 filium cognomento philosophum,' Paris, 1584, 4to, by F. Morel ; and 
 also at Gottingen, 12mo, 1674, by Just Von Drausfeld. Another work 
 by Basilius, also addressed to Leo, was published by A. Mai in vol. iL 
 of his ' Vatican Collections.' 
 
 BASILI'US II., emperor of the east, was the son of the Emperor 
 Romanus the younger, and was born in a.D. 958. Upon the death of 
 Romanus in 963, the crown was usurped by Phocas, who, six years 
 after was put to death by John Zimisces. Zimisces took thtj crown 
 for himself, but acknowledged, as his successors, Basilius, and his 
 younger brother Constantine, who were then minors. When Zimisces 
 died in 975, the two brothers were proclaimed emperors. The whole 
 reign of Basilius was one continual warfare agaiu-t the Saracens, the 
 Bulgarians, the Slavonians, the Emperor OthoIII, and the Longo- 
 bard dukes of Benevento. The war against the Bulgarians was the 
 most obstinate, but it was also the most successful. It began in 981, 
 and lasted till 1014, when Basilius defeated Samuel, king of the 
 Bulgarians, and ravaged the country round Philippopolis. Being 
 embarrassed in his march by 15,000 prisoners whom he had made, 
 Basilius divided them into companies of 100 each, and then caused 
 their eyes to be pulled out, excepting only one man in each company, 
 who was to show his companions the way. In this manner they 
 returned to King Samuel, who was so horrified at the sight that he 
 fell into a swoon and died two days after. In 1019 Basilius had 
 subdued the whole country of the Bulgarians as far as the Danube, 
 when it was made a Greek thema, under a ducal governorship. 
 Wlodimir, grand-duke of the Russians, married Basilius's sister, alter 
 having received baptism in 988, and abolished paganism throughout 
 his dominions. Basilius died in 1025, after a reign of fifty years. 
 His brother Constantine, who was nominally his colleague, but had 
 no power during his brother's life, succeeded him as sole emperor 
 ftftsr lii*? tli'itL) 
 
 BASING, JOHN, or DE BASINGSTOKE, who received his name 
 from the place of his nativity in Hampshire, was an extraordinary 
 person for his time. Though the date of his birth does not appear 
 to be fixed, we know that he was alive in the year 1230, and studied 
 not only at Oxford and Paris, after the custom of the age, but also at 
 Athens ; a fact remarked by Leland as uncommon in the history of 
 English scholars at that time, who seldom proceeded farther eastward 
 for the prosecution of their studies, and improvement in learning, 
 than Rome or Venice. Leland says that at his return he brought with 
 him into England various Greek manuscripts, which, together with his 
 proficiency in that tongue, caused Hugh Grosstete, bishop of Lincoln, 
 a great restorer of that language, to promote him to the archdeaconry 
 of Leicester. It was upon Basing's information, as Matthew Paris tells 
 us, that Grosstete sent to Athens for a Greek manuscript entitled 'The 
 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,' which, when obtained, he trans- 
 lated into Latin. The translation was printed among the ' Orthodoxo- 
 grapha,' fol., Basel, 1555. Matthew Paris tells us that John de Basing 
 introduced into England a knowledge of the Greek numeral letters : 
 " This Master John, moreover, brought the Greek numeral figures 
 into England, together with their symbols, and the knowledge of their 
 import, and explained them to his particular friends. By which 
 figures also letters are represented ; and, what is most remarkable, 
 any number is represented by a single figure, which is not the case 
 in the Roman numerals, or in ordinary arithmetic." ("Dequibus 
 figuris hoc maxime admirandum, quod unica figura quilibet numerus 
 repraesentatur, quod non est in Latino vel in Algorismo.'') Matt. Par., 
 edit. 1684, p. 721. The figures however which are given in fac-simile 
 in the ' Variantes Lectiones' (signat. I. on the verso of the leaf) here 
 copied, are neither like Greek letters nor the ordinary Arabic numerals. 
 
 L II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX 
 
 rrrrcKu 
 
 XX. XXX. XL. 
 
 i.x. txx. r.xxx. xc 
 
 Basing met with the invention at Athens, but Matthew Paris, who 
 knew little about these matters, was mistaken in imagining that the 
 Greeks used any such system of notation. The only manuscript of 
 
 Matthew Paris in which these numerals are found, ia the enlarged 
 work in Bene't College Library, Cambridge. Matthew Paris, in the 
 ' Variantes Lectiones,' already referred to, observes that the units, or 
 single numbers, are all designated by lines bearing to the left, from 
 the chief upright line. Those representing the numbers, from ten 
 upwards, have the adjunct-lines bearing to the right. 
 
 Matthew Paris records the death of John de Basing under the year 
 1252. His works were — 1. ' Doctarum Concionum Liber Unus.' 
 2. ' Particuloo Sententiarum per Distinctiones.' 3. 'Donatus Graecorum,' 
 a translation, probably intended to serve for instruction in the Greek 
 tongue, as the Rudiments of Donatus did for the Latin. 4. ' Concordia 
 Evangeliorum ;' this is probably the same work which Leland calls 
 'Tractatus de Ordine Evangeliorum per annum.' He is said to have 
 written other works, the titles of which are unknown. 
 
 BASKERVILLE, JOHN, a celebrated printer, was born at Wol- 
 verley, in Worcestershire, in the year 1706. He doe* not appear to 
 have been brought up to any particular business : in 1726 we find him 
 keeping a writing-school at Birmingham ; a little later he, at least 
 occasionally, was employed in cutting inscriptions on tombstones; 
 and in 1745 he engaged in the japanning business at the same place, by 
 which he acquired considerable wealth. His taste for literature, and 
 the arts connected with it, led him to direct his attention towards the 
 improvement and perfection of the art of printing. The most obvious 
 improvement to be effected was in the form of the letters. Mr. Caslon, 
 previous to Baskerville's attempts at letter-founding, had cut a variety 
 of matrices of more beautiful shapes than those of the Dutch types 
 which up to his time had been imported iuto England. Baskerville 
 carried the art to a higher degree of perfection, and even now his 
 types would in many respects be considered models. By his unceasing 
 efforts the art of printing was raised to a degree of perfection previ- 
 ously unknown in this country ; and so ardently did he prosecute his 
 favourite object, that, according to a letter addressed to Horace Wal- 
 pole, dated November 2, 1762, he manufactured his own ink, presses, 
 chases, moulds for casting, and all the apparatus for printing. 
 
 Baskerville's printing establishment does not appear to have been 
 profitable to him. It may however be remarked that bis works now 
 possess a high value, and particularly his editions of some of the 
 classics are highly esteemed by bibliographers, not only in this country, 
 but on the continent. From a passage in his letter to Walpole, it • 
 would appear that in 1762 he was desirous of withdrawing from the 
 business : " This business of printing," he says, " which I am heartily 
 tired of, and repent I ever attempted." Aft r 1765 little or nothing 
 issued from his press. It is most likely that the typographical im- 
 provement which he was the means of effecting was not sufficiently 
 appreciated at the time, and that his efforts were not very liberally 
 encouraged. The University of Cambridge, it is true, granted him 
 permission to print the Bible in folio, and two editions of the Book of 
 Common Prayer; but at the same time the University required to be 
 made a sharer in his profits by a payment of 201. per thousand copies 
 of the Bible, and 12/. 10s. for each thousand of the Prayer Book : to 
 the Stationers' Company he had to pay 32Z. for their permission to 
 print the Psalms, without which the Prayer Book would have been 
 incomplete. 
 
 Mr. Baskerville was married to the widow of Mr. Eaves ; her maiden 
 name was Ruston. He died without issue, January 8, 1775. He was 
 a man fertile in invention, and of an active mind. By the constant 
 endeavours which he made to attain excellence in each of the various 
 processes connected with the arts of japanning and printing, they were 
 both brought to a more perfect state — a result which could scarcely 
 have been expected from the exertions of a single individual. Mr. 
 Baskerville was rather eccentric in his habits and opinions. He caused 
 each panel of his carriage to be painted so as to represent a picture 
 of his trades ; and in his will he desired to be buried in his garden 
 under a conical building which had formerly served as the base of a 
 windmill, but which he had caused to be couv. rted into a tomb, having 
 an urn on its summit. This tomb was destrojed during the Birming- 
 ham riots in 1791. In 1S20 some labourers, who were digging for 
 sand on its site, discovered the leaden coffin which contained his 
 remains; and in May 1821 it was opened for inspection. The body 
 did not present the usual appearances of decomposition ; the sinsular 
 state of preservation in which it was found may probably be attributed 
 to the entire exclusion of external air. The shroud was perfect, and 
 a branch of laurel on the breast of the corpse was, though faded, entire. 
 The body was permitted to remain for some time uniDterred, but was 
 eventually placed in the vaults of Christ church, Birmingham, where 
 it now remains. Mr. Knott of Birmingham has a portrait of Basker- 
 ville in his possession, from which an engraving has been made for 
 Hansard's 'Typographia;' and a fine portrait of Baskerville by Gains- 
 borough is in the possession of Messrs. Longman, the publishers of 
 Paternoster-row. 
 
 (Hansard, Typographia; Dibdin, Introduction to the Classics; Notes 
 and Queries, vols, iv., v., and viii.) 
 
 BASNAGE. Few families have produced so many individuals of 
 literary distinction and moral worth as the family of Basnage. Many 
 of its members were zealous and able supporters of Protestantism in 
 France. 
 
 1. Nicholas Basnage, who lived in the middle and latter half of 
 the 16th century, being compelled to leave France on account of his 
 
569 
 
 BASNAGE. 
 
 BASSANO, GIACOMO DA PONTE. 
 
 670 
 
 adherence to the reformed religion, fled to England, and became tho 
 minister of a congregation at Norwich. He afterwards returned to 
 France, and became pastor of a reformed church at Carentan. 
 
 2. Benjamin Basnage, the son of Nicholas, born in 1580, was, 
 during fifty-one years, pastor of the church which his father had held 
 at Carentan. Benjamin Basnage was successively a provincial deputy 
 of the Protestant churches in Normandy, and head of the assembly 
 held at Rochelle in 1622. He also signed the project of defence under 
 the title of ' Moddrateur Ajoint,' and went to England to solicit aid. 
 The expectations which the French Protestants had entertained of 
 help from James I. not being realised, Basnage proceeded to Scotland 
 to gain the interest of his private friends in that country. On the 
 termination of active hostilities against the Protestants, Basnage 
 returned to France, and was appointed deputy for Normandy in the 
 national synod which was held at Charenton in 1623. The vigour 
 and zeal with which he maintained the interests of the reformed reli- 
 gion rendered him an object of increasing suspicion to the court. 
 The kin?, by a decree, forbade him to exercise the ministerial functions, 
 and refused him permission to appear as a deputy, and to take a part 
 in the synod held at Charenton in 1631. This synod commenced its 
 session by remonstrances against this decree, which were so forcibly 
 expressed, that the court yielded, and Basnage was admitted to the 
 synod, in the deliberations of which assembly he exercised great 
 influence. He was elected president of the national synod held at 
 Alengon in 1637. Benjamin Basnage died in 1652. His principal 
 work, a treatise on the church (' Traitd de l'Eglise '), was printed at 
 Rochelle, 1612. He left imperfect a work against the worship of the 
 Virgin. 
 
 3. Antoine Basnage, the eldestson of Benjamin, was born in 1610. 
 He adopted the profession of his father, and was minister at Bayeux. 
 During the renewed persecutions of the Protestants he was, at the 
 age of sixty-five, placed in the prison of Havre de Grace ; but his 
 firmness remained unshaken. After the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, he escaped to Holland in 1635, and died in 1691 at Zutphen, 
 in which place he had held a pastoral charge. 
 
 4. Samoel Basnage de Flottemauville, son of Antoine, was born 
 at Bayeux in 1638. He preached at first in his native place, but 
 escaped with his father to Holland in 1685. He died a preacher at 
 Zutphen in 1721. The principal works of Samuel Basnage were — 
 'L'Histoire de la Religion des Eglises Reforme'es,' Rotterdam, 1690, 
 2 vols , folio, republished in 1699 ; ' De Rebus Sacris et Ecclesiasticis 
 exercitationes Historico-criticae, in qnibus Cardinalis Baronii Annales 
 ab an. XXXV. in quo Casaubonus desiit expeuduntur,' Traject. 1692, 
 1717, 4to; 'Annales Politico-Ecclesiastici aniurum DCXLV. a Coesare 
 Augusto ad Phocam usque in quibus res imperii ecclesioeque observatu 
 digniores subjiciuntur oculis erroresque eveliunturBaronio,' Rotterdam, 
 1706, 3 vols, folio. 
 
 5. Henri Basnage du Franquenay, the youngest son of Benjamin 
 Basnage, was born on the 16th of October 1615, at St. Mere Eglise, 
 in Lower Normandy. He studied for the bar, and became one of 
 the most able and eloquent advocates in the parliament of Rouen, 
 where he took the oaths in 1636. In nearly all the more important 
 causes he was either retained or consulted. His learning was immense 
 and his integrity unsullied. He died in 1695, and left three sons, 
 two of whom will be subsequently noticed ; the third, who was in 
 the service of the States-General, died in 1732. His daughter, Mag- 
 dalen, married, in 1682, M. Paul Baldry, or Baudri, who leaving France 
 after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, was made professor of eccle- 
 siastical history at Utrecht. Henri Basnage's works are, ' Coutumes 
 du Pays et Duchd de Normandie, avec commentaires,' 2 vols, fol., 
 1678, 1681, 1694 ; 'Traits des Hypotheques,' 1687, 1724, 4 to. The 
 complete works of Basnage were published in 2 vols, fol., Rouen, 
 1776. 
 
 6. Jaques Basnage de Beauvul, the eldest son of Henri, born at 
 Rouen, 8th of August 1653, was the most celebrated member of his 
 family. He was sent when very young to Saumur, to study under 
 the famous Tannequin, or Tannegui, or Tanaquil le Fdvre, and became 
 ths favourite pupil of his master. At the age of seventeen he went 
 to Geneva, already well read in the best Greek and Latin authors, and 
 acquainted with the Spanish, Italian, and English languages. At 
 Geneva, and afterwards at Sedan, he studied theology ; and on his 
 return to Kouen he was received into the ministry, September 1676, 
 at the age of twenty-three, and became pastor of the reformed church 
 in that city. He married, in 1684, Anne du Moulin, daughter of 
 Cyrus du Moulin, and grand-daughter of Peter du Moulin. 
 
 The church at Rouen being closed by authority in June 1685, 
 Basnage obtained permission from the king to retire to Holland. He 
 settled at Rotterdam, in which place he was a stipendiary minister, 
 until, in 1691, the consistory, influenced by Heinsius, appointed him 
 pastor of a church at the Hague. Here he not only exerted himself 
 in his relisrious duties with indefatigable zeal, but was also employed 
 in state affairs. He was the medium of a secret negociation carried 
 »n by Mardchal d'Uxelles, plenipotentiary of the French king at the 
 Congress of Utrecht, and acquitted himself in this affair with so much 
 ability, that he was afterwards employed in several important com- 
 missions. His services at length procured for Basnage the restitution 
 of all hi* former possessions in France. 
 
 Basnage was the personal friend of the Grand Pensionary Heinsius, 
 
 and while in Rotterdam had a weekly meeting with Pasts, Bayle, and 
 other scholars. He carried on a correspondence with several princes, 
 noblemen, and ministers of state, and with many scholars in France, 
 England, Germany, and Italy. He was scarcely less esteemed by 
 Catholics than by Protestants. Voltaire said that Basuage was fitter 
 to be a minister of state than of a parish. His health, which till the 
 year 1722 had been remarkably good, then began to decline. He died 
 on the 22nd of December 1723, in his seventy-first year. He left 
 only a daughter, who was married to M. de la Sarraz, minister of war 
 to the King of Poland. 
 
 The following are some of his principal works; a complete list 
 would be very long :— ' Examen des Mdthodes proposdes par Messieurs 
 de l'Assemble'e du Clergd de France en 1682,' Cologne, 1684, 12mo. 
 This work was the foundation of his subsequent reputation. It is 
 well written, but he never affixed his name to it. — ' Rdponse a M. 
 l'Eveque de Meaux, sur sa Lettre Pastorale,' Cologne, 1686, 12mo. 
 This work is against the Pastoral Letter of Bossuet, addressed to the 
 new Catholics; ' Dissertationes Historico-Theologicos,' Hotterdam, 1694, 
 8vo; 'La Communion Saiute, on Traitd sur la necessity et les moyens 
 de communier dignement,' Rotterdam, 16S3, 12mo. The fifth edition 
 is very much enlarged, and contains a third and fourth book on the 
 conduct of communicants before and after communion, printed at 
 Rotterdam in 1697, in 12mo. There have been several editions of this 
 work, which has been so much admired, even by Roman Catholics, 
 that it has been printed for them at Rouen and Brussels. — ' Histoire 
 de la Religion des Eglises Rdfornades, &c, pour servir de rdponse ai 
 1' Histoire des Variations des Eglises Protestantes, par M. de Meaux,' 
 Rotterdam, 1690, 8vo, 2 vols. : again in 1721, 2 vols. 8vo, and in 1725, 
 2 vols. 4to ; the last edition very much enlarged. This work has 
 been since joined to the History of the Church. — ' Traitd de la Con- 
 science, dans lequel ou examine sa nature, ses illusions, ses craintes, 
 ses doutes, ses scrupules, sa paix, et divers cas de conscience, avec des 
 Rdflexions sur le Commentaire Philosophique,' Amsterdam, 1696, 
 2 vols. 8vo. Two editions of this work have been printed at Lyon 
 in 3 vols. 12mo. — 'Histoire de l'Eglise depui3 Jesus Christ jusques a, 
 prdsent,' Rotterdam, 1699, 2 vols, folio. — 'Histoire des Juifs depuis 
 Jesus Christ jusques a prdsent, pour servir de Suppldment h l'Histoire 
 de Joseph,' Rotterdam, 1706, 5 vols., 12mo. ; a new and enlarged edition 
 at the Hague in 1716, 15 vols. 12mo. ; translated into English by 
 Thomas Taylor, 1708, fol. — ' Histoire des Juifs, rdclamde et retablia 
 par son vdritable auteur M. Basnage, contre l'ddition anonyme et 
 tronqude qui sen est faite a Paris, chez Roulland, 1710, avec plusieurs 
 additions pour servir de sixieme tome a cette Histoire,' Rotterdam, 
 1711, 12mo. He attacks M. du Pin, who had printed it at Paris, after 
 having changed what he thought proper, without mentioning the 
 author. — ' Annales des Provinces Unies depuis les Ndgociations pour 
 la Paix de Miinster, avec la Description Historique de leur Gouverne- 
 ment : ' this work, which begins in 1646, carries the annals down to 
 1684, and Basnage left a plan for conducting it till 1720. — 'Disserta- 
 tion Historique sur les Duels et les Ordres de Chevalerie,' Amster- 
 dam, 1720, 8vo. This is a curious work. He also furnished many 
 pieces to his brother, M. Basnage de Beauval, for his ' Histoire des 
 Ouvrages des Savans.' 
 
 7. Henri Basnage de Beauval, the younger son of Henri Basnage 
 de Franquenay, and brother of Jacques Basnage, born at Rouen, 
 August 7, 1656, followed the profession of his father. On the revo- 
 cation of the Edict of Nantes in 1687, he took refuge in Holland, and 
 died there, March 29, 1710, aged 54 years. He wrote a ' Traitd de la 
 Toldrance des Religions,' 1684, 12mo; and edited 'L'Histoire des 
 Ouvrages des Savans,' a widely-circulated journal, which was com- 
 menced in September 1687, as a continuation of Bayle's ' Nouvelles 
 de la Rdpublique des Lettres,' and terminated in June 1709 : it con- 
 sists of 24 vols., 12mo. Basnage published in 1701 an improved 
 edition of Fureticre's 'Dictionary;' the ' Dictionuaire de Trevoux ' 
 (1701) is only a reprint of this work, without mention of the name of 
 either Furetiere or Basnage. 
 
 BASSA'NO, GIACOMO DA PONTE, was born at Bassano in 1510. 
 He was instructed in the elementary principles of painting by his 
 father, Francesco da Ponte, and was afterwards sent to Venice, where 
 he studied under Bonifazio. In a city which abounded with the 
 works of Titian, Parmegiano, and Tintoret, Bassano stood in little 
 need of a particular master ; he applied himself with inteuse assiduity 
 to the general study of those great artists, and, in all that relates to 
 mechanical practice, with extraordinary success; nor are evidences 
 wantiug that even in grandeur of style and conception he exhibited at 
 that time a capacity which none who judge him by his later works 
 would suppose him to have possessed. He painted, in front of the 
 Casa Michelli, a fresco representing Sampson destroying the Philistines, 
 parts of which, especially the figure of the hero himself, approximate 
 to the grandeur of Michel Augelo. In the pictures of a Nativity and 
 the Flight into Egypt (the latter for the church of St. Girolamo), he 
 emulated tho style of Titiau with equal success. But from the time 
 he left Venice his style deteriorated. He no longer even aimed to 
 attain the sober grandeur of the painters under whom he had studied. 
 However lofty the subject, he represented it with a coarse familiarity, 
 often most discordant with the theme. 
 
 On the death of his father he returned to Bassano and took possession 
 of his paternal residence, situated on the picturesque banks of the 
 
 2 o* 
 
67 1 
 
 BASSANTIN, JAMES. 
 
 Brenta. He resided here during the remainder of Lis life ; and his 
 style of landscape, drawn from the scenery which surrounded him, 
 gives something of grandeur even to his least successful performances ; 
 his horizons are usually high, and terminate in a range of blue moun- 
 tains, illuminated by the rising or setting sun. With little power of 
 selection, Bassano had surprising facility in representing whatever he 
 saw. He delighted in rural subjects and their accompaniments, and 
 such was his fondness for painting cattle that he sometimes introduced 
 them without the least attention to propriety. Exteriors and interiors 
 of country-inns were also favourite subjects with Bassano : these he 
 often makes the site for some historical or scriptural subject, but the 
 principal characters are always made subordinate; groups of peasants, 
 the hostess, or the cook, busy among her kitchen utensils, domestic 
 animals, or still life, occupy the prominent places. Little however is 
 lost by this want of subordination, nor is any wish excited to see the 
 superior actors brought more forward ; for Bassano, as Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds observes, " painted the boors of the district of Bassano, and 
 called them patriarchs and prophets." His animals however are 
 touched with admirable truth and discrimination ; and in spite of 
 all his defects, such is the spirit, clearness, and decision of his touch, 
 the depth and richness of his tones, and the general picturesqueness of 
 his effects, that his works not only command the respect of contem- 
 porary artists, but have been always valued by judges of painting for 
 qualities so important in the art. Bassano painted with extraordinary 
 dispatch, and such of his works as were not commissioned were sent 
 for sale to the neighbouring towns of Vicenza, Brescia, Treviso, and 
 Padua, where they found ready purchasers. His fame rose so high 
 that ho was invited by the emperor Rudolph II. to settle at his court; 
 but Bassauo's attachment to his established habits of life induced him 
 to decline this proposal. He painted for that monarch pictures of the 
 twelve months and the four seasons of the year. Bassauo occasionally 
 painted portraits, and several of the most distinguished persons in 
 Venice sat to him during his residence in that city— among them, 
 Sebastiano Veuezio, the doge, Tasso, and Ariosto. 
 
 In a few instances during his latter practice Bassano showed that the 
 feeling for grand design which he had manifested in his youth was not 
 quite extinguished. His altar-pieces of the Entombing of Christ, in 
 the church of Santa Maria in Vanzo, at Padua; St. Roche interceding 
 with the Virgin for the People infected with the Plague, at Vicenza ; 
 and the picture of the Seizure of Christ in the Garden — are distin- 
 guished not only by a sublimity in the general effect, but by a grandeur 
 in the character of the figures, resembling the style of the Roman 
 school. Bassano died in February 1592. There is a prodigious number 
 of his pictures in the palaces of Rome and Venice, and they are fre- 
 quently seen in English collections. There are many engravings from 
 his works. 
 
 Francesco da Ponte, was the son of the preceding, and a painter 
 of considerable merit. Giacomo Da Ponte had four sons who followed 
 his profession. Francesco, the eldest, born in 1550, is called the 
 ' younger Bassano ; ' he studied with his father and practised in Venice, 
 where he obtained considerable reputation by various altar-pieces, one 
 in particular of St. Apollonia, in the church of Santa Afra, at Brescia. 
 His most distinguished performances were a series of pictures painted 
 for the ducal palace at Venice, commemorative of the leading events 
 in the history of the republic. Francesco threw himself from a window 
 in a fit of delirium, and died on the spot, in 1592. 
 
 Giovanni da Ponte was the second son of Giacomo, and born in 
 1553. He is chiefly known as a copyist of his father's works, which he 
 imitated with such accuracy, that his copies are scarcely distinguishable 
 from the originals : he died in 1613. 
 
 Leandro da Ponte, the third sou of Giacomo, was born in 1558. 
 He distinguished himself as a portrait-painter, and was knighted by the 
 Doge Grimani, who sat to him. He occasionally painted historical 
 and sacred subjects; among the best are the Birth of the Virgin 
 and the Resuscitation of Lazarus, the former in the church of Santa 
 Sophia, the latter in that of La Carita, at Venice. Leandro died in 
 1G23. 
 
 Girolamo da Ponte was the youngest son of Giacomo, born in 
 1560. He was much employed by his father in copying, but contri- 
 buted an original performance, an altar-piece of great merit, of St. 
 Barbara and the Virgin, to the church of San Giovanni at Bassano : 
 he died in 1622. The same style predominates in the works of all the 
 Bassanos, which exhibit, with the exception of a few pictures, much 
 more of the manual than the mental capacity of art. 
 
 BASSANTIN, or BASSINTOUN, JAMES, was the son of a Scotch 
 laird of that ilk (no doubt Bassendean in Berwickshire). James was 
 educated at Glasgow, and afterwards travelled in the Netherlands, 
 Switzerland, Italy, and Germany. He finally settled at Paris, where 
 he taught mathematics and astronomy, and acquired considerable 
 reputation and some fortune. Of his personal life we know little but 
 that he was addicted to astrology, returned to Scotland in 1562, and 
 adhered to the party of the Earl of Murray against Mary, and died 
 1568. He wrote various works on mathematics, astronomy, and 
 arithmetic, some of which are now only known by the titles which 
 have been recorded. One of the works which was best known was a 
 * Discours Astronomique,' Lyon, 1557, which appears to have been 
 translated iv.*o Latin by De Tournes (Tornesius), under the title of 
 ' Aatronttmia J. Bassautini, Scoti,' Geneva, 1559, reprinted, 1613. His 
 
 planetary system is that of Ptoleinteus. (Delambre, Uistoire de V Astro- 
 
 nomie Moderne.) 
 
 BASSOM PIERRE, FRANCOIS DE, Marshal of France, and Cap- 
 tain-General of the Swiss Guards, was born in Lorraine on the 12th 
 of February 1579. His education was, all things considered, excellent 
 for the times in which he lived. Bassompierre tells us, for example, 
 in his memoirs, among other particulars of his studies, that in his 
 seventceth year he devoted one hour a day singly to the study " of 
 law, of casuistry, of Hippocrates, the ethics and politics of Aristotle," 
 and that, like our own Lord Herbert of Cherbury, whom he resembled 
 in his admiration of the usages of chivalry, he prided himself on his 
 early proficiency in martial exercises, particularly " riding the great 
 horse." 
 
 In 1598 Bassompierre, having first visited Italy and Germany, 
 arrived at Paris. He was first introduced to the French king's notice 
 in a ballet, which some young courtiers had got up to amuse Henry 
 on his recovering from an illness, in which the illness, and still more 
 the mode of cure, were held up to laughter. Bassompierre took a 
 part in the ballet, and quickly caught the attention of Henry. The 
 result was a warm friendship on both sides; and Bassompierre became 
 for life a devoted Frenchman. 
 
 The incidents of Bassompierre's career are only interesting to the 
 general reader so far as they illustrate the manners of the times. 
 Bassompierre was young, ardent, and accomplished, and distinguished 
 for his personal beauty and courage ; and the court of France was at 
 that time one scene of gaiety, intrigue, and licentiousness. In 1609 
 Bassompierre was on the point of beiag married to the most beautiful 
 woman in France, the daughter of the Constable de Moutmoreucy. 
 He was preferred among a host of suitors by Mademoiselle de Mont- 
 morency herself, and had obtained the consent of her father and the 
 king, who had not then seen the lady. The match was however broken 
 off, because the king fell in love with the lady — informed Bassom- 
 pierre of the fact, and induced him to forego the marriage. Bassom- 
 pierre served in all the civil wars, mostly of a religious character, in 
 which France was engaged in his time, and rose through successive 
 steps to the highest military honours, having been appointed by Henry 
 captain-general of the Swiss Guards, a high court appointment, and 
 promoted to the rank of marshal in the next reign. He assisted at 
 the siege of Rochelle, under the eye of Cardinal Richelieu, and ia 
 reported to have said on that occasion, " We shall be fools enough to 
 take the place for the cardinal," meaning that the capture of that last 
 fortress of the Huguenots would so strengthen the hands of Richelieu 
 as to place the party of the queen-mother and the Guises at his mercy ; 
 and the result proved that Bassompierre was right. 
 
 Bassompierre stood so high in the favour of the indolent monarch, 
 Louis XIII., as to convert the favourite Luynes into a fierce enemy. 
 After an explanation between them, Bassompierre accepted the offer 
 of an embassy, and Luynes declared himself his devoted friend. He 
 was accordingly sent ambassador extraordinary to Spain, and after- 
 wards to the Swiss, in the years 1624-25. The particulars of these 
 embassies are detailed in his ' Ambassades' and his ' Meinoires,' but 
 do not possess general interest. In 1626 he was eent to Euglaud, at 
 the instance of the Cardinal Richelieu, in order to enforce the observ- 
 ance of the treaty of marriage between Henrietta Maria and Charles I., 
 so far as it applied to the toleration of the Roman Catholic wor- 
 ship, in which he displayed dexterity and boldness, but had no great 
 success. 
 
 The remainder of Bassompierre's career is soon told. He attached 
 himself to the interests of the house of Guise, and the queen-mother 
 Mary de Medicis, who was the great obstacle to Richelieu's attaining 
 absolute power, and he paid the penalty of his adhesion. The imme- 
 diate cause of his incurring the cardinal's displeasure was, as he tells 
 us in his ' Mdmoires,' his neglecting to keep an appointment to dinner. 
 On the day preceding the memorable Day of the Dupes (la Jourude 
 des Dupes), the 30th of November 1630, Bassompierre met the cardi- 
 nal in one of the passages of the Louvre. He accosted him, and 
 Richelieu feigned to receive the courtesy as a favour to a 'poor dis- 
 graced minister.' Bassompierre, in the fulness of his beuevolence, 
 condescended to invite himself to diue with the cardinal, and the offer 
 was accepted. It happened however unfortunately that two noble- 
 men, enemies of the cardinal, met Bassompierre in the course of the 
 day, and ' debauched ' him to dine with them, and the ' poor disgraced 
 minister' was forgotten. 
 
 On the 23rd of February 1631, Bassompierre was arrested, by 
 Richelieu's orders, and sent to the Bastille, where he was confined for 
 twelve years ; that is till the death of the cardinal. He tells us, that 
 the day before he was arrested he burned upwards of 6000 loveletters 
 which he had received at different times from his female admirers — a 
 pretty decisive proof of the reputation which induced Madame de 
 Montpensier, when recalling the brilliant visions of her youth, to 
 designate him as " cet illustre Bassompierrre." 
 
 (Preface to the translation of 'Bassompierre's English Embassy,' 
 ascribed on personal knowledge by Mr. D'Israeli to the Right Hon. 
 J. W. Croker.) 
 
 He employed his time during his imprisonment in writing his 
 ' Memoires,' and revising his ' Ambassades ; ' but both are so very dull 
 and jejune, that we cannot help regarding him as one of those men 
 whose lame has been mainly oinu e to the advautages of a good persoa 
 
573 
 
 BAST, FREDERICK JAMES. 
 
 BATHYANI, COUNT LOUIS. 
 
 G74 
 
 and address. Bassompierre died of apoplexy on the 12th. October, 
 1646, three years after his liberation from prison. It is alleged that 
 he was offered the guardianship of the young monarch Louis XIV., 
 but age, or, as Mr. Croker conjectures, the ' wholesome discipline of 
 the Bastille/ had cured him of all ambition as a courtier, and he 
 declined the perilous honour. 
 
 BAST, FREDERICK JAMES, a scholar of considerable eminence, 
 was born in the state of Hesse-Darmstadt about the year 1772. He 
 received his earliest instruction from his father at Bouxviller, but 
 afterwards studied in the university of Jena, under Professors Gries- 
 bach and Schiitz. 
 
 His first literary essay was a commentary upon Plato's ' Symposion,' 
 which was followed in 1796 by a specimen of an intended new edition 
 of the 'Letters' of Aristsenetus. He lived at this time at Vienna, 
 where, in the Imperial Library, he had found a manuscript of Aris- 
 tsenetus, which afforded most important readings for improving the 
 text of that author. 
 
 The landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt afterwards made him secretary 
 of legation at the congress of Radstadt ; and finally placed him in the 
 same capacity with the Baron de Pappenheim, his minister at Paris. 
 Bast united the labours of philology with those of diplomacy, and 
 profited very much during his stay in Paris by the collation and copy- 
 ing of a considerable number of Greek manuscripts. It was a most 
 advantageous residence for him, as the best classical treasures of the 
 Vatican had at that time been recently transported to France. 
 
 Of the importance of his critical researches some estimate may be 
 formed from his ' Lettre Critique a. M. J. F Boissonade, sur Antoninus 
 Liberalis, Parthenius, et Ariste'nete,' 8vo, Paris, 1805. This work, of 
 rather more than 250 pages, stands in the first rank of treatises on 
 verbal criticism. It was in a volume of the Vatican, No. 39S of the 
 Greek manuscripts, which had once belonged to the electoral library 
 at Heidelberg, that he fouud the manuscripts of Antoninus Liberalis 
 and Parthenius ; and the same volume contained seventeen other 
 manuscripts, some of them iuedited; of each of which, in the ' Letter 
 to M. Boissonnade,' Bast has given a notice. 
 
 Schaefer's edition of Gregorius of Corinth, and some other gram- 
 marians, published at Leipzig, 2 vols. 8vo, 1811, contains Bast's Notes 
 on that author, with a Palseographical Dissertation (accompanied by 
 seven plates of fac-similes from Greek manuscripts), which is con- 
 sidered to be a master-piece of erudition. 
 
 Bast died of apoplexy at Paris, November 13, 1811. His Notes 
 Upon Aristsenetus were published in a variorum edition of that author 
 by his friend M. J. F. Boissonade, 8vo, Lutetiae, 1822. 
 
 BASTIAT, FREDERIC, was born at Bayonn9, June 29, 1801, the 
 ■on of a merchant, by whom he was early destined to a commercial 
 career. After receiving a good education at the college of St.-Sever, 
 he was placed in the counting-house of an uncle at B.iyonne. Here 
 he applied himself sedulously to the study of the principles of trade; 
 and, having to visit Spain and Portugal on business in 1840, he 
 availed himself of the opportunity of studying the commercial regu- 
 lations of these two countries, lagging behind even those of France at 
 that time. The result of his thoughts was at length communicated 
 to the public by M. Bastiat in 1844. It appeared in the ' Journal des 
 Economistes,' under the title 'L'Influeuce des Tarif's Frangais et 
 Anglais sur l'Avenir des deux Peuples.' In this the author avowed 
 himself as the adversary of the principle of protection to trade — a 
 principle at that time universally acted upon in France, and almost as 
 universally recognised as just and expedient. Bastiat however gained 
 adherents, and time and truth, with the example of England, carried 
 bis principles forward till they were to some extent acknowledged and 
 adopted by the government of France, and appear likely to be ext nded 
 still further. Iu 1845, after a visit to England, where he had made 
 the acquaintance of Mr. Cobden, he translated, under the following 
 title, many of the addresses of the Free-Traders, preceding them by 
 an introduction : — ' Cobden and the League; or the English Agitation 
 for the Freedom of Exchange.' In this he adduced all the incon- 
 veniences of a prohibitive system. He became secretary in Paris of a 
 society for promoting the freedom of trade, and editor of a journal 
 devoted to the same cause. While thus advocating sound commercial 
 principles, he was opposed to the doctrines of Socialism, and the pre- 
 tended right of every one to be supplied with work. After the 
 revolution of 1848 he sat for some time in the Legislative Assembly, 
 but his health failing, he proceeded to Italy in hopes of improving it, 
 and died at Rome, December 24, 1850. 
 
 M. Bastiat wrote many works besides those mentioned, but all on 
 the same leading subject. Though valuable and novel in France at 
 the time of their appearance, they contain little that had not been 
 before enunciated in England ; but the views, although not original, 
 •re placed effectively before the reader. 
 
 (Nouvelle Biograplae Universelle.) 
 
 BATHORI is the name of a noble family in Transylvania, of whom 
 several have been its princes. The family was originally from Germany, 
 and settled in Transylvania about the middle of the 14th century. In 
 1571 Stefhzh Bathori wa* eh cted Prince of Transylvania, and con- 
 firmed in his dignity by the Sultan Selim and by the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian. In 1576 he was also elected King of Poland, after Henry of 
 Valoid had succeeded to the throne of France. Bathori married the 
 heiress of the Jageilons, and died in 1586, after having defeated the 
 
 Russians in many battles, recovered Lithuania from them, and estab- 
 lished many useful institutions in Poland. 
 
 Christopher Bathori was chosen Prince of Transylvania after his 
 brother Stephen had obtained the crown of Poland. He however died 
 before him, in 1581 ; and was succeeded by 
 
 Sigismond Bathori, his son. This prince had been educated by 
 the Jesuits, whom his father had introduced into Transylvania, and 
 their influence produced first a rupture with Turkey aud next an 
 insurrection, which was extinguished in blood. Sigismond married a 
 princess of the house of Habsburg, and agreed with the Emperor 
 Rodolph that, iu case of his dying without heirs, Transylvania should 
 be united to Austria. Shortly after this marriage he was induced to 
 abdicate in favour of Rodolph, and to take orders; and in 1588 he 
 surrendered his country to the Austrian authorities, having been pro- 
 mised the dignity of a cardinal. He waited in vain for the promised 
 advancement, and at length returned to Transylvania. The inhabitants 
 ejected the Austrian^, and in 1601 Sigismond was restore 1. It was 
 but for a short time : Austria, with the assistance of Michael, the 
 voyvode of Wallachia, having defeated him in battle, he again con- 
 sented to abdicate for a pension and the estate of Lobkowitz. After 
 thus selling his country, to the government of which he had been 
 elected only, Sigismond died at Prague, March 27, 1613. 
 
 BATHURST, ALLEN (Earl Bathurst), eldest sou of Sir Benjamin 
 Bathurst, governor of the East India Company in the years 1688-9, 
 and treasurer of the household to the Princess Anne, of Denmark, was 
 born at Westminster in November 1684. In 1699 Allen Bathurst was 
 entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which his uncle, Dean 
 Bathurst, was then master; and six years after commenced his 
 political life as representative for the borough of Cirencester. As 
 a member of the legislature he actively promoted the union of the 
 two kingdoms, and concurred in the opposition to the Duke of Marl- 
 borough and his adherents, of which Harley aud St. John were the 
 leaders. On the dismissal of the Whig ministry, he accepted of no 
 office from their Tory successors ; but was in 1711 made a peer of 
 Great Britain by the title of Lord Bathurst. In the upper house he 
 opposed, in 1716, as a violation of the constitution, the Septennial 
 Bill. He distinguished himself in 1723 as a zealous defender of 
 Bishop Atterbury, when the bill for "inflicting pains and penalties" 
 on that prelate was discussed in the House of Lords. In 1727 he 
 opposed a war with Spain, which then threatened the country; aud 
 iu 1731 supported the bill to prevent pensioners from sitting in the 
 House of Commons. On other occasions also of public interest, and 
 during the whole period of which this narration is a brief review, 
 he showed himself a steady opponent of Sir Robert Walpole's 
 administration. 
 
 Lord Bathurst was made in 1742 captain of his majesty's Band of 
 Gentlemen Pensioners, which post he resigned in 1744. He was 
 appointed treasurer to George III., then Prince George of Wales, in 
 17a7, and this office he held till the death of George If., iu 1760, 
 when he declined the acceptance of any further employment, on 
 account of his age. In consideration however of his previous services, 
 he received a pension of 2000i. per annum on the Irish establishment, 
 and was advanced to an earldom in 1772. He died at his seat near 
 Cirencester on the 16th September 1775, aged ninety-one. 
 
 In his private character Lord Bathurst was generous and affable; 
 that he possessed knowledge and acquirements as a man of letters 
 may be inferred from his long aud intimate acquaintance with Pope, 
 Swift, Prior, Rowe, Congreve, Arbuthnot, Gay, and Addison ; and the 
 sincerity of his political friendships was manifested in his firm and 
 strenuous opposition to the attainder of Bolingbroke and Ormond. 
 Mr. Pcpe acknowledged his obligations by dedicating to Lord Bathurst 
 the third epistle of his ' Moral Essays,' in which he pays a happy 
 compliment to his judgment and integrity. 
 
 The only surviving son of Lord Bathurst, Henry, the second earl, 
 born iu 1714, was made Chief Justice of the Common Plea3 in 1754, 
 and in 1771 was appointed Lord Chaucellor with the title of Baron 
 Apsley. He resigned the seals in 1778, aud died in 1794. He was the 
 author of a pamphlet in 4to, entitled ' The Case of Miss Swordfeger,' 
 and of a work on the ' Theory of Evidence,' 8vo. 
 
 * BATHYANI, COUNT CASIMIK, was born June 4, 1807, of a 
 noble Hungarian family. After completing his studies Count Casimir 
 made the tour of Europe, and remained a considerable time in England. 
 This residence probably had its effect in inducing him to rank himself 
 on the liberal side ou his return to Hungary, aud to this party he 
 remained firmly attached during the diets of 1840, 1843, and 1844. 
 In 1848 he took an active part in the war. He commanded the forces 
 occupying Essek, which controlled the navigation of the Danube and 
 the Drave. When Essek was surrendered to the Austrians in February 
 1849, he took refuge in Debreczin. He was next named governor of 
 Szegedin, of Theresiopol, and of Zombor. In April 1849, upon the 
 declaration of independence by Hungary, Count Casimir was nominated 
 minister for foreign affairs. He followed Kossuth in his retreat to 
 Arpad, and protested strongly against the authority given to Goigey 
 without his knowledge. After the surrender at Viiagos he reached 
 Widdin, was confined at Kutayeh with the other refugees, until released 
 in 1851, when he retired to Paris. (Nuuvclle Bioyraj hie Universale.) 
 
 BATHYANI, COUNT LOUIS, was born at i'resburg in 1809, of a 
 brunch of the family to which Couut Casimir belonged. At the age 
 
575 
 
 BATHYCLE8. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB. 876 
 
 of sixteen he entered the Austrian army as a cadet, and was stationed 
 at Venice. He subsequently travelled in the East and in Europe with 
 his wife, the Countess Antonia Zichy. On his return to his native 
 country, he became at once a leader on the liberal side, a distinguished 
 orator, and a favourite with the public. From 1840 to 1844 he opposed 
 openly the Austrian chancellor Appony, in favour of Hungarian com- 
 merce and industry. At this time he was alike opposed to Kossuth, 
 with whom however he afterwards allied himself. When, in con- 
 sequence of the events of March 1848, the Archduke Stephen was 
 created Palatine of Hungary, Count Louis, an old friend of Stephen's, 
 was named chief minister. He strove earnestly in this party to 
 maintain the political union between Austria and Hungary. After 
 the invasion of Jellachich, and some fruitless negociations with Austria, 
 he resigned his functions on September 11; the next day he was 
 commissioned to form a new ministry, but this effort failed. 
 
 After the dissolution of the Diet, aud the murder of Count Lam- 
 bert, he repaired to Vienna to endeavour to prevent the ill-effects of 
 this crime ; and if possible to form a new administration. His 
 exertions were in vain, and he returned to take a part in the hostile 
 struggle now become inevitable. In November 1848 ho went to 
 Pesth, to take his seat in the Diet, and was named one of a deputation 
 sent to treat with General Windischgratz, the Austrian general, who 
 was approaching Pesth with an army. The deputation was not re- 
 ceived. The Hungarian government removed to Debreczin, but Count 
 Louis remained at Pesth, where, on the arrival of Wmdischgratz on 
 January 8, 1849, he was arrested. Aft<r being transferred to Ofen, 
 to Olmutz, aud to Laybach, he was nt length brought back to Pesth, 
 where he was condemned by a council of war to be hung. He 
 endeavoured to escape the ignominy of the sentence by destroying 
 himself with a poignard. He did not succeed, but at length the 
 seutence was changed, and he was shot on October 6, 1849. His 
 estates were confiscated, and his wife and children were exiled. 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 BA'TH YCLES, a celebrated ancient statuai y or sculptor, of Magnesia 
 on the Mseander in Lydia. Though his time is uncertain, several 
 scholars have attempted to establish it, but without success : Thiersch, 
 substantially agreeing with Heyne, places Bathycles in the 29th 
 Olympiad, contemporary with Ai-chilochus. This was at the close of 
 the second Messeuian war; De Quincy, Wiuckelmann, Welcker, 
 BOttiger, Sillig, and Voss adopt the more generally received opinion 
 that he flourished about the time of Solon, or somewhat later. 
 Bathycles was the artist who made the colossal throne of the Amy- 
 clsean Apollo at Amyclae near Sparta. On the top of the throne 
 Bathycles represented himself and his assistants. Quatremere de 
 Quincy, in his 'Jupiter Olympien,' has given a view of the god and 
 his throne, designed from the description of Pausanias. The Bathyclea 
 who left a cup for the wisest man was a different person ; he was of 
 Arcadia, and lived certainly in the time of Solon, but it does not 
 follow that he was an artist because he made a bequest of a cup. 
 
 BATO'NI, POMPE'O GIRO'LAMO, one of the most distinguished 
 painters of the 18th century, was born at Lucca in 1708. His father 
 was a goldsmith, and Pompeo had thus an early opportunity of dis- 
 playing his ability for design. He established himself early in Home, 
 where he studied Raphael and the antique. In a few years he obtained 
 the first name in Borne, and lived there until his death, for forty years, 
 without a rival, with the exception of Mengs. He died February 4, 
 1787. 
 
 Batoni was equally excellent in portrait and history. His historical 
 works are chiefly scriptural and from the lives of the Baints ; he 
 painted also many single pictures of saints of both sexes. His por- 
 traits, which are admirably modelled, are extremely numerous, and 
 among them are many of the highest personages in Europe. He 
 painted three popes — Benedict XIV., Clement XIII., and Pius VI.; 
 also the emperors Joseph II. and Leopold II. of Austria, the emperor 
 Paul of Russia, and many others of inferior rank. He excelled in 
 drawing, in tone, and in colour ; his execution was often very elabo- 
 rate ; but in composition he was considered inferior to Mengs, though 
 equal to him in expression. 
 
 Several cities of Italy possess altar-pieces by Batoni, and there are 
 many of his works in Germany and other foreign countries; some of 
 his best works are at Lisbon and at St. Petersburg. His principal 
 work at Borne is the Fall of Simon Magus, now in the church of Santa 
 Maria degli Angeli. Batoni was a Cavaliere and a Knight of the order 
 of Maria Theresa. 
 
 BA'TRACHUS, an architect and sculptor of Laconia, who lived in 
 the time of Augustus. Pliny (' Nat. Hist.,' xxxvi. 4, 11) tells a story 
 of Batrachus and his fellow-countryman Saurus. He says: — Being very 
 rich, they built at their own cost two temples to Jupiter and Juno at 
 Rome, inclosed by the porticoes of Octavia, hoping for an inscription ; 
 but this being refused them, they introduced their names in another 
 manner, by carving a lizard (Saurus) and a frog (Batrachus) in the 
 centre of the Ionic volutes of the columns, one in each volute. There 
 is still at Rome, in the church of San Lorenzo, a column with an 
 Ionic capital of this description, in which the reptiles are well exe- 
 cuted. The story is improbable, and perhaps originated in the pecu- 
 liar nature of the ornaments ; or the architects derived their names 
 from the reptiles, rather than the reptiles their images from the names 
 of the architects. 
 
 BAUHIN, the names of two distinguished men, the sons of John 
 Bauhin, a physician of considerable celebrity, who, after practising in 
 England, the Netherlands, and France, was forced, on account of hia 
 having embraced the creed of Calvin, to take refuge at Basle, in 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 John Bauhin, his eldest son, was born at Basle in 1541. His father, 
 having destined him for the medical profession, placed him, towards 
 the completion of his studies, with Fuchsius, a botanist of considerable 
 eminence in his day, and afterwards with the celebrated Conrad Gesner, 
 whom he accompanied in his various excursions through Switzerland. 
 He subsequently visited several othtr parts of Europe for the purpose 
 of becoming acquainted with their vegetable productions, and with a 
 view to collecting materials for his ' Hi3toria Plantarum,' afterwards 
 published. In 1566 he fixed himself at Basle, where he was elected 
 professor of rhetoric. A few years subsequently he was appointed 
 principal physician to the Duke of Wiirtembeig, in which situation he 
 died at Montbelliard in 1613. During his life he published little of 
 importance, but he occupied himself with great industry in reducing 
 the scattered knowledge of the botanists of his day into a single and 
 connected history of the whole vegetable kingdom, which he arranged 
 upon the plau sketched out by Lovel. This work was not printed till 
 nearly forty years after his death, in 3 vols, folio, published at Yverdun 
 in 1650-51, under the care of Dr. Chatre;, his brother-in-law. Although 
 by no means free from errors, this work was a most important perform- 
 ance for the time when it appeared, and may be considered the first 
 step towards reducing systematical botany into order. 
 
 Gaspard Bauhin, the younger son, was born at Basle, January 17, 
 1560. After receiving the usual college education he visited several 
 parts of Europe, with a view to examine their vegetable productions, 
 and to render himself conversant with the state of medical science. 
 On his return to Basle he appears to have gained great reputation as a 
 learned man and a skilful naturalist. We find him described as holding 
 the offices of professor of Greek, of anatomy and botany, and of the 
 practice of medicine, dean of the faculty of medicine, chief physician to 
 the town, and rector of the university. He died at Basle December 5, 
 1624. His works consist of several medical treatises, and especially of 
 a set of anatomical plates, partly original and partly copied from 
 Vesalius and Eustachius; but his reputation chiefly depends upon his 
 botanical publications. His chief works were — ' Phytopinax,' Basel, 
 4to, 1596, and ' Prodromus Theatri Botanici,' Frankfurt, 1620; and 
 partly of collections of the synonyms of the botanical writers who had 
 preceded him. The latter appeared in his 'Pinax Theatri Botanici' in 
 1623, of which a second edition was published in 1671, and which is a 
 complete key to the botanical knowledge of the day. 
 
 BAUME, ANTOINE, was born at Senlis, in the department of 
 Oise, in France, on February 26, 1728. The son of an innkeeper, he 
 experienced numerous difficulties in obtaining instruction, all of which 
 his ardour for the acquisition of knowledge overcame. In 1752, on 
 his examination at the Pharmaceutical College at Paris, he acquitted 
 himself so satisfactorily, that very shortly afterwards he was appointed 
 professor of chemistry to that institution. Here he soon distinguished 
 himself by the lucid clearness of method that characterises all his 
 works, altbough his use of the ancient nomenclature imposes a need- 
 less labour on the student, and obscures a treasure of facts and obser- 
 vations. Baume" was not only an excellent professor, but a successful 
 manufacturer. He carried into operation the scientific details of 
 which Lavoisier and Scheele had sketched the bases. He established 
 a manufactory for sal-ammonia, which France had previously imported 
 from Egypt ; for muriate of tin, acetate of lead, and the mercurial 
 salts. He also made improvements in the manufacture of porcelain, 
 in the scarlet dye for the Gobelin tapestry, and in the areometer. 
 He invented processes for gilding the works of watches, for dyeing 
 cloths of two colours, for blanching the yellow raw silk, for purifying 
 saltpetre, and for removing the bitter principle from the flour of the 
 hor.ie-chestnut. In 1773 he was elected a member of the Acade'mie 
 des Sciences, a just reward for his many contributions to the useful 
 arts. In 1780, having acquired a competent fortune, he retired from 
 business in order to devote himself wholly to science. In a few years 
 however the revolution broke out, and his property was lost. Baum<5, 
 though now an aged man, sustained the deprivation with firmness. 
 He again commenced manufacturer, and died October 15, 1804. 
 
 Among his numerous works, the most important are ' Plan d'un 
 Cours de Chimie experimentale et raisonne'e,' 1767; 'Manuel de 
 Chimie, ou Expose" des Operations et de3 Produits d'un Cours de 
 Chimie,' 1 763, this has been translated into English ; ' Elements de 
 Pharmacie the"orique et pratique,' first published in 1762, and other 
 editions in 1769, 1773, and in 1818; and 'Opuscules de Chimie,' 
 1798. He also wrote many valuable articles in various scientific 
 journals, particularly in the ' Dictionnaire des Arts et Metiers,' a 
 work which he himself had projected, 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB, was born June 17, 
 1714, at Berlin, where his father was preacher to the court of Prussia. 
 He studied at Halle, and became a warm admirer of Wolf's philosophy, 
 though it was at that time considered heretical, and Wolf himself 
 had in consequence been obliged to leave Halle. Baumgarten applied 
 himself to the study of logic and of belles-lettres, on which he after- 
 wards gave lectures at the Orphan Institution of Halle. Having 
 
577 
 
 BAXTER, RICHARD. 
 
 BAXTER, RICHARD. 
 
 examined what had been taught till then under the name of belles- 
 lettres, he endeavoured to reduce that branch of study to fixed prin- 
 ciples. He invented the word ' aesthetic,' which he applied to the 
 theory of taste, or the science of the beautiful. Previous writers who 
 had written on this subject had mostly limited their investigations to 
 the beautiful in works of art ; Baumgarten extended his researches 
 to the qualities that constitute the beautiful in general, whether in 
 natural or artificial objects, and to our faculty of perceiving the same. 
 He divided the science of aesthetic into theoretical and practical : he 
 developed his ideas first in his treatise, ' Disputatio de nonnullis ad 
 Poema pertinentibus,' Halle, 1735, and afterwards in his ' ^Esthetica,' 
 Frankfurt on the Oder, 1750. ^Esthetics has since become a distinct 
 science, and is taught as such in the German universities. The other 
 works of Baumgarten are ' Metaphysica ; ' '^Ethica PMlosophica ; ' 
 ' Initia Philosophise Practicae.' 
 
 In 1740 Baumgarten was appointed professor of philosophy at 
 Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. His constant application undermined his 
 health, and after lingering in a weak state for several years, he died 
 in 1762. He was a profound thinker, remarkably methodical in the 
 arrangement of his thoughts, and precise in his exposition of them. 
 
 His elder brother, James Sigismund, studied also at Halle, and 
 became professor of theology in that university. He wrote ' Instruc- 
 tions on Moral Theology,' 8vo, 1738 ; ' Abridgment of Ecclesiastical 
 History,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1745 ; ' Prima? Lineae Brevarii Antiquitatum 
 Christianarum,' 1747, and other works on ecclesiastical studies. He 
 introduced important ameliorations into the study of theology at 
 Halle. He died in 1757. 
 
 Martin Baumgarten, of Breitenbach, patrician of Nuremberg, no 
 relation to the preceding, travelled in the east in the beginning of the 
 16th century, and left an account of his journey, which was published 
 after his death under the title of ' Peregrinatio in Egyptum, Arabiam, 
 Palaestinam, et Syriam, facta annis 1507 et 1508, in lucem edita a 
 Cristophoro Donaver,' 4to, Nuremberg, 1594. 
 
 BAXTER, RICHARD. This eminent Nonconformist divine was 
 born at Rowdon, a small village in Shropshire, on the 12th of Novem- 
 ber, 1615; but he resided till 1625 at Eaton Constantine, about five 
 miles from Shrewsbury. His father's limited means prevented him 
 from giviDg his son any education beyond what could be obtained 
 from the village schoolmasters, who were neither competent teachers 
 nor moral men. To Mr. John Owen, who kept the free grammar- 
 school at Wroxeter, Baxter acknowledges some obligations. Though 
 he was captain of the school, his acquirements were very inconsiderable 
 when he left it. His ambition was to enter one of the universities to 
 qualify himself for the ministry; but his master, Mr. Owen, recom- 
 mended him to Mr. Richard Wickstead, chaplain to the council at 
 Ludlow, who had an allowance from government for a divinity 
 student. Though the defects in his previous education were but ill 
 supplied by this arrangement (Wickstead being a negligent tutor), he 
 had access to a good library, where he acquired a taste for those 
 studies which he pursued with such indefatigable diligence in after life. 
 Here he continued for eighteen months, when he returned to his 
 father's house, and supplied for a few months the place of his old 
 master at Wroxeter grammar-school. Finding all his hopes of going 
 to the university disappointed, he resumed his professional studies 
 under the direction of Mr. Francis Garbett, a clergyman of some 
 celebrity, who conducted him through a course of theology, and gave 
 him much valuable assistance in his general reading. While thus 
 engaged, he was diverted from his pursuits by a proposition from his 
 friend, Mr. Wickstead, to try his fortune at court. Theology was 
 thrown aside, and Baxter went up to Whitehall, specially introduced 
 to Sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels, as an aspirant to royal 
 favour. His reception was courteous and even kind. For one month 
 he mingled in the festivities of the palace, — a period which was suffi- 
 cient to convince him of the unsuitableness of such a mode of life to 
 his tastes, his habits, and his conscience ; — he returned home, and 
 resumed his studies with a determination never to be again diverted 
 from them. Some books which he read increased that habitual 
 seriousness which he derived from his natural disposition, as well as 
 from the example of his father; and a protracted illness completed 
 the preparation of his mind for the reception of those impressions of 
 religious duty under which he acted through the remainder of his life. 
 
 While he was in this declining state of health, his anxiety to com- 
 mence his ministerial labours overcame every other consideration. 
 He applied for ordination to the Bishop of Worcester, and obtained 
 it, together with a schoolmaster's licence, as he had accepted the 
 mastership of the free grammar-school at Dudley, just then founded 
 by his friend Mr. Foley of Stourbridge. He was then twenty-three 
 years of age, and at this time entertained no scruples on the subject 
 of conformity, having never examined with any nicety the grounds of 
 subscription. 
 
 At the end of nine months Baxter removed from Dudley to Bridge- 
 north, where he acted as assistant to the clergyman. A release from 
 Ins school engagements must, to such a mind as Baxter's, intent upon 
 pa-tonl duties, have appeared a sufficient inducement for the charjge, 
 but, in the then state of his feelings, it was of still greater moment to 
 him to be relieved from the prospect of having to renew hi3 sub- 
 scription, to the terms of which his attention had now been directed. 
 Bridgenorth is the centre of a little district comprising six parishes, 
 
 BIOQ. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 exempt from all episcopal jurisdiction, except a triennial visitation 
 from the archbishop. Here he expected to perform the humble duties 
 of a curate without obstruction, happy in the society of a colleague 
 whose views harmonised with his own, and still happier in having a 
 wide field for his exertions. But his hopes were soon frustrated by 
 the 'et cetera oath,' as it was called, which enjoined all who had 
 taken orders to swear that they would never consent to any alteration 
 in the ceremonial or government of the church by archbishops, bishops, 
 deaus, archdeacons, &c. It does not appear that Mr. Baxter, any 
 more than his brother clergyman at Bridgenorth, thought it necessary 
 to observe the terms of this oath, for a complaint was laid against 
 them for non-compliance with the ritual in various particulars. 
 
 Baxter left Bridgenorth after a residence of one year and nine 
 months, on an invitation from a committee of the parishioners (1640) 
 to become the officiating clergyman at the parish church in Kidder- 
 minster, the vicar having agreed, in order to settle disputes, to allow 
 601. per annum to a curate of their own choosing. The living was 
 afterwards sequestered, the townsmen collected the tithes, paid Baxter 
 and Baxter's curate, and gave the vicar 4.01. per annum. The circum- 
 stances under which Baxter settled at Kidderminster were favourable 
 to his views; but it was not without considerable opposition from 
 one portion of the community, whose vices he publicly reproved, 
 that he carried some of his reforms into effect. Not satisfied with cor- 
 recting the more flagrant offences of the inhabitants, he visited them 
 at their houses, became acquainted with their families, gave them 
 religious instruction in private, and became their friend as well as 
 their pastor. By these means he soon wrought a complete change in 
 the habits of the people. His preaching was acceptable to all ranks. 
 Wherever he went, large audiences attended him ; and his energy was 
 so unremitting, notwithstanding his feeble health and constant indis- 
 position, that he preached three or four times a week. 
 
 During the civil wars of that period Baxter held a position by 
 which he was connected with both the opposite parties in the state, 
 and yet was the partisan of neither. His attachment to monarchy 
 was well known ; while the deep stream of religious feeling which ran 
 through the conversation of the parliamentarians drew his sympathies 
 to that side. The undisguised respect paid by him to the character of 
 some of the puritans, made him and many others, who were sincerely 
 attached to the crown, the objects of jealousy and persecution. A 
 clamour was raised against them, and the rabble, whose excesses had 
 been checked by him, were eager enough to become the trumpeters of 
 the charge. During one of these ebullitions of party excitement, 
 Baxter spent a few days in the parliamentary army, and was preaching 
 within sound of the cannon when the memorable battle was fought 
 at Edge Hill. Not considering it safe to return to Kidderminster, 
 he retired to Coventry, where he lived two years, preaching regularly 
 to the parliamentary garrison and to the inhabitants. After the 
 battle of Naseby, in 1645, he passed a night on a visit to some friends 
 in Cromwell's army, a circumstance which led to the chaplaincy of 
 Colonel Whalley's regiment being offered to him, which, after con- 
 sulting his friends at Coventry, he accepted. In this capacity he was 
 present at the taking of Bridgewater, the sieges of Exeter, Bristol, 
 and Worcester, by Colonels Whalley and Raiusboro'. He lost no 
 opportunity of moderating the temper of the champions of the com- 
 monwealth, and of restraining them within the bounds of reason ; but 
 as it was known that the check proceeded from one who was unfriendly 
 to the ulterior objects of the party, his interference was coolly received. 
 
 After his recovery from an illness which compelled him to leave 
 the army, we find him again at Kidderminster, exerting himself to 
 moderate conflicting opinions. The conduct of Cromwell at this crisis 
 exceedingly perplexed that class of men of whom Baxter might be 
 regarded as the type. For the sake of peace they yielded to an 
 authority which they condemned as a usurpation, but nothing could 
 purchase their approbation of the measures by which it had been 
 attained and was supported. In open conference Baxter did not scruple 
 to denounce Cromwell and his adherents as guilty of treason and rebel- 
 lion, thougli he afterwards doubted if he was right in opposing him so 
 strongly. (See Baxter's ' Penitent Confessions,' quoted in Orme.) The 
 reputation of Baxter rendered his countenance to the new order of 
 things highly desirable, and accordingly no pains were spared to pro- 
 cure it. The Protector invited him to an interview, and endeavoured 
 to reconcile him to the political changes that had taken place ; but 
 the preacher was unconvinced by his arguments, and boldly told him 
 that " the honest people of the land took their ancient monarchy to be 
 a blessing and not an evil." 
 
 In the disputes which prevailed about this time on the subject of 
 episcopal ordination, Baxter took the side of the Presbyterians in 
 denying its necessity. With t'hem too he agreed in matters of disci- 
 pline and church government. He dissented from them in their con- 
 demnation of episcopacy as unlawful. On their great principle, namely, 
 the sufficiency of the Scriptures to determine all points of faith and 
 conduct, he wavered for some time, but ultimately adopted it in its full 
 extent. Occupying as he did this middle' ground between the Episco- 
 palians and the Presbyterians, it was not very obvious with which of 
 the two parties he was to be classed. Had all impositions and restraints 
 been removed, there is every reason to suppose that he would have 
 preferred a moderate episcopacy to any other form of church govern- 
 ment ; but the measures of the prelatical party were so grievous to the 
 
679 
 
 BAXTER, RICHARD. 
 
 BAYARD, PIERRE DE TERRAIL. 
 
 680 
 
 conscience, that he had no choice between sacrificing his opinions or 
 quitting their communion. 
 
 It was expected that on the restoration of the king moderation 
 would have prevailed in the councils of the nation, and a conciliatory 
 policy have been adopted with regard to religious opinions. Some 
 indication of such a spirit appeared in the appointment of Presbyterian 
 divines among the king's chaplains, and Baxter along with the rest. 
 Many who had access to the king strenuously recommended concilia- 
 tion, and for a time their advice prevailed against the intrigues of court 
 influence. Among other measures a conference was appointed at the 
 Savoy, consisting of a ceitain number of Episcopalian and Presbyterian 
 divines, to devise a form of ecclesiastical government which might 
 reconcile the differences and satisfy the scruples of the contending 
 parties. Baxter and the Presbyterians were extremely desirous of 
 bringing this commission to a successful issue ; and Baxter himself 
 drew up a reformed liturgy, which with some alterations he presented 
 at this conference. The Presbyterians would have accepted Bishop 
 Usher's scheme as a model, with any alterations which might be 
 mutually agreed upon ; but the bishops were secretly opposed to the 
 arrangement, and finally frustrated it by carrying a declaration to this 
 effect, that although all were agreed upon the ends contemplated iu 
 this commission, they disagreed about the means. Having thus 
 defeated the object of the conference, the next step was to sequestrate 
 the livings of those divines who had been inducted during the Pro- 
 tectorate. Oaths and subscriptions, which had been suspended while 
 there was any prospect of a union of parties, were again called for by 
 the bishops and their adherents. In accordance with this demand a 
 law was passed iu 1602, called the Act of Uniformity, so strict in its 
 requisitions upon the debatable points of ceremonial worship, that it 
 had the effect of banishing at onco two thousand divines from the pale 
 of the English Church. Of this number was Baxter. Previous to the 
 passing of this measure he had refused the bishopric of Hereford and 
 other preferments offered him by Lord Clarendon, asking one favour 
 only in lieu of them — to be allowed to return to his beloved flock at 
 Kidderminster; but the favour was not granted. 
 
 On the 25th of May 1GG2, three months before the day on which 
 the Bartholomew Act, as the Act of Uniformity was called, from its 
 comiug into operation on St. Bartholomew's day, Baxter had preached 
 in London his last sermon, under a regular engagement in the church ; 
 and, finding his public duties at an end, he retired in July 1663 to 
 Acton, iu Middlesex, where he employed most of his leisure in writing 
 for the press. Some of his largi st works were the fruits of this seclu- 
 sion. His two most popular treatises, 'The Saints' Everlasting Rest, ' 
 and ' A Call to the Unconverted,' were published before he left Kidder- 
 minster. Several attempts were made by the ejected ministers and 
 their friends in parliament to get the rigorous restrictions against them 
 removed, but without success. The persecutions continued with 
 anal ated violence. Even those who, like Baxter, disliked separation, 
 and attended the worship of the church, suffered penalties for having 
 morning and evening prayers at their own houses. In the midst of 
 those awful calamities, the plague and the fire, which raged with such 
 frightful devastation in two successive years, the services of the puritan 
 divines to the inhabitants of the metropolis were so conspicuous, that 
 the current of opinion turned in their favour, and led to new efforts 
 iu their behalf, which ended for the time iu the Indulgence granted 
 in 1672. This drew Baxter from his retirement at Totteridge, to 
 which place he had removed on the suppression of his ministry at 
 Acton. He settled again in London, and preached as a lecturer in 
 different parts of the city, but more constantly at Pinner's Hall and 
 Fetter-lane. An ineffectual attempt which he made at this time to 
 combine the Pro testa &t interests against Papal ascendancy exposed 
 him to various misrepresentations, to remove which he published a 
 vindication of himself in a tract entitled 'An Appeal to the Light,' 
 but without eradicating the unfavourable impressions. 
 
 His time was now divided between writing and preaching. For a 
 while he had a regular audience in a room over St. James's market- 
 house, and at other places iu London. But his public duties were 
 frequently suspended by those rigorous enactments to which the 
 Nonconformists were subjected during the last two reigns of the 
 Stuarts. 
 
 In 1682 the officers of the law burst into his house, at a time when 
 he laboured under seveie indisposition, with a warrant to seize his 
 person for coming within five miles of a corporation, and would have 
 Lurried him before a justice of the peace in this condition, had they 
 not been met by his physician, whose interference probably saved his 
 life as well as obtained his pardon. Two years later, while his health 
 was still in a precarious state from a chronic disease, he was agaiu 
 harassed by distraints and penal proceedings. Still later it was his 
 misfortune to be one of the unhappy victims of Jeffcries. He was 
 apprehended on a lord chief justice's warrant, on a charge of sedition 
 and being hostile to episcopacy. The charge was founded on some 
 passages in his ' Paraphrase of the New Testament.' On the trial, 
 Jefferies, not content with using language the most opprobrious to the 
 prisoner and his counsel, acted the part of prosecutor as well as judge, 
 pud scrupled not to gain his ends by silencing the accused, by insulting 
 his counsel, by refusing to hear his witnesses, and by triumphing over 
 his sentence. His punishment was a fine of 500 marks, to lie in prison 
 till it was paid, and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. 
 
 For the non-payment of this heavy penalty he wa9 committed to the 
 King's Bench prison, where he lay until the E6th of November in the 
 following year (1686), having been confined for nearly eichteen months. 
 His pardon was obtained by the mediation of Lord Powis, and the 
 fine was remitted. The solitude of his prison was enlivened on this, 
 as on former occasions, by the affectionate attentions of his wife. 
 Baxter himself lived to see that favourable change in reference to 
 religious toleration which commenced at the Revolution of 1688. He 
 died on the 8th of December 1691, and was buried in Christ Church. 
 
 The literary career of Baxter is not the least extraordinary part of his 
 history. Ho publi.-hed a body of practical and polemical divinity 
 with a rapidity almost unequalled; the excellence of some of his 
 practical writings secured them an unexampled popularity, and thus 
 laid the foundation of a new theological system which still retains his 
 name. The catalogue of his works is not easily described. It contains 
 nearly 168 distinct publications. (See list in Orme's 1 Life,' prefixed 
 to the edition of his works, London, 1830.) His fame chiefly rests on 
 his two most popular works, and on his 'Methodius Theologiaj' and 
 'Catholic Theology,' in which his peculiar views are embodied. Baxter 
 left behind him a ' Narrative of the most Memorable Passages of hia 
 Life and Times,' which was published in a folio volume after his death 
 (1696) by his intimate friend Mr. Matthew Sylvester, under the title 
 ' Reliquia) Baxteriana;.' It is here that we find that review of his 
 religious opinions written in the latter part of his life, which Coleridge 
 speaks of as one of the most remarkable pieces of writing that have 
 come down to us. 
 
 BAXTER, WILLIAM, nephew of the celebrated Richard Baxter, 
 was born in 1650, at Laulugau in Shropshire. His education is stated 
 to have beeu so eutirely neglected in his early years that at the age of 
 18, when he went to the school of Harrow-on-the-Hill in Middlesex, 
 he knew not one letter iu a book, nor understood one word of any 
 language but Welsh ; but he soon retrieved his lost time, and became 
 a man of great learning. He applied himself chiefly to the study of 
 antiquities and philology. 
 
 His first publication was upon Latin grammar — 'Do Analogic, sive 
 Arte Latina) Lingua; Commentariolus : in usum Provectioris Ado- 
 lesceutia?,' 12mo, London, 1679. In 1695 he edited Anacreon, 
 ' Auacreontis Teii Carmina, Gr. Lat. Subjiciuutur etiam duo vetustis- 
 sima Poetria) Sapphus elegantissima Odaria, una cum correctiono 
 Isaaci Vossii : et Theocriti Anacreonticum in mortuum Adonin,' 
 12mo, London, 1695; reprinted with improvements in 1710. In 1701 
 his edition of Horace made its appearance, of which a second edition 
 was fini-hed by him but a few days before his death, and was published 
 by his son John, under the title of 'Q. Horatii Flacci Eclogse, una cum 
 scholiis perpetuis,' 8vo, London, 1725. This for a long time was con- 
 sidered the best edition of Horace which had beeu published in 
 England. It bore so high a character upon the continent as to be 
 reprinted by Gesner at Leipzig, with additional notes, in 1752, and 
 several times subsequently. In 1719 Baxter's ' Glossarium Antiqui- 
 tatum Britannicarum ' appeared, dedicated to Dr. Richard Mead, 
 accompanied with a portrait of the author, engraved by Vertue from 
 a picture by Highmore, painted when Baxter was in his 69th year. 
 The Rev. Moses Williams also published Baxter's glossary of Roman 
 antiquities, containing the letter A only, under the title of 'Reliquias 
 Baxterianse, sive Willielmi Baxteri Opera posthuma : Praemittitur 
 eruditi Auctoris Vitee a seipso conscripte Fragmentum,' 8vo, Loudon, 
 1726. 
 
 These form the whole of Baxter's printed works. Baxter also wrote 
 some letters on subjects of antiquity, which were printed in the 'Philo- 
 sophical Transactions,' Nos. 306, 311, and 401 ; and in the first volume 
 of the ' Archseologia' of the Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 Besides Latin and Greek, Baxter is allowed to have been skilled in 
 the British and Irish tongues, as well as iu the Northern and Hebrew 
 languages. The greater part of his life was passed in the education 
 of youth. Nichols, in his ' Literary Anecdotes,' states Baxter to have 
 kept a boarding school at Tottenham High Cross in Middlesex; but 
 Dr. Robinsou, in the ' History of Tottenham,' says he was the master 
 of the Free Grammar school there. He was resident at Tottenham 
 before 1697, and remained there till he was chosen master of the 
 Mercers' school in London, which situation he held above twenty 
 years, but resigned it before his death. He died May 31st, 1723, and 
 was buried at Islington. 
 
 BAYARD, PIERRE DE TERRAIL, known by the honourable 
 appellation of ' the Good Knight, without fear and without reproach ' 
 (' le bou Chevalier, sans peur et sans reproche'), was born, in the year 
 1476, at the Chateau de Bayard iu Dauphine". Almost all his immediate 
 ancestors died on the field of battle : his great-great-grandfather fell 
 j at Poictiers ; his great-grandfather at Cressy ; his grandfather at 
 Montlhery ; and his father also received many wounds iu the wars of 
 Louis XI. With a view to being educated for the profession of arms, 
 he was placed, when thirteen years old, iu the household of the Duke 
 of Savoy as page, in which capacity he continued for five years. Bayard, 
 when only eighteen years of age, carried away the prize in a tournament 
 against one of the most experienced knights in France. When he had 
 completed his eighteenth year he entered into actual service. 
 
 In the latter end of the year 1494, Bayard accompanied Charles VIII. 
 in his expedition against Naples, aud greatly distinguished himself at 
 the battle of Foruovo, fought on the 6th of July in the next year. He 
 
691 
 
 BAYAZID I. 
 
 BAYAZID I. 
 
 r,R2 
 
 had two horses killed under him in this engagement, and he performed 
 numerous feats of that romantic valour which Las perpetuated Lis 
 name as one of the last and best representatives of the days of chivalry. 
 Bayard served also ia the Italian wars of Louis XII., which began in 
 1499. On one occasion he kept a bridge over the Garigliano single- 
 handed against 200 Spaniards, long enough to enable the main-body 
 of the French to make good their retreat. 
 
 Biyard was also present at the famous 'battle of the Spurs,' fought 
 at Guingaste near Terouenne in Picardy, on the 16th of August, 1513. 
 Either from panic or mistaken orders, the French gendarmerie, when 
 retreating from the English force, commanded in person by the then 
 youthful Henry VIII., fled before the English cavalry in disgraceful 
 confusion. But for the presence of mind and daring valour of Bayard, 
 the whole French army would have shared in the disgrace of the 
 gendarmerie. He retired with fourteen men-at-arms, often turning 
 on his pursuers, till he reached a place where only two could pass in 
 front. " We halt here," said he, " the enemy will be an hour gaining 
 this post. Go and tell them so at the camp." He was obeyed, and 
 succeeded in gaining time for the French army to re-assemble itself, 
 but was compelled to surrender himself as a prisoner. Seeing an English 
 knight resting wounded under a tree, Bayard required him to surrender; 
 the knight, wholly unable to resist, gave up his sword, when Bayard 
 returned his own, saying, " I am Bayard, and now your prisoner." 
 Heury was so well pleased with this ingenious conduct, that the two 
 kuights were soon exchanged on their parole. The Emperor Maximi- 
 lian, who was serving in Henri's army, tauuted him with the remark 
 that he thought Bayard was one who never fled. " Sire, if I had fled 
 I should not have been here," was the prompt answer. 
 
 Bayard attended Francis I., then in the pride of youth, and ambitious 
 of the honours of chivalry, in the war undertaken to recover Milan 
 and the other Italian conquests of his predecessor. The bloody battle 
 of Marignano, September 13, 1515, which lasted two days, was fought 
 with a fierceness that made Trivulzio, the Fivnch commander, who 
 had been in eighteen pitched battles, exclaim that " all other fights 
 compared with this were but children's sport; this is the war of 
 giants." Bayard displayed his usual romnntic daring and prowess. 
 When the battle was won, Francis, who had fought by his side, and 
 who had witnessed his extraordinary valour, beiged and received the 
 honour of knighthood at his hands upon the field. 
 
 The next great service which Bayard rendered his country was the 
 obstinate and successful defence of Mezieres, on the Netherlands 
 frontier of France, in 1522, against the Count of Nassau, with a force 
 of 35,000 men, aided by a strong artillery. The garrison consisted of 
 only 1000 men, but such was the fame of Bayard, that many of the 
 young nobility of France considered it the highest honour to be engaged 
 under him in the defence of thi3 frontier town. 
 
 In 1524 Bayard had a command in the force which Francis I. sent 
 to Italy to act against the army of the Emperor Charles, directed by 
 the celebrated Duke of Bourbon. The command-in-chief was intrusted 
 to Bonnivet, whose only qualification wa3 personal courage. After 
 various movements and partial successes, Bonnivet was compelled to 
 abandon his strong entrenchments at Biagrasso, and move nearer to 
 the Alps, in expectation of reinforcements from Switzerland. He was 
 pursued by the imperial forces, who attacked his rear (April 30, 1524) 
 just as he had reached the banks of the Sesia. Bonnivet, while dis- 
 playing much valour in rallying his troops, was wounded in the arm 
 by a ball from an arquebus3. He sent to Bayard immediately, telling 
 him that the fate of the army was in his hands. Bayard, who had in 
 vain throughout the campaign remonstrated with Bonnivet on the 
 course he was pursuing, replied, " It is now too late, but I commend 
 my soul to my God ; my life belongs to my country." He then put 
 himself at the head of the men-at-arms, and kept the main-body of 
 the enemy occupied long enough to enable the rest of the French 
 forces to make good their retreat. While thus engaged he received a 
 mortal wound from a ball, and fell from his horse. He was pressed 
 to withdraw from the field, but his answer was that he had never 
 turned his back upon an enemy. He ordered himself to be placed 
 with his back against a tree, and his face to the enemy. In this situa- 
 tion he was found by Bourbon, who expressed his regret at seeing 
 him in this condition. " Pity not me," said the dying man, " I die as 
 a man of honour ought, in the discharge of my duty; they, indeed, 
 are objects of pity who fight against their king, their couutry, and 
 their oath," The Marquis of Pescara, commander of the Spanish 
 troops, passing soon after, manifested (we quote from Robertson's 
 ' Charles V.,' book iii.) his admiration of Bayard's virtues, as well as 
 his sorrow for his fate, with the generosity of a gallant enemy ; and, 
 finding that he could not be removed with safety from that spot, 
 ordered a tent to be pitched there, and appointed proper persons to 
 attend him. He died, notwithstanding their care, as his ancestors for 
 several generations had done, on the field of battle. Pescara ordered 
 his body to be embalmed and sent to his relations. In Dauphine", 
 Bayard's native country, the people of all ranks came out in a solemn 
 procession to meet it. 
 
 BAYAZID I, surnamed ILDIRIM, or ' the Lightning,' in allusion 
 to the rapidity of his military achievements, was the son of the sultan 
 of the Osmanlis, Murad I. He was born A.n. 748 (a.d. 1347), and 
 came to the throne in a.u. 792 (a.d. 1389), after his father had been 
 killed in an engagement with the Servians near Cossova. The 
 
 Osmanli dominions at this epoch extended from the Danube to the 
 Euphrates; aud Bayazid, at the head of his army, was almost inces- 
 santly moving from one extremity of his empire to the other, to 
 reduce his Mohammedan neighbours to obedience, or to add to his 
 possessions by conquests from the Christian powers of Europe. 
 Brussa aud Adrianople were respectively the Asiatic and European 
 capitals of his dominions, and the erection of a magnificent mosque in 
 each of them is one of the earliest acts of his reign that we find 
 recorded. This seemingly pious act forms a strong contrast with his 
 behaviour to Yacub, his only brother, whom he put to death almost 
 immediately on ascending the throne, from no other motive than an 
 apprehension that the example of other eastern princes might encourage 
 him to rebel, and dispute Bayazid's right to the throne. 
 
 The conquests of the Osmanlis had, in the beginning of the 8th 
 century of the Mohammedan era (the 14 th after Christ), put an end to 
 the Seljukide dominion in western Asia, and on its ruins several small 
 dynasties had sprung up, all of which were subdued by Bayazid, and 
 incorporated with the Turkish empire. Bayazid had to encounter 
 greater difficulties iu subduing the principality of Caramania. Tinaur- 
 tash, his general, had conquered part of the country, when Ala-eddin, 
 the reigning sovereign, defeated him in a battle and took him prisoner. 
 WLen this happened Bayazid was on the banks of the Danube, engaged 
 in a war with Stephan, the prince of Moldavia. On receiving the news 
 of Timurtash's defeat, B.tyazid hastened from Europe into Asia, and 
 within a very short time subdued the whole of Caramania. 
 
 The year 1391 is remarkable for the capture of Philadelphia, or 
 Alashehr (that is, ' The Variegated City'), the last Greek town in Asia 
 Minor that continued faithful to the Byzantine empire. Its Greek 
 commander made a vigorous resistance to the besieging forces of 
 Bayazid, and rejected his invitation to surrender the fortress ; while 
 the emperor Joannes and his son Manuel, then the confederates of the 
 sultan, were actually assisting in the siege. 
 
 In 1393 Bayazid undertook another expedition into Europe, in which 
 he took possession of the towns of Saloniki and Yenishehr (Larissa), 
 and for the first time besieged Constantinople. He compelled the 
 emperor to give up his plan of adding to the strength of the capital 
 by new fortifications, and to assign a separate suburb to the Turks 
 with a mosque and a kadi, or judge, of their own. 
 
 In 1396 Bayazid gained an important victory near Nicopolis, on the 
 Danube, over an army of 100,000 Christians, including many of the 
 bravest knights of France and Germany, who had assembled under 
 the standard of Sigismond, the king of Hungary, to check the farther 
 progress of the Mohammedan power in Europe. The greater part of 
 the Christian forces were slain or driven into the Danube. Sigismond 
 escaped to Constantinople. Sixty thousand Turks are stated to have 
 fallen in the same battle; and when Bayazid became aware of the 
 extent of his loss, he gave orders to put to death all the prisoners, 
 with the exception of twenty-four nobles, who were subsequently 
 ransomed. This great victory was soon followed by further conquests 
 in Greece. 
 
 The dominions of Bayazid and those of the Tartar conqueror Timur 
 now touched each other in the neighbourhood of Erzerum and on the 
 banks of the Euphrates. With doubtful limits between the two em- 
 pires, which had never been deSned by treaty, a cause for war between 
 two jealous sovereigns could not long be wanting. Timur had taken 
 possession of Siwas (the ancient Sebaste), on the Halys, and Lad 
 treated its inhabitants with great cruelty. Bayazid was then engaged 
 in his European dominions, which prevented him from resenting this 
 violation of his territory. About the same time two Mussulman 
 princes, Ahmed-Jelair and Kara-Yussuf, whom Timur had deprived 
 of their possessions, fled for protection first to Seifeddin-Barkuk, the 
 sultan of Egypt, and subsequently to Bayazid, who received them with 
 kindness. Timur sent two embassies for the purpose of demanding the 
 surrender of the princes ; but Bayazid refused to comply, and, insti- 
 gated by the advice of the princes, took possession of Erzinjan, a 
 town situated on the Euphrates within the dominions of Timur. 
 Timur, who now determined to commence an open war against 
 Bayazid, begun the campaign by taking Haleb, Autakia, and other 
 Syrian towns that were subject to the Osmanlis. He was at Siwas 
 when he received information of the approach of Bayazid from the 
 west. The two sovereigns, at the head of their armies, met iu the 
 plains of Angora, the capital of the aucient Galatia. A decisive battle 
 took place (according to M. von Hammer's calculations on the 19th of 
 Zulhaj a.ii. 804, that is, the 20th of July a.d. 1401), in which the 
 Osmanlis were totally defeated, and Bayazid became a prisoner in the 
 hands of Timur. The conqueror, according to his Persian biographer, 
 Sherif-eddin, received Bayazid with great kindness, assigned him 
 suitable accommodations, aud continued to treat him with distinction 
 till he died, a.h. 806 (a.d. 1403). D'Herbelot (' Bibliotheque Orient.,' 
 art. ' Timour '), M. von Hammer, and most recent authorities, accept 
 this account, and reject as a fable the common report which would 
 charge Timur with great cruelty towards his prisoner. But it is only 
 fair to state that Sir William Jones (' Works ') draws our attention to 
 a passage in another contemporary historian, Ebn-Arabshah's life of 
 Timur, which had been overlooked by D'Herbelot, iu which the 
 Arabian author expressly affirms " that Timur did inclose his captive, 
 Ilderim Bayazid, in a cage of iron, in order to retaliate the insult 
 offered to the Persians by a sovereign of Lower Asia, who had treated 
 
r.S3 
 
 BAYAZID It 
 
 BAYER, JOHN. 
 
 Shapor, king of Persia, In the same manner ; that he intended to carry 
 him in this confinement into Tartaiy, but that the miserable prince 
 died in Syria, at a place called Akshehr." Busbequius also, who 
 visited Constantinople as ambassador from the German emperor about 
 the middle of the 16th century, has a passage to the following effect: 
 that Bayazid, after his defeat, became a prisoner in tlie hands of 
 Timur, who treated him with great cruelty ; that his wife, who was 
 also made a prisoner, was grossly insulted before his face; and that 
 from this time till the age of Soliman L, who reigned from 1520 to 
 1566, the Osmanli sultans have never married, for fear that the 
 reverses of fortune might expose them to similar insults. 
 
 Bayazid was succeeded upon the throne of the Osmanli empire by 
 his son Mohammed I. 
 
 BAYAZID II, the eldest son of Mohammed II., was born in 1417, 
 and in 1481 succeeded his father on the throne of the Osmanli empire, 
 which he occupied till 1512. Bayazid was governor of Amasia when 
 his father died (May 3, 1481). Upon receiving the news of his demise 
 he hastened to Constantinople, but had to establish his claims to the 
 throno by a contest with his brother Zizim, or Zizymus. Zizim was 
 defeated in a battle at Yenishchr, near Bi ussa, June 20, 14S1; and was 
 ultimately placed in the haud3 of Pope Alexander VI., by whom he is 
 said to have been poisoned at the instigation of his brother (February 
 24, 1495). 
 
 A considerable part of Bayazid's reign was spent in war. When 
 Mohammed II. died the Osmanli empire was engaged in a conflict 
 with Venice. Bayazid found it necessary in 1482 to conclude a peace 
 which secured considerable advautages to the republic. In 1485 
 Bayazid declared war against Kait-Bey, the Mamluk sultan of Egypt. 
 Karagos-Pasha, the commander of the Osmanli army, suffered two 
 signal defeats, and in 1191 a peace was negociated upon terms by no 
 moans advantageous or creditable to the Osmanli arms. In the same 
 year, while carrying on the war in Albania, Bayazid had a narrow 
 escape from an assassin who had approached him in the disguise of a 
 monk. This incident gave rise to the rule ever since most strictly 
 observed at the Turkish court, that no one bearing any weapon is 
 admitted into the presence of the sultan. 
 
 The year 1490 is remarkable in Turkish history for the first treaty 
 concluded between the Osmanli government and that of Poland, and 
 in 1495 we find recorded the first diplomatic relations between the 
 Rultan and the czar of Moscow. In 1499 another war broke out between 
 the Turks and Venetians. A Venetian fleet was defeated in a battle 
 near the island of Sapienza, July 28, 1499; and Lepanto (Naupactos), 
 Modon, Coron, and Navarino were besieged and taken by the Osmanlis, 
 while Iskandar-Pasha with a land army invaded and laid waste the 
 country along the river Tagliamento in the north of Italy. A combined 
 Venetian and Spanish fleet tcok possession of ^Egina and Cephalonia, 
 and captured twenty Turkish galleys. By the treaty of peace, which 
 was concluded in December 1502, the Venetians were obliged to leave 
 the island of Santa Maura in the hands of the Turks ; but they kept 
 possession of Cephalonia, and obtained the privilege of appointing a 
 consul at Constantinople and of trading in the Black Sea. 
 
 Bayazid was induced to yield a peace upon such conditions by the 
 rapid rise of the Persian power on the eastern frontier of his dominions 
 under Shah Ismail, the founder of the Safawi (commonly called the 
 Son) dynasty. Shah Ismail had encroached upon the Osmanli territory 
 near Tokat, aud when forced to retreat by the governor of the province, 
 had taken possession of Merash. Bayazid was now desirous of repose, 
 and wished to appoint Ahmed, one of his sons, as successor to the 
 throne. A civil war followed for some time between Korkud the eldest 
 son, Ahmed, and Selim. At length Selim prevailed. Bayazid was 
 obliged to resign the government in his favour, and Selim, supported 
 by the Janissaries and the great mass of the people of Constantinople, 
 ascended the throne on April 25, 1512. Bayazid quitted the capital in 
 order to spend the remainder of his life in peaceful retirement at 
 Demitoka, his birthplace; but he died on his journey thither at Aya, 
 near Hassa, May 26, 1512. 
 
 (Von Hammer, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs, vol. ii. p. 250, &c.) 
 
 BAYER, JOHN, was born at the town of Rhain in Bavaria, in 
 1572. He followed the profession of an advocate at Augsburg, where 
 he died in 1625, having lived a bachelor fifty three years. He was 
 an astronomer, and a diligent inquirer into antiquity. The preceding 
 particulars are (or were) stated in his epitaph, in the church of St. 
 Dominic at Augsburg. 
 
 Bayer has immortalised his name, as Delambre remarks, at a very 
 cheap rate. He published charts of the stars in 1603, in which, for 
 the first time, he distinguished one from another by affixing letters. 
 When Flamsteed and others adopted this practice, which has since 
 become universal, the letters of Bayer were followed, which has 
 made his maps valuable; otherwise they are not so good as those 
 of Hevelius. 
 
 The first edition of Bayer's maps was published at Augsburg in 
 September 1603, with the following title :— Johannis Baieri Rhainani, 
 J. C, ' Uranometria, omnium asterismorum continens schemata nova 
 methodo delineata, aereis laminis expressa.' The title given by Lalande 
 (• Bibliogr. Astr.') is incorrect. He had obtained the constellations 
 visible in the northern hemisphere from the catalogue of Tycho Brahe', 
 aud those about the south pole from Americus Vesputius and others. 
 (Kepler, ' Tab. Rudolph.,' cited by Kastener.) It is not known whether 
 
 he observed himself, but Riccioli, in the words " suis vigiliis astrono- 
 micis aucta et emendata," implies that he did ; and Bartschius 
 (' Planisph. in Pref. ad Lect.') affirms that Bayer was not in possession 
 of the more recent observations of Tycho Biahe\ and that his places 
 were erroneous in consequence. There are fifty-one maps by Bayer, 
 namely, two of the hemispheres, one of nine constellations about the 
 south pole, and forty-eight of single constellations. The Greek letters 
 are employed to denote the stars, and where the Greek alphabet ends 
 the Roman small letters are used. 
 
 The following is tho list of Bayer's constellations, after each of which 
 is placed the letter with which the reckoning ends ; so that by looking 
 at the numbering of tho two alphabets annexed, the number of stars 
 reckoned by him may be seen. In applying the letters he seems to 
 have arranged the stars in order of brilliancy : thus o is the largest star 
 in a constellation, that is, the largest in the opinion of Bayer, observing 
 with the naked eye, in and about the year 1600. Bayer's names and 
 spellings are retained. The constellations are all in Ptolemaeus. 
 
 1. 
 
 a 
 
 8. 
 
 6 
 
 15. 
 
 0 
 
 22. X 
 
 29. e 
 
 36. 
 
 m 
 
 43. 
 
 t 
 
 2. 
 
 0 
 
 9. 
 
 i 
 
 16. 
 
 It 
 
 23. <i> 
 
 30. f 
 
 37. 
 
 n 
 
 44. 
 
 u 
 
 3. 
 
 y 
 
 10. 
 
 K 
 
 17. 
 
 p 
 
 24. « 
 
 31. g 
 
 38. 
 
 0 
 
 45. 
 
 w 
 
 4. 
 
 5 
 
 11. 
 
 \ 
 
 18. 
 
 <r 
 
 25. a 
 
 32. h 
 
 39. 
 
 P 
 
 46. 
 
 X 
 
 5. 
 
 e 
 
 12. 
 
 
 19. 
 
 T 
 
 26. b 
 
 33. i 
 
 40. 
 
 q 
 
 47. 
 
 y 
 
 6. 
 
 c 
 
 13. 
 
 V 
 
 20. 
 
 V 
 
 27. c 
 
 34. k 
 
 41. 
 
 r 
 
 48. 
 
 z 
 
 7. 
 
 1 
 
 14. 
 
 1 
 
 21. 
 
 <P 
 
 28. d 
 
 35. 1 
 
 42. 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 1. Ursa Minor, 6 
 
 2. Ursa Major, h 
 
 3. Draco, i 
 
 4. Cepheus, p 
 
 5. Buoies, k 
 
 6. Corona, u 
 
 7. Hercules, z 
 
 8. Lyra, v 
 
 9. Cyguus, g 
 
 10. Cassiepea, a 
 
 11. Perseus, o 
 
 12. Auriga, \p 
 
 13. Serpentarius, f 
 
 14. Serpens, e 
 
 15. Sagitta, 0 
 
 16. Aquila, 1 
 Antinous, J 
 
 17. Delphinus, k 
 
 18. Equus Minor, 8 
 
 19. Pegasus, \f/ 
 
 20. Andromeda, o 
 
 21. Triangulum, « 
 
 22. Aries, t 
 
 23. Taurus, u 
 
 24. Gemini, g 
 
 25. Cancer, d 
 
 26. Leo, p 
 
 27. Virgo, q 
 
 28. Libra, o 
 
 29. Scorpio, <r 
 
 30. Sagittarius, h 
 
 31. Capricornus, o 
 
 32. Aquarius, i 
 
 33. Pisces, 1 
 
 34. Cetus, ^ 
 
 35. Orion, p 
 
 36. Eridanus, d 
 
 37. Lepus, v 
 
 33. Canis Major, o 
 
 39. Canis Minor, i\ 
 
 40. Navis, s 
 
 41. Centaurus, q 
 
 42. Crater, \ 
 
 43. Corvus, 7j 
 
 44. Hydra, b 
 
 45. Lupus, u 
 
 46. Aia, 8 
 
 47. Corona meridionalis, r 
 
 48. Piscis Notius, ft 
 
 49. /Pavo 
 Toucan 
 Grus 
 Phoenix 
 Dorado 
 
 ,2 / Piscis volans 
 -g \ Hydrus 
 J3 Chameleon 
 Apis 
 
 Apis Indica 
 Triangulum Australe 
 Hindus 
 
 50. Synopsis Cceli Superioris 
 
 Borea 
 
 51. Synopsis Cceli Inferioria 
 
 Austro 
 
 In Delambre's list ('Hist, de l'Ast. Mod.'), in Canis Major, for x — o 
 read a — o. The title of the last map is presumed by us, as the only 
 copy of the first edition we know of does not contain it, and the 
 succeeding editions have no letter-press. The constellations in Italics 
 are those of which a front view is presented, of which we shall 
 presently speak. 
 
 In this first edition, the letter-press is on the back of the plates. 
 It contains, in adition to what has been noticed, the various names of 
 the constellations and single stars, together with the planets with which 
 they were supposed to have astrological affinities. 
 
 In order to restore, as he supposed, the sphere of Ptolemaeus, Bayer 
 has inverted many of the constellations, and made them turn their 
 backs; and this he has done upon an ecliptic and equator so disposed 
 as to place the spectator inside. The state of the question is this ; 
 it is pretty clear either that Ptolemaeus imagined himself on the outside 
 of the globe, looking on the backs of the constellations, or in the inside, 
 looking on the fronts : for neither of the two remaining suppositions 
 will place those stars on the right or left arms, &c, which Ptolemaeus 
 places there. The alternative might be easily settled by remarking 
 whether the stars in the body are placed in the front or back ; but, 
 unfortunately, Ptolemseus generally refers them to some part of the 
 dress or arms which has both back and front, such as the belt of Orion; 
 but in the few instauces which are tests, Ptolemaeus always names 
 the back, the only exception we know of being a star in Virgo, which 
 is said to be in the front face (irp6awirov), which may be reconciled 
 with the rest by supposing the back of a figure with the face turned 
 side way 3. Therefore, to represent Ptolemaeus completely, an outside of 
 a sphere, or part of a sphere, must be drawn ; and on an inside sphere 
 there is only the choice of changing left into right, and vice versa, by 
 
BAYER, GOTTLIEB SIEGFRIED. 
 
 BAYLE, PETER. 
 
 686 
 
 drawing backs, or backs into fronts, and vice versa, by drawing fronts. 
 Bayer has chosen the first, with the exceptions noted in italics in the 
 preceding list, for which he has been blamed by Schickard, Bartsch, 
 Hevelius, Flamsteed, and others : but, singularly enough, he has not 
 carried his own system through ; for Andromeda, of which he has 
 represented the face, is precisely one of those signs in which a crucial 
 word is found in Ptolemaeus, who places one star between the shoulders 
 (cV t<j> fi€ra(ppeva>). Flamsteed cuts the knot by assuring us that vwtov 
 and /xerauppei/ov, which vulgar scholars imagine to mean ' the back,' 
 and ' the part of the back between the shoulders,' sometimes mean 
 'the front' and 'the chest,' in proof of which he brings his own con- 
 viction, that Homer and others must in some places have adopted 
 these senses. Montucla, with great probability, conjectures that 
 Bayer intended to draw a convex sphere, but overlooked, or was 
 ignorant of, the proper method of inverting the figures on the copper. 
 
 Circumstances which we shall have to mention in Flamsteed make 
 it worth while to give the preceding details. The rest of the history 
 of Bayer's work is as follows : — In 1627, Julius Schiller published at 
 Augsburg his 'Ccelum Stellatum Christianura, &c. sociali opera J. 
 Bayeri, &c. Uranometriam novam priore accuratiorem locupletio- 
 remque suppeditantis.' This was an attempt to change the names of 
 the constellations into others derived from the Scriptures ; as, for 
 instance, calling the twelve signs of the zodiac after the apostles, &c. 
 The northern constellations were taken from the New Testament and 
 the southern from the Old. Schiller's account is as follows : that 
 Bayer, having laid down the positions of the stars, left all the rest to 
 Schiller, but died before the whole (and Ursa Minor in particular) 
 was completed, and without having time to finish some astronomical 
 ' Prolegomena ; ' that the new Uranometry of Bayer differed from the 
 old in the number and positions of the stars, which he had altered, 
 as well from many nights' observations of his own (whether of posi- 
 tions or of magnitudes is not stated), as from various books which he 
 had found ; and that, for this reason, he (Bayer) was anxious that the 
 old Uranometry should never be republished. These maps also repre- 
 tented the convex side of the sphere, that men might see the fronts 
 of these Christian constellations, it being judged indecorous that the 
 apostles should turn their backs. Thus we see that Bayer committed 
 a mistake again, a3 far as Ptolemaeus's sphere is concerned. He should 
 have drawn the inside or concave of the sphere, in turning the fronts 
 towards the spectator. This work of Schiller's is also mentioned by 
 Gassendi as follows : ' Coelum Christianum a J. Bayero affectum, et a 
 Julio Schillero confectum.' (Gass. ' Vit. Peir.' in ann. 1628.) It is 
 remarkable that, in this edition, Bayer has abandoned his letters and 
 taken numbers, either of his own or from Ptolemaeus. The plates are 
 remarkably well executed for the period, and the grouping of the 
 constellations is strikingly beautiful, but the stars are almost lost in 
 the shadiDg. 
 
 Schiller states, that a surreptitious edition of Bayer was offered for 
 sale at Frankfurt Fair in autumn 1 624 ; which, by means of the words 
 'nova methodo delineata,' was made to pass for the expected edition 
 of 1627, that is Schiller's own ; but it was struck from the same plates 
 as that of 1603, and therefore probably could not be distinguished 
 from the subsequent editions. 
 
 The second edition of the ' Uranometria ' (plates only, and without 
 letter-press) was printed at Ulm in 1648, and the third (plates only) 
 at Ulm in 1666. In the meanwhile, the letter-press of the first 
 edition, with additions, had been printed under the following clumsy 
 title : ' Explicatio Characterum seneis Uranometrias Imaginum Tabulis 
 insculptorum addita,' First edition, Strasbourg, 1624; second, Ulm, 
 1640; third, Augsburg, 1654 ; fourth, Ulm, 1697. 
 
 BAYER, GOTTLIEB SIEGFRIED, grandson of John Bayer the 
 astronomer, was born at Konigsberg in 1694. He applied zealously 
 to the study of the Oriental languages under the tuition of Abraham 
 Wolf, and of some learned Rabbis : he also took a peculiar interest in 
 the study of the Chinese language. After travelling in various parts 
 of Germany for his improvement, he returned to Konigsberg in 1717, 
 when he was appointed librarian to the University. In 1726 he was called 
 to St. Petersburg to fill the chair of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 
 His health became impaired by intense study, and he died February 
 21, 1738. He wrote numerous works, some of which are printed 
 separately ; others are inserted in the ' Memoirs of the Academy of 
 St. Petersburg ' and in the ' Acta Eruditorum ; ' and some were left at 
 his death in manuscript. Of those that have been published sepa- 
 rately the principal are : ' Museum Sinicum,' 2 vols. 8vo, St. Petersburg, 
 1730. The greater part of the first volume is occupied by an interest- 
 ing preface, in which the author recapitulates the labours of those 
 who preceded him in the field of Chinese literature; this is followed 
 by a general Chinese grammar ; and by a grammar of the popular 
 Chinese dialect of the province of Chin Cheu, which, he says, differs 
 but little from the language of the learned or mandarins. This is 
 followed by a letter from some missionaries at Tranquebar concerning 
 the Tamul language. The second volume contains a Chinese Lexicon, 
 extracts from several Chinese works, a commentary on the Siao ul 
 Inn, or Origines Sinicae, a treatise on Chinese chronology ; and another 
 on the weights and measures of the Chinese. ' Historia Osrhoena et 
 Edessena ex numis illustrata/ 4to, 1734, ' Biog. Univ.' This work, 
 which he dedicated to Joseph Simonius Assemani, is much esteemed. 
 De Eclipsi Siaica liber Bingularis,' in which he examines and confutes 
 
 the Chinese account of a total eclipse, which a Jesuit asserted to have 
 occured at the time of our Saviour's death. Of his scattered disser- 
 tations, some are on the Mongol, Tangutian, and Brahmanic languages ; 
 one is ' De Elementis Calmucicis ; ' another on some books in au 
 unknown language, found near the banks of the Caspian Sea. His 
 ' Opuscula,' which treat of several topics of erudition, were published 
 by Klotz, 8vo, Halle, 1770, with a biography of Bayer. 
 
 BAYLE, PETER, an eminent critic and controversial writer of the 
 17th century, was born November 18, 1647, at Carla-le-Comte', in the 
 department of Anege (the ancient county of Foix) in France. Of his 
 early life we shall only state, that he displayed great aptitude for 
 learning, and an uncommon passion for reading, and that his educa- 
 tion was commenced under the care of his father, the Protestant 
 minister of Carla, continued at the Protestant University of Puy- 
 la urens, where he studied from February 1666 to February 1669, and 
 concluded at the Catholic University of Toulouse. He had not been 
 there more than a month when he made public profession of the 
 Roman Catholic religion, to which, it is said, he was converted by 
 the free perusal of controversial divinity at Puylaurens. It would 
 seem that his creed was lightly taken up, for, during his short residence 
 at Toulouse, he was reconverted to Protestantism by the conversation 
 of his Protestant connections. 
 
 In August 1670 he made a secret abjuration of Catholicism, and 
 went to Geneva, where he formed an acquaintance with many eminent 
 men, and especially contracted a close friendship with James Basnage 
 and Minutoli. At Geneva and in the Pays de Vaud he lived four 
 years, supporting himself by private tuition. In 1674 he removed 
 first to Rouen, and soon after to Paris. The treasures of the public 
 libraries, and the easy access to literary society, rendered that city 
 agreeable to him above all other places. He corresponded freely on 
 literary subjects with his friend Basnage, then studying theology in 
 the Protestant University of Sedan, who showed the letters to the 
 theological professor, M. Jurieu. By these, and by the recommenda- 
 tions of Basnage, Jurieu was induced to propose their author as a 
 proper person to fill the then vacant chair of philosophy, to which, 
 after a public disputation, Bayle was elected, November 2, 1675. For 
 five years he seems to have been almost entirely occupied by the 
 duties of his office. In the spring of 1681 however he found time to 
 write his celebrated letter on comets, in consequence of the appear- 
 ance of the remarkable comet of 1680, which had excited great alarm 
 among the superstitious and vulgar. But the licence for its publica- 
 tion being refused, it was not published till the following year, after 
 the author's removal to Rotterdam. 
 
 In July 1681 the University of Sedan was arbitrarily disfranchised 
 by a decree of Louis XIV. Deprived of employment, Bayle obtained, 
 through the agency of one of his pupils, a pension from the magistracy 
 of Rotterdam, who were induced to form a new establishment for 
 education, in which Bayle was appointed professor of history and 
 philosophy, and Jurieu of theology. Bayle delivered his first lecture 
 in December 1681. In the following spring the letter on comets 
 was anonymously printed ; but its author was soon discovered, and 
 obtained a considerable increase of reputation. In the same spring 
 (1682) he wrote an answer to Maimbourg's 'Histoire du Calvinisme,' a 
 libellous misrepresentation of the conduct of the French Protestant 
 Church. (' Critique Ge'ne'rale de l'Hist. du Calv. de M. Maimb.') This 
 was composed in a fortnight, during the Easter vacation. It met with 
 great success, and having been condemned to be publicly burnt in Paris, 
 was bought and read in that city with great avidity. 
 
 We pass over some minor works to mention that in 1684 Bayle 
 commenced his ' Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres.' These 
 were published monthly, beginning with March 1684, and consisted 
 of a series of reviews of such works as the editor thought worthy of 
 special notice, and a list of new publications, with short remarks on 
 them. In May the states of Friesland offered to make Bayle pro- 
 fessor of philosophy in the University of Franeker, but he declined 
 the appointment, although it was more lucrative than that which he 
 held. On completing the first year of the ' Nouvelles,' Bayle affixed 
 his name to the work, contrary to his usual practice, which was care- 
 fully to conceal the parentage of all that he wrote. In fact, whether 
 from timidity, habitual love of secrecy, or the wish to leave himself 
 at liberty to take either side of a question, Bajle generally employed 
 the most elaborate devices of false dates and fictitious prefaces, to 
 divert public suspicion from himself. 
 
 At this time men's minds were deeply steeped in the bitterness of 
 political and religious dissension. The revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes, and persecution of the French Protestants, had raised a violent 
 indignation on the part of those who were banished for conscience- 
 sake, and a strong sympathy in all Protestant countries for the suffer- 
 ings of their brethren. Bayle expressed his feelings on this subject 
 with moderation in the ' Nouvelles ; ' but he made a bitter attack on 
 the dominant church in an anonymous publication (' Ce que c'est que 
 la France toute Catholique sous le R&gne de Louis le Grand'), which 
 he followed in the same year (1686) by a 'Philosophical Commentary 
 on the words of St. Luke xiv. 23, " Constrain them to come in." In 
 these two works he laboured to expose the atrocious conduct of the 
 French government towards the Protestants, and the odious nature of 
 persecution iu general. The pains which Bayle bestowed upon this 
 work brought on an illness in the spring of 1687, which incapacitated 
 
E87 
 
 BAYLE, PETER. 
 
 BAYNE, ALEXANDER. 
 
 bim for literary exertion during more tlian a year. He was obliged 
 to give up his periodical, but it continued to be published by another 
 hand. 
 
 In 1690 there appeared a book, once celebrated, now forgotten, 
 entitled 'Avis Important aux Rofugioz,' &c, containing a violent 
 attack on the doctrines and conduct of the French Protestants. This 
 work Jurieu, whose former friendship had long given way to jealousy 
 of the reputation, or dislike of the opinions, real or suspected, of his 
 colleague, chose to attribute, without any proof, to Bayle, upon whom 
 he published a violent attack. (' Examen d'un libelle intitule - Avis 
 Important,' &c.) Bayle retorted in 'LaCabale Chimdrique,' Rotter- 
 dam, 1691, followed by 'La Chiinere de la Cabale de Rotterdam 
 de'inontrc'e,' &c. It is not necessary to trace the progress of the 
 quarrel, which was marked by great asperity. The question whether 
 Bayle was the author of the 'Avis,' &c, or not, a question deeply 
 affecting his literary integrity, can hardly be regarded as determined. 
 Bayle always denied it. His friend and biographer, Ucs Maizeaux, 
 seems nevertheless to disbelieve his assertions. 
 
 Whether Jurieu was right or wrong in his accusation, his precipitate 
 and violent conduct drew on him great discredit, especially at Geneva. 
 But he possessed much influence in Holland, which he employed in 
 inducing the Consistory of Rotterdam to review his adversary's letter 
 on comets, which they condemned as containing dangerous and anti- 
 christian doctrines. This was employed by the magistracy of Rotter- 
 dam as an excuse for depriving him of his pension and licence to 
 teach; but the real cause, according to Des Maizeaux, was the express 
 command of William III., who exercised an overpowering influence 
 in that body, and who was led to believe that Bayle was deeply 
 engaged in advocating the views and wishes of the court of France. 
 The injury thus dono to our author was slight, for his habits were 
 simple and unexpensivc, and it left him at liberty to attend to hi3 
 chief work, the ' Dictionuaire Historique et Critique.' His first scheme 
 in respect of this undertaking was to compose a dictionary, expressly 
 to correct the errors of other dictionaries ; and he proceeded so far as 
 to publish a specimen of the intended work (' Projet et Fragincns d'un 
 Dictionnaire Critique.') But this specimen not suiting the public 
 taste, he altered his plan, and produced his dictionary in the form 
 in which it now is. The composition of it, together with his paper 
 warfare with Jurieu, engrossed his time until August 1695, when the 
 first volume appeared ; the second volume, which completed the first 
 edition, was printed in 1696, but bears the date of 1697. It obtained 
 great popularity, so that a second edition was soon called for ; but it 
 gave great offence to the religious, and incurred a public censure from 
 the Consistory of Rotterdam. Five principal errors were alleged against 
 it : — 1. The indecency visible in many passages ; 2. The tendency of 
 the whole article on David ; 3 and 4. The support covertly given to 
 the Manichean doctrine of evil, and the sceptical tenets of the philo- 
 sopher Pyrrhon ; 5. Too studious commendation of Epicureans and 
 atheists, by which a tacit support was supposed to be given to their 
 tenets. The author submitted to the authority of the church, and 
 promised to amend the faults in a second edition. According to 
 promise, the article David was replaced by another ; but the purchasers 
 exclaimed loudly against this interference with the work, and the 
 publisher finally reprinted the obnoxious article in a separate form. 
 It is to be found at the end of the second volume of the editions of 
 1720 and 1730, &c. As to the other objections, instead of altering, 
 Bayle defended himself and his work in a series of ' Eclaircissements,' 
 subjoined to the second edition of 1702, and published in subsequent 
 editions of the book. 
 
 After the publication of the second edition, which was considerably 
 enlarged, Bayle amused himself by preparing the first volume of 
 ' Re"ponses aux Questions d'un Provincial,' intended, as he says, " to 
 occupy a middle place between books for study and books for recrea- 
 tion." In 1704 he published a defence of his ' Letter on Comets,' 
 which engaged him in a controversy, which lasted for the rest of his 
 life, with Le Clerc, the well-known author of the 'Bibliotheque Choisie,' 
 and a theological writer named Jacquelot. To this discussion the 
 second and third volumes of the ' Reponses aux Questions' &c, 1705, 
 were devoted. Controversy seems to have been Bay le's pleasure ; and 
 it is probable that the attacks made on his works made no impression 
 on his tranquillity ; but his enemies bad nearly done him a serious 
 injury by endeavouring to procure his banishment from Holland in 
 1706, by reviving the accusation that he was a secret agent of France. 
 His last works were a fourth volume of the ' Reponses,' and ' Entre- 
 tiens de Maxime et Themiste,' in answer to Le Clerc ; and a second 
 book under the same title, in answer to Jacquelot. The last was not 
 quite finished : he was working on it the evening before his death, 
 which took place December 28, 1706, in the 60th year of his age. 
 
 Bayle's life and habits, in the relations of man to man, were simple, 
 temperate, and moral. Without a cynical or affected contempt, he 
 displayed a truly philosophical indifference to wealth ; and he lived 
 independently, in virtue of the moderation of his wants, yet not 
 improvidently, for he left a legacy of 10,000 florins to his niece. The 
 worst moral charge brought against him is that of literary duplicity; 
 and of this he had no right to complain ; for a man who is known to 
 conceal his authorship under the thickest disguises of false names, 
 false dates, and false prefaces, need not wonder if much which cannot 
 be proved is believed to be his. The same spirit of coucealrnent 
 
 attended him in religion ; for whether he was Atheist, Epicurean, or 
 Christian, it is at least pretty clear from his writings that he could not 
 have been at heart a member of the strict church to which he out- 
 wardly conformed. 
 
 Warburton describes Bayle very accurately : — "A writer whose 
 strength and clearness of reasoning can be equalled only by the gaiety, 
 easiness, and delicacy of his wit ; who, pervading human nature with 
 a glance, struck into the province of paradox as an exercise for the 
 restless vigour of his mind ; who, with a soul superior to the sharpest 
 attacks of fortune, and a heart practised to the best philosophy, had 
 not yet enough of real greatness to overcome that last foible of supe- 
 rior geniuses — the temptation of honour, which the academic exercise 
 of wit is supposed to bring to its possessors." (' Divine Legation,' 
 book i. sect. 4.) 
 
 The later folio editions of Bayle's ' Dictionary ' are comprised in 
 four volumes. The 'Supplement' by the Abb6 Chaufepie occupies 
 four more. Bayle's miscellaneous works, of which we have not given 
 anything like a complete list, fill four volumes also. 
 
 BAYNE, ALEXANDER, of Rires, first professor of the municipal 
 law of Scotland, was the son of John Bayne of Logie in the county of 
 Fife, who was descended from the old Fifeshire family Bayne of 
 Tulloch, to whom he was served heir in general on the 8th of October 
 1700. ('Inquis. Retorn. Abbrev.') On the 10th of July 1714, he 
 passed advocate at the Scottish bar. In January 1722, the faculty 
 appointed him senior curator of their library, and on the 28th of 
 November, in the same year, he was constituted by the town-council 
 of Edinburgh professor of Scots law in the university of that city. 
 
 The common law of Scotland was substantially the same with that 
 of England till the erection of the Court of Session in the beginning of 
 the 16th century, when, in consequence of the peculiar constitution of 
 that court, the old common law was superseded by the principles 
 of the civil and canon laws, which thereupon became, in fact, as in 
 legal acceptation, the common law. The consequence was, that till 
 the beginning of the last century, when the sources of the Scottish law 
 ceased to be sought in the Roman code, preparation was generally 
 made for the Scottish bar at some one of the foreign colleges. Of 
 these, the colleges of France and Italy were the most frequented, till 
 those of the Low Countries, aiding the connection which arose between 
 Scotland and them at the Reformation, drew the student thither. On 
 the erection of the University of Edinburgh however, attempts were 
 made by the bench and bar to remedy the inconvenience of foreign 
 study, but as the object of those attempts was to establish a chair of 
 civil law, they were long baffled by the want of means of preparatory 
 instruction in the language of that law. In the end of the 17th century 
 private lectures on the law began to be given in Edinburgh by members 
 of the faculty, and at length, in 1707, a chair of public law was founded ; 
 and, in 1709, the chair of civil law. By this time however the natural 
 working of an independent judicature, and, still more, the operation 
 of the union with England, by which the Scots courts were subjected 
 to an appellate jurisdiction common to both parts of the island, carved 
 out a system of law in many respects different from that of Rome, and 
 requiring a separate chair for its elucidation. We believe however 
 that the establishment of the professorship to which Mr. Bayne was 
 appointed, was by no means popular with the profession. The 'Faculty 
 Records ' contain no allusion to his appointment. The only record of 
 it which we have is in the ' Council Register,' where, under date 
 2Sth November 1722, there is this entry: — "Mr. Alexander Bayne 
 having represented how much it would be for the interest of the nation 
 and of this city, to have a professor of the law of Scotlaud placed in 
 the university of this city, not only for teaching the Scots law but 
 also for qualifying of writers to his Majesty's signet ; and being fully 
 apprised of the fitness and qualifications of Mr. Alexander Bayne of 
 Rires, advocate, to discharge such a province — therefore the council 
 elect him to be professor of the law of Scotland in the university of 
 this city, for teaching the Scots law and qualifying writers to his 
 Majesty's signet." (Bower, ' Hist, of the Univ. of Edinb.') But only 
 a year elapsed when his despised chair began to work a change on the 
 course of examination for the bar, and on the system of legal study. 
 In January 1724, Mr. Dundas of Arniston proposed to the faculty, 
 that all Intrants should, previous to their admission, undergo a trial, 
 not only in the civil law, as heretofore, but also in the municipal law 
 of Scotland ; and though this was long resisted, it was at length 
 determined by Act of Sederunt, 28th February 1750. We apprehend 
 it is to Bayne, also, we ought to concede the impulse given at this time 
 to investigate the sources of the Scottish ancient common law. 
 
 In 1726 Mr. Bayne retired from the office of senior curator, and iu 
 the same year he published the first edition of Sir Thomas Hope's 
 ' Minor Practicks ' — a work which is remarkable for its legal learning, 
 the breadth and boldness of its views, the acuteness of its observations, 
 and the subtlety of its distinctions, but which had lain near a ceutury 
 in manuscript. To this work Bayne added a ' Discourse on the Rise 
 and Progress of the Law of Scotland, and the Method of studying it.' 
 In 1731 he published a small volume of 'Notes,' for the use of the 
 students of the municipal law in the University of Edinburgh, which, 
 framed out of the lectures delivered from the chair, impress us with a 
 favourable opinion of the author's acquaintance with the Roman juris- 
 prudence, as well as with the anc^nt common law. About the same 
 time he published another small volume, which he entitled ' Institu- 
 
589 BAZHENOV, VASSILI IVANOVITCH. 
 
 BEATON, CARDINAL DAVID. 
 
 500 
 
 tions of the Criminal Law of Scotland,' for the use of his students. 
 Mr. Bayne held the professorship till his death, which took place in 
 June, 1737. 
 
 BAZHENOV, VASSILI IVANOVITCH, an architect distinguished 
 among the native artists of Russia, and first vice-president of the 
 Academy of Fine Arts at St. Petersburg, was born at Moscow, March 
 1 (13), 1737. While yet a boy he is said to have manifested a decided 
 taste for drawing houses and buildings, which was his favourite amuse- 
 ment, and in which he endeavoured to improve himself by studying 
 the churches, monasteries, and other public structures of that ancient 
 capital. In 1751 he began to attend the School of Architecture at 
 Moscow. Bazhenov was one of the first pupils entered at the Academy 
 of Fine Arts opened at St. Petersburg in 1778. After pursuing his 
 studies there under Tchevakninsky with distinguished success, he was 
 sent to Paris in 1761, where he became the pupil of Duval, and would 
 have obtained the gold medal at the Academy of Architecture but for 
 his belonging to the Greek Church ; wherefore in lieu of it he was 
 rewarded by a diploma of merit, signed by the three eminent archi- 
 tects, Leroi, Sufflot, and Gabriel. Proud of his having obtained a 
 distinction such as had never before been conferred on any Russian, 
 the St. Petersburg Academy bestowed on him the degree of ' Adjunct,' 
 and sent him forthwith (October, 1762) to Rome. While in Italy he 
 was elected member of the Academy of St Luke, and of those of 
 Florence and Bologna. 
 
 On his return to St. Petersburg in May, 1765, he was taken into the 
 service of the Empress Catherine, who found him constant employ- 
 ment in various architectural projects and schemes ; among others 
 that of erecting upon the site of the Kremlin at Moscow a palace that 
 should surpass every monument of ancient or modern times. In 
 magnitude it certainly would have done so, for the fagade would have 
 been upwards of four thousand feet in extent ; and some idea may be 
 formed of the pomp and magnificence contemplated by Catherine and 
 her architect from the estimate for the state staircase alone, which 
 was to be entirely of Italian marbles, amounting to five million rubles. 
 Even the model itself, which is still preserved in the Kremlin, cost 
 no leas than thirty-six thousand rubles. Nevertheless, although all 
 preparations had been made, and the first stone of the intended edifice 
 was laid with great solemnity on the 1st (13th) of June, 1773, the 
 works were shortly afterwards interrupted, and never resumed. 
 
 In 1776 he began for the empress a summer palace, in the gothic 
 style, at Tzarishtino ; but Catherine, having withdrawn her favour 
 from Bazhenov, ordered it to be completely altered by Kozakov. Her 
 successor Paul however restored him to his former appointments, 
 bestowed on him an estate with a thousand peasants, lavished various 
 honours upon him, and employed him to erect the palace at Gatehina, 
 that at Pavlovsky, and several government buildings at Cronstadt. 
 But the most magnificent structure which he executed for the Emperor 
 Paul was the St. Michael, or Marble Palace, at St. Petersburg, since 
 converted into a military school for engineers. Bazhenov is also said 
 to have been associated with Voronikhin [Voronikhin] in building 
 the Kazan church at St. Petersburg. Bazhenov died of paralysis at 
 St. Petersburg, August 2 (14), 1799. He published, 1790-97, a Russian 
 translation of Vitruvius, in 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 (Snegirev, Slovar Ruskikh Pisatelei.) 
 
 BE ALE, MARY, an English portrait painter of the 17th century, 
 about whom Vertue collected some interesting details from some 
 journals or pocket-books kept by her husband, of which he saw 
 seven. She was the daughter of the Rev. Mr. Craddock, minister of 
 Walton-upon-Thames, and appears to have been taught painting by 
 Sir Peter Lely. Her husband, Charles Beale, had an employment in 
 the Board of Green Cloth ; he was also a painter, and, according to 
 his journals, a colour-maker. The first date concerning her works in 
 his pocket-books is 1672, when Lely's visits to her, and his praises 
 of her copies from Correggio and Vandyck, are noticed. In the same 
 year she painted portraits of the Bishop of Chester, Lord and Lady 
 Cornbury, and Dr. Sydenham, besides others; and she received in 
 that year for paintings 202/. 5s. 
 
 Sir Peter Lely painted for Mr. Beale portraits of Dr. Tillotson and 
 Dr. Stillingfleet, in Mr. Beale's house, in the presence of his wife, in 
 order probably that Mrs. Beale might see his method of paiuting. 
 Sir Peter (then Mr. Lely) received for the two paintings 30/., of which 
 he took 28/. 19». in lakes and ultra-marine. In 1674 Mrs. Beale made 
 216/. 5». by her paintings. A Mr. Manby seems to have painted the 
 landscape backgrounds in some of her portraits, for which he was paid 
 in colours of Mr. Beale's making. In 1677 she received 429/. for pic- 
 tures : a very large amount. Among the portraits of this year were 
 one of the Earl of Clarendon, and others of the nobility. She was 
 paid 5/. for a head, and 10/. for a half-length in oil. In 16S1 Dr. 
 Burnet presented Mrs. Beale with a copy of his ' History of the 
 Reformation.' She appears to have been highly esteemed by the 
 cleigy; many distinguished members of that body sat to her. Mr. 
 and Mrs. Beale appear to have been very charitable : from some 
 notes at the end of one of the pocket-books, they gave a tenth part of 
 their income to the poor. Mary Beale died in London in 1697, 
 aged 65. Her husband and two sons survived her. One son, 
 Bartholomew, studied under Dr. Sydenham, and practised as a phy- 
 sician at Coventry; the other, Charles, who was born in 1660, was a 
 painter, and died in London. Her pictures are interesting as portraits 
 
 of celebrated personages, but they have little artistic merit. Her 
 portraits of archbishops Tillotson and Teuuison, and other eminent 
 persons, have been engraved. 
 
 BEATON, CARDINAL DAVID, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and 
 Lord High Chancellor to Mary, queen of Scotland, was a younger son 
 of John Beaton or Bethune of Balfour, in the shire of Fife, by a 
 daughter of David Monypenuy of Pitmilly, in the same shire; and 
 nephew to Bishop James Beaton, Loid Chancellor to King James V. 
 He was born in 1494, and was, on the 26th of October 1511, matricu- 
 lated of the University of Glasgow, whence he was sent to France to 
 study the civil and canon laws. Ou the death of Secretary Panter in 
 1519 he was appointed resident for Scotland at the French court; and 
 about the same time his uncle the chancellor bestowed on him the 
 rectory of Cambuslang, in the diocese of Glasgow. In 1523 his uncle, 
 now translated from that see to the primacy of St. Andrews, resigned 
 in his favour the rich monastery of Arbroath in commendam, and 
 also prevailed on the pope to dispense with his taking the habit for 
 two years ; this time he spent in France, and then returned to 
 Scotland, where he immediately entered parliament as Abbot of 
 Arbroath. Ou the fall of the Earl of Angus, and the surrender of 
 George, bishop of Dunkeld, he was appointed Lord Privy Seal in 1528, 
 the same year in which the great convent of Blackfriars at Edinburgh, 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of which Beaton and his uncle had 
 their magnificent abode, was burnt down to the ground by a sudden 
 fire. In February 1533, Beaton, now prothonotary apostolic, was sent 
 ambassador to France, with Secretary Erskine, to treat of a league 
 with that crown, and also of a matrimonial alliance with the Princess 
 Magdalene ; and when the king of Scots proceeded thither ou the 
 same object, Beaton was one of the lords of the regency appointed by 
 commission, 29th of August 1536, to conduct the government in his 
 absence. On Queen Magdalene's decease he was joined in an embassy 
 to the house of Guise, to treat of a match with Mary, widow of the 
 Duke of Longueville. It is probable that when in France, on this 
 occasion, he procured the papal bull of date 12th Feburary 1537, 
 for the erection of St. Mary's College at St. Andrews. In November 
 1537 he was made a denizen of France, and on the 5th of December 
 he was consecrated Bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc. On his return 
 home he was made coadjutor in the see of St. Andrews, and successor 
 to his uncle. On the 20th of December 1538, Pope Paul III. advanced 
 him to the cardinalate, by the title of Sancti Stephani in Monte Ccelio; 
 and on the 20th of June 1539 the king of France directed n<Sw letters 
 of naturalisation in his favour, with a further clause allowing his heirs 
 to succeed to his estate in France, though born and living in Scotland. 
 About this time also we find him 'legatus natus' of the Roman see. 
 Ou the death of his uncle in the autumn of 1539, he was fully 
 invested in the primacy of St. Andrews, the privy seal being again 
 returned to the Bishop of Dunkeld. 
 
 Beaton's authority, zeal, and ability now made him truly formidable ; 
 and that he might devote them all to the politics of the church, with 
 consent of the king and pope he devolved his diocesan duties on the 
 dean of Restalrig as his suffragan. On the 28th May 1540 he con- 
 vened a large assembly of ecclesiastics and others in the cloisters of 
 St. Andrews, and on their conviction of Sir John Borthwick for heresy 
 in holding Protestant opinions, pronounced sentence of outlawry and 
 forfeiture against him, with solemn burning of his effigy at the market- 
 cross of the city. In order to avert the odium which would come 
 upon the clergy if they should continue to execute their own sentences, 
 Beaton induced the king by a large pecuniary payment to appoint a 
 judge in heresy. Accordingly James named Sir James Hamilton, 
 natural brother of the Earl of Arran, to tho office, for which his 
 intolerance and ferocity well fitted him, but which he did not long 
 retain, being attainted of treason and beheaded. 
 
 On the 20th December 1542 the king died, leaving an infant daughter, 
 eight days old, heir to the throne, but for whose safety or that of the 
 kingdom during her minority he had made no provision. Beaton 
 however produced a testament, which he affirmed was subscribed by 
 his majesty, appointing him regent of the kingdom and guardian to 
 the infant queen. The document was a forgery ; and the nobility 
 roused from his inactivity James, earl of Arran, next heir to the queen, 
 and appointed him to the regency. The power however which Beaton 
 failed to obtain directly, he obtained by his address ; and not only got 
 the nobles to accede to his views of government, but also induced the 
 timid regent publicly to abjure the doctrines of the Reformation. In 
 December 1543 the great seal was taken from the Archbishop of Glas- 
 gow and bestowed on Beaton, whom also, on very strong letters from 
 the regent, Pope Paul III., by bull of 30th January following, con- 
 stituted his legate ' a latere' in Scotland. Thus he was placed at the 
 head both of church and state, including also the whole civil judicature 
 of the kingdom, being ex officio principal of the Court of Session, the 
 supreme judicatory in civil causes ; and as he did not scruple to employ 
 these extensive powers for furthering his own views, he appears to have 
 been held in general abhorrence. The king of England in particular, 
 whose friendship was renounced at the instigation of the cardinal and 
 the popish faction, for an alliance with France, anxiously desired his 
 death ; and in the instructions of the English privy council of date 
 10th April 1544, the Earl of Hertford was especially enjoined, in 
 his inroad into Scotland, not to spare any who were allied to the 
 cardinal either in blood or friendship. Henry soon found in Scotland 
 
591 
 
 BE ATT IE, JAMES. 
 
 BEAUFORT, CARDINAL. 
 
 592 
 
 spirits congenial with his own; for on the 17th of the same month we 
 find the Earl of Hertford communicating to him a design by Wishart 
 and others to seize or slay the cardinal, could they secure his majesty's 
 protection and support. 
 
 Beaton was haughty to all ; but to the reformers he was particularly 
 oppressive. In the beginning of 1545-46 he held a visitation of his 
 diocese, and had great numbers brought before him, under the act 
 which had passed the parliament in 1542-43, forbidding the lieges to 
 argue or dispute concerning the sense of the holy Scriptures. Con- 
 victions were quickly obtained ; and of those convicted five men were 
 hanged and one woman drowned ; some were imprisoned, and others 
 were banished. He next proceeded to Edinburgh, and there called a 
 council for the affairs of the church ; and hearing that George Wishart, 
 an eminent reformer, was at the house of Cockburn of Ormiston, Beaton 
 instantly moved the sheriff of the county to have Wishart apprehended, 
 which being done, Wishart was carried over by the cardinal to St. 
 Andrews, and shut up in the tower there. The cardinal continued to 
 act with a high hand towards the reformers, and particularly with 
 respect to Wishart. He called a conventinn of the clergy at St. 
 Andrews, at which Wishart was condemned for heresy, and adjudged 
 to be burnt — a sentence which was passed and put in force by the 
 cardinal and his clergy in defiance of the regent, and without the aid 
 of the civil power. The cardinal afterwards proceeded to the abbey 
 of Arbroath, to the marriage of his eldest daughter by Mrs. Marion 
 Ogilvy of the house of Airly, with whom he had long lived in con- 
 cubinnge, and there gave her in marriage to the eldest son of the Earl 
 of Crawford, and with her 4000 merks of dowry. He then returned 
 to St. Andrews, where, on Saturday, 29th May 1546, he was put to 
 death in his own chamber by a party of reformers, headed by Norman 
 Leslie, heir of the noble house of Rothes, who, we find, had on the 
 24th April 1545, given the cardinal a bond of ' manreut' (or admission 
 of feudal homage and fealty), and who had a personal quarrel with 
 the cardinal. The death of Cardinal Beaton was fatal to the eccle- 
 siastical oligarchy, which, under him, trampled alike on law and liberty. 
 Three works of the cardinal's are Darned — ' De Legationibus Suis;' 
 ' De Primatu Petri;' and ' Epistolae ad Diversos.' 
 
 BEATTIE, JAMES, a poet and metaphysician of the 18th century, 
 was born at Lawrencekiik, in the county of Kincardine, Scotland, Oct. 
 25, 1735. His parents kept a small farm, and were esteemed for a 
 more than ordinary degree of cultivation and intellect. James received 
 his first education at the village school. He entered the Marischal 
 College, Aberdeen, in 1749 ; and after completing his course of study 
 was appointed in 1753 schoolmaster to the parish of Fordoun, at the 
 foot of the Grampians, six miles from Lawrencekirk. In this solitary 
 abode his poetic temperament was fostered by the grand scenery which 
 surrounded him, and his works evince the zeal and taste with which 
 he studied the ever-changing beauties of nature. He attracted the 
 favourable notice of a neighbouring proprietor, the celebrated Lord 
 Monboddo, with whom he ever after maintained a friendly intercourse. 
 In June 1758 he was elected usher to the grammar-school of Aberdeen, 
 and in 1760, it seems rather by private interest than in consequence 
 of any distinction which he had then attained, he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy and logic in the Marischal College. 
 
 His first and chief business was to prepare a course of lectures, the 
 substance of which, as they were remodelled by long study and fre- 
 quent revision, was given to the world in his ' Elements of Moral 
 Science.' His first poetical attempts were published in London in 
 1760, and received with favour; but most of the pieces contained in 
 this collection (which is now very rare) were omitted by the author's 
 maturer judgment in later editions of his works. Some will be found 
 in the Appendix to Sir William Forbes's ' Life of Beattie.' The same 
 tacit censure was passed by the author upon his ' Judgment of Paris,' 
 published in 1765. In 1762 he wrote his ' Essay on Poetry,' but it was 
 not published, with others of his prose works, until 1 776. 
 
 In 1767 Beattie conceived the notion of composing his ' Essay on 
 Truth,' written avowedly to confute the moral and metaphysical doc- 
 trines advanced by Hume. His motives for engaging in this task are 
 fully detailed in a long letter to Dr. Blacklock (Forbes's 'Life,' vol. i., 
 p. 129), and they do credit to his sincerity and courage. If Beattie 
 could not quite attain his own wish of being " animated without losing 
 his temper,'' something must be conceded to his deep feeling of the 
 importance of the subjects in dispute. The 'Essay' was received with 
 much anger by Mr. Hume and his friends, as a violent and personal 
 attack ; and that Bcattie's zeal might require some tempering we may 
 conclude from knowing that an intended preface to the second edition 
 (published early in 1771) was cancelled by the advice of some of his 
 best friends. His work appeared in May 1770 under the title, ' Essay 
 on the Nature and Immutability of Truth, in opposition to Sophistry 
 and Scepticism.' The ' Essay on Truth ' was only the first part of an 
 intended discourse on the evidences of morality and religion. Habitual 
 ill health, and an avowed dislike to severe study, prevented Dr. Beattie 
 from completing his design. 
 
 The first canto of the ' Minstrel,' which had been commenced in 
 1766, but laid aside on account of ill-health and more pressing avo- 
 cations, was published anonymously in 1771. It was most favourably 
 received by the public, and warmly praised by Gray, whose commen- 
 dation was the more valuable because accompanied by a letter of 
 minute criticism. In the same year Beattie visited London for the 
 
 first time since he had been known as an author, and received distin- 
 guished and flattering notice from Dr. Johnson and the best literary 
 
 society of the metropolis. 
 
 In 1773 Beattie again visited London, and owing to the powerful 
 interest which was exerted on his behalf, he obtained a pension of 
 200£. The king (George III.) received him with distinguished favour; 
 and the University of Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree 
 of D.C.L. During this visit, Sir Joshua Reynolds painted and pre- 
 sented to him the well-known portrait, which contains the allegorical 
 triumph of Truth over Sophistry, Scepticism, and Infidelity. In the 
 same autumn the chair of moral philosophy in the University of 
 Edinburgh becoming vacant, it was offered to Dr. Beattie, but he 
 declined it for the sake of peace and quiet. At this time he was 
 engaged in finishing the second book of the ' Minstrel,' which was 
 published in the following spring. 
 
 Several eminent persons, with some of Beattie's personal friends, 
 were desirous to induce him to take orders in the English church, 
 and more than one living was pressed upon his acceptance. In 1774 
 he received the offer of a living worth near 500£ per annum, from 
 Dr. Thomas, bishop of Winchester. Beattie took these proposals into 
 serious consideration, but eventually he refused them, mainly on the 
 ground that his acceptance might give a handlo to the opponents of 
 revealed religion for asserting that the ' Essay on Truth ' was written 
 for the sake of preferment. 
 
 The 'Essay on Truth' was re-published in 1776, with three other 
 essays : — ' On Poetry and Music, as they affect the Mind ; ' 'On 
 Laughter and Ludicrous Composition ; ' ' On the Utility of Classical 
 Learning.' These were followed at intervals by other essays and 
 dissertations, chiefly taken from his academical lectures : — ' Disserta- 
 tions Moral and Critical, on Memory and Imagination, on Dreaming, 
 on the Theory of Language, on Fable and Romance, on the Attach- 
 ments of Kindred, and Illustrations of Sublimity,' 1783 ; 'Evidences 
 of the Christian Religion,' 1786; 'Elements of Moral Science,' vol. i. 
 containing 'Psychology and Natural Theology,' 1790; vol. ii. contain- 
 ing 'Ethics, Economics, Politics, Logic, and a Dissertation on the 
 Slave Trade,' 1793. But he appears to have engaged in no new inves- 
 tigations or studies ; and his letters explain the cause of this to have 
 been ill-health, and consequent disinclination to labour, aggravated by 
 mental depression, and a considerable share of domestic disquiet, pro- 
 duced by an hereditary disposition to insanity in his wife. His life 
 passed until 1790 without marked events, in the discharge of his 
 academical duties ; varied in his long summer vacations by not 
 unfrequent visits to London, and to many persons eminent by their 
 talents or rank, who sought his society for the sake of his powers as a 
 companion, as much as for his reputation. In 1790 he suffered an 
 irreparable loss in the death of his eldest son at the age of twenty-two, 
 a young man of great promise ; and bis declining health received 
 another shock in 1796 in the unexpected death of his only surviving 
 son after a week's illness, in the eighteenth year of his age. He said, 
 in lookiDg on the corpse, " I have now done with the world," and ho 
 never again applied to study of any sort. The closing years of his 
 life exhibit a melancholy scene of gloom and distress, bodily and 
 mental He was struck by palsy in April 1799, and after one or two 
 subsequent attacks, expired August 18, 1803. 
 
 In the relations of private life, and in his public duties as a teacher, 
 Dr. Beattie was most estimable ; and he commanded, in an unusual 
 degree, the esteem and affection of his pupils, as well as of a large 
 circle of friends. It is honourable to him, that long before the abolition 
 of the slave trade was brought before parliament, Beattie was active 
 in protesting against that iniquitous traffic; and he introduced the 
 subject into his academical course, with the express hope that such 
 of his pupils as might be called to reside in the West Indies would 
 recollect the lessons of humanity which he inculcated. 
 
 Of his writings, the 'Minstrel' is that which now probably is most 
 read. It is not a work of any very high order of genius ; but it 
 exhibits a strong feeling for the beauties of nature ; and it will pro- 
 bably long continue to hold an honourable place in the collections of 
 minor poetry. Beattie's metaphysical writings have the reputation of 
 being clear, lively, and attractive, but not profound. The ' Essay on 
 Truth ' was much read and admired at the time of its publication, 
 but has fallen into comparative neglect, with the doctrines against 
 which it was especially directed. 
 
 (Life of Dr. Beattie, by Sir W. Forbes.) 
 
 BEAUFORT, CARDINAL. Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester 
 and Cardinal of St. Eusebius, was a son of John of Gaunt, duke of 
 Lancaster (father of Henry IV.), by his mistress Catherine Swynford, 
 whom he subsequently married. His children by this woman, all born 
 before wedlock, were legitimated by the name of Beaufort in the 
 twentieth year of the reign of Richard II. We are unable to state the 
 exact year of Cardinal Beaufort's birth ; but it was probably about the 
 year 1370. He studied at Oxford, Cambridge, and Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 In 1397 he was created bishop of Lincoln ; became chancellor of the 
 University of Oxford in 1399 ; and in 1404 succeeded the celebrated 
 William of Wyckhani as bishop of Winchester. In the parliaments of 
 1404 and 1405 he officiated as lord chancellor, an office which he filled 
 four times during his life. The bishopric of Winchester was then, as 
 at present, one of the richest endowments in the English church ; and 
 Beaufort, from habits of frugally according to some writers, from 
 
CS3 
 
 BEAUFORT, CARDINAL. 
 
 BEAUFORT, MARGARET. 
 
 694 
 
 covetousness according to others, multiplied his riches so as to become 
 the wealthiest subject in England. He advanced to his nephew, 
 Henry V., by way of loan, out of his own private purse not less than 
 28,000£ during his wars in France ; and also lent the infant kiog, 
 Henry VI., ll.OOOJ., sums which at that period were of enormous 
 magnitude. 
 
 On the death of Henry V. in 1422, Beaufort (with his brother, after- 
 wards Duke of Exeter) was appointed guardian of his infant successor : 
 Beaufort was also a member of the council of regency, of which the 
 king's uncle, Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, was the nominal head. 
 The struggle for supremacy between these ambitious men, which soon 
 assumed the character of a fierce personal contest, is the most pro- 
 minent feature of the internal history of England from the year 1424 
 to the year of their death, in 1447. The prelate ultimately triumphed 
 in the struggle, which on more than one occasion threatened to inflict 
 upon the country all the ills of civil war. In 1426, in the absence of 
 the regent, Bedford, the quarrels of Beaufort and Gloucester nearly 
 issued in bloodshed in the city of London. But the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and the Prince of Portugal, who happened to be in England 
 at the time, prevailed on the two parties to suspend their strife till 
 the regent should return to England. The Duke of Bedford hastened 
 from Taris to reconcile the rivals, but found it expedient to refer the 
 matter to a perliament summoned for the purpose at Leicester. This 
 parliament is known by the nickname of the " parliament of bats," a 
 nickname which, in its origin, aptly illustrates the temper of the 
 partisans of the bishop and of Gloucester, and throws some light on 
 the then state of manners. In order to prevent the consequences of 
 strife among armed men, the members of the parliament summoned 
 at Leicester were ordered to leave at their inns their swords and other 
 weapons usually worn by the gentry at that period : their followers 
 however with a view of defeating this prohibition, attended them 
 with ' bats,' or clubs, on their shoulders ; and when these also were 
 forbidden they concealed stones and plummets of lead in their sleeves 
 and bosoms. ('Parliamentary History,' vol. i. p. 354.) 
 
 Among other charges put forward by the Duke of Gloucester, in a 
 bill of impeachment against his uncle Beaufort, was an accusation that 
 ne had hired an assassin to take away the life of the late king Henry V., 
 at the time Prince of Wales ; and that he had encouraged the prince 
 to usurp the throne before the death of his father. Gloucester pro- 
 fessed to make this charge on the authority of Henry himself ; but the 
 bishop triumphantly opposed to that testimony the fact that Henry 
 had, to the last moment of his life, honoured him with his friendship 
 and confidence. After much wrangling and recrimination, the matter 
 was referred to the arbitration of four spiritual and four temporal 
 peers, who awarded that Gloucester should be " good lord to the bishop, 
 and have him in affection and love," and that the prelate should pre- 
 serve to the duke " trew and sad love and affection, and be ready to do 
 him such service as pertaineth of honesty to my Lord of Winchester 
 and to his estate to do." A formal public reconciliation then took 
 place between the two disputants ; but the bishop felt the award to 
 be so much of a reproof, that he resigned the chancellorship, and 
 obtained leave to go abroad. Beaufort accompanied Bedford in his 
 return to France ; and at Calais received the welcome intelligence that 
 the pope had raised him to the dignity of cardinal, and had appointed 
 him legate ' a latere,' for the purpose of directing an English force in a 
 crusade against the Hussites in Bohemia. [Bedford, Ddkb of.] 
 
 In 1429 Cardinal Beaufort succeeded in destroying the power of his 
 rival Gloucester, by having the young king crowned, and by inducing 
 the parliament to declare on the occasion that the office of protector, 
 filled by the duke, was, ipso facto, at an end. From being at the head 
 of the council of regency, Gloucester was thus reduced to his rank as 
 a peer. From this time till his death the councils of the cardinal pre- 
 dominated in the administration. 
 
 A powerful party however, headed by the Duke of Gloucester, 
 opposed itself to the administration of the cardinal. The spirit of the 
 age was averse to the rule of ecclesiastical statesmen ; and the House 
 of Commons in particular had directed its attention to the question of 
 church reform, as essential to good government. In a meeting of 
 peers, in 1431, it was proposed that, as the dignity of cardinal was, by 
 the law of the land, incompatible with the possession of a bishopric in 
 England, Beaufort should be removed from tho see of Winchester, 
 and compelled to refund its revenues from the day that he had 
 accepted the cardinal's hat. Gloucester followed up this motion with 
 a series of charges, to the effect that Beaufort had incurred the penal- 
 ties of praemunire in having accepted the papal bull, contrary to the 
 express prohibition of the late king, and had exempted himself as 
 legate from the jurisdiction of the see of Canterbury. The same 
 charges were renewed in a more formal manner by Gloucester in 1434. 
 He accused the cardinal also of having amassed wealth by dishonest 
 means, of having usurped the functions of sovereignty, appointing 
 embassies, and releasing prisoners on his own authority, and estranging 
 from the person of the young king his relatives and the council of the 
 regency. The cardinal, although too powerful to be now reached by 
 Gloucester's accusation, deemed it prudent to obtain two acts of par- 
 liament, one in 1432, the other in 1437, indemnifying him against the 
 penalties of praemunire, and pardoning him for all crimes committed 
 up to the 20th of July in the last-named year. The arrest and pro- 
 bable murder of Gloucester are usually ascribed to his fierce and 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 courageous denunciation of the ecclesiastical counsellors of the king. 
 Gloucester's death took place on the 28th of February, 1447. 
 
 The cardinal survived his great rival but six weeks. His death-bed 
 has been painted in immortal colours by Shakspere (' Henry VI.,' 
 part 2), but the imagination of the poet has supplied the darkest 
 features of the picture. Shakspere represents him as expiring in an 
 agony of despair : — 
 
 " Lord Cardinal, if thou think'st on heaven's bliss, 
 Hold up thy hand, make signal of thy hope. — 
 He dies, and makes no sign." 
 But we know from the authority, Hall, which Shakspere has followed 
 in the less harrowing details of the scene, that the cardinal's world- 
 liness was confined to expressing his regret that money could not 
 purchase life, and that death should have cut him off at the moment 
 when his rival to the great object of his ambition (the popedom) had 
 been removed. Hall's version is given on the authority of one Baker, 
 the cardinal's chaplain ; and the last words are, " I pray you all to 
 pray for me." His will, moreover, to which two codicils are attached, 
 on the 7th and 9th of April (he died on the 11th), is still extant 
 (Nichols's ' Royal and Noble Wills,' p. 311), indicating a state of feeling 
 more worthy of a Christian prelate. His great wealth was distributed, 
 according to the provisions of his will, in charitable donations. Not 
 less than 4000Z. was allotted for the relief of the indigent prisoners 
 in Newgate, Ludgate, the Fleet, Marshalsea, King's Bench, and the 
 prison attached to the Southwark manor of the diocese of Winchester; 
 and the hospital of St. Cross at Winchester still exists as a monument 
 of his munificence. Cardinal Beaufort was buried in the beautiful 
 chantry which bears his name in Winchester Cathedral. 
 
 BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE, was born of a French family, settled in 
 Germany or Holland, as far as we may presume from the scanty infor- 
 mation we can find of his early life. He was for a time tutor to the 
 young prince of Hesse Homburg, but he became known to the learned 
 world by his ' Dissertation sur 1' Incertitude des Cinq Premiers SieU-les 
 de l'Histoire Romaine,' 8vo, 1738. He was one of the first modern 
 writers who carried the spirit of critical investigation into the narrative 
 of the first five centuries of the Roman commonwealth ; he showed 
 that both Livy and Dionysius could not be implicitly trusted, and that 
 it required a process of very acute and careful discrimination to sepa- 
 rate the truth from the legendary fables of early Roman history. 
 Among other things he maintained that Porsenna did really conquer 
 Rome after the expulsion of Tarquiuius. Niebuhr remarks, when 
 speaking of Beaufort's 'Dissertation' (vol. i. p. 539, note), "that the 
 critical examination of this war is the most successful part of that 
 remarkable little work." His next work was ' La Re"publique Romaine' 
 ou Plan General de l'Ancien Gouvernement de Rome,' 2 vols. 4to, La 
 Haye, 1766. The author treats at length and systematically of the 
 institutions of Rome ; of its senate, its populus and plebs, its comitia, 
 its consuls and tribunes ; of the laws and tribunals, of the religion of 
 the country and its ministers, of the various classes of society and their 
 respective rights, and the condition of the allies and subjects of Rome. 
 This work met with great approbation, and maintained its ground as 
 one of the best works upon the Roman republic previous to Niebuhr's 
 'History of Rome.' He wrote also ' Histoire de Germanicus,' 12mo, 
 1741, which he dedicated to the Landgrave of Hesse Homburg. 
 Beaufort was a member of the Royal Society of London. He died at 
 Maestricht in 1795. 
 
 BEAUFORT, MARGARET, COUNTESS OF RICHMOND AND 
 DERBY, is entitled to honourable mention as an eminent patroness of 
 literature, after the manner of the age in which she lived. She was 
 of royal descent, being the daughter and heiress of John Beaufort, duke 
 of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, third son 
 of Edward III. Margaret Beaufort was born in 1441, and was thrice 
 married : first to Edmund Tudor, half-brother to Henry VI., created 
 Earl of Richmond, by whom she had one son, afterwards Heury VII. ; 
 secondly to Sir Henry Stafford, a younger branch of the ducal house 
 of Buckingham ; thirdly to Lord Stanley, afterwards earl of Derby. 
 By the two last marriages she had no issue. She died in 1509, and is 
 buried at Westminster, where her tomb may be seen in the south aisle 
 of Henry VII. 's chapel. 
 
 The Countess of Richmond was rich, pious, charitable, and generous. 
 Her attention to the formal observances of religion prescribed by the 
 Papal Church was strict even to rigour. To her bounty Christ's 
 College, Cambridge, founded in 1505, and St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 projected and endowed by her, but not chartered till 1511, owe their 
 existence. The estates which she left to St. John's College were sued 
 for and recovered by Henry VIII. as the heir-at-law of Margaret Beau- 
 fort, and the wealth which this distinguished college now enjoys is 
 chiefly due to the liberality of later benefactors. The Countess of 
 Richmond established a professorship of divinity, with a salary of 20 
 marks, in each university, the holders of which are called Lady Mar- 
 garet's professors. She also appointed a public preacher at Cambridge, 
 with a salary of 101., whose duties are now confined to the delivery of 
 one Latin sermon yearly. 
 
 Walpole has given this lady a place in his ' Catalogue of Royal and 
 Noble Authors,' as the translator of two books: — 1. 'The Mirroure 
 of Golde to the Sinfull Soul,' translated from a French translation of 
 the 'Speculum Aureum Peccatorum,' printed by W. de Worde in 1522; 
 2. Translation of the fourth book of Dr. J. Gersou's ' Treatise on tho 
 
 2 Q 
 
BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE. 
 
 BEAUMONT, FRANCIS. 
 
 596 
 
 Imitation and Following the Blessed Life of our Most Merciful Saviour 
 Christ,' printed at the end of Dr. William Atkinson's translation of 
 the three first books — Pynson, 1504. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE, son of Viscount Alexandre deBeau- 
 harnais, was born at Paris September 3, 1 781 , and received his early edu- 
 cation at the collpge of St.-Germain-en-Laye. His father was a member 
 of the National Assembly, in which he embraced the popular side, and 
 afterwards served with distinction in the army of the Rhine in 1792. 
 He was however accu&ed by the Jacobins, taken before the revolutionary 
 tribunal, condemned, and beheaded in July 1794, when he was only 34 
 years of age. His widow Josephine married in 1796 Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, who treated her children, Eugeno and Hortense, as if they had 
 been his own. Eugene accompanied Bonaparte to Italy, and after- 
 wards in 1798 to Egypt, where he acted as his aide-de-camp. After 
 Bonaparte became first consul Eugene was made chef-d'escadron in the 
 Consular Guards, in which capacity he was present at the battle of 
 Marengo. In 1804 he was mado colonel-general of the Chasseurs of 
 the Guards. When Bonaparte became emperor, Eugeno was created 
 a prince of the new empire; and in 1805, on being appointed viceroy 
 of the (so called) kingdom of Italy, which comprised Lombardy and 
 the northern papal provinces, ho fixed his residence at Milan. He 
 was adopted by Napoleon in January 1800, and soon after married 
 Augusta Amelia, daughter of the king of Bavaria. In 1809, when war 
 broke out again between Austria and France, Eugene took the com- 
 mand of the French and Italian army on the frontiers towards 
 Carinthia, but lie was obliged to retire before the superior forces of 
 the Archduke John ; and after sustaining considerable loss from the 
 the Austrians at the battle of Sacile on the river Livenza, he withdrew 
 to the banks of the Adige, where he received reinforcements. Upon 
 the defeat of the great Austrian army in Germany, the archduke 
 marched back for the protection of Vienna, and was closely followed 
 by Eugene. A battle took place between the two armies near the river 
 Piave, where the Austrian.? were worsted, and obliged to hasten their 
 retreat. Eugene followed them through Carinthia and Styria, and on 
 the 27th of May made his junction with Napoleon's grand army at 
 Ebersdorf, near Vienna. He was thence pent into Hungary to check 
 the rising en masse of the people of that country. On the 14th of 
 June he defeated the Archduke John at Raab in Hungary. 
 
 The battle of Wagram in July following put an end to the war. 
 After the peace of Vienna Eugeno returned to Milan, whence he 
 repaired to Paris in December 1809 to be present at the declaration of 
 divorce between his mother and Napoleon. He made a speech to the 
 senate, in which he dwelt on the duty of obedience to the will of the 
 emperor, to whom he and his family were under great obligations. In 
 1812 he joined Napoleon in the campaign of Russia with part of the 
 Italian army, during which service he took the command of the fourth 
 corps of the grand army, and was engaged at the battles of Mohilow 
 and of the Moskwa. In the disastrous retreat from Moscow, Eugene 
 succeeded in keeping together the remnants of his own corps, and 
 maintaining some order and discipline among them ; and after Napo- 
 leon and Murat had left the army, he took the command of the whole. 
 At Magdeburg he collected the relics of the various corps ; and on the 
 2nd of May, at the battle of Lutzen, he commanded the left of the 
 new army which Napoleon had raised. Soon after he returned to 
 Milan to raise new conscriptions to replace the soldiers who had 
 perished in Russia, and to make every effort to defend Italy against 
 the threatened attack of Austria. Three levies of 15,000 conscripts 
 each were ordered in the course of one year in the kingdom of Italy 
 alone; but the people were tired of war, and it was found difficult to 
 collect the men. The news of the battle of Leipzig added to the 
 general discontent ; and at the end of October 1813 the Austrian army 
 entered the Venetian territory, when Eugene was obliged to retreat to 
 the Piave, and, after some sharp fighting, to fall back on the Adige. 
 In March 1814, beiDg attacked by the Austrians on one side and by 
 Murat at the head of the Neapolitan army on the other, he withdrew 
 to the Mincio, and removed his family and property from Milan to 
 the fortress of Mantua. On the 16th of April Eugene and Marshal 
 Bellegarde, the Austrian commander, signed the convention of 
 Schiariuo-Rizzino, by which hostilities were suspended, the French 
 troops remaining in Italy were sent away, and Venice, Legnago, and 
 other fortresses, were delivered up to Austria. Napoleon's kingdom 
 of Italy was now at an end, and Napoleon himself had abdicated the 
 crown of France. Some endeavours were made by Eugene's friends to 
 obtain his nomination as king of Lombardy, but a strong party at Milan 
 violently opposed it ; and an insurrection took place in that city in 
 which Prina, one of Prince Eugene's ministers, was murdered by the 
 people. Upon this Eugene gave up Mantua to the Austrians, and 
 returned with his family to Bavaria. 
 
 As viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, Eugene was personally liked by 
 the people and by the army, for his frank bearing and affable temper, 
 and his humane disposition. Entirely devoted to Napoleon, he impli- 
 citly obeyed and enforced his often harsh decrees, although he occa- 
 sionally endeavoured to obtain some mitigation of them. He displayed 
 activity and regularity in the details of administration ; his viceregal 
 court was splendid, but he was frugal in his own expenditure. But 
 some of the persons by whom he was surrounded were objects of 
 popular aversion, and thus occasioned an unfavourable feeling towards 
 Eugene's government. 
 
 After leaving Italy Eugene lived chiefly at Munich, at the court of 
 his father-in-law, with the title of Prince of Leuchtenberg. He visited 
 Paris after the death of his mother, and was very graciously received 
 by Louis XVIII. Ho also visited Vienna wheu the Congress was sit- 
 ting, and was treated with marked attention by the allied sovereigns 
 and their ministers, but especially by the Emperor Alexander. Eugene 
 retained, with the consent of the pope, the possession of some estates 
 in the northern provinces of the Roman states, which had formed part 
 of the kingdom of Italy. The restored king of Naples also agreed to 
 pay him five millions of francs. These grants were intended as a 
 compensation for the loss of the yearly income of a million of francs 
 assigned to him by Napoleon on the national domain of Italy. (Col- 
 letta, ' Storia del Reame di Napoli,' vol. iv.) Eugene died at Munich 
 on the 22nd of February 1824, at the age of 43 years. Eugene left 
 two sons and four daughters": the eldest son, Augusts Charles, mar- 
 ried Donna Maria, the late Queen of Portugal, and died in 1835 ; the 
 other son, Maximilian Joseph, married the Archduchess Olga, daughter 
 of the Emperor Nicholas of Russia, and died in 1852; the eldest 
 daughter Josephine is Queen of Sweden, having married in 1823 Oscar, 
 the present king of Sweden ; the second daughter, Eugdnie Hortense, 
 married Frederick, the prince of Hohenzollern-Hecbiiigen, and died in 
 1847 ; and the third, Amelie Auguste, is the widow of Don Pedro, late 
 emperor of Brazil. 
 
 BEAUMAHCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTE CARON DE, was born at 
 Paris in January 1732. His father was a watchmaker, and brought 
 up his son to the same profession, in which young B.autnarcbais 
 showed considerable skill. He was also remarkably fond of music, 
 and attained great proficiency in playing on the harp and the guitar. 
 Beaumarchais played before the daughters of Louis XV., who being 
 pleased with his musical skill admitted him to their conceits, and 
 afterwards to their parties. He now appeared at Versailles in a rich 
 court-dress, which offended a haughty nobleman, who meeting him 
 one day in one of the galleries, asked him abruptly to look at a valuable 
 watch that he wore, which was out of order. Beaumarchais excused 
 himself, by saying that his hand was very unsteady; the other insisting, 
 Beaumarchais took the watch and dropped it on the floor, simply 
 observing : " I told you so." Notwithstanding this event he continued 
 to enjoy the patronage of the court, which gave him the opportunity 
 of becoming connected with some of the Fermiers Generaux, and great 
 contractors. He became involved in several lawsuits, and gained 
 considerable notoriety in consequence of the memoirs or pleadings of 
 his case, which he wrote and published. These pleadings, which show 
 considerable skill and oratorical power, are inserted in the collection 
 of his works. But his fame as a writer rests on his plays, and chiefly 
 on the well-known operas ' Le Barbier de Seville,' and 1 Le Mariage de 
 Figaro.' The character of Figaro was a happy invention, and the 
 other principal characters, in both plays, are drawn with great skill. 
 The 'Mariage de Figaro' alone produced Beaumarchais 80,000 francs. 
 He also wrote ' La Mere Coupable,' which may be considered as a 
 sequel to the other two, but is very inferior to them, ' Eugenie,' and 
 ' Les Deux Amis.' At the beginning of the revolt of the English- 
 American provinces, Beaumarchais entered into a speculation for 
 supplying the colonies with arms, ammunition, &c. ; and although he 
 lost several vessels the greater number arrived in America, and Beau- 
 marchais enriched himself by his undertaking. When the French 
 revolution broke out, Beaumarchais showed himself favourable to the 
 popular cause, and entered into speculations to supply corn, muskets, 
 &c. But his activity in that critical period exposed him to suspicion ; 
 he was accused and acquitted, then accused again, and being obliged 
 to run away, he escaped to England and afterwards to Germany. 
 He returned to France after the fall of Robespierre. He died in 
 May 1799. 
 
 Beaumarchais had considerable talent, and many good qualities, but 
 he was very vain and fond of distinction. He undertook an edition 
 of all the works of Voltaire, of whom he was a great admirer; but the 
 edition, notwithstanding all his pains and great expense, proved very 
 indifferent, both as to correctness and execution. 
 
 (OEuvres completes de Beaumarchais, 1 vol. 8vo, Paris, 1809 ; Diction- 
 naire Universel Historique.) 
 
 BEAUMONT, FRANCIS, the dramatist, third son of Francis, one 
 of the judges of the Court of Common Pleas, and of Anne, daughter 
 of George Pierrepoint, of Holme-Pierrepoint, in the county of Notting- 
 ham, was born at the family seat of Grace Dieu, in Leicestershire, 1586. 
 The Beaumonts were not only an ancient stock, but some of them 
 sought to trace their lineage to the kings of France and of England. 
 The glory of the family however consists in its literature. 
 
 At ten years of age Beaumont was admitted a gentleman-commoner 
 at Broadgate's Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford. He afterwards 
 became a student in the Temple ; married Ursula, daughter and 
 co-heir of Henry Isley, of Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he had two 
 daughters; died before he was thirty, in the spring of the year 1616 ; 
 and was buried at the entrance of St. Benedict's Chapel, in Westminster 
 Abbey, without any inscription. One of the daughters of Beaumont, 
 Frances, was living at a great age in 1700, at which time she enjoyed 
 an annuity of lOOi. from the Duke of Ormond, in whose family she 
 had resided (say the biographers) as a "domestic;" by which is meant, 
 perhaps, a companion. 
 
 The race of the Beaumonts, like that of the Fletchers, which is an 
 
BEAUMONT, FRANCIS. 
 
 interesting coincidence, appears to have abounded in the love of poetry. 
 The biographers have noticed that there were four Francis Beaumonts 
 all living in 1615, and that at least three of them were poets— Francis 
 the dramatist; Francis, his cousin, master of the Charter House ; and 
 Fraucis, a ' Jesuit,' probably a son of the dramatist's elder brother Sir 
 John, who though perhaps too young to be a Jesuit at that time, 
 became one after his father's death. This Sir John Beaumont, author 
 of ' Bosworth Field,' was a poet of real merit ; his son and successor, 
 another John, inherited his poetical tendency. Dr. J oseph Beaumont, 
 master of Peter House,' Cambridge, who lived in the time of the 
 Charleses, and was of a branch of the family, though son of a wool- 
 stapler in Suffolk, is also known to poetical antiquaries as one of the 
 writers from whom Pope thought a man might " steal wisely." 
 
 As the life of Francis Beaumont was so short, and his writings 
 apparently so numerous, it cannot be supposed that he paid much 
 attention to the law. He probably gave himself up to the literature 
 and amusements of the town. He records, in a celebrated epistle, his 
 intimacy with Ben Jonson, and the other men of genius who assembled 
 at the Mermaid Tavern; where he says, they used t» leave an air 
 behind them, sufficient to make the two next companies witty. At 
 this greatest of all literary clubs, he would meet with Shakspere ; and 
 perhaps it was here he became acquainted with the illustrious friend 
 with whom he was destined to become all but identified. The date 
 of their first play is 1607, when our author was one-and-twenty. 
 Fletcher was ten year3 older. If we may credit Aubrey, their connec- 
 tion was, in every respect, singularly close. They lived in the same 
 house, and in most respects had their possessions in common. The 
 friendships of that age were of a more romantic cast than at present. 
 Its poetry fell with more vigour into the prose of common life, and 
 tinctured the whole stream. 
 
 A natural curiosity has existed, to know what were the distinguishing 
 characteristics of the portions furnished to their common writings by 
 these illustrious friends. It has generally been believed that Fletcher 
 contributed the vivacity, and Beaumont the j udgment. We can discover 
 no foundation for this opinion, except the report ; and suspect that 
 there never was any. "I have heard," says Aubrey, "Dr. John Earle 
 (since Bishop of Sarum) say, who knew them, that his (Beaumont's) 
 maine business was to correct the overflowings of Mr. Fletcher's witt." 
 Yet Earle, in his verses upon Beaumont, expressly attributes to him 
 whole plays, in which his genuis is quite as exuberant as Fletcher's. 
 Their editors in general are divided as to the property ; tradition seems 
 to have distributed it between them at random ; and Mr. Seward, in 
 an elaborate attempt to discriminate it, bewilders himself in refine- 
 ments which end in giving them each other's qualities interchangeably, 
 and protesting against his own distinction. If the miscellaneous poems 
 attributed to Beaumont be his, especially the ' Hermaphrodite,' (which 
 Cleaveland claimed as a joint composition of himself aud Randolph,) 
 there would be reason to suspect that his genius was naturally more 
 exuberant than Fletcher's : and judging from the works which they 
 are known to have produced separately, such as the ' Faithful Shep- 
 herdness,' the ' Masque,' and the ' Epistle,' there appears to be nothing 
 to forbid the conclusion that each might have written either; except, 
 indeed, that in the only uudramatic copy of verses extant in Fletcher's 
 name ('Upon an Honest Man's Fortune'), his muse is the graver of 
 the two. We are therefore inclined to think, that the reason which 
 Aubrey gave for their strong personal attachment, applies with equal 
 force to this question : "There was a wonderful consimility of phansy," 
 he says, "between him (Beaumont) and Mr. John Fletcher, which 
 caused the dearenesse of friendship between them." They loved one 
 auother fully and entirely, and exhibited the only great spectacle 
 existing of two men writing in common, and puzzling posterity to know 
 which was which, precisely because their faculties were identical. 
 
 Another, and apparently more perplexing difficulty remains, in the 
 wonderful praises lavished by the writers of those times upon the 
 decency and chastity of a muse, which to our eyes appears the strangest 
 mixture of delicate sentiment and absolute prostitution. Beaumont 
 and Fletcher are the dramatists of all others whom a liberal modern 
 reader could the best endure to see in a castigated edition. Their 
 ideas are sometimes even as loathsome as they are licentious. Schlegel 
 bas expressed his astonishment, how two poets and gentlemen could 
 utter the things they do, nay, whole scenes ; in some measure, whole 
 plays; and Dryden, who availed himself in his dramas of all the 
 licence of the time of Charles II., said, in defending himself on that 
 point, that one play of Beaumont and Fletcher's (the ' Custom of the 
 Country') contained more indecency than all his put together. Yet 
 these are the writers whom their contemporaries, including divines as 
 well as fine gentlemen, compliment in the most emphatic manner 
 upon their decorum and purity. Harris, then or subsequently Greek 
 professor at Oxford, aud called a second ' Chrysostom,' panegyrises their 
 muse for being 'chaste.' Dr. Maine, celebrated for his piety as well 
 as wit, speaks of their ' chaste scene ;' Sir John Birkenhead says that 
 Fletcher (who was son of a bishop) wrote 
 
 " As if his father's crosier awed the stage ; " 
 
 and Dr. Earle (afterwards a bishop himself), not content with declaring 
 that Beaumont's wit is ' untainted with obscenity,' protests that his 
 writing* are too 'pure,' and 'chaste,' and 'sainted,' to be called plays. 
 The solution of this mystery gives us an extraordinary idea of such 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC. 698 
 
 plays of the time as have not come down to posterity, and of the 
 distinction drawn by our ancestors between licence of speech and 
 conduct; for the panegyric appears to be almost wholly founded upon 
 the comparative innocence of double meanings. 
 
 " Here, ye foul speakers, that pronounce the air 
 Of stews and sewers," 
 
 cries the gallant Lovelace, the Sir Philip Sydney of hii day, speaking 
 of the very comedy above-mentioned, — 
 
 " View here a loose thought said wilh such a grace, 
 Minerva might have spoke in Venus' face ; 
 So well disguis'd, that 'twas conceived by none, 
 But Cupid had Diana's linen on ; " 
 
 and so he goes on, objecting nothing to the thought, but holding the 
 example to be spotless, aud desiring it to spread, as if for its own 
 sake. It thus appears that other writers used language, — homely words, 
 or grosser images, — such as Beaumont and Fletcher never uttered ; 
 and if it were objected that Shakspere, as well as several other 
 dramatists, did not allow themselves a twentieth part of the licence 
 even of Beaumont and Fletcher, the reply would be, that the accom- 
 plished duumviri more expressly set themselves to represent the 
 manners and conversation of high life and the town elegance, and 
 that their ingenuity in avoiding cause of offence was therefore the 
 more singular and meritorious. 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher were two open-hearted men and genuine 
 poets, spoilt by town breeding and the love of applause. It is a pity 
 that two such poets could have been so spoilt ; but still, in the best 
 part of their genius, they survived the contamination, strong in their 
 sympathy with the great nature that bestowed it, and "pure in the 
 last recesses of the mind." Even the purest characters in their plays 
 are not free from an intermixture of things which they ought not to 
 know or talk about ; while the practical chastity is overwrought, and 
 put to absurd and gratuitous trials, as if there could be no faith in it 
 but from the most extravagant proof. In short, a something not 
 entirely true to nature pervades almost all their writings, running side 
 by side with the freshest and loveliest passages ; and while one half 
 of a scene, or sometimes of a speech, or even a couple of sentences, 
 gushes out from the authors' heart, the other is brought from some 
 fantastic fountain of court mauners and talk, and produced for the 
 sake of town effect. 
 
 Although this unwholesome and objectionable matter pervades 
 their writings, there might be formed from the works of Beaumont 
 and Fletcher a selection of passages of as refined sentiment, lofty and 
 sweet poetry, excellent sense, humour and pathos, as any in the 
 language, excepting Shakspere and Chaucer. Nothing can surpass 
 the tender delicacy of the page's scenes in ' Philaster,' the dignified 
 sentiment in the ' Elder Brother,' the wit and happy extravagance in 
 the ' Woman Hater ' and the ' Little French Lawyer,' the pastoral 
 luxuriance in the 'Faithful Shepherdess,' or the exquisite and virgin 
 poetry scattered throughout the whole collection, sometimes in the 
 midst of the most artificial and even disgusting passages. In lyrics 
 they have scarcely an equal, even in Shakspere himself, or Milton : 
 their lyrical compositions sing their own music. 
 
 BEAUMONT, SIR GEORGE HOWLAND, was the seventh baronet 
 of the ancient family of the Beaumonts of Stoughton GraDge, Leicester- 
 shire. He was born in 1753, was educated at Eton, a distinguished 
 amateur of the arts and friend of artists, possessed himself consider- 
 able skill as a landscape painter, and was one of the most munificent 
 donors to the British national collection of pictures. He was mainly 
 instrumental in the establishment of the National Gallery ; in further- 
 ance of which object- he promised to contribute part of his own col- 
 lection at Coleorton Hall : he accordingly presented to the National 
 Gallery sixteen paintings, chiefly landscapes — a landscape and figures 
 by Nicolas Poussiu ; Hagar and the Angel, Narcissus aud Echo, the 
 Death of Procris, and a study of trees, by Claude ; a view of Venice 
 by Canaletto ; a large landscape and figures by Rubens ; a landscape 
 and figures by Both, called Morning ; a landscape and figures, called 
 the Return of the Ark, by Sebastian Bourdon ; the Villa of Maecenas, 
 and the Niobe, of Wilson ; a portrait of a Jew, and a sketch of the 
 Descent from the Cross, by Rembrandt ; a profile of a man by Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds; Pylades and Orestes by West; and the Blind Fiddler 
 by Wilkie. Sir George was one of Wilkie's earliest patrons and best 
 friends. There are also two of his own landscapes in the National 
 Gallery — a small piece on wood, and Jacques contemplating the 
 Wounded Stag, from 'As you like it.' These two pictures were pre- 
 sented by Lady Beaumont after the death of Sir George. He died in 
 February 1827 without issue. Lady Beaumont, who was the grand- 
 daughter of Lord Chief Justice Willcs, survived Sir George little more 
 than two years ; she died in July 1829. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC, was born in 1659 at Niort, in the province 
 of Poitou. His ancestors, being Protestants, had emigrated from 
 Franca at the time of the St. Bartholomew massacre, but returned 
 afterwards in consequence of the edict of Nantes. Young Beau- 
 sobre studied at Saumur, was afterwards ordained, and took charge 
 of the Protestant church of Chatillousur-Indre, in Touraiue. When 
 Louis XIV. renewed the persecution against the Protestants, by 
 tho revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685, the church of ChSV- 
 I tillon was closed, and the gates sealed by tiie king's officers. 
 
50P 
 
 BEAUVOIS, AMBROSE DE. 
 
 BEAZLEY, SAMUEL. 
 
 BOO 
 
 Beausobre broke the seals, and preached as usual on the Sunday, 
 in consequence of which he was obliged to take refuge in Holland. 
 From Holland he went to Dessau, in 1686, as chaplain to the Prin- 
 cess of Anhalt Dessau. His first work was ' Defense de la Doctrine 
 des Rdformds,' Magdeburg, 1693. In 1694 he removed to Berlin, 
 and took charge of one of the French Protestant churches in that 
 capital. He was afterwards made chaplain to the court, inspector 
 of the French college, &c. He enjoyed the favour of the king, 
 Frederic William I., whose son, the Crown Prince, afterwards the 
 Great Frederic, also conceived great regard for him. Beausobre passed 
 the remaining forty-six years of his life at Berlin, where he died in 
 June 1738, much regretted, both on account of his personal character 
 and his extensive learning. He wrote numerous works, the principal 
 of which is his ' Histoire critique de Maniche'e et du Manichdisme,' 
 2 vols. 4to, 1734-39. The first part of this work is historical : the 
 author derives his account of Manes, or Mani, from Syrian, Persian, 
 and Arabic authorities, and exhibits the great discrepancy existing 
 between their narratives and those of the Greek and Latin writers. 
 The second part treats of the doctrines, rites, church discipline, and 
 morals of the Manicheans. The work is full of varied and interesting 
 erudition. The second volume was edited by Formey after Beausobre's 
 death, with a short biography of the author by the editor. Beausobre 
 undertook, with L'Enfant, a French version of the New Testament 
 from the Greek text, which contains a long and valuable introduction, 
 and numerous explanatory notes: 2 vols. 8vo, Amsterdam, 1718, re- 
 printed in 1741. The introduction was translated into English, 
 1726. He also began a history of the Reformation on a very large 
 scale, which he left in an imperfect state. It was published at Berlin 
 in 1785, in 4 vols. 8vo. In conjunction with other literary men, he 
 begau the journal and review called 'Bibliotheque Germanique,' the 
 first volume of which appeared in 1720, and which was carried to the 
 fiftieth volume. Beausobre continued to the last to be one of the 
 principal contributors, and wrote nearly half of each volume. A 
 sequel to this work was begun after Beausobre's death by Mr. Formey, 
 under the title of ' Nouvelle Bibliotheque Germauique.' Beausobro 
 wrote also ' Remarques critiques et philologiques sur lo nouveau 
 Testament,' published after his death at La Haye (the Hague), 2 vols. 
 4to. His 'Sermons' were published in 4 vols. 8vo. Beausobre left 
 several other works in manuscript, complete and incomplete, espe- 
 cially on the various sects of the dark ages, the Paulicians, the 
 Albigeuses, &c. 
 
 BEAUVOIS, AMBROSE MARIA FRANCIS JOSEPH PALISOT 
 DE, a celebrated French naturalist and traveller, was born at Arras on 
 the 27th of July 1752. His father, who was an advocate, educated 
 him for the legal profession ; but his bias for the study of natural 
 history was so strong that from an early age he was more frequently 
 in the fields with his friend and preceptor Lestiboudois than in the 
 courts of law. In the year 1772 he was appointed receiver-general of 
 crown rents, which he held for about five years. Upon the suppression 
 of this office in 1777, he appears to have abandoned his profession, and 
 to have determined upon devoting himself exclusively to his favourite 
 pursuits. The French government had planned an expedition to the 
 west coast of Africa, for the purpose of founding a settlement which 
 might serve as a counterpoise to the mercantile influence of the English 
 in that part of the world. Palisot de Beauvois eagerly embraced what 
 appeared a favourable means of exploring a country rich in every 
 branch of natural history, and never before trod by the foot of an 
 European naturalist ; and he obtained permission to accompany the 
 expedition at his own charge. On the 17th of July 1786 he sailed 
 from Rochefort for Benin, in which and the neighbouring kingdom of 
 Oware he spent about fifteen months, investigating its natural pro- 
 ductions with a zeal that even the dreadful fevers of the country, with 
 which he was attacked, were insufficient to destroy. While here he 
 planned a journey across Africa to Abyssinia; but after having pene- 
 trated the interior for a considerable distance, he was compelled to 
 return in consequence of his companions becoming frightened at the 
 dangers of the route, and at the multiplying difficulties by which they 
 found themselves opposed at every step. On his return to the coast 
 he was attacked so severely by scurvy and yellow fever, that, to use 
 his own words, after seeing more than five-sixths of his companions 
 perish, and having been himself several times in the very jaws of 
 death, it became indispensable for bim to abandon the country, 
 leaving behind him the principal part of his collection, which consisted 
 of skins of animals, insects, dried plants, and minerals, to be for- 
 warded to France. Fortunately, a part of these had previously been 
 sent to M. de Jussieu, and a part was put on board the ship in which 
 he embarked for St. Domingo, otherwise the whole fruit of so much 
 zeal and suffering would have perished ; for what he left behind him 
 was soon after burned, along with the settlement, by an English expe- 
 dition. Upon his arrival at Cape Francois in St. Domingo, in 1788, 
 his health became speedily re-established. Here he formed an opinion 
 so decidedly averse to slave emancipation, that when it was found 
 impossible any longer to keep the blacks in subjection, M. de Beauvois 
 was deputed by the French authorities of St. Domingo to proceed to 
 the United States, in the hope of obtaining assistance from the 
 American government. Upon his return from this fruitless mission, 
 in 1793, he found the islaud in confusion; his collections, which had 
 become very large, were consumed in the conflagration of Cape 
 
 Francois ; and the negroes, now become the masters, who naturally 
 saw nothing in him but a persecutor, threw him into prison. 
 
 While lying in prison, in daily expectation of being taken out for 
 execution, he was enabled to escape by the faithfulness of a mulatto 
 woman, to whom, some time before his departure for the United 
 States, he had humanely granted her freedom. She not only effected 
 his liberation, but procured bim the means of reaching the United 
 States. Thus was his life preserved by the devotion of one of that 
 very race which he thought worthy of little short of eternal bondage. 
 On his arrival at Philadelphia, pennilesB and friendless, he learned 
 that his name had been inserted in the lists of proscriptions, and that 
 it was no longer safe to return to France. But, undismayed at his 
 apparently hopeless condition, he succeeded, by the teaching of music 
 and languages, in supporting himself honourably, and soon attracted 
 the notice of the few persons who at that time, in North America, 
 occupied themselves with natural history. 
 
 Upon the arrival in the United States of the French minister Adet, 
 De Beauvois no longer found himself straitened for means. He forth- 
 with abandoned his occupations, and determined upon exploring the 
 more remote parts of North America. He accordingly examined the 
 Appalachian Mountains, and penetrated into the country of the Creek 
 and Cherokee Indians, still collecting objects of natural history in all 
 its branches. Among other things, he discovered the jaws and molar 
 teeth of the great Mastodon on the banks of the Ohio, and he brought 
 the tooth of a Megalonyx from the west of Virginia. Upon his return 
 to Philadelphia loaded with acquisitions, he learned that his pro- 
 scription had been erased, and that, by singular good fortune, his 
 patrimony had not been sold. He immediately repaired to France, 
 where he found his affairs in lamentable disorder, and his wife 
 unfaithful. He divorced his wife, sold a portion of his property in 
 order to free the remainder from incumbrances, renounced the perils 
 of travelling, and thenceforward devoted himself to the examination 
 and publication of his collections ; but of these he found that only 
 what he brought with him from Philadelphia and the small collections 
 which he had forwarded while in Africa to M. de Jussieu had escaped. 
 These however sufficed to occupy him, in conjunction with the general 
 questions of natural history, for the remainder of his life. In 1806 he 
 was called to the Institute as the successor of Adanson ; in 1815 he 
 was created Titular Councillor of the University of Paris by Napo- 
 leon I, upon his return from Elba; and in January 1820 he died from 
 an attack of diarrhoea. 
 
 After his return to France, Palisot de Beauvois was the author of a 
 considerable number of works, some of which were inserted in the 
 transactions of learned societies, some in the ' Encyclopedic Me'tho- 
 dique,' and the remainder were published separately. All these, 
 except his ' iEtheogamie,' may be supposed to have contributed more 
 or less to the progress of science ; but the works on which his repu- 
 tation chiefly depend are his ' Flore d'Oware ' and ' De Benin,' 
 published in twenty parts, in folio, between 1804 and 1821 ; his 
 ' Insects ' of the same country, of which fifteen parts in folio appeared 
 between 1805 and 1821 ; and his ' Agrostographie,' which appeared in 
 one volume, 8vo, in 1812. The defects — and they are many — which 
 may be found in the ' Flora ' of Oware were more than compensated 
 by the merits of the ' Agrostographie.' At the time of its publication 
 all that related to the systematic arrangement of grasses was in great 
 disorder. The genera of this important natural order, with the 
 exception of what had been done by Dr. Robert Brown in his 
 ' Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae,' were nearly as they had been 
 left by Linnaeus, although the number of species had prodigiously 
 increased. It was necessary to recast the whole order, in doing which 
 new principles had to be established, and ancient prejudices to be 
 unsparingly attacked. This was done by Palisot de Beauvois in a 
 manner which reflected the greatest honour both upon his skill and 
 knowledge. Objections were loudly raised against his new arrange- 
 ment ; but it was accepted by the public, and has become the basis of 
 the more perfect system, which at this day seems to be everywhere 
 recognised as the most conformable to reason and to nature. 
 
 (Biographie Universelle ; Flore d'Oware; and Essai d'une Nouvelle 
 A grostographie. ) 
 
 BEAZLEY, SAMUEL, architect and playwright, was the son of a 
 surveyor in Parliament-street, Westminster, where he was born in 
 1786. In early life Mr. Beazley served as a volunteer, and some of 
 his adventures in the Peninsula and France were, as related by himself, 
 of a somewhat romantic character. Mr. Beazley's chief claim to 
 remembrance as an architect arises from the fact of his having erected 
 a larger number of theatres than any other contemporary architect 
 in England, or probably in Europe. The Lyceum (both the present 
 one of that name, and the one on its site destroyed by fire in 1830), 
 the St. James's and the City of London theatres in the metropolis 
 were built by him ; also two or three in the provinces, and two in 
 Dublin. He likewise furnished the drawings for two in Belgium, one 
 in Brazil, and one or two in India. The Strand front of the Adelphi 
 and the colonnade of Drury-lane theatres were also erected by him ; 
 and we believe that he executed other works in connection with 
 theatres. His theatres, though not remarkable for any high order 
 of artistic design, have the very great merit of affording the whole 
 of the auditory a tolerably good view of the stage, while their acoustic 
 properties are considerably above the average. Among his other 
 
BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO. 
 
 BECKER, FERDINAND WILHELM. 
 
 602 
 
 more important works may be mentioned Studley Castle. For some 
 years before his death he had been very extensively employed in 
 constructing the architectural works of the South-Eastern Railway 
 Company. The terminus at London Bridge, the stations on the North 
 Kent line, the New Town, Ashford, Kent, the Warden Hotel, and the 
 Pilot House, Dover, &c, are among the chief of these works. Like 
 his theatres they are mostly well adapted to their purpose, and like 
 them they have little other merit. 
 • But during his life Mr. Beazley was not merely known as an architect. 
 He was also one of the most prolific playwrights of the day, having 
 written, it is said, upwards of a hundred dramatic pieces. They were 
 mostly farces, and other light occasional pieces, which were forgotten 
 by the end of the season in which they were produced : but one or 
 two still occasionally occupy the stage. They have no literary preten- 
 sions, but, like his buildings, they appear to have exhibited great 
 mechanical dexterity, and a keen perception of the immediate require- 
 ments of the subject. Mr. Beazley wrote two novels, the ' Oxonians' 
 and the ' Roue" ; ' and furnished the words to the English versions of 
 the ' Sonnanibula ' and some other operas. Though apparently so 
 constantly employed, Mr. Beazley was well known in society as a diner- 
 out and a cheerful companion. He died suddenly at his residence, 
 Tunbridge Castle, Kent, October 12, 1851. 
 (Builder, 1851 ; Gentleman's Magazine, 1851.) 
 
 BECCAFU'MI, DOME'NICO, a very celebrated painter of Siena, 
 of the 16th century. According to Vasari he was born at Siena in 
 1484, and died there in 1549; others give the respective dates as 
 1470 and 1551. His real name was Mecherino : that of Beccafumi 
 he derived from his patron Lorenzo Beccafumi, who placed him as a 
 boy with Capanna, an obscure painter, to learn painting. He occupied 
 himself chiefly in copying, and he was especially attracted by some 
 pictures by Pietro Perugino, whose style he acquired, and never lost, 
 notwithstanding a subsequent sojourn in Rome, and the opportunities 
 he had of improving himself from the recent works of Michel Angelo 
 and Raphael in the Vatican. He was in Rome during the pontificate 
 of Julius II., but remained there only two years. He painted in dis- 
 temper and in oil ; better in the former style, and his small figures 
 are superior to his larger ones. Latterly when the fame of Michel 
 Angelo in Tuscany attained its extreme height, Beccafumi seems to 
 have felt a necessity for invigorating his own style, and be accordingly 
 forsook his original softness of design for a species of clumsy plump- 
 ness, and his heads became harsh and ugly. He was correct in per- 
 spective, was fond of reflections and foreshortenings, and excelled all 
 his Sienese contemporaries in energy of composition ; in other respects 
 he was surpassed by his great rival Razzi. His best works are in 
 Siena; he executed some at Florence, at Pisa, and some at Genoa for 
 Prince Doria. He executed also some of the designs of the foot-pave- 
 ment of the cathedral of Siena : these designs are a species of ' niello;' 
 the outlines of the figures are cut into the stone, and filled up after- 
 wards with a black cement. Those of Beccafumi have been engraved 
 by Andreani and Cosati. Beccafumi cast also a few works in bronze, 
 and is said to have executed some woodcuts, which, with the prints 
 after his designs by other masters, are enumerated by Heineken. 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c. ; Lanzi, Sloria Piltorica, <bc. ; Heineken, 
 Dictionnaire des Artistes, <bc; Rumobr, Jtalienische Forschungen ; 
 Brulliot, Dictionnaire des Monogrammes, dec.) 
 
 BECCARI'A, CESARE BONESANA, MARQUIS OF, was born at 
 Milan in 1738. The political speculations of France having spread 
 to Italy, co-operated with the instructions of Genovesi at Naples, and 
 the perusal of the political works of Montesquieu, in directing Beccaria 
 to the study of moral and political philosophy. In his twenty-seventh 
 year Beccaria published his first work, entitled ' Del Disordine e de' 
 rem^dii delle monete nello stato di Milano ' (' Of the Abuses of the 
 Coinage in the State of Milan and their Remedies'). Count Firmian, 
 the Austrian governor of Lombardy, encouraged Beccaria, the counts 
 Verri, Frisi, and others to form a society in Milan, for the diffusion 
 of literature and liberal opinions; and in 1764 and 1765 the society, 
 in imitation of the 'Spectator' of Addison, published 'II Caffe,' a 
 periodical, which was completed in 2 vols. 4 to, and consisted chiefly 
 I of papers on men and manners, with occasional discussions of import- 
 [ ant moral and political topics. The best papers are by Beccaria — his 
 most humorous is on ' smells,' and his most original on 'style.' The 
 last is an attempt to prove that all men have an equal capacity for 
 poetry, eloquence, &c, and that they only require proper training. 
 While this work was going on, Beccaria read in 1764, to the Literary 
 Society, the manuscripts of his work on ' Crimes and Punishments,' 
 and in the same year, at their request, published it under the title of 
 ' Trattato dei Delitti e Delle Pene,' (' Treatise on Crimes and Punish- 
 ments '), 12mo. The work had great success. In Italy three editions 
 were sold within six, and six editions within eighteen, months. In a 
 few years it was translated into almost all the languages of Europe. 
 I It has been twice translated into French. It was translated in 1802 
 iato modern Greek by Coray, for the benefit of his countrymen. An 
 anonymous English translation appeared in 1766, with a translation 
 of a commentary attributed to Voltaire. 
 
 The arrangement of the work is immethodical. The style is clear 
 I and occasionally eloquent. It breathes a fervid love of freedom and 
 | humanity. In thought it is deep and original — the subject was a 
 most important and interesting one. These things all contributed to 
 
 its popularity, and Beccaria led the way, in which he has had a host 
 of followers. His arguments have been repeated, strengthened, and 
 enforced; and in England particularly the progress of criminal legis- 
 lation has been on the whole in the track he pointed out. He advo- 
 cates education as a means of preventing crime, and here too we are 
 endeavouring to follow his precepts. 
 
 Beccaria's success in this publication was not unalloyed. Accusa- 
 tions of impiety and sedition were brought against him in Milan, from 
 the effects of which nothing but the powerful friendship of Count 
 Firmian protected him. In 1768 the Austrian government founded a 
 professorship of political philosophy for him at Milan, which he filled 
 with distinguished success. In 1769 he published a 'Discourse on 
 Commerce and Public Administration,' which was translated into 
 French by J. A. Comparet; and in 1781 a report of a plan for pro- 
 ducing uniformity in the weights and measures of Milan. He died of 
 apoplexy in November 1794. The lectures which he delivered as a 
 professor were published at Milan in 1802, and they form a part of the 
 series of ' Italian Economists,' published at Milan in 1804. 
 
 BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BAPTISTA, born at Mondovi October 3, 
 1716, went to Rome and commenced the study of theology in 1732, 
 entered the congregation of clerks regular, and was afterwards pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Palermo and Rome till 1748, when the king 
 of Sardinia invited him to Turin. He published in 1753 'Dell' Elet- 
 tricismo Naturale ed Artificiale.' In 1758 he published ' Lettere sull' 
 Elettricismo,' addressed to Beccari, president of the Institute of 
 Bologna. In 1759 he was engaged to measure a degree of the meri- 
 dian in Piedmont, which he began in 1760, and finished before 
 1774, in which year the result was published at Turin, in a work 
 entitled ' Gradus Taurinensis.' He afterwards replied to some objec- 
 tions of Cassini in ' Lettere d'un Italiano ad un Parigino.' There 
 are some papers of his in the ' PhiL Trans.,' 1766-69. He pub- 
 lished also ' Experimenta atque Observationes,' &c, 1769 ; ' Dell' 
 Elettricismo Artificiale,' 1772, of which an English translation was 
 published, at the recommendation of Franklin; 'Dell' Elettricita 
 Terrestre Atmosferica a Cielo Sereno,' 1755 ; besides various other 
 smaller pieces, of which a catalogue is in ' Memorie Storiche Intorno 
 a gli Studi del Padre Beccaria,' by the Abbe; Landi. He left a large 
 number of manuscripts to M. Balbe, who wrote the account of him in 
 the ' Biographie Universelle,' from which the preceding is abridged. 
 He died May 1781. 
 
 Beccaria is principally known by his experiments on electricity, to 
 which he was led by Franklin's writings. He showed that the passage 
 of electricity is not instantaneous through the best conductors ; that 
 water, in small tubes, is a very imperfect conductor, and that its power 
 in that respect increases as the tube becomes larger : he also first showed 
 the electric spark in its passage through water, by confining the fluid 
 in small tubes. The Piedmonte3e measure of the meridian is not now 
 considered as entitled to much confidence. It has been of late years 
 remeasured by Plana and Cailini, and the astronomical part proved to 
 be erroneous. 
 
 BECHSTEIN, JOHANN MATTHIAS, was born July 11, 1757, at 
 Waltershausen, in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha. He was educated in the 
 gymnasium atGotha, and at the university of Jena. Though intended 
 for the Church, he early entertained so strong a passion for ornithology 
 and botany, and particularly for the improvement of forest management, 
 that he determined to abandon his former profession. Having become 
 convinced of the advantages of an institution for giving instruction as 
 to the growth and management of timber, he proposed a plan for the 
 establishment of one to the Duke of Saxe-Gotha in 1791, but the duke 
 declined. Bechstein then opened one at his own risk at Kemnote, near 
 Waltershausen, at which the instruction began in 1794, and the insti- 
 tution was opened for the reception of students in the following year. 
 At the same time he organised a society for 'Forest and Hunting 
 Science,' the useful effects of which are shown in many pages of its 
 ' Annals;' and in a journal, ' The Diana,' that Bechstein also published. 
 As his institution instead of receiving support from the ducal govern- 
 ment had impediments thrown in its way, Bechstein listened to an 
 offer of George, duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and removed to Dreissigsacker 
 in 1800. In the service of this prince he remained till his death in 
 1822 as privy and forest councillor. 
 
 Among Bechstein's numerous works we may mention his ' Forest 
 Insectology,' 3 vols., 1818 ; ' Forest Botany,' 1810, which has gone 
 through several editions ; ' Forest and Hunting Science in all its 
 Branches,' 5 vols., 1818-21, which has been continued by Laurop ; 
 ' Complete Handbook of Forest Science,' 1801-09 ; ' Portraits of Objects 
 of Natural History,' 8 vols., 1793-1810 ; and the ' Natural History of 
 Cage-Birds,' 1840, which has gone through several editions in Germany, 
 and has been translated and published in English. 
 
 BECKER, FERDINAND WILHELM, was bom on the 24th of 
 April 1805 at Hoxter on the Weser, where his father, the distinguished 
 philologist, Dr. Karl Ferdinand Becker, lived as a physician. Tlje 
 family removed from Hoxter to Gottingen, and it was in the high 
 school of that town that Becker received his first classical education, 
 while his father led him to collect minerals and plants, and thus to lay 
 an early foundation for his subsequent studies in natural science. In 
 1816 the family left Gottingen, and settled at Offenbach, near Frank- 
 furt on the Main. Here Becker continued to devote his attention 
 chiefly to botany, chemistry, and natural philosophy, partly under the 
 
603 
 
 BECKET, THOMAS. 
 
 BECKET, THOMAS. 
 
 £04 
 
 guidance of hh father, and partly by attending lectures on various 
 branches of natural science, and also on anatomy, in Senkenberg's 
 Institution at Frankfurt. In 1820 Becker accepted the proposal of a 
 young Scotchman, whose acquaintance he had made at Offenbach, to 
 go as private tutor to his family at Glasgow. After a year he proceeded 
 from Glasgow to Edinburgh, where he obtained the situation of assistant 
 librarian in the Advocates' Library, and availed himself of the oppor- 
 tunities afforded by the university to pursue his studies in medicine 
 and In the natural sciences. Early in 1825 he returned to Germany, 
 and after visiting several of the universities and the principal medical 
 institutions there he proceeded to Beilin, where in January 1826 he 
 took his degree of doctor in medicine, and passed with high credit 
 through the examinations necessary to enable him to practise as a 
 physician in the Prussian dominions. In the autumn of the same year 
 he returned to Edinburgh at the invitation of Dr. John Thomson, 
 the professor of pathology, who wished to avail himself of Becker's 
 assistance in several literary undertakings, and especially in preparing 
 an edition of Cullen's works. In March 1828 he quitted Scotland in 
 order to accompany in the capacity of physician a German nobleman 
 on a journey through Italy aud France, and remained with him for 
 nearly a year at Paris. Towards the end of 1829 Becker returned to 
 Germany, and established himself as physician at Berlin, and in the 
 following year as private lecturer on medicine in the university of that 
 capital. In 1833 the Prussian ministry for medical affairs intrusted 
 him with the superintendence of an extensive inquiry concerning the 
 efficacy of vaccination, and he was devoting himself with the utmost 
 zeal to this important duty when he died, after a short illness, on the 
 22nd of June 1834. His only works, published separately, are his 
 inaugural dissertation, ' De Glundulis Thoracis atquo do Thymo,' 1826, 
 4to ; an essay, ' De Historica Medicinse Explicatione,' 1830, 8vo; and 
 a very able pamphlet on ' Cholera.' published in London : but his 
 contributions to various German, English, and French periodical pub- 
 lications aro numerous and valuable, and the preface to his German 
 translation of Andral's 'Pathology,' 1S32, 8vo, may be considered as 
 an original essay of high interest to medical science. Shortly before 
 his death Dr. Becker had undertaken to furnish some medical 
 biographies for the previous edition of this work, the old 'Penny Cyclo- 
 paedia;' but all that he lived to execute were — Archiater, Archigenes, 
 Aretaeus, Astruc, and Athenoous of Attalia. 
 
 BECKET, THOMAS, was bom in 1117 o English parents, in 
 London, where his father Gilbert was a merchanv. He was first edu- 
 cated at Merton Abbey in Surrey, and afterwards in London, Oxford, 
 and Paris. When employed in the office of the sheriff of London, his 
 manners and talents recommended him to Theobald, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, an acquaintance of his father, by whom he was sent to 
 study civil law, first under Gratian at Bologna, and then at Auxerre in 
 Burgundy. On his return his patron gave him the livings of St. Mary- 
 le-Strand, and Otteford in Kent ; and sent him to manage the business 
 of the see of Canterbury at the court of Rome. His success in two 
 negociatians, in restoring the legatiue power to the see of Canterbury, 
 and in obtaining from the pope the letters of prohibition, by which 
 the design of crowning Prince Eustace, the son of Stephen, was 
 defeated — recommended him powerfully both to the archbishop and 
 to King Henry II. Theobald made him archdeacon of Canterbury, 
 provost of Beverly, and a prebendary of Lincoln aud St. Paul's; and 
 Henry made him chancellor in 1158, Becket being the first Englishman 
 after the Conquest who was appointed to any high office. At that 
 time the chancellorship had no separate court of judicature attached 
 to it ; yet the place was one of great trust aud dignity : the chancellor 
 5at in the courts of the justiciary, to seal royal grants, to take care of 
 the royal chapel, to hold the custody of vacant baronies and bishop- 
 rics, to look after the exchequer and revenue, and to discharge the 
 duties which now devolve upon the secretaries of state. While per- 
 forming these duties satisfactorily, Becket conformed himself in dress, 
 manners, and splendour to the habits of a courtier. His table was 
 sumptuous ; his retinue splendid. To please the military taste of the 
 king, he accompanied him in a campaign into France ; headed his own 
 1200 horse and 700 knights ; took the command of them at several 
 sieges, and with his lance unhorsed in single combat a French knight 
 of distinguished bravery and skill. About this time the king made 
 him the tutor of his son. In 1160 Becket negociated at Paris a mar- 
 riage between Prince Henry and Margaret, daughter of the king of 
 France. 
 
 When he had been little more than four years chancellor, the arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury died ; and the king, who was then in Normandy, 
 took measures which almost compelled the monks and clergy to elect 
 Becket to the vacant archbishopric. Foliot, bishop of London, alone 
 opposed him openly ; the rest were overawed by the threats of the 
 king. Being only in deacon's orders, he was ordained priest the day 
 before he was consecrated archbishop, in 1162, in presence of Prince 
 Henry aud many of the nobility. His first step on receiving his pall 
 from Pope Alexander III. was to send his resignation as chancellor to 
 the king ; a step at which Henry showed his displeasure, on his return 
 to England, by receiving him coldly, and compelling him to resign his 
 archdeaconry, which he wished to keep. 
 
 Becket now entirely changed his conduct. The courtier changed 
 into the monk ; his manner of life became austere; he submitted to 
 mortifications ; gave much away in charity, and washed the feet of the 
 
 poor. In 1163 ho was received with great distinction at the council 
 of Rheims, and laid a complaint before the assembly on the usurpa- 
 tions by the laity of the rights and property of the Church of England. 
 On his return he prosecuted the usurpers, demanded the custody of 
 Rochester castle from the crown, claimed the homage of Earl Clare 
 for the manor of Tunbridge, and even excommunicated William, hv.d 
 of the manor of Aynsford in Kent, for ejecting by force of arms a 
 priest collated to the rectory of that manor by the archbishop. 
 
 He soon came to a rupture with the king. Henry, who wished to 
 subject the clergy to the authority of the civil courts for murder, 
 felony, and similar crimes, endeavoured, in 1164, to get the consent 
 of the archbishop to the celebrated ' Constitutions of Clarendon.' On 
 Becket's refusal Henry took his son from under his care, and the 
 archbishop solemnly swore he would never comply. When the com- 
 pliance of several bishops, the threats of the nobles, and the interference 
 of the pope, at last compelled him to violate his oath and set his seal 
 to these restrictions, ho expressed his penitence by retiring from the 
 court, and privately suspending himself from officiating in the church, 
 until he obtained the absolution of his holiness. 
 
 Finding himself the object of the king's displeasure, he attempted 
 to escape to France, upon which Henry summoned a parliament at 
 Northampton, in 1165, and charged him with breaking his allegiance. 
 He wa3 sentenced to forfeit all his goods and chattels ; a penalty which 
 was immediately commuted into a fine of 5001. Next morning he was 
 ordered to refund 300/. of the rents which he had received as warden 
 of Eye and Berkhamstead, and 500/. which he had received from the 
 king before the walls of Toulouse. On the third day he was requested 
 to give an account of all his receipts from vacant abbeys and bishoprics 
 during his chancellorship ; the balance due to the crown was said to 
 be 44,000 marks. Becket appealed to the pope in vain, and his epis- 
 copal brethren deserted, abused, and opposed him. During the trial, 
 when many of his retainers left him, he invited all the beggars in the 
 neighbourhood to his table ; and on another occasion he entered the 
 parliament carrying the cross, to signify that he had put himself 
 under its protection, and refused to listen to the sentence of parliament. 
 When all went against him, he escaped from Northampton by night, 
 and after lurking some time on the coast, embarked at Sandwich in 
 Kent, on the 10th of November, 1164, and reached Gravelines in 
 Holland. After several changes, he lived for nearly two years* at 
 Pontigny in France. During the whole of his retirement he occupied 
 himself in religious exercises. 
 
 On his escape Henry confiscated his revenues, and used all his 
 influence to get him banished from Flanders and France. The king ol 
 France and the pope however took up the cause of Becket, though 
 Henry sent a splendid embassy of bishops and nobles to advocate his 
 cause at the court of Rome. In an interview with his holiness, Becket 
 resigned his see into his hands, which was immediately restored to 
 him. He now wrote to the king and the prelates of England, telling 
 them that the pope had annulled the ' Constitutions of Clarendon,' 
 and he excommunicated several violaters of the rights of the church, 
 not sparing some of the principal officers of the crown. Exasperated 
 at his daring, Henry erased his, name from the liturgy ; banished all 
 his relations to the number of 400, binding them by oath to show 
 themselves to their kinsman ; forced the Cistercian monks to turn him 
 out of the shelter they gave him, by threatening to seize their property 
 in England; and made it a criminal offence to write or correspond with 
 him in any way. Becket, on his part, wrote letters of severe recrimina- 
 tion to the prelates of England ; and about the beginning of June 
 1166, prepared himself by religious rites for the excommunication of 
 the English king, which he was only prevented from carrying into 
 effect by hearing of his dangerous illness. After this, having obtained 
 the legatine power of all England, except the see of York, he found 
 means, in spite of the watchfulness of the king's emissaries at all the 
 English ports, to send letters to the bishop of London, commanding 
 him to publish his appointment, and to go over on pain of excommu- 
 nication with all the rest of the prelates to France, and tender their 
 obedience to their legate. The terrified bishop implored the king to 
 permit his compliance ; but the king, it is said, produced secret letters 
 from the pope, nullifying the authority of Becket. 
 
 Several of the French and English nobles, the bishops of the province 
 of Canterbury, the pope and the king of France tried to reconcile 
 Becket and Henry ; but the obstinacy of the former in refusing to 
 make an unconditional submission, and of the latter in upholding his 
 innovations, rendered all their negociations useless. They met them- 
 selves, for the purpose, three times. The second interview failed 
 because the king refused Becket the kiss of peace. Next year Henry 
 ordered the ceremony of crowning his son, Prince Henry, a prerogative 
 of the archbishop of Canterbury, to be performed by the archbishop 
 of York. When Becket complained to the pope, the archbishop of 
 York and all the prelates who assisted him were suspended. 
 
 At length, in 1170, a reconciliation took place at Freitville on the 
 borders of Touraice, when the king restored Becket to his see with 
 all its privileges, and held the bridle of the archbishop's horse while 
 he mounted and dismounted. Becket entered Canterbury amidst the 
 shouts of the people. But after all his sufferings he was rash enough 
 to publish the suspension of the archbishop of York and all the 
 bishops who had assisted at Prince Henry's coronation ; and the king, 
 who was then in Normandy, is said to have expressed his vcxatiop 
 
aw 
 
 BECKFORD, WILLIAM. 
 
 BECQUEREL, ANTOINE CESAR, 
 
 e06 
 
 that none of his followers had revenged him on this insolent priest. 
 Reginald Fitzurse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Moreville, and Richard 
 Brito, four barons, accordingly formed a resolution either to effect the 
 submission or the death of the archbishop. They set out by different 
 routes, and met on the 28th of December 1170 at Ranulp de Broc's 
 castle, six miles from Canterbury, where they formed their plan. 
 Early next morning they entered Canterbury with a body of men, 
 whom they stationed at different places to keep down the citizens. 
 They had an interview with the archbishop in his palace in the morn- 
 ing, when high words passed between them ; and in the evening they 
 entered the cathedral while Becket and some of his clergy were at 
 vespers. When the alarm was given some of the priests would have 
 shut the door, but Becket would not let them " make a castle of a 
 church." He boldly faced the conspirators, and replied to their threats 
 by declaring that he wa3 willing to die, and earnestly charging them 
 not to hurt any one but himself. The assassins trying to drag him 
 out of the church, he clung to a pillar near the high altar, collared 
 De Tracy, and almost threw him down. De Tracy aimed a blow at 
 him, which slightly wounded him, but broke the arm of Edward 
 Grimes, his crossbearer. The archbishop then putting himself in a 
 devout posture, the blows of the other assassins clove his skull and 
 scattered his brains over the pavement. 
 
 After the murder the assassins retired to Knaresborough, and soon 
 found themselves shunned by every one. They all ended their days as 
 penitents at Jerusalem, but there is room to doubt the sincerity of 
 the penitence of more than one of them. The pope suspended divine 
 service in the cathedral for a year. Two years afterwards Becket was 
 canonised. In 1221 his body was taken up in presence of Henry III., 
 and deposited in a rich shrine on the east side of the church. It 
 became the resort of pilgrims, and numerous miracles were said to 
 be performed at the spot ; but the shrine was despoiled at the refor- 
 mation of Henry VIII., and the saint's name erased from the 
 calendar. 
 
 Becket's letters were published under the following title : — 1 Epi3- 
 tolae et Vita Divi Thomae Martyris et Archiepiscopi Cautvarieusis,' 
 4c, Bruxella;, ICO I. 
 
 BECKFORD, WILLIAM, celebrated for his great wealth, talents, 
 and eccentricities, was the only legitimate child of Alderman Beckford, 
 of London, who died on the 21st of June 1770, in his second mayoralty, 
 within a month after his famous exhihition at court, when, after pre- 
 senting a city address to George III., and having received his Majesty's 
 answer, he made the reply which may be read on his monument in 
 Guildhall. The alderman had several natural sons, to each of whom 
 he left a legacy of 5000Z. ; but the bulk of his property, which con- 
 sisted chiefly of large estates in Jamaica, and also of the estate of 
 Fonthill, near Hindon, in Wiltshire, went to his son by his wife, who 
 was then a boy about nine years old, and is said to have come into a 
 revenue exceeding 100,000/. He had already, before his father's 
 death, attracted notice among the alderman's distinguished friends 
 and visitors by his liveliness and intellectual precocity; and the 
 promise thus given was fulfilled by a little work which he published 
 in 1780, entitled 'Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters,' 
 which was in fact a satire upon certain living English artists, and the 
 common slang of connoiseurship. He had visited Paris, and mixed in 
 the society of that capital, in 1778, when he met Voltaire, who gave 
 him his blessing; but he set out on what was properly his first conti- 
 nental tour in June 1780, and traversed, between that date and May 
 1781, part of Flanders, Holland, Germany, and Italy. In 1782 ho 
 made a seoond visit to Italy, and in 1787 another to Portugal and 
 Spain. Meanwhile he had, in 1783, married the Lady Margaret 
 Gordon, daughter of Charles, fourth earl of Aboyne, and had in the 
 following year been returned to parliament as one of the members for 
 Wells. In 1784 he published his remarkable Arabian tale of ' Vathek,' 
 in French. More than fifty years afterwards he stated that he wrote 
 the work at one sitting. " It took me," he said, " three days and two 
 nights of hard labour. I never took off my clothes the whole time. 
 This severe application made me very ill." (' Recollections of the 
 Author of Vathek,' by Cyrus Redding, in the 'New Monthly Magazine' 
 for 1844.) An English translation of the work afterwards appeared, 
 the author of which Beckford said he never knew; he thought it 
 tolerably well done. In the next parliament, which began in 1790, he 
 sat for Hindon; but in 1794 he accepted the Chiltern Hundreds, 
 and again went abroad. He now fixed himself in Portugal, where 
 he purchased an estate near Ciutra, and built the sumptuous mansion, 
 the desertion and desolation of which, some years afterwards, Byron 
 has described in the first canto of his ' Childe Harold,' in the lines 
 beginning — 
 
 " There thou, too, Vathek ! England's wealthiest son, 
 Once form'd thy paradise." 
 
 On his return to England he occupied himself with the embellish- 
 ment of his house at Fonthill ; but in 1801 all the splendid furniture 
 was sold by auction, and this dispersion was followed the next year by 
 a similar sale in London of the proprietor's collection of pictures. 
 These proceedings however were only preliminary to the commence- 
 ment of a much more magnificent collection of books, pictures, curiosi- 
 ties, rarities, bijouterie, and other products of art or ingenuity, and 
 the erection of a new building at Fonthill, the most conspicuous 
 feature of which was a tower above 2G0 feet high. Mr. Beckford 
 
 continued to reside chiefly at Fonthill till 182%, when he sold his 
 estate and house there, with all the contents' of the latter, to 
 Mr. Farquhar, for, it was understood, the sum of 350,000/. His out- 
 lay upon the property had been, according to his owu account, about 
 2/3,000/., scattered over sixteen or eighteen years. Soon after this the 
 great tower, which had been hastily and slightly constructed, and not 
 long finished, fell to the ground. Mr. Beckford now retired to Bath, 
 where he erected another lofty building on the eminence called 
 Lansdowne, to the north of that city. Till now his literary repu- 
 tation with the general public had rested on his early tale of 'Vathek- ' 
 but in 1834, after an interval of fifty years, he again appeared as an 
 author by the publication of an account of his first continental tour 
 (in 1780), in a series of letters under the title of 'Italy, with Sketches 
 of Spain and Portugal,' 2 vols, 8vo, London. The vivacity, polished 
 sarcasm, and graphic power of these letters were instantly and keenly 
 felt ; and their appearance from the press was followed the same year 
 by the re-publication of the ' Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters,' and 
 the next by another volume entitled 'Recollections of an Excursion to 
 the Monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha' (in Portugal), made in June 
 1794. From this time Mr. Beckford continued to live in retirement 
 till his death, on the 2nd of May 1844. 
 
 BECKMANN, JOHANN, was born at Hoya, a small town in the 
 kingdom of Hanover, iu the year 1739. He went to the school at Stade, 
 and afterwards to the university of Gottingen, where he at first studied 
 theology, but soon acquired a taste for natural philosophy and 
 chemistry. In 1763 he was made professor of natural philosophy and 
 history, at the Lutheran gymnasium, St. Petersburg. This place he 
 resigned in 1705, and made a journey through Sweden, during which 
 he became acquainted with Linnaeus, and obtained a considerable 
 knowledge of the working of the mines in Sweden. On his return to 
 Germany, he was appointed professor of philosophy at Gottingen in 
 1766, and four years afterwards (1770) ordinary professor of economy 
 at the same university, which office he held till his death in 1811. 
 Beckmann united an extensive knowledge of nature with a decided 
 turn for applying it to practical purposes ; and he published several 
 works which show this tendency of his mind: among others, 'Prin- 
 ciples of German Agriculture,' which passed through six editions; 
 and a ' Technology,' which was reprinted five times. Of his other 
 works,_ the most remarkable are, ' Contributions to the History of 
 Inventions,' which, somewhat shortened, has been translated into 
 English; and 'Introduction to the Science of Commerce.' He also 
 published an edition of the work attributed to Aristotle, entitled * De 
 Mirabilibus,' and an edition of the 'Collection of Wonderful Histories' 
 by Antigonus Carystius. 
 
 BECMAN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH, historian and geographer, was 
 born at Zerbst in Anhalt, September 2, 1641. Having finished his 
 earlier studies at Frankfurt, he travelled through Germany, Holland, 
 and England. He afterwards returned to Frankfurt, where he was 
 made, in 1667, professor of Greek in the university there, and after- 
 wards professor of history. In 1673 he became librarian to the uni- 
 versity, and was chosen professor of theology in 1690. He died at 
 Frankfurt, March 6th, 1717. His chief works are : ' Historia Orbis 
 Terrarum geographica et civilis,' 4to., Frankfurt ad Od. 1673, several 
 times reprinted, the third edition appeared at Leipsic in 1685; 
 'Memoranda Francofurtana,' 4to, Frank, ad Od. 1676; ' Catalogus 
 Bibliothecae publicte Universitatis Fraukofurtanse.per cognomina aucto- 
 rum dispositus,' fol. Frank, ad Viad. 1706; ' Notitia Universitatis 
 FrankofurtanaV fol. Frank, ad Viad. 1707; 'Historia Anhaltina,' vii. 
 part. fol. Zerbst, 1710, with numerous plates; 'Accessiones Historise 
 Anhaltinae,' with a continuation of the history of the principality 
 from 1709 to 1716, 3 vols. fol. 1716; 'Historia Francofurtana,' fol. 
 
 *BECQUEREL, ANTOINE CESAR, an eminent French physicist, 
 was born on the 7th of March 1788 at Chatillon-sur-Loing, in the 
 department of the Loiret. At the age of eighteen he entered the 
 Ecole Poly technique, and left it in 1808, officer of engineers, in which 
 capacity he served with the imperial troops iu Spain from 1810 to 1812. 
 He particularly distinguished himself at the siege of Tarragona, where 
 he led an attacking column to the assault of fort Francoli. In 1813 he 
 went through the campaign of France, attached to the staff, and 
 retired in 1815 with the rank of major, to devote himself thence- 
 forth exclusively to scientific pursuits. Among his first publications, 
 in 1819, was an account of his mineralogical and geological researches 
 on the calcareous carbonates; soon however to be succeeded by 
 investigations into the phenomena of electricity, which engaged his 
 whole attention. 
 
 While studying the physical properties of yellow amber, Becquerel 
 had occasion to make experiments on the liberation of electricity by 
 pressure ; and this became the point of departure of his physical 
 researches. He next investigated the development of electricity as 
 observed in all chemical action, and explained the laws of the effects 
 produced. These inquiries led him to overturn Volta's theory of 
 contact, to construct the first constant pile ; and afterwards to the 
 phenomena of thermo-electricity. In this latter branch of science he 
 discovered a very simple method for determining the internal tempera- 
 ture of human and animal bodies, without sensible hurt; and from 
 numerous physiological applications of this method, he demonstrated 
 that, when a muscle contracts, there is a development of heat. 
 Becquerel is moreover one of the creators of electro-chemistry. In 1828 
 
607 BED A. 
 
 he Lad begun to apply that science — then, so to speak, new — in the re- 
 production of mineral substances, and in the treatment, by the humid 
 way, of the ores of silver, lead, and copper. Among the substances 
 which he obtained by slow electric action are aluminum, silicium, 
 glucium, and many others, including phosphates, carbonates, sulphu- 
 rets, iodurets, &c. And to Mm we owe that method of electric colora- 
 tion on gold, silver, and copper, which has since been adopted in 
 the arts. 
 
 Becquerel's object in electro chemistry has been to establish the 
 relations existing between electrical affinities and forces, and to provoke 
 the action of the first in virtue of the second. Gilding and plating, 
 by the humid way, as well as electrotype, aro only different applica- 
 tions of electro-chemistry. Among the other works of this dis- 
 tinguished savant, we may mention his researches on the electric 
 conductibility of metals, on galvanometers, on the electric properties 
 of tourmaline, on atmospheric electricity, on effects produced during 
 vegetation, on an electro-magnetic balance for measuring with exact- 
 itude the intensity of electric currents, and on the use of sea-salt in 
 agriculture. That these are but a few of the whole may be judged 
 of from the fact that Becquerel has contributed more than a hundred 
 papers to the 'Mdmoires de 1' Academic des Sciences,' at Paris. 
 
 Such labours were not likely to pass unrecognised. Becquerel was 
 elected a member of the Acaddmie in 1829, and a foreign member of 
 the Royal Society of London iu 1837. In the same year the society 
 gave him their Copley medal, for his "various memoirs on the Bubject 
 of Electricity." He was chosen into the Council-General of the Loiret 
 in 1847, in which he has brought his scientific knowledge to bear on 
 the questions discussed, particularly that on the improvement of 
 Sologne ; and his reports to tho Acaddmie have influenced and guided 
 the government in their works of amelioration. 
 
 Becquerel is also one of the professors administrators of the Museum 
 of Natural History. Besides the papers above mentioned, numerous 
 others are printed in the ' Annales de Physique et de Chiniie.' His 
 'Traitd de l'Electricitd etdu Magndtisme,' in 7 vols., appeared 1834-40; 
 and he has published a "Traite" d'Electro-Chimie ; ' ' Traitd de Phy- 
 sique considered dans ses rapports avec la Chimie et les Sciences 
 Naturelhs,' 2 vols. ; ' Des Climats, et de l'Influence des Sols boisds et 
 ddboisds ; ' 'Traite" de Physique terrestre et de Mdtdorologie,' &c. 
 
 In this last-mentioned work, Becquerel has been assisted by the 
 younger of his two sons, Alexander Edmond, who, born in 1820, has 
 greatly distinguished himself in physical science, and is now professor 
 of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. 
 
 BEDA, or BEDE, an English monk, one of the brightest ornaments 
 of the 8th century, and one of the most eminent fathers of the English 
 church, whose talents and virtues procured him the name of the 
 ' Venerable Bede.' There has been considerable difference of opinion 
 among writers both as to the year and the place of Bede's birth. The 
 year is variously given from 672 to 677 ; but the most probable date 
 is 673, or, as Stevenson labours to prove, 674. His birthplace was 
 somewhere upon the estates which afterwards belonged to the two 
 abbeys of St. Peter and St. Paul in the bishopric of Durham, at Wear- 
 mouth and Jarrow, near the mouth of the river Tyne. Monkton by 
 Jarrow, near the mouth of the Tyne, is the locality usually adopted; 
 but Lingard and some others consider that Sunderland, at the mouth 
 of the Wear, has the better claim. At seven years of age he was taken 
 to the monastery of St. Peter at Wearmouth, and committed to the 
 cai e of Abbot Benedict Biscop, under whom and his successor Ceolfrid 
 he was carefully educated for twelve years, a favour which he after- 
 wards repaid by writing their lives. In his nineteenth year he took 
 deacon's orders, and in his thirtieth year, at the instance of Ceolfrid 
 his abbot, was ordained priest, both times by John of Beverley, then 
 bishop of Hagustald, or Hexham, who had been one of his early pre- 
 ceptors. The fame of Bede now reached even to Rome, and Pope 
 Sergius, according to a letter inserted by William of Malmesbury in 
 his 'English History,' made an earnest application to Abbot Ceolfrid 
 that Bede might be sent to assist him in the promulgation of certain 
 points of ecclesiastical discipline. Mr. Stevenson doubts the accuracy 
 of this statement, and on the authority of an ancient copy of this 
 letter among the Cotton manuscripts, in which the name of Bede does 
 not occur, charges Malmesbury with having interpolated Bede's name. 
 Be that as it may, Bede did not either then or at any subsequent period 
 go to Rome, but spent the whole of his tranquil life in his monastery, 
 improving himself in all the learning of his age, but directing his 
 more particular attention to the compilation of an 'Ecclesiastical 
 History of the English Nation,' the materials for which he obtained 
 partly from chronicles, partly from annals preserved in contemporary 
 convents, and partly from the information of prelates with whom he 
 was acquainted. Making allowance for the introduction of legendary 
 matter, which was the fault of the age, few works have supported their 
 credit so long, or been bo generally consulted as authentic sources. 
 Bede published this history about the year 734, when, as he informs 
 us, he was in his fifty-ninth year, but before this he had written 
 many other books on various subjects, a catalogue of which he sub- 
 joined to his history. By these he obtained such reputation as to 
 be consulted by the most eminent churchmen of his age, and par- 
 ticularly by Egbert, archbishop of York, who was himself a very learned 
 man. To him Bede wrote an epistle which illustrates the state of 
 the church at that time. It w.is one of the last, and indeed probably 
 
 BEDA. cos 
 
 the very last, of Bede's writings. In this letter he expresses himself 
 with much freedom, both in the advice he gave to Egbert, and with 
 respect to the inconveniences which he foresaw would arise from the 
 multiplication of religious houses, to the prejudice both of church 
 
 and state. 
 
 It appears from this epistle that Bede was much indisposed when 
 ho wrote it, and probably began to fall into that declining state of 
 health from which he never recovered. William of Malmesbury, in hia 
 history (' De Gcstis Regum,' lib. hi., c. hi.), and Symeon of Durham, in 
 his account of the Church of Durham (lib. L, c. xv.), chiefly from the 
 relation of one Cuthbert, a fellow monk, have preserved full accounts 
 of the manner in which Bede died : whence we learn that the last stage 
 of his distemper was an asthma, which he supported with great firm- 
 ness of mind, although in much weakness and pain, for seven weeks, 
 during which time he did not in the least abate his usual employments 
 in the monastery, but continued to pray, to instruct the younger monks, 
 and to prosecute the literary undertakings which were still in his hands. 
 In the nights of his sickness, in which from the nature of his disease 
 he had little sleep, he sung hymns and praises to God; and though he 
 expressed the utmost confidence, and was able, on a review of his own 
 conduct, to declare seriously that he had so lived as not to be afraid 
 to die, yet he did not deny his apprehensions of death, and that dread 
 which is natural to man at the approach of his dissolution. He was 
 continually active to the last, and particularly anxious about two works ; 
 one his translation of St. John's Gospel into the Saxon language, the 
 other some passages which he was extracting from the works of St. 
 Isidore. From the monks' relation it appears that the day before hia 
 death he grew much worse, and his feet began to swell, yet he passed 
 the night as usual, and continued dictating to the person who acted 
 as his amanuensis, who, observing his weakness, said, " There remains 
 now only one chapter, but it seems difficult to you to speak." To 
 which he answered, " It is easy ; take your pen, mend it, and write 
 quickly."* About nine o'clock he sent for some of his brethren, priests 
 of the monastery, to divide amongst them some incense and other 
 things of little value, which he had preserved in a chest. While he 
 was speaking the young man, Wilberch, who wrote for him, said, 
 " Master, there is but one sentence wanting;" upon which he bid him 
 write quick, and soon after the scribe said, " Now it is finished." To 
 which he replied, "Thou hast said the truth— consummatum est. 
 Take up my head ; I wish to sit opposite to the place where I have 
 been accustomed to pray, and where now sitting I may yet invoke my 
 Father." Being thus Beated, according to his desire, upon the floor of 
 hjs cell, he said, " Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the 
 Holy Ghost ;" and as he pronounced the last word he expired. He 
 died, according to the best opinion, May 26th, 735, though the exact 
 date has been contested. His body was interred in the church of his 
 own monastery at Jarrow, but about the middle of the 11th century 
 it was removed to Durham, and placed in the same coffin or chest with 
 that of St. Cuthbert, as appears by a very ancient Saxon poem on the 
 relics preserved in the cathedral of Durham, printed at the end of 
 Symeon of Durham's history. (Twysden's ' Decern Scriptores,' col. 32.) 
 Early in the 12th century the bones of Bede were placed by Bishop 
 Pudsey in a casket of gold and silver in the Galilee of the cathedral, 
 where they remained till removed with other relics by the reformers. 
 
 Malmesbury says : — " With this man was buried almost all know- 
 ledge of history down to our times ; inasmuch as there has been no 
 Englishman either emulous of his pursuits, or a follower of his graces, 
 who could continue the thread of his discourses now broken short." 
 
 The first catalogue of Bede's works, as we have before observed, we 
 have from himself, at the end of his ' Ecclesiastical History,' which 
 contains all he had written before the year 731. This we find copied 
 by Leland, who also mentions some other pieces he had met with of 
 Bede's, and points out likewise several that parsed under Bede's name, 
 though, in Leland's judgment, spurious. (Leland, ' De Script. Brit,' 
 ed. Hall, Oxford, 1709, torn. i. p. 115.) Bale, in the first edition of his 
 work on British writers (4to, Gippesw. 1548, fol. 50), mentions ninety- 
 six treatises written by Bede, and in his last edition (foL 1559, p. 94) 
 swells these to one hundred and forty-five tracts ; and declares at the 
 close of both catalogues that there were numberless pieces besides of 
 Bede's which he had not seen. Pits has enlarged even this catalogue : 
 it is hardly necessary to say that the appropriation of many of them 
 .is quite arbitrary. 
 
 The 'Historia Ecclesiastica ' was printed for the first time about 
 1474, in the type which passes for that of Conrad Fyner of Esling ; a 
 copy of it is preserved in the Bibliotheque du Roi at Paris, and there 
 is another copy in the library which the Right Honourable Thomas 
 Grenville bequeathed to the British Museum. It is a volume of extreme 
 
 * " Accipe tuum calamum, tempera, et scribe velociter." The reader who 
 may be desirous to arrive at the exact meaning of this passage (one of soma 
 interest in an antiquarian point of view, and which has been differently ren- 
 dered by almost every translator), will find it amply discussed and illustrated 
 with much curious learning in vols, x., xi., and xii. of ' Notes and Queries;' 
 but the learned annotators appear to be quite unuble to agree as to the literal 
 meaning. The most feasible suggestion, if the above rendering be objected to, 
 is that of Sir Emerson Tennant, that ' atramentum ' is to be understood, and 
 that consequently instead of ' mending your pen,' it should be ' moisten your 
 ink ' — the ink being kept, as it is at present where reed pens are used, either 
 dry or as a paste. 
 
6C9 BEDDOES, THOMAS. 
 
 rarity. King Alfred translated this history into Saxon, and the royal 
 version, accompanied by the original Latin, was published first by 
 Wbeloe, fol. Cambr., 1G44, and subsequently by Dr. Smith, canon of 
 Durham, with greater care, fol. Cambr., 1722. An English translation 
 of this history was first published at Antwerp in 1565, by Thomas 
 Stapleton, a doctor of divinity of the University of Louvaiu; another 
 and better translation by John Stevens was published, 8vo, Loud., 
 1723, immediately after the publication of Dr. Smith's edition ; and 
 others have since appeared, translated by the Kev. William Hurst, 
 Dr. Giles, &c. The best edition of the Latin text is that published by 
 the English Historical Society in 1838, under the care of Mr. Joseph 
 Stevenson, who added a valuable Life of Bede and Introduction to the 
 History. 
 
 The first general collection of Bede's works was published at Paris 
 in 1544, in three volumes folio. They were printed again at the 
 same place in eight volumes folio, in 1554 ; and subsequently at Basel 
 and Cologne. The ' Complete Works of Venerable Bede,' edite 1 by 
 Dr. Giles, with a new Life by the Editor, was published in Loudon in 
 12 vols. 8vo, 1S42, &c. Those treatises of Bede's which are mentioned 
 in his own catalogue of his works were published by the learned and 
 industrious Mr. Wharton, from three manuscripts in the valuable 
 library in the archiepiscopal palace at Lambeth, under the title of 
 ' Beda Venerabilis Opera quaedam Theologica, nunc primiim edita, 
 necnon Historica antea semel edita. Accesserunt Egberti archiepiscopi 
 Eboi acensis Dialogus de Ecclesiastica Iustitutioue, et Adhelmi Episeopi 
 Sareburnensi Liber de Virgiuitate, ex codice antiquissimo emendatus,' 
 4to, Lond., 1693. 
 
 (Stevenson, Life, and Introduction, and other works already quoted; 
 Syuieon of Durham, Uistoria Eecleske Danelmensis ; Gehle, Disputatio 
 Historicotheologka, de Bedce Venerabilis; Giles, Life and Works of 
 Venerable Bede; Wright, Biographia Britannica Lilcraria, Anglo- 
 Saxon Period ; Tanner, Bibliotheca Britannico-Htbernica, &c.) 
 
 BEDDOES, THOMAS, a distinguished physician, was born at 
 Shiffuall, in Shropshire, in April 1700. His fattier, who was a tanner, 
 wished to bring up his sou to the same business, but his grandfather, 
 perceiving the abilities which he early manifested, prevailed upon his 
 father to educate him for some profession. An accident which befell 
 his grandfather, and required the attendance of a surgeon, determined 
 young Beddoes to study medicine. In 1770 he entered at Pembroke 
 College, Oxford, and soon became distinguished for his learning, and 
 his acquaintance with languages, both ancient and modern : in the 
 latter he was entirely self-instructed. During his residence at the 
 university he also devoted much of his time to botany, geology, and 
 mineralogy, and especially to chemistry. He early formed high 
 expectations of the uses of the discoveries in chemistry made by 
 Black and Priestley as applied to th a treatment of diseases, and had 
 that direction given to his mind which ever afterwards induced him 
 to trust greatly to pneumatic medicine. Having, in 1781, taken his 
 Bachelor's degree, he proceeded to London to study medicine, and 
 became a pupil of the celebrated Sheldon. 
 
 In 17S4, while residing in London, he published, but without his 
 name, a translation of Spallanzaui's 'Disertatious on Natural History.' 
 In the autumn of 1784 he removed to Edinburgh, where he spent two 
 winters and one summer. He was greatly distinguished among the 
 students, and attracted the notice of Dr. Culleu, by whom he was 
 employed to add notes to his translation of Bergman's ' Essay 3 on 
 Elective Attractions,' to which work Beddoes affixed his name. 
 
 In 1786 he took hi3 degree of Doctor of Medicine at Oxford ; and 
 in the course of the following summer visited France, where he 
 became acquainted with Lavoisier and other celebrated chemists. On 
 l.is return from the continent he was appointed reader in ch -mistry to 
 the University of Oxford, where he maintained the current doctrines 
 of the day with much learning, ingenuity, and eloquence. In 1790 
 he published ' Chemical Experiments and Opinions,' extracted from a 
 work published in the last century, in which he endeavoured to obtain 
 justice for the views and discoveries of Dr. Mayow in pn umatic 
 ch' mistry. Beddoes having eagerly adopted the views of the partisans 
 of the French revolution, the freedom with which he express* d his 
 opinions gave so much offence to the superiors of the University of 
 Oxford as to render his residence there no longer agreeable. Some of 
 his religious opinions probably also contributed to determine him to 
 resign his readership in chemistry, which he gave up in 1792. 
 
 Upon retiring from Oxford he went to reside with a friend in 
 Shropshire, where he wrote a work, entitled ' History of Isaac 
 Jenkins,' intended to check drunkenness ; also several medical works, 
 in which he embodied his peculiar views regarding the origin and 
 treatment of several diseases. The attempts which had been made to 
 maintain the soundness of the basis of the humoral pathology as the 
 universal cause of diseases, served rather to show the inaccuracy of 
 the theory than to add to the number of believers in it. The appli- 
 cation of chemistry to the investigation of the composition of the 
 fluids of the human body, and the different condition of these fluids 
 which it demonstrated to exist in diliorent states of disiase, seemed 
 to furnish new lacts in its favour. Beddoes, with that zeal which 
 marked all his actions, stepped forward as its advocate, and referred 
 all di-eases to the predominance or deficiency of some elemental y 
 principle. The remedies which he proposed for the cure of various 
 dista-en were in conformity with these views. He did not rest content 
 00. OIV. VOL. L 
 
 BEDELL, WILLIAM. 610 
 
 with writing in support of his views, but sought an opportunity of 
 testing them by experiment, and ultimately fixed on Bristol for the 
 scene of his pneumatic hospital. In 1798 a pneumatic institution 
 was established, in effecting which object Dr. Beddoes was materially 
 assisted by Mr. Richard Lovell Edgeworth, one of whose daughters 
 he had married in 1794, and Mr. Gregory Watt. His publications at 
 this time almost all refer to peculiar views respecting the possibility of 
 curing diseases by breathing a medicated atmosphere. The results did 
 not correspond with his expectations ; but the undertaking was the 
 means of bringing into notice the talents of Sir Humphry Davy, who 
 was recommended to Dr Beddoes by Mr. Gregory Watt, as a fit person 
 to superintend the chemical laboratory connected with the institution. 
 The first discoveries of this eminent chemist were given to the world 
 in a publication which came from Beddoe's Institution. (' Contribu- 
 tions to Me.lical and Physical Knowledge from the West of England ' 
 Bristol, 1799.) Many publications of Dr. Beddoes about this time 
 referred to the political topics of the day, in which he always embraced 
 the liberal side of the question. His prinefpal medical publications 
 after this date were — a ' Popular Essay on Consumption,' 1779, advo- 
 cating of course the author's peculiar doctrines, but containing also 
 many valuable remarks on the predisposing causes and means of pre- 
 venting that disease; 'Hygeia, or Essays Moral and Medical,' which is 
 a popular treatise on the ' Causes of Diseases,' and the means of 
 avoiding them, 3 vols., 8vo, 1802. He also wrote at an earlier date a 
 work on 'Demonstrative Evidence,' 1792. 'An Essay on Fever' was 
 written in 1807, with many others of less note, which he continued to 
 publish in rapid succession till December 1808, when, in consequence 
 of an affection of the heart, he died, in the 48th year of his age. 
 
 (Stock, Life of Beddoes, 1 vol., 4to, London, 1810.) 
 
 BEDELL, WILLIAM, Bishop of Kilmore in Ireland, one of the 
 most exemplary prelates of the 17th century, was descended from a 
 good family, and was born in the year 1570, at Black Notley in Essex. 
 He was matriculated a pensioner of Emanuel College, Cambridge, 
 March 12, 1584. He entered early into holy orders. In 1593 he was 
 chosen Fellow of his college, and in 1599 took the degree of Bachelor 
 in Divinity. He then removed from the university to St. Edmunds- 
 bury in Suffolk, where he had a church, to the duties of which he 
 assiduously attended, till an opportunity offered, about 1604, for his 
 going a3 chaplain to Sir Henry Wottou, the English ambassador to 
 Venice. While in that city he became acquainted with Father Paul 
 Sarpi, who took him into his confidence, and taught him the Italian 
 language, of which Bedell became so perfect a master that he trans- 
 lated into that tongue the English ' Common Prayer Book,' which was 
 extremely well received by many of the clergy there. In return for 
 the favours he received from Father Paul, Mr. Bedell drew up an 
 ' English Grammar ' for his use. He continued eight years in Venice, 
 during which time he not only studied the Hebrew langua-e, but 
 entered deeply into rabbinical learning, under Rabbi Leo. 
 
 On his return to England, Mr. Bedell retired immediately to his 
 charge at St. Edmundsbury, where he continued his ministerial 
 labours, employing himself at the same time in translating into Latin 
 the ' Histories of the Interdkt and Inquisition,' and the last two 
 books of the ' History of the Council of Trent,' Sir Adam Newton 
 haviug translated the first two. In 1615 Sir Thomas Jermyn, a 
 Suffolk gentleman, presented him to the living of Horningsheath ; 
 but he found difficulties in obtaining institution aud induction, 
 Dr. Jegon, bishop of Norwich, requiring fees on the occasion so large, 
 that Bedell considered the demand to partake of simony, and refused 
 to pay anything beyond the expense of parchment, writing, and wax. 
 In a few days the bishop scut for him, aud gave him institution with- 
 out the charge of fees. Here Bedell continued twelve years, and 
 during that time published aud dedicated to the Prince of Wales 
 (afterwards Charles I.), 'The Copies of Certain Letters which have 
 passed between Spain aud England in matter of Religion, concerning 
 the General Motives to the Roman Obedience, between Mr. James 
 Waddesworth, a late pensioner of the Holy Inquisition in Sevil, aud 
 W. Bedell, a minister of the Gospel of Jesus Christ in Suffolk,' 8vo, 
 London, 1624; afterwards reprinted by Bishop Burnet in 1685, at the 
 end of Bishop Bedell's life. 
 
 Various causes appear to have delayed the reward which Bedell's 
 merits deserved. He was a Calvinist, says Burnet, in the matter of 
 decrees and grace, aud preferments were generally at that time 
 bestowed upon those who held opposite opinions. Bedell's fame how- 
 ever had reached Ireland, and in 1627 he was elected provost of 
 Trinity College, Dublin - a charge which he refused to undertake till 
 the king laid his positive commands upon him, which he obeyed, and 
 on August 1 6th of that year was sworn provost. He held this office 
 about two years, when he was advanced to the united sees of Kilmoi-e 
 and Ardagh, aud consecrated on the 13th of September 1629, in the 
 59th year of his ago. During his short residence at Trinity College 
 he did much towards the restoration of order in the college, which on 
 his arrival he found in a very unsettled state. He also revised and 
 improved the college statutes, aud introduced prayers iu Irish, and a 
 lecture in the chapel of the university. ('Journal of Education,' 
 Nos. XI. aud XII.) On going to his diocese, he found it, says Burnet, 
 under so many disorders, that there was scarce a sound part remaining. 
 The revenue was wasted by excessive dilapidations, and all sacred 
 thhi"s had been exposed to sale in so sordid a manner that it was 
 
 2 R 
 
811 
 
 BEDFORD, DUKE OF. 
 
 BEDFORD, DUKE OF. 
 
 612 
 
 grown to a proverb. He found too the oppression of the ecclesiastical 
 courts excessive, and pluralities and non-residence shamefully pre- 
 vailing. All thes'i abuses ho determined to rectify ; and having 
 recovered a sufficient portion of the lauds of which his sees had been 
 dispossessed, to enable him to subsist, he set an example for the 
 reformation of further abuses by resigning (in 1G30) the bishopric of 
 Ardagh, which he had the satisfaction to see followed in other instances. 
 
 Upon the arrival of the lord-deputy Wentworth, in 1633, Bishop 
 Bedell fell under his displeasure on account of a petition sent up by 
 the county of Cavan, which the bishop had signed, and in which some 
 complaints were made of, and some regulations proposed for the 
 army. A reconciliation however took place, and the lord-deputy 
 received him into favour. He then went on cheerfully in doing what 
 he considered his duty for the benefit of the church, and was very 
 successful. He loved the Christian power of a bishop, without affecting 
 either political authority or pomp. Whatever he did was so visibly 
 for the good of his flock, that he seldom failed of being well sup- 
 ported by his clergy, and such as opposed him did it with visible 
 reluctance, for he had the esteem of the good men of all parties. Iu 
 September 1038 he convened a synod, in which he made many excel- 
 lent canons that are still extant; but offence was taken at this by 
 some who were in power, and were at first disposed to call in question 
 the legality of the meeting. 
 
 One of his most remarkable innovations was the removing his lay- 
 chancellor, and takiug upon himself to sit in his own courts, hearing 
 causes, and retrieving thereby the jurisdiction which anciently 
 belouged to a bishop. The chancellor upon this filed his bill in equity, 
 and obtained a decree in chancery against the bishop, with 1001. costs. 
 But, by this time, the chancellor saw so visibly the difference between 
 the bishop's sitting iu that seat and his own, that he never called for 
 his costs, but appointed a surrogate, with orders to obey the bishop in 
 everything, and so his lordship went on his own way. 
 
 Though no persecutor, Bedell laboured to convert the better sort of 
 the popish clergy, and in this he had great success. He procured the 
 Common-Prayer, which had been translated into Irish, and caused it 
 to be read iu the cathedral in his own presence every Sunday. The 
 New Testament had been also translated from the Greek into Irish, 
 by William Daniel, afterwards archbishop of Tuam, but Bedell first 
 procured the Old Testament to be translated by one King. He caused 
 likewise some of Chrysostom's aud Leo's ' Homilies,' in commendation 
 of the Scriptures, to be rendered both into English and Irish, that 
 the common people might see that, in the opiuion of the ancient 
 fathers, they had not only a right to read the Scriptures as well as the 
 clergy, but that it was their duty so to do. 
 
 When the rebellion broke out in October 1641, the bishop was so 
 popular in his neighbourhood that he did not at first feel the violence 
 of its effects. But the rebels subsequently seized him, his two sons, 
 and Mr. Clogy, who had married his step daughter, and carried them 
 prisoners to the castle of Cloughboughter, where they put all but 
 the bishop in irons. After some time the rebels abated of their 
 severity, took the irons off the prisoners, aud suffered them to be as 
 much at their ease as they could be in so wretched a place. While 
 thus confined, the bishop, his sons, and Mr. Clogy, preached and 
 prayed continually to their small afflicted congregation, and upon 
 Christmas-day the bishop administered the sacrament to them. The 
 bishop and his family were at length removed to the house of one 
 Dennis Sheridan, an Irish minister and convert to the Protestant 
 religion. While Bishop Bedell remained there, and enjoyed some 
 degree of health, he every Sunday read the prayers and lessons, and 
 preaehed himself. The last Sunday he officiated was the 30th of 
 January 1641-2, and the day follow ing he was taken ill. On the 7th of 
 February he breathed his last, in the seventy-first year of his age, his 
 death being chiefly occasioned by his late imprisonment aud the weight 
 of sorrow which lay upon his mind. He was buried, agreeably to his 
 own direction, in the churchyard of Kilmore close to his wife's coffin. 
 His epitaph, as ordered by himself, was simply " Depositum Gulielmi 
 quondam episcopi Kilmorensis." 
 
 ' The Books of the Old Testament,' translated by the care and 
 diligence of Bishop Bedell into Irish, were first published, 4to, London, 
 1685, with O'Domhnuill's translation of the New Testament, 4 to, 
 London, 1681, appended : both were again printed in the Irish cha- 
 racter, 12mo, 1690. O'Domhnuill, pronounced O'Donnell, is the Irish 
 name of William Daniel, archbishop of Tuam, mentioned above : his 
 translation of the New Testament was first published in Dublin in 
 1602. 'Some original letters of Bishop Bedell concerning the steps 
 taken toward a reformation of religion at Venice upon occasion of the 
 quarrel between that State and the Pope Paul V.,' were printed 12mo, 
 Dublin, 1742. They were found among Archbishop Usher's manu- 
 scripts in the library of Trinity College there. 
 
 BEDFORD, DUKE OF, Regent of France. John Plantagenet, 
 duke of Bedford, was the third son of Henry IV. and Mary Bohuu, 
 daughter of ihe Earl of Hereford. He was knighted at the coronation 
 of his father October 1399, being at the time hot quite ten years old. 
 He was created Duke of Bedford in the second year of the reign of 
 his brother, Henry V. During the lifetime of his father he was 
 governor of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and warden of the Scottish Marches ; 
 and during his brother's absence in France, he was governor and 
 commander-in.chief of the forces in England. 
 
 Henry V. died after a short illness in 1422, at the early age of 
 thirty-six years, leaving an infant successor only nine months old, with 
 the disputed honour of king of Franco as part of his inheritance. On 
 his death-bed he expressed his earnest desire that Bedford should 
 "take up the administration of the affairs of France" during the 
 minority of the young king, — leaving the less difficult administration of 
 affairs at home to the conduct of his younger brother Gloucester, 
 under the title of Protector. In love of martial glory, and in military 
 talents, the Duke of Bedford was little, if at all, inferior to the 
 deceased hero. No greater proof indeed of the high estimation in 
 which he was held by his contemporaries need be given, than the cir- 
 cumstance that the Lords and Commons, in contravention of the late 
 king's testament, passed an act, declaring, under certain well-defined 
 limitations, the Duke of Bedford, " or, in his absence beyond seas," 
 the Duke of Gloucester, to be protector and defender of the kingdom 
 and the English church, .and the king's chief counsellor, during the 
 minority of the young king. The proceedings of the parliament on 
 this occasion may be referred to as of great constitutional importance ; 
 furnishing, as they do, the first great constitutional precedent of the 
 right of parliament, in contradistinction to the king, and in this 
 instance in contravention to the king's will, to name a regent during 
 the minority of his successor ; aud the equally decisive constitutional 
 precedent of the right aud power of parliament to fix the limitations 
 of that regent's exercise of the prerogative. (See Hallam's ' Middle 
 Ages,' vol. iii., and ' Parliamentary History,' vol. i.) 
 
 By the treaty of Troyes, which was concluded between the court of 
 France and Henry V. on the 21st of May, 1420, the English king was 
 declared to be regent of France aud next heir to the French crown. 
 On his death-bed Henry, anxious to secure this splendid inheritance 
 for his infant son, earnestly impressed upon Bedford and his council 
 the necessity of cultivating diligently the friendship of the Duke of 
 Burgundy, and to offer to him iu the first place the regency of France. 
 This injunction Bedford obeyed to the letter. On the death of Henry, 
 he immediately offered the regency to the Duke of Burgundy ; and on 
 his rifusal, and at the apparent solicitation of the French king, he 
 accepted the office himself. He conferred with Burgundy as to the 
 best mode of observing the terms of the treaty of Troyes, and obtained 
 from him the warmest assurances of good faith as to its observance. 
 He also obtained the adhesion of the Duke of Bretagne to that treaty, 
 and at a meeting which he brought about between that prince, the 
 Duke of Burgundy, and himself, at Amiens, in April 1423, he prevailed 
 upon them to affirm their professions of friendship with an oath, by 
 which they swore to love each other as brothers, and to afford mutual 
 aid against the attack of enemies. To make their union the more 
 binding, Bedford married a sister of the Duke of Burgundy, and the 
 Duke of Bretagne married another. Bedford led hia young bride to 
 Paris, which he had made the centre of his government, and vigorously 
 applied himself to the consolidation of his infant nephew's inheritance. 
 
 Had Henry V. lived a few months longer, he would have been, in 
 virtue of the treaty of Troyes, and the splendour and extent of his 
 conquests, declared king of France. Charles VI., distinguished by the 
 epithet of the ' Well Beloved,' with whom he had concluded that treaty, 
 survived ' his dear son and heir' but a few months ; and at his funeral, 
 Bedford had his infant nephew, Henry VI., proclaimed 'Our Sovereign 
 Lord, King of France and England.' The south of France however 
 was still iu possession of the Dauphin and his party, who summoned 
 all the adherents of the ancient monarchy to the standard which that 
 prince, as Charles VII., had raised at Chartres, the place of his coro- 
 nation. All the country to the north of the Loire may be said to have 
 been in the hands of the English, while every province south of that 
 river, with the exception of Gascony, warmly espoused the cause of the 
 heir of their native kings. The history of France accordingly for many 
 years presents a series of battles and sieges, which ended in the expul- 
 sion of the English from all their conquests in the French territory. 
 
 In the first year of the war Charles VII. received a great defeat at 
 Crevant. A still more signal disaster befel him next year at the battle 
 of Vemeuil (August 16, 1424), at which Bedford commanded in person, 
 and displayed all the qualities of a great general. The French 
 monarchy was only saved from ruin after this decisive battle by the 
 conduct of the Duke of Gloucester, Bedford's brother, which deprived 
 the latter of the aid of the forces of the Duke of Burgundy, to which 
 he was mainly indebted for the victory at Verneuil. In his capacity 
 of Regent of France, Bedford was thwarted, either by the ambition of 
 his brother or the jealous policy of the English parliament, in every 
 measure which tended to effect the subjugation of that country ; but 
 which, under no circumstances, could probably have been effected 
 entirely. The administration of affairs in England turned altogether 
 upon the intrigues and contests of two opposite parties, one headed by 
 Cardinal Beaufort [Beaufort, Cardinal], the other by the Duke of 
 Gloucester ; and as the former was the more powerful, and opposed 
 to the destructive and impoverishing war-policy of the latter, the sup- 
 plies of men and money for the prosecution of the war in France were 
 doled out with so frugal a band, that the offensive operations of the 
 Duke of Bedford were confined to besieging some towns still held by 
 the French king in the northern provinces. 
 
 The circumstances which deprived the Duke of Bedford of the aid 
 of the Burgundisn forces were these : Gloucester had married Jacque- 
 lin .h ire s of Hainault, Holland, Zealand, and Friesland. She had 
 
BEDMAR, MARQUIS DE. 
 
 BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VON. 
 
 611 
 
 previously been married to the Duke of Brabant, first cousin of the 
 Duke of Burgundy, but despising his tame spirit she eloped from him, 
 And sought an asylum in England. Brabant however kept possession 
 of her territorial dominions, which Gloucester claimed and sought to 
 recover by force. For this purpose he entered Hainault with 5000 
 English men-at-arms, besides other forces, shortly after the decisive 
 defeat of the French king at Verneuil. The Duke of Burgundy hast- 
 ened with his troops to the aid of his kiusman, and Charles VII. was 
 »aved from ruin. 
 
 The siege of Orleans, memorable as one of the most extraordinary 
 incident! in history, was commenced on the 12th of October, 1123. 
 The fortunes of Charles hung upon the issue, and he was in despair. 
 He was saved by the assistance of Joan of Arc, and the English raised 
 'he siege. [Arc, Joan of.] This memorable effect of superstition — 
 ot supernatural confidence on the one side and supernatural awe on 
 the other — was followed by a succession of disasters to the English 
 arm3, which, while they deeply afflicted, tasked all the energies of the 
 Duke of Bedford. With a force drawn from the garrison towns of 
 Normandy he marched against Charles, who had just been crowned at 
 Rheims, but failed in provoking him to risk a battle. Charles moved 
 towards Paris. The Regent hastened after him, and after breaking 
 the spell of the Maid's charm by repulsing her from the walls of Paris, 
 compelled the French army to fall back upon the Loire. After various 
 skirmishes, defeats, and successes, the Maid was captured when 
 attempting a desperate sally from Compiegne on the 23rd of May, 1430. 
 With the subsequent fate of the Maid of Orleans we have here no fur- 
 ther concern, than to state that the Regent joined in bringing her to 
 the stake. 
 
 In 1432 the Duchess of Bedford, sister to the Duke of Burgundy 
 and the great cement of their friendship, died. Within four months 
 after the Regent married Jacquetta, daughter of the Earl of St. Pol, a 
 vassal of the Duke of Burgundy. This marriage gave great offence to 
 the Duke of Burgundy. Cardinal Beaufort laboured to reconcile the 
 two priuces, but the attempt failed. After the war had languished for 
 upwards of two years, overtures were made on the part of Charles to 
 Burgundy, and the result was a treaty of peace between them. This 
 treaty was the death-blow to the English interest in France, and so 
 affected the Regent that he died of mortification and anxiety at Rouen 
 on the 13th of September, 1435, a fortnight before the treaty between 
 Charles and the Duke of Burgundy was formally signed. 
 
 Like most of the immediate descendants of John of Gauut, the Duke 
 of Bedford was a patron of literature. He purchased and transported 
 to London the Royal Library of Paris, which Charles V. had increased 
 to " nine hundred volumes ;" and his brother Gloucester presented 
 600 books to the University of Oxford, 120 of which cost lOOOi. 
 
 BEDMAR, ALFONSO DE CUEVA, MARQUIS DE, was born in 
 1572. Having distinguished himself greatly by political sagacity, by 
 fertility of resource, and by an acute judgment of men, he was chosen 
 in 1607 by Philip HI. of Spain, as ambassador to Venice, that emba-sy 
 being considered the most difficult to fill of any. The Venetian 
 republic had given great offence to Spain by siding with France, and 
 by endeavouring, with the assistance of the Netherlands and Switzer- 
 land, to preserve the balance of power in Europe. After a long residence, 
 which enabled Bedmar to understand all the weaknesses as well as the 
 strength of Venice, he imagined that it would not be difficult with the 
 aid of certain conspirators, and the outward assistance on which he 
 could rely from Spain and N aples, to render himself master of the 
 city. The armies of the republic had been exhausted by war. The 
 fleet was in fine condition, but engaged on the coast of Istria, where 
 was then the seat of war. He communicated his plans to the Duke 
 d'Ossuna, viceroy of Naples, and to Don Pedro of Toledo, governor of 
 Milan, but ouly hinted at them in his communications to the Duke 
 d'Uzedes, the prime minister of Spain. Beduaar engaged one Renault, 
 a Frenchman, to hire foreign mercenaries, whom he was to conceal in 
 the town ; and he was also to corrupt and buy over the troops of the 
 republic, a task not esteemed difficult. The navy it was considered 
 would exhibit more fidelity. The viceroy of Naples therefore under- 
 took to provide per.-ou3 who had gained celebrity as privateers, or 
 rather pirates, but who were well kuown for their skill, to joiu the 
 Venetian fleet for the. purpose of embarrassing or defeating their 
 attempts at defence. The conspirators were to attack and seize the 
 arsenal, the doge's palace, the college of senators, and other important 
 positions. The Milanese troops were to arrive at the precise time on 
 the opposite shore of the continent. The mariners in the plot were to 
 convey them across. A Spanish squadron entered the Adriatic to be 
 ready to assist. Then the city was to be given up to plunder, and 
 Venice was to be exterminated. The day for carrying the plot into 
 execution was fixed for Ascensiou-day, during the bustle occasioned 
 by the. ceremony of the dole's marrying the Adriatic. Just on the 
 eve one of the conspirators discovered the plot ; all the others that 
 could be found were seized, tried in socret, and executed. Bedmar, 
 as ambassador, was not formally accused, but was ordered to quit 
 Venice immediately. Some historic doubts have been thrown on this 
 transaction, whether it was not a Venetian super-subtlety to discredit 
 Bedmar ; but by the best judges it is held as sufficiently established 
 in its main facts. The event forms the subject of Otway's ' Venice 
 Preserved.' On leaving Venice Bedmar retired to Flanders, where he 
 acted as president of the council, and in 1622 he there received from 
 
 the pope a cardinal's hat. He afterwards went to Rome ; obtained 
 the bishopric of Oviedo, in Spain ; and at Oviedo he died, in 1655. 
 
 In 1612, a little tract called 'Squittiuio della liberta Veneta' was 
 attributed to him, most probably erroneously. It was published 
 anonymously, and made a considerable noise at the time. It was 
 mainly directed against the privileges of the Venetians. 
 
 (Saint Real, Conjuration contre Veiiise ; Daru, Hutoire de Vcnise.) 
 
 BEECHEY, FREDERIC WILLIAM, was the son of Sir William 
 Beechey, the painter, and was born in London in 1796. Having 
 entered the navy when only ten years old, he was engaged as early as 
 1811 in an action off Madagascar, resulting iu the capture of the 
 French frigates 'Renomine'e,' 'Clorinde,' and 'Ndrdide.' In 1818, when 
 the 'Dorothea' under Captain David Buchan, and the 'Trent' under 
 Lieut. John Franklin, were dispatched in search of the north-west 
 passage, Beechey sailed with Franklin, with the rank of lieutenant. 
 Lieut. Beechey had already distinguished himself as au artist, and also 
 by his attention to natural history, and it was given to his charge to 
 collect and preserve such objects as were practicable, or make drawings 
 of such as were not. This voyage, though unsuccessful in its main 
 object, contributed many useful results to science and to natural 
 history, and an account of them in a narrative of the voyage was 
 published by him in 1843. For the ability displayed as an artist in 
 the voyage he was rewarded by a parliamentary grant of 200Z. In 
 1819, Lieut. Beechey took part in an expedition under the command 
 of Sir Edward Parry (then commander), which penetrated to 113° 54' 
 W. long, within the arctic polar circle. In 1821 he was commissioned, 
 together with his brother, H. W. Beechey, to investigate by land the 
 coasts of North Africa to the east of Tripoli. Of this undertaking he 
 published a most interesting narrative, with descriptions of the ancient 
 Syrtis, Pentapolis, and Cyrenaica, with a valuable and detailed chart 
 of the coast, extending from Tripoli to Derna, or from 13° to 23° 
 E. long. After his return home he was appointed to the command of 
 the 'Blossom,' with the rank of commander, and directed to endeavour 
 to penetrate the Polar Sea by the Pacific Ocean and Behriug's Strait, 
 while Franklin made the attempt over-land from North America. 
 Beechey sailed in 1825, and returned in 1828 ; the voyage having lasted 
 two years and a half. The extreme point reached in boats was 71° 23' 
 of N. lat, and 156° 21' of W. long. While at Barrow Point, Franklin 
 was at Point Turnagain, thus they were ouly 150 miles apart, but not 
 being aware of each other's position, neither advanced. In 1827 Beechey 
 received the rank of post captain, and during the summer of this year 
 succeeded in discovering to the south-east of Cape Prince of Wales, 
 and near to Behring's Strxit, two most convenient harbours, to which 
 he gave the names of Port Clarence and Port Grantley. After this 
 voyage Captain Beechey remained unemployed for some time, as his 
 health had suffered ; but he occupied himself iu preparing and pub- 
 lishing accounts of the various voyages in which he had been engaged. 
 In 1828, the year of his return, appeared ' Proceedings of the Expedi- 
 tion to explore the Northern Coast of Africa, from Tripoli eastward, 
 iu 1821 aud 1822;' the 'Voyage to the North Pole ' followed ; in 1831 
 appeared the ' Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Behring's 
 Strait ;' succeeded by the Botany and Zoology of the same voyage, in 
 two expensive quarto volumes. He had also been employed, between 
 1829 and 1839 in surveying the coasts of South America and Ireland. 
 In 1854 he was created Rear-Admiral of the Blue. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM, R.A., a celebrated English portrait- 
 paiuter, was born at Burford in Oxfordshire, in December 1753. He 
 was originally articled to a conveyancer, but having a strong love for 
 painting, he determined to pursue it as a profession, aud he obtained 
 admi-sion into the Royal Academy as a student in 1772. 
 
 Though with many able rivals, some of whom were the most 
 eminent painters of the English school, Mr. Beechey early distinguished 
 himself, and was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1793. 
 In the same year he was appointed portrait-painter to the Queen, of 
 whom he painted a whole length. In 1798 he executed his principal 
 work, a large equestrian picture of George III., the Prince of Wales, 
 and the Duke of York, attended by Generals Duudas, Sir W. Fawcett, 
 and Goldsworthy, reviewing the Tnird aud Tenth Dragoons; for 
 which he was elected a Royal Aca lemiciau aud knighted by the king. 
 This picture is now at Hampton Court. 
 
 From this time Sir William painted the majority of all the persons 
 of distinction, rank, aud fashion of his time, including several portraits 
 of nearly all tho members of the royal family. Among ins portraits 
 are also those of Lord Nelson, Lord St. Vincent, Sir W. Hamilton, 
 Lord Cornwallis, Mr. Addington, afterwards Lord Sidmouth, John 
 Kemble, &c. He will not take permanent rank with the great portrait- 
 paiuters, but his portraits generally gave satisfaction, especially 
 in their attitudes aud expression. His colouring was gay and light, 
 and his earlier pictures were well-modelled; but his latest works are 
 negligently executed. There is a portrait of Nollekens by Sir William 
 Beechey in the National Gallery. He died at Hampstead in the 
 month of January 1839, at the age of 86. He was twice married, 
 and left a numerous family. 
 
 (Art-Union Journal, February 1839.) 
 
 BEER, MEYER. [Meyerbeer.] 
 
 BEETHOVEN, LUDWlti VON, was born on the 17th of December 
 1770 at Bonn. His father and grandfather were both musiciaus by 
 profession ; the former occupied the situation of principal vocal tenor, 
 
BIS 
 
 BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VON. 
 
 and tbe latter that of first bass singer, and subsequently 'kapell- 
 meister,' in tbe chapel of tbe elector of Co.'ogne. From the earliest 
 age Beethoven evinced a disposition tor music; and as modulated 
 sounds seldom fail to make a deep impression on a young fervid 
 mind, when as in his case they are almost constantly presented to it, 
 be soon acquired, and as speedily manifested, a taste for tbe art of 
 which they arc tbe foundation. His father began to instruct him 
 when he was only in bis fifth year, but soon transferred him to If. 
 Von der Eden, esteemed tbe best pianist in Bonn : but he dying 
 shortly after, Beethoven became the pupil of M. Neefe, his successor, 
 the Archduke Maximilian of Austria defraying the expense of his 
 tuition. This excellent master initiated his pupil in the works of 
 Sebastian Bach. At tbe age of thirti en be published at Manheim and 
 at Spires, in his own name, ' Variations on a March, Sonatas, and 
 Songs.' But at this time his genius displayed itself more decidedly 
 in musical improvisation. His extempore fantasias are mentioned by 
 Gerber in his Lexicon (' Tonkunstler-Lexicon '), as having excited the 
 admiration of the most accomplished musicians of the time. 
 
 The elector of Cologne now sent bis protege", in tbe character of 
 court organist (in which office he had succeeded Neefe), to Vienna, to 
 etudy under Joseph Haydn ; but the great composer, being then on 
 tbe point of setting out for England, placed bis intended pupil in tbe 
 bands of the eminent theorist, Albrechtsberger, who first gave him 
 methodical instructions in counterpoint. Alter having completed his 
 time with that master, he returned to Bonn. His patron died, and 
 war raged in its worst form in tbe north of Germany; Beethoven 
 therefore left for ever the place of his birth, and settled in Vienna, 
 which city and the adjoining country he never afterwards quitted. 
 
 About this time (1791 ?), says the Chevalier von Seyfried, Beethoven 
 most successfully tried his strength in tbe quartet style, ''a noble 
 style, reformed, or, more properly speaking, created by Haydn, en- 
 riched by tbe universal genius of Mozart with greater depth and 
 gravity, though not at the expense of grace, and carried by Beethoven 
 to a degree of superior power which few will attempt to attain, and 
 perhaps none will ever surpass." He ntxt composed the opera of 
 ' Leonora,' better known in England under the name of 1 Fidelio,' the 
 libretto for which was taken from a French piece called 'L'Amour 
 Conjugal.' Tbe opera did not excite much attention at first. The 
 next year tbe managers of tbe Karnthnerthor Theatre gave 'Fidelio' 
 for their benefit. The work then took the form which it now bears ; 
 it was reduced to two acts, and preceded by an imposing overture in 
 E major. Tbe composer also added the short march, the air of tbe 
 jailer, aud tbe finale of the first act. 
 
 In 1S09 Beethoven determined to accept the place of kapellmeister 
 to the King of Westphalia, Jerome Bonaparte, which was offered to 
 him with many advantageous conditions. The war aud other cir- 
 cumstances prevented these conditions being completely fulfilled ; and 
 as he desired to visit England, and had been invited by the Philhar- 
 monic Society of Loudon, who proposed to him liberal terms, he made 
 preparations for the journey ; but when the moment for departure 
 came, he declined the proposal, as be had by this time been attacked 
 by the malady which never left him — deafness. This calamity came 
 on gradually, but from the first defied all remedies and every effort of 
 skill, till at length the sense became so wholly extinct that he could 
 only communicate with others by writing. The consequences of so 
 severe a deprivation were, as his friend Seyfried feelingly but candidly 
 remarks, " a habit of gloomy, anxious distrust, and a violent d sire of 
 solitude, the usual precursors of hypochondria. To read, to stroll 
 into the country, were his most agreeable occupations; and a small, 
 very select circle of dear friends, formed bis only social enjoyment." 
 
 By slow degrees, maladies, arising probably from a long-continued 
 sta-eof mental irritation, attacked a frame which nature had made 
 healthy and robust, and rendered lecourse to medical aid absolutely 
 necessary. But the hope of any cure soon vanished : symptoms of 
 dropsy appeared, and became more and more decisive in character. 
 He undtrwent the operation of tapping, which mitigated the pain be 
 endured. During the process he very characteristically exclaimed, 
 " Better water from my body than from my pen." During the latter 
 part of his illness he was in a state of const .nt delirium ; and in the 
 evening of the 2uth of March 1827 he breathed his last. 
 
 Beethoven died unmarried; and he was never known to form any 
 attachment of a tender kind. His portraits are faithful representa- 
 tions. He was of the middle size, stout, and his form altogether indi- 
 cated strength. Notwithstanding the strange kind of life he led, his 
 only illness was that of which he died. His extreme reserve towards 
 strangers prevented his displaying those excellent qualities which, 
 under a forbidding exterior, he was known to possess ; and such were 
 the contrasts in his character, that occasionally his bluntnes? of 
 remark, and his total want of reserve in offering his opinion of others, 
 made him appear to be quite forgetful of the prescribed rules of 
 society. Though his early education was rather neglected, yet be 
 made up for tbe deficiency by subse quent application ; and those who 
 knew him well state, that bis knowledge of German literature was 
 very respectable, and that he was a tolerable proficient in Italian, 
 though of French he knew very little. Whenever he could be induced 
 to throw off the reserve arising, most likely, from his infirmity, his 
 conversation became "extremely animated, full of interesting anecdote, 
 an 1 replete with original remarks on men and maimers." 
 
 But after his decease it was found that he was conscious of his own 
 weaknesses, and in his will had apologised for them. This curious 
 document, so interesting to the admirers of Beethoven, to the lovers 
 of art, aud to the moral philosopher, as developing the feelings of an 
 illustrious composer, and throwing a light on bis personal character, 
 is dated Heiligenstadt, October 6, 1802, and addressed to his brother 
 Carl, and his nephew Ludwig Beethoven. 
 
 Beethoven's published works reach opera 120 at least; they embrace 
 every class and are in all styles. His vocal music is full of beautiful 
 new melody, and equally distinguished by strong feeling and a just 
 expression of the words. His oratorio ' The Mount of Olives,' his 
 opera ' Fidelio,' and his two masses, bear testimony to this ; though, 
 in our opinion, his numerous songs, and his two cantatas, 'Adelaide' 
 and 'Ah ! perfido, spergiuro,' with which all real lovers of music are 
 acquainted, display taste of a more refined kind than any of his other 
 vocal works can boast. Most of his pianoforte music is admirable, 
 and possesses every quality that vast genius could endow it with. His 
 quintets and quartets, or what may be termed his chamber music, are 
 elaborately written, but so original, that they require repeated bear- 
 ings before their beauties, which are of the rarest kind, are unfolded ; 
 but then the appetite for them increases in proportion as they are 
 better known. But the grandeur of Beethoven's conceptions, and his 
 marvellous skill in development, are most manifest in his orchestral 
 works, in bis overtures, and more especially in his symphonies. This 
 is the field in which all his faculties are called into action; in which 
 the wonders of his imagination are displayed, and every resource of 
 his art is made contributory. And the power which he, here exhibits 
 is the more remarkable, as the ground seemed to be so entirely 
 occupied by Haydn aud Mozart, that no room appeared to be left 
 for a third. 
 
 Five years after tbe death of Beethoven, his friend the Chevalier 
 K'naz von Seyfried published in German his posthumous didactic 
 work, under the title of ' Beethoven's Studies in Thorough-Bass, 
 Counterpoint, and the Theory of Composition, collected from his 
 autograph MSS.,' &c. M. Seyfried has added to the work a biogra- 
 phical sketch of the author, and that extraordinary will to which we 
 have above alluded. 
 
 In 1845 a statue was erected to bis memory in his native town of 
 Bonn, amidst great rejoicings, and in the presence of the Queen of 
 England. It is a fine work of art by Hulmel of Dresden. 
 
 BEGAHE'LLI, ANTO'NIO, a celebrated modeller of Modena, where 
 he was born about 1498. Who his master was is not known, but he 
 was probably Guido Mazzoni, or Giovanni Abati, the father of Niccolo. 
 He was the friend of Correggio, and is said not only to have instructed 
 that celebrated painter in modelling, but to have even modelled many 
 figures for him to facilitate his labour in tbe painting of the eupola 
 of Parma, of which the numerous and strong foreshortenings rendered 
 models necessary, There are few of the works of Begarelli left; the 
 principal is the Descent from the Cross in the church of Santa Marg- 
 herita, containing many figures in the round rather larger tbau life. 
 He died in 1 565. (Vedriaui. Vite di PUtori, <kc, Mudenesi ; Tiraboschi, 
 Vite, <L-c., Modcnesi ; Fiorillo, Genchichte der Mahlerey, &c. ; Lanzi, 
 Sloria Pittorica, &c.) 
 
 BE'HAM, HANS SEBALD, a very celebrated German painter and 
 engraver of the 16th century, whose name has been corrupted iuto 
 all shapes by many foreign and some German writers. He was born 
 at Nurnberg in 1500, and was one of the best of Albert Diirer's 
 scholars, and was a man of great ability but of profligate character. 
 At Niimberg he published some obscene prints, and being obliged to 
 leave the place he settled in Frankfurt, but not to reform, for be here 
 set up a wine shop and brothel, and is reported to have been drowned 
 by the authorities about 1550, on account of his extreme depravity. 
 This is the account of Hiisgen, who refers to Lersner's ' Chrouik.' 
 Doppelmayr says he went to Frankfurt in 1540, and died there in 
 1550. As a painter he is scarcely known. His name is written Boehm 
 and Beham by good authorities, and some maintain that his name was 
 Sebald only; but most of his prints, or those attributed to him, are 
 marked with a monogram of H. S. P. and H. S. B. in upright capitals 
 intermingled. 
 
 His prints consist of woodcuts, and of etchings and engravings on 
 copper. Those marked with the P. were, according to Sandrart, his 
 earlier works ; and those with the B. from about the time that he went 
 to Frankfurt. His first instructor was biscousin Bartholomew Beham, 
 likewise a pupil of Albert Diirer, and also of Marcantouio in Italy. 
 Heiueken enumerates 392 prints by Beham, including 58 woodcuts, 
 and 21 done after his designs by other engravers. Bartsch describes 
 even 430, of which 171 are woodcuts. He is reckoned among the 
 so-called little masters, from the extreme smallness of their prints. 
 His prints are much in the style of those of Aldegrever [Aldegrever, 
 Hkinrich]; occasionally correct in drawing, but generally, especially 
 in the draperies, in the gothic taste. His engravings are superior to 
 his cuts and etchings, 
 
 BEHAM, BAUTHEL, or BARTHOLOMAUS, cousin of Hans 
 Sebald Beham, was born about 1496. He was a pupil of Albert 
 Diirer, and was sent by the Duke Wilhelm of Bavaria to study in 
 Italy. His death took place probably about 1540. Barthel Be bam 
 was extremely laborious and careful in his paintings; but if it be 
 true that he studied in Home in the later years of Raphael's time, he 
 
BEHEM, MARTIN. 
 
 BEHN, APHARA. 
 
 618 
 
 derived little advantage from the example of the great men in the midst 
 of whom he resided. Yet his picture in the Piuakotbek at Munich, 
 of the resuscitation of a woman by touching her with the cross, is one 
 of the masterpieces of the old German school. The act takes place 
 in the presence of the empress Helena and a crowd of spectators ; 
 and the picture has the following inscription: — 'Crux Christi ab 
 Helena reperitur, a Macario, mortua suscitata, adprobatur. Anno 
 CCXLiil.' Barthel was also an engraver, and, according to Sandrart, 
 assisted Marcautonio in his prints after Raphael. His prints are better 
 drawn than Hans Sebald's, but they are not nearly so numerous : they 
 probably do not exceid seventy. Many are from Greek and Roman 
 history and mythology. Sandrart says that some of the prints which 
 bear the name of Marcantouio were executed entirely by Beham. 
 (Sandrart. Teutsche A<ademie, <kc. ; Doppelmayr, Historische Nachricht 
 von den Niirnbergischen Kiins'lern, <S:c. ; Hiisgen, Arlistisches Magazin, 
 1790; Heineken, Dtctionnaire des Artistes, &c. ; Bartsch, Peintre- 
 Gravcur ; Brulliot, Dtctionnaire des Monogrammes, <bc.) 
 
 BEHEM, MARTIN, a celebrated navigator and geographer, was 
 born in the city of Niiruberg about the year 1430. His education 
 was carefully attended to, and he is said to have enjoyed the advantage 
 of beins; instructed by the learned John Muller, better known under 
 the Latin name of Regiomontanus. In early life he followed the pro- 
 fession of a merchant, continuing however to cultivate the mathematical 
 and particularly the nautical sciences, which may have become more 
 interesting to him from the circumstance of his having to make several 
 commercial voyages. B'-ing on business at Antwerp in the year 1479, 
 Behem became acquainted with some Flemings who were closely con- 
 nected with the court of Lisbon, and who had formed colonies in the 
 newly-discovered islands of the Azores. At their pressing invitation 
 Martin went to Portugal, where, as a skilful cosmograpber and maker 
 of maps, he was well received. He was soon engaged in voyages 
 undertaken with a view to making maritime discoveries. The many 
 controversies and contradictions concerning Behem's life begin at this 
 point, but the earlier of them are easily settled. Cellarius and several 
 other writers say that Behem was the discoverer of the whole group 
 of the Azores, but there is ample evidence to show that at least some 
 of the Azores were seen by Vanderberg, a navigator of Bruges, in 
 1431, when Martin could be little more than a year old ; that Gonsavo 
 Velho Cabral visited and named the island of Santa Maria in 1432 ; 
 and that all the islands were known in 1460, or nineteen years before 
 Behem went to Lisbon, and connected himself as a geographer and 
 explorer with the Portuguese government. Mr. Otto and other authors, 
 again, merely make Behem the discoverer of the island of Fayal; but 
 there is good ground for believing that the only two of the islands 
 unknown even so early asl449( when King Alphonso of Portugal granted 
 a licence to his own uncle, Don Henry, to colonise the Azores), were the 
 comparatively small and distaut islands of Corvo and Flores ; aud its 
 magnitude and position must of necessity have made Fayal, with the 
 group to which it b"longs, known soon after the discovery (in 1432) of 
 St. Mary's and St. Michael's. 
 
 In 1484 Behem was placed as a scientific man on board the fleet of 
 the celebrated navigator Diogo Cam, who was commissioned to prose- 
 cute Portuguese di-covery along the west African coasts, which were 
 then only known as far as Cape St. Catherine in 2° 30' S. lat. With 
 that distinguished admiral the cosmograpber went to Fayal and Pico, 
 and this we believe to be the first time he ever visited the Azores. 
 Thence, after doubling Cape Verde, they examined all the African 
 coast from the river Gambia to the river Zaire, or Congo, the mouth 
 of which lies in 6° S. lat. Continuing their course, they made Cape 
 St. Augustine, and finally reached Cape Cross, or De Pad] ono, in 22° 
 S. lat., which was the limit of their voyage, aud no less than 19° 30' 
 farther south than any preceding discoverer had ventured. After an 
 absence of nineteen months Behem returned to Lisbon, where, in 
 reward for his services, the king (John II.) conferred the honour of 
 knighthood upon him in a public and unusually splendid manner. 
 
 Behem married at Fa\al in 1486 the daughter of Job Huerter, by 
 whom he had a son. He settled in this island, and took great pains 
 in colonising and cultivating it. He also busied himself in making 
 charts, and occasionally went from the Azores to Lisbon and to Madeira. 
 In 1492, the year in which Columbus started on tlie expedition that 
 ended in the discovery of the New World, Martin Behem paid a visit 
 to his native city of Nurnberg, where, in the course of a year's resi- 
 dence, and at the earnest request of his countrymen, he made a terres- 
 trial globe, gome traits and guesses in which have, perhaps more than 
 anything else, contributed to an obstinately-maintained theory. When 
 he returned from Germany to Portugal he was employed for a short 
 time in some diplomatic negociations ; but in 1494, retiring from all 
 public business, Martin repaired to his estates in Fayal, where he lived 
 tranquilly in the bosom of his family, continuing however to keep his 
 attention awake to his old aud favourite subject, and to the progress 
 of discovery, which after Columbus's first voyage was carried on more 
 rapidly than ever. In 1506 he was once more at Lisbon, aud on the 
 29th day of July in the same year, full of years aud honours, he died 
 in that city, leaving no works of any kind behind him except the maps 
 and charts he had made, and his globe. 
 
 It is admitt' d on all sides that Martin Behem ought to be regarded 
 as one of the most learned geographers, and as the very best chart- 
 maker of his age. But these, Ids real aud great merits, have not 
 
 satisfied certain writers, who, moved by the prejudicos of country or 
 a love of contradiction and paradox, insist that Behem, aud not 
 Columbus, was the discoverer of America. Cellarius and Riccioli both 
 say that he visited the American continent and the Strait of Magal- 
 haens, but Stuvenius appears to have been the first to give great im- 
 portance to this doctrine ; asserting in his treatise, ' De vero novi Orbis 
 Inveutore,' that Behem had acccurately traced on his globe preserved 
 at Nurnberg the islands of America, and even the Strait of M'agalhaens. 
 Professor Tozen combated this assertion as far back as 1761, and for 
 a quarter of a century the theory was laid aside as untenable. Dr. 
 Robertson, in his ' History of America,' took some pains to rescue the 
 fame of Columbus, but the task was then considered almost unneces- 
 sary. In 1786 however Mr. Otto, a diplomatic servant of the French 
 government, but a German by birth, again renewed the nearly-forgotten 
 dispute ; and in a long letter to Dr. Franklin stated his reasons for 
 believing that Martin Behem had visited America before Columbus, 
 and that all Columbus had done after him had been in pursuance of 
 Behem's instructions and advice. 
 
 Mr. Otto does not seem to be aware that such an opinion was ever 
 started before. His letter was published in the second volume of the 
 ' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Phila- 
 delphia for promoting Useful Knowledge.' After its appearance a 
 variety of writers and compilers of cyclopaedias and biographical dic- 
 tionaries, without looking into the matter, took up Mr. Otto's story as 
 something new and striking, not knowing that it was old and had been 
 disproved. In support of his views, Mr. Otto quotes records or docu- 
 ments preserved in the archives of Nurnberg ; but these documents, 
 with the exception of one letter said to be written by Behem, are 
 undated; and some of them contradict each other, and are refuted by 
 well-known historical facts. A great deal of pains has been expended 
 in the support, and much more in the refutation, of Mr Otto's theory; 
 but it may be regarded as now a settled point that Behem has no title 
 whatever to the great discovery claimed for him. We do not think it 
 worth while therefore to go further into the subject. 
 
 Behem's famous globe, though a remarkable performance, was of 
 necessity in those times both defective and erroneous even in relation 
 to the old world. It was made up from the authorities of Ptolemy, 
 Pliny, and Strabo, and still more from the travels of Marco Polo and 
 the semi-fabulous travels of Sir John Mandeville. From this globe it 
 appears that his geographical information in the east did not extend 
 beyond Japan, nor in the west beyond the Cape Verde Islands ; and 
 that all that he had dotted down on his globe beyond those islands 
 was from mere conjecture. Of two islands which he set down between 
 the Cape Verde group aud America, neither exists in the place assigned 
 to it. One was called St. Brandon, the other Antilia; and from the 
 similarity of the latter name it has been supposed to be one of the 
 Antilles or American islands discovered by Columbus. But Columbus 
 only gave the name of a fabulous island to a real one ; for, long before 
 his time, the denomination of Antilia or Antilia had been asligned to 
 a supposed country somewhere westward of the Azores. Andrea 
 Bianco, a Venetian geographer who lived at the beginning of the 15th 
 century, indulged precisely in the same speculation. Among a collec- 
 tion of his charts bearing the date of 1436 (that is, fifty-six years 
 before Martin Behem made his globe), there is one in which he lays 
 down a very large island at a great distance to the west of the Azores, 
 and which he calls Antilia. and marks the beginning of another island 
 which he calls La Man di Satauasso, or ' the Devil's Hand.' 
 
 BEHN, APHARA, sometimes spelt APHRA, and AFRA, a dramatist 
 and miscellaneous writer, was of a good family in the city of Canter- 
 bury : she was born in the rei^n of Charles I., but in what year has 
 not been ascertained. Her father, whose name was Johnson, was 
 related to the Lords Willoughby, and by means of his connection 
 obtained the post of lieutenaut-general of Surinam, and its depen- 
 dencies; for which place he accordingly sailed with his daughter (then 
 very young), but died on the passage. Aphara however continued the 
 voyage ; and appears to have resided at Surinam for some length of 
 time, though under what circumstances is not known. She there 
 became acquainted with the famous slave Oroouoko, whom she repre- 
 sents to have been a prince among his own countrymen, and a mau of 
 an heroic cast of character, and who afterwards became the subject of 
 a novel from her pen, and of a tragedy, better known, by her friend 
 Southern. After her return to England she married Mr. Behn, a 
 merchant of Dutch extraction ; and appears to have been personally 
 introduced to Charles II., who was so much pleased with her account 
 of Surinam, and probably with the freedom and vivacity of her 
 manners, that he is said to have thought her a proper person to be 
 intrusted with the management of some affairs during the Dutch war, 
 which occasioned her going into Flanders, aud residing at Antwerp. 
 It is supposed that by this time her husband was dead. Mrs. Behn 
 succeeded in discovering the iutentiou of the Dutch to sail up the 
 Thames aud Medway ; but the court of Charles, with its usual levity, 
 giving no credit to the r. port of its fair envoy, she is said to have 
 renounced all further politics, out of mortification, aud to have devoted 
 the rest of her stay in Holland to amusement. She set out shortly 
 afterwards on her return to England, narrowly escaped death (for the 
 vessel foundered in sight of land, and the passengers were saved in 
 boats), and became for the rest of her life an authoress by profession, 
 and a woman of gallantry. She wrote seventeen plays, besides poems, 
 
BELISARIUS. 
 
 090 
 
 tales, love-letters, and translations both in prose and verse. The once 
 celebrated letters between a nobleman and his sister-in-l iw (Lady- 
 Henrietta Berkeley and the infamous Lord Grey) are hers. She contri- 
 buted the paraphrase of (Enone's ' Letters to Paris,' in the English 
 collection of Ovid's 'Epistles;' and translated Fontenelle's ' Plurality 
 of Worlds,' and the sixth book of Cowley's Latin poem on 'Plants.' 
 Both her opinions and her talents naturally brought her acquainted 
 with the leading wits of the day, the wildest and the staidest, Rochester, 
 Etherene, Charles Cotton, Dryden, Southern, &c. At one time she 
 describes herself as having been forced to write for her bread ; but 
 during the latter part of her life she appears to have been in more 
 easy circumstances. She died on the 16th April 16S9, and was buried 
 in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Aphara Behn is described as having been a graceful comely woman, 
 witli brown hair, and a piercing eye ; something passionate, but 
 generous; and who would sooner forgive an injury than do ono. She 
 would write in company, and at the same time take her part in the 
 conversation. The character of Mrs. B hu's writings is that of a lively 
 mediocrity, availing itself of all the licence of the age. She wrote 
 some coarse but pleasing little novels, chiefly taken from the French; 
 Bome clever songs and poetical translations; and a set of dramas, 
 successful in their day, and astounding for their licentiousness. 
 
 BliHRING, VITUS, was by birth a Dane, and in his youth made 
 many voyages to the East and West Indies; but being tempted by the 
 great encouragement held out to able mariners by Peter the Great, lie 
 early entered the navy of Russia, and served in the Cronstadt fleet in 
 the wart with the Swedes. He obtained the rank of lieutenant in 
 1707, and of captain-lieutenant in 1710. In 1732, previous to setting 
 out on his last expedition, he was promoted to the rank of captain- 
 commander. 
 
 The Empress Catherine being anxious to promote discovery in the 
 north-east quarter of Asia, and to settle the then doubtful question as 
 to the junction of Asia and America, Behring was appointed to com- 
 mand an expedition for that purpose. He left St. Petersburg in 
 February 1725, and after exploring several rivers, travelled over-land 
 by the way of Yakutsk, on the Lena, to Okhotsk, then crossed over 
 to Bulcheretsk, and pi-rive 1 at Nishnei-KatntchatkaOstrog. Here he 
 built a small boat, and sailed on the 20th of July 1728, coasting 
 Kanitchatka till he reached in August (67° 18' N. lat. by his observa- 
 tions) a cape which, from the land beyond it trending so much to the 
 westward, he supposed to be the north-easternmost point of Asia. In 
 this conjecture however, as has since been proved, Behring was mis- 
 taken ; the point reached by him must have been Serdze Somen ! but 
 with this conviction on his own mind, and the approach of winter, he 
 determined to retrace his steps, and he returned in safety to Nishnei 
 Kamtcl.atka. It is pretty certain that he did not reach the strait 
 which has since received his name. The following year he made 
 another attempt in an opposite direction, and reached Okhotsk, having 
 doubled the southern promontory of Kanitchatka, which peninsula 
 was up to that time gen rally believed to join Japan. From Okhotsk 
 he went to St. Petersburg, and, having obtained his promotion, in 
 1733 took the command of an expedition for the purposes of discovery, 
 which was fitted out on a very large seal-. Alter several exploratory 
 excursions, he stationed himself at Yakutsk, directing various detach- 
 ment of his officers down the rivers on different poiuts of the Frozen 
 Ocean. In 1710 he reached Okhotsk, where vessels had previously 
 been built for him, in which he sailed for Awatska Bay, where he 
 founded the settlement of Petropaulovski, and passed the winter. 
 Hi3 discoveries to the northward being deemed sufficiently satis- 
 factory, he was now directed to proceed to the eastward towards the 
 American continent. He left Awatska iu June 1741, steering to the 
 south east ; but having reached the parallel of 46° without seeing 
 laud, he altered his course to the north-east, and on the 18th of July 
 (having been forty-four days at sea) he descried very high mountains 
 covered with snow in 58^° N. lat., having made, according to his 
 reckoning, 50 degrees of E. long, from Awatska. He now followed 
 the coa^t to the northward, which was found to take a very westerly 
 direction ; but his crew suffering from sickness, and the ship being in 
 a very disabled state from bad weather, he resolved to return to 
 Kanitchatka, which however he never reached. Having passed several 
 islands, his ship was wrecked on the island which now bears his name, 
 on the 3rd of November 1741. Behring died from cold and exhaustion 
 on the 8th of the following month. 
 
 In the following summer the survivors of his crew reached Kani- 
 tchatka in a small vessel which they built from the wreck, and thus 
 some account of this disastrous voyage was preserved. With regard 
 to the places that he touched at on the American shore, they must be 
 very undefined-; but the fact of the westerly trending of the coast, 
 ami the high mountains, seem to place his first landfall about 
 Admiralty Bay, on that part of the coast now called New Norfolk. 
 Tte inlands mentioned by him must have been some of the Aleutian 
 A: chijielago. 
 
 (Muiler, Account of Russian Discoveries.) 
 
 *BEKl\ER, IMMANUEL, was born at Berlin in 1785. He first 
 Studied at the Gray Convent in that city, under the late G. L. Spalding. 
 Thence he removed to the University of Halle, in 1803, where he 
 qecatne th? most distinguished scholar of the celebrated F. A. Wolf, 
 who at a subsequent period, as the person best fitted to continue hia 
 
 philological labours, named Bekker. In 1807 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of philology in the University of Berlin; and in May 1810 
 travelled to Paris to avail himself of tho treasures in the Imperial 
 Library there, and more especially to compare and collate the manu- 
 scripts of Plato, as also those of some Greek orators and grammarians. 
 He returned to Berlin with hia acquisitions in 1812. In 1815 he was 
 elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and in the 
 sami year was requested by that body to repair again to Paris, in 
 order to avail himself of the papers of Fourmont, for a projected 
 ' Corpus Inscriptionum Gnecorum,' a task which he completed within 
 the same year. In 1817 the Academy again commissioned him to 
 journey to Italy, in order to unite with Gdscheu in deciphering the 
 palimpsest manuscript of the Institutes of Gaius, wheh bad been 
 discovered at Verona by Niebuhr. He was also to collect materials 
 for an edition of Aristotle, which he had undertaken. In pursuance 
 of these objects, he passed two winters in Rome, where, through the 
 introduction of Niebuhr, he was readily admitted to all the best 
 libraries. He visited alio, for similar investigations, Florence, Venice, 
 Naples, Montecassino, Cesena, Ravenna, and Milan. In 1019 he 
 travelled through Turin to Paris. The summer of 1820 he spent in 
 England, chiefly in Loudon, Oxford, aud Cambridge, returning in the 
 autumn by Leyden and Heidelberg to Berlin. His labours as an 
 author during this period were neither few nor unimportant; and 
 those which have succeeded them since he settled at Berlin have been 
 equally interesting to the classical student and the philologist. His 
 first publication — the ' Anecdota Graeca,' in 3 vols., of whicli the fir3t 
 appeared in 1814, the last not till 1821 — was a favourable specimen of 
 his industry and knowledge. Then followed editions of Plato, in 
 10 vols., 1816-23; of Thucydides; of the Attic orators, containing 
 Demosthenes and other Athenian orators, in 7 vols., first published 
 at Oxford in 1822; of Photius ; of the Scholise of Homer's 'Iliad,' 
 2 vols., 1825; of Aristotle, 4 vols., 1831-36; of Tacitus, 2 vols., 1831; 
 and of Sextus Bmpirieus, 1842. To these must be added an active 
 co operation in the production of the ' Scriptores Historiie Byzantinaj,' 
 for which he prepared, among others, Cedrenus, Ducas, Glykas, Korip- 
 pus, Merobaudes, Ac, Ac. He has also written for the Journal of 
 the ' Akademie der Wissenschaften of Berlin,' essays upon the Romance 
 language, upon the ronpnee of Aspremont, and upon Provencal 
 poetry. (Conversations Lcxikon.) 
 
 BELIDOR, BERNARD FOREST DE, was born ia Catalonia in 
 1697 or 1698. He was the son of a Freuch officer, and his father 
 and mother dying very shortly after hi3 birth, he was adopted 
 by another officer, who brought him to France. Under the care 
 of his protector's brother, who was au officer of engineers, Belidor, 
 who had studied the elements of mathematics with attention, saw the 
 sieges of Bouchain aud Quesnoy before he was sixteen years old. 
 Shortly afterwards he was employed to assist Cassiui and Lahire in 
 their continuation of the measure of the degre-. Subsequently he was 
 appointed professor at the school of artillery of La Fere. Having lost 
 this office he became iu 1742 aide-de-camp to Geueral Segur in Bohemia 
 and Bavaria, aud was made prisoner at Liuz. By close study he became 
 an emineut engineer, and was much employed iu Germany, Italy, and 
 Flanders. He was elected a member of the French academy in 1756 ; 
 was made inspector of arsenals in 1758, and brigadier aud inspector- 
 general of mints in 1759. He died at Paris in 1761. 
 
 The works of M. Belidor have even now some authority among 
 military engineers, and he advanced every branch of their science, 
 particularly mining. The works of Belidor are as follows : 1725, 
 ' Nouveau Cours de Mathematique ; ' 1729, 'La Scieuce des Ingd- 
 nieurs ; ' 1731, ' Bombardier Fran9ais ; ' 1737 and 1739, the first two 
 volumes of the 'Architecture Hydraulique' (the last two volumes 
 appeared in 1750 and 1753); 1755, ' Dictiounaire Poitatif de l'luge^ 
 nieur;' 1764 (erroneously dated on its own title 1751), posthumous 
 work, ' OSuvres Diverses,' Ac, relating to fortification and mining. 
 There are memoirs by M. Belidor in the ' History of the Academy of 
 Sciences,' from 1737 to 1756. 
 
 BliLISA'RIUS, a general of the lower empire, under Justinian I., 
 was born at Germauia in Illyria about a.d. 505 : of his parentage 
 nothing is known. He makes his first appearance in history as one 
 of the body-guard of Justinian, at that time heir to the throne. The 
 Byzantine empire was then, about 525, at war with Persia, and B«li- 
 sarius exercised his first command in an expedition into Persarmenia. 
 On his return be was nominated to the government of Dara, an im- 
 portant fortified towu in the northern part of Mesopotamia, near the 
 frontier of Armenia, where he took into his service, as secretary, the 
 historian Procopius, whose writings are our principal authority for 
 the events of hi3 life. In 527 Justinian came to the throne, and by 
 his orders Belisarius proceeded to build a fortress at Mindon, near 
 Dara. The Persians commanded him to desist, and on his refusal 
 marched against him, defeated his troops, and razed the works. We 
 may conclude however, that no blame attached to him, as shortly 
 after we find him appoiuted general of the East, with the conduct of 
 the Persian war. Iu the year 530 he defeated the enemy in the deci- 
 sive battle of Dara ; and in the following year he repulsed, by a scries 
 of skilful manoeuvres, a considerable army, which had invaded Syria 
 on the side of the desert, and advanced so far as to threaten Autioch. 
 Being however compelled by his troops to give battle, contrary to his 
 own inclination, at Callinicum, ,a town at the junction of the rivers 
 
621 
 
 BELISARIUS. 
 
 BELL, ANDREW. 
 
 Bilecba and Euphrates, he sustained a defeat, but succeeded in pre- 
 venting the Persians from deriving any advantage from their victory. 
 
 Shortly afterwards peace was concluded, and Belisarius returned to 
 Constantinople. During his residence there he married Antoniua, an 
 actress by profession, and a woman of the most dissolute character. 
 By his energy he succeeded in suppressing a sedition which had 
 nearlv subverted the throne of Justinian. In Juue 533 he sailed as 
 commander of an expedition for the recovery of those provinces of 
 Africa which had anciently belonged to the empire, but were now 
 possessed by the Vandals. He landed in September at Caput Vada, 
 now Capoudia, about 150 miles south of Carthage, and advanced with- 
 out opposition to Decimum, about eight miles (seventy stadia) from 
 Carthage. Having defeated the enemy at Decimum, he immediately 
 entered the capital, while Gelimer, the Vandal king, fled towards the 
 deserts of Nunaidia, where he occupied himself in assembling an 
 army at Bulla, four days' journey from Carthage. Belisarius suppressed 
 a conspiracy which Gelimer had tried to organise among the Cartha- 
 ginians and Huns in the Byzantine service, and he afterwards defeated 
 the Vandal army which had advanced to Tricameron, within twenty 
 miles of Carthage. Gelimer fled to the inaccessible mountain of 
 Pappua, near Hippo Regius, where he was blockaded, and some time 
 afterwards obliged to surrender. On his return to Carthage, Belisarius 
 sent detachments which reduced Sardinia and Corsica, and the Bale- 
 aric Isles; he likewise recovered the fortress of Lilybceum, in Sicily, 
 which the Vandals had received as the dowry of a Gothic princess, 
 and which, on their downfall, had been resumed by the Goths. He 
 proceeded for some time in the settlement of the province, but finding 
 that suspicions of his fidelity had been excited in the mind of J ustinian, 
 he determined to disarm them by a speedy return. He committed 
 the government to the eunuch Solomon, and set sail for Constan- 
 tinople. On his arrival he was honoured with a triumph, an honour 
 which, since the reign of Tiberius, had been reserved for the emperors 
 alone ; a medal was struck, with the inscription " Belisarius, the glory 
 of the Romans," and in the ensuing year (535) he was invested with 
 the dignity of sole consul. 
 
 In that year he sailed with a very insufficient force for the conquest 
 of Italy from the Goths : he landed at Catania in Sicily, and having 
 rapidly reduced that island, fixed his head-quarters at Syracuse. 
 While at Syracuse he received news of a rebellion in Africa. He 
 immediately set out thither with only one ship and a hundred guards, 
 and had nearly succeeded in restoring subordination, when he was 
 recalled to Sicily by a mutiny in the army there. Some negociations 
 which had been in progress between the Goths and Justinian having 
 been broken off, Belisarius crossed over to Italy ; took Naples after a 
 siege of twenty days; and at the end of the year 536 entered Rome, 
 which was evacuated by the Gothic garrison on his approach. Early 
 in 537 he was besieged there by Vitiges, the Gothic king, who had 
 recently been raised to the throne on the deposition and murder of 
 Theodatus, and now advanced from Ravenna with an army of 150,000 
 men. In the course of the siege Belisarius deposed the Pope Sylverius, 
 whom he had detected in a treasonable correspondence with the enemy. 
 Before the end of the siege he incurred much obloquy by his pre- 
 cipitate execution of Cunstantine, au officer of rank and reputation, 
 who in an altercation with him respecting the restoration of some 
 plunder, forgot himself so far as to draw his sword on hia geneial; in 
 this affair B disarms is supposed to have acted rather in furtherance of 
 the private revenge of Antonina, who accompanied him in his expe- 
 ditious, than from any seasonal >le zeal for the vindication of discipline. 
 Early in 538 the sie^e, which had been carried on for more than a 
 year with great vigour, was raised, and Vitiges retired to Ravenna. 
 Belisarius then proceeded in the reduction of the provinces of Italy, 
 though much impeded by the factious opposition of his officers and by 
 an invasion of the Franks ; but in the beginning of the year 539, 
 Nar.-es, the leader of the faction, was recalled, and the Frauks re- 
 treated after a short inroad. At length Raveuna was invested, but, 
 when its surrender could no longer have been delayed, an embassy 
 which had been sent by Vitiges to Constantinople returned with a 
 treaty of partition, which left to him the title of king, and the pro- 
 vinces north of the Po. Thi.s treaty Belisarius refused, on his own 
 responsibility, to execute, and the Goths, driven to despair, offered him 
 their support if he would assume the title of Emperor of the West. 
 By affecting compliance he gained possession of Ravenna, and the sur- 
 render of that city was followed by the submission of almost the 
 whole of Italy. In the beginning of 540 he was recalled to Con- 
 stantinople, whither he immediately repaired. 
 
 In the spring of 541 he wa3 sent to conduct the war which had 
 broken out with Persia, and after an indecisive campaign returned to 
 Constantinople. In 542 he wa3 again appointed to the supreme com- 
 mand in the Persian war, and at the close of the campaign again 
 recalled, and on his arrival degraded from all his employments. 
 During the campaign a rumour had prevailed of the death of Justiuian, 
 and Belisarius had used language unfavourable to the succession of 
 Theodora. His treasures were attached, and he remained in momen- 
 tary expectation of an order for his execution. A heavy fine was 
 levied on his effects, but his life was spared, the pardon being aceoin- 
 panied by the injunction to be reconciled to his wife Antonina, against 
 whom he was incensed for her infidelity. 
 
 Id 541 Belisarius was again named to command in Italy, but with 
 
 the insufficient force intrusted to him he was unable to raise the siege 
 of Rome, which had, since the beginuing of 516, been blockaded by 
 Totilas, the Gothic kinir, and was now reduced to the extremity of 
 famine. In the end of 546 Rome was taken by treachery, but Totilas 
 was diverted from his design of razing the city with the ground by 
 the remonstrances of Belisarius. In the beginning of 547 Totilaa 
 advanced against Ravenna, and immediately on his departure Rome 
 was re-occupied by Belisarius, and successfully defended by him against 
 Totilas, who retraced his steps and endeavoured to retake it. But, 
 though successful in the neighbourhood of Rome, Belisarius was 
 unable, from the smallness of his means, to put an end to the war ; 
 and from the same cause he afterwards suffered so many reverses, that 
 in the year 548 he requested that either the force at his disposal might 
 be augmented, or he might be recalled; and the latter alternative was 
 granted. 
 
 Belisarius, having escaped assassination by the discovery of a conspi- 
 racy, the chiefs of which dreaded his inflexible fidelity, lived for some 
 time at Constantinople in the enjoyment of wealth and dignity. In 
 559 the Bulgarians invaded the empire, and he received the command 
 of the army destined to oppose them. After checking their progress, 
 he was removed from the command by the jealousy of Justinian, and 
 was never after employed in the field. 
 
 In 563 a conspiracy against the emperor was discovered, in which 
 he was accused of participating. Of his subsequent fate there are two 
 accounts. The more probable is that given by Gibbon, that his life 
 was spared, but his foitune sequestrated, and that he was confiued to 
 his own palace. His innocence was soon acknowledged, and his property 
 and freedom restored, but he did not long survive his liberation ; he 
 died in the early part of the year 565. A tradition relates that he 
 was deprived of his eyes, and reduced to beg his bread, but this is not 
 countenanced by any authority older than the 11th century, and can 
 be traced no further back than to an anonymous writer in Bauduri's 
 'Imperium Orientale' (quoted by Lord Mahon, p. 467), and to Tzetzes, 
 who wrote in the 1 2th century. Lord Mahon has sought to establish 
 the truth of the tradition, but his arguments do not appear sufficiently 
 strong to induce us to receive it. The story of the blindness of Belisarius 
 was adopted by painters, as we might naturally expect; and Marniontel 
 iu his romance of Belisarius, and various other modern writers have 
 contributed to give it a popular character. Belisarius had one daughter, 
 Joannina, by his wife Antonina. 
 
 Belisarius is described as being of a majestic presence, brave, gene- 
 rous, and affable, and a strict lover of justice, His unshaken fidelity 
 is sufficiently manifest from the whole course of his life. His talents 
 for war appear to have been of the highest order, and we have few 
 examples of such great effects produced with such small means. His 
 character is degraded by base subserviency to his infamous wife, who 
 appears to have been mainly concerned in the most objectionable 
 passages of his career, and by the rapacity which marked the latter part 
 of his life. 
 
 (Procopius; Jornandes, De Reb. Get; Lord Mahon, Life of Beli- 
 sarius ; Schlosser, Universal-historische Uebersicht, th. 3, abth. 4 ; 
 Gibbon, chaps, xli., xlii., and xliii.) 
 
 BELKNAP, JEREMY, wae born in 1744. He took his degree at 
 Harvard College, and from 1767 to 1787 was minister of Dover church 
 in New Hampshire. He then removed to Boston, where he officiated 
 until his death in 1798. He is the author of a ' History of New 
 Hampshire,' and commenced an American biography, only two volumes 
 of which were published. He wrote also a number of religious, politi- 
 cal, and literary tracts, and was one of the founders of the Massachu- 
 setts Historical Society. He appears to have been distinguished by 
 industry, research, and extent of knowledge, rather thau by the 
 possession of remarkable intellectual qualities. 
 
 BELL, ANDREW, was born at St. Andrews, Fifeshire, in 1752, and 
 received his education in the university of that town. He was brought 
 up for the episcopal church, and took orders. He passed some years 
 in the British West Indies, and was then appointed chaplain at Fort 
 St. George, and minister of St. Mary's church at Madras. Here he 
 commenced instructing gratuitously the orphan children of the military 
 asylum, and made the first attempt at the system of mutual instruction. 
 So well was he satisfied with its success, that on his return to England 
 he published in London, in 1797, 'An Experiment made at the Male 
 Asylum at Madras, suggesting a System by which a School or Family 
 may teach itself under the superintendence of the Master or Parent.' 
 The pamphlet attracted but little attention, until in the following year 
 Joseph Lancaster opened a school in Southwark for poor children, 
 supported by subscription, and conducted upon this system. It was 
 so successful that similar schools were established elsewhere. The 
 education of the poor being undertaken on so large a scale by a secta- 
 rian, the subscribers being also in the main dissidents from the Church 
 of England, cause l some alarm in the leading members of that Church. 
 Bell was opposed to Lancaster, and in 1807 was employed to establish, 
 schools where the Church doctrines would be taught, and to prepare 
 books for them. Funds were provided, and the rivalry, by stimulating 
 both parties tc exertion, resulted iu nothing but good ; though the 
 particular feature, that of mutual instruction with the help of a master 
 only, has beeu found to require very material modifications. Dr. Bell, 
 as a reward for his labours, was made a prebendary of Westminster. 
 He died at Cheltenham, January 28, 1832, aged 80, and was buried 
 
623 BELL, HENRY. 
 
 with much pomp at Westminster. The large fortune ho had accumu- 
 lated he left almost entirely for educational purposes. An estate of 
 considerable value was left to Cupar, the capital of his native county, 
 for the establishment of various schools. To the provost of St. Andrews, 
 the two ministers of the town, and the professor of Greek in the uni- 
 versity, he Left 120,000Z. of Three-per-Cent Stock, in trust, one-twelfth 
 to be given to each of the towns of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Aber- 
 deen, and Inverness, for founding and maintaining schools upon the 
 Madras system. Another twelfth was given to the Royal Naval School 
 upon the same conditions. Six-twelfths were given to St. Andrews to 
 maintain schools, and to found and endow a college to be called the 
 Madras Colh ge. This has been done. A quadrangular building, with 
 a pleasing front, in the Tudor style, having a corridor round the inner 
 court, has been erected, with houses for the principal masters. In it 
 is taught English grammar, Greek and Latin, arithmetic and mathe- 
 matics, geography, writing, drawing, French, German, and Italian 
 languages, and church-music. Each department has a competent 
 master, and some have assistants. Small fees are paid for each depart- 
 ment, and the scholars usually av. rage from 800 to 1000. 
 
 BELL, HENRY, an individual whose name is connected with the 
 history of steam-navigation in this country, was bom in Linlithgow- 
 shire in 1707. Dr. Cleland, in his work on 'Glasgow,' speaks of him 
 as " an ingenious untutored engineer, and citizen of Glasgow," and 
 states that it may be said, without the hazard of impropriety, that 
 Mr. Bell ' invented ' the steam-propelling system, " for he knew nothing 
 of the principles which had been so successfully followed out by Mr. 
 Fulton." Fulton however launched his first steam-boat on the Hudson 
 October 3, 1807, and it was not till more than four years after this date 
 that Bell successfully applied st> am to the purposes of navigation. In 
 1811 he caused a boat to be constructed on a peculiar plan, which 
 was named the 'Comet,' in consequence of the appearance of a large 
 comet that year. He constructed the steam-engine himself, and in 
 January 1812 tlie first trial of the 'Comet' took place on the Clyde. 
 Dr. Cleland adds — "After various experiments, the 'Comet' was at 
 length propelled on the Clyde by an engine of three-horse power, 
 which was subsequently increased to six. Mr. Bell continued to 
 encounter and overcome the various and indescribable difficulties 
 incident to invention, till his ultimate success encouraged others to 
 embark in similar undertakings." 
 
 Mr. Bell's experiments did not realise to himself those pecuniary 
 advantages which were due to his enterprise. From the city of 
 Glasgow he received in his latter years a small annuity in acknow- 
 ledgment of his services to commerce and civilisation. He died at 
 Helensburgh on the Clyde in 1830. A monument has been erected 
 to 1 1 is memory on a rock iu the Clyde, near Bowling. 
 
 BELL, JOHN, generally called from his Scottish estate Bell of 
 Antermony, was born in the west of Scotland iu the year 1G91. He 
 was brought up to the medical profession, and passed as a physician in 
 the 23rd year of his age. Shortly afterwards he began those travels 
 to which alone he is indebted for his celebrity. 
 
 He says himself, in the preface to his valuable book, "Iu my youth I 
 had a strong desireof seeing foreign parts; to satisfy which inclination, 
 after having obtained from some persons of worth recommendatory 
 letters to Dr. Areskine, chief physician and privy councillor to the 
 Czar Peter L, I embarki d at London, iu the mouth of July 1714, on 
 board the 'Prosperity of Ramsgate,' Captain Emerson, for St. Peters- 
 burg." Russia then stood in need of and welcomed foreiguers of 
 talent and acquirements. Bell was exceedingly well received by Peter 
 the Great, for whom he ever afterwards entertained sentiments of 
 v. ueration and singular affection. Peter was then preparing an em- 
 bassy to Persia, and Dr. Areskine having introduced Bell to Artemy 
 Petrovich Valensky, the ambassador, he was engaged to accompany 
 the expedition in quality of surgeon and physician. On the 15th of 
 July 1715 he left St. Petersburg. The embassy was obliged by the 
 severity of the weather to halt at Kazan, which place it left on the 
 4th of June 1716. It then proceeded by Astrakhan, the Caspian Sea, 
 and Taurus, to Ispahan, where the Peisian monarch then held his 
 couit, and where Bell arrived on the 13th of March 1717. He did 
 not return to St. Peter.-burg until the 30th of December 1718, having 
 been absent in all three years and six months. His account of this 
 long journey is exceedingly interesting. His love of travelling was 
 soon further indulged by bis being engaged on an embassy to Chiua, 
 under Leoff Vasilovich Ismayloff, who, with Bell and a numerous 
 retinue, departed from St. Petersburg on the 14th of July 1719. 
 They travelled by Moscow, Siberia, and the great Tartar deserts, to 
 the celebrated Wall of China; and did not reach Pekin until sixteen 
 mouths after their departure from the Russian capital, having under- 
 gone immense fatigue during the journey. On their return they left 
 the Chinese capital on the 2nd of March 1721, and arrived at Moscow 
 on the 5th of January 1722. The account of this journey, and of 
 what he saw and learned during his residence at the court of Chiua, is 
 the most valuable part of Bell's book, and one of the best and most 
 interesting relations ever written by any traveller. He fully confirms 
 many of the almost incredible things told of the Chinese by the old 
 Venetian traveller Marco Polo, with whose work Bell dots not appear 
 to have been acquainted. 
 
 Bell had scarcely recovered from the fatiguis of his Chinese 'expe- 
 dition, when, in May 1722, he started on a long and dangerous journey 
 
 BELL. «2J 
 
 with the Russian emperor to Derbent, a celebrated pass between the 
 foot of the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea. This was the most original 
 and singular expedition in which Peter the Great was ever engaged. 
 Having concluded peace with Sweden he resolved to assist the Shah 
 of Persia, whose territories had been invaded by the fierce and war- 
 like Aflghans ; and he accordiugly marched with an army, taking the 
 empress with him. The Russians suffered severely during their return 
 march, and even the emperor and his wife had some narrow escapes 
 from the savage mountain-tribes who infested the rear and flanks of 
 the retiring army. In the course of his account of this journey Bell 
 introduces a short but good description of Tzercassia, or Daghestan 
 (Circassia), and at the end of it he draws a fine character of Peter the 
 Great, whose habits, both public and private, he had excellent oppor- 
 tunities of studying during the Derbent expedition. It appears that 
 shortly after this journey Bell visited Scotland ; and we do not hear 
 of him again until 1737, when, on the failure of negociations for peace 
 between Russia and Turkey, he was sent ou a confidential mission to 
 Constantinople, which he undertook at the earnest desire of Count 
 Ostermau, the grand-chancellor of Russia, and of Mr. Rondeau, at that 
 time British minister at St. Petersburg. Accordingly, on the 6th of 
 December 1737, Bell once more quitted the banks of the Neva, and 
 travelling in the midst of winter, and through countries exposed to 
 all the horrors of a barbarous warfare, arrived at Constantinople, 
 attended by only one servant, who understood the Turkish language. 
 On the 17th of May 1733 he returned to St. Petersburg. (All his 
 dates are according to the old style.) 
 
 We know very little more of this estimable man than what he tells 
 himself iu his bonk of travels, wherein he is far from being commu- 
 nicative as to his personal history. It appears however that he after- 
 wards settled for some years as a merchant at Constantinople; that 
 he married about the year 1746, and in the following year returned to 
 Scotland, where he lived in ease and affluence on his estates of Anter- 
 mony. He was a warm-hearted, benevolent, and sociable man, and he 
 obtained from his friends and neighbours the appellation of 'Honest 
 John Bell.' He died ou the 1st of July 1780 in bis eighty-ninth year. 
 
 Although he had so much to tell he was by no means anxious to 
 distinguish himself as an author. For many years the only record of 
 his travels was a simple diary, to which he occasionally referred to 
 refresh his memory, for he was fond of talking about his journeys and 
 adventures with his intimate associates. At length he was induced by 
 the solicitations "of aright honourable aud most honoured friend," 
 to throw his notes together iu the form of a regular narrative, 'ihe 
 work, in two volumes 4to, was printed and published at Glasgow 
 by subscription, in 1763, under the title of ' Travels in Asia.' It has 
 been several times reprinted in various forms, and a French translation 
 of it has been widely circulated on the Continent. It includes the 
 translation of a journal kept by M. de Lange, a gentleman who accom- 
 panied Ismayloff to Pekin, and who remained in that city to finish the 
 negociations with the Chinese, for several months after the departure 
 of the ambassador. 
 
 * BELL, JOHN, was born in Norfolk in 1812. Having completed 
 the usual course of professional instruction, Mr. Bell commenced the 
 practice of his art as a sculptor, by designing aud modelling various 
 poetic figures, chiefly of a classical character. But after a time he 
 b< gan to direct his thoughts towards modern literature and the Scrip- 
 tures, and started on a new aud more original career, by giving form 
 aud expression to the characters contained in them. His efforts have 
 to a considerable extent been appreciated by the public, but Mr. Bed 
 can hardly be said to have become popular with the connoisseurs or 
 the patrons of art, aud he has received no academic honours. His 
 most celebrated classical figure is his Andromeda; but he al.-o 
 sculptured a Psyche, &c. In religious subjects he has exi cuted 
 among others statues of John the Baptist, David with the Sling, and 
 the Madonna and Child. Among those illustrative of modern litera- 
 ture the most popular is the charming figure of Dorothea, which, in 
 the form of a parian statuette, has been more widely distributed than 
 any similar work, but his Una and the Lion, aud his Babes iu the 
 Wood, similarly copied, have met with almost equal popularity. Of 
 subjects not directly taken from books, the most ambitious, aud one 
 of the most admired, though, as we think, far from one of the most 
 successful, is his Eagle Slayer; others are the Child's Own Attitude, 
 now the property of the Queen; a Child of Eve; the Dreamer, &c. 
 Mr. Bell has also executed for the new houses of parliament some 
 historical portraits, as Lord Falkland, Shakspere, and one or two more; 
 and the Crimean monument, Waterloo Place, a work of loftier pre- 
 tensions. But none of these are quite satisfactory ; his great strength 
 lies in the representation of graceful shrinking female figures, of a 
 somewhat homely poetical character. 
 
 Besides his statues, Mr. Bell has made numerous designs for manu- 
 factures, chiefly of works to be executed in parian, bronze, and iron. 
 He has also prepared a ' Freehand Drawing Book,' which has beeu 
 published by the School of Design ; and he has published Borne poetic 
 sculpturesque designs in outline. Casts of most of his more popular 
 statues arj in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 
 
 BELL is the name of a family of which three brothers rose to a high 
 rank in their several professions. John Bell, the grandfather, was 
 mini-ter of Gladsmuir in East Lothian, the parish which was after- 
 wards held by the historian of Charles V. He died at the early age of 
 
BELL, JOHN. 
 
 BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH. 
 
 thirty-two, with a high character for learning and virtue. The father, 
 the Rev. William Bell, a learned scholar and eloquent preacher, was 
 in the course of his education for the Presbyterian Church led, by a 
 perusal of the English divines, to become a member of the Episcopal 
 Church of Scotland. He was settled for many years in a small cure 
 at Doune in Perthshire. His wife, the mother of the three gentlemen 
 whose biographies follow, was of a family which, in a long descent, 
 had furnished clergymen to the Episcopal Church of Scotland during 
 its splendour and in its decay. She was a woman of masculine under- 
 standing, tempered with great mildness and gentleness of manners, 
 and improved by an excellent education under the care of Bishop 
 White, her maternal grandfather. There were eight children of the 
 marriage, two of whom died in infancy. John, George Joseph, and 
 Charles, became eminent in their several professions. The Rev. W. 
 Bell died September 26, 1779. 
 
 John Bell, the elder of the brothers, was born at Edinburgh, 
 May 12, 1763. About a month before the birth of this son the father 
 had submitted to a painful and difficult surgical operation ; and his 
 admiration of that science to which he owed his safety led him to 
 devote to the service of mankind, in the medical profession, the talent 
 of the son born while his heart was warm with gratitude for the relief 
 which he had obtained. 
 
 John Bell was educated at the High School of Edinburgh, and at the 
 usual age was entered as a pupil in surgery with the late Mr. Alexander 
 Wood of that place. He was early remarkable for enthusiasm in his 
 profession, and engaged with great ardour in whatever he undertook. 
 During the time that Bell was pursuing his studies, the medical 
 school of the University of Edinburgh stood very high, ranking 
 among its professors Black, Cullen, and the second Monro. It was 
 while attending the lectures of the last-mentioned professor that Bell 
 saw the way to professional advancement. Monro was a zealous 
 anatomist, and anatomy was well taught as the groundwork of 
 medical science, but its application to surgery was quite neglected. 
 This deficiency Bell was determined to supply ; and in the year 1790, 
 whilst yet a very young man, he built a theatre in Surgeon's-square, 
 Edinburgh, where he delivered lectures on surgery and anatomy, 
 curried on dissections, and laid the foundation of a museum. 
 
 As there was then scarcely any private teaching, or means of culti- 
 vating anatomy by private dissections, the establishment of a school 
 naturally excited great hostility against Mr. Bell, every attempt at 
 private teaching being considered as an encroachment on the privileges 
 of the professors and the rights of the university. In his lectures he 
 was wont to speak of some of Monro's anatomical opinions with less 
 respect than the character of that great man deserved, and he made 
 no scruple to expose many mistaken doctriues and erroneous practices 
 recommended in the system of surgery of Mr. Benjamin Bell. The 
 tone and spirit of these criticisms raised up a host of enemies among 
 the friends of these two gentlemen. 
 
 In 1799 a pamphlet was published entitled ' Review of the Writings 
 of John Bell, Esq., by Jonathan Dawplucker.' It was an affected 
 panegyric of Mr. Bell's works, and was dedicated to him ; but the real 
 design was to criticise his first volume of 'Anatomy,' to represent him 
 as a plagiarist, "to pluck from him all his borrowed feathers," and to 
 vindicate Dr. Monro and Mr. Benjamin Bell from his criticisms. The 
 author was supposed to be some near friend of Benjamin Bell's. 
 Mr. John Bell published a second number, under the same name of 
 J. Dawplucker, addressed to Mr. Benjamin Bell. It contained ironical 
 remarks on this surgeon's system of surgery, and had such an effect 
 on the popularity of his work that it soon ceased to be the text-book 
 for students. At this time Mr. (afterwards Sir) Charles Bell was asso- 
 ciated with his brother in teaching, the latter taking the surgical, the 
 former the anatomical department. 
 
 The College of Surgeons in Edinburgh then presented a very 
 anomalous condition. It was a college of surgery and a corporation, 
 forming an integral part of the town-council of Edinburgh. The 
 first character had fallen comparatively into neglect and oblivion, 
 while the privileges belonging to the body in its relation to the burgh, 
 exposed its members to the temptation of mixing in the politics of 
 the town. Thi3 state of the college Mr. Bell was very anxious to 
 alter ; he wished to convert the college into a literary and scientific 
 body, and to separate it from the politics of the city. It was a part 
 of his plan that the college should resume the right, vested in them 
 by their charter, of appointing a professorship of surgery, and take 
 upon them their proper duty of watching over the interests of anatomy 
 and surgery ; that the examination should be placed on a more respect- 
 able footing; that the candidates should compose a thesis on some 
 Bubject of surgery or anatomy, suggestions which have since been 
 adopted, but the proposal of which at that time excited against 
 Air. Hell great opposition. The change which was at this time pro- 
 pos-d in the surgical attendance at the infirmary, and which, on being 
 ultimately carried into effect, proved fatal to Mr. Bell's prospects as a 
 teacher, was supposed to have had it3 origin iu this feeling. The 
 members of the College of Surgeons were in rotation the surgeons of 
 the establishment, and each surgeon during his attendance chose his 
 own assistant for his operation-!, and those whose talent3 or 
 inclinations did not lea 1 them to take their share in the duties of 
 the hospital devolved those duties on others, and thus the surgeons 
 particularly qualified for this situation soon distinguished them- 
 
 BI'JQ. UV VOL. I. 
 
 selves. Mr. Bell, from his expertness as an operator, was among the 
 number. 
 
 Dr. Gregory drew up a pleading or memorial to the managers of the 
 infirmary against this system, and proposed that two or three ordinary 
 surgeons, the best qualified that could be got, should be permanently 
 appointed, with assistant and consulting surgeons. Mr. Bell, seeing 
 that the proceedings were intended to affect his interests and his plans 
 of teaching, made an appeal personally to the board of the infirmary, 
 but iu vain. In the end he found himself and his brother, with many 
 other surgeons, deprived of the use of the institution. Mr. Bell 
 brought the question before the courts of law, whether the managers 
 had power to exclude him from the infirmary, and it was adjudged 
 against him. 
 
 In 1798 he went to Yarmouth to visit those who had been wounded 
 at Camperdown, and he there applied himself with the zeal and 
 activity of the most devoted student to the proofs exhibited in the 
 wounded of those great principles of surgery which it has been the 
 business of his life to explain. In 1803 he made an offer to govern, 
 ment for the embodying of a corps of young men, to be instructed in 
 military surgery, and in the duties of the camp and hospital, iu order 
 to aid in the service of the country, then supposed to be on the 
 eve of an invasion. This offer was first accepted, but subsequently 
 declined. 
 
 After the loss of the infirmary, Mr. John Bell never resumed his 
 lectures; he settled his mind to private study and professional occu- 
 pation. He renewed his classical pursuits, and perused and enjoyed 
 the authors'of antiquity with his characteristic ardour. In 1805 he 
 married a very amiable and accomplished lady, the daughter of Dr. 
 Congalton, a physician long retired from practice, and lie enjoyed in 
 the society of Mrs. Bell and a large circle of friends twelve happy 
 years in Edinburgh. Mr. Bell was always of a delicate constitution, 
 and towards the end of this period his health declined so much that 
 he was induced to visit the continent, in the hope of regaining his 
 strength by travelling and relaxation. In the course of his travels 
 through Italy he made notes of his observations, which, since his 
 decease, have been published by his widow. He finally sunk at Rome, 
 under the effects of his complaint, a confirmed dropsy, on April 15, 
 1820. 
 
 In 1793 Mr. Bell published the first volume of his 'Anatomy,' con- 
 sisting of a description of the bones, muscles, and joints. In a short 
 time afterwards the second volume was published, containing the 
 anatomy of the heart and arteries. The work was afterwards com- 
 pleted by his brother Charles. His next work was on surgery, entitled 
 'Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds,' in 2 vols., 8vo. The 
 'Principles of Surgery,' in 3 vols., 4to, was his next and most formidable 
 undertaking ; and his last production is the ' Letters on Professional 
 Character aud Education,' addressed to Dr. Gregory. 
 
 The great principle which Mr. Bell enunciated aud established, and 
 that on which his celebrity is founded, was that of free anastomosis as 
 the foundation of the modern practice of the surgery of the arteries. 
 The character of this celebrated man may be summed up in a few 
 words. He was a man of varied talents, and possessed great energy 
 and industry, great facility in communicating his ideas, and great 
 acuteness and discrimination in availing himself of all that knowledge 
 which is essential to perfecting surgical science ; but he had little 
 patience with the very slow retreat of ancient prejudices, and little 
 acquaintance with the world, of which he was so much in advance. 
 He was an entertaining and instructive writer, and a popular and 
 eloquent teacher. As a controversialist he was acute and powerful ; 
 and as a writer pungent, even beyond his intention and desire. His 
 work on Italy has shown that his talent for general literature, had it 
 been exclusively cultivated, would have made him at least as eminent 
 as his professional attainments have rendered him. 
 
 George Joseph Bell was born at Fountainbridge, near Edinburgh, 
 on the 26th of March 1770, and was educated at Edinburgh. He 
 became a member of the Faculty of Advocates in 1791. In 1801 he 
 published in two volumes 8vo, ' A Treatise on the Laws of Bankruptcy 
 in Scotland.' In 1810 he published an enlarged edition of the same 
 work in 4to, with the title ' Commentaries on the Laws of Scotland 
 and on the Principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence considered in 
 relation to Bankruptcy, Composition of Creditors, and Imprison- 
 ment for Debt.' For the third edition of this great work iu 1816, he 
 received the rare honour of a vote of thanks from the Faculty of 
 Advocates, conveyed to him officially by their Dean. Six editions of 
 this work were called for, a te-t of merit unprecedented in a large and 
 expensive book so exclusively professional. Mr. Bell also wrote the 
 ' Principles of the Law of Scotland,' which has likewise gone through 
 mauy editions; and 'Illustrations of the Principles of the Law of 
 Scotland,' &c. These were desigued for the instruction of his pupils 
 in the university, but they, as well as his commentaries, soon became 
 standard text books in the law courts, were constantly referred to as 
 authorities by the judges from the bench, and were quoted as con- 
 clusive in argument at the bar, not only of his own country, but of 
 England and America. 
 
 Mr. Bell was a member of a Commission of Legal Inquiry in 1823, 
 and in consequence of its report, he was called on by the Secretary of 
 State, Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel, to take an active part in 
 introducing and carrying out important changes in the administration 
 
 2S 
 
627 
 
 BELL, SIR CHARLES. 
 
 BELL, SIR CHARLES. 
 
 628 
 
 of civil justice in Scotland, In 1833 he was appointed by Lord 
 Melbourne, chairman of another gratuitous royal commission, which was 
 afterwards twice renewed, and from their investigations and reports, 
 the recent improvements in the laws of Scotland have been derived. 
 
 In 1821 Mr. Bell was appointed Professor of the Law of Scotland 
 in the University of Edinburgh, and in 1831 a principal Clerk of 
 Session. He had married in 1806' Barbara, daughter of Charles Shaw, 
 Esq., who predeceased him. He died at Park Place, Edinburgh, 
 on the 23r<l of September 1843, leaving eight children. One of 
 his sons, George Joseph Bell, Juu., held the Radcliffe Travelling 
 Fellowship of Oxford. He was an eminent scholar, an accomplished 
 artist, and an M.13. of Oxford. For three years he was physician to 
 her Britannic Majesty's mission to Persia, where he received from the 
 Shah the order of the Lion and Sun, for his distinguished medical 
 services. His health suffered from the climate, and on his way home 
 he died, unmarried, at Erzerum, on the 12th of May 18-17, in the 
 thirty-seventh year of his age. 
 
 Sir Charles Bell was born at Edinburgh in 1774. Charles, being 
 the youngest brother, did not receive quite the eame academical 
 advantages of education as his brothers, in consequence of the death 
 of his father wheu he was very young. But as he himself said well 
 in after-life, " My education was the example set me by my brothers;" 
 and most gratefully he always acknowledged the lessons which his 
 mother bestowed on him, her favourite child. At the High School of 
 Edinburgh Charles made no marked figure. It was under the eye of 
 his brother John, whose profession he had adopted, that he first gave 
 evidence of his great talents. He became a first-rate anatomist, and 
 lectured to some hundred pupils on that science while comparatively 
 a boy. His internal consciousness of ability, however, and the ambition 
 inseparable from it, led him to long for increased opportunities of 
 exertion, and in the year 1804, at the age of thirty, he removed to 
 London. Perhaps the bitter dissensions then raging in the Edinburgh 
 Medical School, in which his brother John was deeply involved, had 
 some effect in prompting him to this escape to a new scene. 
 
 At the outset, the prejudices then prevalent against Scotsmen, seem 
 to have stood in the way of Charles Bell iu London, but he overcame 
 them iu time, and became intimate with Sir Astley Cooper, Aberuetiiy, 
 and other great surgeons of the day. His work on the 'Anatomy of 
 Expression,' published in 1800, did much to give him a name iu 
 Loudon; and most deservedly so, that treatise being acknowledged by 
 Wilkie, and mauy illustrious painters, as having deeply influenced 
 their own studies and practice in drawing the human figure. Never- 
 theless, though advancing by slow yet sure degrees as an operative 
 practitioner, Bell was forced to begin lecturing in a very humble way, 
 having yet obtained no aid from association nor any connection with 
 the chief medical schools. In the same year (1807) in which he 
 entered on this course, he published the first edition of his ' System 
 of Operative Surgery,' a work which was rendered valuable by its 
 practical character : no single operation was described theoretically, 
 but all from full personal experience ; and it is still one of the most 
 useful works on the subject. At this period, iu some beautiful letters 
 to his brother George Joseph Bell, he describes the dawning upon his 
 mind of those discoveries in the nervous system, which will form his 
 noblest monument in the judgment of posterity. But he also grieves 
 most bitterly, in this correspondence, over the neglect with which the 
 public, generally, treated these early speculations. We may once for 
 all observe, regarding this series of fraternal letters, that if no other 
 proof of the writer's genius existed, they would form in themselves 
 satisfactory testimony to his abilities. His frequent aspirations " to 
 be chief of his profession in character" indicate a man of no common 
 stamp. 
 
 In 1S11 he married Marion, daughter of Charles Shaw, Esq., of 
 Ayr, a la ty who brought happiness to his hearth, and several of whose 
 relatives became eminent in their various departments. To Alexander 
 Shaw, also a surgeon, we owe an able vindication of the just claims 
 of Bell iu the field of anatomical and physiological discovery. In the 
 same year <1811) Bell became connected with the Hunterian School 
 in Winduiid-street; and in 1814 he was appointed surgeon to the 
 Middlesex Hospital, an institution which he subsequently raised to the 
 highest repute, and which he justly boasts, in 1836, of leaving "with 
 full wards, and 120.000Z. in the funds." It was both from his extra- 
 ordinary skill as an operator, and from his style of lecturing — which, 
 though not especially eloquent, was striking and suggestive — that his 
 labours were crowned with success, both as regards the patients and 
 the pupils of the Middlesex Hospital. 
 
 Bell had early distinguished himself as a scientific surgeon aud 
 adroit operator. He had been much engrossed by the consideration 
 of cases in military surgery, when our wounded troops came home 
 from Spain. The battle of Waterloo revived his enthusiasm in this 
 branch of his art; he visited the battle-field immediately after the 
 battle, aud was of great service to the wounded. 
 
 In 1821 Bell's first paper on the ' Nervous System ' was read before 
 the Royal Society, and published in the ' Philosophical Transactions.' 
 It attracted immediate attention all over Europe, and the value of 
 his discoveries being recognised, many came forward to claim them 
 and contest their originality. It was easy to prove however that he 
 had been in the habit of teaching these doctrines for many years to 
 his pupils, and his views had been explained in a paper written so far 
 
 back as 1810, of which 150 copies, privately printed, were circulated 
 
 among his friends. 
 
 The older anatomists believed all nerves alike capable of conveying 
 motion aud sensation —the essence of Bell's discovery was that every 
 nerve has a distinct function according to the part of the brain or 
 spinal marrow with which it is connected. Although sometimes as 
 many as three different nerves are bound up together in the same 
 sheath, for convenience of distribution to the organs they are intended 
 to supply, and though after they have become thus united it is impos- 
 sible to distinguish one fibril from another, yet at their connections 
 with the brain and spinal marrow their b '.veral roots are quite distinct. 
 He showed that those roots which aro connected with the back part 
 of the spinal marrow are all nerves of feeling, and incapable of giving 
 power of motion to the muscles, iu short that they are the bearers of 
 messages from the body to the brain : whereas all the roots of nerves 
 connected with the front, or anterior column of the spinal marrow 
 aud that portion of the brain connected with it are nerves of voluntary 
 motion only, aud the messengers of the will to the body. He farther 
 discovered that there are nerves which arise from a portion of the 
 brain and spinal marrow intermediate between the sensitive and the 
 motor tract of nervous matter, whose office it is to regulate the 
 involuntary motions connected with respiration and the expression of 
 the passions. In like manner the nerves of the special senses, seeing, 
 smelling, and hearing, enter distinct portions of the brain that form as 
 much parts of the organs of these senses as the eye, nose, or ear. Such 
 is the general outline of his discoveries, which opened up to the 
 anatomist and the naturalist hitherto concealed avenues to knowledge, 
 and afforded a guide, previously wanting, to the surgeon in his opera- 
 tions ; and rescued the whole treatment of nervous disorders from the 
 dominion of mere empiricism. 
 
 Before quitting this subject— in which Bell may be named as a 
 discoverer equal even with Harvey — we ought to point to one of the 
 practical inferences from his own views, which establishes the existence 
 of a sixth sense — that by which we attain our knowledge of distance, 
 size, weight, form, texture, and resistance of objects. Two of his 
 essays, ' On the Nervous Circle,' and ' On the Eye,' have reference to 
 this theory. The basis of it is, that the nerves of sensation play the 
 part of reporters on the motor nerves, and indicate to the central 
 seats of perception the condition of things withi i th; influence of 
 these nerves, thus forming the sixth or muscular sense. 
 
 Numerous were the hints which the genius of Bell threw out to the 
 profession about this time, in lectures and short essays. The operation 
 for the cure of squinting, for example, by division of the contracted 
 muscle of the orbit, had occurred to him long before it was thought 
 of by the German who now has the credit of the discovery, as letters 
 before us fully prove. The existence of a vital attraction betwixt the 
 solids and fluids of the body was also an idea of Bell. But his disco- 
 veries on the nerves certainly established his reputation. In 1824 the 
 London College of Surgeons offered to him their senior chair of 
 anatomy and surgery, which he accepted; and his lectures, which 
 were received with great applause, formed the basis of a work entitled 
 'Animal Mechanics,' published in 1828-29, by the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Two other works, which combine 
 high scientific knowledge with such a popularisation of the subjects 
 as fitted them to ordinary capacities, followed soon afterwards; the 
 one is the ' Bridgewater Treatise on the Hand,' and the other ' Illus- 
 trations of Paley's Natural Theology,' an accompaniment to Lord 
 Brougham's work on that subject. Iu the meantime Bell was in the 
 first rank of his profession, and had an ample attendance on his 
 lectures, not only of pupils, but of men his seniors in practice. On 
 the continent he wa3 even more highly esteemed. Cuvicr, Larrey, and 
 other illustrious meu of science, vied with one another iu testifying 
 their admiration of his talents and his labours. On the accession of 
 William IV. he was one of those selected for the honour of knighthood 
 with Herschel, Brewster, aud others. When the London University 
 (now University College) was established, he was offered the chair of 
 Physiology, and he accepted the offer; but after a short period he 
 gave in his resignation. For some time subsequently, he chiefly 
 pursued his private professional practice, with a reputation firmly 
 established. He had still the same ardent desire, which was the passion 
 of his youth, to prosecute experimental physiology ; and, accordingly, 
 when an offer of the chair of Surgery in the Edinburgh University was 
 made to him, he accepted it, though after much doubt and reluctance. 
 His regret at quitting his London friends was great, but it was over- 
 balanced by the hope of spending his latter years happily among those 
 friends who had been dear to his youth, aud still more so by the 
 expectation of being again placed in a position to renew with effect his 
 scientific studies. 
 
 Sir Charles Bell removed to Edinburgh in 1836, having been absent 
 thirty-two years. His opening lecture as Surgical Professor was brd- 
 liautly attended by professional aud non-professional men of eminence; 
 and the conduct of his class fulfilled all the high anticipations he had 
 formed respecting it. He had "meditated a splendid work on the 
 Nervous System," but he did not find means for its accomplishment; 
 and the only great work which he did finish was a new edition of his 
 ' Anatomy of Expression,' largely increased and improved by his obser- 
 vations on an Italian journey undertaken by him in one of the intervals 
 betwixt his sessions at college. In the summer of 1842 Sir Charles 
 
620 
 
 BELL, THOMAS. 
 
 BELLARMIN, CARDINAL. 
 
 no 
 
 set out on a journey to London. He reached the seat of Mrs. Holland, 
 of Hallow Park, on the 27th of April, where he died on the uight of 
 his arrival. His death was not altogether unexpected. He had recently 
 Buffered much from angina pectoris, a disease of some standing in his 
 case. It was aggravated, there is every reason to believe, by disap- 
 pointments consequent on his settlement in Edinburgh; and also by 
 anxieties connected with the New Medical Reform Bill, much of which 
 he believed to be at variance with the interests of that profession and 
 science to which he was so strongly attached. 
 
 *BELL, THOMAS, an eminent naturalist, was born on the 11th of 
 October, 1792, at Poole, Dorsetshire, in which town his father had a 
 large practice as a surgeon for more than fifty years. His mother 
 came of a good family, named Gosse, resident in Hampshire. To her 
 entirely he owed his elementary education, and his early love of natural 
 history, she herself beiDg warmly attached to that interesting science. 
 He first went to school in his native town, and afterwards at Shaftes- 
 bury, where he remained until entering on his professional studies with 
 his father. In 1814 he became a student at Guy's Hospital, and was 
 admitted a member of the College of Surgeons, and of the Linnsean 
 Society in the following year. In 1817 he commenced a course of 
 professional lectures at Guy's, which he has continued without inter- 
 ruption to the present time. Some years later he, for the first time 
 in London, taught comparative anatomy as a separate subject to a 
 class which he formed in the same school. 
 
 In 1S25 Mr. Bell joined with Sowerby, Children, and Vigors, in 
 establishing the ' Zoological Journal,' of which five volumes were pub- 
 lished, with a beneficial effect on the advancement of zoological science 
 in this country ; and conjointly with Kirby, M'Leay, and other zoolo- 
 gists, he originated the zoological club of the Linnaean Society, which 
 met at the society's rooms on the Tuesday evenings not occupied by 
 the ordinary meetings. This club was afterwards merged in the 
 scientific department of the Zoological Society, though not without 
 detriment to the zoological phase of the Linnsean Society. 
 
 Mr. Bell was one of the earliest fellows of the Geological and Zoolo- 
 gical societies, and sat in the council of the latter for eleven years, the 
 greater part of the time as vice-president. In 1836 he was appointed 
 Professor of Zoology in King's College, London, when he ceased his 
 lectures on comparative anatomy at Guy's. In 1827 he communicated 
 a paper to the ' Philosophical Transactions' 'On the Structure and 
 Use of the Submaxillary Odoriferous Gland in the genus Crocodilus,' 
 in which, among the facts of the structure, he suggested a use for the 
 glaud, namely, that its secretion, being odoriferous, had the effect of 
 attracting within reach of the animal's jaws the fish that became its 
 prey. In 1823 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; was 
 chosen on the council in 1839-41, and again in 1847. In the following 
 year he was elected secretary of the society, and held the office till 
 his election as president of the Linnaean Society in 1853. This honour- 
 able post he held till 1861. He was elected an honorary Fellow of 
 the College of Surgeons in 1844, and was president of the Ray Society 
 from its establishment till 1860. 
 
 As an author, Mr. Bell has added largely to the literature of his 
 favourite science. Many valuable papers from his pen are to be found 
 in the 'Zoological Journal,' and in the ' Transactions' and 'Proceedings' 
 of the Zoological, Geological, and Linuaean societies. Of his other 
 works the most important are — 'History of British Quadruped-*,' 8vo, 
 1836; 'Monograph of the Testudinata,' folio, 1833; ' A History of 
 British Reptiles,' 8vo, 1829; ' Reptiles ' in the Zoology of Darwin's 
 Voyage of the Beagle; 'A History of the British Stalk-Eyed Crustacea,' 
 8vo, 1853. 
 
 BELLA, STE'FANO DELLA, a celebrated Italian engraver, was 
 born at Florence in 1610. He worked until his thirteenth year in the 
 ehop of Orazio Vanni, a goldsmith, when his own inclination, and 
 some instruction he received in painting from his master's son, Gio. 
 Battista Vanni, and in engraving from CantagallinM, induced him to 
 give up the intention of following the business of a goldsmith, and 
 to follow the arts. He accordingly applied himself to painting 
 under Ccsare Dandini, but he eventually adopted etching as his 
 profession. 
 
 Some of Delia Bella's works having attracted the notice of Lorenzo 
 de' Medici, the brother of the Grand Duke Cosmo If, that prince sent 
 him to complete his studies in Rome, where he remained three years, 
 and etched many views of that city. After his return from Rome he 
 went in the suite of the Tuscan ambassador to Paris, where he remained 
 eleven years, and executed there many of his best etchings, by which he 
 obtained a great reputation. His subjects are battles, sieges, animals, 
 sea-pieces, landscapes, and ornaments. They are executed with freedom, 
 with great delicacy, and are also well drawn, and he had a fertile and 
 happy invention. Cardinal Mazarin wished to retain him at Paris, and 
 offered him the situation of drawing-ma-ter to Louis XIV., then a 
 child. But he returned to Florence about 1647, and became drawing- 
 master to the Prince Cosmo, afterwards Grand-Duke Cosmo III., a 
 post which be held until his death in 1664. He was one of the best 
 masters of the etching-needle, and executed about 1500 different works; 
 and though he did so much, what he did was done well. Before his 
 death he grew melancholy : his last works were six etchings of the 
 Havoc of Death, which however he did not quite complete. There is 
 a portrait by Delia Bella in the Pitti palace of the Grand-Duke 
 Cosmo III. His own portrait by Stoeade has been engraved by Hollar. 
 
 One of his most valued etchings is a large view of Pont-Neuf, Paris, 
 which, as originally issued in 1616, is very scarce. 
 
 (Gandellini, Notizie Istoricke dejl' Intarjliatori, &c. ; Heineken, Die- 
 tionnaire des Artistes, &c. ; Huber, Manuel des Amatewrs, &c.) 
 
 BELLAMY, MRS. GEORGE ANN, an actress of some celebrity. 
 Her mother, whose name was Seah', after having been the mistress of 
 Lord Tyrawley, married Captain Bellamy, and a lew months after her 
 marriage gave birth, on St. George's Day 1733, to the subject of this 
 article : this unexpected occurrence occasioned Captain Bellamy imme- 
 diately to separate from her. The daughter was educated in a convent 
 at Boulogne till she was eleven years of age, when she returned to 
 England. Rich, the manager of Covent Garden Theatre, overhearing 
 her reciting the part of Othello to his children, was struck by ber 
 voice, and brought her out at the age of fourteen in the part of 
 Monimia in the tragedy of ' The Orphan.' As an actress she drew the 
 attention of the town for some seasons, particularly when she played 
 Juliet with Mr. Garrick at Drury Lane, against Mrs. Cibber with Barry 
 at Covent Garden. Her life, a memoir of which she wrote and pub- 
 lished in 6 vols. 12mo, was a series of misfortunes and errors. She 
 died February 15th 1788 at Edinburgh, in great distress, aged 55. 
 
 BELLAMY, JAMES, was born at Flushing of poor parents in 1757. 
 As a boy he showed a great inclination for a military life, but being 
 the only son of his mother, she put him to the trade of a baker, which 
 he was still following, when in the year 1772 the second secular festival 
 in commemoration of the foundation of the republic was celebrated 
 throughout Holland. This event suddenly made him a poet. His 
 first verses were effusions of patriotic feelings and love for his native 
 country. Some wealthy citizens of Flushing were so much pleased 
 with these first productions of the young poet that, to encourage his 
 talent, they resolved to send him at their own expense to a university. 
 Accordingly, after the necessary preparation for academical lectures, 
 he went to Utrecht, with the intention of studying divinity. These 
 studies however he soon left for the more congenial pursuits of poetry 
 and general literature. A society of students, among whom Kleyn 
 and Rau afterwards distinguished themselves, the first as a jurisconsult, 
 the second as an orientalist, was then formed at the university, which 
 had for its object the cultivation and improvement of the Dutch 
 language and poetry after the German model : at the head of this 
 society stood our poet. It was at Utrecht also, in the year 1785, when 
 his country was involved in war, that our poet published his ' Vader- 
 landsche Gezaugen ' (patriotic poems), which bear high testimony to 
 his ardent imagination, superior taste, and facility in poetical compo- 
 sition. Previous to the year 1785 he had already published several 
 pieces of merit, sufficient to induce the Society of Arts at the Hague 
 to insert them in their collections. He also wrote a series of amatory 
 poems, entitled 'Gezangen rnyner Jeugd' ('Songs of my Youth') 
 Although Bellamy died before his genius had reached its maturity, 
 he still must be ranked among the first poets of his nation, and the 
 restorers of modern Dutch poetry. A presentiment, which he had of 
 his approaching death, seems to account for a morbid sentimentality 
 which his latter works betray. He died in 1786, at the age of 28. A 
 short account of his life, together with two of his speeches, has been 
 published by G. Kniper. 
 
 BELLARMIN, ROBERT, CARDINAL, was born at Monte Pul- 
 ciano in Tuscany, in the year 1542. He entered the order of Jesuits 
 in 1560 ; was ordained priest at Ghent by the celebrated Jansenius in 
 1569; and elected Professor of Theology at the University of Louvain 
 in the year after. Having filled this chair for seven years with increas- 
 ing celebrity, he returned to Rome in 1576, where he gave lectures on 
 controversial theology. The Jesuits were at the time the great defend- 
 ers of the church of Rome against the doctrines of Luther and the 
 Protestants; and to their learning, ability, zeal, and worldly wisdom 
 that church was mainly indebted for its vigorous stand against the 
 assaults of the divines of the Reformation. In 1590 Bellarmin, who 
 had, says Bayle, " the best pen for controversy of any man of his age," 
 accompanied the pope's legate into France, for the purpose of affording 
 the papal cause the aid of a master of the controversial points of 
 divinity. In 1599 he was made a cardinal. Three years afterwards 
 he was created archbishop of Capua, which see he quitted in 1605 for 
 Rome, where he re.-ided till his death in 1621, an active member of 
 the court of the Vatican. 
 
 The controversial works of Bellarmin are very numerous, filling 
 three large folio volumes. Of their merits, and of the merits, intel- 
 lectual and moral, of their author, a very favourable opinion has been 
 given by the learned and candid Moshcim. A much less favourable 
 opinion was expressed by Scaliger in a criticism which has called 
 down the just animadversions of Bayle (note L. art. Bellarmiue), who 
 cannot well be suspected of any bias in favour of the Jesuit. Scaliger 
 had ventured to assert that Bellarmin did not believe a word of what 
 he wrote, and that he was at heart an atheist ; but, besides the strong 
 testimony of his life and death-bed to the contrary, such judg- 
 ments are, as Bayle well remarks, a usurpation of the rights of Him 
 who alone is the judge of hearts, and before whom there is no 
 dissembling. 
 
 Besides the controversial works to which we have alluded, the 
 Cologne edition, 1617, of Bellarmiu's works contains three folio 
 volumes of other works, in addition to a volume of sermons and 
 letters. 
 
C,31 
 
 BELLENDEN, SIR JOHN. 
 
 BELLINI. • 
 
 C31 
 
 BUB.LKNDEM, Silt JOHN, eldest son of Thomas Bellenden, Bal- 
 lenden, Ballantyne, or Banuatyne (for by all these names is this family 
 known), of Auchinvole, a lord of session, director of the chancery, 
 and justice clerk of Scotland. He was some time secretary to Archi- 
 bald Douglas, earl of Angus, lord chancellor and prime minister of 
 Scotland, in the beginning of the 16th century. When Angus was, 
 iu September 1528, indicted for high treason, of the many that had 
 previously waited on him Bellenden alone continued his friend, and, 
 though not a lawyer, drew up the defences for him. But all his 
 pleas and defences were overruled, and he was found guilty by the 
 parliament, and attainted; in March 1542-43 however, the attainder 
 was reversed, Crawfurd says, on the grounds taken in the defences, 
 and Angus restored to his estates and honours. 
 
 Bellenden immediately after had the honour of knighthood con- 
 ferred upon him; and on his father's death he was, in June 1547, 
 appointed to the vacant places of a lord of session, director of the 
 chancery, and palace-clerk. On the breaking out of the Reformation 
 he was named by the Queen Regent one of the commissioners between 
 h> r and the lords of the congregation ; but he soon joined the reformers, 
 and, in August 1560, he and Wish art of Pittarrow are mentioned in 
 Randolph's dispatch to Cecil, as the two whom they had resolved to 
 join in a mission to France. On Man's arrival in Scotland he was, 
 6th September 1561, appointed one of tho privy council. In December 
 following lie was one of those named to modify stipends to the 
 reformed clergy — the mean allowance for whom roused the indigna- 
 tion of Knox. On the 23rd September 1563, he and Sir John Max- 
 well, the warden of the West Marches, met the English commissioners 
 at Dumfries, where they entered into a convention for redressing the 
 mutual trespasses on the borders. (Nicolsou, 'Border Laws.') On 
 the 31st May 1565, Sir John obtained a grant of the office of usher 
 of the exchequer — an office which seems to have remained iu his 
 family till 1796, when, on the insolvency of the fifth lord Bellenden, 
 it was attached, and sold by the creditors. The same year Sir John 
 had a grant of the office of justiciar and bailie of the baronies of 
 Cauongate and Broughton, and other lands belonging to Holyrood 
 House ; and the next year the commeudator made him justiciar and 
 bailie of Calder, belonging to the same abbey. 
 
 Among the numerous reports to which the murder of Rizzio gave 
 rise, one was, that the Belleudens were implicated iu the crime; and 
 in the despatch from Randolph and the Earl of Bedford to the privy 
 council of England, 27th March 1566, it is said — "There were in this 
 eompanie two that came in with the king, the one Andrewe Car of 
 Fawdouside, whom the Queen sayth would have stroken her with a 
 dagger, and one Patrick Baleutyne, brother to the justice-clerk, who 
 also, her grace sayth, offered a dag against her belly with the cock 
 down:" but it is added, " We have been earnestly in hand with the 
 Lord Ruthen to know the vaiitie, and he assureth us to the contrarie." 
 It would seem however that Sir John Bellenden fled from Edinburgh 
 on the 18th March 1566, on the arrival of Mary and Darnley with au 
 army, but he was soon restored to favour. He carried Mary's com- 
 mands to Mr. John Craig, the famous fellow-minister of John Knox, 
 to proclaim the banns between her and Bothwell. The marriage 
 was solemnised on the 15th May 1567 by Adam, bishop of Orkney, 
 who afterwards joined the association against Mary and Bothwell; 
 and in July following anointed and crowned the infant James. Sir 
 John Bellenden joined the association likewise; and also became one 
 of the regent's privy-council. In 1573 he was employed in framing 
 the pacification of Perth, whereby all the queen's party, except Kirk- 
 caldy of Grange, Lethington, and those with them in Edinburgh 
 Castle, were brought to the king's obedience. The same year he was, 
 it seems, employed in a still more difficult affair, namely, to persuade 
 the General Assembly on the behalf of Morton, that the civil magis- 
 trate ought to be head of the church as well as of the state. The 
 discussion was continued for twelve days and then adjourned. (Home, 
 'History of the House of Douglas.') 
 
 Sir John died some time before April 1577, leaving by his first wife 
 two sons, on the eldest of whom, Lewis, he by his latter will, dated in 
 1567, laid an injunction to serve the regent and the house of Angus, 
 under the king's majesty's obedience, "as I and my furbearis haf done, in 
 tymes bypast, befoir all the warld." Sir Lewis succeeded his father 
 in his possessions, and in his place of justice-clerk. 
 
 BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, an eminent writer, concerning whose 
 birth and education we possess no certain information except that he 
 was of Scotch family, and became known as a writer in the commence- 
 ment of the 17th century. It is stated that he filled the office of 
 Professor of Humanity in the University of Paris in 1602, and that he 
 was enabled to reside at that university through the favour of 
 James VI. (James I. of England). It is certain that he resided a long 
 time in Paris, and that the various writings which have transmitted 
 his name down to us were published during his residence there. In 
 1608 he published his ' Ciceronis Princeps,' &c, "a singular work," 
 says Dr. Bennett, bishop of Cloyne, " in which he extracted from 
 Cicero's writings detached remarks, and compressed them into one 
 regular body, containing the rules of monarchical government, with the 
 line of conduct to be adopted, and the virtues proper to be encouraged 
 by the prince himself." This treatise, which is called 'De Statu 
 Priucipis,' he dedicated to Prince Henry, the eldest son of his royal 
 patron, In 1612 he published a work of a similar character, which 
 
 he called ' Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque Romanus,' that is, 
 'De Statu ReipublicaV in which the nature of the consular office, and 
 the constitution of the Roman senate are perspicuously treated. 
 Finding these works deservedly successful, he set about a third work, 
 ' De Statu prisci Orbis,' which was to contain a history of the pro- 
 gress of religion, government, and philosophy, from the times before 
 the Flood, to their various degrees of improvement under the 
 Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. Ho had proceeded so far as to print 
 a few copies of this work in 1615, when he resolved to unite them 
 into one work, by republishing the two former, and entitling the 
 whole ' Bellendenus de Statu.' With this view he recalled the few 
 copies of his last work that were abroad, and, after a short delay, pub- 
 lished the three treatises under their new title in 1616. A copy of 
 the original edition of the ' De Statu prisci Orbis,' dated 1615, is in 
 the British Museum. Unfortunately the vessel in which the whole 
 impression of his great work was embarked was overtaken by a storm 
 before she could reach the English coast, and foundered with all her 
 cargo. A few copies only, which Bellenden had kept for his own use, 
 or made presents of, were saved; and accordingly the work, from its 
 scarcity, was hardly known to even the most curious of book 
 collectors. 
 
 Bellenden, though naturally much concerned, was not, it seems, 
 discouraged at his loss; but immediately set about arranging his 
 materials iu a new form. His studies had made him familiar with the 
 works of the great Latin writers, particularly Cicero ; and he designed 
 a work with the title ' De Tribus Luminibus Romanorum,' in which 
 he proposed to explain the character, literary merits, aud philosophical 
 opinions of Cicero, Seneca, and Pliny the elder according to some, the 
 younger according to other critics. The first of these he finished, 
 and was proceeding with the others when he died. The republication 
 of the three original works above-named of ' Bellendenus de Statu' 
 in 1787, with a preface remarkable for its Latinity, and still more, 
 perhaps, as being the vehicle of much fierce political invective from 
 the pen of Dr. Parr, has made Belleuden's name more familiar to the 
 English reader than it otherwise might have been. Iu his preface, 
 Parr affirms that Middletou, in his ' Life of Cic to,' borrowed largely 
 from Bellenden, without makiug any mention of his name. 
 
 BELLI'NI is the name of a family of painters, a father and two sons. 
 
 Jacoi'O Belli'ni, the father, was born in Veuiee. He was one of 
 the earliest practitioners in oil-painting, and an artist of considerable 
 merit. He adorned the public edifices of Venice with a great number 
 of pictures, the principal of which were a series of subj cts from the 
 New Testament in the church of St. John the Evangelist. He was 
 distinguished in portrait-painting, and among many other eminent 
 persons who sate to him were Lusignano, king of Cyprus, and the 
 Doge Cornaro. He died about 1470. 
 
 Gentile Bellini was the eldest son of the preceding, and born at 
 Venice in 1421. He studied under his father, aud subsequently 
 gained such reputation by his original works that he was employed, in 
 conjunction with his brother, Giovanni, to decorate the great council- 
 chamber of the Venetiau senate-house. His other principal works are 
 the Histories of the Holy Cross at San Giovanni, aud the Preaching 
 of St. Mirk, painted for the college of that saint, and now in the 
 Pinacoteca at Milan. This latter work ranks iu colouring and effect 
 among the finest of its time. But it is deficient in refinement, and 
 disfigured by extravagant an ichroni-itns in character and costume. 
 His Presentation of the Infant Jesus at the Temple, in the Palazzo 
 Barberigo, is a highly-esteemed performance. Some of Bellini's pictures 
 were taken by comoaerci-tl speculators to Constantinople, where, having 
 been seen by the sultan, Mohammed II., that monarch sent au invita- 
 tion to the artist to make a visit to his court. This proposal was 
 accepted by Bellini; he was courteously received by the sultan, who 
 sat to him for his portrait, and com missioned him to paint various 
 historical works. A strange story is told by his biograph' rs that one 
 of his pictures, the Decollation of St. John, was greatly admired by 
 Mohammed, but having discovered some inaccuracy in the marking of 
 the dissevered neck, iu ord-r to prove the justice of his criticism, 
 ordered the head of a slave to be struck off iu the presence of the 
 astonished artist. From this moment it is added Bellini never enjoyed 
 an hour's trauquillity until he had obtained leave to return to Venice. 
 Mohammed dismissed him with many marks of favour, placing a gold 
 chain round his neck, and giving him letters to the Venetiau senate 
 expressive of his satisfaction. During his residence in Constantinople 
 he struck a medallion of the sultan. He was engaged in various 
 public works after his return to Venice, for which he was requited by 
 the republic with an honourable pension for life, and the order of 
 St. Mark. He died February 23, 1508. 
 
 Giovanni Bellini, the son of Jacopo, and the brother of Gentile 
 Bellini, was born at Venice in 1426. He was the best artist of his 
 family, and contributed more than any painter of his time to prepare 
 the way for the grander style of art arrived at by Titian aud Giorgioue. 
 Giovanni Bellini painted iu the first instance in distemper, but on 
 seeing the oil-paintings of Antonello da Messina, who settled at Venice 
 iu 1570, he recognised the superiority of the new vehicle, which he at 
 once acquired the knowledge of, and theuceforward coutiuued to 
 employ. His first public works were those in the Venetiau senate- 
 house, iu the decoration of which he was associated w ith his brother, 
 Gentile : these were destroyed by fire in 1577. Giovauui ornamented 
 
833 
 
 BELWNI, LAURENTIO. 
 
 BELLOT, JOSEPH RENE. 
 
 the public edifices and churches of Venice and other cities of Italy 
 with a prodigious number of paintings, and continued his labours to 
 a very advanced age. Among his most distinguished works are altar- 
 pieces in the Sacristy of tlie Conventuali and at Sau Zaccaria at 
 Venice ; and in the monastery of the Capuchins in that city is a 
 picture of the Infant Jesus slumbering in the lap of the Madonna and 
 atte id>-d by angels— a work conspicuous for its grace, beauty, and 
 expression. To these may be added a Virgin in the cathedral of 
 Bergamo ; a Baptism of our Lord at Santa Corona, at Vicenza ; Christ 
 and the Woman of Sam iria at the Well, in the Schiarra Palace at 
 Home ; and a Bacchanaliau piece in the Cammuciui collection in that 
 city. In nil these works the elements of a finer style are more visible 
 thau bad been practised either by Perugino, Ghirlandaio, or any of 
 his immediate coutemporaiies. Bellini introduced a more ample style 
 of drapery, he generalised his colour, and gave breadth to his masses ; 
 and although he fell short of the excellence which was soon after 
 attained by Giorgioue and Titian, he claims the honour of having beeu 
 the teacher of those great masters. Some of bis small pictures are in 
 England ; but it is only by his large works in Italy that an adequate 
 ide" of his powers can be formed. He died at the age of ninety, in 
 1516. A portrait of the Doge Loredano by Giovanni Bellini is in the 
 National Gallerv : also an ' Agony in the Garden.' 
 
 BELLl'NI, LAURi:NTIO, was born at Florence September 3, 1613. 
 After receiving in his native place the elements of a classical educa- 
 tion, he proceeded to Pisa, to enjoy the advantages which the Grand 
 Duke Ferdinand II. granted to those who were disposed to study the 
 science-". At this time the doctrines adopted in order to explain the 
 functions of the human body were derived from the sect of mathe- 
 matical physicians, who ascribed them to mechanical principles. The 
 leader of this sect was Borelli, then professor of mechanics and anatomy 
 Ht Pisa. Under him, and also und--r Alexander Marchetti, professor 
 of mathematics, Bellini studied, and imbibed their opinions. The doc- 
 trines of this school were maintained for a considerable time, and 
 were partly adopted by Buerhave ; but since the writings of Haller 
 aud Hunter, they have beeu exploded. Bellini however made such 
 rapid progress, that when only twenty years of age he was appointed 
 profe-sor of philosophy at Pisa. Shortly afterwards he was made 
 professor of anatomy, and was frequently honoured witli the attend- 
 ance of the grand duke at his lectures. He continued to teach anatomy 
 and to practise medicine at Pisa, with great success, for thirty yeais, 
 when he was invited to Florence, and made chief physician to the 
 Grand Duke Cosmo III. At the recommendation of Lauci-i, phy- 
 sician to Pope Clement XL, he was nominated senior consulting 
 physician to that pontiff. His reputation was also extended to foreign 
 countries both by his writings and pupils, one of the most distin- 
 guished of whom was Dr. Archibald Pitcairn, successively professor 
 at Leyden aud Edinburgh, who introduced and maintained the doc- 
 trines of his master in these celebrated schools, where they held sway 
 for a considerable time. Bellini died on the 8th of January 1704. 
 
 The writings of Bellini are now little read. The best is the treatise 
 'Gusttis Organum novissime deprehensum,' Bononiae, 1665, in which 
 he pointed out the papillae of the tongue to be the essential organ of 
 taste. The next most important is entitled ' De Urinis, Pulsibus, 
 Missione sanguinis, febribus,' &c, Bononiae, 1683. His works have 
 been collected and published in two volumes, 4to, 1 Opera Omnia,' 
 Venetiis, 1708, and reprinted in 1732. 
 
 Bellini possessed a taste for music and poetry, and was the author 
 of a poem called ' Bucchereide,' which was published after his death 
 at Florence in 1729. 
 
 (Sprengel, L'Histoire de (a Medicine ; Haller, Bibliotheca Medicines 
 Practicce ; Fabroni Vilce Italorum.) 
 
 BELLINI, VINCENZO, a celebrated composer, was born in Novem- 
 ber lo02, at Catania, in Sicily, near the foot of Etna. The family were 
 musical, and the young Bellini showed so much talent that he was 
 sent to study at Naples, at the expense of the town of Catania. He 
 was admitted into the Conservatorio at Naples in 1819. His first efforts 
 at composition drew the attention of Zingarelli, the director of the insti- 
 tution, and he removed him into his own class. He however was disap- 
 pointed, for Bellini was idle, and inattentive to the orthodox rules of 
 harmonic combinations, though he subsequently made laudable efforts 
 to compensate for this neglect. He dissected the quartets of Haydn 
 and Mozart, a labour as interesting as useful to those who would 
 penetrate the secrets of modulation, and the adjustments of parts. 
 He also composed symphonies and psalm-tunes. In 1825 he produced 
 an opera, ' Andelson e Salvina,' which was performed within the walls 
 of the Conservatorio, and which showed the germs of a genius not 
 yet developed. A cantata, ' Ismenee,' received such applause, that 
 Barbaja, the manager of the San Carlos theatre at Naples, confided to 
 Bellini a libretto, ' Bianca e Gernando,' for which he was to compose 
 the music. It was played in March 1826, and obtained a brilliant 
 success. He was now regularly engaged for the theatre of La Scala at 
 Milan. In 1827 'II Pi rati ' was produced there, and was warmly 
 received. It does not however rank high as a work of art; the 
 instrumentation poor, the harmonies faulty, but some of the melodi a 
 are delightful. ' Le Straniera ' followed at .Milan ; 'Zaire' was brought 
 out at Parma; and ' I Capuletti ed i Montecchi ' at Venice. But 1831 
 saw Bellini's greatest triumph ; in this yi ar was produced ' La Sonuarn- 
 bula ' in March, aud ' Norma' iu December, both of them at Milan. 
 
 Thoy were received with enthusiasm, and quickly became popular in 
 other parts of Europe. For a year Bellini rested, and in 1833 produced 
 ' Beatrice di Tenda ;' this was a comparative failure, — a gloomy subject, 
 with a mournful ending, was not within the compass of Bellini's 
 genius. The story is the fate of Anne Bullen, with Italian names. Hia 
 reputation however suffered little from this check, and the Acaddmie 
 Royale de Musique iu Paris applied to him to compose an opera for 
 them. Bellini went to Paris, then crossed over to England to superin- 
 tend the performance of one of his own operas, returned, and in 1834 
 produced 'I Puritani,' in which he made great advances in the 
 knowledge and practice of his art. Shortly after this brilliant effort, 
 while r.-siding at a house in the country, he was attacked by a violent 
 intestinal disorder, which carried him off iu a few days. He died at 
 Pateaux, near Paris, on the 23rd of September 1835, a.'ed 32 years, 
 and was buried in the cemetery of Pore la Chaise, after a solemn 
 funeral service had been performed in the church of the Invalidea. 
 
 Bellini's moral character stood high, aud his manners and composi- 
 tions were in strict accordance ; — agreeable, tender, and elegant. He 
 rarely attempted the brilliant, aud never aspired to the sublime, or 
 even lofty, yet in most of his productions are traits of genius. A 
 sweetuess of melody, a fitness of harmony, and an adaptation of the 
 sound to the sense, characterise all those of his works which have come 
 under our notice. His constitutional tendencies seem to have been 
 adverse to that vigorous exertion of mind which in a more healthy 
 state he might have exhibited : and it may be, that had he not been 
 cut off iu almost his youth, his ambition would have led him to 
 attempt something that might have secured to him the privilege of 
 being heard in future times. 
 
 BELLMANN, CHARLES MICHEL, a Swedish poet, was born at 
 Stockholm in 1741, aud died in 1796. He studied at the University 
 of Upsala, and after he had left it was enabled to devote himself 
 entirely to his favourite pursuits of poetry and literature by the 
 liberality of Gustavus III., who appointed him to a nominal office, 
 with a competent income, and the title of Secretary of the Court. The 
 king had already favourably noticed Bellman's earliest productions, 
 which were a metrical translation from the German of Schweidnitz'a 
 ' Evangelical Dying Thoughts ' (' Evangelische Todesgedauken '), 
 published when he was only sixteen; and a poem entitled 'Zion's 
 Hogtid' (the 'Festival of Zion '). To these, some years afterwards, 
 were added—' Bachi Tempel ' (the ' Temple of Bacchus '), the most 
 important of his poems ; Friedmann's ' Epistler og Songer ; ' and a 
 Swedish translation from the German of Gellert's ' Fables.' His 
 posthumous works — ■' Skaldestykken ' (' Poems '), and Friedmann's 
 ' Handskrifter ' ('Manuscripts') — were published, the first at Stock- 
 holm, 2 vols, 1812, and the second at Upsala, 1813. Bellmann's poetical 
 pictures generally represent scenes of the lowest life in Sweden ; but 
 they are so chaste, so true, so full of imagination, aud their colours 
 are so lively, that the reader forgets the scenes of vulgarity to which 
 he is introduced, and finds himself suddenly transported from low 
 tap-rooms to cheerful habitations of joy and song. To enter however 
 fully into the spirit of Bellman's lyrical productions, it is necessary, 
 not only to read them, but also to hear them sung to the tunes which, 
 were composed expressly for them. Bellmann had a heart open to 
 friendship, he was a cheerful companion, and bore a good moral 
 character. 
 
 BELLOT, JOSEPH RENE, was born at Paris, in March 1826. Hia 
 father, who was in humble circumstances, removed to Rochefort when 
 Joseph was five years old. Joseph was placed in the elementary school 
 of that city, and so favourable a report was made by his schoolmaster 
 at the close of his term of instruction that the municipality at once 
 granted him a demiburse at the College of Rochefort. Here his pro- 
 gress was equally satisfactory ; so that when his college term ended, 
 in his 16th year, aud he proceeded to the naval school at Brest, the 
 municipality of Rochefort continued to contribute a moiety of the 
 expense. He was two years at the naval school, and on quitting it 
 took rauk as fifth on the list at the final examination. Having served 
 six months in port, he received his commission as ' eleve de marine' 
 on board the corvette ' Berceau,' bound for the Isle of Bourbon. It 
 is worthy of remark, as characteristic of Bellot's excellent disposition, 
 that, before leaving France, out of his slender salary he assigned to 
 his family the sum of 20 francs a month. 
 
 Bellot remained abroad somewhat over three years, returning home 
 in November 1847. During this time, while steadily pursuing hia 
 private studies, he had, by the diligent discharge of bis official duties, 
 secured the esteem and approbation of his superior officers. M. Romain 
 Desfosses, the commodore, to whom Bellot had acted as aide-de-camp, 
 in his official dispatch to the minister of marine, pronounced Bellot to 
 
 be " the most distinguished 6\hve on the station, and in every 
 
 respect superior to hi3 age and position." Distinguished merit in a 
 young officer is seldom neglected by the French government. For his 
 conduct aud bravery in the expedition against Tamative, Madagascar, 
 in July 1845, in which he had been wounded, he had been already 
 promoted to be an dleve of the first class, and, though under twenty, 
 created a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour ; and now on returning 
 home with the high commendation of M. Desfosso's, he was raised to 
 the rauk of sub-lieutenant. 
 
 The following summer Lieutenant Bellot sailed in the corvette 
 ' Triomphante ' to South America, where he remained for about two 
 
638 
 
 BELON, PIERRE. 
 
 BELZONI, GIOVANNI. 
 
 638 
 
 years. His conduct here affords a fine lesson for the young officer, 
 whatever service he may be in, and to whatever country he may belong. 
 His strictly professional duties, and they were very onerous, were most 
 carefully and sedulously performed, and he obtained, as before, the 
 warmest commendations from li is superiors. But his own time was 
 carefully husbanded and admirably employed. He not only extended 
 his knowledge, especially in hydrography and geography, but taught 
 himself to speak English, Spanish, and German fluently ; and withal, 
 gave up much time and thought to what he had come to regard as an 
 important part of an officer's duty — the training of bis subordinates. 
 So far indeed did he carry this, that, both here and on the African 
 station, his biographer informs us, "he gave on board the vessel a 
 course of lectures on geometry and navigation for all those seamen 
 who, being intended for masters of trading vessels, would have to pass 
 on their return the examination in theory and practice required by the 
 rules of the marine." 
 
 Bellot's thoughts were now turned to a new sphere of operations. 
 The search after Sir John Franklin and his gallant comrades had 
 directed general attention to the Polar Regions. When he found that 
 his own government would not, as he had hoped, aid in the search, he 
 asked for and obtained permission to volunteer his services in the 
 expedition fitting out, chiefly at the expense of Lady Franklin, under 
 Mr. Kennedy. His services were gladly accepted, and he sailed in the 
 schooner 'Royal Albert' in the beginning of June 1851, holding no 
 declared rank, but really second in command, with the understanding 
 that he was to act as chief officer in case of Captain Kennedy's death. 
 Of this voyage Lieutenant Bellot left a full and very interesting 
 journal, which has been published under the editorship of M. de In 
 Roquette, along with his memoirs. The ' Royal Albert' was ice-bound 
 in Fury Bay for 330 days, and was compelled to return without having 
 obtained any tidings of Sir John Franklin ; but the expedition was so 
 far successful as to have ascertained that Sir John could not have 
 proceeded in the direction indicated for their search, and every man 
 was bi ought home alive and in good health. 
 
 Bellot had displayed in this, as on every previous service, the most 
 intelligent aud devoted attention to its duties, and had secured the 
 heaity good-will of loth officers and seamen. In England he was 
 received with an amount of enthusiasm for which he was little pre- 
 pared, and his own government marked its approbation by rai-ing 
 him a step in rank. But he was not disposed to rest on his laurels. 
 He again obtained permission to volunteer in a new searching expe- 
 dition, and in June 1853 set out in the ' Phoenix,' Captain Inglefield. 
 They* anchored safely in Erebus and Terror Bay, where they found 
 lying the ' North Star,' but its commander, Captain Pulleu, had been 
 for a mouth away from his ship on an exploratory journey. Captain 
 Inglefield resolved to set out in search of Captain Pulleu, but the 
 latter returned shortly after Inglefield's departure. It now appeared 
 very desirable at once to forward, if possible, the despatched, which 
 it had been a principal object of the expedition to convey, to Sir 
 Edward Belcher. In the absence of his captain, Lieutenant Bellot 
 volunteered to conduct this perilous undertaking. He accordingly 
 set out with four sailors, a canoe, aud a sledge. A few days later, 
 on the 18th of August, while crossing the ice, about three miles from 
 the shore, off Cape Bowdeu, they were caught in a gale, became 
 separated, and Bellot, with two of his companions, drifted on a broken 
 piece of ice towards mid-channel. After cheering his companions a3 
 well as he was able, Bellot crossed to the opposite side of the hum- 
 mock to see how the ice was drifting. As he did not return, one of 
 the sailors went after him ; but he was not to be seen, and he was 
 never seen again. His stick lay on the other side of a wide crack, 
 into which he had no doubt been driven by the violence of the wind. 
 His companions happily escaped. 
 
 Thus, at the age of twenty-six, was lost one of the most promising 
 men who have adorned the French navy. The news of his sad end 
 was received with general sorrow in both countries. Here a meeting 
 was held, at which resolutions, expressive of admiration and regret, 
 were moved and supported by the First Lord of the Admiralty, the 
 President of the Geographical Society, and various eminent naval 
 officers and scientific men ; and a subscription was authorised for 
 raising a testimonial to his memory. The testimonial took the form 
 best calculated to do him honour. Out of the funds a handsome 
 granite obelisk, bearing his name, was placed in front of the gates of 
 Greenwich Hospital ; and to each of his five sisters a sum of about 
 300Z. was appropriated. The French government provided for his 
 two brothers. 
 
 (Lemer, Memoir of Lieutenant Joseph Rene Bellot, &c.) 
 
 BELON, PIERRE, one of the fathers of natural history on the 
 revival of letters, was born at Souletiere, a village in the French pro- 
 vince of Maine (now the department of Sarthe), somewhere about the 
 year 1518. Deservedly great as is the fame which he acquired, nothing 
 seems to be known concerning his family. Medicine and botany were 
 his studies at a very early period of his life ; and the bishops of Mans 
 and of Clermont, and afterwards the cardinals of Tournou and of 
 Lorraine, were his patrons. To them he owed his education, the means 
 of travelling, and the opportunities of publishing the observations 
 which he so well knew how to make. 
 
 He visited Germany, Bohemia, Italy, Greece, Egypt, Palestine, and 
 Asia Minor, and appeared in Paris, after three years of absence, in 
 
 1550, with a fine and extensive collection, which he arranged : he 
 then proceeded to publish his works. In 1557 he traversed Italy, 
 Savoy, Dauphin^, and Auvergne. In 15G4, when he was about forty- 
 five years old, he was cut off in the midst of his useful career by the 
 arm of an assassin as he was returning to Paris. The Bois de Boulogne 
 was the scene of this murder. 
 
 It would be out of place iu a work of this description to give a cata- 
 logue of his various and excellent publications. The sciences of 
 botany, zoology, geography, and antiquity, were all enriched by his 
 labours. Henry II. and Charles IX. of France reflected honour on 
 themselves by the esteem which they showed for this celebrated man, 
 who was far in advance of the age in which he lived. 
 
 BELSHAM, THOMAS, a dissenting minister of the Unitarian per- 
 suasion, was born at Bedford in April 1750. On his mother's side he 
 was descended from the Earl of Anglesey : his father, the Rev. James 
 Pel-ham, was a man of classical attainments. After studying for five 
 years at the Dissenters' Academy at Daveutry, then under Dr. Ash- 
 worth, Mr. Belsham was appointed assistant tutor iu that academy, an 
 office which he held for seven years. He was then chosen pas! or of a 
 church at Worcester, where he remained for three years, when he 
 returned to Daveutry Academy as theological tutor and head of the 
 institution. This office he continued to fill from 1781 to 1789, and at 
 the same time was minister of the Society of Protestant Dissenters at 
 Daveutry. His views had hitherto been Calviuistic, but he now 
 embraced Unitarianism, and in consequence resigned his connection 
 both with the academy and with his congregation. About this time, 
 a new college being established at Hackney, it was placed under the 
 direction of Mr. Belsham, but in a few years it sunk for want of funds 
 to support it. Before this event took place he was choseu to the vacant 
 pulpit of Dr. Priestley by the Gravel Pit congregation, where he again 
 entered upon those exertions which were most congenial to his tastes. 
 Eleven years afterwards, in 1805, on the death of Dr. Disney, the col- 
 league and successor of Mr. Lindsey, Mr. Belsham removed to Essex- 
 street chape], Loudon, of which he continued the pastor during the 
 rest of his life. 
 
 From the time that Mr. Belsham avowed his conver-ion to the' doc- 
 trines held by the Unitarians he espoused their cause with great zeal, 
 and applied his talents and learning to its defence. One of his earliest 
 publications was 'A Review of Mr. Wilberforce's Treatise, entitled A 
 Practical View of the prevailing Religious System of Professed Chris- 
 tians,' &c, 1798, in which it was the writer's design to place the theo- 
 logical doctrines maintained by the author of the ' Practical View ' in 
 contrast with those professed by Unitarians. In 1811 he published a 
 work entitled ' A Calm Inquiry iuto the Scripture Doctrine concerning 
 the Person of Christ.' His single sermons, on subjects chiefly sug- 
 gested by public events, would make up several volumes, and his con- 
 troversial writings are numerous. There is hardly any branch of 
 theology, or of the doctrines or evidences of revelation, on which Mr. 
 Belsham has not published his thoughts. His ' Evidences of the 
 Christian Revelation ' is a powerfully argumentative and sometimes 
 eloquent work, which had a large sale, and was perhaps the most 
 popular of his performances. His last work, and that perhaps on 
 which his reputation must rest, was ' A Translation of the Epistles of 
 Paul the Apostle, with an Exposition and Notes.' He had been pre- 
 viously employed on a work of which he is now known to have been 
 the editor, ' The Improved Version of the New Testament.' But Mr. 
 Belsham's literary works were not exclusively theological. In 1801 he 
 published ' Elements of the Philosophy of the Humau Mind aud of 
 Moral Philosophy.' As a follower of Hartley, he resolved all mental 
 phenomena into the association of ideas.. Besides his numerous 
 obituary sermons, he published 'Memoirs of the late Rev. The ophilus 
 Lindsey, M.A., including a Brief Analysis of his works,' &c, 1812. 
 Mr. Belsham died at Hampstead on November 11th, 1829. {Memoirs 
 of the late Rev. Thomas Belsham, by John Williams, 8vo, 1833.) 
 
 BELSHAM, WILLIAM, an active writer on politics and history, 
 brother of Thomas Belsham, was born iu 1752, and died Nov. 17th, 
 1827 at Hammersmith. He resided at one period at Bedford, and was 
 intimately acquainted with several of the most celebrated public men 
 belonging to the Whig party, to whose politics he was strongly 
 attached. His literary career commenced in 1789, by the publication 
 of a series of ' Essays, Historical, Political, and Literary,' iu 2 vols. 
 8vo. These were followed by 'Letters and Essa\ s,' published at 
 various periods, on the ' Test Laws,' the ' Freuch Revolution,' the 
 1 Distinction between the Old and New Whigs,' ' Parliamentary Reform,' 
 and the ' Poor Laws.' In 1793 he published, in 2 vols. 8vo, 'Memoirs 
 of the Kings of Great Britain of the House of Bruuswick-Lunenberg.' 
 In 1795 he again appeared as an historical writer, by the publication 
 of ' Memoirs of the Reign of George III., to the Session of Parliament 
 endiug 1793,' in 4 vols. Svo. To these were added the fifth aud sixth 
 volumes in 1801. In 1798 he published, in 2 vols. 8vo, a 'History 
 of Great Britain from the Revolution to the Accession of the House 
 of Hanover;' and in 1806 his historical works were published iu a 
 uniform edition ia twelve Svo volume-, under the title of ' History 
 of Great Britain to the Conclusion of the Peace of Amiens in 1802.' 
 He was also the author of numerous other productions of an historical 
 and political character, none of which are now often referred to. 
 (Watt, BiblLotheca Britannica.) 
 
 BELZO'NI, GIOVA'NNI, was a native of Padua, but of a family 
 
637 BELZONI, GIOVANNI. 
 
 originally from Rome, as he himself states in the preface to his work 
 on Egypt. He passed his early youth at Rome, where he inteuded to 
 enter the monastic life, but the Freuoh invasion of that city in 1798 
 altered his purpose, and in the year 1800 he left Italy, and visited in 
 succession several parts of Europe. In 1803 he arrived in England, 
 where he Boon after married : and after nine years' residence in 
 England, during part of which he gained his living by exhibiting feats 
 of strength, he set off with his wife for Portugal and Spain, from 
 whence he proceeded by way of Malta to Egypt, where he arrived in 
 1815. His object in going to Egypt was to construct an hydraulic 
 machine to supersede the clumsy engines then used in that country 
 for irrigation. He proposed his plan to Mehemet Ali Pasha, by whom 
 it was approved. Belzoui constructed a machine in the pasha's garden 
 at Zubra, near Cairo, aud the experiment proved successful, but owing 
 to the prejudices and opposing interests of the natives, it was aban- 
 doned before it was completed. Belzoni then decided upon visiting 
 Thebes, and his intention becoming known to Mr. Burckhardt, the 
 latter gentleman prevailed upon Mr. Salt, the British consul, to employ 
 Belzoni to remove the colossal bust, commonly but incorrectly called 
 the Young Memnon ; which he accomplished with great ingenuity, 
 placed it in a barge, which sailed down to Rosetta, and thence to Alex- 
 andria, where it was shipped for England. This head, now in the 
 British Museum, is one of the finest specimens of Egyptian colossal 
 sculpture. Belzoni, on his return to Cairo, received a present through 
 Burckhardt, half of which was paid by Mr. Salt. Before embarking 
 the colossus Belzoni made an excursion higher up the country, visited 
 the great temple of Edfu, and the islands of Elephantine and of Philse, 
 and proceeded into Nubia as far as the second cataract. He was the first 
 to open the great temple of Abousambul, or Ipsambul, which is cut in 
 the side of a mountain, and the front of which was so much encumbered 
 by the accumulated sand, that only the upper part of it was visible. 
 In 1817 Belzoni made a second journey into Upper Egypt and Nubia, 
 during which he made excavations at Carnak, on. the eastern side of 
 the Nile, and found there a colossal head of granite, several statues, 
 an altar with basso-rilievi, sphinxes, &c. The colossal head and an arm 
 ten feet in length, both belonging to one colossus, are now in the 
 British Museum. But one of the greatest discoveries of this enter- 
 prising traveller was the opening of a splendid tomb in the Beban el- 
 Molouk, or Valley of the Tombs of the Kings. He discovered the 
 right entrance, which had been blocked up for many centuries, had it 
 cleared, and at last made his way into the sepulchral chambers cut 
 in the calcareous rock, and richly adorned with pictures in low relief, 
 and hieroglyphics painted in the brightest colours. Belzoni made 
 drawings of the chambers, took impressions in wax of the figures and 
 hieroglyphics, noting carefully the various colours, and thus con- 
 structed a perfect fac-simile of this magnificent tomb, which was 
 afterwards exhibited in London. He also brought to England a 
 sarcophagus of arragonite, which he found in a chamber of the great 
 tomb. Mr. Salt paid Belzoni's expenses in these undertakings, besides 
 giving him a remuneration, and received for his share part of the 
 antiquities which Belzoni collected, aud among the rest the sarcopha- 
 gus, which he subsequently sold to Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Soaue 
 the architect for 2000/. (See the 'Life and Correspondence of Salt,' 
 by J. Halls.) Belzoni also opened numerous other sepulchres exca- 
 vated in the ridge of rocks at Gournou, at the foot of the Libyan 
 Mountains, near western Thebes. He gives in his 'Narrative' a most 
 graphic and interesting account of the difficulties and labour he had 
 to encounter in this enterprise. 
 
 Belzoni's next undertaking was the removal of an obelisk from the 
 island of Pbilse, the shaft of which was twenty-two feet long, and two 
 feet wide at the base, which he accomplished with no other aid than 
 poles, rotten palm ropes, and a few ignorant Arab peasants. He 
 placed it in a boat, and contrived to pass it safely down the falls of 
 Assouan. The obelisk was removed at the expense of Mr. William 
 Bankes, who erected it at Kingston Hall in Dorsetshire. Belzoni 
 discovered also the entrance into the second great pyramid of Jizeh, 
 and penetrated into the central chamber, the existence of which was 
 before unknown, though it appeared, from an inscription found there, 
 that it had been entered by the Arabs. 
 
 In September 1818, he again left Cairo, went to Esne", and thence 
 struck across the Desert to the shore of the Red sea. He there disco- 
 vered the ruins of the ancient town of Berenice, and visited likewise 
 the emerald mines of Mount Zabarah. In the following year (1819) 
 he went on another excursion to Lake Mceri3, and thence to the 
 smaller Oasis, which lies due west of it. Mo European was known to 
 have visited the spot before him. He left Egypt in September 1819, 
 after a residence of five years, during which he made numerous and 
 important discoveries. 
 
 Belzoni returned to Italy, and visited his native town, Padua, the 
 citizc-DS of which had a medal struck, with the date of that year, 1819, 
 in commemoration of his discoveries. On his arrival in England, he 
 published his 'Narrative of the Operations and recent Discoveries 
 within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations in Egypt and 
 Nubia,' 4to, London, 1820, with an Atlas. In 1823 he set off once 
 more for Africa, with the intention of penetrating to the city of 
 Timbuctoo. He undertook this journey on his own account, unassisted 
 oy any government or society. He landed at Tangier, accompanied by 
 his wife, and thence proceeded to the city of Fez. Messrs. Briggs of 
 
 BEMBO, PIETRO. 
 
 Alexandria contributed 200/. towards the funds for the expedition: 
 but the jealousy of the Moorish or Jewish traders prevented his 
 obtaining permission from the emperor to join the great caravan, 
 which assembled here to cross the Desert to Soudan. He then repaired 
 to Mogadore, aud embarked for Cape Co ist, whence he proceeded to 
 the Bight of Benin, which he seems to have guessed was the most 
 direct way to reach the Niger. There he met with a negro from 
 Kashna, who had been a sailor on board the 'Owen Ghndower' 
 frigate, and who was returning to his own country. Belzoni and he 
 agreed to travel together to Houssa. Belzoni was well received by the 
 king of Benin, who gave him much useful information for his journey. 
 Everything seemed favourable to his undertaking, when he was 
 attacked by a dyseutery, which, after a few days, terminated his life on 
 the 3rd of December 1823, at a place called Oato, in the kingdom of 
 Benin. He was buried there under a large tree, and a simple inscrip- 
 tion was placed on his tomb. The day before his death he wrote to 
 his friend Mr. Hodgson, who was on board the brig ' Swing.-r ' in the 
 Bight of Benin, intrusting him with some directions concerning his 
 property, and with his last affectionate farewell to his wife. Belzoni 
 was frank and kind-hearted, trusty and honourable, and to great 
 simplicity of manners united intelligence, firmness, and perseverance. 
 He was certainly one of the most enterprising and sagacious of modern 
 explorers, but he appears to have been apt to take offence, and to have 
 been too prone to suspect the intentions of those with whom he came 
 in contact. 
 
 BEM, JOSEPH, was born at Jarnow, in Galicia, in 1795. After 
 having studied in the university of Cracow, in 1810 he entered the 
 military school at Warsaw, directed at this period by the French 
 general Pelletier ; and from this school, at the end of two years, he 
 issued as an officer of the horse artillery. In 1812 he served as lieu- 
 tenant in the army under Davoust, and subsequently under Macdonald, 
 with whom he was during the siege of Hamburg. Russia having vio- 
 lated the capitulatiou, he was forced to return to Poland, residing with 
 his father, who had an estate near Kielce. When the kingdom of 
 Poland was again constituted, Bern resumed his military duties. In 
 1819 he was created a captain, and became aide-de-camp to General 
 Bontemps. He was next made professor in a school of artillery newly 
 established at Warsaw. Here he introduced into the Polish army the 
 use of the Congreve rocket, and published a work upon this instru- 
 ment of destruction. Soon afterwards he solicited to be removed from 
 this school, but the Grand-Duke Constantine, who treated this demand 
 as an act of insubordination, had him brought to trial before a court- 
 martial, which condemned him to prison. He was however released, 
 but sent to Ketzk, and placed under the surveillance of the police. 
 
 After the death of Alexander, Bern obtained his dismission, and went 
 to reside at Leopol in Galicia. There he devoted himself entirely to 
 science, aud commenced a work on the steam-engine. When the revo- 
 lution of 1830 broke out, Bern immediately betook himself to Warsaw, 
 where he was at once made a major in the Polish army ; and shortly 
 afterwards was appointed to the command of a battalion of horse 
 artillery, in which capacity, in the face of a numerous enemy, he dis- 
 played all the knowledge of a tactician with the bravery of a soldier. 
 After the defeat of the Polish army he led the remnant towards France, 
 aud here he remained for a considerable period in exile, gaining his 
 living by teaching mechanics and mnemonics. He afterwards under- 
 took to raise a Polish legion for Dom Pedro in his expedition to 
 Portugal, but the attempt proved a failure. He himself repaired to 
 Lisbon, where an attempt was made on his life ; the ball aimed at 
 him was arrested by a piece of money in his pocket. 
 
 On the commencement of the revolution in 1848, Bern at first 
 attempted to organise the insurrection at Vienna, and afterwards joined 
 himself to the Hungarian party. Charged with the command of an 
 army to oppose the Austriaus on the side of Transylvania, he at first 
 experienced some checks, but in March 1849 he made himself master 
 of Hermannstadt, took Cronstadt, and repulsed the Austrian army, 
 though joined by that of Russia, called to its assistance in the 
 previous February. He also compelled the Austrian general, Puchuer, 
 to abandon the Bauat and Wallachia. The Austriaus aud Russians 
 rallied in Transylvania ; and after attempting in vain to excite the 
 Wallachians and Moldavians to rise, he was attacked and defeated 
 at Segesvar by a greatly superior force under Liiders, the Russian 
 general. He however succeeded in re-assembling his forces, and on 
 August 5, 1849, he a second time possessed himself of Hermannstadt, 
 which however he could not retain for want of reinforcements. At 
 the desire of Kossuth he entered Hungary, and on August 8 took 
 part in the battle of Temesvar, in which the Hungarians were 
 defeated. 
 
 Bern then, with others, took refuge in the Turkish territories, 
 embraced the Mussulman faith, was favourably received by the Sultan 
 Abdul-Medjid, aud was raised to the dignity of a pasha, with a com- 
 mand in the Turkish army. In November 1850 he exerted himself at 
 Aleppo, where he and several other converts had been ordered to 
 reside, in repressing the sanguinary excesses committed by the Mussul- 
 man population on the Christian residents. On December 10 in the 
 same year he died in that town, leaving a reputation for extraordinary 
 ability as a geueral, and a valour that has seldom been surpassed. 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographic Univenelle.) 
 
 BE'MBO, PIETRO, was born at Venice in 1470. His father was a 
 
639 
 
 patrician of Venice, and a man of considerable taste for elegant lite- 
 rature. Pietro, who showed an early disposition for learning, studied 
 at Padua and at Ferrara, and afterwards went to Sicily, where he 
 learned Greek from Agostino Lascaris at Messina. On his return to 
 his native country he repaired to the little town of Asolo, ucarTreviso, 
 •which had become the residence of Caterina Cornaro, the widow of 
 James Lusignano, the last king of Cyprus, who, having resigned her 
 kingdom to the Venetian senate, was enjoying a splendid income, with 
 the title of Queen, and holding a sort of little court in that pleasant 
 retirement. She was a woman of elegant taste and refined education. 
 In September 149C she gave some splendid entertainments on the 
 occasion of the marriage of her favourite lady in waiting, to which she 
 invited many persons of distinction, and among others young Bern bo j 
 whose family was related to hers. According to the usages of chivalry 
 still in fashion in that age, some of the hours of 1< isure between the 
 banquets, tournaments, and other pageants, were employed in learned 
 or witty conversations, and especially in speculative discussions on 
 the subject of love, some praising it as the source of human happiness, 
 others blaming it as the cause of much misery, <fcc. From these 
 disquisitions Bembo derived the plan of a work, which he styled ' Gli 
 Asolani,' from the name of the place. It purports to be a colli ction of 
 ■what was said in those entertainments by the several disputants on 
 the nature, qualities, and effects of love, distinguishing the pure senti- 
 ment from the grossuess of the passion that goes by that name, and 
 ending in a moral strain on the contemplation of divine love, or the 
 love between the Creator and his creatures. The metaphysical part of 
 the reasoning is derived from Plato's philosophy, which was in high 
 favour at that time among the learned of Italy. This work of Bembo 
 was received with considerable applause, aud the book is ttill esteeuied 
 as a specimen of good Italian prose. 
 
 Bembo's father wished him to devote himself to the civil service 
 of his country, by entering on some official employment, in which his 
 noble birth and connections would have enabled him to aspire in course 
 of time to the highest dignities of the republic. Bembo however 
 preferred going to Borne, and becoming a candidate there for eccle- 
 siastical preferment, as better .suited to his taste for study. His 
 father opposing his design, Bembo resolved to devote himself to the 
 monastic life, and for that purpose repaired to Urbiuo, near which 
 was the abbey of La Croce dell' Avellana. At Urbiuo Bembo was 
 so kindly received by the then Duke Guidobaldo di Montefeltro and 
 Elizabetha Gonzaga, his consort, that he changed his mind, and took 
 op his residence at their court, which was distinguished both for the 
 personal character of the sovereigns and for the encouragement which 
 they gave to the learned. Here he began to write Italian poetry, in 
 which he imitated the style and the harmony of Petrarch ; and here 
 also he became intimately acquainted with Giuliano de' Medici, third 
 son of the great Lorenzo, aud afterwards duke of Nemours, who was 
 then residing at Urbino. After the death of Duke Guidobaldo, which 
 was soon followed by that of his duchess, Bembo and Giuliano agreed 
 to proceed to Rome. 
 
 Soon after Bembo had arrived at Borne, Cardinal de' Medici, brother 
 to his friend Giuliano, was raised to the pontifical chair under the 
 name of Leo X. The new pontiff appointed as his secretaries Bembo 
 and the learned Sadoleto. The briefs, letters, and other official acts 
 "which the two secretaries wrote in the name of the pontiff, were dis- 
 tinguished for their classical style, carried almost to fastidiousness. 
 Rome was at that time the seat of dissipation and licentiousness, as 
 well as of learning. Bembo shared in the common propensity, and 
 several of the Latin verses which he then wrote are stained by inde- 
 cent images and expressions. His elegy on Galatea is one of the best 
 specimens of his Latin poetry. After Leo's death iu 1521, he went 
 to Padua, where he fixed his residence. Leo had amply provided 
 him with ecclesiastical benefices ; and Bembo, who was now enabled 
 to gratify his taste for literature and the arts, became a muuificent 
 patron of learning, and collected a rich library and a cabinet of rare 
 medals. At Padua he completed his work on the Italian lauguage, at 
 which he had laboured assiduously for many years: 'Prose di M. 
 Pietro Bembo, nelle quali si ragiona della Volgar Lingua, divise iu tru 
 libri,' Venezia, 1525. This work is one of the earliest works on the 
 rules of the Italian language : it has gone through many editions, and 
 is still much esteemed. Bembo's Italian poems were published some 
 years after, 'Rime di M. Pietro Bembo,' Venezia, 1530. In 1530, the 
 Council of Ten commissioned Bembo to write the history of the 
 Venetian republic, beginning from the year 1487, where Sabellico 
 had left it. Bembo wrote it in Latin, aud carried it to the year 
 1513, 'Historiaj Venetse,' libri xii. He afterwards wrote an Italian 
 translation of his work: 'Historia Viniziaua, volgarmeute scritta,' 
 which was published after his death at Venice, in 1552, with a life of 
 the author. This translation was long after republished, iu 1790, by 
 Morelli, the librarian of St. Mark, in 2 vols. 4to, with many corrections 
 from Bembo's autograph, and with a fine likeness of the author, 
 engraved by Bartolozzi from a painting by Titian. 
 
 Bembo had been for many years settled at Padua in studious retire- 
 ment, after renouncing the licentiousness of his early years, as well as 
 all prospects of ambition, when in 1539, Pope Paul III. unexpectedly 
 sent him a cardinal's hat. More perplexed than pleased at Lis promo- 
 tion, Bembo took time to consider whether he should accept of it ; he 
 bad as yet taken only the minor orders, which are not binding for , 
 
 life. He however accepted it, and at Christmas 1539, he was ordained 
 presbyter, when he received the insignia of the cardinalship, aud pro- 
 ceeded to Rome, where he chiefly resided for the remainder of his life. 
 He died at Rome in 1547, in his seventy-eighth year, aud was buried in 
 the church of Santa Maria super Minervam. His friend Girolamo 
 Quirini raised a splendid monument to his memory in the church of 
 St. Anthony of Padua. Of Bembo's three illegitimate children, whom 
 he had during his residence at Rome iu the pontificate of Leo X., one 
 died young ; another, called Tommaso, became a churchman ; his 
 daughter Elena married Pier Gradenigo, a Venetian nobleman. Bembo 
 was intimate with Della Casa, Castiglione, Sadoleto, and most of the 
 Italian literati of his age. His epistolary correspondence, both Latin 
 and Italian, was published in parts, and at different times. 
 
 (Epislolarum Familiarum libri VI. et Epistolarum, Leonis X. Pont. 
 Max. nomine scriptarivm, libri XVI., 8vo, Venetiis, 1552; lienbi et 
 Sadoleti Eputolanun liber unus, Florentiae, 1524 ; Lettere di Pietro 
 Bembo, 4 vols. 8vo, Venezia, 1552.) 
 
 BENAVl'DES was a native of Quirihue, iu the province of Concep- 
 cion, in Chili. Himself and a younger brother entered the patriot 
 army at the beginning of the revolution. The elder brother attained 
 the rank of a sergeant in a Buenos Ayres battalion. In 1814 both 
 brothers were found guilty of some capital offence, and sentenced to 
 death. Being placed in the condemned cell, they contrived to escape, 
 and went over to the royali-ts, iu whose service they were the scourge 
 of Chili for four years. At the battle of Maypo in 1818 they were 
 made prisoners, but not being recognised till the Chilian general had 
 offered a general amnesty to all military offenders, they escaped 
 unpunished. The supreme director, however, desiring to rid the 
 country of them, sent the brothers with a strong escort to the pro- 
 vine • of La Plata. Not far from Santiago the officer of the escort, 
 discovering that the prisoners had attempted to bribe the men io 
 charge of them to let them escape, ordered them botli to be exe- 
 cuted. The two brothers, tied together, were made to kneel on the 
 ground, and a volley was fired upon them. The younger Buuavides 
 was shot dead ; the elder was struck by two shots, and wounded by 
 a s woid cut, but life was not extinct. The soldiers threw some loose 
 earth and stones on the bodies, and continued their march. Benavides, 
 when he found that his executioners had ]> ft him, with great difficulty 
 threw off the earth and stones, and having untied the cords with which 
 he was fastened, stripped his dead brother of his shirt, in order to bind 
 his wounds with it. Notwithstanding the acute pain of his wounds, 
 he was able to reach the hut of a poor old man, where, without any 
 other cure than washing his wounds every day with water, in little 
 more than two weeks lie found himself strong enough to undertake 
 his journey. He set out accordingly towards Santiago, and contrived 
 to enter the city secretly. Here he obtained an interview with General 
 San Martiu, and engaged to serve in the patriot army, the general 
 having first given him a written promise that he would keep his 
 name secret. 
 
 San Martin sent Benavides to General Valcarce, then commanding 
 the republican forces near Concepcion, with an order to place him on 
 his staff, aud, while keeping a sharp eye over him, to avail himself of 
 Benavides's knowledge of the country, of his great influence over the 
 Araucanian Indians, and of his former connection with the Spaniards. 
 To Beuavides's advice and counsel the patriots were indebted for the 
 conquest of the district of Lajas, and of the Fort del Nacimiento. 
 General Valcarce made Colonel Freire, then governor of Concepcion, 
 acquainted with the secret, aud that officer, iu a warm discussion with 
 Beuavides, had the imprudence to tell him that a man of his character 
 was not to be trusted. Irritated at the insult, Beuavides disappeared 
 two days after, and went over to the Spaniards. General Sanchez, 
 who commauded the Spanish forces on the frontier of Chili near Con- 
 cepcion, gave him a commission in Arauco, and from that moment 
 Benavides commenced the most cruel and desolating war against the 
 independent Chilians. In the space of two years, with the help of the 
 Araucanian Indians, he committed cruelties upon the patriots too 
 revolting to lelate. In 1821 the Chilians armed an expedition against 
 him, and Benavides, being abandomd by all his followers, sailed for 
 Arica, with the iutentiou of joining the Spaniards in Peru. His 
 launch having entered a cove near Valparaiso in quest of water, one 
 of his own men betrayed him. He was taken and executed at Santiago 
 on the 23rd of January 1823. 
 
 (Memoirs of General Miller.) 
 
 BEN BOW, VICE-ADMIRAL, was born in 1650. His whole life, 
 from boyhood to his death, was spent in active service at sea; and 
 though he was by no means a very successful or brilliant commander, 
 he was distinguished throughout his career for his courage aud pro- 
 fessional enterprise. He early attracted the favourable notice of 
 James II., the great reformer of our naval service ; and after the revo- 
 lution was much employed by King William. The service by which 
 Benbow is best known in our naval history was his last. On the 11th 
 of July 1702 he left Port Royal in Jamaica in quest of a French 
 squadron commauded by M. du Casse, a brave and skilful officer. On 
 the 1 9th of August Benbow came up with the French force, and though 
 inferior in number and weight of metal, immediately attacked them. 
 A running fight was kept up for four days, but owing to the cowardice 
 or tn achery of the officers uuder his command, the brunt of the 
 engagement was thrown upou Benbow's own vessel. On the moruing 
 
641 
 
 BENEDICT, ANTlPOPE. 
 
 BENEDICT IX. 
 
 of the fifth day he renewed the chase and fight, but was wounded by 
 a chain-shot, which broke his right leg to pieces. He was carried 
 Wow, but very soon ordered his cradle to be brought upon the 
 quarter-deck, so as to command a view of the action as he lay there. 
 The engagement lasted till it was dark ; but so far from receiving any 
 assistance from his officers, tbey addressed a written remonstrance to 
 him, in which they declared the inability of the English force to 
 contend with that under Du Casse. Thus counteracted, he sailed 
 back to Jamaica, had the officers immediately put under an arrest, 
 and tried by court-martiaL They were condemned on the clearest 
 evidence; two of the captains were shot, and the rest were visited 
 with various degrees of punishment Benbow survived just long 
 enough to hear his own conduct vindicated and applauded. He died 
 of the wound in his leg, on the 4th of November 1702. 
 
 BENEDICT, ANTIPOPE (Pedro de Luna), a native of Aragon, 
 was made a cardinal by Gregory XI. After the death of that pope, 
 when the great schism broke out between Urban VI. and Clement VII., 
 De Luna attached himself to the latter. After Clement's death in 
 Avignon in 1394, the cardinals of his party elected De Luna as his 
 successor, in opposition to Boniface IX., who had succeeded Urban at 
 Rome, and he assumed the name of Benedict XIII. France and 
 several other states which had acknowledged Clement now acknow- 
 ledged Benedict, with the understanding that he should renouuce his 
 dignity whenever required for the peace of the church. But De Luna 
 had no intention of fulfilling his part of the engagement. Meantime 
 both Boniface and his successor Innocent VII. died at Rome, and the 
 king of France and other sovereigns were anxious to put an end to 
 the schism. The cardinals at Rome however elected Gregory XII., 
 and he and Benedict excommunicated each other. A council, held at 
 Pisa in 1409, deposed both popes and elected Alexander V., who dying 
 soon after, the conclave assembled at Bologna and elected John XXIII. 
 John was in his turn deposed for irregularities by the council of Con- 
 stance, who elected as his successor Martin V. Benedict was still 
 acknowledged in Spain, and he continued to assert his right to the 
 pontificate, and excommunicated his rivals. He resided at Peniscola 
 with a few cardinals of his own appointment At last, in 1424, Bene- 
 dict died at the age of ninety. Some of his cardinals elected a3 his 
 successor an obscure individual, whom they styled Benedict XIV., of 
 whom nothing is known ; while others appointed another successor, 
 who called himself Clement VIII., but soon after made his submission 
 to Martin V., who was at length acknowledged by the whole western 
 church. 
 
 BENEDICT I. succeeded John III. in the see of Rome in the year 
 574. His name was Bonosus, and he was a native of Rome. Little 
 is known of him, except that he was on friendly terms with the emperor 
 Tiberius II., and that Rome in his time was threatened both by the 
 Longobards and by the Vandals. He died in 578, and was succeeded 
 by Pela^ius II. 
 
 BENEDICT II. succeeded Leo II. in 684. He waited nearly a year 
 before his nomination, which took place in 683, was confirmed by the 
 emperor Constantine IV., without which confirmation he could not be 
 consecrated. Constantine however exempted the Roman see from the 
 customary tribute which was paid at the election of every new bishop, 
 and he is said also to have ordered that in future the new bishops elected 
 by the Roman clergy and people should be ordained without waiting 
 for the imperial confirmation. Benedict is reported to have been pious 
 and charitable, and well learned in the Scriptures. He restored and 
 adorned several churches at Rome, namely those of St. Peter, Santa 
 Maria ad Martyres, &c. Benedict died in 685, and was succeeded by 
 John V. 
 
 BENEDICT III. succeeded Leo IV. in 855. Between these two 
 popes some writers, and Platina among the rest, have placed the 
 famous femald Pope Joan, whose story is now acknowledged by all 
 parties to have been a fable first promulgated, not by Protestant 
 writers, as is often imagined, but by one Martinus, a. Pole, and a 
 Cistercian monk, who was penitentiary to Pope Innocent IV. in the 
 13tu century, and who wrote a ' Chronicon Summorum Pontificum,' 
 and another work on the antiquities of Rome, which is full of 
 absurdities. 
 
 The election of Benedict III. was violently opposed by a party 
 among the clergy of the Roman provinces, who nominated Anastasius, 
 a Roman priest The emperor Louis II. being appealed to, sent his 
 missi, or deputies, to inquire into the rratter; but the deputies meeting 
 first with the partisans of Anastasius decided in his favour, and 
 Anastasius, making his solemn entrance into Rome, occupied the 
 Lateran Palace, stripped Benedict of his pontifical garments, and put 
 liim in prison. The clergy and the people however were united in 
 favour of Benedict, and the imperial deputies, probably better 
 informed than at first of the merits of the question, drove Anastasius 
 away, and confirmed the election of Benedict. During Benedict's 
 pontificate, Rome suffered a great inundation from the river Tiber, 
 which was followed by a destructive epidemic disease. The Saracens 
 at the same time were ravaging Apulia and Campania. Benedict died 
 in 858, and was succeeded by Nicholas I. 
 
 BENEDICT IV. succeeded John IX. about the year 900. The 
 crown of Italy, after the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty, was 
 disputed between Bereng irius, duke of Friuli, and Louis, son of Boson, 
 king of Aries or Provence. Louis, having obtained the advantage, 
 
 BIOO. D1V. vol. l. I 
 
 came to Rome in 901, and was crowned Emperor and King of Italy by 
 Benedict; but in the following year Berengarius, who had taken refuge 
 in Germany, returned and defeated Louis at Verona, and took him 
 prisoner. Benedict died in 903, and was succeeded by Leo V. 
 
 BENEDICT V. wa3 elected in 964 by the Romans, iu opposition to 
 Leo VIII., while the latter was gone to the north of Italy to ask the 
 emperor Otho's support against his predecessor John XII., who, after 
 being deposed by an assembly of the Roman clergy for his irregular 
 conduct, had returned to Rome and driven Leo from his see. John, 
 after putting to death or cruelly mutilating several of his opponents, 
 died suddenly, and the Romans, regardless of their previous election 
 of Leo VIII., nominated Benedict. Otho quickly appeared before 
 Rome with an army, and reduced the city by famine. A new assembly 
 of the clergy was convoked, Benedict's election was declared null, and 
 Leo was reinstated in his see. Benedict was exiled by Otho to 
 Germany, and he died soon after at Hamburg in 965. By several 
 writers he is considered only as an intruder, but in papal chronologies 
 recently published in Italy he is placed among the regular popes. 
 
 BENEDICT VI. succeeded John XIII. in 972. The emperor 
 Otho I. soon after died in Germany, and the Romans, released from 
 the fear of that powerful sovereign, broke out into their wonted 
 tumults, and imprisoned Benedict. He was strangled in the castle of 
 St. Angelo in 974. Cardiual Boniface, who is said by some authorities 
 to have caused the death of Benedict, assumed the papal dig.tiity, but 
 was shortly afterwards expelled, and fled to Constantinople. Donus II. 
 is mentioned by some writers as the next pope, but nothing is known 
 of him, except that he died after a few months, and was succeeded by 
 Benedict VII. 
 
 BENEDICT VII., of the family of Conti, was elected in 975. On 
 being chosen pope he assembled a couucil and excommunicated the 
 anti-pope Boniface. Duriug his pontificate the emperor Otho II. came 
 repeatedly to Rome, while he was engaged in the war against the 
 Greeks of Apulia and the Saracens of Calabria. Otho died lit Rome 
 in 983, and was buried in the vestibule of St. Peter's church. Benedict 
 died about the same time, and was succeeded by John XIV. The 
 chronology of the popes in the 10th century is rather confused, and 
 the dates are not exactly ascertained. 
 
 BENEDICT VIII., of the family of Conti, was a native of Tusculum. 
 He was elected pope in 1012, but was driven from Rome by the 
 adherents of Gregory, a rival candidate. Being supported by the 
 emperor Henry II., Benedict soon returned, and in the following year 
 (1013) Henry and his consort Kunegund came to Rome, where they 
 received the imperial crown from the hands of the pope. In 1016 
 Benedict was engaged iu a war with the Saracens from Sardinia, who 
 had committed ravages in Tuscany. They were defeated, and the 
 Saracen chief Musa escaped with difficulty, but his wife, whom the 
 chroniclers call the queen, was killed, and the valuable jewels that 
 adorned her head were sent by the pope to the emperor Henry. This 
 event led to the conquest of Sardinia by the Pisans, who were urged 
 to it by the pontiff. Benedict went to Germany to urge the emperor 
 Henry to send an army to Italy in 1021 to oppose the Greeks. Henry 
 did so, and obtained several successes, retaking from them Capua and 
 Troja, and other towns of Campania and Apulia. Benedict died iu 
 1024, and was succeeded by his brother, who assumed the name of 
 John XIX. 
 
 BENEDICT IX. succeeded John XIX. in 1033. He was a boy at 
 the time of his election, which was obtained through his family 
 interest, and through a lavish expenditure of money on the part of 
 his father Alberico, a powerful baron. Benedict was distinguished by 
 his licentiousness and profligacy, and by the state of anarchy in which 
 Rome was plunged during his pontificate. The Romans at last expelled 
 him in 1044, and chose iu his stead John bishop of Sabina, who took 
 the name of Silvester III. ; but six months afterwards Benedict 
 returned at the head of a party, drove away his competitor, and 
 excommunicated him. Perceiving however that he was held in 
 detestation by the clergy and the people, he sold his dignity to John 
 Gratianus, who assumed the name of Gregory VI. The emperor 
 Henry III., in order to put an ond to these scandals, assembled a 
 council at Sutri, which deposed all the three popes. Baronius says 
 that Gregory VI. voluntarily renounced his claims for the peace of 
 the church, and he places him in the series of legitimate popes. 
 (F. Hardouin, ' History of the Councils.') Henry III. having entered 
 Rome, accompanied by the fathers of the council of Sutri, the latter, 
 in conjunction with the clergy of Rome, elected Suidger, bishop of 
 Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II., and was consecrated at 
 Christmas 1046. But in October 1047 Clement fell suddenly ill and 
 died, and, as some suspected, of poison administered to him by the 
 deposed Benedict, who immediately after forced himself again into 
 the papal see, where he remained till July 1048, when the emperor 
 Henry, at the request of the Romans, sent them Poppo, bishop of 
 Brixeo, who, on arriving at Rome, was consecrated, and assumed the 
 name of Damasus II. ; but twenty-three days after his consecration he 
 died at Palestriua, upon which the see of Rome remained vacant for 
 more than half a year, until Bruno, bishop of Toul in Lorraine, was 
 elected iu 1049, and assumed the name of Leo IX. What became of 
 Benedict afterwards is not clearly ascertained, nor the epoch of his 
 death, but it is generally believed that he died in some convent. 
 Gregory, after being deposed, went into exile to Germany, where he 
 
w 
 
 BENEDICT X. 
 
 BENQEL. 
 
 died in a couvent. He was accompanied by the monk Hildebrand, 
 who bucnme afterwards known as Gregory VII. 
 
 BENEDICT X (John, bishop of Velletri), a native of Capua, was 
 elected by a factum after the death of Stephen IX. in 1058 ; but 
 Hildebraud, Peter Damianus, bishop of Oatia, and other prelates, sup- 
 ported by the Empress Agnes, assembled a council at Siena, which 
 nominated Gerard, bishop of Florence, who took the name of Nicholas II. 
 Benedict did not submit till the following year, when Nicholas made 
 his entrance into Rome. Panvinius and other writers do not place 
 Benedict among the legitimate popes, but we find him in the 
 chronological tables published in Italy. 
 
 BENEDICT XI. (Nicholas, cardinal of Ostia) was a Dominican and 
 native of Treviso. He was elected in 1303, after the death of 
 Boniface VIII. He excommunicated those who had laid violent hands 
 upon Boniface at Anagni, but he soon after forgave the Colonna family, 
 and arranged the disputes of his predecessor with Philip the Fair, king 
 of France. He sent Cardinal di Prato to Florence, to act as mediator 
 between the factions which distracted that city. After a pontificate of 
 nine months, Benedict died at Perugia in 1304. The contemporary 
 historians, and Dino Compagni in particular, speak highly of his 
 character and virtues. He was succeeded by Clement V., after an 
 interregnum of nearly eleven months. 
 
 BENEDICT XJI. (Jacques Fournier, a native of France) succeeded 
 John XXII. in 1334. The popes at that time resided at Avignon. 
 Benedict laboured in earnest to reform the abuses and corruptions of 
 the church, which had grown to an alarming extent under his prede- 
 cessor He was also inclined to transfer the papal eee again to Home, 
 but was prevented by the policy of the French king, Philip de Valois, 
 supported by the influence of the numerous French cardinals at the 
 papal court. His strictuees in enforcing discipline among the monastic 
 orders excited many enemies against him, who endeavoured to cast 
 aspersions upon his character. He died at Avignon in 1342, and was 
 succeeded by Clement VI. Several biographies of Benedict XII. are 
 found in Baluze's ' Lives of the Avignon Popes,' and in Muratori, ' Iter. 
 ItoL Scriptores.' 
 
 BENEDICT XIII. (Cardinal Orsini, archbishop of Benevento) suc- 
 ceeded Innocent XIII. in 1724. He was simple in his habits and 
 manners, strict in his morality, generous and charitable, and although 
 zealous for maintaining the prerogatives of his see, yet conciliating 
 and unwilling to resort to extremes. Unfortunately he bestowed his 
 confidence upon Cardinal Coscia, a man of some abilities, but covetous 
 and ambitious, and who became hateful to the Romans through his 
 avarice and his abuse of the pope's favour. The people however knew 
 how to distinguish between the favourite and his master. The old 
 dispute about the bull Unigenitus still .agitated the Church of France. 
 [Clement XL] Benedict succeeded in reconciling in some measure 
 the dispute by prevailing on the Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of 
 Paris, to accept the bull ; and by issuing another bull, called Pretiosus 
 from its first word, in which he gave an explanation of the former, and 
 an exposition of the doctrine of grace. In this pontificate there were 
 disputes with King John V. of Portugal, with the Tribunal de 
 Monarchia of Sicily, with the King of Sardinia, and with Charles VI.; 
 but Benedict did his best to settle these differences by timely con- 
 cession and negociatiou. He also showed himself anxious for the 
 preservation of peace in Europe : he favoured by me:ins of his nuncios 
 the uegociations of Paris and Soissons in 1727-28, which led afterwards 
 to the treaty of Seville in 1729 between France, Spain, England, and 
 Holland, in which the successions of Tuscany and Parma were finally 
 settled. Benedict increased the pension settled by his predecessors on 
 the Pretender, James Stuart, who had fixed his residence at Bologna. 
 He died February the 21st, 1730, and was succeeded by Clement XII. 
 Benedict XIII. 's works, including sermons written by him before his 
 exaltation, were published at Rome in 3 vols, folio, 1728. 
 
 BENEDICT XIV. (Cardinal Prospero Lambertini of Bologna) suc- 
 ceeded Clement XII. in August, 1740. He was already favourably 
 known for his extensive learning and for the suavity of his temper 
 and manners. He began his pontificate by finally adjusting the long 
 disputes with the court of Sardinia concerning the nomination to 
 several abbacies and other benefices, besides certain ecclesiastical fiefs 
 in Piedmont, which he gave up to the house of Savoy. He restored 
 likewise the good understanding between Rome and Portugal, and 
 with the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which had been interrupted 
 under Ids predecessors. In his intercourse with foreign powers he 
 assumed a tone moderate yet dignified, by which he won general con- 
 fidence and respect. During the war of the Austrian succession he 
 remained strictly neutral; and although he could not prevent the 
 Spaniards and the Austrians, who were disputing the possession of the 
 kingdom of Naples, from marching through his territories, on which 
 they even fought a battle at Velletri, they stipulated not to enter his 
 capital, and to spare, as far as it lay in the power of the respective 
 commanders, the lives and properties of his subjects. Peace being at 
 length restored to southern Italy, B -nedict was enabled to turn his 
 chief attention to the improvement of his own dominions. He 
 encouraged learning, and was generous towards the learned. Rome 
 became again in his time the seat of science and of the arts. The 
 mathematicians Boscovich and Le Maire, the cardinals Valenti, Querini, 
 and Passionei, the philologist Quadiio, the architects Vanvitelli and 
 Polani, and other distinguished men, were employed or encouraged 
 
 by this pope. He embellished Rome; repaired churches, among others 
 the splendid one of Santa Maria Maggiore ; constructed magnificent 
 fountains, that of Trevi among the rest ; built the vast granaries near 
 the Thermae of Diocletian, and dug out the obelisk of the Campus 
 Martius, which was afterwards raised by Pius VI. ; founded chairs of 
 physics, chemistry, and mathematics in the university of Rome; add. d 
 to the collection in the Capitoline Museum ; established a school of 
 drawing ; enlarged the great hospital of Santa Spirito ; established 
 academies for the instruction of the prelates of his court in ecclesias- 
 tical history, in the canon law, in the knowledge of tho rites and 
 discipline of the church, &c. Nor did he neglect his native town 
 Bologua, to whose Institute of Sciences he contributed by donations. 
 
 Benedict instituted at Rome a congregation or board for the purpose 
 of examining the character, morals, and other qualifications of candi- 
 dates for vacant sees ; and he was solicitous for the maintenance of 
 correct morals among his clergy. He found the treasury poor and 
 encumbered, but by reductions and economy he re-established a balance 
 in tho finances of the state. During the eighteen years of his reign 
 Rome enjoyed peace, plenty, and prosperity ; and half a century after 
 his death the pontificate of Lambertini was still remembered and 
 spoken of at Rome as the last period of unalloyed happiness which 
 the country had enjoyed. His tolerance was remarkable ; indeed it 
 exposed him to the censure of the rigorists among the College of 
 Cardinals. Without exhibiting anything like indifference to the 
 doctrines of the church of which he was the head, he showed urbanity 
 and friendliness towards all Christians of whatever denomination, 
 whether kings or ordinary travellers, who visited his capital; and iu 
 Germany, France, and Naples his influence was constantly exerted to 
 discourage persecution, and to restrain the abuse of ecclesiastical 
 power. Benedict was learned not only in theology but in history, in 
 the classical writers, and in elegant literature, and he had a taste for 
 the fine arts. His works were published at Rome in 12 vols. 4to. 
 The most remarkable are his treatise, 'De Servorum Dei Beatificatione 
 et Beatorum Canonizatione,' in four books, a work full of historical 
 and theological learning ; ' De Synodo Diocesana,' which is also much 
 esteemed ; ' Institutioues Ecclesiasticae ;' ' De Missae Officio,' libri iii. ; 
 besides his 'Bullarium,' or collection of bulls issued by him, and 
 several letters and dissertations in Italian. Benedict XIV. died on 
 the 3rd of May 1753, being over eighty years of age, and was succeeded 
 by Clement XIII. 
 
 BENEDICT, SAINT, the founder of the order of Benedictine 
 monks, was born at Nursia in the dukedom of Spoleto in Italy, about 
 the year 480. He was sent to Rome when very young, and there 
 received the first part of his education ; when fourteen years of age he 
 removed to Sublaco, a desert place about forty miles distant, where 
 he was concealed in a cavern, his place of retirement for a considerable 
 time being known only to his friend St. Romanus, who is said to have 
 descended to him by a rope, and supplied him daily with provisions. 
 The monks of a neighbouring monastery subsequently chose him for 
 their abbot ; their manners however not agreeing with those of 
 Benedict, he returned to his solitude, whither many persons followed 
 him and put themselves under his direction, and in a short time he 
 was enabled to build no fewer than twelve monasteries. About the 
 year 528 he retired to Monte Cassino, where idolatry was still prevalent, 
 and where a temple to Apollo yet existed. Having converted the 
 people of the adjacent country to the true faith, he broke the statue 
 of Apollo, overthrew the altar, and built two oratories on the moun- 
 tain — one dedicated to St. Martin, the other to St. John. Here St. 
 Benedict also founded a monastery, and instituted the order of his 
 name which in time became so famous and extended all over Europe. 
 It was here too that he composed his ' Regula Monachorum,' which 
 does not however seem to have been confirmed till half a century after 
 his death, when Pope Gregory the Great gave his sanction to it. 
 Benedict died about the year 543, or, according to some authorities, iu 
 547 : the day stands in the calendar fixed to March 21. Gregory the 
 Great, in the second ' Book of his Dialogues,' has written a ' Life of 
 St. Benedict,' and has given a long detail of his supposed miracles. 
 Dupin says that the ' Regula Monachorum' is the only genuine work 
 of St. Benedict, but other tracts are ascribed to him. 
 
 BENGEL. The writings of few German divines have exercised so 
 much influence upon English Christians as those of Johann Albrecht 
 Bengel. Few have read his works, but many are influenced by their 
 readers. John Wesley states in the preface to his explanatory notes 
 upon the New Testament, which are one of the standards of the 
 Methodist connexion, and to which every Wesleyan Methodist preacher 
 has to declare his assent, " I once designed to write down barely what 
 occurred to my own mind, consulting none but the inspired writers ; 
 but no Booner was I acquainted with that great light of the Christian 
 world (lately gone to his reward) Bengelius, than I entirely changed 
 my design, being thoroughly convinced it might be of more service to 
 the cause of religion were I barely to translate his ' Gnomon Novi 
 Testamenti,' than to write many volumes upon it. Many of his excel- 
 lent notes I have therefore translated; many more I have abridged; 
 omitting that part which was purely critical, and giving the substance 
 of the rest." Dr. Adam Clarke, in his ' Commentary on the Bible,' 
 passes a similar encomium upon Bengel. 
 
 Bengel was born on the 24th June 1687, at Winnenden, about fifteen 
 miles from Stutgardt, where his father was a Lutheran clergyman, 
 
BENGER, MISS ELIZABETH OGILVY. 
 
 Bengel's father died of an epidemic, which raged in his native town, 
 in the year 1693. The armies of Louis XIV. invaded the country a 
 few months' afterwards, and burned the house which his mother had 
 bought. His father's library was destroyed in the conflagration. From 
 ttis time BeDgel was educated and supported by David Wendel 
 Spindler, a friend of his father's. This gentleman kept a school in the 
 castle at Winnenthal, but was afterwards driven from place to place, 
 until he was appointed, in 1699, one of the masters of the grammar 
 school at Stutgardt. He took Bengel with him wherever he went. At 
 Stutgardt, Bengel made very satisfactory progress in the ancient and 
 modern languages, but would have been deprived of a university 
 education, had it not been for his mother's marriage, after ten years 
 widowhood, with Johann Albrecht Glockler, who was steward to the 
 convent at Maulbronn. Bengel was received in 1703 into the theo- 
 ogical college at Tubingen, and continued there until 1707, when he 
 finished his academical career by a public disputation, ' De theologia 
 niystica,,' and then became curate in the parish of Metzingen. In 
 about a year he was recalled as tutor to his college. He himself states 
 his opinion, " That it is very desirable, after having acquired in a 
 country parish a practical turn of mind, to return to college to study 
 •divinity afresh." At this time he wrote an essay on the holiness of 
 God, ' Syntagma de Sanctitate Dei.' Soon afterwards he was appointed 
 preceptor of the seminary at Denkeudorf, where he read especially 
 the letters of Cicero with his pupils, among whom he maintained a 
 mild but strict discipline. At a later period of his life he became 
 prelate (nearly corresponding to the English bishop) in Wurtemberg. 
 Though Bengel was so weakly after his birth, that he received private 
 baptism, nevertheless he reached the age of sixty-five years. He was 
 several times subject to dangerous disorders, especially in the latter 
 part of his life. It became his habit to consider life as a constant 
 tendency to death, and he endeavoured to familiarise himself with the 
 thoughts of death ; but he did not agree with those divines who 
 consider the whole of divinity to be nothing more than the art of 
 dying. According to Bengel, the Christian has not so much to wait 
 for death as for the appearance of Jesus Christ, and the most important 
 business for every man is to come from a state of sin into a state of 
 grace, and afterwards not to look for death, but for the Lord. Death 
 had originally no place in the economy of God, and was only intro- 
 duced afterwards. Bengel did not think highly of the artificial mode 
 of dying, and followed his own ideas on death. He would not die with 
 spiritual pomp, but in a common way, and was employed to the last 
 with his proof-sheets. It was as if he was called out of his room during 
 the hours of work. He died on the 2nd of December 1752. 
 
 Bengel left a numerous family, although six of his twelve children 
 died before him. His great-grandson, J. C. F. Burk, a clergyman in the 
 kingdom of Wurtemberg, published in 1S31 a 'Memoir of the Life 
 and Writings of Bengel,' an English translation of which, by R. F. 
 Walker, M.A., appeared in 1837, in 8vo. 
 
 The literary fame of Bengel has been principally established by his 
 excellent edition of the Greek Testament, which excited the emulation 
 of Wetstein, aud facilitated the subsequent researches of Griesbach, 
 S>;holz, and Lachmann. His ' Novi Testamenti Grreci recte cauteque 
 adornandi Prodromus' was printed at Stutgardt, 1723, 8vo, and also 
 at Tubingen, 1734 aud 1790 ; ' Cyclus, sive de anno magno Solis, Lunse, 
 Stellarum Consideratio,' Ulm, 1745, 8vo ; ' Ordo Temporum, a priucipio 
 per Periodos (Economise Divinaj,' Stutgardt, 1753, 1770, 8vo; 'Trac- 
 tatus de Sinceritate N. Test. Grace,' Halle, 1763, 4to ; 'Apparatus 
 Criticua Novi Testamenti,' Tiibing., 1763, 4to; 'Gnomon Novi Testa- 
 menti in quo ex nativa verborum vi simplicitas, profunditas, concinnitas 
 eensuum coelestium indicatur ;' the best edition was printed at Ulm, 
 1763, 4to, Tiibing., 1773, 4to. His 'Introduction to the Exposition 
 of the Apocalypse' was translated by J. Robertson, M.D., Lond., 1757, 
 8vo. This, as well as hi3 'Reden iiber die Offenbaruug Johannis,' 
 have still their admirers, who see in the events of our day3 the fulfil- 
 ment of Bengel's Apocalyptical predictions. 
 
 BENGER, MISS ELIZABETH OGILVY, was born at the city of 
 Wells in 1778. She was au only child, aud her father, who was a 
 purser in the navy, dying abroad in 1796, her mother was left with 
 Tery slender means. Miss Beuger's early life was consequently passed 
 amidst many privations, one of the greatest of which was her inability 
 to gratify her ardent thirst of knowledge aud love of books. In her 
 twelfth year her mother was prevailed upon to let her attend a boys' 
 school for the purpose of studying Latin. At thirteen she wrote a 
 poem entitled ' The Female Geniad,' which was published ; and though 
 containing, as might be supposed, many imperfections, it exhibited the 
 dawnings of genius. In 1802, in order to gratify her daughter's earnest 
 wish, Mrs. Benger came to reside in London ; and a lady who had 
 previously known Miss Benger, aud estimated her as she deserved, 
 introduced her to a circle of friends which included Mrs. Barbauld, 
 Mrs. Joanna Baillie, Mr*. Elizabeth Hamilton, Dr. Aikin, Dr. Gregory, 
 and others. Miss Aikin was amongst the number of her warmest 
 friends; aod it is from a short account of Miss Beuger's li'e by this 
 lady that the information contained in the present notice is obtained. 
 
 Miss Benger' s first literary efforts were directed to the drama, but 
 in this department she did not prove successful, and she soon aban- 
 doned it. She next wrote a poem on tho 'Abolition of the Slave 
 Trade,' which, with two others, was published in 4to, with engravings. 
 She also published two novels, to which she did not attach her name. 
 
 BENTHAM, JAMES. 640 
 
 None of the above works can be considered as very perfect composi- 
 tions. It was as a biographical writer that she obtained her first 
 decided success, and her reputation became fully established by her 
 historical biographies. At the period of her death, which occurred 
 after a short illness, on the 9th of January 1827, Miss Benger was 
 engaged in writing ' Memoir.s of Henry IV. of Franco.' In private life 
 she was sincerely beloved aud esteemed for the warmth of her heart 
 and disinterested character. 
 
 The following is a list of Miss Beuger's biographical works : — 1, 
 ' Memoirs of Mrs. Elizabeth Hamilton,' 2 vols, small 8vo. 2, ' Memoirs 
 of John Tobin,' 1 vol. small 8vo. 3, ' Memoirs of Klopstock and his 
 Friends,' prefixed to a translation of their Letters from the German. 
 4, 'Memoirs of Anne Boleyn,' 2 vols, small 8vo. 5, 'Memoirs of Mary, 
 Queen of Scots,' 2 vols, small 8vo. 6, 'Memoirs of Elizabeth Stuart, 
 Queen of Bohemia,' 2 vols, small 8vo. A complete edition of Miss 
 Benger's historical works has been published in 5 vols, small 8vo. 
 
 BENJAMIN of Tudela, a Jewish rabbi, and author of the ' Itine- 
 rary,' was the son of Jonas of Tudela, and was born in the kingdom 
 of Navarre. He was the first European traveller who went far east- 
 ward. He penetrated from Constantinople through Alexandria in 
 Egypt and through Persia to the frontiers of Tzin, now China. Saxius, 
 who follows Woliius's 'Bibliotheca Hebraica,' places the date of rabbi 
 Benjamin's travels about 1160. They ended in the year in which he 
 died, a.d. 1173. (Gantz, ' Tsemach David,' fol. 39, quoted by Baratier, 
 ' Diss. I. sur R. Benj.') 
 
 The ' Itinerary ' of Benjamin is no doubt a curiosity, as the pro- 
 duction of a Jew in the 12th century ; but considered in itself, it has 
 only a small portion of real worth : for, in addition to the fabulous 
 narrations which lead the reader to suspect him when he speaks the 
 truth, there are many errors, omissions, and mistakes. Benjamin's 
 principal view seems to have been to represent the number and state 
 of his brethren in different parts of the world, and accordingly he 
 merely mentions the names of many places to which we are to suppose 
 he travelled, aud makes no remark about them, except perhaps a brief 
 notice of the Jews found there. When he relates anything farther, it 
 is often trifling or erroneous. 
 
 Wolfius says, the 'Itinerary' was first printed at Constantinople, in 
 8vo, 1543 ; at Ferrara in 1556, and a third edition at Fribourg in 1583. 
 It has been translated from the Hebrew into Latin, Dutch, and French. 
 An English translation, with notes, was published in 8vo, Lond. 1783, 
 by the Rev. B. Gerrans, made from the Hebrew edition published by 
 Constantino L'Empereur at Leyden in 1633. 
 
 BENSERADE, ISAAC, a French poet, was born at Lyons-la-foret 
 in Upper Normandy. He was patronised by Richelieu, introduced at 
 court, and quickly became popular by his sprightly and flattering 
 verses. For twenty years lie was employed in composing ballets, 
 which, while Louis XIV. was young aud his court brilliant, formed 
 one of the principal diversions of the time. No other poet could so 
 happily give a pleasing turn to the expressions placed in the mouths 
 of his characters, which were a continued series of allusions to per- 
 sonages or events that were immediately recognised by all. Whether 
 Jupiter or Danae, Apollo or Daphne, all spoke as king, princes, lords, 
 ' or ladies, distinguished by their beauty or their foibles. Moltere pro- 
 tested against the bad taste of such pieces, and composed verses, in 
 which, representing the king as Neptune, he has imitated Benserade's 
 style, and exaggerated his defects. The effort was vain : Benserade 
 retained the court favour, aud composed a great variety of pieces of 
 this description. He wrote in addition a number of sonnets, a para- 
 phrase on some chapters of Job ; and later in life paraphrases of some 
 of the Psalms. He had then retired to Chantilly, but he returned to 
 Paris to undergo a surgical operation, when the surgeon having severed 
 a vein of which he was unable to stop the bleeding, became frightened 
 and fled ; aud Benserade died in 1691, aged nearly seventy years accord- 
 ing to some authorities ; according to others in his eighty-second year. 
 
 BENTHAM, JAMES, author of the ' History of the Church of Ely,' 
 was born in the year 1708. He was the fourth son of the Rev. Samuel 
 Bentham, vicar of Witchford near Ely, and was descended from a very 
 ancient family in Yorkshire, which had produced an uninterrupted 
 succession of clergymen from the time of Queen Elizabeth. Having 
 received the rudiments of classical learning in the grammar-school of 
 Ely, he was admitted of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1727, aud took 
 the degree of B.A. in 1730 and M.A. in 1738. His first preferment 
 was the vicarage of Stapleford in Cambridgeshire, in 1733, which he 
 resigned in 1736, on being made a minor canon in the church of Ely. 
 In 1707 he was presented to the vicarage of Wymondham in Norfolk, 
 which he resigned in the year following for the rectory of Feltwell 
 St. Nicholas, in the same county. This he resigned in 1774 for the 
 rectory of Northwold, which he exchanged in 1779 for a prebendal 
 stall at Ely. In 1783 he was presented to the rectory of Bow-brick-hill 
 in Buckinghamshire, by the Rev. Edward Guellaume. 
 
 From his first connection with the church of Ely, Mr. Bentham 
 appears to have directed his attention ,to the study of church archi- 
 tecture, the varieties of which, from the earliest period to the time 
 of the Reformation, were constantly within his view. After abovo 
 thirty years of diligent research he published ' The History and Anti- 
 quities of the Conventual aud Cathedral Church of Ely, from the 
 foundation of the Monastery, a.d. 675, to the year 1771,' 4to, Cam- 
 bridge, 1771. The ' History of the Church of Ely' was reprinted at 
 
047 BENTHAM, JEREMY. 
 
 Norwich in 4to, 1812, by Mr. William Stevenson; who in 1817 pub- 
 lished a ' Supplement' to the first edition in the same size. In 1769, 
 when the dean and chapter of Ely had determined upon the general 
 repair of their church, and the removal of the choir from the lantern 
 to the presbytery at the east end, Mr. Bentham was requested to 
 superintend these operations as clerk of the works. He also contri- 
 buted to promote works of general utility in bis neighbourhood, and 
 rendered great assistance in the plans suggested for the improvement 
 of the fens by draining, and the practicability of increasing the inter- 
 course with the neighbouring counties by means of turnpike-roads, a 
 measure till then unattempted. A letter on the discovery of the bones 
 of the original benefactors to the monastery of Ely, and some Roman 
 coins found near Littleport, printed in the ' Archscologia ' of the Society 
 of Antiquaries, vol. ii. p. 364 ; with one or two pamphlets on local 
 improvements in Cambridgeshire, were Mr. Bentham's other publica- 
 tions. He died at his prebendal house in the college at Ely, on 
 November 17th, 1794, aged eighty-six. 
 
 BENTHAM, JEREMY, was born at the residence of his father, Mr. 
 Jeremiah Bentham, an eminent solicitor, adjacent to Aldgate church 
 in London, on the 15th of February 1747-48. At eight years of age 
 he entered Westminster School, and at thirteen he was admitted a 
 member of Queen's College, Oxford, at both which places he is said 
 to have been distinguished. The age at which he entered Oxford 
 belongs more to the practice of former times than that of later years. 
 At sixteen he took his degree of B.A. and at twenty that of M.A. 
 When the time came for attaching his signature to the Thirty-nine 
 Articles of the Church of England, he did so with considerable 
 reluctance, as by that time he felt great scruples of conscience. The 
 mental struggle he experienced, both before and after this event, has 
 been vividly described by himself. 
 
 At Oxford, Bentham was one of the class who attended the lectures 
 of Blackstone on English law. His 'Fragment on Government' 
 Bhows at how early an age he began to feel dis-atisfied with the 
 arguments of that writer, and particularly with those based on the 
 ' original contract.' Bentham, whose original opinions were strongly 
 in favour of monarchy, and even of passive obedience, as " stamped 
 with the seal of the Christian virtues of humility and self-denial,'' 
 felt compelled to inquire where and when this original contract had 
 been recorded. These doubts, he says, led him to the conclusion that 
 " utility was the test and measure of all virtue, of loyalty as much 
 as any." 
 
 Bentham's prospects of success at the bar were extremely good, his 
 father's practice and influence as a solicitor being considerable, and 
 his own draughts of bills in equity being distinguished for their 
 superior execution. In one of his pamphlets (' Indications respecting 
 Lord Eldon ') he states that, having entered the profession at the desire 
 of his father, he was so discontented with the practice, which he 
 thought amounted almost to a fraud, of taking out unnecessary orders 
 for hearing in order to multiply fees, that he determined to quit it, and 
 rather to endeavour to put au end to, than to profit by, the practice. 
 
 In 1776 appeared his first publication, entitled 'A Fragment on 
 Government.' This work, being anonymous, was ascribed to some of 
 the most distinguished men of the day. Dr. Johnson attributed it to 
 Mr. Dunning. In 1780 his ' Introduction to the Principles of Morals 
 and Legislation' was first printed ; but it was not published till 1789. 
 He visited Paris in 1785, for the third time, and thence proceeded to 
 Italy. From Leghorn he sailed for Smyrna, in a vessel, with the 
 master of which he had formed an engagement before leaving England. 
 After a stay of about three weeks at Smyrna, he embarked on board 
 a Turkish vessel for Constantinople, where he remained five or six 
 weeks. From Constantinople Mr. Bentham made his way across Bul- 
 garia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and through a part of Poland, to Krichoff 
 in White Russia. At that place he stayed at his brother's, afterwards 
 Sir Samuel Bentham, at that time lieutenant-colonel commandant of 
 a battalion in the emperor's service, till November 1787, when his 
 brother, who was on an excursion to Kherson, being unexpectedly 
 detained for the defence of the country against the apprehended inva- 
 sion of the Capitan Pasha, he returned to England through Poland, 
 Germany, and the United Provinces, arriving at Harwich in February 
 
 In 1791 was published his 'Panopticon, or the Inspection House,' a 
 valuable work on prison-discipline, part of which consists of a series 
 of letters, written in 1787, from Krichoff in White Russia, where also 
 he wrote his letters on the usury laws. In 1792 Mr. Bentham pre- 
 sented to Mr. Pitt a proposal on his Panopticon plan of management. 
 It was embraced with enthusiasm by Mr. Pitt; Lord Dundas, home 
 secretary ; Mr. Rose, secretary of the treasury ; and Mr., afterwards 
 Sir Charles Long, who subsequently became Lord Farnborough. Not- 
 withstanding that enthusiasm, by a cause then unknown, it was made 
 to linger till the close of the session of 1794, when an act passed 
 enabling the treasury to enter into a contract for the purpose. Mr. Pitt 
 and his colleagues gave their authority in support of Mr. Bentham's 
 plan, but years were spent in a struggle between the ministry and 
 some secret influence, and the site of the present Penitentiary, pur- 
 chased at the price of 12,0007. (for the half of which sum the more 
 appropriate land at Battersea Rise might have been had), was erected, 
 at a greater cost, and for a far less number of prisoners, than the one 
 composed by Mr. Bentham. 
 
 BENTHAM, JEREMY. 648 
 
 The history of such a life as Bentham's is the history of his opinions 
 and his writings, whieh gave him a higher celebrity abroad than he 
 enjoyed at home. Certain excellent treatises of his were admirably 
 edited in French by his friend and the friend (a remarkable concur- 
 rence) of Mirabeau and Romilly, M. Dumont. From these Bentham 
 became well known on the continent; indeed better known than in 
 his native country, and more highly esteemed, as appears from the 
 following incident that occurred during a visit he paid to France 
 in 1825 for the benefit of his health. Happening on one occasion 
 to visit one of the supreme courts, he was recognised on his 
 entrance. The whole body of the advocates rose and paid him the 
 highest marks of respect, and the court invited him to the seat of 
 honour. 
 
 From about the year 1817 Mr. Bentham was a bencher of Lincoln's 
 Inn. He died in Queen Square Place, Westminster, where he had 
 resided nearly half a century, on the 6th of June 1832, being in the 
 eighty-fifth year of his age. Up to extreme old age he retained, with 
 much of the intellectual power of the prime of manhood, the sim- 
 plicity and the freshness of early youth ; and even in the last moments 
 of his existence the serenity and cheerfulness of his mind did not 
 desert him. 
 
 The leading principle of Bentham's philosophy is, that the end of 
 all human actions aud morality- is happiness. By happiness Bentham 
 means pleasure and exemption from pain; and the fundamental prin- 
 ciple from which he starts is, that the actions of sentient beings are 
 wholly governed by pleasure and pain. He held that happiness is 
 the 'summum bonum,' in fact, the only thing desirable in itself; that 
 all other things are desirable solely as means to that end; that there- 
 fore the production of the greatest possible amount of happiness is 
 the only fit object of all human exertion; and consequently of all 
 morals and legislation. In expounding his doctrines, Mr. Bentham 
 has laid them open to the cavils of many disingenuous minds, and 
 prejudiced against them many generous and honest minds, chiefly, as 
 it appears to us, from not having himself sufficiently entered into the 
 metaphysical grounds of them. His system has been branded with 
 the name of ' cold-blooded,' ' calculating,' ' selfish.' It may be shown 
 however that what Bentham termed 'selfish,' would in ordinary 
 language frequently be termed, in the highest and purest degree, 
 disinterested and benevolent. 
 
 Dr. Southwood Smith, in his ' Lecture,' has pointed out some of 
 those peculiarities which probably narrowed the sphere of Bentham's 
 usefulness, certainly lowered the degree of his greatness. We allude 
 to the circumstance of his " surrounding himself only with persons 
 whose sympathies were like his own." Bentham secluded himself too 
 much. The greatest political and legislative philosophers in all ages 
 have mingled, at least occasionally, in the business of men, if not 
 testing, at least relieving their abstruser meditations, by the study of 
 man as engaged in action. Those too among them, who have exer- 
 cised most influence over the minds of mankind, have been content, 
 however far their thinking departed from theirs, in the general, at least 
 to ' speak with the vulgar.' But Bentham, from the time when he 
 embarked in original speculation, not only secluded himself from the 
 general converse of his contemporaries, but occupied himself very 
 little in studying the ideas of others, who like himself had devoted 
 their lives to thinking. The effect of the first was to render his style 
 inaccessible to the mass of his countrymen ; of the other to produce 
 what has been aptly termed one-sidedness of mind. His appears, 
 indeed, from all the evidence that we have collected concerning it, 
 to have been an understanding which, though singularly acute and 
 original, had no great facility in apprehending the thoughts of others. 
 Now, such an understanding, though vastly superior to that large 
 class of passive understandings which are able to store themselves 
 with the thoughts of other men, but there stop, is almost necessarily 
 excluded from the first order of great minds, which possess an equal 
 power in mastering the ideas of others, and striking out new ones of 
 their own. Without this power, a man, however original, will waste 
 much of his energy in making discoveries that have been made long 
 before he was born. His theories, too, will be apt to be wanting in 
 comprehensiveness. And this is a fault which no painstaking, which 
 no acuteness ever can remedy. 
 
 Bentham appears, from the number of tables scattered through his 
 works, to have been particularly fond of tabularising ; and, like many 
 other makers of tables, as well as other things, he does not show, to 
 our apprehension, any extraordinary excellence in this favourite 
 pursuit. He was fond of heaping division upon division in almost 
 endless extent : and very frequently his classes are distinguishable by 
 no logical 'differentia' that we have ever been able to discover; but 
 form that species of division which has received the name of a dis- 
 tinction without a difference. 
 
 From the general character of Bentham's tabularisation however, 
 we would except the division which seems to have been conceived by 
 him of the field of law. Among some valuable tables which Pro- 
 fessor Austin drew up for the use of his class in the London University, 
 was one exhibiting the 'Corpus Juris' ('Coips complet de Droit'), 
 arranged in the order which seems to have been conceived by Mr. 
 Bentham, as expounded in his ' Traites de Legislation,' more par- 
 ticularly in the ' Vue geneiale d'un Corps complet de Droit.' It is 
 particularly worthy of remark that, in the table of which we subjoin 
 
64P 
 
 BENTHAM, JEREMY. 
 
 BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM. 
 
 850 
 
 an outlioe, Bentham, without intending it, has formed a corpus juris particularly by exposing the viciousness of the existing language of 
 
 very nearly similar to that of the Roman classical jurists 
 
 jurisprudence ; and by what he hai done towards enforcing the expe- 
 
 National, Municipal, or Internal Law (that is, Jus Civile, in one of its numerous senses) : 
 
 containing^ 
 
 International ov External Law (that is, Jus 
 Integrarum Gentium). 
 
 Droit Politique (that is, Jus Publicum) : 
 containing-, 
 I 
 
 Droit Civil, as opposed to Droit Politique (that is, Jus Privatum) ; 
 containing-| 
 
 I 
 
 Droit Constitutional : relating to 
 
 1. The Powers of the Sovereign, in the large 
 
 and correct signification. 
 
 2. Tte Distribution of the Sovereign Powers 
 
 when not united in a single person. 
 8. The Duties of the governed towards the 
 Sovereign. 
 
 I 
 
 Law regarding 
 The Rights and Obligations of Persons 
 who are clothed with Political Powers 
 in subordination to the Sovereign. 
 
 Code General, ou Lois Generates (that is, Jus Rerum) ; 
 containing-, 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Droit Substantif (or The Law) : 
 containing-, 
 
 I 
 
 Codes Particuliers, ou Recueil de Lois Paiticulieres (that is, Jus Personarum). 
 
 Droit Adjectif (or Law of Procedure) : 
 containing -| 
 
 Droit Civil. 
 
 Droit Penal. 
 
 I 
 
 Law of Civil Procedure. 
 
 I 
 
 Law of Criminal Procedure. 
 
 Bentham's great merit, and that probably by which his name will 
 be most remembered, was as a philosophical jurist, and writer on 
 legislation. His excellence in this department mainly consisted in 
 substituting rational principles as rules of law in the place of the 
 time-honoured maxims which hardly anyone before his time had dared 
 to dispute. It has been said, indeed, and said truly, that the doctrine 
 of utility, as the foundation of virtue, is as old as the earliest Greek 
 philosophers (see the ' Protagoras ' of Plato ; also the ' Memorabilia ' 
 of Xenophon); and has divided the philosophic world, in every age of 
 philosophy, since their time. But the definitions of natural law, 
 natural justice, and the like, which pervade all the writers on legis- 
 lation and law from Ulpian down to Montesquieu and Blackstone, 
 show how little progress had been made, previously to Mr. Bentham, 
 in the application of this great principle to the field of law. For his 
 services in thi3 department Bentbam deserves, and we doubt not will 
 receive, the admiration and the gratitude of all ages. 
 
 It is impossible to know what the philosophy of jurisprudence 
 and legislation owe3 to Bentham, without knowing what was the con- 
 dition of it when he began his labours. No system of law then 
 established, least of all that of the country of his birth, exhibited in 
 its construction a comprehensive adaptation of means to ends. The 
 age to which the English law owed its foundations may have pro- 
 duced some works in architecture deserving of admiration, but it has 
 certainly produced no such fabric of law, notwithstanding the loud 
 eulogies of the English lawyers. And that fabric, faulty from its 
 foundations, was rendered still more so by the patch-work manner in 
 which additions were made to it. 
 
 The English people had contrived to persuade themselves that the 
 English law, as it was when Mr. Bentham found it, was the perfection 
 of reason. It was a fabric reared by the most powerful and exalted 
 intellects, by wisdom little and only short of divine. To utter a 
 word therefore that might tend to impugn such a system was the 
 height of arrogance and presumption ; to raise a hand against it was 
 absolute profanation, nay, the most atrocious sacrilege. Accordingly, 
 when Mr. Bentham commenced his attack, he was at first looked upon 
 as a sort of harmless lunatic. By and by however he began to be 
 regarded in a more serious light — as a madman, who might be 
 dangerous if not put under some restraint. He was assailed from all 
 sides with all sorts of weapons, from the stately contempt of the 
 dignified man of office down to the ridicule and scurrility of the small 
 wits and critics. Nevertheless he did not slacken in the work he had 
 begun, but continue i it with unwearied and reiterated efforts. 
 
 Mr. Bentham fought this battle for nearly sixty years, and the 
 greater part of that time he fought it alone : for a long time too 
 almost without making a Bingle convert to his opinions. Latterly, 
 M. Dumont gave him considerable assistance by putting his ideas into 
 French. At length his energy and perseverance were rewarded with 
 •one degree of success. Some of the leaders of public opinion became 
 convinced, and they in their turn convinced or persuaded others. 
 Mr. Bentham has not been merely a destroyer. Indeed, he considered 
 it a positive duty never to assail what is established without having a 
 clear view of what ought to be substituted. In some most important 
 branches of the science of law, which were in a more wretched state 
 than almost any of the others when he took them in hand, he seems 
 to have left nothing to be sought by future inquirers; we mean the 
 departments of procedure, evidence, and the judicial establishment. 
 He has done almost all that remained to perfect the theory of punish- 
 msnt. It )8 with regard to the civil code, that he lias done least, and 
 t-ft most to be done. Yet even here his services have been very great, 
 
 diency of a code, that is, of a complete and systematic body of law. 
 The Law Amendment Society, now containing the most eminent 
 lawyers of the age, have adopted, and are enforcing, many of his 
 views. 
 
 One of the excellences of Mr. Bentham's early writiugs is the ease 
 and elegance, the force and raciness of their style. This remark may 
 surprise those who take their idea of Bentham from the specimens 
 preseuted by those of his critics, whose object was to depreciate by 
 turning him into ridicule. Certainly, he gave some occasion for this 
 by some peculiarities which he contracted in the latter period of his 
 life ; but for the truth of our remarks above, any reader may satisfy 
 himself by referring to Mr. Bentham's earlier works ; we would par« 
 ticularise the ' Fragment on Government,' the ' Defence of Usury,' the 
 ' Plan of a Judicial Establishment,' or even the ' Panopticon.' In the 
 style of this work there is a vigour, a freshness, a vivacity, a playful- 
 ness, a felicity of expression, that renders the perusal perfectly 
 delightful. Indeed, of these qualities instances abound, even in some 
 of his works that are reckoned most unreadable ; for example, in the 
 'Rationale of Judicial Evidence.' This makes us the more regret 
 Bentham's seclusion, to which we have before alluded, inasmuch as 
 its tendency was to make him le3s cultivate the above qualities of 
 writing. 
 
 Mr. Bentham's principal works are the ' Introduction to the Princi- 
 ples of Morals and Legislation,' the ' Fragment on Government,' the 
 ' Rationale of Judicial Evidence,' in 5 vols., including a very full 
 examination of the procedure of the English courts ; the ' Book of 
 Fallacies;' the 'Plan of a Judicial Establishment,' one of his most 
 finished productions, printed in 1792, but never regularly published; 
 his 'Defence of Usury;' 'Panopticon,' an admirable work on prison 
 discipline ; ' Constitutional Code,' and many others ; besides the 
 treatises so well edited in French by M. Dumont, from the above 
 works and various unpublished manuscripts, which contain all his 
 most important doctrines. A collected edition of his works, in 
 11 vols., has been recently published by Sir John Bowring, with au 
 introductory volume by J. H. Burton, Esq. 
 
 BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM CHARLES CAVENDISH, was 
 the second surviving son of William Henry, third duke of Portland, 
 and was born' September 14, 1774. He entered the army, served in 
 Flanders, Russia, and Egypt, rapidly attained high rank, and as early 
 as 1803 he became governor of Madras. Here he distinsuished 
 himself by the advocacy of many useful reforms, but one which he 
 supported though it did not originate with him — that of prescribing 
 or prohibiting various forms for the beards, the moustaches, and tbe 
 turbans of the sepoys, and the wearing of ear-rings when oa duty — 
 led to the violent and dangerous mutiny and massacre of Vellore, in 
 1805. The consequence of this was Lord W. Bentinck's recall. Oo 
 his return he filled some slight diplomatic appointments, aul after- 
 wards had the command of a brigade in Spain for a short time. In 
 1810 he went as plenipotentiary and commander-in-chief of the English 
 troops sent to the asshtauce of Ferdinand, king of Sicily, but gave so 
 little satisfaction to the queen, Caroline (probably from his advocacy 
 of reforms in the government of that island), that in 1S11 she repaired 
 to Vienna to court the alliance of Bonaparte. Bentinck took advantage 
 of her absence to induce Sicily to accept the protection of Great Britain, 
 and in 1812 bestowed ou the island a liberal constitution, that has 
 proved of small benefit to it, and which has been more than once 
 the cause of civil discord between the king and his subjects. In 1S13 
 he conducted au expedition from Sicily to Catalonia, to operate in the 
 rear of the French armies, but he failed of success, and was forced to 
 
 2 T* 
 
661 
 
 BENTINCK, LORD GEORGE. 
 
 BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO. 
 
 retire precipitately to Sicily. In 1814 he conducted atiotber more 
 successfully in Italy, when Genoa revolted from the French, and was 
 taken possession of by him, although it was subsequently given up to 
 Piedmont, in spite of the opposition of the inhabitants, who claimed 
 (according to the terms of the convention) the establishment of the 
 old republic under the protection of England. Lord William, on this 
 result taking place, indignantly threw up his situation, returned home, 
 and was returned to Parliament for Nottingham. He next became 
 ambassador to Rome, and in 1827, under the ministry of Canning, he 
 was named Governor-General of India. He had been instructed to 
 administer the government on principles of strict economy, and his first 
 step was to reduce the batta, half-batta, &c. (allowances made for march- 
 ing in the Indian army), greatly to the dissatisfaction of the soldiers. 
 His next step was to abolish flogging among the native troops, as to the 
 effect of which there is much discordant opinion. His next and most 
 important reform— one as to which there is no difference of opinion — 
 was the abolition of the suttee, or the practice of the widow burning 
 herself on the same pile with her dead husband, which was declared 
 illegal December 14, 1829. This of course he could only do in the 
 provinces immediately subject to the British government, and in these 
 the practice had greatly decreased, indeed in some had been discon- 
 tinued under the restrictive regulations of preceding governors. 
 Another of his reforms, carried in opposition to the goverment and 
 the company, was the permission for Englishmen to settle in India, 
 though belonging neither to the army nor the civil service. He 
 systematically patronised the native population, and promoted the 
 liberty of the press. In 1834, in consequence of the atrocities com- 
 mitted and the disturbances occasioned to the public peace, he made 
 war on the Rajah of Coorg, and annexed the territory, granting a 
 pension to the deposed rajah, who came in and implored mercy. 
 Shortly after, in 1835, his lordship, finding his health failing, resigned 
 his office, and left Calcutta in March. The native population of 
 Calcutta held a public meeting to express their regret at his departure, 
 and caused an equestrian statue of him to be erected. On his arrival 
 in England, the court of directors also lamented " that the state of his 
 health should have deprived the company of his valuable services." 
 After his return to Europe, he was elected in 1836 member of parlia- 
 iament for Glasgow, for which place he sat until a few days before his 
 death, when he resigned. He died at Paris, June 17, 1839. (Gent. 
 Mag. ; Macfarlane, Our Indian Empire.) 
 
 BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAVEN- 
 DISH, commonly known as Lord George Bentinck, was the third son 
 of William Henry, fourth duke of Portland, by Henrietta, daughter and 
 co-heiress of Major-General Scott, whose sister was married to the late 
 George Canning. He was born on February 27, 1802, and though 
 only a younger son, inherited a fortune from his mother that placed 
 him above the necessity of adopting a profession. He however entered 
 the army, and gradually attained the rank of major ; but a period of 
 profound peace was not calculated to open the way to any ambitious 
 aspirations in that direction. He therefore, when his uncle Canning 
 became secretary for foreign affairs in 1826, became his private secretary, 
 for which he displayed an extraordinary capacity, was treated with 
 great cordiality, had unbounded confidence reposed in him, and it was 
 thought a brilliant political career was opening before him. In 1827, 
 while his uncle was first lord of the treasury, he entered parliament 
 as member for the borough of King's Lynn, and for that borough he 
 sat till the close of his life. He however did not distinguish himself 
 in parliament at this time, except by a very sedulous attendance : he 
 spoke very seldom, and then not well ; but he voted steadily on the 
 side of what were known as moderate Whigs. He voted for Catholic 
 Emancipation, but was not very warm in its favour. On Canning's 
 death in 1S27, Lord George gave an independent support (this means 
 opposing them occasionally) to Lord Goderich's cabinet, in which his 
 father was president of the council ; but he declined voting in favour 
 of Lord Kbrington's motion that defeated the Wellington cabinet. 
 He however continued to support Lord Grey's government till the 
 secession of Lord Ripon, Sir James Graham, and Lord Stanley (now 
 Earl of Derby), to the latter of whom he was strongly united by the 
 consonance of political opinions and the similarity of pursuits ; both 
 being strongly attached to the turf. On the accession of Sir Robert 
 Peel in December 1834, he formed one of the small party nicknamed 
 by O'Connell as the Derby Dilly, "carrying six insides." He how- 
 ever vehemently denounced the " Litchfield House treaty," by which 
 it was asserted the adhesion of the Irish members was bargained for 
 by the Whigs, and which ultimately led to the resignation of Sir 
 Robert Peel in 1836, and the accession of Viscount Melbourne. From 
 that time until 1841, when Sir Robert Peel again assumed the direction 
 of the government, Lord Bentinck was one of his warmest supporters. 
 On this occasion Sir Robert made him an offer of office, which he 
 declined ; but he was most unwearied in his support. It is related 
 that after a late debate, he would travel by rail to Andover to hunt, 
 and return in time to attend the sittings of the house in the evening; 
 throwing a wrapping overcoat of some kind over his scarlet hunting- 
 coat, and exercising indefatigably the office of ' whipper-in ' in the 
 house, that is, bringing up the members to a divisiou. But in 1843 
 the free-trade measun s began to alienate many of Sir R. Peel's sup- 
 porters, and when in 1846 he wholly repealed the Corn Laws, Lord 
 George wuHuto the most violent and personal opposition. Sir R. 
 
 Peel resigned, but Lord George abated but little of his animosity, 
 although he opposed the Whig free-traders who had succeeded him. 
 The country party, as it was termed, had been taken by surprise, and 
 knew not where to look for a leader. At length they selected Lord 
 George, who very unwillingly accepted the post, but having accepted 
 it, he threw himself into the part with his accustomed energy in what- 
 ever he undertook. He commenced studying statistics, he spoke on 
 every possible occasion, he inspired his adherents with boldness, he 
 impeded the administration in their measures. But though clever, 
 ardent, indefatigable, and too often unscrupulous, free-trade continued 
 its march in spite of his efforts, seconded by those of his principal 
 ally, Mr. B. Disraeli. He had during all these political avocations 
 continued his attention to racing and race-horses, declaring on one 
 occasion that the winning of the Derby was the 'blue-ribbon' of the 
 turf. On the prorogation of the house in August 1848, he retired to 
 Welbeck Abbey for relaxation ; he however attended Doncaster races 
 four times in one week, at which a horse of his own breeding won the 
 St. Leger stakes, to his great gratification. On September 21 he left 
 the house on foot soon after four o'clock in the afternoon to visit Lord 
 Manvers, at Thoresby Park, and sent his servants with a gig to meet 
 him at an appointed place. He appeared not ; the servants became 
 alarmed ; search was made for him ; but it was not till eleven at night 
 that he was found quite dead, lying on a footpath in a meadow about 
 a mile from the house. At the coroner's iuquest it was proved that 
 the cause of death had been spasms of the heart. A lengthy life of 
 Lord George has been written by his friend and follower, Mr. B. 
 Disraeli, in 8vo, 1851. (Gentleman's Magazine ; Miss Martineau, 
 History of the Thirty Years' Peace; B. Disraeli, Life of Lord George 
 Bentinck.) 
 
 BENTIVO'GLIO, GIOVA'NNI, was son of Annibale Bentivoglio, 
 who, after being for some years at the head of the commonwealth of 
 Bologna, was murdered by a rival faction in 1445. Giovanni was then 
 a boy six years of age. In 1462 he was made 'Principe del Senato' 
 of Bologna, and by degrees engrossed the sole authority of the republic. 
 The Melvezzi family conspired against him in 1488, but were detected, 
 and cruelly proscribed. About twenty individuals of that family, or 
 its adherents, fell by the hand of the executioner, and the reat were 
 banished. Giovanni showed himself stern and unforgiving, and he 
 hired bravos who executed his mandates in various parts of Italy. 
 At the same time, like his more illustrious contemporary Lorenzo 
 de' Medici, he was the patron of the arts and of learning ; he adorned 
 Bologna with fine buildings, and made collections of statues and 
 paintings, and manuscripts. Pope Julius II., having determined to 
 reduce Bologna under the direct dominion of the papal see, marched 
 an army against that city in 1506, and Bentivoglio, after forty-four 
 years' dominion, was obliged to escape with his family into the 
 Milanese territory, where he died two years after, at the age of 70. 
 His two sons were replaced by the French in 1511 at the head of the 
 government of Bologna ; but in the next year the French being obliged 
 to leave Italy, Bologna surrendered again to the Pope in June 1512, 
 and the Bentivoglios emigrated to Ferrara, where they settled under 
 the protection of the Duke d'Este. 
 
 Bentivoglio, Ercole, grandson of Giovanni, was born at Bologna 
 in 1506. He accompanied his father in his emigration to Ferrara, 
 where Duke Alfonso had married his aunt. He was employed by the 
 house of Este in several important missions, during one of which he 
 died at Venice in 1573. Ercole wrote some ' Satires,' which are con- 
 sidered next in merit to those of Ariosto ; and several ' Commedie,' 
 which were much applauded at the time : he was also a lyric poet of 
 some celebrity. 
 
 BENTIVO'GLIO, GUIDO, born at Ferrara in 1579, was a descendant 
 of the Bentivoglios, who had been rulers of Bologna in the preceding 
 century. He studied at Padua, and returned to Ferrara in 1597, wh.-n 
 the court of Rome took possession of that duchy, in disregard of the 
 claims of Cesare d'Este, the collateral heir of Alfonso 1L, the last 
 duke. Ippolito Bentivoglio, Guido's elder brother, had shown himself 
 attached to the Duke Cesare, to whom he was related, and had thereby 
 incurred the displeasure of Cardinal Aldobrandino, the papal legate. 
 Guido contrived to effect a reconciliation between them, and also 
 between Cesare himself, who took the title of Duke of Modena, aud 
 Pope Clement VIII. When the pope soon after came to Ferrara he 
 took particular notice of young Guido, and when Guido in 1601 
 proceeded to Rome he was made a prelate of the papal court. After 
 the death of Clement in 1605, his successor Paul V. sent Guido as 
 nuncio to Flanders, although he was only twenty-six years of age, to 
 endeavour to re-establish concord between the various parties in that 
 long-distracted country, and to bring them again into submission to 
 the papal spiritual authority. It was during his residence in Flanders 
 that he wrote his historical work on the insurrection of that country 
 against the Spaniards in 1566, and the subsequent wars between tin 
 Duke of Alba and the other generals of Philip II. and the Hollanders 
 (' Delia Guerra di Fiaudra,' in three parts, 3 vols. 4to, Cologne, 1632-39.) 
 He brings his narrative down to the year 16u7. The work is written 
 in the spirit of an advocate of the Church of Rome and of the Spauisu 
 authority, but as such displays considerable fairness, and the style U 
 grave and dignified. 
 
 In 1616 Bentivoglio was sent nuncio to France, where he won the 
 favour of Louis XIII. and his court by the mildness and courteousness 
 
653 
 
 BENTLEY, RICHARD. 
 
 BENTLEY, RICHARD. 
 
 654 
 
 of bis manners, and his prudence and tact in diplomatic affairs. In 
 1621 he was made a cardinal, and he became afterwards the friend and 
 confidant of Pope Urbau VIII. In 1611 Bentivoglio was made Bishop 
 of Tcrracina. When Urban VIII. died in 1614 it was the general 
 opinion that Bentivoglio would be his successor in the papal chair, 
 which probably he expected himself ; but he fell ill and died, on the 
 7th Sept., before the cardinals in conclave assembled had time to 
 make their choice. The works of Bentivoglio, besides that mentioned 
 above, are — ' Relazioni fatte in tempo delle Nunziature di Fiandra e 
 di Francia,' 4to, Cologne, 1630, in which he describes the manners and 
 character of the nations among whom he lived, and the remarkable 
 incidents of his time : it was translated into English by Henry, earl 
 of Monmouth, folio, London, 1652; ' Memorie con le quali descrive la 
 sua Vita,' 8vo, Amsterdam, 1648, a sort of diary of his life, published 
 after hi3 death ; and ' Lettere,' 8vo, Roma, 1654. This last work is held 
 in much estimation for the correctness of the language and flusncy 
 and ease of the style, and is therefore often put into the hands of 
 students of Italian. 
 
 BENTLEY, RICHARD, born January 27, 1662, was the son of a 
 small farmer or yeoman resident at Oulton, in the parish of Itothwell, 
 Dear Wakefield in Yorkshire. He was educated at the grammar school 
 of Wakefield, and at St. John's College, Cambridge, of which he was 
 admitted a sizar, May 24, 1676. No fellowship falling vacant to which 
 he was eligible, he accepted the mastership of the grammar school of 
 Spalding in Liucolnshiie early in 1682. After holding that office for 
 a year he resigned it to become private tutor to the son of Dr. Stilliug- 
 fleet, afterwards bishop of Worcester. He accompanied his pupil to 
 Oxford, where he was admitted to the same degree of M.A. as he held 
 at Cambridge. His residence at Oxford contributed to advance both 
 his reputation and learning; he had access to the manuscript treasures 
 of the Bodleian library, and became intimate with several distinguished 
 members of the university, especially Mill, the celebrated editor of the 
 Greek Testament, and Bernard, then Savilian professor. A series of 
 his letters to and from the latter is published in the ' Museum Criticum,' 
 vol. ii., p. 533. At this time he meditated two very laborious under- 
 takings — a complete collection of ' Fragments of the Greek Poets,' and 
 an edition of the three principal Greek lexicographers, Hesychius, 
 Suidas, and the ' Etymologicum Magnum,' to be printed in parallel 
 columns in the same page. Neither scheme however was carried into 
 effect. To the edition of ' Callimachus,' published by Graevius in 1697, 
 Bentley contributed a collection of the fragments of that poet. But 
 his reputation for scholarship was established by a performance of a 
 much more confined nature — a dissertation on an obscure chronicler, 
 named Mulala, which was published as an Appendix to Chilmead and 
 Mill's edition of the author in 1691. [Malala.] This showed such 
 an intimate acquaintance with Greek literature, especially the drama, 
 that it drew the eyes of foreign as well as British scholars upon him, 
 and obtained a warm tribute of admiration from the great critics, 
 Graevius and Spanheim, to this new and brilliant star of British 
 literature. 
 
 Bentley was ordained deacon in March 1690. In 1692 having 
 obtained the first nomination to the lectureship newly founded under 
 the will of Mr. Boyle, in defence of religion, natural and revealed 
 [Botle, Robert], he spared no labour to improve this opportunity 
 of establishing his reputation as a divine. He chose for his subject 
 the confutation of atheism — directing his arguments more especially 
 against the system of Hobbes, while the latter portion of the course 
 was devoted to prove the existence of a Creator, from the evidences 
 of de-ign in the constitution of the universe, as explained by Newton ; 
 whose great discoveries, published in the ' Principia,' about six years 
 before, were slowly receivad by the learned, and continued a sealed 
 book to the world at lar<e. These lectures were received with great 
 applause, and established the author's reputation as a preacher. In 
 October 1692 he was rewarded with a stall at Worcester, and in the 
 following year was appointed keeper of the King's Library. In 1694 
 he was re-appointed Boyle Lecturer, and followed up his refutation of 
 atheism by a defence of Christianity agiiust the attacks of infidels; 
 but this second scries of sermons was never published. In 1696 he 
 took the degree of D.D. at Cambridge; and on this occasion, in his 
 public exercise (or in academical Lmgua^c, his act), he appeared again 
 as a defender of revealed religion. 
 
 Bentlej's appointment to the office of King's Librarian was the 
 accidental cause of his writing the celebrated ' Dissertation on the 
 Epistles of Phalaris.' The once famous controversy between Boylo 
 and Bentley arose out of an alleged want of courtesy on the part of 
 Bentley relative to the loan of a manuscript from the King's Library 
 to the Hon. C. Boylo, an undergraduate of Christ's Church, Oxford, of 
 promising talents, who had undertaken to edit the ' Epistles' [Boyle, 
 Charles], and who resented the supposed slight in a pettish passage 
 in the Preface (January 1, 1693). On seeing this, Bentley addressed 
 to lioyle a courteous explanation of his conduct, expecting the offen- 
 sive passage to be cancelled or retracted : but he obtained no catisfao- 
 tion, aud was told he might seek his redress in any method he pleased. 
 Two years elapsed before he. took public notice of the insult. B. ntley 
 Lad made up his mind that the 'Epistles' ascribed to Phalaris were 
 •purious, before this quarrel occurred; and in 1697 he was called 
 on by bis friend, the learned Wotton, to fulfil a promise he h^d 
 made, aud to state the grounds on which he came to that conclusion. 
 
 This ho did in an Appendix to the second edition of Wotton's ' Reflec- 
 tions on Ancient aud Modern Learning.' At the end of it he notices 
 the unjust charge made against hitn by Boyle, whose performance ho 
 criticises with much asperity. This work created a great sensation, 
 especially among the Christchurch men, who chose to consider it as 
 an insult to the whole society. A knot of the best scholars aud wits 
 of the college accordingly united their pens in Boyle's name to punish 
 Bentley, not by fair argument, but by every artifice which wit and 
 malice could devise. Not only his learning, but his character, literary, 
 moral, and personal, were attacked. The joint-work, in which the 
 celebrated Atterbury was the chief performer, appeared in March 
 1698, and was entitled ' Dr. Bentley 's Dissertations on the Epistles 
 of Phalaris and the Fables of iEsop examined,' by the Hon. Charles 
 Boyle, Esq. It obtained such a degree of popularity, as gives some 
 reason for supposing that Bentley had already made himself known 
 and disliked for that presumptuous arrogance which he displayed so 
 remarkably in after-life. It has been so long and so generally acknow- 
 ledged that in this controversy Bentley was triumphantly victorious, 
 that many may be surprised to hear of the extremely favourable recep- 
 tion which the Oxford rejoinder obtained ; the blow was commonly 
 thought fatal to Bentley 's reputation as a scholar. 
 
 A numb r of lampoons and attacks of various sorts were made upon 
 him, of which Swift's ' Battle of the Books' is the only one which 
 has obtained celebrity. Bentley was in no hurry to reply to the storm 
 of ridicule and abuse which assailed him on all sides : it was his maxim, 
 he said, that no man was ever written out of reputation, except bj 
 himself. He therefore took time to mature his answer, and in th« 
 beginning of 1699 published bis enlarged 'Dissertations on the Epistles 
 of Phalaris,' which has finally set at rest the question in dispute. This 
 however is the least part of the merits of the work. Professedly 
 controversial, it embodies a mass of accurate information relative to 
 historical facts, antiquities, chronology, and philology, such as we may 
 safely say, has rarely been collected in the same space : and the reader 
 cannot fail to admire the ingenuity with which things apparently trifling, 
 or foreign to the point in question, are made effective in illustrating or 
 proving the author's views. Nothing shows so well how thoroughly 
 digested and familiar was the vast stock of reading which Bentley 
 possessed. The banter and ridicule of his opponents are returned 
 with interest, and the reader is reconciled to what might seem to 
 savour too much of arrogance and the bitterness of controversy, by a 
 sense of the strong provocation given to the author. The Oxford 
 champions expressed their intention to reply, but they probably felt 
 their ground to be cut from under their feet, for they published no 
 answer; nor was Bentley again called into the field by any worthy 
 antagonist. 
 
 At the end of the ' Dissert ition on Phalaris,' Bentley examines and 
 denies the authenticity of the epistles ascribed to Themistocles, 
 Socrates, Euripides, aud others. He also denies the genuineness of 
 the fables which bear iEsop's name (as to their form, entirely, as to 
 their substance, in a great measure), and traces the ./Esopean Fables 
 through a number of hands down to the comparatively modern and 
 corrupt prose version now extant. [^Esop; Babrius.] 
 
 On the 1st of February 1700, Bentley, by the gift of the crown, 
 was instituted Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, and resigned his 
 stall at Worcester in consequence of that appointment. In the fol- 
 lowing year, June 24, he was admitted Archdeacon of Ely. Subse- 
 quently he was appointed Chaplain both to William III. and to Queen 
 Anne. In January 1701, he married Joanna, daughter of Sir John 
 Bernard of Brampton, in Huntingdonshire, a lady of amiable temper 
 and cultivated miud, with whom he lived in harmony and happiness 
 throughout their union. 
 
 His new situation was admirably suited to meet and gratify the 
 wishes of a scholar; and as a supporter and encourager of literature, 
 Bentley's conduct is deserving of much praise. He took an active 
 part in re-modelling and rendering useful the University press ; he 
 gave his countenance and assistance to Kuster, who undertook a new 
 edition of Suidas to be printed at that press; he undertook his edition 
 of Horace, published afterwards in 1711 ; he wrote his ' Critical 
 Epistles to Kuster' on the ' Plutus ' and 'Clouds' of Aristophanes, 
 two of which, written in 1708, are published in the ' Museum Criticum,' 
 vol. ii., 403, &c, together with a ' Letter to Barnes on the Epistles 
 ascribed to Euripides,' dated February 22, 1692-93. A series of emenda- 
 tions, previou-ly unpublished, of the same plays, will be found in the 
 'Museum Criticum' (vol. ii., p. 126.) He also transmitted in 1703 a 
 long and valuable letter to Hemsterhuis, devoted principally to the 
 correction of the fragments of comic authors iu the 10th book of 
 ' Julius Pollux,' of whose ' Onomasticon ' that eminent critic had 
 recently published an edition. He made an important improvement 
 iu the system of college examinations for fellowships and scholarships, 
 by substituting for the old and loose method of oral examination, 
 that system of written exercises which is still pursued, and which has 
 contributed perhaps as much as any one cause, to the high reputation 
 which the college ha3 long maintained for purity of election as well 
 as for the talents of its members; and he laboured with success for 
 the improvement of the college library. Bentley's conduct iu other 
 collegiate affairs was far from praise worthy. He showed almost from 
 the first a domineering, arbitrary, and selfish, almost a sordid temper, 
 which disgusted the best members of the society, and, in the end. 
 
G55 
 
 BENTLEY, RICHARD. 
 
 BENTLEY, RICHARD. 
 
 involved him in a protracted lawsuit, much obloquy, and much 
 uneasiness. 
 
 The fellows seem soon to have made up their minds that their new 
 master (who was likely to be less favourably regarded from his being 
 educated not in their own body, but at St. John's) was a grasping 
 arbitrary man; and the bickerings between him and the senior fellows 
 of the college grew frequent. The most objectionable of his acts 
 appears to have been that of intruding fellows into the body, not by 
 the regular and statutable course of election, but by what he termed 
 presumption, by which candidates were chosen to future vacancies ; 
 and as the mode was unjustifiable, so his choice of persons to benefit 
 by it was bad. Towards the close of 1709 an open rupture took 
 place between the master and the seniors ; and it was followed by a 
 long series of ruinous litigation, by which the college suffered grievously 
 in purse, discipline, and reputation. The seniors appealed against the 
 master to the visitor. Unfortunately a doubt existed whether the 
 Bishop of Ely or the crown was the visitor ; and Bentley, supported 
 by a party among the junior fellows, succeeded, by every artifice which 
 legal ingenuity and indomitable pride and obstinacy could suggest, iu 
 delayiug the decision of this question till 1733, when the House of 
 Lords finally decided that the bishop was visitor. Bishop Greene 
 immediately summoned Bentley to appear before him, and in 1734 
 pronounced Bentenco of deprivation against him. But Bentley's 
 obstinacy and fertility of expedients supported him even in this ex- 
 tremity. Availing himself of what appears to have been a blunder in 
 transcribing the statutes, he refused to vacate his office until the vice- 
 master had carried the sentence of tho visitor into effect; which, as 
 the vice-master was one of his most devoted followers, was equivalent 
 to annulling the visitor's decision. He thus resisted, for four years, 
 the utmost efforts of his adversaries to procure execution of the 
 sentence, until the death of Bishop Greene, in May 1738, put an end 
 to the suit. We have not attempted to give even an abstract of these 
 proceedings, for an abstract could not well be made iutelligible. To 
 those who have leisure for such by-gone points of curious discussion, 
 Dr. Monk's minute account of the whole suit will be full of interesting 
 information. 
 
 In 1717 Bentley procured himself to be elected Regius Professor of 
 Divinity. He chose for the subject of his probationary lecture a dis- 
 cussion of the celebrated text 1 St. John, v. 7, on the three Heavenly 
 Witnesses, in which, maintaining the doctrine of the Trinity, he gave 
 a history of the verse, which he decidedly rejected. This work has 
 never been printed, and Dr. Monk has not been able to discover it. 
 Not content with being at variance with the college, he placed himself 
 in the same position with respect to the whole university, in the very 
 first year of office, by an attempt to extort from those persons who 
 were to be created doctors of divinity a larger fee than it had been 
 usual to pay. Like most of Bentley's actions, the claim was prosecuted 
 in a violent and offensive manner, and a warm dispute arose out of 
 this paltry beginning; in the course of which the Master of Trinity 
 and Regius Professor of Divinity, one of the first dignitaries of the 
 university, was, by a grace of the senate, passed by a majority of more 
 than two to one, degraded and deprived of all his degrees, October 17, 
 1718. Against this sentence Bentley petitioned the king. The matter 
 was referred to the Privy Council, and carried thence into the Court 
 of King's Bench, which, after more than five years of undignified 
 altercation, issued a mandamus, February 7, to the university to 
 restore Richard Bentley to all his degrees, and to every other right 
 and privilege of which they had deprived him. 
 
 It shows in a stroDg light the remarkable activity and energy of 
 Bentley's mind, that these harassing quarrels, which must have occu- 
 pied a large portion of his time aud attention, interfered so little with 
 his critical pursuits. Some of his works, performed during this long 
 period of disturbance, we have already noticed ; we have to add a 
 large and valuable body of notes and corrections of Cicero's ' Tusculan 
 Questions,' published in Davis's edition of that work in 1709 ('Richardi 
 Bentleii Emendationes in Ciceronis Tusculanas '). In 1710 he wrote 
 his 'Emendations ' on the comic poets, Menander ami Philemon, sug- 
 gested by Le Clerc's edition of the fragments of those authors. The 
 task was one for which Le Clerc was utterly unfit : and it is said 
 that motives of personal hostility had some influence iu inducing 
 Bentley to demonstrate that he was so, which he did with no spariug 
 hand. The work was anonymously printed in Holland ('Emenda- 
 tiones in Menandri et Philemonis Reliquias, ex nupera editione Joannis 
 Clerici ; ubi multa Grotii et aliorum, plurima vero Clerici, errata 
 castigautur '), under the signature of Pbileleutherus Lipsiensis : but 
 Bentley was universally known to be the author. Under the same 
 name he again appeared in 1713, as a defender of revealed religion 
 (' Remarks on the Discourse of Free-thinking') in his reply to Anthony 
 Collins's ' Defence of Free-thinking.' His answer to the sophistry and 
 fallacies pervading that book was judicious and effective ; and for the 
 eminent service done to the church and clergy of Eugland by " refu- 
 ting the objections and exposing the ignorance," to use the words of 
 the University Grace, of the writers calling themselves Free-thinkers, 
 Bentley received the thanks of the University of Cambridge by a vote 
 of the Senate, January 4, 1715. He also did no small service to 
 science, by effecting the publication of a new aud improved edition of 
 Newton's 'Principia,' which was intrusted, in 1709, by the venerable 
 author to the management of the eminent mathematician, Ko^er 
 
 Cotes. It appears also from Jurin's preface to his edition of the 
 'Geography of Varenius' (Cambridge, 1712), that he was induced to 
 undertake that work by Benth-y. Iu 1716 Bentley announced a plan 
 for publishing a new critical edition of the ' Greek Testament,' and 
 explained his views on this subject in a letter to Archbishop Wake, 
 printed in Dr. Monk's ' Life,' chap. xii. For four years he meditated 
 over this design, upon which he spared neither labour nor expense. 
 He made fresh collations of the celebrated Alexandrine aud Beza 
 manuscripts, and of other less important manuscripts in England : 
 and he had the assistance of the eminent biblical critic Wetstein and 
 other scholars, in collating manuscripts on the continent. In 1720 he 
 published proposals and a specimen of the intended work, which was 
 to be published by subscription. A large number of subscribers was 
 obtained, but from some unexplained cause, the work was never 
 carried into publication. Many persons ascribed this to the attacks 
 made on the author by Conyers Middleton, the historian of Cicero, a 
 violent and implacable enemy of Bentley. From this opinion Dr. Monk 
 dissents; and it is discountenanced by the well-known hardihood of 
 Bentley's character, and his habitual contempt for all his adversaries. 
 
 We have still to go back to notice a work which, perhaps with the 
 exception of the ' Dissertations on Phalaris,' is tho most remarkable 
 of Bentley's labours, his edition of Horace, undertaken in 1701, but 
 not completed till 1711. In the progress of this work he involved 
 himself in needless difficulties ; for, contrary to the usaul practice of 
 scholars, he introduced his emendations (between 700 aud 800 in all) 
 into the text, and, still more uuusually, caused the text to be printed 
 off in 1706, long before tho notes were ready. Many of the alterations, 
 it may be supposed, his mature judgment would disallow ; for in the 
 preface he expresses his regret for more than twenty of them ; and it 
 is probable that he stretched his ingenuity to defend many others 
 which he did not really approve. Many of them have been adopted 
 by the best subsequent editors ; but the bulk of them are now rejected 
 as unnecessary, harsh, or prosaic. Nevertheless, Bentley's Horace is a 
 noble monument of the author's learning, critical skill, and acquaintance 
 with the Latin language. 
 
 We can do no more than notice, and refer to Dr. Monk's ' Life,' for 
 an account of some of Bentley's minor labours, of which the most 
 important perhaps was an edition of ' Terence,' published in 1726, which 
 deserves notice as being one of the most honourable and unexception- 
 able of the author's performances. The text professes to be corrected 
 in no less than a thousand places, and the reasons for almost every 
 change are given in the notes. It is especially remarkable for the 
 nicety of care in accentuation, and for the metrical skill which it 
 displays ; and contains a valuable dissertation upon the metres of 
 Terence. 
 
 In 1731 Bentley, much to the detriment of his reputation, undertook 
 to publish an edition of ' Paradise Lost.' He proceeded on a suppo- 
 sition, first started by Elijah Fenton, that Milton, by his blindness, 
 being obliged to employ an amanuensis, his poem might reasonably 
 be supposed to have been much corrupted, between its delivery from 
 his own lips and its issue from the press. But Bentley pushed the 
 theory beyond all reasonable bounds; for he created an ideal friend, 
 whom he supposed to have filled the office of editor, aud to whom he 
 ascribes not only the numerous verbal errors, which he professes to 
 detect, but the introduction of whole lines, and even passages of many 
 verses. In whatever point of view this work is regarded, the editor's 
 presumption is intolerable ; and his self confidence and flippant tone 
 of criticism is equally offensive, especially when directed against a man 
 of genius so different from his own. Bentley does not appear to have 
 had much poetic feeling. His criticisms of Horace have been con- 
 demned as prosaic, and his criticisms on Milton display the same fault 
 in a more eminent degree. Nor was he qualified by taste or study to 
 appreciate the store of Italian aud romantic learning which Milton in, 
 his poem has interwoven with his classical reading. His work — unlike 1 
 the emendations or restorations made in our own day by a far less 
 skilful and equally prosaic hand in the text of a greater English poet 
 than even Milton — excited almost universal dissatisfaction; re3ent- 
 ! ment on the part of the admirers of Milton; distress and regret on 
 ! the part of those who wished well to the editor. Nevertheless, like 
 everything else of Bentley's, it displays much critical acumen ; and the 
 ! ingenuity of the commentator might have been admired, if it had been 
 united with a decent share of modesty. 
 
 The publication of Bentley's edition of Homer was an important 
 event for the student of the Greek language, since the characteristic 
 feature of it is an attempt to restore the prosody of Homer by the 
 insertion of the long-forgotten Digamma. This was a great undertaking 
 for a man turned of seventy, for he did not begin it till the year 1732, 
 i though his opinion relative to the Digamma seems to have been made 
 ' up several years before. The task was difficult ; for even supposing 
 ' that his views of the lost letter were strictly correct, yet the changes 
 of orthography and language introduced in the course of many ages so 
 complicated the question, that often where the metre was before correct 
 the iusertion of the Digamma rendered it unprosodiacal. Bentley did 
 much, though he was not altogether successful. Payne Knight has 
 more recently renewed the attempt, but, to say the least, without its 
 meeting with the general acceptation of scholars. Bentley's intended 
 work was broken off in 1739, when he had not completed the notes on 
 the sixth book, by a paralytic stroke. Shortly before he had published 
 
tit 
 
 BENYOAVSKY, COUNT DE. 
 
 BENYOWSKY, COUNT DE. 
 
 his edition of Manilius, which had been prepared for the press no less 
 than forty-five years. 
 
 Bentley's literary career ends here. He recovered sufficiently to be 
 able to amuse himself, and the concluding years of his life were spent 
 in the tranquil enjoyment of the society of his family and of a few 
 attached friends. Mrs. Bentley died in 1740, and Bentley survived her 
 little more than two years. He died July 14, 1742, and was interred 
 in tbe college chapel. His library passed into the hands of his son, 
 Dr. Richard Bentley, a man of learning and talent, but of too desultory 
 habits to obtain eminence in any pursuit. The books were purchased 
 after his death by the house of Lackington, from which they were 
 repurchased by the British Museum, it is said, without any advance 
 of price. 
 
 (Monk, Life of Bentley.) 
 
 BENYOWSKY, MAURITIUS AUGUSTUS, COUNT DE, Magnate 
 of Hungary and of Poland, was born at Werbuena, or Verbowna, the 
 hereditary lordship of his family, in the county of Nittria, in the 
 kiDgdom of Hungary, at the beginning of the year 1741. He was son 
 of Samuel, count de Benyowsky, a general of cavalry in the Emperor 
 of Austria's service, and of Rosa, baroness of Revay, lady and hereditary 
 countess of Thurocz. The young count was educated at Vienna and 
 about the court, and at the early age of fourteen, as the fashion was 
 in those days, he entered the Austrian army. The Seven Years' War 
 was then on the point of breaking out. 
 
 In 1756 Benyowsky fought under the celebrated Marshal Braun in 
 the battle of Lowositz, where the Austrians were defeated by the great 
 Frederic in person. In 1757 he was engaged in the desperate battle 
 of Prague, and in the following year ho fought at Schweidnitz and 
 Darmstadt. Though now only sixteen years of age, his courage and 
 decision of character were remarkable. 
 
 In the year 1761 he was invited by an uncle, who was a magnate of 
 Poland and starost in Lithuania, to joiu him in Lithuania. While 
 absent in Lithuania the count's father died, on which his brothers-in- 
 law took possession of all the Hungarian estates, which constituted the 
 main part of his hereditary property. After having in vain summoned 
 them to surrender the land, Benyowsky determined to take the law 
 into his own hands, and do himself right by force. He suddenly 
 appeared in Hungary, and arming the vassals and peasantry on the 
 estates, who were much attached to him, he began to make war on 
 his brothers-in-law, whom he would soon have dispossessed had not 
 the empress and the authorities of the Hungarian diet interfered, and 
 finally obliged him to retire to Lithuania. He repeatedly forwarded 
 memorials to the empress on these affairs, but his appeals were fruitless. 
 It is probable that his rights were not quite so clear to the Austrian 
 government as they seemed to himself. Soon tiring of an inactive life, 
 Benyowsky repaired to the maritime city of Danzig, and made several 
 voyages to Hamburg, and in 1766 sailed from Hamburg to Amsterdam, 
 whence he came to Plymouth. Being in England in 1767, he received 
 letters from certain of the magnates and senators of Poland, engaging 
 him to return and join, in his quality of Polish nobleman, the confede- 
 ration which was then forming to resist the encroachments of the 
 Russians and the Empress Catherine, who had succeeded three years 
 before in securing the elective crown of Poland to her former lover, 
 Stanislaus Poniatowsky. Count Benyowsky set out for Warsaw, where 
 he arrived in July 1767, and took the oath required by the confede- 
 rating nobles. As the moment of action had not yet arrived, he 
 employed his leisure in making a journey to Vienna, and once more 
 pressed his right to the Hungarian estates on the Austrian court ; but 
 his representations were useless, and he departed for Poland with a 
 determination never again to set his foot in Austria, Hungary, or any 
 part of Maria Theresa's dominions. On his way back, while passing 
 through the county of Zips in Hungary, he fell sick of a fever, and was 
 laid up for several weeks in the house of a gentleman of distinction 
 named Hensky. During Ids sickness and convalescence Benyowsky 
 made love to one of this gentleman's daughters, whom he married 
 shortly after. 
 
 In the beginning of 1768, only two or three months after his marriage, 
 the Polish confederation, known under the name of the Confederation 
 of Barr, took up arms against Russia, on which Benyowsky, without 
 mentioning his intention to his bride, went aud joined them in the 
 field, as lie was bound to do by the oath he had taken the preceding 
 year. At the opening of the campaign he was appointed general of 
 cavalry. For some time the Polish confederates were everywhere 
 successful, and the Count contributed to most of the victories. But 
 in the unfortunate battle of Szuka, after being dreadfully wounded, 
 he was made prisoner by the Muscovites, who treated him not as a 
 brave and honourable enemy, but as a revolted subject or a brigand. 
 The Russians loaded him witli chains, and threw him, with eighty of 
 hU comrades, into the dungeon of a fortress, that had no light or air 
 except a little that straggled through a chink which opened upon the 
 casement*. From this dreadful confinement Benyowsky was inarched 
 with a large body of Polish prisoners to Kiew, and thence to Kazan, 
 iu the interior of Russia. While in the latter city, some Russian 
 iioblemen, who had organised au extensive conspiracy against the 
 Empress Catherine, seeing the influence he possessed over the minds 
 of the Polish prisoners, who far outnumbered the Muscovite garrison 
 of tlie place, treated privately with Benyowsky in order to induce him 
 to join in their plots. The count had many interviews with the 
 
 BIOO. D1V. VOL. J, 
 
 conspirators, among whom were many of the Russian clergy, and 
 engaged to join his arms to theirs in case they should be successful in 
 their first rising at Kazan, aud should give him and his Poles the neces- 
 sary weapons, ammunition, and appointments. These facts certainly 
 go far to account for Catherine's implacable enmity towards him, 
 though they neither excuse her brutality, nor, considering the position 
 in which he stood, cast any moral stain on his character. The plot 
 however was betrayed to the governor of Kazan. Benyowsky wan 
 accused, but escaped at midnight. A major of the Polish army was 
 the companion of his flight, which Benyowsky managed throughout 
 with wonderful address and talent. Instead of attempting to hido 
 himself in the provinces, he determined to go straight on to tho 
 crowded capital, where he fancied he could lie concealed until some 
 foreign vessel should be found to carry him out of Russia. After 
 many curious adventures he reached St. Petersburg, where he hired 
 apartments in a hotel, making his companion, the major, pass himself 
 off as his valet-de-chambre. The system of espionage established 
 by the Empress Catherine was almost perfect, yet Benyowsky was 
 well nigh mocking all its vigilance. He made the acquaintance of a 
 German apothecary, who negociated a passage for him and his friend 
 with the master of a Dutch vessel then at St. Petersburg. The 
 Dutchman agreed to receive them on board and smuggle them out of 
 the harbour, and as he said he was ready to sail eai'Jy the following 
 day, he appointed to meet the count and his friend on the bridge of 
 Neva at midnight, and did meet them, as agreed, but only to deliver 
 them into the bauds of a party of twenty Russian soldiers. Benyowsky 
 and his friend were carried to the lieutenant-general of police, who, 
 well knowing who they were, subjected them to a long and brutal 
 examination. Eventually however he was given to understand, that 
 by engaging never more to enter her imperial majesty's dominions, 
 and never again to bear arms against her or any of her allies, he 
 should be permitted to leave the country. Having signed a solemn 
 engagement to this effect, he was put into a rude carriage, which set 
 off under a strong escort of Cossaks. At first he was given to under- 
 stand that he was being carried to Siberia, but he eventually found 
 that his destination was the still more savage country of Kamtchatka. 
 On the 16th of October 1770, the exiles reached Okhotsk, where they 
 embarked to perform the remainder of the journey by water. During 
 the voyage across the ocean the count's exertions and nautical skill 
 saved the ship from wreck. They did not arrive in Kamtchatka until the 
 2nd of December, and they were no sooner there than Benyowsky, who 
 had conferred with many other exiles during the journey, aud obtained 
 some geographical information, resolved to attempt his escape byway of 
 Japan or China. His plans were facilitated by the unsuspecting Russian 
 governor, who engaged him to teach the Latin, French, and German 
 languages in his family. After a number of adventures and narrow 
 chances of failure, having repaired the vessel in which they arrived, 
 and salted twenty-two bears for sea-stock, on the 11th of May 1771, 
 Benyowsky set sail from Kamtchatka with eighty-five men, who wera 
 nearly all exiles, and some few of them people of rank like himself. In 
 the mouth of September in the same year, the ship arrived at Macao 
 in China. The voyage had been very disastrous; for two months 
 they had suffered hunger and thirst ; only sixty-two of those who had 
 embarked were alive, and of the sixty-two only some ten or a dozen 
 could stand upon deck. In China Benyowsky found two ships of the 
 French East India Company, in which he embarked with all his 
 people, having determined to seek employment at the court of 
 France. 
 
 During the homeward voyage he spent a fortnight at the island of 
 Madagascar, aud this circumstance influenced the rest of his life. In 
 the month of August 1772, he reached France. At the end of the 
 same year the French government engaged him to form an establish- 
 ment in Madagascar, and on the 14th of February 1774, he arrived in 
 that island, where he soon ingratiated himself with the natives in the 
 neighbourhood of the bay of Anton-Gil, on which he fixed his little 
 colony. He however imprudently engaged with these allies in their 
 wars with some of the other people of Madagascar, aud seems to have 
 abandoned his plan of forming merely a commercial settlement for the 
 more ambitious project of making conquests in the island. Certain it 
 is, that M. de Kerguelen, a naval commander, landed the crews of his 
 ships ; that a destructive and barbarous warfare was carried on against 
 the blacks of Madagascar ; and that almost as soon as the ships 
 withdrew, the blacks drove Benyowsky and his companions from the 
 island, aud destroyed his establishment, which had existed for nearly 
 five years. 
 
 Disgusted with the French, he quitted their service, and again 
 accepted a command iu the Austrian army. But the visions of 
 wealth and absolute freedom and independence in the great African 
 island still pursued him, aud on December 25, 17S3, he presented 
 proposals to the British government to found a colony in Madagascar 
 on their account. His project was not adopted by the government, 
 but having obtained some co operation and credit in England, Beu- 
 yowsky, with his family and a few associates, sailed for Marylaud, in 
 the United States, on the 14th of April 1784. At Baltimore he induced 
 a mercantile firm to enter iuto his views aud supply him with a ship 
 of 450 tons burden, well provided with stores and a trading cargo, but 
 furnished also with twenty G-pounders and twelve swivels. This ship, 
 which wa^ called the 'Intrepid.' sailed from Baltimore for the harbour 
 
 JO 
 
859 
 
 BERANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE. 
 
 BERENGER. 
 
 663 
 
 of St. Augustine, on the east coast of Madagascar, on the 25th of 
 October 1784. The voyage, from the beginning, was a slow and unlucky 
 one. In the early part of January 1785 the 'Intrepid' made the coast 
 of Brazil, whence Benyowsky wrote the last letter his friends ever 
 received. About a month afterwards the ship ran aground at the 
 island of Juan Uonsalvez, and it was not before April that she was 
 got off and made sea -worthy. Benyowsky then stood across the 
 Southern Atlantic for the African continent. He doubled the Cape 
 of (iood Hope, without putting into port there, and after touching 
 and resting for a short time at Sofala, he at last (on the 7th of July 
 1785) cast anchor at Madagascar, in the Bay of Antangara, 10 leagues 
 to the south-west of the Bay of St. Augustine. It is then stated that 
 Lamboin, king of Northern Madagascar, whom he had known on his 
 former visit, came to pay his respects, and that a body of the race, or 
 tribe, called Seclaves, under their chief or king, came also and encamped 
 near to Benyowsky ; that the count proposed to enter into the solemn 
 compact or oath of blood with the Seclaves, and that their chief declined 
 on the pretext of being much fatigued by his journey. According to the 
 protest of the master of the American ship, it should seem that Ben- 
 yowsky met his death at the hands of the savages on the 1st of August, 
 but as the contrary is known beyond a doubt, entire discredit is thrown 
 on the ship-master's evideuce. The American master certainly aban- 
 doned him, sailed away, and sold the ship and cargo at Oibo. 
 
 But though thus abandoned, the resources of this extraordinary man 
 did not fail him. He put himself at the head of an armed force of the 
 natives, and seized the magazines and warehouses of the French, who, 
 to the annoyance of the Madagascar savages, had formed more than 
 one establishment on the island. In consequence of these and other 
 hostilities, the governor of the Isle of France sent a ship to Mada- 
 gascar with sixty French soldiers, who landed and attacked the count 
 on the morning of the 23rd of May 1786. Benyowsky awaited their 
 approach in a small redoubt he had thrown up. The blacks fled at 
 the first fire of the French, and the count having received a ball in 
 his right breast, fell behind the parapet, and expired a few minutes 
 after, in the forty fifth year of his age. 
 
 (Memoirs and Travels of M. A. Count de Benyowsky, written by 
 himself.) 
 
 B'liRANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE, was born in Paris August 19, 
 1780, of humble parentage, and in his earliest years was brought up 
 by his grandfather, a tailor. He witnessed the taking of the Bastille 
 in 17S9, and was then removed to the care of an aunt, who kept an 
 inn at Peronne. Here he first learnt to read. At fourteen he was 
 apprenticed to a printer in Peronne. Somewhat later he attended a 
 primary school founded at the same place. At sixteen he returned to 
 his father at Paris, and having attended some theatrical representations, 
 he resolved to attempt a comedy, and produced ' Les Hermaphrodites.' 
 At eighteen he projected the writing of an epic, to be called ' Clovis;' 
 this he proposed as the task of the succeeding twelve years. He also 
 produced verses on sacred subjects, some of which have been given 
 in the edition of his works edited by M. Perrotin, and published in 
 1S34. These performances did not improve his fortunes ; and, reduced 
 to great distress, he thought of proceeding to Egypt, where Bonaparte 
 then was, and whose first successes had excited extravagant visions of 
 glory and prosperity among the French population. The return how- 
 ever of some members of the expedition dissipated Bdranger' s dream, 
 and he remained in Paris. It was at this period, when suffering from 
 his disappointed hopes, and even actual indigence, that he seems to 
 have resolved to be gay if he could not be happy, and he produced his 
 ' Roger Bontemps,' ' Le Grenier,' ' Les Gueux,' and ' Le Vieil Habit.' 
 They were not immediately successful ; but iu 1803 he sent some of 
 his poems to Lucien Bonaparte, who promisi d to ameliorate his situa- 
 tion. Lucien was suddenly called to Rome. Bdranger thought himself 
 forgotten ; when a letter came from Lucien, assigning to Bdranger his 
 income as a member of the Institute. He next obtained some employ- 
 ment as an editor, and in 1809 was appointed a clerk in the secretary's 
 department of the Academy. His songs were now becoming popular 
 in every quarter. During the ' hundred days' of Bonaparte. Bdranger 
 refused the lucrative office of censor. In 1815, when he published his 
 first collection of songs, which were popular throughout France, he 
 was informed that it would occasion his dismission from the office he 
 held in the Academy. He wavered not, and was retained; but in 
 1821, when the second collection was published, he was at once dis- 
 charged. He wrote more and more poignant satires upon the govern- 
 ment ; he was prosecuted, and sentenced to three months' imprisonment 
 and a fine of 500 francs. In 1828 he published his third collection. 
 For this he was again prosecuted, and was condemned to nine months' 
 imprisonment and a fine of 10,000 francs. Confined more strictly in 
 the prison of La Force, the undaunted poet continued his attacks on 
 the faults and follies of the government, and these remarkable lyrics 
 aided not a little in accelerating the fall of the Bourbons. 
 
 In 1830 the revolution of July would have acted favourably for 
 Bdranger's fortunes if he would have given up his beloved independence. 
 He says, " I was treated with as one of the great powers ; " " nearly all 
 my friends have become ministers;" "unfortunately I have no "love 
 of sinecures, and all compulsory labour has become insupportable." 
 Bdranger was convinced that France was not fitted at this time for a 
 republican government, and he supported the establishment of a 
 limited monarchy. In 1833 he published his tilth and last collection 
 
 of songs, containing some of his most striking pieces. After the revo- 
 lution he was elected iu April a representative of the department of 
 the Seine in the constituent assembly, by more than 200,000 votes ; 
 but in May ho sent in his resignation. It was unanimously refused, 
 but a week afterwards he renewed it, and it was accepted. 
 
 Bdranger continues to write, but does not publish. He is known to 
 have a large collection of songs, and he employs himself also with a 
 ' Biographic des Contemporains.' 
 
 The songs of Bdranger have deservedly attained a high reputation, 
 not only in France but throughout Europe. One charm is their 
 complete nationality. The delicate wit, the subtle satire, the indig- 
 nant denunciation, the vivid and correct pictures, the frequent comi- 
 cality of situation — are all truly and exclusively French ; and so are 
 the faults that are sprinkled rather too frequently through them. His 
 command of language is marvellous, and in the most difficult rhythms 
 the words always seem to drop naturally into their places ; but this is 
 understood to be attained by him only with great labour. 
 
 The whole career of Bdranger is very remarkable. He had become 
 a real power in the state under the first Napoleon. Although he felt 
 that there was no hope for the national freedom of bis country while 
 that despotism endured, he had a sincere admiration of the emperor's 
 genius. Consequently there were no personal attacks in his early 
 songs ; and when a little gentle raillery upon externals was ventured — 
 as in 1 Le Roi d'Yvetot' and ' Le Sdnateur' — it was laughed at and 
 applauded even at court. Bdranger is considered by his countrymen 
 as a religious poet : this is not the impression which an Englishman 
 would receive. But he certainly does not shock by impiety, however 
 he may offend by levity and want of reverence. The songs for which 
 he was prosecuted were not attacks on religion, but on its false 
 assumption. Fined and imprisoned under the Bourbons, he still 
 remained the conqueror. Bdranger has little resemblance to our own 
 song-writers. He has none of the deep passionate love depicted by 
 Burns. He never contemplates the happiness of 
 
 " Loving and being loved by one 
 
 but— 
 
 " Takes, forsakes, retakes Lisettc" 
 
 in a fashion that jars on English feelings of delicacy. The passion he 
 describes indeed is rather that which has become appropriated in 
 English to the French word " amour." His contrast to our patriotic 
 singer, Dibdin, is also striking Dibdin holds out few incentives to 
 the sailors he addressed beyond a sense of duty, prize-money, a picture 
 of domestic happiness with their Nancy, and Greenwich Hospital. 
 Such encouragements find no place with Bdranger. The glory of 
 France is the most prominent inducement to fight and to die. To our 
 other lyrical poet, Moore, he has somewhat more resemblance. [See 
 Supplement.] 
 
 BERCHTOLD, LEOPOLD, COUNT, a native of Germany, born in 
 1758, is celebrated for his philanthropic exertions, having spent 
 thirteen years in travelling throughout Europe, and four years in Asia 
 and Africa, with a view of mitigating human sufferings, to which 
 object indeed the whole of his life was devoted. In 1797 he published 
 at Vienna directions for the cure and prevention of the plague, having 
 travelled two years throughout Asiatic and European Turkey for the 
 purpose of investigating its symptoms and determining its character. 
 The Royal Academy of Sciences at Lisbon ordered these directions to 
 be translated into Arabic, French, and Portuguese. Count Berchtold 
 attempted to effect reforms in the state of European police, and wrote 
 some pamphlets on the subject, which were printed aud distributed 
 by him gratuitously in different countries. Some of his plans he laid 
 before the French National Assembly, and he submitted to that body 
 observations on the necessity of making swimming and diving a branch 
 of national education. Possessed of an ample fortune, he offered 
 prizes for essays on various subjects connected with his philanthropic 
 plans : among others, one of a thousand florins for the best treatise on 
 Benevolent Institutions ; and not content with this, he was also the 
 founder of several such establishments. He was also active in making 
 known the advantages of vaccination. During a famine in Germany 
 in 1805-0(3, he procured for the poor supplies of food from districts in 
 which famine did not prevail ; and in the course of the revolutionary 
 war he converted the palace of Buchlowitz, on his estate in Moravia, 
 into an hospital for the sick and wounded. At this place he died, 
 July 26, 1809, of a contagious nervous fever. 
 
 The results of the experience and observations of Count Berchtold, 
 as a traveller, will be found in the following work, which was dedi- 
 cated to Arthur Youug, and published in London in 2 vols. 12mo : — 
 ' An Essay to direct and extend the Inquiries of patriotic Travellers ; 
 with further Observations on the means of preserving the Life, Health, 
 and Property of the inexperienced in their Journeys by Sea and Land ; 
 also a series of Questions interesting to Society and Humanity, neces- 
 sary to be proposed for solution to men of all ranks and employments, 
 and of all nations and governments, composing the most serious points 
 relative to the objects of all Travels.' 
 
 BERENGER, one of the most learned divines of the 11th century, 
 was a native of Tours. He was made treasurer of the church of 
 St. Martin in that city, and afterwards became archdeacon of Angers. 
 Berenger, Lanfranc, and Anselm, were the restorers of logic and nieta- 
 physical studies in Europe, with the assistance of Aristotle's workft, 
 
UL BERENICE. BERESFORD, VISCOUNT. C62 
 
 which were about that time imported into France from the Arabian 
 schools of Spain. Beivuger was one of the first who employed logical 
 reasoning in the study of the Scriptures, which had till then been 
 Interpreted according to tradition and the authority of the fathers. 
 They were, if not tlie fouuders, at least the promulgators of the 
 scholastic theology which became so common iu the schools during 
 the middle ages. Berenger maintained the doctrine of Scotus, that 
 "the bread and wine used in the sacrament of the Eucharist were not 
 transformed into the body and blood of Christ, but preserved their 
 natural and essential qualities, and were only to be considered as 
 external symbols of the body and blood of the Saviour." Pope Leo IX. 
 procured the condemnation of Berenger's doctrine by the councils of 
 Borne and Vercelli, 1019-50, and the book of Scotus was also com- 
 mitted to the flames. Henri I. of France assembled a council at 
 Paris for the same purpose, when Berenger was again condemned and 
 threatened with temporal punishment. Pope Victor II. summoned a 
 council at Tour3 in 1054, at which the monk Hildebrand, afterwards 
 Gregory VII., appeared as the pope's legate. BereDger was induced 
 by denunciations and threats to retract his doctrines concerning the 
 Eucharist and to make his peace with the church. We find him soon 
 after again maintaining his former tenets, upon which Nicholas II. 
 summoned him to Rome in 1058, and the council assembled in that 
 city in the following year drew up a confession of faith on the subject 
 of the Eucharist, stating " that the bread and wine after the priest's 
 consecration were not only a sacrament, but the real body and blood 
 of Christ, and consumed as such by the faithful." Berenger signed 
 this confession, but soon after returning to France abjured it again 
 publicly. At last, Hildebrand, who professed a high esteem for 
 Berenger, having become Pope under the title of Gregory VII., sum- 
 moned him to Rome in 1078, when another council was held, before 
 which Berenger drew up a new confession of his doctrine, in which he 
 professed to believe that the bread and wine after consecration became 
 the true body and blood of Christ. Berenger's enemies, not thinking 
 this declaration sufficiently explicit, another council was held in 1079, 
 and Berenger was induced to declare that bread and wine were, by 
 the mysterious influence of the words of the Redeemer, "substantially 
 changed into the true, proper, and vivifying body and blood of Christ, 
 not only in the qualities of external signs and sacramental representa- 
 tions, but in their essential properties and in substantial reality." 
 This is the famous doctrine of transubstantiation ; Berenger, in his 
 confession of the year before, seems to have attested only his belief of 
 the real presence. Such is the opinion of Mabillon and of some other 
 theologians, both Catholic and Lutheran, concerning Berenger's 
 doctrine. 
 
 After the last declaration of Berenger, Gregory VII. showed him 
 great kindness and esteem, and allowed him to return to France ; but 
 Berenger once more retracted this his declaration of 1079. Gregory VII. 
 took no further notice of the dispute, nor of Berenger's retractation. 
 Gregory seems to have been for adhering to the words of the Scriptures, 
 " Hoc est corpus meum " (Matt. xxvi. 26), and not inquiring further 
 into the nature of the mysterious presence. 
 
 Berenger, fatigued and grieved with this long controversy, retired 
 to St. Cosme, near Tours, where he spent the last years of his life in 
 religious and ascetic exercises until 1088, when he died. 
 
 (Lanfranc's works; Berenger's letters in the Thesaurus Anecdotovum ; 
 Leasing, Berengarius Turonensis, Brunswick, 1770.) 
 
 BERENI'CE (1), one of the four wives of Ptolemseus I., the founder 
 of the dynasty of the Lagidae in Egypt, and the mother of Ptole- 
 mseus II., called Philadelphus. Berenice had a son, Magas, by a 
 former husband, who was afterwards king of Cyrene, 
 
 Copper. British Museum. Weight 308 grains. 
 
 The head on the above coin is said to be that of Berenice, the wife 
 of the first Ptolemjeus : the inscription on the other side is ' King 
 Ptolemseus.' 
 
 BERENI'CE (2), a daughter of Ptolemrous Philadelphus by Arsinoe 
 the daughter of Lysimachus. She was the sister of Ptoletnajus III., 
 Euergetes, and was given in marriage B.C. 252 by her father to 
 Antiochus II., king of Syria, called Theus or God, who divorced his 
 wife Laodice on the occasion. After the death of Philadephus, Autio- 
 ohus divorced Berenice and took back Laodice, who poisoned her 
 husband and put Berenice to death together with a son whom she had 
 by Antiochus. To avenge his sister's death, Ptoleintcus III., Euergetes, 
 invaded Syria, put to death Laodice, and overran the empire of the 
 Scleucidsc. [PtoleMjEOS.] 
 
 BERENI'CE (3), the wife (about B.C. 218) of Ptoleinasus III., 
 
 Euergetes ; but her parentage is doubtful. She was the daughter of 
 Magas, who was king of Cyrene and half-brother of Ptok-ma>us Phil- 
 adelphus on the mother's side. 
 
 This Berenice is said to have made a vow of her hair during her 
 husbaud's wars in Asia. Conformably to the vow, the hair was placed 
 iu the temple of Venus, from which it was stolen, but Conon of Samoa 
 declared that it had been taken up to the skies and placed among the 
 seven stars in the lion's tail. Callimachus wrote a poem on the occa- 
 sion which is now only known from the beautiful translation by 
 Catullus — 'De Coma Berenice.' The name of Berenice occurs in the 
 fifth line of the Greek part of the Rosetta inscription, now in the 
 British Museum, with the feminine form of her husband's appella- 
 tion, Euergetis, ' the benefactress.' Berenice was put to death 
 by her son Ptolemajus IV., Philopator, and his iufamous minister 
 Sosibius. 
 
 BERENI'CE (4), otherwise called Cleopatra, the only legitimate 
 child of Ptolemaeus VIII. (Soter II.), reigned six months, the last nine- 
 teen days of them in concert with her husband Alexander II., who, 
 according to Appian and Porphyry, murdered her nineteen days after 
 the marriage, B.C. 81. It appears from Appiau that Sulla determined 
 that this Alexander, who had long been an exile from Egypt, should 
 return and share the sovereign power with Berenice The Alexan- 
 drians, roused to fury at the perfidy of the king, dragged him to 
 the Gymnasium, and there put him to death. The portraits of 
 Alexander II. and this Berenice appeal' frequently ou the great wall 
 of sandstone which incloses the temple of Edfu, and the portrait of 
 Berenice is always the same. See Rosellini, plate xxii., figs. 80, 81 ; 
 and xxiii. 29, which is a full-length portrait of Berenice. Figs. 80, 
 81, represent respectively the heads of Alexander and Berenice, which 
 are distinguished by the handsome features that appear to have 
 characterised the descendants of the first Ptolernoeus. It would seem 
 that the great sculptures of the inclosure wall of Edfu, which cover it 
 on both sides, were executed in the joint reigns of Alexander II. and 
 Berenice, from which fact Rosellini infers that a longer period must 
 be assigned to their joint reign than the nineteen days given by the 
 chronologers. The Athenians made a bronze statue of this Berenice. 
 (Pausan. i. 9.) 
 
 BERENICE (5), a daughter of Ptolemseus IX., Auletes, who began 
 to reign in Egypt B.C. 81, and sister of the celebrated Cleopatra. 
 During the absence of her father at Rome Berenice was made regent, 
 which office she held from about B.C. 58 to B.C. 55. Gabinius, about 
 the close of B.C. 55, came to Egypt with an army and restored Auletes, 
 who put his daughter to death. Berenice first married Seleucus, the 
 pretended son of Antiochus Eusebes, a feeble man, whom, it is said, 
 she caused to be strangled ; and afterwards Archelaus, who was also 
 put to death on the restoration of Auletes. 
 
 BERENI'CE (6), a daughter of Herodes Agrippa I., the grandson of 
 Herod the Great. (Acts xii. ; Matthew ii.) She was the sister ot 
 Herode3 Agrippa II., before whom Paul preached A.D. 63 (Acts xxv 
 13), and the wife of Herodes of Chalcis, who seems to have been her 
 uncle, and left her a young widow. Titus, the son of Vespasian, fell 
 in love with Berenice, who had taken an active part at the time when 
 Syria declared in favour of Vespasian against Vitellius. (Tacit. ' Hist.') 
 Berenice was then a young and handsome woman. After the capture 
 of Jerusalem she came to Rome (a.D. 75), and Titus is said to have 
 been so much attached to her that he promised to marry her; but on 
 the death of his father he sent Berenice from Rome, much against his 
 will and hers, when he found that the proposed match was disagree- 
 able to the people. Racine has written a tragedy on the subject of 
 Titus and Berenice. 
 
 BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR, VISCOUNT, the natural son o 
 the first Marquis of Waterford, was born on October 2, 1768. He 
 entered the army early, and while serving in Nova Scotia lost the sight 
 of an eye from the accidental shot of a brother officer in 1786. He 
 served at Toulon, at Bastia, at Calvi, and in the West Indies under 
 Abercromby, and in Egypt under Baird. Iu 1806, having attained 
 the rank of brigadier-general, he commanded the land forces in the 
 expedition against Buenos Ayres, and was taken prisoner, together with 
 his corps, but he contrived to escape shortly afterwards. In 1S07 he 
 commanded the force which obtained possession of Madeira. In 1808 
 he arrived in Portugal with the English forces, and to him was con- 
 fided the organisation of the Portuguese army, including the militia. 
 This he effected so completely, that the Portuguese troops, throughout 
 the Peninsulir war, showed themselves worthy of fighting by the 
 side of their British allies. On May 4, 1811, he invested the fortress 
 at Badajoz, and on the 16th defeated Soult at Albuera. At the battle 
 of Salamanca, in 1812, he wa3 wounded. He then commanded a 
 division under Wellington, and took a distinguished share in the 
 battles of Vittoria and Bayonne. On the luth of April 1814 he 
 attacked and carried the heights before Toulouse with great skill 
 and bravery. For his services he had been created a Portuguese 
 field-marshal, Duke of Elvas, and Marquis of .Santo Campo ; and he 
 was now created a British peer by th - title of Baron Bereaford. In 
 the same year (1814) he was sent on a mission to Brazil: he returned 
 in 1815, and after a short visit to Portugal he repaired to Brazil 
 again. On his return he resumed the command of the army of Por- 
 tugal, at the request of the Portuguese government, but resigned it 
 at the end of a few years, not approving of the efforts there being 
 
«63 
 
 made to establish a constitutional government. On his return to 
 England in 1823 he was cr< ated Viscount Beiesford. From 1828 to 
 1830 he was master-general of the ordnance. He continued to take 
 an active part in politics, being strongly attached to the Tory party ; 
 and in 1820', in consequence of assisting in forwarding English troops 
 for the support of Don Miguel, he was deprived of his rank as Portu- 
 guese field-marshal. Iu 1 832 he had married Louisa, his cousin, the 
 daughter of the archbishop of Tuam, and the wealthy widow of 
 Thomas Hope the banker, but left no issue. He died at Bedgebury 
 Park, Kent, on January 8, 1854. At the time of his death he was 
 governor of the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and governor 
 of the island of Jersey. (Gentleman's Magazine; Pictorial History of 
 England.) 
 
 * BERG HA US, HEINRICH, was born on May 3, 1797, at Cloves, in 
 Rhenish Prussia. After studying at Miinster, Marburg, and Berlin, 
 when only fourteen years old, and acting in the royal corps for the 
 management of highways and bridges, he found frequent opportunities 
 of increasing and displaying his geodesical knowledge. Iu 1815 he 
 accompanied the German army under General Taueuzein, as a volun- 
 teer, into France as far as Brittany. Of this opportunity he availed 
 himself so sedulously, that in 1824 he published an oro-hydrographic 
 map of France, which is justly allowed to be tho most perfect hitherto 
 compiled. After his return ho occupied himself partly by map con- 
 structing at Weimar, partly by surveying and measuring the heights 
 in Frauoonia and Thuringia, of which the results have been since 
 made public. In 1816 he received an appointment as geographical 
 engineer in the war department at Berlin, and from this time till 1821 
 he was occupied with the great trigonometrical survey of the Prussian 
 kingdom. He also took part in several important undertakings, as in 
 Weiland's Map of tho Netherlands and Reymann's Map of Germany. 
 Iu 1824 he was appointed professor in the Berliu Academy, and 
 received permission to reside at Potsdam. Berghaus's industry and 
 productiveness is extraordinary. He has produced, among many 
 others, a Map of Africa, iu 18 sheets; a most precise map of Asia, in 
 00 sheets; a Physical Atlas, of which he was one of the first to give 
 an example ; a collection of hydro-physical sheets for the use of the 
 Prussian marines. As an author also he is equally fertile ; in union 
 with Hoffmann he issued the ' Hertha,' a collection of valuable geo- 
 graphical essays, from 1825 to 1S29 ; ' Universal Geography,' in several 
 volumes ; the ' Principles of Geography,' in five books; ' Principles of 
 Ethnography,' &c. 
 
 BERG HEM, NICHOLAS, whose family name was Van Haerlem, 
 was born at Haerlem in 1624. He received his first instructions from 
 his father, a painter of still life, of no remarkable talent. Afterwards 
 he became the pupil successively of Van Goyen, Jan Wils, and Wee- 
 Diux. During his early practice he frequently painted sea-ports and 
 shipping, and his works of that period bear a strong resemblance to 
 those of Weeninx ; but subsequently he devoted himself almost 
 exclusively to landscape. The works of Berghem evince great live- 
 liness of fancy, a judicious taste in selection, and a mastery in pen- 
 cilling which has not often been equalled. His landscapes are usually 
 enriched with architectural ruins and picturesque groups of figures 
 and cattle ; and these compositions, although evidently made up of 
 materials selected at different times and from various sources, have 
 such an air of truth, that it is difficult to believe they were not 
 copied directly from nature. Berghem had an executive power which 
 never missed its aim ; his touch is equally free and discriminating, 
 whether expressing the breadth and richness of masses of foliage, the 
 lightness and buoyaucy of clouds, the solidity of rocks and buildings, 
 or the transparency of water ; his distances are graduated, both in 
 relation to lines and tints, with admirable truth of perspective ; and 
 he frequently gave great grandeur to his effects by broad masses of 
 shadow, whose negative quality he perfectly understood and expressed. 
 He painted with extraordinary dispatch, but his works betray no traces 
 of negligence ; his finishing stops at the point which unites accuracy 
 with freedom. 
 
 Berghem was indefatigable in the practice of his art, usually paint- 
 ing, even during the summer months, from sunrise till sunset ; yet 
 such was his reputation that he found it difficult, even by this un- 
 wearied diligence, to satisfy the demand for his pictures. He died 
 in 1683, aged fifty-nine. Descamps, in his lives of the Flemish painters, 
 gives a long list of Berghem's pictures ; there is a prodigious number 
 of them in Holland, and they are frequent in English collections. 
 Some fine specimens are iu her Majesty's collection and at Dulwich 
 College, and there is one specimen in the National Gallery. Many of 
 his works have been finely engraved by Visscher. 
 
 Berghem's own etchings and drawings were exceedingly beautiful, 
 and are eagerly sought after. A descriptive catalogue of them was 
 published by Henry de Winter at Amsterdam in 1767. 
 
 BERQLER, JOSEPH, a distinguished historical painter, born at 
 Salzburg in 1753. He was instructed by his father, and gave such 
 early evidence of talent, that he was sent in 1776 to complete his 
 studies in Italy, by the prince-bishop Cardinal Firmiau of Passau. 
 In Italy he studied oil and fresco five years with Martin Kuoller at 
 Milan ; iu Rome, w here he remained altogether six years, he was 
 acquainted with Mengs, Canova, and Gavin Hamilton ; and Camma- 
 ciui, Tischbein, and Volpato were his contemporary students there. 
 Luring this period however he visited Parma, and obtained the great 
 
 prize of the Academy in 1784 for a picture of Samson delivered by 
 Delilah to the Philistines. He returned to Germany and settled in 
 Passau in 1786, when he was appointed painter to the prince-bishop 
 Cardinal Auersperg. During his stay at Passau until 1800, he painted 
 several excellent altar-pieces for the churches of neighbouring towns. 
 In 1800 Bergler was made director of the Academy of Prague, and 
 his ability and activity combined enabled him to educate several very 
 able scholars, who adorned the Bohemian capital with their works ; 
 and he himself furnished altar-pieces for many of the churches of 
 Prague and its vicinity : one of his principal works at this time was 
 a large picture of Hermann and Thusnelda, from Klopstock's ' Her- 
 mannsschlacht.' He died at Prague in 1829. He had great facility 
 of execution, but his chief excellence consisted in a general effective 
 style and composition of colour. He has also etched many of his own 
 designs with great ability. (Dlabacz, Kiimtler- Lexicon fiir Bbhmen ; 
 Nagler, Neues Allyemeines Kiinstler- Lexicon ; Gothe, Winckelmann 
 und sein Jahrhundert.) 
 
 BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF, a distinguished chemist, was born 
 on the 9th of March 1735, at Catherinbcrg in West Gothland, of which 
 district his father, Berthold Bergman, was receiver of the revenues. 
 After acquiring at school some knowledge of languages, botany, and 
 natural history, he was sent at seventeen years of age to the university 
 of Upsala, and was intended by his father for the church or the bar. 
 He soon however manifested his dislike for both these professions, 
 and after some opposition he was permitted to pursue the studies for 
 which he had a decided preference, and he eventually devoted his time 
 to mathematics, physics, and natural history. 
 
 He paid very considerable attention to botany, and especially to 
 grasses and mosses ; he studied entomology with success, and having 
 collected several insects previously unknown in Sweden, and some 
 even quite new, he sent specimens of them to Linnaeus at Upsala, who 
 was much gratified with the present. The first paper which he wrote, 
 and which was printed in the Memoirs of the academy of Stockholm 
 for 1756, contained a discovery of considerable importance. In some 
 ponds not far from Upsala a substance was observed, to which the 
 name of Coccus Aquaticus was given, but its nature was unknown; 
 Linnaeus conjectured that it might be the ovarium of some insect. 
 Bergman ascertained that it was the ovum of a species of leech, and 
 that it contained from ten to twelve young auimals. 
 
 Although mathematics and natural history occupied the greater 
 part of his time, he continued to prosecute the study of natural history 
 as an amusement. In 1758 he took his Master's degree, taking 
 ' Astronomical Interpolation' for the subject of his thesis ; and soon 
 after he was appointed Magister Docens in the university of Upsala, 
 and while in this situation he wrote several ingenious papers on the 
 aurora borealis, the rainbow, twilight, &c. In 1761 he was appointed 
 Adjunct in mathematics and physics, and his name is among the 
 astronomical observers of the first transit of Venus over the sun in 
 1761, whose results deserve the greatest confidence : he also made 
 some important observations on the electricity of the tourmaline. 
 
 In 1767 Wallerius resigned the professorship of chemistry in the 
 university of Upsala. Bergman immediately offered himself as a 
 candidate, and to prove his fitness for the place, he published two 
 dissertations on the manufacture of alum ; and ultimately succeeded. 
 After his appointment he was assiduously occupied with the duties of 
 his office, and he frequently published dissertations on important 
 branches of chemistry. In 1776 Frederick of Prussia endeavoured to 
 prevail upon him to become a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences 
 and to settle at Berlin. The offer was highly advantageous, but the 
 king of Sweden, who had been his benefactor, was unwilling to part 
 with him ; on this occasion he was knighted and received a pension of 
 150 rix-dollars. The health of Bergman appears always to have been 
 delicate, and it was permanently injured by his intense application to 
 study when he first went to Upsala; in summer he occasionally repaired 
 to the waters of Medevi, a mineral spring which is celebrated in Sweden, 
 and there, on the 8th of July 1784, he died. 
 
 It is impossible to give an account of all the writings of Bergman, 
 for they amount to 106 ; they are all collected into six octavo volumes, 
 entitled ' Opuscula Torbemi Bergman Physica et Chemica,' excepting 
 a few of the less important. 
 
 The first chemical memoir which he published was ' On the Aerial 
 Acid,' and printed in 1774 ; he shows that this gaseous body, now 
 called carbonic acid, possesses acid properties, and is capable of com- 
 bining with bases and forming salts with them. It is to be observed 
 that he makes no mention of the previous labours of Dr. Black on this 
 subject. In 1778 appeared his paper ' On the Analysis of Mineral 
 Waters.' In this memoir he adverts to many circumstances connected 
 with their general character and sources, aud points out the principal 
 re-agents and precipitants used in their examination ; the results of 
 his analysis were not accurate, but they were better than those which 
 had previously appeared. His paper on alum has already been men- 
 tioned; and although he was well acquainted with the process of 
 manufacturing it in Sweden, he was unacquainted with the true nature 
 of the salt. In his dissertation on emetic tartar he gives a full 
 historical detail of the modes of preparing it, and its uses; but being 
 unacquainted with the nature of the different oxides of antimony, his 
 ideas as to the antimonial preparations best fitted to form it are not 
 accurate. 11 His memoir on the forms of crystals contains the germ of 
 
665 
 
 BERKELEY, GEORGE. 
 
 BERKELEY, GEORGE. 
 
 688 
 
 the theory of crystallisation afterwards developed by Haiiy ; he made 
 I considerable number of experiments on silver, and his analyses of the 
 pr* cious Btones, though far from accurate, were among the first attempts 
 to ascertain the composition of these bodies. 
 
 In 1775 Bergman published his important ' Essay on Elective 
 Attractions ;' it was improved and augmented in the third volume of 
 his 'Opuscula,' published 1783, and was translated into English by 
 Dr. Beddoes. In this treatise Bergman considers every substance as 
 possessed of a peculiar attractive force for every other substance with 
 which it unites, a force capable of bein,' represented numerically : he 
 also considered decomposition as complete ; that is, whenever a third 
 body c, is added to a compound a b, for one of the constituents of 
 which it has a stronger attraction than that which exists between the 
 two, the compound body will be decomposed, and the whole of one of 
 its elements transferred to the body added. Thus, suppose the attrac- 
 tion of a for 6 to be lepresented by 1, and of a for c by 2, then the 
 addition of c to a b will produce the compound a c, and 6 will be 
 separated : thus, when lime-water is added to muriate of magnesia, 
 the magnesia is precipitated and a solution of muriate of lime is 
 oUained ; and hence when muriatic acid is poured upon a mixture of 
 lime and magnesia, it dissolves the lime and leaves the magnesia. 
 From these and numerous similar facts Bergman called this kind of 
 attraction or affinity ' elective.' This work contains a vast number of 
 experiments ; and though the accuracy of his researches and opinions 
 have been called in question, and in many cases upon good ground, 
 the work will long remain a monument of his sagacity and industry. 
 
 BERKELEY, GEORGE, son of William, of Thomastown, in the 
 county of Kilkenny, was born at Kilcrin, near Thomastown, on the 
 12th of March, 1684. He received his early education at Kilkenny 
 school under Dr. Hinton, was admitted a pensioner of Triuity College, 
 Dublin, at the age of fifteen, and having stood successfully an examina- 
 tion, he was admitted a Fellow on the 9th of June, 1707. In the 
 same year he published his first work, ' Arithmetica absque Algebra 
 aut Euclide demonstrata,' written before he was twenty years of age, 
 and chiefly remarkable as showing the early bent of his mind and 
 Btudies. His next work, published in 1709, was 'The Theory of 
 Vision ; ' in the following year ' The Principles of Human Knowledge ' 
 appeared. The perusal of Locke's two treatises on government having 
 turned the attention of Berkeley tu the doctrine of passive obedience, 
 he published in 1712 a discourse in favour of it, being the substance 
 of three sermons delivered by him iu that year in the college chapel, 
 which passed through several editions. In order to publish his 
 'Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous,' he left Ireland in 1713 and 
 went to London, where he was introduced to literary and fashionable 
 society by two men very opposite in their political principles — Sir 
 Richard Steele and Dr. Swift. He wrote seveial papers in the 
 ' Guardian ' for the former, and in his house formed a friendship with 
 Pope, which continued during the remainder of his life. Berkeley 
 was recommended by Swift to the celebrated Earl of Peterborough, 
 with whom he set out as chaplain and secretary, in November 1713, 
 on his embassy to Sicily. His lordship however left his chaplain and 
 part of his retinue at Leghorn, and proceeded on his embassy. After 
 his return to England, iu August 1714, with Lord Peterborough, he 
 became companion to Mr. Ashe, son of Dr. St. George Ashe, bishop of 
 Clogher, on a tour through Eurcpe, which occupied more than four 
 years. At Paris he visited Malebranche, and entered into a discussion 
 with him on the ideal theory, which was couducted with so much 
 heat that the excitement is said to have hastened the death of the 
 Freuch philosopher. When in Sicily he compiled materials for a 
 natural hiBtory of the island, but tuese papers, together with his 
 journal, were lost during his journey to Naples. On his way home 
 he wrote his tract ' De Motu,' at Lyon, sent it to the Royal Society of 
 Paris, and printed it in London in 1721. Seeing the misery produced 
 about this time by the South Sea scheme, he published ' An Essay 
 towards preventing the Ruin of Great Britain.' 
 
 He was now received into the first society. Pope introduced him 
 to Lord Burlington, by whom be was recommended to the Duke of 
 Grafton, lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On becoming chaplain to this 
 nobleman he took the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor in Divinity of 
 Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 About this time his fortune was unexpectedly enlarged. On his 
 first visit to Loudon, Swift had introduced him to Mrs. Esther Van- 
 houirigh, the celebrated ' Vanessa.' When this lady became dissatisfied 
 with Swift, she altered her will, and left the 8000/. which she intended 
 for him, to Mr. Marshal and Dr. Berkeley, her executors. Berkeley 
 did not however publish her correspondence with Swift, though she 
 It ft this injunction in her will, but committed the letters to the flames. 
 In 1724 Dr. Berkeley was made dean of Derry — a place worth 11 00/. — 
 and he resigned his fellowship in consequence. 
 
 Ever since Berkeley's return to England he had occupied himself 
 with a scheme for the conversion of the .North American savages by 
 means of a missionary college to be erected in the Bermudas. He 
 published his plan in London in 1725, and offered to resign his prefer- 
 ment and dedicate his life to this benevolent project on an income of 
 100/. a year. Having prevailed on three junior fellows of Trinity 
 College, Dublin, to accompany him on incomes amounting to 40/. per 
 annum, and obtained, by showing the political a ivantages likely to 
 reault from his Bchemu, a charier lor his college, and a promise of 
 
 20,000/. from the minister, he resisted the temptation of an English 
 mitre offered him by Queen Caroline ; and though he married in 
 August 1728, Anne, eldest daughter of Mr. Forster, the Speaker of the 
 Irish House of Commons, he sailed in the middle of the ensuing 
 month for Rhode Island with his wife, a Miss Handcock, two gentle- 
 men of the names of James and Dalton, a valuable library of boohs, 
 and a large sum of his own property. He took up his residence at 
 Newport, in Rhode Island, and for nearly two years devoted himself 
 indefatigably to his pastoral labours. The government however disap- 
 pointed him, and he was compelled, after spending much of his fortune 
 and seven years of the prime of his life on forwarding his scheme at 
 home and in America, to leave the scene of his philanthropic enterprise 
 and return to England. Before he left, however, he presented his 
 books to the clergy of the province, and on reaching London took the 
 whole loss upon himself by returning all the subscriptions which he 
 had received. In February 1732, he preached before the Society for 
 the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. The same year he 
 published his ' Minute Philosopher,' a series of dialogues ou the model 
 of Plato. Of this work Bishop Sherlock of London presented a copy 
 to Queen Caroline, with whom Berkeley had many interviews after his 
 return, and by whose patronage he was promoted on the 17th of 
 March 1734 to the vacant bishopric of Cloyne, a see to which he was 
 consecrated by the Archbishop of Cashel on the 19th of May following. 
 He repaired immediately to the residence at Cloyne, and to the exem- 
 plary discharge of all his episcopal duties. Hearing from Addioon 
 that their common friend Dr. Garth on his death-bed attributed his 
 infidelity to the opinions of Dr. Halley, whose mathematical education 
 had much influenced Garth, the bishop was induced to write the 
 'Analyst,' a work addressed "to an infidel mathematician," which 
 excited a good deal of controversy. In 1735 appeared his ' Queries,' 
 proposed for the good of Ireland, and next year his ' Discourse addressed 
 to Magistrates.' 
 
 Having received benefit from the use of tar-water when ill with the 
 colic, he published in 1744 ' Siris,' a work on the virtues of tar-water, 
 on which he said he had bestowed more pains than on any other of 
 his productions : he published a second edition with emendations and 
 additions in 1747. During the Scotch rebellion in 1745 he addressed 
 a letter to the Roman Catholics of his diocese, and in 1749 another to 
 the clergy of that persuasion in Ireland, entitled 'A Word to the 
 Wise,' distinguished by so much good sense, candour, and moderation, 
 that he received the thanks of the parties whom he addressed. When 
 Lord Chesterfield, in 1745, offered him the see of Clogher, worth 
 twice as much as the one he held, he refused it because he had already 
 enough to satisfy his wishes. His ' Maxims concerning Patriotism ' 
 appeared in 1750. His last work was 'Further Thoughts on Tar- 
 Water,' publishtd in 1752. In July this year he determined on going 
 with his family to Oxford, to superintend the education of his sou 
 and enjoy the learned retirement to which he was attached. He was 
 however so impressed with the evils of non-residence that he actually 
 petitioned the king for leave to resign his see, but his Majesty was 
 determined he should die a bishop in spite of himself, and refused his 
 application, giving him at the same time permission to reside wherever 
 he pleased. 
 
 In July 1752 he removed to Oxford, where he was treated with 
 great respect. On Sunday evening, January 14, 1753, he was seized 
 with what his physiciaus called a palsy of the heart, and expired so 
 suddenly and quietly that it was only when his daughter went to give 
 him a cup of tea that she perceived he was quite dead. His remains 
 were interred in Christ chui - ch, Oxford, and an elegant monument was 
 erected to his memory by his widow. He had three sons and a 
 daughter. Besides the works already mentioned he wrote some 
 smaller pieces, which appeared in a collection printed in Dublin in 
 1752 under the title of ' Miscellanies.' 
 
 The writings of Berkeley, which contain his peculiar opinions, 
 consist in an attack upon the anti-Christian tenets which began to 
 prevail before his time. To look upon his literary labours as a whole, 
 it will be necessary to remember — 1, the consequences of the court of 
 Charles II. ; 2, the shock which had been given to all prevailing 
 notions of mental philosophy by the introduction of the writings of 
 Locke; 3, the new view of the power of natural philosophy consequent 
 upon the mathematical discoveries of Newton ; 4, the extensive rem- 
 nants of the old philosophy, which insinuated themselves more or less 
 into the newly cultivated branches of science. The ' Minute Philoso- 
 pher' is addressed to the infidel man of pleasure; the 'Analyst' to 
 the infidel mathematician; the 'Principles of Human Knowledge,' 
 and the 'Dialogues of Hylas and Philonous,' to the infidel metaphy 
 sician. We shall take them iu order of publication : — 
 
 ' Principles of Human Knowledge ; ' ' Dialogues of Hylas and 
 Philonous.' — The prevailing notion of matter, from the earliest ages 
 downwards, had been that of a substance possessing an existence 
 independent of faculties capable of perceiving it. The atheism of 
 several ancient sects was entirely based upon a notion that matter 
 might exist without a God, or in conjunction with, though inde- 
 pendently of, a God. The argument of Berkeley may be divided into 
 two parts: in the first he attacks the common notion of matter by tht 
 assertion that there is no proof of its existence anywhere but in our 
 own perceptions ; in the second he asserts the impossibility of any such 
 independent existence. The first point is, and always will bo mu> 
 
667 
 
 BERKELEY, GEORGE. 
 
 BERLIOZ, HECTOR. 
 
 understood by those who do uot pay the closest attention to the 
 meaning of his terms. For instance, Dr. Samuel Johnson, who was 
 frequently happy in perceiviug verbal distinctions, said he refuted 
 Berkeley s theory by stamping with his foot upon the ground. That 
 is he imagined that Berkeley deuied the existence of the perception of 
 solidity, which of course was not the case. 
 
 To the believer in an intelligent Creator (and it is only to such that 
 the negative part of Berkeley's argument applies) the case may be 
 thus put :— You admit that your existence and your power of per- 
 seiviug, as well as the perceptions by which the second makes you 
 know the first, are ultimately (whatever may be the intermediate steps) 
 to be traced to the will of the Creator. You cannot figure to yourself 
 the uniform nature of the perceptions which you receive as coming 
 directly from the Creator, but you suppose a power of imparting them 
 to be made inherent in a certain 'substratum' (this is Berkeley's word) 
 which you call matter? But if you admit that it is in the power of 
 the Creator to furnish you directly with those ideas of space, figure, 
 colour, &c., which to you constitute the material world, without any 
 intervention of which you can form a positive conception ; how do 
 you know that he has not done so 1 The answer must be that there 
 is no such knowledge ; and this is the point on which Berkeley has 
 never been, and it is not too bold an assertion to say never can be 
 refuted. 
 
 _ The positive part of Berkeley's theory, in which he asserts the 
 impossibility of matter, lays him open to precisely the same answer 
 which those may receive who actually assert its existence. We cannot 
 in our limits show the several grounds on which he supposes he has 
 established his point. He has a notion that what he calls an ' idea ' 
 (we should say 'perception') cannot be imparted unless there be 
 something resembling the idea in that which communicates. It is 
 very difficult to abbreviate an argument which handles the nature of 
 ideas ; but the leading notions seem to us to be contained in the 
 following quotation (' Works,' v. i. p. 20), with which we shall close 
 tnis part. I he reader will observe that axioms are assumed as 
 doubtful at least, and by no means so convenient as that of the 
 existence of matter ; alio that the first paragraph assumes the point 
 in question :— r 
 
 " Some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that a man 
 need only open his eyes to see them. Such I take this important one 
 to be, to wit, that all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth, 
 m a word, all those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the 
 world, have not any subsistence without a mind ; that their being is 
 to be perceived or known ; that consequently so long as they are not 
 actually perceived by me, or do not exist in my mind or that of any 
 other created spirit, they must either have no existence at all, or else 
 isubsist in the mind of some eternal spirit. 
 
 " There is not any other substance than spirit, or that which per- 
 
 (CelV( r! For an idea to exist in an unperceiring thing is a 
 
 manifest contradiction; for to have an idea is all one as to perceive; 
 that therefore wherein colour, figure, and the like qualities exist, must 
 perceive them ; hence it is clear there can be no unthinking substance 
 or substratum of these ideas." 
 
 " But, say you, though the ideas themselves do not exist without the 
 mind yet there may be things like them whereof they are copies or 
 resemblances, which things exist without the mind, in an unthinking 
 substance. I answer, an idea can be nothing but an idea ; a colour or 
 ngure can be like nothing but another colour or figure." 
 
 « Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher.'— This is a series of dialogues 
 between two atheists and two Christian theists. The former are of 
 
 , . .umiB. iuc iwuier are 01 
 
 the : class of good company philosophers who have disappeared with 
 wit and 'verses. 
 
 'The Analyst' and 'Defence of Freethinking in Mathematics.'— The 
 object of these tracts (the second of which is a rejoinder to a reply to 
 the first) is by pointing out the difficulties in the subject of fluxions, 
 then almost newly invented, to show one of two things : either that 
 mathematicians were not such masters of reasoning as to make their 
 opinions on religious subjects more valuable than those of other people; 
 or else that there were, in the science of fluxions, incomprehensible 
 points as difficult as those of religion, and yet logically established. It 
 was a very dangerous use of analogy, considered with reference to the 
 interests of the cause it was meant to serve; but it is by no means 
 the only instance of an attempt to place mathematical on a similar 
 footing with moral difficulties. The points on which Berkeley insisted 
 have since been cleared up, and the publication of the ' Analyst ' was 
 the immediate cause of the work of Maclaurin on the subject. 
 
 1 he style of Berkeley is very clear, and his bold method of thinking, 
 and absence of all adhesion to great authorities, make his works even 
 now valuable to the student. These same qualities make them difficult 
 to describe, and the peculiar nature of the subjects which he treated 
 has caused them to be misrepresented, so that their true scope is less 
 understood than that of any other writings of his day. 
 
 (bee his 'Life,' prefixed to his works published in 2 vols. 4 to in 
 1784, written by the Rev. Dr. Stock from particulars furnished by 
 Berkeley s brother, and first published anonymously in 1776. An 
 
 upSt?™ 3 works has been since Published in 3 vols. 8vo.) 
 
 BERKENHOUT, DR. JOHN, the son of a Dutch merchant, was 
 born at Leeds about the year 1730. He was educated partly at the 
 grammar school of that town and partly in Germany, and he afterwards 
 
 made the tour of Europe in company with one or more English noble- 
 men. He then entered the Prussian service as a cadet, and rose to the 
 rank of captain. When the war broke out between England and France 
 in 17^0, he quitted the Prussian and obtained a company in the English 
 service. On the conclusion of peace in 17C0 he left the army, and 
 commenced the study of physic at Edinburgh. During his residence 
 there he wrote a work entitled 'Clavis Anglica Linguae Botanies; or a 
 Botanical Lexicon, in which the terms of botany, particularly those 
 which occur in the works of Linnaeus and other modern writers, are 
 applied, derived, explained, contrasted, and exemplified,' London, 1704, 
 sma 1 8vo It is a useful little work, and perhaps the first of its kind 
 published. 
 
 Berkeuhout took the degree of Doctor of Physic at Leyden in 1765 
 on which occasion he published his 'Dissertatio Medica Inau^uralis de 
 Podagra,' dedicated to his relation Baron de Bielfeld (4to, pp 28) On 
 returning to England, Dr. Berkeuhout settled at Isle worth in Middlesex • 
 and until his death, which took place in 1791, employed a great part 
 of his time in writing on an immense variety of subjects. In 1766 his 
 'Pharmacopoeia Medici' appeared, which reached a third edition in 
 1/82. His ' Outlines of the Natural History of Great Britain and 
 Ireland' came out by a volume at a time in 1769-71. The copy at 
 the British Museum is bound up with a short treatise entitled the 
 Naturalist's and Traveller's Companion' (London, 1772, 8vo, pp. 69). 
 It has no name, but is probably by the same indefatigable author. 
 
 In 1771 he published 'Dr. Cadogan's Dissertation on the Gout 
 examined and refuted,' and in 1777 ' Biographia Literaria, or a Biogra- 
 phical History of Literature, containing the Lives of English, Scottish, 
 and Irish authors, from the dawn of Letters in these kingdoms to the 
 present time, chronologically and classically arranged,' London, 1771, 
 4to, pp. 537. This volume contains the authors who lived from the 
 beginmug of the 5th to the end of the 16th century. In a very long 
 preface, dated from Richmond in Surrey, the author promises his 
 readers a second, third, and fourth volume, but they never made their 
 appearance. 
 
 Dr. Berkenhout's next work was ' A Treatise on Hysterical Diseases 
 translated from the French.* In 1778 he was sent with certain com- 
 missioners appointed to treat with America, and on his return obtained 
 a pension in consideration of his political services, and the loss sustained 
 by him in giving up his practice for a time. In 1780 he published 
 ' Lucubrations on Ways and Means, inscribed to Lord North.' His 
 next work was an ' Essay on a Bite of a Mad Dog,' and in the following 
 year he published his 'Symptomatology.' In 1788 appeared Dr. 
 Berkenhout's ' First Lines of the Theory and Practice of Philosophical 
 Chemistry,' never a very valuable and now an utterly useless work. 
 
 In 1779 he published a continuation of Campbell's ' Lives of the 
 Admirals,' 4 vols. 8vo. Hia last publication, according to the writer 
 of his life, was 'Letters on Education, to his Son at Oxford,' 1791, 
 2 vols. 12mo. Probably this is a mistake. We have seen a similar 
 work entitled ' A Volume of Letters from Dr. Berkenhout to his Son 
 at the University,' but it is in one octavo volume (of 374 pages), is 
 printed in 1790, and addressed to a son at the University of Cambridge. 
 It is a very poor production. Dr. Berkenhout, though certainly 
 undeserving of the lavish panegyrics of his friends, was an active, 
 energetic, and indefatigable writer ; and though he has no claim to 
 the rare praise of creating knowledge, it would be unjust to deny him 
 the credit due to those who acquire and diffuse it. 
 
 BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ VON, a German knight, a petty feudal 
 lord of Suabia, notorious in the history of the middle ages for his 
 bravery and his lawless turbulence. He lived during the reign of the 
 Emperor Maximilian I., the predecessor of Charles V. Goetz was 
 called Iron-Handed, because, having lost his right hand in battle, he 
 had a steel one made with springs, by means of which, it is said, he 
 could still handle his lance. He was often at war with his neighbours, 
 and at times took the part of the peasantry against the nobles. In 
 1513 he_ declared war against the free imperial town of Nurnberg. 
 With 170 men he waylaid the merchants returning from Leipzig, 
 plundered them of all they had, and consigned many to his dungeons, 
 in order to exact a ransom for them. Upon this the emperor put him 
 under the ban of the empire, and sentenced him to pay 14,000 florins. 
 The money was collected after some difficulty, and the offender was 
 restored to his civil rights. Having again offended the emperor, he 
 was at last besieged in a castle by the imperial troops, where he 
 defended himself desperately, but was wounded, and died. Gbthe has 
 taken him for the subject of one of his dramas, ' Goetz von Berlichiugen,' 
 still very popular in Germany, as being a picture of the manners and 
 social state of the latter part of the middle ages, before the imperial 
 authority was thoroughly enforced through the country by means of 
 standing armies, well disciplined, and provided with artillery. Gbthe's 
 drama has been translated by Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 *BERLIOZ, HECTOR, was born at C6te-St.-Andr(5, in the depart- 
 ment of Isere, in France, on December 11, 1803. His father, a phy- 
 sician, desirous of bringing him up to that profession, resolutely 
 refused the supplications of the son to be allowed to devote himself 
 to music, to which he was profoundly attached, and wherein he felt 
 he could distinguish himself. He was however allowed to study music 
 in his leisure hours. When he had attained the age of twenty he 
 was sent to Paris to comple L e his medical studies; but he soon 
 deserted the lectures of the faculty; entered the Conservatoire de 
 
e69 BERNARD, EDWARD. BERNERS, LORD. 670 
 
 Musiqne, studied composition at first under Lesueur, and finally under 
 Reicha. In 1828 he won the second prize, in 1830 the first prize at 
 the Conservatoire by his cantata of ' Sardanapalus.' This gave him the 
 privilege of visiting Italy as a pensionary of the Academy of Fine 
 Arts. In Italy he remained eighteen months, displaying a fantastic, 
 irregular, but rich musical taste. On hia return he produced at the 
 Conservatoire an overture to 'King Lear;' and 'Harold,' a symphouy, 
 was also performed there about 1833. In 1837 he produced a 
 Requiem, performed in the church of the Invalides at the funeral of 
 General Damr^moat, with marvellous effect. This was followed by 
 ' Beuvenuto Cellini,' an opera in two acts, represented on September 3, 
 1838. It did not succeed : it had abandoned the old rules of art, and 
 it gave rise to a war of words, in which the very fundamental prin- 
 ciples of the art had to be discussed, and during which passion gave 
 little opportunity of judging impartially either the merits or defects 
 of the work. In November 1839 the grand dramatic symphony of 
 'Romeo and Juliet' was performed at the Conservatoire, and pro- 
 duced a vivid sensation. Shortly afterwards Beviioz was decorated 
 with the cross of the Legion of Honour. The ' Syinphonie funebre 
 et triomphale,' written in 1840, for the inauguration of the column in 
 the Place de la Bastille, added considerably to his reputation. He 
 has greatly distinguished himself as the conductor of an orchestra, 
 and it was to him that the great reunion of 1200 musicians was owmg, 
 which, in 1840, under his conduct, performed the Hymn to France, 
 which he had written for the occasion. In 1846 he produced ' Faust,' 
 and in 1854 a sacred trilogy, ' l'Enfance du Christ.' 
 
 Though there may be various opinions of M. Berlioz's rank as a 
 musician, all must agree that his compositions have a style and an 
 individuality which must tend to increase the sphere of the art. 
 M. Berlioz is also well known as an accomplished musical critic, having 
 been the recognised contributor in that capacity to the ' Journal des 
 Debats." He is at present librarian to the Conservatoire de Musique. 
 We have not attempted to give a catalogue of his works : they are very 
 numerous, and constantly increasing. He succeeded M. Adolphe Adam, 
 as member of the Institute in 1856. 
 
 BERNARD, EDWARD, was bora May 2, 163S, at Pauler's Perry, 
 near Towcester, in Northamptonshire, of which place his father was 
 rector. He was educated first at Northampton, and afterwards at the 
 Merchant Tailors' school, London, under Dugard. In June 1655 he 
 was elected scholar of St. John's College, Oxford. Here he turned his 
 attention to the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and Coptic languages, in 
 addition to the pursuits of the place, and also to mathematics, which 
 he studied under Wallis. In 1658 he was made Fellow of his college, 
 B.A. in 1659, M.A. in 1662, B.D. in 1667, and D.D. in 1684. In 1668 
 he went to Leyden to consult manuscripts, and brought home the 
 three books of Apollonius, which Golius had brought from the east. 
 About 1669, Christopher Wren being appointed architect to the king, 
 obtaiued leave to have a deputy for the duties of the Savilian pro- 
 fessorship of astronomy, and he appointed Bernard The latter 
 obtained at the same time a living and a chaplaincy ; but these he 
 resigned in 1673, when Wren finally resigned his professorship. The 
 Savilian professors are not allowed to hold any church preferment, and 
 Bernard at this time desired to succeed Wren. This he did against 
 the advice of friends, who were unwilling that he should quit the road 
 of preferment. The design which was then formed, and afterwards 
 executed, of reprinting all the old mathematicians at Oxford, seems 
 to have been his great inducement. In 1676 he went to France as 
 tutor to the dukes of Grafton and Northumberland, the sous of 
 Charles II. by the Duchess of Cleveland. He staid only a year, not 
 being satisfied (Dr. Smith hints) with the treatment he received. In 
 1 0 S3 he went to Holland, to be present at the sale of the library of 
 Heinsius ; and beiug now disgusted with his situation at Oxford, 
 would have remained at Leyden if he could have obtained the pro- 
 fessorship of Oriental languages. He was however unable to obtain 
 any means of extricating himself till the year 1691, when Mewes, 
 bishop of Winchester, gave him the rectory of Brightwell in Berkshire. 
 He was succeeded in the professorship by David Gregory, and subse- 
 quently by Halley. Under the=e two the reprints of the old mathe- 
 maticians were made which distinguished the Oxford press of that 
 period ; and the labours of Dr. Bernard, who passed his life in 
 searching for and collating manuscripts, were of the greatest prelimi- 
 nary service. In 1693 he married ; in 1696 he went again to Holland, 
 to be present at the sale of the library of Golius. He died at Oxford 
 Boon after his return, January 1697, having lived a most industrious 
 and useful life. He left behind him a large number of papers, some 
 of them unfinished. Of his printed works, the most important was 
 ' Of the Ancient Weights and Measures,' published at the end of 
 Pococke's Commentary on Hosca, Oxford, 1685; reprinted with large 
 additions, Oxford, 1688, in Latin, under the title of 'De Mensuris et 
 Ponderibus Antiquis libri tres.' It contains a good index, and an 
 appended letter by Hyde, on the Chinese weights and measures. This 
 is a work of learning, and one of the best which remain on the 
 subject. Arbuthnot, in his work on ancient weights and measures, 
 never cites it, and does not seem to be aware of its existence, which, 
 considering the nature of the subject, very much adds to the utility 
 of both works for the purposes of comparison, unless the second work 
 be t iken from the first, of which we do not see any very obvious 
 signs. The work of Aristarchus, as published by Wallis, was collated 
 
 by Bernard, and the result of his collation of the text of Euclid may 
 be said to be published in Gregory's celebrated edition. A life of 
 Bernard was published in 1704 by Dr. J. Smith, in which a catalogue 
 of both his unpublished papers and his printed works will be found. 
 
 BERNARD, ST., abbot of Clairvaux, was born at Fontaine, in 
 Burgundy, in the year 1091. His father was Teceliuus, a nobleman 
 and a soldier : his mother's name was Aleth. Both his parents were 
 persons of great piety, according to the notions of that age. Bernard 
 was the third of seven children. From his infancy he was devoted to 
 religion and study, and after having been educated at the university 
 of Paris, at that time one of the most celebrated seat3 of learning in 
 Europe, at the age of twenty two he entered the Cistercian monastery 
 of CHeaux, near Dijon in Burgundy. His influence on the minds of 
 others, even at that early age, is shown by his inducing upwards of 
 thirty of his companions, including his five brothers, to accompany 
 him in his retreat. The Cistercian order was at that time the strictest 
 in France, and Bernard so recommended himself by the most rigorous 
 practice of its austerities, that in the year 1115 he was selected as 
 head of the colony which founded the abbey of Clairvaux in Cham- 
 pagne. For some time he practised such severities as to injure his 
 health, but he afterwards acknowledged his error, and relaxed his 
 discipline, both with respect to himself and others. 
 
 His reputation soon rose so high, that in 1128 he was employed by 
 the grand master of the Templars to draw up the statutes of that 
 order. Such was his influence, that he prevailed on the king, clergy, 
 and nobility of France assembled at Etampes, near Paris, to acknow- 
 ledge Innocent II. as legitimate pope, in opposition to his competitor 
 Auaclete ('L'Art de verifier les Dates,' Concilium Stampense and Inno- 
 cent ID, and afterwards succeeded in obtaining the same acknow- 
 ledgment from Henry I. of England. Some time after he was offered 
 the archbishopric of Milan by the clergy of that city, which he 
 refused. In the course of his life he also refused the archbishoprics 
 of Genoa and Rheims, as well as mauy other ecclesiastical dignities. 
 Having condemned as heretical some propositions in the works of the 
 celebrated Abelard, he was challenged by him to a public controversy. 
 At first he wished to decline the challenge, but at last accepted it, at 
 the pressing instances of his friends. In the year 1140 they met at 
 the council of Sens in Champagne, but before the discussion was 
 completed, Abelard appealed to the pope ; the council agreed with 
 Bernard in condemning the propositions, and by order of the Pope, 
 Abelard was confined in the monastery of Cluni, in Burgundy. 
 
 At the council of Vezelai, on the confines of Burgundy and Niver- 
 nois, in the year 1146, Bernard persuaded the king and nobility of 
 France to enter on a crusade. On this occasion he weut so far as to 
 claim inspiration, and to prophesy the success of the undertaking. 
 This is the most reprehensible part of his career, and he attempted to 
 cover the failure of his prophecy by a poor quibble. In the same year 
 a council was held at Chartres, where the crusaders offered St. Bernard 
 the command of the army, which he refused. In 1147, at the council 
 of Paris, he attacked the doctrine of Gilbert de la Porree, bishop of 
 Poitiers, on the Trinity; and in the following year, at the council of 
 Rheims, procured its condemnation. During the course of his life he 
 successfully combated several other heresies. The last act of his 
 career was his mediation between the people of Mentz and some 
 neighbouring princes. On his return to his convent he fell ill and 
 died in 1153. He was canonised in the year 1174, by Pope Alex- 
 ander III., and the Roman Church celebrates his festival on the 20th 
 of August. His works, which have procured for him from Roman 
 Catholic writers the honourable appellation of the last of the fathers, 
 have been repeatedly published. The best edition is that by Mabillon, 
 2 vols, folio, Paris, 1719, which, besides his undoubted works, contains 
 several productions attributed to him on less authority. 
 
 (Milner, History of (he Church; Waddington, History of the Church; 
 Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History ; Neander, St. Bernard and his 
 Times.) 
 
 BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER, LORD, was born about the 
 year 1474. Ho was the eldest son of Sir Humphrey Bourchier, who 
 was the son of Sir John Bourchier, the fourth son of the Earl of Ewe 
 by his wife Anne, daughter of Thomas, duke of Gloucester, the 
 youngest son of Edward III. This Sir John was created Lord Berners 
 in honour of the family of his wife Margery, who was the daughter 
 and heiress of Richard Lord Bemers, the father, as it is supposed, of 
 Juliana Beruer3, the authoress of part of the famous book on field- 
 sports. Admitting the presumptive evidence in favour of Juliaua's 
 connection with this family, it is pleasant to find two persons in it, of 
 different sexes, so honourably distinguished. 
 
 The Bourchier family adhered to the house of York during the war 
 of the Ro3es ; and Sir Humphrey Bourchier was killed at the battle 
 of Barnet in 1471 in support of its cause, being, according to HalL the 
 only person of rank on Edward's side who was slain in the action. 
 His son, the subject of the present notice, succeeded his grandfather 
 when he was only Beven years of age, and when he was only eleven 
 the Order of the Bath was given him by Edward IV. Lord Berners 
 was sent to Oxford at an early age, as was then the custom, and Wood 
 believes, but is not certain, that he was educated at Balliol College, 
 and adds, " after he had left the university he travelled into divers 
 countries, and returned a master of several languages and a complete 
 gentleman." His youth and absence prevented him from taking any 
 
6?1 
 
 BERNERS, JULYANS. 
 
 BERNI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 part in public affairs until Henry VII. had established himself on the 
 throne. It seems however that the usurpation of Richard III. made 
 the Bourchier family favourable to Henry. They supported him, and 
 he was ultimately crowned by Cardinal Bourchier, the grand-uncle of 
 Lord Berners. 
 
 Lord Berners was first called to parliament in the 11th of 
 Henry VII. by the style of John Bourgchit-r, lord of Brrners ; and 
 it seems that he had previously attended the king at the siege of 
 Boulogne in the year 1492. He first acquired personal distinction and 
 the favourable regard of the king by the active part he took in putting 
 down the insurrection which in 1497 broke out in Cornwall, headed 
 by Michael Joseph, a blacksmith, and a lawyer named Flammock, and 
 afterwards supported by Lord Audley. He appears to have become a 
 favourite of Henry VIII. very soon after his accession, and he had the 
 rare fortune of retaining his favour to the last. About 1515 ho was 
 appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer for life; and about the same 
 time was one of the splendid train of nobles, knights, and ladies 
 appointed to escort to Abbeville the Lady Mary, the king's sister, who 
 by the peace of 1514 was to be married to Louis XII. of France. In 
 the year 1518 Lord Berners was associated with John Kite, archbishop 
 of Armagh, in an embassy to Spain, in the hope of detaching the 
 young king of Spain from the interests of the French kiDg Francis, 
 and of bringing him over to the views of Wolsey, the pope, and the 
 emperor. After his return his age and growing infirmities occasioned 
 him to livo much in retirement in his government at Calais, to which 
 important office he appears to have been appointed soon afterwards. 
 He remained in this situation until his death, on the 19th of March 
 1532, devoting his leisure to those literary undertakings for which 
 alone he is now remembered. 
 
 His great work, the translation of Froissart's 'Chronicles,' was 
 undertaken by the king's command; the first volume was printed by 
 Pynson in the year 1523, and the second volume in 1525. For com- 
 mon use this translation has been supplanted by the modern one of 
 Mr. Johnes ; but Lord Berners's translation was reprinted in 1812, 
 under the direction of Mr. Utterson, who very properly considered 
 that it was still of great value for the appropriate colours with which 
 it portrays the manners and customs of our ancestors. Sir Walter 
 Scott justly remarked in reviewing Johnes' translation, that Berners 
 had the advantage of using in his version a language in which the 
 terms of chivalry were still in use, while its feelings and principles, 
 and even its practice, were still fresh in recollection. The old trans- 
 lation therefore, though somewhat antique in style, is far the most 
 picturesque. Others of his works were a whimsical medley of trans- 
 lations from French, Italian, and Spanish novels, which seem to have 
 been the mode then ; and he wrote a comedy called, ' Ite in vineam 
 meam,' which was usually acted in the great church of Calais after 
 vespers. Neither of the two last-named works was printed, and it is 
 not known whether the comedy was in Latin or English. 
 
 (Preface to Utterson's edition of Lord Berners' translation; Wood, 
 Athence Oxonienses, by Bliss; Walpole's Royal and Noble Authors, &c.) 
 
 BERNERS, JULYANS, or JULIANA, otherwise BARNERS or 
 BARNES, one of the earliest female writers in England, is supposed 
 to have been born towards the latter end of the 14th century at Roding 
 Berners, in the hundred of Dunmow, and county of Essex. The 
 received report is, that she was daughter of Sir James Berners, of 
 Roding Berners, knight, whose son Richard (created Lord Berners in 
 the reign of Henry IV.) was the father of the translator of Froissart; 
 and that she was once prioress of Sopewell Nunnery in Hertfordshire. 
 It seems that she was alive in 1460. Hollingshed places her at the 
 close of the reign of Edward IV., calling her "Julian Bemes, a gentle- 
 woman endued with excellent giftes bothe of body and minde, [who] 
 wrote certaine treatises of hawking and hunting, delighting greatly 
 hirself in those exercises and pastimes. She wrote also a booke of the 
 lawes of armes and knowledge apperteyning to heraldes." This seems 
 the amount of all the information concerning this lady which can 
 now be traced, and even these scanty particulars have in some instances 
 been doubted. 
 
 The following is the collected title of the treatises attributed to 
 Juliana Berners, as printed together by Wynkyn de Worde in 1486. 
 ' The Treatyses perteynyng to Hawkynge, Huntynge, and Fysshynge 
 with an Angle : and also a right noble Treatyse of the Lygnage of Cot 
 Armours, endynge with a Treatise which speeyfyeth of Blasynge of 
 Armys.' From the researches of Mr. Hazlewood, it would seem 
 Juliana herself wrote only a small portion of tbe treatise on hawking, 
 the whole of the treatise upon hunting, a short list of the beasts of the 
 chase, and another short list of persons, beasts, fowls, &c. The great 
 interest attached to the subjects of this work occasioned the treatises 
 to be among the very first that were put to press on the introduction 
 of printing into this country, when they were printed at the Abbey of 
 St. Albans, on which the nunnery of Sopewell was dependent. The 
 first edition is said to have been printed in 1481, and it is certain that 
 one was printed in 1486. The colophon to the treatise on fishing 
 (which is the best of the four), states that it was introduced in order 
 that it might be better known than it would be if "enprynted allone 
 by itself and put in a lytyll plaunflet." The colophon to the treatise 
 on heraldry also describes it as translated and compiled at St. Albans. 
 The ' Treatise on Hunting,' which is the undoubted work of Juliana 
 Berners, describes the manner in which various animals are to be 
 
 hunted, and explains the terms employed in venery. The information 
 is hitched into rhyme, but, as Mr. Kllis remarks, " has no resemblance 
 to poetry." All the other treatises are in plain prose. A fac simile 
 reprint of the whole of Wynkyn de Worde's edition, was made in 1810, 
 under the direction of Mr. Hazlewood, whose prefixed dissertations 
 ee m to have exhausted every source of information. 
 
 (Dibden's continuation of Ames's Typographical Antiquities ; Warton, 
 History of English Poetry.) 
 
 BliRNI, FRANCESCO, was born about 1490 at Lamporecchio, a 
 village of the Val di Nievole in Tuscany, of a noble but poor family. 
 He studied for the church, and became a priest. Having gone to Rome 
 to try his fortune, he entered the service of Cardinal Divizio da 
 Bibbiena, his countryman and relative, who wa3 in great favour with 
 Leo X. After the cardinal's death, he passed into the service of the 
 cardinal's nephew, Angelo Divizio, a prelate of the court of Rome. 
 His next employment was as secretary to Ohiberti, who was datario 
 to Pope Clement VII., and also bishop of Verona ; but, according to 
 his own confession, he found himself little qualified for his office. He 
 remained with Ohiberti for seven years, during which he accompanied 
 his master, or was Bent by him on business, to several parts of Italy. 
 He was present at the plunder of Rome by the Spaniards and Oermans 
 in 1527, of which he speaks in his 'Orlando Innamorato.' (See 
 canto xiv.) About the year 1530, or 1531, he left Ohiberti and went 
 to Florence, where he was made a canon of the cathedral, a preferment 
 which enabled him to live in a sort of affluence for the rest of his days. 
 His facetiousness and social conviviality recommended him to the 
 Duke Alessandro, as well as to his cousin, Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici, 
 the son of Oiuliano, and nephew of Leo X., and a story became current 
 some years after his death, that haying been requested by each of the 
 cousins to poison the other, he had refused, and had been consequently 
 poisoned himself by one of them. But Berni survived Ippolito a year, 
 when neither the cardinal could any longer poison him, nor the duke 
 stood any more in need of Bcrni's instrumentality. Accordingly, 
 Mazzuchelli and other critics have utterly discarded the story as having 
 no foundation in truth. The date of Berni's death has been long a 
 matter of dispute : some place it in 1543, but Molini, in the introduc- 
 tion to his edition of the 'Orlando,' fixes it on the 26th of May 1536, 
 on the authority of Salvino Salvini's chronological register of the 
 canons of the cathedral. 
 
 Berni is the principal writer of Italian jocose poetry, which has ever 
 since retained the name of ' Poesia Bernesca.' Burchiello, Pucci, 
 Bellincioni, and others, had introduced this style of poetry before him, 
 but Berni gave it a variety of forms, and carried it to a perfection 
 which has seldom been equalled by any one since. Berni was well 
 acquainted with the Latin and Italian writers, and he often alludes to 
 them for the purpose of contrasting some of their lofty images with 
 others which are trivial. His satire is generally of the milder sort, 
 but at times it rises to a most bitter strain of invective. Such, for 
 instance, in his ' Capitolo ' against Pope Adrian VI., whose very virtues 
 made him unpopular with the Romans. Berni's humour may be said 
 to be untranslateable, for it depends on the genius of the Italian 
 language, the constitution of the Italian mind, and the habits and 
 associations of the Italian people. Berni's expressions are carefully 
 and happily selected for effect, and although he speaks of the haste in 
 which he wrote, it is proved by the manuscripts of his burlesque 
 poems that he corrected and recorrected every line. His language is 
 choice Tuscan. The worst feature in Berni's humorous poems is his 
 frequent licentious allusions and equivocations, which, although clothed 
 in decent language, are well understood by Italian readers. 
 
 Berni's poems were not collected till after his death, with the excep- 
 tion of one or two published in his lifetime. The first edition of part 
 of his poems was made at Ferrara in 1537. Grazzini published one 
 volume of Berni's ' Poesie Burlesche,' together with those of Mauro, 
 Varchi, Delia Casa, &c, in 1548. A second volume appeared in 1555 ; 
 a third volume was published at Naples with the date of Florence, in 
 1723. There is also an edition of the ' Poesie Burlesche ' in two vols. 
 8vo, London, 1721-24, with notes by SalvinL 
 
 Berni is also known for his ' Rifacimento,' or recasting of Bojardo'B 
 poem ' Orlando Innamorato.' Berni altered the diction of the poem 
 into purer Italian, but he left the narrative exactly as it was from 
 beginning to end. He also added some introductory stanzas, moral 
 or satirical, to most of the cantos, in imitation of Ariosto's practice, 
 and also a few episodical sketches in the body of the poem, the 
 principal of which is that in canto 67, where he describes himself 
 and his habits of life. It canuot be maintained that Berni has turned 
 Bojardo's serious poem into burlesque : he merely steps in as a third 
 person, after the fashion of the old story-tellers, between the original 
 poet and the audience, moralising upon what he relates, or reverting, 
 from the errors and follies of his heroes, to the vices and follies of 
 men in the every-day world. The sincerity and simplicity of his 
 practical moralising strain contrasts with the prodigious and absurd 
 magnificence of the romantic narrative, which Berni however relates 
 with all the appearance of credulity. Some of Berni's openings to 
 the various cantos are remarkably fine, and perhaps superior to those 
 in Ariosto's poem. With regard to his alterations of Bojardo's text, 
 it is generally allowed that he has improved it in many parts, though 
 not in every instance. It appears also that several parts of the ' Rifa- 
 cimento,' such as we have it, and which are very inferior to the rest( 
 
673 
 
 BERNIER, FRANCOIS. 
 
 BERNSTORF, COUNT VON. 
 
 674 
 
 were either not written by Berni, or have not received from the author 
 the last correction and polish. 
 
 Berni wrote some Latin poems, which were published in Florence in 
 1562, in the Collection 'Carolina quinque Etruscorum Poetarum.' 
 He wrote also 'La Catrina' and ' II Mogliazzo,' which are dramatic 
 scenes in ' lingua rustica,' or idiom of the Florentine peasantry 
 (Florence, 1537-67). 
 
 Berni is an author who ought to be attentively studied by Italian 
 scholars. His mastery over his language, and the ease and purity of 
 his diction, have been seldom equalled. His humour, though often 
 broad, is not low : it is sharp and clever. His skill is not easily 
 appreciated, because it is clothed with the appearance of extreme 
 simplicity. 
 
 There was another Francesco Berni, of Ferrara, who lived in the 
 17th century, and wrote several poetical works. 
 
 (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia; Stewart Rose, Life of Berni, pre- 
 fixed to his Analysis of the Innamorato ; Panizzi, Life of Bojardo.) 
 
 BERNIER, FRANCOIS. This " most curious traveller," as he is 
 styled by our historian Gibbon, was born at ADgers, then the capital 
 of the province of Anjou. The year of his birth has not been ascer- 
 tained, and very little appears to be known about him, until after his 
 return from the East, and the first publication of his travels. "Voltaire 
 supposes that he was born in the year 1625. But it seems quite as 
 probable that he was born eight or ten years later. He studied medi- 
 cine as a profession, and after taking his degree of Doctor at Mont- 
 pellier, being, as he tells us himself in the first page of his book of 
 travels, excited by the desire of seeing the world, he went over to 
 Palestine aod thence into Egypt. This was in the year 1654. He 
 lived more than a year at Cairo ; caught the plague, and had the rare 
 good fortune of recovering from that fearful disease. Being in Egypt 
 he became very desirous of visiting and examining the Red Sea ; and, 
 while on the shores of the Red Sea, a favourable opportunity pre- 
 sented itself for going into the East Indies. In all the countries of 
 the East a medical practitioner may travel very well, and live as well 
 as the best, without any money. Bernier's purse seems always to 
 have been very light. He lived twelve years in India, and during 
 eight of these years he resided chiefly at Delhi as physician to the 
 great Mogul emperor of Hindustan, Aurungzebe, who took him along 
 with him when he marched to the conquest of Cashmere. Bernier has 
 left us the best accounts of that war, of the march of this immense 
 army, and of the beautiful country which it subdued. The correct- 
 ness of Bernier's description of the country has been recognised and 
 praised by every European traveller that has visited Cashmere since 
 his time. 
 
 Returning to France, his native country, Bernier began to publish. 
 His first work, entitled ' History of the last Revolution of the States 
 of the Great Mogul/ appeared at Paris in the year 1670, in two very 
 humble 12mo vols. This was followed by 'Continuation of Memoirs 
 of the Empire of the Great Mogul,' which was published at Paris in 
 the year 1671 in one vol. 12mo. The books' contained a vast deal of 
 information that was altogether new to Europe at that time, and they 
 were written with great spirit, and with that admirable brevity and 
 simplicity which distinguished many of the old French travellers. 
 They at once made him famous in Paris, and they soon became uni- 
 versally known. They were quickly reprinted, as one work, under 
 the altered title of ' Travels of Francois Bernier, Doctor in Medicine 
 of the Faculty of Montpellier, containing the description of the States 
 of the Great Mogul, of Hindustan, of the Kingdom of Cashmere,' &c. 
 These travels have been rather frequently reprinted, and have been 
 translated into most European languages. The English translation 
 by Mr. Irving Brock appears to be carefully and correctly done. It 
 is in two vols. 8vo, and was published in London in the year 1826. 
 There is a modern French edition of the original in two vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1830. 
 
 Bernier's travels contain much valuable history : they describe the 
 causes of that important revolution which raised Aurungzebe to the 
 throne of Hindustan ; and as the author was personally engaged in 
 the scene of action, and an eye-witness of many of the principal 
 events, which he relates in such Bimple and interesting language, the 
 narrative is the more valuable and trustworthy. Major Rennell 
 (' Memoir for Illustrating the Map of Hindustan') calls Bernier "the 
 most instructive of all East India travellers." ■ 
 
 Although it was what some call the golden age of Louis XIV., 
 Bernier does not appear to have tasted of the patronage and bounty 
 of the court. His philosophical treatises have long been neglected or 
 forgotten. It is said that he took to writing them for the instruction 
 and amusement of Madame de la Sabliere, who dabbled in geometry, 
 astronomy, and the natural sciences, as well as in the belles-lettres. 
 Oassendi's philosophy was then in vogue ; but his works were rather 
 too difficult and too volurninoxis for lading and wits. In 1674-75 
 Bernier published an abridgment of the philosophy of Gassendi. In the 
 second part of this abridgment he treats of the systems of Ptolemaeus, 
 Copernicus, and Tycho Brahe, and gives a refutation of judiciary 
 astronomy. This work was much read or very much praised at the 
 time. He wrote a memoir on the quietism of the Indians, which was 
 inserted in the ' Histoire des Ouvrages des Savants,' 1688. His other 
 things seem mostly mere jeux-d'esprit. His jokes against the Aristo- 
 telian philosophy (' Ariet donno* en la Grande Chambre du Parnasse 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 pour le Maintien de la Philosophic d'Aristote') are given in the ' Mena- 
 giana.' Bernier visited England in 1685, and died at Paris on the 
 22nd of September 1688. 
 
 (Biographie Universelle ; Bernier's own Works and Prefaces.) 
 
 BERNI'NI, GIOVANNI LORENZO, born at Naples in 1598, was 
 the son of Pietro Bernini, a Florentine painter and sculptor. While 
 young Bernini was still a child, his father removed with his family to 
 Rome, being commissioned by Pope Paul V. to work at the Borghese 
 Chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore. Young Bernini showed a remarkabU 
 disposition for sculpture ; and at ten years of age having made a head 
 in marble, which was generally admired, the pope sent for bim, and 
 recommended him to the care of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini. At 
 seventeen years of age Bernini made the fine group of Apollo and 
 Daphne, which was afterwards placed in the Villa Borghese. He 
 studied architecture at the same time, as well as sculpture. Gre- 
 gory XV., who succeeded Paul V., employed him in several works, 
 bestowed on him pensions, and made him a knight. After Gregory's 
 death, when Cardinal Barberini was elected pope under the name ol 
 Urban VIII., Bernini became his favourite architect and sculptor, and 
 then executed the great works which have established his fame, of 
 which the following are the principal : — The Confession of St. Peter's, 
 that is, the bronze columns and canopy under the dome, at which he 
 worked for nine years, and for which he received 10,000 scudi, besides 
 a pension and two livings for his brothers ; the palace Barberini and 
 the fountain in the square before it; the front of the College fie Pro- 
 paganda Fide. He constructed besides several other fountains in 
 Rome, and various works and ornaments in the interior of St. Peter's; 
 among others the niches and staircases in the piers which support the 
 cupola. Among his other works Bernini made a head of Charles L of 
 England, for which he was handsomely remunerated. Cardinal Maza- 
 rin invited him to France, and offered him a rich pension, but Pope 
 Urban would not permit him to leave Rome, nor was Bernini himself 
 inclined to leave a city where he was the acknowledged arbiter of 
 public taste. When forty years of age Bernini married Caterina Fezi, 
 the daughter of a respectable citizen of Rome. His life from that 
 time became extremely regular ; he lived frugally, worked hard, and 
 assiduously, being sometimes for seven hours together at his chisel. 
 He did not interrupt his work for any strangers who came to visit his 
 study, whether princes or cardinals ; they stepped softly in, and sat 
 down to look at bim in silence. Under the pontificate of Innocent X., 
 who succeeded Urban VIII., Bernini made the great fountain in the 
 Piazza Navona, and he also begau the palace of Monte Citorio. By 
 Alexander VII. he was commissioned to execute the great work of 
 the piazza before St. Peter's ; he made the splendid colonnade and 
 also the great staircase leading from the portico of the church to the 
 Vatican palace. He next made the Cattedi a, or great chair of St. 
 Peter's, of gilt bronze. The elegant church of Sant' Andrea k Monte 
 Cavallo is likewise by him. 
 
 Bernini visited Paris in 1665, on the urgent invitation of Louis XIV. 
 His journey was a triumphal procession : he made his public entrance 
 into Florence, and was received by the grand duke with the greatest 
 honours. At Turin, at Lyon, and every where on the road, he was 
 received with similar honours. He remained for about eight months 
 in Paris, and was employed in several works of sculpture, among others 
 a bust of Lous XIV., for which he was splendidly remunerated; but 
 he declined to interfere with the designs of Claude Perrault who was 
 then engaged on the Louvre, and indeed did nothing at Paris in the 
 way of architecture. On his return to Rome, in token of c ratitude, 
 he made an equestrian statue of Louis XIV., which was a. erwards 
 placed at Versailles. When eighty years of age, Bernini > xecuted a 
 Christ in marble, and presented it to Queen Christina of Sweden, who 
 had been his constant patroness, but she declined to accept it, saying 
 that she was not rich enough to pay for it as it deserved. Bernini 
 however bequeathed the statue to her by his will. He died at Rome 
 in 1680, eighty-two years of age, honoured and regretted by all, and 
 was buried in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. He left a property 
 of about 400,000 scudi, nearly 100,000i. sterling. He was one of the 
 most successful and best remunerated artists that has ever lived. But 
 his subsequent fame, though great, is much less than that he enjoyed 
 during life. 
 
 Bernini was a painter as well as a sculptor, and left about 150 
 paintings, most of which were purchased for the galleries of Barberini 
 and Ghigi. Of his works of sculpture and architecture, which are 
 very numerous, Milizia gives a list in his life of Bernini. 
 
 BERNOULLI Family. See vol. vi. col. 972. 
 
 BERNSTORF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST, COUNT VON. 
 a younger son of Joachim Eugelke, Baron Von Bernstorf, chamberlain 
 to the elector of Hanover, was born at Hanover May 13, 1712. Hi? 
 education was conducted by the learned Keyssler, and in his company 
 he travelled through the principal states of Europe. Having visited 
 Denmark, he obtained from Christian VI., in 1732, the appointment 
 of minister at the court of Augustus II., elector of Saxony and king 
 of Poland. In 1737 he became envoy from Denmark to the Germanic 
 diet at Ratisbon, and from 1744 to 1750 resided in France an Danish 
 ambassador. In 1751 Frederic V. appointed him minister foi foreign 
 affairs, which office he filled till the ascendancy of Struensee in 1770, 
 when he was dismissed, and retired to Hamburg, where he died, 
 February 18, 1772. He was created a count in 1767 by Christian VII„ 
 
87r, 
 
 BERRY, DUCHESSE DE. 
 
 BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE. 
 
 676 
 
 whom he accompanied on his travels in 1768. The principal event of 
 his ministry was the accommodation of the differences between Den- 
 mark and Russia on the subject of Holstein-Gottorp. In 1762 war 
 was threatened by Peter III. of Russia, but his death having averted 
 the imrnefliate danger, a treaty was negociated by Bernstorf, which 
 was finally concluded in 1773, by which Russia resigned all pretensions 
 to Holstein, and received iu exchange Oldenburg. It was by Bern- 
 storf s advice that Frederic V. purchased the property of the Danish 
 West India Company, and opened the trade in 1754. The main object 
 of his policy was the preservation of peace, in conjunction with which 
 he directed all his efforts to the promotion of commerce and manu- 
 factures, and the encouragement of literature. He bears the character 
 of an able and upright minister, and his exertions for the abolition of 
 feudal slavery reflect the highest honour both on his wisdom and 
 humanity. 
 
 (Materiidien zur Stalislihe der Danischen Slaaten, vol. iii.) 
 
 * BERRY, CAROLINE-FERDINANDE LOUISE, DUCHESSE 
 DE, the daughter of Ferdinand I., king of Naples aDd Sicily, was born 
 at Naples November 5, 1798. She was married to the Duke de Berry 
 (the second sou of Charles X.), on the 17th of June, 1816. Her youth, 
 her beauty, her southern temperament, re-animated the court, to 
 which the grave and austere virtues of the Duchess of Angoulerne 
 had given a tone of gravity not popular in France. The Duchesse de 
 Berry cultivated and patronised the arts, and devoted herself to the 
 gaieties of the gay capital. Her present seemed all joy — her future 
 all happiness. She had indeed by 18'20 lost two children, but she had 
 one daughter still. The Duke of Orleans, the elder brother of her 
 husband, was dead ; a throne was in immediate prospect. On Sunday, 
 the 13th of February, on quitting the opera, her husband, while 
 handing her to the carriage, was struck by the poniard of an 
 assassin, and fell mortally wounded. On September 29, 1820, she 
 gave birth to a son, who received at his birth the title of Due de 
 Bordeaux. During the three days of July 1830 the duchess displayed 
 considerable courage and force of character ; she desired to oppose 
 the revolutionists by force, and offered to place herself in the midst of 
 the ti oops, with her young son, to lead them on. She then accompa- 
 nied Charles X. in his retreat at Holyrood. The legitimist party were 
 however active in France in favour of Henry V., as the Due de 
 Bordeaux was now named, and to support his claims organised plans 
 for an insurrection in France. At length the duchess left Massa in 
 Italy, whither she had accompanied her son, partly to be more uncon- 
 trolled in her projects, which were not approved of by Charles X. and 
 the other members of his family, and landed on the night of August 
 28, 1832, a few leagues from Marseille. A movement was there 
 attempted in her favour, but failed, and she hastened to La Vendue. 
 She found friends in Brittany : they armed, and a civil war commenced. 
 She was however betrayed by a converted Jew, who discovered the 
 house at Nantes where she was secreted, in a hole behind a stove, 
 only three feet and a half long by eighteen inches broad, and in which 
 during the sixteen hours she had been shut up, her hands and her 
 dress had been burned. She was confined in the castle of Blaye, but 
 ehortly afterwards she announced to the government of France that 
 she had re-married. She was released in June 1833, and repaired 
 with her husband, a son of the Prince of Lucchesi-Palli, to Sicily. She 
 has since resided in Austria and Switzerland. 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographie Universelle; Conversalions-Lcxikon ; Q.Long, 
 France and its devolutions.) 
 
 BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND D'ARTOIS, DUC DE. 
 [Charles X.] 
 
 BERRY, JEAN, DUC DE, Count de Poitou, Macon, Auvergne, 
 and Boulogne, the third son of John II., king of France, was born 
 November 30, 1340. In 1356 he fought valiantly with his father at 
 the battle of Poitiers, and was afterwards one of the hostages given to 
 England by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360. He visited his domains 
 on more than one occasion, and on the death of King John he ulti- 
 mately recovered his freedom in 1367. In 1381 the Due de Berry 
 assisted at the coronation of Charles VI., who, unfortunately for his 
 country, reappointed him governor of Languedoc. He had been 
 appointed first in 1359, but had behaved so tyrannically that he had 
 been removed. He now redoubled his oppressions, and in 1384 broke 
 out the bloody revolt of the Jacquerie. The hordes were crushed by 
 the government, and the discontents suffocated in blood. Charles VI. 
 however investigated the causes of this insurrection, some of the 
 agents of the misgovernment were punished, and the duke was for a 
 time deprived of his office. In 1407, as uncle to the dukes of Orleans 
 and Burgundy, he endeavoured ineffectually to reconcile those ambitious 
 princes ; but on the assassination of the Due de Orleans, he joined 
 the party called Armagnacs against that of the Burgundians. He sub- 
 seqently endeavoured to dissuade Henry V. from invading France, 
 sending the archbishop of Bourges for that purpose. Previous to the 
 battle of Agincourt he opposed himself to the plan of the French 
 beginning the contest, remembering Poitiers, and advised delay. On 
 June 15, 1416, he died in his Hotel de Nesle at Paris. 
 
 The Due de Berry has left a memory redeemed from general 
 execration by his patronage of learning and the arts. At Bourges, at 
 Poitiers, and at other places he erected or adorned some of the finest 
 buildings of the age. In bis hotels at Paris he formed a collection of 
 manuscripts, which was the germ of the most important collection now 
 
 possessed by France, and which even now offers to the antiquarian an 
 
 inexhaustible source of riches. 
 
 * BERKYER, ANTOINE PIERRE, is the eldest son of Pierre 
 Nicolas, a celebrated French pleader and parliamentary advocate, who 
 died in 1841. Antoine was born iu Paris January 4, 1790. He was 
 sent at an early age to the college of Juilly, where he by no meaui 
 distinguished himself as a student. On leaving the college he evinced 
 a strong desire to enter into holy orders, but his father opposed hi« 
 wishes, and prevailed upon him to study for the bar. He accordingly 
 went through the law course, acquainted himself with the practice by 
 attendance for some months at an attorney's office, and made his debut 
 at the bar at the age of twenty-one. In 1815 the young counsellor, 
 who inherited legitimism from his father, entered himself as a royalUt 
 volunteer, and repaired to Ghent. After the return of the Bourbons 
 however, believing that the restoration could never be rendered securs 
 but by moderation and by mercy, he hesitated not to undertake the 
 defence of those generals who had followed Bonaparte to Waterloo. He 
 was associated with his father, and M. Dupin the elder, in the defence 
 of Ney. Some days after he defended alone generals Debelle and 
 Cambronne. For the last he obtained an acquittal, after one of his 
 most eloquent addresses; General Debelle was found guilty, but Berryer 
 threw himself at the feet of the king, and obtained his pardon : for Ney 
 he could effect nothing. In his pleading for Cambronne however he 
 had ventured to assort that " it was the duty of a general to obey the 
 government de facto, and the man to whom the treaty of Fontainebleau 
 had preserved the title and rights of a sovereign." For these sentiments 
 he was cited before the Council of Advocates by the procureur-gdneYal, 
 who asked only for a simple warning, which was pronounced. 
 
 This did not prevent M. Berryer's independent course. In 1816 he 
 scrupled not to attack violently the measures of the minister of police, 
 at that time M. Decazes, whom he accused of having been the true 
 cause of the insurrections at Lyon and Grenoble. He was also a 
 consistent supporter of the liberty of the press, and gave his aid as a 
 barrister to journalists of all parties. He also defended the proscribed 
 exiles of 1815, and was engaged in the processes against the banker 
 Sequin and Ouvrard. Indeed at this period of his life his professional 
 business appears to have been immense. 
 
 One of the founders of the Socie'te' des Bonnes Lettres, he prepared 
 himself in some degree for the parliamentary career he had resolved 
 to enter upon by delivering a course of political lectures, which were 
 remarkably well attended. Having attained the required age, in 1830 
 he was returned by a large majority by the electoral college of Puy, 
 iu the department of Haute-Loire.. His first display was an attempt to 
 convince the chamber that the monarch was not compelled to choose 
 his ministry from the ranks of the majority, when a majority had voted 
 against Polignae, who would not resign. The display was brilliant, 
 but in vain. Charles X. acted as though he had been convinced by the 
 orator, but the revolution of July triumphed alike over the reasoning 
 of the lawyer and the obstinacy of the monarch. 
 
 After this event the royalist party left the two chambers in a mass. 
 M. Berryer alone intrepidly undertook to remain there as the champion 
 of the fallen cause. He took up a position between the majority — the 
 adherents of the Orleans government — and the opposition party, com- 
 posed of many shades of opinion. He allied himself with neither; he 
 carefully watched both ; exposing their errors or giving them the 
 benefit of his advice. Thus on August 7 he denied the right of the 
 chamber to give a new constitution to France; but being defeated on 
 this point, he took an active part in the revision of the charter of 1814, 
 and always in favour of the enlargement of political rights. He also 
 supported at later periods the right of an appeal to a jury in cases of 
 offence by the press; the reduction of the tax upon newspapers; the 
 extension of municipal franchises; and the election of the maires by 
 the electors of the various communes. When CasimirPerier in 1831 
 was urging his restrictive laws against the press on the ground of 
 supporting good order, M. Berryer exclaimed, " You have sapped the 
 base of order — you have unchained anarchy ; principles overpower 
 you; you must submit to the consequences." In 1831 also he defended 
 the hereditary rights of the peerage in conjunction with Thiers, Guizot, 
 Roger-Collard, and others. The abolition was however carried by a 
 large majority. 
 
 When the Duchesse de Berry landed in France in 1832 M. de Berryer, 
 as the organ of the legitimists in Paris, quitted his parliamentary 
 labours, and arrived in the neighbourhood of the gallant woman on 
 May 22nd. His efforts to dissuade her from an appeal to arms having 
 failed, he resolved to quit France for a time. At Angoulerne, on his 
 way to Switzerland, he was arrested, conveyed back to Nantes, and 
 placed in prison. La Vendee was then under military law, and Berryer 
 was to have been tried by a court-martial on June 4, when a decree of 
 the Court of Cassation arrived, remitting to the civil tribunals the trials 
 of the insurgents. Cited before the Court of Assise at Bloise, Berryer 
 was at once acquitted. 
 
 In 1833 Berryer made an appeal from the tribune in favour of the 
 enlargement of the Duchesse de Berry ; in the same year he success- 
 fully defended Chateaubriand before the Court of Assise of the Seine ; 
 and also several journals which had written in favour of the claims of 
 Henry V. In 1834 the government, having demanded permission of 
 the chamber to prosecute two of its members for libel, Berryer defended 
 his two associates, claiming their immunity as one of the consequences 
 
877 
 
 BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE. 
 
 BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS. 
 
 679 
 
 established by the revolution of 1830. Berryer, though doubtless 
 sincere in his principles, in all his speeches shows much of the advo- 
 cate's readiness to avail himself of any plea that may serve his 
 present purpose; there is consequently a strange inconsistency in the 
 line of argument pursued by him on different occasions. It is not 
 necessary however to track his parliamentary career. In 1834 he 
 vehemently opposed the stringent law proposed by the Due de Broglie's 
 cabinet against all associations. In 1838, when in consequence of the 
 attack of Fieschi on the king fresh restrictions were imposed on the 
 press, although there was no proof that the attempt of the one had 
 been excited by the other, Berryer was again a determined antagonist 
 to the measure. In this year also he opposed, as incomplete, vicious, 
 and premature, the law for the abolition of slavery. After the capture 
 of Louis Napoleon at Boulogne, Berryer was employed to plead for 
 him, and made an energetic though unsuccessful defence. In December 
 18-13 he visited England to offer his solemn recognition of the Due de 
 Bordeaux, then residing in Belgrave-square ; for which act he was 
 severely censured by M. de Guizot, and could make but a feeble defence. 
 He would have withdrawn from the chamber, only he began to foresee 
 the danger in which the throne of Louis Philippe stood, and thought by 
 remaining he might hasten its fall. The revolution of February 1848 
 came; he was named representative for the department of Bouches- 
 du-Rbone, and took an active part in tho proceedings in favour of 
 his own cause. But he felt that France was not prepared to receive 
 Henry V. He visited him at Wiesbaden, and then declared that the 
 "Count de Chambord had no power to enter France but with the title 
 that adhered to him — the first Frenchman." When by the removal of 
 General Changarnier from his command the executive had broken with 
 the majority, Berryer joined Thiers and the other Orleanists in opposing 
 the pretensions of the president. On the 2nd of December 1851 he 
 spoke boldly against the coup d'etat. Since then he has not taken a 
 prominent part in politics, but was in 1863 elected deputy in the 
 Corps Legislative for the Bouches-du-Rhone. In 1852 he was elected 
 batonnier des avocats, and in 1854 member of the Institute. 
 
 BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE, Prince of Wagram, was 
 born at Versailles on November 20, 1753, the son of an officer of 
 engineers, who gave him a good military education. He entered the 
 army, and served with Lafayette and Rochambeau in the American war. 
 In 1789, when major-general of the national guards, he favoured the 
 flight of the Aunts of Louis XVI. He served under Lukner during 
 the insurrection in La Vendue, and in 1796 was appointed chief of a 
 division of the army in Italy under Bonaparte, who then, as first consul, 
 commanded there; and when Bonaparte left he took possession of 
 Rome in satisfaction of the death of General Duphot, and proclaimed 
 a republic: in this campaign he attached himself to Bonaparte, who 
 made a confidant of him. On the 18th Brumaire (November 1799) 
 Berthier was one of the generals who joined Bonaparte in putting an 
 end to the Directory ; and was rewarded afterwards with the post of 
 secretary of war. When Bonaparte became emperor he was still 
 further advanced : in rapid succession he was created marechal, grand 
 huntsman, chief of the first cohort of the legion of honour, sovereign 
 prince of Neufchatel, and was married to a niece of the king of 
 Bavaria. These were his rewards : his services were also numerous. 
 Berthier was at the battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, and 
 was left in command of the army when Bonaparte quitted the 
 camp for Munich. In the campaigns against Prussia and Russia, 
 ending with the treaty of Tilsit, Berthier took a part, but was not in 
 a prominent position in any of the great battles. On the renewal of 
 the war with Austria in 1809, Bert'iier was appointed commander-in- 
 chief until Bonaparte himself arrived. After the battle of Wagram 
 Berthier was created Prince of Wagram on the field for his distin- 
 guished services. In the campaigns of 1812, 1813, and 1814, he acted 
 under Bonaparte's eye as general quarter-master and chief of the 
 BtafF. For these situations he had admirable capabilities, which 
 Napoleon knew and appreciated ; though he deemed him wholly 
 unfit to command in chief.. After the fall of his great leader and 
 fri' nd, Berthier evinced but little gratitude. He resigned the princi- 
 pality of Neufchatel, and repairing to Louis XVIII. at Compiegne, 
 made his submission, and was rewarded by being created a peer of 
 France, a marshal, and a captain of the royal body-guards. Bona- 
 parte, though utterly selfish himself, could not credit this selfishness 
 in Berthier. He wrote to him from Elba explaining his views. 
 Berthier never answered : he could neither make up his mind to risk 
 his present fortune in the bold adventure of his old master, nor could 
 he be faithful to his new patron by showing him the letter. On Bona- 
 parte's return in March 1815, he endeavoured to remain neuter, and 
 took refuge in Bamberg with his father-in-law. Here, on the 1st of 
 lune 1815, it is said, six men in masks entered his chamber, and 
 threw him out of the window ; another statement is, that looking out 
 of the window on some Russian troops, proceeding to attack France, 
 he threw himself out. It is at least certain that he was found on the 
 pavement, so crushed, that he died immediately. {Conversations- 
 Lcikon; Nowvelle Bvxjrayhit Universelk.) 
 
 BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS, a distinguished chemical philo- 
 sopher, was born at Talloire, near Annecy in Savoy, on the 9th of 
 December 1748. He commenced his studies at Cbainbdry, and com- 
 pleted them at the College des Proviuces at Turin, an establishment 
 in which many eminent persons have been educated. Having obtained 
 
 a medical degree, he soon afterwards went to Paris, where he con- 
 tinued chiefly to reside during the remainder of a long life devoted to 
 the acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 Berthollet became acquainted at Paris with M. Tronchin, a medical 
 practitioner of eminence and a native of Geneva, and through him 
 obtained the appointment of physician to the Duke of Orleans ; in this 
 situation he studied chemistry with great assiduity and success, and 
 soon made himself advantageously known by his ' Essays ' on the 
 subject. In 1781 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences ; 
 and a few years afterwards the Duke of Orleans procured for him 
 the situation of government commissary and superintendent of 
 dyeing processes, which had been occupied by Macquer. To this 
 appointment chemistry was indebted for his work on dyeing, which 
 contains a better account both of the theory and practice of the art 
 than any which had before made its appearance. 
 
 At a meeting of the Academy of Sciences in 1785, Berthollet 
 announced his belief in the antiphlogistic doctrines recently pro- 
 pounded by Lavoisier, and he was the first French chemist of any 
 celebrity who did so. On one subject he, indeed, differed from this 
 illustrious chemist, for he did not admit oxygen to be the acidifying 
 principle; and the justness of Berthollet's views is now universally 
 admitted. In this year he completed the discovery of the composi- 
 tion of ammonia, by following out the previous experiments of 
 Priestley. He also published his first essay on dephlogisticated marine 
 acid, now called chlorine, and proposed the use of it in the process of 
 bleaching; an application which has been most extensively aud 
 beneficially adopted. 
 
 When the French revolution broke out, and France became involved 
 in war, it was found necessary to obtain, if possible within the limits 
 of the French territories, many of the requisites for carrying on war, 
 which had previously been imported. Berthollet accordingly visited 
 almost every part of the country, for the purpose of pointing out the 
 means of extracting and purifying saltpetre to be used in the manu- 
 facture of gunpowder ; he was also employed with other men of 
 science in teaching the processes of smelting iron and converting it 
 into steel. In the year 1792, being appointed one of the commis- 
 sioners of the Mint, he introduced considerable improvements into 
 the processes employed in it. In 1794 he was made a member of the 
 commission of agriculture and arts, and professor of chemistry at the 
 Polytechnic and Normal Schools. 
 
 When the Institute was organised in 1795, he became an active 
 member of it, and in the following year he was appointed by the 
 Directory to proceed, in company with Monge, to Italy, in order to 
 select works of science and art to be sent to the French capital. On 
 this occasion he became acquainted with Bonaparte, which led to his 
 joining the expedition to Egypt, and the subsequent formation of the 
 Institute of Cairo, the memoirs of which body were printed in one 
 volume at Paris in the year 1800. 
 
 Berthollet in conjunction with Lavoisier, Guyton de Morveau, and 
 Fourcroy, planned and proposed a new aud philosophical chemical 
 nomenclature. This, even with all the errors and omissions necessarily 
 attendant upon so new an attempt, has been of essential service to 
 chemical science, and reflects much honour upon its authors. Ber- 
 thollet was the author of more than eighty memoirs, some of the 
 earlier of which were inserted in the memoirs of the Academy ; his 
 later memoirs are generally printed in the ' Annales de Chimie,' 
 'Journal de Physique,' and the ' Mdnioires de Physique et de Chimie 
 de la Socie'te' d'Arcueil,' so called from the place in which Berthollet 
 lived, at whose house the sittings were held. 
 
 Some of the first memoirs which he published were on sulphurout 
 acid, on the volatile alkali, and the decomposition of nitre ; in thes? 
 he adopted, and for some time strenuously defended, the phlogistic, 
 theory. In a paper on soaps, he showed that they are chemical com- 
 pounds, in which the oil, by combining with the alkali, acts the part 
 of an acid. In 1785, following and extending the experiments of 
 Priestley, he proved that ammonia is a compound of three volumes of 
 hydrogen gas, and one volume of azotic gas. About the same time 
 he read a paper ou the dephlogisticated marine acid, as it was called 
 by Scheele its discoverer, on which occasion he renounced the doctrine 
 of phlogiston ; in his experiments on this supposed acid he found that 
 water impregnated with it, when exposed to light, lost its gre°n tint, 
 gave out oxygen gas, and became common marine acid. This experi- 
 ment seemed satisfactorily to prove, that dephlogisticated marine acid 
 was composed of oxygen and muriatic, then called marine acid ; 
 Berthollet accordingly gave it the name of oxygenised muriatic acid, 
 shortened by Kirwan into oxymuriatic acid. In this experiment 
 however the agency of water was not taken iuto the account, and the 
 incorrectness of Berthollet's opinion has been fully demonstrated by 
 the experiments of Davy, Gay-Lussac, aud Theuard ; the name oi 
 chlorine is now given to this body. In his essay ou sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, in 1778, he showed that this gas, though containing no 
 oxygen, possessed acid properties ; and in 1787, in an essay on prussio 
 acid, he further proved the same fact, determining, by an analysis 
 attended with great difficulties, that this acid contained no oxygen, 
 and consequently exhibited an additional proof that oxygen was not. 
 as Lavoisier had supposed, the acidifying principle. 
 
 Berthollet was also the discoverer of the ammouiuret of silver, 
 generally called fulminating silver ; aud he first obtained hydrate of 
 
679 BERVIC, CHARLES CLEMENT BALVAY. 
 
 BERZELIUS, JONS JACOB. 
 
 680 
 
 potash in a state of purity, by dissolving it in alcohol. His experi- 
 ments on the sulphurets and hydro-sulphurets contributed to elucidate 
 an obscure part of chemistry, but they were not complete, because 
 the nature of the fixed alkalies, then uukuowu, is involved in the 
 
 question. 
 
 In 1803 Berthollet published Li3 work entitled ' Essai de Statique 
 Chimique,' in which he opposes the views of Bergman on the subject 
 of chemical affinity. Although Berthollet's experiments, in some 
 degree, modify the conclusions of Bergman, they by no means dis- 
 prove them ; and his opinions, though supported with great ingenuity, 
 both of reasoning and experiment, have not made many converts. 
 Sir H. Davy, in his 'Elements of Chemical Philosophy,' p. 117, has 
 given au excellent synopsis of the peculiar views of Berthollet, and 
 has clearly shown that his rea f oniugs are unsupported, except by facts 
 which are better explained on different principles. 
 
 In a controversy which Berthollet had with Proust, he maintained 
 an opinion which now seems too extraordinary ever to have been 
 broached, that bodies are capable of combining in all proportions. 
 The discussion was carried on with great vigour but equal courtesy on 
 both sides, and though the ingenuity with which Berthollet sustained 
 his views was greater than most persons could have brought to their 
 support, it is now universally admitted that his ideas were totally 
 inaccurate, while those of Proust have acquired fresh proof from the 
 doctrine of definite proportions. 
 
 Upon his return from Egypt, Berthollet was nominated a senator 
 by the First Consul ; and afterwards received the distinction of grand 
 officer of the Legion of Honour, grand cross of the order of Re-union, 
 and under the Emperor he was created Count ; after the restoration of 
 the Bourbon he was created a peer of France. The advancement to 
 these offices produced no change in the manners of Berthollet. Of 
 this he gave a striking proof, by adopting, as his armorial bearing (at 
 the time that others eagerly blazoned some exploit), the plain un- 
 adorned figure of his faithful and affectionate dog. He was no courtier 
 before he received these honours, and he remained equally simple 
 and unassuming, and not less devoted to science, after they were 
 conferred. 
 
 The latter years of his life were embittered by the misconduct and 
 suicide of his son, M. Amedee Berthollet, who had distinguished 
 himself by his chemical researches. In 1822 he was attacked by a 
 slight fever, which left behind it a number of boils : these were soon 
 followed by a gangrenous ulcer of uncommon size. Under this he 
 suffered for several months with surprising fortitude. He himself, as 
 a physician, knew the extent of his danger, felt the inevitable progress 
 of the malady, and calmly regarded the slow approach of death. At 
 length, after a tedious period of suffering, in which his equanimity 
 had never once been shaken, he died on the Cth of November, when 
 he had nearly completed the seventy-fourth year of his age. 
 
 BERVIC, CHARLES CLEMENT BALVAY, the most distinguished 
 engraver of France during the French revolution, was born at Paris in 
 1756. He was the pupil of J. G. Wille, and in 1784 was elected a 
 member of the French academy of painting. A large full-length 
 portrait of Louis XVI. which he engraved in 1790, from the picture 
 by Callet, is one of the finest engravings of the kind that has been 
 produced. It is distinguished for excellent drawing, extreme softness 
 of tone, and a true effect of colour, but is rather defective in force. 
 After the execution of the kiDg, Bervic, wishing to escape suspicion, 
 and at the same time preserve the plate, cut it in half, thus attaining 
 both objects. The half plates were reunited after the restoration, and 
 excellent impressions were again taken from it; but the earlier impres- 
 sions are much more valued, and command very high prices. Miiller 
 of Stutgardt engraved the same picture. Other masterpieces of Bervic's 
 grayer are the Rape of Deianira, and the Education of Achilles, after 
 Guido and Regnault; La Demande Acceptee, and Le Repos, after 
 Lepicie ; and the ancient group of the Laocoon. The state of his health 
 obliged him some years before his death to give up the practice of 
 engraving, and he confined himself to teaching the art. He died in 
 1822. He was a member of the French Institute, and Chevalier of the 
 order of St. Michel, of the Legion d'Honneur, and of the Reunion. 
 (Huber, Manuel des Amateurs, &c. ; Bartach, Peintre-Graveur ; Joubert, 
 M anuel de I' Amateur d'Astampes; Gabet, Dictionnaire des Artistes, &c.) 
 
 BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES, DUKE OF, a natural son of 
 James, duke of York, afterwards James II. of England, by Arabella 
 Churchill, sister of the great duke of Marlborough, was born at Moulins 
 in the Bourbonnois, August 21, 1670. He was educated in France, and 
 in 1686 served in the Austrian army at the siege of Buda. In 1687 he 
 was created Duke of Berwick, and received the order of the garter-. 
 Having returned to England after the campaign of 1687, he received 
 several important military appointments. 
 
 On the breaking out of the revolution of 16S8, the Duke of Berwick 
 exerted himself to check its progress, and afterwards accompanied the 
 king on his retirement to France. In 1689 he served in the expedition 
 to Ireland, undertaken for the restoration of James II., whence he 
 returned to France in 1691. Having entered the French service, he 
 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general in 1693. In 1696 he 
 was sent to England to negociate with the jacobite party in England, 
 but speedily returned without success. In 1703 he was naturalised as 
 a subject of France ; and in the beginning of the following year was 
 appointed to the command of the French forces in Spain. After having 
 
 essentially served the cause of Philip V. by his military skill, he was 
 recalled through court intrigue at the end of the campaign of 1704. 
 In the beginning of 1706 he was made a marshal of France, and was 
 again sent to command in Spain, where in 1707 he won the decisive 
 battle of Almanza, against the Earl of Galway and the Marquis de las 
 Miuas, immediately after which Philip V. created him a grandee of 
 the first class, by the title of Duke of Liria and Xerica. Having 
 served on the Rhine and in Flanders in 1708, he was sent in 1709 to 
 commaud in Provence and Dauphiny; his successful defence of this 
 frontier against the superior force of the Duke of Savoy, is the chief 
 foundation of his military fame, and has been considered a masterpiece 
 of strategy. During the remainder of his life he was constantly 
 employed in important commands, with the exception of the period 
 from 1724 to 1733, during which he lived in retirement. He was 
 killed by a cannon ball at the siege of Philipsburg, June 12, 1734. 
 
 The Duke of Berwick was twice married ; first in 1695, to a daughter 
 of the Earl of Clauricarde, who died in 1698. By her he had one 
 sou, who succeeded to his titles and estates in Spain. His second 
 wife was a niece of Lord Bulkeley. In 1709 he was created a duke and 
 peer of France, with remainder to his children by her. In military 
 reputation, particularly for the conduct of defensive war, the Duke of 
 Berwick stands high among the generals of his period. Both his 
 public and private character are represented by Montesquieu as 
 deserving of the highest p;megyric. His memoirs down to the year 
 1716, written by himself, with a continuation to his death by the 
 editor, and a sketch of his character by Montesquieu, were published 
 at Paris in 1778. 
 
 BERZKLIUS (or BERZEL), JONS JACOB, one of the most distin- 
 guished of modern chemists, was born August 20th 1779 at Wiisersunda, 
 a village near Liukoping, iu East Gothland. Beyond the fact that he 
 received the elements of learning from his father, who was parish 
 schoolmaster — a functionary of some consideration in Sweden — and 
 who died while his son was yet a boy, wo know nothing of his early 
 years. At the ago of seventeen the youth entered on the study of 
 medicine at the university of Upsal, and attended the dull lectures on 
 chemistry delivered by Afzelius and Ekeberg. So little care was at 
 that time taken to render scientific instruction clear to the mind, that 
 Berzelius had to discover and investigate facts and draw conclusions 
 for himself, and soon became remarkable for his diligence and discern- 
 ment. As an instance of the way iu which he was initiated into 
 chemical manipulation, he used laughingly to relate in after life : — 
 " Afzelius first gave me sulphate of iron to calcine in a crucible, for 
 the preparation of colcothar. ' Any one may do work of this kind/ I 
 replied ; ' and if this be the way you are to teach me, I may as well 
 stay at home.' ' A little patience,' answered the professor, ' your next 
 preparation shall be more difficult.' On the next occasion I got cream 
 of tartar to burn, in order to make potass ; which so disgusted me, 
 that I vowed never to ask for any further employment." But he 
 continued to attend notwithstanding his vow, and soon frequented the 
 laboratory every day, although by the rules pupils were entitled to 
 admission but once a week, his masters offering no opposition. Ekeberg 
 was however vexed at times that the young student pursued his tasks 
 in silence, asking no questions. " I preferred," said Berzelius, " to 
 endeavour to instruct myself by reading, meditating, and experiment- 
 ing, rather than question men without experience, who gave me replies, 
 if not evasive, at least very little satisfactory on the subjejt of 
 phenomena which they had never observed." 
 
 In 1798, after two years' study, he left Upsal, and engaged himself 
 as assistant to the physician-superintendent of the mineral springs at 
 Medevi, a watering-place much resorted to by the Swedes. Here with 
 his habitual diligence he analysed the waters, and in conjunction with 
 Ekeberg published a paper embodying the results. This was the first 
 of the long series of papers that remain to illustrate his fame. 
 
 In 1804 Berzelius returned to Upsal, and took his degree of Doctor 
 in Medicine ; and soon after published his ' Physical Researches on the 
 Effects of Galvanism on Organised Bodies,' a work which exhibits much 
 of his sagacious insight and painstaking. Davy, who was born in the 
 same year with the illustrious Swede, had made known his experiments; 
 and Berzelius, taking up the subject, then a wonder to scientific men, 
 materially widened his applications. H:s growing reputation gained 
 for him, on his going to reside at Stockholm in 1805, the post of 
 assistant to Sparrmann, professor of medicine and botany, who had 
 sailed as naturalist in Cook's second voyage of discovery. The emolu- 
 ments were so scanty that Berzelius had at times to practise medicine 
 to eke out his resources. In 1806 he succeeded to the chair, and in 
 the same year, jointly with Hisinger, he commenced the ' Afhandlingar 
 i Fysik, Kemi, och Mineralogie,' to which, during the twelve years of 
 its existence, he contributed forty-3even original papers. This periodical 
 was at once translated into German, and subsequently into French, 
 and generally prized for its trustworthy elucidation of chemical prin- 
 ciples. This however was but a small part of what Berzelius undertook : 
 he set to work to revise the labours of his predecessors, accepting no 
 conclusion that did not admit of the clearest demonstration. His skill 
 as au aualyst is described as " consummate," and when Daltou and 
 Davy put forth their views he, by innumerable analyses, established 
 the laws which regulate chemical combinations, and reduced them to 
 a form so simple as to give them a twofold value. " When these laws 
 were once well ascertained," says an eminent foreign savant, "it became 
 
681 
 
 BERZELIUS, JONS JACOB. 
 
 BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM. 
 
 possible to control the results of analyses — even to foresee a great 
 number of combinations then unknown — and to carry into every 
 operation an accuracy previously thought altogether unattainable." 
 
 By his elaborate examination, beginning with the salts and going 
 through the whole rauge of elements, including the products of organ- 
 wed existence, Berzelius anticipated Daltou in some of his conclusions, 
 aud afterwards found a perfect agreement between his results and those 
 of the Manchester philosopher. His knowledge of the laws of defiuite 
 combinations enabled him to elucidate the nature of minerals, and to 
 show at the same time, by the composition of the minerals, the univer- 
 sality of the laws. He helped indeed to bring the atomic theory to 
 perfection, and to introduce it into scieuce. He framed moreover an 
 electro-chemical theory, aud published 'Lectures on Animal Chemistry,' 
 a work filled with rare proofs of original research and clear perceptions 
 on a branch of science then least understood. On the publication of 
 these lectures the Swedish government made him a grant of two 
 hundred dollars a year, to enable him the better to prosecute his 
 labours. In 1807 he joined with seven leading members of the pro- 
 fession in establishing the Medical Society of Sweden, now a flourishing 
 iustitution; and in the following year he was admitted a member of 
 the Koyal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm. In 1810, being then 
 at the age of thirty-one, he was elected President of the Academy — 
 a striking proof of the estimation in which he was held by his 
 colleagues. 
 
 Berzelius visited England in 1S12, and while here learned how 
 prelections could be made really interesting as well as instructive by 
 attending Dr. Marcet's lectures at Guy's Hospital. In conjunction with 
 Dr. Marcet he wrote a paper entitled ' Experiments on the Alcohol of 
 Sulphur, or Sulphuret of Carbon,' which was published in the ' Philo- 
 sophical Transactions ' for 1813 ; and in the same year he was elected 
 a foreign member of the Royal Society. 
 
 On his return to Stockholm Berzelius at once changed his style of 
 lecturing, and with the happiest results. His dry readings became 
 living discourses, illustrated by experiments, of which he greatly 
 multiplied the number suitable for'public exhibition by his quick 
 imagination. Men whose names have since become famous attended 
 his teachings. In 1815 he was made Chevalier, and afterwards Com- 
 mander of the order of Wasa; and in 1818 he was chosen perpetual 
 Secretary of the Academy, which distinguished post he held for the 
 rest of his life. In the same year, at the coronation of Charles-John, 
 he was ennobled with permission, contrary to custom, to retain his 
 name. In 1821, at the instance of the Academy, he commenced that 
 series of annual reports on the progress of chemistry and physics, 
 which, while contributing materially to the advancement of those 
 sciences, confirmed and heightened his own reputation. Speculative 
 philosophers charged him with jealousy and envy, because of his 
 intolerauce of unsubstantial theories. No theory was ever accepted 
 or started by him that was not supported by a solid basis of facts. 
 If " too cautious," as wa3 often said, he studied but the interests of 
 science ; and if jealous, it was for chemistry, and not for himself. 
 Regarding himself as a vidette ever on duty, he warned and alarmed 
 wheuever the occasion required, and confident in integrity, delivered 
 his opinions with unqualified freedom. So faithful a censor will not 
 be easily replaced 
 
 In the hands of Berzelius the blowpipe became a mo3t important 
 instrument in the analysis of inorganic substances. A translation of 
 his treatise on the subject appeared in English in 1822 — 'On the 
 Use of the Blowpipe in Chemical Analysis, and the examination of 
 Minerals.' There was scarcely a question that he did not bring to 
 the test of experiment, and reduce to its proper place in science, as 
 may be seen in his great work 'Lehrbuch der Chemie,' which has gone 
 through five editions, and as many translations. The last was published 
 at Pans in six volumes octavo in 1845-50. 
 
 In 1 832 Berzelius resigned the professorship which he had held for 
 twenty-six years; but still kept on with his scientific labours. He 
 married about this time, and on the day of his wedding the king 
 wrote to confer on him the dignity of ' Freiherr,' or Baron, observing 
 that, " Sweden and the world were the debtors of a man whose entire 
 life had been devoted to works as useful to all, a3 they were glorious 
 to his native country." Subsequently he had the further honour of 
 receiving the Grand Cross of the Royal Swedish order of the Polar 
 Star. The directors of the Swedish iron-works awarded him a pension 
 in acknowledgment of his eminent services to their branch of industry. 
 And in 1836 the Royal Society of London showed their sense of his 
 merita by giving him their Copley MedaL 
 
 So the life of Berzelius flowed on in a tranquil current. He enjoyed 
 all the honours his native land could give, had the satisfaction ot 
 seeing his name enrolled among the members of nearly all the scientific 
 societies of the world, more than 100, and of knowing that foreign 
 governments recognised his worth. As ho approached the a^e of fifty 
 nU sight began to fail, and hia memory to lose somewhat of its power. 
 Infirmities now increased on the philosopher, who.-ie health had never 
 been robust. He was seized with paralysis of the lower extremities; 
 but retained the serenity of his mind till death approaching, as one 
 has said, " with slow steps, as a messenger who regretted his errand," 
 closed his career on the 7th of August, 1848. His death was felt as a 
 national calamity, and the scientific societies of his native land wore 
 mourning for two months in respect for his memory. 
 
 BESSA'RION, JOHN, was born at Trebizond, on tho south-east 
 coast of the Euxiue, in 1389, or, according to Bandiui, who has written 
 his life (4to,Rome, 1777), in 1395. Having removed to Constantinople he 
 devoted himself to study under George Chrysococces aud other eminent 
 teachers, and while yet quite young entered the strict monastic order 
 of St. Basil. He passed twenty-one years in a monastery in the 
 Peloponnesus, where he studied under the philosopher George Gemistus 
 Pletho, from whom he acquired that admiration for Plato which he 
 retained to the end of his life. In 1438 was held the council of 
 Ferrara, for the purpose of effecting a union between the Greek and 
 Latin churches, and so great was the reputation of Bessarion for 
 learning and talent, that he was selected by the emperor John 
 falaeologus to accompany him as one of the conductors of the con- 
 ference on the part of the Greeks, and before he set out was raised to 
 the dignity of archbishop of Nicaea. Both at Ferrara and after the 
 council had, on account of the plague, been removed to Florence, 
 Bessarion earnestly exerted himself in promoting the union, which was 
 agreed to in the year 1439. After the close of the council he returned 
 to Constantinople, but finding himself an object of popular enmity on 
 account of his conduct at Ferrara and Florence, and haviug in the end 
 of the same year been raised to the cardinalate by Eugenius IV., ho 
 settled in Italy. Here he devoted himself to study, the patronage of 
 learned men, and the collecting of books and manuscripts, which he 
 afterwards, in the year 1468, presented to the Venetian senate, and 
 which formed tho basis of the celebrated library of St. Mark. Pope 
 Nicholas V. conferred on him the archbishopric of Siponto. In 1449 
 that pontiff created him cardinal bishop of Sabina, and in the same 
 year translated him to the see of Tuseulum or Frascati. In 14 63 
 Pius II. conferred on him the empty title of Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 In the reign of Nicholas V. Bessarion held for five years the office 
 of legate at Bologna, the duties of which he discharged with much 
 applause. He was also employed on several embassies, the last of 
 which, undertaken for the purpose of reconciling Louis XI. of France 
 and the Duke of Burgundy, is said to have occasioned his death 
 through vexation at the insulting behaviour of the King of France. 
 On his way back to Rome he died at Ravenna in 1472. His works 
 on various subjects are numerous; some of them have been published, 
 others exist only in manuscript The most celebrated are his Latin 
 translation of the ' Memorabilia of Xenophon ; ' that of the ' Meta- 
 physics of Aristotle ; ' and his treatise ' Contra Calumniatorem Pla- 
 tonis,' first published in 1469. This is a controversial tract written 
 against George of Trebizond, who had endeavoured to exalt Aristotle 
 by decrying Plato. 
 
 BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, was born at Minden on the 
 22nd of July 1784. His father was a civil officer (justizrath) under 
 the Prussian government; his mother a clergyman's daughter; and 
 there being a family of nine children to rear on but narrow means, 
 the future astronomer received only an ordinary education. Among 
 his earliest manifestations was a dislike of classical literature, and a 
 love for arithmetic. His quickness in calculation led to his being 
 articled at the age of fifteeu as clerk in a mercantile house at Bremen. 
 Here he showed himself diligent to fulfil the duty that lay imme- 
 diately before him, whatever it might be ; aud this remained his 
 especial characteristic. The hope of being offered the post of super- 
 cargo on a foreign voyage was then his stimulus ; and to qualify 
 himself for the responsible office he began to study French and 
 Spanish, and Hamilton Moore's old work on navigation. Dissatisfied 
 with the rule3 and processes laid down for nautical reckoning, he 
 sought for better information in a popular treatise on astronomy, aud 
 fiudiug therein the means for overcoming his difficulties, he pursued 
 the study with eagerness, till ignorance of mathematics brought him 
 to a stand. Regarding the check as a call for greater exertions, he 
 betook himself to a course of mathematical reading, and so interested 
 did he become in this new study, that all his spare hours, chiefly in 
 the night, were devoted to it. There was no longer the same charm in 
 commercial pursuits, or in the hope of a voyage. And now appeared 
 a trait that marked his character through life — turning theory or 
 knowledge to positive and practical uses. With a rude wooden 
 sextant, made by a carpenter, and a common clock, he began to make 
 time-observations ; and having observed the occultatiou of a star by 
 the moon, he got therefrom, to his great joy, an approximate latitude 
 of Bremen. This was one of the successes that gladden the heart of 
 the student, repay his toil, and animate him to renewed exertions. 
 
 From this time his progress in astronomical studies was surprisingly 
 rapid. While still a clerk iu a couuting-house, he had formed desigus 
 of original inquiry, such as are expected only from veterans of science. 
 Harriott's aud Torporley's rough observations of the comet of 1607 
 had been found by Baron Zach, while searching the collection of 
 Harriott's papers in the possession of the Earl of Egremont, and 
 these being the first instrumental observations of that comet — since 
 known as Halley's — their reduction was a desideratum of first-rate 
 importance. Bessel, when in his 20th year, undertook the task, and 
 executed it in eo masterly a manner that Gibers, to whom he com- 
 municated the results, foreseeing his future eminence, praised him in 
 the warmest terms, and sought to enlist him in the astronomical 
 ranks. The reductions— Bessel's first published work — appeared in 
 Zach's ' Monatliche Correspondent,' and was speedily followed by a 
 
68.) 
 
 BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM. 
 
 BESSIERES, J E AN-B APTISTE. 
 
 theoretical paper of great merit, ' On the Calculation of the True 
 Anomaly in Orbits nearly Parabolic,' the beginning of a long series of 
 contributions to the German scientific periodicals. "So expert had 
 he become in cometic calculations," says one of his biographers, "that 
 Olbers, having placed in his hands, on the nigtit of the 1st of November 
 1805, four observations of the comet of that year, he returned them to 
 him tho next morning, with the elements, whose calculation had 
 occupied him only four hours." 
 
 Bessel faithfully served his term of seven years; but no sooner was 
 he free than, abandoning all pursuit of a commercial life, he, recom- 
 mended by Olbers, succeeded Harding as assistant to Schroter at 
 Lilienthal in 1806. He was now an astronomer to all intents and 
 purposes; and well did he justify the anticipations of his friends. 
 Not many years elapsed before his name stood among the foremost 
 of modern astronomers. 
 
 One of his first tasks at Lilienthal was a series of observations on 
 the sixth, or Huygheuian satellite of Saturn, with a view to determine 
 the mass of the planet and ring, on which he wrote an able and elabo- 
 rate paper (published in the ' Konigsberger Archiv fur Naturwissen- 
 schaf ten'), discussing all the phenomena of attraction and the disturbing 
 causes. It formed a subject for examination in after years, when more 
 perfect instruments were available. He observed also the comet of 
 1807, by which, on the publication of the elements with an exami- 
 nation of the perturbations, in 1810, he gained the Lalaude prize of 
 the Academy of Sciences at Paris. 
 
 Bessel was one who cared little for accumulating observations 
 without getting from them some direct practical result. He says of 
 himself, in the preface to his ' Untersuchungen,' "that he at no time 
 felt any especial predilection for one rather than another particular 
 branch of astronomical occupation ; but that one idea was continually 
 preseut to his mind — that of always working up to an immediate 
 and definite object." He held, that an observer who " failed to 
 deduce actual results from observations, with a distinct view to the 
 improvement of knowledge," neglected an essential condition of 
 success and usefulness : and his whole life exemplified his conviction. 
 
 The king of Prussia having resolved to establish an observatory at 
 Konigsberg, Bessel was appointed director in 1810, and removing 
 thither, he superintended the building and the mounting of the 
 instruments, fulfilling at the same time the associated duties of pro- 
 fessor of astronomy and mathematics in the university. The establish- 
 ment, which was finished in 1813, remains no less a monument of his 
 skill and earnestness than of the munificence that founded it amid the 
 distractions of war. Observations were published in the same year, 
 and have been continued ever since with incalculable benefit to 
 practical astronomers. 
 
 Settled in a congenial home, Bessel married. His wife was daughter 
 of Professor Hageu : he had by her one son and two daughters. And 
 now, what he had done for the comet observations of 1607, he — also 
 at Olbers' suggestion — undertook for Bradley's Greenwich observations, 
 which, first published in 1805, had been but little regarded by the 
 astronomers of the day. He had begun the task of digestion and 
 reduction in 1807, and applying himself to it as his numerous avoca- 
 tions admitted, brought it to a close in 1818. The results of this 
 long-contiuued labour have been for many years before the world in 
 a folio volume, entitled 'Fundamenta Astrouomue.' This work, pub- 
 lished when the author was in his thirty-fourth year, is of such a nature 
 that even grave philosophers can scarcely speak of it in sober terms; 
 and it is especially interesting to Englishmen, being based on the 
 twelve years' observations of Bradley. The book indeed cannot be 
 over-praised. In the words of a scientific report — " Besides elaborate 
 determinations of all the principal elements of the reduction, the 
 errors of the instruments, the height of the pole, refraction, parallax, 
 aberration, precession, proper motion, it contains a catalogue of the 
 mean places of 3222 fixedstars, observed between 1750 and 1762 with 
 the best instruments in existence at that time, and reduced to the 
 epoch of 1755, with a precision and accuracy of which there was no 
 previous example. It now furnishes astronomers with the best exist- 
 ing means of determining all those data which can only be deduced 
 from a comparison of observations made at considerably distant inter- 
 vals of time, and may be considered in fact as having laid the founda- 
 tions of the principal improvements which have been made in astronomy 
 since the date of its publication." Schumacher's noteworthy remark, 
 " One may almost assert that one exact and able calculator is capable 
 of doing better service to astronomical science than two new observa- 
 tories," in this case found its verification. 
 
 Bessel's reputation was established. In 1822 he was elected a 
 foreign member of the Astronomical Society of London, and three 
 years later of the Royal Society; and the scientific societies on the 
 continent hastened to enrol him among their associates. The king of 
 Denmark conferred on him the order of the Dannebrog ; and from 
 his own sovereign, who through life was his steady friend, he received 
 the order of Civil Merit and of the Red Eagle, with the title of Privy 
 Councillor ; and the Berlin Academy awarded hiin their prize for his 
 paper on the precession of the equinoxes. 
 
 Bessel's labours have been so numerous that anything more than a 
 bare enumeration of them is scarcely possible. He improved the 
 method of finding longitudes. He determined the length of the seconds' 
 pendulum at his own observatory, and so perfectly, as to establish an 
 
 epoch in the history of pendulum experiments. He showed that in 
 all former observations an essential cause of error had been overlooked, 
 namely, the mass of air dragged by the pendulum in its oscillations ; 
 and that the amount of consequent disturbance would have to be 
 calculated for every pendulum. He investigated all possible causes 
 of error in astronomical instruments, leaving nothing unaccounted 
 for, till he surpassed all his contemporaries in his knowledge of the 
 theory of instruments. He was employed to determine the Prussian 
 standard of length ; and in connecting the geodetical surveys of Russia 
 with those of Prussia, and of the west and south of Europe; and dis- 
 played in these, as in his other labours, rare ingenuity in devising new 
 methods and avoiding causes of error. At the same time he measured 
 an arc of the meridian of his own observatory. Then, as was his habit, 
 taking the whole subject into view, he investigated tho surveys of the 
 British government in India and elsewhere, and of the French from 
 the Belgian frontier to the Mediterranean, shrinking from no toil that 
 might aid in the accomplishment of his object. An error made in tho 
 French triangulation had been calculated and allowed for by four 
 independent geometers, but Bessel, not satisfied with this, " actually 
 recalculated the whole of the work by his own method, producing a 
 result agreeing with the mean of the four determinations alluded to 
 within a fraction of a toise." In 1837 he began and carried on for 
 three years a series of observations on the star 61 Cygni, to deter- 
 mine if possible the annual parallax of a fixed star — a task which had 
 been the opprobrium of science. Thanks to his marvellous skill and 
 delicacy of perception, he ascertained the fact ; and though the amount 
 of parallax is almost inconceivably small, only 31-100ths of a second, 
 astronomers agree in considering it as demonstrated. By observations 
 of other fixed stars, Sirius and Procyon, he " thought himself autho- 
 rised to announce the want of uniformity in their proper motions as 
 a positive astronomical fact." And he threw out a speculation as to 
 the cause, namely, that the stars in question are double stars, of 
 which one is not luminous : hence we see the disturbances, but not 
 the disturber. 
 
 A more trustworthy guide than Bessel could not be followed : to his 
 example the present excellence of astronomical science in Germany is 
 due. He was a copious writer; the more remarkable, as his writings 
 exhibit proofs of as much profound research, as of variety of attain- 
 ments. His ' Tabulae Regiomontanae,' which may be regarded as a 
 supplement to the ' Fundamenta,' &c, appeared in 1830. Nearly two 
 hundred papers, neither short nor unimportant, in the ' Astronomische 
 Nachrichten,' bear his signature ; and others are to be found in the 
 Abhandluugeu of the Berlin Academy, and in scientific journals, 
 some of which are named above. He published also two volumes of 
 'Astronomische Untersuchungen,' and, as is said, left a third in 
 preparation. 
 
 Bessel visited England in 1842, and was received and honoured in 
 a way accordant with his desert. There is reason to believe that on 
 his return he intended to investigate the problem which, in the hands 
 of Adams and Le Verrier, led to the discovery of Neptune. The 
 preliminary reductions were made : but grief over the loss of his son, 
 a young man of great promise, who died in 1841, and the approaches 
 of disease of a very painful nature upon the astronomer himself, 
 stayed his inquiring spirit. His sufferings became severe, caused by 
 a fungous growth in the abdomen : he died on the 17th March 1846, 
 at the age of sixty-two. 
 
 BESSIERES, JEAN-BAPTISTE, was born at Preissac, near Cahors, 
 in the department of Lot, on August 6, 1768. In 1792 he served for a 
 few months in the constitutional guard ; and on the disbanding of this 
 body, in November of the same year, he entered as a private in a 
 cavalry regiment. His valour secured his promotion step by step, 
 during his service with the army of the Moselle. Passing into the 
 j army of Italy he attracted the favourable notice of Bonaparte. At 
 the battle of Roveredo, September 4, 1796, he so distinguished himself 
 that he was appointed a lieutenant-colonel on the field. Created 
 brigadier-general in 1798, he took part in the campaign in Egypt. On 
 his return to France with Bonaparte, he was comprised in the new 
 organisation of the army of Italy ; and receiving a command of 
 cavalry, made the last determined charge which decided the battle of 
 Marengo. On July 18, 18u0, he became general of brigade, in 1802 
 general of division, and in 1804 marshal, and chief of the third cohort 
 of the legion of honour. In the war with Austria in 1805, Bessieres 
 marched to Vienna with the imperial guard, and by a skilful attack 
 defeated Kutusoff with 6000 Russians, at Olmiitz, in November. At 
 the battle of Austerlitz also he contributed greatly to the success of 
 the day. At Jena, at Friedland, and at Eylau he showed equal skill. 
 
 The scene of his operations was then changed. In 1808 he was 
 sent to command in Spain a division of 18,000 men, which occupied 
 the province of Salamanca. On arriving he found that General Cuerta 
 had posted himself between Valladolid and Burgos, so as to cut oil' 
 the communication of Madrid with France. The danger was immi- 
 nent, and he ordered an instant attack. After six hours of severe 
 conflict, the Spaniards were defeated, with a loss of 900 killed, 6000 
 prisoners, their artillery, and camp equipages. After this victory 
 Napoleon exclaimed that Bessieres had placed his brother on the 
 throne of Spain. On December 4, he wa3 at the capture of Madrid, 
 and then followed the routed remains of the army of Castanos. For 
 these services Le was created Duke of Istria in May 1809 ; and then 
 
BETHAM, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 BETTERTON, THOMAS. 
 
 proceeded to the grand army in Germany to take the command of a 
 cavalry division, at the head of which, at the battle of Esslingen, on 
 July 6, he overthrew the division of the Austrian general l.Iohen- 
 collurn. 
 
 Iii the expedition to Russia, Bessierea was chief commander of the 
 cavalry of the guard. On the opening of the campaign in Germany 
 in 1 313, he received the command of the whole of the French cavalry. 
 On the morning before the battle of Liitzen he was desirous of recon- 
 noitring the field from the defile of Rippach. He was on foot, and 
 idvauced by the side of the skirmishers, with his usual bravery ; the 
 enemy began to withdraw, when a bullet pierced his breast, and at 
 once put an eDd to his life. His death was not made known at first, 
 in order not to dispirit the army. It occurred on the 12th of May 1813. 
 
 (Conversations-Lejxkon ; Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 BETHAM, SIR WILLIAM, was born in 1779 at Stradbroke in 
 Suffolk. His father was the Rev. William Betham, author of 
 ' Genealogical Tables of the Sovereigns of the World,' folio, 1795, 
 and of a 'Baronetage,' in 5 vols. 4to, published in 1801-5. Although 
 young Betham appears to have inherited his father's tastes, he had 
 to carve out his own career, having been placed by his father as 
 apprentice to a printer in London. His first literary employment was 
 in the revision of the 3rd and 4th volumes of Gough's edition of 
 Camden's ' Britannia.' 
 
 In 1805 he went to Dublin as clerk to Sir Charles Fortescue, Ulster 
 kiog of arms. A few years later he became the deputy of Sir Charles; 
 and he succeeded him as Ulster king of arms in 1820. Mr. Betham 
 was appointed Genealogist of the Order of St. Patrick in July 1812, 
 on which occasion he was knighted. He also received the appoint- 
 ment of Deputy Keeper of Records at Dublin, an office in itself of 
 little emolument, but which placed under his control a large number 
 of records, of which he availed himself to form an immense collection 
 of historical and genealogical references, extending to several hundred 
 volumes, which has since served as an invaluable store-house in family, 
 historical, and legal inquiries. Sir William also formed an index to 
 the names of all persons mentioned in the wills deposited at the 
 Prerogative Office, Dublin, a task which occupied a considerable 
 portion of his time from 1807 to 1828, aDd extended to 40 large folio 
 volumes. Sir William was likewise a diligent collector of old manu- 
 scripts connected with Irish history and antiquities : his collection 
 was purchased by the Irish Academy in 1851. 
 
 Sir William Betham was elected in 1825 a member of the Irish 
 Academy, and soon after became its foreigu secretary, which office he 
 held till 1840, when he resigned it in consequence of the council 
 refusing admission in the ' Transactions ' of the society to some of his 
 philological speculations. He was a zealous but credulous antiquary, 
 and some of his archaeological and philological speculations were of a 
 very singular but wholly untenable character. For a long series of 
 years he devoted himself to the investigation of primeval Irish, or 
 rather Celtic, antiquities, and he fancied that he had discovered traces 
 of the connection of the Celtic races with several of the most remark- 
 able nations of antiquity. His first separate antiquarian publication, 
 ' Irish Antiquarian Researches, or Illustrations of Irish History,' 
 1826-27, contains many of his peculiar views; but they are more 
 fully developed in his two principal works of this class, the titles of 
 which will sufficiently indicate the character of his notions : the first 
 of these was entitled ' The Gael and Cimbri ; or an Inquiry into the 
 Origin and History of the Irish, Scots, Britains, and Gauls, and of the 
 Caledonians, Picts, Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons,' 8vo, 1831 ; but the 
 full expansion of his opinions was not arrived at till some eight years 
 later, when appeared his 'Etruria Celtica, Etruscan Literature and 
 Antiquities Investigated; or the Language of that People compared 
 and identified with the Iberno-Celtic, and both shown to be Phoenician,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1842. He also contributed numerous papers on Irish 
 antiquities to the ' Transactions of the Irish Academy,' which have 
 their value unfortunately greatly lessened by his strange want of 
 critical discernment. Sir William was elected a Fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries, Loudon, in 1825, but only two or three papers by him 
 were pnuted in the ' Archaeologia.' 
 
 In his own proper line of research Sir William was a far more trust- 
 worthy guide. Besides several genealogical memoirs, and a valuable 
 work on ' Parliamentary and Feudal Dignities,' Sir William published 
 in 1834 an able and learned treatise on ' The Origin and History of 
 the Constitution of England, and of the Early Parliaments of 
 Ireland.' 
 
 For many years before his death Sir William occupied a prominent 
 place in the general and literary society of Dublin ; and he was looked 
 up to as a leader in most of the religious aud charitable as well as the 
 literary and scientific movements in the Irish metropolis. Kindly 
 »nd courteous to all who sought his advice or assistance, and always 
 ready to place his stores at the service of the historical or antiquarian 
 inquirer, his death, though at a ripe old age, was generally regretted. 
 He died at Dublin, October 26, 1853, aged seventy-four. 
 
 (Gentleman's Magazine, 1853.) 
 
 BETHLEN-GABOR, prince of Transylvania, and king of Hungary, 
 was born about 1580. He was the descendant of a noble family in 
 Upper Hungary, possessing also lar^e estates in Transylvania, and 
 which had adopted the Protestant faith. During the troubles which 
 dutractcd the country under the governments of Sigismund and 
 
 Gabriel Bathori, Bethlen formed a party among the magnates of the 
 country ; and, on the death of the Bathoris, with the aid of the Turks, 
 assumed the rank of prince of Transylvania in 1613. Austria was at 
 that time in no condition to withstand his pretensions; and when, in 
 1619, the Bohemian states also rose against Austria, Bethlen entered 
 into a treaty with them, entered Hungary, took Presburg, menaced 
 Vienna, and caused himself to be elected king of HuDgary on 25th 
 August 1620. Austria however recovered herself, aud Bethlen con- 
 cluded a peace with the emperor Ferdinand, by which he surrendered 
 Hungary, gave up the title of king, and received in return the town of 
 Kaschau, seven Hungarian counties, and the Silesian principalities of 
 Oppeln and Ratibor. In 1623 he again attacked Austria, and advanced 
 to Briinn in Moravia with 60,000 men. Bethlen-Gabor's policy had 
 always been to support the Protestant interest in Germany, and he 
 expected to have been joined at Briinn by Christian duke of Bruns- 
 wick ; but Brunswick had been defeated by Lilly, and had fled to 
 England. This induced Gabor to conclude a truce with Austria, 
 and subsequently a peace confirming the conditions of the previous 
 treaty. In 1626 Gabor was induced again to take up arms by Count 
 Christian von Mansfeld, and they were to join their forces in Hungary. 
 Mansfeld was twice beaten by Wallenstein, but reinforced his army ; 
 and on September 8th reached the banks of the Waag in Hungary, 
 though with not more than 5000 men. Wallenstein was between him 
 and Gabor with 50,000 men. Mansfeld thereupon gave up the com- 
 mand of his troops to the duke of Saxe Weimar — withdrew, and died 
 a few weeks afterwards ; and Gabor concluded a new treaty with the 
 emperor. He did not survive long, dying on November 5, 1629, 
 without children, leaving his country and his wife, by his will, to tho 
 protection of Ferdinand II., aud naming as executor the Turkish sultan. 
 
 The reign of Bethlen was a glorious one for Transylvania. The 
 part which he took in the thirty years' war gave an European import- 
 ance to that country, which she has never since attained ; and he 
 raised her in civilised rank by founding the Academy of Karlsburg 
 (Weissemburg), for which he procured the assistance of several eminent 
 professors. Bethlen himself was a man of great talent, a consummate 
 general, of indefatigable energy, and of determined resolution. He 
 was a rigid Calvinist, but though he professed to fight for the religious 
 liberties of Hungary, he scrupled not to put to death dissenters from 
 the orthodoxy of Transylvania. 
 
 (Conversattons-Lexikon.) 
 
 BETTERTON, THOMAS. This celebrated actor was born in 
 August 1635, in Tothill-street, Westminster, his father being at that 
 time under-cook to Charles I. Shortly after the breaking out of the 
 civil wars young Bettertou was apprenticed to a bookseller named 
 Rhodes, at the sign of the Bible, Charing Crosa In 1659 Rhodes, 
 who had been wardrobe-keeper at the theatre in Blackfriars before the 
 civil wars, obtained a licence for a company of players to act at the 
 Cock-pit in Drury-lane ; and here young Bettertou commenced his 
 career as an actor at the age of twenty-four, performing with the 
 greatest success in several of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays, then 
 most in fashion. 
 
 In 1662 he was engaged by Sir William Davenant, and appeared on 
 the opening of the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields in Sir William's 
 new play the 'Siege of Rhodes.' His performance of Hamlet about 
 this time received high commendation from Addison, Cibber, and 
 others. He became so much in favour with Charles II. that Cibber 
 asserts he went over to Paris at his Majesty's especial command to 
 study the French stage, and introduce from it whatever he thought 
 would improve our own, and that it is to him we are indebted for 
 moving scenery, although some writers ascribe its introduction to 
 Sir William Daveuaut. 
 
 In 1670 he married an actress of the name of Saunderson, whose 
 Lady Macbeth was considered one of the most admirable representa- 
 tions on the stage. In 1692 Betterton had the misfortune to lose all 
 his little savings (which, though his salary is said never to have 
 exceeded 41. per week, had amounted to 2000/.) in a commercial 
 speculation. The influeuce of the Earl of Dorset obtained for him 
 shortly afterwards the royal licence for a new theatre, which he was 
 speedily enabled, by the voluntary subscriptions of many persons of 
 quality, to erect within the walls of the Tennis Court, Lincoln's Inn 
 Fields. He opened it April 30th, 1695, with Congreve's comedy of 
 ' Love for Love,' which was very successful ; but after a few years, 
 the profits arising from the theatre proving very insignificant, and 
 Mr. Betterton growing very infirm and suffering continually from the 
 gout, he retired at once from management and the stage. Tho nar- 
 rowness of his circumstances being known to the public, it was deter- 
 mined to give him a benefit ; and on Thursday, the 6th of April, 1709 
 (see the ' Tatler,' No. 1), the comedy of ' Love for Love' was performed 
 for that purpose, Betterton himself, though nearly seventy-four, sus- 
 taining the youthful part of Valentine. The profits of the night are 
 Baid to have amounted to 500Z. He was prevailed upon to perform 
 occasionally during the following winter. On Thursday, the 18th of 
 April 1710, he took another benefit, an invitation to which was pub- 
 lished in the 'Tatler' of Tuesday, the 11th (No. 157). On this 
 occasion he enacted his celebrated part of Melantius in the ' Maid's 
 Tragedy.' The event however proved fatal ; for having been suddenly 
 attacked by the gout, in order to prevent disappointment he made use 
 of some outward applications, which reduced the swelling and enabled 
 
887 BETTINELLI, SAVERIO. 
 
 hiro to walk on the stage with one foot in a slipper ; but the violence 
 of the remedy drove the distemper into his head, which a few days 
 afterwards terminated his existence (the 28th of April 1710). The 
 old man was buried on Tuesday, May 2nd, 1710, in the cloisters of 
 Westminster, "with much ceremony," according to the 'Tatlor' for 
 Thursday, May 4th (No. 167). Betterton was the greatest actor of 
 his time, and his personal character was excellent. He enjoyed the 
 rare felicity of being lauded by Dryden, Rowe, and Pope, as well on 
 account of his character as his abilities. Pope painted his portrait in 
 oil, and the picture is said to be still preserved at the Earl of Mans- 
 field's, Caen Wood. 
 
 Mr. Betterton wrote and altered several dramatic pieces, but none 
 of them have kept possession of the stage. Queen Anne settled a 
 pension upon his widow, who survived him only a year and a half. 
 
 BETTINELLI, SAVERIO, was born at Mantua in 1718, and studied 
 at Bologna, where he entered the order of tho Jesuits in 1736. He 
 was afterwards sent to Brescia, and there became acquainted with 
 Mazzuchelli, Duranti, Cardinal Quirini, and other learned men, whose 
 conversation encouraged him in his literary pursuits. In 1744 he 
 returned to Bologna, in 1748 he went to Venice, and in 1751 to Parma, 
 where he was director of the studies in the college of the nobility. In 
 1755 he travelled through part of Germany as tutor to the two sons of 
 Prince Hohenlohe. Towards the end of 1757 he accompanied the 
 princess of Parma to Paris; he afterwards visited Normandy, and then 
 went to the court of King Stanislaus at Nancy, who was a patron of 
 literary men, and who charged Bettinelli with a commission for Voltaire, 
 relative to half a million of francs which Voltaire intended to employ 
 in Lorraine. Voltaire received Bettinelli with great kindness, and 
 afterwards occasionally corresponded with him. Bettinelli returned to 
 Parma in 1759. In the same year he weut to Verona, where he stayed 
 about eight years, and there wrote his ' Risorginiento d'ltalia negli 
 Studj, nelle Arti e nei Costumi dopo il Mille,' which he published in 
 1773, just after the suppression of the order of Jesuits. On his return 
 to his native Mantua, he published, in 1780, an edition of his various 
 works in eight vols. 8vo. In 1796 the French invasion drove Bettinelli 
 away from Mantua, and ho took refuge at Verona, where he became 
 acquainted with Ippolito Pindemonte. Bettinelli returned to Mantua 
 after that place had surrendered to the French, and resumed his 
 literary occupations, notwithstanding his advanced age of fourscore. 
 Bonaparte made Bettinelli a knight of the Iron Crown, and a member 
 of the National Institute. Bettinelli died at Mantua in September, 
 1808, being past ninety years of age. His life is chiefly remarkable 
 on account of his having been intimate with several successive genera- 
 tions of learned men, and his forming a connecting link between the 
 Italian literature of the 18th and 19th centuries. 
 
 Bettinelli's ' Risorgimento' is the only work by which his literary 
 reputation is now sustained. In the first part of the work he gives a 
 minute and interesting account of the gradual progress of literature 
 and science in Italy, from the darkness of the 9th to the brilliancy of 
 the 14th century, thus carrying the reader towards the age of the 
 Medici, which constitutes a second and distinct epoch. In the second 
 part of his work he treats of the fine arts, of the progress of industry, 
 of commerce, of wealth, and of manners and habits during the same 
 period. The ' Risorgimento ' was reprinted at Milan in four vols. 1 2mo, 
 1819-20. Among Bettinelli's other works we may mention ' L'Entu- 
 siasuio;' ' Lettere Virgiliane,' in which the author shows a great 
 deficiency of taste and critical judgment, accompanied by much flip- 
 pancy and dogmatism. In a reply to Gasparo Gozzi, who vindicated 
 Dante's fame, Bettinelli persisted in his depreciation of the great poet, 
 whom he absurdly placed below Bembo and Delia Casa in poetical rank. 
 
 BEVERIDGE, WILLIAM, was born at Barrow, in the county of 
 Leicester, in the year 1638. He was admitted of St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, in 1653; and during his residence there was remarkable 
 for close attention to his studies, for his piety, and the general regularity 
 of his conduct. So assiduous was his application, and more especially 
 in the learning of the Oriental languages, that he published at the 
 early age of twenty a treatise in Latin, ' De Linguarum Orientalium, 
 prassertim Hebrakae, Chalda'icae, Syriacse, Arabicas, et Samaritanae, 
 prsestantia et usu, cum Grammatical Syriaca, tribus libris tradita,,' a 
 work held in great esteem. He took his degree of Bachelor of Arts in 
 1656, and that of Master of Arts in 1660, in which latter year he was 
 ordained both deacon and priest. Soon after he was presented by 
 Sheldon, bishop of London, to the vicarage of Ealing in Middlesex, 
 where he wrote his work on chronology. This treatise is considered 
 to be a useful introduction to that study; it was published in 1669, 
 and entitled ' Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo, una cum 
 totidem Arithmetices Chronologicae libellis.' In 1672 he was elected by 
 the lord mayor and aldermen of London to the rectory of St. Peter, 
 Cornhill, on which occasion he resigned the vicarage of Ealing ; and 
 in the same year he published in two volumes folio his learned and 
 laborious work, ' 2vy6SiKov, sive Pandectas Canonum SS. Apostolorum 
 et Conciliorum ab Ecclesia Greeca receptorum ; nec non Canonicarum 
 SS. Patrum Epistolarum,' &c. : a collection of the various canons 
 issued from those attributed to the apostles to those of the Synod of 
 Constantinople, which restored Pholius, with various canonical letters ; 
 the whole being elucidated by copious and very learned notes. 
 
 In his new parochial charge his earnestness and diligence were so 
 constant, and his labours in the service of the church so unwearied yet 
 
 BEWICK, THOMAS. 
 
 prudent, that he obtained the appellation of ' the great restorer and 
 
 reviver of primitive piety,' and his parish was referred to as a model 
 of Christian regularity and order. It is delightful to contemplate such 
 a character in any instance, but in this it is the more remarkable and 
 the more worthy of admiration when we look to the nature and course 
 of his studies. The favourable notice of his diocesan, Dr. Henchman, 
 was exemplified in his collation by that prelate in 1674 to the prebend 
 of Chiswick, in the cathedral of St. Paul's; and in 1681 he received a 
 further mark of approbation and confidence in his collation by Bishop 
 Compton, the successor of Henchman, to the archdeaconry of Col- 
 chester. In 1684 he became prebendary of Canterbury, and at the 
 revolution was nominated chaplain to King William and Queen Mary. 
 On the deprivation of Bishop Keun, who had refused to take the new 
 oaths, the bishopric of Bath and Wells was offered to him, which 
 however he declined; and it was not till July 1704 that he attained 
 episcopal rank as Bishop of St. Asaph on the translation of Dr. Hooper 
 to Bath and Wells. As in every station he had hitherto filled the 
 performance of his duty was his main object, so in this he manifested 
 the same activity and the same earnestness ; it seemed to be the aim 
 of his endeavours to make others what himself had been. Immediately 
 on his promotion he addressed a ' Pastoral Letter to his Clergy,' pressing 
 upon them the important duty of catechising ; and the more to enforce 
 his recommendation, he at the same time printed his ' Church Cate- 
 chism Explained ;' a useful tract, as the many reprints of it testify. 
 This excellent man possessed his episcopal see not quite four years, 
 dying on the 5th of March 1708, in the seventy-first year of his age. 
 He died at Westminster in the cloisters of the abbey, and was buried 
 in St. Paul's cathedral. The larger portion of his property he bequeathed 
 to the uses of the two societies for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 
 and for Propagating the Gospel in Foreigu Parts. The works already 
 described do not comprehend the whole of the published writings of 
 the bishop, but they are all which were published in his lifetime. A 
 number of posthumous works, including his well-known and often- 
 reprinted 'Private Thoughts upon Religion,' 'Private Thoughts upon 
 a Christian's Life,' ' Meditations,' and 'Sermons,' were published after- 
 wards ; and the whole, with the life of Bishop Beveridge and copious 
 indexes, were published in 1824, in 9 vols. 8vo, by the Rev. Thomas 
 Hartwell Horne. 
 
 BEVERLEY, JOHN DE, a celebrated English ecclesiastic of the 
 7th and 8th centuries. Fuller remarks, in recording the history of 
 Yorkshire worthies, that St. John of Beverley may be claimed by this 
 county on a three-fold title : becauee he was born at Harpham in the 
 county ; because he was upwards of thirty-three years archbishop of 
 York ; and because he died at Beverley, in this county, in a college of 
 his own foundation. He was one of the first scholars of his age, having 
 been instructed in the learned languages by Theodore, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and he was himself tutor of the venerable Bede. The 
 following works are attributed to him : — 1, ' Pro Luca Exponendo,' 
 an essay towards an exposition of St. Luke, addressed to Bede; 2, 
 ' Homiliae in Evangelia ;' 3, ' Epistolse ad Herebaldum, Andenum, et 
 Bertinum ;' 4, ' Epistolse ad Holdam Abbatissam.' He was advanced 
 to the see of Haguetold, or Hexham, by Alfred, king of Northumber- 
 land ; and on the death of Bosa, archbishop of York, in 687, he was 
 translated to the vacant see. In 704 he founded a college at Beverley 
 for secular priests. In 717 he retired from his archiepiscopal functions 
 to Beverley, where he died, May 7th, 721. Three or four centuries 
 after his decease his body was exhumed by order of Alfric, archbishop 
 of York, and placed in a richly-adorned shrine. When William the 
 Conqueror ravaged the north with a numerous army, he gave orders 
 that the town of Beverley should be spared ; and a synod, which was 
 held at London in 1416, directed the anniversary of his death to be 
 commemorated among the festivals of the church. Fuller says, in his 
 account of John of Beverley, which was published in 1660, that his 
 picture was to be seen in a window at the library at Salisbury, with 
 an inscription under it, " whose character may challenge three hundred 
 years of antiquity, affirming him the first Master of Arts in Oxford." 
 
 In the 14th century lived John of Beverley, the Carmelite monk 
 He was a doctor and professor of divinity at the university of Oxford, 
 and wrote, 1, ' Questiones in Magistrum Sententiarum ;' 2, ' Disputa- 
 tiones Ordinarise.' 
 
 BEWICK, THOMAS, justly called the reviver of wood-engraving, 
 was born at Cherryburn, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 1753. He 
 evinced from his infancy an ability to draw, and was accordingly, at 
 the usual age, apprenticed to Ralph Beilby, an engraver of Newcastle, 
 who had some reputation in that town. Dr. (then Mr.) Hutton con- 
 sulted Beilby upon the best method of engraving the diagrams to his 
 treatise on Mensuration ; the engraver .-trongly recommended that 
 they should be cut in wood, for various reasons, and by Thomas 
 Bewick. Accordingly, in 1770, the work appeared, with complete 
 success ; and was followed by several other mathematical works. 
 
 Bewick now attempted works of much higher pretensions. He 
 designed a set of illustrations to Gay's Fables, and for one of the 
 cuts, the ' Old Hound,' he obtained, in 1775, a premium for the best 
 wood engraving offered by the Society of Arts. The work was pub- 
 lished in 1779. In 1784 Mr. Saint published a set of 'Select Fables,' 
 with cuts by Bewick. After these works he commenced, in partner- 
 ship with his old master Mr. Beilby, to prepare a ' General History of 
 Quadrupeds,' which was completed in 1790, went through severa" 
 
BEZA. 
 
 BEZA. 
 
 CM 
 
 editions, and obtained Bewick a great reputation. The designs in this 
 work are by Bewick and his brother John, who was his pupil ; and 
 they are all executed with great natural truth, and in a free correct 
 manner. The outs themselves are superior to anything that was ever 
 done in the same style before, and are inferior only to the best cuts of 
 the present day in mechanical execution and clearness of line. As 
 works of art they still have the advantage. His history of Quad- 
 rupeds was followed, in 1795, by Goldsmith's 'Traveller' and 
 1 Deserted Village,' Painell's ' Hermit,' and Somerville's ' Chase.' The 
 ' Chase ' was the last work in which Thomas was assisted by his 
 brother ; all the cuts were executed by Thomas, but the designs were 
 by John. John Bewick died of consumption in 1795, aged thirty-five. 
 In 1797 Thomas published the first volume of his ' History of British 
 Birds,' which is his best serial work : the second volume was published 
 in 1804. This is also the last work he undertook in partnership with 
 Mr. Beilby. They dissolved partnership during its progress. 
 
 Bewick had a numerous school, and was latterly much occupied in 
 teaching ; and in his last works was greatly assisted by his pupils, of 
 whom Harvey and Cleunel have since particularly distinguished them- 
 selves in the same line of art. 
 
 The most considerable of Bewick's latest works is ' The Fables oi 
 ^Esop and others.' He prepared some vignettes for a work on ' British 
 Fishes,' but they were not published. His very last work was a 
 cut of an old horse, for the head of a paper against cruelty to 
 animals. He died November the 28th 1828. His masterpiece is con- 
 sidered to be a large cut of a bull of the ancient Caledonian breed, 
 from Chillingham Park ; a proof of this cut on vellum has been sold 
 for twenty guineas. Bewick's services and merits are fully discussed 
 in 'The History of Wood Engraving, with Illustrations' by Jackson; 
 and there is a memoir of him, of considerable detail, in the ' Gentle- 
 man's Magazine ' of 1829. His Autobiography was published in 1862. 
 
 BEZA, an eminent theologian of the Calvinistic branch of the 
 reformed church. He is commonly known by the Latinised name of 
 Beza, but his real name was The'odore de Beze. He was a Frenchman, 
 born of noble parents, in 1519, at Vezelai, a small town of which his 
 father was bailli, in the department of Yonne. While yet only an 
 infant he was sent to Paris, and placed under the care of an uncle, 
 Nicolas de Beze, who held the office of judge in the parliament of 
 Paris. The cause of this early separation from his parents does not 
 appear. This uncle brought him up tenderly, and before he was ten 
 years old placed him under the care of Meichior Wolmar, a learned 
 German, resident at Orleans, who was especially skilled in the Greek 
 language. On Wolmar being appointed to a professorship in the 
 university of Bourges, Beza accompanied him, and remained, in the 
 whole, for seven years under his tuition. During this time he became 
 an excellent scholar, and he afterwards acknowledged a deeper obliga- 
 tion to his tutor, for having " imbued him with the knowledge of true 
 piety, drawn from the limpid fountain of the word of God." In 1535 
 Wolmar returned to Germany, and Beza repaired to Orleans to study 
 law ; but his attention was chiefly directed to the classics and the 
 composition of verses. His Latin verses, published in 1548, were 
 chiefly written during this period of his life. 
 
 Beza obtained his degree as licentiate of civil law when he had 
 just completed his twentieth year, upon which he went to Paris, where 
 he spent nine years. He was young, possessed of a handsome person, 
 and of ample means; for though not in the priesthood, he enjoyed 
 the proceeds of two good benefices, amounting, he says, to 700 golden 
 crowns a-year. The death of an elder brother added considerably to 
 his income, and an uncle, who was abbot of Froidmond, expressed an 
 intention of resigning that preferment, valued at 15,000 livres yearly, 
 in his favour. Under such circumstances, in a city like Paris, he was 
 exposed to strong temptation ; and his conduct during this part of 
 his life has incurred great censure. That his life was grossly immoral 
 he denies ; but he formed a private marriage with, or rather engaged 
 to marry, a woman of birth, he says, inferior to his own, but possessed 
 of such virtue that he never found reason to repent of the connection. 
 It was covenanted that he should marry her publicly as soon as the 
 obstacles to that step should be removed, and that in the meantime 
 he should not take orders, a thing entirely inconsistent with taking a 
 wife. Meanwhile his relations pressed him to enter into the church ; 
 his wife and his conscience bade him avow his marriage and his real 
 belief; his inclination bade him conceal both and stick to the rich 
 benefices which he enjoyed ; and in this divided state of mind he 
 remained till a serious illness brought him to a more manly and a 
 more holy temper. Immediately on his recovery he fled to Geneva, 
 at the end of October 1548, and there publicly solemnised his marriage 
 and avowed his faith. 
 
 The more serious charges brought against him in after life in the 
 heat of controversy, appear to rest on no good foundation. One is 
 to be excepted. The charge of general licentiousness has been sup- 
 ported by reference to the indecency of some of his early poems 
 published at Paris in 1548, in his ' Juvenilia,' which his enemies justly 
 alleged to be inconsistent with the character of a reformer and father 
 of the church. This offence, which Beza never sought to extenuate, 
 is a grave one, but it affords no ground for casting the imputation of 
 hypocrisy, or any other, on his subsequent life. When he became 
 earneit in his religion, he repented of his indecency ; and both by 
 public avowals of his contrition, and by endeavouring to suppress 
 
 biou. my. vol l 
 
 the offensive verses, he made such amends as he could for his offence 
 against morality. 
 
 After a very short residence at Geneva, and subsequently at Tubin- 
 gen, Beza was appointed Greek professor of the college of Lausanne. 
 During his residence here he took every opportunity of going to 
 Geneva to hear Calvin preach, at whose suggestion he undertook to 
 complete Clement Marot's translation of the Psalms into French 
 verse. Marot had translated 50, so that 100 Psalms remained : these 
 were first printed in France with the royal licence in 1561. Beza, at 
 this time, employed his pen in support of the right of punishing 
 heresy by the civil power. His treatise, ' De Haereticis a Civili Magis- 
 trate puuiendis,' is in defence of the execution of Servetus at Geneva 
 in 1553. Beza was not singular in maintaining this doctrine; the 
 principal churches of Switzerland, and even Melancthon, concurred in 
 justifying by their authority that act which has been so fruitful of 
 reproach against the party by whom it was perpetrated. His work 
 ' De J ure Magistratuum,' published at a much later time ia his life 
 (about 1572), presents a curious contrast to the work 'De Hfereticis,' 
 &c. In this later work he asserted the principles of civil and religious 
 liberty and the rights of conscience; but though he may be considered 
 as before most men of his age in the boldness of his opinions as to the 
 nature of civil authority, his views of the sovereign power, as exhibited 
 in this work, are confused and contradictory. During his residence at 
 Lausanne, Beza published several controversial treatises, which his 
 friend, colleague, and biographer, Antoine la Faye, confesses to be 
 written with a freer pen than was consistent with the gravity of the 
 subject. To this portion of Beza's life belongs the translation of the 
 New Testament into Latin, completed in 1556, and printed at Paris by 
 R. Stephens in 1557. The best edition is said to be that of Cambridge, 
 1642. It contains the commentary of Camerarius, as well as a copious 
 body of notes by the translator himself. For this edition he used a 
 manuscript of the four Gospels, which in 1581 he gave to the University 
 of Cambridge. It is generally known as Beza's Codex, and a fac-simile 
 edition of it was published in 1793. 
 
 After ten years' residence at Lausanne, Beza removed to Geneva in 
 1559. The admiration which he already felt for Calvin was greatly 
 increased by closer intimacy. About this time he entered into holy 
 orders. At Calvin's request he was admitted to be a citizen of Geneva; 
 he was appointed to assist that remarkable man in giving lectures in 
 theology ; and on the academy or university of Geneva being founded 
 by the legislature, he was appointed rector, upon Calvin declining 
 that office. It seems to have been in the same year that, at the 
 request of some leading nobles among the French Protestants, he 
 undertook a journey to Nerac, in hope of winning the king of Navarre 
 to Protestantism, or at least of inducing him to interfere in mitigation of 
 the persecution to which theFrench Protestants were then exposed. His 
 pleading was successful, and he remained at Nerac until the beginning 
 of 1561, and at the king of Navarre's request attended the conference 
 of Poissy, opened in August of that year, in the hope of effecting a 
 reconciliation between the Catholic and Protestant churches of France. 
 Beza was the chief speaker on behalf of the French churches. He 
 seems on the whole to have managed his cause with temper and ability, 
 and to have made a favourable impression on both Catherine of Medicis 
 and Cardinal Lorrain. 
 
 Catherine requested him to remain in France, on the plea that his 
 presence would tend to maintain tranquillity, and that his native 
 country had the best title to his services. He consented ; and after 
 the promulgation of the edict of January 1562 often preached publicly 
 in the suburbs of Paris. The short-lived triumph of toleration was 
 ended by the massacre of Vassy and the civil war which ensued. 
 During that contest, which closed in March 1563, Beza attached him- 
 self to the person of Condd, at that prince's earnest request. He was 
 present at the battle of Dreux, where Conde" was taken prisoner ; but 
 not as a combatant, as he positively asserts in his answer to his 
 calumniator, Claude de Xaintes. We may here notice the accusation 
 brought against him of having been concerned in plotting the murder 
 of the Duke of Guise in 1563, founded on the confession of the 
 murderer Poltrot ; but Poltrot retracted this accusation, and, to the 
 hour of his death, asserted the innocence of Beza. 
 
 At the end of the war Beza returned to Geneva. In 1564 he was 
 appointed teacher of theology, on the death of Calvin, whose labours 
 he had shared, and with whom he had lived in strict union and friend- 
 ship. He then took an assistant, as Calvin had taken him : at a later 
 period Antoine la Faye filled that office. Beza succeeded not only to 
 the place, but to the influence of Calvin, and thenceforth was regarded 
 as the head and leader of the Genevese church. In 1571 he was 
 requested to attend the general synod of French Protestants held at 
 Rochelle ; and he was elected moderator or president of that assembly, 
 by which the confession of faith of the Gallican church was settled. 
 In 1572 he wa3 again requested to attend a synod held at Nismes, 
 where he opposed successfully a new form of church diseipliue, which 
 Jean Morel attempted to introduce. After the massacre of St. Bartho- 
 lomew, in 1572, Beza showed himself prompt to succour the distressed 
 Protestants who flocked to Geneva. He supported, according to La 
 Faye, fifty clergymen, who were among them, for three years, chiefly 
 by his exertiaus in raising subscriptions in their behalf in England, 
 Germany, and France. 
 
 His first wife died in 1588. In the course of a few months he took 
 
 2 x 
 
Cfll 
 
 BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 BIARD, AUCUSTE-FRANgOIS. 
 
 692 
 
 a second wife, a young widow, to whose care his declining years were 
 indebted for much comfort. He scarcely manifested the infirmities of 
 age until 1 597, when he was obliged on more than one occasion to 
 quit the pulpit, leaving his sermon incomplete. In the autumn of 
 1598 he ceased to attend tlie schools. He preached for the last time, 
 January 13, 1C00. He declined gradually under the weight of years, 
 but excepting the partial loss of memory in respect of recent occurrences, 
 he retained his intellect unclouded to the last. He died October 13, 
 1605. An interesting account of his last moments is given by La Faye. 
 
 Beza was a man of undoubted learning, talent, and zeal for the 
 interests of the church to which he belonged. His eminence is testified 
 by the virulence with which he has been attacked both by Roman 
 Catholic and Lutheran divines. His writings are uow nearly forgotten: 
 in addition to those which we have specified, we may add his ' Confes- 
 sion of the Christian Faith,' 1560, written, it is said, to justify himself, 
 and in hope of converting his father ; and his ' Ecclesiastical History 
 of the Reformed Churches of France, from 1521 to 1563,' published 
 in 1580. He also wrote a ' Life of Calvin.' La Faye has given a list of 
 Beza's works, which are fifty-nine in number. 
 
 (Antonius Fayus, De Vila et Obitu Bczm ; Bayle.) 
 
 BIANCHI'NI, FRANCESCO, born at Verona, December 13, 1662, 
 studied at Padua, where he applied himself to mathematics under the 
 learned Professor Moutanari. He also made great progress in classical 
 learning, a taste for which induced him, after he left the university, 
 to proceed, in 1684, to Rome, where he became librarian to Cardinal 
 Pietro Ottoboni. In this situation Bianchini devoted all his time to 
 study : he investigated the monuments, medals, inscriptions, and other 
 remains of antiquity with which Rome abounds; and he then conceived 
 the idea of a universal history, grounded not so much upon written 
 authorities, as upon the monuments of former times which have been 
 found in various parts of the world. 
 
 In 1680, according to Lalande in his 'Bibliographic Astronomiquc,' 
 he published at Bologna a ' Dialogo Fisico-Astronomico contro il 
 Sistema Coperuicano.' In 16S9, Cardinal Ottoboni having become 
 pope, under the name of Alexander VIII., was enabled to provide for 
 Bianchini, by making him a canon of Santa Maria ad Martyres, and 
 bestowing on him some pensions besides. Alexander's pontificate was 
 very short, but it placed Bianchini above want. Alexander's nephew, 
 also called Cardinal Ottoboni, continued after his uncle's death to 
 patronise Bianchini, and retained him in the office of librarian. 
 
 In 1697 Biauchini published the first part of his universal history : 
 ' Istoria Universale provata coi Monumenti e figurata coi Simboli degli 
 Antichi,' 4to, Rome, 1697. It begins with the first records we have 
 of the eastern nations, and ends with the destruction of the Assyrian 
 empire under Sardanapalus, and is full of curious erudition : it is 
 illustrated by plates. Bianchini however did not continue the work. 
 Clement XL, who was raised to the papal chair in 1700, sent him to 
 Naples in 1702, to accompany the Cardinal Legate Barberini, who went 
 to congratulate Philip V. of Spain when he came to take possession 
 of that kingdom. Clement also bestowed several minor appointments 
 on him, and made him a canon of Santa Maria Maggiore. Bianchini 
 had taken deacon's orders, but he never would be ordained presbyter. 
 
 In 1703 Bianchini wrote two dissertations on the Julian Calendar, 
 and on the various attempts made, especially by St. Hippolitus, for 
 reforming it previous to the Gregorian reform : ' De Calendario et 
 Cyclo Cae?aris, ac de Cauone Paschali Sancti Hippoliti martyris,' 
 • Dissertationes duae ad S. D. N. Clementem XL, Pont. Max.,' Roma, 
 1703. Bianchini was employed by the pope in drawing a meridian line 
 in the church of La Madonna degli Angeli, like that traced" by Cassini 
 in the church of San Petronio at Bologna. In 1712 he was sent by 
 Clement XI. to France to carry the cardinal's hat to the newly-made 
 cardinal, Rohan Soubise. After going to Paris, he went to Holland, 
 and afterwards to England, when he visited Oxford, and was received 
 everywhere with marked attention by the learned. Having returned 
 to Rome in June 1713, he resumed his labours both in astronomy and 
 archaeology. He superintended, with great care, a fine edition of the 
 lives of the popes by Anastasius, with notes and comments : ' Vitse 
 Romanorum Pontificum a B. Petro Apostolo ad Nicolaum I. perductae, 
 cura Anastasii S. R. Ecclesiaj Bibliothecarii,' 3 vols, folio, 1718-28. 
 The fourth and last volume was published after Bianchini's death by 
 his nephew, Giuseppe Bianchini, in 1745. 
 
 In the year 1726, an ancient building was discovered near the Via 
 Appia, about a mile and a half outside of Rome, consisting of three 
 sepulchral chambers of the servants and freedmen of Augustus and 
 his wife Livia. Only one of the three rooms was cleared of the earth 
 and rubbish, which Bianchini inspected carefully. Rows of small 
 niches, like pigeons' nests, one row above the other, ran along the 
 four sides of the room, and every niche contained two or more ' ollae 
 cinerarise,' or little urns of terra cotta, in which the ashes of the dead 
 were deposited. Above the niches were tablets containing the names 
 and the offices of the persons whose remains lay in the urns beneath. 
 The total number of urns in that one room was above 1000. Another 
 building of the same description had been discovered some years 
 before in another vineyard by the Via Appia, about half a mile nearer 
 Rome. It also consisted of three rooms, which contained at least 
 3000 urns, likewise of servants and liberti of Augustus : Fabbretti 
 published a description of them. The names in the inscriptions 
 denote individuals from every part of the Roman empire, some natives j 
 
 of Asia Minor and Syria, and others from the banks of the Danube, 
 the Rhine, or the Ebro. Some of the inscriptions refer to the time 
 of Claudius, and even to a later period, but by far the greater 
 number belong to the time of Augustus. Other sepulchral deposits 
 have been found of the slaves and freedmen of that emperor and his 
 wife Livia, altogether showing the amazing number of servants 
 attached to the great Roman families. Bianchini published the 
 description of the room which he had inspected : ' Camera ed Inscri- 
 zioui Sepolcrali dei Liberti, Scrvi, ed Ufficiali della Casa di Augusto 
 scoperte nella Via Appia, ed illustrate con le Annotazioni di Mon- 
 signore Francesco Bianchini, Veronese, l'anno 1726,' fol., Roma, 1727. 
 After exploring by day the sepulchral chambers in the Via Appia, 
 Bianchini used to attend to his observatory by night The planet 
 Venus was the principal object of his observations. By attentively 
 examining the spots on that planet, he was enabled to determine the 
 period of its rotation. The result of his observations was published 
 under the title of 'Hesperi et Phosphori nova Phacnotuena, sive Obser- 
 vations circa Planetani Veneris, a F. Biauchini, S. D. N. Papae Praelato 
 Domestico,' Roma, 1728. 
 
 Bianchini formed the design of drawing a meridian line through 
 Italy, from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, passing through Rome, 
 Mount Soracte, Aasisi, Gubbio, &c. With this view he carried on his 
 operations for eight years, at his own expense, and was obliged at last 
 to give them up for want of means. An account of his labours was 
 published after his death by his friend Eustachio Maufredi of Bologna. 
 
 While Biauchini was one day in 1727 exploring the ruins of the 
 palace of the Caesars on Mount Palatine, he fell through a broken 
 vault to a considerable depth, and hurt himself severely. Having 
 recovered his health in some measure, he resumed his elaborate 
 description of those immense ruins, which however was not published 
 till after his death : ' Del Palazzo de' Cesari in Roma, opera postuma,' 
 fol. Verona, 1738, with some fine engravings. He died at Rome, 
 March 2, 1729, and was buried in Santa Maria Maggiore. The city of 
 Verona raised a handsome monument to his memory in the cathedral. 
 There are 'eloges' of him in the ' Nouvelles Litteraires de Leipsig,' 
 January, 1731, and the ' Hist, de l'Acaddmie,' 1729. Mazzuchelli and 
 Mazzoleni have written biographies of Bianchini, with a long list of 
 his works. 
 
 •BIARD, AUGUSTE-FRANCOIS, an eminent French painter, was 
 born at Lyon in 1800. Originally intended for the church, it was 
 not till his sixteenth year that he received a few months instruction 
 in drawing in the schools of design at his native place. He was then 
 placed for awhile in the establishment of a manufacturer of artistic 
 paper-hangings; and afterwards in the school of painting at Lyon, 
 where however he only studied for a eingle session. His knowledge 
 of his profession has in fact been almost entirely acquired without 
 any formal or academic instruction; and to his somewhat erratic 
 course of study may, no doubt, be ascribed much of his singular 
 freedom from conventionalism in composition and colour, and something 
 also, perhaps, of his occasional seemingly wilful disregard of the 
 ordinary rules and proprieties of art. 
 
 Before fairly settling down as a painter, M. Biard obtained a wide 
 and valuable store of experience of the customs and aspects of men 
 in different countries. Having in 1827 obtained an appointment as 
 draughtsman on board a sloop of war, he in that capacity visited 
 Malta, the Grecian Archipelago, Syria, Algiers, &c. The following 
 year he resigned this post in order to extend his travels, and journeyed 
 in succession through England, Scotland, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, 
 Borne parts of Africa, Russia, Norway, Lapland, and Sweden, filling 
 his sketch-books and portfolios with innumerable views, portraits, 
 characteristic groups and figures, costumes, &c, drawn from all parts 
 of the wide regions traversed by him. As early as 1830 a picture 
 representing 'An Attack of Brigands' had been purchased by the 
 Duchesse de Berry ; and from that time each annual exposition bore 
 testimony to his remarkable industry and growing artistic powera 
 In 1832 his 'Family of Mendicants' gained the gold medal at the 
 Paris Exposition; in 1833 his ' Les Comediens Ambulants,' which now 
 adorns the gallery of the Luxembourg, was purchased by the govern- 
 ment. His position was by this time assured, and success incited 
 him to follow more resolutely the bent of his own peculiar genius. 
 Instead of the ordinary class of ' genre ' pictures which he had at first 
 essayed, he now painted such subjects as his 'Mohammedan Priest 
 among the Bedouins,' a ' Concert of Fellahs/ an ' Attack of Spanish 
 Brigands in the Sierra Morena,' and others exhibiting his observance 
 of national peculiarities during his travels; but he also struck into 
 that path which has given him a distinct place among the French 
 painters of the present day, by painting, in 1834, his ' Crossing the 
 Line,' and in 1835, the 'Slave Trade.' These, and such as these, 
 though strikingly diverse in aim, are pictures of remarkable power and 
 originality. Yet where, as with him is often the case, the subject is of 
 a grave and even painful character, they have much of a grim grotesque- 
 ness intermingled with the sterner details ; while, where the theme is 
 of a humorous cast, amidst a great deal of what might be termed a 
 species of over-elaborate pictorial buffoonery, there is not a little that 
 is suggestive of a very opposite sentiment. The pictures above- 
 mentioned of ' Crossing the Line ' and the ' Slave Trade ' were repeated 
 by him for the Exhibition of the Royal Academy, London, in 1840, and 
 while their vigorous conception and masterly execution commanded 
 
693 
 
 BIAS. 
 
 BICKERSTAFF, ISAAC. 
 
 664 
 
 general attention, their startling freedom and striking incongruities 
 excited almost as general astonishment, — which was certainly not 
 lessened by a picture exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1841, of a 
 'Scene on board a Steamer crossing from Havre to Honfleur.' Still, 
 though M. Biard too often verges on caricature — at least for English 
 
 taste there can be no question of his remarkable success, in both the 
 
 styles of which the 'Slave Trade' and the'Hopital de Fous,' on the 
 one hand, and the ' Crossing the Line,' and the ' Departure from a Bal 
 Masque" on the other, are the types. When he attempts a more 
 classical theme he becomes conventional and almost vapid. His 
 Harems and works of that class, though rather numerous, are likewise 
 not very favourable specimens of his pencil. The pictures which 
 have made him so great a favourite with his countrymen are those 
 more strictly burlesque ones, like the ' Distribution of Prizes in a 
 German School,' 'LeTriomphe de l'Embonpoint; ' ' Le Repas Inter- 
 rompu ; ' ' La Poste Restante ; ' ' Le Concert de Famille ; ' ' Le Bain 
 de Famille ; ' ' the Parade of the National Guard,' &c. Besides these 
 M. Biard has painted a very large number of pictures in each of the 
 styles he practises ; and his industry has hitherto suffered little abate- 
 ment. He published, first in the ' Tour du Monde,' 1861, and after? 
 wards as a volume, illustrated with many designs, an account of a 
 ' Voyage au Bresil,' 8vo, 18C2. 
 
 BIAS, one of the seven philosophers called the ' Wise Men of Greece.' 
 The exact dates of his birth and death are not known, but it appears 
 from Herodotus (i. 170), that he was living at the time of the first 
 conquest of Ionia by the Persians under Cyrus, B.C. 544-539. He was 
 born at Priene, and his father was named Teutamus. One of the stories 
 told of him is, that when Alyattes, king of Lydia, besieged Priene, Bias 
 fatted two mules, and sent them out into the Lydian camp. The king, 
 surprised and dispirited by the apparent plenty which the good con- 
 dition of the animals indicated, sent a messenger to treat of peace. 
 On this, Bias directed the citizens to make heaps of sand, and cover 
 them lightly over with grain. He took care that the messenger should 
 see these heaps ; and the man on his return represented the abundance 
 in the city in such a light, that Alyattes immediately agreed to terms 
 of peace. A similar story is told by Herodotus of Thrasybulus, tyrant 
 of Miletus (i. 21, 22). The same author (i. 27) relates the manner in 
 which either Bias or Pittacus deterred Croesus from invading the 
 Grecian islands. These stories are worth notice, as indicating what 
 is to be understood of the Seven Wise Men. They were not philo- 
 sophers in the sense in which the word is commonly used, to designate 
 men who have entered deeply into speculative science, for Thales, the 
 founder of the Ionic school, was the only one of them who had aDy 
 claim to that title : they seem merely to have been men of high repute 
 for moral, political, or legislative knowledge, such as it then existed. 
 Thus the few remains of them which are extant are comprised in the 
 form of short pithy maxims, generally in verse, with the sentiment of 
 which we are now so familiar, for the most part, as to regard them as 
 self-evident propositions or truisms, and are therefore likely to under- 
 rate the merit of those who first enunciated them. Of this class of 
 sayings we find the following, among others, ascribed to Bias : — Being 
 asked " What is difficult and unpleasant ? " he replied, " To bear with 
 nobleness the changes from better to worse." " What is sweet to 
 man ? " Answer, " Hope." He said that it was better to arbitrate 
 between your enemies than between your friends, because one of the 
 enemies was sure to turn to a friend, and one of the friends sure to 
 turn to an enemy. — " Life should be so ordered as if men were to live 
 a long time and a short one." — " Be slow to set hand to work, but 
 what you begin abide by." — " Take wisdom as the provision for travel- 
 ling from youth to age, for of all possessions that sticks the closest." 
 Agreeably to this, it is said that on one occasion, when all persons but 
 himself were collecting their valuables for flight, he replied to those 
 who expressed their wonder at his indifference, " I carry everything 
 of mine about me." He was celebrated for his skill in pleading causes, 
 which however he has the credit of having always employed on the 
 right side. His death took place, after he had pleaded a cause success- 
 fully, in extreme old age. After the exertion he reclined with his head 
 on the bosom of his grandson, and on the breaking up of the court 
 he was found to be dead. His fellow-citizens gave him a splendid 
 funeral at the public expense, and consecrated a temple to him, which 
 they called Teutamium. Bias is one of the speakers in the 'Symposium' 
 of Plutarch. 
 
 There are three collections of the sayings of the Wise Men : two, 
 attributed to Demetrius Phalereus and Sosiades, are preserved in 
 Stobseus ; a third is by an unknown author. Diogenes Laertius and 
 Plutarch have preserved several apophthegms not found in these col- 
 lections. The first two collections are preserved in the editions of 
 Stobaeus; the third wae printed by the elder Aldus at the end of his 
 'Theocritus,' 1495. The most complete collection of these sayings is 
 by Job. Conr. Orelli, in the first volume of his ' Moralisten.' 
 
 BICHAT, MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER, an eminent French 
 anatomist and physiologist, was born November 11, 1771, at Thoirette, 
 in the present department of the Ain. He was the eldest son of Jean 
 Baptiste Bichat, doctor of medicine, of the university of Montpellier. 
 At an early period he manifested a preference for the study of mathe- 
 matics, but he also mastered with much facility the first difficulties of 
 practical anatomy, which he had commenced under his father's tuition; 
 •nd his teachers, on becoming further acquainted with him, were 
 
 impressed with the indications he gave of mental acuteness. Driven 
 a second time from Lyon by the events of the revolution, he went in 
 1793 to Paris, in order to study surgery under the celebrated Desault, 
 at that time the great master of the surgical art. Without a single 
 introduction, it is said without even a single acquaintance in this city, 
 he entered the school of Desault, and diligently attended the lectures 
 of his master. In this school it was the practice for some chosen 
 pupils, each in his turn, to make an abstract of the lecture of the day, 
 and on the next day, at the close of the lecture, in the presence of the 
 second surgeon of the hospital, this abstract was publicly read. On 
 one occasion the pupil whose turn it was to give the abstract of the 
 preceding day was absent. Bichat, who had not been a pupil more 
 than a month, stepped forward from the crowd of pupils and offered 
 to supply his place. His account was clear, accurate, and full ; and 
 was delivered with extraordinary calmness and precision. Desault had 
 a conversation with young Bichat soon after, and formed such an 
 estimate of his abilities that he insisted on his immediately coming to 
 reside with him ; and subsequently adopted him as his son, associated 
 him in his labours, and destined him for his successor. Bichat con- 
 tinued to live with his master in uninterrupted friendship until the • 
 death of Desault, about two years from the commencement of their 
 intimacy. After this event the first care of the pupil, as the best 
 expression of his gratitude and affection, was to collect, arrange, and 
 publish the works of his master. At the same time he opened a school 
 for teaching anatomy, physiology, and surgery ; dissected for his own 
 lectures ; carried on an extended and laborious series of experiments 
 on living animals ; gave a course of operative surgery ; and when in 
 the evening he returned home exhausted with the labours of the day, 
 instead of betaking himself to repose, devoted the greater part of the 
 night to the duty of putting in order the papers and works of his 
 friend and master. His constitution received a severe shock from this 
 excessive labour ; he appears to have suffered particularly from the 
 exertion of public speaking, and in a short time his pursuits were 
 interrupted by an attack of haemoptysis, or spitting of blood. In the 
 confinement to his chamber which this alarming disease imposed, he 
 appears to have matured his views on some of the most interesting 
 departments of anatomy and physiology, and to have sketched the 
 plan of the works in which those views were subsequently developed. 
 No sooner had his malady disappeared than he resumed the whole of 
 his former occupations, which he pursued with no less intensity than 
 before, spending his days iu public teaching and his nights in the 
 composition of his works. One day, when he had been longer than 
 usual in the place where he conducted his experiments on animal 
 tissues — a low and damp room, full of putrid exhalations from the 
 maceration of animal substances — or when, from previous exhaustion, 
 he had been more powerfully impressed by its malign influence, he 
 felt giddy on leaving the room. In this state, on descending the stairs 
 of the Hotel-Dieu, his foot slipped, and he received by the fall a severe 
 blow on the head. He was taken up insensible, aud was carried home ; 
 but the next day he thought himself sufficiently recovered to pursue 
 his ordinary occupations, and accordingly began his usual round. In 
 a short time however he fainted from fatigue, and in a day or two 
 symptoms of fever came on, which soon assumed a typhoid character, 
 and proved fatal on the fourteenth day of the attack. Thus perished, 
 at the age of thirty, a young man of extraordinary genius and energy — 
 a melancholy example of a life which promised to be one of uncommon 
 brilliance and usefulness, cut short by the intensity of its devotion to 
 science. He died July 22, 1802. 
 
 Bichat gave an impulse to the progress of physiology which is still 
 powerfully felt not only in France, but in every country in which 
 the science is known. The idea had been suggested before his time 
 that the animal body consists of a congeries of organs, and that 
 there are primary substances which enter in common into the com- 
 position of the several organs ; but he was the first, by a systematic 
 analysis, to reduce the complex structures of the body to their 
 elementary tissues, and to ascertain the properties, physical, chemical, 
 and vital, which belong to each simple tissue. This he has done to an 
 extent and with a degree of completeness truly astonishing in a first 
 attempt, in his ' Anatomie GeneVale,' a work which alone would have 
 given him immortality ; which in the production of the material that 
 constitutes its subject-matter indicates minute and laborious research, 
 elaborate and extended experiment, and great manual and practical 
 skill ; and in the general conclusions deduced and established, a truly 
 philosophical mind. Scarcely had this work, which was immediately 
 and universally recognised as a production of extraordinary genius, 
 appeared, before it was followed by his 'Anatomie Descriptive.' 
 Besides many separate memoirs of various excellence, he likewise pub- 
 lished an elaborate work, entitled ' Recherches physiologiques sur la 
 Vie et la Mort,' in which he suggested and developed the distinction 
 between the organic and the animal life— a distinction of scarcely less 
 importance to the surgeon and physician than to the speculative and 
 experimentalising physiologist. 
 
 (M. F. R Buisson, Precis Historique sur M. F. X. Bichat, Paris, 
 1802.) 
 
 BICKERSTAFF, ISAAC, was born in Ireland probably about 1735. 
 He was one of the pages of Lord Chesterfield, who became Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland in 1746. Afterwards he became au officer in 
 the marines, in which service he continued until forced to quit under 
 
695 
 
 BICKERSTETH, REV. EDWARD. 
 
 BIDDLE, JOHN. 
 
 696 
 
 circumstances of a highly discreditable nature. He is known as the 
 successful author of a number of light comedies and musical pieces, 
 produced under Garrick's management, of which some yet retain pos- 
 session of the stage. The principal are — ' Love in a Village,' 1763 ; 
 the 'Maid of the Mill,' 1765 ; ' Love in the City,' 1767 (since altered 
 to the farce of 'The Romp'); 'The Hypocrite,' 1768 ; 'Lionel and 
 Clarissa,' 1768; 'The Padlock,' 1768; 'The Captive,' 1769 ; 'He 
 Would if he Could,' 1769. His last piece, ' The Sultan,' was produced 
 in 1787. The music to many of these pieces was composed by Charles 
 Dibdin. The time and manner of Bickerstaff 's death are uncertain : 
 all that is known is that he withdrew to the continent, and died in 
 obscurity. (Biographia Dramatica ; Thespian Dictionary.) 
 
 BICKERSTETH, REV. EDWARD, was bora March 19, 1786, at 
 Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmorland. He was the fourth son of Mr. Henry 
 Bickersteth, a surgeon of that town, and the younger brother of the 
 late Lord Langdale, master of the rolls. He received his early educa- 
 tion at the grammar school of Kirkby Lonsdale, but was removed 
 thence on receiving a clerkship in the post-office, London, at the age 
 of fourteen. Here he remained for six years, when he was received 
 into the office of Mr. Bleasdale, a London attorney, as an articled clerk. 
 Having completed his term of five years, he entered into partnership 
 with Mr. Bignold, a fellow clerk, whose sister he married, and com- 
 menced business as a solicitor at Norwich in 1812. 
 
 The business soon became a nourishing one, and Mr. Bickersteth's 
 prospects appeared very favourable. But he had become deeply 
 impressed with the importance of religious truths, and he soon took a 
 prominent part in the various religious movements for which Norwich 
 was becoming celebrated. The Norwich Church Missionary Society 
 was founded by him, and he was active in promoting the operations of 
 the Bible Society, and several other religious societies in that city. 
 He also wrote and published, in 1814, 'A Help to the Study of the 
 Scriptures,' which in its enlarged form has had an enormous circulation. 
 His own strong religious feelings, aided perhaps by an acquaintance 
 he had formeu with Mr. Pratt, Mr. Budd, and some other leadiug 
 clergymen of the ' evangelical ' section of the church, led him to desire 
 earnestly to devote himself to the minsterial office — a desire which 
 those gentlemen strongly encouraged. Accordingly, Mr. Bickersteth 
 was, December 10, 1815, ordained a deacon of the Church of England ; 
 the Bishop of Norwich having been induced to dispense in his case 
 with the usual university training, in consequence of its being repre- 
 sented to him that the Church Missionary Society were anxious to 
 obtain the services of Mr. Bickersteth to proceed on a special mission 
 to inspect and re-organise the stations of the society in Africa, and to 
 act afterwards as their secretary. A fortnight later the Bishop of 
 Gloucester admitted him to full orders, and he almost immediately 
 departed with his wife to Africa. He returned in the following autumn, 
 having satisfactorily accomplished the purposes of his visit. 
 
 He continued in the zealous discharge of the duties of his secretaryship 
 for the next fifteen years, organising new and visiting old branch asso- 
 ciations, directing the studies of the missionaries, continually advocating 
 the interests of the society in the pulpit and on the platform, as well 
 as with his pen ; and in the course of his frequent official journeys 
 through all parts of the kingdom, acquiring a constantly increasing 
 amount of influence and popularity in what is commonly designated 
 the religious world. At the end of 1830 he resigned his office, and 
 also his ministerial charge at Wheler Chapel, Spitalfields, upon accept- 
 ing the rectory of Watton in Hertfordshire. At Watton Mr. Bickersteth 
 spent the remaining twenty years of his life. But his labours were by 
 no means bounded by his parish. He was during the whole of that 
 time in constant request as the advocate, by sermons and speeches, not 
 only of the missionary, but of almost every other religious society 
 connected with the church, or in which, as in the Bible Society, and 
 the Evangelical Alliance (of which he was one of the founders), 
 churchmen and dissenters associate. And he also produced during 
 his residence at Watton a constant succession of religious publications, 
 which were for the most part read in the circles to which they were 
 chiefly addressed with the greatest avidity. Indeed it may be said 
 that during most of these later years of his life Mr. Bickersteth was 
 one of the most influential and generally popular clergymen of that 
 section of his brethren among whom he was classed. 
 
 During this period he took a very decided part in all those measures 
 which he regarded as having a direct bearing on the religious condi- 
 tion of the country. He was especially earnest in opposing the 
 Maynooth grant, and in calling for its withdrawal ; and he was equally 
 zealous in denouncing the spread of what are known as Tractarian 
 opinions in the Church of England ; yet his opposition was free from 
 all personal bitterness, and his influence was directed to softening the 
 asperities of religious strife. In his later years he manifested a grow- 
 ing interest in the study of prophecy. The unfulfilled prophecies 
 were made the frequent subject of his discourses, and he published 
 several pamphlets and tracts and three or four elaborate treatises in 
 elucidation of the prophetic writings. 
 
 His principal works besides the ' Scripture Help ' already noticed, 
 and a large number of sermons, tracts, &c, were :— ' The Christian 
 Student,' 'A Treatise on the Lord's Supper,' 'A Treatise on Prayer,' 
 'Family Expositions of the Epistles of St. John and St. Jude,' 'A 
 Treatise on Baptism,' ' The Signs of the Times,' ' The Promised Glory 
 of the Church of Christ,' ' The Restoration of the Jews,' ' A Practical 
 
 Guide to the Prophecies,' &c. His collected works have been published 
 in 16 vols. 8vo. Among his literary labours ought to be mentioned the 
 Hymu-book which he compiled, and the ' Christian Family Library/ 
 which he edited, and which extended to fifty volumes. 
 
 Mr. Bickersteth was in 1841 attacked by paralysis, the result of too 
 prolonged mental exertion. He recovered from this, and resumed his 
 labours. In 1846 he was, when proceeding to a meeting of the 
 Evangelical Alliance, thrown from his chaise under a heavily laden 
 cart, the wheels of which passed over him ; but though dreadfully 
 injured he was after a time restored to health and activity, and sur- 
 vived till February 28, 1850, when he died of congestion of the brain, 
 aged sixty-three. 
 
 (Birks, Memoir of the Rev. Edward Bickersteth.) 
 
 BlDDLE, JOHN, styled the Father of the, English Unitarians, was 
 born in 1615, at Wotton-under-Edge in Gloucestershire, where his 
 father carried on the trade of a woollen-draper. Being sent to the 
 grammar school of his native town, he gave such proofs of talent and 
 proficiency as attracted the notice of George Lord Berkeley, who con- 
 ferred on him, at an earlier age than any other Bcholar, an exhibition of 
 102. per annum. In 1632, in his 17th year, he was admitted a student 
 of Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He took his degree of Bachelor of Arts in 
 1638, and that of Master of Arts in 1641. About this time he was 
 elected master of the free school in the crypt in the city of Gloucester, 
 and he performed its duties in a manner that raised the character of 
 the school. His theological studies meanwhile were prosecuted with 
 great ardour ; and carrying into these his characteristic freedom of 
 inquiry, he printed for private circulation the result of his investi- 
 gations in a small tract, entitled 'Twelve Arguments, drawn out of 
 the Scripture, wherein the commonly received opinion touching the 
 deity of the Holy Spirit is clearly and fully refuted.' Having adopted 
 the views indicated in this title, he gave unrestrained expression to 
 them in conversation, and speedily drew upon himself the attention 
 of the authorities. His printed tract was brought under the notice of 
 the parliamentary committee then sitting at Gloucester, and, after 
 the fashion in which religious opinions were handled in those days, he 
 was summoned before a bench of magistrates, who committed him to 
 the county jail, December 2, 1645, although suffering at the time from 
 a dangerous fever. His release on bail was not obtained without con- 
 siderable difficulty. At his examination before the magistrates he 
 delivered a "confession of faith," which, from its ambiguity, shows 
 that Biddle's mind was then in a state of transition from Trinitarianism 
 to Unitarianism, without being quite decided either way. Six months 
 afterwards Archbishop Usher had a conference with him on the 
 doctrine of the Trinity, without being able to convince him that it 
 was founded in Scripture. About the same time he was summoned 
 before the parliament at Westminster, who appointed a committee to 
 inquire into his case. The proceedings of this committee were pro- 
 tracted through a period of nearly eighteen months, when a decision 
 was arrived at unfavourable to Biddle, who was committed to the 
 custody of one of the officers of the House of Commons, and deprived 
 of his liberty for five years. In the meantime the case was referred to 
 the assembly of divines then sitting at Westminster, before whom 
 Biddle often appeared. Their answers to his doubts only increased 
 his conviction of their validity, and made him feel the importance of 
 giving them greater publicity. For this purpose he resolved to publish 
 the "Twelve Arguments,' &c, which had only been privately circulated. 
 This was no sooner done than it raised such a spirit of opposition that 
 the book was immediately ordered to be burnt by the common hang- 
 man. Undaunted by this proceeding, in the year 1648, while yet in 
 prison, he printed a 'Confession of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity 
 according to the Scriptures, with the Testimonies of several of the 
 Fathers on this Head.' This was followed by another tract, entitled 
 'The Testimonies of Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Novatianus, Theophilus 
 (who lived the two first centuries after Christ was born or thereabouts), 
 as also Arnobius, Lactantius, Eusebius, Hilary, and Brightman, con- 
 cerning that one God and the persons of Holy Trinity.' The publi- 
 cation of these works in succession stimulated the Westminster divines 
 to call upon the House of Commons to pass a measure by which the 
 punishment of death was awarded to the denial of the Trinity, and to 
 other doctrinal points, besides attaching severe penalties to minor 
 offences. This act, or ordinance as it was styled, was especially aimed 
 at Biddle ; and he must certainly have been the first victim to it but 
 from an opposition which was raised to it in the army ; and this 
 circumstance, aided by the dissensions in parliament concerning it, 
 caused the ordinance to remain inoperative. His confinement con- 
 tinued with unabated strictness until after the death of Charles, when 
 through the influence of Cromwell and Fairfax a relaxation of the 
 penal laws relating to religion took place. Favoured by these changes, 
 Biddle was released from prison under certain conditions, and retired 
 into Staffordshire, where he was hospitably received into the house of 
 a justice of the peace, who not only made him his chaplain and 
 procured him a congregation, but at his death left him a legacy. His 
 retirement was disturbed by Bradshaw, president of the council, who 
 being informed of it remanded him to prison. The loss of freedom 
 during his long confinement was hardly a greater hardship than the 
 loss of his friends, who were alienated from him by the odium cast 
 upon him by the charge of heresy and blasphemy ; not a single divine, 
 except Dr. Gunning, afterwards bishop of Ely, paid him a visit while 
 
BIDLOO, GODEFROID. 
 
 in prison. His funds being exhausted, he was exposed to severe 
 privations, but was unexpectedly relieved by some pecuniary assistance 
 which he obtained for correcting the press for a Greek Septuagint, 
 then being printed by Roger Daniel, in London, an employment for 
 which he was singularly qualified. 
 
 In 1651 an act of indemnity and oblivion was passed by parliament, 
 which iucluded all heretical offences. To this measure Biddle was 
 indebted for his liberty, after a confinement, with a short iutermission, 
 of seven years. The first use that he made of his freedom was to 
 collect around him those friends and adherents whom his writings had 
 brought over to his opinions. They met on the Lord's Day for the 
 purpose of expounding the Scriptures, and gradually formed them- 
 selves into a society on this leading principle, namely, that " the unity 
 of God is a unity of person as well as nature." The members of this 
 society were called Bidellians, and from their agreement in opinion 
 concerning the unity of God and the humanity of Christ with the 
 followers of Socinus, they were sometimes denominated Socinians. 
 The name adopted eventually by themselves was that of Unitarians. 
 This was, indeed, the rise of the English Unitarians. Among the early 
 members of this church was Nathaniel Stuckey, who published a trans- 
 lation of Biddle's ' Scripture Catechisms, for the use of Foreigners.' 
 The publication of the two catechisms from which these translations 
 were made brought the vengeance of government again upon their 
 author. He was summoned to the bar of the House of Commons, and 
 on his refusal to criminate himself, was committed to close confinement 
 in the Gate-House. When Cromwell dissolved the parliament, Biddle 
 again obtained his liberty, after ten months more imprisonment ; but 
 his book shared the fate of his former tract, being publicly burnt. 
 Twelve months had scarcely elapsed after this release, when in conse- 
 quence of an information lodged against him, on account of some 
 expressions used in a public discussion with Mr. Griffin, a Baptist 
 minister, he was committed to the Compter, July 3, 1655. From this 
 prison he was removed to Newgate, and tried for his life on the 
 ordinance against blasphemy and heresy. His trial was conducted 
 with such indecent haste and such a total disregard to justice, that 
 Cromwell himst-lf interfered, and, in order to baffle the designs of the 
 prosecutors without seeming to yield too much to the more tolerant 
 party, he banished Biddle to Star Castle, in St. Mary's, one of the 
 Scilly Isles, with an annual subsistence of a hundred crowns. In this 
 state of exile he continued for three years, when the solicitation of his 
 friends and change of circumstances induced the Protector to grant a 
 writ of ' habeas corpus,' under which he returned, and no charge being 
 preferred against him, he was set at liberty. He then became the 
 pastor of an Independent congregation in London, the duties of which 
 office he faithfully discharged until the elevation of the Presbyterian 
 party, after the death of Oliver Cromwell, induced him to withdraw 
 into the seclusion of the country. The sudden dissolution of that 
 parliament brought him again to London, where he remained till the 
 restoration of Charles II. Biddle tried to evade the threatening storm 
 which fell upon all who dissented from the Episcopalian mode of 
 worship, now re-established, by retiring from public duty, but his 
 caution was unavailing. On June 1, 1662, he and the friends who 
 met with him privately for worship were apprehended and taken to 
 prison: they were fined in 20Z. each, and Biddle himself in 100Z. 
 Not being able to pay this penalty, he waa remanded to prison, 
 where, in less than five weeks, through the pestilential atmosphere 
 of the place and want of exercise, he contracted a disease which termi- 
 nated his life, September 22, 1662, in the forty-seventh year of his 
 age. During his exile he drew up an essay to explain the Apocalypse; 
 and in 1653 he published several small pieces, translated from the 
 works of the Polish Unitarians, among which was Przipcovius's ' Life 
 of Faustus Socinus.' All his contemporaries describe him as a man 
 of irreproachable life; and Anthony Wood, who had no great love for 
 heretics, said of him, that "except his opiuions, there was little or 
 nothing blameworthy in him." 
 
 (Toulmin, Life of Biddle.) 
 
 BIDLOO, GODEFROID, an anatomist, was born at Amsterdam, in 
 1649. He first studied surgery, which he practised with great success, 
 and was at one time surgeon to the forces. Afterwards he took the 
 degree of Doctor of Medicine, and was appointed physician to Wil- 
 liam III., king of England, upon whose recommendation he was in 1694 
 made professor of anatomy and surgery in the university of Leyden. 
 
 In 1685 Bidloo had published at Amsterdam, in one volume folio, 
 105 plates, representing the anatomy of different parts of the human 
 body, which were admirable as works of art, having been engraved by 
 Lairesse, but in many instances were deficient in accuracy. This work 
 was reprinted at Leyden in royal folio, with 114 plates, and agaiu at 
 Utrecht in 1750, with a supplement. Bidloo accused Cowper, an 
 EnglUh anatomist, of having reprinted it without acknowledgment, 
 and with only a few alterations. In this charge there was considerable 
 truth, and Cowper made in reply a very lame defence. Bidloo also 
 carried on with much asperity a controversy with Frederick Ruy.sch, 
 who exposed several of the errors in his works. Among the other 
 writings of Bidloo are : ' De Anatomes Antiquitate Oratio,' Leyden, 
 1694, being his inaugural discourse, when he took possession of the 
 chair of surgery and anatomy ; ' Observationes de Animalculis in 
 Hepate Ovillo et aliorum Animalium detectis,' 4to, 1693; * Exercita- 
 tbuum Anatomico-Chirurgicarum Decades Duae,' 4to. 1708. in which 
 
 BILDERDTK, WILLEM. es)8 
 
 occur several important remarks on surgical diseases ; and ' Opuscula 
 omnia AnatomicoOhirurgica edita et inedita,' 4to, witli plate*, 1715. 
 
 Bidloo died in 1713, in the sixty-fourth year of his age. He had a 
 brother named Lambert, who wrote on botany ; and a uephew Nicolas, 
 who became physician to Peter the Great. 
 
 BIELA, WILHELM, BARON VON, was born at Rosla, near Stol- 
 berg, in the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, his patrimonial estate, on 
 March 19, 1782. When he was born Stolberg was an independent 
 state, and he entered young into the Austrian army. He had taken 
 an early predilection for astronomy, as an amateur, and while serving 
 with his regiment at Josephstadt in Bohemia, in 1826, he became dis- 
 tinguished by the first discovery of the comet since called after him. 
 Retiring from the military service, ho continued to take an interest in 
 the science of astronomy, and corresponded with many of the most 
 eminent men of science. He died on February 18, 1856, at Venice. 
 
 BILDERDYK, WILLEM, ranked by his countrymen among the 
 first, by some as the very first modern poet and writer of Holland, 
 and also distinguished by his varied erudition, was born at Amsterdam 
 in 1756. His studies at Leyden took a very extensive range, for 
 besides philosophy and languages — most of the modern languages 
 included — he applied himself to history, archaeology, jurisprudence, 
 divinity, medicine, and geology ; and appears, in short, to have left 
 scarcely any branch of science untouched. It was in the character of 
 poet however that he made his de"but in 1776, when his ' Invloed der 
 Dichtkunst,' &c. (' The Influence of Poetry on States and Govern- 
 ments '), obtained the prize from the Leyden Society of Kunst door 
 Arbeid. Bilderdyk's poem was in some degree a foreboding of his 
 future career, which, it must be confessed, was rather too much in 
 accordance with the motto of his first Leyden patrons — ' Kunst door 
 Arbeid/ or 'Art through Industry,' since, though his productions 
 manifest great industry, ability, and superior mastery of language, he 
 rarely soars into the more elevated regions of imagination. 
 
 His poem on the ' Love of Fatherland ' obtained him a second prize 
 the following year ; and in 1779 he published his translation of the 
 ' GLdipus Tyranuus ' of Sophocles, intended to exhibit to his country- 
 men the genuine form and spirit of Greek dramatic poetry, in oppo- 
 sition to the spurious classicality of French models, by a servile imi- 
 tation of which they had enervated both their language and their 
 taste. About 1783 he began to practise at the bar at the Hague, yet 
 without renouncing his literary occupations, for it was about the same 
 time that, in conjunction with Feith, he undertook not merely to re- 
 edit and illustrate with an historical commentary Van Haren's ' Geuzen,' 
 but to reshape the work itself by dressing it up in more poetical 
 language — treatment not a little singular for a contemporary produc- 
 tion whose author was just dead. Thus renovated, the poem first 
 appeared in 1784. Towards the end of 1786 the unsettled state of 
 public affairs induced Bilderdyk to quit Holland and seek an asylum 
 in Germany, where he supported himself by teaching, as he did subse- 
 quently in England. This self-imposed exile lasted nearly twenty 
 years, during the first half of which his muse was silent. It was not 
 till 1799 that he produced two volumes of miscellaneous pieces 
 entitled ' MengelpoeBie,' containing a poem on astronomy and some 
 translations from Ossian. In 1803 first appeared his ' Buitenleveu,' 
 or ' Rural Life,' which is considered by some almost as his master- 
 piece; yet it has no claim to originality, being no more than a free 
 and spirited imitation of Delille's ' L'Homme des Champs.' The same 
 may be said of a subsequent translation by him of the whole of 
 ' Fingal.' On his return to Holland he was received as one whom the 
 nation had reason to be proud of, and was taken into favour by Louis 
 Napoleon (then just made King of Holland), who was desirous of 
 reu lering himself popular with his new subjects, and appointed Bil- 
 derdyk hi3 instructor in the Dutch language, and president of the 
 Institute founded by him at Amsterdam, upon the model of the 
 French one. He was thus all at once placed in comparatively prosper- 
 ous circumstances, and his literary reputation was not a little iucreased 
 also by his ' Ziekte der Geleerdeii ' (the Maladies of Literary Men), a 
 subject equally repulsive and unpoetical, but so treated as to ba of 
 powerful though painful interest. He next attempted tragedy, and 
 produced several pieces of the kind, which, although unsuccessful 
 upon the stage, are marked by great poetical beauties. They were 
 published iu 1803, in three volumes, and among them are two by his 
 wife, namely, ' Elfrida,' and 'Iphigenia in Aulis.' In 1809 he was 
 thrown into great affliction by the loss of several of his children, and 
 in the following year the abdication of Louis Napoleou deprived him 
 of his pension, and he was again in very embarrassed circumstances, 
 aud so continued till the return of the Prince of Orange, when they 
 began to improve. A year or two afterwards he removed to Leyden, 
 where, as he had done all along, he continued to put forth one new 
 production of his muse after auother. The noblest of them all how- 
 ever, his ' Oudergang der Eerste WerdM,' or ' Destruction of the First 
 World,' did not appear till a later period. So far from betraying any 
 decline of intellectual power, this fine poem displays more of imagina- 
 tion and invention thau any of his former ones ; but unfortunately he 
 proceeded no further than with five books of it. On April 16, 1830, 
 he lost his second wife, Catherine Willudmina. a lady of considerable 
 literary attainments : besides the two tragedies already mentioned, she 
 wrote, among other things, a poem on the battle of Waterloo, and 
 translated Southey's ' Roderic' Bildeidyk did not survive her very 
 
R09 
 
 BINCK, JACOB. 
 
 BIOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE. 
 
 ion 
 
 long, for he died at Haarlem in the following year, December 18, at 
 the age of seventy-five. Among the numerous manuscripts he left 
 behind him was a history of Holland, which has since been edited by 
 Tydemann. 
 
 BINCK, JACOB, a celebrated old German engraver and painter, 
 and one of the so-called little masters, was born about 1500, in 
 Cologne ; some authorities make him, incorrectly, a native of Niirn- 
 berg. He however lived some time in Niirnberg, and was probably 
 the pupil of Albert Diirer. Sandrart says he studied with Marcan- 
 tonio at Rome ; but all the accounts of him are little better than con- 
 jectures. Iu 1546 Biuck appears to have been living at Copenhagen 
 as portrait painter to Christian VIII. of Denmark. Later he was 
 living at Konigsberg in the service of Duke Albert of Prussia, who 
 sent him in 1549 on a commission to the Netherlands. In 1550 he 
 was employed again by Christian VIII., to select a fit spot for the 
 erection of a fortress in Holstein. He died probably at Konigsberg, 
 in the service of Albert of Prussia, about 1569. 
 
 Partsch describes ninety-eight prints by Binck. Passavant adds forty- 
 two more. There are many other prints attributed to him, which are 
 marked J. B., but these according to Bartsch belong to some other 
 artist, who probably is the same who studied, according to Sandrart's 
 account, at Rome. Binck's monogram is made of J. C. and B. inter- 
 mingled, the C. signifying Coloniensis, ' of Cologne ; ' in one print the 
 word Coloniensis is written in full. Many of his prints have been 
 copied with a view to profit by the deception, as is the case with the 
 works of other celebrated masters. Binck's drawing is superior to 
 that of the little masters generally, but his stylo is very similar to 
 that of Barthel Beham. 
 
 (Heint ken, Dictionnaire des Artistes, tic. ; Huber, Manuel des Ama- 
 teurs, &c; Meusel, Neue Miscellancen Artistiscken Inhalts, No. 8; 
 Bartscb, Peintre-Graveur ; Brulliot, Dictionnaire des Monogrammes, &c.) 
 
 BION, a name common to many Greek authors, more or less known 
 to the moderns. They are usually distinguished by their ethnical 
 names. Clemens Alexandrinus (' Strom.,' vi. p. 629, A.) mentions a 
 Bion Proconnesius, who wrote an abridgment of the work of Cadmus 
 the historian, and he is probably the person cited by Athenaous (II., 
 p. 45) : according to Diog. Laert. (iv. 58) he must have lived about the 
 middle of the 6th century B.C., being a contemporary of Pherecydes 
 of Syros. 
 
 Bion Borysthenites was a philosopher, who seems to have belonged 
 to nearly all the different sects in succession. He was born sometime 
 near the 120th Olympiad, and is supposed to have died about B.C. 241, 
 Olymp. 134. 4. He is mentioned by Strabo (i. 15) as a contemporary 
 of Eratosthenes, who was born B.C. 275, and of Zeno the Stoic, who 
 died B.C. 263 (Comp. Athenacus, iv. 162, D.). His father was a freed- 
 man, his mother a Lacedaemonian harlot, named Olympia. On account 
 of Borne malpractices in his capacity of tax-gatherer, his father was 
 sold with his whole family. Bion, who was then a child, was pur- 
 chased by a rhetorician, who made him his heir, and after his patron's 
 death he went to Athens, where he set up as a philosopher. He was 
 first an auditor of Crates; then he turned Cynic; afterwards he 
 attended the lectures of Theodorus, and finally became a disciple of 
 Theopbrastus. He was a great jester, and remarkable more for the 
 point than for the good-humour of his witticisms. (Horat, ' Epist.' ii. 
 2, 60, and Cic, ' Tuscul.,' ii. 26.) He died at Chalcis in Eubcea. (Diog. 
 Laert., iv. 46-58.) 
 
 But the most celebrated person of this name is Bion Shyrn^eus, 
 the Bucolic poet ; of whom however we know little more than that 
 he lived at the same time with Theocritus and Moschus, of whom the 
 former mentions him iu his poems, and the latter has written an elegy 
 on his death. He died by poison. An attempt was made many years 
 ago by Giovanni Vintimiglia to deprive Smyrna of the honour of his 
 birth, and to prove that he was born in Sicily, where he undoubtedly 
 spent a. great part of his life (Lorenzo Crasso, ' Historia de Poeti 
 Greci,' p. 90) ; but not only is his name mentioned by Moschus in 
 connection with the Smyrnaean river Meles, but we have also the 
 express testimony of Suidas (voc. Q^Kpiros) that he was born at a 
 village called Phlosse, near that city. His longest Idyll is a lament 
 over Adonis. Bion's poems are generally published along with Theo- 
 critus and Moschus. The best edition is that of L. F. Heindorf, 
 Berlin, 1810. We are not acquainted with any good English version 
 of Bion. There is a German translation by J. H. Voss, Tubingen, 
 1808.— Several other Bions are mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, but 
 nothing is known about them. 
 
 BIOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE, was born at Paris April 21, 1774. After 
 studying at the college Louis-le-Grand, he passed into the artillery ; 
 but soon abandoning the military service for scientific pursuits, he 
 entered the Ecole Polytechnique, and won such distinction by' his 
 diligence and ability as to be appointed professor of mathematics in 
 the Central School at Beauvais. The way in which he fulfilled his 
 duties, at an age when there is commonly more need to receive than 
 ability to give lessons, the interest which he imparted to his lectures, 
 and his Bkill in discovering new results and simplifying difficult ques- 
 tions, inspired great hopes of his future career. Nd! have they been 
 disappointed. While here, as he relates, " being full of ardour for 
 geometry, and many things, I thought only of following with delight 
 the inclinations of my mind towards all sorts of scientific studies, I 
 had an inordinate ambition to penetrate into the highest regions of 
 
 mathematics." Unable to procure the scattered works of the great 
 mathematicians, he wrote to Laplace, who was then publishing the 
 first volume of his ' Mdcanique Celeste,' requesting permission to read 
 the proof sheets, in which he knew all the important results would 
 be brought together. The request, at first refused, was granted on a 
 second application; and the youthful professor thereby gained not 
 only the advantage of revising the calculations for his own instruction, 
 but the friendship of the illustrious geometer, whose house from that 
 time became open to him, and whose counsels, patiently and even 
 affectionately bestowed, were always ready in cases of difficulty. 
 
 Biot had taken up one of Euler's problems, which had never been 
 directly solved ; and one day he submitted to Laplace a method for 
 its solution, and by his advice presented it to the Academy. At the 
 next meeting the young man was permitted to draw his diagrams on 
 the black board, and to read his paper to the assembled savants, who 
 at its close felicitated him on its originality. Monge was delighted at 
 the success of his former pupil. After the meeting Laplace invited 
 Biot home, praising him on the way for the clearness of his demon- 
 strations; and on arrival he took a paper from a closet in his study, 
 and placed it in the young man's hands. It was already yellow with 
 age ; and what was his surprise on opening it to find the solutions 
 for which he had just gained so much applause all worked out, and 
 by the process of which he thought himself the inventor. Laplace 
 had years before gone through the work, but checked by the same 
 difficulties that stopped Euler, it was laid aside for future study ; and 
 with rare magnanimity he kept all knowledge of it from Biot until 
 the latter had initiated his reputation before the Academy. He enjoined 
 him moreover to silence; and the incident would have remained a 
 secret, had not Biot himself revealed it fifty years afterwards. 
 
 The paper here in question, ' Sur les Equations aux Differences 
 Meldes,' is printed in the first volume of ' Memoires' of the Institute 
 (' Divers Savants,' vol. i., 1806). The report thereon, signed by Laplace, 
 Lacroix, and Bonaparte, was presented at the meeting on the 21st 
 Brumaire, only three days after the eventful 18th, which decided the 
 fortune of Bonaparte. The consul was present at the meeting, as 
 collected and tranquil as if occupied by nothing but mathematics. 
 
 In 1800 Biot was recalled from Beauvais, and appointed to the chair 
 of natural philosophy in the College de France ; a remarkable promo- 
 tion for one only in his twenty-sixth year. He was now more favour- 
 ably situated for scientific intercourse. One of his papers, written 
 shortly after he left the Polytechnic School, appears in the ' Memoires' 
 (torn. iii. an. 9), entitled ' Considerations sur les Integrates des Equa- 
 tions aux Differences finies,' by 'citoyen' Biot — the first of a long 
 and valuable series of contributions. The succeeding volume contains 
 his 'Rapport sur les Experiences du Citoyen Volta,' which recom- 
 mends the award of the gold medal of the Institute to the discoverer 
 of voltaic electricity. 
 
 Biot was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences — La Classe, 
 as it was then called — in 1803. Soon afterwards he and Arago com- 
 menced an experimental inquiry — ' Sur les Affinites des corps pour 
 la lumiere, et particulierement sur les forces refringentes des differeus 
 Gaz,' which was published in the ' Memoires' for 1806. The same 
 volume contains Biot's account of his journey to Aigle in the depart- 
 ment of L'Orne, to verify a fall of meteorites. The facts have since 
 remained data for the investigation of similar phenomena; and by 
 their able elucidation many persons were first convinced that meteoric 
 stones fall from the atmosphere. 
 
 In 1804 Biot accompanied Gay-Lussac in his first memorable balloon 
 ascent. In 1806 he was chosen a member of the Bureau des Longi- 
 tudes, and took part in the extension of the French arc of the meridian 
 across Spain and to the island of Formentera. [Arago.] In 1814 he 
 was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour ; and in the following 
 year the Royal Society of London elected him one of their fifty foreign 
 members. 
 
 The completion of the triangulation in the peninsula led to a wish 
 for its extension to the north. The English arc, begun by General 
 Roy, had been carried to the extremity, of Scotland by Colonel Mudge ; 
 and the Bureau des Longitudes wished to have observations made 
 along its line by Biot. " To desire a thing useful to science," says the 
 latter, " was to anticipate the assent of the savants of England, and of 
 the government of that enlightened country." On Biot's arrival in 
 England, in May 1817, he was received with abundant cordiality by 
 Sir Joseph Banks and other eminent philosophers. His instruments 
 were passed at Dover under the seal of the Customs without search or 
 delay, and conveyed without charge to Banks's residence. Every 
 facility in short was rendered to Biot towards the accomplishment of 
 his task. Colonel Mudge accompanied him to Scotland ; and on the 
 first station being chosen, at the fort of Leith, the commandant, 
 Colonel Elphinstone, had a portable observatory built, and a base of 
 heavy blocks of stone laid for the support of the instruments. " If 
 my observations were bad," said Biot, grateful for the ready aid, 
 " I had no excuse ; it was entirely my own fault." While these 
 observations were in progress, the opportunity was thought to be 
 favourable for an extension of the arc to the Shetland Isles, 2 degrees 
 more to the north than it had yet been carried. Biot was ready to 
 assist; and all the materials and instruments having been shipped on 
 board the ' Investigator,' brig of war, he sailed with Captain Richard 
 Mudge for Lerwick on the 9th of July. 
 
BIOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE. 
 
 BIRD, EDWARD, R.A. 
 
 70S 
 
 The little island of TJnst was ultimately chosen a3 the station, from 
 its being situated not only farther north, but also farther east, and 
 consequently nearer to the line of Formeutera. By the beginuing of 
 August the pendulum apparatus was set up within the solid protecting 
 walls of a vacant sheep-fold, and the observatory, with its repeatiug- 
 circle, in the garden of a resident proprietor, Mr. Edmonston, whose 
 warm hospitalities made up for a chilly climate. What a change from 
 the sunny islands of the Mediterranean ! No trees ; little vegetation 
 besides grass and mosses ; seldom free from fogs, hoarse winds, and 
 angry seas. Captain Mudge had to leave in consequence of the ill- 
 effects of the climate on his health, and Biot remained to carry on the 
 work. A young native carpenter was trained into a competent 
 assistant ; and for two months such a series of observations was made 
 as fully satisfied all requirements. The results were found to agree 
 with theory ; and when it is remembered that these results were 
 obtained by a difference of less than three fourths of a line in the 
 length of the pendulum between Formentera and Unst, some notion 
 may be formed of the singular delicacy of the observations, and the 
 consequent mental and bodily labour which they involved. 
 
 After Biot's return to Edinburgh he visited the manufacturing 
 districts of England, the two universities, and met Arago in London. 
 With him he repeated the observations on the measure of the seconds- 
 pendulum at the Greenwich Observatory. Humboldt, who was then 
 in England, took part in the work, " forgetting," to use Biot's words, 
 " the multitude of his other talents to be only an excellent observer." 
 
 An account by Biot of his journeyings and labours while engaged 
 in the triangulation, is given in the ' Memoires de l'Acade'mie Royale 
 de* Sciences, Anne"e 1318,' tome 3. The same volume contains one of 
 his papers on polarisation in crystalline bodies. To give a list of all 
 his papers would fill whole pages; but there is one in the 13th volume 
 of the "Memoires ' (1835) deserving of especial notice — ' Sur la Polari- 
 sation circulaire, et sur ses applications a la Chimie Organique.' In 
 this he makes known his discovery of circular polarisation in a great 
 number of solid and fluid substances never before examined ; and, 
 while adding largely to our knowledge of optical science, he points 
 out a direct useful application of the remarkable phenomena — namely, 
 of testing the quality of saccharine fluids. Instruments are now made 
 which, when immersed in a liquid, indicate the quantity of sugar held 
 in solution by the amount of rotation of the ray. They are used suc- 
 cessfully in pharmacy to detect adulteration, and may be employed to 
 denote the sugar in diabetic urine : an interesting example of a refined 
 philosophical experiment being turned to practical uses in commerce 
 and the arts. 
 
 In 1840 the Royal Society awarded their Rumford medal to Biot for 
 his "researches in and connected with the circular polarisation of 
 light." He is a member of three of the five academies which com- 
 pose the Institute of France. He is a foreign member of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and of 
 most of the academies and learned societies on the continent of 
 Europe. Any list of his works would necessarily be incomplete, as 
 the veteran still adds to their number ; for he retains all the vigour 
 an I fertility of his intellect, and at meetings of the Academy he speaks 
 with not less clearness and force than he writes. 
 
 On the establishment of the empire in 1804, Biot opposed any 
 expression of oniuion by the Academy, on the ground that the mem- 
 bers constituted a scientific and not a political body ; and in 1815, at 
 the return of Napoleon I. from Elba, he voted against the ' acte 
 additionel' to the constitutions of the empire. He married, when in 
 his 22ud year, the daughter of Brisson, the professor of natural 
 philosophy and contemporary of Reaumur and Nollet. They had 
 two children, a son and a daughter. The latter is now a grandmother; 
 the son died in 1850, at the age of forty-seven, a member of the 
 Ac.idemie des Inscriptions, and distinguished for his knowledge of 
 Chinese, 
 
 Among traits of Biot's character may be mentioned his fondness 
 for flowers. His study is always adorned with them ; and it is said 
 that when his wife, who was noted for her conversational powers, used 
 to enter to talk with him, he would playfully form a barricade of 
 flowers between her and himself. 
 
 Papers by Biot are to be found in the ' Mdmoires de la Socidte' 
 d'Arcueil;' the 'Annales de Chimie et de Physique ; ' the 'Journal 
 des Savants,' of which he is one of the directors; 'Mdmoiies de 
 l'lnstitut ; ' and the 'Biographie Universelle,' articles Descartes, 
 Franklin, Galilee, Liebnitz, and others. He has thrown great light on 
 the history and practice of ancient astronomy ; and as a reviewer, is 
 remarkably able and apt in illustration. Among his other works are — 
 'Analyse du Traite" de Me"canique celeste,' 8vo, 1801; 'Essai sur 
 l'Hiatoire des Sciences depuis la Revolution Francaise,' 8vo, 1803; 
 'Traite' e'le'mentaire d' Astronomic Physique,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1805 ; 
 ' Recherches sur les Infractions ordiuaires qui ont lieu prcs de 
 1' Horizon,' 4 to, 1810; 'Trait6 de Physique experitnentale et mathe- 
 tnatique,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1816 ; ' Recherches sur plusieurs Points de 
 lAstronomie figyptienne, &c.,' 8vo, 1823; 'Recueil d'Observations 
 geodesiques,' &c, 4to, 1821 (the history of the measurement of the 
 mc aforementioned); 'Recherches sur la Polarity de la Lumiere; 
 Sur l'Astronomie chez leB Anciens ; Sur quelques Determinations 
 dAstronomie ancienne, etudies cotnparativement chez les Egyptiens, 
 les Chaldeena, et les Chinoia ; ' and very many more. [Supplement.} 
 
 BIRCH, THOMAS, an historical and biographical writer, was born 
 in London, November 23rd, 1705. His parents were members of the 
 Society of Friends, and his father carried on the trade of a coffee-mill 
 maker, for which business the son was designed, but the strong 
 desire which he displayed for reading and study overruled this inten- 
 tion. For several years he acted as teacher in different schools, and in 
 all of them he sedulously applied to the pursuitof knowledge, stealing 
 many hours from sleep for this purpose. His efforts were not without 
 success, and in his twenty-fourth year beiug qualified to take orders, 
 he was ordained in the Established Church without having attended 
 either of the universities, a circumstance at that time much less 
 frequent than at present. 
 
 He owed all his advancement in the church to the patronage of 
 lord-chancellor Hardwicke, to whom he had been recommended early 
 in life, and who never afterwards lost sight of him. In 1734 Birch 
 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1752 he became one 
 of its secretaries. In 1753 the university of Aberdeen conferred upon 
 him the distinction of Doctor in Divinity; and he received a similar 
 honour in the same year from Herring, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Dr. Birch was most active and indefatigable in his literary pursuits. 
 Distinguished by unwearied industry, rather than by acuteness and 
 discrimination, he accumulated in the course of his life a vast mass 
 of materials of great value to those who possess a superior under- 
 standing without the doctor's spirit of laborious research. The first 
 work of importance in which he was engaged was the ' General 
 Dictionary, Historical and Critical.' It consisted of ten volumes in 
 folio, and included a new translation of Bayle, besides a vast quantity 
 of new matter. The first volume appeared, in 1734, aud the last in 
 1741. In 1742 he published ' Thurloe's State Papers,' in seven vols, 
 folio. He published 'Live3 of Archbishop Tillotson, and the Hon. 
 Robert Boyle,' in a separate form, and edited new editions of their 
 works ; also a new edition of Milton's Prose Works, aud the Miscella- 
 neous Works of Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1744 he commenced a series 
 of biographical memoirs of illustrious persons of Great Britain, for a 
 work published in folio by Mr. Hawbraken and Mr. Vertue, two artists. 
 Each memoir was accompanied by an engraviug of the individual to 
 whom it related. The work was published in numbers ; the first 
 volume was completed iu 1747, and the second in 1752. In the list 
 of his historical works are, ' An Inquiry into the share which King 
 Charles I. had in the transactions of the Earl of Glamorgan;' 'A 
 View of the Negociations between the Courts of England, France, and 
 Brussels, from 1592 to 1617, from original documents.' The same 
 volume contained a • Relation of the State of France, with the cha- 
 racter of Henry IV.' In 1753 he published ' Memoirs of the Reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth, from 1.381 to her death.' In 1760, a ' Life of 
 Henry Prince of Wales, eldest son of King James L' His last bio- 
 graphical work was ' Letters, Speeches, Charges, and Advices of Lord 
 Chancellor Bacon.' A Sermon which was preached before the College 
 of Physicians, in 1749, appears to be the only one of his discourses 
 which has been printed. Besides his multifarious labours for the 
 press, he transcribed a great number of volumes in the Lambeth 
 library. He also maintained an extensive correspondence. His bio- 
 grapher remarks, that Dr. Birch's habit of early rising alone enabled 
 him to get through so much work. He found time in addition for 
 the enjoyments of society. Dr. Birch was killed by a fall from his 
 hor.se, between London aud Hampstead, January 9th, 1766. He 
 bequeathed his library and manuscripts to the British Museum, of 
 which he was a trustee. The remainder of his property, amounting 
 only to about 500^., he left to be invested in Government Securities, 
 the interest to be applied in increasing the stipends of the three 
 assistant librarians at the British Museum. 
 
 BIRD, EDWARD, R.A., an excellent English 'genre' painter, was 
 born at Wolverhampton in 1772. As he evinced a strong inclination 
 for drawing, his father; who was a clothier, apprenticed him to a tea- 
 board manufacturer of Birmingham, with whom it was Bird's business 
 to paint the boards. At the expiration of the term of his indentures 
 Bird resolved to try his fortunes in the world as an artist, aud he 
 accordingly set up as a drawing-master at Bristol. Iu 1807, when he 
 was in his thirty-fifth year, he exhibited some paintings at Bath, which 
 were much admired, and sold for thirty guineas each. These were 
 succeeded by a piece called 'Good News,' which established his repu- 
 tation. Other good works succeeded, as the ' Choristers Rehearsing,' 
 and the ' Will ;' the first was purchased by William IV., the second by 
 the Marquis of Hastings, and the Royal Academy elected him R.A. 
 in 1819. He now exhibited his masterpiece, the 'Field of Chevy 
 Chase the Day after the Battle,' which was purchased by the Marquis 
 of Stafford for 300 guineas. The same nobleman purchased his next 
 picture, the ' Death of Eli,' for 500 guineas, and he obtained by it also 
 a prize of 300 guineas awarded by the British Institution. The picture 
 however was not the artist's : it was the joiut-stock property of three 
 gentlemen of Bristol, who had commissioned Bird to paint it for 
 300 guiueas, and the 500 for which the picture sold at the exhibition 
 was divided among them. The profitable result of their speculation 
 led them to give .Bird a second commission, but the painter declined 
 their further patronage. 
 
 In 1813 Bird was in London, and was introduced to the Princess 
 Charlotte, who appointed him her painter; and he presented the 
 princess with the 'Surrender of Calais,' one of his favourite pictures. 
 
703 
 
 704 
 
 This visit to London produced a great change in his taste ; no longer 
 satisfied with the humble character of his usual subjects, he forsook 
 the characteristics of rural and domestic life, in pursuit of the 
 imaginary greatness of religious and historical subjects — the 'Fortitude 
 of Job,' the 'Death of Sapphira,' the 'Crucifixion,' and the 'Burning of 
 Ridley and Latimer,' and even the ' Embarkation of Louis XVIII. for 
 France,' which at most could be but a costume show. This last under- 
 taking was a great misfortune to Bird: he required the portraits of 
 many p rsuns of rauk, native and foreign ; the prevailing upou these 
 persons to sit was a trouble and a difficulty which Bird had never 
 contemplated, and he completely failed in his attempt. He died on 
 the 2nd of November, 1819, leaving his pageant unfinished. He was 
 buried with all the honours of the city in the cloisters of Bristol 
 Cathedral. Three hundred gentlemen followed his body to the grave : 
 his son, a child of seven years of age, was the chief mourner. But 
 though at the desire of the citizens the funeral was a public one, the 
 expense of it was left to be borne by his widow — a matter which 
 subsequently led to much recrimination. 
 
 Of the kind of picture by which Bird gained his popularity, he 
 executed several which have not been mentioned — as the ' Black- 
 smith's Shop,' the ' Country Auction,' the 'Gipsy Boy,' the 'Young 
 Recruit,' ' Meg Merrilies,' the ' Game at Put,' and some of his earliest 
 works, as the ' Village Politicians,' and the ' l'oacher,' in six scenes. 
 
 (Cunningham, Lives of the most eminent British Painters, &c.) 
 
 BIRD, JOHN, a celebrated mathematical instrument maker, was 
 born of poor parents, about the year 1709. lie was brought up a cloth- 
 weaver in the county of Durham. What first occasioned him to turn 
 his thoughts to the art in which he afterwards so much excelled was 
 his accidentally observing, in a clockmaker's shop, the coarse and 
 irregular divisions of the minutes and seconds on a clock dial-plate. 
 He came to Loudon in the year 1740, ami began his career by dividing 
 astronomical instruments both for Graham and Sisson, and afterwards 
 carried on business in the Strand. His celebrated Greenwich quadrant 
 was mounted February 16, 1750. Another instrument was erected in 
 the Oxford Observatory. His last work was the mural quadrant for 
 the Ecole Militaire at Paris, with which D'Agelet and the two La 
 Laudes determined the declinations of 50,000 stars. In 1767 he 
 received 500Z. from the Board of Longitude, on condition that he 
 should take an apprentice, instruct other persons as required, and 
 furnish, upon oath, descriptions aud plates of his methods. He died 
 March 31, 1776, aged sixty-seven years. 
 
 BIHDE, WILLIAM, who is numbered among the most celebrated 
 of our ecclesiastical composers, was born about the year 1540, and 
 educated as one of ' the children' in the chapel of Edward VI., pro- 
 bably under the 'famous Thomas Tallis,' whose pupil he certainly was 
 at an early period of his life. In 1563 he was chosen organist of 
 Lincoln Cathedral, and in 1575, conjointly with Tallis, he became 
 organist to Queeu Elizabeth, as well as gentleman of her chapel. He 
 died in 1623. Birde seems to have been highly esteemed, both in his 
 private and professional capacity. That he was great in his art, at a 
 time however when that art exhibited more of study than genius, his 
 compositions afford indisputable evidence. His complete Service, 
 together with three Full Anthems, published in Boyce's ' Collection,' 
 prove his musical learning, which is further evinced in his ' Cautiones 
 Sacra;,' or sacred songs for many voices, printed, under letters-patent 
 from Queen Elizabeth, in junction with his master Tallis, and repub- 
 lished a few years back by the Society of Musical Antiquarians. He 
 also contributed largely to ' Queen Elizabeth's Virginal-Book,' " a 
 magnificent folio manuscript curiously bound in red morocco," now 
 in the British Museum, containing nearly seventy pieces for the organ 
 and virginal. He also published other works, chiefly with Latin words, 
 all of them displaying deep study, and a profound knowledge of florid 
 counterpoint. But he is now generally known — is in fact well known 
 everywhere— by his canon ' Non nobis, Domine,' a unique composi- 
 tion, which has rather gained than lost by the operation of time, formed 
 as it is of materials so enduring, that in spite of the love of novelty, 
 which in music is so influential, it has maintained its ground during 
 nearly two centuries and a half. Some attempts have been from time 
 to time made, particularly on the continent, to tear so valuable a leaf 
 from Birde's laurels, but he is still left in full possession of this, his 
 richest, never-fading ornament. 
 
 BIRKBECK, GEORGE, M.D., was born January 10, 1776, at Settle 
 in Yorkshire, where his father was a merchant and banker. He dis- 
 played an early predilection for mechanical and scientific subjects, 
 which led him to select the medical profession as his pursuit. He 
 commenced his medical studies at Leeds, and at the age of eighteen 
 repaired to Edinburgh, where he remained one session. The following 
 winter he became a pupil of Dr. Baillie in London ; but at its close he 
 again went to Edinburgh, and at the termination of his fourth session 
 took his degree. His reputation in the university was already con- 
 siderable, and he had formed a friendship with Brougham, Jeffrey, 
 Sidney Smith, F. Horner, and others who afterwards attained eminence. 
 While at Edinburgh he was elected to the professorship of the Ander- 
 sonian Institution at Glasgow, and in November 1799 commenced his 
 first course of lectures there on Natural and Experimental Philosophy. 
 There was at that time no maker of philosophical instruments at 
 Glasgow, and he was obliged to have his philosophical apparatus made 
 ty ordinary workmen. He had employed a tinman to construct a 
 
 model of a centrifugal pump; and it was in the cellar which formed 
 the workshop, while surrounded by the workmen who had made it, 
 but were ignorant of its use, that he was first struck with the idea of 
 giving a gratuitous course of lectures for the scientific instruction of 
 the mechanics of Glasgow. In March 1800 he communicated his wishes 
 on this subject to the trustees of the Andersonian Institution, who 
 regarded the proposal as visionary, and nothing was done during the 
 session. At its close Dr. Birkbeck returned to Yorkshire, and in 
 preparing the prospectus of his courses for the ensuing session, he 
 announced his intention of establishing a class " solely for persons 
 engaged in the practical exercise of the mechanical arts, men whose 
 education in early life has precluded even the possibility of acquiring 
 the smallest portion of scientific knowledge." In the style of these 
 lectures he promised that he would study " simplicity of expression 
 and familiarity of illustration." On his return to Glasgow a printed 
 invitation was circulated in the different manufactories, which contained 
 an offer of tickets for the admission of the most intelligent workmen 
 in each manufactory into the mechanics' class at the Andersonian 
 Institution. The number who accepted this offer was not large, and 
 the first lecture was attended by only seventy-five persons ; but it 
 gave so much satisfaction, and excited such general interest, that at 
 the second lecture the number was increased to two hundred ; at the 
 third lecture above three hundred mechanics were present, and at the 
 fourth above five hundred ; and as the theatre of the institution would 
 not accommodate many more persons, it became necessary to limit the 
 number of tickets. At the close of the course his class of mechanics 
 presented him with a silver cup. Dr. Birkbeck continued his lectures 
 to them for the two succeeding seasons. In 1804 he relinquished the 
 professorship, and was succeeded by Dr. Ure. 
 
 In 1806 Dr. Birkbeck settled in London, where he soon obtained t 
 good practice as a physician. While in active practice in London as 
 a physician, Dr. Birkbeck had few opportunities of following up the 
 labours which he had commenced at Glasgow for the advancement of 
 scientific knowledge amongst artisans ; but it was a subject which he 
 had always at heart. In 1820 he gave a gratuitous course of seven- 
 teen lectures at the London Institution. In February 1823 the 
 mechanics of Glasgow who attended the lectures at the Andersonian 
 Institution, as a mark of respect for his character, and in gratitude 
 to him as the 'liberal-minded projector and founder' of the mechanics 
 class, asked his consent to allow his portrait to be taken. In July of 
 the same year they resolved to establish a school for their own instruc- 
 tion, to be called the Glasgow Mechanics Institution. Many circum- 
 stances now tended to a general development of Dr. Birkbeck's 
 favourite plans. In 1821 a School of Art3 had been established at 
 Edinburgh, through the exertions principally of Mr. Leonard Horaer. 
 In the 'Mechanics Magazine' for October 11, 1823, a paper appeared 
 entitled ' Proposals for a Loudon Mechanics Institute.' Dr. Birkbeck 
 was at this time engaged in preparing an Essay on the Scientific 
 Education of the Working Classes, and ho wrote to the 'Mechanics 
 Magazine ' (of October 18th), offering information and every assistance 
 in his power in the formation of the projected institution. He was 
 soon actively engaged in this object, and on the 11th of November 
 1823, presided at a public meeting at the Crown and Anchor, which 
 was attended, amongst others, by Dr. Lushington, Jeremy Bentham, 
 David Wilkie, and Cobbett ; Lord Brougham, who had attended the 
 preliminary meetings, was absent from other engagements. After 
 another meeting, on the 2nd of December, the first officers of the 
 'London Mechanics Institution' were appointed on the 15th of 
 December. Dr. Birkbeck was elected president, which office he filled 
 till his death. At the formation of the institution Dr. Birkbeck 
 generously lent the sum of 3700/., for the purpose of building a lecture- 
 room, &c. On the 20th of February 1824 he delivered an inaugural 
 address on the opening of the institution. 
 
 Dr. Birkbeck's professional and scientific pursuits, and his services 
 in various ways, in connection with objects of public utility, were 
 continued to the last. He died December 1, 1841, at his residence in 
 Finsbury-square, London, of a severe internal disease which occasioned 
 great suffering. He left a son by his first wife, and two sons and two 
 daughters by his second wife, who survived him. His funeral was 
 attended by a large procession of the working-classes, the members of 
 the Mechanics Institute and other societies, the committee of the 
 Polish refugees and a number of Poles; and among the private 
 carriages was that of the Turkish ambassador : altogether about a 
 thousand persons were present. 
 
 BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY, was born in London in 1780. 
 He received his musical education under Signor Bianchi, who was then 
 settled in London as composer at the Opera House. In 1806 Mr. 
 Bishop obtained the appointment of composer of ballet music at the 
 opera, a post he occupied for some time ; but little more than the 
 titles of the pieces written by him have been preserved. The first of 
 his long series of English operas, « The Circassian Bride,' was produced 
 at Drury Lane Theatre on the 23rd of February 1809, with great 
 success ; but on the following evening the theatre was destroyed by 
 fire, and the score of his opera perished in the flames. For the next 
 sixteen or seventeen years he wrote almost incessantly for Drury Lane 
 and Covent Garden theatres, at the latter of which he for several years 
 held the office of composer and musical director. During this period 
 he is said to have produced upwards of seventy operas, ballets, and 
 
BITOIST. 
 
 BLACKLOCK, REV. THOMAS, D.D. 
 
 musical entertainments. Of these many are forgotten ; but others are 
 still repeated, and, on account of their flowing melodies and animated 
 style, are, when tolerably played, always heard with genuine pleasure. 
 Those which best illustrate his style are ' Guy Mannering,' the 'Slave,' 
 the ' Miller and his Men,' ' Maid Marian,' * Native Land,' the ' Virgin 
 of the Sun,' the ' Knight of Snowdon,' the ' Englishman in India,' &c., 
 in all of which there is true musical power. He also ' composed and 
 adapted ' Mozart's ' Barber of Seville,' ' Marriage of Figaro,' &c. But 
 the incessant calls upon him begot a hasty careless manner, and he 
 frequently, in the later years of his connection with the theatres, con- 
 tented himself with crude rifacimentos of the scores of foreign com- 
 posers ; and his fame in consequence gradually declined. At length, 
 aroused by the production of Weber's ' Oberon ' at Covent Garden 
 Theatre, in 1826, he composed ' Aladdin ' in direct rivalry to that 
 famous work, and brought it out at the same time at Drury Lane. 
 But instead of trusting to his own genius, ' Aladdin ' was a direct 
 attempt in the German style, and it proved an entire failure. Mortified 
 at his loss of popularity, he never agaiu composed for the stage. 
 Besides his theatrical pieces, he composed three or four shorter pieces 
 for a series of eiaXorios, which he conducted about 1819-20. He 
 arranged also several volumes of the ' National Melodies ; ' and he 
 composed and arranged all Moore's ' Melodies ' subsequent to Steven- 
 son's secession from that publication. 
 
 Sir Henry Bishop was knighted in acknowledgment of his musical 
 emiuence by the Queen soon after her accession to the throne. He 
 was one of the first directors of the Philharmonic Society, and con- 
 ductor of the Concerts of Ancient Music. He was also Reid professor 
 of music at Edinburgh ; and in 1848 was elected professor of music at 
 Oxford University. He died April 30, 1855, aged seventy-five. Sir 
 Henry had heavy domestic trials, and he was not prudent in money 
 matters ; so that his later years were clouded by much anxiety and 
 suffering. 
 
 Bishop was one of the first English composers of modern times. 
 Had he written le^s he would have written better ; but as it is, though 
 few if any of his operas are likely to retain a permanent place on the 
 stage, and his elaborate imitative philharmonic cantatas have long been 
 forgotten, much of his chamber and concert music — married as it so 
 often is to immortal verse — will long continue to delight the public 
 ear, and will indeed most likely be still popular when many far more 
 pretentious pieces of foreign as well as home growth shall have passed 
 away with their novelty. Many of his songs and glees have the truest 
 inspiration of that class of music — flowing, vivid, graceful, and free 
 from all affectation. 
 
 (Dictionary of Musicians ; Athenceum, 1855; Gentleman's Magazine, 
 1855.) 
 
 BITON, a Greek writer about the time of Archimedes. A work by 
 him on the construction of catapultae is extant, in the collection of 
 Thevenot ; he mentions another work which he wrote, on Optics, 
 which is lost. 
 
 BIZARI, PETER, a considerable poet and historian of the 16th 
 eentury, was born at Sasso-ferrato, near Ancona, in Umbria or Spoleto, 
 within the States of the Church. He was one of those who, having 
 embraced the doctrines of the Reformation, were forced to leave their 
 native country to escape the cruelties which followed on the establish- 
 ment of the Inquisition in the Papal States. After spending some 
 time at the court of London, he went to Scotland, where he was 
 honourably received by Queen Mary and the Earl of Murray, who 
 had then the chief direction of the government. Bizari informs us 
 that Mary presented him with a chain of gold ; and he has addressed 
 one of his works to that princess. (' Varia Opusc.' fol. 28 A.) At 
 what time he was in Scotland does not precisely appear; but in a 
 poem inscribed 'Ad Jacobum Stuardum Scoticum,' he celebrates the 
 victory which that nobleman gained over the Earl of Huntly, in such 
 terms as to lead to the inference that he was then in Scotland. (Ibid. 
 foL 93 A.) The battle of Corrichie, in which Huntly fell, was fought 
 iu October 1562. 
 
 Andrew Melville, the celebrated Scottish reformer, when at the 
 University of St. Andrews, was introduced to Bizari, who expressed 
 his high opinion and warm regard for him iu a dodecastiehon of 
 elegant Latin poetry, which, with several of Bizati's minor poems, is 
 inserted in Gruter's ' Deliciae Poetarum Italorum.' Mackenzie, 
 Chalmers, and other Scottish writers, have confounded Bizari with a 
 person whom they describe as Peter or Patrick Bissat, Bisset, or 
 Bisaart, born and educated in Scotland, and afterwards professor of 
 the canon law in the University of Bologna, and the author of 'P. 
 Biasarti opera omnia, viz. Poemata, Oratioues, Lectiones feriale*, et 
 lib. de Irregularitate,' Venetiis, 1565. 
 
 Bizari was the author of several works of merit: — 'Varia Opus- 
 cula,' containing various tracts and speeches, and two books of poems, 
 published at Venice in 1565; 'A History of the War in Hungary, 
 with a narrative of the principal events in Europe from 1564 to 1568,' 
 Ljons, 1569 : this work was afterwards translated by the author from 
 [ taliaD » in which it first appeared, into Latin, and published in 
 io ' An Account of the War of Cyprus between the Venetians 
 andSehm of Turkey,' in Latin, Bale, 1573 ; Antwerp, 1583. 'Epi- 
 tome Insignium Europa Historiarunu,' Bale, 1573. ' Anuals of Genoa, 
 from 1573 to 1579,' published in Latin at Antwerp the latter year. 
 Jieipubhcae Genuensis leges nova?, nunc in lucem editae,' 1576 : this 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOI, L 
 
 work was reprinted by Grrevius in his ' Thesaurus Antiq. Italiso.' torn, 
 i. ; as was also ' Dissertatio de Universo Reipublicas Genuensis Btatu 
 et administratione,' Antwerp, 1579. 'A History of Persia,' in Latin, 
 1583; in speaking of which, Boxornius calls Bizari " gravissimum 
 rerum Persicarum scriptorem." Uiacobilli, in his ' Catal. Script. Prov. 
 Umb rise,' makes mention of another work of Bizari's, entitled ' De 
 Moribus Belgicis.' 
 
 (Mazzuchelli, OH Scrittori d' Italia, torn. iv. p. 1295 ; Tiraboschi, 
 Storia della Litteratura Italiana, torn. xi. p. 1009; Verdier, Bibl. 
 Francoise, torn. v. p. 236; Diet. Univ. Historique ; M'Crie, Life of 
 Melville, vol. i. pp. 1 6, 17.) 
 
 BLACK, JOSEPH, was born in France on the banks of the Garonne 
 in the year 1728. His father, though a native of Belfast, and also his 
 mother, were of Scotch descent. In 1740 Joseph Black was sent to 
 Belfast, and six years afterwards to the University of Glasgow, where 
 he continued his studies with great assiduity and success, devoting his 
 attention chiefly to physical science. Having chosen the profession of 
 medicine, he went to complete his medical studies at Edinburgh in 
 1750 or 1751 : he had previously had the advantage of attending 
 Dr. Cullen's lectures on chemistry at Glasgow. This science, iu which 
 he was destined to act so important a part, strongly excited his 
 attention, and he pursued it experimentally with great vigour and 
 commensurate success. 
 
 The chemical subject which seems first peculiarly to have excited 
 his attention was the causticity of lime ; a property till then supposed 
 to be due to the absorption by the lime of some igneous agency. He 
 placed the question on a scientific basis, by ascertaining the chemical 
 difference between quick lime and other forms of the carbonate. 
 Black wrote in 1754 an inaugural thesis on the subject, 'De Acido a 
 cibis orto et de Magnesia,' and a treatise entitled ' Experiments on 
 Magnesia, Quicklime, and other Alkaline Substances,' in 1755, in which 
 his views were much more fully developed. In 1756 he was appointed 
 professor of anatomy and lecturer on chemistry in the University of 
 Glasgow, where he continued till 1766, when he was appointed to the 
 chemical chair in Edinburgh. Between the years 1759 and 1763 he 
 matured the speculations on heat which had for a long period occa- 
 sionally occupied his thoughts. Boerhaave has recorded an observation 
 made by Fahrenheit, that water would become considerably colder 
 than melting snow, without freezing, and would freeze in a moment 
 if disturbed, and in the act of freezing emitted many degrees of heat. 
 This notice seems to have supplied Dr. Black with some vague notion 
 that the heat received by ice during its conversion into water is not 
 lost, but is contained in the water. He instituted a train of careful 
 experiments on this subject, which bore out his idea; iu the melting 
 of ice, and in the boiling of water, there is a large amount of heat 
 absorbed, which is not sensible to the thermometer, and is therefore 
 named by him 'concealed' or 'latent' heat. It was this discovery 
 that mainly urged Watt to the adoption of improved arrangements iu 
 the steam-engine. 
 
 Black wrote a paper in the ' Philosophical Transactions ' on the 
 freezing of boiled water ; and another in the Edinburgh ' Transactions' 
 on the hot springs of Iceland. He was never married. He died 
 November 26, 1799, in his seventy-first year. 
 
 As a lecturer, Black was thus characterised by Dr. Robison ('Preface' 
 to Black's 'Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry') : — "He became 
 one of the principal ornaments of the University ; and his lectures 
 were attended by an audience which continued increasing from year to 
 year, for more than thirty years. It could not be otherwise. His 
 personal appearance and manners were those of a gentleman, and 
 peculiarly pleasing. His voice in lecturing was low, but fine ; and his 
 articulation so distinct, that he was perfectly well heard by an audience 
 consisting of several hundreds. His discourse was so plain and perspi- 
 cuous, his illustration by experiment so apposite, that his sentiments 
 on any subject never could be mistaken even by the most illiterate ; 
 and his instructions were so clear of all hypothesis or conjecture, that 
 the hearer rested on his conclusions with a confidence scarcely exceeded 
 in matters of his own experience." 
 
 BLACKLOCK, THE REV. THOMAS, D.D., a divine of the Estab- 
 lished Church of Scotland, and a writer of poetry, was born at Annan 
 in 1721. Before he was six months old he lost his sight, and it was 
 partly to this misfortune that he owed his future distinction. Being 
 precluded from the usual enjoyments of youth, he imbibed a stronger 
 love of learning, which his father, who was a tradesman of an intel- 
 ligent mind, took pains to gratify by reading to his son the works of 
 the best authors. His father did not possess the means of giving his 
 son a liberal education, but notwithstanding this disadvantage his 
 intellectual progress was very rapid, and the mental concentration 
 which his loss of sight occasioned became habitual to hitn. At an 
 early age he acquired some knowledge of the Latin language from his 
 more fortunate companions who attended the grammar-school ; and in 
 his twelfth year he produced verses which indicated considerable 
 talent. When he had reached his twentieth year his sister wa<i united 
 to a man above her own rank of life, and young Blacklock now enjoyed 
 the advantage of mixing with more intelligent society. His father's 
 death, which occurred not long afterwards, appears to have greatly 
 affected him. In a poem entitled 'A Soliloquy,' written after the 
 death of his father, JJlacklock expresses himself with much feeling, 
 but with piety and resignation, on his helpless condition. Having 
 
 2a 
 
707 
 
 BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 708 
 
 been introduced to Dr. Stevenson, a physician of Edinburgh, this 
 gentleman was so much struck with Blacklock's talents that he offered 
 to take upon himself the charge of his education ; and in consequence 
 of this liberality he commenced his studies at the Edinburgh Grammar 
 school in 1741, but they were interrupted in 1715 by the Rebellion, 
 when he returned to his friends at Dumfries. He had in this interval 
 made gratifying progress, had published a volume of poetry, and 
 having been introduced to the family of the lord provost, whose wife 
 was a native of France, he had acquired the French language during 
 the intercourse to which it led. When affairs had resumed their 
 ordinary course, he returned to Edinburgh, and continuing his studies 
 for six years longer, made himself master of the Greek, Latin, and 
 Italian languages. He was, in addition, a proficient in music, of 
 which he was particularly fond. Iu 1754 a second edition of his 
 poems was called for, and a quarto edition was published in London 
 by subscription in 1756, when David Hume and Mr. Speuce, professor 
 of poetry at Oxford, particularly exerted themselves to promote his 
 interests. 
 
 Having completed his studies at the University, he was licensed in 
 1759 as a preacher of the Gospel. In 1702 ho married, and imme- 
 diately after was ordained minister at Kirkcudbright, in consequence 
 of a crown presentation. Owing however to the hostility of his flock 
 to this mode of church patronage, and also to the style of his preaching, 
 he gave up the living after having held it two years, amidst circum- 
 stances very painful to his sensitive mind. The small annuity which 
 he accepted iu its place was scarcely sufficient for his support, and in 
 retiring to Edinburgh in 1764, he opened his house for the reception 
 of a few young gentlemen as boarders, to whose studies and improve- 
 ment he directed Ida attention with much success. In this position 
 he continued for twenty-three years, until 17557, when the state of his 
 health induced him to withdraw from these duties. Ho died after 
 about a week's illness, July 7, 1791. The degree of Doctor of Divinity 
 had been conferred on him in 1766 by the University of Aberdeen. 
 In private life Dr. Blacklock was distinguished by the great mildness 
 and gentleness of his disposition, which not even the nervous irritability 
 to which he was subject could affect, by his ardent love of know- 
 ledge, and by the simplicity and modesty of his character. His poetry 
 will be read or referred to on account of the peculiar circumstances 
 under which it was written. It is marked by a vein of placid elegauce, 
 but is wanting alike iu vigour of thought and force of imagination. 
 
 Dr. Blacklock was not only a poet but a writer on philosophy and 
 theology. The following is a list of his works: — 'An Essay towards 
 Universal Etymology, or the Analysis of a Sentence,' 8vo, 1756. ' The 
 Right Improvement of Time,' a sermon, 8vo, 1760. 'Faith, Hope, 
 and Charity Compared,' a sermon, 1761. ' Paraclesis, or Consolations 
 deduced from Natural and Revealed Religion, in two dissertations; 
 the first supposed to have been written by Cicero, now rendered into 
 English; the last originally composed by Thomas Blacklock, D D.,' 
 1767. ' Two Discourses on the Spirit and Evidences of Christianity,' 
 translated from the French, and published in 1768 without his name. 
 'A Panegyric on Great Britain,' a poem, 8vo, 1773. ' The Graham,' 
 an heroic poem, in four cantos, 4to, 1774. In 1793 a po.-thumous 
 edition of his poems was published by Mackenzie, author of the 
 ' Man of Feeling,' with a Life of Blacklock. In addition to the Lives 
 by Spence and Mackenzie, the Life of Blacklock has been written by 
 Dr. Anderson and Mr. Gordon. 
 
 BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD, a physician, poet, and miscella- 
 neous writer, was the son of an attorney at Corsham, Wilts, and was 
 burn about the year 1650. In his thirteenth year he was sent to 
 Westminster school, whence he proceeded to Oxford, where he 
 remained thirteen years. After this it is said that he was for some 
 time employed as a schoolmaster. He then made a tour on the con- 
 tinent, in the course of which he took the degree of M.D. in the 
 University of Padua. On his return to England he was chosen Fellow 
 of the Royal College of Physicians, and commenced practice in the 
 metropolis. His attachment to the principles of the Revolution pro- 
 cured him the appointment of physician to William III., and he was 
 for some time one of the court physicians in the succeeding reign. 
 He wrote several medical treatises, none of which are in any way 
 remarkable, except perhaps one on the small-pox, in which he com- 
 bated the practice of inoculation. He also published an historical 
 work : ' A true and impartial History of the Conspiracy against King 
 William in 1695.' 
 
 The numerous poems which Blackmore wrote are now nearly for- 
 gotten. His ' Prince Arthur,' an heroic poem in ten books, reached 
 a third edition in 1696. The following year he published 'King 
 Arthur,' another heroic poem in twelve books. Both these poems 
 were published in folio. Besides the above, he wrote ' Eliza,' a poem 
 in ten books, also printed in folio ; ' the Redeemer,' a poem in six 
 books ; and ' King Alfred,' a poem in twelve books. Dr. Johnson 
 remarks that "the first of his epic poems had such reputation as 
 enraged the critics ; the second was at least known enough to be 
 ridiculed; the two last had neither friends nor enemies." In 1700 
 he published ' A Paraphrase on the Book of Job, and other parts of 
 Scripture;' in 1716, two volumes of ' Essays ; ' in 1718, a ' Collection 
 of Poems,' in one volume; and in 1721, 'Anew version of the Psalms 
 of David, fitted to the Tunes used in Churches.' In a paper addressed 
 to the king, and signed by the two archbishops and fifteen of the 
 
 bishops, this work was strongly recommended on account of its 
 " agreement with the original Hebrew, and its clearness and purity of 
 English style." In 1721 and 1725 he wrote in opposition to Arianism ; 
 and in 1728 he published a work entitled 'Natural Theology, or Moral 
 Duties considered apart from Positive; with some observations on 
 the desirableness and necessity of a Scriptural Revelation.' The 
 ' Accomplished Preacher, or an Essay upon Divine Eloquence,' was 
 published at his express desire after his death, which took place 
 October 8, 1729. 
 
 Never perhaps was any writer the object of such general attack by 
 his contemporaries as Sir Richard Blackmore. Nearly all the wits of 
 his day seem to have joined in this confederacy. One topic of abuse 
 against him was that he lived in Cheapside, whence he was sometimes 
 called 'the Cheapside Knight,' and 'the City Bard.' Sir Samuel 
 Garth addresses him as " the merry poetaster at Sauler's Hall in 
 Cheapside." He was considered, ' par excellence,' as the poet of dul- 
 ness. In spite of these railleries he continued to put forth his ' heroic 
 poems,' which display little art either in their plan or composition, 
 and as little imagination. His professed object being " to engage 
 poetry in the cause of virtue," he seems to have imagined that the 
 graces of language were unworthy of his attention ; and, confident iu 
 his own powers, he continued his course, regarding the attacks of his 
 opponents with comparative equanimity. The intention of his ' Satire 
 upon Wit ' was to castigate the authors of works of an immoral 
 tendency, and he took this opportunity of retaliating on his assailants. 
 He always reprehended with severity the licence of the stage, and, 
 though no puritan, lamented the licentiousness which succeeded the 
 Restoration. It was probably this course, rather than the alleged 
 dulness of his writings, that occasioned the ridicule of the day to be 
 so strongly directed against him. The ' Creation,' a philosophical 
 poem, is not undeserving of commendation ; indeed there are several 
 important testimonials in its favour. Addison states that it was 
 " undertaken with so good an intention, and executed with so great a 
 mastery, that it deserves to be looked upon as one of the most useful 
 and noble productions in our English verse." Dr. Johnson, in hia 
 ' Life of Blackmore,' says that if he had written only this poem it 
 " would have transmitted him to posterity among the first favourites 
 of the English Muse." At a later day, Cowper, although he confesses 
 that Blackmore has " written more absurdities iu verse than any 
 writer of our country," acknowledges that " he shines iu hia poem 
 called the ' Creation."' Since this opinion was expressed this poem 
 has been gradually sinking iuto the neglect which Blackmore' s other 
 writings experienced much sooner. 
 
 In November 1713, Sir Richard commenced a periodical paper called 
 the ' Lay Monk,' which appeared three times a week. He was induced 
 to undertake this publication from a belief that he could do good by 
 it ; but it only reached forty numbers. It may be mentioned to his 
 credit, that the purity of his private character was never once called 
 in question by his most bitter critics. His temper was serious, and he 
 was a firm supporter of what he considered the interests of virtue and 
 religion. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM, an English judge, is best known 
 as the author of ' Commentaries on the Laws of England.' He was 
 born in London, July 10th, 1723, a few months after the death of his 
 father, who was a silk-mercer ; he also had the misfortune to lose hia 
 mother at an early age. His education was carefully superintended by 
 an uncle, who sent him, when about seven years old, to the Charter- 
 house, where at the end of five years he was placed on the foundation. 
 At the age of 15 he was at the head of the school ; and in his 16th 
 year he removed to Pembroke College, Oxford. Having selected the 
 law as his profession, he entered the Middle Temple, on which occasion 
 he wrote the verses entitled ' The Lawyer's Farewell to his Muse,' 
 which were printed in Dodsley's ' Miscellany.' He had displayed some 
 ability as a writer of small pieces, and also had obtained a gold prize 
 medal for verses on Milton. In 1743 he was elected Fellow of All 
 Souls College, Oxford, and three years afterwards was called to the 
 bar. After an experience of saven years in the courts at Westminster, 
 during which he discovered that his talents were not calculated to 
 ensure him any very eminent professional rank, he withdrew to hia 
 fellowship at Oxford, intending to lead an academic life. In 1749 he 
 was appointed recorder of Wallingford, Berks, on the resignation of 
 his uncle. 
 
 As the University of Oxford did not afford facilities for studying 
 the principles of the English constitution and laws, he resolved 
 upon supplying the deficiency by a course of lectures. This course 
 opened in Michaelmas Term 1753, and was so well received that it 
 was repeated with additions for several years. The advantage of 
 rendering such a course of lectures permanent being fully demon- 
 strated, a gentleman named Viner left by will a provision for this 
 purpose. In 1758 Blackstone was appointed the first Vinerian pro- 
 fessor, and from the assiduity with which he discharged the duties of 
 the situation he attracted a large class of students. Having beea 
 requested to read his lectures to the Prince of Wales, Blackstone 
 declined the honour, as he did not think himself at liberty to break 
 his engagements with his class at Oxford ; however, he sent copies of 
 many of the lectures to be read to the young prince. 
 
 Having been engaged as counsel in a contested election (for he 
 occasionally practised), the right of copyholders to vote came under 
 
BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 BLACKWELL, THOMAS, LL.D. 
 
 his consideration, which circumstance led him to publish his opinions 
 on this question. He denied their right; and the enemies of popular 
 privileges being glad to find themselves thus supported, the conse- 
 quence was au act of parliament taking away the franchise from this 
 description of electors. 
 
 The popularity of his lectures, together with the publication of a 
 new edition of the ' Great Charter and Charter of the Forest,' accom- 
 panied by an historical preface, prepared the way for his return to the 
 law courts in the metropolis, where he was soon engaged in extensive 
 practice. He entered parliament in 1761, and sat for Hindon. The 
 miuis'ry of Lord Bute marked their approbation of bis conduct by 
 granting him in 1762 a patent of precedence to rank as king's counsel, 
 and by appointing him solicitor-general to the queen in the following 
 year. He had previously declined the office of Chief Justice of the 
 Court of Common Pleas in Ireland. About this time he married Sarah, 
 eldest daughter of James Clitheroe, Esq., of Boston House, Middlesex, 
 by whom he had nine children, seven of whom survived him. As he 
 lost his fellowship by marriage, the Earl of Westmorland, then chan- 
 cellor of the university of Oxford, appointed him principal of New Inn 
 Hall : a year afterwards he resigned this appointment, as well as the 
 Vinerian professorship. 
 
 The first volume of the ' Commentaries on the Laws of England ' 
 was published at Oxford in 1765. The other three volumes appeared 
 not long afterwards. The work called forth an anonymous pamphlet 
 entitled ' A Fragment on Government,' the author of which was the 
 lute Jeremy Bentham. Dr. Priestley also made a fierce attack on some 
 of the opinions which the work coutaiued relative to offences against 
 the doctrines of the Established Church. On the question ' whether 
 a member expelled was or was not eligible in the same perliament,' 
 the opinions which Blackstone expressed in the House of Commons 
 being deemed contradictory to his writings, he was attacked in a 
 pamphlet understood to be written by one of the members. He 
 defended himself in a pamphlet which 'Junius' noticed in his 'Letters.' 
 With Priestley and 'Junius,' and the author of the ' Fragment on 
 Government,' as his opponents, the ministry of the day (Lord North's) 
 naturally became his protectors, aud continued their favours towards 
 him. In 1770 he was offered the situation of solicitor-general, which 
 he declined. He was then made one of the justices of the Court of 
 Common Pleas. Previous however to his patent being passed, Mr. 
 Justice Yates expressed a wish to retire from the Court of King's 
 Bench into the Court of Common Pleas, an arrangement to which Sir 
 W. Blackstone, from motives of personal regard, at once consented. 
 Four months afterwards, on the death of Mr. Justice Yates, he 
 removed to the Court of Common Pleas. He sat in the Court of 
 Common Pleas till his death, which occurred February 14, 1780, from 
 a dropsical complaint. 
 
 Aa a judge, Sir William Blackstone had a great respect for the usages 
 and formalities which surround the bench, and he strove to impress 
 others with the same feeling. His political sentiments were of the 
 class called moderate. He disliked the contentions of parties, and one 
 of the consequences of his elevation, on which he most congratulated 
 himself, was his removal from the House of Commons, " where," as 
 he used to observe, " amidst the rage of contending parties, a man of 
 moderation must expect to meet no quarter from any side." His 
 talents for business were very superior, and some offices which he had 
 undertaken at the university he discharged with great advantage to 
 the interests of those concerned. He kept his own accounts with 
 rigorous exactitude. His brother-in-law, who drew up a memoir of 
 his life, which is prefixed to the 'Reports' published after his death, 
 (ays that "he was an excellent manager of his time, aud extremely 
 rigid in observing the hour and minute of an appointment." It may 
 be stated, on the same authority, that in private life he was a cheerful 
 and facetious companion ; a faithful friend ; an affectionate husband 
 and parent; economical, but at the same time charitable and generous. 
 He was severe to those less strict than himself in the observance of 
 the ordinary duties of life; and as he advanced in years, his temper, 
 which was somewhat irritable, was rendered worse by a nervous 
 affection. The university of Oxford contains several memorials to his 
 honour. In 1784 a statue by Bacon was erected in All Souls' College, 
 and in one of the windows of the chapel beion.ing to this college are 
 placed his arms. His portrait was presented to the picture gallery by 
 the scholars on the Vinerian fouudation. 
 
 The 'Commentaries' have been edited by Coleridge, Archbold, 
 Williams, Chitty, Christian, Lea, and Kerr, each edition being in four 
 vols. 8vo, with notes. The last edition is that of Kerr. They have 
 been abridged by Curry, by Gifford, and also by Warren ; excerpted by 
 Kerr as a ' Student's Blackstone,' in one vol. 8vo ; and ' elucidated ' by 
 Jones. With the exception of Burn's 'Justice,' perhaps no law-book, 
 and few books of any kind, have had a sale equal to that of the ' Com- 
 mentaries.' (' Life of Sir W. Blackstone,' by Clitheroe ; ' Life,' by 
 Thomas Lee, Esq.) On the appearance of the fourth volume of Black- 
 stODe's 'Commentaries,' Dr. Priestley published some remarks written 
 with great acrimony and considerable vigour, on those passages which 
 related to the dissenters. The pamphlet is dated Leeds, July, 1769. 
 'The Reply' of Blackstone (dated Wallingford, 1769) is in a calm and 
 moderate, but feeble tone, and forms a curious contrast with the 
 vigorous argument and somewhat coarse invective of Priestley. The 
 commentator admits that one of the passages animadverted upon is 
 
 " somewhat incorrect and confused ;" but declares that his views 
 towards the dissenters are very different from what Dr. Priestley 
 imputes to him. Several of these obnoxious passages were modified or 
 cut out in subsequent editions of the ' Commentaries.' 
 
 The number of testimonials in favour of the 'Commentaries' is 
 doubtless much greater than the number which can be quoted against 
 them. The weight of opinion perhaps lies on the other side. In the 
 admirable Preface to his ' Fragment,' Beutham clearly points out the 
 fundamental error of Blackstone, the source of his endless confusion. 
 " There are two characters," he says, "one or other of which every 
 man who finds anything to say cn the subject of law may be said to 
 take upon him ; that of the expositor, and that of the censor. To the 
 province of the expositor it belongs to explain to us what, as he 
 supposes, the law is; to that of the censor, to observe to us what he 
 thinks it ought to be. — Of these two perfectly distinguishable functions, 
 the former alone is that which it fell necessarily within our author's 
 province to discharge." These two provinces Blackstone has confounded 
 all through his work : he continually mixes up with his exposition of 
 what the law is, the reasons why it is so ; and as the reasons frequently 
 appear not the best in the world, it often happens that the absurdity 
 of the law, which, if simply stated by itself, would have been regarded 
 as a fact and nothing more, is surpassed by the absurdity of the reason 
 given for it. Hence arises, as Beutham remarks, the continual use of 
 the words for, because, since, by Blackstone. The instances to which 
 Bentham refers are a fair specimen of the whole work, and two or 
 three will serve for illustration as well as a larger number, which may 
 easily be collected from almost every page. — "Burglary cannot be 
 committed in a tent or booth erected in a market fair: though the 
 owner may lodge therein : for the law regards thus highly nothing 
 but permanent edifices; a house, or church, the wall or gate of a town ; 
 and it is the folly of the owner to lodge in so frail a tenement." 
 " There needs no formal promulgation to give an act of parliament 
 the force of a law, as was necessary by the civil law with regard to the 
 emperor's edicts : because every man in England is, in judgment of law, 
 party to the making of an act of parliament, being present thereat by 
 his representative." The law, according to the ' Commentaries,' first 
 says that a man is present where he is not and cannot be, and then, 
 accordiug to a general principle, turning this fiction into a fact, very 
 properly concludes, that as the man was present when the law was 
 made, it is quite unnecessary to give him any further notice of it. 
 
 This kind of objection applies to every part of the ' Commentaries;' 
 the author has not kept to his province of stating what law is, but • 
 continually goes out of his way to give reasons which are not required 
 nor wanted. (See au instance in the chapter on the ' Law of Descents,' 
 in the short paragraph beginning " We are to reflect," &c, ii. p. 211, 
 Chitty 's ed., which the utmost attainable degree of confusion pervades ; 
 the remark on the policy of allowing a man to devise his lands by will, 
 ii. p. 374 ; and the remark on the " piety of the judges," ii. 375.) 
 Blackstone is only excusable for mixing up his reasons with his law, 
 when he traces the history and historical causes of a law ; and even 
 here, aud in all matters that belong to the constitutional history of 
 the country, he has long since been pronounced to be very far from 
 profound by very competent judges. His illustrations derived from 
 the Roman law, which are not uufrequent, are not always pertinent, 
 aud sometimes not correct. His learning, though not wanting in 
 surface, was evidently deficient in depth. 
 
 It remains briefly to notice, and more briefly than the importance 
 of the subject demands, the arrangement of the matter of law in 
 Blackstone ; for with the facts of law as stated by him we have little 
 to do. The work as far as it goes is useful ; at least on this point 
 there is not so much difference of opinion. In Blackstone's chapter 
 on the ' Absolute Rights of Individuals,' we have his fundamental 
 definition of law, which, coupled with his views contained in the Intro- 
 duction, will sufficiently account for the confusion that prevails in 
 numerous passages. (See vol. i. p. 133, and indeed the whole of the ■ 
 chapter entitled ' Of the Absolute Rights of Individuals.') In this 
 chapter he says that the "primary aud principal objects of law are 
 rights and wrongs." ' Rights,' he subdivides into — " first, those which 
 concern and are annexed to the persons of men, and are then called 
 jura personarum, or ' the rights of persons ; ' or they are, secondly, 
 such as a man may have over external objects or thiugs unconnected 
 with his person, which are styled jurarerum, or ' the rights of things.' " 
 He divides 'wrongs' into 'private' and ' public,' the foundation and 
 the nature of which division must be sought in those writers who adopt 
 it. (See Blackstone, i. 122, &c.) In his division of his matter into 
 these great head<, and the subdivision of these heads into their seve- 
 ral parts, Blackstone followed the 'Analysis' of Hale, though, so far 
 from improving upon it, his division and arrangement are very much 
 inferior. 
 
 The singular confusion, in Blackstone's notions of the rights of 
 persons and things is rendered still more appareut by comparing the 
 first chapter of vol. ii. of ' Property in General,' with the beginning of 
 chap. 2 of the same volume, where he comes to speak of the division 
 of property into things ' real ' and ' personal,' according to the system 
 of English law. He borrowed the terms ' rights of persons and things' 
 from Hale's ' Analysis,' who however has used them in a sense far less 
 objectionable than Blackstone. 
 
 BLACKWELL, THOMAS, was born at Aberdeen in 1701. His 
 
BLAIR, HUGH, D.D. 
 
 712 
 
 father wab one of the ministers of that city, and filled at the same time 
 the office of principal of Mariscbal College. After having taken the 
 degree of A M. in the University of Aberdeen, at the age of seventeen, 
 and been appointed by thefcrown professor of Greek in the Mariscbal 
 College iu 1723, he succeeded bis father as principal in 1748. In 1752 
 the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him. He had the merit of 
 introducing an improved system of education into Marischal College, 
 and before bis death bad the gratification of witnessing its success. 
 An account of this plan was printed by direction of the college 
 authorities, 
 
 Blackwell is allowed to have been a man of considerable acquire- 
 ments, but he often rendered himself ridiculous by his pedantry and 
 affectation of universal knowledge. He was well versed, according to 
 the learning of that day, iu the Greek and Latiu writers, aud was 
 acquainted with the principal languages of modern Europe. His 
 habits were studious aud retiring, but be rather com ted the acquaint- 
 ance of men of superior reputation. Being afHicted with a consump- 
 tive disease, he left Aberdeen in February 1757, with a view of trying 
 the i ffect of a change of air, but he died at Edinburgh in the following 
 month. 
 
 The following is a list of his works : 'An Inquiry into the Life and 
 Writings of Homer,' 1735 ; 'A Key to the Inquiry, containing a transla- 
 tion of the numerous Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, aud French notes 
 iu the original work,' 1736; 'Letters on Mythology,' 1748 ; 'Memoirs 
 of tho Court of Augustus,' 3 vols, : the first was published in 1753, 
 Ihc second in 1755, and the third, which is incomplete, was published 
 iu 1764. after his death. 
 
 BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE, a distinguished 
 zoologist, was born at Arques near Dieppe, September 12, 1777, of a 
 noble aud ancient family. He went first to the military school at 
 Beaumont-en- Auge, being destined for the army ; but left it suddenly 
 iu 1792, aud as is said shipped on board a channel cruiser, and took 
 part in sundry engagements with English vessels. Afterwards he 
 entered theEcole de Genie at Paris, and was drawn for the conscription 
 of 1798, but obtained exemption through a partial stiffness of the 
 right arm caused by an accident. He remained at Paris without any 
 definite plan of life, occupying himself in a desultory mauuer by 
 attending lectures on the natural sciences, and by drawing and painting, 
 in which he became very expert. He had reached the age of twenty- 
 seven when, having heard one of Cuvier's eloquent lectures at the 
 College de France, he resolved on devoting himself to the science of 
 comparative anatomy, and at once entered as student iu the School of 
 Medicine. Here he took his degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1808, 
 alter three years of study ; and chose as the subject of his inaugural 
 dissertation, the influence of the eighth pair of nerves in inspiration, 
 as demonstrated by his own experiments. 
 
 The science of anatomy now became De Blainville's sole pursuit. 
 His remarkable skill as a draughtsman led to his merits being recog- 
 nised by Cuvier. who employed him as practical auatomist and artist 
 at a salary of 2000 francs a year ; and the great zoologist was so 
 impressed by his assistant's ability, that he iutrusted to him the 
 delivery of a part of his course of lectures on zoology at the college. 
 It was De Blainville's ambition to become professor, and in 1812 he 
 competed with other candidates for the chair of zoology and physiology 
 at the Faculty of Sciences. Having won the honourable post, lie 
 defended his well-known thesis 'On the Natural Affinities of the 
 Ornithorhynchus Paradoxus.' 
 
 A flattering political position, obtained through his influential family 
 connections on the restoration of the Bourbons, was offered to De 
 Blainville; but he resisted the allurements of public life for his favourite 
 science. He came to England in 1816, and during a short stay, made 
 diligent use of his opportunities for adding to his zoological knowledge, 
 and carried away drawings of the rare Mollusca in the British Museum, 
 and of anatomical specimens in the museum of the Royal College of 
 Surgeons. Some of his papers published in the ' Bulletin de la Societe 
 Philomatique,' bear testimony to the good use he made of his sojourn 
 in this country. 
 
 In 1S25 De Blainville was elected a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences at Paris. On the retirement of Lamarck in 1830, he was 
 appointed to the chair of the natural history of Mollusca and Radiata 
 at the Jardin des Plautes ; and on Cuvier's death in 1832, he was 
 appointed to succeed that great anatomist as professor of comparative 
 anatomy in the same establishment. Thus in twenty eight years after 
 his resolve on a life of scientific study, he found himself as the result 
 of his persevering labours, in the chair of his master, and acknow- 
 ledged head of one of the most important branches of science. In 
 the same year he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society, 
 and subsequently of the Geological Society of London. He was also 
 a member of other scientific societies on the continent. 
 
 De Blainville availed himself of his new position to commence what 
 has since been recognised as his great work : ' Ostdographie, ou 
 Description iconographique comparde du Squelette et du Systeme 
 dentaire des cinq classes d'Animaux vertdbrds rdcents et fossiles,' &c. 
 Twenty-three parts of this magnificent work had been published, and 
 the author had corrected the twenty-fourth part (Camelut), when on 
 the arrival at Rouen of a railway train in which he had taken a place, 
 he was found in a state of apoplectic insensibility. This was the 
 1st of May 1850. On the previous day he had delivered bis usual 
 
 lecture; "exhibiting," says M. Prdvost, "a freshness of ideas, and 
 facility of expression, which bore no marks either of fatigue or appre- 
 hension. Some threatening symptoms had been experienced during 
 the year past, but, with a force of character peculiar to him, he had 
 sought to conceal them from all, even from himself." All attempts at 
 resuscitation proved unavailing, and he died a few minutes after his 
 removal from the carriage. 
 
 De Blainville's writings are to be found in the ' Dictionnaire 
 d'Histoire Naturelle,' the 'Bulletin,' above-mentioned, the 'Anuales' 
 and ' Mdmoires du Musdum,' the ' Anuales des Sciences Naturelles,' the 
 ' Rdvue Zoologique,' anil other scientific periodicals. Of separate 
 works may be mentioned his ' Dissertation sur la place que la fainillo 
 des Ornithorinques et des Echidnds doit occuper daus la sdrie natu- 
 relle,' 4to, Paris, 1812; 'Sur lea Ichthyolites,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1818; 
 ' Malacozoaires et Poissous de la Faune fraucaise,' 8vo, Paris, 1820-30 ; 
 ' Principes d'Anatomie comparde,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1822-23 ; ' M.6- 
 moire sur les Belemnites,' 4to, Paris, 1827 ; ' Cours de Physiologie 
 gdndralo et comparde,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1833; ' Manuel d'Actiuologie 
 et de Zoophytologie,' 8vo, Paris, 1834. 
 
 The fact that De Blainville's writings number neariy 200 in the 
 whole, will best give a notion of his activity aud devotion to science ; 
 they comprise researches in all branches of zoology. His ' Ostdo- 
 graphie' aud 'Manuel de Malacologie,' are elaborate treatises which 
 alone would employ the labour of a life. The former includes extinct 
 as well as living animals, and is of rare importance to palaeontologists. 
 
 De Blainville had a public funeral in Pere-la-Chaise. Prdvost, 
 Cbevreul, and Milne-Edw.irds each pronounced a discourse over his 
 grave. A passage from the former presents a concise view of what 
 he accomplished. "It was the great object of his life," says M. 
 I'rdvost, " to establish in all his works, especially in his 'Osteology,' 
 the doctrine that the whole series of organic beings was intimately 
 related, the links of one great chain, ascending from the most simple 
 of organisms to that which occupies the highest place; in other words 
 from the sponge to man. But while he endeavoured to refer all 
 groups and every variety of animal form to oue and the Batne plan, 
 he never embraced the plausible hypothesis that each higher grade had 
 been improved in the course of ages out of a lower oue by transum 
 tation ; ou the contrary, he saw in the whole animal creation, one tingle 
 operation, one great harmonious and divine idea, the various chauges 
 being neither due to chance nor to the influence of external cir- 
 cumstances, but being all the result of one and the same original 
 conception." . 
 
 (Proceedings of the Royal Society; Ann. de» Sci.; Agassiz, Bibl. ; 
 Silliman, Journal; Geol. £oc. Journal ; L'Institut de France.) 
 
 BLAIR, HUGH, D.D., a divine of the Church of Scotland, was born 
 in Edinburgh, April 7, 1718. He was educated at the University of 
 Edinburgh, where he was known as a diligent student; he took his 
 degree of A.M. iu 1739. In 1741 he was licensed to preach, aud was 
 soon after appoiuted to the living of Colessie in Fifeshire. In 1743 
 he was appoiuted second minister of the Canougate church, Edin- 
 burgh; in 1754 he was presented to the ministry of Lady Tester's 
 church, Edinburgh; in 1757 the University of St. Andrews conferred 
 upon him the degree of D.D. ; aud in 1758 be was removed from Lady 
 Yester's to be one of the ministers of the High church, which is 
 what is called a collegiate charge, or one in which the duties are 
 divided between two clergymen. He was indebted to his merits alone 
 for this success. 
 
 An ' Essay ou the Beautiful,' which he wrote while a student, waa 
 regarded as highly creditable to his taste and abilities. His advance- 
 ment having lightened his professional labours, he was enabled to 
 bestow more time on literary pursuits ; aud accordingly having pre- 
 pared some lectures on ' Composition,' he read them to classes in the 
 university, with the permission of that learned body. In 1762 the 
 king erected and endowed a professorship of rhetoric and belles lettres 
 in the University of Edinburgh, and appointed Dr. Blair, in consequence 
 of his approved qualifications, regius professor, with a salary of 7u/. 
 The 'Lectures' were first published in 1783, when he resigned the 
 professorship. On the controverted question of the genuineness of 
 Ossian's poems, he published, in 1763, a ' Dissertation,' in which he 
 supported their claims to originality. He was intimately acquainted 
 with Macphersou, and his opinions seem to have been in some degree 
 influenced by his partiality for the man, whom he thought incapable 
 of imposition. But the opinion he arrived at may be taken as a 
 standard of Blair's critical ability. 
 
 The career of Dr. Blair as a divine was marked both by its success 
 and usefulness. By the time he had attained his fortieth year he was 
 called upon to discharge one of the most important ministries in the 
 cliurch, and for the long space of forty-two years he was considered 
 oue of its greatest ornaments. Notwithstanding his popularity as a 
 preacher, he had nearly reached his sixtieth year before he could be 
 iuduced to publish a volume of his sermons. When however it 
 appeared, it was received with an extraordinary degree ot favour, 
 although Mr. Strahan, the publisher to whom Dr. Blair had sent the 
 manuscript, discouraged its publication; but the opinion of Dr. John- 
 son having been requested, he wrote to Mr. Strahan, stating that he 
 had perused the sermon which had been forwarded to him " with more 
 than approbation.'' The sale was so rapid and extensive, that the 
 original sum paid for the cop) right (100^.) was voluntarily doubled by 
 
BLAIR, JOHN, LL.D. 
 
 the publisher; and 300/. were offered for the next volume. It is 
 stated that Dr. Blair was paid at the rate of 600/. for each of the sub- 
 sequent volumes. The fifth volume, which was published after Blair's 
 death, consists of discourses written at different times ; but it was 
 carefully prepared for the press a little before his death in the eighty- 
 second year of his age. In 1780 a pension of 200/. a year was conferred 
 on him by the king. He died December 27th 1800. 
 
 Dr. Blair did not possess a strong constitution, and towards the 
 latter part of his life he was unable to fulfil his duties in the pulpit; 
 but his intellect was unimpaired to the last, and his large congregation 
 had still the benefit of his services as their friend and adviser. His 
 counsel was sought not only by those around him, but it was fre- 
 quently solicited from distant places, in which the benevolence of his 
 disposition had been made known by his published discourses. 
 
 Dr. Blair's literary reputation rests upon his 'Sermons' and his 
 ' Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres,' both of which enjoyed 
 a long period of popularity. The sermons appeared at a time when 
 the elegant and polished style, which is their chief characteristic, was 
 less common than at present ; and to this merit, such as it is, they 
 chiefly owed their success. They are still read by many people with 
 pleasure, on account of their clear and easy style, and the vein of 
 sensible though not very profound observation which runs through 
 them ; but they have no claim to be ranked among the best and most 
 solid specimens of sermon-writing which our language contains. The 
 ' Lectures ' have not been less popular than the ' Sermons,' and were 
 long considered as a text-book for the student. They are however, 
 like the 'Sermons,' exceedingly feeble productions, and show neither 
 depth of thought nor intimate acquaintance with the best writers, 
 ancient and modern ; nor do they develope and illustrate, as a general 
 rule, any sound practical principles. 
 
 (Finlayson, Life of Dr. Blair, prefixed to his Sermons.) 
 
 BLAIR, JOHN t , a relative of Hugh Blair, and well known as the 
 author of a valuable set of chronological tables, went to London for 
 the purpose of improving his fortune, and was at first engaged as 
 teacher in a school. In 1754 he published ' The Chronology and 
 History of the World, from the Creation to the year 1753, in fifty-six 
 Tables, by the Rev. John Blair, LL.D.' This work was dedicated to 
 the Lord Chancellor Hardwicke. In the following year he was elected 
 F.R.S., and in 1761 F.A.S. A second edition of his 'Chronology' 
 appeared in 1768, to which were added maps of ancient and modern 
 geography. In September 1757 ne was appointed chaplain to the 
 Princess Dowager of Wales, and mathematical tutor to the Duke of 
 York; and in 1761 to a prebendal stall at Westminster. Six days 
 afterwards the vicarage of Hinckley, Leicestershire, having become 
 vacant, he was presented to it by the dean and chapter of Westminster; 
 and he obtained a dispensation to hold with it the rectory of Burton 
 Coggles, Lincolnshire. In 1763 he attended his pupil, the Duke of 
 York, on a continental tour, during which they visited France, Italy, 
 Spain, and Portugal, and returned home after about a year's absence. 
 He received several other pieces of church preferment besides those 
 above mentioned. His death took place June 24, 1782. A course of 
 his ' Lectures on the Canons of the Old Testament,' and a small volume 
 entitled ' The History of Geography,' were published after his death. 
 
 BLAIR, ROBERT, author of a poem entitled ' The Grave,' was born 
 in the year 1699. Few particulars are known respecting him. His 
 father was one of the ministers of Edinburgh, and chaplain to the king; 
 and after securing to his son the advantages of a liberal education at 
 the university, he sent him to the continent for his further improve- 
 ment. On the 5th of January 1731 he was ordained minister of 
 Athelstaneford, where he spent the remainder of his life. He had by 
 his marriage a daughter and five sous, one of whom became solicitor- 
 general for Scotland. He appears to have been in easy circumstances, 
 was fond of gardening, and had a taste for botany ; and these pursuits, 
 together with a correspondence which he maintained on scientific 
 subjects, engaged much of the time which was not required for the 
 performance of his ministerial duties, In the pulpit he is said to have 
 been serious and earnest. Watts and Doddridge honoured him with 
 their esteem : he submitted his poem to them, and in a letter to the 
 latter states that it was writt-n before his ordination. Watts signified 
 his approbation of this production, and offered it to two booksellers, 
 who however both declined undertaking the publication. Blair seems 
 to have anticipated the reception which it would meet, and attributed 
 it to the seiious nature of the subject. He had however endeavoured 
 to conciliate public favour, for he says in his letter to Doddridye: — 
 " In order to make it more generally liked, I was obliged sometimes to 
 go cross to my own inclination, to make it go down with a licentious 
 age which cares for none of these things." It found a publisher a few 
 yearn before its author's death, and attained a considerable amount of 
 popularity. ' The Grave' is written in a striking and vigorous manner, 
 and has always been most popular among persons of an uncultivated 
 taste possessing some strength of mind, and a serious dispo>ition. 
 With the exception of a short piece written in memory of Mr. Law, 
 one of the professors of the University of Edinburgh, 'The Grave' is 
 the only production of Blair's which we possess. The author died of 
 a fever, February 4, 1746, in the forty-seventh year of his age. Home, 
 the author of ' Douglas,' succeeded him in his living. 
 
 BLAKE, ROBERT, one of the most intrepid and successful admirals 
 that have adorned the British navy, was born about the end of August 
 
 BLAKE, ROBERT. 714. 
 
 1598, at Bridgewater in Somersetshire, where his father exercised th« 
 busiuess of a merchant. He was educated at the Bridge.water grammar- 
 school until he was sixteen years of age, when he was removed to 
 Oxford, where he became successively a member of St. Alban's Hall 
 and Wadham College. Blake was of a studious turn, yet fond of 
 field sports and violent exercises; and his first biographer reports a 
 piece of scandal against him, that he was given now and then to 
 stealing swans, a species of game, so to call it, then much esteemed, 
 and protected by severe laws. ('Lives, English and Foreign,' 1704.) 
 We may infer that he had a fair share of scholastic learning, from his 
 having stood, though unsuccessfully, both for a studentship at Christ- 
 church and a fellowship at Merton College. He returned to Bridgewater 
 when he was about twenty-seven years old, and lived quietly on his 
 paternal estate till 1640, with the character of a blunt bold man, of 
 ready humour, and fearless in the expression of his opinions, which, 
 both on matters of politics and religion, were opposed to the views of 
 the court. These qualities gained for him the confidence of the 
 Presbyterian party in Bridgewater, which returned him for that 
 borough to the short parliament of April 1640. The speedy dissolution 
 of that assembly (May 5) gave him little opportunity of trying his 
 powers as a debater. 
 
 On the breaking out of the civil war he raised a troop in Somersetshire, 
 which took part in almost every action of importance which occurred 
 in the western counties. In 1643 he held the command of a fort at 
 Bristol when that city was besieged by the royalists. Having main- 
 tained his post, and killed some of the king's soldiers after the governor 
 had agreed to surrender, Prince Rupert was with difficulty induced to 
 spare his life, which, it was alleged, was forfeited by this violation 
 of the laws of war. In 1644, holding an independent command as 
 colonel, he rapidly concentrated as many troops as he could collect, 
 and surprised Taunton, a place of great importance, as being the only 
 parliamentary fortress in the west of England. He was appointed 
 governor of Taunton, and in that capacity gave eminent proof of skill, 
 courage, and constancy, in maintaining the town during two successive 
 sieges in 1645. 
 
 In February 1649 Colonel Blake, in conjunction with two officers of 
 the same rank, Deane and Popham, was appointed to command the fleet, 
 under the title of General of the Sea, the military and naval services not 
 then being kept separate and distinct as in later times. For this new 
 office Blake soon showed signal capacity. On the renewal of war after 
 the king's death he was ordered to the Irish Seas in pursuit of Prince 
 Rupert, whom he blockaded in the harbour of Kiusale for several 
 mouths. At length, being pressed by want of provisions and threatened 
 from the land, the prince made a desperate effort to break through the 
 parliamentary squadron, and succeeded, but with the loss of three 
 ships. He fled to the river Tagus, pursued by Blake, who blockaded 
 him there for several months. Being denied permission to attack his 
 enemy, and the king of Portugal favouring Rupert in various ways, 
 Blake captured and sent home several richly-laden Portuguese vessels 
 on their way from Brazil. He finally attacked and destroyed the 
 royalist fleet, with the exception of two ships, commanded by the 
 princes Rupert and Maurice, in the harbour of Malaga, January, 1651. 
 The King of Portugal protested against these proceedings as breaches 
 of international law; but Blake's conduct, after being judicially inves- 
 tigated by the authorities at home, was deliberately approved — some 
 compensation however being allowed to the merchants who had 
 suffered — and his services were recompensed by the thanks of parlia- 
 ment, together with the office of Warden of the Cinque Ports ; and in 
 March of the same year, Blake, Deane, and Popham were constituted 
 admirals and generals of the fleet for the year ensuing. In that 
 capacity Blake took the Scilly Islands, Guernsey, and Jersey, from the 
 royalists, for which he was again thanked by parliament ; and in the 
 same year he was elected a member of the Council of State. 
 
 In March 1652, Blake was appointed sole admiral for nine months, 
 in expectation of the Dutch war, which did in fact break out in the 
 following May, in consequence of Van Tromp, the Dutch admiral, 
 standiug over to the English coast and insulting the English flag. 
 Blake, who was then lying in Rye Bay, immediately sailed to the east- 
 ward, and fell in with the Dutch fleet in the Straits of Dover. A 
 sharp action ensued, May 19, which was maintained till night, to the 
 advantage of the English, who took one Dutch man-of-war and sunk 
 another. The Dutch retreated under cover of the darkness, leaving 
 the honour of victory to the English. The States did not approve, or 
 at least disavowed the conduct of their admiral, for they left no 
 means untried to satisfy the English government ; and when they 
 found the demands of the latter so high as to preclude accommodation, 
 they dismissed Van Tromp, and placed De Ruyter and Cornelius de 
 Witt in command of their fleet. Meanwhile Blake took ample revenge 
 for their aggression. He made a number of rich prizes among the 
 Dutch homeward-bound merchantmen, which were pursuing their 
 course without suspicion of danger; and when he had effectually 
 cleared the Channel he sailed to the northward, dispersed the fleet 
 engaged in the herring fishery, and captured a hundred of the herring 
 busses, together with a squadron of twelve ships of war sent out to 
 protect them. On the 12th of August he returned to the Downs, and 
 September 28th the hostile fleets again came to an engagement, in 
 which the Dutch rear-admiral was taken, and three other Dutch ships 
 were destroyed. Night put an end to the action, and though for two 
 
BLAKE, ROBERT. 
 
 BLAKE, WILLIAM. 
 
 710 
 
 days the English maintained the pursuit, the lightness and uncertainty 
 of the wind prevented them from again closing with the enemy, who 
 escaped into Goree. Afte r this battle, the drafting off detachments on 
 different services reduced the English fleet in the Channel to forty sail. 
 With this force Blake lay in the Downs, when Van Tromp again stood 
 over to the English coast with eighty men-of-war. Blake's spirit was 
 too high for him to decline the battle, even against these odds — an act 
 of imprudence for whicli he suffered severely. An action was fought 
 off the Goodwin Sauds, November 29. Two of his ships were taken 
 and four destroyed ; the rest were so much shattered that they were 
 glad to run for shelter into the Thames. The Dutch remained masters 
 of the narrow seas; and Van Tromp, in an idle bravado, sailed through 
 the Channel with a broom at his mast-head, to intimate that he had 
 Bwept it clear of English ships. However, neither the nation nor the 
 admiral were of a temper to submit to this insult, and great diligence 
 having been used in refitting and recruiting the fleet, Blake put to sea 
 Bgain in February 1653 with eighty ships. On the 18th he fell in 
 with Van Tromp, with nearly equal force, escorting a large convoy of 
 merchantmen up the Channel. A running battle ensued, which was 
 continued during three consecutive dayB. On the 20th the Dutch ships, 
 which, to suit the nature of their coast, were built with a smaller 
 draught of water than the English, obtained shelter in the shallow 
 waters of Calais. In this long and obstinate fight the English lost one 
 man-of-war — the Dutch, eleven men-of-war and thirty merchantmen ; 
 but the number killed is said to have amounted to 1500 on each side. 
 Blake himself was severely wounded in the thigh. 
 
 Another great battle took place on the 3rd and 4th of June, between 
 Van Tiomp and Generals Deane and Monk. On the first day the 
 Dutch had the advantage; on the second Blake arrived with a rein- 
 forcement of eighteen sail, which turned the scale in favour of the 
 English. Bad health then obliged him to quit the sea, so that he was 
 not present at the great victory of July 29 (the last which took place 
 during this war), in which Van Tromp was killed; but out of respect 
 for his services, the parliament in presenting gold chains to the 
 admirals who commanded in that battle gave one to him also. When 
 Cromwell dissolved the long parliament and assumed the office of 
 Protector, Blake, though in his principles a staunch republican, did 
 not refuse to acknowledge the new government. Probably he expected 
 to find the administration more energetic; and he is reported to have 
 said to his officers, " It is not our business to mind state affairs, but to 
 keep foreigners from fooling us." He sat in the first two parliaments 
 summoned by the protector, who always treated him with great 
 respect. Nor was Cromwell's acknowledged sagacity in the choice of 
 men at fault when he sent Blake at the head of a strong fleet into the 
 Mediterranean, in November 1654, to uphold the honour of the 
 English flag, and to demand reparation for slights and injuries done 
 to the nation during that stormy period of civil war, when internal 
 discord had made others daring against English vessels. Such a 
 mission could not have been placed in bitter hands. Dutch, French, 
 and Spanish concurred in rendering uuusual honours to his Hag. The 
 Duke of Tuscany and the Knights of Malta made compensation for 
 injuries done to English commerce; and the piratical states of Algiers 
 and Tripoli were terrified into submission, and promised to abstain 
 from further depredations. The Dey of Tunis alone resisted, but 
 was speedily forced to conclude peace on satisfactory terms. These 
 transactions occurred in the spring of 1655. 
 
 On the breaking out of war between Spain and England in 1656, 
 Blake took his station to blockade the Bay of Cadiz. At this time 
 his constitution was greatly impaired, insomuch that in the expectation 
 of speedy death he sent home a request that some person proper to be 
 his successor might be joined in commission with him. General 
 Montague was accordingly sent out with a strong squadron; but in 
 the following spring that officer returned home in charge of some 
 valuable prizes laden with bullion, and Blake was again left alone in 
 the Mediterranean, when he heard that a Spanish plate-fleet had put 
 into the island of Teneriffe. He immediately sailed thither, and 
 arrived in the road of S^anta Cruz April 20th. The bay was strongly 
 fortified, with a formidable castle at the entrance and a chain of 
 smaller forts at intervals round it. There was also a considerable 
 naval force, strongly posted, the smaller vessels being placed under the 
 guns of the forts, and the galleons strongly moored with their broad- 
 Bides to the sea ; insomuch that the Spanish governor, a man of 
 courage and ability, felt perfectly at ease as to the security of his 
 charge. The master of a Dutch ship which was lying in the harbour 
 was less satisfied, and went to the governor to request leave to quit 
 the harbour, for ''I am sure," he said, "that Blake will presently be 
 among you." The governor made a confident reply : " Begone if you 
 will, and let Blake come if he dare." Daring was the last thing 
 wanted ; nor did the admiral hesitate, as a wise man might well have 
 done, at the real difficulties of the enterprise in which he was about 
 to engage. The wind blowing into the bay, he sent in Captain Stayner 
 with a squadron to attack the shipping — placed others in such a manner 
 as to take off, and as far as possible to silence the fire of the castle and 
 the forts — and himself following, assisted Stayner in capturing the 
 galleons, which, though inferior in number, were superior in size and 
 force to the English ships. This was completed by two o'clock in the 
 afternoon. Hopeless of being able to carry the prizes out of the bay 
 against an adverse wind and a still active enemy, Blake gave orders to 
 
 burn them. It is probable that he himself might have found some diffi- 
 culty in beating out of the bay under the fire of the castle, which was 
 still lively, but that on a sudden the wind, which had blown strong 
 into the bay, veered round to the south-west and favoured his retiring, 
 as it had favoured his daring approach. In this action Blake left one 
 ship behind, and the killed and wounded did not exceed 200 men ; 
 while the slaughter on board the Spanish ships and on shore is spoken 
 of as incredible. 
 
 For this service the thanks of parliament were voted to the officers 
 and seamen engaged, with a diamond ring to the admiral worth 500/. 
 Blake returned to his old station off Cadiz; but the increase of his 
 disorders, which were dropsy and scurvy, made him wish to return to 
 England — a wish however he did not live to accomplish. He died as 
 he was entering Plymouth Sound, AuguBt 17, 1657. His body being 
 transported to London, was buried with great pomp in Westminster 
 Abbey, at the public expense. After the Restoration it was disinterred, 
 and, with the bones of others who had takeu part with the Common- 
 wealth, was removed to St. Margaret's churchyard. 
 
 Blake was of a blunt and singularly fearless temper, straightfor- 
 ward, upright, and honest in an unusual degree. He seems never to 
 have sought his own advancement by any underhand means, and his 
 pecuniary integrity was unimpeached. Ho left his paternal estate 
 unimpaired, but notwithstanding the great sums which passed through 
 his hands, it is said that he did not leave 500/. behind him of his own 
 acquiring. His temper was liberal, and his behaviour to his sailors 
 most kind. "He was," says Clarendon, "the first man that in naval 
 matters declined the old track, and made it manifest that the science 
 might be attained in less time than was imagined, and despised those 
 rules which had long been in practice to keep his ship and men out 
 of danger, which had been held in former times a point of great ability 
 and circumspection, as if the principal art requisite in the captain of 
 a ship had been to be sure to come safe home again. He was the first 
 man who brought the ships to contemn castles on shore, which had 
 been thought ever very formidable, and were discovered by him to 
 make a noise only, and to fright those who could be rarely hurt by 
 them." 
 
 (Clarendon; Heith; Whitelock ; Ludlow; and other contemporary 
 authorities; Lives, English and Foreign ; Life, by Dr. Johnson ; Gal- 
 lery of Portraits, vol. v. ; Dixon, Robert Blake, Admiral and General 
 at Sea.) 
 
 BLAKE, WILLIAM, was the son of a London hosier, and was born 
 in London in 1757. At the age of fourteen his father was induced by 
 his son's passion for drawing to apprentice him to an engraver of the 
 name of Basire. He was a diligent and enthusiastic student; the day 
 he devoted to the graver, and the night to poetry, for the graphic art 
 absorbed but one-half of him, and he was utterly indifferent to the 
 goods of this life : he used to say — " My business is not to gather 
 gold, but to make glorious shapes, expressing god-like sentiments." 
 When he was twenty-six years of age he married Catherine Boutcher, 
 who survived him, and was a most devoted and attached wife, and 
 fully appreciated the peculiarities of his mind. With his wife always 
 by his side Blake produced a series of designs and poems, which are 
 quite unique in the peculiar spirit of their conception, but notwith- 
 standing their peculiarity, are replete with beauties of the highest 
 order. The spirit of universal benevolence and a just appreciation of 
 the greatness of life, animate and inanimate, breathed in his poems, 
 and cannot easily be surpassed ; but the mere versification is often 
 very inharmonious. When Blake was thirty years of age, Flaxman 
 and another gentleman published a collection of his poems, and pre- 
 sented the printed sheets to the poet, under the hope that he might 
 derive some profit from the sale of them. 
 
 The first of his own publications were the ' Songs of Innocence and 
 of Experience, showing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul,' 
 which appeared with about sixty-five etched illustrations in 1789. 
 Several of these poems are remarkable for their true pathos. These 
 etchings and poems are executed in a very peculiar and original 
 manner ; the designs are drawn and the poems written upon the 
 copper, with a secret composition (discovered to him by the spirit 
 of his brother Robert, as he says) ; and when the uncovered parts of 
 the plate were eaten away by aquafortis, the rest remained as if in 
 stereotype. His wife worked off the plates in the press, and Blake 
 tinted the impressions, designs, aud letter-press, with a variety of 
 pleasing colours. 
 
 His next work was ' The Gate? of Paradise,' in sixteen small designs, 
 of a very mystical character. This was followed by a series, dated 
 Lambetli, 1791, of twenty-seven very strange but powerful designs, 
 under the title of ' Urizen,' in which he seems to have attempted to 
 represent hell and its mysteries. After the completion of this work, 
 Biake was employed by Mr. Edwards, a bookseller, to illustrate Young's 
 ' Night Thoughts,' which he filled with marginal designs, so much to 
 the satisfaction of Flaxman in many parts, that he introduced Blake 
 to Hayley the poet, who wished him to make some illustrations to 
 the 'Life of Cowper,' and persuaded him to remove, in 1800, to Felp- 
 ham in Sussex. Flaxman was a constant friend to Blake, and the 
 latter in his correspondence with him usually addressed him — 'Dear 
 Sculptor of Eternity,' and in the first letter he wrote to him from 
 Felpham he called him 'Sublime Archangel.' 
 
 At this time Blake's mind was confirmed in that extraordinary state 
 
717 
 
 BLANC, LOUIS. 
 
 m 
 
 which many suppose to have been a species of chronic insanity, He 
 was so exclusively occupied with his own ideas, that he at last per- 
 suaded himself that his imaginings were spiritual realities. He t hought 
 that he conversed with the spirits of the long departed great — of 
 Homer, Moses, Pindar, Virgil, Dante, Milton, and many others : some 
 of these spirits sat to him for their portraits. He remaiued at Felpham 
 three years, and then returned to London. The first work after his 
 return was his ' Jerusalem,' comprising 100 designs, of figures of men, 
 spirits, gods, and angels ; and for which, tinted, he charged twenty -five 
 guineas. His next work was a series of 12 designs to Blair's 'Grave,' 
 for Cromek the engraver, who paid him twenty guineas for the twelve ; 
 the engraving of them was intrusted to Schiavonetti. These were 
 followed by his ' Canterbury Pilgrimage,' a picture in water-colours or 
 distemper, exhibited in his brother's house in 1809, with some other 
 of his paintings in the same maDner, of which he printed a ' Descrip- 
 tive Catalogue,' containing many critical heresies, some sense, and 
 much that is wild and absurd. Charles Lamb speaks of the 'Canter- 
 bury Pilgrims ' in a letter to a friend as a work with " wonderful 
 power aud spirit, but hard and dry, yet with grace." In the same 
 letter he says, " I have heard of his poems, but never seen them. 
 There is one to a tiger, which I have heard recited, beginning — 
 
 * Tiger, tiger, burning bright, 
 Through the deserts of the night' — 
 
 which is glorious. But, alas ! I have not the book, and the man is 
 flowD, whither I know not — to Hades or a madhouse — but I must 
 look on him as oue of the most extraordinary persons of the age.'' 
 
 In the ' Descriptive Catalogue' of his exhibition he makes some excel- 
 lent remarks upon the character of Chaucer's writings; and some 
 excessively severe remarks upon the ' Canterbury Pilgrimage ' of 
 Stothard. He seems to have injured himself very much in the 
 opinion of the world by the extremities he went to in this catalogue ; 
 he was comparatively neglected after its publication, and the demand 
 for hi3 works very much declined. He became extremely poor, but 
 he still continued to produce new works, as 'Twenty-one Illustrations 
 to the Book of Job,' which are among his best productions ; two works 
 of prophecies, one on America, in eighteen plates, the other on Europe, 
 in seventeen ; and a long series of illustrations to Dante, of which how- 
 ever he engraved only seven. Hi3 last performance was a likeness of 
 his faithful wife, who, through his eccentricities reduced to the extreme 
 of poverty, was never even inclined to complain. Blake himself never 
 regretted his poverty : he considered himself a martyr in the cause 
 of poetic art, and he pitied his fortunate contemporaries for their 
 inordinate love of gain. He died on the 12th of August 1827. 
 
 A very elegant edition of the ' Songs of Innocence,' &c, was pub- 
 lished in London (by the late Mr. W. Pickering) in 1839, exactly half 
 a century after their first appearance, with a Preface containing some 
 excellent remarks upon Blake's character. There is a good portrait of 
 Blake by T. Phillips, R.A., of which there is a print prefixed to the 
 notice of Blake in ' The Lives of the most Eminent British Painters,' 
 &c, by Allan Cunningham. (Life, by Alex. Gilchrist, 1863.) 
 
 * BLANC, LOUIS, a political and historical writer, was born October 
 28,1813. His father had been Inspector-general of Finances under 
 Joseph Bonaparte, at Madrid. His mother was a native of Corsica, 
 and he lmd with her in that island till be had attained the age of 
 seven years. He was then sent to the Lyceum at Rodez, in the 
 French department of Aveyron, wheie he pursued his studies till the 
 year 1830. The French revolution of that year deprived his father 
 of the means of supporting his family ; but Louis Blanc, by the 
 as-i>tance of an uncle and by giving lessons in mathematics, was 
 enabled to complete his education. In 1832 he removed to Arras, 
 in the department of Pas de Calais, as tutor to the children of M. 
 Hallet, a maker of machines. While in this situation several articles 
 written by him on political and literary subjects weie inserted in the 
 journal called ' Le Progress du Pas de Calais.' 
 
 In 1834 Louis Blanc removed to Paris, where he obtained an 
 engagement as a sub-editor of the periodical entitled ' Bon Sens.' In 
 January 1837 he was appointed editor, but in 1838 he resigned his 
 situation in consequence of a di-puto with the proprietors of the 
 journal on the subject of railroads, Louis Blanc being decidedly of 
 opinion that they ought to be undertaken and managed by the govern- 
 ment, whilst the proprietors maintained that they ought to be left to 
 private enterprise and industry. The other writers employed on the 
 'Bon Sens' retired with Louis Blanc, who in 1839 established the 
 periodical called ' La Revue du Progres,' the main object of which 
 was to form and support a combination of certain sections of the 
 democratic associations then existing. In 1840 he published his 
 treatise on the ' Organisation of Labour ' (' Organisation du Travail '), 
 in which he laid down his doctrines of political and social reform, 
 the essential principle of those doctrines being that men, instead of 
 labouring for themselves, should labour for the community, each 
 individual contributing according to his capabilities, and receiving his 
 recompense according to his requirements, under the administration 
 of a central government. These doctrines were widely spread some 
 years ago among the working classes in this country as well as in 
 * ranee, but have now nearly died out, at least in the United King- 
 dom. Louis Blanc does not, we believe, in the least degree sympa- 
 thise with those socialists who advocate principles of spoliation. Not 
 
 long afterwards he published his ' Histoire des Dix Ans ' (1830-1840). 
 He was active in the French revolution of 1848, and was elected a 
 member of the provisional government which was formed after tho 
 expulsion of the king Louis-Philippe. He has the merit of having 
 induced his colleagues, during their short period of political power, 
 to pass the decree which abolished the punishment of death for 
 political offences. An accusation was soon afterwards got up against 
 him with respect to his conduct on the 15th of May 1848, and so 
 powerful was the party opposed to him that his friends advised him 
 to leave the country. He made his escape to London, where he has 
 since continued to reside, chiefly employed in writing his 'Histoire 
 de la Revolution Francaise,' a well-written and valuable addition to 
 the historical library of the first French Revolution. The twelfth and 
 concluding volume appeared in 18 02. He also published an answer to 
 the Marquis of Normanby's ' Year of Revolution,' under the title of 
 'Revelations Historique,' of which an English version appeared as ' 1 848. 
 Historical Kevelations : inscribed to Lord Normanby,' 8vo, 185S. 
 
 BLANCHARD, FRANCOIS, was born at Andelys, in the d. part- 
 ment of Eure, France, in 1738. Although illiterate, and little 
 acquainted with the physical sciences, he displayed very early a Btroug 
 mechanical genius. His first experiment, when only sixteen years old, 
 was the construction of a machine, moving mechanically, with which 
 he traversed a space of seven leagues, and on which he subsequently 
 made some improvements. At nineteen he invented a hydraulic 
 machine ; and next a flying vessel, which was capable of raising itself 
 twenty feet from the ground. These ingenious toys, for they were 
 little better, served to introduce him to the court of Versailles. When 
 the brothers Montgolfier invented their balloon in 1783, a fresh 
 direction was given to the genius of Blanchard. He immediately con- 
 structed a balloon with wings and a rudder, thinking to be able to 
 steer it, and ascended for the first time on March 2, 1784. The wings 
 and rudder were found to be useless ; but he had also invented a 
 parachute, which, on his first ascent, was merely taken up in order to 
 break the fall in case of accident. On January 7, 1785, M. Blanchard 
 and Dr. Jeffries undertook to cross the channel in a balloon. They 
 started from Dover, and landed in the forest of Guiennes, but they 
 had been obliged to disencumber themselves of everything of weight 
 in order to avoid falling into the sea. For this exploit he received a 
 gift of 12,000 francs from the king of France, and a pension of 1200 
 livres. From this time he continued making repeated ascents in 
 various countries ; in one of which, landing near Kufstein iu Tyrol, 
 he was thrown into prison as a propagator of revolutionary doctrines. 
 He afterwards figured at New York, aud styled himself, aeronaut of 
 both hemispheres, citizen of the principal towns of both worlds (the 
 old and new), member of foreign academies, aud pensioner of the 
 French empire. While making his sixty-sixth ascent at the Hague in 
 1808, he was struck with apoplexy; from this he never entirely 
 recovered, and he died at Paris, March 7, 1809. His wife was less 
 fortunate : she had participated in his labours, and continued them. 
 In 1819 while ascending from the Tivoli gardens at Paris, the balloon 
 burst, she fell, and was found dead in the car. (Nouvelle Biographic 
 Universelle ; Conversations- Lexikon.) 
 
 BLANCHARD, JACQUES, whom D'Argenville dignifies with the 
 title of the French Titian, was born at Paris in 1600. He was first 
 instructed by his maternal uucle Jerome Balleri, and afterwards by 
 Horace le Blanc, at Lyon. He visited Italy, and arrived in Rome, in 
 1624, and having studied there two years, he went to Venice, where 
 he remained also two years. He found the works of the Venetian 
 masters more suited to his taste, and models of imitation better 
 adapted to his abilities, than the more severe compositions of the 
 Romans. After spending some time at Turin and Lyon, Blanchard 
 returned to Paris an accomplished painter, and by a series of easel 
 pictures, which followed in rapid succession, he acquired a name as a 
 colourist without a rival in France. He had however a short career; 
 he died of consumption, aged only thirty-eight, in 1638. He 1-ft a 
 son, Gabriel, who became a distinguished painter. Blanchard's princi- 
 pal works at Paris aro a gallery in the Hotel de Bouillon, containing 
 thirteen pictures from ancient mythology, painted in oil upon the 
 wall ; the ' Descent of the Holy Ghost ' in the church of Notre 
 Dame ; ' A Nativity,' and several holy families. The majority of his 
 works are of small dimensions : they are chiefly of religious subjects. 
 He painted also many portraits. There are about seventy engravings 
 after the works of Blanchard, by himself and by other engravers. 
 (D'Argenville, Abrige de la Vie des plus fameux Peintres.) 
 
 BLANCHARD, LAMAN, was born at Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, 
 May 15, 1803. His father having removed to London, Laman was 
 educated at St. Olave's school, Southwark. He commenced the 
 business of life as reader in a printing office. From boyhood he had 
 exhibited a great fondness for poetry, and considerable aptitude in 
 verse making; and his first venture in authorship was a small volume 
 of poetry entitled ' The Lyric Offering,' published in 1828. Before this 
 however, in 1S27, he had received the appointment of secretary to 
 the Zoological Society. This office he held till 1831, when he resigned 
 it to become actiug editor of the ' New Monthly Magazine.' From 
 this time till his death his talents were wholly devoted to writing for 
 the periodical press, to which he was one of the most varied and 
 prolific contiibutors. His contributions consisted of poems, essays, 
 tales, sketches, and brief pointed paragraphs ; — whatever in fact wag 
 
?19 
 
 BLAND, REV. ROBERT, B.A. 
 
 BLESSINGTON, COUNTESS OF. 
 
 730 
 
 most required for the magazine or journal with which he was at the 
 time conni cted: and all of thorn displayed a lively and genial faucy 
 and a ready wit. Mr. Blanchard edited the 'True Sun' newspaper 
 during the whole of its career; the ' Constitutional ; ' and for a while 
 the ' Court Journal,' and the ' Courier.' For some time previous to 
 his death he had assisted in conducting the ' Examiner.' His death 
 occurred under very painful circumstances. His wife, to whom he 
 was much attached, became very ill about a year before his decease, 
 and her illness ended in insanity. She rallied for awhile, but relapsed 
 and died. Under the prolonged anxiety attending her long illness 
 and its fatal termination, his own health and spirits gave way. He 
 was attacked by nervous paroxysms, and during or after one of these, 
 put an end to his life, February 15, 1845. His death excited much 
 sympathy, especially among his literary brethren by whom he was 
 greatly esteemed. His 'Essays and Sketches' have been collected and 
 published, with a memoir bv Sir E. Bulwer Lytton. 
 
 BLAND, THE REV. ROBERT, B.A., was born in 1779 in London, 
 where his father, Dr. Robert Bland, was an eminent physician. On 
 leaving Pembroke College, Cambridge, he became an assistant master 
 at Harrow, where he had previously been a pupil. After several other 
 changes, including a short residence at Amsterdam as clergyman of 
 the English Church, he married in 1813, and became a curate in Essex. 
 In 1816 he entered on the curacy of Kenilworth, which he retained 
 during the remainder of his life. He died at Leamington, ou the 
 12th of March 1825. Mr. Bland enjoyed an excellent reputation, not 
 only for his knowledge and taste in the learned languages, and in 
 French and Italian, but also for his skill as a classical teacher. His 
 character is described as amiable and exemplary. He published two 
 volumes of original poems, 'Edwy and Elgiva,' 8vo, 1808; and ' The 
 Four Slaves of Cythera,' a poetical romance, 8vo, 1S09. lie was also 
 the author of ' Elements of Latin Hexameters and Pentameters,' a 
 work which has gone through several editions. He contributed to 
 periodical publications, and was one of the translators of the Memoirs 
 of Grimm and Diderot, 2 vols. 8vo, 1813. His translations from the 
 minor Greek poets, by which he is be.>t known, first appeared in a 
 volume entitled 'Translations, chiefly from the Greek Anthology, with 
 Tales and Miscellaneous Poems,' Svo, 1806 (chiefly by Mr. Bland and 
 the late Mr. Merivale); again, in the form of 'A Collection of the 
 most beautiful Poems of the Minor Poets of Greece, with Notes and 
 Illustrations,' Svo, 1813; and lastly, in an improved edition with new 
 contributions, which was published in 1 833 by Mr. Merivale. 
 
 BLANE, SIR GILBERT, an eminent physician, was the fourth son 
 of Gilbert Blane of Blanefield, in the county of Ayr, in Scotland. He 
 was born at Blanefield on the 29th of August 1749. Being intended 
 for the church, he was sent to the University of Edinburgh ; but 
 during his attendance there he was led to devote himself to the study 
 of medicine. In the prosecution of this branch of science he acquired 
 the notice not only of his fellow-students, but also of Dr. Robertson, 
 the principal of the university, of Dr. Blair, and Dr. Cullen. 
 
 Alter obtaining his degree of Doctor of Medicine he was recom- 
 mended by Dr. Cullen to Dr. William Hunter, at that time the most 
 eminent teacher of anatomy in London. Through his instrumentality 
 Dr. Blane was appoiuUd private physician to Lord Holdernesse. This 
 appointment introduced him to the notice of many distinguished indi- 
 viduals, and among others, to Lord Piodney, who nominated him his 
 private physician, in which capacity he accompanied Lord Rodney, 
 when in 1780 he assumed the command of the squadron on the West 
 Indian station. In the course of the first engagement every officer being 
 either killed, wounded, or employed, Dr. Blane was intrusted by the 
 admiral with the duty of conveying his orders to the officers at the 
 guns, and in one of these dangerous missions he was slightly wounded. 
 As a reward for his services on this occasion, and on the recommenda- 
 tion of Lord Rodney, he was instituted at once, without going through 
 the subordinate grades, to the high office of physician to the fleet. 
 In the execution of his duties he was unremitting, and exerted him- 
 self most beneficially in preserving the health and efficiency, as well 
 as in promoting the comfort of the seamen, on that sickly station. 
 He was present during six engagements under his friend and patron 
 Lord Rodney, and of the battle of the 12th of April 1782 he gave so 
 animated an account in a letter to Lord Stair, that his narrative was 
 published. He remained on the West India station till 1783. Soon 
 after his return to England he embodied the results of his experience, 
 and also many of the conclusions drawn from the returns of the 
 surgeons of the ships, in a volume, which he published in 1783, 
 entitled ' Observations on the Diseases of Seamen,' 8vo, London. This 
 work has several times been reprinted, with enlargements and improve- 
 ments. For his services on the West India station a pension was 
 granted him by the crown, the amount of which was subsequently 
 doubled, on the recommendation of the Lords of the Admiralty. 
 
 In the course of his residence in the West Indies he frequently met 
 the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., who was then serving 
 as a midshipman in Lord Rodney's fleet. Dr. Blane obtained the 
 favourable regaid of his Royal Highness, and upon determining to 
 settle in London as a physician, he was by the influence of the Duke 
 of Clarence appointed physician extraordinary to the Prince of Wales. 
 In 1785 he was elected physician to St. Thomas's Hospital. About 
 this time he was appointed one of the commissioners of sick and 
 wounded sailors ; and in 1795 was placed at the head of the Navy 
 
 Medical Board. During the time that Earl Spencer was first lord of 
 the admiralty, Dr. Blane, seconded by that nobleman, was enabled to 
 effect the introduction into every ship of the use of lemon-juice, as a 
 preventive and cure for scurvy, a measure which has had the beneficial 
 effect of almost completely eradicating scurvy at sea. Dr. Blane 
 zealously directed his attention to improve the condition both of the 
 men engaged in the service, and of the medical officers whose duty it 
 was to superintend their health. He caused regular returns or journals 
 of the state of health and disease to be kept by every surgeon in the 
 service, and forwarded periodically to the Navy Board. From a careful 
 examination of these returns, lie drew up several dissertations which 
 were read before the Medico-Chirurgical Society, in whose transactions 
 they were subsequently published. 
 
 In 1786 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, who appointed 
 him to deliver the Crooniau Lecture in 1788. He selected for his 
 subject ' Muscular Motion,' his treatment of which evinced the extent 
 aud variety of his knowledge as well as the originality of his mind. It 
 was printed in 1791, 4to, and reprinted in his 'Select Dissertations,' 
 London, 1822, of which a second edition appeared in two volumes, 
 1834. An essay on the ' Nardus,' or spikenard of the ancients, was 
 published in the ' Transactions of the Royal Society,' vol. 80, in the 
 year 1790. During the scarcity in 1799 and 1800, he published a 
 pamphlet on the scarcity aud high price of provisions. 
 
 Having attained great eminence as a physician, and his private 
 practice becoming very extensive, he resigned his office of physician to 
 St. Thomas's Hospital. He recorded some of his observations made 
 during the twenty years that he held that situation, in a dissertation 
 on the ' Comparative Prevalence and Mortality ' of different diseases 
 in London, which was published in the ' Transactions of the Medico- 
 Chirurgical Society,' and reprinted in his ' Select Dissertations.' The 
 last public service on which Dr. Blane was employed was on a profes- 
 sional mission to inquire and report ou the cause of the sickness of 
 the army in Walcheren in 1809 ; and to Northfleet, to report on the 
 expediency of establishing a dockyard and naval arsenal at that place 
 in 1810. The title of baronet was conferred upon him in 1812, and in 
 the same year he was appointed physician in ordinary to the Prince 
 Regent. 
 
 In 1819 he published 'Elements of Medical Logic,' which in a few 
 years went through several editions. Of all his writings, this is cal- 
 culated to be the most permanently useful. His observations on the 
 diseases of seamen however must always be worthy the attentive 
 perusal of all who are designed for that branch of the public service. 
 In 1821 he suffered severely from an attack of prurigo senilis, from the 
 harassing irritation of which he could only obtain relief by the use of 
 opium; and as the disease never completely left him, he acquired a 
 habit of consuming a quantity of that potent drug, equal to what any 
 of the opium-eaters of the East can take. In 1826 he was elected a 
 member of the Institute of France. In 1830, on the accession of King 
 William IV., he was nominated first physician to his Majesty. His 
 last appearance before the public was as the author of a pamphlet, 
 entitled ' Warning to the British Public against the alarming approach 
 of the Indian Cholera,' 1831. His later years were spent in retirement 
 from professional labours, and in the revision of his ' Select Disserta- 
 tions,' the second edition of which he lived to see published. He died 
 on the 26th of June 1834, in the eighty-fifth year of his age. 
 
 BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE, COUNTESS OF, was born at 
 Knockbrit, near Clonmel, Tipperary county, Ireland, on the 1st of 
 September, 1789, and was the third daughter of Mr. Edmund Power, 
 who was of respectable family, but broken fortune and reckless habits. 
 She was married in her fifteenth year to a Captain Farmer, but the 
 marriage was a very unhappy one, and Mrs. Farmer after a time 
 quitted his house. He was killed by falling from a window iu the 
 King's Bench prison while in a state of intoxication, and within four 
 mouths his widow was married to the Earl of Blessington, February 
 1818. After exhausting every means of enjoyment in England aud 
 Ireland, the earl and countess started in September 1822 on a conti- 
 nental tour, which, partly owing to the earl's property having become 
 considerably encumbered, was prolonged till his death. At Paris they 
 were joined by the Count Alfred d'Ursay, who in 1827 married a 
 daughter of Lord Blessington by his first wife. It was an unhappy 
 marriage, aud a separation eventually took place ; but Count d Orsay 
 continued after the death of Lord Blessington to reside with Lady 
 Blessington during the remainder of her life. Lord Blessington died 
 at Paris in May 1829. Lady Blessington on her return to London 
 made her house the centre of a brilliant circle of persons of social and 
 intellectual eminence. She quickly became one of the celebrities of 
 London ; and for nearly twenty years the salons first of Seamore-place 
 and afterwards of Gore House, disputed the palm with those of Holland 
 House as the resort of the learned, the witty, and the famous of the 
 day. But Lady Blessington aspired to be something more than merely 
 their hostess. She had in 1822 published a couple of volumes of 
 'Sketches,' and in 1832 she fairly entered upon her career of author- 
 ship by contributing to the 'New Monthly Magazine' a 'Journal of 
 Conversations with Lord Byron.' She had become acquainted with 
 Lord Byron when residing on the continent, and as she repeated his 
 remarks with little reserve, the 'Journal' excited considerable interest, 
 and was soon republished in a separate form. From this time Lady 
 Blessington continued to write for the press with little intermission. 
 
BLIZARD, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 722 
 
 She wrote a great many novels, of which ' The Repealers' was the first 
 in point of time ; and the ' Victim of Society,' the ' Two Friends,' and 
 the ' Belle of a Season,' were the most popular. When portraying the 
 habits of fashionable society she was on familiar ground, and could 
 write with effect ; when she treated of subjects of more general interest 
 she lost her power. The majority of her novels and tales are of little 
 literary worth, and none perhaps are likely to have a very long vitality. 
 One of her most pleasant books, after the 1 Conversations with Lord 
 Byron,' is her ' Idler in Italy,' published in two volumes in 1839. The 
 •Idler in France' and 'Desultory Thoughts and Reflections,' are of 
 inferior value. Lady Blessiogton also contributed slight tales, sketches, 
 and verses to the aiagazines and annuals ; and for several years she 
 edited ' Heath's Book of Beauty ' and the ' Keepsake ;' she also for a 
 few years edited another annual called the ' Gems of Beauty.' She 
 likewise for a time contributed to the 'Daily News' and 'Sunday 
 Times ' newspapers. 
 
 To this literary industry Lady Blessington was incited by pecuniary 
 necessity, brought about by her splendid style of living. But both 
 her jointure and her literary earnings proved insufficient to meet her 
 expenditure; and when the famine in Ireland cut off in a great 
 measure the returns of the Blessington property, It became necessary 
 in 1849 to dispose of the costly fittings and furniture of Gore House. 
 Count D'Orsay had gone to Paris in the hope, as was understood, of 
 obtaining a post under Louis Napoleon, with whom he had been on 
 terms of much intimacy. Lady Blessington followed him in April 
 1>49, and died at Paris almost suddenly on the 4th of June, 1849. 
 Count D'Orsay died at Paris August 4, 1852. 
 
 (.Madden, the Literary Life and Correspondence of the Countess of 
 Blesiinrjton.) 
 
 BLIGH, WILLIAM, born in 1753, the commander of the ship 
 ' Bounty ' at the time when she was piratically seized in the South 
 Seas. The description given by Captain Cook of the bread-fruit and 
 edible fruits of various descriptions in the South Sea Islands induced 
 a number of the West India merchants to take measures for introducing 
 them into the West India colonies. On the advantages likely to result 
 from such a design being strongly represented to George III., orders 
 were given to prepare a vessel for the purpose. The arrangements 
 were superintended by Sir Joseph Banks, who named the vessel the 
 'Bounty.' Bligh, then a lieutenant, who had already sailed with Cook 
 in those quarters, was appointed to the command, and sailed from 
 Spithead for Otaheite on the 23rd December 1787. On the 26th of 
 October following they reached their destination, and remained at the 
 island until April 4th, 1789. The number of bread-fruit plants taken 
 on board was 1015, besides a number of other plants. The whole were 
 under the care of competent persons who had been selected by Sir 
 Joseph Banks. Laden with these valuable plants the vessel proceeded 
 on her voyage to Jamaica. On the morning of the 28th of April the 
 captain was seized in his cabin, while adeep, by Mr. Christian, who 
 was the officer of the watch, and three other individuals ; his hands 
 were tied behind him, and he was threatened with iustant death if he 
 gave the least alarm. The mutineers then put him into the ship's 
 launch, with eighteen of the crew, and cast them adrift. They had 
 been allowed to collect twine, canvass, lines, sails, cordage, a twenty- 
 eight gallon cask of water, 150 lbs. of bread, with a small quantity of 
 rum and wine. They had also a quadrant aud a compass, but no map, 
 ephemeris, or sextant. They were left to struggle with cold and hunger 
 in an open boat deeply laden, and some thousands of miles from any 
 hospitable shore. They were near the island of Tofoa at the time of 
 leaving the ship, in 19° S. lat., 184° E. long. ; and they landed, iu 
 order, if possible, to increase their stock of provisions, but a smlden 
 attack by the natives compelled them to embark without obtainiug 
 more than a trifling quantity of bread-fruit, plantains, aud cocoa-nuts. 
 They caught on their voyage a few sea-birds, and spent a few days 
 among the coral islands off the coast of New Holland, which enabled 
 them to get a comparatively comfortable meal or two of oysters, clams, 
 and dog-fish, relieved them from the fatigue of being constantly in the 
 same position in the boat, and enabled them to enjoy good rest at 
 night. Ou the 14th of June they arrived at Timor. They had reached 
 this island in forty-one days after leaving Tofoa, having in that time 
 run by the log a distance of 3618 nautical miles with scarcely anything 
 to support life, without shelter from the weather, and without the 
 loss of a single man. To the prudence, firmness, and seamanlike 
 qualities of Bligh their safety may be chieHy ascribed. Lieutenant 
 Bligh proceeded as soon as possible to England, where he landed 
 March 14th, 1790. Of the companions of his perilous voyage five died ; 
 and one, who was left behind, was never heard of afterwards. The 
 adventures of the mutineers in the ' Bounty,' after Bligh and his com- 
 panions had been cast adrift, are narrated under Adams, John. 
 
 _ The relation of the treatment which Lieutenant Bligh had expe- 
 rienced, and of the hardships which he had encountered, highly excited 
 the public sympathy. He was again sent out to the South Seas, and 
 wag completely successful in conveying to the West Indies a supply 
 of the bread-fruit plant. He was also promoted to the rank of com- 
 mander, and the ' Pandora' frigate, Captain Edwards, was sent out to 
 Otaheite, for the purpose of apprehending the mutineers. The 
 
 Pandora' reached that island March 23rd, 1791, where fourteen of 
 the mutineers were found, apprehended, aud kept ou board iu irons. 
 On the 8th of May 1791, the ' Paudora' left Otaheite, and, after an 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOU L 
 
 ineffectual search of several months, with a view to discover the place 
 of Christian's retreat and the fate of the ' Bounty,' she was wrecked 
 on the 29th of August on the coral rocks near New Holland, when four 
 of the mutineers aud thirty-ono of the ship's company lost their lives. 
 The survivors, consisting of eighty-one of the crew and officers of the 
 'Pandora,' and ten of the mutineers of the 'Bounty,' proceeded in four 
 open boats to Timor, which they reached in sixteen days. Captain 
 Edwards, of the ' Pandora,' finally reached Spithead with his prisoners 
 on the 19th of June 1792. On the 12th of September following a 
 court-martial was assembled at Portsmouth, under the presidency of 
 Lord Hood, for the trial of the ten surviving mutineers, and on the 
 18th they delivered their verdict. Four of them were acquitted, aud 
 six were found guilty and sentenced to death, of whom two were 
 recommended to mercy. On the 24th of October the king's warrant 
 was received at Portsmouth, ordering the execution of three out of 
 the four men who were condemned without recommendation, and 
 granting a respite to the fourth, who subsequently received his 
 majesty's pardon ; the other two received a full pardon, and one of 
 them, a young midshipman named Heywood, afterwards honourably 
 distinguished himself in the service. 
 
 It was much disputed at the time whether the mutiny of the 'Bounty' 
 was occasioned by the harsh conduct of Bligh, or whether the muti- 
 neers were seduced from their duty by the prospects of a life of ease 
 and pleasure in the delightful islands of the South Seas. During their 
 stay at Otaheite they had been exposed to temptations which must 
 have had some influence on their future conduct. On the other hand, 
 it is certain that Bligh's conduct was often coarse and arbitrary, and 
 that both officers and men felt indignant at his treatment of them. 
 There is the best reason for believing that the mutiny was not the 
 result of a maturely-formed conspiracy, but that " the plot was con- 
 ceived aud carried into execution between the hours of four and eight 
 a.m. of the 29th of April." (Marshall, ' Naval Biography,' article 
 ' Heywood.') The two or three preceding days, Bligh, iu the united 
 capacities of commander and purser, had acted in a manner more than 
 usually arbitrary. 
 
 In 1806 Bligh was appointed governor of New South Wales, where 
 his acts appear to have been extremely tyrannical, and his use of the 
 powers vested in him most impolitic and even illegal. (Wentworth, 
 'Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of New South Wales,' 
 p. 200.) His conduct became at length so unbearable, that on the 26th 
 of January 1808 he was arrested by order of the other civil and military 
 officers of the colony, and his government was thus summarily termi- 
 nated. The excesses with which he is charged are of so shameful and 
 atrocious a character as almost to indicate insanity, aud ought to be 
 taken into account in forming our estimate of his conduct ou board 
 the 'Bounty.' (See Wentworth's second edition, p. 203, and the note.) 
 Bligh died in December 1817. Nothing was heard of the 'Bounty* 
 until 1809, when au American vessel touched at the island which 
 Christian had selected as a retreat. [Adams, John.] 
 
 The mutiny of the ' Bounty' has partly been made the subject of one 
 of Lord Byron's poems, entitled the ' Island,' which contains many 
 passages of great beauty. The account of Bligh's voyage to the South. 
 Seas was published in 4to, pp. 264, London, 1792, and contains charts, 
 engravings, and a portrait of Bligh. A popular accouut, entitled ' The 
 Eventful History of the Mutiny and Piratical Seizure of H.M.S. Bounty : 
 its Cause and Consequences,' forms one of the volumes of the ' Family 
 Library.' 
 
 {Narrative of the Mutiny on ooard H.M.S. Bounty, by Lieutenant 
 W. Bligh ; Minutes of the Proceedings on the Court-Martial, with an 
 Appendix, by Edward Christian, brother of Fletcher Christian.) 
 
 BLIZARD, SIR. WILLIAM, was born in the year 1743 at Barnes, 
 Surrey, where his father was an auctioneer. His early education was 
 neglected, but he was apprenticed to a surgeon and apothecary at 
 Mortlake. During his apprenticeship he devoted himself to self- 
 improvement, and paid much attention to botany. On leaving Mort- 
 lake, he became assistant to a surgeon in London, and attended during 
 that time hospital practice at the London Hospital, and the lectures 
 of William and John Hunter and Mr. Pott. His assiduity recom- 
 mended him to his teachers, and he was soon elected surgeon to the 
 Magdalen Hospital. On the decease of Mr. Thompson iu 1780, he 
 was elected surgeon to the London Hospital. About this time he 
 connected himself with Dr. Maclaurin as a teacher of anatomy, and 
 they lectured together, first at a small place iu Thames-street, after- 
 wards in Mark-lane, and in 1785 at the London Hospital. Imperfect 
 as such an institution was for teaching medicine, it was the first that 
 was established in London in connection with any of the large 
 hospitals. 
 
 In 1787 Mr. Blizard was appointed professor of anatomy to the 
 old Corporation of Surgeons, aud in the year following was unani- 
 mously re elected. He was afterwards appointed an examiner. He 
 was also elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1787. He took an 
 active interest in procuring for the old Corporation of Surgeons the 
 new charter, under which the new institution was called the Royal 
 College of Surgeons of London. By a charter granted in 1844, it is 
 now called the Royal College of Surgeons of England. On the granting 
 of the first charter, Mr. Blizard was appointed, in conjunction with 
 Sir Everard Home, a professor of anatomy. He was president of the 
 college twice during his life, and delivered the Hunterian Oration three 
 
 3 A 
 
723 
 
 BLOCH, MARCUS ELIESER. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES. 
 
 7U 
 
 times. On the occasion of the great collection of John Hunter being 
 presented to the College by the government, Mr. Blizard presented also 
 his collection of about 900 preserved specimens in anatomy and 
 pathology. In 1796 he published a work entitled 'Sugg< stions for the 
 Improvement of Hospitals and other Charitable Institutions,' in which 
 he pointed out the evils that existed at that time in the various 
 institutions intended for the relief of disease; and its publication 
 was followed by a beneficial improvement in many of the metropolitan 
 hospitals. 
 
 In 1803 Mr. Blizard was appointed to present an address to the 
 king from the College of Surgeons, when he received the honour of 
 knighthood. In 1819 he founded the Hunterian Society. He also 
 was the founder of the Samaritan Society, which was instituted with 
 the view of examining the circumstances of cases in hospitals that 
 havo a claim upon benevolence, of obtaining a fund from which relief 
 might be afforded, and providing a body of men who might properly 
 execute and perpetuate the good design. He was one of the first 
 fellows of the Horticultural Society. He was one of the founders, and 
 for many years vice-president of the London Institution. 
 
 Besides being Surgeon to the London Hospital and a member of 
 the Council of the College of Surgeons, he held the offices of Consulting 
 Surgeon to the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, the Marine Society, the Clergy 
 Orphan Asylum, and the London Orphan Asylum. But witli all his 
 activity and industry, with the exception of an attack of fever, caught 
 by working night aud day in his dissecting-room, his health never 
 failed him to the last. In 1827 he was in his eighty-filth year, but 
 strong enough to make his first visit to Edinburgh. His eyesight 
 latterly failed liim, and when this was discovered to be owing to cata- 
 ract, he insisted, in spite of the entreaties of his friends, on having the 
 operation of extraction performed. This was done by Mr. Lawrence 
 in 1834, after which he regained the use of his eyes. He was however 
 now in his ninety-third year, and during the following year his strength 
 and health visibly failed him, although he attended a meeting of the 
 court of examiners at the college the Friday before his death. He 
 died on the 28th of August 1835. 
 
 Sir William was most punctilious on points of etiquette, and retained 
 the fashions of the last century to the day of his death. At one time 
 it was customary for physicians aud surgeons, to attend at coffee-houses 
 to be consulted. Sir William Blizard is said to have been the last 
 medical man in the metropolis who pursued this practice. He regularly 
 frequented, for this purpose, Batson'a coffee-house, Cornhill. 
 
 In early life Sir William was in politics a great reformer, and con- 
 tributed to many of the periodicals of the day, under the signature of 
 Curtiua. As he grew older however, and his position in society im- 
 proved, he became less democratic, was an admirer of Mr. Pitt, and a 
 member of the Pitt Club. Subsequently, in his position of a member 
 of the Council of the College of Surgeons, he was an opponent of all 
 change in that body. 
 
 As a surgeon Sir William Blizard never took the highest position 
 in his day, but he was a good anatomist. His contributions to medical 
 literature are few, and, considering the vast opportunities he must have 
 had of witni ssiug all forms of disease in ODe of the largest hospirals 
 in London, not so important or valuable as might have been antici- 
 pated. Au.ong his principal papers are — ' Observations on the Uses 
 of Electricity in Deafness,' 1790; 'Lecture to the Scholars of the 
 Maritime School at Chelsea, on the Situation of the Large Blood- 
 Vessels of the Extremities, explaining the Use of the Tourniquet,' 
 12mo, 1798, written with the view of affording some knowledge of 
 what could be done in cases of emergency from wounds of various 
 kinds; ' Hunterian Orations,' 1815, 1823, 1828; 'An Address to the 
 Chairman and Members of the House Committee of the London 
 Hospital, on the subject of Cholera,' 1 831. He also wrote ' Desultory 
 Refleeti'ius on Police, with an Essay on the Means of Preventing 
 Crimes aud Amending Criminals,' 1785, and some papers in the ' Philo- 
 sophical Transactions.' 
 
 (Cooke, A Brief Memoir of Sir William Blizard, Knt.) 
 
 BLOCH, MARCUS ELIESER, was born in 1723, at Ansbach in 
 Bavaria, of extremely poor Jewish parents. Having made up by 
 intense industry the deficiencies of his early education, and acquired a 
 wide extent of knowledge, especially in the department of natural 
 history and anatomy, to which he had particularly devoted himself, 
 he took the degree of M.D. at Fraukfurt-on-the-Oder, and returned to 
 Berlin to exercise his art as a physician. In this city he was highly 
 prized not only for his knowledge but for the excellence of his private 
 character, and here he died on August 6, 1799. On his settling at 
 Eerlin as a medical practitioner he began to publish. His first work 
 was ' Medical Observations, with a Treatise on the Mineral Waters of 
 Pyrmont,' 1774; aud he followed this by other valuable medical 
 treatises. But his great work, and that on which his fame principally 
 rests, was on the natural history of fish, published in two series, 
 ' Oekonomische Naturgeschichte der Fische Deutschlauds '(' Natural 
 History of the Fish of Germany, with reference to their Management'), 
 in 3 vols., 1762-64; and ' Naturgeschiohte Ausliindiseher Fische' 
 ('Natural History of Foreign Fish'), in 12 vols., 1785-95. The two 
 works contain 432 coloured plates, of which the excellence is even now 
 acknowledged, and the work itself is regarded as the foundation of the 
 science of ichthyology. Bloch left uncompleted a ' Systema Ichthyo- 
 logias Iconibus ex. illustratum,' which was published by Schneider in 
 
 1801. The valuable collection which Bloch had formed was purchased 
 by the government, and now forms a part of the collections of the 
 
 Berlin Zoological Museum. (Conversations- Lexikon.) 
 
 BLOEMART, ABRAHAM, an historical painter, was born at 
 Gorcum in 1507. Bloeinart appears not to have travelled beyond 
 Paris, and he derived little advantage from his visit to that city. He 
 principally resided in Utrecht. His works have remained almost 
 entirely in his native country, and are chiefly at Amsterdam'. There 
 are pictures of his in some of the churches at Brussels aud Mechlin. 
 Bloemart possessed originality and feeling, but was a complete man- 
 nerist, making nature subservient to his own peculiar style. In some 
 of his historical pictures the figures are as large as life, which shows 
 that he had the ambition of doing something great ; but the costume 
 is still Dutch, no matter what the subject may be. He acquired 
 however considerable skill in the practice of his art. Besides historical 
 pictures he executed some landscapes, which have been admired, and 
 he was not a stranger to tho etching needle. He died in 1647 
 according to some accounts, but others say 1657. There are engravings 
 of his works very spiritedly executed by Bolswert. 
 
 Cornelius, his eldest son, obtained some celebrity as an engraver, 
 and introduced certain improvements in the practice of his art, giving 
 a softer edge to his shadows than his predecessors. His other sons 
 practised painting and engraving, but without much success. 
 
 BLOMEKIELD, FRANCIS, was born at Fresfield in Norfolk, July 
 23rd, 1705. He received the elements of education at Diss and 
 Thetford, and in 1724 was sent to Gouville aud Caius College, Cam- 
 bridge. He took his degree of B.A. in 1727, aud in the same year was 
 ordained deacon of the church of St. Giles's in-the Fields, London. 
 In 1728 he was made a licensed preacher by Dr. Tanner, then Chancellor 
 of Norwich. In 1729 he was instituted rector of Hargham in Norfolk, 
 and in September of the same year he was instituted rector of Fresfield 
 on the presentation of his father, Henry Blomefield, Gent. ; soon after 
 which be relinquished Hargham. Blomefield's death occurred from 
 small-pox, January 15, 1751. His great work, which in its completed 
 form constitutes one of the best county histories we possess, was pub- 
 lished under the modest title of ' An Essay towards the Topographical 
 History of the County of Norfolk.' It was printed in his own house 
 at Fresfield, and the publication began in numbers in 1739. It was to 
 a great extent owing to his being his own printer aud publisher that 
 the slow progress of the work was owing ; but its issue was greatly 
 retarded by a fire having, when the first volume was completed, 
 destroyed not only all the parts printed, but also the printing appa- 
 ratus. It was left unfinished at his death, when he had carried it to 
 nearly the end of the third (folio) volume ; and the completion was 
 ultimately undertaken by the Rev. C. Parkin, rector of Oxburgh, who 
 had rendered some assistance to Blomefield in the previous portion, 
 and had himself formed considerable collections. This gentleman 
 finished the third volume, aud added two more, which are considered 
 inferior to those by Blomefield. The second volume was published in 
 1743 ; the third, completed by Parkin, not till 1769 ; the fifth and 
 final volume appeared in 1775. Blomefield was greatly assisted in his 
 work by the collections which had been formed by Peter le Neve, 
 norroy king-at arms, who spent above forty years in amassing at great 
 expense and trouble the most extensive collection of facts for the 
 history of Norfolk that had been formed for any county in the 
 kingdom. Blomefield's own last-printed work was the ' Collect mea 
 Cantabrigiensia/ a collection relating to Cambridge university, town, 
 and county. 
 
 (History of Norfolk ; Gough, British Topography.) 
 BLOMFIELD, CHARGES JAMES, Bishop of London, was born 
 in 1786 at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, where his father wa3 a school- 
 master. Having been first well-grounded in classics he proceeded to 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and both there and in the university 
 examinations he attained great distinction. He graduated in 1808 as 
 third wrangler, and was senior medallist the same year ; subsequently 
 he was elected fellow of Trinity College. The first published speci- 
 men of his philological aud critical abilities was an edition of the 
 ' Prometheus' of ^Eschylus, which appeared in 1810; this was followed 
 by the 'Seven against Thebes,' 1812; the 'Persians;' the ' Choe- 
 phorae ; ' and the ' Agamemnon.' A valuable edition of Callimachus 
 was published uuder his supervision in 1824. It is on these works 
 that the fame of Bishop Blomfield as a classical scholar chiefly rests. 
 But they are far from exhibiting the extent of his labours in tho 
 academic field. In 1812 he edited in conjunction with Reunel the 
 ' Musse Cantabrigiensis ; ' and in conjunction with Monk the ' Post- 
 humous Tracts ' of Porson, a work which he followed, two years 
 later, by editing alone the ' Adversaria Porsoni.' But besides these 
 he is known to have written numerous critical papers on Greek litera- 
 ture, some of them of a rather trenchant character, in the quarterly 
 reviews and classical journals ; and he compiled in 1828 a Greek 
 grammar for schools. 
 
 His first preferment in the church was in 1810 to the living of 
 Warrington; and in the same year he received that of Dunton in 
 Essex. In 1819 he became chaplain to Hovvley bishop of London, 
 and very soon after he received the valuable rectory of St. Botolph, 
 Bishopsgate, in the city of London, and was made Archdeacon of 
 Colchester. From this time his career of active clerical influence may 
 be dated. In 1824 he was raised to the episcopal bench as Bishop of 
 
BLOND, JACQUES CHRISTOPHE LE. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT. 
 
 Cheater; and in 1S2S on bis friend and patrou Bishop Howley being 
 translated to the see of Canterbury, Bishop Blomfield was chosen 
 to succeed him as Bi>hop of London. His lordship has ever since 
 taken perhaps the most active and influential, if not always the mo-fc 
 prominent part, in the government of the established church, and a 
 leading position in the discussion of all ecclesiastical or seini-ecclesias- 
 tical subjects in the House of Lords. His conduct in the many 
 important matters connected with the doctrines and ceremonial 
 observances and innovations which have vexed or interested the 
 Church of England during the many years he has held his present 
 important post, has been much canvassed : into its merits however 
 we of course refraiu from entering. Biu besides his watchful super- 
 vision of the general interests of the Church, Bishop Blomfield has 
 been a careful overseer of the clergy of his diocese, and prompt to 
 Bupport any proposition which has appeared likely to improve the 
 condition of the labouring classes in the metropolis. Nor in the 
 briefest notice of Bishop Blomfield ought the amazing success of his 
 efforts for increasing the number of churches to pass unmentioned. 
 While Bishop of Chester he zealously set on foot efforts to erect new 
 churches in places insufficiently supplied; but it is in his London 
 diocese that success has most abundantly crowned his labours. 
 During the time that he has held the see there have been built in his 
 diocese a number of churches beyond all comparison greater than in 
 the presidency of any other bishop since the Reformation ; yet one of 
 his most recent public acts has been to make an earnest appeal, seconded 
 by a large subscription, to the affluent and liberal to endeavour by a 
 vigorous effort to raise funds sufficient if possible to construct as many 
 additional churches as the Census Report of the Registrar-General 
 Bhows are still needed to meet the wants of the vast and rapidly 
 increasing population of the metropolis. [See Supplement.] 
 
 The theological writings of Bishop Blomfield consist of ' Lectures 
 on the Acts of the Apostles,' and of numerous Sermons and Charges. 
 
 BLOND, or BLON, JACQUES CHRISTOPHE LE, a miniature 
 painter, born at Frankfurt in 1670, known a3 the inventor of printing 
 in colours. He appears to have been studying in Rome as early as 
 1696, and he probably lived there many years. Before 1711 he was 
 practising as a miniature painter with great success in Amsterdam, 
 but he executed miniature s of so small a size that he injured his eyes, 
 and he was forced to give up that style. He then for awhile practised 
 oil-painLing ; but he appears to have soon afterwards turned his 
 attention to printing in colours. He anticipated great results from 
 his discovery, and removed to Paris as a larger field of operation, but 
 Dot finding the encouragement he expected, he came to London. 
 Here he found ready subscribers to his novel plan of picture painting. 
 Tho>e however whom his representations had persuaded to venture 
 money in the scheme were very much disappointed in the results. 
 His prints were flat and dirty, and gave but very faint copies of their 
 originals ; they were however efforts of great merit and great novelty, 
 and with more perseverance than Le Blond possessed much good 
 might have resulted. Le Blond however, disheartened by the cold- 
 ness with which his prints were received, and a consequent bank- 
 ruptcy, neglected the discovery, aud turned his attention to a new 
 scheme — the weaving in tapestry of the cartoons of Raphael. 
 
 His plan of printing was too simple to produce sati-i'actory results. 
 He used only three primary colours, and passed the prints three times 
 through the press, printing with one colour each time ; the secondary 
 and tertiary colours were obtained by printing one colour over one or 
 both of the other two primary colours ; and the impression was 
 repeated for those parts where great depth was necessary : they were 
 first eugraved in mezzo-tiuto. He published an account of his plan in 
 1722, in French and English, in 4to, entitled ' II Colorito, or the 
 Harmony of Colouring in Painting, reduced to Mechanical Practice, 
 under ea»y Precepts and infallible Rules,' with five examples, and a 
 dedication to Sir Robert Walpole. A second edition was published in 
 Paris, in 175G, aft-r the death of Le Blond, by one of his pupils, 
 under the title ' L'Art d'lmprimer le3 Tableaux.' Le Blond executed 
 altogether in this style thirty-three plates, many after the great 
 masters, and all very large ; some of the portraits, which are a con- 
 siderable proportion, are as large as life : they are extremely scarce. 
 
 Le Blond found also much assistance towards the commencement of 
 his undertaking r.gardiug the cartoons of Raphael, but it was so 
 inadequate to the full accomplishment of the tapestries, that after he 
 bad spent all that was advanced, he saw the hopelessness of persisting; 
 and in about 1737 he went off to Paris, leaving his friends the partly- 
 prepared apparatus as the indemnity for their outlay. In Paris he 
 again had recourse to bis printing in colours, for which he took out a 
 patent in 1740, but he produced only two plates ; the enterprise 
 failed, and he himself is said to have died in an hospital in 1741. 
 
 (Heineken, Idee Generate d'une Collection d'Estampes, and Diclion- 
 naire des Artistes, &<:.; Hii.-gen, Artistisches Magazin ; Huber, Manuel 
 des Amateurs, Sec.; Strutt, Dictionary of 'Engravers; Fiorillo, GeKhichle 
 der Zeichnenden Kiinste, <kc.) 
 
 BLONUKL, or BLONDIAUX, a French minstrel of the 12th 
 century, and the friend of Richard I. of England, wh om he accom- ! 
 panied to Palestine. The story of his discovery of Richard— who on 
 his return from Palestine had been made a prisoner by Leopold, duke 
 of Austria, and confined in the castle of Lbwenstein — by Binging under 
 the cagtle walla an air which they had formerly composed together, 
 
 and to which Richard responded, is given by Fauchet, on the authority 
 of some old French chronicle, and has furnished the subject of a 
 well known opera by Gretry. The truth of the htory however is 
 doubted. 
 
 BLOOD, THOMAS, generally called Colonel Blood, was a native of 
 Ireland, and an adventurer of no ordinary character. He is said to 
 have b< en born about 1628. For some time he served in Ireland as a 
 lieutenant in the parliamentary forces. After the king's restoration, 
 the Act of Settlement in Irelaud, by affecting Blood's fortune, made 
 him discontented beyond the common feeling of the republican party, 
 and finding a design on foot for a general insurrection, which was to 
 be begun by surprising the Castle of Dublin, aud seizing the person 
 of the Duke of Ormond, the then lord-lieutenant, he joined it, and 
 ultimately became its leader. The conspiracy however which had 
 been long suspected, was discovered upon the eve of its execution. 
 Colonel Blood fled, but one Laekie, a minister (his brotlier-in law), 
 with various others, were apprehended, convicted, and executed. 
 Blood secured his retreat to Holland, where he is stated to have been 
 received into intimacy by some considerable persons in the republic. 
 From Holland he came to England, and joined the Fifth Monarchy 
 men, whose plans giving no promise of success he withdrew to Scot- 
 land, where he took part with the covenanters, aud was present in the 
 action of Pentland Hills, November 27th, 1606. After that defeat he 
 again went to England, where he lived for a time in disguise, medita- 
 ting revenge against the Duke of Ormond; whom he actually seized 
 on the night of December 6th, 1670, in his coach in St. James's-street, 
 with the iutent, as was believed, of carrying him to Tyburn to hang 
 him. The duke's servants after a severe struggle rescued their master. 
 Blood's connection with this enterprise was not suspected ; nor, 
 though a reward of 1000Z. was offered by proclamation to discover the 
 perpetrators of the crime, could any of the gang be apprehended. 
 
 The miscarriage of this design put him upon one still more strange 
 and hazardous to repair his broken fortunes. He proposed to the 
 same desperate persons who had assisted him in the former attempt, 
 to join him in seizing the regalia of England ; he was to contrive the 
 means, and they were to devote themselves to the service. His scheme 
 was so well laid, and executed with so bold a spirit, that on the 9th 
 of May 1671 he so far carried his point as to get a part of the regalia 
 (the crown and orb) into his possession. Blood, who had assumed the 
 disguise of a clergyman, concealed the crown beneath his cloak, but 
 was pursued aud taken. One of his companions, Parret, had the orb. 
 Blood and Parret, with another of the party, were now committed to 
 the Tower-jail, where, strange to say, at the instigation of the Duke 
 of Buckingham, then the favourite and first minister, the king himself 
 visited him ; finally pardoned him, took him into favour at court, and 
 gave him a pension. For several years applications were constantly 
 made to the throne through the mediation of Colonel Blood ; and the 
 indulgence shown to him became a public scandal. When the ministry 
 styled the ' Cabal' fell to pieces, Colonel Blood's consequence at court 
 declined. He then became an enemy to his former patron, the Duke 
 of Buckingham, for a conspiracy to fix a scandalous imputation upon 
 whom he was convicted iu the court of King's Bench, and committed 
 to prison; but finding bail, was allowed to retire to his house in the 
 Bowling Alley in Westminster, where he died August 24th 16S0. 
 
 {Remarks on Some Eminent Passages in the Life of the Fam'd Mr. 
 Blood, foL, London, 1680 ; Sir Gilbert Talbot, Narrative of Blud's 
 Attempt on the Crown in the Tower, Harl. M.S., No. 6859 ; The Nar~ 
 rative of Colonel Thomas Blood, Concerning the Design R< ported to 
 be laid Against the Life and Honour of George, Duke of Buckingham, 
 folio, London, 1680.) 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT, an English pastoral poet, was the young- 
 est of six children of George Bloomfield, a tailor at Honington, a village 
 near Bury St. Edmunds in Suffolk, where Robert was born, Decem- 
 ber 3rd, 1766. Having in early infancy lost his father, his mother 
 obtained a scanty subsistence for her family by keeping a little school, 
 in which he himself was taught to read. At the age of eleven he was 
 hired in the neighbourhood as a farmer's boy; but being found too 
 feeble for agricultural labour, he was placed with a relative in London 
 to become a shoemaker. With no assistance or stimulus beyond the 
 reading of a newspaper, and a few borrowed books of poetry, of which 
 his favourite was Thomson's 'Seasons,' he composed his very pleasing 
 rural poem ' The Farmer's Boy ' in a poor garret, No. 14, Bell Alley, 
 Coleman-street, whilst at work with six or seven others, who paid each 
 a shilling a week for their lodging. The manuscript, after being offered 
 to, and refused by, several Loudon publishers, was printed under the 
 patronage of Capel Lofft, Esq., in 1800 ; and the admiration it produced 
 was so general that, within three years after its publication, more thau 
 26,000 copies were sold. An edition was published in the following 
 year at Leipzig. At Paris a translation, entitled 'Le Valet du Fermier,' 
 was made by Etienue Allard ; one was made into Italian ; and in 
 London appeared, in 1805, 'Agricoke Puer, poema Roberti Bloom- 
 field celeberrimum, in versus Latinos redditum ' auctore Gulielmo 
 Clubbe, LL.B. : a very clever effort in imitation of the ' Georgics.' 
 
 The fame of Bloomfield was increased by the subsequent publication 
 of ' Rural Tales, Ballads, and Songs,' ' Good Tidings, or News from the 
 Farm,' 'Wild Flowers,' and 'Banks of the Wye.' He was kindly 
 noticed by the Duke of Grafton, by whom he was appointed to a situa- 
 tion in the Seal office; but sufferiug from constitutional ill-health, ha 
 
727 
 
 BLOW, JOHN. 
 
 BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH. 
 
 728 
 
 returned to his trade of ladies' shoemaker, to which, being an amateur 
 in music, he added the employment of making ^Eolian harps. The 
 Duke of Grafton allowed him a pension of a shilling a day, but the 
 maintenance of his family, and of some other of his relatives, involved 
 him in difficulties ; aud, being habitually in bad health, he retired to 
 Sbefford in Bedfordshire, where, after much bodily aud mental suffering 
 he died, August 19th, 1823, at the age of 57 years. He left a widow 
 and four children, and debts to the amount of 20(U., which sum was 
 raised by subscription among his benevolent friends aud admirers. 
 
 The works of Bloomfield have been published in a collected form ; 
 and his ' Farmer's Boy ' has been frequently r -printed. The author's 
 amiable disposition and benevolence pervade the whole of his compo- 
 sitions. There is an artless simplicity, a virtuous rectitude of sentiment, 
 an exquisite sensibility to the beautiful, which cannot fail to gratify 
 every one who respects moral excellence, and can eujoy simple descrip- 
 tive poetry illustrative of English country life. 
 
 BLOW, JOHN, Mus. Doc, was born at North Collingham, Notting- 
 hamshire, in 1648, and educated in the Chapel-Royal, where he very 
 early distinguished himself by his industry and enterprise, for it 
 appears, from Clifford's ' Collection,' that while one of the ' children ' 
 of that royal establishment, he composed several anthems, which had 
 the honour to be performed before the king. His advancement wa< 
 rapid : he was successively appointed to the offices of Gentleman of 
 the Chapels-Royal and Master of the Children ; one of the King's 
 Private Musicians; Composer to the King; Almoner and Master of 
 tho Choristers of St. Paul's Cathedral ; and Organist of Westminster 
 Abbey. He died in 1708, aud was interred in the north aisle of West- 
 minster Abbey, where a monument is erected to his memory, on which 
 is engraved his famous 'Gloria Patri,' a canon, together with a long 
 inscription, wherein it is stated, and to his honour, that he was " master 
 to the famous Mr. H. Furcell." The compositions of Dr. Blow are 
 numerous, but more the offspring of study aud patient labour than of 
 genius. Two of his anthems however prove that he was sometimes 
 inspired by the muse presiding over his art ; and a few of the many 
 secular compositions in his ' Amphion Anglicus' — a volume of songs, 
 &c. — were deservedly popular. 
 
 BLUCHER, LEBRECHT VON, Prince of Wahlstadt, field-marshal 
 of Prussia, was born December 16th, 1742, at Rostock, a town near 
 the shore of the Baltic, in the duchy of Meckleuburg-Schwerin. His 
 father was a captain of cavalry in the service of Hcsse-Cassel. At an 
 early age he manifested a strong predilection for the military pro- 
 fession ; and in opposition to the advice of his relatives, entered in his 
 fourteenth year a regiment of Swedish hussars as ensign. In a cam- 
 paign against the Prussians, at the commencement of the Seven 
 Years' War, in which the Swedes were allied with Russia and Austria 
 against Frederic the Great, he was taken prisoner in Pomerania by 
 the same regiment of Prussian hussars in which he afterwards became 
 so distinguished. The colonel of the regiment, Von Belling, being 
 favourably impressed with his frank and gallant character, persuaded 
 him to join the Prussian army, and contrived to give in exchange for 
 him another Swedish officer. In the service of Frederic he rose from 
 a lieutenant to senior captain, when his pride being ruffled by the 
 promotion of a person of higher birth than himself to the vacant post 
 of major, and finding no use in remonstrance, he caused a request for 
 permission to resign to be delivered to his royal master. That singu- 
 lar personage, to whom in stoical endurance of hardships and energy 
 of character he was so remarkably similar, gave him iu a very blunt 
 manner the permission he requested. He then retired to the duchy 
 of Silesia, became a farmer, and by persevering assiduity acquired 
 possession of a considerable estate. He remained thus employed for 
 fifteen years, until the accession in 1786 of Frederic William II., by 
 whom he was courteously recalled, and again introduced in the rank 
 of major to his old regiment of black hussars, which he commanded 
 with honourable distinction in several campaigns against the French. 
 
 In 1789 he obtained the Order of Merit; and subsequently in 1793- 
 94, as colonel and major-general, at the battles of Orchies, Luxem- 
 burg^ Frankenstein, Oppenheim, Kirehweiller, and E esheim iu the 
 palatinate, he acquired reputation as a soldier by his vigilance, promp- 
 titude, and astonishing energy. In the name of the king of Prussia 
 he took possession in 1802 of Erfurt and Mublhausen. In the same 
 year, after the victory gained by the French at Jena, having, with a 
 remnant of 10,000 or 12,000 Prussians, become separated fiom the 
 rest, he succeeded without disorder in forcing his retreat westward as 
 far as Lubeck, aud, though harassed by the forces of the marshals 
 Soult, Marat, and Bernadotte, he resisted to the last, and finally 
 accepted a capitulation only on condition that the cause of surrender 
 should in writing be stated to be " want of ammunition and provi- 
 sions." Having been exchanged for General Victor, he was sent into 
 Pomerania to assist the Swedes. He was afterwards employed in the 
 war department at Konigsberg and Berlin ; and when in 1813 his 
 country rose in opposition to France, he was appointed to take the 
 command of a numerous army of Prussians and Russians combined. 
 The order of St. George was bestowed upon him by the emperor 
 Alexander in acknowledgment of his conduct at the battle of Liitzen ; 
 at those also of Bautzen and Haynau he was no less conspicuous. In 
 the battle fought August 26th, 1813, on the banks of a small river 
 near Liegnitz in Silesia, called the Katzbach, Bliicher first held undi- 
 vided command; and with 60,000 men, the greater number of whom 
 
 were but raw militia, defeated the French marshals Macdonald, Ney, 
 Lauriston, andSebastiani, and inflicted on them a terrible loss. March- 
 ing with amazing rapidity to the Elbe, he crossed that river by means 
 of pontoons, and pushed on to the important battle of Leipzig, to the 
 victorious results of which his services greatly contributed. With his 
 Russo-Prussian troops he now formed tho left wing of the great army 
 of the allies in their pursuit of Napoleon I. retreating towards France. 
 Having passed over the Rhine at Kaub and Coblentz, he took posses- 
 sion of Nancy in January 1814. At Brienne he received a fierce 
 attack from Napoleon : but, though repulsed with great loss, returned 
 to the combat, as usual, on the following day, and succeeded in getting 
 some advantage. The rash and reckless rapidity of his movements at 
 this time having obliged him to make a retreat, and exposed his army 
 to disasters which prudence might have avoided, an alarm began to 
 arise iu England about the final result of the contest ; when, after 
 various battles lost and won on the way to Paris, he finally entered 
 that metropolis March 31, 1814; aud, but for the intervention of the 
 other commanders, it would by him have brteu made a scene of revenge- 
 ful retribution. Among his less extravagant demands, he firmly in- 
 sisted upon the restitution of every picture and work of art which had 
 been plundered from Prussia to adorn the Louvre. As field-marshal and 
 prince of Wahlstadt he accompanied the allied sovereigns to England, 
 where his personal appearance excited great curiosity. All the most 
 illustrious military orders of Europe having been conferred upon him, 
 the king of Prussia created for him anew one, with the badge of across 
 of iron, in compliment to his invincible courage. The Prince Regent of 
 England gave him his portrait ; and the University of Oxford, not to be 
 deficient in proof of admiration, bestowed upon the veteran warrior the 
 academical degree of LL.D. In possession of these honours he retired 
 to his Silesian estate, residing there until the return of Napoleon 
 from Elba in 1815, when he again returned to the great theatre of 
 war, and assume 1 the command of the Prussian army in Belgium. 
 His characteristic over-con tidence aud precipitancy occasioned his 
 defeat at the battle of Liguy, June 16th. It was at the close of this 
 desperate engagement, in which the fighting continued until ten at 
 night, that his horse was shot dead, and fell upon him, so that he lay 
 iu that position unable to move, whilst several regiments of French 
 cuirassiers passed over him in charging his troops. A report of his 
 death was soon in circulation; and Napoleon, who commonly named 
 him 'le vieux diable ' (the old devil), made the most of it in cheering 
 the hopes of his soldiers in the struggle at Waterloo on the 18th. 
 But late in the evening of that memorable day, before victory was 
 quite assured, Trince Bliicher, who on the night of his accident had, 
 owing to the darkness, escaped unhurt, appeared suddenly emerging 
 from the forest of Frichemont at the head of a great portion of his 
 Prussian army. At first Napoleon took it for the French division of 
 Marshal Grouchy arriving from Wavre ; that illusion however was 
 quickly dispelled, and a general attack, ordered by the Duke of 
 Wellington, completed the victory. Bliicher, although his troops had 
 been marching all day, immediately gave orders to pursue the flying 
 enemy. The moon being bright, a fierco and hot pursuit by sixteen 
 regiments of Prussians was kept up the whole night, until the roads 
 were choked with the dying and the dead. Having arrived with his 
 army at Paris, and assisted in the reinstatement of the Bourbon 
 dynasty, he remained theie several months, very frequently attending 
 the tables for rouge-et-noir. When the Prussians returned to Ger- 
 many, Blucher, on the anniversary of the battle of Katzbach, paid a 
 visit to Rostock, his native place, where the inhabitants united to raise 
 a public monument to his fame. His health now beginning to decline, 
 he finally retired to his chateau of Kriblowitz in Silesia, where the 
 king of Prussia visited and took leave of him in his latest moments. 
 "I know I shall die,'' said the old general; "I am not sorry for it; 
 because I can be no longer of any use." Haviug requested that he 
 might be buried without any parade, in a neighbouring field by the 
 roadside, under three linden trees, he died on the 12th of September 
 1819, aged seventy-seven. The whole Prussian army went into mourn- 
 ing for eight days. He had been in the service of Prussia during 
 forty-five years, and at the battle of Waterloo was seventy-three years 
 of age. In the year 1826 his statue in bronze, twelve feet in height, 
 modelled by the sculptor Rauch, was erected iu Berlin. The merit of 
 Bliicl er lay nearly altogether in his fearless courage aud his personal 
 advantages: as a prudent, scientific general he has no claims at all 
 to distinction. With a piercing eye, a loud and sonorous voice, a bold 
 outline of figure, accoutred and armed as a cossack, and a masterly 
 style of manoeuvring his horse, his presence, as he rode in front of 
 his men, never failed to inspire them with hope of success in follow- 
 ing a captain so daring and full of energy. The astonishing celerity 
 of his movements got him the appellation of Marshal Forwards, by 
 which he was generally known in Germany and Russia; but equally 
 well known was the fact, that to the able plans of General Gneisenau, 
 one of his officers, he owed almost all his success. 
 
 BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, was born at Gotha on 
 the 11th of May 1752. He studied medicine successively in the uni- 
 versities of Jena aud Gottingen, and took his degree at the latter place 
 in 1775. He chose for the subject of his inaugural dissertation the 
 varieties of the human race. It was published at Gottiugen with the 
 title ' De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa,' 4to, 1775 ; and several 
 new editions appeared during the next twenty years. This essay 
 
729 
 
 BOADICEA. 
 
 BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI. 
 
 730 
 
 appears to have laid the foundation of many of his important investi- 
 gations on this subject in after life, and led to the formation of his 
 very extensive collection of the skulls of all nations. 
 
 In 1776, the year after taking his degree, Blumenbach was appointed 
 extraordinary professor of medicine in the university of Gottingen, 
 lad in 1778 he was made ordinary professor. At the same time he 
 »lso received the appointment of superintendent of the library and 
 museum of natural history in the university. From this time his 
 contributions to the sciences connected with medicine, especially 
 anatomy and physiology, became regular. In physiology he pursued 
 the path of Haller, and directed bis attention more especially to the 
 structure and functions of the lower animals, as a means of deter- 
 miniug the true laws of human physiology. In 1781 he published a 
 work on embryology, entitled ' Ueber den Bilduugstrieb und das 
 Zeugungs-geschaft,' 8vo, Gottingen. In thi3 work he threw much 
 light on the obscure subject of generation, and opened up a path for 
 future inquirers. New editions of this work appeared in Germany in 
 1789 and 1791. In 1786 appeared his work on the human bones, with 
 the title 'Geschichte und Beschreibung der Knochendes Menschliehen 
 Kbrpers,' 8vo, Gottingen. He also published, in Latin, in the same 
 year, an introduction to medical literature. In 1787 appeared his 
 ' Institutions Physiologicse,' 8vo, Gottingen. This work was written 
 in Latin, and was one of the first attempts that had been made to give 
 a condensed account of the functions of the human body without 
 entering into the minute anatomical structure of the body. It quickly 
 became the text-book of schools where physiology was taught. Several 
 new editions of the original work were published, and it was translated 
 into German, Dutch, English, and French. A second English transla- 
 tion, by Dr. Elliotson, was published in London in 1817 ; and of this 
 translation so many subsequent editions appeared, and the notes by 
 the tran>lator became at length so numerous, and the progress of 
 physiology required so much of the original to be modified, that the 
 translator at length published the work with the title ' Human 
 Physiology, &c, with which is incorporated much of the elementary 
 part of the Institutiones Pbysiologicae of J. F. Blumenbach, by John 
 Elliotson, M.D.' 
 
 Blumenbach, in all his contributions to physiology, had frequent 
 recourse to the lower animals for the purpose of illustrating and 
 developing the functions of those of the higher; and in 1805 he was 
 induced to publish a manual of comparative anatomy. This work 
 appeared at Gottingen, with the title ' Handbuch der vergleichende 
 Auatomie ' It was translated into English in 1809, by Mr. William 
 Lawrence; and again in 1827 by Mr. Coulson. Although this work is 
 meagre compared with those which have appeared both in this country 
 and on the continent since its first publication, yet it exerted an im- 
 portant influence on the systematic study of comparative anatomy, 
 embodying as it did the results of previous observers and the author's 
 own labours in this department of scientific inquiry. 
 
 One of the results of the author's inquiries with regard to the 
 varieties of the human race was the collection of a large number of 
 skulls of the inhabitants of the various parts of the world. Iu 1791 
 he commenced the publication of a work in parts, containing descrip- 
 tions and illustrations of these skulls. It was entitled ' Decas 
 Collectionis suae Craniorum diversarum Gentium illustrata,' 4to, 
 Gottingen. This work extended to several volumes, and was finished 
 in 1808. Besides his large works, Blumenbach contributed to various 
 scientific journals a great number of papers on particular departments 
 of medical and physiological inquiry, and indeed on almost every 
 subject connected with medicine. 
 
 In 1783 Blumenbach visited Switzerland. During this journey he 
 made notes ou the medical topography of the districts through which 
 he travelled, and afterwards published them in his ' Medicinische 
 Bibliothek,' a work which he edited at Gottingen from 1780 to 1791. 
 He visited England in 1788, and again in 1792. In 1812 he was 
 appointed secret iry to the Royal Society of Sciences at Gottingen. 
 In 1816 he was made physician to the king of Great Britain and 
 Hanover; and in 1821 was made a knight commander of the Guelphic 
 order. In 1831 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 in Paris. The jubilee of his graduation was celebrated by the 
 university in Gottingen in 1825, and the jubilee of his professorship in 
 the following year. He died on the 22nd of January 1840. 
 
 (Rallisen, Mediciniiches Schrifutcller-Lexikon ; Blumenhafh, Works.) 
 
 BOADICL'A, BOODICEA, BONDICEA, or BOUNDORICEA, lived 
 in the middle of the first century, and was the wife of Prasutagus, 
 the king of the Iceni, a tribe of Britons inhabiting Norfolk aud 
 Suffolk. Prasutagus at his death bequeathed his wealth, which was 
 very great, to his two daughters and to the Homan emperor, a device 
 resorted to in those times with the hope that it would confine the 
 emperor to a share of the deceased's possessions, and would rescue 
 the remainder from his officers. Nero was at this time emperor; and 
 Suetonius Paulliuus, a general of great skill and energy, commanded 
 in Britain. While Suetonius was occupied in attacking the Isle of 
 Anglesey (then called Mona), Catus, the procurator or collector of the 
 revenue, was guilty of great rapacity among the Britons in the east. 
 He caused Boadicea, on whom the government of her nation ha 1 
 devolved by the death of her husband, to be scourged, and her 
 daughters to be violated. In consequence of these atrocities, the Ic ni 
 »nd their neighbours, the Trinobautes (who dwelt in what is now 
 
 Essex and Middlesex), flew to arms. They first attacked and destroyed 
 the Roman colony of Camalodunum (Colchester), and defeated a Roman 
 legion which was coining to the relief of the place, under the com- 
 mand of Petiliua Cerialis. The insurgents also massacred the Romans 
 at Verolamium (St. Alban's), and at London, which was then famous 
 for its commerce. Catu3 fled iuto Gaul. Tacitus says that the Romans 
 and their allies were destroyed to the number of 70,000, many of 
 whom perished under torture. 
 
 Suetonius hastened to the scene of this revolt ; and abandoning 
 London, which he had no means of defending, ported himself with an 
 army of about 10,000 men in a narrow pass, his rear being guarded 
 by a wood, a.d. 61. The Britons were commanded by Boadicea, who, 
 in a chariot with her two daughters, went from one tribe to another 
 exhorting them to fight bravely. They seem however to have met the 
 usual fate of uncivilised armies. Without combination, incumbered 
 by their very multitude, impeded by their women who surrounded 
 them, aud by their unwieldy chariots, they suffered a terrible carnage. 
 Tacitus, a nearly contemporary historiau, estimates the destruction at 
 80,000 persons, an incredible number, although he says that the 
 Romans did not spare even the women aud the animals, who added to 
 the heaps of slain. Boadicea, he tells us, killed herself by poison. 
 
 (Tacitus, Annal. xiv. 31, &c.) 
 
 BOBROV, SEMEN SERGiEEVITCH, a Russian poet of some dis- 
 tinction, who commenced his literary career about 1784. His most 
 important, if not most extensive work is the ' Khersouida,' a poem 
 descriptive of the wild scenery, natural history, and antiquities of the 
 Taurida. In this production, which first appeared iu 1S03, and was 
 aft rwards corrected and enlarged, there is much originality both of 
 subject and manner, and it is further remarkable for being written in 
 blank verse, a form before unknown to Russian poetry. Besides con- 
 taining many very animated pictures of nature in the mountainous 
 regions of the Tauridau peninsula, there are many lyrical passages 
 of great vigour, which, while they relieve the sameness of landscape 
 description, breathe a powerful moral strain, and are replete with 
 elevated sentiment and religious fervour. Some of the episodical 
 parts are of a dramatic cast, being thrown into the form of dialogue, 
 and along with these may be classed the narrative of the aged Shereef 
 Omar, in the course of which he relates the history of the Taurida 
 from the fabulous ages of Greece. Bobrov was gifted with much 
 imagination and feeling, but in aiming at energy and loftiness he was 
 occasionally inflated in his language. He was exceedingly well read 
 in English poetry, to which he is perhaps in some measure indebted 
 for the best characteristics of his own. He died at St. Petersburg 
 in 1810. 
 
 BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI, born in 1313, was the son of Boccaccio 
 di Chellino, a merchant of Florence, whose family belonged toCertaldo 
 in the Val d'Elsa in the territory of Florence. His mother was a 
 Frenchwoman, with whom his father had become acquainted during 
 a visit to Paris, where Boccaccio was born. He studied at Florence 
 under the grammarian Giovanni da Strada until he was ten years of 
 age, when his father apprenticed him to a merchant at Paris, where 
 he spent six yeai-s. On his return to Florence, having expressed a 
 dislike of mercantile pursuits, his father set him to study the canon 
 law. After some years passed in this study, he was sent to Naples, 
 where he became acquainted with several learned men about the court 
 of King Robert, who was a patron of learning. Boccaccio says that 
 the sight of Virgil's tomb near Naples determined his literary vocation 
 for life, and that he then renounced all other pursuits. 
 
 In 1341, on Easter-eve, as ho was attending service in the church 
 of San Lorenzo, he was struck by the appearance of a beautiful young 
 lady, with whom he fell deeply in love. The object of Boccaccio's 
 admiration proved to be Mary, of the family of Aquino, and a pre- 
 sumed daughter of King Robert of Naples. Boccaccio's attachment 
 was returned ; and to please his mistress he wrote ' II Filocopo,' a 
 romance in prose, at the beginning of which he relates the history of 
 their love, and afterwards ' La Teseide,' a poem iu ottava rima ou 
 the fabulous adventures of Theseus. This was the first romantic and 
 chivalrous poem in the Italian language. Chaucer borrowed from the 
 ' Teseide ' his ' Kuighte's Tale,' afterwards remodelled by Dryden 
 under the name of ' Palamon and Arcit".' Boccaccio dedicated the 
 'Teseide' to his Fiammetta, the name which he gave to his mistress 
 Mary. In 1342 Boccaccio was recalled home by his father, but in 
 1344 he returned to Naples, where he remained for several years. 
 He there wrote the ' Amorosa Fiammetta;' 'II Filostrato,' a poem in 
 ottava rima, aud ' L'Amorosa Visione,' a poem in terza rima, of w hich 
 the initial letters of the first line of each terzina being placed iu suc- 
 cession together by way of acrostic, compose two sonnets and a can- 
 zone in praise of his mistress, aud this is the only way in which he has 
 called her by her real name 'Mirja.' At this time he frequented the 
 court of Queen Joanua, who had succeeded her father Robert. He 
 read his works to the queen, and at her desire, as it appears, he wrote 
 his ' Decamcrone,' a hundred tales, ten of which are supposed to be 
 told every afternoon of ten successive days by a society of seven young 
 women aud three young meu, who, having fled from the plague 
 which afflicted Florence in 1:J4S, had retired to a country-house some 
 distance from the town. Most of the stories turn upon love-intrigues; 
 they are lull of humour aud admirably told, but the details are often 
 very licentious. Several of the tales however are unexceptionable 
 
 3 a* 
 
731 
 
 BOCCANERA, SIMONE. 
 
 73a 
 
 Some of the subjects of these tales are taken from older works, but 
 most of them are original. 
 
 While at Naples Boccaccio amused himself with writing in the 
 Neapolitan dialect, in which there is extant a humorous letter addressed 
 by him to Francesco de' Bardi, a Florentine merchant, in the year 1349. 
 It appears that Boccaccio went from Naples to Calabria, and some say 
 also to Sicily, either for the purpose of studying Greek, or in order to 
 collect manuscripts for his library. About 1350 Boccaccio returned 
 to Florence, where, by the death of his father, he had become pos- 
 sessed of his inheritance, which he spent in travelling and in purchasing 
 manuscripts chiefly of the Greek and Latin classics. What manuscripts 
 he could not purchase he contrived to copy. 
 
 Boccaccio's merits being now known and appreciated by his country- 
 men, he was employed by the state in several offices and missions. 
 He was sent several times to Romagna, to the lords of Ravenna and 
 Forli, and afterwards on a mission to Louis of Bavaria, Marquis of 
 Brandenburg, in Germany, and again to Pope Innocent VI. In 1351 
 he was sent to Petrarch, who was then at Padua, to communicate to 
 him the revocation of the sentence of exile passed against his father 
 during the factions of 1302, as well as the restoration of his paternal 
 property, which had been confiscated; Petrarch was at the same time 
 invited to return to his paternal country, but he declined the invitation. 
 In 1355 Boccaccio wrote 'II Corbaccio, ossia il Labirinto di Ainore,' a 
 kind of satire against women, full of indecent passages. His Fiam- 
 metta appears to have died at Naples some time before. In 1360, 
 having induced the Florentines to found a chair of Greek literature in 
 their university, he repaired to Venice for a professor, and brought 
 home witli him Leoutius Pilatus, a native of Calabria, who wished to 
 pass himself off for a Greek, as Petrarch says. (' Epistola Senil.' 
 lib. iii. 6.) Pilatus was a learned but uncouth man. Boccaccio lodged 
 him in his own house, and treated him with great kiuduess notwith- 
 standing his repulsive manners and bad temper. Boccaccio learned 
 Greek from Pilatus, who made for his pupil's use a Latin translation 
 of Homer. 
 
 In lii'.l a great change took place in Boccaccio's moral conduct. 
 His life had till then been irregular, and most of his writings licentious, 
 but in that year Father C'iani, a Carthusian monk, came to him and 
 stated that Father Petroni of Siena of the same order, who had died 
 shortly before in odour of sanctity, had commissioned him to exhort 
 Boccaccio to forego his profane studies, reform his loose life, and 
 prepare for death. To prove the truth of his mission, Ciani told 
 Boccaccio several circumstances, known only to Boccaccio and Petrarch. 
 Boccaccio wrote immediately in great agitation to his friend Petrarch, 
 expressing his resolution to quit the world and shut himself up in a 
 Carthusian convent. Petrarch's answer, which is among his Latin 
 epistles, is remarkable for its sound and clear sense. Without ascribing 
 much weight to the mysterious circumstances of the monk's communi- 
 cation, he exhorted his friend to listen to the warning, so far ae to 
 adopt a new and regular course of life, which he might do without 
 shutting himself up in a convent, and without giving up his studies 
 and his books. This letter calmed the excited imagination of Boc- 
 caccio, who from that time became an altered man. His studies took 
 a more serious turn, and he devoted part of his time to the perusal 
 of the Scriptures. It was soon after this that he wrote to Mainardo 
 de' Cavalcanti, marshal of Sicily, imploring him not to allow his 
 ' Decamerone ' to be perused by the females of his family, " who, 
 though they might by education and honourable principles be above 
 temptation, yet could not but have their minds tainted by such 
 obscene stories." And as an apology for himself, he stated that it 
 was a work of his youth, and that he had written it in great measure 
 in compliance with the will of the powerful, " majori coactus imperio," 
 alluding probably to Queen Joanna's request. 
 
 In 1362 Boccaccio went to Naples at the request of Acciajuoli, the 
 seneschal of the kingdom, but he soon left Naples for Venice, where 
 he spent three months with Petrarch. After his return to Florence, 
 he was sent by the republic to Pope Urban V., then at Avignon, and 
 again to the same pope at Rome in 1367. At this period of his life he 
 appears to have been distressed in his circumstances, and to have 
 received occasional assistance from his kind friend Petrarch, who also, 
 on his death-bed, left him by will fifty golden florins " to buy him a 
 winter pelisse to protect him from cold while in his study at night," 
 adding, that if he did no more for Boccaccio, it was only through want 
 of m ans. In 1373 Boccaccio was appointed to lecture at Florence on 
 Dante's ' Commedia,' and to explain and comment upon the obscure 
 passages of that poem. He wrote a commentary on the 'Inferno,' 
 which is much esteemed, and also a life of Dante, which is not very 
 accurate. His health being bad, he gave up his lectureship in 1374, 
 and retired to Certaldo, where he made his will, leaving his little 
 property to his two nephews, except his library, which he bequeathed 
 to his confessor, Father Martin of Signa, an Augustine friar, and after 
 his death, to the convent of Santo Spirito at Florence, for the use of 
 students. A fire which occurred in the convent a century after 
 destroyed this valuable collection, the work of Boccaccio's whole life. 
 After lingering for several months, Boccaccio died at Certaldo on the 
 21st December 1375, at the age of sixty-two, sixteen months after the 
 death of his friend Petrarch. 
 
 Boccaccio may be considered as the father of Italian prose. The 
 merits of his ' Decamerone' with regard to language have been perhaps 
 
 exaggerated, but still it has the merit of being the earliest prose 
 work written in pure Italian. (Foscolo, ' Discorso Storico sul Testo 
 del Decamerone;' 'Journal of Education,' No. x., 'On the Study of 
 the Italian Language.') Boccaccio and Petrarch were the revivers of 
 classical literature in Italy. Thoy spared neither labour nor money in 
 recovering the Greek and Latin classics, and in giving an itnpul-e to 
 the study of them. Boccaccio wrote several works in Latin: 'De 
 Genealogia Deorum ; ' 'De Moutium, Sylvarum, Lacuum, Fluviorura, 
 Stagnorum et Marium Nomiuibus, Liber;' ' De Casihus Viroruin et 
 Foeminarum illustrium ;' 'De Claris Mulieribus,' and sixteen ' Eclogse,' 
 in which he alludes, under the veil of allegory, to the event* of his 
 time. His Italian works have been published together, carefully cor- 
 rected from the best existing manuscripts, in 17 vols. 8vo, Florence, 
 1827-34. 
 
 (Baldelli, Vita di Giovanni Boccaccio, Florence, 1806; Mazzuchelli, 
 Scrittori d' Italia.) 
 
 BOCCAGF, MARIE ANNE LEPAGE, was a French poetess of 
 the last century, bo highly esteemed by her contemporaries that she 
 was received as a member of the academies of Rome, Bologna, Padua, 
 Lyon, and Rouen. She was born in Rouen in 1710, and educated in 
 a convent at Paris, where, at an early age, she was distinguished for 
 talent and a poetic turn; but it was not until the year 1746 that 
 Madame du Boccage first appeared as an author, when her poem, 
 entitled ' Prix Alternatif entre les Belles Lettres et It s Sciences,' 
 gained the first prize given by the then recently founded Rouen 
 Academy. She was from this time surrounded, courted, and eulogised 
 by all the distinguished literati of France. Foutenelle called her his 
 daughter ; Voltaire placed a crown of laurel on her head, saying it 
 was the only thing wanting to her dress ; and the words ' Forma 
 Venus arte Minerva' were assigned her as a motto; but her produc- 
 tions display little real genius, and little that can command the 
 admiration of posterity. Their chief merit seems to be an easy and 
 correct versification. Her poetical works consist of an imitation of 
 ' Paradise Lost,' another of Gesner's ' Death of Abel,' ' Les AmazoneB,' 
 a tragedy (which was acted eleven times), ' La Colombiade,' an epic 
 poem, and several small pieces. Her works ran through four editions 
 between the years 1749 and 1770, and were translated into English, 
 German, Spanish, and Kalian. Her prose letters, written during her 
 travels through England, Holland, and Italy, which were little thought of 
 at the time, will probably be valued long after her poetry is forgotten. 
 Madame du Boccage died at the age of ninety-two, in the year 1802. 
 
 BOCCALI'NI, TRAJA'NO, bora at Loreto in 1556, studied at 
 Rome, and afterwards applied himself to the profession of the law. 
 He was employed by the court of Rome in several administrative 
 offices, and Gregory XIII. sent him as governor to Benevento. He 
 was well acquainted with the politics of the different courts in 
 his time, and wrote satirical comments upon tbem, in which he was 
 particularly vehement agaiDSt the court of Spain, in that age the 
 preponderating power in Europe. His principal work is ' I Rig- 
 guagli di Parnaso,' in which Apollo is supposed to sit in judgment 
 aud hear the charges and complaints of princes, warriors, and authors. 
 This work made him many enemies. He also wrote ' La Pietra del 
 Paragone Politico,' which he left in manuscript in the hands of a 
 friend. In this work, which is a kind of continuation of the other, 
 he especially attacks Spanish despotism. It was published after his 
 death in 1652, and translated into English by Henry earl of Mon- 
 mouth, with the title ' Politick Touchstone,' London, 1674. Boccalmi 
 also wrote commentaries upon Tacitus, ' Osservazioni sugli Anuali <li 
 Cornelio Tacito,' in which he developed his views of ancient politics, 
 and makes frequent comparisons between them and the events of his 
 own time. These commentaries, which also extend to the life of 
 Agricola, were published in 2 vols. 4to, 1678, under the title of ' La 
 Bilancia Politica di tutte le Opere di Trajano Boccaliui,' with notes by 
 Louis du May. The notes are written with greater freedom than the 
 text, especially on religious subjects, for which reason the work was 
 put in the Index of forbidden books. Owing to his -invectives against 
 Spain, Boccalini, being afraid of the power of that government, took 
 refuge at Venice, the only Italian state that kept itself comparatively 
 independent of Spanish influence. He did not live there much more 
 than a year, and died on the 16th of November 1613. According to 
 some accounts he was murdired in his lodging, and in his own bed, 
 by hired assassins, but the statement is disbelieved by Mazzuchelli, 
 Tiraboschi, and other Italian writers. 
 
 BOCCANE'RA, SIMO'NE, the first doge of Genoa, was elected by 
 popular acclamation in 1339. Until that time the republic had been 
 governed by two capitani chosen from among the patrician families, 
 between whom frequent disputes occurred, they being divided into 
 the factions of Guelphs aud Ghibelines. These disputes were often 
 accompanied with violence, and the citizens of Genoa growing tired 
 of such commotions appointed a doge, or elective supreme magistrate, 
 after the example of Venice. It was resolved at the same time that 
 the doge should be chosen from among the private citizens, and not 
 from any of the patrician families. The doges were appointed for 
 life; but they were often driven from office by civil commotions 
 Boccanera himself was expelled in 1344, but returned some years utter 
 and was reinstated. His sou Battista was elected doge in 1400, but 
 was soon after beheaded. The institution of the doges for life lasted 
 till 1528. 
 
BOCCHERINI, LUIGI. 
 
 BJCCHERI'NI, LUIGI, was born at Lucca in 1740. His first 
 instructions in music were from the Abbe Vanuucci, and he subse- 
 quently studied composition generally, and the violoncello particularly, 
 at Rome. Some time afterwards Charles IV. of Spaiu, a great 
 connoisseur in music, engaged Boccherini as court composer, and 
 during many years he lived in the sunshine of royal favour ; but 
 indiscreetly wounding the vanity of the royal dilettante, he was dis- 
 ini-sed from his envied situation. About the same time Lucieu Bona- 
 parte, theu ambassador at Madrid, took him under his protection, and 
 settled ou him a pension of a thousand crowns, on condition of his 
 supplying him with six quintets every year. Boccherini continued to 
 reside in the Spanish capital till his death, which took place in 1806. 
 Boccherini produced little besides quintets for two violins, viola, and 
 two violoncellos, which are remarkable for sweetness of harmony, and 
 for gracefulness of melody ; and, what renders them unlike all other 
 compositions of the kind, he most commonly assigns the principal 
 part to the first violoncello. Of these he composed no less than 
 ninety-three, which have now been superseded by the more elaborate 
 aud uudoubtedly superior works of the same class by Haydn, Mozart, 
 and Beethoven. 
 
 BOCHART, MATTHIEU, Protestant minister at Alencon in the 
 17th Century, published ' Traite contre les Reliques,' aud ' Traite 
 confre le Sacrifice de la Messe.' Judicial proceedings were com- 
 menced against him for having given in this treatise the forbidden 
 title of pastors to Protestant ministers. He published also ' Dialogue 
 sur les Difficulty's que les Missionaires font aux Protestaus de Erauce.' 
 This dialogue on the tolerance of Lutheran errors induced the Elector 
 Palatine to try if he could unite the two reformed churches in 
 Germany, namely, the Lutherans aud the Calvinists, and accordingly 
 he advocated their union in the assembly of Protestant princes at 
 Frankfurt. Upon hearing this, Matthieu Bochart published his 
 ' Diallacticon,' that is, 'a conciliatory treatise,' 16d2, which he dedicated 
 to the Elector Palatine. It contains the plan of this projected union. 
 
 BOCHART, SAMUEL, of the family De Bochart Cuampigny, de 
 la branche dfe Menillet, became by his great learning the most distin- 
 guished member of his illustrious family, although he did not enjoy 
 such splendid titles as many of his relations. He was born at Rouen 
 in 1599, and was the son of a Protestant minister. When Samuel 
 Bochart was thirteen years old he composed forty-four Greek verses, 
 and it is said that he read at an early age not merely the Hebrew 
 Bible, but also the rabbinical commentators. Soon afterwards he 
 b udied philosophy at seilan under the professor D. J. Smith, aud 
 defended his theses with great applause in 1615. He studied divinity 
 under Caindro, or Cameron ; aud the Syriac, Chaldee, anil Arabic 
 uuder Capel. When Cameron escaped from the civil commotions to 
 London in 1621, Bochart followed him and attended his private 
 instructions. 
 
 After a short stay in England, Bochart went, towards the close of 
 the vear 1621, to Leyden, where he studied Hebrew and Arabic uuder 
 Thomas Erpenius, and divinity under A. Rivetus, who had married a 
 sister of P. du Moulin. Rivetus dedicated his 'Catholicus Orthodoxus' 
 to Bochart. It is said that Bochart learned the Ethiopic from Job 
 Ludolf. 
 
 Having finished his studies at Leyden, Bochart returned home. His 
 father was then dead, but his mother still survived. He was soon 
 invited by the Protestants at Cam to accept among them the office of 
 pastor, and he became a zealous and popular preacher, a imire 1 even 
 by Roman Catholics. Duiiug the siege of Rochelle a number of 
 Roman Catholic controversialists went about in order to dispute with 
 Protestant ministers, an 1 to entrap them by unguarded expressions. 
 The famous Veron, who had been trained by the Jesuits, and was 
 now travelling through France, urged Bochart to a public disputation, 
 which took place in the castle, in the presence of a large assembly of 
 nobility and gentry, aud lasted from the 22nd of September to the 
 3rd of October 1G29. Sometimes the Duke of Longueville, viceroy of 
 Normandy, himself attended. In nine ses-ious Bochart and Veron 
 debated on the accuracy of the French version of the New Testament, 
 the faults of the Vulgate, images, traditions, intercession of the saints, 
 good works, the mass, presbyters, forbidden food, celibacy, certainty of 
 salvation, authority of the Dible, tue church, supremacy of St. Peter, 
 power of the pope, the Virgin, saints, relics, free will, m Tits, vows, 
 abstinences, justification, purgatory, limbus, prayers for the dead, 
 number of sacraments, eucharist, tequivoca, &c. Veron, observing 
 that Bochart had gained more geueral approbation than hiiuself, left 
 without having terminated the disputation. Bochart enriched his 
 ' Actes de la Conference tenue a Caen entre Samuel Bochart, et Joan 
 Baillehache, et Francois Verin, et Isaak le Coute,' S ium. 1630, 2 vols. 
 8vo, with sevend additions from the fathers, which prove that he was 
 well verae I in this branch of learning. 
 
 Having begun to expound Genesis to his congregation, these popular 
 expositions, widen terminate with Gen. xl. 13, led him to write the 
 followiug works:— 'De Paradiso Terrestri ;' ' Ueographia Sacra, seu 
 Phaleg, et Canaan ;' ' Hierozoicon, or the Animals mentioned in the 
 Bible.' He wrote also some dissertations ou the plants aud gems 
 mentioned in th« Bible, but of these merely fr igmeuts remain. The 
 'Phaleg' and the 'Canaan' were published iu 1U46. The approbation 
 with which 'Phaleg' and 'Canaan' were received by the 1 aimed 
 induced Bochart to bestow all his energy upon the ' Hierozoicon,' but 
 
 BODLEY, SIR THOMAS. 734 
 
 two circumstances occasioned delay. Dr. Morley, then chaplain to 
 King Charles II. of England, prevailed on Bochart to write a letter oa 
 episcopacy and presbyterianism, in order to pacify the minds of the 
 English about the time of the Convention of Breda; and in 1652 
 Bochart was invited by an autograph letter of Christina, queen of 
 Sweden, to come to Stockholm, where she had surrounded herself with 
 learned men. Bochart was accompanied to Stockholm by Huetius, or 
 Huet. They visited on their journey through Holland the learned of 
 those days, as Heinsius at Leyden, and the famous Anna Maria a 
 Schurmauu, then at Utrecht. They passed through Hamburg and 
 Copenhagen to Stockholm, where they were well received by the 
 queen, but Bochart was much aunoyed by the levity of the courtiers. 
 He returned iu 1653 to Caen, where he was welcomed by the members 
 of the academy which had been fouuded during his absence, aud of 
 which he became one of the most distinguished members. Iu'the 
 Royal Library at Stockholm he had found many oriental sources of 
 information for his ' Hierozoicou,' aud he induced his young companion 
 Huet to employ his leisure in editing the 'Commentaries of Origen' 
 from a codex in the royal library at Stockholm. In 1661, having come 
 to an agr ement with a London bookseller for the ' Hierozoicon,' which 
 is the best of his works, he obtained the assistance of Stephauus Morinus 
 in his ministerial functions, iu order that he might devote his time 
 to the completion of it. Morinus was afterwards his biographer, and 
 it is from his treatise ' De clarissimo Bocharto et omnibus ejus Scriptis,' 
 that we .derive our information. Bochart died suddenly of apoplexy 
 on the 16th of May 1667, whilst speaking iu an assembly of the 
 academicians at Caen. 
 
 Bochart's works have been edited at Leyden by Johannes Leusden 
 aud Petrus de Villemaudy, ' Opera omnia, hoc est, Phaleg, Chauaan, 
 et Hierozoicou, quibus accesserunt Dissertatioues Varise, &c. Prre- 
 mittitur Vita Auctoria a, Stephauo Morino scripta, editio quart i, 1712.' 
 This edition is the best of the complet; works, but the 1 Hierozoicon' 
 has been published by F. C. Rosenmuller, Lips., 1793-96, iu 3 vols. 4to 
 with additions from modern travellers. 
 
 (Dictionaries of Moreri and Bayle ; Morinus, Vita ; Pet. Dan. Huetii, 
 Episcopi Abrincensis Commeutarius de Rebus, <£c.) 
 
 BODLEY, SIR THOMAS, from whom the Bodleian or public 
 library at Oxford take3 it3 name, was the eldest son of Mr. John 
 Bodley of Exeter, by Joan, daughter and heire s of Robert Home, 
 Esq., of Ottery St. Mary. He was born at Exeter, March 2nd, 1544. 
 He was about twelve years of age when his father, being obliged to 
 leave Englaud on account of religion, settl d with his family at Geneva, 
 where he lived a voluntary exile during the reign of Queen Mary. 
 In the university of Geneva, then newly erected, young Mr. Bodley 
 applied himself to the study of the learned languages and divinity 
 under the most eminent professors. He frequented the public lectures 
 of Chevalerius on the Hebrew tongue, of Beroaldus ou the Greek, and 
 of Calvin and Beza on iliviuity, aud had also domestic teachers iu the 
 hou~e of Philibertus Saracenus, a physician of that city, with whom 
 he boarded, where Robert Coustautine, author of the Greek Lexic >n, 
 read Homer to him. Upon the accession of Queen lilizabeth, iu 1558, 
 he returned to England with his father and family, who settled in 
 London. He was soon after sent to Magdal n College, Oxford, where 
 he was placed under the tuitiou of Dr. Humphrey, afterwards presi- 
 dent of that society. Iu 1563 he took the decree of B.A., was chosen 
 probationer of Mertou College the same year, and the year followiug 
 was admitted fellow. In 1566 he took the degree of M.A., and in the 
 same year re. id natural philosophy in the puolic schools. Iu 1569 he 
 was elected one of the proctors of the university, and after that, for 
 a considerable time, supplied the place of university orator. In 1576, 
 being desirous to improve himself iu the m ;deru languages, and to 
 qualify hiuiself for public business, he begau his travels, aud passed 
 nearly four y ars iu visiting France, Germany, aud Italy. Afterwards, 
 retumiu.j to his colleg ■, he applied himself to the study of histo. y 
 and politics. Iu 1583 he was made gentlemau usher to Queen 
 Elizibeth, aud iu 1585 married Anue, daughter of Mr. Carew of 
 Bristol, aud widow of Mr. Ball, a lady, as Wood informs us, of con- 
 siderable fortune. Soon after, he was employed by Queen Elizabjth 
 in several emoassies to Frederic king of Denmark, Julius duke of 
 Brunswick, William landgrave of Hesse, and other Germ m princes, 
 to engage them to join their forces with those of the English for the 
 assistance of th; King of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France; 
 and haviug discharged that ct>mmis.-iou, he wasseutto king Henry 111., 
 at the time when that prince was forced by the Duke of Guise to quit 
 Paris. This commission, he himself tell us, he performed with 
 extraordinary secrecy, not beiug accompanied by any one servant (for 
 so he was commanded), nor with any other letters than such as were 
 written with tne qu en's owu hand to the king, and some select person* 
 about him. " The effect," he continues, " of that message it is fit I 
 should conceal ; but it tended greatly to the advantage of all the 
 Protestants iu France, aud to the duke's apparent overthrow, which 
 followed soou upon it." In 1588 Mr. Bodley was sent to tue H?gue 
 to manage the queen's aff airs in the United Provinces, where, ac.;. rJ- 
 ia<* to an agreement between the queen and the States, he was 
 admitted one of the Council of State, aud took his place nei t to 
 Count Maurice, giving his vote iu every proposition made to that 
 assembly. In this station he behaved greatly to the satisfaction of 
 his royal mistress and the advancement of the public service. 
 
735 
 
 BODMER, JOHANN JACOB. 
 
 BOECE, HECTOR. 
 
 After nearly five years' residence in Holland, Mr. Bodley obtained 
 leave to return into England to look after his private affairs, but was 
 short ly afterwards remanded back to the Hague. About a year after- 
 wards he came into England again, to communicate some private dis- 
 coveries to the queen, and presently returned to the States for the 
 execution of the counsels which he had secretly proposed. He obtained 
 his final recall in ]5 ( J7. After his return, finding his advancement at 
 court obstructed by the jealousies and intrigues of the great men, he 
 retired from it and from all public busiuess, and never could be pre- 
 vailed with to return, or to accept any new employment. In the 
 same year he set about the noble work of restoring or rather founding 
 anew the public library at Oxford, which was completed in 1599. 
 After King James's accession to the throne, Mr. Bodley received the 
 honour of knighthood. He died the 28th of January 1612, and was 
 buried with great solemnity at the upper end of Mertou College 
 choir. Sir Thomas Bodley wrote his own life to the year 1009, which, 
 together with the first draught of his statutes for his library, and a 
 collection of his letters, were published from the originals in the 
 Bodleian by Thomas Hearse under the title of ' Reliquiaj Bodleiause, 
 or some genuine Remains of Sir Thomas Bodley,' 8vo, London, 
 1703. The ' Life' alone had been previously published in 4to, Oxford, 
 1647. 
 
 BO DM E It, JOHANN JACOB, the Son of a clergyman, was bom 
 at Zurich in July 1698. He applied himself particularly to the study 
 of history and to poetry. Bodmcr was struck with the want of 
 national character in the German literature of his time, the style and 
 manner of which were heavy imitations of the French. Bodmer and 
 his friend Breitinger began publishing a seiies of critical aiticles on 
 the subject, which were violently opposed by Gottsched, the Aris- 
 tarchua of Germany in those days, who treated the two Swiss critics 
 with great superciliousness; but this controversy, which continued 
 for some jears, was the means of eliectiug a complete revolution in 
 German literature. Several young and gifted writers embraced 
 Bodmer's views, and a thoroughly German school was formed, which 
 produced Klopstook, Leasing, Schiller, Gdthe, and a host of others. 
 
 Bodmer was deeply read in the Greek and Latin, as well as in the 
 English poets, an>l he translated Homer and Milton into German. 
 But his special delight was in the old romantic and chivalrous poetry 
 of Germany, and he made the value of ancient German poetry known 
 by publishing in 1758 a collection of the Minnesinger, or old German 
 romantic poets. He likewise published the ' Helvetische Biiiliothek,' 
 Zurich, 1735-41, which is a collection of tracts relative to the history 
 of Switzerland. He also wrote a poem in twelve cantos on the Deluge, 
 which was translated into English under the title 6f ' Noah,' by 
 J. Collyer, London, 1767. Bodmer filled for fifty years the chair of 
 literature in the academy of his native town, Zurich. He died at a 
 very advanced age in January 1783. In the latter part of his life he 
 was regarded as the patriarch of German literature, and he took 
 delight in directing and encouraging young men iu their studies. His 
 books and mauuscripts he bequeathed to the National Library of 
 Zurich. His correspondence was published, together with that of his 
 countryman Solomon Gesener, by Korte, Zurich, 1804. 
 
 BODO'NI, JOHN BAPTIST, one of the most eminent printers of 
 the ISth century, was born at Saluzzo in the Sardinian states, 
 February 16, 1740. He learned the rudiments of his art iu the office 
 of his father. In his earlier days he showed a taste for design, and 
 at hours of leisure engraved vignettes on wood. At eighteen years of 
 age a desire to improve his condition induced him to uudertake a 
 journey to Rome. He left Saluzzo with a school-fellow, Dominic 
 Costa, who expected to receive assistance from an uncle, at that time 
 secretary to a Roman prelate. With some difficulty arising from their 
 scarcity of means, they reached Rome, when Costa's uncle told them 
 he could do nothing for them, and advised them to return. Bodoni 
 yielded to the advice ; but, before he quitted Rome, thought he would 
 visit the printing-house of the Propaganda. His general demeanour 
 and vivacity on this occasion attracted the notice of the Abbate 
 Ruggieri, the superintendant of that establishment, who gave him an 
 engagement. Here he attracted the notice of the Cardinal Spinelli, 
 at that time the head of the Propaganda, who became his patron, and 
 by whose advice he attended a course of lectures on the Oriental 
 languages iu the University of La Sapienza, and learned to read Arabic 
 and Hebrew. Being intrusted with the printing of the 'Arab-Copht 
 Missal,' and the ' Alphabetum Tibetanum,' edited by Pere Giorgi, he 
 acquitted himself so well, that Ruggieri put his name at the end of 
 the volume, with that of his town : ' Romse excudebat Johannes 
 Baptista Bodonus Salutiensis, mdcclxii.' Ruggieri's suicide however 
 in 1766 (or as other accounts say, as early as 1762) rendered Bodoni's 
 longer stay at Rome insupportable from regret. At this time he had 
 also accepted a proposal to come to England, but going to Saluzzo to 
 see his parents, he fell ill ; and the Marquis de Felino, in the interval, 
 offering to place him at the head of the press iutended to be esta- 
 blished at Parma, upon the model of that of the Louvre, Bodoni 
 broke through his engagements, and s ttled there in 1763. In 1771 
 he published specimens of his art in ' Saggio Tipografico di fregi e 
 majuscole,' in 8vo ; followed in 1774 by ' Isciizioni esotiche,' com- 
 posed by J. B. de Rossi ; and in 1775, on occasion of the marriage of 
 the P rince of Piedmont with the Princess Clotilde of France, a third 
 work of the same description, entitled ' Epithalamia exoticis Unguis , 
 
 reddita,' exhibiting the alphabets of twenty-five languages. Between 
 1775 and 1783, although his fame became universal, his press was not 
 over-actively employed. In 1789 the Duke of Parma furnished 
 Bodoni with a portion of his palace and a press, from which issued 
 some of the most beautiful, thougli not the most correct editions of 
 the classics kuown : especially a 'Horace' iu folio, in a single volume, 
 in 1791 ; ' Virgil,' in two volumes in folio, in 1793; 'Catullus, Tibufl 
 lus, and Propertius,' in 1794; and ' Tacitus's Annals,' in three vols., 
 folio, in 1795. Iu 1794 Bodoni produced a most beautiful edition of 
 the ' Gerusalemme Liberata' of Tasso, in three vols, folio. 
 
 His most sumptuous work of all was his 'Homer,' in three volumes 
 in folio, printed in 1808, with a prefatory dedication to the Emperor 
 Napoleon in Italian, French, aud Latin. When the French armies 
 entered Italy, in the early part of the revolutionary war, Bodoni and 
 his labours hud received a marked protection. On the 21st of January 
 1810 Bodoni presented a copy of this splendid work, printed upon 
 vellum, iu two volumes, to the emperor, in the gallery at St. Cloud, 
 aud in return, received a pension of 3000 francs. After this time, 
 while Italy was under the French rule, Bodoni received the most 
 tempting offers to quit Parma. Prince Eugene Beauharnois offered 
 him the superintendence of the press at Milan, and Murat that of 
 Naples; but he pleaded age and infirmities, and his wish to lvmain 
 at t'arma. In 1811, having roc ived the Cross of the Two Sicilies 
 from Murat, he proposed to publish for the education of the young 
 prince, the son of Murat, a series of French classics, and commenced 
 the execution of his project by a folio ' Telernachus ' iu 1812. 
 'Racine' was to have followed; but it was not published till 1814, 
 after Bodoni's death. Bodoni had long suffered from the gout, to 
 which a fever was at last superadded. He died November 20th, 1813. 
 Within a few mouths of his death the Emperor Napoleon nominated 
 him a ' Chevalier de la Rdunion,' and sent him a present of 18,000 
 francs to aid him iu the publication of the French classics. 
 
 BOECE, or BOETIUS, HECTOR, the Scottish historian, was of the 
 family of Boece of Balbride, or Paubride, in the shire of Angus (now 
 Forfarshire). He was born about the year 1465-66 in thje town of 
 Dundee : whence he had the appellation of Deidonanus, as he is styled 
 iu the edition of his history published by Ferrarius. He received his 
 early education iu his native town and at Aberdeen, whence he went 
 to Montagus College in the University of Paris, where he took the 
 degree of A.M iu 1494, and in 1497 was appointed professor of 
 philosophy. At Paris he became acquainted with many of the learned 
 persons of hi3 time ; amongst others Erasmus, who kept up an 
 epistolary correspondence with him, and, as a mark of his regard, 
 dedicated to him a catalogue of his works. He calls Boece " vir siugu- 
 laris ingenii, felicitatis, et facuudi oris;" and says of him that "he 
 knew not to he." 
 
 In the beginning of the 16th century, Boece was induced to accept 
 an invitation made by Bishop Elphiustone of Aberdeen, to be principal 
 of the college about to be erected in that city. When he came to 
 Aberdeen he was made a canon of the cathedral, aud chaplain of the 
 chantry of St. Niniau. In the end of the year 1514 his friend and 
 patron, Bishop Elphiustone, died. 
 
 In the beginning of 1522 Boece published at Paris his ' Vita Epis- 
 coporum Murthlacensiuiu et Aberdouensium,' a work to which he was, 
 it seams, led by the exemplary life of the late bishop, an account of 
 whom, indeed, occupies the greater part of it. The dedication, 
 which is to Bishop Dunbar, is dated from the College of Aberdeen, 
 prid. Cal. Sept. 1521. Major's or rather Mair's ' History of Scotland ' 
 appeared about this time ; and its appearance probably led Boece to 
 uudertake a similar work. In 1526 the first edition of Boece's 
 ' History of Scotland ' was published. In estimating this work we 
 must apply to it the standard of the day in which it was issued: wheu 
 knowledge was in the hands of few, and iu those few hands meagre 
 and inaccurate ; when communication was difficult, and intercourse 
 rare ; and when physical science was in its infancy. Taking these things 
 into account, we mu-.t admit that Boece merited the admiration aud 
 reward which he received. In 1527 the king gave him a pension of 
 501. Scots yearly, to be paid until the king should promote Boece to a 
 benefice of 100 merks Scots of yearly value. Boece subsequently 
 obtained the rectory of Fyvie in the shire of Aberdeen, which he held 
 at his death in 1536. Bellenden's translation of Boece's ' History' was 
 published in 1536 at Edinburgh. This translation was made at the 
 command of King Jame3 V., whose limited education precluded him 
 from perusing the Latin original. Bellenden's translation of Boece 
 was a very fx - ee translation, the author having added and altered as he 
 thought proper ; and it again was put from the Scottish dialect, in 
 which it was written, into English, with equal freedom, by Harrison. 
 (Ap. Holinshed's ' Chron.' vol. i.) 
 
 In 1527, Boece's brother Arthur, who was a doctor of the canon law, 
 and a licentiate in the civil law, and the author of a book of 'Excerpts' 
 from the canon law, appears to have been appointed canonist of King's 
 College. (Kennedy, 'Annals of Aberdeen.') The next year Boece 
 himself took the degree of Doctor iu Divinity in the college; and on 
 this occa-don the magistrates and town-council of Aberdeen voted him 
 a present of a tun of wine, when the new wines arrived, or 20Z. to buy 
 a new bonnet. ('Council Register,' ap. Kennedy, 'Annals,' vol. ii. 
 p. 367.) Boece died about the year 1536, aud was buried in the chapel 
 of the college near the tomb of Bishop Elphiustone. 
 
ECECKU, AUGUST. 
 
 •BCECKH, AUGUST, was born Nov. 24, 1785, at Carlsruhe, in 
 the grand-duchy of Baden. He was educated at the university of Halle 
 in the Prussian province of Saxony, was thence admitted into the 
 Teachers' Seminary at Berlin, and was afterwards appointed professor 
 of the Greek language and literature in the university of Berlin, which 
 office he still holds. He also fills the situation of secretary to the class 
 of history and philosophy in the Academy of Sciences in that city. He 
 is an associate-member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles- 
 Lettres of France, and a corresponding member of most of the other 
 learned societies of Europe. 
 
 Professor Bceckh's principal philological and critical work is his 
 edition of Pindar (Leipzig, 3 vols. 4to, 1811-21), consisting of the 
 Greek text, with various readings, scholia, a Latin translation, a con- 
 tinuous commentary, notes, and a treatise on Greek versification. But 
 the work which has established his reputation among the students of 
 Greek antiquity throughout Europe is ' Die Staatshaushaltung der 
 Athener' (Berlin, 2 vols. 8vo), which has been translated into English 
 bv the present chancellor of the exchequer, Sir George Cornewall 
 Lewis, under the title of ' The Public Economy of Athens ' (London, 
 second editioD, revised, 1842). It is divided into four books, the heads 
 of which will best exhibit the extent of investigation which the work 
 comprises : — Book 1, on the prices of commodities, wages of labour, 
 rent of land and houses, and profits of stock, in Attica ; book 2, on the 
 financial administration and expenditure of the Athenian state; book 
 3, on the ordinary revenues of the Athenian state ; book 4, on the 
 extraordinary revenues of the Athenian state. 
 
 In 1819 Professor Bceckh published 'Die Entwickelung der Lehren 
 des Pythagoriier Philolaos' ('Development of the Doctrines of Philolaus 
 the Pythagorean '). In 1838 he published his ' Metrologische Unter- 
 guchungen iiber Gewichte, Munzfiisse, und Masse des Alterthums' 
 (' Metrological Investigations concerning the Weights, Coins, and 
 Measures of Antiquity'). This treatise includes a full inquiry into 
 the subjects which were more summarily discussed in the first six 
 chapters of the first book of ' The Public Economy of Athens.' In 
 1840 came out his 'Urkunden iiber dasSeewesen des Attischen Staats' 
 ('Documents relating to the Maritime Administration of the Athenian 
 State'). He also published a 'Dissertation on the Silver-Mines of 
 Laurion in Attica,' and in 1843 an edition of the 'Antigone' of 
 Sophocles. The great work entitled ' Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum,' 
 printed under the authority and at the expense of the Royal Academy 
 of Berlin, was commenc-d by Bceckh, and continued by Frantz, one of 
 Bceckh's pupils, who has since died. This work, in three magnificent 
 folio volumes, is not yet completed. He has also published disserta- 
 tions on 'The Cosmic System of Plato,' Perlin, 1852, and on the 
 'HUtory of the Lunar Cycles of the Greeks/ Leipzig, 1855. 
 
 BOERHAAVE, HERMANN, was born on the 31st of December 
 166J at Voorhout, a village two miles from Leyden, of which his father, 
 James Boerhaave, was the minister. Being designed for the Church, 
 he was instructed by his father in the classical languages, and at the 
 age of eleven he was already able to translate both Greek and Latin 
 with tolerable accuracy. He went to Leyden in 1682, and at the 
 university there he studied Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Chaldee, with 
 ancient, modern, and ecclesiastical history, and the mathematics ; and 
 he soon began to give public proofs of his eloquence and erudition. 
 In 1G38 he delivered an oration before Gronovius, professor of Greek. 
 In 1689 he took the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, the subject of 
 his inaugural thesis being the distinction between the soul and the 
 body. In this, a3 in his former discourse, he refuted the atheistical 
 doctrines of Epicurus and Spinosa, and obtained a great reputation for 
 piety and learning. 
 
 About this time he taught the mathematics as a means of enabling 
 him to continue his studies, his resources having been much impaired 
 by the death of his father in 1682. Without giving up his intention 
 of entering the ministry, he now began the study of physic by a 
 diligent perusal of Vesalius, Bartholinus, and Fallopius; he was a 
 constant attendant at Nuck's anatomical demonstrations, and examined 
 the anatomy of different animals himself. He carefully studied Hippo- 
 crates among the ancient and Sydenham among the modern medical 
 writers. He likewise prosecuted the study of chemistry and botany 
 with ardour, and still pursued his theological studies. Having taken 
 the degree of Doctor of Physic at Hardewick in 1693, he returned to 
 Leyden with the design of undertaking the ministry, but altered his 
 views, and adopted the medical profession, in consequence it is said 
 of an idle report having been propagated that he had gone over to 
 Spinosa. Had Boerhaave been at this time firmly rooted in his design 
 of entering the church, it is difficult to conceive that this absurd 
 calumny could have made him change his resolution. It seems more 
 probable that, feeling himself eminently skilled both in theology and 
 physic, he was wavering in his choice of a profession ; and as the 
 'I'ghteat weight will turn a loaded but well-balanced beam, so even 
 the breath of a slanderer made Boerhaave a physician. 
 
 lie now commenced the practice of physic, and his time was taken 
 op with visiting the sick, studying, making chemical experiments, 
 investigating every part of medicine with the utmost diligence, 
 t. aching the mathematics, and reading the Scriptures. In 1701 he 
 was recommended by Van Berg to the university as a proper person 
 to succeed Drelincourt in the lectureship of the theory of medicine. 
 He was elected on the 18th of May, and his inaugural discourse was 
 
 BIOQ. DIV, VOL. L 
 
 BOERHAAVE, HERMANtf. 788 
 
 on the study of Hippocrates. His lectures were received with great 
 applause, and he was soon prevailed upon by his audience to enlarge 
 his original design, and instruct them in chemistry. This he under- 
 took, not only to the advantage of his pupils, but to that of the science 
 itself. 
 
 It was then in 1703 that Boerhaave delivered his lecture ' De usu 
 Ratiocinii Mechanici in Medicina,' and also began, in theory at least, 
 to leave the Hippocratic method of simple observation, and to enter 
 upon mechanical speculations in connection with his researches in 
 medical science. Thus he supposed that the adaptation of the calibre 
 of the vessels to the size of the globules of the animal fluids was the 
 principle which regulated the circulation of the humours, their 
 separation from the blood in the different organs of secretion, as well 
 as the morbid congestion of the blood in defluxions, tumours, and 
 inflammations ; so that, in the treatment of disease, all the efforts of 
 the physician were to be directed to the re-establishment of this 
 mechanical equilibrium ; and the medicines given with this intention 
 were called deobstruents, incisives, &c. To these mechanical hypo- 
 theses he joined chemical ones : thus he supposed many morbid 
 phenomena to arise from acrimony of the blood, which it was the 
 business of the physician to neutralise. Thi3 part of his doctrine, the 
 humoral pathology, as it is called, though banished for a time from 
 the schools, has always kept its hold on popular belief, and bids fair to 
 revive again. Late investigations into animal chemistry have shown 
 that certain deviations from the healthy composition of the blood 
 accompany, if they do not produce, certain diseases. Thus in jaundice 
 the blood contains both the colouring matter and the resin of the bile ; 
 in gout the blood is loaded with earthy phosphates ; and in cholera it 
 is deficient both in water and in alkaline salts. But the most remark- 
 able of all these statements respects chlorosis : in this disease, where 
 the sickly pallor of the patient would naturally be attributed by the 
 ordinary observer to deficiency or poorness of the blood, we find a 
 singular deficiency of colouring matter. 
 
 In 1703 the professorship of physic being vacant at Groningen, 
 Boerhaave was invited thither, but he preferred remaining at Leyden. 
 He had now read lectures on physic for eight years without the title 
 or dignity of a professor, when in 1709 he obtained the chair of 
 medicine and botany vacant by the death of Hotton. His inaugural 
 discourse was on simplicity in the practice of physic, ' Oratio qui 
 repurgatse medicina; facilis asseritur simplicitas,' Leyden, 1709. At 
 this time also he published the ' Institutions medicae in usus annuse 
 exercitationis domesticos,' first published at Leyden in 1708, but 
 several times jepiiuted. His ' Aphorismi de coguoscendis et curandis 
 morbis, in u3um doctrinae medicine,' published iu 1709, was also 
 frequently republished. On these two great works the reputation of 
 Boerhaave is founded. They have been translated into several 
 European languages, and even into Arabic ; and Van Swieten, himself 
 a physician of no ordinary talent, illustrated the ' Aphorisms ' with a 
 commentary extending to five quarto volumes. Haller published a 
 commentary on the ' Institutions ' in seven quarto volumes, Leyden, 
 1750 ; and Lamettrie published a French translation with notes, 
 ' Institutions et Aphorismes,' Paris, 1743, 8 vols. 12mo. 
 
 In the ' Institutions,' Boerhaave indicates the plan of study to be 
 followed by a physician ; he gives a compendious history of the art, 
 and an account of the preliminary knowledge which is necessary for 
 its practice; then, entering upon his subject, in five successive chapters 
 he describes the parts and functions of the body, their alterations, the 
 signs of health and disease, together with hygiene and the art of 
 prolonging life. Lastly, he treats of the aids which art affords to 
 medicine; here he details the system on the principles of which we 
 slightly touched above. In his 'Aphorisms,' Boerhaave gives a classi- 
 fication of diseases, and sets forth their causes, their nature, and their 
 treatment, with a short but accurate summary of the whole of ancient 
 and modern medicine. These two works are masterpieces of learning, 
 order, aud correctness of style. 
 
 Boerhaave shed almost equal lustre upon the chair of botany, which 
 he held with that of medicine, by the publication of his ' Indey 
 Plantarum quae in horto academico Lugduno-Batavo reperiuntur," 
 Leyden, 1710, 8vo. An enlarged edition of this work, with plates, 
 appeared under the title of ' Index alter Plantarum quae in horto 
 academico Lugduno-Batavo aluntur,' Leyden, 1720, 4to. Boerhaave 
 greatly increased the number of specimens in the botanical garden ; 
 he figured new plants, established new genera, and was one of the 
 first who introduced the stamina and the sexual differences among 
 their characteristic distinctions. 
 
 In 1715 Boerhaave was made rector of the University of Leyden, 
 and in the same year was appointed physician to St. Augustine's 
 Hospital, and professor of practical medicine, having already delivered 
 the lectures more than ten years. Twice a week he gave clinical 
 lectures at the hospital, and, like other great physicians, forgetting hia 
 theories for awhile, distinguished and treated the complex forms of 
 disease before him with that unrivalled tact which stamped him the 
 first practitioner of his age. On laying down his office of rector, 
 Boerhaave delivered one of his finest orations, ' Oratio de comparando 
 certo in Physicis,' Leyden, 1715, 4to. 
 
 He already held the chairs of theoretical medicine, practical 
 medicine, and botany, and, on the death of Lemort in 1718, that of 
 chemistry was added to the number, a suiject on which he had 
 
 3 B 
 
710 
 
 lectured since 1703. In conformity with his custom, he opened his 
 course by a general discourse worthy of his other performances of 
 that kind, ' Oratio de Cheinia suos errores expurgante,' Leydeu, 
 1718, 4 to. 
 
 Boerhaave was one of the first who made chemistry delightful and 
 intelligible; and though the rapid progress of the science has rendered 
 his works on this subject obsolete, he will ever be mentioned with 
 respect in its history. He excelled in experiments, and repeated them 
 with unwearied patience ; he performed one experiment 300 and 
 another 877 times. He was skilled in organic chemistry, and showed 
 how the animal fluids might be decomposed by simple means, and 
 how to avoid destructive distillation over the open fire, in the manner 
 then practised. His work on the elements of chemistry went through 
 numerous editions, and was translated into the French and English 
 languages. 
 
 So many offices discharged with unparalleled success, obtained for 
 Boerhaave a reputation which was almost without a precedent, and 
 which scarcely knew any other limits than those of the civilised world. 
 The learned of every part of Europe corresponded with him, and 
 every academy desired to be honoured by dissertations from the hand 
 of the most distinguished master of his art. Much of his time was 
 of course taken up with patients, some of whom came to consult him 
 from the most distant countries of Europe ; and in answering letters, 
 which in urgent cases were sent to ask the advice of the first physician 
 in the world. The pecuniary proceeds of his practice must have been 
 enormous, for at his death he left more than two millions of florins. 
 He was elected a Correspondent of the Academy of Sciences at Paris 
 in 1715, and a Foreign Associate in 1728; in 1730 he was elected a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Ho communicated to the 
 Royal Society and to the French Academy some observations on mer- 
 cury, which were published in the 'Philosophical Transactions' and in 
 the 'Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences' for 1734. 
 
 In 1722 his course both of lectures and practice was interrupted by 
 the gout, which he brought upon himself, he says, by an imprudent 
 confidence in the strength of his constitution, and by transgressing 
 those rules which he had a thousand times inculcated upon his friends 
 and pupils. In consequence of his illness, he lay five months in bed 
 without daring to move, because any« effort renewed his torments, 
 which were so exquisite, that he was at length not only deprived of 
 motion but of sense. In the sixth month of his illness, having 
 obtained some remission, he took simple medicines in large quantities 
 and got well. His unexpected recovery was celebrated on the 11th of 
 January 1723 by a public illumination. Fresh attacks of illness in 
 1727 and 1729 shattered his constitution and forced hifh to resign the 
 professorships of chemistry and botany : on this occasion he delivered 
 the lecture entitled ' Oratio quam habuit cum Botanicam et Chemicam 
 professionem publico poneret,' Leyden, 1729, 4to. 
 
 In 1730 he was again elected rector of the university, and on quitting 
 this honourable office he delivered a discourse on the subserviency of 
 the physician to nature, ' De honore Medici servitute,' Leyden, 1731, 
 4to. About the middle of 1737 that illness began which proved fatal. 
 In a letter to a friend in London, dated September 8th 1738, he details 
 the symptoms with a masterly hand ; and it appears clearly from his 
 description that he was labouring under organic disease of the heart, 
 with its ordinary concomitants — general dropsy, disturbed sleep, and 
 a distressing sense of suffocation. He expired on the 23rd of September 
 1738, in his 70th year. 
 
 Boerhaave was the most remarkable physician of his age, perhaps 
 the greatest of modern times : a man who, when we contemplate his 
 genius, his erudition, the singular variety of his talents, his unfeigned 
 piety, his spotless character, and the impress which he left not only 
 on contemporaneous practice, but on that of succeeding generations, 
 stands forth as one of the brightest names on the page of medical 
 history, and may be quoted as an example not only to physicians, but 
 to mankind at large. The town of Leyden, which on his recovery 
 from his first illness, had given him so signal a proof of its affection, 
 erected a monument to his memory in St. Peter's church. 
 
 He married, September 10th, 1710, Mary Drolenveaux, the only 
 daughter of a burgomaster of Leyden, by whom he had four children, 
 of whom one alone, Joanna Maria, survived her father; the others 
 died in their infancy. 
 
 Besides the works already mentioned, Boerhaave published several 
 orations and treatises, and many more have been attributed to him, 
 which are not recognised as genuine in his own catalogue. 
 
 The works which he edited are — the works of Drelincourt; the 
 observations of Piso ; the anatomical and surgical works of Vesalius, 
 edited in conjunction with Albinus; the ' Tractatus Medicus de Lue 
 Venerea, prajfixus Aphrodisiaco ;' the smaller anatomical works of 
 Eustachius ; Bellini ' On the Urine and Pulse; ' Prosper Alpinus 'On the 
 Prognosis of Life and Death ; ' and the celebrated edition of Aretseus. 
 
 Three works came out under the auspices of Boerhaave which pro- 
 bably would never have been published but for his friendly aid : these 
 are—' The Physical History of the Sea,' by Count Marsigli, Amster- 
 dam, 1725, folio ; the ' Botanicon Parisiense,' by Le Vaillant, who when 
 dying sent him the manuscript, Leyden, 1727, folio ; and Swarnmer- 
 dam's ' History of Insects,' printed at Amsterdam in 1737 iu 2 vols, 
 folio, with plates, and a Preface by Boerhaave. 
 
 (Bioyrapkie Univcrselle ; Hutchinson, BiugrapKia Medica.) 
 
 BOERNE, or ROltNE, LUDWIO, was born in 1786, of Jewish 
 parents, at Frankfurt-on-the-Main, where his father, Jacob Baruch, was a 
 banker. After having received his preparatory education in his native 
 place, ho went to the University of Berliu, and then to that of Halle, 
 where he studied medicine, though against his will ; but as persons of 
 the Jewish persuasion cannot hold any public office in Germany, the 
 only scientific department that they can devote themselves to with any 
 hope of advantage is medicine, which they are allowed to practise. In 
 1807 however he gave up his medical pursuits, and in the University of 
 Heidelberg he began to Btudy politics and political economy, which ho 
 continued in 1808 at Giessen. On his return to Frankfurt, which was 
 then in the hands of the French, he received an office in the depart- 
 ment of the police, which he held for several years, although it littlo 
 agreed with his peculiar views. In 1815, when Frankfurt recovered its 
 old constitution, Boerne, being a Jew, was of course dismissed from his 
 office, but received a pension. Haviag thus got rid of all external 
 ties, he now began to devote himself with energy and great success 
 to what he conceived to be his calling : he became a political writer, 
 and successively edited three periodicals, the ' Frankfurt Staats-Ris- 
 tretto,' 'Dio Zeitschwingen,' and 'Die Wage,' which were published 
 at Offenbach, but some of the papers in these periodicals were too 
 liberal for the government of Hesse-Darmstadt, which soon suppresse 1 
 them, and Boerne himself was arrested at Frankfurt, and charged with 
 having promulgated revolutionary ideas. He was tried as a criminal, 
 but as no evidence was brought against him, he was acquitted, and 
 declared innocent. In 1817 Boerne exchanged his Jewish religion for 
 Protestantism, and altered his name Baruch into Boerne. After having 
 given up 'Die Wage,' in 1821, he lived in complete retirement, partly 
 at Frankfurt, partly at Paris, and partly at Hamburg, until, about the 
 time of the French revolution of 1830, he went to reside at Paris. 
 Here he endeavoured to act upon Germany through the medium of 
 a French journal, ' La Balance,' which he intended also to be a sort 
 of mediator between the two countries. But he gradually sank into 
 a state of despondency and bitterness, which hastened his death, which 
 took place on the 12th of February 1837. 
 
 Owing to his retirement he was nearly forgotten in Germany, when, 
 shortly before the outbreak of the French revolution of 1830, he pub- 
 lished a collection of all his political, critical, and philosophical writings, 
 in 8 vols. 8vo (Hamburg, 1829-31 ; a second edition appeared in 1835). 
 The occurrences in France contributed to make his works at the time 
 very popular with the liberal party. During his residence at Paris he 
 published six more volumes of political letters, entitled ' Brit-fe aus 
 Paris,' and ' Neue Briefe aus Paris,' in which he attacked the German 
 governments most unsparingly, and with a bitterness which must 
 be accounted for by the disappointment of his hopes. Boerne, with 
 all his faults, is one of the most eminent political and critical German 
 writers of the present century. He was a man of great humour and 
 wit; his deep feeling is most manifest in a splendid eulogium on Jean 
 Paul ('Denkrede auf Jean Paul,' Erlangen and Hamburg, 1820, 8vo), 
 and he was one of the few Germans at Paris who maintained his 
 character as a German, and did not sink into that frivolity and licen- 
 tiousness into which many able persons of his acquaintance fell. He 
 remained what he had always been, a sincere warm-hearted man. All 
 his writings are distinguished for power, clearness, and brilliancy of 
 style, qualities rarely met with in German writers. Some years after 
 his death hi3 former friend, H. Heine, published a work on Boerne, 
 entitled ' Heine iiber Boerne' (Hamburg, 1840, 8vo), which is of a 
 most defamatory nature. A monument more worthy of the noble 
 spirit of Boerne is his Life by Carl Gutzkow (' L. Boerne's Leben,' 
 Hamburg, 1840). 
 
 BOETHIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS SEVERINUS, 
 the most learned and almost the only Latin philosopher of his time, 
 descended from an ancient and noble family, was born at Rome a.d. 455, 
 or, according to other authorities, about 470. His grandfather was 
 put to death by Valentinian III., to whom he had been prefect of the 
 palace, in 455. His father died whilst Boethius was still very young, 
 but his other relations gave Boethius a good education, and encouraged 
 in him an early taste for philosophy and letters. They sent him to 
 Athens, where these studies still flourished, and where he remained 
 for several years, studying every branch of literature, but more especially 
 philosophy and mathematics. Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, and Ptole- 
 m:eus were his favourite authors. Upon his return to Rome he 
 soon attracted public attention, and the most eminent persons of the 
 city sought his friendship. He married Rusticiana, daughter of Sym- 
 machus, descended from one of the most considerable families of 
 Messina, who bore him two sons. 
 
 A Boethius, probably the father of Anicius, was made consul in 487, 
 under Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who at that time reigned in Italy. 
 Two years later, Theodoric, king of the Goths, invaded the country, 
 put Odoacer to death, and fixed the seat of his government at Ravenna. 
 The Romans, and the inhabitants of Italy generally, became reconciled 
 to the administration of 'affairs under Theodoric, who ruled them by 
 the same laws to which they had been accustomed under the emperors. 
 Boethius, who on his return to Rome had devoted himself to a life of 
 literary enquiry and philosophic study, appears to have been commis- 
 sioned to deliver an address to Theodoric on the occasion of his entry into 
 Rome. He was received by the senate and people with the greatest 
 joy. and Boethius pronounced an elegant panegyric before him in the 
 
VII 
 
 BOETHIUS, ANICIUS MAN LI US. 
 
 BOQERMAN. 
 
 ?42 
 
 senate. Tlieodoric answered in obliging terms, and promised never to 
 encroach upon the privileges of tbe Senate. In the eighteenth year of 
 Theodoric, Boethius was advanced (a.d. 510) to the dignity of 
 consul. In the same year he wrote his 'Commentary upon the 
 Predicaments, or the Ten Categories of Aristotle.' He also wrote an 
 explanation of that philosopher's ' Topics,' in eight books ; another 
 of his ' Sophisms ' in two books ; and commentaries upon many other 
 parts of his writings. He translated the whole of Plato's works ; 
 wrote a commentary, in six books, upon Cicero's ' Topics ; ' commented 
 also upon Porphyry's writings ; published a diacoure on Rhetoric, in 
 one book ; a treatise on Arithmetic, in two books ; and another, in 
 6ve books, upon Music ; he also wrote three books upon Geometry, 
 the last of which is lost; translated Euclid, and wrote a treatise upon 
 the quadrature of the circle, neither of which performances is now 
 extant; and published translations of the works of Ptolemaeus of 
 Alexandria, and of the writings of Archimedes, besides several treatises 
 upon theological and metaphysical subjects, which are extant. The 
 acuteness and profound erudition displayed in such a diversity of 
 works, upon all subjects, acquired for Boethius a great reputation, not 
 only among his countrymen, but with foreigners. Gondebald, king of 
 the Burgundiaus. who had married a daughter of Theodoric, came to 
 Ravenna on a visit to his father-in-law, and thence went to Rome, not 
 only with a view to see the beauties of the city, but that he might 
 have the pleasure of conversing with Boethius. The philosopher showed 
 him several curious mechanical works of his own invention, particu- 
 larly two time-keepers, one of which pointed out the sun's diurnal and 
 annual motion in the ecliptic, upon a moveable sphere ; and the other 
 (a clepsydra) indicated the hours of tbe day by tbe dropping of water 
 from one vessel into another. Gondebald was so well pleased with 
 these contrivances, that upon his return home he despatched ambassa- 
 dors to Theodoric, praying that he would procure for him the two 
 wonderful time-pieces which he had seen at Rome. 
 
 In the year 522 Boethius had the singular felicity to see his two 
 sons, Aurelius A. Symmachus and Anicius Manlius Boethius, raised 
 to the consular dignity. But his happiness was quickly clouded. 
 It was during their consulship that he fell under the displeasure of 
 Theodoric Theodoric was an Arian ; and Boethius, who was a Catho- 
 lic, published about this time a book upon the unity of the Trinity, 
 in opposition to the Arians, Nestorians, and Eutychians. This treatise, 
 which was universally read, made him many enemies at court, who 
 insinuated that Boethius wanted not only to destroy Arianism, but to 
 effect a change of government, and deliver Italy from the dominion of 
 the Goths. Theodoric, unmindful of his former friendship, directed 
 the prosecution of Boethius upon the evidence of three persons of 
 infamous reputation. The offences laid to his charge, as we are 
 informed in the first book of the ' Consolation of Philosophy,' were, 
 " Trjat he wished to preserve the Senate and its authority ; that he 
 hindered an informer from produoing proofs which would have con- 
 victed that assembly of treason ; and that he formed a scheme for the 
 restoration of the Roman liberty." In proof of the last article the 
 witnesses produced forged letters, which they averred had been written 
 by Boethius. For these supposed crimes, as we learn from the same 
 authority, he was, unheard aud undefended, at the distance of five 
 hundred miles, proscribed and condemned to death. Theodoric, 
 conscious that his severity would be blamed, contented himself for 
 the time with confiscating his effects, banishing him to Pavia, and 
 there confining him in prison. 
 
 Soon after this, Justin, the Catholic emperor of the east, finding 
 himself thoroughly established upon the throne, published an edict 
 against the Arians, depriving them of all their churches. Theodoric 
 being highly offended at this edict, obliged Pope John I., together 
 with four of the principal senators of Rome (among whom was Sym- 
 machus, the father-in-law of Boethius), to go on an embassy to Con- 
 stantinople, to persuade Justin to revoke his edict against the Arians. 
 The embassy was unsuccessful, and Theodoric was so incensed that 
 on the return of Pope John and his colleagues he threw them into 
 prison at Ravenna. Boethius was at the same time ordered into 
 stricter confinement at Pavia. Though confined in prison, and 
 deserted by the world, Boethius preserved his vigour and composure 
 of mind, and wrote during his confinement, in five books, his excellent 
 treatise on the ' Consolation of Philosophy,' the work upon which his 
 fame chiefly rests. He had scarcely concluded this work, or, accord- 
 ing to some of his commentators had not concluded it, when, Pope 
 John being famished to death in prison, and Symmachus and the 
 other senators put to death, Theodoric ordered Boethius to be be- 
 headed. His execution took place in prison, October 23, 526. His 
 body was interred by the inhabitants of Pavia, in the church of St. 
 Augustine, near the steps of the chancel, where his monument existed 
 till the last century, when that church was destroyed. The tomb had 
 oeen erected to him by Otho III. in 996. Theodoric, who did not 
 long survive Boethius, ia said in his last hours to have repented of 
 his cruelty. 
 
 Pk T | De most celebrated production of Boethius, 'De Consolatione 
 Philosophise,' has always been admired both for the style and senti- 
 ments. It ia an imaginary conference between the author and philo- 
 sophy personified, who endeavours to console and soothe him in his 
 afllictiong. The topics of consolation contained in this work are 
 ueducted from the tenets of Plato, Zeuo, and Aristo'le, but w.thout 
 
 any notice of the sources of consolation which are peculiar to the 
 Christian system, which circumstance has led many to think him more 
 of a Stoic than a Christian. It is partly in prose aud partly in verse; 
 and was translated into Saxon by King Alfred, and illustrated with a 
 commentary by Asser, bishop of St. David's. Two manuscripts of an 
 English version of this work made by John Walton, canon of Oseney 
 (commonly called John of Oseney) in 1410 are preserved among the 
 Harleian manuscripts in the British Museum. Chaucer and Queen 
 Elizabeth were also translators of Boethius's treatise ' De Consolatione ;' 
 with George Colville, orColdewel, Richard (Graham) Viscount Preston, 
 W. Caustou, the Rev. Philip Ridpath, aud R. Duncan of Edinburgh. 
 King Alfred's translation into Saxon was published at Oxford in 8vo, 
 1698, by Mr. Christopher Rawlinson, and again with an English version 
 from it by J. S. Cardale, 8vo, Loud., 1829. Other English versions 
 have been published. A translation into French by Jean de Meun, 
 was printed at Paris by Verard in 1494. Few books were more 
 popular in the middle ages than this treatise ; and few have passed 
 through a greater number of editions in almost all languages. The 
 best edition of Boethius's whole works is that ' cum commentariis, 
 euarrationibus, et notis Jo. Murmelii, Rodolphi Agricolee, Gilberti 
 Porretse, Henrici Lorriti Glareani, et Martiaui Rota?,' printed in 2 vols, 
 folio, at Basel in 1570. 
 
 (Life prefixed to Ridpath's translation of the Treatise De Consola- 
 tione, 8vo, Lond., 1785 ; Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. 4to, Ven., 1728, torn. ii. p. 
 146-165 ; Bruckeri, Historia Philos. ; Baillet, Vies des Saints, vol. vii. 
 p. 365, in which work ' Saint Boece ' is included, ' 13 Octobre.') 
 
 BOGATZKY, CARL-HEINRICH, was born in 1690 at Jankowa 
 in Silesia, and died at Halle, in Saxony, in 1774. He published a large 
 number of religious works, but is chiefly known in this country by the 
 work called ' Bogatzky's Golden Treasury,' which is a translation of 
 his ' Tiigliches Hausbuch der Kinder Gottes,' and was first published 
 in London in 8vo, in 1754, with the title of 'The Christian's Guide, or 
 Golden Treasury for the Children of God.' It was formerly very 
 popular among the stricter sects of English protestants ; it has been 
 frequently reprinted in various forms, and is still in circulation. 
 
 BOGDANOVITCH, HIPPOLYTUS THEODORO VITC H, wa* 
 born December 3rd, 1743, in the town of Perevolotchna in Little 
 Russia, where his father practised as a physician. When eleven years 
 old he was sent to Moscow to be educated in the College of Justice, 
 where he soon began to display a passionate fondness for poetry and 
 the drama. So greatly was he for a time captivated by the drama, 
 that at the age of fifteen he determined to make the stage his pro- 
 fession, and far that purpose presented himself to Khcraskov, the 
 author of the Rossiada, and at that time the director of the Moscow 
 theatre, who regarding the application as a boyish freak, exhorted 
 Bogdanovitch to pursue his studies, and proffered his assistance and 
 instruction in literary composition. Bogdanovitch had the good sense 
 to adopt this friendly counsel, and forthwith began to apply himself 
 diligently to the acquirement of foreign languages and the perusal of 
 the best authors. His own industry was seconded by the judicious 
 advice and good taste of Kheraskov, with whom he had now taken 
 up his abode ; and he began to try his pen iu some pieces which were 
 published in the University Journal entitled ' Polesnoe Uveselenie ' 
 (Profitable Recreation). 
 
 In 1761 he was appointed inspector at the University of Moscow, 
 and also translator iu the foreign office ; but in less than two years 
 he went witli Count Bieloselsky as secretary of legation to Dresden. 
 During his residence in that city he commenced his delightful poem 
 entitled ' Dushenka,' which was not published till 1775. It is upon 
 those three cantos that his reputation rests, and they earned for him 
 celebrity and favour on their first appearance. The Empress Catherine 
 was charmed with a production, so unlike anything that had preceded 
 it in the language; and it almost immediately became a favourite 
 with all classes. Its author became the idol of the court and the 
 public ; but this excessive popularity chilled his invention. Although 
 he afterwards wrote much, he never attempted anything else iu the 
 same vein, nor produced anything that was calculated to win a second 
 wreath for the author of 'Dushenka.' In this work, the fable of 
 which is the mythological story of Psyche, the poet bestowed upon 
 the narrative all the captivating graces of style in a language which, 
 although it could boast of many productions marked by the lofty 
 eloquence of poetry, did not, until then, contaiu auy finished model 
 of playfulness of language and refined vivacity. It is not to be 
 wondered at therefore that it should have obtained such unbounded 
 admiration. 
 
 Notwithstanding his early predilection for the stage, Bogdanovitch 
 wrote only two dramatic pieces, one of them a comedy iu verse 
 entitled the ' Joy of Dushenka.' Except many short poetical produc- 
 tions and other contributions to various journals, by far the greater 
 part of his remaining publications consist of translations. In 1795 
 he retired from St. Petersburg with the salary of president of the 
 archives continued to him as a pension, and passed his latter years in 
 the peaceful solitude of Little Russia, where he died on the Sth of 
 December 1803, leaving a name which has yet obtained no rival or 
 associate in that particular species of poem with which he was the 
 first to adorn the literature of his country. 
 
 BOGERMAN, who signed himself Johannes Bogerinauus Pastor 
 Ec^l.siio Loowardensis, Synodi Dortrechtanai Traces, was born in 
 
748 BOQUE, DAVID. 
 
 1576, in the village of Oplewert in Friesland, and studied divinity at 
 Heidelberg and Geneva, then the two principal seats of reformed 
 theology. In 1604 he was made minister at Leeuwarden. In the 
 polemics of his age he joined Qomarns against Arminius. He approved, 
 translated, and commented on Beza's work on the capital punishment 
 of heretics. He also wrote a ' Mirror of the Jesuits,' in Dutch, Leeuw. 
 1608, 4to; a polemical work against Grotius, about or before 1614; 
 and other polemical works which are now forgotten. In 1617 he 
 effected the deprivation of a preacher who held Remonstrant opinions, 
 and greatly contributed to the victory of the Gomarists, or Contra- 
 Itemonstrants, over the Remonstrants, or Arminians. He was not 
 without learning, but obtained celebrity especially by his zeal against 
 the Remonstrants. Count William Lewis of Nassau, an enemy to the 
 Remonstrants, recommended Bogerman to the stadtholder Maurice, 
 who, for political reasons, opposed the Remonstrants. Bogerman the 
 president, and four other members of the synod of Dort, were commis- 
 sioned to translate the Bible. Their translation, especially that of the 
 Old Testament, is chiefly Bogerman's work. It is still used in the 
 churches of Holland, and is admired for its correctness, oriental taste, 
 and purity of language. It is said that Bogerman declined some 
 lucrative invitations to the Hague and to Amsterdam, in order that 
 he might devote his time to this translation of the Bible. Davenantius 
 proposed that the debates of the synod should be published, but 
 Bogerman opposed this motion successfully. On his return home he 
 was sharply reproved by the states and the synod of Friesland, to 
 which province he belonged. He was also accused of having exceeded 
 his instructions. Bogerman remained a partisan of the stadtholder 
 Maurice, and wrote an account of his death. Bogerman died in 1637, 
 as professor primarius at Franeker. 
 
 (Brandt, Historie der Reformatie, vol. 2 — this work has been translated 
 into English and into French ; Le Clerc, Hist, der Vereenigde Nederl. 
 ii. d. bl. 441 ; E. L. Vriemont, Athena Frisiaca, p. 284 ; Von Kampen, 
 in Encyclop. von Ersch und Gruber ; The Works of Arminius, translated 
 by James Nicholls, i. pp, 443, 444 ; Acta Synodi Nationalis Dortrechli 
 habitcc, Lugd. Bat. 1620, fol ; Oeschichte der Synode von Dordrecht von 
 Matthias Graf, Basel, 1825, 8vo, pp. 79-85; Arnold, Ketzergeschichte ; 
 Stuart on the Life of Arminius, in the 'Biblical Repository,' Andover, 
 1831 ; Letters of John Hales.) • 
 
 BOGUE, DAVID, one of the principal founders of tho London 
 Missionary Society, was born on the 18th of February (old style), 1750, 
 at Dowlau, near Eyemouth, in Berwickshire, and was a younger son 
 of John Bogue, a landed proprietor. He received his early education 
 at the grammar-school at Dunse, and afterwards removed to the 
 university of Edinburgh, where he continued his studies for nine 
 years ; and took the degree of A.M. in 1771. He was licensed as a 
 preacher in the Church of Scotland ; but his views on the subject of 
 church patronage led him to relinquish his prospects of promotion, and 
 in 1771 to proceed to London. He shortly after engaged himself as 
 usher in a school at Chelsea, kept by the Rev. Mr. Smith, of Silver- 
 street Chapel, whom he assisted also in his ministerial duties ; and in 
 1776 he visited Holland, having been invited to take the pastoral 
 charge of a Scotch church at Amsterdam. Having declined this 
 engagement Bogue returned to England, and in the next year was 
 chosen pastor of an Independent church at Gosport, where he remained 
 until bis death, a period of nearly fifty years. About the year 1789, 
 at the request of an opulent friend who desired to promote the educa- 
 tion of young ministers of the Independent denomination, Bogue 
 began to superintend a kind of dissenting college, many of the students 
 in which attained eminence. In 1792 he published a discourse on the 
 subject of Christian missions, which, while it tended to excite the zeal 
 of those favourable to missions, drew upon the author, on account of 
 certain expressions in it, much obloquy from those who looked with 
 more jealousy than himself upon the political changes then com- 
 mencing on the continent of Europe. A paper supplied by Bogue to 
 the ' Evangelical Magazine' for September 1794, was the more immediate 
 precursor of the London Missionary Society, in the formation of which, 
 in the following year, he took an active part. Shortly afterwards he 
 made arrangements for going out with a new mission to Bengal, the 
 expenses of which were to be borne by his friend Robert Haldane ; 
 but permission having been refused by the East India Company, the 
 design was relinquished. He then undertook the charge of a mis- 
 sionary seminary which the directors of the London Missionary Society 
 deemed it advisable to found in aid of their foreign labours. Imme- 
 diately after the peace of Amiens, in 1802, Bogue, in company with 
 Mr. Hardcastle, Dr. Waugh, and the Rev. Matthew Wilks, visited Paris 
 for the purpose of promoting measures which had long been contem- 
 plated for the introduction of Bibles and religious books into France, 
 and in furtherance of which object he had written his ' Essay on the 
 Divine Authority of the New Testament,' a work which, in addition 
 to being very widely circulated in the English and French languages, 
 has been translated into Spanish, Italian, and German. In 1816, in 
 conjunction with Dr. Bennett, Bogue undertook another continental 
 missionary tour, for the promotion of the cause of missions in the 
 Netherlands. In the autumn of 1825, when upon one of his numerous 
 preaching tours for the Missionary Society, he was taken ill at Brighton, 
 where he died on the 25th of October, in his seventy-sixth year. 
 
 Bogue was one of the originators of the Religious Tract Society, and 
 wrote the first tract issued by it. He was also one of the foundars 
 
 BOHLEN, PETER VON. 741 
 
 and first editors of the ' Evangelical Magazine, and was more or le?s 
 connected with most of the important religious movements of his age. 
 Besides various minor works, he published discourses on the Millen- 
 nium, and, in conjunction with his pupil and friend, Dr. James Bennett, 
 a 1 History of Dissenters, from the Revolution in 1688 to the year 1803,' 
 in four volumes, 8vo, 1808-12. 
 
 (Bennett, Memoir of Dr. Bogue ; Morison, Fathers and Founders of 
 the London Missionary Society.) 
 
 BOHEMOND, the eldest son of Robert Guiscard, the Norman 
 conqueror of Apulia and Calabria in the 11th century. After Robert 
 had become Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and his brother Roger had 
 made himself Count of Sicily, Bohemond accompanied his father iu 
 his various expeditions to Greece and Illyria, against the emperor 
 Alexis Comnenus. They took Corfu, and defeated the Greeks near 
 Durazzo. His father returning to Italy, Bohemond remained in 
 Illyria with his Norman and Apulian army. He defeated tlie Greeks 
 near Arta, entered Tbessaly, and besieged Larissa. 
 
 At his father's death in 1085, Roger, Robert's second son, took pos- 
 session of Apulia and Calabria, and Bohemond on his return from 
 Greece found himself deprived of all share of his paternal inheritance, 
 Roger, count of Sicily, Robert's brother, took the part of his nephew 
 and namesake against Bohemond. A war ensued between the two 
 brothers, which terminated by Bohemond accepting the principality 
 of Tarentum, and leaving his brother Roger in possession of the rest. 
 When tho great Crusade was resolved upon in 1092, part of the 
 Crusaders took their way through Italy, and assembled at Bari to 
 embark there. Bohemond, bold and aspiring, resolved upon joining 
 them, and trying his fortune in the East Being at the time in his 
 brother's camp near Amalfi, which town had revolted against Roger, 
 he addressed the assembled warriors ; and so inspired them with his 
 own sentiments, that nearly the whole of his brother's army deter- 
 mined on taking the cross, amidst the cries of ' Dieu le veut,' an 1 
 proclaimed Bohemond for their commander. Roger being thus deserted 
 by his troops was obliged to raise the siege of Amalfi. Both the 
 Prince of Salerno, and Tancred, the hero of romance, immortalised by 
 Tasso, and who was Bohemond's cousin, agreed to follow Bohemond's 
 banner. The Norman and Apulian expedition embarked at Bari, and 
 landed at Durazzo. Bohemond took his way by land across Mace- 
 donia, and he was treated with great distinction by the emperor 
 Alexis, who, by his polite behaviour, aided by splendid presents, pre- 
 vailed on Bohemond and several of the other chiefs to swear allegiance 
 to him for the conquests they should make in the East Anna Com- 
 nena, the daughter of Alexis, has left a striking portrait of Bohemond. 
 " He was remarkably tall and handsome, his eyes were blue, bis 
 complexion florid, bis demeanour haughty, his look fierce, and yet his 
 smile was soft and insinuating;" but she says that he was crafty and 
 deceitful, a despiser of laws and promises. In the arts of cunning 
 policy he appears to have been quite a match for her father. After 
 the capture of Nicaea, 1096, Bohemond, who commanded the left 
 division of the Crusaders, was attacked by a vast multitude of Turks 
 near Dorylseum, and his division was mostly cut to pieces, but by his 
 exertions he maintained the conflict until Godfrey of Bouillon came 
 to his assistance, and routed the enemy. Bohemond succeeded in 
 taking Antioch by the help of an Armenian renegade, who agreed to 
 introduce him and his men by night within the walls ; and he pre- 
 vailed upon his brother Crusaders, with the exception of Raymond of 
 Toulouse, to agree that he should be prince of Antioch. The Christians 
 were soon after besieged in their turn by Kerboga, and after suffering 
 the extremities of hunger they came out to offer the Sultan battle, 
 in which the Saracens and Turks were completely routed, and Bohe- 
 mond greatly signalised himself. In 1099, in an excursion into Meso- 
 potamia, he was taken prisoner by a Turkish emir, and remained two 
 years in captivity. Both the sultan of Iconiuin and the emperor 
 Alexis offered large sums to the emir in order to obtain possession of 
 Bohemond, who however contrived to persuade the emir to accept his 
 own ransom, although of less amount, and to make alliance with the 
 Christians against the sultan of Iconium. Returning to Antioch he 
 found there the faithful Tancred, who had taken care of his interests 
 during his absence. Iu 1103 Bohemond returned to Italy, and in 
 1106 he visited France, where Philip I. gave him his daughter Cou- 
 stance in marriage : Philip's natural daughter Cecil married Tancred. 
 Upon Bohemond's return to Italy he collected a large force, and sailed 
 from Bari for Durazzo. After several combats with Alexis's troops, 
 he had an interview with the emperor, in which the latter acknow- 
 ledged him Prince of Antioch. Bohemond died in Apulia in 1111, 
 and was buried at Canosa. His son, Bohemond II., succeeded him as 
 Prince of Antioch. 
 
 BOHLEN, PETER VON, was born on the 13th of March 1796 of 
 poor parents in the village of Wiippels, near Jever, not far from the 
 mouth of the Weser. He lost his father when nine years of age, and 
 he and his mother with two young daughters were left without any 
 support; but they were assisted by the villagers. Bohlea received lua 
 first education in the village school, to which he was admitted gra'is. 
 The clergyman of the place took great interest in him, giving lain 
 instruction along with his own children. The knowledge thus acquired 
 created in young Bohlen a love of learning, but as he felt that he 
 ought to earn something to contribute to the support of his poor 
 mother, he obtained occasional employment with the neighbouring 
 
us 
 
 BOHLEN, PETER VON. 
 
 BOHME, JACOB. 
 
 7da 
 
 faimers. When he was twelve years old he was put apprentice to a 
 village tailor, by whom he was ill-used in a manner which he after- 
 wards related with shuddering. In 1810, his mother having died in 
 the meantime, he was called upon as au orphan boy to appear at Jever 
 to be examined as to his fitness for serving in the army of Napoleon. 
 He was delighted at the prospect of getting away from his master and 
 of seeing something of the world ; but he was found to be too short, 
 and was obliged to return to the tailor. Some time afterwards he was 
 called upon again, and was admitted into the army. At the examination 
 the French general Guiton was pleased with his appearance, and took 
 him into his service. In 1812 he accompanied his new master, who 
 was extremely kind to him, to Hanover, from which place frequent 
 excursions were made to the neighbouring towns. Afterwards they 
 travelled to Stutgardt, Switzerland, and Berlin. General Guiton 
 gradually ceased to demand any services of Bohlen, and treated him 
 more as a son than as a servant. In 1813, when the French army 
 returned from Russia, Guiton and his corps retreated to Magdeburg. 
 Bohlen afterwards accompanied the general to Hamburg. At this 
 time however the relation between the general and Bohlen became 
 much less cordial. Fromont, the adjutant of General Guiton, out of 
 friendship for Bohlen, at length procured him another situation as 
 servant to Admiral l'Hermite, but he did not remain with the admiral 
 above two months. Early in 1814 the French quitted Hamburg, and 
 Bohlen, although he had nothing to live upon, refused to accompany 
 the admiral. He remained at Hamburg, and obtained a place as waiter 
 in an hotel ; but the incessant work and the want of rest was more 
 than he could bear; he accordingly left his place, and engaged himself 
 as servant to a rich India merchant. As he had not much to do in 
 his new situation, he got his master's clerk to instruct him in letter- 
 writing and the like, and employed his time in reading. In the mean- 
 time he acquired a passion for writing poetry. He had learned to 
 speak French in his intercourse with Frenchmen, and he now learned 
 English in the same way ; for- in the house of his employer scarcely 
 any other language than English was spoken. He then began translating 
 Bums into German, and with the assistance of a dictionary and grammar 
 he even ventured upon translating Virgil. In 1817 he became a pupil 
 of the Johanneum at Hamburg. His diligence in prosecuting his 
 studies was extraordinary, and his conduct secured the goodwill of all. 
 His intention was at first to study theology ; but the preparation that 
 he made for it, the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian, led him in 
 another direction. About this time he was induced by a fit of vanity 
 to assume the prefix that indicates a nobleman, Von Bohlen, as he 
 remembered to have heard that his father was descended from a noble 
 family. 
 
 In 1821 he went to the University of Halle, some distinguished and 
 wealthy Hamburgers having provided him with the means of pursuing 
 his studies there for three years. At the suggestion of Gesenius, who 
 was his principal teacher, Bohlen copied, translated, and commented 
 upon an episode of Ferdusi, which was sent to the Prussian ministry, 
 with the view of obtaining the patronage of the government. In 1822, 
 before he left Halle, Von Bohlen published a little work, ' Symbolte ad 
 Interpretationem S. Cod. ex Lingua Persica,' which was well received ; 
 and in the autumn of the same year he went to Bonn to study Arabic 
 under Freytag. Here he wrot* a dissertation on the life and character 
 of Motenabbi, which received the prize, and was printed at Bonn in 
 1824. In the meantime he continued his studies of the Persian language, 
 and gave attention also to Sanscrit, and to Italian and Spanish. Towards 
 the end of this year the Prussian ministry summoned him to Berlin, 
 that he might complete his studies there, and prepare himself for a 
 professorship at Kouigsberg, where it was proposed to give him an 
 appointment. At Berlin he attended the lectures of Bopp, and formed 
 an intimate friends-hip with the late Dr. Rosen. In 1825 he went to 
 Konigsberg to begin his career of academical teacher, in the usual way, 
 as a private lecturer. Ha received however from the first a consider- 
 able salary, and in 1826 he was appointed professor extraordinary. 
 In 1827 he travelled to Bonn, and married a lady whose acquaintance 
 he had made during his stay there ; and the year after he was appointed 
 onlinary professor of oriental literature. The unhealthy climate of 
 Kouigsberg began gradually to undermine his health, and its influence 
 was increased by his incessant studies and neglect of exercise. He 
 then visited England, for the purpose of acquiring oriental manuscripts 
 and books, for which the Prussian ministry placed funds at his disposal. 
 He was also provided by the government with Arabic and Devanagari 
 types, and printed with his own hands the ' Carmen Amali.' Soon 
 after he published his great work on Iudian antiquities, entitled ' Das 
 Alte IndieD,' which with all its defects is a most valuable work on 
 ancient India. In 1837 he undertook a second journey to England. 
 He stayed some time with the son of the Marquis of Lansdowne, and 
 pursued hia oriental studies with his friend Dr. Rosen. On his return 
 to the continent he travelled with his wife to the south of France and 
 Italy for the benefit of her health. Bohlen's health also was in such 
 » precarious state that his friends advised him not to return to the 
 north. He therefore lingered at Heidelberg and Bonn for some time, 
 and then went to Halle. His wife died on the 7th of March 1839, and 
 from this blow he never recovered. He was unable to return to 
 Kouigsberg, and remained at Halle. In the beginning of 1840 his 
 condition became worse, and he died on the 6th of February at Halle, 
 where h« was b iried. 
 
 Bohlen appears to have been a most amiable man ; and in his auto- 
 biography, from which this account is taken, he relates without any 
 reserve all the vicissitudes of hi3 life, in a manner which secures the 
 affection and admiration of every reader. In 1826 he was elected a 
 member of the Royal Asiatic Society of London. He possessed a 
 most extensive knowledge of Eastern history and literature, and his; 
 works rank among the first of their class. Their deficiencies arise 
 mainly from two causes : first, the great haste with which he worked ; 
 and secondly, a want of souud philological knowledge, for which he 
 had little taste, though in later years this defect greatly impeded his 
 antiquarian researches, as he himself confesses. We subjoin a list of 
 hi3 separate works : — 1, 'Symbolae ad Interpretationem Sacr. Cod. ex 
 Lingua Persica,' Leipzig, 1822 ; 2, ' Commentatio de Motenabbio, 
 celeberrimo Arabum Poeta,' Bonn, 1824 ; 3, ' Carmen Arabicum, 
 Amali dictum,' Konigsberg, 1825 ; 4, 1 Vermischte Gedichte und 
 Uebersetzungeu,' Konigsberg, 1826; 5, ' De Buddhaismo Tentamen,' 
 Konigsberg, 1827 ; 6, 'Das alte Indien mit besouderer Riicksicht auf 
 Aegypten,' 2 vols., Konigsberg, 1830; 7, ' Bhartriharis Sententiae et 
 Carmen Chauropanchasica,' Berlin, 1833; 8, ' Die Genesis, historisch- 
 kritisch erlautert,' Konigsberg, 1835; 9, 'Die Spriiche des Bhartrihari, 
 metrisch nachgebildet,' Hamburg, 1835; 10, ' Ritusanbara, sive Tem- 
 peatatum Cyclus, Carmen Kalidasi,' Lipz., 1840. Bohlen was a con- 
 tributor to the ' Penny Cyclop:edia,' for which he wrote the articles 
 ' Lokman,' • Mahabhai atam,' ' Mahmud of Ghisni,' ' Manu,' ' Moham- 
 med ' (including ' Koran '), and ' Mongols and Tartars." 
 
 (Autobiographic des Dr. Peter von Bohlen, herausgegeben von Joh 
 Voigt, Konigsberg, 1842, second edition.) 
 
 BOHMli, or BOHM, JACOB, frequently mis-written BEHMEN 
 was born at Alt-Seidenberg, in Upper Lusatia, in 1575, of poor but 
 sober and honest parents. Young Jacob's first employment was the 
 care of cattle, after which he was for some time sent to a common 
 school, and then apprenticed to a shoemaker at Gorlitz. He married 
 in 1594 Catherine Hunschmann, the daughter of a citizen of Gorlitz, 
 by whom he had four sons. He became a master-shoemaker in 1595. 
 
 Jacob Bohune relates several remarkable incidents which he saya 
 occurred to him in early life. Among other things, he says, that 
 when he was an apprentice, his master and mistress being abroad, 
 there came to the shop a stffanger, of a reverend and grave counte- 
 nance, yet in mean apparel, and taking up a pair of shoes desired to 
 buy them. The boy, being yet new to the business, would not 
 presume to set a price on them; but the stranger being very impor- 
 tunate, Jacob at last named a price which he was certain would keep 
 him harmless in parting with them. The old man paid the money, 
 took the shoes, and went from the shop a little way, when, standing 
 still, with a loud and earnest voice he called, " Jacob, Jacob, come 
 forth." The boy came out in a great fright, amazed that the stranger 
 should call him by his Christian name. The man, with a severe but 
 friendly countenance, fixing his eyes upon him, which were bright and 
 sparkling, took him by his right hand, and said to him — " Jacob, thou 
 art little but shalt be great, and become another man, such a one as 
 the world shall wonder at; therefore be pious, fear God, and reverence 
 his word. Read diligently the Holy Scriptures, whereiu thou hast 
 comfort and instruction. For thou must endure much misery and 
 poverty, and suffer persecution ; but be courageous and persevere, for 
 God loves and is gracious unto thee ; " and therewith pressing his hand 
 with a bright sparkling eye fixed on his face, he departed. This pre- 
 diction made a deep impression upon Jacob's mind, and made him 
 bethink himself, and grow serious in his actions, keeping his thoughts 
 stirring in consideration of the caution received. Considering 
 Luke xi. 13 — " My Father in Heaven will give his spirit to them that 
 ask him," he desired that comforter. He says that he was at last 
 " surrounded with a divine light for seven days, and stood in the 
 highest contemplation and in the kingdom of joys whilst he was with 
 his master in the country about the affairs of his vocation." He then 
 grew still more attentive to his duties, read the Scriptures, and lived 
 in all the observance of outward ministrations. Scurrilous and blas- 
 phemous words he would rebuke even in his own master, who, being 
 not able to bear this, set him at liberty with full permission to seek 
 his livelihood as he liked best. About the year 1600, iu the 25th year 
 of his age, Jacob was again surrounded by the divine light, and 
 viewing the herbs and the grass in the fields near Gorlitz in his 
 inward light, he saw into their essences, use, and properties, which 
 were discovered to him by their lineaments, figures, and signatures. 
 
 In like manner he beheid the whole creation, and from that fountain 
 of revelation he wrote his book 'De Signatura Rerum.' In unfolding 
 these mysteries he had great joy, yet he looked carefully after his 
 family, aud lived iu peace and silence, scarce intimating to any these 
 wonderful things, till in the year 1610 he wrote his first book, called 
 'Aurora,' or the 'Morning Redness.' This work, contrary to the 
 author's intention, was copied and became public. It fell into the 
 hands of Gregory Ricliter, superintendent of Gorlitz, who attacked 
 it from the pulpit, and endeavoured to stir up the magistracy to 
 exercise their jurisdiction iu rooting out this supposed church-wee.!. 
 The senate convened Jacob Bbhme, seized his book, and admonished 
 him to stick to his last, and leave off writing books. Upon the com- 
 mand of the senate he abstained from writing for seven years, after 
 which he was moved agaiu to write. The list of his works stands u$ 
 follows; the books which he left unfinished are put iu [ at> nthe?is *- - 
 
1M 
 
 BfjHME, JACOB. 
 
 BOIELDIEU, ADRIEN-FRANCOIS. 
 
 1, ' Aurora.' 2, ' Of the Three Principles,' 1619. 3, ' Of the Three- 
 fold Life of Man,' 1620. 4, 'Answers to the Forty Questions of the 
 Soul.' 5, ' Of the Incarnation of Jesus Christ.' ' Of the Suffering, 
 Death, and Resurrection of Christ.' ' Of the Tree of Faith.' 6, ' Of 
 the Six Points, great and small.' 7, ' Of the Heavenly and Earthly 
 Mystery.' 8, ' Of the Last Times,' to P. K. 9, ' De Signatnra Rerurn.' 
 10, ' A Consolatory Book of the Four Complexious.' 11, ' An Apology 
 to Baltha ! ar Tilken,' in two parts. 12, 'Considerations upon Isaias 
 Stiefel's Book.' 13, ' Of True Repentance,' 1622. 14, ' Of True Re- 
 signation.' 15, 'A Book of Regeneration.' 16, 'A Book of Predesti- 
 nation and Election of God,' 1623. 17, ' A Compendium of Repent- 
 ance.' 18, ' Mysterium Magnum, or an Exposition upon Genesis.' 
 19, 'A Table of the Principles, or a Key of his Writings.' 20, 'Of 
 the SuperseDSual Life.' 21, ('Of the Divine Vision.') 22, 'Of the 
 Two Testaments of Christ, Baptism and the Supper.' 23, ' A Dialogue 
 between the Enlightened aud Unenlightened Soul.' 24, ' An Apology 
 for the Book on True Repentance, against a Pamphlet of the Primate 
 of Gorlitz, Gregory Richter.' 25, ('A Book of 177 Theosophick 
 Questions.') 26, 'An Epitome of the Mysterium Magnum.' 27, 
 (' The Holy Weeks, or the Prayer Book.') 28, ' A Table of the 
 Divine Manifestation.' 29, ' Of the Errors of the Sects of Ezekiel 
 Meths and Isaias Stiefel, or Antistiefelius II.' 30, 'A Book of the 
 Last Judgment.' 31, 'Letters to Divers Persona with Keys for 
 Hidden Words.' 
 
 Among the many learned men who visited Bohme after the publi- 
 cation of his ' Aurora,' was a physician, Balthasar Walter from Silesia, 
 who had travelled in search of ancient magical learning through 
 Egypt, Syria, Arabia, &c, where he found such small remnants of it, 
 that he returned unsatisfied to his own country, where he became 
 inspector of the chemical laboratory at Dresden. HaviDg become 
 acquainted with Bohme, he rejoiced that at last he had found at home, 
 in a poor cottage, that for which he had travelled so far in vain. 
 Walter introduced the appellation of ' Philosophus Teutonicus.' 
 AValter went to the German universities, and collected such questions 
 concerning the soul as were thought and accounted impossible to be 
 resolved fundamentally, of which he made a catalogue, being forty in 
 number, and sent them to Bohme, from whom he received answers to 
 his satisfaction. These answers have all been published, and translated 
 iuto many languages. 
 
 Dr. Weisner, after giving in a letter a curious account of the per- 
 secution of Bohme by Gregorius Richter, the primate of Gorlitz, of 
 Jacob's banishment by the senate, of their repealing their absurd 
 and unjust order, goes on to say, that tired with the prelate's incessant 
 clamour, they at length sent for him again, and entreated him that in 
 love to the city's quiet he would seek himself a habitation elsewhere ; 
 which if he would do they should hold themselves obliged to him for 
 it, as an acceptable service. In compliance with this friendly request 
 of theirs he removed from thence. After this upon a citation, Jacob 
 Bohme went to Dresden before his highness the prince elector of 
 Saxony, where were assembled six doctors of divinity and two profes- 
 sors of the mathematics, who, in the presence of the prince elector, 
 examined him concerning his writings, and the high mysteries therein. 
 They also proposed to him many profound queries in divinity, philo- 
 sophy, and the mathematics : to all which he replied with such meek- 
 ness of spirit, depth of knowledge, and fulness of matter, that none 
 of those doctors and professors returned one word of dislike or con- 
 tradiction. The prince his highness much admired his demeanour, 
 aud was so interested with Bohme that he took him apart, and dis- 
 coursed with him concerning difficult points, aud courteously dismissed 
 him. Soon after Bohme's return to Gorlitz his adversary the pastor 
 primarius Gregorius Richter died ; and Bohme himself died three 
 months and a half later. On Sunday, November 18, 1624, early in 
 the morning, he asked his son Tobias if he heard the excellent music ? 
 The son replied, " No." " Open," said he, "the door, that it may be 
 better heard." Afterwards he asked what the clock had struck, and 
 said, " Three hours hence is my time." When it was near six he took 
 leave of his wife and son, blessed them, and said, " Now go I hence 
 into Paradise;" and bidding his son to turn him, he fetched a deep 
 sigh and departed. 
 
 Jacob Bohme was lean, and of small stature; had a low forehead; 
 his temples were prominent ; was somewhat hawk-nosed ; his eyes 
 were grey and very azure ; his beard was thin and short ; his voice 
 low, but he had a pleasing speech, and was modest and humble in his 
 conversation. He wrote very slowly but kgibly, and seldom or never 
 struck out and corrected what he had written. 
 
 After Bohme's death his opinions spread over Germany, Holland, 
 and England. Even a son of his persecutor Richter, being then a 
 merchant's clerk at Thorn, edited at his own expense an epitome of 
 Bohme's work in eight volumes, and arranged their contents iu a sort 
 of index. The first collection of Bohme's works was published by 
 Heinrich Betke, Amst. 1675, 4to. At the conclusion of the 17th, and 
 in the first years of the 18th centui-y, the works of Bohme were trans- 
 lated into Dutch by Abraham Wilhelm van Beyerland, and published 
 by him in 12mo, 8vo, and 4to. More complete than Beyerland's is 
 the edition by Gichtel in 10 vols. 8vo, Amst., 1682. For this edition 
 the manuscripts were bought from the heirs of Beyerland. This was 
 reprinted with Gichtel's manuscript 'Marginalia,' Altona, 1715, 2 vols. 
 4to, and again with a notice of former editions and some addition 3 
 
 from Gichtel's ' Memorialia,' 1730. There are some later editions of 
 separate works. The best translation of his works into English ia 
 that by the celebrated William Law of Oxford, Lond. 1761, ic two 
 vols. 4 to. Several accounts of bis views were published about the end 
 of the 17th century; among these the following may be mentioned: 
 — Jacob Bohme's ' Theosophic Philosophy, unfolded by Edward 
 Taylor, with a short account of the life of J. B.,' Lond., 1691-4. The 
 preacher and physician John Pordage, who was born about 1625, and 
 died in London, 1698, endeavoured to systematise the opinions of 
 Bohme in ' Metaphysica vera et divina;' and several other works. 
 The 'Metaphysica' was translated into German in three volumes, 
 Francf. aud Leipzig, 1725-28. Henry More also wrote on the mystical 
 views of Bohme. Among the most zealous supporters of Bohme's 
 theosopliy in England were Charles and Durand Hotham, who pub- 
 lished 'Ad Philosophiam Teutouicam,' a Carolo Hotham, 1648; and 
 ' The Life of Jacob Behmen,' by Durand Hotham, Esq., 1654, 4to. 
 A later English Bohmenite's work ought perhaps to be named — 
 ' Memoirs of the Life, Death, Burial, and wonderful Writings of Jacob 
 Behmen, now first done at large iuto English from the best edition 
 of his works in the original German, with an introductory preface 
 of the translator, directing to the due and right use of this myste- 
 rious and extraordinary Theosopher,' by Fraucis Okely, formerly of 
 St. John's College, Cambridge, Northampton, 1780, 8vo. Claude 
 St. Martin, who died at the beginning of the present century, published 
 French translations of several of Bohme's writings. 
 
 Bohme and his followers were especially persecuted by the clergy, 
 who seemed to deem his writings ou theosophical subjects an infringe- 
 ment of the prerogatives of the cleriqal order. The ecclesiastics at 
 Gorlitz persecuted Bohme during his life, and refused to bury his 
 corpse until they were compelled by the magistrates not to disgrace 
 the earthly remains of a man who had led a harmless life and always 
 been in strict communion with the Lutheran Church. The admirers 
 of Bohme were for the greater part not professional divines, but noble- 
 men, country gentlemen, courtiers, physicians, chemists, merchants, 
 and in general men who were eager in the pursuit of truth, and who 
 did not stickle for modes of speech and established formalities. The 
 persecutions raised against him brought Bohme first into the notice of 
 men of rank, who took delight in conversing with the poor shoemaker 
 and his followers, while universities and ecclesiastical courts enacted 
 laws against his opinions, and his persecuted disciples appealed even 
 in England to the high court of parliament. Sir Isaac Newton, 
 William Law, Schelling, and Hegel were all readers of Bohme. 
 William Law, in the appendix to the second edition of his ' Appeal to 
 all that doubt or disbelieve the Truths of the Gospel,' 1756, mentions 
 that among ths papers of Newton were found many autograph extracts 
 from the works of Bohme. Law conjectures .that Newton derived his 
 system of fundamental powers from Biihme, and that he avoided men- 
 tioning Bohme as the originator of his system, lest it should come into 
 disrepute ; but this may be doubted. 
 
 Bohme's philosophy consists in the endeavour to demonstrate in 
 everything its necessity by tracing its origin to the attributes of God, 
 Consequently some of Bohme's phrases sound like the doctrines of 
 Manichaean emanation, and have been misinterpreted as being such. 
 Bohme traces the parallelism between the visible physical, and the 
 invisible metaphysical world. His comparisons and images are not 
 the essence of his theosophy, but only illustrative of thoughts which 
 have commanded the admiration and approbation of some of the 
 deepest thinkers, while others are apt to neglect him entirely on 
 account of his errors in subordinate non-essentials. Bohme forms 
 undoubtedly an important link in the present state of the history of 
 the progress of mental philosophy. He often produces magnificent 
 ideas, but he occasionally supports his theory by false etymologies, 
 and by chemical and astrological notions which have been long ago 
 rejected. Bohme has many devoted admirers in the present day, 
 especially in Germany, and many of his followers have accepted 
 wholly or partially the in some respects not dissimilar ' revelations' 
 of Emmanuel Swedenborg. 
 
 BOIELDIEU, ADRIEN-FRANCOIS, a French composer of high 
 and well deserved reputation, was born at Rouen, in 1775. At a very 
 early period of his lite he manifested a decided talent for music, and at 
 eighteen wrote a one-act opera, which was produced at Rouen, and 
 drew all the amateurs of Normandy to hear it. In 1795 he went to 
 Paris, and brought out several compositions, of which many met with 
 great success, and some are still admired. In 1797 he produced ' La 
 Famille Suisse,' at the Opera Comique; in 1800 he wrote three 
 operas, — ' Beniowski,' ' Le Calife de Bagdad,' and ' Ma Tante Aurore,' 
 all of which abound in musical beauties. On the establishment of the 
 Conservatoire de Musique, by the National Convention, Boieldieu was 
 appointed one of the professors. In 1803 he accepted from the Emperor 
 Alexander the appointment of Maitre-de-Chapelle at the imperial 
 court of Russia, and composed, for the Hermitage theatre, some operas, 
 and various smaller dramatic works. In 1811 he returned to Paris, 
 and there, among other operas, produced 'Jean de Paris,' ' Le Petit 
 Chaperon Rouge,' and his most popular work, ' La Dame Blanche.' 
 He afterwards was called upon to compose music for the baptism of 
 the Due de Bordeaux, and the coronation of Charles X. After this, 
 the state of his health indicating the want of some repose, he proceeded 
 to a watering-place in the Pyrenees, and appeared to be much benefited 
 
BOILEAU, SIEUR DESPREAUX. 
 
 BOISROBERT, FRANgOIS LE MET EL DE. 
 
 7W 
 
 by his retirement and relief from business and care; but soon after he 
 was suddenly attacked by illness, and died, October 8th 1834, after a 
 very short confinement. Boieldieu was honoured by a splendid public 
 funeral, which was, in same degree, a military one, for he was an 
 officer of the National Guard, and held the order of the Legion of 
 Houour. His heart was claimed by the city of Rouen, and received 
 with great pomp in the cathedral, the council of the town having voted 
 12,000 francs to defray the expense of the solemnity. They also erected 
 a column to his memory; and the government settled a pension od 
 his son. 
 
 BOILEAU, NICOLAS, SIEUR DESPREAUX, was born at or- near 
 Paris, on November 1, 1636, and was the eleventh child of Gilles 
 Boileau, first Registrar (Greffier) of the Great Chamber of the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris. 
 
 Nicolas Boileau finished his education at the College of Beauvais, 
 where his predominant taste was discovered by Sevin, one of the pro- 
 fessors. Nevertheless the future guide of the French Muse was not 
 at all distinguished by precocity in thi pursuit through which he 
 afterwards gained his fame : nor was it until he had perceived his 
 own inaptness both for the bar and for the pulpit, that he devoted 
 himself altogether to Parnassus. 
 
 The law had few attractions for him : and although he obtained 
 from the church a priory of 800 livres annual rent, he afterwards 
 resigned it, and most honourably distributed in charities the whole 
 of his calculated receipts. His earliest poetical attempts were in 
 satire, by which he nullified a prediction made by his father, who, 
 when comparing the genius of each of his three sons, used to say, 
 " That as for Colin, he would never speak ill of anybody." But the 
 seven 'Satires' which Boileau published in 1666, with a preliminary 
 address to the king (a formula not to be omitted by any author who 
 courted popular notice), were playful and sportive, not rabid and viru- 
 lent; they showed, a3 he used to observe of himself, neither fang nor 
 talon. They excited considerable attention among the lettered circles 
 of the capital, by a terseness of language and a polish of versification 
 to which the public ear had not heretofore been accustomed. The 
 number was increased from time to time till they amounted to 
 twelve. 
 
 The fearlessness of Boileau's attack upon the bad taste which had 
 elevated Chapelaine and Quinault to the loftiest poetical eminence 
 was quickly repaid by general applause, by royal favour, and by sub- 
 stantial patronage. Boileau received a considerable pension, and 
 when the treasurer's clerk, a matter-of-fact man, one day inquired 
 where were "the works" for which the order instructed him to make 
 Ihis payment, the poet amused himself by answering that he was a 
 builder." He was also appointed joint historiographer with Racine ; 
 an office which, notwithstanding the brilliancy of their master's ex- 
 ploits, appears to have been regarded by both of them as a sinecure, 
 unless so far as they contributed some illustrations to a niedallic 
 history. So well however were Boileau's habits and manners adapted 
 to the court, that he won over the single harsh critic whom he 
 encountered in it, the rigid Duke of Moutau^ier, who at first had not 
 scrupled to pronounce that the satire which had been unprovoked must 
 of necessity be ill-natured. In 1684 Boileau had the melancholy task 
 of announcing to the king the death of his hiatoriographical colleague : 
 Louis, who had his watch in his hand at the time, paid him the high 
 compliment of saying, that notwithstanding his many engagements, 
 an hour in every week should be reserved for the enjoyment of his 
 conversation. It was not till that year that he was admitted a member 
 of the Academy. Twelve ' Epistles,' which flow with much greater 
 ease than the 'Satires,' were produced between 1669 and 1696. The 
 'Art of Poetry,' accompanied by a translation of ' Lougiuus on the 
 Sublime,' with critical remarks on that writer, was published in 1673; 
 in which year also appeared four canto3 of the ' Lutrin,' a mock-heroic, 
 suggested by the President Lamoignon. 
 
 The two concluding cantos were not appended to the ' Lutrin ' till 
 ten years after its firot appearance. The minor poems which escaped 
 Boileau from time to time are altogether unworthy of his pen. The 
 'Ode on the Capture of Namur' by Louis iu 1692 is tame, cold, and 
 spiritless ; and his occasional verses, if written in our own days, would 
 scarcely find gratuitous admission into a magazine or an annual. 'Lcs 
 Heros des Romans,' a dialogue after the manner of Luciau (as all 
 dialogues at that time were said to be), is the chief of his original 
 prose works. It was written in the beginning of 1665, and it very 
 pleasantly exposes the absurdity of Honord d'Urfe, Madame de Scti- 
 dery, aud their imitators. It probably gave a death-blow to the 
 ' AstreVs,' the ' Cyrus,' and the ' Cle'lies,' and it formed part of a con- 
 troversy which at that time raged in France, and which produced last- 
 ing enmity between Boileau and Fonteuelle — the comparative merits 
 of the ancients and of the moderns. 
 
 Boileau lived till 1706 in familiar intercourse with the choicest con- 
 temporary writers, and in the enjoyment of the best society of the 
 capital. Repeated attacks of infirmity and an increasing deafness 
 then warned him to retire, and he closed an honourable existence, 
 peaceably and piously, on March 13, 1711, having exceeded his seventy- 
 fourth birthday by a few months. 
 
 Boileau is one of that scanty number of poets who have left behind 
 them — 
 
 "No lino which, dying, they would wish to blot;" 
 
 and tho high moral standard of his writings may be best estimated 
 by the innocence of the very expressions to which the enmity of Per- 
 rault objected. Boileau in his tenth ' Satire,' while denouncing the 
 opera, speaks of the ' Hcros a voix luxurieuse,' and of the' morals 
 lubriques.' These terms were gravely represented to be offensive to 
 modesty ; and the silly charge awakemd no less a champion than 
 Aruauhl, whose letter, together with a grateful acknowledgment which 
 it received from Boileau, is printed iu most editions of the poet's works. 
 His purse was always open for purposes of benevolence. When indi- 
 gence compelled the advocate Patin to dispose of his library, Boileau 
 paid down a third more purchase-money than had been offered for 
 the collection, at the same time signifying that he bought only the 
 reversion, and that the books were to remain the property of their 
 original owner during his lifetime. In a similar spirit he prevailed 
 upon the king to continue the pension to Corneille, which had been 
 revoked on Colbert's death. The French critics are much inclined 
 to compare Boileau with Pope, and naturally to give preference to the 
 former; but we think, so far as they admit comparison, the English 
 poet may encounter it without apprehension. Both of them were 
 great imitators ; and as Pope was twenty-one years of age at the time 
 of Boileau's death, the former had the advantage of one additional 
 model, which tbere cannot be a doubt he studied very attentively. 
 There are passages in the works of Pope which are undisguised trans- 
 lations, and which he avowed to be so. Memory or observation will 
 supply innumerable close parallels; and the 'Essay on Criticism' 
 especially, one of Pope's earliest works, is very largely indebted to the 
 ' Art of Poetry.' 
 
 The 'Moral Essays' are immeasurably superior to the 'Satires,' 
 inasmuch as Pope looked abroad into the world and upon mankind, 
 while the narrower view of Boileau was circumscribed by Paris and 
 the courtiers of the Grand Monarque. Each ha3 failed in lyric poetry ; 
 and it almost seems as if the caparisons of the heroic couplet were 
 indispensable for the development of their full powers, for the exhi- 
 bition, if we may so speak, of their paces : yet Pope, happily for his 
 reputation, has escaped any approach to the downright epigram with 
 which the 'Ode sur la Prise de Namur' concludes. The ' Rape of 
 the Lock ' is far richer in imagery and much more playful in expres- 
 sion than the ' Lutrin ; ' and after-thought, which added to the one 
 its graceful machinery of Sylphs and Gnomes, gave to the other only 
 two more cantos with the lumbering personifications of Poetry and 
 J ustice. Of the sentiments which inspired the greatest effort of the 
 English bard, the ' Eloise to Abelard,' Boileau, as we have already 
 hinted, was perhaps physically incapable ; and from the labour 
 required by the version of Homer there can be little doubt that he 
 would have shrunk in dismay. 
 
 Yet, after all the assertions of minute criticism, Boileau deserves a 
 much higher station than ho is allowed by Fontenelle. From the 
 charge of a want of poetical feeling he has been well defended by La 
 Harpe, who says even of the 'Satires' (among which he reckons the 
 eleventh as the ' chef-d'eeuvre ') — " I like to read them, because I like 
 good poetry, good wit, and good sense." 
 
 Each of two elder brothers of Nicolas Boileau attained some distinc- 
 tion in his time. Gilles Boileau, born in 1631, pursued the law, 
 and became Paymaster of the H6tel-de-Ville in Paris, and Comptroller 
 of the Royal Treasury. He gained also the coveted honour of admis- 
 sion into the French Academy. Nicolas satirised his brother, in some 
 lines which he afterwards cancelled, for having obtained a pension 
 from Colbert, through the interest of Chapelaine. They were reconciled 
 however before the death of Gilles Boileau, which occurred in 1669. 
 Iu his lifetime Gilles published a translation of the ' Encheiridion ' of 
 Epictetu3 and of the 'Tablet' of Cebes, and another of Diogenes 
 Laertius; a controversial pamphlet addressed to Manage, and one also 
 to Costar. His posthumous works, consisting of Poems, Letters, his 
 Speech on admission into the Academy, and a translation of the fourth 
 book of the ' iEneid' into French verse, were collected by Nicolas in 
 one volume, 12mo. 
 
 Jacques Boileau was born in 1635, and studied at the College of 
 Harcourt, where he graduated in theology. He became Dean, Grand 
 Vicar, and Official of the Diocese of Sens. In 1694 he was promoted 
 to a Cauonry in the Saiute Chapelle at Paris, and he died in 1716, at 
 the advanced age of eighty-two. His avowed works are numerous, 
 but chiefly on forgotten questions of theology ; aud he wrote much 
 also either anonymously or under feigned names, as Marcellus Ancy- 
 rauus, Claudius Eonteius, Jacques Barnabd, &c. A complete list of his 
 works is given iu the twelfth volume of the ' Mdmoires ' of Niceron. 
 The only one which is now remembered is the ' Historia Flagellantium, 
 sive de recto et perverso Flagellorum usu apud (Jhristiauoa,' Paris, 
 1700, 12mo. The freedom with which the author of this work has 
 visited tho abuses of superstitious penance occasioned much scandal, 
 and exposed him to numerous attacks, which however he disregarded. 
 The treatise was translated into French about a year alter its appear- 
 ance ; and it has been rendered into English by De Lolme. 
 
 BOISROBERT, FRANCOIS LE METEL DE, was born at Caen, 
 in Normandy, in 1592. He studied for the legal profession, but 
 having taken a journey to Rome, he attracted so much notice by the 
 gaiety of his conversation, that the pope, Urban VIII., requested that 
 he might be introduced to him. This was accordingly done, and the 
 pope was so much delighted with his society, that he bestowed on 
 
 i 
 
7*1 BOISSEREE, SULPIZ. BOJARDO, MATTEO MARIA. 7M 
 
 hitn a priory iu Brittauy. Boisrobert forthwith qualified himself for 
 the ecclesiastical profession, took holy orders, and not long afterwards 
 was provided with a cauonry at Rouen. His reputation for wit and 
 humour soon afterwards reached the ear of Cardinal Richelieu, to 
 whom Boisrobert was of course introduced. The Cardinal was no less 
 gratified by his conversation than the pope had been, and not only 
 became his patron, but made him his companion at dinner, and more 
 e-pecially after dinner. Boisrobert in a brief period received sub- 
 stantial proofs of the cardinal's favour, by gifts of the abbey of 
 Charillon-sur-Seiue and the priory of Ferte'-sur-Aube, to which were 
 added the titles of king's almoner and counsellor of state, with letters 
 of nobility. 
 
 Boisrobert's time was afterwards chiefly spent in entertaining the 
 cardinal, attending the theatres, and writing comedies, tragi comedies, 
 tragedies, verse9, and novels, none of whicli are worthy of being 
 tpioted. His chief merit was perhaps that of having indued Cardinal 
 Richelieu to establish the Academic Franchise. He died at Paris, 
 March 30, 1662. Boisrobert seems to have been an ecclesiastic of 
 loose conduct as well as lively conversation, and to have died at the 
 a-.-e of seventy without any apparent change of mind or improvement 
 of manners. 
 
 BOISSEREE, SULPIZ, was born at Cologne, in 1783. Sulpiz, his 
 brother Melchior, and his friend Jean-Baptiste Bertram, in 1803 formed 
 the design of making a collection of the paintings of the early German 
 masters. They took separate routes. Boisseree himself travelled along 
 the banks of the Rhine, and in 1814 was at Heidelberg, on the Neckar, 
 where he made some valuable purchases. They at first united their 
 acquisitions at Cologne, but afterwards transferred them to Stuttgart, 
 where the King of Wurtemburg made them a grant of a spacious 
 building for the reception of the paintings, which were named the 
 Boisseree Collection. The whole were arranged in three historical 
 divisions, the first consisting of the school of Cologne in the 14th 
 century, the second of the works of John Van Eyck and his disciples 
 of the early part of the 15th century, and the third of the paintings 
 of the latter part of the 15th century and commencement of the 16th. 
 The collection was purchased in 1827 by Ludwig L, king of Bavaria, 
 for 120,000 thalers (about 12,350Z.), and transferred to Munich, where 
 Sulpiz, his brother Melchior, and his friend Bertram, established them- 
 selves. Sulpiz himself in 1835 received the appointment of conservator 
 of the works of plastic art of Bavaria. In 1814 an old parchment 
 roll had been found, which among other architectural drawings con- 
 tained an elevation of the portal and north tower of the facade of 
 Cologne Cathedral, well drawn and in good preservation, and in 1816 
 Sulpiz Boisserde discovered at Paris the drawing of the other tower, 
 also an elevation, in less perfect condition than the other drawing, but 
 sufficient for an architect's purpose. The restoration of the cathedral 
 in accordance with these drawings was commenced in 1824; the first 
 works being confined to the repairs and renewal of the building as it 
 stood. Sulpiz Boisseree published at Paris and Stuttgart, 1823-32, a 
 magnificent work in royal folio, consisting of views, plans, and details 
 of the Cathedral of Cologne, with restorations after the original plan, 
 and inquiries into the architecture of ancient cathedrals. In 1842 the 
 King of Prussia laid the first stone for the commencement of those 
 parts of the structure which remained unfinished or had not been 
 commenced, and great progress has since been made towards the 
 completion of this splendid structure under the direction of Zwerner. 
 
 Boisseree also published 'Die Denkmale der Baukunst am Nieder- 
 rhein, vom 7-13 Jahrhundert ' (' The Monuments of Architecture of 
 the Lower Rhine, from the 7th to the 13th century'), Munich, royal 
 folio, 1830-33; also, at Munich, 1S32-39, 'A Series of Lithographic 
 Drawings of the Boisseree Collection of Ancient Paintings, with 
 Biographical notices of the old German masters whose works are 
 included in it. He died in 1854. In 1862 appeared two volumes of 
 his Autobiography and Letters, edited by Mathilde Boisseree. 
 
 _ BOISSONADE, JEAN-FRANCOIS, was bom at Paris, August 12, 
 1774. Towards the end of the year 1792 Boissouade entered into the 
 public service under the ministry of General Dumouriez ; he was 
 expelled from the administration in 1795, but was restored in 1801 
 by Lucien Bonaparte, who was then minister of the interior, and who 
 made him secretary-general of the prefecture of the Haute-Marne. 
 When Lucien retired from the public service, Boissonade retired also; 
 and thenceforward devoted himself to literature, which had indeed 
 previously occupied nearly all his leisure hours. He had from the 
 year 1802 contributed numerous articles to the periodicals of the 
 day. In 1809 he was appointed professor of the Greek language and 
 literature in the Acaddmie de Paris, but assumed only the title of 
 assistant-professor, resigning the title of professor to Larcher, who 
 retained it till his death in 1812. Boissonade then succeeded him, 
 and also supplied his place in the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles- 
 Lettres. On the death of J. B. Gail in 1828 Boissonade was appointed 
 professor of Greek in the CollCge de France. Other situations of 
 honour and emolument were afterwards offered to him, but he declined 
 to accept any of them. 
 
 M. Boissouade occupied a considerable portion of his time in the 
 critical examination of Greek writers previously unedited, and pub- 
 lished a very large number of works and fragments of works by 
 Philostratui, Procltis, Tiberius the Rhetorician, HoLstentius, Hero- 
 diauuSjEunapiu 1 --, Aristametus, and several others. 
 
 In the period from 1823 to 1826 Boissonade published in 24 vols. 
 32mo, a ' Syllogo Poetarum Graecorum,' and in consequence of the 
 discovery in 1839, in a monastery on Mount Athos in Greece, of a 
 manuscript which contained a large number of the lost Fables of 
 Babrius, Boissouade published ' Babrii Fabuloe Iambicae,' 8vo, Pari", 
 1844. [Babrius.] 
 
 Boissonade contributed to the edition of 'Athenaeus' by Schweig- 
 haiuser, to the ' Euripides ' of Matthiae, and to the edition of Stephens's 
 ' Thesaurus Grsecse Linguae,' which was printed and published in 
 London by Valpy. He also wrote several articles for Valpy's ' Classical 
 Journal,' and he gave his assistance to the Paris edition of Stephens's 
 ' Thesaurus,' printed by Didot. M. Boissonade has been an indefatigable 
 labourer not only in Greek but also in modern literature, having, for 
 instance, published collections of the unedited letters of Voltaire, of 
 the works of Parny, and having furnished a large number of the lives 
 in the 'Biographie Universelle.' [See Supplement.] 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 BOISTE, PIERRE-CLAUDE VICTOIRE, a French lexicographer, 
 was born in 1765 at Paris, and died April 24, 1824, at Ivry-sur-Seine. 
 He at first studied law, but left it early for literature, in which his 
 favourite subjects of investigation related to the origin and structure 
 of languages, especially that of his native country. His great work is 
 the ' Dictionnaire Universel de la Languo Franchise.' The first edition 
 was published at Paris in 1800, 1 vol. 8vo; the second edition iu 1803 
 in 2 vols. 8vo; the seventh edition in 1834 in 1 vol. 4to. It is a very 
 complete and valuable work, somewhat on the plan of Johnson's large 
 ' English Dictionary,' with examples and authorities illustrative of the 
 definitions, but more compressed than those of Johnson. It has in 
 addition vocabularies of scientific words, and treatises on French 
 grammar, on synonymous words, on tropes and figures of speech, and 
 on French versification. Boiste published in 1801 a sort of prose epic, 
 called 'L'Univers delivre",' in which he describes the creation and 
 primitive history of the human race : it has sunk into oblivion. He 
 wrote also a work on the ' Principles of Grammar,' 8vo, 1820, and a 
 ' Dictionnaire de Gdographie Universelle, Ancienue et Moderne,' 1 vol. 
 8vo, which was published in the same year. 
 
 BOJARDO, MATTE'O MARI'A, Count of Scandiano, was bora at 
 Scandiano in 1434, of a noble and ancient family. His ancestors were 
 lords of Rubiera, a small town between Reggio and Modena, but they 
 exchanged this fief for that of Scandiano, the feudal castle of which 
 lies at the foot of the Apennines, seven miles south of Reggio. Bojardo 
 was the son of Giovanni, count of Scandiano, and of Lucia Strozzi of 
 Ferrara, sister to Tito Vespasiano Strozzi, who, as well as his son 
 Ercole, were known as Latin poets of considerable celebrity in their 
 time. Young Bojardo studied philosophy, medicine, and law at the 
 University of Ferrara, and he made himself well acquainted with the 
 Latin and Greek languages. After completing his studies he became 
 attached to the court of his sovereign, Duke Borso d'Este, and was 
 one of the noblemen who accompanied that prince to Rome in 1471, 
 when Pope Paul II. gave Borso the investiture of the dukedom of 
 Ferrara. After Borso's death, which occurred in the same year, 
 Bojardo enjoyed the friendship of his brother and successor, Duke 
 Ercole I. In 1472 Bojardo married Taddea, daughter of the Count 
 Novellara of the house of Gonzaga, In 1475 he went to meet and 
 escort to Ferrara Ercole's bride, Eleonora, daughter of King Ferdinand 
 of Naples. In 1478 he was made governor of R -ggio, and in 1481 
 governor of Modena, which place he held till 1487, when he resumed 
 his former station of governor of Reggio. He died at Reggio, 20th of 
 December 1494, and was buried in the church of Scanliano. His 
 administration is recorded to have been equitable and mild; he was 
 averse to severe punishments, and especially to that of death. Bojardo 
 was a wealthy noble, who had a small court of his own at his castle of 
 Scandiano, and the tone of his poetry bespeaks his independence and 
 lofty bearing. He was a favourable specimen of the later generations 
 of the feudal barons of Italy, before French invasion and Spanish 
 conquests transformed them into servile courtiers. 
 
 Bojardo wrote a comedy, ' II Timone,' which is partly taken from 
 Lucian's ' Timon.' He also translated into Italian the ' Golden Ass' 
 of Apulehis, and Lucian's dialogue of ' Lucius or the Ass.' He like- 
 wise translated Herodotus and Xenophon's ' Cyropaedia,' but the latter 
 has never been printed. Bojardo wrote many lyrical pieces of con- 
 siderable poetical merit, which were published after his death : 
 ' Sonetti e Canzoni,' 4to, Reggio, 1499. He also wrote some Latin as 
 well as Italian eclogues, which were published for the first time, 
 together with a selection of his lyrics and the ' Timone,' under the 
 title of 'Poesie di Matteo Maria Bojardo,' 8vo, Modena, 1820. But 
 the work for which he is best known is the 'Orlando Innamorato,' a 
 romantic poem in ottava rima, in sixty-nine cantos. Bojardo took for 
 his subject the fabulous wars of Charlemagne against the Saracens, 
 the theme of many an old legend and romance, but he placed the 
 scene in France and under the walls of Paris, which he represents as 
 besieged by two hosts of infidels, one from Spain and another which 
 had landed in the south of France from Africa. He adopted Orlando, 
 the Roland of the French romances, for his hero ; but while others 
 had represented him as the champion of Christendom, passionless and 
 above frailty, Bojardo makes him fall in love with Angelica, a consum- 
 mate coquette, who had come all the way from the farthest Asia 
 to sow dissension among the Christians. By these means Bojardo 
 
BOL, FERDINAND. 
 
 BOLEYN, ANNE. 
 
 introduced a fresh plot in the action of his poem. The design of his 
 poem is grand, the characters are well delineated, the various threads of 
 bis argument cross each other without confusion, but they are all left 
 interrupted by the abrupt breaking off of the poem at the end of the 
 ninth canto of the third book, when the author was perhaps hardly 
 arrived at the middle of his narrative. Bojardo himself accounts for 
 this interruption by alluding to the "Gallic storm" which was then 
 bursting upon Italy, and scared away his romantic muse. 
 
 This was towards the close of 1494, when Charles VIII., with a 
 formidable army, had just invaded Italy, and was marching to the 
 conquest of Naples. He entered Florence in November, spreading 
 consternation everywhere before him. On the 20th of the following 
 December Bojardo died at Reggio. The subject of his poem was 
 afterwards resumed by Ariosto. 
 
 The first two books, containing sixty cantos of the ' Innamorato,' 
 were printed at Venice in 1486. They were printed again, together 
 with the nine cantos of the third book, which were all Bojardo wrote, 
 at Scandiano in 1495, under the direction of Count Camillo, his son. 
 Several reprints were afterwards made at Venice and at Milan, all 
 more or less incorrect. Nicolo degli Agostini wrote a continuation of 
 the 'Innamorato' in three books, which however is very inferior to the 
 original. In 1545 Lodovico Domenichi published an edition of 
 Bojardo's 'Innamorato' with many verbal and orthographical cor- 
 rections. But before this, Berni had written his 'Rifacimento ' of the 
 'Innamorato,' which was published in 1541-42, and obliterated the 
 editions of the original poem of Bojardo, the copies of which became 
 very scarce, and the very name of Bojardo was almost forgotten. 
 [Berni.] After three centuries of unmerited neglect, a new and 
 correct edition of Bojardo's text of the 'Innamorato' was edited by 
 Panizzi, with notes and a life of Bojardo, London, 1831. 
 
 Bojardo wrote also a sort of chronicle of the dark ages, of Charle- 
 magne and his successors, of the Crusades, the wars of the Normans 
 and Saracens in South Italy, &c. — ' Istoria Imperiale di Riccobaldo 
 Ferrarese tradotta del Latino.' He called it a translation from Ricco- 
 baldi, a chronicler of the 13th century; but it is in fact a compilation, 
 partly from Riccobaldi's work, ' Pomarium, sive Historia Universalis,' 
 and partly from other sources. It contains many strange historical 
 blunders and anachronisms, which serve to show how imperfect histo- 
 rical knowledge was in Bojardo's time, while they throw much light 
 on those popular and confused traditions which gave rise to the 6tories 
 contained in the romantic poems of Italy, and especially in the 
 ' InDamorato.' 
 
 BOL, FERDINAND, a portrait painter and etcher, born at Dort in 
 the year 1611. At Amsterdam he became the pupii of Rembrandt, 
 and executed some excellent portraits in his style. He painted also 
 some historical pieces of great merit, which are at Amsterdam, but 
 they are inferior to his portraits. He etched also sixteen spirited 
 plates. Bol died in affluent circumstances, and at a good old age, in 
 1681, at Amsterdam, where he had principally lived. 
 
 BOLEYN, ANNE, or, more properly, BULLEN, or BULLEiTNE, 
 was the daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, afterwards created Viscount 
 Rochford and Earl of "Wiltshire. He was the representative of an 
 ancient line in Norfolk, which had in three descents been allied to the 
 noblest families in England ; and he had himself filled important 
 offices in the state. Anne's mother was Lady Elizabeth Howard, 
 daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. 
 
 Anne Boleyn was born in the year 1507, and in her childhood 
 accompanied Mary, the sister of Henry VIII., to France, where she 
 remained in the court of that queen and of her successor, the wife of 
 Francis I., for many years. She was afterwards attached to the 
 household of the Duchess of Alenjon. The time of her return from 
 France is doubtful, but Burnet places it in 1527, when her father was 
 sent in an embassy to France. At that time she became a maid of 
 honour to Queen Katherine, the wife of Henry VIII., and was receiving 
 the addresses of Lord Percy, the eldest son of the Duke of Northumber- 
 land. She appears to have quickly attracted the notice of the king, 
 who in a letter to her in 1528 alludes to his having been one whole 
 year struck with the dart of love ; and her engagement with Lord 
 Percy was at this time broken off by the intervention of Wolsey, in 
 whose household that nobleman had been brought up. Anne retired 
 into the country during the early part of Henry's process for a divorce 
 from Queen Katherine, but Bhe kept up a correspondence by lctteiE 
 with hirn. In 1529 she returned to court, and was known to be 
 intended by Henry for his future queen. 
 
 In the meantime the king's divorce from Katherine was retarded by 
 various delays; and at the beginning of the year 1533 Henry married 
 Anne Boleyn secretly, in the presence of her uncle, the Duke of Nor- 
 folk, and of her father and mother. Dr. Rowland Lee, afterwards 
 bishop of Litchfield, performed the ceremony " much about St. Paul's 
 day," which is probably the 25th of January, the feast of the con- 
 version of St. Taul. This date is established by a letter from Crantner 
 in the British Museum, quoted by Burnet, and printed in Ellis's 
 'Letters' (first series, p. 34); and Cranmer's assertion is corroborated 
 by that of Stow; although Hall, and after hirn Holiushed and Speed, 
 mention St. Erkenwald's day, the preceding 14th of November. It 
 was pot until the 23rd of May following that the nullity of the king's 
 previous marriage was declared by Craumer, who five days afterwards 
 confirmed that of Anne Boleyn ; and on the 1st of June Queen Anne 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 was crowned with great pomp. On the 13th of the following Septem- 
 ber the Princess Elizabeth was born. 
 
 Of the events of the queen's life during the two subsequent years 
 little is known, except that she favoured the Reformation, and pro- 
 moted the translation of the Bible. In January 1536 she brought 
 forth a dead child, and it was at that time and during her previous 
 pregnancy that the affections of her husband were alienated from her, 
 and fixed upon Jane Seymour, daughter of Sir John Seymour, and 
 one of the maids of honour to the queen. Queen Anne was accused 
 of criminal intercourse with her brother Viscount Rochford. The 
 evidence to support the charge proved that he had leant on her bed. 
 She was accused also of grossly criminal intercourse with Henry Norris, 
 groom of the stole ; Sir Francis Weston and William Brereton, gentle- 
 men of the chamber ; and Mark Smeton, a groom of the chamber. To 
 support these charges something said by Lady Wingfield before her 
 death was adduced, which amounted only to this : that the queen had 
 told each of these persons that she loved him better than any person 
 whatever. This was stretched into high treason, under the act of the 
 26th of Henry VIII., which made those who slandered the issue 
 begotten between the king and Queen Anne guilty of that crime. The 
 other evidence agaiust her was Mark Smeton, who however was never 
 confronted with her. Two days after she was condemned to death, 
 Cranmer pronounced the nullity of her marriage, in consequence of 
 certain lawful impediments confessed by her. 
 
 Of her conduct in the Tower an exact account may be derived from 
 the letters of Sir William Kingston, the lieutenant, of which five, 
 together with one from Edward Baynton, have been printed by Sir 
 H. Ellis from the originals in the British Museum. To her aunt, the 
 Lady Boleyn, she confessed that she had allowed somewhat too familiar 
 approaches by her courtiers, but she never varied in her denial of any 
 criminal act. On the 15th of May she was arraigned, together with 
 her brother, before a special commission, of which her uncle, the Duke 
 of Norfolk, was president. The sitting of this commission was secret, 
 but the tradition of all contemporary writers agrees that the queen, 
 unassisted by legal advisers, defended herself firmly and skilfully, 
 notwithstanding the indecent impatience of the president. She was 
 of course convicted. After her conviction her feelings seem to have 
 been absorbed in indignation at the baseness of her persecutors, and 
 anxiety for her own posthumous fame. In the British Museum there 
 is the copy of a letter, unquestionably authentic, addressed by Anne 
 to the king, which is written in such a strain of conscious innocence 
 and of unbending and indignant reproof, that it sets her immeasure- 
 ably above her oppressor. She tells him — " Neither did I at any time 
 so far forget myself in my exaltation, or received queenship, but that 
 I always looked for such an alteration as I now find ; for the ground 
 of my preferment being on no surer foundation than your Grace's 
 fancy, the least alteration was fit and sufficient I know to draw that 
 fancy to some other subject. . . . Try me, good king, but let me 
 have a lawful trial; and let not my sworn enemies sit as my accusers 
 and judges ; yea let me receive an open trial, for my truth shall fear no 
 open shames." This appeal to her brutal husband was of course in vain. 
 
 Sir William Kingston, with the aid of his wife, and of the Lady 
 Boleyn (the queen's aunt and known enemy), acted as a constant spy 
 on her ; reporting to Secretary Cromwell, for the kiug's information, 
 all that escaped the prisoner's lips. On the 16th of May Kingston 
 writes impatiently to " know the king's pleasure as shortly as may be, 
 that we here may prepare for the same which is necessary for to do 
 execution." On the 18th he writes : " And in the writing of this she 
 sent for me, and at my coming she said, 'Mr. Kingston, I hear say I 
 shall not die afore noon, and I am very sorry therefor, for I thought 
 to be dead by this time and past my pain.' I told her it would be no 
 pain, it was so subtle. And then she said, ' I heard say the executioner 
 was very good, and I have a little neck ;' aud put her hands about it, 
 laughing heartily." On the 19th of May she was executed on the 
 green before the Tower, denying her guilt, but speaking charitably of 
 the king, no doubt with a view to protect her daughter from his 
 vengeance. " Her body was thrown into a common chest of elm-tree, 
 used to put arrows in." Lord Rochford, Norris, Weston, Brereton, 
 and Smeton, were also put to death. What would else seem the 
 apparently inexplicable hatred of Henry towards Queen Ance u 
 sufficiently explained by the fact that the day after her executiou 
 Henry married Jane Seymour ; and he afterwards procured an Act of 
 Parliament (28 Hen. VIII., c. 7) declaring his marriage with Anne 
 void, and the issue of it and of his former marriage illegitimate. 
 
 If Anne Boleyn were only remarkable as the victim of the lusts, the 
 caprice, and the heartless selfishness of Henry VIII., her history would 
 be interesting as an illustration of the state of our jurisprudence in her 
 time, and of the temper of a king whose personal character exercised 
 more influence over the affairs of England than that of any of our 
 kings since the Conqueror. But the name of Anne Boleyn is still more 
 remaikable by her connection with the Reformation in England, of 
 which incidentally perhaps she was the immediate cause. Henry VIII. 
 could only obtain her hand by annulling his previous marriage, aud 
 the refusal of the pope to do this led to the severance of England from 
 the Romish communion. Thus it is that the character of Anne Boleyn 
 (a matter utterly beside the questions agitated between the Roman 
 Catholic and Protestant churches) has become a Bubject of fierce 
 controversy which three centuries have not extinguished. 
 
 ?0 
 
753 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, VISCOUNT. 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, VISCOUNT. 
 
 756 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST. JOHN, VISCOUNT, the son of 
 Sir Henry St. John, Bart., afterwards Viscount St. John, of Battersea, 
 was born at Battersea, October 1 , 1 678. His mother was Mary, daughter 
 of Robert Rich, earl of Warwick, under whose superintendence his early 
 education was conducted on the strict puritanical principles which she 
 had herself adopted ; and this training, from its rigour, as Bolingbroke 
 himself affirms, " prepared him to become a high Churchman." He 
 was sent to school at Eton, from which he proceeded to Christchurch, 
 Oxford ; and on leaviug the university he appears to have gone to 
 travel on the continent. He is supposed to have been abroad during 
 the years 1698 and 1699, but all that is known of his travels is that he 
 visited Milan. Iu 1700, soon after his return, he married Frances, 
 daughter and one of the co-heiresses of Sir Henry Winchcomb, by which 
 alliance he came into the possession of considerable property. His wife 
 and he however could not agree, and they soon parted. 
 
 St. John had before this produced a few short poetical pieces of 
 little merit, but he was chiefly known as one of the most dissipated 
 among the young men of fashion of the day. In February 1701 he 
 entered parliament as member for Wotton Basset, a family borough, 
 from which his father retired to make room for him. At this time 
 the Tories, with Rochester and Godolphin at their head, were in power; 
 and to this party, which was also dominant in the new House of 
 Commons, St. John from the first attached himself. Their leader 
 Harley, whom they had placed in the chair, and St. John were already 
 intimate friends. He sat also both in the next parliament which met 
 in December of the same year, the last called by King William, and in 
 the first held by Queen Anne, which assembled in October 1702. On 
 Harley being made secretary of state in 1704, his friend St. John was 
 brought into the ministry as secretary at war. This office he continued 
 to hold for nearly four years till February 1708, when, upon the form- 
 ation of a Whig administration under Marlborough and Godolphin 
 (who had by this time changed their politics), he and Harley went out 
 together. 
 
 He did not seek a place in the next parliament, which met in 
 November 1708 ; but retiring to the country, withdrew altogether 
 from politics, and gave himself up for two years to study. By the 
 end of this period another complete revolution in the cabinet had 
 taken place, and the dismissal of Godolphin in the beginning of August 
 1710 had again elevated the Tories to power, with Harley at their 
 head. St. John was now made one of the secretaries of state, with the 
 direction of foreign affairs. In the new parliament he was returned 
 both for his old borough of Wotton Basset and for the county of Berks. 
 He elected to sit for Berkshire. 
 
 The biography of St. John for the next four years forms a principal 
 part of the history of the memorable administration of which he was 
 one of the leading members. That administration remained at the 
 head of affaiis till it was suddenly upset by the death of the queen in 
 the beginning of August 1714. During its tenure of power it had 
 terminated by the inglorious peace of Utrecht (signed 11th of April, 
 1713) the war with France, which had lasted since 1702. In the 
 negociatious by which this event was brought about St. John bore the 
 chief part. There is much reason for doubting however if the 
 restoration of peace was the ultimate or principal object of his zealous 
 exertions. There is indeed strong ground for believing that both he 
 and Harley, almost from their first entrance upon office, contemplated 
 the restoration of the Stuart family to the throne, if circumstances 
 should prove favourable for such an attempt, or if their own interests 
 should appear to demand the measure. St. John was called to the 
 House of Lords by the title of Viscount Bolingbroke in July 1712; 
 and soon after this, from various causes, an estrangement and rivalry 
 arose between him and his old friend Harley (now Earl of Oxford and 
 lord treasurer). Principally, as it is understood, through the aid of 
 Lady Masham, Bolingbioke was enabled to effect the removal of his 
 competitor on the 27th of July 1714. 
 
 Bolingbroke set about forming a cabinet chiefly composed of staunch 
 Jacobites; but before he could complete his arrangements they were 
 in an instant irretrievably overthrown. The death of the queen which 
 followed within a week, and the prompt and decisive measures taken 
 at the instant by the friends of the house of Hanover, made Boling- 
 broke's triumph only that of a moment. Utterly bewildered by the 
 calamity, he was unable to act with, the necessary promptness and 
 decision, and the power passed wholly out of his hands. After having 
 been treated by the Lords Justices in a manner which sufficiently 
 showed what he had to expect, he was on the 28th of August by the 
 king' s order dismissed from his post. He remained in the country 
 fi>r some time after this, and even appeared in parliament and took an 
 active part in debate, as if he had nothing to fear ; but alarmed at 
 length by the temper shown by the new House of Commons, which 
 had commenced its sittings on the 17th of March 1715, on the 27th 
 of the same month he suddenly left London in disguise, and succeeded 
 in making his escape to France. On the 6th of August following, by 
 order of the Commons, he was impeached by Walpole at the bar of 
 the House of Lords of high treason and other high crimes and misde- 
 meanours, and having failed to surrender himself to take his trial, he 
 was attainted by Act of Parliament (Anno 1 Geo. 1, cap. 16). In the 
 meantime ho had entered into the service of the Pretender, who 
 appointed him his secretary of state, or prime minister, and employed 
 him to solicit the aid of the French government to the expedition then 
 
 preparing to assist in effecting a rising in favour of the exiled family 
 in Great Britain. When the prince set out in person for Scotland at 
 the end of the year, Bolingbroke was left in charge of his affairs in 
 France. On his return however, after an absence of about six weeks, 
 the prince suddenly dismissed him from his employment, and soon 
 after had him formally impeached before what he called his parliament 
 for neglect of the duties of his office. Bolingbroke now endeavoured 
 to make his peace with the court of St. James's, but after some negoci- 
 ations had taken place by means of Lord Stair, the English ambassador 
 in Paris, the affair ended by the ministry declining to grant the pardon 
 for the present. 
 
 Bcliugbroke remained in exile for the next seven years, during which 
 he kept up a correspondence with Swift, Pope, and other literary friends 
 in England, and also drew around him a circle of new acquaintances, 
 comprising some of the most eminent men of the continent. He resided 
 principally on a small property called La Source, near Orldan a , which 
 he had purchased in 1719, and which he had taken great delight in 
 laying out and decorating. His wife having died in November 1718, 
 in May 1720 he privately married the widow of the Marquis de Villette, 
 a niece of Madame de Maintenon, who brought him a considerable 
 fortune. It was to this lady's exertions and management that he was 
 eventually indebted for liberty to return to his own country, which 
 he obtained in May 1723, principally it is understood through the 
 intervention of the king's mistress, the Duchess of Kendal, whom Lady 
 Bolingbroke bribed with a sum of eleven thousand pounds. Boling- 
 broke however, although he came over for a short time in June of this 
 year, did not take up his residence in England till September 1724. 
 He now, by means of a large sum which he had gained in Law's 
 Mississippi scheme, gave the Duchess of Kendal ample additional 
 inducements to advocate anew his claim to the restoration of his 
 property and his seat in the House of Lords, and he sent in to the 
 king and the houses of parliament a formal petition to the same effect. 
 The restoration of his property was granted to him by an Act of Parlia- 
 ment which received the royal assent on the 31st of May 1725. The 
 complete reversal of his attainder however, the operation of which 
 still excluded him from the House of Lords, was steadily refused to 
 all his solicitations. Upon finding the doors of parliament thus shut 
 against him, he engaged in a course of active opposition to the ministry 
 through the medium of the press ; and his political papers, published 
 first under the title of the ' Occasional Writer,' and afterwards con- 
 tinued in the ' Craftsman,' excited for some years much attention. It 
 was in the ' Craftsman ' that the series of papers from his pen originally 
 appeared which were afterwards collected and published separately 
 under the title of ' Letters upon the History of England, by Humphrey 
 Oldcastle,' and also the subsequent series of letters forming his ' Dis- 
 sertation upon Parties.' 
 
 While thus employed he resided at the villa of Dawley, near Uxbridge, 
 which he had purchased on his return. Here he occupied himself not 
 only in carrying on this political war, but also, as it afterwards appeared, 
 in writing various treatises upon moral and metaphysical subjects which 
 he did not send to the press. The state of parties in the new parlia- 
 ment, which met in January 1735, convinced Bolingbroke that the 
 hopes in which he had so long indulged of the overthrow of the ministry 
 were for the present at an end, and in disgust he suddenly left England, 
 and returned to France. But another matter may have had some share 
 in quickening his departure. In this year, as appears from a note in 
 Tindal's ' History of England,' there was published in London an octavo 
 pamphlet containing a correspondence of some length which had taken 
 place between Bolingbroke and the secretary of the Pretender imme- 
 diately after his dismissal from the Pretender's service in 1716. The 
 pamphlet was immediately suppressed, but Tiudal has printed the 
 letters at large ; and their contents are such as it certainly could not 
 have been agreeable to Bolingbroke to see laid before the public. 
 
 He remained in France, residing at a seat called Chantelou, in 
 Touraine, with the exception of a short visit which he paid to England 
 to dispose of Dawley, till the death of his father in 1742. He then 
 returned to take possession of the family estate at Battersea, where he 
 resided for the most part till his death on the 12th of December 1751. 
 The year before, the death of his wife, by whom he had no family, 
 had terminated a union which seemed to the last to have been one of 
 great happiness and strong affection on both sides. Most of his old 
 friends also, both literary and political — among the number Pope, 
 Swift, Gay, and Atterbury — were now gone. In politics he had 
 almost ceased to take any active part for some years before his death ; 
 the fall of Walpole in 1742, the event to which he had looked for so 
 many years for his full restoration to the rights of citizenship, and 
 probably his re-admission to political power, having, when it came, 
 brought no advantages either to himself or his party. 
 
 Bolingbroke bequeathed all his manuscripts, with liberty to print 
 them, to David Mallet, who had gained his favour by consenting some 
 years before to appear as the editor of his work entitled ' The Idea of 
 a Patriot King,' and to put his name to an advertisement prefixed to 
 it, in which some very injurious and, in the circumstances, unbecoming 
 reflections were made upon the conduct of his recently deceased friend 
 Pope, who, shortly before his death, had, without the knowledge of 
 the author, got an impression of the work thrown off from the manu- 
 script which had been lent to him. Mallet published the several 
 treatises which had been thus left to him, along with all Bolingbroke's 
 
BOLIVAR, SIMON". 
 
 writings which had previously appeared, ia 5 vols. 4to, in 1754. The 
 most important pieces in this collection are the ' Letter to Sir William 
 Windham' (which had been first published in 1752, along with some 
 other pieces); a short tract entitled 'Reflections upon Exile;' 'Letters 
 on the Study and Use of History ; ' ' Remarks on the History of 
 En»land,' in twenty-four letters (originally published in the 'Crafts- 
 man,' and afterwards published separately under the name of ' Hum- 
 phrey Oldcastle ') ; 'A Dissertation upon Parties ; ' a ' Plan for a 
 General History of Europe ; ' a ' Letter to Lord Bathurst, on the Use 
 of Retirement and Study;' a 'Letter on the Spirit of Patriotism' 
 (dated 1736); 'The Idea of a Patriot King' (dated 1738) ; a ' Letter 
 on the State of Parties at the Accession of George I. ; ' ' Some 
 Reflections on the Present State of the Nation ; ' and ' Concerning 
 Authority in Matters of Religion.' In 1798 there appeared in 2 vols. 
 4to. (sometimes designated the sixth and seventh volumes of Boling- 
 broke's works), and also in 4 vols. 8vo, 'A Collection of the Letters 
 and Correspondence of Bolingbroke, Public and Private, during the 
 time he was Secretary of State to Queen Anne, with Explanatory 
 Notes, &c, by Gilbert Parke, of Wadham College, Oxford.' There 
 also appeared at Paris in 1808, in 3 vols. 8vo, a collection of letters by 
 Bolingbroke, in French, edited by General Grimoard, who has prefixed 
 an historical essay on the life of the writer. This collection consists 
 for the most part of letters written in French by Bolingbroke to 
 Madame de Ferriol, between 1712 and 1736, and to the Abbe" Alari, 
 between 1718 and 1726. 
 
 Lord Boliugbroke's writings are now little read, and indeed, in 
 matter at lea^t, they contain very little for which they are worth 
 reading. He had no accurate or profound knowledge of any kind, 
 and his reasonings and reflections, though they have often a certain 
 speciousness, have rarely much solidity. A violent, and for the most 
 part a thoroughly unprincipled partisau, he has even on what he has 
 written on the transactions of his own time, and on those in which he 
 was himself concerned, only perplexed and obscured history; and this 
 seems to have been his object. His most important performances of 
 this kind, though they sometimes profess to have been prepared 
 immediately after the events to which they relate, and although in 
 one or two instances a very few copies of them may have been pri- 
 vately printed and confided to certain intimate friends, appear to have 
 been carefully concealed by their author from the public so long as he 
 himself lived to be called to account for what they contained, or any 
 of the persons who could best have either refuted or confirmed them. 
 As a mere rhetorician however, Lord Bolingbroke had very consider- 
 able merit, and in this capacity he may even be allowed, though he 
 added little if anything of much value to the general intelligence 
 from his own stores, to have for the first time familiarised some 
 important truths to the public mind. His style was a happy medium 
 between that of the scholar and that of the man of society — or rather 
 it was a happy combination of the best qualities of both, heightening 
 the ease, freedom, fluency, and liveliness of elegant conversation with 
 many of the deeper aud richer tones of the eloquence of formal 
 orations and of books. The example he thus set has produced a very 
 considerable effect in moulding the style of popular writing since his 
 time. The opposition of Boliugbroke's philosophical sentiments, as 
 disclosed in those writings which appeared after his death, to revealed 
 religion, is generally known ; but it is now we believe admitted on all 
 hands that Christianity has not found a very formidable opponent in 
 Bolingbroke, and that his objections for the most part only betray his 
 own half-learning. 
 
 BOLIVAR, SIMON, the liberator of South America from the 
 Spanish yoke, was born in the city of Caracas, on the 25th of July 
 1783. His father was Don Juan Vicente Bolivar y Ponte, a colonel in 
 the militia of the vale of Aragua; his mother, Doha Maria Coucepcion 
 Palacios y Sojo : both of very opulent families in Venezuela, of the 
 rank of nobility called Los Mantuana3. He wa3 sent, when about 
 fourteen, to Madrid, for the completion of his education. After 
 remaining several years in Madrid, and paying some attention to the 
 study of jurisprudence, he made the tour of Italy, Switzerland, 
 Germany, England, and Fi ance ; and after a long residence at Paris, 
 he returned in 1802 to Madrid, and there married the daughter of Don 
 Toro, uncle of the Marquis Toro of Caracas, or, as others say, the 
 daughter of the Marquis de Ustoriz de Cro, his age being then only 
 nineteen, his wife, who is described a3 being remarkably beautiful and 
 accomplished, being three years younger than himself. In 1809 he 
 returned to his native country, where, in compauy with the new 
 captain-general of the colony, Don Emparan, he arrived March 24th 
 at the port of La Guayra, and retired to domestic seclusion on one of 
 b.ig large patrimonial (states in the beautiful vale of Aragua near 
 Caracas. The yellow fever, so prevalent in that climate, soon termi- 
 nated his domestic happiness ; for his wife, shortly after her arrival, 
 fell ill and died. To alleviate his grief he made a voyage to Europe, 
 and thence proceeded to the United States, where he gathered some 
 useful political knowledge, and about the beginning of 1810 again 
 landed in Venezuela, in company with General Miranda, and retired 
 to his estate of San Mateo. 
 
 The Spanish colonies of South America had remained in quiet 
 submission to the government of the mother country until about the 
 close of the 18th century. Then, when revolutionary ideas were being 
 everywhere scattered abroad, the spirit of resistance was aroused in 
 
 BOLIVAR, SIMON. 758 
 
 Spanish America, and at length revolutionary proceedings broke out 
 in Venezuela. Before 1810, the disposition to shake off the tyranny 
 of Spain had already become sufficiently ttrong to occasion several 
 desperate but unsuccessful attempts. 
 
 The first decisive movement of the revolutionists was made on a 
 solemn festival, Maunday Thursday, the day preceding Good Friday, 
 April 19, 1810, when the captaiu-gcueral of Caracas was arrested and 
 deposed, and a supreme junta or congress assembled to organise a new 
 government for the state of Venezuela. On the 20th of the following 
 July or August, the same was done at Bogota, the capital of New 
 Granada, which formed for itself a separate republican government ; 
 but it is far from certain that Bolivar had any share in these first 
 insurrections, though it is asserted in several accounts that he was one 
 of the principal actors. Soon after the establishment of the inde- 
 pendent legislature at Caracas, Bolivar accepted the proposition to 
 proceed to England, for the purpose of soliciting the British Cabinet 
 to aid the cause of the independent party, and, with Don Luis Mendez, 
 arrived in London in June, 1810. Finding that the English govern- 
 ment professed to maintain a strict neutrality, Bolivar, who himself 
 paid the expenses of the mission, after a short stay in England, left 
 his companion, and returned in disgust to Caracas. Upon the appear- 
 ance of Miranda as commander-in-chief of the patriot army in 1811, 
 the declaration of independence was boldly maintained by military 
 force : the tri-coloured flag was hoisted, and the Spanish standard cut 
 down and destroyed. Bolivar was appointed colonel in the independent 
 army, and governor of Puerto Cabello, the strongest fortress of Vene- 
 zuela. The patriots were successful until the following year, 1812, 
 when an earthquake destroyed, in the cities of Caracas, La Guayra, 
 and Merida, about 20,000 persons; and as it happened on the very day 
 and hour in which the revolution had broken out two years before, 
 the clergy seized upon the coincidence to represent the awful calamity 
 as a just visitation upon the revolutionists. Priests, monks, and friars 
 were stationed in the streets, vociferating in the midst of credulous 
 multitudes trembling with fear, while the royalist troops under 
 Monteverde were getting possession of the whole province. About 
 1200 royalist prisoners of war, who were confined in the fortress of 
 Puerto Cabello, having shortly after broken loose, murdered some of 
 the garrison, and by the treachery of the officer on guard, taken posses- 
 sion of the citadel, Bolivar, beiug unable to regain it by storm without 
 destroying the town, embarked in the night, and on the 1st of July 
 1812, returned by sea to his estate near Caracas. General Miranda, 
 on learning at Vittoria that this very important place, with all its 
 stores of ammunition and provisions, was deserted, capitulated in 
 despair to Monteverde the royalist general, and prepared to leave the 
 country, when he was unexpectedly arrested by a party of patriot 
 leaders, of whom one was Bolivar himself. By him Miranda was 
 accused of being a traitor and secretly allied with the British Cabinet, 
 and being delivered with nine or ten hundred of his soldiers to Monte- 
 verde, was sent in irons to Spain, where he died in a dungeon. Bolivar 
 received from Monteverde a passport to Curajoa, where, with his 
 cousin Ribas, he remained during the autumn of 1812. Venezuela 
 was now again entirely in the hands of the royalists, but the ferocity 
 of their proceedings soon made Bolivar a more enthusiastic convert to 
 the patriot cause, and, with his cousin Ribas, he proceeded from the 
 island of Curajoa to Carthagena, in order to raise a liberating army 
 There, by the influence of Manuel Torrices, the republican president 
 of New Granada, about 300 men were fitted out, and Castillo, the 
 president's cousin, having joined with 500 more, in January 1S13, 
 Bolivar, as commander-in-chief, and Ribas as major-general, undertook 
 to drive the Spanish royalists from Tenerife, on the river Magdalena. 
 Having succeeded at Tenerife, he advanced in December to Monipox, 
 in January 1813, to Ocaua, and in February to Cucut£i, whence he 
 expelled the Spanish commander Correa, and attracted great notice by 
 surmounting every difficulty, dispersing the enemy, and gaining several 
 hundred volunteers, provisions, aud money. With this encouragement 
 he planned an expedition for the relief of Venezuela, after first pro- 
 ceeding to Bogota, where the congress of New Granada received him 
 well, and added largely to his means. As he proceeded there appeared 
 to be a general rising in his support, and he soon found his army so 
 swelled in numbers that he was enabled to form it into two divisions ; 
 Ribas led one, himself the other, and both, by forced marches along 
 different roads, advanced rapidly on Caracas. Bolivar now in reprisal 
 of the cruelties of Varinas, issued on the part of the patriots, the 
 manifesto of " guerra a muerte," war to death. At Lostaguaues 
 Monteverde was routed, and obliged to take refuge in Puerto Cabello ; 
 and on August 4 th, 1813, the liberating army entered the city of 
 Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, amidst unbounded rejoicings on the 
 part of the inhabitants. Marino, who had recently raised an army in 
 Cumaua, and from whom th i royalist general escaped only by being 
 caught in the arms and carried off upon the horse of a brawny Capuehiu 
 who was fighting at his side, had assumed the name of Dictator and 
 Liberator of the Eastern provinces of Veuezuela. The same title was 
 adopted by Bolivar for those of the West. At this time he was in 
 possession of unlimited power; but he did not prevent the prevalence 
 of popular dissatisfaction, which the conduct of his officers had 
 excited. The legislative, executive, and judicial powers being united 
 in the person of the dictator, occasioned great offence to the democra- 
 tical party, and suspicions arose that his primary object was personal 
 
BOLIVAR, SIMOtf. 
 
 BOLIVAR, SIMON. 
 
 780 
 
 aggrandisement. A consciousness of this opinion induced him, in the 
 congress assembled at Caracas, January 1, 181-1, to declare that as he 
 had accepted the supreme power to save his country from anarchy, so 
 now he desired to be permitted to resign it, only begging they would 
 leave him the honour of combating their enemies. His retention of 
 the dictatoiial power was however agreed upon, for a great enthusiasm 
 still prevailed in his favour, in consequence of the royalists beginning 
 again to rally their forces and arm the negro slaves: a desperate expe- 
 dient by which they were much assisted in raising a numerous army. 
 
 At Flo res and other places the patriots were surprised, and all put 
 to the sword. The royalist generals Boves, Rosette, and Morales com- 
 mitted the greatest cruelties, destroying even women and children, 
 arrested and put to death every man who refused to join them, and 
 appeared to emulate the ferocity of the first invaders. Bolivar, in 
 revenge of these and other atrocities, and for the sake, it is said, of 
 deterring the enemy from their repetition, ordered about 800 Spaniards 
 in La Ouayra and Caracas to be arrested and shot, which accordingly, 
 on the 14th February 1814, was done, and immediately was retaliated 
 by the royalists, who shot several hundreds of patriot prisoners in 
 Puerto Cabello. Eolivar soon came to see the impolicy, as well as 
 wickedness, of this kind of procedure; and formally proclaimed at 
 Ocumare, in July 1816, that " no Spaniard shall be put to death 
 except in battle : the war of death shall cease." Bolivar, after several 
 successes, was beaten on the 14 th of June 1814 at La Puerta, between 
 Cura and San Juan Los Morros, where he lost 1500 men, in consequence 
 of over-confidence, and the dividing of li is army; and again, on the 
 17th of August, at his estate of San Mateo, where but for the fleetness 
 of his horse he would have been taken prisoner. His cousin Ribas 
 was seized and shot, and his head was stuck on the walls of Caracas. 
 By September the Spanish generals were again in complete possession 
 of all the provinces of Venezuela ; and thousands of the patriot army 
 deserted to their ranks. The two dictators, Bolivar and Marino, 
 repaired as fugitives to Carthagena. They were received with great 
 respect by the republican congress of New Granada, which commis- 
 sioned Bolivar to compel the revolted province of Cundinamarca to 
 join that republic. With 2000 men he marched, in December 1814, 
 upon the city of Bogota, which, after the outworks were stormed for - 
 two days, capitulated, and became the seat of congress. In April 1815, 
 while Bolivar was engaged in reducing Carthagena, the arrival was 
 suddenly announced of General Morillo from Spain, with an army of 
 12,000 Spaniards. The peace of 1814 with France had enabled the 
 Spanish government to make a vigorous effort to regain the revolted 
 colonies; and Bolivar retired in May 1815 to Jamaica, leaving Morillo 
 to overrun the whole country. While at Kingston in Jamaica, Bolivar 
 employed himself in writing a defence of his conduct in the civil war 
 of New Granada, and issued several spirited exhortations to the 
 patriots, for which his assassination was attempted by the royalist 
 party ; and the negro who was employed for this purpose stabbed to 
 the heart his secretary, who accidentally occupied the hammock in 
 which he usually slept. The island of Hayti became his next asylum. 
 By the president Pe'tionhe was supplied with four negro battalions, in 
 addition to a body of several hundred patriot emigrants ; and in May 
 1816 he was enabled, in conjunction with Brion, the commander of the 
 republican naval forces, to land in the island of Margarita, where 
 General Arismendi had again assembled the independent forces. 
 With these various recruits, in July he appeared in Cumana. where 
 he was suddenly surrounded by the royalists, and defeated with great 
 slaughter at Ocumare, after he had proclaimed the cessation of the 
 ' war to death.' He for the present returned to Hayti, but in the follow- 
 ing December reappeared in Margarita, whence, having issued a pro- 
 clamation convoking the patriots of Venezuela to a general congress, 
 he sailed to Barcelona and collected a force sufficient to repel Morillo, 
 then advancing upon him with a powerful army. A battle of three 
 days ended in the defeat and disorderly flight of Morillo, who was 
 surprised in retreating, aud again defeated by the ferocious Llaneros 
 of General Paez. Bolivar, being now again recognised as supreme 
 chief and captain-general, fixed his head-quarters in 1817 at Angostura, 
 on the Orinoco. After numerous and obstinate battles, the republican 
 party obtained a decided superiority over the royalist forces. On the 
 15th February 1819 a solemn installation of the congress of the Vene- 
 zuelan Republic was made at Angostura ; and Bolivar delivered a florid 
 oration, in which, after declaring popular education to be the first 
 concern of the congress, he goes on to lay down the political prin- 
 ciples which ought to govern the infant republic; and with strange 
 inconsistency Bolivar on the one hand asserts the social equality and 
 universal brotherhood of man, and on the other as solemnly and fer- 
 vently advises the adoption of a government system, in which the 
 sovereign power is centred in one presiding individual. This advice 
 of course created much distrust of Bolivar's republican professions ; but 
 his own explanation was, that in the circumstances of the country a 
 supreme dictator was required by 'inexorable necessity,' and that 
 this necessity alone could have induced Kim to undertake " the terrible 
 aud dangerous charge of supreme chief," which he then resigned. His 
 authority as supreme chief, though resigned iuto the hands of the 
 congress, was continued to him under the title of President, until 
 the more violent commotions of society should subside, and the enemy 
 be utterly expelled. In the same year he maiched to the assistance of 
 General Sautander, in New Granada, and in July arrived at Tunja, [ 
 
 which, after a daring and well-pianncd engagement on the neighbour- 
 ing heights of the Andes, he took from the royalists ; and on the 7th 
 of August a decisive victory at Bojaca, in addition to several others, 
 gave him complete possession of the whole of New Granada. Sanano, 
 the viceroy reinstated by Morillo, precipitately fled ; and Bolivar 
 entered Bogota, in triumph, amid the acclamations of the inhabitants, 
 who hailed him as their liberator : the congress appointed him presi- 
 dent and captain-general of that republic, and supplied him with ineD, 
 money, and munitions sufficient to insure the complete expulsion of 
 the Spanish troops. Some opposition was manifested in Venezuela, 
 but it was easily suppressed ; and at a general congress of the pro- 
 vinces of Venezuela and New Granada, on December 17, 1819, a decree 
 was passed by which these two republics were united under the name 
 of Colombia ; and the office of president was given of course to 
 Bolivar. 
 
 In November 1820, after numerous advantages gained by the liber- 
 ating army, an armistice for six months was agreed upon. Morillo 
 appeared in fact to be weary of hopeless slaughter; and in January 
 1821 returned worn out to Spain, leaving the command to General 
 La Torre. In June 1821 General La Torre was totally defeated by 
 Bolivar at Carabobo, near the city of Valencia, when the royalists lost 
 above 6000 men, with all their artillery and baggage : the victory was 
 secured by the intrepidity of a body of English and Irish volunteers. 
 This decisive battle concluded the war in Venezuela. The remnant 
 of Spanish troops who escaped to the fortress of Puerto Cabello were 
 compelled to surrender to General Paez. Bolivar the third time 
 entered the city of Caracas in triumph, but the principal inhabitants 
 having emigrated during the war, the streets presented a scene of 
 desolation and misery, with groups only of ragged mendicants, who 
 at once cried welcome and implored relief. A republican constitution 
 was drawn up, and adopted on the 20th of August 1821, decreeing that 
 its arrangements should continue until 1834. Colombia was now 
 cleared of the royalist troops, except the province of Quito, which 
 was liberated by the great victory of General Sucre on the 24th of 
 May 1822 at Pichiucha, one of the mountains of the Chimborazo over- 
 looking the city of Quito. General Sau Martin, the founder of Peru- 
 vian independence, having solicited Bolivar to assist in driving the 
 Spaniards out of Peru, he left the administration of government to 
 the vice-president, General Santander, and putting himself at the 
 head of the Colombian army at Popayan, marched to Guayaquil, 
 where he had an interview with San Martin, and thence embarked his 
 troops for Callao. On the 1st of September 1822 he entered Lima. 
 The royalists on his approach evacuated the city : and the inhabitants, 
 with every demonstration of delight, received him, and gave him the 
 command of all the country's resources for the completion of its 
 liberation. A republican constitution was adopted on the 13th of 
 November 1823, by a congress from the provinces of Northern, or 
 Lower Peru. 
 
 San Martin had gone to Europe ; and the Peruvian congress, unable 
 to govern, in February 1824 dissolved itself, and appointed Bolivar 
 dictator ; but an active dissentient faction at Lima declared that 
 Colombia, in sending her army into Peru, had designs of territorial 
 aggrandisement, and that Bolivar was actuated solely by sinister views 
 of ambition : an accusation which Bolivar indignantly repelled. His 
 army, consisting of 6000 Colombians under General Sucre, and 4000 
 Peruvians under General Miller, advanced in July from Huaras towards 
 Pasco. In a tedious passage of the Andes, the greatest hardships and 
 dangers were endured, and by no one with greater fortitude than 
 Bolivar ; the cavalry having sometimes to stand throughout the 
 night upon the snow-path of a precipice without any room to lie 
 down or to turn, while the thermometer was several degrees below 
 the freezing point. The Spanish army was encountered on the plains 
 of Junin, and defeated on the 2ud of August. Bolivar proceeded to 
 Lima to reorganise the government ; leaving the main army under 
 Generals Sucre and Miller, who on the 9th of December won the 
 great victory of Ayacucho, when the royalists were defeated with 
 irreparable loss of men and means. Thus ended the revolutionary 
 war of the Spanish American colonies, in which, for the possession of 
 national independence, at least 100,000 lives were sacrificed. On 
 February 10th, 1825, a congress was convoked by Bolivar, who 
 resigned the dictatorship in the following words : " I felicitate Peru 
 on beiug delivered fiom that which, of all things on earth, is most 
 dreadful — war, by the victory of Ayacucho — and despotism, by this 
 my resignation." 
 
 He set out in company with General Sucre and Miller, on the 10th 
 of the following April, to visit the provinces of southern, or upper 
 Peru ; and proceeded to Arequipa, Cuzco, La Paz, and Potosi. The 
 whole expedition was one continued scene of triumph and extravagant 
 exultation ; of dinners, balls, bull-fights, illuminations, triumphal 
 arches, and processions. A convention of representatives met at 
 Chuquisacoa, and vied with each other in rhetorical resolutions of 
 gratitudo to Bolivar and Sucre, whom they designated ' Grand Prince 
 and Valiant Duke ; ' and having assumed for their country the name 
 of Bolivia, they appointed Bolivar perpetual protector and requested 
 him to prepare for them a plan of government. A million of dollars 
 were offered to him, which he accepted, on the condition that they 
 should be appropriated to the purchase and liberation of 1000 negro 
 slaves in Bolivia. In January 1820 he returned to Lima, and on th» 
 
BOLIVAR, SIMON. 
 
 25th of the following May, the famous Bolivian code was presented to 
 the congress of Bolivia. On the 22nd of June, the great congress of 
 deputies from Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, aud Guatemala was 
 convened at Panama. The object in view was the annual assemblage 
 of state representatives to discuss diplomatic affairs, and decide inter- 
 national disputes ; promote liberal principle*, and ensure a union of 
 strength in repelling any foreign attack. In this first aud only session 
 a great profusion of eloquence was displayed to little purpose, in the 
 philanthropic commendation of political liberality, religious toleration, 
 and the abolition of slavery. The code of Bolivar was adopted in 
 Bolivia, though not without partial dissatisfaction, on the 9th of 
 December 1826, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho, aud 
 General Sucre was appointed president. It was soon afterwards 
 adopted by the congress of Lima, where Bolivar himself was made 
 under its provisions the president for life. 
 
 In Colombia, Bolivar's loug absence had occasioned the prevalence 
 of much dissaffection and party strife. General Paez, who, with his 
 numerous cavalry of wild Llaneros, had done much for the patriot 
 ■ause, had excited in Venezuela an insurrection in favour of a federal 
 instead of the existing central government. Another portion of the 
 republic was determined to adopt the code of Bolivia, so that two-thirds 
 of Colombia were in a state of rebellion, which was daily increasing, 
 and blood was beginning to flow. The presence of the liberator being 
 thus demanded in the north, he departed from Lima, still leaving in 
 Peru his Colombian forces, and proceeded rapidly to Bogota, where 
 he assumed the extraordinary powers which are authorised by the 
 constitution in cases of rebellion; but, at the same time, he proposed 
 to r dnce the army from 40,000 to 6000 ; to diminish the number of 
 civil officers; to reduce the annual expenses from 14,000,000 dollars 
 to 3,000,000, and to sell the ships of war. All parties, however con- 
 flicting, desired the appearance of Bolivar. There was still a charm 
 in his name, and he was thought to be the only man who could save 
 the republic from ruin. Paez himself issued a proclamation from 
 Valencia, calling upou the people to " receive him as the thirsty earth 
 receives the fertilising dew of heaven." In the end of December, the 
 liberator arrived at Puerto Cabello, where he met General Paez ; but 
 instead of imposing any punishment for his rebellion, he confirmed 
 him in his command in Venezuela, and issued a proclamation of 
 amnesty to all the insurgents ; a course of conduct that was readily 
 taken to be a proof of hia having himself instigated the insurrection, 
 in order to furniih a pretext for assuming the power of dictator. But 
 in the presence of Bolivar all disposition to rebel immediately dis- 
 appeared ; and in February 1827 he addressed to the senate a letter, 
 in which he states that " suspicions of tyrannous usurpation rest upon 
 my name, and disturb the hearts of Colombians. I desire to free my 
 fellow-countrymen from all inquietude, and therefore I renounce, again 
 and again, the presidency of the republic, and entreat the congress to 
 make me only a private citizen." The discussion of this matter was 
 prolonged by the collision of party opinions : in June it was finally 
 decided by a majority of members not to accept the resignation, and 
 Bolivar was consequently induced to retain his office. Still a very 
 great mistrust of his assurances continued to prevail ; and the 
 Colombian troops in Peru being informed that Bolivar was making 
 arrangements for the adoption of his code in Colombia, promoted a 
 violent insurrection. The Peruvians being equally dissatisfied with 
 their new institutions, on the 26th of January, 1827, a complete revo- 
 lution ensued in the governments of Lima and Bolivia ; so that the 
 code of Bolivar was rejected only six weeks after its adoption. Another 
 oongress elected another president : the troops returned to Bolivar in 
 Colombia, and after assurance of contrition their conduct was forgiven. 
 Before a general assembly of Colombian representatives at Ocaua, on 
 the 2nd of March 1828, an address was delivered by Bolivar, in which 
 he insisted upon principles similar to those developed in his code; 
 and attributed the unprosperous state of the republic to the deficiency 
 of the executive power. A majority headed by the vice-president 
 Sautander, declared strongly against the proposition of creating Bolivar 
 dictator; and the friends of Bolivar finding themselves in a minority 
 vacated their seats, by which the meeting was left without a quorum, 
 and thus became extinct. 
 
 In consequence of this event, a convention of the civil and military 
 inhabitants of Bogota resolved to confer upon the liberator the title 
 of Supreme Chief of Colombia, with absolute power to regulate the 
 whole affairs of government. On the 20th of June 1828 he accord- 
 ingly entered that city in magnificent state, and assumed an authority 
 which the contenders for the inviolability of the constitution most 
 daringly denounced. Shortly afterwards several assassins broke into 
 hia chamber, and two colonels were shot dead in the struggle, while 
 Boiivar escaped only by leaping headlong in the dark from the balcony 
 Of the window, and lying concealed under a bridge. Santander, with 
 several military officers who were convicted of having participated in 
 the conspiracy, was coudemned to death, but eventually suffered only 
 banishment from Colombia. In 1829 the republic was disturbed by 
 violent factions : many military leaders were aspiring to Bupreme 
 command, and the efforts of Boliv.ir to prevent disunion excited insur- 
 rections. At the head of one was General Cordova; another was 
 headed by General Paez. Venezuela afterwards separated from the 
 rest of the republic ; Paez was made her president ; and a declaration, 
 signed by 486 leading men of Caracas, the scene of so many of 
 
 BOLLANDUS, JOHN. 7fij 
 
 Bolivar's splendid triumphs, denounced his ambition, and rejected hia 
 authority. Under these circumstances a general convention, in January 
 1830, was h.-ld at Bogota, in order to frame a new constitution for 
 Colombia. The proceedings were opened by Bolivar, who, in a solemn 
 add ress, again tendered his resignation ; but, as on former occasions, 
 it was not accepted. Ho was entreated to retain his authority, and 
 assured that, "if you now abandon us, anarchy will succeed." He 
 had however finally determined to resign his station. He therefore at 
 once took leave of public life, and retired to Carthagena, broken down 
 and exhausted in mind and body ; aud though a few months later 
 again solicited to resume the supreme authority, he persisted in his 
 refusal. 
 
 In December 1830 he sent to the people of Colombia a farewell 
 address, in which he vindicated his conduct, and bitterly complains of 
 calumny and ingratitude. A week after writing this address he 
 expired at Sau Pedro, near Carthagena, on Friday the 17th of December 
 1830 at the age of forty-eight. It is said that, in his la*t moments, he 
 conformed to all the rites of the Catholic religion, that he manifested 
 great calmness aud resignation, and constantly showed the utmost 
 anxiety for the prosperity of his country. 
 
 BOLLANDUS, JOHN, a learned Jesuit, was born at Thienen 
 (Tirlemont) in the Netherlands, Auguat 13lh, 1596. He entered the 
 Society of Jesus at the a^e of sixteen, and became eminent in it as a 
 teacher both in the Netherlands aud other countries. The share which 
 he took in the 'Acta Sanctorum,' or 'Lives of the Saints,' entitles him 
 to especial notice. 
 
 The history of this work is not uninteresting, although the work 
 itself, otherwise than for occasional consultation, defies time and 
 patience. It consists of fifty-one volumes in folio, of the larger size 
 aud bulk. It was first projected by Pere Heribert llosweida, a Jesuit 
 then of the age of sixty, and was to extend no further than sixteen 
 volumes folio, with two volumes of illustrations. Rosweida began by 
 printing in 1607 an octavo volume, entitled 'Fasti Sanctorum,' con- 
 sisting of the mauuscript lives of some saints which he happened to 
 find in the Netherlands; but he died October 5th, 1629, before he 
 could accomplish what he had undertaken. Ttie execution of his 
 project was then entrusted to Bollandus, now about thirty-four years of 
 age ; and he removed from Mechlin to Antwerp for the purpose. After 
 examining Rosvveida's collections, he established a general correspond- 
 ence all over Europe, instructing his friends to search every library, 
 register, or repository of any kind, where information might be found; 
 but becoming soon sensible of the weight of his undertaking, he called 
 in the assistance of another Jesuit, Godfrey Henschen of Guelderland, 
 younger than himself, more healthy, and equally qualified in other 
 respects. With this aid he was enabled to publish the fii st two volumes, 
 folio, Antwerp, 1643, which contain the lives of the saints of the month 
 of January, the order of the Calendar having been preferred. In 1658 
 he published those of February in three volumes; aud two years after, 
 his labours still increasing, he engaged with another associate, Pere 
 Daniel Papebroch, at that time about thirty-two years old, whom he 
 sent with Henschen to Italy and France, to collect manuscripts, but 
 he died before the publication of another volume, September 12th, 
 1665. After his death the work was continued by various hands, who 
 were called ' Bollandists.' Henschen and Papebroch published the 
 lives of the saints of the mouth of March in three volumes, Antw. 
 1668 ; and those of April in three volumes, 1675. The saints of the 
 mouth of May occupy seven volumes, 1683-89. Henschen's personal 
 labours had been coucluded by his death, September 11th, 1681 ; and 
 Francis Baert and Conrad Jauning supplied his place. The saints of 
 June fill six volumes, published between 1695 and 1716. Papebroch 
 died J une 25th, 1714. The saints of July extended to seven volumes; 
 the two first by Jauning, Sollier, and John Pinei, published in 1719 
 and 1721 ; the title of the third volume had the addition of the name 
 of William Cuper; in the fourth volume, 1725, the name of Peter 
 Bosch was added ; and these names were continued in vol. v., 1727; 
 vol. vi., 1729; aud vol. vii., 1731; August, 6 vols., 1733-43 ; September, 
 8 vols., 1746-62; October, to the 16th of the month, 6 vols., 1765-94 ; 
 up till 1770, when the third volume of October appeared, the editors 
 had been all designated as members of the Society of the Jesuits; and 
 the volumes were uniformly printed at Antwerp. The fourth volume 
 of October was printed at Brussels, the editors being all styled ' Presby- 
 teri TheologL' The fifth volume was priuted at Brussels in 1783. 
 The sixth volume (the last of the entire series), printed at the Abbey 
 ofTongerloo, 1794, is described as 'partim a Coruulio Byeo, Joanne 
 Baptista Fontono, presbb. Anselmo Berthodo Ord. S. Benedicti P. M. 
 partim a Joanne Bueo presb. Sardo Dyckio, Cypiiauo Goorio, Muthia 
 Stalsio, Ord. Prsem. Cann. Kegul.' 
 
 It is to be regretted that a work so full of curious information as 
 the 'Acta Sanctorum,' continued thvough a series of volumes for a 
 hundred and sixty-five years, should remain unfinished : but the 
 continuation was interrupted, probably for ever, by the entrance of 
 the French troops into Belgium in 1794. 
 
 Bollandus published separately : — 1, 'Vita S. Liborii Episcopi,' 8vo, 
 Antw. 1648. 2, ' Brevis Notitia Italise ex Actis S3. Jauuarii ec 
 Februarii,' 8vo, Antw. 1643. 3, ' Brevis Notitia triplici status, Eccle- 
 siaatici, Monastici, et Sieoularis, excerpta ex Actis SS. vulgatis a 
 Bollando et sociis,' 8vo, Antw. 1648. 
 
 (Life of Bollandus prefixed to the first volume of the month of 
 
783 
 
 BOLOGNA, JOHN OP. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 761 
 
 March in the Acta Sanctorum, where is also the portrait of Bollandus; 
 Foppens, Bibliolhcca Bclijica, 4to, Brux. 1739, torn. i. p. 584; Moreri; 
 Biographie Univcrscllc.) 
 
 BOLOGNA, JOHN OF, or GIOVANNI DA, a celebrated sculptor 
 and architect, born at Douay in Flanders, about 1524. He went earl; 
 to Rome, where he distinguished himself by his models of celebrated 
 works. Though a Fleming, he is known only by the above name; yet 
 he lived the greater part of his life at Florence. He seems to have 
 acquired the name by which he is generally distinguished from his 
 celebrated fountain at Bologna, of which the crowning colossal bronze 
 figure of Neptune is one of the masterpieces of modern sculpture. 
 
 Several of the noblest works in sculpture at Florence are by the 
 hand of John of Bologna, two of which are unsurpassed in modern 
 art — the marble group of the ' Rape of the Sabine Woman,' in the 
 Loggia de' Lanzi, in the Piazza Granduca ; and the well bronze in the 
 Imperial Gallery, of 'Mercury' in the act of springing into the air, 
 with one foot still upon a globe. John was one of the original forty 
 members of the Academy of Florence, and was also sculptor to the 
 grand-duke Francesco I. In 1580 he was invited to Genoa, where he 
 executed several admirable works, chii fly in bronze, lie died at 
 Florence in 1608, aged eighty-four. John of Bologna is the sculptor 
 who, when he showed to Michelangelo, whilst at Rome, a carefully 
 finished model, was told by the latter to learn to sketch before he 
 attempted to finish — a precept which he did not forget. John of 
 Bologna, with the exception of Michelangelo, surpassed all the 
 sculptors of his age, or indeed of the 10th century, and he surpassed 
 Michelangelo himself in proportion and execution. 
 
 (Vasari, Vitc dc Pittori, &c, ed. of Leghorn ; Baldinucci, Notizie dci 
 Professori del Disegno, &c.) 
 
 BOLSWERT, SCHELTIUS, a designer and very celebrated en- 
 graver, born at Bolswert in Friesland, in 1586. He lived aud worked 
 chiefly at Antwerp with his elder brother Boetius. His best works 
 arc after liubens and Vandyck, after whom he has engraved several 
 admirable works on a large scale. He was the personal friend of both 
 painters, and liubens is said to have examined and touched with the 
 crayon all the proofs of Bolswert's engravings after his works. Bol- 
 swert's prints are distinguished as true works of art, not as mere 
 excellent mechanical performances of the graver — a kind of excellence 
 to which they make no pretensions. They are admirably drawn, 
 various and true in their effects of colour, and effective in light and 
 shade : he preserved also the characteristic style of the master after 
 whom he engraved. Bolswert engraved altogether 87 plates after 
 Rubens, including 21 laudscapes, and some of his best historical 
 works; 23 after Vandyck, includiug Bolswert's own portrait; 22 after 
 other masters ; and 22 after his own designs. He died at Antwerp at 
 an advanced age. 
 
 (Watelet et Levesque, Diclionnaire des Arts, <tc. ; Hubar, Manuel 
 des A malears.) 
 
 BOMBELLI, RAPHAEL, a Bolognese mathematician of the lGth 
 century. We know nothing of his birth, life, or death, except his 
 work on Algebra, published in 1572 (Hutton), or in 1579 (Montucla, 
 Bossut, Wallis, Dechales, De Thou's ' Catalogue,' &c), or in both 
 (Lacroix, ' Biog. Univ.'). The book itself is very scarce. Bombelli is 
 principally known as the first who attempted the solution of what is 
 called the ' irreducible case ' in cubic equations. He gave the geo- 
 metrical solution which depends upon the trisection of an angle, and 
 observed that the latter problem may be reduced to a cubic equation. 
 He is also the first who attempted the actual extraction of the cube 
 root in the result of Carden's (or Tartalea's) well known formula. 
 
 Bombelli states that he discovered a manuscript of Diophautus in 
 the Vatican Library, and with another had translated the greater part 
 for publication. He says that he found frequent references to Indian 
 authors, from which he learned that Algebra was known to the 
 Hindoos earlier than to the Arabs. This assertion has been much 
 quoted and frequently censured. Cossali caused all the Vatican 
 manuscripts now existing (three in number) to be closely examined, 
 but without finding anything to confirm Bombelli's assertion ; which 
 remains a puzzle, since there is no suspicion of deceit, and the work 
 of Diophantus is in reality full of questions akin to those treated in 
 the Hindoo ' Viga Ganita.' But as Bombelli is said, in the Toulouse 
 edition of Diophantus, to have misinterpreted the questions from 
 that writer which he inserted in his own algebra, it is possible that he 
 may have not well understood the Greek. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I., EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. 
 Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio, in the island of Corsica, on 
 the 15th of August 1769. He was the second son (his brother Joseph 
 being the eldest) of Carlo Bonaparte and Letizia Ramolini, both natives 
 of Corsica. The house in which he was born forms one side of a court 
 leading out of the Rue Charles. In his baptismal register, which is in 
 the parish books, his name is written Bonaparte, but his father 
 generally signed himself Buonaparte, a mode of spelling which seems 
 more accordant with Italian orthoepy, although there are other Italian 
 names in which the first component part is written and pronounced 
 'bona,' as, for instance, Bonaventura, Bonaccorsi, &c, besides common 
 nouns, similarly compounded, such as bonarieta, bonaccia, &c. This 
 appears in itself a question of little moment, but it has been made the 
 subject of much controversy, to which a sort of national importance 
 has been given, as if the dropping of the u had been done for the 
 
 purpose of Frenchifying the name. (Louis Bonaparte's ' Response a 
 Sir Walter Scott.') Bonaparte being a family name, the correctness of 
 the spelling must depend upon custom, and we find that Napoleon, 
 after he became general of the army of Italy, always signed his name 
 without the it, probably, as Bourienue observes, because it was a 
 shorter way of signing, and probably also because it was better 
 adapted to French pronunciation. Napoleon's name first became 
 known to the world as Bonaparte, as such it is registered ia his pro- 
 clamations, despatches, and other documents, and as such therefore it 
 ought to be written in history. His brothers likewise adopted the 
 same way of writing it. 
 
 Napoleon's father's family was originally from Tuscany, but had 
 been settled in Corsica for several generations. There is a comedy 
 written by one of his ancestors, Nicold Buonaparte of San Miniato, 
 citizen of Florence, styled ' La Vedova,' Florence, 1568 and 1592. 
 There is likewise a narrative of the pillage of Rome under Charles V., 
 written by a Jacopo Buonaparte, ' Ragguaglio Storico del Sacco di 
 Roma dell' anno 1527,' Cologne, 1736. Charles, Napoleon's father, 
 was educated at Pisa for the profession of the law. Before the birth 
 of Napoleon, his father had served under Paoli in the defence of his 
 country against the French, to whom the Genoese had basely sold tho 
 island. The entire submission of Corsica to France took placs in 
 June 1769, about a month before Napoleon's birth, who therefore, 
 legally speaking, was born a subject of France. In the following 
 September, when Count Marbceuf, the French commissioner, convoked 
 by the king's letters patent the States of Corsica, consisting of three 
 orders — nobility, clergy, and commons — tho family of Bonaparte, 
 having shown their titles, was registered among the nobility ; and 
 Charles, some years after, repaired to Paris as member of a deputation 
 of his order to Louis XVI. He was soon after appointed assessor to 
 the judicial court of Ajaccio. He was then in straitened circum- 
 stances, as he had spent most of his little property in a bad speculation 
 of some salt-pans, after having previously lost a law-suit against the 
 Jesuits about an inheritance which he claimed. Through Count 
 Marhocuf's interest he obtained the admission of his sou Napoleon to 
 the military school of Brienne as a king's pensioner. Napoleon left 
 Corsica for Brienne when he was in his tenth year, in April 1779. At 
 Brienne, where he passed five years and a half, he made great progress 
 in mathematics, but showed less disposition for literature and the 
 study of languages. Pichegru was for a time his monitor in the class 
 of mathematics. The annual report made to the king by M. de 
 Keralio, inspector general of the military schools of France, in 1784, 
 has the following remarks on young Napoleon: — "Distinguished in 
 mathematical studies, tolerably versed in history and geography 
 much behind in his Latin and in belles lettres, and other accomplish- 
 ments ; of regular habits, studiouB and well behaved, and enjoying 
 excellent health." (Bourienne's 'Memoirs.') Much has been said of 
 young Napoleon's taciturnity and moroseness while at school. 
 Bourienue, who was his schoolfellow, states the facts very simply. 
 Napoleon was a stranger, for the French considered the Corsicans as 
 such ; he spoke his own dialect until he learnt French at the school ; 
 he had no connections in France, he was comparatively poor, and yet 
 proud-minded, as Corsicans generally are ; the other boys, more fortu- 
 nate or more lively in their disposition, teazed him and taunted him, 
 and therefore he kept himself distant and was often alone. But that 
 he was susceptible of social and friendly feelings towards those who 
 showed him sympathy, his intimacy with Bourienne sufficiently 
 proves. Many stories have also been told of his assuming an autho- 
 rity over his comrades, showing a precocious ambition, and an instinct 
 for command ; but these are flatly contradicted by Bourienne, with 
 the exception that in one instance when the snow had fallen very thick 
 on the ground, and the boys were at a loss what to do to amuse them- 
 selves, he proposed to make entrenchments with the snow, and to 
 perform a sham attack, of which he was the leader. 
 
 There was nothing extraordinary in young Napoleon's school life ; 
 he was a clever, steady, studious lad, and nothing more. The school 
 of Brienne wa3 under the direction of the monks of the order of St. 
 Francis de Paula, called Minimi, and Bourienne speaks rather indif- 
 ferently of their learning and system of education, though the teacher 
 of mathematics seems to have been a favourable exception. Bourienne 
 also states that Napoleon had made more proficiency in history than 
 the report above mentioned gives him credit for: his favourite authors 
 were Caesar, Plutarch, and Arrian ; the last two he probably read in 
 Latin, or perhaps French translations, for he does not appear to have 
 studied Greek. 
 
 Napoleon left Brienne on October 17, 1784, and proceeded to the 
 Military School at Paris, there to continue his course of studies until 
 he had attained the age required for entering the army. The Paris 
 school, and the students' manner of living, were on an expensive 
 footing, which shocked young Napoleon, who wrote to Father Berton, 
 his superior at Brienne, a long letter (of which Bourienne gives a copy), 
 in which he forcibly exposed the error of such a system of education, 
 as luxury and comforts were a bad preparation for the hardships and 
 privations attendant on the military profession. In the regulations 
 which he afterwards drew up for his military school at Fontaiuebleau, 
 Napoleon followed the principles he had thus early manifested, 
 Napoleon's spirit of observation, his active and inquisitive character, 
 his censorious frankness, would appear to have excited the attention 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I 
 
 of the superiors of tho Paris school, who hastened the epoch of his 
 examination, as if anxious to get rid of a troublesome guest. He 
 was likewise remarked for the wild energy and strange amplifications 
 in his style of expressing himself when excited, a peculiarity which 
 distinguished many of his subsequent speeches and proclamations. 
 In September 1785, he left the school, and received his commission 
 as sub-lieutenant in the regiment of artillery de la Fere, and was soon 
 after promoted to a first lieutenancy in the artillery regiment of 
 Grenoble, stationed at Valence. His father bad just died at Mont- 
 pellier of a ecirrhus in the stomach. An old great uncle, the Arch- 
 deacon Lucien of Ajaccio, now acted as father to the family ; he was 
 rich, and Charles had left his children poor. Napoleon's elder brother 
 Joseph, after receiving his education at the College of Autun in 
 Burgundy, returned to Corsica, where his mother, sisters, and younger 
 brothers resided as well as a half-brother of his mother, of the name 
 of Fesch, whose father had been an officer in a Swiss regiment in the 
 Genoese service, formerly stationed in Corsica. Napoleon, while at 
 Valence with his regiment, was allowed 1200 francs yearly from his 
 family, probably from the archdeacon, which, added to his pay, 
 enabled him to live comfortably and to go into company. He appears 
 to have entered cheerfully into the sports and amusements of his 
 brother officers, while at the same time he did not neglect improving 
 himself in the studies connected with his profession. While at 
 Valence he wrote a dissertation in answer to Eaynal's question, 
 ' What are the principles and institutions by which mankind can obtain 
 the greatest possible happiness?' Hesenthis manuscript anonymously 
 to the Academy of Lyon, which adjudged to him the prize attached 
 to the best essay on the subject. Many years after, when at the 
 height of his power, he happened to mention the circumstance, and 
 Talleyrand having sought the forgotten manuscript among the archives 
 of the Academy, presented it to him one morning. Napoleon, after 
 reading a few pages of it, threw it into the fire, and no copy having 
 been taken of it, we do not know what his early ideas might have 
 been about the happiness of mankind. (Las Cases' ' Journal,' vol. i.) 
 Napoleon had become acquainted with Raynal while at Paris. Having 
 made an excursion from Valence to Mont Cenis.he designed writing a 
 'sentimental journey,' in imitation of Sterne's work, translations of 
 which were much read in France at the time, but he ultimately 
 resisted the temptation. 
 
 The first outbreaking of the revolution found Napoleon at Valence 
 with his regiment. He took a lively interest in the proceedings of 
 the first National Assembly. The officers of his regiment, like those 
 of the army in general, were divided into royalists and democrats. 
 Several of the former emigrated to join the Prince of Conde\ Napoleon 
 however refused to follow the same course ; he took the popular side, 
 and his example and his arguments influenced many of his brother 
 officers in the regiment. In 1792 Napoleon became a captain in the 
 regiment of Grenoble artillery (Las Cases, voL i.), his promotion being 
 favoured probably by the emigration of so many officers. Napoleon 
 and Bourienne happened to be, on the 20th of June 1792, at a coffee- 
 house in the street St. Honore", when the mob from the fauxbourgs 
 (a motley crowd armed with pikes, sticks, axes, &c.) were proceeding 
 to the Tuileries. "Let us follow this canaille," whispered Napoleon 
 to his friend. They went accordingly, and saw the mob break into 
 the palace without any opposition, and the king afterwards appear at 
 one of the windows with a red cap on his head. " It is all over hence- 
 forth with that man ! " exclaimed Napoleon ; and returning with his 
 friend to the coffee-house to dinner, he explained to Bourienne all 
 the consequences he foresaw from the degradation of the monarchy 
 on that fatal day, now and then exclaiming indignantly, " How could 
 they allow those despicable wretches to enter the palace ! why, a few 
 discharges of grape-shot amongst them would have made them all 
 take to their heels ; they would be running yet at this moment ! " He 
 was collected and extremely grave all the remainder of that day ; the 
 sight had made a deep impression upon him. Ho witnessed also the 
 scenes of the 10th of August, after which he left Paris to return to 
 his family in Corsica. General de Paoli then held the chief authority 
 in that island from the king and the Frencli National Assembly, and 
 Napoleon was appointed by him to the temporary command of a 
 battalion of national guards. Paoli had approved of the constitutional 
 monarchy in France, but not of the excesses of the Jacobins, nor of 
 the attempts to establish a republic. Factions had broken out in 
 Corsica also, which Paoli endeavoured to repress. In January 1793, 
 a French fleet, under Admiral Truguet, sailed from Toulon, for the 
 purpose of attacking the island of Sardinia. Napoleon, with his 
 battalion, was ordered to make a diversion by taking possession of the 
 small islands which lie on the northern coast of Sardiuia, which he 
 effected; but Truguet's fleet having been repulsed in the attack upon 
 Cagliari, Napoleon returned to Corsica with his men. Paoli had now 
 openly renounced all obedience to the French Convention, and called 
 upon his countrymen to shake off its yoke. Napoleon, on the con- 
 trary, rallied with the French troops under Lacombe St. Michel and 
 Saliceti, and he was sent with a body of men to attack his native 
 town Ajaccio, which was in possession of Paoli's party. He however 
 did not succeed, and was obliged to return to Bastia. The English 
 fleet goon after appeared on the coast, landed troops, and assisted 
 Paoli, and the French were obliged to quit the island. Napoleon also 
 left it about May 1793, and his mother and sisters with him. After 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. ?« 8 
 
 seeing them safe to Marseille, he went to join the 4th regiment of 
 artillery, which was stationed at Nice with the army intended to act 
 agaiust Italy. So at least his brother Louis says, but from Las Cases' 
 account it would appear that he repaired to Paris to ask for active 
 employment. It was during his short residence at Marseille and in 
 the neighbourhood, that he wrote a political pamphlet, called ' Le 
 Souper de Beaucaire,' a supposed conversation between men of different 
 parties : a Marseillese, a man of Nimes, a military man, and a manu- 
 facturer of Montpellier. Bonaparte speaks his own sentiments as the 
 military man, and recommends union and obedience to the Convention, 
 against which the Marseillese were then in a state of revolt. This 
 curious pamphlet became very rare afterwards. Napoleon was said to 
 have suppressed it. Bourienne prints a copy of it from a manuscript 
 given to him by Bonaparte in 1795. His language was then strongly 
 republican. 
 
 Bonaparte was at Paris in September 1793. Being known as a good 
 artillery officer, he was sent to join the besieging army before Toulon, 
 with the rank of lieutenant-colonel of artillery, and with a letter for 
 Cartaux, the republican general, a vain, vulgar, and extremely ignorant 
 man. Napoleon himself has given, in Las Cases' 'Journal,' a most 
 amusing account of his first interview with Cartaux, of the wretched 
 state in which he found the artillery, of the total want of common 
 sense in the dispositions that had been made for the attack, of his own 
 remonstrances, of his difficulty in making Cartaux understand the 
 simplest notions concerning a battery, &c. At last, luckily for him, 
 Gasparin, a commissioner from the Convention, arrived at the camp. 
 He had seen a little service, and understood Bonaparte's plain state- 
 ments. A council of war was assembled, and although the orders of 
 the Convention were to attack Toulon and carry the town, Napoleon 
 succeeded in persuading them to attack first the outer works that 
 commanded the harbour, the taking of which would insure the sur- 
 render of the place. It was decided that Bonaparte's plan should be 
 adopted, even at the serious risk of incurring the displeasure of the 
 Convention. Soon after, Cartaux was recalled, and another mock 
 general, a physician, was sent in his place ; but lie was soon frightened 
 away by the whistling of the shots. Dugommier, a brave veteran, then 
 came to command the besieging army, and he and Bonaparte agreed 
 perfectly. Napoleon constructed his batteries with great skill, and 
 having opened his fire with effect, the works which commanded the 
 harbour were carried by the French after a sharp resistance from the 
 English, in which the British commander, General O'Hara, was taken 
 prisoner, and Bonaparte received a bayonet wound. Upon this the 
 evacuation of the place was resolved upon by the allies, as Bonaparte 
 had foreseen. A scene of confusion, destruction, and conflagration took 
 place which it is not within our province to dwell upon : the English, 
 Spanish, and Neapolitan fleets sailed out of the harbour, carrying along 
 with them about 14,000 of the inhabitants, whose only safety was in 
 flight. The deputies of the Convention, Barras, Frdron, Fouche", and 
 the younger Robespierre, entered Toulon, and exercised their vengeance 
 upon the few that remained, 400 of whom were assembled in the square 
 and exterminated by grape-shot. Bonaparte says that neither he nor 
 the regular troops had anything to do with this butchery, which was 
 executed by what was called 'the revolutionary army,' a set of 
 wretches, the real sans culottes of Paris and other towns, who followed 
 the army as volunteers. 
 
 In consequence of his services at the taking of Toulon, Bonaparte was 
 recommended by General Dugommier for promotion, and was accord- 
 ingly raised to the rank of brigadier-general of artillery in February 
 1794, with the chief command of that department of the army in the 
 south. In this capacity he inspected the coasts, ordered the weak 
 points to be fortified, strengthened the fortifications already existing, 
 and displayed his abilities in these matters. He then joined the army 
 under General Dumorbion, which was stationed at the foot of the 
 Maritime Alps, and with which he made the campaign of 1794 against 
 the Piedmontese troops. In that campaign the French, disregarding 
 the neutrality of Genoa, and advancing by Ventimiglia and San Remo, 
 turned the Piedmontese position at Saorgio, obtained possession of the 
 Col-de-Tende, and penetrated into the valleys on the Piedmontese side 
 of the Alps. A battle was fought at Cairo, in the valley of the Bormida, 
 21st of September, iu which the French had the advantage ; but the 
 rainy season coming on, terminated the campaign, in which Bonaparte 
 had taken an important part, together with Massena. 
 
 Previous however to the battle of Cairo, Bonaparte had run con- 
 siderable risk from the factions that divided France. On the 13th of 
 July 1794 the Deputies of the Convention who were superintending 
 the operations of the army gave him a commission to proceed to Genoa, 
 with secret instructions to examine the state of the fortifications as 
 well as the nature of the country, and also to observe the conduct of 
 the Genoese government towards the English and other belligerent 
 powers. These instructions were dated Loano, and signed Ricord. 
 Ricord and the younger Robespierre were then commissioners. Bona- 
 parte went to Genoa and fulfilled his commission. Meantime the 
 revolution of the 9th and 10th Thermidor (27th and 28th of July) took 
 place, Robespierre fell, and his party were proscribed. Albitte, Saliceti, 
 and Laporte, were the new commissioners appointed to the army of 
 Italy. On Bonaparte's return from Genoa to head-quarters he was 
 placed under arrest, his papers were Beized, and an order was issued 
 by the commissioners, stating that he had lost their confidence by hia 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON L 
 
 788 
 
 suspicious conduct, and especially by his journey to Genoa ; he was 
 suepended from his functions of commander of the artillery, and 
 ordered to proceed to Paris under an escort to appear before the 
 Committee of Public Safety. This order was dated Barcelomiette, 
 6th of August, and signed by the three commissioners, and counter- 
 signed by Dumorbion, general-in-cbief. Bonaparte remained under 
 arrest for a fortnight. He wrote a pithy remonstrance, which induced 
 the commissioners to make a more precise investigation of the affair, 
 and the result was a counter-order from them, dated Nice, 2()th of 
 August, in which they direct him to be " restored provisionally to 
 liberty, and to remain at head-quarters until further instructions from 
 the Committee of Public Safety." Bonaparte however seems to have 
 had no further annoyance on the subject. 
 
 After the close of the campaign of 1794, Bonaparte repaired to 
 Marseille, where his family then was. But we find him early in 
 the following year at l'aris unsuccessfully soliciting employment. 
 He now took lodgings in the Rue du Mail, near the Placo des 
 Victoires, and led a private life. Bourienne states that he had then 
 some idea of going into the Turkish service, and gives a copy of a 
 project which Bonaparte laid before the war-office, showing the advan- 
 tages that would result to France by forming a closer connection with 
 the Porte, and sending officers of artillery with a body of gunners to 
 instruct the troops of the Sultan. His letters to his brother Joseph 
 show him at this time to have been suffering greatly from ennui ; 
 but on the 10th of August he writes that he is appointed to succeed 
 Carnot in the actual direction of military proceedings, and all traces 
 of depression disappear at once. Meantime a new crisis arrived in 
 the affairs of Franco. The Convention had framed a new constitution, 
 establishing a council of elders, a council of juniors, and an executive 
 directory of five members. This is known by the name of the Con- 
 stitution of the year in., and was in fact the third constitution pro- 
 claimed since the beginning of the revolution. But the Convention, 
 previously to its own dissolution, passed a resolution to the effect, 
 that at least two-thirds of the members of the two legislative councils 
 should bo taken from the members of the actual Convention. This 
 resolution was laid before the primary assemblies of the departments, 
 and every kind of influence, legal and illegal, was used to insure its 
 approbation. The department of l'aris however refused, and the 
 sections or districts of that city being assembled, demanded a strict 
 scrutiny of the returns of the votes of the assemblies of the depart- 
 ments, and protested against the attempt of the Convention to per- 
 petuate its own power. They declared they would no longer obey 
 the orders of that body. It was said that the sections were urged or 
 encouraged in their resistance by the royalists, who hoped to derive 
 benefit from it. But it is also well known that the Convention, many 
 of whose members were implicated in the bloodshed and atrocities of 
 the reign of terror, was odious to the Parisians. On the other side 
 the members of the Convention for this very reason were afraid of 
 returning to the rank of private citizens. They determined therefore 
 to risk everything in order to carry their object by force. They had 
 at their disposal about 5000 regular ti-oops in or near Paris, with a 
 considerable quantity of artillery, and a body of volunteers from the 
 suburbs. The command of these forces was given to Barras, a leading 
 member of the Convention, who had mainly contributed to the fall of 
 Robespierre. Barras, who had become acquainted with Bonaparte at 
 the siege of Toulon, proposed to intrust him with the actual direction 
 of the troops for the defence of the Convention. Bonaparte was also 
 known to Carnot and Tallien, and other members of the Convention, 
 as an able artillery officer. The choice being unanimously approved, 
 Bonaparte quickly drew his line of defence round the Tuileiies where 
 the Convention was sitting, and along the adjoining quay on the 
 north bank of the Seine. He depended mainly upon his cannon 
 loaded with grape-shot, which he had placed at the head of the various 
 avenues through which the national guards, the force of the citizens, 
 must advance. The national guards had no cannon. They advanced 
 on the morning of the 13th Vendemiaire (4th October 1795), nearly 
 30,000 in number, in several columns, along the quays and the street 
 of St. Honored. As soon as they were within musket-shot, they were 
 ordered to disperse in the name of the Convention; they answered 
 by discharging their firelocks, and their fire was returned by discharges 
 of grape-shot and canister, which did great execution among the thick 
 masses, cooped up in narrow streets. They however returned several 
 times to the charge, and attempted but in vain to carry the guns ; the 
 fire of the cannon swept away the foremost, and threw the rest into 
 disorder. Foiled at all points, after two hours' fighting, the national 
 guards withdrew in the evening to their respective districts, where they 
 made a stand in some churches and other buildings; but being fol- 
 lowed by the troops of the Convention, their disunited resistance was 
 of no avail ; they were obliged to surrender, and were disarmed in the 
 night. By the next morning all Paris was subdued. The Convention 
 and its troops did not uso their victory with cruelty : except those 
 wlio were killed in the fight, few of the citizens were put to death, 
 and only two of the leaders were publicly executed, others being sen- 
 tenced to transportation. General Berruyer, Verdier, and others, 
 served with Bonaparte on the occasion, but to Bonaparte chiefly the 
 merit of the victory was justly attributed. He was appointed by a 
 decree of the Convention second in command of the army of the 
 interior, Barms ritaining the nominal chief command himself: and 
 
 soon after the new constitution comiug into operation, Barras being 
 appointed one of the directors, resigned his military command, and 
 
 Bonaparte became general of the interior. 
 
 About this time Bonaparte became acquainted with Josephine Beau- 
 harnois, a native of Martinique, and the widow of the Viscount Alex- 
 andre de Beauharnois. This lady had suffered imprisonment, but was 
 liberated at the fall of Robespierre. The Director Barras, an old 
 acquaintance of her husband, frequented her society, and she was also 
 intimate with Madame Tallien, and other persons of note and influence 
 at that time. She was amiable, elegant, and accomplished. Bona- 
 parte saw her often, and became attached to her. She was several 
 years older than he was. He was now rapidly rising in his fortunes, 
 and his marriage with a lady of rank and fashion (for rank, although 
 nominally proscribed, began again to exercise a sort of influence in 
 society), who was upon terms of intimacy with the political leaders 
 of that period, could not but prove advantageous to him. Such was 
 the advice given to him by his friends, and particularly, it is reported, 
 by Talleyrand. Barras, having heard of the projected marriage, 
 approved of it also. Meantime Bonaparte had been applying to Carnot, 
 the then minister at war, for active employment. The directors had 
 at that time turned their attention towards Italy, where the French 
 army, under General Scherer, was making no great progress. After 
 gaining a victory over the Austrians at Loano, in November 1795, the 
 French were still cooped up in the western Riviera of Genoa, between 
 the mountains and the sea, without being able to penetrate into 1'ied- 
 mont ; and this was the fourth year of that war carried on at the foot 
 or in the defiles of the Alps and the Liguarian Apennines. Barras and 
 Carnot agreed to give Bonaparte the command of the army of Italy, 
 and the other directors approved of it. This appointment was signed 
 the 23rd February 1796 ; on the 9th of March following he married 
 Josephine, and a few days after parted from his bride to assume the 
 command of the army of Italy. The stories that have been propa- 
 gated about his marriage being made the condition of his appointment, 
 and all the inueudos built upon that assumption, appear to have no 
 foundation. He was appointed to the army of Italy because he was 
 thought capable of succeeding, because he was already acquainted with 
 the ground, perhaps also it was thought that his Italian origin might 
 afford him facilities with the people of that country ; and lastly, 
 because the directors were not sorry to have a general at the head of 
 one of their armies who was a man of their own choice, and seemingly 
 dependent upon their favour, one whose growing reputation might 
 serve as a counterpoise to the widely-extended popularity of Moreau, 
 Pichegru, Hoche, and the other generals of the first years of the 
 Republic. 
 
 The army at Bonaparte's disposal consisted of about 55,000 men, of 
 whom only two-thirds were fit for the field. It was in a wretched 
 state as to clothing, aud ill supplied with provisions ; the pay of the 
 soldiers was in arrears, and the army was almost without horses. The 
 discipline also was very relaxed. The Piedmontese and Austrian 
 combined army was commanded by Beaulieu, a gallant veteran, past 
 seventy years of age. It was posted along the ridge of the Apennines, 
 at the foot of which the French were advancing. Bonaparte, in his 
 despatches to the Directory, stated the allied army at 75,000 men, 
 and his own effective troops at 35,000. On the 27th of March he 
 arrived at Nice, and immediately moving his head-quarters to Albenga, 
 pushed his advanced guard as far as Voltri, near Genoa. Beaulieu, 
 with the Austrians' left, attacked Voltri and drove the French back 
 he at the same time ordered D'Argenteau, who commanded his centre, 
 to descend by Montenotte upon Savona, and thus take the French in 
 flank. On this road the French colonel, Rampon, was posted with 
 1500 men on the heights of Montelegino. He was repeatedly attacked 
 on the 10th of April by D'Argenteau, but stood firm, and all the 
 assaults of the Austrians could not dislodge him from the redoubt. 
 This gave time to Bonaparte to collect his forces, and to march round 
 in the nigbt by Altare to the rear of D'Argenteau, whom he attacked 
 on every side on the following day, and obliged to make a disorderly 
 retreat beyond Montenotte, after losing the best part of his division, 
 before Beaulieu on the left, or Colli, who commanded the Piedmontese 
 at Ceva on the right, could come to his support Bonaparte had now 
 pushed into the valley of the Bormida, between the two wings of the 
 allied army. Beaulieu and Colli hastened to repair this disaster, and 
 re-establish their communications by Millesimo and Dego. On the 
 13th of April, Bonaparte sent Augereau to attack Millesimo, which he 
 carried; but the Austrian general, Provera, with 2000 men, threw 
 himself into the old castle of Cossaria, on the summit of a hill, where 
 he withstood all the assaults of the French for that day. Two French 
 general officers were killed in leading the attack, and another, Joubert, 
 was severely wounded. On the 14th the whole of the two armies were 
 engaged. Colli, after an unsuccessful endeavour to relieve Provera, 
 was driven back towards Ceva ; while Massena attacked Beaulieu at 
 Dego, and forced him to retire towards Acqui. Provera, without 
 provisions or water, was obliged to surrender. The Piedmontese were 
 now completely separated from the Austrians, which was the great 
 object of Bonaparte's movements. The French remained for the night 
 at Magliani, near Dego. All at once, early in the morning of the 
 15th, an Austrian division 5000 strong, under General Wukassowicb, 
 comiug from Voltri by Sassello, and expecting to find their country- 
 men at Dego, were astonished to find the French there, who were 
 
rat 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 rro 
 
 equally surprised at seeing the Austrian?, whom tbey Lad driven far 
 away in their front, re-appear in their rear. Wukassowich did not 
 hesitate; he charged into the village of Magliani and took it. Ma-sena 
 hurried to the spot to drive away the Austrians ; Laharpe came also 
 with reinforcements, but they could not succeed, until Bonaparte him- 
 self came and led a fresh charge, and at last obliged Wukassowich to 
 retire. This was called the battle of Lego, but more properly of 
 Magliani, the last of a series of combats which opened to Bonaparte 
 the road into the plains of North Italy. 
 
 Beaulieu retired to the Po with the intention of defending the 
 Milanese territory, leaving Colli and the Piedmontese to their fate. 
 Bonaparte turned against Colli, drove him from Ceva, and afterwards 
 from Mondovl, and beyond Cherasco. Colli withdrew to Carignano, 
 near Turin. The provinces of Piedmont, south of the Po, were now 
 open to the French. The king, Victor Amadeus III., became alarmed, 
 and asked for a truce, which Bonaparte granted on condition that the 
 fortresses of Cuneo and Tortona should be placed in his hands. A 
 peace was afterwards made between the king and the Directory, by 
 which the other Piedmontese fortresses and all the passes of the Alps 
 were given up to the French, and Piedmont in fact was surrendered 
 at discretion. This defection of the king of Sardinia ensured the 
 success of the French army. 
 
 Being now safe with regard to Piedmont, Bonaparte advanced to 
 encounter Beaulieu, who had posted himself on the left bank of the 
 Po, opposite to Valenza, his troops extending eastward as far as Pavia. 
 Bonaparte made a feint of crossing the river at Valenza, while he dis- 
 patched a body of cavalry along the right bank into the state of Parma, 
 where they met with no enemy, seized some boats near Piacenza, 
 crossed over to the Milanese side, and dispersed some Austrian picquets 
 who were posted there. Bonaparte, quickly following with a chosen 
 body of infantry, crossed the river nearly thirty miles below Pavia. 
 Beaulieu was now obliged to fall back upon the Adda after a sharp 
 engagement at Fombio, on the road from Piacenza to Milan. Milan 
 was evacuated by the Austrians with the exception of the castle. 
 Bonaparte resolved to dislodge Beaulieu from his new position, and 
 accordingly he attacked the bridge of Lodi, on the Adda, which the 
 Au»trians defended with a numerous artillery. He carried it by the 
 daring bravery of his grenadiers and' the bad dispositions of the Aus- 
 trian commander, who had not placed his infantry near enough to 
 support his guns. Beaulieu attempted to defend the line of the 
 Mincio, but he had only time to throw a garrison into Mantua, and 
 then withdraw behind the Adige into the Tyrol. Bonaparte took pos- 
 session of Milan and of all Lombardy, with the exception of Mantua, 
 which he blockaded. Thus ended the first Italian campaign of 1796. 
 
 At the first entrance of the French the people of Lombardy showed 
 a quiet, passive spirit. There wa3 no enthusiasm among them either 
 for or against the invaders. The Milanese looked upon the French 
 invasion rather with wonder than either satisfaction or hostility. 
 Ideas of a republic existed only in a few speculative heads ; but there 
 were many who sided with the French, in order to share their supe- 
 riority and advantages as conquerors. The people of the towns 
 behaved hospitably to the French troops, who on their side maintained 
 a stricter discipline than they had done in passing through Piedmont. 
 But the army was to be supported, equipped, and paid by the 
 conquered countries: such was the system of the Directory and of 
 Bonaparte. The Director}*, besides, wished to receive a share of the 
 golden harvest to recruit its own finances, and its orders were to draw 
 money from all the Italian states. Bonaparte accordingly put upon 
 Lombardy a contribution of twenty millions of francs, which fell 
 chiefly on the rich proprietors and the ecclesiastical bodies. Mean- 
 time he authorised the commissaries to seize provisions, stores, horses, 
 and other things required, giving cheques to be paid out of the con- 
 tributions. This was done in the towns with a certain regularity, but 
 in the country places, away from the eyes of the general, the commis- 
 saries and soldiers often seized whatever they liked without any 
 acknowledgment. The owners who remonstrated were insulted or ill- 
 used ; and many of the Italians calling themselves republicans assisted 
 the French in the work of plunder, of which they took their share. 
 All property belonging, or supposed to belong, to the archduke and the 
 late government, was sequestrated. But an act which exasperated the 
 Milanese was the violation of the Monte di PieU of Milan, a place of 
 deposit for plate, jewels, &c, which were either left for security, or as 
 pledges for money lent upon them. The Monte was broken into by 
 orders from Bonaparte and Saliceti, who accompanied the army as 
 commissioner of the Directory. They seized upon this deposit of 
 private property, took away the most valuable objects, and sent them 
 to Genoa to be at the disposal of the Directory. Many of the smaller 
 articles belonged to poor people; many were placed there by the 
 parents of young girls as a dowry when they came to be married. 
 Although these smaller objects were not intended by Bonaparte to be 
 detained, yet in the disorder of the seizure many of them disappeared, 
 and a report spread through Milan that all had been seized. The 
 same thing had been practise d at Piacenza when Bonaparte and Saliceti 
 passed through it; and afterwards the plunder, either partial or 
 tn'ire, of the Monte di Pietd, became a common practice of the French 
 army in all the towns they entered. 
 
 Iheso exceeses led to insurrections in different parts of the country, 
 in which French soldiers weie killed by the peasantry. The inhabit- 
 
 WOG. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 ants of Binasco, a large village between Milan and Pavia, rose and 
 killed a number of the French and their Italian partisans. The country 
 people ran towards Pavia, and were joined by the lower classes of that 
 town, who had been irritated at the hoisting of a tree of liberty in 
 one of their squares, where an equestrian statue of an emperor had 
 been thrown down by the republicans. On the 23rd of May Pavia 
 was in open insurrection. The French soldiers took refuge in the 
 castle ; those scattered about the town were seized and ill-treated ; 
 some were killed, but most had their lives saved by the interference of 
 the municipal magistrates and other respectable people. General 
 Haquin, who happened to pass through on his way to Milan, was 
 attacked by the frantic populace and wounded, but the magistrates, 
 at their own risk, saved his life. In all this tumult the country 
 people were the chief actors, by the acknowledgment of Haquin him- 
 self. Bonaparte, alarmed by this movement in his rear, and at the 
 possibility of its spreading, determined to make an example, and 
 "strike terror into the people," a sentence which was afterwards fre- 
 quently carried into effect in the progress of his arms. A strong body 
 of French ti'oops marched on Binasco, killed or dispersed the inhabit- 
 ants, burned the place, and then marched against Pavia, which being 
 a walled town was capable of making some defence. Bonaparte sent 
 the archbishop of Milan, who, from the balcony of the town-house, 
 addressed the multitude, and exhorted them to lay down their arms 
 and quietly to disperse, explaining to them the futility of their attempts 
 at resistance. The ignorant and deluded people would not listen to 
 his advice ; the French soon forced one of the gates, and the cavalry 
 entering the town, cut down all they met in the streets. The country 
 people ran away by the other gates, and left the unfortunate city to 
 the conqueror. Bonaparte then deliberately ordered Pavia to be given 
 up to plunder for twenty-four hours, as though Pavia had been a 
 fortified town taken by storm, while it was well known that the great 
 majority of the inhabitants had taken no part in the insurrection, 
 and had made no resistance to the French. This order was publicly 
 signified to the inhabitants and the troops, and during the rest of that 
 day, 25th of May, and the whole of that night, the soldiers rioted in 
 plunder, debauchery, and every sort of violence within the houses of 
 the unfortunate Pavese. Next morning (the 26th) at twelve o'clock 
 the pillage ceased, but Pavia for a long time felt the effects of this 
 cruel treatment. The municipal magistrates were sent for a time as 
 hostages to France. Four of the leaders of the insurrection were 
 publicly executed, and about one hundred had been killed on the first 
 irruption of the French into the city. The university and the houses 
 of some of the professors, Spallanzani's in particular, were exempted 
 from pillage. 
 
 Bonaparte imposed on the Duke of Parma, who had not yet acknow- 
 ledged the French Republic, a sort of peace, on condition of his paying 
 to France a million and a half of francs, besides giving provisions and 
 clothes for the army, and twenty of his best paintings to be sent to 
 Paris. The Duke of Modena, alarmed for his own safety, fled to 
 Venice with the greater part of his treasures, leaving a regency at 
 Modena, who sent to Bonaparte to sue for peace. Modena had com- 
 mitted no hostilities against France, but the duke was allied to the 
 house of Austria by tho marriage of his daughter with one of the 
 archdukes : he was also considered as a feudatory of the Emperor of 
 Germany. He was required to pay six millions of francs in cash, 
 besides two millions more in provisions, cattle, horses, carts, &c, and 
 fifteen of his choice paintings ; but as he was not quick enough in 
 paying the whole of the money his duchy was taken from him a few 
 months after. The Directory wanted cash, and Bonaparte says that 
 he sent during his first Italian campaigns fifty millions of francs from 
 Italy to Paris. 
 
 The Grand Duke of Tuscany, although brother to the Emperor of 
 Austria, was an independent sovereign ; he had long acknowledged 
 the French Republic, and kept an ambassador at Paris; but the 
 Directory ordered Bonaparte to seize Leghorn, and confiscate the 
 property of the English, Austrians, Portuguese, and other enemies of 
 the republic. Bonaparte executed the order, took Leghorn without 
 any opposition, put a garrison in it, seized the English, Portuguese, 
 and other goods in the warehouses, which were sold by auction, and 
 insisted upon the native merchants delivering up all the property in 
 their hands belonging to the enemies of the French republic. The Leg- 
 hornese merchants, to avoid this odious act, agreed to pay five millions 
 of fraucs, as a ransom for the whole. The pope's turn came next. 
 That sovereign was really in a state of hostility towards the French 
 republic, which he had never acknowledged, in consequence of the 
 abolition of the Catholic church in France. On the 18th of June the 
 French entered Bologna, whence Bonaparte ordered away the papal 
 authorities, and established a municipal government. He did the same 
 at Ferrara; and at the same time laid heavy contributions on both 
 those provinces. The Monte di Pietii of Bologna shared the same fate 
 as that of Milan, only the deposits or pledges not exceeding 200 livres 
 each (SI. sterling), were ordered to be returned to the owners. The 
 people of Lugo, a town between Imola and Ravenna, rose against the 
 invaders. Augereau was sent against Lugo : after three hours' fight, 
 in which 1000 of the natives and 200 French soldiers fell, Lugo was 
 taken, given up to plunder, and partly burnt; the women and children 
 were spared. Proclamations were , then issued that every town or 
 village that took up arms against the French should be burnt, and 
 
771 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON L 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 772 
 
 that every individual not a regular soldier taken with arms in his 
 hands should be put to death. 
 
 The court of Rome was now in great alarm, and Pius VI. sent 
 envoys to Bonaparte to sue for terms. An armistice was signed on 
 the 23rd of Juno, preparatory to a definite treaty of peace between 
 the pope and tho Directory. The conditions of the armistice were, 
 that the pope should give up the provinces of Ferrara and Bologna, 
 and the citadel of Aucona, should close his ports against tho enemies 
 of France, should pay fifteen millions of livres in gold or silver, and 
 six millions in goods, provisions, horses, cattle, &c, besides surrender- 
 ing a certain number of paintings, statues, vases, and 500 manuscripts, 
 at tho choice of the commissaries sent by tho Directory. This new 
 species of spoliation, unprecedented in modern history, was brought 
 into a regular system, and carried on in all countries conquered by the 
 French armies until the fall of Napoleon. Some of the scientific and 
 learned men of France, among whom were Monge and Berthollet, 
 went in succession to Parma, Milan, Bologna, Rome, and afterwards to 
 Venice and Naples, to take an inventory of the works of ait, from 
 among which they chose the best, and sent them to Paris. 
 
 While these things were going on south of tho Po, the court of 
 Vienna was preparing a fresh army for the recovery of Lombardy. 
 Marshal Wurrnser, a veterau officer of considerable reputation, was 
 detached with 30,000 men from the Austrian army of the Rhine, and 
 marched into the Tyrol, whero lie collected the remains of Beaulieu's 
 troops and the Tyrolese levies, forming altogether an army of between 
 50,000 and 00,000 men. Bonaparte's army was not quite 50,000, of 
 which part was stationed round Mantua to blockade that fortress, 
 which was garrisoned by 8000 Austrians. Towards the eud of July, 
 Wurrnser, with tho maiu body of his troops, advanced from Trento 
 by the eastern shore of the Lake of Guarda, towards Verona, while 
 another corps under Quosnadowich marched by the western shore to 
 Sal5 and Brescia, from which places they drove the French away. 
 Bonaparte, after some hesitation, hastily raised the siege of Mantua, 
 leaving his battering train, and collected the best part of his forces to 
 meet Quosnadowich as the weaker of the two generals. He attacked 
 him at Louato, drove him back into the mountains, and then turned 
 quickly to the right to face Wurrnser, who having passed Verona, had 
 entered Mantua, destroyed the French entrenchments, and was now 
 advancing by Castiglioue, from whence he had driven away the French 
 under General Valette. This was a critical moment in Bonaparte's 
 career, and it is said he was in doubt whether to fall back on the Po, 
 but was dissuaded by Augereau. On the 3rd of August the French 
 retook Castiglione after an obstinate combat. Wurrnser however took 
 up a position near the town, where he was attacked again ou the 5th, 
 and completely defeated, with the loss of his cannon and several 
 thousaud men. Wurrnser withdrew beyond the Mincio, and after- 
 wards up the Adige into the Tyrol, followed by the French, who 
 attacked and defeated an Austrian division at Roveredo on the 4th of 
 September, and entered the city of Trento. Wurrnser then suddenly 
 crossed the mountains that divide the valley of the Adige from that 
 of the Brenta, and entered Bassano, where he was joined by some 
 reinforcements from Carinthia, intending to march down again towards 
 Verona and Mantua. But Bonaparte followed him quickly by the 
 same road, and attacked and routed him at Bassano. Wurrnser had 
 now hardly 16,000 men left, and his artillery being lost, and his 
 retreat cut off, he took the bold resolution to cut his way to Mantua, 
 and shut himself up in that fortress. With a rapidity of movements 
 then unusual in an Austrian army, he avoided the French divisions 
 moving against him from various quarters, surprised the bridge of 
 Legnago, passed the Adige, marched day and night followed by Bona- 
 parte, beat a French division at Cerea, cut down several other bodies 
 who attempted to oppose him, and at last reached Mantua on the 
 14th of September. Thus, in the course of six weeks, a second 
 Austrian army was destroyed in detail. The rapidity of movements 
 of the French divisions, and the intricacy of their manoeuvres, can 
 only be appreciated by an attentive examination of the map of the 
 country. 
 
 A third general and a third army were sent by Austria into Italy in 
 the autumn of the same year. Marshal Alvinzi, an officer of some 
 reputation, advanced from Carinthia by way of Belluno with 30,000 
 men, while General Davidowich with 20,000 descended from the Tyrol 
 by the valley of the Adige. They were to meet between Peschiera 
 and Verona, and proceed to relieve Wurrnser at Mantua. Bonaparte, 
 who was determined to attack Alvinzi before he could form his junction, 
 gave him battle at Le Nove, near Bassano, 6th of November ; but in 
 spite of all the efforts of Massena and Augereau he could not break the 
 Austrian line, and next day he retreated by Vicenza to Verona. On 
 the same day Vaubois, whom Bonaparte had opposed to Davidowich, 
 was driven away from Trento and Roveredo with great loss, and obliged 
 to fall back to Rivoli and La Corona. Had Davidowich followed up 
 his success he might have pushed on to the plains on the right bank of 
 the Adige near Verona, and have placed Bonaparte in a very critical 
 position, with Alvinzi in front, Davidowich on his left flank, and Mantua 
 in his rear. Instead of this, Davidowich stayed ten days at Roveredo. 
 Alvinzi meantime had advanced by Vicenza and Villanova to the 
 heights of Caldiero facing Verona, where he waited for Davidowich's 
 appearance. Bonaparte attempted on the 12th of November to dislodge 
 Alvinzi from Caldiero, but after considerable loss he was obliged to 
 
 withdraw his troops again into Verona. He wrote next day a desponding 
 letter to Paris, in which he recapitulates his losses, his best officers 
 killed or wouuded, his soldiers exhausted by fatigue, and himself in 
 danger of being surrounded. He however determined to make a la-it 
 effort to dislodge Alvinzi by turning his position. With two divisions 
 under Massena and Augereau he marched quietly out of Verona in the 
 night of the 14th, followed the right bank of the Adige, crossed that 
 river at Ronco early next morning, and moved quickly by a cross road 
 leading through a marshy country towards Villanova in the rear of 
 Alvinzi, where the Austrian baggage, stores, &c, were stationed. The 
 Alpone, a mountain stream, ran between the French and Villanova. 
 The French attempted to pass it by the bridge of Arcole, but found it 
 defended ; and this led to the celebrated battle of that name, which 
 lasted three days, and which was unquestionably the hardest fought in 
 all those Italian campaigns. On the 17th Bonaparte succeeded in 
 turning the position of Arcole, when Alvinzi thought it prudent to 
 retire upon Vicenza and Bassano, where the Austrian* took up their 
 winter quarters. Bonaparte wrote to Caruot after the action of the 
 third day: — " Never was a field of battle so obstinately contested : 
 our enemies were numerous and determined. I have hardly any general 
 officers left." They were almost all killed, wounded, or prisoners. 
 
 On the same day that Bonaparte obliged Alvinzi to retire from the 
 Adige, Davidowich, rousing himself from his inconceivable inaction, 
 pushed down by Ala on tho Adige, drove Vaubois before him, and 
 entered the plains between Peschiera and Verona. But it was now too 
 late : Bonaparte turned against him, and obliged him quickly to retrace 
 his steps to Ala and Roveredo. Thus ended the third campaign of the 
 year 1796. 
 
 Bonaparte had now some leisure to turn his attention to the internal 
 affairs of the conquered countries. The Milanese in general remained 
 passive, but the people of Modena and Bologna seemed anxious to 
 constitute themselves into an independent state. Bonaparte himself 
 had not directly encouraged such manifestations, but his subalterns 
 had ; and indeed the revolt of Reggio, which was tho first Italian city 
 that proclaimed its independence, was begun by a party of Corsican 
 poutoneers, who were passing through on their way to the army. 
 (Count Paradisi, ' Lettera a Carlo Botta.') Bonaparte allowed Modena, 
 Reggio, Bologna, and Ferrara to form themselves into a republic, which 
 was called Cispadaua. As for the Milanese, the Directory wrote that 
 it was not yet certain whether they should not be obliged to restore 
 that country to the emperor at the peace. Bonaparte has clearly stated 
 his policy at that time towards the North Italians in a letter to the 
 Directory on the 28th of December 1796 :— "There are in Lombardy 
 (Milanese) three parties : 1st, that which is subservient to France and 
 follows our directions; 2nd, that which aims at liberty and a national 
 government, and that with some degree of impatience ; 3rd, the party 
 friendly to Austria and hostile to us. I support the first, restrain the 
 second, and put down the third. As for the states south of the Po 
 (Modena, Bologna, &c.), there are also there three parties : 1st, the 
 friends of the old governments; 2nd, the partisans of a free consti- 
 tution, though somewhat aristocratical ; 3rd, the partisans of pure 
 democracy. I endeavour to put down the first; I support the second 
 because it is the party of the great proprietors and of the clergy, who 
 exercise the greatest influence over the masses of the people, whom 
 it is our interest to win over to us ; I restrain the third, which is 
 composed chiefly of young men, of writers, and of people who, as in 
 France and everywhere else, love liberty merely for the sake of 
 revolution." 
 
 The pope found that he could not agree to a peace with the Directory, 
 whose conditions were too hard, and consequently, after paying five 
 millions of livres, he stopped all further remittances. Bonaparte, after 
 disapproving in his despatches the abruptness of the Directory, and 
 saying that it was impolitic to make too many enemies at once while 
 Austria was still in the field, repaired to Bologna in January 1797 to 
 threaten the Roman states, when he heard that Alvinzi was preparing 
 to move down again upon the Adige. The Austrian marshal had 
 received reinforcements which raised his army again to 50,000 men. 
 He marched them in several columns, threatening several points at 
 once of the French line on the Adige, and Bonaparte for awhile was 
 perplexed as to where the principal attack would be made. He learnt 
 however through a spy that the main body of Alvinzi was moving dowa 
 from the Tyrol along the right bank of the Adige upon Rivoli, where 
 Joubert was posted. On the 13th Bonaparte hurried from Verona with 
 Massena's division to Rivoli, and on the 14th the battle of Rivoli took 
 place. Alvinzi, calculating upon having before him Joubert's corps 
 only, had extended his line with the view of surrounding him. Twice 
 was Kivoli carried by the Austrians, and twice retaken by the French 
 Massena, and afterwards Rey, with his division, coming to Joubert's 
 assistance, carried the day. Alvinzi's scattered divisions were routed 
 in detail with immense loss. Another Austrian division under General 
 Provera had meantime forced the passage of the Adige near Legnago, 
 and arrived outside of Mantua, when Provera attacked the entrench- 
 ments of the besiegers, while Wurrnser made a sortie with part of the 
 garrison. Bonaparte hurried with Massena's division from Rivoli, and 
 arrived just in time to prevent the junction of Provera and Wurrnser. 
 Provera, attacked on all sides, was obliged to surrender with his division 
 of 5000 men, and Wurrnser was driven back into the fortress. Alvinzi, 
 with the remainder of his ariny. was at the same time driven back to 
 
773 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 Belluno at the foot of the Noric Alps. Soon after, Wurmser being 
 reduced to extremities for want of provisions, the garrison having 
 exhausted their last supply of horse-flesh, and being much reduced by 
 disease, offered to capitulate. Bonaparte granted him honourable 
 conditions, and behaved to the old marshal with the considerate regard 
 due to his age and his bravery. 
 
 During these hard-fought campaigns the condition of the unfortunate 
 inhabitants of North Italy, and especially of the Venetian provinces, 
 where the seat of war lay, was miserable in the extreme : both armies 
 treated them as enemies. The Austrian soldiers, especially in their 
 hurried retreats, when discipline became relaxed, plundered and killed 
 those who resisted. The French plundered, violated the women, and 
 committed murder too in the villages and scattered habitations; the 
 towns were laid under a more regular system of plunder by the French 
 commissaries, by requisitions of provisions, clothes, horses and carts, 
 and forced contributions of money. At the same time the greater part 
 of these enormous exactions contributed little to the comforts of the 
 soldiers, but went to enrich, commissaries, purveyors, contractors, and 
 all the predatory crew that follows an invading army. Bonaparte, 
 although he resorted to the system of forced contributions, was indig- 
 nant at the prodigal waste of the resources thus extorted from the 
 natives, while his soldiers were in a state of utter destitution. " Four 
 millions of English goods," he wrote to the Directory in October and 
 November 1796 from Milan, "have been seized at Leghorn, the Duke 
 of Modena has paid two millions more, Ferrara and Bologna have made 
 large payments, and yet the soldiers are without shoes, in want of 
 clothes, the chests without money, the sick in the hospitals sleeping 
 on the ground. . . . The town of Cremona has given 50,000 ells of 
 linen cloth for the hospitals, and the commissaries, agents, &c., have 
 Bold it: they sell everything. One has sold even a chest of bark sent 
 ua from Spain ; others have sold the mattresses furnished for the 
 hospitals. I am continually arresting some of them and sending them 
 before the military courts, but they bribe the judges; it is a complete 
 fair : everything is sold. An employe, charged with having levied for 
 his own profit a contribution of 18,000 franc3 on the town of Salo in 
 the Venetian states, ha3 been condemned only to two months' imprison- 
 ment ;" and he goes on naming the different commissaries, contractors, 
 &c, concluding that, with very few exceptions, "they are all thieves." 
 He recommends the Directory to dismiss them and replace them by 
 more honest men, or at least more discreet ones. " Had I a month's 
 time to attend to these matters, there is hardly one of these fellows 
 but I could have shot; but I am obliged to set off to-morrow for the 
 army, which is a great matter of rejoicing for the thieves, whom I have 
 just had time to notice by casting my eyes on the accounts." The 
 system of plunder however went on during the whole of these and the 
 following campaigns until Bonaparte became First Consul, when he 
 found means to repress in some degree the odious abuse ; still the 
 commissariat continued, even under the empire, to be the worst- 
 administered department of the French armies. 
 
 Bonaparte being now secure from the Austrians in the north turned 
 against the pope, who had refused the heavy terms imposed upon him 
 by the Directory. The papal troops, to the number of about 8000, 
 were posted along the river Senio between Imola and Faenza, but after 
 a short resistance they gave way before the French, who immediately 
 occupied Ancona and the Marches. Bonaparte advanced to Tolentino, 
 where he received deputies from Pius VI., who sued for peace. The 
 conditions dictated were fifteen millions of livres, part in cash, part in 
 diamonds, within one month, and as many again within two months, 
 besides horses, cattle, &c. ; the possession of the town of Ancona till 
 the general peace; and an additional number of paintings, statues, and 
 manuscripts. On these terms the pope was allowed to remain at Rome 
 a little longer. 
 
 Austria had meantime assembled a new army on the frontiers of 
 Italy, and the command was given to the Archduke Charles, who had 
 acquired a military reputation in the campaigns of the Rhine. But 
 this fourth Austrian army no longer consisted of veteran regiments 
 like those that had fought under Beaulieu, Wurmser, and Alvinzi ; it 
 was made up chiefly of recruits joined with the remnants of those 
 troops that had survived the disasters of the former campaigns. 
 Bonaparte, on the contrary, had an army now superior in numbers to 
 that of the Austrians, flushed with success, and reinforced by a 
 corps of 20,000 men from the Rhine under the command of General 
 Bernadotte. 
 
 Bonaparte attacked the archduke on the river Tagliamento, the 
 pass of which he forced ; he then pushed on Massena, who forced 
 the pass of La Ponteba in the Noric Alps, which was badly defended 
 by the Austrian General Ocksay. The archduke made a stout resist- 
 ance at Tarvis, where he fought in person ; but was at last obliged to 
 retire, which he did slowly and in an orderly manner, being now 
 intent only on gaining time to receive reinforcements and to defend 
 the road to Vienna. Bonaparte's object was to advance rapidly upon 
 the capital of Austria and to frighten the emperor into a peace. He 
 was not himself very secure concerning his rear, as he could not 
 trust in the neutrality of Venice which he had himself openly violated. 
 Ue was also informed that an Austrian corps in the Tyrol under 
 General Laudon, after driving back the French opposed to it, had 
 advanced again by the valley of the Adige towards Lombardy. Had 
 this movement been supported by a rising in the Venetian territory, 
 
 Bonaparte's communications with Italy would have been cut off. He 
 therefore, dissembling his anxiety, wrote to the archduke from Kla- 
 genfurth a flattering letter, in which, after calling him the Saviour of 
 Germany, he appealed to his feelings iu favour of humanity at large. 
 To this note the archduke returned a civil answer, saying he had no 
 commission for treating of peace, but that he had written to Vienna 
 to inform the emperor of his (Bonaparte's) overtures. Meantime 
 Bonaparte continued to advance towards Vienna and the archduke to 
 retire before him, without any regular engagement between them. It 
 would appear that the archduke's advice was to draw the enemy 
 farther and farther into the interior of the hereditary states, and then 
 make a bold stand under the walls of Vienna, while fresh troops 
 would have time to come from Hungary and from the Rhine, and the 
 whole population would rise iu the rear of the French army and 
 place Bonaparte in a desperate situation. But there was a party at 
 the court of Vienna anxious for peace. Bonaparte had now arrived 
 at Judenburg in Upper Styria, about eight days' march from Vienna. 
 The citizens of that capital, who had not seen an enemy under their 
 walls for more than a century, were greatly alarmed. The cabinet of 
 Vienna resolved for peace, and Generals Bellegarde and Meerfeldt 
 were sent to Bonaparte's head-quarters to arrange the preliminaries. 
 After a suspension of arms was agreed upon on the 7th April 1797, 
 the negociations began at the village of Leobeo, and the preliminaries 
 of the peace were signed by Bonaparte on the 18th. Of the con- 
 ditions of this convention some articles only were made known at 
 the time, such as the cession by the emperor of the Austrian Nether- 
 lands and of Lombardy. The secret articles were that Austria should 
 have a compensation for the above losses out of the territory of 
 neutral Venice. This is a transaction which has been justly stigma- 
 tised as disgraceful to all parties concerned in it, in spite of the 
 palliation attempted by Bonaparte's advocates, who pretend that the 
 Venetian senate had first violated their neutrality, and that they had 
 organised an insurrection in the rear of the French army while Bona- 
 parte was engaged with the Archduke Charles in Cariuthia. A careful 
 attention to dates is sufficient to refute every attempt to palliate the 
 dishonesty of the French Directory and of Bonaparte in their conduct 
 towards Venice. In 1796 Bonaparte had seized upon the castles of 
 Bergamo, Brescia, Verona, and other fortified places of the Venetian 
 state, he made the country support his army, and meantime he 
 favoured the disaffected against the senate, who at last, assisted by 
 the Lombards and Poles in his army, revolted at Bergamo and Brescia 
 and drove away the Venetian authorities. When the senate armed to 
 put down the insurrection, the French officers stationed on the Vene- 
 tian territory obstructed its measures, and accused it of arming against 
 the French. They dispersed by force the militia who assembled in 
 obedience to the senate. At last the conduct of the French having 
 driven the people of Verona to desperation, a dreadful insurrection 
 broke out in April 1797, which ended by Verona being plundered by 
 the French. Bonaparte now insisted upon a total change in the Vene- 
 tian government, and French troops being surreptitiously introduced 
 into Venice, the Doge and all authorities resigned. 
 
 A provisional government was then formed, but meantime Bona- 
 parte bartered away Venice to Austria, and thus settled the account 
 with both aristocrats and democrats. By the definitive treaty of peace 
 signed at Campoformio near Udine on the 17th October 1797, the 
 emperor ceded to France the Netherlands and the left bank of the 
 Rhine with the city of Mainz ; he acknowledged the independence of 
 the Milanese and Mantuan states under the name of tho Cisalpiue 
 republic : and he consented that the French republic should have the 
 Ionian Islands and the Venetian possessions in Albania. The French 
 republic on its part consented (such was the word) that the emperor 
 should have Venice and its territory as far as the Adige, with Istria 
 and Dalrnatia. The provinces between the Adige and the Adda were 
 to be incorporated with the Cisalpine republic. The emperor was 
 also to have an increase of territory at the expense of the Elector of 
 Bavaria, and the Duke of Modena was to have the Brisgau. 
 
 All this time the democrats of Venice were still thinking of a 
 republic and independence : they had planted, with great solemnity, 
 the tree of liberty in the square of St. Mark, and the French garrison 
 graced the show. At last the time approached when the French were 
 to evacuate Venice. Bonaparte wrote to Villetard, the French secre- 
 tary of legation, a young enthusiastic republican, who had been a 
 main instrument of the Venetian revolution, that all the Venetian 
 democrats who chose to emigrate would find a refuge at Milan, and 
 that the naval and military stores and other objects belonging to the 
 late Venetian government might be sold to make a fund for their 
 support. Villetard communicated this last proposal to the municipal 
 council, but it was at once rejected ; " They had not accepted," they 
 said, " a brief authority for the sake of concurring in the spoliation 
 of their country. They had been too confiding, it was true, but they 
 would not prove themselves guilty also ; " and they gave in their 
 resignation. Villetard, sincere in his principles, wrote a strong letter 
 to Bonaparte, in which he made an affecting picture of the despair of 
 these men, who had trusted in him and now found themselves cruelly 
 deceived. This drew from Bonaparte an answer which has been often 
 quoted for its unfeeling sneering tone. Serrurier was ordered by 
 Bonaparte to complete the sacrifice of Venice. Having emptied the 
 arsenal, aud the stores of biscuit and salt, having sent to sea the shipa 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON L 
 
 7ra 
 
 of war, sunk those that were not fit for sea, and stripped the famous 
 stato barge called Buciutoro of all its ornaments and gold, he departed 
 with the French garrison, and the next day the Austrian entered 
 Venice. The Venetian senator Pesaro came as imperial commissioner 
 to administer the oaths. The late Doge Manin while tendering his 
 oath fell into a swoon, and died soon alter. Thus ended the republic 
 of Venice, after an existence of nearly fourteen centuries. With it 
 the only naval power of Italy became extinct, and Italy lost the only 
 colonies which she still possessed. 
 
 During the several mouths that the negociations for the peace 
 lasted, Bonaparte had time to effect other changes in Italy. He began 
 with Genoa. That republic ever since the time of Andrea Doria had 
 been governed by patricians, but the patrician order was not exclusive 
 as at Venice, and new families were admitted into it from time to 
 time. A club of democrats secretly encouraged by Saliceti, Faipoult, 
 and other agents of the French Directory, conspired against the senate, 
 and effected an insurrection. The lower classes of the people how- 
 ever rose in arms against the democrats, and routed them ; several 
 Frenchmen were also killed in the affray. Bonaparte immediately 
 wrote threatening letters to demand satisfaction, the arrest of several 
 patricians, the liberty of the prisoners, the disarming of the people, 
 and a change in the constitution of the republic. All this was done ; 
 a sum of four millious of livres was paid by the principal nobles to 
 the Directory, the French placed a garrison within Genoa, and a con- 
 stitution modelled upon that then existing in France, with councils of 
 elders and juniors, a Directory, &c., was put in operation. The 
 people of the neighbouring valleys, who did not relish these novelties, 
 revolted, but were put down by the French troops; and many of the 
 prisoners were tried by court-martial and shot. 
 
 The king of Sardinia, by a treaty with the French Directory, 
 remained for the present in possession of Piedmont. Insurrections 
 broke out in several towns of Piedmont, which Bonaparte however 
 openly discountenanced, professing, at the same time, a deep regard 
 for the House of Savoy. His letters to the Marquis of St. Marsan, 
 minister of the king, were made public, and the insurgents having 
 thus lost all hope of support from him, were easily subdued by the 
 king's troops, and many of them were executed. He however thought 
 proper to consolidate the Cisalpine republic, and to give it a constitu- 
 tion after the model of France. The installation of the new 
 authorities took place at Milan on the 9th of July with great solemnity. 
 Bonaparte appointed the members of the legislative committees, of 
 the Director}', the ministers, the magistrates, &c. His choice was 
 generally good; it fell mostly upon men of 6teady character, attached 
 to orderj men of property, men of science, or men who had distin- 
 guished themselves in their respective professions. The republic con- 
 sisted of the Milanese and Mantuan territories, of that part of the 
 Venetian territory situated between the Adda and the Adige, of 
 Modena, Mas-a, and Carrara, and of the papal provinces of Bologna, 
 Ferrara, Ravenna, Faenza, and Rimini, as far as the Rubicon. Tuscany, 
 Parma, Rome and Naples remained under their old princes ; all 
 however, with the exception of Naples, in complete subjection to 
 France. 
 
 In all these important transactions, Bonaparte acted almost as if he 
 were uncontrolled by any authority at home, and often at variance 
 with the suggestions of the French Directory, though he afterwards 
 obtained its sanction to all that he did. He was in fact the umpire of 
 Italy. He at the same time supported the power of the Directory in 
 France by offers of his services, and addresses from his army, and he 
 sent Augereau to Paris, who sided with the Directory in the affair of 
 the 18th Fructidor. Bonaparte however evinced on several occasions 
 but an indifferent opinion of the Directory, calling it a government of 
 lawyers and rhetoricians, unfit to rule over a great nation. He flatly 
 refused, after his first Italian victories, to divide his command with 
 Kellerman ; he strongly censured the policy of the Directory with the 
 Italian powers ; he signed the preliminaries of Leoben, and withdrew 
 his army from the hereditary states, without waiting for the Directory's 
 ratification. He insisted upon concluding peace with the emperor, and 
 threatened to give in his resignation if not allowed to do so ; he made 
 that peace on his own conditions, though some of those were contrary 
 to the wishes expressed by the Directory, and in the end the Directory 
 approved of all he had done. 
 
 After the treaty of Campoformio, Bonaparte was appointed minister 
 plenipotentiary of the French republic at the congress of Rastadt for 
 the settlement of the questions concerning the German empire. He 
 now took leave of Italy and of his fine army, which had become enthu- 
 siastically attached to him. His personal conduct while in Italy had 
 been marked by frugality, regularity, and temperance. There is no 
 evidence of his having shown himself personally fond of money ; he 
 had exacted millions, but it was to satisfy the craving of the Directory, 
 and partly to support his army and to reward his friends. 
 
 On his way to Rastadt, Bonaparte went through Switzerland, where 
 he showed a haughty hostile bearing towards Bern, and the other 
 aristocratic republics of that country. He did not stop long at 
 Rastadt, but proceeded to Paris, where he arrived in December 1797. 
 He was received with the greatest honour by the Directory : splendid 
 public festivals were given to the conqueror of Italy, and writers, 
 poets, and artists vied with each other in celebrating his triumphs. 
 Great as his successes were, flattery contrived to outstrip truth. He 
 
 however appeared distant and reserved. He was appointed general- 
 in-chief of the ' Army of England,' but after a rapid inspection of the 
 French coasts and of the troops stationed near them he returned to 
 Paris. The expedition of Egypt was then secretly contemplated by 
 the Directory. A project concerning that country was found in the 
 archives among the papers of the Duke de Choiseul, minister of 
 Louis XV., and it was revived by the ministers of the Directory. The 
 Directory on their part were not sorry to remove from France a man 
 whose presence in Paris gave them uneasiness; and Bonaparte warmly 
 approved of a plan which opened to his view the prospect of an inde- 
 pendent command, while visions of an eastern empire floated before 
 his miud. He had in his composition something of a vague kind of 
 enthusiasm of the imagination for remote countries and high-sounding 
 names. At the same time he saw there was nothing at present in 
 France to satisfy his excited ambition, for he seems hardly to have 
 thought as yet of the possibility of his attaining supreme power. He 
 was still faithful to the republic, though he foresaw that its govern- 
 ment must uudergo further changes. 
 
 The expedition having been got ready, partly with the treasures 
 that the French seized at Bern in their invasion of Switzerland in 
 March 1798, in which Bonaparte took no active part, Bonaparte 
 repaired to Toulon, whence he sailed on board the admiral's ship 
 'L'Orient' in the night of the 19th of May, while Nelson's blockading 
 fleet had been forced by violent winds to remove from that coast. The 
 destination of the French fleet was kept a profound secret : 30,000 
 men, chiefly from the army of Italy, composed the land force. 
 
 The fleet arrived before Malta on the 9th of June. The Order of 
 St. John of Jerusalem, as it was called, had never acknowledged the 
 French republic, and was therefore considered at war with it. The 
 grand-master Hompesch, a weak old man, made no preparations 
 against an attack ; yet the fortifications of La Valette were such that 
 they might have baffled the whole power of the French fleet and 
 army, even supposing that Bonaparte could have spared time for the 
 siege. But he was extremely anxious to pursue his way to Egypt, 
 expecting every moment to be overtaken by Nelson and the English, 
 fleet, who having received information of his sailing from Toulon were 
 eagerly looking out for him. Every moment was therefore of value 
 to Bonaparte. With his usual boldne.-s, he summoned the grand- 
 master to surrender on the 11th, and the grand-master obeyed the 
 summons. It is well known that there were traitors among the 
 knights in high offices, who forced the grand master to capitulate. As 
 the French general and his staff passed through the triple line of 
 fortifications, General Caffarelli observed to Bonaparte that " it was 
 lucky there was some one within to open the massive gates to them, 
 for had the place been altogether empty they would have found it 
 rather difficult to get into it." After the usual spoliation of the 
 churches, the alberghi, and other establishments of the order, the 
 gold and silver of which were melted into bars and taken on board 
 the French fleet, Bonaparte left a garrison at Malta under General 
 Vaubois, and embarked on the 19th for Egypt. As the French fleet 
 sailed by the island of Candia it passed near the English fleet, which 
 having been at Alexandria, and hearing nothing of the French there, 
 was sailing back towards Syracuse. Denon says the English were 
 seen by some of the French ships on the 26th, but the French were 
 not seen by Nelson's fleet, owing to the hazy weather. On the 29th 
 of June Bonaparte came in sight of Alexandria, and landed a few 
 miles from that city without any opposition. France was at peace 
 with the Porte; its charge" d'affaires (Ruffin) was at Constantinople, and 
 the Turkish ambassador (Ali-Effendi) was at Paris : the Turks of Egypt 
 therefore did not expect the invasion. When they saw the French 
 marching towards Alexandria the garrison shut the gates and prepared 
 for defence. The town however wa3 easily taken; when Bonaparte 
 issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of Egypt, in which he told 
 them that he came as a friend of the Sultan to deliver them from the 
 oppression of the Mamelukes, and that he and his soldiers respected 
 God, the Prophet, and the Koran. On the 7th of July the army 
 moved on towards Cairo. They were much annoyed on the road by 
 parties of Mamelukes and Arabs, who watched for any stragglers that 
 fell out of the ranks, and immediately cut them down, without the 
 French being able to check them, as they had no cavalry. At last, 
 after a harassing march, the French on the 21st arrived in sight of 
 the great pyramids, and saw the whole Mameluke force under Mourad 
 and Ibrahim Beys encamped before them at Embabeh. The Mame- 
 lukes formed a splendid cavalry of about 5000 men, besides the Arab 
 auxiliaries ; but their infantry, composed chiefly of Fellahs, was con- 
 temptible. The Mamelukes had no idea of the resistance of which 
 squares of disciplined infantry are capable. They charged furiously, 
 and for a moment disordered one of the French squares, but succeeded 
 no farther, having no guns to support them. The volleys of musketry 
 and grape shot made fearful havoc among them ; and after losing most 
 of their men in desperate attempts to break the French ranks, the 
 remnants of this brilliant cavalry retreated towards Upper Egypt; 
 others crossed the Nile, and retreated towards Syria. This was called 
 the battle of the Pyramids, in which victory was cheaply bought over 
 a barbarian cavalry unacquainted with European tactics. Bonaparte 
 two days after entered Cairo without resistance, and assembled a divan 
 or council of the principal Turks and Arab sheiks, who were to have 
 the civil administration of the country. He professed a determination 
 
777 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 77H 
 
 to administer equal justice and protection to all classes of people, even 
 to the humblest Fellah — a thing unknown in that country for ages. 
 He established an institute of sciences at Cairo ; and he endeavoured 
 to conciliate the good-will of the Ulemas and of the Imams, and to 
 some extent he succeeded. It is not true however that he or any of 
 his generals, except Menou, made profession of Islamism. The report 
 originated in a desultory conversation he had with some of the sheiks, 
 who hinted at the advantages that might result to him and his army 
 from the adoption of the religion of the country. It was however a 
 wild idea, unsuited both to him and the sort of men he commanded. 
 It would have made him ridiculous in the eyes of his soldiers, and 
 would not probably have conciliated the Moslem natives. While he 
 was engaged in organising the internal affairs of Egypt, the destruction 
 of his fleet by Nelson took place in the roads of Aboukir on the 1st 
 and 2nd of August. He was now shut out from all communication 
 with Europe. The sultan at the same time issued an indignant mani- 
 festo, dated 10th of September, declaring war against France for 
 having invaded one of his provinces, and prepared to send an army 
 for the recovery of Egypt. A popular insurrection broke out at 
 Cairo on the 22nd of September, and the French found scattered in 
 the streets were killed. Many, however, and especially the women and 
 children, were saved in the houses of the better sort of inhabitants. 
 Bonaparte, who was absent, returned quickly with troops ; the insur- 
 gents were killed in the streets, and the survivors took refuge in the 
 Great Mosque, the doors of which they barricaded. Bonaparte ordered 
 them to be forced with cannon. A dreadful massacre ensued within 
 the mosque, even after all resistance had been abandoned ; 5000 
 Moslems were killed on that day. Bonaparte then issued a proclama- 
 tion, in which, imitating the oriental style, he told the Egyptians that 
 he was the man of fate who had been foretold in the Koran, and that 
 any resistance to him was impious as well as unavailing, and that he 
 could call them to account even for their most secret thoughts, as 
 nothing was concealed from him. 
 
 In the month of December Bonaparte went to Suez, where he received 
 deputations from several Arab tribes, as well as from the shereef of 
 Mecca, whom he had propitiated by giving protection to the great 
 caravan of the pilgrims proceeding to that sanctuary. From Suez he 
 crossed, at ebb tide, over the head of the gulf to the Arabian coast, 
 where he received a deputation from the monks of Mount Sinai. On 
 his return to Suez he wa3 overtaken by the rising tide, and was in some 
 danger of being drowned. This he told Las Cases at St. Helena. 
 
 Meantime the Turks were assembling forces in Syria, and Djezzar 
 Pacha of Acre was appointed seraskier or commander. Bonaparte 
 resolved on an expedition to Syria. In February, 1799, he crossed the 
 desert with 10,000 men, took El Arish and Gaza, and on the 7th March 
 he stormed Jaffa, which was bravely defended by several thousand 
 Turks. A summons had been sent to them, but they cut off the head 
 of the messenger. A great number of the garrison were put to the 
 sword, and the town was given up to plunder, the horrors of which 
 Bonaparte himself in his despatches to the Directory acknowledges to 
 have been frightful. Fifteen hundred men of the garrison held out 
 in the fort and other buildings, until at last they surrendered as 
 prisoners. They were then mustered, and the natives of Egypt being 
 separated from the Turks and Arnaout3, the latter were put under a 
 strong guard, but were supplied with provisions, &c. Two days after, 
 on the 9th, this body of prisoners was marched out of Jaffa in the 
 centre of a square battalion commanded by General Bon. They pro- 
 ceeded to the sand-hills south-east of Jaffa, and there being divided 
 into small bodies, they were put to death in masses by volleys of 
 musketry. Those who fell wounded were finished with the bayonet. 
 The bodies were heaped up into the shape of a pyramid, and their 
 bleached bones were still to be seen not many years since. Such was 
 the massacre of Jaffa, which Napoleon at St. Helena sought to justify 
 by saying that these men had formed part of the garrisons of El Arish 
 and Gaza, upon the surrender of which they had been allowed to 
 return home on condition of not serving against the French; — on 
 arriving at Jaffa however, through which they must pass, their country- 
 men retained them to strengthen the defence of that place. It may 
 be safely doubted whether the whole of these men were the identical 
 men of El Arish or Gaza. But however this may be, it is true that 
 the Turks did not at that time observe the rules of war among civilised 
 nations, and therefore, it may be said, were liable to be treated with 
 the extreme rigour of warfare. Still it was an act of cruelty, because 
 done in cold blood and two days after their surrender. The motive 
 of the act however was not wanton cruelty, but policy, in thus getting 
 rid of a body of determined men, who would have embarrassed the 
 French as prisoners, or increased the ranks of their enemies if set at 
 liberty. This is the only apology, if apology it be, for the deed. 
 Another and a worse reason is, the old principle of Bonaparte of 
 striking terror into the country which he was invading. But this 
 system, which succeeded pretty well with the North Italians or the 
 Fellahs of Egypt, failed of its effect when applied to the Turks or the 
 Arabs; it only made them the more desperate, as the defence of Acre 
 soon after proved. The number of the victims, whom Moit states at 
 two or three thousand, was in fact about 1200. 
 
 At Jaffa the French troops began to feel the first attack of the 
 plague, and their hospitals were established in that town. On the 
 11 th the army marched towards Acre, which they reached on the 17th. 
 
 Djezzar Pacha, a cruel but resolute old Turk, had prepared himself 
 for a siege. Sir Sidney Smith, with the 'Tiger' and 'Theseus' English 
 ships of the line, after assisting him in repairing the old fortifications 
 of the place, brought his ships close to the town, which projects into 
 the sea, ready to take part in the defence. The ' Theseus ' intercepted 
 a French flotilla with heavy cannon and ammunition destined for the 
 siege, and the pieces were immediately mounted on the walls and 
 turned against the French. Colonel Philippeaux, an able officer of 
 engineers, who had been Bonaparte's schoolfellow at Paris, and after- 
 wards emigrated, directed the artillery of Acre. Bonaparte was 
 compelled to batter the walls with only 12-pounders : by the 28th of 
 March however he had effected a breach. The French went to the 
 assault, crossed the ditch, and mounted the breach, but were repulsed 
 by the Turks led on by Djezzar himself. The Turks, joined by English 
 sailors and marines, made several sorties, and partly destroyed the 
 French works and mines. Meantime the mountaineers of Nablous and 
 of the countries east of the Jordan, joined by Turks from Damascus, 
 had assembled a large force near Tiberias for the relief of Acre. 
 Bonaparte, leaving part of his forces to guard the trenches, marched 
 against the Syrians, defeated their undisciplined crowds at Nazareth 
 and near Mount Tabor, and completely dispersed them : the fugitives 
 took the road to Damascus. Bonaparte quickly returned to his camp 
 before Acre, when the arrival of several pieces of heavy ordnance from 
 Jaffa enabled him to carry on his operations with redoubled vigour. 
 The month of April was spent in useless attempts to storm the place. 
 Philippeaux died on the 2nd of May, of illness and over-exertion, but 
 was replaced by Colonel Douglas of the marines, assisted by Sir Sidney 
 Smith and the other officers of the squadron. The French, after 
 repeated assaults, made a lodgment in a large tower which commanded 
 the rest of the fortifications, upon which the Turks and the British 
 sailors, armed with pikes, hastened to dislodge them. At this moment 
 the long-expected Turkish fleet arrived with fresh troops, under the 
 command of Hassan Bey, and the regiment Tchiffiik, of the Nizam or 
 regular infantry, was immediately landed. Sir Sidney Smith, without 
 losing time, sent them on a sortie against the French trenches, which 
 the Turks forced, seizing on a battery and spiking the guns. This 
 diversion had the effect of dislodging the French from the tower. 
 After several other attempts Bonaparte ordered an assault on a wide 
 breach which had been effected in the curtain. General Lannes led 
 the column. Djezzar gave orders to let the French come in, and then 
 close upon them man against man, in which sort of combat the Turks 
 were sure to have the advantage. The foremost of the assailants 
 advanced into the garden of the pacha's palace, where they were all 
 cut down ; General Rambaud was killed, and Lannes carried away 
 wounded. On the 20th of May Bonaparte made a last effort, in which 
 General Bon and Colonel Veneux were killed, with most of the storming 
 party. General Caffarelli had died before. The army now began to 
 murmur : seven or eight assaults had been made, the trenches and 
 ditches were filled with the slain, which the fire of the besieged pre- 
 vented them from burying ; and disease, assisted by the heat of the 
 climate, was spreading fast in their camp. After fifty-four days siuce 
 the opening of the trenches, Bonaparte saw himself under the necessity 
 of raising the siege. The people of Mount Lebanon, the Druses, and 
 Mutualis, who were at one time disposed to join him against Djezzar, 
 seeing his failure before Acre, altered their mind, and sent a deputation 
 on board the Turkish and English fleet. At the same time Bonaparte 
 learnt that the great Turkish armament from Rhodes was about to set 
 sail for Egypt : the Mamelukes had also assembled in considerable 
 numbers in Upper Egypt, and were threatening Cairo. Accordingly 
 he resolved to return to Egypt. 
 
 On the 21st of May the French army broke up from before Acre, 
 and began its retreat. In the order of the day which he issued on 
 that occasion, Bonaparte affected to treat with disdain the check he 
 had met with, but he expressed himself very differently to Murat and 
 his other confidants, and we find him, towards the end of his life at 
 St. Helena, reverting to the subject with expressions of disappointment 
 and regret. " Possessed of Acre, the army would have gone to Damas- 
 cus and the Euphrates ; the Christians of Syria, the Druses, the Arme- 
 nians, would have joined us. The provinces of the Ottoman Empire 
 which speak Arabic were ready for a change, they were only waiting 
 for a man. . . . With 100,000 men on the banks of the Euphrates 
 I might have gone to Constantinople or to India ; I might have changed 
 the face of the world. I should have founded an empire in the East, 
 and the destinits of France would have run into a different course." 
 (Bonaparte's conversations in Las Cases.) Whatever may be thought 
 of the chances of ultimate success, there i3 no doubt that Bonaparte, 
 after taking Acre, would have become master of all Syria. But his 
 position, and that of the countries around him, were very different 
 from those of Alexander and the Persians. 
 
 The French army retreated through Jaffa, burning everything 
 behind them, harvest and all. " The whole country is on fire in 
 our rear," is Berthier's laconic expression in his report of that 
 campaign. Before continuing their retreat from Jaffa, Bonaparte 
 ordered the hospitals to be cleared, and all those who could be removed 
 to be forwarded to Egypt by sea. There remained about twenty 
 patients, chiefly suffering from the plague, who were in a desperate 
 condition and could not be removed. To leave them behind would 
 have exposed them to the barbarity of the Turks. Napoleon, some 
 
779 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 say another officer, a:-ked Desgencttes, the chief physician, whether 
 it would not be an act of humanity to administer opium to them. 
 Desgenettes replied that " his business was to cure and not to kill." 
 A rear-guard was then left behind at Jaffa for the protection of these 
 men, which remained there three clays after the departure of the 
 army. When the rear-guard left, all the patients were dead except 
 one or two, who fell into the hands of the English, and they, or some 
 other of the sick who were sent by sea and were also taken, having 
 heard something of the suggestion about the opium, propagated the 
 report that the sick had been really poisoned, which was believed both 
 iu France and in England for many years after. Such is the result of 
 Las Cases' investigation of this business, both from Napoleon himself 
 and from the chief persons who were at Jaffa at the time. 
 
 Bonaparte entered Cairo on the 14th of June. The Syrian cam- 
 paign lasted little more than three months, and it cost the French 
 about 4000 men, who were killed or died of the plague. While Bona- 
 parte was in Syria, Desaix had driven the Mamelukes from Upper 
 Egypt, and beyond the cataracts of Assouan. The French had also 
 occupied Cos«eir. The division of Desaix contained the French savants, 
 and Denon among the rest, who examined the monuments of Thebes, 
 Dendera, Etfou, &0. From their observations the splendid work on 
 Egypt was afterwards compiled. 
 
 Towards the end of July, Bonaparte being informed that the Turkish 
 fleet had landed 18,000 men at Aboukir, under Seid Mustapha Pacha, 
 immediately assembled his army to attack them. He had formed a 
 c avalry, which was commanded by Murat ; the Turks had none. The 
 Turks had entrenched themselves near the sea, and the French attacked 
 their advanced posts and drove them back upon their entrenchments ; 
 but the Turkish guns checked their advance, and threw the foremost 
 of the assailants into disorder. The main body of the Turks then 
 sallied out, but in the eagerness of their pursuit falling into complete 
 disorder, they were charged by the French, both infantry and cavalry, 
 routed, and followed into their entrenchments, where they fell into 
 inextricable confusion. About 10,000 of them perished, either by the 
 bayonet or iu the sea, where they threw themselves iu hopes of regain- 
 ing their ships. The Fca appeared covered with their turbans. Six 
 thousand men received quarter, together with the pacha, whom Bona- 
 parte condescended to praise for the courage he had displayed. This 
 \ictory of Aboukir, fought on the 25th of July 1799, closed Bona- 
 parte's Egyptian campaign. It was after this battle that Bonaparte 
 received intelligence of ihe state of France. He learnt the disasters 
 of the French army, the loss of Italy, the general dissatisfaction pre- 
 vailing iu Fi ance against the Directory, and the intrigues and animo- 
 sities among the directors themselves, and between them and the 
 legislative councils. He determined at once to return to France. He 
 kept it however a secret from the army, and ordered two frigates in 
 the harbour of Alexandria to be got ready for sea, and having ordered 
 his favourite officers, Murat, Lannes, Berthier, Marmont, and also 
 Messrs. Monge, Denon, and Berthollet to meet him at Alexandria, he left 
 Cairo on the 18th of August, and on arriving at Alexandria embarked 
 secretly on board the frigate ' La Muiron' on the 23rd. He took leave 
 of Kleber, whom he left in command, only by letter. He left in Egypt 
 20,000 men, having lost about 9000 in his campaigns. The English 
 fleet had gone to Cyprus to get provisions, and Bonaparte was again 
 fortunate enough to avoid the English cruizers. He is said to have 
 read during the passage both the Bible and the Koran with great 
 assiduity. On the 30th September the two frigates entered the Gulf 
 of Ajaccio ; on the 7th October they sailed again, and passing un- 
 noticed through the English squadron, they anchored on the 9th in 
 the Gulf of Frejus, to the eastward of Toulon. The usual forms of 
 quarantine were dispensed with, and on his landing he was received 
 with applause by the inhabitants of the various towns on his road to 
 Paris, and especially at Lyon, which had suffered so much in the 
 Revolution. People were tired of the Directory, which had shown 
 both incapacity and corruption, and to which they attributed all the 
 late misfortunes of France. On arriving at Paris, Bonaparte found 
 himself courted, as he probably expected, by the various parties. 
 The republicans, with generals Jourdan, Bcrnadotte, Augereau, and a 
 majority in the council of 500, wished to restrain the power of the 
 Directory, to turn out Barras, but to maintain the constitution of the 
 year III. Sieyes, one of the directors, with a majority of the Council 
 of Elders, wished for a new constitution, less democratic, of which 
 he had sketched the outline. Barras strove to maintain the power of 
 the Directory, of which till then he had been the most influential 
 member. But his party was small and in bad odour with the people. 
 Bonaparte decided on joining Sieyes and giving him his military sup- 
 port ; the day for attempting the proposed change in the constitution 
 was fixed between them and their friends. 
 
 The Council of Elders met at six o'clock in the morning of the 18th 
 Brumaire (9th November 1799) at the Tuileries; but several of the 
 leading members of the republican party were not summoned. Cor- 
 nudet, Lebruu, and other members in the interest of Sieyes, spoke of 
 dangers which threatened the Republic, of conspiracies of the Jaco- 
 bins, of a return of the reign of terror, &c. The majority of the 
 council were either in the secret, or were really agitated by fear of 
 the Jacobins. The council adopted a resolution, according to the 
 powers given to it by the constitution, by which the two councils were 
 appointed to meet at St. Cloud the next day, in order to be safer from 
 
 any attempts of the mob of the capital. By another resolution General 
 Bonaparte was appointed commander-iu-chief of the military division 
 of Paris, and charged with protecting the safe removal of the councils. 
 A message signifying this appointment, and summoning him to appear 
 before the elders, was carried to Bonaparte while he was in the midst 
 of his military levee. Ho immediately mounted on horseback, and 
 invited all the officers to follow him. The greater number did so; 
 but Bornadotte and a few more declined the invitation. Bonaparte 
 had been talking privately with Beruadotte, but could not win him. 
 over to his side; ho found him "as stubborn as a bar of iron." 
 (Bouriennc.) Bonaparte having given his orders to the adjutants of 
 the various battalions of the national guards and to the commanding 
 officers of the regular troops which were formed in the Champs Ely- 
 sdes, repaired to the Council of Elders, surrounded by a numerous 
 retinue, among whom were Moreau, Berthier, Lannes, Murat, and Le 
 Fevre, who commanded the National Guards. He told the council 
 that they represented the wisdom of the nation, that by their resolu- 
 tions of that morning they had saved the Republic, that he and his 
 brave companions would support them, and he swore this in his and 
 their names. Coming out of the hall he read to the assembled troops 
 the resolutions of the elders, which were received by the soldiers with 
 bursts of applause. 
 
 Meantime the three directors, Barras, Moulins, and Gohier, who 
 remained at the Luxembourg, after Sieyes and Ducos had gone to the 
 Tuileries and given in their resignation, became alarmed. They had 
 no force at their disposal ; even their own personal guard had deserted 
 them. Barras sent his secretary Bottot to endeavour to ncgociate 
 with Bonaparte. The general received him in public in the midst of 
 his officers, and, assuming the tone of an angry master, upbraided the 
 directors with their misconduct : — " What have you done with that 
 Fr..nce which I left to you prosperous and glorious? I left her at 
 peace, and I find her at war; I left her triumphant, and I find nothing 
 but spoliations and misery. What have you done with a hundred 
 thousand Frenchmen whom I left behind— my companions in arms 
 and in glory ? They are no more." . . He then signified to Bottot 
 iu private his friendly sentiments towards Barras, and assured him of 
 his personal protection if he immediately abdicated. Talleyrand had 
 meantime seen Barras, who, fearing perhaps to expose himself to an 
 investigation of his official conduct, consented to resign. He wrote a 
 letter to the Couucil of Elders to that effect, and then set off for his 
 estate in the country under an escort which Bonaparte gave him. 
 [Barras.] Gohier and Moulins being thus left alone, did not consti- 
 tute the number required by the constitution in order to give to their 
 deliberations the authority of an executive council. Moreau was sent 
 by Bonaparte to guard the palace of the Luxembourg, and in fact to 
 keep the two directors prisoners there. 
 
 The Council of Five Hundred having met at ten o'clock on the same 
 clay, received a message from the Elders, adjourning the sitting to 
 St. Cloud for the next day. They separated amidst cries of " The 
 Republic and the Constitution for ever ! " 
 
 Fouche, the minister of police, Carnbaceres, minister of justice, 
 Talleyrand, and other influential men, seconded the views of Bona- 
 parte and of Sieyes. The power of the Directory was at an end. The 
 question was, what form of government should be substituted for it. 
 It was agreed at last that the council should adjourn themselves to 
 the following year, after appointing a commission for the purpose of 
 framing a new constitution, and that meantime an executive should 
 be formed consisting of three consuls, Sieyes, Ducos, and Bonaparte. 
 These measures it was known would obtain a majority in the Couucil 
 of Elders, but would meet with a determined opposition in that of the 
 Five Hundred. 
 
 On the 19th Brumaire (10th November) the councils assembled at 
 St. Cloud. The republican minority in the Couucil of Elders com- 
 plained loudly of the hasty and irregular convocation of the preceding 
 day. In the midst of the debate Bonaparte appeared at the bar, 
 accompanied by Berthier and his secretary Bourienne, the latter of 
 whom gives an account of the scene. He told the deputies that they 
 were treading upon a volcano, that he and his brethren in arms came 
 to offer their assistance, that his views were disinterested, "and yet," 
 he added, " I am calumniated, I am compared to Cromwell, to Ceesar." 
 This was uttered in a rambling, broken manner. Linglet, one of the 
 minority, said to him, " General, will you swear to the constitution of 
 the year III?" Bonaparte then became animated: "The Constitu- 
 tion ! " he cried out, "you violated it on the 18th Fructidor [Aogereal i, 
 you violated it on the 22nd Floreal, you violated it on the 30th Prairial. 
 All parties by turns have appealed to the Constitution, and all parties 
 by turns have violated it. As we cannot preserve the Constitution, 
 let us at least preserve liberty and equality." He then talked of 
 conspiracies, of danger to the Republic, &c. Several members insisted 
 on the General revealing these conspiracies, explaining these dangers. 
 Bonaparte, after some hesitation, named Moulins and Barras, who he 
 said had proposed to him to take the lead in the conspiracy. This 
 increased the vociferations among the members : " The General must 
 explain himself, every thing must be told before all France." But he 
 had nothing to reveal. He spoke of a party in the Council of Five 
 Hundred which wanted to re-establish the convention and the reign 
 of terror. His sentences became incoherent, he was confused, but at 
 last he said, " If any orator, paid by foreigners, attempts to put me 
 
181 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON L 
 
 782 
 
 out of the pale of the law, let him beware ! I shall appeal to my brave 
 companions, whose caps I perceive at the entrance of this ball." 
 Bonrienne and Berthier advised him now to withdraw, and they came 
 out together, when Bonaparte was received with acclamations by the 
 military assembled before the palace. 
 
 The Council of Five Hundred had also assembled. Its president, 
 Lucien Bonaparte, read aloud the resignation of Barras, which had been 
 forwarded by the Council of Elders. Some of the leaders then proposed 
 to repeat the oath of fidelity to the Constitution, which was carried by 
 acclamation. " No dictator, no new Cromwell ! " resounded through 
 the hall. Augereau, who was present, went out and told Bonaparte 
 what was passing in the council. " You have placed yourself in a 
 pretty situation." — "Augereau," replied Bonaparte, "remember Arcole; 
 things appeared still worse there at one time. Keep quiet, and in half 
 an hour you will see." He then entered the Council of the Five 
 Hundred, accompanied by four grenadiers. The soldiers remained at 
 the entrance, he advanced towards the middle of the hall, uncovered. 
 He was received with loud and indignant vociferations. "We will 
 have no dictator, no soldiers in the sanctuary of the laws. Let him 
 be outlawed! he is a traitor!" Bonaparte attempted to speak, but 
 his voice was drowned in the general clamour. He was confused, and 
 seemed uncertain what to do. Several members crowded around 
 him; a cry of <: Let us save our General!" was heard coming from the 
 door of the hall, and a party of grenadiers rushed in, placed Bonaparte 
 in the midst of them, and brought him out of the hall. One of the 
 grenadiers had his coat torn iu struggling with a deputy ; but the 
 story of the daggers drawn against Bonaparte appears to be unfounded. 
 Lucien, after the departure of his brother, attempted to pacify the 
 council, but the exasperation of the members was too great. A motion 
 was put to outlaw General Bonaparte. Lucieu r. fused to put it to 
 the vote, saying, " I cannot outlaw my own brother," and he deposited 
 the insignia of president, and left the chair. He then asked to be 
 heard in his brother's defence, but he was not listened to. At this 
 moment, a party of grenadiers sent by Napoleon entered the hall. 
 Lucien put himself in the midst of them, and they marched out. He 
 found the military outside already exasperated at the treatment their 
 general had received. Lucien mounted on horseback, and in a loud 
 voice cried out to them, that factious men, armed with daggers, and 
 in the pay of England, had interrupted by violence the deliberations 
 of the Council of Five Hundred, and that he, in his quality of president 
 of that assembly, requested them to employ force against the disturbers. 
 "I proclaim that the assembly of the Five Hundred is dissolved." 
 This address of Lucien decided the business. The soldiers felt no 
 more scruples in obeying the orders of the president. Murat entered 
 the hall of the Council, at the head of a detachment of grenadiers with 
 fixed bayonets. He summoned the deputies to disperse, but was 
 answered by loud vociferations, execrations, and shouts of " The 
 Republic for ever ! " The drums were then ordered to beat, and the 
 soldiers to clear the hall. They levelled their muskets, and advanced 
 to the charge. The deputies now fled, many jumped out of the 
 windows, others went out quietly by the door. Iu a few minutes the 
 hall was entirely cleared. In this affair the military were the instru- 
 ments, and Lucien the chief director. 
 
 On the night of the same day (19th Brumaire) the elders assembled 
 again, and agreed that a provisional executive of three consuls should 
 be appointed. The initiative however belonging to the other council, 
 Lucien assembled a small minority, some say only thirty members, out 
 of Five Hundred, who on that night passed several resolutions, by one 
 of which it was stated that there was no longer a directory. By 
 another, a list of the more ardent republican members was drawn up, 
 who were declared to have forfeited their seats in consequence of their 
 violence and their crimes. By another, three provisional consuls were 
 appointed, Sieyes, Duco3, and Bonaparte. At one o'clock in the 
 morning, Bonaparte took the oath before the council. At three o'clock 
 the two councils adjourned for three months, after appointing a 
 commission to revise the constitution. 
 
 Everything was now quiet at St. Cloud, and Bonaparte returned to 
 Paris with Bourienne. After quieting the anxiety of his wife, he told 
 Bonrienne that he thought he had spoken some nonsense while before 
 the councils. "I had rather speak to soldiers than to lawyers. These 
 fellows really put me out of countenance, I have not the habit of 
 ►peaking before large assemblies. But the habit will come by and 
 by." On the evening of the following day, Bonaparte took up his 
 residence in the Luxembourg, the palace of the ex-directors. 
 
 The fall of the Directorial Government, however irregularly brought 
 about, was certainly not a subject of regret for the great majority of 
 the French people, who had neither respect for it nor any confidence 
 ia it. The profligacy and dishonesty of that government were 
 notorious. 
 
 At the first sitting of the three consuls Sieyes having said something 
 about a president, Ducos immediately replied, " The General takes the 
 chair of course." Bonaparte then began to state his views on the 
 various branches of the administration and on the policy to be pursued 
 by the government, and supported them iu a firm authoritative tone. 
 Ducos of course assented, and from that moment Sieyes perceived 
 that his own influence was at an end : he told his friends that they 
 had given themselves a master, and that Bonaparte could and would 
 manage everything himself and in his own way. The threo consuls, 
 
 in conjunction with the commission appointed by the councils, framed 
 anew constitution, which was called the constitution of the year VIII. 
 The outline, with regard to the legislative power, was taken from a 
 plan of Sieyes. It consisted of three consuls, of a senate called con- 
 servative, and composed of eighty members appointed for life and 
 enjoying a considerable salary, of a legislative body of 300 members, 
 one-fifth of whom was to be renewed every year, and of a tribunate 
 of 100 members, one-fifth to be renewed every year. The consuls, or 
 rather the first or chief consul (for the other two were appointed by 
 him and acted only as his advisers and assistants, but could not oppose 
 his decisions), proposed the laws, the tribunate discussed them in 
 public, and either approved of or rejected them ; if it approved, it 
 made a report accordingly to the legislative body, which voted by 
 ballot on the project of law without discussing it. If the proposed 
 law obtained a majority of votes, the senate registered it, aud the 
 consuls, iu their quality of executive, promulgated it. The sittings of 
 the senate were secret ; those of the legislative body were dumb ; the 
 tribunate was therefore the only deliberative assembly in the state, 
 but it had not the power of originating laws ; it could however 
 denounce the measures of the government by an address to the senate. 
 The members of the tribunate were appointed by the senate out of 
 lists of candidates made out by the electoral colleges. The senate 
 filled its own vacancies from a triple list of candidates, — one proposed 
 by the chief consul, one by the tribunate, and one by the legislative 
 body. As for the legislative body, the members were selected by the 
 senate out of lists of candidates furnished by the electoral colleges of 
 the departments. The people therefore had no direct election of their 
 representatives. This was the essential anomaly of Sieyes' plan of a 
 constitution styled republican. The three consuls were appointed for 
 ten years and re-eligible, the first or chief one having the power of 
 appointing to all public offices, aud of proposing all public measures, 
 such as war or peace : he commanded the forces of every description, 
 superintended both the internal and foreign departments of the state, 
 &c. The granting of these vast powers met with some opposition iu 
 the commission, but Bonaparte sternly overcame them by declaring 
 that if they attempted to weaken the power of the executive, he 
 would have nothing more to do in the business, that he was already 
 first consul, and hinted that a civil war might be the result of further 
 opposition. The commission accordingly yielded to his views. In 
 fact, most men were tired of revolutions, and they felt the necessity of 
 a strong executive in order to re-establish order and internal security. 
 
 Bonaparte being thus appointed, or rather confirmed, in his office 
 of first consul or chief magistrate, had the right of naming the other 
 two : he offered Sieyes one of the places, but Sieyes declined the offer. 
 He accepted the place of senator, with the yearly salary of 25,000 
 francs, and the domain of Crosne, in the park of Versailles, belonging 
 to the state. Bonaparte appointed Cambaceres and Lebruu second 
 and third consuls. They, together with Sieyes and Ducos, late 
 consuls, appointed the majority of the members of the senate, who 
 themselves appointed the remainder. The senate next named the 
 100 tribunes aud the 300 members of the legislative body, and thus 
 the whole legislature was filled up at once under the plea of urgency, 
 as there was no time to wait for the lists of candidates to be named 
 by the departments. (' Constitution of the Year VIII.,' in Appendix 
 to Gourgaud's 'Memoirs of Napoleon.') The constitution was sub- 
 mitted to the acceptation of the people in every commune, and 
 registers were opened for the purpose at the offices of the various 
 local authorities; 3,012,569 votes were registered, out of which num- 
 ber 15G2 rejected and 3,011,007 accepted the new constitution, which 
 was then solemnly proclaimed on the 24th of December 1799. Bona- 
 parte did not altogether approve of Sieyes' constitution, although he 
 had greatly modified it by strengthening the executive to a vast 
 extent. " Napoleon," thus he spoke afterwards of himself at St. 
 Hehna, " wa3 convinced that France could only exist as a monarchy; 
 but the French people being more desirous of equality than of liberty, 
 and the very principle of the revolution being established iu the 
 equalisation of all classes, there was of necessity a complete abolition 
 
 of the aristocracy The ideas of Napoleon were fixed, but 
 
 the aid of time and events were necessary for their realisation. The 
 organisation of the consulate presented nothing in contradiction to 
 them ; it taught unanimity, and that was the first step. This point 
 gained, Napoleon was quite indifferent as to the forms aud denomi- 
 nations of the several constituted bodies ; he was a stranger to the 
 revolution ; it was natural that the will of those men who had 
 followed it through all its phases should prevail in questions as diffi- 
 cult as they were abstract. The wisest plan was to go on from day 
 to day without deviating from one fixed point, the polar star by which 
 Napoleon meant to guide the revolution to the haven he desired." 
 (' Memoirs of Napoleon,' dictated to Gourgaud, vol. i.) The above 
 sentences furnish a clue to Bonaparte's subsequent policy with regard 
 to the internal administration of France. Towards the end of January 
 1S00, Bonaparte moved from the palace of the Luxembourg to the 
 Tuileries. Of his public entrance into that royal residence amidst 
 the acclamations of the multitude Madame de Stael has given a 
 striking account. 
 
 The finances were left by the Directory in a wretched state: the 
 treasury was empty : forced loans arbitrarily assessed had been till 
 then the chief resource of the government. Gaudin, the new minister 
 
7S3 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON £ 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 appointed by Bonaparte, repealed the odious system, for which he 
 substituted 25 per cent, additional upon all contributions direct or 
 indirect. Confidence being thus restored, the merchants and bankers 
 of Paris supplied a loan of twelve millions, the taxes were paid with- 
 out difficult}', the sales of national domains were resumed, and money 
 was no longer wanting for the expenses of the state. Cambaccres 
 continued to be minister of justice. The tyrannical law of hostages, 
 by which nearly 200,000 Frenchmen were placed out of the pale of 
 the law because they happened to be relatives of emigrants or of 
 Vendeans, and were made answerable for the offences of the latter, 
 was repealed. About 20,000 priests who had bien banished or 
 imprisoned were allowed to return, or were set at liberty on taking 
 the oath of fidelity to the established government. All persons 
 arrested on mere suspicion, or for their opinions, were set free. 
 " Opinions," said Bonaparte, " are not amenable to the law ; the right of 
 the sovereign extends only to the exaction of obedience to the laws." 
 
 The subordinate situations under government were filled with men 
 from all parties, chosen for their fitness. " We are creating a new era,' 
 said Bonaparte ; " of the past we must remember only the good, and 
 forget the evil. Times, habits of business and experience, have formed 
 many able men and modified many characters." Agreeably to this 
 principle, Fouehe" was retained as minister of police. Berthier was 
 made minister at war instead of Dubois Cranee-, the minister of the 
 Directory, who could give no returns of the different corps, and who 
 answered all questions by saying — "We neither pay, nor victual, nor 
 clothe the army ; it subsists and clothes itself by requisitions on the 
 inhabitants." 
 
 The churches which had been closed by the Convention were re- 
 opened, and Christian worship was allowed to be performed all over 
 France. The Sabbath was again iccognised as a day of rest, the law 
 of the Decades was repealed, and the computation by weeks resumed. 
 The festival of the 21st January, being the anniversary of the death 
 of Louis XVI., was discontinued. The oath of hatred to royalty was 
 suppressed as useless, now that the republic was firmly established 
 and acknowledged by all, and as being an obstacle to the good under- 
 standing between France and the other powers. At the same time the 
 sentence of transportation passed on the 19th Brumaire, on fifty -nine 
 members of the former Council of Five Hundred, was changed into 
 their remaining at a distance from Paris, under the surveillance of 
 the police. 
 
 France was still at war with Austria, England, and the Porte. 
 Bonaparte sent Duroc on a mission to Berlin, by which he confirmed 
 Prussia in its neutrality. The Emperor Paul of Russia had with- 
 drawn from the confederation after the battle of Zurich, September 
 25th, 1799, in which Massena gained a victory over the Russian army. 
 Bonaparte now wrote a letter to the King of England, expressing a 
 wish for peace between the two nations. Lord Grenville, secretary of 
 state for foreign affairs, returned an evasive answer, expressing doubts 
 ;;s to the stability of the present government of France, an uncertainty 
 which would affect the security of the negociatious; " but disclaiming 
 at the same time any claim to prescribe to France what shall be the 
 form of her government, or in whose hands she shall vest the autho- 
 rity necessary for conducting the affairs of a great and powerful 
 nation. His Majesty looks only to the security of his own dominions 
 and those of his allies, and to the general safety of Europe. When- 
 ever he shall judge that such security can in aDy manner bs attained, 
 His Majesty will eagerly embrace the opportunity to concert with his 
 allies the means of immediate and general pacification." This cor- 
 respondence was the subject of animated debates in the British 
 parliament. (' Parliamentary Register for the year 1800.') 
 
 Bonaparte had made the overture in compliance with the general 
 wish for peace, but he says himself that he was not sorry it was 
 rejected, and " that the answer from London filled him with secret 
 satisfaction, as war was necessary to maintain energy and union in 
 the state, which was ill organised, as well as his own influence over 
 the imaginations of the j eople." (Montholon, ' Memoirs of Napoleon,' 
 vol. i. note on Pitt's policy.) Bonaparte at the same time succeeded 
 in putting an end to the civil war in La Vendee ; he entered into 
 negociations with the principal Vendeau chiefs, offering a complete 
 amnesty for the past, and at the same time he sent troops to La Ven- 
 de'e to put down any further resistance. The royalist party had gained 
 considerable strength ; owing to the weak and immoral policy of the , 
 Directory, many officers of the republic, both civil and military, had 1 
 entered into correspondence with it, because, as they confessed to 
 Bonaparte, they preferred anything to anarehy and the return of the 
 reign of terror. But the temperate and yet firm policy of the first 
 consul effected a great alteration in public opinion. The Vendeans 
 themselves were affected by it. The principal of them, Chatillon, 
 D'Autichamp, the Abbe Bernier, Bourmont, and others, made their 
 peace with the government by the treaty of Montlucon in January 
 1800. Georges capitulated to General Brune, and the Vendean war 
 was at an end. 
 
 Bonaparte now turned all his attention to the war against Austria. 
 He gave to Moreau the command of the army of the Rhine, and himself 
 assumed the direction of that of Italy. Massena was shut up in Genoa, 
 and the Austrians under General Melas occupied Piedmont and the 
 Genoese territory as far as the French frontiers. Bonaparte made a I 
 demonstration of assenibV-g an army of reserve at Dijon in Burgundy, \ 
 
 which was composed of a few thousand men, chiefly conscripts or old 
 invalids. The Austrians, lulled into security, continued their operations 
 against Genoa and towards Nice, while Bonaparte Becretly directed a 
 number of regiments from the interior of France to assemble in Switzer- 
 land on the banks of the Lak* of Geneva. He himself repaired to 
 Lausanne on the 13th of May, and marched, with about 36,000 men 
 and 40 pieces of cannon, up the Great St. Bernard, which had till then 
 been considered impracticable for the passage of an army, and especially 
 for artillery. The cannons were dismounted, put into hollow trunks 
 of trees, and dragged by the soldiers; the carriages were taken to 
 pieces, and carried on mules. The French army descended to Aosta, 
 turned the fort of Bard, and found itself in the plains of Lombardy, 
 in the rear of Melas's Austrian army, which was south of the Po, and 
 intercepting its communications with the Austrian states. Bonaparte 
 entered Milan on the 2nd of June without meeting with any opposition, 
 and was there joined by other divisions which had passed by tho Simplon 
 and the St. Gothard. He now marched to meet Melas, who had hastily 
 assembled his army near Alessandria. Pas-ing the Po at Piacenza, he 
 drove back Melas's advanced guard at Casteggio near Voghera, and 
 took a position in the plain of Marengo, on the right bank of the river 
 Bormida, in front of Alessandria. On the 14th of June Melas crossed 
 the Bormida in three columns, and attacked the French. The Austrians 
 carried the village of Marengo, and drove the French back upon that 
 of San Giuliano, which was attacked by a column of 5000 Hungarian 
 grenadiers. At four o'clock in the afternoon the battle seemed lost to 
 the French, who were retiring on all points and in considerable disorder, 
 when Desaix arriving with a fresh division attacked the advancing 
 column, while the younger Kellcrman with a body of heavy horse 
 charged it in flank. The column was broken, and General Zach, the 
 Austrian second in command, and his staff, were taken prisoners. Tho 
 commander-in-chief, Melas, an old and gallant officer, exhausted with 
 fatigue, and thinking the battle won, had just left the field and returned 
 to Alessandria. The other French divisions now advanced in their 
 turn ; a panic spread among the Austrians, who, after fighting hard 
 all day, had thought themselves sure of victory, and they fled in con- 
 fusion towards the Bormida, many being trampled down by their own 
 cavalry, which partook of the general disorder. The Austrian official 
 report stated their loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners at 9009 men 
 and 1433 horses. The French stated their own loss at 4000 only, and 
 that of the Austrians at 1 2,000. But the los3 of the French must have 
 been greater. Desaix was shot through the breaBt in the charge ; he 
 fell from his horse, and, telling those around him not to say anything 
 to his men, he expired. He and Kellerman turned the fate of the 
 battle. An armistice was concluded on the 16th of June between the 
 two armies, by which Melas was allowed to withdraw his troops to the 
 line of Mantua and the Mincio, the French keeping Lombardy as far 
 as the river Oglio. Melas, on his side, gave up Piedmont and the 
 Genoese territory, with all their fortresses, including Genoa and 
 Alessandria, to the French. 
 
 Bonaparte having established provisional governments at Milan, 
 Turin, and Genoa, returned to Paris, where he arrived on the 3rd of 
 July, and was received with the greatest enthusiasm. The battle of 
 Marengo had wonderfully consolidated his power, and increased his 
 influence on the opinion of the French. Negociations for peace took 
 place between Austria and France ; Austria however refused to treat 
 without England, aud Bonaparte demanded an armistice by sea as a 
 preliminary to the negociations with England. Malta and Egypt were 
 then on the point of surrendering to the English, and Bonaparte wished 
 to send reinforcements to those countries during the naval armistice. 
 This was refused by England, and hostilities were resumed by sea and 
 by laud. Moreau defeated the Austrians commanded by the Archduke 
 John in the great battle of Hohenlinden, and advanced towards Vienna. 
 The French in Italy drove the Austrians beyond the Adige aud the 
 Brenta. (For all this war of 1800 see ' Precis des Evenemens Militaires,' 
 by Mathieu Dumas.) 
 
 Austria was now obliged to make a separate peace. The treaty of 
 Luueville, 9th February 1801, arranged by the two plenipotentiaries, 
 Count Cobentzel and Joseph Bonaparte, was mainly grounded on that 
 of Campoformio. Austria retained the Venetian territories, but 
 Tuscany was taken away from the grand-duke Ferdinand, and 
 bestowed upon Louis, son of the Duke of Parma, who had married 
 a princess of Spain. Through the mediation of the Emperor Paul of 
 Russia, with whom Bonaparte was now on very friendly terms, the 
 King of Naples also obtained peace. The new pope, Pius VII., was 
 likewise acknowledged by Bonaparte, and left in full possession of his 
 territories, except the legations which had been annexed to the 
 Cisalpine republic. In the course of the same year negociations were 
 begun with England, where Mr. Addington had succeeded Mr. Pitt as 
 prime minister. Egypt and Malta having surrendered to the English, 
 the chief obstacles to peace were removed. The preliminaries of 
 peace were signed at Paris on the 10th of October 1801, aud the 
 definitive treaty was signed at Amiens, 27th of March 1802. The 
 principal conditions were, that Malta should be restored to the Knights 
 of St. John, and the forts be occupied by a Neapolitan garrison. The 
 independence of the Cisalpine, Batavian, Helvetic, aud Ligurian 
 republics was guaranteed. Egypt was restored to the sultan, the 
 Cape of Good Hope to Holland, and the French West India Island* 
 to France. England retained the island of Ceylon. 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON L 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 rat; 
 
 Bonaparte bad shown at this period an earnest desire for peace, 
 which France stood greatly in need of. Both royalists and republicans 
 were dissatisfied with his dictatorship. Joseph Arena, a Corsican, and 
 brother of Bartolomeo Arena of the Council of Five Hundred, who 
 bad warmly opposed Bonaparte on the 19th Brumaire, Ceracchi and 
 Diana, Italian refugees, and several other violent republicans, formed 
 a conspiracy agaiust Bonaparte's life ; but they were discovered and 
 imprisoned. Soon after a fresh conspiracy of the royalists— some say 
 of the royalists and Jacobins united — was near terminating the life of 
 the first consul. As Bonaparte was passing in his carriage through the 
 Kue-Nicaise on his way to the opera, 24th of December 1800, a tremen- 
 dous explosion of several barrels of gunpowder in a waggon, that was 
 drawn up on one side of the street, destroyed several houses and 
 killed many persons. Bonaparte's carriage bad just passed, owing to 
 the furious driving of the coachman, who was half intoxicated, and 
 who made his way through all obstacles that had been purposely 
 placed on the road. The police discovered the conspirators, who were 
 fanatical royalists connected with the Chouans in the west of France. 
 They were tried and executed. At the same time Arena and his 
 republican friends, who had been already found guilty, although, it 
 was said, upon evidence not quite conclusive, were brought out of 
 their confinement and executed. By a Senatus Consultum, for such 
 the decrees of the Senate were styled, 130 known leaders of the old 
 Jacobin party, several of whom had participated in the atrocities of 
 the reign of terror, were ordered to be transported beyond the seas. 
 Bonaparte expressed his determination to put down both Jacobins and 
 Bourbonists. A law passed the Legislative Body empowering the 
 executive to banish from Paris, and even from France, persons who 
 bhould express opinions inimical to the present government. By 
 another law, which passed the Tribunate by a majority of only eight, 
 and was afterwards sanctioned by the legislative body, special criminal 
 courts were established to try all persons accused of treason against 
 the 6tate. The secret police was now organised with the utmost skill 
 by Fouche\ and numerous informers from all classes were taken into 
 its pay. Besides the general police there was a military police, and 
 another police establishment under Bonaparte himself, in his own 
 household. 
 
 In April 1801 a general amnesty was granted to all emigrants who 
 chose to return to France and take the oath of fidelity to the govern- 
 ment within a certain period. From this amnesty about 500 were 
 excepted, including those who had been at the head of armed bodies 
 of royalists, those who belonged to the household of the Bourbon 
 princes, those French officers who had been guilty of treason, and 
 those who had held rank in foreign armies against France. The pro- 
 perty of the returned emigrants which had not been sold was restored 
 to them. Another conciliatory measure was the concordat concluded 
 between Joseph Booaparte aud Cardinal Cousalvi, which was signed 
 by Pius VII. in September 1801. The pope made several concessions 
 seldom if ever granted by bis predecessors. He suppressed many 
 bishoprics, he sanctioned the sale of church property which had taken 
 place, he superseded all bishops who had refused the oath to the 
 republic, and he agreed that the first consul should appoint the bishops, 
 subject to the approbation of the pontiff, who was to bestow upon them 
 the canonical institution. The bishops, in concert with the govern- 
 ment, were to make a new distribution of the parishes of their respec- 
 tive dioceses, and the incumbents appointed by them were to be 
 approved by the civil authorities. The bishops, as well ;is the incum- 
 bents, were to take the oath of fidelity to the government, with the 
 clause of revealing any plots they might hear of agaiust the state. 
 With these conditions it was proclaimed, on the part of the French 
 government, that the Catholic religion was that of the majority of 
 Frenchmen ; that its worship should be free, public, and protected by 
 the authorities, but under such regulations as the civil power should 
 think proper to prescribe for the sake of public tranquillity ; that its 
 clergy should be provided for by the state ; that the cathedrals and 
 parish churches should be re-tored to them. The total abolition of 
 convents was also confirmed. This concordat was not agreed to by the 
 pope without some scruples, nor without much opposition from several 
 of the theologians and canonists of the court of Rome. (' Compendio 
 Storico su Pio VII.,' Milan, 1824 ; and also Botta, 'Storia d'ltalia del 
 1789 al 1814.') On Easter Sunday 1802 the concordat was published 
 at Paris, together with a decree of regulations upon matters of dis- 
 cipline, which were so worded as to make them appear part of the 
 t' xt of the original concordat. The regulations were that no bull, 
 brief, or decision from Rome should be acknowledged in France with- 
 out the previous approbation of the government; no nuncio or apos- 
 tolic commissioner to appear in France, and no council to be held 
 without a similar consent ; appeak against abuses of discipline to be 
 laid before the council of state ; professors of seminaries to subscribe 
 to the four articles of the Gallican Church of 1682 : no priest to be 
 ordained unless he be twenty-five years of age, and have an income 
 of at least 300 francs ; and lastly, that the grand vicars of the respec- 
 tive dioceses should exercise the episcopal authority after the demise 
 of the bishop, and until the election of his successor, instead of vicars 
 elected ad hoc by the respective chapters, as prescribed by the Council 
 •"[Trent. This last article grieved most the court of Rome, as it 
 affected tha »piritual jurisdiction of the church. The pope made 
 remonstrances, to which Bonaparte turned a deaf ear. Regulations 
 
 BiOo. Dry. voi, t 
 
 concerning the discipline of the Protestant Churches in France were 
 issued at the same time with those concerning the Catholic Church. 
 The Protestant ministers were also paid by the state. 
 
 On the occasion of the solemn promulgation of the concordat in 
 the cathedral of Notre Dame, the Archbishop of Aix officiated, and 
 Bonaparte attended in full state. The old generals of the republic 
 had been invited by Berthier in the morning to attend the levee of 
 the first consul, who took them unawares with him to Notre Dame. 
 Bonaparte said at St. Helena that he never repented having signed the 
 concordat : that it was a great political measure ; that it gave him 
 influence over the pope, and through him over a great part of the 
 world, and especially over Italy, and that he might one day have 
 ended by directing the pope's councils altogether. " Had there been 
 no pope," he added, " one ought to have been made for the occasion." 
 (Gourgaud and Las Cases. See also a copy of the Concordat in the 
 Appendix to Montholon's 'Memoirs,' vol. i.) 
 
 Bonaparte established an order of knighthood both for military 
 men and civilians, which he called the Legion of Honour. This 
 measure met with considerable opposition in the tribunate. At the 
 first renewal of one-fifth of the members of that body, the senate 
 contrived to eject the most decided members of the opposition. 
 
 In January 1802 Bonaparte convoked together at Lyon the members 
 of the provisional government of the Cisalpine republic, together with 
 deputations of the bishops, of the courts of justice, of the universities 
 and academies, of the several towns and departments, and the national 
 guards, of the regular army, and of the chambers of commerce. The 
 number of deputies amounted to about 500, out of whom a commis- 
 sion of thirty members was selected, which made a report to the first 
 consul of France on the actual state of the Cisalpine republic. The 
 report stated that, owing to the heterogeneous parts of which that 
 republic was composed, there was a want of confidence among them ; 
 that the republic was in a state of infancy, which required for some 
 time to come the tutelary support of France ; and it ended by request- 
 ing that the first consul would assume the chief direction of its affairs. 
 Bonaparte then repaired to the ball of the deputies, and delivered a 
 speech which was an echo of the report : he agreed with all its con- 
 clusions, and confirmed them in more positive language. He told 
 them that " they should still be protected by the strong arm of the 
 first nation in Europe, and that as he found no one among them who 
 had sufficient claims to the chief magistracy, he was willing to assume 
 the direction of their affairs, with the title of President of the Italian 
 Republic, and to retain it as long as circumstances should require it." 
 The new constitution of the Italian republic was then proclaimed : 
 three electoral colleges — 1, of proprietors; 2, of the learned; 3, of 
 the merchants — represented the nation, and appointed the members 
 of the legislature and the judges of the upper courts. The legislative 
 body of seventy -five members voted without discussion on the pro- 
 jects of law presented to it by the executive. There were two coun- 
 cils, under the names of Consulta of State and Legislative Council, 
 which examined the projects of law proposed by the pi-esident, the 
 treaties with foreign states, &c. The principal difference between this 
 constitution and that of France was in the composition of the electoral 
 colleges, they being selected in Italy by classes, and in France by com- 
 munes and departments, without distinction of classes ; and also that 
 in Italy there was no tribunate to discuss the projects of law proposed 
 by the executive. Bonaparte appointed Melzi d'Eril as vice-president 
 to reside at Milan in his absence. This choice was generally approved ■ 
 of. Bonaparte gave also a new constitution to the Ligurian or Genoese 
 republic, similar to that of the Italian republic : he did not assume 
 the chief magistracy himself, but placed a native doge at the head of 
 the state. On August the 2nd 1802 Bonaparte was proclaimed consul 
 for life by a decree of the senate, which was sanctioned by the votes 
 of the people in the departments to the number of three millions and 
 a half. A few days after, another Senatus Consultum appeared, alter- 
 ing the formation of the electoral bodies, reducing the tribunate to 
 fifty members, aud paving the way in fact for absolute power. 
 
 Switzerland was at this time distracted by civil war. The French 
 troops had evacuated the country after the peace of Amiens, but the 
 spirit of dissension among the different cantons remained. Bonaparte 
 called to Paris deputations from every part of Switzerland, and after 
 listening to their various claims, he told them he would mediate 
 among them : he rejected the schemes of unity and uniformity, saying, 
 that nature itself had made Switzerland for a federal country ; that 
 the old forest cantons, the democracies of the Alps, being the cradle 
 of Helvetic liberty, still formed the chief claim of Switzerland to the 
 sympathies of Europe. "Destroy those free primitive commonwealths, 
 the monument of five centuries," he added, " and you destroy your 
 historical associations, you become a mere common people, liable to 
 be swamped in the whirlpool of European politics." The new Helvetic 
 federation was formed of nineteen cantons on the principle of equal 
 rights between towns and country, the respective constitutions varying 
 however according to localities. The general Diets of the confederation 
 were re-established. The neutrality of Switzerland was recognised; no 
 foreign troops were to touch its territory; but the Swiss were to 
 maintain a body of 10,000 men in the service of France, as they 
 formerly did under the old monarchy. Bonaparte assumed the title 
 of Mediator of the Helvetic League. He retained however Geneva and 
 the bishopric of Basel, which had been seized by the Directory, and 
 
 3 ■ 
 
 i 
 
7s 7 
 
 he separated the Valais, which he afterwards aggregated to France. 
 To the end of his reign Bonaparte respected the boundaries of 
 Switzerland, as settled by the act of mediation ; that and little San 
 Marino were the only Republics in Europe whose independence he 
 maintained. 
 
 Bonaparte had directed a commission of lawyers of the first eminence 
 under the presidency of Cambacores to frame or digest a code of civil 
 laws for France. He himself frequently attended their meetings, and 
 took great interest in the discussions. The result of their labours was 
 the Civil Code, which has continued ever since to be the law of France. 
 It was styled 1 Code civil des Francais,' and it was accompanied by a 
 Code de procedure. A Code penal, accompanied likewise by a Code 
 d'instruction critninelle, a commercial code, and a military code, were 
 afterwards compiled and promulgated under Bonaparte's administra- 
 tion. Of these several codes, which are very different in their respective 
 merits, and are often confusedly designated by the name of Code 
 Napoleon, the Civil Code is considered by far the best, and constitutes 
 perhaps the most useful bequest of Bonaparte's reign. 
 
 The various branches of public instruction also attracted Bonaparte's 
 attention, though in very unequal proportions. The task of providing 
 elementary education was thrown upon the communes, but the com- 
 munes being mostly very poor, tho establishment of primary schools 
 met with many difficulties, and elementary education remained in a 
 languishing and precarious state during the whole of Napoleon's reign. 
 Several reports delivered by the councillor of state, Fourcroy, to the 
 legislative body under the consulate and the empire, show the wretched 
 state of primary and secondary instruction throughout France. The 
 secondary instruction was chiefly given in private establishments. 
 Fourcroy stated the number of pupils under ten years of ago in the 
 primary and secondary schools at only 75,000, and this in a popula- 
 tion of 32,000,000. Classical and literary instruction was afforded by 
 the lyceums to about 4000 pupils, whose expenses were defrayed by 
 the State, besides boarders kept at the charge of their parents. The 
 discipline of these establishments was altogether military. Latin, 
 mathematics, and military manoeuvres were the chief objects of in- 
 struction at the lyceums. Scientific education was given in the 
 special schools in the chief towus of France, such as the schools of 
 law and of medicine, the college of France, and the Polytechnic School 
 at Paris, the Military School at Fontainebleau, the School of Artillery 
 and Engineers at Mainz, that of bridges and highways, or civil engi- 
 neers, the schools for the mines, &c. Speculative, philosophical, or 
 political studies met with little encouragement under Bonaparte's 
 administration. He sneered at all such studies as ideology, and 
 censured them as an idle and dangerous occupation. 
 
 The provincial administration of France was now organised upon 
 one uniform plaD, and was made entirely dependent on the . central 
 power or executive. Each department had a prefect, who had the 
 chief civil authority ; he was generally a stranger to the department, 
 received a large salary, and was removed or dismissed at the will of 
 Bonaparte. The mayors of the towns of 5000 inhabitants and upwards 
 were appointed by Bonaparte; those of the communes under 5000 
 inhabitants, as well as all the members of the municipal councils, were 
 appointed by the respective prefects. Thus all remains of municipal 
 or communal liberty and popular election were quietly abrogated in 
 France. The power possessed in fact by Napoleon was much greater 
 than that of the kings of the old monarchy, as his prefects were not 
 men distinguished by rank and fortune and connections, as the former 
 governors and lieutenant-generals ; they owed their whole power to 
 their immediate commissions ; they had no personal influence on 
 opinion, and no force except the impulse they received from the chief 
 of the state. 
 
 After the peace with England, Bonaparte sent a fleet and an army 
 under his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, to St. Domingo, to reduce 
 the blacks, who had revolted. A dreadful war ensued, which was 
 marked by atrocities on both sides, and ended in the destruction of 
 the French force, and the total emancipation of the blacks. At the 
 same time he re-established the slavery of the blacks in Guadaloupe 
 and Martinique, and authorised afresh the slave trade. By a treaty 
 with Spain, that country gave up Louisiana to France, which France 
 shortly afterwards sold to the United States for fifteen millions of 
 dollars. By another treaty with Portugal, France acquired Portu- 
 guese Guiana. In Italy, France took possession of the duchy of 
 Parma, at the death of the duke Ferdinand, in October 1802. She 
 likewise took possession of the island of Elba, by an agreement with 
 Naples and Tuscany. The annexation of Piedmont to France next 
 filled up the measure of alarm of the other powers at Bonaparte's 
 encroachments. Since the victory of Marengo, Piedmont had been 
 provisionally occupied by the French, and Bonaparte had given out 
 hopes that he would restore it to the old king, for whom Paul of 
 Russia evinced a personal interest. He was then still at war with 
 England, and he had formed a scheme of an offensive alliance with 
 Russia at the expense of Turkey, with a view to march a combined 
 army to India. The violent death of Paul having put an end to this 
 scheme, he immediately procured a decree of the senate constituting 
 Piedmont into a military division of the French empire, under a 
 council of administration, with General Menou at the head. Still the 
 ultimate fate of Piedmont remained in suspense, as it was understood 
 that the emperor Alexander interested himself for the king of Sardinia, 
 
 But after the assumption of the presidency of tho Italian republic, 
 and the annexation of Parma and Elba, and other stretches of power 
 on the side of Holland and the Rhine, at which Alexander openly 
 expressed his displeasure, Bonaparte having no further reason to 
 humour him, a Senatus Consultum appeared in September 1802, 
 definitively incorporating Piedmont with the French republic, and 
 dividing it into six departments, Po, Dora, Sesia, Stura, Marengo, and 
 Tanaro. England on her side refused to deliver up Malta, as a Nea- 
 politan garrison would have been a poor security against a sudden 
 visit of the French. Lord Whitworth had a long and stormy con- j 
 ference with Bonaparte at the Tuileries on this Bubject. The English 
 minister having represented to him that the state of things which the 
 treaty of Amiens had contemplated was completely altered by his 
 enormous accession of power in Italy, Bonaparte peremptorily rejected 
 England's claim to interfere in his arrangements concerning other 
 states; he insisted upon Malta being delivered up to some neutral 
 power; and at the same time did not even disguise his further views 
 upon Egypt. Ho complained of the attacks of the English press 
 upon him, talked of conspiracies hatched in England against him, 
 which he assumed that the English government was privy to, although 
 Charles Fox himself, who was in opposition to the English minister of 
 the day, had once during his visit to Paris told him with honest 
 bluutness to drive that nonsense out of his head; he complained that 
 every wind that blew from England was fraught with mischief for 
 him ; and at last, after an hour and a half of almost incessant talking, 
 he dismissed the English minister to prepare for the renewal of hosti- 
 lities. (See the instructions given by Bonaparte in his own hand- 
 writing to Talleyrand concerning the manner in which he was to 
 receive Lord Whitworth at the last conference between them, in No. 
 IV. Appendix to Sir W. Scott's ' Life of Napoleon.' See also in the 
 ' Mdmoires sur le Consulat ' by Thibaudeau, the real opinion of Bona- 
 parte concerning the peace of Amiens, expressed by him confidentially 
 soon after the ratification : — " It was but a truce ; his government 
 stood in need of fresh victories to consolidate itself; it must be either 
 the first government in Europe, or it must fall.") On the 25th of 
 March 1803, a Senatus Consultum placed at the disposal of the first 
 consul 120,000 conscripts. England on her side was making active 
 preparations. On the 18th of May England declared war against 
 France, and laid an embargo upon all French vessels in her ports. In 
 retaliation for this, a decree of the 22i;d of May ordered that all the 
 English of whatever condition found on the territory of France should : 
 be detained as prisoners of war, under pretence that many of them 
 belougcd to the militia. General Mortier was sent to occupy the 
 Electorate of Hanover belonging to the king of Great Britain. 
 
 In the following September a decree of the consuls, " in order,'' as , 
 it stated, " to secure the liberty of the press," forbade any bookseller 
 to publish any work until he had submitted a copy of it to the com- 
 mission of revision. Journals had already been placed under still 
 greater restrictions. 
 
 In February 1804, the police discovered that a number of emigrants 
 and Vendeans were concealed at Paris ; that General Pichegru, who, 
 after his escape from Guiana, had openly espoused the cause of the 
 Bourbons, was with them, and that he had had some interviews with 
 General Moreau. Georges Cadoudal, the Chouan chief, who had once 
 before submitted to the first consul, was likewise lurking about Paris. 
 Pichegru, Moreau, and Georges were arrested. The real purpose of 
 the conspirators has never been clearly known. Georges, it seems, 
 proposed to take away the life of the first consul, but it was not 
 proved that the rest assented to this. (Bourienne.) It was also 
 reported to Bonaparte that the young Due d'Enghien, son of the 
 Duke of Bourbon, and grandson of the Prince of Condel, who was 
 living at Ettenheim in the grand-duchy of Baden, was in correspon- 
 dence with some of the Paris conspirators, and that he was to enter 
 France as soon as the intended insurrection should break out. Bona- 
 parte, worried with reports of plots and conspiracies against him, 
 gave orders to arrest the duke, although on a neutral territory. On 
 the 14th of March a party of gendarmes from Strasbourg crossed the 
 Rhine, entered the Baden territory, surrounded the chateau of Etten- 
 heim, seized the duke and his attendants, and took him to the citadel 
 of Strasbourg. On the morning of the 18th the duke was put into a 
 carriage, and taken under an escort to the castle of Vincennes, near 
 Paris, where he arrived in the evening of the 20th. A military court 
 of seven members was ordered by the first consul to assemble at 
 Vincennes that very night. The members were appointed by General 
 Murat, commandant of Paris. General Hulin was president. The 
 captain rapporteur, D'Autancourt, interrogated the duke. The charges 
 laid before the court against the prisoner were : that he had borne 
 arms against the French republic; that he had offered his services to 
 the English government ; that he was at the head of a party of emi- 
 grants assembled near the frontiers of France, and had treasonable 
 correspondence with the neighbouring departments ; and lastly, that 
 he was an accomplice in the conspiracy formed at Paris against the 
 life of the first consul. This last charge tbe duke indignantly denied, 
 and there is not the least evidence that he was implicated in it, nor 
 that he had corresponded with either Pichegru or Georges. (Bourienne.) 
 He was however found guilty of all the charges. The duke expressed 
 a desire to have an interview with the first consul. This however 
 was overruled by Savary, who was present at the trial, though not ont 
 
780 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 790 
 
 of the members, aud who abruptly told the court that it was inexpe- 
 dient to grant the prisoner's request. The duke was sentenced, by 
 the same court, to death for crimes of espionage, of correspondence 
 with the enemies of the republic, and of attempts against the safety, 
 iaterual and external, of the state. Savary had orders from Bona- 
 parte to see the sentence carried into execution, which was done that 
 very night, or rather early iu the morning of the 21st of March. The 
 duke asked for a priest, which was refused ; he then knelt down, and 
 prayed for a minute or two, after which he was led down by torch- 
 light to a postern-gate, which opened into the castle ditch, where a 
 party of gendarmes was drawn up, and a grave had been dug. _ It 
 was dawu. Savary from the parapet gave the signal for firing. 
 The duke fell dead, and was immediately buried in the dress he 
 had on, without any funeral ceremony. (Savary's 4 Memoirs,' and 
 General Hulin's pamphlet in extenuation of his share in the transac- 
 tion.) It is remarkable that Murat, afterwards King of Naples, when 
 himself under sentence of death, told Captain Stratti, who guarded 
 him, " I took no part iu the tragedy of the Due d'Enghien, and I swear 
 this before that God into whose presence I am soon to appear." 
 (Colletta, ' Storia del Reame di Napoli.') In fact, Murat, as governor 
 of Paris, merely appointed the members of the court-martial according 
 to the orders he received. It is not true that the duke wrote a letter 
 to Bonaparte which was not delivered to him, as Bonaparte himself 
 seems to have believed. (Las Cases and Bourienne.) The apology 
 which Bonaparte made at St. Helena for this judicial murder, was, 
 that he believed the duke was privy to the conspiracy against his 
 life, and that he was obliged to strike terror among the royalists, and 
 put an end to their plots by showing that he was not a man to be 
 trifled with. Joseph Bonaparte in his ' Memoires,' vol. i. published in 
 1853, asserts that "the Due d'Enghien had been executed before the 
 report of his sentence had been communicated to the emperor," but 
 that he assumed the responsibility of the event, lest his denial of it 
 should lay him open to the suspicion of being afraid to avow it. But 
 it is scarcely necessary to say that this statement is contradicted in 
 every part by contemporary evidence. 
 
 On the 6th of April Pichegru was found dead in his prison. About 
 the same time, Captain Wright of the English navy, who, having been 
 employed in landing Pichegru and the other emigrants in Brittany, 
 was afterwards captured by the French, and brought to Paris for the 
 purpose of being examined concerning the conspiracy, was likewise 
 reported to have been found dead. The death of these two men is 
 still involved in mystery. Bonaparte has positively denied any know- 
 ledge of Captain Wright's death, and has asserted his belief that Pichegru 
 really strangled himself, as it was reported. Yet, even freely admitting 
 the sincerity of bis statements, one may suspect that the agents of his 
 police, screened as they were from all public responsibility, might, in 
 their eagerness to serve their master, or rather themselves, have 
 resorted to foul means to get rid of these men when they could not 
 extract from them confessions that would suit their purpose. In 
 Wright's case there might have been special reasons for concealment. 
 Some dark rumours were circulated about Captain Wright having been 
 put to excruciating torture, and it is very possible that Bonaparte 
 himself did not know at that time all the secrets of his prison-houses. 
 There is a remarkable passage in Bourienne, who, when he was French 
 agent at Hamburg, kidnapped a spy, a really bad character, and sent 
 him to Paris, " where," he says, " Fouchc no doubt took good care of 
 him." These are ominous words. 
 
 The trial of Moreau, Georges, and the others, did not take place for 
 Beveral months after Pichegru's death. Meantime a motion was made 
 in the Tribunate, by one Guide, to bestow upon Napoleon Bonaparte 
 the title of Emperor of the French, with the hereditary succession in 
 his family. Carnot alone spoke against the motion, which however 
 was passed by a great majority on the 3rd of May. The resolution of 
 the Tribunate was then carried to the Senate, where it was unanimously 
 agreed to. It was then submitted to the votes of the people in the 
 departments. Above three millions of the registered votes were 
 favourable, and between three and four thousand contrary. But even 
 before the votes were collected, Napoleon assumed the title of emperor 
 at St. Cloud on the 18th of May 1801. On the 19th he issued a decree 
 appointing eighteen of his first generals marshals of the French empire. 
 Deputations with congratulatory addresses soon began to pour in from 
 the departments, and the clergy followed in the wake. 
 
 In the month of June the trial of Moreau, Georges, and the others 
 concerned in the conspiracy, took place before a special court. A 
 decree of the senate had previously suspended for two years the 
 functions of the jury in cases of attempts against the person of 
 Napoleon Bonaparte. Twenty of the accused, with Georges at their 
 head, were condemned to death; Moreau, with four more, to two 
 years' imprisonment ; and the rest were acquitted, but the police seized 
 them on coming out of court, and replaced them in prison, at the 
 command of the emperor. Riviere, Polignac, and some others who 
 nad been condemned to death, were reprieved by Napoleon through 
 the entreaties of his wife aud sisters. Georges and some of his more 
 stubborn friends were executed. Moreau had his sentence of imprison- 
 ment exchanged for perpetual banishment, and sailed for the United 
 States. 
 
 Napoleon requested the pope to perform the ceremony of his coro- 
 nation. After consulting with his cardinals, Pius VII. determined to 
 
 comply with his wish, and came to Paris at the end of November 1804. 
 The coronation took place in the church of Notre Dame on the 2nd of 
 December. The crown having been blessed by the pope, Napoleon 
 took it himself from the altar aud placed it on his head, after which 
 he crowned his wife as empress. The heralds then proclaimed the 
 accession " of the high and mighty Napoleon I., emperor of the French," 
 &c. &c. 
 
 The Italian republic was soon after transformed into a kingdom. A 
 deputation of the consulta or senate proceeded to Paris in March 1805, 
 humbly requesting Napoleon to accept the ancient iron crown, the 
 crown of Italy, with the condition that the two crowns of France and 
 Italy should remain united only on Napoleon's head, and that he should 
 appoint a separate successor to the Italian kingdom. On the 26th of 
 May the ceremony was performed in the cathedral of Milan by the 
 archbishop of that city. Napoleon seized the iron crown of the old 
 Longobard kings and placed it on his brow, saying, " God has given 
 it to me ; woe to him who shall attempt to lay hands on it." He 
 appointed his step-son, Eugene Beauharnais, his viceroy of the kingdom 
 of Italy. On the 7th of J une Napoleon opened in person the session 
 of the Italian legislative body. About the same time the Doge of 
 Genoa, Durazzo, repaired to Milan with a deputation of senators, and 
 expressed a wish on the part of the Genoese to be united to the French 
 empire. A decree of Napoleon, 9th of June, united Genoa to France. 
 Soou after the republic of Lucca was transformed into a principality, 
 and given to Elisa, Napoleon's sister, and her husband Baciocchi, to be 
 holden as a fief of the French empire. Thus two more Italian republics 
 disappeared : San Marino alone remained. 
 
 In the preceding year (1804) Napoleon had assembled a large force 
 on the shores of the British channel, with a flotilla at Boulogne, and 
 had given it the name of ' the army of England.' The invasion of 
 England and the plunder of London were confidently talked of among 
 his soldiers. After his return from Milan he gave a new impulse to 
 the preparations for the projected invasion, and spoke of it publicly 
 as an attempt resolved upon. His real intentions however have been 
 a matter of much doubt and controversy. Bourienne, who was then 
 still near Bonaparte's person, positively states that he did not enter- 
 tain any serious view of landing in England ; that he was fully aware 
 of the difficulty and risk of such an undertaking ; that even had he 
 succeeded in landing 100,000 men, which was no easy matter, he might 
 have lost one-half or two-thirds in taking possession of London ; and 
 then, had the English nation persevered, he, not having the superiority 
 at sea, could not have obtained reinforcements, &c. Bonaparte at St. 
 Helena spoke differently. He said he had taken all his measures ; he 
 had dispersed his ships all over the sea ; and while the English were 
 sailing after them to different parts of the world, his ships were to 
 return suddenly and at the same time ; he would have had seventy or 
 eighty French and Spanish ships in the channel, with which he could 
 have remained master of the narrow seas for two months ; three or 
 four thousand boats and 100,000 men were ready at a signal. The 
 enterprise was popular with the French, and was supported, Napoleon 
 said, by the wishes of a great number of English. One pitched battle 
 after landing, the result of which could not be doubtful, and in four 
 days he would have been in London, as the nature of the country does 
 not admit of a war of manoeuvres ; his army should have preserved the 
 strictest discipline ; he would have presented himself to the English 
 people with the magical words of liberty and equality, and as having 
 come to restore to them their rights and liberties, &c. (Las Cases, 
 vol. i., part ii.) It must be observed that all this declamation applies 
 to his preparations towards the end of 1803 and the beginning of 1804, 
 when he was still first consul, and preserved a show of respect for 
 the liberties of the people. To O'Meara he spoke in a rather different 
 strain. Luckily, perhaps for all parties, the trial was not made. While 
 his army was assembled near Boulogne, a new storm burst on the side 
 of Germany. 
 
 Austria had remonstrated against the never-ending encroachments 
 of Napoleon in Italy. The Emperor of Russia and Gustavus, king of 
 Sweden, protested against the violation of the German territory on the 
 occasion of the seizure of the Due d'Enghien ; the ' Moniteur ' answered 
 them by taunts and jibes against the two sovereigns. By the treaty of 
 Luneville the Italian, Batavian, and Ligurian republics were acknow- 
 ledged as independent states; but Napoleon had now seized the crown 
 of Italy, had annexed Liguria to France, and both Holland and Hanover 
 were occupied by his troops. Both Russia and Austi'ia complained, 
 but their complaints remained unheeded. A new coalition was formed 
 in the summer of 1805 between England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden. 
 Prussia was urged to join it ; she hesitated, increased her armies, but 
 remained neutral, looking forward to the events of the war. Austria, 
 without waiting for the arrival of the Russians, who were assembling 
 on the frontiers of Gallicia, marched an army into the electorate of 
 Bavaria ; and on the elector refusing to join the coalition, they entered 
 Munich. General Mack, who had given sufficient proofs of incapacity 
 in the field while commanding the Neapolitans in 1798, was by soma 
 strange influence placed at the head of the great Austrian army. The 
 Archduke Charles commanded the Austrian forces on the side of Italy. 
 Napoleon directed his army of England to march quickly to the Rhine; 
 other troops from Holland, Hanover, and the interior of France, were 
 ordered to march to the same quarter. He appointed Masseua to 
 command the army in Italy. 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 702 
 
 On the 23rd of September 1805 Bonaparte went in state to the 
 senate, where he delivered a speech in his peculiar style of oratory on 
 the occasion of the war. By constantly throwing all the blame of the 
 war upon the English, by continually representing them as a sort of 
 jicarnation of the evil principle ever iutent on the ruin of France, 
 Bonaparte succeeded, in a country where great ignorance prevailed 
 on political subjects, and where the press was sure not to con- 
 tradict him, to create that spirit of bitter aud deep animosity against 
 England which continued to exist long after his death. It is curious 
 to read the 'Mouiteur' of those times, and to see the extravagant 
 assertions and charges against England with which its columns are 
 filled. (' Recueil de decrets, ordonnances, traitds de paix, manifestes, 
 proclamations, discours, &c, de Napoleon Bonaparte et des membres 
 du Qouveruement Francais depuis le 18 brumaire an 8 [Novembre 
 1790], jusqu' a l'annde 1812 inclusivement, extraits du Mouiteur,' 
 4 vols. 8vo, 1813, a very useful book of reference.) In one instance 
 tho English were gravely accused of having thrown bales of infected 
 cotton on the coast of France in 1804, in order to introduce the 
 plague into that country; and the 'Mouiteur' (the official journal) 
 added, " the English cannot conquer us by the sword, they assail us 
 with the plngue;" and strange to say, this absurd story was revived in 
 the ' Memoirs of Marshal Ney,' published at Paris in 1832. 
 
 Napoleon repaired to Mainz, where he took the command of the 
 grand army, a name which was afterwards always applied to the army 
 while he commanded in person. He also began in this campaigu to 
 issue regular bulletins of the events of the war. Coloured as these 
 documeuts generally are (Bourienne, in his account of the Egyptian 
 war, shows the process by which Napoleon used to frame them), they 
 still constitute a series of important historical papers. 
 
 We cannot enter into the details of the campaign of 1805, and we 
 must refer our readers to the professional statements of military men 
 of both sides who were in it, such as Stutterheim'a ' Campaign of 
 Austerlitz;' 'Rapp's 'Memoirs,' &c. Suffice it to say that General 
 Mack allowed himself to be surrounded at Uliu, and then surrendered, 
 on the 17th of October, without fightiug, with more than 20,000 men, 
 all his staff, artillery, &c. The other Austrian divisions being now 
 scattered about could make no effectual resistance, and the French 
 entered Vienna on the 13th of November. The Russian army had by 
 this time assembled in Moravia, under the Emperor Alexander in 
 person. Being joined by some Austrian divisions it amounted to about 
 80,000 men. Napoleon told his soldiers that they were now going to 
 meet a new enemy, "who had been brought from the ends of tho 
 world by the gold of England." Alluding to the high character borne 
 by the Russian infantry, he added : — " This contest is of much import- 
 ance to the honour of the French infantry. The question must be 
 now finally settled whether the French infantry be the first or the 
 second iu Europe." The crcat battle of Austerlitz was fought on the 
 2nd of December, 1805. The two armies were nearly equal in number. 
 The Russians, confident of success, extended their line too much. 
 Bonaparte broke through it and separated their divisions, which, after 
 a stout resistance, especially on the part of the Russian Guards, were 
 routed in detail. The loss of the allies was tremendous; thousands 
 were drowned in the frozen lakes in the rear of their position. The 
 Emperor of Austria had an interview with Napoleon the day after, and 
 an armistice was concluded, by which the remaining Russian troops 
 were allowed to retire to their own country. Peace between Austria 
 and France was signed at Presburg on the 26th of December. Austria 
 gave up the Venetian provinces and Dalmatia to the kingdom of 
 Italy, Tyrol to the elector of Bavaria, and other districts, besides a 
 contribution of one hundred millions of francs. This war, which was 
 to have checked the preponderance of Napoleon in Italy, left that 
 country entirely at his disposal, and established his influence over a 
 great part of Germany, where, having raised the electors of Bavaria 
 and Wuvtemberg to the rank of kings, he placed himself at the head 
 of all the smaller states, which he formed into the confederation of 
 the Rhine under his protection. The old German empire was thus 
 dissolved. Soon after, the Emperor Francis formally renounced his 
 title of Emperor of Germany, and assumed the title of Francis I., 
 emperor of Austria and of his other hereditary states. 
 
 It must be observed that the position of Napoleon after the battle 
 of Austerlitz iu the heart of Moravia, the winter having set in, and 
 he far from the frontiers of France and from his reinforcements and 
 supplies, the Russians, who were expecting reinforcements, in his front, 
 Prussia wavering on his flank, Bohemia untouched, the Archduke 
 Charles and the Hungarian insurrection in his rear, was extremely 
 critical, had he chosen to protract the war. This of course induced 
 him to grant Austria better terms than what she appeared to have a 
 right to, on a mere superficial view of the condition of the two powers. 
 The Austrian empire was not overthrown because Vienna was in the 
 power of the invader. But Napoleon calculated on the habits and 
 r the fears of the Emperor Francis, and on his affection for the citizens 
 of Vienna; and he was not mistaken on this occasion. 
 
 The King of Naples, breaking his recent treaty with France, had 
 allowed a Russian and English army to land in his dominions, where 
 they remained useless during the great struggle that was going forward 
 in Germany. Napoleon sent an army to Naples in February 1806; 
 and King Ferdinand took refuge in Sicily. A decree of Napoleon, 
 March 1806, appointed his brother Joseph king of Naples and of Sicily. 
 
 On the 6th of June following he appointed by another decree his 
 brother Louis king of Holland, thus transforming by a stroke of the 
 pen the Batavian republic into a kingdom dependent on France. His 
 brother-in-law, Murat, was made grand-duke of Berg. 
 
 During his victorious progress in Germany, Napoleon received the 
 news of the total destruction of the French aud Spanish fleets by 
 Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar, on the 21st of October 1805. His 
 peevish remark on the occasion is said to have been — " I cannot be 
 everywhere; " and he threw all the blame on his unfortunate admiral, 
 Villeneuve, who soon after killed himself. From this time Napoleon 
 renounced his plaus of invading England, and he applied himself to 
 destroy all English trade and correspondence with the continent. 
 Charles Fox, who had succeeded Pitt as minister, was known to be 
 favourable to peace. Negociations accordingly were entered into by 
 Napoleon, on the basis of the ' uti possidetis.' Lord Yarmouth, and 
 afterwards Lord Lauderdale, were the English negociators. Napoleon 
 however required that Sicily should be given up to Joseph Bonaparte. 
 But Sicily had never been conquered by the French, it had been 
 throughout the war the ally of England, and, owing to that alliance, 
 its sovereign had lost his continental dominions of Naples. To have 
 bartered away Sicily to France would have been, on the part of 
 England, an act of bad faith equal to if not worse than the former 
 barter of Venice by the French. The English minister refused, and 
 Fox dying soon after, the negociations broke off. 
 
 The conduct of Prussia had been one of tergiversation. Napoleon 
 knew that she had felt the wish, without having the resolution, to 
 strike a blow while ho was engaged in Moravia against the Russians. 
 To keep her in good humour ho had given Hanover up to her, which 
 Prussia, though at peace with the King of England, scrupled not to 
 accept. She moreover shut her ports against British vessels. Bona- 
 parte, after having settled his affairs with Austria, altered hi3 tone 
 towards Prussia. The 'Moniteur' began to talk of Prussia as a 
 secondary power, which assumed a tone that its extent and position 
 did not warrant. In his negociations with Lord Lauderdale, Napoleon 
 had offered to restore Hanover to the King of England. The con- 
 federation of the Rhine extended round a great part of the Prussian 
 frontiers. The Prussian minister at Paris, Von Knobelsdorf, in a note 
 which he delivered to Talleyrand on the 1st of October, 1806, said 
 truly, " that the king his master saw around his territories none but 
 French soldiers or vassals of France, ready to march at her beck." 
 The noto demanded that the French troops should evacuate the 
 territory of Germany. Napoleon answered in a tone of sneer and 
 defiance, saying that "to provoke the enmity of France was as sense- 
 less a course as to pretend to withstand the waves of the ocean." 
 The King of Prussia issued a long manifesto from his head-quarters at 
 Erfurt on the 9th of October 1806, in which he recapitulated the 
 long series of Napoleon's encroachments, which all the world was 
 acquainted with, but which the King of Prussia seemed now to dis- 
 cover for the first time. Napoleon was speedily in the field; he 
 attacked the Prussians first, and this time he had on his side a large 
 superiority of numbers, added to his superiority of tactics. The 
 double battle of Auerstadt and Jena (16th of October) decided the 
 campaign. The Prussian troops fought bravely, but their generals 
 committed the same error as the Austrian generals had committed 
 before, of extending too much their line of operations. The conse- 
 quences of the Prussian defeat were most disastrous. Most of their 
 divisions were surrounded and obliged to lay down their arms. 
 Almost all their strong fortresses — Magdeburg, Spaudau, Kustrin, 
 Stettin, Hameln, surrendered without firing a shot. The work of the 
 great Frederic's whole life crumbled to pieces in a few weeks. Bliicher 
 and Lestocq were the only officers who kept some regiments together, 
 with which they made a gallant stand in the northern provinces. 
 
 Bonaparte entered Berlin on the 21st of October. He dispatched 
 Mortier to occupy Hamburg, and seize all English property there. 
 On the 21st of November 1806, Napoleon issued his well-known Berlin 
 decree against British commerce. '' The British islands were to be 
 considered as in a state of blockade by all the continent. All corres- 
 pondence or trade with England was forbidden under most severe 
 penalties. All articles of English manufacture or produce of the 
 British colonies were considered as contraband. Property of every 
 kind belonging to British subjects, wherever found, was declared 
 lawful prize. All letters to and from England to be detained and 
 opened at the post-offices." The English government retaliated by its 
 orders in council, 11th of November 1807. 
 
 Meantime the King of Prussia had fled to Kbnigsberg, and the 
 Russian armies advanced to the Vistula : the French occupied Warsaw. 
 French agents had previously penetrated into Russian Poland, and 
 had spread a report that Kosciusko was at Napoleon's head-quarters. 
 Napoleon had invited Kosciusko, who was then living in Switzerland, 
 to come, but that single-minded patriot, mistrusting the views of the 
 conqueror, declined the invitation. 
 
 Napoleon received at his head-quarters at Posen numerous addresses 
 from various parts of Poland, entreating him to restore that country 
 to its independence. His answers were cold and cautious. He began 
 his winter campaign against the Russians by the battle of Pultusk 
 (28th of December), in which the French experiencing a severe check 
 retired towards the Vistula. The month of January 1807 passed 
 without any engagements, but on the 8th of February the great battle 
 
703 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 791 
 
 of Eylau was fought between the two grand armies. General Bening- 
 sen commanded the Russians. The French made repeated and furious 
 attacks on the Russian infantry, which stood like walls of brass, and 
 the assailants were at last obliged to desist. The battle lasted till 
 near ten o'clock at night. The loss on both sides was dreadful ; it 
 has never been correctly ascertained, but has been roughly estimated 
 at 50,000 men. After the battle Napoleon withdrew again to the line 
 of the Vistula, and Beningsen retired towards Konigsberg. There 
 was no more lighting between the two armies for more than three 
 months after. The French meantime besieged Danzig, which was 
 defended by the Prussian General Kalkreut, and surrendered at the 
 eml of May 1807. Napoleon having now reinforced his army to 
 200,000 men, advanced again towards the Russians. On the 13th of 
 June the battle of Friedland took place, in which, after an obstinate 
 struggle, the Russians were at last worsted, and driven beyond the 
 river Aller. They did not lose however either cannon or baggage, and 
 they effected their retreat upon Tilsit near the Russian frontiers. 
 
 As Bonaparte and Alexander both wished for peace, an armistice 
 was made, and a personal interview took place between the two 
 emperors on a raft in the middle of the river Niemen on the 25th of 
 June. The two sovereigns after this took up their residence in the 
 town of Tilsit, where the treaty of peace was finally signed. The 
 King of Prussia was restored to about one-half of his former terri- 
 tories, as far as the Elbe. The duchy of Warsaw was given to the 
 Elector of Saxony, who was made a king, and beeame the faithful 
 ally of Napoleon. The principal Prussian fortresses and sea-port 
 towns were to remain in the hands of the French till the general 
 peace. Russia made no sacrifices ; on the contrary, she obtained a part 
 cf Prussian Poland. But there were secret articles to the treaty, by 
 which France allowed Russia to take Finland from Sweden, and 
 Russia, on her part, promised to close her ports against British vessels. 
 On the 9th of July Napoleon left Tilsit to return to Paris, where he 
 received the usual tribute of servile addresses and fulsome flattery. 
 On the 19th of August a Senatus Consultum suppressed the Tribunate, 
 the only remains of a national deliberative body in France. It had 
 been previously reduced to one-half of its original number. Three 
 committees of administration, of legislation, and of finances, taken 
 from the legislative body, discussed the projects of law in lieu of the 
 Tribunate. 
 
 Having stripped the elector of Hesse Cassel of his dominions, under 
 the plea that he had not joined him in the war against Prussia, as well 
 as the Duke of Brunswick of his, on the ground that the duke had 
 joined Prussia against him, Napoleon created out of these and other 
 districts the kingdom of Westphalia, 18th of August, and gave it to 
 his brother Jerome, who took up his residence at Cassel. Soon after, 
 the prince regent of Portugal having refused to enforce the Berlin 
 decree against England, Napoleon sent Junot with 30,000 men across 
 Spain to take possession of Portugal. At the same time he published 
 in the ' Moniteur ' that " the house of Braganza had ceased to reign in 
 Europe." Junot entered Lisbon without opposition, November 30th, 
 1807, the prince regent and his court having just before embarked for 
 Brazil. In December of the same year, Napoleon having gone to 
 Milan, sent for the queen of Etruria and her son, and signified to her 
 that she must resign Tuscany, which was immediately occupied by 
 French troops; and in the following June (1808) Tuscany was formally 
 annexed, not to the kingdom of Italy, but to the French empire, of 
 which it formed three new departments. The queen was promised a 
 compensation in Portugal, which she never obtained. On the 17th of 
 December 1807, Napoleon issued from Milan a decree by which all 
 merchant vessels which should submit to the British orders in council 
 were declared to be lawful prizes by the French. lathe following year 
 (1808) a number of American vessels were seized and confiscated in 
 the French and Italian ports. The pope was next to feel Napoleon's 
 displeasure. The French troops had for some time occupied Ancona 
 and Civita Vecchia, in order to keep away the English and the 
 Russians ; but Napoleon now insisted on the pope declaring war 
 against England. The pope answered that he was a sovereign of 
 peace, and could not declare war against any Christian power. 
 Napoleon said that as the successor of Charlemagne he was emperor 
 of the west, king of Italy, and suzerain of the pope; that the English 
 were heretics, and therefore enemies of the Holy See ; and that the 
 donation of Charlemagne had been made to defend the holy church 
 against it3 enemies : that if the pope did not comply with his wishes 
 he, Napoleon, would take back Charlemagne's grant. We cannot go 
 further here into the long and vexatious correspondence and con- 
 troversy between Napoleon and the court of Rome, which were carried 
 on for several years, and which form an interesting episode in the 
 general history of those times. (' Compendio Storico sii Pio VII.,' 
 Milano, 1824 ; Botta, ' Storia d'ltalia ; ' Coppi, ' Annali d'ltalia,' and 
 'Memorie Storiche del Cardinal Pacca.') By a decree of the 2nd of 
 April 1808, Napoleon annexed the Marches or Adriatic provinces of 
 the Roman state to his kingdom of Italy. There were other points of 
 dispute between the pope and Napoleon on matters concerning the 
 Concordat with the kingdom of Italy. (See a mild and well-written 
 letter of the viceroy, Eugene Beauharnois, to Pius VII. on this subject 
 in the ' Amministrazione del Regno d'ltalia.') About the same time 
 (February 1808) a French force under General Miollis entered Rome, 
 occupied the Castle St. Angclo, aud began to do military duty in that 
 
 city. The general took the papal troops under his own command. 
 The pope remained in his palace with the mere shadow of a civil 
 power, which he had no means to enforce. 
 
 We now come to another and most important transaction of Napo- 
 leon's reign, the invasion of Spain. Spain was the humble and 
 submissive ally of Napoleon : her navy, her army, her treasures were 
 at his disposal. She was at war with Great Britain ; she had allowed 
 a free passage to the French troops through her territory to Portugal. 
 Other French divisions had entered Spain as friends in the beginning 
 of 1808, and seized by stratagem the fortresses of St. Sebastian, 
 Pamplona, and Barcelona. At the same time the internal administra- 
 tion of Spain was earned on in a most corrupt and profligate manner. 
 Charles IV., his queen, and the favourite Godoy, had completely dis- 
 gusted the Spaniards. An insurrectional movement took place at 
 Araujuez, 20th of March, and Ferdinand, the heir to the crown, who 
 was a favourite with the people, was proclaimed king, and Charles was 
 induced to abdicate. Napoleon founded upon this a pretence for 
 interfering. He invited father, mother, son, and favourite to Bayonne, 
 where he himself repaired in April. Charles and his queen went 
 readily — Ferdinand hesitated ; but Napoleon sent Savary, who with 
 many asseverations of his master's honourable aud friendly intentions 
 towards him, gradually decoyed the weak prince from stage to stage 
 until he was fairly out of the Spanish territory. A scene of duplicity 
 and dishonesty, of indecent and unnatural recriminations now took 
 place between Napoleon, the old king, the queen, aud her son, which 
 for moral turpitude has no parallel in history. Charles resumed his 
 character of king, stigmatised Ferdinand as a rebellious son, the queen 
 joined in reviling and disgracing him at the expense of her own and 
 her husband's honour, and Ferdinand, overwhelmed by insults aud 
 threats, renounced his claim to the throne of Spain on the 6th of May. 
 Charles likewise resigned all his rights " in favour of his friend and 
 ally the emperor of the French." Napoleon now issued a decree, ap- 
 pointing " his dearly-beloved brother Joseph Napoleon, king of Naples 
 aud Sicily, to the crowns of Spain and the Indies." By a subsequent 
 decree, loth of July, he appointed "bis dearly-beloved cousin, Joachim 
 Murat, grand-duke of Berg, to the throne of Naples and Sicily, which 
 remained vacant by the accession of Joseph Napoleon to the kingdoms 
 of Spain and the Indies." Both these curious documents are signed 
 Napoleon, and countersigned by the minister secretary of state, 
 Maret. ■ 
 
 The memorable events which resulted from these nefarious trans- 
 actions, the occupation of Madrid by Murat, the revolt and subsequent 
 massacre of the people of that city on the 2nd of May, the insurrection 
 which broke out simultaneously in all parts of the Peninsula against 
 the invaders — the heroic though often unfortunate resistance of the 
 Spaniards — the atrocities committed by the French troops, and the 
 cruel retaliations by the Spanish guerrillas — the long murderous war 
 of seven years, from 1808 till 1814, in which the British army acted a 
 conspicuous part — all these may be read in the numerous works 
 written expressly on the subject of the Peninsular war. For the 
 military transactions see Colonel Napier, General Foy, and Major 
 Vacani, and the ' Annals of the Peninsular Campaigns,' by Captain 
 Hamilton. For the Spanish view of the subject see Count Toreno, 
 ' Historia del Levantamiento, Guerra, y Revolucion do Espaha,' Madrid, 
 1835 ; and Canga Arguclles, ' Observaciones sobre las Historias de 
 Southey, Londonderry, Clarke, y Napier.' For a general, historical, 
 and political view of Spain during that period, see Southey 's ' History 
 of the Peninsular War,' and compare Thiers, ' Histoire du Consulat 
 et de l'Empire.' But the work that gives perhaps the best insight iuto 
 the feelings and conduct of the Spaniards in the various provinces 
 throughout that memorable struggle, is the ' Histoire de la Revolution 
 d'Espagne,' by Colonel Schepeler, a Prussian officer, who was himself 
 in the Spanish service during the whole time. 
 
 During the seven years of the Peninsular war, 600,000 Frenchmen 
 entered Spain at different times by the two great roads of Bayonne 
 and Perpignan. There returned into France at various times about 
 250,000. The other 350,000 did not return. Making full deduction 
 for those who remained prisoners in the hands of the Spaniards and 
 English, and were afterwards set free at the peace of 1814, the number 
 who perished during that war cannot be estimated at less than 250,000, 
 if it does not approach rather 300,000. (Schepeler and Foy.) The loss 
 of the Spaniards, soldiers and peasants, who were destroyed in detail on 
 almost every spot in the peninsula, cannot be calculated, but it must 
 have been greater than that of the French. 
 
 In 1808 Napoleon re-established titles of nobility in France. 
 Lefebvre, who had taken Danzig during the previous year, was the 
 first duke that he created. Many others, both military and civilians, 
 received titles from towns in Italy and Germany, with an income 
 charged upon the revenues or national domains of the conquered 
 countries. Both the titles and the incomes attached to them were 
 made hereditary. 
 
 In September 1803 Napoleon repaired to Erfurt to hold conferences 
 with the emperor Alexander. The subject of these conferences re- 
 mained a secret, but it would seem that the question of Turkey was 
 agitated. Napoleon says that the principal obstacle to a partition of 
 that country was Constantinople. It seems however that he con- 
 sented to Russia encroaching on the frontier provinces of Turkey, aa 
 the Russian troops invaded Moldavia and Wallachia soon after the 
 
791 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 conference. On returning from Erfurt, Napoleon told hia senate that 
 he and the emperor of Russia were irrevocably united in a bond of 
 alliance. 
 
 The English in the meantime had reconquered Portugal, and were 
 advancing to the assistance of the Spaniards. King Joseph had been 
 obliged to leave Madrid, and the French armies had withdrawn behind 
 the Ebro. Napoleon resolved to set out for Spain himself. On the 
 25th of October he opened in person the session of the legislative 
 body with one of his characteristic speeches : — " The hideous presence 
 of the English leopards contaminates the continent of Spain and 
 Portugal. I go to place myself at the head of my armies, to crown my 
 brother at Madrid, and to plant the French eagles on the ramparts of 
 Lisbon." Two days afterwards he set off for Spain. On the 23rd of 
 November 1808, Napoleon defeated the Spanish troops at Tudela, and 
 on the 4th of December Madrid capitulated. He then set off for 
 Astorga, expecting to intercept Sir John Moore in his retreat. In this 
 however he did not succeed ; and leaving the task of pursuing the 
 English to Soult and Ney, he suddenly quitted Astorga, and returned 
 in great haste to France in January 1809. 
 
 A new Austrian war was on the point of breaking out. This time 
 Austria came single into the field. She had made astonishing exertions 
 to recruit her armies to the number of nearly half a million of men. 
 Austria had apparently no new personal subject of complaint, except 
 tho alarm she naturally felt at the rapid strides of Napoleon towards 
 universal dominion. The Archduke Charles commanded the Austrian 
 anny of Germany, and the Archduke John that of Italy. The Austrians 
 crossed tho Inn on the 9th of April, and occupied Bavaria and the 
 Tyrol. Napoleon quickly assembled his array beyond the Rhine, 
 repaired to Augsburg, and by one of his skilful manoeuvres broke the 
 line of the Austrians, gained the battle of Eckmiihl, and obliged the 
 Archduke Charles to retire into Bohemia, leaving the road to Vienna 
 opeu to the French. (For the details of this campaign sec General 
 l'elet, 'Mc'moires sur la Guerre de 1809,' 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1824-26.) 
 On tho 12th of May the French entered Vienna. The archduke now 
 collected his army on the left bank of the Danube. Bonaparte crossed 
 the l iver to attack him, and the great battle of Aspern took place, 21st 
 of May. The battle remained undecided; but on the following day it 
 was renewed with fury on both sides, when in the midst of the action 
 Bonaparte was informed that the bridge in his rear, which communi- 
 cated with the right bank of the Danube, had been carried off by a 
 flood. He then ordered a retreat, and withdrew his army into the 
 island of Lobau in the middle of the Danube. The loss of the French 
 was very great : Marshal Lannes was among the generals killed. 
 Napoleon remained for six weeks on the island. Having re-established 
 the bridge, and received reinforcements, he crossed once more to the 
 left bank, when he fought the battle of Wagram, Gth of July, in which 
 he defeated the Austrians, with a tremendous loss on both sides. Still 
 the Austrian army was not destroyed or dispersed, and the Archduke 
 Charles was for continuing the struggle. Other counsels however 
 prevailed, and an armistice was concluded at Znaim, and this led to 
 the peace of Schonbrunn, which was not signed however till the 14th 
 of October. Napoleon had entertained some idea of dismembering the 
 Austrian empire ; he had even addressed an invitation to the Hunga- 
 rians to form an independent kingdom under a native ruler, but this 
 address produced no effect. Germany began to be agitated by a spirit 
 of popular resistance against him ; bands of partisans under Schill, the 
 Duke of Brunswick, and others, had appeared ; Tyrol was still in arms, 
 and he was not quite sure of Russia. The war in Spain continued with 
 dubious success, and the English had landed a considerable force at 
 Flushing. He thought best therefore to grant peace to Austria on 
 moderate conditions. The Archduke Charles disapproved of the peace, 
 and gave up his command. Austria ceded Trieste, Carniola, and part 
 of Croatia, Salzburg, Cracow, and Western Gallicia, and several other 
 districts, to the amount of about two millions and a half of inhabitants. 
 The brave Tyrolese were abandoned to their fate. Hofer and others 
 of their chiefs were seized by the French, taken to Mantua, and 
 there shot. 
 
 Whether the subsequent marriage of Napoleon with a daughter of 
 the Emperor Francis was in course of negociation at the time of the 
 peace of Schoubrunn has been doubted, but soon after his return to 
 Paris he made known to his wife Josephine his determination to divorce 
 her. A painful scene took place on this occasion, which is well described 
 by De Bausset, prefect of the imperial household, in his ' Memoires 
 Anecdotiques sur l'lnte'rieur du Palais.' Napoleon himself seems to 
 have been sincerely affected at Josephine's grief, but his notion of the 
 necessity of having an heir to the empire subdued his feelings. It is 
 known that from the time of the conferences of Erfurt, and perhaps of 
 Tilsit, he had had in view a marriage with one of Alexander's sisters; 
 and the project had been communicated to the Russian court, but the 
 empress-mother had always objected to it on the plea of difference of 
 religion. The divorce being consented to by Josephine in presence of 
 commissioners from the senate, the act was solemnly passed and regis- 
 tered on the 16th of December 1809. On the 11th of March 1810 
 Napoleon married by proxy the Archduchess Maria Louisa, who soon 
 after set otf for Paris. The marriage ceremony was performed at Paris 
 by Cardinal Fesch. 
 
 The years 1810 and 1811 were the period of Napoleon's greatest 
 power. There is an interesting report made by Count Montalivet 
 
 of the situation of the French empire in 1810, which displays the 
 gigantic extent of its dominions. One passage which refers to Hollaod 
 is curious. That country was under the government of Louis Bona- 
 parte, who felt really anxious for the welfare of his Dutch subjects, 
 and did not enforce very strictly the continental system, as it was 
 styled, against English trade. This led to frequent reproofs from hii, 
 imperious brother, who at last resolved to enforce his own decrees 
 himself by uniting Holland to the French empire. (Louis Bonaparte, 
 ' Historical Documents and Reflections on the Government of Holland.') 
 Count Moutidivet in his report made use of a curious argument to 
 prepare the people's minds for this measure : — " Holland," he said, 
 " is in reality a continuation of France ; it may be defined as being 
 formed out of the alluvia of the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt, 
 which are the great arteries of the empire." Aud Champagny, minister 
 for foreign affairs, in a report to the emperor said — " Holland is an 
 emanation of the French empire. In order to possess the Rhine, youf 
 majesty must extend your territory to the Zuyderzee." But even the 
 Zuyderzee was not far enough. By a Senatus Consultum, 13th Decem- 
 ber 1810, Holland, Friesland, Oldenburg, Bremen, aud all the line of 
 coast to Hamburg, and the country between that town and Lubeck, 
 were annexed to the French empire, of which this new territory formed 
 ten additional departments. The French empire now extended from 
 the frontiers of Denmark to those of Naples, for Napoleon had finally 
 annexed Rome and the southern papal provinces to France. The pope 
 launched a bull of excommunication against-Napoleon, upon which he 
 was arrested in his palace on the Quirinal in the middle of the night 
 of the 5th July 1809 by a party of gendarmes who escaladed the walls, 
 and was carried off to Savona, where he was kept prisoner until he 
 was removed to Fontainebleau. The papal territory wa3 divided into 
 two departments of the French empire, called of Rome and of the 
 Thrasymene, of which last Perugia was the head town. Napoleon 
 gave his ' good city of Rome ' the rank of second town in the French 
 empire. 
 
 Besides the French empire, which, thus extended, reckoned 130 
 departments and 42 millions of people, Napoleon held under his 
 sway the kingdom of Italy, which included Lombardy and Venice, 
 Modena, Bologna, and the other legations and the marches, with above 
 six millions of inhabitants ; aho the Illyrian provinces, including 
 Dalmatia, Carniola, and part of Croatia, which formed a separate 
 government. The kingdom of Naples, with about five millions more, 
 was also dependent on his will, as well as the kingdom of Westphali i, 
 the grand-duchy of Berg, &c. The policy of Napoleon towards the 
 countries which ho bestowed on his brothers and other relatives was 
 plainly stated by himself to his brother Lucien, in an interview at 
 Mantua in 1811. " In the interior, as well as the exterior, all my 
 relatives must follow my orders : everything must be subservient to 
 the interest of France ; conscription, laws, taxes, all must be in your 
 respective states for the advantage and support of my crown. I 
 should otherwise act against my duty and my interest." He would 
 not allow his brothers to identify themselves with their subjects, and 
 to strengthen themselves on their thrones, because he foresaw that 
 it might suit him some day to remove them on the occasion of a general 
 peace, or upon some new scheme of his own. He sacrificed the people 
 of those countries and their interests, as well as the happiness and the 
 greatness of his brothers, to what he conceived to be the interest and 
 the glory of France. ('Reponse de Lucien Bonaparte aux M£moire3 
 de Lamarque.') But even his brothers were restive under this disci p 
 line. Louis ran away from his kingdom of Holland : Murat wa* in 
 continual disputes with his brother-in-law, and Lucien would not accept 
 any crown under such conditions. 
 
 As Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, Napoleon had 
 under his orders the kings of Saxony, Bavaria, and Wiirtemburg, the 
 Grand Duke of Baden, and the other German princes. He had also 
 under his protection the Helvetic Confederation, which was bound to 
 furnish him with troops, and to follow his policy. Prussia, humbled 
 and dismembered, lay entirely at his mercy. He could thus dispose 
 of more than eighty millions of people. Never, since the fall of the 
 Roman empire, had so great a part of Europe been subject to the will 
 of one man. Austria was his ally through fear as well as by family 
 connection; Russia through prudence and self-interest. In Sweden, 
 General Bernadotte had been chosen Crown Prince, and, after obtain- 
 ing Napoleon's consent, had repaired to Stockholm. Spain, bleeding 
 at every pore, struggled hard, and apparently with little hope of 
 ultimate success. Britain alone continued to defy his power, and held 
 Sicily and Portugal under her protection. Such was the political con- 
 dition of Europe at the beginning of 1811. On the 20th of March of 
 that year Maria Louisa was delivered of a son, who was saluted by 
 Napoleon as ' King of Rome,' an ominous title to those Italians who 
 still fancied that the crown of Italy was to be, according to Napoleon's 
 promise, separated from that of France. 
 
 In 1811 the first symptoms of coolness between Alexander and 
 Napoleon manifested themselves. The complaints of the Russian 
 landholders against the continental system, which prevented their 
 exporting by sea the produce of their vast estates, had induced Alex- 
 ander to issue an ukase, 31st of December, 1810, by which colonial 
 and other goods were allowed to be imported into the ports of Russia, 
 unless they appeared to belong to subjects of Great Britain. This 
 last restriction was of course easily evaded, and the trade with England 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 might be said to be in reality opened again. This was soon made a 
 ground of complaint on the part of Napoleon. The Russian emperor, 
 on his side, complained that his relative, the Duke of Oldenburg, had 
 been dispossessed of his territory contrary to the treaty of Tilsit. A 
 third subject of difference was concerning Poland. Napoleon having, 
 by the peace of Schonbrunn, united western Gallicia and Cracow to 
 the duchy of Warsaw, seemed to encourage the prospect of re- 
 establishing the whole of Poland as an independent Btate. But there 
 was another and a deeper feeling of mistrust and insecurity on the 
 part of the emperor, and the nobility of Russia in general, at the 
 evident assumption of universal dictatorship by Napoleon, especially 
 since his marriage with an Austrian archduchess. At Tilsit he had 
 been willing to share the empire of the world with Russia, but now 
 he would " have no brother near his throne." He summoned Sweden, 
 in an imperious manner, to enforce his decrees against the British 
 trade, while his armed vessels and privateers in the Baltic seized upon 
 fifty Swedish, merchantmen, which were confiscated, upon the charge 
 of contraband trade with England. Lastly, iu January 1812, General 
 Davoust was sent to take possession of Swedish Pomerania and the 
 islaud of Rugen. This act of aggression induced the crown prince, 
 Bc-rnadotte, to sign a treaty of alliance with the Emperor Alexander 
 in March 1812. In the interview between these two princes at Abo 
 in Finland, the plan of resistance to Napoleon was settled. Russia 
 had not yet declared war, but she reinforced her armies, waiting to 
 be attacked. Napoleon was pouring troops into Prussia, Pomerania, 
 and the duchy of Warsaw. 
 
 Some of the older and wiser counsellors of Napoleon had the 
 courage to remonstrate with him, not on the injustice, but on the 
 impolicy of this new act of aggression. But he was proof against all 
 remonstrance. It was his destiny he said to make one nation out of 
 all the European states, and Paris must be the capital of the world. 
 Even in calmer times, and after the full experience of disappointment, 
 we find him confirming the sentiments he had now freely expressed. 
 After his return from Elba, he said to Benjamin Constant, " I desired 
 the empire of the world, and who in my situation would not ? The 
 world invited me to govern it; sovereigns and subjects vied with 
 each other in bending before my sceptre. I have rarely found any 
 opposition in France." And later, at St. Helena, " If I have been on 
 the point of accomplishing the universal monarchy, it was without 
 aDy original design, and because I was led to it step after step. The 
 last effort wanting to arrive at it seemed so trifling, was it unreason- 
 able to attempt it ?" (Las Cases, vol. i.) 
 
 The events of the memorable Russian campaign of 1812 are known 
 to the world. We can only refer our readers to the works of Segur, 
 and of Colonel Boutourlin, aide-de-camp to the emperor Alexander ; 
 to the memoirs of Oginski ; and to the Italian account of Captain 
 Laugier, ' Gl' Italiani in Russia ; ' and the histories of Thiers, Alison, 
 &c. By consulting these various authorities, a sum of very correct 
 information concerning that stupendous catastrophe may be obtained. 
 
 Before Napoleon set off from Paris for the Russian expedition, he 
 directed Maret, duke of Bassano, to write a letter to Lord Castlereagh 
 proposing negociations for peace, on the basis of the ' uti possidetis.' 
 He was willing this time to let Sicily remain under Ferdinand, and 
 Portugal under the house of Braganza, but he insisted on Spain being 
 secured to his brother Joseph. It must be observed that Lord Wel- 
 lington had just taken possession of Badajos and Ciudad Rodrigo, and 
 was advancing into Spain towards Madrid, which he shortly after 
 entered upon gaining the battle of Salamanca. The English minister 
 immediately replied, that England's engagements with the Spanish 
 Cortes, acting in the name of King Ferdinand VII., rendered the 
 acknowledgment of Joseph impossible. 
 
 The Russian minister, Prince Kourakin, still remained at Paris. 
 Early in May he presented an official note to the Duke of Bassano, 
 stating that the matters in dispute between the two empires might 
 easily be made the subject of amicable negociations, provided the 
 French troops should evacuate Pomerania and the duchy of Warsaw, 
 where they could be for no other purpose than that of threatening 
 the frontiers of Russia. Napoleon pretended to be exceedingly angry 
 at thin demand, which he said was insolent ; adding, that he was not 
 used to be addressed in such a style, and to have his movements dic- 
 tated by a foreign sovereign ; and he sent Prince Kourakin his pass- 
 ports. On the 9th of May he himself set off with his empress for 
 Dresden, where he had invited the kings of his own creation — Bavaria, 
 Wiirtemburg, Saxony, Westphalia — and his other tributaries to meet 
 him. The emperor of Austria also repaired to Dresden with his 
 empress. The king of Prussia came too, as he had just signed a 
 treaty with Napoleon, by which he placed 20,000 men at his disposal 
 in the approaching campaign. Austria agreed to furnish 30,000 men 
 to act against Russian Poland. Napoleon sent the Count de Narbonne 
 to Wilna, where the emperor Alexander then was, to invite him to 
 cotne to Dresden, but Alexander declined. After brilliant festivals, 
 Napoleon quitted Dresden for Thorn, where he arrived on the 2nd of 
 June. His immense army was assembled chiefly between the Vistula 
 »-id the Niemen, which latter river formed the boundary of the 
 li ia-ian empire. There were 270,000 French, 80,000 Germans of the 
 Confederation of the Rhine, 30,000 Poles under Prince Poniatowski, 
 20,000 Italians under Eugene, and 20,000 Prussians. On the 22nd of 
 June Napoleon issued a proclamation to bis soldiers, saying, " that the 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 708 
 
 second war of Poland had begun. The fate of Russia must be fulfilled. 
 
 Let us cross the Niemen, and carry the war into her own territory," 
 &c. On the 24th and 25th of June Napoleon's army, in three largo 
 masses, crossed the Niemen, and entered Lithuania without meeting 
 with any opposition. The Russian army, under General Barclay de 
 Tolli, 120,000 strong, evacuated Wilna, and retired to the banks of 
 the Dwiua. Another Russian army, 80,000 strong, under Prince 
 Bagration, was stationed near the Dnieper. On the 28th of June 
 Napoleon entered Wilna, where he remained till the 16th of July. 
 He there received a deputation from the diet of the duchy of Warsaw, 
 entreating him to proclaim the union and independence of Poland. 
 Napoleon's answer was still cold and cautious. He told them that he 
 had guaranteed to the emperor of Austria the part of Poland he still 
 retained ; that for the rest they must depend chiefly on their own 
 efforts. 
 
 In the meantime the French soldiers treated Lithuania as an enemy's 
 country. The provisions ordered by Napoleon to follow his army not 
 having arrived, and the Russians having removed all the stores, the 
 French and German soldiers went about marauding, plundering alike 
 the mansions of the nobility and the huts of the peasants, feeding 
 their horses on the green corn, violating the women, and killing those 
 who resented such treatment. (Oginski and Segur.) Lithuania, a 
 poor and thinly-inhabited country, which had suffered from the bad 
 harvest of the preceding year (1811), was utterly devastated. At the 
 same time disorganisation and demoralisation spread fearfully through 
 the enormous masses of the invaders ; disease thinned their ranks ; 
 25,000 patients were crowded within Wilna in a few weeks, where 
 there was not accommodation for one-third of their number; heavy 
 rains rendered the roads impassable, and 10,000 horses were lost. 
 
 After partial engagements at Mohilow and Witepsk, the Russians 
 continued their retreat upon Smolensk, in the interior of Russia. 
 Napoleon determined to follow them. " Forward marches alone," he 
 observed, " can keep such a vast army in its preseut condition together ; 
 to halt or retire would be the signal of dissolution. It is an army 
 of attack, not of defence ; an army of operation, not of position. We 
 must advance upon Moscow, and strike a blow in order to obtain peace, 
 or resting quarters and supplies." (Segur.) He crossed the Dnieper, 
 and entered Russia Proper with about 180,000 men, leaving a body of 
 reserve at Wilna and the corps of Macdonald on the Dvvina, towards 
 Riga. In his rnarch through Lithuania no less than 100,000 men had 
 dropped off from his ranks, and were either dead or sick, or had been 
 taken prisoners by the Cossacks, or were straggling and marauding 
 about the country. 
 
 On the 16th of August the two hostile armies met under the walls 
 of Smolensk. But the Russians, after carrying off or destroying the 
 provisions, and allowing time to the inhabitants to remove themselves, 
 evacuated Smolensk, which their rear-guard set on fire. They con- 
 tinued their retreat upon Moscow, and Napoleon followed them. The 
 battle of Borodino, near the banks of the river Moskwa, was fought on 
 the 7th of September. The two armies were nearly equal iu numbers, 
 120,000 each. After a dreadful slaughter on both sides, the Russian 
 general sounded a retreat, and the French were left in possession of 
 the bloody field ; but the French took hardly any prisoners or guns : 
 15,000 Russians and about 10,000 Frenchmen lay dead. Next day 
 the Russian army continued its retreat ; and on the 14th of September 
 it traversed the city of Moscow, which most of the inhabitants had 
 already evacuated. On the same day the French entered Moscow and 
 found it deserted, except by the convicts and some of the lowest class, 
 who lingered behind for the sake of plunder. On the evening of this 
 day a fire broke out in the coachmakers' street, but it was put down 
 in the night. On the next day Napoleon took up his residence in the 
 Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Czar3. On the following night the 
 fire burst out again in different quarters of the city, and no exertions 
 of the French could stop it : the wind spread the flames all over the 
 city, and on the third day Napoleou was obliged to leave the Kremlin, 
 where he stood in imminent danger. The fire raged till the 19th, 
 when it abated, after destroying 7682 houses— about four-fifths of the 
 city. This burning of Moscow has been attributed to a premeditated 
 plan of the Russians ; but on the other hand Count Rostopchin, the 
 governor, has denied this positively. "Several individuals," he says, 
 " set fire to their own houses rather than leave them iu possession of 
 the invaders ; and the French soldiers, seeking for plunder or for wine 
 and spirits in the cellars, where they got intoxicated, did the rest." 
 (' La Verite" sur i'lncendie de Moscow,' par le Comte Rostopchin, 
 Paris, 1823.) 
 
 The markets of Moscow used to be supplied, not from the imme- 
 diate neighbourhood, but from a considerable distance in the interior, 
 and especially from the southern districts towards Kaluga, where the 
 Russian army was now posted. The French therefore could pet no 
 provisions, and they were obliged to live chiefly on the flesh of their 
 horses, which was salted down. Napoleon remained among the ruins 
 of Moscow for five weeks. He had sent Lauriston to the Russian 
 head-quarters with a letter for the Emperor Alexander; the letter was 
 forwarded to St. Petersburg, but no answer was returned. Napoleon 
 was deceived iu his calculations upon the temper of Alexander, and 
 of the Russian people. At last, on the 19th October, seeing no chance 
 of making peace, Napoleon began his retreat. The weather was fine 
 and moderately cold. He attempted first to retire by Kaluga, where 
 
709 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BOO 
 
 he expected to find provisions, but the stout resistance he met at 
 Maid Yaroslavetz induced him reluctantly to turn again to the road 
 by Vareia and Viazma to Smolensk, by which he had advanced. He 
 was closely followed by the Russian army, but was more especially 
 harassed by swarms of Cossacks under the Hetman Platoff. His rear 
 divisions had sharp engagements at Viazma and at the passage of the 
 Wop. His army dwindled away apace, through fatigue, privations, 
 and the constant attacks of the Cossacks. It had left Moscow 120,000 
 ttroi'g, but was now reduced to one-half that number of fighting men ; 
 the rest formed a confused and disorderly mass in the rear, with an 
 immense train of baggage and artillery. In this condition they were 
 overtaken on the 6th November by the Russian winter, which that 
 year set in earlier than usual. The emaciated frames of soldiers and 
 horses could not resist this fresh enemy, and they dropped by 
 thousands on the road, where they were soon buried under the snow. 
 The bitter frosty nights killed thousands more ; but the winter only 
 completed the destruction of the army, which had begun during the 
 advance in the summer. The wretchedness and the sufferings of the 
 retreat from Moscow must be read in the works already referred to. 
 The French at last reached Smolensk, where they found their stores, 
 which had come up so far. Many had not tasted a piece of bread or 
 biscuit since they had advanced through that town three months 
 before. On the 14th of November Napoleon left Smolensk with about 
 40,000 men able to carry anus. His rear divisions had now to sustain 
 repeated attacks from tho Russians, and when he arrived at Orcsa, in 
 Lithuania, he had only 12,000 men with arms in their hands. Of 
 40,000 horses there were hardly 3000 left. In this plight he reached 
 the banks of the Bereziua, where ho was joined by a corps of reserve 
 of nearly 50,000, men under Victor and Oudinot. The passage of the 
 Berezina, on the 20th and 27th of November, cost him about one-half 
 of his army thus reinforced. 
 
 On the 3rd of December Napoleon arrived at Malodeczno, .whence 
 he issued the famous 29th bulletin, which came like a clap of thunder 
 to awaken Europe. This time he told the whole truth in all its 
 .sternness ; except the guards, lie had no longer an army. At Smorgoni, 
 where he arrived on December the 5th, he took leave of his generals, 
 left the command of the army, such as it was, to Murat, and set off 
 in a sledge with Caulaincourt to return to Paris. He arrived at 
 Warsaw on the 10th, where he had that curious conversation with De 
 Pradt, which the latter has so humorously related. Continuing his 
 route, he passed through Dresden on the 14th, and arrived at Paris on 
 the ISth of December at night. The remains of his unfortunate army 
 were collected by Murat on the line of the Vistula. The report of 
 the chief of the staff, Berthier, dated 16th December, gives a dismal 
 picture of the state of the troops after Napoleon left them : — " The 
 plunder, insubordination, and disorganisation have reached the highest 
 pitch.'' The loss of the French and their auxiliaries in this campaign 
 is reckoned by Boutourlin at 125,000 slain, 132,000 dead of fatigue, 
 hunger, disease, and cold, and 193,000 prisoners, including 3000 
 officers and 4 S generals. The ' St. Petersburg Gazette' stated that 
 the bodies burnt in the spring after the thaw, in Russia proper and 
 Lithuania, amounted to 308,000, of which of course a considerable 
 proportion were Russians. In the Berezina alone, and the adjoining 
 marshes, 36,000 dead bodies were said to have been found. The 
 French left behind 900 pieces of cannon and 25,000 waggons, cas- 
 soons, &c. 
 
 Napoleon, after his return to Paris, exerted himself to recruit his 
 army by fresh conscriptions, by drafting the national guards into his 
 skeleton battalions, by recalling all the men he could spare from 
 Spain, and by sending the sailors of his fleet to serve on land. He 
 thus collected again in Germany, in the spring of 1813, an army of 
 350,000 men. The king of Prussia had now allied himself to Alexan- 
 der, and the allies had advanced as far as the Elbe. Austria remained 
 neutral ; she offered her mediation, but Napoleon would hear of no 
 cession on his part, in either Germany, Italy, or Spain. He soon after 
 repaired to Germany, where he fought and won the battle of Lutzen, 
 2nd of May 1813, from the Russians and Prussians united. On the 
 21st he attacked them again at Bautzen, and compelled them to retreat. 
 But these victories led to no decisive results; the allies retired in good 
 order, and lost few prisoners and no guns. Bonaparte bitterly com- 
 plained of this; and his gtnerals observed to each other, that these 
 were no longer the days of Marengo, Austerlitz, or Jena, when one 
 battle decided the fate of the war. On the 22nd of May, in another 
 engagement with the retreating allies, Duroc, his old and most faithful 
 companion, who was one of the few personally attached to him, was 
 struck by a cannon-ball and dreadfully mangled. The dying man was 
 taken to the house of a clergyman near the spot. Napoleon went to 
 see him, and was deeply affected. It was the only instance in which 
 he refused to attend to the military reports which were brought to 
 him. "Every thing to-morrow," was his-answer to his aides-de-camp. 
 He had a few days before lost another of his old brother-officers, 
 Bessieres. 
 
 An armistice was now agreed to on the 4th of June, and Bonaparte 
 re turned to Dresden, where Metternich came with fresh offers of 
 mediation on the part of Austria. Austria proposed as a principal 
 condition that Germany should be evacuated by the French arms, and 
 the boundaries of the French empire should be fixed at the Rhine, as 
 Napoleon himself had repeatedly declared. But Napoleon would not 
 
 hear of giving up the new departments which he had annexed aa far 
 as Hamburg and Lubeck, nor would he resign the protectorate of 
 Germany. This led to a warm discussion, in which Napoleon said ho 
 only wished Austria to remain neutral while he fought the Russians 
 and Prussians, and he offered to restore to her the Illyrian provinces 
 as the price of her neutrality. Metternich replied that things had come 
 to that pass that Austria could no longer remain neutral ; she must 
 be either with France or against France ; that Germany had been long 
 enough tormented by these wars, and it was time she should bo left 
 to rest and to national independence. The conferences however were 
 carried on at Prague without coming to any agreement; and in the 
 midst of this the armistico expired on the 10th of August, and Austria 
 joined the allies. 
 
 A series of battles was fought about Dresden on the 24th, 25th, and 
 27th of August, between the Austrians and Prussians on one side and 
 the French on the other, in which the latter had the advantage ; but 
 in pursuing the allies into Bohemia, Vandamme, with a corps of 30,000, 
 was surrounded and made prisoner with 8000 men at Culm. Oudinot 
 was likewise worsted at Gross Beeren by the Swedes and Prussians 
 under Bernadotte. Ney, who was sent by Napoleon to replace Oudinot, 
 lost the battle of Dennewitz on the 6th of September, near Berlin. 
 On the Katzbach, in Silesia, Blucher routed the French oppoeed to 
 him. The month of September passed in this desultory warfare, 
 Napoleon's armies losing ground and strength on every side. Bavaria 
 made a separate peace with Austria. The Saxons and other German 
 troops began to forsake the French cause. At last, after a painful 
 struggle between pride and necessity, Napoleon was obliged to begin 
 his retreat upon Leipzig, followed by the allies. At Leipzig he deter- 
 mined to make a final stand. "One victory alone," he said, "and 
 Germany might still be his." On the 16th of October the first battle 
 of Leipzig took place. It was fought gallantly on both sides, but the 
 allies had now a great superiority in .numbers, and the French were 
 driven close upon the ramparts of the town. The 17th passed without 
 fighting; on the 18th the battle was renewed, the French divisions 
 lost ground, and a body of 10,000 Saxons left them and went over to 
 the enemy. Napoleon now made his dispositions to effect his retreat 
 towards the Rhine. But while his army was filing out of Leipzig by a 
 long bridge, or rather a succession of bridges, in the morning of the 
 19th, the allies forced their way into the town after a desperate resist- 
 ance, and the bridge being blown up, 25,000 Frenchmen were obliged 
 to surrender prisoners of war. The retreat from Leipzig was nearly aa 
 disastrous to Napoleon as that from Moscow. His army was com- 
 pletely disorganised. He was however able to fight his way at Hanau, 
 30th of October, through the Bavarians, his late allies, who now wanted 
 to oppose his passage. At last he reached the Rhine, and passing over 
 the 70,000 or 80,000 men, all that remained out of an army of 350,000 
 with which he had begun the campaign, he placed them on the left bank, 
 while he set off for Paris, where he arrived on the 9th of November. 
 About 80,000 men left in the Prussian garrisons, Magdeburg, Danzig, 
 Stettin, &c, surrendered to the allies. 
 
 The enormous losses and reverses of the French armies, and the 
 approach of the allies to the frontiers of France, produced a strong 
 feeling of dissatisfaction in that country. The legislative body showed 
 for the first time a spirit of opposition to the headlong system of 
 Napoleon. A committee was appointed to draw up a report on the 
 state of the nation ; Raynouard, Laine", Gallois, and other members 
 who had a character for independence, were of the committee. The 
 report which they laid before the legislative body, 28th of December 
 1813, expressed a desire for peace consistent with the honour and the 
 welfare of France, and a wish to know what steps the emperor had 
 taken to attain so desirable an object, and it ended by saying that 
 " while the government will take the most effective measures for the 
 safety of the country, his Majesty should be entreated to maintain and 
 enforce the entire and constant execution of the laws which ensure to 
 the French citizens the rights of liberty, property, and security, and 
 to the nation the free exercise of its political rights." The legislative 
 body by a large majority ordered the report to be printed. This was 
 a language which Napoleon had not been used to. He immediately 
 •ordered the doors of the hall of the legislative body to be clo.-ed and 
 guarded by soldiers, and the copies of the report to be seized at the 
 printer's. On the 31st an imperial decree adjourned the legislative 
 body. On the 1st of January 1814, several members of the legislative 
 body having appeared at his levee, he gave vent to his ill-humour in 
 a violent address, told them that they were not the representatives 
 of the nation, but only the representatives of the individual depart- 
 ments; that he was the only representative of the people; that their 
 report and the address founded upon it were seditious ; that they 
 ought not thus publicly to have commented on his conduct ; and he 
 ended by saying, " France stands more in need of me than I stand in 
 need of France." The senate, more subservient, had already passed a 
 decree for a new conscription of 300,000 men, including all those who 
 had escaped the conscriptions of former years. The taxes were at the 
 same time ordered to be doubled ; but the people were weary of these 
 never-ending sacrifices, and in many departments it was found difficult 
 to collect either men or money. Napoleon's disposable army on the 
 Rhine amounted to no more than from 70,000 to 80,000 men. He had 
 to contend with twice that number, besides numerous reinforcements 
 which were hastening through Germany. Meantime conferences were 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 602 
 
 held at Chatillon, in which the allies proposed to fix the limits of 
 France as they were in 1792, that is to say, with the exclusion of 
 Belgium ; but Napoleon would not listen to this. It was his last 
 chance of peace. At the end of January 1814, Napoleon began the 
 campaign which has been considered by tacticians as that in which he 
 most strikingly displayed his astonishing genius for military combina- 
 tions, fertility of resources, and quickness of movements. For more 
 than two months he held at bay the various armies of the allies ; now 
 beating one corps, and then flying to attack another; at times severely 
 checked himself, and yet recovering his strength the next day. 
 ('Memoirs of the Operations of the Allied Armies in 1813-14,' 
 London, 1822; and Koch, 'Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire de la 
 Campagne de 1814.') 
 
 But the odds were too many against him. While he by a bold 
 movement placed himself in the rear of the allies, the latter marched 
 upon Paris, and after a hard-fought battle, 30th of March, took pos- 
 session of the whole line of defence which protected that city on the 
 north-eastern side. The empress had left it for Blois, and Joseph 
 Bonaparte, after the battle of the 30th, quitted Paris also. Marshal 
 Marmont asked for an armistice, and this led to the capitulation of 
 Paris, which the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia entered 
 on the 31st, amidst the acclamations of the Parisians. Napoleon 
 hearing of the attack upon Paris had fallen back to the relief of the 
 capital, but it was too late. He met near Fontainebleau the columns 
 of the garrison, which were evacuating the city. His own generals 
 tol<i him that he ought now to abdicate, as the allied sovereigns had 
 declared that they would no longer treat with him. Meantime a 
 decree of the senate declared that Napoleon Bonaparte, in consequence 
 of sundry arbitrary acts and violations of the constitution (which were 
 specified and classed under various heads in the preamble to the 
 decree), and by his refusing to treat with the allies upon honourable 
 conditions, had forfeited the throne and the right of inheritance esta- 
 blished in his family, and that the people and the army of France 
 were freed from their oath of allegiance to him. A provisional govern- 
 ment was formed, consisting of Talleyrand, Bournonville, Dalberg, and 
 others. Upon this, Bonaparte, after much reluctance, and upon his 
 generals refusing to join him in a last desperate attempt upon Paris, 
 which he meditated, signed the act of abdication at Fontainebleau on 
 the 4th of April, 1814. In this first act there was a reservation in 
 favour of the rights of the empress and of his son. By a second act 
 however he 'renounced unconditionally' for himself and his heirs 
 the throne of France and Italy. The emperor Alexander proposed 
 that he should retain the title of emperor with the sovereignty of the 
 island of Elba, and a revenue of six millions of francs to be paid by 
 France. This was agreed to by Prussia and Austria ; and England, 
 though no party to the treaty, afterwards acceded to it. On the 20th 
 of April, Napoleon, after taking an affectionate leave of his generals 
 and his guards, left Fontainebleau for Elba. He ran some danger 
 from the populace in passing through Provence, but arrived safe at 
 Frejus, where he embarked on board the British frigate 'Undaunted,' 
 and on the 4th of May landed at Porto Ferrajo, in the island of Elba. 
 
 Napoleon remained in the island of Elba about ten months. At 
 first he seemed reconciled to his lot, set about making roads, improving 
 the fortifications, &c. ; but after some months he was observed to 
 become more reserved, gloomy, and frequently absent and lost in 
 thought. He was in fact at the time engaged in secret correspondence 
 with hia friends in France and Italy. During so many years of 
 supreme power, attended by most splendid successes, he had formed 
 of course many adherents ; men whose fortune was dependent on his ; 
 most of whom had lost their emoluments and prospects by his fall : 
 the bold and aspiring, the reckless and restless, saw no further prospect 
 of conquest and new organisation of foreign states, which left at 
 Napoleon's disposal thousands of offices and situations with which to 
 reward hia partisans. The old soldiers, to whom the camp had become 
 a home, regretted him who used to lead them from victory to victory, 
 affording them free quarters, a continual change of scenery, and pleasant 
 cantonments in the finest cities of Europe. His brothers, sisters, and 
 other relatives, all rich, some still powerful, as Murat at Naples, felt 
 that by his fall they had lost the main prop of their family. On the 
 other side, the restored Bourbons had committed grave faults, and 
 had listened too much to the old emigrants by whom they were sur- 
 rounded ; and lastly, France in general had been too long in a state of 
 violent excitement to subside at once into quiet and contented repose. 
 Many of the subordinate agents of the police, post-office, and other 
 departments, were in Napoleon's interest. A wide conspiracy was 
 formed, the old republicans joined the Bonapartists, and Napoleon 
 was invited to return to France. (See in Fleury de Chabulou's 
 1 History of the Hundred Days,' an account of the intrigues carried on 
 with Elba.) 
 
 On the 26th of February 1815, Napoleon embarked with about 
 1000 men of his old guards, who had followed him to Elba, and landed 
 on the 1st of March at Cannes, not far from Frejus. At Grenoble, the 
 Srst defection of the army took place : Colonel Labedoyere, command- 
 ing the 7th regiment of the line, joined Napoleon ; the rest of the 
 march to Paris was a triumphant one. The Bourbons were abandoned 
 by the whole army ; and Marshal Ney, sent by Louis XVIII. to stop 
 Napoleon's progress, went over to him ; Macdonald and Marmont, and 
 several other marshals, remained faithful to the oath they had taken 
 
 Bioo. div. vol. L 
 
 to the king. Augereau also kept aloof from Napoleon ; but the Bour- 
 bons had no troops they could depend upon. Napoleon arrived at 
 the Tuileries on the 20th of March, Louis XVIII. having left the 
 capital early in the morning by the road to Flanders. Napoleon's 
 return to Paris was accompanied with the acclamations of the military 
 and the lower classes ; but the great body of the citizens looked on 
 astounded and silent : he was recalled by a party, but evidently not 
 by the body of the nation. 
 
 The Congress of Vienna was still sitting, when Talleyrand laid 
 before them the news of Bonaparte's landing at Cannes. They imme- 
 diately agreed to join again their forces, in order to frustrate his attempt, 
 and to maintain entire the execution of the treaty of Paris, of the 30th 
 May 1814, made with France under the constitutional monarchy of the 
 Bourbon dynasty. The Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies, which 
 had evacuated France, resumed their march towards the frontiers of 
 that country. 
 
 Napoleon found, on his return to Paris, that he could not resume 
 the unlimited authority which he had before his abdication. The 
 republicans and constitutionalists who had assisted, or not opposed 
 his return, with Carnot, Fouche", Benjamin Constant, and his brother 
 Lucien at their head, would support him only on condition of his 
 reigning as a constitutional sovereign : he therefore proclaimed a 
 constitution under the title of ' Acte additionnel aux Constitutions de 
 l'Empire,' which greatly resembled the charter granted by Louis XVIII. 
 the year before. There were to be an hereditary chamber of peers 
 appointed by the emperor, a chamber of representatives elected by 
 the electoral colleges, and to be renewed every five years, by which 
 all taxes were to be voted ; ministers were to be responsible ; judges 
 irremovable ; the right of petition was acknowledged, and property 
 was declared inviolable. Lastly, the French nation was made to 
 declare, that they would never recal the Bourbons ; deputies from the 
 departments came to Paris to swear to the additional act, at the Champ 
 de Mai, as it was called, although held on the 1st of June. The 
 emperor and his brothers were present at the ceremony. 
 
 The chambers opened on the 4th of June, while Napoleon prepared 
 to march towards the frontiers of Flanders, where the allied English 
 and Prussian armies were gathering. He assembled an army of about 
 125,000 men, chiefly old troops, of whom 25,000 were cavalry, and 
 350 pieces of cannon, with which he advanced upon Charleroi on the 
 15th of June. Ney, Soult, and Grouchy held commands under Napo- 
 leon. On the 16th Napoleon attacked in person Marshal Blucher, 
 who was posted with 80,000 men at Ligny, and drove him back with 
 great loss. At the same time he sent Ney against part of the English 
 army at Quatre Bras, which, after sustaining a severe attack, retained 
 possession of the field. In the morning of the 17th the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, in consequence of Blucher' s retreat, fell back with his army to 
 the position of Waterloo. Napoleon followed him, after despatching, 
 on the 17th, Grouchy, with a body of 30,000 men, to follow the retreat 
 of the Prussians. (Grouchy, ' Observations sur la Relation de la Cam- 
 pagne de 1815, par le General Gourgaud,' Philadelphia, 1818.) On the 
 18th the famous battle of Waterloo was fought. Napoleon's army on 
 the field was about 75,000 men, and Wellington's force opposed to 
 him consisted of 54,000 men actually engaged at Waterloo, the rest, 
 about 16,000, being stationed near Hal, and covering the approach to 
 Brussels on that side. There were 32,000 British soldiers, including 
 the German Legion ; the rest was composed of Belgians, Dutch, and 
 Nassau troops. The events of the battle are well known. The French 
 made several furious attacks with infantry and cavalry upon the British 
 line, gained some advantages, took possession of La Haye Sainte, but 
 all the efforts of their cavalry could not break the British squares. In 
 these repeated attacks the French cavalry was nearly destroyed. At 
 six o'clock Bulow's Prussian corps appeared on the field of battle, and 
 soon after Blucher came in person with two more corps. Napoleon 
 now made a last desperate effort to break the English line, before 
 the Prussians could act : he directed his guard, which had not yet 
 taken part in the action, to advance in two columns against the English. 
 They were received with a tremendous fire of artillery and musketry; 
 they attempted to deploy, but in so doing became confused, and at 
 last gave way. Napoleon, who was following with his eye, through a 
 spy-glass, the motions of his favourite guards, turned pale and exclaimed, 
 " They are mixed together ! " and galloped off the field. (See and 
 compare the various accounts of the battle of Waterloo, by English, 
 French, and Prussian military writers ; among the rest, Captain Pi iugle 
 of the Engineers; Captain Batty ; Baron Muffling, under the assumed 
 initials of C. de W., ' Histoire de la Campagne de l'armde Anglaise efc 
 de l'armee Prussienne en 1815,' Stutgart, 1817 ; Gourgaud, ' Narrative 
 of the War of 1815,' with Grouchy's important comments upon it; 
 Foy, ' Campagne de 1815.' Napoleon's own account in Montholon and 
 Las Cases, and in the ' Me'moires Historiques,' published by O'Meara; 
 Ney, 'Letter to the Duke of Otranto,' Paris, 1815 ; Rogniat's account 
 of the battle, and the accounts in the various English and French 
 histories.) 
 
 The astonishing firmness of the British infantry (to which several 
 French generals, and Foy among the rest, have paid an eloquent tribute 
 of praise) gained the day. Bonaparte's army fled in dreadful confu- 
 sion, pursued by the Prussians, and lost cannon, baggage, and all. 
 The loss of the English was 15,000 men in killed and wounded. On 
 the same day Grouchy was engaged at Wavre, 13 miles distant, with 
 
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON I. 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON L 
 
 one division of the Prussian army, which gave him full employment, 
 while the other Prussian divisions were marching on to Waterloo. His 
 orders were to follow the Prussians, and attack them wherever he met 
 them. (Grouchy, ' Observations.') Napoleon seems to have under- 
 rated the strength of the Prussians, when he thought Grouchy 's corps 
 sufficient to keep in check the whole of their army. 
 
 The battle of Waterloo finally closed a war, or rather a succession 
 sf wars, which had lasted with little interruption for twenty-three 
 years, beginning with 1792. As to these wars, Napoleon is only 
 strictly accountable for those that took place after he had attained 
 supreme power in France ; in some of them, such as those of Spain 
 and of Russia, he was decidedly the aggressor. Whether he did not 
 likewise give sufficient provocation to ttiose which Austria, England, 
 and Prussia waged against him, the reader must judge for himself. 
 His determination to be the dictator, the umpire of all Europe, left 
 no chance of national independence to any one country. Had he 
 subjected all Europe, he would have reverted to his old scheme of the 
 conquest of the east. Even his peace establishment, supposing him 
 ever to have been at peace, was to consist of an army of 800,000 men, 
 besides 400,000 of reserve. (Montholon's ' Memoirs of Napoleon,' 
 vol. i.) During the ten years of the empire, he raised by conscription 
 two millions one hundred and seventy-three thousand men, of whom 
 two-thirds, at the least, perished in foreign lands or were maimed 
 for life. 
 
 After the defeat of Waterloo, Napoleon having given his brother 
 Jerome directions to rally the remains of his army, hurried back to 
 Paris. The house of representatives declared itself permanent, and 
 demanded his abdication. Lucien appeared before the houBe, and 
 spoko eloquently of the former services of his brother, and of the 
 claims which he had on the gratitude of France. " We have followed 
 your brother," answered Lafayette, "over the sands of Africa, and 
 through the frozen deserts of Russia ; the whitened bones of French- 
 men scattered over every part of the globe bear witness to our long 
 fidelity to him." Lucien made no impression on the assembly. He 
 advised his brother to dissolve the chamber ; Napoleon refused : " It 
 would be the signal," he said, " of civil war." The house of peers 
 had adopted the same views as the lower house. There was but one 
 man, it was openly stated, between France and peace. Napoleon 
 signed his second abdication on the 22nd of June ; but this time it 
 was of his own accord, and against the advice of his intimate friends, 
 Carnot, Lucien, &c. ('Reponse de Lucien aux Me'uaoires de Lamarque.') 
 The abdication was in favour of his son, Napoleon II. A provisional 
 government was appointed by the chambers, and they required that 
 Napoleon should leave France, and embark at Rochefort for the 
 United States. General Becker was appointed to escort him to 
 Rochefort, where he arrived on the 3rd of July. All this did not 
 take place however without many violent altercations in the chambers, 
 and much reluctance on the part of Napoleon. The allies, who 
 entered Paris on the 7th of July, refused to acknowledge Napoleon's 
 right to abdicate in favour of his son, and on the following day 
 Louis XVIII. re-entered the capital and resumed the government. 
 
 Napoleon at Rochefort, seeing that the whole country around him 
 was submitting to the Bourbons, and finding that he had no chance of 
 escaping by sea, through the vigilance of the English cruisers 
 stationed along the coast, sent Count Las Cases and Savary to Captain 
 Maitland, who commanded the English ship ' Bellerophon,' to ask for 
 leave to proceed to America, either in a French or a neutral vessel. 
 Captain Maitland replied, " That his instructions forbade this ; but 
 that if Napoleon chose to proceed to England he would take him 
 there on board the ' Bellerophon,' without however entering into any 
 promise as to the reception he might meet with there, as he was in 
 total ignorance of the intentions of the British government as to his 
 future disposal." (Captain Maitland's statement of the whole trans- 
 action.) This offer was made by Captain Maitland in his second 
 interview with Las Cases, on the 14th of July; and Napoleon had 
 already, the day before, written a letter, addressed to the Prince 
 Regent of England, saying that " he came like Themistocles, to claim 
 the hospitality of the British people, and the protection of its laws." 
 Captain Maitland offered to dispatch General Gourgaud to England 
 ■with this letter immediately, repeating at the same time to him " that 
 he was not authorised to stipulate as to the reception of Bonaparte in 
 England, where he must consider himself at the disposal of the prince 
 regent." On the 15th Napoleon went on board the 'Bellerophon' 
 with his suite : as Captain Maitland advanced to meet him on the 
 quarter-deck, Napoleon said to him, " I come to place myself under 
 the protection of your prince and your laws." On the 24th the ship 
 entered Torbay. On the 31st of July Admiral Lord Keith and Sir 
 Henry Bunbury, under secretary of state, came on board the ' Belle- 
 rophon,' to announce to him the final resolution of the British 
 government — that the island of St. Helena should be his future 
 residence. Napoleon protested against this determination ; said he 
 was not a prisoner of war ; that he came as a voluntary passenger on 
 board the ' Bellerophon ; ' that he wished to be allowed to remain in 
 England as a private citizen, &c. On the 6th of August however 
 .Napoleon frankly acknowledged to Captain Maitland, that " he had 
 certainly made no conditions on coming on board the ' Bellerophon,' 
 that he had only claimed hospitality, and that he had no reason to 
 complain of the captain's conduct, which had been that of a man of 
 
 honour." On the 7th Napoleon removed from the ' Bellerophon ' to 
 the ' Northumberland,' Sir George Cockburn'a fiag-Bhip, which wai 
 appointed to carry him to St. Helena. (For the particulars of Bona- 
 parte's voyage, his landing at St. Helena, his residence, first at Briars 
 and afterwards at Longwood, of his altercations with Sir G. Cockburn, 
 and afterwards with Sir Hudson Lowe, we must refer our readers to 
 the minute work of Count Las Cases, and the 'History of the Captivity 
 of Napoleon at St. Helena, from the Letters and Journals of the late 
 Lieut.-Gen. Sir Hudson Lowe,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1853.) He landed at St. 
 Helena on the 16th of October 1815. 
 
 By a convention signed at Paris, 20th of August 1815, between 
 Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, the custody of Napoleon's 
 person was intrusted to the British government, and commissioners 
 were appointed by Russia, Austiia, and France to reside at St. Helena 
 to look after his safe detention. In July 1816, General Sir Hudson 
 Lowe arrived at St. Helena as governor of the island. From the very 
 first interview Bonaparte behaved uncivilly, or rather insultingly, to 
 that officer, and this treatment was repeated with aggravation at every 
 subsequent opportunity. One of Napoleon's great grievances was his 
 being styled General Bonaparte ; another, his not being allowed to 
 stroll about the island unattended by a British officer. He was 
 allowed a space measuring eight and afterwards twelve miles in cir- 
 cumference round Longwood, through which he might range ut his 
 pleasure ; beyond these limits he was to be accompanied by an officer. 
 But the real grievance was that of being detained as a prisoner at 
 all. The governor however had no power to remedy these subjects 
 of complaint. Various minor matters of dispute with the governor 
 were laid hold of by Bonaparte and his attendants, as if with the 
 view of keeping alive an interest in the public mind in favour of the 
 exile of St. Helena. We cannot enter into the particulars of this 
 petty system of warfare, in which, as it generally happens, both parties 
 may have occasionally been in the wrong. But it is impossible to 
 read even Napoleon's statements, made through Las Cases, Santini, 
 Antommarchi, &c, without perceiving that there was a determination 
 on his part not to be pleased with anything the governor could do for 
 him, unless he had disobeyed his orders; while on the other hand 
 Sir Hudson Lowe appears to have been a man of an unaccommodating 
 temper, with a good deal of the military martinet in his habits. 
 Napoleon's mind was in a state of irrhation whenever it recurred to 
 the subject of his confinement, which made him querulous and 
 peevish. He seems also to have had, almost to the last, some latent 
 hope of making his escape. In other respects the particulars of his 
 life and conversations at St. Helena are highly interesting. He could 
 be very agreeable towards visitors who were admitted to pay their 
 respects to him, as we may see from Mr. Ellis's and Captain Hall's 
 accounts of their interviews with him. In September 1818, Napo- 
 leon's health began to be visibly affected, but he would take no medi- 
 cines. He also refused to ride out, as advised, because he would not 
 submit to the attendance of a British officer. In September 1819, 
 Dr. Antommarchi, of the University of Pisa, came to St. Helena as 
 physician to Napoleon. Two clergymen came also from Italy to act 
 as his chaplains. Towards the end of 1820 he grew worse, and 
 remained in a wt ak state until the following April, when the disease 
 assumed an alarn dng character. It was then that Bonaparte said that 
 he believed it w;>8 the same disorder which killed his father, namely 
 a 8cirrhus in the pylorus ; and he desh ed Dr. Antommarchi to examine 
 his stomach after his death. He made his will, leaving large bequests 
 to his friends and attendants (' Testament de Napoleon '), and on the 
 3rd of May 1821, the chaplain Vignali administered to him extreme 
 unction. Napoleon stated " that he believed in God, and was of the 
 religion of his father : that he was born a Catholic, and would fulfil 
 all the duties of the Catholic church." On the 5th of May, after 
 being some time delirious, he breathed his last about eleven minutes 
 before six o'clock in the evening. The following day the body was 
 opened by Dr. Antommarchi, in presence of several British staff and 
 medical officers, when a large ulcer was found to occupy the greater 
 part of the stomach. On the 8th of May his remains were interred 
 with military honours in Slane's Valley, near a fountain overhung by 
 weeping willows. This had been a favourite spot with Napoleon. 
 The procession was followed to the grave by the governor, the admiral, 
 Napoleon's attendants, and all the civil and military authorities. The 
 grave was afterwards inclosed by a railing, and a sentry kept on duty 
 to guard the spot. In May 1840 the government of Louis Philippe 
 made an application to the British government to permit the removal 
 of the body of Napoleon to France. The request was at once acceded 
 to ; and a hope expressed that " the promptness of the answer might 
 be considered in France as a desire to blot out the last trace of those 
 national animosities which during the life of the emperor armed 
 England and France against each other." An expedition was imme- 
 diately fitted out and placed under the command of the Prince de 
 JoinvUle, with whom were associated several of the latest and most 
 devoted of Napoleon's followers — Bertrand, Gourgaud, the younger 
 Las Cases, and Marchand the emperor's valet. On opening the coffin 
 the features though somewhat changed were perfectly recognisable. 
 The body was received in Paris with unbounded marks of popular 
 feeling; and on the 15th of December 1840 it was deposited with 
 extraordinary pomp in the Hotel des Invalides. 
 
 We have dealt here merely with the outward acts of Napoleoo 
 
80.') 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON IL 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON III. 
 
 808 
 
 Bonaparte. His military genius speaks for itself. His personal 
 character, bidden motives and actual policy, can only be arrived at by 
 a wide and calm consideration of his whole history as developed in 
 public documents and private memoirs, correspondence and commen- 
 taries. But far more ample and satisfactory materials for estimating 
 the character, policy, and motives of Bonaparte than had previously 
 been obtainable, have quite recently been furnished to the student in 
 the ' Mdmoires et Correspondance du Roi Joseph Bonaparte,' published 
 under the care of M. Du Casse, Paris, 1853-55, and the 'Correspon- 
 dance de Napoleon I. Publiee par ordre de l'Empereur Napoleon III.' 
 4to, 185S, and still in progress. Of the importance of this great 
 collection it is needless to say anything. The letters of Napoleon 
 to his brother, written with characteristic impetuosity, extend 
 through the whole of the most important period of his career — 
 from 1795 to 1815 ; and they refer to most of the great events in 
 which he was the chief actor, as well as to his personal and family 
 history. And while they bring out with the utmost force — because 
 from his own pen, and, as it were, incidentally and unconsciously — the 
 grave defects of his character, and above all his overweening arro- 
 gance and constant, intense, unscrupulous and remorseless selfishness — 
 they exhibit most distinctly his lofty and comprehensive intellect ; 
 his thorough knowledge of human nature ; his strange facility in 
 making other men subservient to his purpose, and the utter reckless- 
 ness with which he employs and casts aside his instruments ; his clear 
 perception of the force of circumstances, and his readiness in moulding 
 them to his own end, until by his marvellous career of success he 
 came with defiant perversity to speak and act as though circumstances 
 were within his absolute control : and they bear equally clear testimony 
 to his surpassing administrative ability, unswerving self-reliance, un- 
 wearying energy, indomitable vigour, and unhappily the utter disregard 
 of all moral considerations which accompanied this gigantic manifesta- 
 tion of mental power and despotic wilL 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON II. Napoleon Francois Bona- 
 parte, son of the Emperor Napoleon I. and of Maria Louisa of Austria, 
 was born at Paris, March 20, 1811. From his birth he was styled 
 'King of Rome.' After his father's first abdication in 1814 he went 
 with his mother to Vienna, where he was brought up at the court of 
 his grandfather, the emperor Francis, who made him Duke of Reich- 
 stadt. His education was carefully attended to, and he was early 
 trained up to the military profession. After passing through the 
 various subordinate grades he was made a lieutenant-colonel in June 
 1831, and he took the command of a battalion of Huugarian infantry 
 then in garrison at Vienna. He was extremely assiduous in his mili- 
 tary duties, but his constitution was weak ; he had grown very tall 
 and slender, and symptoms of a consumptive habit had early shown 
 themselves. His physician advised a removal to Schoubrunn, which 
 had at first a beneficial effect, but a relapse soon followed, and after 
 lingering for several months youog Napoleon died on the 22nd of 
 July 1832, in the palace of Schbnbrunn, attended by his mother, who 
 had come from Parma to visit him. He seems to have been generally 
 regrttted at the Austrian court, especially by his grandfather, the 
 emperor, who had always behaved to him with paterual kindness. 
 There is an interesting account of this young man's short career by 
 M. de Montbel, ' Le Due de Reichstadt,' Paris, 1832. 
 
 Although Napoleon I. abdicated in favour of his son, the title of 
 Napoleon II. was not admitted by the allies or by the French nation. 
 Nor was it put forward by any party in France during the life of 
 Napoleon Francois, nor did he himself ever assume the title. But 
 when the question of conferring the title of emperor upon the prince- 
 president Louis Napoleon was put to the popular vote in 1852, it 
 was as Napoleon III. ; the right of Napoleon Francois to the title of 
 Napoleon II. being thus assumed. No objection was raised in France, 
 and the governments of Europe by recognising Napoleon III. without 
 protest, of course acknowledged Napoleon II. also. 
 
 •BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON III. Charles Louis Napoleon 
 is the third and youngest son of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, 
 and of Hortense Eugenie, daughter of the Empress Josephine, first 
 wife of Napoleon L, by her first husband, the Viscount de Beauharnais. 
 He was born in Paris, at the palace of the Tuileries, on the 20th of 
 April 1808. His father Louis was the fourth in age of the brothers 
 of the emperor; but Napoleon I., by the imperial edicts of 1804 and 
 1805, get aside the usual order of descent, and declared the succession 
 to the imperial crown to lie in the family of his brother Louis. Louis 
 Napoleon was the first prince born under the imperial rule in the 
 direct line of succession, and his birth was in consequence announced 
 throughout the empire by discharges of artillery and other solemnities. 
 At his baptism, in 1810, the sponsors were the emperor and the em- 
 press, Maria Louisa. From his infancy the young prince resided with 
 his mother, and his education was conducted under her superintend- 
 ence. Until the abdication of Napoleon, with whom she was always 
 in great favour, Hortense resided at Paris, where she had an hotel and 
 a princely household, and went by the title of Queen of Holland, 
 though her husband was no longer king. She was in fact separated, 
 though not divorced from her husband. Whilst Napoleon was at 
 ftlba, Louis Bonaparte instituted a suit in the courts at Paris to have 
 his ions removed from their mother's charge and restored to him ; 
 but the emperor's return put a stop to the proceedings, and henceforth 
 the children remained under the charge of their mother. During the 
 
 Hundred Days she resided at the Tuileries, and did the honours of 
 Napoleon's court. At the great assemblage on the Champ-de-Mai, 
 Napoleon presented his nephew Louis Napoleon, then seven years 
 old, to the soldiers and to the deputies ; and the scene is said to have 
 left a deep and abiding impression on the memory and the imagination 
 of the boy. After the battle of Waterloo, Hortense and her sons 
 attended Napoleon in his retirement at Malmaison. Upon the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons she made a visit to Bavaria, but being forced to 
 quit Germany, she retired to Switzerland, residing first at Constance, 
 and subsequently, in 1816, at the estate she had purchased of Arenen- 
 burg in the canton of Thurgau. Here she used with her sons to spend 
 the summers; the winters she passed in Rome, at the Villa Borghese, 
 which belonged to her sister-in-law Pauline. Her sons had thus 
 opportunities of observing very different forms of government, and 
 forming extensive connections with politicians and political adven- 
 turers both in Switzerland and Italy — opportunities which the young 
 Louis Napoleon by no means neglected. 
 
 The scholastic education of Louis Napoleon was conducted under 
 the direction of M. Lebas, son of Robespierre's friend, a man, like his 
 father, of stern republican principles ; and from him it may have been 
 that the young prince imbibed those social doctrines which he held in 
 opening manhood, and which, as developed in his early writings, 
 appeared to consort rather oddly with the determined and pervading 
 imperialism of all his literary productions. He was for a time a 
 student in the military college at Thun, and is said to have made 
 muoh progress in the art of gunnery. In these years he also made 
 several pedestrian tours, knapsack on shoulder, among the wilder 
 parts of Switzerland. 
 
 On the revolution of 1830, Louis Napoleon memorialised Louis 
 Philippe for permission to return to France, offering to serve as a 
 common soldier in the national army. The request was peremptorily 
 refused ; and the government of Rome fancying that a meeting of the 
 Bonaparte family in that city had a political tendency, Louis Napoleon 
 and his brother were ordered to quit the papal territory. They retired 
 to Tuscany, and at once united themselves with the Italian revolu- 
 tionary party. In the insurrectionary movement of 1831 both the 
 brothers took an active part ; and under General Sercognani they 
 shared in the victories gained over the papal troops. But the inter- 
 ference of Austria and France soon put an end to the progress of the 
 popular arms. The elder brother, Napoleon, died at Pesaro, a victim 
 to fatigue and anxiety, March 27, 1831 ; but Louis Napoleon succeeded, 
 though with much difficulty, in escaping from Italy, and with his 
 mother returned to the chateau of Arenenburg. Here he settled 
 quietly for awhile, obtained letters of naturalisation as a citizen of the 
 canton of Thurgau, and pursued steadily his military and political 
 studies. 
 
 But a new career was gradually unfolding itself before him. His 
 eldest brother died in infancy ; the second, as we have seen, died in 
 1831; and in 1832 the only son of the emperor, now known as 
 Napoleon II., but then as the Duke of Reichstadt, also died. Louis 
 Napoleon had thus become, according to the decree of 1804, the 
 immediate heir to the emperor. Thenceforward the restoration of 
 the empire, and the Napoleon dynasty in his person, became the pre- 
 dominant idea of his life. He laboured hard, not only to fit himself 
 for the lofty post his ambition led him to believe he should at no 
 distant period occupy, but also to impress his countrymen with his 
 views, and to accustom them to associate his name with the future. 
 He now published his first work, ' Political Reviews,' in which the 
 necessity of the emperor to the state is assumed throughout as the sole 
 means of uniting republicanism with the genius and the requirements 
 of the French people. His ' Iddes Napoldoniennes ' were afterwards 
 more fully developed, but the germ is to be found in his first publi- 
 cation. The ' Political Reviews ' were followed by ' Political and 
 Military Reflections upon Switzerland,' a work of considerable labour 
 and unquestionable ability ; and this again, after an interval, by a 
 large treatise entitled ' Manuel sur TArtillerie,' the result of the 
 studies begun in the military school of Thun. 
 
 At length he fancied the time had arrived for attempting to carry 
 his great purpose into effect. He had become convinced that the 
 French people were tired of their citizen king, and that it only needed 
 a personal appeal on the part of the heir of the great Napoleon to 
 rally the nation around his standard. He had obtained assurances of 
 support from military officers and others ; and finally at a meeting in 
 Baden he secured the aid of Colonel Vaudry, the commaudant of 
 artillery in the garrison of Strasburg. His plan was to obtain posses- 
 sion of that fortress, and with the troops in garrison, who he doubted 
 not would readily join him, to march directly on Paris, which he hoped 
 to surprise before the government could make sufficient preparations 
 to resist him. Having made all necessary preparations, on the morn- 
 ing of the 30th of October 1836 the signal was given by sound of 
 trumpet, and Colonel Vaudry presented the prince to the regiment, 
 assembled in the square of the artillery barracks, telling the soldiers 
 that a great revolution was begun, and that the nephew of their 
 emperor was before them. The soldiers who heard the address 
 received him with acclamations ; some of hi3 partisans had secured 
 the prefect and other civil officers ; and for a few minutes all seemed 
 prospering. But the commanders of the other regiments were true 
 to their duty. One of them denounced the prince as an impostor, and 
 
607 BONAPARTE, NAPOLEON III. 
 
 the soldiers hesitated. Louis was separated from his friends and 
 hurried off a prisoner, and the affair was speedily at an end. 
 
 His mother, on the instant of hearing of his arrest, hastened to 
 Paris, and her appeals, and perhaps the want of sympathy which the 
 Parisians exhibited, induced the king to treat the aspirant to his throne 
 with singular forbearance The only punishment inflicted was banish- 
 ment from France. He was accordingly embarked on board a ship 
 bound for the United States. He remained in the New World but a 
 comparatively short time, though in that time he travelled over a con- 
 siderable space in South as well as in North America. Hearing of the 
 illness of his mother, he hastened back to Europe, and was with her 
 at her death, which occurred at Arenenberg, October 5, 1837. Hor- 
 teuso Bonaparte was devotedly attach'-d to her son, and her affection 
 was warmly returned. She was a wouiau of ardent feelings and of 
 gonBiderable mental power. Sho published some reminiscences of a 
 portion of her life, which will also bo found to throw some light on 
 that period of the life of her son, under the title of ' La Roine Hor- 
 tense en Italie, en France, et en Angleterre, pendant l'annde 1831,' 
 8vo, Paris, 1834. She was also fond of music, and composed several 
 airs which have been much admired ; among others the favourite one, 
 4 Partant pour la Syrie,' now become, from its having been made by 
 her son the national air of France, almost as familiar in this country 
 as our own ' God Save the Queen.' 
 
 Louis Napoleon now set himself, by means of the press, to defend 
 his conduct in regard to the affair at Strasburg, and the government 
 of France, fearing the effect of his pertinacity, demanded his extra- 
 dition from Switzerland. The cantons at first refused to comply, and 
 expressed a determination to uphold his rights as a citizen of Thurgau. 
 But Louis Philippe sent an army to enforce his demands, and Louis 
 Napoleon, not wishing to involve Switzerland in difficulty, withdrew 
 to England. Here for a couple of years he led the life apparently of 
 a man of pleasure, but ho was really revolving his lofty schemes, 
 though he had as yet formed but a very inadequate notion of the 
 obstacles which had to be overcome. In 1839 he published in London 
 his famous ' Iddes Napoldonienues,' a remarkable illustration of the 
 intensity of his own grand thought. In August 1840 ho sailed from 
 Margate in a hired steamer, accompanied by Count Montholin, the 
 attendant of Napoleon I. at St. Helena, a retinue of about fifty 
 persons, and a tame eagle. He landed on the morning of the 6th of 
 August at Boulogne, and marching with his followers straight to the 
 barracks, he summoned the few troops there to join him, or surrender. 
 The soldiers did neither, and Louis Napoleon retreated to the hill 
 on which stands the Napoleon column. Meanwhile the garrison 
 mustered under arms, a few shots were fired, and the prince, in 
 attempting to get back to the steamer, was arrested with most of his 
 followers. 
 
 This time the government was less placable. Louis Napoleon was 
 brought for trial before the House of Peers on a charge of treason. 
 Berryer appeared as his advocate, and defended him with boldness 
 and eloquence. The prince himself made a speech, exhibiting great 
 firmness and resolution. He was found guilty of a conspiracy to 
 overturn the government, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment 
 iu a French fortress. He was sent to Ham, and there he remained 
 till May 1846, when, in the dress of a workman, he succeeded, by the 
 assistance of Dr. Conneau, the present court physician, in effectiug 
 his escape. Once more he took refuge iu England. The revolu- 
 tion of February 1848 found him ready to avail himself of any 
 favourable circumstances. But he had learned caution, and he bided 
 his time. 
 
 He had not to wait long. The vast power still remaining in the 
 name of Napoleon had been shown in the unbounded enthusiasm 
 everywhere displayed on the restoration to France of the body of the 
 great emperor, and Louis Napoleon's partisans had taken care to keep 
 the nephew of the emperor prominently before the public eye. At the 
 election of deputies to the National Assembly in June 1848 Louis 
 Napoleon w*3 chosen for the department of the Seine, and three other 
 departments The prince applied to take his seat. M. Lamartine on 
 the 12th of June moved the adoption of a decree banishing Louis 
 Napoleon from France. A warm debate ensued, and Paris got into a 
 state of great excitement. The discussion was renewed on the next 
 day, and ended in the admission of the prince, by a great majority, to 
 take his seat in the assembly. At the next election he was returned 
 by an immense majority for the department of the Seine and five other 
 departments. He took his seat on the 26th of September. 
 
 Louis Napoleon's election as president, for a term ending May 1852, 
 followed in December. From the moment of his election to this office 
 he took a much more decided stand than either of those who had 
 preceded him as head of the executive. There were symptoms of red 
 republican discontent, but they were speedily checked. The contest 
 with the legislative assembly was more important and of longer con- 
 tinuance. But the prince-president was looking to popular support, 
 and he Boon found the means of winning public favour by his progresses 
 through the country, his sounding and significant addresses, and the 
 desire he constantly expressed for the exaltation of France in the eyes 
 of the surrounding nations. His dismissal, at the beginning of 1851, 
 of a man so able and so popular as Changarnier from the command of 
 the army in Paris, showed that he would not permit himself to be 
 bearded with impunity ; and rash as it might at first glance seem, it 
 
 BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON III. so . 
 
 served to strengthen hia position. He was met apparently by an 
 equally firm resolution in the National Assembly, who, after repeatedly 
 expressing want of confidence in his ministers, proceeded on the 10th 
 of February 1851, by a majority of 102, to reject the president's 
 Dotation Bill. In November the president sent a message to the 
 assembly proposing to restore universal suffrage, and in accordance 
 with the message a bill was introduced by the ministers, but thrown 
 out by a small majority. The contest was hastening to a close. In a 
 public speech the president had denounced the assembly as obstructive 
 of all amelioratory measures, and a government journal now plainly 
 accused that body of conspiracy against the prince-president, and of 
 designing to make Changarnier military dictator. Paris was filled with 
 troops. It was evident some decided measure was at hand. The 
 leaders of the assembly hesitated, and their cause was lost. On the 
 2nd of December the prince-president issued a decree dissolving the 
 legislative assembly ; declaring Paris in a state of siege ; establishing 
 universal suffrage; proposing the election of a president for ten years, 
 and a second chamber or senate. In the course of the night 180 
 members of the assembly were placed under arrest, and M. Thiers 
 and other leading statesmen, with generals Changarnier, Cavaignac, 
 Lamoricieie, &c, were seized and sent to the castle of Vinceunes. 
 Tliis was tho famous coup d'dtat: and it was eminently successful, 
 if that can be called successful which was a violation of faith, and an 
 occasion of fearful slaughter. Numerous other arrests and banish- 
 ments occurred subsequently. On the 20th and 21st of December a 
 ' plebiscite,' embodying the terms of the decree, with tho name of 
 Louis Napoleon as president, was adopted by the French people, the 
 numbers, according to the official statement, being 7,439,216 in the 
 affirmative and 610,737 negative. A decree, published on the day 
 of the official announcement of the vote, restored the imperial 
 eagles to the national colours and to the cross of the Legion of 
 Honour. In January the new constitution was published; the 
 National Guard re-organised ; and the titles of the French nobility 
 restored. 
 
 It soon became evident that the restoration of the empire was only 
 a matter of time. Petitions which had been presented to the senate 
 were printed in the newspapers, praying for the establishment of the 
 hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte family ; cries of ' Vive 
 l'Empcreur' were heard in every public ceremonial in which the 
 president took part ; and at length the president himself in a speech 
 to the Chamber of Commerce of Bordeaux, declared that "tho empire 
 is peace." On the 21st and 22nd of November, the people were con- 
 voked to accept or reject a ' plebiscite,' resuscitating the imperial 
 dignity in the person of Louis Napoleon, with heredicity in his direct 
 legitimate or adoptive descendants. The affirmative was declared to 
 be voted by 7,864,189 to 231,145. The prince in formally accepting 
 the imperial dignity assumed the title of Napoleon III. The new 
 emperor was at once acknowledged by England, and subsequently 
 though not till after a greater or less delay by the other leading powers 
 of Europe. 
 
 The career of the emperor is too recent to require to be related in 
 detail. As is well known it has hitherto been a career of unbroken 
 prosperity. Iu the January following his acceptance of the empire 
 he married Eugenie Comtesse de Teba, a lady who had the good 
 fortune to win general popularity, before she presented the emperor 
 and the nation with an 'Enfant de France.' From the first, as president 
 as well as emperor, Napoleon displayed a strong desire to draw closer 
 the alliance with Great Britain. The feeling was warmly recripro- 
 cated in this country, and the aggression of Russia, by leading the 
 two powers to unite their arms in resistance to the outrage, has served 
 to render the union as ardent as such a union could possibly be. 
 Should it be as lastiug as it is ardent, and as for the common good of 
 the two countries it is most earnestly to be desired it may be, it 
 cannot fail to form one of the most abiding glories of the reign of 
 Napoleon. In March 1854 France, in conjunction with England, 
 declared war against Russia, and the soldiers of the two countries 
 have stood side by side, winning equal renown, in many a famous 
 field. As was to be expected, in a war against such a colossal empire, 
 the war has proved a long and costly one. But the very expenditure 
 rendered necessary by it has served to show iu the most striking 
 manner the deep hold the emperor has on the regard of the French 
 people. It became necessary for the French government in December 
 1854 to ask for a loan of 500,000,000 francs : in ten days 2,175,000,000 
 were subscribed. Another loan was required in the following J uly 
 of 750,000,000 francs (30,000,000/.), the amount subscribed was 
 3,652,591,985 fraucs (146,1 03,680£), or nearly five times the amount 
 required, and of this no less than 231,920,155 francs were made up of 
 subscriptions of 50 francs and under. 
 
 In April 1855 the emperor and empress visited England, and in the 
 following August Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited Paris; 
 and in each country the reception of the respective sovereigns was of 
 the most splendid, and with the people of the most enthusiastic 
 character. In May 1855 the emperor opened a Temple of Concord, 
 the grand Exposition of the arts and industry of all nations, which 
 had the effect of attracting to Paris the largest number of visitors 
 almost ever known there. Paris itself too has been improved by new 
 streets of almost unrivalled architectural splendour. 
 
 In March 1856 the conferences for negociating a peace between tho 
 
BONAPARTE, FAMILY OP. 
 
 BONAPARTE, JOSEPH. 
 
 810 
 
 western powers and Russia opened at Paris. And on the 16th of the 
 same month, the emperor was made happy by the birth of a son and 
 heir to the imperial crown'. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BONAPARTE, FAMILY OF. The father of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 has been noticed under Bonaparte, Napoleon I. We propose under 
 the present head to notice the mother and brothers of the emperor, 
 and the youuger members of the family who have acquired distinction. 
 
 Letizia Raiioli'no Bonaparte, born at Ajaccio in Corsica, in 
 August, 1750, married in 1767 Charles Buonaparte, a landed proprietor 
 and a lawyer. Charles fought under Paoli for the independence of 
 the island against the French, and his young wife accompanied him 
 through their mountain expeditions. Their vicissitudes are narrated 
 under Bonaparte, Napoleon I. After her son Napoleon became 
 First Consul of France, Madame Letizia fixed her residence at Paris, 
 where she lived rather retired, but after the empire was proclaimed 
 she received the title of ' Madame Mere :' she had her own household, 
 her chamberlains, ladies of honour, and all the accessories of a court. 
 Des Cazes was appointed her secretary. Her half-brother Fesch had 
 been made a cardinal. Madame Mere was not bewildered by her 
 sudden rise ; she was economical in her expenditure, and contrived to 
 save a handsome sum out of the amount appropriated to the main- 
 tenance of her establishment. She is said to have once observed on 
 hearing that she was reproached for her savingness, " I may some day, 
 perhaps, have to find bread for all these kings," — meaning her sons. 
 She was designated by Napoleon as especial patroness of the charitable 
 institutions of France. After Napoleon's first abdication in 1814, she 
 went to live at Rome, but repaired again to Paris when her son 
 returned from Elba. After his second downfall she went back to 
 Rome, where she spent her latter years in the company of her sons 
 Lucien, Louis, and Jerome, and of her brother Cardinal Fesch. She 
 retained almost to the last her shrewdness of intellect, and has the 
 credit of having been a prime adviser in all the projects of the Bona- 
 parte family. She is said to have been very charitable to the poor. 
 She died in February, 1836. There is a fine seated statue of Madame 
 Mere, by Canova, in the collection of the Duke of Devonshire at 
 Chatsworth. 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte, the eldest son of Charles and Letizia Bonaparte, 
 was born at Ajaccio in Corsica, January 7, 1768.' He received his 
 education at the college of Autun in France, and at the University of 
 Pisa. After the death of his father, he returned to Corsica in 1785. 
 He applied himself to the study of the law, according to his father's 
 wishes. In 1792 he was made a member of the new administration of 
 Corsica, under Paoli, who was an old friend of the Bonaparte family. 
 In the following year, when Paoli declared against the National Con- 
 vention, and called the English to his assistance, Joseph emigrated to 
 Marseille, where he married one of the daughters of a wealthy banker 
 of the name of Clari, whose younger daughter married Bernadotte, 
 afterwards King of Sweden. In 1796 Joseph was appointed commis- 
 sary to the army of Italy, which was commanded by his brother 
 Napoleon. In 1797 he was elected deputy to the Council of the Five 
 Hundred for his own native department of the Liamone in Corsica, 
 that island having been evacuated by the English. Joseph repaired 
 to Paris, whence he was shortly after sent by the Executive Directory 
 as ambassador to the pope. There was then at Rome a knot of 
 enthusiasts who were bent upon establishing a Roman republic, and 
 they relied upon the countenance and support of the French. On the 
 28th of December 1797, they assembled to the number of about three 
 hundred, under the guidance of a sculptor named Ceracchi, and 
 proceeded to the palace Corsini, where Joseph Bonaparte resided, 
 vociferating " The Republic of the Roman people for ever I " and they 
 applied to the ambassador, claiming French protection. Joseph 
 desired them to leave the palace. In the mean time a detachment of 
 the papal troops, who were in pursuit, arrived in front of the palace, 
 and insisted that the insurgents should leave the premises. Those from 
 within insulted and taunted the soldiers, who at last rushed into the 
 court of the palace to clear it of the fugitives. Joseph, attended by 
 Generals Duphot and Sherlock, came down the staircase to remonstrate 
 with the papal officers, but could not make himself heard in the midst 
 of the confusion, when Duphot, young and impetuous, drew his sword, 
 and rushed forward, followed by the insurgents, in order to drive 
 away the soldiers. The soldiers then fired, killing several of their 
 opponents, and Duphot among the rest. The insurgents dispersed in 
 the gardens of the palace, and the soldiers formed themselves in the 
 street outside. These transactions were much misrepresented by the 
 French and their partisans. Joseph wrote in a vehement strain to the 
 Cardinal Doria, secretary of state, complaining of the violation of his 
 rettidence, and requiring immediate satisfaction. The cardinal hesitated; 
 Joseph demanded his passports, and, heedless of the explanations sent 
 by the Roman government, he set off in the night of the same day to 
 return to France. The Directory then ordered Berthier to take 
 possession of Rome. 
 
 Joseph resumed his seat in the Council of the Five Hundred, and, 
 during the absence of Napoleon in Egypt, he and his brother Lucien 
 prepared the way for his return, and for the revolution which followed. 
 Napoleon having become First Consul, made Joseph councillor of state, 
 and he employed him in September 1800 to negociate a treaty of peace 
 »nd commerce with the United States of North America. Having 
 exhibited some diplomatio skill in this transaction, he was sent in the 
 
 following year to Luneville, where he concluded a treaty of peace with 
 the Emperor of Germany in 1801, and next year he was likewise 
 employed at Amiens to negociate the treaty with England. He was 
 made a senator; and on his brother attaining the imperial crown, 
 Joseph was recognised as an imperial prince and grand elector of the 
 empire. When Napoleon sent an army to invade Naples at the begin- 
 ning of 1806, he appointed his brother, ' Prince Joseph,' to lead the 
 expedition as his lieutenant, Marshal Massena acting as military 
 commander. Immediately afterwards the emperor announced to 
 Joseph, after his usual imperious fashion, but in a private letter dated 
 January 19, 1806, his intention to make him king of Naples: — "My 
 will is that the Bourbons shall have ceased to reign in Naples. I 
 intend to seat on that throne a prince of my own house. In the first 
 place you, if it suits you : if not, another." But the intimation of his 
 intention to make Joseph a king was followed in a few days by a plain 
 announcement that he was to be only a subordinate king : " I intend 
 my blood to reign in Naples as long as it does in France ; the kingdom 
 of Naples is necessary to me." Joseph after a little hesitation accepted 
 the post. In the following March Napoleon appointed by a decree 
 " his brother Joseph Napoleon King of Naples and Sicily." Joseph 
 reigned in Naples, though not in Sicily, little more than two years. 
 Acting as his brother's subordinate, he effected fundamental changes 
 in the institutions of the country, the object being to assimilate its 
 institutions to those of France. He abolished feudality, suppressed 
 the convents, and by the sale of their property and that of the crown 
 he restored order in the finances ; he promulgated the French codes 
 and judiciary system; he began a cadastro, or survey and estimation 
 of the landed property, for the better as-sesstnent of the land-tax; and 
 he established a new and regular system of provincial administration. 
 He also embellished the capital, began new roads in the provinces, and 
 organised an effective gendarmerie to repress the robber-bands in the 
 provinces. Most of these measures were beneficial to the country, but 
 they were effected in a hasty overbearing manner, like all the reforms 
 made under Napoleon, and many individual rights and iuterests were 
 overlooked and sacrificed. The times were stormy, and the country 
 was still teeming with insurrections and conspiracies, which were 
 suppressed in a summary way, and many executions took place. But 
 the harsh and overbearing character of his government was not due to 
 Joseph himself ; on the contrary, he was most anxious to adopt humane 
 and conciliatory measures. But he was constantly overruled and 
 directed by the emperor, and often in the most peremptory style, in 
 secondary as well as in the more important matters; and Joseph's 
 appeals and remonstrances were dismissed sometimes in a contemp- 
 tuous, sometimes in a petulant, but always in a very summary manner. 
 (See the Correspondence in the ' Me"moires ' referred to below.) It is 
 needless to add that neither the nobility nor the body of the people 
 became reconciled to the new system under a king who listened to 
 their complaints and promised to help them, but whose inability to 
 carry out his good intentions, or even keep his promises, soon became 
 apparent. The Neapolitans soon learnt to despise as well as to fear 
 their new king ; and the pompous proclamations in which he imitated 
 the inflated style of the emperor, proceeding as they did from one who 
 was in fact only announcing the edicts of another, served as fertile 
 themes for the Italian love of caricature. 
 
 When he had been king of Naples little more than two years, 
 Napoleon announced to him his intention to remove him from the 
 throne of Naples and place him on that of Spain : the announcement 
 being made in almost as summary a way as that of his first elevation 
 to regal honours. On the 18th of April 1808 the emperor wrote to 
 say that in a few days he might want him to repair to Bayonne, and 
 then, on the 11th of May, came the reason. " The nation, through 
 the Supreme Council of Castile, asks me for a king : I destine this 
 crown for you." The appointment quickly followed. By a decree of 
 June 6, 1808, Napoleon appointed "Joseph Napoleon to be King of 
 Spain and of the Indies," and soon after Joachim Murat succeeded 
 him as King of Naples. In Spain Joseph met with much greater 
 difficulties than at Naples. He tried mildness and conciliation, but 
 even these failed, owing to the stern unbending character of the people. 
 From the first he saw clearly the disadvantages and difficulties of his 
 position. But the emperor treated his suggestions and remonstrances, 
 as well as his frequent passionate appeals to his fr.iternal feelings, with 
 equal disdain, and during the whole of his nominal rule he was in 
 fact merely the puppet of his brother. During the five years of his 
 Spanish reign, three times he was obliged by the success of the allied 
 armies to leave his capital; the last time (1813) to return no more. 
 Joseph would have wished to be really and not nominally king of 
 Spain, but this was prevented both by the people, who would not 
 submit to him, and by his brother Napoleon, who appointed by degrees 
 his own generals to be military governors in the various divisions of 
 Spain, and they acted quite independent of King Joseph and his 
 Spanish ministers. More than once Joseph wrote to his brother, 
 requesting to be allowed to resign his crown, as he saw that he could 
 do no good in Spain; and in 1812 he repaired to Paris for the same 
 object, but Napoleon induced him to remain in his place by telling 
 him that he expected to make peace with England, and then he should 
 withdraw his army from Spain. This was before the Russian expedi- 
 tion. General Foy, in his history of the war in the Peninsula, speaks 
 of Joseph as follows : — " When he assumed the crown of Spain, Joseph 
 
 3 F* 
 
811 BONAPARTE, LUCIEN. 
 
 ■was forty years of age. His figure was graceful, and his manners 
 elegant. He was fond of women, of the fine arts, and of literature. 
 His conversation was fluent and methodical, and abounded with judi- 
 cious remarks." After the battle of Vittoria (June 1813), where he 
 narrowly escaped being taken prisoner by the English, he withdrew to 
 France. In January 1814, when Napoleon set off for the army, he 
 appointed Joseph lieutenant-general of the empire, and placed him f.t 
 the head of the council of regency which was to assist the empress- 
 regent. Napoleon wrote to him from Rbeims on the 16th March, that 
 in case the enemy should advance in irresistible force, he must send 
 off towards the Loire the empress and her son, the great dignitaries, 
 the ministers, and all the heads of the administration. " Do not leave 
 my son for a moment," added he ; "I should prefer hearing that he 
 was at the bottom of the Seine rather than in the hands of the enemies 
 of France." Accordingly when the great army under Schwarzenberg 
 arrived before Paris on the 28th of the same month, Joseph sent off 
 the empress and her son to Blois. After the battle of the 30th, in 
 which the troops outside of Paris were driven in by the allies, Mar- 
 mont told Joseph that he could no longer defend the capital, and 
 Joseph authorised him to treat for a suspension of arms for a few 
 hours in order to arrange the terms of a capitulation. Joseph then 
 rejoined the empress at Blois. After Napoleon's abdication, Joseph 
 and his brother Jerome thought of removing the empress and the 
 regency to the south of France, but the empress refused, and was sup- 
 ported in her refusal by the members of the household. Soon after, 
 the empress rejoined her father Francis of Austria, the regency was 
 dissolved, and Joseph set out for Switzerland, where he purchased the 
 estate of Prangin, near Nyon, on the banks of the Lake Leman. 
 From thence he corresponded with his brother at Elba, and with 
 Murat at Naples, who had become restless under his engagements with 
 Austria ; and he is said to have given Murat the advice of declaring 
 against Austria in 1815, so as to make a diversion in favour of Napo- 
 leon — a diversion which proved of no use to Napoleon and was fatal 
 to Murat. Napoleon having returned to Paris in March 1815, Joseph 
 rejoined him there, and took his seat in the House of Peers. 
 
 After the return of Napoleon from his defeat at Waterloo and his 
 second abdication, Joseph embarked for the United States, after 
 having a last interview with his brother at the lie d'Aix. He was well 
 received in the United States, and after a time he fixed his residence 
 on the banks of the Delaware, near Philadelphia, where he purchased 
 an estate. He assumed the title of Count de Survilliers, and lived in 
 a style of affluence, affording employment to many of the labouring 
 population, and hospitality to the French emigrants who resorted to 
 America. His wife remained in Europe with her two daughters, and 
 resided at Brussels and afterwards at Florence. When the Paris 
 revolution of 1830 became known in America, Joseph wrote a long 
 letter or address to the House of Deputies, in which he put forth the 
 claims of his nephew, the present emperor. The letter was not read 
 to the chamber. He came himself to England soon after, and resided 
 some time in this country, and at last repaired to Italy, where he died 
 at Florence, in July 1844. He was buried in the vaults of the church 
 of Santa Croce. Joseph Bonaparte was a man of considerable intel- 
 ligence and of good intentions, but he was too feeble of purpose to 
 resist the imperious will of his brother, and was of course wholly 
 unfitted to act independently in the elevated positions to which he 
 was raised. 
 
 (A. du Casse, Mimoires et Correspondance du Roi Joseph, &c, or the 
 English selection from that work, noticed under Bonaparte, Napo- 
 leon L ; Abel Hugo, Precis Historique des Evinemens qui ont conduit 
 Joseph Napoleon sur le Tr6ne d'Espagne ; Botta, Storia d' Italia ; Coppi, 
 Annali d' Italia; Colletta, Storia del Reame di Napoli ; Thibaudeau, 
 Le Consulat et Y Empire; Thiers, Southey, &c.) 
 
 Lxjcie'n Bonaparte, the third son of Charles and Letizia Bona- 
 parte, Napoleon being the second, was born at Ajaccio in 1775. He 
 emigrated to Marseille with the rest of the family in 1793. He 
 entered warmly into the revolutionary notions of that period, and 
 made speeches at various clubs, and wrote pamphlets on liberty and 
 equality. Soon after, he obtained employment in the commissariat at 
 St. Maximin, a small town of Provence, where he married the daughter 
 of an innkeeper. Being one of the republican municipality of that 
 place, he exerted himself laudably, and at his own imminent peril, to 
 save several unfortunate individuals accused of royalism, whom an 
 agent of Barras and Freron, the terrorist commissioners in the south 
 of France, wanted to remove to the prisons of Orange, where the 
 guillotine was in constant activity. By showing a bold front to the 
 agent, whom Lucien charged with informality in his commission, he 
 detained the intended victims under arrest at St. Maximin, until the 
 fall of Robespierre put a stop to the reign of terror. In the reaction 
 however which took place in the south of France, Lucien was arrested 
 as a Jacobin, on account of his speeches; and a royalist whom he had 
 saved proved most hostile against him. He was however liberated 
 after a time. In 1796 Lucien was appointed commissary at war, 
 probably through the influence of his brother, General Bonaparte. In 
 the following year he was elected deputy to the Council of the Five 
 Hundred, and he went to reside at Paris, where he took a house, of 
 which his sister, Elisa Baciocchi, did the honours. His drawing- 
 room was resorted to by several men of note and of literary acquire- 
 ments. Lucien took the opposition side in the council, and allied | 
 
 BONAPARTE, LUCIEN. sit 
 
 himself to Sieyes and hia party, who wished to try their hands at a 
 new constitution. While Napoleon was in Egypt, Lucien wrote to 
 him, complaining of the incapacity and misgovernment of the Execu- 
 tive Directory, and urging him to return to France, but the letters are 
 said to have been intercepted by the English cruisers. 
 
 After Napoleon's return, in October 1799, Lucien, who was the 
 president of the council, became the active leader of those who wished 
 to overturn the Directory. In the stormy sitting of the 19th Bru- 
 maire [Bonaparte, Napoleon I.] he resisted the motion made by 
 several members to outlaw General Bonaparte, and as the confusion 
 and uproar increased in the hall, he left the chair, and addressing his 
 brother's soldiers outside, told them to march in and drive away the 
 factious men who were no longer the representatives of France. After 
 the accomplishment of that revolution, in which he rendered most 
 material assistance to his brother, he was one of the members of the 
 commission which framed the new or Consular constitution. Soon 
 after he was appointed minister of the interior, but remained in office 
 only f. short time, having had some disagreement with his brother 
 upon matters of administration; and in October 1800, after the cam- 
 paign of Marengo, Napoleon sent him ambassador to Spain. Hia 
 mission proved successful ; he managed to ingratiate himself with 
 Charles IV. and the favourite Godoy, and to re-establish French 
 influence in Spain. He induced the weak Spanish government to join 
 France in an attack upon Portugal, which ended by the latter country 
 being obliged to sue for peace, for which it paid dearly. He also com- 
 pleted the arrangements concerning the new kingdom of Etruria, to 
 be given to the young infante, son of the Duke of Parma, who had 
 married a Spanish princess, in exchange for which Spain ceded to 
 France her rights upon Parma and Piaceuza. The cession of Louisiana 
 to France was likewise confirmed Having concluded these nego- 
 ciations, Lucien returned to Paris in 1802. He was made a member 
 of the Tribunate, and as such he supported with all his eloquence the 
 concordat with the pope, and also the institution of the Legion of 
 Honour. Lucien was made a senator, and his brother gave him the 
 seuatorship or living of Sopelsdorf, an estate of the former elector of 
 Treves. His wife being dead, Lucien married, in 1803, Madame 
 Jouberthou, the widow of a stockbroker, who had died at St. 
 Domingo. Napoleon disapproved of this marriage, as he had disap- 
 proved of the marriage of Jerome, because he looked forward to royal 
 alliances for his brotbers. Lucien however supported the project of 
 making his brother consul for life ; but he says in his memoirs that 
 he wished to have stopped there, and that he opposed from the first 
 the idea of establishing an hereditary dynasty. When he saw his 
 brother determined on assuming the imperial crown, he left France in 
 the spring of 1804 and went to Italy. Thibaudeau and others say 
 that the two brothers quarrelled on other grounds ; about Lucien's 
 marriage in particular. Lucien accuses Fouche" of having, by his 
 insidious reports, contributed to alienate him from his brother. The 
 Senatus Consultum, which fixed the hereditary succession in Napo* 
 leon's family, named his brothers Joseph and Louis as eventual heirs 
 to the throne, but made no mention of either Lucien or Jerome. 
 Lucien, after a time, fixed his residence at Rome, where he was very 
 kindly received by Pope Pius VII. He took a large house, and lived 
 in a style of affluence. Being fond of literature and the fine arts, his 
 house was much frequented. After the peace of Tilsit, Napoleon 
 repaired to North Italy at the end of 1807, and sent for his brother 
 Lucien to meet him at Mantua. The two brothers had there a con- 
 ference, in which it seems that Napoleon offered to give Lucien a 
 kingdom in Italy, at the same time telliDg him plainly that in such 
 case he must be prepared to obey all his orders concerning the internal 
 as well as the external policy of his administration. Lucien declined 
 accepting a crown on these terms, and said that he preferred to remain 
 in a private station. "Be it so," Napoleon replied; "you cannot have 
 henceforth any ground of complaint against me." But he added in 
 parting, that as Lucien would not fall in with his system of politics, 
 he must prepare to quit the continent, where his silent opposition 
 could no longer be tolerated. (' Response de Lucien Bonaparte aux 
 Memoires du General Lamarque.') 
 
 Lucien returned to Rome, where he purchased the estate of Canino, 
 in the province of Viterbo, near the borders of Tuscany. Popo 
 Pius VII. created him Prince of Canino and Musignano in 1808. 
 Soon after Napoleon began a course of vexatious proceedings towards 
 the court of Rome, whieh ended in the arrest of the pope, and the 
 seizure of his dominions. When the French took possession of Rome 
 in 1809, Lucien, who had expressed himself very freely against this 
 part of his brother's policy, was advised to leave that city, and he 
 retired to his country estate. In 1810 he resolved to go to the 
 United States. With this view he embarked on board a vessel at 
 Civitavecchia, but was seized by an English cruiser and carried to 
 Malta, where after a time he obtained permission from the British 
 government to reside in England under surveillance. Ludlow Castle 
 was fixed upon as his residence. Some time after, he removed to a 
 place in the neighbourhood, where he remained till the end of the 
 war, and employed himself in writing his poem of ' Charlemagne.' 
 After the peace of 1814 he returned to Rome, where he published hii 
 poem of ' Charlemagne,' which he dedicated to Pope Pius. When 
 Napoleon returned to France from Elba, in 1815, Lucien repaired to 
 Paris for the purpose, as is said, of obtaining his brother's favour 
 
SIS 
 
 BONAPARTE, LOUIS NAPOLEON. 
 
 BONAPARTE, JEROME. 
 
 814 
 
 towards the pope. It has been surmised by some that Lucien acted 
 from a generous impulse, to tender to his brother his advice in the 
 hour of danger, and to keep him also, if possible, within constitu- 
 tional limits. However this may be, he went to live at the palace of 
 the Orleans family, assumed the style of an imperial prince, and 
 claimed a seat of honour as such in the new House of Peers. This 
 was resisted by several peers, on the ground that he had never been 
 acknowledged as a prince of the empire, and had no diploma as such. 
 He then took his seat in the body of the house as a common peer. 
 In the privy councils that took place, he advised Napoleon to offer to 
 the Emperor of Austria, in order to detach him from the allies, to 
 abdicate in favour of his son. His advice after some hesitation was 
 rejected. Napoleon set off for the army, lost the battle of Waterloo, 
 and returned to Paris without an army. Lucien being appointed 
 extraordinary commissioner of the emperor, to communicate with the 
 representatives of the people, strove to revive in • the Chamber of 
 Deputies a feeling of sympathy for his brother; he spoke eloquently, 
 he appealed to the gratitude of the nation, but was answered sternly 
 by La Fayette, "The nation has followed your brother over fifty 
 fields of battle, from the burning sands of Egypt to the frozen deserts 
 of Russia, through disasters as well as triumphs, and it is for this 
 that we mourn the loss of three millions of Frenchmen !" Lucien 
 advised his brother to dissolve the Chambers, since he could not 
 manage them, and to assume the dictatorship. Napoleon hesitated, 
 and at last refused ; he said that he would not kindle a civil war. 
 He most likely perceived what Lucien did not see, that the attempt 
 would only lead to a short protracted struggle, attended by additional 
 calamities to France and to himself. Lucien says that he was opposed 
 to Napoleon's abdication, but when he saw his brother determined 
 upon it, he insisted upon its being made at least in favour of young 
 Napoleon. Napoleon smiled and shook his head incredulously, but 
 at length inserted the clause in favour of his son. Lucien then pro- 
 ceeded to address the House of Peers to induce them to proclaim at 
 once Napoleon II., but in vain he cried out, according to the forms of 
 the old monarchy, " The emperor has abdicated, long live the empe- 
 ror!" the House remained mute, and as he went on speaking vehe- 
 mently, one of the peers, Pontdcoulant, taunted him with being an 
 alien, a foreign titulary, a Roman prince, and not even a citizen of 
 France. Soon after the allied armies made their appearance, Napo- 
 leon went to Rochefort, and Lucien set out to return to Italy. 
 
 Lucien rejoined his family at Rome, where he afterwards spent 
 many years in peaceful retirement. In 1828 he began digging at a 
 place called La Cucumella on his estate of Canino, which is believed 
 to have been the site of the ancient Vetulonia, once an important 
 Etruscan city, and he gathered an ample collection of Etruscan 
 antiquities, of which he published a description : ' Museum Etrusque 
 de Lucien Bonaparte, Prince de Canino.' During the insurrection in 
 the Papal States in 1831, Lucien kept himself and his family aloof 
 from that disorderly attempt. Some time after he revisited England, 
 where he published several of his works. He returned to Italy, where 
 he died in 1840. His eldest son, Charles Lucien Bonaparte, succeeded 
 to the title. Lucien had in all eleven children, of whom four eons 
 and five daughters are still living (1856). 
 
 Lucien ranks as a French author in prose and in verse. His pub- 
 lished works are: — 'Charlemagne, ou l'Eglise ddlivrde,' an epic poem 
 in 24 cantos, which has been translated into English by S. Butler, 
 D.D., and the Rev. F. Hodgson, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1815; 'La 
 Cyrndide, ou la Corse sauvde,' a poem in 12 cantos ; ' Mdmoires de 
 Lucien Bonaparte, Prince de Canino, dcrits par luimume,' 8vo, London, 
 1836; and'Reponse de Lucien Bonaparte aux Mdmoires du Gdndral 
 Lamarque,' London, 1835. This is a sort of political confession, and 
 at the same time an apology for his own and Napoleon's political 
 conduct during the hundred days ; it contains some curious revelations 
 and frank avowals, though it is rather incoherent in its reasoning, 
 like all the attempted justifications of Napoleon's political morality. 
 Several of Lucien's speeches while a tribune have also been published ; 
 among others his 'Rapport sur 1' Organisation des Cultes,' and 'Dis- 
 cours sur la Legion d'Honneur.' A defamatory book, entitled ' Me'moires 
 de Lucien Bonaparte,' was published in France during the Restora- 
 tion, but is of no authority. 
 
 (Thibaudeau, Le Consulat et V Empire ; Biographie des Contemporains ; 
 and the works of Lucien already quoted.) 
 
 Lodis Napoleon Bonaparte, the fourth son of Charles Bonaparte, 
 and father of Napoleon III., was born at Ajaccio in Corsica, on Sep- 
 tember 21, 1778. At an early age he entered the French army, and 
 accompanied his brother Napoleon to Italy and Egypt. In Italy he 
 distinguished himself at the passage of the bridge of Areola, braving 
 the fire of the enemy, and shielding the body of his brother and com- 
 mander. When Napoleon became first consul, he was sent on a mission 
 to St. Petersburg; but on arriving at Berlin he learned the news of 
 the death of the Emperor Paul. He returned to Paris after remaining 
 »t Berlin about a year, and became a general of brigade, a counsellor 
 of itate, and afterwards a general of division. In 1802 he married 
 Hortense Eugenie de Beauharnais, the daughter of the Empress 
 Josephine. When Napoleon became emperor, Louis waB promoted to 
 oigher honours, and wais made governor of Piedmont, and afterwards 
 commanded the army of the north of Holland. After the Batavian 
 "public had bean converted into a kingdom, the states of Holland in 
 
 June 1806 sent an embassy to Napoleon, requesting that Louis might 
 be their king, which was granted, and he immediately assumed the 
 title. He strenuously exerted himself to better the condition of his 
 people, and distinguished himself on several occasions by his personal 
 humanity. His love for his people occasioned him to refuse without 
 hesitation the offer made him by his brother of the crown of Spain; 
 but his opposition to Napoleon's plans, which he thought were preju- 
 dicial to their welfare, gave great dissatisfaction at Paris. His wife 
 was a most attached adherent of Napoleon's, and her inability to 
 control her husband, the death of her eldest son in 1807, and the state 
 of her health, induced her to repair to Paris, when; a third son was 
 born. She was afterwards sent by Napoleon in 1809 to induce Louis 
 to comply with his wishes, but Louis refused. She then returned to 
 Paris, where she resided in state as Queen of Holland, and Napoleon 
 sent Oudinot with 20,000 men against Louis, who thereupon abdicated 
 in favour of his son, which abdication Napoleon rejected ; and on 
 July 9, 1810, Holland was united to the empire. Louis retired to Gratz 
 in Styria, where he lived three years under the title of Count de St. 
 Leu, and his wife became wholly separated from him, though not 
 divorced. In 1813, when the allies appeared about to fall upon France, 
 Louis offered his services to the emperor, by whom they were accepted, 
 and he proceeded to Switzerland, but he was not employed. On the 
 downfall of Napoleon, when the Dutch threw off the French yoke, Louis 
 addressed a letter to the provisional government from Soleure, asserting 
 his claims to the throne, but they were rejected. He then commenced 
 a suit at Paris for the restitution of his two sons, then living under 
 the care of their mother, who had obtained a grant of the domain of 
 St. Leu, with the title of Duchess, through the interest of the Emperor 
 Alexander. The return of Napoleon put a stop to the suit, and the 
 Duchess of St. Leu did the honours of Napoleon's court, and used her 
 interest in favour of the unfortunate of all parties. After the battle 
 of Waterloo she went to reside in Switzerland with her sons, as stated 
 under Bonaparte, Napoleon III. Louis retired to the Papal States, 
 where others of his family had assembled, and devoted himself chiefly 
 to literature. He published ' Marie, ou Les Hollandaises ;' ' Documen3 
 Historiques sur la Hollande,' 5 vols. 8vo, 1820; 'Me'moires sur la 
 Versification ;' an opera, a tragedy, a collection of poems, and a reply 
 to Sir Walter Scott on his ' History of Napoleon.' He died at Leghorn, 
 June 15, 1846; and at his special desire, which after some delay was 
 acceded to, his body was buried at St. Leu in France, with those of his 
 father and his first son, September 29, 1847. 
 
 Jerome Bonaparte, the youngest brother of Napoleon I., was 
 born at Ajaccio, the 15th of December 1784. With the rest of the 
 family, he went to France in 1793, and after some preparatory 
 instruction under Madame Campan at Paris he was sent to the college 
 of Juilly. When Napoleon became first consul he removed Jerome, 
 then fifteen years of age, from college, and placed him in the naval 
 service, which he was then endeavouring to re-organise and improve. 
 Jdrdme went as lieutenant in 1801 to St. Domingo, with the expedition 
 commanded by General Leclerc ; but he did not stay long, being sent 
 home by Leclerc with his despatches. He was almost immediately 
 after appointed to command the frigate ' L'Epervier,' bound for 
 Martinique. When hostilities broke out between France and England 
 in 1803, Jerome cruised off the West India Islands; but he was soon 
 forced to quit that station, without having accomplished anything, 
 and take refuge in the port of New York. While in the United 
 States he became acquainted with Miss Elizabeth Paterson, the 
 daughter of a wealthy merchant at Baltimore, whom he married, 
 December 24, 1803. This marriage, contracted without his know- 
 ledge, gave great offence to Napoleon, who was now bent on forming 
 high alliances for all the members of his family. In spite of the 
 entreaties of Jerome, Napoleon, as soon as he became emperor, caused 
 the marriage to be annulled by a decree of the council of state, on the 
 ground of his brother being a minor : the pope however, to whom 
 Napoleon applied, refused to ratify the divorce. J drome, in returning 
 to Europe with his wife, was chased by some English cruisers, but suc- 
 ceeded in carrying his ship safely home. His wife having been ordered 
 not to enter France, went on to Holland, but not being allowed to land 
 there she proceeded to England, where a few weeks later, July 1805, 
 she gave birth to a son, Jdrome Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 Jdr6me remained for some time in disgrace with his brother, as well 
 on account of his want of success at sea as of his marriage ; but after 
 awhile he was sent as envoy to the Dey of Algiers, to obtain the 
 liberty of a number of Genoese slaves. Having succeeded in his 
 mission, he was appointed to the command of a vessel of 74 guns, 
 and afterwards of a squadron of eight vessels, with which he sailed in 
 1806 to Martinique. On his return he was created a prince of the 
 empire, and promoted to be rear-admiral; but the English navy had 
 now such an indisputable superiority, that Napoleon no longer desired 
 to have a member of his family attached to the maritime service, and, 
 without much ceremony, he transferred Jdrome in 1807 to the army, 
 with the rank of general. In the campaign of 1807, Jdrome received 
 the command of a body of Bavarian and Wurtemberg troops, with 
 which he attacked the Prussians, and made himself master of Silesia. 
 On the 14th of March he was created a general of division. 
 
 On the 12th of August 1807, Jdr6noe married Frederique Catherine, 
 daughter of Frederic king of Wurtemberg ; and on the 18th of the 
 same month Napoleon erected Westphalia into a kingdom, and created 
 
815 
 
 BONAPARTE, CHARLES LUCIEN. 
 
 BONE, HENRY, R.A. 
 
 818 
 
 Jer6me king of Westphalia. Jer6me directed all his energies to the 
 performance of his royal duties. He was compelled to act in a great 
 measure as the deputy of Napoleon, but he did not hesitate to exercise 
 his own judgment. He set about the restoration of the national 
 finances, the removal of administrative abuses, the reformation of 
 various institutions, and the establishment of religious freedom ; and 
 following the example, perhaps obeying the directions, of the emperor, 
 lie commenced the embellishment of the capital, Cassel. But though 
 he gained to a considerable extent the good will of his subjects he 
 failed to satisfy his brother, who on several occasions loaded him 
 v ith reproaches, and more than once summoned him to Paris, the 
 better to enforce his instructions. In the Russian campaign Napo- 
 leon gave JeVome the command of a German division, numbering 
 70,000 men, with which he rendered good service on more than one 
 occasion. But suffering himself to be surprised at Smolensk, he was 
 summoned before the emperor, who, after angrily reproaching him 
 with disconcerting his plans, dismissed him from his command, which 
 he gave to General Reguier, and sent him back to Germany. When 
 in the following year the French forces were driven out of Germany, 
 JeVome was compelled to abandon his kingdom (October 26, 1813) 
 and take refuge in France. On the abdication of Napoleon J drome 
 and his wife, after a brief stay at Wiirtemberg, settled in Italy. He 
 was watched by the Austrian government, but, by the aid of Murat, 
 succeeded, on his bruther's return from Elba, in escaping surveillance, 
 and joined the emperor at Paris. He was favourably received, took 
 part in the various public solemnities, and was called to the Chamber 
 of Peers. J drome accompanied Napoleon to Waterloo, and distin- 
 guished himself by his repeated gallant, though unsuccessful attacks 
 on the chateau of Hougoumont. In this affair Jerome received a 
 alight wound in the arm. 
 
 After Napoleon's final abdication, Jerome, proscribed with the rest 
 of his family from France, after wandering for awhile about Switzer- 
 land, returned to Wiirtemberg, where his father-in-law conferred on 
 him the title of Prince of Montfort, with a handsome estate. Somewhat 
 later he removed to the neighbourhood of Vienna, and afterwards to 
 Trieste, where he purchased a palace. When his nephew Louis 
 Napoleon had become the ruler of France, Jerome was recalled to 
 Paris; and shortly after the old man who had already witnessed so 
 many vicissitudes, was by the new Emperor named Marechal of France, 
 president of the Senate, and, in failure of direct succession, heir to the 
 Imperial throne. Prince Jerome has lived to see a eon born to the 
 emperor, and no doubt shares in the general hope that in him the 
 Bonaparte dynasty may be firmly established. The only son of Prince 
 Jdrome by his first wife is married to an American lady, and settled as 
 a citizen of the United States. By his second wife, who died Novem- 
 ber 28, 1835, Prince Jerome had three children, of whom two, a son, 
 Prince Napoleon, and a daughter, are still living. [Supplement.] 
 
 Charles Lucien Jules Lawrence Bonaparte, Prince of Canino, 
 eldest son of Lucien Bonaparte, was born at Paris, May 24, 1803. He 
 received a careful education, and has always exhibited a much greater 
 attachment to literary and scientific than political pursuits. As a 
 naturalist the Prince of Canino has acquired great distinction. In 
 ornithology especially, he is generally regarded as one of the chief 
 living authorities ; and he has been elected a member of nearly all the 
 principal learned societies of Europe and America. For some years 
 the prince resided in the United States, and it was by his writings on 
 the birds of America that he first made himself known to the scientific 
 world. His chief publications are a continuation of Wilson's ' Orni- 
 thology of America ' in four folio volumes ; and the ' Iconografia della 
 Fauna Italica,' a splendidly illustrated work in three volumes folio. 
 But besides these he has published numerous essays and memoirs on 
 particular portions of American ornithology, and on other branches of 
 natural history in the scientific journals of the United States and 
 Europe. The prince has always been the zealous friend and patron of 
 the votaries of science, and for many years he was the chief promoter 
 of the annual congresses of the scientific men of Italy. 
 
 Prince Charles Bonaparte married at Brussels, June 29th, 1822, 
 Zenaide-Charlotte, daughter of his uncle Joseph Bonaparte, by whom 
 he has had ten children, of whom three sons and five daughters are 
 living. [See Supplement.] 
 
 * Louis Lucien Bonapaete, second eon of Lucien Bonaparte, was 
 horn in Worcestershire, January 4, 1813, during his father's residence 
 in England, lie was educated chiefly at Rome, and he early imbibed 
 the literary and scientific tastes which distinguished his father and 
 elder brother. He has written much on scientific subjects, particu- 
 larly on chemistry ; and he was for many years one of the most active 
 and influential members of the annual congress of the scientific men 
 of Italy. Of late years he has chiefly devoted his leisure hours to 
 philosophical and linguistic studies. After the election of his cousin, 
 the present emperor, as president of the French republic, Prince Louis 
 Lucien, with most of the other members of the Bonaparte family, 
 vent to Paris, and took his place as a citizen of France. He was 
 returned to the Legislative Assembly as deputy for the department of 
 the Seine ; and on the establishment of the empire he was made a 
 member of the senate. 
 
 * Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul Bonapaete, second and only 
 surviving son of Jerome Bonaparte by his second wife, the princess 
 Frederique of Wiirtemberg, was born September 9, 1822. He was 
 
 educated chiefly in Austria and Italy, but he subsequently travelled 
 in Switzerland, America, and Brussels, in each of which places ht 
 resided some time. His first appearance on the political stage was 
 after the recal of the Bonaparte family to Paris, under the presidency 
 of Prince Louis Napoleon. Being elected a member of the Legislative 
 Assembly, the prince Napoleon distinguished himself by his energetic 
 support of ultra opinions, and soon became the recognised leader of 
 the party of the Mountain. Since the accession of Napoleon III. to 
 the imperial crown, Prince Napoleon has abandoned extreme political 
 views, and has become one of the most devoted and valuable sup- 
 porters of the policy of the emperor, by whom he is much esteemed 
 and trusted. When the Anglo-French army was despatched to the 
 Crimea, Prince Napoleon received the command of a division of the 
 French army. He fought with distinction at the Alma ; but his health 
 gave way soon after the army had encamped before Sebastopol, and 
 he was compelled to resign his command and return to France. Of 
 the grand council of war which afterwards met at Paris to arrange 
 the campaign of 1855, Prince Napoleon was a member. But he was 
 soon called to a more peaceful pursuit. When the grand exposition 
 of the arts and manufactures of all nations at Paris was fixed to take 
 place in 1855, Prince Napoleon was appointed president and chief 
 director of the whole proceedings. To this great work he devoted all 
 his energies, and it is universally admitted that much of its success was 
 owing to his great knowledge, tact, administrative ability, and untiring 
 diligence. The jurors, and especially the foreign jurors, were parti- 
 cularly indebted to him for the most friendly assistance and constant 
 support ; and the exhibitors owed no little to his zeal and sympathy. 
 The Prince Napoleon has devoted great attention to political, social, 
 and commercial studies ; and in respect to the commercial code of 
 France he is understood to hold opinions far more liberal than those 
 of the great bulk even of the commercial public of that country. 
 
 BONASO'NI, GIULIO, a native of Bologna, was born probably 
 about 1498. It is conjectured that he studied painting under Lorenzo 
 Sabbatini, but his few pictures which remain do not exhibit any 
 extraordinary power. As an engraver he is excelled by few, for, 
 though defective in the mechanical treatment of the plate, he exhibits 
 great artistic feeling. He wrought almost entirely with the burin ; 
 and if he fails occasionally in the outline, he always catches the spirit 
 of his original. His copies are so free, and yet so delicate and 
 expressive, that they might be taken for original designs. His drawing 
 is frequently uncertain, yet his versions of the great works which he 
 copied are more valuable than those of many later and more dexterous 
 artists. He has engraved from the works of Raphael, Michel Angelo, 
 Titian, Parmigiano, and many of the other great painters. He has left 
 many engravings from original designs which, though somewhat feeble 
 in effect, are characterised by much grace and agreeable simplicity. 
 The date of his death is uncertain, but he was alive in 1572. 
 
 BONAVENTU'RA, ST., was born in Bagnorea in 1221. At twenty- 
 one years of age he became a friar of the order of St. Francis, and was 
 sent by his superiors to Paris. He, as well as Thomas Aquinas of the 
 Dominican Order, became involved in contentions with the University 
 of Paris, which denied the academical honours, as well as the exercise 
 of public professorship, to individuals of the mendicant orders. Pope 
 Alexander IV. being appealed to, summoned the parties before him at 
 Anagni, and gave sentence in favour of the mendicant orders ; and 
 after some resistance by the university, a sort of compromise took place 
 in 1257, and Bonaventura received his doctor's degree. He had already 
 been elected general of his order, in which capacity he enforced a strict 
 discipline, giving himself the first example of implicit adherence to the 
 monastic rules and regulations. Retiring to the convent on Mount 
 Alvernia in Tuscany, he wrote ' Vita Sancti Francisci,' and also an 
 ascetic work, ' Itinerarium Mentis in Deum,' for which last he received 
 the appellation of the ' Seraphic Doctor.' His previous works were 
 chiefly controversial. On the death of Pope Clement IV. in 1268 the 
 cardinals could not agree for a long time in the choice of his successor, 
 and the see of Rome had remained vacant for nearly three years, when 
 Bonaventura succeeded by his eloquent exhortations in reconciling their 
 differences, and producing unanimity of votes in favour of Tedaldus 
 Visconti, afterwards Gregory X. The new pope appointed Bonaventura 
 bishop of Albano, and took him with him to the council of Lyon. 
 Bonaventura was actively engaged in the labours of the council when 
 he was stopped by death in 1274. His funeral was attended by the 
 pope, the cardinals, the patriarchs of Constantinople and of Antioch, 
 and by more than five hundred bishops. His character for sanctity 
 was already established in the popular opinion, and Dante, who wrote 
 not many years after his death, places him among the saints in canto 12 
 of the 'Paradiso.' Bonaventura was afterwards regularly canonised by 
 the Church. His works have been collected in 9 vols, folio, Rome, 1588; 
 and 13 vols, 4to, Venice, 1751, to which last edition a well-written life 
 of Bonaventura is prefixed. Luther places Bonaventura above all 
 scholastic theologians. Several works have been attributed to Bona- 
 ventura which do not belong to him, but which have furnished an 
 opportunity to Voltaire and other critics for throwing ridicule upon 
 the supposed author. (Dissertatio Be Suppositiis, and Life of Bona- 
 ventura, prefixed to the Venice edition of his works.) 
 
 BONE, HENRY, RA., the most distinguished enamel-painter of his 
 time, was the son of a cabinet chair-maker at Truro in Cornwall, 
 where he was born in 1755. He was apprenticed to a china manu« 
 
8X7 BONET, JOHN PAUL. 
 
 facturer of the name of Cockworthy at Bristol. In 1779 he went to 
 London, where he was for many years chiefly employed by jewellers 
 and others in enamel-painting for watch-cases, brooches, lockets, and 
 the like. He first attracted public notice by an enamel portrait of 
 his wife, which he exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1780, and by an 
 original picture of a ' Muse and Cupid,' which, though only five inches 
 and a quarter by four inches and a quarter, was at that time considered 
 to be of extraordinary dimensions : it was engraved in 1790 by R. 
 Dagley. In a few years he was enabled to decline the drudgery of his 
 profession, and to confine himself to miniature- aud to enamel-painting, 
 and he executed on enamel many of his own miniatures. In 1800 his 
 reputation was established by the appointment of enamel-painter to 
 the Prince of Wales, a distinction which was succeeded in the following 
 year by his election as an Associate of the Royal Academy ; and he 
 was successively appointed enamel-painter to George III., George IV., 
 and William IV. He was elected a full academician in 1811, and for 
 twenty years from this time he was assiduously employed in producing 
 a long succession of admirable works, most of them of unprecedented 
 dimensions ; but about 1831 his advanced years compelled him to cease 
 his professional labours. He died in December 1834, aged 79. 
 
 The following are Bone's principal works : — ' The Death of Dido;' 
 'Cymon and Iphigenia;' ' Venus j' and 'Hope nursing Love,' after Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds ; a copy of the picture of ' Bacchus and Ariadne,' by 
 Titian, now in the National Gallery, eighteen inches by sixteen inches 
 and a half, dimensions up to this time unapproached except by him- 
 self, — it was purchased by George Bowles, Esq., of Cavendish Square, 
 for 2200 guineas ; a ' Venus recumbent,' after Titian ; ' Bathsheba,' 
 after N. Poussin ; ' La Belle Vierge,' after Raphael ; and an ' Assumption 
 of the Virgin,' after Murillo. He also executed a series of portraits of 
 the Russell family, from the reign of Henry VII. to the present time, 
 executed for the late Duke of Bedford, and now at Woburn Abbey; 
 a set of portraits of the principal royalists distinguished during the 
 civil war of Charles I., for J. P. Old, Esq., of Edge Hill, near Derby, 
 which Bone left unfinished at his death — its completion was undertaken 
 by his son, H. P. Bone, the present excellent enamel painter, who in 
 all the great works was his father's assistant ; and, finally, his greatest 
 and most interesting work, a series of eighty-five portraits of distin- 
 guished persons in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, varying in size from 
 five inches by four to thirteen inches by eight. This last series remained 
 in the possession of the artist during his life, but it was his desire that 
 after his decease it should be offered to the government for purchase, 
 which was accordingly done ; but although at the moderate price of 
 50002., the government declined the purchase. The sum was considered 
 too much for a collection comprising eighty-five portraits, admirably 
 copied in enamel, nearly all from authentic originals, of the most 
 distinguished characters of one of the most interesting periods of 
 English history. They were disposed of by public sale, and the greater 
 part of them were purchased by W. J. Bankes, Esq. 
 
 BONET, JOHN PAUL, is said to have been attached to the secret 
 service of the king of Spain ; he was also secretary to the constable of 
 Castile, out of friendship towards whom he undertook the instruction 
 of his brother, who had been deaf and dumb from the age of two years. 
 Only one person is known to have approached to success in the art of 
 instructing deaf-mutes, previous to Bonet. This was Peter Ponce, 
 also a Spaniard, and a monk of the order of St. Benedict, who must be 
 regarded as the first instructor of the deaf and dumb. It does not 
 appear that Bonet had any acquaintance with the means pursued by 
 his predecessor ; he represents himself as the inventor of the methods 
 which he describes. (De Gerando, ' De l'Education des Sourds-Muets,' 
 torn. i. p. 312.) He published at Madrid in 1620 a work which is 
 now very rare : it is entitled ' Reduccion de las Lettras, y arte para 
 enseSar a hablar los Mudos.' Having remarked that the deaf are only 
 mute by reason of their deafness, he explains how various kinds of 
 knowledge may be imparted to them by means of sight, to which they 
 are unable to arrive by the ear. In the instruction of deaf-mutes 
 Bonet made use of artificial pronunciation, the manual alphabet, 
 writing, and gesture or the language of signs. Minute details of the 
 proceedings of the instructor on these several heads are contained in 
 his work. He taught his pupils to understand the Spanish language, 
 and the rules of grammar. The Abbe" de l'Epee designates M. Bonet's 
 work as one of his " excellent guides " in the earlier part of his expe- 
 rience as an instructor of the deaf and dumb, and the manual alphabet 
 which the abbe" adopted, and which is at present used in the institu- 
 tions on the continent of Europe and in America, is nearly the same 
 as the one given in that work. An account of the success of Bonet 
 has been left by Sir Kenelm Digby, in his treatise ' Of Bodies,' chap. 28. 
 S:r Kenelrn Digby and other authors speak of Bonet as i, priest : he is 
 also said to have been in the service of the prince of Carignan, and to 
 have continued his employment as a teacher of the deaf and dumb for 
 many years. 
 
 BONET (or BONNET), THEOPHILUS, an eminent physician, was 
 bora at Geneva on the 5th of March, 1620. His family was originally 
 Italian and of noble rank, but his ancestors had removed from Rome 
 to the south of France about a century previous, in order to enjoy 
 "je foe exercise of their religion. His grandfather was for a time 
 physician to Charles-Emmanuel, duke of Savoy ; but he afterwards 
 removed to Lyon. 1 Andrew Bonet, the father of Theophilus, also 
 practised medicine. He had two sons, John and Theophilus, both of 
 
 8100. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 BONHEUR, ROSA. 8M 
 
 whom followed their father's profession ; but though John arrived at 
 great eminence, he left no work to testify his ability. Theophilus, 
 after having visited many of the most celebrated universities, took the 
 degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1 643, and soon after became physician 
 to the Duke of Longueville. 
 
 During the course of his practice he was diligent in collecting 
 observations on the progress and terminations of diseases, which 
 formed the basis of his subsequent publications. His earliest work 
 was ' Pharos Medicorum, id est, Cautelse, Animadversiones et Observa- 
 tiones Practice,' Geneva, 1668, 2 vols. 12mo. Each time this work 
 was reprinted he enlarged it and altered the title, so that the edition 
 of 1679 was called ' Labyrinthus Medicus extricatus,' 4to, Geneva; 
 and that of 1687, ' Methodus Vitandorum Errorum qui in Praxi 
 occurrunt,' 4to. 
 
 Incurable deafness having compelled him to retire from practice, he 
 devoted his time to digesting his observations, and published his cele- 
 brated work, in 1679, entitled ' Sepulchretum, seu Anatomia Practica,' 
 2 vols, folio, Geneva, which Mangetus republished with additions at 
 Geneva in 1700, 3 vols, folio. This formed the basis of the great work 
 of Morgagni, ' De Causis et Sedibus Morborum.' The other works of 
 Bonet attest his industry, but are of less utility : — ' Mercurius Com- 
 pilatitius, seu Index Medico-Practicus,' Geneva, 1683, folio ; ' Medicina 
 Septentrionalis Collatitia,' Geneva, 1685, 2 vols, folio; ' Polyalthes,' 
 3, vols, folio, Geneva, 1690, 1691, 1693. This is a bulky commentary 
 on 'Johnstoni Syntagma Nosocomices.' Bonet became subject to 
 dropsy, and died on the 29th of March, 1689, in the seventieth year 
 of his age. He possessed great knowledge, and was distinguished for 
 his modesty and affability. 
 
 (Eloy, Dictionnaire Historique.) 
 
 BONFA'DIO, JA'COPO, was born in the beginning of the 16tb 
 century at Gazzano, near Sal6, on the banks of the Lake of Garda. He 
 studied at Padua, and afterwards proceeded to Rome, where he became 
 secretary to Cardinal di Bari, with whom he remained three years, 
 which he mentions in his letters as the happiest of his life. On his 
 death he entered the service of Cardinal Ghinucci, but shortly after 
 quitted it, and went to Naples. He afterwards wandered about several 
 parts of Italy until about 1540, when he was invited to Padua to under- 
 take the education of Bembo's son Torquato. Bonfadio appears to have 
 remained at Padua five years. Having accepted in 1545 the professor- 
 ship of philosophy in Genoa, he was commissioned to write the history 
 of the republic. He began it from the year 1528, where Foglietta had 
 closed his narrative, and continued it till the year 1550. The work, 
 which is written in Latin, is entitled 'Annalium Genuentium Libri 
 Quinque,' and was published after his death at Pavia, 1586. It was 
 translated into Italian and published at Genoa the same year. In 
 describing the organic changes effected in the constitution by Andrea 
 Doria in 1528, the conspiracy of Fieschi, and other then recent events, 
 Bonfadio spoke of several individuals connected with those factions in 
 a tone which probably offended their relatives, who were still powerful 
 at Genoa. However this may be, he was arrested in the year 1550, 
 and condemned for a very different crime to be burnt. Several con- 
 temporary or nearly contemporary writers assert that he actually 
 underwent that punishment, while others say that on the intercession 
 of powerful friends he was beheaded in prison, and his body afterwards 
 burnt. The statements of the various contemporary writers who relate 
 this catastrophe are given in substance by Bayle, and at length by 
 Mazzuchelli ; but the question of Bonfadio's guilt, of his exact fate, 
 and even the date when it occurred, is left in doubt. The proceedings 
 of trials at that time were secret, and even the charges on which capital 
 sentences were founded were not always made known to the public. 
 Bonfadio's ' Genoese Annals ' are generally admired for their style, 
 which in many passages reminds the reader of Sallust. Bonfadio's 
 Italian ' Letters,' already mentioned, have been collected and published 
 by Mazzuchelli (Brescia, 1746). They are considered among the best 
 specimens of Italian epistolary composition, and are also interesting 
 for the descriptions of places, mauners, and incidents. Bonfadio also 
 wrote •Carmina,' 12mo, Verona, 1740; 'Rime,' which are found scat- 
 tered in various collections ; and an Italian translation of ' Cicero pro 
 Milone.' 
 
 * BONHEUR, ROSA, was born at Bordeaux, March 22nd, 1822. 
 Evincing very early a decided predilection for art, her father, himself 
 a painter of considerable ability, sedulously cultivated her powers and 
 guided her tastes. As it became evident that landscapes and animals 
 were what chiefly interested her, and what she exhibited most skill in 
 representing, her father — as was the case with our own Laudseer — 
 very judiciously took her out constantly to observe, sketch, and paint 
 in the open country, and from living animals during their ordinary 
 unconstrained movements. A part of her course of study consisted in 
 the practice common with the old masters in painting, but somewhat 
 unusual among modern painters, of free modelling from life. Mdlle. 
 Bonheur first sent specimens of her skill to the Exposition of 1841, 
 at which two small pictures were exhibited by her, entitled ' Deux 
 Lapins ' and ' Chevres et Moutons :' they were admired, but did not 
 suggest that they were the work of so original and remarkable an artist 
 as their painter has since proved to be. From this time Mdlle. Bonheur 
 has seldom allowed a year to pass without sending some pictures to 
 the exposition. For some years her studies lay chiefly among horses 
 and sheep, with the peasants who were their attendants ; and the 
 
819 
 
 BONIFACE, SAINT. 
 
 BONIFACE VIII. 
 
 820 
 
 catalogues of the exposition continued to afford such titles as 'Le 
 Cheval a Vendre,' ' Chevaux sortant de l'Abreuvoir,' ' Chevaux dans une 
 Prairie,' ' Moutons et Chevres,' and the like. But she was steadily 
 advancing in hrr art, gaining firmness of hand, decision of touch, a 
 better eye for colour, and confidence in her own powers. The range 
 of her subjects widened, and she enlarged the size of her canvasses. 
 Among the works which attracted notice were 'Les Trois Mousque- 
 taires,' ' Un Troupeau Cheminant,' ' La Rencontre,' an ' Effet du Matin,' 
 &c. In 1848 she exhibited a 'Bull' and a 'Sheep,' modelled by 
 herself in bronze. Her fame rose to its highest in 1850, when she 
 exhibited her great work, ' Le Labourage Nivernais,' which excited 
 great interest in Paris, and received the honour which is the crowning 
 ambition of the French artist — a place in the gallery of the Luxem- 
 bourg. The chief works she has since painted, 'Vaches et Moutons 
 dans un Chemin Creux,' and ' Le Marche" aux Chevaux,' exhibited 
 unfinished in Paris, fully sustained the reputation acquired by her 
 ' Labourage Nivernais.' The ' Marche" aux Chevaux,' when exhibited 
 at the French Exhibition in London in 1855 as the ' Horse-Fair,' excited 
 a very unusual amount of attention and admiration ; and when Mdlle. 
 Bonheur visited the English metropolis during the Exhibition she met 
 with an enthusiastic reception from artists as well as amateurs. Rosa 
 Bonheur is in truth an artist of no common order. Much of the 
 admiration which has been lavished upon her works has been the idle 
 iteration of fashionable criticism, and something has been due to the 
 character of her subjects, so remarkable for a female painter. But her 
 pictures require no allowance on account of sex — they would take a 
 high rank as the works of any artist of any age cr country. She 
 represents her animals in free and spirited action, without any regard 
 to conventional attitudes, in the most characteristic manner, with 
 singular fidelity, and with the most life-like abandon ; and this without 
 any attempt to evade difficulties, or slur over or conceal any of the 
 less graceful or unpicturesque features. Her pictures often show a 
 choice of subjects very remarkable in a lady ; but they are almost 
 invariably simple and unaffected in composition, admirable in drawing, 
 free, broad, and even what might be called masculine in execution, 
 did not the contrast afforded by the prevalent petite and mincing 
 manner of the rising English male painters suggest the inapplicability 
 of such an epithet. Mdlle. Bonheur has another unfeminine quality — 
 she is most successful in her large pictures. In these all her excel- 
 lences are best seen, while the general heaviness of colouring and the 
 want of atmosphere in her landscapes, often objected to in her works, 
 and very observable in her smaller pictures, disappear when her great 
 paintings are looked at from a proper distance. Mdlle. Bonheur belongs 
 to a family of artists. She has both brothers and sisters who have 
 attained some distinction as painters and sculptors, and she occasionally 
 paints figures in some of their landscapes ; but we have seen none of 
 these joint productions of any marked merit. She received the order 
 of the Legion of Honour, June 1865. 
 
 BONIFACE, SAINT, a native of Devonshire, was bom about 680. 
 He became a monk, and resided for a time in a convent at Southampton, 
 where he acquired reputation for learning and piety. When thirty-six 
 years of age he set out for Rome, where he expressed to Pope Gregory II. 
 his wish to preach the gospel to the heathen nations of Germany, where 
 two of his countrymen, Wilfred and Willibrod from Northumberland, 
 as well asKilian, an Irish bishop, had preceded him. The pope having 
 sanctioned his vocation, Boniface laboured in Germany for more than 
 thirty years in the work of converting and civilising the rude natives, 
 and he well deserved the title which has been given him of the ' Apostle 
 of Germany.' He founded four cathedrals, Erfurt, Bonaberg, Aichstadt, 
 and Wiirzburg, with a school attached to each, and he established 
 numerous monasteries both for monks and nuns. These monasteries 
 were generally built upon uncultivated grounds, which were cleared 
 and tilled by the new inmates, and thus agriculture kept pace with the 
 diffusion of Christianity. The monastery of Fulda, founded by Sturm, 
 one of Bonifaces disciples, was the means of reclaiming a vast tract of 
 ground which had been till then covered by forests. Boniface was 
 made archbishop of Mainz and metropolitan of all the new dioceses on 
 the right bank of the Rhine. At his request several missionaries joined 
 him from Britain to assist him in his arduous task, and he was sup- 
 ported by Carloman, and afterwards by Pepin, sons of Charles Martel, 
 whose authority or influence extended over a considerable part of 
 Germany. In 755 Boniface again visited Frisia, a country still in great 
 measure pagan. Having assembled a multitude of converts he pitched 
 tents in a field for the purpose of giving them confirmation, when a 
 band of heathens fell upon the encampment, and killed or dispersed 
 the congregation. Boniface wa3 among the killed. 
 
 ( Vita S. Bonifacii in Mabillon, torn. iv. ; Dunham, History of the 
 Germanic Empire.) 
 
 BONIFACE I. was elected Bishop of Rome after the death of Zosimus 
 in 419. Part of the clergy, supported by Symmachus, prefect of Rome, 
 elected Eulalius, but the Emperor Honorius, who was then at Ravenna, 
 confirmed Boniface's election. Several letters from Boniface to the 
 bishops of Gaul concerning matters of discipline, and to the bishops of 
 Africa, who would not allow of appeals to the see of Rome, are in 
 Constant's collection, and give a favourable opinion of his character 
 and learning. He asserted the authority of the Roman see over the 
 churches of Illyricum, upon which contested point there are letters 
 extant from Boniface to Rufus, bishop of Thessalonica, and also between 
 
 the two emperors, Arcadius and Honorius. Boniface died in 422, and 
 was succeeded by Celestiuus I. 
 
 BONIFACE II. succeeded Felix IV. in October 530. It is recorded 
 of him that, although a native of Rome, he was the son of a Goth. 
 His was a disputed election ; but Dio3corus, the rival pope, fell ill, 
 and died about a month after the election, and the schism ceased. 
 Boniface passed several regulations against bribery in the elections of 
 bishops, and he also condemned the practice of a bishop appointing 
 his own successor. He died the 8th of November 532, and was 
 succeeded by John II. (Platina, Vita Pontif.) 
 
 BONIFACE III. was elected in March 606, and died in November 
 of the same year. He obtained of the Emperor Phocas the acknow- 
 ledgment of the supremacy of the see of Rome over all other churches. 
 This circumstance renders his pontificate remarkable. 
 
 BONIFACE IV., was the son of a physician in Valeria, and was 
 elected pope on the death of Boniface III. He it was who conse- 
 crated the Pantheon, having first removed the images of the heathen 
 gods, and dedicated it to the Virgin Mary and all the martyrs. He 
 transformed his paternal house in the country of the Marsi into a 
 monastery, on which he bestowed all his property. He died in 615, 
 and was buried in St. Peter's church. Boniface has been canonised by 
 the Church of Rome. 
 
 BONIFACE V., a Neapolitan, who succeeded Deusdedit in 617. 
 He is remembered as having confirmed the right of sanctuary in 
 churches ; and for his efforts to convert the nations of Britain to 
 Christianity. He died in 625, and was succeeded by Honorius I. 
 
 BONIFACE VI., a native of Tuscany, and son of the Bishop Adrian, 
 succeeded Formosus in 896, and died fifteen days after his election. 
 His election not being perfectly regular, he has been placed among the 
 anti-popes by some writers. He was succeeded by Stephen VII. 
 
 BONIFACE VII., Cardinal Franco, or Francone, was elected in a 
 popular tumult, when Benedict VI. was seized and strangled in 974. 
 Boniface himself was expelled from Rome in the following year, 
 having incurred general detestation through his licentiousness and 
 cruelty. Boniface is not considered a legitimate pope, though his 
 name is registered as such in most chronological tables. He returned 
 to Rome in 985, and put John XIV. in prison, where he died of 
 hunger, as it is reported. Boniface again assumed the papal dignity, 
 which he retained till his death near the close of 985. His corpse 
 is said to have been treated with great indignity. He was succeeded 
 by John XV. 
 
 BONIFACE VIII., Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani of Anagni, was 
 born about 1228, and succeeded in January 1294 Celestine V., whom 
 he had persuaded to abdicate on the ground of incapacity, and whom 
 he afterwards confined in the castle of Fumone, where Celestine died 
 a few months after, under suspicious circumstances. Boniface played 
 an active part in the political events of his time. He supported 
 Charles II. of Anjou, king of Naples, against James of Aragon and 
 Sicily, and subsequently against James's brother Frederic. He like- 
 wise took the part of Adolf of Nassau against Albert of Austria, son 
 of Rudolph of Hapsburg. At the same time Boniface waged a war of 
 destruction against the Colonna, a powerful feudal family, which held 
 possession of several towns and estates in the countries of Rome and 
 Naples. The origin of this quarrel is not clearly ascertained. It 
 appears that two cardinals of the house of Colonna had opposed Boni- 
 face's election, and afterwards refused to admit papal garrisons into 
 their castles. Boniface accused them of having dissipated the trea- 
 sures of the church, of holding correspondence with Frederic of Sicily, 
 and other charges. The two cardinals wrote to the French and other 
 kings against Boniface, complaining of his arrogance, and questioning 
 the validity of his election. Upon this the pope excommunicated 
 the whole family of Colonna and their adherents, calling them heretics, 
 and declaring that they had forfeited their honours and estates and 
 property of every sort. Further, he proclaimed a crusade against 
 them, besieged Preneste, which he took and razed to the ground ; and 
 he destroyed likewise Zagarolo and Colonna, fiefs of the same family. 
 The two cardinals escaped to France, and Sciarra their uncle was 
 obliged to conceal himself in the forests near Anzio, whence he after- 
 wards escaped by sea only to fall into the hands of pirates. 
 
 Boniface proclaimed the first jubilee in the year 1300, granting by 
 abulia plenary indulgence to all those who should visit the sanctuaries 
 of Rome in that year. This attracted an immense multitude of 
 foreigners to Rome. The historian Villani, who went there himself, 
 reckons the number of strangers at 200,000 at one time, and the chro- 
 nicle of Asti states the number of all those who visited Rome during 
 that year at two millions. This jubilee brought to Rome a vast quan- 
 tity of money. Before Boniface's time plenary indulgence had been 
 granted only to those who went to the crusades for the deliverance of 
 the Holy Land. 
 
 Boniface, still aiming at the reduction of Sicily, sent for Charles de 
 Valois, brother of Philip le Bel, king of France. On arriving at Flo- 
 rence Charles supported the faction of the Neri, by which Dante and 
 many others were exiled. He then went over to Sicily, but after a 
 desultory warfare peace was made, and Frederic was acknowledged as 
 king of Trinacria in 1303, on condition of his paying to the Roman 
 see a tribute of 3000 onze, or 15,000 florins. A serious quarrel soon 
 after broke out between the pope and Philip le Bel. The pope claimed 
 to share with the king the tithes levied on the clergy ; he also created 
 
BONIFACE IX. 
 
 BONNER, EDMUND. 
 
 62a 
 
 the new bishopric of Pamiers without the king's consent, and ho 
 appointed the bishop his legate in France. The bishop behaved inso- 
 lently to the king, who arrested him and gave him in charge to the 
 Archbishop of Narbonne. Upon this Boniface excommunicated the 
 king, placed his kingdom under interdict, and wrote to Albert of 
 Austria, confirming his election and inviting him to make war against 
 France. Philip assembled the states of the kingdom and laid before 
 them twenty-nine charges against the pope, accusing him of simouy, 
 of heresy, of licentiousness, and even of sorcery, and appealing to a 
 general council of the Church. The next measure of the pope was to 
 proclaim all Philip's subjects released from their allegiance. The 
 king resolving to put an end to this to him dangerous struggle, 
 sent Guillaume de Nogaret, a bold unscrupulous man, to Italy, with 
 money and letters for the partisans of the Colonna and the other 
 enemies of the pope. Nogaret was joined by Sciarra, who had escaped 
 from captivity. The pope was at Anagni, when Nogaret and Sciarra 
 suddenly entered the town followed by armed men, overcame the 
 pope's guards, and arrested Boniface himself. Nogaret was for taking 
 him to Lyon, where the council was to assemble ; but Sciarra insisted 
 upon Boniface abdicating, abused him, and even struck the old man 
 with his gauntlet. Boniface behaved with dignity and firmness ; he 
 was kept three days in confinement, during which it is said he would 
 not take any food. At last Cardinal del Fiesco induced the people of 
 Anagni to rise and deliver the pontiff, and Sciarra and Nogaret were 
 obliged to heave the town. Boniface returned to Rome, but his health 
 had received so severe a shock, that he fell ill and died, October 1303, 
 after about nine years of a most turbulent pontificate. Boniface was 
 one of the most strenuous assertors of the assumed supremacy of the 
 pope over princes and nations in temporal as well as spiritual matters. 
 He was an inveterate persecutor of the Qhibelines, for which Dante 
 has alluded to him at length in canto xxvii. of the ' Inferno.' 
 
 BONIFACE IX., Cardinal Pietro Tomacelli, a Neapolitan by birth, 
 was elected November 2, 1389, by the cardinals at Rome after the 
 death of Urban VI. This was the time of the great Western schism 
 as it is called, which began between Urban and Clement, styled the 
 Vllth, who held his court at Avignon. Clement having died in 1394, 
 the cardinals of his party elected Pedro de Luna by the name of 
 Benedict XIII. Boniface however continued to exercise the papal 
 authority at Rome, regardless of the Avignon popes and conclaves. 
 Endeavours were made by several sovereigns to assemble a council 
 and put an end to the schism, but both Boniface and Benedict were 
 averse to this measure. Boniface died at Rome October 1, 1404, 
 and was succeeded by Innocent VII. The Church of Rome has ever 
 since acknowledged Urban and Boniface and their successors as legiti- 
 mate popes, and considered Clement and Benedict as anti-popes. 
 [Benedict, Anti-Pope.] 
 
 During his pontificate of nearly fifteen years, Boniface was involved 
 in the Italian wars of that turbulent period. He first favoured the 
 claims of the Angevins to the throne of Naples, but afterwards 
 recognised the more fortunate Ladislaus as king. Perugia and other 
 towns of Umbria and the Marches acknowledged the pope as their 
 suzerain in Boniface's time. Boniface is charged with being addicted 
 to a worldly policy, having seized upon the ecclesiastical revenues 
 for temporal purposes, and enriched his brothers and nephews. 
 
 BONINGTON, RICHARD PARKES, was born in the village of 
 Arnold, near Nottingham, in October 1801. Bonington's father was 
 a landscape and portrait painter, and perceiving a strong tendency in 
 his son towards his own pursuit even at a very early age, he trained 
 him from hi* childhood in such a manner as in his judgment was best 
 calculated to fit him for his future profession, at the same time not 
 neglecting his education in those branches of instruction requisite to 
 qualify him for the ordinary business of life. Bonington's profes- 
 sional education was chiefly French. When he was only fifteen 
 years old his father took him to Paris, where he afterwards chiefly 
 resided, and procured him permission to study in the Louvre, where 
 he made several excellent copies of some of the best Italian and 
 Flemish landscapes in the •ollection. He became also a student of 
 whe Institute, attended occasionally the studio of Le Baron Gros, and 
 spent the greater part of his time in the society of French artists. 
 During this period he executed many lithographs for French 
 publishers. 
 
 Having obtained a considerable reputation in Paris by his works, 
 which were chiefly marine and coast views, he visited Italy, where 
 Venice, ' throned on her hundred isles,' offered to Bonington particular 
 attractions in her crumbling palaces and her many waters. He made 
 oil pictures of the ducal palace and of the grand canal, which were 
 exhibited in England, and attracted much notice. It was his inten- 
 tion to paint many other similar pictures, of which he had already 
 repared the sketches, but he was already the victim of a fatal disease : 
 e was in a deep decline ; and the nervous debility inherent in this 
 complaint reduced him to such a low state, that his constitution sunk 
 un ler the excitement of his very success when he returned to 
 England. He died in London, shortly after his return from a second 
 visit to Paris, in September 1828, having not quite finished his twenty - 
 •eventh year. 
 
 Be painted to a great extent in water-colours, and mostly marine 
 *nd river views. His style is simple and picturesque, but sketchy and 
 neglectful of details. But he was assiduous in the practice of his art, 
 
 and up to the time of his premature death was steadily and obviously 
 improving. Had he lived a few years longer he might have taken a 
 high place among the landscape painters of England. A series of 
 twenty-four lithographs from the works of Bonington was published 
 shortly after his death. 
 
 BONNEFOY (or BONFIDIUS), EDMUND, a writer on Oriental 
 law, or law of the Eastern empire, was born on the 20th of October, 
 1536, at Chabeuil near Valence, in France. Having applied himself 
 to the law, he was early appointed colleague to the celebrated Cujacius, 
 in the chair of law, in the university of Valence. Bonnefoy was only 
 rescued from assassination in the massacre of St. Bartholomew by his 
 friend Cujacius. He then went to Geneva, where, having been 
 appointed to a chair, he lectured on oriental jurisprudence, — a chair 
 for which he was eminently qualifiyd by his knowledge of the lan- 
 guages, particularly Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. In 1573 he published 
 'Juris Orientalis libri tres, Imperatoriae Constitutiones,' &c. The 
 Greek text was accompanied by a Latin translation by the author, and 
 was meant to comprise the laws civil and ecclesiastical of the Eastern 
 or Greek empire. The first book contains the constitutions of the 
 emperors of the East, from Heraclius to Michael Palaeologus; the 
 second contains the decrees of the archbishops and patriarchs of 
 Constantinople ; and the third the decrees and letters of the other 
 patriarchs and pontiffs. Bonnefoy died at Geneva on the 8th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1574, being then about thirty-eight years of age. His colleague 
 Cujacius and the historian De Thou (who studied under him), unite in 
 ascribing to Bonnefoy a character of unusual moral excellence as well 
 as great ability and learning. 
 
 BONNER, EDMUND, Bishop of London, was born at Hanley 
 in Worcestershire, about the close of the 15th century. Accord- 
 ing to contemporary tradition he was the natural son of a priest 
 named Savage by Elizabeth Frodsham, who afterwards married 
 Edmund Bonner, a sawyer at Hanley : but Strype asserts that he was 
 the legitimate son of this Bonner, citing as his authority Baron Lech- 
 mon, whose ancestor had been an intimate friend and patron of the 
 bishop, and the tradition may be as merely idle gossip as traditions 
 often are. In the year 1512 he was admitted a student at Pembroke 
 College, Oxford (then Broad-Gate Hall), where in 1519 he took, on two 
 successive days, the degrees of Bachelor of the Canon and Civil Laws, 
 and he was ordained about the same time. In 1525 he was admitted 
 to the degree of Doctor, and had acquired so high a reputation as a 
 canonist, that Cardinal Wolsey made him one of his chaplains and 
 master of his faculties and jurisdiction. In consequence of these 
 offices, Bonner was attending at Cawood on the cardinal when he was 
 arrested there. 
 
 Soon afterwards we find Bonner chaplain to Henry VIII., incumbent 
 of the livings of Blaydou and Cherry Burton in Yorkshire, of Ripple 
 in Worcestershire, and of East Dereham in Norfolk, and a prebendary 
 of St. Paul's. Much of this promotion was due to the favour of 
 Cromwell, whose schemes for the reformation of religion Bonner pro- 
 moted. In 1533 he was sent a second time to the pope, who was then 
 at Marseille, to appeal to a general council against Clement's decree 
 of excommunication against Henry VIII. on account of the divorce. 
 In 1538 he was made Bishop of Hereford whilst he was on an embassy 
 to Paris, and before his consecration he was translated to London and 
 took his commission from the king in 1540. 
 
 Thus far Bonner not only concurred in, but zealously promoted the 
 Reformation, and the separation from Rome. But when death had 
 removed the despot whose ungovernable temper seems to have 
 obtained submission even from men of virtue and of ordinary firm- 
 ness, Bonner's compliance ceased ; he protested against Cranmer's 
 injunctions and homilies, and scrupled to take the oath of supremacy. 
 For these offences he was committed to the Fleet, from which how- 
 ever upon submission he was soon after released. From this time 
 Bonner was so negligent in all that related to the Reformation as to 
 draw on himself, in two instances, the censure of the privy council ; 
 but as he had committed no offence which subjected him to prosecu- 
 tion, the council, according to the bad practice of those times, 
 required him to do an act extraneous from his ordiuary duties, 
 knowing that he would be reluctant to perform it. They made him 
 preach a sermon at St. Paul's Cross on four points. One of these 
 Bonner omitted, and commissioners were appointed to try him, before 
 whom he appeared during seven days. At the end of October 1549 
 he was committed to the Mai shalsea, and deprived of his bishopric. 
 
 After the death of Edward VI. Bonner was restored by Queen 
 Mary. His first acts were to deprive the married priests in his diocese, 
 "and set up the mass in St. Paul's" before the queen's ordinance to 
 that effect. It would be tedious to follow him in all the long list 
 of executions for religion, which make the history of that reign a 
 mere narrative of bloodshed. Fox enumerates 125 persons burnt in 
 his diocese and through his agency during this reign ; and a letter 
 from him to Cardinal Pole (dated at Fulham, 26th of December 1556) 
 is copied by Holinshed, in which Bonner justifies himself for pro- 
 ceeding to the condemnation of twenty-two heretics who had been 
 sent up to him from Colchester. These persons were saved by the 
 influence of Cardinal Pole, who checked Bonner's sanguinary activity. 
 
 When Queen Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, Bonner was made 
 the single exception to the favourable reception given to the bishops. 
 In May 1559 he was summoned before the privy council, and on tun 
 
B23 BONNET, CHARLES. 
 
 Oath of supremacy being tendered, and his refusal to take it, he 
 was deprived a second time of his bishopric and indicted far a prae- 
 munire. He escaped the penalties attached to this charge, but he 
 was confined for the rest of his life to the Marshalsea, where he died 
 on September 5th, 1569. The public acts of Bonner's life sufficiently 
 show the character of the man; and whatever palliation may be 
 offered, there can be little doubt that he well merited the popular 
 abhorrence which attached to his name. But Burnett's assertion that 
 ho little understood divinity, but was a great master of the canon 
 law, wherein he was excelled by very few in his time, is evidently 
 inaccurate. He was no doubt a master both of the canon law and of 
 scholastic divinity. 
 
 BONNET, CHARLES, was born March 13, 1720, at Geneva, where 
 he died, June 20, 1793. He was descended from a family of French 
 Protestants, who had left their native country in 1572, in order to 
 escape from the religious persecutions of that period. Bonnet's first 
 studies were applied to the science of jurisprudence, but the perusal 
 of the works of Reaumur and other contemporary naturalists pro- 
 duced in his mind so decided a preference for the investigations of 
 natural history, that he relinquished the legal profession, for which he 
 had been destined by his family. 
 
 The discoveries of Trembley on the animal functions and modes of 
 reproduction of the polypes named Hydra:, led Bonnet into similar 
 investigations with respect to insects, the results of which he pub- 
 lished in his 'Traitd d'Insectologie,' 2 vols. Paris, 1745. In this work 
 his inquiries are especially directed to the processes of respiration in 
 caterpillars and butterflies, and to the peculiar formation of the tape- 
 worm. Bonnet's early education had sufficieutly qualified him for the 
 performance of political duties, so that in 1752 he was elected a member 
 of the council of state of the republic of Geneva, a situation which 
 he retained till 1768. After the publication of his work on insects, 
 his inquiries were directed to the processes of the nourishment, 
 respiration, and growth of plants, and his discoveries were made public 
 in his 'Recherches sur l'Usage des Feuilles daus les Plautes,' 4to, 
 LeydeD, 1754. About this time his sight had become impaired, and 
 he was consequently obliged to refrain from those minute examina- 
 tions into auimal and vegetable organisation to which he had been so 
 long accustomed. He then retired to an estate which he possessed on 
 the banks of the Lake of Geneva, where with his wife and in the 
 Bociety of literary men, by whom he was frequently visited, he passed 
 the remainder of his life. 
 
 Bonnet, from the time when his sight became weak, seems to have 
 employed his thoughts chiefly on subjects relating to the connection 
 between the mental and corporeal organisation of man and also of the 
 lower animals. In 1755 he published his 'Essai de Psycologie, ou 
 Considerations sur les Operations de l'Ame ; ' in 1760 an 'Essai 
 Analytique sur les Faculty's de l'Ame;' in 1762 'Considerations sur 
 les Corps Organises: ' in 1764 the 'Contemplation de la Nature;' in 
 1769 'Idees sur l'Etat Futur des Etres Vivants, ou Paliuge'ne'sie 
 Philosophique;' and in 1773 his ' Recherches Philosophiques sur les 
 Preuves du Christianisme.' He also published an edition of his 
 collected works, ' QEuvres d'Histoire Naturelle et des Philosophie,' 
 8 vols. 4to, and 18 vols. 12mo, Neufchatel, 1779-1788. An account of 
 his life and works was given by Trembley in 1794, ' Me"moire pour 
 eervir a. l'Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de Charles Bonnet, 8vo, 
 Bern. 
 
 BONNIVARD, FRANCOIS DE, was born in 1496, at Seyssel, in 
 the French district of Buge", now included in the department of Ain. 
 He studied at Turin, and while yet a young man received from his 
 uncle, by resignation, the priory of St. Victor, situated close to the 
 wall of the city of Geneva, and which had lands of considerable 
 value attached to it. Bonnivard was of liberal opinions, and decidedly 
 opposed to feudal oppression, and he adopted the republic of Geneva 
 as his country. At that time there were disputes between the 
 republic and Charles III., duke of Savoy, in consequence of the 
 Prince-Bishop of Geneva having ceded to the duke the signiorial 
 rights which were annexed to his bishopric. The duke iu 1519 
 entered Geneva with an army, and Bonnivard, who had been con- 
 spicuous in his support of the rights of the republic, endeavoured to 
 make his escape into Switzerland. He was however arrested, and 
 delivered to the duke, by whom he was detained two years a prisoner 
 at Grolee. After his release he continued to be active in support of 
 the principles of the republic, and in his opposition to the claims of 
 the duke. But he was again unfortunate, for in 1530, while travelling 
 on the Jura, he was not only plundered by robbers, but they placed 
 him again in the power of the duke. He was then immured in the 
 dungeon of the Chateau-de-Chillon, a fortified castle at the eastern end 
 of the Lake of Geneva, where he was kept in close confinement during 
 six years. The Swiss cantons of Bern and Freiberg were at that time 
 in alliance with the republic of Geneva, and the Bernese, having 
 occupied the canton of Vaud, obtained possession also of the Chftteau- 
 de-Chillon, and released Bonnivard. On the fact of Bonuivard's 
 imprisonment here, and certain traditions of the residents in the 
 vicinity, Lord Byron founded his short narrative poem of ' The 
 Prisoner of Chillon.' The additional circumstance of two of the 
 brothers of Bonnivard having been imprisoned with him, has no 
 foundation except in the imagination of the poet. The description of 
 their sufferings and death, which forms the most affecting part of the 
 
 BONONCINI, GIOVANNI. 824 
 
 narrative, was probably suggested by Dante's Count Ugolino and bis 
 two sons. Bonnivard returned to Geneva, and continued to reside 
 there till his death in 1570. He wrote a history of Geneva, made the 
 republic heir to his ecclesiastical possessions, and left an extensive 
 collection of books, which formed the foundation of the public library 
 of the republic. 
 
 BONNYCASTLE, JOHN, professor of mathematics at the Royal 
 Military Academy, Woolwich, was born at Whitchurch in Bucking- 
 hamshire, and came early to London, where he married at the age of 
 nineteen. His wife dying soon after their marriage, he became tutor 
 to the sons of a nobleman, after which he resided at Euston in North- 
 amptonshire, till he obtained a place at the Woolwich Academy, where 
 he finally became a professor, and where he died May 15, 1821. He is 
 stated to have been a good scholar, and much attached to poetry, 
 particularly to that of Shakspere. 
 
 Bonnycastle is known by a large number of excellent elementary 
 works, which, being still on sale, it is not necessary to enumerate. 
 His 'Guide to Arithmetic* has long had a gr«»t circulation. His 
 treatises on mensuration and astronomy are veiy good of their kind; 
 but his 'Elements of Algebra' (not the abridgn <nt, but the work in 
 two volumes, 8vo, 1813) is a very excellent perurmance, and shows 
 great knowledge of the state of the science. He does not enter much 
 into principles, but his management of the mechanism of algebra, and 
 his almost singular felicity in separating the most striking and powerful 
 parts from the rest, render his work very useful to the reader. 
 
 Bonnycastle passes for the translator of Bossut's ' History of Mathe- 
 matics,' but a correspondent of the 'Gentleman's Magazine' for 1821 
 (p. 482) states, as of his own knowledge, that Bonnycastle only wrote 
 the preface, and added the list of mathematicians at the end, the 
 translation being by Mr. T. O. Churchill. His name however is 
 prefixed to the work. 
 
 BONOMT, JOSEPH, an Italian architect who practised in England, 
 was born at Rome in 1739, and studied architecture under the Marchese 
 Teodoli. In 1767 he was invited to England by the brothers Adam, 
 and was for many years employed by them as an assistant and archi- 
 tectural draftsman. The acquaintance which he formed in London 
 with Angelica Kauffman, then in the zenith of her fame, led to his 
 marrying her cousin and ward, Rosa Florini, in 1775. When Angelica 
 returned to Italy, after her marriage with Zucchi the painter, she 
 induced Bonomi to do the same, and he left England in 1783, taking 
 with him his family of three young children ; but he did not remain 
 in Italy above a year. About five years after his return, in November 
 1789, he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, but was 
 never raised to the rank of R.A., although Sir Joshua Reynolds 
 interested himself very warmly in his behalf, and did all he could to 
 obtain for him the professorship of perspective : the feeling excited 
 by his influence on behalf of Bonomi led to Reynolds's tempo- 
 rary resignation of his presidency of the Academy. Bonomi died 
 March 9, 1808, leaving a widow and six children, the eldest of whom 
 has acquired notice as an architect ; and another son, who has visited 
 Egypt, has obtained considerable distinction by his writings on 
 Egyptian antiquities. 
 
 Bonomi' s chief professional works are, additions and alterations at 
 Langley Hall, Kent, 1790 ; the chapel of the Spanish embassy, near 
 Manchester-square, London, 1792 ; Eastwell House, Kent, 1793 ; the 
 pyramidal mausoleum in Blickling Park, Norfolk, 1794 ; Longford 
 Hall, Salop ; mansion at Laverstoke, Hants, 1797 ; the splendid man- 
 sion at Roseneath in Dumbartonshire, for the Duke of Argyll, lb03, 
 which last, though left incomplete, is his most celebrated work, but is 
 rather remarkable for its peculiarities than for any high architectural 
 or artistic merits. Bonomi also made designs for the new sacristy of 
 St. Peter's at Rome, of which edifice he had been appointed honorary 
 architect in 1804. 
 
 BONONCI'NI, GIOVANNI, a musical composer whose name once 
 rivalled Handel's, but is now chiefly known through the medium of 
 Swift's epigram, appears to have been ^orn about the year 1660 at 
 Bologna, where his father, Giovanni Maria, followed the profession of 
 music, and in 1673 published a book, ' II Musico Practico,' from which 
 we are inclined to infer that he was neither a very sound musician nor 
 possessed of much good sense. 
 
 When the Italian Opera, under the title of the 'Corporation of the 
 Royal Academy of Music,' was established in London by a party of 
 nobility and gentry, who subscribed 50,0002. for the purpose, to which 
 George I. as patron contributed 10002., the managers engaged Handel 
 (then living at Cannons), Bononcini (who was sent for from Rome), 
 and Ariosti (who came from Bologna), to compose for the theatre. 
 Haudel's productions displayed every great quality ; Bononcini's were 
 marked by tenderness and elegance, but wanted invention and vigour; 
 Ariosti seems to have been a good musician without genius, whoso 
 name would soon have been consigned to oblivion but for his con- 
 nection with the other two. The first new work presented by the 
 academy was 'Muzio Scaevola,' of which Ariosti, the senior of the 
 three, furnished the first act, Bononcini the second, and Handel, as 
 youngest of the party, the third. The comparative merits of the two 
 last composers were judged, not by critical rules, but party feelings. 
 Handel was patronised by the king, his rival had the support of the 
 Marlborough family : Handel was the favourite of the Tories, Bonon- 
 cini of the Whigs. The public generally however were on the side of 
 
BONPLAND, AIME. 
 
 BOPP, FRANZ. 
 
 Handel, who gained a complete ascendancy and maintained it ; but 
 his rival continued on the establishment till 1727, though he produced 
 little, and then retired. After this he confined his services to the 
 Duchess of Marlborough, who had previously taken him into her 
 family, and settled on him a pension of 500?. per annum. His impe- 
 rious temper did not long permit him to enjoy his good fortuue ; and 
 his dishonourable conduct in presenting to the Academy of Ancient 
 Music a madrigal as his own, though the composition of Lotti of 
 Venice, completed his downfall in this country, which he quitted in 
 1733. He then went to reside in Paris, where he wrote much sacred 
 music for the Chapelle-du-Roi, and at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was 
 invited to Vienna by the emperor, to compose music for the rejoicings 
 on that occasion. 
 
 The exact period of Bononcini's decease does not appear, but it is 
 supposed that he almost attained his 100th year. For the King's 
 Theatre he composed several operas, now entirely forgotten ; and in 
 1721 he published a volume of 'Cantate e Duetti,' published by 
 subscription, and dedicated to George I. 
 
 BONPLAND, AIME, was born August 22, 1773, at La Rochelle, 
 in the French department of Charente-Inferieure, where his father 
 exercised the medical profession, and to which young Bonpland was 
 also destined. He served as a surgeon during some years of the early 
 part of the revolution on board a French frigate. He afterwards went 
 to Paris in order to complete his studies in medicine, and became a 
 pupil of Corvisart, at whose residence he met with Alexander von 
 Humboldt. An intimate friendship soon grew up between the two 
 young men, and they mutually assisted each other in their studies. 
 Humboldt at the same time was making preparations for an extensive 
 series of travels for scientific purposes, aud asked Bonpland to accom- 
 pany him, a proposal which was immediately accepted. They sailed 
 from France in 1799, and landed in America, where they travelled 
 five years, chiefly in Mexico and among the Andes. Bonpland during 
 that period collected and dried more than 6000 plants previously un- 
 known to European botanists. Their travels were published under 
 the title of a ' Voyage aux Regions Equinoxiales du Nouveau Con- 
 tinent.' Bonpland presented his collection of dried plants to the 
 Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. Napoleon granted him a pension, and 
 Josephine in 1804 appointed him superintendent of the gardens at 
 her residence of Malmaison. While in this situation Bonpland 
 published a description of his collection of plants, 'Plante3 Equi- 
 noxiales recueillies au Mexique, a l'ile de Cuba,' &c, 2 vols., folio, 
 with 220 copperplates, Paris, 1809-16; and about the same time a 
 ' Description des Plantes Rares de Navarre et de la Malmaison,' folio, 
 with 66 copperplates, Paris, 1813-17. He also published a 'Mono- 
 graphic des Melastomees,' with 120 plates, 2 vols, folio, Paris, 1809-16. 
 Josephine died in 1814, and Bonpland resigned his situation, though 
 requested by Prince Eugene to retain it. 
 
 Bonpland had formed the resolution of returning to America, and 
 at the latter end of 1816 sailed from Havre, and lauded at Buenos 
 Ayres, with a large collection of the useful plants aud fruit-trees of 
 Europe. He was received favourably by the government, and was 
 named professor of natural history, aud he remained at Buenos Ayres 
 nearly five years. He then resolved to undertake a journey across 
 the desert of the Gran Chaco to the Andes, in order to continue his 
 examinations into the vegetable kingdom of that region. With this 
 intention he sailed up the river Parand, with suitable attendants, and 
 reached the territories which had been formerly occupied by the Spanish 
 Jesuit missions on the eastern bank of that river. Here it became 
 necessary, in order to cross the country, to obtain the sanction of 
 Francia, the dictator of Paraguay, and Bonpland sent a deputation to 
 him for that purpose. Instead however of acceding to his request, 
 Francia sent a body of troops by night across the Paraud, who attacked 
 the small body of unarmed men, killed some, and wounded others. 
 This took place on the 3rd of December 1821. Two days afterwards 
 Bonpland was conveyed as a prisoner to the station assigned to him as 
 a place of residence, where he was compelled to remain more than nine 
 years under strict superintendence. At length, on the 2nd of F ebruary 
 1831, he was set at liberty. He then travelled towards the southern 
 boundary of Brazil, and settled in the vicinity of the small town of 
 San Borja, near the eastern bank of the river Uruguav. [Supplement.] 
 
 BONSTETTEN, KARL VICTOR VON. [See vol. vi. col. 978.] 
 
 BOOTH, BARTON. This eminent actor was descended from an 
 ancient and honourable family, being the third son of John Booth, Esq , 
 a near relation of Henry Booth, earl of Warrington, in Lancashire. 
 He was born in 1681, and educated at Westminster by the famous 
 Dr. Busby. Becoming at a very early age remarkable for the grace of 
 his action and the sweetness of his voice, he was selected to perform 
 the character of Pamphilus in the ' Andria' of Terence, at one of the 
 customary school-exhibitions. The great applause he met with ou 
 this occasion was, by his own confession, the first spur to his theatrical 
 ambition ; and on being removed to Cambridge at the age of seventeen, 
 to the great annoyance of his parents, who had intended him for the 
 Church, he ran away from Trinity College, and joined a company of 
 strolling players. The misdeeds of one of the actors, while at Bury 
 in Suffolk, caused the dispersion of the company, and young Booth 
 returned to London in great distress. He was speedily forgiven, and 
 kindly received by his family ; but his stage-fever had by no means 
 abated, and in one of its fiercest paroxysms he engaged with a Mrs. 
 
 Mins to perform at Bartholomew Fair, where he achieved such renown 
 that Betterton heard of him, and was prevented engaging him for 
 Drury Lane only by the fear of offending the noble family to which 
 he was related. Shortly afterwards Booth formed an acquaintance 
 with Ashbury, the manager of the Dublin theatre, who chanced to be 
 in London, and with him he went to Ireland in June 1698. His first 
 appearance in Dublin was in the part of Oronoko, and his success, 
 decided from the commencement, continued for two years increasing 
 daily, when he determined to return to England ; and having by letter 
 reconciled himself a second time with his family, he obtained from 
 Lord Fitzbarding a recommendation to Mr. Betterton, who with great 
 candour and kindness engaged and assisted him to the extent of his 
 power. In 1701 Mr. Booth made his first bow in the Theatre-Royal, 
 Drury Lane, in the character of Maximus, in Lord Rochester's 
 ' Valentinian.' His reception was enthusiastic, and he quickly estab- 
 lished himself in public favour as second only to his friend and 
 instructor Betterton. In 1712, on the production of Mr. Addison's 
 ' Cato,' Mr. Booth performed the principal character, and was compli- 
 mented by the Tories, who presented him with fifty guiueas, collected 
 in the boxes duriug the performance, "as a slight acknowledgment of 
 his honest opposition to a perpetual dictator, aud his dying so bravely 
 in the cause of liberty." The managers of the theatre also presented 
 him with an equal sum, in consideration of the great success his talents 
 had secured to the play; and shortly afterwards Queen Anne, at the 
 request of Lord Bolingbroke, granted a special licence, recalling all 
 former ones, and nominating Mr. Booth joint manager with Wilks, 
 Cibber, and Dogget. 
 
 In 1727 Booth was attacked by a violent fever, from the effects of 
 which he never perfectly recovered. In 1729 he was prevailed on to 
 play, for seven nights only, in ' The Double Falsehood,' and they were 
 his last performances. After four years' distressing alienation of 
 mind, he expired, May 10, 1733, in the fifty-third year of his age. 
 Mr. Booth was twice married : first in 1704, to a daughter of Sir 
 William Barkham of Norfolk, Bart., who died in 1710; and secondly, 
 in 1719, to Miss Hester Santlow, or Saintlow, a celebrated, beautiful 
 and wealthy actress, who survived him ; he had no children by either 
 wife. 
 
 Booth's masterpiece as an actor is said by Cibber to have been 
 Othello, but his favourite part was the far les3 important one of the 
 Ghost in ' Hamlet,' a performance, according to Macklin, which has 
 never been imitated successfully. His tone, manner, and gait were 
 so solemn and unearthly, that the audience appeared to be under the 
 impression that a positive spectre stood before them. The soles of 
 his shoes were covered with felt so as to make no noise upon the 
 stage, which he glided more than walked over, thus completing the 
 illusion. So much was Booth in favour with the rich and noble of 
 his day, that though he had no equipage of his own, there was not a 
 nobleman in the kingdom, says Chetwood, who had so many sets of 
 horses at his command. The chariot-and-six of some one or another 
 was sure to be waiting for him every night to take him, after the 
 play, to Windsor, where the court was then kept, and to bring him 
 back the following day in time for the theatre. 
 
 *BOPP, FRANZ, a distinguished linguist, was born in 1791, at 
 Mainz, now included in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, but 
 then an electorate. Bopp's scientific education was commenced at 
 Aschaffenburg, whither his parents had accompanied the court of the 
 elector, and which was then the capital of a small principality belong- 
 ing to the electorate of Mainz. Stimulated by the personal encourage- 
 ment and writiugs of Windischmann, Bopp began to study the 
 oriental languages at an early age. In 1812 he removed to Paris, 
 where he had the good fortune to secure the friendship of Chizy, 
 Sylvestre de Sacy, and A. W. von Schlegel, and to obtain their assist- 
 ance in the prosecution of his favourite studies. With some small 
 assistance from the King of Bavaria, he remained about five years in 
 Paris, and then removed to London, to Gottingen, and finally to 
 Berlin, where he was appointed professor of Sanscrit and the oriental 
 languages to the university, a situation which he has ever since con- 
 tinued to fill with the highest reputation. The investigations of Bopp 
 have been chiefly directed to comparative grammar, a science which 
 has been called into existence by the study of Sanscrit. His first 
 work was edited by Windischmann, and was published at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Main in 1816, ' Ueber die Conjugation-System der Sanscrit 
 Sprache in Vergleich, mit der Persischer und Germanischeu ' ('The 
 Conjugation-System of the Sanscrit Language compared with the 
 Persian and German'). His great work is the ' Vergleichende Gram- 
 matik des Sanscrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Lithuauischen, 
 Altslawischen, Gothischen, und Deutschen' ('Comparative Grammar 
 of the Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old-Sclavish, Gothic, 
 and German Languages'), 4to, Berlin, 1833. He had previously pub- 
 lished a ' Glossarium Sanscritum,' 4to, 1828-30; a 'Grammatica Critica 
 Linguae Sanscritae,' 4to, 1832; and some of the episodes from the 
 great poem of the ' Mahabharata' in the original Sanscrit, with Latin 
 and German versions, and notes. He also published an abridgment 
 of his Sanscrit Grammar, ' Kritische Grammatik der Sanscrit-Sprache, 
 in kurtzer Fassung,' 8vo, 2nd ed. 1845. His latest works were — 
 ' Ueber die Verwandschaft der Malayisch-Polyne9ischen Sprachen mit 
 den Indo-Germanischen ' ('On the Relationship of the Malay-Polynesian 
 Languages with the Indo-Germanic'), 1841, and 'Ueber die Kauka- 
 
827 
 
 BORDA, JEAN CHARLES. 
 
 BORGHESE. 
 
 82a 
 
 BiBchen Glieder des Indo-Europaischen Sprachsystems ' (' On the Cauca- 
 sian Brauches of the Indo-European System of Languages '), Berlin, 
 1847. (Conversatiovs-Lexikon ; Nouvelle Biographie Universelle.) 
 
 BORDA, JEAN CHARLES, was born at Dax, in France, May 4, 
 1733. He studied military engineering, but afterwards entered the 
 cavalry. Some mathematical papers written at the suggestion of 
 D'Aleinbert procured him admission in 1756 into the Academy of 
 Sciences at Paris. In 1757 he served at the battle of Hastenbeck; he 
 then reentered the engineering service; but in 1767 removed into 
 the navy. He introduced into the French naval surveys the use of 
 reflecting instruments, instead of determining positions by compass- 
 bearings. In 1782 the frigate which he commanded was captured by 
 an English squadron. Borda however was honourably treated, and 
 allowed to return to Fiance on his parole. From that time to the 
 end of his life he was mostly employed on the grtat measurement of 
 the meridian. He died February 20, 1799. 
 
 In 1767 Mayer had proposed a whole circle of reflexion for astrono- 
 mical purposes. Borda published the account of his own improve- 
 ment of the idea, since so well known, in 1787, under the title of 
 ' Description et Usage du Cercle de Reflexion.' The repeating circle 
 (a further modification of the ideas of Mayer) was not described by 
 himself, but appeared first, so far as we can find, in the ' Expose des 
 Operations,' &c, (94 pages) published in 1791 by the three commis- 
 sioners, CasBini, Mechaiu, and Legendre, appointed to superintend 
 the French part of the junction of the observatories of Paris and 
 Greenwich. 
 
 In 1790 he found by experiment the length of the pendulum at 
 Paris (which at that time was contemplated as the basis of the new 
 system of measures). From that time to the end of his life he was 
 employed in devising and executing the means of forwarding the great 
 survey. The methods for measuring the base were formed under his 
 inspection, and he was in fact the inventor of most of the original 
 instruments employed. To him and Coulomb is attributed the rise 
 of the sound experimental philosophy for which the French have since 
 become distinguished. 
 
 In the meanwhile he had charged himself with the expense of calcu- 
 lating and printing new tables of logarithmic sines, &c, corresponding 
 with the new division of the circle into 400 degrees. These were pub- 
 lished in 1801, under the title of ' Tables Trigonome'triques Deeiinales,' 
 &c, with revidon and an explanation by Delambre. 
 
 •BORDEAUX, DUC DE, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND 
 MARIE DIEUDONNE D'ARTOIS, son of Charles Ferdinand, Due 
 de Berry, was born September 29, 1820. When Charles X., king of 
 France, was dethroned, his son the Dauphin, Louis Antoine, on the 
 2nd of August, 1830, renounced his claim to the throne of France in 
 favour of the Due de Bordeaux, who quitted France with the rest of 
 the royal family, August 16, 1830. The French nation substituted 
 Louis-Philippe for Charles X., and the Due de Bordeaux has assumed 
 the title of the Comte de Chambord. By the French ' legitimists ' 
 he is styled 'Henri V.' He married November 7, 1846, the Arch- 
 duchess of Este, eldest daughter of the late Francis IV., duke of 
 Modena, but has no children. 
 
 BORDO'NE, PARIS CAVALIERE, one of the most distinguished 
 painters of the Venetian school, especially in portrait, was born of a 
 noble family at Treviso in 1500. He was for a short time the pupil 
 of Titian in Venice, but they disagreed and separated, and Bordone 
 chose afterwards Giorgione as his model, in preference to Titian. 
 Eventually however he adopted a style of his own, based upon the 
 styles of these two great Venetian masters. Bordone's works are 
 eminently distinguished for all the beauties of the Venetian school, 
 and are not deficient in drawing or invention. One of the best works 
 is the 'Martyrdom of St. Andrew,' in the church of San Giobbe at 
 Venice. His picture of the ' Fisherman presenting the Ring he had 
 received from St. Mark to the Doge,' now in the Academy at Venice, 
 is regarded as his masterpiece ; in colour it is exceedingly fine, but the 
 composition is confused, and the effect altogether far from satis- 
 factory. It was taken to Paris by the French during the war, but 
 was restored to Venice in 1815. His picture of 'Paradise,' formerly 
 in the church of Ogui Santi at Treviso, is now also in the Venetian 
 Academy. In the Dresden Gallery is a beautiful ' Holy Family ' by 
 Bordone, and a picture of ' Apollo with a Lyre,' and Marsyas and 
 Midas iu the background. Bordone spent some time in the service 
 of Francis I. in France : he died in Venice, January 19, 1571. The 
 National Gallery possesses two pictures by Bordone : a Portrait of a 
 Lady ; and a composition, 'Daphnis and Chloe ' 
 
 BOREL and BORELLI. Our object here is to prevent two con- 
 temporaries being confounded, who have the same Latin name 
 Borellus. 
 
 Piebrk Eorel, of Casties, born 1620, died 1689, was the author of 
 the treatise ' De vero Telescopii inventore,' Hague, 1655, a work often 
 cited. He was a physician by profession. 
 
 Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, of Naples, born 1608, was also a 
 physician. He wrote 'Euclides Restitutus,' 1628, discovered and 
 translated the lost books of Apollonius [Apollonius PerQjEUS], and 
 also wrote the first theory of Jupiter's satellites, entitled ' Theories 
 Mediceorum Planetarum ex causis physicis deducfoe,' 1666. Weidler 
 and Lalande unite in affirming that he suggested, or rather revived, 
 the notion of attraction in this work ; but Delambre (' Ast. Mod.* ii. 
 
 333), says " II n'indique aucune cause physique." Borelli also wrote 
 ' Observatioue dell' Ecclisi Lunare fatta in Roma,' 1675, inserted in 
 the Journal of Rome for 1675, p. 34. 
 
 G. A. Borelli was one of the leaders of the iatro-mathematical sect, 
 or of those who have attempted to apply mathematics to medicine. 
 He was sent to Rome to complete his education, where, under the 
 tuition of Castelli, he made such progress, that he was invited at an 
 early age to Messina to teach the mathematics. As he had made 
 medicine as well as mathematics his study, he wrote an account of a 
 malignant fever which raged in Sicily during the years 1647 and 1648, 
 in a treatise entitled 'Delle Cagioui delle Febri Maligni di Sicilia,' 
 Cosenza, 1649, 12mo. 
 
 Having become tired of his situation he accepted a professor's chair 
 at Pisa in 1656, where he lectured with great applause. The fume of 
 his abilities procured him the favour of the Grand Duke Ferdiuaud 
 and Prince Leopold, who obtained him the honour of being elected a 
 member of the Academia del Cimento. It was about this time 
 probably that he first conceived the design of employing mathematical 
 principles in explaining the animal functions, and he now applied 
 himself diligently to the dissection of animals. Several of his letters 
 on the subject of anatomy, written between 1659 and 1664, are pub- 
 lished in Malpighi's posthumous works. In 1658 he published at Pisa 
 a Becond tract on the nature and treatment of malignant fevers, ' Delia 
 Causa delle Febri Maligni,' 4to. His first physiological work, ' De 
 Reuum Usu Judicium,' appeared in 1664, with the treatise of Bellini, 
 ' De Structure Renum,' Strasburg, 8vo. Iu 1669 he published, iu the 
 ' Giorn. di Lett.' an essay on the fact, that in most persons the eyes 
 are of unequal power, the one seeing more distinctly than the other, 
 ' Osservazioni intoruo alia Virtu Ineguale degli Occhi.' In 1667 he 
 published his ' Tractatus de Vi Percussionis.' The ' Historia et Meteo- 
 rologia Incendii iEtnei, 1669; accedit Responsio ad Censuras R P. 
 Houorati Fabri contra Librum de Vi Percussionis,' was published in 
 1670. He was present at the eruption of iEtua, haviug the preceding 
 year quitted Pisa and returned to Messina. The account was written 
 at the request of the Royal Society of London, with which he corres- 
 ponded, and was printed iu their ' Transactions.' In 1670 appeared 
 his treatise ' De Motionibus Naturalibus a Gravitate Pemlentibus,' a 
 prelude to his great work ' De Motu Animalium,' which was not 
 published until after his decease. 
 
 Being supposed to have favoured the insurgents at the revolt of 
 Messina, to which city he had returned, he was obliged to quit the 
 place. Christina, queen of Sweden, who was then residing at Rome, 
 invited him thither, and he continued to enjoy her patronage till the 
 termination of his life. During the last two years of his life he taught 
 the mathematics to youth at the convent of St. Pantaloon, where he 
 died December 31st, 1679, in the seventy-second year of his age. 
 
 The first volume of his work ' De Motu Animalium,' which appeared 
 in 1680, Rome, 4to, is dedicated to Christina, and was printed at her 
 expense ; the second volume, which completed the book, came out 
 the following year. There are many other editions of this great work. 
 It is on this work that the medical reputation of Borelli depends. In 
 the second part indeed, where he endeavours to explain the action of 
 the heart, lungs, liver, and other viscera on mechanical principles, he 
 is as much mistaken as the other physicians of the iatro-mathematical 
 school ; but in the first part he successfully applies the principles of 
 mechanics to the explanation of the active aud passive movements of 
 the body. He shows that the bones are true levers, and that the 
 muscles attached to them may be considered as their moving powers; 
 and he proves that the length of the limb, and the distance at which 
 the muscle or power is inserted from the extremity of the limb, or 
 centre of articulation, influence the quantity of force required for the 
 contraction of the muscle, and the execution of the motion; just as 
 in mechanics the length of the lever and the distance of the power 
 from the fulcrum alter the quantity of force required. He demon- 
 strated too, that the muscles act at a disadvantage, considered merely 
 as levers. In his attempts to estimate the force of muscles in numbers, 
 he fails where success was probably impossible. 
 
 Borelli invented a diving apparatus ; and a boat in which persona 
 might row themselves under water. 
 
 BORGHE'SE, an Italian family originally from Siena, where they 
 ranked among the patricians of that republic. In the early part of the 
 16th century, Marc Antonio Borghese, a jurisconsult of some distinc- 
 tion, settled at Rome, where he was employed as advocate of the papal 
 court. He had several sons and daughters. His third son, Camillo, 
 born in 1552, became pope in May, 1605 (Paul V.). The eldest son, 
 Giovan Battista, married Virginia Lanti of Pisa, by whom he had Marc 
 Ajitonio Borghese, who by the influence of his uncle the pope was 
 made prince of Sulmona, and grandee of Spain. Marc Antonio began 
 the line of the princes Borghese, which still continues. His son Paolo 
 married Olirnpia Aldobrandini, the only child of the prince of Rossano, 
 and grand niece to Pope Aldobrandini (Clement VIII.), aud thus the 
 Aldobrandini inheritance came into the Borghese family. Paolo's son, 
 Giovan Battista, prince of Sulmona and Rossano, duke of Palombara, 
 &c, was ambassador of Philip V. of Spain at the court of Rome, where 
 he died in 1717, and was buried in the splendid family chapel at Santa 
 Maria Maggiore. His son, Marc Antonio Borghese, was made viceroy 
 of Naples for the emperor in 1721. Another Maro Antonio, a 
 descendant of the viceroy, wob Prince Borghese, who in the second 
 
«9 
 
 BORQHEST, BARTOLOMEO. 
 
 BORGIA, LUCREZIA. 
 
 830 
 
 half of the last century, was well known as a patron of the fine arts, 
 and a great collector of statues and other antiquities, with which he 
 enriched his fine villa on the Pincian Hill. He left two sons, the 
 eldest Don Catnillo, who early embraced the part of the French, aud 
 went to Paris, where he married in 1S03 Marie Pauline Bonaparte, 
 Napoleon's sister, and widow of General Leclerc. He was made in 
 1805 prince of the French empire, afterwards duke of Guastalla, and 
 lastly governor-general of the departments beyond the Alps, which 
 included the former states of Piedmont and Genoa, then annexed to 
 France. In his new capacity, Prince Borghese fixed his residence at 
 Turin, where he held a sort of court, and seems to have behaved so 
 as to conciliate the inhabitants. He sold to Napoleon his fine museum 
 of the villa Borghese, at Rome, for thirteen millions of francs, the 
 amount of which he received in demesnial estates situated in Piedmont. 
 On the fall of Napoleon, Prince Borghese returned to Rome, and after- 
 wards fixed his residence at Florence, where he built a magnificent 
 palace, and lived in great splendour. At the same time he did not 
 neglect his Roman residence, and he replaced in great measure by 
 fresh acquisitions of statues and rilievi for his villa, the former collec- 
 tion which is in the museum of the Louvre. Prince Don Camillo died 
 in 1832; his wife Pauline had died in 1825. The House of Borghese 
 had immense estates in the papal territory, and others in the kingdom 
 of Naples, and in Tuscauy. The vast town palace Borghese at Rome 
 has a rich gallery of paintings. Besides the celebrated villa on the 
 Pincian Mount, the family has the fine villa Aldobrandini, called also 
 Belvedere, at Frescati, and other mansions on their various estates. 
 The villa Borghese or Pinciana at Rome has been described in several 
 works :— Montelatici, Villa Borghese fuori di Porta Pinciana, con gli 
 ornamenti, figure, &c, Roma, 1700; Lamberti, Sculture del Palazzo 
 della Villa Borghese, and by Visconti, Rome, 1821. There have been 
 several cardinals of the Borghese family. 
 
 BORGHESI, BARTOLOMEO, was born July 1 1, 1781, at Savignano, 
 near Rimini, in the Papal States. His father, Pietro Borghesi, was a 
 man of learning, who was fond of archaeological inquiries, and had 
 accumulated a considerable collection of coins and medals. Bartolomeo 
 at an early age manifested a partiality for pursuits similar to those of 
 his father, who however died in 1795. The son then removed to 
 Bologna, where he pursued his studies till the year 1800, when he 
 returned to Savignano, and Boon afterwards founded the Academia 
 Savignanese, and prosecuted his antiquarian investigations with great 
 industry. He afterwards resided in Rome, Milan, and other cities of 
 Italy, where he occupied much of his time in the examination and 
 copying of ancient Roman inscriptions, besides augmenting the collec- 
 tion of coins and medals left by his father, till it has become one of 
 the richest in Italy. He has contributed largely to the periodical 
 publications of his time, but his most important work is the ' Nuovi 
 Frammenti di Fasti Consolari Capitolini,' 2 vols. 4to, 1820, &c. In 
 1821 he retired to the small republic of San Marino, where he has 
 since continued to reside, with occasional visits to Rome and other 
 Italian cities, chiefly occupied in augmenting his collection of docu- 
 ments for the series of consular and triumphal fasti, to which the 
 greater part of his time has been devoted. He is an associate and 
 corresponding member of most of the learned societies of Europe. 
 [See Supplement.] 
 
 BO'RGIA, or BORJA, a family originally from Valencia in Spain. 
 Alfonso Borja was raised to the pontificate in 1455 by the name of 
 Calixtus III. One of his sisters married Geoffroy Lenzoli, who assumed 
 the name and arms of Borja. Geoffroy had two sons, one of whom 
 became Prefect of Rome, and the other, Rodriguez, was afterwards 
 Pope Alexander VI. Before his exaltation to the pontificate Alex- 
 ander had four sons and a daughter by Vanozia, a woman whose parent- 
 age is not exactly known. The eldest sou John was made Duke of 
 Qandia in Spain by King Ferdinand of Aragon ; the second son, Cesare 
 Borgia, and a daughter, Lucrezia Borgia, are famous in Italian history. 
 
 Cesare Borgia was a student at Pisa when his father was elected 
 pope in 1492. He immediately went to Rome, where he was soon 
 after made Archbishop of Valenza in Italy, and afterwards cardinal. 
 Cesare was early noted for his profligacy as well as for his abilities and 
 deep cunning. His younger brother Geoffroy having married in 1494 
 Sancia, natural daughter of Alfonso II., king of Naples, was made 
 Duke of Squillace. The arrival of the French under Charles VIII. at 
 Rome in 1495 obliged Alexander VI. to forsake Alfonso, and apparently 
 to countenance Charles's invasion of the kingdom of Naples. Charles 
 even required Cardinal Cesare Borgia to accompany him to Naples as 
 hostage for his father's fidelity. Cesare however had not gone farther 
 than Velletri, on his flight from the French camp and return to Rome, 
 when both he and his father turned against the French, after whose 
 retreat from Italy they renewed their connection with the Aragouese 
 dynasty at Naples. Cesare joined his father and brother (the Duke of 
 Oandia) in waging a war of extermination against the Orsini, Colonna, 
 Savelli, and other baronial families of the Roman state, whose castles 
 and lands they seized. In June 1 497 John Borgia duke of Gandia was 
 murdered in the night, and his body thrown into the Tiber, by unknown 
 jJjJjMMDg. His brother Cesare was strongly suspected of the murder, 
 rhe charge rests on mere suspicion, but his character was so bad, that 
 !j M C0DS ' < ^ ere< i capable of any deed, however atrocious. Soon after- 
 wards Cesare resigned his cardinalate, and in 1498 was sent by the j 
 pope to France with the bull of divorce between Louis XII. and his 
 
 wife Jeanne, daughter of Louis XL, after which Louis XII. married 
 Anne of Brittany. On this occasion Louis made Cesare duke of Valen- 
 tinois in Daupbiny, a title by which he is generally mentioned by 
 Italian historians. In May 1499 Cesare married Charlotte, sister of 
 Jean D'Albret, king of Navarre. With the assistance of the French 
 he carried on war against the petty lords of the towns of Romagna, 
 who refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the court of Rome. 
 He began by taking Imola, and afterwards besieged the castle of Forli, 
 which was bravely defended by Caterina Sforza ; but the place waa 
 stormed, the garrison massacred, and Caterina sent prisoner to Rome, 
 where she was liberated through D'Alegre's intercession. The French 
 being recalled to Lombardy, Cesare returned to Rome, which he entered 
 in triumph in February 1500, when the pope created him Duke of 
 Romagna and Gonfalionere of the Holy See. He then turned his arms 
 against Giovanni Sforza, whom he drove out of Pesaro ; he likewise 
 took Rimini from the MalatestL The people of Faenza defended 
 themselves bravely for nearly a year on behalf of their young prince 
 Astorre Manfredi, then fifteen years of age ; at last they surrendered 
 ^on condition that both Astorre and his brother Evangelista should be 
 free. Borgia however sent them both prisoners to Rome, where they 
 were cruelly put to death in 1501. He then attacked Bologna, but 
 was stoutly resisted by Giovanni Bentivoglio, with whom he concluded 
 a truce. In the same year he marched against Florence, but was 
 obliged to desist by peremptory orders from the pope. He accom- 
 panied the French army in its invasion of Naples, under d'Aubigny, 
 and was present at the taking of Capua, where the greatest atrocities 
 were committed by the invaders. Borgia seized upon a number of 
 women whom he sent to his palace at Rome ; others were publicly 
 sold. In 1502 he took Urbino and Camerino, where he put to death 
 Giulio da Varano and his sons. 
 
 The army of Borgia was composed chiefly of mercenaries ; and he 
 had several condottieri under him, such as Vitellozzo Vitelli of Citta 
 di Castello and Baglioni of Perugia, Oliverotto of Fermo, Paolo Orsino, 
 and others. These men, either jealous of his power or afraid of his 
 ambition and treachery, deserted his cause while he had gone to Lom- 
 bardy to meet king Louis XII. On his return to Romagna, Borgia 
 affected a reconciliation with the revolted condottieri, and induced 
 them to repair to Sinigaglia, where he went himself, accompanied by 
 a troop of men. He there seized upon their persons, except Petrucci 
 of Sieua and Bagliono of Perugia, who were fortunate enough to 
 escape, and put them to death, together with many of their followers. 
 Sinigaglia was plundered on that occasion. Machiavelli, who was with 
 Borgia as envoy of the Florentine republic, gives a graphic account 
 of the whole tragedy in his characteristic cool and concise style. 
 When Alexander VI. received the news, he arrested Cardinal Orsini 
 and other members of the same family, and ordered them to be put 
 to death in prison. Borgia at this time was the terror of all Central 
 Italy, from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean ; he aimed at making 
 himself, with the countenance of the pope, independent sovereign of 
 Romagna, the Marches, and Umbria. On the 18th of August 1503 
 Alexander IV. died, after a great supper, at which Cesare wa3 present, 
 who felt himself dangerously ill at the same time, aud it has been 
 said, though without sufficient evidence, that they both drank by 
 mistake some poisoned wine which they intended for Cardinal di 
 Corneto. The death of the pope ruined Borgia's fortunes. His troops 
 were defeated, and he was himself arrested and sent prisoner to Spain, 
 where he was confined by King Ferdinand in the fortress of Medina 
 del Campo for about two years. Having found means to escape, he 
 went to his brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, and served in the 
 Navarrese army as a volunteer. He was killed in 1507 by a musket- 
 shot at the siege of the small town of Viana near the Ebro. 
 
 (Tomasi, Vita di Cesare Borgia.) 
 
 Lucrezia Borgia, sister to Cesare, was betrothed while yet a child 
 to a Spanish nobleman, but her father having become pope, married 
 her in 1493 to Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whom she 
 remained four years, when her father dissolved the marriage, and gave 
 her in 1498 to Alfonso duke of Bisceglia, natural son of Alfonso II., 
 king of Naples. On this occasion she was created Duchess of Spoleto 
 and of Sermoneta. She had by Alfonso a son, Rodrigo, who was 
 brought up at the papal court, but died young. In June 1500 Alfonso 
 was attacked on the steps of St. Peter's church by a party of assassins, 
 and stabbed in several places ; he was carried to the pontifical palace, 
 where he died two months after. Cesare Borgia, as usual, was sus- 
 pected of the crime. Lucrezia then retired for some time to Nepi, 
 but was afterwards recalled to Rome by her father, and, accordiug to 
 Burchard, intrusted with the affairs of the government during his 
 absence : but the correctness of this is doubted. (Roscoe, ' Disser- 
 tation on Lucrezia Borgia,' in the first volume of his ' Life of Leo X.,' 
 and also Bossi's 'Notes' to the Italian translation of that work.) 
 Towards the end of 1501 she married Alfonso d'Lste, son of Ercole 
 duke of Ferrara, and made her entrance into Ferrara with great pomp 
 on the 2nd of February 1502. 
 
 At Ferrara Lucrezia appeared as the patroness of literature. Bembo, 
 who was then at that court, conceived an attachment for her which 
 appears to have been of a platonic nature. (Mazzuchelli, art. Bembo 
 and Lucrezia Borgia.) Ten autograph letters of Lucrezia to Bembo are 
 preserved in the Ambrosian Library, together with a lock of her hair 
 which she sent him in one of them, and some Spanish verses addressed 
 
831 
 
 BORGOGNONE, JACOPO CORTESI. 
 
 BORROMEO, ST. CHARLES. 
 
 833 
 
 to her by Bembo. Bembo continued to correspond with the Duchess 
 of Este long after he had left Ferrara, and till 1517. Lucrezia was the 
 mother of three sons by Alfonso, who had a high opinion of her, and 
 intrusted her with the care of the government while he was absent in 
 the field, in which capacity she seems to have conducted herself so as 
 to gain general approbation. In the latter years of her life she became 
 more rigid in her manners and more assiduous in the practice of 
 devotion and charitable works. In short, her behaviour after she 
 became Duchess of Ferrara affords no grounds for censure. Her 
 former conduct, while at Rome with her father, has been the subject 
 of much obloquy, which seems to rest however chiefly on inferences 
 from her living in a flagitious court, where she witnessed the most 
 profligate scenes. Still there is no individual charge substantiated 
 against her. (See the ' Dissertation ' of Boscoe referred to above.) 
 Of any participation in the murder of her husband, or in any of her 
 brother's atrocious deeds, she has never been accused. At Ferrara she 
 was highly praised by Strozzi, Tibaldeo, Ariosto, and other poets of 
 the court. Bembo dedicated his ' Asolani ' to her, and Aldo Manuzio, 
 in the dedication prefixed to his edition of Strozzi's works, speaks of 
 her as an accomplished princess and a liberal patroness of his art ; the 
 historians Giraldi, Sardi, and Libanori, mention her in terms of the 
 highest commendation. All this can hardly be mere flattery, for even 
 flattery from so many different writers could not have been lavished 
 on a person so profligate and debased as she has been represented. A 
 drama full of horrible but gratuitous fictions concerning her life was 
 published and performed at Paris in 1833, under the title of ' Lucrece 
 Borgia.' Lucrezia died at Ferrara in 1523. 
 
 John, duke of Uandia, left a sou who perpetuated the family of Borgia. 
 One of his descendants was canonised as St. Francis de Borgia. Another 
 Borgia was viceroy of Peru, and died in 1658. Lastly, Cardinal Stefano 
 Borgia (prefect of Propaganda), a learned and amiable man, who died 
 iu 1804, while accompanying Pius VII. on his journey to Paris. The 
 Museum Borgia at Velletri, rich in Egyptian and Mexican antiquities, 
 belonged to this cardinal. He has left several learned works, among 
 others a ' History of Benevento,' in 3 vols. 4to ; 'De Cruce Veliterna 
 Commentarii,' Roma, 1780 ; ' Bassirilievi in terra cotta dipinti in varij 
 colori trovati nella citta, di Velletri,' Roma, 1785 ; ' Storia della citta 
 di Tadino ;' ' De Cruce Vaticana,' &c. 
 
 BORGOGNO'NE, JA'COPO CORTE'SI, called from his place of 
 birth Borgognone, was born in 1621 in the city of St. Hippolite in 
 Burgundy (Ital. Borgogna). His father, Giovanni Cortesi, was a painter 
 of sacred subjects, and very successful in his way. Owing to an acci- 
 dental temptation, Jacopo went into the army for three years ; after 
 which he returned to his art, and studied at Bologna, where Guido, 
 then at the height of his fame, was residing. Guido, happening to Bee 
 a picture of his in a window, inquired into his circumstances, and took 
 him home with him, which, during the remaining six months that he 
 stayed in Bologna, afforded him a fine opportunity of improving his 
 colouring. Here he occasionally saw Albano, from whom, among other 
 things, he learned this maxim, " That a painter, before setting to work 
 upon any subject, should recal to mind something which he had seen 
 in reality;" a saying which Jacopo kept constantly in view. Borgognone 
 subsequently realised a handsome independence, and visited his native 
 country for three years ; then returned to Italy, and painted for a con- 
 siderable time in Florence with great reputation. But he had early in 
 life imbibed a passion for .the monastic life from frequent association 
 with members of the religious orders. In 1655 he conceived himself 
 under a call to renounce the vanities of the world, and accordingly 
 betook himself to Rome, where he begged to be admitted into the 
 Order of Jesus, and was received as a novice. During his noviciate he 
 painted, at the suggestion of his fellow-monks, pictures of sacred 
 subjects. In such esteem was he held by the community to which he 
 belonged that the second year of noviciate was dispensed with, and he 
 never gave his order reason to repent of their confidence. His 
 religious profession however did not make him idle, and he painted 
 as vigorously as ever. He died of apoplexy, November 14th, 1676. 
 
 Borgognone painted with great facility and rapidity ; his pictures 
 consequently are very numerous. His execution was in dashing strokes, 
 the colour laid on thick, and better suited therefore to a distant than 
 a close view — a manner which has been ascribed to his living with 
 Guido, and to his seeing the works of Paolo Veronese when at Venice; 
 but is sufficiently explained by his early habits of study and practice. 
 His pictures have excellences corresponding to the peculiarity of his 
 style. They are chiefly of battle-pieces and the like ; and there is in 
 them a freedom of design, a force and suddenness in the action, a 
 unity of composition, with a most natural variety in the accidents, 
 which seem to convey to the gallery-visitor the impression of a real 
 battle-field. 
 
 Jacopo had a brother, Guglielmo Cortesi, also called Borgognone, 
 a painter of merit, who sometimes assisted his brother in his paintings, 
 but he never attained the same eminence. He was a pupil of Pietro 
 da Cortona, but chiefly formed his st} le after that of Carlo Maratta. 
 
 BORLASE, WILLIAM, was born at Pendeen, in the parish of St. 
 Just in Cornwall, February 2nd 1696, where his family had been 
 settled from the reign of King William Rufus. He was placed early 
 at school at Penzance, where his master used to say " he could leam, 
 but did not ; " and was thence removed in 1709 to Plymouth, under 
 the care of the Rev. Mr. Bedford. In March 1713 he was entered 
 
 of Exeter College, Oxford. He was ordained priest in 1720. In 1722 
 he was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan in Cornwall. In 1724 he 
 was married to Anne, eldest surviving daughter and coheir of the 
 Rev. William Smith; and in 1732 he was presented by Lord Chan- 
 cellor King to the vicarage of St. Just, his native parish, where his 
 father bad considerable property. 
 
 At Ludgvan, a retired but delightful situation, Mr. Borlase soon 
 recommended himself as a clergyman, a gentlemau, and a man of 
 learning. The parish of Ludgvan contained rich copper-works, abound- 
 ing with mineral fossils, which Mr. Borlase collected from time to time; 
 and his collection increasing by degrees, he was encouraged to study 
 the natural history of his native county. While engaged in this 
 design, his attention became strongly directed to the numerous monu- 
 ments of remote antiquity in several parts of Cornwall, which had till 
 then been nearly neglected. Enlarging his plan, he determined to 
 gain as accurate an acquaintance as possible with the religion and cus- 
 toms of the ancient Britons, to which he was encouraged by several 
 gentlemen of his neighbourhood, who were lovers of British antiquities, 
 and by the antiquarians of other parts of England. 
 
 In 1750, being at London, he was admitted a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society, into which he had been chosen the year before, after having 
 communicated a paper on the nature and properties of spar and 
 sparry productions, particularly on the spars or crystals found in the 
 Cornish mines, printed in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' vol. xvi. 
 p. 250. His next memoir was an account of the great alterations 
 which the islands of Scilly have undergone since the time of the 
 ancients who mention them, as to their number, extent, and position. 
 (' Phil. Trans.,' vol. xlviii. p. 55.) Various other communications from 
 him, some relating to the antiquities, some to the natural history of 
 his native county, appear in the ' Philosophical Transactions ' between 
 the years 1752 and 1771. 
 
 The antiquities of Cornwall were published at Oxford in February 
 1753, under the title «of 'Observations on the Antiquities, Historical 
 and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall,' folio, Oxford, 1754. It 
 passed through a second edition at London in 1769. At the request 
 of Dr. Lyttelton, president of the Society of Antiquaries, and after- 
 wards bishop of Carlisle, his memoir on the Scilly Islands was pub- 
 lished in an enlarged form as a distinct treatise, entitled ' Observations 
 on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of Scilly, and their 
 importance to the trade of Great Britain ; ' in a Letter to the Rev. 
 Charles Lyttelton, LL.D., dean of Exeter, 4to, Oxford, 1756. 
 
 Mr. Borlase printed at the Oxford press his ' Natural History of 
 Cornwall,' for which he had been many years making collections : it 
 was published in folio in April 1758. He presented a variety of fossils 
 and remains of antiquity, which he had described in his works, to the 
 Ashmolean Museum, to which he continued to send everything curious 
 that fell in his way. In 1766 the University of Oxford conferred upon 
 him the degree of LL.D. by diploma. 
 
 Dr. Borlase was diligent in his pastoral duties and the study of the 
 Scriptures. He made a paraphrase of the book of Job and the books 
 of Solomon, and wrote some other pieces of a religious kind. He 
 occupied himself in superintending his parish, and particularly the 
 improvement of the high roads, which were more numerous than in 
 any parish in Cornwall. The belles-lettres and painting also occupied 
 part of his leisure time. The correction and enlargement of his 
 ' History of Cornwall ' for a second edition engaged a portion of his 
 time ; and when this was completed he minutely revised his ' Natural 
 History.' His ' Private Thoughts concerning the Creation and Deluge,' 
 after being sent to the printer, were recalled when a few pages were 
 printed, chiefly owing to his severe illness in January 1771. Fiom 
 this time his health began to decline. He died August 31st 1772, in 
 his 77th year. 
 
 Dr. Borlase corresponded with many of the most eminent men of 
 his time. Nichols, who, in his ' Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth 
 Century,' vol. v., has printed Dr. Borlase's Life of Himself, with addi- 
 tions, says that there is still extant a large collection of letters written 
 to Dr. Borlase by Pope, whom he furnished with the greatest part of the 
 materials for forming his grotto at Twickenham, consisting of such 
 curious fossils as the county of Cornwall abounds with. 
 
 BORROME'O, ST. CHARLES, son of Gilberto Borromeo, Count 
 of Arona, Lord of Anghieri, &c, and of Margherita de' Medici, sister 
 to Pope Pius IV., was born at Arona in October 1538. He studied at 
 Pavia under Alciati, and took his doctor's degree at twenty-two years 
 of age. Shortly after, his uncle Pius IV. called him to Rome, and 
 made him a cardinal and archbishop of Milan. Borromeo established 
 an academy in the Vatican for the promotion of learning, and he 
 published its conferences, under the name of ' Noctes Vatieanse.' He 
 urged the pope to hasten the termination of the Council of Trent ; 
 and upon its conclusion in 1563, he was commissioned to draw up an 
 exposition of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, as sanc- 
 tioned by that council. This exposition is known by the name of 
 'Catechismus Tridentinus.' After the death of Pius IV., in 1565, 
 Cardinal Borromeo went to his diocese, where he devoted himself 
 entirely to his episcopal duties. He reformed his expensive style of 
 living, and employed the greater part of his revenues in charitable 
 purposes. He also enforced a reform in the clergy, especially among 
 the monastic orders. The monks called Umiliati gave most scandal 
 by their openly licentious conduct ; and Borromeo having exerted 
 
BBS 
 
 984 
 
 himself to check their disorders, one of them shot at the cardinal while 
 he was at prayer in his chapel. The ball perforated his garments 
 without hurting his person. The assassin, named Farina, was taken 
 and executed, together with two of his superiors who had instigated 
 the crime. Pope Pius V. suppressed the order, and applied their 
 revenues to other purposes. 
 
 Cardinal Borromeo used to visit every part of his diocese, reforming 
 abuses, examining the conduct of his clergy, and providing for the 
 wants of the poor. He established colleges, schools, and asylums 
 for destitute children. He held several provincial synods, the trans- 
 actions of which are found in his 'Acta Ecclesise Mediolanensis,' folio, 
 1599. When the plague broke out at Milan in 1576, he exerted him- 
 self, at the risk of his life, in assisting the sick and relieving the wants 
 of the population in that calamitous time. In some particulars, 
 Cardinal Borromeo shared the errors and prejudices of his age, for we 
 find that he believed in the existence of sorcery. His conduct how- 
 ever was exemplary, and his zeal for the flock committed to his care 
 unremitting. He died the 3rd of November 1584. His body, dressed 
 in his pontifical robes, is to be seen in a sarcophagus of natural 
 crystal, in the subterraneous chapel of the cathedral of Milan. Borro- 
 meo was canonised by Pope Paul V. in 1610. He left many theological 
 and ascetic works, homilies, ami sermons, of which a catalogue is given 
 by Mazzuchelli. Ripamonti and Bascape - have written his life. 
 
 BORKOME'O, FEDERI'CO, the son of Giulio Cesare Borromeo, and 
 uncle of St. Charles Borromeo, and of Margherita Trivulzio, was born 
 at Milan, in 1564. He resided first at Bologna and then at Pavia, and 
 afterwards went to Rome, where he was made a cardinal, in 1587. 
 He was both a classical and oriental scholar; and was intimate at 
 Rome with Baronio, Bellarmino, and the pious philanthropist Filippo 
 Neri. In 1595 he was made Archbishop of Milan, where he adopted 
 the views of his cousin and predecessor St. Charles, and enforced his 
 regulations concerning discipline with great success. He used to visit 
 by turns all the districts, however remote and obscure, in his diocese ; 
 and his indefatigable zeal for the good of his flock, his charity and 
 enlightened piety, are attested by Ripamonti and other contemporary 
 writers, and have been recently eloquently eulogised by Manzoni, in his 
 'Promessi SposL' He was the founder of the Ambrosian Library, on 
 which he spent very large sums ; and he employed various learned 
 men, who went about several parts of Europe and the East, for the 
 purpose of collecting manuscripts. Olgiati was sent to Germany, 
 Holland, and France ; Ferrari to Spain, Salmazi to Greece, a Maronite 
 priest, called Michael, to Syria, &c. About 9000 manuscripts were 
 thus collected. Cardinal Borromeo established a printing press, 
 annexed to the library ; and appointed several learned professors to 
 examine and make known to the world these literary treasures. He 
 also established several academies, schools, and charitable foundations. 
 His philanthropy, charity, and energy of mind, were exhibited espe- 
 cially on the occasion of the famine which afflicted Milan in 1627-28 ; 
 and also during the great plague of 1630. He died the 22nd of Septem- 
 ber 1631, universally regretted. Mazzuchelli gives a list of his printed 
 works. He left also a number of works in manuscript. 
 
 BORROMTNI, FRANCESCO, was born in the district of Como, in 
 the year 1599, and at the early age of nine was sent by his father, who 
 was an architect, to study sculpture at Milan. After passing seven 
 years in that city he proceeded to Rome, where his relative, Carlo 
 Maderno, was then employed in finishing St. Peter's. On the death 
 of Maderno, in 1629, although Bernini was appointed to succeed him 
 as architect to that building, Borromini continued under him as 
 he had done under his predecessor. Borromini could not brook the 
 superiority thus given to Bernini, and endeavoured to supplant him 
 whenever occasion offered, and so far succeeded as to ingratiate himself 
 with Urban VIII. Owing to the patronage of that pontiff, he was 
 employed upon a variety of important works, most of which would 
 have afforded ample scope for the display of architectural talent, had 
 he not chosen to throw away the opportunities thus offered him. 
 Instead of seeking to distinguish himself by showing that he was 
 capable of turning his art to greater account than either his prede- 
 cessors or contemporaries, he sought to astonish by novelties, and by 
 caprices altogether at variance with the established principles both of 
 the art itself and of construction, altering and reversing members, and 
 applying them contrary to all analogy. His designs are of a singularly 
 heterogeneous description, and the invention which he unquestionably 
 possessed, is rendered for the most part valueless by the capricious use 
 made of it. Nearly all the productions of Borromini offer to the eye 
 a mass of confusion, and for the most part are as ungraceful as they 
 are unmeaning. It must nevertheless be acknowledged that there are 
 occasionally some happy accidents — some glimpses and glimmerings of 
 beauty and gracefulness in his works. 
 
 It must also be allowed that he frequently exhibited an unusual 
 degree of constructive skill ; in fact, it required no ordinary ability to 
 contrive the execution of some of his designs, because the supports 
 sre all disguised, and what ought to contribute to strength, required 
 no little artifice to make it support itself. He appears to have been 
 a man of perverse disposition as well as taste ; and at length, although 
 ue obtained great wealth as well as popularity, he fell into a state of 
 hypochondria, caused it has been said by envy of Bernini's superior 
 reputation ; but really there can be little doubt, by the approaches of 
 insanity. In order to dissipate the malady, he made a journey 
 
 Bioo. div. vol. j. • 
 
 through Italy, but on his return again to Rome shut himself up in 
 seclusion, occupying himself solely in drawing whatever fantastic 
 architectural ideas occurred to him, with the intention of bavin™ them 
 engraved. His disorder however continued to gather strength; and 
 it was no doubt increased by his attendants not permitting him to 
 apply himself any longer to the studies which they considered the 
 cause of his disorder. One night when he was unable to sleep, and 
 had ordered pens and paper to be brought him, he leaped out of bed 
 and stabbed himself with a sword that happened to be hanging 
 up in his chamber. This desperate act was committed in tho year 
 1667, when he had reached the advanced age of sixty-eight. Borro- 
 miui is said to have exhibited a morbid jealousy of temper and 
 inordinate ambition, yet he was possessed of many estimable qualities : 
 he was generous and disinterested, and his morals were unblemished. 
 
 Among his principal works is the church of La Sapienza at Rome, 
 which he was commissioned to execute by his patron, Pope Urban, 
 and which bears ample testimony to his singular taste, both outside 
 and in the interior. The dome has the peculiarity of being formed 
 externally by steps, and it has a spiral staircase placed above its lantern. 
 His other more important works include the church of the College 
 di Propaganda ; the oratory of the fathers of Ghiesa Nuova, which is 
 perhaps one of his least faulty productions, after the church of St. 
 Agues ; and the fagade of the Doria Palace, a strange composition yet 
 displaying considerable grandeur of effect seen from certain positions. 
 His church of San Carlino alle Quattro Foutaue is generally considered 
 his masterpiece of extravagauce, chiefly perhaps on account of the 
 waving lines and surfaces of its facade. Besides the above and a great 
 many other works, Borromini restored, or rather modernised, the nave 
 of San Giovanni Laterano, which, capricious as the parts and decora- 
 tions are, has nevertheless something grand and imposing in its general 
 character. 
 
 ♦BORROW, GEORGE, was born at East Deieham, Norfolk, in 
 1803. From intimations scattered througli his various writings he 
 would appear (even whilst with his parents) to have led a somewhat 
 erratic life, and to have received a very irregular education, for which 
 he was more than usually indebted to his own exertions. Early iu 
 life he was thrown into greater or less intimacy with several persons 
 of literary and intellectual habits, among others William Taylor of 
 Norwich, and from them he acquired a decided taste for literature 
 with a predilection for the acquisition of languages ; without how- 
 ever impairing his natural fondness for adventures, and especially 
 for such as were to be found in roving among gipsies and other 
 wandering tribes. For this kind of life his great physical strength, 
 pliability of temper, readiness in the acquisition of living languages, 
 dialects, patois, and even slang, fitted him in a very uncommon 
 degree. In England he made himself perfectly familiar with the 
 language, habits, and traditions of the gipsies, and then spent a 
 considerable time amongst the gipsies of the continent, more par- 
 ticularly those of Spain. The result of his experience he published 
 in a work, the character of which is sufficiently indicated by its 
 title ; and which opened quite a new field of information to the 
 philologist and the student of human nature, while its popular 
 interest was manifested by its quickly reaching a third edition. This 
 work was entitled ' The Zincali ; or an Account of the Gypsies of 
 Spain, with an original Collection of their Songs and Poetry, and a 
 copious Dictionary of their Language,' 2 vols. 8vo, J 841. In Spain 
 Mr. Borrow undertook a mission which would seem at first ill-suited to 
 his tastes, and for which he must have appeared to some of the graver 
 members of the committee of the society singularly unfitted, — that of 
 distributing for the Bible Society of London, copies of the Bible in 
 the Spanish language. Mr. Borrow certainly set about his task in an 
 original manner, though perhaps one better fitted to the circum- 
 stances of the country than any other which could have been adopted, 
 but which no other man probably could have carried out in practice. 
 Of this mission he published in 1843 a pretty full narrative: 'The 
 Bible in Spain ; or the Journeys, Adventures, and Imprisonments of 
 an Englishman in an attempt to circulate the Scriptures in the penin- 
 sula,' 3 vols. 8vo. In many respects this remarkable book as a mere 
 work of amusement might take its place alongside of ' Gil Bias.' It 
 is unquestionably one of the most original and interesting narratives 
 of travelling adventure in a well-known country which has recently 
 appeared ; and it won at once for its author a high place among 
 English writers. Both of these works have been issued in a cheaper 
 form in Murray's Home and Colonial Library. Iu 1851 Mr. Borrow 
 published a very singular work which was apparently intended to be 
 understood as half autobiography, half fiction. But although abun- 
 dantly piquant in style, and narrating a course of life in England and 
 Ireland to which the reading public had scarcely been previously intro- 
 duced, — and intended, in the words of the writer, to satisfy the reader 
 that " there are no countries in the world less known by the British 
 than these self-same British Islands, or where more strange things are 
 every day occurring, whether in road or street, house or dingle" — the 
 work disappointed the expectations raised by the ' Zincali,' and the 
 ' Bible in Spain.' A kind of se iuel to it appeared in 1857 under the 
 title of the ' Romany Rye.' Mr. Borrow has since published a curiously 
 characteristic work entitled 'Wild Wales,' which has passed into a 
 third edition ; and contributed some papers to periodicals. Mr. Bor- 
 row'* first publication was a small volume of ' Translations of Northern 
 
 3 H 
 
BOSCAN, DON JUAN. 
 
 sao 
 
 Poetry ; ' and he has long announce ! a much more extensive work of 
 a similar kind, in whi h his almost unriva lied colloquial knowledge of 
 modern languages u ill doubtless turn to good account. He has a so 
 translated the Gospel of St. Luke into the Spanish gipsy tongue : ' El 
 Evangelio .-egun Lucas, tradueido al Romani, o dialecto de los Gitano3 
 de Espaiia,' 8vo, 1837. 
 
 BOHTHWICK, DAVID, of Lochhill, lord advocate of Scotland in 
 the reign of King James VI., afterwards King James I. of England. 
 The early history of this learned man is involved in obscurity. When 
 he first appears in the records he is designated 'Mr. David Borthwick 
 of Auldistone,' an estate which he probably acquired by descent. In 
 the spring of 1549, which was about seventeen years after the institu- 
 tion of the court of session, or college of justice, that court made 
 choice of nine advocates "being persona of gude conscience and 
 understanding, to procure (that is, practice in suits) befoir thame in 
 all actions and causes." Borthwick was one of these ; and in 1552 he 
 was made a member of the public commission then appointed to treat 
 with the commissioners of England on the atlairs of the borders 
 between the two kingdoms. He appears to have met with a good 
 share of professional employment, and to have been engaged in many 
 important cases ; he appears also to have been retained as standing 
 counsel for the noble families of Huntley and Bothwell (' Act Pari.' 
 vol. ii. p. 573). On the death of Spens of Condie, in 1573, Borthwick 
 was associated with (reighton of Elliok, father of the admirable 
 Crichton, and who had been colleague to Spens in the office of king's 
 advocate, and was also advanced to the seat on the bench of the court 
 of session vacant by Spens's decease, for it was then usual to make the 
 king's advocate a lord of session. Borthwick is also remarkable in 
 being, as it seems, the first who had the title of ' Lord Advocate.' 
 The salary of the lord advocate at this time was 407. Scots yearly, and 
 that of a lord of session amounted to about the same sum. What the 
 profits of the bar then were may be guessed from Sir David Lindsay's 
 ' Puirman and Pardoner,' where the former says 
 
 " I haif na geir bot just an English groat, 
 Quhilk 1 purposs to give ane man of law." 
 
 So that the emoluments and practice of the learned lord must have 
 yielded him at least 100/. per annum, which though but 81. 6s. 8d. 
 sterling was a large income in those days. Borthwick retained the 
 situations of a lord of session and lord advocate till his death, which 
 occurred in January 1581, when his colleague Creighton, to whom the 
 places had long been objects of much desire, became sole lord advocate, 
 and also succeeded to the vacant seat on the bench. 
 
 BORY DE SAINT- VINCENT, JEAN - BAPTISTE - GEORGE- 
 MARIE, was born in 17S0, at Agen, in the French department of 
 Lot-et-Garonne. As early as his fifteenth year he had addressed some 
 communications to the Annals of the Society of Natural History of 
 Bordeaux. In 1799 he accompanied Captain Baudiu, as a naturalist, 
 in the scientific expedition which was sent out to Australia by the 
 French government. In the course of the voyage however a disagree- 
 ment took place between the captain and several of the officers and 
 scientific men who accompanied him, in consequence of which Bory 
 de Saint- Vincent and others abandoned the expedition at Mauritius, 
 then named the lie de France. He was employed by the governor as 
 one of the ctat-major of the colony, and provided with whatever was 
 requisite for making a survey of the adjacent islands. His attention 
 was particularly directed to the island of Bourbon, then named the 
 lie de la Reunion, of which he constructed a good map. On his 
 voyage back to France, he touched at and examined several of the 
 islands in the African seas, especially that of St. Helena, of which also 
 he made a map. After his return to France he published his ' Essai 
 sur les lies Foitunees de l'Antique Atlautide, ou Precis de l'Histoire 
 Gcnerale de l'Archipel des Canaries,' 4to, Paris, 1803, and his ' Voyage 
 dans les Quatre Principales lies des Mers d'Afrique,' 3 vols. 8vo, with 
 Atlas in 4to, Paris, 1804. 
 
 Bory de Saint-Vincent was afterwards promoted to the rank of 
 captain on the staff of Marshal Davoust, and was present at the battles 
 of Ulm and Au^terlitz. When Marshal Ney was sent to Spain in 
 1808, Bory de Saint- Vincent accompanied him as one of his staff, and 
 was promoted to the rank of major. He was afterwards attached to 
 the staff of Marshal Soult, and was present with him at the final battle 
 of Toulouse. He was included in the lists of proscription of July 24, 
 1815, and resided at Aix-la-Chapelle, Maastricht, Magdeburg, and 
 Brussels. While at Maastricht he examined the vast quarries which 
 extend under the mountain c;dled Petersberg, and published an account 
 of them under the title of ' Un Voyage Souterraiu,' 8vo, 1823. At 
 Brussels he was engaged with others in the ' Annales Generates des 
 Sciences Physiques,' 8 vols. 8vo. He returned to France in 1 820. 
 
 In 1S29 Bory de Saint- Vincent was placed at the head of the 
 scientific expedition sent out by the French government to the Morea 
 and the Cyclades, the results of which were published in the 'Expe- 
 dition Scientifique de Moree,' 4to, with Atlas in fol., Paris, 1832. In 
 this work, besides the assistance given to other departments, he fur- 
 bished the entire section of the botany (' Partie Botanique.') His 
 contributions to the periodical publications of Paris were very 
 numerous, mostly on subjects of natural history. In 1838 he pub- 
 lished a 'Resuml de la Geographie de la Peninsule,' 12mo, with maps. 
 In 1839 he was appointed 'o the management of the scientific com- 
 
 mission sent out by the French government to Algiers. He accom- 
 panied the expedition, and after the completion of the investigations 
 
 returned to Paris. He died December 23, 1846. 
 
 (Conversations- Lcxikon ; Nouvelle Biograpkie Universelle.) 
 
 BOS, LAMBERT, an eminent philologist, was born November 23, 
 1670, at Worcum in Friesland, where his father was rector of the 
 college. His mother, a woman of abilities, was aunt to Vitringa. 
 Having gone through the classes in his father's school, and acquired 
 a considerable knowledge of Greek and Latin, be became private 
 tutor to the children of a man of rank, in whose house he continued 
 to improve himself in classical studies. In 1694 he went to the 
 University of Fraueker, where Vitringa was professor of the Oriental 
 languages, divinity, and sacred history. In October 1696, he was per- 
 mitted to teach Greek in the university, and in the month of February 
 of the following year, upon Sibranda's death, became the prelector in 
 that language. In 1704, when tho Greek professorship in that uni- 
 versity became vacant by the death of Nicholas Blancard, the curators 
 appointed Bos to be his successor. On taking the chair he read a 
 dissertation on the propagation of learning by the Greeks through 
 their colonies. About the end of 1716 he was attacked by a malig- 
 nant fever, which ended in a consumption, a disorder which he 
 inherited from his mother. He died January 6th, 1717. About five 
 years before his death he married the widow of a clergyman, by whom 
 he left two sons. The extent of Bos's learning may be estimated by 
 his works. In his studies he was so indefatigable, that he is said to 
 have regretted every moment which was not employed in them. In 
 his personal character he was candid, amiable, and pious. 
 
 He published, 1, ' Thomae Magistri Dictionum Atticarum Eclogae,' 
 cum notis, 8vo, Franeq., 1698; 2, ' Exercitationes Philologicac, in 
 quibus Novi Foederis nonnulla loca e profauis maxime auctoribug 
 Graecis illustrantur,' 8vo, Franeq., 1700 ; republished in an enlarged 
 form with the addition of a dissertation 'De Etymologia Grseca,' 8vo, 
 Franeq., 1713; 3, ' Mysterii Ellipsios Graecse expositi Specimen,' 12mo, 
 Franeq., 1702. Of this work there have been numerous editions, 
 among others by Chr. Schoettgen, Schwebel, Chr. B. Michaelis, and 
 by F. H. Sehaeffer ; 4, ' Oratio Inaug. de eruditione Grsecornm per 
 Colonias eorum propagata,' fol., Franeq., 1704 ; 5, ' Observationes Mis- 
 cellanea: ad loca quaedam cum Novi Foederis, turn exterorum Scripto- 
 rum Graecorutn. Accedit Horatii Vitringa Animadversionum ad 
 Johannis Vorstii Philolo^iam sacram Specimen,' 8vo, Franeq., 1707; 
 6, ' An edition of the Septuagint, with prolegomena,' &c, 2 torn. 4to, 
 1709: 7, ' Antiquitatum Grsecarum, praecipue Atticarum Desciiptio 
 brevis,' 12mo, Franeq., 1713. Of this work, which became a school- 
 book, there have been many editions. It has been translated into 
 English by Percival Stockdale, in an abridged form, by the Rev. John 
 Seagar, and by George Barber; 8, ' Auimadversiones ad Scriptorea 
 quosdam Graecos. Accedit Specimen Auimadversionum Latinarum,' 
 8vo, Franeq., 1715; 9, in the same year he published a new edition 
 of Weller's ' Grammatica Giaaca nova,' 8vo, Amsterdam, adding two 
 chapters on accentuation and syntax : this work was re-edited with 
 Bos's and other notes by I. F. Fischer, 8vo, Leips., 1756. Bos's notes 
 and emendations on Aristides are included in Jebb's edition of that 
 author, 2 torn. 4to, 1722-30. 
 
 BOSCAN, ALMOGAVER, DON JUAN, was born at Barcelona, in 
 the year 1500, of a noble family. On his outset in life he devoted 
 himself for a short time to the profession of arms. He afterwards 
 spent some time in travelling. Although Boscan at an early period 
 became intimately acquainted with the literature of Italy, the poetry 
 that he wrote in his youth was all in the ancient Spanish lyric style. 
 It was not until 1526, when, after having lived at the court of Charles V., 
 and having formed an iutimate friendship with Andrea Navajero, the 
 envoy from Venice, that he ventured to follow the counsel of this 
 accomplished Italian, and assumed the character of a reformer of the 
 lyric poetry of his nation, by transplanting the forms and manner of 
 Italian poetry into Spain. 
 
 The metrical structure of the sonnet had long been known in Spain; 
 but the genius of Castilian poetry was adverse to that form, and when 
 Boscan began writing sonnets constructed in imitation of those of 
 Petrarch, a thousand voices were raised against him and his friend 
 and more highly-gifted fellow-reformer, Garcilaso de la Vega. Some 
 insisted that a preference should be given to the old Castilian metre, 
 on the ground of euphony. Others went farther, and asserted that 
 the ear could perceive no distinction between the new hendecasyllabic 
 verse and true prose. Finally, a third party discovered that Italian 
 poetry was efferninate, and was fit only for Italians and women. In 
 tact, the attempt was considered nothing short of treason against 
 poetry ; and one of this sort of zealots, Cristobal de Castillejo, goes so 
 far in his satires against these innovators, whom he calls Petrarquistas, 
 as to compare them to the followers of Luther, the perverters of 
 another doctrine, the subverters of the old faith. Boscan states that 
 this violent opposition made him reflect seriously and hesitate in his 
 noble task ; but he was soon convinced of the futility of the reasons 
 urged against his literary reform ; he persisted in carrying it on ; and 
 through his perseverance, and the great talents and powerful example 
 of his friend Garcilaso, Ids party rapidly increased, and obtained the 
 superiority. 
 
 The urbanity of his manners and his abilities recommended Boscan 
 to the family of Alba, which was then one of the most brilliant among 
 
BOSCAWEN, EDWARD. 
 
 BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH. 
 
 83a 
 
 the Castilian nobility, and to which many Spanish poets constantly 
 paid their homage. Boscan was for some time Ayo, or first poveruor, 
 to the young Don Fernando de Alba, who was afterwards the terror 
 of the enemies of the Spanish monarchy. He appears however to have 
 resigned this employment, in order to divide his time between study 
 and the society of literary friends. The year in which he died is not 
 exactly known ; it is only ascertained that his death happened prior 
 to 1544. 
 
 Boscan's poetry is divided into three books. The first contains his 
 'Mar de Amor' (the Sea of Love), and exhibits the fantastic flights of 
 the old Spanish muse. The second consists of his ' Sonetos ' and 
 ' Canciones,' which, although written in imitation of those of Petrarch, 
 still display the spirit of the old poetry, in which the mild disposition 
 of Boscan contrasts throughout with the enthusiastic vein of his model. 
 The third book is occupied chiefly by a paraphrastic translation of the 
 Greek poem of ' Hero and Leander,' the first of the kind which 
 appeared in the Spanish language. It is elegantly written, with a 
 pure diction and an easy versification. To this free translation succeeds 
 a love elegy, the ' Capitulo,' abounding in pleasing images, but too 
 much diluted in words, like most Italian poems of the same kind. In 
 the 'Answer to Don Diego Mendoza,' the best of Boscan's epistles, he 
 describes with delicacy and taste the charms of domestic happiness 
 and rural life. A narrative poem in the Italian style, called 'Octava 
 Rima,' closes this third book. A festive meeting of Venus, Cupid, 
 and other mythological personages, forms the fable, rather carelessly 
 executed, of this last poem, which is otherwise full of grace and 
 animation. 
 
 The eighth volume of the ' Parnaso Espanol,' by Sedano, contains a 
 supplement to the biographical notices which Nicolas Antonio collected 
 under the article ' Boscan.' 
 
 BOSCAWEN", EDWARD, second son of Hugh, Lord Viscount 
 Falmouth, waa born on the 19th of August, 1711. He was placed iu 
 the navy early in youth, and at the age of twenty-one waB lieutenant 
 of the 'Hector.' In 1740 he became captain of a twenty-gun ship, the 
 'Shoreham;' and in the following year, under Admiral Vernon, 
 acquired an honourable distinction for his intrepidity at the taking of 
 the fortified city of Puerto Bello, on the Isthmus of Darien. Shortly 
 after, at the siege of Carthagena, he led on a body of seamen, and 
 resolutely attacked and took possession of a fascine battery of fifteen 
 21-pounders, while exposed to the fire of five guns from an adjoining 
 fort. On the death of Lord Beauclerk, in the attack upon Boca Chica, 
 Boscawen succeeded to the command of the ' Prince Frederick ' of 
 70 guns. In 1742 he returned to England, married the daughter of 
 William Glanville, Esq., of Kent, and in the same year was elected a 
 member of parliament for Truro, in Cornwall. After the declaration 
 cf war with France, he took the command of the ' Dreadnought,' cap- 
 tured in April 1744 the French ship ' Medea,' and landed at Spithead 
 with 800 prisoners. As captain of the ' Namur' of 74 guns, he greatly 
 signalised himself under Admirals Anson and Warren, in the engage- 
 ment off Cape Finisterre, when a capture was m'ade of ten large French 
 ships of war. In the commencement of the action he was struck in 
 the shoulder with a musket-ball. 
 
 Boscawen was made in the same year rear-admiral of the blue, and 
 commander-in-chief of the sea and laud forces appointed for the war 
 in India ; and he sailed in November from St. Helen's Road, in the 
 Isle of Wight, with six ships of the line, five frigates, and 2000 soldiers. 
 Iu July 1748 his fleet appeared before the fort of St. David's, 15 miles 
 S. from Pondichercy. Having marched his army to Pondicherry, and 
 begun the siege, he was obliged, in consequence of the sickness of his 
 men aijd the approach of the monsoons, to return to his ships ; and is 
 said to have made the retreat with prudence and skill. He soon after- 
 ward* obtained possession of Madras, which, in consequence of the 
 declaration of peace, was delivered up to him by the French. In 
 1760 he arrived in the ' Exeter' at St. Helen's, and found that in his 
 absence he had become rear-admiral of the white. In the course of 
 ti>e following year he was made a lord of the board of admiralty, an 
 elder brother of the Trinity House, and again a representative for 
 'Iruro. In company with Admiral Mostyn, he sailed in April 1755 
 f. om Spithead with twenty-four ships, to intercept the French squadron 
 bound to America with supplies. Off the coast of Newfoundland he 
 fell in with tnem, and captured two 64-gun ships, with 1500 prisoners, 
 including the Freuch commander Hoquart, who had twice before been 
 defeated and taken prisoner by Boscawen. On his return to Spithead 
 his prizes, he received for this important service the thanks of 
 the'House of Commons. 
 
 The scene of war waa now transferred to North America. A fleet 
 of 150 ships, with 14,000 men, was fitted out, and Boscawen, now 
 promoted to the rank of admiral of the blue, was appointed corn- 
 jHMOT-in-cbief of the expedition. In February 1758, accompanied 
 General (afterwards Lord) Amherst and General Wolfe, he sailed 
 with these forces for Halifax, and on the 3rd of June arrived off the 
 furiress of Louisbourg, which was taken, with the islands of Cape 
 l-r^ton and St. John, after some severe engagements, by the English 
 admiral. In the following year, 1759, he was stationed with fourteen 
 •oipiof the line and several frigates in the Mediterranean, and pursued 
 
 ,e ''rench fleet of Tojlon, consisting of twelve large ships of war, 
 tnrough the Straits of Gibraltar to the Uay of Lagos, where he over- 
 took them and fought a furious battle, which terminated in the 
 
 burning of two of the enemy's ships and the taking of three others, 
 with 2000 prisoners. The French admiral, De la Clue, was carried on 
 shore and died, in consequence of being struck by a cannon-ball, which 
 carried off both his legs. Upon the return of Boscawen to England, 
 the thanks of parliament were again conferred, with a pension of 3000J. 
 a year, and he was sworn a member of the privy council, and made a 
 general of the Marines. Admiral Boscawen died January 10th 1761, 
 in his 50th year, at his residence, Hatchlaud Park, near Guildford, and 
 was interred in the church of St. Michael Pcnkevel in Cornwall, where 
 a handsome monument by Rysbrach was erected to his memory. The 
 mind of Boscawen appears to have been wholly intent upon his pro- 
 fessional pursuits. His ability and courage as a naval and even as a 
 military officer were highly appreciated by Lord Chatham, who is said 
 to have often observed, that when he proposed expeditions to other 
 commanders he heard of nothing but difficulties ; but that when he 
 applied to Boscawen, expedients were immediately suggested 
 
 BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH, was born at liagusa on the 11th 
 of May, 1711 (May 18, 1701, according to Lalande), and entered the 
 order of Jesuits in 1725. He was appointed professor at the Collegio 
 Romano in 1740, and was employed in various scientific duties by 
 several popes. He was at Vienna on the part of the republic of Lucca 
 in a dispute between that state and Tuscany, and at London in a 
 similar character on behalf of his native place in 1702. He was recom- 
 mended by the Royal Society as a proper person to be appointed to 
 observe the transit of Venus at California, but the suppression of his 
 order prevented his acceptance of the appointment. After this event 
 he was made professor at Pavia and subsequently at Milan. In 1773 
 he was invited to Paris, where the post of ' Directeur d'Optique pour 
 la Marine' was created for him. He left France iu 1787, and settled 
 at Milan, where he was received with distinction, and was appointed 
 to measure a degree in Lombardy. He was seized with melancholy, 
 amounting almost to madness, and died February 13, 1787. 
 
 Boscovich was a man of very varied attainments and considerable 
 mathematical power. The different accounts of him partake of the 
 bias of their several authors. His countryman, Fabroni, rates him as 
 a man to whom Greece would have raised statues, even had she been 
 obliged to throw down a hero or two to make room. Lalande, to whom 
 a voluminous and miscellaneous writer was a brother in arms, affirms 
 he had as much talent as DAlembert, though not so much of the 
 integral calculus. The Jesuits were not in favour with the Encyclo- 
 pedists, so that probably there is some truth in the account of Lalande 
 with respect to D'Alembert. Delambre says, " in all his dissertations 
 we see a professor who loves to converse much better than to observe 
 or calculate," which seems to us perfectly true ; but at the same time 
 Boscovich was a man of talent, though not of first-rate power or 
 energy : exceedingly fertile in ideas of merit, but not of first-rate 
 merit. The excessive number and length of his dissertations has 
 rendered his name less known than it deserves to be, since there is not 
 among them any one point d'appui for the highest sort of renown. 
 
 Boscovich was one of the earliest of the continental Newtonians, 
 and introduced the doctrine of gravitation at Rome. His first appear- 
 ance as a writer on thi3 subject is in an explanatory tract published at 
 Home in 1743 ; but in his ' Philosophise Naturalis Theoria,' &c, Venice, 
 1758, he endeavours to apply the same principle to the actions of mole- 
 cules on each other. It is remarkable that in spite of the prohibition 
 of the Copernican theory (and in consequence' of the Newtonian) by 
 the superintendents of the ' Index Expurgatorius,' two Jesuits pub- 
 lished an edition of Newton in 1739, and a third began to teach it at 
 Rome in 1740. But previously to this (1736), Boscovich had distin- 
 guished himself by a solution of the problem of finding the sun's 
 equator and rotation by observation of the spots, which Delambre 
 calls one of the most elegant which had been given. It was the first 
 of its kind. 
 
 In 1750 he began to measure an arc of the meridian from Rome to 
 Rimini, by order of the pope ; and the account of this celebrated and 
 useful operation (which was carried on in conjunction with Christopher 
 Maire, another Jesuit), was published in 1755. But Boscovich informs 
 us, that while he was riding about or waiting for his observations, he 
 was engaged in composing Latin verses on the eclipses of the sun and 
 moon. These verses were published at London iu 1760 by Millar and 
 Dodsley, in six books, entitled ' De Solis et Luuae defectibus.' It is 
 lucky for the fame of Boscovich that the degree he measured was not 
 as poetical as his poem is long and minute : the first has always been 
 held a good observation, and the second is best described by Delambre's 
 remark, that it is uniustructive to an astronomer and unintelligible to 
 anybody else. The notes, which are ofieu more poetical than the 
 text, contain a large collection of his opinions. 
 
 Among his more important labours may be mentioned the admeasure- 
 ment of the degree of the meridian above mentioned, his theory of 
 cornets, application of mathematics to the theory of the telescope, and 
 to the perturbations of Saturn and Jupiter (of which Lagrange said 
 that the motto 'Ira; olim, nunc turbat amor natumque patremque' 
 was the only good thing in it), the discussion relative to the invention 
 of th • double-refraction micrometer, the application of the differential 
 calculus to problems of spherical trigonometry. Of hia publications 
 we will merely notice — the ' Elemeuta Universse Matheseos,' &c, 
 Rome, 1754, a course of mathematics for his pupils; the collection of 
 works alluded to above, ' Opera pertineutia ad Opticam et Astrono- 
 
bossuet, Jacques benigne. 
 
 840 
 
 tniam,' &c, 5 vols., Bassano, 1785 ; and the work on the degree of the 
 meridian above mentioned, ' De Litteraria Expeditione per Pontificam 
 Ditionem ad Dimetiendos Duos Meridiani Gradus,' &c, Rome, 1755. 
 This work is much more esteemed than the French translation, Paris, 
 1770, as the map given in the latter is incorrectly reduced. 
 
 BOSIO, FRANCOIS JOSEPH, BARON, an eminent French sculptor, 
 was born at Monaco, March 19, 1709. He went at an early age to 
 France, where under Pajou he received his professional education. He 
 acquired great celebrity under the empire, and was much patronised 
 by the Empress Josephine as well as by Bonaparte. For the emperor 
 ae executed busts of himself, of Josephine, his sister Pauline, the 
 young KiDg of Rome, &c. For Josephine he executed a fine marble 
 statue ' r Amour lan cant des traits.' The well known bassi-rilievi of 
 the column on the Place Vendoine are the work of Bosio. The resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons did not interfere with Bosio's course of pros- 
 perity. The restored dynasty found employment for his chisel, and 
 l'o*io was equally ready to serve them. He was commissioned in 
 1817 to execute the equestrian statue of 'Louis XIV. triumphant ' for 
 the Place des Victoires. He also exhibited in the same year a marble 
 statue of the Due d Eughien, and subsequently busts of Louis XVIII., 
 the Dauphin, and Charles X. Under Louis Philippe his courtly chisel 
 produced one of his best works, a bust of the Queen Marie Ameiie. 
 During all this period he was much engaaed in the execution of 
 various monuments, statues for public buildings, &c. Among the 
 more important of his classical and poetic works may be named his 
 ' 1 Amour Sdduisant l'lnnocence ; ' ' Hercule combattant Achdlous 
 metamorphose" en Serpent ; ' ' l'Histoire et les Arts consacrant les 
 gloires de la France,' &c. Bosio, despite the high position he occupied 
 during his prosperous career, is not likely to take permanent rank 
 among the great sculptors of France. He was a skilful workman, and 
 had much facility in designing, but his works evince little of the 
 higher order of inventive or imaginative power. Bosio was created a 
 baron by Charles X. ; he was also a member of the Institute. He died 
 July 29, 1845. 
 
 BOSQUET, GENERAL, was born in 1810, at Pau, in the French 
 department of Basses-Pyre'rje'es. In 1829 he entered the Polytechnic 
 School. In 1833 he became a sub-lieutenant in the artillery ; he passed 
 a year in garrison at Valence, in the department of Drome, and in 
 1S35 went with his regiment to Algeria. Here the value of his services 
 was soon appreciated, and his promotion was rapid. In 1836 he 
 became lieutenant, in 1839 captain, in 1842 chef-de-bataillon, in 1845 
 lieutenant-colonel, in 1848 colonel. In 1848 he was appointed general 
 of brigade by the republican government. In 1854 he was promoted 
 by the Emperor to the rank of general of division, and placed on the 
 staff of the army of Marshal St. Arnaud. He accompanied the French 
 army to the Crimea, where he has greatly distinguished himself. At 
 the battle of Balaclava, and more especially at the battle of Inkermann, 
 he rendered timely and valuable service to the British. He was 
 wounded when directing the Zouaves as they rushed to the assault of 
 the Malakoff, at the taking of Sebastopol. He became general of the 
 first division of the French army. The French Emperor in March 
 1856 announced, at a banquet, his having promoted General Bosquet 
 to the rank of Marshal of France. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BOSSU, RENE DE, son of Jean de Bossu, Seigneur de Courbevoie, 
 a king's counsellor and an advocate in the court of Aides, was born at 
 Paris, March 16, 1631. He studied at Nanterre, was admitted as a 
 regular canon in the abbey of St. -Genevieve in 1650, and took priest's 
 orders in 1657. Twelve years of his life were occupied in teaching 
 philosophy and the belles-lettres ; the remainder were spent in the 
 solitude of his cloister, in which he died March 14, 1680. His first 
 work, ' Parallele de la Philosophie de Descartes et d'Aristote,' Paris, 
 1C74, was not very favourably received at the time of its appearance, 
 and is now altogether forgotten ; but his second, which was published 
 only a few months afterwards, ' Traite" du Poeme Epique,' for a time 
 attracted considerable attention. The learned hypothesis of this 
 chimerical essay teaches that an epic poem is essentially an allegory; 
 thus the writer, before commencing his work, fixes upon some one 
 great moral text which he designs to illustrate, considers fable, 
 machinery, action, character, and all other accidents of poetry only as 
 so many modes subservient to his grand object Thus says Bossu, 
 Homer, who saw the Greeks constitutionally divided into a great num- 
 ber of independent states, which it was often necessary to unite against 
 a common enemy, feigned in his ' Iliad ' the quarrel between Achilles 
 and Agamemnon as productive of evil, in order that he might illus- 
 trate, the advantages of a confederacy. On the reconciliation of those 
 princes, victory, which had been long delayed, is rapidly achieved. 
 But is the evil of disunion the only lesson taught by the 'Iliad?' 
 Bossu would persuade us that the design of the ' Odyssey ' was to 
 show the national calamities resulting from a monarch's absence from 
 his own seat of government. Yet the Grecian chiefs could not have 
 captured Troy without their leaving for a time their own states. So 
 that Bossu's theory of the lessons of the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey' 
 are in direct contradiction to each other, which, if they are by the 
 same author, as is generally supposed, we can scarcely believe would 
 be intended by the writer. A defence of Boileau against some attacks 
 by St. Sorlin, introduced Bossu advantageously to the friendship of 
 the poet. In the ninth volume of the ' Mem. de TAcad. des Inscrip- 
 tions, the Abbe Vatry twice appears as the champion of some of his t 
 
 exploded notions, which are more soberly examined by the Abbs' 
 Batteux in the 39th volume of the same work ; and at a later season 
 
 incidentally by La Harpe. 
 
 BOSSUET, JACQUES BENIGNE, second son of a counsellor of 
 the parliament of Metz, and descended from a respectable Burgundian 
 family for the most part engaged in the law, was bora at Dijon, 
 September 27, 1627. He was placed by a maternal uncle, who was 
 president of the parliament of that city, in the college of the Jesuits, 
 where his laborious application to study soon obtained for him a nick- 
 name containing a punning allusion to his real name, ' Bossuetus 
 aratro.' At a fitting age (1642) he was removed to the college of 
 Navarre in Paris, where, after a ten years' course, he received the 
 degree of Doctor and the Order of Priesthood. He then retired to 
 perform the clerical duties of a canon in the cathedral of Metz, of 
 which church he afterwards became archdeacon and dean, and where 
 he distinguished himself by labouring arduously for the conversion of 
 the Huguenots. The neighbourhood of the capital led him to preach 
 frequently before Anne of Austria, who was so pleased by his pulpit 
 eloquence, that she nominated him to deliver the Advent Sermons at 
 court in the chapel of the Louvre in 1661, and the Lent Sermons in 
 1662. The king was highly gratified by his discourses, and in 1669 
 presented him to the bishopric of Condom. In the year after his 
 consecration he was appointed to the important office of preceptor to 
 the dauphin ; and finding his necessary attendance at court incom- 
 patible with the performance of his episcopal duties, he asked and 
 received permission to resign the see. The priory of Plessis-Grisnon, 
 which he received in compensation, produced about 300Z. a year, 
 according to which revenue he framed his establishment. On pro- 
 motion to the abbey of St.-Lucien-de-Beauvais, a richer benefice, he 
 assigned all its surplus to charity, in no manner altering his personal 
 expenditure. The Due de Montausier was governor ; the learned 
 Huet, afterwards bishop of Avranches, was sub-preceptor to the 
 young prince. The method in which his education was conducted by 
 these three most able men is fully exhibited in a letter written by 
 Bossuet to Pope Innocent XI. Under the care of Huet appeared the 
 well-known edition of the Delphin Classics, put forth ostensibly in 
 usum Serenissimi Principis. At the express wish of the king, Bossuet 
 studied anatomy, in order to afford his royal pupil some elementary 
 instructions in that science. For that purpose he attended the lectures 
 of Nicolas Steron, a Parisian professor, from which he compiled a short 
 manual of 32 octavo pages, which has shared the fate of most other 
 amateur treatises. For the use of the dauphin Bossuet composed also 
 his 'Discours sur l'Histoire Uuiverselle,' which he published in 1681. 
 It consists of three parts, the first of which contains an abridgment 
 of universal history, from the Creation to the reign of Charlemagne; 
 the second embraces the chief proofs of Christianity ; and the third 
 attempts to unravel the causes of the rise and decline of nations. 
 Upon this work Voltaire founded his opinion of Bossuet's pre-eminent 
 eloquence; and of the first part, which most readers would suppose to 
 be little more than a dry index, a later critic (Mr. Charles Butler) has 
 declared that " it scarcely contains a sentence in which there is not 
 some noun or verb that conveys an image or suggests a sentiment of 
 the noblest kind." 
 
 The chief reward with which Louis compensated the services of 
 Bossuet in the education of the dauphin was the bishopric of Meaux, 
 to which see he was consecrated in 1681. He filled also the high posts 
 of almoner to the dauphiness, principal of the college of Navarre, 
 warden of the Sorbonne, counsellor of state, and first almoner to the 
 Duchess of Burgundy. The bishop's time however was chiefly occupied 
 in his diocese, where he devoted himself to the humble but useful task 
 of pastoral instruction. Among his posthumous works are three cate- 
 chisms, respectively, for beginners, for the instructed, and for the 
 well-instructed. He composed also a manual of prayer, and translated 
 many of the church hymns. His health continued uniformly good, 
 and allowed the performance of all ministerial duties till the last year 
 of his life, when he suffered under the stone. During intervals of 
 ease he framed a commentary on the 22nd Psalm (the 21st of the 
 Vulgate), many passages of which are equal in vigour to any of his 
 earlier compositions. On the 12th of April 1704 he died at Paris, 
 having passed his 76th year. Soon after the death of Bossuet his 
 works were collected in 12 vols. 4to, to which three posthumous 
 writings were afterwards added. The Benedictines of St. -Maur 
 undertook a complete collection of his works, which, we believe, is 
 still unfinished, after extending to 20 vols. 4to. 
 
 Bossuet is esteemed by the Roman Catholics as the most eminent 
 advocate of their creed ; but whatever might be the influence which 
 his controversial writings exercised at the time of their appearance, it 
 is not upon these that hia fame rests most securely at present. To 
 give an exact catalogue of his works would far exceed our limits, and 
 we shall confine ourselves to his chief productions. He commenced 
 in 1655 with a 'Refutation du Catechisme de Paul Ferri,' a Huguenot 
 minister at Metz; we find him, not long afterwards, vehemently 
 engaged with Caffaro, a Theatine monk, in the reprobation of theatrical 
 entertainments. Boursaut, a dramatic writer who enjoyed some con- 
 temporary reputation, was affected by scruples of conscience concern- 
 ing the subjects to which his talents had been directed, and was 
 relieved from his penitentiary burden by a letter which Father Caffaro 
 addressed to him, and which may be found (if it is now to be found 
 
M 
 
 BOSSUET, JACQUES BENIQNE. 
 
 BOSSUT, CHARLES. 
 
 at all) priuted separately, and also prefixed to the ' The'atre de 
 Boursaut,' 1725. Bossuet replied to this letter in more polished 
 language indeed, but with scarcely less severity of censure upon the 
 diver-ions which he condemned than animated Prynne or Jeremie 
 Collier. The argument was afterwards remoulded into an essay, 
 published under the title of ' Maximes sur la Corne'die.' But the 
 most celebrated of Bossuet's polemical works are his ' Exposition de 
 la Doctrine de l'Eglise Catholique sur les matieres de Coutroversie' 
 (1671), and his 'Histoire dea Variations des l'Eglises Protestantes.' 
 The former was composed for the private use of the Marquis de 
 Dangeau, and it is said that an accidental perusal of it greatly con- 
 tributed to the conversion of the Mare"chal de Turenne. It was 
 circulated in manuscript long before its publication, and attained the 
 final state which it now exhibits by very slow degrees. Its most 
 important chapters, namely, those on the Eucharist, on Tradition, and 
 on the Authority of the Church, were wanting in the original sketch, 
 and th* Sorboune, when applied to for their approbation, privately 
 cen-ured many parts which they conceived to be unsound. 
 
 Nine years elapsed, and considerable alterations took place bsfore 
 it received the approval of the Holy See, and it is averred that many 
 of the doctrines wen preached by others were declared to be scandalous 
 an'l pernicious. Clement IX. positively refused to acknowledge it, but 
 two bri. fs were issued in its behalf by Innocent XL ; one, November 
 22nd, 1675 ; the other, July 12th, in the year following. The Gallican 
 clergy, assembled in 1682, declared that it contained their doctrine ; 
 and an authority of our own time, which few of the Romish persuasion 
 will be inclined to dispute (Mr. Charles Butler) has stated that "the 
 Romish Church has but one opinion of it; in private and in public, by 
 the learned and unlearned, it is equally acknowledged to be a full and 
 faithful exhibition of the doctrine of their church." It has been 
 translated into almost every European language, but unhappily the 
 English version by the Abbe" Montague in 1672 bears a bad character. 
 The assertion that it was translated by Drydeu rests, as Sir Walter 
 Scott has shown, on very slight authority. (' Life of Dryden,' ' Works,' 
 L 339.) In the Bodleian Library, Oxford, there is a translation pub- 
 lished in London in 1663, in the title-page of which is the following 
 note in B;irou Barlow's handwriting : — " By Mr. Dryden, then only a 
 poet, now a papist too ; may be he was a papist before, but not known 
 till of late." Wake, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and M. de 
 St. Bastide, a French Protestant minister, are the most distinguished 
 opponents of the points in which it invites controversy. 
 
 The 'Exposition ' awakened much attention in France; and out of 
 it arose a personal conference between Bossuet and M. Claude, whom 
 the Protestants considered to be their head, ht-ld in 1681, in the presence 
 and at the request of Mademoiselle deDuras, a niece of Turenne, who 
 Bought an excuse for the change of faith in which she had resolved to 
 imitate her uncle. One of the chief questions debated was the authority 
 by which Jesus Christ directed that his future Church should be guided 
 in cases of dissensions concerning doctrine. The debate was conducted 
 with much regard to courtesy, but terminated, like all similar debates, 
 without any approach to conviction. Each party published its own 
 account of the conference, and each claimed the victory, after repre- 
 senting the contest with so wide a difference of facts that they might 
 be supposed to relate to wholly distinct occurrences. Bossuet was 
 admitted to the academy in 1671, and his next great controversial 
 work appeared in 1688. The first five books of his ' Histoire des 
 Variations des Eglises Protestantes ' narrate the rise and progress of 
 the Reformation in Germany ; the sixth is devoted to a consideration 
 of the sanction given by Luther and Melancthon to the adulterous 
 marriage of the Landgrave of Hesse; the seventh and eighth books 
 contain the ecclesiastical history of England during the reigns of 
 Henry VIII. and of Edward VI., and a continuation of that of Germany. 
 The French Calvinists are discussed in book ix., and the assistance 
 afforded to them by Queen Elizabeth, on the avowed principle that 
 subjects might levy war against their sovereign on account of religious 
 differences (a doctrine which Bossuet asseits to have been inculcated 
 by the reformers), forms the groundwork of book x. Book xi. treats 
 of the Albigenses and other sects from the 9th to the 12tb centuries, 
 who are usually esteemed precursors of the reformed. Books xii. and 
 xiii. continue the Huguenot history till the synod of Gap. Book xiv. 
 gives an account of the dissensions at Dort, Charenton, and Geneva ; 
 and book xv. and last endeavours to prove the divine authority and 
 therefore the infallibility of the true Church, and to exhibit the marks 
 by which Rome asserts her claim to that title. Basnage, Jurieu, and 
 Bishop Burnet may be mentioned among the chief opponents of this 
 work, to a perusal of which, in conjunction with that of the 'Expo- 
 sition,' Gibbon attributes his short-lived adherence to popery. " I saw, 
 I applauded, I believed ; and surely I fell by a noble hand." 
 
 The fanciful project of a union between the Lutheran and Gallican 
 churches occupied much of Bossuet's attention, and led to a correspoud- 
 ence of deep intere.-t with Leibnitz. On matters of discipline the 
 Bishop of Meaux professed an inclination to be indulgent. On those 
 of faith (concerning which the Council of Trent was his final appeal) 
 he peremptorily declared that there could not be any compromise. 
 The discussion lasted during ten years : it is replete with learning, but 
 it proved utterly fruitless. 
 
 In 1682 Bossuet assisted at the general assembly of the clergy of 
 France, convened in vder to restrain the aggressions made by Inno- 
 
 cent XII. on the ' Regale :' a right always claimed by the kings of that 
 country, and almost always virtually tolerated by the Holy See, which 
 vested in the French crown the revenues of any vacant bishopric, and 
 the collation to simple benefices within their dominions. The Bishop 
 of Meaux was selected to preach at the opening of this synod ; and the 
 four articles, which were published at its declaration, registered by all 
 the parliaments, and confirmed by a royal edict which forbade the 
 appointment of any person as professor of theology who did not pre- 
 viously consent to preach the doctrines contained in them, are known 
 to be his production. 
 
 In the dispute with the nuns of Port-Royal relating to the five 
 condemned propositions in Jansenius, Bossuet exerted himself to bring 
 the fair enthusiasts to reason ; and in like manner he opposed Quietism 
 and Madame Guyon, till he incurred opposition from Fenelon and 
 displeasure from Madame de Maintenon. The controversy with 
 Fenelon is perhaps the single transaction in the life of Bossuet which 
 his admirers would desire not to be remembered. Now that the 
 question is almost as much foivotten even among theologians as if it 
 had never existed, if any of the numerous writings by the Bishop of 
 Meaux to which it gave birth are ever opened by some curious inquirer, 
 he lays them aside with pain. They create indeed a strong wish that 
 Bossuet had imitated the meekness of his antagonist. It is chiefly by 
 his sermons that Bossuet is now remembered; although perhaps those 
 by which he attained most celebrity, the ' Oraisons Funebres,' are ill 
 calculated for the English taste. They belong to a style of composition 
 far too theatrical and dramatic for our temperament, but especially 
 adapted to the court of the Grand Monarque, in which religion, like 
 everything else, was reduced to mere show. The death to the world, 
 which Madame de la Valliere voluntarily encountered by her con- 
 ventual seclusion, is among the most pathetic occurrences related in 
 modern history ; but few things are less likely to suggest Christian 
 devotion than a show, tricked out with ecclesiastical pomp, to exhibit, 
 in the presence of the queen-consort whom she had injured, the retire- 
 ment of a royal mistress, discarded by her licentious and unfeeling 
 lover. Three volumes of the Benedictine edition of Bossuet's works 
 are filled with sermons. 
 
 A life of Bossuet was published by M. deBurigny, Paris, 12mo, 1701. 
 That written by Mr. Charles Butler possesses a raciness which could 
 not be imparted by any biographer unless he shared the Komish 
 persuasion ; and yet, like most other writings of the same distinguished 
 person, it is singularly free from the offensiveness of exclusive 
 prejudices. 
 
 BOSSUT, CHARLES, was born at Tartaras, in the department of 
 the Rhone-et-Loire, August 11, 1730. His family was, like that of 
 the Bernoullis, Belgian, and expatriated during the civil troubles. He 
 was educated partly by an uncle and partly by the college of Jesuits 
 at Lyon. Happening to meet with the ' eloges ' of scientific men by 
 Fontenelle at an early age, he was struck with the desire of making 
 his own career resemble those of which he had read : and findiug no 
 one to advise with, he wrote to Fontenelle himself, who, though then 
 ninety years of age, answered his letter, begged for an account of his 
 future progress, and said that he felt a presentiment that his young 
 correspondent would rise to eminence. This benevolent politeness 
 (which is made a prophecy by its fulfilment) brought Bossut to Paris, 
 where he was cordially received by Fontenelle, and introduced to 
 D'Alembert and Clairaut. D'Alembert became his friend and instructor, 
 and so well versed did Bossut become in his works, that D'Alembert 
 was accustomed to send those who asked him for explanation to 
 Bossut, as Newton did to De Moivre. Camus, in 1752, procured for 
 him the professorship of mathematics in the school of engineers at 
 Mezieres, and in the same year he was made a corresponding member 
 of the Academy of Sciences. He had previously presented a memoir 
 containing new methods in the integral calculus. 
 
 He continued at Mezieres sixteen years, during which time he 
 obtained alone, or in conjunction with others, several of the prizes of 
 the academy. He divided one with Albert Euler (son of the Euler), 
 another with the son of Daniel Bernoulli. He published during this 
 period his course of mathematics, which for a long time was in high 
 reputation, and procured him the means of living when he lost his 
 professorship by the revolution. He succeeded his friend Camus as 
 member of the Academy of Sciences, and as examiuer of the candidates 
 for the artillery and engineers. He was one of the contributors to 
 the ' Encyclopedic,' and wrote the introductory discourse to the mathe- 
 matical volumes. His articles are signed I. B. in that work. He 
 gave in 1779 a complete edition of Pascal, of whose writings he was a 
 great admirer. 
 
 His treatise on ' Hydrodynamics,' and his memoirs on that subject 
 in the memoirs of the academy, contributed materially to the con- 
 nection between the theory and practice of that science. In a memoir 
 which gained the prize in 1796, he endeavoured to account for the 
 acceleration of the moon's mean motion by the supposition of a 
 resisting medium. 
 
 When he lost all his places by the revolution he went into retire- 
 ment, and wrote his sketch of the history of mathematics. The 
 second edition of this work he published in 1810 : it is a lively and 
 interesting sketch, but written, as it appears to us, in strong colour- 
 ing. Delambre asserts that a misanthropic feeling, the consequence 
 of his misfortunes, made him unjust towards his contemporaries; 
 
843 
 
 BOSTON, THOMAS. 
 
 BOSWORTH, JOSEPH, D.D., F.R.S. 
 
 844 
 
 but at the same time it is the only compendium which is likely to be 
 useful to the student. Bossut was not likely to be either intention- 
 ally unjust or complaisant: Delambre remarks that his impartial 
 intentions would necessarily be a consequence of that ' roideur de 
 caractere' which distinguishes him. 
 
 Bossut was originally intended for the church, and was indeed an 
 abbe\ which title he bore until the abolition of clerical distinctions. 
 He died January 14, 1814. The preceding account in entirely (as to 
 facts) from Delambre's ' Eloge ' in the ' Memoirs of the Institute ' for 
 1816. 
 
 BOSTON, THOMAS, a Scottish divine, very popular with a largo 
 class of religious thinkers, was born in the village of Ounse, in Ber- 
 wickshire, on the 7th of March 1676. He received the rudiments of 
 his education at his native place, and afterwards attended the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. His relations were poor, and his edueution 
 appears to have been conducted in the face of impediments from pecu- 
 niary difficulties. After acting for some time as a private teacher, he. 
 obtained a licence as a probationer on the 16th of June 1697. His 
 first efforts to obtain an ecclesiastical benefice, though thus subse- 
 quent to the establishment of the Presbyterian polity by the Revolu- 
 tion, appear to have been baftied by the objections entertained towards 
 his anti- patronage and ultra-Presbyterian principles. He was ordained, 
 on the 21st of September 1699, minister of the parish of Simprin, 
 near his native place. In 1707 he was ' translated,' as it is termed, 
 to the extensive but thinly peopled pastoral parish of Ettrick. He 
 was a member of the General Assembly of 170.5. While this assembly 
 was in the midst of discussions on matters not likely to be acc -ptable 
 to the court, it was dissolved by the commissioner, and the moderator, 
 who, accordiug to the theoretical principles of that ecclesiastical body, 
 is the conductor of its routine, sanctioned the act by concluding the 
 proceedings. Boston and others strongly protested agaiust this com- 
 promise of clerical independence. He was opposed to the oath of 
 abjuration, and in general to all measures whicli created restrictions 
 on the independent movements of the ecclesiastical body to which he 
 belonged. He joined those who supported the doctrines of 'The 
 Marrow of Modern Divinity,' in the controversy in the Scottish 
 Church on that work. He died on the 20th of May 1732. 
 
 Boston was a very voluminous writer, and his works are eminently 
 popular in Scotland, and among the Presbyterians of England. His 
 well-known 'Fourfold State,' which was first printed in 1720, had a 
 curious literary fate. It had been so far reconstructed by a person 
 whom he had engaged to correct the press, that the author, scarcely 
 recognising his own work, repudiated the book till he issued a genuine 
 edition. The title of this book in full is, ' Human Nature in its 
 Fourfold State : of Primitive Integrity subsisting in the Parents of 
 Mankind in Paradise ; Entire Depravation subsisting in the Unre- 
 generate ; Beguu Recovery subsisting in the Regenerate ; and Con- 
 summate Happiness or Misery subsisting in all Mankind in the Future 
 State.' In 1776 there was published 'Memoirs of the Life, Time, 
 and Writings of Thomas Boston, divided into Twelve Periods, written 
 by Himself and addressed to his Children;' a work containing quite 
 as ample an account of this writer as the majority of leaders will n iah 
 to possess. 
 
 BOSWELL, JAMES, was born at Edinburgh, October 29, 1740. 
 His father was Alexander Boswell, Esq., of Auchinleck (pronounced 
 Affleck), in Ayrshire, who being in 1754 made a lord of session, 
 assumed the title of Lord Auchinleck. His mother was Eupheriiia 
 Erskine, great-grand-daughter of John, the twenty-third eai 1 of Mar, 
 who was lord high-treasurer of Scotland from 1615 to 1630. After 
 having studied law at the universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, 
 Boswell visited London for the first time in 1760, and made many 
 acquaintances both in the fashionable world and among the literary 
 men of the day. In 1762 he made, as far as is known, his first essay 
 in authorship by contributing some verses to a miscellany which 
 appeared that year at Edinburgh, under the title of ' A Collection of 
 Original Poems, by Scotch Gentlemen.' In 1763 he published a 
 small volume of ' Letters ' which had passed between himself and the 
 hooourable Andrew Erskine (the brother of Thomas, the sixth earl 
 of Kellie, the eminent musical performer and composer). This is a 
 very characteristic volume, sufficiently prognosticating, by its style of 
 frank exposure and good-natured self-complacency, the most remark- 
 able qualities of the author's subsequent productions. With his 
 father's consent he determined to make the tour of the continent 
 before being called to the bar ; and accordingly he set out early in 
 1763. While passing through London he was introduced to Dr. 
 Johnson, on the 16th of May in that year, in the back shop of Mr. 
 Thomas Davies, the bookseller, in Russell-street, Covent Garden. He 
 proceeded in the first instance to Utrecht, where he spent the winter 
 in attending the law classes at the university. After visiting various 
 places in the Nether-lauds, he continued his route, in company with 
 his friend the Earl Marischal, through Germany, Switzerland, and 
 Italy. With his passion for making the acquaintance of remarkable 
 persons, he had, while in the neighbourhood of Geneva, visited both 
 Rousseau and Voltaire ; and he now crossid over to Corsica, and 
 introduced himself by means of a letter from Rousst au to General 
 Paoli, then in the height of his celebrity as the leader of his country- 
 men in their resistance to the Genoese. Returning home by the way 
 of Pari* io 1766, he passed as advocate in Julv of that year. He 
 
 soou after published a pamphlet, which was considered creditable to 
 his abilities, entitled 'The Essence of the Douglas Cause,' being a 
 defence of the claim of Mr. Archibald Douglas (afterwards Lord 
 Douglas), to bo considered as the nephew of the last Duke of Douglas, 
 and as such to succeed to his property, against the counter-claim of 
 the Hamilton family, who disputed his alleged birth. Although he 
 thus signalised the commencement of his professional course, his 
 business at the bar was from the first but a secondary object. He 
 had come back from his travels bo full of the CorBican chief, that he 
 was speedily known by the nickname of Paoli Boswell. In 1768 he 
 published at Glasgow 'An Account of Corsica, with Memoirs of 
 General Paoli;' which was followed the next year by a duodecimo 
 volume which he printed at London, under the title of ' British 
 Essays in favour of the brave Corsicans, by several hands.' 
 
 In November 1769, he married his cousin, Miss Margaret Mont- 
 gomery of Laiushaw. About the same time his intimacy with his 
 literary friends in London, and especially with Dr. Johnson, was drawn 
 closer by another visit to the metropolis. In 1773 he accompanied 
 Johnson on his journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. In 1774 
 he sent to the press another professional tract, being a ' Report of the 
 Decision of the Court of Session upon the question of Literary 
 Property, in the cause John Hinton, Bookseller, Loudon, against 
 Alexander Donaldson and others, Edinburgh.' It is a mere report of 
 the judgments delivered by the Lords of Session in this cause, in 
 which he had been engaged as counsel. In 1782, on his father's death, 
 he succeeded to the family estate, and soon after removing to London 
 entered himself at the English bar. In 1784 he published a pamphlet 
 in support of the new ministry of Mr. Pitt, under the title of 'A 
 Letter to the People of Scotland ou the present State of the Nation.' 
 His great friend Johnson died towards the end of this year ; and in 
 1785 he published the first and not the least remarkable sample of his 
 Johnsoniaua, in a 'Journal of the Tour to the Hebrides.' It appeared 
 at Edinburgh in an octavo volume. The same year he published 
 another ' Letter to the People of Scotland, respecting the alarming 
 attempt to infringe the Articles of the Union, and introduce a most 
 pernicious innovation, by diminishing the number of the Lords of 
 Session.' Becoming now ambitious to make a figure in the political 
 world, he made various unsuccessful attempts to obtain a seat in 
 parliament. At the general election in 1790 he stood for the county 
 of Ayr, but was defeated after an expensive contest. Before the close 
 of the same year appeared in two volumes quarto the work which has 
 made his name universally known, his ' Life of Johnson.' The sensa- 
 tion excited by this extraordinary production was very great; and if 
 it be an evidence of superior talent to do anything whatever better 
 than it has ever been done before, the work undoubtedly deserved all 
 the immediate success it met with, and also the celebrity it has ever 
 since enjoyed ; for whatever may be thought of the character of either 
 the intellectual or the moral qualities which its compositiou demanded, 
 it cannot be disputed that the same qualities had never before been 
 half so skilfully or felicitously exerted. Nor has any work of the 
 same kind since appeared that can for a moment be compared with 
 Bos well's. The best editions of this celebrated work are that in 10 
 vols, duodecimo, edited by Mr. Croker, and a carefully revised reprint 
 of the same edition in a siugle volume royal octavo. Both these 
 editions contain Boswell's 'Journal of the Tour to the Hebrides,' and 
 also many other pieces relating to Johnson never before incorporated 
 with the present books. Boswell is said to have contributed a series 
 of papers, entitled the 'Hypochondriac,' to the first sixty-two numbers 
 of the 'London Magazine ' (from 1777 to 1782), which are said to be 
 of very little merit; and a series of his 'Epistolary Correspondence 
 and Conversations with many eminent Persons,' appeared in two 
 volumes quarto in 1791, and again in three volumes octavo in 1793. 
 He was preparing a second edition of his ' Life of Johnson' at the 
 time of his death, May 19th, 1795. He left two sons and three 
 daughters. 
 
 *BOSWORTH, JOSEPH, D.D., F.RS., F.S.A., &c, was bom in 
 Derbyshire at the close of the year 1788, and was educated at the 
 Repton Grammar School, under the care of the Rev. Dr. Sleath. He 
 first graduated at Aberdeen as M.A., and subsequently proceeded 
 LL.D. in the same university. He applied himself diligently to the 
 Btudy of science and literature ; mathematics in particular engaging 
 his early attention, with its application to navigation aud astronomy. 
 But his great object being to become a clergyman of the Church of 
 England, he at an early age taught himself Hebrew — reading the 
 language, with its cognate dialects, Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic. In 
 1815 he was appointed curate of Bunny and Ruddington, near Not- 
 tingham. Though engaged in active parochial duties, aud regarding 
 divinity as his profession, he found time to devote to literature, and 
 to write papers for literary and scientific institutions. He was how- 
 ever always watchful that the clerical character should not merge 
 into that of the mere literary man; and that in this he succeeded was 
 shewn by the regret expressed by the people of his charge on his 
 leaving Ruddington, which took the substantial form of a handsome 
 piece of plate. Besides graduating as M.A. and Dr. Phil, at Leyden, 
 he took the degree of B.D. at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1834, 
 aud D.D. in 1S39 ; also D.D. ad eunden at Uxford in 1847. While 
 Vicar of Horwood Parva, Bucks, from 1817 to 1829, he published 
 several pamphlets ou the poor-laws. In the early part of his incum- 
 
BOTH, JOHN. 
 
 bency he received pupils into his house, to aid a younger brother in 
 taking his degree at the university. Here he wrote and published for 
 his pupils ' Introduction to Latin Construing,' ' The Eton Greek 
 Grammar,' &c. 
 
 His health failing him under the prosecution of his clerical and 
 scholastic duties, he accepted the British chaplaincy at Amsterdam, 
 and remained there from 1829 to 1832. In the latter year he removed 
 to Rotterdam and was British chaplain there till 1840. While in 
 Holland he translated the Book of Common Prayer into Dutch, and 
 made arrangements for printing the first Dutch Bible in the Roman 
 type for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ; and printed 
 for the use of foreigners the Book of Common Prayer, arranged in the 
 order in which the prayers are read in the ordinary service. He also 
 published an account of the 'Origin of the Dutch, with a Sketch of 
 their Language.' And it ought to be mentioned that as he had been 
 active in visiting the poor aud ameliorating their condition while in 
 England, the destitute members of his Dutch congregation were not 
 forgotten. He instituted district visiting, anil established Sunday aud 
 day-schools, by which the morality and the condition of the people 
 Were greatly improved. He resigned his chaplaincy in 1840, aud 
 iccepted th- vicarage of Waithe in the county of Lincoln, and he also 
 took charge of the ecclesiastical district of Car ingtou near Nottingham, 
 but relinquished both in 1842. In 1858 he was elected professor of 
 Anglo-Sax' n at the University of Oxford. 
 
 It is by his researches in Anglo-Saxon and connected dinleets that 
 Dr. Bosworth has attained his eminent position as a philologist. Jn 
 examining the English language in its earliest form, he saw the neces- 
 sity of a knowledge of ADglo-Saxon, and he was tne first to divest the 
 grammar of that language of its Latin incumbrances by the publi- 
 cation in 1823 of the • Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar.' This 
 brought him into correspondence and intimate acquaintance with the 
 leading Ahglo-Saxon scholars of England and the continent, including 
 Grimm, from whom he derived important aid, and the Danish pro- 
 fessor Rask, whose ADglo-Saxon grammar, written in Danish, ho was the 
 first to translate into English, though the translation was not published. 
 
 Some fifteen years were afterwards employed by Dr. Bosworth in 
 constructing his great work, ' A Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Lan- 
 guage' roy. 8vo. London, 1838. This volume contains, within a 
 moderate compass, a complete apparatus for the study of the Anglo- 
 Saxon. The dictionary itself, which gives the meaning of the Anglo- 
 Saxon words in English and Latin, with parallel terms from the other 
 Gothic languages, is preceded by a mass of useful matter on the origin 
 and connection of the Germanic and Scandinavian languages, and the 
 essentials of Anglo-Saxon grammar. This work has been since pub- 
 lished in a somewhat abridged form and without the introductory 
 matter, under the title of ' A Compendious Anglo-Saxon and English 
 Dictionary,' 8vo, London, 1848. ' The Origin of the Danish, and an 
 Abstract of Scandinavian Literature,' and ' The Origin of the Germanic 
 and Scandinavian Languages aud Nations, with a Sketch of their 
 Literature, &c.,' though published as separate works are chiefly taken 
 from the Introduction to the Dictionary. 
 
 Dr. Bosworth has since published ' King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon 
 Version of the History of the World, written in Latin by the Spanish 
 monk Orosius.' In this translation Alfred has inserted his own 
 account of Europe, aud a detail of the voyas-e of Ohthere, a Norwe- 
 gian, from the coast of Norway into the White Sea. This is an 
 important and interesting work, not merely as b ing Alfred's own 
 composition, but from its being the only account of Europe written by 
 a contemporary bo early as the 9th century. A fac simile of the whole 
 Anglo-Saxon text, with an English translation and copious notes, has 
 been published separately in a splendid quarto volume; and also in a 
 cheaper form. In 1865 Dr. Bosworth published ' The Gothic and 
 Anglo-Saxon Gospels in Parallel Columns, with the Versions of 
 Wycliffe and Tyndale,' a work of great labour and value. 
 
 Dr. Bosworth was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1829 : 
 he is also a Fellow of the Society of Autiquaries and other learned 
 bodies in this country ; while his great services as a philologist have 
 been recognised by his election as a Member of the Royal Institution 
 of the Netherlands ; Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Sciences, 
 Norway ; F.S.A., Copenhagen ; and member of the Literary Societies 
 of Leyden, Utrecht, Rotterdam, &c. 
 
 BOTH, JOHN aud ANDREW two eminent painters, were born at 
 Utrecht, the former in the year 1010 ; the birth of the latter is of un- 
 certain date. Their father was a painter on gla-s, and it is probable 
 they received their first instructions from him. They were placed at 
 an early age under Abraham Bloemart; and in their youth went to 
 Italy to perfect themselves in thtirart. Here they acquired a great 
 reputation, John painting landscapes after the manner of Claude, and 
 Andrew adorning his brother's scenes with figures in the style of Bain- 
 boccio. They continued in Italy working in concert until separated 
 by death. There is much confusion among writers as to which died 
 first Andrew was drowned by falling into a canal at Venice, in the 
 year 1650, in returning 1 te from a supp r party ; and the i-urvivor 
 then left I'aly, and returned to settle at Utrecht, where he died in 
 1666, his en l being h istened.it is said, by griei for the loss of his 
 brother. Jn the Nation il Gallery are two landscapes by John Both: 
 'A. Party of Muleteers: Morning,' No. 71 ; and a 'Rocky Landscape,' 
 No. 209, with figures by Cornelia Poelenburg. 
 
 BOTHWELL, EARL OF. 84ts 
 
 The landscapes of John are glowing with colour and sunshine, and 
 rich in beauty and natural effects ; his handling is light, free, and 
 facile, so that he sometimes painted without an outline. A fulvous 
 tiut which occasionally pervades his landscapes has been objected to ; 
 but in his best productions this fault is avoided. lie has less 
 studied elegance than Claude, and his pictures are more like common 
 nature ; but his composition is far less perfect, and his artifices less 
 artfully concealed. The beauty of his colouring however procured 
 him the title, by which he is still known, of Both of Italy. The 
 figures by Andrew are above all comparison superior to those of 
 Claude ; and the joint productions of the brothers, in which each 
 laboured to set off the other, have ever been considered of the highest 
 value. 
 
 BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, EARL OF, was the only son 
 of Patrick, third earl of Both well, of the Hepburn family. His mother, 
 Agnes, daughter of Henry Lord Sinclair, by a daughter of Patrick 
 Hepburn, first earl of Both well, lived many years in a state of divorce 
 from her husband, but for what reason is not certainly known. Earl 
 Patrick was notoriously profligate in his public character. He died 
 in September 1556, at the age of 51 ; when his son James succeeded 
 to his honours, offices, and estates. The offices which he transmitted 
 were those of Great Admiral of Scotland, Sheriffs of the Shores of 
 Berwick, Edinburgh, and Haddington, aud Bailie of Lauderdale, all 
 which he had himself inherited. The Hepburus were originally mere 
 tenants of the Earl of March ; but in a short time they coped with 
 their potent chief, and, on his forfeiture in the 15th century, they rose 
 to be immediate tenants of the crown, aud shortly afterwards the 
 head of the house was made a lord of parliament. The affluence and 
 power of the family reached its height in the time of Patrick Hep- 
 burn, second lord Hales, who received from the crown, amoug other 
 grants, the lands aud lordships of Bothwell and Crichtou, which were 
 thereupon erected into an earldom. The lands of the lordship of 
 Bothwell however were hardly in his possession, when, at the king's 
 command, they were transferred to the Earl of Angus, in exchauge 
 for the turbulent border country of Liddesdale, the king then saying 
 there was no order to be had with the Earls of Angus so long as they 
 kept Liddesdale. The second Earl of Bothwell suceeeded to his father's 
 titles, heritable offices, aud vast estates in the several counties of 
 Edinburgh, Haddington, Roxburgh, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, aud 
 Lanark, which, on his fall at the fatal field of Flodden, passed to the 
 father of Earl James, who, notwithstanding the misconduct of his 
 parent, was by descent the most powerful noble of the south of Scot- 
 land, and had the castles of Hermitage, in Liddesdale ; Hales in the 
 shire of Haddington ; aud Crichton, iu the shire of Edinburgh. These 
 fortresses are now mouldering into dust, and the surrounding country 
 is rich with the peaceful labours of the plough. In the times we 
 speak of, the fortresses were furnished for a feud, and the adjacent 
 country was scoured by predatory bands. The church aud a few great 
 lay proprietors mutually rivalled and despoiled each other, aud a 
 series of regal minorities allowed them all to attack and despoil the 
 crown. It had also become the policy of the English kings to hire a 
 secret party in Scotland to divide the natiou ; and in the year imme- 
 diately preceding the succession of Earl James to the Bothwell estates, 
 the Scottish reformer Knox had begun to denounce iu the capital the 
 errors of the established faith aud the baneful spirit of its ecclesiastics. 
 
 Till his father's death, Earl James remained, as it seems, abroad 
 probably with his father, who, after allying himself with Edward, king 
 of England, against his sovereign, fled into foreign parts ; but imme- 
 diately on his father's decease Bothwell entered ou the busy stage of 
 public lite, being then about thirty years of age. He was served heir 
 to his father on the 3rd of November 1556, and he attended the 
 parliament of December 1557, when a commission of the estates of 
 the realm was appointed for negociating the marriage of the infant 
 queen of Scots with the dauphin of France. Iu the parliament of 
 November 1558 he was named one of the lords of the articles; soon 
 afterwards we find him, as lieutenant of the borders, meeting with the 
 Earl of Northumberland, the English lieutenant, to adjust some border 
 differences; on the 30th of October 1559 he is found, under the orders 
 of the queen-regent, intercepting Cockburn of Ormiston near Had- 
 dington, when that baron was bringing supplies from England to the 
 party of the reformation ; and the following mouth, when the reformers 
 retreated before the regent's forces, he proclaimed the Earl of Arran, 
 one of the reform leaders, a traitor to the governmeut. Next year the 
 queeu-regeut died, and soon afterwards the Presbyterian form of Pro- 
 testantism was formally established, the reform leaders, or lords of 
 the congregation, taking the reins of administration. In the end of 
 the same year, Frauds II. of France died; and in contemplation of 
 Mary his widowed queen's return to Scotland, several nobles of the 
 Protestant party were despatched to France with a tender of their 
 services. In this company we find Bothwell, who with all his father's 
 suppleness had changed with the times, and acceded to the congregation. 
 Mary, then scarce twenty years old, lauded at Leith on the 19th of 
 August 1561 ; aud iu forming her government, she set her illegitimate 
 brother, Lord James Stewart, a Protestant, at the head of the adminis- 
 tration, and made Bothwell, whose sister Lord James had recently 
 married, one of her privy council ; the other members of the govern- 
 ment aud chief officers of state being also Protestants. The government 
 however of which Bothwell was thus a part was frequently disturbed 
 
847 BOTHWELL, EARL OF. 
 
 by his violence, his contests with the Earl of Arran, his brother-in-law, 
 and his outrages on individuals. For his misconduct he was in 
 December 1561 summoned to court, and then ordered to quit Edin- 
 burgh till the 8th of the following month. 
 
 In March 1562 he endeavoured to get Arran, to whom he had become 
 reconciled, to conspire with him in seiziug the queen at Falkland, in 
 her progress to the north, in order to put her brother in possession of 
 tho forfeited earldom of Murray, and detaining her in captivity till she 
 Bhou'.d acquiesce in their measures. But Arran having revealed the 
 matter, he and Bothwell were both committed to Edinburgh castle, 
 whence however Bothwell escaped; and after fortifying himself awhile 
 in his own retreat at Hermitage, got to sea, but was taken again at 
 Holy Island. Randolph pressed his detention much, representing him 
 as the " determined enemy of England, despiteful out of measure, false 
 and untrue as a devil." Notwithstanding he got to France, but soon 
 afterwards he returned to Scotland again. "The queen" (Mary), says 
 Randolph, in one of his despatches to Cecil at this time, " misliketh 
 Bothwell's coming home, and hath summoned him to undergo the law 
 or bo proclaimed a rebel. He is charged to havo spoken dishonourably 
 of the queen, and to have threatened to kill Murray and Lethington." 
 The dishonour here alluded to was probably the same as that mentioned 
 in another despatch to Cecil, dated 30th of March, where he says : — 
 "Bothwell hath grievously offended the Queen of Scots by words 1 
 spoken against the English queen, and also against herself, calling her 
 the cardinal's (Beaton) whore : she hath sworn unto me upon her 
 honour that he shall never receive favour at her hands." The following 
 month we find a despatch from Bedford to Cecil, in which Bothwell 
 is represented as addicted to vice and unnatural crime ; and about the 
 same time Bedford writes to the same minister that Bothwell " hath 
 been in divers places, at Haddington, with his mother, and elsewhere, 
 and findeth no safety anywhere. Murray followeth him so earnestly, 
 as he hath said ' Scotland shall not hold us both.' " By the queen's 
 directions he was, for his treasonable conspiracy of Ma"rch 1562, indicted 
 before the Lord Justiciary on the 2nd of May. On that occasion the 
 Earl of Argyle, the justiciary, and the Earl of Murray, came to Edin- 
 burgh at the head of 5000 men to hold a justice court; but Bothwell 
 had embarked at North Berwick for foreign parts, and, not appearing 
 at the trial, was outlawed. 
 
 In this depth of debasement however Bothwell watched every 
 opportunity to spring again into royal favour, and when the queen 
 married her cousin Darnley he returned to Scotland. Iu the begin- 
 ning of October of the same year we find him one of the new privy 
 councillors, and a leader of the royal army against Murray, Arran, and 
 others who opposed the match ; and on the 31st of the same month 
 Randolph writes to Cecil, " My Lord Bothwell, for his great virtue, 
 doth now all, next to the Earl of Athol." The following spring, 
 Bothwell, then at the age of forty-one, married Lady Jane Gordon, 
 sister of the Earl of Huntley, whose father had been Lord Chancellor 
 of Scotland. In the murder of Rizzio, the queen's secretary, at the 
 instigation of the jealous Darnley, Bothwell stood by the queen and 
 was opposed to the enterprise; and the following night we find him 
 among other nobles attending the royal pair within the castle of 
 Dunbar, in his shire of Haddington, whither the queen persuaded 
 Darnley to flee with her, and of which fort Bothwell had the custody. 
 The king and queen soon afterwards returned in a sort of triumph to 
 Edinburgh, and proceeded to the castle, where she immediately sent 
 for Argyle and Murray, and had them reconciled to Huntley, Bothwell, 
 and Athol. But Bothwell had only obtained the apparent friendship 
 of the nobility. In a letter from Alnwick dated the 3rd of April 1566, 
 it is stated that one of Bothwell's servants confessed that he and four 
 more of his fellow-servants had been engaged by Lethington to murder 
 Bothwell, the other servants on their examination making the like 
 confession ; and on the 2nd of August 1566 Bedford wrote to Cecil 
 that " the lords Maxwell and Bothwell are now enemies. Bothwell is 
 generally hated, and is more insolent than even David Rizzio was." 
 With the sovereign however Bothwell was, a3 Bedford afterwards writes 
 to Cecil, " in favour, and has a great hand in the management of 
 affairs." He attended the king when he went to Tweedale in August 
 1566 to enjoy the amusement of the chace; he returned with him. to 
 Edinburgh, where we find him in the council held in September of the 
 above year, and also in the great council which voted a supply of 
 12,000i. for defraying the expense of the infant prince's baptism ; and 
 from Edinburgh he proceeded with the royal party to Stirling to see 
 the prince. It being afterwards determined that the queen should 
 hold a justice eyre on the borders, Bothwell was despatched as lieute- 
 nant of the marches to Leddesdale, the chief seat of outrage. But the 
 people of that district had been gained to the English interest, and 
 when Bothwell arrived he was .attacked and severely wounded. On 
 the 8th of October 1566 he was, says Birrel, "deidly wounded by John 
 Ellete, alias John of the Park, whose head was sent into Edinburgh 
 thereafter." 
 
 The queen, on hearing of the injury Bothwell had sustained, 
 immediately rode off from Jedburgh, where she then was, to 
 Hermitage Castle, a distance of about 40 miles, through a rugged 
 country, to visit him, and returned to Jedburgh the same day — a 
 journey which, from the anxiety and exertions attendant on it, j 
 brought on a violent fever that threatened her life. ■ She became, says j 
 Birrel, " deidly sick, and desired the bells to be rung, and the people 
 
 BOTHWELL, EARL OF. 
 
 to resort to the kirk to pray for her." Bothwell was also, on the same 
 occasion, conveyed to Jedburgh, where the queen lay. On her recovery 
 she made a tour through the Merse, and arrived at Craigtnillar Castle, 
 near Edinburgh, where she remained till her removal to Stirling to 
 attend the baptism of her son. While at Craigmillar, the project of 
 her divorce from Darnley was opened to her, but she declined the 
 proposal, fearing her own reputation and her son's succession. Both- 
 well, to quiet her fears on the latter point, quoted his own ca3e, as 
 having succeeded to his paternal estates notwithstanding a subsisting 
 divorce between his parents. But the queen appearing to disliLe it, 
 the subject was not farther pressed. When at Stirling, on occasion of 
 the prince's baptism, she agreed, partly on tho intercession of Bothwell, 
 to restore Morton and the other murderers of Rizzio, and on the 25th 
 of December 1566 their pardon was signed. It is probable that an 
 ambition to possess the queen had already filled the mind of Bothwell, 
 and that haviug failed in obtaining a divorce he had perceived Morton 
 to be a fit instrument for his purpose. 
 
 On the 27th of December 1566, Darnley went to visit his father at 
 Glasgow, where he was soon laid up with small-pox. On the 20th of 
 the next month Mary went to visit him ; and on the 31st the king and 1 
 queen came to Edinburgh, where the former was conveyed to lodgings 
 in the Kirk of Field. During the whole of January, Bothwell was in 
 intercourse with Mortou and others, to whom he said '• it was the 
 queen's mind that the king should be taken away." The queen spent 
 the evening of the 9th of February in Daruley's lo Igiug, and at 
 12 o'clock she left him for a masque, having first kissed him and put 
 one of her rings on his finger. Two hours after the house where 
 Darnley lay was blown up, and he and his servant destroyed in the 
 explosion. The public voice was unanimous in declaring Bothwell 
 accessory to this murder, and placards were put up in the streets 
 accusing him of the crime ; but though he continued in Edinburgh, 
 no steps were taken against him till the 28th March, when Lennox, 
 the father of Darnley, avowing himself his accuser, the privy council 
 directed him and others to be indicted for the murder. Three days 
 before the trial Murray set off for France without any known business; 
 and at the trial Bothwell stood and was acquitted ; but when the mode 
 in which trials were at that time conducted in Scotland is considered, 
 his acquittal will be held as really immaterial in determining the 
 question of his innocence or guilt. Two days afterwards the parlia- 
 ment assembled at Edinburgh, and Bothwell was one of the commis- 
 sioners who met the estates. He also carried tho sword of state before 
 the queen when she came to the parliament in person ; and in the 
 same parliament he was chosen one of the lords of the articles. 
 On the last day of the parliament various ratifications were passed 
 in favour of different persons. The Earl of Murray, though absent, 
 obtained a ratification of his lands and earldom; Morton got a rati- 
 fication of his lands with those of Augus his relation; Huntley's 
 forfeiture was reversed, and Bothwell had his lands and offices, both 
 hereditary and acquired, confirmed to him. The preamble of the statute 
 in this last case is in the circumstances not a little singular. It sets 
 out the queen's consideration of Bothwell's " gret and manifold gude 
 service done and performit not onlie to her hienes honor weil and 
 estimatioun, bot alsua to the comone weil of the realme and lciges 
 thereof," and thereupon follows a ratification of his lands and heritage, 
 and of the captaincy of Dunbar castle. On the morrow, after the 
 rising of the parliament, the leading persons of the government met 
 and had a supper at Aiusley, where they signed a bond in Bothwell's 
 favour, approving of his acquittal, and recommending him as a fit 
 husband for the widowed queen, pledging themselves also to defend 
 the marriage. On the 21st April the queen went to Stirling to see 
 her son, and while returning, on tbe 24th, she was met at Almond 
 bridge, near Linlithgow, by Bothwell and a great company who seized 
 her person and carried her off to the castle of Dunbar. " There " says 
 Melville, " the Earl of Bothwell boasted he would marry the queen, 
 ' who would or would not, yea whether she would herself or not." 
 " Captain Blackwater (he adds) alleged it was with the queen's consent. 
 And then the queen could not but marry him, seeing that he had 
 ravished her and lain with her against her will." A double process 
 of divorce was soon afterwards raised, one by Lady Bothwell against 
 the earl for adultery, and another at his instance against her on the 
 ground of consanguinity ; and on the 3rd and 6th of May sentence 
 passed in favour of the parties respectively. Bothwell now brought 
 the queen to Edinburgh, where the banns of their marriage were 
 proclaimed, and on the 12th of the same month the queen came into 
 the court of session, and after testifying her perfect freedom of person, 
 signed instruments of pardon in favour of Bothwell and his accomplices 
 in her abduction. She afterwards created Bothwell Duke of Orkney ; 
 and on the 11th May she entered into a contract of marriage with 
 him, which was recorded the same day. Next day the marriage was 
 solemnised at Holyrood by Adam Bothwell, abbot of Holyrood-house 
 and bishop of Orkney. 
 
 Bothwell had now gained the summit of his ambition ; but it was 
 attained with guilt, and from his height he was quickly precipitated 
 into everlasting infamy. An indignant people rose in arms against 
 him, and he and the queen fled from fortress to fortress till, on the 
 14th of June, she came out to meet the insurgents at Carberry-hilL In 
 the evening however she joined the chiefs, and was by them conducted 
 to Edinburgh. Bothwell left the queen, and fled to Dunbar, where 
 
S4P 
 
 BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE. 
 
 BOTTARI, GIOVANNI. 
 
 850 
 
 he was allowed twelve days to depart thence for the Orkney Isles. 
 Being pursued in his voyage, he sailed for the Danish shores, where he 
 was seized and put in prison. He prolonged a miserable life till 1576, 
 when he expired in the castle of Malmoy. He left no children, and all 
 his honours and estates were forfeited to the crown. 
 
 BOTTA. CARLO GIUSEPPE, born at San Giorgio in Piedmont, in 
 1766, studied medicine in the University of Turin, and took a doctor's 
 degree in 1786. He also manifested an early turn for literary and 
 historical studies. At the outbreak of the French revolution, Botta 
 committed himself so far in some revolutionary plot, that he was 
 arrested and confined in the citadel of Turin for two years, when being 
 liberated, he emigrated to France. After living some time at Grenoble 
 he was appointed surgeon to the French army called ' of the Alps,' 
 and stationed at Gap. In 1796, after the first success of Bonaparte, 
 he followed the French through their campaigns in Lombardy, and in 
 the following year was present in Venice at the fall of that ancient 
 republic, a catastrophe which he has related with lively grief and 
 indignation in his history. From Venice he sailed with the expedi- 
 tion that went to take possession of Corfu and the other Venetian 
 islands in the name of France. At Corfu he wrote a professional 
 work on the military hospital of that garrison, with digressions on 
 the climate and the natural history of the island. Botta returned to 
 Italy in 1793, and was employed in his professional capacity with a 
 detachment of Cisalpine troops stationed in the Valtellina, where he 
 wrote a disquisition, in the form of a letter, on the analytical noso- 
 graphy of PineL At the end of that year, General Joubert, acting 
 for the French Directory, nominated Botta a member of the provisional 
 government of Piedmont. This government was driven away a few 
 months after by the victorious Suvarow, and Botta being thus obliged 
 to emigrate to France a second time, was appointed surgeon to the 
 new army of the Alps. He returned to Italy after the battle of 
 Marengo, June 1800, and was appointed member of the Consulta, or 
 council of administration for Piedmont. The country was in a 
 deplorable state, after being drained by so many revolutions and in- 
 vasions ; the French acted as imperious taskmasters, and the council 
 had few means of doing good. In the twentieth book of his history 
 Botta describes at length the calamities of the times. One import- 
 ant benefit was secured by Botta and his colleagues to their native 
 country, namely, an annual permanent income of half a million of 
 francs out of the public domain, for the support of the University, 
 Colleges, and Academy of Sciences of Turin ; a benefit which survived 
 all subsequent political vicissitudes. 
 
 When Napoleon resolved, in 1803, to unite, definitively, Piedmont 
 to France, Botta was one of the deputation sent to Paris on the occa- 
 sion. He then published a ' Precis Historique de la Maison de Savoie 
 et du Piemont.' In 1804 he was elected deputy to the French legis- 
 lative body, for the department of the Dora, and in consequence 
 removed to Paris. He retained his seat in the legislative body, having 
 been re-elected for the department of the Loire, till the fall of Napo- 
 leon. Botta now availed himself of his ample leisure in preparing 
 for the press his history of the North American revolution and war 
 of independence, which he had begun during his first French emigra- 
 tion, and which he published at Paris in 1810 : 'Storia della Guerra 
 dell' Indipendenza d' America.' 
 
 In April 1814, Botta, with the other members of the legislative body, 
 swore allegiance to the Bourbon dynasty ; but at the eud of March 
 1815, Napoleon's restored government appointed him Rector of the 
 University of Nancy. He resigned his rectorship at the second Bour- 
 bon restoration, but was appointed instead Rector of the University 
 of Rouen, an office which he did not retain long, for in 1816 he was 
 living at Paris as a foreigner without employment or pension. He 
 then applied himself to write a contemporary history of Italy during 
 the French occupation, an arduous task amidst the growling of angry 
 passions which had not yet had time to subside. He determined to 
 write 'the whole truth,' as far as his means of information went; to 
 'peak with honest sincerity, not only of princes and ministers, but 
 ilw of the people ; to flatter no party ; to calumniate no enemy. 
 Disregarding the prejudices of men of all parties, he proJuced a book 
 which went far to re'teem Italian literature from the charge of almost 
 Mental fervility which it had incurred during the period of Napo- 
 eon'g reign. Alone perhaps among the nations of Europe, the Italians, 
 >t rather, a Dumerous and active class among them, had, or thought 
 hey had, reason to regret the fall of the Bonaparte dynasty. Botta 
 lispleaoed many of these by his plain speaking, nor did ho care to 
 conciliate the advocates of old absolutism. He published his work 
 ■t Paris in 1824 : ' Storia d'ltalia dal 1789 al 1814,' 4 vols. 8vo. The 
 >ook was assailed by strictures and denunciations, some of them very 
 busive and personal; but it stood its ground, went through numer- 
 ua editions, both in Italy and abroad, and it has long since taken its 
 lace in every Italian library. The work is one of lasting interest : 
 be author excels in the description of Stirling events, the bustle of 
 he camp, the alarms of a siege, the din and tumult of popular insur- 
 JCtions, the calamities of the devoted inhabitants — the victims of 
 inline, pestilence, or the sword. His style however is upon the 
 hole unequal, and his sentiments at times seem inconsistent with 
 ne another. There is also a disproportion between the various parts 
 the work ; twenty-books are bestowed upon the Italian wars and 
 cinaitudcg from 1782 to the peace of Luueville in 1801, and only 
 BIOO. DTV. VOL. L ' 
 
 seven upon the subsequent period down to 1814. But notwithstand- 
 ing these faults, Botta's history is a work that does honour to Italian 
 literature. 
 
 Encouraged by the success of this work, a certain number of Italian 
 and French lovers of literature urged Botta to attempt a continua- 
 tion of Guicciardiui's history of Italy, from 1530, down to 1789, so 
 that the end should meet the beginning of his contemporary history. 
 These friends made a subscription among themselves sufficient to allow 
 the writer a decent annual income during the time that he should be 
 engaged in his laborious undertaking. Botta accepted the task in 
 1826, and he completed it at the end of 1830 : ' Storia d'ltalia in Con- 
 tinuazione al Guicciardini, sino al 1789/ 10 vols., 8vo, Paris, 1832. 
 This larger work was received with applause, owing in part to the 
 author's already established reputation as an historian. The Academy 
 of La Crusca bestowed on the author its decennial prize, and Charles 
 Albert, king of Sardinia, created him a knight and gave him a pension. 
 In 1832 Botta revisited his native Piedmont, and was very favourably 
 received there. He afterwards returned to France, where he made an 
 Italian translation of the journal of a French maritime expedition of 
 discovery round the globe, which one of his sons accompanied in a 
 medical capacity, and also as a naturalist. The translation was pub- 
 lished after the father's death : ' Viaggio intorno al Globo, principal- 
 mente alia California e alle isole Sandwich, negli anni 1826-29, di A. 
 Duhaut Cilly ; con Note del giovane Botta,' Turin, 1841. Botta lived 
 and died poor. He died at Paris, in August 1837. His native town 
 San Giorgio has raised him a monument. 
 
 Besides the works mentioned in this article, Botta wrote — 1, ' II 
 Camillo, o Vejo conquistato,' a poem, Paris, 1815; 2, ' Storia deiPopoli 
 Italiani da Costantino fino a Napoleone,' a compilation published first 
 in French in 1825, and afterwards in Italian in 1826. His history of 
 American independence has been translated into English by Otis, and 
 has been greatly praised in the United States. As a literary work 
 however it is much inferior in merit to the two histories of Italy. 
 
 *BOTTA, PAUL-fiMILE, was born about the year 1800. He is the 
 son of Botta the historian. He studied medicine, and accompanied 
 A. D. Cilly, as a surgeon, in his voyage round the world in 1826-29. 
 [Botta, C. G.] He early distinguished himself as a naturalist. He 
 spent some years in Egypt, was for a time consul at Alexandria, and 
 visited the countries on the Upper Nile, Senaar, and the tracts 
 inhabited by the Bishareen. In 1837 he made a journey through a 
 portion of Arabia, of which he published a short but very interesting 
 account, 'Relation d'un Voyage dans l'Yemen, entrepris en 1837 pour 
 le Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris,' 8vo. 
 
 In 1843 M. Botta was at Mosul as French consul. This town is 
 situated on the west bank of the Tigris, about 220 miles N.N.W. from 
 Baghdad. On the eastern bank, nearly opposite, is a large mound 
 called by the inhabitants Kouyunjik, supposed to have been a portion 
 of the ancient city of Nineveh. M. Botta, early in 1843, soon after 
 his arrival at Mosul, began to make excavations in this mound, on a 
 small scale, but found only fragments similar to others which had 
 been found there previously. While the small party employed by 
 him were still at work on the mound of Kouyunjik, an Arab peasant 
 happened to visit the spot, and being informed that they were 
 searching for sculptured stones, advised them to try the mound on 
 which his village was situated, where, he said, such stones had been 
 found. This village, called Khorsabad, is about 14 miles N. by W. 
 from Mosul. M Botta followed the man's suggestion. A hole was 
 dug into the mound of Khorsabad, the top of a wall was reached, and 
 the whole of the apartments of an Assyrian palace were ultimately 
 laid open. The walls were faced with slabs of stone sculptured with 
 figures and cuneiform characters, and there were huge human-headed 
 bulls and other statues, the whole being similar to those now in the 
 British Museum, which have been brought from the mounds of 
 Nimroud and Kouyunjik. The discoveries at Khorsabad were made 
 before Mr. Layard had commenced his excavations at Nimroud, which 
 is 18 miles S. from Kouyunjik ; so that M. Botta led the way in the 
 recent Assyrian discoveries. The French government supplied him 
 with funds, and sent M. Flandin, an experienced artist, to make 
 drawings. The palace at Khorsabad appears to have been destroyed 
 by fire, and it was consequently found to be impossible to prevent 
 the greater part of the slabs from being broken. Such however of the 
 sculptures and other objects as have been saved are now exhibited in 
 the Musee Assyrien of the Louvre at Paris. M. Botta, after his return 
 to Paris, in conjunction with M. Flandin, and assisted by other scholars 
 and artists, published ' Monument de Nineve;, decovert et descrit par 
 P.-E\ Botta, mesure* et dessind par E. Flandin,' 5 torn, folio, Paris, 
 1847-50. The two first volumes contain the plates of architecture 
 and sculpture, the third and fourth the inscriptions, and the fifth 
 the text. 
 
 BOTTA'RI, GIOVA'NNI, was born at Florence in 1689, studied 
 Latin and belles-lettres under the learned Biscioni, and Greek under 
 Salvini, and afterwards philosophy, mathematics, and theology, in 
 which last he took his doctor's degree in 1716 in the University of 
 Florence. The Academy of La Crusca made him one of its members, 
 and entrusted him with the task of preparing a new edition of its 
 great vocabulary, in company with Andrea Alamanni and Rosso 
 Martini. This laborious work lasted several years, and the new 
 edition was published in 1738, in 6 vols, folio. Bottari was also made 
 
 3 I 
 
861 
 
 BOUCHARDON, EDME. 
 
 £52 
 
 euperintendent of the grand ducal printing establishment at Florence, 
 where he published new editions of several Tuscan writers, with 
 notes and comments, such as Varchi's 'Ercolano,' the works of 
 Sacchetti, of Fra Guitton d'Arezzo, &c. In 1729 he wrote ' Lezioui 
 tr<$ sopra il Trernuoto,' on the occasion of an earthquake which 
 occurred at Florence in that year. In 1730 he went to Rome, where 
 he fixed his residence. Clement XII. gave him a cauoury, and also 
 the chair of ecclesiastical history in the University of La Sapieuza, 
 and employed him in 1732, together with Eustachio Manfredi, on a 
 survey of the Tiber throughout Unibria, in order to ascertain whether 
 it could be rendered navigable. The result of this survey was 
 published : 'Relatione della visita del fiuine Tevere da Ponte Nunvo 
 sotto Perugia fino alia foce della Nera.' Bottari made a similar survey 
 of the Teverone. His next publication was a learned work on the 
 monuments found in the numerous and vast subterraneous vaults 
 near Rome, courmouly known by the name of catacombs—' Sculture e 
 pitture sacre estratte dai cimiterj di Roma, pubblicate gia dagli autori 
 della Roma Sotterrauea, ed ora nuovarnente date in luce colla spiega- 
 zioue ed indici,' 3 vols, folio, Rome, 1737-54. He used the plates of 
 the ' Roma Sotterrauea' of Bosio, which Clement XII. had purchased; 
 but the letter press may be said to be entirely Bottari's. He also 
 published ' Storia dei SS. Barlaam e Giosafatte ridotta alia sua autica 
 purita di favella coll'ajuto degli autichi testi a peuna con prefazione,' 
 4to, 1734. Clement XII., being pleased with his exertions, bestowed 
 on him several preferments, made him a prelate of the Pontifical 
 Court, and librarian of the Vatican. Benedict XIV., who succeeded 
 Clement in 1740, made Bottari take up his abode near him in the 
 pontifical palace. He published, in 1741, 'Del Museo Capitolino, 
 tomo i. conteueute le imagini d'uomiui illustri,' folio ; and afterwards, 
 'Musei Capitolini tomus secundus, Augustorum et Augustarum 
 hennas contineus, cum Observationibus,' folio, 1750 ; also, ' Antiquis- 
 simi Virgiliani Codiois fragmenta et picturae ex Vaticana Bibliotheca 
 ad priscas imagiuum formas a Petro S. Bartoli incisua,' 1741, folio. 
 Bottari contributed to this work an important preface, with a disqui- 
 sition on the age of two manuscripts of' Virgil in the Vatican, and 
 notes, variantes, &c. ' Descrizione del palazzo Apostolico Vaticano, 
 opera postuma di Agostiuo Taja, rivista e accresciuta,' Roma, 1750 : 
 Taja had begun this work, which Bottari recast and completed. Bottari 
 died at Rome in June 1775, at the age of eighty six. He was one of 
 the most distinguished scholars at the Roman court in the 18th 
 century. Among his minor works are, dissertations on the origin of 
 the invention of Dante's poem ; two lectures upon Boccaccio, in which 
 Bottari refutes the charge of infidelity brought against that writer; 
 two lectures on Livy, defending the Roman historian against the 
 charge of too great credulity in narrating prodigies ; letters on the 
 fiue arts, dialogues on the same subject, &c. (Grazzini, Elogio di 
 Monsiynor Bottari ; Mazzuchelli, Scritlori d' Italia.) 
 
 BOUCHARDON, EDME, a distinguished French sculptor, was 
 born at Chaumont in Bassigny, in 1698. He was instructed in his 
 youth by his father, who was likewise a sculptor and architect^ and, 
 after he had made sufficient progress, he entered the school of the 
 younger Couston at Paris, where he soon distinguished himself, and 
 obtained the first prize of the Royal Academy in 1722. By this prize 
 he was entitled to study for a limited period at Rome, at the expense 
 of the French government, in the French academy established there 
 by Louis XIV. Bouchardon remained at Rome for ten years, during 
 which time he was much employed, especially in busts ; and he was 
 selected to execute the monument of Clement XL, but, being recalled 
 by the French government about the same time, he did not execute it 
 He returned to Paris in 1732; in the year following he was elected 
 Agree 1 , in 1744 a member, and in 1746 a professor of the Academy of 
 Painting and Sculpture. He died at Paris in 1762. 
 
 Bouchardon's principal works were the ' Fontaine de Grenelle,' and 
 the equestrian statue of Louis XV. The ' Fontaine de Grenelle' is 
 one of the finest in Paris; it was commenced in 1739 and finished in 
 1745. The authorities of Paris, by whose order it was made, were so 
 well satisfied with its execution that they voted Bouchardon, in 1746, 
 a pension for life of 1500 francs. The statue of Louis XV., which 
 was of marble, was placed in the Place-Louis XV. in 1763, and was 
 destroyed by the populace in 1792. Bouchardon was occupied in its 
 execution during twelve years, yet it was unfinished when he died : 
 the pedestal was executed by Pigal, who was chosen by Bouchardon 
 himself to complete the monument. It was engraved by Cathelin. 
 There are also some statues by Bouchardon in the church of St. Sulpice, 
 and in the gardens of Versailles, Choisy, and Gros-Bois. He was 
 sculptor to the king. Many of his works and sketches have been 
 engraved, and there are a few etchings by his own hand. 
 
 J. J. Preisler engraved fifty ancient statues from drawings by him. 
 Count Caylus engraved many others, besides several of Bouchardon's 
 original works ; he also wrote a life of Bouchardon. Bouchardon had 
 a younger brother, who was painter to the King of Sweden, in which 
 country he died. 
 
 (L'Abbe" de Fontenai, Dictionnaire des Artistes, dec. ; Heineken, 
 Dictionnaire des Artistes, dec. ; "Watelet and Levesque, Dictionnaire 
 des Arts, dec.) 
 
 BOUCHER, FRANCOIS, succeeded Vanloo as principal painter to 
 Louis XV. He was born at Paris in 1703, studied under Le Moine, 
 and at the age of nineteen obtained the first prize of the French 
 
 Academy of Painting. He went to Rome for a short time, and 
 returned to Paris in 1731. In 1735 he was elected a member of the 
 academy. He died at Paris, May the 30th 1730, director of the 
 
 academy. 
 
 Boucher was a painter of very great ability, and had extraordinary 
 facility of execution ; but he disregarded every correct principle, and 
 devoted himself entirely to a picturesque effect, which consisted in a 
 mere variegated tissue of light and shade. His figures are quite devoid 
 of expression. His subjects were chiefly mythological, amorous, and 
 pastoral, and he painted figures and landscapes with equal facility. 
 The corruption of pure taste, partly effected by Watteau, was fully 
 accomplished by the works of Boucher, for though iu his time a great 
 popular favourite, his style has been subsequently condemned in the 
 very strongest terms, even by hia own countrymen, especially by 
 Watelet and Diderot. He has been called the Anacreon of painters, 
 a compliment (if one) which, though it may apply to Boucher's sub- 
 jects, cannot apply to his execution of them. Hia designs are 
 extremely numerous, amounting to several thousands, and a great 
 many of them have been engraved, a few by himself, and others by 
 upwards of 140 different engravers, French and foreign. 
 
 (L'Abb<5 de Fontenai, Dictionnaire des Artistes ; Heineken, Diction- 
 naire des Artistes, dec. ; Watelet and Leveaque, Dictionnaire des Arts, 
 dec. ; Fiorillo, Geschichte der Mahlerey, vol. iii.) 
 
 BOUCHER, REV. JONATHAN, born March 12, 173f, a divine, a 
 political writer, a general scholar, and an English philologist of the 
 last century, to whose memory justice has been imperfectly rendered. 
 
 He was born in Cumberland, near the little town of Wigton, at a 
 place called Blencogo, where his father had a few acres of land, and 
 lived in a somewhat primitive style of frugality. Boucher was trained 
 first at a school at Blencogo, and afterwards at Wigton, where he had 
 for his master the clergyman of Grayatock, Mr. Blaine, with whom he 
 read some of the higher Latin and Greek classics. Under this master 
 Boucher pursued his studies with great assiduity, and at the age of 
 seventeen or eighteen he entered on the business of school instruction; 
 in a little time he became an usher in the grammar-school at Saint 
 Bees, which at that time, about 1756, enjoyed a high reputation under 
 Dr. James, a good and learned master. While here, the instruction of 
 youth iu the rudiments of classical knowledge was his business ; the 
 perusal and study of the great writers, and especially of the great 
 poets of antiquity, his recreation. He ia said to have here executed 
 a translation of Tyrtaeus. About 1756 or 1757 he left England, and 
 took up his residence amongst the American colonists. His services 
 were soon engaged by a gentleman in Virginia of wealth and respect- 
 ability as tutor to his children. That power which natural talent, 
 attainment, and character united, never fail to give, where the natural 
 tendency is not counteracted by some one of the various forms in 
 which an over-estimate of them by the party himself appears, was 
 soon manifested. The vestry of the parish of Hanover, iu the county 
 of King George, Virginia, nominated him to the rectory of that parish 
 iu 1761, when he was only four-and-twenty. This nomination he 
 accepted, and instantly repaired to England, where he received ordi- 
 nation from the Bishop of London both as deacon and priest on the 
 same day. From this time to 1775 he continued in an assiduous 
 discharge of his ministerial duties. He removed from the parish of 
 Hanover to that of St. Mary in Caroline county, Virginia, lying on the 
 Rappahauock. When Sir Robert Eden became governor of Maryland, 
 he appointed Mr. Boucher to the rectory of St. Anne's in Annapolis, 
 and afterwards of Queen Anne's in Prince George's county, where he 
 was living in 1775, when there was a violent and sudden change in 
 his affairs. These fourteen years were a critical period in the history 
 of the American colonies. Mr. Boucher has afforded us the means of 
 judging with tolerable accuracy how his talents, station, and character 
 were made to bear upon the feeling and action of the people with 
 whose interests he had connected his own. Many years after he pub- 
 lished a volume of discourses which he had delivered from the pulpit 
 at various times during those years. Most of them were printed at 
 the time when they were delivered. They are in fact for the most 
 part political sermons, preached however usually on public occasions, 
 when it is allowed to the ministers of religion to enlarge somewhat 
 the usual limits of pulpit instruction. They exhibit a robust sense, a 
 mind stored with classical erudition, and there are occasionally bursts 
 of a simple eloquence. He advocates a liberal toleration to Dissenters, 
 and a careful attention to a general diffusion of sound education on a 
 religious basis. On the question of the Stamp Act he partook of the 
 popular enthusiasm ; and on the whole he seems to have been inclined 
 to a liberal policy, and to the maintenance of the independence and 
 just rights of the colonies. 
 
 But when the time came that all connection with the mother 
 country was to be renounced, and all allegiance to the British throne, 
 Mr. Boucher was one of those who neither admitted the principle nor 
 thought themselves at liberty to remain entirely passive. He con- 
 tinued to use in his church the public liturgy, and to read the prayers 
 for the king and the royal family as he had been accustomed, when all 
 around him was resistance and rebellion. He was now regarded in 
 the light of one who was a traitor to the common interest. It was 
 intimated to him that he must either desist from reading those 
 prayers or resign his charge. His conduct was decided ; and without 
 hesitation he resigned his charge. This was a time when there could 
 
P53 
 
 BOUCHER, REV. JONATHAN. 
 
 BOUFLERS, DUC DE. 
 
 884 
 
 be no compromise. His property, all of which was in America, was 
 lost. He became so much an object of popular dislike that his person 
 was in hourly danger, and in 1775 he finally quitted the American 
 shores and returned to his native land. His prospects thus blighted, 
 he had to begin the world anew, aided by some compensation from the 
 government at home for the losses which he had sustained with other 
 American loyalists. Little is known of him during the next nine 
 years of his life ; but it is believed that he had recourse to his 
 original profession, and that he established a school at Paddington. 
 In the church he obtained no preferment till 1784, when Parkhurst, a 
 clergyman, the author of two well-known Scripture lexicons, presented 
 him to the vicarage of Epsom in Surrey, at which place it is believed 
 he went immediately to reside, and where he died, April 27, 1804. 
 
 In this last twenty years of his life we find him devoted, as in the 
 former period, to religion, to politics, and to literature. He collected 
 and published, in 1797, the discourses before spoken of, and prefixed 
 to them a dedication to Washington, with whom, before the war, he 
 had been on terms of intimacy, and for whom he never ceased to feel 
 a high personal respect. He added also a long preface, entitling the 
 whole collection, ' A View of the Causes and Consequences of the 
 American Revolution.' He printed also two assize sermons, and in 
 every way supported to the utmost of his power the Pitt policy in 
 respect of France, adhering to the principles which he had maintained 
 in Maryland in such dangerous times and for which he had been so 
 great a sufferer. But the kind of literature to which he directed his 
 attention was changed. It became more English. The love of his 
 native country, which is said to be stronger in those born in moun- 
 tainous regions than in other persons, appeared in various forms. He 
 addressed his Cumbrian friends on the backwardness which they 
 showed in following in the track of public improvement. He wrote 
 some of the best portions of Hutchinson's history of that county. 
 He erected in the church of Sebergham a monument to the memory 
 of Relph, a Cumbrian poet. He also became a Fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries of London, and was made an honorary member of the 
 Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh, and also of the Stirling Literary 
 Society. His acquaintance among the men devoted to antiquarian, 
 and especially English philological literature, became extended, and 
 he enjoyed the intimacy and particular friendship of several of them. 
 
 His mind at length became determined towards a particular object : 
 it was, to prepare a kind of supplement to the 'Dictionary of the 
 English Language' by Dr. Johnson, in which he should introduce 
 words provincial and archaical. By provincial, he meant words which 
 are still found in the speech of certain parts of Enaland, though not 
 found in writing or heard in the conversation of the cultivated and 
 polite; words however which are genuine portions of the English 
 language, and to be found, most of them at least, in our early and 
 almost forgotten writers. By archaical, he meant words which are 
 found in those writers, though now regarded as obsolete, and which 
 are not now, and perhaps never were, in any general use by the 
 common people. These words it was his intention to illustrate by 
 quotations from the authors in which they occur, and also by dis- 
 sertations on their history in a manner much more at large than 
 Dr. Johnson had thought it necessary to do in respect of the purer 
 and better terms which he had allowed to find a place in his 
 Dictionary. 
 
 This was a design of great magnitude, and Boucher set himself to 
 the accomplishment of it with great earnestness of purpose, and pro- 
 ceeded with an unwearied perseverance which was truly admirable. 
 He made his classical knowledge bear upon it with effect, and he 
 obtained no mean acquaintance with the languages cognate to our own 
 and the other modern languages of Europe. He had an intimate 
 acquaintance with the dialect of Cumberland and Westmoreland, 
 where perhaps more of peculiar terms remain than in other counties, 
 which he had acquired when a youth, a time of life when such know- 
 ledge is best attained. He made a large collection of books applicable 
 to his purpose, and he established a correspondence with persons in 
 many of the counties of England, from whom he received contributions 
 for his vocabulary, and sometimes valuable remarks. 
 
 But the plan on which he proceeded included more than is generally 
 understood to fall within the province of lexicography. He made his 
 dictionary the deposit of what he was able to collect concerning many 
 of the usages of the English nation — dress, sports, superstitions, what- 
 ever in short falls under the not-strictly defined term of popular 
 antiquities : so that his work may, in many portions of it, be read for 
 amusing or interesting information, as well as consulted as a dictionary 
 for the illustration of the words which it contains. In this respect it 
 resembles Dr. Jamieson's valuable dictionary of the Scottish language. 
 
 Mr. Boucher began this work in or about 1790. It was not too late 
 a period of life for him to indulge the hope and a reasonable expecta- 
 tion of being able to complete it, well furnished as he already was 
 with much of the information needed for such an undertaking. In 
 1802 it had so far advanced towards maturity that he issued a pro- 
 spectus of the work, and proposals lor publication. His health how- 
 ever was then beginning to decline. In 1803 he visited his native 
 county. He lived till the 27th of April in the following year, when 
 he died without having committed any part of his large manuscript to 
 the press. 
 
 Of the dictionary thus left unfinished, the letter A was published 
 
 after his death as a specimen by his friend and frequent correspondent 
 Sir Frederick M. Eden. The merits and the value of his collection 
 were understood from this specimen, and appreciated in every way 
 highly by those who take an interest in such inquiries. But still 
 there was not sufficient encouragement given to the family to risk the 
 publication of so large a manuscript. It remained, with other papers 
 connected with it, in the hands of the family till 1831, when it was 
 purchased with the intention of immediate publication. Two numbers 
 of the projected work are however all that have appeared, containing 
 Mr. Boucher's learned introduction to his work, which happily was 
 left completed by him, and the words of the alphabet as far as 
 ' Blade.' 
 
 For the facts in this life we have been principally indebted to 
 Boucher's own writings, to the 'Gentleman's Magazine' (vol. lxxiv., 
 p. 591), where is a biographical notice of him inserted at the time of 
 his decease, and to a little volume printed at Carlisle in 1829, entitled 
 'The Life and Literary Remains of Thomas Sanderson.' 
 
 BOUFFLEHS. There were two remarkable females often mentioned 
 in the literary history of the 18th century who bore this title, and 
 who are frequently confounded with each other. The one was the 
 Marquise db Boufflers-Remencourt, a correspondent of Voltaire, 
 and the principal female ornament of the court of Stanislaus Augustus 
 of Poland. She was a great reader, and wrote some pleasing verses. 
 The other was the Comtesse de Bodfflers-Rodvrel, who is perhaps 
 better known in this country than her namesake, from having been a 
 friend and correspondent of David Hume. She was mistress of the 
 Prince of Conti, and on the death of her husband, in 1764, was disap- 
 pointed at not becoming the wife of that priuce. She wrote a tragedy 
 in French prose. The ease and accurate idiom of her English letters 
 show that she was a very accomplished woman. 
 
 BOUFLERS, LOUIS- FRANCOIS DUC DE, descended from one of 
 the most ancient and noble families in Picardy, the second son of 
 Francois II., count of Bouflers and Cagni, was born January 10, 1644. 
 He entered the royal guards as a cornet in 1663, during which year ho 
 was present at the siege of Marsal in Lorraine. In the following 
 campaign he was engaged in an expedition to Gigari in Africa ; and so 
 much talent did he afterwards exhibit in Flanders, that he was allowed 
 to purchase from the Due de Lauzun the colonelcy of the royal 
 dragoons. In all the enterprises of Turenne he bore a distinguished 
 part ; and he was severely wounded at the battle of Woerden, under 
 the mare'chal of Luxemburg, in the winter of 1673. Having passed 
 into Germany, he was again wounded at the battle of Einsheim in 
 1674, and received the thanks of Turenne for having greatly contri- 
 buted to the success of that day. In the memorable retreat after the 
 death of Turenne, in 1 675, he commanded the French rear ; and from 
 that time till the peace of Nimeguen, in 1678, he was employed on 
 active service. He then commanded in Dauphine" and on the frontiers 
 of Spain. His gallantry at the siege of Luxemburg was rewarded 
 with the government of that city and province in 1686; and the 
 seasonable detachment of a corps from the army of the Moselle, which 
 he commanded in 1690, decided the event of the battle of Fleurus. 
 In 1691 he was again wounded in an attack upon a hornwork at 
 Mons ; but during the remainder of that campaign he triumphantly 
 kept the field against the allies, who were more than threefold his 
 number, and continued the blockade of Liege and of Huy. On his 
 return to court during the winter, he was personally invested by the 
 king with the collars of the several orders into which he had hitherto 
 been admitted only by proxy. When William III. moved to the 
 relief of Namur, Bouflers was selected to oppose him. He theu partook 
 of the glories of Steenkerken. In 1693 he was elevated to the dignity 
 of marechal of France, and received the new order of St. Louis. He 
 defended Namur against the allies, commanded by William III., for 
 sixty-three days of open trenches in 1695, and repulsed four general 
 assaults. After its capitulation, he was detained a prisoner of war 
 for a fortnight ; and the king, in recompense for his great services, 
 erected the county of Cagni and some adjoining domains in Beauvaisis 
 into the dukedom of Bouflers. In 1696 he superintended some prepara- 
 tions for a projected invasion of England in support of James II., 
 which was not put in execution. In the war of the Spanish succession, 
 he commanded in the Netherlands; and on June 30, 1703, in conjunc- 
 tion with the Marquis de Bedmar, he obtained a signal advantage 
 over the Dutch at Eckaren, for which he received from the king of 
 Spain the collar of the Golden Fleece. In 1708, after the battle of 
 Oudenarde, he undertook to defend Lille against Prince Eugene; and 
 he maintained the town from August 12th till October 25th, when he 
 capitulated, after having repeatedly declined the king's urgent wish 
 that he should cease to expose himself ; but the citadel into which he 
 retired held out till the 11th of December following. The king loaded 
 him with new honours for the brilliant defence, and made his duchy 
 into a peerage. His presence in the capital in March, 1709, and hi3 
 deserved popularity among the citizens, contributed to allay a tumult 
 which had arisen on account of scarcity of bread; after which, hastening 
 to Flanders, he tendered his services to the marechal Villars.an officer 
 junior to him, and brought off the right wing of his army in good 
 order, losing neither cannon nor prisoners at the disastrous battle of 
 Malplaquet. Tiiis was his last public act ; he died at Fontainebleau, 
 August 22, 1711, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and was buried 
 with great military splendour in the church of St. Paul qt r^H*. 
 
BOUGAINVILLE. 
 
 BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE. 
 
 8C0 
 
 The above sketch of the exploits of this distinguished captain is 
 necessarily very incomplete ; his history, in truth, forms a very 
 important part in the military history of the half century during 
 which he served, and its details must be sought in the general annals 
 of Europe. 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE. Two brothers of this name attained considerable 
 distinction in the 18th century. 
 
 Jean Pierre de Bougainville, was born at Paris December 1st, 
 1722, and during his short career distinguished himself by some 
 publications now forgotten ; among them was a French translation of 
 the 'Anti-Lucretius' of Cardinal Polignac, and a Parallel between the 
 expedition of Kouli Khan and that of Alexander. Some poems, among 
 which is the germ of Pope's ' Universal Prayer,' and several papers in 
 the ' Me'moires' of the Academy, also were printed by him. He held 
 numerous employments of high literary distinction, as secretary to the 
 Academy of Inscriptions, censor royal, keeper of the antiquities in the 
 Louvre, and secretary in ordinary to the Duke of Orleans, &c. He 
 died at Loches June 22nd, 1763. 
 
 Louis Antoine de Bougainville, his younger brother, who more 
 than doubled his years, led also a much more active existence. He 
 was born at Paris November 11th, 1729, and studied in the university 
 of that capital, with the intention of proceeding to the bar. Much of 
 his time had been devoted to mathematics, and instead of commencing 
 as an advocate at the Palais, he surprised his friends by enrolling 
 himself in the Mousquetaires Noirs, and by publishing a treatise on 
 the integral calculus within fifteen days from his enlistment. We 
 know not in what manner he passed from military to diplomatic pur- 
 suits, but we afterwards find him employed as secretary of embassy 
 in London, where he was elected fellow of the Royal Society. Return- 
 ing to the army, he served in Canada with some distinction till 1759; 
 and in 1763, when the merchants of St. Malo wished to colonise the 
 barren territory of Falkland's Islands (the Malouines, as they were 
 called, from their pretended discoverer), Bougainville was active in 
 promoting the settlement. The position which he had chosen for the 
 establishment was at Port Louis, on the eastern side of the lesser of 
 the two large islands, on a part of the coast which afforded a good 
 harbour; and he was sanguine in his expectations that the new colony 
 would in a great degree indemnify his country for the loss of the 
 Canadas. The Parisian cabinet however thought otherwise ; and as 
 Spain protested against the French right of possession, the French 
 government in 1766 bartered for the surrender of Port Louis to the 
 Spaniards, who gave it the less swelling but perhaps more appropriate 
 name of Port Solidad. Bougainville was instructed to execute the 
 transfer, and his commission authorised him afterwards to traverse the 
 South Sea between the tropics, for the purpose of making discoveries, 
 and to return home by the East Indies. For this circumnavigation 
 of the globe, a frigate, 'La Boudeuse,' carrying twenty-six twelve 
 pounders, and a store ship, ' L'Etoile,' were placed under his com- 
 mand. His crew consisted of eleven commissioned officers, three 
 volunteers, and 200 mariners; and the Prince of Nassau Sieghen 
 obtained permission to accompany him. His voyage, although not to 
 be compared in point of interest to that of Cook or Anson, is very 
 agreeably related by himself. It was translated into English by 
 Forster in 1772, and an abridgment of it is given in the appendix 
 to the thirteenth volume of Kerr's 'General Collection of Voyages 
 and Travels.' 
 
 Bougainville sailed from Nantes November 15th, 1766. On the 1st 
 of April following he surrendered Falkland's Islands to some Spanish 
 frigates which had been dispatched for the purpose, and he was then 
 delayed till November at Monte Video by the non-arrival and the 
 necessary repairs of his store-ship. In working off the shores of 
 Tierra del Fuego he suffered much from boisterous weather. Storms, 
 mists, sunken rocks, difficult currents, and an archipelago which 
 appropriately received the name of ' The Dangerous,' were encountered 
 before he arrived in sight of Otaheite on April 2nd, 1768 ; and the 
 well-known blandishments of that island appear to have exposed him 
 to scarcely less peril than he had undergone at sea. At parting he 
 carried with him as a volunteer Aotourou, the son of a native chief. 
 The youth's talents appear unhappily to have been very slender, and 
 he acquired little benefit from mixing with the civilised world at 
 Paris : he died on his homeward passage in 1770. Scurvy and a failure 
 of provisions occasioned very severe suffering during the latter part of 
 this voyage, till on September 28th Bougainville, having been at sea for 
 ten months and a half, cast anchor off Batavia. On March 16th, 1769, 
 he entered St. Malo, having been engaged upon his expedition two 
 years and four months. Bougainville commanded a ship of war during 
 the American revolutionary contest. He died at the advanced age of 
 eighty-two years, on August 31st, 1811. 
 
 BOUGUER, PIERRE, was born February 16, 1698, at Croisic, in 
 Basse-Bretague, where his father was professor of hydrography. The 
 son, after receiving the instructions of his father in mathematics, and 
 making considerable progress by himself, taught first at Croisic, and 
 afterwards at Havre-de-Grace. In 1727 he gained the prize of the 
 Academy of Sciences for a memoir on the method of masting ships; 
 in 1729, for one on the method of observing the stars at sea and on 
 astronomical refractions, his formula and results being the same as 
 those afterwards given by Simpson, but more complicated in form ; 
 in 1731, for a method of observing the dip of the compass at sea. In 
 
 1732 he presented a memoir on the inclinations of the planets' orbits, 
 in which he treats the subject on the theory of Des Cartes : he was 
 the last of the academicians who held by that system. In 1729 he 
 published a memoir on the gradual extinction of light in passing 
 through successive imperfectly transparent substances. By a series 
 of experiments, of which M. Biot speaks in high terms (' Biog. Univ.'), 
 he imagined he had proved that the light from the edges of the 
 sun is weaker than that from the centre. M. Arago has disproved 
 this assertion by new experiments. 
 
 The reputation of Bouguer being established as a profound mathe- 
 matician, and particularly (to use a phrase of M. Coudorcet when 
 speaking of him in his £luye of La Condamine) as "possessing that 
 sort of talent which is able to distinguish the little causes of error, 
 and to find the means of remedying them," he was chosen, in company 
 with La Condamine and others, together with two Spanish com- 
 missioners, to proceed to Peru, for the purpose of measuring a degree 
 of the meridian. Thither he accordingly departed in May 1735, and 
 remained till 1743. The most essential parts of the operation neces- 
 sarily fell upon him, as La Condamine was comparatively new to the 
 subject. This important operation, which is one of the best of its 
 kind, was carried on under difficulties as great as were ever encountered 
 by any scientific expedition. The inhabitants of the country were 
 jealous of the French commissioners, and supposed them either to be 
 heretics or sorcerers, or to have come in search of new gold mines. 
 Even persons attached to the administration employed themselves in 
 Btirring up the minds of the people, and when at last they had pro- 
 cured the assassination of the surgeon of the expedition, one was able 
 to escape the consequences by procuring a verdict of lunacy against 
 himself, and another by taking orders. The country itself was difficult 
 and dangerous: and this obstacle was increased by jealousies which 
 arose between the French and Spanish commissioners, as well as 
 between Bouguer and La Condamine. Bouguer, who felt that he 
 was the main resource of the expedition, suspected that La Conda- 
 mine would appropriate an undue share of the merit to himself. The 
 consequence was however of no harm to the real objects of the expe- 
 dition, but perhaps rather the contrary ; for it caused Bouguer, La 
 Condamine, and the Spaniards Ceorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa to 
 conduct their operations separately, while the near accordance of the 
 three in their results was a favourable presumption for their accuracy. 
 The results did not differ from their average by a five-thousandth 
 part of the whole, in a length of a degree of the meridian. 
 
 The leisure which impediments occasionally gave enabled Bouguer 
 to apply himself to the determination of points not immediately con- 
 nected with the main object. Among other things, he ascertained the 
 amount of refraction at considerable heights above the sea. He found 
 reason to suspect the effect of the attraction of Chimboraco upon the 
 plumb-line, but not knowing the mean density of the mountain, could 
 not perform the task which Maskelyne afterwards undertook. A part 
 of the observations (on the obliquity of the ecliptic) were forwarded 
 as soon as made to Halley, who published them in 1739 in England: 
 but an account of the whole was published in Paris, in 1740, under 
 the title of ' Figure de la Terre,' &c. In 1752 followed a justificatory 
 tract on several disputed points; in 1753 a treatise on navigation, 
 abridged in octavo by Lacaille in 1769, and reprinted in 1781 and in 
 1792, with notes by Lalande. In 1754 Bouguer published an attack 
 on La Condamine, relative to the part of the great survey claimed by 
 both. The latter replied with temper; and as his tract was the more 
 amusing of the two (an observation both of Condorcet and Biot), he 
 carried the public with him. It 6eems to be admitted on all sides, 
 that Bouguer had no ground of offence whatsoever, and that La 
 Condamine behaved towards him with great respect and moderation. 
 
 Bouguer was afterwards employed to verify the degree measured 
 by Dominic Cassini between Paris and Amiens. This he did in con- 
 junction with Cassini de Thury, Camus, and Pingre. The results 
 were published in 1757. He died August 15, 1758, while preparing a 
 new edition of his work on the gradual extinction of light, which was 
 afterwards completed and published by Lacaille in 1760. In this work 
 he mentions an invention of his in 1748, which he calls the helio- 
 meter, and which is in fact the first double object-glass micrometer, 
 and was properly so called. That of Dollond, which is the more 
 easily used, and is esteemed the better instrument, was invented 
 independently a few years afterwards. Bouguer attacks the Royal 
 Society of London, which a second time had had recourse to the pro- 
 ceeding mentioned in the life of Auzout, and had published (but not 
 till after Bouguer's discovery had been made known) the prior 
 invention of an Englishman named Savery. 
 
 As a scientific man, Bouguer must stand in the first rank of utility. 
 The operations in Peru are among the first of their species, and the 
 species one of the most difficult kind of scientific investigations. 
 
 BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE, was born at Paris in 1628. He 
 studied at the college of Clermont, professed with the Jesuits at six- 
 teen years of age, and was appointed by that society to read lectures 
 in the belles-lettres and rhetoric, both at Tours and at Paris. A heavy 
 infirmity soon disqualified him for the task, and he was compelled by 
 the recurrence of grievous headaches to embrace an occupation appa- 
 rently just as ill-adapted as that which he quitted to relieve his peculiar 
 complaint. He entered upon the tuition of the sons of Henry, due de 
 Longueville. That nobleman, who regarded him with singular affec- 
 
^7 
 
 BOUILLAUD. 
 
 859 
 
 tion, died in his arms, and Bouhours published an account of bis illness 
 and last moments (Paris, 1663;. His second publication was ' Histoire 
 de Pierre d'Aubusson, Grand Maltre de Rhodes,' 8vo, 1667, which has 
 been translated into English. He was then engaged on a commission 
 to the Koinan Catholic refugees from England to Dunkirk ; and was 
 introduced to the substantial patronage of Colbert by two critical 
 works — ' Remarques et doutes sur la Langue Francaise,' and ' Les 
 Eutretiens d'Ariste et d'Eugene,' 1671. In the latter occurs a question 
 most offensive to German national pride — " Whether it be possible for 
 a German to be a wit ! " These works awakened a host of critics. 
 Baillet affirmed that few exceeded Bouhours in knowledge of French 
 " stiles et des locutions ; " and the ' Jugemens des Savans ' contain 
 more than one very favourable opinion from the censors of Trevoux. 
 Mebage, on the contrary, stated that Bouhours wrote with politeness, 
 but without either judgment or learning ; that he was unacquainted 
 with Greek and Hebrew, scholastic divinity, and canon law ; that he 
 had not read the fathers, the councils, or ecclesiastical history ; that 
 he was but a poor grammarian in his native tongue, and the most 
 iguorant person in the world as to the general principles of grammar ; 
 that his ' Doutes' contained more faults in language, learning, and 
 judgment than they filled pages ; that he had never read the Bible ; 
 that he was unversed in Italian, concerning which he made great 
 parade ; was an unskilful etymologist, and an unsound logician. Not- 
 withstanding this most cutting and ferocious declamation, it is said 
 that Bouhours cultivated and enjoyed the friendship of Menage; and 
 Colbert certainly assigned to him the education of his son, the Marquis 
 de Seignelai. The other chief works of Bouhours were ' Dialogues 
 Bur la maniere de bien penser dans les Ouvrages d'Esprit,' 1687. 
 Voiture is the hero of the piece, and Rapin is extolled as fully equal 
 to Virgil. This false criticism received a very severe handling from 
 Barbier d'Aucour. In 1683 Bouhours published a 'Life of Ignatius,' 
 and not long afterwards one of ' Francis Xavier.' The latter is chiefly 
 remarkable as having been selected for translation by Dryden soon 
 after his profession of the Romish faith. Bouhours published in 1697 
 a French translation of the Vulgate New Testament, which was by 
 common consent admitted to be a failure. Some minor devotional 
 pieces may be added to the list of his writings. He died in the college 
 at Clermont at Paris, May 27, 1702, in the seventy -fourth year of 
 his age. 
 
 BOUILLAUD, or BOULLIAU, latinised BULLIALDUS (ISMAEL), 
 born at Loudun, September 28th, 1605, died November 25, 1694, at 
 Paris. He was originally a Protestant, but became a Roman Catholic, 
 and retired into the Abbey of St. Victor, at Paris. He travelled in 
 various parts of Europe in the service of John Casimir, king of Poland. 
 Nothing more of his life is remembered ; but such of his works 
 (which were many, see Lalande 'Bibliogr. Astron.') as by themselves or 
 their consequences entitle him to a place here, are in the following list. 
 Bouillaud was a combination of a fanciful speculator and hard-work- 
 ing calculator, a good scholar, and well versed in the history of 
 astronomy. His notion that light is a sort of substance intermediate 
 between mind and matter entitles him to the first appellation, and 
 his Philolaic Astronomy to the rest. 
 
 The earlier followers of Copernicus were accustomed to rank them- 
 selves, and to be considered by others, as followers of some one or 
 other among the ancients who advocated, or were supposed to have 
 advocated, the motion of the earth; either Pythagoras, Aristarchus, 
 or Philolaus. The first work we shall notice of Bouillaud is his 
 ' Philolaus, seu de vero Systemate Mundi,' 1 639. After this he gave 
 an edition of Theon of Smyrna, 1644, and in the following year his 
 'Astronomia Philolaica' (in his own catalogue of De Thou's library he 
 calls it ' Astrologia '), which contains : 1, 'Prolegomena' on the history 
 of astronomy, which are often cited, and are the basis of several facts. 
 •2, An exposition of a system of astronomy, which is Copernican as to 
 the annual motion of the earth and Ptolemaic as to the diurnal motion, 
 and the precession of the equinoxes. It is throughout an attack 
 upon the laws of Kepler, of which he only admits that which asserts 
 the planets to move in ellipses. Each ellipse he treats as the section 
 of an oblique cone, one of the foci of which is in the axis (the sun 
 being in the other focu«), and he asserts that the planets describe 
 equal angles in equal times round the axis, or rather that a plane 
 passing through the planet and the axis describes equal angles in equal 
 tirneB. The celebrated hypothesis of Dr. Seth Ward cousibts in 
 supposing the planet to describe equal angles in equal times about 
 the focus in which the sun is not. Both hypotheses are very nearly 
 true for ellipses of small excentricity, and of the two, that of Bouil- 
 laud is said to come a little nearer. Seth Ward replied to Bouillaud 
 in big 'Idea Trigonometriae Demonstratse,' &c. Oxford, 1654, and 
 Bouillaud rejoined in a tract entitled ' Astr. Phil, fundamenta clarius 
 explicata,' Paris, 1657. 3, A set of tables, styled ' Philolaicae,' calcu- 
 lated for the meridian of Uraniburg (Tycho Brahe's Observatory). 
 Bouillaud here makes use of various Arab observations detected by 
 hiinself in the ' Bibliotheque Royale.' It must also be noticed that 
 he was the first who disinterred the observations of Thiua. These 
 tables have received great praise, and are not without their merits : 
 but most of their value consists in what is taken from Kepler's 
 methods, or from the Rudolphine Tables. 
 
 Bouillaud imagined that the laws of the planetary motions could 
 be entirely deduced from geometrical reasoning. He blames Kepler 
 
 for attending to any other method of determining a law. But still he 
 had the good fortune to make a guess, which, had he been Newton, 
 would not have lain idle in his hands. He asserts, in opposition to 
 Kepler, that the law of the attracting force of the sun, if such a 
 thing be, cannot be inversely as the distances, but inversely as the 
 square of the distances. He is thus the first who started this notion. 
 He has certaiuly the advantage of Kepler in another point, when he 
 asks why the sun only attracts the planets, and why the planets only 
 resist motion, and do not produce it. 
 
 We may also mention of Bouillaud his ' Opus novum ad Arithmeti- 
 cam infiuitorum, Paris,' 1682, which is a continuation of the researches 
 contained in the ' Arith. infin.' of Wallis, but not applied to geometry ; 
 and also his ' Catalogus Bibliothecse Thuanse,' made by him in conjunc- 
 tion with James and Peter Dupuis (Puteanus), Paris, 1679. 
 
 BOUILLON, GODFREY ( GODEFROY ), DUKE OF, in the 
 Ardennes, was the eldest son of Gustavus II., count of Boulogne, a 
 descendant by the female line from Charlemagne, and of Ida, sister of 
 Godfrey le Bossu, duke of Brabant, or Basse- Lorraine. The date of 
 his birth is not given, but the marriage of his parents took place in 
 December, 1059. In his youth, Godfrey bore the great staudard of 
 the empire in the service of Henri IV. At the battle of Merseberg, 
 October 2, 1081, his sword sheared off the right hand of the Pretender 
 Rodolph, who died on the following day in consequence of his wound; 
 and Godfrey, whose distinguished bravery had been rewarded by the 
 ducal title, was among the first who scaled the walls of Rome in the 
 subsequent attack upon it. It is believed that remorse for the violation 
 of the holy city of the west occasioned his vow of joining in the crusade 
 which was to rescue the still more holy oriental metropolis. His 
 celebrity in arms, his noble descent, and his general high reputation 
 for both morals and valour, readily procured him the chief command 
 of the projected expedition ; and 80,000 foot and 10,000 horsemen 
 were placed under his immediate orders by the confederates. His 
 gathering was formed on the banks of the Meuse and of the Moselle, 
 and thence he advanced through Germany, Bohemia, and Hungary. 
 By discretion, and by fearlessly trusting himself to the good faith of 
 Carloman, king of Hungary, he removed the suspicions which had 
 been justly excited in that prince and his subjects by the licentiousness 
 of former pilgrims ; and after a short delay, he was greatly assisted in 
 his march upon the Saracens by an escort of Hungarian cavalry. In 
 union with the other divisions of the Latin army under the towers of 
 Constantinople, he was employed in dispelling the not unreasonable 
 jealousy displayed by the Emperor Alexius ; and afterwards, by the 
 capture of Niceea and by retrieving the battle of Dorylaeum, he opened 
 the passage through Asia Minor. Antioch next fell before his arms, 
 but not until it had detained him many months and had occasioned 
 fearful loss. Among the prodigies of valour (and the phrase, however 
 common-place, may heie be received in its literal sense) which the 
 original historians of the crusades delight to record of their heroes, is 
 an instance that Godfrey, on one occasion, during this siege, by a 
 single stroke of his sword, split a Saracen from the left shoulder to 
 the right haunch, and that the entire head and a moiety of the trunk 
 of the Infidel fell upon the spot into the river Orontes, while the sitting 
 half entered the town on horseback. In May, 1099, the crusaders 
 advanced from Antioch and Laodicea to Jerusalem; but of their own 
 mighty host scarcely 40,000 men remained alive, of whom one-half 
 was unfit for combat. Godfrey, while pursuing the hazardous diver- 
 sion of the chace during his march through Pisidia, had been torn by 
 a wild boar ; and so greatly was he injured in this rough encounter, 
 that a litter became neceseary for his conveyance over Mount Taurus. 
 On arriving at Jerusalem he encamped his division on Mount Calvary, 
 and after five weeks of severe struggle and acute suffering, the Holy 
 City was carried by storm on July 15th, 460 years after its conquest 
 by Omar. Three days of unsparing butchery succeeded this brilliant 
 triumph, during which the exertions of Godfrey were wholly inadequate 
 to restrain the lawless passions of the soldiery flushed with victory. 
 The unanimous voice of the Christian army, after much intrigue, 
 proclaimed him first Latin King of Jerusalem; but his piety and 
 modest forbearance rejected the title; and even when in the end he 
 consented to assume the inferior style of 'Defender and Baron of the 
 Holy Sepulchre,' he persisted in refusing to wear any diadem in that 
 city in which his Redeemer had been crowned with thorns. He 
 secured himself in the government to which he had been thus honour- 
 ably elevated, by totally overthrowing the myriads brought against 
 him by the sultan of Egypt, at Ascalon, August 12, 1099. With the 
 assistance and advice of those pilgrims who were best skilled in 
 European jurisprudence, Godfrey compiled and promulgated a code 
 named 'Les Assises de Jerusalem;' which, as finally revised towards 
 the close of the 14th century for the use of the Latin kingdom of 
 Cyprus, is printed in old law French in Beaumanoir's ' Coutumes de 
 Beauvaisais,' Bourges and Paris, 1690. Godfrey died in 1100. His 
 virtues and talents are now chiefly remembered by the glowing eulogy 
 of Tasso ; but they are fully avouched by the concurrent testimony of 
 historians frequently differing on other points. 
 
 BOULAIN VILLIERS, HENRI DE, Count of St. Saire, in Nor 
 mandy, was of an ancient and noble family, of Picard extraction. He 
 was the eldest son of Francois, count of St. Saire, and of Susanue de 
 Manneville ; and was born at the place from which he derived hia 
 hereditary title, October 21st, 1658. He studied at St. Julien, where 
 
B58 
 
 BOULTON, MATTHEW. 
 
 BOURBON. 
 
 8fl0 
 
 he particularly addicted himself to the somewhat dry pursuit of 
 genealogical history. After a short period of military service, embar- 
 rassed family circumstances, arising chiefly from an imprudi-nt second 
 marriage which his lather contracted late in life, induced him to quit 
 the army, and to live upon his estates in retirement. His time was 
 devoted to literature; but none of his writings were published from his 
 own manuscripts till after his death, which took place on January 23rd, 
 1722. His works on different portions of the feudal history of his own 
 country occupy three volumes folio, and are characterised by the 
 President Hdnault as being so rigidly framed on a false system, as to 
 permit their author to appear " ni bon critique, ni bon publiciste." 
 Montesquieu and Voltaire however give a more favourable judgment — 
 perhaps from partiality for his sceptical principles. A marked anti- 
 pathy to revelation pervades his writings, and exhibits itself in singular 
 contrast with a superstitious reverence for judicial astrology, and the 
 mystic sciences, which he cultivated with much diligence. A ' Life of 
 Mohammed ' exteuds only to the Hegira, and represents him aa a 
 blameless hero. Languet du Fresnoy committed to the press the 
 manuscript of the treatise which is called ' Refutation des Erreurs de 
 Benoit de Spinosa, par M. de Fdndlon, Archeveque de Cambray, par 
 le Pere Louis Behddictin, et par M. le Oomte de Boulainvilliera; avec 
 la Vie de Spinosa, Ccrite par Jean Colerus, ministre de l'Eglise 
 Lutherienne a la Haye, augmented de beaucoup de Particularity 
 tires d'une Vie manuscrite de ce philosopbe faite par uu de ses amis' 
 (Lucas, a physician), Brussels, 1731, 8vo. The tract, instead of being, 
 as its title imports, a refutation of Spinosa, is an arrangement and a 
 defence of his materialism. In the well-known letters on the Parlia- 
 ments of Fiance, which were translated into English, the author 
 shows clearly that ho was fully aware of the defects of the political 
 system of France, as exhibited in the want of an eflicieut national 
 legislate re. 
 
 BOULTON, MATTHEW, was born September 3rd, 1728, at Bir- 
 mingham, where his father carried on the business of a hardwareman. 
 He received an ordinary education at a school at Deritend ; and also 
 acquired a knowledge of drawing and mathematics. At the age of 
 seventeen he effected some improvements in shoe-buckles, buttons, and 
 several other articles of Birmingham manufacture. The death of his 
 father left him in possession of considerable property ; and in order 
 to extend his commercial operations, he purchased, about 1762, a 
 lease of Soho, near Handsworth, about two miles from Birmincham, 
 but in the county of Stafford. It would scarcely be possible to select 
 a more striking instance of the beneficial changes effected by the com- 
 bined operations of industry, ingenuity, and commerce, than that 
 which was presented by Soho after it had been some time in Mr. 
 Boulton's possession. It had previously been a bleak and barren htath, 
 but was soon diversified by pleasure grounds, in the midst of which 
 stood Mr. Boulton's spacious mansion, and a range of extensive 
 and commodious workshops capable of receiving above a thousand 
 artisans. 
 
 To Mr. Boulton's active mind this country is eminently indebted 
 for the manner in which he extended its resources, and brought into 
 repute its manufacturing ingenuity. Water was an inadequate moving 
 power in seconding his designs, and he had recourse to steam. The 
 old engine on Savary's plan was not adapted for some purposes in 
 which it was requisite that great power should be combined with 
 delicacy and precision of action. In 1769 Mr. Boulton having entered 
 into communication with Watt, who had obtained a pateut for improve- 
 ments in the steam-engine, Watt was induced to settle at Soho. In 
 1775 parliament granted him a further extension of his patent for 
 improvements in the steam-endue ; aud on Lis entering into partner- 
 ship with Mr. Boulton, the Soho works soon became famous for their 
 excellent engines. Not only was the steam-engine itself brought to 
 greater perfection, but its powers were applied to a variety of new 
 purposes. In none of these perhaps was the success so remarkable as 
 in the machinery for coining, which was put in motion by steam. The 
 coining apparatus was first put into operation in 1783, but it soon 
 underwent important improvements, until it was at length brought to 
 an astonishing degree of perfection. One engine put in motion eight 
 machines, each of which stamped on both sides and milled at the 
 edges from seventy to eighty-four pieces in a minute ; aud the eight 
 machines together completed in a style far superior to anything which 
 had previously been accomplished, from 30,000 to 40,000 coins in an 
 hour. The manufacture of plated-wares, of works in bronze, and or- 
 molu, such as vases, candelabra, and other ornamental articles, was 
 successively introduced at Soho, and the taste and excellence which 
 these productions displayed soon obtained for them an unrivalled 
 reputation in every part of the world. Artists and men of taste were 
 warmly encouraged, and their talents called forth by Mr. Boulton's 
 liberal spirit. The united labours of the two partners contributed to 
 give that impulse to British industry which has never siuce ceased. 
 
 Mr. Boulton has been described by Playfair as possessing a most 
 generous and ardent mind, to which was added an enterprising spirit 
 that led him to grapple with great and difficult undertakings. " He 
 was a man of address" (continues the same writer), "delighting in 
 society, active, and mixing with people of all ranks with great 
 freedom and without ceremony." Watt, who survived Mr. Boulton, 
 spoke of his deceased partner in the highest terms. He said, "To 
 his friendly encouragement, to his partiality for scientific improve- 
 
 ments, and to his ready application of them to the purposes of art, 
 to his intimate knowledge of business and manufactures, and to his 
 extended views and liberal spirit, may in a great measure be ascribed 
 whatever success may have attended my exertions." Mr. Boulton 
 expended about 47,000^ in the course of experiments on the steam- 
 engine, before Watt perfected the construction and occasioned any 
 return of profit. 
 
 Mr. Boulton died August 17th, 1809, in his eighty-first year. His 
 remains were attended to the grave by several thousand individuals, 
 to whom medals were giveu, recording the age of the deceased and the 
 day of his death. The body was borne to the grave by the oldest 
 workmen connected with the works at Soho, and about five hundred 
 persons belonging to that establishment joined in the procession. 
 
 BOURBON, the name of a family that succeeded the line of Valois 
 in 1589, and reigned in France from 1589 to 1848, with an intermission 
 during the republic and the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte. The 
 families, both of Valois and Bourbon, were branches of the stock 
 of Capet. The Bourbons had branched off earlier than the Valois; 
 the former b> ing descended from a son of St. Louis, the latter from a 
 brother of Philip the Fair. The genealogy of the Bourbons, here 
 given, is chiefly taken from the elaborate work of M. Desorrneaux, 
 historiographer of the house of Bourbon, &c. &c. This work is 
 " de l'iujprimerie royale," and may be considered as an official docu- 
 ment, aud the best authority on the points within its province. The 
 following have also been consulted : — ' Histoire des Bourbons,' 4 vols. 
 12mo, Paris, 1793; ' Memoires et Recueil de l'Origine, Alliances, et 
 Succession de la Famille Royale de Bourbon, Brauche de la Maison de 
 France, a la Rochelle,' 1597 ; Coxe's ' Memoirs of the Kings of Spain 
 of the House of Bourbon.' The ancestor of the Bourbon branch of 
 the royal family of France was Robert, the eixth and youngest sou of 
 Louis IX., commonly called St. Louis, a title which few of the so- 
 called saints, have better earned, if the virtues of justice, temperance, 
 and rigid probity confer a claim to that title. 
 
 St. Louis. 
 
 Robert, Count de Clermont. 
 I 
 
 Louis I., Due de Bourbon. 
 
 Jacques de Bourbon, Count de la 
 Marche. 
 I 
 
 John, Count de la Marche, married 
 Catherine de Vendome. 
 I 
 
 Jacques II., Count de la Marche. 
 
 Peter I., Due de Bourbon, became ex- 
 tinct in the Constable, or rather in 
 his wife. 
 
 I 
 
 Louis de Bourbon, Count de Vendome, 
 ancestor of the Counts and Dukes of 
 Venddme, and of the royal famiiy of 
 France of the name of Bourbon. 
 
 Antoine de Bourbon, Due de Vendfime, 
 by marrying Jeanne d'Albret, became 
 King of Navarre. 
 
 I 
 
 Louis, first Prince de Conde, from 
 whom are descended the branches 
 of Conde and Conti. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 Henry IV. 
 I 
 
 Louis XIII. 
 
 Philip, Duke of Orleans. 
 I 
 
 Regent Orleans. 
 
 Louis I., Dul;e of Orleans. 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 I 
 
 Dauphin (Monseigneur), son of Louis XIV. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Duke of Anjou, who by 
 the will of Charles II. 
 of Spain succeeded to 
 the throne of Spain, 
 and from whom are 
 descended the royal 
 houses of Spain and 
 Maples. 
 
 Louis Philippe, ditto. 
 
 Dauphin, Duke 
 of Burgundy. 
 I 
 
 Louis XV. 
 I 
 
 Louis Dauphin, son 
 of Louis XV., and 
 father of Louis XVI. 
 I 
 
 Louis XVI. 
 
 Louis Philippe Auguste Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI. 
 Egalite. | 
 
 | Louis XVIII., brother of do. 
 Louis Philippe, sometime King 
 
 of the French. Charles X., do. do. 
 
 Robert was born in 1256. In 1270 his father set out on his African 
 expedition, where he perished before Tunis. Philip the Hardy, suc- 
 cessor of St. Louis, gave Robert in marriage to Beatrice of Burgundy, 
 a princess of the blood, only daughter and heiress of John of Burgundy, 
 
861 
 
 BOURBON, CHARLES DE. 
 
 BOURBON, CHARLES DE. 
 
 6G2 
 
 baron of Charolois, aud of Agnes, dame de Bourbon and de St. J ust, 
 daughter of Archambault, sire de Bourbon. By this marriage Robert 
 united to his appanage of the Comte' de Clermont, the province of the 
 Bourbonnois, and the Charolois, and the seigneury of St. Just. His 
 descendants took the name of Bourbon. 
 
 In the time of Robert's son, Louis, the Bourbonnois was created 
 iuto a ' duche 1 pairie.' The owner therefore assumed the title of Duke 
 of Bourbon, retaining the arms of France. Duch6 pairie at that time 
 denoted very hi^h power aud dignity. At the time of this creation 
 there were in France only the dukes of Burgundy, Aquitaine, and 
 Brittany, and the title of ' pair ' was only bestowed on the children of 
 the king, the princes of the blood, and seigneurs of the most noble 
 fiefs. A younger son of this Louis, duke of Bourbon, named Jacques 
 de Bourbon, bore the titles of Count de la Marche and de Ponthieu. 
 The domain of Vendome having come, as that of Bourbon had done 
 before to Robert, to the second count of la Marche by marriage, his 
 second son assumed the name of Bourbon Vendome, and from him 
 descended the royal house of France ; the elder branch became extinct 
 on the death of the famous Constable de Bourbon. The preceding 
 table will convey at once a more distinct idea of the course of descent, 
 and will give a synoptical and at the same time clear view of the 
 branches of the Bourbon stock, which have more immediately given 
 kings to France. It has not been judged necessary to give all the 
 counts and dukes of Vendome. A hiatus has therefore been left 
 between Louis de Bourbon, the first count de Vendome, and Antoine 
 de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, and king of Navarre, the father of 
 Henry IV. of France ; nor have we deemed it necessary to add the 
 desc-ndants of the last Bourbons who sat on the French throne. 
 
 BOURBON, CHARLES DE, Constable of France, commonly called 
 the Constable de Bourbon, or the Constable Bourbon, was born on the 
 17th of February 1489. He was of the Montpensier branch of the 
 Bourbon family, being the second son of Gilbert de Bourbon, count de 
 Montpensier, viceroy of the kingdom of Naples. By the death of 
 his brother at the age of eighteen, he became the eldest son of his 
 branch, on which the principal territories of the Bourbons were 
 entailed. He was educated at Moulins, the palace of the eldest branch 
 of his family, the dukes of Bourbon, situated in the centre of their 
 large possessions. He was carefully trained in all the athletic exer- 
 cises, which were regarded as by far the most important part of the 
 education of the nobility of his time. But while his physical educa- 
 tion was thus attended to, he did not altogether neglect his mental : 
 and the manner in which he received the lessons which were given 
 him in the science of war, as far as it could then be called a science, 
 gave indication of no inconsiderable capacity ; while his general 
 behaviour indicated more thought than could be expected from his 
 years. 
 
 The last duke of Bourbon, Pierre II., died leaving a daughter, 
 Suzanne de Bourbon, who had been betrothed to the Due d'Alencon. 
 It being considered impolitic to allow so many domains to accu- 
 mulate in the person of the Due dAlencon, aud there being also a 
 doubt respecting Suzanne de Bourbon's title, Louis XII. appointed a 
 commission, composed of princes, ministers, seigneurs, councillors of 
 state, and lawyers, to examine the respective titles of Suzanne de 
 Bourbon and the Count de Montpensier. The commissioners reported 
 that the right of Montpensier appeared incontestable, but they pro- 
 posed to settle the dispute by marrying the two claimants. Louis XII. 
 approved of the recommendation, and the marriage took place 
 accordingly. 
 
 In the marriage articles it was stipulated — 1st, that there should 
 be a cession of all their property in favour of the survivor ; 2nd, that 
 the children who should be born of the marriage should inherit all 
 the domains of the house of Bourbon ; 3rd, that, on failure of 
 children, the whole succession should devolve on Francis, Monsieur 
 de Bourbon, only brother of Montpensier ; 4th, Montpensier assigned 
 a jointure of 10,000 livres a year to his wife on the Bourbonnois. 
 The king renounced for himself and his successors the pretended 
 rights which the treaty of marriage of the Duke Pierre II. with Anne 
 of France, daughter of Louis XI., gave to the crown over all the 
 property of the House of Bourbon, if he should die without male 
 children. 
 
 Having become the richest of all the princes of his house who have 
 not worn the crown, the magnificence of the new Due de Bourbon 
 corresponded with-his wealth. He never travelled without a brilliant 
 body of horse-guards, and without being surrounded by the chief 
 noblesse of his domains and his principal officers, who composed a 
 court little inferior to that of a powerful monarch. The first essay 
 in arms of the duke was in the expedition which Louis XII. made in 
 person into Italy. In this expedition Bourbon devoted himself with 
 much industry and zeal to the study of strategics. He selected for 
 his friends and masters La Tremoille, Bayard, and others, who were 
 distinguished as military leaders. He conversed with them on plans 
 of campaigns, marches, encampments, on the details of discipline and 
 subsistence. From the generals he went to subordinate officers who 
 had acquired reputation. At nii;ht, when he retired to his tent or 
 his cabinet, he reduced to writing his observations and the result of 
 his conferences. Bourbon returned to France in 1509. In the war 
 of the league of Cambray he had an opportunity of displaying his 
 talenU for war. 
 
 Upon the death of Gaston de Foix in 1512, the army of Italy 
 demanded with acclamations Bourbon for their leader. But Louis XII. 
 did not comply with its wishes. It is reported that he appeared to 
 be somewhat afraid of Bourbon ; that he was heard to say that he 
 should have wished to see in him more openness, more gaiety, aud 
 less taciturnity. " Nothing is worse," added he, " thau the water 
 which sleeps." Upon the accession of Francis I. to the crown, Bourbon 
 was immediately (1515) appointed constable. It will afford some 
 notion both of the character of the times and the magnificence of 
 the Due de Bourbou, to mention that at the king's coronation, when 
 Bourbon represented the Duke of Normandy, his suite consisted of 
 200 noblemen. 
 
 The constable devoted himself assiduously to the duties of his new 
 office, the highest in a military government like that which France 
 then was. He introduced many important regulations respectiug the 
 discipline of the troops. He particularly directed his attention to the 
 protection of the citizens and peasants against the insolence and 
 oppression of the soldiery. His regulations under this head exhibit 
 considerable administrative talent : and his unbending austerity in 
 enforcing the rules he had laid down showed that he fully understood 
 how much a severe discipline conduces to victory. The salutary 
 effects of this system were shown very soon in the victory of Marig- 
 uano, which was mainly owing to Bourbon's skill and valour. When 
 Francis I. returned to France in 1516, he left the constable in Lom- 
 bardy as his lieutenant-general. While here he proposed to the court 
 the conquest of the kingdom of Naples. But while he was making 
 preparations for this expedition, an unexpected invasion of the Milanese 
 by the Emperor Maximilian of Austria took place. Against this 
 irruption Bourbon speedily made every possible provision, pledging 
 his own credit for the necessary funds ; but the proceedings of both 
 parties were brought to a sudden termination by the mutinous conduct 
 of the Swiss mercenaries who formed the bulk of each army. Bourbon 
 was compelled to disband his Swiss followers, and the formidable 
 army of Maximilian was entirely dispersed. 
 
 When Bourbon appeared after these events at the French court, 
 which was then at Lyon, he was received by Francis with great dis- 
 tinction. But gradually the king was observed to cool. Historians 
 have usually ascribed this alteration of the kiug's behaviour towards 
 Bourbon to the influence of his mother, Louisa of Savoy, duchesse 
 d'Augouleme. The princess, who at forty retained striking remains of 
 beauty, and who was not a woman of very nice morality, is said to 
 have entertained a violent passion for Bourbon ; and Bourbon is said 
 to have treated her advances with coldness and even disdain. The 
 king espoused the quarrel of his mother, of the cause of which, if 
 correctly stated, charity would suppose him ignorant. The conse- 
 quence was one of the most signal examples of ingratitude and injustice 
 upon record. 
 
 They began by refusing the payment of the sums which he had bor- 
 rowed in order to save the Milanese, as well as those accruing from his 
 appointments as prince of the blood, constable and chamberlain of 
 France, and governor of Languedoc. This however was light compared 
 to what followed ; and was the less to be considered as a wanton insult 
 from the circumstance that Francis, partly by his own profligate 
 expenditure, partly by the cupidity of his mother, was always in 
 want of money, notwithstanding the resources opened to him by the 
 chancellor Du Prat, in the sale of the offices of the magistracy. A 
 breach between Francis and Bourbon was more easily effected from 
 the contrast between their characters, which was great. Francis was 
 gay, open, gallant, superficial, fond of pleasure, and averse from 
 business ; Bourbon was grave, reserved, thoughtful, profound, and 
 laborious. 
 
 In April 1521 the constable's wife, Suzanne de Bourbon, diod. He 
 had previously lost the three children he had by her. The breach 
 between the court and the constable daily widened. In a northern 
 campaign against Charles V., Francis gave the command of the van- 
 guard, which, by a practice established in the French armies, belonged 
 to the constable, to the Due d'Alencon. From that moment Bourbon 
 regarded himself as degraded from his dignity. He was frequently 
 heard to quote that answer of a courtier to Charles VII., who asked 
 if anything was capable of shaking his fidelity : — " No, Sire, no, not 
 the offer of three kingdoms such as yours; but an affront is." Fresh 
 injuries and insults were heaped upon Bourbon. The chancellor Du 
 Prat, by examining the titles of the house of Bourbon, thought he 
 saw, that by perverting the use of some words, he might be able to 
 deprive the constable of his estates, and convey them to the Duchesse 
 d'Augouleme, or to the king. He explained to the duchess that she 
 had a right to the greatest part of the property of the house of Bour- 
 bon, as the nearest relative of Suzanne de Bourbon, and that the rest 
 reverted to the crown. Madame admired the ability and zeal of the 
 chancellor, and entered fully into his views. She is said to have flat- 
 tered herself that Bourbon would choose rather to secure his rights 
 by marrying her, than be reduced to misery. But the haughty and 
 austere Bourbou, when his friends pressed him to marry the princess, 
 placing in the most favourable light her power, wit, and riches, said 
 that he was so sure of his right that he was ready to try it before any 
 or all of the courts ; he declared moreover that honour was far dearer 
 to him than property, and that he would never incur the reproach of 
 having degraded himself by marrying a profligate woman. The result 
 
663 
 
 BOURCHIER, JOHN. 
 
 BOURDON, SEBASTIAN. 
 
 881 
 
 of such a trial, under such a government as that of France at that 
 time, may be easily foreseen. The parliament decreed that all the 
 property in litigation Bhould be sequestrated : which was to reduce 
 Bourbon to beggary. 
 
 It will be unnecessary in a work like this to follow Bourbon step by 
 step in the disastrous route that conducted him from being the first 
 subject in France to be an exile and an outlaw. We have traced his 
 career hitherto with some minuteness, as tending to throw light on 
 the nature of the European governments in the 16th century. If such 
 a thing had happened in France, two or perhaps even one century 
 earlier, to a man so powerful as Bourbon at once by station and 
 by talent and energy, the probable result would have been very dif- 
 ferent. The struggle would most likely have terminated in Charles of 
 Bourbon filling the throne of France in the room of Francis of Valois. 
 As it was, another fate was reserved for Bourbon. Francis having 
 obtained intelligence that Bourbon had entered into a secret corre- 
 spondence with the Emperor Charles V., Bourbon was obliged to make 
 his escape from France, which he did with some difficulty. Some 
 proposals which were afterwards made to him by Francis were rejected 
 by Bourbon, who had good reason to distrust his sincerity. Bourbon 
 was now thrown upon Charles V., who, though not a little disap- 
 pointed at receiving a banished man instead of a powerful ally, as he 
 had first expected, appointed him his lieutenant-general in Italy. He 
 surrounded him however with colleagues and spies. 
 
 In 1525 the result of the famous battle of Pavia, where Bourbon 
 commanded a body of about 19,000 Germans, whom he had raised 
 professedly for the emperor's service, chiefly by means of his high 
 military reputation, afforded him ample vengeance for his wrongs, in 
 the destruction of the Freuch army, and particularly in the capture of 
 Francis and the death of Bonnivet, his chief personal enemy. 
 
 But Bourbon, although to his military talents and pkill the victory 
 at Pavia had been mainly owing, found that he was still regarded with 
 distrust by Charles, and with jealousy by bis generals. The slights 
 and mortifications, too, to which his fighting against his king and his 
 native country subjected him, rendered his position anything but an 
 agreeable or easy one ; and contributed, with the roving and unsettled 
 life he had led since his exile, to produce in him something of the 
 recklessness, and even ferocity of the biigands he commanded, and to 
 give to his natural ambition much of the genuine and legitimate cha- 
 racter of large and wholesale robbery. It was in the complex state of 
 mind, made up of some such elements as these, that he came to the 
 resolution of actiDg independently of the emperor, and commencing 
 business as king on his own account. Fortune seemed to throw in 
 his way one means of accomplishing this object, in attaching to him- 
 self, by the allurement of an immense booty, the army which the 
 emperor did not pay. He formed the daring resolution of leading that 
 army to Rome, and giving up to it the riches of that famous city ; and 
 he immediately proceeded to put it in execution. This expedition has 
 been conoid* red one of the boldest recorded in history. Bourbon was 
 obliged to abandon his communication with the Milanese, to march 
 for more than a hundred leagues through an enemy's country, to cross 
 rivers, to pass the Apennines, and to keep in check three armies. Add 
 to this, what rendered the enterprise important as distinguishing it 
 from others of a similar nature undertaken by large robbers, the 
 moral danger and difficulty of attacking the very centre of the power 
 of Catholicism, as it were, laying bare the mjsteries of its sanctuary, 
 and, to a certain extent, destroying the powerful spell by which it had 
 so long bound up the faculties of mankind. 
 
 On the evening of the 5th of May 1527 Bourbon arrived before 
 Rome. On the following morning, at day-break, he commenced the 
 assault, being himsdf the first who mounted the walls, and also, 
 according to the French historian, the first who fell, by a shot fired, 
 it is said, by a priest. Benvenuto Cellini says that it was he who shot 
 Bourbon ; and Guicciardini does not clear up the point. It is how- 
 ever of small consequence, two facts being certain, that he fell in 
 the beginning of the assault, and that his army took the city, in 
 which they committed all, and more than all, the usual excesses of 
 a sack. 
 
 Charles V. made it one of the conditions of peace with Francis that 
 the possessions of the constable should be restored to his family, and 
 his memory re-established. Francis eluded, as much as he was able, 
 the fulfilment of this condition. But the wreck of the constable's 
 fortune was sufficient to render his nephew, Louis de Bourbon, Prince 
 de la Koche-sur-Yon, and afterwards Due de Montpensier, one of the 
 richest princes of the blood, although it did not form, perhaps, a third 
 part of the revenues of the Due de Bourbon. 
 
 BOURCHIER, JOHN. [Bernebs, Lord.] 
 
 BOURCHIER, or BOURGCHIER, THOMAS, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury in the successive reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., Edward V., 
 Richard III., and Henry VII., was son of William Bourchier, earl of 
 Eu in Normandy, by Anne, daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, sixth 
 eon of Edward III. His brother was Henry, earl of Essex. Bourchier 
 received his education at Oxford, and was chancellor of that Univer- 
 sity from 1434 to 1437. His first dignity in the church was the 
 deanery of St. Martin in London, from which in 1434 he was advauced 
 by Pope Eugenius IV. to the see of Worcester. In 1436 he was 
 elected by the monks of Ely bishop of that see, but the king refusing 
 his consent the election was not complied with, and the see continued 
 
 vacant till 1443, when the king yielding his consent Bourchier was 
 translated thither. In April 1454 Bourchier was elected archbishop 
 of Canterbury ; and in December following received the red hat from 
 Rome, being created cardinal-priest of St. Cyriacus in Thermis. In 
 1456 he became lord chancellor of England, but resigned that office in 
 October of the following year. 
 
 Several acts of Cardinal Bourchier's life were memorable. He was 
 one of the chief persons by whose means the art of printing was intro- 
 duced into England. He was the person who, seduced by the specious 
 pretences of Richard, duke of Gloucester, persuaded the queen to 
 deliver up the Duke of York, her son ; and he performed the marriage 
 ceremony between Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York. 
 
 He died at his palace of Knowle, near Sevenoaks on the 30th of 
 March, 1486, and was buried at Canterbury, where his tomb still 
 remains on the north side of the choir near the high altar. The arch- 
 bishops of Canterbury and York, and the bishops of Durham, as the 
 reader will remember, had anciently the privilege of coining money. 
 A half-groat of Edward IV., struck at Canterbury during Bourchier's 
 primacy, has the family cognisance, the Bourchier knot, under the 
 king's head. This is unnoticed by any of the writers on English 
 coins. 
 
 BOURDALOUE, LOUIS, was born at Bourges, Aug. 20, 1632, and 
 professed among the Jesuits on Nov. 30, 1648. Having lectured 
 successively in grammar, rhetoric, humanity, and moral philosophy, 
 with considerable repute, he commenced as preacher in the Jesuit 
 church of St. Louis at Paris in the year 1669. It was not long before 
 Louis XIV. became a personal attendant upon his sermons, which were 
 heard with undiminished delight by overflowing congregations in the 
 seasons of Advent and Lent for four-and-twenty years. After the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, Bourdaloue was despatched, in 1686, 
 on an especial mission into Languedoc, in which province he produced 
 a deep impression, chiefly at Montpellier. His latter years were prin- 
 cipally devoted to attendance in the confessional, his advice and 
 religious guidance being widely sought after, in visiting hospitals and 
 prisons, and in the preaching of charity sermons ; and he continued 
 to be a frequent occupant of the pulpit till a very few days before his 
 death, which occurred on May 13, 1704. His sermons have often 
 been reprinted. The first complete edition was that by Bretonneau, 
 16 vols. 8vo. Paris 1707-34; the best edition is that of Mequignon, 
 1822-26 in 17 vols. 8vo, and 20 vols. 12mo. The sermons of Bourda- 
 loue abound more in sound reasoning and theologic.il learning than in 
 oratorical power, and they are better suited to the chastened taste of 
 Protestantism than the efforts of most other celebrated French 
 divines. It has been said with more justice than usually belongs to 
 antithesis, that Bossuet is sublime from elevation, Bourdaloue from 
 depth of thought. 
 
 BOURDON, SEBASTIAN, one of the most eminent painters that 
 France has produced, was born at Montpellier in 1616. His father, 
 a painter on glass, instructed him in the elements of his art. At the 
 age of seven a relation took him to Paris and placed him under an 
 artist of no great ability ; but the genius of the pupil supplied the 
 deficiencies of the master. While yet a boy, being in want of other 
 employment, he enlisted in the army. Luckily his commanding officer 
 possessed taste enough to discern the natural powers of the young 
 recruit, and he gave him his discharge. At eighteen he passed into 
 Italy, where he made acquaintance with Claude Lorraine. He 
 remained there but three years, being obliged to leave the country in 
 consequence of a quarrel with a painter, who threatened to denounce 
 him as a Calvinist. During his stay he occupied himself in studying, 
 copying, and imitating the works of Titian, Poussin, Claude, Andrea 
 Sacchi, Michel Angelo delle Battaglie, and Bamboccio. So retentive 
 was his memory, that he copied a picture of Claude's from recollection ; 
 a performance which astonished that great master as much as any who 
 saw it. 
 
 On his return to France, Bourdon received some instruction from 
 Du Guernier, a miniature painter in great repute, whose sister he 
 married; a connection which procured him an increase of employ- 
 ment. He succeeded in attaining in a short time a high professional 
 standing, and he was one of the artists concerned in founding the 
 Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, of which he became the 
 first rector. Compelled to quit France by the civil wars in 1652, he 
 went into Sweden, and Christina who then occupied the throne 
 appointed him her principal painter. In this capacity he executed 
 many pictures, and among them a portrait of his royal mistress on 
 horseback. ' While he was at work upon it the queen took occasion to 
 mention some pictures which her father had become possessed of, and 
 desired him to examine them. Bourdon returned a very favourable 
 report of the collection, particularly of some paintings by Correggio ; 
 and his generous patroness at once made him a present of them. The 
 painter, however, with no less generosity, declined the offer ; saying 
 that the pictures were among the finest in Europe and that she ought 
 not to part with them. The queen kept them accordingly, and taking 
 them to Rome with her after her abdication, they ultimately found 
 their way into the Orleans collection. 
 
 When Christina vac ited the throne Bourdon returned to France, 
 which had become somewhat quieter, and employment offered itself in 
 abundance. At this period he painted the 'Dead Christ' and the 
 'Woman taken in Adultery,' two of his most famous pictures. He 
 
BOURGEOIS, SIR FRANCIS. 
 
 died at Paris on Ma}- the Sth 1671. He had two daughters, miniature 
 painters, who survived him. 
 
 Bourdon had a most fertile genius, an ardent spirit, and great 
 facility, which enabled him to indulge too much in a careless mode of 
 study. He had no fixed style of painting, but followed his own caprice, 
 imitating many ; and he painted with equal facility in history, genre- 
 pieces, landscapes, battle-pieces, and comic subjects. His colour is 
 fresh, and his touch light and sharp; his expressions are lively, and his 
 invention ready ; but his drawing is hurried, and his extremities are 
 modelled with great carelessness. He did not finish highly, nor are 
 his most finished pictureB his best. His execution was so rapid that 
 he is said to have completed twelve heads after nature, and of the size 
 of life, in a siDgle day, and they were esteemed equal to some of his best 
 productions. This surprising facility enabled him to enrich his land- 
 scapes with some of the most singular and happy effects from nature. 
 When at Venice he had studied the works of Titian with great atten- 
 tion, and his admirers trace some of the beauties of the Venetian in 
 his landscapes ; they partake also of the style of Poussin, and have a 
 wildness and singularity peculiar to himself. In the National Gallery 
 is a landscape by him, ' The Return of the Ark,' No. 64. 
 
 BOURGEOIS, SI ti FRANCIS, was the descendant of a family of 
 respectability in Switzerland, where, it has been said, many of his 
 ancestors filled offices of considerable trust in the state. The father of 
 Sir Francis however resided for several years in England, it is believed, 
 under the patronage of Lord Heatlifield ; and Francis was born in 
 London in 1756. His early destination was the army, but having been 
 instructed while a child in the rudiments of painting by a foreigner of 
 inconsiderable merit as a painter of horses, he became so attached to 
 the study that he soon relinquished all thoughts of the military pro- 
 fession, and resolved to devote his attention solely to painting. For 
 this purpose he was placed under the tuition of Loutherbourg ; and 
 having from his connections and acquaintance access to many of the 
 most distinguished collections in the country, he soon acquired con- 
 siderable reputation by his landscapes and sea pieces. In 1776 he 
 travelled through Italy, France, and Holland, where his correct know- 
 ledge of the languages of each country, added to the politeness of his 
 address and the pleasantness of his conversation, procured him an intro- 
 duction to the best society, and the mo3t valuable repositories of art. 
 On his return to England Bourgeois exhibited several specimens of his 
 studies at the Royal Academy, which obtained, him reputation and 
 patronage. In 1791 he was appointed painter to the king of Poland, 
 whose brother, the prince primate, had been much pleased with his 
 performances during his residence in this country; and at the same 
 time he received the knighthood of the Order of Merit, which was 
 afterwards confirmed by the king of England, who in 1794 appointed 
 him hi* landscape painter. Previous to this he had, in 1793, been 
 ejected a member of the Royal Academy. He died January 8, 1811. 
 
 As a painter Sir Francis has no claim to remembrance. He is without 
 invention or imagination, and unskilled in composition ; his drawing 
 is tame and lifeless, his colouring leaden and monotonous, and his 
 touch heavy; and though there is an appearance of labour in the pro- 
 cess, the result is insipid and unfinished. He is one of the evidences 
 that a painter may obtain a certain amount of fashionable, and even 
 royal patronage though devoid of all professional merit. 
 
 But though worthless as a painter, as the bequeather of the Bour- 
 geois collection to the custody of Dulwich college for the use of the 
 public, he has considerable claim to our gratitude. The collection was 
 formed by Noel Desenfans, an eminent picture-dealer, who dying left 
 it to Sir Francis, with whom he had lived in close friendship. Sir 
 Francis, at his death, left it to the widow of his friend, with the 
 greater part of his property, for life ; bequeathing 200CW. to Dulwich 
 college, the foundation of Alleyn the actor [Alleyn], for the purpose 
 of building a gallery for the pictures, the reversion of which they were 
 to have, together with the rest of the property, charged with expenses 
 of preserving the pictures, and altering and enlarging the chapel. 
 Desenfans had been interred in a chapel attached to Bourgeois's house, 
 but Sir Francis desired in his will that their bodies might be 
 removed and deposited together in a mausoleum in the chapel of 
 Dulwich college, which was accordingly done. 
 
 The Dulwich gallery, as it is generally termed, comprises upwards 
 of 300 pictures, mostly of a cabinet size. The collection contains some 
 very beautiful specimens of Poussin, Cuyp, Rembrandt, Wouvermans, 
 Murillo, besides other masters, chiefly of the Dutch and Flemish 
 schools; there are also examples of the Italian masters in the collec- 
 tion, but the greater part of them are of little value, and many are of 
 loubtful authenticity. 
 
 BOURGOING, JEAN FRANCOIS, BARON DE, was descended 
 rom a noble house, not unknown in the history and literature of 
 France. One member of the family, Edtnond de Bourgoing, prior of 
 i monastery of Jacobins at the time of the 'Ligue,' eulogised the 
 •egicide Jacobin Jacques Clement, declaimed and fought against 
 lenri IV., and was sentenced by the parliament of Tours to be torn 
 o pieces by four horses. Noel, Jean, and two Francois de Bourgoing, 
 lave since successively published works, now forgotten, upon history, 
 ioance, jurisprudence, philology, and divinity. 
 
 Jean Francois Bourgoing, the subject of the present article, was bom 
 t Nevers, the capital of the department of Nicvres, November 20, 
 748. He was educated first at the Ecole Militaire, Paris, whence he 
 moo. div. vol. i ' 
 
 BOURMONT, COUNT DE. 86* 
 
 proceeded, at the age of 16, to the University of Strasbourg. On leaving 
 the university he was named officer of the regiment of Auvergne, and 
 soon after was employed as Secretary of Legation. In that capacity, 
 in the year 1777, he accompanied M. de Moutmorin, the French 
 Ambassador to the court of Spain, to Madrid, where he resided nine 
 years, for the last two as Charge' d' Affaires. During this period he 
 diligently collected information relative to the condition of Spain, 
 political, statistical, and social, which upon his return to France he 
 embodied in his ' Nouveau Voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de l'Etat 
 actuel de cette Monarchic,' published in 1789, and then esteemed the 
 best work extant upon Spain. In 1791 Bourgoing returned to Spain 
 as minister plenipotentiary, and remained there until 1793, when he 
 collected additional materials for his book, of which a second edition 
 thus enlarged appeared in 1797. Third and fourth editions, with 
 successive additions of new information, bringing down the picture of 
 Spain to later dates, appeared in 1803 and 1807, under the title of 
 ' Tableau de 1 Espagne Moderne.' It is upon this work, which has 
 been translated into the English, German, and Spanish languages at 
 least, that the Baron de Bourgoing's claims to notice rest. He lived 
 retired from the time of his quitting Spain until Bonaparte assumed 
 the government of France, when he was again employed in several 
 diplomatic missions. He died July 20, 1811, whilst serving as French 
 envoy to Saxony. His other works are 'Me"moires Historiques et 
 Philosophiques sur Pie VI. et son Pontificat;' 'Correspondance d'un 
 jeune Militaire, ou Memoires du Marquis de Lusigny et d'Hortense de 
 S. Just; ' some translations from the German, and some articles in the 
 ' Biographie Universelle.' 
 
 (Allgemeine Deutsche Real Encyclopadie ; Biographie Universelle; 
 Biographie Contemporaine.) 
 
 BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE, was a celebrated religious enthu- 
 siast, and founder of a sect which acquired considerable importance 
 under the name of the Bourignian Doctrine. 
 
 Antoinette Bourignon was the daughter of a merchant at Lille, where 
 she was born, January 13, 1616. She is said to have been so singularly 
 ugly that a family consultation was held upon the propriety of des- 
 troying the infant as a monster. This fate she escaped, but remained 
 an object of dislike to her mother, in consequence of which her child- 
 hood was passed in solitude and neglect, and the first books she got 
 hold of chancing to be ' Lives of the early Christians,' and mystical 
 tracts, her ardent imagination acquired the visionary turn that marked 
 her life. It has been asserted that her religious zeal displayed itself 
 so early that at four years of age she entreated to be removed to a 
 more Christian country than Lille, where the unevangelical lives of 
 the townspeople shocked her. 
 
 As Antoinette was a considerable heiress her ugliness did not pre- 
 vent her being sought in marriage ; and when she reached her twentieth 
 year one of her suitors was accepted by her parents. But the enthu- 
 siast had made a vow of virginity, and on the very day appointed for 
 celebrating her nuptials she fled in man's clothes. She now obtained 
 admittance into a convent, where she first began to make proselytes, 
 and gained over so many of the nuns that the confessor of the sister- 
 hood procured her expulsion not only from the convent but from the 
 town. Antoinette now wandered about France, the Netherlands, 
 Holland and Denmark, everywhere making converts, and supporting 
 herself by the labour of her hands until the year 1648, when Bhe 
 inherited her father's property. She was then appointed governess of 
 a hospital at Lille, but soon afterwards was expelled the town by the 
 police, on account of the disorders that her doctrines occasioned. She 
 then resumed her wanderings. About this time she was again perse- 
 cuted with suitors, two of whom were so violent, each severally 
 threatening to kill her if she would not marry him, that she was 
 obliged to apply to the police for protection, and two men were sent 
 to guard her house. She died in 1680, and left her property to the 
 Lille hospital of which she had been governess. 
 
 At Amsterdam she appears to have made a formal renunciation of 
 Roman Catholic doctrines. But she did not become a member of any 
 other community. She taught that the true church was extinct, and 
 God had sent her to restore it. She allowed no Liturgy, worship being 
 properly internal. Her doctrines were highly mystical, and she 
 required an impossible degree of perfection from her disciples. She 
 is said to have been remarkably eloquent, and was at least equally 
 diligent, for she wrote twenty-one bulky 8vo volumes which were 
 published at Amsterdam 1679-84. Most of her writings were printed 
 at a private press which she kept for the purpose. After her death 
 Poiret, a mystical Protestant divine, and a disciple of the Cartesian 
 philosophy, wrote her life, and reduced her doctrines into a regular 
 system. 
 
 BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR DE CHAISNE, 
 MARSHAL COUNT DE, was born at Paris, or, according to other 
 accounts, at the castle of Bourmont in Anjou, in the year 1773. 
 Having entered the army in 1788 at the age of fifteen, he served as an 
 officer in the Royal French Guards until 1790, when he emigrated, 
 and joined the army of the Prince de Condd. His sanguine disposition 
 and earnest character recommended him so strongly to the emigrant 
 leader, that he was immediately employed in fomenting the insurrection 
 of the western provinces. In October 1793 he was despatched by the 
 prince to the head-quarters of the Viscount de Sc^peaux, under whose 
 orders he commanded on,e of the corps of the Vendean troops, and was 
 
 3 k 
 
ser 
 
 BOURNE, VINCENT. 
 
 promoted to the rank of major-general. At this time he was only in 
 his twenty-first year. 
 
 In December 1793 he was sent to England to endeavour to prevail 
 on the British government to assist the Bourbon cause, but his mission 
 proved abortive. He had the satisfaction however of seeing the Count 
 d'Artois, afterwards Charles X., who received him in the most cordial 
 manner, knighted him, and authorised him to confer the same honour 
 on other loyal gentlemen adhering to the monarchical interests, and 
 more particularly on the Viscount de Scdpeaux. He paid a second visit 
 to England in 1 796, exhibiting the greatest zeal in animating the French 
 emigrants against the republic, and in collecting all the elements of 
 civil war. Soon after he returned to France to share the perils of a 
 new insurrection of the Vendeans, and commanded a division of the 
 Chouans in 1799. On the 16th of October of the same year he forced 
 his way into Le-Mans, the chief place in the department of Sarthe, 
 committing it is asserted great cruelties, pillaging the inhabitants of 
 nearly a million of francs, burning the post-office, the public records, 
 and the library in the H6tel-de-Ville. 
 
 About the period of the 18th Brumaire, when M. de Chatillon and 
 other insurgent leaders found it necessary to submit to the consular 
 government, the Count de Bourmont followed their example. He 
 strove to induce George Cadaudal to do the same; but that inflexible 
 chief, far from complying, evinced his disgust at the proposal in 1801 
 by ordering Bourmont's brother-in-law to be Bhot. The active mind 
 of the young soldier indisposed him to a life of ease; he therefore 
 offered his services to Bonaparte, and appears to have exhibited more 
 eagerness than discretion in so doing. The ever-vigilant Fouche' sus- 
 pected this zeal ; he caused the count to be strictly watched, and, 
 having discovered what he considered sufficient proofs of intended 
 treachery, he sent him a prisoner to the Temple in 1803. From this 
 prison he was transferred, first to the citadel of Dijon, and thence to 
 that of Besancon. Having escaped from this last place of confine- 
 ment, he went to Portugal, where he remained five years. The French 
 army having become masters of that country in 1810, Bourmont made 
 interest with the victorious general, was included in the capitulation, 
 and returned to France with the army. He now submitted fully to 
 the imperial government of Napoleon, and was offered the brevet of 
 colonel, which he accepted. It must be observed however, that in the 
 vindication of his career, published in 1840 by his eon, it is stated 
 that when the count made his submission he was at Nantes in France, 
 and that he was allowed his liberty only on condition of taking service 
 in the army of Napoleon. His son goes so far as to assert that in 
 1800 the First Consul offered him the post of lieutenant-general, 
 which he declined. 
 
 From 1810 to 1814, Bourmont continued faithful to his new master; 
 distinguished himself in several battles, especially at that of Nogent ; 
 and received no less than ten wounds, four of which were sabre cuts 
 on the head. For this conduct he was rewarded with the rank of 
 brigadier-general in 1813, and made a lieutenant-general the following 
 year. When the fall of Napoleon tested the character of so many 
 generals and marshals, Bourmont only followed the example of an 
 almost universal defection. He did not betray Louis XVIII. in the 
 spring of 1815 ; but offered him the use of his sword on the very eve 
 of his departure from the Tuileries. After the flight of the king, he 
 did not refuse to take service a second time under the powerful man, 
 a single word from whom would have consigned his family to ruin. 
 But he could not brook the despotism manifested in the Acte Addi- 
 tionnel, and tendered his resignation to the Emperor in consequence 
 of it. Receiving no answer, he left the French army on the 15th June 
 1815, after fully communicating his design to his successor, General 
 Hulat, to whom he likewise explained every requisite detail of the 
 service. Marshal Gerard, under whom he commanded a division during 
 the campaign, and General Hulat, have since then, exonerated Count 
 de Bourmont from all imputation of treachery; whilst Napoleon, in 
 his account of the battle of Waterloo, does not even accuse him. 
 
 After his second restoration, Louis XVIII. g;ive Count de Bourmont 
 the command of a division, in the infantry of his Guards; and in this 
 rank he served in the campaign of 1823, under the Duke of Angou- 
 leme in Spain ; and on the return of the duke to France, he appointed 
 Bourmont to the command of the army of occupation. In 1829 the 
 portfolio of the ministry of war was offered to him by Prince Polignac ; 
 but the count declined the offer several times, recommended other 
 generals in preference to himself, and was only persuaded to take 
 office by the earnest request of the king. In 1830 the great expe- 
 dition to Algiers was resolved upon, and the command of an army of 
 37,000 troops was conferred upon Bourmont. We have not space to 
 follow his Algerine career. But it must be noted as somewhat remark- 
 able that the man, who in a few weeks obtained for France this large 
 and valuable colony, — the principal conquest she has retained during 
 the present century, — should have been the object of so much aver- 
 sion. The revolution of July added further bitterness to that dislike, 
 and after Bourmont had been superseded in his command on the 2nd 
 of September, by General Clauzel, a charge was brought against the 
 deposed leader of having appropriated to his own use, the treasure 
 found in one of the captured towns. One of his sons had fallen in 
 this campaign, and the custom-house officer at Marseille, after the 
 landing of Bourmont, carried his zeal to such an excess, as to examine 
 the corpse in search for the hidden gold. The count bore this out- 
 
 rage patiently, but the Countess de Bourmont received so great a 
 
 shock, that she never rallied afterwards. 
 
 From the year 1830 Marshal do Bourmont lived in exile; residing 
 at various times in England, Holland, Germany, and other countries. 
 He was at length allowed to return to France by Louis Philippe, 
 and in 1840 he took up his abode with his family at the castle of 
 Bourmont. Here he continued to reside in the greatest retirement 
 until the day of his death, which occurred on the 27th of October 
 1846, at the age of seventy -three. In France Bourmont is, of all the 
 republican and imperial generals upon whom the charge of treason 
 has been affixed, the most unpopular. Neither Moreau nor Pichegru, 
 neither Bernadotte nor Marmout has been so furiously pursued with 
 the public odium. Grouchy himself is only hie second in obloquy. 
 After a careful examination of their real conduct, and due allowance 
 being made for the circumstances of the time, it would not require 
 an unusual stress of charity to remove much of the opprobrium which 
 now attaches to many of these great military names. But the time 
 to do it effectually is not yet come ; and public opinion must be 
 respected even where moat it appears to err. 
 
 (Biographic des Contemporaina ; Alison, History of Europe ; Sarrut 
 et Saint Edme, Notice; Feller, Dictionnaire Hittorique.) 
 
 BOURNE, HUGH, the founder of the Primitive Methodist Con- 
 nexion, was born April 3rd, 1772, in the neighbourhood of Stoke-upon- 
 Trent, in Staffordshire. He was brought up in the Wesleyan Methodist 
 communion, and became an active and zealous preacher of that body. 
 His zeal appears to have carried him beyond the bounds allowed 
 by the leaders of the Wesleyan Conference, for when he was about 
 thirty years of age he associated himself with William Clowes and 
 some other preachers of the Wesleyan body in reviving open-air 
 religious services and camp meetings, or great gatherings for preaching 
 and public worship. These proceedings, although common enough 
 in the early days of Methodism, and carried to very great lengths in 
 America, were discountenanced by the Conference, which in 1807 
 passed a resolution to the following effect : — " It is our judgment that 
 even supposing such meetings (camp meetings) to be allowed in 
 America, they are highly improper in England, and likely to be pro- 
 ductive of considerable mischief, and we disclaim all connection with 
 them." This led to Mr. Bourne's separation from the Wesleyan Con- 
 ference, and the establishment of the Primitive Methodist Connexion, 
 the first class (or local society) of which was formed at Standley, in 
 Staffordshire, in 1810. This body, which in 1811 had two preachers 
 and about 200 members, bad increased in 1821 to 202 travelling and 
 1435 local preachers, and 7842 members. In 1853 the Connexion 
 numbered 17»9 chapels and 3565 rented rooms, with 568 paid travelling 
 preachers, and 9594 local preachers. The members at the same time 
 had reached 103,926. The difference between the Primitive Method- 
 ists and the Wesleyan Methodists consists chiefly in the free admission 
 of laymen to the conference of the former body. 
 
 Mr. Bourne, after he had organised the society in England, in which 
 he was assisted by William Clowes, who had likewise been dismissed 
 for similar irregularities from the Wesleyan body, made journeys in 
 Scotland and Ireland for the purpose of forming religious societies in 
 connection with his new organisation. In 1844 he visited the United 
 States of America, where his preaching attracted large congregations, 
 Mr. Bourne lived to be fourscore years of age, and was much Severed 
 by the members of the Connexion. From his youth he was a rigid 
 abstainer from intoxicating drinks, in which respect many of the 
 preachers and members of the Primitive Methodist Connexion have 
 followed his example. He died at Bemersley in Staffordshire, October 
 11th, 1852. 
 
 BOURNE, VINCENT, was probably born three or four years 
 before 1700, but the date of his birth does not appear to have been 
 recorded. He became a king's scholar in Westminster School in 
 1710, whence he was elected to be sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 in 1714; he took the degree of A.B. in 1717, and that of AM. in 
 1721. He obtained a fellowship at Trinity College, and was after- 
 wards an usher in Westminster School, in which situation he seems to 
 have continued for the rest of his life. He never took orders. He 
 died December 2, 1747. 
 
 Vincent Bourne is the author of a considerable number of short 
 Latin poems, of several translations of short English poems into 
 Latin, and of a few epitaphs in Latin and English. He is an exceed- 
 ingly pleasing writer. He has great originality and variety of thought, 
 and great vividness of imagination, often combined with a delicate 
 humour quite peculiar to himself. His subjects are generally occa- 
 sional aud of little importance ; but the treatment is very delightful, 
 and entirely free from classical or any other commonplaces. His 
 Latin is remarkably pure; the expressions are chosen with exquisite 
 tact, and his versification has a facility and harmony not surpassed by 
 any modern writer of Latin poetry. 
 
 Some of Bourne's Latin translations are of poems admired once, but 
 little valued now, such as Mallet's ' William and Margaret,' Rowe's 
 ' Colin's Complaint,' and Tickel's ' Lucy aud Colin ;' but the versions 
 are of singular excellence, retaining every trace of thought and expres- 
 sion which is really poetical, and improving, without appearing to 
 change, the feeble imagery aud spiritless language of the originals : 
 the trivial and monotonous versification has also disappeared, and 
 the poems have assumed a propriety and grace to which they had 
 
BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE. 
 
 previously little claim. In poems of a higher poetical character, such 
 as Gay's beautiful ballad of 'Black-eyed Susan,' Bourne's mode of 
 translation is very different, and is distinguished by a fidelity which, 
 to those who know the difficulty of approximating two languag-s so 
 dissimilar in structure, is as curious as it is admirable. But even here 
 he gives an occasional heightening touch ; for instance, in translating 
 the exquisite simile 
 
 " So the sweet lark, high pois'd in air, 
 Shuts close his pinions to his breast, 
 If chance his mate's shrill note he hear, 
 And drops at once into her nest," 
 
 Bourne not only poises the lark, as Gay has done, but he gives the 
 vibrating motion of the wings, so characteristic of the lark when 
 singing : he has also transposed the second and third lines, in which 
 Gay has obviously inverted the natural order of thought for the sake 
 of the rhymes : — 
 
 " 8ic alto in crelo, tremulis Be librat ut alis, 
 Si soeiae accipiat forsan alauda sonos, 
 Devolat extemplo, clausisque ad pectora pennU, 
 In caraB nidum prseeipitatur avis." 
 
 Cowper has translated four of Bourne's Latin poems into English — 
 ' The Jackdaw,' ' The Parrot,' ' The Cricket,' and the ' Glow-worm,' in 
 none of which, skilful as he was, has he equalled his original. Cowper 
 in one of his letters speaks of the good-nature and indolent habits of 
 Bourne, with whom he was well acquainted, and of whose poetry he 
 was a warm admirer. 
 
 The first edition of Bourne's ' Poematia' was in 1731, 8vo. To the 
 third edition, in 1743, an appendix was added of other translations 
 and poems, forming nearly one-half of the whole collection, ' Poematia, 
 Latine partim reddita, partim scripta, a V. Bourne,' 12mo. There was 
 another edition in 1750, 12mo. In 1772 a handsome volume in 4to 
 was published by subscription, 'Miscellaneous Poems, consisting of 
 Originals and Translations, by Vincent Bourne, formerly of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and Usher of Westminster School.' It contains a 
 few additional poems, and two letters, one to a young lady, and another 
 to his wife, written a short time before his death. There have also 
 been two or three subsequent editions. 
 
 BOURlilENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE, the biogra- 
 pher of Napoleon Bonaparte, was born at Sens, in the department of 
 Yonne, in the province of Burgundy, on the 9th of July, 1769; the 
 son of M. Bourrienne, a wealthy 'rentier' of that place, by a second 
 marriage. His father dying shortly after his birth, the care of his 
 education was left to his mother. At the age of nine he was entered 
 as a pupil at the military school of Brienne ; and here it was that hi3 
 acquaintance with Bonaparte began. As boys of almost exactly the 
 same age, Bonaparte and Bourrienne became fast friends. Of the two, 
 Bourrienne seemed the more promising scholar; and in 1783, when 
 Bonaparte, then about to leave the school, took a prize for mathe- 
 matics, Bourrienne gained seven premiums for languages and other 
 accomplishments. In 1784 Bonaparte left the school at Brienne for 
 the higher military school at Paris ; and Bourrienne accompanied him 
 as far as Nogent-sur-Seine, where they bade each other adieu, he says, 
 with much affection, and promises of everlasting friendship. As Bour- 
 rienne ako looked forward to service in the French artillery, it did 
 not then seem likely that they would be long separated ; but shortly 
 afterwards he unexpectedly found an obstacle to his entrance on this 
 career, arising out of the strictness of the regulation which required 
 that all who held commissions in the French army should exhibit 
 proofs of noble pedigree. He was obliged to give up the military 
 profession. Adopting diplomacy as an alternative, and haviDg good 
 introductions, he was sent, in 1789, when in his twentieth year, to 
 Vienna, as clerk or ' attache" ' to the Embassy of the Marquis de 
 Noailles, ambassador of Louis XVI. at the court of the Austrian 
 Emperor Joseph. After being in Vienna a few months he went, by the 
 advice of the Marquis, to Leipsic, to increase bis qualifications for 
 diplomatic Bervice, by studying international law, and the English and 
 German languages. He remained at Leipsic two yeard; and removed 
 thence to Warsaw, where, as a young Frenchman of good connections, 
 he was well received at the court of the Polish King Poniatovvski. 
 While at Warsaw (1791) Bourrienne, in a temporary fit of literary 
 ambition, translated into French prose, under the title of ' L'Inconuu,' 
 the play of the German dramatist Kotzebue, of which ' The Stranger ' 
 is a famous English adaptation. The version was published in Paris 
 in 1792, on Bourrienne's return to that capital. At Paris he again, 
 after eight years of separation, met Bonaparte, then a young artillery- 
 officer without prospects ; and the two young men walked about the 
 streets together, exchanging sympathies aud purses, aud witnessing 
 many of the strange scenes of the Revolution — in particular the attack 
 on the Tuileriea on June 20, of which, and of Bonaparte's remarks on 
 it Bourrienne gives so vivid an account. [Bonapaiue, Natolicon I.] 
 In the same year Bourrienne was sent to Stutgardt as secretary to the 
 embassy there ; but he had hardly assumed office, when the execution 
 of Louis XVI. (January 21, 1793) and the downfall of the French 
 monarchy broke up the embassies. Having been in official employ- 
 ment under the late king, he did not venture to return ; but remained 
 in Germany. Suspected there of attachment to the cause of the revo- 
 
 BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE. 870 
 
 lution, he was imprisoned for some months by the Saxon police ; and 
 on his release, went to Leipsic, where he married (1794) a lady with 
 whom he had become acquainted during his former residence in that 
 place. In 1795, Robespierre and the Terrorists having in the mean- 
 time fallen, he returned with his wife to Paris, where they found 
 Bonaparte out of employment, and scarcely better off than he had 
 been three years before. Suddenly the 13th Vendemiaire (October 4, 
 1795) came to lift the young artillery-officer, then only twenty-six years 
 old, into reputation and power. From that moment, as Bourrienne 
 and his wife thought, Bonaparte became colder towards them ; and, 
 when Bourrienne was arrested not long after (February, 1796) as an 
 emigrant Royalist who had returned to France without leave, Bona- 
 parte, as they fancied, did not show such alacrity in behalf of his old 
 friend as he might have done. Still it was by Bonaparte's influence 
 that Bourrienne was set at liberty ; and a letter of thanks sent by 
 Bourrienne to Bonaparte in Italy during the splendid campaign of 
 1796, was the means of drawing their relations closer than ever. Bona- 
 parte, as general of the Directory in Italy, had immense business on 
 his hands, and he wanted a private secretary in whom he could rely. 
 He fixed on Bourrienne as a proper man ; and, accordingly, from the 
 close of the year 1796 when he joined Bonaparte in the camp by 
 express invitation, till the year 1802, when Bonaparte, all the inter- 
 vening toils of his Egyptian war, &c, being over, was seated firmly in 
 the supreme government of France, he was continually by his side, as 
 his amanuensis and confidential secretary, knowing all his most private 
 affairs. When Bonaparte, as First CoubuI, occupied the Tuileries, 
 Bourrienne had apartments close to his; and it was even proposed to 
 hang a bell in his room, by means of which Bonaparte could summon 
 him at any hour of the night — an indignity however to which he would 
 not submit. In 1802, the failure in very scandalous circumstances of 
 the house of Coulon, army-contractors, with which Bourrienne was 
 implicated to a greater extent than he ought to have been, caused his 
 dismissal from the private secretaryship. He and his wife continued 
 nevertheless to see Bonaparte and Josephine, and to be intimately 
 cognisant of all that was going on. In 1805, the Emperor sent him 
 to Hamburg, as charge" d'affaires of France for the circle of Lower 
 Saxony. As Napoleon was then enforcing his continental system 
 against English commerce, this was a delicate and difficult mission. 
 Bourrienne, according to his own account, discharged it with exemplary 
 moderation and probity ; but Napoleon did not think so, and, having 
 received complaints, amounting to charges of peculation and extortion, 
 against Bourrienne, lie appointed a Commissioner to inquire and report. 
 The result was that Bourrienne was recalled and ordered to refund one 
 million of francs to the imperial treasury. This was in December, 
 1810 ; and from that time Bourrienne was in the position of a ruined and 
 disgraced man. In 1814, indeed, he says, Napoleon again made over- 
 tures to him, and wished to send him to Switzerland as minister, with 
 the title of Duke ; but as the allies were then on the point of invading 
 France, he refused the honour. Accordingly, on the emperor's fall 
 and banishment to Elba, Bourrienne was in the position rather of one 
 of his enemies than of one of his partisans. Talleyrand, the master of 
 the situation for the moment, made him postmaster-general ; but 
 Louis XVIII. dismissed him from that office to make way for another. 
 Bourrienne, therefore, was without employment till March 1815, when, 
 in the excitement caused by Napoleon's escape from Elba and arrival 
 in France, the king called him to the prefecture of police. His efforts 
 in this post were of no avail ; Napoleon marched to Paris in triumph ; 
 and Bourrienne, who was among those exempted by him from the 
 general indemnity, fled after Louis XVIII. into Belgium. Here he 
 remaiued during the Hundred Days. Returning to Paris after the 
 battle of Waterloo and Napoleon's exile to St. Helena had assured the 
 Bourbon dynasty, he was made councillor and minister of state by 
 Louis, and was elected deputy to the Representative Chamber for his 
 native department of Yonne. He was re elected in 1821, and again iu 
 1828, when Charles X. was on the throne. He had some reputation 
 in the Chamber for his knowledge in financial matters. But, whatever 
 were his talents in this line, they did not extend to the management 
 of his private affairs. Always extravagant, and always deep in specu- 
 lations, he had become so embarrassed, that, in 1828, he was obliged 
 to give his creditors the slip and take refuge in Belgium. Here, 
 supported by the bounty of the Duchesse de Brancas, at Fontaine- 
 l'Eveque, near Charleroy, he set about a task he had long had in 
 contemplation — the preparation, from his notes and papers, of the 
 ' Memoirs of Napoleon.' Assisted, it is said, in this task by M. Max. 
 de Villemarest, he sent the work by instalments to Paris, where it 
 was published in ten volumes in the course of 1829-30. As the work 
 had been long expected, it made an immense sensation. It was 
 quickly translated into all languages, and provoked not a few rejoinders 
 from persons who accused him of misrepresentations of facts, or of 
 ingratitude to Napoleon. He did not long survive this, the greatest 
 achievement of his life. Chagrin, it is said, at the revolution of 1S30 
 unsettled his reason ; and, having been removed to an hospital for the 
 insane near Caen in Normaudy, he died there on the 7th of February 
 1834, in the» sixty-fifth year of his age. 
 
 Bourrienne's ' Memoirs of Napoleon ' are too well known to require 
 criticism. Not in all points trustworthy, and writing somewhat in tho 
 spirit of a discharged valet, he is yet, on the whole, the best of Napo- 
 leon's many Boswells. Neither morally nor intellectually does the 
 
 i! 
 
an 
 
 BOWLES, REV. WILLIAM LISLE. 872 
 
 man himself rank high among those who owe their immortality to 
 their connection with the colossus of his age. Napoleon, who knew 
 the man he dealt with, described him at St. Helena as a man who had 
 talents and other good qualities, but who was so inordinately greedy 
 of money, that he could not even write the word 'millions' without a 
 kind of nervous agitation, and fidgetting in his chair. 
 
 (Biographic Universelle ; Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon ; and the 
 Life of Bourrienne by Dr. Memes, prefixed to the English translation 
 of the Memoirs published in 'Constable's Miscellany,' 1831.) 
 
 BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH, a German metaphysician, professor 
 of moral philosophy at the University of Gottingen, is chiefly esteemed 
 for his ' History of Modem Literature.' He was born in the year 
 1766, at an iron foundry near Goslar, and completed his studies at 
 Gottingen. He was educated for the law, but was diverted from his 
 legal pursuits by the charms of lighter literature. At an early age he 
 published several poems and a novel, ' Graf Donamar,' which is said 
 to give a good picture of German life; but at the age of twenty-five, 
 being struck with a sense of the insufficiency of such occupation as 
 the business of life, he devoted himself to metaphysics as a disciple 
 of the then reigning masters, Kant and Jacobi. He was appointed to 
 the chair of moral philosophy at Gottingen in 1797. In his lectures 
 and in his metaphysical writings, he has ably expounded the doctrines 
 of the above-named philosophers. His literary reputation rests upon 
 his ' Geschichte der Neuern Poesie uud Btredsainkeit,' in 12 volumes 
 8vo, published in 1801. This work contains separate critical histories 
 of the belles-lettres of Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, England, and 
 Germany, from the revival of letters to the close of the 18th century. 
 The best parts of the work are those on English and German litera- 
 ture. Portions of Bouterwek's work have been translated into French 
 and English. Professor Bouterwek died on the 8th of August, 1828. 
 (Allgemeine Deutsche Real Encyclopddie ; Geschichte der Neuern Poesie 
 und Berednamkeit.) 
 
 BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD, was born in 1790 at Bristol, 
 where his father was a merchant. He was admitted while still very 
 young a junior partner in his father's house, when he married; but, 
 after a struggle of some years, both with his own inclinations and with 
 want of success, he entered himself at Oxford, where he only remained 
 for a very short time. By the interest of his uncle, Mr. J. Hope Smith, 
 the governor-iu-chief of the settlements belonging to the African 
 Company, he obtained a writership in that service, and proceeded to 
 Cape Coast Castle in 1814. About two years afterwards he returned 
 for a short time to England, when he was appointed by the Company 
 to conduct a mission to the king of the Ashautees; but on his arrival 
 at Cape Coast Castle it was thought by his uncle and the council there 
 that he was too young to go as the head of the mission, and Mr. James, 
 the governor of the fort of Accra, was put in his place. While the 
 party was at Coomassie, the capital of Ashantee, Mr. Bowdich, with 
 the concurrence of the other subordinate members of the mission, 
 superseded Mr. James, and took the management of the negociation 
 into his own hands. His conduct was approved by the authorities 
 at Cape Coast Castle ; but its propriety has since been strongly ques- 
 tioned by Mr. Dupuis, 'Journal of a Residence in Ashantee,' 4to, 1824. 
 After returning from this embassy Mr. Bowdich again visited England ; 
 and in 1819 he published at London, in a 4to volume, his account of 
 the remarkable people among whom he had been, under the title of 
 'A Mission to Ashantee.' Soon after the publication of this work, 
 which was read with great avidity, the author proceeded to Paris, and 
 in that city he appears to have resided for some years, prosecutiug his 
 studies, principally in the mathematical and natural sciences, which he 
 had neglected in his youth. He now also published a pamphlet in 
 exposure of the system pursued by the African Company in the 
 management of their possessions, which is understood to have induced 
 the government to take these settlements into its own hands. This 
 was followed by a translation, with notes, from the French, of a 
 ' Treatise on Taxidermy,' to which he did not put his name. He after- 
 wards published the following works:— 'A Translation of Travels, 
 by Mollien, to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia;' an Appendix to 
 the above, under the title of 'British and French Expedition to 
 Teembo, with Remarks on Civilization,' &c. ; an ' Essay on the Geo- 
 graphy of North- Western Africa;' an 'Etsay on the Superstitions, 
 Customs, and Arts common to the Antient Egyptians, Abyssinians, 
 and Ashantees;' three works, illustrated with lithographic figures, on 
 Mammalia, on Birds, and on Shells ; a Memoir, entitled ' The Contra- 
 dictions in Park's last Journal Explained;' and a 'Mathematical 
 Investigation, with Original Formulae, for ascertaining the Longitude 
 of the Sea by Eclipses of the Moon.' With the assistance of a triend, 
 and the money he had realised by his publications, Mr. Bowdich, in 
 August 1822, set out for Africa, in pursuance of a wish which he had 
 constantly cherished of devoting himself to the exploration of that 
 continent. He had only however reached the mouth of the Gambia, 
 accompanied by his wife, when he was attacked by fever, under which, 
 after several partial recoveries, he expired on the 10th of January, 
 1824. In tho same year was published from his papers (8vo, London,) 
 'An Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese in Angola and 
 Mozambique,' the materials of which he had principally collected at 
 Lisbon on hia last journey; and in 1825 his widow, afterwards Mrs. 
 Lee, published in 4to, 'Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo, &c, 
 by the late T. E. Bowdich, Esq. ; to which are added a Narrative of 
 
 Mr. Bowdich'a last Voyage to Africa; Remarks on the Cape de Verde 
 Islands ; and a Description of the English Settlements on the River 
 
 Gambia; by Mrs. Bowdich.' 
 
 BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL, was born at Salem, in Massachusetts, 
 in 1773. His ancestors belonged to the west of England. His father 
 was a poor working cooper. At ten years of age Nathaniel was taken 
 by hia father into the shop, and afterwards apprenticed to a ship- 
 chandler. But an inclination for arithmetic and mathematics devel- 
 oped itself early, and was cultivated with all the energy of his 
 character. In 1788 he was able to calculate an almanac for th'i ytar 
 1790. He taught himself the elements of geometry and algebra, and 
 was taught navigation by an old British sailor. He also taught him- 
 self Latin that he might read the 1 Principia ' of Newton, which he 
 had done by the age of twenty-one. At different times of his life he 
 also learnt, with little assistance, most of the European 1 inguages : 
 his plan was to take the New Testament and a dictionary, and begin 
 to translate, writing down the original ; and in this way he is said to 
 have left specimens of his attention to twenty-five languages or 
 dialects. 
 
 When he had reached the age of twenty-five, he took to a sea-faring 
 life, and made four long voyages as clerk or supercargo, and one as 
 master. Himself an excellent navigator, he taught every one on 
 board his ship how to find a ship's place, and on one occasion had 
 twelve seamen, being all his crew, every one of whom could take a 
 lunar observation. He edited three editions of the celebrated work 
 on navigation by John Hamilton Moore ; but at last he had corrected 
 so many errors, and made so many changes, that he thought himself 
 justified iu publishing it under hia owu name, as 'The new American 
 Practical Navigator.' In this form it went through eight editions, 
 and became very well known. His maritime life ended in 1804. Ia 
 1798 he married, but lost his wife before the end of the year. He 
 married again in 1800; his second wife died in 1834, leaving a grown-up 
 family. To the memory of this lady Dr. Bowditch dedicated his trans- 
 lation of the 'Mecauique Cdleste.' After giving up seafaring pursuits 
 he was engaged for many yeara in connection with the business of 
 Assurance Companies. He died at Boston, March 16, 1838. 
 
 Dr. Bowditch is the author of a good many papers on astronomical 
 subjects in the ' Transactions of the American Academy.' But the 
 work which will carry his name down in Europe, and which entitles 
 him to be considered as the first great promoter of mathematical 
 analysis in the United States, is hia translation of the ' Me'canique 
 Celeste ' of Laplace, with a commentary. 
 
 Four volumes of this work, corresponding to the first four volumes 
 of the original, appeared in 1829, 1832, 1834, and 1839. The fourth 
 volume was published posthumously. 
 
 The commentary has considerable value ; not only as giving the 
 reader of Laplace more recent views and simplifications, and bringing 
 the results of extensive reading to bear upon the text, but also as a 
 real and effective running explanation of the innumerable steps in the 
 process of calculation which Laplace omits. Bowditch saya, " I never 
 come across one of Laplace's ' thus it plainly appears,' without 
 feeling sure that I have got hours of hard study before me to fill up 
 the chasm, and find out and show how ' it plainly appears.' " There is 
 much in the work which a mathematician of higher pretensions would 
 not have thought it needful to publish, but the fulness of the expla- 
 nations renders the work of great value to students. Considered as 
 the work of a self-taught man, closely engaged in professional busi- 
 ness, Dr. Bowditch's translation of Laplace is a remarkable production. 
 Dr. Bowditch bequeathed his library to the state of Massachusetts, 
 and it formed the commencement of a public library, named after him 
 at Boston. 
 
 (Life of Dr. Bowditch, by his son, prefixed to the fourth and 
 posthumous volume of his translation of the ' Me'canique Celeste ; ' 
 Pickering; Young ; D. A. White, Life and Char, of Nathaniel Bowditch. 
 •BOWERBANK, JOHN SCOTT. I See vol. vi. col. 979.] 
 BOWLES, REV. WILLIAM LISLE, a man of some importance as 
 an English poet, but of still greater importance from the peculiar 
 position he occupied in the history of English poetry, was born at 
 King's Sutton, on the borders of Northamptonshire, on the 24th of 
 September 1762. His father was vicar of the parish in which he was 
 born ; his grandfather, Dr. Bowles, also a clergyman in the same 
 neighbourhood, was of a Wiltshire family. His mother was one of 
 the daughters of the Rev. Dr. Richard Grey, author of ' Memoria 
 Techniea,' and other works. When the boy was seven yeara old, his 
 father was appointed to the living of Uphill in Somersetshire; and one 
 of his earliest recollections was the journey of the whole family, con- 
 sisting of the vicar, hia wife, and seven children, with two maid- 
 servants, in two lumbering chaises, preceded by a rustic in livery, on 
 their way far westward to the new parish. In 1776, at the age of 
 fourteen, he was sent to Winchester school, where hia master was 
 Dr. Joseph Warton. He was one of Warton's favourite pupils, aud he 
 himself expresses his obligations to Warton for the kindly care with 
 which he instructed him in the principles of literary taste and 
 criticism. It was probably on the recommendation of Joseph Warton 
 that, on leaving Winchester School in 1782, after rising to be tenior 
 boy, Bowles chose Trinity College, Oxford, aa the place of hia farther 
 education. Thomas Warton, Joseph's more distinguished brother, 
 was then senior fellow of that college. Among his contemporaries at 
 
873 
 
 BOWLES, REV. WILLIAM LISLE. 
 
 BOWLES, REV. WILLIAM LISLE. 
 
 674 
 
 Trinity College, he seems to have taken a high place ; gaining, among 
 other honours, the prize for the chancellor's Latin poem in 1783. On 
 quitting college, in 1787, at the age of twenty-five, he looked forward 
 to some " independent provision in the church," which would enable 
 him to marry a young lady to whom he was much attached. Dr. Moore, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, had been indebted, when a poor curate, to 
 his maternal grandfather, Dr. Grey ; and the young clergyman was 
 led in consequence to expect some preferment from that prelate. 
 None came however; and '' worldly circumstances interfering," the 
 engagement with the young lady was broken off. A second engage- 
 ment also came to a melancholy close by the death of the young lady. 
 After it had been determined not to wait longer for "episcopal or 
 archiepiscopal patronage," in great depression of spirits, Bowles made 
 a tour through the north of England, Scotland, and some parts of the 
 continent ; and it was during this tour that he composed the ' Sonnets ' 
 which first made him known as a poet. The ' Sonnets' were intended 
 for his own solace, and were not even committed to paper ; but in 
 1789, when he had been some time back in England, it occurred to 
 him, as he was passing through Bath on his way to Oxford, to write 
 out as many of them as he could remember, correct them, and have 
 them printed. Accordingly, he got Mr. Cruttwell, printer of a Bath 
 newspaper, to strike off a hundred copies in 4to, under the title of 
 ' Fourteen Sonnets, written chiefly on Picturesque Spots during a 
 Journey.' The expense of this modest publication was 51. About 
 six months after the publication, he received a letter from Mr. Crutt- 
 well informing him that the 100 copies were all sold, and that he 
 could have sold 500. Much encouraged (his father was just dead, and 
 his mother was in somewhat reduced circumstances), he printed a 
 second edition of 500, adding some new sonnets ; and some time after- 
 wards a third edition of 750 was called for. 
 
 It is curious now, looking back, to think that, in a year like 1789, 
 when France was in the throes of revolution, the publication from a 
 provincial press of ' Fourteen Sonnets,' by a young clergyman disap- 
 pointed in love, should have been an event of any consequence in 
 England ; and yet so it was. A new literary spirit, and new notions 
 of poetry, were beginning to be abroad ; and young men were craving 
 for something fresh and natural, even if but feeble, after the strong 
 and fine artificialities, as they are called, of Dryden, Pope, and their 
 followers. Bowles's sonnets came at the proper moment. Other 
 young men of promise had already attempted, or were attempting 
 poems in a new vein; but, both as the pupil of the Wartons and by 
 reason of his natural susceptibility, Bowle3 was fitted to take the lead. 
 His sonnets were read and read again by all academic young men of 
 taste and poetical aspiration, including Coleridge, Wordsworth, 
 Southey, and Lovt-11. " I had just entered on my seventeenth year," 
 says Coleridge, " when the sonnets of Mr. Bowles, twenty-one in num- 
 ber [this was the second edition], and just then published in a quarto 
 pamphlet, were first made known and presented to me by a school- 
 fellow who had quitted us [that is, Christ's Hospital] for the university. 
 As my school finances did not permit me to purchase copies, I made, 
 within less than a year and a half, more than forty transcriptons, as 
 the best presents I could offer to those who had in any way won my 
 regard. And with almost equal delight did I receive the three or four 
 following publications of the same author." These " three or four 
 following publications " of Bowles were short copies of verses on 
 occasional subjects, published separately at Bath or Salisbury in 
 1789, 1790, and 1791. Thus in 1789 were published 'Verses to John 
 Howard on his "State of Prisons and Lazarettos;"' and in 1790 
 verses 'On the Grave of Howard.' In these, although not so con- 
 spicuously as in the 'Sonnets,' a tender and true spirit of poetry was 
 visible, while the diction was far less artificial than had till that time 
 been usual in poems. In short, though the revolution in British 
 poetry had already broken forth in Cowper and Burns, and though it 
 was to be completed in Wordsworth and Coleridge, Bowles's 'Sonnets' 
 and other pieceB, published in 1789 and the following years, were 
 perhaps the first conscious insinuation of the new principles. Words- 
 worth and Coleridge Boon proclaimed and illustrated them with 
 greater power of genius ; but all their lives these poets kept up a kind 
 of dutiful allegiance to Bowles as their titular patriarch. 
 
 Hardly foreseeing all this, Bowles left Oxford finally in 1792, having 
 taken his degree, and devoted himself to the duties of his profession. 
 From an humble curacy in Wilts, which was his first appointment, he 
 was transferred first to a living in the same county, and afterwards to 
 another in Gloucestershire. In 1797 he married a daughter of the 
 Rev. Dr. Wake, prebendary of Westminster. In 1803 he obtained a 
 vacant prebend in the cathedral church of Salisbury ; and in 1805 the 
 loDg-expected patronage of Archbishop Moore at last visited him in 
 the shape of a preferment to the valuable living of Bremhill in Wilt- 
 shire. Bowles waa then forty-three years of age ; but he continued to 
 reside in his picturesque and elegant parsonage of Bremhill almost 
 continually during the remaining forty-five years of his long life, dis- 
 charging the duties of his parish in such a manner as to win the 
 affection of his parishioners, varying his theological readings and his 
 ecclesiastical business with continued exercises in literature, receiving 
 visits from his friends, and happy in what he considered " the inesti- 
 mable advantage of the social intercourse of such a family as that of 
 Bowood" (Lord Lansdowne's). Subsequent ecclesiastical preferments, 
 which did not interfere with the quiet tenor of his life as rector of 
 
 Bremhill, were, his appointment in 1818 to be chaplain to the prince 
 regent, and his appointment in 1828 to be canon of Salisbury 
 cathedral. 
 
 Till 1804, Bowles was contented with issuing fresh editions of his 
 'Sonnets' and early poems (an eighth edition of the 'Sonnets' 
 appeared in 1802), and with adding a few occasional pieces to the 
 collection. In 1804 he published his longest poem, entitled 'The 
 Spirit of Discovery,' in six books of blank verse; which was followed 
 by his edition of Pope's works in 10 vols, in 1807. These two publi- 
 cations, together with his general fame as a writer of sonnets, were the 
 ground for the well-known attack upon him in Byron's ' English B irds 
 and Scotch Reviewers.' Notwithstanding Byron's onslaught, Bowles, 
 like Coleridge and Wordsworth, retained his reputation, and went on 
 republishing old and producing new poems. He and Byron met in a 
 friendly way at Rogers's in 1812 ; and Byron in later life made amends 
 for his satire by speaking of him with respect. Omitting minor pro- 
 ductions, the following is a list of Bowles's poetical publications 
 subsequent to the 'Spirit of Discovery:' — 'The Missionary of the 
 Andes,' in six books of heroic verse, published in 1815 ; ' The Grave 
 of the Last Saxon, a Legend of the Battle of Hastings,' in six books, 
 published in 1S22; 'Days Departed, or Banwell Hill,' a descriptive 
 didactive poem in blank verse, published in 1829; 'St. John in 
 Patmos,' a blank verse poem of considerable length, first published 
 anonymously in 1833; 'Scenes and Shadows of Days Departed,' a 
 series of poems with a prose autobiographic introduction, published 
 in 1837, in the author's seventy-sixth year; and the 'Village Verse- 
 Book,' published in the same year, and consisting of simple hymns 
 composed by him for the use of the children of his parish. After 
 1837 Bowles did not publish much. Nor had any of his poems since 
 ' The Missionary,' which is considered on the whole the best of his 
 large works, greatly added to his reputation. In all of them were 
 discerned the same fine taste, the same sensibility to the gentler 
 beauties of nature, the same pathos, the same poetic fancy, and the 
 same power of cultured expression which had distinguished his first 
 sonnets ; but it was felt on the whole that he was a kind of feebler 
 Wordsworth, whose poetry, so long as he chose to write any, was 
 rather to be received with respect and dipped into at leisure thau 
 eagerly read and appreciated. 
 
 But the whole virtue of Bowles's life did not lie in his poems. He 
 was also a very busy prose-writer. If the list of his prose-writings is 
 classified, it will be found to prove considerable versatility on the part 
 of the author. 
 
 The 'Pope and Bowles Controversy,' which lasted from 1819 to 
 1828, if indeed it may not date from 1807, when Bowles's edition of 
 Pope was published, has a permanent interest in our literary history. 
 It was the battle, fought in prose, between the old or eighteenth century 
 school of English poetry and the so-called new or nineteenth century 
 school. Bowles, while doing justice as he thought to Pope's true 
 excellences, had made some reflections on his moral character, tending 
 to depreciate it ; and had also, in an appended essay ' On the Poetical 
 Character of Pope,' laid down this proposition, as determining the 
 comparatively inferior rank of certain portions of Pope's poetry — "All 
 images drawn from what is beautiful or sublime in nature are more 
 beautiful and sublime than images drawn from art, and are therefore 
 more poetical ; and in like manner the passions of the human heart, 
 which belong to nature in general, are per se more adapted to the higher 
 species of poetry than those which are derived from incidental and 
 transient manners." Byron in his ' English Bards and Scotch Reviewers' 
 had pilloried Bowles for what he had said of the moral character of 
 Pope ; but it was reserved for Campbell, when preparing his ' Specimens 
 of the English Poets' in 1819, to offer the first distinct contradiction 
 to Bowles's critical theory of poetry. Campbell vigorously defended 
 the right of the world of the artificial to furnish images to poetry, and 
 instanced ' ships ' and the like to prove how beautiful and poetical 
 such images might be. Bowles replied in his ' Letter on the Invariable 
 Principles,' &c. Byron, then in Italy, wrote home to Murray that he 
 was going " to plunge into the contest, and lay about him like a dragon, 
 till he had made manure of Bowles for the top of Parnassus." He 
 accordingly sent over two spirited letters for Pope and Campbell 
 against Bowles, to which also Bowles replied. Other critics, including 
 Octavius Gilchrist and the ' Quarterly Review,' took up the question 
 on Campbell's side. Bowles manfully met them one after another, 
 restating his real views in opposition to what he considered misrepre- 
 sentations of them, and supporting these views by reasonings and 
 examinations of the reasonings and examples of his antagonists. For 
 some time he stood alone; but at last Hazlitt and the 'Blackwood' 
 critics came to his assistance, and maintained that on the whole he had 
 had the best of the argument. This view is now pretty generally 
 acquiesced in. Bowles never said anything so absurd as that Pope 
 was no poet — an opinion which has been ignorantly palmed on him by 
 some who have engaged in the controversy ; he only laid down some 
 critical canons determining the kind of much of Pope's poetry, as 
 compared with higher kinds, of which fine examples were found, he 
 said, in other poems of Pope himself; and what he advanced on these 
 points was founded on a light instinct, and was argued with much 
 logical acumen, though not with any of that philosophical depth which 
 distinguishes the similar reasonings of Coleridge and De Quincey. 
 
 Enjoying repose in his old age after this battle, and looking round 
 
675 
 
 BOWRING, SIR JOHN. 
 
 BOWYER, WILLIAM. 
 
 878 
 
 on Buch men as Rogers and Wordsworth as bis junior coevals, and on 
 younger poets rising in the room of the departed Coleridges and 
 Southeys, and Scotts and Byrons, whose births and deaths lay within 
 his own protracted spau of life, Bowles survived to find himself almost 
 forgotten in the midst of new persons and themes and interests. He 
 had a presentiment of this as early as 1837, when be wrote these 
 words : " Many years after my gray head shall have been laid at rent 
 in Brembill churchyard, or in the cloisters of Salisbury cathedral, the 
 reader of the memorable controversy with Lord Byron, in which I 
 believe all dispassionate judges will admit that his lordship was foiled 
 and the polished lance of his sophistical rhetoric broken at his feet, or 
 perhaps some who may have seen those poems of which Coleridge 
 spoke in the days of his earliest song so enthusiastically, may perhaps 
 inquire ' Who was W. L. Bowles V " The event thus anticipated came 
 to pass on the 7th of April 1S50, when Bowles died at Salisbury at the 
 age of 88, only a few days before the death of Wordsworth. His wife 
 had died in 1844 ; and they left no family. 
 
 In his personal habits and manners Bowles was simple, genial, and 
 kindly. He was also "famous," it is said, "for his Parson Adams-like 
 forgetfuluess." A life of him, the joint work of a relative and Mr. 
 Alaric Watts, has been advertised as forthcoming; meanwhile we have 
 gathered the above particulars from various notices, and from the 
 autobiographical parts of his own writings. As we said at the outset, 
 he will be remembered with interest on account of some of his poems, 
 particularly his ' Sonnets,' and his ' Missionary' and his ' Village Verse- 
 Book,' but with greater interest as a man occupying a position in our 
 liteiary history entitling him in the opinion of some to be called the 
 ' Father of modern English Poetry.' If the designation is accepted, it 
 must be allowed that be has had some very rebellious sons. 
 
 •BOWRING, SIR JOHN, was born Oct. 17, 1792, in the city of 
 Exeter. He began at an early age to make known those acquirements 
 in modern languages, especially of the Sclavonic class, for which he 
 was chiefly distinguished during many years of the earliest part of his 
 life. He studied particularly the lyrical or rather the song poetry of 
 the different Ew opean nations. In 1821-23 he published 'Specimens 
 of the Russian Poets,' 2 vols.; in 1824, ' Batavian Anthology,' and 
 1 Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain ;' in 1827, ' Specimens of the 
 Polish Poets,' and 'Servian Popular Poetry;' in 1830, 'Poetry of the 
 Magyars;' and in 1832, 'Cheskian Anthology.' Mr. Bowring lived 
 much in habits of intimacy with Jeremy Beutham, whose principles 
 he mostly adopted, and who appointed him one of his executors. 
 In 1825 he became the editor of the ' Westminster Review,' and 
 wrote many articles for that periodical in support of the principles 
 of radical reform and free trade. In 1828 he travelled in Holland, and 
 received the diploma of LL D. from the University of Groningen. In 
 1829 he collected at Copenhagen the materials for a collection of 
 Scandinavian poetry. From the time of bis connection with the 
 ' Westminster Review' he had directed much of his attention to sub- 
 jects of political economy, especially with respect to the commercial 
 relations between Great Britain and the continental governments. In 
 1834-5 he was sent to France as the leading member of a commission 
 for inquiring into the actual state of the commerce between the two 
 countries, and laid a Report before parliament. He also presented a 
 Repoit on the Commerce, Manufactures, and Trade of Switzerland. 
 He travelled in Italy, and made particular investigations into the 
 commerce and manufactures of Tuscany. He went to Syria for a 
 similar purpose, and afterwards visited the differ, nt States of the 
 German Customs' Union. The results of his various journeys and 
 inquiries were made known by several communications and reports, 
 which were laid before parliament, and most of which were published 
 by order of the House of Commons. He was a member of parliament 
 from 1835 to 1837, and again from 1841 to 1849. In 1838-39 'The 
 Works of Jeremy Beutham, now first collected under the Superint nd- 
 ence of his Executor, John Bowring,' were published in 11 vols. 8vo 
 at Kdinburgh. In 1843 he published a translation of the ' Manuscript 
 of the Queen's Court, a Collection of old Bohemian Lyrics, Epic Songs, 
 with other ancient Bohemian Poems,' 12mo. 
 
 In 1849 Dr. Bowring was appointed British Consul at Hong Kong, 
 and Superintendent of Trade in China, where he was subsequently a 
 plenipotentiary. He returned in 1853 to London, where, in 1854, he 
 published ' The Decimal System in Numbers, Coins, and Accounts, 
 especially with Reference to the Decimalisation of the Currency and 
 Accountancy of the United Kingdom,' 8vo. In 1854 he received the 
 honour of knighthood, and was appointed governor of Hong Kong, 
 an office he held till 1859. In 1855 he went on a special mission to 
 Siam, of which country he in 1857 published an account, 'The King- 
 dom and People of Siam,' 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 BOWYER, WILLIAM, the son of a printer of considerable eminence, 
 who published many of the most distinguished theological, antiquarian, 
 and scholastic works which appeared during the reigns of William and 
 Mary, Anne, and George I. William, the son, was born in Whitefriars, 
 London, December 19, 1699. He was educated at Headley in Surrey, 
 in a private academy conducted by a respectable scholar, Ambrose 
 Bonwicke, B.D. of Oxford, a nonjuring Jacobite clergyman, ejected on 
 account of his nonconformity from the head-mastership of Merchant 
 Taylors' SchooL Bowyer was entered in June 1716 a sizar of St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, where he formed an intimate friendship 
 with several eminent individuals whose services at a later period con- 
 
 tributed to his reputation and prosperity, more particularly with 
 Jeremiah Markland and the learned numismatic scholar, the Rev. W. 
 Clarke : with these two fellow-students a congenial mind and similarity 
 of studies occasioned an intimacy which continued throughout the 
 rest of their lives. When he left college he was employed in his 
 father's business. At the close of the year 1721, during which he had 
 been closely employed in the correction of proofs, he became a partner 
 with his father, who in future superintended the mercantile and 
 mechanical portion of tho business, while the literary and critical 
 department was assigned to the son. In his first year of office as 
 corrector of the press he received from Maittaire a most flattering 
 compliment, contained in the prefaoe to bis ' Miscellanea Gnecorum 
 Carmina,' 4to. His predilection for archaeological and philological 
 subjects was evinced in the peculiar attention which he bestowed upon 
 the correction of every work of this kind. Of the costly and classical 
 works which throughout a period of fifty-five years possessed the 
 advantage of bearing the signature ' Typis Bowyer,' we can notice only 
 a very few. For a complete chronological list of them, as well as for 
 a great variety of information concerning the authors and the printer, 
 we refer to the well-known voluminous work of his partner and 
 successor, entitled ' Literary Anecdotes of the 18th Century, comprising 
 Memoirs of William Bowyer, Printer, F.S.A., and many of his learned 
 Friends, by John Nichols, F.S.A.,' in 9 vols. 8vo, of which the seventh 
 volume forms an elaborate index, and six supplemental volumes 
 complete the work. As the press of Bowyer was corrected by himself 
 with a critical ability possessed by no other printer of his time, it was 
 chiefly preferred for works of learning. But typographical accuracy 
 was far from being the sole object of Bowyer : he exercised a searching 
 criticism upon the subject-matter and language of the most learned 
 works which he printed ; supplied numerous notes, suggested emen- 
 dations, wrote prefaces, made indexes, and in various ways increased 
 their value. As specimens the following will suffice : — 'Seldeni Opera 
 Omnia,' collected by Wilkins, 3 vols, fol., 1726; of the learned dis- 
 sertation ' De Synedriis et Prasfecturis Juridicis Veterum Ebraeorum,' 
 which occupies all the second volume, a very judicious epitome was 
 made by Bowyer while he rapidly examined the last proofs. It exhibits 
 in 28 pages of English the substance of 1180 folio pages of rugged 
 Latin, profusely garnished with Hebrew, Greek, and Arabic. In a 
 review of ' Reliquiae Baxterianse,' a work replete with curious gram- 
 matical erudition, containing ' Glossarium Antiquitatum Brit, tempo- 
 ribus Romanorum,' Bowyer displayed an intimate acquaintance with 
 the subject; the same with the ' Leges Wallicse Ecclesiae Hywel Dda,' 
 by Dr. Wotton, 1730 ; and Cliishull's ' Antiqnitates Asiaticas,' fol., 1732. 
 On this learned work he made 28 quarto pages of 'additions and 
 corrections.' To the sixth edition of LyttLton's ' Latin Dictionary,' 
 1735, he made a large addition of words collected in the course of his 
 reading. The 'Greek Lexicon' of Schrevelius received the same 
 improvement in passing through his press in 1774. That of Hederic, 
 the Hebrew Lexicon of Buxtorf, the Latin one by Faber, and Bailey's 
 ' English Dictionary,' he similarly enlarged and corrected. In publishing 
 in 1750 Bladen's English version of ' Caesar's Commentaries,' he added 
 numerous learned notes, in which alone consists all the worth of the 
 book. He printed at the same time, on his own account, ' Kiister de 
 vero usu verb, med.,' to which he affixed some critical remarks and a 
 preface in Latin. He supplied also an elaborate preface, with nume- 
 rous notes and corrections, to a translation in 1759 of ' Montesquieu's 
 Grandeur of the Romans.' On the ' Life of Cicero ' by Dr. Middleton 
 he wrote a masterly commentary, in which, without any assumption 
 of superior learning, he rectifies many mistakes. As a supplement to 
 the work of his friend, William Clarke, ' The Connexion of Roman, 
 Saxon, and English Coins,' 4to, he wrote 'Remarks on Greek and 
 Roman Money,' which with ' Notes on Kennett's Roman Antiquities ' 
 and ' Remarks on Roman History,' exhibit for that time an accurate 
 and extensive knowledge of classical archaeology. The whole of these 
 commentaries, with many more, including ' Papers on Stephens's 
 Thesaurus,' and a learned disquisition on 'The Feast of the Saxon 
 Yule,' are sepaiutely printed in a large and now extremely scarce 
 volume in 4to, published in 1785 by Mr. Nichols, entitled 'Miscella- 
 neous Tracts by the late Wm. Bowyer.' There yet remain in manuscript, 
 inserted in margins and interleaved copies of his favourite works, notes 
 in great numbers, especially in Leigh's ' Critica Sacra,' Du Gard's 
 ' Lexicon Graeci Test.' and many of the Greek and Latin classics. 
 Among the multitude of sumptuous folios and illustrated works which 
 he printed, the following as specimens of typographical beauty may be 
 selected : — ' Matthan Parker Cant. Arch, de Antiq. Brit. Eccles.,' fol., 
 1729 ; Vertot's ' Knights of Malta,' 2 vols, fol., 1728 ; Maittaire's 
 'Marmorum Arund. Inscript.,' fol., 1732; Churchill's ' Voyages and 
 Travels,' 6 vols, fol., 1732 ; Pococke's ' Description of the East,' 3 vols, 
 fol., 1743 ; the ' Coptic Pentateuch,' by Dr. Wilkins, 1731 ; ' Lysia 
 Orationes,' by Dr. Taylor, 2 vols. 4to, 1739. Bowyer published in 1766 
 ' The Origin of Printing, consisting of— 1st, Dr. Middleton's Dissertation 
 on its origin in England ; 2nd, Meerman's account of its invention at 
 Haarlem, with numerous notes and corrections,' which is valuable on 
 account of Bowyer's learned illustrations, although the legend about 
 Laurentius Coster at Haarlem is now discredited. But the reputation 
 of Bowyer has been most extended by his ' Critical Conjectures on the 
 New Testament,' which in part were published in the second volume 
 of his edition of the Greek text. The ' Conjectures' have rect'ved tha 
 
877 
 
 BOYCE, WILLIAM. 
 
 BOYDELL, JOHN. 
 
 878 
 
 highest commendations from Harwood, Le Long, Ernesti, Michaelis, 
 and other eminent Greek scholars. 
 
 An enlarged and improved edition of the 'Conjectures' was published 
 in 1772. It was translated into German by the Professor of Theology 
 and Oriental Literature at Leipzig, Dr. Schulz. A third edition 
 appeared in 1782, and the fourth and best edition in 1812 in 4to. As 
 it furnishes the greatest evidence of Bowyer' s erudition and critical 
 sasacity, we subjoin at length its title : — ' Critical Conjectures and 
 Observations on the New Testament, collected from various authors, 
 as well in regard to words as to pointing, with the reasons on which 
 both are founded : by William Bowyer, Bishop Barrington, Mr. Mark- 
 land, Professor Schulz, Professor Michaelis, Dr. Owen, Dr. Woide, Dr. 
 Gosset, and Mr. Weston.' It contains a large and excellent engraving 
 of Bowyer. In 1729 he was appointed by the Speaker of the House 
 of Commons to the lucrative office of printer of the votes. He obtained 
 in 1736 the appointment of printer to the Society of Antiquaries, and 
 printer to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning ; in 1760, 
 printer to the Royal Society ; and in 1767 printer of the Rolls of the 
 House of Lords and the Journals of the House of Commons. In 1737, 
 on the death of his father, he became sole proprietor of the Bowyer 
 press ; and in 1767 he moved from Whitefriars, where he had spent 
 sixty-seven years, to more capacious premises in Red Lion Passage, 
 Fleet-street, where he displayed a bust of the Roman orator, with the 
 incription, ' M. T. Cicero, a quo primordia preli,' in allusion to the early 
 impression of the ' Liber de Officiis ' by Fust in 1465. He also assumed 
 the professional title of Architectus Verborum (see ' Cic. de Clar. Orat.,' 
 c. 31); and continued until he arrived on the verge of eighty to correct 
 all the Greek works which he printed. His long career of incessant 
 application to study and business was terminated by the publication 
 in 1777 of his edition of Bentley's 'Dissertation on the Epistle of 
 Phalaris.' He had always manifested a great veneration for 'the 
 mighty scholiast,' and augmented hi3 ' Dissertation ' with numerous 
 remarks collected by himself from the works of Markland, Upton, 
 Lowth, Owen, Clarke, Warburton, and Dr. Salter, Master of the Charter- 
 House School, who is responsible for its whimsical system of spelling, 
 as saught, retein, disdein, reproch, &c. In the same year, on the 18th 
 of November, at the age of seventy-eight, Bowyer died, and was 
 interred at Low Leighton in Essex. In his will he left considerable 
 sums to indigent printers. His epitaph, by the Rev. Edward Clarke, 
 describes him truly as ' Typographorum post Stephanos et Commelinos 
 longe doctissimus; linguarum Latinae, Graecae, et Hebraicae peritissimus.' 
 There were indeed at this time several celebrated printers, as Basker- 
 ville of Birmingham, Foulis of Glasgow, and Crapelet of Paris ; but 
 Bowyer, as to erudition and critical accuracy, was unrivalled by any of 
 his profession in England or on the continent during more than half 
 a century. Among the numerous individuals of literary eminence with 
 whom he maintained a learned correspondence or an intimate personal 
 friendship were Archbishop Seeker ; Bishops Lowth, Hurd, Warburton, 
 Pearce, Sherlock, Cfayton, Pococke, Atterbury ; Drs. Wotton, Chandler, 
 Whiston, Taylor, Prideaux, Jortin, Conyers Middleton ; Pope and 
 Thompson ; Garrick, Lord Lyttleton ; Dr. Mead, Gough, Chishull, 
 Clarke, Ainsworth, De Missy, Markland, Maittaire, and Palairet, who 
 in his Latin Utters salutes him as ' vir doctissime et carissime.' Bowyer 
 was estimable not only for his learning, but for rigid probity and active 
 unostentatious benevolence. In general moral rectitude and amiable 
 simplicity of manners, few have exceeded ' the last of learned printers.' 
 His bust in marble, with a portrait of his father, is in Stationers' Hall. 
 
 BOYCE, WILLIAM, Doctor in Music, who as an English composer 
 is entitled to contend with Arne for the honour of ranking next to 
 Purcell, was born in the city of London in 1710. He commenced his 
 musical education as a chorister of St. Paul's, under Charles King, Mus. 
 Bic, and completed it under Dr. Greene, then organist of the cathe- 
 dral Anxious to become acquainted with the philosophical principles 
 of his art, he attended the learned lectures of Dr. Pepusch, from whom 
 he also acquired a knowledge of the works of the early Flemish and 
 Italian composers. In 1736 he succeeded Weldon aa one of the com- 
 posers to the Chapels-Royal, and in performing the duties of the office 
 produced the two Services and many anthems, which reflect so much 
 honour on the English school of church music Some years after, he 
 set Kdward Moore's ' Solomon,' a serenata, to music, in which are the 
 duet ' Together let us range the fields,' the airs ' Softly blow, O southern 
 breeze,' ' Tell me, gentle shepherd,' and other highly-esteemed compo- 
 sitions. In 1749 he was selected to set an ode for the installation of 
 the Duke of Newcastle, as chancellor of the University of Cambridge, 
 •hen the degree of Doctor in Music was, unsolicited, conferred 
 on him. 
 
 On the death of Dr. Greene in 1755, Dr. Boyce was appointed to 
 the lucrative office of Master of his Majesty's band of Musicians. In 
 that year he also produced his finest work, the grand anthem, ' Lord, 
 thou hast been our refuge,' which he wrote for the Feast of the Sons 
 of the Clergy; and at the annual meeting of that corporation in 
 St Paul's Cathedral, it has ever since been performed. In 1758, on 
 the death of Travers, he became organist to the Chapels-Royal, which 
 office he held in conjunction with that of composer. In 1760 he pub- 
 lished in score, in three large folio volumes, the ' Cathedral Music of 
 the English Masters of the last two hundred years;' a splendid and 
 useful work, in which the disinterestedness of the editor is not less 
 remarkable than his deep research and acute discrimination ; for not 
 
 desiring any pecuniary recompense for his labours, he fixed a price 
 on the publication — the Bale of which was necessarily limited — which 
 only indemnified him for the expense he had incurred in preparing and 
 bringing it out. 
 
 Dr. Boyce during many years suffered much from the gout, the 
 attacks of which became more frequent and severe as he advanced in 
 age, and terminated his life in 1779. He was interred in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral, and his funeral was attended by many persons of distinc- 
 tion, together with almost every musician of standing in London. 
 
 The published works of this excellent composer are — 'Fifteen 
 Anthems, together with a Te Deum and Jubilate, in score,' &c, 1780 ; 
 a grand anthem, ' Lord, thou hast been our refuge,' for a full band ; 
 a second, ' Blessed is he that considereth the poor and needy,' for the 
 same, 1802 ; a ' Te Deum, Jubilate, and six Anthems,' printed in 
 Dr. Arnold's 'Collection of Cathedral Music;' the Serenata of 'Solo- 
 mon ; ' the opera of ' The Chaplet ; ' and numerous detached pieces, 
 which appeared in ' Lyra Britannica,' ' The British Orpheus,' ' The 
 Vocal Musical Mask,' &c. 
 
 BOYDELL, JOHN, was born in 1719, but the place of his birth 
 has been variously stated to be in Staffordshire ; at Stanton in Shrop- 
 shire; and in Derbyshire. In his youth he was designed for the pro- 
 fession of his father, that of a land surveyor, to which for some time 
 he attended; but having, it is said, accidentally seen a volume of views 
 of country seats by B iddeley, his taste was developed, and he resolved 
 to become an engraver. He accordingly proceeded to London, where, 
 though at the age of twenty-one, he bound himself for seven years 
 to Mr. Tomms for the purpose of learning the art. At the expiration 
 of his apprenticeship he published by subscription, in 1746, a volume 
 of his own engravings, consisting of 152 views in England and Wales. 
 They are now interesting chiefly as an indication of the imperfect 
 state of the art in England at that period as compared with the 
 improvement effected afterwards by his own exertions. These humble 
 specimens served however to commence a very long and continuous 
 course of prosperity ; for with the profits of this publication he 
 entered into business for himself as a printseller ; and by the adoption 
 of a very liberal policy iu employing and amply remunerating the 
 best artists of the time, he gradually extended his speculations, and 
 acquired a large income, and a great reputation as an enterprising 
 and generous patron of genius. He engaged Woolett to engrave the 
 celebrated pictures of Niobe and Phaeton ; paj ing for the former 
 100 guineas, and for the latter 120 : they were sold by Boydell at 5s. 
 each; but have since, at auctions, produced 10 and 11 guineas. He 
 contrived in fact to employ almost every aspirant to distinction whose 
 energies wanted encouragement. When Boydell began business there 
 were no very eminent English engravers, and they were generally 
 inferior to those of the continent. Our foreign commerce in this 
 department consisted wholly in importations, and the cabinets of col- 
 lectors were principally furnished by the artists of France. But when, 
 after many years of persevering exertions, Boydell succeeded in form- 
 ing an English school of engraving, the circumstances were reversed ; 
 for the importation of prints was almost entirely discontinued, and a 
 large exportation ensued. Holland, Flanders, and Germany were the 
 principal markets in which the engravings of Boydell were in demand. 
 The complete success of his enterprise in the province of engraving, 
 and his indignation at the opprobrium which foreigners cast upon his 
 countrymen for the deficiency of their taste in other departments of 
 the fine arts, led him to attempt a similar improvement in the art of 
 painting. For the accomplishment of this design he secured the 
 services of the first artists in the kingdom ; and selected for illustration 
 the works of Sliakspere, as supplying the most appropriate subjects 
 for eliciting and displaying the abilities of each individual West, 
 Opie, Reynolds, Northcote, and others were employed. Spacious 
 premises were purchased iu Pall Mall, where was exhibited for 
 several years the famous 'Shakspeare Gallery.' The beautiful plates 
 which, under the liberal patronage of Boydell, were engraved from 
 these numerous paintings, form a magnificent volume in royal el>-phaut 
 folio, of which the dimensions are three feet by two; the title, 'A 
 Collection of Prints from Pictures painted for the purpose of Illus- 
 trating the Dramatical Works of Shakspeare, by the Artists of Great 
 Britain,' Boydell, 1803. A superb edition of Shakspere's dramatic 
 works was at the same time undertaken by Boydell, and printed at 
 the press of Bulmer, 1792-1801, in 9 vols, folio. 
 
 Iu 1801, when he had reached the age of eighty-five, and had, in 
 consequence of the commercial obstacles occasioned by the wars of the 
 French Revolution, become involved in unavoidable difficulties, he 
 obtained an act of parliament enabling him to dispose of the paintings 
 of his Shakspeare Gallery by a lottery. In the memorial of his situa- 
 tion he states that his enthusiasm for the promotion of the arts 
 induced him to lay nothing by, but to employ continually the whole 
 of his gains in further engagements with unemployed artists ; that the 
 sums he had laid out with his brethren in the advancement of this 
 object amounted to 350,000£, and that he had accumulated a stock of 
 copper-plates which all the printsellers in Europe would together be 
 unable to purchase. He lived only until the last ticket of his lottery 
 was sold. The affair was finally decided subsequent to his death, 
 which occurred on the 12th of December 1804. He had been elected 
 alderman in 1782, sheriff in 1785, and mayor in 1790. He held also 
 the office of master of the Stationers' Company. As the most generous 
 
879 
 
 BOYLE, CHARLES. 
 
 BOYLE, RICHARD. 
 
 promoter of those arts which refine and elevate the moral sentiments 
 of man, he was honoured with a public funeral. 
 
 Among the collections published by Boydell was that of 120 engra- 
 vings from the Houghtou Gallery, which was purchased by the Empress 
 Catherine of Russia. In 1777 he published in folio the ' Liber 
 Veritatis,' containing copies of 200 of Claude Lorraine's first sketches, 
 in the cabinet of the Duke of Devonshire; in 1794, the ' History of 
 the Hiver Thames,' 2 vols. fol. ; and in 1803, in 4to, ' An Alphabetic | 
 Catalogue of Plates engraved by the first Artists, from the finest 
 Pictures of the Italian, Flemish, German, French, and English Schools.' 
 
 BOYLE, CHARLES, second son of Roger, the second earl of Orrery 
 in Ireland, was born at Chelsea, August, 1676. He was entered, in his 
 fifteenth year, at Christ Church, Oxford, as a nobleman. The directors 
 of his studies were Dr. Atterbury, afterwards bishop of Rochester, and 
 Dr. Friend, the eminent physician, or, as others say, his brother, the 
 master of Westminster school. The elevated rank and accomplish- 
 ments of their pupil appear to have given the highest satisfaction to 
 the maBter of the college, Dr. Aldrich, for, in the dedication to him of 
 his ' Manual of Logic,' since adopted as the Oxford University text- 
 book, he declares him to be "magnum sedis nostrae ornamentum." 
 It is requisite here to say a word or two in explanation of the circum- 
 stances which gave rise to the famous controversy ostensibly sustained 
 by the Hon. Charles Boyle against the great Aristarchus of Cambridge, 
 Dr. Bentley, but which in reality was an affair with which Boyle 
 himself had almost nothing to do. In addition to the particulars in 
 the article on Bentley, col. 653, concerning the origin of this fierce 
 contention of wit and learning, it may be observed that Dr. Aldrich, 
 in order to promote the reputation of his college, encouraged the 
 students in the practice of editing, every year, some ancient classic 
 author ; and as Sir Wm. Temple, in his ' Essay on Ancient and Modern 
 Learning,' had just then asserted ('Works,' vol. i. p. 166) that "The 
 oldest books we have are still in their kind the best : the two most 
 ancient in prose are ' iEsop's Fables' and ' The Epistles of Phalaris :' 
 the latter exhibit every excellence of a statesman, soldier, wit and 
 scholar ; I tbiuk they have a greater force of wit and genius than any 
 others I have ever seen either ancient or modem " — these two Greek 
 relics of antiquity, which Temple imagined to be of the age of Cyrus 
 and Pythagoras, were chosen as subjects for the stripling Christ Church 
 editors. yEsop was published by Alsop, and Phalaris by Boyle, who 
 was then at the age of 19. The title of his edition is 'Phalaridis 
 Agiigeutinorum Tyranni Epistolas ex MS. recensuit, versione, annota- 
 tionibus et vita insuper authoris donavit Car. Boyle ; ex YEde Christi, 
 Oxon., 1695.' In the preface it is stated that the text was collated 
 only partially with the manuscript in the King's Library, because the 
 librarian (Bentley) had the ' siugular kindness ' to refuse the use of it 
 for the requisite time; the words are " pro singulari sua humanitate 
 negavit." This petulant passage is said to have been occasioned by 
 Bentley 's remarking, at the time of lending the manuscript, that it 
 was a spurious work, the subsequent forgery of a sophist, and not 
 worthy of a new edition. In the ' Dissertation on the Epistles of 
 Phalaris,' which Bentley annexed to the 2nd edition of Dr. Wotton's 
 'Reflections,' in 1697, their spurious character, as well as that of the 
 present yEsopian Fables, is clearly exhibited ; the King's manuscript 
 is declared to have been " lent in violation of rules, and not reclaimed 
 for six days, though for collating it four hours would suffice." " To 
 show all the silliness and impertinence of these epistles," says Bentley, 
 " would be endless ; they are a fardle of common-place without life or 
 spirit : the dead and empty cogitations of a dreaming pedant with his 
 elbow on his desk." That Boyle, in his editorial office, received the 
 aid of his tutor, Dr. Friend, is acknowledged by himself; indeed to 
 those who can justly appreciate the labour of revising the text of an 
 ancient Greek author, the great improbability needs not be suggested, 
 that a young fashionable nobleman in his teens should, unassisted, 
 accomplish a task so dull and difficult. Of the real circumstances of 
 the case Bentley appears to have been aware when, in his 'Dissertation,' 
 he shrewdly designates Boyle as " the young gentleman of great hopes 
 whose name is set to the edition," and asserts that the editor no more 
 than Phalaris wrote what is ascribed to him. 
 
 This declaration of Bentley's critical judgment elicited the witty 
 and malignant attack upon him, entitled 'An Examination of the 
 Dissertation, &c, by the Honourable Charles Boyle,' 1698, a work 
 which in reality was the joint production of the leading men of Christ 
 Church, instigated by Dr. Aldricb, while Boyle himself was absent 
 from the country. This is the meaning of Swift in his ' Battle of the 
 Books,' when he represents Boyle as being " clad in a suit of armour 
 given him by all the gods : " that is, Dr. Friend, Dr. King, Dr. Small- 
 ridge, Dr. Atterbury, &c. A letter of the last, in his ' Epistolary Corres- 
 pondence,' vol. ii. pp. 1-22, upbraids Boyle with ungratefully requiting 
 his services in planning, writing half, and correcting the whole of the 
 ' Examination.' See also Warburton's ' Letters,' 8vo, p. 11, for a con- 
 firmation of the fact that all the wit and erudition displayed under 
 the name of Charles Boyle was the produce of his fellow-collegians. 
 But the united efforts of the Oxford scholars resulted in total failure. 
 ' In many parts of the ' Examination,' " says Bishop Monk, "the critics 
 seem to have parted too soon with their grammars and lexicons." It 
 occasioned however at the time a very great excitement in the two 
 rival universities ; for though it left unimpaired the main arguments 
 of the ' Dissertation,' yet, abounding in ready wit and satirical viva- 
 
 city, it procured for the young nobleman of Oxford a temporary 
 
 triumph. Bentley put forth in 1699 his 'Dissertation' enlarged and 
 separately printed ; it effected the most complete demolition of tlie 
 Oxford wits, who threatened but never attempted an answer. Boyle, 
 in 1700, was elected a member of parliament for Huntingdon; and, 
 in consequence of a quarrel with his opponent, Mr. Wortley, he 
 fought a duel with him in a gravel-pit near Grosvenor Gate in Hyde 
 Park — an affair which, from his extreme loss of blood, was nearly fatal 
 to him. In 1703 he succeeded to the title of Earl of Orrery. He 
 entered the service of Queen Anne, received the command of a 
 regiment, and was made a Knight Companion of the Order of the 
 Thistle. In 1709, as major-general, he fought at the famous battle of 
 the VVood, under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, at 
 Malplaquet, near Mons in Belgium. On his return to England be 
 was sworn a member of the privy council, and sent, at the time of the 
 treaty of Utrecht in 1713, as envoy extraordinary to the states of 
 Brabant and Flanders. For his services on this occasion he was 
 raised to the English peerage with the title of Lord Boyle, baron of 
 Marston in Somerset. On the accession of George I. he was made a 
 lord of the bedchamber, and became a confidential favourite at court. 
 In September 1722 he was abruptly committed to the Tower on a 
 charge of high treason, as an accomplice in the sedition called Layer's 
 Plot. After six months imprisonment he was bailed by Dr. Mead and 
 others, and was ultimately acquitted. He amused himself in the 
 latter part of his life with philosophical subjects ; and patronised 
 George Graham, an ingenious watchmaker, who constructed the 
 mechanical instrument representing the planetary revolutions, and in 
 gratitude to his benefactor gave it the name of an Orrery. " The 
 whole merit of inventing it belongs," says Dr. Johnson, " to Rowley, a 
 mathematician of Lichfield." (Index, vol. ii Suppl. Swift's Works.) 
 In the second volume of the works of Roger, earl of Orrery, are 
 several literary compositions of Charles Boyle ; among other trifles, a 
 comedy called ' As you find it.' He published also a volume of 
 
 1 Occasional Poems and Songs.' But none of his writings display any 
 portion of the wit of the ' Examination,' and his name would scarcely 
 find a place in a biography except for his connection with the con- 
 troversy waged in his name. He died at the age of fifty-six, on the 
 28th of August 1731. 
 
 BOYLE, JOHN, only son of Charles, fourth earl of Orrery, was 
 born February 2, 1707. On the death of his father in 1731, he took 
 his seat in the House of Lords, and was a constant opposer of the 
 administration of Sir Robert Walpole. He resided in Ireland a good 
 deal, and formed an acquaintance with Swift; and in 1752 published 
 ' Remarks on the Life aud Writings of Dr. Swift.' In 1739 he pub- 
 lished, in 2 vols. 8vo, an edition of the dramatio works of his great- 
 grandfather. In 1741 he wrote 'Imitations of two of the Odes of 
 Horace.' In 1742 he edited his great-grandfather's 'State Papers,' 
 which were published in one vol. folio. In 1752 he published, in 
 
 2 vols. 4to, ' Pliny's Letters, with Observations on each, and an Essay 
 on the Life of Pliny.' In 1759 appeared his 'Life of Robert Cary, 
 earl of Monmouth.' He wrote several essays for ' The World,' ' The 
 Connoiseur,' and the ' Gentleman's Magazine.' He was fond of retire- 
 ment, and much attached to literary pursuits. The Earl of Orrery 
 died at his seat at Marston, Somersetshire, November 16th 1762, iu 
 his fifty-sixth year. In 1774 appeared a volume entitled ' Letters 
 from Italy,' which he had written while residing in that country in 
 1754-55. 
 
 BOYLE, RICHARD, was born at Canterbury on the 3rd of October, 
 1566. His family was respectable, and under the name of Biuvile had 
 been settled in Herefordshire for many generations ; but it was first 
 rendered illustrious by the subject of the present notice, who from 
 having been employed in the service of the chief baron of the 
 Exchequer as a clerk, rose to the highest honours of the state ; and as 
 if they were insufficient to mark the sense which was generally enter- 
 tained of his abilities, it has been usual to style him " the great Earl 
 of Cork." 
 
 From Bene't College, Cambridge, Mr. Boyle passed to the Middle 
 Temple, but having lost both his father and mother, his resources 
 were probably not sufficient for his maintenance during the usual 
 course of study, and he was thus led to offer his services to Sir R. 
 Manwood, at that time chief baron of the Exchequer. The circum- 
 stances in which he was now placed afforded him little opportunity 
 for the exercise of his talents, and in his twenty-second year he went 
 to Dublin in quest of a situation more suitable to the activity of his 
 disposition. His first employment was to draw up memorials and 
 other documents for individuals connected with the government, by 
 which means he acquired considerable insight into public affairs. In 
 1595 he married one of the co-heiresses of a gentleman of Limerick, 
 who in admiration of his talents overlooked the inadequacy of his 
 fortune. His wife died in giving birth to her first child, and left him 
 in possession of 500i. a-year arising from landed estates, and a sum in 
 cash besides. He lived with strict economy without being parsimo- 
 nious, and as land sold at a very cheap rate in Ireland, he increased 
 his property by considerable purchases in Ulster. The envy of several 
 influential persons was excited by his prosperity, and they respectively 
 addressed letters to Queen Elizabeth, stating that Mr. Boyle, who only 
 came into the country a few years brfore, made so many purchases of 
 landod property as to occasion suspicion of his being aided by some 
 
881 
 
 BOYLE, ROBERT. 
 
 BOYLE, ROBERT. 
 
 881 
 
 foreign prince ; a circumstance which was the more evident, they 
 alleged, owing to some of his newly-acquired possessions being on the 
 coast, and possessed of advantages for facilitating an invasion, an event 
 which at the time was generally anticipated. Mr. Boyle, who had 
 been informed of these machinations, had resolved upon repairing to 
 the English court in order to defend his interests and character, but 
 the rebellion of Muuster broke out before he could quit Ireland. His 
 estate was ravaged by the rebels, and as he himself states, "I could 
 not say that I had one penny of certain revenue left me." 
 
 He now returned with forlorn prospects to the Temple; but when 
 the Earl of Essex was sent to Ireland, he was received in the suite of 
 that nobleman. On again reaching the country his former enemies 
 made another attempt to crush his reviving hopes. They were so far 
 successful as to occasion his being put under confinement, but on his 
 case coming before the English Privy Council he was fortunate to 
 secure the presence of the queen, who listened with interest to his 
 able and successful defence. Before he concluded he exhibited the 
 principal instigator of the proceedings (Sir Henry Wallop, treasurer of 
 Ireland) in the character of a public peculator, and clearly proved 
 that he passed his accounts in an irregular and dishonest manner. 
 When he had done speaking, the queen said, " By God's death, all 
 these are but inventions against this young man, and all his sufferings 
 are for his being able to do us service, and those complaints urged to 
 forestall him therein ; but we find him a man fit to be employed by 
 ourselves, and will employ him in our services. Wallop and his 
 adherents shall know that it shall not be in the power of any of them 
 to wrong him, neither shall Wallop be our treasurer any longer." A 
 new treasurer was immediately appointed, and Boyle was made clerk 
 of the council of Munster ; "and this," he says, " was the second rise 
 that God gave to my fortunes." 
 
 He returned to Ireland to discharge the duties of his office, and 
 shortly afterwards, on the Spaniards and Tyrone being defeated with 
 great los3, was sent to announce the victory to the English court. He 
 performed this duty with extraordinary celerity, having, as he says in 
 his memoirs, left the lord president at Shannon Castle, near Cork, 
 " on the Monday morning about two of the clock, and the next day, 
 being Tuesday, I delivered my packet and supped with Sir Robert 
 Cecil, being then principal secretary, at his house in the Strand, who 
 after supper held me in discourse till two of the clock in the morning ; 
 and by seven that morning called upon me to attend him to the court, 
 where he presented me to her Majesty in her bedchamber." The 
 queen again received him in a gracious manner. 
 
 His fortunes now took a more prosperous turn. He bought at a 
 low price the Irish estates of Sir Walter Raleigh, which contained 
 12,000 acres, and by judicious management greatly increased their 
 value. In July 1603 Mr. Boyle married a daughter of Sir Geoffrey 
 Fenton, principal secretary of state ; on which occasion his friend Sir 
 George Carew, the lord-deputy of Ireland, knighted him on his 
 wedding-day. In 1606 he was sworn a privy councillor to King James 
 for the province of Munster; in 1612 a privy councillor for the king- 
 dom of Ireland; in 1616 he was created Lord Boyle, baron of 
 Youghall ; and in 1620 Viscount Dungarvan and Earl of Cork. In 
 1629 he was constituted one of the lords justices of Ireland; in 1631 
 lord high treasurer, an office which was made hereditary in his 
 family. 
 
 Charles L, out of regard to the Earl of Cork's character and talents, 
 and as an acknowledgment of his services, created the earl's second son 
 then living, Lewis, a child of eight years old, Viscount Kynelmeaky. 
 Lewis was killed in the battle of Liscaroll in 1642, and his widow 
 was created Countess of Guildford in her own right by Charles II. 
 The Earl of Cork was a witness against Lord Strafford, with whom 
 he had not been on cordial terms in consequence partly of the jealousy 
 with which Lord Strafford during his residence in Ireland as lord- 
 lieutenant had regarded the influence of the Earl of Cork. 
 
 The Earl of Cork died September 15th, 1643, in the seventy-eighth 
 year of his age. His wife, by whom he had fifteen children, died in 
 1630. 
 
 (Budgell, Memoirs of the Family of the Boyles, 1732 ; Life of the 
 Man. Robert Boyle, by Birch ; Memoirs written by the Earl of Cork in 
 1632, called True Remembrances.) 
 
 BOYLE, ROBERT, was the seventh eon of Richard Boyle, earl of 
 Cork, and his wife Catherine, only daughter of Sir Geoffrey Fenton, 
 secretary of state for Ireland. There were fifteen children of this 
 marriage, and the subject of this memoir (the fourteenth) was born 
 on the 25th of January 1627 at Lismore in the province of Munster. 
 
 The autobiography and correspondence of Robert Boyle have been 
 almost entirely forgotten in the superior fame which he has attained 
 in chemistry and medicine. If we consider the position in which he 
 stands among our philosophers, it will not appear superfluous, having 
 bis own words to qaote, if we give the account of his earlier years at 
 some length. The narration in question (in which he calls himself 
 Philaretus, and writes in the third person) is prefixed to Dr. Birch's 
 edition of his works in 5 vols, fol., which we here cite once for all — 
 ' The Works of the Hon. Robert Boyle, in five volumes, to which is 
 prefixed a Life of the Author,' London, 1744. Of his birth and 
 station he says, "that it so suited his inclinations and designs, that, 
 nad he been permitted an election, his choice would scarce have 
 altered God's assignment." He lost his mother at an early age, this 
 
 bioo. div. '.or., i. 
 
 being one ' great disaster ; ' the other was the acquisition of a habit 
 of stuttering, which came upon him from mocking other children. 
 He was taught early to speak both French and Latin, and his studious- 
 ness and veracity endeared him to his father. At eight years old he 
 was sent to Eton with his elder brother, the provost being Sir Henry 
 Wotton, " a person that was not only a fine gentleman himself, but 
 very well skilled in the art of making others so." Here he was placed 
 under the immediate care of Mr. Harrison, one of the masters, and 
 became immoderately fond of study from " the accidental perusal of 
 Quintus Curtius, which first made him in love with other than 
 pedantic books." He always declared that he was more obliged to 
 this author than was Alexander. Two years afterwards the 'Romance 
 of Amadis de Gaule' was put into his hands "to divert hie melan- 
 choly," and by this and other such works his habit of persevering 
 study was weakened. He was obliged afterwards systematically to 
 conquer the ill-effects of this mental regimen, and "the most effectual 
 way he found to be the extraction of the square and cube roots, and 
 especially those more laborious operations of algebra which so entirely 
 exact the whole man, that the smallest distraction or heedlessness 
 constrains us to renew our trouble, and re-begin the operation." His 
 father had now come to England, and settled at Stalbridge in Dorset- 
 shire ; on which account Robert Boyle was soon removed from Eton 
 to his father's house, and placed under the tuition of the rector of the 
 parish. In the autumn of 1638 he was sent to travel with an elder 
 brother, under the care of M. Marcombes, a Frenchman, to whom he 
 acknowledges himself iu various ways greatly indebted. It had been 
 intended that he should have served in a troop of horse which his 
 eldest brother had raised, but the illness of another brother prevented 
 this. He travelled through France, and settled with his governor at 
 Geneva, for the prosecution of his studies. A thunderstorm which 
 happened there in the night was the cause of those religious impres- 
 sions which he retained throughout his life. He carried his theo- 
 logical studies to considerable depth. He cultivated both Hebrew and 
 Greek, that he might read the originals of the Scriptures. 
 
 In September 1641 he left Geneva, and travelled in Italy, where he 
 employed himself in learning the language, and " in the new para- 
 doxes of the great star-gazer, Galileo, whose ingenious books, perhaps 
 because they could not be so otherwise, were confuted by a decree 
 from Rome." Having seen Florence, Rome, and Genoa, he proceeded 
 to Marseille, and there his own narrative ends. At Marseille he was 
 detained for want of money, owing to the troubles in England ; 
 having however procured funds from his governor, he returned to 
 London, where he found (in 1644) his father dead, and himself in 
 possession of the manor of Stalbridge, with other property. At that 
 place he resided till 1650, not taking any part in politics, and being 
 in communication with men of influence in both parties, whereby his 
 property received protection from both. The epistolary correspond- 
 ence of Boyle is amusing, and furnishes one of the earliest specimens 
 of the lighter style. 
 
 From this time to the end of his life he appears to have been engaged 
 in study. His chemical experiments date from 1646. He was one of 
 the first members of the Invisible College, as he calls it, which has 
 since become the Royal Society. The rest of his public life is little 
 more than the history of his printed works, which are voluminous, 
 and will presently be further specified. He must have written with 
 singular rapidity, for an argumentative and elaborate letter, written 
 as appears on the face of it in the morning, previously to making his 
 preparations for a journey in the afternoon, is of a length equal to 
 nearly four columns of this work. After various journeys to his Irish 
 estates, he settled at Oxford in 1654, where he remained till 1668. 
 Here his life (' Works,' vol. instates him to have invented the air- 
 pump, which is not correct, though he made considerable improvements 
 in it. On the accession of Charles II. in 1660 he was much pressed to 
 enter the Church, but refused, both as feeling the want of a sufficient 
 vocation towards that profession, and as desirous to add to his writings 
 in favour of Christianity all the force which could be derived from 
 his fortune not being interested in its defence. When he left Oxford 
 he took up his abode with his elder sister, Lady Ranelagh, in London, 
 and in 1663 was one of the first council of the newly-incorporated 
 Royal Society. In the year 1666 his name appears as attesting the 
 miraculous cures (as they were called by many) of Valentine Greatraks, 
 an Irishman, who by a sort of animal magnetism made his own hands 
 the medium of giving many patients almost instantaneous relief. At 
 the same time, in illustration of what we shall presently have to say 
 on the distinction between Boyle as an eye-witness and Boyle as a 
 judge of evidence, we find him in 1669 not indisposed to receive, and 
 that upon the hypothesis implied in the words, the " true relation of 
 the things which an unclean spirit did and said at Mascon in Burgundy." 
 &c. That he should have been inclined to prosecute inquiries about 
 the transmutation of metals needs no excuse, considering the state of 
 chemical knowledge in his day ; and we find even Newton inclined to 
 fear the consequences which might follow from the further prosecution 
 of some experiments of Boyle, the results of which only had been 
 stated. 
 
 It appears that both Boyle and Newton were startled with the result 
 of Boyle's experiments ; and the treatment which old believers in 
 alchemy have experienced from the present age will render it no less 
 than just to say that faith in alchemy now, and the same in the middle 
 
 3 L 
 
888 
 
 BOYLE, ROBERT. 
 
 BOYLE, ROGER. 
 
 884 
 
 of th6 17th century, are two things so different in kind, that to laugh 
 at both in one shows nothing but the ignorance of the laugher. 
 
 Boyle had been for years a director of the East India Company, and 
 •we find a letter of his iu 1G76 pressing upon that body the duty of 
 promoting Christianity in the East. He caused the Gospels and the 
 Acts of the Apostles to be translated into Malay, at his own cost, by 
 Dr. Thomas Hyde ; and he promoted an Irish version. He also gave 
 a large reward to the translator of Grotius ' He Veritate,' &c, into 
 Arabic ; and would have been at the whole expense of a Turkish 
 Testament, had not the East India Company relieved him of a part. 
 Iu the year 1(580 he was elected President of the Royal Society, a post 
 which he declined, as appears by a letter to Hooke ('Works,' i. p. 74), 
 from scruples of conscience about the religious tests and oaths required. 
 In 1688 he advertised the public that some of his manuscripts had 
 been lost or stolen, and others mutilated by accident; and iu 1689, 
 finding his health declining, he refused most visits, and set himself to 
 repair the loss. Iu that year, being still in a sort of expectation that 
 the alchemical project miyht succeed, he procured the repeal of the 
 statute 5 Hen. IV. "against the multiplying of gold or silver;" and 
 what was still more useful, the same statute contains a provision that 
 "no mine of copper, &c, shall be adjudged a royal mine, although 
 gold or silver may be extracted out of the same." In 1691 his com- 
 plaints began to assume a more serious character. Lady Ranela^h 
 died on the 23rd of December, and he followed her on the 30th of the 
 same month. He was buried at St. Martiu's-iu-theFielda, January 7, 
 1692, and a funeral sermon was preached on the occasion by Dr. Burnet, 
 who had long been his friend, and to the expenses of whose ' History 
 of the Reformation' he had largely contributed. 
 
 Boyle was never married. He was tall, blender, and emaciated ; 
 excessively abstemious in food, and somewhat oppressed by low spirits; 
 but at the same time of a copiousness of conversation and wit which 
 made Cowley and Daveuant rank him iu that respect among the first 
 men of his age. His benevolence both in action and sentiment distin- 
 guished him from others as much as his acquirements and experiments, 
 and that iu an age when toleration was unknown. He constantly 
 refused a peerage, though the personal friend of three successive kings. 
 He was always a moderate adherent of the Church of England; nor 
 is it recorded that he ever attended any other place of worship, except 
 once when he went to hear Sir Henry Vane discourse at his own house, 
 on which occasion he entered into a discussion with the preacher. 
 Finally, he was a man of whom all spoke well. With such a character, 
 it is not to be wondered at it' his private virtues were made to reflect 
 a lustre upon his scientific exploits which the latter could nob hi.ve 
 gained alone ; the more especially when it is considered that his con- 
 temporaries, who viewed him as he was and from their own position, 
 had a right to regard his genius as one which produced results of the 
 first order, which could be but another way of saying that it was of 
 the first order itself. So indeed it has been understood : and we are 
 accustomed to talk of Bacon and Newton and Boyle together. The 
 merits of Boyle are indeed singular and almost unprecedented; his 
 discoveries are in several cases of the highest utility ; but we do not 
 think the inference that they were the result of a reasoning power or 
 a distinctive sagacity of the highest kind, would be correct. Coming 
 after Bacon, feeling all the beauty of his methods, disgusted with the 
 spirit of s} stem, and strong beyond his contemporaries in common 
 sense, the same view of life which made him indifferent to the political 
 and religious disputes of his time, and content himself with the know- 
 ledge and practice of the things which they all agreed in, also regulated 
 his views of philosophy ; so that he began to investigate for himself, 
 on the simple principle of examining closely, and strictly relating what 
 he saw. In this respect his writings remind us strongly of those of 
 Roger Bacon : they are full of sensible views and experiments of his 
 own, and of absurdities derived from the relation of others. He leans 
 too much, for one of our day, to the attempt to discover the funda- 
 mental relations which touch close upon the primary qualities of matter, 
 instead of endeavouring to connect and classify what he had actually 
 observed. His discoveries do not show him to have that talent for 
 suggestion and power of perceiving points of comparison, which is the 
 distinguishing attribute of the greatest discoverers. To take an 
 instance : in his experiments " showing how to make flame stable and 
 ponderable," he finds that various substances gain weight by being 
 heated. He states it then as proved that "either flame, or the 
 analogous effluxions of the fire, will be, what chemists would call, 
 coi porified with metals or minerals exposed naked to its action ;" but 
 it never suggests itself to him that the additional substance added to 
 the metal or mineral may be air, or a part of air. 
 
 When a character has been overrated in any respect, the discovery 
 of it is usually attended by what the present age calls a 'reaction:' 
 the pendulum of opinion swings to the side opposite to that on which 
 it has been unduly brought out of its position of equilibrium. And 
 this has been the case with recent estimates of the character of Boyle 
 as a man of science. Perhaps it will be a fair method to take a foreign 
 history of physics (where national partiality is out of the question) 
 and try the following point : — What are those discoveries of the 
 Briton of the 17th century which would be thought worthy of record 
 by a Frenchman of the 19th? In the 'Hist. Phil, du Progres de la 
 Physique,' Paris, 1810, by M. Libes, we find a chapter devoted to the 
 •Progres de la Physique entre les mains de Boyle,' and we are told 
 
 that the air-pump in his hands became a new machine— that such 
 means in the hands of a man of genius multiply science, and that it ia 
 impossible to follow Boyle through hie labours without being astonished 
 at the immensity of his resources for tearing out the secrets of nature. 
 The discovery of the propagation of sound by the air (the more 
 creditable to Boyle that Otto von Guericke had been led aBtray as to 
 the cause), of the absorbing power of the atmosphere, of the elastic 
 force and combustive power of steam, the approximation to the weight 
 of the air, the discovery of the ' reciprocal ' attraction of the electrified 
 and non-electrified body, are mentioned as additions to the science. 
 There is a peculiar advantage consequent upon such a labourer as 
 Boyle in the infancy of such a science as chemistry. Here are no 
 observed facts of such common occurrence, and the phenomena of 
 which arc bo distinctly understood, that any theory receives something 
 like assent or disseut as soon as it is proposed. The science of 
 mechanics must have originally stood to chemistry much in the same 
 relation as the objects of botany to those of mineralogy : the first 
 presenting themselves, the second to be sought for. The mine was to 
 be found as well as worked ; and every one who sunk a shaft diminished 
 the labour of his successors by showing at least one place where it 
 was not. In this point of view it is impossible to say to what degree 
 of obligation chemistry ia to limit its acknowledgments to Boyle. 
 Searching every inlet which phenomena presented, trying the whole 
 material world in detail, and with a disposition to prize an error pre- 
 vented, as much as a truth discovered, it cannot be told how many 
 were led to that which does exist, by the previous warning of Boyle as 
 to ttiat which does not. Perhaps had his genius been of a higher 
 order he would have made fewer experiments and better deductions; 
 but as it was, he was admirably fitted for the task he undertook, aud 
 no one can say that his works, the eldest progeny of the ' Novum 
 Organum,' were anything but a credit to the source whence they 
 sprung, or that their author is unworthy to occupy a high place in 
 our Pantheon, though not precisely on the grounds taken in many 
 biographies or popular treatises. 
 
 The characteristics of Boyle as a theological writer are much the 
 same as those which appertain to him as a philosopher. He does not 
 enter at all into disputed articles of faith, and preserves a quiet and 
 
 1 argumentative tone throughout : but the very great prolixity which 
 he falls into renders him almost unreadable. He was, as he informs 
 us in his youth, a writer of verses, and one fancy-piece in prose, ' The 
 Martyrdom of Theodora,' has been preserved, wherein his hero and 
 
 ' heroine make set speeches to each other, of a kind somewhat like 
 those in Cicero de Uratore, with a little dash of Amadis de Gaule, 
 until the executioner relieves the reader. His 'Occasional Reflections' 
 have fallen under the lash of the two greatest satirists in our language, 
 Swift and Butler, in the ' Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick ' of the 
 former, and an ' Occasional Reflection on Dr. Charlton's feeling a dog's 
 pulse at Gresham College,' published with the posthumous writings 
 of the latter. The treatises ' On Seraphic Love,' ' Considerations on 
 the Style of the Scriptures,' and ' On the great Veneration that Man's 
 Intellect owes to God,' have a place in the ' Index librorum prohibi- 
 torum' of the Roman Church. 
 
 The ' Boy lean Lectures ' were instituted by him in his last will, 
 and endowed with the proceeds of certain property, as a salary for a 
 " divine or preaching minister," on condition of preaching eight sermons 
 
 1 in the year for proving the Christian religion against notorious infidels, 
 
 1 namely, atheists, theists, pagans, Jews, and Mohammedans, not descend- 
 ing lower to any controversies that are among Christians themselves. 
 
 ! The minister is also required to promote the propagation of Christianity, 
 and answer the scruples of all who apply to him. The stipend was 
 made perpetual by Archbishop Tennison. Dr. Bentley was appointed 
 the first Boyle lecturer. We shall not give a detailed list of all the 
 titles of Boyle's works, which would occupy much room to little 
 purpose, as a complete set of the original editions is very rarely met 
 with, and the two collected editions have their own indexes. During 
 his lifetime, in 1677, a very imperfect and incorrect edition was pub- 
 lished at Geneva. The first complete edition was published in 1744 
 by Dr. Birch, as already noticed. It is in five volumes folio, and 
 contains the life which has furnished all succeeding writers with 
 authorities, besides a very copious index. The collection of letters in 
 the fifth volume is highly interesting. The second complete edition 
 was published in 1772. But previously to either of these, Dr. Shaw, 
 the editor of Bacon, deserved well of the scientific world by publishing 
 an edition of Boyle in three volumes quarto, "abridged, methodised, 
 and disposed under general heads." As far as may be, the various 
 and scattered experiments are brought together, and a good index 
 added, but we cannot find any references to the originals. There is a 
 list of Boyle's works in Hutton's mathematical dictionary, and another 
 in Moreri. 
 
 BOYLE, ROGER, fifth son and eleventh child of the first earl of 
 Cork, born April 26, 1621, was created Baron Broghill, almost while in 
 his infancy, by Charles I. He married a sister of the Earl of Suffolk, 
 and landed with his wife in Ireland the day after the breaking out of 
 the rebellion, which he displayed great activity in quelling. 
 
 The death of Charles I., and the state of his possessions in Ireland, 
 which he almost gave up as lost, induced Boyle to seek retirement in 
 England, where he occupied himself with projects for the restoration 
 of royalty. He had gone so far aa to obtain a passport, and was on 
 
BOYLSTON, ZABDIEL. 
 
 the poiut of leaving the kingdom for the purpose of having an inter- 
 view with Charles II., when his proceedings, and the future course of 
 his life, were turned in another direction by the dexterous manage- 
 ment of Cromwell, who, with the members of the Committee of Public 
 Safety, had become acquainted with Lord Broghill's intentions. Crom- 
 well had been struck with the possibility of securing the services of 
 Lord Broghill in the cause of the Commonwealth, and having the sanc- 
 tion of the members of the committee, he sent a message to his lord- 
 ship informing him of his desire to wait upon him, and followed his 
 own messenger so quickly, that he entered his lordship's apartments 
 before he had time to deliberate upon the meaning of the communi- 
 cation. Cromwell informed Lord Broghill that the Committee of 
 Safety were acquainted with his intended movements, which he detailed. 
 Lord Broghill attempted to deny the facts, on which Cromwell pro- 
 duced copies of papers which his lordship had confidentially addressed 
 to friends of the royalist cause. The frank and candid manner of 
 Cromwell, the just compliments which he paid to Lord Broghill's 
 merits, and the real service which he was doing him by protecting him 
 from the consequences of his conduct, completely succeeded in gaining 
 him to Cromwell's proposals. Cromwell, who was about to proceed 
 with an army to Ireland, offered Broghill the command of a general 
 officer, with a condition that his services should be limited to the im- 
 mediate object of the expedition. Broghill, after some hesitation, 
 accepted Cromwell's proposition. His services in Ireland proved that his 
 abilities had not been overrated. On one or two occasions his boldness 
 and activity were of signal value, especially during the siege of Clon- 
 mel, when his vigilance prevented the rebels from forming in the rear 
 of the army during the siege. While engaged upon this service he 
 received an urgent message from Cromwell recalling him to Clonmel, 
 the siege of which he feared he should be compelled to raise, as there 
 was much disease in the army, and it had been twice repulsed by the 
 Irish. At the end of three days Lord Broghill appeared at the head 
 of his division before Clonmel, when Cromwell caused the whole army 
 to salute him by the cry of ' A Broghill ! a Broghill ! ' Cromwell 
 himself embraced him, and shortly afterwards, though it was in the 
 depth of winter, Clonmel was taken. 
 
 Under the Protectorate Lord Broghill was one of the privy council, 
 and at the special request of Cromwell he went to preside in Scotland. 
 Richard Cromwell selected him as one of the cabinet council, along 
 with Dr. Williams and Colonel Philips, and more than once his lord- 
 ship's political talents were most dexterously employed in sustaining 
 the Protector's interests. But the impossibility of Richard Cromwell 
 any longer retaining the protectorate becoming soon evident, Lord 
 Broghill. conceiving that the country might otherwise fall into the 
 hands of a cabal, used every exertion to bring about the Restoration. 
 He repaired to Ireland, and by his influence secured the co-operation 
 of some of the most important individuals in the army, and soon after 
 sent Lord Shannon, his younger brother, with a letter encouraging 
 Charles II. to land in Ireland. 
 
 After the Restoration Lord Broghill was created earl of Orrery, and 
 took his seat in the cabinet council. He also acted as one of the lords 
 justices for the government of Ireland, and was appointed lord presi- 
 dent of the province of Munster. In the leisure which succeeded the 
 active part of his life, the Earl of Orrery, at the king's request, wrote 
 several plays. He wrote also some verses on the death of Cowley, and 
 other poetical pieces ; a thin folio, on the art of war; and 'Parthe- 
 nissa,' a large romance in folio, part of which he wrote by desire of 
 Henrietta Maria, daughter of Charles I. These productions have no 
 great merit, and were chiefly written during severe attacks of the gout. 
 
 He opposed a petition presented to the king by the Irish Catholics, 
 praying for the restoration of their estates : the prayer of the peti- 
 tioners was rejected. The Act of Settlement, which was drawn up by 
 the Earl of Orrery, contains stipulations by which those Roman Catho- 
 lics who had conducted themselves loyally were restored to their pos- 
 sessions. In a local court, in which he presided in virtue of his office 
 of Lord President of Munster, he is stated to have acted with great 
 wisdom and equity. The Earl of Orrery died Oct. 16th, 1679, in his 
 59th year. 
 
 BOYI.STOX, ZABDIEL, an American physician, was born in the 
 state of Massachusetts in 1684. He was the first to introduce inocu- 
 lation into New England, where the practice became general before it 
 was common in Great Britain. In 1721 the small-pox broke out at 
 Boston in an alarming manner, when Dr. Cotton Mather pointed out 
 to the profession an account of inoculation as practised in the East, 
 which was contained in a volume of the 'Transactions of the Rojal 
 Society.' Notwithstanding the ridicule with which his medical 
 brethren treated this mode of counteracting a virulent disease, 
 Boylston had the courage to inoculate his own son. In the years 
 17<il and 1722, the practice of inoculation spread, and, with one or 
 two exceptions, it was attended with the most successful results. But 
 such were the obstinate prejudices of the profession and the public 
 generally, that clamours were raised against Boylston, and his life was 
 in danger in consequence of the excited state of popular feeling; 
 even the 'select men' of Boston pa-sed a by-law prohibitory of inocu- 
 lation. It was alleged that the practice increased the probabilities of 
 contagion, and also that the disease being a judgment from Heaven on 
 men's eins, it was impious to adopt such means to avert its wrath. 
 Boylston outlived these prejudices, and acquired a considerable fortune 
 
 BOZZARIS, MARCOS. 886 
 
 by the successful practice of his profession. During a visit which he 
 paid to England, he met with great attention, and was elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society. He corresponded with this body on his return 
 to America, and some of his papers are printed in the Society's 
 'Transactions.' He was the author of two works relating to the 
 small-pox (one a pamphlet published at Boston), both of which are in 
 the library of the British Museum. The other work was printed in 
 London. He died at Brookline, Massachusetts, March 1, 1766. 
 
 BOYSE, SAMUEL, a writer of considerable poetical talent, but 
 remarkable chiefly for the singular contrast of his elevated imagination 
 and rectitude of moral sentiment, as displayed in his writings, and his 
 dissolute propensities. He was the son of Joseph Boyse, an eminent 
 dissenting minister, and was born in Dublin in 1708. Being destined 
 for the pulpit, he was sent by his father to the University of Glasgow, 
 where, after spending a few months in idleness, he married while yet 
 in his teens ; and with his wife and her sister, who in dissipation and 
 indolence were similar to himself, he returned to Dublin, and occa- 
 sioned by his dissolute conduct the ruin and death of his father. 
 Boyse then went to Edinburgh, and published in 1731 a volume of 
 poems, with a flattering dedication to the Countess of Eglinton, who, 
 with Lord Stormont (on the death of whose lady Boyse had published 
 a laudatory elegy), patronised him, and kindly recommended him to 
 Lord Mansfield and the Duchess of Gordon, by whom, and also by 
 Lords Stair and Tweedale, he was furnished with introductory letters 
 to the lord chancellor, Sir Peter King, Pope, and other important 
 personages in England, whither he removed to escape from the 
 importunity of his creditors in Scotland. But his indolence and 
 aversion to refined society defeated the friendly intentions of his 
 patrons ; so that, resorting to a squalid garret in London, he relied 
 upon the sale of his verses and the charitable donations of literary 
 individuals, whose compassion he excited by the most servile and 
 pathetic protestations of his miserable condition. In 1740 he pub- 
 lished his principal work, a poem entitled ' Deity ' — one of the 
 numerous attempts at poetical sublimity in which the most ridiculous 
 faults are tolerated solely on account of the subject. The devotional 
 reflections, though incoherent, and made often apparently to furnish a 
 rhyme, display an occasional energy of poetical conception which 
 even Pope declared he would not disown. But we can feel only 
 disgust at the pious pretensions of a man who, often with a guinea 
 obtained by employing his wife to write mendicant letters, could 
 gratify his sensuality at a tavern while she and her child were suffering 
 with cold and hunger. Boyse was a very copious contributor of verses 
 to the * Gentleman's Magazine : ' these verses have the signatures ' Y ' 
 and ' Alcceus,' and if collected would form about six 8vo volumes. 
 Among his separate publications are, 'Albion's Triumph,' a poem on 
 the battle of Dettingen ; ' An Historical Review of the Transactions 
 in Europe during 1739-45 ;' ' Chaucer's Tales in Modern English,' &c. 
 He was not deficient in ability as a classical scholar, and a translator 
 of German, Dutch, and French ; but his inveterate habit of drinking 
 hot beer in the lowest pot-houses at length stupified his mind, and 
 reduced him to the necessity of pledging even his clothes. In this 
 predicament he sometimes, for several weeks, sat up in bed composing 
 ode's and elegies for the ' Gentleman's Magazine.' All the mourning 
 he could afford on the death of his wife was a pennyworth of black 
 ribbon, which he tied round the neck of his little dog. His wretched- 
 ness, like that of Savage, was commiserated by Dr. Johnson, who 
 instituted for him, among his friends, a subscription of sixpences. 
 His benefactors, wearied out with his applications, at length abandoned 
 him, and in May 1749 he died in his garret in Shoe-lane, with his pen 
 in his hand, as he sat in his blanket translating the treatise of Fenelon 
 on the existence of God. He left a second wife in extreme poverty, 
 and was buried at the expense of the parish. 
 
 BO'ZZARIS, MARCUS, a native of Souli in the mountains of 
 Epirus, born about the end of the 18th century, was yet a boy at the 
 time of the war of extermination waged by Ali Pasha of Jannina 
 against the Souliotes. [Ali Pasha.] At the close of that war in 1803 
 Bozzaris and his father were among the remnant of the Souliote popu- 
 lation who succeedod in reaching Parga, whence they went over to the 
 Ionian Islands, then under the protection of Hussia. In 1820, when 
 the war broke out between the sultan and Ali, about 800 Souliotes, 
 who were still in the Ionian Islands, offered their services to the Otto- 
 man admiral against their old enemy, and were accordingly lauded on 
 the coast of Epirus. Soon after, however, having reason to complain 
 of the Turks, and at the same time receiviug favourable proposals with 
 a bribe of money from Ali, they went over to the pasha, by whom they 
 were replaced in possession of their native mountains. This enabled 
 Ali to carry on the contest against the sultan for two years longer. 
 The Souliotes now fought for him with their accustomed bravery 
 under the command of Bozzaris, and their ranks were swelled by other 
 Epirotes to about 3000 fighting men. With this force Bozzaris gained 
 several advantages over the Turkish army, which was acting in Epirus 
 against Ali. In the spring of 1821 the sultan sent Khourshid Pasha 
 with a fresh army, who laid siege to Jannina, Bozzaris and his 
 Souliotes annoyed the Turks by bold diversions in their rear, while 
 the Greek revolution breaking out at the same time added to the diffi- 
 culties of the sultan. On the taking of Jannina and the death of Ali 
 in February 1822, the Souliotes continued the war on their own 
 account, and being attacked by Khourshid in their mountains, they 
 
687 
 
 BRACCIO, FORTEBRACCI. 
 
 BRACCIO, FORTEBRACCI. 
 
 888 
 
 defeated him with great loss in May and June of that year. Khourshid 
 at last quitted Epirus, leaving Omer Vrioni in command there, while 
 at the same time Prince Mavrocordato landed at Mesolonghi with a 
 body of regular troops in the Greek service, and being joined by 
 Bozzaris advanced towards Arta. This movement led to the battle of 
 Petta, on the 16th of July 1822, which the Greeks and Philhelleues 
 lost through the treachery of Gogos, an old Kleftis and captain of 
 Armatoles. Bozzaris, after fighting bravely, was obliged to retire with 
 Mavrocordato to Mesolonghi. Soon after the Souliotes, who had 
 remained in their mountains, signed a capitulation with the Turks, by 
 which they gave up Souli and the fortress of Khiafa, and on receiving 
 a sum of money, retired with their families to Oefalonia, in September 
 1822. Bozzaris with a handful of Souliotes remained with Mavro- 
 cordato, determined to defend Mesolonghi to the last. He kept the 
 Turks at bay by various sorties, and aUo amused them by promises of 
 surrender, until a llydriote flotilla coming to relieve the place, the 
 Turks raised the siege and retired into Epirus, March 1823. The pasha 
 of Scodra advanced next with a numerous force of Albauiaus, deter- 
 mined upon taking Mesolonghi. Bozzaris feeling the importance of 
 that town to the Greek cause, and knowing the weakness of the forti- 
 fications, which were unfit to resist a regular siege, determined to meet 
 the enemy. He left Mesolonghi with a body of only 1200 men, 800 of 
 whom were his own Souliotes, and arrived on the 20th of August 1823, 
 near Kerpenisi, where the van of the Albanians, consisting of about 
 4000 Mirdites under Jeladceu Bey, was encamped. Having held a 
 council with his officers, it was determined to attack the enemy's camp 
 the following night. The Souliotes marched silently to the attack and 
 s-urprised the Albanians, of whom they mado a great slaughter. 
 Bozzaris while leading on his men received a shot in the loins, and 
 soon after another in the face, when he fell and expired. The Souliotes 
 then withdrew, carrying away Bozzaris' body, which was interred at 
 Mesolonghi with every honour. The executive government of Greece 
 being informed of the event issued a decree in which they styled 
 Bozzaris the Leonidas of modern Greece. His brother, Constantino 
 Bozzaris, succeeded him in the command of the Soulioto battalion. 
 The self-devotedness of Bozzaris was the means of protracting the 
 defence of Mesolonghi for two years more. 
 
 BRACCIO FORTEBRACCI, called also BRACCIO DA MONTO'NE, 
 from the name of his patrimonial estate, was born at Perugia in 13G8, 
 of an old patrician family. Braccio, before he was twenty, served as a 
 Condottiere, or leader of a mercenary troop, in the service of the 
 Count of Montefeltro against the Malatesti, lords of Rimini. In 1393, 
 when a general insurrection of the popular party took place at Perugia, 
 in which a number of the nobles were killed and the remainder driven 
 away, the castle of Montone became a rallying-point for the exiles, and 
 Braccio one of their stoutest champions. After a desultory warfare 
 between the two factions for several years, the popular party applied 
 for protection to Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the powerful duke of Milan, 
 and paid allegiance to him in January 1400; and after the death of 
 Visconti, the party transferred its allegiance to Pope Boniface IX., 
 under the plea of " the welfare of the Republic," on condition that the 
 emigrant nobles should remain in banishment. Braccio now resumed 
 his life of a Condottiere, and served in Lombardy under the great 
 leader Alberico da Barbiauo. He afterwards carried on a partisan 
 warfare on his own account, in the Marches of Ancoua, against the 
 Marquis Ludovico Migliorati, the nephew of Pope Innocent VII., when 
 he levied contributions, plundered towns, and got ransoms from the 
 officers whom he made prisoners. 
 
 In 1406 the great Western schism began, which was only extin- 
 guished twelve years after by the Council of Constance, during which 
 period several popes or autipopes distracted the church by their 
 conflicting claims. Ladislaus, king of Naples, thought of availing 
 himself of this confusion to occupy the Papal Spates and all central 
 Italy, and he sent messengers to Braccio in 1408, to iuduce him to 
 enter his service, promising to forward his views towards the subjection 
 of his native town, Perugia. Braccio accepted the proposal, received a 
 sum of money for his condotta, and crossing the Apennines at the 
 head of a considerable body of horse and foot, he scoured the valley of 
 the Tiber and took several towns in the name of the king. The people 
 of Perugia, in alarm, sent ambassadors to Ladislaus, who was then at 
 Rome, and offered him tlie dominion of their city, provided he would 
 not let the emigrants return. " Rather than make peace with the 
 nobles," said the leaders of the people in the council, " we will submit 
 to a foreign king." Ladislaus accepted, in June 1408, the dominion of 
 Perugia. He agreed that the emigrant nobles should not be allowed 
 to remain within thirty miles of the gates of Perugia. He also sent a 
 large body of ^Neapolitan cavalry to attack Braccio, who, having 
 received timely information, retired to the Marches, from whence, in 
 1409 he marched again towards the south, and joined the other great 
 Condottiere, Sforza Attendolo, in driving away the troops of Ladislaus 
 from the Roman State in the name of the new pope, John XXIII. 
 Braccio agaiu attacked Perugia, when Ladislaus, having made peace 
 with Pope John, sent Sforza to check his movements, and Braccio 
 moved towards Bologna in obedience to the orders of the pope. In 
 1414 Ladislaus died, and was succeeded by his sister Joanna II., a 
 weak princess. In the following year the Council of Constance deposed 
 John XXIII. Braccio, ever intent upon his object of re-entering his 
 native town by force, having exacted a sum of eighty thousand ducats 
 
 from the people of Bologna, marched with his bands in the spring of 
 1416, and encamped in front of Perugia, before the citizens had time 
 to prepare for defence. After some resistance, the citizens in despair 
 sent him a deputation, offering to make him Lord of Perugia, provided 
 he granted a general amnesty for the past. On the 19th of July 1416, 
 Braccio at tho head of his bands, and of all the emigrant nobles, after 
 twenty-four years of exile, re-entered Perugia in triumph amidst 
 acclamations, and received the oath of allegiance from the magistrates 
 and the principal citizens. His conduct was temperate, but firm; he 
 enjoined strict discipline on his soldiers ; he divided, at first, the civil 
 offices among the two parties, but by degrees he gave to his friends 
 the larger share; he checked the importunities of the emigrauts to 
 recover possession of their confiscated property ; he paid the debts of 
 the republic with his own treasures, accumulated during his wars; 
 and he encouraged the university of Perugia. Tho people began to 
 like him, and the learned gave him their praises; but he was cruel 
 towards those who offered him any resistance. 
 
 In 1417 Braccio marched towards Rome, which in the absence of a 
 legitimate pope was occupied by the Neapolitans, and entered it by 
 capitulation, but he was shortly after obliged to evacuate it at the 
 approach of his rival Sforza. The Council of Constance bad now 
 elected Pope Martin V., a man of determination, who expressed his 
 intention of recovering full possession of the Papal States, and ridding 
 them of all lords and usurpers. A deputation was sent to him from 
 the council and magistrates of Perugia, requesting him to confirm 
 Braccio, couut of Montone, as lord of Perugia, Martin gave an 
 evasive answer, upon which Braccio prepared for the threatened 
 danger by raising money from the neighbouring chieftains of the 
 Marches and of Umbria, who paid his demands through fear. About 
 this time Braccio issued a decree restoring to the emigrant nobility 
 of Perugia their property, of which they had been deprived since 
 1393. 
 
 Pope Martin allied himself with Queen Joanna of Naples, who gave 
 him her general, Sforza Attendolo, to reduce the Papal territories 
 into subjection. Braccio made preparation to oppose him, but before 
 the two rivals could meet in the field the pope quarrelled with Joanna, 
 upon which both he and Sforza supported the claims of the Anjou 
 dynasty to the crown of Naples. One consequence of this change 
 was that Martin agreed to make terms with Braccio, whom he invited 
 to meet him at Florence in February 1420. Braccio went to the con- 
 ference with the retinue of a great potentate, and accompanied by the 
 lords of Foligno, Camerino, Fabriano, and others, and by the principal 
 nobles of Perugia, Assisi, Todi, Orvieto, Narni, and Rieti. On arriving 
 at the gates of Florence, he took off his armour and put on a vest of 
 purple and gold, and entered the city on foot, escorted by the magis- 
 trates and first citizens of the republic, who accompanied him to the 
 palace of the pontiff. It wai agreed that Perugia and its territory, 
 and several towns in the Marches, should be administered by Braccio 
 and his heirs. Braccio was to serve with his troops at the expense 
 of the pope against Bologna, which had revolted under one of the 
 BentivoglL 
 
 On his return Braccio contributed to embellish Perugia, and he 
 ordered the construction of the emissary to carry off the superabund- 
 ant waters of the Thrasymeue Lake. Bologna in the course of two 
 months was obliged to capitulate to the troops of Braccio, and submit 
 to the pope in July 1420. At the close of that year he married, with 
 great pomp, the sister of Varani, lord of Camerino. Meantime a civil 
 war broke out in the kingdom of Naples. Louis of Anjou, count of 
 Provence, encouraged by Pope Martin, and supported by Sforza, who 
 had quarrelled with Queen Joanna, invaded the kingdom, where he 
 found numerous adherents among the nobles. Joanna sent Antonio 
 Caraffa, nicknamed Malizia on account of his cunning, as her ambas- 
 sador to Alfonso of Aragon and Sicily, who wa3 then in Sardiuia. 
 Alfonso went to Sicily to collect his fleet for the assistance of Joanna, 
 who at the same time offered to Braccio the command of her land 
 forces, with the rank of high-constable of the kingdom, and paid him 
 down 200,000 ducats in advance. Iu the spring of 1421 Braccio 
 entered the Abruzzo with a large force, suprising by the rapidity of 
 his march the partisans of the Angevius, who submitted, except 
 Count Caldora, who took refuge in the mountains. Sulmona capitu- 
 lated. Braccio, issuing out of the defiles of Abruzzo, surprised Capua, 
 and suddenly appeared before Naples, which was then besieged by 
 Sforza and by the fleet of Louis of Anjou. King Alfonso meantime 
 arrived with his fleet at the entrance of the bay; Sforza was obliged 
 to raise the siege, the Angevins retired to Castellamare, and Braccio 
 entered Naples in triumph with King Alfonso, who, together with 
 Queen Joanna, solemnly bestowed upon Braccio the golden staff of 
 high-constable of the kingdom, with supreme command over both the 
 Neapolitan and Aragonese forces, and caused the troops to swear obe- 
 dience to him. The queen at the same time created him Count of 
 Foggia and Prince of Capua, the last of which towns she gave him 
 in fief. A desultory predatory warfare was carried on for some time 
 by the troops of Braccio against those of Sforza, in which however 
 the poor inhabitants of the tine plains of Campania were the greatest 
 sufferers. Pope Martin now interfered as mediator, and Louis of 
 Anjou, giving up his attempt for the present, withdrew to Rome. 
 Sforza remained under arms, but Braccio undertook to win him over 
 to the queen's party; in which he succeeded at an interview near 
 
890 
 
 Monte Casino, when the two rival chiefs, who had both served iu 
 their youth under Alberico da Barbiaao, renewed their former 
 acquaintance. The war being now over, Braccio in the spring of 1422 
 returned to Perugia, after having taken on his way CittJt di Castello, 
 which he added to his other territories. 
 
 Iu the following year, fresh disturbances having broken out at 
 Naples, Alfonso sent again for Braccio, and Queen Joanna gave the 
 messengers a crown to be placed on his head as Prince of Aquila and 
 Capua, with full power to subdue and govern the important province 
 of Abruzzo, which had again revolted. On the 13th of February 1423, 
 the Lord of Perugia, seated on a seat of ivory in the great hall of the 
 townhouse, and attended by the lords of Foligno and Camerino, received 
 the Neapolitan envoys, from whom Corrado Trinci, lord of Foligno, 
 having received the crown, placed it on the brow of Braccio and a 
 golden chain round his neck, amidst loud acclamations of " Long live 
 the Prince of Capua and Lord of Perugia." As the dominion of Braccio 
 extended over great part of Umbria and the Marches, and on the south 
 over the principality of Capua, the acquisition of Aquila and the 
 Abruzzo would have joined these two portions so as to form the whole 
 into a compact principality. Braccio's ambition is said to have soared 
 still higher, and to have aspired to the crown of Naples. In May 
 1423 he gathered his bands near Todi, to the number of 3200 horse- 
 men and some thousand foot, with which he entered the kingdom of 
 Naples ; he overran Campania and Apulia, defeated the partisans of 
 the Angevins, took Bari, and advanced into Calabria ; then retracing 
 his steps towards the Abruzzo, he laid siege to the strong town of 
 Aquila in the summer of 1423. He blockaded the town and devastated 
 the surrounding country. Joanna, who had now revoked her adoption 
 of Alfonso and made common cause with Louis of Anjou, ordered 
 Sforza to march to the relief of Aquila. Braccio, being joined by 
 other bands of the Aragonese party, was in possession of the whole 
 Abruzzo. In December 1423 Sforza began his march from Apulia 
 along the coast of the Adriatic, took Ortona, and crossed the river 
 Pescara near its mouth, his advanced guard making their horses swim 
 through the stream. As the body of Sforza's army remaiued on the 
 opposite bank, Sforza plunged again into the river to encourage them 
 to cross. One of his men, being carried away by the current, was in 
 the act of drowning, when Sforza pushed his horse forwards to save 
 him, seized him by the arm, and both sank into the water and disap- 
 peared. Thus died Sforza Attendolo, the great Condottiere, on the 
 4th of January 1424. His aruiy, disheartened, retired from the 
 Abruzzo. Braccio, who was at Chieti, upon hearing the news, extolled 
 the fame of his rival, remarking that this unexpected catastrophe 
 boded no good to himself. He however pushed on the siege of Aquila 
 with renewed vigour. The town began to suffer through famine. The 
 archbishop encouraged the besieged by telling them that the queen 
 and the pope would soon relieve them, and he excommunicated Braccio 
 in the name of the pontiff. At last, in the spring of 1424, the Angevin 
 army, led by Count Caldora and other chiefs, marched into the 
 Abruzzo, and encamped on the hills above Aquila. Braccio permitted 
 them to enter the plain. The battle was fought on the 2nd of June. 
 Caldora' a army was greatly superior in numbers, and in the midst of 
 the fight a sortie from the people of Aquila, falling on the rear of 
 Braccio's line, decided the victory. Braccio, while fighting desperately, 
 received a blow on the head and fell senseless. He was taken prisoner 
 to the camp of Caldora, and treated with humanity. He survived for 
 three days, refusing to take food, though urged to do so, and would 
 not utter a word. It was said that his wound was not mortal He 
 died on tit© 5th of June 1424, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Rome 
 rejoiced at his fall ; Ludovico Colonna took his body to Pope Martin, 
 wbo ordered it to be buried in unconsecrated ground outside of the 
 walls. Eight years after, Nicol6 Fortebracci recovered from Pope 
 Kugenius IV. the remains of his relative, and deposited them in the 
 church of the Franciscan convent of Perugia. Oddo Fortebracci, son 
 of Braccio, resigned the government of Perugia into the hands of the 
 pope, in July 1424, retaining the various fief.-s of his father, with the 
 title of Count of Montone. The history of Braccio's life forms an 
 important part of the history of Italy during the fifteenth century, 
 which was the last age of its tumultuous independence. 
 
 (Febretti, Biografie dei Capitani venturieri deW Umbria ; Campanus, 
 De Vita el Otitis Brachii; Lomonaco, Vite deifamosi Capitani d' Italia; 
 CompsLgaom,StoriadellaMarca; and the contemporary local chroniclers, 
 among whom must be noticed Lorenzo Spirito, who wrote a poem of 
 one hundred and one chapters in terza rima, entitled L'Altro Marte, 
 in which he narrates in chronological order the deeds of Braccio and of 
 hi» contemporary Piccinino. This curious poem was printed at Vicenza 
 in 1489: it is now extremely rare.) 
 
 BRACCIOLI'NI, PO'GGIO, son of Guccio Bracciolini, a notary, 
 was born in 1380, at Terranuova, in the Florentine territory. He 
 studied Latin at Florence under Giovanni da Ravenna, a disciple of 
 Petrarch ; and afterwards Greek under Chrysoloras, a learned Byzan- 
 tine emigrant. About 1402 Poggio went to Rome, where Boniface IX. 
 employed him in the pontifical chancellery, as apostolic secretary or 
 writer of the papal letters. Boniface having died in October 1404, 
 hi» successor, Innocent VII., continued Poggio in his office, which he 
 held for about half a century, under eight successive popes. Poggio 
 availed himself of the favour of Innocent to obtain an appointment 
 in the apostolic chancellery for his friend and schoolfellow Leonardo 
 
 Bruni of Arpzzo. The friendship between these two distinguished 
 scholars continued till death. Innocent having died in 1406, was suc- 
 ceeded by Gregory XII., who was soon after deposed by the Council 
 of Pisa, and replaced by Alexander V. This was the period of the 
 great western schism. [Benedict, Antipope.] In the midst of these 
 distractions Poggio withdrew to Florence, where he pursued his lite- 
 rary studies, and found a patron in Niccol6 Nicoli, a wealthy Floren- 
 tine, noted for his love of learning and his encouragement of the 
 learned. When John XXIII. was elected pope, Poggio returned to 
 his duties of pontifical secretary, and as such he accompanied the pope 
 to the Council of Constance in 1414. At Constance he applied himself 
 to the study of Hebrew; and in his excursions into the adjoining 
 countries he visited the abbey of St. Gall, and other monasteries, 
 where he had the good fortune to discover the manuscripts of several 
 classical works which were considered as lost, or of which only imper- 
 fect copies existed. He complains, as Boccaccio had done before him, 
 of the monks taking no care of the literary treasures which they 
 possessed, and allowing the valuable manuscripts to rot "in cellars 
 and dungeons unfit even for condemned criminals." Poggio found, 
 among other manuscripts, copies of Quintilian's ' Institutions,' of 
 Vegetius, Silius Italicus, Ammianus Marcellinus, Columella, Asconius 
 Pedianus's commentaries upon some of Cicero's orations, the 'Argo- 
 nautics ' of Valerius Flaccus, several comedies of Plautus, <fcc. 
 Continuing his researches after his return to Italy, either by himself 
 or through his friends, he found at Monte Casino a copy of ' Frontinus 
 de Aqufeductibus,' he procured from Cologne the fifteenth book of 
 ' Petronius Arbiter,' and from a monastery at Langres several of 
 Cicero's orations, which had been regarded as lost. Poggio either 
 purchased the manuscripts, or transcribed them, or pointed them out 
 to persons wealthier than himself. His friends, Bartolommeo da 
 Montepulciano and Cinzio, of Rome, assisted him by their own 
 exertions, and Nicoli by his liberality. 
 
 While Poggio was staying at Constance, he witnessed the trial and 
 execution, by the sentence of that council, of Jerome of Prague, on 
 the charge of heresy. He gives a most vivid account of that 
 deplorable transaction in a letter to his friend Leonardo Bruni, which 
 has been often quoted by subsequent historians. Poggio was evidently 
 moved by the constancy and the eloquence of the defence of the 
 Bohemian reformer; and his own knowledge of the corruptions of 
 the Roman Church at that time made him, if not openly advocate 
 Jerome's cause, at least commiserate his fate in terms so strong that 
 his more prudent friend Leonardo wrote to warn him against giving 
 way to his feelings. Poggio was still, nominally at least, papal secre- 
 tary at the time. After Martin V. was solemnly acknowledged as 
 legitimate pope, and the council was dissolved in 1417, Poggio 
 followed the pontiff on his return to Italy as far as Mantua, where he 
 suddenly left the papal retinue and repaired to England. Whether 
 he left in disgust, or through fear for having expressed his sentiments 
 too freely on church matters, is not clearly ascertained. While in 
 Constance he had received an invitation from Cardinal Beaufort, 
 bishop of Winchester. His expectations from Beaufort's liberality 
 were disappointed ; and at length, having received through some 
 friends in Italy an offer to resume his office at Rome, he left England 
 about 1421. Of his remarks during his residence in England there 
 are scattered fragments in his published letters, and still more in the 
 unedited ones. His picture of the habits and manners of the English 
 is not flattering. He says that they were more addicted to the 
 pleasures of the table than to those of learning ; and that the few 
 who cultivated literature were more expert in sophisms and contro- 
 versial quibbles than in real science. 
 
 Poggio continued iu his office during Martin's pontificate, pursuing 
 at the same time his researches after manuscripts and antiquities, for 
 which latter object he made excavations at Ostia and other parts of 
 the Campagna. He also made Latin translations of the first six books 
 of Diodorus Siculus, and of Xenophon's ' Cyropsedia.' Eugenius IV., 
 having in 1431 succeeded Martin V., was soon after obliged by a 
 popular rebellion to remove his court to Florence. Then came the 
 controversies between the Pope and the Council of Basel, which lasted 
 during the rest of Eugeiiius's pontificate, till his death in 1447. The 
 greater part of this time was spent by Poggio at Florence, or at a 
 country-house he had purchased in the Val d'Arno, some say with the 
 produce of some classical manuscripts which he sold. He gives iu 
 his letters a description of this residence, which he had adorned with 
 statues and other remains of antiquity that he had collected iu various 
 places. He wrote there several works, among others his ' Discourse 
 on the Unhappiness of Princes,' which he dedicated to Thomas of 
 Sarzana, afterwards Pope Nicholas V. ; and his virulent invectives 
 against Filelfo, who had attacked the character of Poggio's friend 
 Nicoli. When the two fierce disputants became reconciled, Poggio 
 wrote a sort of disavowal of his former accusations, which is found at 
 the end of the invectives. In 1435 Poggio married Selvaggia, of the 
 family of Buondelmonte of Florence, a young and handsome lady, with 
 whom he lived happily. While making up his mind to his marriage, 
 he wrote a dialogue on the question, 'An seni sit uxorducendaf 
 From that time Poggio reformed his life, which had been before rather 
 licentious. In 1437 he published a selection of his letters, written iu 
 Latin, like all the rest of his works, according to the fashion of that 
 age. His friend Leonardo Bruni dying in 1 444, Poggio composed a 
 
 3 L* 
 
891 
 
 BRACTON. 
 
 BRADLEY, JAMES. 
 
 893 
 
 funeral oration to his memory. He wrote also other funeral orations — 
 for Cardinal Zabarella, who died at the Council of Constance; for the 
 Cardinal Santa Croce, a patron of letters ; for Lorenzo de Medici, 
 brother of the great Cosmo ; for Cardinal Saut Augelo, who fell in the 
 battle of Varna against the Turks, &c. His friend Nicholas V. being 
 raised to the pontifical throne in 1447, Poggio, who had returned to 
 Rome and resumed the duties of his office, addressed to the now pontiff 
 an eloquent oration, of mixed eulogy and advice on the duties and 
 dangers of his exalted station, ' 0 ratio ad sutnmum Pontificem Nico- 
 lauiu V. To this time belongs Poggio's treatise 'De Varietate Fortunso,' 
 one of his best works, which presents a good view of Italian politics 
 at the beginning of tho 15th century, an interesting sketch of the 
 remains of ancient Koine in Poggio's time, and a curious account of 
 the travels of the Venetian, Niccol6 Couti, in tho east. He also wrote 
 ' Dialogus adversus Hypocrisin,' in which, as well as in his disquisition 
 ' De Avaritia et Luxuria,' he inveighs against the vices of the clergy, 
 and especially of tho monks, which were certainly very flagrant in 
 that age, and were the main cause that led to the great Reformation in 
 the following century. Notwithstanding his satirical freedom he 
 preserved the good graces of Nicholas, in support of whose right to 
 the papacy he wrote a bitter invective against his rival the autipope 
 Felix, in which, as usual with Poggio, his accusations outstripped 
 truth. A violent quarrel with George of Trebizond about some literary 
 matters brought the two scholars to blows, and the Greek was in 
 consequence obliged to quit Rome. In 1450, the plague being in 
 Rome, Poggio withdrew to Florence, where he wrote his ' Facetia;,' a 
 collection of humorous anecdotes and repartees, some of which are 
 very indecent. He also wrote ' Historia Disceptativa Convivialis,' or 
 discussions upon various philological, historical, and moral subjects ; 
 ' Disputatio de Infelicitate Principum,' in which he speaks of princes 
 in a strain of democratic contempt, rather odd in a man who had lived 
 almost all his life at courts; ' De Nobilitate Dialogus,' in which the 
 various meanings of nobility are examined; ' De Miseria Conditionis 
 Humanse.' In 1453, on the death of Carlo Arctino, chancellor of 
 Florence, Poggio, through the influence of the Medici, was appointed 
 his successor. He finally quitted tho Roman court after being fifty 
 years in its service, and it was not without regret that he parted from 
 his kind patron, Pope Nicholas. 
 
 Having now access to the archives of Florence, he undertook a 
 history of that republic, — ' Historia) Florentine,' lib. viii., which 
 embraces the period from 1350 to 1455. It was translated into Italian 
 by his son Jacopo, and printed in 1476, and afterwards republished in a 
 more correct and improved form by Serdonati, Florence, 1598. The 
 Latin text was not published till 1715, by Recauati, who prefixed to 
 it a biography of the author. Poggio has been charged with marked 
 partiality for his countrymen in his history. Another deficiency is 
 noted by a grave authority, Machiavelli, who, in the preface to his own 
 history, observes that both "Poggio and Leonardo Bruni, two excel- 
 lent historians, had diligently described the wars between Florence 
 and the other states and princes, but with regard to the civil conten- 
 tions of the republic, its internal factions and their results, they had 
 been either silent or extremely laconic in their account, either because 
 they fancied them beneath the dignity of history,, or perhaps because 
 they were afraid of offending the relatives and descendants of persons 
 who had figured in those transactions." 
 
 Poggio died at Florence in 1459, and was buried with great honours 
 in the church of Santa Croce, near his friend Leonardo Bruni. A statue 
 of him by the sculptor Donatello is in the duomo or cathedral. 
 
 Poggio was one of the most distinguished scholars of the epoch of 
 the revival of literature, and one of those who contributed most to the 
 spreading of that revival. His long life, the offices of trust which he 
 filled, his travels, his extensive correspondence, his multifarious learning, 
 all contribute to render him one of the most remarkable writers of the 
 15th century. His works, especially his ' Orations' and his 'Epistolse,' 
 are remarkable for their eloquence and fluency of style, though their 
 language does not equal in classic purity that of Poliziano and some 
 other latinists of the following age. His sentiments are noted for their 
 independence and frankness ; even in his addresses to the great, his 
 language, though courtly, is free from flattery. 
 
 Poggio's son Jacopo was a man of learning, but after being in his 
 youth the friend of the Medici, he conspired with the Pazzi against 
 Lorenzo, and being seized after the murder of Giuliano, was publicly 
 hanged in 1478. 
 
 BRACTON, one of the writers who are meant when the phrase is 
 used ' our ancient law-writers,' or ' the ancient text-writers of our 
 law.' These writers lived from the close of the 12th to the middle of 
 the 15th century. The oldest is Glanville, whose era is referred to 
 the reign of Henry II. and Richard I. Bracton lived in the reign of 
 Henry III. He appears to have been born about the beginning of the 
 13th century. The others are Britton, Littleton, and the unknown 
 authors of ' Fleta,' ' The Mirror of Justice,' 'The Doctor and Student,' 
 and the ' Old Book of Tenures.' These books all relate to the nature, 
 principles, and operation of the ancient laws aud constitution of the 
 realm, and together with a few minor treatises, the collections of 
 Welsh, Saxon, and Norman laws, the charters and statutes, the year- 
 books which contain notes of causes and decisions, the records of 
 writs, inquests, surveys, and of the receipts and issues by and from the 
 king's revenue, and the incidental information to be found in the 
 
 chroniclers, form the study of those persons who wish to become 
 acquainted with the history of English judicature, of the courts for 
 the administration of justice, and generally of the various operations 
 of the English law. 
 
 Bracton's work is entitled ' De Consuetudinibus et Lcgibus Angli* 
 can is.' It is divided into five books, and the following is a slight 
 sketch of the nature and object of the work. 
 
 In tho first book he treats of distinctions existing in respect both of 
 persons aud things; in the second of the modes in which property 
 may be acquired in things ; in the third of actions or remedies at law. 
 The fourth book is divided into several sections, which treat on the 
 assize of ' novel disseisin,' the assize of ' ultima preseutatio,' the assize 
 of ' mort d'ancestor,' the writ of consanguinity, tho grants in 'libera 
 eleemosyna,' and on dower. The fifth and last book is also. divided 
 into sections, in which the author treats of the writ of right, essoins, 
 defaults, warranty, and exceptions. A larger abstract of the contents 
 of this work may be found in Reeves' ' History of the English Law,' 
 vol. ii. p. 86, &c. A treatise so methodical in its arrangements, so 
 precise in its statements, and so abundant in its information, must 
 have been the work of some very able person. Little however is now 
 known of this author. The writers to whom we are indebted for 
 collecting what could be recovered of the English authors of the 
 middle ages, are Leland, Bale, and Pits, of whom the two former lived 
 in the reign of Henry VIII. and supplied Pits, who was a Catholic 
 writer in the reign of Elizabeth and James I., with most of the infor- 
 mation which his work, valuable as it is, contains. Their statements 
 that Bracton was a judge of the Common Pleas, and that he was Chief 
 Justice of England, are now regarded as questionable. There is better 
 reason to believe that he was a Henry de Bracton who delivered law 
 lectures in the University of Oxford towards the middle of the 13th 
 century, and that he sat, once at least, as a justice itinerant in the 
 reign of Henry III. The value of the work, and the high esteem in 
 which it was held, is manifest by the numerous copies which were 
 made of it before the invention of printing opened so much easier and 
 cheaper a way of multiplying copies of valuable writings. The pains 
 which it must have required to transcribe the work, and consequently 
 the expense of it, may be collected from the extent of the work, which 
 fills in its printed form not less than 888 folio pages. Many of these 
 manuscript copies exist. It is said that there are no less than eight in 
 the various libraries which compose the book-department of the 
 British Museum. In 1569 it was printed in a folio volume, aud again 
 in quarto in 1640, the text of the old edition being collated, very 
 imperfectly, with that of some of the manuscripts. 
 
 BRADDOCK, EDWARD, lost his life in Virginia, by the French 
 and Indians, in the war in which General Wolfe afterwards fell on the 
 heights at Quebec in Canada. The French having determined to con- 
 nect their Canadian colony with their other possessions in Louisiana 
 by a chain of fortified military stations which interfered with the 
 British territories, General Braddock, with an army of 2000 English, 
 was despatched to Virginia, where he arrived in February 1755, at 
 Richmond. With 390 waggons of provisions, ammunition, and bag- 
 gage, he reached in July the Monongahela, a branch of the river 
 Ohio. Washington, who was then at the age of twenty-three, joined 
 him as a volunteer, in the capacity of aide-de-camp ; and from his 
 accurate knowledge of his native country, and of the Indian mode of 
 warfare, would have furnished the English commander with the infor- 
 mation requisite for the success of his expedition, but Braddock's 
 self-sufficiency contemptuously disregarded the advice of American 
 officers. Having advanced on the 9th of July within six miles of 
 Fort du Quesne, now Pittsburg, where he supposed the enemy awaited 
 his approach, his columns, in passing silently through a deep forest 
 ravine, were suddenly struck with terror by the frightful war-whoop 
 of the Indians from the dense thickets on both sides, and the 
 murderous fire of invisible rifles. Rushing forward they were sur- 
 prised and attacked in front by the French forces, while the Indian 
 warriors, leaping by hundreds from their ambush, fell upon them with 
 fury in the rear. Their strange and hideous appearance, and the 
 echo of their piercing dog-like yelp, in such a gloomy wilderness of 
 trees, so startled the English soldiers, who for the first time heard it, 
 that the panic which seized them continued until half the army was 
 destroyed. With the single exception of Washington, who received 
 several rifle balls through his dress, and had two horses shot under 
 him, no officer escaped alive. Braddock himself, after mounting in 
 succession five horses, was shot, and carried off on a tumbril by the 
 remnant of his troops, who fled precipitously forty miles to the place 
 in which the baggage had been left, where he died. 
 
 BRADLEY, JAMES, the third Astronomer Royal, and the first, 
 perhaps, of all astronomers in the union of theoretical sagacity with 
 practical excellence, was born at Sherbourn in Gloucestershire (proba- 
 bly in March, 1692-93). For all authorities, &c, we must refer the 
 reader to the excellent and minute account of him in the Oxford 
 edition of his 'Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence,' Oxford, 
 1832, by Professor Rigaud. 
 
 His father, William Bradley, married Jane, the sister of the Rev. 
 James Pound, known by the observations of the comet of 1680 which 
 he supplied to Newton, together with other observations referred to 
 in the ' Principia.' With this uncle James Bradley passed much of 
 his time, and found in his house the means of applying himself to 
 
893 
 
 BRADLEY, JAMES. 
 
 BRADLEY, JAMES. 
 
 astronomical observation. As early as 1716 there is a letter of Halley 
 to Pound mentioning Bradley as an observer; and in 1718 and 1719, 
 we find some observations of double stars (Castor and y Virginis), 
 which have since been used by Sir J. Herschel in his determination of 
 the orbits which each of the pairs just mentioned describes round the 
 other (' Mem. R. Astron. Soc.,' voL v., pp. 195, 202). At the same 
 time he turned his attention to the motions of Jupiter's satellites, and 
 detected, by observation, the greater part of the inequalities afterwards 
 discussed by Biilli. Tables of the satellites, from Bradley's observa- 
 tions, were published in Halley's collection, London, 1749, and in 
 ' Phil. Trans.' vol. xsx 
 
 Bradley was entered of Balliol College, Oxford, in 1710, and took 
 the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and 1717. In 1718 he became a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. In 1719 he was ordained to the rectory 
 of Bridstow, in Monmouthshire. In 1720 he obtained another living, 
 but in 1721 resigued his preferments on obtaining the Savilian Profes- 
 sorship of Astronomy at Oxford, with the holding of which they are 
 incompatible. He also resigned the office of chaplain to Bishop Hoadly. 
 We find him now engaged in miscellaneous observation, particularly 
 with the long telescope introduced by Huyghens. With one of these 
 of 212 feet focal length, he measured the diameter of Venus in 1722. 
 Pound died in 1724, and in the next year Bradley began the observa- 
 tions which led to his great discovery. 
 
 The circumstances connected with the discovery of Aberration are 
 described under that title in the Arts and Sciences Division of the 
 English Cyclopaedia. The scene of the first observations was at the 
 house of Mr. Molyneux at Kew, which afterwards became the palace 
 of that name, but was some years back pulled down. The associated 
 observations of Bradley and Molyneux detected the motion of y Dra- 
 conis, and other stars, and established approximately the law of the 
 motion of the first. That the motion in declination depended in some 
 way or other on the latitude of the star was evident, and in this state 
 the matter stood, when Bradley in 1727 erected a zenith sector for 
 himself at Wanstead. The original entry of the first night's observa- 
 tion at Kew, which confirmed the fact of an unexplained motion in y 
 Draconis (Dec. 21, 1725), is preserved in Bradley's own handwriting. 
 The following, written on a torn bit of paper, is the earliest of the 
 observed phenomena which led to the greatest discovery of a man who 
 has, more than any other, contributed to render a single observation of 
 a star correct enough for the purposes of astronomy : — 
 
 "Dec 21" Tuesday 5 h 40' sider. time 
 Adjusted y e mark to y e Plumb Line 
 & then y e Index stood at 8 
 6 h 48' 22" y« star entred 
 49 52| Star at y e Cross 
 51 24 Star went out 
 8 could 
 At soon as I let go y e course 
 screw I perceived y c Star too 
 much to y e right hand & 
 so it continued till it passed 
 y e Cross thread and within a quarter 
 was 
 
 of a minute after it had passed 
 graduat 
 
 I turned y c fine screw till I saw 
 y e light of y e star perfectly 
 
 bissected, and after y e obser 
 vation I found y e index 
 at 11^. so that by this 
 observation y e 
 mark is about 3'' J 
 too much south, 
 but adjusting 
 y e mark and plumbline 
 I found y e Index at 8£." 
 
 Bradley began his observations at Wanstead with a better instru- 
 ment than that at Kew, and capable of takiug in a larger range of the 
 heavens. He soon confirmed the general fact which he had observed, 
 and it only remained to assign the cause. There is traditional evidence 
 to the following anecdote, first given by Dr. Thomson in his ' History 
 of the Royal Society,' and adopted by Professor Rigaud ; but for which 
 the real authority is Dr. Robison, who was old enough to have possibly 
 heard it from one of Bradley's contemporaries. Dr. Robison has given 
 the anecdote himself in a part of his ' Mechanical Philosophy,' where 
 we should certainly not have gone to look for it, nor, we imagine, 
 would Professor Rigaud : namely, in the chapter on ' Seamanship,' 
 vol. iv. p. 629 : — " When he despaired of being able to account for the 
 phenomena which he had observed, a satisfactory explanation of it 
 occurred to him all at once when he was not in search of it. He 
 accompanied a pleasure party in a sail upon the river Thames. The 
 boat in which they were was provided with a mast which had a vane 
 upon the top of it. It blew a moderate wind, and the party sailed up 
 and down the river for a considerable time. Dr. Bradley remarked, 
 that every time the boat put about, the vane at the top of the boat's 
 mast shifted a little, as if there had been a slight change in the direc- 
 tion of the wind. He observed thia three or four times without speak- 
 
 ing : at last he mentioned it to the sailors, and expressed his surprise 
 that the wind should shift so regularly every time they put about. 
 The sailors told him that the wind had not shifted, but that the appa- 
 rent change was owing to the change in the direction of the boat, and 
 assured him that the same thins; invariably happened in all cases." 
 By tracing this phenomenon to its cause, namely, the combined motion 
 of the boat and the wind, he was enabled to give the solution of the 
 star's motion, namely, a small change of place arising from the spec- 
 tator giving to the ray of light the effects of his own motion, as ex- 
 plained in the article Aberration, referred to above. 
 
 Upon .this discovery, several observations must be made, relative to 
 its importance in astronomy. It is the first positively direct and 
 unanswerable proof of the earth's motion. In the next place, the 
 explanation given was not purely an hypothetical one, or one which 
 would allow of any velocity being attributed to light which would 
 best answer to observed phenomena, but required that the velocity 
 already measured by Romer's observations of the retardation of the 
 eclipses of J upiter's satellites should be the sufficient reason for the 
 annual oscillations of the fixed stars. A very simple geometrical 
 analysis of the problem shows that when the angle of aberration is 
 greatest, its sine must be the quotient of the earth's velocity divided 
 by the velocity of light. Taking the first at 18 miles per second, 
 depending upon the correctness of the measurement of the earth's 
 orbit and of the length of the year, and the second at 200,000 miles 
 per second, which depends upon a third and distinct phenomenon, 
 namely, the observations of the time of eclipses of Jupiter's satellites 
 at different periods of the year, we find a priori, that the sine of the 
 greatest angle of aberration, if aberration there be, must be "00009, 
 which is the sine of 19 seconds nearly, and has been made in round 
 numbers. The greatest aberration from the mean place observed by 
 Bradley was 20 seconds and two-tenths, in which the most correct 
 modern observations, in masses of thousands at a time, have not 
 shown an error of more than three-tenths of a second. This is one 
 of the reasons why we have said that, in the union of theoretical 
 sagacity with practical excellence, Bradley stands unrivalled. Newton, 
 Laplace, &c. were not observers. Flamsteed, Cassini, &c. were not 
 great theorists. Halley, who of all the men of Bradley's time, united 
 the largest knowledge of both, was so far from being the equal of 
 Bradley in minuteness of observation, that he constantly declared his 
 suspicion of the impossibility of detecting a part of a second. Kepler 
 was skilful in the detection of the laws which phenomena follow, but 
 not in that of physical causes. In our opinion, Hipparchus is (dif- 
 ference of circumstances considered) the prototype of Bradley. The 
 time of the discovery of the cause of aberration was probably about 
 September 1728 ; it was communicated immediately to the Royal 
 Society ('Phil. Trans.,' No. 406, vol. xxxv., p. 637). 
 
 In 1728 Bradley began lectures at Oxford, and in 1732 removed his 
 residence to that university. We pass over the various labours by 
 which he sustained the character of the " best astronomer in Europe," 
 given to him by Newton, and proceed to the year 1742, when he was 
 appointed astronomer royal. This was almost the last act of Sir 
 Robert Walpole's administration, who, as Professor Rigaud has well 
 observed, " appears to have determined that one of the first points he 
 would secure before his retirement was the nomination in question : 
 he declared his intention of resigning in the House of Commons on 
 the 2nd of February, and Bradley's appointment was dated the 3rd." 
 From this time to 1747 he was engaged (among other things) in the 
 career of observation which led to his second great discovery of 
 nutation communicated iu that year ('Phil. Trans.' No. 485, voL xlv., 
 p. 1.) The phenomenon in its most simple state may be thus repre- 
 sented : the earth's axis, instead of describing a cone, describes a 
 fluted cone; or, the pole of the equator, instead of moving uniformly 
 round the pole of the ecliptic in a small circle, describes a wavy or 
 undulating curve with a milled edge, if we may so speak, with about 
 1400 undulations in a complete revolution. The merit of Bradley 
 consists, firstly, in his determination of so small a quantity, since the 
 greatest effect of nutation is only half that of aberration, and dis- 
 tributed through nineteen years instead of one ; secondly, in his dis- 
 covery of the circumstance on which it depends, namely, the position 
 of the moon's orbit with respect to the equator. This orbit shifts the 
 position of its nodes gradually, making them complete a revolution in 
 about eighteen years and a half. This was also found to be the 
 period in which the pole of the equator describes one of the waves 
 above mentioned, and subsequent investigation has confirmed the 
 dependence of the greater part of the nutation on the motion of the 
 moon's node, by showing the former to be a consequence of the non- 
 sphericity of the earth, and of the moon's attraction on the protu- 
 berant parts. [Precession and Nutation, in Arts and Sciences 
 Div.] 
 
 There is a third investigation of Bradley which stands out from the 
 rest, and displays considerable mathematical sagacity : we refer to hia 
 empirical formula for the law of refraction. He was assisted in the 
 necessary computations by Maskelyne, who first appeared before the 
 world as the pupil of Bradley. In this very delicate research, Bradley 
 had again gone beyond his contemporaries in the evaluation of minute 
 quantities. His table is even yet very good for the first forty-fiva 
 degrees of zenith distance; and his determination of the latitude of 
 Greenwich (an investigation depending for its accuracy upon that of 
 
803 BRADLEY, JAMES. 
 
 the tables of refraction) does not differ more than half a second from 
 that deduced by Mr. Pound from 720 observations with both the mural 
 circles. 
 
 In 1751 the alteration of the style took place, and Bradley appears 
 to have had some share in drawing up the necessary tables, as well 
 as in aiding Lord Macclesfield, his early friend and the seconder of 
 the measure in the House of Lords, and Mr. Pelham, then minister, 
 with his advice on the subject. But this procured him some unpopu- 
 larity, for the common people of all ranks imagined that the alteration 
 was equivalent to robbing them of eleven days of their natural lives, 
 and called Bradley's subsequent illness and decline a judgment of 
 heaven. This was, as far as we know, the last expiring manifestation 
 of a belief in the wickedness of altering the time of religious iinniver- 
 saries, which had disturbed the world more or less, and at different 
 periods, for 1400 years. In the same year Bradley obtained a pension 
 of 2501. from the crown. From that time he continued his observations, 
 of which we shall presently speak, till the 1st of September 1761, in 
 the observations of which date his handwriting occurs for the last time 
 in the Greenwich registers. He then retired among his wife's relations 
 at Chalford in Gloucestershire, where he died July 13, 1762, and was 
 buried at Mincbinhampton. His health had been failing for some 
 years, though he was originally of a strong constitution, and always 
 of temperate habits. His wife died before him in 1757, and he left 
 one daughter, but his line is now extinct. 
 
 Thus far we have obtained our materials for facts from the life by 
 Professor Rigaud, above cited. This account does not mention the 
 subsequent history of the manuscript observations made at the 
 observatory of Greenwich. The following is Dr. Maskelyne's account 
 (Answer to Mudge's ' Narrative,' &c, London, 1792) : — " Dr. Bradley's 
 valuable observations were made in the course of twenty years, from 
 1742 to 1762, and consist of thirteen volumes in folio. Tbey were 
 removed from the Royal Observatory before I was appointed to the 
 care of it, by the doctor's executors, who thought proper to consider 
 them as private property ; and during a suit instituted on the part of 
 the crown, in the Exchequer, to recover them, tbey were presented in 
 1776 to Lord North, now Earl of Guildford, chancellor of the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford, and by him presented to the university on condition 
 of their printing and publishing them. The university put tbem 
 immediately for that purpose into the hands of Dr. Hornsby, Savilian 
 professor, &c, whose bad state of health has been alleged as the cause 
 of the delay of the publication." The account of Dr. Hornsby, in 
 the preface of the publication in question, differs from the preceding 
 in an important particular. The above would allow us to infer that 
 the University of Oxford accepted a donation the right to make which 
 was under litigation, with a strong primd facie case against it. Now, 
 Dr. Hornsby mentions — 1, what is very well known, that both the 
 predecessors of Bradley, Flamsteed, and Halley, were allowed to con- 
 sider their own observations as their own property ; that the former 
 printed, and his executors published, his observations as private 
 property, and that the daughter of the latter received compensation 
 for relinquishing her right to her father's papers ; 2, that a salaried 
 office of only 100/. a year, with the duty of improving as much as 
 possible the planetary tables and the method of finding the longitude, 
 by no means implied an obligation to consider the actual observations 
 made as the property of the government ; and 3, that the Royal 
 Society having first made and abandoned a claim, the government 
 instituted its suit in 1767, and abandoned it in 1776, before the 
 observations were presented, not to Lord North personally, but in 
 trust for the university of which he was chancellor. Dr. Maskelyne 
 wrote under feelings of pique at being refused the sheets of the 
 observations as fast as they were printed ; tl is, though it would have 
 been under ordinary circumstances a churlish proceeding, might 
 perhaps have been advisable in regard to the officer of a government 
 that had pretended a claim to the property of the work, which, 
 though dormant at the time, the university could not know to have 
 been formally abandoned. And it has been suggested to us, that 
 there is no method of abandoning a suit in the Exchequer, as a 
 practical relinquishment of proceedings is no bar in that court to 
 their revival at any future time. The observations in question were 
 published at Oxford in two volumes : the first in 1798, under the 
 superintendence of Dr. Hornsby; the second in 1805, under that of 
 Dr. Abraham Robertson. They go from 1750 to 1762, and are about 
 60,000 in number. 
 
 But these observations might have remained a useless mass, except 
 for occasional reference, to this day, had it not been for the energy 
 of a distinguished German astronomer, Frederick William Bessel 
 [Bessel], who at Lilienthal and Konigsberg successively, and from 
 1807 to 1818, added to other laborious occupations the enormous task 
 of reducing and drawing conclusions from all Bradley's observations, 
 published in the latter place and year under the title of ' Fundamenta 
 Astronomia? pro anno 1755, deducta ex observationibus viri incom- 
 parabilis James Bradley.' " This work has always been considered one 
 of the most valuable contributions to our astronomy. It exhibits the 
 result of all Bradley's observations of stars, reduced on a uniform 
 system, and is always referred to by succeeding astronomers as the 
 representative of Bradley's observations." (Professor Airy, ' Rep. Brit. 
 Ass.',vol. i. p. 137.) 
 
 It may be sfid that Bradley changed the face of astronomy. The 
 
 BRADSHAW, JOHN. m 
 
 discoveries of aberration and nutation, and the Improvement of the 
 tables of refraction, the attention to minute observation, and the tact 
 with which every instrument was applied to the purposes for which it 
 was best adapted, were so many great steps both in the art and science. 
 Before his time every instrumental improvement was a new cause of 
 confusion, by pointing out irregularities which seemed to bailie all 
 attempts both at finding laws and causes. Nevertheless, the name of 
 Bradley hardly appears in popular works, nor will do so until the 
 state of astronomy is better understood. Let any man set up for the 
 founder of a sect, and begin by asserting that he has found out the 
 cause of attraction, or the structure of the moon; let him exalt 
 himself in the daily papers, and he must be unfortunate indeed if in 
 three years he is not more widely known in this country than its own 
 Bradley, one of the first astronomers of any. 
 
 BRADSHAW, JOHN, president of the court which tried CharleR I., 
 was born in 1586. Bradshaw was of a good family in Cheshire. His 
 mother was a daughter and coheiress of Ralf Winnington of Offerton. 
 He was a student of law in Gray's Inn. He had considerable chamber 
 practice, especially among the partisans of the Parliament, and he is 
 admitted by his enemies to have been not without ubility and legal 
 knowledge. 
 
 In October 1644 Bradshaw was employed by the Parliament, in 
 conjunction with Prynne and Nudigate, to prosecute lords Macquire 
 and Macmahon, the Irish rebels. In October 1646, by a vote of the 
 House of Commons, in which the peers were desired to acquiesce, he 
 was appointed one of the three commissioners of the Great Seal for 
 six months ; and in February following, by a vote of both houses, Chief 
 Justice of Chester. In June 1647 he was named by the Parliament 
 one of the counsel to prosecute the royalist Judge Jenkins. On 
 October 12, 1648, by order of the Parliament, he received the degree 
 of Serjeant. 
 
 On January 1, 1648-49, it was adjudged by the Commons that by 
 the fundamental laws of the land, it is treason in the King of England 
 for the time being to levy war against the Parliament and kingdom. 
 On the 4 th an ordinance was passed for erecting a high court of justice 
 for the trial of the king. The commissioners for the trial of the king 
 elected Serjeant Bradshaw their president. Lord Clarendon says that 
 at first he seemed much surprised and very resolute to refuse it. The 
 offer and the acceptance of it are strong evidence of the staunchness 
 of Bradshaw's republicanism. Of the manner in which he performed 
 the office very different opinions have been expressed. He has been 
 praised for having acted with dignity, firmness, and moderation ; he 
 has been censured for acting with rudeness, insolence, and haughtiness. 
 The truth is, he was a great lawyer, but he was nothing more ; and 
 he acted as a rigid lawyer and a stern republican, impressed with a 
 lofty notion of the dignity of the office he held, might be expected to 
 act on such an occasion. 
 
 The court ordered, "that John Bradshaw, Serjeant-at-Law, who is 
 appointed president of this court, should be called by the name, and 
 have the title of Lord President, and that as well within as without 
 the said court, during the commission and sitting of the said court." 
 The deanery house in Westminster was given him as a residence for 
 himself and his posterity ; and the sum of 5000i. allowed him to procure 
 an equipage suitable to the dignity of his office. The parliament 
 further settled 4000i. a-year upon him and his heirs, in landed property. 
 He was also made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He had 
 previously been appointed Chief Justice of Wales and of Chester, 
 besides being Lord President of the Council of State. The accumula- 
 tion of so many offices in one man looks something like pluralism in 
 the Commonwealth : and unless very great allowance be made on 
 account of the dignity of the work done, the remuneration must appear 
 somewhat disproportioned to the quantity of it. 
 
 When Cromwell seized the government, Bradshaw was one of those 
 who offered all the opposition in their power, and never went over to 
 him. Bradshaw's conduct, in courage and firmness, almost equalled 
 Ludlow's. His bold answer to Cromwell, when he came to dissolve 
 the council, is well known. When Cromwell insisted upon every one 
 taking out a commission from himself, if they chose to retain their 
 places under his government, Bradshaw absolutely refused, alleging 
 that he had received his commission as Chief Justice of Chester, to 
 continue " quamdiu se bene gesserit," and he should retain it without 
 any other, unless he could be proved to have justly forfeited it by 
 want of integrity. He soon after set out on the circuit, without 
 waiting further orders; nor did Oliver think it prudent to prevent or 
 recal him, as he had said nothing but force should make him desist 
 from his duty. 
 
 It was not to be expected that such conduct would find much favour 
 in the eyes of Cromwell. He attempted to oppose his election for 
 Cheshire ; and though Bradshaw was returned by the sheriff, as others 
 in the Cromwellian interest returned another, neither sat, it having 
 been so decided in the case of double returns. Bradshaw was engaged 
 in several designs against the power of Cromwell, one of which was 
 connected with the Fifth Monarchy-men, who were to destroy and pull 
 down Babylon, and bind kings in chains and nobles in fetters of iron ; 
 but Cromwell, though fully conscious of his enmity, merely continued, 
 with his characteristic policy, to watch and defeat his designs. Brad- 
 shaw however was deprived of his office of Chief Justice of Chester. 
 
 On the death of Oliver, and the abdication of his son Richard, 
 
BRADY, NICOLAS. 
 
 BRAHE, TYCHO. 
 
 Bradshaw obtained a seat in the Council of State, was elected Lord 
 President, and appointed a Commissioner of the Great Seal ; but his 
 health, which had been some time declining, became so precarious that 
 he was unable to perform the duties of that office. 
 
 The last act of Bradshaw's life was consistent with the spirit which 
 he had always shown. The army had again put a force upon the 
 House of Commons, by seizing the Speaker, Lenthall, on his way 
 thither, and thereby suspending all further proceedings of the existing 
 government. The almost expiring but unsubdued spirit of Bradshaw' 
 felt the insult. He repaired to the Council of State, which sat that 
 day; and when Colonel Sydenham, one of the members of the 
 council, endeavoured to justify the army in what they had done, and 
 concluded his speech by saying, according to the cant of the day, 
 that they were necessitated to make use of this last remedy by 
 "particular call of the Divine Providence;" "weak and extenuated 
 as he was," says Ludlow, " yet animated by his ardent zeal, and 
 constant affection to the common cause, he stood up, and interrupting 
 him, declared his abhorrence of that detestable action ; and telling the 
 council, that being now going to his God, he had not patience to sit 
 there to hear his great name so openly blasphemed." He then 
 abruptly left the council, and withdrew from public employment. 
 He survived this but a few days, dying November 22nd 1659 of a 
 quartan ague, which bad lasted a year. He was buried with great pomp 
 in Westminster Abbey, whence his body was dragged at the restora- 
 tion, to be exposed upon a gibbet, with those of Cromwell and Ireton. 
 
 BRADY, NICOLAS, a divine whose, name is known chiefly in con- 
 nection with that of Nathan Tate, his versifying collaborator in pro- 
 ducing the new version of the Psalms of David, which has since 
 become generally used in the Church of England, in the place of the 
 obsolete version made in the reign of Edward VI. by Sternhold and 
 Hopkins. Brady was the son of an officer in the royalist army during 
 the civil war, and was born October the 28tb, 1659, at Bandon, a 
 town in the county of Cork, Ireland. At the age of twelve he was 
 sent to Westminster school, whence he proceeded to the college of 
 Christ-Church, Oxford. He subsequently graduated at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Dublin; which, in testimony of his zeal and assiduity in the 
 Protestant cause, conferred upon him gratuitously, during his absence 
 in England, the degree of D.D. He was appointed chaplain to Bishop 
 Wettenhall, by whose patronage he obtained a prebend in the cathe- 
 dral of Cork. At the time of the Revolution he made himself con- 
 spicuous among the most active partisans of the Prince of Orange, 
 and on three occasions prevented the execution of King James's 
 orders to destroy with fire and sword the town of Bandon, his native 
 place. On the establishment of the new dynasty of William and 
 Mary, he was deputed by his fellow-townsmen to present to the 
 English parliament a petition for redress of the grievances which they 
 had suffered under James; and remaining in London, he became 
 minister of the church of St. Catherine Cree, and lecturer of St. 
 Michael's in Wood-street. He was afterwards appointed chaplain, 
 first; to the Duke of Ormond, then to King William and Queen Mary. 
 He held also the office of minister at Richmond in Surrey, and at 
 Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire, From his several appointments 
 alone he derived at least 6001. a year ; but being a bad economist, he 
 was obliged, for the purpose of increasing his income, to undertake 
 the keeping of a school at Richmond. He died at the age of Bixty- 
 six, on the 20th of May 1726 : the same year in which he published 
 by subscription his 'Translation of the ^Eneid of Virgil,' in 4 vols. 
 8vo, which is now almost entirely unknown. Among several of his 
 smaller productions is a tragedy, entitled ' The Rape, or the Innocent 
 Impostors.' He published at different times three volumes of his 
 sermons, of which three additional volumes were published after his 
 death by his son ; but the reputation of Dr. Brady rests solely upon 
 bis share in the new metrical version of the Psalms ; of the merits or 
 demerits of which every one who possesses a Prayer Book may judge 
 for himself. 
 
 BRA.GANCA, HOUSE OF, is the original title of the reigning 
 dynasty of the kingdom of Portugal. The origin of the Braganga 
 family dates from the beginning of the 15th century, when Affonso, a 
 natural son of King Joao, or John I., was created by his father Duke 
 of Braganga and Lord of Guimaraens. Affonso married Beatrix, the 
 daughter and heiress of Nufio Alvarez Pereira, count of Barcellos and 
 Ourem. From this marriage the line of the dukes of Braganga, mar- 
 quises of Villavigosa, &c, has sprung. By the fundamental laws of 
 the Portuguese monarchy, passed in the Cortes of Lamego in 1139, 
 all foreign princes are excluded from the succession, and the conse- 
 quence has been that, in default of legitimate heirs, the illegitimate 
 issue of the royal blood has been repeatedly called to the throne. 
 When the line of the Portuguese kings became extinct by the death of 
 King Sebastian in Africa, 1578, and by that of his successor Cardinal 
 Henrique, 1580, both dyiDg without issue, Antonio Prior of Crato, 
 and natural son of the Iufante Dom Luiz, Henrique's brother, claimed 
 the succession, but Philip IL of SpaiD, whose mother was a Portu- 
 guese princess, urged his own pretensions to the crown of Portugal in 
 despite of the laws of Lamego, and he enforced his claim by means 
 of an army commanded by the Duke of Alba. [Antonio; Alba.] 
 The Portuguese submitted, Antonio died an exile, and Philip and his 
 successors on the throne of Spain coutinued to hold the crtwn of 
 Portugal also till 1640, when the Portuguese, weary of the Spanish 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L. 
 
 yoke, revolted and proclaimed Dom Joao, the then duke of Braganga, 
 their king, he being the next remaining heir to the crown. He 
 assumed the title of Joao IV., and was styled ' the fortunate.' The 
 crown of Portugal has continued in his line ever since. John IV. 
 was succeeded by his son Affonso Henrique, who, being dethroned in 
 1668 for his misconduct, his brother Pedro assumed the crown. 
 Pedro was succeeded in 1706 by his son Joao V., who, dying in 1750, 
 the crown devolved upon his son Joseph I. Joseph was succeeded 
 in 1777 by his daughter Donna Maria I., who afterwards becoming 
 insane, her son Dom Joao was made prince regent in 1792, and at the 
 death of his mother in 1816 he assumed the title of King Joao VI. 
 He married a Spanish princess, by whom he had two sons, Pedro and 
 Miguel, and several daughters. In 1822 his eldest son Pedro was 
 proclaimed Constitutional Emperor of Brazil, which became thereby 
 independent of Portugal. In 1826 King John VI. died at Lisbon, 
 and his son Dom Pedro being considered as a foreign sovereign, Dom 
 Pedro's infant daughter, Donna Maria II, was proclaimed Queen of 
 Portugal. Dom Pedro died in September 1834 at Lisbon. His son 
 Pedro II. is now (1866) emperor of Brazil. On the death of Donna 
 Maria II., November 15, 1853, her son Dom Pedro V. bee me king of 
 Portugal; and on his death, Nov. 11, 1861, his brother Luis. 
 
 BRAHE, TYCHO. The influence which the labours of this great 
 reviver of correct astronomy exercised upon the science of his own 
 and succeeding ages, would justify a more minute detail of his life 
 than we can here give. It will be convenient to place all references 
 at the beginning of this article, which we shall accordingly do. [See 
 also general references in Astronomy, in Arts and Sc. Div.] 
 
 The life of Tycho Brahe' was written by Gassendi ; first edition, 
 Parisiis, 1654, with copperplate crown in the title-page; second edition 
 with two title-pages, both ' Hagse Comitum,' the first, 1665, marked 
 ' Editio secunda auctior et correctior,' the second, 1664, without any 
 mark of second edition, and with an empty space for the crown. The 
 two editions do not appear different in matter. Both contain the 
 'Oratio Funebris/ &c, of John Jessenius. See also Teissier, ' Eloges 
 des Hommes savans,' iv. 383; Blount, ' Censura,' &c. ; ' Epistolae ad 
 Johannem Keplerum,' &c, 1718 ; Riccioli, ' Chronicon in Almagesto 
 Novo,' v. i., p. 46. For modern accounts of his astronomy see Delambre 
 ' Ast. Mod. ;' and in English the chapter on Tycho Brahe' and Kepler 
 in Narrien's 'Account of the Progress of Astronomy,' 1833; and 
 Grant, ' History of Physical Astronomy.' The life in the 1 Biog. Univ.' 
 is by Malte-Brun. The writings of Tycho Brahe" are as follows. The 
 capitals serve to separate different works : — 
 
 (A) 'De Nova Stella,' anno 1572, &c. ; ' Hafnise' (Copenhagen), 1573. 
 Extremely scarce, afterwards inserted in the ' Progymnasmata : ' 
 English translation, 1582 (copy in the Bodleian, Hyde, cited by 
 Lalande). (B) 'De Mundi iEtherei recentioribus Phenomenis liber 
 secundus, qui est de Illustri Stella Caudata, anno 1577, conspecta 
 1588' (?). Is Lalande correct, 'BibL,' 119 ? We have a copy answering in 
 all respects to his description, but with title marked Prague, 1603 ; we 
 cannot find 1588 at the end, as he says. The statement in the preface 
 is not the same as he gives, but the point is of little importance. 
 (C) ' Apologetica Responsio,' &c, Uraniburg, 1591, an answer to an 
 unknown opponent on the parallax of comets. (D) ' Epistolarum 
 astronomicarum libri,' Uraniburg, 1596 ; some have on the title-page 
 Frankfort, 1610 others Nuremberg, 1601. (E) ' Astronomise Instau- 
 ratae Mechanica,' Waudesburg, 1598, reprint, Nuremberg, 1602; plates 
 only reprinted in ' Mem. Acad. Sci.,' 1763. (F) ' Astronomies Instau- 
 ratae Progymnasmata,' begun at Uraniberg, finished at Prague, 1601 
 (in the title-page) published posthumously : the executor's preface is 
 dated 1602. It contains the great mass of Tycho Brahe^'s results of 
 observation, though headed from beginning to end ' De Nova Stella, 
 anni 1572.' The treatise (B) with title-page, Prague, 1603, is always 
 called and sold as the second volume of these ' Progymnasmata,' and 
 though it treats of various other matters is headed throughout as 
 'De Cometa anni 1577.' And (D) is very often toade a third volume. 
 The same works (all three) with alteration of title-page only, Frankfort, 
 1610. (G) In the ' Cceli et Siderum, &c. Observationes,' &c, Leyden, 
 1618, are two years' Bohemian observations of Tycho Brahe\ (H) 'De 
 Disciplinis mathematicis Oratio in qua Astrologia defenditur,' an 
 academical lecture of 1574, printed, not by Tycho, but by Curtius, 
 Hamburg, 1621. (I) ' Geistreiche Weissagung,' &c, 1632; translation 
 of (A) with the astrological part, omitted in (F), date 1632, no place 
 mentioned by Lalande. (K) 'Opera Omnia,' Frankfort, 1648, reprint 
 of the two first in (F). (L) Lucii Barretti 'Sylloge Ferdinaudea,' 
 Vienna, 1657, contains Tycho's observations, 1582-1601. (M) ' Historia 
 Coelestis,' Augsburg, 1666, by this same Barrettus, contains all Tycho's 
 observations. Other title-pages 'Aug. Vind.,' 1668, Ratisb., 1672, 
 Diling., 1675. Errors pointed out in Bartholinus ' Specimen recogni- 
 tionis,' &c, Copenh., 1668. (N) Kepler, 'Tabula; Rudolphinas,' Ulm, 
 1627. These are the final tables deduced from all Tycho's observa- 
 tions. There is either an original life of Tycho, or a translation of 
 Gassendi, in Danish, translated into German by Weistriss, Leipzig, 
 1756. Tycho Brahe' printed his works at his own press of Uraniburg, 
 so long as he remained there, and probably distributed them princi- 
 pally in presents. When they became dispersed, the booksellers varied 
 the title-pages, and hence all the confusion of the preceding list. We 
 suppose those marked (F) were put together after the Frankfort 
 reprint (K), to look like them, if indeed that be a reprint. 
 
899 BRAHE, TYCHO. 
 
 Tne family of Bralid was originally Swedish, but Tycho, the grand- 
 father of the astronomer, and Otto his father, belonged to a branch 
 which had settled iu Denmark. Tycho Brahd himself was the eldest 
 sou and second child of his father, and was bom at Knudsthorp, near 
 the Baltic" (56° 46' N. lat., .according to Gasseudi), on the 14th of 
 December 1546. His father had ten children, of whom the last, Sophia 
 Brans', was knowu in her day as a Latin poetess, and also as a mathe- 
 matician and astrologer. This family was as noblo and as ignorant as 
 sixteen undisputed quarterings could make them ; but Steno, tho 
 maternal uncle of Tycho, volunteered to take charge of him. Perceiving 
 that he had talent, his uncle employed masters to teach him Latin, 
 much against the will of his father, who intended him to do nothing 
 but bear arms. In 1559 Tycho was sent to the University of Copen- 
 hagen, where his attention was called to astronomy by the pretensions 
 of the astrologers, aud by the total eclipse of the sun, August 21, 1560. 
 He began to study tho doctrine of the sphere, and the ephemerides of 
 Stadius. In 1562 his uncle, who intended him for the law, sent him 
 to Leipzic with a tutor. But he disliked the study, aud would attend 
 no more to that science than just enough to save appearances. In 
 the meanwhile he spent his time and money on astronomical instru- 
 ments ; aud, while his tutor slept, used to watch the constellations by 
 aid of a small globe not bigger than his fist. With these slender 
 means he was able to see that both the Alphonsine aud Prutenic tables 
 gave the places of the planets visibly wrong, aud particularly so in the 
 case of a predicted conjunction of Saturn aud Jupiter iu 1563. He 
 took strongly into his head the correction of these tablee, and his first 
 instrument was a pair of common compasses, which he used as an 
 instrument for observing the angles between stars. By drawing a 
 circle with the same radius as the leg of the compasses, and laying 
 down angles upon it he was able to find the Alphonsiue tables more 
 than a month iu error, and the Prutenic several days. He procured a 
 better instrument, aud corrected the deficiencies of its graduation by a 
 table. This instrument was a parallactic rule, or radius, iu the manner 
 of Gemma Frisius. 
 
 He was recalled in 1565 by the death of an uncle, and soon became 
 disgusted by the contempt with which his equals and associates spoke 
 of all liberal knowledge. His uncle Steno however recommended him 
 to follow his favourite pursuit, and he left his country once more and 
 took up his residence at Wittenberg in 1566, from whence he was 
 driven to Rostock in the autumn by the plague. While iu this place 
 a quarrel arose between him and one Pa^berg, a Dane of family like 
 himself, at a public festival. The affair was decided by single combat, 
 and Tycho lost all the front part of his nose. A contemporary, cited 
 by Gasseudi, hints that they took this method of settling which was 
 the better mathematician of the two. Tycho always afterwards wore 
 an artificial nose made of gold, but so well formed and coloured as to 
 be hardly distinguishable from the one with which he began life ; aud 
 he always carried a small box of ointment, with which to anoint this 
 artificial member. 
 
 In 1569 he went to Augsburg, where, being pleased with the place, 
 ai.d finding astronomers there, he determined to remain. He here 
 caused to be constructed a large quadrant, such as twenty 6trong men 
 could hardly lift, with which he made observations while he remained 
 there. He left Augsburg and returned home in 1571, when his uncle 
 Steno offered him a part of his house, with the means of erecting an 
 observatory and a laboratory ; for Tycho had become much attached 
 to chemistry, and declares himself that from his twenty-third year he 
 attended as much to that science as to astronomy. He constructed 
 only a large sextant, for he always intended to return and pursue his 
 studies in Germany, finding the public life of a Dauish noble to be a 
 hindrance. An event however happened in 1572, which, if our memory 
 serves us, has been sometimes stated in popular works as the first 
 excitement he received to study astronomy — with what correctness 
 we have seen. Returning from his laboratory on the evening of 
 November 11, 1572, he cast his eyes upon the constellation Cassiopea, 
 aud was astounded by there perceiving not only a new star but one of 
 greater splendour than any in that constellation. The country people 
 also saw it, aud he immediately set himself to determine its place and 
 motion, if any. Happening to visit Copenhagen early in the year 1573, 
 l.e carried with him his journal, and found that the ' savans ' of the 
 university had not yet takeu notice of the phenomenon. He excited 
 great derision at a convivid party by mentioning his discovery, which 
 however was changed to astonishment on his actually showing them 
 the star. They thereupon became urgent that he should publish his 
 notes, which he refused, being, as he afterwards confessed, under the 
 prejudice that it was unbecoming for a nobleman to publish anythiug ; 
 but afterwards, seeing how many and worthless were the writings on 
 the same subject, and being pressed by his friends at Copenhagen, he 
 sent his account, with additions, to one of them for publication. The 
 star itself continued visible, though gradually diminishing in bright- 
 ness, till March 1574. It was at one time as bright as Venus. 
 
 As soon as Tycho had conquered his aristocratic aversion to being 
 useful, he committed a much more serious oflence agaiust his order 
 by marrying iu 1573 a peasant, or at least a plebeian girl of Kuuds- 
 thorp, named Christiana : some say she was the daughter of a clergy- 
 man. By the interposition of the king the fury of his family at this 
 Btep was cooled. Never were man's prejudices subjected to a more 
 salutary course of discipline than those of Tycho Brahe\ In two short 
 
 BRAHfi, TYCHO. 900 
 
 years the proud noble became an author, a lecturer, and the husband 
 of a woman of iuferior rank. The students of the university desir. d 
 to profit by his knowledge, and on his positive refusal, the kiug, to 
 whom he felt his obligations, made it his own earnest request. No 
 choice was therefore left to the unfortunate recusant ; and he accord- 
 ingly delivered the public lecture marked (H) in our preceding list, 
 which, putting aside the astrology, is a sensible discourse ; aud, 
 excepting a hint at the begiuniirg, that nothing but the request of the 
 king aud of the audience (for politeness' sake) had made him under- 
 take au office for which he was so unfit by station and mediocrity of 
 taleut (for modesty's sake), does not contain any allusion to the sup- 
 posed derogatiou. He informs his audience at the end that he intends 
 to lecture ou the Pruteuic tables, aud he did bo accordingly. This 
 lecture was first published in 1610 by Conrad Aslacus (we cauuot 
 unlatinise Gassendi's name), who got it from Tycho himself. 
 
 Tycho Brahe^ had all this time intended to travel again. He set out 
 iu 1575, leaving his wife and iufant daughter at home, and proceeded 
 to the court of the Landgrave William of Hesse-Cassel, who was himself 
 a perseveriug observer; so much so that when, during an observation 
 of the new star of 1572, servants ran to tell him the house was on fire, 
 he would not stir till he had finished. On leaving his court, Tycho 
 wandered through Switzerland and Germany, apparently seeking where 
 he might best set up his observatory, and he had fixed his thoughts 
 upon Basel. But iu the meanwhile ambassadors had been sent from 
 Denmark to the Laudgrave of Hesse-Cassel, aud that prince took 
 occasion warmly to recommend Tycho Brahe" and his studies to the 
 rrotice of his own sovereign. The latter (Frederic II.) accordingly sent 
 for Tycho after his return to Knudsthorp in 1576, and offered him 
 possession for life of the island of Hven, or Hoene, taking upon himself 
 all the expenses of his settlement. The offer was gladly accepted, and 
 the first stone of the astronomical castle, called Urauiberg, or Oranien- 
 berg (the City of the Heavens) was laid on August 13, 1576. There 
 is a full description of it in Gassendi, as also in (D) and (E). The 
 drawing in the following page is extracted from the former : it is 
 scarcely necessary to warn our readers that the clumsiness of the old 
 wood cut is purposely imitated. 
 
 Besides this there was an observatory sunk in the ground, and named 
 Stellberg(City of the Stars). These two buildiugs contained 28 instru- 
 ments, all extra-meridional, but distinguished, as appears in (E), by 
 mauy new contrivances for avoiding error, and by a size and solidity 
 which rendered graduation to a single minute attainable ; though it 
 may be doubted whether the instruments themselves were calculated 
 to give so small a quantity (for that time) with certainty. Tycho's 
 instruments are vaguely said to have cost 200,000 crowns : the king 
 allowed 2000 dollars a year, besides a fief in Norway and a canonry 
 in the church of Roeskilde. 
 
 Iu 1577 he began his observations, and on November 13th 1577 saw 
 the comet which is the subject of (B). This luminary and others of 
 the "same kind, gave occasion to his discovery that the spheres of the 
 planets [Pkiaium Mobile; Ptolemaic System, in Arts and Sc. Div.] 
 could not be solid, since they were cut in all directions by the orbits 
 of comets, which must be called the first decisive blow against the 
 received notions. And Tycho was the first who proved comets to have 
 such a parallax as was incompatible with their being atmospheric or 
 even sublunary bodies. He observed altogether seveu comets, the last 
 in 1596. 
 
 It is not our intention to follow Tycho Brahe" at length through his 
 splendid career at Uraniberg. No space here allowable would suffice 
 to detail his results sufficiently for astronomical reference. We must 
 therefore content ourselves with a few words on the state in which he 
 found and left astronomy. The reader may fill up various points from 
 the article Astronojiv, in Arts and Sc. Div. 
 
 From the time of Ptolemy it may be said that astronomy had made 
 some advances, but the-e did uot certainly compensate the defects 
 which time must introduce into t tbles of pure observation, unaided by 
 any such knowledge of the system as will make accurate prediction 
 possible. If the Arabs did some good by their observations, they did 
 nearly as much mischief by their theories ; and the Alphonsine tables 
 are a proof that the astronomers of that day did not know their 
 heavens so well as Ptolemy did his. It was impossible for any one to 
 make a considerable advance with such instruments as Tycho Brahe' 
 actually found in use, or without rejecting all theories of the heavenly 
 bodies then in vogue, and relying entirely upon observation. The 
 test of a theory is its accordance with nature ; those of the time in 
 question were so defective that their falsehood might be perceived by 
 merely a little globe large enough to be held iu one hand. Those who 
 were engaged in observation ought to have seen this : it is the merit 
 of Tycho Brahe" that he was the first who did see it. But he did 
 more than this : he saw also the means of remedying the evil by his 
 mechanical knowledge in the construction of instruments, his perception 
 of the way in which those instruments were to be used, and the results 
 of observation to be compared. He showed himself a sound mathe- 
 matician in his methods for determining refraction, in his deduction 
 of the variation and annual equation of the moon, and in many other 
 ways. He proved himself to be at the same time an inventor of the 
 means of observation and of the way of using them, such as had not 
 appeared since Hipparchus ; and it is to his observation that we owe, 
 firstly, the deduction of the real laws of a planet's motion by Kepler, 
 
901 
 
 BRAHE, TYCHO. 
 
 BRAHE, TYCHO. 
 
 902 
 
 and of their proximate cause by Newton. There are many instances 
 iu which good fortune seems to have made a result of more importance 
 than the discoverer had any right to presume, either from the skill or 
 labour employed in. obtaining it; but iu the case of Tycho Brahe" we 
 believe we are joined by a very large majority in thinking that fortune 
 deputed her office, pro hdc vice, to justice, and that the eminence of 
 the success to which lie has led the way is no more than is due to the 
 excellence of the means which he employed, and the sagacity he dis- 
 played in combining his materials. Where Hipparchus and Ptolemy 
 have left half a degree of uncertainty, Tycho Brabe" left two minutes, 
 if not one only. This Bradley afterwards reduced to as many seconds, 
 in the case of the stars ; and the ages of these three are the great 
 epochs of astronomy, as a science of pure observation. 
 
 quarter of a minute of space, or less, to as much as two minutes. The 
 telescope was not then invented which shows that this is an optical 
 delusion, and that they are points of immeasurably small diameter. It 
 was certain to Tycho Brahe* that if the earth did move, the whole 
 motion of the earth in its orbit did not alter the place of the stars by 
 two minutes ; and that consequently they must be so distant, that to 
 have two minutes of apparent diameter, they must be spheres of as 
 great a radius at least as the distance from the sun to the earth. This 
 latter distance Tycho Bralie" supposed to be 1150 times the semi- 
 diameter of the earth, and the sun about 180 times as great as the 
 earth. Both suppositions are grossly incorrect; but they wi re common 
 ground, being nearly those of Ptolemy and Copernicus. It followed 
 then, for anything a real Coperniotm could show to the contrary, that 
 
 We must no-w devote some space to the system which he promul- 
 gated against that of Copernicus, and which is considered as the great 
 defect in his astronomy. And first, we must observe that it has been 
 customary to keep the name of Copernicus under every improvement 
 which his system has undergone in later times. His notions were 
 received at his hands loaded with real difficulties, supported by 
 arguments as trivial as those of his opponents ; Galileo has answered 
 the mechanical objections, Bradley has produced positive proofs, 
 Newton has so altered the system that Copernicus would neither know 
 it nor admit it, by overthrowing the idea that the sun was fixed in the 
 centre of the universe (which i3 the real Copernican system) ; and thus 
 mended in one part, augmented in another, overthrown in a third, 
 and positively proved in a fourth, all that is known of the relative 
 motions of the system in modern times is removed back two hundred 
 years, called Copernican, and confronted with Tycho Brahe". Now 
 the real state of the case i3 this : that Tycho Brahe" did compound out 
 of the systems of Ptolemy and Copernicus a system of his own, which, 
 while it seized by far the greater portion of the advantages of the 
 latter, wa.s not open to the most material objection. (See a paper 
 entitled ' Old Arguments against the Motion of the Earth,' 'Companion 
 to the Almanac,' 183G.) And we assert moreover, that of all the incon- 
 clusive arguments of that day, which concern the subject in question, 
 the reply of the Copernicans to Tycho Brahe" i3 the most inconclusive. 
 The system of Tycho Bralie" consists in supposing, 1, that the stars all 
 move round the earth as in the Ptolemaic system ; 2, that all the 
 planets, except the earth, move round the sun as in the Copernican 
 system ; 3, that the sun, and the imaginary orbit3 in which the planets 
 are moving, are carried round the earth. Imagine a planetarium on 
 the system of Copernicus placed over a table, above which is a light. 
 As the earth moves, let the whole machine be always so moved that 
 the shadow of the earth shall fall upon one and the same part of the 
 table; then the motions of the shadows of the other planets and of 
 the sun will be according to the system of Tycho Bralie". Mathemati- 
 cally speaking, it doe.s not differ from that of Copernicus : we shall 
 now consider it physically. 
 
 The stars, to the naked eye, present diameters varying from a 
 
 some of the fixed stars must be 1520 millions of times as great as the 
 earth, or 9 millions of times as great as they supposed the sun to be. 
 Now, one of the strong arguments against Ptolemy (and the one which 
 has generally found its way into modern works) was the enormous 
 motion which he supposed the stars to have. The Copernican of that 
 day might have been compelled to choose between an incomprehen- 
 sibly great magnitude and a similar motion. Delambre, who comments 
 with brief contempt upon the several arguments of Tycho Bralie", has 
 here only to say, " We should now answer that no star has an apparent 
 diameter of a second." Undoubtedly, but what would you have 
 answered then, is the reply. The stars were spheres of visible magni- 
 tude, and are so still ; nobody can deny it who looks at the heavens 
 without a telescope : did Tycho reason wrong because he did not know 
 a fact which could only be known by an instrument invented after 
 his death ? 
 
 Again, the mechanical difficulties attending the earth's motion were 
 without any answer which deserved attention even in that day. That 
 a stone dropped from a height fell directly under the point it was 
 dropped from, Copernicus accounts for by supposing that the air 
 carries it : he, as well as his opponents, believing that but for the air 
 the spot at first directly beneath the stoue would move from under 
 it. We are of opinion that tho system of Tycho Brahe" was the only 
 one of that day not open to serious physical objections, taking as a 
 basis the notious of mechanics admitted by all parties. To us the 
 system of Copernicus appears a premature birth : the infant long 
 remained sickly, and would certainly have died if it had not fallen 
 under better management than that of its own parents. 
 
 Frederick II. died iu 1588, and Tycho remained unmolested under 
 his sou Christian IV. till 1596. Gassendi relates that the nobles were 
 envious when they saw foreigners of importance come to Denmark 
 solely to converse with Tycho ; that the medical m»n were displeased 
 at his dispensing medicines gratis to the poor ; and that the minister 
 had a quarrel with Tycho about a dog. Malte-Bruu relates this more 
 distinctly, apparently from the ' Danske Magazin,' or from Holberg's 
 ' History of Denmark ;' so that it seems most probable that the 
 destruction of the observatory at Hoene arose from a personal 
 
903 BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS. 
 
 squabble between this minister, called Walckendorf, and a dog of 
 Tycho, whose name Las not reached us. The astronomer was gradually 
 deprived of his different appointments, and in 1596 removed, with all 
 nis smaller apparatus, to Copenhagen. A commission appointed by 
 the minister had declared his methods not worth prosecuting, and his 
 instruments worse than useless. 
 
 In the summer of 1597 he finally left his country, and removed 
 with his wife, two sons, and four daughters, to Rostock, whence he 
 shortly removed to Waudsbeck, near Hamburg, at the invitation of 
 Count Rantzau. At the end of 1598 he received a pressing invitation 
 from the Emperor Rudolph II., promising him every assistance if he 
 would remove witli all his apparatus to the imperial dominions. 
 Thither Tycho arrived in the spring of 1599, having been detained 
 during the winter at Wittenberg by the circumstance of a contagious 
 disorder raging in Prague. The emperor settled upon him a pension 
 of 3000 ducats, and offered him the choice of three different residences. 
 He chose that of Benateck (Beuachia, or Benatica, Gassendi), five miles 
 from Prague, and called the Venice of Bohemia. He sent for the 
 remainder of his instruments from Denmark, and remained at Benateck 
 till February 1601, when he settled in Prague. 
 
 The celebrated Kepler joined him in February 1600. Tycho had 
 repeatedly written to invite him, having first entered into communi- 
 cation with him in 1598, when he sent Tycho a copy of his ' Myste- 
 rium Cosmographicnm.' It is to following the advice of Tycho, to 
 lay aside speculations, and apply himself to the deduction of causes 
 from phenomena, that Kepler owes all his fame; so that Tycho not 
 only furnished him with the observations necessary, but was his 
 adviser (and never was adviser more wanted) in the way of using 
 them. In the year 1601 they were employed together in the compo- 
 sition of tables from the Uraniberg observations, which tables they 
 agreed should be called Rudolphine. But on the 13th of October 
 1601, the effects of a convivial party, combined with inattention to 
 himself, produced a mortification of the bladder. He continued for 
 many days in pain, and died on the 24th of the month. During his 
 delirium ho several times repeated "ue frustra vixisse videar,'' which 
 must be interpreted as something between a hope and a declaration 
 that he had not lived in vain. Nor will he be thought to have done 
 so by any one who ever found his longitude at sea, or slept in quiet 
 while a comet was in the heavens, without fear of the once supposed 
 minister of God's anger. For if the list of illustrious men be formed, 
 to whom we owe such benefit, it will be found that his observations 
 form the first great step of the moderns in astronomy. There was a 
 report set abroad in Denmark, that he had been poisoned by the 
 emperor, probably the imagination of those who had driven him from 
 his country. He was buried at Prague, and his monument still exists 
 there. (Malte-Brun.) He was of moderate stature, and latterly rather 
 corpulent, of florid complexion, and light hair. Gassendi refers to 
 the portrait in his own work in testimony of the skill with which the 
 wound already mentioned was repaired ; and certainly, with the 
 exception of a very great fulness and cylindricality of figure about 
 the lower part of the nostrils, there is nothing there to excite remark. 
 In his younger days he cultivated astrology, but latterly renounced it 
 altogether. He has left no record of his chemical and medical studies. 
 He was a copious writer of Latin verses. Some of his earlier observa- 
 tions are preserved at Copenhagen. 
 
 It is our belief that the merits of Tycho have been underrated, both 
 as an inventor of instruments and as a philosopher. As an observer, 
 his works have spoken for themselves, in language which cannot be 
 mistaken. 
 
 BKAIDWOOD, THOMAS, is known as one of the earliest teachers 
 of the deaf and dumb in this island. He be^an this useful career at 
 Edinburgh in 1760. No authentic record of the methods which he 
 pursued has been made known, unless a work published by the late 
 Dr. Watson, formerly the head master of the London Institution for 
 the Deaf and Dumb, may be so considered. Dr. Watson, as an 
 assistant to Mr. Braidwood, acquired his mode of tuition, and says, 
 speaking of Braidwood, "His method was founded upon the same 
 principles; and his indefatigable industry and great success would 
 claim from me respectful notice, even if I could forget the ties of 
 blood and of friendship." ('Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb,' 
 Introduction, p. xxiii., London, 1809.) A work entitled 'Vox Oculis 
 Subject®,' published in London in 1783, the production of an American 
 gentleman, whose son was educated by Braidwood, professes to give 
 " a particular account of the academy of Messrs. Braidwood of Edin- 
 burgh," but it throws no light upon the system of instruction pursued 
 by those gentlemen. It is chiefly valuable for its copious extracts 
 from the writings of Bulwer, Holder, Amman, Wallis, and Lord Mon- 
 boddo, who had all considered the subject of speech with philosophical 
 attention, and in relation to those persons who are born deaf, or who 
 become so at an early age, and who consequently labour under the 
 deprivation of speech. There was doubtless much merit in the 
 mechanical methods used by Braidwood and his son to produce in 
 their pupils au artificial articulation, and in the persevering application 
 of principles which had been previously ascertained. Braidwood suc- 
 ceeded in attracting the notice of many eminent persons. After having 
 resided some years at Edinburgh, he removed his establishment to 
 Hackney, near London, where he continued to instruct the deaf and 
 dumb, and to relieve impediments in speech, till his death in 1806. 
 
 BRAMANTE, D'URBINO. 
 
 BRAMAH, JOSEPH, was born on the 13th of April 1719, at Stain, 
 borough in Yorkshire, where his father followed the occupation of a 
 farmer. He was the eldest of five children, and was intended for his 
 father's avocation ; but he very early exhibited proofs of mechanical 
 talent, and being, at the age of sixteen, incapacitated for agricultural 
 labour by lameness, he was apprenticed to a carpenter and joiner. 
 He subsequently removed to London, where he worked for some time 
 as a journeyman cabinet-maker, and afterwards set up in the same 
 business for himself. His adoption of the profession of engineer or 
 machinist appears to have arisen from his invention of some important 
 improvements in water-closets, in consequence of which he became a 
 manufacturer of such articles. His next important mechanical 
 invention was the ingenious lock still known by his name, and 
 which, after a lapse of Beventy years, during which time many new 
 kinds of locks have been introduced, maintains its character as one of 
 the most inviolable locks ever contrived. This invention was patented 
 in 1784. Among the numerous other inventions of Bramah were 
 improvements in water-cocks, pumps, and fire-engines, and the 
 hydraulic press, a machine of immense power, acting on the prin- 
 ciple of the philosophical toy called the hydrostatic paradox. This 
 invaluable machine was patented in 1796. The boundless power 
 which it enables one man to exert renders it an importaut agent in 
 many manufacturing processes. In the following year Bramah 
 patented the convenient beer-machine which is now so universally 
 adopted in taverns for drawing liquors in the bar from barrels 
 deposited in the cellar, by means of a force-pump. He was also the 
 author of improvements in steam-engines, especially in boilers ; in 
 machinery for producing smooth and accurate surfaces on wood or 
 metal ; in paper-making machinery ; in making pens by a mechanical 
 process, by which several nibs resembling steel pens were cut out of 
 one quill and fixed in a holder for use ; and in the construction of 
 carriages. In 1806 he contrived an exceedingly ingenious mode of 
 printing, which was shortly afterwards applied to tho consecutive 
 numbering of bank-notes, and by the introduction of which, during 
 the issue of one-pound notes by the Bank of England, the labour of 
 100 clerks out of 120 was dispensed with. In 1812 he patented a 
 scheme for laying mains or large water-pipes through the principal 
 streets of Londou, of sufficient strength to withstand great pressure, 
 to be applied by force pumps; his object being to provide the means 
 of extinguishing fires by throwing water without the aid of a fire- 
 engine, and also to supply a lifting power applicable to the raising of 
 great weights, by forcing water or air into an apparatus consisting of 
 a series of tubes, sliding into one another like the tubes of a telescope, 
 and capable of being projected when necessary. He asserted his 
 ability to make a series of 500 such tubes, each five feet long, capable 
 of sliding within each other, and of being extended in a few seconds, 
 by the pressure of air, to the length of 2500 feet ; and with such an 
 apparatus he proposed to raise wrecks and regulate the descent of 
 weights. The last patent obtained by Bramah was for a mode of 
 preventing dry-rot in timber, by covering it with a thin coat of Parker's 
 Roman cement. 
 
 He died, in consequence of cold contracted while superintending the 
 uprooting of trees in Holt Forest by his hydraulic press, on the 9tli of 
 December 1814, in his sixty-sixth year. In the construction of some 
 water-works at Norwich, Bramah acted with success in the depart- 
 ment of the civil engineer. He also appeared as an author in a 
 ' Dissertation on the Construction of Locks,' and a ' Letter to the 
 Right Honourable Sir James Eyre, Lord Chief Justice of the Common 
 Pleas, on the subject of the cause Boultou and Watt versus Horn- 
 blower and Maberley,' which was published in 1797, and is referred to 
 under Watt. A memoir, which gives a very pleasing account of his 
 amiable private character, and of his energy and probity in business, 
 was published in the 'New Monthly Magazine' for April 1814, from 
 the pen of William Cullen Brown, M.D. 
 
 BRAMANTE, D'URBINO, or BRAMANTE LAZZORI, was one 
 of the most eminent men in his profession at the time of the so-call.d 
 revival of the arts in the loth century, when he distinguished himself 
 by a more accurate investigation of antique buildings than had before 
 been adopted, thereby contributing in no small degree towards estab- 
 lishing that system of architecture which, founded upon the appli- 
 cation of the Roman orders, arrogated to itself the title of ' classical,' 
 and within a short time entirely superseded every other mode of 
 building that had previously obtained in Italy. Seconded by the 
 circumstances of the times, almost as much as by his genius, his 
 diligence earned for him a reputation which appears quite adequate to 
 his intrinsic merits. His name also derives some reflected lustre from 
 being associated with the names of Raphael (hi3 relative) and Michel 
 Angelo, not only as that of their immediat; predecessor, but for the 
 encouragement he gave to the talents of the one, and the degree of 
 rivalry which existed between himself and the other. 
 
 According to some, Bramante was born at Castel Durante, in the 
 duchy of Urbino; according to others, at Fermignano in the same 
 state, in 1444, the same year in which Filippo Bruoelleschi (the 
 architect of the then unrivalled cupola of the cathedral at Florence) 
 died. Although in very humble circumstances, his family appears to 
 have been respectable ; and as he very early evinced a natural aptitude 
 for drawing, his father placed him under the celebrated artist Fra 
 Bartolomeo of Urbino. The proficiency he attained in this part of 
 
90.? 
 
 BR AM ANTE, D'URBINO. 
 
 BRAMHALL, JOHN. 
 
 909 
 
 bis career is t-vinced l>y many pictures which he executed, and which 
 are still to be set-n at Milan ; but his predilection for architecture pre- 
 vailed over all other considerations, and he abandoned for that art the 
 one where he had already a fair prospect of success before him. 
 
 At first he travelled through Lombardy, and passed some time at 
 Milan, studying the works and construction of the celebrated duomo 
 in that city, which was the most extraordinary work of architecture 
 then in progress. He next proceeded to Rome, where after painting 
 some frescoes (now destroyed) in the church of St. John Laterau, he 
 determined to apply himself exclusively to investigating and measuring 
 the principal ancient edifices in that metropolis and its environs. He 
 soon became completely engrossed by his new pursuits, being inces- 
 santly occupied in making drawings, studies, and measurements of 
 various works of antiquity. Among other edifices which he explored 
 were the ruins of that prodigious pile, or rather collection of buildings, 
 the Villa Adriana, which, not having been then despoiled of the 
 columns, marbles, and other ornaments since carried off, must have 
 been far more instructive to the architect than at present, when its 
 scanty remains are interesting only to the antiquary. Unfortunately, 
 Brarnante's zeal and admiration do not appear to have been regulated 
 by that discriminating taste which shows that it appreciates real 
 beauties by rejecting all spurious alloy. Amplitude of masses and 
 vastness of plan seems to have struck the imagination of the future 
 projector of St. Peter's quite as forcibly as that architectural dignity 
 which is independent of extraordinary dimensions, arising rather from 
 nobleness and greatness of manner consistently kept up throughout. 
 
 After extending his researches as far as Naples, upon his return to 
 Rome he was commissioned by Cardinal Oliviero Camffa to erect the 
 cioister of the convent Delia Pace : which, although not a work of 
 any particular merit for its design, gave such satisfaction as to bring 
 him at once into notice, and obtain fur him the patronage of Alex- 
 ander VI. Under that pope however he did not execute any public 
 woiks of importance, with the exception of the Cancelleria or palace 
 of the chancery; a pile of imposing magnitude, and remarkable for 
 its spacious ' cortile,' surrounded by open galleries formed by ranges 
 of arches resting upon grauite columns. Although such a combina- 
 tion of the column and arch constitute-! in itself a mixed style, as it 
 was here managed by Bramante it is at least free from absurdity. In 
 the facade of the same building, which has two orders of pilasters 
 above a lofty rusticated basement, he was not so happy ; and he either 
 did not aim at the character of the antique, or else failed iu his 
 attempt. In proportion to the building the orders are too minut-) to 
 assist the idea of magnitude otherwise than at the expense of their 
 own importance. There is magnitude in the general mass, but not in 
 the constituent features. The arrangement of the pilasters again is 
 more unusual than agreeable, for they cannot be said to be coupled, 
 but distributed bo as to form wider and narrower intercolumns 
 alternately : in the former are placed the windows, while the others 
 are left blank — a mode which, without possessing the richness of 
 coupled columns or pilasters, is equally if not still more objection- 
 able. Another circumstance which does not contribute greatly to 
 beauty is, that the windows of the principal floor as well as those of 
 the basement are arched, although crowned by a horizontal cornice, 
 owing to which they have a heavy look in themselves, and also appear 
 ■quat and depressed in comparison with the range above them. 
 Nearly the same peculiarities, which may be taken as in some degree 
 characteristic of Bramante's style in buildings of this cla»s, prevail 
 also in the inqa.de of a palace begun, although not finished by liim, iu 
 the street called Via Borgo Nuovo. This mansion, now called the 
 Palazzo Giraud, has like the Cancelleria two orders of pilasters, form- 
 ing narrow and wide intercolumns alternately, and arched windows to 
 the first order, crowned by a horizontal frieze and cornice, but with 
 these differences, that the lesser intercolumns are narrower than in 
 the other instance, although still of too great width to allow the 
 pilasters to be termed ' coupled ; ' and the arched windows are there 
 wider and loftier than the others. 
 
 The elevation of Julius II. to the pontificate was a fortunate cir- 
 cumstance for Bramante; for that pope, who was no less enterprising 
 and resolute in civil than he was in military undertakings, was 
 ambitious of signalising his reign by some noble monuments of archi- 
 tecture and the other arts. By him Bramante was commissioned to 
 project plana for uniting the Belvedere with the buildings of the old 
 Vatican palace, so as to render the whole an imposing mass. The 
 architect accordingly proposed to connect the two edifices by means 
 of long wings or galleries, between which should be a court. On 
 account of the inequality of the ground, this latter was formed on 
 two levels, with flights of steps leading up to the large niche or tribune 
 of the Belvedere. The design of this tribune, within which were five 
 lesser niches containing the group of the Laocoon and other master- 
 pieces of sculpture, may be seen (very rudely expressed) in Serlio's 
 work on architecture. This grand composition, which however was 
 not completed by Bramante himself, has since his time undergone so 
 many extensive changes, that it is impossible now to judge from the 
 place what it originally was; for the court has been divided into two 
 by a range of buildings across it, at the junction of its two levels, 
 which was erected by Sixtus V. for the Vatican library. 
 
 Complying with both the pope's impatience and his own, Bramante 
 carried on the works at the Vatican with all possible despatch, by 
 
 night as well as day, in oonsequence of whioh precipitation many 
 fissures afterwards discovered themselves. To reward the zeal and 
 assiduity of his favourite architect, Julius conferred on him the office 
 called ' del Piombo,' took him along with him in his military expe- 
 ditions as his chief engineer, and otherwise manifested the confidence 
 he placed in him. The credit he was in with the pope enabled him 
 in time to patronise others, and he enjoys the honour of having been 
 the first to recommend Raphael at the papal court; yet he has also 
 been accused of availing himself of his interest with Julius for the 
 purpose of thwarting the views of Michel Angelo. Certain it is that 
 he persuaded the pope to abandon the idea of the vast mausoleum 
 which was to have been ornamented with forty statues by that artist, 
 some of them of colossal size. 
 
 But he could have had no very particular reason to be dissatisfied 
 with the scheme of the mausoleum, because it was in order to provide 
 a suitable situation for it that Julius determined upon taking down 
 the old basilica of St. Peter, and erecting a new edifice, as had been 
 intended by Nicholas V., who had actually commenced the end tribune 
 or semicircle, which was chosen by Michel Angelo as the most fitting 
 place for the mausoleum. Such was the origin of the present structure, 
 called by Vasari ' la stupenda e terribilissiina fabrica di San Pietro.' 
 Uiuliano di Sangallo was employed to make designs as well as Bra- 
 mante, but those of the latter obtained the preference, and Sangallo 
 felt so indignant that he retired to Florence. Bramante commenced 
 his work in 1513, and such was the expedition with which he pro- 
 ceeded, that the four great piers and their arches were completed 
 before his death in the following year. On this occasion he had 
 recourse to a new mode of executing the ornaments of the soffits of 
 the arches, by means of moulds fixed into the centerings of the 
 arches, which were filled up with stucco and brickwork before the 
 arches themselves were turned, — a mode supposed to have been prac- 
 tised by the ancients, although quite gone out of use until again 
 applied by Bramante. As his labours extended no further, and as the 
 subsequent mutations introduced by Michel Angelo and his successor!! 
 were such that the original design was entirely lost sight of, tho 
 present edifice can in nowise be considered the work of Bramante. 
 On the contrary, there is reason to imagine that it would have been 
 a much nobler piece of architecture had his ideas been adhered to ; 
 and perhaps one of even still greater magnitude. As the model wan 
 not completed, we can only judge of his general intentions from thd 
 plan composed according to them by Raphael, which is given by Serlio 
 in his work, and certainly, as far as plan alone goes, this appears far 
 better conceived than the one actually executed, and superior in 
 perspective effect, inasmuch as there would have been a greater 
 number of arcades along the nave, and an uninterrupted vista in each 
 of the side aisles to the very extremity of the building ; besides which 
 there would have been a spacious prostyle portico in front, the entire 
 width of the church, formed by three ranks of insulated columns. 
 Further it has been observed, that instead of appearing less than its 
 actual dimensions, as is notoriously the case with the present St. 
 Peter's, which even excites astonishment on that very account, it 
 would have looked more spacious and extensive than it really was. 
 The form of the Dome too, as proposed by Bramaute, would have 
 been more simple and more after the character of the antique, it being 
 much less than a hemisphere externally, with a series of gradini similar 
 to those of the Pantheon at its base, above the peristyle of its tam- 
 bour ; — and it may here bo observed, that it was Bramante, not 
 Michel Angelo, who first projected the idea of surmounting St. Peter's 
 by a rotunda and dome equal to the Pantheon. Another celebrated 
 work of Bramante, although upon an exceedingly small scale, is the 
 little Temple or Oratory iu the cloister of San Pietro Montorio at 
 Rome. It is circular in plan, and surrounded externally by a peri- 
 style of sixteen Doric columns, above which rise the walls of the cella, 
 forming a disproportionably lofty attic, with windows and niches 
 placed alternately; this circumstance, together with the number of 
 doors, windows, and niches, gives the whole a heavy and confused 
 appearance, quite unlike the finished simplicity observable in the best 
 antique models. Besides all which there is a particularly uncouth 
 balustrade above the entablature of the peristyle, whose balusters are 
 continued the whole circumference, without any intervening pedestals. 
 At the best it is a more showy than beautiful architectural object ; 
 yet would have produced a good general effect, had the circular court 
 with a surrounding colonnade, for the centre of which it was intended, 
 been completed according to the architect's design. 
 
 Numerous other buildings and projects are attributed to Bramante, 
 but to some of them his claims are rather disputable, and of the 
 edfices known to have been erected by him many no longer exist. 
 He died at Rome in 1514, at the age of seventy, and his remains were 
 interred with unusual solemnity. 
 
 BRAMHALL, JOHN, Archbishop of Armagh, in the 17th century, 
 was born at Pontefract, in Yorkshire, about the year 1593, and was 
 descended from an ancient family. He received his early education 
 in the place of his birth, aud was then sent to Sidney College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he was admitted February 21st, 1005. In lo'23 the 
 Archbishop of York made him his chaplain. He was also pre- 
 bendary of York aud Ripon. Iu 1630 he took the degree of Doctor in 
 Divinity. Soon after he was iuvit d to Irelaud by Viscouut Weutworth, 
 deputy of that kiugdom, and Sir Christopher Waudesford, master ot 
 
907 BRAMHALL, JOHN. 
 
 the rolls. There he soon obtained the archdeaconry of Meath, the 
 best in that kingdom. In 1634 he was promoted to the bishopric of 
 Londonderry ; while he held which, he doubled the yearly revenue by 
 advancing the rents and recovering lands which had been detained 
 from his predecessors. 
 
 Bramhall appears to have applied hitnstlf with about the same zeal 
 in Ireland that Laud was then exhibiting in England for the increase 
 of the wi alth and power of the clergy. In pursuance of several acts 
 passed in the Irish parliament, which met July 14, 1(334, he abolished 
 fee farms that were charged on church-lauds ; he obtained composition 
 for the rent instead of the small reserved rents; by grants from the 
 crown, and by purchase, he obtained impropriations. By these and 
 other means he regaiued to the church, in the space of four years, 
 thirty or forty thousand pounds a year. He likewise prevailed upon 
 the Church of Ireland to embrace the thirty-nine Articles of Religion 
 of the Church of England, agreed upon in the convocation holden at 
 Loudon in the year 1562. He tried also to get the English Canons 
 established in Ireland, but did not succeed farther than that a few of 
 them should be introduced, and other new ones framed. 
 
 On the 4th of March 1640-41, he was impeached, together with 
 several others of Strafford's coadjutors, by the Irish House of Commons. 
 He was in consequence imprisoned, and after some time, through the 
 King's interference, set at liberty, but without any public acquittal. 
 Some time after, not considering himself safe in Ireland, he went over 
 to England, where he remained till the battle of Marston Moor ; after 
 which he embarked with several persons of distinction, and land) d at 
 Hamburg, July 8, 1644. It was during his exile, in the company of 
 the Marquis of Newcastle, that he had that argument with Hobbes 
 about liberty and necessity, which gave rise to the Celebrated contro- 
 versy, without which the prelate's name might have perhaps been 
 forgotten. At the treaty of Uxbridge, Bramhall had the honour to be 
 classc d with Laud in being excepted out of the general pardon. 
 
 At the Restoration, Bramhall was made Archbishop of Armagh, 
 Primate and Metropolitan of all Ireland. He now renewed his exer- 
 tions for the enrichment and aggrandisement of the church. He died 
 in 1 6G3. By his wife he had four children, a son, Sir Thomas Bramhall, 
 bart., and three daughters. 
 
 Bramhall, whatever in his day might be his reputation as a bustling 
 and intriguing churchman, will be remembered, if he be remembered 
 at all, by posterity on account of his controversy with Hobbes. As 
 this controversy throws considerable light not only on the character 
 of Bramhall but on that of his age, it is of importance to give some 
 account of it, which will be done much better than we could do it in 
 the following passages, with which Hobbes concludes the work. As 
 the controversy is now very scarce, this extract, even though not 
 viewed as by any means setting the question at rest, will scarcely be 
 considered too long, especially when it is regarded as a specimen of 
 the style of Hobbes, and a fair statement of the views of the two 
 parties. As we have already remarked, the controversy originated in 
 a conversation at Paris in the company of the Marquis of Newcastle, 
 while they were all living there in exile. 
 
 " I shall briefly draw up the sum of what we have both said. That 
 which I have maintained is — that no man hath his future will in his 
 own present power; — that it may be changed by others, and by the 
 change of things without him ; — and when it is changed, it is not 
 changed nor determined to anything by itself; — and that when it is 
 undetermined, it is no will, because every one that willeth willeth 
 something in particular; — that deliberation is common to men with 
 beasts, as being alternate appetite, and not ratiocination ; and the last 
 act or appetite therein, and which is immediately followed by the 
 action, the only will that can be taken notice of by others, and which 
 only uiaketh an action in public judgment voluntary ;— that to be 
 free is no more than to do, if a man will, and if he will, to forbear; 
 and consequently that this freedom is the freedom of the man, and 
 not of the will ;— that the will is not free, but subject to change by 
 the operation of external causes ; — that all external causi s depend 
 necessarily on the first eternal cause, God Almighty, who worketh in 
 us, both to will and to do, by the mediation of second causes;— that 
 seeing neither man nor anything else can work upon itself, it is impos- 
 sible that any man, in the framing of his own will, should concur 
 with Cod, either as an actor, or as an instrument; that there is nothing 
 brought to pass by fortune as by a cause, nor anything without a 
 cause or concurrence of causes sufficient to bring it so to pass ; and 
 that every such cause, and their concurrence, do proceed from the 
 providence, good pleasure, and working of God ; and consequently, 
 though I do, with others, call many events contingent, and say they 
 happen, yet because they had every of them their several sufficient 
 causes, I say they happen necessarily ; and though we perceive not 
 what they are, yet there are of the most contingent events as necessary 
 causes as of those events whose causes we perceive, or else they could 
 not possibly be foreknown, as they are by him that forekuoweth all 
 thiDgs. 
 
 " On the contrary, the bishop maintaineth — that the will is free 
 from necessitation, and in order thereto that the judgment of the 
 understanding is not always praclicl practicum, nor of such a nature 
 in itself as to oblige and determine the will to one, though it be true 
 that spontaneity and determination to one may consist together; — 
 that the will determineth itself; and that external things, when they 
 
 BRANDENBURG, ELECTORS OF. 
 
 change the will, do work upon it not naturally but morally, not by 
 natural motion but by moral and metaphysical motion ; — that when 
 the will is determined naturally it is not by God's general influence, 
 whereon depend all second causes, but by special influence, God con- 
 curring and pouring something into the will ; — that the will, when it 
 suspends not its act, makes the act necessary ; but because it may 
 suspend and not assent, it is not absolutely necessary; — that sinful 
 acts proceed not from God's will, but are willed by him by a permis- 
 sive will, not an operative will, and he hardeneth the heart of man by 
 a negative obduration; — that man's will is in his own power, but his 
 motus primo primi not in his own power, nor necessary, save only by 
 a hypothetical necessity; — that the will to change is not always a 
 change of will; — that not all things which are produced are produced 
 from sufficient but some from deficient causes ; — that if the power of 
 the will be present in actu primo, then there is nothing wanting to 
 the production of the effect ; — that a cause may be sufficient for the 
 production of an effect, though it want something necessary to the 
 production thereof, because the will may be wauting; — that a neces- 
 sary cause doth not always uecessarily produce its effect, but only 
 then when the effect is necessarily produced. He proveth also that 
 the will is free, by that universal notion which the world hath of 
 election; for when of the six electors the votes are divided equally, 
 the King of Bohemia hath a casting voice; — that the prescience of 
 God supposeth no necessity of the future existence of the things 
 foreknown, because God is not eternal but eternity ; and eternity i* a 
 standing now, without succession of time, and therefore God sees all- 
 things intuitively by the presentiality they have in nunc slang, which 
 comprehendeth in it nil time, past, present, and to come, not formally, 
 but eminently and virtually; — that the will is free even then wheu it 
 acteth, but that is in a compounded not in a divided sense ; — that to 
 be made and to be eternal do consist together, because God's decrees 
 are made, and are nevertheless eternal; — that the order, beauty, aud 
 perfection of the world doth require that in the universe there should 
 be agents of all sorts, some necessary, some free, some contingent; — 
 that though it be true that to-morrow it shall rain or not rain, yet 
 neither of them is true determinate' ; — that the doctrine of necessity in 
 a blasphemous, desperate, aud destructive doctrine ; — that it were 
 better to be an atheist than to hold it, and he that maintaineth it ig 
 fitter to be refuted with rods than with arguments." ' The Question 
 concerning Liberty, Necessity, and Chance, clearly Stated and 
 Debated' between Dr. Bramhall, Bishop of Derry, and Thomas Hobbe* 
 of Malmesbury. London, 1656, sub. fin. 
 
 BRANCA LEO'NE D'ANDALO\ a Bolognese noble and Count of 
 Casalecchio, was chosen by the people of Rome as their senator in 
 
 1253, with the summary powers of a dictator. The pope, Innocent IV., 
 was absent at the time, and Rome was distracted by quarrels between 
 its feudal nobles, who had fortified themselves in their respective 
 palaces or in some of the ancient monuments, such as the Colosseum, 
 the tomb of Cajcilia Metella, the mausoleums of Hadrian and Augustus, 
 &c. They had also built a number of lofty towers, from which they 
 defied the attacks of their enemies. Each baron had a baud formed 
 of his relatives, clients, or dependents, and of hired swordsmen. These 
 frequently sallied out of their strongholds, either to attack a rival 
 faction, or to plunder the unprotected citizens and country people. 
 Such was at that time the general condition, not only of Rome but of 
 Florence, Milan, and other great Italian cities, which lived in what was 
 called municipal independence, until the citizens, weary of this state 
 of anarchy, resorted to the establishment of the podesta, a temporary 
 magistrate, who was always chosen out of a foreign city or state, and 
 who had summary powers to put down the disturbers of the public 
 peace. The Romans styled theirs 'Senator.' Brancaleone was a man 
 of a stern, peremptory temper, and, being a stranger, had no sympathy 
 with any of the conflicting parties. He began a war of destruction 
 against the barons, attacked their strongholds, razed their towers, 
 hanged them and their adherents at the windows of their mansions, 
 and thus succeeded by terror in restoring peace and security to the 
 city. In the numerous conflicts that took place several of the aucient 
 monuments suffered greatly. He summoned the haughty Innocent IV. 
 in the name of the Roman people to leave Assisi, whither he had 
 retired, and to return to Rome, threatening him, in case of non- 
 compliance, with a visit from the armed citizens, with their senator at 
 their head. The pope returned to Rome, where he died soon after, in 
 
 1254. The people of Rome however, fickle as they have generally 
 shown themselves in modern history, became tired of Braucaleoue's 
 severity : they revolted against him, and appointed another senator, 
 Maggi of Brescia, whom however they soon after accused of being too 
 partial towards the nobles; and in 1257 they recalled Brancaleone, 
 who resumed his authority, which he exercised with redoubled vigour. 
 In 1258 Brancaleone died, much regretted by the citizens, who elected 
 his uncle, Castellano d'Andal6, as hi3 successor, notwithstanding the 
 opposition of the pope. A column was raised in honour of Bran- 
 caleone, with an urn at, the top, in which his head was inclosed. 
 
 BRANDE, W. T. [Sre vol. vi. col. 980.] 
 
 BRANDENBURG. ELECTORS OF. The first known inhabitants 
 of the electorate of Brandenburg were the Suevi, a race recorded by 
 Julius Ctesar as the most numerous and warlike in Germany. The 
 Suevi inhabited the territory extending from the i anksof the Elbe and 
 Saale to the Vistula, and for a time held the whole region which lay 
 
BBS 
 
 BRANDENBURG, ELECTORS OP. 
 
 BRANT6ME. 
 
 010 
 
 between the Baltic and the Rhine and Danube. In the time of the 
 Emperor Augustus, Drusus, his stepson, compelled the Suevi, who 
 dwelt in what was afterwards called the ' Middle Mark,' and the 
 Langobardi, who peopled the districts subsequently termed the 'Old 
 link.' to accept Vannius as their ruler. A few years after the birth 
 of Christ, the Langobardi were subjugated by Maroboduus, king of 
 the Marcomanni, at that time sovereign of Bohemia; and a.d. 17, we 
 find the Semnones, a branch of the Suevi, seeking protection against 
 their oppressor from Arminius, leader of the Cherusci. At the period 
 of the great movement of the northern nations to the south, both 
 the Langobardi and Suevi abandoned their native country and broke 
 into Italy, where they established the Lombardic empire. Their 
 deseited home now fell into the hands of the Vandals or Slavonians, 
 one vace of whom, the Vilzes, settling in the Middle Mark, founded 
 several towns, of which Brennabor or Brandenburg was one. These 
 new settlers were subsequently subdued by the Franks, from whom 
 descended Prince Sunna, who reigned over the country in the 
 beginning of the 2nd century, and Prince Brando, who founded the 
 n 'v town of Brandenburg in 230. Thirty years afterwards, the 
 Vandals having regained their superiority, repossessed themselves of 
 the country, and maintained themselves in it for the next 500 years ; 
 but in 789 they fell under the sway of Charlemagne after a severe 
 contest; and in 808 he appointed a count to act as his vicegerent in 
 Brandenburg. His successor also sent two princes in 823 to fill the 
 same office. He had likewise conquered the Vilzes, but his successors 
 were unable to mdntain the conquest or prevent them from making 
 repeated inroads into Saxony and Thuringia. At last, Henry L, 
 king of Germany, brought the Vandals under complete subjection, and 
 in 931 appointed certain counts to watch over the Saxon borders. 
 These were the first markgraves of Lower Saxony, or the Vandal- 
 mark ; they were also denominated markgrave3 of Stade, the mark 
 having parsed into the hands of the earls of Stade. The Vandals 
 continued to struggle for their independence in this quarter until the 
 year 1144, when the emperor Lotharius confirmed the North-mark 
 as well as the Salzwedel-mark on Albert the Handsome (also called 
 the Bear), count of Ascania or Anhalt, the line of Stade having become 
 extinct. This prince, who extinguished the dominion of the Vandals 
 in these parts, was the first who assumed the title of Markgrave of 
 Brandenburg; he made himself also master of the Middle-mark, 
 Ucker-mark, and Priegnitz, either founded Berlin or raised it to the 
 rank of a city, and built Stendal and other towns. His son Otho I., 
 received Pomerania as a fief in addition, and was the first arch- 
 chamberlain of the German empire. His wife was interred in a 
 vault of the cathedral church of Brandenburg, and the stone under 
 which her remains are deposited has the words 'Judith, the gem of 
 the Polacks,' still legible upon it. His successors increased their 
 patrimony by the acquisition of the New-mark, Lebus, Sternberg, 
 Lower Lusatia, and other districts ; and they were the first who set 
 about reclaiming the wastes and swamps of their dominions and 
 cultivating them. Their line terminated in the person of Markgrave 
 Henry, in 1320, whose death threatening the dism' mberment of 
 Brandenburg by conflicting clrimants, Lewis of Bavaria, then 
 emperor, declared it a lapsed fief of the empire, and bestowed it 
 upon his son, Lewis the elder. This prince was succeeded by his 
 brother Otho, who obtained from the emperor Charles IV. a recognition 
 of his descendants' right of succession to the electorate of the Mark, a 
 dignity to which Cnarles raised it in the golden bull, declaring it the 
 seventh electorate of the holy Roman empire. In consequence of 
 Otho's indol nee and incompetence, Charles in 1373 bestowed the 
 electoral Mark upon Wenzel, his eldest son, king of Bohemia ; and 
 when Wenzel was raised to the dignity of king of the Romans, he 
 made it over to Sigismund, his st coud sou. This prince's non- 
 residence and unconcern involved the country in confusion, and its 
 affairs growing worse after he had ascended the imperial throne of 
 Germany, he made over the electoral Mark to his cousins, Jobst and 
 Procopius, princes of Moravia, and the New Mark to the Teutonic 
 order, in pawn for monies lent. In 1417, on the death of Jobst, 
 Sigismund gave the electorate to Frederic, margrave of Nuruberg, 
 with whom began a race of sovereigns whose talents and wisdom have 
 elevated Brandenburg and its subsequent acquisitions to a dis- 
 tinguished rank among the monarchies of Europe. Having under the 
 name of Frederic I. made himself respected both at home and abroad 
 for 23 years, Frederic was, in 1440, succeeded by Frederic II. ' of the 
 Iron Teeth,' his son, who got back the New Mark from tbe Teutonic 
 knights for 100,000 guldens, and not only added the towns and 
 dependencies of Kottbus, Pritz, Somersfield, Bobersberg, Storkow, and 
 fcerekow, to his dominions, but established his right as lord paramount 
 of Pomerania and as heir to the Mecklenburg domains. In 1471 he 
 was succeeded by his brother Albert Achilles or Ulysses, one of the 
 most distinguished commanders of his day ; but iu 1486 Albert's 
 ill state of health induced him to transfer the electoral dignity, 
 together with the mark of Brandenburg, to his son, John Cicero ; 
 Ansbach to another son, and Baireuth to a third. The last dying 
 without issue, his share fell to his brother Frederic of Ansbach, who 
 was the founder of the elder line of the markgraves of Brandenburg, 
 in Franconia. John Cicero was noted as much for his learning as for 
 hi* wUdom and economical habits, and no less for the enormous size 
 to which he grew; he died in 1499, and was followed by his son, 
 
 Joachim (Xeitor) L, a prince equally distinguished for his erudition 
 and prudence, though a fierce persecutor of the Jews, as well as hostile 
 to the Reformation. The earldom of ltuppin devolved to him by 
 inheritance. It was reserved for Joachim (Hector) II., his son, who 
 succeeded him iu 1535, to introduce the reformed religion into his 
 states ; he was a great patron of learning, founded the university of 
 Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, erected Spandau into a fortress, built a new 
 palace at Berlin, and became joint lord paramount over the duchy of 
 Prussia. He was followed by John George in 1571, who inherited the 
 new mark and principality of Crosseu from his uncle, and under 
 whom Brandenburg enjoyed continued tranquillity. To this prince 
 succeeded, in 1598, another equally paternal sovereign, Joachim 
 Frederic, his son, who was bishop of Havelberg, Lebus, and Brauden- 
 burg, and incorporated the possessions of his diocese with the 
 electorate. He founded the gymnasium of Joachimsthal, now one ot 
 the best public schools in Berlin. His reign lasted from 1598 to 1608. 
 John Sigismund, his sou and successor, inherited not only a moiety of 
 the domains of Juliers, Cleves, and Berg, but shortly before his death, 
 the duchy of Prussia, which was at that time a Polish fief. From the 
 year 1618, therefore, this duchy became part of the electorate, and 
 Brandenburg and Prussia thenceforward rank as a single state. John 
 Sigismund embraced the Protestant reformed religion, butnot without 
 exciting some serious commotions in Berlin. In 1619 he was 
 succeeded by George William, who inherited a flourishing patrimony, 
 but by his weak conduct during the Thirty years' war and the double 
 dealing of Von Schwarzenberg, his minister, bequeathed it to his son 
 the ' great elector,' Frederic William, in the most deplorable condition, 
 exhausted and devastated by the inroads of the Swedes and their 
 contests with the imperialists. Frederic William, who succeeded his 
 father in 1640, speedily restored his dominions to a state of order and 
 prosperity, and added largely to their extent. [Frederic William of 
 Prussia.] At the time of his death, 1688, this illustrious prince left 
 the electorate in a state of renovated prosperity, and greatly 
 augmented power and extent. His son Frederic III., assumed the 
 regal dignity in 1701, under the style and title of Frederic I., king of 
 Prussia. [Frederic I. of Prussia.] 
 
 BRANTOME, the common designation of the French writer Pierre 
 de Bourdeilles, who was Lord Abbot of Brantome in Guienne. Very 
 little is known of the life of Brantome, beyond the brief and general 
 sketch given by himself in au epitaph which he left to be inscribed 
 on his tomb. He was a younger son of an ancient and distinguished 
 family of Perigord, where he appears to have been born about the year 
 1540. Having served his apprenticeship in arms under Francis of 
 Guise, he eventually obtained two companies of foot from Charles IX. 
 That king, with whom he was a great favourite, also made him a 
 Chevalier of the Order of St. Michael ; that of Habito de Christo was 
 bestowed upon him by Don Sebastiau of Portugal. He is supposed 
 to have visited in the early part of his life most of the countries of 
 Europe, either in a military capacity or as a traveller. After the 
 accession of Henry III. he appears to have retired to his estate of 
 Richemont in his native province. It is supposed to have been after 
 this that he wrote his various works. He died at Richemont, on the 
 loth of July 1614. 
 
 By his last will he charged his heirs with the publication of his 
 works, or memoirs, as they are often collectively called, ordering that 
 the necessary funds should be provided from the revenues of his 
 estate; although he has known, he adds, the booksellers pay for 
 liberty to publish books not half so interesting or so likely to be well 
 received by the public. They did not however appear till the year 
 1666, when they were printed in eight 16mo volumes, according to 
 the title-page, "at Leyden, by John Sambix the younger," but in 
 reality, it is said, at the Hague, by the brothers Steucker. The works 
 were sent to the press by Claude de Bourdeilles, cornte de Montresor, 
 grand-nephew of the author. Another edition appeared in 1699, and 
 another in 1722. But the most complete edition of Brantome is that 
 of 1740, in 15 vols. 16mo, which bears the impress of the Hague on 
 the title-page, but is said to have been actually printed at Rouen. No 
 printer's or bookseller's name appears. A reprint of it in the same 
 number of volumes appeared in 1779 at Maastricht (but with the 
 impress of London) ; and it was once more reproduced in 8 vols. 8vo 
 in 1787, by Bastien, as a part of the collection entitled ' Memoires 
 pour servir a l'Histoire de France.' 
 
 Of the fifteen volumes, the first contains ' Les Vies des Dames 
 Illustres Francoises et Etrangeres ; ' the second and third, ' Les Vies 
 des Dames Galantes ; ' the fourth and fifth, ' Les Vies des Hommes 
 Illustres et Grands Capitaines Etrangers;' the sixth, seventh, eighth, 
 ninth, and tenth, 'Les Vies des Homines Illustres et Grands Capitaines 
 Francois;' and the eleventh, 'Discours sur les Duels.' The remaining 
 four volumes consist of pieces which had not been previously pub- 
 lished. The twelfth contains a collection entitled ' Rhodomontades 
 et Gentilles Rencontres Espagnolles,' which is stated to have been 
 written by Brantome in Spanish, and translated into French by Marc 
 Phrasendorp ; and two dissertations, the first ' !Sur les Sermens et 
 Juremens Espagnols,' the other ' Sur les Belles Retraites d'Armees de 
 diverses Nations.' The thirteenth contains the author's ' Opuscules 
 Divers,' seventeen in number, the last being his Testament, a very 
 curious document, extending to about 50 pages. To these is added a 
 piece entitled 'Maxims et Avis du Maniement de la Guerre/ by ^Vndre" 
 
Oil 
 
 BRASIDAS. 
 
 BRAY, SIR REGINALD. 
 
 912 
 
 de Bourdeilles, Brant6me's elder brother. The letters of Andre" to 
 Charles IX., Henri III., and their mother Catharine de' Medici, with 
 their answers, form the fourteenth volume of the collection ; and the 
 fifteenth is filled with a history of the family of Bourdeilles, princi- 
 pally taken from Dinet's ' Theatre de la Noblesse Frangoise,' and 
 brought down to the time when the edition was published. In the 
 course of this long genealogical detail there is given a life of 
 Brantome, which fills about 80 pages. His portrait is prefixed to 
 the volume. 
 
 There is no English translation of Brantome's works. This is no 
 doubt to be accounted for from the comparatively late date at which 
 they appeared ; had they been published some fifty or sixty years 
 earlier, it is probable that the extreme freedom of expression in which 
 they abound would not have shut out Brantome from our literature, 
 any more than the same objection has deprived us of his equally 
 unscrupulous contemporaries, Rabelais and Montaigne. In this respect, 
 as well as in others, his ' Me'moires ' afford us undoubtedly the most 
 living picture that has been preserved of the age in which he lived, 
 and of the odd system of manners and morality then prevalent. No 
 mere statement of facts which may be gathered from more formal 
 histories can convey the vivid impression which this writer's whole 
 style and tone of sentiment give us of the entirely different light in 
 which licentiousness in both sexes was then viewed from that in which 
 we now regard it. It seems never to enter Brantome's head that 
 either man or woman can be considered dishonoured, or to have 
 forfeited a character for virtue, by the most lavish indulgence in what 
 he calls gallantry. The most abandoned of the female worthies whose 
 lives he details are spoken of by him as both illustrious ladies and 
 good Christians. So complete is his abstinence from every expression 
 that might denote a sense of there being any thing to blame in the 
 indulgences which he has recorded, that he has been suspected by 
 some critics of composing his works with a determined purpose of 
 undermining the belief of his readers in the common distinctions 
 between virtue and vice. This however is probably an unfounded 
 hypothesis. It can hardly be said that Brantome's moral creed on the 
 subject of gallantry, strange as it appears to us, is really different 
 from that which was generally in fashion when he wrote, and had 
 been so for ages before. He is not more lax in his judgments upon 
 matters of this kind, for instance, than his predecessor Froissart, or, 
 as we have already observed, than his contemporary Montaigne. In 
 his praises of beauty and of knightly prowess and courtesy, Brantome 
 writes with warm and eloquent enthusiasm. 
 
 BRA'SIDAS. The first mention of this eminent Spartan occurs in 
 the first year of the Peloponnesian war, in which he performed a very 
 gallant action in throwing himself at the head of a body of troops into 
 Methone when besieged by the Athenians, " and for this exploit was 
 the first that was praised at Sparta in this war.'' ('Thucyd.,' ii. 25.) 
 In the third year of the war he was associated with Cnemus in the 
 command of the Peloponnesian fleet, was present in the second battle 
 in which the Lacedaemonians were defeated by Phormion, and took 
 probably a leading part in a well-contrived scheme for surprising the 
 Athenian port of Piraeus, which failed, asThucydides intimates, chiefly 
 from the want of due energy in its execution (ii. 85-94). In the fifth 
 year he was associated with Alcidas in the command of the Pelopon- 
 nesian fleet. In the seventh year he commanded a ship in the arma- 
 ment which attacked the fort of Pylos, newly erected by Demosthenes 
 on the mainland opposite the island of Sphacteria ; distinguished 
 himself by superior bravery, and being severely wounded and fainting, 
 he dropped his shield into the sea, which was picked up and made 
 part of the Athenian trophy. This little incident is worth relating, 
 because the loss of the shield was considered disgraceful. It does not 
 appear that Brasidas suffered in reputation from this accident (iv. 
 11, 12). 
 
 Soon after a request for help was preferred to Sparta from some 
 cities in the Chalcidian peninsula, which had thrown off their alliance, 
 or rather their allegiance, to Athens. Brasidas was already so well 
 known, that the Chalcidians requested that he might be the leader of 
 any force which should be sent to their assistance ; and the text of 
 Thucydides (iv. 80) seems to indicate that no one contested with him 
 the command of a distant and uncertain enterprise. The Lacedaemo- 
 nians gave him 700 heavy-armed foot ; the rest of his army, consisting 
 of Peloponnessian mercenaries, he was collecting in the neighbouihood 
 of Sicyon, where he had the opportunity of protecting and preserving 
 to the Peloponnesian alliance the city of Megara, attacked by an 
 Athenian army (iv. 70-74). This was early in the eighth year of the 
 war. In the same summer he led his army of 1700 heavy-armed foot 
 (containing altogether about 4000 soldiers) to Macedonia. A chief 
 difficulty of the undertaking was to reach the scene of action. The 
 Athenians commanded the sea, and the land route lay through 
 Thessaly, a difficult and unfriendly country ; but by the assistance of 
 a few principal Thessalians, who acted as his guides, and by the 
 decision, rapidity, and address of his own movements, he so mauaged 
 as to reach the Macedonian frontier in safety. 
 
 We can only give an outline of this expedition, which is but an 
 episode in the Peloponnesian war. Brasidas did not act with the 
 haughtiness and severity usually manifested by Spartan commanders 
 towards their subject allies, and his character lor equity and mildness 
 did the Lacedaemonians great service, as it induced many cities to go 
 
 over to them ; and afterwards, even after the Sicilian war, the wisdom 
 and virtue of Brasidas, to some known by experience, by others 
 believed upon report, was the principal cause which made the 
 Athenian confederates affect the Lacedaemonians ; the Athenian* 
 probably supposing that his successors would be of similar character. 
 (' Thucyd.,' iv. 81.) The first fruits of his appearance in Chalcidice 
 were the revolt of Acanthus and Stagirus from Athens ; and this 
 success, before winter was completely set in, was followed by the 
 acquisition of Amphipolis on the Strymon. This was the heaviest 
 loss which could have befallen the Athenians, inasmuch as it was the 
 most important of their Thracian dependencies, and they derived from 
 it a considerable revenue, and plenty of timber for ship-building, which 
 the soil of Attica did not supply. 
 
 After the capture of Amphipolis, Brasidas meditated building a fleet 
 in the Strymon, and he requested reinforcements from Sparta, which 
 were denied, partly because the leading men were jealous of him, 
 partly because the government was intent on concluding the war, and 
 obtaining the freedom of the Lacedaemonians made prisoners in 
 Sphacteria. Accordingly in the following spring, in the ninth year of 
 the war, a truce was concluded, which provided that each party was 
 to retain what it then possessed. It became a question however to 
 which of them Scione, which had surrendered to Brasidas just about 
 the ratification of the truce, belonged ; and Brasidas refused to give it 
 up to the Athenians, probably because he was ill pleased with the 
 uegociatiou, and reluctant to deliver up the city, by which he had 
 been eminently trusted and honoured, to the certain revenge of the 
 Athenians. This circumstance, and the revolt of Mende, a neighbouring 
 city, which he also received into the alliance of Sparta, alleging that 
 the Athenians had already infringed the terms of the truce, led to the 
 continuance of hostilities on the coast of Thrace. In the following 
 spring (B.C. 422) the Athenians sent out Cleon to assume the command, 
 who speedily undertook the siege of Amphipolis. Brasidas superin- 
 tended the defence. In the quality of his troops Cleon had the 
 advantage; the numbers were about equal. But Brasidas, who watched 
 Cleon's movements from the city, took at ouce advantage of a false 
 manoeuvre, and led his troops to battle, in which the Athenians were 
 completely d.feated, but he himself received a mortal wound. He 
 was buried in the public place of Amphipolis at the public expense, 
 was worshipped as a hero, and, as a still higher mark of respect, it 
 was ordained that he, instead of Agnon the Athenian, should thence- 
 forward be honoured as the true founder of the city and colony. 
 
 The military talents of Brasidas were great ; his temper was politic 
 and conciliatory; his accomplishments were considerable, at least in 
 Sparta, for Thucydides pithily observes that, "for a Lacedaemonian, he 
 was not unable to speak " (iv. 84). That he was held in high respect 
 throughout Greece may be gathered, not only from the testimony of 
 Thucydides, but from the expression put into the mouth of Alcibiadeg 
 by Plato in the ' Banquet,' that " such as Achilles was, we may 
 conjecture Brasidas to have been.'' 
 
 BRAUWEH, or BROUWER, ADRIAN, was born, according to 
 some authors, at Oudenaarden, but, according to others, at Haarlem, 
 about lo'US. He was apprenticed to Frank Hals; who, it is said, 
 finding him uncommonly skilful, made money by his productions, 
 while he kept him confined and almost starving at home. Brauwer 
 excelled in painting such scenes as his irregular mode of living made 
 him most familiar with. The singular recklessness of his conduct led 
 him into many ludicrous and disagreeable situations. It is related of 
 him that, beiug in Antwerp during the wars in the Low Countries, he 
 was imprisoned as a spy, and in prison met with the Duke d'Aremberg, 
 who was intimate with Rubens, and was frequently visited by him. 
 Discovering his fellow-captive to be an artist, the duke asked Rubens 
 to procure him materials for painting. As soon as he had them, 
 Brauwer set to work, taking for his subject a group of soldiers playing 
 at cards in the prison. D'Aremberg showed the picture to Rubens, 
 who immediately recognised the work of Brauwer, and offered 600 
 guilders for it. The duke however presented the painter with a larger 
 sum, and retained the picture for himself. Rubens exerted his interest, 
 and procured the liberation of his brother artist, took him home with 
 him, clothed him, and maintained him for some time. But Brauwer 
 soon quitted Rubens again to plunge into excesses, which shortly after 
 terminated his existence in an hospital, at the age of thirty-two, in the 
 year 1641. 
 
 His subjects are taken from low life, of the most unpleasing class ; 
 but from the extraordinary skill displayed in the execution, the excel- 
 lent colouring, the correct drawing, and the life and character of the 
 design, they fetch a high price. 
 
 BRAY, SIR REGINALD, the reputed architect of Henry Vll.'a 
 Chapel at Westminster, was the second son of Sir Richard Bray, one 
 of the privy council to Henry VI. All that has been ascertained of 
 his personal history is that he was greatly attached to the study of 
 architecture, and stood in high favour with Henry VII. : therefore 
 that he should be employed by that king to design the sumptuous 
 structure intended for his own mausoleum was almost matter of 
 course. Nevertheless, Bray's claim to the honour of so fine a work 
 has been disputed, on no better grounds than that he did not live to 
 see the building greatly advanced, the first stone being laid on the 
 18th of January 1502 ("by the hands of John Islip, abbot of West- 
 minster, Sir Reginald Braie, Kt. of the Garter, and others "), and he 
 
913 
 
 BREDOW, GABRIEL GODFREY. 
 
 BRENNUS. 
 
 914 
 
 dying on the 5th of August in the following year. While his death 
 within a year and a half afterwards proves nothing more than that he 
 did not live to see his designs for the edifice fully realised, the fact of 
 his assisting with the abbot in the ceremony of laying the first stone 
 affords strong proof that he was the architect or designer of the 
 fabric, it being a very unlikely thing that he would have taken an 
 active share in such a ceremony had the building been the work of a 
 rival artist. That Bray possessed talents equal to the occasion is 
 beyond all doubt, it being admitted even by those who would reduce 
 his fame, that he erected the nave of that other singularly beautiful 
 structure, St. George's Chapel at Windsor, commenced by Edward IV. 
 Sir Reginald's arms, crest, and device, R B., and a hemp-break, occur 
 in mauy places on the ceiling of that building, and in the south aisle 
 there is a chapel still called after him, in which he was buried. 
 
 BREDOW, GABRIEL GODFREY, born at Berlin in 1773, was 
 professor at Eutin in Holsteiu at the same time as Voss, afterwards 
 at Frankfurt-ou-th^e-Oder, and lastly in the University of Breslau. 
 He was a learned and laborious man, especially in matters concerning 
 ancient and modern history. He wrote ' Haodbuch der alten 
 Gesehichte' ('Manual of Ancient History,' translated into English, 
 London, 1827), ' Untersuchungen uber Geschichte Geographie und 
 Chionologie ' (' Researches on History, Geography, and Chronology '), 
 and ' Historische Tabellen,' which are a series of chronological tables, 
 in which the principal events of the history of the various countries 
 of the world are placed in synchronical order by means of parallel 
 columns. This last work went through several editions during the 
 lifetime of the author, and consisted of ten tables, which carried the 
 series to 1799. Bredow died in 1814. An edition was made after his 
 deatli, which contains an additional table, including the events of 
 Napoleon's time to 1811. Bredow's tables were translated into English 
 (1820) by Major James Bell, who added a twelfth sheet, carrying the 
 series of events to 1820, besides adding other columns concerning 
 British and Indian affairs. This work of Major Bell has likewise 
 gone through several editions, in the latest of which he has added 
 another table, which brings the series down to 1833, and also a table 
 of Oriental chronology. The work contains also four tables of literary 
 and scientific chronology, translated from Bredow's text, and arranged 
 likewise in synchronical order, exhibiting the progress of the human 
 mind in the various countries from the oldest records in existence ; 
 and lastly, a similar table of the principal painters, classed according 
 to the various schools, taken from the notes of M. Van Bree. It is 
 altogether a useful work, and executed with considerable industry, 
 although not wholly exempt from inaccuracies in some of the details. 
 As a book of reference it is clearer and more comprehensive than the 
 'Atlas Histoid que' of Le Sage. 
 
 In the latter tables added by Major Bell, the writer has somewhat 
 departed from the sober matter-of-fact style of the German professor, 
 and has occasionally indulged in qualifications, either laudatory or 
 condemnatory, applied to political parties and transactions, which 
 appear out of place in a work of pure and simple chronology. 
 
 Bredow wrote also a 'Chronicle of the 19th Century,' in whioh he 
 spoke of Napoleon's power, then at its height, with a boldness that 
 acquired him a name among the patriots of Germany. 
 
 BREISLA'K, SCIPIONE, was born at Rome in 1748, of a family 
 originally from Germany. Cardinal Scipione Borghe3e stood godfather 
 to him, and gave him his own Christian name. Brieslak early 
 distinguished himself for his application to the physical sciences, by 
 which he attracted the attention of the learned Stay of Ragusa, who 
 offered him a professorship of mathematics and physics in a college 
 newly established at Ragusa. In that city Breislak became acquainted 
 with the Abate Fortis, from whose conversation he derived a fresh 
 impulse towards the study of natural philosophy. After remaining 
 several years at Ragusa, Breislak returned to Rome, where he was 
 appointed professor in the College Nazareno. He mainly contributed 
 to form the rich cabinet of mineralogy of that institution, and he 
 made excursions to the hills near the lake of Bracciano, north-west of 
 Rome, to investigate their geology and mineralogy. He published 
 the result of his observations, ' Saggio d'Osservazioni Bulla Tolfa, 
 Oriolo e Latera,' in 1786. Afterwards, on his going to Naples, he 
 was employed by that government in several mining researches, and 
 in constructing a vast distilling apparatus on the volcanic mountain 
 Jailed La Solfatara. His health becoming seriously affected by these 
 labours, he was obliged to desist, and was appointed teacher to the 
 students of artillery in the royal military college of Naples. He 
 Bade frequent perambulations through the province of Terra di 
 Lavoro for the sake of geological research ; the results of his obser- 
 vations are contained in his ' Topograpia fisica della Campania,' 
 fflorence, 1796, afterwards translated into French, with additions; 
 rod an essay on the volcanic formation of the seven hills of Rome, 
 
 Voyages dans la Campanie,' Paris, 1801. Breislak had been driven 
 •o Paris by the events of 1799. At Paris he was cordially received by 
 'ourcroy, Chaptal, Cuvier, and the other scientific men of that 
 apital. Having returned to Italy at the end of that war, he was 
 ippointed in 1802 inspector of the national manufactory of saltpetre 
 nd gunpowder of the Italian republic, and member of the Italian 
 nstitute. From that time he resided chiefly at Milan. H; wrote 
 evcrnl treatises on the manufacture of saltpetre. ' Del Salnitro e 
 lell' Arte del Salnitrajo,' ' Memoria sulla Fabbricazione e Raffi uazione 
 
 BIOO. D1V. VOL. L 
 
 dei Nitri,' ' Istruzione Pratica per le piccole Fabbricazione di Nitro, da 
 farsi dalle persone di campagua.' Breislak continued in his office of 
 inspector through the various changes of government, and also under 
 the Austrian administration till his death. In order to encourage 
 the study of geology, which was then still in its infancy in Italy, 
 Breislak published iu 1811, his ' Introduzione alia Geologia,' which 
 he afterwards enlarged and published in French under the title 
 of 'Institutions Geologiques,' Milan, 1819. This work was well 
 received, aud was immediately translated into German. Breislak was 
 elected a member of most scientific societies in Europe. In 1816, 
 together with Monti, Giordani, aud Acerbi, he formed the plan of 
 the well-known Italian scientific and literary journal, ' Biblioteca 
 Italiana,' which speedily attained the first rank among the periodicals 
 of that country. In 1822 he published ' Descrizione Geologica della 
 Proviucia di Milano,' which was printed at the expense of the Austrian 
 government of Lombardy. Breislak died at Milan, February 15, 
 1826, universally regretted both for his scientific merit and his 
 personal qualities. His rich collection of minerals passed into the 
 hands of the Borromeo family. 
 
 BREMER, FREDERIKA, an eminent Swedish novelist, was born 
 in 1802 at Abo in Finland. About the time when Finland was ceded 
 to Russia, her father removed with his family into Sweden. For some 
 years Frederika remained in the house of the countess of Sonnerhjelm, 
 but her education was completed in an establishment at Stockholm. 
 At an early age she began to write French verses ; the formation of 
 her literary taste and habits is however attributable to the study at a 
 somewhat later period of the great poets and prose writers of 
 Germany, especially of Schiller. She did not appear before the 
 public as an author until she had read and observed much, and 
 widened her sympathies by travel and by intercourse with various 
 grades of society. The keenness of observation and delicate skill in 
 painting family life, exhibited in her early writings, gained for her 
 considerable notice in her native country and in Germany, but it is 
 perhaps not too much to say that it was the great success of the 
 English translation by Mrs. Howitt, of Miss Bremer's ' Neighbours,' 
 published in 1842, and confirmed as that success was by the 
 translation of 'Home,' which appeared in 1843, that caused her even 
 in Sweden to be regarded as among the chief living novel-writers. 
 These charming stories were in speedy succession followed by other 
 somewhat similar sketches and studies of the northern domestic life, 
 among others appearing, ' The Diary, or Strife and Peace ; ' ' The H. 
 Family ; ' ' Brothers and Sisters ; ' ' Nina ; ' ' The President's 
 Daughter ; ' ' Life in Dalecarlia,' &c. ; all, or nearly all of which were 
 translated by Mrs. Howitt. 
 
 Miss Bremer had already visited England, and travelled through 
 Germany, when in 1849, she determined to extend her journeying to 
 the United States, where her novels had achieved a popularity at least 
 equal to that which they had won in England. On her return she 
 published a florid account of her reception, aud her estimate of the 
 country and the people, under tho title of ' Homes of the New 
 World.' It was issued, simultaneously, in 1853, in Sweden, England, 
 and the United States, and was much read. It is chiefly remarkable 
 however for lavish indulgence in the redundant style, and somewhat 
 exaggerated sentiment which had too strongly characterised some of 
 her later novels. Since her return to Sweden, Miss Bremer has been 
 much engaged in the promotion of various philanthropic schemes for 
 ameliorating the condition of her sex, and for extending education 
 among the poor. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BRENNUS, the Latinised form of the Celtic Brenin, 'king,' Two 
 individuals are known in history by this name. 
 
 1. The first was the hero of an early Roman legend, which relates 
 to the migration of the Gauls into Italy, and their march to Clusium 
 and Rome. In the account given by Diodorus (xiv. 113, &c.) of this 
 singular invasion, the name of Brennus is not mentioued ; in the 
 narrative of Livy (v. 33, &c), he figures as the " regulus Gallorum," 
 or chieftain of the Gauls. When he arrived at Clusium the inhabit- 
 ants called on the Romans for aid. He engaged with and defeated 
 the Romans on the banks of the Allia, the name of which river they 
 ever after held in detestation. (Virg. ' Mn.,' vii. 717.) The whole city 
 was afterwards plundered and burnt; and the capitol would have been 
 taken but for the bravery of Manlius. At last, induced by famine and 
 pestilence, the Romans agreed that the Gauls should receive 1000 lbs. 
 of gold, on the condition that they would quit Rome and its territory 
 altogether. The barbarian brought false weights, but his fraud was 
 detected. The tribune Sulpicius exclaimed against the injustice of 
 Brennus, who immediately laid his sword and belt in the scale, and 
 said " Woe to the vanquished." The dictator Camillus arrived with 
 his forces at this critical time, annulled the capitulation, aud ordered 
 him to prepare for battle. The Gauls were defeated ; there was a 
 total slaughter, and not a man survived to carry home the news of 
 the defeat. The date of the taking of Rome, assigned by Niebuhr, is 
 the 3rd year of the 39th Olympiad, B.C. 382. (' Hist Rom.,' voL ii. 
 pp. 509-567, English translation.) 
 
 2. A king of the Gauls, who (b.o. 279 ; ' Clinton,' vol. i. p. 237) made 
 an irruption into Macedonia with a force of 150,000 men and 10,000 
 horse. Proceeding into Greece, he attempted to plunder the temple 
 at Delphi. He engaged in many battles, lost many thousand men, 
 and himself received mauy wounds. In despair and mortification, he 
 
 3 .v 
 
910 
 
 BREUGHEL. 
 
 BRIAN BOROIMHE (BORU). 
 
 918 
 
 called a council of war, and advised the Gauls to kill him and all the 
 wounded, to burn the waggons, and, returning home with all speed, 
 to cl}QQ8e Cichorius (or Acichorius) king. Soon however, in a fit of 
 intoxication, he killed himself. (Diodorua Siculus, xxii. ; ' Fragm.,' 
 p. Sol), Bipont. edit.; Pausanias, x. 19-23.) 
 
 BUI 1 ; I Gil I'M/, the name of a family of celebrated Flemish painters. 
 
 Peter Breughel, the father, was the sou of a peasant, and was 
 born about 1520, at Breughel, a village in the neighbourhood of Breda. 
 He was placed under Peter Koek of Aalst (Alost), whose daughter he 
 sub-equently married. Having learued painting under that master, 
 ho travelled into France and Italy. He took many views by the way, 
 particularly among the Alps. 
 
 Returning from Italy, he fixed his residence at Antwerp, where he 
 resided for a considerable time, when he removed to Brussels, and 
 married the daughter of his old master, and was admitted into the 
 academy of that city in 1551. While painting a view on the 
 canal which communicates with the Schelde, by order of the magis- 
 trates of Brussels, he was seized with his last illness. As he lay 
 on his death-bed he ordered many of his paintings, which were either 
 satirical or licentious, to be brought before him, and made his wife 
 burn them in his presence. He died about 1569, but the precise dates 
 of his birth and death are unknown. 
 
 The elder Breughel painted chiefly comic subjects, after the manner 
 of Jerome Bo j che, whom he excelled; and he has been considered by 
 many inferior to Teniers alone in that branch of art. His composition 
 has been objected to ; but his drawing is correct and spirited, though 
 not very highly finished. It was his frequent custom to disguise him- 
 self and mix with the peasantry at their festivals and games; and the 
 happiness with which he transferred the living actions he thus wit- 
 nessed to the canva s has been aptly compared to Moliere's, though in a 
 different kind of satire. Besides comic subjects, he painted landscapes, 
 and a few historical pictures. Two sons survived him, John and Peter. 
 
 Peter Bredghel, the eldest son of Peter Breughel the elder, is said 
 to have beeu born at Brus-els about 1565. After the death of his 
 father he became the pupil of Giles Couingsloo. From the diabolical 
 nature of his favourite subjects he has been surnamed Hellish. He 
 did not attain the eminence either of his father or brother. He died 
 about 1625. 
 
 John Breughel was born at Brussels about 1568. According to the 
 received account he lost his father very young, and was brought up by 
 his grandmother, the widow of Peter Koek, from whom he learned to 
 paint in distemper, and afterwards studied oil-painting under an artist 
 named Goekindt. Another account is, that he received the first prin- 
 ciples of his art from his father, Peter Breughel, aud this account the 
 internal evidence of his works tends to confirm ; but unless the date 
 commonly assigned to the death of the elder Breughel is much too 
 early, it would of course have been impossible for his son to have 
 received instructions in painting from him. For some time John 
 Breughel confined himself to flower-painting ; but travelling into 
 Ltaly, he enlarged his style, and painted land-capes, which he adorned 
 with small figures, executed with exquisite correctness and beauty. 
 Many painters availed themselves of his liberality, and induced him 
 to enrich their pictures with his beautiful little figures or landscapes ; 
 among them are Steenwick, Van Baelen, Rotenhamer, Momper, &c. 
 Even Rubens made use of his skill in more than one picture, in which 
 Rubens painted the figures, aud Breughel the landscapes, flowers, 
 animals, and even insects. 
 
 John Breughel was extremely industrious, as the great number of 
 his pictures, and the care with which they are finished, sufficiently 
 attest. Growing rich by his industry, he adopted a magnificent 
 style in his apparel, and was nicknamed ' Velvet Breughel,' from the 
 usual material of his dress. His touch is light and spirited, his 
 drawing correct, and his finish elaborate. His pictures are much 
 admired, although his landscapes are injured by an exaggerated blue- 
 ness in the distances. The time of his death is unknown to Flemish 
 authors ; M. Felibien conjectures it to have been about 1642. 
 
 * BREWSTER, SIR DAVID, was born at Jedburgh, Scotland, 
 11th December, 1781. He was educated for, and became a licentiate 
 of the Church of Scotland ; but his inclination for science led him to 
 other branches of study. In 1800 the University of Edinburgh con- 
 ferred on him the honorary degree of M.A. ; and here he had the 
 advantage of intercourse with Robison, Playfair, and Dugald Stewart, 
 who were then professors, aud commenced that series of optical 
 researches which have since made his name deservedly famous. In 
 1807 he received the distinction of LL.D. from the University of 
 Aberdeen : he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
 in 1808, and in the same year undertook the editorship of the ' Edin- 
 burgh Encyclopaedia,' a task which occupied him for twenty-two years. 
 Some results of his optical studies appeared in 1812, in the 'Treatise 
 on Burning Instruments, containing the Method of Building large 
 Polyzonal Lenses;' an important subject as regards illumination gene- 
 rally and lighthouses in particular. It was shown that coast navigation 
 would be deprived of many of its dangers were all lighthouses fitted 
 with lenses instead of imperfect reflectors; the light would be intensi- 
 fied and transmitted to a greater distance. The new lens consisted of 
 a central disc with concentric zones built in several pieces around it. 
 The invention was talked about ; but I d to no immediate improve- 
 ments. Meanwhile Fresuel brought it into use in France. 
 
 Dr. Brewster had contributed to the ' Transactions of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh;' and in 1813 he sent a paper to the Royal 
 Society of London, 'On some Properties of Light ' — in which, taking 
 up the then new phenomena of polarization — shewing the influence 
 of a plate of agate on a ray of light, and the double dispersive power 
 of chromate of lead — he multiplied the phenomena, aud opened the 
 way to his subsequent valuable discoveries. In 1815, the society 
 awarded him their Copley medal for his paper ' On the Polarization of 
 Light by Reflection,' and elected him a Fellow ; and in the following 
 year by an adjudication of the Institute of France he received 15u0 
 francs, the half of their prize for discoveries in physics. It was in 
 1816 that Brewster made his name popularly known, as it was before 
 scientifically, by his invention of the kaleidoscope. In 1818, the Royal 
 Society gave .him their Rumford medal, for further ' Discoveries 
 relating to the Polarization of Light.' In 1819, in conjunction with 
 Jameson, he started the ' Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' and after- 
 wards the ' Edinburgh Journal of Science,' of which sixteen volumes 
 were published, containing many scientific papers from his own pen. 
 
 In 1827 Brewster brought out his 'Account of a New System of 
 Illumination for Lighthouses,' and offered his services to the lighthouse 
 boards of the United Kingdom; but nothing was done until 1833 
 when experiments, made iu Scotland from Calton Hill to Gulan Hill, 
 a distance of 124 miles, showed that "one polyzonal lens, with an 
 argaud burner of four conceutric circles, gave a light equal to nine 
 parabolic reflectors, each carrying a single argand burner." From that 
 date the illumination of British lighthouses has been improved. 
 
 Brewster received a third acknowledgment from the Royal Society 
 iu 18:30, when their Royal medal was awarded to him for further 
 researches in polarization and the properties of light whereby the 
 theory of optics was enriched and widened. He, conjointly with 
 Davy, Herschel, and Babbage originated the British Association ; aud 
 his spirited appeals to the public in his Journal and other periodicals 
 had an immediate effect in bringing about the first meeting of the 
 Association at York in 1831. In the same year William IV. conferred 
 on him the honour of knighthood, and the decoration of the Hanoverian 
 Guelphic order. In 1811 he was appointed Principal of St. Leonard's 
 College at St. Andrews; and iu 1859 he was elected Principal of the 
 University of Edinburgh. 
 
 Sir David Brewster's numerous writings take in a wide range of 
 science. His most valuable scientific papers are published in the 
 'Transactions' of the Royal Societies of London, and of Edinburgh. 
 Among the more important are: — 'On a new analysis of Solar light, 
 indicating three primary colours, forming coincideut spectra of equal 
 length ;' 1 On circular polarization;' 'On the effects of compression and 
 dilatation in altering the polarizing structure of the doubly refracting 
 crystals;' and others, in which the law is determined which connects 
 the refractive index of a crystal with its angle of polarization, and the 
 discovery of riugs in biaxial crystals is made known. Other papers 
 are to be found iu the ' Edinburgh Review,' the ' Reports of the British 
 Asscoiation,' the ' Library of Useful Knowledge,' the ' Philosophical 
 Magazine ' (of which Sir David is one of the editors), aud the ' .North 
 British Review ;' they embrace physical geography, astronomy, photo- 
 graphy, meteorology, &c. Of separate works may be mentioned : — 
 'A Treatise on the Kaleidoscope,' 8vo, 1819; the Notes to Robison's 
 ' System of Mechanical Philosophy,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1822 ; Euler's 
 'Letters,' with a life of Euler, 2 vols. 12mo, 1823; Notes and Intro- 
 ductory Chapter to Ltgendre's 'Elements of Geometry,' 1824; 'A 
 Treatise on Optics,' 8vo, 1831 ; ' Letters on Natural Magic,' 12ino, 
 1831 ; ' The Life of Sir Isaac Newton,' 12mo, 1831 ; ' The Martyrs of 
 Science; or, the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler,' 12mo, 
 1841 (2nd edition, 8vo, 1846) ; 'More Worlds than one, the Creed of 
 the Philosopher, aud the Hope of the Christian,' 8vo, 1854 ; ' Memoirs 
 of the Life, Writings, and .Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, 1855. 
 
 The French Academy of Sciences elected Sir David Brewster one of 
 their corresponding members in 1825 ; and in 1849 he had the signal 
 honour of being chosen one of their eight Foreign Associates, in place 
 of Berzelius, deceased. He is a Fellow also of the Astronomical aud 
 Geological Societies, and of the Royal Irish Academy. 
 
 BRIAN, surnamed BOROIMHE (BORU'), a celebrated king of 
 Ireland, son of Kennedy, king of Munster, son of Lorcan. He 
 ascended the throne of both Muasters, that is, of Ormond aud 
 Thomond, or the present counties of Tipperary and Clare, a.d. 978. 
 His earlier exploits were against the Danes of Limerick aud Wateiford, 
 but being elated by frequent successes against these invaders, he 
 deposed O'Maelachaghlin, the supreme king of the islaud, and eventually 
 became himself the monarch of Ireland. He derived his surname 
 from the tribute which he now imposed upon the proviucas. The 
 'Boroimhe,' or tax alluded to, was levied in the following pro- 
 portions : — from Connaught, 800 hogs ; from Tircounell (the present 
 county of Donegal), 500 mantles and 500 cows ; from Tiroue, 60 loads 
 of iron ; from the Clan Rory of Ulster (the present counties of Down 
 and Antrim), 150 cows and 150 hogs; from Oriel (the present counties 
 of Armagh and Monaghau), 160 cows; from the province of Leinster, 
 300 cows, 300 hogs, and 300 loads of iron ; from Ossory (the present 
 Queen's County), 60 cows, 60 hogs, and 60 loads of iron ; from the 
 Danes of Dublin, 150 hogsheads of wine ; from the Danes of Limerick 
 and Waterford, 365 hogsheads of red wine. On these and other 
 
BKIDGE WATER, DUKE OF. 
 
 BRIDQEWATER, EARL OF. 
 
 913 
 
 revenues Kiug Brian supported a rude but royal magnificence at his 
 chief residence of Kincora, near the present town of Killaloe, in the 
 county of Clare. He had also castles at Tara and Cashel. Brian 
 continued for many years to rule his dominions with vigour and 
 prosperity, reducing the Danes and subduing their native allies, 
 building numerous duns or castles, causing roads and bridges to be 
 constructed, and enforcing the law by taking hostages from all the 
 petty kings of the country. Having however disputed with Maelmora, 
 the king of Leiuster, Maelmora revolted, and, inviting a new invasion 
 of Danes to bis assistance, brought on the battle of Clantarf, in which 
 King Brian fell, after gaining a glorious victoi-y over the united forces 
 of the invaders and revolted natives, on Oood Friday, 1014. Brian 
 and his son Murrogh, who fell in the same battle, were buried together 
 in the cathedral of Armagh. The funeral obsequies lasted twelve days 
 and nights, and the possession of the heroic remains was afterwards 
 contested by rival potentates. Brian is said to have defeated the Danes 
 in twenty-five pitched battles: prior to the battle of Clantarf he had 
 confined them to the cities of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and 
 Limerick ; and the final blow which he gave their power in that 
 engagement they never recovered. He was the founder of the nume- 
 rous sept of O'Brien, 0 or Ua being a distinctive adnomen not assumed 
 by Irish families till after his time. This national prefix means 
 ' descendant of,' or ' of the kindred of,' and was originally supplied by 
 the more ancient Mac, which means 'son.' (O'Connor, Rer. Uib. Scrip. 
 Vet. ; MSS. History of Ireland, lib. R I. Academy.) 
 
 BRIDGE WATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, DUKE OF, born in 
 1736, was the youngest son of Scroop, fourth Earl and first Duke of 
 Bridgewater, by Lady Rachel Russel, daughter of Wriothesley, second 
 duke of Bedford. He succeeded his brother, the second duke, in 1748. 
 He was the heir of the Lord Chancellor Ellesmere in the sixth degree 
 of descent. In his youth he was extremely thin and delicate, and 
 his apparent predisposition to pulmonary complaints was so decided, 
 that his education was entirely neglected. He not only got the better 
 of this early tendency, which had proved very fatal to his family, but 
 became a very strong man and extremely corpulent. As his bad 
 health took him entirely out of society, he contracted habits of 
 extreme shyness, which made him avoid company, especially that of 
 ladies. But though the defects of his early education and the singu- 
 larity of his character were not unfrequently exhibited, his mind was 
 naturally of a powerful and determined character, bordering perhaps 
 occasionally on obstinacy. It was in fact owing to this quality, and 
 his extraordinary enterprise, sagacity, and prudence, that he* earned a 
 title of far higher distinction than that which he d-rived from the 
 accident of birth. One of the estates which he inherited, situated at 
 Worsley, near Manchester, contained a rich bed of coal, but it was 
 comparatively of little value, in consequence of the heavy expense of 
 land carriage and the inadequate means of communication afforded 
 by the Irwell, which, though rendered navigable, was a tedious and 
 imperfect medium for carrying on au extensive traffic. In deliberating 
 on the best means of supplying Manchester with coal from his pits 
 at Worsley, the obstacles were so great as to lead him to consider a 
 great variety of expedients for overcoming them. At length he fixed 
 on the expedient of constructing a navigable canal ; and in the 32nd 
 Geo. II. (1758-9) he obtained, though not without some difficulty, the 
 Act of Parliament which enabled him to commence the first navigable 
 canal constructed in Great Britain in modern times. From this cir- 
 cumstance he is frequently styled 'the Father of British Inland 
 Navigation.' It was the Duke of Bridgewater' s determination to 
 render his canal a3 perfect as possible, and to adopt a line which 
 should render it unnecessary to have recourse to locks. The duke 
 had the good fortune to select as engineer a man whose genius was 
 unfettered by commonplace rules, and one who was exactly fitted to 
 carry into execution a project, not only perfectly novel at the time, 
 but which, even at the present day, would demand the highest 
 practical science. [Bkindlev.] The duke nobly supported Brindley 
 in liis bold and original views, in the merit of which he undeniably 
 deserves to share. Wlien Brindley proposed carrying the canal over the 
 Mersey aud Irwell navigation at BartoD, by an aqueduct 39 feet above 
 the eurface of the water, he desired, for the satisfaction of Iris employer, 
 to have another em^ineer consulted. It is reported that the individual 
 called in to give his opinion, said, on being taken to the place where 
 the intende i aqueduct was to be constructed, that he " had often 
 heard of castles in the air, but never was shown before where any of 
 tbern were to be erected." The duke was not however deterred by 
 the difficulty and magnitude of Brindley 's plans, nor by the unfa- 
 vourable report of the other engineer, from prosecuting the work 
 under his direction. He was rewarded for his enterprising spirit 
 and confidence by the successful completion of the work, which is 
 200 yards in length. A considerable portion of the canal between 
 Worsley Mill and Manchester was executed under the provisions of 
 the first Act of Parliament, but a second Act was obtained in the 
 following year for the purpose of making some changes iu the line. 
 The whole of the canal from Worsley to Manchester, with the sub- 
 terraneous works at the coal-mines at Worsley, was executed under 
 these two Acts : the underground canals and tunnels at Worsley are 
 said to have cost 168,0002., and to be 18 miles in length. In 1762 a 
 third application was made to parliament, and the necessary powers 
 were obtained for opening an artificial water communication with 
 
 Liverpool by the Mersey. Subsequent acts enabled the duke to com- 
 plete his designs. The length of the main line is above 27 miles all 
 on tho same level, which has rendered great embankments necessary, 
 as the canal crosses several depressions. At Preston-Brook the Grand 
 Trunk Canal (the name by which this navigation is familiarly known 
 in the country) joins the Duke of Bridgewater's Canal, which thus 
 connects it with the Trent and with Birmingham and London, and 
 with Bristol. With the exception of that part between Worsley and 
 Leigh, every part of the canal was executed, under the direction of 
 Brindley, in about five years. The aqueduct at Barton was opened 
 July 17th 1761, and soon afterwards the whole line. It cannot be 
 computed what the total expeuse incurred by the Duke of Bridge- 
 water in completing this great undertaking amounted to. The duke's 
 canal however has done a3 much to promote the public prosperity as 
 to increase the wealth of the noble projector's heirs. Before its con- 
 struction coals were retailed to the poor at Manchester at 7d. per 
 cwt., but after its completion they were sold at S^d., and six score 
 were given to the cwt. The carriage by water from Manchester to 
 Liverpool was 12s. per ton; by land it was as high as 40s.; on the 
 duke's canal the charge was 6s. per ton. When the line of his canal 
 had been tripled in length, the duke never demanded larger tolls, but 
 contented himself with the profits which the increase of traffic fairly 
 brought him. The duke was also one of the most zealous promoters 
 of the Grand Trunk Navigation, and his brother-in-law, the first 
 Marquis of Stafford, being at its head, they mutually aided each other. 
 In the construction of his great work he had exhausted his credit to 
 the utmost ; he could not raise 500Z. on his bill in the city of London, 
 and his agent, Mr. Gilbert, had frequently to ride over the counties 
 of Cheshire and Lancashire, from door to door, to raise sums, from 
 107. and upwards, to enable him to pay the Saturday night's demand. 
 At the same time the duke restricted himself to the simplest fare, 
 and lived with scarcely a servant to attend upon him. His great 
 estates at Ellesmere, which he held in fee simple, were quite unen- 
 cumbered, but no persuasion would induce him to resort to the easy 
 method of relieving himself from difficulties by borrowing money 
 upon them. When in London he would not undertake the trouble of 
 keeping house ; he therefore made au allowance of 20002. to a friend 
 of his (Mr. Carvill), with whom he dined, when not otherwise engaged, 
 and to whose table he had the privilege of inviting his intimate 
 friends. The Duke of Bridgewater never took an active part in 
 politics ; but he was a decided friend to the Pitt Administration, and 
 a large contributor to the Loyalty Loan. He died March 8th 1803, 
 and never having been married, his great wealth was distributed 
 among the collateral branches of his family. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, EARL OF. The Right Honourable and Reverend 
 Frances Henry Egerton, eighth Earl of Bridgewater, ninth Viscount 
 Brackley, and Baion Ellesmere, was born November 11, 1758. He was 
 the younger of two sons of John, Lord Bishop of Durham, by Lady 
 A. S. Grey, daughter of Henry, duke of Kent (chamberlain to Queen 
 Auue). He was educated at Eton and at All Souls' College, Oxford, 
 where he took the degree of M.A. iu 1780. In the same year his 
 father appointed him a prebendary of Durham Cathedral, and in the 
 following year the Duke of Bridgewater presented him to the rectory 
 of Middle in Shropshire. In 1796 he published at Oxford, in a hand- 
 some volume royal 4to, an edition of the 'Hippolytus' of Euripides, 
 with scholia, Latin version, various readings, and copious notes in 
 Latin by Valckenaer and others. In 1797 the Duke of Bridgewater 
 presented him to the rectory of Whitchurch in Shropshire. Hia 
 brother, who was the seventh Earl of Bridgewater, died in 1823, leaving 
 no children, and Mr. E^erton then succeeded him iu his titles. The 
 Earl of Bridgewater resided many years in Paris, where he died in 
 1829, and the title then became extinct. In the latter years of his 
 life he fell into very eccentric habits, such as keeping a large number 
 of dogs and cats, and having some of his favourite dogs occasionally 
 dressed like men, and placed at his table to dine with him. 
 
 The Earl of Bridgewater, by his will, dated February 25, 1825, left 
 80002. to be at the disposal of the President of the Royal Society of 
 London, to be paid to the person or persons nominated by him, to 
 write, print, and publish 1000 copies of a work ' On the power, wisdom, 
 and goodness of God, as manifested iu the creation; illustrating such 
 work by all reasonable arguments, as, for instance, the variety and 
 formation of God's creatures in the animal, vegetable, and mineral 
 kingdoms ; the effect of digestion ; the construction of the baud of 
 man; and an iufiuile variety of other arguments; as also by dis- 
 coveries ancient and modern, in arts, sciences, and the whole extent of 
 literature.' He also desired that the profits arising from the sale of 
 the works so published should be paid to the authors of the works. 
 
 The then President of the Royal Society, Davies Gilbert, requested 
 the assistance of the Archbishop of Canterbury and of the Bishop of 
 Londou in determining on the best mode of carrying into effect the 
 intentions of the testator. Acting with their advice, he appointed 
 eight gentlemen to write separate treatises on the different branches 
 of the subject, which treatises have been published, and are as follows: 
 1 — 1. By the Rev. Thomas Chalmers, D.D. 'The Adaptation of 
 External Nature to the Moral aud Intellectual Constitution of Man,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Glasgow, 1839. 2. By John Kidd, M.D. 'The Adaptation 
 of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man,' 8vo, London, 
 1837. 3. By the Rev. William WhewelL 'Astronomv and General 
 
•19 
 
 BRIENNE, JOHN OF. 
 
 BRIQQS, HENRY. 
 
 920 
 
 Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology,' 8vo, London, 
 1839. 4. By Sir Charles Bell. ' The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital 
 Endowments, as evincing Design,' 8vo, London, 1837. 5. By Peter 
 Mark Roget, M.D. ' Animal and Vegetable Physiology, considered 
 with reference to Natural Theology,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1840. 6. 
 By the Rev. Dr. Buckland. ' On Geology and Mineralogy,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Loudon, 1837. 7. By the Rev. William Kirby. 'On the History, 
 Habits, and Instincts of Animals,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1835. 8. By 
 William Prout, M.D. 'Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of 
 Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology,' 8vo, London, 
 1834. All these treatises have been reprinted in a cheaper form as a 
 portion of Bolin's ' Standard Library.' 
 
 The Earl of Bridgewater also left upwards of 12,0007. to the British 
 Museum, the annual income arising from which he directed to be 
 employed in the purchase of manuscripts, and in taking due care of 
 them for the use of the public. 
 
 BRIENNE, JOHN OF, third son of Erard II., Count of Brienne- 
 sur-Aulie, a small town in Champagne near Troyes, and of Agnes of 
 Montbelliard, was married by the recommendation of Philippe Auguste, 
 to Mary, daughter of Isabella, wife of Conrad, marquis of Montferrat. 
 Isabella was the youngest daughter of Amaury, king of Jerusalem, an 
 empty title which Mary thus inherited from her maternal grandfather. 
 Of the early life of John of Brienne nothing is known, but he was 
 named by the king of Franco as the most worthy champion whom he 
 could offer for the defence of the Holy Land, " as good in arms, faithful 
 in war, and provident in action." He was crowned at Tyre in 1209, 
 and he maintained himself against the Saracens as well as his scanty 
 force would allow. In the fifth crusade he headed a large band of 
 adventurers in the invasion of Egypt, whom he led to the capture of 
 Damietta, after sixteen months' siege; and when the pride, obstinacy, 
 Mid avarice of the Cardinal Pelagius, the papal legate, had compromised 
 the safety of the Christian army, which was inclosed on one tide by 
 an overpowering host of Moslems, and on the other by the waters of 
 the Nile, the king of Jerusalem became one of the hostages for the 
 evacuation of Egypt. 
 
 When the emperor Frederic II., stimulated by ambition, undertook 
 to fulfil his often evaded vows of joining the crusade, upon receiving 
 the nominal sovereignty of the Holy Land, John of Brienne, wearied 
 with the ineffectual struggle which he had long supported against the 
 infidels, agreed to abdicate in his favour, and brought his eldest 
 daughter and heiress, Yolande or Iolante, to Italy, where Frederic 
 received her in marriage ; yet in the subsequent wars between the 
 pope and the emperor, John commanded the pontifical army against 
 his son-in-law. In the year 1225, the emperor, during his successful 
 expedition to Palestine, entered the Holy City ; and, upon a demur of 
 the patriarch, crowned himself with his own hands. From this union 
 of Frederic with Iolante, the present royal house of Naples derives a 
 claim to the title of king of Jerusalem, which it still preserves. 
 (Qiannone, xvi. 2 ; Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' i. 264, 4to.) 
 
 John of Brienne in 1222 had married as a second wife, Berengaria, 
 sister of Ferdinand, king of Castile ; but his services in more advanced 
 life were again needed in the East. On the death of Robert of Courte- 
 naye, and the succession of his youngest brother, Baldwin II., to the 
 imperial throne of Constantinople, the barons of Romania, seeing that 
 the Latin dynasty required a protector of greater vigour and maturer 
 years than their boy-sovereign, invited John of Brienne to share the 
 throne during his lifetime, a proposal which he accepted upon condi- 
 tion that Baldwin should espouse his youngest daughter. In 1229 he 
 accordingly assumed the imperial dignity, and for the ensuing nine 
 years he nobly maintained himself against the increasing power of 
 Vataces, emperor of Nicsea. A contemporary poet affirms that the 
 achievements of John of Brienne (who at that time had passed his 
 eightieth year, according to the representation of the Byzantine histo- 
 rian Acropolita) exceeded those of Ajax, Hector, Roland, Uggier, and 
 Judas Maccabseus ; and we should readily acquiesce in this assertion, 
 if we were to believe the exploits related of him when Constantinople 
 was besieged by the confederate forces of Vataces and of Azan, king of 
 Bulgaria. Their allied army amounted to 100,000 men; their fleet 
 consisted of 300 ships of war, against which the Latins could oppose 
 only 160 knights and a few serjeauts and archers. "I tremble to 
 relate," says Gibbon, with well-justified apprehension, "that instead of 
 defending the city, the hero made a sally at the head of his cavalry, 
 and that of forty-eight squadrons of the enemy no more than three 
 escaped from the edge of his invincible sword." The ensuing year 
 was distinguished by a second victory ; soon after which John of 
 Brienne closed a life of military glory by an act of devotion which 
 raised him equally high in spiritual reputation also. During his last 
 illness, in 1237, he clothed himself in the habit of a Franciscan monk, 
 and thus expired in that which superstition considered to be the 
 richest odour of sanctity. He died March 23, 1237. 
 
 The reign of John of Brienne is given at length by Du Cange, in 
 the third book of his ' Hist. Constantinop.,' and a life of him was pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1727, 12mo, by Lafitau, a Jesuit. 
 
 BRIGGS, HENRY. Most of the accounts of Briggs are taken 
 from Ward's ' Lives of the Gresham Professors,' which we shall also 
 follow as to dates and personal facts. Mr. Ward cites Dr. Smith, 
 'Vita Henrici Briggii,' and Wood's ' Athenae Oxonienses.' 
 
 Briggs was born at Warleywood, near Halifax, probably about 1556. 
 
 He was sent to St. John's College, Cambridge, about 1577, where he 
 became scholar in 1579, B.A. in 1581, M. A. in 1585, fellow in 1588, 
 and reader in natural philosophy, on Dr. Linacer's foundation, in 1592. 
 In 1596, on the establishment of Gresham House, London, (not then 
 called College) he was chosen the first reader (not professor) in 
 geometry. In 1619 he was chosen first Savilian professor of geometry 
 at Oxford, Sir Henry Saville himself having preceded him in the 
 delivery of thirteen lectures. Briggs began where Saville left off, 
 namely, at the ninth proposition of the first book of Euclid. He 
 entered himself of Merton College, but he continued to hold the 
 Gresham readership till 1620, when he resigned it, and continued to 
 hold the Savilian professorship till his death, which took place 
 January 26, 1630. He was buried in the chapel of Morton College. 
 
 The history of Briggs is that of his connection with the improve- 
 ment and construction of logarithms. When Napier, in 1614, first 
 published his invention of natural or hyperbolic logarithms, Briggs 
 -was so struck with the invention that he resolved to pay the author a 
 visit in Scotland. He says in a letter to Archbishop Usher, dated 
 March 10, 1615, "Naper, Lord of Markinston, hath set my head and 
 hands a work with his new and admirable logarithms. I hope to 
 see him this summer, if it please God, for I never saw book which 
 pleased me better, and made me more wonder." He went into 
 Scotland accordingly, both in 1616 and 1617, and stayed some time 
 with Napier. It must be observed that the first logarithms of 
 Napier are a table of the values of x to every value of 8 for all the 
 minutes of the quadrant, in the equation (as it would now be 
 expressed) 
 
 \ 3 2 3/ sin 6 
 
 How this apparently complicated system is more natural than any 
 other is explained in the article Logarithms in Arts and Sciences 
 Division of this work. In 1615, Briggs, in his lectures at Gresham 
 college, publicly explained the superior convenience of calculating the 
 following table, on which he wrote to Napier, before his first journey 
 to Scotland : — ■ 
 
 These are both on the supposition that the whole sine, as it was then 
 called, or the sine of a right angle, is 1. Both Briggs and Napier 
 made it such a power of 10 as left no decimals in the table, and 
 therefore of course depending on the number of places in the 
 logarithms contemplated. But Napier himself (according to his own 
 account) had been struck with the convenience of adopting a decimal 
 system, and (according to Briggs's account) mentioned to him that he 
 (Napier) had long thought that the system would be amended by 
 what we should now call the tabulation of x from the equation 
 
 p + x / p\ x 
 
 10 = (sin. d to radius 10 ) or 10 = sin. 0 
 
 if the whole sine be unity. The difference between the two last 
 systems has nothing to do with the principle of the improvement in 
 question. In the first two systems the logarithms of increasing sines 
 diminish ; in the third, the logarithms of increasing sines increase. 
 Briggs, as he informs us, immediately admitted the merit of Napier's 
 improvement. And be it observed, the difficulty then lay in making 
 the calculations : probably both Briggs and Napier thought little of 
 the step as an advance in the theory, compared with the merit of 
 actually carrying it into effect This latter part was done by Briggs, 
 (Napier died in 1618,) who published, in 1618 (having printed them 
 the year before,) his 'Chilias Prima Logarithmorum,' containing the 
 first thousand numbers, with logarithms to nine places : and in 1624, 
 his ' Arithmetica Logarithmica,' which contains the logarithms of 
 numbers (not of sines) from 1 to 20,000 and from 90,000 to 101,000, 
 all to 15 places, with a method of supplying the logarithms of 
 intermediate numbers. This was fully done by Vlacq, who, in an 
 edition of the work just cited, Goudae, 1628, gave (to 11 places) the 
 logarithms of all numbers from 1 to 100,000, together with a corre- 
 sponding table of sines, cosines, &c, for every minute of the quadrant 
 Duriug this time Briggs was labouring at a logarithmic table of sines, 
 &c, of which he did not live to complete the preceding explanations, 
 but which was completed and published by his friend Henry 
 Gellibrand, (whom he had associated with himself in the task some years 
 before his death,) under the title of ' Trigonometria Britannica,' Goudae, 
 1633. It is to 15 places of figures, and to every hundredth of a degree. 
 Gellibrand states, in the preface, that, about 30 years before his death, 
 Briggs had calculated a canon of sines (natural sines of course) by 
 algebraical equations and differences. 
 
 It seems from the preceding that Napier thought himself entitled 
 to the discovery of the decimal method of logarithms, and that if 
 BrL'gs's statement be correct, he did not act quite fairly in suppressing 
 the latter name in the preface to hie ' Rabdologia.' But as this little 
 controversial episode is fully treated of in Dr. Hutton's preface to hifl 
 ' Logarithms,' we shall content ourselves here with citing the passages 
 which constitute the evidence : — 
 
 1. Napier, 'Rabdologia,' 1616, published after Briggs left him, 
 claims the improvement and entrusts the execution to Briggs as 
 follows: "Logarithmorum speciem aliam multo prsestantiorem nunc 
 
m 
 
 BRIGGS, HENRY PERRONET, R.A. 
 
 BRINDLEY, JAMES. 
 
 923 
 
 etiam invenimus, et creandi methodum una cum eorum usu, si Deus 
 longiorem vita et valetudinis usuram concesserit, evulgare statuimus. 
 Ipsam autem novi Canonis supputationem ob infirmam corporis nostri 
 valetudiuem viris in hoc studii genere versatis relinquimus; imprimis 
 vero D. Henrico Briggs, Londini, publico geometrise professori, et 
 ainico mihi longe charissimo." 
 
 2. Briggs, in the preface of 'Chilias Prima,' &c, written in 1618, 
 after Napier's death, hints that in the forthcoming posthumous work 
 of Napier (then announced by his son), justice should be done him, as 
 follows : — '' Quod autem hi logarithmi diversi sint ab iis, quos claris- 
 simus inventor, memoriae semper colendae, in suo edidit Canone 
 mirifico, sperandum ejus librum posthumum abunde nobis propediem 
 satisfacturum." 
 
 3. Briggs, finding the above hint not attended to, makes the follow- 
 ing statement in the preface of the ' Arithmetica Logarithmica,' 
 1624 : — " Quod logarithmi isti diversi sunt ab iis, quos cl. vir, baro 
 Merchistonii, in suo edidit Canone mirifico, non est quod mireris. 
 Ego enim, cum meis auditoribus Londini publico in collegio Gresham- 
 ensi, horum doctrinam explicarem, animadverti multo futurum 
 commodius, si logarithmus sinus totius servaretur 0, ut in Canone 
 mirifico ; logarithmus autem partis decimae ejusdem sinus totius, 
 nempe sinus 5 gr. 44 m. 21 s. esset 10,000,000,000. Atque ea de re 
 scripsi statim ad eum auctorem, et quam primum per anni tempus, et 
 vacationem a publico docendi munere licuit, profectus sum Edin- 
 burgum, ubi humanissime ab eo acceptus, hsesi per integrum mensem. 
 Cum autem inter nos de horum mutatione sermo haberetur, ille se 
 idem dudum sensisse et cupivisse dicebat ; veruntamen istos, quos 
 jam paraverat, edendos curasse, donee alios, si per negotia et valetudi- 
 uem liceret, magis commodos perfecisset. Istam autem mutationem ita 
 faciendum censebat, ut 0 esset logarithmus unitatis, et 10,000,000,000 
 sinus totius, quod ego longe commodissimum esse, non potui non 
 agnoscere." 
 
 The algebra of Vieta does not appear in the writings of Briggs, not 
 even in the preface to the ' Trig. Brit.,' which must have been written 
 many years after Vieta's death. Briggs made considerable use of 
 interpolation by differences, but his symbols and methods in general 
 are like those of Stevinus. It must however be observed, that the 
 history of the introduction of Vieta's algebra into England is so 
 scanty, and the little there is of it so confused, that it would be pre- 
 mature to attempt any comparison of Briggs's methods with his means. 
 It is evident from the first page of the first book of the ' Trig. Brit.,' 
 that Briggs was acquainted with one of Vieta's writings (the ' Rel. 
 Verae Cal. Gregor.'), and from the rest that he had some of his 
 methods ; but it seems to us that there is throughout the whole a 
 general suppression of his notation, and even of his name, paiticularly 
 in the following sentence, which will surprise those who know what 
 Vieta did: — "Modus inveniendi subtensas ab antiquis usitatus traditur 
 a Ptolemaeo, Regiomontano, Copernico Rhetico, et aliis ; et ante hos 
 ab Hipparcho et Menelao ; sed ista cetas alium modum invenit magis 
 compendiarium, et non minus certum." 
 
 (Hutton's Preface, above cited ; Maseres, Scrip. Log., vol. vi. ; 
 Montucla, <£-&) 
 
 BRIGGS, HENRY PERRONET, RA. This distinguished painter, 
 both in history and portrait, died iu London, in January 1844, aged 
 fifty-one. He was of a Norfolk family, and was related to Opie the 
 painter. He commenced his career as a portrait painter, and first 
 appears as an exhibitor on the books of the Royal Academy in 1814. 
 In 1818 he exhibited a picture of ' Lord Wake of Cottingham setting 
 fire to his castle, to prevent a visit from King Henry VIII., who was 
 enamoured of his wife.' In the year following he exhibited a subject 
 from Boccaccio (Gior. viiL Nov. 3), representing Calandrino, a Floren- 
 tine painter, thinking he had found the ' Elitropia,' and thereby 
 become invisible, pelted home by his companions Bruno and Buffal- 
 macco. These were followed by others of a higher class, as ' Othello 
 relating his Adventures to Desdemona;' the 'First Interview between 
 the Spaniards and the Peruvians ; ' and ' George III. on board the 
 Queen Charlotte, presenting a sword to Earl Howe, after the victory 
 of the 1st of June 1794.' The last picture was presented in 1825 by 
 the British Institution to Greenwich Hospital. In 1831 he exhibited 
 a large picture of ' The Ancient Britons instructed by the Romans in 
 the Mechanical Arts,' for the Mechanics Institute at Hull. He was 
 elected an ac idemician in the following year, from which, time he was 
 nearly exclusively emplojed in portrait-painting. 
 
 The portraits of Briggs are very effective as regards colour ; but 
 the colouring is conventional, and the features are not sufficiently 
 modelled. Many of the nobility have been painted by Briggs, and 
 also various well-known persons, among others, Sir S. Meyrick, Baron 
 Aldereon, Sir Fowell Buxton, Rev. Sidney Smith, Mrs Opie, Mrs. 
 Siddons, Charles Kemble, and the Duke of Wellington. His historical 
 pictures are generally of a pleasing character; but, like his portraits, 
 they are conventional both in colour and composition, and evince little 
 imagination or invention. 
 
 (AH Union, March 1844.) 
 
 •BRIGHT, JOHN, was born in 1811, and is the son of John 
 Bright of Oreeubank, near Rochdale, in Lancashire. He is of the 
 ext-nsive establishment of John Bright and Brothers, cotton-spinners 
 and manufacturers of Rochdale. He joined tlie association called the 
 Anti-Corn-Law League, which was formed in 1838, and of which he 
 
 became one of the leading members, perhaps next in importance to 
 Mr. Cobden. In 1843 he stood a contest for the representation in 
 parliament of the city of Durham, and was unsuccessful ; but another 
 election having taken place in the July following he was then returned, 
 and continued to be the member for the city of Durham till 1847, 
 when he was returned for Manchester. He opposed very decidedly 
 the war with Russia; was one of the meeting of the Society of 
 Friends, commonly called Quakers, who in 1854 sent a deputation to 
 the Emperor Nicholas to persuade him to adopt a peace policy ; and 
 he is a leading member of the Peace Society. He has been twice 
 married, and his secoud wife is living. He is a very animated and 
 effective speaker, and in the House of Commons has acquired a 
 leading position. Since 1857 he has been member for Birmingham. 
 
 BRIL, PAUL, a celebrated landscape painter, was the younger 
 brother and pupil of Matthew Bril, also a landscape painter, who was 
 bom in 1550, and died ia 1584. Paul Bril was however far the 
 greater artist. He was born at Antwerp, according to Van Mander, 
 in 1556, and received his first instruction from D. Wortelman ; but 
 having heard of the success of his brother at Rome, who was in 
 great esteem there as a landscape painter during the pontificate of 
 Gregory XIII., Paul joined him there, and soon became not only a 
 sharer of his brother's prosperity, but acquired a much greater 
 reputation. From the death of Matthew in 1584, Paul pursued an 
 unrivalled career at Rome. No Italian had up to this period turned 
 his attention exclusively to landscape with success, and Paul's ability 
 was the more valued. He executed several large landscapes in oil, in 
 the apartments of the pope and other dignitaries of the church ; in 
 many cases, views of the villas or summer residences of his employers, 
 all painted from nature. He painted landscapes also in several 
 churches, some in fresco, and of very large dimensions. In many of 
 his works he introduced subjects from the stories of ancient mythology, 
 and Annibal Carracci is said to have sometimes painted the figures. 
 He painted also many small easel pictures, often on copper, which are 
 very highly finished ; the foregrounds are fresh and bold, and the 
 distances are well managed. His masterpiece was considered a large 
 landscape in fresco, in the Sala Clementina in the Vatican, painted in 
 1602 for Clement VIIL, and representing the ' Martyrdom of St. 
 Clement :' it was 68 feet long, and of considerable height. Paul died 
 at Rome in 1622, or, according to Baldinucci, in 1626. 
 
 Several of Paul Bril's pictures have been engraved, and he executed 
 a few etchings himself. There is a print of him by De Jode, after a 
 portrait by Vandyck. (Van Mander, Het Leven der Schilders, &c.) 
 
 BRINDLEY, JAMES, was born in 1716 at Thornsett, a few miles 
 from Chapel-en-le-Frith, in the county of Derby. The great incident 
 of his life was his introduction to the Duke of Bridgewater, and the 
 application of his talents to the promotion of artificial navigation. 
 [Bridgkwater, Duke of.] But he had previously acquired reputa- 
 tion by his improvements in machinery ; and at an early age, although 
 deprived of the advantages of even a common education, he evinced 
 a mind fruitful in resources far above the common order. Brindley 
 followed the usual labours of agriculture until about his seventeenth 
 year, when he was apprenticed to a millwright named Bennet, residing 
 near Macclesfield. Bennet being generally occupied in distant parts of 
 the country, young Brindley was left at home with few or only indefi- 
 nite directions as to the proper manner of executing the work which 
 had been put into his hands. This circumstance however was well 
 calculated to call forth the peculiar qualities of his mind ; his inventive 
 faculties were brought into exercise, and he frequently astonished his 
 employer by the ingenious improvements which he effected. Mr. Bennet 
 on one occasion was engaged iu preparing machinery of a new kind 
 for a paper-mill, and although he had inspected a mill in which similar 
 machinery was in operation, it was reported that he would be unable 
 to execute his coutract. Brindley was informed of this rumour, and 
 as soon as he had finished his week's work, he set out for the mill, 
 took a complete Burvey of the machinery, and after a walk of fifty 
 miles, reached home in time to commence work on Monday morniug. 
 He had marked the points in which Mr. Bennet's work was defective, 
 and by enabling him to correct them, Bennet's engagement was satis- 
 factorily fulfilled. 
 
 When the period of his apprenticeship had expired, Brindley engaged 
 in business on his own account, but he did not confine himself to the 
 making of mill machinery. In 1752 he contrived an improved engine 
 for draining some coal-pits at Clifton, Lancashire, which was set in 
 motion by a wheel 30 feet below the surface, and the water for turning 
 it was supplied from the Irwell by a subterraneous tunnel 600 yards 
 long. His reputation as a man of skill and ingenuity steadily 
 increased. In 1755 a gentleman of London engaged him to execute a 
 portion of the machinery for a silk mill at Congleton. The construc- 
 tion of the more complex parts was intrusted to another individual, 
 who, though eventually found incapable of performing his portion of 
 the work, treated Brindley as a common mechanic, and refused to 
 show him his general designs until it became necessary to take Brind- 
 h y's advice. Brindley offered to complete the whole of the machinery 
 in his own way ; and as his integrity and talents had already won the 
 confidence of the proprietors, he was allowed to do so. The ability 
 with which he accomplished his undertaking raised his reputation still 
 higher. In 1756 he erected a steam-engine at Newcastle-under-Lyne, 
 which was calculated to effect a saving of one-half in fuel. 
 
S23 
 
 BRISSON, MATHDItIN JACQUES. 
 
 024 
 
 Shortly after this time, Brindley was consulted by the Duke of 
 Bridgewatcr on the practicability of constructing a canal from Worsley 
 to Manchester. Brindley's success in this undertaking was the means 
 of fully awakening public attention to the advantages of canals. Had 
 a man of less ability undertaken the work, it is not improbable that it 
 might have turned out a failure, and the improvement of our inland 
 navigation might have been deferred some years longer. Within 
 forty-two years after the duke's canal was opened, application had been 
 made to parliament for 1G5 Acts for cutting canals in Great Britain, at 
 au expense of above 13,000,000i. All the ingenuity and resources 
 which Brindley possessed were required in accomplishing the Duke of 
 Bridgevvater's noble scheme; and it may be fairly said that where 
 there wero most difficulties in the way, there Brindley's genius was 
 displayed with the greatest effect. But it was not only in his expe- 
 dients for overcoming difficulties that his talents were displayed; he 
 made use of many new and ingenious contrivances for conducting the 
 work with the utmost economy. 
 
 In 1766 the Trent and Mersey Canal was commenced under Brindley's 
 superintendence. It is 93 miles lonpr, and unites the navigation of the 
 Mersey with that of the Trent and the Humber. It was called by 
 Brindley the Grand Trunk Navigation, owing to the probability, from 
 its grtat commercial importance, of many other canals being made to 
 join it. The Grand Truuk Navigation, by meaus of a tunnel 2880 
 yards in length, passes through a hill at Harecastle in Staffordshire, 
 which had previously been considered an insurmountable obstacle to 
 the completion of a canal : this tunnel is 70 yards below the surface. 
 The canal was not completed at Brindley's death, but his brother-in- 
 law, Mr. Heushall, successfully finished it. Brindley next designed a 
 canal, 40 miles long, called the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal, 
 for the purpose of connecting the Grand Trunk with the Severn. He 
 also planned the Coventry Canal, but owing to some dispute he did not 
 superintend its execution. He however superintended the execution 
 of the Oxford Canal, which connects the Thames with the Grand 
 Trunk through the Coventry Canal. These undertakings opened an 
 internal water-communication between the Thames, the Humber, the 
 Severn, and the Mersey, and united the great ports of London, Liver- 
 pool, Bristol, and Huli, by canals which passed through the richest 
 and most industrious districts of England. 
 
 The canal fiom the Trent at Stockwith to Chesterfield, 46 miles 
 long, was Brindley's last public undertaking. He also surveyed and 
 gave his opinion on many other lines for navigable canals besides those 
 mentioned ; among others, on a canal from Liverpool to Runcorn, 
 where the Duke of Bridgewater's Canal locks iuto the Mersey. He 
 proposed cari-yini; this canal over that river at a point where the tidal 
 water rises to the height of 14 feet. He formed also a scheme for 
 uniting Great Britain and Ireland by a floating road and caual from 
 Port Patrick to Donaghadee ; and like most other impracticable 
 schemes of ingenious men, it became a favourite speculation. Phillips, 
 in his ' History of Inland Navigation,' says that Brindley pointed out 
 the method of building walls against the sea without mortar; that he 
 invented a mode of cleansing dockyards, and for drawing water out 
 of mines by a losing and gaining bucket. Phillips states that he had 
 been in the " employ of the great Brindley." 
 
 Brindley's designs were the resources of his own mind alone. When 
 he was beset with any difficulty he secluded himself, and worked out 
 unaided the means of accomplishing his schemes. Sometimes he lay 
 in bed two or three days ; but when he arose he proceeded at once to 
 carry his plans into effect, without the help of drawings or models. 
 A man like Brindley, who was so entirely ab-orbed in his own schemes, 
 was not likely to partake much of the pleasures of society. A hectic 
 fever, which had hung about him for several years, at length terminated 
 his laborious and useful life. He died at Turnhurst, in Staffordshire, 
 September 27th, 1772, aged £6, and was buried at New Chapel in the 
 same county. 
 
 The principal events in Brindley's life were first communicated to 
 the public from materials furnished by Mr. Heushall, his brother-in- 
 law, and other friends, who spoke highly of " the integrity of his 
 character, his devotion to the public interests, and the vast compass 
 of his understanding, which seemed to have au affinity for all great 
 objects, and likewise for many noble and beneficent designs which the 
 multiplicity of his engagements and the shortness of his life prevented 
 him from bringing to maturity." No man was so entirely free from 
 jealous feelings. The reply which Brindley is said to have given to a 
 committee of the House of Commons, when asked for what object rivers 
 were created, namely, "To feed navigable canals, " is characteristic, and 
 very probably authentic; but it was made public by an anonymous 
 writer in the ' MorningPost,' whose communications respecting Brindley 
 were stated by some of his friends to contain many inaccuracies. 
 
 BRISSO'N, BARNABE, was bom in 1531, at Foutenay-le-Comte, 
 in the province of Poitou, of a family several members of which had 
 distinguished themselves at the French bar. Brisson applied to the 
 same profession, in which he attaiued the highest honours. He was 
 made king's advocate in 1575, afterwards councillor of state, and lastly 
 president a moitier in 1583. King Henri III. used to say that no 
 other king could boast of haviug in his service so learned a man as 
 Brisson, He sent him on several missions, among others to Queen 
 Elizabeth of England ; and he commissioned him to collect and edit 
 the ordinances of his predecessors and his own. which appeared under 
 
 the following title, ' Code de Henry III., Roy do Franco et de Pologne, 
 redigd en ordre par Messire Barnabe' Brisson,' fol., 1587, afterwards 
 republished with additions under Henri IV. by Le Caron, 1609, and 
 commonly called ' Code HenrL' Brisson was well versed in the ancient 
 writers, and several valuable works were the result of his studies : — 
 1. 'De verborum quae ad jus pertinent significatione*,'. a useful glossary 
 of words aud sentences of the Roman law. This work went through 
 several editions; the one by J. C. Itter, fol., Frankfurt, 1683, contains 
 many additions. 2. ' De formulis et solernnibus Populi Romani verbis,' 
 lib. viii.,fol., 1583, a work of more general use to scholars. The author 
 explains the proper meaning and application of certain established 
 forms of words which had a fixed meaning, and were used by the 
 Romans in their public acts, in their religious ceremonies, in the senate, 
 in the comitia, in the forum, in their contracts, testaments, funerals, &c. 
 An improved edition of this work was published by F. C. Conrad, fol., 
 Leipzig, 1781, with a life of Brisson prefixed to it. 3. ' De regio 
 Persarum principatu,' lib. iii., in which he treats of the ancient Persian 
 monarchy, its political institutions, its laws, the religion and habits of 
 the people, and their military establishment. An edition with notes 
 and corrections was published by Professor Lederlin, Strasburg, 1710. 
 Several other works of Brisson, chiefly connected with the Roman laws 
 and institutions, are found in his ' Opera Varia,' Paris, 1607, repub- 
 lished at Leyden, 1749, with the title of ' Opera Minora,' which contain 
 'Selectarum ex jure civili antiquitatum,' lib. iv. ; 'De ritu nuptiarum;' 
 ' De jure connubiorum ;' 'Ad Legem Juliam de adulteriis ;' ' De 
 solutionibus et liberationibus;' 'Ad legem Domiuico de spectaculis in 
 Cod ice Theodosii;' ' Parergon liber siugularis;' all works of considerable 
 erudition. 
 
 The end of Brisson's life was remarkably unfortunate. When 
 Henri III. was obliged to leave Paris on account of the factions of the 
 League in January 1588, Brisson stayed behind, in the hope, as it 
 would appear, of bringing about a reconciliation between the king and 
 the people of the capital. After the murder of the Guises, the 
 Leaguers being now in open revolt against the king, arrested in 
 January 1589 the President de Harlay, aud put Brisson in his place 
 as first, pnsident of the parliament, which he accepted, as he said to 
 his fueuds, in order to save his life and that of his wife, at the same 
 time protesting privately before two notaries against auy intention on 
 his part of violating the king's prerogative. Henri III. having by an 
 edict of February 1589 transferred the parliament to Tours, Brisson 
 did not obey the summons, but remained in the capital. After Henri's 
 death in August of the same year, Brisson proclaimed the Duke of 
 Mayenne, the chief of the League, lieutenant-general of the kingdom ; 
 but he resisted the intrigues of Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who 
 j wanted to obtain the regency for his master, as well as the pretensions 
 i of Cardinal Gaetano, the pope's legate, who on presenting to the 
 I parliament hi.s bull of credentials wished to take the seat reserved for 
 the king. However Brisson soon after became suspected by the faction 
 of the Sixteen who ruled in Paris, and who thought that he was favour- 
 able to Henri IV. Availing themselves of the absence of the Duke 
 of Mayenne, they arrested Brisson, with two other councillors, on the 
 15th of November 1591 at nine o'clock, and hanged them at eleven 
 o'clock the same morning. The Duke of Mayenne, on his return to 
 Paris, hanged four of the most violent of the faction of the Sixteen. 
 
 (De Thou ; and DLscours sur la Mori da President Brisson, par Denyse 
 de Vigny, sa veuve, Paris, 1595.) 
 
 BRISSON, MATHURIN JACQUES, whose zoological and philo- 
 sophical works have rendered his name deservedly celebrated, was born 
 at Fontenay-le-Comte on the 30th of April, 1723. Educated, as he 
 may be said to have been, under Reaumur (for his youth was passed 
 in aiding the labours of that accurate observer of nature, and in super- 
 intending his cabinet), he imbibed at an early age a love for natural 
 science, which only left him with his life. His progress must have 
 been rapid ; for we find him selected as the tutor in physics aud natural 
 history to the ' children of France,' and filling the office of ' Censeur 
 Royal.' He became a member of the Academy of Sciences, and after- 
 wards of the Institute, and succeeded the Abbe Nollet in the physical 
 chair at the college of Navarre. A warm defender of the Abb6, whose 
 theory of electricity he supported with all the weapons which his 
 intimate knowledge of the subject afforded him, he attacked Franklin, 
 and endeavoured to overturn Priestley ; but he, notwithstanding, fairly 
 stated to his class, in his capacity of professor, the new theory which 
 had taken the place of that of the Abbe, explaining aud discussing the 
 facts on which it rested. 
 
 The government charged him with the care of providing lightniug- 
 conductors for the protection of many public buildings, and appointed 
 him to examine those which other projectors might bring forward. 
 Death crept upon him at Broissi, near Versailles, on the 23rd of June 
 1806, at the age of eighty -three ; but for some months before he died 
 he was a melaucholy specimen of the body surviving the intellect. An 
 apoplectic attack had defaced all his ideas, depriving him of the know- 
 ledge which he had so laboriously acquired, and even blotting out from 
 his memory the French language. 
 
 His works are numerous : among the most important are his 
 ' Ornithology,' and his treatise ' On the Specific Gravity of Bodies.' 
 The first appeared at Paris in 1760, in 6 vols. 4to, in Latin and French. 
 The second, under the title of ' Pesanteur Spe"cifique des Corps,' wa» 
 published in quarto in 1787. 
 
9*5 
 
 BRISSOT, JACQUES PIERRE. 
 
 BRITANNICUS. 
 
 BRISSOT, JACQUES PIERRE, was born on the 14th of January 
 1754, in the village of Ouarville, near Chartres. His father, though 
 only a poor pastry-cook, contrived to give all his children a good edu- 
 cation. It was his intention that Jacques Pierre, who as a boy gave 
 signs of great talents, should be brought up to the bar, but the youth's 
 early passion for literature defeated this project. Brissot was particu- 
 larly fond of the study of languages, and made himself a perfect 
 r of English : he eagerly devoured the best authors, turning his 
 attention more especially to the historians, economists, and political 
 writers. On attaining the age of manhood he quitted the study of law 
 and went to Boulogne, where he was intrusted with the editorship of 
 the ' Courier de 1 Europe.' This liberal journal was soon arbitrarily 
 suppressed by the French government, and Brissot was thrown upon 
 the world with no other resources than his acquirements and abilities. 
 
 In 1780 he published his ' Theory of Criminal Laws ;' and the next 
 year two eloquent discourses on the same subject gained him the 
 prizes in the Acidemy of Chalons-sur-Marne. Between the years 1782 
 and 1786 he put forth ten volumes of ' The Philosophical Library ' on 
 criminal laws. At the same time he studied the natural sciences, and 
 devoted part of his time to metaphysical pursuits, in which latter 
 department he published an essay, entitled ' On Truth, or Meditations 
 on the Means of reaching Truth iD all branches of Human Knowledge.' 
 During part of this time he resided in England, and it was in London, 
 somewhere about the year 1783, that he undertook a periodical work, 
 called ' Universal Correspondence on all that concerns the Happiness 
 of Men and Society.' The laudable object of this work was to dis- 
 seminate in France all such political principles as were based on reason. 
 The constitutional laws and usages of England formed a leading topic. 
 The French government seized and suppressed the book. His next 
 works were 'A Picture of the Sciences and Arts of England,' and 
 another on British India. 
 
 Returning to France, the ministry of the day arrested him and 
 threw him into the Bastille. His imprisonment was not of long dura- 
 tion, but in obtaining his liberty he was compelled to give up an 
 Anglo-French work, which was to have been written partly by English- 
 men, and partly by Frenchmen, and circulated in both countries. 
 These persecutions inflamed his hatred of arbitrary power. In 1785, 
 during the insurrection of the Wallachians, he published two letters, 
 addressed to the Emperor Joseph II., 'On the Right of Emigration,' 
 and ' On the Right of Insurrection.' He continued to be indefatigable 
 with his pen, but most of his works possessing only a temporary 
 interest, have long since fallen into oblivion. He warmly favoured 
 the revolutionary party in the English North American colonies, and 
 wrote a good deal in support of their cause. He was an emancipationist, 
 and one of the first members of the French society called ' The Friends 
 of the Blacks.' 
 
 The freedom of his pen brought him again into difficulties, and on 
 learning tbat a lettre-de-cachet was signed for his arrest, he fled and 
 took refuge in England. After a short stay in London he crossed the 
 Atlantic to the United States, where his love of republican institutions 
 was increased by seeing their operation in that country. 
 
 In 1789 the progress of events in France enabled him to return 
 home, and use his pen without any fear of the Bastille. He floated 
 forward on the revolutionary torrent He was elected member of the 
 first municipal council of the city of Paris, and in that capacity received 
 the keys of the captured Bastille, on the 14th of July. Soon after he 
 was elected by the citizens of Paris to be their representative in the 
 Constituent Assembly. He joined the party called the Gironde, and 
 co-operated with Vergniaud, Guadet, Gensonne', the Provencal Isnard, 
 and others, who were weak and imprudent politicians, but among the 
 most eloquent and best men in France. " The opinions of Brissot, 
 who desired a complete reform ; his great activity of mind, which 
 enabled him to re-produce himself in the journal called ' The Patriot,' 
 at the tribune of the Assembly, in the club of the Jacobins; hia 
 precise and extensive information respecting the situation of foreign 
 powers, gave him a great ascendancy at a moment of struggle between 
 the parties and of war against all Europe." (Migoet, ' Hi-t. of the 
 French Revolution.') The Girondists triumphed over the Feuillans 
 or moderate constitutional monarchy party ; but they were in their 
 turn defeated in much the same manner by the Jacobins or party called 
 the Mountain, who went as much farther than the Girondists, as the 
 Girondists had gone farther than the Feuillans. The Gironde wa3 
 nothing more in the revolution than a party of transition from the 
 power of the middling classes of society to that of the mob. The 
 members of it put themselves and their country in a position from 
 which there was no escape except through seas of blood. During the 
 fearful struggle Brissot incurred the deadly hatred of Robespierre, 
 which was equivalent to a death-warrant. On the 2nd of June 1793, 
 a sentence of arrest was passed against him. Brissot was calm and 
 firm, and at first not inclined to do anything to escape death, but on 
 the entreaties of his family and friends he attempted to get to Switzer- 
 land. Being arrested at Moulins, he was carried back to Paris, and 
 brought before the revolutionary tribunal, where the Jacobins iu vain 
 endeavoured to destroy his courage and self-possession. The only 
 regrets he expressed were at the political errors he had committed, 
 and at leaving his wife and children in absolute poverty. He was 
 condemned, of course, and went to the guillotine with twenty other 
 Girondists, his associates and friends, on the 31st of October 1793, 
 
 just nine months and ten days after they had voted the death of 
 Louis XVI. (whose life however they attempted to spare), and fifteen 
 days after the execution of the Queen Marie Antoinette. They marched 
 to the scaffold with all the stoicism of the times, and singing, as it was 
 the fashion to do, the ' Marsellaise,' or song of the republic. They all 
 died with courage. Brissot was only thirty-nine years old. His com- 
 panions in death were Vergniaud, Gensonnd, Fonfrede, Ducos, Valazei, 
 Lasource, Silhky, Gardien, Carra, Duprat, Beauvais, Duch&tel, Main- 
 vielle, Lacaze, Boileau, Lehardy, Antiboul, and Vige'e. 
 
 Brissot stood at the head of the party which he embraced. At one 
 time in his political career a large section of the house was called after 
 his name, 'The Brissotins.' He was singularly honest and disin- 
 terested : he sincerely wished the good of his country, but he knew 
 not how to accomplish it. His biographers have recorded of him, 
 that he was mild and simple in his manners, small of stature, weak, 
 and somewhat deformed in person, and that his countenance was 
 frank, open, and expressive. After his return from America, he affected 
 the simplicity of dress of the Quakers. 
 
 BRITA'NNIC'US, son of the Emperor Claudius, and of his third 
 wife the infamous Messalina, was born on the 11th of February, a.d. 
 42, on the twentieth day after his father's accession, and was at first 
 named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, a name which was changed in 
 honour of the subsequent conquests in Britain. When only six year3 
 old, while exhibiting before his father in the mimic fights called 
 'Troja,' during the Circensian games, the wishes of the populace 
 seemed to incline in favour of L. Domitius, the son of Agrippina, who 
 headed the opposite band, and who afterwards succeeded to the 
 imperial dignity under the title of Nero. On the death of Messalina, 
 and the marriage of Claudius with his niece Agrippina, Octavia, sister 
 of Britannicus, who had been betrothed to Silanus, was given in 
 marriage to Lucius Domitius, and pains were taken by the courtiers, 
 who had procured the death of Messalina, to elevate the adopted 
 prince to equal honours with the son whom Claudius had hitherto 
 acknowledged as his heir. 
 
 Medal, with the inscription ' Claudius Britannicus Csesar.' Copper. (Capt 
 -Smyth's collection.) 
 
 Copper. (Capt. Smyth's collection.) 
 
 At the Circensian games Britannicus appeared in the prsetexta, or 
 youthful dress ; Nero in a triumphal robe ; and the populace formed 
 their opinion as to the future fortune of each accordingly. When the 
 boys met each other afterwards, Nero saluted his playfellow as 
 'Britannicus;' Britannicus replied to him only by the family name 
 of ' Domitius.' Agrippina expressed great indignation at this affront, 
 and complained to her husband Claudius that his adoption was treated 
 with contempt — that the decree of the senate and the command of 
 the people were abrogated witbin the palace walls — and that if a stop 
 were not put to the perverseness of those preceptors by whom Britan- 
 nicus had been instructed, public disasters must ensue. Claudius, 
 moved by her remonstrances, banished or put to death the excellent 
 tutors who had hitherto brought up his son, and placed him under 
 the care of others recommended by his crafty step-mother. 
 
 When the intrigues and the crimes of Agrippina had obtained the 
 imperial dignity for her own son, Britannicus necessarily became an 
 object of suspicion to Nero, whose fears were by no means diminished 
 by the threats in which his mother indulged upon the banishment 
 of her lover Pallas. She took care indeed not to conceal her menaces 
 from her son ; and she pronounced Britannicus to be the true stock 
 of the Ciesars, and alone worthy to annceed to his father's empire, 
 
927 
 
 BRITTON. 
 
 BRITTON, JOHN. 
 
 while Nero was only adopted into the family of the Caesars. Little 
 solicitous as to the revelation of her foul deeds, she rejoiced that her 
 own providence and the gods had permitted the survival of her step- 
 son, and she declared that she would accompany him to the camp, 
 and demand from the soldiers his elevation to the throne, without 
 fearing the futile arguments which might be urged against her by 
 the unwarlike soldier Burrhus, or the wordy rhetorician Seneca, the 
 two guardians of Nero's youth. 
 
 Britaunicus was near the completion of his fourteenth year, and 
 Nero, who was well acquainted with the violeuce of Agrippina, had 
 recently discovered how much popularity the young prince retained. 
 Among other sports of the ' Saturnalia' was one named ' lleguum,' in 
 which the players threw dice for the kingship of the evening. Nero, 
 who on one occasion happened to be the successful caster, issued his 
 orders to each of the company to do some iuoffensive trifle; but 
 when it camo to the turn of Britannicus, Nero commanded him to 
 stand up and sing a song. Britaunicus calmly obeyed, and began a 
 song which implied that he had fallen from his patrimony and from 
 sovereignty ; lines which the keen-sightedness of the commentators 
 of Eunius have determined to belong to the 'Andromache' of that 
 poet. The licence of the season and the time of night made the 
 courtiers less on their guard than usual, and a sentiment of pity was 
 evidently excited among them. This incident, combined with the 
 threats of Agrippina, determined Nero to remove Britaunicus by 
 poison, and he employed Locusta (whose name is rendered familiar to 
 us by Juvenal) to assist his purpose. 
 
 The poison first administered was ineffectual; but Nero, impatient 
 of delay, threatened Locusta with punishment (and, as Suetonius 
 adds, beat her with his own h aul), till she furnished him with a 
 potion which she affirmed should be "as rapid in deadly effect as the 
 sword itself ; " it was piepaied by the bedside of the emperor under 
 his own inspection. 
 
 According to an old custom, the youths of the imperial family, with 
 other noble children, ate their meals in the presence of their elder 
 relations. Britannicus, when assisting at one of these banquets, was 
 attended as usual by a taster, and some artifice became requisite to 
 prevent any violation of the court fashion, and at the same time to 
 avoid the suspicion which must have been created by the death of 
 both the prince and this officer. An unpoisoned drink, already tasted, 
 was therefore handed to Britannicus, aud when he complained that it 
 was too hot, the poison was poured into it with cold water. The 
 moment alter he had swallowed the draught, he lost the use of his 
 limbs, his brvath, aud utterance. All present were in consternation, 
 and some quitted the room; but those who were better acquainted 
 with the habits of the palace sat still and watched the emperor's 
 countenance. With a careless air, he pronounced the prince's disease 
 to be an attack of epilepsy, with which, he said, Britannicus had been 
 afflicted from infancy, and that he would speedily recover. The 
 involuntary terror displayed by Agrippina and Octavia proved their 
 ignorance of the crime: the former was a veteran in dissimulation; 
 the latter, though still of tender years, had been taught to repress all 
 outward signs of grief or of affection. After a short pause, the festivity 
 was renewed. 
 
 Britannicus was buried on the very evening of his death, the funeral 
 arrangements, which were but slender, having been provided before- 
 hand. The pile was constructed in the Campus Martius, under a 
 terrific storm of rain. 
 
 Suetonius adds to the other causes of hatred which Nero cherished 
 apainst Britannicus, that he was jealous of the superior excellence of 
 his voice; and that Titus, who was educated by the same tutors, 
 happening to Bit next him at the fatal banquet, tasted the poisoned 
 cup, and for a long time felt the consequences. A metoposcopist (a 
 diviner by marks on the forehead), introduced by Narcissus in order 
 to inspect the forehead of the prince, predicted that Britannicus would 
 never mount the throne, which however would certainly be ascended 
 by Titus. Titus, after his accession, called to mind this circumstance, 
 and as a testimony to his early friendship for Britannicus, erected a 
 golden statue to his memory on the Palatine Hill, and had a second 
 (equestrian) statue carved in ivory, which was exhibited in the Cir- 
 censian processions. The potion, says Suetonius, medicated by 
 Locusta, was first tried upon a kid, which survived five hours. This 
 process being far too slow to satisfy Nero, a mixture of greater 
 strength was prepared, which killed a pig immediately. The funeral 
 of Biitannicus is placed on the day after his death by Suetonius, and 
 Dion (Ixi.) records that his face, beiDg discoloured by the poison, was 
 covered with plaster by the order of Nero, but that the torrent of 
 rain which fell during the ceremony washed off the plaster and 
 revealed the crime. 
 
 The disastrous history of Britannicus has furnished the ground plan 
 to a tragedy by Racine, which the French consider among the ' chefs- 
 d'oeuvre ' of their drama, but which to our taste abounds in the chief 
 faults of their theatre. 
 
 (Tacit., ArnaL, xii. xiii. ; Suetonius, Nero; Dion Cass., Ixi.) 
 
 BRITTON. We have, under Beacton, enumerated all the principal 
 writings of those early English lawyers and masters of jurisprudence, 
 who are meant when we hear of " the ancient text-writers of our law." 
 In respect of the time in which they lived, it may be said to extend 
 from towards the close of the 12th to the middle of the 15th century. 
 
 It is remarkable that so much obscurity should rest on the personal 
 history of those writers, who were men of eminent abilities, treating 
 of their subject with great precision and learning, and writing, it may 
 be said, even with elegance. 
 
 We have seen that there is doubt who Bracton was. There is still 
 more doubt respecting Britton, whose existence as an individual 
 person has even been questioned. Selden who on such points is a high 
 authority, in his notes upon Fleta, contends that ' Britton ' is nothing 
 more than a sophistication of ' Bracton,' aud that to the same hand to 
 which we owe the treatise in Latin before mentioned, we owe also the 
 French treatise known by the name of 'Britton.' This was Selden's 
 later opinion ; for in an earlier work he has spoken of them as two 
 distinct writers. John le Breton, bishop of Hereford, who died in the 
 third year of Edward L, has been supposed to be the author (Tanner, 
 ' Bibliotheca,' p. 119). Others attribute it to a John Breton, who was 
 a judge in the first year of Edward II. There seems no reason to 
 doubt that the work waB composed in the reign of Edward L 
 
 Britton treats of almost every point in the practice of the common 
 law, in 126 chapters. 
 
 The high esteem in which the work was held, is evidenced by the 
 numerous manuscripts of it which still exist in our great libraries. 
 In the British Museum are several of great value. 
 
 It was first printed in 1540 by Redman, who had meditated doing 
 so bofore ; for he tells us in the preface that " he had of long time a 
 fervent zeal and inward affection to imprint the fountain (as who 
 saith) or well of the same learnings, from whence those old judges in 
 the time of King Edward the First and siuce, have sucked their reasons 
 and grounded their learnings." A century later, namely in 1640, 
 there was another edition published by Wingate, a lawyer. These are 
 the only editions which have appeared in England. Britton is 
 contained in the edition of the early writers on English law, by 
 M. Houard, a French lawyer, in six quarto volumes, a noble under- 
 taking, intended to promote in France the study of comparative 
 jurisprudence. 
 
 There still remains however the very necessary work to be performed 
 of a collation of the existing manuscripts. This is a work which 
 ought to be done for every writing of value in any department of 
 literature which was published by the early printers, who seldom did 
 more than follow some particular manuscript which happened to have 
 fallen into their hands, and which might not always happen to be the 
 purest and the best. It was in contemplation to prepare such an 
 edition, and a specimen of the intended work may be seen in ' Cooper 
 on the Public RecordB,' 8vo. 1832, vol ii. p. 403-412 ; the text being 
 taken from what is perhaps the best manuscript (Harleian, 324), and 
 the margin presenting the various readings found in many other 
 manuscripts; but the work feH to the ground on the suspension of 
 the Record Commission. 
 
 In 1762, a translation of Britton, as far as the 25th chapter, was 
 published by Mr. Robert Kelham ; but the work did not receive 
 much encouragement. He translated the remaining portions, but the 
 manuscript remained in his hands till 1807, when being then the 
 senior member of Lincoln's Inn, and eighty-nine years of age, he 
 presented it to the library of that society, where it now remains. 
 
 BRITTON, JOHN, was born the 7th of July 1771, at Kington- 
 St.-Micb.ael, near Chippenham, Wiltshire, where his father was a small 
 farmer and kept a village shop. His parents dying early, he was 
 received as a servant by an uncle in London, who after a while 
 apprenticed him to a wine-merchant. After he had served six years, 
 his health gave way, and his master agreed to cancel his indenturea 
 Young Britton had in the village schools received a little rudimentary 
 instruction, and during his apprenticeship had become extremely fond 
 of reading, but his reading was desultory and aimless. On reaching 
 manhood he was still uneducated, aud his mind quite unformed. At 
 the close of his apprenticeship he found himself without connections, 
 and without any definite pursuit. For some years he had to struggle 
 hard with poverty, and was driven to a variety of shifts to earn a 
 livelihood. Among other things, he engaged himself for a time to 
 recite and sing at a kind of dioramic exhibition with the sounding 
 title of Eidophusikon. During this unsettled course of life he formed 
 the acquaintance of various persons connected with the humbler 
 walks of literature, and he was induced to embark in a small way on 
 authorship himself, by compiling some common street song-books, 
 &c, and at length adventured on writing an 'Account of the 
 Surprising Adventures of Tizarro.' Some short notices which he 
 prepared for the 'Sporting Magazine' brought him acquainted with 
 Mr. Wheble, its publisher, and to the connection thus formed 
 Mr. Britton owed his introduction into the career which he so long 
 and honourably pursued. 
 
 Mr. Wheble, whilst residing at Salisbury, had issued the prospectus 
 of a work to be called the ' Beauties of Wiltshire,' but after having 
 received some subscriptions for it, found himself unable to carry it on. 
 But now, learning that Britton was a native of Wiltshire, Wheble 
 proposed to him to compile the work he had announced. It is hardly 
 possible to conceive of such a proposal being made to a person lees 
 qualified by previous pursuits or attainments, but among Brittou's 
 acquaintances was a young man named Brayley of about his own age, 
 but somewhat better taught; they had assisted each other in their 
 studies, and were prepared to enter upon a sort of literary partnership 
 
919 
 
 BRIZIO, FRANCESCO. 
 
 BROCCHI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA. 
 
 630 
 
 In conjunction with bis friend Brayley, Britton promptly undertook 
 to 'get up' from ready sources an 'Account of Wiltshire,' and as 
 their first preparation for it, the friends set out on a tour, not, as 
 might be supposed, through Wiltshire, but through Wales. In due 
 time however the ' Beauties of Wiltshire' were completed in 2 vols. 
 8vo (1801), to the satisfaction of the publishers ; and at their invitation 
 the joint authors' immediately set to work on the ' Beauties of Bedford- 
 shire.' Eventually the ' Beauties' of all the other counties of England 
 were published in 26 vols., but only the first nine volumes were written 
 by the original authors. While compiling his ' Wiltshire,' Mr. Britton 
 not only became conscious of his deficiencies, but endeavoured reso- 
 lutely to supply them ; and the criticisms and arlvice of various anti- 
 quaries and topographers with whom the work brought him into 
 connection materially assisted his progress. Finding his publisher averse 
 to the admission of antiquarian matter, he began to collect materials 
 for another and more elaborate work, the ' Architectural Antiquities 
 of England,' of which the first part was published in 1805, and which 
 was above nine years in progress. It eventually formed five splendid 
 quarto volumes. Henceforth Mr. Britton's course was one of laborious 
 and persevering authorship in the path which he made for many years 
 in a special manner his own — that of architectural and topographical 
 description and antiquities. It would occupy too much space to enumerate 
 his many publications, which in his own chronological list, in the second 
 part of his 'Autobiography,' numbers eighty-seven distinct productions. 
 The most important of them is the ' Cathedral Antiquities of England,' 
 a magnificent work, which was commenced in 1814 by the publication 
 in a detached form of the ' Antiquities of Salisbury Cathedral,' and 
 ultimately embraced a series of elaborate illustrations of the entire 
 cathedrals of England. In its completed form the ' Cathedral Anti- 
 quities ' occupy 14 vols. fol. and 4to, 1814-35, with upwards of 300 
 highly-finished steel-engravings. 
 
 The production of these works was carried on throughout under 
 Mr. Britton's immediate superintendence, many of the artists working 
 in his own house, and being trained to their work by himself ; and 
 the facility he thus acquired in the production of this class of publi- 
 cations led to the preparation of many other works of a similar kind. 
 Among the illustrated works of which he was either author or editor 
 may be named — an ' Historical Account of Corsham House,' 1806; 
 the ' Fine Arts of the English School,' 4to, 1812 ; ' Historical Account 
 of Redcliffe Church,' 4to, 1813 ; ' Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey,' 1823; 
 'Historical Account of Bath Abbey Church,' 1825; the 'Public 
 Buildings of London, from Drawings by A. Pugin,' 2 vols, royal 8vo, 
 1825-28; 'Architectural Antiquities of Normandy, drawn by A. Pugin,' 
 1825-27; 'Picturesque Antiquities of English Cities,' 4to, 1830; 'A 
 Dictionary of the Architecture and Archaeology of the Middle Ages,' 
 4to, 1832 38; 'A History, &c, of the Ancient Palace and Houses of 
 Parliament at Westminster,' jointly with E. W. Brayley, 8vo, 1834-36; 
 ' Hiftorical Account of Toddington, Gloucestershire,' 1841 ; ' Historical 
 Notices of Windsor Castle,' 1842 ; &c. &c. But besides these Mr. 
 Britton has written on many subjects connected with general literature, 
 either as distinct works or as contributions to literary journals, &c. In 
 biography he published in 1845 a ' Memoir of John Aubrey,' and in 
 1848 an essay entitled ' The Authorship of the Letters of Junius 
 Elucidated, including a Biographical Memoir of Colonel Barre", M.P.' 
 Mr. Britton wrote the articles 'Avebury,' ' Stonehenge,' and 'Tumulus,' 
 for the 'Penny Cyclopsedia.' [See Supplement.] 
 
 In 1847 the literary and other friends of Mr. Britton gave the veteran 
 author a dinner on his retirement from the active pursuit of his calling; 
 and it being determined to mark their esteem for him by a permanent 
 testimonial, a social gathering called the 'Britton Club ' was organised 
 to carry out the project. The form of the testimonial, at Mr. Britton's 
 own suggestion, it was eventually agreed should be au 'Autobiography,' 
 which he was to prepare and to print with the testimonial funds. 
 Despite of his advanced age, Mr. Britton has continued to labour at 
 his self-imposed task; but the 'Autobiography' has assumed so dis- 
 cursive a form, that though the parts alrealy issued are of considerable 
 bulk, the real life has advanced very little further than that which 
 appeared in an autobiographical sketch prefixed to vol. iii. of the 
 'Beauties of Wiltshire' in 1825. Mr. Britton is not a man of marked 
 originality or great mental power, but as a careful and diligent writer 
 in a branch of literature which had been cultivated chiefly by minuto 
 antiquarians, he did excellent service in calling the attention of the 
 educated public to the long-neglected topographical and architectural 
 antiquities of England ; and there can be little doubt that his elegantly- 
 illustrated works have been a chief exciting cause in bringing about 
 the improved state of public fueling with reference to our national 
 autiquities. The career of Mr. Biitton is moreover an admirable illus- 
 tration, as he himself describes it, " of what may be effected by zeal 
 and industry, with moderate talents, and without academic learning." 
 
 BRI'ZIO, FRANCESCO, a distinguished Bolognese paiuter, and one 
 of the beat of the scholars of the Carracci, was born at Bologua in 
 1574. He was a journeyman shoemaker until his twentieth year, 
 when by the permission of an uncle, he was allowed to learn painting 
 under Pawerotti, He however soon made sufficient progress to 
 perceive that the school of Ludovico Carracci was a surer road to 
 success than the instruction of Passerotti, whom he accordingly left. 
 In the school of the Carracci ho devoted himself to engraving as well 
 »» painting, and became a favourite both of Ludovico and Agostiuo. 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 Brizio did not, as is too often the case, restrict his studies in painting 
 to the human figure and its draperies, but he divided his labours 
 between the figure, perspective, architecture, and landscape. He 
 was superior in these accessory parts of painting to all his Bolognese 
 contemporaries, and says Lanzi, was, with the exception of Domeni- 
 chino, the most universal genius of the school of the Carracci. His 
 masterpiece is the 'Coronation of an image of the Virgin' in the church 
 of San Petronio. He died in 1623, aged forty-nine. His son Filippo 
 Brizio, and Domenico degli Ambrogi, called Menichino del Brizio, 
 were his principal scholars, and were both very able painters. 
 
 Gandellini describes many prints by Brizio after the Carracci, 
 Corregijio, and others; 31 are noticed by Bartsch in the 'Peintre- 
 Graveur.' They are executed in the style of Agostino Carracci, are 
 scarce, and are much prized by collectors. Brizio is better known for 
 his prints than his pictures. 
 
 (Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice ; Gandellini, Notizie Istoriche degli 
 Intagliatori, &c. ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, <hc.) 
 
 BKO'CCHI, GIOVA'NNI BATTISTA, was born at Bassano, in the 
 Venetian territory, in February 1772. He studied in the college of 
 his native town, and afterwards at the university of Padua, his father 
 intending him for the profession of the law; but young Brocchi's chief 
 attention was directed to botany and mineralogy, and when the time 
 came for his examination previous to his taking his doctor's degree, he 
 left Padua abruptly and went to Rome, where he became acquainted 
 with the learned Lanzi, with whose assistance he became well versed 
 in Roman and Greek archaeology. He paid particular attention to 
 the Egyptian antiquities at Rome, and wrote some dissertations on 
 Egyptian sculpture. Having returned to Bassano, he continued his 
 studies of the natural sciences, and in 1802 was appointed professor of 
 botany in the newly-established Lyceum of Brescia. He was made 
 secretary to the Athenaeum, or scientific academy of that city, and he 
 was the first editor of the memoirs of that institution. He also made 
 excursions in the valleys and rnouutains of the province of Brescia, 
 and having examined their geoio,Jy and their mineral productions, he 
 published ' Trattato Mineralogico sulle Miniere di Ferro del Diparti- 
 mento del Mella, con l'Esposizione della Costituzioue fisica delle 
 Montagne metallifere della Val Trompia,' 2 vols. 8vo, Brescia, 1807. 
 In 1808 he was made inspector of the mines of the kingdom of Italy, 
 and soon after he was chosen a member of the Italian Institute. The 
 results of his geological and mineralogical observations, made during 
 his frequent excursions in various parts of Italy, were published iu 
 various works: — 1. 'Memoria Mineralogica sulla Valle di Fassa nel 
 Tirolo,' Milano, 1811. The valley of Fassa, iu the Italian Tyrol, near 
 Brixeu, which is very rich in magnificent crystals, stalactites, &c, had 
 not been examined before by any of the explorers of the Alpine 
 regions. 2. ' Conchiologia fossile subapennina, con Osservazioni 
 Geologiche sugli Apennini e sul Suolo adjacente,' 2 vols. 4to, Milano, 
 1814. This, the principal work of Brocchi, is the result of his 
 repeated visits to the central and southern parts of Italy. It begins 
 with an interesting historical sketch of the progress of geological studios 
 in Italy, and of the persons who had cultivated the science previous to 
 the author's time. This is followed by a general view of the structure 
 of the Apennines, and a sketch of the physical constitution of the 
 lower hills lying between these mountains and the sea, their various 
 formations, and relative ages. It was to these subapennine hills and 
 the adjacent valleys and plains, which abound in organic remains, that 
 Brocchi's investigations were chiefly directed. He examined the 
 numerous varieties of shells found among them, and identified those 
 species which still exist in the seas of Italy, and which form nearly 
 one-half of the whole. It should however be noticed that the rocks 
 to which Brocchi assigned the name subapennine are not all precisely 
 of the same geological age, and that the amount of recent shells 
 detected in them has been since found to vary according to the 
 relative antiquity of the rock in which they occur, the newer, rocks 
 containing the larger proportion of these shells. The second volume 
 consists of a descriptive catalogue of the fossil shells, with the living 
 analogues where they are known to exist. The work is accompanied 
 with plates. 3. ' Catalogo ragionato di una racolta di rocce disposto 
 con ordine geografico per servire alia geognosia dell' Italia,' 8vo, 
 Milano, 1817. This work contains a catalogue of more than 1500 
 specimens of rocks collected by Brocchi in various parts of Italy, and 
 especially in the Campagna of Rome, the Terra di Lavoro and Puglia, 
 the Marches, Tuscany, and Modcna. It is preceded by a well-written 
 introduction on the geology and mineralogy of the different regions 
 of Italy. Several other minor works of Brocchi are printed in various 
 numbers of the ' Bibiioteca Italiana,' between the years 1S16-23. In 
 1820 Brocchi, after residing some time at Rome, published 'Dello 
 Stato fisico del suolo di Roma, Memoria per servire d'illustrazione alia 
 carta geognostica di questa Citta.' The work is divided into two 
 parts : he treats first of the ancient condition and appearance of the 
 surface of the ground on which Rome, both ancient and modern, now 
 stands; and, secondly, of the character of the soil, of the various rocks 
 and strata of the hills and of the valleys between them and the Tiber. 
 The map which accompanies the work gives a very correct idea of the 
 physical topography of Rome. Brocchi's observations are accurate and 
 valuable; but some of his inferences and hypotheses have met with 
 much opposition, especially those in the latter part of the work, which 
 consists of a ' Discourse on the Condition of the Air of Rome in 
 
 3 O 
 
B91 
 
 BROCKLESBY, RICHARD. 
 
 BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN, BART. 
 
 832 
 
 Ancient Times.' He argues that the air in ancient times must have 
 been more unwholesome than it is at present, although he admits that 
 the country was much more populous and the people more healthy ; 
 he accounts for this apparent discrepancy by their dress and their 
 manner of living. 
 
 In 1823 Brocchi sailed from Trieste for Egypt, a country which he 
 had long wished to examine, especially with regard to its mineralogy. 
 He fouud favour with Mehemet Ali, who sent him on several missions, 
 supplying him with firmauns, money, and an escort. He went first to 
 direct the working of a coal-mine, and afterwards to look for the 
 emerald-mines of Mount Zabarah, which Cailliaud and Belzoni had 
 visited some years before. Brocchi however found only some loose 
 pieces without their matrix, but seems to have considered any attempt 
 at working the mines as useless labour. In 1825 Mehemet Ali sent 
 Brocchi into the newly-conquered kingdom of Senuaar, as one of a 
 commission appointed to organise that country and make its resources 
 available. In this expedition Brocchi fell a victim to the unhealthiness 
 of the climate. He wrote to his friends in Italy in April 1826, that he 
 was busy in prosecuting his scientific' researches and in promoting the 
 improvement of the natives; that he enjoyed good health, notwith- 
 standing the heat was at 105°. He was taken ill however in the 
 Bummer, and died at Cartum in September of that year. His friend 
 Acerbi, Austrian consul general at Alexandria, recovered his papers 
 and collections, and forwarded them, according to his will, to his 
 native town, Bassano. His rich collection of Italian minerals and 
 fossils he had given to his friend Parolini, of Bassano, before he set 
 out for Egypt. Brocchi did more for the geology of Italy than any of 
 his predecessors. 
 
 (Sacehi, VarielA leltcrarie, Necrologia di 0. B. Brocchi.) 
 
 BROCKLESBY, RICHARD, the only son of Richard Brockles- 
 by, Esq., of Cork, was born at Minehead, in Somersetshire, on the 11th 
 of August 1722. After receiving the rudiments of education in his 
 father's house at Cork, he was sent to Ballyt.ore school, in the north 
 of Ireland, where he formed an acquaintance with Edmund Burke, 
 which ripened into the most cordial friendship when they again met 
 in Londou. He afterwards studied at Edinburgh, and then at Leydeu, 
 where he took the degree of Doctor of Physic under the celebrated 
 Gaubius, in June 1745, his inaugural thesis being a dissertation ' De 
 saliva sana et morbosa,' 4to, Lugd. Bat., 1745. In 1746 he came to 
 London, and settled in Broad-street; and the same year he published 
 an 1 Essay concerning the Mortality of the Horned Cattle,' 8vo, which 
 contributed to found his reputation. In 1751 he was admitted a 
 licentiate of the College of Physicians; in 1754 he obtained the honorary 
 degree of M.D. from the University of Dublin, and being admitted ' ad 
 eundem' at Cambridge, he was enabled to become a candidate, and in 
 1756, a Fellow, of the London College of Physicians. In 1758 he was 
 appointed physician to the army, and served in Germany during great 
 part of the Seven years' war, where he was distinguished by his zeal, 
 knowledge, and humanity ; and particularly recommended himself to 
 the notice of the Duke of Richmond, Lord Pembroke, and others. In 
 1760 he was appoiuted physician to the hospitals for the British forces, 
 and returned to England before the peace of 1763. He now quickly 
 obtained a large and increasing practice ; and to this source of income 
 were likewise added his half-pay, and his paternal estate of 600<. per 
 annum. Being unmarried he was enabled to live in a very handsome 
 Btyle, and often entertained at his table some of the persons most 
 distinguished for rank, abilities, or learning, in the kingdom. It is 
 related to his honour that he made muniticeut use of his wealth, 
 spending largely but judiciously in private and public charity, and 
 assisting with a ready hand the deserving who stood in need of such 
 assistance. 
 
 In 1763 Dr. Brocklesby was called in to attend Wilkes, who was 
 suffering from a wound in the abdomen received in his duel with Mr. 
 Martin ; and it is thought that Wilkes's rapid recovery gave a great 
 impulse to his physician's rising reputation. Dr. Brocklesby preserved 
 in politics the same moderation which was his general characteristic ; 
 for though he was a member of the Constitutional club, and a warm 
 advocate of Wilkes on the points of ' general warrants, and the Middle- 
 sex election,' he quitted the club as soon as it deviated into other 
 doctrines, under other leaders. In spite of the placidity of his tempera- 
 ment, he was however ouce a principal in a duel, his antagonist being 
 Dr., afterwards Sir John Elliott; but the seconds took care to place 
 the combatants at such a distance from each other that their balls, 
 even if they should hit, could not do much mischief. 
 
 In 1794 Dr. Brocklesby found the infirmities of age increase so fast 
 upon him that he declined visiting patients, except among his most 
 intimate acquaintance, and at the same time gave up his half-pay. 
 
 Dr. Brocklesby died on the 11th of December, 1797, in his seventy- 
 sixth year, having returned that day from a visit to the widow of 
 Edmund Burke, at Beaconsfield. With the exception of a few legacies, 
 he left his fortune, which is said to have exceeded 30,00(M., between 
 his two nephews, Mr. Beeby and Dr. Thomas Young. 
 
 Dr. Brocklesby was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and wrote two 
 papers in their 'Transactions:' — 'An Account of the Poisonous Root 
 lately found mixed with Gentian' (No. 486); and 'Experiments on 
 Cutting the Tendons in various Animals ' (vol. xliii.). Besides these, the 
 Dissertations before mentioned, and two or three papers in vols. iii. and 
 v. of ' Medical Observations,' he was the author of the following : — 
 
 'Eulogium Medicum, sive Oratio Anniversaria Harveiana,' &c, 4to, 
 1760; 'QSconomical and Medical Observations from 1758 to 1763 inclu- 
 sive, tending to the Improvement of Medical Hospitals,' 8vo, 1764. 
 
 BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN, born in the year 1787, one of 
 the most distinguished popular naturalists of our time. He has 
 an especial claim to a notice here, as one of the most valued contribu- 
 tors to the ' Penuy Cyclopaedia.' His articles in our ' English Cyclo- 
 paedia' form the largest amount of the zoological department. Mr. 
 Broderip was born at Bristol, the son of an eminent medical prac- 
 titioner of that city, and received his early education in the classical 
 school of the Rev. Samuel Seyer. He subsequently went to Oriel 
 College, Oxford, where he took his degree. His destined profession 
 was the law ; and in the chambers of Mr. Godfrey Sykes he was a 
 fellow-pupil with two distinguished lawyers who subsequently rose to 
 the bench — Sir John Patterson and Mr. Justice Coleridge. Mr. 
 Broderip was called to the bar in 1817; and after having edited a 
 legal work on ' Sewers,' and assisted in the publication of three 
 volumes of Law Reports, was appointed by Sir Robert Peel a police 
 magistrate of the metropolis. In this position, of which be discharged 
 the responsible duties with eminent industry and uprightness for 
 thirty-four years, Mr. Broderip devoted his leisure to scientific and 
 literary pursuits. During this long period of official labour, in which 
 his more agreeable studies never interfered with his devotion to the 
 real business of his life, Mr. Broderip was steadily advancing in repu- 
 tation as a learned naturalist, and. a most agreeable writer. His 
 articles in the ' Cyclopaedia 1 are models of scientific exactness and 
 popular attraction ; and whilst they have instructed and delighted 
 thousands of readers, have won the suffrages of the most fastidious, 
 even amongst those who are slow to believe that the solid and the 
 amusing have no necessary antagonism. Mr. Broderip was elected a 
 Fellow of the Linnaean Society in 1824, of the Geological Society in 
 1825, and of the Royal Society in 1828. He was one of the origi- 
 nators of the Zoological Society, of which he is now Vice-President ; and 
 he was Vice-President of the Geological Society in 1830, 1831, 1833, 
 and 1834, and also Honorary Secretary for four years, with Sir Roger 
 Murchison as his colleague. 
 
 In addition to his articles in the ' Cyclopaedia,' which extended 
 through the entire work, Mr. Broderip is the author of many most 
 agreeable papers in the ' Quarterly Review,' on subjects of natural 
 history. He has been a constant contributor to the ' Transactions ' of 
 various learned societies ; and his amusing papers in periodical workB 
 have not been confined to scientific subjects. He has published two 
 separate works of great merit — 'Zoological Recreations' in 1847, and 
 4 Leaves from the Note-Book of a Naturalist ' in 1852. Mr. Broderip 
 made a magnificent collection of shells, which has been purchased 
 for the British Museum. From these and from other subjects of his 
 valuable museum, many of the woodcuts of the 'English Cyclopaedia' 
 have been drawn. He has been a liberal purchaser of works of art, 
 and a generous contributor from his stores to any useful undertaking. 
 He is one of the executors of the will of Robert Vernon, the spirited 
 founder of that valuable collection of modern English pictures, ' The 
 Vernon Gallery.' Mr. Broderip's retirement from the magistracy has 
 been thus noticed by ' The Examiner,' always foremost in its appre- 
 ciation of eminent merit : — " Exemplary in the discharge of his duties, 
 Mr. Broderip, in his retirement from them, sets a not less admirable 
 example. A difficulty of hearing had lately increased upon him ; and, 
 mindful that an innocent man's fate may hang on a word his judge 
 does not catch, he retires from an office he can no longer fill with a 
 perfect efficiency." The same competent authority says, " We cannot 
 recollect a single instance of any question raised upon hia conduct or 
 his decisions." [Sre Supplement.] 
 
 BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, BART, born June 9, 1783, 
 at Winterslow, Wiltshire, of which place his father was rector. His 
 mother was the daughter of Benjamin Collins, Esq., of Milford, near 
 Salisbury. He received his professional education at Mr. Wilson's 
 anatomical school in Great Windmill-street, London, and at St. George's 
 Hospital, where he was pupil of Sir Everard Home. He afterwards 
 lectured on anatomy jointly with Mr. Wilson; gave lectures on surgery; 
 was elected assistant-surgeon to St. George's Hospital in 1808, and 
 subsequently surgeon. In 1809 he contributed to the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions,' an ' Account of the dissection of a Human foetus, in 
 which the Circulation of the Blood was carried on without a Heart.' 
 In the following year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and 
 in 1811 received their Copley medal for his physiological papers. The 
 subjects of these, published in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' are 
 ' On some Physiological Researches respecting the Influence of the 
 Brain on the Action of the Heart, and on the generation of animal 
 Heat,' 1811; ' Experiments and Observations on the different modes 
 in which death is produced by certain Vegetable Poisons,' 1811, on 
 which he made further communications in the two following years. 
 These papers were republished in a separate form, with notes, in 1851. 
 In 1814 appeared ' Experiments and Observations on the Influence of 
 the Nerves of the Eighth pair on the Secretions of the Stomach.' 
 
 Mr. Brodie was appointed serjeant-surgeon to the Queen in 1832; 
 was created a Baronet in 1834 ; and in 1850 the University of Oxford 
 conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. He is a corresponding member 
 of the Institute of France, and a foreign member of other learned 
 societies and academies in Europe and America. He has one son, who 
 
933 
 
 BROME, ALEXANDER. 
 
 BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE. 
 
 is also F.R.S., and now professor of chemistry in the University of 
 Oxford. 
 
 Some of Sir B. C. Brodie's professional papers are published in the 
 ' Transactions of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society.' His 
 other works are ' On Local Nervous Affections ;' ' On Various Subjects 
 in Pathology and Surgery;' 'Pathological and Surgical Observations 
 on Diseases of the Joints,' 8vo, 1818 (5th edition, 1850); ' Lectures on 
 the Diseases of the Urinary Organs,' 8vo, 1832 (4th edition, 1849); 
 'Physiological Researches,' 1851 ; 'Psychological Inquiries,' 1854 (3rd 
 edition, 1856). [See Scpplement.] 
 
 BROME, ALEXANDER, born in 1620, became an attorney in 
 London. He was attached to the royalist party throughout the civil 
 wars, and, while his bacchanalian poems were popular among the 
 cavaliers, he rendered them more direct service by his satirical attacks 
 on their enemies. He was the reputed author of most of the songs 
 and epigrams in which the Rump Parliament was held up to ridicule. 
 A collected edition of his poems, original and translated, was published 
 in 1661. Several of hia smaller pieces, lively and playful, though not 
 very vigorous or original, are given by Campbell in his ' Specimens.' 
 Among his compositions were contributions to a translation of Horace, 
 by Cowley, Fanshaw, and others. He left also a comedy, ' The Cun- 
 ning Lovers,' printed in 1654. He died in 1666. The first collected 
 volume of Richard Brome's plays was edited by him. 
 
 BROME, RICHARD, originally a servant of Ben Jonson, gained a 
 well-merited reputation as a comic dramatist. Of his life hardly any 
 particulars are known, and it is only by inference that he is set down 
 as having died in 1652. His extant comedies are fifteen. The earliest 
 of these, ' The Northern Lass,' was printed in 1632. Five others 
 appeared in one volume in 1653, and five more in a second volume 
 published in 1659. His 'Jovial Crew, or the Merry Beggars,' has a 
 place in the tenth volume of Dodsley's ' Old Plays.' Both it and 
 Beveral of the others are good specimens of dramatic composition in 
 the school of Brome's old master. They possess, in particular, great 
 force in the representation of character. Altogether he may fairly 
 be ranked among the best of our old dramatists of the second 
 class. 
 
 BROMLEY, WILLIAM, a distinguished line-engraver, born at 
 Carisbrooke in the Isle of Wight in 1769. He served his time with 
 an engraver of the name of Wooding, and in London soon attracted 
 the notice of several eminent painters by his works. He was very 
 much esteemed by Stothard, Flaxman, Fuseli, and Sir Thomas Law- 
 rence. The most popular of his early works are the prints to ' Macklin's 
 Bible,' and a ' History of England ' after Stothard. He engraved 
 several portraits after Sir T. Lawrence, including two of the ' Duke of 
 Wellington,' one on horseback, and ' Young Napoleon.' He engraved 
 also the 1 Woman taken in Adultery,' after Rubens. He was latterly 
 almost exclusively engaged by the Trustees of the British Museum, 
 especially in engraving the Elgin marbles from drawings made by the 
 late H. Corbould. Bromley survived his son John Bromley, likewise 
 an eminent engraver, three years ; he died in London in 1842, having 
 been for many years an associate engraver of the Royal Academy of 
 London, and a member of the Academy of St. Luke at Rome. 
 
 John Bromley was born in Chelsea in 1795. He followed his 
 father's profession, but he chose a different branch of it; his works 
 are in mezzotiuto, in which line he has had few superiors. He died 
 in 1839, aged only 44. Among his principal works are the following : — 
 ' The Trial of Lord William Russell,' after Sir G. Hayter; ' Lady Jane 
 Grey refusing the Crown,' after G. R. Leslie, R. A. ; the ' Monks preaching 
 at Seville,' after J. Lewis ; the ' Duke of Athol hunting in Glen Tilt,' 
 after E. Land seer, R A. ; the ' Trial of Queen Caroline,' after Sir G. 
 Hayter; and the 'Reform Banquet,' after B. R. Haydon. 
 
 {Art-Union Journal, June, 1839 ; December, 1842.) 
 
 BRONDSTED PETER OLUF, a distinguished Danish archteologist, 
 was born on the 17th of November 1781, at Horsens in Jutland, where 
 his father was pastor. He afterwards studied at Copenhagen, and in 
 1806 he accompanied his friend Koes to Paris. After a stay of two 
 years in that capital, both friends went to Italy. In 1810 a party 
 consisting of Brondsted himself, Koes, the architect Haller von Haller- 
 stein, Linckh, and Baron Stackelberg, undertook a journey to Greece, 
 where Brbndsted and Stackelberg in particular made very extensive 
 excavations, by which great light was thrown upon various subjects of 
 antiquity. In 1813 Brondsted, on his return to Copenhagen, was 
 appointed professor of Greek literature in the university of that city. 
 He mainly occupied himself with preparing the results of his investi- 
 gations in Greece for publication, but as he found that the literary 
 resources of Denmark would not enable him to carry out his plan as 
 he wished, the Danish government was prevailed upon to appoint him 
 agent at the papal court of Rome, which post he entered upon in 1818. 
 After having settled at Rome, he visited in 1820 and 1821 the Ionian 
 Islands and Sicily ; and when the artistic portion of his work was 
 completed, he obtained leave to visit Paris to begin the printing of the 
 work itself. From Paris he made a journey in 1826 to England, and 
 the year after to Denmark, where he was honoured with the title of 
 Counsellor of Legation. In 1832, on his return to Copenhagen, he 
 was appointed Director of the Royal Museum of Antiquities, and 
 ordinary professor of philology and archxology. In 1842 he was rector 
 of the university, but in consequence of a fall from his horse he died 
 in the same year, on the 26th of June. 
 
 The principal works of Brondsted are his ' Travels and Investigations 
 in Greece, with Representations and Explanations of newly-discovered 
 Monuments,' which were published simultaneously in German and 
 French, Paris, 1826-30, two parts, 4to. After the publication of this 
 work he was severely attacked in the journal called ' Hermes ' (vol. xxxii.), 
 for having made too free use of Villoison's manuscripts in the royal 
 library at Paris, especially with respect to the island of Ceos. Brondsted 
 defended himself in a pamphlet entitled ' Ueber den Aufsatz im Hermes : 
 ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Pasquille,' Paris, 1830; another de- 
 fence had been published the year before by his friend Hage, under 
 the title ' Brondsted und Villoison,' Copenhagen. Among Brondsted' s 
 numerous antiquarian dissertations, the two principal were published 
 in English, ' A Brief Description of Thirty-two painted Greek Vases 
 found near Vulci,' London, 1832, and ' The Bronzes of Siris,' London, 
 1836, fol., published at the expense of the Society of Dilettanti A 
 translation in German of this work, with some additions, &c, by the 
 author, appeared at Copenhagen in the following year, 4 to, 1837. Two 
 other works of his may be mentioned as of considerable value to the 
 historian, first, ' Beitriige zur Diinischen Geschichte aus Nordfranzo- 
 sischen Manuscripten des Mittelalters,' Copenhagen, 1817-18, two parts; 
 and secondly, ' Denkwiirdigkeiten aus Griechenland in den Jahren 
 1827 und 1828, besonders in Militiirischer Beziehung,' Paris, 1833. 
 This last however was only edited by Brondsted, the substance being 
 taken from the posthumous papers of Major Frederic M tiller of Altdorf, 
 who had served in the Greek war. 
 
 Besides the above publications, most of them pointing to the 
 illustration of ancient Greek art, and highly characteristic of the 
 warm devotion of Brondsted to that subject, he had been long 
 occupied on the elaborate essays on the composition and details of the 
 sculptures on the pediments of the Parthenon of Athens ; in aid of 
 which he had caused engravings to be executed of each of the entire 
 groups, and of the separate figures — the former became a few years 
 ago the property of the Society of Dilettanti. The essays, although 
 never completed for the press, were liberally communicated by the 
 author to others, and they have formed the basis of some of the more 
 recent lectures and publications on the subject. 
 
 Brondsted was also the author of a paper, printed at Naples in 1840 
 in the Italian language, on the bronze helmet discovered in 1817 near 
 Olympia, bearing the inscription of Hiero, son of Dinomenes ; and a 
 memoir on the Panathenaic Vases, published by the Royal Society of 
 Literature, London, 1833. 
 
 BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE, an eminent chemist and mineralo- 
 gist, son of the architect of the Invalides, was born at Paris in 
 1770. He received a good education, promoted by his father's care, 
 and the friendship of Lavoisier and Franklin ; and it is said, delivered 
 a lecture on chemistry before he was fifteen. He pursued his 
 earliest scientific studies at the Ecole des Mines, and at the Ecole 
 de Medecine. At the age of nineteen he assisted in establishing the 
 Socie^ Philomatique, and in 1790 he visited England for a scientific 
 examination of the mines and mining processes and pottery works of 
 Derbyshire. One of the results showed itself on his return to France 
 by his publication of a ' Me"moire sur l'art de l'dmailleur,' in which 
 improvements were suggested. He then became assistant for a time 
 to his uncle, who was chemical demonstrator at the Jardin des 
 Plantes. 
 
 By the requisition for military service which called every Frenchman 
 to the frontier, Brongniart was attached as apothecary to the army of 
 the Pyrenees, and for fifteen months he enjoyed opportunities, which 
 he turned to good account, of studying the botany, zoology, and 
 geology of the mountains. Having however been suspected of favour- 
 ing the escape of the naturalist, Broussonnet, he was imprisoned ; but 
 the ninth Thermidor restored him to liberty. He returned to Paris, 
 and was employed as engineer under the Agency of mines. Next he 
 was chosen professor of natural history at the Ecole centrale des 
 Quatre Nations; and in 1800 he was appointed director of the porce- 
 lain manufactory at Sevres, which office he held for the rest of his 
 life. He owed it to his paper on enamelling, which having»been read 
 by Berthollet, procured him the recommendation of that distinguished 
 chemist. 
 
 In 1807, at the instance of the Imperial University, Brongniart 
 published his ' Traite" dle'mentaire de Mine'ralogie,' which is described 
 as "one of the best, and, in particular, one of the clearest and most 
 practical" then known. It became a text-book for lecturers; audit 
 exhibits the originality and lucidity which had been remarked in the 
 author in his early years. Pursuing his zoological researches, he 
 studied the freshwater formations of Auvergne, and re-visited England 
 to study the corresponding formations of this country. It was he who 
 established the four divisions of reptiles, and first gave the names 
 Saurians, Batrachians, C helonians, and Ophidians, by which they are 
 now familiarly known. To him naturalists owe the name Trilobite, 
 and a basis of classification for those singular Crustacea. It has been 
 the starting-point for all subsequent works on the subject. 
 
 Brongniart's studies rendered him the congenial associate of Cuvier; 
 he helped to classify the Montmartre fossils, and in 1810 appeared the 
 joint publication "Essai sur la Gdographie ruineralogique des Environs 
 de Paris.' It was reprinted in the following year, with important 
 additions, and has ever since been recognised as the classical type of 
 similar works. It confirmed Brongniart's reputation, and in 1815 he 
 
085 
 
 BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THEODORE. 
 
 BROOKE, HENRY. 
 
 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute, 
 and a foreign member of the Royal Society of Loudon. 
 
 In 1817, accompanied by his son and one of his pupils, he made a 
 scientific tour to Switzerland and Italy, during which, by his dis- 
 coveries and generalisations, he strengthened his claim to be con- 
 sidered as " the legislator in fossil zoology." All the new results 
 obtained were included in a third edition of the ' Essai,' published in 
 1822. In 1824 he travelled to Sweden, and with Berzelius for his 
 companion and interpreter, laid down the first foundations of a clas- 
 sification of the most ancient fossiliferous formations, and gathered 
 materials for a memoir on erratic blocks. He afterwards put forth his 
 clear and ingenious views on volcanos, particularly of Vesuvius, aud 
 an original memoir on the ' Ophiolithes of the Apennines.' 
 
 With all this activity Brongniart did not neglect his duties as 
 director of the national manufactory of porcelain: his journeys and 
 labours to acquaint himself with the best processes and materials 
 would alone have sufficed to occupy any ordinary man. The results 
 of his long experience appeared in 1845 in his ' Traitd des Arts 
 cdramiques.' And carrying out his earliest researches on enamelling, 
 he revived at Sevres the almost lost art of painting on glass. He 
 found time moreover for a diligent share in the affairs of the Insti- 
 tute, and in promoting the interests of science, and the views of 
 scientific inquirers. He died on the 14th of October 1847. 
 
 Brongniart was a foreign member of the Geological Society of Lon- 
 don, and of other learned societies. His writings are to be found in 
 the 'Mdmoires de l'Acaddmie des Sciences,' 'Annales des Miues,' 
 1 Annales de Chemie,' and ' Annales des Sciences Naturelles.' Many 
 have been published in a separate form. Among them 'Essai d'une 
 Classification des Reptiles,' 1805; 'Essai sur une Ddt-rmination et 
 une Classification mindralogique des Roches mdlangdes,' 1813 ; 'Md- 
 moire sur les Corps organisds fossiles nommds Trilobites,' 1814 ; 
 ' Histoire Naturelle des Crustacds fossiles sous les Rapports zoolo- 
 giques et gdologiques,' 4to, 1822 (jointly with Desmare3t) ; ' Intro- 
 duction a la Mindralogie,' 8vo, 1825 ; 'Tableau des Terrains qui 
 compose l'dcorce du Globe,' 8vo, 1829; 'Premier Mdmoire sur les 
 Kaolins, ou Argiles a porcelaine,' 4 to, 1839; 'Second Mdmoire sur la 
 Nature et l'origine de cette sorte dArgile,' 4to, 1841. 
 
 (L'Jnstitut. ; Biog. Univ. ; Proc. Royal Soc. ; Journal Qcol. Soc.) 
 
 * BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THEODORE, son of the preceding, 
 worthily maintains the scientific reputation of the family name. He 
 was born in 1801 ; became professor of botany at the Jardin des 
 Plantes, .and member of the Academy of Sciences in 1834 ; and in 
 1852 was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society of London. 
 His writings are held in deserved esteem. Among them are ' Con- 
 eiildratious gdndrales sur la Nature de la Vdgdtation qui couvrait la 
 Surface de la Terre aux diverses pdriodes de la Formation de son 
 Ecorce,' 8vo, 1828; 'Prodrome d'une Histoire des Vdgdtaux fossiles,' 
 8vo, 1828 ; ' Histoire des Vdgdtaux fossiles, ou Recherches botauiques 
 et gdologiques sur les Vdgdtaux renfermds dans les diverses Couches 
 du Globe,' 4to, 1828; 'Mdmoire sur la Gendration et le Ddvelopp- 
 ment de l'Embryon dans les Vdgdtaux phandrogames,' 8vo, 1827, 
 Atlas, fol. ; ' Nouvelles Recherches sur le Pollen et les Granules sper- 
 matiques des Vdgetaux,' 8vo, 1828; 'Observations sur la Structure 
 interieure du Sigillaria dldgans,' 4to. The section ' Phandrogamie, &e.' 
 in Duperrey's 'Voyage de la Coquille,' and papers in the 'Memoires 
 de l'Acaddmie,' ' Annales des Sciences Naturelles,' and other publi- 
 cations. 
 
 BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (Mrs. Nicholls, better known by her 
 pseudonym Currer Bell), born April 21, 1816, was the daughter of 
 the Rev. Patrick Bronte, curate of Haworth, in Yorkshire. The 
 novel entitled ' Jane Eyre, by Currer Bell,' published in 1847, was 
 the first production of Miss Brontd's pen which caught public 
 attention, but it was not her first venture in authorship. Her first 
 essay was in a little volume of 'Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton 
 Bell,' published in 1846. The poems passed almost unnoticed, but 
 the success of the novel was immediate and extraordinary; and 
 curiosity was for some time exercised not only as to its paternity, 
 but as to the sex of its author ; many separate passages and traits 
 bearing manifestly the traces of a woman's mind, yet the general cast 
 of thought, it was urged on many sides, was as evidently unfeminine. 
 The appearance almost simultaneously of other stories, marked by 
 the same peculiarities of thought and general style, with the names of 
 Acton Bell and Ellis Bell as their authors, served to stimulate still 
 further the public curiosity, and when it was confidently announced 
 that Currer Bell was the daughter of a curate in a remote part of 
 Yorkshire, and that Acton and Ellis Bell were her sisters, there was 
 a general feeling of surprise almost amounting to incredulity. In 
 truth, 'Jane Eyre ' is a remarkable work, and as the production of the 
 daughter of a country clergyman, it would be still more remarkable 
 if it were as necessary as sometimes seems to be supposed, to have a 
 wide acquaintance with society to obtain intimate knowledge of the 
 human heart, and to portray diversities of character. 'Jane Eyre' 
 was followed in 1849 by 'Shirley,' and that in 1853, by ' Villette,' 
 both marked by the same vigour of intellect, and keen, in faet 
 morbidly keen dissection of character and motives, though with less 
 of that somewhat wayward originality which had in her first work 
 called forth so much adverse criticism, but at the same time had excited 
 euch intense interest. 
 
 What is unpleasant, painful, morbid in these powerful novels may, 
 there can be little doubt, be set down to the action of disease upon an 
 overwrought aud intensely susceptible mind. Young as she was at 
 her death, she was the last survivor of the three gifted sisters, and in 
 fact of all her father's children. Anne Brontd (Acton Bell), the 
 author of 'Agnes Grey,' died December 19, 1848. Emily Brontd (Ellis 
 Bell), the author of ' Wuthering Heights,' and next to Charlotte the 
 most gifted of the sisters, died May 28, 1849. Miss Brontd married 
 in June, 1851, the Rev. Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father's curate; but 
 pulmonary disease, the same insidious malady which had carried off 
 her sisters, had already marked her as its victim. She died at the 
 parsonage, Haworth, on the 31st of March, 1855; and was laid beside 
 her sisters in the quiet churchyard there — a spot which will for their 
 sakes attract the foot of many a stranger. 
 
 BRONZl'NO, A'NGELO, a celebrated Italian historical and 
 portrait painter, was born at Montecelli, near Florence, in 1502. He 
 was the scholar of Pontormo, and the friend and contemporary of 
 Vasari, aud like him an enthusiastic admirer of Michel Angelo. Though 
 Bronzino was not himself one of the gross anatomical mannerists with 
 which Florence abounded in the latter part of his own life, he was 
 one of the most influential causes of the predominance of the ana- 
 tomical school ; for by his unbounded admiration of Michel Angelo, he 
 set an example to the younger artists less able to discriminate the 
 good from the bad in Michel Angelo'a style, and they of course 
 appropriated what was most obvious to their senses and most easy of 
 acquirement. Alessaudro Allori, the nephew and favourite pupil of 
 Bronzino, was one of the most uncompromising leaders of this school. 
 
 Bronzino painted in fresco and in oil; and executed many altar- 
 pieces and smaller easel pictures, which are scattered over various 
 parts of Europe, but his reputed masterpiece is still iu the Imperial 
 Gallery at Florence, and represents the " Descent of Christ into Hell," 
 or Limbo ; it has been engraved by J. B. CechL He was also a poet : 
 he died in 1572. Allessandro Allori and his son Christofano Allori 
 frequently adopted the Biirn.irne of Bronzh o. In the National Gallery 
 are three pictures by Angelo Bronzino — an Allegory (No. 651); a 
 Knight of St. Stephen (670), and a portrait of Cosmo I. 
 
 BROOKE, HENRY, is one of the occasionally recurring instances 
 of men of letters who having, from accidental circumstances, enjoyed 
 during life a reputation beyond their merits, afterwards sink iuto an 
 oblivion so complete, that it might be sai 1 to be almost equally 
 undeserved, were not mediocrity in belles-lettres, especially in poetry, 
 almost the same as worthlessness. Henry Brooke published his first 
 poem, ' Universal Beauty,' with the approbation and sanction, and 
 even with the direct encouragement aud under the patronage of 
 Pope ; he was received by him aud Swift, if not as a literary compeer, 
 yet as decidedly one of their class ; and his tragedy of ' The Earl of 
 Essex ' long ranked, we believe, among what are called stock plays. 
 Yet now the author is all but forgotten; he was not allowed a place 
 in the list of Johnson's poets; and his 'Universal Beauty,' which 
 though deformed by awkwardness and even iucorrectness of language, 
 admitted for the sake of metre and rhyme, displays considerable 
 imagination and descriptive power, is now, and for years has been, so 
 absolutely unknown, that later poets have borrowed ideas from it 
 without fear of detection. 
 
 Henry Brooke, born in 1706, was the son of an Irish clergyman. 
 At Trinity College, Dublin, he was a pupil of Dr. Sheridan, through 
 whom, upon going to London to study the law, he was first intro- 
 duced to Pope and Swift, when his own promising talents seem to 
 have gained him their favour. After the publication of his principal 
 poem he was presented to Frederic Prince of Wales, and received by 
 him as one of the band of men of letters whom that prince considered 
 as powerful agents in his hostility to his father's administration. In 
 this character Brooke is accused of having written his tragedy of 
 ' Gustavus Vasa,' not merely with a view of exciting and fostering a 
 spirit of liberty, but in order to vituperate the premier, Sir Robert 
 Walpole, under the name of the tyrannical minister Trollio. This 
 suspicion has since been indignantly repelled by Brooke's admirers ; 
 but it was so universally entertained at the time, that the stage 
 licencer prohibited the representation of the piece, and the author, in 
 consequence, is said to have made lOOOi. by its publication and sale— 
 a sum much greater than he could have hoped from its utmost success 
 upon the stage. 
 
 Ill-health and the persuasions of his wife, who dreaded and sought 
 to withdraw him from his political connections, induced Brooke to 
 return to Ireland, where he spent the remaiuder of his life, and 
 obtained from Lord Chesterfield (when viceroy) the post of barrack- 
 master, which he held till his death. But pecuniary difficulties, 
 together with the loss of his wife, after a happy marriage of fifty 
 years, and of several of his children, so preyed upon his mind, already 
 weakened perhaps by age, as to impair his intellect ; and, unfortunately 
 for his fame, he continued to write and to publish after the decay of 
 his faculties. He died Oct. 10, 1783. He wrote in all 13 tragedies, 
 of which only ' Gustavus Vasa' and 'The Earl of Essex' could boast 
 any success, many small poems, and part of a translation of Tasso s 
 ' Gerusalemme Liberata.' His novel of the ' Fool of Quality ' was 
 much admired in its day; and his 'Farmer's Letters,' addressed to 
 his Irish countrymen, are said to have had considerable influence in 
 maintaining the tranquillity of Ireland during'the rebellion of 1745. 
 
937 
 
 BROOKE, SIR JAMES. 
 
 BROTHERS, RICHARD. 
 
 638 
 
 •BROOKE, SIR JAMES, Rajah of Sarawak, was born in 1803, at 
 Bandel in Zillah Hooghly, Bengal. His father had been in the civil 
 service of the East India Company in Bengal, and having returned to 
 England, resided at Bath. He obtained a cadetship for his son, and 
 Bent him out to India. Soon after his arrival there he was despatched 
 to the army, then engaged in the Birmese war. He received a severe 
 wound at Rungpoor, in consequence of which he was obliged to return 
 to England on furlough. When convalescent he made a tour on the 
 continent, and afterwards returned to India; but, owing to the vessel 
 in which he first embarked having been shipwrecked on the coast of 
 the Isle of Wight, and the delay arising from his having to procure 
 another passage, the term of his leave of absence had expired before 
 he joined the army. His appointments were thus forfeited, and 
 certain formalities were necessary to reinstate him, rather than under- 
 go which he chose to quit the service of the East India Company. In 
 1830 he embarked on a voyage to China, and while sailing among the 
 islands of the Indian archipelago seems to have first conceived the 
 project of an expedition to those seas. After his return to England, 
 his father having died and left him a considerable property, he pur- 
 chased a yacht called the 'Royalist,' of 140 tons burden, which, being 
 attached to the Royal Yacht Squadron, was entitled in foreign seas to 
 the same privileges aa a ship of war. 
 
 For about three years Mr. Brooke tested his vessel and practised his 
 crew in the seas of Europe, especially the Mediterranean; he then 
 departed for the eastern seas, leaving the river Thames October 27, 
 1838, in the ' Royalist,' which was then provided with four boats, was 
 armed with six 6-pouuders, besides swivels and small arms, and had a 
 crew of twenty men. After some delay at Singapore and elsewhere, 
 he proceeded to Sarawak, a province of Borneo, on the north-western 
 coast, tor the ostensible purpose of taking in a cargo of antimony-ore, 
 of which there are several mines in the island. Muda Hassim, maternal 
 uncle of Omar Ali, the sultan of Borneo, was then engaged in a war 
 with some of the native tribes, the Dyaks, subjects of the Sultan of 
 Borne j, who were in a state of insurrection in the vicinity of Sarawak. 
 Mr. Brooke's crew had received an addition of some Javanese seamen, 
 and he undertook to lend the aid of himself and -his men to the 
 troops of Muda Hassim. A battle was fought : European fire-arms 
 and skill prevailed, and the insurgents surrendered. For this suc- 
 cessful result, and for other services given or promised, Muda Hassim 
 conferred on Mr. Brooke the title of Kajah and Governor of Sarawak, 
 which, after some show of reluctance and considerable delay, was 
 confirmed by the eultan, September 21, 1841 — the previous governor, 
 whose name was Macota, having been compelled to resign. 
 
 Rajah Brooke forthwith set about the reform of his government, the 
 formation of a code of laws, and the amelioration of the condition of 
 his people ; and also obtained the co-operatiou of Captain Keppel, Sir 
 Thomas Cochrane, and other commanders of British ships of war, in 
 certain expeditions for the extirpation of piracy. The results of these 
 expeditions were the destruction of a large number of persons said to 
 be pirates, and the payment by the Britis!) government of a large sum 
 of money, more than 20,000^., as 'head-money,' to those who were 
 engaged in the affairs. Also, on the charge of having murdered some 
 of his relations, and perhaps other charges, the capital city of the 
 sultan, called Brund, was bombarded and stormed, and his army and 
 himself put to flight. One of the commanders engaged thus speaks 
 of the victory : — " The sultan, his boasted army, and all the inhabit- 
 ants bad fled ; and as the full moon rose, she threw her rays over a 
 city which, having flourished 500 years under Mohammedan rule, now 
 fell before the arms of a Christian power." After due submission, the 
 sultan was reinstated. 
 
 Rajah Brooke, having accomplished these successful operations, 
 returned to England, where he was received with much favour by 
 the government, received the degree of D.'.'.L. from Oxford in 1847, 
 and was created a Knight Commander of the Bath by the queen in 
 184S. The small island of Labuan, near Sarawak, cont lining coal, 
 which is now of great value in those seas, was purchased from the 
 Sultan of Borneo. It was constituted a British colony, of which Sir 
 James Brooke was appointed governor and commander-in-cliief, with 
 » salary of 2000^. a year, and wneu he returned to Sarawak a British 
 ship of war was appointed to convey him there. 
 
 The late Mr. Hume, and other members of the House of Commons, 
 brought charges against Sir James Brooke of having, under the pre- 
 tence of extirpating piracy, destroyed a large number of unoffending 
 natives, and expressed their belief that the chief stimulus to those 
 employed in these expeditions was the head-money. Sir James Brooke 
 returned again to England, chiefly for the purpose of rebutting these 
 charges and justifying his own conduct. There was much con dieting 
 evidence, and the matters were finally referred to a Royal Coin- 
 mission at Singapore, which has declared the charges to be unsub- 
 stantiated. Meantime, the head-money has been abolished, and Sir 
 James Brooke has been superseded in the governorship of Labuan. 
 He still retains his title and power as Rajah of Sarawak, is com- 
 missioner and consul-general to the sultan and independent chiefs, and 
 is lessee of the valuable antimony-rnines at Biutulu. Portions of his 
 journals have been published by Captain Mundy and Captain Keppel, 
 and also ' The Private Letters of Sir James Brooke, K.C.B., from 
 18:i8 to the Present time.' [See Supplement.] 
 
 •BROOKS, CHARLES SHIRLEY. [See vol. vi. col. 983.] 
 
 BROTHERS, RICHARD. The birth and early years of Brothers 
 are not well known; nor indeed would the events of his after life 
 deserve to be remembered, if his ravines had not exercised a consider- 
 able influence on his contemporaries, and thus connected his history 
 with that of the superstition of his day. 
 
 Richard Brothers held for several years the rank of lieutenant in 
 the British navy, which he quitted in 1789. A controversy with the 
 Lords of the Admiralty about his half-pay first developed that character 
 of his mind which ultimately ripened into a complete delusion. With 
 respect to taking a certain oath in order to qualify hims-lf to receive 
 his pay, he sent a well-written letter to Richard Stevens, Esq., of the 
 Admiralty, dated September 9th, 1790, which appeared in the 'Public 
 Advertiser' at the time. In this letter he exposes the dishonesty of 
 compelling a mau to swear that he takes a certain oath voluntarily, to 
 which he may have an unconquerable objection. The absurdity of 
 this practice he made so apparent that the Earl of Chatham had the 
 word voluntarily erased from the form of oath. This however did not 
 satisfy Brothers, who wished to be relieved from taking the oath 
 altogether, an indulgence which he failed in obtaining. 
 
 In consequence of declining to take the oath, he was very near dying 
 of hunger, and was ultimately taken to a workhouse. These privations, 
 a3 well as many others which he afterwards endured, prove that the 
 man was no impostor, but that he deceived others no more than he 
 did himself, being firmly persuaded that his mission was from Heaven. 
 He affirms, in a book which he published in two parts, entitled ' A 
 Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times, &c. — London, 
 printed in the year of Christ 1794' (which was eagerly bought by all 
 classes, both in town and country) — "It is from visious and revelatious, 
 and through the Holy Ghost, that I write this book for the benefit of 
 all men ; therefore to say it is false, that I am mad, am an impostor, 
 have a devil, or am out of my senses, constitutes the dangerous sin of 
 blasphemy." He published a second part of this strange production 
 in the course of the same year. He also published in 1795 an 
 ' Exposition of the Trinity.' 
 
 From the year 1790 Brothers dates his first call. On May 12, 1792 
 he sent letters to the king, ministers of state, and speaker of the 
 House of Commons, stating that he was commanded by God to go to 
 the parliament house on the 17th of that month, and inform the 
 members, for their safety, that the time was come for the fulfilment 
 of the 7th chapter of Daniel. Accordingly, on the day named, he pre- 
 sented himself at the door of the House of Commons, and, according 
 to his own account, met with a very scurvy reception. 
 
 Having some time after prophesied the death of the king, the 
 destruction of the monarchy, and that the crown should be delivered 
 up to him, he was committed to Newgate, where, if his statement be 
 true, he was treated with great cruelty. But imprisonment did not 
 damp his ardour. On his liberation, he continued what he denominated 
 his ministry with renewed energy, and obtained many followers. 
 While the more rational part of the community were laughing at the 
 prophet, there were some persons of liberal education, and of good 
 ability, who maintained the divinity of his mission. Among these, 
 Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, Esq., M.P. for Lymington, and Mr. Sharp, 
 an eminent engraver, were the most zealous : they published numerous 
 pamphlets and testimonials in his favour ; and others to the same 
 effect appeared by Bryan, Wright, Mr. Weatherall, an apothecary, and 
 a Mrs. Green. Among other things, Halhed bore testimony to his 
 prophesying correctly the death of the three emperors of Germany. 
 Among other strange letters which Brothers published was one 
 entitled, 'A Letter from Mr. Brothers to Miss Cott, the recorded 
 daughter of King David, and future Queen of the Hebrews : with an 
 Address to the Members of his Britannic Majesty's Council,' 1798. 
 
 Such an effect had these and other similar writings on people of 
 weak understanding, that many persons sold their goods, and prepared 
 themselves to accompany the prophet to his New Jerusalem, which 
 was to be built on both sides of the River Jordan, and where he was 
 to arrive iu the year 1795. Jerusalem was then to become the capital 
 of the world; and in the year 1798, when the complete restoration 
 of the Jews was to take place, he was to be revealed as the prince and 
 ruler of the Jews, and the governor of all nations, for which office 
 he appears to have had a greater predilection than for that of president 
 of the council, or chancellor of the exchequer, which he said God 
 offered for his acceptance. 
 
 Taken altogether, the writings of Brothers are a curious jumble of 
 reason and insanity, with no small number of contradictions, as we 
 might readily suppose. The following are some of the prophecies of 
 Brothers, stated in the order in which they were published. Many of 
 them have been either totally or partially fulfilled, a circumstance 
 not at all surprising when we consider that they chiefly refer to the 
 eventful period immediately subsequent to the French Revolution. 
 As Brothers also gave himself considerable latitude iu his prophecies, 
 and prophesied very largely, the real wonder would be if none of them 
 had been realised. 
 
 About July 1792, in letters to the king, queen, and ministers of 
 state, he prophesied the violent death of Louis XVI., and at different 
 times that the then Empress of Russia should die by the hands of 
 man; the French Republic would be established for ever ; the King 
 of England's power was to cease, and his crown to be delivered up to 
 the prophet. Rome and Venice were to fall under the power of the 
 
039 
 
 BROTIER, GABRIEL. 
 
 BROUGHAM, LORD. 
 
 Emperor of Germany, the former to be retaken by the French, the 
 latter to be plundered and almost destroyed. The emperor was to 
 be driven to make peace with the victorious French, and then quarrel 
 with the English. This prediction was literally fulfilled: he made 
 peace with France, December 26, 1805, and in 1808 declared war against 
 England. After which, according to Brothers, he was to seize on 
 Hanover, and subdue Germany entirely. An army was to be over- 
 thrown in Italy, which happened in 1809. Prussia was to acknow- 
 ledge the French Republic and make peace with it, which took place 
 April 1795, then to extend its dominions, and afterwards the king's 
 life to be taken and the monarchy for ever destroyed by Russia and 
 Austria. Tho Russian army (or bear), as if impatient for its food, 
 was " to rise and devour much flesh ; " to enter Turkey and compara- 
 tively overrun the laud, tearing down and devouring with great fury 
 all opposition. "At the capital it stops : here are its decreed limits, 
 no farther it must go. Here tho Russian general divides the spoil of 
 many cities with his army and the rich provinces of Turkey between 
 his officers. Here he despises the oath of fidelity, and throws away 
 the submission of a subject, proclaiming himself Emperor of Greece." 
 Russia was to be destroyed by Sweden — the Spanish monarchy to be 
 destroyed and the Stadtholdership of Holland to be cut off close to 
 the ground, which office in less than a year was actually abolished. 
 The Popedom was to be destroyed: — An earthquake to swallow the 
 parliament when sitting, and great part of London : — America to go 
 to war with England : — France to lose her West Indian islands, &c. 
 
 In the notices which we have seen of Brothers in the biographies, 
 it is stated that the government at length interfered, and treating him 
 as a dangerous and mischievous lunatic, caused him to be placed in 
 Bedlam, where he was confined during the remainder of his life. In 
 the majority of the accounts the date of his death is not mentioned, 
 but iu one at least he is stated to have died at Bedlam in 1830. 
 
 This statement must however be incorrect. A zealous disciple of 
 Richard Brothers named John Finlayson, printed in the ' Age of the 
 World 5519, Christian era 1819,' a book more strange if possible than 
 any of Brothers's own, entitled 'The Last Trumpet and the Flying 
 Angel through the midst of Heaven proclaiming the Divine and True 
 System of the Universe as it is; as given by God to the late Mr. 
 Richard Brothers, and also to Myself,' &c. In the midst of this inco- 
 herent production between an account of the immovable earth and 
 the moveable sun, the planets, and the stars in the whole of the 
 heavens (which stars " are oval-shaped, immense masses of frozen 
 ■waters from ten to thirty miles in diameter, with their largest ends 
 foremost to assist their velocity aud to keep them in their respective 
 courses from east to west round the axle of the heavens and that of 
 refixed earth "), and the seven seals and angels of the Revelations, is 
 oddly enough inserted an account of the release of Brothers from the 
 lunatic asylum, and of his death, so precise in statement, as to pre- 
 clude the probability of error. His release took place April 14, 1806, 
 the order being given by Lord Chancellor Erskine to Mr. Finlayson, 
 who at once proceeded to the asylum and brought Brothers away 
 with him. The death of Brothers occurred in 1824 in Finlayson's 
 house, where he had been residing for the last nine years. 
 
 They had been applying to Lord Chancellor Eldon for a restoration 
 of Brothers's half-pay, or a pension which he had been for some time 
 paid, but which had been withheld. "On Sunday the 25th of January 
 1824," says Finlayson, " he said to me, ' We must now be done with 
 chancery, and I must write to it, that he was seized with the cholera 
 morbus and hectic fever.' . . . He then desired me to shut the door 
 and open the window, and while holding his right hand in my right 
 hand, he asked me if my sword and hammer were ready ? and on my 
 instantly answering in the affirmative he seemed pleased, and in a few 
 minutes breathed his last, no one being present but myself:" and he 
 goes on to say that he had Brothers buried in St. John's Wood 
 buryiug-ground, " and caused a large flat stone to be placed over his 
 grave, with his and my name on it." Finlayson went on teaching and 
 publishing the doctrines of Brothers, notwithstanding the prophet's 
 death, and he tells us that as late as 1S48, "God gave me a dream 
 and a vision of Mr. Brothers, who told me that he approved of all I 
 had done, and lifting his two hands high over hi3 head, he rejoiced 
 mightily at all I had written and published." Finlayson printed 
 several single leaf tracts in 1850, and these are the last publications 
 of the school of Brothers which we have seen, but we have reason to 
 believe that there is yet to be found here and there a firm, believer 
 that the prediction of the ' revealed knowledge ' will in due time all 
 be accomplished. 
 
 BROTIER, GABRIEL, was born at Tannay in the Nivernois, on 
 the 5th of September, 1723, and received the appointment of librarian 
 of the college of Louis le Grand from the Jesuits among whom he was 
 educated. On the suppression of that order he lived in privacy, and 
 devoted himself to literature. In 1781 he was elected member of the 
 Academy, and died in Paris on the 12th of February, 1789. His 
 original works hardly deserve notice, and it is upon his editions of 
 Tacitus that his reputation is chiefly founded. The Paris editions, 
 4 vols. 4to, 1771, and 7 vols. 12mo, 1776, differ considerably from each 
 other, but in the English editions the two are incorporated. Brotier 
 published also an edition of Pliny's ' Natural History ' in 6 vols. 12mo, 
 1779, the 'Fables of Phoedrus,' 1783, and Amyot's translation of ' Plu- 
 tarch's Lives,' in 22 vols. 1783, revised and republished in 25 vols. 1801. 
 
 * BROUGHAM, HENRY, LORD, was born in St. Andrew's Square, 
 Edinburgh, on the 19th of September, 1779. His father, Henry 
 Brougham, Esq. of Scales Hall, Cumberland, and Brougham Hall, 
 
 Westmoreland, was descended from the ancient family of the 
 Broughams or De Burghains. He married Eleanor Syme, eldest 
 daughter of the Rev. Dr. James Syme, one of the clergymen of 
 Edinburgh, and niece, through her mother, of Robertson the 
 historian. Of six children by this marriage — five sous aud one • 
 daughter — Henry was the eldest. (Two of the other sons, James and 
 William, were members of parliament, and took some part in public 
 life during the brilliant career of their brother.) The family seems 
 to have resided for the most part in Edinburgh, though sometimes at 
 Brougham Hall, where Dr. Robertson visited them occasionally, and 
 used to walk about with his graudnephew. It was at the famous i 
 High School of Edinburgh that Henry Brougham received his earliest i 
 classical education — first under Mr. Luke Eraser, one of the under- j 
 masters, mentioned by Lord Cockburn in his ' Life of Jeffrey,' a» 
 having had the distinguished honour of sending forth from three 
 successive classes, three pupils no less celebrated than Scott, Jeffrey, 
 and Brougham ; and next under the head master or rector, Dr. Adam, , 
 the learned author of the ' Roman Antiquities, and a man of much I 
 weight and impressiveness of character, whose memory is not yet 
 locally extinct. From the High School, Brougham passed, at the 
 age of fifteen, to the university of Edinburgh, then so illustrious by 
 having such men as Dugald Stewart, Robison, and Black among its 
 professors, that English youths and youths from the colonies were 
 Bent to it to complete their education. 
 
 From the first distinguished by extraordinary quickness and talent, 
 young Brougham began to attract notice at the university moro 
 particularly by his fondness for mathematics and physical science. 
 Having, when not more than seventeen, written a paper on the 
 refraction and- reflection of light, containing what he considered some 
 original speculations on that subject, he sent it through Sir Charles 
 Blagden to the Royal Society, in whose ' Transactions ' it was priuted 
 in the year 1796. He followed up this paper by another on the same 
 subject, priuted iu the ' Transactions ' for the year 1797 ; and in 
 the 'Transactions' for 1793, there appeared a third paper from his 
 pen, entitled ' General Theorems : chiefly Porisms in the Higher 
 Geometry.' These papers, though the fact of their author's extreme 
 youth was unknown, attracted some notice among scientific men both 
 at home and abroad. 
 
 Having chosen the Scottish Bar as his profession, and completed 
 his legal studies at Edinburgh, Brougham, after a tour in Prussia and 
 Holland in the company of Mr. Stuart, afterwards Lord Stuart de 
 Rothsay, was admitted a member of the Edinburgh Society of ' 
 Advocates in 1800. His acquaintance with Horner, Jeffrey, and 
 other rising young men of the Scottish Whig party began about this 
 time ; and he was one of the most prominent members of the renowned 
 "Speculative Society," in which these and other Scotchmen, after- 
 wards known to fame in various capacities, first cultivated their 
 habits of extemporaneous debate. Accordingly in 1802, when the i 
 ' Edinburgh Review ' was started, Brougham soon became one of the 
 chief contributors. "After the third numbei-," says Jeffrey, " he was '} 
 admitted, and did more for us than anybody." They were all young ! 
 men. Allen was thirty two years of age ; Sidney Smith was thirty- 
 one; Jeffrey was twenty-nine; Thomas Brown, the metaphysician, 
 was twenty-four ; Horner was twenty-four ; and Brougham was 
 twenty-three. Brougham, though the youngest, had the greatest 
 share of literary ambition. While writing his first articles for the 
 ' Review,' he was preparing for the press a more elaborate work in 
 his own name, entitled ' An Enquiry into the Colonial Policy of the 
 European powers,' which was published in two volumes at Edinburgh 
 in 1803, and was considered an extraordinary work for so young a 
 man, both in respect of knowledge and in respect of boldness of 
 opinion. After this work had been published, he concentrated his 
 literary efforts on the ' Review.' The early numbers had been so 
 immediately and largely successful that Constable the publisher had 
 cheerfully acquiesced in the proposal that the articles, at first 
 gratuitous, should be paid for at the rate of lOi. a sheet. Of all the 
 contributors during Jeffrey's long editorship, which began in 1803 
 and closed in 1828, and during which the rate of payment was mora 
 than doubled, Brougham was the most industrious and versatile. 
 
 In 1807, Brougham was residing in London, where he was qualifying 
 himself for the English bar. The reasons of this change were various. 
 For one thing, as may be learnt from Lord Cockburn's account of the 
 discouragements under which Scottish Whiggism then laboured iu 
 Edinburgh, and particularly within the precincts of the ' Parliament 
 House ' or Supreme Courts of Law, the prospects of a young Whig 
 lawyer in Scotland cannot have been very brilliant. It is said 
 however that a visit to London in 1807, in order to plead before the 
 House of Lords in a case respecting the succession to the Scottish 
 dukedom of Roxburghe, was the immediate cause of his resolution to 
 come permanently to England. At all events, in 1808, when he was 
 in his twenty-ninth year, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, 
 and began to practise as an English barrister at the Court of King s 
 Bench and on the northern circuit. 
 
 He had brought a high reputation for eloquence and ability with 
 him from Scotland; and it wa3 not long before he confirmed and 
 
BROUGHAM, LORD. 
 
 extended it. Perhaps the most splendid display of his powers as a 
 pleader at this period of his career was in his advocacy before parlia- 
 ment of the case of certain merchants of London, Liverpool, and 
 Manchester, who complained of the injury done to British commerce 
 by the operation of the famous ' Orders in Council,' by which the 
 government sought to retaliate on Napoleon's Berlin decrees. He was 
 unsuccessful in his plea that the ' Orders' should be rescinded; but he 
 gained great popularity by his speech on the question. To place such 
 a man in parliament seemed the greatest service that could be rendered 
 to the Whig party; and, accordingly, in the same year he was returned 
 to the House of Commons for Camelford by the Earl of Darlington, 
 afterwards Marquis and Duke of Cleveland, the patron of the borough. 
 Brougham is thus one of the many eminent statesmen who, during 
 the first thirty years of this century, owed their introduction to parlia- 
 ment to the convenience of rotten boroughs. His maiden speech in 
 parliament, delivered on the 5th of March 1810, on the occasion of 
 Mr. Whitbread's motion reprobating the conduct of the Earl of 
 Chatham in privately transmitting to the king his narrative of the 
 expedition to the Schelde, somewhat disappointed the anticipations 
 that had been formed from his forensic appearances. It was able and 
 appropriate, but nothing more. Very soon however he mastered his 
 new element. The House began to feel that they had got among them 
 a man of constitutional energy and daring, an orator such as had not 
 sat on those benches since the days of Fox and Pitt, and Burke, 
 and against whose passionate vehemence, unparalleled fluency, and 
 remorseless invective, when roused, the boldest adversary felt that 
 he was powerless. Canning alone, during the time that Brougham 
 was in the House of Commons, could face him deliberately as an 
 antagonist ; and the difference of their styles of oratory rendered the 
 occasions on which they were matched against each other among the 
 most remarkable displays of gladiatorship known in the history of 
 parliament. 
 
 \\ hen Mr. Brougham commenced his political career, Britain was in 
 a condition to furnish him with abundant matter on which to exercise 
 his oratory of denunciation and his passion for reform. It was the 
 period of confirmed Tory ascendancy. The Perceval administration 
 was struggling against Napoleon abroad, more especially in Spain, 
 where Wellington was for the first time teaching Britain how to wrestle 
 with the great conqueror on land. Out of this peculiar foreign policy 
 arose many questions on which the Whigs differed from the Tories ; 
 while in the domestic and colonial policy there were principles and 
 practices which the Tories of the present day would condemn as 
 strongly as the Whigs did thin. From lSlO to 1812, Mr. Brougham 
 distinguished himself on the opposition side in all the great debates 
 on questions of home, foreign, and colonial policy, between the govern- 
 ment and the opposition. He delivered speeches against the ' Orders in 
 Council' (which, very much through his means, were rescinded in 1812, 
 as far as America was concerned), against flogging in the army, in 
 behalf of the Roman Catholic claims, and in behalf of reform in the 
 government of Indin. It was at this period, too, that he began his 
 labours in some questions of general philanthropy, distinct from mere 
 politics. As early as 1810 he carried a unanimous address to the 
 king, praying him to take measures, both direct and diplomatic, for 
 the suppression of the slave-trade; and in 1812 he spoke on the 
 question of prison-management. Nor was it only in the House that 
 his energy on the liberal side of politics and general opinion was 
 manifested. In 1811, for example, he was counsel for Messrs. Hunt, 
 the proprietors of the ' Examiner' newspaper, in a prosecution for 
 libel on account of an article against government on the subject of 
 flogging in the army, and also for Mr. Drakard, proprietor of the 
 'Stamford News,' in a similar action for libel on account of a repub- 
 lication of the same article. In the first case he obtained a verdict 
 for his clients ; in the second, he failed ; but his speeches on both 
 occasions were hailed as triumphant defences of the liberty of the 
 press. In December 1812 he was again counsel for the Messrs. Hunt, 
 in the famous trial for libel on account of an article offensive to the 
 Prince Regent; and the defence is said to have been as offensive to the 
 Prince as the article itself, and never to have been forgotten by him. 
 
 At the time of this last forensic display, Mr. Brougham was not a 
 member of parliament. In October 1812 — the administration of Lord 
 Liverpool and Lord Castlereagh having just succeeded that of Mr. 
 Perceval — he was induced to contest the Liverpool election, in asso- 
 ciation with another Whig, against Mr. Canning and another minis- 
 terial candidate ; and, having lost this election, and also failed in a 
 fcubsequent canvas for the Inverkeithing Burghs, he remained ex- 
 eluded from parliament for four years. During these four years, the 
 Liverpool and Castlereagh administration carried on the final struggle 
 against Napoleon, which ended in the battle of Waterloo and the 
 treaty of Vienna; and during the same period were passed the Corn 
 Laws, the repeal of which was to cost so much effort at a subsequent 
 day. 
 
 In 1816 Mr. Brougham was returned to parliament (this time also 
 through the influence of the Earl of Darlington) for the borough of 
 Winchehea; and he continued to represent that borough till the year 
 1830. Three times indeed during this period he contested the county 
 of Westmoreland against the Tory aud family influence then para- 
 mount in it— namely, at the general elections of 1818, 1820, and 1826 
 — but without succes*. 
 
 BROUGHAM, LORD. 812 
 
 The period between 1816 and 1830 was perhaps that of Mr. 
 Brougham's greatest celebrity. The war being over, all the energies 
 of the nation wero free for the work of domestic and colonhd inquiry 
 and reform, aud such men as Brougham found larger scope for their 
 activity than ever. His biography at this time, so far as his political 
 activity is concerned, naturally divides itself into stages corresponding 
 with the successive ministers then in office. The Liverpool ministry 
 continued in office during the rest of the nominal reign of George ill., 
 and as far into that of George IV. as April 1827, considerably modified 
 in its policy however by the admission into it in 1816 of Canning, and 
 farther by the accession of Canning to the Foreign Office in 1822, on 
 the death of the Marquis of Londonderry. Then followed the brief 
 administration of Canning (April to August 1827), succeeded by that 
 of Lord Goderich (August 1827 to January 1828), and next by that of 
 the Duke of Wellington (January 1828 to November 1830). Every 
 one knows that the history of Great Britain under these successive 
 ministers consisted in a continuous battle between the Tories and the 
 opposition on a great variety of questions involving popular liberties 
 in opposition to prerogative ; and that the progress of victory was so 
 steadily on the side of the opposition that point after point was con- 
 ceded, and the views of the Tory party themselves in matters of 
 government became entirely changed from what they had been in 
 1815. Much of this progress was owing to the genius and liberality 
 of Canning, whose foreign policy in particular infixed a new spirit 
 into the later years of the Liverpool administration ; but much of it 
 also was owing to the oratory and energy of Mr. Brougham. A list of 
 the topics of his principal speeches in the House during the period in 
 question will best indicate the course of his parliamentary career : — 
 In 1816 (the year of his re-admission to parliament) he took a leading 
 part in the debates on the Reduction of the Army-Estimates, the 
 Repeal of the Property-Tax, the Distresses of the Agricultural Interest, 
 and other topics natural at a time of sudden transition from war to 
 peace ; and in the same session he commenced his long labours in the 
 cause of Popular Education, by moving and obtaining the appointment 
 of a committee to inquire into the education of the poor in the metro- 
 polis. In 1817 he made a speech on the Distresses of the Manufacturing 
 Classes, recurred to the question of the Education of the Poor in the 
 Metropolis, and attacked the foreign policy of the miuistry. In 1818 
 he spoke on the Tithe Laws and Parliamentary Reform, recurred again 
 to the subject of Metropolitan Education, and succeeded in obtaining 
 the appointment of a commission, since so famous, for Inquiring into 
 the Abuses of the Public Charitable Foundations of the Kingdom 
 connected with Education. He was not himself nominated on this 
 commission, but he continued to watch its proceedings with the 
 greatest interest, aud to keep public attention fixed on it. Thus, in 
 1818, he published 'A Letter to Sir Samuel Romilly, upon the Abuse 
 of Public Charities,' which was so popular that it ran through ten 
 editions in a few months. In 1819, besides his other appearances in 
 parliament, he defended the Education Committee against certain 
 charges of Sir Robert Peel. During the years 1820 and 1821 his time 
 was chiefly occupied in proceedings connected with the case of Queen 
 Caroline, whose differences with her husband had been a subject of 
 public scandal for some years, but now assumed all the dimensions of 
 a political convulsion, in consequence of her arrival in England to 
 claim the honours of Queen-Consort on her husband's accession to the 
 throne. Mr. Brougham's conduct of the whole case as her Majesty's 
 Attorney-General, and in particular his two great speeches in that 
 capacity — the one before the House of Lords on the trial for her 
 Divorce, the other before the Privy Council in the argument for her 
 Coronation — immensely increased his popularity ; as did also his 
 subsequent defence at the Durham assizes of Mr. Williams, proprietor 
 of the 'Durham Chronicle,' in an action for libel brought against him 
 by the Durham clergy, for an article reflecting on their conduct for not 
 permitting the city bells to be tolled on the queen's death. His attack 
 on the clergy on this occasion was terrific. All these displays of oratory 
 in the queen's case were forensic rather than parliamentary; but the 
 gravity of the case gave them political importance, and affected Mr. 
 Brougham's position in the House of Commons. Here, whilst bur- 
 dened with business as the queen's attorney-general, he had not ceased 
 to take part in debates on Education, Admiralty Reform, the State of 
 Ireland, and other topics. In the session of 1823, when Canning's 
 foreign ministry was beginning a new era in our relations with foreign 
 powers, Mr. Brougham, who had, in 1816, stood almost alone in the 
 House in denouncing the Holy Alliance, and calling ou the British 
 government to pursue another policy in foreign affairs than that of the 
 Alliance, was able to return to the topic under much more favourable 
 auspices, in a speech attacking the alliance for their armed inter- 
 ference, through France, with the liberties of the Spanish nation. 
 Canning, though not going so far, may be supposed on this occasion 
 to have sympathised to some extent with his parliamentary rival; 
 but on another occasion, during the same session, the two orators 
 camo to a p< rsonal quarrel. It was on a debate on Catholic Emanci- 
 pation, and the scene was one of the most memorable that ever occurred 
 in the house. Mr. Brougham, charging Canning with faithlessness to 
 his previous declarations iu behalf of emancipation, pressed the charge 
 in a speech of extraordinary invective, which he wound up by pointing 
 to Canning as having been guilty " of the most monstrous truckling 
 for office that the whole history of political tergiversation could 
 
943 
 
 BROUGHAM, LORD. 
 
 BROUGHAM, LORD. 
 
 9M 
 
 present." Canning, goaded out of all power of self-control, started 
 up and cried " It is false ! " and the Speaker had to interpose and 
 arrange the matter in parliamentary form by enforcing mutual 
 explanations. In the same session Mr. Brougham spoke on Colonial 
 Slavery and on Delays in Chancery. In 1824 his greatest effort was 
 a speech on a motion censuring the Demerara authorities for their 
 proceedings in the case of the Rev. John Smith, an Independent 
 missionary, who, on suspicion of having incited the slaves to revolt, 
 was tried in a very illegal manner, and while under sentence of death 
 expired in prison. In 1825 the expulsion of a missionary from Bar- 
 badoes furnished a text of the same kiud ; and in that and the following 
 session, Colonial Slavery, the Catholic claims, Chancery Reform, and 
 the Corn Laws, were the chief topics of Mr. Biougham's oratory. On 
 the accession of the Canning ministry in 1827, he signalised his 
 independence in the House by defending the chief measures of that 
 ministry, declaring that, " since Mr. Canning had established a system 
 of liberal and manly foreign policy," he should have his support. On 
 this occasion he even sat on the ministerial benches, though declaring 
 that he had bound himself not to take office under Mr. Canning. In 
 this peculiar position of independence he continued his parliamentary 
 activity under the administrations of Lord Goderich and the Duke of 
 Wellington, after Canning's death ; taking part iu the debates which 
 led to the famous passing of the Catholic Relief Bill by Wellington's 
 ministry (April, 182y), but at the same time pressing questions of his 
 own. Among these was Law Reform, on which on February 7, 1828, 
 he delivered a speech of six hours' length, containing the germs of 
 many improvements in this important department of administration 
 which have since been carried into effect. In 1829 he had the satis- 
 faction of explaining to the House the proceedings of the great Charities 
 Commission, the appointment of which he had procured eleven years 
 before, and which during that interval had investigated into the 
 condition and history of no fewer than 19,000 of the charitable 
 foundations of Great Britain. 
 
 During the period of Mr. Brougham's life embraced iu the last 
 paragraph (1816-1830), his prodigious activity had by no means been 
 confined to his duties in the House of Commons. Of his numerous 
 pleadings before the law-courts during this time — many of them on 
 questions of public and political interest — we cannot take account; 
 suffice it to say that, after having occupied the distinguished position 
 of attorney-general for the queen, which gave him for a time precedence 
 at the bar, and after having on the queen's death resigned this prece- 
 dence, he was permanently invested with the silk gown in 1827. His 
 various literary contributions to the 'Edinburgh Review' during the 
 same period would form a separate item in the account of his occu- 
 pations. More important in some respects are the services he rendered 
 out of parliament to the cause of popular education. We have seen 
 how in 1816 he stood forth in parliament in behalf of this cause by 
 procuring the appointment of a committee to examine into the state 
 of education in the metropolis. The result of that inquiry was that it 
 was found that 120,000 children in London were growing up without 
 any means of education whatever. This fact, acting on his ardent 
 mind, seems to have determined him to an unusual energy in all 
 matters connected with the education of the people. Associating 
 himself with Dr. Birkbeck, he was instrumental in founding in the 
 year 1823 the London Mechanics Institution ; and not long afterwards 
 he published his 'Practical Observations on the Education of the 
 People, addressed to the Working Classes and their Employers,' 
 twenty editions of which were rapidly sold, and produced an extra- 
 ordinary effect all over the country. Partly on account of his exertions 
 in this cause, and partly on account of bis general celebrity, he was elected 
 in 1825 to the honorary post of Lord Rector of Glasgow University; 
 his opponent on this occasion being Sir Walter Scott, against whom 
 his election was determined by the casting-vote of the previous rector, 
 Sir James Mackintosh. The 'Address' which he delivered to the 
 students on his installation, and which has been often printed since, 
 was prepared amid the fatigues of the Northern Circuit. During his 
 visit to Scotland at this time he was entertained at a public dinner — 
 one of the largest ever held in Scotland — by the citizens of Edinburgh; 
 on which occasion his friend Mr., afterwards Lord Cockburn, occupied 
 the chair, and reviewed his history since the time when, as a young 
 barrister, he had left Edinburgh for the English capital. In the same 
 year he introduced a bill into parliament for the incorporation of the 
 University of London, in the establishment of which as an institution 
 of the higher education on principles which would admit all classes of 
 British subjects, irrespective of their religious opinions, and without 
 any religious tests, he had taken an active part. Not the least of his 
 extra-parliamentary services during the period in question were those 
 which he rendered in connection with the foundation in 1827 of the 
 'Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,' whose object, as 
 stated in its original prospectus, was " by the periodical publication of 
 treatises, under the direction and with the sanction of a superintending 
 committee, to impart useful information to all classes of the commu- 
 nity, particularly to such as are unable to avail themselves of expe- 
 rienced teachers." That limited object was carried much farther during 
 the labours of seventeen years. Mr. Brougham was appointed chairman 
 of this committee, and his discourse ' On the Objects, Pleasures, and 
 Advantages of Science,' was the first publication of the society. 
 
 The year 1830 was an eventful one in the life of Mr. Brougham, as 
 
 well as in the political history of Great Britain. Early in that year 
 
 he resigned his seat for Winchelsea on the ground that he could no4 
 go along with the Marquis of Cleveland, the patron of the borough, in 
 supporting the Wellington Ministry, whose determination to oppose 
 Parliamentary Reform was inflexibly taken. He was immediately 
 returned for Knaresborough, and, as member for that borough, he 
 made speeches on colonial slavery and other topics, and introduced a 
 Bill for the Establishment experimentally in the three counties of 
 Kent, Durham, and Northumberland, of Local Courts of Justice, 
 somewhat on the model of the county courts which have since been 
 instituted. In the midst of these exertions, the death of George IV. 
 (June 1830), followed so speedily by the French Revolution of July, 
 induced a national crisis. At the general election on the accession of 
 William IV., Mr. Brougham stood for Yorkshire, and was returned 
 for that great county, free of expense, along with Lord Morpeth, the 
 Hon. William Duncombe, and Mr. Bethell. In the course of the 
 canvas for this county, he gave an extraordinary proof of his physical 
 and mental energy by attending and speaking at eight different 
 electoral meetings in one day, travelling that day 120 miles (it was 
 before the period of railroads), and appearing next morning at the 
 York assizes. As member for the great constituency of York — which 
 had till theu been accustomed to elect only some men aristocratically 
 connected with the county — Mr. Brougham was in a position as 
 powerful as any British commoner could occupy. Backed by such a 
 constituency, he could regard himself as a tribune of the British 
 people, rather than as an ordinary member of parliament. It wag 
 with the consciousness of this that, when the new parliament met, he 
 stood forth in that parliament as the champion of ' Parliamentary 
 Reform' — then the one thought of the nation. As an independent 
 member, but also with the understood sanction of the Whigs, he 
 announced for the 16th of November a motion on this subject of a 
 very comprehensive character. According to the sketch given by Mr. 
 Roebuck in his ' History of the Whigs,' of the bill which Mr. Brougham 
 intended to introduce on this occasion, he was prepared to reduce 
 the number of representatives in the House of Commons from 658 
 to 500, allowing the representation of Scotland to stand numerically 
 as it was, but curtailing the Irish representation ; he was prepared 
 also to give the franchise to all copyholders and leaseholders, and to 
 all householders whatsoever ; and he was to enfranchise the large 
 commercial towns, and to mulct the rotten boroughs of one member 
 each, allowing them to retain one. On the eve of this motion how- 
 ever there came a ministerial crisis. The Duke of Wellington and 
 his colleagues, defeated on a government measure on the 15th of 
 November, resigned on the following day ; and when the House met, 
 in which Mr. Brougham was to propose his motion, negociations wero 
 going on between the king and Earl Grey for the formation of a Whig 
 ministry. In these circumstances Mr. Brougham postponed his motion 
 for a few days, and, in doing so, used certain phrases which were 
 interpreted as an indication that he and the Whig leaders were not 
 in communication, that he was not to be in the new ministry, but was 
 to proceed as an independent member without reference to them. 
 Indeed the Whigs, having been out of office nearly a quarter of a 
 century, were iu the position of a body which had yet to organise 
 itself. A number of men had been acting together in opposition, but 
 to adjust their places in a new ministry was not easy ; and Mr. 
 Brougham, in particular, though as largely identified as any man with 
 the course of Whig principles in the past, occupied ground so pecu- 
 liarly his own, and was so formidable in his peculiarities, that it was 
 thought the hereditary Whig leaders would be glad ' to throw him 
 overboard ' if they could. Great then, was the surprise of the nation 
 when, on the announcement of the new Whig ministry under the 
 premiership of Earl Grey on the 22nd of November, it was found 
 that Mr. Brougham had a place in it, no longer as plain Mr. Brougham, 
 but as Baron Brougham and Vaux, Lord Chancellor of England. 
 The whole private history of the transaction, and indeed of the 
 formation of the ministry, is yet but obscurely known ; but Mr. Roe- 
 buck, in his ' History of the Whigs,' gives the various rumours of the 
 day, and adopts as the true conclusion the supposition that Mr. 
 Brougham was offered . the lord-chancellorship simply because Earl 
 Grey found it utterly impossible to construct a government leaving 
 him out, and that Mr. Brougham accepted it simply because to have 
 refused it would have paralysed the Whig party at the moment of 
 their first return to power, made an eternal separation between him 
 and the Whigs, and ruined his own chances of further usefulness. As 
 the Lord-Chancellor of a Whig ministry, he had a new career opened 
 up to him, not so congenial perhaps as that of a great popular chief 
 in the Lower House, untrammeled by party, but still promising 
 opportunities of great public service. 
 
 During the continuance of the Whig ministry from November 1830 
 to November 1834, Lord Brougham was identified perhaps more than 
 any other member with its policy and measures, sharing its first 
 extraordinary popularity and its subsequent disfavour. To him and 
 Earl Grey in the Upper House fell the difficult task of carrying against 
 the opposition of the peers the bill for Parliamentary Reform, sup- 
 ported in the other house by Lord Althorp and Lord John Russell. 
 In the debates on the bill Lord Brougham's eloquence rang through 
 the House of Peers such peals as had long been unheard there ; and 
 his famous speech on the second reading of the bill, on the 7th of 
 
BROUGHAM, LORD. 
 
 October 1831, takes its place as one of the most extraordinary 
 specimens of oratory in modern times. When the peers stood firm in 
 rejecting the bill, and the throne and the government were felt to lie 
 over a mine of popular wrath which might any day burst into civil 
 war, Lord Brougham and Earl Grey conducted the memorable 
 negociations with the king, with a view to induce him to avoid the 
 catastrophe by a new creation of peers, on purpose to turn the votes 
 in the Upper House ; and some very curious particulars showing his 
 boldness in the crisis are related in Mr. Roebuck's ' History.' When, 
 at length, the discretion of the Duke of Wellington, himself convinced 
 of the impossibility of forming a Tory ministry, or resisting the 
 bill auy longer, induced the lords to yield, and the bill became law 
 (June 1832), Lord Brougham and his colleagues were free to go on 
 to new measures. " The abolition of slavery in all our colonies ; the 
 opening of the East India trade, and destruction of the company's 
 monopoly ; the Amendment of the Criminal Laws ; vast improve- 
 ments in the whole Municipal Jurisprudence, both as regards Law 
 and Equity ; the settlement of the Bank Charter ; the total Reform 
 of the Scotch Municipal Corporations; the entire alteration of the 
 Poor Laws ; an ample commencement made in reforming the Irish 
 Church by the abolition of ten bishoprics " — such is Lord Brougham's 
 own enumeration of the series of measures carried by the first Reform 
 Parliament from 1832 to 1834, and in the preparation and passing of 
 which he had his full share. His speeches in the Lords on these 
 topics form a considerable proportion of the published collection. It 
 is to be remembered, too, that all this time he was discharging his 
 onerous judicial duties as Lord Chancellor. In this capacity also his pro- 
 digious activity was manifest ; all the more so when it was contrasted 
 with the dilatoriuess of his predecessor Lord Eldon. In the first 
 year of his chancellorship he sat two days longer than Lord Eldon had 
 done, and "by devoting more hours each day to the business of his 
 court, he was enabled in the course of a few months to decide no les3 
 than 120 appeals and, instead of leaving, as his predecessor had done, 
 a large arrear of causes, he had the gratification of saying that he had 
 not left a single appeal unheard, nor one letter unanswered." There 
 have been various opinions as to Lord Brougham's accuracy as a 
 lawyer ; but his astonishing power of getting through work rendered 
 the term of his supremacy a memorable one in the annals of Chancery, 
 and his judgments, always carefully prepared, have shown the injustice 
 of many of the attacks on his legal reputation. His manner of 
 exercising his patronage as chancellor both in church and state, has 
 also been a subject of general praise. 
 
 In 1834 there was a new ministerial crisis. What had been done in 
 the first two sessions of the Reform Parliament, was " by some san- 
 guiue and impatient spirits," says Lord Brougham, "held quite as 
 nothing compared with the vast change which they had expected." 
 In other words, Radicalism as distinct from Whiggism had assumed 
 shape and organisation out of doors, and the Whigs were accused of 
 not going far or fast enough. Some of their later measures to j, par- 
 ticularly their Irish coercive policy, were largely unpopular. In the 
 ministry itself differences arose. In May 1834, Mr. Stanley, Sir 
 James Graham, Lord Ripon, and the Duke of Richmond, seceded 
 from the ministry; and in July Lord Grey himself and Lord Althorp 
 resigned office on a point connected with Irish Coercion. Lord 
 Althorp was prevailed upon to resume office, and the Whig ministry 
 continued in existence till November, when the death of Lord 
 Althorp's father, calling him to the Upper House as Earl Spencer, 
 gave the king an opportunity for carrying out the intention he had for 
 some time entertained, and changing the ministry entirely. Sir 
 Robert Peel, who had in the meantime been organising the modern 
 Conservative party, came into office. His ministry however lasted 
 only till April 1835, when a second Whig ministry was formed under 
 the premiership of Lord Melbourne, with Lord John Russell as 
 Home-Secretary. From this reconstructed Whig cabinet Lord 
 Brougham was excluded. The exact grounds of his exclusion have 
 probably yet to be revealed, along with the rest of the secret political 
 history of the time. April 1835 is the date of Lord Brougham's 
 rupture of his connections with the Whig party. Since that time he 
 has simply been an ex-chancellor with a pension of 500CM. a-year, but 
 always ready for public duties of a legal nature; and a peer of the 
 realm, criticising in a perfectly independent manner the measures 
 brought forward by successive governments, whether Whig or Tory, 
 and occasionally proposing measures of his own. 
 
 The political life of Lord Brougham since his rupture with the 
 Whi^s in 1835 till the present time has consisted in what may be called 
 an energetic isolation, manifested in a series of independent inter- 
 ferences, either in the House of Lords or through the press, with the 
 current Whig and Tory politics of the country. During the fir.«t two 
 years, indeed, of the Melbourne administration, he was comparatively 
 inactive ; his only important appearance at this time being in a speech 
 in the House of Lords in May 1835, proposing a 6eries of comprehen- 
 sive resolutions on the subject of national educatiou. The year 1837 
 however — in the June of which year William IV. was succeeded by 
 Queen Victoria — saw him again remarkably active. In February in 
 that year, he introduced two bills — one for the establishment of local 
 courts, and the other for the abolition of pluralities ; in April he spoke 
 »t large on the subject of Irish emigration and land-improvement in 
 Ireland ; in May he waa attacking the government policy with respect 
 BIOO. div. you l 
 
 BROUGHAM, LORD. 9ifl 
 
 to Canada ; and in June he moved for a select committee to inquire 
 into "the state of business" in the House of Peers. All this was 
 before the death of William IV. ; but in the latter part of the same 
 year he took an active part in measures then before parliament for 
 amending the law — supporting the forgery bill, and other alterations 
 in the criminal code (hinting while doing so at the possibility of 
 abolishing death-punishment entirely), and also supporting a bill for 
 abolishing imprisonment for debt, except under peculiar circumstances. 
 In December 1837 he again brought the subject of national education 
 before the House at large in a formal bill. The year 1838 was marked 
 by his violent opposition to the Melbourne government, on the subject 
 of Canada ; and his three speeches on this subject, delivered Jauuary 18, 
 February 2, and February 8, and republished under the title of 
 ' Speeches on the Maltreatment of the North American Colonies,' pro- 
 duced immense effect, and led to the extraordinary episode that year 
 of Lord Durham's sudden return from Canada in anger with the 
 Whigs. Among his public appearances in 1839 were — a 'Speech moving 
 a Committee of the Whole House on the Corn Laws ;' ' A Letter on 
 National Education to the Duke of Bedford ;' and ' A Reply to Lord 
 John Russell's letter to the electors of Stroud on the principles of the 
 Reform Act.' In the years that followed, he pursued a somewhat 
 singular course in connection with the great anti-corn law agitation 
 which then occupied the country — on the whole contributing by his 
 declarations of opinion and votes to the final repeal of the corn laws 
 in 1846, but at the same time denouncing the league as unconstitu- 
 tional. During the Conservative ministry of Sir Robert Peel, indeed, 
 from 1841 to 1846, Lord Brougham seemed on the whole to co-operate 
 more amicably with the government than he had done with their Whig 
 predecessors. He still however pushed on measures of his own, and, 
 in particular, his favourite measures of law-reform. In 1843 he pub- 
 lished ' Letters on Law-Reform, addressed to the Right Hon. Sir 
 James Graham;' in 1844 he delivered in the House and afterwards 
 published a 'Speech on the Criminal Code;' and in May 1845 he made 
 another great speech on ' Law-Reform.' During the early part of 
 Lord John Russell's ministry (1846-52), Lord Brougham was still 
 chiefly occupied with law reform ; but the extraordinary events of 
 1848 roused him to new displays 'of his still youthful spirit. After 
 the downfall of Louis Philippe, he proposed to the revolutionary 
 government of France to complete his connection with that country 
 (he had already a certain connection with it as owner of an estate near 
 Cannes, where he generally resided a considerable part of every year), 
 by becoming in regular form a French citizen ; a proposition to which 
 M. Marrast replied on the part of the government, by informing him 
 that if he became a French citizen he must cease to be an English 
 peer. Lord Brougham's opinion on the revolution, its principles, and 
 its consequences, were expressed in various speeches in the House of 
 Lords in 1848 and 1849 — as, for example, his 'Speech on Italian and 
 French Affairs ' on April 11, 1848, and his ' Speech on Foreign Affairs' 
 on July 20, 1849; but more at large in his 'Letter to the Marquis of 
 Lansdowne on the Late Revolution in France,' which ran through five 
 or six editions. Far more generally acceptable have been his recent 
 persevering services in law reform — represented, for example, in 1850, 
 by his ' Inaugural Address on the Establishment of a Law-School ;' 
 his ' Letter to Lord Chancellor Cottenham upon the Bill, to give 
 primary jurisdiction to the masters in ordinary of the High Court of 
 Chancery in certain cases ;' and his ' Letter to Lord Denman on the 
 Legislation of 1850 a3 regards the Amendment of the Law;' in 1851 
 by his 'Speech on the Law of Evidence Bill;' and in 1853 by his 
 'Speeches on County Courts and Law Amendment.' Indeed even now 
 Lord Brougham is the still active patriarch of law reform ; and labours 
 assiduously in this great duty, ofteu in connection with ' The Law 
 Amendment Society.' 
 
 Such is a simple statement of the facts of Lord Brougham's political 
 life, as divided into the three distinct periods of his early activity, as 
 Mr. Brougham the Reform chief and orator (1810-1830), his Lord 
 Chancellorship in connection with a Whig ministry (1830-1834), and 
 his later career of isolation and independence. There are some who 
 criticise the last period of bis career in an unfriendly spirit, and main- 
 tain that the Lord Brougham of 1835-56 is a totally different man 
 from the Henry Brougham of 1810-30, or even from the Lord Chan- 
 cellor Brougham of 1830-34. More than once Lord Brougham has 
 replied to these charges of inconsistency founded on his conduct since 
 1835, maintaining, that in reality he has always been true to the 
 principles he professed at first, and the appearance of inconsistency is 
 caused by changed circumstances and conditions. It probably remains 
 however for his future biographer to determine this point more exactly, 
 by ascertaining, if possible, the real 'formula' of his whole political 
 life. Meauwhile, this may be said, that at the age of seventy-seven 
 Lord Brougham can look back upon a political past more active and 
 more full of changes than perhaps auy other man in Europe. 
 
 In addition to the juvenile work on the ' Colonial Policy of the 
 European Powers,' mentioned above, and to the miscellaneous pam- 
 phlets and articles in the ' Edinburgh Review,' which have also been 
 mentioned, Lord Brougham has, since his release from the cares of 
 office in 1834, given various literary works to the world, proving his 
 powers in authorship. The ' Collected Edition of his Speeches,' in 
 four volumes, was published in 1838, and includes his chief orations up 
 to that date, with historical notes and introductions, and a ' Discourse 
 
 3 p 
 
917 
 
 BROUNCKER, WILLIAM. 
 
 BROWN, REV. JOHN. 
 
 019 
 
 on the Eloquence of the Ancients.' Amongst other works are 
 his edition of Paley's ' Natural Theology,' and ' Dissertations on 
 Subjects of Science connected with Natural Theology.' In 1839-43 
 appeared his series of ' Historic Sketches of Statesmen who flourished 
 in the Time of George III.;' and in 1845 his 'Lives of Men of Arts 
 and Science who flourished in the Time of George III.' A new and 
 complete edition of all these works, including one of his ' Political 
 Philosophy,' not yet completed, and others till now unpublished, is at 
 present in progress under 1 1 is lordship's superintendence. 
 
 In 1833 Lord Brougham was elected a Foreign Aesociato of the 
 Institute of France, and afterwards a member of the Royal Academy 
 of Sciences of Naples. In 1850, resuming his optical researches, he 
 communicated to the Royal Society, ' Experiments and Observations 
 upon the Properties of Light,' followed in 1852 by 'Further Experi- 
 ments,' and again by 'Further Experiments' in 1853. The argument 
 of these papers, based on elaborate experiments, shows the prin- 
 ciple on which Newton established his theory of light to be incon- 
 clusive. These researches were communicated simultaneously to the 
 Academy of Sciences at Paris (' Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. des Sci.'), 
 and the phenomena in question were referred by Arago to the 
 "doctrine of interferences." In 1855 he published, conjointly with 
 E. J. Routb, Esq., an ' Analytical View of Sir Isaac Newton's 
 Prineipia.' 
 
 Lord Brougham married, in 1819, the eldest daughter of Thomas 
 Eden, Esq., of AVimbledon, deputy auditor of Greenwich Hospital, 
 and brother of Lords Auckland and Henley, this lady having been 
 previously married to John Spalding, Esq. His daughter, the only 
 issue of this marriage, died young. 
 
 BROUNCKER, or BROUNKLR, WILLIAM, Viscount Brouncker, 
 of Castle-Lyons in Ireland (which title was conferred on his father, 
 who had been president of Munster in 1645), was born about 1620. 
 In 1646 he was made Doctor of Physic at Oxford. In 1660, having 
 then succeeded his father, who died in 1645, he subscribed the declara- 
 tion issued in April by the friends of the Restoration. In 1662 and 
 1663 he was named President of the Royal Society in the charters of 
 incorporation then granted, which office he held for fifteen years. He 
 was also chancellor of the queen, a lord of the admiralty, and master 
 of St. Catherine's Hospital. He died on the 5th of April, 1684. 
 
 Lord Brouncker was a mathematician, and is the author of two 
 remarkable discoveries. He was the first who introduced continued 
 fractious, as follows : — When Wallis was engaged upon the interpola- 
 tion which led him to his well-known theorem on the quadrature of 
 the circle, he applied to Brouncker to consider the question ; and the 
 latter arrived at the following conclusion : — If tt represent the ratio of 
 the circumference to the diameter, then 
 
 t = + l 
 
 w 2 + 9 
 
 2 + 25 
 
 2 + &c. 
 
 This theorem was first given by Wallis (' Arith. Inf.,' ' Works,' vol. i. 
 p. 469), with a demonstration, the heading of which is so ambiguously 
 worded, that we are left in doubt whether it was his own demonstra- 
 tion or his own account of Lord Brouncker's. Montucla states the 
 first in one place (' Hist. Rech. Quad. Cere.,' 1831, p. 123), and the 
 second in another (' Hist. Math.,' vol. ii. p. 355). 
 
 Brouncker was also the first who gave a series for the quadrature of 
 a portion of the equilateral hyperbola ('Phil. Trans.,' 1668, No. 34). 
 There is also a paper of his (1673, No. 98), on the contest relative to 
 the discovery of the Neilian parabola ; and another (to which we 
 cannot find the reference) on the recoil of guns. Some letters of his 
 to Archbishop Usher are at the end of R. Parr's life of Usher ; and 
 some to Wallis, in his ' Commercium Epistolicum' (' Works,' vol. iii 
 p. 757). 
 
 BROUWER. [Brauwer.] 
 
 BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN, the first eminent American 
 novelist in point of time, was born at Philadelphia in 1771. From 
 childhood he manifested an engrossing love of study. He chose the 
 law for his profession, but took a distaste to it, and was never called 
 to the bar. Thenceforward he devoted himself to metaphysics, gene- 
 ral literature, and politics. His first work was ' Alcuin,' a wild series 
 of speculations on the fancied evils of marriage ; for which however 
 he found himself unable to devise a remedy. 'Wieland,' his first 
 novel, appeared in 1798. It was followed by ' Ormond,' 'Arthur 
 Mervyn,' 'Edgar Huntly,' and 'Clara Howard,' before 1801, and by 
 'Jane Talbot' in 1804. ' Carwin,' and some other unfinished pieces, 
 were published after his death, in 1822. He established two literary 
 journals—' The Monthly Magazine and American Review,' commenced 
 in April 1799, and continued to the end of 1800, and 'The Literary 
 Magazine and American Register,' commenced in October 1803, and 
 continued five years. In 1806 he commenced a half-yearly work, ' The 
 American Register,' of which he lived to complete five volumes. He 
 published also some political pamphlets. An over-studious and 
 sedentary life, acting on a delicate constitution, brought on consump- 
 tion, of which he died on the 22nd of February, 1810. He is described 
 as having been a man of romantic temper, great invention, extensive 
 attainments, and prodigious industry ; and of stainless morality. 
 
 Brown's novels, after being long unknown or forgotten, acquired a 
 sudden popularity in England about five-and-thirty years ago. In 
 style they bear some resemblance to those of Godwin, whom Brown 
 greatly admired. For their merits we concur in the criticism of the 
 ' Encyclopaedia Americana : ' — " Their leading traits are rich and 
 correct diction, variety of incident, vivid scenes of joy aud sorrow, a 
 minute development and strong display of emotioD, and a powerful 
 use of wonderful phenomena in the physical faculties and habits of 
 man. Almost all is new and strange in his machinery and situations, 
 but he deals too much in the horrible and criminal. Extravagant and 
 consummate depravity actuates too many of his characters. His 
 scenes may rivet attention, and his plots excite the keenest curiosity ; 
 yet thuy pain the heart beyond the privilege of fiction, and leave in 
 the imagination only a crowd of terrific phantoms." 
 
 ' Arthur Mervyn' deserves notice in an historical light, as presenting 
 a fearfully true picture of the ravages formerly made by the yellow- 
 fever in the American cities. The scene is laid at Philadelphia in the 
 pestilence of 1793. Brown's novels were reprinted at Boston in 
 6 vols. 8vo, 1828. 
 
 (Dunlap, Life of C. B. Brown; Encyclopaedia Americana.) 
 
 *BUOWN, GENERAL SIR GEORGE, was born in August 1790 at 
 Liokwood (the residence of his father), near Elgin, in Scotland. He 
 was educated at the Royal Military College, and entered the army, 
 January 23, 1806, as ensign in the 43rd regiment of foot. He became 
 a lieutenant in the same regiment, September 18, 1807, and in this 
 year was present at the bombardment of Copenhagen. He served in 
 Portugal and Spain during the whole of the Peninsular war, from 
 August 1808 till its termination in 1814. During that war, he was 
 promoted to a captaincy in the 85th regiment, June 20, 1811 ; he was 
 severely wounded at the battle of Talavera, was one of the forlorn 
 hope at the storming of Badajoz, and was present at most of the other 
 great battles. He was promoted to the rank of major May 26, 1814, 
 and to that of lieutenant-colonel September 29 in the same year, when 
 he embarked in Major-General Ross's expedition against the United 
 States of America, where he was present at the battle of Bladensburg, 
 and at the capture of the city of Washington. On the 6th of February 
 1824, he was appointed to the command of a battalion of the rifle- 
 brigade, in which he became colonel May 6, 1831, and major-general 
 November 23, 1841. Lord Hill appointed him deputy-adjutant-geueral 
 in 1842, and the Duke of Wellington made him adjutant-general of 
 the forces in April, 1850. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general in 1851. In 1854 he proceeded with the British army to the 
 East, in command of the Light Division, which he led at the battle 
 of Alma with distinguished gallantry. His horse was shot under him, 
 pierced by eleven bullets, but he himself escaped unhurt. He was 
 severely wounded at the battle of Inkermann, November 5, 1854, and 
 was obliged to retire for some time to Malta. He returned to his 
 command in the Crimea early in 1855, in which year the Queen created 
 him a Knight Commander of the Bath. He commanded the British 
 troops in the expedition to the Sea of Azof, and he had the command- 
 in-chief of the storming party in the first unsuccessful attack on the 
 Redan of Sebastopol. He soon afterwards returned to England. On 
 the 3rd of April 1856 he was gazetted " General in the army, for 
 distinguished service in the field." 
 
 BROWN, REV. JOHN (of Haddington), professor of divinity to the 
 Associate or Burgher Synod, was born in 1722 at the village of Carpow, 
 near Abernethy, in Perthshire. His parents, who were in very humble 
 circumstances, dying while he was yet a boy, he was placed as a 
 shepherd with a neighbouring farmer. He soon became distinguished 
 by the diligence with which he devoted his spare hours to the study of 
 the Latin, Hebrew, and Greek languages, in which he made remarkable 
 progress. In 1745, the year in which the young Pretender made his 
 last attempt upon the British throne, Brown served as a volunteer. 
 Having early become impressed with the importance of religious truth, • 
 and having resolved to devote himself to the ministry, he in 1718 
 opened a school, as a means of enabling him the better to carry on his 
 studies. When the seceding body divided into two sections in reference 
 to the Burgess oath, Mr. Brown adhered to the Burgher section, tbat 
 is, to those who thought that seceders might conscientiously subscribe 
 the oath required from burgesses in corporate towns. Having com- 
 pleted his divinity studies under Ebenezer Erskine and James Fisher, 
 two of the fathers of the Secession, he was licensed to preach, and a 
 short time after he accepted a call from the congregation of Haddington. 
 His congregation being small, he was able to devote much of his time 
 to his favourite studies. He was his own instructor, except during 
 one month, when he had some lessons in Latin. Besides the Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew, in which he acquired considerable proficiency, he 
 acquired some knowledge of Arabic, Persian, Syriac, Ethiopic, French, 
 Spanish, Italian, Dutch, and German. With the Scriptures and scrip- 
 tural subjects his acquaintance was singularly full and accurate. As 
 a pastor he was laborious and painstaking, aud he was much beloved 
 and revered by his flock, as well as by members of other denominations. 
 In 1768 he was appointed by the Associate Synod to the office of 
 professor of divinity, a position which he occupied till his death, which 
 took place on the 19th of June, 1787. The students who were trained 
 by him regarded him with filial reverence, and his piety and learning 
 gained him an extraordinary amount of influence. Beyond the limits 
 of his own communion Mr. Brown is best known by his ' Dictionary 
 
9*8 
 
 BROWN, JOHN, D.D. 
 
 BROWN, LANCELOT. 
 
 950 
 
 of the Bible,' his ' Self-Interpreting Bible,' and his ' History of the 
 British Churches ;' but his other works were numerous, and some of 
 them had an extensive sale. 
 
 BROWN, JOHN, D.D., professor of Exegetical Theology to the 
 United Presbyterian Church, was born in 1785 at Whitburn, Lin- 
 lithgowshire, where his father was minister of the Burgher section of 
 the Secession Church. His grandfather was John Brown of Hadding- 
 ton, professor of divinity in the same connexion. After passing 
 through the course of literary and theological studies required of 
 candidates for the ministry among the Seceders of that day, he was 
 licensed as a probationer, and speedily received a call from the Burgher 
 congregation at Biggar, to the pastoral charge of which he was ordained 
 in 1806. In 1821 he became pastor of the United Secession Church, 
 Rose-street, Edinburgh ; and on the death of Dr. James Hall, he suc- 
 ceeded that minister as pastor of Broughton-place church, Edinburgh. 
 The Burgher and Anti-Burgher Seceders having united in 1820 under 
 the name of the United Associate Synod, Dr. Brown was chosen one 
 of their professors of divinity in 1835. In most of the public questions 
 which have been agitated in Scotland during the last thirty years 
 Dr. Brown has taken a prominent, although on the whole a moderate 
 part. On the division in the British and Foreign Bible Society 
 respecting the circulation of the Apocrypha, he adhered to the parent 
 society. On the question of church establishments, he publicly 
 advocated the voluntary views. Having been resident for a short time 
 within the bounds of the ancient royalty of the city of Edinburgh, he 
 became liable to the annuity-tax which is levied for the support of the 
 city ministers ; and refusing to pay, his goods were distrained. This 
 led to his preaching and publishing two sermons on the ' Law of 
 Christ respecting Civil Obedience, especially in the Payment of Tribute,' 
 which by additions, notes, and references, subsequently swelled to the 
 dimensions of a thick octavo volume. Besides many practical theolo- 
 gical works, Dr. Brown has published ' Expository Lectures on the 
 First Epistle of Peter,' 2 vols. 8vo ; also ' Discourses and Sayings 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ, illustrated in a series of expositions,' 
 3 vols. 8vo. About the year 1840 considerable discussion arose 
 in Scotland in reference to the doctrine of the atonement, and some 
 of the members of the United Secession body being dissatisfied with 
 the position taken by Dr. Brown in the matter, brought a charge 
 against him before the Synod, in 1845, in the usual form of a ' libel.' 
 The 'counts' of the libel were, by considerable majorities, found 'not 
 proven,' and the Synod passed a vote of confidence in Dr. Brown. The 
 agitation on the subject soon after subsided, the attention of the reli- 
 gious community being almost wholly engrossed by the preparations for 
 the union of the Secession and Relief Churches, which took place in May 
 I *47, by which union wa9 constituted the United Presbyterian Church. 
 For several years past Dr. Brown has found it necessary to have the 
 assistance of a colleague in his pastoral duties. His congregation 
 celebrated at the commencement of April 1856 the fiftieth anniversary 
 of his ministry. As professor of theology, and one of the oldest 
 ministers in the United Presbyterian Church, as well as from his 
 learning, moderation, and high personal character, Dr. Brown has for 
 some years held an important and influential position in the community 
 to which he belongs. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BROWN, JOHN, M.D., founder of the system of medicine termed 
 Brunonian. It is unnecessary to trace minutely the events of his life, 
 as they are now of little interest. He was born in 1735 at Dunse, in 
 Berwickshire, of parents in very limited circumstances, who designed 
 him for the occupation of a weaver ; but a love of learning, which he 
 acquired when a child at school, determined him to study for the 
 church. Accordingly he went to Edinburgh, and while pursuing his 
 own studies, he taught Latin to obtain a livelihood. Having been 
 employed to translate a medical thesis into Latin, he was induced to 
 pay attention to medical studies, and began to attend the lectures of 
 several of the medical professors of the University, among others, 
 those of Dr. Cullen, who having discovered his knowledge of Latin, 
 ma le him tutor to his sons. Having completed the requisite course of 
 medical studies, he obtained the degree of Doctor from the University 
 of St. Andrews. His improvident habits soon involved him in pecuniary 
 difficulties, and his hasty temper in quarrels with his medical brethren. 
 He imagined that Dr. Cullen did not assist him to the extent he might 
 have done, and he conceived a dislike to his former preceptor and 
 benefactor, which he displayed in a way that he thought would be 
 most annoying and humiliating to Cullen. Cullen's system of medicine 
 was then in the highest repute, and Brown conceived the idea of 
 bringing forward a rival system, which would supersede that of his 
 master. Actuated by these motives, he proceeded to frame a system, 
 of which, unlike the complex doctrines of the Cullenian system, simpli- 
 city should be the basis and recommendation. This was the origin of 
 his ' Elementa Medicinae.' 
 
 The fundamental doctrine of this system was that life was a forced 
 state, and only sustained by the action of external agents operating 
 upon the body, every part of which was endowed, at the commence- 
 ment of existence, with a certain amount of excitability. If the power 
 or force of the external exciting agents was within a certain limit, the 
 body was maintained in equilibrium, or in health : if the force fell 
 short of a certain amount, the excitability accumulated in the body, 
 and produced diseases which he termed ' sthenic ;' while the exter- 
 nal agents, if in excess, exhausted the excitability too rapidly, and 
 
 produced 'asthenic' diseases. The means of remedying these diseases 
 were in accordance with tho views of their origin, and were equally 
 simple and few. He discarded the numerous drugs which his prede- 
 cessors and contemporaries employed, and confined himself to two — 
 alcohol in any of its forms, as wine, brandy, &c, as a remedy for the 
 one set of diseases, and opium for the opposite set. He made some 
 converts to his opinions among the students, but the fatal results 
 which followed tho application of these doctrines to practice brought 
 discredit upon them in Edinburgh ; and their author, hoping for 
 greater success, removed to London, where he died of apoplexy in 
 1788, without having obtained the distinction and fortune which he 
 expected. His system never found much favour in this country, 
 except among a few whose minds inclined them to the adoption of 
 hasty generalisations, such as Dr. Beddoes, who edited an edition of 
 the 'Elememts of Medicine,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1795, with a life of 
 Brown prefixed. His whole works, with a more ample life, were pub- 
 lished by his son William Cullen Brown, 3 vols. 8vo, Lond. 1804. 
 
 Brown's doctrines met with a more general reception in Germany 
 and Italy ; in the former country they were propagated with great 
 zeal by Girtanner and Weikard. Rasori made them known in Italy, 
 and at first believed them to be well-founded, but experience con- 
 vinced him of their inaccuracy, and he subsequently renounced his 
 belief in them. 
 
 BROWN, DR. JOHN, was born in 1715, at Rothbury in Northum- 
 berland, where his father, a Scotchman, was curate. He studied at 
 St. John's College, Cambridge, and took his degree with reputation ; 
 after which he resided for some years at Carlisle on a minor canonship 
 and lectureship, and distinguished himself by acting bravely as a 
 volunteer in the rebellion of 1745. He successively held and resigned 
 several livings in the church. Of these, one at least was procured 
 through the influence of Warburton, a patron however whose letters 
 show him to have treated with little tenderness Brown's capriciousness 
 of temper, caused doubtless in part by his latent tendency to mental 
 derangement. In 1766 the reputation which his writings had obtained 
 gained for him an invitation from the Empress of Russia to visit St. 
 Petersburg, and assist in organising a scheme for public education. Ill 
 health compelled him to decline the engagement. Other vexations 
 preyed upon his spirits ; and in September of the same year, seized 
 with a fit of insanity, he cut his throat. Brown's works were both 
 numerous and varied, in verse as well as in prose. His versified 
 ' Essay on Satire ' was prefixed by Warburton to his editions of Pope's 
 works. His tragedy of ' Barbarossa,' brought upon the stage in 1755, 
 was highly successful for a time, in spite of its extravagance and 
 feebleness, and has been reprinted in more than one collection. Its 
 successor, 'Athelstan,' was not so fortunate. His principal prose 
 writings were the following: — ' Essays on the Characteristics of Lord 
 Shaftesbury,' 1751; 'An Estimate of the Manners and Principles of 
 the Times,' 1757, 2 vols. 8vo, a work which went through seven 
 editions before the end of the next year, and received, abroad as well 
 as at home, an attention which it owed to its severity of animadversion 
 on national vices rather than to its merits as a philosophical specu- 
 lation ; an 'Additional Dialogue of the Dead, between Pericles and 
 Cosmo,' 1760, which was a defence of the political character and 
 conduct of Lord Chatham ; and a ' Dissertation on the Rise, Union, 
 and Power, the Progressions, Separations, and Corruptions, of Poetry 
 and Music,' 1763, a treatise of considerable ingenuity. 
 
 BROWN, LANCELOT, best known by the familiar sobriquet of 
 Capability Brown, who was originally a kitchen-gardener, raised him- 
 self to be the most eminent landscape-gardener of his day, and 
 'improver of grounds,' as to which he was considered the oracle of 
 taste ; and he also acquired no small degree of reputation by his skill 
 in architecture. 
 
 Lancelot Brown was born at Kirkharle in Northumberland in 1715, 
 and in the early part of his life was in the service of Lord Cobham as 
 one of the persons employed in the gardens and grounds at Stowe ; 
 after which he was similarly engaged by other persons of distinction, 
 but of his rise until he formally established himself professionally as 
 an artist-gardener we have no account. His personal history is a 
 scanty but an enviable one; he not only realised a handsome fortune, 
 but he graced his acquired station of gentleman by the manners and 
 feelings of one. After having arrived at the dignity of high sheriff 
 for the county of Huntingdon, which office he filled in 1770, he died 
 Feb. 6, 1783. His worth as a man is highly eulogised by Repton, 
 Mason, and others who knew him intimately. 
 
 Great as was the vogue of Brown as a landscape-gardener, his taste 
 has since been very much questioned, and even severely so by Price, 
 who accuses him of having done sad mischief by attempting to reform 
 natural scenery and reduce it to rule, and of having thereby sinned 
 against good taste even more than his predecessors by their formally 
 laid out gardens and straight hedges and avenues. In fact, while 
 eudeavouring to avoid the formality which had become 'old-fashioned,' 
 Brown fell into what was little better than formal mannerism and 
 routine, applying to every scene alike the same set of features — 
 'clumps,' ' belts,' and ' serpentine canals.' The grounds at Kew, Blen- 
 heim, Stowe, and Nuneham-Courtnay were laid out or remodelled by 
 Brown; and perhaps as they now appear, after nature has for three- 
 quarters of a century been exerting her modifying influence, they 
 exhibit a too favourable example of the powers of Brown as a land- 
 
061 
 
 BROWN, ROBERT. 
 
 BROWN, SIR SAMUEL, R.N. 
 
 B51 
 
 scape gardener; but certain it is, that their present appearance would 
 
 seem to indicate considerable foresight in their designer as to eventual 
 effect. As au architect, in which profession he naturally confined 
 himself to country mansions, he excelled in what related to internal 
 arrangement and accommodation, for the houses erected by him have 
 been allowed to be models of comfort and convenience. The artistic 
 power displayed was, as may be supposed, by no means of an elevated 
 order. Among the mansions executed or altered by him, is the Earl 
 of Coventry's at Croome, with the lodges, church, and other buildings, 
 the recorded date of which (1751) shows that he was then iu practice 
 as an architect. At Fisherwick he erected the house, offices, and 
 bridge for the Earl of Donegal ; he also made additions at Burleigh 
 fur the Earl of Exeter; additions at Prior Park, near Bath, 1705; 
 built the picture-gallery at Oorsham ; made considerable alterations at 
 Treuthain (now succeeded by more extensive ones by Barry) ; built a 
 mansion for the Earl of Newbury at Redgrave, 1765; and made alter- 
 ations at Nuneham and at the house of Claremont. This list might 
 be considerably extended, but it will be sufficient to add that he 
 designed several of the buildings in the gardens at Stowe. 
 
 (Repton, On Gardening, by Loudon.) 
 BROWN, ROBERT, a distinguished botanist, was born in 1773 
 at Montrose, in which town he received his early education. In 1787 
 lie entered Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he remained three years. 
 From 1790 to 1794 he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. 
 In 1795 he was appointed assistant-surgeon and subaltern iu a Scotch 
 Fencible regiment, which he accompanied to Ireland, and stayed there 
 until the end of 1800. 
 
 Mr. Brown was next engaged as naturalist to Capt. Flinders' sur- 
 veying expedition, aud sailed with that officer for Australia in July 
 1801. Dining this voyage the Australian continent was circumnavi- 
 gated, and many parts of the coast were visited, until the vessel was 
 finally condemned as unseaworthy at Port Jackson in June 1803. 
 [Flinders] Mr. Brown remained, adding to his collections by 
 excursions to different parts of the colony of New South Wales aud 
 to Van Diemen's Land. In October 18u5 he arrived in England 
 with his collections, among which the plants numbered nearly 3900 
 species. 
 
 A few months later ho became librarian of the Linnacan Society. In 
 1809 he contributed an important paper to the 'Transactions' of the 
 Wei nerian Society — ' On the Asclcpiada:.' In 1810 his paper ' On the 
 Natural Order of Plants called Proteaoeoa' appeared in the ' Transac- 
 tions of the Linnsean Society;' and in the same year he published 
 the first volume of his ' Prodromus Florae Nova? HollandiaJ et Insula) 
 Van Diemen,' in which, besides his own collections, he describes those 
 formed by Sir Joseph Banks during Cook's first voyage. 
 
 Mr. Browu was the first English botanist to write a systematic work 
 of any extent according to the natural method of Jussieu. No one 
 has done more than he to make that method known in England, and, 
 as has been truly observed, " no one has done so much in any country 
 to throw light on its intricacies." In 1811 he was elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society. 
 
 In 1814, on the publication of Flinders' narrative of his voyage, an 
 appendix by Mr. Brown was printed in the second volume, entitled 
 ' General Remarks, Geographical and Systematical, on the Botany of 
 Terra Australis,' in which the subject is treated in a masterly style, and 
 the plants are compared with those of other countries. 
 
 In 1822 Mr. Brown was elected a Fellow of the Linnrean Society, 
 having resigned his official appointment. The ' Transactions ' of that 
 society have been enriched from time to time with papers from his 
 pen, remarkable for deep philosophical insight and for the clearness 
 and method with which the subjects are set forth. Those on the 
 fecundation and propagation of plants, placed their author's name in 
 the foremost rank of scientific botanists. Aincng them the ' Observa- 
 tions on the natural family of Plants called Compositae ' (vol. xii.), and 
 ' An Account of a new genus of Plants named Rafflesia ' (vol. xiii. ), are 
 especially noteworthy. In 182S he published in a separate form, ' A 
 Brief Account of Microscopical Observations on the particles contained 
 in the Pollen of Plants, and on the general existence of active Mole- 
 cules in Organic and Inorganic Bodies,' 8vo, and followed it the next 
 year by ' Additional Remarks,' in which some of the statements of the 
 first were modified. ■ He is the author also of the botanical appendices 
 published with the narratives of the voyages of Ros3 and Parry to the 
 arctic regions, of Tuckey's expedition to the Congo, and of Oudney, 
 Denham, and Clappertou's exploration of Central Africa. 
 
 On the continent Mr. Brown's reputation is even higher than in 
 England. Humboldt has called him 'Botauicorum facile Princeps;' 
 aud as ' our Princeps' he is known among his fellow savants. In 1826 
 he was named on the council of the Royal Society, and on several 
 occasions since has been chosen to the same office. In 1827 he was 
 appointed keeper of the Botanical department of the British Museum. 
 In 1830 he published a ' Supplementum' to his 'Prodromus,' relating 
 to Proteaceous plants only. In 1832 the degree of D.C.L. was conferred 
 on him by the University of Oxford. In 1833 he was elected one of 
 the eight foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences. In 
 1839 the Royal Society awarded him their Copley medal for his 
 ' Discoveries during a series of years on the subject of vegetable impreg- 
 nation.' In 1849 he was elected president of the Linuaean Society, 
 and retained that honourable post until 1853. He is an honorary 
 
 member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of the Royal Irish 
 
 Academy, and Cambridge Philosophical Society, and is a foreign 
 member of nearly thirty of the chief learned and scientific societies 
 
 of Europe. 
 
 Mr. Brown's separate publications are few. Besides the works 
 above mentioned, his writings are to be found in the ' Annals and 
 Magazine of Natural History;' the 'Reports' of the British Association; 
 and in Horsfield's ' Plautse Javanicso rariores.' Those prior to 1834 
 have been collected, translated into German, and published in five 
 volumes, 8vo, by Nees von Esonbeck. 
 
 BROWN, ROBERT, the founder of the sect of Brownists, was horn 
 about the middle of the 16th century, and was nearly connected with 
 the Lord Treasurer Cecil. He was educated at Corpus Christi college, 
 Cambridge, and preached sometimes in Bennet church, where, says 
 Neal, " the vehemence of his delivery gained him reputation with the 
 people." He was subsequently a schoolmaster, aud afterwards a 
 lecturer at Islington. Neal terms him "a fiery, hot-headed young 
 man ;" and Mosheim, " an insinuating man, but very unsettled and 
 inconsistent in his views and notions of things." He went about the 
 country inveighing against the discipline and ceremonies of the church, 
 and exhorting the people by no means to comply with them. In tho 
 year 1580 the Bishop of Norwich caused him to betaken into custody; 
 but Brown, acknowledging that he had offended, was released. In 
 1582 lie published a book entitled 'The Life and Manners of True 
 Christians;' to which was prefixed 'A Treatise of Reformation without 
 tarrying for any ; aud of the wickedness of those preachers who will 
 not reform themselves and their charge, because they tarry till the 
 magistrate command and compel them.' He was again taken into 
 custody, but releas< d on the intercession of his relative the lord 
 treasurer. Four years afterwards he again travelled through various 
 parts of the country preaching against bishops, ceremonies, ecclesias- 
 tical courts, ordaining of ministers, &c, for which, aa he afterwards 
 boasted, he had been committed to thirty-two prisons, in some of which 
 he could not see his hand at noon-day. At length he formed a separate 
 congregation on his own principles ; but being forced to leave the 
 kingdom in consequence of the persecutions which they met with, 
 they accompanied Brown to Middleburg in Holland. Neal observes, 
 that " when this handful of people were delivered from the bishops 
 they crumbled into parties among themselves, insomuch that Brown, 
 being weary of his office, returned into England in the year 1589, and 
 having renounced his principles of separation, became rector of a 
 church in Northamptonshire. Here he lived an idle and dissolute life 
 (according to Fuller) far from that Sabbatarian strictness that his 
 followers aspired after. He had a wife, with whom he did not live 
 for many years, and a church in which he never preached. At length, 
 being poor and proud, he struck the constable of his parish for 
 demanding a rate of him ; and being beloved by nobody, the officer 
 summoned him before Sir Rowland St. John, who committed hitn to 
 Northampton gaol. The decrepit old man, not being able to walk, 
 was carried thither upon a feather-bed in a cart, where he fell sick and 
 died in the year 1630, and eighty-first year of his age." 
 
 After Brown's death his principles continued to gather strength in 
 England. The Brownists were subsequently known both in England 
 and Holland by the name of Independents. But the present very 
 large and important community known as the Independents do not 
 acknowledge Brown as the founder of the sect ; they assert, on the 
 contrary, that the distinguishing sentiments adopted by Brown and 
 his followers had been professed in England, and churches established 
 in accordance with their rules, before the time when Brown formed a 
 separate congregation. Neal, in his ' History of the Puritans,' enume- 
 rates the leading principles of the Brownists. He says : — " The 
 Brownists did not differ from the Church of England in any articles 
 of faith, but they were very rigid and narrow in points of discipline. 
 They denied the Church of England to be a true Church, and her 
 ministers to be rightly ordained. They maintained the discipline of 
 the Church of England to be popish and anti-Christian, and all her 
 ordinances and sacraments invalid. They apprehended, according to 
 scripture, that every church ought to be confined within the limits of 
 a single congregation, and that the government should be democraticaL 
 The whole power of admitting and excluding members, with the 
 deciding of all controversies, was in the brotherhood. Their church 
 officers, for preaching the word and taking care of the poor, were 
 chosen from among themselves, and separated to their several offices 
 by fasting and prayer, and imposition of the hands of some of the 
 brethren. They did not allow the priesthood to be a distinct order, 
 or to give a man an indelible character; but as the vote of the brother- 
 hood made him an officer, and gave him authority to preach and 
 administer the sacraments among them, so the same power could 
 discharge him from his office, and reduce him to the state of a private 
 brother. Every church or society of Christians meeting in one place 
 was, according to the Brownists, a body corporate, having full power 
 within itself to admit and exclude members, to choose and ordain 
 officers, and when the good of the society required it, to depose them, 
 without being accountable to classes, convocations, synods, councils, 
 or any jurisdiction whatsoever." (Vol. i., p. 376, edition 1732.) 
 
 BROWN, CAPT. SIR SAMUEL, R.N., was born in London in 
 1776. At the age of eighteen he entered the navy, and served with 
 distinction during the French war. He passed through the successive 
 
HI 
 
 BROWN, THOMAS. 
 
 BROWN 1 , THOMAS. 
 
 984 
 
 grades in hia profession, rising to the rank of commander in 1811, and 
 accepting that of retired captain in 1842. 
 
 It is however as a civil engineer that Sir Samuel Brown has claim to 
 remembrance. To his ability and ingenuity may be ascribed the intro- 
 duction into use of both chain-cables and suspension-bridges. The 
 idea of substituting iron cables in the place of those made from hemp, 
 first occurred to M. de Bougainville, whose account of a voyage which 
 he made round the world was published in 1771. [Bougainville, 
 Louis A. DE.] But the idea was not put in practice ; and though a 
 patent was taken out by a Mr. Slater, a surgeon in the British army, 
 in 1S0S, little was done until Captain Brown carried out a series of 
 experiments, the results of which were deemed so satisfactory that 
 the Board of Admiralty ordered iron chaiu-cables to be tried in the 
 navy. Their use, it need hardly be added, has since become general. 
 Iron suspension- bridges had, as is well known, been erected in several 
 instances both in America and Europe before Captain Brown directed 
 his attention to them. But they were generally regarded as insecure, 
 except for crossing narrow streams, until Brown introduced his 
 improved method of constructing chains for suspending the roadway. 
 Instead of chains of the ordinary construction, he proposed to form 
 them of long bare of flat or round iron, pinned together by short 
 links and bolt-pins. He made a model of his invention in 1813, having 
 however designed and prepared specifications for suspension-bridges 
 much earlier, but he did not obtain his patent till 1817. Brown's plan 
 was soon after adopted in principle by Telford (who had in the first 
 instance proposed to use cables of merely the ordinary construction) 
 in the erection of his magnificent bridge over the Meuai Strait. The 
 first extensive bridge erected wholly on Captain Brown's plan was the 
 Union Bridge which crosses the Tweed at Berwick, in which the length 
 of the chord-line between the points of suspension is 419 feet : it was 
 opened for use in July 1820. In 1821 Captain Brown commenced the 
 construction of the Trinity suspension-pier at Newhaven near Edin- 
 burgh. He subsequently erected several other bridges and piers, but 
 it may suffice to mention, a3 his great work, the suspensiou-pier at 
 Brighton, which consists of four openings of 255 feet each, with a 
 deflection of 18 feet. The Brighton pier has suffered considerable 
 damage on two occasions in severe storms, but, as subsequently 
 strengthened, it has successfully withstood others of excessive force. 
 
 Captain Brown was knighted in 1835. He died on the 15th of 
 March, 1852. 
 
 BROWN, THOMAS, better known by the familiar name of ' Tom 
 Brown,' was born in Shropshire in the year 1603. At the age of fifteen 
 he entered as a servitor of Christ Church, Oxford ; but he left the 
 univer.-ity in disgrace without taking a degree, and, going to London, 
 became a Grub-street writer. The most respectable part of his career 
 was his holding for a short time the mastership of the free school at 
 Kingston-upon-Thames. Among those hangers-on of literature whose 
 character and conduct made the title of author disreputable in the 
 latter part of the 17th ceutury, Tom Brown was one of the most 
 notorious. He was habitually attached to vicious indulgences, invete- 
 rately fond of low society, and indolent to a degree which made him 
 unfit to earn his bread steadily by the equivocal kind of literary 
 labour which was hia trade. But his talents were of no mean order. 
 HU published writinga, almost all of which were satirical squibs in 
 prose or verse, are full of coarse and humorous buffoonery. Their 
 gross personalities however more than once brought him into trouble, 
 and were restrained by no considerations either of safety or of decency. 
 Dryden, Sherlock, and Titus Oates, alike suffered under his lash. His 
 earliest pamphlet, ' The Reason of Mr. Bayes changing his Religion,' 
 appeared in 1688; and from that time till his death in 1704 he con- 
 tinued, by a series of ephemeral productions, to justify Anthony Wood's 
 description of him as "a frequent and satirical writer." Wood gives 
 a catalogue of his publications. They are not nearly all included in 
 a collection professing to contain his works, which appeared in four 
 small volumes in 17U7, and was several times reprinted before the 
 middle of the last century. 
 
 BROWN, THOMAS, son of the Rev. Samuel Brown, was born on 
 the 9th of January 1778, at the manse of the parish of Kirkmabreck, 
 in the Stewartry of Kircudbright. 
 
 About a year after her husband's death Mrs. Brown removed with her 
 family to Edinburgh. Many stories are told of Thomas's early fondness 
 for books and general precocity, buti they are probably of little more 
 value than the usual run of these infantile anecdotes. About his 
 eighth year he was removed to a school at Chiswick, in which the 
 present Lord Lyndhurst was one of his class fellows. His last school, 
 which he left in his sixteenth year, was Dr. Thomson's at Kensington. 
 In 1792, he returned to Edinburgh; and in the session of 1792-3 
 studied logic in the University of Ediuburgh under Dr. Fiulayson. 
 Spending a part of the ensuing summer in Liverpool, he became 
 acquainted with Dr. Currie, who put into bis hands a copy of 
 Stewart's ' Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind.' Brown 
 was struck with an inconsistency in the doctrines of Stewart ; he 
 pointed it out to Dr. Currie, and next winter, when attending 
 Stewart's cla*?, he was bold enough to state it to him at the close of 
 one of his lectures. Stewart heard him patiently, and read a letter to 
 him from M. Prevost of Geneva, containing the same objection. Stewart 
 held that in sleep the operations of the rnind which depend on the 
 "ill are suspended, along with the doctrine that memory depends on 
 
 attention, the creature of the will ; the objection is obvious, why then 
 do we remember our dreams? The acuteness which exposed the 
 error consists more in seeing it through the glozes and colouring 
 under which it was hid, than in the objection itself. The professor 
 invited his pupil to his house, but never disputed with him. 
 
 For several years Brown attended the lectures of Stewart, Robison, 
 Playfair, and Black : his evenings were generally spent in conversational 
 discussions on all sorts of subjects with his friends Horner, Leyden, 
 Reddie, and Erskine. 
 
 When little more than eighteen years of age, the remarks he had 
 made in reading Darwin's ' Zoonoinia ' had swelled from a few notes, 
 for an article in a periodical, to the Bize of a book. Before printing 
 it, by the advice of Professor Stewart, he sent his MS. to Darwin, who 
 received it very dryly, and answered it with no little asperity. In 
 the beginning of 1798 appeared, in one vol. 8vo. ' Observations on the 
 Zoonomia' of Erasmus Darwin, M.D., by Thomas Brown, Esq. The 
 preface, which contains the germ of his doctrine of causation, was 
 especially admired. Brown often attacks a false theory with weapons 
 equally fallacious, and the errors and excellences of his book have the 
 same source, — the delight of a young and acute mind in the detection 
 of inconsistencies. One example will be sufficient. Darwin holds that 
 irritation, sensation, volition, and association are essential qualities 
 of every particle of sensorial power; a dogma which Brown con- 
 sidered that he refuted by the inference, that every individual must 
 in this case be made up of a multitude of distinct beings. 
 
 In 1796 he studied law for a year, a profession in which his 
 friends augured success from his acuteness. Becoming convinced 
 however that astuteness and not subtlety of intellect was the successful 
 quality at the bar, and finding the joint pursuit of legal and literary 
 knowledge incompatible with his health, he began, in 1798, to study 
 for the profession of medicine. In 1803, when he took his diploma 
 as M.D., his thesis 'De Somno ' excited the admiration of his examiners. 
 
 About 1793 Brown joined a debating society in the University, in 
 which he argued against theism ; a circumstance which was used 
 against him in after life. A few of the members of the Literary 
 Society formed themselves in 1797 into the Academy of Physics, a 
 society for the " investigation of nature, the laws by which her phe- 
 nomena are regulated, and the history of opinions concerning those 
 laws." The names of Erskine, Brougham, Reddie, Brown, Rogerson, 
 Birkbeck, Logan, and Leyden were immediately enrolled ; and they 
 were soon after joined by Lord Webbe Seymour, Horner, Jeffrey, 
 Smith, Gillespie, &c. From this society arose the ' Edinburgh Review,' 
 to which Brown contributed two or three articles in the beginning, 
 but owing to some liberties taken with a paper of his in the third 
 number his connection with it ceased. The first article in the second 
 number is by Brown, on the 'Philosophy of Kant;' a subject of 
 which he knew very little. All he knew of Kant's doctrines was 
 derived from a fantastic French account of them ; and though acute 
 and just remarks occur in his critique, it is as bad as his preparation 
 for writing it was imperfect. 
 
 A few months after taking his degree Brown published two volumes 
 of poems written while he was at college. They pleased, it is said, 
 the ladies and great people whom they praised ; but poems on the 
 ' Sun,' the ' Moou,' the ' Frown of Love,' and the ' War Fiend,' 
 attracted little notice from any one else. 
 
 In pursuance of a system they had long adopted, what is called in 
 Edinburgh the high church party, on the promotion of Professor 
 Playfair to the chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edin- 
 burgh, determined to elect a clergyman to the chair of Mathematics, 
 although the superiority of Mr. Leslie, the lay candidate, was incon- 
 testable. The approbation which this gentleman, in a note to his 
 ' Essay on Heat,' had expressed of Hume's doctrine of causation was 
 made the ground of a charge of infidelity. Brown published a 
 pamphlet on the occasion, in which he proved that no such conse- 
 quences flowed from the doctrine. In an extended and improved form 
 this pamphlet has passed through several editions. The substance of 
 the doctrine of causation which it contains is this :— " A cause is that 
 which immediately precedes any change, and which existing at any 
 time in similar circumstances has been always and will be always 
 immediately followed by a similar change. Priority in the sequence 
 observed, and invariableness of antecedence in the past and future 
 sequences supposed, are the elements and the only elements com- 
 bined in the notion of a cause. By a conversion of terms we obtain 
 a definition of the correlative effect ; and power is only another word 
 for expressing abstractly and briefly the antecedence itself, aud the 
 invariableness of the relation. The words property and quality admit 
 of exactly the same definition, expressing only a certain relation of 
 invariable antecedence and consequence in changes that take place on 
 the presence of the substance to which they are ascribed ; with this 
 difference, that property and quality as commonly used comprehend 
 both the powers and susceptibility of substances— the powers of pro- 
 ducing changes and the susceptibilities of being changed; — and with 
 this difference only, power, property, and quality are in the physical 
 use of these terms exactly synonymous. Water has the power of 
 melting salt; it is a property of water to melt salt; it is a quality of 
 water to melt salt : all these varieties of expression signify precisely 
 the same thing — that when water is poured upon salt the solid will 
 take the form of a liquid, and its particles be diffused in continued 
 
956 
 
 BROWN, THOMAS. 
 
 BROWNE, SIR THOMAS. 
 
 95R 
 
 combination tbrough the mass. When we speak of all the powers of 
 a body we consider it as existing in a variety of circumstances, and 
 consider at the same time all the changes, that are or may be in these 
 circumstances, its immediate effects. When we speak of all the 
 qualities of a body we mean nothing more and we mean nothing 
 less." In one respect this essay had a very unusual success; it con- 
 vinced on one point the person at whom it aimed. On the question 
 whether even after experience we are able to infer the relation of 
 cause and effect as to the phenomena of the inertia of matter, the 
 composition of forces, and such like, Professor Play fair declared him- 
 self completely convinced by his arguments. 
 
 In 1806 Dr. Brown became the partnor of the eminent Dr. Gregory 
 in his large practice. But his bias was to a literary life. In 1799 he 
 was a candidate for the Rhetoric chair, and on the death of Dr. Fin- 
 layson for the Logic, but in both cases unsuccessfully. Owing to the 
 decline of his health Mr. Stewart required a substitute in the Moral 
 Philosophy class who could read lectures of his own. This Brown 
 undertook, and lectured for a short time in session 1808-9. A similar 
 request in the ensuing session led him to deliver a series of lectures, 
 which were honoured by the attendance of many distinguished mem- 
 bers of the bench, bar, and pulpit. When Mr. Stewart resumed his 
 lectures, the students appointed Lord John Russell and others of their 
 number to congratulate him on his recovery, and express their admi- 
 ration of his substitute. Stewart, anxious to have Brown with him 
 in the chair as assistant and successor, personally solicited every 
 member of the town-couucil in his behalf, and accordingly on the 
 recommendations of Dr. Gregory, Professor Playfair, and Lord Meadow- 
 bank, he was elected in May 1810. 
 
 Devoting himself to the cultivation of his health by air and exercise 
 during the vacation, Dr. Brown made no preparation for the labours of 
 the winter. He seldom began to write his lectures until after tea on 
 the evening before the day on which he was to deliver them ; he then 
 wrote until two or three o'clock, slept a few hours, and, resuming his 
 work, wrote until twelve, when he hurried off to his class. Light 
 reading or a walk occupied the time until the recommencement of 
 this routine. His lecture and theory of avarice were begun after one 
 o'clock in the morning, and finished before twelve next day. Under 
 colour of disagreeing with Dr. Reid he covered his differences with 
 Stewart, his colleague. Nearly all the lectures contained in the first 
 three volumes were written during his first session, and all the rest in 
 the next. They have been published almost verbatim. The following 
 are the more important of the peculiar and new opinions which they 
 contain : — All physical inquiry has one of two ends in view — either to 
 discover the parts of which bodies are made up, or to ascertain the 
 changes they undergo — the elements which compose them, and their 
 causes and effects in relation to each other. Bodies which, in relation 
 to our sight, are one, are in reality many ; they appear simple only 
 because we cannot see the spaces which intervene between the cor- 
 puscles of which they are made up. What we can now perceive only 
 by means of chemical and mechanical decomposition, finer powers of 
 perception would perceive without them. But no perfection of the 
 senses could enable us to foresee the second object of physical inquiry 
 —the changes of bodies — in the relations of the parts to each other, 
 and of the whole to other bodies ; and on this point reason is equally 
 incapable a priori of assisting us. More we can never know of any 
 substance than the parts of which it is compounded, and the changes 
 which it undergoes. 
 
 Every one will admit that the changes of the mind are as capable 
 of investigation as the changes of a material object; but some will 
 not see so readily how the mind which is simple and indivisible, can 
 be considered in its elementary parts. But the inquiry is not into the 
 parts and changes of the mind itself, viewed as a substance, for this is 
 quite inscrutable ; the object of investigation is thought, which being 
 both changeful and complex, may be examined either as to the causes 
 of its changes or the parts of its combinations. 
 
 The phenomena of mind, which may be considered either as suc- 
 cessive or complex, as causes and effects, or as subjects of analysis, are 
 the qualities, states, and affections of the mind of which we are 
 conscious, such as perception, memory, reason, and emotion. Since 
 the states of the mind are made known by consciousness, and relate 
 to itself, a consideration of them involves an examination of conscious- 
 ness and personal identity. Consciousness is a general name for all 
 the states of which the phenomena of mind consist. The supposition 
 of the existence of the mind in two separate states, sensation and con- 
 sciousness, at the same moment, is absurd. The proposition, " I am 
 conscious of a sensation," involves, besides the feeling of the sensation, 
 a reference to self. When it means more than the present feeling, it 
 adds to it a retrospect of some past feeling and the relation of both to 
 the mind. Belief in our personal identity he resolves into intuition. 
 
 Brown divides the states of mind, according to their causes, into 
 external and internal states or affections ; the external are the per- 
 ceptions or sensations of bodies affecting the senses ; the internal 
 affections he subdivides into two great classes, the intellectual states 
 and the emotions. 
 
 Dr. Reid defines perception to be the feeling of the organ of sense 
 and the reference of it to its external object. In opposition to this, 
 Brown maintains that the sensation is referred to its object by the 
 power of association, and not by a peculiar mental power. 
 
 The intellectual states he divides into two generic capacities, simple 
 
 and relative suggestion. Simple suggestion is the name he gives to the 
 successions and connexions of ideas and emotions, which ocour accord- 
 ing to certain primary and secondary laws. The primary are resem- 
 blance, contrast, and nearness in time or place : the secondary, by 
 which the former are modified, are, 1st, the length of time of their 
 co existence ; 2nd, degree of liveliness ; 3rd, frequency ; 4th, recent- 
 ness ; 5th, exclusiveness of co-existence ; 6th, original constitutional 
 differences ; 7th, differences of temporary emotion ; 8th, changes on 
 the state of the body ; 9th, general tendency produced by prior 
 habits. 
 
 The supposed faculties of conception, memory, imagination, and 
 habit, he reduces to simple suggestion. The arguments by which he 
 resolves memory into simple suggestion are these : — Remembrances 
 are conceptions of the past ; the state of mind is complex — the con- 
 ception and its relation of antecedence to the present time ; conceptions 
 and suggestions are the same, and the feeling of priority is a judgment 
 on succession in time, attributable therefore to the capacity of relative 
 suggestion. When combined with desire, perception becomes attention, 
 and memory becomes recollection; and a similar difference is produced 
 on the phenomena of imagination, as it occurs with or without desire. 
 Imagination without desire is reverie, and with it, combined with 
 simple suggestion and the feeling of relation, all its phenomena are 
 produced. Habit is suggestion and nothing more, since the increased 
 tendency to certain motions by repeating them is explained by its 
 primary and secondary laws. 
 
 Relative suggestion is the feeling which arises in the mind when 
 two or more objects are perceived or conceived, which Brown divides 
 into relations of co-existence and succession. The relations which do 
 not involve any regard to time he subdivides according to the notions, 
 1st, of position ; 2nd, resemblance or difference; 3rd, of degree; 4th, 
 of proportion ; 5th, of comprehensiveness, or the relation of the whole 
 to the parts it includes. The relation of resemblance is the source of 
 classification and definition. The process of reasoning he defines to be 
 the succession of analyses. Judgment, reason, and abstraction, are 
 reduced to relative suggestion. 
 
 In 1814 Dr. Brown finished his 'Paradise of Coquettes,' which he 
 had begun six years before. It was published anonymously in London. 
 Anxious to learn its fate, he came to London, and was received into 
 the society of the priucipal persons connected with the Whigs in 
 politics. In the winter of 1815 he published another volume of 
 poetry under the name of ' The Wanderer in Norway.' After the 
 rising of his class he generally spent the summer in some rural retreat. 
 Near Dunkeld, in Perthshire, he wrote his ' Bower of Spring ' in the 
 autumn of 1816. In 1817 he gave his opinion on a case of great 
 difficulty — the accusation of child-murder brought against a woman 
 who was boru deaf; and in the summer, while living at the manse of 
 Balmaclellan, he wrote his poem of ' Agnes,' which was published ill 
 1818. In the end of autumn 1819, on his return to Edinburgh, in. 
 high health and spirits, being anxious to publish outlines of his lectures, 
 he engaged in the preparation of them with great ardour. After 
 Christmas he felt unwell, and was obliged to find a substitute to read 
 his lectures to his class. His illness increasing, his medical advisers 
 recommended him to take a voyage to London. He died at Brompton, 
 near London, April 20, 1820. 
 
 Brown's metaphysical genius was of a high order, for he possessed 
 to a considerable degree its most essential faculty, the power of analysif. 
 But he did not sufficiently think out his conclusions, and hence thera 
 is with a great semblance of profundity often real want of depth. Hia 
 style is bad in the estimation of persons of chastened taste ; but its 
 very exuberance has given such a degree of popularity to his lectures 
 that they have passed through more editions than any other meta- 
 physical work ever did in the same time, and thus the most subtle and 
 analytic has also become the most popular and stimulating of meta- 
 physical writers. It is not likely however that the fame of Brown as 
 a metaphysician will be permanent. As a poet he is already nearly 
 forgotten. 
 
 (Welsh, Life of Brown.) 
 
 BROWNE, SIR THOMAS, a learned and able antiquary and phy- 
 sician, has had the good fortune to find a biographer in Dr. Johnson, 
 whose memoir we shall do little more than compress, making of course 
 such corrections as Wilkins and later writers have indicated, or our 
 own reading may suggest. Browne was born in St. Michael's, Cheap- 
 side, October 19, 1605. During his childhood his father (a merchant 
 of ancient family at Upton in Cheshire) died, leaving him what in 
 those days wa3 considered an ample fortune. He was educated at 
 Winchester, and afterwards entered as a gentleman commoner at 
 Broadgate Hall (now Pembroke College), Oxford. Having graduated, 
 he entered on the study of medicine, and practised for a short time In 
 Oxfordshire. He then visited Ireland with his father-in-law, Sir 
 Thomas Dutton, who had some public employment in the inspection 
 of the fortifications of that country; and after having rambled through 
 France and Italy he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Leyden 
 in 1633. His first work, 'Religio Medici,' which appeared anony- 
 mously in 1642, is supposed to have been written about seven years 
 before, on his return to London from the continent. It had great 
 success, and was translated into Latin, Italian, German, Dutch, and 
 | French. After his return he established himself as a physician at 
 
BROWNE, SIR THOMAS. 
 
 BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE. 
 
 058 
 
 Shipden Hall near Halifax; but in 1636 he settled at Norwich, where 
 he resided during the remainder of his life. Having soon obtained 
 considerable practice, he was incorporated Doctor of Physic at Oxford, 
 July 10, 1637. Notwithstanding very ungallaut opinions advanced in 
 the 'Religio Medici,' he married a lady who is described as both 
 beautiful and attractive, Mrs. Dorothy Mileham, of a good Norfolk 
 family. She bore him ten children, of whom a son and three daughters 
 survived their parents. In 1646 he published with his name a work 
 evincing most extensive reading and observation, and on which his 
 fame is principally founded : ' Pseudodoxia Epidemica ; or Inquiries 
 into Vulgar and Common Errors,' which ran through six editions in 
 twenty-seven years. A reply to it entitled ' Arcana Microcosmi ' was 
 attempted by Alexander Ross, a great lover of the marvellous. It 
 was immediately translated into Dutch and German, and in later years 
 into French, and acquired for its author an extraordinary amount of 
 credit. In 1648 appeared ' Hydriotaphia, Urnburial, or a Discoui'se 
 on Sepulchral Urns ; ' a treatise occasioned by the discovery of some 
 ancient urns in Norfolk; and replete with antiquarian knowledge, and 
 marked by many passages of a quaint sombre eloquence. To this was 
 added a much more fanciful essay, entitled 'The Garden of Cyrus, or 
 the Quincunxial Lozenge ; or Net-work Plantations of the Ancients, 
 artifically, naturally, and mystically considered.' So imbued was 
 Browne with respect for his favourite figure, that an incautious reader 
 (to use the powerful language of Johnson) " would imagine that decus- 
 sation was the great business of the world, and that nature and art 
 had no other purpose than to exemplify and imitate a quincunx." 
 These were all the works published in his lifetime. Two collections 
 of posthumous tracts found among papers transcribed and corrected 
 by his own hand contain the following pieces : — 
 
 1, 'Observations on several Plants mentioned in Scripture;' 2, 'Of 
 Garlands apd coronary and garland Plants;' 3, 'Of the Fishes eaten 
 by our Saviour with his Disciples after his Resurrection from the 
 Dead ; ' 4, ' Answers to certain Queries about Fishes, Birds, and Insects ;' 
 6, 'A Letter on Hawks and Falconry, Ancient and Modern;' 6, 'Of 
 the Cymbals of the Hebrews;' 7, 'Of Ropalic or gradual Verses;' 
 8, ' On Languages, and particularly the Saxon Tongue ; ' 9, ' Of arti- 
 ficial Hills, Mounts, and Barrows in England;' 10, 'Of Troas, &c. ;' 
 11, 'Of the Answers of the Oracle of Apollo at Delphos to Crcesus, 
 King of Lydia;' 12, 'A Prophecy concerning the future State of 
 several Nations ;' 13, 'Museum clau^um sive Bibliotheca abscondita.' 
 
 The above were published in one volume folio, together with works 
 acknowledged by Browne himself, by Archbishop Tennyson in 1684 ; 
 to which were added in 1722 in 8vo, ' Repertorium, or some Account 
 of the Tombs and Monuments in the Cathedral of Norwich.' Other 
 pieces by Browne published singly by his son in 1690 are: 1, 'Answers 
 to Sir AVilliam Dugdale's Inquiries about the Fens ; ' 2, ' A Letter 
 concerning Ireland;' 3, 'A Letter concerning the Urns newly dis- 
 covered ; ' 4, ' Short Strictures on different Subjects ; ' 5, ' A Letter to 
 a Friend on the death of his intimate Friend ;' ami In the ' Biographia 
 Britannica' is inserted 'A Letter containing Instructions for the Study 
 of Physic.' The ' Complete Works of Sir Thomas Browne,' with nume- 
 rous personal and family letters, and a great body of valuable notes, 
 was published in 1836 under the editorship of Mr. S. Wilkius, F.S.A. 
 ,»In 1665 Browne was chosen honorary member of the College of 
 Physicians, being, as hi3 brethren expressed themselves in their vote, 
 a man " Virtute et litteris ornatissimus." Charles II. knighted him 
 in 1671 at Norwich, where, after a short illness, he expired on his 
 seventy-seventh birthday, 1682. He was buried in the church of St. 
 Peter Mancroft, in that city, and a short and unpretending Latin 
 inscription on a mural tablet on the south pillar of the altar records 
 his memory. It is a disgraceful fact that in our own day the skull of 
 Sir Thomas Browne has been abstracted from his grave and placed for 
 exhibition in a museum. The surviving son of Sir Thomas, Edward 
 Browne, published an account of his own travels in Germany and 
 Turkey, and practised in London as a physician with much reputation 
 during and subsequently to the reign of Charles II. 
 
 The life of Browne by Dr. Johnson was prefixed in 1756 to a second 
 edition of 'Christian Morals,' 12mo, which first appeared in 1716, 
 printed from the original correct manuscript of the author by John 
 Jeffery, D.D., archdeacon of Norwich. The Anglo-Latiuity of Sir 
 Thomas Browne is believed to have had a great influence on the style 
 of Dr. Johnson. It is a 6tyle too peculiar and idiomatic ever to be 
 g nerally liked, but Browne wrote at a time when our language was 
 in a state of transition, and had scarcely assumed any fixed character. 
 If it be blamed as too Latinised, it may be answered that it would be 
 difficult to substitute adequate English words for those which he has 
 employed, and that he by no means seeks to give false elevation to a 
 Clean idea by sounding phrases, but that he is compelled, by the 
 remoteness of that idea from ordinary apprehensions, to adopt extra- 
 ordinary modes of speech. Coleridge has borne strong testimony to 
 the great intellectual power as well as to the quaint humour, extensive 
 learning, and striking originality of the "philosopher of Norwich." 
 Browne was in his own day charged with scepticism, and the charge 
 has been repeated in later times, but many passages occur in the 
 ' Religio Medici ' and elsewhere which show Browne to be a firm and 
 sincere Christian, although perhaps not free from certain fanciful 
 prejudices. His ' Inquiry into Vulgar Errors' may be almost received 
 t* an encyclopedia of contemporary knowledge. 
 
 BROWNE, WILLIAM, one of our minor English poets, was born 
 in 1590, of a good family, at Tavistock in Devonshire. He resided at 
 Exeter College, Oxford, but left the university without a degree, and 
 went to London, where he entered at the Inner Temple. In 1624 he 
 returned to his college, and acted as private tutor to Robert Dormer, 
 afterwards Earl of Caernarvon ; and the degree of MA. was then con- 
 ferred on him. He afterwards resided in the family of the Earl of 
 Pembroke ; and it is said by Anthony Wood that he was able to 
 amass money enough to purchase an estate. The time of his death is 
 uncertain, but was probably about 1645. His principal poems are 
 Eclogues ; a long series entitled ' Britannia's Pastorals ; ' a shorter 
 entitled ' The Shepherd's Pipe.' In the narration of events, and in 
 the delineation of characters or passions, he is feeble, confused, and 
 tedious, especially in his more elaborate series of pastorals. But his 
 poetry abounds in beautiful landscapes, painted with much delicacy 
 of feeling, and not without frequent richness of fancy. In 1772 there 
 was published a complete edition of his poems in 3 vols. 12mo, which 
 contained his ' Inner Temple Masque,' printed for the first time from 
 a Bodleian manuscript, transcribed by Dr. Farmer. 
 
 BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE, was born on Great Tower-Hill, 
 London, on the 25th of July 1768. His father, a respectable wine- 
 merchant in London, sent him to Oriel College, Oxford, where, as the 
 traveller frequently lamented in after-life, he met with no encourage- 
 ment and little assistance, in his academical studies. After leaving 
 the University he kept a few terms in the Temple, and attended the 
 courts of law ; but he had never any love for his profession, and when, 
 by the death of his father, he came into possession of a competence, 
 he devoted himself altogether to general literature, to the acquiring 
 of modern languages, and the general principles of chemistry, botany, 
 and mineralogy, which were afterwards very useful to him in his 
 travels. 
 
 An ardent lover of liberty, and, stimulated by the deceptive dawning 
 of the French revolution, he republished several political tracts, with 
 prefaces by himself, at his own expense. His ruling passion however 
 from early life was a love of travelling, and a strong desire to distin- 
 guish himself as an explorer of remote and unknown countries. The 
 publication of ' Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia,' and of the first volume 
 of the ' Proceedings of the African Association ' had the effect of 
 determining him to attempt a passage into the interior of Africa. 
 Accordingly he left England towards the close of 1791, and arrived at 
 Alexandria, in Egypt, in January, 1792. After visiting the Oasis of 
 Siwah (the ancient Ammonium), he returned to Alexandria in the 
 month of April. In May he went to Cairo, where he diligently studied 
 the Arabic language and customs, with which he made himself so 
 familiar as to pass for an Arab even among Arabs. 
 
 In September 1792, he started for Abyssinia, but a Mamlftk war, 
 which had broken out in Upper Egyyt, prevented him from getting 
 farther than Assouan (Syene) and the first rapids of the Nile. On his 
 return down the Nile he turned off at Kenne", and visited the immense 
 quarries near Cosseir, on the Red Sea. In May 1793, Mr. Browne set 
 out from Egypt with the great Soudan Caravan (Caravan of the country 
 of the Negroes), whose destination was Dar-Fur, a Mohammedan 
 country west of Abyssinia and north of the great western branch of 
 the Nile — the Bahr-el-abiad, sometimes called the White River. He 
 hoped to penetrate in this direction into Abyssinia ; and the novelty 
 of this route into the interior of Africa, and the circumstance that 
 Dar-Fur had never yet been visited by a European traveller, were in 
 themselves very strong inducements. After many hardships he reached 
 Dar-Fur at the end of July ; but soon after his arrival be fell ill, and 
 after being plundered of almost everything, found himself a complete 
 prisoner in the hands of the bigoted black Sultan of the country, 
 who detained him nearly three years. During this time he lived in a 
 clay-built hovel at Cobbe, the capital of Dar-Fur, his principal amuse- 
 ment being the taming of two young lions. Mr. Browne did not reach 
 Cairo till the autumn of 1796. During four months of this journey he 
 could not procure a mouthful of animal food of any kind. 
 
 In January 1797, Mr. Browne embarked at Damietta for Syria, and 
 in the course of that year he visited Acre. Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus, 
 Balbec, &c, and then, proceeding through the interior of Asia Minor, 
 arrived at Constantinople on the 9th of December. He returned to 
 Loudon in September 1798, having been absent nearly seven years. 
 In the spring of the year 1800 be published his ' Travels in Africa, 
 Egypt and Syria, from the year 1792 to 179S.' As a writer Browne 
 has no great merits; — he was frequently quaint and odd without 
 being amusing; on not a few occasions he trespassed on delicacy, and 
 he indulged in extravagant paradoxes. One of these paiadoxes was 
 — that the manners and customs of the people of the East were far 
 preferable to those of civilised Europeans, aud that tbey excelled us 
 as much in virtue as they did in happiness. But notwithstanding 
 these blemishes his book contains a great deal of information which 
 was then both new aud valuable, and it is impossible to read it with- 
 out acquiring a strong conviction of the author's veracity. In the 
 summer of 1800 Mr. Browne went by way of Berlin and Vienna to 
 Trieste, where he embarked for the Levant. After seeing a great 
 portion of Greece and Turkey he proceeded by a laud journey from 
 Constantinople to Antioch, whence he went to Cyprus and Egypt. 
 In 1802 he visited Salonika, Mount Athos, Albania, the Ionian Islands, 
 and then went to Venice. In 1803 he carefully examined Sicily and 
 
m BROWNING, ROBERT. 
 
 the Lipari Islands, and then returned reluctantly to England. Of 
 this extensive and interesting tour he himself never published any 
 account, but seven years after his death some curious extracts from 
 his journal were included in Mr. Walpole' s 'Memoirs relating to 
 European and Asiatic Turkey.' 
 
 After a long interval of repose Mr. Browne resolved to penetrate to 
 the Tartar city of Samarcaud and the central regions of Asia. He left 
 Loudon for Constantinople in the summer of 1812 : at the end of 
 that year he went from the Turkish capital to Smyrna, which city he 
 left in the spring of 1813 to proceed through Asia Minor and 
 Armenia. On the 1st of June he arrive;! at Tabriz, just within the 
 frontiers of Persia, where he stayed till the end of summer. In 
 pursuance of his plan of penetrating into Tartary he took his de- 
 parture for Tehran, the present capital of Persia, accompanied by only 
 two servants. 
 
 Some days after their departure from Tabriz his two attendants 
 returned to that city, where they reported that at a place about 120 
 miles from Tabriz, Mr. Browne had been attacked ami murdered by 
 robbers, who had permitted them (the two servants) to escape. They 
 brought back with them a double-barrelled gun, and a few other effects 
 of Mr. Browne's, but no papers. At the instance of Sir Gore Ouseley, 
 who was then on a diplomatic mission in the country, the Persian 
 government despatched soldiers to the Bpot described by the two 
 servants, with orders to bring back Mr. Browne's remains, and hunt 
 out the assassins. According to their own report the soldiers failed 
 in both these measures, but fully ascertained the fact of Mr. Browne's 
 death by finding torn fragments of his clothes, which being in the 
 Turkish fashion and made at Constantinople were very distinguishable 
 from Persian. They said they believed the body must have been 
 torn to pieces and devoured by beasts of prey, and, as they are very 
 numerous in most parts of Persia, this was probably the fact. Some 
 time after, certain bones, supposed to be those of Mr. Browne, were 
 brought to Tabriz, and there interred with due respect. "The spot," 
 says Mr. Walpole, " was happily cho- en near the grave of Thcvenot, 
 the celebrated French traveller, who died in this part of Persia about 
 a century and a half before." Some doubt however must be allowed 
 as to whether these said relics were really tha bones of Mr. Browne. 
 
 As the murderers were never discovered, some awkward su-picions 
 fell upon the Persian government, who, being then at war with the 
 Turcomans, were supposed to be jealous of European intercourse with 
 those hordes, or with any of the people east of the Caspian Sea. It 
 was said at the time that men high in authority in the Shah's court 
 had shown great anxiety about the traveller's objects and destination, 
 and had particularly wished to know whether he was a military man 
 or an engineer. It should be mentioned however, on the other hand, 
 that Mr. Browne's imprudence in wearing the Turkish dress exposed 
 him in a special manner to the fanaticism of the Persians, who hate 
 the Turks (the schismatic Mohammedans, as they call them) even 
 more than they hate Christians, and have seldom any objection to send 
 a bullet through the head that wears a turban of the Constantino- 
 politan fashion. A Persian in the Shah's service said to the writer of 
 this article, " Had Mr. Browne only worn an English hat he might 
 have gone safely through Persia." The only public fruits of this last 
 journey are a few short extracts of letters from Mr. Browne to his 
 friend Mr. Smithson Tennant, which also are included in Mr. Walpole's 
 work. 
 
 (Browne, Travels in Africa, dec. ; Memoirs relating to European and 
 Asiatic Turkey, edited by the Rev. Robert Walpole, 1820.) 
 
 ♦BROWNING, ROBERT, an English poet, was born at Camberwell, 
 a suburb of London, in 1812, and educated at the University of London. 
 In 1835, when twenty-three years of age, he published ' Paracelsus,' a 
 poem of such peculiar originality as immediately to attract to him the 
 attention of the best judges of poetic talent, though, both from the 
 nature of the subject and the style of the treatment, the mass of 
 readers could make nothing of the book. In 1837 Mr. Browning 
 published ' Strafford, an Historical Tragedy,' which was also brought 
 on the stage by Mr. Macready, but did not prove popular as an acting 
 play. ' Sordello,' a long poem published in 1840, is still spoken of by 
 Mr. Browning's greatest admirers as the least comprehensible of his 
 works. Far more fitted to extend his reputation with the public, 
 though still of a kind the full beauty of which only very intellectual 
 readers could appreciate, were the poems, of various lengths and with 
 various sub titles, published by him in successive instalments from 
 1842 to 1846, under the quaint designation of ' Bells and Pomegranates.' 
 Some of the poems in this collection— and none more than the one 
 called 'Pippa Passes' — increased the estimate of Mr. Browning's powers 
 even among those whose admiration he had already won. One of them, 
 a dramatic piece entitled ' The Blot on the Scutcheon,' was produced 
 in 1843 at Drury Lane Theatre, but with no very great success. At a 
 later period, another drama in the collection entitled ' The Duchess of 
 Cleves,' was produced at the Haymarket, Miss Cushman acting the 
 part of the heroine. In 1849 a collected edition of his poems (omitting 
 the larger ones) was publish, d in two volumes ; and about this time 
 took place the most romantic event in his life — his marriage with 
 Elizabeth B. Ban ett, now Mrs. Browning, and then already distinguished 
 as perhaps the first living English poetess. [Browning. Elizabeth 
 Barrett.] Seldom, if ever, have husband and wife had such a coequal 
 partnership in the Muses ! Since their marriage Mr. Browning and 
 
 BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT. 
 
 his wife have resided almost continually abroad — chiefly in Florence, 
 but sometimes iu Paris. In 1850 he added to his previous publications 
 a poem as singular as any of them, and yet different from any of them, 
 entitled ' Chrismas-Eve and Easter-Day,' which has not received nearly 
 so much attention as it deserves. With the exception of an ' Intro- 
 duction' to some ' Letters of Shelley ' published in 1852, but afterwards 
 withdrawn from doubts as to their genuineness, Mr. Browning then 
 published nothing new till the end of 1855, wheu his collection of 
 miscellaneous poems, under the title of ' Men and Women,' gave the 
 critics an opportunity of revising their past judgment of him, and 
 assigning him his place and rank as an English poet. That place is, 
 confessedly, a high one. With the exception of Tennyson, there is no 
 living English poet that one would dare to place higher ; and there 
 are not a few who would be disposed, we believe, to claim for Browning, 
 in some respects, more than a rivalry of Tennyson. On the whole 
 however the two poets are so different, that they seem related to each 
 other less as rivals than as polar opposites, supporting between them 
 the English poetical literature of the present day. Browning's chief 
 peculiarity is his intellectual subtlety. He is as much a thinker as a 
 poet, and his thoughts are generally in tracks into which only educated 
 mindB can follow him. Add to this that he is a man of immense stores 
 of acquired information on all kinds of curious topics — which informa. 
 tion he shows iu his allusions and even in his choice of subjects ; and 
 that he seems to be more at home in foreign circumstance and costume 
 than in British. The greater part of his poems have their scenes 
 under Italian or Spanish or oriental skies; the names of his persons 
 are Italian or German ; and he is fond of taking subjects from later 
 mediajval history. It is this exotic character of his poetry, combined 
 with the subtlety of the thought pervading it, that makes him pecu- 
 liarly the poet of the cultured classes. He is conscious of this, and 
 speaks of his affection for southern climes and themes as not acquired 
 by residence in Italy, but, as it were, inborn. Let others, he says, 
 walk in English lanes and amid English trees — 
 *' What I love best in all the world 
 Is a castle, precipice-encircled, 
 In a ga-ih of the wind-grieved Apennine." 
 Yet he has treated English subjects, and well. His style is as peculiar 
 as his mode of imagination. It is terse, strong, and direct, but often 
 crabbed and grotesque ; while his versification is about the most 
 extraordinary in the English language— occasionally beating for oddity 
 of rhyme that of ' Hudibras.' Want of music in his metre is the fault 
 most frequently alleged against him, and this is one point of contrast . 
 between him and Tennyson. Yet Mr. Browning is technically a 
 musician, and a very learned one. " To us it seems," says a recent 
 critic, " that his art is more perfect the nearer he keeps to blank verse 
 and the other kinds of verse suited for narration, description, and 
 exposition, and the less he ventures on purely lyrical measures, except 
 for a bold or grand occasional purpose." 
 
 BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT, English poetess, already . 
 alluded to in the foregoing article as the wife of one of the first of our 
 living English poets, is still best remembered by many under her 
 former name of Miss Barrett. Born, we believe, in London, of a family 
 in affluent circumstances, and educated with great care, Miss Barrett 
 gave very early proofs of genius. At the age of ten she began to 
 attempt writing both in prose and verse ; at the age of fifteen her 
 powers as a writer were known to her friends. Assiduous in culti- 
 vating these powers by attainments and studies in the classical 
 languages, in philosophy, and in other departments, from which, by 
 the want in our age of any means of university education for women 
 equivalent to that provided for men, women are usually, but most 
 improperly, taught to think themselves debarred, she became a fre- 
 quent contributor, both in prose and verse, to various periodicals. 
 Among her prose contributions were essays on some of the Greek 
 poets, evincing both subtlety of intellect and accurate learning. Her 
 first deliberate work was a translation of the 'Prometheus Bound' of 
 ^Eschylus, published anonymously in 1833, but afterwards superseded 
 by a new version from her maturer pen; In 1838 appeared ' The 
 Seraphim and Other Poems ' (the " other poems " being chiefly a 
 collection of her fugitive pieces from periodicals). The high reputa- 
 tion won by this publication was won in circumstances which imparted 
 to it something of sombre and painful interest. Before or about the 
 time of the publication, the young authoress had, by the breaking of 
 a bloodvessel in the lungs, been reduced to a state of debility which 
 gave great alarm to her friends. With her eldest brother, to whom 
 she was fondly attached, and other relatives, she removed for the 
 benefit of a more genial air to Torquay iu Devonshire. Here she was 
 slowly regaining her health, when the death of her brother, with two 
 companions, by the accidental upsetting of a boat, gave her a nervous 
 shock which completely prostrated her. "It was not till the following 
 year," siys her friend Miss Mitford in her ' Literary Recollections,' 
 " that she could be removed in an invalid carriage, and by journeys of 
 twenty iniles a day, to her afflicted family and her London home. On 
 her return began the life which she continued for so many years : con- 
 fined to one large and commodious but darkened chamber, to which 
 only her own family and a few devoted friends were admitted ; reading 
 meanwhile almost every book worth reading in every language, study- 
 ing with ever fresh delight the great classic authors in the original, 
 and giving herself heart and soul to that poetry of which she seemed 
 
901 
 
 BRUCE, EDWARD. 
 
 BRUCE, JAMES. 
 
 ec2 
 
 born to be the priestess." It was from this seclusion that she sent 
 forth in 1844 the first collected edition of her 'Poems,' in 2 vol*., 
 upon which her fame chiefly rests, and of which new editions were 
 published in 1S50 and 1853. Between the first and second editions 
 that event took place which restored her once more to the world. Her 
 health had been gradually improving, when, in giving her hand in 
 marriage to one who was already the warmest of her admirers and the 
 dearest of her friends, she ceased to be Miss Barrett, and became Mrs. 
 Browning. A residence with her husband first at Pisa, and then at 
 Florence, completed the favourable change ; and now, sharing with 
 her husband the honours of a rare literary celebrity, she is once more 
 seen, during occasional visits to England, in general society. * Casa 
 Guidi Windows ' — a poem of earnest political allusion to the present 
 state of Italy, in which the authoress is supposed to see the sigua and 
 appearances of the Italian revolutionary movements of 1848-4'J from 
 the windows of the Casa Guidi in Florence, where she then resided — 
 was published in 1S51. There is more of direct political feeling and 
 partisanship in this than in her husband's poems ; but on the whole, 
 her previous compositions are still liked best, though others, under- 
 stood to be ready, are now waited for. In Mr. Browning's ' Men and 
 Women,' which is dedicated to Mrs. Browning, there are poems of 
 beautiful, though occult allusion to her influence on his life and 
 poetry. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BRUCE, EDWARD, second son of Edward Bruce of Blairhall, in 
 the county of Elgin, was born about the year 1549 ; and having passed 
 advocate at the Scottish bar, was early appointed one of the judges of 
 the Commissary Court of Edinburgh — a court instituted soon after 
 the Reformation in the place of the abolished court of the Official of 
 Lothian. On the 27th of July 1583, he was made Commendator of 
 Kiuloss, under a reservation of the life-rent of Walter the Abbot of 
 Kinloss ; and about the same time he was appointed one of the deputies 
 of the Lord Justice General of Scotland. 
 
 In 15S7 the general assembly of the Scottish Church having sent 
 commissioners to parliament to demand the removal of the prelates 
 from that house, as having no authority from the church, and the 
 most of them no function or charge whatever in it, Bruce rose, and 
 directing himself to the king who was present, made a long discourse 
 in defence of the right they had to sit and give voice for the church 
 in the^e meetings. Mr. Robert Pont, a Presbyterian minister, and one 
 of the commissioners for the church on this occasion, was stopped in 
 his reply by the king, who willed them to be quiet, and present their 
 petition orderly to the lords of the articles, through whom they should 
 be answered. When the petition came before the lords of articles, it 
 was rejected without observation. 
 
 In 1594 Bruce was despatched on an embasy to England — an employ- 
 ment which at that time not unfrequently devolved upon the judges 
 of the court of session or other superior courts of justice — to complain 
 of the secret assurance given by the Queen of England to the Earl of 
 Bothwell, and of the harbour afforded him in her dominions ; and 
 though Elizabeth refused to deliver up Bothwell as desired, yet, in 
 consequence of the remonstrances of the ambassadors, she commanded 
 him to depart the realm. In 1597 Bruce was named one of the 
 overseers of a subsidy then granted by parliament to the king for 
 furnishing ambassadors, and other important purposes; and on the 
 2nd December in the same year he was made a lord of session. In 
 1598 he was again sent ambassador to England. He failed in securing 
 the main object of his mission, which was to obtain the queen's recog- 
 nition of James as her successor to the throne ; but by his skill and 
 address he gained over many of the English to his master's service. 
 He was once more sent to England in 1601, in company with the Earl 
 of Mar, to intercede for the Earl of Essex; but arriving too late for 
 their purpose, the ambas-adors readily converted their message into 
 one of congratulation to Elizabeth on her escape from the conspiracy. 
 On this occasion Bruce managed to settle a correspondence between 
 the kingdoms, which contributed not a little to James's peaceable 
 accession to the English throne. In reward for these services Bruce 
 was knighted, and created a penr by the =tyle of Baron Bruce of Kiuloss; 
 and having accompanied James to England, he was, on 3rd March 1603, 
 called to the king's council board, and then made master of the rolls, 
 when be resigned his seat on the Scottish bench. He was succeeded 
 in the rol s, in 1608, by Sir Edward Phillips, and died on the 14th 
 January 1611, in the sixty -second year of his age. By his wife, who 
 wag daughter of Sir Alexander Clerk of Balbirnie, some time Lord 
 Provost of Edinburgh, he had two sons and a daughter. Through the 
 former he was ancestor of the noble houses of Aylesbury and Elgin ; 
 and, with the daughter, King James gave 10,000/. as a marriage portion 
 to William second Earl of Devonshire. 
 
 BRUCE, JAMES, was born at Kinnaird, in Stirlingshire, the 14th 
 of December 1730. He was the eldest son of David Bruce, Esq., of 
 Kinnaird, and of Marion Graham, of Airth. When eight years of age 
 he was sent to London to school, and aftur three years he was removed 
 to Harrow, where he remained till 1746. At Harrow he became 
 acquainted with Daines Barriugton, and their friendship lasted for life. 
 On his return to Scotland he was entered, by his father, at the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, to study the law, in which he made but little 
 rogress, and he shortly after removed into the country on account of 
 l* health. In the country he followed the sports of the field, and 
 ecame a bold rider and a good marksman. In 1753 he set off for 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 London with a view to obtain leave to settle in India as a free-trader. 
 In London he made the acquaintance of Mrs. Allan, the widow of a 
 wine merchant, whose daughter he soon after married, and became a 
 partner in the business. A few months after his marriage his wife 
 died ; Bruce however continued for some years in the partnership, 
 and in 1757 he made a journey through Portugal, Spain, France, and 
 the Netherlands, partly on business and partly for his own informa- 
 tion. His father died in 1758, and Bruce returned to England to 
 succeed to the family estate, with a moderate income, which however 
 was considerably increased in consequence of the establishment of the 
 Carron ironworks in its neighbourhood. 
 
 In 1761 Bruce dissolved his partnership in the wine trade. He had 
 for some time past applied himself to the study of Arabic, and had 
 likewise turned his attention to the Ethiopic in Ludolf's works. lie 
 also improved himself in drawing, under able teachers. By means 
 of his friend Mr. Wood, the under Secretary of State, he became 
 known to Mr. Pitt, who consulted him about an expedition intended 
 against Ferrol, which however did not take place. At the beginning 
 of 1762 Lord Halifax, at the suggestion of Mr. Wood, appointed Bruea 
 consul-general at Algiers, with the understanding that he was to 
 visit the interior of Barbary, and make sketches of the antiquities 
 which, according to Shaw, existed there. In a conversation which 
 Bruce had with Lord Halifax, something also was said about the mys- 
 terious sources of the Nile, and of the glory that would accrue to any 
 bold traveller who should explore them. 
 
 Bruce set out for his consulate by way of Italy, in which country he 
 spent several months improving himself in the study of drawing and 
 of antiquities. AVhile at Naples he went to Psestum and made sketches 
 of the temples, which he caused to be engraved and intended to pub- 
 lish, but we find him afterwards complaining to his friend Mr. Strange 
 that some one had obtained access to the engravings at Paris, had 
 copied them, and published them in London by subscription. In 
 March 1763, he finally left Italy for Algiers, where he remained about 
 two years, and during his stay he learned the rudiments of surgery 
 from the consulate surgeon. In May 1765 Bruce was superseded as 
 consul, and on the arrival of his successor, he left Algiers for Tunis. 
 Having obtained leave of the bey to travel through his dominions 
 with an escort, he visited the country along the banks of the Bagradas, 
 and the ruins of Thugga, Keff, and Hydrah, and thence went to 
 Tipasa, in the province of Constantina, the capital of which, the 
 ancient Cirta, he also visited, though he did not discover its remains, 
 as is stated in his life, for Shaw and Sanson had visited them before 
 him. He next went to Sitife, Medrashem, where, he says, is the 
 sepulchre of Syphax, and thence to the Jebel Auress and the ruins 
 of Tezzoute, supposed to be the ancient Lambaesa, from whence he 
 re-entered the Tunis territory by way of Kazareen and Sbeitlah. He 
 then visited the south-eastern part of that state, the island of Jerbe, 
 and proceeded to Tripoli across the desert. His description of these 
 places in the introduction to his travels is hasty and meagre, and at the 
 same time he speaks rather slightingly of his able predecessor Shaw. 
 Bruce made drawings of the architectural remains, part of which 
 were purchased for the royal collection. Those who feel an interest 
 about this matter may compare Bruce's and Shaw's accounts with that 
 given by Sir Grenville Temple (' Excursions in the Mediterranean '), 
 who visited the interior of Tunis. There is a letter from Bruce to 
 Mr. Wood (' Appendix to Bruce's Life,' No. xxiii.), which being written 
 at this early stage of his journeys of discovery is characteristic of the/ 
 writer's Btyle when descanting upon his own achievements. He says, 
 " I have drawn eight triumphal arches, seven Corinthian temples, 
 whose plans, parts, and decorations I have by very laborious searches 
 and excavations made myself entirely master of ; one large temple of 
 the composite order in its best age, two large aqueducts, the ruins of 
 the three principal cities of Africa — Jol, Cirta, and Carthage;" and 
 then he adds, "I may safely say I have not left in the parts I have 
 visited one stone undesigned whence any benefit could result to the 
 arts. I have corrected and cleared up many passages of the Antonine 
 Itinerary, Peutinger's tables, and Ptolemy, as well as of Sanson, Nollin, 
 and Dibbler's French maps, all by actual observations," &c. He then 
 enters into a detail of his dangers and fatigues. Travelling in the 
 interior of Barbary is certainly not without danger, but Bruce appa- 
 rently magnified the extent of his own discoveries. These journeys in 
 Barbary were performed between September 1765 and February 1766. 
 From Tripoli he sailed to Bengazi, whence he was driven away by 
 famine and war, and having embarked in a crazy Greek vessel for 
 Caudia, was shipwrecked and swam on shore at Tolometa, whence 
 he returned to Bengazi in October 1765. He there remained two 
 months in great distress, and at last escaped from that miserable 
 country in a French vessel for Caudia, where he was seized by an 
 intermittent fever, which returned occasionally during his subsequent 
 travels. From Caudia he went to Syria, visited Baalbec and Palmyra, 
 and resided for some time at Aleppo with Dr. Patrick Russel, physician 
 to the factory, from whom he received further instruction in the 
 medical art. After spending about a year in Syria he proceeded to 
 Alexandria in June 1768. At Cairo he was introduced to All Bey, 
 the Mameluke chief, whose Coptic minister, Maalem Risk, had con- 
 ceived a high opinion of Bruce, whom he faucied to be a great 
 astrologer. Bruce had now fixed his plan of going to Abyssinia. He 
 met at Cairo Father Cristopher, a Greek whom he had known at 
 
 3q 
 
063 
 
 BRUCE, JAMES. 
 
 BRUCE, JAMES. 
 
 9H 
 
 Algiers, and who was now Archimandrite under Mark, patriarch of 
 Alexandria. He also obtained letters from the patriarch for several 
 Greeks who were in high stations in Abyssinia, and from Ali l!ey for 
 the shereef of Mecca, the nayib of Masowa, and the king of Seminar. 
 Thus provided he set off for Upper Egypt, a country which was then 
 far from being accurately known. Whatever interest Bruce's account 
 of Egyptian antiquities which he gives in the first book of hu travels 
 might possess at the time, has now passed away. His description is 
 not free from inaccuracies, but he corrected several common errors. 
 From the Nile he crossed the desert to Cosseir, whence he sailed 
 for Jidda in April 17b'S) ; but instead of going direct to Jidda he went, 
 according to his own statements, up the gulf to Tor, and thence along 
 the Arabian coast to Jidda. He gives his observations on the hydro- 
 graphy of his courses, the position and bearing of the towns and 
 harbours, &c. This voyaee up to Tor, as well as the subsequent voyages 
 to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, have been by some cousidereil as 
 fictitious, and Dr. Murray himself in his correspondence with Salt 
 (Hall's ' Life of Salt') acknowledged that "the dates are contrary to 
 their existence;" yet it is a fact that Bruce's observations are fully 
 confirmed by the survey of the coasts of the Red Sea ('Notes on 
 Bruce's Chart in the Journal of tho Geographical Society,' vol. v.) 
 made under the orders of the Bombay government. 
 
 At Jidda Bruce received every encouragement for his Abyssinian 
 journey. The English at Jidda exerted their influence with the 
 authorities of that place. Metical Aga, the minister of the shcreef of 
 Mecca, originally an Abyssinian slave, who was well acquainted with 
 Ras Michael, the governor of Tigrd, and at that time the most power- 
 ful chief in Abyssinia, agreed to send one of his confidential servants, 
 Mahomet Gibberti, a native of Abyssinia, to accompany Bruce in his 
 journey ; and he wrote to Ras Michael, recommending the traveller as 
 an English physician to his protection against the nayib of Masowa, 
 a kind of independent chief, whose cruelty and avarice were the dread 
 of strangers. This precaution of Metical Aga proved very useful to 
 Bruce. He sailed with Gibberti for Masowa in September 1709. On 
 arriving at Masowa, Gibberti went on shore first and despatched the 
 letters to Ras Michael, after which Bruce was detained several weeks, 
 annoyed and threatened by the nayib, and in some danger of his life. 
 Bruce exhibited his usual firmness and courage, and was countenanced 
 in secret by Ahmed, the nayib's nephew, and a better man than his 
 uncle, for whom Bruce had brought a letter from Mecca. At last 
 messengers came to Masowa from the interior, bearing letters from 
 Has Michael and from Janni, his deputy at Adowa, requesting the 
 nayib immediately to forward the foreign physician. On the 15th of 
 November Bruce left Arkceko with the caravan, and after crossing the 
 Taranta Mountains arrived at Dixan, the frontier town of Tigrd. On 
 the Gth of December he arrived at Adowa, the residence of Ras 
 Michael, who was then absent on a campaign in Amhara. Bruce was 
 kindly received by the deputy Janni, with whom he remained till the 
 middle of January 1770. He visited Axum and other places in the 
 neighbourhood, and continuing his journey through Sire? and across 
 the Tacazze,he passed over the Lamalmon, a part of the Samen range, 
 and arrived at Gondar about the middle of February. The Ras and 
 the young king were still absent with the army, but Bruce became 
 accpuainted with Ayto Aylo, a man of rank and very partial to 
 foreigners, who introduced him to the iteghe or queen dowager, and 
 afterwards to her daughter Ozoro Esther, Ras Michael's wife, who 
 continued Bruce's constant friend during his residence in Abyssinia. 
 
 Bruce remained nearly two years in Abyssinia, which he spent 
 entirely in that division of the empire called Amhara, and in that 
 part of it which borders on the lake Dembea, without ever again 
 visiting Tigrcs. Concerning the physical geography of the country 
 his information is> scanty and inaccurate. The southern provinces of 
 'Shoa, Efat, &c. he did not visit. The country was in a state of con- 
 fusion, owing to a civil war between Ras Michael and other chieftains. 
 The campaign of that year 1770, after beginning unfavourably to 
 Michael's cause, ended by his complete triumph, which was attended 
 by all the atrocities of revenge to which that clever but cruel chief 
 was prone. In November of that year Bruce succeeded in reaching 
 the sources of the Abawi, which was then considered as the main 
 stream of the Nile ; thus accomplishing what he had from the begin- 
 ning fixed in his mind as the main object of his ambition. 
 
 As Brace's narrative of his residence in Abyssinia has been the 
 subject of much controversy, and as doubts of his veracity have been 
 by some carried to an unreasonable extreme, it is well to state here 
 what credible native witnesses who had known him at Gondar stated 
 many years after to Salt concerning him. Salt, in his second journey 
 to Abyssinia, became acquainted with Dofter Esther, a learned old 
 man, much respected in the country, who, when a young man studying 
 at Gondar, had been intimately acquainted with Bruce, and, after a 
 lapse of nearly forty years, still spoke of him in terms of friendly 
 regard. He said that when Bruce first arrived at Gondar, Ras Michael 
 was absent with the army, but that " having questioned two Greeks, 
 Sydee Petros and Paulos, who gave a favourable account of his 
 religion," the Ras, on his return, was induced to treat him with great 
 attention. Bruce's reputation was greatly increased by his having 
 cured one of Ras Michael's children, and also Ayto Confu, Ozoro 
 Esther's son by a former husband, of the small pox. Ozoro Esther, I 
 the iteghe; or queen dowagei >aud Ayto Aylo became his warm patrons. J 
 
 Alter remaining some time at Gondar he set out, with the king's per. 
 mission, to visit the sources of the Abawi, under the protection of 
 Fasil, the governor of Damot and Gojam, who had then made hit 
 peace with Ras Michael. Bruce went with Balugani, a young Italian 
 artist, who attended him on his travels. After failing in a first 
 attempt, in which they were plundered, they succeeded in a second, 
 and returned safe to Gondar. Dofter Esther described Bruce as a 
 noble looking man, who rode remarkably well on a black horse of his 
 own ; the king sometimes lent him a hor3e out of his stud Bruce 
 was gi-eatly noticed by the king, and was one of the batootnals or 
 favourites at court ; Ras Michael was also attached to him, but seldom 
 gave him anything. Bruce resided partly at Koscam and partly at a 
 house near Kedus Raphael, which was given him by the king. Kefla 
 Yasous, and many other persons of rank in the country, were much 
 attached to Bruce, and when the latter quitted Abyssinia, Dofter 
 Esther said " he left behind him a great name." After Ras Michael's 
 defeat and disgrace, Bruce returned home by way of Sennaar. Thus 
 far Dofter Esther's account agrees with the main part of Bruce's 
 narrative ; but there is a considerable discrepancy in several of the 
 details. Dofter Esther said that Bruce did not speak the Tigr6 
 language, nor much of tho Amharic; that when he arrived in the 
 country he could read the written characters of their books, but did 
 not possess any great knowledge of the Geez, though in this respect, 
 as well as with regard to the Amharic, be considerably improved him- 
 self during his stay. Ho was accompanied by an interpreter of the 
 name of Michael, through whom he generally conversed. He spoke 
 however Arabic with some of the Mussulman inhabitants. Bruce 
 never commanded a body of horse, as he stated; the king had no 
 body-guard, though he had a body of black horsemen from Sennaar, 
 who were commanded by Idris, a Mussulman. Bruce was not actually 
 engaged in war, but he was present at one battle, probably the second 
 battle of Serbraxo3; and this is confirmed by Bruce's original journals, 
 quoted by Dr. Murray in bis edition of the ' Travels,' and which differ 
 considerably from Bruce's text in the narrative. No shummut or 
 district was ever given to Bruce, though he was said to have frequently 
 asked for the government of Ras-el-Feel, which was held at one time 
 by Ayto Confu. Dofter Esther said that Amha Yasous, prince of 
 Shoa, never visited Gondar in Bruce's time, all connection between 
 Shoa and Gondar having been broken off long before. It may be 
 observed here also, that in Bruce's original memoranda (see Appendix 
 vol. vii. of Murray's edition) there is no mention of this visit as stated 
 in the narrative. The description of the Galla chief Guanguol, Dofter 
 Esther said was strongly misrepresented ; he remembered his visit to 
 Gondar, when the Galla was becomingly dressed, as most Gallas are 
 when they come to court. With regard to the story of the Worari or 
 plundering parties on a march cutting a piece of flesh from the living 
 animal, Dofter Esther had heard of the practice, and believed it true. 
 This has been fully confirmed since by Pearce. ('Life and Adventures 
 of Nathaniel Pearce,' edited by Hall.) On being told of Bruce's dis- 
 gusting description of Abyssinian banquets, Dofter Esther said he 
 had never witnessed such practices, and expressed great abhorrence at 
 the thought. He admitted that the licentiousness of the higher orders 
 was carried to much greater lengths in Amhara than in Tigrd (see also 
 Pearce's ' Life,' and Coffin's account of his excursion to Gondar 
 annexed to it), but said that the scene described by Bruce was cer- 
 tainly greatly exaggerated, and, as a proof of its inaccuracy, he 
 pointed at the drinking of healths, a custom unknown in Abyssinia. 
 (Salt's ' Abyssiuia,' ch. 8.) Such was Dofter Esther's sober statement, 
 the accuracy of which was confirmed to Salt from other quarters, 
 among others by Sydee Paulus, already mentioned, who had lived 
 fifty years in Abyssinia, and remembered Bruce perfectly well ; and 
 by Apostoli, another Greek, who had often conversed with Janni, Ras 
 Michael's deputy, " who had always spoken of Bruce with great 
 respect." (Salt, ch. 9.) Gobat, the missionary to Abyssinia, observes 
 of the description of the feast as given by Bruce, "I admit that such 
 a feast may have taken place among the most shameless libertines, 
 but excesses of that kind are not customary, either as to their cruelty 
 or their indecency." 
 
 It appears evident from all this that when Bruce composed his 
 narrative, he did not consult or did not scrupulously adhere to his 
 journals, but borrowed largely from his own imagination, especially 
 with regard to details ; he confounded dates, and jumbled together 
 distinct incidents and circumstances, either through carelessness or 
 for the sake of effect. " He was become old and indolent," says his 
 friend Dr, Murray, "and I have reason to believe that after nearly 
 twenty years had elapsed since his return from Abyssinia, his tale t« 
 his amanuensis resembled more that of an old veteran by his parloui 
 fire side in a winter evening, than the result of fresh and accuraU 
 observation. He wished to have it understood that he had omitted 
 nothing when he travelled, but performed all — a species of ambition 
 seldom reconcilable with fact." (Hall's ' Life of Salt.') There are 
 however some points in Bruce's narrative which cannot be accounted 
 for so easily. The Axum inscription, with the pretended words "King 
 Ptolemy Evergetes," seems to be one of these. He also totally omits 
 throughout the narrative of his journey to mention Balugani, a young 
 Italian artist who had joined Bruce at Algiers, and had been the con- 
 stant companion of all his journeys as far as Gondar and the sources 
 of the Nile, had kept his journals, assisted him in drawing, and had 
 
Ml 
 
 BRUCE, JAMES. 
 
 BRUCE, MICHAEL. 
 
 906 
 
 been evidently of material use to him. (Salt's ' Abyssinia,' ch. 8.) 
 Bruce's great ambition was to be considered the first and only Euro- 
 pean who had ever visited the sources of the Nile, and he accordingly 
 throws discredit on the accounts of the Jesuits Paez and Lobo, who 
 had described them before him. He also omits in his narrative to 
 mention the fact of three Franciscan friars from the Propaganda 
 having reached Gondar only twenty years before him, where they rose 
 for awhile into great favour, and made several proselytes to Catho- 
 licism, among others Bruce's friend Ayto Aylo and the iteghd or queen 
 dowager; and yet in Bruce's original memoranda (Appendix, vol. vii.) 
 we find it stated " that Ayto Aylo had been converted by Father 
 Antonio, a Franciscan, in 1750." (Salt, ch. 10, and Appendix iii., 
 where the journal of the Franciscans is translated from the Italian 
 manuscript.) With regard to Bruce's translation of the 'Annals of 
 Abyssinia,' Dr. Murray says, in a letter to Salt, 25th of February 1812, 
 " The bulk of the facts are true, but they are often misplaced in time 
 and local circumstance. The Portuguese and Abyssinian accounts are 
 blended together, and the whole does not merit the title of an accurate 
 narrative. Bruce often committed blunders in an unconscious way, 
 particularly as to classic quotations and minute facts of ancient his- 
 tory, which he was not qualified by literary habits to balance and 
 collate." (Hall's ' Life of Salt.') The latter part of this remark leads 
 us to observe that Bruce, though he has had a character for learning 
 among those who have none themselves, was very far from being an 
 exact scholar or a really learned man. His dissertations on various 
 subjects show sometimes great ignorance, and nearly always equal pre- 
 sumption and deficient judgment. Such are the dissertations in the 
 second volume on the ' Indian Trade in its Earliest Ages,' on the ' Origin 
 of Characters or Letters,' 'The Voyage to Ophir and Tarshisb,' &c. 
 
 Notwithstanding these numerous defects, Bruce will always rank 
 high among African travellers, and his journey to Abyssinia forms an 
 epoch in the annals of discovery, for he may be said to have re-discovered 
 a country of which no accounts had reached Europe for neai-ly a cen- 
 tury, and to have renewed our intercourse with it. The Ethiopic 
 manuscripts which he brought to Europe formed likewise a valuable 
 addition to our literary treasures. A list of them is given in the 
 Appendix to ' Bruce's Life,' by Dr. Murray, 4to. 1808. Bruce's courage, 
 activity, and presence of mind are deserving of the highest praise. 
 
 The campaign of 1771 having turned against Ras Michael, and that 
 chief being deserted by his followers, and taken prisoner, the opposite 
 faction got possession of the king's person. Bruce was now tired of 
 this distracted country and anxious to return home. Having obtained 
 the king's leave, after much difficulty, he set off from Koscam in 
 December 1771, attended by three Greeks and a few common 
 servants. He arrived at Tcherkin in January 1772, where he found 
 Ozoro Esther, Ayto Confu, and several of his Gondar friends. Taking 
 leave of them, he proceeded by Ras-el-Feel, Teawa, and Beylah, to 
 Sennaar, where he arrived in May. Here he was detained till 
 September, and it was with much difficulty he found means to leave 
 that barbarous country. He proceeded northwards by Herbagi, 
 Halfay, Shendi, and across the Atbara or Tacazze to Gooz, in the 
 Barabra country, and then plunged into the desert, which he was a 
 fortnight in crossing to Assouan, and in which he was near losing his 
 life through thirst and fatigue. He left Assouan in December, and 
 after resting some time at Cairo, proceeded to Alexandria, where he 
 embarked in March 1773, for Marseille. In France he was received 
 with marked attention by the Count de Buffon and other distinguished 
 men. He thence went to Italy, and at last returned to England in 
 June 1774, after an absence of twelve years. 
 
 Bruce was presented at court, and the king, George III., received 
 him in a flattering manner; but he obtained no more substantial 
 rewards, except a gratuity for the drawings which he had made for 
 the king's collection. The strange stories he told in company about 
 the Abyssinians and the Gallas interested his hearers, but at the same 
 time excited ill-natured strictures. Some even went so far as to 
 pretend that he had never been in Abyssinia. Bruce's haughty and 
 liadainful manner was not calculated to soothe criticism. After some 
 months spent in London, he went to Scotland, where his family 
 •flairs were in great disorder owiug to his long absence. Upon these 
 
 bestowed much of his time, giving up meanwhile all thoughts about 
 lis Abyssinian journals. He married, in May 1776, Miss Dundas, 
 with whom he lived in quiet retirement till 1785, when she died. 
 \fter this loss, and by the advice of his friends, and especially Daines 
 iarnngton, he set about preparing his travels for publication. This 
 »ork was published in 1790, in five 4to. volumes, ' Travels to Discover 
 •he Sources of the Nile, in the Years 1768-73.' The attractions of his 
 larrative are generally acknowledged. His Bketch of the character of 
 tas Michael has been particularly admired, and its truth is authen- 
 icated by the manuscripts of the ' Annals of Abyssinia,' vol. v., which 
 Deludes the history of that chief down to the murder of the Emperor 
 oag in 1769 (Appendix to Murray's 'Life of Bruce,' in 4to.), as well 
 a by the current report in the country. Bruce's work was sharply 
 ssailed in the critical journals of the day, especially in the ' Monthly 
 ieview.' It was translated into French by Castera, and into German 
 •y J. Volkman, with notes by J. F. Blurnenbach. 
 
 Bruce died on the 27th of April, 1794, at Kinnaird, of a fall down 
 tairg as he was going to hand a lady to her carriage. He was buried 
 i the churchyard of Larbert, in the same tomb with his wife. 
 
 In 1805 his friend Dr. Alexander Murray published a second edition 
 of Bruce's Travels, to which he added a biography of the traveller, and 
 copious extracts from his original journals, which are of considerable 
 importance. By consulting these journals, and the editor's notes and 
 remarks in the life, the reader is enabled to separate the reality from 
 the fiction or exaggeration which prevails in many parts of tho 
 author's narrative. Mr. Salt's two missions to Abyssinia, 1805 and 
 1810, having revived the discussion, Dr. Murray entered into a 
 correspondence with Salt, which serves greatly to elucidate the 
 question. A third edition of Bruce's ' Travels,' published in 1813, in 
 seven volumes 8vo., is little more than a reprint of the previous 
 edition. The preface by Dr. Murray, in which he adverts to Salt's 
 correction, of several of Bruce's statements, is deserving of attention. 
 
 BRUCE, MICHAEL, was born at Kinnesswood, in the parish of 
 Portmoak and county of Kinross, on the 27th of March, 1746. Hi8 
 father was an operative weaver ; and, in his religious sentiments, of 
 that class of seceders called Burghers. He had eight children who, 
 having little or nothing to inherit from their parents, were all brought 
 up to rely on their own character and industry for support. Michael 
 who was the fifth child, was destined for the office of a minister of the 
 Gospel. To the great body of the people of Scotland that office has 
 long been one of much reverence ; and to furnish a member of the 
 family for that holy calling is there to this day an object of nearly 
 universal ambition. The strict and religious parents of Bruce partook 
 in the common feeling; and in his devotion to reading from hi3 
 earliest years, and his pious and domestic habits, they imagined they 
 saw the elements of a character which would gratify their most 
 ardent wishes. Accordingly, after bestowing on him such instruction 
 as their humble roof and the village school could afford, his parents 
 sent him to the schools in the neighbouring town of Kinross, and 
 thence, in the year 1762, to Edinburgh, where he applied himself 
 with equal assiduity and success, for some years to literature and 
 philosophy, and to the learning more peculiarly necessary for the 
 profession which he had in view. 
 
 In his native district young Bruce met with friends whose con- 
 versation and friendly suggestions contributed not a little to lead him 
 to the love of reading and the study of the higher class of English 
 poets. Soon after proceeding to Edinburgh he contracted an 
 acquaintance with Logan, whose congenial spirit made him the 
 intimate companion of Bruce in his lifetime, and his warm eulogist 
 and editor of his works after his death. So long as Bruce remained 
 about his father's house, his wants, which were then indeed but few, 
 were readily supplied, but after his removal to Edinburgh his 
 resources diminished, while his wants, both physical and mental, 
 multiplied, and his desires increased in intensity. But poverty was 
 not the only difficulty with which the youthful Bruce had to contend. 
 He had also the narrow views of worthy but illiterate parents, who 
 seem to have regarded general learning as unnecessary, if not positively 
 mischievous. Bruce could not but feel how unnatural these pre- 
 judices were, what injustice they did to those powers and aspirations 
 with which he was endowed and which glowed within him. He was 
 too dutiful a son however to give his parents any cause of offence, 
 and he accordingly took the greatest pains to conceal from them the 
 knowledge of his studies in poetry and general literature. He had 
 hardly reached his eighteenth year when his letters mark the begin- 
 ning of that morbid melancholy which is frequently the attendant on 
 a poetical temperament, and was in him also the forerunner of a fatal 
 disease. He had by this time obtained a few evening scholars, but he 
 states that the attending on them, though few, fatigued him. He 
 spent the winters at school or college, and in the summer he en- 
 deavoured to earn a small pittance by teaching a school, first at 
 Gairney Bridge and afterwards at Forest Mill, near Alloa. 
 
 " In the autumn of 1766," says Dr. Anderson (' British Poets,' vol. ii., 
 p. 277), " his constitution, which was ill calculated to encounter the 
 austerities of his native climate, the exertions of daily labour, and the 
 rigid frugality of humble life, began visibly to decline. Towards the 
 end of the year his ill-health, aggravated by the indigence of his 
 situation, and the want of those comforts and conveniences which 
 might have fostered a delicate frame to maturity and length of days, 
 terminated in a deep consumption. During the winter he quitted his 
 employment at Forest Mill, and with it all hopes of life, and returned 
 to his native village to receive those attentions and consolations which 
 his situation required from the anxiety of parental affection and the 
 sympathy of friendship." He lingered through the winter, and in the 
 spring he wrote the well-known ' Elegy ' in which he so pathetically 
 describes his feelings at that time, and calmly anticipates his 
 dissolution. This elegy, from the circumstances in which it was 
 written, the nature of the subject, and the merit of its execution, had 
 an unusual share of popularity. It was the last composition which 
 Bruce lived to finish. He died July 6, 1767. 
 
 The poems of Bruce are not numerous — for which his early death 
 may well account — but they evince talents of a very hLjh order. They 
 are distinguished for their elegance and harmony ; and, with little of 
 the fervour of opening genius, they display sustained dignity and tho 
 polish of mature life. Soon after Bruce's death his works were sub- 
 jected to the revisal of his friend Logan, who published a collection 
 of them in a small duodecimo volume ; but unfortunately they were 
 not only unaccompanied with any account of the state in which they 
 
967 
 
 BRUCE, ROBERT. 
 
 BRUCE. ROBERT. 
 
 068 
 
 came into his possession, or of the process observed in preparing them 
 for publication, but mingled with the poems of other authors, without 
 any explanation by which they might be distinguished. This error 
 was in some degree corrected by the labours of Dr. Anderson, who 
 gave the poems of Bruce a place for the first time in a collection of the 
 poets of this country, and prefixed a memoir of the author. A new 
 edition, including several of Bruce's unpublished pieces, was brought 
 out by subscription in 1807, under the care of Dr. Baird, for the 
 benefit of the poet's mother, then iu her ninetieth year. Au edition 
 of the poems of Bruce, with a memoir by the Rev. W. Mackelvie, D.D., 
 of Balgedie, was published in 1837. 
 
 BRUCE, ROBERT, king of Scots, was born on the 21st of March, 
 1274. He was descended from Robert de Brus, who being brought up 
 at the court of England with Earl David, afterwards King David I. 
 of Scotland, became an intimate of that monarch, and received from 
 his bounty a grant of the lordship of Annandale. His grandfather, 
 Robert de Brus, the seventh lord of Annandale, had, on the death of 
 his mother Isabel, second daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, livery 
 of her lands in England, and shortly afterwards was constituted sheriff 
 of Cumberland and constable of the castle of Carlisle. He was then 
 also appointed one of the fifteen regents of Scotland ; and in 1264, with 
 Comyu and Baliol, led the Scottish auxiliaries to the assistance of 
 King Henry III. at the battle of Lewes. Robert de Bruce, tho son of 
 this baron, accompanied King Edward I. to Palestine iu 1269, and was 
 ever after greatly regarded by that monarch. In 1271 he married 
 Margaret, countess of Carrick, in whose right he became Earl of Carrick, 
 and by whom he had twelve children. 
 
 Of these Robert Bruce was the eldest son. lie was in the tenth 
 year of his age when his father and grandfather concurred with the 
 other magnates of the realm in a solemn acknowledgment to King 
 Alexander III. that bis grand daughter Margaret, ' the maiden of 
 Norway,' was heir-presumptive to the Scottish throne. Two years 
 afterwards the kiDg died, and Margaret succeeded to the crown ; but 
 in September 1286, parties having now begun to be formed among the 
 nobles with a view to a competition for the crown, Robert de Brus, 
 the grandfather, met several important personages of the kingdom at 
 Turnberry Castle, the seat of his son the Earl of Carrick, and there 
 entered into a league or bond to support the person who should be 
 found the true heir to the throne. The chief competitors were Robert 
 de Brus, the grandfather, and John Baliol. [Baliol.] King Edward I. 
 of England having obtained the office of umpire in this contest, on the 
 16th of November 1292 pronounced for Baliol, "as, in all indivisible 
 heritages, the more remote in degree of the first line of descent is 
 preferable to the nearer in degree of the second." It was accordingly 
 ordered " that John Baliol should have seisin of the kingdom of 
 Scotland ;" and seisin being given, Baliol did homage and fealty to 
 Edward for his kingdom. To avoid no doubt the humiliating task of 
 doing homage to a successful rival, the ag^d De Brus immediately 
 resigned the lordship of Annandale to his son Robert, who, probably 
 from a like motive, had about a fortnight before resigned the earldom 
 of Carrick, which he had held in right of his wife, just deceased, to Bruce, 
 their eldest son and heir, and shortly afterwards, retiring into England, 
 left the administration of the family estates in the same hands. 
 
 Edward could not but see that his determination had disappointed 
 the powerful lords of the house of Brus; but he had already experienced 
 their friendship, as he had no doubt heard also of the attachment of 
 the family to the English crown, and he was now anxious to foster the 
 submission to his award which their retirement held out. Accordingly 
 in 1295, the same year iu which the aged De Brus died, Edward 
 appointed the father of Bruce constable of the castle of Carlisle. 
 During Baliol's revolt the Bruces remained subject to Edward ; and 
 in 1296 they attended the parliament of Berwick, where they renewed 
 their oath of fealty and submission to him. Even the nobler stand of 
 Wallace did not for some time rouse their patriotism ; and when those 
 to whom the peace of the western districts had been committed sum- 
 moned them to Carlisle, Bruce not only obeyed the citation and swore 
 fidelity to Edward, but to evince the sincerity of his declaration 
 immediately after laid waste the possessions of the knight of Liddes- 
 dale, and carried off his wife and family prisoners to AnnandaK 
 Scarcely however was this act of violence committed, when he 1 
 abandoned the English party and joined the national standaid, 
 expressing at the same time his hope of absolution from the oath 
 which he said had been extorted from him. A few months afterwards 
 the Scots were obliged to capitulate at Irvine, and Bruce with others 
 made his peace with Edward. Wallace retired into the northern parts 
 of the kingdom with a few adherents. 
 
 The signal victory gained by Wallace at Stirling on the 12th of 
 September 1297 induced Bruce once more to join the national standard. 
 He took no very active part in the struggle however, but while Wallace 
 and his followers fought at Falkirk, shut himself up in Ayr Caatle, 
 where indeed, by preserving the communication open between Galloway 
 and the western highlands, he did essential service to the cause. 
 Edward, following up his victory, marchtd into the west with a deter- 
 mination to chastise Bruce, who, after burning the fortress, retreated 
 »into the fastnesses of Carrick, and Edward at length directed a willing 
 army to return into England. In his progress he took possession of 
 Lochmaben Castle, and wasted the estates of its lord ; but among the 
 confiscations of property which followed, the lauds of Annandale and 
 
 Carrick remained unalienated —a favour probably accorded to the 
 house of Bruce for ita former services to England. The defeat of the 
 Scots at the battle of Falkirk destroyed much of the confidence reposed 
 iu Wallace; and in 1299 the Bishop of St. Andrews, Bruce, and 
 Comyn, were appointed guardians of Scotland in the name and place 
 of Baliol. It was perhaps to destroy the authority of Wallace that 
 Bruce was willing to be associated for a time with bis great rival 
 Comyn ; and having attained this end, he no less willingly resumed 
 his former inactive course of policy, and relinquished to Comyn the 
 direction of the new-created power. The following year Edward again 
 invaded Scotland, and laid waste the districts of Annandale and Carrick. 
 Bruce suffered much on this occasion, but he cautiously avoided every \ 
 act of retaliation ; and we find that prior to the advantage gained by 
 the Scots at Roslin he had surrendered himself to St. John, the English 
 warden of the Western Marches. The campaign of Edward in 1304, j 
 which ended in a more complete subjugatiou of Scotland than he had 
 before been able to effect, justified the prudence of Bruce; for on the 
 death of his father he was not only allowed to inherit the extensive 
 possessions of his ancestors, but in the settlement of Scotland as a 
 province under the English king his opinion was much regarded. 
 
 Bruce however maintained only the semblance of loyalty to Edward 
 and seeing that Baliol's restoration was hopeless, had formed the reso- 
 lution of restoring his country to independence. Accordingly while 
 actually engaged in assisting Edward in the settlement of the Scottish 
 government, he entered into a secret bond of association with the 
 bishop of St. Andrews, as head of the Scottish church, whereby the 
 parties bound themselves mutually to assist each other against all per 
 sons whatsoever, and neither to undertake any business of importance 
 without the other. Ho had also a conference with Comyn, at which 
 he proposed that they should thenceforward entertain towards each 
 other feelings of amity and friendship. "Support (said be) my title to 
 the crown, and I will give you all my lands ; or bestow on me your 
 lauds, and I will support your claim." Comyn accepted the former 
 alternative ; and an agreement being drawn up in form of indenture, 
 it was sealed by both parties and confirmed by their oaths of fidelity 
 and secrecy. Comyn however revealed the matter to Edward, who 
 determined on revenge. But having one evening drank freely, Edward 
 was imprudent enough to discover his purpose to some of the nobles 
 of his couit, among whom Bruce had friends. The Earl of Gloucester, 
 a kiusu au of Bruce, had notice of his danger, and anxious to save 
 him, yet afraid in so serious a matter to compromise his own safety, 
 sent him a piece of money and a pair of gilded spurs. Bruce under- 
 stood the counsel thus symbolically communicated, and instantly set 
 out for Scotland, accompanied by his secretary and a single attendant. 
 He is said to have reached Lochmaben Castle on the fifth day after 
 his departure from London, and thence repairing to Dumfries, where 
 Comyn was, he sought a private interview with him. From some 
 inward misgiving no doubt on the part of Comyn, the meeting took 
 place in the convent of the Minorite friars. Here Bruce passionately 
 reproached Comyu for his treachery, and after some altercation drew 
 his dagger and stabbed him to the heart. Immediately hastening 
 from the spot be called fur his attendant*, who seeing him pale and 
 agitated inquired the cause. "I doubt I have slain Comyu," was the 
 reply. "You doubt," cried Kirkpatrick fiercely; "I'se mak sicker," 
 and rushing. towards Comyn despatched him on the spot. Almost at 
 the same moment Sir Robert Comyn, the uncle, who came into the 
 convent on the noise of the scuffle, shared a similar fate. The alarm 
 soon became general; and the English judges, then holding a court in 
 a hall of the castle, not knowing the extent of the danger, hastily 
 barricaded the doors. Bruce, assembling his followers, surrounded the 
 castle, and threatening to force their entrance by tire, compelled those 
 within to surrender. 
 
 He soon afterwards proceeded to Scone, the ancient seat of Scottish 
 inauguration, and was there crowned king of Scots on the 27th of March 
 1306. Edward had carried the 'regalia' to Westminster, but their 
 place was soon supplied. The bishop of Glasgow furnished from his 
 own stores the robes in which Bruce was arrayed ; and a slight coronet 
 of gold being got from the nearest artist, tue bishop of St. Andrews 
 set it on his head. The earls of Fife had from a remote antiquity 
 enjoyed the privilege of crowning the kings of Scotland; but Duucau, 
 the representative of the family, favouring at this time the English 
 interest, his sister, the Countess of Buchau, with a boldness aud 
 enthusiasm which must have added to the popular interest felt for 
 the young king, repaired to Scone, and assertiug the privilege of her 
 ancestors, placed the crown a second time on the head of Bruce. The 
 eyes of all Scotland were now directed towards Bruce. Comyn was 
 no more; and the brave Sir William Wallace had been executed by the 
 English. Bruce was therefore without a rival : he wa3 the heir of the 
 throne, and his past conduct had given ample earnest at once of his 
 intrepidity and prudence. 
 
 Edward heard of the murder of Comyn and of the usurpation of 
 Bruce when residing with his court at Winchester. He immediately 
 despatched a messenger to the pope, to pray the assistance of the holy 
 see; he directed the garrison towns on the Marches to be strengthened ; 
 and nominating the Earl of Pembroke guardian of Scotland, he ordered 
 an instant levy of troops for that kingdom. Proceeding to London he 
 called together the prince his son and about 300 youths selected 
 from the best families of England, and conferred on them the honour 
 
909 
 
 BRUCE, ROBERT. 
 
 BRUCE, ROBERT. 
 
 970 
 
 of knighthood amidst a pomp and magnificence well calculated to 
 rouse the ardour of the nation. He made also a splendid banquet in 
 honour of the new-created knights, at which he uttered a solemn vow 
 to execute vengeance upon Bruce and his adherents. Bruce, on the 
 other hand, had prepared no system of offensive warfare nor even of 
 defence ; his followers were few, and when he first resolved to assert 
 his claim to the crown, he had no fortress at his command save his 
 two patrimonial ones of Lochmalin and Kildruuimie. lie had seen 
 however the success of Wallace in less happy circumstances, and he 
 witnessed an enthusiasm for his person which he believed the prospect 
 of Buccess would kindle into a wide and irresistible flame. Prompted 
 therefore perhaps by the hope of striking an eaily and effectual blow, 
 he sent a challenge to Pembroke, who had established his head- 
 quarters at Perth, defying him to battle. Pembroke returned for 
 answer he would meet him on the morrow. Satisfied with this accept- 
 ance Bruce drew off his little band to the neighbouring wood of 
 Methven, with a view to encamp there for the uight; but the customary 
 watches were omitted or insufficiently attended to. Pembroke having 
 intelligence of this, called out his forces towards the close of the day, 
 and gaining the unguarded encampment without observation, succeeded 
 in throwing the whole body of the Scots into complete disorder. 
 
 From the defeat of Methven Bruce retired with the remains of his 
 army to the mountains of Athol, whence however they were at length 
 compelled by want and the rigour of the season to descend into the 
 low country of Aberdeenshire ; but on the advance of a superior body 
 of English, they took refuge in the mountainous district of Breadal- 
 bane. Nor was the party safe from attack even here. The Lord of 
 Lorn, who was an adherent of Edward, and closely connected by 
 marriage with the family of the murdered Comyn, hearing of the 
 approach of Bruce, collected his dependants to the number of about 
 1000, and having beset the passes, obliged the Scots to come to battle 
 in a narrow defile where the horse of the party were an incumbrance 
 rather than a service. The consequence was inevitable ; and had not 
 the king ordered a retreat, and himself taking post in the rear, by 
 desperate courage, strength, and activity, succeeded in checking the 
 fury of the pursuers, and extricating his men, they would have been 
 utterly exterminated. 
 
 Having at last rallied his men, Bruce used every means in his power 
 to re animate their hope and to inspire them with fortitude and perse- 
 verance. After sending away his queen, the ladies who accompanied 
 her, and some others of the party under an escort to his strong castle 
 of Kildrummie, he determined with his remaining followers, amounting 
 to about 200 only, to force a passage into Kintyre, and thence cross 
 over into the north of Ireland, with the hope, as has been supposed, 
 of receiving assistance from the Earl of Ulster, or of eluding for a time 
 the hot pursuit of his enemies. On arriving at the banks of Loch 
 Lomond there appeared no mode of conveyance across the loch ; but 
 after much search, Sir James Douglas discovered a small crazy boat, 
 by means of which they effected a pa9sage. ' The party were a night 
 and a day in getting over, the boat being able to carry only three 
 persons at a time ; but Robert beguiled the tedious hours by reciting 
 the story of the siege of Egryinor from the romance of Ferembras. 
 The king soon afterwards fell in with the Earl of Lennox, ignorant till 
 then of the fate of his sovereign, of whom he had received no intel- 
 ligence since the defeat of Methven ; and by his exertions the royal 
 party were amply supplied with provisions, and enabled to reach in 
 safety the castle of Dunaverty in Kintvre, whence, after recruiting the 
 strength and spirits of his companions, the king and a few of his most 
 faithful adherents passed over to the small island of Rathlin, on the 
 north coast of Ireland, where they remained during the winter. In 
 this remote situation Bruce was long ignorant of the unrelenting 
 cruelty showed by Edward to his queen, family, and friends ; the 
 confiscation of all his estates ; and the solemn excommunication of 
 himself and his adherents by the pope's legate at Carlisle. Fordun 
 indeed relates that in derision of his forlorn and unknown condition, 
 a sort of ribald proclamation was made after him in all the towns of 
 Scotland as lo3t, stolen, or strayed. 
 
 On the approach of spring, Sir James Douglas and Sir Robert Boyd 
 left the king and passed over to Arran, where they were joined in a 
 few days by Bruce, from Rathlin, with a fleet of thirty-three small 
 galleys. The party made a descent upon the opposite coast of Carrick, 
 which was in the possession of the English, and finding the troops 
 under Percy carelessly cantoned, they rushed in among them and 
 put nearly the whole body, consisting of about 200 men, to the sword. 
 When the news of this enterprise became known, a detachment of 
 above 1000 men, under the command of Roger St. John, was despatched 
 from Ayr to the relief of Turnbcrry, when Bruce, unable to oppose 
 such a force, retired into the mountainous district of Carrick. The effect 
 of his success was still further counteracted by the fatal miscarriage 
 of his brothers Thomas and Alexander, in their attempt to secure a 
 landing at Loch Ryan in Galloway, where the whole party were routed, 
 several persons of note slain, and the two brothers of Bruce taken 
 prisoners and ordered to instant execution. When Bruce wandered 
 among the fastnesses of Carrick, after the defeat of his auxiliaries at 
 Loch Ryan, his army did not amount to sixty men. His own personal 
 prowess however in an encounter with a force sent against him by the 
 people of Galloway, in which it was related that single-handed he had 
 for some time kept at bay a body of about 200 men, with bloodhounds 
 
 who had been sent to track the fugitives through the forests and 
 morasses, roused the spirits of his party, and called many to his 
 standard. Bruce indeed required all the aid he could receive; for 
 Pembroke, the English guardian, was already advancing upon him 
 with a great body of men, having also obtained the assistance of 
 John of Lorn, whose followers were well acquainted with that species 
 of irregular warfare to which Bruce was obliged to have recourse. 
 Lorn had with him a bloodhound which it is said had belonged to 
 the king, and was so familiar with his scent, that if once it got upon 
 his track nothing could divert it from its purpose. This Bruce found 
 to his experience, and well nigh fatally; for having arrived at the 
 place where Bruce and his army lay, the bloodhound was let loose, 
 and notwithstanding every stratagem that could be devised to elude 
 it, the animal singled him out and led on the enemy in his pursuit, 
 till at length Bruce and his companion (for to these two only had he 
 successively subdivided his men) reached a rivulet, into which they 
 plunged, and, after destroying in this way the strong scent upon 
 which the hound had proceeded, turned into the adjoining thicket, 
 whence he regained in safety the rendezvous of his followers. Here, 
 having learnt the state of security into which the English had fallen, 
 under the impression that the Scottish army was totally dispersed, 
 Bruce collected a few men, and dashing upon a detachment of about 
 200 of the enemy, put the greater part of them to the sword. Pem- 
 broke shortly afterwards retired with his whole forces towards 
 England, and after another disaster, similar to that just mentioned, 
 retreated to Carlisle. 
 
 Bruce, encouraged by success, ventured down upon the low country, 
 and reduced to his obedience the districts of Kyle, Carrick, and 
 Cuninghame. Pembroke thereupon determined again to take the 
 field ; and putting himself at the head of a strong body of cavalry, 
 he advanced into Ayrshire, and came up with the army of Bruce when 
 encamped on Loudon Hill. Here, though his army was greatly infe- 
 rior to the English, and consisted wholly of infantry, Bruce gava 
 Pembroke battle ; and so well conducted was the conflict by Bruce, 
 that while the loss of the Scots was extremely small, Pembroke's 
 whole forces were put to flight, a considerable number being slain and 
 many made prisoners. Three days after this Bruce encountered 
 another considerable body of English, whom he also defeated with 
 great slaughter. These successes proved of the greatest consequence 
 to Bruce's cause, which was still further strengthened by the death 
 of Edward, who died at Burgh-on-the-Sands, in Cumberland, on the 
 7th of July 1307, in his progress towards Scotland. With his last 
 breath he commanded that his body should accompany the army 
 in its march, and remain unburied till the country was wholly 
 subdued ; but his son, disregarding the injunction, had his father's 
 remains deposited at Westminster. The son indeed was incapable 
 of conducting the enterprise which had devolved upon him; and 
 after a useless and inglorious campaign he retired from the contest. 
 For three years after this Bruce had to contend with the governors 
 despatched by Edward, and with his other enemies in different 
 parts of Scotland. He triumphed over all : and early in the year 1310 
 the clergy of Scotland assembled in a provincial council, and issued 
 a declaration to all the faithful— that the Scottish nation, seeing the 
 kingdom betrayed and enslaved, had assumed Robert Bruce for 
 their king, and that the clergy willingly did homage to him in that 
 character. 
 
 Finding at length his authority established at home, and that 
 Edward was sufficiently employed by the dissensions which had 
 sprung up in his own country, Bruce resolved by an invasion of 
 England to retaliate in some measure the miseries which it had 
 inflicted on his kingdom. He advanced accordingly as far as the 
 bishopric of Durham, laying waste the country with fire and sword, 
 and giving up the whole district to the unbounded licence of the 
 soldiery. Edward at first complained to the pope, but soon afterwards 
 made advances towards negociating a truce with Scotland. Robert 
 however, knowing the importance of following up the successful career 
 which had opened on him, refused to accede to his proposals, and 
 again invaded England. In the same year also he took various 
 fortresses in his kingdom which hitherto remained in the possession 
 of the enemy. The last of these fortresses was the castle of Stirling, 
 upon which the hope of the English now depended, and Edward 
 accordingly collected all his forces for its defence. It was on this 
 occasion the famous battle of Bannockburn was fought, 24th of June 
 1314, when a complete victory was obtained by Bruce. By this event 
 the sovereignty of Bruce was established, and the remainder of his 
 public life was occupied in alternately invading England and defending 
 himself from English attacks, in negociating treaties with that king- 
 dom, and framing laws for the ordering and consolidating the power 
 which he had acquired. In April 132S a parliament was held at 
 Northampton, to conclude between the two kingdoms of England and 
 Scotland a treaty of permanent peace, the principal articles of which 
 were the recognition of Bruce's titles to the crown, the sovereignty of 
 the kingdom, and the marriage of Johanna, the sister of the king of 
 England, to David, the son and heir of the king of Scots. 
 
 Bruce did not long survive this event. The hardships and sufferings 
 he had encountered brought upon him a disease, in those days called 
 a leprosy, which the ardour of enterprise and a naturally strong con- 
 stitution had hitherto enabled him to triumnh over. The last two 
 
 3 Q* 
 
BRUCKER, JAMES. 
 
 BRUMOY, PIERRE. 
 
 07a 
 
 years of bis life were spent in comparative seclusion in a castle at 
 Cardross, on the northern shore of the Frith of Clyde. He is said to 
 have contemplated the approach of death with calmness and resigna- 
 tion, and not without deep expressions of repentance for the sins he 
 had committed, as well as sorrow for the blood which he had spilt. 
 He died on the 7th of June 1329, in the .fifty-fifth year of his age 
 and twenty-third year of bis reign. His heart was extracted and 
 embalmed with a view to its being carried, according to his request, 
 to the Holy Land; and his remains were interred in the abbey church 
 of Dunfermline. 
 
 BRUCKER, JAMES, a laborious scholar of the last century, was 
 bora at Augsburg, January 22, 1696. He wag educated for the 
 church at the university of Jena, where he took the degree of M.A. in 
 1718. In 1723 he was appointed parish minister of Kaufbevern, 
 where he gradually acquired a reputation for learning, which led to 
 his being elected, in 1731, a member of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Berlin, and soon after, to his being appointed senior minister of the 
 church of St. Ulric, at Augsburg, where he spent the rest of his life, 
 and died in 1770. 
 
 At an early age he applied himself to the study of philosophy, and 
 his first work, ' Teutameu Introductionis in Uistoriam Doctriuae de 
 Ideis,' was published in 1719; it was afterwards enlarged and re- 
 published in 1723, under the title 'Hist. Philos. Doctr. de Id.' In 
 1731-36 he published a history of philosophy in seven volumes 12mo., 
 from the citation to the birth of Christ, in the form of question and 
 answer, which contains some details of literary history not to be 
 found in his larger work. This, which was entitled 'A Critical 
 History of Philosophy from the infancy of the world down to our 
 own age,' was printed in 1741-44, in five volumes 4to., and met with 
 sousiderable success ; in 1767 a second edition appeared, with a sixth 
 volume, consisting of supplement and corrections. Of his other 
 works the chief are ' Pinacotheca Scriptorum nostra tetate Uteris 
 lllustrium,' '2 vols. fol. 1741-55; 'Lives of German Scholars in the 
 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries,' iu German, 4to., 1747-49; ' Miscellania 
 Historioc Philosoph. Literal-. Crit., olim sparsim edita nunc uno fa?ce 
 collecta,' 8vo., 1748. He undertook to superintend a new edition of 
 Luther's translation of the Bible, but he died before completing the 
 work, which was finished by Teller. 
 
 Brucker is now remembered by his ' Critical History of Philosophy.' 
 The title is ill chosen, for a discriminating and correct judgment is the 
 very point in which he is most defective. He was very laborious, 
 and has amassed a vast quantity of materials ; but he wanted the 
 power of arranging them and sifting the important from the trivial ; 
 consequently his work is wearisome iu the extreme, from minuteness 
 of unnecessary detail, as well as dryness of style. He seems to have 
 the same sort of notion of his subject as a fly might have of the dome 
 of St. Paul's, after crawling over it bit by bit; he appears not to 
 possess clear views of it as a whole, or of the connection of the 
 several parts. His book however is remarkable and useful, if it were 
 only as au attempt to giapple with so enormous a subject ; for he gives 
 an account of every school from the Hebrew, Chaldaic, Egyptian, 
 Phoenician, &c., descending through those of Greece and Pome to 
 the sects of Christian and Judaic philosophers, the schoolmen and 
 their successors after the revival of learning, the Saracens, and the 
 nations of modern Asia, Indians, Chinese, and Japanese ; and he 
 finishes in North America with the Hurons. As a book of reference, 
 therefore, it is very valuable. But as the author is charged with 
 frequent error, arising partly from inaccurate scholarship, partly from 
 too much readiness to take his opinions at second-hand, it will be 
 prudent for those who are careful inquirers, to corroborate Brucker's 
 statements by at least occasional references to the original authorities. 
 
 BRUE'IS, ADMIRAL, was a lieutenant in the French navy before 
 the revolution, and afterwards became a rear-admiral in the service of the 
 republic. He had the command of the Toulon fleet which sailed in 
 June 1798, for Egypt, with General Bonaparte and his army on 
 board. After landing the troops, Admiral Brueis anchored his fleet 
 in Aboukir Roads close to the shore, thinking himself safe from attack. 
 Nelson, .with the English fleet, came in sight of the French fleet on 
 the 1st of August, and immediately prepared for battle. Some of 
 the English ships steered between the French and the shore, and thus 
 the French found themselves between two fires. [Nelson.] After a 
 dreadful fight, most of the French ships, being disabled, surrendered. 
 Admiral Brueis, who was on board the Orient, of 120 guns, defending 
 himself against two English ships, was killed by a cannon-shot, just 
 before the Orient was discovered to be on fire. Soon after the Orient 
 blew up with most of the people on board. 
 
 BRUGES, ROGER VAN, an old Flemish painter, and a pupil of 
 John Van Eyck, is called by Vasari, Ruggieri da Bruggii, but is now 
 believed to be the same person as Roger Van der Weyden. However 
 Van Mander notices both as distinct persons ; the subject of this 
 article, he calls Rogier van Brugge, and speaks of him as an excellent 
 draughtsman and good painter, but he does not give any personal 
 information concerning him : the years of his birth and death are both 
 unknown, but several works are attributed to him, bearing various 
 dates between 1445 and 1462. He is mentioned several times by 
 Bai tholoma;us Facius, ' De Viris lllustribus,' Florence, 1745; and 
 Rathgeber, 'Annals of Painting, &c, in the Netherlands,' p. 105, 
 enumerates twenty-nine works attributed to him. He is styled by 
 
 Facius, Eogerius Gallicus Joannis Discipulus, and he is probably the 
 same person as Magister Rogel of Flanders, by whom there are three 
 pictures, in one, painted in 1445, in the sacristy of the Carthusian church 
 at Miraflores, ntar Burgos in Spain, the donation of Don Juan II. 
 
 Roger painted in water-colours, with white of egg or with size, and 
 in oil, which last method he had learned of Van Eyck. He painted 
 also on canvass, a rare practice in that early period : Van Mander 
 speaks of Roger's paintings on canvass, of which he had seen many 
 in churches, and in private houses, where they were adopted aa 
 substitutes for the ordinary hangings of drapery. 
 
 There are at Munich three admirable old pictures in the Pinakothek 
 (Cabinet iii. Nos. 35, 36, 37), assigned in tue catalogue to John Van 
 Eyck, which have been attributed to Roger Van Bruges ; they are 
 three of the best and most interesting in the collection : they are 
 included in the twenty-nine pictures enumerated by Rathgeber. 
 
 (Van Mander, llct Ltven der Schilders, dec. ; Rathgeber, Annalen der 
 NierderW/ndischtn Malcrei, <bc.) [See Van dkr Wetde, Rookr.] 
 
 BRUHL, HENRY, COUNT VON, was born in August 1700. His 
 father was councillor of the prince of Saxe Weissenfels. Henry entered 
 as page into the service of Augustus II., elector of Saxony and king of 
 Poland, and eventually became his chamberlain. After the death of 
 Augustus iu 1 733, Bruhl, who had charge of the crown jewels at Warsaw, 
 set off with them for Dresden, where he delivered them to the new 
 Elector A ugustus III., and assisted him, by his manoeuvres, in ascending 
 the throne of Poland. From that time he became the king's favourite, 
 and having obtained the dismissal of his rival, Count Sulkowski, he 
 remained sole ruler of the weak monarch, whom he kept in a state of 
 complete tutelage. BruLl lived iu great splendour: his establishment 
 was larger than the king's, and he kept above 200 servants. " Of all 
 men of this age," says Frederic II. of Prussia, "he had most watches, 
 dresses, lace, boots, shoes, and slippers." The king was indolent to 
 excess, and Bruhl, who took good care not to disturb his apatliy, and 
 always to supply him with money, was obliged to borrow to such a 
 degree, that the treasury became bankrupt at last. Bruhl involved 
 Saxony in a war against Frederic II., who made the whole Saxon 
 army prisouers in the camp of Pirna, and took Dresden, while the 
 king and Bruhl escaped into Poland. After the peace they returned 
 to Dresden, where Augustus soon after died. Bruhl was disliked by 
 both Poles and Saxons, and the new elector dismissed him from Lis 
 offices. He died in October, 1764. He had amassed great wealth, 
 which he left to his children ; his fine library of 20,000 volumes was 
 purchased by the elector for 50,000 crowns. His son Frederic Louis 
 wrote several German plays, which were published at Dresden in 
 1785-90, in 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 BRULLIOT, FRANZ, author of the 'Dictionary of Monograms,' 
 &c, was bora at Diisseldorf in 1780, and was the son of Joseph 
 Brulliot, a native of Mannheim, and inspector of the celebrated 
 Gallery of Diisseldorf, which was removed in 1805 to Munich. 
 Joseph and his son Franz, who had adopted engraving as his pro- 
 fession, removed thither at the same time, and in 1808 Franz Brulliot 
 was appointed assistant keeper of the king's prints. From this time 
 he gave up the practice of engraving, and devoted himself entirely to 
 the study of prints and the history of engraving, and in 1817 he pub- 
 lished at Munich, in 4to, a dictionary of the monograms, &c, of artiste 
 (' Dictionnaire des Monogram mes, Chiffres, Lettres Initiates, &c.'), to 
 which, in 1820, he commenced the publication, in the same form, of a 
 supplementary work, entitled, 'Table Ge'ne'rale des Monogrammes, 
 Chiffres,' &c, but which was never completed. His great work did 
 not appear till after an interval of twelve years from that date, the 
 whole of which time was exclusively devoted to it. He visited the 
 princpal collections of France, Germany, and Holland to the same 
 end, and his occupations as keeper of the prints of the King of Bavaria, 
 to which post he had been appointed, gave him peculiar facilities for 
 his labour. The complete work was published in Munich, in 3 vols, 
 imp. 8vo, in 1832-34, under the title ' Dictionnaire des Monogrammes, 
 Marques Figurees, Lettres Initiales, Noms Abreges, &c, avec lesquels 
 les Peintres, Dessinateurs, Graveurs, et Sculpteurs ont designe" leurs 
 Noms.' It is a work ot 'mmense labour, is very accurate, and is 
 incomparably the most compiete work of its kind. In voL i., contain- 
 ing the monograms, there are 3292 articles ; in vol. ii., containing the 
 initial letters, there are 2936 articles; and in vol. iii., containing the 
 abbreviations and appendices to the three parts, there are 1818 articles; 
 and the work contains also fac similes, cut in wood, of all the marks, 
 letters, &c, treated of, amounting to many thousands. Brulliot did 
 not long survive the publication of his work ; he died of cholera in 
 1836, at Munich. He was au honorary member of the Academies of 
 the Arts of Munich and of Vienna. 
 
 BRUMOY, PIERRE, was born at Rouen in 1688, and entered the 
 society of the Jesuits in 1704. He was subsequently intrusted with 
 the education of the Prince of Talmont, and became a contributor to 
 the 'Journal of Trevoux.' He first introduced himself to the public 
 by ' Thoughts on the Decline of Latin Poetry,' and afterwards edited 
 'The History of Tamerlane,' written by Margat, a brother Jesuit, and 
 printed at Paris in 1739, 2 vols. 12mo. Shortly after his superiors 
 confided to him the continuation of ' The History of the Anglican 
 Church,' of which work he had already published eleven volumes and 
 was completing the twelfth, when he died at Paris on the 16th of 
 April 1762, in the fifty-fourth year of his age. 
 
M 
 
 BRUN, CHARLES LE. 
 
 BRUNE, MARSHAL. 
 
 Among all who have done honour to the Society of Jesus, both by 
 their moral character and their literary talents, Father Brutnoy stands 
 pro-eminent. With the study of literature he combined that of the 
 mathematics, which he taught from 1725 to 1730, and it is to this cir- 
 cumstance that we are indebted for his discourse ' Upon the Utility of 
 Mathematics as connected with the Belles Lettres.' His works consist 
 of— 'A Life of the Empress Eleonora,' Paris, 1723, 12mo, imitated 
 from the Latin of Father Ce"va ; ' An Apology for the English and 
 French, or Remarks upon the Work (by Muralt) entitled " Letters 
 upon the English and French,"' 1726, 12mo; 'Review of the Poem 
 upon Grace,' Brussels, Paris, 1723, 8vo; six volumes in 12mo, con- 
 taining ' Translations and Analyses of the Greek Tragedies, accom- 
 panied by Discourses and Remarks tipon the Greek Theatre,' Paris, 
 1747, a work which, although highly and justly esteemed for the 
 great learning which it exhibits, is deficient in simplicity and precision 
 of style, and even occasionally betrays the want of a perfect compre- 
 hension of the original text : these errors have been rectified in the 
 editions of 1785-89, 13 vols, in 8vo; 'A Collection of Various Pieces 
 in Prose and Verse,' 14 vols., Paris, 1741, including discourses, epistles, 
 tragedies, comedies, 'Isaac,' 'Jonathan,' the 'Coronation of David,' 
 'Pandora's Box,' 'Plutus,' &c. &c. In addition to the above works, 
 Brumoy made a new edition of J. Morgudi's ' Treatise upon French 
 Poetry,' Paris, 1724, 12mo. He also translated two orations of Father 
 Poree, one upon public exhibitions, and the other upon the question 
 whether the monarchical or the republican form of government was 
 best fitted for forming the heroic character. Brumoy completed, in 
 conjunction with Father Rouille, 'The Revolutions of Spain,' by 
 Father d'Orleans, Paris, 1734, 3 vols. 4to ; assisted in compiling the 
 'Memoirs of Trevcnx;' and reviewed the 'History of Rienzi' of 
 Father du Cerceau, Paris, 1733, 12mo. 
 
 BRUN, CHARLES LE, the son of a sculptor of Scotch extraction, 
 was born at Paris in the year 1619. The singular merit of his juvenile 
 sketches attracted the attention of the Chancellor Seguier, who under- 
 took the charge of his education, and placed him, at the age of eleven, 
 with Vouet, and afterwards with Nicholas Poussin. He remained in 
 Italy six yeara, studying the antique and the works of the old masters. 
 He assiduously cultivated a knowledge of history and costume. On 
 his return to Paris in 1048 he was received into the Academy. From 
 this time employment and honours poured in upon him. Having 
 attained the highest rank in the Academy at Paris, he was appointed 
 principal painter to the kiug, was invested with the order of St. 
 Michel, and wa3 ultimately named Prince of the Academy of St. Luke 
 at Rome, although absent, and a foreigner. A change in the ministry, 
 which had so long favoured Le Brun, carried political animosities into 
 the painter's studio, and, although still honoured by the countenance 
 of the king, he died of chagrin and vexation at the continued annoy- 
 ances which be met with, February 12, 1690, leaving a widow, but no 
 children. 
 
 Le Brun was an industrious and a learned artist; his drawing is 
 bold and correct, and his design often replete with life and magnifi- 
 cence; but the passion expressed in his countenances is neither refined 
 nor elevated, and the grandeur of his pictures belongs rather to the 
 physical than the moral development of the subject. His groups are 
 well arranged and natural ; the action of individual figures is also 
 natural; and yet both are frequently injured by an affectation of grace 
 in some part or other. His works are principally at Paris. The 
 'Battle3 of Alexander,' which are eo well kuown by engravings, are 
 very characteristic specimens of his style, and would alone entitle him 
 to be reckoned among the more eminent painters of the secondary 
 rank. The ' Passage of the Grauicus,' and the ' Battle of Arbela,' are 
 works of great power and feeling. His defects of colouring have been 
 partly attributed to his neglecting to visit Venice ; but his excusers 
 have forgotten that Giorgione and Titian had no Venice to seek fine 
 colour in. His facility in drawing was such, that having procured the 
 delay for a moment of the car which conveyed the Marquise de Brin- 
 villiers to execution, in "four strokes of the pencil," says his French 
 biographer, he sketched a likeness. With the brush he was equally 
 ready. Louis XIV., who daily spent two hours in watching his pro- 
 gress while painting the 'Family of Darius ' at Versailles, desired him 
 to paint at once the head of Parysatis, which he executed with so 
 much success as to extort an expression of delight from Bernini, who 
 was not among the number of his friends. 
 
 BRUNCK, RICHARD FRANCOIS PHILIPPE, was born at Stras- 
 bourg on the 30th of December 1729. He wa3 educated by the Jesuits 
 in the college of Louis le Grand at Paris. He entered early into the 
 engagements of active life, and was for some time employed as military 
 commissary. He had attained his thirtieth year when, during a resi- 
 dence in winter-quarters at Giessen, in one of the campaigns in Hano- 
 ver, he happened to lodge in the house of a professor, who revived in 
 him a love for letter* On his return to Strasbourg he devoted himself 
 to study, to which the possession of an easy fortune allowed his entire 
 application ; and the professor of Greek, whose lectures he attended, 
 b ing a profound grammarian, Brunck quickly became well versed in 
 that language. No sooner did he feel his own strength than he dis- 
 tinguished himself by his criticisms; but his emendations, which are 
 H'im-.times happy, are always hazardous; and acting under a confirmed 
 belief that the errors of the text in all cases proceeded from the fault 
 of copyists, he corrected with a more ' slashing hook ' than even Bentley 
 
 himself ventured to employ. His first work was an edition of the 
 Greek Anthology, published under the title of ' Analecta veterum 
 poetarum Graccorum,' Strasbourg, 3 vols. 8vo, 1776 ; which contains, 
 besides the epigrams usually given in an anthology, several of the 
 minor Greek poets, Anacreon, Callimachus, &c. entire. Anacreon 
 appeared in a separate edition in 1778. In 1779 he edited some Greek 
 plays, which excited a great desire for the appearance of a complete 
 edition of Sophocles which he had announced. His favourite author, 
 Apollonius Rhodius, employed him in 1780, and was followed in 1783 
 by an Aristophanes, which superseded all its predecessors, and has 
 since in turn been entirely superseded by other editions. In the year 
 following he prepared the fragments of Theognis, Solon, Simonides, 
 and other didactic and moral Greek poets, under the title of "H0ik)j 
 rionjins,' sive ' Gnomici Poetse Grseci,' 1 vol. 8vo. In 1785 he issued 
 an edition of Virgil, in which he was by no means sparing of the 
 established text. His ' Sophocles ' at length attracted the attention of 
 scholars in 1786, and may be considered as the work upon which his 
 reputation is chiefly founded. Subsequent critics however have found 
 it necessary to restore the manuscript readiugs which Brunck had 
 replaced by his conjectures. It appeared at first magnificently printed 
 in 2 vols. 4 to ; a limited impression in 3 vols. 8vo, followed in 1788, 
 and there is a third edition, under his own eye, in 4 vols. 8vo, in 
 1786-89. He prepared a copy of Plautus for the Bipont edition of 
 the classics in 1788. On the breaking out of the Revolution he 
 embraced the popular side with ardour ; and notwithstanding 
 Louis XVI., iu return for a presentation copy of the quarto Sophocles 
 superbly printed on vellum, bad conferred on him a pension of 2000 
 francs, Brunck enrolled himself among the earliest members of a revo- 
 tionary society established at Strasbourg. During the Reign of Terror 
 he was imprisoned at Besancjon, and did not obtain his release till the 
 fall of Robespierre. Reverses of fortune, produced by the public 
 troubles, obliged him in 1791 to dispose of part of his library, and in 
 1801 of the remainder. His cultivation of Greek literature ceased with 
 the loss of the first portion of his books ; and he afterwards confined 
 his labours to the Latin classics. In 1797 he printed an edition of 
 Terence in quarto; and at the time of his death, which occurred on 
 the 12th of June, 1803, he was engaged iu superintending an edition 
 of Plautus. His diligence was most remarkable. Instead of referring 
 the printer to any former edition, he always transcribed the entire 
 text of the author upon whom he was engaged. Thus, he twice copied 
 Aristophanes, and Apollonius at least five times. Many of these copies, 
 together with several other manuscript papers, are still preserved in 
 the Bibliotheque Royale at Paris. Brunck was a member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, and also of the French 
 Institute. 
 
 BRU'NE, MARSHAL, was born at Brives, in the department of 
 Correze, in 1736. His father was an advocate, and Brune studied the 
 law at Paris. When the involution broke out he entered the army, 
 and served under Dumourier. He was quickly promoted, and was 
 general of brigade in the army of the interior under Bonaparte in 1795. 
 The following year he joined the army of Italy, and served in the 
 division of Massena. After the peace of Campoformio he was sent 
 by the Directory as commander-in-chief of the army which invaded 
 Switzerland. After the fall of Bern he took the command of the 
 army iu Italy, and obliged the king of Sardinia, who was the forced 
 ally of France, to deliver into his hands the citadel of his own capital, 
 Turin. Brune was next sent into Holland, where in 1799 he defeated 
 the Russians on the Helder, and obliged the Duke of York and the 
 English army to evacuate the country. In the following year he 
 returned to Italy, when, in conjunction with Macdonald, he forced the 
 passage of the Mincio in December 1800, and afterwards concluded an 
 armistice with the Austrian general Bellegarde, preparatory to the 
 peace of Luneville. Brune, on his return to Paris, was appointed 
 councillor of state, and was afterwards sent by Bonaparte as ambassa- 
 dor to Constantinople, where he succeeded in establishing new rela- 
 tions between France and the shah of Persia. He returned to France 
 in 1805, being appointed one of the marshals of the Freuch empire. 
 He commanded for awhile the camp at Boulogne. Being sent to 
 Hamburg in 1807 as governor of the Hanseatic towns and commander 
 of the reserve of the grand army, he had a long interview with Gus- 
 tavus, king of Sweden, near Anklam, iu Pomerania, which seems to 
 have given rise to suspicions on the part of Napoleon. In the sur- 
 render of the island of Rugen by the Swedish general Toll, agreeably 
 to a convention with Marshal Brune, the latter omitted in the text 
 of the convention the titles of the Emperor Napoleon, and mentioned 
 simply the French army and the Swedish army as parties to the 
 agreement. Napoleon, who was highly offended, sent Brune his recal, 
 styling his conduct "a scandal never seen since the time of Pharamond.' 
 From that time Brune lived retired and in disgrace, till Napoleon's first 
 abdication, when he made his submission to Louis XVIIL, who gave 
 him the cross of St. Louis. During the ' Huudred Days' he joined 
 Napoleon, who sent him to command a corps of observation on the 
 Var. After the battle of Waterloo he proclaimed the king, and leaving 
 Lis corps, was travelling from Toulon to Avignon on his way to Paris, 
 when he found himself in the midst of the reaction that took place in 
 the southern provinces at that time. A furious mob forced its way 
 into the inn at Avignon where Brune was, August the 2nd, 1815, and 
 upbraiding him with having been a terrorist, and having taken part in 
 
975 BRUNEHAUT. 
 
 the massacres of August and September 1792 — to which Brune calmly 
 replied that " ho was at that time fighting on the frontiers against the 
 enemies of his country " — they shot him in the room of the inn as he 
 was standing with his back turned to the fire place. His body was 
 then dragged through the streets, and thrown into the Rhone. 
 
 BRUNEI 1AUT, the younger daughter of Athanagildus, king of the 
 Visigoths of Spain, married in 565 Siegbert, the Frankish king of Metz, 
 or Austrasia. Her eldest sister Galsuiuda, married Chilperic, Siegbert's 
 brother and king of Soissons. Galsuinda was soon after murdered by 
 Fredegouda, the mistress of Chilperic, who then married her. Brune- 
 haut, determined to avenge her sister's death, induced Siegbert to 
 make war upon his brother, and Chilperic only obtained peace by giving 
 up part of his states. Other wars took place between the brothers at 
 the instigation of their wives, and in the end Chilperic, having lost his 
 territories, was besieged by Siegbert in the town of Tournai, when two 
 assassins, hired by Fredegonda, murdered Siegbert in his camp, 575. 
 Upon this Chilperic came out of Tournai, and made Brunehaut and 
 her son Childebert prisoners. Meroveus, sou of Chilperic, falling in 
 love with Brunehaut, enabled her to escape into Australia, and Mero- 
 veus was in consequence murdered by Fredegonda. Cliilperic himself 
 was soon after murdered, 581. Brunehaut aud her son Childebert 
 now made war upon Fredegonda, who at last was obliged to resign her 
 authority, 585. In 596 Childebert died, leaving his sons Thierry and 
 Theodebert II. under the guardianship of his mother Brunehaut. 
 From this time a long struggle began between the nobles of Austrasia 
 and Brunehaut, who wished to reign without control, which lasted 
 nearly twenty years. Thierry and Theodebert made war against each 
 other, aud Brunehaut sided with the former, who took his brother 
 prisoner. Theodebert was murdered at Cologne, as some historians 
 report, by order of Brunehaut. Clotarius, the sou of Fredegonda, took 
 advantage of these dissensions, and on the death of Thierry in 615 
 seized upon Austrasia aud Burgundy, and thus reunited under his 
 sceptre the whole kingdom of the Franks. Brunehaut, being taken 
 prisoner by Clotarius, was condemned to a most horrible death. After 
 suffering for three days all kinds of insults, she was tied to a horse's 
 tail, and thus driven about till she was dead, when her body was burnt 
 aud the ashes scattered to the wiuds. Her old enemy, Fredegonda, 
 had died many years before, in 597. The true character of Brunehaut 
 has been the subject of much controversy. Several of her contem- 
 poraries, such as St. Gregory of Tours and Pope Gregory the Great, 
 speak highly of her ; while those who asperse her memory, such as 
 Fredegarius, Aimoin the monk, &c., lived at least a century after her. 
 Bossuet maintains that she was sacrificed to the ambition of Clotarius, 
 and probably also to the rancour of the nobles of her own dominions. 
 A monument was raised to her in the church of St. Martin of Autun. 
 She is said to have promoted the preaching of Christianity in England. 
 
 BRUNEL, SIR MARK ISAMBAHD, was born on April 25, 1769, at 
 Hacqueville, in the department of L'Eure, a few miles from Rouen. 
 His parents, who were respectable agriculturists, had four children, of 
 whom he was the eldest. From his earliest boyhood he showed a 
 decided inclination for mechanical pursuits ; and on being sent to the 
 seminary of St. Nicaise at Rouen, preferred the study of exact science, 
 mathematics, mechanics, and navigation, to the classics; and during 
 the vacations, which he passed at home, he was never happier than 
 v. hen busying himself in a joiner's workshop. He familiarised himself 
 with the tools and some of their applications, and when but twelve 
 years old was already a proficient in turning and in the construction of 
 models — ships, machines, and musical instruments. All this construc- 
 tiveness was little gratifying to his father, who would have preferred 
 to see his son in the church or in a merchant's office. 
 
 On leaving the seminary at the age of fifteen, Brunei passed some 
 time in the family of M. Carpentier, a friend of his father, at Rouen; 
 and went through a regular course of lessons in drawing, perspective, 
 and hydrography. He took so much interest in the astronomical part 
 of his nautical studies, that ou his visits home he set himself to observe 
 the stars, greatly to the astonishment of the villagers. He made an 
 octant, guided by the one belonging to his tutor, and a treatise on 
 navigation; and finding its results unsatisfactory, he studied the 
 instrument, and constructed another of ebony, which enabled him to 
 take trustworthy observations. 
 
 Influenced perhaps by M. Carpentier, who had been a trading captain, 
 Brunei enlisted as a sailor in 1786, from which date up to 1793 he made 
 several voyages to the West Indies. He was remarked for the skill, 
 intelligence, aud good humour with which he discharged a seaman's 
 duties; won good opinions from everybody; and astonished his com- 
 panions by using instruments of his own construction, and by making 
 a pianoforte while the ship once lay at Guadaloupe. During a visit to 
 Paris after his last voyage in 1793, Brunei ventured to raise his voice 
 in one of the political clubs against the ferocious doctrines there 
 actively promulgated, and thereby endangered his personal liberty; 
 but, obtaining permission from the minister of marine, he escaped to 
 America, hoping tu find employment for his abilities in a new country. 
 
 Brunei had not been long in New York when he joined a party of 
 his countrymen who were about to explore the wild and unsettled 
 regions bordering on Lake Ontario, to survey the lands of a French 
 company. The operations were carried on for two months, during 
 which the party, seven persons in all, Brunei being leader, encamped 
 in the woods, finding a charm in the adventurous nature of their wort 
 
 BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM. We 
 
 In 1794 Brunei was appointed, conjointly with one of his fellow- 
 explorers, to survey for the canal which now connocts Lake Cham plain 
 with the river Hudson at Albany. With this task, in which his fertility 
 of invention and readiness in overcoming difficulties were strikingly 
 manifested, his career as engineer may be said to have begun. When 
 desigus for tho houses of congress were called for he sent in one which, 
 though acknowledged as the best, was rejected as too costly and mag- 
 nificent for simple republicans. He afterwards acted professionally 
 as an architect, and among other works built aud fitted up one of the 
 principal theatres of New York. It has since been burned down. 
 He was employed on the forts erected for the defence of the city, and 
 in tho establishment of an arsenal and foundry, where his ingenious 
 contrivances for boring cannon and moving large masses of metal with 
 facility, showed how successfully he could bring new ideas to bear on 
 the work immediately in progress. 
 
 In the family of his friend Carpentier at Rouen, Brunei had become 
 acquainted with Miss Sophia Kingdom. This acquaintance, and a 
 desire to work among the scientific engineers of Europe, drew him to 
 England. Ho married Bhortly after his arrival ; and to initiate his 
 career in this country, produced an autographic machine designed to 
 copy drawings, maps, and written documents. Soon afterwards he 
 submitted to government a plan for making block-pulleys for ships by 
 machinery, and was employed to carry it into execution in the dock- 
 yard at Portsmouth. The ingenuity of this contrivance is not less 
 remarkable than the accuracy and economy with which its operations 
 are performed. It comprises, so to speak, sixteen different machines, 
 all driven by the same steam-power; seven of which cut and shape 
 logs of elm or ash into the shells of blocks of any required size, while 
 nine fashion stems of lignum-vita) into pulleys or sheaves, and form 
 the iron pin, which being inserted the block is complete. Four men 
 with this machine turn out as many blocks as four-score did formerly, 
 and at less cost. The supply has never failed, even in time of war, 
 though 1500 blocks are required in the rigging of a single ship of the 
 line. Results so satisfactory produced a corresponding liberality on 
 the part of government, and tho inventor was rewarded beyond his 
 expectations. The steam saw-mill in Chatham dockyard was erected 
 by Brunei. The success of the circular saws there introduced led liim 
 to further improvements, by which in the cutting of veneers double 
 the usual number could be obtained. He invented a machine for 
 making seamless shoes for the army, which after two years' trial was 
 given up from an economical motive. Among other inventions may 
 be enumerated a machine for making wooden boxes; for nail-making; 
 to twist, measure, and form sewing cotton into hanks; for ruling paper; j 
 a contrivance for cutting and shuffling cards without the aid of fingers, 
 produced in reply to a playful request of Lady Spencer's ; a hydraulic 
 packing-press ; new methods and combinations for suspension-bridges; 
 and a process for building wide and flat arches without centerings. 
 He was employed in the construction of the first Ramsgate steamer, 
 and was the first to suggest the advantages of steam-tugs to the 
 Admiralty. He constructed a machine for using carbonic acid gas as 
 a motive power, aud, assisted by his son, carried on a series of experi- 
 ments for more than ten years in the endeavour to bring it to perfection., 
 Most of the mechanical difficulties were overcome ; but although an 
 intense power wa3 obtained, and with a very low temperature, the' 
 economical advantages as compared with the cost of the vapour of 
 water, did not appear to be such as to compensate for the increased 
 cost of the machinery, and the unusual difficulties in its use. 
 
 Brunei's works of engineering construction are to be found in different 
 parts of the United Kingdom. That by which he is most popularly 
 known is the Thames Tunnel. This great work, commenced in March 
 1825, was successfully accomplished notwithstanding the accidents, 
 obstacles, and overwhelming disasters that hindered its progress. The 
 water broke in more than once, and flooded the whole of the excava- 
 tions. Brunei however proved himself equal to each emergency, and 
 his persevering genius at length triumphed. The tunnel was opened 
 to the public in March 1843. 
 
 Brunei was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1814, and was 
 chosen on the council, and appointed vice-president in 1832-33. He 
 was a member also of other scientific societies and institutions. The 
 honour of knighthood was conferred on him in 1841. With advancing 
 years he bee; me subject to a disease of which he had felt the firsf 
 approaches while completing the tunnel, and he died December 12, 
 1849, having nearly reached the venerable age of eighty-one. His life 
 is an example of what may be accomplished by genius seconded by 
 industry. The high character of his inventions, their essential useful- 
 ness, give them especial claims to consideration. In the words of a 
 French writer, these have gained for him " the celebrity that now 
 distinguishes his name, the admiration of men of learning and of 
 labour, and the affectionate remembrance of all those who, fortunate 
 enough to know him personally, could appreciate his simple and noble 
 character." 
 
 (Travaux de VAcad. de Rouen; Proc. Roy. Soc; Proc. Inst. Oiv. 
 Eng. ; Quarterly Review ; Life, by R. Beamish.) 
 
 BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM, son of the constructor of the 
 Thames Tunnel, was born at Portsmouth in 1806, when his father was 
 engaged in erecting the block-machinery for the dockyard. He was 
 taken while quite young to France, and finished his education at the 
 College Henri IV. at Caen. He commenced practical engineering in 
 
BRUNELLESCHI, FILIPPO. 
 
 BRUNI, LEONARDO. 
 
 1826, under his father at the Thames tunnel, of which work he was 
 resident engineer. Being the last to quit his post, he was more than 
 once in danger from the frequeut breaking-in of water, during the 
 progress of the excavations, and only saved himself by swimming. 
 The final irruption in 1828, when one man was drowned, surprised 
 him 600 feet from the end of the tunnel : he was borne along by the 
 stream, and rose to the surface near the top of the shaft. 
 
 Mechanical and railway engineering, and the construction of 
 machinery for locomotives and steam navigation, have been the special 
 objects of Mr. Brunei's study. For ten years he laboured in the 
 experiments instituted by his father to employ carbonic acid gas as a 
 motive-power. He was designer and civil engineer of the ' Great 
 ■Western,' the first steamship built to cross the Atlantic; of the 'Great 
 Britain :' of other large vessels ; and of the huge iron ship now being 
 built at Millwall for the Eastern Steam Navigation Company. He 
 has been engaged on the docks at some of our out-ports ; among which 
 the most important are, the improvement of Bristol docks, Cardiff, 
 and the construction of the Old North Sunderland Dock. 
 
 Mr. Brunei was appointed engineer to the Great-Western railway in 
 1833; and under his direction have all the tunnels, bridges, and other 
 works been constructed on that line and its branches and connections 
 —including the Bristol and Exeter, South Devon, West Cornwall, 
 Birmingham and Oxford, and others. Noticeable among the bridges 
 on these lines are, that across the Thames at Maidenhead, for the 
 largest and flattest of brick arches — that at Chepstow for the great 
 difficulties overcome in crossing the Wye — and the bridge of the 
 Cornwall railway now in course of erection over the Tamar, which is 
 as near as may be, from coincidence of natural causes, of the same 
 span and height as the Britannia bridge, and has a central pier rising 
 from a depth of 80 feet of water : the deepest yet encountered in 
 railway engineering. 
 
 The Hungerford Suspension foot-bridge, across the Thames at 
 London, was also erected by Mr. Brunei. It has the longest span in 
 EDgland. He took part in the floating and raising of the Conway and 
 Britannia tubular bridges: operations not less remarkable for their 
 novelty and magnitude, than for the friendly co-operation of eminent 
 engineers by whom they were successfully accomplished. He set out 
 and conducted the works of the Tuscan portion of the Sardinian rail- 
 way; and had the entire charge of establishing and fitting the Renkioi 
 hospitals on the Dardanelles, uecessit ited by the late war with Russia. 
 These hospitals will accommodate 3000 patients ; and as regards 
 comfort, artificial ventilation, warming, baths, &c, and special adapta- 
 tion to their purpose, they are not excelled by the best London 
 hospitals. An abundant supply of water is laid on from the hills, and 
 railways afford easy carriage from the landing-pla:es on the shore into 
 the several wards. 
 
 Mr. Brunei was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1830, and 
 was chosen on the council in 1844. He is a Vice President of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, and of the Society of Arts ; a Fellow of 
 the Astronomical, Geological, and Geographical Societies, and Chevalier 
 of the Legion of Honour. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BRUNELLESCHI, FILIPPO. Had this artist no other claims to 
 notice than those arising from a single work, the dome of Santa Maria 
 del Fiore, or the cathedral at Florence, is one of those memorable 
 achievements which suffice to perpetuate a name. Brunelleschi was 
 born at Florence, in 1377, and was descended from a family which had 
 produced several eminent individuals. His father, who followed the 
 profession of notary in that city, designed to educate him either for the 
 same, or for the medical science. Filippo was accordingly initiated in 
 the studies which would prepare him for either of those pursuits. 
 But though not deficient in application, the natural bias of his mind 
 diverted his faculties into another direction ; and he at length prevailed 
 upon his father to place him with a goldsmith. At that period the 
 goldsmith's art comprised every branch of working in metals for orna- 
 mental purpose.", and was intimately allied with design generally, and 
 with sculpture in particular ; in fact, to the latter art it frequently 
 served as a kind of apprenticeship, as happened in Brunelleschi's case. 
 Led on both by his own talent and the intimacy he had formed with 
 the celebrated Donatello, he applied himself to sculpture, and with 
 such success that he was admitted as one of the competitors in the 
 designs for the bronze gates of the Baptistery at Florence. 
 
 After this he began to think of signalising himself in architecture, 
 and as Donatello was about to proceed to Rome, resolved on accom- 
 panying him thither for the purpose of acquainting himself with the 
 ancient buildings in that city. Here he perceived what a career was 
 opened to him who should endeavour to revive a style of architecture 
 altogether so different from that which had prevailed in his native 
 place for so many centuries. In 1407 he returned to Florence, where 
 it was proposed to complete the structure of Santa Maria, which had 
 been commenced by Arnolfo di L;ipo two or three years before his 
 death, which happened in 1300, and which was afterwards carried on 
 by Giotto. With thh view the most eminent architects were invited 
 from all parts to devise in what way it would be practicable to cover 
 the spacious octangular area between the four branches of the cross. 
 How it was originally intended to > fleet this, in accordance with the 
 other parts of the edifice, does not now appear. Owing to the magni- 
 °^. t ^ le 8 pace to be covered by a single vault, very formidable 
 difficulties pre-ented themselves, and the possibility of doing it was 
 
 WOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 questioned ; for with the exception of the dome of Santa Sophia, tho 
 diameter of which is something less, the only example which could iu 
 any way serve as a guide were St. Mark's at Venice, and the cathedral 
 at Pisa. While the rest were engaged in fruitless debates, Brunelleschi 
 was assiduously employed in maturing his plans, models, and scheme 
 of operations, and contented himself with pointing out the hazardous- 
 ness of a project which he had assured himself he should be able to 
 accomplish. At length Brunelleschi's model, explaining the whole 
 mechanism and construction of his intended cupola, was publicly 
 exhibited, and convinced every one of his success. He was commis- 
 sioned to commence the work, but it was soon determined to associate 
 with him Lorenzo Ghiberti as a colleague. This arrangement he 
 resented in every possible way, and ultimately Ghiberti was removed, 
 and Brunelleschi constituted sole architect. He now gave all his 
 energies to the work, and had the satisfaction of seeing this chef- 
 d'eeuvre terminated before his death. 
 
 While in size this noble cupola yields very little to that of St. Peter's 
 (and beiug on an octangular plan its diameter as measured from angle 
 to angle is somewhat more), it is infinitely more commanding, being 
 so very much larger in comparison with the altitude and other dimen- 
 sions of the mass on which it is placed. It further suggests the idea 
 of greater amplitude of space within, and has less the appearance of 
 being a separate and independent structure standing upon the lower 
 one ; besides which, its simplicity and expanse, if they do not perfectly 
 accord with, are rendered not the less striking by, the fanciful and 
 somewhat minute style of the older part of the fabric. Although this 
 single structure was his most memorable work, it was by no means the 
 sole one of any magnitude which he executed. Among his other 
 productions may be mentioned the church of San Lorenzo at Florence, 
 and the celebrated Pitti Palace in that city. The latter of these, which 
 was afterwards continued and completed by Ammaneti, is chiefly 
 remarkable for its severe simplicity and massiveness. Brunelleschi 
 was also employed on several works at Mantua and in its vicinity. Iu 
 his private character he i3 said to have been a man of a noble and 
 generous spirit; and that as an architect he was enthusiastic in devotion 
 to his art, there can be little doubt. He died in the year 1444 (that 
 of Bramante's birth), and was buried with much ceremony in Santa 
 Maria del Fiore, his remains resting withiu that edifice which he had 
 consummated by his skill, and which will perpetuate his name. 
 
 BRU'NI, LEONARDO, commonly designated ARETINO, was born 
 at Arezzo, of humble parents, in 1369. He studied Latin and Greek 
 at Florence, under the learned Coluccio Salutati, and afterwards went 
 to Rome, where he obtained the post of secretary in the papal chancery 
 [Bracciolini], under Innocent VII. In a tumult, which took place 
 at Rome against the papal government, he was assailed by the mob, 
 and escaped with difficulty to Viterbo, where the pope took shelter. 
 Bruni continued in his office, under Innocent's successors, and he 
 attended John XXII. in 1414 to the Council of Constance. After the 
 deposition of that pope, Bruni returned to Florence, where he chiefly 
 resided for the remainder of his life. In 1427 he was appointed 
 chancellor to the republic, an office which he retained till his death. 
 He was also sent by the state on several missions. When the Emperor 
 John Palaeolo^us and the Greek patriarch came to attend the Council 
 of Florence, Bruni harangued them in Greek, in the name of the 
 republic. He died in 1444, and was buried, with great honours, in 
 the church of Santa Croce, where he is represented on his monument 
 reclining on a bier with the volume of his ' History of Florence' on 
 his breast, and a crown of laurel round his head, that beiug the 
 manner in which he was buried by order of the community. Bruni 
 was commonly styled L'Aretino, from the place of his birth, which 
 circumstance has led some travellers, and Mme. de Stiiel among the 
 rest, to mistake his monument at Santa Croce for that of the ob.-cene 
 writer Pietro Aretiuo, who died and was buried at Venice. (Valery, 
 ' Voyages en Italie.') 
 
 Bruni wrote a great number of works, many of which are now for- 
 gotten, and have never been printed. Mehus gives the title of sixty- 
 three of them in his biography of Bruni, prefixed to the edition of his 
 ' Epistolao,' 2 vols. 8vo, Florence, 1741. Among his Latin works are 
 a ' History of the Goths,' compiled in great measure from Procopius ; 
 a commentary on the Peloponnesian war, a book on the first Punic 
 war, to fill up the void of the lost books of Livy, a history of his own 
 times from the schism of Urban VI. and Clement, in 1387, till the 
 victory of Anf;hiari by the Florentines, in 1440; and the ' Historia 
 Floreutiua.' This last, Bruni's principal work, begins from the founda- 
 tion of Florence, and is carried down to the year 1404. It was printed 
 at Strasbourg, folio, 1610, and was also translated into Italian by 
 Douato Acciajuoli, Venice, 1476, and Florence, 1492. The opinion of 
 Machiavelli on the Florentine histories of his two predecessors, Bruni 
 and Poggio, is quoted under Bracciolini. Bruni translate d into Latin 
 'Plato's Epistles;' the 'Politic, Ethic, and G^couomic of Aristotle,' 
 several speeches of Demosthenes aud yEschiues ; and made numerous 
 other translations from the Greek, lie wrote iu Italian ' Vite di 
 Dante e*del Petrarca,' Florence, 1672, which are not among the best 
 biographies of these two illustrious men ; ' Vita di Cicerone,' which 
 he first compostd in Latin, and afterwards turned into Italian, juiuted 
 for the first time by Bodoui, Parma, 1804; and 'Novella di Messer 
 Lionardo d' Arezzo,' inserted among the ' Novelle di Varj Autori,' and 
 published again separately at Verona, 1817. 
 
 3 b 
 
B79 
 
 BRUNSWICK, HOUSE OP. 
 
 BRUNINGS, CHRISTIAN, was born iu 1736 at Neckerau in the 
 palatinate. Ho early applied himself to the study of hydraulics, aud 
 ultimately became one of the first hydraulic engineers of his time. 
 The States-general of Holland having appointed him in 1769 inspector- 
 general of the rivers aud canals, he effected many useful works, drained 
 several tracts of land, repaired the dykes of the Haarlem Meer, 
 deepened the bed of the Oberwasser, and altered the course of the 
 rannerden Canal, which communicates between the Waal and the 
 Rhine. In the course of these operations he invented an instrument 
 to measure the rapidity of streams, aud to determine the same at any 
 depth. He explained the principles and the use of this invention, 
 which goes by the name of the ' Bruningsche Strommesser,' in a 
 treatise which was translated from the Dutch into German under the 
 title of 'Abhaudlung iiber die Geachwindigkeit des fliessendes wasscrs, 
 und von den mitteln dieselbe auf alien tiefen zu bettimmen,' 4 to, 
 Frankfurt, 1798, with plates, aud an introduction by Wiebeking, in 
 which the great services rendered by Briiuings to Holland are enlarged 
 upon. Brunings died in 1805. Several scientific essays by Briiuings 
 are inserted in the ' Memoirs of the Haerlem Society of the Sciences.' 
 
 There is another Christian Brunings, a native also of the pala- 
 tinate and a professor, who wrote a book on the ' Antiquities of 
 Greece,' Frankfurt, 1734, which was published again gome years after 
 with an appendix on the Roman Triumphs ; and a ' Compendium of 
 Hebrew Antiquities,' published in 1763. He was born in 1702, and 
 died in 1763. 
 
 BRUNO, SAINT, born at Cologne in 1051, studied at Taris, aud 
 afterwards became a canon of Rheims, and director of the school or 
 seminary of that diocese ; but being di-gusted with the vexations and 
 misconduct of the Archbishop Manasses, he took the resolution of 
 leaving the world aud retiring to a solitude. He repaired first to 
 Saisse Fontaine, in the diocese of Langres, aud afterwards to a moun- 
 tain near Grenoble, in 1084, where being joined by several other 
 ascetics, he built an oratory and seven cell*, separate from each other, 
 in imitation of the early hermits of Palestine aud Egypt. Bruno and 
 his monks cultivated the grouud in the neighbourhood of their cells, 
 and lived upon the produce, and upon what the charity of pious 
 persons supplied them with. This was the origin of the order of the 
 Carthusians, and of the splendid convent afterwards built on the spot, 
 which is called La Grande Chartreuse. Bruno adopted the rules of 
 St. Benedict, but afterwards Qui, the fifth general of the order, wrote 
 distinct regulations for it. Pope Urban II., who had studied under 
 Bruno at Rheims, insisted upon his going to Rome, where he stood in 
 need of his advice. Bruno after a time becoming weary of the papal 
 court, retired to a solitude in Calabria, where he founded another 
 convent of his order, in which he died in 1101. He was canonised in 
 1514. Several commentaries and treatises have been attributed to 
 him, which were written however by another St. Bruno Siguy of Asti, 
 a contemporary of the former, and abbot of the Benedictines of Monte 
 Casino. Of St. Bruno the Carthusian there are two letters written 
 from Calabria, one of which is addressed to his brethren of the Grande 
 Chartreuse, near Grenoble. (Bollaudi, Acta Sanctorum; and Diet. 
 Univ. Ilistorique.) 
 
 BRU'NO, GIORDA'NO, was born at Nola in the kingdom of Naples, 
 about the middle of the 16th century. He entered the order of the 
 Dominicans, but being of an inquisitive turn of mind, he began to 
 express doubts on some of the dogmas of the Roman Church, the 
 consequence of which was that he was obliged to run away from his 
 convent. Upon this lie went to Geneva, where he spent two years, 
 but soon incurring the dislike of the Calvinists, on account of his 
 general scepticism on religious matters, he removed to Paris, where 
 he published iu 1582 a satirical comedy, 'II Candelajo,' in ridicule of 
 several classes and professions in society ; this comedy was afterwards 
 imitated in the French anonymous play, 'Boniface et le Pedant,' Paris, 
 1633. Bruno gave lectures on philosophy, in which he openly attacked 
 the doctrines of the Aristotelians, which had already been combated 
 in France by Ramus and Postel. Having made himself many enemies 
 among the professors of the Paris university, as well as among the 
 clergy, he went to England in 1583, where he enjoyed the protection 
 of Castelnau the French ambassador, and gained the protection of Sir 
 Philip Sidney, to whom he dedicated his ' Spaccio della bestia trion- 
 fante,' an allegorical work against the court of Rome, with the ' Cena 
 delle Ceneri,' or 'Evening Conversations on Ash- Wednesday,' a dia- 
 logue between four interlocutors. He also wrote ' Delia causa, prin- 
 cipio et uno,' and 'Dell' infinito universo e mondi,' in which he 
 developed his ideas both on natural philosophy and metaphysics. 
 His system is a kind of pantheism : he asserted that the universe is 
 infinite, and that each of the worlds contained in it is animated by 
 the universal soul, &c. Spinosa borrowed some of his theories from 
 Bruno. Buhle, in the ' History of Modern Philosophy,' gives an expo- 
 sition of Bruno's system ; see also ' Jacobi's Preface to the Letters on 
 the Doctrine of Spinosa.' In his next work, ' Cabala del caval Pegaseo 
 con l'aggiunta dell' asino Cillenico,' he contends that ignorance is the 
 mother of happiness, and that "he who promotes science increases 
 the sources of grief." Bruno's language is symbolic aud obsc.ure ; he 
 talks much about the constellations, and his style is harsh and 
 inelegant. 
 
 After remaining about two years in England, during which he visited 
 Oxford, and held disputations with some of the doctors of tliat 
 
 university, Bruno returned to Paris in 1585. In the following year he 
 went to the university of Marburg in Germany, where he was 
 matriculated, without however obtaining leave to give lectures. 
 Having quarrelled with the rector on this account, he proceeded to 
 Wittenburg, where he was received professor, and published in 1587, 
 a treatise, ' Do Lampade combinatoria Lulliana.' At Wittenburg 
 Bruno was invited to become a member of the Lutheran communioa, 
 which he seems to have declined ; upon which he proceeded to 
 Brunswick, where he was well received by tho Duke Julius, who 
 placed him at Helmstadt as teacher. On the duke's death in 1589, 
 Bruno repaired to Frankfurt, where he wrote several Latin treatises 
 explanatory of his metaphysics. At Frankfurt on a sudden he 
 resolved, from what motive is unknown, to return to Italy, a step 
 which was greatly censured by his friends. He went first to Padua 
 in 1592, where he remained two years, and then to Venice, where he 
 was arrested by the ecclesiastical inquisition, and transferred to Rome 
 in 1593. He remained two years iu the prisons of the holy office, 
 when the inquisitors having in vain attempted to bring him to recant 
 his opinions, at length on the 9th February, 1600, sentence was passed 
 upon him as a confirmed heretic, and he was burnt alive on the 17th 
 February. Bruno's works were collected and published together by 
 Dr. Wagner, with a life of the author : ' Opere di Giordano Bruno 
 Nolano ora per la prima volta raccolte o pubblicate,' 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Leipzig, 1830; the Latin writings of Bruno were published by 
 M. Grxfer at Paris in 1831, ' Jordaui Bruui Nolani scripta quae latine 
 redegit omnia,' 1 vol. 8vo. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, HOUSE OF. The house of Brunswick, one of the 
 oldest families iu Germany, a branch of which is now seated on the 
 British throne, derive their descent from Albert Azo I., margrave of 
 Este in Italy, who died iu 964. His great grandson, Albert Azo II. of 
 Este, who held the sovereignty of Milan, Genoa, and other deuv snes 
 iu Lombardy, had for his first wife Kuuiguuda, daughter of Guelph 1L, 
 who died in 1039, and was of the blood of the Altorfs, couiitsot' 
 Swabia. His sou by this marriage, Guelph the First (more properly 
 the Fourth), became possessed of the dukedom of Bavaria, and founded 
 the junior house of Guelph, to which the house of Brunswick traces 
 its origin. This prince, who inherited the whole of the possessions 
 of the Guelph family from his maternal uncle, died in 1101. Guelph IL 
 (or V.), his eldest ton, married in 1089 the celebrated Countess 
 Matilda, but was divorced from her some years afterwards, and died 
 childless in 1119. His inheritance devolved to his brother, Henry the 
 Black, whose union with the daughter and heiress of the last duke of 
 Saxony brought him a considerable accession of territory in Lower 
 Saxony. This prince was succeeded in 1125 by Henry the Proud (or 
 Magnanimous), his son, who, by intermarriage with the only daughter 
 of Lotharius II., heiress of the vast possessions of the Billings, added 
 to the dukedoms of Bavaria and Austria, Brunswick, and the duchy 
 of Saxony, by which acquisitions he became the most powerful sove- 
 reign in Germany, and cxteuded his dominion from Italy to the 
 shores of the Baltic. He died in 1139, after the ban of the empire 
 had been fulminated against him for laying violent hands on the 
 imperial insignia, aud endeavouring to usurp the imperial dignity. 
 He was followed by his son, Henry the Lion, who, having seized, 
 upon Holstein and Mecklenburg, was stripped by the ban of 1179 of 
 Bavaria, Saxony, Austria, aud other possessions in the south, and 
 allowed to retain only his domains in Lower Saxony, consisting of 
 Liineburg, Kalenberg, Gottiugen, Grubenhagen, and the duchy of 
 Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. This was the death-blow to the supremacy 
 of the Guelphs. As Henry's eldest son was become, by marriage, 
 count palatinate, and his second son, Otho, had died on the imperial 
 throne in 1218, William, a younger son, succeeded on Henry's death 
 to the Brunswick inheritance; and Otho, a son of this prince, became 
 the founder of the present dynasty, by virtue of his solemn investiture 
 with the territory of Brunswick as a fief of the empire in 1235, on 
 which occasion he was recognised as the first Duke of Brunswick. 
 His son Albert succeeded him; aud John, another son, who died in 
 1277, founded the elder branch of the Liineburg house, which became 
 extinct iu the person of William of Liineburg in 1369. In this way, 
 Magnus 'of the Chain,' a great grandson of Albert, who died in 1373, 
 united the possessions of each dynasty, and became the joint ancestor 
 of what are termed the ' intermediate lines ' of Brunswick and Liine- 
 burg. Of these two lines that of Brunswick, which in 1503 had split 
 into the Kalenberg aud Wolfenbiittel branches, became extinct 
 with Duke Frederic Ulrich in 1634. 
 
 Ernest the Pious, or the Confessor, who died in 1546, inheriting 
 the principalities of Brunswick and Liineburg as surviving represen- 
 tative of the intermediate line, was the founder of both branches of 
 the existing dynasty ; but the inheritance was again divided at his 
 decease, \<j which partition Henry, his eldest son, established the 
 line of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel in 1569, and William, his younger 
 son, established the line of Biuuswick-Luneburg. A descendant of 
 the last-mentioned prince, Duke Ernest Augustus, was raised to the 
 dignity of ninth elector of the empire in 1692; aud George Lewis, a 
 sou of Ernest Augustus, succeeded to the crown of Great Britain in 
 1714, by virtue of his descent on the female side from James L 
 
 Augustus, who acquired some celebrity as a writer under the desig- 
 nation of Gustavus Selenus, removed his residence from Hitzaker to 
 Wolfenbiittel, where he founded the great library in that town. At 
 
BRUTUS, LUCIUS JUNIUS. 
 
 BRUTUS, DECTMUS JUNIUS. 
 
 ;i-2 
 
 is decease, in 1666, he left behind him three sons, the youngest of 
 ,'hom having had the sovereignty of Bevern assigned to him founded 
 'he line of that name; his elder brothers became joint rulers of the 
 emaioing territories of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, and having in 1G71 
 ut an end to the extensive privileges enjoyed by the town of Bruns- 
 .•ick, compelled the citizens to recognise them as their masters. Upon 
 he death of the elder of the two brothers, Anthony Ulrich, who built 
 he town of Salzdahlen, became sole ruler. On his death in 1714, he 
 eft two sons behind him, Augustus William, who fixed his seat of 
 overument at Wolfenbiittel, and Lewis Rudolphus, who made Blan- 
 :enburg his capital, but afterwards removed to Wolfenbiittel, the 
 lecease of Augustus having reunited the disjointed principalities in 
 .731. As Lewis had no male heirs, Ferdinand Albert, of the line of 
 3erern, succeeded to the dukedom of Brunswick in 1735. Lewis 
 Srnest, the third son of this prince, held the rank of field-marshal in 
 he service of the Dutch states from 1759 to 1766, during which 
 jeriod he was captain-general of the United Provinces, and acting 
 guardian of the hereditary stadtholder ; the jealousy however of the 
 latriotic party exiled him to Bois-le-Duc, and he died there in 17S8. 
 -lis next brother, Ferdinand, who entered the Prussian service, distin- 
 uished himself greatly in the Seven Years' War, decided the battle 
 >f Prague, and in 1757, at the head of the Prussian army in West- 
 halia, gained the victories of Corfeld and Miuden, and drove the 
 French out of Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel. The 
 father of these two princes, Ferdinand Albert, after a reign of a few 
 nonths, was succeeded in 1735 by his son Charles, who transferred 
 the seat of government to Brunswick in 1754, and there founded the 
 ?elebrated Collegium Carolinum. He was the steady and active ally 
 af England during the Seven Years' war. 
 
 On his decease, in 1780, his son, Charles William Ferdinand, suc- 
 ceeded him. This prince, who had been educated as a soldier, at the 
 head of the Brunswick auxiliaries in the Seven Years' war, was 
 mainly instrumental in gaining the victory of Krefeld in 1758, and 
 was acknowledged by Frederick the Great to be one of the first 
 captains of his day. He married Augusta, princess of Wales, in 1764. 
 At the close of the Seven Years' war, the domestic interests of his 
 exhausted possessions afforded him a new sphere of action, in which, 
 by the extinction of its debts and the wisdom of his general govern- 
 ment, he showed himself as well fitted to govern a country as to 
 command an army. Previously to his accession to the ducal crown, 
 he had accepted a commission in the Prussian service as general of 
 infantry: in this capacity, in 1787, he took the command of the 
 Prussian forces, marched into Holland, and reinstated the stadtholder 
 in his dignity. In 1792 he was called upon to lead the Austrian and 
 Prussian armies in the campaign against revolutionary France, and, 
 after issuing the violent manifesto of the 15th of July in that year, 
 entered Lorraine and Champagne, where, destitute of resources and 
 baffled by the caution of Dumouriez, his fruitless attempts to force 
 the position of Valmy compelled him to conclude an armistice and 
 abandon the French territory. In the campaign of the following 
 year, which he carried on in conjunction with Wurmser, the Austrian 
 general, on both banks of the Rhine, from Strasbourg to beyond 
 Landau and Mayence, he was so ably opposed by Moreau, Hoche, and 
 Pichegru, and so indifferently supported by his Austrian allies, that he 
 determined to resign his command. He accordingly withdrew to 
 Brunswick, and continued to employ himself with the cares of 
 domestic government until Prassia called upon him to lead her troops 
 against Napoleon I. in the year 1806. The duke, weighed down by 
 years, unacquainted with the improved science of modern warfare, 
 and at the head of an inexperienced army, physically inferior to the 
 enemy, closed his distinguished career by the loss of the battles of 
 Jena and Auerstedt in October, and retired, broken-hearted and 
 mortally wounded, to Ottensen, near Hamburg, where he died on the 
 10th of November following. His duchy fell a prey to Napoleon, and 
 was incorporated with the new kingdom of Westphalia. His son, 
 William Frederick, who had distinguished himself in the campaigns 
 of 1792 and 1793, as well as in 1806, and had succeeded to the col- 
 lateral inheritance of Brunswick-Oels in Prussian Silesia, remained an 
 exile from his native dominions until the Russian campaign shook 
 Napoleon's power. The retreat of the French armies from the north 
 of Germany in 1813 enabled the duke to recover possession of his 
 Brunswick sovereignty in December of that year ; but little time was 
 afforded him to set it in order, for the renewal of hostilities with 
 France in 1815 calling hirn into the field, he put himself at the head 
 of his fellow-countrymen, joined the Prussian and other allied forces 
 in Belgium, and bravely fell in the conflict at Ligny on the 16th of 
 June. From that day until his son Charles came of age (October 30, 
 1 ?s23) George IV. of England (who had married Caroline of Brunswick, 
 the sister of William Frederick), then prince-regent, administered the 
 affairs of Brunswick as hi3 appointed guardian. Charles, after a 
 transient misrule of about seven years, was forced, in Sept ruber 1830, 
 an insurrection in the city of Brunswick, to seek safety by a pre- 
 cipitate flight from his capital ; and, under a resolution of the Diet of 
 the German Confederation on the 2nd of December following, he was 
 succeeded by his brother William, prince of Oels, who assumed the 
 government on the 25th of April 1831. 
 
 BRUTUS, LUCIUS JUNIUS, son of Marcus Junius and of Tar- 
 iUinia, sister of Turquiuius Superbus, having early lost his father 
 
 and elder brother by the cruelty of Tarquin, feigned imbecility of 
 intellect, in order to secure porsoua.1 safety. A prodigy which had 
 occurred at Rome, the appearance of a snake in a wooden pillar of 
 the palace, occasioned great anxiety among the Tarquiuii, and Titus 
 and Aruns, sons of the tyrant, were deputed to obtain some explanation 
 from the oracle of Delphi. The journey at that time was considered 
 eminently hazardous, through unknown lands, and seas yet more 
 unknown, and Brutus, a name whioh Lucius Junius had received out 
 of contempt, accompanied the young princes, more as a buffoon to 
 assist in their amusement, than as a companion to share the perils of 
 their journey. On his entrance into the temple the offering which he 
 made to the god was a bar of gold inclosed in a staff of cornel-wood 
 hollowed for its reception, and intended to be emblematic of the votary's 
 own situation. When the princes had finished their commission they 
 inquired in the gaiety of youth which of them should reign at Rome 
 hereafter. A voice from the adytum replied, " That one of you shall 
 obtain sovereignty at Rome who shall first kiss his mother." 
 
 Titus and Aruns, in order to deprive their brother Sextus of parti- 
 cipation in the chance, agreed to mutual secrecy and to the decision 
 by lot of their own precedence. Brutus with more sagacity affixing 
 a different interpretation to the response of the oracle, pretended to 
 stumble, and kissed the earth, when he had fallen, as the common 
 mother of all mankind. 
 
 After the atrocious violence offered by Sextus Tarquinius to Lucretia, 
 Brutus was one of her kinsfolk whom the injured matron summoned 
 to hear her complaint, and to witness her suicide. He plucked the 
 reeking dagger from her bosom, and to the astonishment of all present, 
 throwing aside the semblance of fatuity which he had hitherto 
 assumed, he solemnly devoted himself to the pursuit and punishment 
 of the whole race of Tarquin, and the abolition of the regal name and 
 power at Rome. The populace was easily excited to insurrection. 
 Brutus carefully avoided any personal interview with Tarquinius 
 Superbus, who was dethroned and exiled, and on the change of 
 government which followed, himself and Tarquinius Collatinus, 
 widower of Lucretia, were made the chief magistrates under the title 
 of con mis. This revolution occurred 245 years after the foundation 
 of Rome, and B.C. 507. 
 
 Collatinus was speedily removed from his new office on the ground 
 that he bore the name of Tarquinius, and was connected with the 
 expelled family. The latter of these objections applied also to Brutus, 
 who was descended from the Tarquiuii by the maternal side ; but it 
 does not appear that any difficulty was raised against him, and indeed 
 it was chiefly through his agency, perhaps altogether at his suggestion, 
 that the abdication of his colleague was procured. The place of 
 Collatinus was supplied by P. Valerius. On the discovery of a plot 
 for the restoration of the Tarquiuii, their property was confiscated ; 
 their moveables were given up to plunder; their landed estate lying 
 between the city and the Tiber was consecrated to the god of war, 
 and became the celebrated 'C ampus Martius.' The conspiracy involved 
 many of the noblest Roman youths, and among them Titus and Tiberius, 
 sons of Brutus by a sister of the Vitelli, who were its principal leaders. 
 The culprits were tried and condemned by their own father, who also 
 witnessed their punishment. They were scourged and beheaded in hia 
 presence, not without his betraying marks of paternal emotion during 
 the execution of public duty. Livy seems unequivocally to applaud 
 this unnatural act, but Plutarch more justly describes it by saying 
 that "he shut up his heart to his children with obdurate severity." 
 
 Several Etruscan cities took arms under Porsena in behalf of the 
 Tarquiuii, and Brutus headed the cavalry by which they were opposed. 
 He was recognised by Aruns, who denouncing him with the bitterest 
 animosity as the chief instrument which had occasioned the expulsion 
 of his family, and as now braving it under borrowed ensigns of dignity 
 which he had transferred to the consulate, clapped spurs to his horse 
 and selected him as an opponent in single combat. Brutus eagerly 
 met the defiance, and so great was the fury of the encounter, that each 
 regardless of his own safety sought only the destruction of his adver- 
 sary. Their shields were mutually pierced, and each fell dead from 
 his horse transfixed by the lance of his enemy. 
 
 Such is the story of Lucius Junius Brutus given by Livy (i. 56, &c. 
 ii. 1-6). A public funeral was decreed to him ; the matrons of Rome, 
 in honour of the champion and avenger of Lucretia, wore mourning 
 for him during a year ; and, according to Plutarch, a brazen 6tatue 
 with a drawn sword in his hand was erected to his memory, and 
 placed together with those of the kings. Niebuhr, 'Roman History,' 
 vol. i., ' Commentary on the Story of the last Tarquius,' has pointed 
 out the inconsistencies and chronological difficulties involved in this 
 story, in which there can be little doubt that a large measure of fiction 
 is mingled with what is unquestionably authentic. 
 
 BRUTUS, DE'CIMUS JUNIUS, is believed to be the son of a 
 consul of the same name, who held office a.v.c. 676, B.C. 78. On hia 
 adoption by Aulus Postumius Albinus he took the name of the family 
 into which he was received, so that he sometimes appears on medals 
 as ' Albinus Bruti filius.' Shakspere has called him Decius, and both 
 that poet and Voltaire iu many particulars have confounded him with 
 Marcus Junius. Of his early history little is known, but he appears 
 to have been entrusted by Ctesar with some important commands, and 
 to have been highly esteemed by him. It is plain indeed from the 
 share which he took in the murder of the Dictator how deeply he 
 
9S3 
 
 BRUTUS, MARCUS JUNIUS. 
 
 BRUYERE, JEAN LA. 
 
 enjoyed li is confidence, and how extensive wag the influence which he 
 exercised. On the ides of March, when all things were prepared for 
 the assassination, the plot was nearly frustrated by an announcement 
 from Caesar that he should not attend the meeting of the senate, being 
 deterred by some evil dreams which had visited both himself and his 
 wife Calpurnia, and by indispoeition. D. Brutus was employed to 
 dissuade him from this inopportune resolution, and he succeeded by 
 ridiculing the soothsayers, by showing Caesar that the senators 
 assembled by his orders would think themselves insulted if they were 
 dismissed on pretexts so frivolous, and above all by assuring him that 
 it was intended on that day to nominate him king of all the provinces 
 1 out of Italy,' and to decree that he might wear a crown except within 
 the limits of Italy. (Plutarch, 'Caesar,' lxiv.) 
 
 The affection which the murdered Dictator bore to Decimus Brutus 
 was exhibited in his will, in which he named that false friend among 
 other persons to inherit his fortune in case of the failture of direct 
 heirs. Caesar also had appointed him commander of his cavalry, consul 
 for the succeeding year a.u.C. 711, end governor of Cisalpine Gaul, in 
 which province Brutus attempted to maintain himself on the banish- 
 ment of the conspirators. The newly-raised legions by which he hoped 
 to support his authority were chiefly framed of gladiators, who gradu- 
 ally deserted ; till Brutus, fearful of being left alone, after having been 
 defeated at Mutina, endeavoured to make his way to the army in Greece. 
 For this purpose he disguised himself iu the habit of a Gaul, and 
 attempted to pass through Aquileia to Illyricum. Although well 
 acquainted with the language of the country which he traversed, he 
 fell into the hands of some banditti. Having inquired of his captors 
 to which of the Gaulish princes the district in which he had been 
 takeu belonged, and having heard that it was ruled by Camillus, a 
 chieftain whom he had formerly obliged, lie entreated to be led to his 
 presence, t'amillus received him with apparent goodwill, and rebuked 
 the robbers for having injured so great a man; but to Antouius, whom 
 he secretly informed of his capture, he employed far different language. 
 Antonius, affecting compassion, refused to see the prisoner, and ordered 
 Camillus to put him to death, and to send him his head. (Appian, 
 'De Bellia Civilibus,' iii. ad fin.) 
 
 BRUTUS, MARCUS JU'NIUS, son of Marcus Junius Brutus by 
 Servilia, sister of Cato of Utica, was born at Rome A.U.C. 668, B.C. 86. 
 He was traditionally descended from Lucius Junius, the expeller of 
 the Tarquins, a descent asserted by himself in a medal commemorating 
 the assassiuation of Julius Caesar, but which is denied by Dionysius of 
 Halicamassus. A passase in the first Philippic of Cicero (c. 6) corro- 
 borates this origin by stating that the expeller of kings, L. Brutus, haa 
 propagated his stock through 500 years, in order that a descendant 
 night emulate his virtue by again freeing Rome from regal domination. 
 But this allusion, which suited the purpose of Cicero, is only a rhetorical 
 flourish. Plutarch, in the beginning of his life of M. J. Brutus, assumes 
 his descent from the first Brutus, conformably to his practice in such 
 cases, without troubling himself as to the credibility of the fact. He 
 is sometimes called Q. Caepio Brutus both by Cicero and Dion Cassius, 
 and also on several of his medals, where ' Q. Caepio Brutus Procos.' 
 or ' Imp.' occurs. He owed this name apparently to his adoption by 
 his maternal uncle, Q. Servilius Caepio. On an unjust divorce from 
 his first wife, Appia Claudia, he married Portia, the widow of Bibulus, 
 and daughter of his maternal uncle Cato, under whose inspection he 
 had been most carefully educated in philosophy and letters, after the 
 loss of his father, who was put to death by Pompeius in the war 
 between Marius and Sylla. Plutarch says that he was acquainted with 
 all the Grecian systems of philosophy, but particularly attached to 
 those of Plato's school. Afterwards, at least, he certainly adopted the 
 Stoical tenets and discipline. When Cato, B.C. 59, was appointed 
 under a law passed by the influence of Clodius to annex Cyprus to 
 the Roman empire, Brutus accompanied his uncle, and during his 
 residence in that island he appears to have been guilty of certain 
 pecuniary extortions by no means consistent with integrity, but 
 perhaps too much countenanced by the habits of the times. 
 
 When the civil war broke out between Julius Caesar and Pompeius, 
 Brutus sacrificed his private resentments to that which he believed to 
 be the better cause of the two, and appeared under the banners of the 
 latter. After the defeat of Pompeius at the battle of Pharsalia, Brutus 
 was particularly distinguished by the clemency of the conqueror, who 
 not only bestowed upon him personally his especial favour, but granted 
 pardon through his interference both to Cassius, who had married his 
 sister, and to Deiotarus, king of Galatia, for the latter of whom Brutus 
 pleaded iu a set oration. Scaudal attributed these acts of grace to a 
 remembrance which Julius Caesar entertained of a youthful intrigue 
 with Servilia, and a false report was circulated that Brutus was a 
 eon of the dictator. But the words which Suetonius has put into the 
 mouth of Caesar when he perceived Brutus among his assassins, " And 
 are you among them, my son? "may be received as indicating affection 
 ami familiarity rather than as any acknowledgment of consanguinity. 
 Brutus was only fifteen years younger than Caesar himself. 
 
 When Caesar undertook his expedition into Africa against Cato, he 
 committed to Brutus the government of Cisalpine Gaul, which was 
 administered with wisdom and humanity, and he afterwards preferred 
 him to Cassius in a rivalship for the post of Praetor Urbanus. Notwith- 
 standing these distinguished favours, Brutus was one of the principal 
 assassios on the Ides of March. He retired to Athens when Marcus 
 
 Antouius had produced a re-action in the people of Rome, where he 
 devoted himself partly to literature and partly to preparation (or war. 
 In the end, Antonius and Octavianus on one side, and Brutus and 
 Cassius on the other, met at Philippi in Macedonia. The battle waa 
 fiercely contested, but ended in the total rout of the exiles ; and 
 Cassius, unwilling to survive his defeat, fell upon his own sword, 
 receiving as a eulogy from Brutus, when ho heard of the deed, that 
 he was " the last of the Romans." 
 
 Brutus, in a second battle fought not long afterwards, near the same 
 spot, obtained a partial victory; but perceiving himself surrounded 
 by a detachment of his enemy's soldiers, and in danger of being made 
 prisoner, he despaired of ultimate success; and after more tlian one 
 of the friends about him had declined the painful duty, he delivered 
 the hilt of his sword to Strato, and throwing himself on its point, 
 expired in the forty-fourth year of his age. 
 
 Of his works, which were much praised by contemporaries, it is not 
 certain that any have descended to us. His eulogy on Cato is certainly 
 lost ; some few letters iu Greek, which are probably not genuine, have 
 been printed in the collections of Aldus, Cujacius, and H. Stevens. 
 He is also said to have made a kind of abstract or epitome of the 
 history of Polybius, of the annals of C. Fannius, and of the history of 
 L. Ccelius Antipatcr. His Latin letters to Cicero have been characte- 
 rised by Marklaud as " silly barbarous stuff," which he " cannot read 
 without astonishment and indignation." Their authenticity, on the 
 other hand, is strongly supported by Conyers Middleton in answer to 
 an attack by Tunstall ; but Rubnken expressed his opinion against 
 them, and also F. A. Wolff. 
 
 When Brutus and Cassius were about to leave Asia for their Mace- 
 donian campaign, it is said that an apparition admonished Brutus of 
 his approaching fate. Brutus was of a spare habit, abstemious in diet 
 and in sleep. One night, when he was overcome by watching, and was 
 reading alone iu his tent by a dim light at a late hour, while the whole 
 army around him lay wrapped in sleep and silence, he thought he 
 perceived something enter his tent, and saw " a horrible and monstroag 
 spectre standing silently by his side. 'Who art thou?' said he, boldly; 
 'art thou God or man, and what is thy business with me?' The 
 spectre answered, ' I am thy evil genius, Brutus : thou wilt see me at 
 Philippi!' To which he calmly replied, 'I'll meet thee there.' 
 When the apparition was gone he called his servants, who told him 
 that they had neither heard any noise nor seen any vision." He 
 communicated his adventure on the next morning to Cassius, who 
 professed the philosophy of Epicurus, and argued on the principles ot 
 his 6eet against the existence of such beings as demons and spirits; 
 or, admitting their existence, denied that it was probable they should 
 assume a human shape or voice, or have any power to affect us ; in 
 fine, he attributed the whole incident to sleeplessness and fatigue, 
 which, as he justly remarked, suspend and pervert the regular func- 
 tions of the mind. On the night before the second battle, " they eay,'' 
 continues Plutarch, " that the spectre again appeared and assumed its 
 former figure, but vanished without speaking." 
 
 Plutarch remarks that there is a diversity in the statements respect- 
 ing the death of Portia; that Nicolaus the philosopher and Valerius 
 Maximus affirm that, being prevented from suicide by the constant 
 vigilance of friends who surrounded her couch, she snatched some 
 burning embers from the fire, and held them in her mouth till she was 
 suffocated. If however we admit the authenticity of a letter attributed 
 to Brutus, this account must be a fabrication ; for he laments in it 
 the death of Portia during his own lifetime, describes her distemper, 
 and praises her conjugal affection. 
 
 Voltaire wrote a tragedy, ' La Mort de Ce'sar,' from which, contrary 
 to the usage of the stage, he excluded all female characters. His plot 
 is founded on an hypothesis which we have shown to be false, that 
 Brutus was the son of Caesar. 
 
 (Plutarch, Brutus; Appian, lib. 15, 16 ; Cicero, Letters and Orations; 
 Dion Cassius.) 
 
 BRUYERE, JEAN LA, was born in 1614, near Dourdon in Nor- 
 mandy. Of his early life scarcely anything is known. After filling 
 the office of treasurer of France at Caen he removed to Paris. He 
 was appointed teacher of history to the Due de Bourgogne, under 
 the direction of Bossuet, and passed the remainder of his life in 
 the service of his pupil, in the quality of ' homme de lettrts.' In 
 1687 he published his work entitled ' Characters,' was admitted into 
 the French Academy on the 15th of June 1693; and died of apoplexy 
 at Versailles on the 10th of May 1696. 
 
 He is represented by the Abbe d'Olivet as a philosopher whose 
 happiness consisted in passing a life of tranquillity, surrounded by 
 his friends and his books, in the choice of both of which he showed 
 considerable judgment. He was polished in his manners, but reserved 
 in his conversation, and free from pretension of every kind. 
 
 Of all La Bruyex-e's friends, Bossuet, to whom he had attached him- 
 self from a sense of gratitude, sympathised with him the least in 
 character. It was, no doubt, gratitude to his friend that betrayed 
 him into the weakness of using his pen in favour of the Bishop of 
 Meaux against Fe'ne'lon in the absurd affair of ' Quietism.' Upon this 
 theological controversy he left some ' Dialogues ; ' and if we cannot 
 wholly excuse him for having written them, we must admit that he 
 showed his good sense by not publishing them. They were however 
 published three years after La Bruyere's death by Louis Dupin. 
 
veil BRUYN, CORNELIUS. 
 
 Among the somewhat large sacrifices which La Bruyere thought it 
 expedient to make to the prevailing opinions of the day, his work 
 frequently gives indications of a bolder manner of thinking — the pre- 
 cursor of the philosophy of the succeeding century. It even appears 
 to have been his wish to let posterity into the secret of his cautious 
 dissimulation. "Satire," says he, "is shackled in him who is born a 
 Christian and a Frenchman. Great topics are interdicted him. He 
 enters upon them now and then, but soon turns a«ide to minor 
 subject'', to which he imparts an interest and an importance by his 
 peuius and his style." Siuce it was this twofold relation of subject of 
 Louis XIV. and of Christian (he ought rather to have said Papist) 
 that imposed upon La Bruyere the trammels of which he complains, 
 it may be inferred, that notwithstanding his cold eulogies of the 
 absolute monarch and his gloomy theology, he by no means par- 
 ticipated in that respect for despotism and for the abuses of Popery 
 which so strongly characterised the age of Louis XIV. The persecu- 
 tions which rewarded the generous and liberal principles advocated, 
 in his ' Telemachus,' by Fenelon, as well as those suffered by Moliere, 
 turned La Bruyere aside to less dangerous subjects, to the details of 
 social, and the follies of private life. Malignity however assailed him, 
 even within the narrow limits to which he had confined himself, of 
 criticisms on the morals and the habits of his times. Upon com- 
 pleting bis ' Characters,' he showed the book to M. de Malezieux, who 
 said, " thh will procure you many readers and many enemies," a 
 prediction which was fully accomplished, for while the book was read 
 with avidity the moment it appeared, intentions were attributed to 
 the author of which he was certainly innocent. The originals of La 
 Bruyere's portraits were discovered, as it was pretended, and their 
 names were published in a ' Key to the Characters,' which thus formed 
 a kind of scandalous commentary, in which the persons designated 
 could not complain that they were calumniated, though they were 
 held up to public ridicule. 
 
 La Bruyere, though rarely profound, is always judicious, natural, 
 and nicely discriminative; and if his views of human nature are not 
 very extensive, he amply compensates for the deficiency by the close- 
 ness of his inspection. He places the most trite and common cha- 
 racters in a new and unexpected light which strikes the imagination, 
 and keeps attention alive. Perhaps he too often affects strong contrasts 
 and violent antitheses, and in wishing to avoid sameuess falls into the 
 error of attempting too- much variety, in which he loses his indi- 
 viduality. His style is characterised by strong powers of delineation, 
 and the talent of a great painter must undoubtedly be conceded to 
 him, though he is not altogether free from the charge of occasional 
 affectation. 
 
 If it be true, as has been remarked, that Theophrastus, whose work 
 was studied and translated by our author ('Sieur de la Bruyere's 
 posthumous Dialogues upon Quietism, continued and published by 
 Louis Ellias Dupin,' Paris, 1699, 12mo.) may be said to have formed 
 La Bruyere, it must be admitted that this is the highest praise that 
 we can give to the Greek author. But nothing is less just than to 
 draw this manner of parallel. It is impossible to judge rightly or 
 even to understand the ' Characters ' of Theophrastus, without pos- 
 sessing accurate notions of the political, moral, and social condition 
 of the people whose features they represent. If we compare for a 
 moment ODly the political and social position of the Athenians with 
 the reign of Louis XIV., before whose despotism and ostentation 
 men of all ranks in France obsequiously bowed ; if we identify and 
 familiarise ourselves with the respective circumstances under whose 
 influence the two authors wrote, — we shall no longer entertain the 
 idea of comparing Theophrastus with La Bruyere : the sole resem- 
 blance between them consists in the minuteness and accuracy of their 
 observation, aud in the justness and spirit of the strokes by which 
 each has delineated his characters. 
 
 La Bruyere's work, stamped as it is with the impress of a sound 
 judgment and a good-natured satire, is one of those advisers we always 
 consult with pleasure and advantage. It anticipates our knowledge 
 of the world and perfects it ; and although the manners and characters 
 therein delineated may undergo changes and modifications, its interest 
 will be always the same, because, like all great works which take 
 nature as their basis, it will always be true. 
 
 Numerous editions of the ' Characters ' of La Bruyere have appeared 
 fince 1687 ; but the best is that of 1827. 2 vols. 8vo, with a life of La 
 Bruyere, by Monsieur Sicard, a prefatory notice and original notes by 
 Monsieur Auger, to which are annexed the ' Characters ' of Theo- 
 phrastus, with additions and notes by M. Schweighaeuser. 
 
 BRUYN, CORNELIUS, a painter and traveller of some eminence, 
 was born at the Hague in 1652. In 1674 he quitted his native country 
 to explore by rather a novel route Russia, Persia, the Levant, and 
 the East Iudies, and he did not return home for many years. His 
 first work, 'Voyage to the Levant,' was published in folio at Paris in 
 1714. It relates chiefly to Egjpt, Syria, the Holy Land, Rhodes, 
 Cyprus, Scio, and Asia Minor, and is embellished with more than 200 
 engravings, representing eastern cities, ruins, natural productions, 
 costumes, &c. All these plates were executed from drawings made 
 by himself on the spot, and, though somewhat hard, there is a great 
 deal of truth and nature in them. His second work, ' Travels through 
 Muscovy, in Persia, and the East Indies," was published at Amsterdam 
 by the brothers Wetstein in 1718; it contains upwards of 300 
 
 BRYANT, JACOB. 8K< 
 
 engravings, and is also in folio. Many of these plates, representing 
 eastern ceremonies, ancient edifices, animals, birds, fish, plants, and 
 fruit, are admirably executed. Several of the engravings are devoted 
 to the ruins of Persepolis. Another edition of the second work 
 with corrections and notes by the Abbe Banier, was brought out at 
 Rouen in 4to, 1725. In this second work will be found much informa- 
 tion concerning the coasts of Arabia, the island of Ceylon, Batavia, 
 Bantam, and parts of Russia. At Batavia, where there were many 
 Chinese colonists, he carefully investigated some of the manners and 
 customs of that extraordinary people. He was residing on that island 
 when the English buccaneer William Dampier, or, as he calls him, 
 "the famous Captain Damper," arrived there from Ternate, after a 
 most extraordinary voyage and series of adventures. [Dampier.] The 
 value of Bruyn's second work is further increased by an account of 
 the route taken by M. Isbrants, the ambassador of Muscovy, through 
 Russia and Tartary to China. 
 
 In 1714, the year in which he published his first great work, Bruyn 
 put forth in Holland a small disputative treatise, entitled ' Remarks 
 on the engravings of old Persepolis, formerly given by Messieurs 
 Chardin and Ksempfer, and the mistakes and errors in them clearly 
 pointed out.' In this pamphlet he defends himself for the differences 
 between the plates of his own work and those of Chardin, and shows 
 in what portions of the engravings his own are the more correct. His 
 ' Remarks ' are in Dutch, his ' Travels ' in French ; but the ' Remarks ' 
 were afterwards translated into French, and published in an appendix 
 to his second great work in 1718. He died at Utrecht in 1728. 
 
 The compilers of cyclopaedias and biographical dictionaries have 
 gone on repeating one after the other, and evidently without looking 
 into the old traveller's books, that, though curious and instructive, 
 Bruyn is inelegaut in his style, and not always exact in his facts. 
 Now in reality his style, though exceedingly simple, and somewhat 
 deficient in warmth and picturesque beauty, is very far from being 
 inelegant, and his exactness, a quality he had in common with so 
 many old travellers of his nation, is everywhere admirable. For the 
 fidelity of his descriptions of most of the places he visited in the 
 Levant, we can vouch from our own personal observation. He was 
 not credulous himself, aud he several times censures the credulity of 
 explorers who had preceded him. 
 
 BRYANT, JACOB, was born at Plymouth in 1715; his father, who 
 held a post iu the custom-house of that town, was transferred in the 
 seventh year of his son's nge to Kent, in which county Jacob Bryant 
 received his early education at Luddesdown, near Rochester, whence 
 he was afterwards removed to Eton. Having been elected fellow of 
 King's College, Cambridge, he graduated A.B. in 1740, and A.M. in 
 1744. Being early distinguished for his attainments and love of 
 letters, he was appointed tutor to Sir Thomas Stapylton, and after- 
 wards to the Marquis of Blandford and his brother Lord Charles 
 Spencer, at that time at Eton. A complaint in the eyes obliged him 
 for a short time to relinquish this occupation, but having returned to 
 it, he was rewarded in 1756 by the appointment of secretary to the 
 Duke of Marlborough, who, continuing his patronage when nominated 
 master-general of the ordnance, took him as a secretary and travelling 
 companion during his command in Germany, and gave him a lucrative 
 situation in his own public office. His circumstances thus being ren- 
 dered easy, he devoted his whole life to literature, and twice refused 
 an office which has frequently been much coveted by others — the 
 mastership of the Charterhouse. 
 
 The history of his life is embraced in that of his publications, all of 
 which are distinguished by learning, research, and acuteness, but are 
 more or less disfigured by fanciful conjectures and wild speculations. 
 His first work was ' Observations and Inquiries relating to Various 
 Parts of Ancient History,' Cambridge, 4to, 1 767. In contradiction to 
 Bochart, Grotius, and Bentley, he here, among other things, contends 
 that the wind Euroclydon, mentioned in Acts xxvii. 14, ought properly 
 to be termed Euroaquilo ; and in opposition to the same writers, 
 together with Cluverius and Beza, he affirms that the island Melite, 
 mentioned in the last chapter of the same book, is not Malta. The 
 remaining subjects treated of iu this volume are very obscure and 
 very remote from common inquiry. He professed to throw light upon 
 the earliest state of Egypt, upon the Shepherd Kings, and upon the 
 history of the Assyrians, Chaldseans, Babylonians, and Edomites. 
 Pursuing a similar course, he published in 1774 the first two volumes 
 of the work upon which his fame chiefly depends — ' A New System or 
 Analysis of Ancient Mythology, wherein au attempt is made to divest 
 Tradition of Fable, and to restore Truth to its Original Purity.' It 
 appeared in quarto, and was followed by a third volume in 1776. 
 Besides, the nations whose history he had formerly investigated, he 
 now turned to the Canaanites, Helladians, Ionians, Leleges, Dorians, 
 Pelasgi, Scythse, Indoscythse, Ethiopians, and Phoenicians ; pressing 
 into his service every scattered fragment which his extensive reading 
 enabled him to collect, and supporting his arguments by numerous 
 forced and oftentimes false etymologies. This publication involved 
 him in much controversy, which he undertook in part anonymously, 
 and in part, particularly in defence of the Apamean medals, in the 
 ' Gentleman's Magazine.' The Apam«an medals were struck in honour 
 of Septimius Severus, at Apameia, a town in Phrygia. The devices 
 on them are e rainbow, a dove, a raven, and an olive-branch, and the 
 legend NflE, This treatise was published separately in 1776, in 4to ; 
 
BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN. 
 
 BUCH, LEOPOLD VON. 
 
 fH8 
 
 aud Eekhcl, the most learned nutnismatologist of his time, declared in 
 its favour. In 1780 Bryant published with his name a tract which he 
 had before printed aud recalled, entitled ' Vindicise Flavianaj,' advo- 
 cating the disputed testimony of Josephus to our Saviour. Priestley 
 expressed himself as convinced by the arguments in favour of the 
 passages; but he after wards engaged in controversy with Bryant on 
 the difficult subject of Necessity. Bryant was a firm believer in the 
 authenticity of the poems attributed to ltowley, aud in 1731 he pub- 
 lished 2 vols. 12mo containing 'Observations' upon them. In 1783 
 the Duke of Marlborough printed for private distribution an account 
 of the gems in his own collection, the first volume of which work was 
 written in Latin by Bryant. In 1792 appeared a treatise 'On the 
 Authenticity of the Scriptures aud the Truth of the Christian 
 Religion,' 8vo, executed at the request of the dowager Lady Pem- 
 broke ; aud two years afterwards, in 8vo, somo ' Observations on the 
 Plagues inflicted on the Egyptians.' But the work which engaged him 
 in most dispute, and was more distinguished by his love of paradox 
 than any other which he produced, was suggested by M. Le Chevalier's 
 description of the plain of Troy. It appeared in 179C, 4to, and was 
 entitled ' A Dissertation concerning the War of Troy aud the expe- 
 dition described by Homer, with the view of showing that no such 
 expedition was ever undertaken, and that no such city in Phrygia ever 
 existed.' It was scurrilously answered by Wakefield, and it provoked 
 far more honourable replies from Mr. Morritt and Dr. Vincent. In 
 the following year appeared a tract in 8vo, entitled 'The Sentiments 
 of Philo-Judaeus concerning the Greek AOrOS.' Besides these, Bryant 
 also wrote ' Observations on Famous Controverted Passages in Justin 
 Martyr and Josephus,' aud a pamphlet addressed to Mr. Melmoth. He 
 closed his literary life by preparing for the press some remarks on very 
 curious Scriptural subjects, written more than thirty years before. 
 This quarto volume contained dissertations on the ' Prophecies of 
 Balaam,' the 'Standing still of the Sun in the Time of Jo-hua,' the 
 ' Jaw-bone of the Ass with which Samson slow the Philistines,' and 
 the ' History of Jonah and the Whale.' In the seventh volume of the 
 ' Arcliseologia ' he furnished some 'Collections on the ZiDgara or Gipsy 
 Language ; ' and numerous juvenile or fugitive pieces were found 
 among his papers in manuscript. 
 
 His exemplary and protracted life was closed at his own residence 
 at Cypcnham, near Windsor, on the 14th of November 1804, in con- 
 sequence of a hurt which he received in the leg by a chair slipping 
 from under him while taking down a book from an upper shelf. Such 
 a death, as has been well remarked by a French biographer, was for a 
 literary man to expire on the field of honour. His merits are very justly 
 eulogised in a note on the second 'Dialogue of the Pursuits of Lite- 
 rature.' He left his very valuable library to King's College, Cam- 
 bridge, 2000Z. to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and 
 half that sum to the superannuated collegers of Eton, at the discretion 
 of the provost and fellows. 
 
 * BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN, was born at Cummington in 
 Massachusetts, United States, November 3, 1794. Having received a 
 careful preliminary education, he was entered at the age of sixteen at 
 Williams College, where he greatly distinguished himself in classical 
 studies. On leaving college he was placed with an attorney, aud on 
 the completion ot his legal training, pursued for some years the 
 practice of the law. But he bad become known as a poet while yet a 
 boy, by the publication in 1808 of a kind of political poem, entitled 
 the 'Embargo,' and in 1816 he published in the ' North American 
 Review' his poem of ' Thanatopsis.' In 1821 the longest of his 
 poems, ' The Ages,' appeared, and established his reputation as one of 
 the very best living American poets. Finding his legal pursuits 
 incompatible with the study of literature, he in 1825 abandoned the 
 law, and shortly after in conjunction with Robert Sands, founded 
 the ' New York Review aud Athenaeum Magazine ; ' and a year or 
 two later, along with the same gentleman, he began the publication 
 of an annual called the 'Talisman.' In these publications many of 
 his shorter poems first appeared, and their quiet gracefulness of 
 style and genuine poetical feeling speedily made them popular in 
 England as well as in America. But he gradually forsook the muses 
 for the more exciting pursuit of politics. Having become the editor 
 of the ' New York Evening Post,' he has for nearly 30 years devoted 
 to it his chief energies, taking in it a prominent and decided part on 
 the democratic side on all the great questions, whether of local or 
 general politics, which have engaged the attention of the citizens of 
 New York. Yet however influential he may have been as a politician, 
 it is on his poetry that his chance of lasting fame depends. A hand- 
 somely illustrated edition of the poetic works of Mr. Bryant was 
 published at Philadelphia in 1846. Several other editions of his 
 poetic works have been issued in America and England. Mr. Bryant 
 has travelled a good deal in his own country, and has made two or 
 three tours in England, France, Germany and Italy : his impressions 
 of these tours have been published in the form of letters in the 
 ' Evening Post.' Mr. Bryant has also published several tales. 
 
 BRYDGES, SIR S. EGERTON. [See vol. vi. col. 983.] 
 
 BUCEK, MARTIN, was born in 1491, at Schelestadt, near 
 Strasbourg, a town of Alsace, in the modern French department of 
 the Lower Rhine. His real name was Kuhliorn (Cowhorn), which, 
 according to the pedantic fashiou of his time, he changed into a 
 Greek synonym, calling himself Bucer. Having entered the order of 
 
 Saint Dominic, he received his education at Heidelberg. Some 
 tracts by Erasmus and others, and, yet more, some by Luther which 
 fell in his way, induced him to adopt the opinions of the latter in 1521. 
 About eleven years afterwards, he appears to have preferred the 
 profession of Zuinglius, but he was ever a strenuous promoter of union 
 between the different sects of the Reformed, according to whose 
 doctrine he taught divinity for twenty years at Strasbourg. At the 
 diet of Augsburg, in 1548, he vehemently opposed the system of 
 doctrine called the Interim, which the Emperor Charles V. had drawn 
 up for the temporary regulation of religious faith in Germany until a 
 free general council could be held. On the insidious nature of that 
 proposition we need not here dwell; and it may be sufficient to state 
 that although it was expressed for the most part in scriptural phrases, 
 it favoured almost every disputed article of the Romish Church. It 
 was opposed equally by the Romanists and the Reformed ; but the 
 emperor urged its acceptance so fiercely, that Bucer, after having been 
 subjected to much difficulty and danger, accepted an invitation from 
 Cranmer to fix his residence in England. Bucer had denounced the 
 Interim as " nothing hut downright Popery, only a little disguised," 
 and about the same time he wrote a book against Gardiner, chiefly 
 relating to the celibacy of the clergy. 
 
 On his arrival in England, he was appointed to teach theology at 
 Cambridge, and appears to have bceu much admired aud respected. 
 When Hooper accepted the bishopric of Gloucester, but refused to be 
 consecrated in the episcopal vestments, Bucer wrote a most convincing 
 but moderate treatise against this fastidious reluctance ; and on the 
 review of the Common Prayer Book, he expressed his opinions at 
 large, that he found all things in the service and daily prayers 
 clearly accordant to the Scriptures. The amendments which he 
 wished to see made have Bince either been adopted, or are such as a 
 large party among the most undoubted friends of the Chturch of 
 England approve. The king having heard that Bucer's health had 
 suffered during the winter from the want of a German stove, sent 
 him 20/. to procure one. In return, he wrote a book for Edward's 
 own use, ' Concerning the Kingdom of Christ,' which he presented as 
 a new year's gift. It referred the miseries of Germany to the want 
 of ecclesiastical discipline, the adoption of which he strongly recon> 
 mended in England j he likewise urged the reduction of non-residence 
 and pluralities. 
 
 Bucer was thrice married, and his first wife, by whom he had 
 thirteen children, was a nun, perhaps selected by him, not very 
 judiciously, in imitation of Martin Luther. He died at Cambridge in 
 the close of February 1551, and was buried in St. Mary's with great 
 honour, his remains being attended by full 3000 persons jointly from 
 the university and the town. A Latin speech was made over his 
 grave by Dr. Haddou, the public orator, and an English sermon was 
 then preached by Parker, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, to 
 whom, not long before his death, he had applied in a very pathetic 
 aud urgent letter for the loan of ten crowns for a month ; and on 
 the following day, Dr. Redman, master of Trinity College, preached at 
 St. Mary's a sermon in his commendation. 
 
 During the reign of Mary, five years afterwards, when inquisitors 
 were sent to Cambridge, the corpses of Bucer and of Fagius were dug 
 up from their resting-places, fastened erect by a chain to stakes in the 
 market-place, and burned to ashes ; their names, at the same time, 
 were erased from all public acts and registers as heretics and deniers 
 of the true faith; and this violence to their memories continued till 
 Elizabeth became queen. A very interesting collection of tracts 
 relative to the life, death, burial, condemnation, exhumation, burning, 
 and restoration of Martin Bucer, was published at Strasbourg, in 
 Latin, by his friend Conrad Hubert. Bucer wrote both in Latin and 
 in German, and so largely that it is thought his works, if collected, 
 would amount to eight or nine folio volumes. 
 
 BUCH, LEOPOLD VON, a distinguished geologist, was born on 
 the 25th April 1774, at Stolpe, in the Uckermark (Brandenburg). He 
 came of an ancient and noble family, which reckons among its members 
 not a few authors and statesmen. After the usual course of education, 
 he became a student in the Prussian department of mines, and was 
 marked for the earnestness of his scientific pursuits. In 1790 he 
 entered the Mining Academy at Freiberg, where he had Humboldt for 
 a companion, and where Werner, its eminent founder, taught the then 
 novel science of mineralogy, in a way so interesting and genial, as 
 thoroughly to enlist the sympathy of his pupils. Under his teachings 
 grew up a school of young philosophers, destined to widen and confirm 
 his reputation, and amend his errors, among whom Von Buch was one 
 of the most conspicuous. In 1792 the publication of his ' Mineralo- 
 gical Description of the Carlsbad region,' formed the first of that 
 series of valuable papers with which he enriched his favourite science 
 for the rest of his life— all distinguished as much by conscientious 
 inference, as by perfection of observation. Next appeared his ' Versuch 
 einer mineralogischen Beschr.eibung von Landeck,' describing a little 
 known part of the mountains of Silesia; followed shortly afterwards 
 by ' Versuch einer geognostischen Beschreibung von Schlesien,' with 
 (for that time) a very advanced geognostieal map of the country. 
 These works are written in accordance with the views of his great 
 master, in which the Neptuniau theory prevailed ; and it is no small 
 proof of the accuracy of the observed facts that they are now easy to 
 be reconciled with the present more enlightened theory. 
 
BUCH, LEOPOLD VON. 
 
 In 1797 Von Buch and Humboldt met iu Styria, and spent some 
 time in geological excursions among the Alps, and passed the winter 
 together in Salzburg in observation and verification of natural pheno- 
 mena. Iu the following year Von Buch travelled alone, on foot, to 
 Italy, and furnished to scientific periodicals descriptions of the geology 
 of the countries he traversed, in which, besides the clearness of percep- 
 tion, there began to appear doubts as to whether the Wernerian 
 doctrine were tenable in its integrity. He grew mistrustful of his 
 former views. Writing from Borne to his friend Von Moll, he says : 
 " Make the finest and surest observations, and then go a few miles 
 farther on, and you will find occasion, upon grounds just as certain, to 
 maintain the very opposite of your former conclusion." 
 
 In February 1799, Von Buch arrived at Naples, and betaking himself 
 to the study of Vesuvius, described the phenomena in that picturesque 
 and eloquent style which among other qualities characterised his 
 writings. In 1802 he visited the volcanic region of Auvergnc. He 
 revisited Italy, and was present at the eruption of Vesuvius in 1805. 
 The results of these five years of observation were published in two 
 volumes, ' Geognostischen Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutseh- 
 land und Italien,' 1802-9, in which, though reluctant to throw doubt 
 on Werner's conclusions, he abandons his view as to the action of 
 water, and declares basalt to be a rock of volcanic origin. 
 
 For the next two years, from 1806 to 1808, Von Buch travelled into 
 Scandinavia, and made some of his most important geological disco- 
 veries. He was the first to establish the fact of the slow and continuous 
 upheaval of the Swedish coast above the sea-level ; and he made 
 valuable observations in climatology and the geography of plants, as 
 may be seen in his narrative ' Rt-ise durch Norwegen und Lappland,' 
 two vols. 1810: of which an English translation was published with 
 notes by Professor Jameson in 1S13. 
 
 The more interest attaches to these journeys as they were performed 
 on foot. Few who met Von Buch walking with unsteady gait, his head 
 bent fo:ward, wearing even iu summer a great coat with numerous 
 pockets to contain maps, specimens, his hammer and notebook, would 
 have believed they beheld one whom Humboldt describes as " the 
 greatest geologist of our age ; the first to recognise the intimate con- 
 nection of volcanic phenomena and their mutual interdependence in 
 regard to their effects and relations in space." Possessed of sufficient 
 means, Von Buch could gratify his inclination for travel, and for the 
 encouragement of others, especially youthful students, less fortunate 
 than himself. 
 
 In 1815 he sailed from England (accompanied by the Norwegian 
 botanist Christian Smith, who afterwards met with an untimely death 
 in Tuckey's expedition to the Congo), for a geological exploration of the 
 Canary Islands. In 1824 appeared the first geological map of Germany 
 in foity sheets, of which Von Buch, though anonymous, was the com- 
 piler and author. He had visted the basaltic islets of the Hebrides 
 and the Giant's Causeway on his return from the Canaries, aud in 1825 
 he published 'Physikalische Be3chreibung der Canarischen Iuseln,' 
 with an atlas, of which the subsequent works, ' Ueber den Zusamtnen- 
 hang der basaltischen Inseln und Ueber Erhebungs-K rater,' and 
 'Ueber die Natur der vulkauischen Erscbeinungeu auf den Canarischen 
 Inseln und ihre Verbinduug mit audern Vulkanen der Erdober- 
 flache' may be regarded as supplementary. These volcanic researches 
 alone would suffice to establish his reputation. The science of volcanoes, 
 — the fruitful source of many later advances — is therein developed and 
 placed on a sure basis. He shows how the phenomena of upheavals 
 are traceable to craters of elevation, and demonstrates the action of 
 fire ; and states hi3 conviction that " the ancient seas have not rolled 
 away over the mountain chains, but that the mountain chains have 
 been upheaved into the atmosphere, bursting through the scries of 
 strata iu long line3 — fissures — and that these upheavals have taken 
 place at different geological epochs." 
 
 Von Buch's life is strikingly manifest by Lis labours. His papers in 
 the ' Abhandlungen ' of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, would alone 
 form several largo volumes. They exhibit the development of his 
 scientific views from first to last. In 1806 he had suggested certain 
 ideas in his paper 'Ueber das Fortschreiten der Bildungcn in der 
 Natur,' as to the progress of forms in nature, and when past the age 
 y fifty, he showed how the ideas had ripened iu his mind by his papers 
 on the Ammonites, Cystidce, Terebratulm, Orthis, Productus, and others, 
 accomplishing for the geological branch of palaeontology what Cuvier 
 had accomplished for the physiological branch. In the words of the 
 late Edward Forbes, it was Von Buch " who first developed the idea 
 of the chronomorphosis of genera, the great leading principle of natural 
 history applied to geology." He pointed the way moreover to a new 
 field of fossil botany in the important conclusions which he shows to 
 be deducible from the nervation of the leaves of fossil plants. Aud 
 in bis writings on climate, on hail, the temperature of springs, and the 
 geography of plants — guiding principles apparent in all— he proves 
 himself an able physicist as well as geologist. 
 
 In his many journeys Von Buch visited Sweden and Norway, and 
 Auyergne a second time, and any excuse sufficed to draw him to 
 Switzerland. He would leave his house in Berlin without telling any 
 one of his intentions, remain away for weeks or months, and return as 
 unexpectedly. He liked to find out and make the acquaintance of 
 geologists of eminence, and for this purpose he attended the meetings 
 of naturalists on the continent and of the British Association in England. 
 
 EUCHANAN, GEORGE. 990 
 
 He was present at the Werner festival, celebrated with so much pomp 
 at Freiberg in 1850. He never married, was somewhat eccentric in 
 his habits, but always serious as regards science. When asked for his 
 titles he was accustomed to reply, ' Royal Prussian Student of Mines.' 
 He was created a baron, a knight of the Order of Merit (Berlin), aud 
 of the Red Eagle, and held the appointment of royal chamberlain in 
 the court of Prussia. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Berlin, and of the chief scientific societies on the continent aud 
 elsewhere. In 1828 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal 
 Society of London, and in 1840 was chosen one of the eight foreign 
 associates of the French Academy of Sciences. He died at Berlin, after 
 a few days' illness, on the 4th of March 1853. 
 
 " Von Buch was a sower," says E. Forbes, in his anniversary address 
 to the Geological Society. " He went about the world casting the seeds 
 of new researches and fresh ideas, wherever his prophetic spirit per- 
 ceived a Boil adapted for their germination. The world of science has 
 gathered a rich harvest through his foresight. He is the only geologist 
 who has attained an equal fame in the physical, the descriptive, and 
 the natural history departments of his science. In all these he has 
 been an originator and a discoverer. In every subdivision of all three 
 he has been a suggester — a high merit in itself." 
 
 The ' Abhandlungen' of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, Leonhard's 
 ' Tascheubuch fur Mineralogie,' and other German scientific periodicals, 
 contain most of Von Buch's papers. Among his other works are — ' On 
 the Petrifactions collected by Humboldt in America' — 'Die Biircn 
 Insel . . geognostiseh beschrieben,' 4to, 1847 ; ' Ueber Ceratiten 
 besonders von denen die in Kreidebildungen sich fiuden,' 8vo; besides 
 those above-mentioned. A French translation of his ' Canary Islands' 
 was published at Paris in 1836. 
 
 (Hoffmann, Geschichte der Geognosie ; Monatsbericht, Acad. Berlin ; 
 Edin. New Phil. Journ. ; Journ. GeoL Soc.) 
 
 BUCHANAN, REV. CLAUDIUS, D.D., vice-provost of the College 
 of Fort William in Bengal, and well known for his exertions in pro- 
 moting an ecclesiastical establishment iu India, and for his active 
 support of missionary and philanthropic labours, was born on the 12th 
 of March 1766 at Cumbuslang, a village near Glasgow. When a young 
 and almost friendless man of the age of twenty-one he made his way 
 to London, where he succeeded in attracting the attention of the Rev. 
 John Newton, the well-known rector of St. Mary's Woolnoth. By Mr. 
 Newton's influence he was sent to Cambridge, where he was educated 
 at the expense of Henry Thornton, Esq., whom he afterwards repaid. 
 
 Buchanan went out to India iu 1796 as one of the East India 
 Company's chaplains, and on the institution of the college of Fort 
 William in Bengal in 1800 he was made professor of the Greek, Latin, 
 and English classics, and vice-provost. During his residence iu India 
 he published his ' Christian Researches in Asia,' a book which attracted 
 considerable attention at the time, and which has gone through a 
 number of editions. In 1804 and 1805 he gave various sums of money 
 to the universities of England and Scotland, to be awarded as prizes 
 for essays on the diffusion of Christianity in India. He returned to 
 England in 1808, and during the remainder of his life continued, 
 through the medium of the pulpit and the press, to enforce his views. 
 His reply to the statements of Charles Buller, Esq., M.P., on the worship 
 of the idol Juggernaut, which was addressed to the East iudia Company, 
 was laid on the table of the House of Commons in 1813, and printed. 
 He died at Broxbourne, Herts, February 9, 1815, being at the period 
 of his death engaged in superintending an edition of the Scriptures for 
 the use of the Syrian Christians who inhabit the coast of Malabar. 
 
 (Rev. Hugh Pearson, Life and Writings.) 
 
 BUCHANAN, GEORGE, was born of poor parents, in the parish 
 of Killearn, and county of Stirling, about the beginning of February 
 1506. He was the third of eight children, who were early left to the 
 care of their widowed mother. By James Heriot, his maternal uncle, 
 Buchanan was sent at the age of fourteen to the University of Paris, 
 where however he had not been two years, when his uncle dying, he 
 was left in a state of such utter destitution that in order to return to 
 his native country he was faiu to join the corps then being raised as 
 auxiliaries to the Duke of Albany in Scotland. After a twelvemonth 
 spent at home in the recovery of his impaired health, he again joined 
 the troop of French auxiliaries, and proceeded with them to the siege 
 of Werk ; but the hardships which he suffered on this occasion 
 reduced his youthful frame to its former state of debility, and he was 
 confined to his bed the remainder of the winter. 
 
 In the ensuing spring, he aud Patrick, his eldest brother, were 
 entered students in the ' pedagogium,' afterwards St. Mary's College, 
 of the University of St. Andrews. George passed as Bachelor of Arts 
 on the 3rd of October 1525 ; aud in the following summer he became 
 a student in the Scots' college at Paiis, where, as he had obtained the 
 degree of BA. at St. Andrew's, he was immediately incorporated of 
 the same degree. This was on the 10th of October 1527. The next 
 year he proceeded Master of Arts, and the year following he was 
 chosen procurator of the German nation — a division of the students 
 which comprehended those from Scotland. After a struggle of two 
 years with " the iniquity of fortune," as he expresses it, he obtained 
 the situation of a regent, or professor in the college of St. Barbe, where 
 he taught grammar nearly three years. He then became tutor to 
 Gilbert, earl of Cassilis, a young Scotch nobleman, who resided at 
 that time in the neighbourhood of the college, his previous tutor, 
 
991 
 
 BUCHANAN, GEORGE. 
 
 William, abbot of Crossragwell, having left hiin to do his pilgrimage 
 to Rome under a royal licence to that effect dated April 8th, 1530. 
 (Pitcairn's ' Criminal Trials,' vol. i. p. 215.) With that nobleman 
 Buchanan remained abroad about five years, and in this period com- 
 mitted to the press his first publication, which was a translation of 
 Linacre's ' Rudiments of Latin Grammar.' In May 1537 he returned 
 to Scotland in company with Lord Cassilis, who had just attained his 
 majority; and he was appointed tutor to James Stewart, one of the 
 natural children of James V., with a liberal allowance. 
 
 At Lord Cassilis's seat, where he seems to have continued a visitor, 
 Buchanan composed his poem entitled ' Somnium,' in derision of the 
 regular clergy. The king, who had a turn that way, having seen the 
 poem, solicited him to write some more satires of a like kind. He did 
 bo accordingly, and published among others his ' Palinodia,' and 
 ' Franciscanus.' These pieces brought upon his devoted head the 
 vengeance of the ecclesiastics. He was seized as a heretic, and thrown 
 into prison ; and Cardinal Beaton is said to have tendered to the king 
 a sum of money to consent to his immediate death. Buchanan how- 
 ever escaped from his confinement and got to England, where, after a 
 severe struggle with want and the dread of roimprisonment, he 
 resolved on returning to Paris. Finding ou his arrival that Cardinal 
 Beaton was living there at that time, he gladly accepted an invitation 
 from Andrew Govea to become a regent or professor of Latiu in the 
 college of Guienne at Bordeaux. It appears that he was at Bordeaux 
 before the close of the year 1539, for on the 1st of December of that 
 year he presented a poem in the name of the college to Charles V. 
 when he made his solemn entry that day into Bordeaux. He remained 
 here three years, during which he published his Latiu tragedy, 
 ' Baptistes,' and several other minor pieces; but being continually 
 harassed by the clergy under letters from Cardinal Beaton, wlio had 
 traced his retreat, he removed to Paris, and from the year 1511 till 
 about 1547 taught Latiu in the college of the Cardinal de la Moine, 
 along with the learned philologists Turnebus and Muretus. In 1517 
 Govea was invited to become principal of the University of Coiinbra 
 in Portugal, and to bring with him learned men to fill the vacant 
 chairs. Buchanan accompanied him on that occasion, and became a 
 regent in the university ; but having the misfortune to lose his friend 
 Govea by death the following year, the inquisition assailed him as a 
 heretic, and after harassing him for nearly a year and a half, shut him 
 up iu the cell of a monastery. But nothing could subdue the mind of 
 Buchanan. It was in this solitary abode he began his well-kuown 
 ' Version of the Psalms.' B ing at last restored to liberty he embarked 
 for England in a vessel then leaving the port of Lisbon ; but the 
 political state of that country bearing an unfavourable aspect, he soon 
 quitted it again for France, which he reached about the beginning of 
 the year 1563. The siege of Metz was raised about the same time; 
 and at the earnest request of some of his friends he commemorated 
 that event in a Latin poem. He was soon afterwards appointed a 
 regent in the college of Boncourt ; but in the year 1555 he gave up 
 that charge for the place of domestic tutor to Timoleon de Cosse, son 
 of the celebrated Marechal de Brissac. During his connection with 
 this family, which lasted till the year 1560, he published several 
 poetical works, among which was his translation of the ' Alcestis ' of 
 Euripides, and the earliest specimen of his paraphrase of the Psalms. 
 In 15(30 he returned to Scotland, where we find him in the beginning 
 of the year 1562 classical tutor to the young queen Mary. For his 
 services in that capacity she gave him a pension of 500^. Scots a-year 
 for life out of the temporalities of the abbey of Crossragwell ; and in 
 the year 1566 the Earl of Murray, her brother, to whom he had dedi- 
 cated a new edition of his ' Franciscanus,' presented him with the place 
 of principal of St. Leonard's College at St. Andrews. The following I 
 year he was chosen Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church 
 of Scotland, which was a still more extraordinary homage to hi3 
 character aud various abilities, as it is the only instance ou record of 
 that office being held by a layman. 
 
 In 1570 he resigned the office of principal of St. Salvator's College, 
 on beiug appointed one of the preceptors to the young King James, 
 then in the fourth year of his age. The same year the place of 
 Director of the Chancery was for his services conferred upon him, and 
 soon afterwards that of Lord Privy Seal. This latter was a highly 
 honourable and lucrative office, and entitled its holder to a seat in 
 parliament. In the year 157S he was joined in several parliamentary 
 commissions, legal and ecclesiastical, and particularly in a commission 
 issued to visit and reform the universities and colleges of the kingdom. 
 The scheme of reformation suggested, and afterwards approved of by 
 parliament, was drawn up by him. The same year also he brought 
 forth his celebrated treatise ' De Jure Regni apud Scotos.' 
 
 Continued indisposition and the advance of age now warned him of 
 his approaching dissolution. In his seventy-fourth year he wrote a j 
 brief memoir of his own life. When visited a few days before his ' 
 death by some friends, he was found sitting iu his chair teaching the 
 boy that served him in his chamber the elements of the English 
 language and grammar ; and not long afterwards ho expired, while his 
 great work, ' The History of Scotland,' was passing through the pnss. 
 He died at Edinburgh, on the 28th of September 1582, and was buried 
 at the public expense, having by his many charities and benefactions | 
 left himself without means to defray the necessary charges of his , 
 burial. Aa a man of great and various learning, and of nearly uni- ! 
 
 versal talent, Buchanan was without a rival in his own day ; he is one 
 of the most elegant Latin writers that modern times have produced, 
 and he appears to have been also a good Greek scholar. 
 
 There are two collected editions of the works of Buchanan. One 
 is by Ruddiman, published at Edinburgh in 1715, in 2 vols, folio. The 
 other is by Peter Burman, Lug. Bat. 1725, in 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM. The county, and also the town of Buckingham 
 have given a title to many individuals distinguished iu our history. 
 The first Earl ok Buckingham appears to have been Walter Giffard, 
 created by the Conqueror, who died in 1102. The title having become 
 extinct was revived in 1377 in the person of Thomas Plantagenet, 
 duke of Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III., whose son Hum- 
 phrey died without issue iu 1400. His heir Humphrey, earl of 
 Stafford, was created Duke of Buckingham in 1401, and his grandson, 
 Henry Stafford, " the deep-revolving, witty Buckingham " of Shaks- 
 pere, after assisting Richard III. to mount the throne, was put to U 
 death by him in 1483. His son, Edward Stafford, offended Wolsey, 
 fell under the suspicions of Henry VIII., and was attainted and 
 beheaded in 1521. He wa3 the last nobleman who enjoyed the office 
 of Lord High Constable. The title of Earl of Buckingham was not 1 
 revived till 1617. 
 
 George Villiers, Doke of Buckingham, third son of Sir George 
 Villiers, knight, by his second wife Mary, a lady of the ancient family ' i 
 of Beaumont, was born August 20, 1592, at Brookesley iu Leicester- il 
 shire, a seat which had been in the possession of his ancestors for I 
 nearly four centuries. His father died wheu George was about thirteen Jl 
 years of age. Iu his eighteenth year he went to France, where he ■ I 
 resided for three years, and on his return he was well skilled in all 
 bodily exercises. As yet he was a stranger to the court, but his fine 1 
 person aud graceful demeanour made a strong impression on James I., il 
 who attached him to his own person as cup bearer, and familiarly gave 
 him the name of Steeuie. Promotion followed most rapidly, and he I 
 successively became a knight aud gentleman of the bed chamber, with 
 a pension of 1000£. a year out of tne Court of Wards. On the follow- 1 
 ing New Year's Day he was made Master of the Horse, and installed 1 
 Knight of the Order of the Garter. In the next August he was 1 
 created Baron of Whaddou and Viscount Villiers; and in the ensuing I 
 January he was advanced to the earldom of Buckingham, and sworn ) 
 of his Majesty's privy council. Scarcely another year elapsed before I 
 his patent was made out as Marquis He was appointed Lord Admiral i 
 of England, Chief Justice in Eyre of all the parks and forests on the i 
 south of Trent, Master of the King's Bench Office, High Steward of 
 Westminster, aud Constable of Windsor Castle — " none of them," as 
 Sir Hugh Wotton adds, " unprofitable pieces." 
 
 A rise so unprecedented, aud so entirely unmerited, could not fail 
 to create abundant jealousy ; and it is by no means easy at present to 
 ascertain the truth of many of the contemporary imputations under 
 which he laboured. One of these, which perhaps may be considered 
 most doubtful (for whatever might be his faults, Buckingham never I 
 evinced deficiency iu personal courage), related to his marriage, in t 
 1620, with the ouly daughter of the Earl of Rutland. It was not ( 
 likely that he should make dishonourable advances to the richest 
 heiress iu the kingdom, nor that he should be forced into a union with . 
 her by the menaces of her injured father. Such however wa3 the 
 scandal of the time. Three years afterwards, while negociations were , 
 pending for the marriage of Charles, prince of Wales, with the Infanta . 
 of Spain, Buckingham persuaded the prince to undertake a journey to , 
 Madrid to carry on his suit in person. Many of the adventures of 
 this expedition were of a romantic cast. The prince, in company with 
 the marquis, set out on the 15th of February 1623, from New Hall in 
 Essex, " with disguised beards, and with borrowed names of Thomas 
 aud John Smith." On ferrying over the river near Gravesend, they 
 found themselves without silver; and the piece of gold, worth twenty- 
 two shillings, with which they presented the boatman, created so much 
 suspicion, that he, feeling a misgiving a3 to their quality, and thinking 
 them gentlemen going beyond sea to settle some quarrel, laid informa- 
 tion with the officers of the town, who sent orders to stop them at 
 Rochester. The mayor of Canterbury having received information 
 detained them, till the marquis " thought it best to dismask his beard, 
 aud so told them he was going covertly to take a secre^view, being 
 admiral, of the forwardness of his Majesty's fleet, which was then in 
 preparation on the narrow seas." At Paris having escaped some 
 similar accidents on their route, they spent a whole day, and had a 
 close sight of the Princess Henrietta Maria, "at the practice of a 
 masquing dance then in preparation." While in the Spanish capital 
 Buckingham made a good a^wer to the Conde d'Olivarez, who told 
 him of a report that the prince was secretly designing his departure 
 from Madrid. To this Buckingham replied, that " though love had 
 made his highness steal out of his own country, yet fear would never 
 cause him to leave Spaiu in other manner than should become a prince 
 of his noble and generous virtues." 
 
 During his absence Buckingham had been created a duke ; and upon 
 his landing he was nominated Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, aud 
 Steward of the Manor of Hampton Court. The war with Spain which 
 ensued, the marriage with Henrietta Maria of France, and the im- 
 peachment of the Earl of Bristol, are sufficient proofs of Buckingham's 
 continued ascendancy. Charles succeeded to his father's throne in 
 1625, and the duke still retained the high honours which he had 
 
93 
 
 BUCKINGHAM. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM. 
 
 934 
 
 njoyed in the former reign, and the intimate confidence of the new 
 ing. 
 
 The war with Spain, although undertaken without due grounds, 
 lad heen popular at first, perhaps on account of the long peace which 
 lad preceded it. But the ill success which attended an expedition 
 igainst Cadiz, rendered Buckingham odious to the Commons, and even 
 >ccasioned his impeachment, from which he escaped chiefly through 
 he interference of the king. 
 
 The spirit which in the end overthrew the kingly power was already 
 iwakened, and the nation submitted with impatience to the levies 
 accessary for the conduct of hostilities with France. The Duke of 
 Buckingham, wholly ignorant of the art of war, rashly sailed with 100 
 ships and 7000 soldiers for the occupation of La Rochelle, at that time 
 in possession of the Huguenots. So wholly without concert had this 
 expedition been undertaken, that the Rochellois were alarmed at the 
 appearance of this huge fleet in their harbour, and being ignorant of 
 its intentions, and ill-prepared at the moment for a general rising, 
 they closed their gates and rejected the proffered assistance. Buck- 
 ingham then directed his armament upon the neighbouring island of 
 Rhe', and after unskilful operations during three months, and a defeat 
 which cost him 2000 men in attempting re-embarkation, he returned, 
 according to the language of Hume, " totally discredited both as an 
 admiral and a general, and bringing no praise with him but the vulgar 
 one of valour and personal bravery." 
 
 A large force was entrusted to Buckingham for another attempt to 
 relieve La Rochelle, and he went to Portsmouth to superintend the 
 preparations. "There were many stories," says Clarendon, "scattered 
 abroad at that time of several prophecies and predictions of the duke's 
 untimely and violent death. Amongst the rest there was one which 
 was upon a better foundation of credit than such discourses usually 
 have," which he proceeds to relate at some length. 
 
 On August 23, 1628, the duke having dressed himself in his chamber 
 at Portsmouth, was preparing to take a hurried breakfast, in order to 
 communicate to the king, then holding his court at Southwick, about 
 five miles distant, some important intelligence which he had received 
 from La Rochelle. While conversing with Sir Thomas Fryar, one of 
 his colonels, " he was on the sudden struck over his shoulder on the 
 breast with a knife, on which, without using any other words but 
 1 The villain has killed me ! ' and at the same moment pulling out the 
 knife himself, he fell down dead, the weapon having pierced his heart." 
 
 A hat was picked up, into the crown of which had been sewed a 
 paper, containing part of the declaration of the House of Commons, 
 in which the duke was styled ' an enemy to the kingdom,' and under 
 it were written a short ejaculation or two apparently belonging to a 
 prayer. The hat belonged to a man who was walking before the door 
 very composedly, and who was recognised to be John Felton, a 
 younger brother, of mean fortune, and of Suffolk extraction. He 
 appears to have been of a moody temperament, and to have withdrawn 
 from the army in consequence of disappointment in promotion. He 
 was probably not without a touch of insanity ; and it appears he was 
 awakened to the full enormity of his crime before his execution. 
 
 George Villiers was murdered in his thirty-sixth year, having had 
 three sons and one daughter by his wife, Lady Catherine Manners. 
 The Lady Mary was his first-born ; his eldest son died at nurse ; his 
 second succeeded him in his title and estates, and his third was Lord 
 Francis. 
 
 An instance of Buckingham's public-spirited munificence while 
 employed in concluding a treaty at the Hague ought not to be 
 omitted, especially as his many faults have been carefully chronicled. 
 Hearing that a rare collection of Arabic manuscripts, which had been 
 made by Erpenius, a scholar of great erudition, was at that moment 
 on sale by his widow to the Jesuits at Antwerp, " liquorish chapmen," 
 as Sir Henry Wotton adds, " of such ware," the duke anticipated them 
 by giving the widow 5001., " a sum above their weight in silver, and 
 a mixed act both of bounty and charity, the more laudable from 
 being out of his natural element ; " for Buckingham had received but 
 an imperfect education. It was his intention, if the design had not 
 been prevented by his unexpected death, to present these manuscripts 
 together with many other similar treasures, to the University of 
 Cambridge, of which learned body he was chancellor : after his 
 anamination they were deposited by his widowed duchess in the 
 public library of that university, where they still remain. 
 
 George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, second son of the George 
 Villiers, duke of Buckingham, just noticed, was born in London, 
 January 30th, 1627. He was educated at Cambridge, under the 
 especial patronage of the king, and after travelling with his brother, 
 Lord Francis Villiers, returned to England on the outbreak of the 
 civil war, and espoused the royal cause. The Earl of Holland, under 
 whom he served, was defeated by Fairfax, near Nonsuch, in which 
 battle Lord Francis, after fighting bravely, was killed, and the 
 duke himself escaped with difficulty beyond the seas. The parlia- 
 ment required him to return within forty days, under the penalty 
 »f confiscation of his estates ; but he preferred remaining abroad, 
 where he supported himself by the sale at Antwerp of a valuable 
 gallery of paintings which his father had collected. He afterwards 
 served under Charles II. at Worcester, and was again compelled 
 to take refuge on the Continent. 
 
 Part of his estates had been assigned by the parliament to Fairfax, 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 who generously allowed the duchess of Buckingham, the duke's 
 mother, a considerable annuity. The duke, not without hope that 
 the republican general might exercise similar liberality towards him- 
 self, ventured, although outlawed, to return to England, was well 
 received by Fairfax, and married one of his daughters in 1657. 
 Cromwell, taking this alliance ill, arrested Buckingham, and committed 
 him to the Tower. On the abdication of Richard Cromwell he was 
 released from Windsor Castle, the place which had been allotted for 
 his less rigid coufinement ; and on the Restoration he recovered his 
 paternal estates. He had already received the order of the garter 
 while in Holland, and he was now sworn of the privy council, and 
 nominated lord lieutenant of the county of York. His political 
 conduct however was most versatile, and the influence which he 
 maintained over Charles by his talent for agreeable ridicule was 
 unworthily employed in procuring the fall of Clarendon. In his 
 habits Buckingham was utterly profligate. He appears to have 
 regarded buffoonery as an honourable and legitimate weapon against 
 a court rival. Not unfrequently, when the grave chancellor had 
 retired from the council-table, Buckingham threw the king into con- 
 vulsions of laughter by mimicking the gait of the venerable statesman, 
 carrying a cushion dangling by his side as the bag and seals, and 
 ordering an attendant to precede him with the bellows as a mace. 
 
 On the formation of the ' Cabal' ministry Buckingham's name con- 
 tributed an initial to that anagram. In 1670 he proceeded on an 
 embassy to the court of France, nominally to condole with Louis XIV. 
 upon the death of Charles's sister, the duchess of Orleans, but in truth 
 to urge his accession to the triple alliance. On that occasion, he 
 condescended to pander to his master's pleasures by providing him 
 with a French mistress ; but so light of purpose and frivolous was he, 
 that the ascendancy which he might thus have secured was lost by his 
 total neglect of the afterwards Duchess of Portsmouth, immediately 
 upon her embarkation. Objects yet more unworthy than that lady 
 had been already introduced by him to the royal notice, and the 
 actresses, Mistress Davies and Nell Gwynn, were first known at court 
 through him. " He was a man indeed," to use the strong language of 
 a contemporary by whom he was well known, " who had studied the 
 whole body of vice ;" and assuredly no one had ever less barrier of 
 principle to stand in the way of his instruction. So entirely did he 
 set at nought all moral feeling, that when Charles II. on one occasion 
 expressed apprehensions that his injured queen might probably inter- 
 fere with some intrigue by her jealousy, Buckingham offered to remove 
 her to a West Indian plantation, where " she should be well taken 
 care of, without creating more trouble." The king, though selfish 
 and cold-hearted, had enough good feeling remaining to revolt from 
 so atrocious a project. 
 
 Already, in 1666, Buckingham had manifested symptoms of his 
 fickleness, and had forfeited all his high offices, to which however he 
 was subsequently restored through his own submission and the king's 
 extreme facility. The Duke of Ormond had taken a considerable part 
 against him on this occasion, and so deeply did Buckingham cherish 
 resentment that there is strong reason to believe he was concerned in 
 a plot which nearly ended in the murder of that nobleman by Colonel 
 Blood. The transaction was not inquired into, but the Earl of Ossory, 
 eldest son of the Duke of Ormond, could not forbear from taxing 
 Buckingham with his guilt, even in the king's presence. 
 
 Notwithstanding his public and private crimes, Buckingham still 
 retained the king's favour, was still employed on important embassies, 
 and like his father, and with as little title to the honour, was elected 
 chancellor of the University of Cambridge. On the dissolution of the 
 Cabal ministry and his dismissal from office, he gradually weaned 
 himself from the court. In 1674 he resigned the chancellorship of 
 Cambridge, and vehemently supported the Nonconformists by his 
 opposition to the Test Act. He was deeply engaged in the popish 
 plot, and the remainder of his days was spent in factious opposition, 
 and in connection with the intrigues of Shaftesbury. 
 
 One incident in Buckingham's life but too plainly exhibits the 
 demoralisation of the times on which he was thrown. Buckingham, 
 having been detected by the Earl of Shrewsbury in an intrigue with 
 his wife, killed him in a duel, while the wife of the unfortunate earl 
 held the duke's horse during the combat, in the disguise of a page. 
 For this murder, which occurred in February, 1667-68, the duke 
 received a royal pardon, but it was afterwards brought before the 
 House of Lords in a petition presented by the Earl of Westmoreland in 
 the name of the young Earl of Shrewsbury, who desired justice against 
 Buckingham for his father's blood and his mother's infamy. The 
 duke insolently replied, " first, that it was very true he had had the 
 hard fortune to kill the Earl of Shrewsbury, but that it was on the 
 greatest provocation in the world ; that he had fought him twice 
 before, and had as often given him his life, nevertheless that the earl 
 had threatened that if he would not again fight him he would pistol 
 him wherever he could find him, and that for these reasons the king 
 had been induced to pardon the fatal result of their meeting. Secondly, 
 that as for that part of the petition which regarded Lady Shrewsbury, 
 he knew not how far his conversation with that lady was cognisable 
 by that House, but that if he had given offence by it she was now gone 
 into retirement." The parliament was soon afterwards prorogued, 
 and although a day had been appointed for taking the petition into 
 Consideration, it does not appear that it was further noticed. 
 
 • 3a 
 
095 
 
 BUCKINGHAM. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK. 
 
 On the death of Charles II. the Duke of Buckingham, conscious 
 that he would have a more difficult master in his successor, aud finding 
 his health ruined by a long career of vice, and his fortune diminished 
 by unbounded extravagauce, retired to his seat of Helmsley in Yorkshire, 
 where be devoted himself to field-amusements. His death occurred on 
 April 17th 1688, at the house of a tenant at Kirkby Moorside, after a 
 few days' fever produced by sitting on the damp ground when heated 
 by a fox-chase ; but the picture of destitution so finely drawn by Pope 
 in the third of his ' Moral Essays' is greatly exaggerated. The duke 
 had not reduced himself to beggary, nor did he breathe his last in the 
 " worst inn's worst room." The portrait which Dryden has presented, 
 under the character of Zimri in ' Absalom and Achitophel ' is by no 
 means thus overcharged, and may be unhesitatingly received not only 
 on account of the fineness of its execution, but also the justice of its 
 features. 
 
 The duke was interred under a sumptuous monument in Henry VII.' s 
 Chapel in Westminster Abbey. By his death without issue his branch 
 of the ancient family of Villiers became extinguished. It is said that 
 he was the first person who introduced from Venice into England the 
 manufacture of glass aud crystal. In the intervals which he snatched 
 from dissipation and politics he employed himself in literary compo- 
 sition. For the Btage he produced ' The Restauration, or Right will 
 take place,' a tragi-comedy ; 1 The Battle of Sedgmore,' a farce ; ' The 
 Chances,' a loose and improbable comedy, altered from Beaumont and 
 Fletcher ; and ' The Rehearsal.' Besides these he published a ' Satire 
 against Mankind,' some poems, and one of his speeches in parliament. 
 A treatise is also attributed to him in his later years, the genuineness 
 of which may perhaps be doubted upon a perusal of its title, 'A 
 Discourse upon the Reasonableness of Men having a Religion or 
 Worship of a God.' These writings were collected in an octavo volume 
 of miscellaneous works in 1704. 
 
 The life of the Duke of Buckingham was printed and his works 
 were pirated by the notorious Curl in 1721, on which occasion a vote 
 passed the House of Lords, declaring it to be a breach of privilege to 
 print any account of the life or any of the works of a deceased peer 
 without consent of his heirs or executors. 
 
 John Sheffield, Duke of Buckinghamshire, was born in 1649, and 
 succeeded his father Edmund, earl of Mulgrave, in that title in 1658. 
 When he was but seventeen years old he served in the same ship in 
 which Prince Rupert and the Duke of Albemarle had embarked in the 
 first Dutch war. At the meeting of parliament in the following year 
 he was summoned by writ to take his seat, but was excluded on 
 account of nonage on a motion of the Earl of Northumberland. In 
 an encounter with the noted Earl of Rochester, which occurred about 
 this time, he conducted himself, according to his own account as given 
 in his autobiography, with distinguished credit. 
 
 In an engagement with De Ruyter in the second Dutch war, Sheffield 
 served with gallantry as a volunteer on board the ship of the Earl 
 of Ossory. His behaviour in the engagement procured for him the 
 command of the best second-rate ship in the navy. In the land-service 
 he raised a regiment of foot, and commanded it as colonel ; aud the 
 old Holland regiment, in which he bore the like commission, was also 
 placed under his orders. He was installed Knight of the Garter, 
 and appointed a gentleman of the bedchamber. For a short time 
 he entered the French service under Turenne, and when the unhappy 
 Monmouth showed symptoms of rebellion, Sheffield received the lord- 
 lieutenancy of Yorkshire with the government of Hull, from which 
 Monmouth was dismissed. 
 
 On the accession of James II. he was sworn into the Privy Council, 
 and appointed Lord Chamberlain. Not being very fervent in his 
 religious opinions, and indeed holding a place in the high commission, 
 with the illegality of which he afterwards professed himself to be 
 unacquainted, he took no part in the revolution. Once it was designed 
 to request him to join in the invitation to the Prince of Orange, but 
 the Earl of Shrewsbury declared that he well knew that Mulgrave's 
 concurrence was not to be expected. His reply to King William, who 
 mentioned this fact to him, was singularly bold and upright : — " Sire," 
 said he, " if the proposal had been made, I would have discovered it 
 to the king whom I then served." To the honour of William, it should 
 be added, that he was far from being displeased with this answer. 
 Mulgrave however by no means courted the favour of the reigning 
 king. He opposed him on some important questions ; and it is related 
 that this opposition neither interfered with his advancement, nor did 
 his advancement silence his opposition. In 1694 he was created 
 Marquis of Normanby, and afterwards was admitted into the cabinet 
 council with a pension of 3000Z. per annum. 
 
 On the accession of Queen Anne he was named Lord Privy Seal. 
 It is said that an early tender attachment to that princess once nearly 
 cost him his life ; for that Charles II., in order to punish his ambition, 
 despatched him in a leaky vessel to the relief of Tangier. In 1703 
 he was created Duke of Normanby aud of Buckinghamshire. In con- 
 sequence of the ascendancy of the Duke of Marlborough he resigned 
 the Privy Seal, and greatly offended the queen by supporting the 
 Tory motion for inviting the J rincess Sophia to England. He refused 
 the strong temptation of the chancellorship, which was offered to 
 lure him back, and employed his leisure from politics in erecting 
 Buckingham House at Pimlico, upon land granted by the crown. In 
 1710 he was made Lord-Chamberlain of the household, but after 
 
 Queen Anne's death he reverted to opposition. He died February 24, 
 1720-1. By his first two wives he was without children ; by his third 
 a daughter of James II. by the countess of Dorchester, and widow 
 of the Earl of Anglesea, besides other ohildren he had a son Edmond, 
 by whose death in 1735 the line of Sheffield became extinct. 
 
 As a poet the Duke of Buckinghamshire is below criticism, and it 
 is to his rank rather than to his talent that we must ascribe the 
 praises which he received from Roscommon, from Dryden (to whom 
 he erected a monument in Westminster Abbey), and from Pope. The 
 few prose pieces which the Duke of Buckinghamshire has left to us are 
 light and graceful, and although now perhaps forgotten, they deserve 
 a higher rank than his poetry. Hia remains lie under a sumptuous 
 monument erected by his widow in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 George Grenville Nugent Temple, second earl of Temple, was 
 created marquis of the town of Buckingham in 1784, and his sou, 
 Richard Grenville Brydges Chandos, was advanced to the dukedom of 
 Buckingham and Chaudos in 1822. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, JAMHS SILK, was born in 1786, in the marine 
 village of Flushing, near Falmouth, in Cornwall. His father had been 
 a seafaring man, but then occupied a farm, and died while Bucking- 
 ham was yet a boy. His mother sent him to school at Falmouth, and 
 was desirous of bringing him up to the church, but he preferred 
 going to sea, and made a few voyages to Lisbon, in the last of which 
 the ship was captured by the French, and the crew made prisoners. 
 After some delay they were set at liberty, but on their way home 
 were impressed for the British navy. Buckingham however escaped 
 from the press-gang, returned to Cornwall, and entered into an 
 engagement with a bookseller at Devonport, in whose employ he 
 remained about four years ; and here he seems to have gained some 
 knowledge of the trade of a printer. He however took to the sea 
 again on board a king's ship, but deserted, returned home, tried the 
 law, and abandoned that profession also. He married before he wae 
 twenty years of age. About this time his mother died, leaving him a 
 considerable property in charge of trustees. He then commenced 
 business as a bookseller, on borrowed money. One of his trustees 
 robbed him of his property, his business proved a failure, and he was 
 left destitute with a wife and female child. 
 
 Leaving his wife in the care of her friends, Buckingham then went 
 to London, in the hope of getting an engagement as captain of some 
 vessel, but having waited till he was almost in a state of starvation, 
 he obtained employment in a printing-office, and was afterwards 
 eDgaged at the Clarendon Press, Oxford. At length he was appointed 
 captain of a West-Indiaman, and continued four or five years in that 
 trade. He afterwards was a captain in the Mediterranean trade, and 
 made many friends at Malta and Smyrna. He then resolved to settle 
 at Malta as a ship-owner and merchant, and having purchased a cargo 
 of goods, he sailed from London in April 1813. When the vessel 
 reached Malta, the plague had broken out there, and no persons were 
 allowed to laud ; the cargo however was taken on shore, aud the ship 
 then proceeded to Smyrna. While he remained at Smyrna, many 
 failures took place in Malta, and he among others lost all his property. 
 
 Buckingham then resolved to try his fortune in Egypt, and left 
 Smyrna for that purpose, August 30, 1813. He was well received at 
 the British Embassy, and was introduced to Yuseff-Boghos, an Arme- 
 nian, the principal agent of the pasha, Mohammed Ali, who was 
 then absent on an expedition in Arabia. At this time there was much 
 speculation about renewing the commerce with India through the 
 Red Sea, and making a navigable canal from that sea to the Mediter- 
 ranean. Buckingham had a despatch forwarded to the pasha, in which 
 he offered his services to examine the Isthmus of Suez for an eligible 
 track, and to trace as far as possible the course of the ancient canal. 
 His offer, after some delay, was accepted, and having in the meantime 
 ascended the Nile as far as the cataracts, he started from Keneh on 
 the Nile, with a single attendant, for the purpose of travelling to 
 Kosseir on the Red Sea. His attendant deserted him on the route, he 
 was robbed of everything he possessed, and was left entirely naked. 
 He was befriended by a poor Arab, who supplied him with some 
 scanty covering, aud at length reached Kosseir, whence however he 
 was obliged to return to Keneh, and thence to Cairo, withoufreffecting 
 anything. At Cairo he was introduced to the pasha, Mohammed Ali, 
 with whom he had some" long conversations, and again set out 
 February 15, 1814, for the same purposes as before; he reached Suez, 
 and traced the ancient canal as far as it had not been filled up and 
 obliterated. After his return to Cairo the pasha had changed his 
 mind as to the canal, but gave him a commission to purchase ships 
 for him in India, and to encourage a trade between India and Egypt. 
 
 Mi-. Buckingham then left Cairo for the purpose of proceeding to 
 Bombay by the Red Sea, and reached Suez, October 18, 1814, and 
 Bombay April 6, 1815, having been delayed in Arabia. He found the 
 merchants at Bombay distrustful of the pasha of Egypt, and unwilling 
 to trade with him; he therefore accepted an engagement from the 
 agent of the Imaum of Muscat as commander of a ship of 1200 tons 
 burden, which was intended to trade to China on the Imauin's 
 account. When this was made known to the civil authorities at 
 Bombay, and also that he had no licence from the East India Directors 
 to reside in India, he received an order to return to England, but, 
 after much remonstrance on his part, was allowed to return to Egypt 
 in one of the East India Company's ships, which was about to proceed 
 
BUCKLAND, THE VERY REV. WILLIAM. 
 
 BUDE, GUILLAUME. 
 
 OAS 
 
 up the Red Sea for surveying purposes. He accordingly sailed from 
 Bombay June 27, 1815, was landed at Suez, and reached Cairo 
 November 20, in the same year. After another interview with the 
 Pasha he received a firman and other assistance, by the aid of which 
 lie travelled overland to India through Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, 
 dressed in Turkish costume, and speaking Arabic, which, he states, 
 is more or leas understood in all those countries. 
 
 From this period his proceedings in the East are imperfectly known. 
 In 1816 he was in Calcutta, and established a journal there, but the 
 boldness of his censures of the mal-administration of Indian affairs led 
 to his expulsion from the presidency of Bengal; his printing-presses 
 were seized, and he was compelled to return to England. 
 
 After his arrival in London, Mr. Buckingham delivered many lectures 
 against the monopoly of the East India Company, and in support of 
 opening the trade to China. A liberal subscription was entered into 
 to re-imburse him for the losses he had sustained by the suppression 
 of his journal. He established in London ' The Oriental Herald,' which 
 became the precursor of several similar journals, and ' The Athenaeum,' 
 which is now the leading literary journal among those which are pub- 
 lished weekly. In 1822 he published his 'Travels in Palestine;' in 
 1825 'Travels in Arabia;' in 1827 ' Travels in Mesopotamia ;' in 1830 
 ' Travels in Assyria and Media.' At a later period he made several 
 tours through various parts of Europe and of North America. He 
 published 2 vols, on Belgium, the Rhine, and Switzerland ; and 2 vols, 
 on France, Piedmont, and Switzerland. He was nearly three years in 
 America, and traversed the United States in all directions, from Maine 
 to Louisiana. His ' Travels' in America comprise : — 3 vols, on the 
 Northern States ; 3 vols, on the Slave States ; 3 vols, on the Eastern 
 and Western States ; and 1 vol. on Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick. Much of these volumes however consists of statistics, 
 and a great variety of other matters of compilation. Their literary or 
 other worth is very small. 
 
 In 1832 Mr. Buckingham was elected member of parliament for 
 Sheffield, and he retained his seat till 1837. He was a supporter of 
 liberal policy, and especially of social reforms. For many years his 
 chief occupation was the delivery of public lectures in various parts of 
 the country. His choice of subjects, style, and especially his manner, 
 were popular and pleasing, and his lectures were always fully attended. 
 In 1843 he was the chief agent in establishing a literary club called the 
 British and Foreign Institute, of which he was appointed secretary, 
 but which ceased to exist in about three years. In 1849 he published 
 'National Evils and Practical Remedies,' 1 vol., in which he expounded 
 his views on many subjects connected with the public welfare. He 
 was a zealous advocate of the temperance movement, and he was 
 President of the London Temperance League formed in 1851. In 
 l^.jii he published the first two volumes of his 'Autobiography,' and 
 he intended to publish the next two volumes in the course of the 
 same jear, but he closed his life of extraordinary vicissitude aud 
 adventure on June 30, 1855. The court of directors of the East India 
 Company had made amends for their former ill-treatment by granting 
 him a pension, which he enjoyed for a few of the last years of his 
 life, and which is continued, we believe, to his widow, who is still 
 living, having been his wife for fifty years. He had also for a few 
 ypare a pension of 200/. a year from the civil list. The manuscript 
 journals of his various travels occupy, as he Btates in his ' Auto- 
 biography,' 28 folio volumes, closely written. 
 
 BUCKLAND, THE VERY REV. WILLIAM, Dean of Westmin- 
 ster, an eminent geologist, was born at Axminster, Devon, in 1784. He 
 was educated at St. Mary's College, Winchester, and from thence, in 
 1801, entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, as scholar. In 180S he 
 was elected Fellow of this college. In 1813 he was appointed reader 
 in mineralogy, and in 1818 reader in geology in Oxford University. 
 His geological lectures were characterised by such clearness and com- 
 prehensiveness of description, and such apt illustration, that they met 
 with brilliant success. Geology, as a science, was then in its infancy, 
 and much of its subsequent vigorous advancement is due to Dr. 
 Buckland's lectures. 
 
 The Geological Museum at Oxford owes its chief excull nee to 
 Dr. Buckland's industry in procuring and arranging specimens, par- 
 ticularly of the remains of the larger fossil Mammalia, and other 
 animals from the caves in different parts of England aud Germany, 
 lie spared neither pains nor expense in travelling to make the col- 
 lection worthy of the university and the science it was intended to 
 illustrate, as exemplified in his ' Descriptive Notes,' with sections of 
 50 miles of the Irish coast, made conjointly with the Rev. W. Cony- 
 beare, d an of Llaudaff, during a tour in Ireland in 1813, and pub- 
 lished in the third volume of the ' Transactions of the Geological 
 Society.' 
 
 In 1818 Dr. Buckland was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 In 1820 he delivered a lecture before the university, which was after- 
 wanU published under the title ' Vindiciae Geologicae, or the Connexion 
 I ology with Religion explained.' The object of the lecture was 
 to ■ ow that the study of geology has a tendency to confirm the 
 evidences of natural religion, and that the facts developed by it are 
 consistent with the accounts of the Creation and Deluge as recorded 
 in tin; Mosaic writings. 
 
 In 1822 he communicated to the Royal Society an "Account of an 
 useinblage of fossil teeth and bones of elephant, rhinoceros, hippo- 
 
 potamus, bear, tiger, hyaena, and sixteen other animals, discovered in 
 a cave at Kirkdale, Yorkshire," and for which in the same year the 
 society awarded him their highest honour, the Copley medal. This 
 paper was made the foundation of a treatise published in 1823, 
 ' Reliquiae Diluvianae, or Observations on Organic Remains attesting 
 the Action of an Universal Deluge,' which proved of essential service 
 in the promotion of geological science. 
 
 In 1825 Dr. Buckland was made canon of Christ Church, Oxford. 
 He was president of the British Association at their second meeting 
 at Oxford in 1832. Four years later he published his Bridge- 
 water Treatise, 'Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference 
 to Natural Theology,' 2 vols. 8vo. The discovery of new facts had 
 materially advanced geological science ; and modifying in this work 
 the previous diluvial theory, Dr. Buckland brought the weight of his 
 authority to support the views now generally received. One of the 
 most able of his numerous geological writings, as subsequently testi- 
 fied by Murchison and Sedgwick, was a sketch of the structure of the 
 Alps, published in the 'Annals of Philosophy,' in which he showed, 
 for the first time, that many crystalline rocks of this chain are of no 
 higher antiquity than our Lias, Oolitic, and Cretaceous formations. 
 
 The 'Transactions of the Geological Society' contain highly valuable 
 suggestive evidence of Dr. Buckland's skill as a field geologist, as well 
 as a palaeontologist, and among them, his description of the south- 
 western coal district of England (1825) may be mentioned as an 
 example. It has stood the test of more than forty years, and is still 
 appealed to as a standard work. 
 
 Dr. Buckland was chosen on the council of the Royal Society in 
 1827, and in subsequent years up to 1849. He was one of the earliest 
 fellows of the Geological Society, having been elected in 1813, and has 
 twice filled the presidential chair. His anniversary addresses aro 
 printed in the society's 'Journal.' He is also a Fellow of the Linnaean 
 Society. In 1845 he was made Dean of Westminster; and, coming to 
 reside in London, he was appointed a Trustee of the British Museum 
 in 1847, and took an active part in the meetings of scientific societies, 
 and in the establishment of the Museum of Practical Geology in 
 Jermyn-street. Since the year 1850 he has been obliged to relinquish 
 his favourite pursuits, but hopes are entertained that he may be able 
 once more to resume them. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BUDE, GUILLAUME, or, as he is better known by the Latinised 
 name, Budaeus, was born in Paris in 1467 of an ancient and honourable 
 family. His early education appears to have been neglected, and when 
 he went to Orle'ans to study the civil law he profited little, owing to 
 his very imperfect knowledge of Latin. Indolence and a love of 
 amusement consumed much of the remainder of his youth, till he was 
 suddenly inspired with so ardent a love of letters that he even regretted 
 the hours necessarily given to repose and refreshment, and applied to 
 learning with an assiduity which threatened injury to his health. Yet 
 although, to use his own words, he was self-taught and late-taught, he 
 attained an eminence in learning which placed him above most of his 
 contemporaries. 
 
 Budaeus was well known by name both to Charles VIII. and to 
 Louis XII.; yet, notwithstanding he was twice employed by the latter 
 king in Italian embassies, and even inscribed on his list of royal 
 secretaries, he did not appear at court till the reign of Francis I., 
 during the interview with Henry VIII. at Ardre3. The king then 
 appointed him his librarian and maitre-des requetes, and the citizens 
 of Paris named him provost of the merchants — offices which he com- 
 plained were great interruptions to his pursuit of letters. In 1540, 
 while accompanying the court on a summer visit to the coast of 
 Normandy, in order to avoid the excessive heat, he contracted a fever 
 of which he died, August 23, 1540. He left injunctions that his inter- 
 ment should take place by night. This request, and an avowal of Protest- 
 antism made at Geneva soon after his decease by his widow and some 
 part of his family (he left seven sons and four daughters), have thrown 
 doubt on his orthodoxy, and he has been abused by the Romanists 
 accordingly. The rumour derives strength from his intimate corre- 
 spondence with Erasmus, whom he rivalled in anti-Cicerouianism, and 
 in his hatred of monks and illiterate ecclesiastics. In one of his letters 
 he shows a supreme contempt for the divines of the Sorbonue, and 
 calls the members of it prating sophists, and, with the deviation of a 
 single letter (a licence not to be denied to a pun), " divines of the 
 Sorbonian (Serbonian) bog." 
 
 Budaeus was less skilled in Latin than in Greek, aud his epistolary 
 style in the former language is tinged with harshness, and strongly 
 contrasts with the pure and elegant tone ot Erasmus. His works, of 
 which an accurate list is given by Baillet in his 'Jugemens des Scavans,' 
 were collected at Basel in 1557 in four folio volumes, an edition which 
 has become extremely scarce. All his writings abound in learning ; 
 but the tract best known to modern readers is entitled 'DeAsse et 
 Partibus ejus,' in the preface to which he complaius that on his wedding- 
 day he was not allowed more than six hours for study. A second story, 
 which has been attributed to other great scholars also, rests on not 
 quite so good authority. "An alarm of fire having beeu one day given 
 while he was at work in his study, he asked the terrified servant with 
 great calmness why she did not inform her mistress. ' You know,' 
 he added, ' I never concern myself about household matters.' " Hi3 
 ' Commentaries on the Greek Tongue' are still deservedly held in high 
 repute. They elucidate many terms employed by the orators, the 
 
099 
 
 BUDGELL, EUSTACE. 
 
 BUFFON, COMTE DE. 
 
 looc 
 
 explanation of which is not so easily attainable elsewhere. His Greek 
 letters also are written with much elegance, and show a profound 
 knowledge of the language. 
 
 BUDGELL, EUSTACE, son of the Rev. Gilbert Budgell, was born 
 about 1685 at St. Thomas's, near Exeter. Through his mother, Mary 
 Gulston, daughter of a bishop of Bristol, he was connected with Addison, 
 who used to name him " that man who calls himself my cousin," and 
 who wrote an epilogue to Prior's 'Pbaxlra' which was attributed to 
 Budgell, and acquired for him a reputation which he little merited. 
 He was educated at Christchurch, Oxford, and afterwards entered at 
 the Temple ; where, devoting himself to literature, he wrote largely 
 in the ' Spectator,' to which he contributed all the papers marked X, 
 and on the discontinuance of that work all those in the 'Guardian' 
 marked with an asterisk. Through Addison's influence he held many 
 subordinate offices under government in Ireland; and in 1717, when 
 his patron became secretary of state in England, he procured for Budgell 
 the lucrative appointment of accountant and comptroller-general in 
 Ireland. A misunderstanding with the lord-lieutenant, Lord Bolton, 
 and some lampoons which Budgell was indiscreet enough to write in 
 consequence, occasioned his resignation. 
 
 From that time he appears to have trodden a downward course : 
 he lost 20,000/. in the South Sea Bubble, and spent 5000/. more in 
 unsuccessful attempts to get into parliament. In order to save himself 
 from ruin he joined the knot of pamphleteers who scribbled against 
 Sir Robert Walpole, and he was presented with 1000/. by the Duchess 
 of Marlborough. Much of the 'Craftsman' was written by him ; also 
 a weekly pamphlet called the 'Bee,' which commenced in 1733, and 
 extended to 100 numbers. But his necessities reduced him to dishonest 
 methods for procuring support, and he obtained a place in the ' Dunciad,' 
 not on account of want of wit but of want of principle, by appearing 
 as a legatee in Tindal's will for 2000/., to the exclusion of his next heir 
 and nephew — a bequest whicli Budgell is thought, perhaps unjustly, to 
 have obtained surreptitiously. On May the 4th 1736, broken in 
 character and reduced to poverty, he took a boat at Somerset Stairs, 
 and ordering the waterman to row down the river, he threw himself 
 into the stream as they shot London bridge. Having taken the 
 precaution of filling his pockets with stones, he rose no more. On the 
 morning before that on which he drowned himself he had endeavoured 
 to persuade a natural daughter, at that time not more than eleven 
 years of age, to accompany him. She however refused, and afterwards 
 entered as an actress at Drury Lane Theatre. Budgell left in his 
 secretary a slip of paper, on which was written a broken distich, 
 intended perhaps as an apology for his act : — 
 
 " What Cato did, and Addison approved, 
 Cannot be wrong." 
 
 It is unnecessary to point out the fallacy of this defence of his 
 conduct, there being as little resemblance between the cases of Budgell 
 and Cato, as there is reason for considering Addison's ' Cato ' written 
 with the view of defending suicide. 
 
 BUFFALMACCO, an old painter of Florence of the beginning of 
 the 14th century, and a scholar of Andrea Tafi, celebrated for his 
 humour by Boccaccio and Sacchetti, and for his ability by Ghiberti 
 and V asari. The name of Buffalmacco appears to have been a nick- 
 name as given to him by Boccaccio : his real name is said to have 
 been Buonamico di Cristofano, but some have supposed the name 
 of Buonamico, which is used by Ghiberti, to have been a nickname 
 also. Rumohr and others have even doubted his actual existence, 
 supposing that Vasari himself has given him his historical existence by 
 confounding together the real Buonamico of Ghiberti and the imaginary 
 Buffal macco of Boccaccio — an idea which does not seem to have occurred 
 to either Baldinucci or Lanzi, or any of the Italian editors of Vasari's 
 work. This however is certain, that Vasari has gleaned most that is 
 interesting and all that is amusing in his ' Life of Buffalmacco' from 
 the novels of Boccaccio and Sacchetti; and some of his narrations of 
 the ready humour of this painter are the most amusing passages in 
 his 'Lives:' they are from the following novels of Boccaccio: — 
 « Decamerone,' viii. 3, 6, 9 ; is. 3, 5 : and the following of Sacchetti :— 
 161, 169, 191, 192. 
 
 Vasari enumerates many of Buffalmacco's works, of which however 
 scarcely anything now remains. Of those attributed to him there are 
 still some in the Campo Santo at Pisa, and at Arezzo. At Pisa there 
 is a ' Creation of the Universe,' some stories from the life of Noah and 
 his sons; and the 'Crucifixion,' the 'Resurrection,' and the 'Ascension 
 of Christ;' but though there is some meaning in them as compositions, 
 as designs they are barbarous works : they are engraved in Lacinio's 
 1 Campo Santo.' Vasari however speaks of other works which have 
 perished as very superior to these, and he says that Buffalmacco, when 
 he chose to exert himself, which was not often, was equal to any of 
 his contemporaries. In some of his works in Pisa he was assisted by 
 Bruno di Giovanni, who is also mentioned by Boccaccio. Buffalmacco 
 died poor, according to Vasari, in 1340, aged 78, but according to 
 Baldinucci he was still living in 1351 ; he was therefore probably a 
 younger painter than Giotto, who died in 1336, aged 60, though 
 Vasari's account makes Buffalmacco the elder. 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, dec. ; Baldinucci, Nolisie dei Professori del 
 Disegno, &c. ; Laciuio, Pitture a Fresco del Campo Santo di Pisa.) 
 
 BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LE CLERC, COilTE DE, son of 
 
 Benjamin Le Clerc Buffon, a councillor of parliament, was born at 
 Montbard, in Burgundy, on the 7th September 1707, a year which 
 was also marked by the entrance of Linnd into life. We first trace 
 the young Buffon at Dijon, where he was entered at the Jesuits' 
 College as a student of law; but it would appear that the legat 
 profession, which his father wished him to adopt, had no charms 
 for him, and that astronomy and mathematics were his favourite 
 pursuits. The parent, observing his son's disgust at the former study 
 and his zealous application to the last-named sciences, wisely suffered 
 him to follow the path which he had chosen, and he became so 
 wedded to his geometry that some of his biographers assert, that 
 while his companions were at their sports he was generally to be 
 seen in some retired nook poring over his pocket Euclid. Such a 
 mode of spending hours, which would otherwise have been hours of 
 idleness, brought forth its fruits in due season, and there are stories 
 current that he had anticipated Newton in some of his discoveries, but 
 that he withheld his claim, observing that people were not obliged to 
 believe the assertion. We receive these on dits with some grains of 
 allowance, for, to say nothing of dates, vanity was certainly not absent 
 as an ingredient in Buffon's character. 
 
 An acquaintance which he had made with Lord Kingston and his 
 tutor, at Dijon, soon ripened into friendship, and Buffon travelled 
 through Italy with these companions, the latter of whom appears to 
 have been a man of science, while the former was the ready partner 
 iu his pleasures : the friends afterwards visited Paris and London 
 together. The death of his mother, whom he lost during this expe- 
 dition, put him in possession of a large income, nearly 12,000/., but lie 
 did not settle down on his estate till the age of twenty-five. In this 
 retirement he resolutely pursued his studies, and as it may not be 
 uninteresting to those who think life was not given to us to be passed 
 in mere frivolities, to know how Buffon passed his time, we select the 
 following account from a modern biographer, premising that the 
 history of one day seems to have been that of all the others, generally 
 speaking, throughout a period of fifty years. " After he was dressed 
 he dictated letters, and regulated his domestic affairs ; and at six 
 o'clock he retired to his studies at the pavilion called the Tower of 
 St. Louis. This pavilion was situated at the extremity of the garden, 
 about a furlong from the house, and the only furniture which it 
 contained was a large wooden secretary and an arm-chair. No books 
 or pictures relieved the naked appearance of the apartment, or dis- 
 traded the thoughts of the learned possessor. The entrance was by 
 green folding doors, the walls were painted green, and the interior 
 bad the appearance of a chapel, on account of the elevation of the 
 roof. Within this was another cabinet, where Buffon resided the 
 greater part of the year, on account of tho coldness of the other 
 apartment, and where he composed the greater number of his works. 
 It was a small square building, situated on the side of a terrace, and 
 was ornamented with drawings of birds and beasts. Prince Henry of 
 Prussia called it the cradle of natural history ; and Rousseau, before 
 he entered it, used to fall on his knees and kiss the threshold. At 
 niue o'clock Buffon usually took an hour's rest ; and his breakfast, 
 which consisted of a piece of bread and two glasses of wine, was 
 brought to the pavilion. When he had written two hours after 
 breakfast, he returned to the house. At dinner he spent a consider- 
 able portion of time, and indulged in all the gaieties and trifles which 
 occurred at table. After dinner he tlept an hour in his room, took a 
 solitary walk, and, during the rest of the evening, he either conversed 
 with his family or guests, or sat at his desk examining the papers 
 which were submitted to his judgment. At nine o'clock he went to 
 bed to prepare himself for the same routine of judgment and pleasure." 
 Among his other studies the alleged burning of the Roman fleet, 
 under Marcellus, by Archimedes, on its approach within bowshot, by 
 means of mirrors, attracted his attention, and he commenced a series 
 of experiments, with the view of verifying the fact. After several 
 experiments and considerable expense, he constructed a great mirror, 
 composed of 168 pieces of plain silvered glass, six inches by eight. 
 The contrivance allowed of extensive motion, the whole of the pieces 
 being set in an iron frame, with an apparatus of screws and springs. 
 Having made his preparations he commenced his experiments, and, 
 on the 23rd of March, a plank of beech, which had been covered with 
 tar, was set on fire at the distance of sixty-six feet, only forty mirrors 
 being brought to bear on it, and without their being set in the stand. 
 On the same day ninety-eight mirrors, under some disadvantageous 
 circumstances, ignited a tarred and sulphured plank, at the distance 
 of 126 feet. Other experiments were still more successful. At three 
 o'clock, on the 5th of April, 154 mirrors fired small sulphured chips 
 of deal, mingled with charcoal, at the distance of 250 feet, when the 
 day was not bright : a few seconds were sufficient to produce ignition 
 when the sun shone powerfully. An unclouded and clear sun, soon 
 after mid-day of the 10th of April, inflamed very suddenly a tarred 
 fir-plank, the distance being 150 feet, aud the number of mirrors 
 brought into action being 123. On the 11th of April some small 
 combustibles were ignited by 12 mirrors, at 20 feet ; a large pewter 
 flask, 6 lbs. in weight, was melted by 45 mirrors at the same dis- 
 tance, and some thin pieces of silver aud iron were brought to a red 
 heat by 117. These experiments led him to others, having for their 
 object the structure of mirrors by bending glass upon spherical 
 moulds ; but his great difficulty appears to have been encountered in 
 
loot 
 
 BUGEAUD, MARSHAL. 
 
 1002 
 
 the cooling and grinding, and only three, it is said, were preserved 
 out of twenty-four. He presented one of these, having a diameter of 
 46 inches, and considered as the most powerful burning-glass in 
 Europe, to the king of France. 
 
 Hitherto we have seen Buffon devoting himself to his studies with 
 unwearied diligence ; but the more abstruse of the sciences and the 
 formation of his style appear to have almost entirely occupied him up 
 to a certain period. 
 
 Some few years however before he commenced the experiments 
 above recorded, he was, at the age of thirty-two (about the year 1739), 
 called to succeed M. Dufay, who, struck by a mortal disease (the small- 
 pox), had recommended Buffon to the minister as the only man capable 
 of following up his projects in the office of intendant of the Royal 
 Garden and Museum, where he planted the two avenues of lime-trees 
 which terminate towards the extremity of the nursery, and mark the 
 limits of the garden at that period. The appointment seems to have 
 At once awakened his dormant love for the study of natural history. 
 His ardent mind took an immediate and comprehensive view of the 
 subject, and commencing with the theory or history of the earth as his 
 basis, he followed it out through the great work which has immor- 
 talised his name as a zoologist, calling to his assistance the talents of 
 men who were most deeply versed in particular branches of the 
 study : — the names of Daubenton and Lacdpede stand pre-eminent 
 among those who were thus associated with him. 
 
 His marriage with Mademoiselle de Saint Belin, in 1762, appears to 
 have been productive of great happiness to both parties, for she is 
 recorded as anxiously watching all his steps on the road to fame, and 
 rejoicing with him at the honours which were showered upon him by 
 crowned heads and learned societies. Louis XIV., in 1776, raised his 
 estate into a comptd, and invited him to Fontainebleau, with a view 
 of inducing him to accept the office of Administrator of the Forests of 
 France, but Buffon decliued the office. 
 
 His days appear to have been passed in great tranquillity, uninter- 
 rupted till a late period of his life, when that cruel disease, the stone, 
 came to embitter the rest of it. After seven or eight years of suffering 
 he died on the 16th of April 1788, at the age of eighty-one. Fifty-seven 
 stones, some of them as large as a bean, are said to have been found in 
 his bladder. His body was embalmed, and placed in the same vault 
 with that of hi3 wife, at Montbard. The respect paid to his memory 
 was great, and reflected honour on the assemblage of academicians and 
 persons of rank and distinction who followed his remains to the tomb. 
 It is said that above 20,000 people had congregated to see the funeral 
 pass. Condorcet, Broussonet, Vicq d'Azyr, and Lacepede were his 
 principal eulogists. 
 
 Button left an only son, whose abilities were considerable, and whose 
 attachment to his parent was extreme, if indeed filial love can ever be 
 extreme. He was in the army, and had risen to the rank of major in 
 the regiment of Angoumois. We have seen the father's obsequies 
 celebrated by the great and good, and attended by the people; but 
 this homage to a great genius was soon to give way to the storm that 
 darkened the political horizon of all Europe. The son of the great 
 Comte de Buffon expiated the crime of bis birth ou the scaffold which 
 had already reeked with the noblest blood of France ; and even the 
 bones of the father — the man whom the people had delighted to 
 honour— could not escape desecration. The remains of the illustrious 
 zoologist were torn from the grave; the lead in which he was hearsed 
 was plundered, and his monument was razed to the ground. And 
 when a citizen, to whom science was dear, complained to the Committee 
 of Public Instruction of the outrage, and proposed that Buffon should 
 have a place in the Pantheon, he was answered that the temple would 
 be profaned by the presence of one who had been connected with the 
 aristocracy of France. 
 
 The character of Buffon's mind seems to have been comprehensive, 
 exhibiting an insatiable desire of knowledge joined with a persevering 
 fondness and appetite for study rarely to be found : to these gifts 
 nature had added a most fervid imagination, and, his biographers 
 have superadded, no small portion of vanity. He would read to his 
 visitors those passages in his works which were his greatest favourites, 
 Rucli as portions of his natural history of man, the description of the 
 .Arabian deserts in the account of the camel, and his poetical pages on 
 the swan. The last affected Prince Henry of Prussia, to whom the 
 author read it when he was on a visit to Montbard, so strongly, that 
 Ae sent to the zoologist a service of porcelain on which swans were 
 represented in almost every attitude. 
 
 Button was of a noble countenance and commanding figure, and his 
 fondness for magnificence and dress seems to have amounted almost to 
 a passion. It is curious to observe such an intellect as his finding 
 tune in the midst of the severest studies to submit his head to the 
 f. iseur often twice and sometimes three times in the day, and to make 
 his toilet in the extreme of the fashion. On a Sunday, after the 
 service of the church, the peasantry of Montbard came to gaze on the 
 count, who, clad in the richest dress, and at the head of his son and 
 retainers, was wont to exhibit himself to their admiring eyes. This 
 laet exhibition however may have been a trait of the times. 
 
 His devotion to study early ripened into a habit, and became his 
 ■olace under the excruciating torments which embittered the last 
 ears of his life. When asked how he had found time to do so much, 
 e would reply, " Have I not spont fifty years at my desk ? " Buffon's 
 
 style was brilliant and eloquent even to the verge of poetry ; and it is 
 worthy of remark, that a mind which had been trained and disciplined 
 in the severity of the exact sciences should surrender the reins so 
 entirely to the most luxuriant but wildest imagination. Hence he was 
 often arraigning nature at the bar of his fancy for some supposed 
 defect of design, when the fault was in his own want of perception of 
 the end to which that design was directed, arising from his not being 
 acquainted with the habits to which it ministered. His observations 
 on the bill of the avoset, on the structure of the sloth, and on the 
 melancholy condition of the woodpecker (Picus), are examples of this 
 habit; upon the woodpecker he is quite pathetic, but, as in all such 
 cases, he bestows his pity very needlessly. He has been chai ged with 
 infidelity ; but this, like some others, is a charge easy to be made and 
 hard to be disproved ; though it must be admitted that his works 
 afford some ground for it. His moral character, we are compelled to 
 add, was far from good, there being too much evidence in proof of 
 his licentious habits and conversation to admit of doubt on the 
 subject. 
 
 His works were numerous, and have obtained for him that fame 
 which he is said to have so much desired. His translations of Hales's 
 ' Vegetable Statics,' and of Newton's ' Fluxions,' both of which he 
 prefaced with great ability, appear to have been undertaken with a 
 view of improving his style as well as of advancing his knowledge. 
 The ' Memoirs of the Royal Academy,' of which he was so distin- 
 guished a member, contain many of his papers ; but without entering 
 into these and other compositions, we proceed to the notice of his 
 opus magnum, the ' Histoire Naturelle.' Of the quarto editions, the 
 first in 36 vols., printed at the royal press, appeared in 1749, and was 
 in a course of publication down to 1788; another was published in 
 1774 and the following years, in 28 vols., but this is comparatively of 
 less value, for though it contains the supplementary matter, Dauben- 
 ton's ' Anatomy ' is cut out, and the plates are considered as worn and 
 bad. Of the Supplement, 6 vols, appeared in Buffon's lifetime ; the 
 7th was published iu 1789, by Lacepede, after Buffon's death, and in 
 it Lacepede expressed his deep i-egret for the loss. In the department 
 of the Birds, Buffon was assissted by M. Gueneau do Montbeillard, 
 Baillon, and the Abbe" Bexon. There are 5 vols, on minerals ; a history 
 of vegetables was also contemplated. The magnificence of the ' Planches 
 Enlumindes' is well known to every collector. 
 
 The 'Histoire Naturelle' has been translated into Italian, Spanish, 
 Dutch, German (twice with additions), and English. Numerous 
 editions of the ' Histoire Naturelle ' have been published iu France 
 since the death of BuffoD, as well as several selections from his 
 writings. Of the former, the most valuable are the ' Histoire Natu- 
 relle de Buffon, mise uu nouvel ordre ; prece'de'e d'une notice sur les 
 ouvrages et la vie de Buffon, par M. le Baron Cuvier,' in 36 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1825-26; and that edited by M. A. Richard, in 30 vols. 8vo, 
 1821, &c. 
 
 BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT, DUC 
 D'ISLY, Marshal of France, was born at Limoges, October 15, 1784. 
 He came of a good family, most of the members of which were 
 among the emigrants of the first revolution. Young Bugeaud however 
 remained in France, and having chosen a military life, entered the 
 army as a private in 1804. At Austerlitz he was a corporal; the 
 following year he was made sub-lieutenant. He served in the cam- 
 paign of Prussia and Poland, and was wounded at Pultusk, Nov. 26, 
 1806. Sent into Spain as adjutant-major he speedily caught the eye 
 of Marshal Suchet, who in his despatches made frequent mention of 
 Bugeaud's merits. He in consequence rose steadily in professional 
 rank till he was made lieutenant-colonel, and appointed to the com- 
 mand of the 14th regiment of the line. On hi3 return to Fiance he 
 was created colonel. 
 
 On the abdication of Napoleon I., Bugeaud gave in his adhesion to 
 the restored dynasty ; but, with most of the other officers, went over 
 to the emperor on his return from Elba. During the Hundred Days 
 he had the command of a small body of troops, and with it he suc- 
 ceeded in defeating a much superior Austrian force at l'Hopital-sous- 
 Conflans, June 1815. Upon the second restoration, Bugeaud retired 
 to his estate, where he diligently cultivated the soil, till the revolution 
 of July 1830 called him again into public life. He was elected a 
 member of the Chamber of Deputies, and became an earnest supporter 
 of Louis Philippe, whose confidence he quickly gained, and who 
 named him marshal. In Jauuary 1834 occurred a deplorable event, 
 which caused great excitement in Paris, and rendered Bugeaud ex- 
 tremely unpopular : this was the death of M. Dulong, in a duel 
 between him and General Bugeaud, arising out of some bitter remarks 
 made in the Chamber of Deputies by Dulong in reply to Bugeaud, 
 in a debate on the conduct of Marshal Soult. So great was the exas- 
 peration of the Parisians, that the government found it advisable on 
 the occasion of Dulong'a funeral to take precautions against an 
 insurrection. A few months later Bugeaud's unpopularity was 
 increased by the decisive measures he took for suppressing the 
 various dmeutes which broke out, and especially by having his name 
 coupled with the massacre of the Rue-Trausuonain. 
 
 In 1837 Bugeaud was sent to Algiers, where he concluded a treaty 
 with Abd-el-Kader, which was much criticised at home, but which 
 served the purpose for which Bugeaud made it — that, namely, of 
 enabling the French commander, by securing the inactivity of the 
 
 i 
 
1003 
 
 BULARCHUS. 
 
 BULGARIN, THADDEUS. 
 
 1001 
 
 only chief whose prow, <ss and authority were really to be feared, to 
 direct his whole strength against the disunited tribes, and reduce 
 thern successively to submission, Bugeaud returned to Paris to give 
 an account of his mission. It soon appeared that Bugeaud knew 
 better how to deal with the Arabs than the officers previously sent ; 
 and in 1840, affairs appearing very unpromising, Marshal Vallde was 
 recalled, and Bugeaud was appointed governor-general of the French 
 possessions in Africa. We have already given an outline of his pro- 
 ceedings [Algkrie, in Gkoq. Div. ; and Abd-el-Kader, ante, col. 12], 
 and it will be enough here to observe, that the maxim he was fond of 
 repeating was that " to conquer the Arab you must first become an 
 Arab," and that in accordance with this he set about organising the 
 Zouaves and other irregular soldiers, characterised by their capacity 
 for acting independently as well as in masses, their celerity of motion, 
 and their daring, and who have since become so important a part of 
 the French army ; and having established a chain of fortified posts, he 
 was enabled to maintain incessant attacks and surprises, never per- 
 mitting any body of armed natives to collect without immediately 
 dispersing them, and never allowing any hostile tribes to carry on any 
 of their ordinary agricultural avocations. From his energy and ruth- 
 lessness, there was no escape for the uncivilised natives. Attacked in 
 detail, resistance was useless ; there was only the choice of submission 
 or destruction. In three years Bugeaud was able to announce that 
 there was no longer an enemy in the field. Abd-el-Kader was a 
 fugitive, and Algiers was formally annexed to the French crown. The 
 Emperor of Marocco had ventured to oppose the progress of the 
 French arms ; but his coast-towns were ravaged, and at Isly Bugeaud 
 with a far inferior force had destroyed his army. For this last 
 achievement Louis Philippe created Bugeaud Due d'Isly ; the Arabs 
 gave him the more poetic title of Conqueror of Fortune. He returned 
 to France in 1846 ; but in his absence Abd-el-Kader again collected an 
 army, and the whole country was speedily in revolt. Bugeaud was 
 sent back, and with an iron hand quickly and effectually crushed the 
 Arab rising. 
 
 At the outbreak of the revolution of February 1848 Bugeaud was in 
 Paris, and on the night of the 23rd the command of the troops was 
 given to him. He would have adopted energetic measures, but the 
 king shrank from shedding blood, and the military command was 
 placed in other hands. Bugeaud was not again employed till Louis 
 Napoleon became president, when he was named to the command in 
 chief of the army of the Alps. He was also elected by Charente- 
 Iuferieure representative in the National Assembly. But he enjoyed 
 neither dignity long; he died of cholera, on the 10th of June 1849. 
 Bugeaud published memoirs on infantry manoeuvres, on army organi- 
 sation, on the establishment of military colonies, and on various 
 matters connected with the governance of Algiers. 
 
 (Galerie des Contemporains ; Nouvelle Biographie Unirenelle ; 
 Besancenez, Biographic complete de M. le Marechal Bugeaud; <kc.) 
 
 BULARCHUS, of Lydia, in Asia Minor, has the distinction of being 
 the earliest painter on record. He was a distinguished painter at least 
 as early as 720 years before Christ. Pliuy (' Hist. Nat.,' xxxv. 34) 
 tells the following story about him :— He painted a battle of the 
 Magnetes, for which Candaules, king of Lydia, about 716 B.C., gave 
 him as much gold coin as would cover the picture. Pliny in another 
 part of his work (vii. 39) speaks of this picture as representing the 
 destruction of Magnesia; and the late K. O. Midler has, in his 
 'Archaeology of Art,' on this account rejected the tradition, because 
 the only known destruction of Magnesia took place, according to 
 Archilochus, about forty years after the death of Candaules, through 
 Ardys, the successor of Gyges. Pliny however in the first instance 
 mentioned, where he treats more particularly of art, calls it a Battle 
 of the Magnetes (" in qua erat Magnetum prcelium ' ). This may 
 appear a singular and incredible incident : but the early existence of 
 painting in Asia Minor is not an isolated fact. There is much 
 evidence in ancient writers to show that painting was comparatively 
 an old art in Asia Minor and among the Ionian Greeks, while at the 
 same period in Greece itself there is scarcely any evidence of its 
 existence. Welcker (' Archiv. fur Philol.,' 1830) agrees with Midler 
 in rejecting the entire story as fictitious. 
 
 *BULGARIN, THADDEUS, a novelist and essayist of considerable 
 note in Russian literature, is by birth a Pole, and remarkable for 
 the irregularity of his career. " For almost a quarter of a century," 
 he says in the preface to his 'Reminiscences' published in 1846, "I 
 have now lived, as it were, in public, conversing with the public day 
 by day on whatever of interest occurred ; but for ten years of my 
 previous life I was almost literally never out of the saddle : I lived in 
 battles and the smoke of bivouacs, traversing all Europe with arms in 
 hand from Tomeo to Lisbon, passing day and night under the open 
 sky in thirty degrees of cold or heat." Bulgarin was born in 1789 in 
 the government of Minsk in Lithuania. His father was an officer 
 under Kosciuszko in his last unsuccessful struggle for the indepen- 
 dence of Poland, and one of the earliest recollections of the son was 
 that of hearing the cannon thunder at a distance on the morning of a 
 day in 1796, and of accompanying his mother in the evening to take 
 refuge in the woods from the approach of the victorious Russians who 
 had defeated the Poles in the last action of the war. A few years 
 later his friends procured him admission into the Institution of Mili- 
 tary Cadets at St. Petersburg as a pupil, and he was there at the time 
 
 of the death of the Emperor Paul, when he describes the astonishment 
 of the scholars at being drummed out of their beds one morning before 
 the usual hour to take the oath of allegiance to the new emperor 
 Alexander, whom the governor of the institution, Count Zubov, had 
 had a very material share in assisting to the throne the night before. 
 Bidgariu entered the Russian army in the Uhlan regiment commanded 
 by the Grand Duke Constantine, and was at the battles of Au.sterlitz 
 and Friedland, in the latter of which he distinguished himself by his 
 bravery, and received a serious wound. After taking part in the 
 campaign of Finland, which tore that province from Sweden, some 
 unpleasantness with the officers in the regiment induced him to solicit 
 his dismissal from the Russian service, and he entered that of France, 
 a power then in alliance with Russia, and became an officer of the 
 Polish legion. Ho afterwards published ' Reminiscences of the War 
 in Spain,' to which country the Polish legion had the misfortune to be 
 sent, aud in which Bulgarin had more than his share of wild adventure. 
 When the war broke out between France and Russia, he marched 
 against the country where he had received his education, and it wa? 
 said in after-life by his literary opponents, when he published at St. 
 Petersburg a popular novel on the war of 1812 and the conflagration 
 of Moscow, that the first occasion of his entering Moscow was when 
 he entered it with the grand army of Napoleon. This his friends 
 denied, aud asserted that up to that moment (in 1840) he had never 
 entered Moscow at all. It was beyond dispute however that he had 
 been an officer in the invading army, and had borne a part in the 
 horrors of the memorable retreat. In the next year (1813) he was in 
 command of an outpost of the French army on the night before the 
 battle of Bautzen, when Napoleon rode up, accompanied by Ney and 
 Berth ier, and a conversation took place, of which Bulgarin has pub- 
 lished a spirited narrative. " You Poles," said the emperor among 
 other things, " speak almost the same language as the Russians." 
 " Exactly so, your Majesty ; we c?.n easily understand each other as a 
 Swede understands a Dane, or a German a Hollander." " By the bye, 
 can you speak German f " asked Napoleon. " I can, your Majesty." 
 " Then get on your horse, aud bring me a peasant from the village in 
 front of us ; I will command the outpost while you are away." The 
 peasant was brought, cross-questioned on the depth of a neighbouring 
 stream, and was then so liberally rewarded that for the first time it 
 flashed upon him that his questioner must be the emperor. 
 
 Bulgarin steadily adhered to the fortunes of Napoleon till his fall in 
 1814, when he returned to Poland, and was presented at Warsaw to 
 his old commander the Grand-Duke Constantine, who not only accorded 
 him a gracious reception, but invited him to re-enter the Russian army. 
 Bulgarin however was then anxious to settle on his property in Polaud, 
 and devote himself to the support of his aged mother. The Polish 
 language, which he had almost forgotten when in the Russian service, 
 had become familiar to him in Spain when serving in the Polish legion, 
 aud he wrote various articles with some success in the Warsaw periodi- 
 cals. In 1819 a family lawsuit took him to St. Petersburg, and falling 
 into the society of some Russian literary men, among others of Grech, 
 the author of the best Russian grammar aud the best history of Russian 
 literature, he took up the idea of writing in Russian. With this view 
 he studied the language anew with the assistance of Grech — a very 
 necessary labour, as the style of Karamzin had given a new direction 
 to it so strongly marked, that it has been said that every Russian of 
 fifty years of atie now speaks a different language from that he spoke 
 in his childhood. As an essayist Bulgarin became a favourite, and his 
 pen was soon in incessant activity. In 1822 he became editor of a 
 periodical called the ' Northern Archives (' Syevernuy Arkhiv'), which 
 was afterwards merged in 1825 in the 'Son of the Country' ('Suin 
 Otechestva'), edited by himself and Grech, which was for several years 
 the leading literary periodical of Russia. He also established the 
 leading newspaper, the 'Northern Bee' (' Syevernaya Pchela'), which 
 the readers of English journals are in the habit of seeing quoted as 
 the ' Abeille du Nord.' A dramatic annual, the 'Russian Thalia' 
 ('Ruskaya Taliya'), was less successful, but had the honour of first 
 introducing to the public the masterpiece of Russian comedy, the 
 ' Gore ot Uma,' of Bulgarin's intimate friend Griboyedov, the Russian 
 ambassador to Persia, who was a few years after torn to pieces by tbe 
 populace of Teheran. By the sharp tone of his criticism Bulgarin 
 drew round him a host of enemies, but his novel of 'Ivan Vuizbegin,' 
 sometimes styled the 'Russian Gil Bias,' which appeared in 1829, had 
 a brilliant success, and raised his popularity to the highest point it has 
 ever attained. An excellent translation of this novel in English was 
 printed at Aberdeen in 1831. Its reputation has now materially 
 declined in Russia, where it is alleged that Bulgarin is only capable of 
 describing well what has actually passed under his eyes, and that many 
 of his delineations of Russian life, of which he only knows what can 
 be seen at St. Petersburg, are altogether unfaithful. He afterwards 
 wrote a continuation of ' Ivan Vuizbegin ' under the title of ' Peter 
 Ivanovich Vuizhegin,' in which he described in a style of fervent 
 Russian patriotism the war of 1812. There are also two historical 
 novels from his pen on the story of the 'False Demetrius' and 
 ' Mazeppa,' but they met with only partial success. In a collection of 
 his works in seven double-columned octavo volumes, which was com- 
 menced at St. Petersburg in 1839, his novels occupy four of the 
 volumes, and his miscellaneous works, which are chiefly essays, the 
 remainder. A selection from these would comprise much that would 
 
BULL, GEORGE. 
 
 be interesting to the English reader, from the matter as well as tho 
 moaner. At the time this collection was issued Bulgarin was said to 
 be living in the enjoyment of an easy fortune gained by his writings 
 at a villa near Dorpat. He afterwards published ' Russia in an Histo- 
 rical, Statistical, Geographical, and Literary point of view,' a compilation 
 of considerable value, which has been translated into German by Von 
 BrackeL His last, and in many respects his most interesting work, is 
 his ' Vospominaniya,' (' Reminiscences or Fragments of what I have 
 Seen, Heard, and Experienced in Life,') of which six volumes have 
 appeared. He is a lively and pleasing narrator, but it is necessary to 
 guard against his Russian prepossessions, which are now perhaps all 
 the more strongly marked to compensate for his once having borne 
 arms against the country. His statistical work is dedicated " To the 
 great Russian family, the children of one father, the Russian Emperor." 
 One of his essays, 'A Visit to Cronstadt in 1826,' contains this passage : 
 — " The German vessels stop before the gates, and are towed into the 
 harbour ; the English and Americans come sailing straight in, and are 
 not afraid of bumping against the corner at the sharp turn. If we are 
 to draw conclusions as to the character of nations from this, what are 
 we to say of the Russian peasants, who in their fishing-vessels go out 
 on the chase to Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen, where the very English 
 send their strongest vessels of a peculiar construction. Oh, mother 
 Russia ! if God is for us, who shall be against us ? " 
 
 BULL, GEORGE, was born in the city of Wells, on the 25th of 
 March 1634 : he received the first part of his education at the grammar- 
 school of Wells, from which he was removed to the free school of 
 Tiverton, in Devonshire, then superintended by Mr. Samuel Butler, 
 who is reported to have had an excellent method of teaching. At 
 fourteen he was admitted a commoner of Exeter College, Oxford ; but, 
 in the following year, on refusal to swear to the engagement, " That 
 he would be true and faithful to the Commonwealth of England, as it 
 was then established without a King, or House of Lords," he retired, 
 with his tutor, Mr. Ackland, and several others, to North Cadbury, in 
 Somersetshire, where he prosecuted his studies until his nineteenth 
 year. By persuasion of his friends he then went to reside with Mr. 
 William Thomas, a Presbyterian divine, from whom he derived little 
 or no assistance in the study of divinity. This residence however 
 brought him into intimate acquaintance with Mr. Thomas's son, who 
 directed his reading, and supplied him with the writings of Hooker, 
 HammoDd, Taylor, &c. Mr. Bull was irregularly ordained, at the age 
 of twenty-one, by Dr. Skinner, ejected bishop of Oxford, at a time 
 when it was "criminal for a bishop to confer holy orders." His profes- 
 sional duties commenced in the parish of St. George, near Bristol. In 
 1658 he obtained the living of Suddington St. Mary near Bristol, 
 where he became privy to an unsuccessful scheme of a general insur- 
 rection in favour of the exiled family, his house being one of the 
 points of meeting. After the Restoration he was presented by Lord 
 Chancellor Clarendon to the vicarage of Suddington St. Peter. These 
 preferments he retained until 16S5, having distinguished himself by 
 his zeal, judgment, and charity, on all occasions. In 1669 he published, 
 in Latin, his ' Harmonia Apostolica.' The object of this book, which 
 consists of two parts, or dissertations, was to explain and defend, first, 
 the doctrine of St. James, and, in the second, to demonstrate the 
 agreement with him of St. Paul ; it being more particularly hi3 aim, in 
 the first dissertation, to show, ''That good works, whicli proceed from 
 faith, and are conjoined with faith, are a neeessaiy condition required 
 from us by God, to the end that by the New Evangelical Covenant, 
 obtained by and sealed in the blood of Christ, the mediator of it, we 
 may be justified according to his free and unmerited grace." In the 
 second, "having in the first place established this one point for his 
 foundation — ' That St. Paul is to be interpreted by St. James, and not 
 St J.unes by St. Paul,' in consent with many of the ancients, (and 
 particularly of St. Augustine himself,) who are of the opiuion that the 
 General Epistle of St. James, the first of St. John, and the second of 
 St. Peter, with that of St. Jude, were written against those who, by 
 misinterpreting St. Paul's Epistles, had imbibed a fond notion, as if 
 faith * without works' were sufficient to save them; he sheweth whence 
 this obscurity and ambiguity in the terms of St. Paul might probably 
 arise, which was the occasion that persons not well-grounded came to 
 mistake or pervert the same.'' Bull proves, that, where St. Paul 
 sneaks of justification by faith, he intends the whole condition of the 
 Gospel-covenant; that the faith required implies obedience; that it 
 cannot be separated from obedience ; and that obedience is made 
 necessary to justification. The publication raised much dispute among 
 divines. The first open antagonist was Mr. John Truman, a Non-con- 
 formiat minister. Dr. Morley, bishop of Winchester, and Dr. Barker, 
 the one from the divinity chair at Oxford, and the other, in a charge 
 to his clergy, forbade the reading of the book, as a rash intruBiou into 
 thing-i too high for such discussion. Though, for a while, much 
 prejudice was excited against our author, j et, when he published his 
 answer entitled 'Exarnen Censurae,' and his 'Apologia,' his reputation 
 increased, and the soundness of his view was generally acknowledged. 
 In testimony of his merit in this particular instance, Lord Chancellor 
 Fiuch presented him to a prebend in the chuicli of Gloucester. In 
 16«5 he published his 'Confes-io Fidei Niccnae,' a work directed 
 against th« A riant and Socinians, and Sabellians and Tritheists, by 
 which he gained great celebrity both at home and abroad. In the 
 fame year in which he was preferred in Gloucester cathedral, 1678, he 
 
 BULLER, CHARLES, RT. HON. 100« 
 
 received the rectory of Avening in Gloucestershire; and in the next 
 year he was installed archdeacon of Llandaff, on the nomination of 
 Archbishop Saucroft, and about the same time was complimented with 
 the degree of Doctor of Divinity by the University of Oxford, for the 
 service he had rendered the church in his ' Defensio Fidei NicenEe.' 
 In 1694 he published hi3 'Judicium Ecclesi;c Catholicre,' in vindication 
 of the Anathema, as in his ' Defeusio ' he had vindicated the faith 
 established at the council of Nice, against Episcopius. For this 
 publication the thanks of the whole clergy of France were transmitted 
 to him through Bossuet, bishop of Meaux. His last work, published 
 before his death, was his ' Primitive and Apostolical Tradition, &c.,' 
 in which he proved, against Daniel Zuicker, that the pre-existence and 
 divine nature of our Lord was an apostolical doctrine. 
 
 In 1704 Bull was nominated to the bishopric of St. David's, a pro- 
 motion which he at first declined, alleging his years and infirmities; 
 but at length he gave a reluctant consent, and was consecrated at 
 Lambeth on the 29th of April 1705. His conduct as a bishop, as well 
 in the House of Lords as in his diocese, was such as to justify a belief 
 that, had he been earlier advanced to that diguity, he would have 
 been of signal use. Close application to study had impaired his health, 
 and he expired on the 17th of February 1709, and was buried at 
 Brecknock. After his death his sermons were published by his only 
 surviving son, in compliance with his directions. Perhaps no sermons 
 have more of a primitive character than those of Bishop Bull ; none 
 more clearly discriminate between primitive doctrine and modern 
 error. Several tracts, which it is said cost him much labour, were 
 lost by his own neglect. His works, with a copious account of his 
 life and writings, were published by Robert Nelson, Esq. His Latin 
 works were collected, during his lifetime, into one volume folio, by 
 Dr. Grabe. 
 
 BULLANT, JEAN, one of the few French architects of the 
 Renaissance period, whose names have acquired historical celebrity, is 
 supposed, by Callet to have been born at Ecouen, at which place he 
 died, October 10, 1578, at the age of seventy-eight; accordingly the 
 year of his birth must have been about 1500. All that is known of 
 his origin is that he was a retainer of the Montmorency family ; that 
 he visited Italy to study his art, and returned from Rome in 1544. 
 For an adequate opportunity of displaying his professional acquire- 
 ments he had not to wait long, having been employed the following 
 year by the celebrated Constable Anne de Montmorency, to erect, 
 conjointly with Jean Goujon, the Chateau d'Ecouen, in which work he 
 took especial pains to show how diligently he had studied classical 
 antiquity and imbibed its spirit, by parading the 'orders' in a variety 
 of ways. But the whole pile was a grotesque mixture of the modern 
 Italian orders, applied to what was in all other respects decidedly 
 French in physiognomy, with immense roofs, large and fantastically 
 ornamented lucarues, and other characteristics of that age and country. 
 Even the ogive or French-Gothic style of the period was allowed to 
 show itself externally and very conspicuously in the two windows of 
 the chapel placed in one wing of the entrance-front, while the entrance 
 itself formed a portal or lofty frontispiece, decorated with Doric and 
 Ionic columns, and a third order of termini in half-length figures. 
 The principal altar of the chapel (now removed to that at Chantilly) 
 was entirely in the modern-antique style of the time, and has been 
 considered Bullant's masterpiece; it was decorated with bassi-rilievi 
 of the Evangelists, Religion, &c. — which have been attributed to 
 Bullant, as well as the architectural design. At the time of the 
 Revolution (1789), and subsequently, such very great changes were 
 made, that the present condition of this chateau aifords little idea of 
 its original appearance. Of the palace erected by Bullant for Catherine 
 de Mddicis (originally called L'Hotel de la Reine, and afterwards 
 L'Hotel Soissons), the only relic is the astrological column which 
 stood at one angle of the court, and is now attached to the Halle aux 
 Bids, which occupies the site of what was Catherine's residence. For 
 the same princ ss he also altered and enlarged the Chateau de 
 Chenonceaux — the scene of fetes and revelries more magnificent than 
 decorous. Bullant was employed upon the palace of the Tuileries 
 (begun 1564), of which P. De Lorme had made the designs and con- 
 structed the older part, but it is not exactly known what was Bullant's 
 share in the work. Bullant enjoyed the favour not only of Catherine, 
 but of Henri II. and Henri III. (under both of whom he held the 
 office of comptroller of the royal buildings), but it is an error of 
 Callet's that he extended the Louvre for Henry IV. Bullant was 
 dead long before Henry IV. became king. Bullant was the author 
 of two works, viz. 'iiegle Generale d' Architecture,' 1563; and 
 ' Traitd de Geometrie et Horolographie, ' 1"67; the former of which 
 is regarded as the earliest authority in the language on the subject of 
 the so-called five orders. (Callet, Notice de quclques Architects 
 Francais du Seizihne Slide ; Reguard in Nuuv. Biog. Universelle.) 
 
 BULLER, CHARLES, RT. HON., was born in August 1806, in the 
 city of Calcutta. His father was in the civil service of the East India 
 Company, and belonged to a family which possessed great parliamentary 
 influence in the south of Cornwall, where they had for a long series of 
 years represented West Looe as a nomination borough. Charles Buller 
 was educated at Harrow School, Middlesex, at the University of Edin- 
 burgh, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of 
 B.A. in 1828. He was returned in 1830 as member of parliament for 
 West Looe, and in the following year became a barrister of Lincoln's 
 
1007 
 
 BULLIARD, PIERRE. 
 
 BUNSEN, CHEVALIER. 
 
 1008 
 
 Inn. He voted for the Parliamentary Reform Bill, which disfranchised 
 West Looe, and in 1832 was returned for the borough of Liskeard in 
 Cornwall, which he continued to represent till his death in 1848. 
 Mr. Buller, throughout the whole of his parliamentary career, was 
 distinguished for the liberality of his principles, for soundness of 
 reasoning founded on an extensive acquaintance with the details of 
 his subject, and for a liveliness of imagination, which rendered his 
 speeches attractive by sallies of pleasantry and wit. He was from 
 the first a steady opponent of the Corn-Laws, advocated triennial par- 
 liaments, was against a property-qualilication for members of the House 
 of Commons, maintained the necessity of national education, and was 
 a supporter of the Poor-Law Amendment Act. He early distinguished 
 himself by his speeches on colonisation, and by the ability with which 
 he advocated improved principles and practice in colonial government. 
 When the Earl of Durham was sent out hi 1838 as governor-general of 
 Canada, Mr. Buller accompanied him as secretary, and is known to 
 have contributed largely to the Report which was presented to par- 
 liament by the Earl of Durham, and published in 1839. After his 
 return from Canada, Mr. Buller commenced the practice of the law, 
 in appeals from the colonies and from Hindustan, before the Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council. In 1841 Lord Melbourne appointed 
 him secretary of the Board of Control ; and Lord John Russell, after 
 he became premier in 1846, made him Judge- Advocate-General, with 
 an understanding, it is said (which however was not realised), that he 
 was to act in some way as colonial minister, though not included in 
 the department. In November 1846 he was appointed a queen's 
 counsel, and in July 1847 was sworn of the privy council. Upon the 
 re-modelling of the Poor-Law Commission, with a president as h< ad of 
 the board, he was appointed to that office in Nov. 1847. Mr. Buller 
 died in London, Nov. 28, 1848. Mr. Buller was a ready extemporaneous 
 speaker, but was accustomed, on important occasions, to write out his 
 speeches in their whole extent. He also wrote largely for the periodi- 
 cal press, especially the ' Morning Chronicle ' and ' The Globe,' and 
 for the ' Edinburgh Review ' and ' Westminster Review.' " He also 
 wrote for the ' Colonial Gazette ' a series of papers on ' Responsible 
 Government for Colonies,' afterwards published as a small volume. 
 BULLEYN, ANNE. [Boleyn, Anne.] 
 
 BULLIARD, PIERRE, a French botanist, was born at Aubepierre- 
 en-Barrois, about the year 1742, and studied at the college of Langres, 
 where he early displayed a taste for natural history. Having ob- 
 tained a situation in the abbey of Clairvaux, he found time to 
 prosecute his favourite studies; and though he afterwards removed 
 to Paris, with a view to apply to medicine as a profession, his zeal 
 for natural history induced him to devote himself entirely to this 
 subject. Being previously an able draughtsman, he now learnt to 
 eDgrave, and in 1774 published the 'Flora Parisiensis,' 6 vols. 8vo., 
 the figures being drawn, engraved, and coloured by himself. In 
 1778 he published ' Aviceptologie Francaise, ou Traite" ge'ue'ral de 
 toute3 les ruses dont on peut se servir pour prendre les Oiseaux,' 
 Paris, 1 vol. 12mo., reprinted in 1796. In 1779 he commenced his 
 largest work, entitled ' Herbier de la France,' the first division of 
 which, comprising ' L'Histoire des Plantes v£ne"neuses et suspectes 
 de la France,' while in the course of publication in the form of 
 numbers, was seized by the police, under the pretext that it was 
 a dangerous work; aud it was not until afttr the lapse of seven 
 months that the author was able to recover a portion of his property. 
 This volume is therefore extremely rare, and its vey existence is 
 to many unknown, owing to the second division, or ' L'Histoire des 
 Champignons,' bearing on the title page the words 'Tome premier,' 
 though it did not appear till 1790. The remaining six volumes 
 contain only plates, principally of fungi, of which one livraison 
 appeared annually, each containing 48 coloured plates. 
 
 This work was discontinued, owing to the death of the author in 
 1793. The letter-press in the first two volumes is not now of much 
 value ; but the plates of flowering plants are in general good, and 
 have, in many instances, received the commendation of De Candolle; 
 those of the fungi are frequently cited not only by the botanists of 
 France, but by all writers on European fungi. A second part of the 
 work appeared at Paris in 1832, entitled ' Figures des Champignons, 
 servant de Supplement aux Planches de Bulliard, peintes d'apres 
 Nature, et lithogi aphiees par J. B. Letellier,' in small folio, six 
 cahiers, containing the plates from 603 to 638. Bulliard published 
 also, in 1783, 'Dictionnaire Elementaire de Botanique,' Paris, in 
 folio, with two plates ; and it has been three or four times reprinted 
 with additions. Bulliard was the inventor of the art of printing 
 plates of natural history in colours, and he employed it in all his 
 works. 
 
 * BULWER, SIR E. LYTTON. [Lytton, Sir E. Bulwer.] 
 *BULWER, SIR HENRY LYTTON EARLE, was born in 1804. 
 He is the elder brother of Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton. In 1827 he 
 was attached to the mission at Berlin, in 1829 to the embassy at Vienna. 
 In 1830 he was at the Hague, and in the same year was sent to Brus- 
 sels on a special mission of observation on the revolution which had 
 just broken out in Belgium. He was elected M.P. for Wilton in 1830, 
 and for Coventry in 1831 ; was attached to the embassy at Paris in 
 1832, and was M.P. for Marylebone from 1834 to 1837. In 1835 he 
 was appointed secretary of legation at Brussels, and in 1837 secretary 
 of embassy at Constantinople. In 1839 he was secretary of embassy 
 
 at Paris. In 1843 he was sent to Madrid as envoy extraordinary and 
 minister plenipotentiary. His opposition to the arbitrary acts of the 
 Spanish government led to his dismissal from Spain in 1848 ; but the 
 British government having approved of his conduct, refused to appoint 
 a suocessor, and the court of Spain was for two years without a British 
 ministerial resident. In 1848 he married the youngest daughter of 
 the first Lord Cowley, and in 1849 proceeded to Washington as minis- 
 ter plenipotentiary to the United States. In 1851 he was created a 
 Knight Grand Cross of the order of the Bath, and in 1852 was 
 appointed envoy extraordinary to Tuscany. He has published ' An 
 Autumn in Greece," ' France Social and Literary,' and ' The Monarchy 
 of the Middle Classes.' He is now ambassador at Constantinople. 
 
 BULWER, JOHN, an English physician of the 17th century, who 
 devoted himself to the discovery of methods for communicating know- 
 ledge to the deaf and dumb. Dr. Wallis is generally regarded as the 
 originator in England of an art by which the benefits of instruction 
 are bestowed on the deaf; and in the ' Memorials' of his own life he 
 appears in unrivalled possession of this honour. But Bulwer, a con- 
 temporary of Wallis, has claims which only need to be known to 
 entitle him to the credit which has so generally been given to another. 
 That Wallis was disingenuous on this subject in more than one instance, 
 is evident from a notice of Dalgarno's works, which appeared in the 
 ' Edinburgh Review,' No. exxiv. Whether Bulwer and Wallis had 
 received intelligence of what had been accomplished by Ponce and 
 Bonet ia Spain, cannot now be determined. It is probable that Bulwer 
 had obtained no such information, for his mode of treating the subject 
 is original, and rather that of an inventor than a copyist. The earlier 
 practice of Wallis is in many respects similar to the methods pursued 
 by Bonet, as detailed in his work published in 1620. [Bonet.] It is 
 probable that Bulwer did not use a manual alphabet, for he mentions 
 with a degree of admiration the employment of this medium of com- 
 munication in the case of a gentleman who became deaf through 
 disease. Sir Kenelm Digby, who was deeply impressed with Bonet's 
 success in Spain, would probably send the first intelligence of his 
 labours to England. Sir K. Digby had much correspondence with 
 Dr. Wallis on philosophical subjects previous to 1658, in which year 
 Wallis published the results of that correspondence. Wallis did not 
 make public the inventions which he claimed for instructing the deaf 
 till 1670, though he introduced his first pupil, Mr. Whalley, before the 
 Royal Society in 1662, after a year's instruction. 
 
 In estimating Bulwer's performances it must not be forgotten that 
 no English writer, as far as can be now ascertained, had previously 
 employed himself on the subject which Bulwer attempted to eluci- 
 date. In 1644 Bulwer published ' Chironomia, or the Art of Manual 
 Rhetoric,' and ' Chirologia, or the Natural Language of the Hand.' 
 These are the works which obtained for him the surname of ' the 
 Chirosopher.' They formed part of that system of artificial lan- 
 guage which he designed to employ in developing his philosophical 
 views, and by which he proposed to lead the deaf to a knowledge of 
 spoken language. Bulwer's chief work is entitled ' Philocophus, or 
 the Deafe and Dumbe Man's Friend ; exhibiting the philosophical 
 verity of that subtile art which may inable one with an observant eie 
 to heare what any man speaks by the moving of his lips. Upon the . 
 same ground, with the advantage of an historical exemplification, 
 apparently proving that a man borne deafe and dumbe may be taught 
 to heare sounds of words with his eie, and thence learn to speak with 
 his tongue. By J. B., sirnamed the Chirosopher. London, 1648.' 
 
 Bulwer's principles of instruction may be gathered from the above 
 works : they appear to have been imitative signs, or the language of 
 action ; the labial alphabet, or reading the movement of the lips ; and 
 articulation. There was an originality in his conceptions which no 
 prior or contemporary author on the subject, in this or any other 
 country, could claim. He noticed the power which the deaf possess 
 of hearing sounds through the teeth, an experiment which may be 
 made in various ways, especially by means of a musical box or a 
 repeating watch. He also produced several other works, among which 
 were the following: — 'Tractatus de removendis loquelaeimpedimentis;' 
 ' Tractatus de removendis auditoris impedimentis ; ' but it is probable 
 that these treatises were not published : their titles occur at the end 
 of one of his curious works, which appeared in 4to in 1653, called 
 ' Anthropo-metamorphosis, Man-transformed, or the Changeling,' in 
 which he shows the great variety of shapes and dresses which men 
 have assumed in the different ages and nations of the world. He 
 also published ' Pathomyotomia, or a Dissection of the significative 
 Muscles of the Affections of the Mind,' 1649, 12mo. 
 
 Bulwer must be regarded as a man of persevering research, and 
 though not an instructor of the deaf and dumb, he was undoubtedly 
 the first in England to point out a safe and certain path which teachers 
 might pursue. 
 
 BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS, CHEVALIER DE, a 
 philologist, theologian, and diplomatist, was born at Corbach, in the 
 small German principality of Waldeck, on the 25th of August 1791; 
 and was educated at the University of Gottingen, where he studied 
 philology under the famous Heyne. He distinguished himself greatly 
 as a classical scholar, and in 1813 published at Gottingen a prose 
 essay, ' De jure Atheniensium hereditario.' After being employed some 
 time as a classical teacher, his desire to perfect himself in oriental 
 languages induced him to go to Paris, where he studied under the noted 
 
1009 
 
 BUNYAN, JOHN. 
 
 BUNYAN, JOHN. 
 
 1010 
 
 orientalist Sylvestre de Sacy. He had it next in contemplation to go 
 to India, in company with an Englishman, in order to acquire a farther 
 knowledge of Sanscrit; but having in the meantime determined to 
 visit Italy, he met at Rome his friend Brandis, then secretary to the 
 Prussian embassy at Rome under Niebuhr. Introduced to Niebuhr, 
 the young scholar found in him a friend capable of appreciating his 
 merits. Abandoning his intention of going to the East, he settled in 
 Rome as Niebuhr's private secretary — a situation afterwards exchanged 
 for the higher one of secretary to the embassy. Enjoying the benefit 
 of Niebuhr's society and advice, he resumed his classical studies with 
 enthusiasm, turning to advantage the facilities afforded him by his 
 residence in Rome. The results of his inquiries into the antiquities 
 and topography of Rome appeared in his ' Beschreibung der Stadt 
 Rom' ('Description of the City of Rome'). He also interested himself 
 much at this time in the hieroglyphical researches of Champollion ; 
 and he was instrumental in inciting the savans of Berlin to betake 
 themselves to this branch of archaeology, and more particularly in 
 determining towards it the rising talent of the great living /Egyptologist, 
 Dr. Lepsius. At Rome, Bunsen was one of the chief supports of the 
 Archaeological Institute, and indeed acted as its general secretary. The 
 visit of the king of Prussia to Rome in 1822 made that sovereign 
 acquainted with the abilities of the secretary of his legation ; the 
 present king also — then crown-prince — made his acquaintance about the 
 same time. The personal esteem which both contracted for Bunsen 
 accounts for his rapid advancement in the Prussian diplomatic service. 
 On Niebuhr's retirement from the embassy at Rome, Bunsen succeeded 
 him, first as charge"- d'affaires and afterwards as full minister. In this 
 capacity he interested himself much in the Protestant church and 
 Protestant worship at Rome, as well as in his classical and historical 
 studies. A difference between the papal court and that of Prussia on 
 a question of ecclesiastical right in the Prussian states, led to his recall 
 in March 1838. After a visit to Munich and to England, he was again 
 in November 1839 in diplomatic service as ambassador to the Swiss 
 Confederacy; and in 1841 he was appointed Prussian ambassador to 
 England. Itetaining this post till 1854, when his peculiar opinions on 
 the proper policy of Prussia in the approaching European crisis led to 
 nis resignation or recall, and having during these thirteen years resided 
 chiefly in London, Chevalier Bunsen became almost a naturalised 
 Englishman ; and indeed two of his sons have settled in England, one 
 as a clergyman in the English church. While discharging with peculiar 
 discretion his duties as Prussian ambassador, he was at the same time 
 widely known in English society as a philologist and a man of letters — 
 a representative, in intellectual English circles, of the erudition and 
 scholarly zeal of Germany. The following list of his works, published 
 since 1841, will indicate the grounds of his well-earned celebrity: — 
 ' The Liturgy of the Passion-Week, with a Preface,' &c, published at 
 Hamburg in 1841, not translated ; ' The Basilicse of Christian Rome in 
 tbeir Connexion with the Idea and History of Church-Architecture,' 
 &c, published at Munich in 1843, and not translated; ' The Epistles 
 of Ignatius of Antioch, with Annotations,' and ' Ignatius of Antioch 
 and his Age, Seven Letters to Dr. A. Neander,' both published by the 
 Academy of Hamburg in 1844, and the last we believe translated; 
 'Die Verfassung der Kirche der Zukunft,' published at Hamburg in 
 1845, and translated into English in 1847 under the title of ' The 
 Constitution of the Church of the Future ;' ' yEgyptens Stelle in der 
 Weltgeschichte,' Hamburg, 1845, and the English translation of which, 
 ' Egypt's Place in Universal History,' is perhaps the best knowu of the 
 author's works ; ' Memoir on the Constitutional Rights of the Duchies 
 of Schleswig and Hoktein,' presented to Lord Palmer3ton, April 1848, 
 and published that year (about which time other papers on German 
 politics were published by the author) ; finally, since 1848, contribu- 
 tions to ' The Life and Letters of B. G. Niebuhr,' published by an 
 English editor in 1852 from the German materials ; and an important 
 and elaborate work published first in 1851 in 4 vols, under the title of 
 'Hippolytus,' and again in a revised and extended form in 1854 as 
 'Christianity and Mankind : their Beginnings and Prospects,' in 7 vols., 
 — vols. 1 and 2 containing ' Hippolytus and his Age,' vols. 3 and 4 
 ' Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History applied to Language 
 and Religion,' and vols. 5, 6, and 7 ' Analecta Ante-Nicaena.' It is as au 
 Egyptologist and ecclesiastical historian that Chevalier Bunsen has 
 most widely affected his time. He now lives iu retirement on the 
 Rhine, pursuing his favourite studies, and often reading or writing 
 at a standing-desk sixteen hours a day. [See Supplement.] 
 
 BUNYAN, JOHN, was born at Elstow, near Bedford, in 1628. His 
 father, like his ancestors for some generations, was a tinker, and John 
 Bunyan was brought up to the family occupation. Yet, though, as he 
 long afterwards wrote, his "father's house was of that rank that is 
 meanest and moat despised of all the families in the land," he was not 
 left wholly uneducated, but was taught to read and write "according to 
 the rate of other poor men's children ; " though, as he confesses, he 
 •oon almost entirely lost what little he had learned. His parents 
 appear to have likewise taken some care in his religious training; but 
 he abandoned himself while yet a youth to evil habits, aud to " all 
 manner of youthful vanities," and became so addicted to profane 
 swearing, that a woman of loose and ungodly life told him that " he 
 was the ungodliest fellow for swearing that ever she heard in all her 
 life," and that he " made her tremble to hear him." This reproof, 
 from such a person, set him thinking about his course of life. It was 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL, L 
 
 indeed long before he became thoroughly reformed, but from that 
 time he refrained from the practico of open vice. 
 
 John Bunyan has related, in his 'Grace Abounding,' his 'Law and 
 Works,' and his ' Jerusalem Sinner Saved,' more fully and minutely, 
 and with more vigour and force of expression, what, in the old 
 puritan phraseology, would be called his sinful state, his conversion, 
 and his religious experiences, than any other person whose religious 
 history has been read beyond the boundary of the connexion to which 
 he belonged. His strong descriptions therefore of his " corrupt con- 
 dition," and of the terrible mental strusgles through which he passed 
 before obtaining spiritual peace, have served to corroborate the opinion 
 somewhat loosely expressed by some of his older biographers respect- 
 ing his early depravity, and even by his most recent one, that devoted 
 student of Bunyan's writings and painstaking collector of all possible 
 information respecting him, Mr. George Offor. There is however no 
 reason to believe that Bunyan was ever a really depraved man in the 
 ordinary acceptation of the term. He appears to have been honest, 
 sober, and, at his worst time, scrupulously free from licentiousness. 
 He married early in life a young woman of a pious family, and with 
 her he was accustomed to read religious books. Before he was nine- 
 teen, several providential escapes (as he deemed them) from a violent 
 death had impressed his mind with anxious thoughts about a future 
 state ; and, finally, conversations with some members of the church of 
 Mr. Gifford, a Baptist minister at Bedford, and with Gifford himself, 
 who had been in early life a major in the royalist army, and of habits 
 more than usually profligate even among the royalist soldiery, who 
 had by the devotion of his wife escaped from prison the night before 
 his intended execution for being concerned in a royalist plot, and 
 whose religious career had especially fitted him to deal with the 
 idiosyncracies of the marvellous tinker ; — these, and the reading of 
 Luther on the Galatians, completed (but not until he had passed 
 through more than two years and a half of spiritual conflict) the 
 change of heart, and Bunyan became as eminent for his fervent piety 
 as, by his own showing, he had formerly been for his profanity. 
 
 He was received into communion with Mr. Gifford's church by 
 baptism by immersion in 1653. After a year or two of probation he 
 was called upon to take a share in the ministry ; and his preaching, 
 though for the most part in private houses or neighbouring villages, 
 excited general attention, and great numbers of the townsmen flocked 
 to hear him, many being led by it to a change of life. His preaching 
 however gave great offence he says " to the doctors and priests of the 
 country" — it was in the days of anti-prelatic supremacy — and in 1657 
 an indictment was preferred against him at the assizes for preaching 
 at Elstow. He escaped without punishment this time however; but 
 he was again indicted shortly after the Restoration, and convicted as 
 a " common upholder of several unlawful meetings and conventicles, 
 to the great disturbance and distraction of the good subjects of this 
 kingdom." He might have had his liberty if he would have engaged 
 not to preach any more, and during his long imprisonment the offer 
 was several times repeated, but Bunyan was too sincere in his purpose, 
 and too deeply impressed with the reality of his call to the work, to 
 enter into any such engagement. He remained in consequence a 
 prisoner, as he expressed it, for conscience sake, in Bedford jail from 
 1660 to 1672. Prisons were then very different places, and prisoners 
 very differently treated to what they are now, but Bunyan seems on 
 the whole to have met with as much consideration as was compatible 
 with imprisonment at all. From the first he used to preach in the jail, 
 then crowded with persons in custody for attending at a conventiule. 
 For the maintenance of his family he was allowed to make tagged 
 thread laces ; he had the free use of his ' prison library ' — the Bible 
 and the Book of Martyrs — and of writing materials ; during the later 
 years of his imprisonment he was permitted to go into the town as 
 often as he pleased ; on one occasion he even made a journey to 
 London, though for permitting that the jailer received a severe censure. 
 During these years Bunyan appears to have preached and exhorted 
 pretty nearly as freely as though he had not been a prisoner. In the 
 last year of his imprisonment he was elected pastor of the Baptist 
 church in which Mr. Gifford had presided, and he was able to attend 
 regularly to his ministerial duties. At length, on the 13th of September 
 1672, he was set at liberty. 
 
 Preaching and making of tagged laces had not been his only employ- 
 ments in Bedford jail. Before he was taken there he had begun to 
 use his pen, chiefly in controversy with the Quakers ; and his pen 
 proved an ample solace to him in his cell. Several works, including 
 his ' Grace Abounding,' and what is next to the ' Pilgrim,' his best 
 known work, 4 The Holy War,' which were eagerly read then, and 
 long afterwards by his co-religionists, were the result of his enforced 
 retirement from the active pursuit of his calling. But the work 
 which has for ever rendered his imprisonment memorable is the 
 famous 'Pilgrim'3 Progress from this World to that which is to 
 Come,' of which the first part, though not published till six years after 
 his release, was unquestionably written in his ' den' in Bedford jail. 
 
 After his release, Bunyan set about putting his private affairs and 
 the affairs of his church in order. The chapel in which he preached 
 was greatly enlarged in order to accommodate the crowds who 
 gathered to listen to him. He commenced the organisations of branch 
 meetings, and what might be called preaching circuits ; and soon 
 acquired such extended authority and influence that he came to bo 
 
 3 i 
 
1011 
 
 BUONAFEDE, APPIANO. 
 
 BUONAROTTI, MICHEL ANGELO. 
 
 1012 
 
 I commonly known as Bishop Bunyan. Nor were his exertions confined 
 to the neighbourhood of Bedford. He used to make frequent visits to 
 London, where the announcement of a sermon by him was certain to 
 collect an immense congregation. Thus in the regular performance of 
 his ministerial functions, the last sixteen years of his life were passed, 
 his pen as well as his voice being diligently employed in the way of 
 his vocation. The close of his life is thus related by Southey. 
 " Reading was a place where he was well known. . . i In a visit to 
 that place he contracted the disease which brought him to the grave. 
 A friend of his who resided there had resolved to disinherit his son; 
 the young man requested Bunyan to interfere in his behalf; he did so 
 with good success, and it was his last labtfur of love ; for, returniug 
 to Loudon on horseback through heavy rain, a fever ensued, which 
 after ten days proved fatal. He died at the house of his friend 
 Mr. Stradwick, a grocer, at the sign of the Star on Snow Hill, and was 
 buried in that friend's vault in Buuhill Fields' burial-ground. " His 
 tomb-stone states his death to have occurred on the 12th of August, 
 1688, but the correct date appears to be August the 31st. BiAyan's 
 second wife and three children survived him : a blind daughter had 
 died some time previously. 
 
 The first collected edition of Bunyan's 'Works' was published in 
 folio in 1G92, under the superintendence of his successor in the ministry 
 at Bedford, Ebenezer Chandler, and another liaptist minister, John 
 Wilson : the la-st and most carefully collated edition of ' The Works 
 of John Bunyan, with an Introduction, Notes, aud Sketch of his Life 
 and Contemporaries' by George Offor, was published in 1853 in 3 vols, 
 imp. 8vo. Of the 'Pilgrim's Progress' the first edition of the first 
 part was printed in 1678, a tenth editiou was published in 1685. It 
 has since been reprinted innumerable times, and in every variety of 
 style, from the cheapest and coarsest to the most sumptuous; and 
 almost every kind of illustration has been lavished upon it. Of recent 
 editions perhaps that by Southey, with his gracefully written Life 
 prefixed, one issued by Mr. Bogue, with an excellent text, and a vast 
 number of admirable illustrations by Harvey, and that edited by Mr. 
 G. Offor for the Hauserd Knollys Society, which is an exact reprint 
 (with all the typographical peculiarities) of the first edition, may be 
 singled out for special commendation. The 'Pilgrim's Progress' ha3 
 been translated into every language and almost every dialect of civilised 
 Europe, and, being regarded as a faithful exponent of the views of a 
 large part of protestaut Christianity, it has been a favourite exercise 
 of missionaries to translate it into the languages of the people to 
 whom they have been sent: hence the 'Pilgrim' of the Elstow tinker 
 has been rendered into more languages than any other uninspired 
 writing. 
 
 And it deserves all the labour that has been expended upon it. 
 Beyond dispute it is the first in rank of its class. Written by a plain 
 uneducated man for plain uneducated people, it has ever found its way 
 straight home to their hearts and imaginations. But it has not less 
 delighted and instructed the most highly educated and intellectual. 
 Macaulay, in his 'Essay on Southey's Bunyan' (written in 1831), 
 affirmed that he " was not afraid to say, that, though there were many 
 clever men in England during the latter half of the 17th century, 
 there were only two great creative miuds : one of these minds produced 
 the 'Paradise Lost,' the other the 'Pilgrim's Progress.'" This is 
 high, it might almost seem extravagant praise ; yet twenty years later 
 the same great authority reiterates in his ' History ' the eulogy which 
 he might be thought to have carelessly thrown out in the pages of a 
 review : — " Bunyan is as decidedly the first of allegorists as Demos- 
 thenes is the first of orators, or Shakspere the first of dramatists. Other 
 allegorists have shown great iugenuity, but no other allegorist has ever 
 been able so to touch the heart, and to make abstractions objects of 
 terror, of pity, and of love." 
 
 BUONAFE'DE, APPIA'NO, bom in 1716 at Comacchio in the 
 papal state, entered the order of the Celestines, in which he rose 
 gradually to the highest dignities. He was elected general of the 
 whole order in 1777, in which capacity he went to pay his homage to 
 the king of Naples as feudatory of the crown for several fiefs which 
 the Celestines possessed in that kingdom. He spent the latter years 
 of his life at Rome, where he died in December 1793. He wrote 
 several works, especially philosophical speculations, and the history of 
 philosophy ancient and modern. 1. 'Delia Istoria e della Indole 
 d'ogni Filosofia,' Lucca, 7 vols. Svo, 1781. This work treats of the 
 philosophy of the ancients and that of the middle ages till the 15th 
 century. 2. ' Della Ristaurazione d'ogni Filosofia nei secoli xvi., xvii., 
 e xviii.,' 3 vols. 8vo, Venezia, 1786-89. This work was translated 
 into German by Heydenreich, with many additions, under the title 
 'Agatopisto Cromaziano's Kritische Gesohichte der Revolutionen der 
 Philosophie in den drey letzten Jahrhunderten,' Leipzig, 1791. Buon- 
 afede had assumed in the Society of the Arcadi the academical name 
 of Agatopisto Cromaziano, under which most of his works were 
 published. The style of his history of philosophy is fluent and 
 pleasing, and well adapted to popular reading ; but the matter of the 
 work displays more historical learning than searching criticism. 
 Buonafede's judgments are mostly impartial and independent, as much 
 perhaps as could be expected from one of his profession, and from the 
 times and place in which he wrote. It is a curious though by no 
 means singular instance of the contradictory judgments passed upon 
 writers on polemical subjects, that while Buonafede was looked upon 
 
 in high quarters at Rome as being too favourable to what was called 
 the philosophy of the 18th century, others, and his biographer among 
 the rest, have taxed him with monkish intolerance, and with being 
 too subservient to the court of Rome. Buonafede wrote also — 3. 
 ' Delle conquiste celebri, esaminate col natural diritto delle genti,' 
 8vo, Lucca, 1763. 4. ' Storia critica e filosofica del suicidio ragionate,' 
 8vo, Lucca, 1780 : an investigation of the circumstances which have 
 attended many cases of suicide recorded in history. 5. ' Ritratti 
 poetici, storici, e critici di varj moderni ecomiui di lettere,' in a series 
 of sonnets, with interesting biographical notes. The author has traced 
 his own moral portrait among the rest. 6. 'Storia critica del moderno 
 diritto di natura e delle geuti,' Perugia, 1789. 7. ' Del Pirronismo 
 teologico e politico.' 8. Dell' apparizione di alcune ombre.' 9. ' I 
 filosofi fanciulli,' a satirical comedy after the manner of Aristophanes. 
 10. ' Orazione per le belle arti.' 11. ' Delia liberta poetica, epistola.' 
 These two little works are remarkable for good taste and bold criticism. 
 12. ' Discorsi della malignita stoiica,' or strictures on Sarpi's history 
 of the Council of Trent. 13. ' Delia impudenza letteraria,' being a 
 sharp review of the biographical memoirs of the same Sarpi written by 
 Griselini. Buonafede's criticisms were in general bitter and virulent, as 
 an example of which we cite the ' Bue Pedagogo,' which he wrote against 
 Baretti. (Ugoni, Ddla LeUeratara Italiana ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori 
 d' Italia; Eloyio Storico di Agatopisto Cromaziano, Venezia, 1795.) 
 BUONAPATE [Bonafaute.] 
 
 BUONAROTTI, MICHKL ANGELO, the father of epic painting, 
 and scarcely less distinguished as a sculptor and architect, was 
 descended from the noole family of Canossa in Tuscany. He was 
 born in the year 1475, a period peculiarly favourable to genius, when 
 the states of Italy emulated each other in the cultivation of the liberal 
 arts. Michel Augelo, the bent of whose powers manifested itself in 
 his earliest childhood, learned the elements of design in the school of 
 Domeuico Ghirlandaio, a celebrated professor in Florence. While he 
 pursued his studies with this master, a seminary was established for 
 the promotion of sculpture by Lorenzo de' Medici, and Michel Angelo 
 was invited among other youths to study from the collection of 
 antique statues arranged in the Medicean gardens. It is said that the 
 sight of these splendid works determined him to devote himself 
 entirely to sculpture ; he began, not merely by copying, but by inves- 
 tigating the principles on which the Greek artists had wrought, and 
 having found a head of a laughing faun, considerably mutilated, he 
 imitated that part of it which was perfect, and restored what was 
 wanting. Lorenzo, who frequently visited the garden, was struck by 
 this demonstration of vigorous capacity ; and being pleased no less 
 with the simple manners of the youth, and his evident devotion to his 
 art, he invited him to reside entirely in his house, where he remained 
 three years, treated with paternal kindness, and having the advantage 
 of associating with the first literary characters of the age. At the 
 suggestion of Politian, who also resided with Lorenzo, he executed 
 for this illustrious patron a basso-rilievo in marble, the subject of 
 which was the 'Battle of the Centaurs;' he resumed the pencil also 
 during this period, and made many studies from the works of 
 Masaccio. Lorenzo died in 1492. His brother Pietro continued to 
 patronise Michel Augelo, but in a different spirit. Treating art as a 
 toy, he employed him, during a s -vere winter, to make a statue of 
 snow : and manifesting in all things the same frivolous spirit, he pre- 
 cipitated, by his bad government, the downfall of his family, which 
 was driven from Florence iu 1494. On this event, Michel Angelo 
 retired to Bologua, where he contributed two statues to the church of 
 the Dominicans, and after a year's residence in that city returned to 
 Florence. During this time he made the celebrated statue of a 
 ' Sleeping Cupid,' which was sent to Rome, where it was shown as a 
 piece of sculpture which had been dug up from a vineyard, and was 
 pronounced by various connoisseurs to be a genuine antique, and 
 superior to anything which contemporary art was capable of pro- 
 ducing. This statue having been purchased at a high price by the 
 Cardinal S. Giorgio, the trick became known, and Michel Angeio's 
 reputation was so much augmented by it that the cardinal, though 
 vexed at the deception, invited him to Rome. He devoted himself 
 during this his first residence in the imperial city to intense study, 
 and executed several works, particularly a ' Virgin Weeping over the 
 Dead Body of Christ,' for St. Peter's church, which excited astonish- 
 ment, not only by its excellence, but by the apparent facility with 
 which the greatest difficulties of art were surmounted. 
 
 Several great works in art having at this time been projected by the 
 government of Florence, Michel Angelo, at the earnest advice of his 
 friends, returned to that city, and the first undertaking on which he 
 exercised his talents was a gigantic marble statue of David, which had 
 been commenced some years previously by one Simon da Fiesole, who, 
 finding that he had undertaken a task wholly beyond his capacity, had 
 abandoned it in despair. The misshapen mass which had been thus 
 left Michel Angelo accommodated to a new design, and produced from 
 it the sublime statue which ornaments the great square at Florence. 
 The gonfaloniere, Pietro Soderini, was now anxious to enrich the city 
 with some grand production of Michel Angeio's pencil. Leonardo da 
 Vinci had been commissioned to paint an historical picture for one 
 end of the hall of the ducal palace, and Michel Angelo was engaged 
 to execute another at the opposite extremity. He selected a subject 
 from the wars of Pisa, in which a number of men, while bathing in 
 
1013 
 
 BUONAROTTI, MICHEL ANGELO. 
 
 BUONAROTTI, MICHEL ANGELO. 
 
 1014 
 
 the Arno, are surprised by a sudden attack on the city, and start up to 
 repulse the enemy. Trumpets are sounding; some of the warriors 
 endeavour with gestures of furious impatience to draw their garments 
 over their wet limbs ; others rush half clad into the combat ; horse 
 and foot are intermingled, and the whole scene breathes fierceness and 
 slaughter. This cartoon, with the exception of a few dismembered 
 fragments, has perished, but as long as it existed it was studied by 
 artists from all countries, and Benvenuto Cellini, a scholar and admirer 
 of Michel Angelo, affirms that he never equalled it in any of his sub- 
 sequent productions. Michel Angelo had at this time attained only 
 his twenty-ninth year, and had not only established his reputation as 
 the greatest artist of his day, but had created by the novelty and 
 grandeur of his style a new era in the arts. Julius II., a pontiff who, 
 in the energetic cast of his character, bore a strong resemblance to 
 Michel Angelo himself, having now succeeded to the papal chair, called 
 him immediately to Borne, and commissioned him to make his monu- 
 ment, a work conceived on a scale which Michel Angelo felt to be 
 commensurate to his powers. He made a design which, had it been 
 finished according to his original intention, would have surpassed in 
 grandeur of design and richness of ornament every ancient and impe- 
 rial sepulchre. It was to have had four fronts of marble, embellished 
 with forty statues, besides several mezzo-rilievi in bronze. To this 
 desitrn Rome and the world are indebted for the magnificent church of 
 St. Peter's ; for Michel Angelo having suggested to the pope that the 
 interior of the old edifice would not allow sufficient space for the 
 monument to be properly seen, the pontiff determined to rebuild the 
 church on a larger scale. While the monument was in progress the 
 pope delighted to come and inspect it ; but the work was interrupted 
 by an accident which strongly marks the character of the artist. 
 Having occasion to make some communication to his holiness, and not 
 having found admission on two applications, in the latter of which he 
 felt himself somewhat superciliously treated by one of the officers in 
 attendance, he gave directions to his servants to sell his goods to the 
 Jews, and immediately set off for Florence. He had scarcely reached 
 Poggiobonzi before five couriers had arrived from Julius commanding 
 his immediate return; but Michel Angelo was inflexible, and continued 
 his journey. On arriving at Florence he set about finishing the cartoon 
 of Pisa, but three briefs were dispatched to Soderini, the gonfaloniere, 
 requiring that he should be sent back. Michel Angelo excused him- 
 self, alleging that be had accepted a commission from the grand sultan 
 to go to Constantinople for the purpose of building a bridge. The 
 pope in the meantime had gone on political affairs to Bologna, and 
 Soderini, fearing he should himself incur the papal displeasure through 
 Michel Angelo's contumacy, persuaded him to go to that city. Imme- 
 diately on his arrival, and before he had time to adjust himself, he was 
 conducted by the pope's officers before his holiness, who, looking at 
 him with an angry glance, said, "What, then! instead of coming to 
 seek us, thou wast determined that we should come to seek thee ? " 
 Michel Angelo excused himself, saying, " that he had quitted Rome, 
 being unable, after his faithful services to his holiness, to endure the 
 indignity of being denied admission to him." A bishop in attendance, 
 intending to say something in extenuation, observed to the pope, that 
 such persons, however expert in their professions, were usually igno- 
 rant of everything else. "Who told thee to interfere?" exclaimed 
 Julius, bestowing at the same time a hearty blow with his staff on the 
 shoulders of the ecclesiastic; and commanding Michel Angelo to kneel, 
 he gave him his benediction, and received him into full favour, giving 
 him directions at the same time to make his statue in bronze. Michel 
 Angelo soon completed the clay model ; the statue was the personifi- 
 cation of majesty, but the face had so terrible an expression that the 
 pope demanded, "Am I uttering a blessing or a curse?" Michel 
 Angelo replied, "that he had intended to represent him admonishing 
 the people of Bologna," and inquired if his holiness would have a book 
 placed in one of his hands. "Give me a sword," answered the warlike 
 pootiff, " I know nothing of books." 
 
 On his return to Rome, Julius was induced, it is said, by the advice 
 of his architect, Bramante, to suspend the execution of the monument, 
 and he gave orders to Michel Angelo to paint the vault of the Sistine 
 ChapeL Michel Angelo, who was absorbed in the execution of the 
 monument, most earnestly endeavoured to decline the task of painting 
 the chapel, and even alleged that he thought Raffaelle better qualified 
 to perform it; but Pope Julius allowed no impediment to stand in 
 the way of his will, and Michel Angelo, finding himself without an 
 alternative, and impressed with a sense of the vastness and grandeur 
 of the task, commenced his cartoons. He invited from Florence 
 several artists distinguished as painters in fresco, a mode of practice 
 in which he was then inexperienced, and the roof of the chapel was 
 commenced by these assistants, under his direction ; their execution 
 however fell short of his expectations, and entering the chapel 
 one morning, he dismissed them all, threw their work from the 
 walls, and determined on executing the whole himself. Having 
 advanced to the third compartment, he had the mortification to 
 find hig labour frustrated by the bad quality of his materials, 
 in which fermentation had taken place, and in utter disappoint- 
 ment he renounced the undertaking. The pope, being made ! 
 acquainted with this misfortune, sent to him his architect, San Gallo, ! 
 who investigated the cause of the failure, aud taught him how to j 
 correct it. Thus^reassured ha proceeded, and the pontiff hearing at 
 
 length that the ceiling was half completed, could control his impa- 
 tience no longer, and ordered the chapel to bo opened for his inspection. 
 Many other persons found admission, and among the rest Raffaelle 
 d'Urbino, who then first became acquainted with Michel Angelo's 
 powers as a painter. Struck with admiration, Raffaelle immediately 
 changed his own style, and with the candour natural to a great mind, 
 thanked God that he had been born in the same age with so great an 
 artist. The work was now carried forward without interruption, and 
 the whole was completed within one year and eight months from the 
 time of its commencement; an achievement which, whether we con- 
 sider the magnitude and sublimity of the performance, or the almost 
 incredibly short time in which it was executed, is unparalleled in the 
 history of art. The chapel was opened on All Saints' day, with a 
 solemn mass, at which the pope assisted in person. The roof is 
 divided into twelve compartments, in which is painted the history of 
 the antediluvian world. In three of the first compartments Michel 
 Angelo has personified the Supreme Being, dividing the light from 
 the darkness — creating the sun and moon — and giving life to Adam. 
 The attempt to pourtray the Deity by visible representation is repug- 
 nant to our present ideas, but it was at that time sanctioned by the 
 church, and is, as far as may be, atoned for by those images of divine 
 power and majesty which Michel Angelo has here embodied. The 
 eleventh subject of the series on the roof is the Deluge, and the 
 twelfth is from the story of Noah, showing the remnant of the human 
 race preserved after that awful event. On the sides of the chapel is a 
 series of designs representing the persons who compose the genealogy 
 of Christ, and between these compartments are the colossal figures of 
 the Prophets and Sibyls, seated in solemn meditation. The effect of 
 the whole work is adapted with admirable accuracy to the vast height 
 at which it is seen, and it is impossible to contemplate it without 
 reverence and astonishment. The reign of Julius terminated in 1513, 
 when Leo X. succeeded. 
 
 It might have been expected that Leo X., whose name is associated 
 with the ideas of taste and munificence, and who affected fully to 
 appreciate the powers of Michel Angelo, would have engaged him on 
 some work worthy of his talents. There is however in his whole 
 conduct towards this great artist a display of injustice not easily 
 explained. He obtruded on him the task of building the facade of 
 the church of San Lorenzo at Florence — a commission against which 
 the artist most strenuously protested; but the pope overruled all 
 objections, and compelled him to go to Carrara, in order to excavate 
 marble for the purpose. He was aftewards directed to procure it 
 from the quarries of Pietra Santa : the difficulties of conveying it hence 
 were found almost insurmountable, and we cannot read without 
 surprise and indignation, that during the whole pontificate of Leo, a 
 period of eight years, this extraordinary man was employed in 
 hewing rocks aud excavating a road. The short reign of Adrian VI. 
 which followed, although generally unfavourable to the arts, was less 
 injurious to Michel Angelo, as it allowed him leisure to proceed with 
 the monument of Julius II ; but on the accession of Clement VII. 
 that work was again interrupted, and he was called on by the new 
 pontiff to build a library and sacristy for the church of San Lorenzo. 
 The civil wars of Florence ensued soon after, and we find Michel 
 Angelo acting in the capacity of engineer. On the expulsion of the 
 Medici he was appointed superintendent of the fortifications by the 
 local government, and he evinced extraordinary skill in fortifying 
 the important post of San Miniato. Having continued his services 
 until he felt that they could no longer be effectual, and considering the 
 fall of the city inevitable, he withdrew to Venice, and during his 
 residence there, it is affirmed by some authorities, that he gave the 
 design for the bridge of the Rialto. He returned to Florence at the 
 earnest entreaty of his fellow-citizens, who seemed to attach more 
 importance than himself to his services, but, as he had foreseen, the 
 city was soon after compelled to surrender, and he judged it prudent 
 to conceal himself, as did several of the citizens who had distinguished 
 themselves in its defence. Michel Angelo has been reproached with 
 ingratitude to the Medici for the part he took in those transactions, 
 but he is, perhaps, to be praised rather than condemned for having 
 sacrificed his private feelings to the duty he owed his country. As 
 soon as the tumult consequent upon the sack of the city had sub- 
 sided, Clement VI. ordered strict search to be made for Michel 
 Angelo, received him kindly, consulted him on various works, and 
 the great picture of the ' Last Judgment ' was then projected. The 
 death of Clement, in 1533, suspended these intentions, and Michel 
 Angelo now hoped that he should be able to complete the monument 
 of Julius II. This work had been the favourite employment of his 
 life, and he had devoted to it all his powers, but it had proved to 
 him, almost from its commencement, a source of inquietude. Each 
 pontiff, since the death of Julius, had on his accession demanded the 
 services of Michel Angelo, and compelled him, in spite of his earnest 
 remonstrances, to discontinue his labours on the monument ; in the 
 meantime, the heirs of Julius being impatient for its completion, 
 harassed him with threats and complaints, large sums of money 
 having been paid to him during the progress of the work. Clement 
 ; VI. insisted that Michel Angelo had a right to consider himself rather 
 ! the creditor than the debtor; but Paul III., when Michel Angelo urged 
 ■ his obligation to the heirs of Julius, as a reason for declining the 
 | commissions he offered him, threatened to tear the contract with his 
 
1015 
 
 BUONAROTTI, MICHEL ANGELO. 
 
 BUONARRUOTI, MICHEL-AGNOLO. 
 
 101« 
 
 own hands. He came however attended by ten cardinals, to see the 
 work which had occasioned bo much litigation, and pronounced it to 
 be miraculous. Being shown, at the same time, the cartoons which 
 had been prepared for the ' Last Judgment,' he determined that nothing 
 should impede the immediate execution of that work, and undertook 
 to arbitrate himself between Michel Angelo and the heirs of Julius. 
 The monument was at leugth finished, by mutual agreement, on a 
 smaller scale thau had been originally projected, ami placed in the 
 church of San Fietro in Vinculo. Michel Angelo now found himself 
 at liberty to proceed with the picture of the ' Last Judgment ; ' he 
 devoted to that immenso work the labour of eight years, and it was 
 finished in 1541. We are accustomed to connect with this perform- 
 ance an impression of everything which is great in art ; nevertheless, 
 whoever expects to find in it that which is usually attached to our 
 ideas of painting, an effect agreeable to the eye, will be utterly dis- 
 appointed. Art, indeed, was not at that time considered a medium 
 of amusement merely, but a vehicle for religious impressions; and as 
 the leading feeling associated with the awful idea of the last judgment 
 is that of terror, so Michel Angelo has made terror the predominating 
 sentiment of his picture. In the Messiah wo see rather the inexorable 
 judge than the merciful Redeemer ; he turns to the left, and fulminates 
 his sentence on the wicked, who fall thunderstruck. These groups, 
 precipitated through the air, are seized by da;mons who spring from 
 the abyss beneath. This is the finest part of the picture, for there is 
 little among the groups of the righteous, who on the opposite side are 
 ascending into heaven, which expresses the happiness of the blessed. 
 That part of the picture in which the dead are seen rising from their 
 graves is admirable. The excellence of the work consists in the 
 unparalleled powers of invention displayed in the various groups, and 
 in the profound knowledge of the human figure by which the artist 
 was enabled so effectually to embody his conceptions ; but considering 
 the composition as a whole, it must be acknowledged, that without 
 impairing the solemn impression proper to the subject, a more pictu- 
 resque arrangement might have been admitted, and that even the 
 sentiment would have been augmented by more powerful combinations 
 of light and shadow. It was pronounced by contemporary criticism 
 that Michel Angelo had in that work excelled all his former pro- 
 ductions ; but the deliberate judgment of time, we believe, inclines to 
 decide that his great name as a painter is better sustained by the 
 compartments in the roof, and on the aides of the Sistino chapel, than 
 by the picture of the ' Last Judgment,' 
 
 The career of Michel Angelo is an example of the splendid results 
 produced by great powers in conjunction with great opportunities. 
 We next find him engaged in constructing the magnificent fabric of 
 St. Peter's church. He began by substituting for the Saracenic design 
 of San Gallo, a more Christian and superb model in the shape of a 
 Greek cross. " This fabric," to use the language of Fuseli, "scattered 
 into infinity of jarring parts by his predecessors, he concentrated ; 
 suspended the cupola, and to the most complex, gave the air of the 
 most simple of edifices." On this work he was occupied during the 
 whole remainder of his life. He found opportunities however to direct 
 fortifications, to adorn the Capitol with magnificent buildings, to finish 
 the Farnese palace, and give designs for other works of architecture. 
 But circumstances connected with the building of the church embit- 
 tered his latter years with serious causes of trouble. As he had occasion, 
 among the number of persons employed in the undertaking, to promote 
 some and dismiss others, he was beset with cabals, and harassed by 
 opposition; and machinations were even employed to deprive him of 
 his office : but he was uniformly supported by the pontiffs, especially 
 by Julius III., who regarded him with profound respect and venera- 
 tion. Old age came upon him not unaccompanied with the physical 
 infirmities which belong to it, but he retained the vigour and alacrity 
 of his mental faculties to the close of his long life. He died on the 
 17 th of February 1564, having nearly attained his eighty-ninth year. 
 His last words were, "In your passage through this life, remember the 
 
 sufferings of Jesus Christ." He was buried with due honours in the 
 church of the Apostoli at Rome ; but his remains were afterwards 
 
 removed to the church of Santa Croce, at Florence. 
 
 Considered either in relation to the degree or the variety of his 
 talents, Michel Angelo holds a foremost place among the great men 
 of an age which has left the most durable impressions upon the arts 
 and literature of Europe. As a painter and sculptor he created his 
 own style, which, as it owed nothing to his predecessors, so it has 
 remained unapproachable either by rivalry or imitation. As an 
 architect, he converted the fabric of St. Peter's from an incongruous 
 structure into perhaps the noblest temple which was ever erected to 
 the honour of the Deity. The few poetic compositions which Mi'.-hel 
 Augelo has left can add little to his vast reputation, except as an 
 evidence of his versatility; it may be observed however that they are 
 by no means unworthy of such a mind, and that, even in point of 
 versification, they rank among the best in Italian literature. His 
 talents in engineering need no other attestation than the fact, that 
 Vaubau, the celebrated French engineer, in passing through Florence, 
 was so impressed with the skill evinced in the fortifications of San 
 Miniato, that he ordered plans and models of them to be made for his 
 own especial study. The moral qualities also of Michel Angelo are 
 entitled to our respect. He was benevolent, temperate, and pious ; 
 and although he felt the dignity of his own character, and knew how 
 to enforce respect from the arrogant and the supercilious, in his general 
 deportment he was mild and unassuming. He had acquired consider- 
 able wealth by the exercise of his various talents, and he employed it 
 liberally ; he assisted his friends, provided for his servants, and during 
 the siege of Florence, he supplied the government with sums by no 
 means inconsiderable, considered as the contribution of an individual. 
 For the labour of building St. Peter's church, continued through many 
 years, he refused all remuneration, declaring that he dedicated that 
 service to the glory of God. Although no man was ever more entitled 
 to the claim of intuitive talent than Michel Angelo, no man ever 
 trusted to it less : his practice was incessant, he continued his studies 
 to the last, and so untiring was his energy, that even while engaged 
 in the military operations of Florence, he proceeded with his works in 
 statuary and painting. His predilections were decidedly in favour of 
 sculpture, in preference to the other arts : yet it may be doubted 
 whether his reputation is not more permanently based on his paintings 
 in the Sistine chapel. Beauty, so essential an element in sculpture, 
 was certainly not the branch of art in which he excelled : nevertheless, 
 in subjects wherein that quality is not indispensable, he sometimes 
 reaches a point of unimagined excellence ; nor can there be found 
 perhaps, in the whole range of Greek sculpture, anything approxi- 
 mating to the profound sentiment and terrible energy exhibited in the 
 statues of 'Lorenzo' and of 'Moses.' As a painter, he has no com- 
 petitor in the highest qualities of art, except Raffaelle, to whom, it 
 appears to us, he stands in the same relation which, in our literature, 
 Milton bears to Shakspere. In depth of pathos, in discriminated 
 expression, in varieties of character, and the power of telling his story, 
 Raffaelle is certainly superior to Michel Angelo; but if the truth of 
 that axiom be admitted, that sublimity, in its highest degree, is more 
 than an equivalent for all other qualities, then is Michel Angelo, 
 without doubt, the greatest painter that ever existed. 
 
 BUONARRUOTI, MICHEL-AGNOLO, the Younger, was born in 
 1568, in the city of Florence. He was the son of Lionardo di Buonar- 
 ruoto, brother of the great Michel-Agnolo, or Michel-Angelo, as the 
 name is now usually written; his mother was Cassandra di Donato 
 Ridolfi. TheRidolfi and Buonarruoti were both families of the nobility 
 of Florence. Michel-Agnolo the Younger was born between four and 
 five years after the death of his uncle. He displayed a taste for lite- 
 rature and science at an early age, and studied mathematics and natural 
 philosophy under Galileo. He became a member of the Academy of 
 La Crusca at the early age of seventeen, his introductory lecture having 
 been delivered in 1585. He was also a member of the Florentine 
 Academy, and was appointed to offices of the highest dignity in both 
 academies. He constructed a gallery in his house, and filled it with 
 a splendid collection of works of art and Florentine antiquities, and 
 held assemblies of the most distinguished artists and literary men in 
 Florence. Soon after Urban VIII. became pope he invited Michel- 
 Agnolo to Rome, where he resided some time, and gave instructions in 
 the mathematical sciences to the pope's nephews. He died January 
 11, 1646. 
 
 Michel-Agnolo Buonarruoti the Younger is chiefly distinguished as 
 the author of two dramatic compositions, 'La Tancia' and 'La Fiera.' 
 
 ' La Tancia,' though written in ottava rima, is not a poem, but a play 
 in five acts. The characters are all peasants of the neighbourhood of 
 the city of Florence except two who are citizens, and except these two 
 they all speak in the country dialect of Tuscany. This rustic drama 
 is a composition of great excellence. The characters are exhibited 
 with great distinctness and without exaggeration; the dialogue is 
 rapid and animated; and the humour, which arises chiefly from the 
 simple notions and natural expression of the country people, exhibiting 
 their feelings and modes of living and superstition, is highly amusing, 
 and without any taint of grossness. As a specimen of the country 
 dialect of Tuscany at the period when it was written, ' La Tancia ' is 
 a work of the highest reputation. It was first exhibited in 1611, and 
 first printed in 1612, without the name of the author. 
 
1017 
 
 BUONINSEGNA. 
 
 BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS. 
 
 1018 
 
 * La Fiera ' is a series of five comedies, of five acts each, forming 
 altogether a connected exhibition of characters (it cannot be called 
 a dramatic fable, or interwoven series of events) in twenty-five acts. 
 It was written especially for the use of the Academy of La Crusca in 
 the composition of the first edition of their great ' Vocabulario,' or 
 dictionary of the Italian language. The number and variety of 
 characters exhibited in ' La Fiera ' is so great as not to be easily 
 counted ; they are of all grades of society, and of all professions and 
 trades, besides numerous allegorical characters, which give the work as 
 much the appearance of a series of masques as of comedies. In its 
 style of composition it is more poetical than ' La Tancia,' with many 
 choruses and lengthened lyrical dialogues, and has altogether less of 
 dramatic interest and animation. In the purity of the terms selected, 
 as well as of the idiom, the work is of high repute. 
 
 'La Fiera ' was first performed in the Carnival of 1618 in the theatre 
 of the great Hall of the Offices (Sala degli Ufizj) in Florence. It was 
 not printed till 1726, when 'La Fiera' and 'La Tancia' were pub- 
 lished in folio, with copious explanatory and philological notes by 
 SalvinL 
 
 Two other dramatic pieces by Michel-Agnolo the Younger, ' II Natale 
 d'Ercole ' and ' II Giudicio di Paride,' have been printed ; they are of 
 the class called masques. The ' Cicolate ' is printed in the ' Prose 
 Florentine.' He also was the first publisher of the poetry of his uncle, 
 'Rime di Michel-Agnolo Buonarruoti, raccolte da Michel-Agnolo suo 
 Nipote,' Firenze, 4to, 1623. Many other works in manuscript are said 
 to be in the possession of the descendants of his family. 
 
 (Life, annexed to Salvini's edition of ' La Fiera' and 'La Tancia.') 
 
 BUONINSEGNA [Duccio di Buoninsegna.] 
 
 BU'PALUS, an early Greek sculptor of the island of Chios, and of 
 a family loDg celebrated as statuaries, was the son of Anthermus, or 
 Archeneus, as Sillig proposes to read the name, and the brother of 
 Athenis, and lived about the sixtieth Olympiad, or B.C. 540. He is 
 better known for the enmity between him and the poet Hipponax than 
 for bis works, though both Pliny and Pausanias notice several of them. 
 The quarrel between Bupalus and Hipponax is supposed to have 
 originated in the sculptor refusing to give his daughter in marriage to 
 the poet, who accordingly used his well-known satirical weapons 
 against him ; upon which the sculptor retaliated by executing a 
 ridiculous statue of Hipponax, who it seems, from some peculiarities 
 of his person, was easily made ridiculous. This plastic satire was 
 revenged by the poet by some satirical iambics upon Bupalus of so 
 pungent a nature, according to a report no doubt false, as to make 
 the sculptor hang himself. The story seems to have been common 
 centuries after the time of Bupalus, for Horace ('Epod.,' ode vi.) has 
 the words " Acer hostis Bupalo," as a sufficient indication of Hippouax. 
 Pliny (' Hist. Nat.,' xxxvi. 5) speaks of works by the brothers Bupalus 
 and Athenis at Chios, Lesbos, Delos, and at Rome. Upon some of 
 their works at Delos they wrote, " Chios is not to be celebrated for its 
 vines only, but also for the works of the sons of Anthermus." There 
 is a sitting naked Venus in the Vatican, with BoviraAhs tiro'iet on the 
 base; but it is evidently, from its fully-developed style, of a much 
 later period than that of the subject of this notice. (' Museo Pio 
 Clementino,' L tab. 10.) 
 
 (Junius, Catalogus Artificum; Sillig, Catalogus Artificum ; Thiersch, 
 Epochen der Bildenden-Kunst, <£•&) 
 
 BURBAGE, or BURBADGE, RICHARD, the original performer 
 of the principal tragic characters of Shakspere, was the son of James 
 Burbage or Burbadge, also an actor, and it is presumed a native of the 
 same county as Shakspere, and to whom, with four others, Queen 
 Elizabeth granted, in 1574, the first royal patent conceded in this 
 country to performers of plays. James Burbadge built the Blackfriars 
 Theatre in 1576; in 1588, Richard was a member of his father's 
 company; and in 1589 we find his name immediately following that 
 of his father's, in a list of sixteen actors, one of whom was William 
 Shakspere, appended to a petition to the Privy Council, that their per- 
 formances might not be interrupted. In 1596 he is again united with 
 Shakspere in a petition to the Lord Chamberlain. In 1603 "Richard 
 Burbage" is one of the actors included in the licence granted by King 
 James I. to Lawrence Fletcher, William Shakspere, and others. In 
 March 1615, we find him and other "stage players" summoned to 
 appear before the privy council for disobeying a special order of the 
 Lord Chamberlain, prohibiting the acting of plays during Lent. In 
 1619 his name is mentioned in the grant of a new patent by King 
 Jame3 licensing his " well-beloved servants to act, not only at the 
 Globe, on the Bankeide, but at their private house situate in the 
 precincts of the Blackfriars." The patent bears date the 27th March ; 
 but Richard Burbage was beyond the reach of royal favour. He died 
 before the date of the patent, and was buried on the 16th March in 
 the church of St. Leonard, Shoreditch, having resided in Holywell- 
 streetin that parish from the year 1600. By his wife, Winifred, he 
 had four daughters, two of whom were christened "Juliet,'' his 
 partiality for that name arising, it has been supposed, from his having 
 been the original performer of Romeo, and he had a son born in 1616, 
 about six n.ontbs after the death of Shakspere, who was baptized 
 William, probably in remembrance of Burbage's illustrious friend. 
 Richard Burbage is introduced in person in an old play called the 
 ' Returne from Parnassus,' and instructs a Cambridge scholar how to 
 act the part of Richard IIL, in which character he appears to have 
 
 been greatly admired. Bishop Corbet, in his 1 Iter Boreale,' speaking 
 of his host at Leicester, says, 
 
 " When he would have said King Richard died, 
 And called ' a horse, a horse,' he Burbage cried." 
 
 In the 'Gentleman's Mag.' for 1825 there is an elegy on the death 
 of R. Burbage, long preserved in manuscript, and Mr. Payne Collier, 
 in his ' Annals of the Stage,' quotes another copy, subsequently found 
 with the important addition of some lines naming four of the parts in 
 which Burbage especially excelled, namely, Hamlet, Jeronimo, Lear, 
 and probably Othello. The constant allusions to the small stature of 
 Jeronimo, would imply that the actor was below the heroic size. 
 
 Flecknoe, in his short discourse of the English stago, 1604, calls 
 him "a delightful Proteus." Sir Richard Baker, in his 'Chronicle' 
 says, "Richard Burbage and Edward Alley n were two such actors as 
 no age must ever look to see the like." 
 
 Burbage i s said to have possessed also considerable talent as a 
 painter; in which union of; wo modes of art, the great tragedian, 
 Betterton, also excelled. The portrait of Shakspere (commonly called 
 the Felton), is, from the circumstance of the initials R. B. on the 
 back of it, supposed to be his painting. It may be reasonably doubted 
 whether his technical mastery of the art was so complete as to have 
 produced this portrait, but that he was a painter is unquestioned. 
 William Cartwright, an actor, bequeathed, in 1687, a portrait to 
 Dulwich College, which he thus describes: "A woman's head on a 
 board, done by Mr. Burbage, the actor — in an old gilt frame." 
 
 (J. P. Collier, Annals of the Stage, New Particulars, and Memoirs 
 of the principal Actors in the Plays of Shakespeare.) 
 
 BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS, was born at Lausanne, in Switzer- 
 land, about 1784. His father who was of an ancient family of Basel, 
 being obliged to leave Switzerland in 1798 in consequence of the 
 French invasion, entered a Swiss corps then serving in Germany in the 
 pay of England. In the year 1800 young Burckhardt went to study 
 at Leipzig, whence he afterwards removed to Gottingen. Having 
 left Gottingen he came to England in 1806, with recommendations to 
 Sir Joseph Banks, then an active member of the committee of the 
 African Association. The association having lost all hopes of receiving 
 intelligence from Mr. Hornemann, who had attempted to penetrate 
 into Central Africa by the way of Fezzan, resolved to send another 
 traveller in the same direction. Burckhardt made an offer of his 
 services, and his offer was accepted in 1808. Meantime he had been 
 preparing himself by studying Arabic and attending lectures on 
 chemistry, astronomy, medicine, and surgery. In January 1809 he 
 received his instructions from the committee : he was to proceed first 
 to Syria, there to remain two years to perfect himself in the Arabic, 
 and afterwards to proceed by Cairo to Mourzook in Fezzan, whence 
 he was to cross the great desert to Soudan. He arrived at Malta in 
 April 1809, and reached Aleppo in September, having first assumed 
 the eastern dress aud the name of Ibrahim. From Aleppo he made 
 several journeys to Damascus and Palmyra, and into the Haouran, 
 and among a tribe of Turkmans who live to the north-west of Aleppo. 
 He also gained much information concerning the Bedouin tribes of 
 Syria and Arabia, and concerning the Wahabees, who were then 
 making incursions near to the gates of Damascus. After remaining 
 two years and a half in Syria, Burckhardt proceeded towards Egypt 
 by Palestine and the country east of the Dead Sea, and then by the 
 great valley of Ghor or Araba, which extends from the southern shore 
 of the Dead Sea to Akaba on the Iilanitic gulf of the Red Sea. This 
 interesting valley and the neighbouring monuments of Wadi Mousa 
 had been unexplored by former travellers. Burckhardt did not go as 
 far as Akaba, but struck across the desert to Suez, aud thence to 
 Cairo, where he arrived at the beginning of September 1812. As 
 there was no favourable opportunity of proceeding to Fezzan for the 
 present, Burckhardt set off for Upper Egypt and went into Nubia, 
 where no European traveller had ever been beyond Deir. He left 
 Assouan towards the end of February 1813, and passing the cataract 
 of Wadi Haifa, went as far as Tinareh in the country of Mahass, and 
 on his return visited the temples of Abousambul, Dandour, Gyrshe, 
 Kalabshe, &c. He passed the rest of that year in Upper Egypt, and 
 on the 1st of March 1814, set off from Daraou with a caravan which 
 was proceeding to Upper Nubia across the desert east of the Nile. 
 In this journey he followed nearly the same track as Bruce on his 
 return from Abyssinia. After suffering much through the desert, he 
 arrived in the country of Berber, and thence went to Shendi. At 
 Shendi he set off with a caravan for Suakin on the Red Sea. After 
 having forded the Atbara (the Abyssinian Tacazze) above its junction 
 with the Mogren, a river that rises in the mountains of the Bishareen, 
 and which after its confluence with the Atbara gives its name to the 
 united stream which flows into the Nile, he proceeded to Taka, a 
 remarkably fertile and populous district in the midst of the desert. 
 Taka was the most southern point of Burckhardt's travels. He thence 
 proceeded north-east, and crossing the Langay Mountains, arrived at 
 Suakin towards the end of June. From Suakin he sailed for Jidda, 
 where he arrived in July 1814. 
 
 These two Nubian journeys of Burckhardt, the journals of which 
 were published together in one volume, furnished much interesting 
 and for the most part novel information. The appendix contains also 
 many valuable notices on Borgo, Bornou, and other countries of Soudan 
 
1019 
 
 BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS. 
 
 BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS. 
 
 1020 
 
 west of Darfur, which Burckhardt collected in Egypt and Nubia, as 
 well as extracts from Makrizi and IbnBatuta. 
 
 From Jidda Burckhardt proceeded to Tayf, five days' journey inland, 
 where he found Mehetnet Ali, who after having taken possession of 
 Mecca and all the Hcjaz, was preparing an expedition into the Nejd, 
 the country of the Wahabees. The pasha, who had known Burckhardt 
 at Cairo, received him favourably, and he was also fortunate in obtain- 
 ing a supply of money from the physician of Tousoun Pasha, Mehemet 
 Ali's son. 
 
 Burckhardt next visited the city of Mecca, which till then had been 
 forbidden ground to Europeans, and went through the whole of the 
 ceremonies in the character of a Mussulman pilgrim, without, as he 
 believed, having excited any suspicion as to his real character. He 
 spent three months at Mecca; and on the 25th of November 1814 
 performed the hadji or pilgrimage to Mount Arafat, in the company of 
 more than 80,000 pilgrims from all parts of Islam. In January 1815 
 he visited Medina, a city of which still less was known in Europe 
 than of Mecca. He fell ill at Medina, and after some months, having 
 recovered sufficient streugtb, he went to Yembo, where he embarked 
 for Tor, in the peninsula of Sinai, and thence returned by Suez to 
 Cairo in June, after an absence of nearly two years and a half, of 
 which he had spent nine months in Arabia. 
 
 The particulars of Burckhardt's Arabian journey, though from the 
 state of his health less full and accurate, than from his ability and 
 well-known fidelity might have been anticipated, furnished the most 
 complete account of the Hejaz and its two holy cities Mecca and 
 Medina, till then transmitted to Europe. There had indeed been pub- 
 lished brief accounts of visits paid to the 'holy cities' by Lodovico 
 Bartema, or Verteman, who, as a reuezade Turkish soldier visited 
 Mecca and Medina in 1503, and by Joseph Potts of Exeter who obtained 
 admission into Medina about a century and a half later. Ali- Bey (the 
 Spaniard Badia) had visited Mecca a few years before Burckhardt, 
 who said that he had no reason to doubt his general veracity, though 
 his description of Mecca was incorrect in some points, and hia infor- 
 mation rather superficial. Ali-Bey spoke only the Moghrebin or 
 western Arabic. Giovanni Finati who deserted from an Albanian 
 regiment in which he was corporal, entered Mecca as a pilgrim in 
 1806. Seetzen, a German traveller, sent by the Duke of Saxe Gotha, 
 and of whom Burckhardt speaks with great respect, travelled in Arabia 
 about the same time as Ali-Bey, and died of poison at Mocha in 1811. 
 Since Burckhardt, Mecca and Medina have been visited by Bcveral 
 Europeans in the service of Mehemet Ali (Planat, ' Regeneration de 
 l'Egypte,' with a plan of Mecca) ; but it is only within the last year or 
 two that a really full account, one indeed leaving scarcely anything 
 to be desired, has been published of the holy cities : — 'Personal Narra- 
 tive of a Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Meccah, by Richard F. Burton, 
 Lieutenant of the Bombay Army,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1855-56. 
 
 One of Burckhardt's objects in visiting Mecca as a pilgrim was to 
 be enabled to assume the title of Hadji, which he conceived would 
 prove of great advantage to him in his travels in the interior of Africa. 
 But his residence in Arabia undermined his constitution, and he never 
 recovered from the effects of the deleterious climate and unwholesome 
 water of that country. He spent the following nine months after his 
 return from Arabia partly at Cairo and partly at Alexandria, endea- 
 vouring to recruit his health, impaired by repeated attacks of fever, 
 and preparing his Nubian and Arabian journals to be sent to the 
 Association. In April 1816, the plague having broken out at Cairo, he 
 set off for the desert of Sinai. He visited that mountain, as well as 
 the shores of the Elanitic Gulf, and returned to Cairo about the 
 middle of June. Here he proposed to Mr. Salt the project of removing 
 the head of Memnon from Gourneh, and having it conveyed to England 
 as a present to the British Museum, for which purpose they engaged, 
 at their joint expense, Belzoui, who accomplished its removal to Cairo. 
 [Belzoni.] Burckhardt remained at Cairo, waiting for the long-ex- 
 pected caravan from Fezzan, with which he intended to proceed on its 
 return to that country. In October 1816 he forwarded to the Asso- 
 ciation his ' Notes on the Bedoweens and the Wahabees,' which were 
 afterwards published in a separate volume, and contain much new 
 information. Burckhardt felt a peculiar interest for the Bedouins 
 of Arabia, whom he considered "as the original stock from which the 
 Arabian population of Syria, Egypt, and Barbary is derived ; and also 
 as the only Mohammedan nation who, in the midst of the utter 
 depravity of manners and morals, and the decline of laws and civil 
 institutions throughout the Mohammedan world, have preserved 
 unchanged their ancient customs and the manners of their fore- 
 fathers, and still continue to be what they were 1200 years ago, when 
 their emigrating tribes conquered part of Asia, Africa, and Europe." 
 (Burckhardt's 'Letter from Cairo,' 15th of October 1816, inserted in 
 his ' Life.') 
 
 In the autumn of 1817 it became known at Cairo that among the 
 pilgrims collected at Mecca that year was a party of Moghrebins, or 
 Western Africans, who were to return home by way of Cairo and 
 Fezzan, and it was believed that the caravan would take its departure 
 from Cairo about December. Burckhardt had now transmitted to 
 England all his journals, and was contemplating with the greatest 
 satisfaction the moment when he was at last to set out on the main 
 object of his mission, for which he had so long and so assiduously been 
 preparing himself. But at the beginning of October of that year he 
 
 fell ill at Cairo of the dysentery, and, notwithstanding every medical 
 assistance, he expired in the night of the 15th. He communicated his 
 last intentions to Mr. Salt, in a composed and collected manner. His 
 last words were about his mother, when he became strongly affected. 
 "As for my body," said he, " I know the Turks will have it (as he had 
 passed in Egypt for a Mussulmau) ; perhaps you had better let them." 
 Accordingly, he was buried as the Mohammedan sheik Ibrahim, and 
 his funeral was conducted with all proper regard to the respectable 
 rank which he had held in the eyes of the natives. He had won the 
 universal esteem of both Christians and Mussulmans. His death, at 
 the early age of thirty-three, when he had so well fitted himself for 
 the purposes of African discovery, was greatly deplored in Europe. 
 Burckhardt's personal character stood deservedly high, as any one 
 who peruses the extracts of his correspondence with the Association, 
 and the account of his last interview with Mr. Salt, both inserted in 
 his ' Life,' must feel convinced. (See also Salt's Correspondence in 
 Hall's ' Life of Salt.') He left his collection of oriental manuscripts 
 to the University of Cambridge. Hi3 journals were published after 
 his death by the African Association. They consist of — 1, ' Travels in 
 Nubia,' 4to, 1819, with a ' Life of Burckhardt;* 2, 'Travels in Syi in 
 and the Holy Land,' 4to, 1822; 3, 'Travels in Arabia,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 1829 ; 4, ' Notes on the Bedoweens and the Wahabees,' collected 
 during his travels in the east, 4to, Loudon, 1830. 
 
 BUUDER, REV. GEORGE, was born in London on the 25th of 
 May, or, according to the New Style shortly afterwards introduced, 
 the 5th of June 1752. As he showed an early taste for drawing, he 
 was placed under the tuition of an artist named Isaac Taylor, but 
 who subsequently became a minister of an Independent congregation 
 at Ongar in Essex. About 1773 Mr. Burder became a student in the 
 Royal Academy ; but shortly afterwards he began to preach, and at 
 length determined to relinquish his profession, and to devote himself 
 wholly to the Christian ministry. In 1778 he became pastor of an 
 Independent church at Lancaster; in 1783 he removed to Coventry, 
 during his residence in which city he took an active part iu the forma- 
 tion of the London Missionary Society; and in 1803 he accepted a 
 unanimous call to the pastorship of the Congregational church in 
 Fetter-lane, London — his removal to the metropolis being further 
 urged by a request to undertake the offices of secretary to the London 
 Missionary Society, and editor of the ' Evangelical Magazine,' then 
 vacant by the death of the Rev. John Eyre. The duties of these 
 offices were performed by Burder with much zeal and talent, until 
 increasing years and infirmities compelled him to resign them ; and, 
 during a period of more than twenty years after his removal to 
 London, he took a prominent part in the various religious movements 
 of the body with which he was connected, and of which he was one 
 of the most influential and respected members. Burder died at the 
 age of eighty, on the 29th of May 1832. His publications, which were 
 numerous, consisted chiefly of religious essays and sermons of a pecu- 
 liarly simple character. Of these, the ' Village Sermons,' of which 
 six volumes appeared at various times between 1799 and 1812, and 
 which have been repeatedly reprinted, and translated into several 
 European languages, are perhaps the best known. Of forty-ei^ht 
 'Cottage Sermons,' 'Sea Sermons,' and 'Sermons to the Aged,' written 
 for the Religious Tract Society, for gratuitous distribution or sale at a 
 very cheap rate, the aggregate circulation during his life amounted to 
 little short of a million copies. Among his other publications were, 
 'Evangelical Truth Defended,' 8vo, 1788; an abridgement of Dr. 
 Owen's ' Treatise on Justification by Faith,' 8vo, 1797 ; ' The Welsh 
 Indians, or a Collection of Papers respecting a people whose ancestors 
 emigrated from Wales to America in 1170, with Prince Madoc, and 
 who are said now to inhabit a beautiful country on the west side of 
 the Mississippi,' 8vo, 1797; 'Missionary Anecdotes,' 12mo, 1811; 
 besides preparing new editions of several religious publications, most 
 of which are mentioned in the 'Memoir' published in 1833 by liia 
 eldest son, Henry Forster Burder, D.D., which is partly auto- 
 biographical. 
 
 BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS, Bart., one of the most promiuent 
 actors in the politics of the metropolis, and on the popular side in 
 the House of Commons, during the first quarter of the present 
 century, was born on the 25th of January, 1770, and was the third 
 son of Francis Burdett, second son of Sir Robert Burdett, Bart., of 
 Bramcote, Warwickshire. His mother was Eleanor, daughter and 
 co-heiress of William Jones, Esq., of Ramsbury, in Wiltshire. Before 
 the death, in 1797, of his grandfather, Sir Robert, who had also suc- 
 ceeded his grandfather in the title, the subject of the present notice 
 had lost both his father and his two elder brothers ; and, his father's 
 elder brother having previously died, he became baronet. His father 
 had died in 1794 ; and Sedley, the last of his two elder brothers, had 
 been drowned, along with Lord Montague, in 1793, in attempting to 
 cross the falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen in a small boat. Sir 
 Francis wa3 educated at Westminster School, and afterwards spent 
 some years on the Continent. In 1793 he married Sophia, youngest 
 daughter of the late Thomas Coutts, Esq., banker. In 1796, being 
 still Mr. Burdett, he was, by the interest of the Duke of Newcastle, 
 returned for Boroughbridge, in Yorkshire, his colleague being Sir 
 John Scott, afterwards Earl of Eldon and Lord Chancellor. A few 
 years subsequent to this, on succeeding to the estates of his mother's 
 family, he assumed, in addition to his paternal name, that of Jonst, 
 
1021 
 
 BOrGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST. 
 
 BURGOYNE, JOHN. 
 
 1023 
 
 which however he soon afterwards resigned. From his first entry 
 into parliament Sir Francis had followed an extreme course of popular 
 politics, opposing the government and the war, advocating a reform 
 in the representation, and especially distinguishing himself by an 
 inquiry which he got set on foot into the abuses of the Cold Bath 
 Fields and other prisons. This led to his being brought forward at 
 the general election in 1S02 as a candidate for the representation of 
 Middlesex, in opposition to Mr. Mainwaring, who was chairman of the 
 County Sessions, and had been the person by whom the investigation 
 into the prison abuses had been principally resisted and impeded in 
 the House. The public excitement which this contest occasioned 
 was unexampled. It ended on the fifteenth day by giving Sir Francis a 
 majority of 371 votes over his opponent; but a committee afterwards 
 declared the election void, and the House sent the two sheriffs to 
 Newgate. A new election took place in July 1804, the other candi- 
 date being now Mr. Mainwaring's son, the father having disqualified 
 himself by an infringement of the Treating Act ; and at the conclusion 
 of the poll Burdett was left in a minority of five, the numbers being 
 2828 and 2823. But this election was also declared void by a com- 
 mittee, the report declaring at the same time that Sir Francis ought 
 to have been returned. On this his return was also attacked ; aud 
 eventually another committee, on the 8th of February 1806, found 
 that Mainwaring had a majority of one, and that he ought to be the 
 member. Three of Burdett's voters, being afterwards prosecuted, 
 were sentenced to transportation to Botany Bay; and the proceedings 
 altogether are said to have cost Sir Francis above a hundred thousand 
 pounds. At the next general election, in 1806, he was again proposed 
 for the county; but this time he only polled 1197 votes, and 
 Mr. Mellish was returned. In May 1807, a duel took place between 
 Sir Francis and Mr. Jame3 Paull, whom he had supported as the 
 popular candidate for Westminster the year before : they fought at 
 Combe Wood near Wimbledon Common, and at the second exchange 
 of shots both were seriously wounded. While they lay ill, both were 
 put in nomination for Westminster at the new general election ; and 
 the result was that, after a contest of fifteen days, Sir Francis was 
 brought in at the head of the poll, having obtained 5134 votes (his 
 colleague, Lord Cochrane only polling 3708), and that Paull was left 
 fifth, and at the bottom, with only 269. At the precediug election 
 Paull had had 4365 votes, being only 277 under Mr. Sheridan, the 
 successful candidate. Sir Francis continued to sit for Westminster 
 from this time for nearly thirty years. 
 
 The great event of his subsequent career is his committal to the 
 Tower by the House of Commons, in March 1810, for a letter to his 
 constituents denying the power of the House to imprison delinquents, 
 which he published in Cobbett's ' Political Register,' and which the 
 House voted to be libellous and scandalous. He attempted to resist 
 the Speaker's warrant, and some lives were lost in a street contest 
 between the military and the people ; but he eventually surrendered 
 of course, and he lay in prison from the 9th of April till the proroga- 
 tion of parliament on the 21st of June. Sir Francis continued to 
 adhere to the popular side in politics till some time after the appoint- 
 ment of the Melbourne ministry, in April 1835, when he went into 
 opposition against his old friends in the government, on the ground 
 principally of the court he charged them with paying to Mr. O'Connell 
 and liis followers in their agitation against the Irish established church. 
 Iu these circumstances he declined stauding for Westminster at -the 
 general election in July 1837; but he was returned for Wiltshire, and 
 he sat for that county till his death, which took place on the 23rd of 
 January 1844. Lady Burdett had died only a few days before. 
 
 BURGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST, the son of a clergyman, was 
 born at Walmserwemde, near Halberstadt, January the 1st, 1748. 
 While at school he showed no aptitude for grammatical studies, but a 
 great liking for poetry. In 1768 he went to Gottingen, where he 
 wagt-d his time and money in dissipation, in consequence of which 
 his. friends withdrew their assistance from him. But having formed 
 an intimacy with several distinguished fellow-students, Voss, Count 
 Stolberg, Sprengel, aud others, who had established a literary club for 
 their mutual improvement, Burger, encouraged by them, began to 
 mend his course of life, and to apply himself earnestly to the study of 
 th» classics as well aa the modern poets. Among the latter Shakspere 
 became las favourite. Some ballads which he wrote at that time having 
 attracted notice, he obtained a situation at Alten Gleichen, aud his 
 irranl father agreed to pay his debts and to give him further assistance, 
 but through the dishonesty of a friend Burger lost the money. An 
 imprudent marriage increased his embarrassments. He however soon 
 after separated from his wife, and went to live at Gottingen, where he 
 passed the remainder of his life, first as a private teacher, and after- 
 wards as professor of philosophy, but without any fixed salary. His 
 misfortunes imparted a tinge of melancholy to several of his poetical 
 compositions. After lingering some years in bad health aud poverty, 
 he died June the 8tb, 1794. 
 
 Burger published two volumes of poems, which were republished 
 after his death with additions by his friend Karl Reinhard : ' Burger's 
 Oedichte,' 2 vols. 8vo, Gottingen, 1796. A third volume was pub- 
 lished by Reinhard in 1797, containing several specimens of translations 
 from the ' Iliad,' both in iambics and hexameter verse, with disserta- 
 tions by the author. Burger's ballads and romances have long been 
 popular in Germany. His ' Leonora' has been translated into Engl'sh: 
 
 * Burger's Leonora,' by Wm. Robt. Spencer, fol. London, 1796. An 
 English version by Walter Scott, of his ' William and Helen,' the 
 ' Wild Huntsman,' and some shorter pieces, was published in the same 
 year under the title of ' Translations from the German of Burger.' A 
 few more translations from Burger are contained in the 'Specimens of 
 the German lyric poets,' Lond. 1823, with a short biographical notice 
 of the author. Burger's romances are grounded upon local traditions 
 and legends, and he makes great use of the feeling of terror produced 
 by apparitions and other supernatural agency, always directed however 
 to the object of moral retribution. His ' Wilde Jiiger,' is a good 
 specimen of this sort. Burger's amatory poems are soft and pleasing, 
 and unexceptionable on the score of morality. His language is easy 
 and clear. He is altogether one of the first German lyric poets, 
 although Schiller has judged him rather severely. A. W. Schlegel 
 however describes him accurately when he says that Biirger "is a 
 poet of an imagination more original than comprehensive," and that 
 he "is more successful iu the execution than iu the invention of his 
 subjects, and more at home in romance than in the loftier regions of 
 the lyric muse." 
 
 BURGKMAIR, HANS, a celebrated old German painter and wood- 
 engraver, born at Augsburg in 1472. He lived some time in Niirnberg, 
 and was the contemporary, and by some supposed to have been the 
 scholar, of Albrecht Dtirer. They appear to have worked together, 
 but the scholarship is a mere conjecture, which, like many other 
 similar conjectures, has apparently arisen from a species of hero- 
 worship, or an anxiety to shew that Albrecht Diirer was directly or 
 indirectly the source of everything excellent in art that was produced 
 in his own time and country. 
 
 There are still several excellent paintings in oil, for their period, 
 by Burgkmair, preserved in the galleries of Vienna, Munich, and 
 Schleissheim ; and there are others at Niirnberg aud at Berlin. He 
 painted also in fresco and in distemper, and he illuminated manu- 
 scripts; but he is better known for his woodcuts, or those cut from 
 his designs, which amount to nearly seven huudred, including some 
 maps. The ' Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I.,' in 135 large cuts, 
 with a description by the emperor, is one of his chief works ; it was 
 executed in 1519, the year of Maximilian's death, chiefly by Burgkmair : 
 some of the prints are marked with his name in full ; others with 
 merely H. B. He executed, likewise with assistance, another series of 
 cuts in commemoration of the same emperor, entitled ' Der Weiss 
 Kunig' (The Wise King), of which there are 237 large cuts, being 
 illustrations of the deeds of Maximilian, from the description of H. S. 
 Sauerwein. The emperor is said to have superintended the work 
 himself. The blocks are still preserved in the library of Vieuua. 
 There is also by Burgkmair an equestrian portrait of Maximilian, in 
 chiaroscuro, dated 1518. He cut also au. excellent portrait of Johann 
 Baumgartner, dated 1512, and a picture of St. George on horseback, 
 both in chiaroscuro. On Burgkmair's prints in chiaroscuro another 
 name occurs besides his own — Jost de Negker, to whom probably the 
 execution of the chiaroscuro is due. Besides these and many other 
 woodcuts, there are several etchiugs and two engravings attributed to 
 Burgkmair. His paintings are carefully aud solidly executed, but are 
 gothic in taste; there are ten in the Pinakothek at Munich, of which 
 that of the three saints, Liborius, Eustace, and Roch, is strikingly 
 excellent in its style (Cabinet ii. No. 24). Iu the gallery of the Belve- 
 dere at Vienna theie is a picture by Burgkmair of himself and his 
 wife, with their ages inscribed upon it, dated May 10, 1528, his fifty- 
 seventh year. The year of his death is not known, but it is supposed 
 to have been 1559. Sandrart has given a portrait of Burgkmair in his 
 ' Teutsche Academie,' &c, and there is a print by G. C. Kilian, of the 
 Vienna portrait of Burgkmair aud his wife. 
 
 (Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes, tbc. ; Mechel, Tableaux de 
 Vienne ; Bartsch, Peintre-Graveur ; Heller, Geschichte der Jlulzschneide- 
 kunst ; Passavant, Peintre Graveur, torn, iii.) 
 
 BURGOYNE, JOHN, supposed to be a natural son of Lord Bingley, 
 but concerning whose youthful history we are without information, 
 was appointed lieutenant-colonel commandant of the 10th light 
 dragoons in August 1759. After serving at Belle Isle in 1761, he 
 joined the Portuguese army uuder the command of the Count de la 
 Lippe in the following year, and distinguished himself by surprising 
 and capturing the town of Alcantara. Before his return to England 
 he was promoted to the rank of colonel. In 1761 he was returned 
 member of parliament for the borough of Midhurst, aud he success- 
 fully contested that of Preston in 1768. The contest for Preston was 
 carried on with great virulence, and gross corruption aud misconduct 
 appear to have been committed upon both sides. For excesses of 
 which his partisans were guilty Burgoyne was prosecuted in the Court 
 of King's Bench, and fined 100U?. A presumed political connection 
 with the Duke of Grafton exposed him to the invective of Juuius, by 
 whom he was treated with great severity. He partook largely in the 
 debates respecting the Falkland Islands in 1771, and in the following 
 year he directed his attention to the abuses supposed to exist in the 
 government of the East Indies. While serving as a subaltern at 
 Preston he had secretly married Lady Charlotte, daughter of the Earl 
 of Derby, with whom after a time the offending couple obtained 
 reconciliation. This connection first led him to write for the stage. 
 His earliest dramatic piece, ' The Maid of the Oaks,' was written for a 
 fote-champdtre given at his father-in-law's seat (the Oaks), in June 
 
1023 
 
 BUROOYNE, SIR JOHN. 
 
 BURGUNDIANS, KINGS OF THE. 
 
 1024 
 
 1774 by the Earl of Derby, in honour of the marriage of his eldest 
 son, Lord Stanley, with Lady Betty, a daughter of the Duke of 
 Hamilton. Lady Charlotte Burgoyne died at Kensington Palace 
 without issue, June 5th 1776, during which year and that preceding 
 it Burgoyne served in North America. 
 
 In the summer of 1777 he was appointed to the command of a large 
 force ordered to penetrate from Albany on the Hudson River to Canada 
 by the lakes. His numbers on paper were 8000 regulars, 2000 Canadians, 
 and 1 000 Indians ; but of these there wire never really assembled more 
 than 7000 regulars, 150 Canadians, and 400 savages. After some success 
 in the early part of his expedition, and the capture of Ticondetoga, he 
 imprudently pushed forward without preserving his cDmmuuications 
 with Canada ; and being in the midst of a hostile country, and watched 
 by a greatly superior force, he soon became greatly straitened for pro- 
 visions, and more than one of his detachments were cut off. Having 
 crossed the Hudson he encamped at Saratoga, about 30 miles north 
 of Albany. Here in October he was surrounded by 18,000 Americans 
 under generals Arnold and Gates, who, perceiving the necessity to 
 which their enemy was reduced, prudently declined battle, trusting 
 to wear him out. Thus disastrously circumstanced, he opened a 
 convention with General Gates, in which the American commander at 
 fitst asserted that the retreat of the British was cut off, and proposed 
 that they should ground their arms within their own encampments. 
 He was answered with spirit to the first statement, that " Lieutenant- 
 General Burgoyne's army, however reduced, will never admit that 
 their retreat is cut off while they have arms in their hands ;" and to 
 the second demand—" This article is inadmissible in any extremity. 
 Sooner than this army will consent to ground their arms in their 
 encampment, they will rush on the enemy, determined to take no 
 quarter." And again, in similar language — " If General Gates does 
 not mean to recede from the sixth article, the treaty ends at once. 
 The army will, to a man, proceed to any act of desperation rather 
 than submit to that article." Burgoyne had displayed none of the 
 higher qualities of a general, but he was a thoroughly brave man, and 
 he would doubtless, as Gates felt assured, act up to his declaration, and 
 there was no wish on the American side to drive him to extremities. 
 
 It was finally settled that the British troops should march out of 
 the camp with all the honours of war, and should be sent to Europe 
 on condition of not serving in America during existing hostilities. 
 The ministry in England received the news of this convention with 
 profound indignation, since it was chiefly owing to it that France 
 acknowledged the independence of the United States ; and it was 
 indeed the turning point of the American struggle. On his return to 
 England, Burgoyne was treated with marked severity. Both an 
 audience with the king and a court martial were refused. Burgoyne 
 at once went over to the opposition party. He defended himself 
 resolutely in the House of Commons, and an attempt was made by the 
 ministry to exclude him from that assembly, under pretence that, as 
 a prisoner of war, he had no right either to speak or to vote : but the 
 Speaker having been appealed to, decided in his favour. On that 
 occasion he voluntarily resigned all his appointments. At a subsequent 
 period, when he was allowed to produce evidence before a committee 
 which had been appointed to inquire into the conduct of Sir William 
 Howe, the testimony advanced was highly in favour of his bravery 
 and military knowledge. 
 
 • On the change of ministry at the close of the American war Burgoyne 
 was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland, the last of his professional 
 employments ; and he appears, on his resignation two years afterwards, 
 to have devoted himself entirely to lighter literature. He contributed 
 to the 'Rolliad,' the 'Ode to Dr. Prettyman,' and the 'Westminster 
 Gui'le.' A comic opera, the ' Lord of the Manor,' had already appeared 
 in 1760, and in 1786 he attempted a higher species of composition in 
 the comedy of ' The Heiress.' Not long afterwards he adapted to the 
 stage Sedaine's historical romance, ' Richard Coeur de Lion.' His 
 political career ended by his being appointed one of the managers for 
 conducting the impeachment of Mr. Hastings. During the trial of 
 Hastings he moved and obtained the censure of the House upon Major 
 Scott, for an attack on the conduct of the committee. He did not 
 live till the conclusion of the trial, but was cut off by a sudden attack 
 of the gout on the 4th of June 1792, and was buried privately in the 
 cloisters of Westminster Abbey. 
 
 The dramatic and poetical works of Lieutenant-General Burgoyne 
 were collected in two small volumes in 1808. He is best described as 
 an agreeable and clever writer. Of his light theatrical pi ces it may 
 be enough to say that after the lapse of seventy years ' The Lord of 
 the Manor' and 'The Heiress' still keep occasional possession of the 
 stage ; and we may add that it would not be easy to find eight lines 
 of simpler pathos than the song, 'Encompassed in an angel's frame,' 
 introduced into the former. 
 
 (Life, prefixed to his works ; Sparks ; Mahon, &c.) 
 
 * BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN, born 1782; entered the corps 
 of Royal Engineers, August 29, 1798. He became a lieutenant 
 July 1, 1800, and captain March 1, 1805. He served at Malta, in 
 Egypt, in Sicily, and in Sweden, from 1800 to 1807. He was with 
 the army under Sir John Moore in Spain and Portugal, and in 1S09 
 joined the army under Sir Arthur Wellesley, and continued with it, 
 attached to the Third Division, till the termination of the Peninsular 
 War in 1814. He was present in most of the important battles j con- 
 
 ducted hi whole or in part the sieges of San Sebastian, Burgos, and 
 others, and was twice wounded. He was raised to the rank of major 
 February 6, 1812, and to that of lieutenant-colonel April 27, 1812. 
 He was chief engineer of the expedition to New Orleans in 1814-15, 
 and also of that sent to Portugal in 1826. He became colonel July 22, 
 1830, and in the same year was appointed Chairman of the Board of 
 Public Works of Ireland. He was created a Knight Commander of 
 the Bath in 1837, became major-general Juno 28, 1838, and in 1845 
 was appointed Inspector-General of Fortifications of England. In 1849 
 he was placed at the head of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers. 
 He attained the rank of lieutenant-general Nov. 11, 1851, and was 
 created a Knight Grand Cross in 1852. He was sent to Turkey in 
 1854, and continued in the Crimea as chief of the engineering depart- 
 ment of the British army, till his recall in 1855, when he was succeeded 
 by Sir Harry Jones. The University of Oxford conferred on him the 
 honorary degree of D.C. L. in 1854, and the Sultan bestowed on him 
 the order of the Medjidie in 1855. 
 
 BURGUNDIANS, KINGS OF THE. The Burgundians were a 
 people who settled in Gaul upon the downfalof the Roman empire. The 
 origin of the name and of the people seems to be alike unknown. 
 Plancher (' Hist de Bourgogne ') has very gravely stated and refuted 
 the various conjectures on this head. A favourite supposition seems 
 to have been that the Burgundians were descended from the Romans. 
 They are mentioned by Pliny the elder, in his ' Hist. Nat.,' lib. iv. c. 
 28, under the name of Bwyundiones, and he numbers them among the 
 branches of the great stock of the Vindili or Vandals ; Ptolemseus places 
 these Vindili upon the lower Vistula. The Roman historians and 
 orators give us some intimation of their disputes and wars with the 
 Goths, the Alemanni, and other barbarous nations. In the reign of 
 the Roman Emperor Probus they came into conflict with the Romans ; 
 Probus defeated them and their allies, who were of other branches of 
 the Vandals. In the reign of Diocletian and Maximian they invaded 
 Gaul in conjunction with the Alemanni ; but their unwieldy host was 
 destroyed by famine, pestilence, and the sword. In the time of the 
 Emperor Valeutinian I. they were at variance with the Alemanni, who 
 dwelt between the Upper Rhine and the Upper Danube, on account 
 of some brine springs that were near the frontier of these two peopl', 
 which shows that the Burgundians had moved from their seats on the 
 Vistula to the country near the Rhine. Valentinian, desirous of 
 humbling the Alemanni, formed an alliance with the Burgundians 
 (Ammianus Marcellinus calls them Bwgundii), who raised an army of 
 80,000 men, according to some writers, and advanced to the Rhine 
 without experiencing any opposition from their terrified opponents. 
 The emperor, having humbled his enemies, refused to perform his 
 promises to his allies ; and the Burgundians returned home highly 
 disgusted with his breach of faith. In the reign of Honorius, about 
 a.d. 406, or the beginning of 407, they invaded Gaul, like several 
 other of the barbarous nations on the frontier, but it is doubted 
 whether they acted conjointly. Shortly after this we find the 
 Burgundiaus supporting Jovinus, who assumed the imperial purple in 
 opposition to Honorius. The latter prince however made peace with 
 them, and ceded to them part of Gaul, near the banks of the Rhine (or 
 confirmed its previous cession by Jovinus), and from this cession 
 arose the kingdom of Burgundy. About the same time the Bur- 
 gundians embraced the Christian religion, at first under what is 
 generally termed the orthodox form ; afterwards they became Allans.,, 
 Their kingdom afterwards increased so far as to comprehend that part 
 of Gaul which was to the east of the Saone and Rhone (except the 
 coast of Provence south of the Durauce), Savoy, and a part of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Gundicahius was king of the Burgundians at the time of their 
 settlement in Gaul. He was engaged in wars at a subsequent period 
 with the Romans under iEtius (a.d. 435 or 436), and sustained a 
 great overthrow from Attila (in 450, or thereabout). Among his 
 successors were Gundeuchus, and after Gundeuchus his four sods, 
 Gundobald, Godegisilus, Chilperic, and Godemar, who were said to be 
 of Gothic extraction. Clotilda, or Clotildis, who married Clovis, king 
 of the Franks, was the daughter of Chilperic. Chilperic aud Godemar 
 dying, or being killed by Gundobald, according to Gregory of Tours 
 (whose account is however to be received with great distrust), the 
 remaining two brothers divided the kingdom between them, and fixed 
 their residence, Gundobald at Lyons and Godegisilus at Geneva. 
 
 The character of Gundobald has been very unfavourably represented 
 by Gregory of Tours ; but perhaps Gregory's partiality to the Franks, 
 or his desire to win the favour of the Frankish kings, influenced his 
 judgment. Gundobald was in favour with the Romans. The em- 
 peror Olybrius bestowed upon him, in 472, the title of patrician ; and 
 the usurper Glycerius rested on his support. His eloquence, his 
 penetration, his quickness of invention, are celebrated by his pane- 
 gyrists ; and his tolerant spirit will be regarded in the present day as 
 a subject of just applause. He was an Arian, perhaps the first Arian 
 prince of his race, but he did not persecute the Catholics. Their 
 bishops assembled without interruption, and their churches preserved 
 their endowments. The king attended the discussions held by the 
 advocates of the two parties on their points of difference, and kept 
 up a correspondence with Avitus, the Catholic bishop of Vieune. He 
 improved the laws of his kingdom, and even Gregory admits that his 
 alterations were made with the view of rendering the condition of the 
 
1025 
 
 old inhabitants of the country more tolerable, and of softening the 
 barbarism of his Burgundians. 
 
 In the year 500 Gundobald was attacked by Clovis king of the 
 Franks, whose ambition and military talents were raising the Franks 
 to the supremacy of Gaul. Gundobald applied to his brother for aid 
 against an enemy whom both had cause to fear. Godegisilus conse- 
 quently joined him; but this treacherous brother was in secret 
 alliance with the Franks, and in the battle which was fought near 
 Dijon, he went over to them. Gundobald was in consequence defeated 
 and fled to Avignon, where he fortified himself. Clovis pursued him 
 to that city, and besieged him there ; but meeting with a stouter 
 resistance than he expected, he concluded a peace with Gundobald, 
 on condition of a tribute, which the latter afterwards refused to pay. 
 
 In this treaty Clovis neglected to secure the interests of Godegisilus, 
 who had by this time overrun his brother's dominions and entered 
 Vienne in triumph. Here Gundobald came upon him by surprise, 
 besieged the city, and having taken it, caused Godegisilus, who had 
 taken refuge in the church of the Arians, to be put to death. From 
 this time Gundobald reigned over the whole kiugdom of the Bur- 
 gundians. In the latter part of his reign he gave the Catholics reason 
 to believe that he had embraced their views ; but it is very question- 
 able if ever he renounced Arianism ; and it may be doubted whether 
 he designed anything more than to cajole the Catholic prelates, and to 
 avert by their mediation the hostility of Clovis, who was a Catholic. 
 Gundobald died a.d. 516. 
 
 Sigismund, the son and successor of Gundobald, had become a 
 Catholic during his father's reign. Soon after his accession a council 
 of bishops was held ; and from the prelates who attended it, the 
 extent of the Burgundian kingdom is inferred. Sigismund published, 
 about A.D. 517, a collection of the Burgundian laws, which is still 
 extant. These laws contain for the most part the original customs 
 of tbe Germans, such as are found in the records of other German 
 nations. Sigismund was twice married, and had children by each 
 wife : by his first wife, who was daughter of Theodoric, king of the 
 Ostrogoths of Italy, he had a son, Sigeric, and a daughter who was 
 married to Theuderic, or Thierri, the Frankish king of Austrasia and 
 son of Clovis. Thi3 son, upon an unjust suspicion instilled into him 
 by the children of his second wife, he put to death in 522. This act 
 was the ruin of Sigismund. He lost his peace of mind, which ho 
 tried in vain to recover by a temporary retirement to the monastery 
 of St. Maurice on the Rhone (which he had founded or re established), 
 and by other observances which the religion of the times dictated. 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, his surest support against the 
 power and ambition of the Franks, was enraged at the murder of hig 
 grandson ; the affections of Sigismund's own subjects were alienated ; 
 and the calamities which overlook him were regarded as judgments 
 of heaven. In 523 Chlodomir, Clotaire, and Childebert, three of the 
 sons of Clovis now dead, instigated by their mother Clotilda, attacked 
 the Burgundian kingdom, to which they pretended to derive a claim 
 by their mother. Sigismund was defeated and delivered up by his 
 own subjects into the hands of Chlodomir, by whom he was carried to 
 Orleans. Godomar, his brpther, assumed the management of affairs, 
 and recovered those cities which the Franks had taken. Chlodomir 
 upon this ordered Sigismund, with his wife and some other persons, 
 to be put to death. Godomar succeeded to the crown. 
 
 Chlodomir, having perpetrated this cruel deed, set out against the 
 Burgundians, assisted by some troops sent to him by his brother 
 Thierri, king of Austrasia, who had married the daughter of Sigis- 
 mund, as already noticed ; but he fell in battle near Vienne in 524. 
 This event retarded for a time the ruin of the Burgundian kingdom, 
 which stood for about ten years longer. In 534 Childebert and 
 Clotaire, sons of Clovis, and Theodebert, son and successor of Thierri 
 king of Austrasia, made an entire conquest of it. Godomar was taken 
 prisoner, and passed the rest of his days in captivity ; and from this 
 time the Burgundians disappear from history as an independent 
 nation. They have indeed transmitted their name to later times, for 
 one of the divisions of the Frankish monarchy was called from them 
 Burgundy or Bourgogne, and the appellation has been inherited by 
 one of the finest provinces of modern France. [Bourgogne, in 
 Geographical Division.] 
 
 The Burgundians, like the other Germans, enjoyed a considerable 
 share of political freedom. Their laws were enacted by the advice of 
 the whole nation ; and when those laws were promulgated by Sigis- 
 mund, they retained their Germanic features : murder was however 
 punished by death. They borrowed some things from the Roman 
 lawa, and the provincials who had been accustomed to those laws were 
 allowed, at least in many instances, to retain them. When a Roman 
 and a Burgundian happened to be at variance, a judge was appointed 
 from each nation. Tbe Burgundians are in their own laws distinguished 
 by the designation barbari. 
 
 The Burgundians retained their constitution tinder the dominion of 
 the Franks ; but they were obliged to pay tribute, and to serve them 
 in their wars; and in the Frankish laws their subjection was made 
 apparent by the inferior valuation of their lives. The death of a 
 Burgundian might be atoned for by i payment of 1G0 solidi, or shil- 
 lings : that of a Frank fur not less than 200. 
 
 (Mascou, Historrj of lite Ancient Germans, translated by Lediard.) 
 
 BUKIGNY, JEAN LE'VESQUE DE, was born at Rheima in 1C92. 
 woo. mv. VOL. L 
 
 He went to Paris in 1713, and there applied himself strenuously to 
 philological and historical studies. After several years he went to 
 Holland, where he engaged with De St. Hyacinthe in the compilation 
 of a literary journal called ' L'Europe savanto,' which began to appear 
 at La Hague in January 1718, and was continued till 1720. It is one 
 | of the best journals of that period, and contains many interesting 
 articles on the literature and political history of the times. The col- 
 lection of 'L'Europe savante ' forms 12 vols. 12mo. About one-half 
 of the papers were written by Burigny. He published also ' Traitd de 
 l'autoritd du Pape, dans lequel ses droits sont e'tablis, et reduits a 
 leurs justes bornes,' 4 vols. 12mo, 1720, a work of clos.; reasoning on 
 an intricate subject, and one which has caused much controversy 
 among Roman Catholics. The author professes the principles of thu 
 Gallican Church, and carries them to a very great length. The ques- 
 tions of the subordination of the pope to the councils — of the fallibility 
 of the pope and of the Roman Church itself, and of the consequent 
 i right of the Catholic world, in such a contingency, to choose another 
 } pastor — of the independence of the bishops, especially in matters of 
 ' discipline, &c, are all discussed at length. The ' Histoire de la Philo- 
 sophic Payenne,' 1724, was afterwards republished at Paris under the 
 title of ' Theologie Payenne ; ou, sentimen3 des philosophes et des 
 peuples payens les plus cdlebres, sur Dieu, sur l'ame, et sur les devoirs 
 de l'homme,' 2 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1754. This second edition is much 
 superior to the first, and is considered by some as Burigny's best work. 
 Brucker wrote some critical observations on the first edition, in his 
 ' Otium Vindelicum,' Augsburg, 1731. Burigny having returned to 
 Paris, was made a member of the Academy de3 Belles-Lettres. His 
 other works are — ' Histoire Gdndrale de Sicile,' 2 vols. 4to. 1745, a 
 work of great research, and one of the best on the subject. ' Traits' 
 de Porphyre touchant l'abstiuence des viandes,' translated from the 
 Greek of Porphyrius, with the life of Plotinus, 12mo, 1747. 'Histoire 
 des Re'volutions de l'Empire de Constantinople depuis la fondation de 
 cette Ville jusqu'a l'an 1453,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1750. The last book con- 
 tains a retrospect of the various controversies, ruptures, and attempts 
 at a reconciliation between the Greek Church and that of Rome. ' La 
 Vie de Grotius, avec 1' Histoire de ses ouvrages et des negotiations 
 auxquelles il fut employe",' 2 vols. 12mo, 1752. ' La Vie d'Erasme de 
 Rotterdam,' 2 vols. 12mo, 1757, with many interesting particulars 
 concerning the age of Erasmus. This work was translated into 
 German by Reiche, with additions, 2 vols. 8vo, Halle, 1782. 'Vie de 
 Bossuet,' 12mo, 1761. 'Vie du Cardinal du Perron,' 1768. These 
 two last biographies are considered much inferior to the two preceding. 
 ■ Lettre sur les De'mele's de Voltaire avec M. de St. Hyacinthe,' 8vo, 
 London, 1780. Burigny wrote also a number of dissertations, which 
 are inserted in the 'Recueil des Mdmoires de l'Acade'mie des Belles- 
 Lettres.' His learning was very extensive, and his memory excellent, 
 but his style is cold and rather diffuse. Burigny was amiable and 
 unpretending ; he lived entirely for study, and he was much surprised 
 when, in his old age, he learned that Louis XVI. had bestowed on him 
 a pension of 2000 francs. He died at Paris, October 8, 1785, in his 
 ninety-fourth year, having preserved his mental faculties to the last. 
 Dacier wrote his eulogy for the Academy, of which he was a member. 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND, was bora in Dublin on the 1st of January 
 1730, O.S. according to Prior, but in 1728 (or as we should now write, 
 January 12, 1729), according to other authorities. His father, Richard 
 Burke, or Bourke, a Protestant, and the son of a gentleman of lauded 
 property in the county of Cork, was an attorney in large practice. 
 His mother was a Miss Nagle, a Catholio lady. She was, it seems, 
 great niece of Miss Ellen Nagle, who married Sylvanus Spenser, the 
 eldest son of the poet. Edmund, whose Christian name may possibly 
 have descended to him from the author of the ' Fairy Queen,' was the 
 second of three sous, who, with a daughter, were all that grew up ol 
 a family of fourteen or fifteen children. 
 
 Mr. Prior, in his 'Life of Burke' (2nd edit. vol. i. p. 7), in refuting 
 the common calumny that Burke entered political life almost a penniless 
 adventurer, has stated that he " received from his family at various 
 times a sum little short of 20,000Z.," a fact of which he was assured 
 from unquestionable authority, and which was frequently mentioned 
 by the late Dr. Lawrence to Burke's friends. But this statement has 
 been keenly controverted (see the ' Athenaeum' of 1853 and -55), and Mr. 
 Prior has not repeated it in the last edition of the ' Life ' published in 
 1854. He however gives a passage from a letter written by Edmund 
 Burke to his friend Stiackleton in 1766, in which, after mentioning 
 that his father was "for many years not ouly in the first rank, but the 
 very first man of his profession in point of practice and credit," ha 
 adds that notwithstanding pretty expensive habits of living, and 
 "laying out something on Dick's [Richard Burke's] establi.-hment and 
 on my education in the Temple (a thousand pounds or thereabout lor 
 me), he died very near worth six thousand pounds." We may add 
 that the proper authority for the assertion of his having received the 
 means of supporting his independent course from his family is a docu- 
 ment which appears to have been overlooked by his biographers. We 
 refer to the preface or introduction, extending to nearly seventy pages, 
 prefixed by his executors to the celebrated ' Observations on the 
 Conduct of the Minority in the Session of 1793,' when that pamphlet 
 was first published in an authentic form immediately after his death. 
 This interesting statement, which reviews the whole of Burke's history, 
 and is full of curious and valuable matter, is not found in any of toe 
 
 8 u 
 
1027 
 
 collected editions of his works, having probably been withdrawn in 
 order that it might be incorporated in the life of him long promised 
 by his principal executor, Dr. King, the late bishop of Rochester, 
 which however has never appeared. The passage relating to the matter 
 now before us is as follows : — " He was daily vilified as an obscure 
 and needy adventurer, yet he did not tell, what he had in his hands 
 the menus of substantiating, that he was sprung from a family anciently 
 ennobled in several of its branches, and possessing an ample estate, 
 which his graudfather had actually enjoyed ; nor that he had himself 
 sunk a handsome competency in his adherence to his party. Once, 
 and but once, in debate, he was provoked to declare his private circum- 
 stances He said, that by the death of a brother whom 
 
 he loved and lamented he had succeeded to upwards of 20,00(M. ; part 
 of which he had spent, and the rest then remained to be spent in the 
 independent support of his principles." It may be observed that 
 what is here affirmed about his grandfather having actually enjoyed 
 the ancestral estate is contrary to the common statement. Mr. Trior's 
 account is, that the estate in question, which was in the county of 
 Limerick, had been forfeited "some time in the troubled period 
 between 1C41 and 1653," and that Edmund's gnat-grandfather was 
 the first of the family who removed to the county of Cork, where he 
 had another property, which ho left to his descendants. This last 
 estate was of comparatively small value. 
 
 Young Burke, whose health in his childhood was very delicate, 
 being sent to live with his gr andfather in the county of Cork, was 
 first put to school at the village of Castletown Roche, where he is 
 supposed to have remained about five years. On his return to Dublin 
 he was sent to a school in that city ; but he was removed in May 1741, 
 aloug with his two brothers, to the classical academy at Ballitore in 
 the county of Kildare, which had been established some years before 
 by John liarcroft and Amos Strettel, two members of the Society of 
 Friends, and has ever since subsisted under the direction of persons of 
 that communion. When Burke was sent there the institution enjoyed 
 a very high reputation under the management of Abraham Shacklcton, 
 a Quaker of superior talents and learning, who had been brought over 
 from Yorkshire to conduct it about fifteen years before. Here Burke 
 remained for about three years, during which time he always con- 
 sidered that he had acquired the most valuable of his mental habits. 
 With Richard Shackleton, the only son of his master, and afterwards 
 his successor in the school, he preserved an intimate friendship to the 
 end of his life. 
 
 On leaviug Ballitore, Burke proceeded in April 1744 to Trinity 
 College, Dublin, where he does not appear to have greatly distinguished 
 himself; but on the 2Gth of May, 1746, he was elected a scholar of 
 the house. He commenced A.B. the 23rd of February 1748, and pro- 
 ceeded A.M. in 1751. Meantime, having been intended for the English 
 bar, he had entered at the Middle Temple on the 23rd of April 1747; 
 and in the beginniug of 1750 he left Dublin for London. 
 
 Of his legal studies nothing is known with certainty ; but it is 
 probable that the attractions of literature and politics soon withdrew 
 him from all thoughts of the law as a profession. It is believed that 
 he became a writer in the newspapers and periodical publications 
 almost immediately on his arrival in London. About 1752 or 1753 he 
 is said to have offered himself as a candidate for the professorship of 
 logic in the University of Glasgow, and to have been unsuccessful ; 
 but the whole of this story is considered very doubtful, and the records 
 of the university do not afford the means of settling the question, as it 
 is not the practice in elections to register any names but those of the 
 successful candidates. About the year 1755 he had formed the design 
 of going to America, where some place under government had beeu 
 offered him in one of the provinces. This project however, which he 
 seems to have entertained for upwards of two years, he finally gave up 
 in consequence of the opposition of his father, whom he had already 
 displeased by his abandonment of the bar. 
 
 His first separate literary work, so far as is known, appeared in 
 1756, in the form of au octavo pamphlet of 106 pages, entitled 'A 
 Vindication of Natural Society, or a view of the miseries and evils 
 arising to mankind from every species of artificial society, in a letter 
 to Lord ***** by a late noble writer.' This is— especially for a 
 young man of twenty-six— in all respects a very remarkable produc- 
 tion. In the first place, the imitation of the style and manner of Lord 
 Bolingbroke, by whom the 'Vindication' affects to be written, is so 
 skilfully managed that when it first appeared, without the preface 
 explaining the design which now introduces it, even some persons 
 eminent in the literary world— Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warbur- 
 ton among others — are said to have taken it for a genuine production. 
 But, without reference to its merit as an imitation, the style is through- 
 out singularly flowing and brilliant ; and indeed it would, we appre- 
 hend, be difficult to mention any piece among Lord Bolingbroke's 
 compositions in which the same spirit and eloquence are so long sus- 
 tained. The performance however is chiefly deserving of attention as 
 indicating the peculiar direction that the mind of the author had 
 already taken in speculating upon the subjects which he handles, and 
 as proving how early there had been formed in it at least the germs of 
 that philosophy of morals and of society which may be traced in all 
 his writings and his subsequent public conduct. The following 
 passage, containing the key to the purpose of the pamphlet, will be at 
 once recognised by all who are familiar with his writings on the French 
 
 Revolution, as identical in spirit with the whole tenor of those his 
 latest productions ; and his various speeches on the American war are 
 all marked and pervaded by the same cast of thought, which may be 
 defined generally as a deep sense of the incompetency of the human 
 mind when giving itself up to speculative ingenuity, and rejecting all 
 light and guidance from the experience of past ages, and all regard for 
 things actually established, to cope with the complex problem of 
 re-arranging society ; and, derived from these feelings, a vehement 
 aversion to the introduction into the practice of statesmanship of any- 
 thing appertaining to what may be called the metaphysics of social 
 philosophy : — " The editor ia satisfied that a mind which has no 
 restraint from a sense of its own weakness, of its subordinate rank in 
 the creation, and of the extreme danger of letting the imagination 
 loose upon some subjects, may very plausibly attack everything the 
 most excellent and venerable ; that it would not be difficult to criticise 
 the creation itself; and that if we were to examine the divine fabrics 
 by our ideas of reason and fitness, and to use the same method of 
 attack by which some men have assaulted revealed religion, we might, 
 with as good colour and with the same success make the wisdom 
 and power of God iu the creation appear to many no better than 
 foolishness." 
 
 A few months after this pamphlet he published hia ' Philosophical 
 Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful,' 
 which however he is said to have begun when he was only nineteen. 
 The leading doctrine propounded in this essay ia, that the feeling of 
 the sublime means the delight we experience whenever we have an 
 idea of pain and danger, without being actually in such circumstances; 
 and that the feeling of the beautiful means the delight that is excited 
 in us by all such qualities iu things as induce in us a sense of affection 
 and tenderness, or some other passion the mo'st nearly resembling these, 
 while we are yet altogether unaffected by the physical passion the 
 object of which is the beauty of women. These views are illustrated 
 by many ingenious and striking observations; but the spirit of the 
 work on the whole ia certainly rather critical than metaphysical. It 
 was however very well received by the public, and immediately brought 
 the author into much notice. 
 
 This year, Burke, having gone to Bath to re-establish hia health 
 after au attack of illness, and having there taken up his residence with 
 his countryman and diatant relation, Dr. Christopher Nugent, a 
 physician, formed au attachment to that gentleman's daughter, and 
 married her. Dr. Nugent was a Roman Catholic, but his daughter 
 had been brought up a Presbyterian by her mother, who ia said to 
 have been a very rigid one. 
 
 In April 1757 Dodsley, who had been the publisher of the ' Inquiry 
 into the Sublime aud Beautiful,' brought out 'An Account of the 
 European Settlements in America,' in 2 vols. 8vo, a performance of 
 which, although it ha3 not found a place iu the collected editions of 
 his works, there can be little doubt that Burke wa3 the author. 
 Indeed his receipt to Dodsley for the copy money, fifty guineas, was 
 sold a few years ago by Evans at an auction of autographs. The work, 
 although somewhat unequally written, is an animated and interesting 
 sketch of American hi-tory up to the date of its publication; the 
 general views are often ingenious and comprehensive, and the informa- 
 tion is the result of considerable reading. The fondness for the study 
 of the subject of commerce, by which Burke was afterwards so much 
 distiuguished, is strongly displayed in this early production. "My 
 principal view," he says in hia preface, "in treating of the several 
 settlements, was to draw everything towards their trade, which is the 
 point that concerns us the most materially ;" and one of his remarks 
 iu the body of the work is, that whereas at the time when settlements 
 iu America were first formed by the Spaniards and Portuguese, "the 
 speculative knowledge of trade made no part of the study of the 
 elevated or thiuking part of mankind, now it may be justly reckon-d 
 amongst the liberal sciences, and it makes one of the most considerable 
 branches of political knowledge." 
 
 There is every reason to believe that Burke had already seriously 
 determined to devote Lis whole strength to the attainment of political 
 distinction. With such views he set to work vigorously to store his 
 mind with the knowledge most necessary for an orator and statesman, 
 making his labours as a writer for the press, aa well as his private 
 studies, subservient to this ambition. He had been for aome time 
 employed on a history of England, and thia year eight sheets of the 
 work were printed by Dodsley in quarto ; but although as much more 
 was written as brings down the narrative to the end of the reign of 
 John, the publication was for some reason or other given up. The 
 whole has been printed from the author's papers since hia death- He 
 soon after engaged in a work which occupied much of his attention 
 for many years, and which indeed he is understood to have in some 
 degree superintended to the end of his life, the ' Annual Register,' the 
 first volume of which for the year 175S was published by Dodsley in 
 June of the following year. For the preparation of thia work, which 
 from the first was highly successful, Burke appears to have been paid 
 by Dodsley at the rate of 100£. per volume. He at first wrote the 
 whole work, but after a few years he is believed to have confined his 
 pen to the hiatorical articles, the greater part of the work being written 
 under his general superintendence by Mr. English and Dr. afterwards 
 Bishop King. 
 
 Burke had now become very generally known in the literary circles 
 
1029 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND. 
 
 1030 
 
 of London, aud also to many persons of political consequence. Among 
 the latter was the popular Irish nobleman, Lord Charleinont, during 
 a long life one of the most distinguished members of the Whig con- 
 nection in Ireland. His lordship introduced Burke in 1759 to Mr. 
 William Gerard Hamilton, better remembered by the name of Single- 
 Speech Hamilton, When Lord Halifax, who was Hamilton's patron, 
 went over to Ireland as lord-lieutenant in 1761, Hamilton accompanied 
 him as chief secretary, and the latter offered the place of his private 
 secretary to Burke. The offer was accepted, and Burke now returned 
 to his native country, there to make his first entrance upon public life. 
 
 This connection however did not last long. Burke's activity and 
 the usefulness of his services to the government soon acquired for 
 him much consideration; and iu April 1763 a pension of 30(M. per 
 annum on the Irish establishment was settled on him : but having 
 been instrumental in procuring him this reward, Hamilton, whose 
 nature was intensely selfish, appears to have conceived that he had 
 thereby entitled himself to Burke's services and servility for life, as 
 much as if he had paid him the money out of his own pocket. On 
 discovering this, Burke immediately threw up the pension, after having 
 enjoyed it only a year, and broke with his patron for ever. 
 
 When the Marquis of Rockingham was called to the head of affairs, 
 on the breaking up of the administration of Mr. George Grenville, iu 
 July 1765, Mr. Burke was, on the recommendation of several common 
 friends, and, especially, it is said, of Mr. Fitzberbert, member for 
 Derby, appointed to the situation of private secretary to the new 
 premier. He has himself, in his 'Appeal from the New to the Old 
 Whigs' (written in July 1791), given us the date of his appointment 
 —the 17th of July, which was just a week after the nomination of 
 the Marquis as First Lord of the Treasury. " This July," he says, 
 speaking of himself in the third person, " it will be twenty-six years 
 since he became connected with a man whose memory will ever be 
 precious to Englishmen of all parties, as long as the ideas of honour 
 and virtue, public and private, are understood and cherished in this 
 nation. That memory will be kept alive with particular veneration by 
 all rational and honourable Whigs. Mr. Burke entered into a con- 
 nection with that party, through that man, at an age far from raw 
 and immature; at those years when men are all they are ever likely 
 to become ; when he was in the prime and vigour of his life ; when 
 the powers of his understanding, according to their standard, were at 
 the best ; his-memory exercised, his judgment formed, and his reading 
 much fresher in the recollection, and much readier in the application, 
 than now it is." He was also, as soon as the houses re-assembled, 
 brought into parliament as member for Wendover in Buckingham- 
 shire, a borough belonging to Lord Verney. In the preface to the 
 ' Observations on the Conduct of the Minority,' already referred to, it 
 is said, " He declined taking any salary for his employment under 
 Lord Rockingham, as secretary to the First Lord of the Treasury, and 
 at his own cost he obtained a seat in parliament." As we have seen, 
 jt has been a matter of inquiry and controversy how Burke was able 
 to Bupport his position without any professional or official income : on 
 the one side is the statement of his having received large sums from his 
 family, and (as was no doubt the case) for some time after his marriage 
 from his wife's father Dr. Nugent ; on the other is the suggestion (the 
 tvidence for which may be seen in the volumes of the ' Athenaaum,' 
 already referred to, especially 1853, p. 1513, and 1855, p. 195) that he 
 engaged with his brother and with William Burke, who was notoriously 
 largely concerned in such matters, aud perhaps with others, in stock- 
 jobbing speculations. We do not undertake to support either of these 
 views : indeed it seems to us that there is no sufficient evidence yet 
 before the public to enable any one to make a decided statement 
 respecting Burke's pecuniary affairs at this or a somewhat later period 
 of his life, nor do we see the necessity for making such a statement. 
 
 Subordinate as was his nominal post, Burke may be said to have 
 become immediately the animating spirit and chief moving power of 
 the Rockingham administration. The very day he took his seat in 
 the House of Commons, the 14th of January 1766, he is stated to 
 have taken part in the debate on the address of thanks, and to have 
 been complimented on his appearance in very flattering terms by Mr. 
 Pitt. No account of his speech however, and indeed no notice of its 
 delivery, is given in the common report of the debate ; aud the only 
 details of it preserved are in the few notes taken by Lord Charlemont. 
 Burke immediately became one of the most active and efficient com- 
 batants in the ministerial phalanx. Probably no man ever entered 
 parliament so well trained and accomplished by previous acquirements 
 and intellectual discipline. But the natural ascendancy of the man 
 showed itself perhaps still more remarkably in the part he sustained 
 in the out-of-doors consultations and movements of his party. The 
 great question which the Rockingham administration was brought in 
 to settle was that of the American Stamp Act ; and the prudent and 
 conciliatory measures by which the rising storm in the colonies was 
 »t this time allayed, are understood not only to have been originally 
 suggested and planned by Burke, but to have been mainly indebted to 
 his indefatigable activity, and zealous, persevering, and persuasive 
 advocacy, for their fiual adoption by the various sections of the minis- 
 terial body. 
 
 When Lord Rockingham and his colleagues were dismissed on the 
 30th of July 1766, Burke's pen was called into requisition to prepare 
 such a manifesto for the public as was thought to be called for in the 
 
 circumstances. This task he executed with much effect in a brief but 
 pithy statement, under the title of 'A Short Account of a late Short 
 Administration.' 
 
 "There are who remember," he informs us in his 'Appeal' already 
 quoted, "that on tho removal of the Whigs, in the year 1766, he was 
 as free to choo.se another connection as any man iu the kingdom. To 
 put himself out of the way of the uegociations which were then carry- 
 ing on very eagerly, and through many channels, with the Earl of 
 Chatham, he went to Ireland very soon after tbe change of ministry, 
 and did not return until the meeting of parliament. He was at that 
 time free from anything which looked like an engagement. He was 
 further free at the desire of his friends ; for, the very day of his 
 return, the Marquis of Rockingham wished him to accept an employ- 
 ment under the new system. He believes he might have had such a 
 situation ; but again he cheerfully took his fate with his party." It 
 is understood that in the " crossly-indented and whimsically dove- 
 tailed piece of joinery" which Lord Chatham was now endeavouring 
 to put together, it was intimated to Burke that he might have tho 
 place of one of the Lords of Trade. It is also said that before the 
 prorogation in July 1767, an offer of a seat at the Treasury Board was 
 made to him by the Duke of Grafton, who, in the illness and disgust 
 of Lord Chatham, had now become the head, or at least the nodding 
 part of the crazy administration. But the temptation, which had 
 allured several of the most distinguished of his former associates, wa3 
 again resisted. Up to this time it is to be remembered that the 
 Rockingham party, although they had refused as a body to ally them- 
 selves with the ministry, had not gone into opposition. They took 
 the latter course however in the following session, which opened iu 
 November 1767. The parliament was dissolved in March 1768, when 
 Burke was again returned for Wendover. About the same time he 
 purchased for over 20,0007. the estate of Gregories near Beaconsfield, 
 Buckinghamshire. This expensive purchase is one of the chief items 
 in the question respecting the sources whence he derived his income. 
 The following is his own account of the transaction as made at the 
 time to Shackleton : — " I have made a push with all I could collect 
 of my own and the aid of my friends to cast a little root into this 
 country. I have purchased a house with 600 acres of land in Buck- 
 inghamshire, 24 miles from London, where I now am. It is a place 
 exceedingly pleasant ; and I propose, God willing, to become a farmer 
 in good earnest." Mr. Prior says, " that a part of the money un- 
 doubtedly was his own, the bequest of his elder brother, and some 
 portion [it] is believed came from William Burke. The remainder 
 was to have been raised upon mortgage, when the Marquis of Rock- 
 ingham, hearing of his intention, voluntarily offered the loan of the 
 amount required to complete the purchase." This loan was subse- 
 quently converted into a gift : the marquis having by a codicil of his 
 will cancelled the bonds. How he was enabled to maintain such an 
 establishment is however still unexplained. 
 
 In 1769 appeared Burke's first political pamphlet, under the title of 
 'Observations on a late State of the Nation,' being a reply to a publica- 
 tion entitled 'The Present State of the Nation,' which was understood 
 to have been written either by Mr. George Grenville, or, under his eye, 
 by Mr. Knox, who had formerly been his secretary. From the tempo- 
 rary interest of much of the matter in Burke's pamphlet, it is now 
 probably little read; although it seems to have continued in demand 
 for a good many years, if we may judge from a fifth edition of it pub- 
 lished by Dodsley in 1782, which is now before us. But it is a 
 remarkably able and vigorous pt rfortnance, although presenting com- 
 paratively little of that splendour of imagination which distinguishes 
 many of the author's subsequent writings. Here again we find strongly 
 expressed the same aversion to abstract politics which we have already 
 described as the prevailing spirit both of his earliest and latest specu- 
 lations on such subjects. Speaking for instance of the state of the 
 Americans before the attempt maile to impose internal taxes upon 
 them by the British parliament, he says, " In the midst of that happy 
 enjoyment, they never thought of actually settling the exact limits of 
 a power [that of the mother country] which was necessary to their 
 union, their safety, their equality, and even their liberty. Thus the 
 two very difficult points, superiority in the presiding state, and 
 freedom in the subordinate, were on the whole sufficiently, that is 
 practically, reconciled ; without agitating those vexatious questions, 
 which in truth rather belong to metaphysics than politics, and which 
 can never be moved without shaking the foundations of the best 
 governments that have ever been constituted by human wisdom." 
 This pamphlet has been sometimes referred to as curious, on account 
 of a passage in which some extraordinary convulsion iu France is pre- 
 dicted as an event to be hourly looked for, from the deranged state of 
 the finances of that country, " the effect of which,'' it is added, " on 
 France, and even ou all Europe, it is difficult to conjecture." In his 
 latest writings however Burke was accustomed to take a somewhat 
 different view of the connection between the French revolution aud 
 the previous derangement of tho finances. For instance, in his first 
 'Letter on a Regicide Peace' (1796), he says, " The financial difficulties 
 were only pretexts and instruments of those who accomplished the 
 ruin of that monarchy. They were not the causes of it." The produc- 
 tion before us is perhaps more remarkable for the progress in advance 
 of his age which it shows the author to have made in his views on the 
 subject of commerce. In his 'Account of the European Settlements 
 
1031 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND. 
 
 in America,' lie speaks of the errors of former times, " when what we 
 call the balance of trade was far from being well understood." In the 
 present work there is a passage respecting this same balance of trade, 
 in which the fallacy of the common doctrine is very stroDgly put. 
 He is speaking of the Newfoundland trade : " Examine," he says, "our 
 imports from thence; it seems, upon this vulgar idea of exports and 
 imports, to turn the balance against you. But . . . your import 
 is your own food ; as much your own as that you raise with your 
 ploughs out of your own soil ; and not your loss, but your gain ; your 
 riches, uot your poverty. ... To state the whole of the foreign 
 imports 'as loss' is exceedingly absurd. . . . Even where they are 
 not subservient to our exports, they still add to our internal wealth, 
 which consists in the stock of useful commodities, as much as in gold 
 and silver." " These considerations," he adds, " have been but too 
 much neglected by most who have speculated on this subject." Adam 
 Smith, when he became acquainted with Burke some years after this 
 in London, declared that he was the only mau he had met with who 
 thought as he himself did on the chief topics of political economy, 
 without previous communication. 
 
 The pamphlet on the state of the nation was followed in 1770 by 
 the ' Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents,' perhaps the 
 most carefully finished and the most perfect, though not the most 
 splendid, of all Burke's writings. In the preface to the ' Observations 
 on the Conduct of the Minority,' it is asserted that this production 
 was drawn up at the desire of the Rockingham party ; that the mate- 
 rials of it were collected from various conversations with all the 
 leading members of that connection ; and that before it was sent 
 abroad into the world the particular and distinct approbation of each 
 was obtained. In November 1771, Burke was appointed to the 
 situation of agent to the state of New York, the emoluments of which 
 amounted to nearly 700/. a year. In parliament he continued to take 
 a prominent part in all discussions, and now undoubtedly filled a larger 
 space in the public eye than any other member of the opposition. In 
 the session of 1772-7.3. nearly the whole of which was occupied in 
 the discussion of the affairs of the East India Company, he particu- 
 larly distinguished himself. In the next session a greater subject 
 brought hira still more conspicuously forward — the state of affairs in 
 America, now, it might be said, almost in actual insurrection. On the 
 19th of April 1774 he delivered his great speech, afterwards published, 
 on ' American Taxation,' on occasion of Mr. Rose Fuller's motion for 
 the repeal of the Tea duty. On the dissolution of parliament a few 
 months after, he was returned by the interest of Lord Rockingham for 
 the borough of Maltou ; but while he was in the act of returning 
 thanks to his new constituents, a deputation arrived from Bristol to 
 intimate to him that he had been nominated for that city, and to 
 carry him thither without delay. By travelling day and night he 
 arrived in Bristol on the sixth day of the poll, and immediately pro- 
 ceeded to the hustings and addressed the electors. After a hard 
 contest of twenty-seven days he was returned on the 3rd of Novem- 
 ber. On the 22nd of March 1775, on moving in the House of 
 Commons a series of resolutions for conciliation with the American 
 colonies, he delivered another speech of great eloquence and power, 
 which he also some time afterwards sent to the press. The affaiis of 
 Ireland, and especially the repeal or mitigation of the Catholic dis- 
 abilities, likewise now engaged much of his attention, and were the 
 subject of his zealous exertions both in and out of parliament. In 
 Aprill777 he drew upanable defence of his conduct on the American 
 question, in the form of a letter to the sheriffs of Bristol, which was 
 immediately published. This was followed in April and May 1778 by 
 'Two Letters to Gentlemen in the City of Bristol, on the Bills 
 depending in Parliament relative to the Trade of Ireland,' another 
 subject on which the liberal course he had pursued had given great 
 offence to many of his constituents. On the 11th of February 1780, 
 he submitted in the House of Commons his celebrated plan for the 
 regulation of the affairs of the household, the ordnance, the mint, the 
 exchequer, the army, navy, and pension pay-offices, &c, in five bills. 
 The admirable speech with which he introduced this plan was pub- 
 lished, and is commonly known as his 'Speech on the Economical 
 Reform.' None of his other parliamentary exertions procured him so 
 much public applause as this. Its merits however did not outweigh, 
 in the estimation of the majority of the electors of Bristol, certain 
 other parts of his conduct which had excited their deepest resentment, 
 especially his support of the acts for opening the trade of Ireland, and 
 his strenuous advocacy of the measures for relieving the Roman 
 Catholics, which this year excited so terrible a popular ferment. The 
 consequence was, that, on the dissolution of the parliament which 
 took place this summer, he found it advisable to decline again standing 
 for Bristol. He presented himself however to his former constituents 
 previous to the election in the beginning of September, and addressed 
 them in a speech which has been published, and is one of the very 
 best he ever delivered. He was now returned for Malton, for which 
 borough he sat during the rest of his parliamentary life. 
 
 When Lord North and his colleagues were at last forced to resign 
 in March 1782, and the Rockingham party again came into power, 
 Mr. Burke was made a privy-councillor, and appointed to the office of 
 paymaster-general of the forces. He received the usual treatment of 
 the highest abilities, when unsustained by any aristocratic connection, 
 in being excluded from the cabinet. The office of paymaster had 
 
 long been the most lucrative in the state ; but Burke immediately 
 brought in a bill for its reform, by which its enormous profits were 
 completely swept away. The annual saving to the public which his 
 plan effected amounted to 47,000/., of which not less than 25,300/. 
 were the usual perpuisites which all his predecessors had received. He 
 also now carried through his other bills of economical reform, though 
 the various interests affected by them in both houses were sufficiently 
 powerful to mutilate them by the excision of some of their most 
 important part-". 
 
 On the death of the Marquis of Rockingham in July, and the 
 appointment of Lord Shelburne to the head of the Treasury, Mr. 
 Burke resigned, along with Mr. Fox and the other friends of Lord 
 Rockingham. The success of the celebrated coalition with Lord 
 North however brought him back to his former office on the formation 
 of the Duke of Portland's ministry in March 1783. In this and the 
 following session be took a leading part in the discussion of the affairs 
 of India and the Company's government of that territory, a vast and 
 intricate subject, which he had long studied, and which he was uni- 
 versally admitted to understand better than any other man in parlia- 
 ment. " Early in his opposition to Lord North," says the preface to 
 the ' Observations on the Conduct of the Minority,' " the ruling 
 directors of the East India Company, wishing to stop a popular cry, 
 and to take from government the best plea for iutermeddliug in their 
 affairs, proposed to send Air. Burke, on his own terms, at the head of 
 a commission to reform the abuses of the East. Some of the corre- 
 spondence on this occasion is still extant. He resolved not to go, 
 actually refused the appointment, and then, and not before, acquainted 
 Lord Rockingham with his determination." Two voluminous reports, 
 numbered the 9th and the 11th, from the select committee appointed 
 in a previous session to inquire into the administration of justice in 
 the proviuces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, were entirely prepared by 
 him. The first, dated the 25th of June 1783, occupies 202 pages in 
 the octavo edition of his works ; the second, which was laid before 
 the house the same year, extends to 80 pages, exclusive of a bulky 
 appendix of documents. On the 1st of December he delivered 
 another powerful speech, which he soon after sent to the press, on the 
 motion for the House resolving itself into a committee on Mr. Fox's 
 India Bill. When this famous measure determined the fate of the 
 administration about a fortnight afterwards, Mr. Burke was dismissed 
 from office with the rest of his party. He never was again a member 
 of the government. 
 
 For some years after this the affairs of India engaged his whole 
 "heart, and soul, and mind, and strength." One of the noblest of his 
 published speeches is that which he delivered on the 28th of February 
 1785, in support of Mr. Fox's motion for papers relating to the debt* 
 of the nabob of Arcot. This was followed by what have been justly 
 called his " Herculean labours " in the prosecution of Mr. Hastings. 
 On the 4th of April 1780, he presented to the House the articles of 
 charge against the ex-governor-general ; they fill two volumes of the 
 octavo edition of his works. On the 1st of June he opened the first 
 charge. It was not until February 1788, that the trial began in 
 Westminster Hall, when the impeachment was opened by Mr. Burke, 
 in a speech which lasted four days, and was throughout a wonderful 
 display of impassioned eloquence, and of all the resources of his rich 
 and gifted mind. On the 21st and 25th of April, and the 5th and 
 7th of May 1789, he opened the sixth charge in another speech, or 
 rather series of orations. On the 30th of April 1794, he presented to 
 the House of Commons an elaborate report, filling 200 printed octavo 
 pages, on the whole parliamentary law of impeachments, in the name 
 of a committee which had been appointed to inspect the Lords' 
 journals in relation to their proceedings on this trial. Finally, on the 
 28th of May, in the same year, he commenced his concluding address 
 on the impeachment, which continued for nine days. All these speeches 
 have been published since his death, from note* in which he spent 
 the leisure of the last years of his life in preparing, and which he 
 enjoined his executors to give to the world. His labours in what he 
 was accustomed to call " the Indian Field," were to the close of his 
 existence regarded by Purke as those by which he had deserved best 
 of his country. Even in 1796, after all his warfare against the French 
 Revolution, he writes (in his ' Letter to a Noble Lord on the Attacks 
 made on his Pension '), " I did not come into parliament to con my 
 lesson. I had earned my pension before I set my foot in St. Stephen's 
 chapel. I was prepared and disciplined to this political warfare. 
 The first session I sat in parliament I found it necessary to analyse the 
 whole commercial, financial, constitutional, and foreign interests of 
 Great Britain and its empire . . . Then, in the vigour of my manhood, 
 my constitution sunk under my labour . . . But in truth these 
 services I am called to account for are not those on which I value 
 myself the most. If I wep« to call for a reward (which I havo never 
 done), it should be for those in which, for fourteen years without 
 intermission, I showed the most industry and had the least success, I 
 mean in the affairs of India : they are those on which I value myself 
 the most ; most for the importance, most for the labour, most for 
 the judgment, most for constancy and perseverance in the pursuit 
 Others may value them most for the intention. In that surely they 
 are not mistaken." 
 
 But while he was yet in the midst of his exertions in this depart* 
 ment, another great subject suddenly called him off, which wa» 
 
1033 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND. 
 
 BURKE, EDMUND. 
 
 1034 
 
 cfostim-d to mike the closiug years of his life the most memorable and 
 interesting portion of his political course. We have already had 
 occasion to notice how early he had begun to keep an expectiug eye 
 upon the affairs of France. In a visit which he had paid to Paris not 
 loug before the accession cf Louis XVI., "he was courted and 
 cAressed," says the Preface to the ' Observations on the conduct of the 
 Minority,' " as a man of emiuence by the literary cabal which was 
 ilieu preparing the way for the overthrow of altars and thrones. 
 They daily beset him, and communicated to him enough to let a 
 iniud so observant as his into all their secrets. From that time he 
 always dated those impressions which made him foresee, in their first 
 rudiments, the hideous consequences of the doctrines propagated, and 
 the measures pursued, by the pretended National Assembly of France. 
 Not long after his return from Paris, he took occasion in the House 
 of Commons, to testify those impressions. In a speech, of which no 
 satisfactory report was ever given, but which was taken in short-hand, 
 and of which a copy remains corrected by himself, he pointed out the 
 conspiracy of atheism to the watchful jealousy of governments. . . . 
 With a mind thus long before prepared, he could not be slow in 
 forming his notions of the French Revolution. Nevertheless he 
 sought iuf rmation from every quarter, as if the subject had been 
 wholly new to him. He desired all persons of his acquaintance who 
 were going to Paris (and curiosity attracted many), to bring him what- 
 ever they could collect of the greatest circulation, both on the one 
 side and the other. He had also many correspondents, not only among 
 the English aad Americans residing there, but also among the natives, 
 to whom, as well as to other foreigners, he had always done the honours 
 of this country, as far as his means would permit him, with liberal 
 hospitality. Among others, he received letters, endeavouring to trick 
 out the events of the Revolution in the most gaudy colouring, from 
 Mr Paine, Mr. Christie, and Baron Cloots, afterwards better known 
 l>y the name of Anacharsis. It was iu answer to a letter of this kind 
 from a French gentleman that he wrote his celebrated ' Reflections.'" 
 
 The ' Reflections on the Revolution iu France ' were published in 
 the beginning of November 1790. No political work probably was 
 ever read with such avidity on its appearance, or produced so great 
 an effect on the public mind. We have before us the sixth edition, 
 priuted before the end of the year. It is said that above 30,000 copies 
 were sold before the first demand was satisfied. 
 
 It i3 stated in the preface to the ' Observations on the Conduct of 
 the Minority,' that, on the publication of the work, " Mr. Burke had 
 the satisfaction of receiving explicit testimonies of concurrence and 
 applause from the principal members of the party with whom he had 
 bcguu his political career." The opinions he had expressed however 
 eventually led, as is well known, to a complete separation between 
 himself and Mr. Fox, the then acknowledged leader of the Whig3 in 
 the House of Commons. The fullest and most minute account of the 
 whole affair that has been published is that given iu the ' Annual 
 Register' for 1791. To this narrative, none of the statements con- 
 tained in which have ever as far as we are aware been contradicted, 
 may be added the preface to the ' Observations on the Conduct of the 
 Minority,' to which we have so often had occasion to refer. The final 
 cout-ntion iu the House of Commons took place on the 6th of May 
 1791. " The scene altogether," as the writers of the 'Preface ' observe, 
 "was of the most afflicting kind." 
 
 In the following July, liurke published an elaborate defence of the 
 whole course of his political life, under the title of 'An Appeal from 
 the New to the Old Whigs.' In this spirited vindication he addresses 
 himself especially to the attacks to which he had beeu subjected on 
 the ground of the alleged inconsistency of his recent doctrines with 
 tbose he had formerly maintained. " This," he observes, " is the great 
 gist of the charge against him. It is not so much that he is wrong in 
 his book (that however is alleged also), as that he has therein belied 
 his whole life. I believe, if he could venture to value himself upon 
 anything, it is on the virtue of consistency that he would value himself 
 the most. Strip him of this, and you leave him naked indeed." 
 
 We may safely venture to affirm that no person familiar with the 
 whole series of Mr. Burke's writings can demur to the substantial 
 soundness of the claim which he here puts forth. The soundness of 
 his political doctrines themselves is another question ; but, right or 
 wrong, there are certainly none inculcated in his writings subsequent 
 to the French revolution which can fairly be said to be contradictory 
 to those wiiich he had maintained up to that event. His principles 
 were altogether averse to a purely democratic constitution of govern- 
 ment from the first. He always indeed denied that he was a man of 
 aristocratic inclinations, meaning by that one who favoured the 
 aristocratic more than the popular element in the constitution ; but 
 he no more for all that ever professed any wish wholly to extinguish 
 the former element than the latter. Thus in his speech on the repeal 
 of the Marriage Act in June 1781 he said :— '' I am accused, I am 
 told, abroad of being a man of aristocratic principles. If by aristocracy 
 they mean the peers, I have no vulgar admiration nor vulgar antipathy 
 towards them ; I hold their order in cold and decent respect. I hold 
 them to be of an absolute necessity in the constitution, but I think 
 they are only good when kept within their proper bounds." And the 
 work in which he may be said to have first made the profession of his 
 political faith, his 'Thoughts on the Cause of the present Discontents,' 
 it certainly anything rather than a profession of democratic opinions. 
 
 In fact, as is observed in the preface to the ' Observations on the 
 Conduct of the Minority,' "none of his writings on the French 
 revolution were ever pursued with a more violent cry than was that 
 pamphlet by the republicans of the day." 
 
 The only respect in which his latest writings really differ from those 
 of earlier date is, that they evince a more excited sense of the dangers 
 of popular delusion and passion, and urge with much greater earnest- 
 ness the importance of those restraining institutions, which the author 
 conceives, and always did conceive, to be necessary for the stability of 
 governments and the conservation of society. But this is nothing 
 more than the change of topic that is natural to a new occasion. It 
 is sufficiently accounted for and justified by what he says himself in 
 the last sentence of the ' Reflections,' where he describes his book as 
 containing the opinions of " one who wishes to preserve consistency 
 by varying his means to secure the unity of his end ; and, when the 
 equipoise of the vessel in which he sails may be endangered by over- 
 loading it upon one side, is desirous of carrying the small weight of 
 his reasons to that which may preserve its equipoise." 
 
 The position in which Mr. Burke was now placed had separated him 
 in fact, though not yet altogether iu form, from the political party 
 with which he had hitherto acted. It is known however that long 
 after this time he still continued to urge a union between the ministers 
 and the opposition, including Mr. Fox. In February 1793, the war 
 with France, which he had for some years predicted as inevitable, 
 actually broke out. About the same time the first avowed breach 
 took place in the Whig Club, by the formal secession of Mr. Burke, 
 Mr. Windham, and other members, to the number of forty-five in all, 
 on the occasion of a resolution passed by the majority of the club, 
 which was construed a3 a declaration on the side of Mr. Fox, in the 
 quarrel between Mr. Burke and him. 
 
 Mr. Burke meanwhile continued his exertions both with his pen 
 aud in parliament with as much vigour as ever. The ' Appeal ' had 
 been followed in December of the same year by a paper of consider- 
 able length, entitled ' Thoughts on French Affairs,' which however 
 was not published till after his death. A letter which he wrote about 
 the same time to the Empress of Russia, in acknowledgment of a 
 communication through the Comte de Woronzow of her Majesty's 
 thanks for his book on the French Revolution, is printed among his 
 works. But, according to the Preface to the ' Observations on the 
 Conduct' of the Minority,' it was never sent, having been suppressed 
 by the advice of ministers, to whom it was shown, " in consequence 
 of some doubts which they entertained" — "just doubts," it is added, 
 " as subsequent events have shown." He also wrote, among other 
 shorter pieces, in January 1792, the 'First Letter to Sir Hercules 
 Langrishe on the Catholic Disabilities;' iu November of the same 
 year a paper entitled ' Hints for Consideration on the present State 
 of Affairs ; ' in the beginning of 1793 a ' Letter on the subject of the 
 Popery Laws,' addressed to his son, Mr. Richard Burke, who had lately 
 been appointed agent for the Irish Catholics; in October 1793, his 
 ' Remarks on the Policy of the Allies with respect to France ; ' and 
 soon after, ' A Prefatory Discourse to his relation Mr. William Burke's 
 Translation of M. Brissot's Address to his Constituents.' 
 
 He was now however anxious to retire from public life; and an 
 arrangement having been made for his son to succeed him in the 
 representation of Malton, he only remained in parliament to conclude 
 the prosecution of Mr. Hastings. Accordingly, the last day on which 
 he appeared in the House of Commons was the 20th of June 1794, 
 when the thanks of the house were voted to the managers of the 
 impeachment for their faithful discharge of the trust reposed in them. 
 Mr. Richard Burke, within a few days after his election for Malton, 
 was takeu ill, and died on the 2nd of August, at the age of thirty-six. 
 From this severe blow his father never recovered. 
 
 The division in the VVhig party had been in the meantime extending 
 itself; aud Mr. Burke's friends, the Duke of Portland and Earl Fitz- 
 william, who had not thought proper to take part iu the first seces- 
 sion, now not only left their old associates, but formally joined the 
 ministry. Immediately after the close of the session of parliament in 
 July, these two noblemen, with Lord Spencer and Mr. Windham, took 
 office in the government. These arrangements are understood to 
 have been brought about principally through the interposition of Mr. 
 Burke. In October 1795, he received a pension of 1200i. per annum 
 on the civil list, and soon after another of 2500£. on the four-and-a- 
 half per cent. fund. These grants are said to have originated in the 
 express wish of the king. 
 
 An attack made upon him in the House of Lords on the ground of 
 his pension, by the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of LauderAale, drew 
 from him, early in 1796, his celebrated 'Letter to a Noble Lord' 
 (Earl Fitzwilliam), which was perhaps more generally read at the 
 time, and has continued to be to a greater extent popularly known 
 since, than anything else he ever wrote, with the exception of the 
 ' Reflections on the French Revolution.' 
 
 His publisher on this occasion was I. Owen, of No. 168, Piccadilly, 
 who appears to have been recommended to him by Mr. Windham. 
 After some months, application being made to Owen for an account of 
 the profits, he asserted that he had received the manuscript as a present 
 from the author; and rather than go to law with him, Mr. Burke 
 chose to allow him to keep what he had got. Before this however 
 Owen had obtained the manuscript of another work from Burke, 
 
1035 BURKE, EDMUND. 
 
 entitled 'Two Letters addressed to a Member of the present Parliament 
 on the Proposals for Peace with the Regicide Directory of France.' 
 This manuscript he now refused to deliver up ; and had the im- 
 pudence to publish it in defiance of the author, with an Advertisement 
 in vindication of his conduct. Meanwhile the work had been trans- 
 ferred by the author to Messrs. Rivington, of St. Paul's Churchyard, 
 and was brought out by them in a correct form. In the concluding 
 paragraph of the genuine edition, Burke speaks of the two Letters, as 
 well as part of another which was to follow, as having been written 
 long before. The second of these two Letters, in particular, is very 
 remarkable for the observations it contains on the manner in which 
 the war had till then been, and long afterwards continued to be, con- 
 ducted; and for the confident tone in which it is announced that no 
 success could be hoped for until that plan should be changed. The 
 allies, it is observed, had adopted " a plan of war, against the success 
 of which there was something little short of mathematical demonstra- 
 tion. They refused to take any step which might strike at the heart 
 of affairs. They seemed unwilling to wound the enemy in any vital 
 part. . . . They always kept on the circumference ; and the wider 
 and remoter the circle was, the more eagerly they chose it as their 
 sphere of action in this centrifugal war." A third of the ' Letters on a 
 Regicide l'eace ' was on its way through the press when Mr. Burke died. 
 A fourth, addressed to Lord Fitzwilliain, which had been written before 
 the three others, but never finished, was published after his death. 
 
 Early in 1797, Owen, the publisher, announced 'A Letter from the 
 Bight Honourable Edmund Burke to his Grace the Duke of Portland, 
 un the Conduct of the Minority in Parliament; containing Fifty-four 
 Articles of Impeachment against the Right Honourable C. J. Fox; 
 from the Original Copy in the possession of the Noble Duke.' The 
 publication immediately appeared, professing to be " printed for the 
 Editor," and sold by Owen. There is no introductory notice, and the 
 whole makes a pamphlet of 94 pages. This paper had in fact been 
 sent to the press by Swift, a person whom Burke had taken into his 
 service from motives of charity, and had confidentially employed to 
 transcribe the only fair copy he ever had taken of it. It had been 
 prepared in the early part of the year 1793, and communicated only 
 to the Duke of Portland and to Earl Fitzwilliam, before they had 
 seceded from the Whig Club. In a Letter, dated September 29th, 
 1793, which was sent along with it to the former, the writer says, " I 
 now make it my humble request to your Grace that you will not give 
 any sort of answer to the paper I send, or to this letter, except barely 
 to let me know that you have received them. I even wish that at 
 present you may not read the paper which I transmit; lock it up in 
 the drawer of your library table ; and when a day of compulsory 
 reflection comes, then be pleased to turn to it." Swift however had 
 surreptitiously taken a copy for his own use. As soon as the publication 
 appeared an injunction was obtained to stop its sale ; but it was not- 
 withstanding reprinted immediately both in Scotland and Ireland, and 
 about 3000 copies of it are supposed to have thus got into circulation. 
 Burke was at the time at Bath, and was considered to be on his death- 
 bed. The appearance of the paper, especially under such a title, 
 annoyed him greatly, though he expressly guarded himself in com- 
 municating with his friends from retracting "any one of the sentiments 
 contained in that memorial, which was, aud is," he told Dr. Lawrence 
 "my justification, addressed to the friends for whose use alone I 
 intended it." 
 
 In the end of May Mr. Burke quitted Bath for his house at Beacons- 
 field, where he died on the 9th of July 1797. A correct edition of the 
 paper which Owen had printed was now published by his executors, 
 Under the title of ' Two Letters on the Conduct of Our Domestic 
 Parties with regard to French Politics, including Observations on the 
 Conduct of the Minority in the Session of 1793.' The Letters were 
 introduced by the important Preface to which we have so frequently 
 referred. The ' Observations ' are what had previously been published 
 under the title of the ' Fifty-four Articles of Impeachment,' &c. The 
 other paper is a 'Letter to William Elliott, Esq., occasioned by an 
 account given in a Newspaper of the Speech made in the House of 
 Lords by the Duke of Norfolk, in the Debate concerning Lord Fitz- 
 william in 1795.' The concluding portion of the Letter, which rises 
 above personalities, is in a very high strain of eloquence. 
 
 We have mentioned in the course of this rapid sketch all the most 
 important of Mr. Burke's writings. A collected edition of his works 
 in 4to was begun in 1792, aud three volumes had been published before 
 his death. Five more have been added, under the superintendence of 
 his principal executor, the late Dr. Walter King, bishop of Rochester. 
 The last appeared in 1827. A ninth volume was to contain the Life 
 of the Author, by Dr. King ; but whether or not the Life in question 
 svas ever written we are not aware. Three or four editions of his 
 works have been published within the last few years. An 8vo volume 
 of Letters between Burke and his friend and executor Dr. Lawrence, 
 was published in 1827. A collected edition of his 'Works and 
 Correspondence' was published in 1852, in 8 vols. 8vo. 'A Memoir 
 of the Political Life of the Right Hon. Edmund Burke,' by the Rev. 
 George Croly, LL.D., appeared in 2 vols. 8vo. in 1840; and two or 
 three other memoirs have been published. Burke's speeches in the 
 House of Commons, and in Westminster Hall, were published in 4 vols. 
 8vo, in 1816. There is a 'Life of Burke' by Mr. Macormick, which 
 we have not seen, but which we suppose to be the work described by 
 
 BURLINGTON, EARL OF. 1038 
 
 Mr. Prior as "a quarto volume of slander, dictated by the most 
 envenomed party spirit, and probably meant at the moment to answer 
 some party purpose." Another, in two volumes 8vo, was published a 
 short time after Burke's death, by Dr. Robert Bisset, the author of 
 a ' History of the Reign of George III.' The most complete ' Life of 
 Burke ' however is that by James Prior, Esq., the fifth edition of 
 which appeared in 1854. 
 
 BURLAMAC'CHI, FRANCESCO, a citizen of the republic of 
 Lucca, about the year 154(5 attempted a revolution in Tuscany against 
 the Grand Duke Cosmo I., for the purpose of re-establishing the 
 republican government. Like several of his countrymen, and other 
 Italians of Siena, Ferrara, and other towns, Burlamacchi was secretly 
 inclined towards the Protestant doctrines, which appeared favourable 
 to political liberty, as their antagonist, the papal power, supported 
 the absolutism of Charles V. Burlamacchi held correspondence with 
 the Protestants of Germany, who were then in arms against the 
 emperor ; and his plan seems to have been that of a general insur- 
 rection against the papal aud the imperial powers throughout Italy. 
 With this view he had secret intelligence with the disaffected at 
 Bologna, Perugia, and other towns of the Papal state, as well as with 
 the Strozzi, aud other Florentine refugees. Being elected gonfaloniere, 
 or chief magistrate, of the republic of Lucca, he had at his disposal 
 nearly 20U0 militia of the mountaineers of the Apennines, the captains 
 of which were devoted to him. With this force he intended to 
 surprise Pisa, aud thus give the Bignal for insurrection. The plot 
 was nearly ripe, when the indiscretion of one of the conspirators 
 revealed the wholo to Cosmo. The magistrates of Lucca, being 
 informed of it, arrested Burlamacchi and put him to the torture, when 
 he confessed the plot; but they refused to deliver him up to Cosmo. 
 Ferrante Gonzago, the imperial lieutenant at Milan, soon after 
 demanding the prisoner, the magistrates were obliged to send him to 
 Milan, where he was again examined under the torture, and afterwards 
 executed for high treason. (Botta, Storia d' Italia, continuata da quella 
 del Guicciardini.) 
 
 BURLAMAQUI, JEAN JACQUES, was born at Geneva, July 24 
 1G91, of a family originally from Lucca, named Burlamacchi, the 
 termination of the name having been altered according to the French 
 orthography. Burlamaqui became professor of law in the academy or 
 university of Geneva; aud he was for a time tutor to the Prince 
 Frederick of Hesse Cassel, with whom he resided some years in 
 Germany. On his return to Geneva, he was made Councillor of 
 State. He is chiefly known by his works, 'Priucipes du droit 
 Naturel,' Geneva, 4to, 1747; and ' Principes du Droit Politique,' 
 which was published at Geneva three years after his death. The 
 two formed separate sections of a single work, and they have since 
 been published together several times as one work. It obtained con- 
 siderable reputation, and wa3 adapted for the use of schools. The 
 work is written in a clear style, and is well arranged, the author 
 having condensed what was most essential and valuable in the works 
 of his predecessors, Grotius, Puffendorf, and Barbeyrac. Burlamaqui 
 died at Geneva, April 3, 1748. 
 
 BURLEIGH, LORD. [Cecil.] 
 
 BURLINGTON, EARL OF, RICHARD BOYLE, third Earl of 
 Burlington aud fourth Earl of Cork, was born on the 25th of April 
 1695. He travelled much in Italy, where he acquired a strong love 
 for architecture, which he afterwards practised a3 well as studied. 
 In 1721 he married the Lady Dorothy Savile, eldest of the two 
 daughters and co-heiresses of William Savile, marquis of Halifax. 
 Charlotte, the youngest of three daughters by this lady, married the 
 Duke of Devonshire. The life of the Earl of Burlington presents very 
 few incidents. In 1730 he was installed Knight of the Garter, and in 
 the following year he was appointed Captain of the baud of Gentlemen 
 Pensioners, a post which he resigned in 1733. The. title of Burlington 
 became extinct at his death in 1753, but has since been revived. 
 
 Among his architectural works, he repaired Inigo Jones's church of 
 St. Paul, Coveut Garden, and erected at Chiswick a gateway by the 
 same architect, which once stood at Beaufort-garden, in Chelsea. His 
 knowledge of his favourite art was always at the command of others. 
 He assisted Kent (whom he also maintained in his house) in pub- 
 lishing Inigo Jones's designs for Whitehall, and at his own expense he 
 printed an edition of ' Fabriche Antiche designate da Andrea Palladio, 
 1730,' a work on ancient baths, from the drawings of that great 
 architect. A country house, built by Palladio, near Vicenza, called 
 the Villa Capra or Rotonda, furnished the idea of a house at Chiswick, 
 which has since received large additions; in its original state it gave 
 rise to the well-known sarcasm, " that it was too little to live in, and too 
 big to hang to a watch-chain." Among his other works are some on 
 his own estate at Lanesborough, in Yorkshire ; the front of Burlington 
 House in Piccadilly, and the colonnade within its court; the Dormitory 
 at Westminster School ; a house at Petersham for Lord Harrington, 
 which afterwards belonged to Lord Cary.>fort; the Duke of Rich- 
 mond's house in Whitehall, and another for General Wade, in Cork- 
 street. The house of General Wade was admired for its handsome 
 elevation, but was so ill distributed, that Lord Chesterfield said, 
 " Since the General could not live in it at his ease, he had better take 
 a house over against it, and look at it." The Assembly-room at York 
 is however esteemed to be the earl's best work. Lord Burliugtou was 
 undoubtedly a very respectable amateur architect, but the encomiums 
 
1037 BURMAN. 
 
 lavished on liiru by his contemporaries are simply absurd. The 
 eulogy of Pope in hia fourth ' Moral Essay,' on the use of riches is 
 well known. 
 
 BURMAN, the name of a family much distinguished for learning. 
 Francis Burman, son of a Protestant minister, was born in 1628 at 
 Leydeu, where he received his education. Having officiated to a Dutch 
 congregation at Hanau in HesseD, he returned to his native city, and 
 was nominated regent of the college in which he had before studied. 
 Not long afterwards he was elevated to the professorship of divinity at 
 Utrecht, where he died November 21st 1079, having established con- 
 siderable reputation as a linguist, a preacher, and a philosopher. His 
 works, for the most part, are commentaries on some of the books of 
 the Old Testament, or exercises on academical subjects. 
 
 Francis Burman, one of his sons, born in 1671, was also divinity 
 professor at Utrecht, where he died in 1719. He prepared a 
 ' Concordance of the Evangelists,' and other theological works. 
 
 Peter Burman, another son, obtained greater reputation than either 
 his father or his brother. He was born at Utrecht June 26th, 1668, 
 and after his education there under Grsevius and James Gronovius he 
 studied the law at Leyden, and travelled into Switzerland and Ger- 
 many. On his return to Utrecht he practised as an advocate, was 
 afterwards engaged in a public office requiring considerable attentiou, 
 and married a wife of good family, by whom he had ten children. His 
 love of classical literature however was so predominant that, in spite 
 of brilliant success at the bar, he accepted the professorship of 
 eloquence and history at the university of Utrecht, and soon after- 
 wards the professorships of the Greek language and of politics. On 
 the death of Perizonius, he was translated in 1715 to similar professor- 
 ships at Leyden ; and finally he was promoted to the professorship of 
 history of the United Provinces, and the chief librariauship in the same 
 university. He died in the seventy-third year of his age, March 31, 
 1741. His chief works were editions of Phocdrus, Horace, Petronius, 
 Quinctilian, Valerius Flaccus, Poetoe Latini Minores, Velleius Pater- 
 culus, Virgil, Suetonius, Lucan, Ovid, and, among the moderns, of 
 Buchanan. To these he added a collection of the epistles of learned 
 men, and some original orations and poeSns, a treatise ('De Vectigalibus 
 Pop. Rom.') on the revenues of the Roman people, and a dissertation 
 on the Jupiter Fulgurator. A life of him, written by Dr. Johnson, 
 first appeared in the ' Gentleman's Magaziue ' in 1712. 
 
 Gasfar Burman, nephew of Peter Burman, was a senator of his 
 native city Utrecht, and acquired some distinction as an historian. 
 He published ' Hadrianus VI.,' 4to, Utrecht, 1727 ; ' Trajectum 
 Eruditum,' 4to, 1738; and 'Utrechtsche Jahrbocken,' 3 vols., 1750-51. 
 He died in August 1755. 
 
 Peter Burman, another nephew of the above Peter Burman, and 
 son of his brother Francis, was born at Amsterdam in 1714. He was 
 professor of history and eloquence at Franeker, and died at Amsterdam 
 June 24th, 1778. He edited Aristophanes, Claudian, an ' Anthologia' 
 of the Latin poets, and Propertius ; and he also published four books 
 of original Latin poetry. 
 
 John Burman, son of the second-named Francis, was professor of 
 botany at Amsterdam. He was born in 1707, and died in 1780, leaving 
 behind him many works on that science of celebrity in their time. He 
 is principally remembered however as being one of the early patrons 
 of Linnaeus. 
 
 Nicholas Laurent Burman, born at Amsterdam in 1734, son of 
 John Burman, also distinguished himself as a botanist, on which science 
 he wrote several works which attracted attention in their day, but have 
 long become obsolete. The only one at all remembered now is the 
 'Flora Indica,' Leyden, 1768, which contains 76 plates, and notices of 
 bove 1500 plants. He died in 1793. 
 
 BURN, RICHARD, was born about 1720 at the village of Winton 
 1 Westmorland. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, and in 
 762 the university conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor 
 of Laws. He was instituted to the living of Orton in Westmorland in 
 1736, which he continued to hold until his death in November 1785. 
 He was in the commission of the peace for the counties of Westmorland 
 and Cumberland, and was made chancellor of the diocese of Carlisle by 
 Bishop Lyttleton. Dr. Burn is best known as the compiler of the 
 | Justice of the Peace* and the ' Ecclesiastical Law.' The first of these 
 is an alphabetical digest of the common law and statutes relating to 
 the duties of magistrates and parish-officers, comprehending a detailed 
 exposition of the poor-laws ; and the second is an abridgment of the 
 English system of ecclesiastical law, also disposed iu alphabetical order. 
 The materials for these works were collected by Dr. Burn with great 
 care and accuracy, and arranged in a clear aud judicious manner. 
 Their practical utility to magistrates, country gentlemen, and clergy- 
 men, obtained for them an extensive sale and a high reputation ; and 
 numerous editions of both of them have been published. Dr. Burn 
 also compiled, in conjunction with Joseph Nicholson, a nephew of the 
 Bishop of Carlisle, a work on the antiquities of Cumberland and 
 Westmorland, which was published in 2 vols. 4to in 1777. He likewise 
 published a history of the poor-laws, and an edition of ' Blackstone's 
 Commentaries/ besides several sermons and works of a religious 
 character. 
 
 BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER, was born May 16, 1805, at Montrose 
 in Scotland. His father was an active magistrate of Forfarshire, and 
 held successively the chief official situations in the borough of Montrose. 
 
 BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER. 1039 
 
 His grandfather was the brother of William Burnes, father of the poet 
 Burns, who was tho first to omit the letter e from the family name. 
 Alexander Burnes was educated at the Montrose Academy, in which 
 he greatly distinguished himself. Having obtained a cadetship in the 
 Bombay army, he left school at the age of sixteen, and arrived at 
 Bombay October 31, 1821. On the 25th of December 1822 he was 
 appointed interpreter in Hindustanee to the first extra battalion at 
 Surat, and on account of his proficiency iu the Persian language the 
 judges of the Sudder Adaulut appointed him, without solicitation, to 
 the office of translator of the Persian documents of that court. 
 
 In consequence of disturbances in Cutch, the regiment to which 
 Ensign Burnes was attached, the 21st Bombay Native Infantry, having 
 been ordered to Bhooj, he joined it there in April 1825. He was soon 
 afterwards made quartermaster of brigade, and in November 1825, 
 when he was only twenty, was appointed Persian interpreter to a force 
 of 8000 men assembled for the invasion of Sciiide. In August 1826 
 he was confirmed on the general staff as deputy-assistant-quartermaster- 
 general. 
 
 At this period he drew up an elaborate paper on the statistics of 
 Wagur, for which in 1827 Lieutenant Barnes received the thanks of 
 the Bombay government and the special commendation of the Hon. 
 Mountstuart Elphiustone, the governor; and he obtained similar 
 testimonies of approbation in 1828 for a memoir on the eastern mouth 
 of the Indus. Lieutenant Burnes was appointed assistant-quarter- 
 master-general to the army March 18, 1828; and in September 1829 
 he was appointed assistant to the political agent iu Cutch in prosecution 
 of the survey of the north-west frontier, of which he has given an 
 account in the ' Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society' for 
 1834. He soon afterwards made a journey into Rajpootana, from 
 which however he was recalled; and in 1830 was appointed by the 
 Indian government to proceed to Lahore with some remarkably large 
 horses as a present from the king of England to Runjeet Singh, the 
 ruler of the Punjab. The details of this expedition are given iu the 
 third volume of his ' Travels into Bokhara.' The mission was directed 
 to proceed by the devious route of Scinde ; the secret object being to 
 obtain information concerning the Indus, the envoy was provided with 
 letters to the Ameers, and, the better to obviate suspicion, he took with 
 him a guard of wild Beloochees. The mission sailed from Mandavie 
 in Cutch on January 21st, 1 831, and on the 28th reached the western 
 mouth of the Indus. After a long and tedious negociation with the 
 rulers of Scinde, Burnes received their full sanction to proceed by 
 water from the mouth of the Indus. The delay howeSjgr had been 
 turned to account. Burnes had made a complete survey oftne mouths 
 of the river, and a map of the lower part of its course. After spending 
 a week at Tatta they set sail up the river, April 12th, and reached 
 Hyderabad on the 18th, where he was received with great cordiality by 
 the Ameers. The mission remained at Hyderabad till the 23rd of 
 April, when they re-embarked on the Indus, and after visiting all the 
 places of importance along the banks, on the 18th of July they arrived 
 at Lahore, where their reception was magnificent — -a deputation of 
 nobles conducting the envoy and his suite to the door of the palace 
 of Runjeet Singh amid salutes of musketry and artillery. " While 
 stooping," says Burnes, "to remove my shoes at the threshold, I 
 suddenly found myself in the arms and tight embrace of a diminutive 
 old-looking man, the great Maharaja Runjeet Singh, who conducted 
 me by the hand to the interior of the court, and had advanced that 
 distance to do us honour." 
 
 After remaining till the middle of August with Runjeet Singh, who 
 treated Burnes with the familiarity of a friend, the mission left 
 Lahore, crossed the Sutlej, and proceeded to Loodiana, a frontier 
 station of the Indian government, where Burnes became acquainted 
 with the ex-kings of Cabul, Shah Zeman and Shah Shoojah, who were 
 living there under the protection of the British government. From 
 Loodiana the mission proceeded to Simla, where Burnes met the 
 governor-general, Lord William Bentinck, who without delay entered 
 into negooiations for laying open the navigation of the Indus to the 
 commerce of Great Britain. 
 
 After his return from his mission, Lieutenant Burnes proposed to 
 Lord William Bentinck an expedition into Central Asia, which received 
 from his lordship the most liberal encouragement. The sanction of 
 the Indian government having been obtained, the journey was com- 
 menced. Lieutenant Burnes was well provided with instruments, 
 and made his journey serve as a kind of flying survey. Burnes 
 left Delhi, accompanied by Mr. James Gerard, surgeon of the Bengal 
 army, December 23, 1831, and proceeded by express to Loodiana, 
 Previous to entering on his journey, it was deemed necessary to obtain 
 the sanction of Runjeet Singh to pass through Scinde. He descended 
 the Sutlej, and reached Lahore January 17, 1832, aud was received by 
 the maharaja with all his former affability. Their departure was 
 delayed till the 11th of February, when, having crossed the Ravee, 
 they put up for the night in one of the houses which surround the 
 once splendid monument of Jehangeer. Here they divested them- 
 selves of every article of European costume aud comfort, and adopted 
 not only the costume of the Afghaus, but their us.iges. The close 
 dress, beds, boxes, tables, and chairs, were all discarded for a flowing 
 robe, a coarse carpet, and a blanket : and their now diminished ward- 
 robe, with the necessary books and instruments, were deposited in 
 their saddle-bags, and thrown across their horses' quarters. 
 
1039 
 
 BURNES, STR ALEXANDER. 
 
 The troops of Runjeet Singh escorted them across th» Chenab and 
 the Jelum to their frontier, about three miles beyond Attock, where 
 they met the Afghans, and proceeded with them to Acora. Thence 
 they proceeded to Peshawur, which they left April 19, under the pro- 
 tection of one of Mohammed Khan'a officers; and passing through 
 Jellalabad, reached Cabul by the Latabund Pass, April 31. They 
 departed from Cabul May 18, and leaving Ghuzuee on the south, 
 advanced by the Pass of Oonna, about 11,000 feet high, continued 
 their journey along the base of the Kohi-Baba through the country of 
 the Huzaras, and ascended the Pass of Hageeguk, 12,400 feet high, 
 May 22. The snow bore their horses, aud tho thermometer fell to 
 4° Fahrenheit. They attempted to ascend the Pass of Kaloo, 1000 feet 
 higher than that of Hageeguk, but were hindered by the snow, and 
 passed round its shoulder, but were unable to continue their route 
 on horseback, and reached Bameeau. After stopping a day to examine 
 the wonderful excavations and enormous idols of the so-called city of 
 Ghoolgoola, they crossed the Pass of Acrobat, which separates the 
 dominions of modem Cabul from Turkistan, or Tartary. After cros- 
 sing the Dundan Shikun, or Toothbreaker, and the Kara-Koottul, or 
 Black Pass, on the 30th of May they made their last march among 
 the mountains of the Indian Caucasus, and descended into the plains 
 of Tartary at Khooloom, the frontier town of Morad-Beg, the chief of 
 Khoondooz, and were delayed by receiving a summons to his presence, 
 at the village of Kaumabad, above fifty miles distant. Burnes assumed 
 the character of a poor Armenian watchmaker journeying from Luck- 
 now to Bokhara, and in his torn and threadbare garments happily 
 escaped detection, receiving a pass of safe conduct for himself and his 
 party (nine or ten tea-merchants who accompanied him), and on the 
 7th of June rejoined his friend Mr. Gerard, who had been left at 
 Khooloom. 
 
 On the 8th of Juue they again set forward, aud reached B dkh on 
 the 9th, and after stopping three days to examine the ruins of that 
 ancient and once magnificent city, on the 12th they set forward at 
 midnight on camels bearing panui-rs which held one person on each 
 side. On the 14th they entered the desert, and on the 16th reached 
 the bank of the Oxus, here 800 yards wide and 20 feet deep, which 
 they crossed in boats, each drawn by two horses, which swam across 
 the stream. On the 27th of June the party reached the great eastern 
 capital of Bokhara, where they remained till the 21st of July. They 
 then waited in the neighbourhood of Karakool till the 10th of August, 
 when they accompanied a caravan, consisting of about 80 camels and 
 150 persons, some in panniers on camels, some on horses, aud some 
 on asses. In this manner they passed the great desert by Merve, and 
 reached Meshed on the 14th of September. On the 17th they reached 
 Koochan, a strong fortress, and here the two travellers separated, 
 Mr. Gerard having resolved to proceed to Herat aud Candahar, and 
 then retrace his steps to Cabul. 
 
 On the 29th of September, Lieutenant Burnes proceeded with a 
 party of about 300 persons, Khoords, Persians, and Turcomans, and 
 having passed by Shirwan and Boojnoord, left his companions, aud 
 travelled •alone about eighty miles to the town of Astrabad. Thence, 
 crossing an arm of the Caspian, he journeyed to Teheran, which he 
 reached on the 21st of October, and having had the honour of being 
 presented to the Shah of Persia, quitted the city on the 1st of 
 November. Having passed through Ispahan and Shiraz, he embarked 
 in a cruiser at Bushire, on the Persian Gulf, and reached Bombay on 
 the 18th of January 1833, the journey having thus occupied just a 
 year. 
 
 Soon after his return, he set off for Calcutta, to lay the result of his 
 travels before the governor-general, whose special thanks he received, 
 and his memoirs were ordered to be transmitted to the Court of 
 Directors. In June Lieutenant Burnes received orders to proceed to 
 England as the bearer of his own dispatches. He left Calcutta 
 June 10, and reached London early in October. His reception at the 
 India House and by the Board of Control was in the highest degree 
 flattering. On the 30th of December he was presented at Court, and 
 received the special acknowledgments of the king for the unpublished 
 map and memoir which he had presented to his majesty. His manu- 
 scripts were prepared for publication without delay, and Mr. Murray 
 gave the author 800Z. for the copyright of the first edition. The sale 
 of the work was very large, nearly 900 copies having been sold the 
 first day, and it was immediately translated into the French and 
 German languages. Literary honours flowed fast upon him. He was 
 elected a member of the Royal Asiatic Society, and on his admission, 
 an emblazoned diploma was presented to him by Lord Munster. He 
 was made a member of the Royal Geographical Society, and received 
 the gold medal, and the royal premium of fifty guineas "for the 
 navigation of the Indus and a journey by Balkh and Bokhara across 
 Central Asia." The silver medal of the French Geographical Society 
 was awarded to him, and on making a transient visit to Paris, his 
 reception was enthusiastic. 
 
 After a stay of eighteen months in England, he departed for India, 
 April 5, 1835, and proceeding by the south of France, Egypt, and the 
 Red Sea, reached Bombay on the 1st of June, aud was soon after- 
 wards directed to resume his duties as assistant to the resident in 
 Cutch, Colonel Pottinger. In October 1835 he was deputed on a 
 mission to Hyderabad, in order to prevent the necessity of a war with 
 Scinde. His mission was successful. The Ameers consented to a 
 
 survey of the Indus, and to the abolition of the practice of robbing 
 
 stranded vessels. 
 
 But a more important mission was prepared for him before he had 
 completed his duties in Scinde. This was a mission to Dost Moham- 
 med, at Cabul, primarily of a commercial nature. He was to proceed 
 from Scinde through the Punjab, and by Peshawur to Cabul, and 
 enter into commercial relations with Dost Mohammed; from Cabul to 
 Candahar, to negociate similar co-operation with the western chiefs ; 
 to institute inquiries as to the state of trade, and means of carrying it 
 on ; and to return by the Bolan Pass and through Scinde to India. 
 The mission left Bombay November 26, 1836, reached Hyderabad 
 January 18, 1837; Attoek, August 4 ; and Cabul, September 20. 
 
 Meantime, Mahommed Shah had besieged Herat with an army of 
 60,000 men, and the Indian government had become alarmed at the 
 prospect of Persia aud Russia uniting their forces with those of Afghan- 
 istan, and making a conjoint attack on our Indian Empire. This 
 altered the object of Burues's mission, aud he made it his especial 
 business to investigate the intentions of Dost Mohammed. The Persians 
 indeed were compelled to retreat from Herat, but the presence of the 
 Russian agent, Vicovitch, at Cabul, perplexed and alarmed Burnes, 
 who pressed upon the Dost the propriety of dismissing Vicovitch, 
 which the Dost however refused to do, and Burnes himself received 
 his dismissal, April 24, 1838. 
 
 Burnes was directed to repair to the governor-general at Simla, and 
 he was there in August 1838. Here it was resolved to replace Shah 
 Shoojah on his throue at Cabul. Burnes preceded the army to make 
 arrangements for the commissariat, and whilst at Shikarpoor, received 
 a copy of the ' London Gazette,' which announced his having been 
 knighted and advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. 
 
 .Sir Alexander Burnes proceeded from Scinde on a political mission 
 into Beloochistan, in which however he failed ; and in April 1839, he 
 joined the army at Quettah. On the restoration of Shah Shoojah, in 
 September 1839, he was appointed political resident at Cabul, in 
 which office he continued till he was murdered, November 2, 1841, 
 with his brother Lieutenant Charles Burnes and others, on the breaking 
 out of the insurrection in that city ; for the details of which, tho 
 disastrous retreat of the British army, and subsequent events, see 
 Afghanistan, in the Geog. Div. of this work. 
 
 Sir Alexander Burnes was never married. His father and mother 
 survived him, and he left three surviving brothers. 
 
 Besides his ' Travels into Bokhara,' of which we have given a sketch, 
 after his death was published ' Cabool ; being a Narrative of a Journey 
 to and Residence in that City, in the years 1836, 7, and 8. By the 
 late Lieut.-Col. Sir Alexander Burnes,' London, 8vo. He was also 
 the author of some papers in the Journal of the Royal Geographical 
 Society of London. 
 
 (Asiatic Journal, March, 1842; Journal of the Royal Geographical 
 Society, 1831, Part 2.) 
 
 BURNET, GILBERT, Bishop of Salisbury, was born at Edinburgh, 
 18th September 1613. His father, Robert Burnet, Esq., of Cremont, 
 in Aberdeenshire, was a practitioner of law, and at the Restoration 
 was made one of the judges of the Court of Session. The family was 
 a younger branch of the ancient house of Burnet of Leys, on which a 
 baronetcy was conferred in 1626. 
 
 At the age of ten Gilbert wa3 sent to college at Aberdeen, where, 
 after having taken his degree of M. A., he proceeded to prepare himself, 
 by the study of the civil law, for following his father's profession. 
 He soon however gave up this study for that of divinity, and was 
 licensed to preach, according to the forms of the Scotch church, iu 
 1661. Although offered a living by his relative, Sir Alexander Burnet, 
 he considered himself yet too young to undertake such a charge. In 
 1663 he visited Cambridge, Oxford, and London, arid afterwards made 
 a tour through Holland, the Netherlands, aud part of France. On his 
 return to England he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 In his own country he soon acquired much reputation as a preacher. 
 He had from the first adopted the practice of preaching extempore, 
 or without writing out his discourses. In 1665 he was, on the pre- 
 sentation of his friend Sir Robert Fletcher, appointed minister of the 
 parish of Saltoun, in East Lothian, on which occasion he received 
 ordination from the bishop of Edinburgh. Here he spent nearly five 
 years, during which he gained the warm attachment of his parishioners. 
 While here also he began hi3 interference in affairs of church and state, 
 by drawing up, in 1666, a strong representation against certain abuses 
 of their authority, which he imputed to the Scottish bishops, and 
 circulating it in manuscript. For this step it is said that Archbishop 
 Sharpe proposed his deprivation and excommunication ; but the 
 other bishops did not second the zeal of the metropolitan, and nothing 
 was done. 
 
 From 1668, when the administration of Scotland was put into the 
 hands of Sir Robert Murray, and moderate counsels for a short time 
 prevailed, Buruet, young as he was, began to be much consulted by 
 those at the head of affairs. In 1669 he was chosen Professor of 
 Divinity at Glasgow, and from this time he became more than ever 
 mixed up with affairs of state. Keeping to the line of moderation 
 upon which he had set out, he applied his efforts to reconcile the 
 dukes of Lauderdale and Hamilton, the heads of the two parties which 
 then strove for the ascendancy ; but in this attempt he had no success. 
 About this time he is said to have refused one of the Scottish 
 
1041 
 
 BURNET, BISHOP. 
 
 BURNET, JOHN. 
 
 1042 
 
 bishoprics, alleging as bis excuse that be was too young. In 16G9 he 
 published his first work, entitled ' A modest and free Conference 
 between a Conformist and a Non-conformist.' In 1670 or 1671 he 
 strengthened his connection with the moderate party by his marriage 
 with Lady Margaret Kennedy, the daughter of John the sixth earl of 
 Cassilis. a lady considerably older than Burnet. 
 
 In 1672 he published a work in spirit very like a defence of the 
 doctrine of passive obedience, under the title of 'A Vindication of the 
 Authority, Constitution, and Laws of the Church and State of Scot- 
 land,' but he resisted all the attempts that were made to engage him 
 in support of the oppressive measures of the court. Inconsequence 
 he drew upon himself the resentment of the Duke of Lauderdale, and 
 in 1674 he deemed it prudent to resign his professorship, and to remove 
 to London. Here, in the same year, after having declined the living of 
 St Giles, Cripplegate, he was made preacher at the Rolls Chapel, by 
 Sir Harbottle Grimstone, then Master of the Rolls ; and soon after he 
 was elected lecturer at St. Clement's. He was at the same time 
 deprived of his honorary office of one of the chaplains royal, to which 
 he had been appointed some years before. In 1676 he published his 
 ' Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton,' which he had drawn up from 
 the archives of the family while be resided at Glasgow. In 1679 
 appeared the first folio volume of his great work, ' The History of the 
 Reformation in England,' which was received with much favour by the 
 public, then in a very excited state on the subject of popery, and 
 which had besides the extraordinary honour of procuring for its 
 author the thanks of both houses of parliament. In 1680 appeared 
 the most carefully prepared of all bis writings, his tract entitled 
 ' Some passages in the Life and Death of the Earl of Rochester ; ' 
 being an account of his conversation witb that nobleman in his last 
 illness, the result of wbich was the conversion of the repentant pro- 
 fligate to a belief in Christianity. In 1681 he gave to the world the 
 second volume of his 'History of the Reformation.' In 1682 he 
 published his 'Life of Sir Matthew Hale.' Overtures were now again 
 made to him by the court, and he was offered the bishopric of 
 Chichester by the king, "if he would entirely come into his interests." 
 He still however remained steady to his principles. About this time 
 also he wrote a celebrated letter to Charles, reproving him in the severest 
 style both for his public misconduct and his private vices. His 
 majesty read it twice over, and then threw it into the fire. At the 
 execution of Lord Russell in 1683, Burnet attended him on the 
 scaffold, immediately after which he was dismissed both from his 
 preachership at the Rolls and bis lecture at St. Clement's by order of 
 the king. In 1685 he published his ' Life of Dr. William Bedell, 
 Bishop of Kilmore in Ireland.' 
 
 On the accession of Janies II., Burnet retired to the Continent, and 
 after visiting Paris, continued bis travels throughout the South of 
 France, Italy, Switzerland, and the North of Germany, to Utrecht. 
 He afterwards published an account of this journey. Soon after his 
 arrival in Holland he was introduced at the court of the prince of 
 Orange, witb whom be became a great favourite. His active exertions 
 in preparing the way for the accession of the prince to the English 
 tbrone are matters of history. When William came over to this 
 country, Burnet accompanied him in the capacity of chaplain, aud 
 immediately after the revolution he was made bishop of Salisbury. 
 
 In 1698 he was appointed preceptor to the Duke of Gloucester, the 
 son of the Princess Anne. While in Holland he had made a second 
 marriage with Mrs. Mary Scott, a lady of Scottish descent, but of 
 large fortune and high connection in that country. Upon the death 
 of this lady by small-pox, he soon made a third marriage with Mrs. 
 Berkeley, a widow lady also of good fortune and great piety, the 
 authoress of a work once popular, entitled a ' Method of Devotion.' 
 The remainder of his life Bishop Burnet spent in his episcopal duties, 
 his discharge of which was in every respect most meritorious and 
 honourable ; in attendance in parliament, in the business of which be 
 took a considerable share, and where he continued through all changes 
 a zealous partizan of the Whig interest ; aud in addressing the public 
 with his indefatigable pen. In 1699 appeared another of his most 
 celebrated works, his ' Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles of the 
 Church of England.' It excited great controversy on its first appear- 
 ance, and was even condemned as heterodox by the Lower House of 
 Convocation. In 1712 Burnet published separately bis 'Introduction 
 to the third volume of his History of the Reformation,' in which, 
 having indulged himself in some very strong observations on what he 
 considered the then alarming state of public affairs, be drew upon 
 himself the ridicule and abuse of Swift, who retaliated for the govern- 
 ment in one of the sharpest satires ever written, under the form of 
 'A Preface' to the bishop's ' Introduction.' In 1714 the third volume 
 of the 'History' itself appeared. It is supplementary to the two 
 former. Having now lived to see the accession of the House of 
 Hanover, an event he had always looked forward to with anxious 
 expectation, as the consummation of the system of national policy 
 which he had constantly supported, the bishop died at his house in 
 St. John's-court, Clerkeuwell, London, on the 17th of March 1715. 
 
 The most remarkable of all his works appeared soon after his death, 
 in 2 vols, folio, under the title of ' Bishop Burnet's History of his 
 Own Time, from the restoration of King Charles II. to the Conclusion 
 »f the Treaty of Peace at Utrecht in the Reign of Queen Anne.' It 
 was published by his son Thomas (afterwards one of the judges of 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. L 
 
 the Common Pleas), who prefixed to it an account of his father's life. 
 " Those facts," says the writer, " for which no vouchers are alleged, 
 are taken from the bishop's manuscript notes of his own life, and can 
 be supported further by other testimonies if occasion should require." 
 At the end of subsequent editions there is given ' A Chronological 
 and Particular Account of the Works of the Right Reverend and 
 Learned Dr. Gilbert Burnet, late Lord Bishop of Salisbury, corrected 
 and disposed under proper heads, interspersed with some critical and 
 historical observations, by R. F.' (that is, the Rev. Roger Flexman). 
 This list contains the titles of 58 published sermons, 13 discourses 
 and tracts in divinity, 18 tracts against popery, 26 tracts polemical, 
 political, and miscellaneous, and 25 historical works and tracts. 
 
 Bishop Burnet's ' History of his own Time' was received with a 
 cry of derision by the Tory wits. Swift wrote ' Short Remarks ' on 
 the book ; Arbuthnot parodied it in ' Notes and Memorandums of the 
 
 Six Days preceding the Death of the late Right Rev. ; ' and Pope 
 
 in his ' Memoirs of P. P., Clerk of this Parish,' turned the garrulous 
 and self-important manner of the writer still more successfully into 
 ridicule. In the remarkable one-sidedness of his party zeal, his 
 credulousness and general want of judgment, the looseness of his 
 style, and, as it has been observed, the still greater looseness of his 
 facts, as well as in the too great transparency throughout the whole of 
 "the importance of a man to himself," the bishop undoubtedly gave 
 considerable provocation to these strictures ; but still, after all deduc- 
 tions that can fairly be made, the ' History ' is a highly-interesting 
 and valuable performance, and has preserved accounts of many curious 
 transactions which otherwise would have remained concealed from 
 posterity. Like everything else also that is known of the author, 
 although it shows him to have been possessed of a considerable share 
 of vanity and bustling officiousness, and not to have been a person of 
 the most capacious judgment, its testimony is very favourable to the 
 excellence of his heart and moral nature, to his disinterestedness, his 
 courage, his public spirit, and even to his ability and talent within 
 the proper range of his powers. Even many of his prejudices in 
 some degree did him honour. He certainly was not in general a good 
 writer; but besides his want of taste, he rarely allowed himself 
 sufficient time either for the collection and examination of bis mate- 
 rials, or for their effective arrangement and exposition. Yet, with 
 rarely anything like elegance, there is a fluency and sometimes a rude 
 strength in his style which make his works upon the whole readable 
 enough. 
 
 Dryden has introduced Burnet in the third part of his ' Hind and 
 Panther,' in the character of King Buzzard, and sketched him per- 
 sonally, morally, and intellectually in some strong lines. The delinea- 
 tion however is that of a personal as well as a political enemy ; for 
 the bishop, who had little respect for poets, and who for his con- 
 temptuous mention of 'one Prior' has not unjustly been pilloried in 
 a well-known epigram as ' one Burnet,' after the fashion of his own 
 phraseology — had chosen in one of his pamphlets, with great reck- 
 lessness of assertion, to speak of Dryden as a monster of profligacy. 
 
 The best editions of Bishop Burnet's great work, his ' History of 
 the Reformation,' are those published at Oxford, in 7 vols. 8vo (the 
 index forming the last) in 1829, with a valuable preface by Dr. E. 
 Nares, and again with additional matter under the editorial care of 
 Dr. Routh in 1852. 
 
 * BURNET, JOHN, engraver and writer on art, was born at Fisher- 
 row, near Edinburgh, in March 1784. He studied engraving under 
 Robert Scott of Edinburgh, and was a student in the Trustees' 
 Academy in that city, along with Wilkie, by engravings from whose 
 pictures he subsequently became known to the public. When he first 
 came to London to pursue his art, Mr. Burnet was for some time 
 employed on book-plates; but Wilkie having given him his 'Jew's 
 Harp ' to engrave, be produced a print which was so much admired 
 that the more important picture of the ' Blind Fiddler ' was at once 
 entrusted to him. This engraving of the ' Blind Fiddler ' increased 
 the good opinion his first print had won. He afterwards engraved 
 from Wilkie's pictures, the ' Rent Day,' which had a remarkable 
 success ; the ' Rabbit on the Wall ; ' the ' Chelsea Pensioners reading 
 the Gazette of the Battle of Waterloo,' his largest and most elaborate 
 production ; the ' Letter of Introduction ; ' the ' Village School,' and 
 two or three others. Mr. Burnet, though best known by bis engravings 
 from Wilkie, has engraved several plates from other recent painters, 
 for Forster's ' British Gallery,' four or five after the pictures by 
 Rembrandt in the National Gallery, for the work published by the 
 Associated Engravers, &c. He has also produced engravings from 
 several of his own paintings, the most important being ' Greenwich 
 Pensioners receiving News of the Battle of Trafalgar,' intended as a 
 companion to Wilkie's ' CheLea Pensioners,' and engraved on the 
 same scale. Some years back Mr. Burnet devoted considerable atten- 
 tion to the application of mechanical appliances to engraving, and 
 produced some copies from the cartoons of Raffaelle in a kind of 
 mezzotint, as the results of his experiment ; but though they were 
 produced at a comparatively low price, they were too deficient in 
 bz-illiancy to attract popular attention. Mr. Burnet has moreover 
 been a diligent writer on the theory of art. His chief work is his 
 'Practical Treatise on Painting,' 4to, 1822-27, published first in sepa- 
 rate divisions, entitled ' Hints on Composition,' ' On Light and Shade,' 
 and ' On Colour.' Although wanting in a due recognition of the higher 
 
1043 
 
 BURNET, THOMAS. 
 
 BURNEY, CHARLES. 
 
 1014 
 
 principles of art, the work forms a useful introduction to its conventional 
 rules. His other works are — 'An Essay on the Education of the Eye 
 with Reference to Painting,' 4to, 1837 ; 'Practical Essays on Various 
 Branches of the Fine Arts,' 12rao, 1848; 'Landscape Painting in Oil 
 Colours,' 4to, 1849 ; ' Rembrandt and his Works,' 4to, 1849 ; ' Practical 
 Hints on Portrait Painting,' 4to, 1850; 'Life and Works of J. M. W. 
 Turner,' 4to, 1852, written in conjunction with Mr. P. Cunningham; 
 and ' The Progress of a Painter,' 8vo, 1854. All these works are 
 illustrated by numerous engravings drawn and executed by himself. 
 
 BURNET, THOMAS, was born at Croft, in Yoikshire, about the 
 year 1635. After having been instructed at the free school of 
 Northallerton he was entered at Clare Hall, Cambridge, under the 
 tuition of Dr. Tillotson. On the promotion of Ur. Cudworth in 1654 
 from the mastership of Clare Hall to that of Christ's College, Burnet 
 removed thither with him. He was elected fellow of Christ's College 
 in 1657, and four years afterwards filled the office of senior proctor. 
 On leaving the university he became travelling tutor to the Earl of 
 Wiltshire, eldest sou of the Marquis of Winchester (soon after the 
 revolution created Duke of Bolton), and gave so much satisfaction that 
 he was afterwards invited to accompany the Earl of Ossory, grandson 
 of the first Duke of Ormond, in a similar capacity. 
 
 Burnet's first publication after his return, and the work on which his 
 fame almost exclusively rests, was in Latin, ' Telluris Theoria Sacra,' 
 1680. Five years after its appearance he was elected master of the 
 Charterhouse. The first opposition to the dispensing power which 
 James II. thought fit to assumowas made by Dr. Burnet about eighteen 
 months after his election to the mastership of the Charterhouse. The 
 king addressed a letter to the governors, ordering them to admit one 
 Andrew Popham as pensioner whenever such a place should become 
 vacant in their hospital, without tendering to him any oath, or 
 requiring of him any subscription or recognition, in conformity with 
 the doctrine and the discipline of the Church of England; and this 
 was to be done notwithstanding any statute, order, or constitution of 
 the said hospital to the contrary, with which the king was graciously 
 pleased to dispense. Lord Chancellor Jeffries was present, and moved 
 that they should proceed to vote without any debate; but Burnet, 
 who as junior governor was called upon to vote first, delivered his 
 opinion that by express Act of Parliament, 3 Car. L, no officer could 
 be admitted into that hospital without taking the oaths of allegiance 
 and supremacy. An attempt was made, but without effect, to overrule 
 this opinion. The Duke of Ormond supported Burnet, and on the 
 vote being put Popham was rejected ; and notwithstanding the threats 
 of the king and of the Romanist party, no member of that communion 
 was ever admitted into the Charterhouse. 
 
 Thus barred from the hope of court preferment during the remainder 
 of the reign of James II., Burnet employed himself in writing in Latin 
 the second part of his theory 'DeConflagratione Mundi,' which appeared 
 in quarto in 1689. He had already in 1684 translated the first part 
 into English, and he added the second part in the course of the year 
 in which it appeared in Latin; if indeed those may be called trans- 
 lations which he himself terms " new compositions upou the same 
 ground, there being several additional chapters, and several new 
 moulded." 
 
 On the promotion of Archbishop Tillotson, and by special recom- 
 mendation of that prelate, Burnet succeeded him as clerk of the closet 
 to KiDg William III., and was considered to be on the sure road to 
 preferment. These prospects however were marred by a work which 
 he put forth in 1 692, under the title of ' Archseologire Philosophicse, 
 sive Doctrina Antiqua de Rerum Originibus.' The work was replete 
 with learning, but the Mosaic account of the Fall was treated as an 
 allegory, with an appearance of levity which gave offence to serious men, 
 and of which Burnet afterwards repented. It contains an imaginary 
 dialogue between Eve and the serpent. The cry raised against him 
 was much increased by the unseasonable praise bestowed by Charles 
 Blount, a professed infidel, and it was thought expedient that Burnet 
 should retire from the clerkship of the king's closet. The remainder 
 of his days was passed in retirement at the Charter-house, where he 
 died September 27, 1715, and was buried in the chapel of that insti- 
 tution, over which he had presided during thirty years. 
 
 Few works have called forth higher contemporary eulogy thau 'The 
 Sacred Theory of the Earth.' It will not indeed stand the test of 
 being confronted with the known facts of the history of the earth ; 
 and Flamsteed observed of it that he " could overthrow its doctrine 
 on one sheet of paper, and that there went more to the making of the 
 world than a fine-turned period." Its mistakes arise from too close 
 adherence to the philosophy of Des Cartes, and an ignorance of those 
 facts without a knowledge of which such an attempt, however iugenious, 
 can only be considered as a visionary system of cosmogony ; but what- 
 ever may be its failure as a work of science, it has rarely been exceeded 
 in splendour of imagination, or in high poetical conception. Burnet 
 printed during his lifetime a few copies of a tract in Latin, ' De Statu 
 Mortuorum et Resurgentium,' one of which having fallen into the 
 hands of Dr. Mead was handsomely reprinted by that great patron of 
 letters, who did not know the name of its author, as a present to some 
 few select friends. Only twenty-five copies were printed in quarto ; 
 Maittaire revised the text, and made many blunders by inserting 
 at improper places manuscript notes and additions from the author's 
 own interleaved copy. Upon this the executor of Burnet lent Mead a 
 
 corrected copy, from which fifty were printed. It was afterwards 
 surreptitiously published, as well as another in Latin, 'De Fide et 
 Officiis Christianorum,' in consequence of which Mr. Wilkinson, a 
 friend of the deceased author to whom his papers had come, repub- 
 lished them in 1727 from Burnet's own corrected copies. To a second 
 edition of the first tract, in 1733, is added an appendix ' De Futura 
 Judieorum Restoratione,' which it appeared that Burnet had designed 
 so to place. 
 
 BURNETT, GILBERT THOMAS, was born in Marylebone, on the 
 
 15th of April, 1800. He was educated for the medical profession, and 
 paid particular attention to botany. He commenced lecturing on 
 botany at the Hunterian theatre in Windinill-street, and afterwards 
 lectured at the St. George's School of Medicine. On the foundation 
 of King's College he was appointed to the Chair of Botany, and in 
 1833 he became lecturer to the Society of Apothecaries, and delivered 
 two courses at their gardens at Chelsea. In the same year he pub- 
 lished his ' Outlines of Botany,' in 2 vols. 8vo. This work contained 
 an outline of the author's lectures on botany in King's College. It 
 displays great research ; is a valuable depositary relating to the 
 history and uses of plants ; and it contains a very extended intro- 
 duction to the study of cryptogamio plants. The author however 
 was too fond of mere verbal classification, and has overlaid the whole 
 work with divisions and subdivisions that rather confuse the student 
 than enable him to discover the valuable matter which the work other- 
 wise contains. Mr. Burnett was latterly too much occupied with the 
 bringing out this great work to devote himself to original research. 
 That he was capable of this is however proved by his papers, published 
 from time to time in the ' Journal of Science and Art,' on various 
 branches of natural history, comparative anatomy, and zoology, as 
 well as botany. The most important are those devoted to physiological 
 botany. He also contributed several papers on medical subjects to 
 the ' Lancet ' and ' Medical Gazette,' and was an active member of the 
 Westminster Medical and the Medico-botanical Societies. 
 
 As a lecturer, Professor Burnett was remarkable for his fluent and 
 graceful style, and his amiable manners won for him the respect and 
 esteem of his pupils. He died July the 27th 1835, of pulmonary 
 consumption. He continued his lectures till within a few days of his 
 death. A bust, subscribed for by his pupils, and executed by Behnes, 
 was erected to his memory at King's College. 
 
 BURNETT, JAMES. [Mondoddo.] 
 
 BURNETT, JOHN, was admitted advocate at the Scots bar on the 
 10th of December, 1785, in the twenty-first year of his age. In 1792 
 he was made one of the deputies to the lord advocate of Scotland, 
 and so continued till October 1803, when, on the resignation of Law 
 of Livingstone, he was appointed sheriff of the shire of Haddington. 
 In this place he remained till April 1810, when he was promoted to 
 be judge admiral of Scotland. He was also some time standing 
 counsel to the city of Aberdeen. Mr. Burnett is known as the author 
 of a valuable treatise on various branches of the criminal law of 
 Scotland, which was passing through the press at the time of his 
 death, the 8th of December 1810. 
 
 BURNEY, CHARLES, Mus. D., was born at Shrewsbury in 1726. 
 He received his earliest education at the free-school of Shrewsbury, 
 but soon removed to the public school at Chester ; in which city he 
 commenced his musical studies, under Mr. Baker, organist of the 
 cathedral, and a disciple of the famous Dr. Blow. When he had 
 attained his fifteenth year he returned to his native place, and received 
 f urther instructions in the art of music, from an elder half-brother, 
 the organist of St. Mary's, Shrewsbury. He then went to London, 
 and was placed for a term of three years under Dr. Arne, but owing 
 to the irregular habits of that distinguished composer, Bumey learnt 
 much less from him than from the many opportunities afforded in the 
 metropolis of hearing the best music, especially that of Handel per- 
 formed under the direction of the great master himself. 
 
 In 1749 Mr. Burney was elected organist of a church in the city; 
 and about the same period he engaged to take the harpsichord at a 
 subscription concert, held at the King's Arms, Cornhill. He was now 
 introduced to the great actress, the idol of the theatre, Mrs. Gibber, 
 sister of Dr. Arne, at whose house in Scotland-yard he became 
 acquainted with most of the wits, poets, and men of letters of the 
 day ; and by his courteous manners, lively conversation, and powers 
 of pleasing, laid the foundation of that intimacy with persons eminent 
 for talent or elevated by birth and fortune, which proved of the utmost 
 importance to him in after-life. This also led to his composing the 
 music of three pieces for Drury-Lane theatre — Mallet's tragedy of 
 'Alfred,' Mendoz's burletta, 'Robin Hood,' and Woodward's panto- 
 mime, ' Queen Mab.' The success of the latter was remarkable ; " it 
 was taught to all young ladies, set to all barrel-organs, and played at 
 all familiar music-parties." Nevertheless the young composer pre- 
 served a strict incognito, which his daughter, Madame D'Arblay, 
 accounts for by supposing that as he was still under articles to Dr. 
 Arne, he " was disfranchised from the liberty of publishing in his own 
 name." But from this thraldom he was emancipated by one into 
 whose favour he had ingratiated himself, the accomplished Fulke 
 Greville, Esq., then considered "the finest gentleman about town," 
 who proposed terms to Dr. Arne for the release of his pupil, which 
 were accepted, and Mr. Burney became an iuuiate in the house of his 
 patron. His residence at Mr. Greville's seat, Wilbury House, near 
 
1016 
 
 BURNEY, CHARLES. 
 
 BURNS, ROBERT. 
 
 1046 
 
 Andover, was the means of much extending his intercourse with the 
 literati and persons of rank. 
 
 Mr. Burney was soon afterwards united to Miss Esther Sleepe, a 
 young lady to whom he was ardently attached, and whose mental and 
 personal qualities have been frequently eulogised. He now settled in 
 London, and may be said to have seriously entered for the first time 
 on his professional career. Scarcely however had a year elapsed, when 
 he was attacked by a dangerous fever, from which he recovered through 
 the assistance of Dr. Armstrong, now only known as a poet. But the 
 disease was followed by symptoms which were thought to indicate 
 consumption, and he was earnestly advised by his physician to quit 
 London : he therefore accepted the situation of organist at Lynn, with 
 a Balary of 100/., and resided in that town nine years. There he 
 designed his great work, the 'General History of Music;' and there 
 too he commeuced that correspondence with Dr. Johnson, which 
 subsequently ripened into intimacy and friendship. 
 
 In 1760, his health being completely restored, Mr. Burney returned 
 to the metropolis, and soon had his time fully occupied by his pro- 
 fessional pursuits. Six years afterwards he produced at Drury-lane 
 theatre the ' Cunning Man,' founded on, and adapted to, the music of 
 Rousseau's 'Devin du Village.' In 1769 the university of Oxford 
 conferred on him the degree of Doctor in Music, on which occasion he 
 produced, as an exercise, an anthem, which was afterwards performed 
 in Germany under the direction of the celebrated Emanuel Bach. 
 His primary object however was his ' History ; ' and in order to collect 
 materials for it he made a personal examination of the great libraries 
 of Europe, aud visited many of the more distinguished professors on 
 the Continent. Of this tour he gave an account in his ' Present State 
 of Music in France and Italy,' a work, the arrangement of which was 
 avowedly imitated by Dr. Johnson, in his ' Tour to the Hebrides.' 
 
 In 1772 Dr. Bumey proceeded again to the continent. In order to 
 complete his inquiries, he found it expedient to visit the Netherlands 
 and Germany. At Vienna he formed an intimacy with Metastasio, 
 and became acquainted with Hasse and Gluek. From the capital of 
 the Austrian dominions he went by Prague, Dresden, and Berlin, to 
 Hamburg. In the latter city he passed a great deal of time with 
 C. P. E. Bach, from whom he gaiued much interesting information 
 concerning the numerous and celebrated family of harmonists, and 
 relative to other objects of his inquiry. In 1773 Dr. Burney was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 The first volume of the ' History of Music' appeared in 1776 ; the 
 second in 1782; and the third and fourth in 1789. The Commemo- 
 ration of Handel in 1784, an event of too much importance to remain 
 imperfectly recorded, likewise employed Dr. Burney's pen. In 1789 
 he was appointed by his friend Edmund Burke organist of Chelsea 
 College, an office which he accepted rather for the sake of airy and 
 desirable apartments, which he was in consequence enabled to obtain, 
 than with a view to the trifling emolument arising out of it. In 1796 
 he produced a ' Life of Metastasio,' in 3 vols. 8vo, a work written in 
 an admirable style, displaying great candour and taste, and highly 
 interesting to the lovers of the lyric drama and music ; though many 
 ot the poet's letters to his friend Farinelli, the once far-famed soprano, 
 might have been spared. His last literary effort was his contribution 
 to the ' Cyclopaedia ' of Rees, for which he supplied all the musical 
 articles, except those of a mathematical character. 
 
 During the whole of his life, Dr. Burney's high Tory principles were 
 openly avowed, though the party never exerted their influence in his 
 favour; but when the Whigs came into power, in 1806, Mr. Wyndham, 
 backed by Mr. Fox, obtained for him a pension of 3001. This solid 
 proof of his country's esteem was followed, four years after, by a 
 testimony to his merits of the most honourable kind — his election as 
 a member of the National Institute of France. From that period 
 Dr. Burney relinquished every pursuit which called for much intel- 
 lectual effort ; he passed the whole of his time in the society of his 
 family and friends, by all of whom he was beloved and admired. But 
 by almost imperceptible degrees his bodily strength diminished, though 
 his mental vigour continued unimpaired, as the writer of this article 
 had many opportunities of witnessing. The severe winter of 1814 
 produced a visible effect on his enfeebled frame, and on the 15th of 
 April he tranquilly expired, at his apartments in Chelsea College. 
 
 Several compositions by Dr. Bumey were published at different 
 periods; but posterity will only view him in his literary and critical 
 character, in which, it is by all agreed, he attained a very high rank. 
 "In all the relations of private life," says ono who knew him well, 
 " as a husband, a father, a friend, his character was exemplary." 
 
 Dr. Burney left two sons and four daughters by his first wife ; and 
 by a second wife — Mrs. Stephen Allen of Lynn, a widow — one 
 daughter. James Burnet, his eldest son, entered early in life into 
 the naval service, and accompanied Captain Cook in his second and 
 third voyages round the world. After an active and honourable career 
 he attained the rank of rear-admiral, and died in 1821, in his seventy- 
 first year. He is perhaps best known as the author of an able and 
 laborious ' History of Voyages of Discovery in the Southern Ocean,' in 
 6 vols. 4to. Dr. Burney's second son, the Rev. Charles Burney, D.D., 
 rector of St. Paul's, Deptford, who survived his father only three 
 years, was known as one of the most learned and accomplished 
 scholars and able critics, more especially in Grecian literature, of his 
 day. His library was, at his death, purchased by the nation at the 
 
 expense of 14.000J., and placed in the British Museum, ffia second 
 daughter, Frances, so well known by her novel ' Evelina,' and by her 
 * Diary,' is noticed elsewhere. [D'Arblay, Madame.] A still younger 
 daughter followed the track of Madame D'Arblay as a novelist, with 
 considerable though not equal success. 
 
 BURNEY, FRANCES. [D'Arblay, Madame.] 
 
 BURNS, ROBERT, was born on the 25th of January 1759, in a 
 small cottage about two miles S.W. from the town of Ayr. His 
 father, William Burness, was the son of a farmer in Kincardineshire, 
 but, in cousequence of the reduced circumstances of his family, he had 
 left that part of Scotland in his youth to seek employment in the 
 south as a gardener. After serving different masters for a number of 
 years, he had on his marriage, in December 1757, taken a perpetual 
 lease, or feu, as it is there called, of seven acres of land, with the view 
 of setting up for himself as a nurseryman. Here he built with his 
 own hands the humble dwelling in which Robert, his eldest son, was 
 born. 
 
 The history of the poet's early life has been very fully related both 
 by himself and by his brother Gilbert. The narrative of the latter, 
 in particular, is one of the most beautiful and touching ever written. 
 The life of William Burness was one continued struggle, which he 
 carried on with the honourable pride common among his countrymen 
 to better his circumstances, and to give his children a good education. 
 Robert was first sent to a school about a mile distant, in his sixth 
 year. Afterwards a young man was engaged by William Burness and 
 four of his neighbours to teach their children in common, his em- 
 ployers buarding him in turns. When they had removed to another 
 situation, which precluded them from this advantage, the good man, 
 after the hard work of the day, endeavoured to instruct his children 
 himself. " In this way," says Gilbert, " my two eldest sisters got all 
 the education they received," Robert obtained a little more school 
 instruction by snatches, but the amount altogether was very incon- 
 siderable. His chief acquisition was some acquaintance with French, 
 aud for this he was almost entirely indebted to himself. What other 
 knowledge he obtained he gathered from the few books, mostly odd 
 volumes, which his father could contrive to borrow. At last, in the 
 beginning of the year 1784, William Burness died, worn out with toil 
 aud sorrow, after living just long enough to learn that a law-suit in 
 which he was engaged with his landlord had been terminated by a 
 decision which involved his family in ruin. He left five children 
 younger than Robert and Gilbert. 
 
 In these circumstances the youth and early manhood of the future 
 poet were dark enough. " The cheerless gloom of a Hermit," he says 
 himself, " with the unceasing moil of a galley-slave, brought me to 
 my sixteenth year." His brother Gilbert writes, " To the bufferings 
 of misfortune we could only oppose hard labour and the most rigid 
 economy. We lived very sparing. For several years butchers' meat 
 was a stranger in the house, while all the members of the family 
 exerted themselves to the utmost of their strength, and rather beyond 
 it, in the labours of the farm. My brother, at the age of thirteen, 
 assisted in threshing the crop of corn, and at fifteen was the principal 
 labourer on the farm, for we had no hired servant, male or female. 
 The anguish of mind we felt, at our tender years, under these straits 
 
 and difficulties was very great I doubt not but the hard 
 
 labour and sorrow of this period of his life was in a great measure the 
 cause of that depression of spirits with which Robert was so often 
 afflicted through his whole life afterwards." Some time before their 
 father's death, and when his affairs were drawing to a crisis, the two 
 brothers had taken another farm, which they stocked in the best way 
 they could with the savings of the whole family. " It was," says 
 Gilbert, "a joint concern among us. Every member of the family 
 was allowed ordinary wages for the labour he performed on the farm. 
 My brother's allowance and mine was 71. per annum each ; and during 
 the whole time this family concern lasted, which was four years, as 
 well as during the preceding period at Loehlea, his expenses never in 
 
 any year exceeded his slender income His temperance and 
 
 frugality were everything that could be wished." 
 
 A little before his sixteenth year, as he tells us himself, he had 
 " first committed the sin of rhyme." His verses soon acquired him 
 considerable village fame, to which, as he made acquaintances in Ayr 
 and other neighbouring towns with young men of his own age, he 
 greatly added by the remarkable fluency of his expression and the 
 vigour of his conversational powers. The charm of those social 
 meetings, at which he shone with so much distinction, gradually intro- 
 duced him to new habits. Yet his brother affirms that he does " not 
 recollect till towards the end of his commencing author (when his 
 growiug celebrity occasioned his being often in company) to have ever 
 seen him intoxicated." His attachment to female society also, which 
 had from his youth been very strong, was now no longer confined 
 within those "bounds of rigid virtue," says his brother, "which had 
 hitherto restrained him. Towards the end of the period under review 
 (iu his twenty-fourth year), and soon after his father's death, he was 
 furnished with the subject of his 'Epistle to John Rankin.'" 
 
 Another affair of this description soon after determined the whole 
 subsequent course of his life. This was his connection with Jean 
 Armour, afterwards Mrs. Burns, the fruit of which was the birth of 
 twins. In the difficulties and distress to which both parties were 
 reduced by the consequences of their imprudence, it was agreed between 
 
1047 BURNS, ROBERT. 
 
 them that they should make a legal acknowledgment of an irregular 
 and private marriage, and that he should then set out for Jamaica to 
 push his fortune. "But before leaving my native country for ever," 
 he says, " I resolved to publish my poems. I weighed my productions 
 as impartially as was in my power ; I thought they had merit ; and it 
 was a delicious idea that I should be called a clever fellow, even 
 though it should never reach my ears." An impression of 600 copies 
 of the work accordingly was printed at Kilmarnock. This was in the 
 autumn of 1786. The poems were well received by the public, and after 
 paying all expenses the author cleared nearly 201. " This sum," he 
 says, "came very seasonably, as I was thinking of indenting myself, 
 for want of money to procure my passage. As soon as I was master 
 of nine guineas, the price of waftiug me to the torrid zone, I took a 
 steerage passage in the first ship that was to sail from the Clyde, for 
 ' hungry ruin had me in the wind.' I had been for some days skulking 
 from covert to covert under all the terrors of a jail, as some ill-advised 
 people had uncoupled the merciless pack of the law at my heels." 
 This was to oblige him to find security for the maintenance of his 
 children; for the parents of the mother were so indignant that, not- 
 withstanding what had happened, they would not allow the marriage 
 to take place, and the children to be legitimatised. He proceeds : " I 
 had taken farewell of my few friends ; my chest was on the road to 
 Greenock ; I had composed the last song I should ever measure in 
 Caledonia, ' The gloomy night is gathering fast,' when a letter from 
 Dr. Blacklock to a friend of mine overthrew all uiy schemes by opening 
 new prospects to my poetic ambition. The doctor belouged to a set 
 of critics for whose applause I had not dared to hope. His opinion 
 that I would meet with encouragement in Edinburgh for a second 
 edition find me so much, that away I posted for that city, without a 
 single acquaintance or a single letter of introduction." 
 
 The result was the introduction of the poet to all who were eminent 
 in literature, in rank, or in fashion, in the Scottish metropolis. The 
 brilliant conversational powers of the unlettered ploughman seem to 
 have struck all with whom he came in contact with as much wonder 
 as his poetry. Under the patronage of the Eail of Oleucairn, Dr, 
 Robertson, Professor Dugald Stewart, Mr. Heury Mackenzie, and other 
 persons of note, a new edition of his poems was publi-hed, from the 
 profits of which he received nearly 5001. In the spring of 1788 he 
 returned to Ayrshire, where his brother Gilbert, who had taken upon 
 him the support of their aged mother, was struggling with many 
 difficulties in the farm they had conjointly taken. Robert advanced 
 2001., and with the remainder of his money he prepared to stock 
 another farm— that of Ellisland in Dumfriesshire — for himself. Here 
 he took up his abode in June 1788, having previously legalised his 
 union with Miss Armour by joining with her in a public declaration 
 of their marriage. 
 
 Soon after this, by the interest of Mr. Graham of Fintry, he was 
 appointed, on his own application, an officer of excise for the district in 
 which he lived. The salary which he received in this capacity was origi- 
 nally 501. a year, but was eventually increased to 701. His duties however 
 interfered so much with the attention due to his farm, that he found 
 himself obliged to resign the farm to his landlord, after having occupied 
 it for about three years and a half. About the end of the year 1791 
 he retired with his family to a small house in the town of Dumfries, 
 placing his dependence for the future exclusively on his chances of 
 promotion in the excise. 
 
 In Dumfries Burns spent the short remainder of his life. The habits 
 which he had acquired during the sudden and short-lived intoxication 
 of his first introduction to public notice now gained entire ascendancy 
 over him, as misfortune and disappointment broke or at least embit- 
 tered his spirit, and enfeebled his powers of resistance. The strong 
 excitements of admiration and applause by which he had been sur- 
 rounded at Edinburgh were sought for at any cost, and among 
 companions of any order who would join him iu drowning reflection. 
 Even the prospects upon which he had placed his reliance of advance- 
 ment in the excise were suddenly overcast in consequence of some 
 imprudent expressions which he had dropped on the subject of the 
 French revolution, to which some despicable informer had called the 
 notice of the board. It was only through the exertions of his friend 
 Mr. Graham, on this occasion, that he was saved from being dismissed. 
 Ill-health and great dejection of spirits at last came upon him, along 
 with the pressure of accumulating pecuniary difficulties. He had 
 produced many of his happiest pieces, and especially the best and the 
 greatest number of his songs, since the appearance of the first Edinburgh 
 edition of his poems. The songs were principally contributed to an 
 Edinburgh publication called Johnson's 'Museum,' and afterwards to 
 a work of much greater pretension, the well-known ' Collection of 
 Original Scottish Airs,' edited and published by Mr. George Thomson. 
 Burns's correspondence with Thomson on the subject of his contri- 
 butions to this work has been printed, and forms a highly-interesting 
 series of letters, as well as an affecting chapter in the poet's history. 
 
 He died July 21st 1796. His remains were consigned to the 
 earth with the solemnities of a public funeral, which was rendered 
 remarkably imposing by the voluntary attendance of a vast multitude 
 of persons of all ranks from every part of the surrounding country. 
 Burns left four sons (besides a boy who died in his infancy), two of 
 whom entered the East India Company's army : one of these has risen 
 to the rank of colonel. 
 
 BURTON, JOHN HILL. iota 
 
 The first collected edition of the poems and letters of Burns wa« 
 published by Dr. Currie at Liverpool, in 4 vols. 8vo, in 1800, for the 
 benefit of the poet's wife and family. Of the accounts of his life that 
 have appeared since that by Dr. Currie, the most important are that 
 by Mr. Lockhart, first published in 1828, that by Mr. Allan Cunning- 
 ham, prefixed to his edition of the works of Burns, in 8 vols. 12mo, 
 London, 1834, and that by Mr. R. Chambers comprised with the Works 
 of Burns in 4 volumes. 
 
 The history of literature scarcely affords another instance of a popu- 
 larity either so sudden or so complete as that obtained by the poetry 
 of Burns. Even in his own lifetime, and indeed almost immediately 
 after his genius first burst into public notice, his name and his poems 
 were familiar to all ranks of his countrymen. Nor did the enthu- 
 siasm for his poetry die away with the generation among whom it 
 was first kindled. His works are still everywhere a cottage-book in 
 his own land, and thoy are read wherever the English language is 
 understood. 
 
 No poetry was ever better fitted to obtain extensive popularity than 
 that of Burns. It has little of either grandeur or richness of imagina- 
 tion, qualities that demand much cultivation of mind as well as a 
 somewhat rare endowment of the poetic temperament for their appre- 
 ciation and enjoyment. It is all heart and passion, and every human 
 bosom capable of feeling strongly must be stirred by its fire and 
 tenderness. The themes which Burns has chosen are all of the kind 
 which come home to the natural feelings of men, and his mode of 
 treating them is the most simple and direct. In what he has written, 
 in his native dialect at least, there is nowhere anythiug of mere 
 rhetorical ornament or display. The expression is throughout, as 
 truly as that of auy poetry ever was, the spontaneous utterance of the 
 thought or sentiment, which falls into measured words as if it and they 
 were struck out together by the same creative act. In his lyrical 
 pieces especially, the passion, and the language, and the melody which 
 is 1 married ' to the ' immortal verse,' seem to come all in one gush 
 from the full fountain of the heart. In this exquisite truth of style 
 no writer in any lauguage has surpassed Burns. But, with all his 
 nature, he is, like every great writer, also a great artist, nature being 
 the inspiration of his art. Nothing can be more masterly — more 
 demonstrative both of high skill and of general elevation of mind — 
 than the manner in which he triumphs over the disadvantages of a 
 dialect so much vulgarised as that of Scotland had come to be at the 
 time when he wrote. Of mere licence and indecorum there is cer- 
 tainly no want in some of his productions; but notwithstanding the 
 familiar character of his subjects and the freedom of his diction, even 
 in his broadest humour, in his moat unpardonable violations of moral 
 propriety, iu the rudest riot of his merriment aud eatire, there is never 
 anything that is mean or grovelling, anything that offeuds our sense 
 of what is noble and elevated. Some of the most immoral of his 
 pieces are distinguished by a studied propriety of expression springing 
 from the finest taste aud mo3t delicate sensibility to the beautiful. 
 
 * BURRITT, ELIHU, was born in New Britain, Connecticut, 
 United States, on the bth of December 1811, and was the youngest of 
 ten children. His father was a shoemaker. Elihu had only about 
 three months tuition at the district school, till after the term of his 
 apprenticeship to the village blacksmith had expired, when, having 
 in the meantime laboured hard at self-instruction, he became a 
 student for six months under his brother Elijah, who was a school- 
 master. At this period he made considerable progress in mathe- 
 matics, and in the Latin and French languages. On returning to his 
 employment as a blacksmith, in which he was engaged from ten to 
 twelve hours daily, he diligently prosecuted the study of languages, 
 and managed, he says, to acquire a knowledge of Greek, Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Spanish, Danish, Bohemian, and Polish. Mr. Everett, the 
 governor of Massachusetts, having heard some extraordinary accounts 
 of the attainments of a young blacksmith at Worcester, invited him 
 to Boston, where he received much attention aud kindness. Returning 
 to his labours, he continued his studies, and in 1842 translated some 
 of the Icelandic Sagas. He also supplied to the 'Americau Eclectic 
 Review' a series of translations from the Samaritan, Arabic, and 
 Hebrew, and was in the habit of delivering lectures on literary and 
 scientific subjects. In 1843 he began to study the Ethiopic, PersiaD, 
 and Turkish languages. In 1844 he commenced the publication of a 
 newspaper entitled ' The Christiau Citizeu.' 
 
 Mr. Burritt has taken a leading part in advocating the principles of 
 the society calling itself the ' League of Universal Brotherhood.' He 
 has also lectured and spoken for the temperance and anti-slavery 
 societies. He first visited England in June 1845, and from that time 
 till the present he has been occupied in promoting the extension of 
 what are called 'peace and brotherhood' principles, and in urging 
 the adoption of an ocean penuy postage. Iu pursuit of these objects 
 he has had a principal share in convening congresses of representa- 
 tives of peace societies, at London, Paris, Brussels, and Frankfurt ; and 
 has likewise revisited his native country. The ' Bond of Brother- 
 hood,' a small periodical issued by the ' League,' is chiefly the pro- 
 duction of Mr. Burritt. His other literary productions include, 
 ' Sparks from the Anvil,' ' A Voice from the Forge,' and ' Peace Papers ; 
 also ' Walks to John o' Groat's House,' and to the Land's End. 
 
 * BURTON, JOHN HILL, son of Lieutenant Burton of the 94th 
 regiment of foot, was educated for the Scottish law, and passed advo- 
 
1049 
 
 BURTON, ROBERT. 
 
 BUSBEQUIUS, A. G. 
 
 1050 
 
 cate in 1831. He was a contributor to the later volumes and to the 
 Supplement of the ' Penny Cyclopaedia,' chiefly on subjects connected 
 with Scottish law. In 1842 Mr. Burton assisted Sir John Bowring 
 in preparing for the press the edition of the collected works of 
 Jeremy Bentham, which was published at Edinburgh in parts. After 
 the completion of that publication, Mr. Burton in 1843 wrote an 
 * Introduction to the Study of the Works of Jeremy Bentham,' and 
 also ' Benthamiana, or Select Extracts from the Works of Jeremy 
 Bentham.' In the ' Introduction ' Mr. Burton enters into an explana- 
 tion of the views of Bentham, and classifies his works according to 
 their nature, extent, and success, and also defends him for certain 
 peculiarities of nomenclature, and against those who have charged 
 him with obscurity of style. The ' Benthamiana ' is subsidiary to the 
 ' Introduction,' exhibiting Bentham's principles and opinions in his 
 own words. In 1846 he published ' The Life and Correspondence of 
 David Hume,' 2 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh; in 1847 ' Lives of Lord Lovat 
 and Duncan Forbes of Culloden,' 8vo, London ; in 1849 he edited 
 ' Letters of Eminent Persons addressed to David Hume : from the 
 Papers bequeathed by his Nephew to the Royal Society of Edinburgh/ 
 8vo, Edinburgh, 1849, and wrote 'Political and Social Economy,' 
 16mo, Edinburgh, one of a series of ' books for the people' issued by 
 the Messrs. Chambers. In 1851 he published ' Emigration in its 
 Practical Application to Individuals and Communities,' 12mo, Edin- 
 burgh, 1851 ; and in 1852, ' Narratives from Criminal Trials in Scot- 
 land,' 2 vols. 8vo, London. The most important narrative of this 
 series is that of the trial of Captain Green for piracy. Green was 
 captain of an English merchant vessel, and the piracy was committed 
 on the crew and cargo of a vessel fitted out by the Scotch Darien 
 Company. Captain Green was found guilty, and was executed 
 April 9, 1705. Mr. Burton's account is mainly drawn from materials 
 which he found in an old chest in a cellar belonging to the Advocates' 
 Library. The chest contained a mass of papers connected with the 
 concerns of the Darien Company, which was established in 1695. In 
 1853 Mr. Burton published ' The History of Scotland, from the Revolu- 
 tion to the Extinction of the Jacobite Insurrection,' 2 vols. 8vo, London. 
 This work embraces a period of about sixty years, from 1689 to 1748, 
 and includes an account of the re-establishment of Presbyterianism in 
 Scotland after the Revolution, the Union with England, the insurrec- 
 tion of 1715, and the insurrection of 1745. Mr. Burton has also pub- 
 lished a ' Manual of the Law of Scotland,' and a ' Treatise on the Law 
 of Bankruptcy,' in that country. In 1854 he was appointed Secretary 
 to the Prison Board of Scotland. 
 
 BURTON, ROBERT, author of the ' Anatomy of Melancholy,' was 
 born at Lindley, in the county of Leicester, on the 8th of February, 
 1576, and was descended of a reputable and ancient family. He 
 received part of his education at the grammar-school of Sutton Cold- 
 field, in the county of Warwick ; and was admitted a commoner of 
 Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1593, where he made considerable pro- 
 gress in logic and philosophy. In 1599 he was elected student of 
 Christchurcb. In 1616 he was presented to the vicarage of St. Thomas, 
 in the gift of that college; and at a later period, after the year 1628, 
 he was presented by Lord Berkeley to the rectory of Segrave in 
 Leicestershire. It is said that he composed the ' Anatomy of Melan- 
 choly,' published in 1621, with the intent of diverting his own 
 thoughts from that feeling. .These are all the facts and dates recorded 
 by Anthony Wood concerning Burton's life. He died at Christchurch 
 on the 25th of January, 1639-40, at or very near the time which he had 
 before foretold, from the calculation of his own nativity. This coin- 
 cidence gave rise to a rumour which probably was jocose rather than 
 serious, at least there is not a particle of evidence to support it, that 
 he hastened his own death that his astrological skill might not be put 
 to shame. He bequeathed two sums of 100^. each to the Bodleian 
 and the Christchurch library, the annual proceeds to be employed in 
 purchasing books ; and he also ordered that those two establishments 
 should select from hi3 own collection any books which they did not 
 possess. Those acquired by the Bodleian are said by Bliss, in his 
 edition of Wood's ' Athena? Oxon.,' to form one of the most curious 
 additions ever made to that collection. " They consist of all the 
 historical, political, and poetical tracts of his own time ; with a large 
 collection of miscellaneous accounts of murders, monsters, and acci- 
 dents. In short, he seems to have purchased indiscriminately every- 
 thing that was published." 
 
 Wood gives the following character of Burton : — " He was an exact 
 mathematician, a curious calculator of nativities, a general-read 
 scholar, a thorough-paced philologist, and one that understood the 
 surveying of lands well. As he was by many accounted a severe 
 student, a devourer of authors, a melancholy and humourous person, 
 so by others who knew him well, a person of great honesty, plain 
 dealing, and charity. I have heard some of the ancients of Christ- 
 church often say that his company was very merry, facete, and 
 juvenile; and no man in his time did surpass him for his ready and 
 dexterous interlarding his common discourses among them with verses 
 from the poets, or sentences from classical authors ; which, being then 
 »11 the fashion in the university, made his company more acceptable." 
 
 We give the title jt length, as it contains also an analysis, of his 
 famous work : — ' The Anatomy of Melancholy : what it is, with all 
 the kinds, causes, symptomc3, prognosticks, and severall cures of it. 
 Ia three maine partitions, with their severall sections, members, and 
 
 subsections. Philosophically, medicinally, historically opened and cut 
 up. By I Jemocritus Junior. With a satyricall Preface, conducing to 
 the following Discourse. Macrob. Oinne rneum; nihil meum.' In 
 defence of this title, he says : — " It is a kind of policy in these days 
 to prefix a fantastical title to a book which is to be sold ; for as larka 
 come down to a day-net, many vain readers will tarry and stand 
 gazing." The name of Democritus Junior is introduced in the inscrip- 
 tion on his monument in Christchurch cathedral ; on which the calcu- 
 lation of his nativity was also engraved. A plate of it is given in 
 Nichols's ' History of Leicester,' vol. iii. p. 418, from which, together 
 with the ' Athense Oxoniensis,' this article is compiled. The 
 'Anatomy,' &c, at first was very popular, and went through five 
 editions before tho author's death. Towards the close of the 17th 
 century it fell into oblivion, and was seldom seen except on book- 
 stalls, until brought iuto notice by Johnson (who said that it was the 
 only book that ever took him out of bed two hours sooner than he 
 wished to rise), Wartou, and others. Mr. Steeveus in hi3 own copy 
 noted a rise in price, within a few years, from eighteen pence to a 
 guinea and a half. Since that time one edition at least has been pub- 
 lished. Sterne was largely indebted to Burtou's peculiar humour, 
 though he never acknowledged it : many even of his stories are copied 
 word for word from the 'Anatomy of Melancholy :' this Dr. Ferriar 
 has fully shown in his ' Illustrations of Sterne,' 1798. The ' Anatomy 
 of Melancholy ' displays that extent and variety of out-of-the-way 
 reading to which Sterne was a pretender ; it is termed a ' cento ' by 
 its author, and consists chiefly of an immense mass of quotations, 
 bearing on a great variety of subjects, some very little connected 
 with the main topic of the work. It is a book which will always be 
 relished by men of scholarly habits, for its abundant learning and dry, 
 quaint, and often splenetic humour. And we may add that Sterne is 
 not the only writer who has resorted to the 'Anatomy of Melancholy ' 
 as to a common place-book, for learned garnishings of his literary 
 wares. 
 
 Not to be confounded with the above is the author of a number of 
 cheap books published about the beginning of the 18th century, with 
 the name of Robert Burton in the title-page. 
 
 BUSBE'QUIUS, A. G., a celebrated traveller and ambassador of the 
 16th century. His real name was Auger Gislen de Busbec, which, 
 according to the practice of his age aud country, was Latinised into 
 Augerius Gislenius Busbequius. He was born at Commines, a town 
 in Flanders, about 1522, and was the illegitimate son of the lord of 
 Busbec, a nobleman of ancient family, who brought him up in his 
 own house, and spared no care or expense in his education. The boy 
 made such rapid progress in his studies, and his disposition, person, 
 and abilities, were so promising, that his father became very fond of 
 him, and was induced to obtain from his sovereign, the emperor 
 Charles V., a rescript of legitimacy in his favour. When he grew up, 
 Busbequius was sent to study in the beat schools and universities on 
 the continent — to Louvain, Paris, Venice, Bologna, and Padua; at 
 which several places he associated with the most learned professors 
 and distinguished men of his times. Having finished his academical 
 studies and returned from Italy, he visited London, where he passed 
 some time with Don Pedro Lasso, ambassador at the English court 
 from Ferdinand, then titular king of the Romans, but shortly after- 
 wards Ferdinand I., emperor of Germany. During his stay in England 
 he was present as one of the ambassador's suite at the solemnisation 
 of the marriage between Philip II. of Spain and Queen Mary of 
 England, in 1554. Shortly after this he returned to Flanders. His 
 reputation for ability, knowledge, aud experience in public affairs stood 
 so high, and his friends at the court of Vienna were so influential, that 
 on the 3rd of November of the same year he received a letter from 
 Ferdiuand, advising him that he was destined for the important post 
 of ambassador to Constantinople, and that he must begin his journey 
 immediately. Busbequius accordingly mounted on horseback (for 
 there was then no other modo of making the journey), and rode from 
 Brussels to Vienna through very bad weather and detestable roads. 
 Having received his despatches and instructions from King Ferdinand, 
 he set out with boldness and alacrity for Constantinople, although the 
 circumstances of the case would have been sufficient to deter most 
 persons. The Turks were then at the height of their power, intole- 
 rance, and insolence; they had conquered Transylvania, and nearly all 
 Hungary ; they were withiu a few days' march of Vienna, where their 
 mere name spread terror ; and the reigniug Sultan, Solyman the Great, 
 or Magnificent, was fierce aud unrelenting, and accustomed to treat 
 the envoys of Christian powers who did not please him in a very sum- 
 mary manner. On arriving at Constantinople, Busbequius found that 
 the sultan was with his army at Amasia, in the interior of Asia Minor. 
 As his commissions did not permit delay, he crossed over into Asia, 
 and rode on to Amasia, where he staid a considerable time, and had 
 several audiences of Solyman, with whom he succeeded in concluding 
 a further truce of six mouths. He rode back to Vienna, where he 
 arrived in August, 1555. 
 
 In November of the same year he was again sent as ambassador to 
 Constantinople. Thi3 time Solyman was at his capita!, where Busbe- 
 quius took up his residence for nearly seven years. At first he had 
 mauy difficulties to encounter from the pride and obstinacy of the 
 Turks : " For you must know," he says in one of his epistles, " that a 
 long s.'ries of happy success hath so elevated the minds of this people 
 
1051 
 
 BUSBY, RICHARD. 
 
 BUSSY D'AMBOISE, LOUIS DE. 
 
 1052 
 
 that they make their own wills, forsooth, the sole rule of all reason, 
 right or wroDg." But Busbequius showed admirable tact and temper, 
 and at the end of his long mission concluded an advantageous treaty 
 with Solyman. 
 
 In 1562 he returned to Vienna, and was soon after appointed 
 governor and tutor to the sons of Maximilian, then king of the Romans. 
 Though attached to the pleasures of private life and literary ease, he 
 became more and more involved with courts and princes. When Maxi- 
 milian's daughter, the Princess Elizabeth, was married to Charles IX. 
 king of France, he was commissioned by the court to accompany her 
 to Paris. The young queen appointed him intendant of her household 
 and of all her affairs, and when, on the premature death of her husband, 
 she quitted France, she left Busbequius at Paris as her agent and 
 representative. The Emperor Rodolph on ascending the throne of the 
 Cajsars, appointed Busbequius his ambassador to the French court, 
 where he remained until 1692. Having then obtained permission to 
 visit Flanders, his native country, in order to put his estates and 
 private affairs in order, he left the French court and took his way 
 through Normandy. Unfortunately it was a time of trouble and civil 
 war The faction of the League were in arms against the government, 
 and occupied or over-ran a good portion of the kingdom. Busbequius 
 had very properly furnished himself with passports from both parties, 
 from the Leaguers as well as from the court, but his passes did not 
 save him from being robbed and ill-treated by a party of Leaguers at 
 Cailli, a village in Normandy, about three leagues from RoueD. On 
 representing to them the inviolable and sacred rights attached to his 
 character as ambassador, the brigands set him at liberty, and even 
 restored the bulk of his baggage. But Busbequius, now an old man, 
 had received a shock from which he did not recover. Instead of 
 continuing his journey into Flauders, he ordered his attendants to 
 convey him to the house of Madame de Maillot, at Saint Germain, close 
 to Rouen, where he died in a few days, on the 28th of October, 1592. 
 Philip Camerarius, Joseph Scaliger, and other writers, assert that he 
 was murdered by the robbers, but the well-authenticated facts regarding 
 his death are what we have stated. 
 
 The body of Busbequius was honourably interred in the church of 
 the place where he died, and his heart was carried to Flanders to be 
 placed in the tomb of his ancestors. 
 
 As a literary character and a man of refined taste, this distinguished 
 diplomatist occupies a very honourable place. The letters in which 
 he describes his two journeys into Turkey, his residence at the court 
 of Solyman, &c, which are in Latin, and were published under the 
 title of 'Augeiii Gislenii Busbequii Legationis Turcicae Epistoloe 
 Quatuor,' are admirably written, and abound in information which 
 will always be interesting, and which was of great political utility 
 at the time he wrote, when the cabinets of Europe knew not what to 
 make of the Ottoman Porte. He thoroughly understood the state of 
 the Ottoman empire, which was then the terror of Europe, and he 
 laid down a judicious system for resisting and attacking it, in a 
 treatise entitled, ' De Re Militari contra Turcam instituenda con- 
 silium.' The orations which he delivered in France to the different 
 French kings have been very much praised, but we cannot speak of 
 these of our own knowledge. Besides contributing to various scientific 
 and literary works, Busbequius was the author of some interesting 
 letters on the state of France under the reign of Henri III., and on 
 the expedition of the Duke d'Alencon to the Low Countries. These 
 letters, addressed to the Emperor Rodolph, were first published 
 in 1632.^ 
 
 Notwithstanding the constant labours of correspondence and 
 diplomacy, he found time, while in Turkey, to collect inscriptions, 
 coins, manuscripts, rare plants, and other specimens of natural 
 history. On his second embassy he engaged and took with him an 
 artist to make drawings of curious botanical and zoological specimens 
 at that time little known in the west of Europe. The fruits of his 
 taste, judgment, and liberality frequently appear in the works of 
 Gruterus, Mathioli, and other contemporary writers. 
 
 Busbequius spoke seven languages— Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, 
 German, Flemish, and Slavonian in perfection. He always wrote in 
 Latin ; and the Latinity of his Turkish travels has been much 
 admired by scholars. This book, which has appeared in all the 
 modern languages of civilised Europe, was translated into English, 
 and went through several editions in the course of the last century. 
 A very good edition, with index, was published at Glasgow by Robert 
 Urie in 1761. The title is ' Travels into Turkey. Translated from 
 the original Latin of the learned A. G. Busbequius.' 
 
 (Busbequius'p works, as named above ; Bay le, Dictionnaire HUtorique 
 et Critique; Guicciardini, Italian Hist.) 
 
 BUSBY, RICHARD, second son of Richard Busby, of the city of 
 Westminster, was born at Lutton in Northamptonshire, September 22, 
 1606. Having passed through Westminster School he was elected 
 student of Christchurch, Oxford. So low were his finances that his 
 fees for the degrees of bachelor and master of arts were defrayed by 
 donation from the parish of St. Margaret, Westminster, 51. having 
 been given him for the former, and 61. 13s. id. for the latter. This 
 favour he gratefully acknowledged in his will by leaving 50/. to the 
 poor housekeepers in that parish, having already bequeathed to the 
 parish for charitable purposes an estate of 5257. per annum, and 
 very nearly 5000/. in personal proptrty. In 1639 he was admitted to 
 
 the prebend and rectory of Cudworth in the church of Wells, and on 
 the 13th of December in the following year he was appointed head 
 master of Westminster School, in which occupation he laboured 
 during more than half a century, and by his diligence, learning, and 
 assiduity has become the proverbial representative of his class. In 
 July 1660, he was installed as prebendary of Westminster, and in the 
 following August he became cauon residentiary and treasurer of Wells. 
 At the coronation of Charles II. in 1661 he had the honour of carrying 
 the ampulla. His benefactions were numerous and most liberal. He 
 died April 6th 1695, full of years and reputation, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. His works were principally for the use of hia 
 school, and consist for the most part either of expurgated editions of 
 certain classics which he wished his boys to read in a harmless form, 
 or grammatical treatises, chiefly in a metrical form. The severity of 
 his discipline is traditional, but it does not appear to rest upon any 
 sound authority ; and strange as it may appear, no records are 
 preserved of him in the school over which he so long presided. 
 
 BUSCHING, ANTON FKIEDRICH, was born at Stadthagen, in 
 Westphalia, September 27, 1724. He studied at Halle, and afterwards 
 went to St. Petersburg as tutor to the children of Count Lynar, the 
 Danish ambassador to the court of Russia. He was early struck with 
 the want of good geographical works in his time, and he applied himself 
 to supply the deficiency. Having gone to Copenhagen, he published 
 in 1752 a description of tho duchies of Holstcin and Sleswick, which 
 was much approved of. In 1754 he was appointed professor of philo- 
 sophy at Gottingen, and would have obtained the chair of theology in 
 that university but for a treatise in which he expressed opinions which 
 were considered as swerving from Lutheran orthodoxy. About 1760 
 he was elected pastor of the German Protestant church at St. Petersburg, 
 where he remained four years, and founded a lyceum, which soon 
 became one of the best institutions for education in the Russian capital. 
 In 1 766 he was appointed director of the gymnasium of Grauen Kloster 
 at Berlin. He composed for that institution a number of elementary 
 works, which became very popular in North Germany. Bunching 
 however is more generally known for his ' Neue Erdbescreibung,' or 
 ' Universal Geography,' the first part of which appeared in 1754. In 
 1759 he had completed the description of Europe in eight volumes, 
 which became a standard work. He was one of the first modern 
 writers who introduced in a work of descriptive geography statistical 
 information on the wealth, industry, commerce, and institutions of the 
 various countries. His statements were made after careful inquiry, 
 and were generally accurate. Buscbing's description of Europe was 
 translated into English, ' A New System of Geography,' 6 vols. 4to, 
 London, 1762. His account of the northern countries, Denmark, 
 Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Germany, is the most full and 
 elaborate part of the work. Germany in particular is treated very 
 minutely, and occupies about one-half of the whole. It was translated 
 into French under the title ' Atlas Historique et Gdographique de 
 l'Empire d'Allemague,' 4 vols. 4to. Biisching's whole work went 
 through eight editions in his lifetime, and was translated into the 
 principal European languages. In 176S he published the first volume 
 of ' Asia,' which treated of Asiatic Turkey and Arabia, but went no 
 further with it. He published also ' Magazin fur die neue Historie 
 und Geographie,' 23 th. 4to, Hamburg and Halle, 1767-93; 'Nachrichten 
 von dem Zustande der Wissenschaften und Kiinste in dem Diinischen 
 Reichen und Landern,' 3 vols. 8vo, Copenhagen, 1754-65 ; besides 
 numerous other works of geography, biography, education, and likewise 
 on religious subjects. His ' History of the Lutheran Churches in 
 Russia, Poland, and Lithuania,' has been mentioned with praise. Of 
 his biographies, that of the great Frederic has been translated into 
 French by DArnex, ' Caractlre de Frederic II.,' 8vo, Berne, 1788. 
 Busching was a most indefatigable writer, honest and independent; 
 and he laboured earnestly for the advancement of education and 
 general information. The Prussian government afforded him encou- 
 ragement and support; and in his latter years his correspondence, 
 which was very extensive, was made free of postage charges. He died 
 at Berlin May 28, 1793. 
 
 His son, Jean Gustavus Theophilus Busching, bom at Berlin in 
 1783, was a diligent and useful writer chiefly on the literature and arts 
 of Germany in the middle ages. He was for some time keeper of the 
 records at Breslau. He died in May, 1829. 
 
 BUSK, GEORGE. [See vol. vi. col. 984.] 
 
 BUSSY D'AMBOISE, LOUIS DE CLERMONT DE, one of the 
 favourites of the Due d'Anjou, brother of Henri III., king of France. 
 Little is known of this minion but the history of his desperate 
 bravery and his crimes. During the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 
 having joined the assassins, he murdered with his own hand his 
 relation, Antoine de Clermont, with whom he had a law-suit for the 
 marquisate of Rehel ; but the edict which soon afterwards passed in 
 favour of the Huguenots deprived him of any profit from this bloody 
 deed. He afterwards commanded at Angers, where his exactions 
 rendered him most unpopular; and having long interrupted the 
 tranquillity of Paris by private brawls and combats, in which he set at 
 nought the terrors of the Bastile and the authority of the king, he 
 became so odious to Henri III. by frequent acts of presumption, that 
 he gave information to Charles de Chambes, count of Montsoreau, of 
 an intrigue which Bussy carried on with his wife. Montsoreau com- 
 pelled the wretched adulteress to write a letter with her own hand, 
 
1063 
 
 BUTE, EARL OP. 
 
 BUTLER, CHARLES 
 
 1054 
 
 making an assignation in the CMteau de Constancieres, where the in- 
 jured husband awaited Bussy with a numerous ambuscade of armed 
 men, and, in spite of a most courageous resistance, put him to death on 
 August 19th, 1579. (De Thou, lxviii. 9.) With the strange taste for 
 loathsome subjects which characterises so many of the present race of 
 popular French writers, Dumas has chosen the fate of Bussy for the 
 subject of a romance — ' La Dame de Montsoreau.' 
 
 BUTE, JOHN STUART, third EARL OF, was the eldest son of 
 John, earl of Bute, in the Scottish peerage, and of Lady Anne Camp- 
 bell, daughter of the first duke of Argyll. He was born in 1713, and 
 received his education at Eton. He appears to have been introduced 
 to public life in February 1737, by being elected one of the sixteen 
 Scottish representative peers. From that period he seems to have 
 proceeded in a steady course of court favour. In 1737 he was 
 appointed one of the Lords Commissioners of Police in Scotland, a 
 board which was suppressed in 1782. It was probably about this time 
 that he was introduced to the notice of Frederick, prince of Wales. 
 Of the circumstances of this introduction, ' The Contrast ' gives the 
 following curious account : — " The Duchess of Queensberry having 
 entertained her friends with the play of the 'Fair Penitent,' the part 
 of Lothario fell to the lot of his lordship, in which he succeeded so 
 much better than in his late performances in the character of a states- 
 man, that he was greatly admired, and particularly by his late Royal 
 Highness Frederick, prince of Wales, who took great notice of this 
 occasional Roscius, and invited him to Leicester House." Lord 
 Waldegrave (' Memoirs,' p. 36) also states the prince used frequently 
 to say of him, " Bute is a fine showy man, and would make an excel- 
 lent ambassador in any court where there was no business." In 
 August 1738 Lord Bute was made a Knight of the Thistle, and a few 
 days after one of the lords of the bedchamber to the prince. On the 
 death of Frederick, in March 1751, Lord Bute retired for some time to 
 the country ; but it soon became apparent that he was not only con- 
 sulted by the princess in regard to all points connected with the 
 education of her son, afterwards George III., but that he was in all 
 political matters her chief adviser. He was eventually appointed 
 Groom of the Stole to the young prince; and Junius scarcely appears 
 to have exaegerated when he said that from "that moment Lord Bute 
 never suffered the Prince of Wales to be an instant out of his sight." 
 
 On the accession of George III. (October 1760), Lord Bute, who had 
 obtained a great ascendancy over the mind of his pupil, was sworn a 
 member of the privy council, and made Groom of the Stole. In 
 March 1761 he resigned that office, and was appointed one of the 
 principal secretaries of state. This elevation of the favourite to a 
 place in the government was effected by the dismissal of Mr. Legge, 
 the able chancellor of the exchequer, and by the concerted resignation 
 of the Earl of Holderness, who resigned his place in consideration 
 of a handsome pension, and the reversion of the wardenship of the 
 Cinque Ports. Mr. Pitt however etill continued for some time 
 longer nominally at the head of the administration. On the 5th of 
 October Mr. Pitt retired from the cabineUbefore the growing influence 
 of the new secretary. Of the heads of the old Whig connexion, the 
 Duke of Newcastle, who was First Lord of the Treasury, still clung 
 to office; but at length, on the 29th of May 1762, he resigned, and 
 Lord Bute was appointed his successor. On the 22nd of September 
 following he was admitted a Knight of the Garter. On the 4th of 
 April 1761 his countess had been created a British peeress, by the title 
 of Baroness Mountstuart, with remainder to her issue male by his 
 lordship. 
 
 The history of the administration of Lord Bute belongs to the 
 history of the country, and it is one which it is impossible to read 
 without feelings of something like humiliation. His career was shaped 
 apparently, from first to last, with a view to his own elevation, and 
 the removal of every one from office who was likely to stand in his 
 way was effected in a more open and unscrupulous manner than had 
 been seen for some years. His sudden rise, unsupported by any 
 description of ability, soon called forth its natural accompaniments 
 in bitter personal attacks and unscrupulous libels. To say nothing of 
 the well-known ' History of the Minority,' the object of which is a 
 defence of the politics of Lord Chatham and Earl Temple, Wilkes's 
 weekly paper, the ' North Briton,' which began and ended with Lord 
 Bute's administration, is throughout occupied in the abuse of his lord- 
 ihip and everything connected with him. The ' North Briton ' was 
 »et up in opposition to the ' Briton,' a paper established in the interest 
 of the minister. 
 
 Lord Bute was certainly the most unpopular English minister of 
 modern times. While he madly attempted to govern the country by 
 the king's name alone, he had opposed to him not only all the old 
 factions of the state, which he aimed at putting down and destroying, 
 but the whole nation; and professing to hold the doctrine that the 
 miuisters were not really th- executive government, but literally only 
 the servants or clerks of the crown, he surrounded himself while in 
 power with individuals in general utterly incapable of adding strength 
 to big ministry by their abilities or personal importance. The late 
 Lord Liverpool indeed (then Mr. Jenkinson) was his private secretary; 
 but his chancellor of the exchequer, for instance, was Sir Francis 
 Dash wood, afterwards Lord Despeuser, a person wholly incompetent. 
 
 The most important event in Lord Bute's administration was the 
 termination of the war with Fiance, by the peace of Paris, concluded 
 
 February 10th 1763. It was long a strong popular belief that the 
 English minister was bribed by France to consent to this treaty; but 
 no evidence worthy of credit was ever brought forward to confirm 
 this rumour. But it may be mentioned as a proof how far the belief 
 extended, that Wilberforce records in his 'Diary' under July 16, 
 1789, that Lord Camden told him, "he was sure Lord Bute got 
 money by the peace of Paris." As we said, there is no good ground 
 for any such belief, but Lord Bute's undignified eagerness for the 
 peace, and the readiness he was known to have expressed to have 
 accepted far less honourable terms than those ultimately obtained — 
 unworthy as they were generally esteemed — were quite sufficient to 
 give countenance to the rumour. The peace was violently denounced 
 in the House of Commons by Pitt, who went so far in his invective 
 as to refer to Bute as " not the foreign enemy but another enemy." 
 Bute however had large majorities in both houses, and he carried 
 himself with his usual haughtiness, dismissing from their employ- 
 ments every one who had ventured to protest against his measures. 
 The dukes of Newcastle and Grafton, and the Marquis of Rockingham, 
 had their lord-lieutenancies taken from them, and it is affirmed that 
 Bute carried his enmity so far as to dismiss inoffensive clerks from 
 their employments in the public offices, " merely because they had 
 been, in the first instance, recommended to them by some statesmen 
 adverse to the peace" (Mahon, v. 23, chap, xli.) But the storm of 
 unpopularity was too fierce for Bute to make head against it. On the 
 8th of April 1763 Lord Bute suddenly resigned. His friends generally 
 gave out at the time that he had taken office only with the purpose 
 of bringing the war to an end, and that in now retiring he only followed 
 a determination which he had from the first openly avowed. His own 
 account however is somewhat different, as it is given in a letter to a 
 friend, which has been published by Mr. Adolphus. — " Single," he 
 there says, " in a cabinet of my own forming, no soul in the house of 
 lords to support me except two peers (Lords Denbigh and Pomfret), 
 both the secretaries of state silent, and the lord chief justice, whom 
 I brought myself into office, voting for me, yet speaking against me 
 — the ground I tread upon is so hollow, that I am afraid not only of 
 falling myself, but of involving my royal master in my ruin : it is 
 time for me to retire." His lordship's own powers of oratory were 
 not such as to make up for the silence of his colleagues. He expressed 
 himself with a deliberate pomposity of utterance, his words slowly 
 dropping out at regular intervals, which the witty Charles Townshend 
 used to call the minister's minute guns. 
 
 Though Lord Bute retired from office he still retained the confidence 
 of the king ; and he undoubtedly nominated his immediate successors. 
 In the following August, also, when the sudden death of the Earl of 
 Egremont, one of the secretaries of state, again shook the new cabinet, 
 he engaged in a negociation, which came to nothing, with the view of 
 bringing Lord Chatham into office. Lord Bute's continued influence, 
 as supposed to be exerted behind the throne, was long a favourite 
 topic of popular declamation ; but no proof of the fact was ever 
 brought forward, and all the recent evidence which has appeared 
 tends to show that from the time Bute ceased to be a minister, the 
 king began gradually to rely more and more on his own judgment. 
 Bute himself authorised his son to state " upon his solemn word and 
 honour," that he never offered an advice or opinion concerning the 
 disposition of offices or the conduct of measures, either directly or 
 indirectly, by himself or any other, from the time the late Duke of 
 Cumberland was consulted in the arrangement of a ministry in 1765." 
 As Lord Mahon observes ('Hist, of Eug.' c. xlv.), "this statement is 
 as to the main fact — the cessation of all intercourse between the king 
 and the earl — quite sufficient and satisfactory." (See also Lord John 
 Russell's ' Introduction to Bedford Papers,' vol. iii.) 
 
 According to Sir Egerton Brydges, in his edition of Collins's 
 ' Peerage,' Lord Bute passed the last six or seven years of his life in 
 the most deep and unbroken retirement, principally at a marine villa, 
 which he built on the edge of the cliff at Christchurch, in Hampshire, 
 overlooking the Needles and the Isle of Wight. Here his principal 
 delight wa3 to listen to the melancholy roar of the sea." " He was 
 more fond of the sciences," it is added, " than of works of imagination ; 
 but his favourite study was botany, on which he printed at his own 
 expense a work in nine volumes quarto, of plates appertaining only to 
 England. Only twelve copies were printed, of which the expense 
 amounted to 10,0002." Lord Bute died at his house in South Audley- 
 street, London, on the 10th of March 1792. He had married in 
 1736, Mary, the only daughter of Edward Wortley Montagu, of 
 Wortley, in Yorkshire ; and by that lady, who eventually inherited a 
 large fortune by the death of her brother, Edward W. Montagu, the 
 traveller, he had seven sons and six daughters. His eldest son was 
 in 1796, created Marquess of Bute, in the British peerage. A daughter, 
 Lady Louisa Stuart, who contributed some interesting ' Introductory 
 Anecdotes' to Lord WharncliftVs edition of Lady Mary Wortley 
 Montagu's works, died in August 1851, when within a few days of 
 completing her 94th year. 
 
 BUTLER, CHARLES, was born in London of a Roman Catholic 
 family in 1750. He was the sou of Mr. James Butler, who was the 
 youngest son of Simon Butler of Appletree, Northamptonshire : his 
 mother's name was Grauo. After receiving the rudiments of education 
 at a Roman Catholic school at Hammersmith, he was sent to the 
 English college at Douay ; and on quitting that removed to Lincoln's 
 
1056 
 
 BUTLER, JOSEPH. 
 
 1058 
 
 Inn, where he entered on the study of the law, and ultimately practised 
 as a conveyancer. The remainder of his life may be comprised in the 
 history of his numerous publications. He first appeared before the 
 public anonymously in an essay published in 1773, * On Houses of 
 Industry,' which chiefly related to the county of Norfolk, and beyond 
 that county, as its author very modestly says of it, it obtained very 
 little circulation. Five years afterwards he wrote a more important 
 pamphlet, 'On the Legality of Impressing Seamen,' which procured 
 for him the acquaintance of Lord Sandwich, at that time first lord of 
 the Admiralty, who wrote a few pages in the second edition, and of 
 Wedderburne, then solicitor-general, and afterwards Lord Lough- 
 borough. The chief arguments and authorities were taken from the 
 speech of Sir Michael Forster, in the case of Alexander Broadfoot, who 
 was indicted for the murder of a sailor, being one of a party that 
 endeavoured to impress him. So little original matter is added in the 
 pamphlet to the arguments of Sir M. Forster, that Mr. Butler after- 
 wards refused to admit it into the general collection of his works. In 
 the following year Mr. Butler prepared a speech, which Lord Sandwich 
 delivered in the House of Lords, in defence of his government of 
 Greenwich Hospital ; and about the same time, in conjunction with 
 Mr. Wilkes, he appeared as an inquirer into the authorship of Junius. 
 A letter, including tho results of their conversations, 'was printed 
 without Mr. Butler's knowledge in the 'Anti-Jacobin Review,' and it is 
 reprinted in his ' Reminiscences.' In the additional remarks made on 
 the reprint in the ' Reminiscences,' Mr. Butler seems inclined to believe 
 that Junius himself has never been detected; that he was of too high 
 a rank to be bought, and that Sir Philip Francis was his amanuensis. Mr. 
 Butler next engaged himself in the professional task of continuing and 
 completing Mr. Haigrave's edition of ' Coke upon Littleton.' Numerous 
 editions of ' Coke upon Littleton' followed at intervals during the life of 
 Mr. Butler. To this work succeeded 'Hora) Juridical subsecivoe ; being 
 a connected series of Notes respecting the Geography, Chronology, 
 and Literary History of the Principal Codes and Original Documents 
 of the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law ;' an outline of great 
 use to the historian as well as to the lawyer. Mr. Butler also super- 
 intended a new edition of Fearue's ' Essay on Contingent Remainders,' 
 and he contributed to Mr. Seawards ' Anecdotes ' an ' Essay on the 
 Character of Lord Mansfield's Forensic Eloquence.' The ' Hora) 
 Biblica)' comes next, and is perhaps the most popular of all Mr. 
 Butler's works : it speedily ran through five editions. The first part 
 professes to contain an historical and literary account of the original 
 text, early versions, and printed editions of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments ; the second to embrace a similar account of the Koran, the 
 Zend-Avasta, the Kings, and the Edda. In 1806 the great change in 
 the constitution of the Austrian dominions induced Mr. Butler to 
 draw up, chiefly from Anderson and Koch, a succinct history of the 
 geographical and political revolutions of the German empire. His 
 pen for the remainder of his life was largely employed on subjects 
 regarding his own church, which are collected in his general works. 
 Among them are— lives of Bossuet, of Feuelon, of Abbe" de Ranee", 
 abbot of La Trappe ; of St. Vincent de Paul, of Erasmus, of Grotius, 
 of Henrie Marie de Boudou, of Thomas a Kempis, of the Chancellor 
 L'Hopital, &c, and of his own uncle, the Rev. Alban Butler, author of 
 ' Lives of the Saints,' a work which Mr. Butler himself continued. 
 The relief proposed to be given to the Roman Catholics in 1795 
 occasioned three books, written in conjunction with Joseph Wilkes, a 
 Benedictine, and named from the colour of their covering the ' Blue 
 Books.' It is needless to say that Mr. Butler was a strenuous advocate 
 of Roman Catholic emancipation, and that much of the successful 
 progress of that measure is to be attributed to the ' Historical Memoirs 
 of the English, Irish, and Scottish Catholics,' 1819. Hitherto he had 
 abstained from controversy, but the appearance of Dr. Southey's ' Book 
 of the Church' engaged him in a series of letters to that writer, and 
 afterwards in two replies to the present Bishop of London, and to the 
 Rev. George Townsend. They were written in a spirit of gentleness 
 very seldom found in similar publications. The first volume of his 
 ' Reminiscences,' chiefly containing the history of his literary life, was 
 published in 1822, the second in 1827. They contain some interesting 
 details, but are expressed in the cramped style of most autobiographies. 
 As a conveyancer Mr. Butler had full practice, and he was the first of 
 his communion who was called to the bar after the Relief Act in 1791. 
 He was afterwards made king's counsel. Mr. Butler died at his own 
 house in Great Ormond-street, London, leaving behind him an 
 unblemished character and a considerable literary reputation, June 2, 
 1832. (Gentleman's Magazine, 1832; Reminiscences.) 
 BUTLER, JAMES. [Okmond, Duke of.] 
 
 BUTLER, JOSEPH, born at Wantage in Berkshire in 1692, was the 
 sou of Thomas Butler, a respectable shopkeeper, and a dissenter of the 
 Presbyterian denomination. He received the rudiments of his educa- 
 tion in the free grammar-school at Wantage, whence he was removed 
 to the Dissenting Academy of Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire, then 
 superintended by Mr. Jones, who had the singular fortune of having 
 for pupils, with the view of being ordained to the Presbyterian 
 ministry, three young men, afterwards prelates of the Established 
 Church— Chandler, Butler, and Seeker ; the two latter were contem- 
 oraries, ^ It was here that Butler gave the first proofs of the peculiar 
 ent of his mind to abstruse speculation. Being dissatisfied with the 
 aigunient ' a priori' of Dr. Samuel Clarke iu his ' Demonstration of the 
 
 Being and Attributes of God,' he ventured, being then only in hig 
 twenty-second year, to express by a letter his doubts, and to offer hit 
 objections, to that acute writer. Dr. Clarke was for a time unac- 
 quainted with the name of his correspondent. The manner in which 
 he replied to Butler's objections, and the fact of his publishing the 
 letters in which they were conveyed, with his own answers, iu subse- 
 quent editions of his work, sufficiently show that he felt the remarks 
 of his youthful correspondent to be not without their weight. 
 
 About this time Butler was led to a more particular examination of 
 the tenets of the religious body to which he belonged, the result of 
 which, after some natural opposition from his father, accompanied 
 with remonstrances from several respectable Presbyterian divines, was 
 a secession from Presbyterianism, and a conformity to the Church of 
 England. His views being thus changed, he entered Oriel College, 
 Oxford, in March, 1714, and soon after was admitted into holy orders. 
 While at Oriel he formed a friendship with Mr. Edward Talbot, the 
 second son of Dr. Talbot, bishop of Durham, a circumstance to which 
 he appears to have owed bis subsequent promotion. In 1718 he wag 
 recommended by Mr. Talbot and Dr. Clarke to Sir Joseph Jeky 11, Master 
 of the Rolls, by whom he was appointed preacher at the Rolls. In 
 1721, on being presented by Bishop Talbot to the rectory of Haughton, 
 near Darlington, he divided his residence between the Rolls and his 
 parochial benefice. In 1725 he received Stanhope, one of the wealthiest 
 but most retired rectories in England, from the same patron, in 
 exchange for Haughton. In 1726 he resigned the Rolls preachership, 
 anil went to reside upon his rectory of Stanhope. In the same year he 
 published a volume of fifteen sermons preached at the Rolls. These 
 sermons are, upon his own acknowledgment, of a somewhat abstruse 
 character, which arises as much from the method as from the scope 
 of his argument, which is to demonstrate vice to be " a violation or 
 breaking in upon our nature." He wished to show that man was formed 
 for virtue, and that vice is a departure from his intended condition ; 
 to prove that religion and virtue were primarily natural to man ; that 
 they constitute order, whereas their opposite is disorder. Although 
 his object might have been effected by the more direct proof that " vice 
 is contrary to the nature and reason of things," he chose the other 
 method, as " in a peculiar manner adapted to satisfy a fair mind, and 
 as more easily applicable to the several particular relations and cir- 
 cumstances in life." Tho first three sermons are entitled ' Upon 
 Human Nature ; or, Man considered as a Moral Agent.' That man is 
 made for society, is evident from all we know of him ; the very parts 
 of his body show dependence one on another ; and it is no wresting 
 of words or of argument to carry the comparison farther, and to 
 show that mankind in general is a body made up of a number and 
 variety of members, like the natural body. As it is the office of his 
 own several component parts, or members, each to assist and benefit 
 the others, so it is the duty of each member of society to promote the 
 general welfare ; and any deviations from this rule, which is in fact a 
 rule of nature, have been the deviations of ignorance and sin. The 
 author establishes his poini by three proofs. First, there is in man 
 a natural principle of benevolence, which is, in its degree, to society 
 what self-love is to the individual ; and that there is such a principle, 
 appears from the existence and operation of those feelings which are 
 called affections. Are we not inclined to love, to friendship, to com- 
 passion ? That we are thus inclined in any degree is enough for the 
 purpose. It matters not how narrow and obscure these feelings are. 
 If they exist at all, they " prove the assertion, and point out what we 
 were designed for." Secondly, there are several affections or passions 
 distinct both from benevolence and self-love, which in general con- 
 tribute and lead us to public good as really as to private. Thirdly, 
 there is a principle of reflection by which men approve or disapprove 
 of their own actions ; this is conscience, which faculty tends to restrain 
 men from doing mischief to one another, and leads them to do good. 
 That man has evil dispositions is no objection to this mode of argu- 
 ment, for his ungoverned passions incline him to act against his own 
 interests as well as against the interests of others. The pure nature 
 of man then would lead him to right conduct in society, or what we 
 denominate virtue. To understand the purpose of a being, we must 
 ascertain the bent of his true nature ; and where the true nature is 
 known, there can be no difficulty. The illustration used is that of 
 the eye. The eye is designed for vision ; and, as we are not to judge 
 of first design from any state of defect into which it may have casually 
 fallen, neither are we to judge of the true nature of man from any 
 present perversion of inclination ; and the objection to his argument, 
 " that nature is that to which any man is most inclined, and that the 
 following of nature is but a following of inclination, which may be 
 different in different individuals," is answered by an explanation of the 
 term. "By nature," he says, "is often meant no more than some 
 principle in man, without regard either to the kind or degree of it." 
 This however is manifestly wrong ; for the same person may have 
 contrary principles, driving or urging him contrary ways. Again, 
 " Nature is frequently spoken of as consisting in those passions which 
 are strongest, and most influence the actions." This is wrong too. 
 Men are certainly now vicious, as it were, by nature ; but they are so 
 because their nature is deteriorated, and the argument refers to the 
 original and pure nature. In neither of these senses is man's primary 
 nature to be received, because, to follow nature in either of them, 
 would be a wandering from the original design, and a following of 
 
I0S7 
 
 BUTLER, JOSEPH. 
 
 BUTLER, JOSEPH. 
 
 ior,n 
 
 what had become faulty. The text of the second sermon shows the 
 meaning in which the word nature ought to be used. " For when the 
 Gentiles which have not the law, do by nature the things contained 
 in the law, these having not the law are a law unto themselves. 
 Which show the works of the law written in their hearts, then- 
 consciences also bearing witness, and their thoughts the meanwhile 
 accusing or else excusing one another." Conscience makes man a 
 moral agent. It justifies and it condemns. It cannot justify what 
 is wrong; it cannot condemn what is right; right therefore is natural 
 to man, and determined by the testimony of conscience alone. After 
 establishing the supremacy of conscience, he forms his notion of 
 human nature, in the following of which virtue is said to consist, and 
 the deviation from which is vice. "As the idea of a civil constitu- 
 tion implies in it united strength, various subordinations, under one 
 direction, that of the supreme authority, the different strength of each 
 particular member of the society not coming into the idea; whereas, 
 if you leave out the subordination, the union, and the one direction, 
 you destroy and lose it : so reason, several appetites, passions, and 
 affections prevailing in different degrees of strength, is not that idea 
 or notion of human nature; but that nature consists in these several 
 principles considered as having a natural respect to each other, in the 
 several passions being naturally subordinate to the one superior prin- 
 ciple of reflection or conscience. Every bias, instinct, propension 
 within, is a real part of our nature, but not the whole. Add to these 
 the superior faculty, whose office it is to adjust, manage, and preside 
 over them, and take in this it3 natural superiority, and you complete 
 the idea of human nature." A deviation from it, or its violation, he 
 thus defines : " And as in civil government the constitution is broken 
 in upon and violated by power and strength prevailing over authority, 
 so the constitution of man is broken in upon and violated by the 
 lower faculties or principles within prevailing over that which is in its 
 nature supreme over them all." Man indeed cannot be considered as 
 left to himself, to act as present inclination may lead him : the very 
 ability of putting the questions, " Is this I am going about right, or 
 is it wrong ? Is it good, or is it evil ? " implies an obligation to act 
 rightly, for it shows that he has a natural conception of right. The 
 objection, " Why should we be concerned about anything out of and 
 beyond ourselves?" is thus removed. Are we, or can we be, indif- 
 ferent to disgrace, neglect, or contempt ? Man is by nature disposed 
 to action; and " upon comparing some actions with this nature,'they 
 appear suitable and correspondent to it : from comparison of other 
 actions with the same nature, there arises to our view some unsuita- 
 bleness or disproportion." Those which are most suitable to it are 
 the law or design of nature; and that which promotes real happiness, 
 or the true purpose of nature, is virtue. 
 
 These sermons contain the germ of those principles of analogy 
 which were afterwards developed by the author in a separate work ; 
 when viewed in all their parts and bearings, they must be considered 
 as one of the most successful attempts to explain the true nature of 
 l.iau as a moral agent, and to discover the spriugs of human action. 
 It has been observed by a recent writer (Austin, ' The Proviuce of 
 Jurisprudence determined,' p. 109), "In so far as I can gather his 
 opinion from his admirable sermons, it would seem that the compound 
 hypothesis (that is, the hypothesis compounded of the hypothesis of 
 utility, and the hypothesis of the moral sense) was embraced by 
 Bishop Butler. But of this I am not certain : for, from many passages 
 in those sermons, we may 'infer that he thought the moral sense our 
 only index and guide." In this remark we concur : in several passages 
 Butler seems to consider the moral sense as that by which we judge 
 of the character of actions, and yet there are other passages which 
 appear to prevent us from adopting this conclusion. 
 
 It is unnecessary to analyse the other admirable discourses : that 
 on the government of the tongue is a masterpiece of its kind ; and 
 the sermons on resentment and forgiveness of injuries are equally 
 remarkable for the profound insight into the principles by which 
 human society is held together, and for their practical utility. 
 
 To this volume, in a later edition, he appended six other sermons, 
 preached on certain public occasions. One of these sermons (the 
 fourth) is well calculated to meet certain objections that have been 
 made to the education of the poor. 
 
 His residence at Stanhope continued until 1733, when he was drawn 
 from his retirement by being appointed chaplain to Lord Chancellor 
 Talbot, About the same time he was presented by his patron to a 
 prebend in the church of Rochester. This was done through the 
 interposition of his friend and fellow-pupil Seeker, who was anxious 
 for his re-appearance in the world, and wished to see him in some 
 more conspicuous station than the rectory of Stanhope. Seeker, 
 having taken occasion to mention him to Queen Caroline, her Majesty 
 remarked that she thought he was dead ; and, not satisfied with his 
 assurance to the contrary, she inquired of Archbishop Blackburne, 
 who replied, " No, rnadam, but he is buried." In 1736 Butler was 
 appointed clerk of the closet to the queen, upon whom he was in con- 
 stant attendance until her death in the following year. He had lately 
 produced his great work, ' The Analogy of Religion, Natural and 
 Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature,' which he had 
 presented to her Majesty before publication, and which he dedicated 
 to the Lord Chancellor Talbot, " in acknowledgment of the highest 
 obligations to the late Lord Bishop of Durham and to himself." In this 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. I. 
 
 work it was his aim to demonstrate the connection between the present 
 and a future state, and to show that there could be but one author of 
 both, and consequently one general system of moral government by 
 which they must be regulated. Of this admirable work it has been 
 justly observe 1 — * Upon the whole, as our author was the first who 
 handled the argument in proof of religion from analogy in a set 
 treatise, he has undeniably merited the character of a first discoverer; 
 others indeed had occasionally dropped somo hints aud remarks of 
 the argument, but Dr. Butler first brought it to a state of perfection. 
 The treatise contains the finishing and completion of that way of 
 reasoning, the foundation whereof was laid in his sermons." 
 
 The year after the death of Queen Caroline, Butler was made bishop 
 of Bristol; and in 1740 he was presented to the deanery of St. Paul's, 
 on which occasion he resigned the rectory of Stanhope. One of his 
 first acts of patronage was to bestow on his old master, Mr. Barton, 
 master of the school at Wantage, the rectory of Hutton in Essex. 
 Butler was always liberal in the expenditure of his money ; he laid 
 out on the episcopal palace of Bristol 4000Z., and he was a munificent 
 benefactor to charitable institutions. In 1746 he was appointed clerk 
 of the closet to the king; and in 1750 was translated to the see of 
 Durham, vacant by the death of Dr. Edward Chandler, who had also 
 been a pupil, as already mentioned, at the academy at Tewkesbury. 
 The short time that he held this see allowed him to make only one 
 visitation of his diocese. The charge which he delivered to his clergy 
 on that occasion subjected him to much animadversion. He had 
 begun by lamenting the general decay of religion, and noticed it " as 
 a complaint by all serious persons." As an aid in remedying this evil 
 he recommended his clergy to " keep as well as they were able the 
 form and face of religion with decency and reverence, and in such a 
 degree as to bring the thoughts of religion often to the minds of the 
 people; and to endeavour to make this form more and more sub- 
 servient to promote the power and reality of it." He insisted that 
 although the form might and often did exist without the substance, 
 yet that the substance could not be preserved among mankind without 
 the form. He instanced the examples of heathen, Mohammedan, and 
 Roman Catholic countries, where the form had been very influential 
 in causing the superstition to sink deeply into the mind ; and he 
 inferred that true religion would, by the same rule, sink the more 
 deeply with such aid into the minds of all who should be serious aud 
 well disposed. These observations, which, like all the remarks of this 
 profound thinker, show an intimate acquaintance with human nature, 
 were strongly censured as savouring of popery, and he was particularly 
 attacked in- a pamphlet entitled 'A Serious Inquiry into the use and 
 importance of External Religion, occasioned by some passages in the 
 Right Reverend the Lord Bishop cf Durham's Charge to the Clergy 
 of that Diocese.' The very sentence in which he says that the form 
 is to be made " subservient to promote the reality and the power," 
 ought to have been sufficient to protect him. Bishop Butler did not 
 long enjoy his last preferment. His health rapidly declined, and he 
 died at Bath on the 16th of June 1752, and was buried in Bristol 
 cathedral. His writings, though not numerous, are sufficient to show 
 the extent of his knowledge, the solidity of his judgment, and tho 
 great powers of his mind. His statement of a question is fair and 
 candid, his reasoning is close and sincere, and his conclusions nearly 
 always just and convincing. His piety was unostentatious but fervent, 
 with something from natural disposition and the grave direction of 
 his studies approaching to gloom. A man whose thoughts were so 
 seriously employed, whose inquiries were of so abstruse a character, 
 could hardly be otherwise. Still "no man ever more thoroughly 
 possessed that meekness of wisdom which the apostle enjoins; he had 
 noticed the expression for its beauty ; his heart and disposition were 
 conformed to it, and in high as in humble life it was uniformly 
 manifested in his conversation. Neither the consciousness of in- 
 tellectual strength, nor the just reputation which he had thereby 
 attained, nor the elevated station to which he had been raised, in the 
 slightest degree injured the natural modesty of his character, or the 
 mildness and sweetness of his temper," His intercourse with clergy 
 aud laity was open and free ; his income he considered to belong to 
 his station, and not to himself; and so thoroughly was this feeling of 
 his understood that his relatives never indulged the expectation 
 of pecuniary benefit from his death. It was his remark, on his pro- 
 motion to Durham, " It would be a melancholy thing in the close of life 
 to have no reflections to entertain oneself with, save that one had spent 
 the revenues of the bishopric of Durham in a sumptuous course of 
 living, and enriched one's friends with the promotions of it, instead 
 of really having set oneself to do good, and to promote worthy men." 
 It has already been stated that he was accused of a disposition to 
 popery, in consequence of some expressions iu his charge to the clergy 
 of Durham. This charge was repeated by an anonymous writer fifteen 
 years after his death, and was made to rest chiefly on the circumstance 
 of his having put up a cross in the episcopal chapel of Bristol. It was 
 also asserted that he had died in communion with the Church of 
 Rome. His friend Seeker, at thut time archbishop of Canterbury, 
 satisfactorily disproved the charge. He did not deny that the bishop 
 had erected the cross, but thi.-*, he contended, was no manifestation of 
 popery ; it was merely as an emblem aud a memorial of the Christian 
 faith. With respect to his having died iu communion with the Church 
 of Rome, the circumstance was not even hinted at until fifteen years 
 
1059 BUTLER, SAMUEL. 
 
 after his death ; and it is clearly shown, by the testimony of those 
 who attended him in his last illness, that there is no truth in the 
 statement. Bishop Butler was never married. His works are collected 
 in two volumes, 8vo, which have been several times reprinted. 
 
 BUTLER, SAMUEL, was born at Strensham, in Worcestershire, 
 about 1612, and educated in the Free School at Worcester. The 
 finances of his father, who was a small farmer, would not allow him to 
 be matriculated at Cambridge, to which university he desired, aud his 
 proficiency in learning entitled him to proceed. Accordingly, he 
 engaged a3 clerk to Mr. Jeft'ereys, an eminent justice of the peace, of 
 Carlscroom, in his native county. Here in his leisure hours he 
 employed himself in studying history, poetry, music, and painting; 
 some specimens of his skill in the last-named art existed not long 
 since, and it is said were not worth preserving. We know not how he 
 afterwards obtained an introduction to Elizabeth countess of Kent, 
 but under her patronage he had access to a well-stocked library, and 
 enjoyed the conversation of the learned Selden. He entered after- 
 wards into the service of Sir Samuel Luke, a knight of ancient family 
 in Bedfordshire, who had been one of Cromwell's commanders, and is 
 supposed to have been the prototype of the character of Hudibras. 
 After the Restoration he became secretary to Richard, earl of Carbury, 
 Lord President of the Principality of Wales, who, on the revival of 
 the court of the Marches, made him steward of Ludlow Castle ; soon 
 after which he married Mrs. Herbert, a gentlewoman of good family, 
 whose fortune was lost to him by being invested in bad securities. It 
 is also said that he was secretary to the second George Villiers, Duke 
 of Buckingham, when he was chancellor of Cambridge. With that 
 nobleman, with the Earl of Dorset, and with many other wits of the 
 time, he certainly lived on terms of familiar intercourse; yet he died, 
 according to the common report — for which however there does not 
 appear to be any real foundation- — in great poverty in 16!:0, and was 
 buried in the churchyard of St. Paul's, Covent Garden, at the expense 
 of his friend Mr. William Lougueville, a bencher of the Inner Temple, 
 who became possessed of his papers. 
 
 The first part of Hudibras, containing three cantos, was published 
 in 1663, and soon became eminently popular, and was much quoted 
 even at court. In the next year appeared the second part. The 
 third part, which does not bring the poem to a conclusion, was not 
 published till 1678. Three small volumes of posthumous works were 
 published, as Johnson says, "I know not by whom collected or by 
 what authority ascertained." Two more, undoubtedly genuine, were 
 afterwards printed by Mr. Thyer of Manchester. Some of his 
 posthumous poems are very obscene. 
 
 Such is the scanty record of perhaps the most witty writer in our 
 language. " The events of his life," says his biographer, whom we 
 have already cited, " are variously stated, and all that can be told with 
 certainty is that he was poor.'' On a work so well known a3 Butler's 
 ' Hudibras ' it is scarcely necessary to make a single remark. Voltaire 
 has well said of it that it unites the wit of Don Quixote with that of 
 the Satyre Menippe"e. Hudibras, the hero, is a Presbyterian justice, 
 who, fired with the same species of madness a3 the Don Quixote of 
 Cervantes, undertakes the reform of abuses, in company with his 
 Squire Ralph, an Independent clerk, with whom he is almost always 
 engaged in controversy. This union of the knight errant and the 
 Presbyterian is faulty in the outset, and in the conduct of the poem 
 there is little to satisfy the reader. The adventures are tiresome and 
 tedious, but the dialogues are carried on with a strain of wit w hich 
 appears to be exhaustless. The characters which were before the 
 eyes of our forefathers have passed away, but so great was Butler's 
 knowledge of human nature, that many of his distichs have become 
 proverbial. However easy may appear the style of burlesque which he 
 has adopted, and however frequently a similar course has been 
 followed after him, it is not among the least proofs of Butler's ex- 
 traordinary excellence that he is still without a rival among his 
 imitators. The standard edition was published in 1714 in two vols. 
 8vo, with laboriously illustrative notes by Dr. Grey. In 1721 John 
 Barber, citizen and one time Lord Mayor of London, erected a cenotaph 
 in Westminster Abbey to Butler's memory, which provoked a just 
 epigram from Samuel Wesley, and a sarcasm, which appears to have 
 been little merited, from Pope. 
 
 BUTLER, SAMUEL, D.D., Bishop of Lichfield, was born at Kenil- 
 worth, Warwickshire, 30th of January, 1774. His father was Mr. 
 William Butler, a respectable inhabitant of the village. He was 
 educated at Rugby School, and in 1792 was entered at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge. His university career was very successful : 
 besides obtaining three of Sir William Browne's medals, two for the 
 Latin ode and one for the Greek ode, he was elected in 1793 to the 
 Craven University scholarship, and, after taking his bachelor's degree, 
 he gained the first of the Chancellor's two gold medals that are 
 annually given for classical scholarship; and both in 1797 and 1798 he 
 carried off the Members' prize for the best Latin Essay by Bachelors 
 of Arts. In 1797 he had been elected a Fellow of his College, and in 
 1798 he accepted the appointment of head master of Shrewsbury 
 School. In 1802 he was presented by the Earl of Clarendon to the 
 vicarage of Kenil worth ; in 1807, by Bishop Cornwallis, to a prebendal 
 stall in Lichfield Cathedral ; and in 1822 he was made archdeacon of 
 Derby. He had taken his degree of D.D. in 1811. Under Dr. Butler 
 Shrewsbury School, the reputation of which had fallen very low, 
 
 BUTTMANN, PHILIP KARL. waft 
 
 gradually rose to eminence, and he continued to preside over it till he 
 was promoted, in 1836, to the see of Lichfield and Coventry, or, as it 
 is now entitled, of Lichfield, the archdeaconry of Coventry having 
 been annexed the same year to the diocese of Worcester. But from 
 that time his health rapidly gave way, and his death took place at 
 Eccleshall Castle, Staffordshire, the episcopal residence, on the 4th of 
 December 1839. He had married, in 1798, Harriet, fifth daughter of 
 the Rev. Dr. Apthorp, vicar of Croydon and rector of St. Mary-le-Bow; 
 and he left a son and two daughters. 
 
 Dr. Butler is stated to have been much beloved in private life ; his 
 public distinction was derived from his able conduct of his school and 
 his steady profession of liberal or Whig politics. Of his literary works 
 the most considerable is his edition of ^Eschylus, which he was selected 
 to superintend by the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press 
 about the time when he removed to Shrewsbury, and the first of the i 
 four 4to volumes of which appeared in 1809, the last in 1816. It is 
 also printed in 8 vols. 8vo. This edition, in which the text is that of 
 Stanley, has not much reputation. The first volume soon after its I 
 appearance was made the subject of an article in the ' Edinburgh I 
 Review,' No. 29 (October, 1809), which immediately drew from Butler I 
 ' A Letter to C. J. Blomfield, containing Remarks on the Edinburgh 1 
 Review of the Cambridge iEschylus,' 8vo, 1810. A more elaborate 
 criticism on the second volume appeared in the same work, No. 38 (for I 
 February, 1812). Dr. Butler's best known work is his 'Sketch of | 
 Modern and Ancient Geography, for the use of Schools,' 8vo, which 1 
 originally appeared at Shrewsbury in 1813, a work of little value when 
 first published, and wholly obsolete now; and the two Atlases which I 
 the author afterwards published to be used along with it may be 1 
 described in the same terms. Dr. Butler published in 1797 an 8vo 1 
 volume, entitled 'M. Musuri Carmen in Platonem, Is. Casauboni in I 
 Jos. Scaligerum Ode ; accedunt Poemata et Exercitationes utriusque 
 Lingua?;' and 'A Praxis on the Latin Prepositions,' 8vo, 1823 (after- 
 wards three times reprinted). He also translated Lucien Bonaparte's 
 poem of ' Charlemagne,' in conjuction with the Rev. F. Hodgson ; 
 and he published sundry single sermons at divers times. Dr. Butler 
 left a valuable collection of Aldine editions, and also of Greek and 
 Latin manuscripts. 
 
 BUTTMANN, PHILIP KARL, an eminent scholar aud mythologist, 
 was born on the 5th of December 1764, at Frankfurt-on-the-Main. In 
 the latter part of his life he dropped his second Christain name, but 
 they both appear on the title-pages of his earlier works. He was 
 descended from the French Protestants who took refuge in Germany 
 from the persecutions of Louis XIV. His father, Jacob Buttmann, a 1 
 respectable stationer, placed him, at an early age, under the care of 
 Purman, the learned rector of the gymnasium of his native place. In I 
 1782 he went to Gottiugen to follow up his classical investigations < 
 under the superintendauce of Heyne. In 1786, after a short stay at 
 Frankfurt, he visited his brother-in-law, Dr. Ehrmann of Strasbourg. 
 There he became acquainted with Schweighiiuser, who was then 
 engaged on his edition of ' Polybius,' and Buttmann made his first 
 appearance as a philologer in some notes which he furnished to that 
 laborious work. Shortly after this he was appointed geographical 
 teacher to the young prince of Anhalt Dessau, in which situation he 
 remained for about eight months. In 1788 he went to Berlin, and in 
 the course of a year or two, became assistant librarian to the king, adding 
 to his rather inadequate salary by taking private pupils, and writing \ 
 for the booksellers. In 1792, he published a short Greek grammar, 
 which at once established itself in all the schools of Germany. Butt- 
 mann was appointed, in 1796, secretary to the royal library, and four 
 years afterwards he was made a professor in the Joachimthalsche 
 gymnasium, the high school of Berlin ; he held this appointment till 
 1808, when he was appointed one of the original professors in the new 
 university. He was elected a member of the royal academy of sciences 
 in 1806 ; but so great was his reputation, that his 'Essay on Apollo 
 and Artemis' was inserted in the transactions of that society three 
 years before he entered it. Shortly after his appointment as professor 
 in the university he was selected from his colleagues as classical tutor 
 to the prince royal. After Spalding's death, in June, 1811, Buttmann 
 was elected his successor as secretary to the historical philological 
 class of the royal academy of sciences ; but he felt this office so irksome, 
 that nothing but his regard for the interests of the academy could 
 have induced him to retain it. The peculiar constitution of the society 
 however induced him to accept this appointment, and his panegyrist 
 adds that in conducting its business, he introduced many convenient 
 abridgments of formalities without departing from essentials. In 1821 
 he was appointed head librarian to the king, and in 1824 was made a 
 knight of the Prussian Red Eagle of the third class. From this year 
 till his death he was afflicted with repeated attacks of apoplexy : he 
 died on the 21st June 1829. Buttmann was married, in 1800, to the 
 eldest daughter of Dr. Selle, the king's physician, by whom he left a 
 family; his son Augustus republished, in 1833, his father's well-known 
 edition of ' Demosthenes' Oration against Midias.' Buttmann wrote 
 his own life, up to the time of his becoming a member of the Berlin 
 academy, in the third part of Lowe's collection ('Bildnisse jetzlebender 
 Berliner Gelehrter mit Selbstbiographien'). 
 
 The best known of Buttmann's writings are : — I. His three cele- 
 brated Grammars : (1), the School Grammar ; (2), the intermediate 
 Greek Grammar, of which a translation by Boileau was published ia 
 
1061 
 
 BUTTON, SIR THOMAS. 
 
 BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL, BART. 
 
 loea 
 
 London in 1833, and another in America by Professor Robinson; (3), 
 his complete Greek Grammar, which however only contains the 
 Accidence. II. Hia ' Lexilogus,' which has been well translated by 
 Mr. Fishlake. III. His ' Mythologus ;' a collection of his mythological 
 and historical essays. 
 
 A memorable feature in Buttmann's literary character was his 
 willingness to give assistance to other writers. He began with assisting 
 Schweighauser ; and Heindorf, Biester, Wolf, Spalding, and Niebuhr, 
 successively received and acknowledged his valuable aid. In all his 
 literary labours Buttmann was distinguished for an honest and discri- 
 minating scepticism ; he never doubted however but with a wish to 
 find out the truth, and in contriving methods of fathoming a difficulty 
 he never was exceeded in ingenuity. His private character was very 
 amiable, and doubtless Schleiermacher was justified in saying that 
 " there was hardly one in the circle of his literary acquaintances so 
 well known, so unanimously appreciated, and so entirely beloved 
 as he was." 
 
 BUTTON, SIR THOMAS, one of the early Arctic navigators, was an 
 able seaman in the reign of James I., whose son (the Prince Henry) 
 seems to have been his first patron. In 1612, about three years after 
 the unhappy death of the navigator Hudson, the merchants of London 
 engaged Button to follow up Hudson's discoveries with two ships, the 
 ' Resolution ' and the ' Discovery.' Crossing the Atlantic, Button 
 entered Hudson's Straits to the south of Resolution Islands, and then 
 keeping without deviation a western course, he reached Southampton 
 Island. Sailing still to the west, he fell in with the American conti- 
 nent, in 60° 40' N. lat. From this point of the mainland, which he 
 named 'Hope Checked,' he. made away to the south, and on the 
 15th of August 1612, he discovered the mouth of Nelson's River, in 
 57° 10' N. lat. At this point he determined to winter; and to secure 
 his ships against the icebergs, he caused strong piles to be driven into 
 the sea. Button, like several recent commanders of Arctic expe- 
 ditions, showed great ability in amusing his men, in order to keep up 
 their spirits against the depressing effects of inactivity : he proposed to 
 them questions connected with navigation and mathematics, and thus 
 mingled instruction with amusement. During their detention here 
 several of the sailors died. On the return of spring he employed his 
 ships' companies in killing game, which was so abundant that 1800 
 dozen of white partridges were brought in during their stay. 
 
 The river thawed on the ICth of February, and in two months, the 
 sea being clear of ice, he explored the bay in the neighbourhood of 
 Nelson's River, and named it Button's Bay. He then went north as 
 far as lat. 65°, and fell in with a cluster of islands, which he called 
 Mancel's Islands (now Mansfield's). Proceeding to Cape Chidley, he 
 discovered the passage between that cape and Labrador, and thence 
 reached England in sixteen days, in the autumn of 1613. He was the 
 first navigator that reached the eastern coast of America through 
 Hudson's Straits. Button never published an account of his voyage ; 
 all that we have from his journal is an extract in Purchas. The 
 government of the day made him a knight. 
 
 (Purchas, Sis Pilgrims ; Cooley, Sist. Maritime Discoveries.) 
 
 BUXTON, JEDEDIAH, was born at Elmton, near Chesterfield, 
 about the year 1705. His grandfather had been clergyman of the 
 parish, and his father was schoolmaster of the same place ; but 
 Jedediah was so illiterate that he could not even write, and his mental 
 faculties, with one exception, were of a low order. He possessed how- 
 ever remarkable facility in performing arithmetical calculations, and 
 when he fairly understood a problem, which it was not easy for him 
 to do if it was a little complicated, he solved it with wonderful 
 rapidity. He was altogether incapable of looking into the relation of 
 things, except with respect to the number of parts of which they 
 were composed. After hearing a sermon he knew nothing more of it 
 than that it contained a certain number of words, which he had 
 counted during its delivery. If a period of time were mentioned he 
 began calculating the number of minutes which it included ; and if 
 the size of any object were described, he would at once compute how 
 many hair's-breadths it contained. His ideas were comparatively 
 childish ; and his mind was only stored with a few constants which 
 facilitated hi3 calculations, such a3 the number of minutes in a year, 
 and of hair's-breadths in a mile. His system of mental arithmetic 
 was not founded upon any sound principles ; in fact he could scarcely 
 be said to have a system. He would, for instance, in order to ascertain 
 the product of 478 multiplied by 100, proceed first to multiply it by 5, 
 and then by 20, instead of at once adding a couple of ciphers. 
 
 His condition in life appears to have been either that of a small 
 land-owner or a day-labourer; but probably the former. Having a 
 strong desire to see the king, he walked up to London to gratify this 
 wish, but from some circumstance or other he did not see him. 
 During his stay in the metropolis, Jedediah was examined in calcu- 
 lation by several members of the Royal Society. He was taken to see 
 Garrick in Richard III., and during the performance occupied himself 
 in counting the number of words which each of the actors made use 
 of, and the quantity of steps in a dance ; but he acknowledged that 
 the instrumental music, with its complication and variety of sounds, 
 baffled his skill. In June 1754 a portrait of Buxton appeared in the 
 'Gentleman's Magazine,' with a short account of his life. He is repre- 
 sented in the print as being in his forty-ninth year. His death 
 occurred between 1770 and 1780. He was married, and had a family. 
 
 BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL, BART., was born on the 
 1st of April 1780, at Castle Hedingham in Essex. For his early edu- 
 cation he was sent to the school of Dr. Charles Burney, of Greenwich ; 
 he was afterwards intrusted to the private tuition of a clergyman at 
 Donnybrook in Ireland, and subsequently became an undergraduate 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, where he highly distinguished himself. On 
 the 13th of May 1807 he married Hannah, the fifth daughter of John 
 Guruey, of Earlhani Hall, near Norwich, by whom he had several 
 children. Of these, the present Sir Edward North Buxton was born 
 in 1812. 
 
 In 1803 Mr. Buxton entered the brewing establishment of Truman, 
 Hanbury, & Co., in which his uncles, Sampson and Osgood Hanbury, 
 were partners. In 1811 Buxton himself became a partner, and soon 
 after obtained the principal management of the brewery, to the duties 
 of which he closely and successfully applied himself for several years. 
 
 Mr. Buxton's first appearance in public affairs was at a meeting of 
 the Norfolk and Norwich Auxiliary Bible Society, in September 1812. 
 In 1816 he took a prominent part at a large meeting held at the 
 Mansion House, London, to inquire into the best means of relieving 
 the extreme distress of the population of Spitalfields. As the result 
 of this meeting, a sum of about 44,000Z. was collected for the Spital- 
 fields weavers. His attention was also directed to the state of prison 
 discipline ; he inspected many prisons, and published an ' Inquiry ' 
 into the subject, illustrated by descriptions of several jails, and an 
 account of the proceedings of the Ladies' Committee in Newgate, the 
 most active of whom was Mrs. Elizabeth Fry, his sister-in-law. 
 
 In 1818 Mr. Buxton was elected member of parliament for the 
 borough of Weymouth, after a severe contest; and in 1819 he took a 
 prominent part in the debates of the House of Commons on prison 
 discipline, the amelioration of the criminal law, the suppression of 
 lotteries, and the abolition of the practice of burning widows in India. 
 He continued to represent the borough of Weymouth for nearly 
 twenty years, during which period he was assiduous in the perform- 
 ance of his parliamentary duties (few members so frequently addressed 
 the House), nor did he ever slacken or deviate in the assertion and 
 working out of those benevolent principles with which he started in 
 public life. 
 
 But it is with the Anti-Slavery cause that Fowell Buxton's name is 
 most closely and honourably associated. An earnest coadjutor of 
 Mr. Wilberforce in his efforts on behalf of the oppressed negroes, Mr. 
 Buxton succeeded to that philanthropist's place in the House of Com- 
 mons as the acknowledged leader of the emancipationists. On the 
 15th of May 1823, Mr. Buxton brought forward a resolution to the 
 effect " that the state of slavery is repugnant to the principles of the 
 British constitution and of the Christian religion, and that it ought to 
 be gradually abolished throughout the British colonies, with as much 
 expedition as may be found consistent with a due regard to the well- 
 being of the parties concerned." In opposition to this motion, Mr. 
 Canning^ on the part of the government, moved and carried certain 
 amendments, one of which asserted the anxiety of the House for the 
 emancipation of the slaves " at the earliest period that shall be com- 
 patible with the well-being of the slaves themselves, with the safety of 
 the colonies, and with a fair and equitable consideration of the rights 
 of private property." During the struggles and agitations, both at 
 home and in the colonies, for the ensuing ten or twelve years, Mr. 
 Buxton was steadily engaged in the prosecution of the cause of free- 
 dom, encouraged and supported by the moral feeling of the country, 
 and in parliament by Brougham, Lushington, Macaulay, and a few 
 other earnest opponents of slavery. At length, when in 1833 the 
 secretai-y for the colonies, Mr. Stanley (now Earl of Derby), brought 
 forward his plan for the abolition of slavery, Mr. Buxton, although 
 dissatisfied with the apprenticeship and compensation clauses, gladly 
 accepted the measure, and he had very soon the additional satisfaction 
 of finding the apprenticeship abandoned by the slaveholders them- 
 selves. 
 
 In 1837 he lost his election for Weymouth, and from that time 
 refused to be again put in nomination for that or any other borough. 
 In 1838 he was chiefly occupied with the preparation of a work on the 
 best means of extirpating the African slave-trade. In 1839-40 the state 
 of his health caused him to seek relaxation in a continental tour. At 
 Rome he visited the prisons, and suggested improvements. On his 
 return in 1840 the crown conferred on him the dignity of a baronet. 
 On the 1st of June a public meeting in behalf of African civilisation 
 was held in Exeter Hall, at which Prince Albert presided, and the 
 first resolution was moved by Sir T. F. Buxton. The result of this 
 movement was the well-meant but disastrous expedition to the Niger 
 in 1841. During 1843 and 1844 Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton found hia 
 health declining, and his death took place on the 19th of February, 
 1845, at his residence, North-Repps Hall, near Aylsham in Norfolk, 
 at the age of 59. 
 
 Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton was a man of singularly commanding 
 person ; he was more than six feet four inches in height, and of a fine 
 expression of countenance. As a speaker he was somewhat heavy both 
 in style and delivery, but the influence arising from his high character 
 always secured him a respectful attention. He had no great reach of 
 intellect or imagination, and except when roused on exciting occasions, 
 he had little of the fervour of an orator ; but in collecting facts his 
 industry was untiring, and ia exhibiting and commenting upon them 
 
*063 
 
 BUXTORF. 
 
 BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELIUS VAN. 
 
 1081 
 
 he was zealous and persevering, reiterating his attacks till his object 
 was attained or found to be unattainable. He gave a liberal support 
 to many benevolent and philanthropic institutions, particularly to those 
 in the vicinity of his residence, and in Spitalfields, the locality of his 
 brewery. 
 
 (Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowcll Buxton, Bart., edited by his son, 
 Charles Buxton, Esq., 1848.) 
 
 BUXTORF, a family celebrated for its attainments in Hebrew 
 literature. 
 
 Joun Buxtorp was born on Christmas-day 1564 at Camen in West- 
 phalia, of which place his father was Calviuist minister. He was 
 educated at Marburg and Herborn under Piscator, and afterwards 
 received instructions at Basel and Geneva from Gryna;us and Theodore 
 Beza. He occupied the Hebrew chair at Basel for thirty-eight years 
 of ] lis life, and so attached was he to that university that he declined 
 many advantageous offers of a similar occupation both at Saumur and 
 at Ley den. Besides maintaining a largo correspondence with all who 
 were skilled in the leading object of his research, he lodged and sup- 
 ported in his house many learned Jews, with whom he familiarly 
 conversed during his leisure hours respecting their language. He died 
 September 18th, 1029, after having published, besides many separate 
 tracts, more than one grammar and lexicon of the Hebrew and Chaldee 
 tongues, a 1 Concordance,' and a ' Hebrew Bible ' with the notes of the 
 Rabbins. 
 
 John Buxtorf, the younger, son of tho preceding, was born at Basel, 
 August 13th, 1599, and exhibited precocity so remarkable that in his 
 fourth year it is said that he understood German, Latin, and Hebrew, 
 a statement doubtless greatly exaggerated. After cultivating Hebrew 
 in France, Germany, and Italy, he succeeded his father at Basel in 1630, 
 where he died, August 16th, 1664. Besides collecting, augmenting, and 
 editing many of his father's works, he was the author of several original 
 treatises on Hebrew literature. 
 
 John James, son of the preceding, like his father and grandfather, was 
 professor of Hebrew at Basel, where he was born September 4th 1645, 
 and died April 1st 1704. He travelled in Holland, France, and England, 
 and was received everywhere with honour, especially at Cambridge. 
 He printed nothing in his lifetime but a preface to his grandfather's 
 work entitled ' Tiberias,' which is an historical and critical vindication 
 of the Masorethic points, the origin of which he assigns to Esdras; 
 but he left behind him many manuscripts connected with Rabbinical 
 literature. Another John, nephew to the above, was also professor of 
 the Oriental languages at Basel, and died in 1732, leaving a son to 
 distinguish himself by similar learning. 
 
 The works of the Buxtorfs greatly advanced the progress of Hebrew 
 literature, and the depth of their learning has never been disputed. 
 By the Romanists in general they have been regarded as too much 
 addicted to Rabbinical fancies, and in the controversy respecting the 
 Hebrew points, their espousal of them has been a frequent object of 
 nttfick ■ 
 
 BYNG, GEORGE, VISCOUNT TORRINGTON, was the eldest 
 son of John Byng, Esq., of Wrotham in Kent, and was born in 
 1663. He entered as a volunteer in the navy at fifteen years of 
 age. From 1681 to 1684 he was engaged as a cadet in the land 
 service with the garrison of Tangiers, where he received promotion 
 first as ensign, afterwards as lieutenant. In the following year, while 
 acting as lieutenant on board the ' Phcenix ' in the East Indies, he was 
 desperately wounded in an action with a Zinganese pirate. In 1688 he 
 was particularly active in attaching the fleet to the interests of the 
 Prince of Orange, and he afterwards served with distinction under Sir 
 G. Rooke and Admiral Russell. In 1706 he was commissioned vice- 
 admiral of the red, and returned member of parliament for Plymouth, 
 which borough he represented till he was created a peer in 1721. His 
 services obtained for him the dignity of baronet in 1715. In 171S he 
 totally defeated a Spanish fleet off Messina, and he was finally rewarded 
 with some of the highest professional honours, as Rear-Admiral of 
 England and treasurer of the navy ; he was also made a member of 
 the Privy Council, Baron Byng of Southhill in the county of Bedford, 
 Viscount Torrington in Devonshire, knight of the Bath, and first lord 
 of the Admiralty, in which exalted station he died on January 17, 
 1732-33. 
 
 BYNG, JOHN, fourth son of the preceding, by Mary, daughter of 
 James Master, Esq., of East Langdon in the county of Kent, was born 
 in 1704, and entered early into his father's profession, in which he 
 made the usual progress through subordinate stations. In 1756 he 
 was appointed to command a squadron of ten ships of the line in the 
 Mediterranean, destined for the relief of Minorca, at that time menaced 
 by the French, and hoisted his flag accordingly on board the Ramilies. 
 His equipments were inadequate to the service required, and on touching 
 at Gibraltar to take in provisions and to refit, he learned that not less 
 than twelve sail of the line, numerous frigates, and a large flotilla of 
 transports from Toulon, had already landed 19,000 men in Minorca, 
 and that the whole of the island, excepting Fort St. Philippe, was 
 reduced. A council of war declared, on the unanimous authority of 
 officers well acquainted with the island, that relief under these circum- 
 stances was impossible. Nevertheless Byng proceeded, and made an 
 unsuccessful attempt to establish a communication with the garrison 
 by his frigates. An engagement with the French squadron under the 
 Marquis de la Calissoni&re ensued, and the fleets separated after an 
 
 indecisive action in which Byng took little part. The clamour raised 
 at home was directed as much against the ministry, who had neglected 
 to fit out the fleet properly, as against the admiral, who had fought 
 languidly ; but the cabinet resolved to sacrifice Byng in the hope of 
 securing their own reputation. Such an object was assisted by Byng's 
 professional unpopularity : his habits were austere ; he was a rigid 
 disciplinarian ; and he had no brilliant former service to urge in his 
 favour. He was accordingly superseded, and brought to a court-martial. 
 It appeared from the evidence that he had not been anxious to engage, 
 but ample testimony was borne to his courage. In his defence he 
 inveighed against the policy of the enterprise, showed the little chance 
 of victory which the crippled state of his ships permitted him to 
 entertain, and the calamitous results which must have followed defeat. 
 After a long trial he was found guilty of not having doDe his utmost, 
 sentenced to be shot, but unanimously recommended as a proper object 
 of mercy. Yet despite the recommendation of his judges, and tho many 
 representations in his favour, the sentence was executed at Portsmouth 
 on March 17, 1757. Byng met his fate with calmness and fortitude; 
 and post' rity has done justice to his memory. 
 
 BYNKERSHOEK, CORNELIUS VAN, was born at Middelburg, in 
 Zealand, on the 29th of May, 1073. His father, who was a merchant, 
 paid great attention to his education. He was sent when about seven- 
 teen years of age to the university of Franeker, at that time a seat of 
 learning of considerable reputation, where after two years' study he 
 began to apply himself sedulously to jurisprudence, and in the course 
 of the two following years wrote three disputatious, which gained him 
 grt at credit by the erudition and judgment displayed in them. After 
 taking the degree of Doctor in the year 1694, he went to practise as 
 an advocate at the Hague, where was held the supreme court of justice 
 for the provinces of Holland, Zealand, and West Friesland. 
 
 In 1703 he was elected by the states-general a member of the 
 Supreme Court. As such he was called upon to administer the com- 
 mon law of his own country, which, as he describes it, besides being 
 grossly defective, was vague, uncertain, and obscure. Bynkershoek 
 saw and pointed out the necessity of having some fixed standard to 
 appeal to. He had always admired the Roman law for its manly 
 simplicity, and valued it highly as furnishing the soundest principles 
 of legal decision. Having now a practical object in view, he pursued 
 his studies with greater ardour. About 1710 he published his first 
 work of any great importance, the ' Observationes Juris Romani,' 
 consisting, as its title imports, of a collection of detached dissertations 
 and criticisms. In 1719 appeared under the title of ' Opuscula varii 
 Argumenti,' a collection of treatises, which he had written at different 
 times. One of these, which he had before published in 1695, soon 
 after his coming to the Hague, contained the substance of his three 
 academical disputations. On the 26th of May 1724 he was appointed 
 by the states-general president of the supreme court : but the activity 
 of his intellect was not slackened by promotion, nor confined to the 
 practical duties of his office. He published in 1730 another collection 
 of treatises, under the title of ' Opera Minora,' all of which had pre- 
 viously appeared separately at various times between 1697 and 1721. 
 
 In 1733 appeared four more books of ' Observationes Juris Romani,' 
 written in continuation of the former work of the same name, which 
 he had published more than twenty-two years before. About the 
 same time he retired from the bench, of which he had been forty 
 years a member. His retirement however was not a period of indo- 
 lence. " Having now more leisure than formerly, I will do my 
 utmost," he says, " to render a good account of it to the world." His 
 labours were however henceforth turned into a different channel. He 
 gave up the study of the Roman law, and applied himself for the last 
 year3 of his life to the task of laying before the world the learning 
 which in the course of his study and his practice he had acquired on 
 two very important subjects — international law, and the law of his 
 own country. On the former of these he had already written two 
 treatises, which are printed among his ' Opera Minora.' The one, 
 ' De Dominio Maris,' which originally appeared in 1702, as an appendix 
 to another dissertation, has always been appealed to with respect on 
 a difficult and still disputed question. The other, ' De foro Legato- 
 rum Competenti,' was first published in 1721, and was soon after 
 translated into French, by Barheyrse. In 1737 he produced a more 
 important work, ' Quaestioues Juris Publici,' in two books; the first 
 of which treats of war and peace, and the second is on miscellaneous 
 subjects. The ' Qua;stiones Juris Publici,' as well as the treatise ' De 
 foro Legatorum,' though founded too exclusively on Dutch authoritie?, 
 and written with too exclusive a reference to Dutch institutions, so 
 that they appear to treat rather of the public law of Holland than of 
 international law in general, have nevertheless been regarded by the 
 publicists of all cations as works of the highest authority and most 
 universal application. 
 
 The next and last labour undertaken by Bynkershoek was on the 
 laws of his own country, — ' Qusestiones Juris Privati,' He did not 
 live to complete the work, but as much of it as was prepared for 
 publication at the time of his death appeared soon afterwards. 
 
 Besides his published works, Bynkershoek had employed himself 
 during the whole of his professional life in the execution of two very 
 laborious undertakings. One of these, which he called 'Observa- 
 tiones Tumultuariae,' consisted of notes which he had taken of the 
 decisions and proceedings of the supreme court. The othfr, a work 
 
1035 
 
 BYRGIUS, JUSTUS. 
 
 BYRON, GEORGE GORDON, LORD. 
 
 1068 
 
 of still greater interest and importance, was a collection of all the 
 i scattered laws of his own country, whether existing in the enact- 
 ments of the several legislative powers which had successively pre- 
 vailed there ; — in the decisions of the courts, the practice of the bar, 
 or the customs and statutes of particular cities and districts. This 
 immense mass ho had digested, so as to form a complete ' Corpus 
 Juris Hollandici et Zelandici.' These two collections were intended 
 solely for his own use ; and in his will he left directions that they 
 should never be published. 
 
 Bynkershoek had long suffered from asthma ; to this, at last, was 
 added dropsy on the chest, of which he died on the 16th of April, 
 1743. He was twice married ; and by his first wife left six daughters. 
 A complete edition of his works was published at Geneva, in 1761, in 
 folio, by Vicat, professor of law at Lausanne ; and another in two 
 volumes folio, at Leyden, in 1766. 
 
 BYRGIUS, JUSTUS, or JUST BYRGE, a mathematician and 
 artist, chiefly distinguished by the reputation of having been the first 
 person who invented, or, at least, gave indications of numbers corre- 
 sponding to logarithms. He was born in Switzerland, in the year 
 1552, and was long attached to the observatory which had been built 
 at Hasse-Cassel by the Landgrave William IV. ; at this place he ma'le 
 celestial observations, which were afterwards published by Snell, and 
 he was occasionally employed in making mathematical and astronomi- 
 cal instruments. He is said to have invented an instrument similar to 
 that which is now called proportional compasses ; and to have con- 
 structed a pendulum clock in the year 1600, which is above fifty years 
 before the application of a pendulum to an instrument for measuring 
 time was made by Huyghens. He executed for the landgrave a celestial 
 globe or orrery, which was afterwards purchased by the emperor 
 Rudolph II., who appointed him his instrument-maker. On the death 
 of the landgrave he went to reside at Prague; but in 1632 he returned 
 to Cassel, where he died in the following year. Dithmarsus, who 
 designates himself a pupil of Byrgius, observes that Byrgius had 
 studied neither Latin nor Greek ; and Kepler describes him as an 
 indolent and reserved man, who withheld his discoveries from the 
 public. 
 
 Dithmarsus ascribes to his tutor the discovery of two rules for 
 resolving spherical triangles ; one, when the three sides, and the other, 
 when two sides and the angle contained between them are given ; and 
 he considers them as much more simple than any which had been 
 used before that time. He states also that Byrgius had discovered a 
 method of dividing any given angle into equal parts, or into parts 
 having given relations to one another; and he adds, that by such 
 means he could compute with great facility a table of sines, either in 
 natural or in logistic numbers. These last are supposed to be a species 
 of logarithms, and as the work of Dithmarsus was published in 1588, 
 or twenty-six years before the ' Canon ' of Napier [Napier], it is pos- 
 sible that Byrgiu3 may have preceded the latter in the time of the 
 discovery. This is directly asserted by Kepler, in the preface to the 
 'Rudolphine Tables,' where it is also observed that the Logistic indices 
 (the accents by which minutes, seconds, thirds, &c, of a degree are 
 designated in sexagesimal arithmetic) led Byrgius to the discovery of 
 logarithms similar to those of Napier. If this assertion be correct, it 
 may be presumed that Byrgius formed, by the means obscurely indi- 
 cated in the work of Dithmarsus, two series of numbers, one series in 
 an increasing arithmetical progression, and the other in a decreasing 
 geometrical progression ; like the denominations above alluded to, and 
 as in the original table of logarithms computed by Napier. 
 
 From Montucla (Histoire des Mathdmatiques,' torn. 2) we learn that 
 there is a passage in a work on Perspective by Bramer, in which it 
 is stated that Byrgius (his brother-in-law) had published at Prague, 
 in 1620, a table containing two series, one in arithmetical and the 
 other in geometrical progression ; it is added, that he entertained the 
 idea of publishing several of his works, among which wa3 a table of 
 sines to every two seconds of the quadrant, and that the distress 
 occasioned by the Thirty Years' War prevented the design from being 
 put in execution. An imperfect copy of the tables first mentioned 
 was in the possession of M. Kiistner, and from this it was found that 
 the logarithmic numbers began with zero, and increased constantly by 
 10, while the natural numbers began with 1, and formed an increasing 
 geometrical progression. Bramer infers from the publication of this 
 table, that his brother-in-law was in possession of logarithms long 
 before Napier had made the discovery ; but, as the ' Canon Mirificus ' 
 wan published six years earlier than that table, this inference is 
 unfounded. It may be admitted however from the circumstances 
 mentioned by Dithmarsus, that twenty-six years before the publication 
 of Napier's book, Byrgius had a knowledge of the properties of the 
 numbers called logarithmic in facilitating arithmetical computations ; 
 but it does not appear that he was the first to form a table of them 
 for the purpose. 
 
 It is remarkable that Kepler, who himself computed a table of 
 logarithmic numbers, doe3 not mention Byrgius till the year 1627, 
 when he states that the latter had discovered logarithms similar to 
 Viose of Napier. Previously to that time he always spoke of Napier 
 M the inventor, and of his discovery as the most useful that had been 
 made since numbers were known, If therefore Kepler, in Germany, 
 had no knowledge of the discoveries of Byrgius from the work of 
 Dithmarsus, it cannot be suppose 1 that the latter had found its way 
 
 to Scotland, or that its obscure indications guided Napier to the 
 
 discovery which has immortalised his name. 
 
 BYRON, GEORGE GORDON, LORD, was born on the 22ud of 
 January, 1788, iu Holies-street, Cavendish-square, London. His 
 descent dates from the time of the Norman conquest of this island. 
 The Byrons, or Birons, who had been knights and baronets long before, 
 were first made lords during the reign of Charles I., whose cause they 
 espoused in opposition to that of the Commons of England. Not- 
 withstanding his ancient lineage, of which he was always proud, 
 Byron, owing to the imprudence and vices of his father (Captain 
 Byron, nephew to the then lord), was born and brought up in what, 
 considering the notions of his class, must be called poverty. Owing 
 to an accident attending his birth, one of his feet was distorted, a 
 defect which was a source of pain and mortification to him during the 
 whole of his life. 
 
 In 1790, when he was only two years old, his mother, who had 
 separated from her husband, retired with her child to Scotland, her 
 native country, and established herself in humble lodgings In the town 
 of Aberdeen. Proud, impetuous, and of a most inflammable temper, 
 this unfortunate woman was not at all fitted to correct those heredi- 
 tary vices which Byron in after years was accustomed to say were 
 strong within him. The most important of all the parts of education 
 is that for which the child stands indebted to its mother, and nothing 
 could well be worse than the poet's maternal tuition and example. 
 As for his father he took no charge of him, but withdrawing to the 
 continent in order to escape his creditors, he died at Valenciennes in 
 1791. When about five years old, Byron was sent to a day-school at 
 Aberdeen, kept by one Bowers, who received from the poet's mother 
 five shillings a quarter for such instruction as he could give. After 
 staying rather more than a year at this school, he was placed under 
 the tuition of a poor but well-informed Scotch clergyman, called Ross, 
 who taught him to read. From the care of Mr. Ross his mother 
 removed him to that of Mr. Paterson, the son of his shoemaker, who 
 taught him a little Latin, and attended to him with much kindness 
 until Mrs. Byron sent him to the free grammar-school of Aberdeen, 
 where he was studying when the death of the lord, his grand-uncle, 
 recalled him to England, and to the enjoyment of such a provision as 
 suited a peer of the realm in his minority. This uncle, to whom he 
 succeeded, was a man of turbulent passions, and a melancholy occur- 
 rence had thrown a gloom over the last thirty years of his life. In a 
 duel, or as some said, rather a chance scuffle arising out of the heat 
 and intoxication of the moment, he killed his neighbour and relative 
 Mr. Chaworth. The House of Peers, before whom he stood his trial 
 in 1765, acquitted him, but his own conscience and his country neigh- 
 bours never did. He shut himself up in his patrimonial mansion, the 
 old and then melancholy Abbey of Newstead in Nottinghamshire, 
 and thenceforward led an unsocial and eccentric course of life. He 
 took no interest in his heir, who was destined to illustrate the proud 
 name of Byron : he never seems to have exercised any pecuniary 
 generosity towards him, and it is said that on the rare occasions when 
 he mentioned him, it was always as " the little boy who lives at 
 Aberdeen." In 1798, when the poet succeeded to his uncle's titles and 
 estates, he was little more than ten years old. His mother, whose 
 weak head was turned by the sudden change in her fortunes, imme- 
 diately removed to Newstead Abbey, and took great pains to keep 
 always before his eyes the fact that, though only a boy, he was now a 
 lord. To attend both to body and mind, she employed one Lavender 
 to straighten his unfortunate foot, and a Mr. Rogers to instruct him in 
 Latin. The former, who was an impudent quack, did him no good ; 
 but the latter, a respectable schoolmaster of Nottingham, improved 
 him considerably by reading passages from Virgil and Cicero with 
 him. In less than a year Byron's mother carried him to London, 
 whence, after consulting more able surgeons, who could no more cure 
 a deformity than the empiric had been able to do, she had him con- 
 veyed to Dulwich and placed in a quiet boarding-school, under the 
 direction of Dr. Glennie. But for the indiscretions and constant inter- 
 ference of Mrs. Byron, Dr. Glennie might not only have made him a 
 better scholar than he ever became, but have checked iu the germ at 
 least some of those infirmities of temper and those vices which embit- 
 tered his after-years. He had not been two years under the charge of 
 this excellent man, when his mother removed him to Harrow, where, 
 with the exception of the usual long vacations, he remained till 1805, 
 when he was sent to Cambridge. During his stay at Harrow he was 
 irregular and somewhat turbulent iu his habits ; but he frequently 
 gave signs of a frank, noble, and generous spirit, which endeared him 
 to his school-fellows : he had no aptitude for merely verbal scholar- 
 ship ; and his patience seems to have failed him in the study of Greek. 
 He however read a great deal, and by occasional fits of application 
 laid in some store of miscellaneous knowledge. During his vacations 
 his mother continued to spoil him by alternate fits of harshness and 
 indulgence. She introduced him to masquerades aud other scenes of 
 excitement aud fashionable fooleries before he was fifteen years old. 
 It was at about this period of his life that he became acquainted with 
 Miss Chaworth, the heiress of Anncslcy, aud descendant of the Mr. 
 Chaworth whom his lordship's great uncle had killed. We have no 
 doubt that this very circumstance had a great effect on his excitable 
 and romantic imagination. In one of his memorandum-books he 
 wrote — " Our union would have healed feuds in which blood had been 
 
1067 
 
 1068 
 
 shed by our fathers ; it would have joined lands broad and rich ; it 
 would have joined at least one heart, and two persons not ill matched 
 in years — she was two years my elder." His lordship had fancied 
 himself in love two or three times before, but this more than half- 
 imaginary passion for Mary Chaworth seems to have haunted him 
 almost to the last hours of his existence, and he always persisted in 
 saying that had he been united to her he should have proved a better 
 and a happier man. The young lady treated him as a clever, warm- 
 hearted, but capricious school-boy, a friend and nothing more, and a 
 year or two after her first acquaintance with the poet she gave hor 
 hand to Mr. John Musters, a gentleman of Nottinghamshire. But all 
 Byron's Harrow vacations were not spent in making love ; he passed 
 one of them in the house of the Abbe" Rouffigny, in Took's-court, for 
 the purpose of studying the French language ; but he spent most of 
 his time in boxing and fencing, to the no small disturbance of the old 
 Abbd's establishment. 
 
 In October 1805 he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where ho 
 spent two years in the way that is not uncommon with young men 
 of rank and fashion ; but still, by fits and starts, he devoted himself 
 to pretty hard study, and continued to cultivate that taste for poetry 
 which first showed itself when he was about ten years old, and which 
 he had never since permitted to lie wholly dormant. At the same 
 time he indulged in many eccentricities, and caused great annoyance 
 by keeping a bear, and several bull-dogs. But at Cambridge, as at 
 Harrow, he frequently evinced the most generous and noble feelings, 
 and chose his associates, with one or two exceptions, from among the 
 young men of the greatest ability, wit, and character, to a few of 
 whom he seems to have continued much attached in after-life. In 
 1806, while yet at college, he printed a very thin quarto volume of 
 poems for private circulation. Of this edition Mr. Mooro says there 
 are but two or at the most three copies in existence. In 1807 he 
 brought out, in 1 vol. 8vo, his ' Hours of Idleness,' which were very 
 severely, but we cannot say altogether uujustly, handled in the ' Edin- 
 burgh Review.' It was just such a collection of fugitive pieces as any 
 tolerably read young man of nineteen might write : it was not less, 
 and it certainly was not more, than this. In this volume we can 
 scarcely discover any indication of the superior genius which he after- 
 wards displayed ; and there was in it an assumption of aristocratic 
 airs that rendered the author peculiarly obnoxious to writers who 
 advocated liberal principles. The severity of the reviewers seems to 
 have produced a good effect on his lordship's muse, which was always 
 too readily animated and inspired by feelings of spite and revenge. 
 He collected his powers, he brought them to bear on one point, he 
 took more pains with his style, and in 1809 appeared his well-known 
 satire, 'English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,' which, however faulty 
 in parts as a composition, and blameable in moral feeling, was a won- 
 derful improvement on his preceding productions. A few days before 
 its publication he took his seat in the House of Lords. 
 
 At one time Byron thought seriously of devoting himself to politics, 
 and wrote to his mother that he " must do something in the House 
 soon." He delivered two set speeches in the Lords, with indifferent 
 success and a tolerable ignorance of the subjects on which he spoke, 
 and then his senatorial ardour ceased altogether. This was after his 
 return from his travels, in 1812. 
 
 On the 2nd of July 1809 Lord Byron, in company with his friend 
 Mr. John Cam Hobhouse (now Lord Broughton), left England to travel 
 in Portugal, Spain, Greece, Turkey, &c. He was absent two years on 
 this classical tour, which enriched his mind with incidents and poetical 
 imagery, and filled it with reflections of some of the finest and most 
 melancholy scenery in the world. His travels, in fact, finished his 
 poetical education, and nearly everything he wrote afterwards is 
 redolent of the glowing atmosphere of the East, and bears more or 
 less directly on the adventurous, impassioned narratives which he 
 heard in ' the clime of the East,' in ' the land of the sun.' 
 
 In March 1812 Byron published the first two cantos of his splendid 
 poem ' Childe Harold,' which at once gained him the very highest 
 name among the poets of the day. The popularity of this production 
 was as immediate as it was great, and he used to say, he went to bed 
 one night, and, on waking the next morning, found himself famous. 
 He was now sought after by the rich and great, who formerly knew 
 him not, or avoided him ; and he threw himself into the vortex of 
 fashionable dissipation without much taste for its pleasure, and with 
 little respect for the mass of those with whom he associated. 
 
 To pass over some minor productions, it was in the month of May 
 1813, that his wild oriental tale, or rather fragment of a tale, ' The 
 Giaour,' first appeared ; this was followed, in December of the same 
 year, by the ' Bride of Abydos,' another passionate Eastern poem, 
 more consecutive as a narrative than the ' Giaour,' and equally rich 
 in scenic descriptions. In January 1814 he published his ' Corsair,' 
 one of the most applauded, though far from one of the best of his 
 productions. He however showed in it an admirable mastery of the 
 ten-syllable English verse aud what he called "the good old and now 
 neglected heroic couplet." His descriptions of the Greek islands and 
 the scenery of the coast of Greece are exquisitely beautiful : they are 
 moreover correct pictures, as must be felt by all who have travelled 
 in those climes. The story, like all his stories, is badly constructed : 
 the characters are not very dramatically sustained, and have little in 
 tbem to lay hold of the heart when the fervour and passions of youth 
 
 are passed. It is stated on the best authority that 14,000 copies ol 
 the 'Corsair' were sold in one day. In May 1814 he published his 
 splendid ode on the first fall of Bonaparte. In August of the sam» 
 year appeared his ' Lara,' an irregular sort of sequel and wind-up tc 
 the ' Corsair,' written in much the same style, but with less power. 
 
 During the blaze of his poetical fame, and his intoxicating success 
 in society, Byron was hardly ever happy, and he occasionally withdrew 
 for considerable periods to the solitude of the old abbey at Newstead. 
 In October 1814 he was married to Miss Milbanke, a great heiress in 
 prospect, but at the time possessed of little money, while the poet stood 
 in need of a great deal. He was in fact so involved in his pecuniary 
 affairs, that he tells us he had nine executions in his house during the 
 first twelve months of his marriage, besides having his door continually 
 beset by duns. These were not circumstances likely to soothe the 
 irritable temperament of Lord Byron : he sought a refuge from them 
 in pleasures from home ; and an utter incompatibility of character 
 between him and his lady becoming every day more and' more con- 
 spicuous, augured ill for this hastily-formed alliance. On the 10th of 
 December 1815 Lady Byron bore him a daughter, the Ada of his 
 poems (the late Countess of Lovelace). In the latter end of January 
 Lady Byron left his house with her infant, and retired to her 
 father's residence in Leicestershire : the poet never saw his wife or 
 child again. 
 
 At the end of February 1815 Byron published his two poems, the 
 ' Siege of Corinth ' and ' Parisina.' On the 25th of April following he 
 set sail for Ostcnd, with a fixed determination never more to return 
 to a country which had given him honours, titles, competent wealth, 
 and fame. 
 
 On starting on his continental travels he went through Belgium, up 
 the Rhine, and then through part of Switzerland to Geneva, where he 
 fixed himself for some time, his favourite companions there being the 
 late Mr. Shelley, the poet, and Mrs. Shelley. He often crossed the 
 lake to visit Madame de Stael at Coppet. His frequent voyages on 
 the Lake of Geneva, and excursions among the Alps, revived all his 
 passionate adoration of sublime scenery. During his stay at the villa 
 Diodati, near Geneva, he wrote the third canto of ' Childe Harold,' the 
 ' Prisoner of Chillon,' ' The Dream,' and several of his fugitive pieces. 
 In October 1816 he left Switzerland for Italy, and by the middle of 
 the following November we find him at Venice, where he remained 
 for more than three years, which were mainly spent in an alternation 
 of literary labour and debauchery. We must however deduct from 
 this long sojourn some three weeks, which he employed in visiting 
 Rome in company with his friend Hobhouse, and a few excursions he 
 made to Bologna and other places. In January 1820 he took up his 
 residence at Ravenna, where he involved himself with secret societies 
 and Italian plots to overthrow the government of the pope. The 
 brother and other near connections of the Countess Guiccioli, a married 
 woman to whom he had attached himself, were so seriously committed, 
 that the papal government exiled them from the States of the Church. 
 Upon this the lady and her relatives took refuge in Tuscany, and 
 ultimately fixed themselves at Pisa, whither Byron followed them in 
 November 1821. 
 
 Soon after his arrival at Pisa he was joined by Mr. and Mrs. Shelley, 
 and his party was subsequently increased by Mr. Leigh Hunt and 
 family. Byron, Shelley, and Hunt started a work called ' The Liberal, 
 which was to appear periodically, and to be written and edited by the 
 three conjointly. It was altogether a badly-devised scheme, and after 
 the irregular appearance of two or three numbers the work stopped. 
 He was much affected by the death of his friend Shelley in July 1822, 
 and in October he went to Genoa. Early in 1823 he received flattering 
 overtures from the committee of friends to the Greeks established in 
 London for the purpose of aiding that people in their struggle for 
 independence. His knowledge of the country, the beauty and energy 
 of the many verses in which he had described her sad condition under 
 the Turks, naturally directed attention to his lordship, who, after a 
 short correspondence with the committee, determined not only to 
 assist in purse, but in person and with arms in his hands. With his 
 usual haste and impetuosity he prepared forthwith to leave Italy. 
 During his stay in that beautiful country he had written the fourth 
 canto of 'Childe Harold;' 'Beppo, a Venetian Story;' 'Mazeppa;' 
 'Manfred;' the ' Lament of Tasso;' 'Ode to Venice;' the 'Prophecy 
 of Dante ' (wherein he imitated, not very successfully, the terza rima 
 of the Italians) ; 'Cain, a Mystery;' ' Marino Faliero,' the 'Two Foscari,' 
 ' Sardanapalus,' and ' Werner,' tragedies ; the cantos of ' Don J uan ' (the 
 most astonishing of all his productions); the ' Vision of Judgment ;' and 
 many fugitive pieces. 
 
 With his head full of warlike notions, Byron sailed from Genoa on 
 the 14th of July; on the 19th he put into Leghorn to purchase gun- 
 powder and other commodities for the Greeks, and sailing again on 
 the 24th, he reached the island of Cephalonia in about ten days. He 
 had scarcely arrived there and looked a little into the affairs of the 
 Greeks, when he repented of his expedition. " I was a fool," he wrote 
 to a friend, " to come here ; but being here, I must see what is to be 
 done." He however showed a talent for public business that surprised 
 most people, and a degree of good common sense that contrasted very 
 advantageously with the wild theoretic dreamings of many of the 
 Philhellenes who had repaired to Greece. 
 
 At the end of December 1823 his lordship sailed from Cephalonia, 
 
BYRON, JOHN. 
 
 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS. 
 
 1070 
 
 and after a narrow escape from a Turkish frigate landed at Drago- 
 meetri, a wretched seaport of the Greeks on the coast of Acarnania. 
 In sailing from this point to Missolonghi he was near suffering ship- 
 wreck, and by an act of imprudence sowed the seeds of the malady 
 that soon terminated his existence. On the 3rd of January, during a 
 rough and cold night, he leaped into the sea, and swam a long way : 
 two or three days after he complained of a severe pain in all his bones, 
 which continued more or less to the time of his death. He reached 
 Missolonghi on the 10th of January 1824, where he found everything 
 in a most perplexing and almost hopeless state of anarchy and confu- 
 sion. He set to work with spirit and application, and again showed a 
 great aptitude for the despatch of public business. The weather was 
 detestable and the place unhealthy. At the beginning of February he 
 got wet through; on the evening of the 15th he was seized with a 
 dreadful convulsive fit, and was for some time speechless and senseless. 
 Soon after this paroxysm, while stretched on his bed faint with over- 
 bleeding, a crowd of mutinous Suliotes whom he had engaged to fight 
 for their country burst into his apartment brandishing their arms, 
 and furiously demanding their pay. Sick and nerve-shaken as he was, 
 Byron is said to have displayed great calmness and courage on this 
 occasion, and his manner soon inspired the mutineers with respect and 
 awe. At the end of January he had received a regular commission 
 from the Greek government, and was appointed to the command of an 
 expedition that was to besiege Lepanto, then in the hands of the 
 Turks. The difficulties and obstructions encountered by his lordship 
 in preparing and providing for this siege were perplexing and irritating 
 in the extreme, and altogether too much for a man whose health was 
 evidently undermined. Still however he would not listen to those 
 who advised him to retire. " I will stick by the cause," said he, " as 
 long as a cause exists." 
 
 On the 9th of April he again got wet through, and returned to 
 Missolonghi in a state of violent perspiration. Fever and violent 
 rheumatic pains ensued. On the following day he took a ride among 
 the olive woods, but complained of shuddeiings, and had no appetite. 
 On the evening of the 11th he was much worse, and by the 14th he 
 was evidently in danger. For several days he obstinately refused to let 
 his medical attendants bleed him, and when he gave his consent the 
 bleeding was too late. Inflammation fell upon his brain, and he expired 
 at six o'clock on the afternoon of the 19th of April 1824, being only 
 thirty-six years and three months old. The bitter grief of his followers 
 and attendants of all nations was a proof of his frequent kindness of 
 heart, and his goodness as a master. 
 
 As a poet of description and passion Lord Byron will always occupy 
 a high place among English poets, though the absolute supremacy 
 which so many of his contemporaries gave him as his right has already 
 passed away. The least successful of Byron's productions, notwith- 
 standing the admirable passages iu which they abound, are his 
 tragedies : the work which gives us the highest notion of his genius, 
 power, and versatility is his ' Don J uan.' The Don is at times free 
 and almost obscene, and the whole tendency of the poem may be 
 considered immoral ; but there are, scattered throughout it, the most 
 exquisite pieces of writing and feeling, — inimitable blendings of wit, 
 humour, raillery, and pathos, and by far the finest verses Byron ever 
 wrote. He may be said to have created this manner ; for the Bernesco 
 style of the Italians, to which it has been compared, is not like it. 
 
 (Thomas Moore, Letters and Journal of Lord Byron, with Notices of 
 his Life; Gait, Life of Lord Byron; Dallas, Memoir; Lady Blessington, 
 Conversations with Lord Byron ; &c.) 
 
 BYRON, JOHN, second son of William Lord Byron, by his third 
 wife Frances, second daughter of William Lord Berkeley of Stretton, 
 was born Nov. 8, 1723. He was engaged as midshipman on board 
 the Wager, the store-ship which accompanied Lord Anson's squadron 
 in its voyage round the world, commenced in September 1740. On 
 the 15th of May the Wager, having before parted company with the 
 remainder of the squadron in consequence of her bad sailing, struck 
 on a sunken rock about 47° S. lat. on the western coast of America. 
 She soon afterwards bilged, and grounded between two small islands 
 about a musket-shot from the shore. Her captain, who had suc- 
 ceeded to the command during the voyage in consequence of the 
 death of hie superior officer, appears to have rendered himself hateful 
 to the ship's company by imperious and tyrannical conduct; and tho 
 crew, on the other hand, were mutinous and insubordinate. The 
 mariners landed upon a wild shore, which afterwards proved to be 
 part of an uninhabited island, and the wretchedness of which may 
 be inferred from the name which the sailors gave it, ' Mount Misery.' 
 
 After several months' residence, part of the crew embarked in the 
 cutter and long-boat to attempt the passage of the Straits of Magel- 
 haens, and a homeward return by Brazil. The cutter was lost, but 
 the loDg-boat, after undergoing incredible hardships and sailing more 
 than 1000 leagues, arrived at the Portuguese settlements in Brazil. 
 Byron and his companions, after enduring the utmost extremity of 
 famine, bad weather, cold, fatigue, hunger, sickness, and general 
 destitution, were relieved by a Chanos Indian cacique, who conveyed 
 them to the island of Chiloe, after thirteen months had expired since 
 the loss of the Wager. The narrative which Byron published on his 
 return to England in 1745 is among the most interesting accounts of 
 nautical adventures with which we are acquainted. Byron afterwards 
 •erved with distinction in 1758 during the war against France ; in 1760 
 
 he performed a brilliant service in destroying a French squadron iu 
 Chaleur Bay, and on the return of peace in 1704 he was despatched 
 on a voyage of discovery to the Soutli Sea, in command of the ships 
 Dolphin and Tamar. He may be considered as one of the ablest 
 precursors of Captain Cook, in tho preliminary volume to whose 
 voyages, collected by Hawkesworth, Byron's journal occupies tho first 
 place. 
 
 He was afterwards, in 1769, appointed governor of Newfoundland. 
 In 1778 he commanded the ileet destiued to observe the movements 
 of M. d'Estaigne in the West Indies, but tho French admiral 
 profiting by his great superiority in numbers (27 ships of the line to 
 21), eluded every attempt to briug him to close engagement. 
 During this expedition Byron received the highest promotion which 
 he attained, that of Vice-Admiral of the White. In 1748 he married 
 Sarah, daughter of John Trevanion, Esq., of Cartrays, in the county 
 of Cornwall, by whom he had two sons and seven daughters. 
 Commodore Byron, as he is usually styled, died in London on April 10, 
 1786, in the enjoyment of a high and merited reputation for courage 
 and professional skill. 
 
 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS is the name given to a series of Greek 
 historians and writers who lived under the Eastern or Byzantine empire 
 between the 6th and the 15th centuries. They may be divided into 
 two classes : — 1 . The historians properly so called, whose collected 
 works constitute a complete history of the Byzantine empire from 
 the time of Constantine the Great to the taking of Constantinople by 
 the Turks ; 2. The general chroniclers who have attempted to give a 
 chronography of the world from the oldest times. The historians 
 are : — 1. Joannes Zonaras of Constantinople, first an officer of the 
 imperial court, and afterwards a monk of Mount Athos, who died 
 about 1118, and wrote the 'Annals of the World,' in 18 books. In 
 the first part of his work he belongs to the class of general chroniclers 
 or compilers, but from the time of Constantine he treats more par- 
 ticularly of the history of the Eastern empire, which he brings down 
 to the death of Alexius I. Comnenus in 1118. 2. Nicetas Acominatus 
 of Chonae or Colossee, in Phrygia, who filled several high offices in the 
 court of Isaac Angelus, and who died at Nicasa in 1216. His ' History 
 of the Byzantine Emperors,' in 21 books, begins with 1118 and ends 
 with 1206. 3. Nicephorus Gregoras of Heraclea enjoyed the favour of 
 Andronicus Palseologus the elder of the Palamites ; but owing to the 
 controversy, he was confined in a convent by the patriarch in 1351, 
 where he died. He wrote a Byzantine, or, as he styles it, a ' Roman 
 History,' in 38 books, of which the first 24 only have been printed, 
 containing the history of the Byzantine empire from 1204 to 1331. 
 The 14 remaining in manuscripts bring the history down to 1359. 
 4. Laonicus (Nicolas) Chalcondylas of Athens wrote a ' History of the 
 Turks and of the Downfall of the Greek Empire,' in 10 books, to the 
 year 1462. An anonymous writer has continued the history of the 
 Turks down to 1565. These four writers form by themselves an 
 entire history of the Byzantine empire from the time of Constantine 
 to the Turkish conquest. The following writers have treated of 
 detached periods of the same history, or have written the lives of par- 
 ticular emperors. 5. Procopius of Csesarea in Palestine, the most 
 celebrated of the Byzantine writers, wrote the ' History of his own 
 Time,' in 8 books, to the year 545. He also wrote a 'Secret History' 
 (Anecdota) of the reign of Justinian down to the year 553, which, as 
 to the manner in which he speaks of that emperor and of his court, 
 contrasts singularly with the panegyrical tone of his former work. 
 
 6. Agathias of Myrina m ^Eolis, a poet as well as historian of the 6th 
 century, is well known for his Anthology and his Daphniaca, or ama- 
 tory verse. He studied first at Alexandria, whence he removed to 
 Constantinople in 554, being then about eighteen years of age, and 
 applied to the study of the law, in which he became eminent. He 
 was surnamed Scholasticus, a word which then meant an advocate. 
 He wrote a history in 5 books of the years 553-59 of Justinian's 
 reign, which forms a sequel to Procopius. He died about 582. Aga- 
 thias is one of the most trustworthy Byzantine historians — inferior to 
 Procopius in talent and information, but superior to him in honesty. 
 
 7. Menander of Constantinople, surnamed Protector, continued the 
 history of Agathias to the year 582. Menander's history is lost, but 
 fragments of it are found in the works of Constantine Porphyro- 
 gennetus, which relate to the history of the Huns, the Avari, and 
 other northern and eastern races, and also to the negociations and 
 missions between Justinian and Chosroes. All that remains of Menan- 
 der has been published by Bekker and Niebuhr, Bonn, 1829. 
 
 8. Joannes of Epiphania wrote a history of the Persian war under 
 the emperor Mauricius, of which the only manuscript known is in the 
 Heidelberg collection. 9. Theophylactus Simocatta lived in the first 
 part of the 7th century, and wrote a history iu 8 books, from 582 till 
 the death of Mauricius in 602. 10. Joannes, a monk of Jerusalem, in 
 the 8th century, wrote a brief history of the Iconoclasts, which was 
 published by Combefis for the ' Corpus Historiaj Byzantinse,' together 
 with an anonymous work against Constantine IV., probably written by 
 the same monk. 11. Theodo3ius, a monk of Syracuse, in the 9th 
 century, has left a narrative of the taking of Syracuse by the 
 Spanish Arabs. It was published for the first time by Hase, with 
 the 'History of Leo Diaconus,' Paris, 1819. 12. Constantinus YL 
 Pophyrogennetus wrote the life of his grandfather, Basilius the Mace- 
 donian, from 867 to 886. He also wrote several other works which 
 
1071 
 
 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS. 
 
 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS. 
 
 1072 
 
 may serve as illustrations of the Byzantine history, such as 'De Admi- 
 nistrando Imperio,' on the Administration of the State, addressed to 
 his son Romanus; 'De Ceremoniis Aulae Byzantinae;' 'De Thematibus,' 
 or military divisions of the empire. He also caused several learned 
 men to compile a kind of historical library out of the works of all pre- 
 vious historians. This great compilation was divided into 53 books, 
 of which the titles of 26 only are known. One was on the succession 
 of kings, another on the art of generalship, &c. Under each of these 
 heads, passages from the various historians bearing upon the subject 
 were collected. Three books alone, more or less mutilated, have come 
 down to us. One, entitled ' De Legatiouibus,' is an account of the 
 various embassies between the Romans and other nations ; another 
 'De Sententiis,' and the third 'De Virtute et Vitio.' 13. Genesius of 
 Byzantium wrote a history of Leo the Armenian, Michael II., Theo- 
 philus, and Michael III., embracing the period from 813 to 867. 14. 
 Leontius of Byzantium, called the younger, wrote also a history of the 
 same period, to serve as an introduction to Constantino's life of Basilius. 
 15. An anonymous writer has left a continuation of Constantine's life 
 of Basilius, embracing the lives of Leo VI. aud his brother Alexander, 
 of Constantino VI. himself, and his son Romanus. 16. Joannes 
 Cameniata of Thessalonica wrote an account of the taking of that 
 city by the Saracens in 901, of which he was an eye witness. 17. Leo 
 Diaconus of Kalbe, born about 950, accompanied Basilius II. in his wars 
 against the Bulgarians, and wrote the lives of Romanus, Nicephorus 
 Phocas, and Tzimisces, from 959 to 975. 18. Michael Coustantine 
 Psellus wrote a history from the death of Tzimisces in 975 till the 
 accession of Constautine Ducas in 1059. 19. Nicephorus Bryeunius, 
 the husband of Anna Comnena, wrote ' Historical Materials,' being a 
 kind of memoirs of the Comneni family to the accession of Alexius I. 
 
 20. Anna Comnena has written the history of her father Alexius. 
 
 21. Joannes Cinuamus, who lived towards the end of the 12th century, 
 was imperial notary at Constantinople, lie wrote the lives of John 
 Comnenus and of Manuel his son from 1118, when Anna Comnena 
 ends, till 1176. 22. Georgius Acropolita, born in 1220 at Constanti- 
 nople, filled several important offices under Michael Palaeologus, and 
 died in 1282. There are two works under his name, one styled a 
 ' Chronography,' and the other a ' Short Chronicle of the late Events,' 
 both referring to the period from 1204, when the Franks took Con- 
 stantinople, to 1261, when they were finally expelled. Acropolita has 
 also written a ' General Chronicle from tho Creation to the taking of 
 Constantinople by the Franks,' which is not yet printed. 23. Georgius 
 Pachymeres, born at Nicaea in 1242. After the recovery of Constanti- 
 nople by the Greeks, he was raised to high offices in the state. He 
 wrote a 'Byzantine History,' which forms a continuation to Acropolita's 
 work, and comes down to 1308. Pachymeres is a faithful but dull 
 writer. He wrote also several philosophical works and a history of 
 his own life. 24. Joannes Cantacuzenus, after his abdication of the 
 empire in 1355, retired to a convent where he wrote a Byzantine 
 history from 1320 to 1357. Cantacuzenus is in general a good 
 authority for the history of that period in which he acted an important 
 part, though he is of course somewhat partial in his own cause. 25. 
 Joannes Ducas, of the imperial family of that name, fled from Con- 
 stantinople at the time of the Turkish invasion, and took refuge at 
 Lesbos under the Genoese adventurer Prince Castelluzzi. He wrote 
 a Byzantine history, which begins from Adam, after the fashion of the 
 chroniclers, and is but a brief general chronicle as far as the year 1341, 
 after which his account becomes more circumstantial, being more 
 especially occupied with the history of the latter period of the eastern 
 empire : it ends with the taking of Lesbos by the Turks in 1462. 
 This latter part therefore forms a continuation to Cantacuzenus. 26. 
 J oannes Anagnostes of Thessalonica has left an account of the taking 
 of that city by the Turks in 1430. 27. Joannes Cananus has written 
 a history of the war against Sultan Murad II. in 1420- 28. Georgius 
 Phranza, born in 1401, of a family related to the Palseologi, filled 
 some of the highest offices in the state under the last emperors. He 
 was made prisoner by the Turks at the taking of Constantinople, was 
 sold as a slave, recovered his liberty, and took shelter for a time with 
 Thomas Palaeologus, prince of Peloponnesus. When the Turks invaded 
 that part of Greece Phranza escaped to Italy, and at last became monk 
 at Corfu in 1468. There he wrote his ' Chronicle' in four books, which 
 begins with 1260 and ends with 1477, embracing the whole history of 
 the Palaeologi. The work of Phranza is most valuable, though it is full 
 of digressions upon religious controversies, the origin of comets, &c. 
 
 The following are the general ' chroniclers' properly so called, who 
 are also included under the general appellation of Byzantine historians : 
 — 1. Georgius Syncellus lived in the 8th century. He wrote a ' Chro- 
 nography ' from the beginning of the world to the time of Diocletian, 
 in which he has availed himself of Eusebius and Africanus. 2. Theo- 
 phanes Isaacius of Constantinople, who died about 817, continued the 
 chronicle of Syncellus from 280 till 813. 3. Joannes of Antioch, 
 called Malalas, a Syrian word meaning a rhetor or sophist, lived in the 
 9th century, and wrote a chronicle from Adam till 566. 4. Joannes 
 Scylitzes, who lived in the 11th century, wrote a 'Short History' or 
 chronicle from 811 till 1057, which he afterwards recast and continued 
 till 1081. 5. Leo Grammaticus wrote a chronography, which is a 
 continuation of Theophanes, from 813 to 949. 6. Georgius Monachus 
 has also left a chronicle embracing the same period as Leo's. 7. The 
 ' Chronico'n Paschale,' called also ' Alexandrian Chronicle,' is attributed 
 
 by some to Georgius the Bishop of Alexandria, who lived in the 7th ; 
 century. It is also called ' Fasti Siculi,' because the manuscript was 
 discovered in Sicily. It extends from the beginning of the world to 
 1042. 8. Georgius Hamartolus, an Archimandrite, wrote a chronicle 
 to the year 842, which is yet unedited. 9. Joannes of Sicily wrote 
 in the 9th century a chronicle from the creation of the world till 
 866, which is not yet printed. An anonymous continuation of it till 
 1222 exists in the imperial library at Vienna. 10. Nicephorus, 
 patriarch of Constantinople in the first part of the 9th century, has 
 left a ' Breviarium Chronographicum,' or short chronicle, from the 
 creation to the author's death in 828, giving series of the kings, 
 emperors, patriarchs, and bishops, &c. He wrote also a 'Breviarium 
 Historicum,' or general history of events from 602 to 770. 11. Julius 
 Pollux, not the author of the ' Onomasticon,' wrote a chronicle with 
 the title of ' Historia Physica,' from the creation to the reign of , 
 Valens. A manuscript in the national library at Paris brings it down | 
 to the death of Romanus the younger in 963. This chronicle is chiefly 
 engrossed with church matters. 12. Georgius Cedrenus, a monk of 
 tho 11th century, wrote a chronicle compiled chiefly from the former 
 chronicles of Scylitzes and others. It is mixed up with fictions, and 
 is one of tho least valuable in the Byzantine collection. 13. Simeon 
 Metaphrastes filled some high stations at the imperial court in the first 
 part of the 10th century. His chronicle comes to 963, and has the 
 merit of being compiled from the works of ten lost writers who lived 
 between Leo Grammaticus and Michael Psellus. 14. Hippolytus of 
 Thebes lived towards the end of the 10th and the beginning of the 
 11th centuries. He wrote a chronicle from the birth of Jesus Christ 
 to his own time. 15. Michael Glykas, whose country and age are not 
 ascertained, wrote a chronicle from the creation to the year 1118. It 
 is valuable both for its historical and its biblical references. 16. Con- 
 stautine Mauasses, who lived in the 12th century, has left a chronicle 
 in verse down to 1081. 17. Ephramius, believed to be the son of 
 John XII., patriarch of Constantinople, wrote a chronicle in iambics 
 of the emperors, from Julius Caesar to the restoration of the Byzantine 
 empire after the Frankish invasion. It is followed by a chrouology of 
 the patriarchs of Constantinople till 1313. The whole poem contains 
 10,410 lines. Angelo Mai published it first in his Vatican collection 
 of inedited manuscripts. 18. Joel wrote a short general chronicle of 
 the world to the Frankish invasion of Constantinople in 1204. 19. ' 
 Theodosius of Melite has left a chronicle which is not yet printed. 
 Professor Tafel of Tubingen has published a notice of this writer : 
 ' De Theodosio Meliteno inedito historiae Byzantinae Scriptore,' 4to, 
 Tubingen, 1828, from the manuscript of his chronicle which is at . 
 Tubingen, and which was brought from Constantinople by St. Gerlach 
 in 1578. 20. Hesychius of Miletus, who lived under Justinus aud 
 Justinian, wrote a history of the world, which is lost, except a valu- 
 able fragment on the origin of Constantinople, which has been 
 extracted and preserved by Codinus. 
 
 Besides the above historians and chroniclers there are other Byzan- 
 tine authors who have written on the statistics, politics, antiquities, 
 &c, of the Roman empire, whose history properly so called they serve 
 to illustrate, and who are generally included in the collection of 
 Byzantine historical writers. Among these Procopius stands foremost 
 by his curious work, 'De iEdificiis Domini Justiniani,' lib. vi., which \ 
 contains a brief notice of the towns, temples, convents, bridges, roads, j 
 walls, and fortifications built or repaired under the reign of Justinian, i 
 2. Joannes Laurentius, called Lydus from his being a native of Phila- 
 delphia in Lydia, lived under Justinian, and was both a poet and 
 prose writer. He has left a work ' on the Roman Magistrates,' which 
 affords valuable assistance for the knowledge of Roman civil history. 
 The manuscript was first discovered by Choiseul Gouffierand Villoison 
 in the library of Prince Morousi at Constantinople in 1781, aud is now 
 in the public library at Paris. It was published by Hase at Paris, * 
 1812. In the same manuscript was found another work of Lydus, 
 ' De Ostentis,' or on divination or " augurs' science," which has been 
 also published by Hase with notes in 1823. 3. Hierocles, called the 
 grammarian, to distinguish him from the philosopher of the same 
 name, wrote a Synecdemos, or traveller's guide, in which he describes 
 the 64 provinces of the eastern empire, and the 935 cities or towns 
 contained in it. It ha3 been published in several collections, among 
 others in Banduri's ' Imperium Orientale,' Paris, 1711. Some suppose 
 that Hierocles lived under Justinian, others later, but certainly 
 previous to the 10th century. 4. Theophylactus, archbishop of Achris 
 in Bulgaria in the latter part of the 11th century, wrote a work ' On 
 the Education of Princes,' intended for the young Constautine, the 
 son of Michael VII., Parapiuaces. It is published in Banduri's 
 'Imperium Orientale.' 5. Alexius I. Comnenus wrote 'Novum 
 Rationarium,' or Inventory of the Revenues of the State, in imitation 
 of Augustus. It has been published in the collection of the Benedic- 
 tines, Paris, 1688. 6. A monk, of unknown name, who lived under 
 Alexius I., wrote a book on the antiquities of Constantinople, which 
 gives a description of it3 buildings, monuments, &c. It is inserted in 
 Banduri's ' Imperium.' 7. Matthaeus Blastares, a monk, wrote, about 
 1305, an account of the numerous household charges and offices in the 
 imperial palace of Constantinople, which is inserted in the eighteenth 
 volume of the Venetian edition of the ' Corpus Hist. Byzaut. Scrip- 
 torum.' 8. Georgius Codinus, surnamed Curopalates, lived in the 
 latter age of the empire, and wrote ' On the Dignities and Offices of 
 
073 
 
 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS. 
 
 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS. 
 
 1U71 
 
 the Church and Court of Constantinople.' He has also left 'Extracts 
 from the Chronicle of Hesychius on the Origin and History of Constan- 
 tinople.' 9. The Emperor Manuel Pakeologus wrote a book ' On the 
 Education of Princes.' He also wrote ' A Dialogue with a Turk held 
 it Aucyra in Galatia,' where Manuel was once stationed in winter- 
 quarterB with his auxiliary corps serving under Sultan Bajazet This 
 work, which is yet unpublished, is said to give an interesting view of 
 the tottering condition of the once mighty empire towards the begin- 
 ning of the 15th century. There are also 66 unpublished letters of 
 Manuel in the public library at Paris, which coutain interesting 
 allusions to the history of that period. (See Hase, 'Notices et Extraits 
 dea Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Roi,' vol. ix.) 
 
 Most of the above Byzantine historians, chroniclers, and other 
 writers were collected and published in the great edition made by 
 order and at the expense of Louis XIV., in 36 vols, folio, Paris, 1G45- 
 1711. The jesuits Labbe and Maltrait, Petau and Poussines, the 
 Dominicans Goar aud Combe'fis, Professor Fabrot, Charles du Fresne, 
 Seigneur du Cange; Allacci, the librarian of the Vatican; Banduri, 
 librarian at Florence ; Boivin, the king's librarian at Paris ; and 
 Bouilliaud, a mathematician, were each entrusted with parts of this 
 splendid work. The Greek text is accompanied with a Latin transla- 
 
 tion, and notes. The last volume contains the Arabian chronicle of 
 Abu-Ben-Raheb, which serves to illustrate Byzantine history. 
 
 Another edition was published at Venice in 23 vols, folio, 1729, 
 and the following years, which contains soveral works omitted in the 
 Paris edition, such as Phranza, Genesius, and Malalas. Others were 
 published separately afterwards as a supplement to the Venice 
 edition : — ' Opera Georgii Pisidas, Theodosii Diaconi et Corippi Afri- 
 cani,' Rome, 1777, folio; 'Julii Pollucis Historia Sacra,' Bononia, 
 1779, folio; 'Constantini Porphyrogeuueti, libri ii. do Ceremoniis 
 Aulse Byzantiuoe,' 2 vols, folio, Leipzig, 1751 ; ' Leouis Liaconi 
 Caloensis Historia,' by Hase, folio, Paris, 1819. Several of the. 
 Eyzantine historians however still remain inedited, as we have 
 above observed. 
 
 A new edition of the Byzantine historians was projected by the late 
 B. G. Niebuhr : 'Corpus Scriptorum Historise Byzantiua;. Editio 
 emendatior et copiosior,' &c, 8vo, Bonn, 1828, and following. It has 
 been proceeding, since Niebuhr's death, under the care of Bekker, 
 Dindorf, and other philologists. About fifty volumes have appeared. 
 
 (For a full account of the Byzantine writers see Schoell's history of 
 Greek Literature, and Fabricius, Bihliothcca Grceca, editio nova, vols, 
 vii. and viii.) 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 VOLUME II. 
 
 Tltt asterisk * prefixed to the name indicates that the subject of the memoir is still living. 
 
 CABALLERO, FERMIN. 
 
 CABET, ETIENNE. 
 
 * pABALLERO, FERMIN, a Spanish author, journalist, and states- 
 ^ man, was born in 1800, of poor labouring parents, who exerted 
 themselves to procure him a superior education. He showed very 
 early a predilection for geographical studies, and at the age of fourteen 
 had produced a plan of his native town, Barajas de Melo, in the pro- 
 vince of Cuenca. The first work that brought him into notice was a 
 spries of criticisms on Minano's ' Geographical DictTonary of the 
 Peninsula,' a work of great extent (10 vols. 4to), and of apparent 
 value, but in reality compiled with inexcusable carelessness. Mifiano 
 was an especial favourite with King Ferdinand VII. ; and his book, 
 though expensive, was subscribed for, however unwillingly, by every 
 person who held an official post throughout the kingdom. The 
 attacks of Caballero, which began in 1829 and extended to as many 
 pamphlets as Minano's 'Dictionary' counted volumes, were a3 witty 
 as they were just, and were productive of unexpected benefit to their 
 author. The minister Calomarde, who was undoubtedly jealous of 
 the influence of Mifiano over the king, bestowed substantial favours 
 on his antagonist ; and Caballero, who had hitherto been an obscure 
 lawyer, was soon known in the character of a landed proprietor. It 
 may be observed, that Minano's work is now completely superseded by 
 Madoz's ' Diccionario de Espafia,' in 16 closely-printed volumes — a 
 treasure of topographical information and research, which would do 
 honour to any country in Europe. In 1833 Caballero set on foot a 
 journal of note, the ' Boletin de Comercio,' and when that was sup- 
 pressed by the minister Burgos, followed it up with the ' Eco del 
 Comercio,' which, chiefly owing to the talent of his leading articles, 
 became and continued one of the most influential journals in Spain. 
 After the peaceful revolution produced by the 'Estatuto Real,' he was 
 elected to the Cortes by the town of Cuenca, and was known as one 
 of its most decidedly radical members. While the contest between 
 Carlos and Christina was still doubtful, he voted that Carlos should 
 be put to death if taken ; and he afterwards voted that Christina 
 should be deprived of the guardianship of her children. On the 
 accession of his friend Lopez to the ministry, in 1843, he formed one 
 of the cabinet, was expelled with Lopez by Espartero, and again 
 resumed office on Espartero's fall. His tenure of it on the second 
 occasion was but short, and his activity has since been mainly of a 
 literary kind. His reputation was materially injured by the publi- 
 cation of a work entitled ' Commentaries on Anquetil,' the French 
 historian, in which, to the astonishment of the public, the principles 
 of absolutism were avowed and defended. In reply to the attacks 
 upon him, Caballero made the singular defence, that though the book 
 was published in his name the objectionable passages had been inserted 
 without his consent by an old academician connected with the censor- 
 ship, Don Pedro Maria Olive. The friends of Olive indignantly denied 
 the charge, and the matter appears never to have been satisfactorily 
 cleared up. His other works are almost entirely of a geographical 
 character. The two most important are, a quarto volume entitled 
 Manual geografico administrativo de Espana,' a work of great and 
 varied information, and a small pamphlet on the ' Geographical 
 Learning of Cervantes,' which will supply some valuable notes to 
 future editors of 'Don Quixote.' 
 
 CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE, a distinguished physician 
 and philosopher, the eon of Jean Baptiste Cabani*, an able agricul- 
 t'lri-t, was born at Conac in 1757. His natural disposition appears to 
 have been somewhat violent, and the earlier period of his youth was 
 passed in continual struggles against the severity of the treatment 
 
 BIOS. DIV. VOL. H. 
 
 which he seems to have received both from his father and his teachers. 
 During a short interval, in which he was under the care of a kind and 
 judicious instructor, he indicated a decided taste for classical litera- 
 ture; but being soon removed from a teacher who saw and endeavoured 
 to develop his latent talents, and being again subjected to harshness, 
 he lapsed into such a state of idleness and obstinacy, that at the age of 
 fourteen his father in absolute despair sent him alone to Paris, where, 
 feeling he had no sort of influence over him, he abandoned him to his 
 own course. The moment he felt himself free, this youth, hitherto 
 so indolent and intractable, became a diligent student, and for the 
 space of two years devoted himself with an intensity which has been 
 rarely exceeded to the study not only of the Greek, Latin, and French 
 classics, but also of the works of the metaphysical writers both of 
 England and France. His love of poetry was ardent, and he soon 
 acquired no inconsiderable celebrity for some poetical pieces of his 
 own ; but seeing nothing cheering in the prospect of the pursuit of 
 literature as a profession, he chose the study of medicine, chiefly, as 
 he himself states, on account of the varied sciences to which it 
 obliged him to direct his attention. Under the guidance of a friend, 
 an able physician, he applied himself for six years to the study of 
 medicine with so much intensity that his health began to fail him, 
 and being on this account obliged to leave Paris, he went to reside at 
 Auteuil, where he became acquainted with the widow of Helvetius. 
 This acquaintance determined the character of his future life. At 
 the house of this lady, who in a manner adopted him as her sou, he 
 became intimate with the most celebrated men of that age, Turgot, 
 D'Holbach, Franklin, Jefferson, Condillac, and Thomas. Here too he 
 lived familiarly for many years with Diderot and D'Alembert, and 
 occasionally saw Voltaire. He appears to have formed a strong attach- 
 ment to Mirabeau, for which he waB exposed to no little obloquy ; he 
 was the chosen friend of Condorcet, and he had the gratification of 
 being able to soothe the last moments of both these remarkable men. 
 He married Charlotte Grouchy, sister of General Grouchy and of 
 Madame Condorcet, with whom he lived happily until his death, 
 which happened somewhat suddenly on the 5th of May 1808, in the 
 fifty-second year of his age. He had borne no inconsiderable part in 
 the events of the revolution; was one of the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred, and afterwards a member of the senate. He was the author of 
 several works of great celebrity in his day ; but that which has given 
 to his name a permanent distinction is his treatise on the relation 
 between the physical and moral nature of man. This work, entitled 
 ' Rapports du Physique et du Moral de l'Homme/ is partly metaphy- 
 sical and partly physiological, and displays no ordinary power of 
 observation and analysis. It is remarkable too as being the first 
 attempt to treat, in a systematic form, the interesting but difficult 
 subject which it investigates. This work may still be read with 
 interest and instruction by the physician and metaphysician, and the 
 practical educator. 
 
 CABET, ETIENNE, leader of the French Communists, or 
 Icariens, was born at Dijon, January 2, 1788. His father, a cooper 
 in that city, give him a liberal education ; in due time he was admitted 
 a member of the bar ; and he appears to have early acquired some 
 practice. In 1816 he defended General Veaux, who, with several 
 others, was tried for conspiring against the restored Bourbons; and 
 Cabet's ardour on that occasion drew down upon him so large a 
 measure of official displeasure, that he found it necesssary shortly after 
 to quit Dijon. At Paris M. Cabet, failing to obtain distinction in his 
 
CABOCIIE, SIMONET. 
 
 CABOT, SEBASTIAN. 
 
 1 
 
 profession, turned to literature for support as well as fame. For 
 Borne years be conducted the 'Journal de Jurisprudence.' His advo- 
 cacy of liberal views bad brought him into connection with some of 
 the more active promoters of the revolution of 1830, and shortly after 
 that event he was appointed procureur-general for Corsica. But he 
 was dissatisfied with the constitution of July as not sufficiently demo- 
 cratic, and he for some time delayed to depart for the scene of bis 
 new duties. At length when be was compelled to go, bis first act 
 on arriving at Bastia was to deliver an official address, in which he 
 denounced the new charter, and pointed out in detail its deficiencies. 
 This of course could not be tolerated, and M. Cabet was summarily 
 recalled. He at once threw himself into the ranks of the opposition. 
 Chosen by one of the electoral colleges of Dijon, be made himself 
 conspicuous in the Chamber of Deputies by the violence of his 
 harangues, and at the same time he published several pamphlets, 
 and established a newspaper ' Le Populairc ' of ultra-democratic 
 tendencies. For certain strictures on the king he was, in February 
 1834, prosecuted, and being found guilty was condemned to two years' 
 imprisonment and a heavy penalty. He however escaped to England, 
 where he remained till the amnesty of 1839 permitted him to return 
 to Paris ; soon after which he published a ' Histoire de la Rdvolution 
 de 1789,' the fruit of his labour while in exile, but it gained him no 
 reputation, and was soon forgotten. 
 
 He now began to put forward his peculiar doctrines. The first 
 direct publication of them appears to have been in 1841, in ' Letters 
 from a Communist to a Reformer.' But a more formal enunciation of 
 them appeared in his ' Voyage en Icarie,' published in 1842, in which 
 under the figment of a Utopian republic be develqped his views of a 
 socialist colony. The book at once attracted the notice of a large 
 number of the working classes of Paris already strongly imbued with 
 socialistic opinions. In his scheme he had provided a complete code 
 for the moral and physical as well as the political governance of the 
 community, and be soon found disciples ready to place themselves 
 under his direction. He made a journey to London in 1847 iu order 
 to obtain the grant of a large tract of country in Texas, and having 
 announced his success, the first party of his followers departed for 
 the land of promise, as Cabet afterwards declared against his advice, 
 and without any knowledge of the country or of the nature of the 
 difficulties they would have to encounter. They reached their desti- 
 nation, but intelligence quickly arrived in Paris that they were suffer- 
 ing the most terrible privations. A great outcry was raised against 
 Cabet, but the faith of his disciples was not shaken, and another band 
 was soon found to follow in the track of the pioneers. Cabet himself 
 set out at the end of the year to join bis disciples. He found them 
 divided into two parties. The larger section adhered to him, and 
 announced their readiness to proceed with him in search of a more 
 suitable home. The Mormons had some time before been expelled 
 from their city of Nauvoo, and Cabet in his journey through the 
 United States had learnt that there was a city finely situated on the 
 Mississippi but now lying deserted, already provided to his hand, aud 
 that be would find little difficulty in obtaining permission to occupy 
 it. In May 1850 Cabet with his Icariens was established in Nauvoo. 
 He was not destined as yet however to rest there. During his absence 
 from Paris a process had been commenced against him for having 
 obtained money under false pretences from his followers, and having 
 of course failed to put in a defence he was condemned, September 
 1849, in contumacy, to two years' imprisonment. The news of this 
 sentence produced some commotion at Nauvoo, but the opposition was 
 suppressed, and a vote passed of confidence in the honour and probity 
 of their leader. Cabet almost immediately returned to Paris, and, 
 notwithstanding the vast amount of prejudice be found existing 
 against himself, remitted his case to the Court of Appeal, and after 
 a trial which lasted three days bis former sentence was reversed. 
 _ M. Cabet shortly after the trial returned to Nauvoo, where he has 
 since continued, the sole judge and ruler of his little band. The 
 most recent accounts we have seen represent the Icariens as living in 
 apparent harmony, having a community of goods, and possessing 
 under Cabet something like equality,— a social despotism in fact. 
 But the number of the community appears to be steadily decreasing : 
 it now probably scarcely exceeds 200. [See Supplement.] 
 
 {Nouvelle Biographie Universelle; Gazetteers of the United States, &c.) 
 
 CABOCHE, SIMONET, was the principal leader in Paris of a 
 seditious band attached to the faction of Jean Sans-Peur, duke of 
 Burgundy. Charles VI., king of France, had become insane about the 
 year 1393, and the kingdom during the remainder of his disastrous 
 reign was harassed by the rival factions of the Armagnacs, who were 
 led by the Count of Armagnac and the Duke of Orleans (the king's 
 brother), and the Bourgognians (Burgundians), who were the followers 
 of the Duke of Burgundy. The butchers of Paris were at that period 
 a corporate body, having a monopoly of the supply of meat for the 
 city, and were consequently possessed of property, power, and influ- 
 ence. Caboche was at the head of that division of the trade who 
 were called Ecorcheurs (Skinners), and his party, named after him 
 Cabochiens, and sometimes Ecorcheurs, in number about 500, and 
 armed with their formidable knives, became notorious for their 
 violence and ferocity. Their reign of terror seems to have commenced 
 about 1412, and to have terminated about 1414, when the main body 
 of the citizens of Paris, incensed by their exactions and massacres, 
 
 took arms in their own defence, and placing the Dauphin at their 
 head, overpowered the Cabochiens, and restored the tranquillity of the 
 city. After the death of the Dauphin the Ecorcheurs appeared again 
 on the scene, in the reign of Charles VII., but were then headed by 
 a ruffian named Capeluche. What had become of Cabocho is not 
 known. 
 
 CABOT, SEBASTIAN, was the son of John Cabot or Gabotto, a 
 native of Venice, who resided occasionally in England, and of whom 
 little more is known than that he was a wealthy, intelligent merchant, 
 .and fond of maritime discovery. Sebastian was born at Bristol about 
 1477, and was early instructed in geography, navigation, aud mathe- 
 matics. When only 19 years of age, he was included with his two 
 brothers in a patent, dated 5th of March, 1496, granted by Henry VII. 
 to John Cabot his father, for the discovery and conquest of unknown 
 lands. About a year after the date of the patent, Sebastian Cabot 
 sailed (apparently with his father) in a ship equipped at Bristol, 
 named the Matthew, and on the 24th of June he first saw North 
 America, probably the coast of Labrador, about lat. 56°. It has 
 generally been stated that this first-discovered land was Newfound- 
 land, aud that it was named by Cabot, Prima Vista; but it appears 
 that the cause of the error was a mistranslation by Hakluyt of a 
 document in Latin appended to a map of America drawn by Cabot 
 himself. The description given in that document cannot possibly refer 
 to Newfoundland, but may apply very well to the coast of Labrador. We 
 have no account of this voyage further than the discovery itself, but 
 it appears probable that Cabot returned to England immediately ; an 
 opinion which receives some support from an entry in the privy 
 purse expenses of Henry VII., — "10th August 1497 To hym that 
 found the new Isle 10Z." This is still further confirmed by the patent 
 of 3rd of February 1498, granting to John Kabotto permission to 
 take six ships in any haven of the realm, of the burden of 200 tons 
 and under, " to convey and lede to the Loude and Isles of late founde 
 by the seid John in oure name and by our commaundemeute," &c. 
 It is difficult to assign to each of the Cabots (a father and three sons) 
 his exact part in these discoveries, but Sebastian seems always to have 
 been considered the most scientific navigator of the family. Another 
 voyage was made by Cabot, according to the terms of this patent, but 
 we have no details as to its results ; and a third voyage appears to 
 have been made to the Gulf of Mexico in 1499. About this time it 
 is supposed that John Cabot died, but there is no record of his death, 
 nor is anything whatever known of Sebastian Cabot for the next 
 twelve years. Soon after the death of Henry VII. Cabot was sent for 
 by Ferdinand king of Spain, in which country he arrived in September 
 1512, and immediately received the title of Captain, with a liberal 
 salary. It appears from Spanish authorities, that Cabot was disgusted 
 with the want of consideration shown him in England. No specific 
 duties appear to have been at first assigned to Cabot in Spain ; but we 
 find him in 1515 connected with a general revision of maps and charts, 
 and holding the dignified station of member of the council of the Indies. 
 He was also appointed to conduct an important expedition for new dis- 
 coveries towards the west ; but the death of Ferdinand, iu the beginning 
 of 1516, prevented the accomplishment of the plan. The new king of 
 Spain, Charles V., was occupied elsewhere, and did not reach Spain 
 for some time, during which the court was a scene of shameless in- 
 trigue. Fonseca, the enemy of Columbus, was in authority, and the 
 slights he and his creatures put upon Cabot caused the latter to 
 return to England. In 1517 Cabot was employed by Henry VIII., in 
 connection with Sir Thomas Perte, to make another attempt at a 
 north-west passage. On this voyage he reached lat. 67^°, and it 
 must have been on this occasion that he entered Hudson's Bay, " and 
 gave English names to sundry places therein." But of this, like all 
 the rest of Cabot's discoveries, no details have been preserved, and 
 even the whole voyage has been referred to the south instead of the 
 north. It is only known that the malice or timidity of Sir Thomas 
 Perte, and the mutinous conduct of his crew, compelled him to return. 
 After this voyage Cabot again visited Spain, where he was named by 
 Charles V. Pilot Major of the kingdom, and intrusted with the duty of 
 critically examining all projects of voyages of discovery. At this time 
 the views of adventurers were chiefly directed to the south, and the 
 Molucca Islands were pointed out as a valuable field for enterprise. 
 Portugal having earnestly represented that the limits assigned to her 
 by the pope in his division of the New World would include the 
 Moluccas, it was resolved that a solemn conference should take place, 
 in which all parties should state their claims, and experienced men 
 Bhould attend for the purpose of reference. Cabot is at the head of 
 this list, in which we also find Ferdinand Columbus, son of the great 
 Columbus. The conference was held at Badajoz, in April 1524, and by 
 the end of May sentence was pronounced that the Moluccas were 
 within the Spanish division of the world. The Portuguese retired in 
 disgust, talking of preparing an expedition to destroy any Spanish or 
 other vessel which should venture to trade within the disputed territory. 
 Immediately after the decision, a company was formed at Seville to 
 prosecute the trade to the Moluccas, and Cabot was solicited to take 
 the command. By an unfortunate selection, the persons who were 
 put in command immediately under Cabot were personally hostile to 
 him. The expedition sailed in April 1526, and proceeded to cross the 
 Atlantic. On the Brazilian coast a daring mutiny, excited by his 
 officers, compelled him to resort to the extremity of putting ou shore 
 
CABRERA, DON" RAMON. 
 
 CADE, JOHN. 
 
 0 
 
 the three ringleaders, who were actually the persons named to succeed 
 him in command in case of his death. Cabot explored the river La 
 Plata and some of its tributaries, erected forts in the most favourable 
 positions, and endeavoured to colonise the country. He despatched 
 persons to Spain to solicit the permission of the Emperor Charles, and 
 a supply of ammunition, provisions, &c. ; and as the merchants declined 
 to co-operate in the new undertaking, Charles took the whole expense 
 upon himself. 
 
 About 1527 Diego Garcia, commander of a rival expedition, arrived 
 in the Plata, ascended the Parana^ and had an interview with Cabot. 
 Garcia claimed the discovery of the Plata River as being under orders 
 from Charles V., and Cabot, who would not struggle for a doubtful 
 right, descended the river with him. Garcia soon after quitted the 
 country, but left behind him some of his followers, who were guilty 
 of acts which roused the fierce resentment of the Guaranis, but in 
 which it is expressly declared by Herrera that Cabot took no part. 
 The vengeance of the natives knew no distinctions ; the whole nation 
 burst with fury on the feeble colony, and Cabot was compelled to put 
 to sea. He returned to Spain in 1531, where he resumed his old 
 office, and is known to have made several voyages. In 1548 he 
 resolved to return to his native country. 
 
 Edward VI. was then on the throne of England, and being very 
 solicitous about maritime affairs, he appears to have conversed with 
 Cabot, and to have received from him some explanation about the 
 variation of the compass, first noticed, or at least first particularly 
 attended to, by Sebastian Cabot. In the beginning of 1549 Edward 
 granted him a pension of 250 marks per annum (1661. 13s. 4d.). Cabot 
 remained high in the king's favour, and was consulted in all affairs 
 relating to trade and navigation. The advice and influence of Cabot 
 in directing an expedition to the north opened to England the valuable 
 trade with Russia : he was made governor of the company of merchant 
 adventurers by whom the expedition was fitted out ; and the instruc- 
 tions delivered by him to the commander. Sir Hugh Willoughby, reflect 
 the greatest credit on his good sense, knowledge, and humanity. 
 
 After the Russian trade was established, the exertions of Cabot were 
 continued : the journal of Stephen Burroughs, who was despatched 
 as commander of a vessel in 1556, shows the character of Cabot in a 
 favourable light. Speaking of a visit to the vessel at Gravesend previous 
 to her departure, he says : — " The good olde gentleman, Master Cabota, 
 gave to the poore most liberall almes, wishing them to pray for the 
 good fortune and prosperous successe of the Serchthrift, our Pinnesse;" 
 and at an entertainment afterwards — "for very joy that he had to see 
 the towardness of our intended discovery, he entered into the dance 
 himselfe amongst the rest of the young and lusty company." 
 
 The death of Edward VI., and the succession of Mary, put an end 
 to the enterprise of Cabot. His pension was continued until May 
 1557, when it was renewed, not to him exclusively, but jointly with 
 one William Worthington, of whom little is known. To this person 
 all the maps and documents of Cabot were delivered, and it has been 
 supposed that by his means they were either destroyed or put into 
 the possession of Philip of Spain, the husband of Mary ; certain it is 
 that they are no longer to be found. 
 
 It is not known when or where Cabot died ; although his friend 
 Eden, in his dedication to the translation of ' Taisnierus's Treatise on 
 Navigation,' gives an account of his death. He says, speaking of a 
 mode of finding the longitude — " Cabot, on his death-bed, tolde me 
 that he had the knowledge thereof, by divine revelation, yet so that he 
 might not teache any man." Eden thought " the good old man in 
 that extreme age somewhat doted, and had not yet, even in the article 
 of death, utterly shaken off all worldlye vaine glorye." 
 
 (Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, London, 1831 ; see also Hakluyt, 
 Purchas, Cooley, and Anderson, History of Commerce.) 
 
 ♦CABRERA, DON RAMON, a Carlist chief very prominent in 
 some of the darkest passages of the recent history of Spain, was born 
 at Tortosa in 1810. He lost his father in 1816, his mother, who con- 
 tracted a second marriage, survived for a fate which excited the 
 horror of Europe. Young Cabrera, who was intended for a priest, 
 but who is said to have been found incapable of learning Latin, first 
 became known in 1834. On the death of Ferdinand VII. in 1833, a 
 decree was made that all the royalist volunteers or supporters of 
 absolutism should be disarmed, The decree was generally obeyed 
 throughout the kingdom, except in the wild district called the 
 Maestrazgo on the borders of Aragon, Catalonia, and Castile, which 
 became the general refuge of all the malcontents who were determined 
 to retain their arms. General Breton, the governor of Tortosa, 
 expelled from the town, when the times seemed to be becoming 
 unsettled, all whom he considered suspicious characters, and among 
 them Cabrera, more it is said to be rid of a riotous and dissolute 
 young man than with any other view. Cabrera exclaimed as he left 
 the town, " I swear I will make some noise in the world," and in a 
 few months he succeeded. The wild youth, who had hitherto only 
 organised street disturbances, turned out to be a terrible partisan 
 chief, and was soon second in command in the Maestrazgo now in open 
 revolt. He wan ere long sent for to concert with Don Carlos in the 
 Basque provinces; on his return the commander above him, Don 
 Ramon Carnicer, was summoned to Don Carlos also, but was inter- 
 cepted by the troops of Queen Christina, through whom ho tried to 
 make his way in disguise, was detected, and shot. Universal opinion 
 
 at the time, both of Cabrera's soldiers and the enemy, attributed to 
 him the betrayal of the disguise of his commander, but he succeeded 
 to the vacant command. It is now generally believed that this suspi- 
 cion was unfounded, but there can be no doubt that Cabrera, now 
 become a formidable leader, was cruel beyond even the usual licence 
 of a partisan chief. The incensed Christinos, eager for revenge, 
 stained their cause by an act of deep atrocity. General Nogueras 
 seized the mother of Cabrera who was in his power, and she was 
 sentenced to be shot, to punish the atrocities of her son. The result 
 of the measure was that Cabrera ordered the massacre of the wives of 
 thirty officers, and the war became a war of murder. For several years 
 afterwards his career was one of singular daring, great military talent, 
 and reckless cruelty. Not only did he hold the Maestrazgo against all 
 the forces the government could bring against him, but he joined 
 Gomez in his bold march through Andalusia ; took the city of Valencia, 
 where his sanguinary banquet of the 29th of March 1837 is remem- 
 bered with horror; and he at one time threatened for some days 
 Madrid, where it is said the timidity of Don Carlos alone prevented 
 Cabrera from storming the royal palace. He had under his command 
 towards the end of this civil war a body of 20,000 infantry and 800 
 horse. At the time of "the embrace of Bergara," in August 1839, 
 when fortunately for Spain the cause of Don Carlos was betrayed by 
 his other general, Cabrera was master of the Maestrazgo, and the title 
 of Count of Morella conferred on him by Don Carlos for his successful 
 defence of Morella against the Christinos, was borne by him in the 
 conventions with the Christino generals, in which, at the instigation of 
 Lord Eliot sent by the Duke of Wellington, the system of mutual 
 slaughter was at last renounced. After Bergara he was unable to 
 continue the contest, and in 1840 took refuge in France, where he was 
 at first sent to the fortress of Ham, but was soon after set at liberty. 
 In 1845 he strongly opposed Don Carlos's abdication of his rights in 
 favour of the Count de Montemolin, but in 1848, the year of revolution, 
 when circumstances in Spain seemed to present a favourable opening 
 for his purposes, he returned to rekindle civil war. In an action fought 
 at Pasteral in January 1849, he was not only defeated but severely 
 wounded, and obliged in consequence for a second time to take refuge 
 in France. He soon afterwards came to England, where he had 
 previously passed some time in his first exile, aud married an English- 
 woman, with whom he afterwards removed to Naples. On the demand 
 of the Spanish Government he was in 1851 expelled from Naples, and 
 has since taken no prominent part in political affairs. 
 
 The career of Cabrera has been treated at length by several Spanish 
 writers. There is a life of him in four volumes by Don Buenaventura 
 de Cdrdoba. An historical novel by Don Wenceslao Ayguals de Isco, 
 entitled ' El Tigre del Maestrazgo,' depicts him in the blackest colours, 
 and in it Cabrera is represented as having cruelly slain the author's 
 brother. There is also a small volume in answer to this singular pro- 
 duction by Gonzalez de la Cruz. Finally, there is a poem in honour 
 of Cabrera published at Madrid in 1849, entitled 'El Candillo de 
 Morella' ('The Chief of Morella'). It is admitted on all hands that 
 for daring courage, for fertility of resources, and for presence of mind 
 in danger, Cabrera is unmatched in the recent annals of Spain. 
 
 CA'CCIA, GUGLIELMO, commonly called MONCALVO, from 
 Moncalvo, near Casale, the place of his abode, was born at Montabone 
 in 1568. He was one of the best fresco painters of the 17th century, 
 and is among the most celebrated of the Piedmontese painters. There 
 are still several of his works in Milan, Pavia, Turin, Novara, Moncalvo, 
 Casale, and other cities of that part of Italy. The church de' Con- 
 ventuali alone, at Moncalvo, contains almost a gallery of Caccia's works 
 in oil ; they are very light in colour, but faint in effect, and in design 
 frequently remind us strongly of the works of Andrea del Sarto, 
 especially in his ' Holy Families ' and such pieces. He is reported to 
 have studied with the Carracci, a fact which Lanzi considers very 
 improbable; and he says that if Caccia studied in Bologna at all, it 
 must have been from the works of L. Sabbatini, prior to the Carracci ; 
 but he accounts for his similarity of style with that master from a 
 picture by Soleri in Casale, from which he may have acquired it, as 
 their styles are very similar. Bernardino Campi also painted in a very 
 similar style. Caccia's best works in fresco are in the church of Sant' 
 Antonio Abate at Milan, and in San Paolo at Novara. His master-piece 
 in oil is considered to be the ' Deposition from the Cross,' in the church 
 of San Gaudenzio at Novara : there are also two excellent altar-pieces 
 by him in the churches of Santa Croce and Santa Teresa at Turin, and 
 two others in a chapel of San Domenico at Chieri. Some o£ his 
 landscape backgrounds are in the style of Paul BriL Caccia died 
 about 1625. 
 
 Caccia instructed two of his daughters in painting— Orsola Maddalena 
 and Francesca — by whom there are many works in Moucalvo and the 
 vicinity : the pictures of the elder, Orsola, are marked with a flower ; 
 those of Francesca with a bird. Orsola founded the Conservatorio 
 delle Orseliue (Ursulines) in Moncalvo; she died in 1678. Francesca 
 also survived her father many years : she died aged 57. 
 
 (Orlandi, Abecedario Pittorico ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, <Scc.) 
 
 CADE, JOHN, an Irishman, who pretended and was believed by 
 some to be a bastard relation of the Duke of York, and hence assumed 
 the name of Mortimer. Shakspere has made him familiarly known to 
 us as ' Jack Cade.' The insurrection which he headed broke out in 
 Kent in the beginning of June, during Whitsuntide week, in the year 
 
7 
 
 CADMUS. 
 
 C2ECILIUS, STATIUS. 
 
 a 
 
 1 450, and had its origin in the wide-spread dissatisfaction occasioned 
 by the conduct of the Duke of Suffolk, the favourite and chief minister 
 of the king. A list of their grievances was published by the insurgents, 
 entitled ' The Complaint of the Commons of Kent.' Among other 
 complaiuts alleged by the insurgents were the following : — " That 
 people paid not for stuff and purveyance taken for the king's use ; 
 that the king's lands in France are aliened and put away fro the crown; 
 that the people of Kent are not suffered to have free elections of knights 
 of the shire." In addition, Cade sent a memorial to the king, expressive 
 of great loyalty, entitled ' The Requests by the Captain of the Great 
 Assembly in Kent,' praying him " to take about his person his true 
 lords, and to avoid all the false progeny and affinity of Suffolk," and 
 affirming that "the realm of France, the duchies of Normandy, Qascony, 
 Guienne, Anjou, and Maine, were delivered and lost by means of the 
 said traitors." This last circumstance especially irritated the nation, 
 and to these causes of discontent were added the hardships caused by 
 the statute of labourers and extortionate proceedings which vexed and 
 irritated the commonalty. On the 17th of June, Cade and his followers 
 were encamped at Blackheath. The king, who was with the parlia- 
 ment at Leicester, hastily collected his forces at London, and prepared 
 to march upon the rebels. During this interval, Cade sent to the king 
 tlie memorials which have been mentioned. Cade had been encamped 
 about a week when the king's forces marched to attack him, upon 
 which he hastily retreated to Sevenoaks. The royalists, believing the 
 rebels were in flight, detached a portion of their forces in pursuit; 
 upon which Cade led his followers against this detachment, which was 
 defeated, and Sir Humphry Stafford and his brother, who -commanded 
 it, were amongst the killed. Cade now resumed his encampment at 
 Blacklieath. The royalists were distrustful of their followers, and as 
 a popular concession, the king's council committed to the Tower Lord 
 Say and some others, who were disliked by the people on account of 
 their connection with the obnoxious ministry. The king's army then 
 retai ned to London and dispersed. The Archbishop of Canterbury 
 and the Duke of Buckingham were sent to negociate with Cade, but 
 he refused to lay down his arms until his demands were acceded to. 
 On the 1st of July he marched from Blackheath for London. Some 
 of the common council advised the admission of the rebels, and an 
 alderman who opposed it was taken into custody. It was resolved that 
 a neutral part should be taken, and the gates were opened to the 
 insurgents. Cade rode through the streets, and struck the old London 
 stone with his sword, exclaiming " Now is Mortimer lord of this city ! " 
 He issued proclamations forbidding plunder, and each day withdrew 
 his followers into the Borough to prevent disorder. On the 3rd of 
 July Cade sent for Lord Say, and had him arraigned at Guildhall. 
 This nobleman claimed to be judged by his peers, on which he was 
 taken by force to the Standard in Cheapside, and there beheaded. 
 The sheriff of Kent, Lord Say's son-in-law, was also beheaded, on 
 account of his alleged extortions. The mob soon began to exhibit the 
 usual characteristics of an undisciplined multitude. On the third day 
 of their being in possession of the city some houses were plundered : 
 Cade himself plundered the house where he had dined. This conduct 
 decided the citizens, who concerted measures with Lord Scales, the 
 governor of the Tower, and it was determined to defend the bridge 
 and prevent the entry of the rebels. The struggle lasted during the 
 night, but the bridge was eventually taken by the royalists, and a 
 short truce was agreed upon. In this interval the Bishop of Winchester 
 was sent by the archbishops of Canterbury and York, who were in the 
 Tower, with a pardon under the great seal to all the rebels who were 
 disposed to return to their homes. The offer was accepted by the mass 
 of them, including Cade. Two days afterwards he again invited his 
 followers to his standard, but they flocked around it in diminished 
 numbers, and to attack the city was now hopeless. He therefore 
 retired from Southwark to Rochester, where tumults and quarrels arose 
 among the insurgents respecting the division of booty. On this Cade 
 left them, and fled on horseback to Lewes in Sussex. A reward of 
 1000 marks being set upon his head, he was taken by an esquire named 
 Alexander Iden, and killed, after a desperate resistance, July 11. His 
 head was placed on London bridge. The remainder of the rebels 
 returned to their homes as quietly as possible. Some were taken and 
 executed. 
 
 CADMUS, the name of several persons in Greek history. The most 
 famous was the legendary founder of Thebes, who was the son of 
 Agenor, king of the Phoenicians, and was sent in search of his sister 
 Europa, who had been carried off, according to the old fable, by 
 Jupiter under the form of a bull. Cadmus touched at Thera, where 
 he left Membliarus and some of his followers (Herod., iv., 147), and 
 thence proceeded to Bceotia, where, in obedience to the oracle, he 
 formed a settlement on a spot pointed out by a heifer which he had 
 followed, and which lay down by the streams of Dirce. He had how- 
 ever in the first place to kill a fierce dragon who guarded the place, 
 and on sowing the monster's teeth as he was directed to do, a host of 
 armed men sprung from the ground, and fought with one another till 
 all but seven were slain. These seven joined Cadmus in founding 
 Cadmeia, subsequently the citadel of Thebes; hence the Thebans 
 were called Sparti (' sown-men' ). All these legends are given suc- 
 cessively in a chorus of Euripides (' Phceniss.,' 641-680, and Scholiast.), 
 and various attempts have been made to explain them. Some contend 
 with Herodotus for the Phoenician origin of the traditions, others refer 
 
 them to Egypt, and one modern scholar has endeavoured to prove that 
 Cadmus was the leader of a Cretan colony. We are inclined to believe 
 with Muller that Cadmus was an old Pelasgian god. Indeed very strong 
 evidence has been given that he was identical with Cadmilus, the 
 father of the Cabiri, and that his wife Harmonia was also connected 
 with the Samothracian rites. (Midler's ' Orchomenos,' p. 461.) The 
 legend goes on to relate that he and his wife were changed into ser- 
 pents, and that he retired to Illyria (Pausan., ix. 583), from whence ho 
 led a host of barbarians into Greece and sacked Delphi (Herod., v. 61, 
 ix. 43 ; Eurip., ' Bacchae,' 1333 ; Niebuhr, ' Hist. Rom.,' i. p. 50). To 
 Cadmus is attributed the invention of seventeen letters of the Greek 
 alphabet; the remaining eight having been added by Palamedes and 
 Simonides. (Pliny, ' Hist. Nat.,' t. vii., c. 56.) 
 
 CADMUS, of Miletus, was the first Greek prose writer. He lived 
 towards the end of the 7th or the beginning of the 6th century B.C., 
 and wrote a history, in four books, of the foundation of his native city 
 and the colonisation of Ionia, which was epitomised by Bion of Pro- 
 connesus. (Clem. Al. Strom., vi. p. 629; Pliny, 'Hist. Nat.,' vii. 56, 
 v. 29 ; Isocrates, ' Tlepl 'AvriSSaeus.') 
 
 CADOUDAL, GEORGES, the son of a poor miller, was born in 
 1769, in the neighbourhood of Auray in Lower Brittany. He received 
 that education of the mind, with religion for its basis, which has 
 always distinguished the western population of France. One of the 
 first to answer the call to arms of the royalists, he collected, in 
 March 1793, a body of 50 Bretons, traversed the woods, fought several 
 combats, and joined the main army at Faugeres. He was afterwards 
 present at the siege of Granville, at the battle of Mans, and other 
 engagements. Next, assisted by his steadfast friend Lemercier, he 
 achieved an insurrection in the Morbihan. This was his talent : none 
 of the patriot leaders knew better than Georges how to move the 
 passions of the simple peasantry, by his denunciation of the republic 
 and his advocacy of the Bourbons. In 1794 he was captured by a 
 party of republican soldiers, and sent as a prisoner to Brest. 
 
 After a few months' captivity he made his escape, with several of 
 his companions, and became a leader (chef de canton). In July 1795, 
 during the misunderstanding between the Vendean generals and the 
 emigrant officers, after the landing of Puisaye and Quiberon, Georges 
 strove hard to rescue a portion of the Chouan army from the disaster 
 which followed. The royalists were fearfully slaughtered by the army 
 of Hoche, but Cadoudal effected the retreat of a strong party. He 
 soon took upon himself the conduct of the insurrection in Lower 
 Brittany ; and, irritated at the conduct of the leaders of the late ill- 
 starred expedition, he organised an army of peasants, admitting 
 neither noble nor emigrant officer to any share in the command. 
 During the latter part of 1795 and the early part of 1796, the great 1 
 military talents of Hoche tried most severely the patience and 
 endurance of the Chouans; still their hardy leaders kept them from 
 disbanding. 
 
 Then followed two years of inaction, whilst the faithful Chouan was 
 waiting for the signal to be sent from Paris to resume the offensive. 
 In January 1799, Georges Cadoudal, who had never dissolved his little 
 band, intimated to the royalist leaders that everything was ready for 
 a speedy insurrection. The following August be mustered his forces, 
 and occupied the camp of Beauchene. Other chiefs united their bands 
 with his, but Cadoudal's was the most considerable, and, submitting 
 to his authority, they invested him with the chief command of the 
 Morbihan and C6tes-du-Nord. A great civil war was imminent ; the 
 flames had spread through the provinces of Marne, Normandy, and 
 Brittany, when the abrupt explosion of the great conspiracy of the 
 18th Brumaire paralysed the royalists and raised Bonaparte to power. 
 The inflexible Chouan resisted still, fought the battles of Grand-Champ 
 and Elven (1800), and was the last to think of peace. 
 
 Georges Cadoudal now went to Paris, and became the object of the 
 First Consul's admiring notice. The master of France used every art 
 to win him over to his service, but nothing could shake the constancy 
 of this rude chief. Bonaparte then strove to arrest him; but the 
 Chouan fled to England, where he was treated with great distinction. 
 The Comte d'Artois, with his own hand, gave him the cordon rouge 
 in the king's name. Towards the end of 1800 he returned to Brittany, 
 again evoked the loyalty of that population, and ordered several spies 
 to be shot, whom the First Consul had sent as emissaries to entrap 
 him. 
 
 In 1802, being once more in England, he allied himself with 
 Pichegru to overturn Bonaparte. Georges proposed to attack him 
 openly, and cut through his guards. To this end, he landed secretly 
 in France on the 21st of August 1803, and making his way to Paris, ' 
 lay hid there for six months, waiting for the signal to be given by 
 Moreau and Pichegru. At length, on the 4th of March 1804, he was 
 surprised in a cabriolet, near the Luxembourg, and captured by a 
 party of police, after he had killed one man and wounded another. 
 At his trial he boldly avowed his devotion to his 'legitimate' king. 
 He was condemned to death, and executed on the 25th of June, at 
 the age of thirty-five. " His mind," said Napoleon, "was cast in the 
 true mould ; in my hands he would have done great things. I knew 
 how to appreciate his firmness of character." 
 
 (Biog. Univers. ; Bourrienne ; Alison, History of Europe.) 
 
 C^ECI'LIUS, STA'TIUS, a Gaul, originally a slave. He received 
 the name Cwcilius when he became free. He died about one year 
 
9 
 
 CEDMON. 
 
 CAESAR, CAIU3 JLTLIU3. 
 
 10 
 
 after his friend Eonius, that is, B.C. 163. CseciLus wrote some forty 
 comedies in the Latin language, of which only very brief fragments 
 remain in the writings of Cicero, Aulus Gellius, and the grammarians. 
 His merit has been variously estimated by the ancients. Cicero ('Ad 
 Attic.,' vii. 3) condemns his style as bad, and Quintilian (x. i.) does 
 not assent to the praises wliich had been bestowed on him by others. 
 Horace ('Epist.' ii. i. 59, 'Dc Art. Poet.' 54). on the contrary, praises 
 him as in some points superior to Plautus and Terence ; and Vulgatius 
 Scdigitus (in ' AuL Gell.'xv. 21) gives him the highest rank in comedy. 
 Many of his plays were imitations of Menander ; and Aulus Gellius 
 (ii. 23) says that when he read them separately they appeared rather 
 pleasing and lively, but that when compared with the Greek originals 
 they were perfectly disgusting. In the same very valuable chapter 
 Aulus Gellius gives a scene from the Plocium (tt\6kiov, ' necklace') of 
 Csecilius with the scene of Menander from which it is copied. They 
 differ as much in brightness, he says, as the arms of Diotned and 
 Glaucus. (Terence, 'Hec. Pro].' 5.) 
 
 CiEDlION, the father of English song, or the first person of whom 
 we possess any metrical composition in our vernacular language. 
 This composition is a kind of ode consisting of no more than eighteen 
 lines, celebrating the praises of the Creator. It is preserved in Alfred's 
 trm-lation of Bede. Bede gives the following account of the pro- 
 duction of it, and of the author. Cacdmon was in some kind of con- 
 nection with the monks of Whitby : he seems to have had the care 
 of their cattle. It appears to have been the custom of our Saxon 
 forefathers to amuse themselves at the supper hour with improvisatore 
 descaiits accompanied by the harp, as is still practised at meetings of 
 the Welsh bard3. Caednion, far from having the gift of song, when 
 the harp passed round among the guests, was fain as it approached 
 him to shrink away from the assembly and retire to his own house. 
 Once after it had thus happened a3 he was sleeping at night, some 
 one seemed to say to him, " Cxdmon, sing me something?" He 
 replied, "I cannot sing;" and he told how his inability to sing had 
 been the cause of his quitting the hall. " Yet thou must sing to me," 
 Baid the voice ; "What must I sing ?" sail he ; "Sing me the origin 
 of things." The subject thu3 given him, he composed the short ode 
 in question. When he awoke, the words were fast in his miud. 
 
 Caedmon in the morning told his vision and repeated his song. The 
 effect was that the Abbess Hilda and the learned men whom she had 
 collected round her in her monastery at Whitby believed that he had 
 received from Heaven the gift of song, and when on the morrow he 
 returned with a beautiful poetic paraphrase of a passage of Scripture 
 which they had given him to versify as a test of the reality of his 
 inspiration, they at once acknowledged the verity, and earnestly 
 besought him to become a member of their company. He continued 
 to receive poetic inspiration, and he composed numerous poems on 
 sacred subjects, which were sung in the abbey for the edification of its 
 inhabitants. Sacred subjects were his delight, and to them he con- 
 f.ned himself. He continued in the monastery for the remainder of 
 his life, and there he died, as is conjectured, about 6S0. 
 
 The authenticity of the little poem above mentioned is perhaps 
 unquestionable. But besides this, a very long Saxon poem, which is 
 a metrical paraphrase on parts of the Scriptures, is attributed to 
 Caedmon. An edition of it was printed at Amsterdam in 1655, under 
 the care of Junius. Hickos expresses doubts whether this poem can 
 be attributed to so early a period as the time of Caedmon. He thinks 
 he perceives certain Dano-Saxonisms in it which would lead him to 
 refer it to a much later period. It ha3 been again printed with a 
 much more accurate text, by Mr. Thorpe, as a publication by the- 
 Society of Antiquaries, London, Svo, 1S32. Mr. Thorpe is of opinion 
 that it is substantially the work of Caelrnon, but with some sophisti- 
 cations of a later period, and in this opinion our best Anglo-Saxon 
 scholars appear inclined to coincide. The poem seems to have been 
 popular, and to have been much- used in later times by the makers 
 of the mysteries which furnished so much of the amusement of our 
 ance-.tors. An attempt has been mado to show that the parts 
 respecting the creation and our first parents had been studied by 
 Milton. 
 
 OELIUS AURELIA'NUS, the only remaining writer of the sect 
 of the Methodici in medicine, is believed to have been born at Sicca in 
 Africa. The time when he lived is uncertain ; as neither he nor Galen 
 mention each other, it has been supposed that they were contem- 
 poraries; while others have thought, from the barbarousuess of hvs 
 «ty]e, that he must have lived as late as the 5th century. But his 
 African origin as well as the imperfect education which, in common 
 with the majority of the Methodici, he probably received, will account 
 for his barbarous Latinity, as well as his blunders in Greek. His 
 work, which consists of eight books, three on acute and five on chronic 
 diseases, is a translation into Latin of the writings of Soranu3, a Greek 
 physician, of the time of Hadrian, wi*h additions from his own practice 
 and from other authors. 
 
 Caeiius Aurclianus appears to have been an observant practitioner, 
 and gives several original cases in medicine as well as surgery. The 
 medical sect of the Methodici hi Id a twiddle place between the dog- 
 matics and the erapiric-i. The dogmati-.ts maintained that the practice 
 of physic must depend upon the theory, and that he who is ignorant 
 of the origin of diseases cannot treat t>em with advantage. The 
 empirics, on the other hand, alleged that wdicine d pends on expe- 
 
 BIOO. MV. VOL. IL 
 
 rience alone, and that the physician, like the husbandman or the 
 steersman, is formed by practice, not by discussion. The former sect 
 studied anatomy, the latter neglected it. (Celsus, 'de Med.' lib. 1.) 
 The Methodici combined something of the theoretical turn of tho 
 dogmatics with the practical simplicity of the empiric-, but it must be 
 owned that they carried this simplicity too far. Thus Themison, their 
 founder, " reduced all diseases to three kinds oul y, the striclum, the 
 laxum, and the mixtum; the last consisting of the strictum in one 
 part of the body, and of the laxum in another. He maintained that 
 it was enough to refer any particular disease to one or other of these 
 three heads, in order to form the proper indications of cure. This easy 
 plan was, by way of eminence, called the Method, and the persons 
 who followed it the Methodics." (Cullen, ' Introductory Lectures, — 
 History of Medicine.') 
 
 With them, as with others, theory sometimes succeeded in stifling 
 the best-established practice. Thus the Methodici, not satisfied with 
 banishing specifics from the practice of physic, declared war even 
 against purgatives. These remedies had been denounced by Chrysip- 
 pus, Erasistratus, Asclepiades, and Thessalus; and Caclius agrees with 
 them. On the whole however Caeiius Aureliauus ranks high among 
 the second class of medical writers — among those who, though not 
 great discoverers, yet hand down to posterity, with useful additions, 
 the rich inheritance of knowledge which they have received. 
 
 The first editions of Caeiius Aurelianus are that of Paris, 1529, folio, 
 containing only the three books on acute diseases, and that of Basel, 
 of the same year aud size, containing only the five books ou chronic 
 diseases. There is a complete edition by Dalechamp with marginal 
 notes, Lyon, 1567, 8vo. The best edition is that of Alraeloveen, 
 Amsterdam, 1722 and 1755. The last complete edition is that of 
 Haller, in two volumes, Svo, 1774. 
 
 (Sprengel, Essai d'une Histoire pragmatique de Medecine ; Hist, 
 traduit par Geiger, torn. ii. : Le Clerc, Histoire de la Medccine; Haller, 
 Biblioth. Med,, vol. ii.) 
 
 CAESAR (Kaiaap), the cognomen or distinctive family name of a 
 branch of the illustrious Julian gens or house. Various etymologies 
 of the name have been giveu by Roman writers, but they all seem 
 unsatisfactory, and some of them ridiculous, except that which con- 
 nects it with the word ccesaries, properly ' the hair of the head.' It 
 was not unusual for the family names among the Romans to be derived 
 from some personal peculiarity : examples of this are Naso, Pronto, 
 Calvus, &c. The Julian gens was one of the oldest patrician houses 
 of Rome, and the branch of it which bore the name of Caesar deduced 
 its origin from lulus, the son of JEneas, and consequently claimed a 
 descent from divine blood. (Suetou. 'Csesar.') The Julian gens is 
 traced back historically to a.d.c. 253, or B.C. 501, but the first person 
 who bore the distinctive family name of Caesar is probably Sextus 
 Julius Caesar, who was quaestor A.u.C. 532, and from Cains Julius 
 Caesar, the dictator, may be traced through five descents. (' Transactions 
 of the Royal Society of Literature,' vol. i. pt. 2.) 
 
 In pursuance of the will of C. J. Caesar, the dictator, Octaviu3, 
 afterwards the Emperor Augustus, who was the grandson of the 
 dictator's sister, Julia, took the family name of Caesar. Tiberius Nero 
 who was adopted by his stepfather Augustus, also took the name of 
 Caesar. Caligula and Claudius, his successors, were descended from 
 Julia, the dietatoi-'s sister ; and in the person of Nero, the successor 
 of Claudius, the family of Caesar became extinct. Nero was removed 
 five descents from Julia, the dictator's sister. [Augustus.] 
 
 Wheu Hadrian adopted iEliu3 Verus, who was thus received into 
 the imperial family, Verus took the name of Caesar. Spartianus, in 
 his life of .Elius Verus, remarks, ''Verus was the first who received 
 the name of Caesar only, aud that not by will, as before, but pretty 
 nearly in the same way as in our times (the reign of Diocletian) 
 Maximianus and Coustantius were named Caesars, and thus designated 
 as heirs to the empire." Thus the term Augustus under the latex- 
 emperors signified the reigning priuce, and Caesar or Caesares denoted 
 the individual or individuals marked out by the emperor's favour as 
 being in the line of succession. 
 
 CESAR, CA'IUS JU'LIUS, the son of C. J. Caesar and Aurelia, was 
 born B.C. 100, on the 12th of Quintilis, afterwards called Julius from 
 the name of the person of whom we are speaking. His aunt Julia was 
 the wife of Caius Marius, who was seven time? consul. In his seven- 
 teenth year he married Cornelia, the daughter of Ciuna, by whom he 
 had a daughter, Julia. This connection with Marius and Cinna, the 
 two great opponents of the dictator Sulla, exposed him to the resent- 
 ment of the opposite faction. By Sulla's orders he was deprived of 
 his wife's dowry and of the fortune which he had inherited by descent, 
 stripped of his office of priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) and 
 compelled to seek safety by flight. (Plut. 'Caesar,' i. ; Suetonius, 
 'Caesar.') Sulla is said to have spared his life with great reluctance, 
 observing to those who pleaded his cause, that the youth" would be, 
 the nun of the aristocratic party, for there were many Marii in Caesar." 
 He first served under M. Thermus in Asia, and distinguished himself 
 at the capture of Mitylene (B.C. 80 or 79) ; but his reputation suffered 
 by a report (possibly an unfounded one) of scandalous profligacy 
 during a visit which he paid to Nicomedes, the kiug of Bithynia. In 
 the following year he served under Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. The 
 news of Sulla's death soon brought him back to Rome, but he took 
 no part in the movements of M. .lEtnilius Lepidus, who made u 
 
 o 
 
II 
 
 CAESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 CESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 12 
 
 fruitless attempt to overthrow the aristocratical party, which had been 
 firmly established during the tyranny of Sulla. It is not unlikely, as 
 Suetonius observes, that he had no confidence in Lepidus, and that he 
 nad penetration enough to see that the time was not come for 
 humbling the aristocracy of Rome. Whatever opinion may be enter- 
 tained as to Caesar having very early formed a design to seize on the 
 sovereign power, it is at least certain that from his first appearance in 
 public life he had a settled purpose to break the power of the aris- 
 tocracy, from which he and his relatives had suffered so much. After 
 his unsuccessful impeachment of Dolabella for maladministration in his 
 province, he retired to Rhodes, and for a time became the pupil of the 
 rhetorician Molo, one of the greatest masters of the art, whose instruc- 
 tion Cicero had attended, probably a year or two before Caesar's visit. 
 
 For some time Caesar seems to have had little concern in public life, 
 being kept in the background by the predominance of the aristocratical 
 party, and the successful career of Metellus, Lucullus, Crassus, and 
 I'ompey. About B.C. 69, being elected one of the military tribunes, 
 he had sufficient influence to produce an enactment for the restoration 
 of L. Ciuna, his wife's brother, and of those partisans of Lepidus who 
 after his death had joined Sertorius in Spain. (Suetonius.) The 
 following year he was quaestor in Spain, and on his return to Rome 
 he was elected ^Edile for B.C. 65. Just before entering on office he 
 fell under some suspicion of being engaged in a conspiracy to kill the 
 consuls Cotta and Torquatua, and effect a revolution. Whether there 
 really was a conspiracy or not may be doubted ; Caesar's share in it 
 at least is not clearly established. The office of ./Edile gave Caesar an 
 opportunity of indulging his taste for magnificence and display, by 
 which at the same time he secured the favour of the people. He 
 beautified the city with public buildings, and gave splendid exhibitions 
 of wild beasts and gladiators. Caesar, who was now five-and-thirty 
 years of age, had enjoyed no opportunity of distinguishing himself in 
 a military capacity ; while the more fortunate Pompey, who was only 
 six years older, was spreading his name and the terror of the Roman 
 arms throughout the East. A favourable occasion seemed to present 
 itself in Egypt. Alexander, the king who had been honoured with 
 the name of iriend and ally of the Roman people, was ejected from 
 Alexandria by the citizens. The popular feeling at Rome was against 
 the Alexandrians, and Caesar thought he had interest enough through 
 the tribunes and the democratical party to get appointed to an extra- 
 ordinary command in Egypt; but the opposite faction was strongly 
 united against him, and he failed in his attempt. The next year he 
 was more successful. By a judicious application of money among the 
 poorer voters, and of personal influence among all classes (Dion, 
 xxxvii. 37), he obtained the Pontificates Maximus, or wardenship of 
 the ecclesiastical college of Pontifices, a place no doubt of considerable 
 emolument, to which an official residence in the Sacra Via was also 
 attached. (Sueton. 'Cesar,' 13, 46.) This union of civil and religious 
 functions in the same person, at least in the higher and more profitable 
 places, was a part of the old Roman polity, which, among other conse- 
 quences, prevented the existence of a hierarchy with a distinct and 
 opposing interest. 
 
 At the time of the important debate on the conspiracy of Catiline 
 (b.c. 63), Caesar was praetor designatus (praetor elect for the following 
 year), and accordingly spoke in his place in the senate. He was the 
 only person who ventured to oppose the proposition for putting the 
 conspirators to death ; he recommended their property to be confis- 
 cated, and that they should be dispersed through the different muni- 
 cipia of Italy, and kept under a strict surveillance. The speech which 
 Sallust has put into his mouth on this occasion, if the substauce of 
 it be genuine, will help us to form some estimate of Ctesar's character 
 and his policy at this period. The address is singularly well adapted 
 to flatter the dominant party, and also to keep up his credit with 
 those who were hostile to the aristocratic interests. His object was 
 to save the lives of the conspirators, under the pretext of inflicting on 
 them a punishment more severe than that of death. But for Cato he 
 might piobably have carried his motion. According to Suetonius, 
 Caesar persevered in his opposition till his life was actually threatened 
 by the armed Roman equites, who were introduced into the senate- 
 house under the pretext of protecting the senate during their delibe- 
 rations. (Compare Plut. 'Caesar,' viii.) Cicero, who was then consul, 
 and in the height of his prosperity and arrogance, might, it is said, by 
 a single nod, have destroyed this formidable opponent of the order of 
 which he had become the devoted champion ; but either his courage 
 failed him, or some motive perhaps more worthy, led him to check the 
 fury of the Equites. In the following year, during his praetorship, the 
 opposite faction in the senate, who were bent on crushing Caesar's 
 rising influence, actually passed a decree (decretum) by which Q. Caeci- 
 lius Metellus Nepos, one of the tribunes of the plebs, and Caesar, who 
 strongly supported him in his measures, were declared incapable of 
 continuing in the exercise of their official duties. Caesar still dis- 
 charged the judicial functions of his magistracy, till he found that 
 force would be used to compel his submission to this illegal and 
 impolitic act of the senate. The populace were roused by this strange 
 proceeding, and Caesar apparently might have had their best assist- 
 ance against his enemies ; but prudence for the present induced him 
 to check the zeal of his partizaus, and the senate, apparently alarmed 
 l >y this demonstration, repealed their own decree, and thanked him 
 for his conduct. 
 
 An affair which happened during Caesar's praetorship caused no little 
 scandal at Rome. While the ceremonies in honour of the Bona Dea 
 were performing in the house of Caesar, at which women only could 
 be present, the profligate Clodius, putting on a woman's dress, con- 
 trived to get admission to these mysterious rites. On the affair being 
 discovered Caesar divorced his wife Pompeia, whom he had married 
 after the death of Cornelia; and Clodius, after being brought to a 
 public trial on a charge of impiety, only escaped by bribing the 
 judices or jury. (Cic. ' Ep. ad Att.' i. 12, &c. ; Don. xxxviii. 45.) 
 From motives of policy Caosar did not break with Clodiu3 : he probably 
 feared his influence, and already saw that he could make him a useful 
 tool, and a bugbear to Cicero. 
 
 The year B.C. 60 was spent by Caesar in his province of Hispania 
 Ulterior, or Southern Spaiu, where he speedily restored order and 
 hurried back to Rome before his successor came, to canvass for the 
 consulship. The aristocratical party saw that it was impossible to 
 prevent Caesar's election ; their only chance was to give him a colleague 
 who should be a cheek upou him. Their choice of Bibulus seems to 
 have been singularly unfortunate. Bibulu3 was elected with Caesar in 
 opposition to Lucceius, with whom Caesar had formed a coalition, on. 
 the condition that Lucceius should find the money, and that Caesar 
 should give him the benefit of his influence and recommendation. 
 The scheme of Caisar's enemies proved a complete failure. Bibulus, 
 after unavailing efforts to resist the impetuosity of his colleague, shut 
 himself up in his house, and Caesar, in fact, became sole consul. 
 (Dion. xxxviiL 8.) In order to stop all public business, Bibulu. 
 declared the auguries unfavourable; and when this would not answer, 
 he declared that they would be unfavourable all through the year. 
 This illegal conduct only tended to justify the violent measures of his 
 colleague. The affair, though a serious one for the hitherto dominant 
 faction, furnished matter for the small wits of the day, who us-d to 
 sign their notes and letters in the ' Consulship of Julius aud Caesar,' 
 instead of naming both consuls in the usual way. 
 
 Caesar had contrived, by a masterly stroke of policy, to render 
 ineffectual all opposition on the part of his opponents. Pompey was 
 dissatisfied because the senate delayed about confirming all his 
 measures in the Mithridatic war and during his command in Asia; 
 Crassus, who was the richest man in the state, and second only to 
 Pompey in influence with the senatorial faction, was not on good 
 terms with Pompey. If Caesar gained over only one of these rivals, 
 he made the other his enemy ; he determined therefore to secure them 
 both. Ho began by courting Pompey, aud succeeded in bringing 
 about a reconciliation between hiin and Crassus. It was agreed that 
 there should be a general understanding among the three as to the 
 course of policy ; that all Pompey's measures should be confirmed, 
 and that Caesar should have the consulship. To cement their alliance 
 more closely, Caesar gave Pompey his daughter Julia in marriage, 
 though she had been promised to M. Brutus. (Plut. ' Pomp.' 47.) 
 Caesar also took a new wife on the occasion, Calpurnia, the daughter 
 of Piso, whom he nominated one of the consuls for the ensuing year. 
 This uniou of Pompey, Crassus, and Cae.-ar is often called by modern 
 writers the first triumvirate. The effect of it was to destroy the 
 credit of Pompey, throw disunion among the aristocratic party, and 
 put the whole power of the state in the hands of one vigorous and 
 clear-sighted man. (As to the affair of Vettius [Dion, xxxviii. 9], see 
 Cicero.) 
 
 It is unnecessary to detail minutely the acts of Caesar's consulship. 
 From the letters of Cicero, which are contemporary evidence, we 
 perceive that the senate at last found they had got a master whom it 
 was useless to resist ; Cato alone held out, but he stood by himself. 
 One of the most important measures of Caesar's consulship was an 
 A grarian law for the division of some public lands in Campania among 
 the jioorer citizens, which was carried by intimidation. Pompey and 
 Crassus, who hod given in to all Caesar's measures, accepted a place in 
 the commission for dividing these lands. Clodius, the enemy of 
 Cicero, was, through Caesar's influence, and the help of Pompey, 
 adopted into a plebeian family, and thus made capable of holding the 
 office of tribune ; an event which Cicero had long dreaded, and fondly 
 flattered himself that he should prevent by a temporising policy. 
 Clodius, the next year, was elected a tribune, and drove Cicero into 
 exile. (Dion, xxxviii. 12, &c.) 
 
 The Roman consuls, on going out of office, received the government 
 of a province for one year. Caesar's opponents unwisely made another 
 and a last effort against him, which only resulted in putting them in 
 a still more humiliating position: they proposed to give him the 
 superintendence of the roads and forests. Vatinius, one of his 
 creatures, forthwith procured a law to be passed, by which he obtained 
 for Caesar the province of Gallia Cisalpina, or North Italy, and 
 Illyricum, for five years : and the senate, fearing the people might 
 grant still more, not only confirmed the measure, but, making a merit 
 of necessity, added the province of Gallia Transalpina. "From tbU 
 moment," remarks a lively modern writer (Schlosser, 'Universal. 
 Histor. Uebersicht'), " the history of Rome presents a striking parallel 
 to the condition of the French republic during Bonaparte's first 
 campaigns iu Italy. In both cases we see a weak republican adminis- 
 tration in the capital involved in continual broils, which the rival 
 factions are more interested in fostering, than in securing the tran- 
 quillity aud peace of the empire. In both cases we find a provinca 
 
33 
 
 CESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 CAESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 U 
 
 of the distracted republic occupied by a general with unlimited power 
 I— the uncontrolled master of a territory which, in extent and import- 
 lance, is equal to a mighty kingdom — a man of superior understanding, 
 [desperate resolves, and, if circumstances rendered it necessary, of 
 fearful cruelty — a man who, under the show of democratical opiuions, 
 behaved like a despot, governed a province at his pleasure, and 
 established an absolute control over his soldiers by leading them to 
 victory, bloodshed, and pillage." 
 
 The Gallic provinces at this time subject to Rome were: Gallia 
 citerior, or Cisalpine Gaul (North Italy); and Gallia ulterior, or the 
 Bouthern part of Transalpine Gaul, also called emphatically ' Pro- 
 vincia ' (whence the modern Provence), whose capital was Narbo, now 
 Narbonne. The Provincia extended from the Mediterranean to the 
 kjebeuna Mountains, and included the modern provinces of East 
 Lauguedoc, Provence, and Dauphin^. On the north it joined the 
 I /illobroges, then lately subject d to Rome. When Cesar, in his 
 I * Commentaries,' speaks of Gaul, which he divides into Aquitania, 
 1 Celtiea, and Belgica, he menus the Gaul which was then independent, 
 and which he conquered, exclusive of the Provincia already subject 
 to Rome. 
 
 In March B.C. 58, while Cesar was still at Rome, news came that 
 the Helvetians, united with several German tribes, were leaving their 
 country with their wives and children in order to settle in Southern 
 Gaul, and were directing their march upon Geneva to cross the Rhone 
 at that place. Cesar hastened to Geneva, cut the bridge, and raised 
 a wall or entrenchment between the Rhone and the Jura in order to 
 close the passage against the Helvetians. The Helvetians asked per- 
 mission to pass through the Roman province on their way to the 
 country of the Santoues (Saintonge), as they said, and on Cesar's 
 refusal they resolved to cross the Jura higher up into the country of 
 the Sequani (tranche Comtd), with whom they entered into negocia- 
 tions to that effect. Cesar, foreseeing danger to the Roman province 
 if the Helvetians succeeded in settling themselves in Gaul, resolved to 
 prevent them at all risks. He left his lieutenant Labienus at Geneva, 
 with the only legion he had in the province, and hastened back to 
 Cisalpine Gaul, where he raised two fresh legions, and summoned 
 three more which had wintered near Aquileia. With these five legions 
 (about 30,000 men) he took the most direct road to Gallia ulterior, 
 crossing the Alps by Ocelum (Exilles, between Susa and Briaucon), 
 and marched through the province to the country of the Segusiani, 
 the nearest independent Gaulish people, who lived near the confluence 
 of the Rhone and the Arar (the Saoue). The Helvetians meantime 
 having crossed the country of the Sequani had reached the Arar, 
 which divided the Sequani from the JE Jui, a considerable nation of 
 Celtic Gaul, who extended from the Arar to the Ligeris, and who 
 were frii ndly with Rome. The xEdui applied to Caesar for assistance. 
 He watched the motions of the Helvetians, and having learnt that 
 three-fourths of their number had crossed the Arar, he marched at 
 midnight with three legions, and fell upon those who still remained 
 on the east bai.k with the baggage, and killed or dispersed them. 
 These were the Tigurini who, about fifty years before, having joined 
 the Cimbri, had defeated and killed the Roman consul L. Cassius. 
 Cesar crossed the Arar in pursuit of the Helvetian main body. After 
 a useless conference between Cesar and old Divico the Helvetian 
 leader, the Helvetians continued to advance into the country of the 
 JE'\m, and Ce-ar after them. Cesar's cavalry, 4000 strong, composed 
 of Gaulish horsemen raised in the Provincia and among the .didui, 
 l ad the worst in an engagement against 500 Helvetian horsemen. 
 Ce-ar discovered that there was a party hostile to Rome among the 
 j!£dni, at the head of which was Durnnorix, a young man of great 
 wealth, influence, and ambition, who secretly favoured the Helvetians, 
 although he actually commanded a body of the auxiliary cavalry 
 under Cesar. At the tame time the provisions which the yEdui had 
 promised to supply to the Roman army were not forthcoming. Cesar 
 sent for Livitiacus, the brother of Dumnorix, u Druid, who was 
 friendly to Rome, and told him all he knew about his brother's 
 double dealing. Divitiacus acknowledged his brother's fault, and 
 obtained his pardon. We find afterwards ('De Bcllo Gallico,' v. 7), 
 that Dumnorix continued in hi3 heart hostile to the Romans, and at 
 the time of Cesar's first expedition into Britain refused to embark 
 with his auxiliaries, left Ce-ar' a camp, was followed, overtaken, and 
 put to death. 
 
 The movements of the Helvetians through the country of the ./Edui 
 must have been very slow and circuitous, for we find that Cesar, 
 after following them for a fortnight, was about 18 miles from Bibracte 
 (A,utun), which is not above bO miles from the moat distant point of 
 the Arar where they could have crossed. Cesar, who had now only 
 two days' provisions left, gave up the pursuit, and took the road to 
 Bibracte, the principal town of the -<Edui. 'lhe Helvetians mistaking 
 tbis movement for a retreat, turned round and followed the Romans. 
 Ceaar halted on a hill, formed his four old legions in three lines half- 
 way up the hill, and placed in their nar higher up the two new 
 legions, as well as the auxiliaries. The baggage he assembled and 
 entrenched on the summit of the hill. The Helvetians, whom Cesar 
 on this occasion talis Gauls, for they were in fact a Celtic race, having 
 left all their baggage, waggons, and families in one spot, closed their 
 ranks and formed their phalanx, repulsed Cesar's cavalry, and 
 advanced to attack his first line. Numbers were vastly in their 
 
 favour. Cesar, having dismounted, sent away his own and all the other 
 horses, to preclude all hope of flight, and having harangued his men, 
 gave the signal for battle. The legionaries, from their elevated position, 
 threw their javelins with great force upon the advancing Helvetians, 
 and having disordered their phalanx, rushed sword in hand upon 
 them. Owing to the close order of the Helvetian ranks it happened 
 that, in many instances, the Roman javelins transfixed two shields at 
 once, so that the bearers being unable to extricate one from the other, 
 were obliged to throw their shields away and fight unprotected. At 
 last, covered with wounds, the Helvetians retired towards a mountain 
 a mile distaut. The Romans followed them, but were attacked in 
 flank by the Boii and Tuliugi, 15,000 strong, who formed the Helvetian 
 rear-guard. Cesar ordered his third line to face about and repel these 
 new enemies, while the other two were engaged against the Helvetian 
 main body who had halted and returned to the charge. This double 
 fight lasted from noon to sunset, during which time none of the 
 Helvetians were seen to turn their backs. They withdrew at last, one 
 part to the mountain and the rest to their baggage, where they con- 
 tinued to fight desperately behind their carts during the night, till 
 they were nearly all killed. The other part, to the number of 130,GOi; 
 individuals, moved off during the night, and marching in a nortk 
 direction arrived in the country of the Lingones (Langres) : the 
 Romans were unable to follow them, being detained three days on the 
 field of battle iu attending to their wounded and burying their dead. 
 
 In the Helvetian camp were found written tablets containing the 
 muster of the different tribes which composed the emigration, to the 
 number of 368,000 individuals, of whom 92,000 were fighting men. 
 Cesar says the tablets were written in Greek characters : it has been 
 supposed by some that they were Etruscan letters somewhat re- 
 sembling the old Greek, and perhaps introduced into Helvetia by the 
 Rheti or Rasena, an Etruscan people. 
 
 After three days, Cesar marched iu pursuit of the Helvetians, who 
 threw themselves on his mercy. Cesar demanded their arms, hostages, 
 and the surrender of the slaves and other fugitives who had taken 
 refuge among them ; and they were ordered to return home, and 
 cultivate their lands. The Boii aloue, distinguished for their bravery, 
 were allowed to remain among the Edui at the request of the latter. 
 A part of one of the Helvetian tribes, pagus Verbigeuus, 6000 iu 
 number, having marched off iu the midst of the confusion and dark- 
 ness of the night, and taken the way towards the Rhine and Germany, 
 were pursued by Cesar's order, brought back and " treated as enemies," 
 which then meant that they were either put to death or sold as slaves. 
 The Helvetians, who returned home, were mustered by Cesar, and 
 found to be 110,000 individuals, men, women, and children. 
 
 Cesar says that his principal object iu sending the Helvetians back 
 was to prevent the Germans beyond the Rhine from occupying their 
 country and becoming formidable neighbours to the Roman provinces. 
 The report of Cesar's victory spread rapidly through all Celtic Gaul, 
 the various tribes of which began to look up to him as their arbiter in 
 their internal differences. The iEdui complained to him that Ario- 
 vistus, a powerful king of the Germans, being invited by the Sequaui 
 and the Arverni, between whom and the iEdui there was an old 
 rivalry, had crossed the Rhine some time before with 15,000 men, who 
 had afterwards increased to 120,000, had defeated the ^Edui and their 
 allies iu a great battle, had occupied several provinces of Gaul, exacted 
 hostages of them, and was in fact oppressing the country. The Gauls 
 described the Germans as an athletic, fierce, and formidable people. 
 Cesar, who, during his consulship in the previous year, had iuduced 
 the senate to acknowledge Ariovistus as a king and friend of Rome, 
 now sent to him requesting an interview, which the German declined. 
 Cesar then required him by message to desist from bringing over 
 the Rhine fresh bodies of Germans, and from molesting the ^Edu 
 and their allies, who were neighbours to the Roman Province, and to 
 restore their hostages. Ariovistus replied that as he had never dic- 
 tated to the Romans what use they should make of their victories, he 
 would not be dictated to by them ; and that the -<Edui were hi3 
 tributaries by force of arms. 
 
 Cesar, learning that other Germans, and particularly the Suevi, a 
 powerful nation, were approaching the Rhine to join Ariovistus, deter- 
 mined on attacking him. He occupied Vesontio (Besancou), a strong 
 town of tho Sequani, before Ariovistus could seize it. The fearful 
 reports of the Gauls about the Germans spread alarm in Cesar's camp, 
 especially among the young officers, military tribunes, prefects, and 
 others, accustomed to the luxuries of Rome, and who had followed 
 Ca;sar out of personal friendship (I. 39). Skulking in their tents, they 
 lamented their fate, and were busy makiug their last wills. The panic 
 spread to the veterans, and Cesar was told that it wguld be impossible 
 to advance farther; that the roads were impracticable; that no provi- 
 sions could be collected, and, in short, that the soldiers would not 
 follow him if he raised his camp. 1 laving assembled the officers, he 
 toll them that it was not their business to discuss the measures and 
 orders Of their general, ridiculed their fears of the Germans, since tho 
 Cimbri and Teutones, the most formidable of that race, had been 
 defeated by the Roman arms, and signified to them that he would 
 raise the camp next morning, and if they refused to follow him, would 
 march forth with the tenth legion alone. This was Cesar's favourite 
 regiment. This harangue had its full effect, and Cesar marched from 
 Vesontio to meet Ariovistus. After a fruitless interview between the 
 
18 
 
 CESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 CAESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 'wo chiefs, which i3 gtaphically described by Caesar, Ariovistus arrested 
 s.nd put in chains Valerius Procillus, Caesar's friend and confidential 
 interpreter, and Mettius, who had gone to the German cauip to renew 
 the negociations. Caesar prepared for battle, but Ariovistus remained 
 m his camp for several days, because, as Caesar was informed by the 
 prisoners, the German matrons had declared that their countrymen 
 would be losers if they fought before the new moon. Accordingly 
 the Roman general determined to make the attack. The Germans 
 came out, and formed for battle in phalanxes by order of nations, the 
 Harudes, Marcomanni, the Tribocci, the Vangiones, the Nemetes, the 
 Sedusii, and the Suevi ; and they placed their waggons, baggage, and 
 women in a semicircle behind them so as to prevent escape. The 
 signal being given, both armies rushed to the encounter with such 
 rapidity that the Romans had not time to throw their javelins, and at 
 once resorted to their swords. Caesar, perceiving that the left of the 
 enemy was the weakest, commenced the attack on that point ; many 
 of his soldiers weut up, and, grasping the enemies' shields, tried to 
 sniitch them away. Meautime the German right was pressing hard 
 upon the Romans, who were much inferior in numbers, when young 
 Crassus (the son of Liciuius), who commanded the cavalry, moved the 
 third or rear line obliquely to the support of the left, and thus recovered 
 the advantage. The Germans gave way, and fled towards the Rhine, 
 which was 50 miles distant, being pursued by Caesar's cavalry. Many 
 fell, some swam across the river, others, and Ariovistus among the 
 rest, passed it in boats. Ariovistus' s two wives and one daughter were 
 killed in the flight; another daughter was taken. Valerius Procillus 
 and Mettius were both rescued, to the great satisfaction of Caesar. 
 
 Caesar, having thus terminated the campaign, put his troops in 
 winter-quarters among the Sequani, and himself crossed the Alps to 
 Citerior or Cisalpine Gaul, to hold the usual courts for the adminis- 
 tration of justice and the civil busiuess of the proviuce. 
 
 The campaign of B c. 57 was against the Belgic Gauls, a powerful 
 race of German origin, who had been long settled in the country 
 between the Rhine and the Sequana (Seine). Alarmed by the advance 
 of the Romans through Celtic Gaul, the Belgae had, during the winter, 
 formed a confederacy, and prepared themselves for resistance. Caesar, 
 with the usual logic of conquerors, found in these preparations a pretext 
 for attack. He raised two more legions in Cisalpine Gaul, aud proceeded 
 at the beginning of summer to his camp in the Sequani. He then 
 advanced with eight legions, and in fifteen days reached the country 
 of the Remi, the first Belgic people on that side. The Remi made 
 their submission, aud gave him every information concerning the extent 
 and the strength of the confederacy, which amounted, they said, to 
 300,000 fighting men. After crossing the river Axoua (Aisne), Caesar 
 fixed his camp on the right or farthest bank, and fortified it with a 
 rampart 12 feet high and a ditch 18 feet deep. The Belgians made 
 some demonstrations against him, but Caesar kept quiet iu his entrench- 
 ments, and the Belgae broke up for want of provisions, and resolved to 
 fight each in his own territory. After subjecting the Suessiones, the 
 Bellovaci, and the Ambiani, Caesar marched against the Nervii, the 
 most powerful of the Belgic nations. A desperate battle was fought 
 ou the banks of the Sabis (Sarubre?), in which the Nervii actually 
 surprised the Roman soldiers while in the act of tracing and entrenching 
 their camp, aud before they had time to form or to put on their helmets. 
 Caesar's cavalry, auxiliaries, servants, drivers, and followers of the 
 camp all ran away, spreading the report of the defeat of the Romans. 
 Caesar hurried from legion to legion, encouraging the men, and finally 
 succeeded in re-establishing order. The tenth legion came to turn the 
 scale. The Nervii fought desperately to the last, and their nation and 
 name, says Caesar, were nearly extinguished on that day. It was reported 
 that out of 60,000 fighting men only 500 remained. The women and 
 children sued for mercy, and Caesar restored to them their territory 
 aud towns. The Aduatici were the descendants of a body of Cimbri 
 and Teutones, who had settled towards the confluence of the Sabis 
 and the Mosa. While ou their march to support the Nervii, they 
 heard of the total defeat of their allies, upon which they retired to a 
 strong natural hold, where they were regularly besieged by Caesar, 
 who formed a hue of circumvallation. When they saw the moveable 
 towers and the battering ram approaching their walls, engines of which 
 the Gauls had no idea, they sued for peace. Caesar required them to 
 throw their arms outside of their ramparts. They did so, but concealed 
 one-third of them ; they then opened their gates aud mixed with the 
 Roman soldiers. On the evening Caesar withdrew his men within his 
 lines, but at midnight the Aduatici came out in arms and attempted 
 to scale Caesar's entrenchments. Being repulsed with great loss, their 
 place was entered the next day, and the people were sold as slaves to 
 the number of 53,"000. 
 
 Crassus, being detached by Caesar across the Sequana into Western 
 Gaul, received the submission of the Aulerci, Unelli, and Veneti, and 
 other maritime people ou the coasts of the ocean; and as the season 
 was growing late, the army went into winter-quarters in the country 
 of the Carnutes (about Orleans), Turones (Tours), and other parts of 
 central Gaul. Caesar set off, according to his custom, for Cisalpine 
 Gaul, where his friends flocked from Rome to congratulate him ou his 
 successes. The senate, on receiving from the victorious general the 
 usual official letters, ordered fifteen days of public thanksgiving to the 
 gods, a period nc\ <.r granted before for any other general. 
 
 Caesar's third campaign (B.C. 56) was agaidBt the Western Gauls. 
 
 Crassus, while wintering with one legion among the Andes (Anjou), 
 sent tribunes and other officers to the Veneti (Vanues in Brittany) aud 
 other people on the Atlantic coast to ask for provisions. The Veneti, 
 a powerful commercial seafaring people, who had numerous ships in 
 which they traded with Britain and other countries, having recovered 
 from the alarm of Caesar's conquests, arrested the officers of Crassus, I 
 and refused to give them up until their own hostages were restored. ! i 
 All the neighbouring maritime tribes made common cause with the i 
 Veneti. Caesar immediately ordered galleys to be constructed on the \ 
 Ligeris (Loire), aud sent also to collect ships on the coast of the i 
 Pictones and Santones (Poitou and Saiutonge), who were friends with || 
 Rome. He directed the fleet to attack the Veneti by sea, while he I 
 marched against them by land. He exclaimed loudly agaiust the I 
 breach of treaties, and the arrest of the Roman officers after the I 
 Veneti had made submission and given hostages, while he acknow- m 
 ledges in his ' Commentaries ' that lie was afraid other nations would I 
 follow the example, "knowing that it is the nature of all men to love li 
 liberty and hate seivitude.'' This was a critical time for the Roman 
 general; but his presence of mind never forsook hirn in difficulties. \\ 
 He sent Labienus towards the Rhine to watch the Belgians and Ger- I 
 mans, Crassus into Aquitauia, gave the command of the fleet to I 
 Decimus Brutus, and himself marching against the Veneti, took | 
 several of their towns on the coast. But he soon found that by |l 
 means of their ships they easily moved from one point to another, I 
 and that the only way to conquer them effectually was by sea. The j 
 description of the ships of the Veneti, their naval tactics, their habits I 
 and modes of life, is oue of Caesar's most interesting sketches. A great | 
 naval battle, which lasted all day, ended with the destruction of the 1 
 fleet of the Veneti, to the number of above 200 ship3. Caesar, deter- I 
 mining to strike terror into the neighbouring people, put to death all |j 
 the senators or chief men of the Veneti, and sold the rest as slaves. I 
 The Unelli (in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg) were likewise con- I 
 quered by Titurius Sabinus ; and Crassus defeated the Aquitanians, II 
 though with considerable difficulty, and received hostages from various 
 tribes of that remote region. Caesar himself marched against the 
 Morini and Menapii (Boulogne, Calais, &c , and further to the north 
 and ea»t), but the rainy season setting iu the soldiers could no longer j 
 remain under tents, and accordingly, after ravaging the couutry, he I 
 placed his troops for the winter among the Aulerci, Lexovii, &c. (Nor- 
 mandy). It would appear by the following book (iv. 6) that he went 
 as usual to pass the winter in North Italy. (Compare also v. 53.) 
 
 The following year, B.C. 55, Pompeius and Crassus being consuls, : 
 two German tribes, the Usipetes and the Tenchteri, being harrassed i 
 by the Suevi, crossed the Rhine near its mouth into the couutry of the 
 Menapii, between the Mosa and the Scaldis (Scheldt). Caesar gives an J 
 interesting account of the Suevi, the principal German nation with J 
 which the Romans were then acquainted. Being resolved to check , 
 any disposition on the part of the Germans to cross the Rhine, he set 
 off for the army earlier than usual. He found, as he suspected, that 
 several Gaulish nations had an understanding with the Germans. The 
 Usipetes sent to ask permission to settle iu Gaul. Caesar answered 
 that there was no vacant place in Gaul for fresh emigrants, but that if ; 
 they chose to settle among the Ubii on the banks of the Rhine, who , 
 were themselves at war with the Suevi, he would employ his good ' 
 offices for the purpose. While negociations were going forward, ; 
 Caesar's Gaulish cavalry, 5000 strong, was suddenly attacked near the < 
 banks of the Mosa by 800 German horsemen, au<l, as usual, routed. , 
 The next day a number of German chiefs aud elders came to Caesar's 1 
 camp to apologise for the affray. Caesar arrested them all, and itame- i 
 diately marched against their camp, which being thus surprised and 
 unprepared was easily entered, when the Romans made a dreadful 
 carnage of the Germans. The survivors fled as far as the confluence 
 of the Mosa and the Rhiue, where most of them perished. This was 
 the action about which Cato exclaimed so loudly against Caesar in the 
 Roman senate. 
 
 The Ubii being annoyed by the Suevi appealed to Caesar, and offered 
 him boats to cross the Rhiue. Declining this offer, he constructed a 
 bridge by means of piles driven in the bed of the river. He gives a 
 minute description of the process of building the bridge (iv. 17). It 
 was finished iu teu days, when Caesar marched across, ravaged the 
 country of the Sicambri, aud reassured the Ubii by his presence. 
 Hearing that the Suevi had assembled all their forces in the interior 
 of their country, and considering " he had done all that the honour 
 and interest of Rome required," he re-crossed the Rhine, after spending 
 eighteen days on German ground. 
 
 He next made his first expedition into Britain. [Britannia, in 
 Geographical Division.] On his return he chastised the Morini, 
 who had attacked some of his detachments, put his troops into winter 
 quarters in Belgic Gaul, and then repaired to Cisalpine Gaul, as usual. 
 In this year Caesar's period of government was extended for five years 
 more by a Senatus Ccnsultum. 
 
 The next year, B.C. 54, Caesar, after making an excursion into Illy- 
 ricum, which formed also part of his government, returned into Gaul, 
 where he had ordered a fleet to assemble at Portus Itius (between 
 Boulogne and Calais) for a second attempt upou Britain. Meantime 
 he visited the Treviri, the most powerful nation in cavalry of all Gaul. 
 A dispute had aiise*. between Induciomauis and Cingetorix about the 
 supreme authority : Cxsar, knowing Cingetoris to be well disposed to 
 
17 C/ESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 the Romans, supported his claims. This took place just before the 
 expedition to Britain. On his return from Brit.iin be repaired to 
 Samarobriva (Amiens), where he held a council of the Gaulish 
 deputies. On accouut of the bad harvest and scarcity of provisions, 
 he was obliged to disperse his legions in various parts of the country 
 for the winter. This proved nearly fatal to the Roman arms. He 
 himself remained in Belgic Gaul to see his legions properly quartered. 
 A fortnight only had elapsed when the Euberones (Tongres), excited 
 by Induciomarus, revolted and attacked the camp of Titurius Sabiuus 
 and L. Cotta, who had one legion and five cohorts with them. Ambio- 
 rix, king of the Eburones, alarmed Sabinus by telling him that the 
 whole country was in arms, and that the Germans were coming. 
 Much against Cotta's opinion, Sabinus resolved on retiring towards 
 the next Roman garrison, which was exactly what Ambiorix wished. 
 The Romans were attacked on their march by numerous forces, sur- 
 rounded, and all cut to pieces. Ambiorix, elated with this success, 
 next attacked the camp of Quintus Cicero, brother to the orator, who 
 was stationed with one legion in the country of the Nervii. Quiutus 
 made a brave defence. After several days' siege, the Gauls threw 
 combustibles into the camp and set fire to the huts of the soldiers, 
 which were thatched after the Gaulish fashion. At the same time the 
 Gauls advanced to scale the ramparts ; but the legionaries stood firm 
 at their post, and Caesar, having at last received news through a 
 Gaulish slave of the danger of his men, marched with two legions to 
 their relief, defeated the Gauls, and entered Cicero's camp, where he 
 found not one tenth of the soldiers free from wounds. He praised 
 Cicero, he praised the men, he spoke of the catastrophe of Sabiuus 
 and Cotta as a consequence of imprudence, and a lesson to other com- 
 manders. He then resolved to pass the winter in Gaul, and stationed 
 himself with three legions at Samarobriva. Induciomarus, having 
 attacked Labienus, was defeated and killed. 
 
 The following year, B.C. 53, which was the sixth of Caesar's 
 government, symptoms of general disaffection manifested themselves 
 throughout Gaul. The people had been overawed but not subdued. 
 The harshness and rapacity of the conquerors made the Gauls wish 
 to shake off the yoke , but all their attempts were detached, partial, 
 and not combined, and they failed, after giving however full employ- 
 ment to the Romaus. It was a year of desultory though destructive 
 warfare. Caesar obtained of Pompey the loan of one legion, and had 
 recruited two legions more in the Cisalpine province. He had now ten 
 legions (60,000 men) under his orders, which was considered a very 
 large Rora.m army. He first defeated the Senones, the Nervii, and 
 the Menapii : the Treviri were defeated by Labienus. Caesar then 
 crossed the Rhine again from the country of the Treviri, haviug con- 
 structed a new bridge a little below the former one. He expected that 
 the Suevi would attack him, but that wary people withdrew inland to 
 the entrance of the great forest called Bacenis (the Harz?), which lay 
 between their territory and that of the Cherusci, and there waited for 
 Caesar to advance. But the Roman avoided the snare, and withdrew 
 his army across the Rhine, leaving part of the briJge standing for a 
 future occasion. He then marched against Ambiorix and the 
 Eburoues. who did not wait for him, but took refuge in the forests 
 and marshes, where they kept up a partisan or guerrilla warfare. 
 Caesar ordered the country of the Eburones to be thoroughly devas- 
 tated, and invited the neighbouring tribes, Germans and Gauls, to assist 
 in the work of destruction. One Germau tribe however, the Sicatnbri, 
 who had crossed the Rhine for the purpose of booty, thought it 
 expedient to attack the camp of Quintus Cicero, which they had nearly 
 forced. Ambiorix escaped, notwithstanding all endeavours to seize 
 him ; but sentence of death was passed against Acco, the leader of 
 the previous revolt of the Senone3. His accomplices, who had escaped, 
 were banished. Having put his legions to winter among the Treviri, 
 Lingoues, and Senones, Caesar repaired to Cisalpine Gaul. 
 
 The disturbances which occurred at Rome in consequence of the 
 murder of Clodius made Caesar turn his attention towards that quarter. 
 He raised troops in every part of the Cisalpine province. These 
 rumours spreading among the Transalpine Gauh, exasperated as they 
 were by the execution of Acco and Caesar's fearful vengeance upon the 
 Eburones, they thought the time was come for one great effort while 
 Caesar was engaged in Italy. The Carnutes began by massacreing all 
 the Romans whom they found in the town of Genabum (Oilcans). 
 Vercingetorix, a young man of one of the first families of the Arverni, 
 was placed at the head of a confederacy of the whole of Celtic Gaul. 
 The Bituriges joined the league, and the ./Edui themselves wavered 
 in their allegiance. Caesar hearing this news, and seeing that the affah-3 
 of Rome had through Pompey's influence assumed a quieter aspect, 
 set off in the middle of winter (beginning of B.C. 52) for the province 
 of Ulterior Gaul, repaired to Narbo, which was threatened by the 
 Gauls, and having collected some troops, crossed the Cebenna and 
 spread a'arm through the country of the Arverni, who hastily recalled 
 Vercingetorix to their defence. Having thus effected his object of 
 causing a diversion, Caesar moved quickly northward to the country 
 of the LiDgone3, whence he went among the Carnutes, attacked and 
 took Vellaunodunum, Genabum, and Noviodunum. Vercingetorix in 
 • gr.-at council of the chiefs advi-cd, as the only means of harassing 
 the Romans, to burn and destroy the whole country around them. 
 This was executed in the country of the Bituriges, the villages and j 
 towns of which w„re tet on fire except the town of Avaricum (Lourges), 
 
 C7BSAR, CAIUS JULIU3. U 
 
 which was garrisoned by the Gauls. CsBIU laid siege to Avaricum, 
 and took it after a most brave defence, when the Romau soldiers killed 
 all— old men, women, and children. The next siege was that of 
 Gergovia (near Clermont, in Auvergne), which, after a murderou-i 
 attempt to storm the place, Caesar was obliged to raise. The Jidui, 
 till then the firmest allies of Rome, had now thrown off the mask, 
 joined the league, massacred the Romans at Noviodunum (Nevers), 
 and seized the depots, the baggage, and the treasury, which Caesar had 
 deposited there. Caesar's next movement was to the north into tho 
 country of the Senones, in order to join Labienus and the legions) 
 under him. The defection of the ^Edui rendered Caesar's position in 
 the centre of Gaul very difficult. Having effected a junction with 
 Labienus, he directed his march towards the Lingoues and the Sequani. 
 Meantime he was enabled to collect a body of German cavalry from 
 beyond the Rhine, which was of the greatest service to him during the 
 rest of the campaign. Vercingetorix, who followed Caenar closely, had 
 his cavalry defeated by these new auxiliaries of the Roman*, upon which 
 he retired to Alesia (now a village called St.-Reine, and also Alise, near 
 Flaviguy and Semur in North Burgundy, ten leagues north-west of 
 Dijon). Caesar immediately invested the place, aud began his lines ot 
 circumvallation. For this celebrated siege of Alesia we must lefer to 
 Caesar's own account. The whole forces of the Gallic confederation, 
 stated at about 300,000 men, advanced to the relief of Alesia. Caesar 
 found himself besieged in his own lines, having to fight Vercingetorix 
 from within, and the confederates from without. After a desperate 
 battle, in which the Gauls penetrated into the Roman entrenchments, 
 they were at last repulsed by Caesar, who was well supported by his 
 lieutenant Labienus. The Gaulish confederates, having sustained a 
 tremendous loss, broke up the camp aud returned home. Next day 
 Vercingetorix assembled his council iu Alesia, and offered to devote 
 himself to save their lives by giving himself up to Caesar. Alesia sur- 
 rendered, and Vercingetoi'ix was afterwards taken to Rome. Several 
 years later he walked before the triumphal car of the conqueror ; after 
 which he wa3 put to death in prison. 
 
 The iEJui and the Arverni now made their submission to Caesar, 
 who took their hostages, and restored their prisoners. After putting 
 his army into quarters, he stationed himself at Bibracte for the winter, 
 This was the hardest fought campaign of all the Gallic war. 
 
 Caesar's eighth and last campaign in Gaul (B.C. 51) is related by 
 Hirtius, who has continued his ' Commentaries ' by writing an eighth 
 or supplementary book. After the great but unsuccessful exertions 
 of the Gauls in the preceding year their spirit was broken, but they 
 still made some expiring efforts. Caesar easily defeated the Carnutes, 
 where his soldiers made an immense booty. He had more trouble 
 with the Bellovaci (Beauvais), a Belgic nation, who at last submitted 
 and gave hostages, all except Comius, the chief of the Atrebates, who 
 had once been a friend to Caesar. He had joined in the general revolt 
 of the preceding year, in consequence of his life having been attempted 
 by Labienus, who sent to him Volusenus Quadratus under pretence 
 of a conference, but in reality with orders to kill him. During the 
 interview a centurion of Volusenus's escort struck Comius and wounded 
 him on the head, when the Gaulish escort interposed and saved Comius's 
 life. From that time Comius swore he would never trust himself to 
 a Roman. This disgraceful transaction, not mentioned by Caesar, is 
 related by Hirtius (' Bell. Gall.,' b. viii. 23). A revolt in western Gaul 
 was quelled by C. Fabius, who subjugated all Armorica (Hirtius, 31). 
 Gutruatus, chief of the Carnutes, who had joined in the revolt, was 
 taken to Caesar's camp, whipped with rods till he fainted, and then 
 beheaded. Hirtius says that this inhuman act, repugnant to Caesar's 
 nature, was forced upon him by the clamour of his soldiers. Caesar 
 next besieged and took Uxellodunum, a stronghold of the Cadurci 
 (Cahors). Here Caesar's clemency, which Hirtius repeatedly extols, 
 did not prevent him from sentencing all the men who had shared in 
 the defence of Uxellodunum to have their hands chopped off. Caesar 
 entered Aquitania, the people of which gave hostages. Thence he 
 repaired to Narbo, and there distributed his army in winter-quarters. 
 He placed four legions among the Belgas under M. Antouius (afterwards 
 the celebrated triumvir), Trebonius, V T atinius, and Q. Tullius Cicero ; 
 two among the JEdui, two among the Turones, and two among the 
 Lemovices, near the borders of the Arverni. He then visited the 
 Proviucia, held the courts, distributed rewards, and went to winter at 
 Nemetocenna (Arras), then within the limits of the country called 
 Belgium. During the winter he endeavoured to heal in some measure 
 the wounds which he had inflicted upon the unfortunate countries of 
 Gaul. He endeavoured to conciliate the principal inhabitants by great 
 rewards, treated the people with kindness, established no new taxes, 
 aud by renderiug the Roman yoke smooth and light he succeeded iu 
 pacifying Gaul, exhausted as it was by so long and so unfortunate a 
 struggle. 
 
 In the spring of B.C. 51 Caesar set off for Italy, where he was received 
 by all the municipal town3 aud colonies of his government with great 
 rejoicings. On his return to Belgic Gaul he reviewed his troops, and 
 soon after returned to the north of Italy, where the dissensions between 
 him and the senate had begun which led to the civil war. This, was 
 the ninth and last year of Caesar's government of the Gauls. 
 
 Before the close of his Gallic campaign, Caesar had probably deter- 
 mite, d not to divert himself of the command of his army. He feared, 
 and apparently with s cod reascn, that if he ware once in the power 
 
19 
 
 OESAR, CAIUS JULIUS. 
 
 CESIUS BASSUS. 
 
 ZC 
 
 of 1 lis enemie3 at Rome his life would be in danger. His connection 
 ■with Pompey had been dissolved by the death of Julia without any 
 surviving offspring, and by the growing jealousy and fear with which 
 his success in Gaul and his popularity with his array had filled all the 
 aristocratical party. Caesar's object now was to obtain the consulship 
 a second time, and a special enactment had been already passed 
 enabling him to stand for the consulship in his absence ; but Pompey, 
 who at last was roused from his lethargy, prevailed upon the Senate 
 to require him to give up the command of the army, and come to 
 Rome in person to be a candidate. Caesar, who was now at Ravenna 
 in his province of Gallia Cisalpina, sent Curio to Rome with a letter 
 expressed in strong terms (Cic. ' Ep. ad Div.,' xvi. 11), in which he 
 proposed to give up his army and come to the city, if Pompey would 
 also give up the command of the troops which he had. These troops 
 of Pumpey comprised two legions which had been taken from Caesar, 
 and by a decree of the Senate were designed for the Parthian war, but 
 had been illegally put into the hands of Pompey by Marcellus the 
 consul. The Senate, acting under the influence of Pompey and Metellus 
 Scipio, whose daughter Pompey had married, passed a decree that Caesar 
 should give up his army by a certain day, or be considered an enemy 
 to the state. The tribunes, M. Antouius and Q. Cassius, the friends 
 of Caesar, attempted to oppose the measure by their ' intereessio,' which 
 was perfectly legal ; but their opposition was treated with contempt, 
 and thus they gained, what they were probably not sorry to have, a 
 good excuse for hurrying to Caesar with the news. (Cic, ' Ep. ad J)iv.,' 
 xvi. 11.) Upon receiving the intelligence Caesar crossed the Rubicon, 
 a small stream which formed the southern limit of his province, and 
 directed his march towards the south. The city was filled with con- 
 fusion — councils were divided and hesitatiug — and Pompey, who was 
 the commander-in-chief on the side of the Senate, was unprovided 
 with troops to oppose the veterans of the Gallic wars. Domitius, who 
 had thrown himself into Corfinium to defend the place, was given up 
 to CsB3ar by his soldiers, who joined the iuvading army. The ala> m 
 now became still greater, and it was resolved by the senatorial party 
 to pass into Greece, and for the present to leave Italy at the mercy of 
 Caesar's legions. Pompey, with a large part of the Senate and his 
 forces, hurried to Bruudisium, whence he succeeded in making good 
 his escape to Dyrrachium iu Epirus, though Caesar had reached the 
 town some days before Pompey left it. 
 
 From Bruudusium Caesar advanced to Rome, where he met with no 
 opposition. The Seuate was assembled, with due regard to forms, to 
 pass some ordinances, and there was little or nothing to mark the great 
 change that had taken place, except Caesar's possessing himself of the 
 public money, which the other party in their hurry had left behind. 
 His next movement was into Spain, where Pompey's party was strong, 
 and where Afranius and Petreius were at the head of eight legions. 
 After completely reducing this important province, Caesar, on his 
 return, took the town of Massilia (Marseille), the seige of which had 
 been commenced on his march to Spain. This ancient city, the seat 
 of arts and polite learning, had professed a wish to maintain a neutral 
 position between the two rival parties (' Bell. Civil.' i. 35) and their 
 respective leaders. We might infer from one passage in Strabo, that 
 Marseille suffered severely either during or immediately after the 
 siege (Strabo, p. 180) ; but another passage seems to imply that the 
 conqueror used his victory with moderation. (Strabo, pp. 180, 181.) 
 
 The title of Dictator was assumed by Caesar on his return to Rome ; 
 but he made no further use of the power which it was supposed to 
 confer than to nominate himself and Servilius consuls for the following 
 year (B.C. 48). The campaign of the year B.C. 48 completed the de- 
 struction of the senatorial party. It is given at length in the third 
 book of the ' Civil Wars ' (where however there appears to be a con- 
 siderable lacuna), and comprises the operations of Caesar and Pompey 
 at Dyrrachium (now Durazzo), and the subsequent defeat of Pompey 
 on the great plaiu of Pharsalus, in Thessaly. Surrounded by nearly 
 200 senators, who acted like a controlling council, with an army mainly 
 composed of raw, undisciplined recruits, the commander-in-chief, 
 whose previous reputation was more due to fortune than to merit, 
 was an unequal match for soldiers hardened Uy eight years' campaigns, 
 and directed by the energies of one skilful general. It seems difficult 
 to comprehend the movements of Pompey after the battle. He turned 
 his face to the east, once the scene of his conquests, but he had no 
 friends on whom he could rely, and instead of going to Syria, as he at 
 first intended, he was compelled to change his course, and accordingly 
 he sailed to Pelusium, iu the Delta of Egypt. Caesar, who had pursued 
 him with incredible celerity (' Bell. Civil.' iii. c. 102), arrived a little 
 after Pompey had been treacherously murdered by Achillas, the com- 
 mander of the troops of the young king Ptolemy, and L. Septimius, 
 a Romau, who had served under Pompey in the war with the pirates. 
 Pompey was fifty-eight years old at the time of his death. 
 
 The events which followed the death of Pompey need only be 
 rapidly glanced at. The disputes in the royal family of Egypt and 
 the interference of Caesar brought on a contest between the Romans 
 and the king's troops, which ended in a new settlement of the king- 
 dom by the Roman general. (See the book on the Alexandrine war.) 
 Here Caesar formed his intimacy with Cleopatra, then in her twenty- 
 third year. Cleopatra afterwards followed him to Rome, where she 
 was living at the time of Caesar's death. [Cleopatra.] Early in the 
 following year (b.c. 47), Caesar marched into the province of Pontus, 
 
 and entirely defeated Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, who had 
 exercised great cruelties on the Roman citizens in Asia. He returned 
 to Italy in the autumn, by way of Athens. At Bruudisium he was 
 met by Cicero (Plut., ' Cic.,' 39), who was glad to make his peace, aud 
 had no reason to be dissatisfied with his reception. On his return to 
 Rome, Caesar was named Dictator for one year, and consul for the 
 following year, with Lepidus. During the winter he crossed over into 
 Africa, where the party of Pompey had rallied under Scipio, gained a 
 complete victory at the battle of Thapsus, and was again at Rome in 
 the autumn of B.C. 46. Iu the year B.C. 45, Caesar was sole cousnl, 
 and Dictator for the third time. During the greater part of this year 
 he was absent in Spain, where Cn. Pompey, the son of Pompey tho 
 Great, had raised a considerable force, and was in possession of the 
 southern part of the peninsula. The great battle of Munda, in which 
 30,000 men are said to have fallen on the side of Pompey, terminated 
 the campaigns of Caesar. Pompey was taken after the battle, and his 
 head was carried to Caesar, who was then at Hispalis (Seville). 
 
 Ou his return to Rome, Caesar was created consul for ten years, and 
 Dictator for life. Cn the Ides (15th) of March, B.C. 44, he was assassi- 
 nated iu the senate-house. [Brutus.] After his death he was enrolled 
 among the gods (Suctou., 1 Caesar,' 88), under the appellation of 'uivos 
 iYLivs,' as appears from his medals. 
 
 British Museum. Actual size. Bronze. Weight 34?} grains. 
 
 Caesar did not live long enough after acquiring the sovereign power 
 to rebuild the crazy fabric of Roman polity which he had demolished 
 in fact though not in form. But a state which had long been torn in 
 pieces by opposing factions — who3e constitutional forms served rather 
 to cherish discord than to promote that general unity of interests 
 without which no government can subsist — where life and property 
 were exposed to constant riik — could find no repose except under one 
 head. A bloody period followed the death of Caesar, but the fortune 
 of his name and family at last prevailed, and Rome and the world 
 were happier under the worst of his successors than during the latter 
 years of the so-called republic 
 
 The energy of Caesar's character — his personal accomplishments and 
 courage — his talents for war — and his capacity for civil afiairs — com- 
 bine to render him one of the most remarkable men of any. age. 
 Though a lover of pleasure, and a man of licentious habits, he never 
 neglected what was a matter of business. He began that active career 
 which has immortalised his name when he was forty years of age — a 
 time of life when ordinary men's powers of enterprise are commonly 
 deadened or extinguished. As a writer and an orator he has received 
 the highest praise from Cicero ; his ' Commentaries,' written in a plaiu 
 perspicuous style, entirely free from all affectation, place him iu the 
 same class with Xenophon and those few individuals who have suc- 
 cessfully united the pursuit of letters and philosophy with the business 
 of active life. His projects were vast and magnificent ; he Beems to 
 have formed designs (Suetonius, 'Cae-i.' 44) far beyond what the 
 ability of one man could execute, or the longest life could expect to 
 see realised. His reform of the Roman calendar, under the direction 
 of Sosigenes, and his intended cousolidation of the then almost 
 unmanageable body of Roman law, do credit to his judgment. He 
 established public libraries, and gave to the learned Varro the care of 
 collecting and arranging the books. Of the eight books of his 'Com- 
 mentaries' the last is said to have been completed by some other 
 hand. The three books of the 'Civil War' were written by Caesar; 
 but the single books on the 'Alexandrine, African, and Spanish ware,' 
 respectively, are generally attributed to another hand, though it is not 
 at all unlikely that Caesar left the materials behind him. He wrote a 
 number of other things, the publication of which Augustus suppressed. 
 The editions of the ' Commentaries ' are very numerous ; the best is 
 that of Oudendorp, Leiden, 1757, 4to. They have been frequently 
 translated into Spanish, French, English, Dutch, German, and Italian. 
 The Greek translation of seven books of the ' Gallic War,' attributed 
 to Planudes, was first priuted in Juugermauu's edition, Frankfurt, 
 1606, 4 to. 
 
 C^ESIUS BASSUS, a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign of 
 Nero aud Vespasian. Persius addressed his sixth satire to him. 
 Quintilian (xi. 1) speaks of him as perhaps next, but still very inferior 
 to Horace. The Scholiast on Persius (Sat. vi. l)says that he was 
 burnt with his house in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Only two 
 lines of his poetry are preserved : one by Priscian (x. p. S97, ed. 
 Putsch.); the other by Diomedes (iii. p. 513, ed. Putsch.). 
 
21 
 
 CAGLIARI, PAOLO. 
 
 22 
 
 CAGLIA'RI, or CALTA'FJ, PAOLO, called PAOLO VERONESE, 
 from the place of his birth, was the most eminent master in what may 
 be termed the ornament ll style of painting. He was born at Verona, 
 in 1532 according to llidolti, but more probably in 1530; Zauetti 
 says 1528. His father, Gabriele Cagliari, was a sculptor, and origi- 
 nally intended his son for his own profession ; but in consequence of 
 the boy's determined preference for the sister art, he was placed under 
 Lis uncle, Antonio Eadile, to be taught painting. He improved 
 rapidly, and very early in his life enjoyed an extensive and profitable 
 patronage. 
 
 While yet young be visited Venice, where be was commissioned to 
 execute some paintings in the church and sacristy of St. Sebastian. 
 The pictures excited universal admiration, from the originality of the 
 etyle and the vivacity of the design. Commissions for oil paintings 
 poured in upon him, and a portion of the walls of the ducal palace 
 was allotted to him for embellishment. From this time his fame and 
 wealth increased r ipidly. 
 
 He subsequently went to Rome ; and in the course of his life visited 
 
 . numerous towns of his native country, in which he left behind him 
 many lasting memorials. He was so well satisfied with bis honours 
 aud emoluments at home, that he declined accepting the invitation of 
 Thilip II. to visit Spain, and contribute some works to the Escurial. 
 He lived a life of uninterrupted labour aud success, and died at Venice 
 in April 15^8, leiving great wealth to his two sons, Gabriele and Carlo, 
 who were also his pupils. They did not however attain their father's 
 celebrity. Carlo died young. Gabriele is said to have abandoned 
 painting for mercantile pursuits. Paolo had a brother, Benedetto 
 Cagliari, who was a sculptor, but also practised painting : some of the 
 fine architectural back grounds which adorn the pictures of Paolo 
 are attributed to him. 
 
 Paolo Veronese ranks among the greatest masters of the art, espe- 
 cially as a colourist. His colouring is less true to nature than Titian's, 
 and less glowing in the tints ; but is rich and brilliant, and abounds 
 in variety and pleasing contrasts. His style is florid and ornate, his 
 invention easy and fertile, and his execution characterised by a mas- 
 terly facility. His principal works are at Venice, but his productions 
 are to be met with in most collections. One of his finest works, the 
 ' Marriage at Cana,' is in the Louvre. Our own National Gallery con- 
 tains three very important works by him. 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO, ALEXANDER, commonly called COUNT DE, one 
 of the most impudent aud successful impostors of modern times. His 
 real name was Joseph Balsamo, and he was born at Palermo on the 
 8th of June 174 3. His friends designed him for the monastic 
 profession, but during his noviciate be l'an away from bis convent, 
 and thenceforward livid upon bis wits and the credulity of mankind. 
 The first exercise of his ingenuity, in a public way, was to forge 
 tickets of admission to the theatres. He then proceeded to forge a 
 will, and having robbed his uncle, aud being accused cf a murdrr 
 besides, he was thrown into prison. He was liberated, again im- 
 prisoned, and again set free; but was finally obliged to fly from 
 Sicily for cheating a goldsmith of a large sum of money under 
 pretence of showing him a hidden treasure. He went successively 
 to Alexandria, Rhodes, Malta, Naples, Rome, and Venice, at one of 
 which places he married a woman whose great beauty and profound 
 immorality were vc ry useful to him. 
 
 Quitting Italy this couple visited Holsteiu, where Cagliostro pro- 
 fessed alclieiny ; and thence they went to Russia, Poland, &c. In 
 1730 they fixed themselves at Strasbourg, where the soi-disant count 
 practised as a physician, and pretended to the art of making old women 
 young. As his handsome wife, who was only twenty, vowed she was 
 sixty, and had a son, a veteran captain in the Dutcb service, they for 
 a time obtained a good deal of practice among the old women of 
 Strasbourg. Thence they went to Paris, where Cagliostro exercised 
 the profitable profession of Egyptian free-masonry (as he called it), and 
 pretended to show people the ghost of any of their departed friends. 
 In 1785 he was deeply implicat -d with the Cardinal Duke de Rohan 
 in the notorious affair of the diamond necklace in which the name 
 and fame of Marie Antoinette, the unfortunate queen of France, were 
 committed. Cagliotro was, in consequence, shut up for nine months 
 in the Bastille ; and on his expulsion from France, he proceeded to 
 
 ' England, where, during a stay of two years, he fouud no lack of 
 Credulity. What took him again to Rome we know not, but in 
 
 • Dec-mber 1789, he was arrested in that city, imprisoned in the castle 
 of Sant' Angelo, and after a long trial condemned to death for being 
 
 ; — a freemason. (See 'Process,' &c, published at Rome— a very 
 curious document.) Hi3 severe s > ntence was commuted to perpetual 
 imprisonment, and he was transferred to the fortress of San Leo, where 
 
 j lie died in 1795. His wife was also arrested, and condemued to pass 
 
 i the remainder of her life in a convent : she survived her husband 
 
 1 Mveral years. 
 
 , CAGNO'LA, LUIGI, MARQUIS, one of the most distinguished 
 Italian architects of the present century, was born at Milan in 1762, 
 ;>f an ancient patrician family. At the age of fourteen, Luigi was sent 
 by his father, the Marche.-e Gsetano Cagnola, to the Clementine College 
 at Koine, and thence in 1781 to the university of Pavia, in order to 
 •tudy jurisprudence; but, although he was far from neglecting bis 
 itudien, his passion for architecture was insuperable, and he resolved 
 
 I to devote himself exclusively to that art, notwithstanding that nrofes- 
 
 sional practice in it was deemed somewhat derogatory in one of bis 
 rank and station. For a while Cagnola held some official posts in the 
 civil government of Milan ; but at length ventured to put forth three 
 different designs for the Porta Orientale, then about to be erected at 
 Milan. Cagnola's designs were approved, but that by Piermarini was) 
 adopted, as being more economical. He now engaged the services of 
 a clever artist, named Aureglio, and undertook a series of illustrations 
 of the ancient baths of Maximian, near the church of San Lorenzo, 
 published under the title of ' Antiubita Lombardico-Milanesi ;' and he 
 was afterwards employed by the government (1812) to secure from 
 further ruin the sixteen noble Coriuthiau marble columns which 
 constitute the chief remains of that monument of antiquity. The 
 death of his father, in 1799, devolved upon Cagnola an important share 
 in public affairs, when, besides being one of the state council, he was 
 attached to the army commissariat in the Austrian service. On the 
 change of the government by the establishment of the Cisalpine 
 Republic, he withdrew from Milan, and spent about two years at 
 Verona and Venice, fully occupied in studying the architectural 
 treasures of those cities. Soon after his return, be erected in 1802 a 
 noble villa for the brothers Zurla, at Cremi, near Vajano ; and about 
 the same period designed the magnificent 'catafalchi' for the funeral 
 obsequies of Archbishop Viconti, the Patriarch Gamberi, and Count 
 Anguissola, published in folio, 1802. On the marriage of the Viceroy 
 Eugene Beauharnois with the Princess Amelia of Bavaria in 1806, he 
 was called upon to erect another grand temporary structure; but such 
 was the admiration excited by the arch constructed of wood on that 
 occasion, that it was determined to perpetuate it in marble. Accord- 
 ingly, the first stone of the Porta del Sempione, or, as it is now called, 
 the Arco della Pace, was laid October 14, 1807. The political changes 
 which afterwards took place threatened to put a stop to the work 
 altogether, when it was not advanced beyond the piers of the arches. 
 Almost the idea of its being ever completed had been abandoned, 
 when, on his visit to Milan, the emperor Francis j, of Austria, ordered 
 the works to be resumed ; and from that time they were prosecuted 
 without interruption, so that Cagnola saw the whole structure very 
 nearly terminated before his death. With the exception of the Arc de 
 l'Etoile at Paris, the Arco della Pace is by far the largest as well as 
 most magnificent structure of the kind in modern times, and in its 
 general mass it is equal to, even if it does not somewhat exceed, the 
 largest of the ancient — the Arch of Constantine ; it being 78 feet 
 English wide, as many high, and about 27 feet deep. 
 
 Another public monument by him at Milan, which is greatly 
 admired, is the Porta di Marengo, otherwise called Porta Ticinense, 
 an Ionic propyteum, whose two fronts consist of a distyle in antis, 
 consequently of three open intercolumns, and the two sides or ends 
 are filled in with an open arch. 
 
 The Campanile at Urgnano in the Bergamasque territory, beguu in 
 1824 and finished in 1829, exhibits more of design and composition 
 than the preceding. It is a circular tower of three orders, Doric, 
 Ionic, and Coriuthiau, upon a square rusticated basement, each order 
 consisting of eight half-columns, aud between those of the Corinthian 
 order are as many open arches. Above this last rises an additional 
 order of Caryatid figures supporting a hemispherical dome : the entire 
 height from the ground is 58 metres, or 190 English feet. The eleva- 
 tion of this Campanile is engraved in the ' Ape delle Belle Arte,' 
 Rome, 1835. Among other works executed by Cagnola are the chapel 
 of Santa Marcellina in the church of San Ambrogio, at Milan ; the 
 church at Concorrezzo; the facade of that at Vivallo ; aud the church 
 at Ghisalba in the Bergamasque. This last, which was not completed 
 till after his death, in 1835, is his noblest work of the kind, and is a 
 rotunda of the Corinthian order, with a portico of fourteen columns. 
 The interior has sixteen columns of the same order. Besides those 
 which were carried into execution, Cagnola produced a great number 
 of designs aud projects, in feveral of which he gave such free scope to 
 his invention and grandtzza of ideas, as to render their adoption 
 hopeless ; such, for instance, was that for au Hospitium on the 
 summit of Mouut Cenis, with no fewer than 110 columns 11 English 
 feet in diameter — to which may ba added his designs for a senate- 
 house and a magnificent triumphal bridge. He also indulged his 
 taste without regard to cost in improving or nearly rebuilding his 
 villa at Inverigo near Milan, which occupied him during the last years 
 of his life, aud which be directed to be completed by bis widow. 
 
 Cagnola died of apoplexy, August 14th, 1833, at the age of seventy- 
 one. There is a portrait of him in Forster's ' Bauzeituug ' for 1838, 
 with au accompanying memoir, to which we are iudebted for some of 
 the particulars iu this article. 
 
 CAGNO'LI, ANTO'NIO, born at Zaute, September 29, 1743. He 
 was attached to the Venetian embassy at Paris, and formed a taste 
 for astronomy and an intimacy with Lalaude. He built an observatory 
 in the Rue Richelieu, and continued to make it useful till 1786, when 
 he went to Verona, where he built another. This last was damaged 
 by French cannon shot iu 1797, but the owner was indemnified by 
 General Bonaparte, who removed him to Modena. He was afterwards 
 president of the Italian Society, aud died at Verona August 6, 1816. 
 (Lalande, 'Bibliog. Astron.' p. 599.) 
 
 Cagnoli wrote a work on trigonometry, first published at Verona in 
 Italian (1780), and translated into French by M. Chompre. The 
 second edition of the translation bears Paris, 1S08. Besides thu be 
 
23 CAHEN, SAMUEL. 
 
 wrote various astronomical treatises and papers, mostly in the memoirs 
 of the Italian Society, which should be consulted from the beginning 
 to find them. The title of these memoirs is 'Memorie di Matematica 
 e Fisica della Society Italiaua, Modena,' quarto. 
 
 Cagnoli's trigonometry is one of those invaluable works which bring 
 up the state of a science completely to the time at which it is written, 
 and furnish those who want the means of application with varied 
 stores of methods. Elementary writers on the practical parts of 
 mathematics are among the last to adapt their rules to the actual 
 6tate of science, unless somebody, who is well versed in the theory, 
 performs the service which Cagnoli did for trigonometry. The con- 
 sequence has been, that works on that subject have assumed a better 
 form, and the constant reference which has been made to Cagnoli's 
 treatise is the test of the frequency with which it has been used. 
 The late Professor Woodhouse, whose treatise on trigonometry h;\s 
 powerfully contributed to foster a taste for analysis in this country, 
 seems, on a smaller scale to have taken Cagnoli for his model. The 
 work we speak of is a quarto of 500 pages (in the French translation, 
 the second edition of which is augmented by the author's communi- 
 cations), and treats very largely of the application of trigonometry to 
 astronomy and geodesy. 
 
 CAHEN, SAMUEL, was born on the 4th of August, 1796, at 
 Metz, the capital of the French department of Moselle. His parents 
 were Jews, and ho was destined by them for the labbinate, or learned 
 profession. At the ago of fourteen he was sent to Mainz, in order to 
 complete his studies under the chief rabbi of that city. After passing 
 some time in Germany as a private teacher, he returned to France, 
 and in 1S22 fixed his residence in Paris, where, from 1823 to 1S36 he 
 was the conductor of the Jewish consistorial school of that city. In 
 1824 he published at Paris a ' Cours de Lecture Hdbraique, ou Methode 
 Facile pour apprendre seul et en peu de Temps b. lire l'He'breu' (2nd 
 edition, 1842) ; and in 1836 a 'Manuel d'Histoire Universelle depuis le 
 Commencement du Monde jusqu'en 1836.' In 1840 he commenced the 
 monthly periodical called ' Archives Israelites de France ; ' and in 1842 
 published at Mctz ' Exercises Jildmentaires sur la Langue Hebraique ; ' 
 but his crreat work is the translation of the Old Testament into French, 
 ' La Eible, Traduction Nouvelle, avec l'He'breu en regard ' (with the 
 Hebrew on the opposite pages), 20 vols. Svo, which occupied him from 
 1831 to 1851. [6'ce Supplement.] 
 
 CAILLET, GUILLAUME, a French peasant, was the leader of the 
 insurrection called the Jacquerie, which broke out in France in 1358. 
 Caillet was a native of Mello, a small place in the Beauvoisin, a district 
 so named from the city of Beauvais, in the old province of Isle-de- 
 France, adjoining Picardie. At this time the French king Jean II. was 
 a prisoner in England, having been taken at the battle of Poictiers in 
 1356. The insurrectionists consisted almost entirely of peasantry, and 
 their leader Caillet received or assumed the name of Jacques Bon- 
 homme (James Good-Man), which was applied in contempt to the lower 
 classes, and hence the persons engaged in this outbreak were called 
 Jacques, and the insurrection itself La Jacquerie. The rising of the 
 peasants commenced, according to the 1 Chroniques de France,' on the 
 21st of May 1358, and was of a very ferocious character. It is stated 
 by the writers of the time, Froissart and others, to have been caused 
 by the oppressions of the feudal lords and landed gentry, which, always 
 severe, had increased during the disturbed period of the king's captivity 
 till they had -become intolerable. The lawless bands were at first few 
 in number, and were armed only with knives and with sticks shod with 
 iron, but they rapidly increased, and ultimately extended throughout 
 Picardie and into the neighbouring provinces, and are said to have 
 amounted to 100,000. Their object was, as they openly professed, to 
 destroy the whole race of the feudal nobility and gentry as beings who 
 ought to be no longer suffered to exist. The peasants forced their way 
 into the castles and houses, plundered and then burnt them, and not 
 only massacred the inhabitants of both sexes and every age, but 
 inflicted cruelties not fit to be described. At length, about the end of 
 the same year 1358, the insurrectionists were opposed and overcome 
 by the combined forces of the lords of Picardie, Brabant, and Flanders, 
 having the Dauphin of France, afterwards Charles V., at their head. 
 Caillet himself was taken prisoner by the king of Navarre, and was 
 beheaded in 1359. 
 
 * CAILLIAUD, FREDERIC, was born in 1787 at Nantes, in the 
 French department of Loire-Infeneure. In 1809 he removed to Paris 
 for the purpose of prosecuting his studies in geology and mineralogy. 
 He afterwards travelled in Holland, Italy, Sicily, Greece, and Turkey. 
 In 1815 he visited Egypt, where he was well received by the pasha, 
 Mohammed Ali, by whom he was employed on a voyage of exploration 
 up the Nile. He spent some time in Nubia, and discovered on Mount 
 Zabarah the emerald mines which had formerly been celebrated, and 
 which had been wrought under the government of the Ptolemies. He 
 explored the vast excavations which had been made in working the 
 mines, and found large quantities of tools and other articles which 
 had been used by the workmen, and left there. He himself conducted 
 the mining operations for some time, and transmitted to the pasha 
 ten pounds' weight of emeralds. From communications with the 
 Arabs he ascertained one of the lines of route from the Nile to the 
 Red Sea by which the commerce between Egypt and India was formerly 
 carried on. He visited the ruins of Thebes several times, and obtained 
 many interesting antiquities, and copied a large number of inscriptions. 
 
 CAIUS, DR. JOHN. 
 
 M. Cailliaud returned to Paris in 1819, but went back to Egypt before 
 the end of the same year for the purpose of extending his travels. He 
 left his journals, portfolios, and other materials, with M. Jomard, who 
 was thus enabled to compile the ' Voyage a l'Oasis. de Th&bes, et dans 
 les Deserts situds a. iOiieut et a, l'Occident de la Thebaide, fait pendant 
 les Annies 1815, 1816, 1817, et 1818,' 2 vols, folio, one of text and 
 one of plates, Paris, 1821. 
 
 M. Cailliaud, after his return to Egypt, performed a difficult and 
 exhausting journey across the desert which lies to the west of Egypt, 
 as far as the oasis of Siwah, where he visited the remains of the 
 famous temple of Ammon. He had been about four months employed 
 here and in visiting the other oases of the desert, when he learned 
 that the pasha was preparing an expedition to Upper Nubia, which 
 was to be placed under the conduct of his son Ismail. M. Cailliaud 
 immediately proceeded to Cairo, where he obtained the pasha's per- 
 mission to join the expedition. He went with it as far as 10° N. lat., 
 which was the farthest point south to which it advanced. M. Cailliaud 
 is considered to have discovered at Assour, above the confluence of 
 the Tacoazze' with the Nile, the ruins of the ancient city of Merbe. 
 The pasha's son Ismail died here. In 1822 Cailliaud returned to 
 Paris, and from the materials furnished by him M. Jomard compiled 
 the ' Voyage b, l'Oasis de Syouah,' 1 vol. folio, with many plates. The 
 results however of these latter journeys were afterwards published 
 by M. Cailliaud, himself, in the ' Voyage h. Meroej, au Fleuve Blano, 
 au dela de Fazoql, dans le Midi du Royaume de Sennar, h, Syouah, et 
 dans les Cinq autres Oases, fait dans les Annies 1819, 1820, 1821, et 
 1822,' Paris, 1826-27, 4 vols. 8vo,with a folio volume of plates. In 1831 
 he published a splendid volume in small folio, with plates beautifully 
 coloured, entitled ' Rescrches sur les Arts et Metiers, les Usages, et la Vie 
 Civile et Domestique, des Anciens Peuples de l'Egypte, desla Nubie, et 
 de l'Etiopie, suivies de Details sur les Mceurs et Coutumes des Peuples 
 Modernes des memes Contrdes. M. Cailliaud afterwards retired to bis 
 native town of Nantes, having, with the cross or the Legion of Honour, 
 received the appointment of conservator of the Museum there. In 
 1856 he published a ' Memoire sur les mollusques perforants ' 
 
 CAIN was the eldest son of Adam. His history, with that of his 
 brother Abel, is contained in the fourth chapter of Genesis. Caiu, 
 we are told, was a tiller of the ground, while Abel was a keeper of 
 sheep. The brothers offered sacrifices together, Cain's offering being 
 the fruit of the earth, and that of Abel the firstlings of his flock. The 
 offering of Abel alone was accepted, as being an act of faith [Abel], 
 and Cain being very wroth, when they were together in the field, 
 "rose up against Abel his brother and slew him." For this, the first 
 shedding of human blood, Cain was driven fonh "a fugitive and a 
 vagabond in the earth." But on his crying out to the Lord that his 
 punishment was greater than he could bear, "the Lord set a mark 
 upon him, lest any finding him should kill him," — or, as it is perhaps 
 to be understood, gave him a token or assurance that none who found 
 him should kill him. Cain went and dwelt in the land of Nod ou the 
 east of Eden, and had a son, Enoch, after whom he named a city or 
 settlement which he subsequently built. Of the remainder of Cain's 
 life, or of its length, nothing is told in Scripture : the Talmudists and 
 some early Christian writers have related many absurd fables and 
 traditions respecting his future career and the manner of his death, 
 which however it would serve no good purpose to repeat here. It 
 will also be enough to mention that in the 2nd century of the Christian 
 era, a sect of heretics, who called themselves, or were called, Cainites, 
 is said by ancient writers to have sprung up and numbered many 
 adherents. They are stated to have held the person of Cain in great 
 veneration, and to have adopted many very abominable practices as 
 well as opinions : they are regarded as a minor sect of Gnostics. 
 Lardner gives an account of them in his ' History of Heretics,' but at 
 the same time questions the existence of any such sect. 
 
 CAIUS. [Gaius.] 
 
 CAIUS, DR. JOHN, wa3 born at Norwich, October 6, 1510. His 
 real name was Kaye, or Key, which he Latinised by Caius. After 
 receiving the first rudiments of learning in his native city, he was sent 
 to Gonville Hall, in the University of Cambridge. He took the degrees 
 of B.A. and M.A. at the usual times, and was chosen fellow of his 
 college in 1533. His literary labours began at the age of twenty by 
 a translation into English of St. Chrysostom, ' De Modo orandi Deum.' 
 This was followed by a translation (somewhat abridged) of Erasmus, 
 ' De vera Theologia.' His third production was a translation of 
 Erasmus's paraphrase upon the epistle of St. Jude. His excuse for 
 writing in English is curious enough: — "These I did in Englishe the 
 rather because at that tyme men ware not so geuen all to Englishe, but 
 that they dyd fauoure and mayteine good learning conteined in tongues 
 and sciences, and did also study and apply diligently the same them- 
 selves. Therfore I thought no hurte done. Seuce that time diuerse 
 other thynges I haue written, but with entente neuer more to write in 
 the Englishe tongue, partly because the commoditie of that which is so 
 written passeth not the compasse of Englande, but remaineth enclos d 
 within the seas," &c. ('A Counseill against the Sweat,' fol. 4.) 
 
 It was probably soon after this that he travelled into Italy, where 
 he remained several years. He studied medicine at Padua under 
 Baptista Montanus and Vesalius, and took the degree of Doctor at 
 Bologna. In 1542 he gave lectures at Padua on the Greek text of 
 Aristotle in conjunction with Realdus Columbus, the salary bang paid 
 
CALAMI3. 
 
 by some noble Venetians. The following year he made the tour of 
 Italy, visiting the most celebrated libraries, and collating manuscripts 
 In order to improve the text of Galen and Celsus. At Pisa he attended 
 the medical lectures of Matthaeus Curtius, and then returned home 
 through France and Germany. On his return he was incorporated 
 Doctor of Physic at Cambridge, and practised with great distinction at 
 Shrewsbury and Norwich. By the appointment of Henry VIII. he 
 read lectures on anatomy to the Company of Surgeons, but he does 
 not appear to have settled in London till a later period, when he was 
 made physician to Edward VI. He retained his appointment under 
 Mary and Elizabeth. 
 
 In 1547 Dr. Caius became a Fellow of the College of Physicians, and 
 was ever a strenuous upholder of its rights and interests. A difference 
 having arisen between the physicians and surgeons in the reign of 
 Elizabeth as to whether the latter might administer internal remedies 
 in cases where their manual assistance was required, Dr. Caius, then 
 president, was summoned to appear before the lord mayor and others 
 of the queen's delegates. On this occasion he pleaded the physicians' 
 cause so ably that, although the surgeons were supported by the Bishop 
 of London and the Master of the Rolls, it was unanimously agreed by 
 the commissioners that it was uulawful for the surgeons to practise 
 medically in such cases. Dr. Caius was president of the College of 
 Physicians for more than seven years. He left behind him a book of 
 the college annals, from 1555 to 1572, written with his own hand in a 
 clear Latin style. Having obtained permission from Queen Mary, with 
 whom he was much in favour, to advance Gonville Hall into a college, 
 which still bears his name, he accepted th= mastership of the college, 
 and passed the last years of his life in it. Before his death he was 
 reduced to a state of great weakness ; and it appears from the following 
 quaint passage in Dr. Mouffet's 'Health's Improvement, or Kules con- 
 cerning Food,' that he attempted to sustain his flagging powers by 
 reverting to the food of infancy : — "What made Dr. Caius in his last 
 sickness so peevish and so full ot frets at Cambridge, when he sucked 
 one woman (whom I spare to name) froward of conditions and of bad 
 diet ; and, contrariwise, so quiet and well when he sucked another of 
 contrary dispositions ? Verily, the diversity of their milks and con- 
 ditions, which being contrary one to the other, wrought also in him 
 that sucked them contrary effects." 
 
 Dr. Caius died July 29, 1573, in the sixty-third year of his age, and 
 vas buried in the chapel of his own college. His monument bears the 
 pithy inscription, ' Fui Caius.' 
 
 The most interesting of the works of Dr. Caius is his treatise on 
 thfc sweating sickness. The original edition is a small black letter and 
 extremely scarce duodecimo of thirty-nine folios, ' imprinted at London 
 by Richard Grafton, printer to the kynges maiestie. Anno Do. 1552.' 
 It is entitled ' A boke, or couuseill against the disease commonly called 
 the sweate, or sweatyng sicknesse. Made by Jhon Caius, doctour in 
 phisicke.' This was intended for the public in general; but in 1556 
 the author published it in an enlarged form, and in the Latin language, 
 under the title ' De Ephemera Britannica.' The epidemic described by 
 Caius was that of 1551, the fifth and last of the kind. It was an 
 intense fever, of which the crisis consisted in a profuse perspiration. 
 The death of the patient often followed two or three hours after this 
 Bymptom, but if he survived the first attack of the disease twenty-four 
 hours he was safe. 
 
 The works of Dr. Caius are exceedingly numerous, and display his 
 talents as a critic, a lingui.-t, a naturalist, and an antiquary, as well 
 as a physician. His original works consist of treatises — 'De Medeudi 
 Methodo,' ' De Ephemera Britannica,' ' De Ephemera Britannica ad 
 Populum Britannicum,' 'De Antiquitate Cantabrig. Academiae,' ' De 
 Historia Cantabrig. Academiae,' ' De Canibus Britanuicis,' ' De Rariorum 
 Animalium atque Stirpium Historia,' ' De Symphonia Vocum Britan- 
 nicarum,' 'De Thermis Britanuicis,' 'De libria Galeni qui non extant,' 
 ' De Antiquis Britauniae Urbibus,' ' De Libris propi iis,' ' De Pronun- 
 ciation Graccae el Latiuae Linguae cum Scriptione Nova,' ' De Annalibus 
 Collegii Medicinae Lond.,' 'De Annalibus Collegii Gonevilli et Caii,' 
 ' Compendium Erasmi Libri de vera Theologia,.' He also edited, 
 translated, and commented upon many pieces of Hippocrates, Galen, 
 and others. During his life, and for many years after his death, the 
 writings of Dr. Caius were regarded with deep veneration. Several of 
 his treatises were reprinted under the superintendence of Dr. Jebb, 
 London, 1729, 8 vo; and his treatise ' De Ephemera Britannica' was 
 edited by Dr. J. F. C. Hecker, Beroliui, 1633, 12mo. 
 . (Hutchinson, Biographia Medico, ; Aikin, Biographical Memoirs 
 of Medicine in Great Britain ; Dr. J. F. C. Hecker, Der Englische 
 Schweiis.) 
 
 C'ALAMIS, a very celebrated Greek sculptor, of the 5th century 
 before Christ. Neither his native place nor the exact period of his 
 career is known ; he was however contemporary with i'hidia3, but 
 probably his senior in years, as, according to Cicero and Quintilian, 
 who probably expressed the general opinion, notwithstanding the 
 general excellence of his works, there was a hardness in his style. He 
 worked in various styles, in marble, in bronze, and ivory, and as an 
 engraver in gold. He was also very famous for his horses, in which, 
 Pliny says, he was without a rival. 
 
 Many works by Calamis are mentioned in ancient writers, Greek 
 and Latin, but one in particular claims attention ; this is the 'Apollo' 
 of the Servilian gardens at Rome, mentioned bv Pliny, and by some 
 
 BIOC. JTjXV. VOL. II. 
 
 CALAMY, EDMUND. 
 
 supposed to be the ' Apollo Belvedere ' of the Vatican at Rome. Thie 
 supposition however completely sets aside the criticisms of Cicero and 
 Quintilian upon the style of Calamis, for this work, so far from being 
 hard, would bo effeminately delicate for any male character below a 
 divinity. 
 
 Calamis made two other statues of 'Apollo .' the 'Apollo Alexi- 
 kakos' (' Deliverer from Evil'), which Pausanias saw at Athens; and 
 the colossal 'Apollo,' made for the city of Apollouia in lllyricum, and 
 which, according to Strabo, was brought to Rome by Lucullus, an<? 
 placed in the Capitol. Junius and Harduin supposed that Pliny and 
 Pausanias speak of the same work ; but it is not at all probable that 
 a work which was in Rome in Pliny's time would be in Athens in the 
 time of Pausanias. This inconsistency has been pointed out before ■ 
 but many have been misled by the opinion, anil it seems to have sug- 
 gested the idea which Visconti and Flaxman have adopted, that the 
 'Apollo Belvedere ' and the ' Apollo A lexikalcos ' of Calamis are the 
 Eame, or at least that the former is a marble copy of the bronze 
 original by Calamis. Sillig supposes that the statue mentioned by 
 Pausanias must have been of bronze, because it was placed in the 
 open air; this does not follow however, as many of the ancient Greek 
 marbles were placed in the open air. It was dedicated in honour of 
 Apollo after the delivery of Athens from the plague, in 01. 87. 4 
 (B.C. 429), during the Peloponnenian war. It is the latest work by 
 Calamis mentioned, and must have been made at least three or four 
 years after the death of Phidias. His earliest work which is noticed 
 is a pair of bronze horses mounted by boys, for the triumphal car of 
 Onatas, placed by Deinomenes, the son of Hiero, at Olympia, 
 in 01. 78. 2 (B.C. 467), in commemoration of Hiero's victory at the 
 Olympic games, twelve years after the battle of Marathon. 
 
 Lucian also, in his description of Panthea, has recourse to the aid 
 of Calamis. He takes some of Panthea's charms from a statue of 
 Sosandra by Calamis, which he mentions also in his ' Hetaerean 
 Colloquies ' as a paragon of beauty. Many other works by Calamis 
 are mentioned by ancient writers — as an ' ^Esculapius ' at Corinth, a 
 ' Victory' at Elis, a 'Bacchus' and a 'Mercury ' at Tanagra, a 'Venus' 
 at Athens, 'Jupiter Ammon ' at Thebes, 'Hermione ' at Delphi, &c. 
 
 (Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxiii. 12, xxxiv. 8, xxxvi. 4; Pausanias, i. 3; 
 Lucian, Inxag. 6, Dial. Meretr. hi.; Cicero, Brutus, 18; Quintilian, 
 hat. Orator., xii. 10; Strabo, vii. 491; Junius, Catal. Artificum ; 
 Sillig, Catal. Artificum; Thiersch, Epochen der Bildenden Kunst, Jsc) 
 
 CALAMY, EDMUND, was born in London in 1600. He entered 
 Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, at the age of fifteen, and was honourably 
 distinguished for his scholarship ; but having incurred the resentment 
 of the Arminian party by his opposition to their opinions, he was 
 disappointed in obtaining a fellowship. His conduct however attracted 
 the notice of the Bishop of Ely, Dr. Felton, who made him his 
 domestic chaplain, and gave him the living of Swaffham Prior, in 
 Cambridgeshire. Calamy lived with the bishop till his death. Soon 
 after this event, in 1626, he resigned his vicarage, having been 
 appointed one of the lecturers of Bury St. Edmunds. For the ten 
 years that he officiated in this capaoity he ranked among the Con- 
 formists, though of that class which was opposed to the measures of 
 the high church party. 'When at length Bishop Wren's 'Articles' 
 were published, and the order for reading the ' Book of Sports ' began 
 to be enforced, he publicly declared his objections to them, and left 
 the diocese. Thirty other clergymen did the same. Soon afterwards 
 he was presented to the valuable rectory of Rochford in Essex ; but 
 this place was so unhealthy that it brought on a quartan ague, from 
 which he never perfectly recovered, and he was compelled to quit it. 
 In 1639, being chosen minister of the church of St. Mary, Alderman- 
 bury, he removed to the metropolis, having separated from the 
 Church, and openly avowed his attachment to the Presbyterian dis- 
 cipline. In the contentious controversies of that period on the 
 subject of ecclesiastical affairs, Mr. Calamy bore a distinguished part. 
 His opinions against episcopacy were stated in a work, very popular in 
 its day, entitled ' Smectymnuus,' written in answer to Bishop Hall's 
 'Divine Right of Episcopacy.' This composition was the work of 
 five individuals — S. Marshal, E. Calamy, T. Young, M. Newcomcn, 
 and W. Spurstow — the initial letters of whose names were put 
 together to form this singular title. As a preacher Mr. Calamy was 
 greatly admired, and listened to by persons of the first distinction 
 during the twenty years that he officiated in St. Mary's. ITis celebrity 
 was so well established by his writings, as well as by the distinguished 
 station which he occupied among the ministers in the metropolis, tint 
 he was one of the divines appointed by the House of Lords in 1611 
 to devise a plan for reconciling the differences which then divided the 
 church, in relation to ecclesiastical discipline. This led to the Savoy 
 conference, at which he appeared in support of some alterations in the. 
 Liturgy, and replied to the reasons urged against them by the 
 episcopal divims. 
 
 Like most of the Presbyterian clergy, he was averse to the execution 
 of the king, and to the usurpation of Cromwell; during whose 
 ascendancy he held himself aloof from public affairs-, resisted bis pro- 
 position for a single government, and did not scruple to drclare 
 his attachment to the dethroned prince. Accordingly he was among 
 the foremost to encourage and promote the efforts that were made for 
 the restoration of Charles. He strongly recommended it in a sermon 
 preached before the House of Commons, on the day pi ior to that on 
 
CALANUS. 
 
 CALDERON DE LA BARCA, DON PEDRO. 
 
 2H 
 
 which the House resolved to invite the king back to his kingdom ; 
 and he was one of those deputed to meet Charles in Holland with the 
 congratulations of the nation. On his majesty's return, he appointed 
 Mr. Calamy one of his chaplains; the duty of which office, owing to 
 prevailing animosities, he performed, it is generally said, no more than 
 once, but Pepys in his ' Diary,' June 6, 1060, notes that " his letters 
 tell him that Mr. Calamy had preached before the king in a surplice : " 
 he indeed adds a note, " this I heard afterwards to be false," but he 
 appears to mean the use of the surplice. It is certain that Calatny 
 preached once subsequently. Pepys notes under August 12, 1660, 
 "(Lord's Day.) To White Hall Chapel, where Mr. Calamy preached, 
 and mado a good sermon, upon these words, ' To whom much is 
 given, of him much is required.' He was very officious with his three 
 reverences to the king, as others do." It is evident that the king's 
 Presbyterian chaplain was closely watched ; but it appears also 
 evident, judging from his text, that if he was ready to pay all the 
 usual marks of reverence to his majesty, he was not disposed to shrink 
 from reminding him of the duties as well rs the privileges which his 
 exalted position devolved upon him. Besides his chaplaincy Calamy 
 was offered the bishopric of Lichfield and Coventry, which it is 
 thought he would have accepted, if he could have subscribed to the 
 terms of the king's declaration. His moderation was such, that he 
 appeared only desirous of removing those restrictions which affected 
 the Presbyterian clergy, accompanied with such reforms in the services 
 of the church as would have allowed a conscientious performance of 
 their pastoral duties. But finding the temper of the high Church 
 party set upon their rejection by acts of further restraint and intole- 
 rance, he seized upon the opportunity of the passing of the Act of 
 Uniformity to resign his living. Being well received at court, his 
 friends recommended him to petition for an indulgence ; but his 
 request was fruitless. He did not, like some of the other ejected 
 ministers, attempt to assemble a congregation elsewhere, but still 
 continued to attend the church in which he had so long officiated. 
 On one of these occasions, when no clergyman attended, some of his 
 friends requested him to preach. After some hesitation he ascended 
 the desk, from which it bad always been his custom to deliver his 
 discourses, and preached upon the concern of old Eli for the ark of 
 God, into which he introduced some matter that touched upon recent 
 events ; which being deemed seditious, he was committed to Newgate, 
 where he lay, until the outcry raised by his friends induced the king 
 to order his liberation. He lived to see London in ashes ; which event 
 ^aad such an eft' ct upon his nerves, that he survived the melancholy 
 spectacle little more than a month. He died October 29, 1666. 
 Mr. Calamy was considered an able theologian. His publications 
 consist of single sermons preached upon particular occasions, and a 
 vindication of himself against an attack made upon him by Mr. Burton, 
 entitled ' The Godly Man's Ark, or a City of Refuge in the Day of his 
 Distress.' 
 
 Two of Mr. Calamy's sons, who were educated at Cambridge for the 
 church, took opposite sides on the disputed points of ecclesiastical 
 affairs ; the eldest, Edmund, having, after his ejectment from his 
 living, become a decided nonconformist} while his other son, 
 Dr. Benjamin Calamy, not only adhered to the high church party, 
 but wrote in its defence 'A Discourse against a Scrupulous Con- 
 science ; ' the tenour of which is, to stigmatise as crime the act of 
 separating from tho church. 
 
 A grandson of Mr. Calamy was a celebrated nonconformist divine, 
 and is the well-known biographer of the ejected ministers; and also 
 of Baxter's ' Life and Times.' This gentleman, also called Edmund, 
 after his father and grandfather, on a visit to Scotland in 1709, 
 received the decree of Doctor in Divinity from each of the universities 
 of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Glasgow. He was born in 1671, and 
 died June :?, 1732. 
 
 CALA'NUS, an Indian philosopher of the sect called by the Greeks 
 Gymnosophists, or 'naked philosophers.' Alexander the Great, in 
 the course of his Indian expedition, met with a body of these singular 
 men, and being desirous of speaking with them, he deputed Onesicritus 
 to invite them to visit him. Dondamis, their chief, refused to go 
 himself or to allow any of his followers to go, saying that he was as 
 much the son of Jupiter as Alexander, and that he wanted nothing 
 from Alexander, but was quite satisfied with what he had. Calanus 
 (Plutarch says his real name was Sphines, and that Calanus was a 
 name given to him by the Greeks from his custom of using the word 
 KaAe instead of x a 'l>e in saluting) was the only one who could be pre- 
 vailed upon ; and, amidst the reproaches of his colleagues, he consented 
 to accompany Alexander in his expedition. On arriving at Pasargada 
 in Persis he fell ill. He had never been ill before, and would not now 
 submit to be nursed or doctored, but insisted on being burnt. After 
 many fruitless endeavours to dissuade him from his resolution, Alex- 
 ander ordered a splendid pile to be raised, and a golden couch to be 
 placed on it by Ptolemaeus, sou of Lagus. Calanus was driven in a 
 carriage to the spot, crowned after the Indiau fashion, and ehauntiug 
 hymns to the gods in the Indian tom^ue, he mounted the pile, and laid 
 himself down in the sight of the whole army, and continued motion- 
 less amidst the flames. As soon as the fire had been kindled, trumpets 
 were sounded, and it is said that even the elephants joined the army 
 in raising a war-shout in honour of Calanus. The various ornaments 
 with which Alexander had ordered the pile to be decorated were dis- 
 
 tributed to those who were present. While Calanus was riding to the 
 pile, Alexander asked him if he had any requests to make. He replied, 
 " No ; I shall see you soon in Babylon." Alexander died soon after 
 in Babylon, b.c, 323. Calanus was in his seventy-third year when he 
 died. (Strabo, xv. 1 ; Arrian, vii. ; Cicero, ' De Div.,' i. 23 ; Valer. 
 Max. i. 8.) 
 
 CALDARA. [Caravaqqio.] 
 
 CALDAS, FRANCISCO JOSE DE, born at Popayan in New 
 Granada, about 1773, deserves notice as an example not common any 
 where, but very unusual in South America, of a man who unaided by 
 books or teachers arrived at a very respectable position as a man of 
 science. His studies and renearches included botany, physical geogra- 
 phy, mechanics, and astronomy. Before Humboldt had opened the 
 region of the Andes to the scientific world, Caldas had constructed 
 with his own hands a barometer and other instruments, and explored 
 a considerable tract, and taken the altitude of several of the loftiest 
 summits of that vast range. When Mutis made his celebrated explora- 
 tion of New Granada, Caldas rendered him important assistance ; the 
 admeasurements of Chimborazo and some other peaks were made by 
 him. About 1805 or 1806 he received the appointment of director of 
 the observatory of Santa Fe" de Bogota. His chief scientific labours 
 are embodied in the ' Semenario de la Nueva Granada,' of which he 
 published the first number in 1807, and which ultimately formed two 
 4to volumes. Caldas having eagerly embraced the cause of independ- 
 ence, unfortunately fell into the hands of Morillo, who caused him to 
 be executed October 30, 1816. The scientific labours of Caldas have 
 been highly praised by several European savants, especially by Hum- 
 boldt. A new edition of the ' Semenario,' augmented by the addition 
 of several of Caldas's inedited writings, was published at Paris under 
 the care of M. A. Lasserre in 1849. (Acosta, Breve Noticia sobre F. de 
 Caldas ; Nouvelle Biog. Univ.) 
 
 CALDERA'RI, OTTO'NE, was born of a noble family at Vicenza 
 in 1730. Although that city is indebted to him for many important 
 additions to its previous architectural attractions, little has been told 
 respecting his life. His enthusiasm for architecture is said to have 
 been first excited by viewing the Basilica of Vicenza by moonlight, 
 which made so powerful an impression upon him that he thenceforth 
 devoted himself to the study. One of his earliest recorded works was 
 the casino erected by him near Vicenza, in 1772, for the Count Anti- 
 Sola, which has a very extended front towards the gardens, with 
 terraces uniting the house to the wings. In 1773 he built the small 
 Palazzo Boniui at Vicenza, with a facade of two orders, Doric and Ionic 
 (of five intercolumns), surmounted by an attic; it is a most decided , 
 imitation of Palladio. The Palazzo Cordellina (1776) at Vicenza, 
 which is esteemed by his editors his "capo d'opera," differs very little 
 from the preceding in the style of its facade, which presents the same 
 orders. The Villa Porto at Vivaro, five miles from Vicenza, erected ' 
 in 1778, is a happier specimen of his talent, and the Doric colonnades 
 between the body and wings, backed by a screen wall with openings 
 in it, produce much scenic effect. In 1782 he built the Palazzo Loschi 
 at Vicenza, a Corinthian order and attic on a rusticated basement ; in 
 1785 the Casino Todaro, and also the Palazzi Quinto and Salvi, in the 
 same city. Nor was Vicenza alone the scene of his architectural 
 labours, for he designed the beautiful atrium of the Seminario at ■ 
 Verona, the Villa Capra, at Marano, and the Casa Cocastelli in the 
 Mantuan territory. j 
 
 Count Calderari belonged to the principal academies and societies 1 
 in Europe, and was elected by the French Institute expressly as being ' 
 " foremost among the Italian architects of that day;" nor can it be 
 denied that he is entitled to the admiration of those who hold Palladio '! 
 to be a pattern of excellence. He died at Vicenza, October 26, 1S03, 
 and his dloge was pronounced by Diedo, secretary to the Academy of 
 Fine Arts, Venice, and the chief editor of his 'Opere di Architettura/ 
 &c, 2 vols, folio, 1808-17. 
 
 CALDERON DE LA BARCA, DON PEDRO, a great Spanish 
 dramatist, born of noble parents at Madrid, in 1601, suggests a striking 
 parallel with Lope de Vega, hi3 celebrated countryman and forerunner 
 in the same career. Both were wonderfully precocious : Lope wrote 
 plays at the age of eleven or twelve, and Calderon exhibited no inferior 
 genius at thirteen iu his ' Carro del Cielo' (the Heavenly Chariot). 
 Both devoted the vigour of life to the military profession, and their 
 maturity to the ecclesiastical order; and the poetic talent of both con- 
 tinue 1 to advanced age. Both of them acquired reputation and even 
 affluence from a gift proverbially doomed to penury, and at the most 
 hardly promising more than posthumous renown. 
 
 Lope and Calderon gave the law to the Spanish theatre. With all 
 their irregularity, they both exhibit a singular mixture of sublimity 
 and absurdity, with frequent flashes of genius, and passages of strikiug 
 truth to nature ; thus frequently redeeming their numerous faults, and 
 making amends for many to us now very ridiculous scenes. The 
 fertility of these two writers is not the least surprising part of their 
 history. Lope added 2000, and Calderon 500 pieces at leaat to the 
 national dramatic stock. Their success could not fail to call forth 
 uumerous imitators at home and abroad : Corneille, there is little 
 doubt, formed his Heraclius upon the play of Calderon, as he certainly 
 took his Cid and his Menteur from Guillermo de Castro. Moliere's 
 'Femmes savantes' was suggested by Calderon's ' No hai burlas con el 
 Amor' (Love is no Joke); and Scarron grossly disfigured, UDder th» 
 
19 
 
 CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL. 
 
 80 
 
 title of ' La fausse Apparence,' Calderou'a ' Nunca lo peor es cierto' 
 (The worst is never true). The French translations by Linguet 
 doubtless contributed largely to produce this effect. On Linguet's 
 ' Viol pnni,' a translation of Calderon's ' Alcalde de Zalamea,' the well- 
 known Collet d'Herbois built his ' Paysau magistrate Not to mention 
 numerous other instances of a similar kind, it should not be forgotten 
 that Calderon's 'Secreto a voces' (The published Secret) has appeared 
 in the Italian, French, and German languages. 
 
 Calderon's talents, which had been early manifested at school under 
 the Jesuits, developed at Salamanca, and already admired in the 
 Spaui-h possessions of Italy and the Low Countries, were at last 
 encouraged by the patronage of Phjlip IV., who bestowed on him a 
 knighthood of Santiago in 1636; invited him to Madrid in 1640 to 
 write the 'Certamen de Amor y Zelos' (the Contest between Love and 
 Jealousy), a sort of festival to be performed on the lake of Buen- 
 Retiro ; and soon raised his allowance to an escudo more per day. 
 Subsequently, in 1649, he intrusted to his taste and ingenuity the plan 
 and directions of some triumphal arches, under which the royal bride 
 Mary Anna of Austria was to pass. 
 
 At the age of fifty Calderou entered the church, and two years 
 afterward.-, the king bestowed on him a chaplaincy of Toledo. In 
 1663 he gave him another similar piece of preferment, with a hand- 
 some pension charged on the revenue of Sicily, and other similar 
 acknowledgments of his services and merits. During the long period 
 of thirty-seven years he wrote, by special commission of the muni- 
 cipality of Madrid, and of other cities, such as Toledo, Sevilla, and 
 Granada, about 100 'Autos Sacramentales,' or sacred pieces, which 
 resemble those of the 16th century, commonly called ' Mysteries.' 
 The 'Autos' of Calderon soon superseded those of all previous 
 Spanish authors; and to their composition the poet devoted the 
 remaining thirty years of his life after he had entered the ecclesiastical 
 profession. In his eightieth year he wrote his 'Hado y Divisa.' As 
 the booksellers were now selling spurious works under his name, he 
 was urged by the Duke of Veragua3 to make a true list of all his 
 works, but he m<rely sent a list of his 'Autos,' expressing, on 
 religious grounds, very little concern for the rest. 
 
 Some of the 'Autos' of Calderon, especially that entitled 'La 
 Devocion de la Cruz' (the Devotion of the Cross, meaniug its 
 miracles), are the best productions of the kind. Augustus Schlegel 
 has translated this work, with some of the best of his dramas, such as 
 ' El Priucipe constante,' a tragedy which might be called the Lusitanian 
 Regulus for its Portuguese lofty subject. It is indeed Calderon's 
 masterpiece, and displays the full lustre of his genius. He wrote 
 likewise a poem in octaves on the ' Novisimos,' or ' Postrimerias ' (the 
 old scholastic and ascetic collective denomination of death, judgment, 
 heaven, and hell). There is also among his works a discourse on 
 painting, ' La Nobleza de la Pintura ; ' another in vindication of the 
 stage, 'Defensa de la Comedia;' and many songs, sonnets, and ballads, 
 with numerous short poems to which the highest prizes were adjudged 
 on various occasions. 
 
 The date of Calderon's death is variously stated, but that of 1681, 
 on the 25th of May, Whitsuntide day, is shown to be correct by 
 documents quoted in the introduction to Calderon's comedies (' Bib- 
 lioteca de Autores Espanoles.' t. vii., p. xxxiii. ). 
 
 To revert to the parallel between the two great Spinish dramatists. 
 Lope was bolder and ruder, Calderon more brilliant and refined, a 
 keener observer of the female mind and manners, a readier contriver 
 of plots, which are full of business and bustle, naturally arising from 
 intricacies which are most happily disentangled in his denouements. 
 In this respect he surpasses even Moreto and Solis, but he does not 
 always keep within the rules of strict morality. He allows vice too 
 frequently to triumph, out of deference, probably, as some would 
 have it by way of apology for him, to the fashionable morals of the 
 time. The chivalrous delicacy as to the point of honour, which often 
 supplies the place of morality, is displayed in its most favourable 
 aspect in some of his dramas. Sometimes he appears to be seized 
 with a moralising fit, which contrasts strangely with the levity, 
 merriment, intrigues, and mad gallantry which were exhibited for the 
 first time on the Spanish stage in his ' Comedias de Capa y Espada' 
 (Plays of Cloak and Sword). These pieces take their name from the 
 dres3 in which they were performed (then the general costume of the 
 gentry throughout Europe), and in contradistinction to the ' Comedias 
 heroicas' (Historical Dramas), which were intended to excite surprise 
 and admiration. In the latter, love is the feeling which actuated the 
 champions of chivalry, while in the former it is merely a verbose and 
 gloziug gallantry which succeeded to the poetical worship of the fair. 
 These being a sort of dramatised novels, on subjects selected from 
 fashionable life, gave full scope to Calderon's elegance of language, 
 gracefulness of dialogue, facility of versification, richness of diction, 
 and fertility of imagination ; qualities indeed which sometimes make 
 him too diffuse. 
 
 Calderon gave the last polish to the Spanish theatre without changing 
 its nature. He imparted dignity to the historical, or, as they were 
 styled ' heroic ' comedies ; but while some of them are the best, others 
 are the most trivial of his productions, and are full of historical 
 blunders. 
 
 The greater part of Calderon's works wire published at Madrid in 
 w Tola, ito, 1689 : the first three volumes contain his comedies, and 
 
 the six last a great number of his 'Autos Sacramentales.' They were 
 reprinted at Madrid in 1726 and 1760 in 10 vols. 4to. A collection of 
 his 'Autos' appeared also at Madrid in 17.09 in 6 vols. 4to. In 1830 
 George Keil published at Leipzig a splendid edition of Calderon in 
 6 vols. 8vo; other editions of his plays have since been published. 
 The ' Teatro Espanol,' published by La Hoierta, gives but a partial 
 idea of Calderon's talent; for he has selected the 'Comedias de Capa 
 y Espada,' two only excepted, one of which is styled ' heroica,' although 
 it belongs to the mythological class. 
 
 CALDERWOOD, DAVID, was a native of Scotland, and wa* 
 brought up to the church. He was born in 1575. In 1604 he became 
 the minister of the parish of Crelling in the south of Scotland, where 
 he was greatly respected. 
 
 When James I. of England visited Scotland in 1017 for the 
 purpose of introducing, by the aid of a Scottish parliament and 
 the general assembly, certain legal enactments, the object of which 
 was to bring the Scottish church into conformity with the church 
 of England, Calderwood was one of those who were most strenuous 
 in their opposition. He and other ministers of the church having 
 signed a protest against the proposed measures, they were sum- 
 moned before a court of high commission in which the king himself 
 presided. Persecution and threats having both failed to make Calder- 
 wood change his opinions, he was thrown into prison, and was after- 
 wards banished from the kingdom. He went to Holland, where in 
 1621-23, he published in 4to a work in Latiu, entitled 'Altare 
 Damascenum,' &c, in which he enters into a full examination of the 
 principles of the Church of England, its government, ceremonies, and 
 connection with the state. The work made a great impression at the 
 time, and was translated into English under the title of ' The Altar of 
 Damascus, or the Pattern of the English Hierarchy and Church, 
 obtruded upon the Church of Scotland,' 12mo, 1621. A report having 
 been spread that Calderwood was dead, a man named Patrick Scot 
 published a pretended recantation, with the title ' Calderwood' s 
 Recantation, directed to such in Scotland as refuse Conformity to the 
 Ordinances of the Church,' London, 1622. It was soon discovered to 
 be a base forgery, and the king himself was accused of having lent 
 his assistance in writing it. Calderwood in the meantime had returned 
 secretly to Scotland, where he lived some years in concealment. He 
 collected the materials for a ' History of the Church of Scotland,' 
 which are preserved in manuscript in the Advocates Library, Edin- 
 burgh, in 6 vols, folio, with a preface detailing the principal circum- 
 stances of his life. From the materials of this work Calderwood 
 wrote his ' History of the Church of Scotland from the Beginning of 
 the Reformation unto the End of the Reign of James VI., begin- 
 ning 1560 and ending 1625,' folio. He is supposed to have died 
 in 1651. 
 
 CALEPI'NO, AMBRO'GIO, was born at Calepio in the province of 
 Bergamo in 1435. He became an Augustine friar, but devoted himself 
 chiefly to philology. His great work was a Latin dictionary, which 
 was one of the earliest works of the kind, and was first published at 
 Reggio, fol., 1502. It went through many editions, most of them 
 with numerous additions, which made it almost a new work. Passerat's 
 edition, 1609, with the title ' Dictionarium Octolingue,' contains the 
 corresponding words in Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Uermau, Spanish, 
 French, and English. Other editions added the Slavonian and 
 Hungarian. Facciolati, assisted by Forcelliui, published a new edition 
 of Calepino's, or rather Passerat's dictionary, also in eight languages, 
 2 vols, fol., Padua, 1731. While engaged on this labour Forcellini 
 conceived the idea of a totally new and more complete and critical 
 lexicon, and after spending thirty years in compiling it, he published 
 it under the title of ' Totius Lattnitatis Lexicon,' 4 vols, fol, Padua, 
 1771. Foreellini's lexicon superseded all former Latiu dictionaries. 
 Calepino died November the 30th 1511. 
 
 CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL, one of the most influential of 
 the recent statesmen of America, was born on the 18th of March 1782, 
 at Abbeville in South Carolina. His father, Patrick Calhoun, was by 
 birth an Irishman, but he emigrated to America early in life, settled 
 in Carolina, and took an active part on the American side during the 
 war of independence. John C. Calhoun graduated with distinction at 
 Yale College in 1804 ; and, having completed his legal studies in Con- 
 necticut, returned to his native place in 1807 to enter upon the 
 practice of his profession. He was elected the following year a mem- 
 ber of the South Carolina House of Representatives, where his clear 
 vigorous intellect soon obtained for him considerable notice. In 1811 
 he was sent as a representative to the United States Congress, and the 
 rest of his life was spent at Washington. During the discussion of 
 the important measures which in the course of the next five years 
 excited the public mind, Mr. Calhoun played a prominent part, and 
 his fervid eloquence, eagerly defendiug and stimulating the popular 
 war-cry, won for him a commanding position. On Mr. Monroe's 
 election to the presidency of the United States in 1817, he appointed 
 Mr. Calhoun his secretary of war, a post he retained during the eight 
 years of Mr. Monroe's tenure of office. His administration was 
 marked by energy and judgment, and secured his position as one of 
 the ablest public men of his time. On the next election, 1825, he was 
 named as a candidate for the presidency, but withdrew his claim, and 
 eventually he was chosen vice-president. To this high oflice he was 
 re-elect ed in 1329, when General Jackson succeeded Mr. Adams as 
 
31 
 
 CALIARI, PAOLO. 
 
 CALIGULA, CAT US CESAR. 
 
 president; but he differed greatly from Jackson in policy, especially ! 
 on the Tariff and Bank Charter questions; and in 1831 he resigned 
 the vice-presidency, and was elected by South Carolina to the Senate 
 of the United States. From the end of his term of six years he 
 remained in retirement, until President Tyler in 1843 appointed him 
 secretary of rtate, an office he held till tbe election of President Polk in 
 1845. In that year he again became the representative of South Caro- 
 lina in the senate. He had now come to be regarded as the great leader 
 and representative of the southern states in Congress, and no m;in 
 ■was listened to with greater attention by all parties. An intense and 
 fervid republican, he was yet eminently conservative in spirit, a : 
 staunch defender of all southern rights, and the inflexible supporter 
 of the 'institution' of slavery. In general and international politics, 
 he commonly took the popular, or, as it is usually termed, the patriotic 
 side. He died March 31, 1850. Many of Mr. Calhoun's speeches were 
 printed as separate publications about the time of their delivery ; and 
 his collected ' Works,' edited by K. K. CraUe, were published in six 
 vols. 8vo, Charleston and New York, 1851-55. 
 CALIA'RI, PAOLO. [Cagliart, Paolo.] 
 
 CALIDASA is the name of one of the most admired Indian poets. 
 Hardly anything is known concerning the circumstances of his life. 
 A tradition, very generally believed in India, makes him one of the 
 nine yems or distinguished poets who lived at the court of King 
 Vicramaditya. If by this name the same sovereign is to be under- 
 stood from whose reign (B.C. 56) tbe years of the Samvat era are 
 counted, Calidasa must have flourished about the middle of the 
 century preceding the commencement of our era. Another king of 
 the name Vicramaditya ascended the throne in a.d. 191, and a third 
 in a.d. 441 ; and several considerations, especially the highly-polished 
 style iu which the works attributed to Calidasa are written, favour 
 the assumption that the poet lived under Vicramaditya II. At all 
 events our author must be distinguished from a poet of the same 
 name who lived in the 12th century at the court of Raja Bhoja, the 
 sovereign of Dharfl,. The Nalodaya, a Sanscrit poem on the subject 
 of the story of Nala and Damayanti, from the Mahabharata, written 
 iu an exceedingly forced and artificial style, full of rhymes and plays 
 upon the sound of words, to which the name of Calidasa is affixed, 
 should probably be attributed to the Calidasa of Raja. Bhoja's court. 
 
 But however imperfect our information about Calidasa may be, we 
 possess in his works abundant evidence of the power of his genius. 
 We do not hesitate to pronounce him the most universal, the least 
 constrained by national peculiarities, not merely of all Indian, but of 
 all Asiatic poets with whose works we are acquainted ; and to this 
 elevated tone of his mind, which while seeming to breathe the purely 
 human air of Greece, yet retains all the quickness and glow of feeling, 
 all the vividness of description and imagery of the Hindoo, must, in 
 our opinion, be mainly attributed the undivided admiration with 
 which the translation of his drama, ' Sacuntala,' by Sir William Jones 
 (the first work that made known the name of Calidasa to Europeans), 
 has been everywhere received. This translation appeared for the 
 first time at Calcutta in 1789, but was soon reprinted in England, and 
 was from the English, at an early period, retranslated into several 
 other languages of Europe. We may particularly notice the German 
 translation by George Forster, who appended to it a glossary explana- 
 tory of the allusions to Indian mythology, natural history, &c. The 
 popularity which the play has acquired on the continent is attested by 
 the fact that several attempts have been made to adapt it to the stage. 
 In 1830 the Sanscrit text of 'Sacuntala' was published at Paris from 
 a manuscript belonging to the ' Bibliotheque de Roi ' by the late 
 Professor A. L. Che"zy, with an original French translation; and upon 
 this edition is founded a new translation into German by M. Hirzel, 
 Zurich, 1833, 8vo, in which the various metres of the text are 
 imitated. Both Sir William Jones's translation and Ch6zy"s edition 
 however exhibit the work of Calidasa according to the interpolated 
 shape in which it is now current in Bengal. This discovery was made 
 by Mr. Hermann Brockhaus, of Leipzig, who, in 1835, examined and 
 collated the numerous manuscripts of the drama in the library of the 
 East India Company, and in the private collection of Professor H. H. 
 Wilson at Oxford. The most recent editions are one of the text pub- 
 lished at Calcutta in 1840 ; one of the text with a German translation 
 by Bochtlingk, Bonn, 1846; another German translation by E. Meier, 
 Stutgart, 1852; and a free English translation, in prose and verse, by 
 Professor Monier Williams, remarkable for the accuracy of the version 
 and for the beauty of its typography: Hertford, 1855. 
 
 We must confine ourselves to a mere enumeration of the other 
 principal works of Calidasa. Besides ' Sacuntala' we possess two other 
 dramatic poems attributed to him — * Vicramorvasi,' founded upon an 
 ancient Indian legend of the loves of King Jururavas and Urvasi, a 
 celestial nymph (translated by H. H. Wilson in his 'Hindu Theatre;' 
 the text printed at Calcutta in 1830, and critically re-edited with a 
 Latiu translation by Lenz, Berlin, 1833, 4to; and again with a German 
 translation by Bollensen, St. Petersburg, 1846); and •Dhurtasamagama,' 
 a burlesque piece, as yet inedited. The ' Megha Duta,' or * Cloud- 
 Messenger,' a lyrical poem of only 116 stanzas, contains the complaints 
 of a demigod banished to earth, who entreats a passing cloud to convey 
 an affectionate message to his wife. It was edited with a translation 
 into English verse and with notes by H. H. Wilson, Calcutta, 1813, 
 4to; by Geldemeister, Bonn, 1841 : and German translations have been 
 
 published by Herzel, Zurich, 1846; and by Max Miiller, the present 
 professor of modern languages at Oxford, Kbnigsberg, 1847. The 
 ' Ra;:hu Vansa ' is a narrative poem in celebration of the family of 
 Raghu, in which Rama, the hero of the Raraayana, and as the incar- 
 nation of Vishnu an object of great veneration with the Hindoos, was 
 born : it has been edited with a Latin translation by Stenzler, London, 
 1832, 4to, and with a Sanscrit prose paraphrase by the pundits of Fort 
 William at Calcutta, 1832, 8vo. The ' Cutnara Sambhava' is another 
 epic poem designed to celebrate the birth of Cumara, the son of 
 Parvati ; but it closes with Parvati's wedding. An edition and trans- 
 lation of this work by Stenzler was published under the auspices of 
 the London Oriental Translation Fund at Berlin in 1838. Fart o"f 
 the first canto is given in Sanscrit and English, and with interesting 
 annotations, by (we believe) the Rev. Dr. Mill of Calcutta, in the 
 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for July, 1833, pp. 329-358 
 A short didactic poem on prosody, exhibiting the most common sorts 
 of metre, and called ' Srutabodha,' is likewise attributed to Calidasa 
 as well as two or three other short pieces. 
 
 CALI'GULA, CAIUS CAESAR, the fourth of the Roman emperors, 
 son of Germanicus and Agrippina, was born a.d. 12 in a Roman camp, 
 iu what place is not agreed, though Suetonius would seem to show that 
 he was born at Antium. He was brought up among the soldiers, and 
 is best known by a nickname said to have been given him by those 
 associates. The word ' caligula ' is derived from ' caliga/ a kind of 
 shoe which was worn by the common soldiers, and which he frequently 
 wore himself in order to gain their affections. (Tacit., 'Ann.,' i. 41, 69.) 
 The training and education which would have been suited to his rank 
 appear to have been neglected. Caligula early devoted himself to 
 observing the feelings and courting the favour of Tiberius, and by 
 artful and unremitting attentions he so far succeeded in ingratiating 
 himself with the emperor that he was soon promoted to responsible 
 offices of state. The uncertainty of succession which followed the 
 death of Tiberius, who was put to death probably by one of Caligula's 
 favourites (Tacit., 'Ann.,' vi. 50), together with the general popularity 
 which Caligula himself enjoyed, afforded him a favourable opportunity 
 of succeeding to the sovereign power (A.D. 37). His government began 
 well, and with symptoms of great clemency ; he set at liberty all the 
 state-prisoners, discouraged informers, and promised the senate that 
 he would act with the utmost moderation : he augmented the powers 
 of the magistrates, and at least apparently curtailed his own. Soon 
 afterwards he assumed the consulship, and chose for his colleague his 
 uucle Claudius. During his consulship Caligula gave many instances 
 of mildness and generosity ; among other things he restored the 
 kingdom of Commagene, which Tiberiu3 had reduced to a Roman 
 province, to Antiochus, son of the former king. After about eigbt 
 months he fell ill, and the utmost anxiety was shown in inquiring for 
 his health. His recovery was hailed with joy. His conduct however 
 was soon changed. Caligula became addicted to intemperance, volup- 
 tuousness, and cruelty, and his extravagance knew no bounds. He 
 took upon himself the highest titles of honour, and even had temples 
 erected and sacrifices offered to him as a god. It seems probable that 
 his grandmother Antonia died by his orders. According to Dion 
 Cassius, he frequently visited the prisons in person, and ordered all 
 the captives, untried, guilty, or not, to be thrown to wild beasts. 
 Sometimes he would order a number of the spectators to be seized 
 and thrown among them, after having had their tongues cut out, that 
 their cries might not interrupt his ferocious delight. Old age and 
 weakness rather attracted than averted his cruelty. He even put to 
 death Macro, who had been the means of his elevation, and his wife 
 with him. His lust was as excessive as his cruelty. A favourite horse, 
 Incitatus, he fed with gilt oats and delicious wines ; he appointed him 
 a great number of attendants, and treated him with the most absurd 
 attentions. He erected a bridge over the sea from Baiae to Puteoli, on 
 which he rode along, enjoying the sight of numbers of persons drowning 
 under his order. He made great preparations for a war against the 
 Germans, and crossed the Rhine with a large army, but returned 
 without having seen a single enemy. He invaded and plundered Gaul, 
 banished his sisters Agrippina and Livia, pretended that he was going 
 to invade Britain, but returned after he had got a few miles out to 
 sea, and then on his arriving in Rome contented himself with an 
 ovatiou. It is said that Caligula had a design to destroy the works of 
 Homer, Virgil, and Livy. 
 
 Eritieh Museum. Actual size. Bronze. Weight 450 grains. 
 
CALIPPUS. 
 
 81 
 
 After a reign of three years, ten mouth?, and eight days, and in the 
 twenty-ninth year of his age, Caligula was murdered by a hand of 
 conspirators, headed by Cassius Chxrea, a tribune, a.d. 41. (Sueton. 
 in vit-, c 69.) The character of this emperor is pretty accurately given 
 by Seneca ('De Ir&'), when he says that nature seems to have intended 
 to show in the instance of Caligula how much harm can be done by 
 the greatest vices leagued with the greatest power. Perhaps the true 
 explanation of his proceedings is that he was insane. Caligula had 
 several wives, but he left no children behind him. The medal which 
 is here given contains on the reverse the names of his three sisters — 
 Agrippina (afterwards the wife of her uncle the Emperor Claudius), 
 Drusilla, and Julia, who is called Livia or Livilla by Suetonius. (Dion 
 Cassius, pp. 694, 717-763, H. Stephens, 1592.) 
 
 CAL1PPUS, author of the Calippic Period. Calippus, of Cyzicus, 
 lived about B.C. 330. He is said to have been a disciple of Plato. He 
 observed at the Hellespont, and is said to have detected the error of 
 the Metonic cycle by means of a lunar eclipse which happened six 
 years before the death of Alexander. Very little more is known of 
 him, and that little not worth stating. 
 
 . The meaning of the ' Calippic period ' may be briefly stated as 
 follows. Suppose a perfectly central eclipse of the moon to a spectator 
 at. the earth's centre, that is, suppose the centres of the sun and 
 moon, and the junction of the moon's orbit with the ecliptic, or the 
 node, to be all at the same point of the visible heavens. The revo- 
 lutions of these three points, the sun's centre, the moon's centre, and 
 the moon's node, would then begin, and a whole cycle of eclipses would 
 take place, in a manner depending upon the relative motions of the 
 three, until such time as the same phenomenon, namely, the central I 
 lunar eclipse, again happened at the same node. After this, the cycle 
 of eclipses would recommence in the same order, because all the cir- 
 cumstances of motion on which eclipses depend are recommencing. 
 Thus if the second-hand of a watch were mounted on the same pivot 
 as the minute and hour hand, they would all be together at 12 o'clock, 
 and all the possible phases (appearances) which their relative positions 
 could present would be completed in twelve hours, and then begin 
 again. t Next it is evident that though such a coincidence of sun, 
 moon, and moon's node never take place, the period elapsed between 
 two epochs at which the three are very near to each other will present 
 a succession of eclipses which will nearly be repeated, that is, with 
 nearly the same circumstances, in the next such period. 
 
 The cycle of Meton was composed of 235 lunations, or periods from 
 new moon to new moon, containing a very little more than 255 revo- 
 lutions from a node to the same node again, about 254 complete 
 sidereal revolutions of the moon, and 6940 days, or a few hours more 
 than 19 years. This may be called a first approximation, and it is 
 still sufficiently exact for finding Easter. 
 
 Calippus observed that a more correct period might be formed by- 
 taking four times the period of Meton, all but one day, or 27,759 days, 
 or very nearly 76 years. This period contains 940 complete lunations, 
 1020 nodal revolutions, and 1016 complete sidereal revolutions; all 
 very nearly. The Calippic cycle is therefore four Metonic cycles, all 
 but one day. The analogy with the common and leap year will fix this 
 in the memory. Calippus began to reckon his cycles from the new moon 
 next following the summer solstice of the year B.C. 330, being the 
 commencement of the third year of the 112th Olympiad, a.d.c. 423, 
 Julian period 4384, era of Nahonassar 418. 
 
 CAL1XTUS, or KALLISTUS I., one of the early bishops of Rome, 
 succeeded Zephyrinus a.d. 219, and died in 222. Little is known 
 about him; some say he suffered martyrdom, but this is doubted by 
 others. One of the Roman catacomb-', or subterraneous cemeteries, 
 was named after him. 
 
 CALIXTUS II., son of William, Count of Burgundy, succeeded in 
 the see of Rome Gela-ius II. in 1119, and died in 1124. 
 
 CALIXTUS III., ALONZO BOHJA, a Spaniard and bishop of 
 Valencia, was made pope after the death of Nicholas V. iu 1455. He 
 endeavoured to form a general league of the Christian princes against 
 the Turks, in order to save Constantinople. He died in 1458, and 
 was succeeded by Pius II. Calixtus was maternal uncle to Roderic 
 Lenzoli Borja, whom he made cardinal, and who became afterwards 
 Pope Alexander VI. 
 
 There was another Calixtus, an antipope, who assumed the title of 
 Calixtus III. in the schism against Pope Alexander III. in the 12th 
 century, but afterwards submitted and resigned his claim. 
 
 CALKOEN VAN BHEK, JAN FREDERIK, was born May 5th, 
 1772, at Groningen, in Holland. He studied at Amsterdam, and after- 
 wards at Utrecht, where lie remained seven years, at first applying 
 himself to theology, but subsequently to mathematics and astronomy. 
 He afterwards spent some time at the universities of Gottjngen, Leip- 
 zig, aDd Jena, and also visited the observatories of Gotha and Berlin. 
 In 1799 he was appointed professor extraordinary of astronomy and 
 mathematics in the university of Leydcn, and in 1804 he became the 
 ordinary professor. In the following year he accepted the same pro- 
 fessorship in the university of Utrecht. As one of the commission 
 for examining into the weights and measures of Holland, his services 
 were considered of such importance as to receive the public thanks of 
 Louis Bonaparte, the king; and when the National Institute of 
 Holland waB established, he became one of the first members. He 
 di d March 25, 1811. He published a treatise in Latin on the machines 
 
 and other contrivances of the ancients for the measurement of time, 
 and an ' Onderzoek naar den Oorsprong van den Mozaishcn en 
 Christelijken Godsdienst' ('Inquiry into the Origin of the Mosaic 
 and Christian Religion '), which work was written as a refutation of 
 the treatise of Dlipuis entitled ' Origins de tons lee Cultes.' 
 
 CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL, R.A., was born at Ken- 
 sington in 1779, and died in the same place in the close of the year 
 1844, aged sixty-five. He was the brother of the distinguished 
 composer, Dr. Callcott, and he himself in early life officiated for several 
 years in the choir of Westminster Abbey under Dr. Cooke. He how- 
 ever preferred painting to music, and for some time pursued both 
 studies together, until the success of a portrait which he painted 
 under the tuition of Hoppner, in 1799, and which he exhibited, led 
 him to the final choice of painting as his profession. Very little expe- 
 rience however showed him that portrait was not suited to his taste, 
 and in 1803 he devoted himself exclusively to the practice of landscape- 
 painting. 
 
 Callcott was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1806, 
 and a member in 1810. For his diploma picture, he presented a 
 beautiful painting called 'Morning'.' In 1837 he was knighted by the 
 Queen ; and at the death of Mr. Seguier in 1844, he was appointed 
 his successor as Conservator of the Royal pictures; he however held 
 this office for a very short time. He died November 25, 1844, and was 
 buried on the 30th of November in Kensal Green Cemetery, where 
 his wife, Lady Callcott, had been buried two years previously. 
 
 For many years Callcott was a steady and large contributor to the 
 exhibitions of the Royal Academy. His landscapes were generally of 
 small dimensions, and all very similar in style ; but most of them are 
 extensive as views, extremely quiet in character, and strictly belong 
 to the beautiful as a class. He was less extensive in his distances 
 than Claude, but more defined; in his fore-grounds he was more 
 correct and natural than Claude, except in the foliage, especially of 
 large trees ; in colour he was perfectly true and natural. By his 
 admirers he was sometimes designated the English Claude. Like 
 those of his prototype, his works are perhaps more frequently original 
 characteristic pictures of certain scenery, as 'Italy,' 'Morning,' 
 'Evening,' &c, than mere views of particular localities. Many of 
 his pictures have their titles from the occupation of a few figures 
 introduced into them, as 'Returning from Market,' 'Waiting for the 
 Passage-Boat,' ' The Ferry,' &e. He painted also some marine pieces. 
 In 1833 he had in the exhibition a beautiful picture called ' Harvest 
 in the Highlands,' in which the figures were painted by E. Landseer, 
 R, A. : this picture has been admirably engraved by Wilmore for 
 presentation to the subscribers to the Art-Union for 1856. In 1837 
 Callcott departed from his usual style and exhibited 'a picture of 
 'Raffaelle and the Fornarina,' which attracted considerable notice, and 
 was selected by the directors of the London Art-Union to be engraved 
 by L. Stocks for circulation among the subscribers for the year 1843. 
 The success of this piece seems to have induced the painter to attempt 
 a work on a much larger scale in the same style. He exhibited iu 
 1840 a picture of 'Milton dictating to his Daughters,' in which the 
 figures were about the size of life; the attempt was however a failure; 
 the composition was extremely meagre and commoni>lace, and the 
 figures, especially one of the daughters, were ill drawn. Ho\v> vtr, as 
 a landscape-painter, Callcott has earned a reputation which will ensure 
 his name an honourable place among the best recent painters in that 
 department of the ar 
 
 Lady Callcott was the widow of Captain Graham, R.N., and was 
 married to Sir Augustus in 1827. She was born in 1 788 : her niaiden 
 name was Mary Dundas. She was the daughter of Captain Dun las, 
 aud was married early in life to Captain Graham, with whom she 
 went to India in 1809. She remained in India two years, and visited 
 during that period many of the most remarkable places iu that 
 country, and published an account of her travels after her return 
 home. She published at a later period two works relating to Italy, 
 where she dwelt for some time, — 'Three Months in the Environs of 
 Rome,' and ' Memoirs of Poussin.' In 1821 she embarked with her 
 husband for South America, but Captain Graham died during the 
 voyage, and was buried at Valparaiso. 
 
 After her second marriage she paid another visit to Italy, in the 
 company of Sir Augustus, aud turned her attention particularly to 
 art. In 1836 she published her last literary work, under the title — 
 'Essays towards the History of Painting,' which, notwithstanding an 
 unfortunate corruption of name3, partly due to the old translation of 
 Pliny by Philemon Holland, and a few other inaccuracies, is a very 
 creditable popular performance. She died Nov. 20, 1842. 
 
 {Art-Union Journal, 1843-45; Catalogues of the Exhtbitions of the 
 Royal Academy ; Waagen, Kunstiverke und Kiinstlcr in England.) 
 
 CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL, one of the brightest ornaments of the 
 British school of music, was born in 1766, at Kensington, where his 
 father carried on the business of a builder. At the age of seven he 
 was entered as day-boarder in a neighbouring school, where he made 
 such progress that he commenced reading the Greek Testament iu hi3 
 twelfth year, when family affairs occasioned his removal, from which 
 period, great and various as were bis acquirements, he was self- 
 educated, a circumstance to which, probably, the vigour of his 
 unshackled mind may be attributed. Music, at first his amusement, 
 accidentally became his profession, in-tead of surgery, for wh en ho 
 
85 CALLENBERG, JOHANN-HEINIUCH. 
 
 was preparing to qualify himself, when tlie sight of a severe operation 
 bo powerfully acted on nerves of remarkable sensibility, that he at 
 once abandoned all hope of succeeding in the healing art, and devoted 
 himself to that of harmony, the study of which he prosecuted without 
 any master; though by a constant attendance at the Chapel Royal, at 
 Westminster Abbey, and many concerts, together with the friendly 
 liiuts, given, in frequent conversations, by Doctors Cooke and Arnold, 
 he, no doubt, profited very largely. 
 
 He commenced his professional career in the subordinate capacity 
 of deputy-organist of St. George the Martyr, Queen Square; and at 
 about the same time made his first attempt in the composition of that 
 truly national music, the Glee. In 1785, when only nineteen years 
 of age, he appeared as a candidate for the prizes annually given by 
 the Catch Club, and obtained three out of the four gold medals. 
 Among the successful pieces was that masterly composition, ' Oh ! 
 sovereign of the willing soul.' Thus encouraged, he followed up with 
 ardour and industry the course so auspiciously begun, and in the 
 following ten years, twenty medals of the same distinguished society 
 were awarded to him. 
 
 In 1785 Mr. Callcott was admitted bachelor-in-music by the 
 University of Oxford. In 17»7 he assisted in forming the Glee-Club. 
 In 1790 he took advantage of the arrival of Haydn in this country, 
 and derived considerable knowledge in the higher branch of instru- 
 mental composition from that illustrious musician. He advanced to 
 the degree of doetor iu-music at Oxford, in 1790; his exercise was a 
 Latin motet, selected from Isaiah, beginning ' Propter Sion non 
 tacebo.' His ' Musical Grammar ' appeared in 1805. About the year 
 1S06, he undertook to deliver lectures on music at the Royal Institu- 
 tion, a task "most of all others suited to his studies and gratifying 
 to his ambition : but the very anxiety he felt to execute the duty in 
 a manner worthy of himself, rendered his hopes futile, and bis efforts 
 unavailing. His mind, long overstrained, now sank at once under the 
 burdens he had so unsparingly laid on it, and he became incompetent 
 to the fulfilment of any of his engagements." After a seclusion of 
 five years, he rallied for a time, and by avoiding all severe study or 
 exciting occupation, afforded hopes to his friends that his mental 
 powers were permanently restored. This gleam however lasted but 
 three years, when he was once more assailed by the most woful of 
 human maladies, and never recovered. He died in May 1821. 
 
 The productions of this original and ingenious composer are too 
 numerous, and indeed too well known, to be particularised here : the 
 choicest of them were, in 1824, collected and published in two hand- 
 some volumes, by his son-in-law, Mr. Horsley. Dr. Callcott left a 
 widow, ei^bt daughters, and two sons. One of the latter has attained 
 considerable distinction in his father's art. 
 
 (Horsley, Memoir of Br. Callcott ; and Harmonicon, ix. 53.) 
 
 CALLENBERG, JOHANN-HEINRICH, was born January 12, 
 1G94, in the principality of Saxe-Gotha. He studied at the university 
 of Halle, and was appointed professor of philosophy in 1727, and 
 professor of theology in 1739. At the period when he became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy there was a very strong feeling among the members 
 of the Protestant churches in favour of missions to the East, for the 
 conversion of the Mohammedaus and other inhabitants of those coun- 
 tries to Christianity. Calleuberg, himself a Protestant with very 
 decided religious sentiments, entered into these views with great 
 enthusiasm; and being a man of property, established, at his own 
 expense and on his own premises, a printing-office for the publication 
 of works in Arabic and Hebrew, for the furtherance of the missionary 
 cause. Here were printed translations into Arabic of portions of the 
 Old Testament, the whole of the New Testament, Luther's Shorter 
 Catechism, the 'Imitation of Jesus Christ' (somewhat curtailed), 
 portions of Grotius on the ' Truth of the Christian Religion,' the 
 'Rudiments of the Arabic Language,' and other works necessary for 
 those who as missionaries in the East had to communicate with many 
 nations speaking that language. He was also anxious for the conver- 
 sion of the Jews to Christianity, and with that view wrote a ' Kurze 
 Anleitung zur Judisch-Teutchen Sprache' (Short Introduction to the 
 Speech of the German-Jews), 8vo, 1733, to which he added in 1736 a 
 short dictionary of the corrupt Hebrew spoken among themselves by 
 the Jews of Germany, the former work being an elementary grammar 
 of the same speech. He continued his labours in writing, translating, 
 and printing a variety of works useful for the missionaries till his 
 death, which occurred July 16, 1760. We have merely indicated a 
 few of the works which issued from his press. A full notice of them 
 would occupy much space. They were all directed to the promotion 
 of the missionary cause, to which, with indefatigable zeal, he devoted 
 the labours of his life. Callenberg wrote in German two works, in 
 one of which he gives a detailed account of the means which had been 
 used to convert the Jews to Christianity, and in the other of the 
 labours of the missionaries among the Mohammedans. 
 
 CALLET, JEAN-FRANCOIS, born at Versailles, October 25, 1744. 
 His mother was stated by a family tradition to have been of the 
 family of Des Cartes. He came to Paris in 1768 ; in 1783 he published 
 his edition of Gardiner's logarithms in octavo. In 1788 he was made 
 professor of hydrography at Vanues, ar.d afterwards at Dunkirk. Ho 
 returned to Paris in 1792, and was Professeur des ingdnieurs- 
 gdographes au Depot de la Guerre for four years. After the sup- 
 pression of this place, he became a private teacher of mathematics. 
 
 CALLIMACHUS. 
 
 In 1795 ho published his stereotyped logarithms, with tables of 
 logarithmic sines for the new decimal division of the circle, the first 
 which had then appeared. He died November 14, 1798. (Lalande, 
 'Bibliog. Astron.,' p. 805.) 
 
 The last logarithms of Callet (' Tables portatives de Logarithmes,' 
 Paris, Firmin Didot, 1795) are still in general use, and are very con- 
 venient in many respects. The logarithms of numbers are arranged 
 so that when the third figure changes, the line in which the remaining 
 four figures are placed falls, so that the latter are opposite to their 
 correct preceding figures. The logarithmic sines, &c, are to every 
 ten seconds, sexagesimal as usual, the first five degrees being to every 
 second. 
 
 CALLICRA'TIDAS, a Spartan officer who was appointed to succeed 
 Lysander in the command of the Peloponnesian fleet in the -lEgean 
 Sea, B.C. 406, at the beginning of the twenty-fourth year of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. Of simple, straight-forward character, he was no 
 match for Lysander and his friends in the arts of intrigue ; and they 
 used their best endeavours to perplex his plaus and frustrate all his 
 operations. So far as the caballing of his officers was concerned, he 
 got over the difficulty by putting the simple question — whether they 
 preferred that he should retain the command, or that he should sail 
 home, and relate at Sparta the condition in which he found things ? 
 for none durst stand the chance of accusation at home. But for the 
 pay of his fhet he was dependent upon Cyrus, the Persian commander- 
 in-chief of the king's forces in western Asia Minor ; and when he went 
 to that prince at Sardis to obtain a supply of money, he was so dis- 
 gusted by Asiatic pride, and ceremony, and dilatoriness, that, leaving 
 the object of his journey unaccomplished, he returned to Miletus, 
 saying that the Greeks were indeed miserable thus to cringe to barba- 
 rians for their money, and that if he lived to return home he would 
 do his best to reconcile the Athenians aud the Lacedemonians. Having 
 obtained a sum upon loan, he sailed to Lesbos, and took Methymne 
 by assault. The town was given up to pillage. Callicratidas was 
 urged to sell the citizens for slaves, according to the usual practice of 
 Greek warfare ; but ho replied, that while he had the command no 
 Grecian citizen should be made a slave. This liberal sentiment how- 
 ever did not influence him in regard to the Athenians ; for Xenophon 
 (if there is no error in the text) says in the next line that the Athenians 
 who formed the garrison were sold. (See the note of F. A. Wolff on 
 this passage.) 
 
 After this success Callicratidas met Conon, the Athenian commander, 
 at sea, attieked him, gained a victory, and blockaded him in the 
 harbour of Mitylene. Intelligence of this arriving at Athens, a power- 
 ful fleet of 110 ships was equipped and manned within the space of 
 thirty days, and sent to the lelief of Conon. Callicratidas left 50 
 ships to maintain the blockade, and with only 120 advanced to meet 
 the enemy, whose number was increased by reinforcements from the 
 allied states to 150 and upwards. The fleets met between Lesbos and 
 the main land, near the small islands called Argiuusse. Hermon, the 
 master of Callicratidas' s ship, recommended the Spartan commander 
 to retreat without hazarding a battle. He replied, that if he were 
 dead Sparta would be no worse off ; but that it was base to fly. The 
 battle was long and doubtful, but ended in the complete defeat of the 
 Lacedaemonians, with the loss of 70 ships. Callicratidas perished in 
 it, being thrown overboard by the shock of his own ship against one 
 of the enemy. (Xenophon, ' Hellenics,' lib. i. c. 6.) 
 
 CALLl'MACHUS, a celebrated Greek sculptor of uncertain age, 
 but probably of about the time of Phidias. He was apparently an 
 Athenian, though some claim him for Corinth, because he is recorded by 
 Vitruvius as the inventor of the Corinthian capital. Callimachus is, 
 on the other hand, supposed to have been of Athens, from a report 
 noticed by Vitruvius, and in part by Pliny, and Pausanias, that the 
 Athenians used to call him Catatechnos, KaTarexvos, because of the 
 elegancy aud refinement of his style, or rather Catatexitechnos, 
 KaraTTj^'rex 1 ' 05 ! according to the emendation of Sillig, (following the 
 reading of one or two manuscripts) signifying one who weakens or 
 effeminates an art, in allusion to the excessive finish by which he 
 greatly injured the effect aud value of his works. Pliny calls him the 
 calumniator of himself, and says that he never knew when to leave off 
 finishing his works ; the same fault was found with Protogenes." 
 
 If Callimachus invented the Coriuthian capital, this circumstance 
 enables us, as Winckelmann has observed, in some degree to fix his time. 
 It must have been before the 95th Olympiad, about 400 B.C., for 
 Scopas then erected a temple of Minerva, according to Pausanias, with 
 columns of the Corinthian order at Tegea; but it was probably not 
 much earlier than that date, as his style was so elaborate and finished. 
 There is a bas-relief in the capitol at Rome, with KaAAijuaxos firuiei 
 engraved upon it, which represents a dance of three bacchantes and a 
 fawn ; and some have, with little probability, supposed this to be the 
 same work which Pliny notices as a dance of Spartan virgins by 
 Callimachus. 
 
 CALLl'MACHUS, a Greek poet, was at the height of his reputation 
 a little after the time of the .first Punic war, 264 B.C. (Aul. Gell., 
 xvii. 21, 41.) We learn from Suidas the following particulars re- 
 specting him. He was the son of Battus aud Mesatma, was bora at 
 Cyrene, and studied under Hermocrates of Iasus. His wife was the 
 daughter of one Euphrates, a Syracusan; he had a sister called 
 Megatima, who married one Stasenor; the ofl'spriug of this marriage 
 
87 
 
 CALLISTHENES. 
 
 CALOGIERA, ANGELO. 
 
 86 
 
 was a son, who bore the same name as his uncle, and wrote an epic 
 poem on islands. Callimachus, before he was taken into favour by 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, by whom he was highly honoured (Strabo, p. 
 838), kept a school iu a quarter of Alexandria called Eleusis, and had 
 among his pupils Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, the cele- 
 brated grammarian, and Apollonius of Rhodes, the author of the 
 'Argonautics.' He was alive when Ptolemy Euergetes ascended the 
 throne in B.C. 247. 
 
 It appears from an epigram attributed to Callimachus (Jacob's 
 'Authol. Palat./ vol. i. p. 4G6) that his grandfather's name was also 
 Callimachus ; and the assertion of Suidas, that he was the son of 
 Battus, is perhaps merely an inference from his epithet Battiades, 
 which may be explained from the fact that he believed himself 
 descended from the founder of Cyrene (Strabo, p. 837). Of his 
 numerous writings only some hymns and epigrams remain. Of his 
 lost works, which are most quoted, we may mention his ' Hecale,' a 
 long poem (on which we refer our readers to the learned papers by 
 Nake in the 'Rheiniscbes Museum,' ii. 4, and iii. 4); his historical 
 Memorials, which are also attributed to Zenodotus (' Athen.' iii. p. 95); 
 a 'Treatise ou Birds,' also quoted by Athenseus; and a 'List of all 
 kinds of Writings ' (irlva^ TravToSawuu uvy/paufxaruv), which consisted 
 of 120 books; so that he doubtless merited the epithet 'well-informed' 
 (voKviffTup), given him by Strabo (p. 438). He wrote an invective 
 under the name of ' Ibis ' against his scholar Apollonius, who had 
 offended him, and the title was subsequently adopted by Ovid for a 
 satirical poem of the same kind. As we might expect from the age 
 and employments of Callimachus, his remaining poems display much 
 more of grammatical art than of poetical imagination, although they 
 are not without that kind of beauty which is the result of much labour 
 and learning. The first edition of the Hymns of Callimachus was by 
 John Lascaris, Florence, 4to., probably printed about a.d. 1500 : this 
 edition is printed in capital letters. The latest editions are that by 
 Blomfield, 8vo, Lond. 1815 ; and a small edition by Volger, Leipzig, 
 1817, 8vo. 
 
 CALLI'STH ENES. [Alexander III.] 
 
 CALLI'STRATUS, a Roman jurist, who was writing under the 
 joint reign of Severus and Antoninus (1. tit. 19, s. 3 ; 49. tit. 14, s. 3), 
 by whom are meant Septimius Severus and his son Antoninus Cara- 
 calla. Severus died a.d. 211. Lampridius (' Alexander Severus,' 68), 
 mentions a Callistratus as one of the Council of the Emperor Alexander 
 Severus ; and this may be the Callistratus under notice. 
 
 Callistratus is oue of the Jurists from whose writings Justinian's 
 'Digest' was compiled: the works of Callistratus from which the 
 excerpts in the 'Digest' are taken, were— six books 'De Cognitionibus;' 
 six books of tbe 'Edicturn Monitorium ;' four books on the 'JusFisci;' 
 three books of ' Inatitutiones ;' two books of ' Queestiones.' It appears 
 from ' InstitutioDes' being mentioned as one of the works of Callis- 
 tratus, that he was one of those Roman jurists who wrote institutional 
 treatises, such a3 Gaius. 
 
 CALLOT, JACQUES, an eminent engraver, was born at Nanci, in 
 1592, of a family recently ennobled. His father discountenancing his 
 choice of a profession, he fled from home iu order to make his way 
 to Rome, the capital of the fine arts. Falling in with a troop of 
 gipsie3, he travelled iu their company as far as Florence, where a 
 gentleman, pleased with his ingenuous ardour, placed him with an 
 artist to study; but he soon left him for Rome. At Rome he met 
 some acquaintances of his family, who compelled him to return home. 
 He ran away a second time, and was a second time brought back, by 
 his elder brother, whom he met at Turin. During his youthful 
 adventures, as the story goes, his morals were preserved uncorrupted, 
 by his constant prayer that he might grow up a good man, excel in 
 his profession, and live to the age of forty-three. He set out a third 
 time, with his father's tardy concurrence, and studied for a long time 
 at Rome. On his way homewards he was detained for many years by 
 Cosmo II. After tbe death of his patron he returned to Nanci, 
 married, and fixed his residence among his friends. He acquired 
 considerable wealth, and his fame was such that he was invited to 
 witness and perpetuate the events of the siege of Breda, and afterwards 
 the sieges of Rochelle and Rhe" ; but he declined to commemorate the 
 subsequent capture of his native place, and likewise refused a pension 
 and lodging at Paris, offered to him by Louis XIII. He died March 
 28^ 1 635, of complaints incidental to the practice of his art. 
 
 Callot possessed a lively and fertile invention, and he had a singular 
 power of enriching a -small space with a multitude of figures and 
 actions. He engraved both with the burin and the needle ; but by 
 far his best works are free etchings, touched with the burin, delicately 
 executed and sometimes wonderfully minute. There is a want of 
 unity and breadth of effect in some of his larger engravings ; indeed, 
 he never seems to have acquired mastery over the graver, and en- 
 graved even fewer pictures than most of his profession, working 
 chiefly from original designs. His principal works are the 'Sieges,' 
 above-mentioned, the ' Miseries of War,' certain ' Festivities at 
 Florence,' and a set of Capricci. He painted a few pictures, but 
 they are extremely rare ; they are of small size on copper, and 
 painted with almost excessive neatness. Vandyck painted his portrait, 
 which has been engraved by Boulonais and Vostermann. (Felibien ; 
 Perrault; De Haldat, he.) 
 
 CALMET. AUGUSTINE, was born at Mcsnil-la-IIorcne. near 
 
 Commercy, in the modern department of the Meuse, on February 6th, 
 1672. He received the first rudiments of his education at the priory 
 of Breuil; studied rhetoric at Pont a-Musson ; and afterwards entered 
 the Benedictine abbey of Mansuy, in the Fauxbourg of Toul, where he 
 took the vows in 1689. Greek, Hebrew, philosophy, and divinity 
 engrossed his time until 1 704, when he was appointed sub-prior at the 
 abbey of Munster, in which he appears to have diligently pursued his 
 biblical studies. In 1707 he published in French the first volume of 
 his commentaries upon the Bible. In 1715 he purchased the priory 
 of St. Lay from the Abbd Morel, the king's almoner, for a pension of 
 3000 livres, and three years afterwards he was appointed abbd of 
 St. Leopold of Nanci. .His priory of St. Lay was surrendered by him 
 when, in 1723, he was chosen abbe 1 of Sdnones, and he then also 
 declined the title of bishop ' in partibus iufidelium,' which was offered 
 to him by Pope Benedict XIII., at the suggestion of the college of 
 cardinals. He died in his abbey on the 25th of October 1757, greatly 
 esteemed both for learning and for moderation. Tho following is a 
 lis* of his principal works : — ' Commentaire Litte'ral sur tous les livres 
 de I'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament,' 1707-16, in 23 vols. 4>to, 
 Reprinted in Paris 1713, 26 vols. 4to, and 9 vols, fob; and abridged 
 in 14 vols. 4 to. Rondet published a new edition of this abridgement. 
 Avignon, 1767-73, 17 vols. 4to. The Dissertations and Prefaces belong- 
 ing to his Commentary were published with 19 new Dissertations, 
 Paris, 1720, 2 vols. 4to. ' Histoire de I'Ancien et du Nouveau Testa- 
 ment,' intended as an introduction to Fleury's 'Ecclesiastical History,' 
 2 and 4 vols. 4to, and 5 and 7 vols. 12mo. ' De la Poesie et Musique 
 des Anciens Hebreux,' Amst. 1723, 8vo. ' Dictionnaire Historique, 
 Critique, et Chronologique de la Bible, enrichi d'uu grand nombre de 
 figures en taille douce qui representent les antiquite's Judaiques.' 
 ' Dictionnaire de la Bible,' &c, 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1722. ' Supplement 
 a ce Dictionnaire,' 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1728. Reprinted in 4 vols. 4to, 
 Paris, 1730. This very valuable work was translated into English, 
 under the title ' Historical, Geographical, Critical, Chronological, and 
 Etymological Dictionary of tbe Holy Bible.' To which is added 
 ' Bibliotheca Sacra,' or a catalogue of the best editions of the Bible, 
 and commentaries upon it translated by J. D. Oyley and J. Calson, 
 with cuts, London, 1732, 3 vols, folio. Three or four more recent 
 English versions founded upon this, but having various notes and 
 additions, have been since published in London : perhaps the best is 
 that published under the editorial care of Mr. I. Taylor*. ' Histoire 
 ecclesiastique et civile de la Lorraine depuis l'entrde de Jules Cesar 
 dans les Gaules jusqu' a hi rnort de Charles V. Due de Lorraine ; avec 
 les pieces justiflcatives a la fin,' Nancy, 1728, 4 vols. fol. Reprinted 
 1745 in 5 vols. fol. ' Bibliotheque des Ecrivaius de Lorraine,' 1751, 
 folio. 'Histoire Universelle Sacrde et Profane,' 15 vols. 4to. This 
 undertaking Calmet did not live to finish, and, in other respects, it is 
 not his best work. 'Dissertations sur les Apparitions des Anges, de3 
 Ddmons, et des Esprits, et sur les Revenaus et Vampires de Hougrie,' 
 Paris, 1740, 12mo; Einsiedlen, 1749, 12mo; Paris, 1751, 2 vols. 12mo. 
 Translated and published iu English in 1759, 8vo. ' Commentaire 
 Litte'ral, Historique, et Moral, sur la Regie de St. Benoit,' 1754, 2 vols. 
 4 to. Perhaps the most useful of Calmet's works, certainly the one 
 most familiar to the English reader is the ' Dictionary of the Bible.' 
 All his works indeed are replete with learning, but should be read 
 with some degree of caution. Calmet was deeply imbued with fancitul 
 and rabbinical theories. Though a man of great learning he had a 
 strong leaning to the marvellous, and his tendency to superstition was 
 not controlled by a sound judgment. Voltaire, in his usual lively 
 manner, describes him as a man who does not think, but furnishes 
 others with materials for thinking. 
 
 CALOGIERA, ANGELO, born at Padua in 1699, of a family 
 originally from Corfu, studied at Venice, and entered at an early age 
 the monastery of St. Michele, near Murano, which belonged to the 
 order of the Camaldulenses. After having taken his vows, he was 
 sent to Ravenna to teach theology, where he acquired a large store of 
 varied literary kuowledge, and formed many valuable acquaintances. 
 Calogiera, after some years, returned to his monastery of St. Michele, 
 where he spent the greater part of his remaining life in his favourite 
 literary studies. He was induced to compile an annual selection from 
 the numerous papers which were read in the various scientific and 
 philological academies scattered about Italy, and which, for want of a 
 common journal, remained buried and forgotten in their respective 
 archives. Calogiera undertook the ta^k, iu which he was assisted by 
 Pier Caterino Zeno, Facciolati, Vallisnieri, Muratori, Manni, and other 
 learned contemporaries. He began to publish iu 172S, at Venice, the 
 'Raccolta d'Opuscoli Scieutifici e Filologici,' which continued to 
 appear periodically till 1753, when the series closed by its fifty-first 
 volume, which contains an index of the whole collection. He resumed 
 it however iu 1754, under the title of ' Nuova Raccolta d'Opuscoli 
 Scientifici e Filologici,' which he carried on to the time of bis death, 
 iu 1768, after which it was continued by his co-religionist Father 
 Mandelli till 1784, when the fortieth and last volume of this second 
 series appeared. The two series constitute an ample store of Italian 
 learning during the 18th century. Amidst many papers which have 
 only a local and temporary interest, there are many others which are 
 truly valuable, and which could not be found anywhere else. Calogiera 
 wrote also a kind of literary journal entitled ' Memorie per servire alia 
 Storia Letteraria ;* he wrote with Apostolo Zeno in the journal ' La 
 
3P 
 
 CALOMARDE. FRANCISCO TADEO. 
 
 CALVIN, JOHN. 
 
 Minerva,' and he also contributed to a new edition of the ' Biblioteca 
 volante' of Cinelli. Calogiera was appointed in 1730 Revisore or book 
 Censor for the Venetian State. He left a voluminous correspondence, 
 which is inedited. (Lombardi, Storia della Letteiatura Itaiiana nel 
 Secolo XVIII.) 
 
 CALOMARDE, FRANCISCO TADEO. the leading minister of the 
 Spanish cabinet for ten years under Ferdinand VII., was born at the 
 town of Villel, in Lower Aragon, on the 10th of February 1775. His 
 parents were so poor, that when he became a student of law at the 
 university of Saragossa he was obliged to eke out his means of sub- 
 sistence by officiating in off hours as a lady's page. A story is told in 
 his life, by Cardenas, that one evening some merchants of Teruel, who 
 learned that the page who was carrying the lantern to light them to 
 his mistress's evening party was studying the law, a-ked him what he 
 aimed at becoming ; and that the youth replied, with much gravity, 
 "Minister of grace and justice.'' This was considered so preposterous, 
 that it was repeated amid roars of laughter at the party, and served 
 as a standing jest against Calomarde, more especially as his abilities 
 as. a student were far from remarkable. But when he removed to 
 Madrid to practise as a lawyer, the young Aragonese soon found a 
 path to fortune by marrying the daughter of Beltran, another Ara- 
 gonese, the physician to Godoy, then in the zenith of his power as the 
 reigning favourite, and though in the course of a few months he 
 parted with his wife for ever, he remained fixed in the office to which 
 his father-in-law had introduced hini. The French invasion drove 
 him to Cadiz ; and his rejection as a candidate for the first Cortes is 
 said to have turned him from an adherent of the liberal into one of 
 the absolutist party. Through the stormy years that followed he was 
 sometimes in power in interior offices, and sometimes in banishment 
 and disgrace, till, on the fall of the constitutional government by the 
 invasion of the Duke of Angouleme, and the restoration of absolute 
 power under Ferdinand, Calomarde finally attained his object, and 
 was named in 1823 to the post he had aspired to in boyhood, in suc- 
 cession to the Marquis of Casa Irujo, whose death proved a serious 
 loss to Spain. It was while Calomarde was minister of grace and 
 justice, that, on the 31st of July 1826, an unhappy schoolmaster 
 named Antonio Ripoll was executed at Valencia for denying the 
 Trinity and other leading doctrines of the church — the only auto-da-ft 
 for the last thirty years in Spain. The disgrace of most of the mea- 
 sures of the period, from 1823 to 1833, which was a period of marked 
 retrogression in every point of view, belongs to Ferdinand and Calo- 
 marde ; but it is not easy to decide in what proportions, as it ia 
 asserted by some that the minister was merely an obsequious tool — 
 by others, that he often prompted the malignant passions of the king. 
 His principal care appears to have been to keep himself in place, and 
 to promote as many Aragonese as possible, a propensity which was 
 the subject of Ferdinand's frequent sarcasm. His long term of power 
 came to an end with an event which was not only a crisis in the life of 
 Calomarde, but a most momentous crisis in the history of Spain. King 
 Ferdinand had revived in favour of his daughter by Queen Christina, 
 the present Queen Isabella, the law which allowed of the female 
 inheritance of the crown — a law which had been abolished by treaty 
 with foreign powers at the peace of Utrecht, but secretly agreed to be 
 resumed by king and cortes towards the close of the ISth century. In 
 September 1833, when the king considered himself on his death-bed, 
 his mind was agitated by the thought of the probable consequences of 
 this arrangement, which deprived his brother Don Carlos, the favourite 
 of the absolutists, of the succession to the throne. He asked the 
 advice of Calomarde, who told him that the royalist volunteers, the 
 supporters of the absolute party, had arms in their hands, that they 
 numbered 200,000 men, and that it was useless to expect they would 
 consent to see the succession altered without a civil war, which 
 would very probably bring on the total destruction of the opposite 
 party. The Queen Christina herself was brought to assent to this 
 view of tilings; and the king caused a document to be drawn up in 
 the nature of a codicil to his will, which restored the male line of 
 succession, but he strictly commanded that it should be kept entirely 
 secret till after his death. The next day the king was seized with a 
 lethargy, and lay insensible for many hours, nor was it supposed by 
 any around him that he w ould ever recover. Impatient to worship 
 the rising sun, Calomarde communicated the contents of the important 
 document to Don Carlos, and crowds flocked to the palace of the 
 prince to secure their future fortunes, the momentous intelligence 
 became public, and roused all the apprehensions of the liberals of 
 Madrid. The queen's sister, the Princess Luisa Carlota of Naples, 
 wife of the king's brother Don Francisco, was a woman of strong 
 passions and masculine resolution : she hurried to the palace of San 
 Ildefonso, where Ferdinaud was lying, now recovering from his 
 lethargy, summoned Calomarde to her presence, reproached him with 
 his treachery, and told him not to flatter himself that his baseuess 
 would escape its deserved chastisement. The princess next sent for 
 the codicil and tore it to pieces with her own hand?. When this could 
 be done with impunity, Calomarde might augur what he had to ex- 
 pect : he secretly left the palace, was concealed for some days in 
 Madrid, then took refuge in a convent, and finally made his way in 
 disguise to the frontiers, pursued by officers with the king's orders for 
 Lis confinement in the citadel of Minorca. A sergeant and party of 
 soldiers arrested him on the border of France, but were prevailed 
 
 upon with the promise of a sum of money to let him pass, for which 
 they were afterwards dismissed the service in disgrace. Calomarde's 
 exertions in Don Carlos's cause failed to procure him the favour of 
 Don Carlos. When, after the death of Ferdinand, the civil war broke 
 out in the Basque provinces, he quitted France to offer his services at 
 the head-quarters of the Pretender, he was refused even an interview, 
 it is supposed from resentment at his weakness in allowing himself to 
 be too easily defeated. With the exception of a visit to Rome, the 
 rest of his life was spent in France, chiefly at Toulouse, where his very 
 liberal charities to all his countrymen earned him the title of Father 
 of the Spaniards, and where, after some years of dejection, he died on 
 the 21st of June 1842, regretted by none but the recipients of his 
 bounty. 
 
 CALO'NNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE, was born at Douai, 
 January 20, 1734. Having attained distinction as a lawyer, he was made 
 successively attorney-general to the parliament of Douai, intendant of 
 Metz, inspector-general of firjances, treasurer, and lastly minister of 
 state. He found the finances in a state of great embarrassment, and 
 being unable to fill up the deficit, he advised Louis XVI. to convoke 
 the assembly of the notables in 1787, before whom he made his well- 
 known statement of the financial affairB of the kingdom. Being taxed 
 with prodigality and malversation, he was dismissed by the king, and 
 was succeeded by Brienne. Calonne retired to Flanders, and after- 
 wards to England, where he spent the greater part of his latter years 
 and wrote numerous political and financial pamphlets. Although 
 belonging to the royalist party, he was not extravagant in his opinions, 
 and he therefore incurred the enmity of the more violent royalists. 
 His ' Tableau de l'Europe en Novembre,' 1795 ; ' Pensees sur ce qu'on 
 a fait et ce qu'on n'auroit pas du faire,' 8vo, 1796; ' Des Finances 
 publiques de la France,' 1797, &c, afford materials for the history of 
 those times. In 1802 he obtained leave of Bonaparte to return to 
 France, where he died in October of the same year. 
 
 CALPURNIUS, TITUS JU'LIUS, a Latiu poet and a native of 
 Sicily, has left eleven eclogues, written somewhat in the manner ol 
 Virgil's, whom he seems to have imitated. He is believed to have 
 lived in the 3rd century, and enjoyed the favour of the emperoi 
 Carus ; but nothing very definite is known respecting him. His 
 Latinity is better than his taste, and his language more tolerant than 
 his subject or his mode of treating it. These eclogues have often been 
 edited, and are printed in the ' Poetae Latini Minores ' of Burmano. 
 An excellent revision of the text was published by Glaeser, Gottingen, 
 1842. 
 
 CALVERT, DENIS, sometimes called FIAMMINGO, a distin- 
 guished painter in his time, especially in landscape, was born at 
 Antwerp about 1555, or, according to Oietti, in 1565. He settled 
 early in Bologna, and studied there, first with Fontana, and afterwards 
 with Sabbatini, with whom he visited Rome and assisted in some 
 works there. After a stay of some time in Parma, Calvert returned 
 to Bologna and opened a school there, which became very celebrated, 
 and was numerously attended : he is said to have taught 137 painters. 
 His school was unrivalled in Bologna until the establishment of the 
 famous school of the Caracci, which in a few years completely super- 
 seded it. Some of the greatest scholars however of the Caracci had 
 been students in the school of Calvert, as Domenichino, Guido, and 
 Albani, three of the most famous of the Bolognese painters. 
 
 Calvert died at Bologua in 1619. He is spoken of with great 
 respect by Malvasia and other Italian historians of art. There is 
 nothing peculiarly Flemish in his style, unless it be his colour, in 
 which he excelled, and on account of which he was greatly esteemed 
 by the Bolognese painters. His pictures, of which there are still 
 several in Bologna, are strictly in an Italian style of design; in land- 
 scape he was superior to any of his Bolognese contemporaries. His 
 masterpieces are a St. Michael in the church of San Petronio, and 
 a Purgatory alle Grazie. The majority of his pictures were of small 
 size and painted on copper. 
 
 (Malvasia, Fclsina Pdtricc ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, <fcc.) 
 
 CALVERT, GEORGE. [Baltimore, Lohd.] 
 
 CALVIN, JOHN, was born on the 10th of July 1509, at Noyon in 
 Picardy, where his father, Gerard Cauvin, was by trade a cooper. His 
 parents being of respectable character, but in humble circumstances, 
 young Calvin, who had early shown a pious disposition, was taken 
 under the protection of a family of wealth in the place, and sent by 
 them to the University of Paris to study for the church. At the age 
 of twelve he obtained from the bishop a benefice in the cathedral of 
 Noyon, to which, in about five years afterwards, was added the cure 
 of Monteville; but this he exchanged two years after for the cure 
 of Pont-l'Eveque. All this time he was pursuing his studies, and had 
 not even received priest's orders. His father now changed his mind 
 as to the destination of his son, and desired him to turn his attention 
 to the law as the sure road to wealth and honour. This change was 
 not unacceptable to Calvin, who, from his perusal of the Scriptures — a 
 copy of which was furnished him by Robert Olavetan, who was a 
 fellow-scholar, and likewise a native of Noyon — had already been con- 
 vinced of many of the errors of the Romish Church. He accordingly 
 left Paris, and repaired first to Orleans, where he studied under Peter 
 Stella, and then to Bruges, where Andrew Alciat filled the chair of 
 law ; and where also, which was more important to Calvin's future 
 character, Milchior Wolmar, the reformer, taught him the Greek 
 
n 
 
 CALVIN, JOHN. 
 
 CALVIN, JOHN 7 . 
 
 tongue. Here Calvin was confirmed in the doctrines of the Reforma- 
 tion, and began indeed to preach them in the villages. His father 
 however dying at this time, he returned to Noyon, but after a short 
 period went to Paris, where, in the year 1532, he published his 
 Commentaries on Seneca's two books, ' De dementia.' 
 
 Calvin now resigned his benefices, and devoted himself to divinity. 
 The following year, Cop, the rector of the University of Paris, having 
 occasion to read a public discourse on the festival of All Saints' Day, 
 Calvin persuaded him to declare his opinion on the new doctrines. 
 This brought upon them both the indignation of the Sorbonne and 
 parliament, and they were forced to leave the city. Calvin went to 
 several places, and at length to Angouleme, where he got shelter in 
 the house of Louis du Tallet, a canon of Angouleme, and supported 
 himself some time there by teaching Greek. It was there he com- 
 posed the greater part of his ' Institutes of the Christian Religion,' 
 which were published about two years afterwards. The Queen of 
 Navarre, sister to Francis I., having shown him some countenance in 
 respect of his learning and abilities, and no doubt also of his suffer- 
 ings, he returned to Paris in the year 1534 under her protection; but 
 persecution being again threatened, he quitted France the same year, 
 having first published a work, which he called ' Psychopannychia/ to 
 confute the error of those who held that the soul remained in a state 
 of sleep between death and the resurrection, and retired to Basel in 
 Switzerland, where he published the ' Institutes,' which he dedicated 
 to Francis I., in an elegant Latin epistle. The design of the 'Insti- 
 tutes ' was to exhibit a full view of the doctrines of the reformers ; 
 and as no similar work had appeared since the Reformation, and the 
 peculiarities of the Romish Church were attacked in it with great 
 force and vigour, it immediately became highly popular. It soon 
 went through several editions ; it was translated by Calvin himself 
 into French, and has since been translated into all the principal 
 modern languages. Its effect upon the Christian world has been so 
 remarkable as to entitle it to be looked upon as one of those books 
 that have changed the face of society. 
 
 After the publication of this great work Calvin went to Italy to 
 visit the reformers there, and was received with marked distinction by 
 the learned Duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Louis XII. But not- 
 withstanding her protection, the Inquisition opened upon him, and he 
 was obliged to seek safety in flight. He returned to France, but soon 
 left it again, and in the month of August 1536 arrived at Geneva, 
 where the reformed religion had been the same year publicly estab- 
 lished. There, at the urgent request of Farel, Viret, and other 
 eminent reformers, by whom that revolution had been achieved, he 
 became a preacher of the Gospel, and professor, or rather lecturer on 
 divinity. Farel was then the most distinguished person in the place ; 
 he was twenty years older than Calvin, who was in the twenty-seventh 
 year of his age ; but their objects were the same, and their learning, 
 virtue, and zeal alike, and these were now combined for the complete 
 reformation of Geneva, and the diffusion of their principles through- 
 out Europe. In the month of November a plan of church govern- 
 ment and a confession of faith were laid before the public authorities 
 for their approval. Beza makes Calvin the author of these productions; 
 but others, with perhaps greater reason, attribute them to Farel. 
 There is little doubt however that Calvin was consulted in their com- 
 position, and still less that he lent his powerful aid to secure their 
 sanction and approval by the people in the month of July 1537. The 
 same year the Council of Geneva conferred on Farel the honour of a 
 burgess of the city, in token of their respect and gratitude. But the 
 popular will was not prepared for the severe discipline of the 
 reformers, and in a short time the people resisted some innovations 
 on their religious practices, and, under the direction of a faction, 
 met in a public assembly and expelled Farel and Calvin from the 
 place. 
 
 Calvin repaired to Berne, and then to Strasbourg, where he was 
 appointed professor of divinity and minister of a French church, into 
 which he introduced his own form of church government and discipline. 
 In his absence great efforts were made to get the Genevese to return 
 to the communion of the Church of Rome, particularly by Cardinal 
 Sadolet, who wrote to them earnestly to that effect; but Calvin, ever 
 alive to the maintenance of the principles of the Reformation, disap- 
 pointed all the expectations of his enemies, and confirmed the Genevese 
 in the new faith, addressing to them two powerful and affectionate 
 letters, and replying to that written by Sadolet. While at Strasbourg 
 also Calvin published a treatise on the Lord's Supper, in which he 
 combated the opinions both of the Roman Catholics and Lutherans, 
 and at the same time explained his own views of that ordinance. Here 
 too he published his ' Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans.' 
 Calvin got acquainted with Castalio during his residence at Strasbourg, 
 and procured for him the situation of a regent at Geneva; and it 
 was during his stay in this city that by the advice of his friend 
 Bucer he married Idellet, the widow of an Anabaptist preacher just 
 deceased. 
 
 In November of the same year he and Farel were solicited by the 
 Council of Geneva to return to their former charge in that city; in 
 May 1541 their banishment was revoked ; and in September following 
 Calvin was received into the city amidst the congratulations of his 
 flock, Farel remaining at Neufchltel, where he was loved and respected. 
 Calvin did not trifle in the peculiarly favourable r ssumstances in which 
 
 Bioa div. vol. n, I 
 
 he was now placed. He immediately laid before the council his scheme 
 of church government, and after it was adopted and published by 
 authority, which was on the 20th of November 1541, he was unhesi- 
 tating in its enforcement. His promptitude and firmness were now 
 conspicuous; he was the ruling spirit in Geneva; and the church 
 which he had established there he wished to make the mother and 
 seminary of all the reformed churches. His personal labours were 
 unceasing: he preached every day for two weeks of each month; he 
 gave three lessons in divinity every week; he assisted at all the 
 deliberations of the consistory and company of pastors ; he defended 
 the principles of tho reformation against all who attacked them ; he 
 explained those principles both in writing and discourse; and main- 
 tained a correspondence with every part of Europe. Geneva however 
 was the common centre of all his exertions, and its prosperity peculiarly 
 interested him, though less for its own sake than to make it a fountain 
 for the supply of the world. He established an academy there, tho 
 high character of which was long maintained ; he made tho city a 
 literary mart, and encouraged the French refugees and others who 
 sought his advice to apply themselves to the occupation of a printer 
 or librarian ; and having finished the ecclesiastical regimen, he directed 
 his attention to the improvement of the municipal government of the 
 place. That Calvin should, in the circumstances in which he was now 
 placed, show marks of intolerance towards others is not surprising ; 
 and to seek a palliation of his guilt we need not go back to the time 
 when he belonged to the Church of Rome, nor yet to the notions of 
 civil and religious liberty prevalent in his age. We have only to reflect 
 on the constitution of the human mind, and the constant care necessary 
 to prevent power in any hands from degenerating into tyranny. His 
 conduct towards Servetus [Servetus] has been justly condemned, and 
 has drawn down upon him the epithet of ' a most cruel and atrocious 
 monster;' yet the punishment of Servetus was approved of by meu of 
 undoubted worth, and even by the mild Melaucthon. In 1554, the 
 year following Servetus's death, Calvin published a work in defence of 
 the doctrine of the Trinity against the errors of Servetus, and to prove 
 the right of the civil magistrate to punish heresy ; Beza the same year 
 published a work on the like subject, in reply to the treatise of Castalio. 
 Of all the testimonies to the merits of Calvin at this time, the most 
 unsuspected is that of the canons of Noyon, who in 1556 publicly 
 returned thanks to God on occasion of his recovery from an illness 
 which it was thought would prove mortal. The state of Calvin's 
 health prevented him going in 1561 to the famous Conference of Poissy ; 
 an assembly which in his view promised to be of so much consequence, 
 and which was indeed remarkable in this respect, that from that time 
 the followers of Calvin became known as a distinct sect, bearing the 
 name of their leader. Amidst all his sufferings however, neither his 
 public functions nor his literary labours ceased : he continued to edify 
 the church of Geneva by his sermons and his intercourse among the 
 people, and to instruct Europe by his works; and to the last he 
 maintained the same firmness of character which had distinguished 
 him through life. On his death-bed he took God to witness that he 
 had preached the gospel purely, and exhorted all about him to walk 
 worthy of the divine goodness : his delicate frame gradually became 
 quite emaciated, and on the 27th of May 1564 he died without a 
 struggle, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. 
 
 The person of Calvin was middle-sized and naturally delicate ; his 
 habits were frugal and unostentatious ; and he was so sparing in his 
 food, that for many years he had only one meal in the day. He had 
 a clear understanding, an extraordinary memory, and a firmness and 
 inflexibility of purpose which no opposition could overcome, no variety 
 of objects defeat, no vicissitude shake. In his principles he was devout 
 and sincere, and the purity of his character in private life was without 
 a stain. His writings are very numerous ; but except his ' Christian 
 Institutes,' his commentaries on the Bible, and a few others, they have 
 long been covered with undisturbed dust, though in their day none of 
 his works were without their influence. There have been various 
 collections of his works. In 1552 all his minor pieces, or ' Opuscula,' 
 were collected and published at Geneva. Iu 1576 a similar collection 
 was made of his theological tracts ; and the same year Beza published 
 a collection of his letters, with a life of Calvin. We find also in 
 Senebier (' Hist. Lett, de Geneve,' torn, i.) not only a list of all Calvin's 
 publications, but a catalogue of sermons preached by him which yet 
 remain in manuscript in the public library of Geneva. Calvin's 
 ' Commentaries on various books of the Old and New Testaments,' 
 his ' Tracts relating to the Reformation,' his ' Institutes/ and some 
 others of his writings, have been newly translated into English, or 
 the old translations revised, and published within the last twelve or 
 fourteen years under the auspices of the Calvin Translation Society at 
 Edinburgh. But perhaps a still raore important work as illustrating 
 the character of the man and his times is a new edition of his 
 letters, now in course of publication, including a very great number 
 previously inedited : — 'Letters of John Calvin, compiled from tho 
 original manuscripts, and edited with historic notes by Dr. J. Bonnet; 
 translated by D. Constable, 8vo,' Ediub., 1855, &c. 
 
 It remains to notice briefly the system of religious doctrine and 
 church government maintained by Calvin and his followers. Calviu, 
 as we have seen, published his system in his ' Christian Institutes ' in 
 the year 1536; but it does not appear to have obtained the name of 
 
 E 
 
«3 
 
 CALVIN, JOHN. 
 
 CAMBYSES. 
 
 Calvinism, nor its supporters the name of Calvinists, till the conference 
 of Poissy in 1501. The reformer was not himself present at that 
 assembly, being prevented from attending by his local duties and the 
 ill state of his health ; but we see from his correspondence with Beza, 
 the deputy from Geneva, how deep was his interest in its proceedings, 
 and that nothing was done on the part of the reformers without his 
 knowledge and advice. In the debate which took place on the 
 Augsburg Confession, tho points of difference between the Lutherans 
 and Calvinists were drawn out ; and they were such as that from 
 thenceforth the latter became known as a distinct sect under that 
 denomination. 
 
 The tenets of Calvinism respect the doctrines of the Trinity, pre- 
 destination, or particular election and reprobation, original sin, 
 particular redemption, effectual or irresistible grace in regeneration, 
 justili cation by faith, and the perseverance of saints; together also 
 with the government and discipline of the church, the nature of the 
 euchari.-t, and tho qualification of those entitled to partake of it. The 
 great leading principles of the system however are the absolute decrees 
 of God, the spiritual presence of Christ in the eucharist, and the 
 independence of the church. 
 
 Calvinism was, perhaps, like Lutheranism, exemplified first at 
 Strasbourg; where, in the year 1538, Calvin established a French 
 church on his own plan. But it was at Geneva that tho system was 
 seen in all its vigour ; and from thence it spread into France, Germany, 
 Prussia, the United Provinces, England and Scotland. To this last 
 place it was carried by Knox, the disciple and intimate correspondent 
 of Calvin ; and as within the little territory of Geneva there was 
 neither room nor need for the parochial sessions, presbyteries, pro- 
 vincial synods and general assembly, into which the presbyterial 
 government expands itself in a large community, we shall briefly 
 advert to its leading features in Scotland, as it appeared there in the 
 lifetime of Knox. We shall thus indeed see the Church of Scotland 
 in its infancy ; but at the same time, — and it is that we have chiefly 
 in view, — we shall thus perhaps have the best idea of the matured 
 opinions of the great reformer. 
 
 The Confession of Faith, ratified by the Scots parliament in 1560, 
 declares that by the sin of our first parents, "commonly called original 
 sin, the image of God was utterly defaced in man, and he and his 
 posterity of nature became enemies of God, slaves to Satan, and 
 servants unto sin ; insomuch that death everlasting has had, and shall 
 have, power and dominion over all that have not been, are not, or 
 shall not be, regenerated from above, which regeneration is wrought 
 by the power of the Holy Ghost working in the hearts of the elect of 
 God an assured faith in the promise of God revealed in his word ; " 
 that " from the eternal and immutable decree of God all our salvation 
 springs and depends ;" " God of mere grace electing us in Christ Jesus 
 his son before the foundation of the world was laid ; " and that " our 
 faith and the assurance of the same proceeds not from flesh and blood, 
 that is to say, from our natural powers within us, but is the inspira- 
 tion of the Holy Ghost;" "who sanctifies us and brings us in all 
 verity by his own operation, without whom we should remain for ever 
 enemies to God and ignorant of his son Christ Jesus; for of nature we 
 are so dead, so blind, and so perverse, that neither can we feel when 
 we are pricked, ste the light when it shines, nor assent to the will of 
 God when it is revealed, unless the spirit of the Lord Jesus quicken 
 that which is dead, remove the darkness from our minds, and bow 
 our stubborn hearts to the obedience of his blessed will ;" "so that 
 the cause of good works we confess to be not our free will, but the 
 spirit of the Lord Jesus, who dwelling in our hearts by true faith, 
 brings forth such works as God has prepared for us to walk in ; " and 
 " whoso boast themselves of the merits of their own works, or put 
 their trust in works of supererogation, boast themselves in that which 
 is not, and put their trust in damnable idolatry." It further admits 
 that " we now, in the time of the evangel, have two chief sacraments 
 only," to wit, Baptism and the Lord's Supper; by the former of 
 which " we are ingrafted in Christ Jesus to be made partakers of his 
 justice, by which our sins are covered and remitted ; " and in the latter 
 it is asserted there is a real though only spiritual presence of Christ, 
 and "in the supper rightly used, Christ Jesus is joined with us, that 
 he becomes very nourishment and food of our souls." The marks of a 
 true church are said to be the true preaching of the word of God, the 
 right administration of the sacraments, and ecclesiastical discipline 
 rightly administered as the word of God prescribes. The polity or 
 constitution of the church however is not detailed; this was done in 
 the ' Book of Discipline' drawn up by Knox and his brethren. The 
 highest church judicatory is the General Assembly, composed of 
 representatives from the others, which are provincial synods, presby- 
 teries, and kirk sessions. The officers of the church are pastors or 
 ministers, doctors or teachers, and lay elders, to which are to be added 
 lay deacons, for the care of the poor. Among the clergy there is a 
 perfect parity of jurisdiction and authority, and in the church courts 
 clergy and laity have equal voices. The minister and the elder indeed 
 are both presbyters— the one a preaching presbyter, and the other a 
 ruling presbyter; and it will be remembered that when Bucer 
 expressed his approbation of the episcopal hierarchy of England, 
 Calvin said it was only another papacy. Another principle, recognised 
 alike by Calvin and the reformers of Scotland, was the education of 
 the people ; which both seem to have regarded as the rock upon which 
 
 the reformed church should be built; and in Scotland, as was fit, 
 this foundation was as broad as the building, it being meant that, 
 besides the universities of the kingdom, there should be in every 
 district a parish church and a parish school. 
 
 CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES DE, was born at Montpellier ia 
 1753. His father was au advocate, and brought him up to the eamo 
 profession, in which he soon distinguished himself, and was made 
 Counsellor of the Cour des Comptes of Montpellier. When the revo- 
 lution broke out he was elected deputy to the Legislative Assembly, 
 and afterwards to the Convention, where he voted for the death of 
 Louis XVI., but with a conditional reprieve. In the subsequent 
 period of terror he endeavoured, though cautiously, to bring back the 
 Assembly to legal measures, and to check arbitrary acts. He after- 
 wards sat in the Council of Five Hundred, and was made Minister of 
 Justice under the Directory, in which capacity he greatly assisted 
 Bonaparte in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. From that moment 
 he followed the fortunes of Napoleon, and was among his most 
 useful and subservient instruments : he was also one of the few who 
 remained faithful to him to the last. In his capacity of Great 
 Chancellor of the empire, he had to communicate to the senate all 
 Napoleon's measures for peace or war, including his frequent demands 
 for fresh conscriptions of men, which were sanctioned by that docile 
 assembly. Cambaceres was one of the compilers of the civil code, for 
 which his legal knowledge rendered him very well qualified. He had 
 already written, in 1796, a ' Projet do Code Civil,' which became in a 
 great measure the basis of the new code. After Napoleon's first 
 abdication in 1814, Cambaceres lived in retirement at Paris. When 
 Napoleon returned from Elba, he appointed Cambacdres Minister of 
 Justice, notwithstanding his excuses. After the king's second return, 
 Cambacfcres withdrew again to private life, and in February 1816, he 
 went to reside at Brussels, being included in the list of those who 
 were exiled from France for having voted for the death of Louis XVI, 
 However in May 1818, the king reinstated Cambaceres in all his civil 
 and political rights, in consequence of which he returned to Pari', 
 where he died in 1824. His manners were courteous and pleasing: 
 he was liberal and hospitable, and had the reputation of giving 
 the best dinners of any of the ministers and great officers of the 
 empire. 
 
 CAMBIA'SO, LUCA, sometimes called LUCHETTO DA GENOVA, 
 a very celebrated Italian painter in fresco and in oil, was born at 
 Moneglia near Genoa, on St. Luke's day, in 1527. He was instructed 
 by his father Giovanni, a painter of considerable merit, and dis- 
 tinguished himself even when a boy, and though he is not known to 
 have visited Rome in his youth, his best works have many of the 
 qualities of the Roman masters. After a long and honourable career 
 at Genoa, where he was without a rival, he went, in 1583, to Spain, 
 with his son Orazio, and L. Tavarone, one of his pupils, to assist him 
 in some works which Philip II. had commissioned him to execute in 
 the Escurial. Cambiaso was invited to Spain by Philip II. to supply 
 the place of his old friend and fellow-labourer G. B. Castello, of 
 Bergamo, who died in Madrid in 1579. Cambiaso and Castello 
 executed several paintings together in Genoa. 
 
 Cambiaso executed several works in the Escurial, tho largest of 
 which was an immense fresco of Paradise, containing a vast number of 
 figures, arranged as the monks desired on the ceiling of the choir 
 of the church of San Lorenzo. He received 12,000 ducats for this 
 picture, yet it occupied him only fifteen months ; it was however in 
 the opinion of Mengs much inferior to his best works in Genoa : the 
 composition is formal and bad, but for this the monks must be held 
 responsible. The oil painting of ' John the Baptist preaching in the 
 WilderLess,'also in the Escurial, is the best of his Spanish works. He 
 died at the Escurial in 1585, and Philip greatly regretted his loss. 
 He was called Cangiaso by the Spaniards. He was a painter of sur- 
 prising facility and power ; Armenini compared him with Tintoretto ; 
 he painted however latterly with great negligence. Cambiaso's 
 masterpiece is considered the 'Martyrdom of St. George' in the 
 church of San Giorgio at Genoa. ' The Rape of the Sabines,' in 
 Terralba near Genoa, is also a magnificent and celebrated work. His 
 portrait by himself is in the Florentine gallery : several of his works 
 have been engraved. 
 
 (Soprani, Vile de' Pittori, <Sic. ; Cean Bermudez, Diccionario His- 
 torico, &c.) 
 
 CAMBY'SES (Kafij8i!(TT)s), the second king of the Medesand Persians, 
 succeeded his father Cyrus B.C. 529. He led an army against Egypt 
 (b.c. 525), defeated the Egyptian king Psammenitus in a great battle, 
 and reduced Egypt to the form of a Persian province. The ruin of 
 many of the monuments of Egypt is attributed, and perhaps to a 
 certain extent correctly, to the fury of the barbarian invaders and of 
 their king, who was mad. From Egypt Cambyses marched south- 
 wards against the Macrobian Ethiopians (a people whose geographical 
 position is not certain), but his army, after suffering the severest 
 privations in the deserts, returned to Thebes with much diminished 
 numbers. A detachment of the Persian army which was sent from 
 Thebes agaiust the Ammonium (Siwah) was lost in the desert. 
 After committing numberless extravagancies in Egypt, putting his 
 brother Smerdis to death, marrying his sister, which was contrary 
 to the Persian custom, and then killing her by a kick during h«-r 
 pregnancy, Cambyses died (b.c. 521) of an accidental wound from his 
 
CAMDEN, EARL OF. 
 
 jwn sword at Ecbatana, a town of Syria (not Ecbatana the capital of 
 Media). Ctesias says that Cambyses died at Babylon. 
 
 Compare with Herodotus (iii.), which is the authority for what is 
 here stated, the account of Ctesias, ' Persica.' 
 
 CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, EARL OF, was a younger son of 
 Sir John Pratt, who was successively a puisne judge of the court of 
 King's Bench and chief justice of that court, in the reign of George I. 
 He was descended from a family of consideration in Devonshire, of 
 which county Chief Justice Pratt, his father, was a native. Charles 
 Pratt was born in the year 1713. He went at an early age to Eton, 
 where he formed with William Pitt a warm friendship which lasted 
 through life. In 1731, having obtained the election to King's College, 
 Cambridge, he removed to the university. He became a fellow, 
 according to the usual routine, in 1734 ; in the summer of 1738 he 
 was called to the bar, and in the following year took his Master's 
 degree. He made his first entrance into the profession in the courts 
 of common law, and travelled the western circuit for several years 
 with little or no practice. Conceiving his prospects of success in the 
 profession of the law to be hopeless, he at one time resolved to abandon 
 it and seek his fortune in the church. Henley, afterwards Lord 
 Chancellor Northington, who was at that time in considerable practice 
 on the western circuit, is said to have dissuaded him from the execu- 
 tion of this purpose, and to have induced him to continue in his 
 course until his turn for business and advancement should arrive. 
 He had the good sense to follow this judicious advice, and shortly 
 afterwards his business began to increase. His practice as a junior 
 however appears never to have been considerable. His name appears 
 occasionally in the reports of cases of parochial settlement from the 
 western circuit. In 1752 he was employed as junior counsel in 
 defence of Owen, the bookseller, who had been prosecuted by the 
 attorney-general for publishing a libel upon the House of Commons 
 (Howell's 'State Trials,' voL xviii., p. 1203), and his earnestness and 
 eloquence were believed to have mainly contributed to obtain a 
 favourable verdict for his client. From this time his success was 
 assured. In the following year he appeared as counsel for the prisoner 
 in the trial of Timothy Murphy for forging a will, a case which excited 
 much attention at the time (Howell's ' State Trials,' vol. xix., p. 693). 
 Still previously to his appointment as attorney-general, he had much 
 less general practice in the courts of Westminster Hall than several 
 advocates whom at a subsequent period of his life he left far behind 
 him in professional advancement. In the course of the change of 
 administration which took place in June 1757, Sir Robert Henley, the 
 early friend and adviser of Pratt, was promoted from the office of 
 attorney-general to that of lord keeper; and upon occasion of this 
 vacancy, his friend Pitt, who placed great confidence in him, insisted 
 upon his being made attorney-general ; and he was immediately after- 
 wards returned to parliament as representative of the now abolished 
 bm v.ngh of Downton, in Wiltshire. During the four years that he 
 continued to be a member of the House of Commons he did not take 
 any very active or distinguished part in the debates. 
 
 His professional business while he was attorney-general became very 
 extensive, particularly in the court of chancery. His official conduct 
 as attorney-general appears to have been uniformly judicious and 
 moderate. The only ex-officio information for libel filed by him was 
 instituted against Dr. Shebbeare for his 'Letter to the People of 
 England ; ' of which Horne Tooke says (Howell's ' State Trials,' 
 vol. xx., p. 708), " that if ever there was an infamous libel against 
 government surely it was that." The death of Chief Justice Willes, 
 at the close of 1701, caused a vacancy on the bench of the common 
 pleas; and this being one of those judicial offices of which by long 
 usage the attorney-general for the time beiug is considered to have 
 the refusal, it was accordingly offered to Pratt, and accepted by him. 
 Soon after his elevation to the bench the great question respecting the 
 legality of general warrants was raised, by the proceedings of govern- 
 ment with relation to the celebrated John Wilkes. Lord Chief 
 Justice Pratt expressed his opinion against the asserted power of the 
 secretary of state to authorise arrests, or the seizure of papers upon 
 general warrants, with a greater degree of warmth than was usual, or 
 perhaps justifiable, in pronouncing a mere judicial decision; but his 
 energy on this occasion was entirely in accordance with the prevailing 
 feeling of the times, and produced for him a larger share of popular 
 favour than had been possessed by any judge in England since the 
 revolution. Addresses of thauks were voted to him by many of the 
 principal towns, and several public bodies presented him with the 
 freedom of their respective corporations. The city of London, in 
 particular, placed his portrait in Guildhall, with an inscription in 
 honour of the " maintainer of English constitutional liberty." 
 
 When the Rockingham administration came into power, in the 
 rammer of 1765, Lord Chief Justice Pratt was raised to the peerage 
 by the title of Baron Camden, of Camden-place, in the county of 
 Kent He did not however by any means become an adherent of that 
 ministry ; on the contrary, he made a vigorous opposition to their 
 measures declaratory of the right of Qrc.it Britain to impose laws upon 
 the American colonies in all cases whatsoever. When Lord Rocking- 
 ham's ephemeral administration broke up in July 1766, Lord Northing- 
 ton, being removed from the court of chancery, became president of 
 the council; and upon the occurrence of this vacancy, the seals were 
 given to Lord Camden. 
 
 CAMDEN, WILLIAM. 
 
 The Duke of Grafton's administration, composed as it was of the 
 most heterogeneous materials, contained within itself the elements of 
 its dissolution ; and its fall was accelerated by the proceedings of the 
 House of Commons relating to John Wilkes, and the measures 
 respecting America, both of which had excited a violent fermentation 
 in tho public mind. Upon the opening of the session of 1770, Lord 
 Camden declared in the House of Lords his opposition to government, 
 and actually voted for Lord Chatham's amendment to tho ministerial 
 address. Such a declaration by the lord chancellor, accompanied by 
 an unequivocal act of hostility to the government, necessarily led to 
 his removal from the woolsack. 
 
 Lord Camden as judge in the court of chancery has won high 
 praise from the profession. Only one of his decisions was reversed, 
 and that reversal Lord Eldon is said by Lord Campbell to have 
 pronounced probably wrong. His manner in the court was simple, 
 unaffected, perhaps a little too informal; at any rate it was considered 
 to contrast unfavourably with what has been termed ' the lofty 
 dignity ' of Lord Mansfield. In conveying his ideas he has been 
 charged with the adoption of too colloquial a style and with the 
 greater fault of prolixity; but then, on the other hand, his statements 
 were always luminous, and his prolixity arose from the desire he 
 evinced to satisfy those interested by viewing the question at issue in 
 every conceivable light. 
 
 With the surrender of the seals in 1770, Lord Camden's judicial 
 career finally closed ; and during the remaining twenty-four years of 
 his life he was entirely a political character. His general parliamentary 
 conduct during the remarkable session of 1770, consisted in a 
 strenuous opposition to the policy of Lord North's administration ; 
 and Lord Mansfield was on most occasions his personal antagonist. 
 The doctrine asserted by Lord Mansfield on the trials of Woodfall 
 and Miller, that the jury, in cases of libel, were to decide upon the 
 fact of publication only (a question which was not finally determined 
 until the passing of Mr. Fox's Libel Act in 1792), was warmly repro- 
 bated by Lord Camden in the House of Lords ; and upon this and 
 upon other occasions he indulged in a degree of personal bitterness 
 towards the chief justice which is variously accounted for by con- 
 temporary writers, but which certainly derogates from the dignity and 
 general merit of Lord Camden's character. Lord Camden also 
 uniformly opposed the ill-advised policy of Lord North respecting 
 America ; and in 1778 he signed, and is said to have framed the 
 protest of the Lords against the rejection of Lord Rockingham's 
 motion for an address to the king, praying him to disavow the 
 obnoxious manifesto of the American commissioners. On the recal of 
 Lord Rockingham and the Whigs to power in 1782, Lord Camden was 
 appointed president of the council ; but was displaced upon the forma- 
 tion of the Coalition-ministry in 1783. To this administration he 
 placed himself in zealous opposition ; and in the debate on Mr. Fox's 
 India Bill in the House of Lords, he distinguished himself by an able 
 and eloquent speech against the measure. The fate of this bill put an 
 end to the short existence of the Coalition-ministry ; and soon after 
 the formation of Mr. Pitt's administration, Lord Camden was rein- 
 stated in the office of president of the council, which he continued 
 to hold during the remainder of his life. Though now upwards of 
 seventy years of age, and though his health was considerably impaired 
 by repeated attacks of gout, he continued his attendance in the House 
 of Lords, and actively assisted in the several debates upon the Indian 
 Judicature Bill, the Wine Excise Bill, and several other important 
 measures which were introduced during the early part of Mr. Pitt's 
 administration ; and upon the occasion of the king's derangement in 
 1788, he introduced the plan proposed by government for the establish- 
 ment of a regency. In 1786 he was created Earl Camden, and 
 received the additional title of Viscount Bayham, of Bayham Abbey, 
 in the county of Kent. The last occasion upon which he took a part 
 in the debates was upon the discussion of Mr. Fox's celebrated Libel 
 Act, in 1792. The question of the province of juries in cases of libel 
 was one which during the whole of his life had deeply interested him : 
 in his defence of Owen, in 1752, he had warmly asserted the popular 
 doctrine upon this subject ; and on the introduction of this bill into 
 the House of Lords he particularly distinguished himself by the 
 animation and eloquence with which, in advanced age, he maintained 
 the principle which in his early years he had often zealously espoused. 
 Lord Camden died April 13th, 1794, in the eightieth year of his age. 
 
 CAMDEN, WILLIAM, one of the most illustrious names in the 
 whole catalogue of learned Englishmen. His father was a paper- 
 stainer, living in the Old Bailey, where Camden was born on the 2nd 
 of May, 1551. It is supposed that his father died when he was but a 
 child, leaving little provision for him. It is certain that he was 
 admitted into Christ's Hospital within a very few years after its estab- 
 lishment. He was afterwards in St. Paul's School, and finally removed 
 to Oxford, where he appears to have studied in more than one college. 
 He left the uaiversity in 1571, and became an under-master of West- 
 minster Scheol, the duties of which situation he discharged at the time 
 when he composed the works which have made his name so eminent. 
 
 The most eelebrated of these is that entitled ' Britannia,' a survey 
 of the British isles, written iu elegant Latin. The first edition of this 
 work was published in 1586. Many others appeared in hi3 lifetime 
 with enlargements. A singular fate has attended this book A long 
 succession of writers have made additions to it, till Camdeu'a 
 
' Britannia,' which as it came forth from him was but a single volume 
 of no large dimensions, has been swelled out in the successive English 
 editions till at length it has become four folio volumes, though the 
 work is still called by his name. One effect of this has been to throw 
 the original work into the shade, and to occasion a wrong apprehension 
 to prevail concerning it, as if it had been composed for the use of the 
 inhabitants of Britain rather than for the information of learned 
 foreigner?, and as if it were not that succinct and admirable compo- 
 sition which does so much honour to the taste and judgment as well 
 as to the learning of the author. 
 
 The Knglish editions, though the matter is ill-digested, have their 
 value as containing what at the time of publication was the best gene- 
 ral description of the British isles. Bishop Gibson and Mr. Qough 
 were the compilers and editors of the principal English editions. 
 
 From the appearance of his ' Britannia,' Camden began to be looked 
 upon as one of the most distinguished scholars of his age. He carried 
 on an extensive correspondence with the learned both at home and 
 abroad, much of which has been preserved and published. The prebend 
 of Ilfracombe in the cathedral of Salisbury was given to him, though a 
 layman. He was made head master of YVestminster School in 1592, 
 and Clarencieux King-at-Arms in 1597, without having passed through 
 the inferior offices of herald or pursuivant. This wa3 distasteful to 
 the old officers of the Cullege of Arms, and led to what must have 
 been to him harassing dissensions. 
 
 The remainder of his history is to be found in a catalogue of his 
 writings. We shall touch upon them briefly. His ' Annals of the 
 Bei^'ii of Elizabeth ' is the next in celebrity to his ' Britannia,' an 
 admirable digest of the events of that reign, delivered in pure and 
 elegant Latinity. lie intended a similar work on the reign of James, 
 but of this only the heads were prepared. His folio volume of the 
 works of some of our old Latin chroniclers was printed at Frankfurt 
 in 1603. It belongs to the set of Latin chroniclers on English affairs, 
 and contains Asser, Walsingham, Giraldus Cambrensis, and others. 
 Among his minor works two only need be mentioned, his ' Remains 
 concerning Britain,' published in 1004, a very amusing and instructive 
 volume; and a small Greek grammar for the use of Westminster 
 School, which was first published in 1597. 
 
 Camden reached the age of seventy-two. He died on the 9th of 
 November 1623 % at Chiselhurst in Kent, and was interred in West- 
 minster Abbey, a great assemblage of the learned and illustrious doing 
 him honour at his funeral. A monument was erected to his memory, 
 which still remains. It has his bust, with the left hand resting on the 
 ' Britannia.' 
 
 He never married, and at his death left a good estate, the greater 
 part of which he devoted, a little before his death, to founding an 
 historical lecture in the University of Oxford, now called the Camden 
 Professorship of History. Camden has always been regarded with 
 peculiar respect by English historical inquirers and antiquaries ; and 
 when in 1S38 they founded a " Society for the Publication of early 
 Historical and Literary Remains," it was felt that the most appropriate 
 title which could be given to it would be that of their most distin- 
 guished predecessor. The 'Camden Society' has since continued 
 annually to place within the reach of historical students a mass of 
 singularly varied and valuable ' remains concerning Britain,' and has 
 thus become a worthy monument to the memory of Camden. 
 
 CAMERA'RIUS, JOACHIM, was born at Bamberg in 1500, studied 
 at Leipzig, and became a great friend of Melancthon and other reformers. 
 The Duke of Wiirtemberg gave him the direction of the new Univer- 
 sity of Tubingen. In 1541 he was charged by Henry duke of Saxony 
 with reforming the University of Leipzig, of which he was afterwards 
 appointed rector. In 1568 the Emperor Maximilian, who had called 
 him to Vienna to consult him about some important state-affairs, 
 wished to retain him as his councillor, but Camerarius declined the 
 offer on account of his infirmities. He died at Leipzig in April, 1574. 
 Camerarius was one of the most distinguished scholars of the age of 
 the Reformation. The following are his principal works :— 1. 'Libellus 
 Scholasticus,' containing maxims and precepts from Pythagoras, Phocy- 
 lides, Solon, and extracts from Tyrtoeus, Simonides, Callimachus, &c. 
 2. ' Narratio de H. Eobano Hesso,' including biographical notices of 
 several^ other learned men of the same age. 3. ' Vita Philippi Melanch- 
 thonis,' a good biography of that distinguished reformer. 4. 'De 
 rebus Turcicis Commentarii duo' 5. ' Historia Synodi NicenEe.' 6. 
 ' Norica sive de Ostentis lib. duo.' 7. 'Vita Mauritii Saxoniae Electoris.' 
 S. 'De Divinationum Generibus.' 9. 'De Numismatibus Grascorum 
 et Latinorum.' 10. 'Philosophicae Consolationes,' written by him and 
 Sadoletus united. 11. ' Historica Narratio de Fratrum Orthodoxorum 
 Ecclesiis in Bohemia, Moravia, et Polonia ;' besides numerous transla- 
 tions from and commentaries on Cicero, Aristotle, Sophocles, &c. 
 Camerarius was an excellent horseman, and he wrote a work on the 
 art of training horses, ' Hippocomicon,' which enjoyed considerable 
 reputation. The ' Epistolas,' or correspondence, were published after 
 his death by his son Joachim in two vols., Frankfurt, 1583-95. 
 
 John Camerarius, his eldest son, became a councillor of the duchy 
 of Prussia. His second son, Joachim, was a distinguished physician, 
 and Las left several works on medicine and botany. His third son, 
 Philip, while travelling in Italy, was arrested by the Inquisition at 
 Rome, but was afterwards released, and on his return to Germany 
 became vice-chancellor of the new University of Altorf. He wrote 
 
 ' Horarum subsecivarum Centuriao tres,' 3 vols. 4to, Frankfurt, 1624, a 
 work often reprinted. 
 
 CAMERON, REV. RICHARD, founder of the soct of Carueronians, 
 first acquired notice as one of those ministers of the Church of Scotland 
 who most boldly opposed the measures of Charles II. and his advisers 
 for enforcing the Episcopal form of worship on the Scottish people. 
 The arbitrary measures adopted by the government thoroughly roused 
 the spirit of the people, and among those who gave fullest expression 
 to the popular sentiments wa3 Richard Cameron. Not only were hia 
 doctrines obnoxious to the government, but many of his brethren of 
 the clergy dreaded his zeal, which they considered extreme, and at a 
 meeting held in Edinburgh in 1677 they formally reproved him for his 
 conduct. Cameron retired to Holland, but soon returned to Scotland ; 
 and on the 22nd of June 1680, in company with about twenty other 
 persons of similar sentiments with himself, well armed, he entered the 
 town of Sanquhar in Dumfriesshire, and at the market-cross there 
 proclaimed, in a ceremonious manner, a declaration, that Charles 
 Stuart (meaning the king), although descended from the race of their 
 ancient kings, had by his perjuries iu the breach of his covenanted 
 vows, his tyrannical government, and his usurpation over their civil and 
 religious liberties, dissolved their allegiance and forfeited all right and 
 title to the crown. The party kept together in arms for a month in the 
 mountainous district between Nithsdale and Ayrshire ; but at length, 
 on the 20th of July, while lying at Airdsmoss in Kyle, they were 
 surprised by a large body of horse and foot under the direction of the 
 government, and in the short skirmish which followed, Cameron was 
 killed, and his followers were dispersed or taken prisoners. A neat 
 monument has been recently placed on the spot where Cameron fell, 
 replacing an old and plainer structure. 
 
 Among the more earnest followers of Cameron was Cargill, who 
 continued to preach the doctrines of the Beet in the fields ; and in 
 September following, at a conventicle held in the Torwood, between 
 Falkirk and Stirling, pronounced a solemn excommunication against 
 the king and his brother the Duke of York, the dukes of Monmouth, 
 Lauderdale, and Rothes, the lord-advocate, and General Sir Thomas 
 Dalzell of Binns, for their exertions against the supremacy of the 
 pure church of Scotland, their perjury in reference to the covenant, 
 and their cruelty and oppression towards the people of God. To 
 these acts of the royalists was soon afterwards added the Test of 1681, 
 against which the covenanters published their testimony at Lanark 
 on the 12th of January 1682, adhering to and confirming the Sanquhar 
 declaration, and giving reasons at length for their disowning the king's 
 authority. This they again did, and declared their firm resolution of 
 constant adherence to the covenant, in their Apologetic Declaration 
 of the 28th of October 1684 ; and on the accession of James duke of 
 York to the throne, they published another declaration at Sanquhar 
 on the 28th of May 1685, wherein they renewed their previous decla- 
 rations, and further protested against the accession of the Duke of 
 York, as a professed and excommunicated papist, and against popery 
 itself in all its heads, as abjured by the national covenant. In these 
 circumstances, it is plain the Revolution was an event which they 
 would hail in common with the other Presbyterians, but the latter 
 acquiesced in arrangements with the government into which the 
 former refused to enter ; and they have since continued to testify 
 against the Revolution settlement, as they now also do against the 
 Articles of Union, the Toleration Acts, the conduct of the church, 
 and generally, all association whether of church or state with those 
 who do not adopt the principles of Scripture, the Reformation, and 
 the covenant. 
 
 They have been most commonly known as Cameronians from Richard 
 Cameron; but they are otherwise called 'M'Millans,' or 'M'Millanites,' 
 from the name of the first minister who espoused their cause after the 
 Revolution. But these, as well as the terms 'Whigs' and 'Mountain 
 men,' which are also occasionally applied to them, they regard as 
 accidental epithets. They are sometimes also called ' Covenanters,' 
 from their adherence to the national covenant of Scotland, and the 
 solemn league and covenant of the three kingdoms. Their proper 
 designation however, or that which they themselves adopt, is that of 
 ' Reformed Presbyterians.' 
 
 They hold the Holy Scriptures to be the absolute rule of faith and 
 conduct, and to contain the standard of these both in church and 
 state. Next to this they adopt the early standards of the Church of 
 Scotland, the Westminster Confession of Faith, the larger and shorter 
 catechisms of the church, the books of discipline, and the Westminster 
 Directory for Public Worship. And lastly, they regard the national 
 covenant of Scotland as a continuing obligation. To these are to be 
 added the documents published by the body itself in explanation of 
 their principles, namely, their 'Judicial Act and Testimony,' the 5th 
 edition of which was published at Glasgow in 1818 ; 'A short Account 
 of the Old Presbyterian Dissenters,' published by authority of the 
 presbytery in 1806; and an 'Explanation and Defence of the Terms 
 of Communion adopted by the Reformed Presbyterian Church.' 
 
 The religious body was formed into a presbytery on the 1st of 
 August 1743, under the title of the Reform Presbytery. They have 
 now a synod, consisting of the Edinburgh, Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmar- 
 nock, Dumfries, and Newton Stewart presbyteries. The number of 
 churches is 41 ; their places of worship contain about 15,000 sittings. 
 They have also several churches in Ireland, Nova Scotia, New 
 
CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS. 
 
 Brunswick, and the United States; and they have missionaries in 
 New Zealand and the New Hebrides, and one in London who labours 
 among the Jews. 
 
 CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, a celebrated Roman, who lived 
 about the middle of the 4th century after the foundation of the city. 
 There is so much of the fabulous in all that is told about him that 
 one might very reasonably suppose that Livy and Plutarch have 
 derived the traditions respecting this warrior from some old poem. 
 (Niebuhr, 'H. R.,' vol. ii. p. 472.) That there was such a person, and 
 that his actions entitled him to the gratitude of his countrymen, 
 cannot, we think, be doubted, and even Niebuhr has not attempted to 
 deny him the personality which he is unwilling to concede to Romulus 
 and Coriolanus. (' H. R.' ii. p. 501.) Camillus was created dictator 
 five times, and triumphed four times, but never served the office of 
 consul. (Plutarch, ' Camill.' init.) This was principally owing to the 
 substitution of the military tribunate for the consulship in the early 
 part of his life. His first dictatorship was in the tenth year of the 
 siege of Veii, which was taken by him probably by means of a mine, 
 by which part of the wall was overthrown. (Niebuhr, 'H. R.' ii. p. 481, 
 who has sufficiently refuted the ordinary tradition.) He also conquered 
 the Faliscans, who, according to the legend, yielded unconditionally to 
 him in consequence of his generosity in restoring to them their 
 children whom a traitorous schoolmaster had delivered into his hands. 
 (Plutarch, ' Camill.' x.) He was impeached, in a.u.c. 364, by the 
 tribune L. Apuleius, on a charge of peculation in the distribution of 
 the plunder of Veii, and his guilt was so manifest that even his own 
 clients could not acquit him. (Liv. v. 32.) Camillus retired to Ardea, 
 and lived there as an 'inquilinus' till the battle of the Allia and the 
 capture of Rome : he then took up arms for his country, and led the 
 Ardeates against the Gauls, over whom he obtained some advantages. 
 At length the people, sensible of the necessity of his recal, restored him 
 to his civic rights by an ordinance of the plebs passed at Veii, and after 
 two battles, the one fought in the city and the other on the road to 
 Gabii, he completely exterminated the invading army. It was probably 
 owing to his influence that the Romans were induced to rebuild their 
 own city in preference to migrating to Veii, as many wished to do, 
 and for this and his other services he was called the second Romulus. 
 In his fourth dictatorship he had some more disputes with the plebeians, 
 in consequence of which he abdicated his office. (Liv. vL 38.) He 
 died of the plague in the year of Rome 390. (Liv. vii. 1; Plutarch, 
 ' CamilL' xliii.) His son and brother were also eminent men, but with 
 these exceptions no one of his family, according to Tacitus ('Annal,' 
 ii. 52), obtained military renown till the age of Tiberius, when Furius 
 Camillus, proconsul of Africa, triumphed over the Numidians. The 
 son of this Camillus raised a rebellion in Dalmatia in the reign of 
 Claudius, and proclaimed himself emperor, but in a few days his soldiers 
 returned to their allegiance, and Camillus committed suicide. 
 
 CAMOENS (Dom Luis de-Camoe3), called the Homer and Virgil of 
 Portugal, for his celebrated poem of the ' Lusiad,' was born at Lisbon ; 
 though Coimbra and Santarem have disputed this honour with Lisbon. 
 There is no less controversy about the precise year of his birth, which, 
 according to some, was 1517 while most biographers suppose it to 
 be 1524. 
 
 His family was of considerable note, and originally Spanish. In 
 his infancy, his father, Simon Vas de Camoens, commander of a vessel, 
 was shipwrecked at Goa, and lost, with his life, the greater part of 
 his fortune. His mother, however, Anne de Macedo, of Santarem, was 
 enabled to give her son such an education as qualified him for the 
 military service and for public life. Camoens was sent to the university 
 of Coimbra, where, notwithstanding Voltaire's rash assertion that his 
 youth was spent in idleness and ignorance, it appears from his works 
 that he must have acquired the substance as well as caught the spirit 
 of classical learning. 
 
 On quitting the university Camoens returned to Lisbon. His 
 prepossessing appearance and great accomplishments, added to his love 
 of poetry and gallantry, which now engrossed all his thoughts, soon 
 made him an object of public notoriety, especially as the charms of 
 Catharina d'Atayada, a lady of honour (dama do paco) at the court, 
 had captivated his heart. This amour with a lady above his rank was 
 the origin of the long series of Camoens' calamities. He experienced 
 the fate of Ovid, with whom he compares himself in his third elegy, 
 written at Santarem, the place of his exile and retirement, where he 
 also began his ' Lusiad.' Camoens soon became tired of an inactive 
 and obscure life. To be at once a hero and a poet was his ambition. 
 He joined, as a volunteer, an expedition which John III. was then 
 fitting out against the Moors of Ceuta, and greatly distinguished him- 
 self in several encounters. In a naval engagement with the Moors iu 
 the Straits of Gibraltar he was among the foremost to board, and lost 
 his right eye in the conflict. This he relates himself in his Cancao x., 
 etan. 9. 
 
 Hoping to deserve a3 a soldier that reward which he had failed to 
 obtain as a poet, he returned to Lisbon ; but he failed to gain even an 
 honourable competence. Baffled in all his expectations, he determined 
 to leave his native country ; and accordingly he embarked in 1553 for 
 India, in search of better prospects, or, at least, an honourable grave 
 for his misfortunes. As the ship left the Tagus he expressed his 
 resolution never to return, in the words of the sepulchral monument 
 of Scipio Africanus, — " Ingrata patria, non possidebia ossa mea." 
 
 CAMOENS, DOM LUIS DE. 60 
 
 Camoens arrived safely at Goa, in one of the four ships which sailed 
 to India, after seeing the other three perish in a storm. Not being 
 able to find employment at Goa, ho immediately joined as a volunteer 
 a Portuguese expedition, which was ready to sail in aid of the King of 
 Cochin against the King of Pimenta. Although a great portion of his 
 countrymen were carried off by the insalubrity of the climate, Camoens 
 returned safe after he had displayed his usual bravery iti the conquest 
 of the Alagada Islands. In the following year he accompanied Manuel 
 de Vasconcello in another expedition to the Red Sea, against the 
 Arabian Corsairs. At the island of Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf, where 
 he passed the winter, his imagination gave a poetic colouring to the 
 scenery of that spot, and to the Portuguese achievements in India. 
 He visited also mount Felix, and the adjacent part of Africa, which he 
 so strongly pictures in the ' Lusiad,' and in one of the little pieces in 
 which he laments the absence of his mistress. Unfortunately for him 
 he indulged also in satire, and exposed in his ' Disparates na India,' 
 (Follies in India) some of the government proceedings at Goa. The 
 viceroy immediately banished him to the island of Macao. Soon after 
 he obtained leave to visit the Moluccas, where he collected fresh 
 materials for pictorial poetry; but he could no longer, as the lines 
 beneath his portrait express, " bear in one hand the sword, in the other 
 the pen," and he was glad to accept the very unpoetio post at 
 Macao of ' provedor-mor dos defuntos' (administrator of the effects of 
 deceased persons), by which employment he was rescued from desti- 
 tution, and even enabled to make some savings. Having received 
 permission from a new viceroy to return to Goa, he was shipwrecked 
 in the passage on the coast of Cambodia. He saved, on a plank, and 
 with great difficulty, only his life and his poems. 
 
 Camoens had not long enjoyed repose when a new viceroy, lending 
 a ready ear to his enemies, who accused him of malversation in his 
 office at Macao, threw him into prison. Although he cleared himself 
 of the charges, and loaded his enemies with ignominy, he was still 
 detained for debts which he was unable to satisfy ; but a poem, at 
 once witty and affecting, which he addressed to the viceroy at length 
 procured his libex - ation. Resuming the profession of arms, he accom- 
 panied Dom Pedro Barreto to the distant and barbarous settlement of 
 Sofala. A ship bound homeward having touched at this place, his 
 former resolution was shaken, and he determined to return to Europe. 
 Finally, after an absence of nearly sixteen years, Camoens arrived in 
 1569 at Lisbon, in the most abject poverty, his poems being the only 
 treasure and last hope which he had brought from the rich shores of 
 India. More ill-fated still at the end of his career, he found his native 
 city ravaged by the plague, and during such a calamity poetry could 
 avail him less than ever. King Dom Sebastian was then concerting 
 the plan of his unfortunate expedition to Marocco, and this induced 
 Camoens to dedicate his poem to the youthful monarch. Although, 
 the dedication was graciously received, it was only rewarded with a 
 wretched pension, just sufficient to mark but not to relieve the misery 
 of its author. 
 
 It appears that Cardinal Henry, who succeeded Sebastian, withdrew 
 that small pension. He patronised only what was called learning by 
 the monks and friars, whose pious forgeries and miracles he highly 
 valued. Cardinal Henry was the persecutor of George Buchanan, and 
 the patron of the inquisition, of which he extended the horrors even, 
 to Goa. Under his weak and bigotted hands the kingdom fell into 
 utter ruin. 
 
 The fate of Camoens throws great light on the history of his 
 country, and appears strictly connected with it. The same ignorance 
 and the same degenerate spirit which would have suffered Camoens to 
 starve, but for the sympathy of an aged Indian servant — who begged 
 for him in the streets of Lisbon — and which left him at last to die 
 most wretchedly in an hospital, sank Portugal into the most abject 
 vassalage ever experienced by a conquered nation. While the 
 grandees of Portugal were blind to the ruin which impended over 
 them, Camoens beheld it with a pungency of grief which appears to 
 have hastened his end, in 1579, the year after the fatal issue of the 
 African expedition under King Sebastian, at the battle of Alcacar. 
 
 Camoens attempted every style of poetic composition of which he 
 had formed a definite idea, but the ' Lusiad ' rises so far above his 
 other works, that all his numerous but lesser compositions must be 
 considered as inferior scions sprung from the same root. The 
 ' Lusiad' is an heroic poem which differs from all others of the epic 
 class. Camoens struck out a new path iu the region of epic poetry. 
 
 His object was to recount iu epic strains the achievements of the 
 great men of Portugal in general, not of any individual in particular, 
 and, consequently, not of Vasco de Gama alone, who is commonly 
 considered the hero of the ' Lusiad.' The very title he gave it, ' Os 
 Lusiadas ' (the Lusitauians), denotes at once the true nature of its 
 subject. An epic grouping of all the great and most interesting events 
 in the Portuguese annals forms the whole plan, and the discovery of 
 the passage to Iudia is the groundwork of the epic unity of the poem, 
 but Vasco de Gama is merely the spindle round which the thread of 
 the narrative is wound. The ' Lusiad ' has no real episode except the 
 short story of the giant Adauiastor. Unless the idea of the plan of 
 the 'Lusiad' be rightly seized, the composition will appear in a false 
 light on whichever side it is viewed. Designated as a whole, it may 
 therefore be termed an epic national picture of Portuguese glory, 
 greater however than a mere gallery of poetic stories, but less than a 
 
C2 
 
 perfect epic. The unity of interest and effect, aud consequently of the 
 poem, rests solely on the execution of the plan, out of which only a 
 poet like Camoens could have created a 'Lusiad.' 
 
 His talent in picturesque comparison was formed on the model of 
 Ariosto more than that of Homer. His description of Venus, who 
 once more intercedes with Jupiter, resembles Ariosto's description of 
 Alcina. The first idea of his Island of Love seems borrowed from 
 the same writer. There is however little room to doubt that Tasso, 
 when he trod in Ariosto's footsteps in order to describe the abode of 
 Armida, availed himself of the description of Camoens (the ' Lusiad' 
 was first printed in 1572, the 'Jerusalem Delivered ' did not appear 
 till 1580), as afterwards the garden of Armida furnished Spenser with 
 his ' Bower of diss.' 
 
 Camocn3 has left, besides the ' Lusiad/ specimens of no common 
 merit in every style of poetry written in Fortugal in his time ; 301 of 
 his sonnets which have been preserved, exhibit his prolific fancy, and 
 Borne of them all the tenderness aud grace of Petrarch. His seventeen 
 'Cangoes' (songs) prove still more particularly how deeply he was 
 penetrated with the spirit of Petrarch's poetry. The twelve odes 
 whieh follow approximate more nearly to the classical style, and the 
 first, addressed to the moon, begins in the pure ode style, and is par- 
 ticularly distinguished for its beauty. In his ' Sextinas ' Camoens has 
 not failed in rendering their artificial ornaments pleasing. But his 
 twenty-one elegies are more worthy of attention ; they are in general 
 the longest poems of the collection next to the ' Lusiad ' aud the 
 ' Creation.' Some were written in his youth and in exile, others 
 during his oriental voyages and adventures. No other works of the 
 poet so irresistibly command the reader's regret for his misfortunes, 
 and regard for him as a man. \ 
 
 A few poems widely differing from each other, are printed under 
 the common title of 'Estaueias' (stanzas), because they are all com- 
 posed in Italian octavus. The first three of the series are all truly 
 poetic epistles, and faithful mirrors of the character and principles of 
 the author. 
 
 Among the miscellaneous poems of Camoens the ' Eclogues' occupy 
 a considerable space. They have more tho form than the spirit of 
 pastoral poetry. Passages in Spanish are occasionally interspersed 
 with the Portuguese. 
 
 In the collected works of Camoens a separation is made of his 
 poems in the Italian style and the Italian syllabic measure from those 
 which are composed in ' quintilhas.' In this style also he has em-iched 
 every species of poetic composition then known in Portugal aud 
 Spain. The ' redondilhas' on his return from Macao to Goa, after he 
 had narrow ly escaped death by shipwreck, are among those best known. 
 
 Romantic, gallant, and comic effusions of fancy and wit ('glosaa' in 
 the Spanish style, ' voltas' in Portuguese), and other poetic trifles in 
 the Portuguese and Spanish languages, appear to have been dealt out 
 at every opportunity with a profuse hand by Camoens, and no mental 
 sport seems to have been too homely for him. 
 
 Finally, to leave no kind of poetical composition unattempted, he 
 wrote (probably previous to his departure for India) three dramas : 
 'El Key Seleuco' (King Seleucus) ; 'Os Ainphitryoes' (The Amphi- 
 tryous), and ' Filodemo.' Had the genius whieh animates the ' Lusiad ' 
 taken a dramatic direction, Camoens would have been the Calderon of 
 Portugal before a Lope de Vega had arisen in Spain. 
 
 A very good edition of the works of Camoens appeared at Lisbon in 
 1779-80, under the title of ' Obras de Camoens, Principe dos Poetas de 
 Hespanha,' i torn. 12mo. A second edition also appeared in 1782-83, 
 \'x five small volumes, the first of which contains the life of the author 
 and the ' Lusiad,' and the last the dramatic and other pieces ascribed 
 to Camoens. A very accui-ate and splendid edition of the ' Lusiad ' 
 was published, with very fine engravings, in one vol. 4to, by Firmin 
 Didot at Paris in 1S17, the expense of which was defrayed by Souza 
 Botelho. Of this edition very few copies were printed, and it is now 
 consequently rare. The 'Lusiad' has since been several times 
 reprinted. Of the English translations, Mickle's, with all its faults, 
 perhaps best preserves the characteristics of Camoen's style. 
 
 CAMPA'N, MADAME, was the daughter of M. Genet, an officer in 
 the foreign department under Louis XV. She was born in October 
 1752. At fifteen years of age she was appointed reader to the prin- 
 cesses, daughters of Louis XV. In 1770 she married M. Campan, 
 and was soon after appointed first lady of the bedchamber to Marie 
 Antoinette, then dauphiuess. She remained with Marie Antoinette 
 during her husband's reign, and was with her in the first scenes of the 
 Revolution, up to the storming of the Tuileries on the 10th of August, 
 when she narrowly escaped with her life. Being forbidden to follow 
 her mistress to her prison in the Temple, she retired into the country, 
 and at last opened a boarding-school at St. Germain en-Laye. The 
 establishment prospered, and was patronised by Josephine Beauhar- 
 nais, who sent her daughter Hortense to it. In 1806, when Napoleon 
 founded the establishment at Ecoueu for the daughters and sisters of 
 the officers of the Legion of Honour, he appointed Madame Campan 
 to superintend it. After the Restoration, the school of Ecoueu being 
 suppressed, Madame Campan retired to Mantes, where she died 10th 
 March 1822, leaving behind her a character for mild virtues and 
 considerable information and accomplishments. She has written — 
 ' Mdmoires sur ia Vie privee de Marie Antoinette, Reine de France, 
 Buivis de Souvenirs et Anecdotes Historiquea eur les Regnea de 
 
 Louis XV. et Louis XVI.,' translated into English in 1823. She gives 
 a faithful and impartial account of Marie Antoinette. Her recollec- 
 tions of the old court of Louis XV. are also curious. 
 
 CAMPANELLA, TOMMA'SO, born near the town of Stilo in 
 Calabria, in 1508, entered the Dominican order and became distin- 
 guished for his learning. He applied himself chiefly to metaphysics, 
 aud followed his countryman Telesio, who died in 1588 at Cosenza, in 
 his opposition to what was then taught in the schools under the name 
 of Aristotelian philosophy. Campanella published his first work at 
 Naples, in 1591, entitled 'Philosophia Sensibus demonstrata ad versus 
 eos qui proprio arbitratu, non autom sensata duce natura, philosophati 
 sunt, cum vera Defensione Bernardi Telesii.' Philosophy was at that 
 time a very dangerous ground for discussion, as was experienced, 
 among others, by Bruno and Vauiui, both natives of the kingdom of 
 Naples, who were burnt alive for their opinions, one at Rome and the 
 other in France. [Bhuno, Gioivdano.] The schoolmen, and the 
 monks especially, raised such a storm against Campanella that he left 
 his native couutry. He was accused of sorcery, of beiug an adept of 
 Raymond Lullus, and of some cabalistic Rabbins. Campanella went 
 to Tuscauy, where the grand duke Ferdinand de' Medici received him 
 'with great kiudness, and offered him a professorship at Pisa, which he 
 declined ; theuce Campanella proceeded to Padua, where ho gave 
 private instruction to several young patricians of Venice. About this 
 period he wrote several works, among others a project of a Christian 
 monarchy, with a treatise on Church government, addressed to tlie 
 pope, in which he suggested how, with mere spiritual weapons, he 
 might bring all Christians within the pale of the Church. Campanella 
 appeals in this and other of his works as an admirer of unity, both in 
 Church and State ; he advocated a universal spiritual monarchy as 
 well as a temporal one, both acting in uuisou for a common purpose. 
 After some years, Campanella left Padua for Rome, but his papers 
 were seized on the road, and it seems that they found their way to 
 the archives of the Inquisition at Rome ; but the author remained 
 unmolested for the present. From Rome, Campanella returned to his 
 native country, where he lived for some time at Stilo, enjoying con- 
 siderable celebrity for his learning, until serious political events came 
 to disturb the land. A vast conspiracy is stated to have been hatched 
 in Calabria, in which several hundred monks and other clergymen, 
 some bishops, and many barons were said to be implicated, against 
 the Spanish vice-regal government, which was one of the worst in 
 Europe. The peasantry were ripe for revolt, being ground down by 
 taxes, and still more by the cruel manner in which they were levied. 
 Philip II. of Spain, who had wielded so long with a strong hand the 
 power of the Spanish crown, was dead, and his successor had not 
 inherited his abilities or his firmness. The Count de Lemos was sent 
 viceroy to Naples by Philip III., and a fresh tax on 'fuochi' (hearths), 
 or families, was imposed. Dissatisfaction became loud all over the 
 country. In August 1599, two citizens of Catanzaro revealed the plan 
 of a conspiracy, in which Campanella and his brother friar, Diouisio 
 Ponzio of Nicastro, were leaders. It was said that their object was to 
 proclaim a republic, and that they relied upon the Turks for assist- 
 ance ; and had carried on a correspondence with Cicala Pasha, a 
 Turkish admiral, but himself a Calabrian renegade, who was then 
 scouring the neighbouring sea with his squadron. Such a plan may 
 have been conceived by some person ; but that a man of so much 
 information and judgment as Campanella displays in his works, a 
 monk, and an advocate for a universal Christian monarchy, could 
 think of establishing a republic in Calabria by means of Turkish 
 assistance and against the power of the Spanish monarchy, is incredi- 
 ble, and the sequel tends to disprove the charge. Campanella and 
 Dionisio Ponzio were arrested, together with many more, and sent to 
 Naples, where several of the conspirators, having confessed under 
 torture, were executed. Campanella remained in a dungeon for years : 
 he was put to the torture seven times ; five times his trial was begun 
 afresh, but he confessed nothing, or had nothing to confess, and after 
 several years his confinement was mitigated, and he was allowed to 
 see his friends. Charges of heresy were mixed up with political 
 charges against him ; he was even accused of being the author of the 
 book ' De Tribus Impostoribus,' which Campanella observes had beet 
 published thirty years before he was born. The historian Giannone 
 asserts that Campanella was really a leader of the great conspiracy, 
 which he says was concocted chiefly by monks ; but Giannone, like 
 most Neapolitan jurists, was prejudiced against monks and churchmen 
 in general, and he believed the insinuations of the viceregal lawyers. 
 Botta, in his continuation to Guicciardini, has followed Giannone 
 implicitly. A search was made a few years back in the archives of 
 Naples for the papers relative to Campanella's imprisonment and trial, 
 but nothing was found. Most of the documents existing of the vice- 
 regal judicial administration are of a later date than Campanella's 
 trial ; the previous records of the 16th and beginning of the 17th 
 centuries are missing. Antonio Serra, a Calabrian, and one of the 
 earliest writers on political economy, was one of the individuals im- 
 prisoned on the same occasion as Campanella, and he also was tortured 
 and kept in prison for years. Campanella enjoyed at one time a 
 glimpse of favour from the viceroy Duke of Ossuna, who loved to 
 converse with him on politics ; but when Ossuna was recalled and 
 arrested, on the charge of having intended to assume supreme power 
 at Naples, Campanella became the object of fresh suspicions, and bis 
 
53 
 
 CAMPBELL, LORD. 
 
 61 
 
 captivity was made more rigorous. At last, in 1626, he was released 
 from bis prison at the pressing request of Pope Urban VIII., who, 
 probably in order to obtain bis release, urged that as the prisoner had 
 been charged with heresy, and was moreover an ecclesiastic, he ought 
 to appear before the tribunal of the Inquisition. Campanella was 
 therefore sent to Rome, and lodged in the buildings of the Holy Office, 
 where however he was a prisoner at large, and was treated with con- 
 siderate attention. After three years more, making in all thirty years 
 of confinement, he was allowed his full freedom. He remained for 
 several years at Home, enjoying the favour of the pope, of many of 
 the cardinals, and other distinguished persons. He published two 
 works in favour of the Papal See and Court—' Monarchia Messiah, ubi, 
 per philosophiam divinam et humanam demonstrantur J ura summi 
 Pontificis super univer3um Orbem,' Jesi, in the Papal State, 1633 ; 
 and ' Discorsi della Liberta e della Felice Suggezione alio Stato Eccle- 
 siastico,' Ibid. The object of the last work was to show that the 
 people subject to the Papal See were among the happiest in Italy, 
 which was then perhaps true. These two works having occasioned 
 remonstrances and complaints on the part of the Spanish and other 
 courts were suppressed, and copies of them are very scarce. He also 
 wrote at Home a ' Liber de Titulis,' on hierarchical precedence and 
 titles of honour. 
 
 Campanella had become very intimate at Rome with the Duke de 
 Noailles, ambassador of Louis XIII., and this intimacy, added to the 
 old suspicions of the agents of Spain, made them cry aloud against the 
 protection granted by the pope to a turbulent friar, whom they com- 
 pared to Luther. Campanella stood evidently in danger, even in the 
 midst of Rome ; so great was then the dread of the Spanish power in 
 Italy, that the pope's protection was deemed insufficient. Naoilles 
 proposed to Campanella to take refuge in France, and he sent him off 
 in his own carriage, disguised as one of his attendants, and with letters 
 of recommendation to the minister Cardinal Richelieu. Campanella 
 arrived safely at Marseille, in October, 1634; he saw at Aix the learned 
 Peircsc, who treated him most kindly and provided him with neces- 
 saries for the remainder of his journey. At Paris he had a very 
 favourable reception from Richelieu, who conversed with him confi- 
 dentially on the affairs of Italy, and introduced him to Louis XIII., 
 who cranted him a pension. Campanella, worn out by his sufferings, 
 retired to the convent of his order, the afterwards famous Convent of 
 the Jacobins in the Rue St. Honore, where he died, March 21, 1639. 
 
 The works of Campanella are very numerous. The Dominican 
 bibliographers Echard and Quetif, 'Scriptor. Ord. Pradic.,' give a long 
 catalogue of his inedited works. Among those that have been pub- 
 lished, the following are deserving of notice : — 'Prodromus Philosophise 
 Instaurandae, seu de Natura Rerum, cum Procfatione ad Philosophos 
 Germanise,' Frankfurt, 1617. The preface is by Tobias Adami, a 
 learned German, who became acquainted with Campanella in his con- 
 finement at Naples. Campanella intrusted him with several of his 
 manuscripts. ' De Sensu Rerum et Magia Libri IV., ubi demonstratur 
 Mundutn esse Dei vivam statuam beneque cognoscentem ; omnes illius 
 partes sensu donatas esse, quatenus ipsarum conservation! sufficit : et 
 fere omnium natunc arcanorum reperiuntur rationes,' Frankfurt, 1620. 
 This work was composed, as well as several others, by Campanella 
 duriDg his Neapolitan captivity, and was published in Germany by 
 Adami, but the author published a second edition of it at Paris in 
 1636, which he dedicated to Cardinal Richelieu. Father Mersenne 
 wrote to refute the book as heretical, and Atbanasius of Constantinople 
 wrote against it in his ' Anti-Campanella,' Paris, 1655. ' Realis Philo- 
 sophise Epilogisticse Partes IV, cum Tobise Adami Annotationibus; 
 accedit Appendix politicus sub hoc Titulo: Civitas Solis, seu Idea 
 Reipublicae Philosophicoe,' Frankfurt, 1620. The 'Civitas Solis' has 
 been often reprinted separately, and translated into various languages. 
 'Apologia pro Galileo, ubi disquiritur utrum ratio philo.-ophandi 
 quam Galileus celebrat faveat Scripturis sacris an adversetur,' Frank- 
 furt, 1662. ' De Prsedestinatione, Electione, Reprobatione, et auxiliis 
 Divinse Gratia:, Cento Thomisticus,' Paris, 1636. The author discusses 
 some of the opinions of Thomas Aquinas, and supports those of 
 Origenes. ' Universalis Philosophise, seu Metaphysicarum Rerum 
 Libri XVIII.,' Paris, 1638. ' Philosophise Rationalis Partes Quinque.' 
 'De Gentilismo non retinendo Qusestio unica,' Paris, 1636. The 
 question proposed is, whether it is lawful to contradict Aristotle. 
 The following works of Campanella were published after the death of 
 the author. ' De Libris propriis et recta Ratione Studendi,' Paris, 
 1642, in which the author speaks of himself, his studies, and his works. 
 It was edited by Naudd, who knew Campanella, and who speaks of 
 him and his imprisonment in his ' Considerations Politique.? sur les 
 Coups d'Etats.' 'De Monarchia Hispanica Discursus,' Amsterdam, 
 1640. This, perhaps the most remarkable work of Campanella, was 
 written by him during his confinement at Naples. It is an able sketch 
 of the political world of that time, and with reference to the Spanish 
 monarchy, which was then the preponderating power, it showed how 
 that preponderance could be maintained and increased. This work 
 made a great noi j e at the time; it was reprinted several times, and 
 was translated into English (chiefly no doubt in consequence of the 
 plan which Campanella suggests to the Spanish monarch for obtaining 
 poMession of England on the death of Elizabeth), and published during 
 Cromwell's Protectorate: 'A Discourse touching the Spanish Monarchy, 
 wLcicin we have a political glasse repre-enting each particular country, 
 
 province, kingdom, and ompiro of the world, with ways of government 
 by which they are kept in obedience, written by Thomas Campanella, 
 and newly translated into English according to the third edition of 
 his book in Latin,' London, 1654, with a preface by the translator, 
 giving a notice of Campanella's adventures. The work was reprinted 
 after the Restoration, under this title : 'Thomas Campanella, an Italian 
 Friar, and second Machiavel, his Advice to the King of Spain fov 
 attaining the Universal Monarchy of the World, particularly concerning 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, how to raise division between King 
 and Parliament, to alter the government from a Kingdom to a Com- 
 monwealth, also for reducing Holland and other seafaring countries, 
 &c, with a preface by William Prynne of Lincoln's Inn.' 
 
 In the King's Library at Paris are several manuscripts of Campanella, 
 among others an invective against the Jesuits, and a discourse against 
 the Lutherans and Calvinists. In the Imperial Library at Vienna 
 there is an Italian dialogue of Campanella, on the means of convincing 
 of error all the heretics and sectarians of his time. Some short 
 Italian poems of Campanella were published a few years buck at 
 Lugano, by Orelli. Adami published some of his Latin poems. 
 
 (Baldacchini, Vita e Filosofia di T. Campanella, Naples, 1840, with 
 several inedited letters of Campanella ; Tiraboschi, Storia della 
 Lelteratura Italiana, &c.) 
 
 CAMPANI, MATTHEW and JOSEPH, two brothers, natives of 
 the diocese of Spoleto, were alive in and after 1678. They are some- 
 times confounded, as for instance by Weidler. Matthew, the elder, 
 was curate of a parish at Rome, and applied himself to watchmaking 
 and optics. He is mentioned as having constructed a clock which was 
 illuminated by night from the interior, and he published a work on 
 the subject of clockmaking in 1678. But he is principally known 
 as having been the first who ground object-glasses of enormous focal 
 length. By order of Louis XIV. he made one of a focal length of 
 130, one of 150, and one of 205 palms (9j inches French, according to 
 Auzout) ; and with one of these Dominic Cassini first saw the 
 satellites of Saturn. His smaller glasses were much esteemed. 
 Weidler says (of Joseph Campani, but we suspect it must be Matthew 
 who is meant), on the authority of the ' Journal des Savans,' 1665, 
 p. 4, that he endeavoured to destroy chromatic aberration by means 
 of a triple eye glass. There is a paper of his in ' Gaudentii Roberti 
 Misc. Ital. Phys. Math.,' Bologna, 1692. 
 
 Joseph Campani was also an astronomer, and made his own tele- 
 scopes. He published various observations (see Lalande, ' Bibl. 
 Astron.'), and is the one referred to in Auzout. 
 
 CAMPA'NUS, JOHN, of Novara in the Milanese, the first translator 
 of Euclid from the Arabic. Blancauus (' Chron. Math.') places him 
 between a.d. 1000 and 1100, but says that by his own account he 
 wrote a calendar in the year 1200. Vossius confirms the latter, and 
 cites the calendar in question, and also Blancanus iu confirmation, 
 without noticing the discrepancy. Riccioli contends for a.d. 1030. 
 There is no doubt the writer of the calendar lived about a.d. 1200, 
 but whether an earlier Campauus might not have been the translator 
 of Euclid is a question. Tiraboschi (cited by Montucla) has shown 
 that there was a Campanus who was chaplain to Pope Urban IV. 
 (elected 1261), but we do not see on what grounds Tiraboschi 
 positively affirms this one to have been the translator of Euclid. 
 
 This translation was the first printed, aud we shall give an account 
 of this early triumph of the art. There is no title-page ; the first 
 words being " Preclarissimus liber elemen torum Euclidis perspicacissimi : 
 in artem Geometrie incipit qua foelicissime : punctus est cuius ps no 
 est," &c. At the end we find "II Opus elementoru. euclidis megarensis 
 in geometria arte In id quoq; Campani pspicacissimi Comentationes 
 finiiit. Erhardus ratdolt Augustensis impressor solertissimus. venetiis 
 impressit. Anno salutis. M.cccc.lxxxij. Octavis. Calen. Jun. 
 Lector. Vale.' 
 
 There is a preface by Ratdolt, iu which he complains that, among 
 the vast number of books then printed at Venice, there should be so 
 few on mathematics. This he attributes to the difficulty of repre- 
 senting diagrams, and states that he has discovered a method of 
 printing them as easily as letter types. This appears to be wood- 
 cutting; and the diagrams are on a broad margin by the side of the 
 black letter. 
 
 The translation itself is evidently from the Arabic, not from the 
 Greek. Several Arabic terms are introduced ; an equilateral rhombus 
 is called 'helmuaym;' a parallelogram, 'similis helmuaym ' in the 
 definitions, but afterwards a 'parallelogram ; ' a trapezium is helmua- 
 riphe.' There was a reprint at Venice in 1491, not by Ratdolt; and 
 the commentary of Campanus was reprinted by Henry Stephens at 
 Paris in 1516 in the edition of Zamberti. Billingsley's English trans- 
 lation, best known by John Dee's preface, was made from Campanus. 
 
 For a copious list of manuscripts of Campanus in different libraries, 
 &c, see Heilbrouner, ' Hist. Math. Univ.' (Index.) 
 
 CAMPBELL, LORDS OF ARGYLL. [Argyll, Campbell, Lords 
 of.] 
 
 CAMPBELL, LORD. John Campbell, now Lord Campbell, aud 
 Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench, was born iu 1779 at 
 Springfield, near Cupar, Fifeshire, in Scotland. He is the second son 
 of the Rev. Dr. (Jcorge Campbell, minister of Cupar, Fifeshire. He 
 was educated at the University of St. Andrews. In November 1800 
 he was entered as a student at Liucolu's lun, London, was called to 
 
55 
 
 the bar in 1806, and became a bencher in 1 827. In 1830 he -was elected 
 M.P. for Stafford, in 1832 for Dudley, and in 1834 for Edinburgh, 
 which city he continued to represent till 1841. He was solicitor- 
 general from 1832 to February 1834, when he was appointed attorney- 
 general, and so continued till November in the same year. In April 
 1835 he was again appointed attorney-general, and he held the office 
 till June 1841, when he was appointed Lord Chancellor of Ireland, and 
 was raised to the peerage as Baron Campbell. He resigned the chan- 
 cellorship of Ireland in September 1841. In July 1846 he was made 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 1850 became Chief 
 Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench, with a salary of 8000/., which 
 hi^h office ho still fills. 
 
 Lord Campbell married in 1821 the eldest daughter of the first Lord 
 Abinger, and his wife in 1836 was created Baroness Stratheden. His 
 son, the Hon. William Frederick Campbell, is heir to the title of Lord 
 Campbell, and to the barony of Stratheden. 
 
 Lord Campbell published in 1846 'The Lives of the Lord Chancellors 
 and Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from the Earliest Times to 
 the Reign of King George IV.' The first series is in 3 vols. 8vo, and 
 extends to the Revolution of 1688 ; vols. 4 and 5, forming the second 
 series, were published in December 1846; and vols. 6 and 7, forming 
 the third series, and completing the work, came out in December 1847. 
 In 1849 Lord Campbell published 'The Lives of the Chief Justices of 
 England, from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Lord Mansfield,' 
 2 vols. 8vo. [See Supplement.] 
 
 CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN, was born in the city of Glasgow. He 
 entered the army in 1808 ; and served in the Peninsular War till its 
 termination in 1814. He was in the battle of Vimiera, was engaged 
 in the defence of Tarifa; was twice wounded at the sieges of San 
 Sebastian ; and was also wounded at the passage of the Bidassoa. In 
 1814-15 he served in America. In 1842 he was engaged in the Chinese 
 War, where he commanded the 98th foot. From 1848 to 1852 he was 
 in Hindustan, and for his conduct there he received the thanks of the 
 East India Company and the British parliament, and received the 
 order of K.C.B. He was appointed brigadier-general of the forces sent 
 in aid of Turkey in 1854, and in the same year was made colonel of the 
 67th regiment of foot, and a major-general. In 1855 ho received the 
 local rank of lieutenant-general in Turkey, and was created a knight 
 grand cross of the order of the Bath. He distinguished himself at the 
 battle of the Alma, when leading the Highland brigade to the assault of 
 the Russian batteries, and again at the battle of Balaclava, when he ranged 
 the 93rd Highlanders in single file, ' the thin red line,' as it has been 
 since called, and thus repulsed the Russian cavalry. [See Supplement.] 
 
 CAMPBELL, GEORGE, D.D., was born at Aberdeen in 1719. He 
 received a careful education with a view to follow the profession of 
 the law, but he relinquished his legal pursuits for the study of divinity. 
 He obtained a pastoral charge in 1741, and in 1759 was appointed 
 Principal of Marischal College, Aberdeen. In 1763 he published his 
 ' Dissertation on Miracles,' in reply to Hume's work on the same subject. 
 It was translated into French and Dutch, and sold extensively. The 
 degree of D.D. was soon afterwards conferred upon him by King's 
 College, Aberdeen. In 1771 Dr. Campbell was appointed Professor of 
 Divinity. In 1776 he published his most valuable work, the ' Philo- 
 sophy of Rhetoric,' a work less generally read than that of Blair, 
 but of much greater excellence in every respect. Indeed until the 
 publication of Whateley's 'Rhetoric' it was by far the most useful 
 work of the kind in the English language, and few students would even 
 now turn over its pages without advantage. His last work was a 
 ' Translation of the Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations and Notes,' 
 in 2 vols. 4to. His writings have been frequently reprinted. An edition 
 of Dr. Campbell's works was published by Messrs. Tegg in 6 vols. 8vo. 
 He died April 6, 1793. He resigned his professorship some years pre- 
 viously, on which oocasion the king granted him a pension of 300Z. 
 a year. 
 
 CAMPBELL, JOHN, LL.D., a writer on biography, history, politics, 
 and statistics, was born at Edinburgh, March 8, 1708. It is said that 
 his mother prided herself on being a descendant of the poet Waller. 
 At the age of five years he left Scotland, and never after visited it. 
 He was placed in an attorney's office, but relinquished the law for a 
 literary career. Before his thirtieth year he published (in 1736) ' The 
 Military History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough,' in 
 2 vols, folio. He was next engaged as one of the writers in the 
 ' Universal Ancient History.' In 1739 he published the ' Travels and 
 Adventures of Edward Brown, Esq.,' 8vo ; in the same year ' Memoirs 
 of the Bashaw Duke de Ripperda,' 8vo ; in 1741 a ' Concise History of 
 Spanish America,' 8vo ; in 1742 'A Letter on the Discovery, Import- 
 ance, and Utility of the Thurlow State Papers;' in the same year the 
 first and second volumes of the ' Lives of the English Admirals and 
 other eminent British Seamen,' which work was completed by the 
 appearance of two other volumes in 1744. This work, he says in a 
 letter to one of his friends, cost him a great deal of trouble, and he 
 endeavoured to be strictly impartial. Three editions were published 
 in his lifetime, and a fourth edition was published by Dr. Berkenhout. 
 Shortly after the first appearance of this work it was translated into 
 German. In 1744 he published in 2 vols, folio a collection of ' Voyages 
 and Travels' on an improved plan. In 1745 he commenced his labours 
 in the 'Biographia Britanuica,' to which work his contributions were 
 very numerous. He wrote the ' Introduction to Chronology,' and the 
 
 'Discourse on Trade' in Dodaley's 'Preceptor.' In 1750 he published 
 a work ' On tho Present State of Europe.' His most important work 
 was published in 1774 in 2 vols, royal 4to, aud is entitled ' A Political 
 Survey of Britain, being a series of Reflections on the Situation, Lauds, 
 Inhabitants, Revenues, Colonies, and Commerce of this Island,' with 
 many practical suggestions for improvements. In 1754 the degree of 
 LL.D. was conferred upon him by the Glasgow University, and in 1774 
 the Empress of Russia presented him with her picture. Dr. Campbell 
 married in 1736, and died on December 28, 1775. In 1765 he was 
 appointed by the government his majesty's agent for the province of 
 Canada, which office he retained until his death. Dr. Campbell was a 
 man of considerable attainments, and had a fair knowledge of ancient, 
 modern, and oriental languages. 
 
 CAMPBELL, REV. JOHN, was born at Edinburgh in March 1766, 
 and apprenticed to a goldsmith and jeweller in his native city. About 
 1789, at which time he was actively engaged in measures for the 
 extension of Sunday-schools and itinerant preaching in the neglected 
 districts near Edinburgh, he began to prepare himself for the Christian 
 ministry. He subsequently visited London, to take charge of twenty- 
 four young natives of Africa, who were brought from Sierra Leono to 
 be instructed in Christianity, with a view to its introduction into their 
 native land ; and in 1804 he became pastor of the Independent Church 
 in Kingsland, a charge which he retained until his death, which took 
 place on the 4th of April, 1840, at the age of seventy-four. Mr. Camp- 
 bell took an active part in the formation of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, and several other important religious associations. In 
 1812 he made a journey to the stations of the Loudon Missionary 
 Society in South Africa, from which he returned in 1814. Of this 
 journey he in 1815 published an account in an octavo volume. In 
 1818-21 he revisited Africa, and found some interesting changes pro- 
 duced by the civilisation introduced by the missionaries. The journal 
 of his second visit appeared in 1822, in two octavo volumes. Mr. 
 Campbell published numerous works, chiefly for the instruction of 
 youth, and he was the fotiuaer and for eighteen years the editor of 
 the 'Youth's Magazine,' a religious periodical of great utility. In 
 1823 he established a penny monthly periodical entitled the ' Teacher's 
 Offering,' the publication of which is still continued by the Religious 
 Tract Society. He alto prepared an abridgment of his ' Travels in 
 South Africa,' and wrote several religious works for the young. 
 
 CAMPBELL, THOMAS, was born July 27, 1777, at Glasgow, where 
 his father, who was the youngest son of a Highland laird, Campbell 
 of Kernan, and had then attained the age of sixty-seven, had spent his 
 life as a merchant, but was now out of business. Thomas was the 
 youngest of a family of eleven sous and daughters. At the university 
 of his native city, where he was educated, he appears to have distin- 
 guished himself rather by his occasional exercises, especially in Greek, 
 than by his general industry and proficiency. It is related that a 
 translation (into verse, we suppose) of the ' Clouds ' of Aristophanes, 
 for which he obtained a prize in the Greek class, was pronounced by 
 the professor, the late learned and eccentric Professor Young, to be 
 the best exercise ever given in by any student of the university. After 
 leaving the university he resided a short time at Edinburgh, where he 
 published in April 1799 his ' Pleasures of Hope.' Few first poems have 
 ever made so great a sensation, and it still continues to be the poem 
 by which Campbell is best known ; indeed he never after ventured on 
 a work of equal extent or pretension. Yet with all its imposing 
 declamatory splendour, aud the poetic glow which animates it, it 
 betrays, both in executicu and in substance, the raw and unknit mind 
 of youth. It was a poem of extraordinary promise however for a first 
 production. It could not indeed be considered as a mere clever 
 imitation of any reigning model or other previous poetry ; taken all 
 in all, in its faults as well as in its beauties, its manner and spirit were 
 its own. It is said that the profits he derived from the sale of the 
 ' Pleasures of Hope ' enabled Campbell to visit the continent, which he 
 did in the latter part of the year 1800. He saw part of Germany, and 
 having proceeded to Bavaria, then the seat of war, had a view Irotn a 
 safe distance of the battle of Hohenlinden, fought in December of that 
 year. He was stopped in attempting to pass into Italy, and returned 
 to England by way of Hamburg. A seventh edition of his ' Pleasures 
 of Hope' appeared in 1802, 'with other poems,' among which were 
 his noble verses on the battle of Hohonlinden ; his spirited and stirring 
 song, ' Ye Mariners of England,' written at Hamburg on the prospect 
 of war with Denmark ; his ' Exile of Erin,' also written there ; and 
 his ' Lochiel's Warning,' which had been written at Edinburgh since 
 his return. After being nearly two years in Edinburgh, he removed 
 to London in 1803 ; and having in the autumn of that year married 
 his cousin, Miss Matilda Sinclair, he appears to have commenced in 
 earnest the pursuit of literature as a profession. Among the works 
 which he produced in the course of the next five or six years, was & 
 compilation, published anonymously at Edinburgh in 1807, in 3 vols. 
 8vo, entitled 'Annals of Great Britain, from the Accession of 
 George III. to the Peace of Amiens.' He also contributed several 
 articles to the 'Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,' begun in 1808, under the 
 superintendence of Dr. (now Sir David) Brewster. Meanwhile in 1806 
 he had received from the Fox ministry a pension of 20QL a year, which 
 he enjoyed while he lived. 
 
 With the exception of a few occasional short pieces, he published no 
 more poetry till his ' Gertrude of Wyoming ' appeared in 1809, acconv 
 
CAMPER, PETER. 
 
 nanied in the first edition by ' Lord Ullin'a Daughter' and hia ' Battle 
 I of the Baltic,' perhaps his finest lyric; and in a subsequent edition by 
 I his beautiful and passionate tale of ' O'Connor's Child.' ' Gertrude of 
 Wyoming' is written upon the whole in a much purer style than the 
 ' Pleasures of Hope ' — though still not without occasional forms of 
 expression haying more sound than sense, such for example as the 
 ' transport and security entwine ' which Byron has ridiculed. With 
 :ill his truth and delicacy of taste in the matter of diction, Campbell 
 seldom altogether escapes these hollow conventionalities of phraseology, 
 at least in his quieter passages. The best executed portions of his 
 ' Gertrude of Wyoming,' as of all his poems, are those in which he is 
 carried along by passion, and has less time to waste on words. 
 
 In 1S1"2 Campbell gave six lectures on poetry at the Royal Institution, 
 which attracted large audiences. For several years he published 
 nothing except a few occasional short pieces. In 1818 he made a 
 second visit to Germany, and after his return in the following year his 
 'Specimens of the British Poets' appeared in 7 volumes, 8vo. (re- 
 printed in 1841, in one volume, 8vo, with additional notes by Mr. P. 
 Cunningham). The ' Essay on English Poetry ' by which this work 
 is introduced i3 written in many passages with great beauty and 
 eloquence. In 1820 Campbell delivered a course of lectures on 
 English Poetry at the Surrey Institution. In 1820 also he undertook 
 the editorship of the ' New Monthly Magazine,' which he retained till 
 In 1824 he published his ' Theodoric, a domestic tale ; ' it wants 
 the force and fire of some of his other poetry, but is perhaps the 
 test of all his poems. He never wrote anything more touching 
 than the letter of Constance towards the close of this poem. It was 
 however received by the public with great coldness, very much to the 
 ■innnyance of the author. For some years after this he was much 
 occupied by the interest he took in the emancipation of Greece and 
 of Poland, and also in the project of the London University, now 
 University College, which he always claimed the credit of originating, 
 but the successful carrying out of the idea was certainly due to others. 
 
 In 1827 he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow, and he 
 was re-elected to the office in the two following years. He lost his 
 wife in 1828. Of two sons, one died in infancy ; the other survived 
 his father, but was early found to be the subject of mental derange- 
 ment. In 1831 Campbell established the 'Metropolitan Magazine' 
 relinquishing or losing the editorship of the 'New Monthly,' but 
 retained its management in his own hands only for a short time; and 
 in 1832 he paid a visit to Algiers, an account of which he published in 
 the 'Metropolitan Magazine' in a series of papers, afterwards, in 1837, 
 collected and reprinted in two volumes, 8vo, under the title of 'Letters 
 from the South.' The other publications of his last years, none of 
 which brought him much reputation, were a 'Life of Mrs. Siddons,' 2 
 vols. 8vo, 1834; a 'Life of Petrarch,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1841; 'Life and 
 Times of Frederick the Great' (of this he professed to be only the 
 editor), 4 vols. 8vo, 1841, and 1843 ; and the 'Pilgrim of Glencoe,' a 
 poem, 8vo, 1842. In the summer of 1843 his health and circumstances 
 being both much impaired, he retired, accompanied by a niece, to 
 Boulogne ; and he died there on the 15th of June 1844. His body 
 was brought over to England, and interred on the 3rd of July in 
 Westminster Abbey, near the centre of Poet's Corner, close to the 
 tomb of Addison, where a marble statue of him by Marshall has since 
 been placed. 
 
 (Beattie, Life and Letters of Thomas Campbell) 
 
 CAMPER, PETER, a physician and anatomist, was born at Leyden 
 on the 11th of May 1722. His father, Florent Camper, was a clergy- 
 man, who numbered among his friends Boerhaave, 'sGravesande, 
 Musschenbroeck, and Moor ; and in the society of these celebrated 
 men Camper imbibed his strong love of science and the fine arts. 
 He was instructed in drawing by Moor, and in geometry by Labordes. 
 On entering the university of Leyden he devoted himself to the 
 study of medicine, under Gaubius, Van Rooyen, the elder Albinus, 
 and Trioen, under whom he soon rose to distinction ; and when he 
 took his degree of doctor in philosophy and medicine in 1746, he 
 published two dissertations, — the one 'De Visu,' the other 'Do Oculi 
 quibusdam parti bus,' which have been much praised by Baldinger. 
 In 1748 he visited London, where he spent nearly twelve months, 
 associating with Mead, Pringle, and Pitcairn; and where his taste for 
 natural history was awakened by the cabinets of Sir Hans Sloane and 
 Collmaon, and the collections of Hill and Catesby. He subsequently 
 successively occupied the chairs of philosophy, anatomy, surgery, and 
 medicine in the universities of Franeker, Amsterdam, and Groningen. 
 When entering upon these professorships he delivered introductory 
 lectures, which were remarkable for the comprehensive knowledge 
 which they evinced in physics, medicine, and anatomy, as well as for 
 an uncommon talent of observation. He obtained a prize from the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1772, and an accessil in 1776; a prize from 
 the Academy of Dijon in 1779 ; from that of Lyon in 1773, and 
 that of Toulouse iu 1774 ; and from the societies of Haarlem and 
 Edinburgh, and the academy of surgery. He was a member of the 
 Academies of Berlin and St. Petersburg, and of the Royal Societies of 
 London and Gottingen; and in 1785 was made a foreign associate of 
 the Academy of Sciences at Paris, being the only Dutchman, except 
 Boerhaave, who had attained that honour. He was also a member of 
 the state-council of the United Provinces, and a deputy in the assembly 
 of the States of the Province of Friesland. lie died of a violent 
 
 woo. i>iv. vol. u. 
 
 pleurisy on the 7th of April 1789, in the sixty-seventh year of his age, 
 leaving behind him the well-earned reputation not only of a dis- 
 tinguished anatomist and philosopher, but of an honest man. 
 
 The works, or rather detached essays of Camper, are exceedingly 
 numerous. Besides his ' Demonstrationes Anatomico-pathologicse,' of 
 which two parts only appeared, the one containing the structure and 
 diseases of the human arm, the other the structure and diseases of 
 the human pelvis, he published separate dissertations upon the fol- 
 lowing among other subjects : — on the ' Sense of Hearing in Fishes ; ' 
 on the ' Physical Education of Children ; ' on ' Inoculation for the 
 Small-pox ; ' on the ' Origin and Colour of Negroes ; ' on the ' Signs 
 of Life and Death in new-born Children ; ' on ' Infanticide, with a 
 project for the Establishment of a Foundling Hospital ; ' on the 
 ' Operation of Lithotomy at two different times according to the 
 celebrated Franco;' &c. He also presented the following memoirs to 
 different societies : on the ' Callus of Fractured Bones ; ' on tho 
 ' Advantages and best Methods of Inoculating for the Small- pox ; ' on 
 the ' Theory and Treatment of Chronic Diseases of the Lungs,' &c. ; 
 on the ' Construction of Trusses, and the best method of tempering 
 steel for these instruments ; ' on the ' Structure of the great bones of 
 Birds, and the manner in which atmospheric air is introduced into 
 them ; ' on the ' Cure of Ulcers ; ' on the ' Characteristic marks of 
 Countenance in Persons of different Countries and Ages,' which was 
 afterwards published by his son in 4to in 1791, and followed by the 
 description of a method of delineating various sorts of heads with 
 accuracy ; on the ' Discovery of the Glands in the Interior of the 
 Sternum ; ' on ' Contagious Diseases among Cattle ; ' on ' Specific 
 Remedies ; ' on the ' Effects of Air, Sleep, &c. in the cure of Surgical 
 Disorders; ' on the ' Nature, Treatment, &c, of Dropsy on 'Physical 
 Beauty ; ' on the question, ' Why is Man exposed to more Diseases 
 than other Animals ? ' and on the ' Fossil Bones of unknown and rare 
 Animals.' In 1792 his son published a sequel to the work on the 
 natural difference of features, &c. entitled 'Lectures of the late Peter 
 Camper on the manner of delineating the different emotions of mind 
 in the countenance,' &c; and in 1803 a collection of his works appeared 
 at Paris in 3 vols. 8vo, with a folio atlas of plates under the title of 
 'Giuvres de Pierre Camper qui ont pour objet l'Histoire Naturelle, la 
 Physiologie, et l'Anatomie Comparee.' His ' Icones Herniarum ' was 
 published at Frankfurt by Soemmering, 1801, folio. Among the more 
 prominent points in his works, we may mention his discovery of the 
 presence of air in the bones of birds ; his demonstration that the 
 curvature of the urethra is greater in children than in adults; his 
 remarks on the variation of the facial angle in different nations ; and 
 his ostsological investigations into lost races of animals. 
 
 CAMPI, the name of a celebrated family of painters of Cremona. 
 
 Giulio Campi, the eldest and master of the others, according to 
 Lanzi, was the Ludovico, and Bernardino the Annibale, comparing 
 them with the Caracci as a school. Giulio was born about 1500, and 
 died in 1572. He was the scholar of Giulio Romano at Mantua, and 
 contributed greatly to the dissemination of the principles of the 
 Roman school throughout Lombardy, where his works, as well as 
 those of all the Campi, are very numerous. In many instances he has 
 combined the vigour of design of Giulio Romano with the colour of 
 Titian, but his works are in various styles. 
 
 Antonio Campi, brother of Giulio, was living in 1536, and as late as 
 1591. He was an architect as well as a painter, and wrote a history 
 of Cremona which has been highly praised : it contained numerous 
 plates drawn and many of them engraved by himself. 
 
 Vinoenzo Campi, also a brother of Giulio, was born befoi-e 1532 and 
 died in 1591. He painted many religious subjects, but excelled most 
 in portraits and fruit pieces. 
 
 Bernardino Campi, cousin of Giulio, was born in 1522, and died 
 about 1590. Though instructed by Giulio, he adopted a different 
 style from his cousin, and is generally allowed to have surpassed him. 
 They were both very similar in colour, but in design Bernardino was 
 more chaste than Giulio and less robust. He was also an excellent 
 portrait painter. He was originally a goldsmith, and was induced to 
 adopt painting from seeing two tapestries worked from designs by 
 liaffaelle, whose simplicity of style he always adhered to. Some of the 
 greatest works in Cremona and Mantua were painted by Bernardino : 
 his masterpieces are the frescoes of the cupola and other works in San 
 Sigismondo at Cremona, which for paintings is one of the richest 
 churches iu Italy. Bernardino painted the cupola in seven months. 
 A ' Nativity ' in the church of San Domenico is one of his finest pieces. 
 
 (Laist, Notizie Jstoriche de' Pittori, dec, Cremonesi j Lanzi, Storia 
 Pittorica, dec.) 
 
 CAMPOMA'NES, COUNT PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, a distinguished 
 Spanish civilian and statesman of the 18th century, was born in Asturias 
 in 1723. During his early years he travelled and observed much, and 
 studied diligently the works of English and other writers on philo- 
 sophy and political science. In 1765 he was appointed fiscal advocate 
 to the royal counoil of Castile, and afterwards minister of state. 
 He was a friend of Aranda, and took part in the expulsion of tho 
 Jesuits by that minister. [Aranda.] He laboured zealously to rouse 
 the industry of Spain from its state of torpor, and wrote several good 
 works on the education of the people, and especially of the artisans. 
 Under the ministry of Florida Blanca, Cnmpomanes was removed from 
 the council, and lived afterwards in retirement until his d<\itb, which 
 
ts CAMUCCINI, VICENZO. 
 
 occurred in 1802. He was director of the Spanish academy of history, 
 one of the few useful learned institutions of Spain, and was also a 
 member of the Academy of Belles Lettres of Paris, and by the recom- 
 mendation of Franklin, a member of the Philosophical Society of 
 Philadelphia. His principal works arc: ' Antiguidad Maritima do la 
 Republiea de Cartago,' with a translation of the ' Periplus of Hauno,' 
 illustrated by copious notes, 4to, Madrid, 1756. 'Discurso sobre el 
 Fomento de la Industria Popular,' 8vo, Madrid, 1774. ' Discurso 
 Bobre la Educaciou Popular de los Artesano3, y su Fomento,' Svo, 
 Madrid, 1775. In this last treatise he combated the idea, then general 
 in Spain and most other countries of the continent, that mechanical 
 professions were in their nature low and abject. " Let the mechanical 
 arts be improved and ennobled by the assistance of education and 
 scientific knowledge ; let the artisans raise themselves by their skill, 
 industry, and conduct, and the prejudice against the mechanical pro- 
 fessions will give way." These propositions of Campomaues appear 
 now self-evident, but in his time, and especially in Spain, they sounded 
 like a paradox, and it required a considerable degree of moral courage 
 to assert them. As a continuation of the same subject, Campomaues 
 wrote, ' Apendice a la Educacion Popular,' 4 vols. 8vo, Madrid, 1770-77; 
 a work abounding with important information and valuable ideas on 
 the subject of popular progress. It also treats of the laws allecting 
 manufactures and the mechanical arts, and the best means of extending 
 and improving them. Campomanes wrote also an historical disserta- 
 tion on the order of the Templars, and a treatise on the mortmain 
 property possessed by convents and other ecclesiastical bodies, in 
 which he expressed opinions which drew upon him the hostility of 
 several powerful diguitaries of the church, and probably contributed 
 to his removal from office. 
 
 CAMUCCINI, VICENZO, one of the most distinguished modern 
 Rouiau painters, was born at Rome about 1775. Left an orphan at an 
 early age, he was instructed in design under the care of a brother, 
 Pietro, who followed the calling of a restorer of old pictures. For 
 many years Viceuzo earned his living by copying the works of the 
 great masters. The first original works by which he attracted notice 
 were subjects from early Roman history. His ' Infancy of Romulus 
 and Remus,' 'Horatius Codes,' and others, gained him great applause; 
 and his ' Death of Caesar ' and ' Death of Virginia ' were purchased 
 for the private collection of the King of Naples. Having once gained 
 the approbation of the Roman connoiseurs Camucciui never lost it. 
 He always painted in that 'classic' style which the modern Italians 
 have so long looked upon as the highest excellence. Even in his 
 religious pieces, which are very numerous, the academic model is 
 never lost sight of. To an eye accustomed to the licence of English 
 painters, Camucciui appears intolerably constrained and formal ; but 
 in Rome he is perhaps still regarded as one of the greatest of modern 
 painters. In his lifetime he received an ample share of wealth and 
 honours. The pope appointed him inspector-general of the papal 
 museums and of the mosaic works, and keeper of the collections of 
 the Vatican. For mauy years he was director of the Academy of 
 St. Luke, and director of the Neapolitan Academy at Rome. Pius VII. 
 created him a baron ; the emperor Francis L of Austria conferred on 
 him the Order of the Iron Crown; and he was elected a member of 
 the Institute of France. As the head of the Academy of St. Luke, 
 and possessing an excellent collection of paintings by the old masters, 
 sculptures, and choice engravings, he during mauy years was regarded 
 as the great arbiter of taste in Rome ; and his practice, precept, and 
 influence gave a strong bias to the course of the young painters of that 
 city. Besides his paintings from classical and sacred history, Camuc- 
 cini painted numerous portraits, including that of Pope Pius VII. He 
 practised occasionally in fresco as well as in oil, and several of his 
 designs have been executed or copied in mosaic. Many of his more 
 important works have been engraved by Betellini and others ; and a 
 series of lithographs by Sendellari from his pictures and designs was 
 published at Rome in 1829, with the text in Italian and French, under 
 the title ' I Fasti principali della Vita di Gesu-Cristo,' 2 vols, folio. 
 Camuccini died at Rome, September 2, 1844. (Nagler, Neues Allge- 
 mines Kii natter- Lexicon ; Enc. des gens du Monde ; Nouv. Eiog. 
 Universette.) 
 
 CAMUS. We insert this article principally to make the distinction 
 between several mathematicians of this name. 
 
 1. FBANgois Joseph des Camus, born 1672, died 1732, author of 
 « Traite" des Forces mouvantes,' 1722, and editor of Varignon's < Me- 
 chanics,' 1725. He died in England, whither he had come in search 
 of employment. 
 
 2. Charles Etienne Louis Camus, bom 1699, died 1768, was the 
 companion of Clairaut, Lemonnier, and Maupertuis in the measure- 
 ment of the meridian in Lapland, author of the ' Hydraulique,' 'Cours 
 de Mathematiques,' and a list of works which may be found in Hutton's 
 * Dictionary.' He was also concerned in the verification of Picard's 
 degree, 1757. 
 
 3. Nicholas le Camus des Mezieres, born 1721, died 1789, author 
 of various works on architecture, his profession. 
 
 CANAL, ANTO'NIO, called Canaleito, was the son of Bernardo 
 Canal, who, although descended from one of the noble families of 
 Venice, followed the profession of a scene-painter. Antonio was born 
 at Venice Oct. 18, 1697. He originally followed his father's occupation; 
 ami the style of bis early practice may be traced in the boldness and 
 
 CANCELLIERI, FRANCESCO. nfi 
 
 vigour of his later works, and the reality of the effect. About the 
 year 1719, disgusted with the petty annoyances of the theatre, he 
 abandoned it altogether, and went to Rome, where he employed him- 
 self for a long time in studying from the ancient ruins. On his return 
 home, he devoted himself to painting views in the city, and original 
 compositions. In the latter part of his life he visited London, where 
 he was in great estimation, lie died at Warsaw, August 20, 1708. 
 
 His handling is light, bold, and firm; his colouring generally bright, 
 true, and pleasing; his figures well disposed. He has displayed no 
 less art in his choice of subjects and sites, and disposal of all the 
 separate parts, than in the treatment and execution. He was one of 
 the few artists who have made uso of the camera obscura with a view 
 to quickly obtaining perspective effect, and though Lanzi observes 
 that he was careful to avoid its misapplication, many of his pictures 
 appear to us to bear too evident traces of having been studied by its 
 means. But after every admission is made, there can be little question 
 that Canaletto is the first painter in his particular branch of art. In 
 his pictures the palaces of the Adriatic are brought before the eye 
 with much of the vivid beauty of the actual scene ; and his original 
 compositions, in which the ancient and the modern are blended, par- 
 take of the reality of his views. His works may be seen in every 
 collection. 
 
 His nephew and pupil, Bernardo Bellotto, also called Canaletto, (b. 
 17-4, d. 1780) painted the same subjects, and so exactly in the manner 
 of his uncle, that it is extremely difficult to distinguish their works. 
 
 CANCELLIE'RI, FRANCESCO, born at Rome in 1751, after 
 studying in the Roman college under the Jesuit professors Cunich, 
 Cordara, and Zaccaria, became secretary to the senator Rezzonico, and 
 afterwards librarian to the learned Cardinal Antonelli, Prefect of the 
 Propaganda. In 1773 he edited a newly discovered fragment of the 
 91st book of Livy, with a preface. On the occasion of the new 
 sacristy added by Pius VI. to the Basilica of the Vatican, Caucellieri 
 undertook a work of historical and liturgical erudition on the ancient 
 office of Secretary of that Basilica, 1 De Secretariis Basilicas Vaticanas,' 
 4 vols. 4to, Rome, 1788, which contains an ample store of information 
 concerning the Basilica, its early history, its vaults, its library, its 
 former monastery, the circuses of Caligula and Nero, with illustrations 
 of numerous monuments and documents. This work was received 
 with great applause by the learned, and the author was placed among 
 the first writers on church antiquities. He afterwards published a 
 ' Descrizione del Carcere Tulliano,' a notice on the statues of Pasquino 
 and Marforio, as well as various treatises on the origin and meaning 
 of the ceremonies which are performed in St. Peter's church and in 
 the pontifical chapel of the Vatican on great festival days. 'Descri- 
 zione dei tre Pontificali che si celebrano nella Basilica Vaticana per le 
 Festedi Natale, di Pasqua, e di S. Pietro ;' 'Descrizione delle Funzioni 
 che si celebrano nella Cappella Pontificia per la Settimana santa ; ' 
 ' Notizie intorno la Novena, Vigilia, Notte, e Festa di Natale ; ' ' De- 
 scrizione delle Cappelle Pontificie e Cardinalizie di tutto 1'Anno;' 
 'Storia dei solenni Possessi de' sommi Pontefici da Leone III. a Pio 
 VII.;' 'Memorie storiche delle sacre Fe3te dei SS. Apostoli Pietro e 
 Paolo, e della loro solenne Ricognizione nella Basilica Lateranense fatta 
 da Pio VII.;' ' Descrizione della doppia Illuminazione della Cupola 
 di S. Pietro a Lanternoni e Fiaccole, e della Girandola della Mole 
 Adriana.' Most of these treatises have been translated into French. 
 
 When the French revolutionists drove away Pius VI. from Rome, 
 in February, 1798, Cancellieri was separated from his patron Cardinal 
 Antonelli, who was arrested and sent to Civitavecchia. Some years 
 after, when Pius VII. took possession of Rome, Cancellieri was 
 appointed director of the printing press of the Propaganda. In 1804 
 he accompanied Cardinal Antonelli to Paris, on the occasion of 
 Napoleon's coronation. He kept a diary of that journey, from which 
 many entertaining extracts are given in Baraldi's ' Life of Cancellieri.' 
 When the French invaded Rome a second time, in 1808, Cardinal 
 Antonelli was banished to Sinigaglia, where he died in 1811. At the 
 restoration of Pius VII. Cancellieri was reinstated in his office. He 
 continued to write works of antiquarian erudition until 1826, when 
 he died at Rome. The year before, he had at his own expense raised 
 a handsome cenotaph with a biographical inscription to his patron, 
 Cardinal Antonelli, in the Basilica of the Lateran, below which he 
 desired by will to have himself buried. He published an account of 
 this monument: ' Cenotaphium Leonardi Antonelli,' Tesaro, 1825. 
 Among the printed works of Cancellieri, which exceed 160 in number, 
 the following, besides those already mentioned, are deserving of notice : 
 'II Mercato, il Lago dell' Acqua Vergine, il Palazzo Panfiliano nel 
 Circo Agonale,' &c, 4to., Rome, 1811. This is an erudite description 
 of a most interesting district of the city of Rome. ' Dissertazione 
 intorno agli Uomini dotati di gran Meinoria, e a quelli divenuti 
 Smemorati,' 1815 ; ' Descrizione dell' Uso di rappresentare la Befana 
 nell' Epifania.' This refers to one of the popular customs of Rome. 
 'Notizie sopra l'Origine e l'Uso dell' Anello pescatorio e degli altri 
 Auelli ecclesiastici,' 1823; 'Lettera sopra l'Origine delle Parole 
 Dominus e Domnus, e del Titolo di Don,' Rome, 1808 ; * Dissertazioui 
 epistolari sopra Cristoforo Colombo e Giovanni Gerson,' 1809. Many 
 of his minor works have appeared in the 'Effemeridi Letterarie, 
 ' Notizie del Giorno,' ' Giornale Arcadico,' and other journals. There 
 is a list of his inedited works, amounting to eighty. 
 
 (TipaldOj Uioyrafia degli Ilaliuni IllwtrL) 
 
61 CANDACE. 
 
 CANDACE, the name or title given to the warrior queens of 
 Ethiopia iu the later period of the kingdom of Meroe. The Caudaee 
 whose name occurs in history invaded Egypt in B.C. 22, that country 
 being then iu possession df tho Romans, and compelled the Roman 
 ■orisons of Syene, Elephantine, and Philaa to surrender. Caius 
 Pttronius, the prefect, marched against her, defeats 1 her near 
 Pselcha, and ravaged a portion of her territory. On hii withdrawal, 
 she attacked the garrisons he had left at Premnis, on hearing which 
 he returned and again defeated her troops. On this she sent an em- 
 bassy to Augustus, who was then at Samos, to sue for peace, and the 
 emperor not only granted her prayer, but remitted the tribute which 
 Petroniu3 had laid upou the country. 
 
 * CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH, D.D., one of the most influential 
 ministers of the Free Church of Scotland, has been an active public 
 man in the conduct of ecclesiastical affairs in Scotland for the last 
 twenty years. He was educated for the ministry in the Established 
 Church of Scotland, aud, after receiving licence as a probationer, was 
 for some time engaged as an assistant miuistsr in one of the parishes 
 of Glasgow. In 1834 he was settled in the parish of Sprouston, iu 
 the presbytery of Kelso, from which he was translated soon afterwards 
 to the parochial charge of St. George's, Edinburgh, one of the most 
 wealthy and fashionable churches in the Scottish metropolis, the 
 appointment to which lay in the then recently-reformed Town Council 
 of Edinburgh. The agitation for church reform followed close upon 
 the successful struggle for the extension of political privileges, ami in 
 the conduct of that agitation Dr. Candlish bore a leading part, in con- 
 junction with Drs. Chalmers, Cunningham, Gordon, Welsh, and a few 
 earnest laymen. That struggle issued, as is well known, in the great 
 Disruption of 1843. We have here no further concern with its 
 history than to note the remarkable fact that the Free Church of 
 Scotland, since its establishment in the year just named, has, for its 
 various schemes of home and foreign missionary and educational 
 effort, in all of which Dr. Candlish has taken a leading part, raised 
 from the voluntary efforts of its members and supporters about three 
 millions sterling. Dr. Candlish has been uniformly returned by the 
 Free Presbytery of Edinburgh as one of its representatives in the 
 General Assembly of the body, although the usual rule of rotation 
 would allow of his return only once in three or four years. Previous 
 to the Disruption, the adherents of the non-intrusion party belonging 
 to St. George's Church, in anticipation of the result of the ' ten years' 
 conflict,' as the agitation has been designated, had resolved to erect a 
 plain building as a kind of model for the new places of worship which 
 were expected to be found necessary in all parts of the country. This 
 building, situated on Castle-terrace, and now occupied by the Free 
 3aelic Congregation, was soon found too small and inconvenient for 
 Dr. Candlish's new congregation (Free St. George's), who accordingly 
 erected, at a cost of about 15,000?., a commodious and handsome 
 church in the Lothian Road. Dr. Candlish has been since offered the 
 post of Professor of Divinity in the New College belonging to the 
 Free Church; and in 1855 he was invited to remove to Glasgow, to 
 take the pastoral charge of a church in that city ; but he declined both, 
 and retains his position as pastor of Free St. George's. He received 
 his diploma of D.D. from an American university. He has published 
 numerous pamphlets and single sermons, a treatise on the doctrine of 
 the Atonement, 'Contributions to the Exposition of the Book of 
 Genesis,' an ' Examination of Maurice's Theological Essays,' and a few 
 other works on religious subjects. 
 CANDOLLE, DE. [De Candolle.] 
 
 CANGA, ARGUELLES, JOSE, a Spanish statesman and author, 
 was born in the Asturias about 1770. He was a conspicuous member 
 of the Cortee of 1813-14, and on the overthrow of liberalism by the 
 return of Ferdinand in the latter year, was for some time banished, 
 or according to Galiano imprisoned. In the second constitutional 
 period of modern Spain, commencing with the outbreak of 1820, he 
 was Minister of Finance; proposed some measures interfering with 
 church property, and in 1822 resigned with his colleagues on a con- 
 stitutional question. He was obliged in the next year to take refuge 
 in England from the second triumph of the Absolutists backed by the 
 arms of France, and, resided in London for the seven years which 
 followed. " After having been engaged in some periodical publications 
 in defence of the constitutional cause," says Galiano, also a refugee, 
 " he suddenly became the apologist of Ferdinand, wrote against his 
 fellow-exiles, and, strange as it may appear, spared not invectives 
 against his own acts as a minister, by strongly protesting against the 
 recognition of the Cortes' bonds by the Spanish government, although 
 the loan entered into by the first Cortes was contracted by himself in 
 his official capacity." He wa? soon afterwards permitted to return to 
 Spain, and after the ' Estatuto Real,' was for the third time a member 
 of the Cortes, but not a conspicuous one. He died in 1843. 
 
 Canga Arguelles was the author of numerous works, of which two 
 produced during the leisure of his exile in England are by far the 
 most important. One of these, the 'Diccionario de Hacienda,' or 
 'Dictionary of Finance' (5 vols. 8vo, London, 1827-28, afterwards 
 reprinted at Madrid), is abundant in information on matters of Spanish 
 finance and taxation, not easily found elsewhere, but unhappily bears 
 the reputation of being far from accurate. The other, ' Observacioncs 
 •obre ja Historia de la Guerra de Espaiia,' or ' Observations on the 
 Histories of the Peninsular War, written by Clarke, Southey, Loudon - 
 
 CAXNlNO, GEORGE. 63 
 
 deny, and Napier,' is interesting as showing the views of tho great 
 contest taken by a Spanish liberal who was a near witness of the 
 events. It would be unjust not to remember that at the time of 
 writing it, the author was smarting under the somewhat cavalier tone 
 iu which Colonel Napier thought fit to speak of his country, but it 
 should also not be forgotten on the other hand, that the strong accu- 
 sations which this work contains of selfishness on tho part of England 
 towards Spain were published iu London by a Spanish refugee, who 
 was then in receipt of a bounty pension from the British government. 
 The publication of this work had no doubt a share iu procuring its 
 author leave to return to Spain, as an edition of it which was issued 
 at Madrid bears in the earlier volumes an intimation that it is pub- 
 lished ' by permission,' and iu its later ' by order ' of the Spanish 
 government. The favour it conciliated seems to have extended even 
 to the printer, for the first edition (London, 1829-30, 5 vols. 8vo) is 
 executed by ' D. M. Calero,' Frederiek's-place, Goswell-road, and the 
 second by ' Don Marceliuo Calero ' of Madrid. 
 
 CANGE, CHARLES D. S. DU. [Ducange.] 
 
 CANNING, GEORGE, was born on the 11th of April 1770, in the 
 parish of Marylebone, London. His descent on the paternal side was 
 from an ancient family, his ancestors having figured at different periods 
 at Bristol, in Warwickshire, aud in Ireland. 
 
 Canning's father died in 1771, when his son was only a year old. 
 His mother, who was afterwards twice married, lived to see her sou 
 occupy a high post in the government. The expense of his education 
 was defrayed in part by his paternal uncle, a merchant in the city of 
 London. George Canning was first sent to Hyde Abbey school, near 
 AVinchester, whence he was removed to Eton. He had begun to writo 
 English verses when very young, and at Eton, in his sixteenth year, 
 he formed the plan of a periodical work called ' The Microcosm,' 
 which was written by himself and three schoolfellows, and published 
 at Windsor in weekly numbers from November 1786 to August 1787. 
 In October 17S7 Mr. Canning was entered as a student of Christ 
 Church, Oxford, where he gained some academical honours by his 
 Latin poetry, aud cultivated that talent for oratory which he had 
 begun to display at Eton. At Oxford he made the acquaintance of 
 Mr. Jeukinson, afterwards Earl of Liverpool, who is supposed to have 
 been of service to him in the political career on which he entered 
 immediately after leaving college. His collesre vacations were chiefly 
 passed iu the. house of Mr. Sheridan, who introduced him to Burke, 
 Fox, Lord John Townsend, the Duchess of Devonshire, aud other 
 leadiug persons, who were almost exclusively of the Whig party in 
 politics. It has generally been stated that it was by the advice of 
 Sheridan that Mr. Canning, who had entered of Lincoln's Inn, gave up 
 the study of the law, and devoted himself to a political career. From 
 his intimate connexion with Sheridan it was expected that he bad 
 fully adopted that gentleman's political opinions, aud would join the 
 opposition ; but Mr. Canning accepted the proposals of the Tory party, 
 and was brought into parliament by Mr. Pitt in 1793. Here his first 
 care was to make himself well acquainted with the forms and usages 
 of the House of Commons, and he prudently refrained from speaking 
 during the first session that he sat in parliament. Iu January 1794 
 he first ventured to address the house ; and although he rather too 
 obviously imitated the style and manner of Burke, he showed such 
 powers as commanded respect and general attention. The subject of 
 the debate on which he spoke was a treaty (coupled with a subsidy 
 from England) with the king of Sardinia to enable his majesty to 
 resist the invasion of Piedmont by the French. During that session 
 and the session of 1795 Mr. Canning spoke frequently, aud at times 
 was left by Mr. Pitt to bear the brunt of a formidable debate. At this 
 time he supported the temporary suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, 
 and declared himself against parliamentary reform, a declaration 
 which he repeated on several occasions up to the latest period of hia 
 career. 
 
 In 1796 Mr. Canning became under-secretary of state, and at the 
 general election in that year he was returned for the treasury borough 
 of Wendover, Bucks. In 1798 he exerted himself in favour of Mr. 
 Wilberforce's motion for the abolition of the slave-trade; and in a 
 speech which produced a very considerable effect in the house, he 
 replied to Mr. Tierney's motion for recommending George III. to 
 make peace with the French republic, then in the full career of conquest 
 and spoliation. In the autumn of 1797 Mr. Canning, in conjunction 
 with Mr. John Hookham Frere, Mr. Jenkinson, Mr. George Ellis, Lord 
 Clare, Lord Mornington (afterwards Marquis of Wellesley), and one or 
 two other social and political friends, started a paper styled ' The 
 Anti-Jacobin,' the object of which was to attack the journalists and 
 other writers of the day who advocated or were supposed to advocate 
 the doctrines of the French revolution. Mr. Gifford was appointed 
 editor of this weekly paper, but Canning wrote the prospectus, and, 
 from its commencement in November 1797 to its close in 1798, he 
 contributed largely to it. Some of the best of the poetry, burlesques, 
 and jeux-d' esprit were from his pen. ('Poetry of the Anti- Jacobin,' 
 1 vol. 8vo ) 
 
 When the subject of the Irish uuion was brought before parliament, 
 Mr. Canning repeatedly spoke at great length and with much effect 
 in support of that measure. In 1799 he was appointed one of the 
 commissioners for managing the affairs of India. In 1S00 he married 
 Joanna, the youngest daughter of General John Scott of Balcomie, an 
 
63 CANNING, GEORGE. 
 
 officer who bad acquired great wealth. This union made him perfectly 
 independent of place, for his wife's fortune exceeded 100,000£. On the 
 dissolution of Mr. Pitt's cabinet in 1801 Canning retired with the rest, 
 and for several successive sessions his declamation, wit, and keenness 
 of irony, lent a formidable strength to the opposition arrayed against 
 the Addington administration. On Mr. Pitt's return to office in 1804, 
 Mr. Canning was named treasurer of the navy. 
 
 In 1805 he defended with great but unsuccessful eloquence Lord 
 Melville, the ex first lord of the Admiralty, who was accused by Mr. 
 Whitbread and others of having made an unfair use of public money. 
 Pitt died in January 1806 ; in February there was a complete change 
 of ministers, and Mr. Canning was succeeded by Mr. Sheridan as 
 treasurer of the navy. In April 1807 he again accepted office, and 
 was appointed secretary of state for Foreign Affairs in the new cabinet 
 formed by the Duke of Portland. Of all the departments of govern- 
 ment this was probably the one he was best qualified for : his despatches 
 were lucid, manly, and spirited, and many of his state-papers are models 
 of that kind of composition. On the 21st of September 1809 Mr. 
 Canning fought a duel with his colleague Lord Castlereagh. The 
 quarrel mainly rose out of the Walcheren expedition, and led to the 
 resignation of the Duke of Portland and Mr. Canning, as well as of 
 Lord Castlereagh. Mr. Canning had always been in favour of Catholic 
 emancipation, and on the 21st of April 1812 he eloquently supported 
 Mr. Grattan, who moved that the Catholic claims should be referred 
 to a committee of the whole house. Again, on the 22nd of June 1812, 
 Mr. Cunning moved that the house should take the Catholic question 
 into consideration early in the next session, and the resolution was 
 carried by a majority of 129. The history of Catholic emancipation 
 shows how largely the final success of that measure was owing to the 
 untiring exertions and eloquence of Mr. Canning, though he did not 
 live to see it carried. 
 
 Parliament being dissolved in 1812, Mr. Canning was elected for 
 Liverpool, which also returned him in 1814, in 1818, and again iu 
 1820. Iu October 1814 he was sent ambassador to the Priuce Regent 
 of Portugal, an appointment which was afterwards the subject of 
 severe animadversion in parliament. In the autumn of 1816 he became 
 president of the Board of Control. In June 1820, when the conduct 
 of Queen Caroline, the wife of George IV., was brought before parlia- 
 ment, Mr. Canning rather than bear any part in the proceedings 
 resigned his office, and went to make a tour on the continent. In 1822 
 he was named Governor-General of India, and having made all his 
 arrangements for leaving England, he was at Liverpool to take leave 
 of his friends and constituents, when Lord Castlereagh (then the 
 Marquis of Londonderry, and at the head of foreign affairs) committed 
 suicide on the 12th of August of that year. Od the 16th of September 
 following, Mr. Canning, who had been entreated to give up his much 
 more profitable Indian place, was again appointed secretary of state 
 for Foreign Affairs. Declining to interfere in the troubled state of 
 Spain, where " the spirit of unlimited monarchy and the spirit of 
 unlimited democracy were in fierce collision, Mr. Canning turned his 
 attention to the New World, and came to the resolution to send out 
 consuls to the principal states of Spanish South America. This was a 
 preliminary to the recognition of the independence of those new 
 governments, which, though totally unsettled, were de facto free of 
 Spain. Early in 1825 he formally notified to Europe that the British 
 government would appoint diplomatic agents to Colombia, Mexico, 
 and Buenos Ayres; and conclude treaties of commerce with those 
 states on the basis of the recognition of their independence. In 
 December 1826 he announced the intention of government to prevent 
 Spain, who had lost her constitution, from interfering with Portugal, 
 whose constitution still lingered feebly on ; protesting at the same 
 time that the British troops were to go to Lisbon, " not to rule, not 
 to dictate, not to prescribe constitutions, but simply to defend and 
 preserve the national independence of an ally." 
 
 In February 1827, the Earl of Liverpool, the premier, becoming 
 incapacitated, on the following 12th of April Mr. Canning was ap- 
 pointed his successor. No sooner was this appointment announced, 
 than the Lord Chancellor (Eldon), the Duke of Wellington, Earl 
 Bathurst, the Earl of Westmorland, Viscount Melville, Lord Bexley, 
 Mr, (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel, with various members of the house- 
 hold, resigned in a manner which showed decided hostility to the 
 new premier. These resignations threw Mr. Canning upon the support 
 of the Wbigs, some of whom took office with him, and others, at the 
 head of whom were Mr. Brougham, Mr. Tierney, and Sir Francis 
 Burdett, promised their co-operation. The opposition to the new 
 premier in the House of Commons was of a most formidable and 
 irritating character; but though he was labouring under anxiety and 
 sickness, his rhetorical powers and his sparkling wit never failed him. 
 It was in these speeches that he repeated his determination to oppose 
 parliamentary reform, and declared himself hostile to the repeal of the 
 Test and Corporation Acts. On the Test Act however he had never 
 before fully delivered an opinion to the House ; and his opposition to 
 its repeal, or the agitating that question then, may be said by those, 
 who in other respects approve of Mr. Canning's political career, to 
 have arisen out of a fear of complicating and prejudicing the Catholic 
 question. Conceding to Mr. Canning his full share of merit for his 
 exertions in fayour of Catholic emancipation, we cannot on a calm 
 review of his political life, admit that he had those enlarged views of 
 
 CANONICA, LUIGI. 
 
 social reform, or those powers and acquirements which entitle him to 
 be considered a great statesman. Mr. Canning spoke in parliament 
 for the last time on the 29th of June 1827, three days before a proro- 
 gation. On the 6th of July, a treaty combining England, France, and 
 Russia, for the settlement of the affairs of Greece, and of which he had 
 been the main promoter, was signed at London. This was the last of 
 Mr. Canning's public acts: one of the first poems he wrote in the enthu- 
 siasm of youth, was a lament on ' The Slavery of Greece.' About the 
 middle of July, Mr. Canning retired for change of air to the Duke of i 
 Devonshire's Villa at Cuiswick, where he died on the 8th of August 
 1827. His speeches with a memoir have been published in 6 vols. 8vo. ■ 
 He left a son, Charli.s John, born in 1812, who on the death of his | 
 mother in 1828 became Viscou.vr Canning. He was under-secretary of ! 
 state for Foreign Affairs in 1841 ; afterwards became Commissioner of 
 Woods and Forests in Sir Robert Peel's ministry; was subsequently 
 made Postmaster- General ; and in the beginning of 1856 succeeded 
 Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General of India, the post to which his 
 father had been nominated in 1822. [See vol. vi., 985, and Supplement.] 
 CA'NO, ALONSO, a very celebrated Spanish painter, sculptor, and 
 architect, was born at Granada, 19 March, 1601. He was educated in 
 Seville, whither his father, an architect, had removed; and he studied 
 sculpture there, under J. Montanes, and painting under Pacheco and j 
 Juan de Castillo, all men of celebrity ; but Cano's true masters in I 
 design were some ancient statues in the Casa de Pilatos, belonging to 
 the Duke of Alcala. Cano is called the Michel Angelo of Spain ; in fl 
 some respects they were similar, but the similarity is more in the I 
 extent of their abilities than in the quality. Cano, as did also Michel I 
 Angelo, obtained his reputation first by sculpture. As early as 1639, t 
 he had earned such celebrity, that he was ap; ointed painter to King I 
 Philip IV. of Spain, and had the superintendence of various architec- [j 
 tural works in the royal palaces of Madrid and in the city. After ' 
 various adventures in the principal cities of the south of Spain, Cano . 
 died, October 5th, 1067, leaving a numerous school, but he had not r 
 a single scholar who approached him in ability. His works, which 
 are conspicuous for vigour of design, richness of colour, and boldness 
 of execution, are very numerous; there are many at Seville, Xeres, 
 Cordova, Madrid, the Escuriul, Toledo, Alcala de Henares, Cuenca, 
 Avila, Valencia, Murcia, Malaga, and Granada, where, in the church 
 of San Diego, a 'Conception of the Virgin' with angels is considered 
 his masterpiece. 
 
 Cano was of a singular disposition and of a violent temper, which on 
 more than one occasion placed him in great danger of the Iuquisition. 
 He was accused of having assassinated his wife out of jealousy ; but 
 the charge rests solely upon the testimony of Palomino, who wrote 
 many years after the event which gave rise to the rumour. Cean 
 Bermudez sought in vain for a record of any process against him. The 
 story is, that at Madrid, in 1613, when he returned home one evening, 
 he found his wife assassinated, his house robbed, and an Italian 
 assistant who used to live with him had absconded; but notwith- 
 standing the presumptive evidence against the Italian, Cano was 
 himself accused of the murder, and was put to the rack ; no confession 
 however being elicited from him, he was released and absolved of the 
 charge. Upon his plea of 1 excellens in arte,' his right arm had been 
 exempted from the torture. Another story is that in 1658, when he ! 
 was in Granada, a councillor of that city commissioned him to make a 
 small figure of Saint Antony of Padua. When finished, Cano aBked , 
 100 pistoles for it, and on the councillor complaining of the largeness 
 of the sum, Cano dashed the saint to pieces on the pavement, to tho jl 
 consternation and horror of his employer, who made all haste out of 
 the house of a man who could so unceremoniously demolish a saint. 
 The act was in fact a capital offence; but it appears to have been 
 unknown to the Inquisition. A similar destruction of an image of 
 the Virgin caused the death of Torrigiano, who was convicted of 
 heresy, and died in prison before his sentence was carried into effect. 
 Cano is said also on his death bed to have refused to take the crucifix 
 presented to him by the priest, on account of its bad workmanship. 
 
 (Palomino, Museo Pictorico, &c. ; Cumberland, Anecdotes of eminent 
 Painters in Spain; Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, Ac.) 
 
 CANO'NICA, LUIGI, one of the most eminent of Cagnola's con- 
 temporaries [Cagnola], was born at Milan in 1742. He executed 
 many public and private buildings at Milan ; among the most celebrated 
 of these and that which is the most remarkable for its purpose and 
 character, is the so-called Arena, or Amphitheatre, which, in regard 
 to mere extent of plan, more than rivals the Colosseum at Rome, 
 being an ellipsis of about 800 by 400 feet; but it is comparatively a 
 mere spacious inclosure, surrounded by not more thau eight rows of 
 gradini, or seats, rising no higher than 20 feet from the ground. The 
 principal entrance is at one extremity ; and on one side in the centre 
 of the longer axis, is an elevated pulvinare, or loggia, intended for 
 the viceroy, and adorned with eight Corinthian columns of red granite. 
 This singular edifice was begun in 1805, by order of Napoleon, who 
 then sought to propitiate the Milanese by embellishing their capital. 
 
 Canonica was employed on several other buildings at Milan, but 
 the beautiful Palazzo Bellotti is not his, although it has been attributed 
 to him. His chief works there are the Palazzo Orsini (the interior), 
 the Casa Canonica, and the two theatres, Re and Carcano. He also 
 built theatres at Brescia and Mantua ; and at Parma one was executed 
 from his designs, by Bettoli. Canonica died at Milan in February 
 
CANOPPI, ANTONIO. 
 
 CAN07A, ANTONIO. 
 
 1844, leaving a considerable fortune, and making several munificent 
 bequests, one of them the sum of 174,000 francs (about 7000Z.) to the 
 Primary Schools of Lombardy; another 87,000 francs to the Milan 
 Academy of Fine Arts, the interest of which is to be devoted annually 
 to the education and support of some young artist, architect, painter, 
 or sculptor. 
 
 CANOPPI, ANTO'NIO, an Italian artist, who resided during the 
 latter half of his life in Russia, and died at St. Petersburg in 1832 
 at the age of fifty-nine. He was educated by his father, who was 
 civil engineer in the service of the Duke of Modena, and was esteemed 
 one of the ablest of his day in that profession. But though he profited 
 by the instruction bestowed upon him, Antonio soon relinquished 
 science for art— construction for design. He aspired to build after 
 the manner of Piranesi, the study of whose works filled his imagina- 
 tion with visions of architectural pomp, which he had afterwards 
 opportunities of displaying when he began to paint for the stage. 
 His first practice however was as a fresco-painter, in which capacity 
 be was employed by many Italian nobles to decorate their saloons. 
 At this period he obtained the notice of Canova, who did much to 
 recommend him, and also gave him instruction in sculpture. At 
 Venice he became scene-painter at the Fenice Theatre, and was after- 
 wards engaged in the same capacity at Mantua, where some of the 
 scenery executed by him was long preserved for the sake of its beauty. 
 While he was thus winning public admiration, he fell under the 
 suspicions of the French government in consequence of the active part 
 he took in public affairs. Finding his personal safety threatened by 
 the emissaries of Napoleon, Canoppi fled to Germany, and having 
 made his way to Vienna, met there with a protector and patron in the 
 Russian ambassador Prince Razumovsky, who proposed to him to 
 establish himself in Russia. Accordingly, furnished with letters of 
 recommendation by the prince, he proceeded to Moscow in 1807, 
 where he was fully employed for several years, ohiefly in adorning 
 with mural painting and arabesque decorations the saloons of the 
 principal nobles. The hall of the Senate thus embellished by him 
 excited general admiration, but that and all his other labours of the 
 kind in that capital, perished in the memorable conflagration of 1812. 
 Just before that event Canoppi had sought an asylum at St. Peters- 
 burg, where he was already known by reputation, and was readily 
 engaged as scene-painter at the Imperial Theatre, in which service he 
 continued till his death, with the exception of the interval of a 
 twelvemonth, when being ordered (1819) to travel for the benefit of 
 his health, he visited the regions of the Caucasus. During these 
 twenty years he produced a vast number of splendid architectural 
 scenes for the theatre at St. Petersburg, some of which were considered 
 wonderful performances of their kind ; and the name of Canoppi was 
 enrolled with those of Sanquirico, Quaglio, Schinkel, and other great 
 scenicisti. His engagements with the theatre did not however so 
 completely occupy Canoppi as to prevent his exercising his pencil 
 upon smaller subjects and easel-pieces. These were chiefly either 
 architectural compositions or architectural views, such as those of the 
 Winter Palace (the one destroyed by fire in 1838), and the Etat 
 Major at St. Petersburg; both of which were placed in the Gallery 
 of the Hermitage : but he sometimes took historical and poetical 
 subjects. 
 
 Besides having a considerable taste for literature, Canoppi wrote on 
 various subjects appertaining to his art, perspective and architecture 
 included ; and there is one publication by him, which appeared in 
 1830, entitled 'Opinion d'Antoine Canoppi sur l'Architecture en 
 general, et en specialite" sur la Construction des Theatres Modernes.' 
 
 (Khudozhestvennya Gazeta, November 1837.) 
 
 CANO'VA, ANTO'NIO, was born November 1, 1757, at Possaguo, 
 a considerable village in the province of Trevigi, in the Venetian 
 territory. 
 
 The father of Canova worked in marble, and was also an architect 
 of some merit, so that his son may be said to have been initiated from 
 childhood in the pursuit in which he became so distinguished. At 
 fourteen years of age Canova was taken by his father to Venice, and 
 having obtained the notice of Giovanni Faliero, a senator, he was 
 through his recommendation received into the studio of one Bernardi 
 Torretti; and afterwards, on Torretti's death, into that of his nephew, 
 Giovanni Ferrari. Two baskets of fruit and flowers carved in marble 
 for Faliero are still shown at Venice as the earliest finished produc- 
 tions of Canova's chisel. About this time he commenced his first 
 work of imagination, a group of ' Orpheus and Eurydice,' which he 
 modelled at bis native village, during the time that he used to walk to 
 Venice to attend the academy. Having now acquired some reputa- 
 tion, and being recommended by his first protector Faliero, he was 
 employed on some other works, chiefly busts ; and he also modelled 
 his group of 'Djedalus and Icarus ' — a work which may be said to have 
 laid the foundation of his future fame. In the year 1779, the Cav. 
 Zuliano was sent ambassador from Venice to Rome, and the senator 
 Faliero, anxious to advance the studies of the young sculptor, gave 
 hiui a recommendation to that functionary. In October of that year 
 he arrived at Rome, accompanied by Fontana, a Flemish painter. 
 His group of ' Daedalus and Icarus ' was sent to him, and the account of 
 the impression which it made is interesting. Zuliano was one of the 
 most distinguished patrons and admirers of the fine arts, and his 
 palace was the rendezvous of all the best artists, critics, and literati 
 
 of the day. The work of Canova being well placed in one of the 
 saloons, a large party of connoisseurs, consisting of Cades, Volpato, 
 Battoni, Gavin Hamilton (the painter), the Abbate Puccini, and others, 
 were invited to dinner, and after the repast wero conducted into the 
 room where were the artist and his group. The qualities of art 
 which they were now called upon to judge, viz., simplicity, expres- 
 sion, and unaffected truth to nature, were so different from that 
 which was the mode, that for some time there was a profound s lence. 
 Gavin Hamilton at length relieved the youthful sculptor from his em- 
 barrassment, pronounced the highest encomiums upon his work, and 
 gave him at the same time kind and valuable advice and encourage- 
 ment. This liberality was not thrown away upon Canova, who, 
 through his long career of success, always acknowledged with grati- 
 tude the important service thus rendered him by Mr. Hamilton. 
 Canova returned to Venice, but soon after established himself in 
 Rome, having obtained a pension from his government of 300 ducats 
 a year for three years. His first work after his settlement there was 
 a group of Theseus and the Minotaur; an extraordinary production 
 for the time, and showing a feeling for the purer principles of the art, 
 both in composition and style, quite distinct from the wretched 
 manner that characterised the performances of his contemporaries, 
 and of those who had for some years preceded him. His admitted 
 superiority of talent required but little aid from the influence of hi3 
 noble protectors to procure him some important employment, and he 
 was selected to execute the monument of Ganganelli (Pope Clement 
 XIV.) for the church of the SS. Apostoli, in Rome. This fine work 
 was exhibited in 1787, and established at once Canova's claim to the 
 highest rank in his profession. Before this was completed Canova had 
 commenced his model of Rezzonico's (Clement XIII.) monument. 
 This work is in St. Peter's, and is a splendid effort of genius, and of 
 skill in execution. A story is told in Rome of Canova's putting on a 
 monk's dress aud cowl, and in this disguise mixing with the crowd, 
 to hear the criticisms that were made when the work was first exposed 
 to public view. 
 
 From this time Canova was constantly employed, and chiefly on sub- 
 jects of imagination. His 'Cupid aud Psyche,' his fine group of 'Hercules 
 hurling Lycas from the Rock,' ' Theseus with the Centaur,' the ' Graces,' 
 'Statues of Nymphs,' 'Endymion,' &c. &c, are too well known, if 
 not in the originals at least by cast3 or engravings, to require description 
 here. In portrait Canova was considered less successful ; though none 
 who have seen his Popes Ganganelli, Rezzonico, and Braschi, will deny 
 his power even in that branch of his art. It is fair to judge him by 
 his best works, and the highest authorities have pronounced the head 
 of the last mentioned Pope, Pius VI., to be a masterpiece of the art. 
 For the union of portrait with ideal (that is elevated) form, we would 
 instance the statues of Napoleon and of Letizia, mother of Napoleon. 
 From among the great number of monumental groups executed by 
 Canova besides those of the popes already mentioned, that of Maria 
 Christina, in the church of Santa Maria de' Frari at Vienna is charac- 
 terised by simplicity of composition, expression, and exquisite finish. 
 
 Canova travelled when young over part of Germany, and was twice 
 in Paris. At his last visit, when sent there by the Roman govern- 
 ment to superintend the removal of the works of art which had been 
 taken to Paris by the French, and which the allies had decided should 
 be restored to Italy, he proceeded to England, chiefly for the purpose 
 of seeing the Elgin marbles, of which he always spoke in terms of the 
 highest admiration, saying that the sight of such exquisite works was 
 sufficient to repay him for his journey from Rome. His reception in 
 England gave him the greatest satisfaction, and he took every oppor- 
 tunity of expressing feelings of admiration and gratitude towards this 
 country. On his return to Rome he received a patent of nobility, and 
 was created Marquis of Ischia. As remarkable for his unpretending 
 modesty as for his talent, Canova never assumed his high title, though 
 he was of course addressed by it, but to the last called himself and 
 left his cards a9 Antonio Canova. 
 
 In the latter part of his life Canova was busily occupied in model- 
 ling decorations, such as a group of a Deposition aud some bassi 
 rilievi for a church which he had built in his native place ; and it was 
 at Venice, where he was staying to be near this object of his interest, 
 that he died in October 1822, after an illness of a very few days. 
 
 Canova was rather below the common stature, and latterly stooped 
 as he walked. His features were strongly marked, but of fine form ; his 
 nose aquiline, and his eyes deeply set and full of expression : the 
 general character of his countenance was extremely pleasing and pre- 
 possessing. 
 
 Of most amiable and conciliating manners towards his brother artists 
 and competitors for fame, he was also the liberal supporter and 
 encourager of students of rising talent. He gave pensions to several 
 whose means were insufficient without such assistance, and established 
 out of his own purse a handsome premium for sculpture in the academy 
 of St. Luke, at Rome, of which he was ' Principe,' or perpetual preei- 
 dent. 
 
 In execution, and the whole treatment of his marble, Canova was 
 unrivalled; but those who judge of sculpture by the pure principles 
 of Greek art (or, in other words, of nature, selected and exbibited in 
 its finest and most approved forms), will discover, in many of his 
 works some affectation, both in the attitudes and expression, and a 
 littleness in some of the details, which are not in accordance with 
 
67 
 
 CANROBERT, MARSHAL. 
 
 68 
 
 Ibe simplicity and breadth of style of the best productions of the 
 ancients. Admitting this to be the case (particularly in some of his 
 latter performances), still his works evince so great a progress in art, 
 and in many respects approach so much more nearly than those that 
 had for a long period preceded them, to the excellence of ancient 
 sculpture, that Canova must be confessed to be one of the great 
 regenerators of the art ; and his name as the restorer of a purer style 
 of design, will always be held in honour by those who wish to see 
 sculpture practised upon true principles. Several of the more impor- 
 tant works of Canova are in this country. Of those in collections 
 open to the public, the finest are in the admirable gallery of the Duke 
 of Devonshire at Chatsworth, where, among others are the seated 
 statue of the mother of Napoleon, a noble colossal bust of Napoleon, a 
 ' Sleeping Endymion,' a ' Hebe,' &c, besides copies in marble and 
 bronze from the colossal lions on Canova's monument to Clement XIV., 
 and the ' Kneeling Magdalene :' we may add that in the same rich col- 
 lection are a set of the great sculptor's modelling tools, and an 
 excellent colossal bust of Canova by Rinaldi. 
 
 For further particulars of Canova's life and works, sec chiefly 
 Cicognara, Storia della Scultura, torn. iii. ; and Missirini, Vita di 
 Canova, 8vo. 
 
 * CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN DE, was born of a good 
 family, in Brittany, in 1809 ; aud was sent, at the age of seventeen, to 
 receive his military education at Saint Cyr. In 1830 he began his 
 career as a soldier, having enlisted as a private. But his excellent 
 conduct, his distinguished bravery, and his general aptitude carried 
 him rapidly through the lower grades ; he soon rose to the rank of 
 second lieutenant, aud in 1835 he went to serve in Africa. During 
 tbe war in the Oran country, his zealous performance of his duties 
 was conspicuous, he was warmly praised by his seniors in command, 
 aud made a captain. At the storming of Coustantiue, he was one of 
 the first who entered the breach, in which exploit ho was severely 
 wounded ; the decoration of the Legion of Honour was awarded to 
 him at this period. In 184G he was raised to the rank of lieutenaut- 
 colonel, and with his regiment took part in several expeditions. At 
 length he commanded a regiment of Zouaves against the Kabyles, 
 whom he defeated in several encounters. 
 
 In 1850, he was created a brigadier-general, and soon after he was 
 directed to make his way through the rugged aud rocky country of 
 Narah, a duty which, despite the nature of the country, and the 
 character of its wild and savage occupants, he with his Zouaves succes- 
 fully and speedily accomplished. In 1852. the Emperor Napoleon 
 III., whose eye had for some time been fixed upon him, appoiuted him 
 one of his aide-de-camps. The following year he became a general of 
 division. 
 
 In 1854, when the French army under Marshal St. Arnaud, was 
 sent to the Crimea, the command of the First Division was entrusted 
 to General Canrobert. At the battle of the Alma he was present with 
 his division, and was wounded by the splinter of a shell. The rising 
 fame of Bosquet had already begun to eclipse that of the other French 
 commanders, so that in this action, as in that which followed, the 
 name of Canrobert did not obtain the first distinction. After the 
 death of Marshal St. Arnaud, Canrobert, in accordance with the 
 previous directions of the emperor, took the chief command of the 
 French army, being then only 44. Although wounded at Inkerinann, 
 on the 5th of November, he continued to fight like a common 
 soldier at the head of his Zouaves, and had a horse killed under him. 
 Murmurs soon after began to be heard in both the allied armies at 
 the slow progress of the siege of Sebastopol, and the talents of both 
 leaders were questioned. The spirit of Canrobert was wounded, and 
 he resigned in 1855 the chief command to his own subordinate 
 General Pelissier, but whether of his own accord or by directions of 
 the emperor has not been publicly stated. However that may be, he 
 resumed the command of his old division, and continued to serve 
 with unabated zeal. Compelled at length to return to France to 
 recruit his health, he took up his abode at Paris. The birth of an 
 heir to the imperial throne on the 16th of March, 1S56, afforded 
 Napoleon I If. a graceful opportunity of showing his high sense of the 
 services of General Canrobert, by creating him a marshd. In 1859 
 Marshal Canrobert received the command of the 3rd corps of the 
 Army of the Alps, and took part in the Italian expedition, serving 
 with great distinction in the battles of Magenta and Solferino. 
 
 CANTARI'NI, SIMO'NE, called II Pesarese, was born at Pesaro, 
 in 1612, and injhis youth was the scholar of Pandolfi; but he after- 
 wards chose Guido Reni for his master, and lived some time with him 
 in Bologna. He very shortly showed himself to be a formidable rival 
 even to Guido himself; but he was of such a contemptuous and 
 arrogant disposition, that he made enemies of all the painters at 
 Bologna, and of other people too, so that he became at length neglected 
 and avoided by the Bolognese, and he accordingly felt himself com- 
 pelled to leave Bologna. He removed to Rome, obtained a high 
 reputation there, and in some respects, especially in grace of con- 
 ception, was pronounced to be superior to his master Guido : even 
 Count Malvasia, himself a Bolognese, styles Cautarini the best colourist 
 and tl e purest draughtsman of the seventeenth century. After spending 
 some time in Rome, he returned to Bologna, and opened a school 
 there, which however he gave up shortly afterwards, upon receiving 
 an invitation from the Duke of Mantua to viwit that city. At Mantua ■ 
 
 by his arrogance and the depreciation of others, he very soon dis- 
 gusted the artists of that place, and he finally quarrelled with the 
 duke himself, about a portrait with which the duke was not satisfied. 
 From Mantua he went to Verona, where he died, in 1648, aged only 
 thirty-six, under the suspicion of having been poisoned. 
 
 Cantarini was certainly a great painter, as far as execution could 
 make him such; in the extremities he has had few rivals; he showed 
 also great mastery in the general management of the nude ; in draperies 
 he was not so successful. He painted a few altar-pieces, several 
 holy families, and many portraits, in which he was admirable. There 
 is a head of Guido, when old, by Cantarini, in the gallery of Bologna, 
 which has perhaps seldom been equalled. His masterpieces are, 
 ' Sant' Antonio ' at the Franciscans at Cagli ; ' San Jacopo,' in the 
 church of that saint at Rimini ; a 'Magdalene' at the Philippines; a 
 ' San Domeuico ' at the Predicants, and several others, especially the 
 portrait of a young nun, at Pesaro. He etched also several plates in a 
 masterly manner, some of which are sold as the works of Guido. 
 
 (Malvasia, Fehina Pillrice ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, &c. ; Bartsch, 
 PcirUre-Graveur.) 
 
 CANTEMIR, DEMETRIUS, was born in 1673 of a family origi- 
 nally from Little Tartary. His father was governor of Moldavia, ard 
 Demetrius obtained of the Porte the same office in 1710. But difiet 
 ences arose between him and the grand vizier, in consequence of \\ bich 
 Cantemir entered into negociations with Peter the Great, and revolted 
 against the Porte. After Peter's retreat in 1711 he was obliged to 
 quit Moldavia and to accompany the Russian army. Peter gave htm 
 in compensation lands in the Ukraine, and created him a prince of the 
 Russian empire. Cantemir died on his estate in the Ukraine in 1723. 
 He left several works: — 'History of the Origin and of the Decay of 
 the Ottoman Empire,' written originally in Latin, and translated both 
 into French and English ; ' On tbe State of Moldavia,' with a map of 
 the country ; ' History of Moldavia, Ancient aud Modern,' in the 
 Moldavian language; 'Introduction to the Music of the Turks;' 
 ' System of the Mohammedan Religion,' written in the Russian lan- 
 guage, and dedicated to Peter the Great. Cantemir was acquainted 
 with many languages ; he was also a member of the Academy of 
 Berlin. His son Antiochus was Russian ambassador at Paris, where 
 he died young in 1744. He wrote several works in Russiau ; his 
 ' Satires ' were translated into French by the Abb6 Guasco. 
 
 CANTON, JOHN, was born at Stroud, July 31, 1718. Some 
 advances made by him in mathematics and experimental philosophy 
 induced his father to send him to London in 1737. He then articled 
 himself for five years to the master of a school, with, whom he after- 
 wards went into partnership, aud in this profession he spent his life. 
 
 On the invention of the Leyden phial he turned his attention 
 particularly to electricity, and various discoveries of his net suffi- 
 ciently marked to require biographical notice, though evincing great 
 ingenuity, will be found in the references at the end of this article. 
 He was the first who in England verified Dr. Franklin's idea of the 
 similarity of lightning and electric fluid (July 1752). He was then a 
 member of the Council of the Royal Society, of which, in 1751, he 
 received the gold medal for his method of making artificial magnets. 
 In a paper communicated in 1753 he announced the discovery (which 
 Franklin made about the same time) of clouds being in different 
 states of electricity. In the following year he found that the quality 
 of the electrical excitement made by rubbing any given substance 
 dependtd on the rubber, as well as on the other substance. The 
 common pith-ball electrometer, and the amalgam of tin aud mercury 
 used for the increase of the action of the rubber, are due to him. In 
 1762 he demonstrated the compressibility of water, in opposition to 
 the well-known Florentine experiment. His experiment was repeated 
 in the presence of a committee of the Royal Society, and a second gold 
 medal was awarded to him in 1765. In 1769 he communicated expe- 
 riments in proof that the luminous appearance of tbe sea arises from 
 the presence of decomposed animal matter. He died March 22, 1772. 
 There is a life of him by his son in Kippis's ' Biographia Britanniea,' 
 abridged in Hutton's mathematical dictionary. His papers are in the 
 'Philosophical Transactions,' and he communicated some new experi- 
 ments for Priestley's ' Histories of Electrical and Optical Discoveries.' 
 
 CANTO'NI, SIMONE, a recent Milanese architect of considerable 
 note, was born at Maggio, a small village in the north of Italy, and 
 received his first instruction in architecture from his father Pietro, 
 who was of that profession, and did a good deal at Genoa. He after- 
 wards went to Rome for further improvement, and on his return 
 settled at Milan, where the first work of any note he was employed 
 upon was the Palazzo Mellerio. Two other noble mansions afterwards 
 erected by him in the same city are the Casa Perticati and the Palazzo 
 Serbelloni, the former of which has engaged columns of the Ionic 
 order, with Caryatid figures over them, against the attic ; and the 
 facade of the other (finished 1794) is remarkable for having granite 
 columns and pilasters. Among various other works, he erected the 
 Seminary and Lyceum at Como, the Villa Raimondi near the same 
 town, the Palazzo Vailetti at Bergamo, and the church at Gorgonzola, 
 between Bergamo and Milan. On the destruction of the Great 
 Council Hall in the Ducal Palace at Genoa by fire, in November 1777, 
 Cautoni was employed to rebuild it, which he did with ability and 
 taste, and in such a manner as to secure it from any similar accident 
 in future. Milizia, who notices this circus tance in his 'Life of 
 
CANTU, CESARE. 
 
 CAPE Lit/, EDWARD. 
 
 Rocco Pennone,' the original architect of the edifice, says that there is 
 a work containing all Cantoni'a designs for that purpose, but he does 
 not specify either its title or date. Wiebeking attributes the Arena 
 at Mautua to Cantoni, but it would seem erroneously, no mention 
 being made of it in the memoir of him by Lazzari, in Tipaldo's 
 1 Biografia,' &e , where he is said to have rejected flattering invitations 
 from St. Petersburg and Warsaw. He died March 3, 1818. Nagler, 
 who makes no mention of Simone, speaks of a Giuseppe Cantoni of 
 Forli as the architect of the amphitheatre at Mautua (which was 
 opened in 1821); therefore he is no doubt the person meant by 
 Wiebeking. 
 
 •CANTU, CESARE, an Italian historian, was born at Brescia in 
 1805. Educated at Soudrio in the Valtellina, he there at an early age 
 was appointed professor of the belles-lettres. Subsequently he resided 
 at Como, and afterwards at Milan, which city he quitted at the revo- 
 lutionary epoch of 1848, and proceeded to Piedmont, where he entered 
 Kith ardour into the proceedings of the liberal party. On the suppression 
 i f the revolutionary movement Cantu returned to Milan, where he 
 has since devoted himself to his literary labours. M. Cantu is a very 
 prolific writer. The work by which he first became known was the 
 ' Ragionamenti sulla Storia Lonibarda nel secolo XVII.,' Milan, 1842. 
 LVrtain liberal opinions in this work drew down upou him a government 
 prosecution, and he was condemned to a year's imprisonment. He 
 amused his prison hours by the composition of au historical novel, 
 ' Jlaigherita Pasterla.' But his chief work, the result of many years of 
 diligent research, is his ' Storia Universale,' 20 vols. 8vo, Torino, 1838- 
 46, many volumes of which have gone through several editions. It 
 is neat, clever, and spirited in style, and liberal in spirit ; and though 
 □ot a work to be classed in the first rank of historic literature, is one 
 calculated to be of great service in Italy. It has been translated into 
 French by Messrs. Aroux and Leopardi. Cautu has published several 
 other works, including a ' History of Italian Literature,' an account of 
 contemporary Italian poets, a ' Storia di Cento Anni 1750-1850,' 3 vols. 
 8vo, Fu-enze, 1851. His ' Reformation in Europe' has been translated 
 into English by F. Prandi, London, 1847. Cantu has also written a 
 good deal of poetry as well as poetic criticism. He is a supporter of 
 the temporal power of the Popes. 
 
 CANUTE. The island of Britain, which, compared with more 
 northern countries was rich, fertile, and beautiful, was a constant 
 temptation to the inhabitants of the shores of the Baltic, and of the 
 countries now forming the kiugdoms of Norway and Sweden. These 
 Northmen possessed a navy which enabled them to make descents 
 upon the coasts of all the countries bordering on the English seas. 
 Besides these predatory descents upon the coast they bad frequently 
 laive armies in the field, and disputed with the native princes the 
 entire sovereignty of the southern portion of the island. They had 
 possessed themselves by right of conquest of much of the northern 
 coast of France, where they had a succession of princes, who became 
 at length, in the person of William the Norman (uoithman), sovereign 
 of England 
 
 Much of the history of the Anglo-Saxon kings is the history of their 
 contests with these formidable neighbours. The genius and military 
 talents of Alfred for a while saved the country from their oppressions ; 
 but when he was dead, and was succeeded by a race of princes inferior 
 to himself, the nation became less able to make an effectual resistance. 
 Danes settled in many portions of the island, tribute was paid to them, 
 and finally in the person of Canute, one of the greatest men in the 
 line of this northern sovereignty, they accomplished that which they 
 had so long desired — the entire subjugation of the Anglo-Saxon people, 
 and the extinction for a time of the Anglo-Saxon sovereignty. 
 
 This then is the light in which we are to contemplate Canute : the 
 king by birth and inheritance of the people now known as Danes, 
 Normans, and Swedes, and as the man who accomplished the work of 
 his father Sweyu in displacing the posterity of Egbert from the sove- 
 reignty of England. On the death of his father in 1014 the Danish 
 army proclaimed Canute king of England, but it was not till after the 
 death of Edmund iu 1017 that he became sole king. He reigned about 
 twenty years (1017-1036), during which period the country was at 
 peace. England of all his possessions he chose for his usual residence. 
 Me died at Shaftesbury, and was interred at Winchester, the usual 
 place of interment of the Saxon kings. In the first years of his reign 
 he was cruel, suspicious, and tyrannical; but when he had removed all 
 who seemed to have a claim to the throne, he ruled with mildness, 
 and for the most part with justice. His attention to the observances 
 »f religion, and his patronage of ecclesiastics, secured for him the 
 praise of the monkish chroniclers; and in their writings, Canute, 
 luccessful in war, in peace appears humane, gentle, ami religious. 
 William of Malmesbury says of him, that by his piety, justice, and 
 moderation, he gained the affection of his subjects, and au universal 
 esteem among foreigners. The well-known story of the rebuke which 
 he gave to the flattery of his courtiers makes his name and his virtue 
 more familiar to the English nation than all the encomiums of our 
 chroniclers, or than his acts of piety in his journey to Rouio and in 
 the foundation of the two monasteries of St. Bennet of Holme and 
 ■St. Edmund's Bury. 
 
 The reigns of the two sons of Canute were short and disturbed. In 
 1041 the posterity of Egbert, in the person of Edward, son of King 
 Ethcltlred, regained the throne, This was- Edward called the Confessor. 
 
 His reign was harassed by the Danes under Sweyn, another eon of 
 Canute. They also disputed the sovereignty with Harold, the son of 
 Earl Godwin, who assumed the crown on the death of Edward ; and 
 Englaud might have suffered much longer from attempts of the 
 northern chiefs had it not fallen under the sway of the race of Norman 
 princes, who governed with a more vigorous hand than that of the 
 Anglo-Saxon chiefs. 
 
 *CAPEFIGUE, BAPTISTE HONORE, RAYMOND, one of the 
 most prolific living historians and periodical writers of France, was 
 born at Marseille in 1801. After finishing his academic course in 
 his native place, he entered upon the study of the law, and iu order 
 to complete his legal studies he proceeded in 1821 to Paris. But there 
 he soon abandoned the law for politics; became a writer for the 
 newspapers; and obtained, in consequence of some of his articles 
 attracting the notice of the minister, a post in the Foreign Oliice, 
 which he held till 1848. His official situation however appears to 
 have interfered little with his literary labours. He was for a time 
 editor of the ' Quotidienue,' and then became successively connected 
 either as editor or as a leading contributor with the ' Messager des 
 Chambres,' 'Le Temps,' ' Le Moniteur du Commerce,' ' Le Courier 
 Francais,' 'La Chronique de Paris,' ' L'Europe Mouarchique,' 'La 
 Gazette de France,' ' La Revolution de 1848,' and ' L'Assemblee 
 Nationale ; ' besides writing many elaborate articles for the ' I'fjvue 
 des Deux Mondes.' These would seem to supply ample occupation 
 for the leisure of au official life, but M. Capefigue is at the same time 
 one of the most voluminous historical writers of the day. Wo will 
 not inflict upon our readers the fatigue of perusing a complete list of 
 his historical works ; it will suffice for us to state that they amount 
 in all to upwards of a hundred volumes, and to add the titles'of some 
 of the most important : ' Essai sur les invasions des Normands dans 
 les Gaules,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1823; 'Histoire de Philippe-Auguste,' 
 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827-29; 'Histoire constitutionelle et administrative 
 de la France depuis la mort de Philippe-Auguste ; premiere dpoquc de 
 Louis VIII. jusqn'a la finduregue de Louis XI.,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1831-33 ; 
 'Histoire de la Keforme, de la Ligue, et du regne de Henri IV.,' 8 vols. 
 8vo, 1833-34; 'Richelieu, Mazarin, la Fronde, et le regne de Louis 
 XIV.,' 8 vols. 8vo, 1835-36; 'Louis XIV., son gouvernement, et ses 
 relations diplomatiques avec 1'Europe,' 6 vols. 8vo, 1837-38 ; ' Hugues 
 Capet, et la troisieme race, jusqu'a Philippe-Auguste,' 10 vols. 8vo, 
 1839-41 ; ' Louis XV., et la societe du dix-huitieme siecle,' 4 vols. 8vo, 
 1842; 'Histoire de la Restoration, et des causes qui out aniens" la 
 chute de la branche ane"e des Bourbons,' 4 vols. 1842 ; 'L'Europe 
 pendant le Consulat et l'Empire,' 12 vols., 1839-11 ; ' Louis XVI., ses 
 relations diplomatiques avec 1'Europe,' 4 vols., 1844 ; 'La Diplomatic 
 de France et de l'Espagne, depuis l'avenement de la maisou de Bourbon,' 
 8vo, 1846; 'Histoire authentique et secrete des Traites de 1815,' 
 1847 ; 'L'Europe depuis l'avenement de Louis Philippe,' 10 vols. 8vo, 
 1849 ; ' Les quatres premiers Siecles de l'Eglise chretienne,' 4 vols. 
 Svo, 1850-51; 'Trois Siecles de l'Histoire de France,' 2 vols., 1851; 
 'l'Eglise pendant les quatre derniers siecles, 3 vols. 8vo, 1858, &c. 
 
 CAPEL, ARTHUR, LORD, was born at the commencement of the 
 17th century. He was returned as M.P. for Hertfordshire to the par- 
 liament which assembled Nov. 3, 1640. At first he seemed disposed to 
 adopt the principles held by the great majority of the members, but soon 
 changed his opinions, and devoted himself to the cause of Charles I., who 
 created him Baron Capel of Hadham in Hertfordshire. He assembled 
 troops in Wales and the adjoining counties, and in 1645, when Charles, 
 Prince of Wales, was named generalissimo, Lord Capel was directed by 
 the king, together with Sir Edward Hyde and Lord Colchester, to 
 accompany the prince to the western counties, and direct everything 
 iu his name. In 1648 he joined the forces under Sir Charles Lucas in 
 Essex with a troop of cavaliers from Hertfordshire, and on the 12th of 
 June they marched together to Colchester, intending to remain there 
 only a day or two, and then advance into Suffolk and Norfolk; but on 
 the 13th Fairfax appealed before the walls, and the town was imme- 
 diately invested. After two months of the most obstinate resistance, 
 they were compelled by famine and sedition to surrender uncondi- 
 tionally, August 27. Sir Charles Lucas, Sir George Lisle, and Sir 
 Bernard Gascoign, the three principal leaders, were immediately shot. 
 Lord Capel was conducted as a prisoner to Windsor Castle, and thence 
 conveyed to the Tower of London. He made his escape from the Tower, 
 but was soon retaken, and was condemned to be hanged, drawn, and 
 quartered. This severe sentence however was commuted, and on the 
 9th of March 1649 he was beheaded in front of Westminster HalL 
 His son Arthur, born in 1635, was created Earl of Essex by 
 Charles II. He was accused of being concerned in the Rye-House 
 Plot, and was sent prisoner to the Tower, where he was found dead 
 (July 13th, 1683). his throat having been severed by a razor. 
 
 CAPELL, EDWARD, was born in 1713, at Troston in Suffolk. He 
 was educated at Bury St. Edmunds, and spent the greater part of his- 
 life at Hastings and in London, occupying himself almost exclusively 
 in studies relating to the works of Shakspere. He was enabled to 
 command leisure tor such pursuits by the patronage of the Duke of 
 Grafton, who obtained for him the appointment of deputy -inspector 
 of plays. He died on the 24th of February 1781, at his chambers in 
 the Temple. As a commentator on Shakspere, Capell is ranked much 
 more hi»hly now than he was in hi3 own times, but ho is really useful 
 only as furnishing hints for others to \v«rk upon. There is not more 
 
•1 CAPELLEN, BARON VAN DER. 
 
 excellence in tbe valuable parts of his matter, than confusion, obscurity, 
 and pedantry in bis manner of expression. " Tbe man," said Johnson, 
 "should have come to me, and I would have endowed his purpose 
 with words : as it is, be doth gabble monstrously." Tbe publications 
 written or edited by Capell are the following: — 1, 'Prolusions, or 
 Select Pieces of Ancient Poetry,' 1760, 8vo : a volume in which the 
 most interesting part is the fine drama of ' Edward III.,' attributed 
 by its editor to Shakspere on grounds quite inconclusive ; 2, ' Mr. 
 William Shakespeare, his Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies,' &c, 
 1767, 10 vols. 8vo; 3, 'Notes and Various Readings to Shakespeare,' 
 1775, 4to; 4, 'A Letter to George Harding, Esq.' (on a passage in 
 Steevcns's Preface), 1777, 4to ; 5, 'Notes and Various Readings to 
 Shakespeare ; to which is added, The School of Shakespeare, or 
 Extracts from divers English Books that were in print iu the Author's 
 time,' &c, 1783, 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 CAPELLEN, GODERD ALEXANDER GERARD PHILIP, 
 BARON VAN DER, a distinguished governor-general of the Dutch 
 East Indies, was born at Utrecht on the 15th of December 1778. He 
 lost his father, Alexander Philip van der Capellen, Heer van Berken- 
 wonde, before he was nine years old. After studying at Gottingeu 
 under Martens aud Blumenbach, with both of whom he continued in 
 correspondence to the end of his life, he entered the public service of 
 Holland, and became iu 1809 Minister of Internal Affairs under King 
 Louis Bonaparte, whom he strongly advised to defend the entrance of 
 Holland by force against the armies of Napoleon, and when the French 
 system was introduced into the country on the 1st of January 1811, 
 accompanied to his retreat at Gratz in Styria. A coolness however 
 arose ou the part of the ex-king when he found that his late minister 
 looked with no unfavourable eye on the rising iu Holland to restore 
 the house of Orange ; and after the complete emancipation of Holland 
 from the French yoke, Van dcr Capellen was iu fact appointed 
 Minister of Commerce and the Colonies, and on the 1st of August 
 1814 Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Owing to an im- 
 portant mission to the congress of Vienna, and the return of Napoleon, 
 which gave Van der Capellen an admirable opportunity of showing his 
 constancy aud courage at Brussels on the day of Waterloo, he did not 
 leave Europe for his post till October 1815, and a further delay 
 occurred before he fiually received Java from the hands of the 
 English, agreeably to the arrangements made at the peace. He 
 remained beyond tbe five years, which had been originally intended, 
 and was recalled in disgrace in 1826, when he was universally cen- 
 sured in Holland for having effected a loan of fifteen millions of sicca 
 rupees at Calcutta, at nine per cent., on the security of the revenues 
 of tbe Dutch East Indies. It was said that of all measures that could 
 be adopted the most uuadvisable was that of pledging the Dutch pos- 
 sessions to the Euglish. Van der Capellen had however shown no 
 partiality to our nation ; he had, on the contrary, strongly urged the 
 Dutch government not to consent to the English establishment of 
 Singapore. He had however followed up the arrangements made by 
 Sir Stamford Raffles during the English possession of Java, and by 
 that means an immense improvement was effected in the position and 
 prospects of the country. He had also abolished the monopolies 
 which under the old Dutch system pressed heavily upon the natives 
 of Celebes and the Moluccas, made alterations and improvements 
 much required in the coinage, and taken measures for the abolition of 
 the slave trade and slavery. The most unfortunate circumstance con- 
 nected with his administration was the outbreak of the great revolt of 
 Diepo Negoro, a Javanese chief, which lasted many years, and which 
 on his return to Europe he left still unsubdued. On the whole how- 
 ever, when his administration came to be reviewed, the unpopularity 
 which had collected around him gradually cleared off, and his merits 
 are now universally acknowledged. He was nominated to several high 
 posts, among others to that of ambassador to England on the occasion 
 of the coronation of Queen Victoria, President of tbe Commission of 
 Education, and President of the University of Utrecht. In February 
 1848 he was unfortunately on a visit to Paris, on au invitation from 
 King Louis Philippe, who was a personal friend, when in the outbreak 
 of tbe revolution he was struck on the head by a stone thrown by one 
 of the mob. No outward injury appeared, but on his return to his 
 seat at Vollenhoven he sunk into a deep melancholy, produced partly 
 by his feelings at the events he had witnessed, and this was succeeded 
 by an inflammation of the brain, attributed to the blow, which carried 
 him off on the 10th of April, 1848. 
 
 CAPET, HUGUES, the founder of the third, or, as it has been 
 called from him, the ' Capetian ' dynasty of French princes, of whom 
 little authentic information is preserved. His own great fief, as 
 Count of Paris, gave him considerable predominance; and on the 
 death of the last of the Carlovingians, a.d. 987, Louis V. the Slothful 
 (' Le Faineant'), he successfully usurped the throne, and was confirmed 
 in its seizure by the confederacy of turbulent barons, who yielding 
 him as much obedience as it suited them, invested him with the 
 nominal title of king. The origin of the name of the family has been 
 disputed, and indeed by some has been considered as given in ridicule; 
 but the chroniclers in general affirm that he was a knight of ancient 
 and noble extraction, and the imputation of plebeian birth which has 
 been advanced against him is manifestly founded upon a miscon- 
 fct ruction of a well-known line in the ' Purgatory ' of Paute, canto xx., 
 >i> which that poet sitirically makes the usurper declare of himself 
 
 CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT OF. 72 
 
 — " I was the son of a butcher of Paris." The commentators explain 
 this line by addiug, that Hugues the Great, count of Paris, the father 
 of Hugues Capet, was a rigid executioner of the sentences which he 
 had passed. M. de Sismondi, ' Hist, des Francais,' iv. 38, has shown 
 that Velly is not to be trusted in his account of the family of Capet; 
 but the render may be safely referred to M. de Sismondi himself, to 
 the Preface to the third volume of the great collection, generally 
 known under the name of Bouquet, or to the 'Preuves de la Gdndalogie 
 de Hugues Capet' in 'L'Art de verifier les Dates,' i. 566. 
 
 A single anecdote may suffice to show the little authority which 
 Hugues possessed over his vassals. " Who has made you count ? " 
 was the inquiry which he directed a herald to put to Aldebert de 
 Perigueux, who had assumed the title of Count of Poictiers and ot 
 Tours. " And who has made you king ? " was the only reply which 
 Aldebert vouchsafed to return by the same messenger. As a supposed 
 atonement for the illegitimacy of his accession, Hugues himself never 
 wore the crown. Both the dates of his usurpation and of his death 
 are uncertain, but the former is usually fixed in a.d. 987 ; the latter 
 996. Thirteen kings (fourteen if we include John, who lived but 
 eight days, and was never crowned) succeeded from his family : and 
 it was not until 1328, that Philip VI. of Valois transferred the sceptre 
 to his own race. 
 
 The party name Huguenot, which arose during the wars of the 
 League, has sometimes been attributed to the attachment manifested 
 by the reformed to the reiguing king, the representative of Hugues 
 Capet, in preference to the Guises, who were derived from Charlemagne. 
 On the accession of the line of Bourbon, the name Capet was either 
 adopted by them or given to them ; and all the processes in the trial 
 of the unfortunate Louis XVI. were directed against Louis Capet. 
 
 CAPMANY Y DE MONTPALAU, ANTONIO DE, a Spanish 
 author of high reputation in Spain, was born at Barcelona on the 24th 
 of November 1742. He entered the army and served as an officer 
 during the wars with Portugal in 1762, and afterwards took a share iu 
 Olavide's scheme for colonising and cultivating the Sierra Moreua, to 
 which he conducted a group of Catalan families to co-operate with 
 Olavide's Germans. When the plan terminated iu Olavide's imprison- 
 ment by the Inquisition, Capmany took up his residence in Madrid, 
 where, with the exception of some time spent in travels iu Italy, 
 France, Germany, and England, he resided for the next five and thirty 
 years, intrusted with various political and literary commissions by the 
 government. On the entrance of the French army into Madrid iu 
 1808 he took flight for Seville, and arrived at that city with nothing 
 in his possession but the clothes he wore, and those in rags. He 
 became an active member of the Cortes of Cadiz, and was among th" 
 multitudes swept away in that city in 1813 by the yellow fever. 
 
 Capmany 's works are numerous, and are noted for the excellence 01 
 their Castilian style, though the author, by birth a Catalan, could never 
 speak the language like a jative. His ' Critical Memoirs on the Marine, 
 Commerce aud Arts of the city of Barcelona,' in three quarto volumes, 
 are a valuable contribution to the history of the middle ages, full of 
 curious particulars drawn from unpublished documents. Some inge- 
 nious dissertations on the introduction of gunpowder and similar 
 subjects 'are contained in his ' Questiones criticas.' His ' Teatro 
 historico critico de la Elocuencia Espanola ' is a collection of elegant 
 extracts, preceded by an essay on the Spanish language and literature, 
 which is spirited and instructive, though like most of Capmany's 
 writings one-sided and ultra-patriotic. The work on which he set the 
 most value was a small volume or rather pamphlet entitled ' El 
 Centinela contra Franceses,' or ' The Sentinel against the French,' an 
 invective against the invaders of Spain, which is dedicated in terms 
 of warm affection to his friend Lord Holland. He was well acquainted 
 with the French language, and the compiler of an excellent French 
 and Spanish dictionary, but in his latter years his antipathy to the 
 nation amounted almost to a mania. 
 
 CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT OF, born at Corfu in 1780, was the son 
 of a physician, and he himself began to study medicine at Venice, to 
 which republic Corfu and the other Ionian islands then belonged. 
 His father was chief of the provisional government of the Ionian 
 Islands in 1799, when the Russians took possession of them. In 1806, 
 when the Seven Islands by the treaty of Tilsit were placed under the 
 protection of Bonaparte, both Capo d'Istria and his father left Corfu 
 and entered the service of Russia. The count's first post was an 
 humble one ; but he showed a talent for diplomacy, and was speedily 
 advanced and attached to the Russian embassy at Vienna. In 1812, 
 during Bonaparte's expedition to Moscow, Capo d'Istria was charged 
 with certain diplomatic operations connected with the army of the 
 Danube, or, as it is more commonly called, the army of Moldavia, 
 under the command of Admiral Tchitchagof, which had been engaged 
 against the Turks, and then occupied the two principalities of Walla- 
 chia and Moldavia. In the summer of 1812, peace being concluded 
 between Turkey and Russia, the latter power was enabled to recall the 
 army of Tchitchagof from the Danube to the Berezina. Capo d'Istria 
 went with it, and after the finishing blow given to the French at the 
 passage of the Berezina he remained at the head-quarters of the 
 Emperor Alexander of Russia, who formed a high opinion of his 
 abilities and address. In 1813 he was sent by Alexauder as his 
 minister plenipotentiary to Switzerland, and, before the allied armies 
 crushed the Rhine into that country, he drew up a declaration promising 
 
CARACALLA, MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. 
 
 CARAFFA. 
 
 Tt 
 
 the re-establiihnient of Helvetian independence, and the restitution of 
 ill the territory that the French had taken from the Swiss. These pro- 
 mises were well kept, and the count so conducted himself as to merit 
 the esteem of the Swiss. The Constitutional Act, which he sanctioned 
 and forwarded, removed many old abuses and invidious distinctions. 
 Iq September 1814 Capo d'lstria left Switzerland for the Congress of 
 Vienna, where, mainly through him, the affairs of the Swiss were happily 
 terminated. In 1815 he was with Alexander at Paris, and was his 
 plenipotentiary in the definitive treaty of peace with France. In the 
 course of that year he advocated the cause of education, and wrote to 
 the emperor an account of the establishment of M. Fellenberg at Hof wyl. 
 This letter, in the form of a pamphlet, was published at Paris in 1816, 
 ia the course of which year the Grand Council of Lausanne gave the 
 count the citizenship of the Canton of Vaud. A short time afterwards 
 he was recalled to St. Petersburg by the Emperor Alexander, who 
 appointed him one of his secretaries of state for foreign affairs, the 
 duties of which office he divided for some time with Count Nesselrode. 
 Capo d'lstria had a principal share in the diplomatic underminings of 
 the Turkish empire, which took place from 1815 to 1827, and on the 
 separation of Greece from Turkey he was allowed to take upon himself 
 the office of president of the Greek government, in which he was 
 regularly installed early in the year 1828, or a few months after the 
 battle of Navarino. In this position he was almost constantly at 
 variance with the people whom he was sent to govern. On both side3 
 were violence, obstioacy, duplicity, and intrigue; but making many 
 allowances for the Greeks, the opinion of most of those who watched 
 his administration in the country was very unfavourable to the count, 
 who it appeared pretty evident was desirous to render Greece wholly 
 subservient to Russia. Some memorable letters which he wrote to 
 Prince Leopold of Saxe Cobourg (now king of the Belgians), to whom 
 the Greek crown had been offered in 1829, mainly induced that prince 
 to decline accepting it, which he did definitively on the 21st of May 
 1830. On the 9th of October of the following year, Capo d'lstria was 
 assassinated at Napoli di Romania, on the threshold of a church, by 
 George, the son, and Constantiue, the brother, of Pietro Mauromichali, 
 the old bey of Maina, whom he had detained for many months in 
 prison without trial or even a specific accusation. 
 
 CARACALLA, or CARACALLUS, MARCUS AURE'LIUS ANTO- 
 NI'NUS BASSIA'NUS, son of Septimius Severus, was born at Lyon 
 while his father was governor of the provincia Lugdunensis. After 
 Severus became emperor, Bassianus married Plautilla, daughter of 
 Plautianus, the emperor's favourite. He accompanied Severus in his 
 expedition to Britain, and was with him in the Caledonian Vi'P.r, on 
 which occasion he is said to have conspired against his father, and 
 even to have once drawn his sword to kill him. Severus forgave him, 
 but his mind and health became so affected by the unnatural conduct 
 of his son, that he soon after died at Eboracum (York), a.d. 211, leaving 
 his two sons, Bassianus and Geta, his joint successors to the empire. 
 Having concluded peace with the Caledonians, the two brothers 
 returned to Rome, where Bassiauus caused Geta to be murdered in 
 the apartment, and in the very arms, of his mother Julia. Having 
 bribed the Prsetorian soldiers, by money and promises, to acknowledge 
 hi:n as sole emperor, he next put to death all the friends and attend- 
 ants of Geta, and those who had shown any sorrow for his death, to 
 the number of several thousands. The celebrated jurist Papinianus, 
 the friend of Severus, was among the victims. Bassianus gave himself 
 up to the company of buffoons, comedians, gladiators, and eunuchs, 
 to whom he was prodigal of the public money, and many of whom he 
 raised to high offices. In order to obtain money for his extravagance 
 he deteriorated the public coin, and forced base money into circulation. 
 During a visit to Gaul he put to death the proconsul of the provincia 
 Narbonensis, and many other persons on his arrival at Narbo. On his 
 return to Rome he brought with him a great quantity of garments 
 made after a Gaulish fashion, in the shape of a long tunic with a hood 
 to it, and known by the name of Caracalla, which he obliged all those 
 who came near his person to adopt. From this circumstance he derived 
 the surname Caracallus. At Rome he built the magnificent thermic 
 which are known by his name. In an expedition into Germany he 
 fought with the Catti and the Alemanni, and after much slaughter 
 purchased peace by paying them large sums of money. He seems to 
 have b?en the first emperor who adopted this humiliating system, 
 which in course of time proved fatal to Rome. In the following year 
 he went into Dacia against the Getse, and thence he proceeded by 
 Thrace into Asia Minor. Having arrived at Autioeb, he invited the 
 kings of Armenia and of Osrhoene to come to him, and then made them 
 prisoners. He seized upon Osrhoene, and founded a colony at Edessa. 
 Having understood that the people of Alexandria spoke freely of him, 
 and had loudly disapproved of the murder of Geta, he visited that 
 city under the pretence of sacrificing to Serapis, and ordered an indis- 
 criminate massacre of the citizens, which lasted several days : the city 
 he gave up to plunder. He afterwards invaded the territory of the 
 Parthiana, under the pretence that Artabanus their king had refused 
 hrm the hand of his daughter. He took Arbela, and overran Media, 
 the Parthians having withdrawn to the mountains beyond the Tigris 
 to collect their forces. The following year while he was expecting to 
 be attacked by them, a conspiracy was formed against his life by 
 Macrinus, praefect of the prsetorium. As the emperor was proceeding 
 on horseback from Edessa to Carra, having alighted from his horse on 
 
 BIOO. DIV, VOL. IL 
 
 the road, a soldier of the name of Julius Martialis stabbed him to 
 death, in 217, after a reign of six years and two months. Macrinus 
 was proclaimed emperor by the army. (Dion, 77, 78; Spartianus, and 
 Herodian, lib. iv.) 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 Coin of Caracalla. 
 Actual size. Bronze. Weight 296 grains. 
 
 Caracalla was one of the worst among the bad emperors of Rome ; 
 his cruelty seems to have been mixed up with a degree of insanity, a 
 frequent consquence of unlimited power being possessed by one 
 individual of uncontrolled passions and no principles. 
 
 CARACCI, or CARRACCI, LODOVI'CO, AGOSTI'NO, and ANNI'- 
 BALE, three of the first painters of Italy, kinsmen, fellow-students, 
 and fellow-labourers, were natives of Bologna, and founders of the 
 Bolognese School. 
 
 Lodovico Caracci, born April 21, 1555, was placed at an early 
 age with Prospero Fontana to study painting. He made such slow 
 progress that his master dissuaded him from the pursuit, upon which 
 he left Fontana, and thenceforth studied the works only of the great 
 masters, for which purpose he travelled to Venice (where he became 
 acquainted with Tintoretto) and Parma. Returning to Bolosna, he 
 found his cousins Agostino and Annibale so well inclined to his pro- 
 fession — for which they had evinced an early taste by scribbling 
 sketches in their school-books — that he persuaded their father, a 
 respectable tailor, to leave their education to him. 
 
 Agostino Caracci, who was born in 1558, had been intended for 
 one of the learned professions ; but his inclination led him to seek 
 employment with a goldsmith, whose business he attended to for a 
 time. He learned engraving from Cornelius Cort, and attained to such 
 excellence that many of his engravings are only distinguishable from 
 his master's by the superiority of the drawing; his works in that style 
 are highly valued. His cousin placed him with P. Fontana, and after- 
 wards with Passerotti. He never practised painting however with any 
 constancy, but indulged a versatile ingenuity in various pursuits con- 
 nected with literature and the liberal arts, working at his easel by 
 fits and starts. 
 
 Annibale Caracci was born about 1560. Lodovico, after instruct- 
 ing him in his art, retained him with himself. Annibale exhibited a 
 perfect contrast to the phlegmatic calmness of Lodovico, to the accom- 
 plished fickleness of Agostino, and to the amiable mildness of both; 
 he was rude and impatient in temper, though of so open and generous 
 a nature that he is said to have kept his colours and his money in the 
 same box, both of which were equally at the disposal of his scholars. 
 He laboured in his vocation with an unwearying and enthusiastic 
 devotion, and a singleness of purpose which has never been excelled, 
 scarcely perhaps equalled. He disliked all study but that of painting, 
 and more than once burst out into complaints against the school-like 
 refinements and the slow proceedings of his kinsmen in their pursuit 
 of excellence. Like Lodovico, he travelled about from place to place, 
 improving himself by all that he saw, and aiming to combine in his 
 own works the excellences of the great works that he studied. The 
 three opened an academy in Lodovico's studio, which became famous 
 for the illustrious pupils whom it sent forth. 
 
 The fame of the Caracci reaching Rome, Annibale was invited by 
 the Cardinal Odoardo Farnese to adorn his palace with paintings. He 
 went, accompanied by Agostino; and the two brothers were delijhted 
 and exalted by the sight of the ancient works of art, and the labours 
 of Michel Angelo and the divine Raffaelle. The usual dissensions how- 
 ever arose, and Annibale's intolerant devotion to labour drove away 
 his more festive brother. The Farnese Gallery occupied Annibale for 
 eight years, for wb-^ch ho is said to have received only five hundred 
 crowns — a meanness of remuneration, as Lauzi justly observes, almost, 
 incredible. He did little after this, and died in 1609. He was buried, 
 according to his own desire, by the side of Raffaelle. Agostino died 
 in 1601. Lodovico lived until December ISth, 1619. 
 
 The works of the three kinsmen are principally in Bologna and 
 Rome. The Farnese Gallery is considered the greatest work of Anni- 
 bale. The Louvre contains the ' St. John the Baptist ' by Lodovico, 
 and the ' Communion of St. Jerome ' by Agostino, which are respec- 
 tively reckoned their best works in oil. Our own National Gallery 
 contains several paintings and two cartoons by the Caracci, but none 
 perhaps that can be reckoned among their finest works. (Malvasia.) 
 
 CARACCIOLI. [Nelson, Lord ] 
 
 CARA'CTACUS. [Britannia, in Geoo. Div.] 
 
 CARA'FFA, a distinguished Neapolitan family, divided into many 
 branches, all descended from Filippo Caraffa, lord of Spinalonga, who 
 
CARAGLIO, QIANGIACOMO. 
 
 CARDAN, JEROME, 
 
 died in 1220. The princes of La Poccella, Sanseverino, and Belvedere, 
 and the dukes of Mataloni, Mondragona, and Andria, are all branches 
 of the Caraffa family. There have been in the family one pope 
 (Paul IV.), many cardinals, pn'hbishops, and bishops, one grand 
 leister of the Order of Malta, &c. 
 
 CARA'GLIO, GIANGIA'COMO, a very celebrated old copper-plate, 
 medal, and pern-engraver, born at Verona or at Parma about the com- 
 mencement of the 16th century. He was the pupil of Marcantonio at 
 Rome, and is one of the best of the early Italian engravers. His prints 
 are rather numerous, though their number has not been accurately 
 ascertained. Bartsch describes sixty-four ; and Brulliot knew only of 
 sixty-five. In the latter part of his life Caruglio gave up engraving on 
 copper, and confined himself to medal, cami o, and gem engraving, an 
 art in which he obtained so great a reputation, says Vasari, that 
 Sigismund I., king of Poland, invited him to Warsaw to execute some 
 works for him. He returned to Italy well rewarded, and died about 
 1 570, at his own estate in the neighbourhood of Parma. The fact of 
 his settling in the Parmesan territory is in favour of the supposition 
 that Parma was his native place : he signs himself ' Parmensis ' on 
 several of his works, yet more are signed ' Jo. Jacobus Veronensis ; ' 
 some ' Jac. Caralius.' 
 
 He engraved after II Rosso, Raffaelle, Titian, Michel Angelo, P. del 
 Vaga, Julio Romano, Parmeginno, and other famous masters. His 
 heads are well executed, as is the nude generally, but the draperies 
 nre hard and unnatural : his lines are distinct, and show great mastery 
 for the period, but he did not reach the excellence of his master 
 Marcantonio. 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c. ; Bartsch, Peinlre-Graveur ; Brulliot, 
 Dictionnaire des Monogrammes; Passavant, Peintre-Orav. t. vi. 95, &,c.) 
 
 CARAVA'GGIO, MICHELANGELO, AMERIGHI, or MORIGI, 
 called DA CARAVAGGIO, from a town of that name in the Milanese, 
 in which ho was bora about the year 1569. His father worked at 
 Milan as a labouring builder. The son derived his first love of the 
 art, together with such knowledge as he could pick up, in the service 
 of certain artists as a colour-grinder. In course of time he managed 
 to go to Venice, where he studied the works of Giorgione with great 
 success, and some of his pictures in the style of that period are much 
 esteemed. 
 
 Caravaggio afterwards went to Rome, where, finding difficulty in 
 getting employment, he engaged with a trafficking artist, called Arpino, 
 for whom he principally painted flowers and fruit. This man he soon 
 quitted, and commenced painting in the miscellaneous style which he 
 ever after pursued. He made a resolution to study no more from 
 artificial models, but to adhere simply to nature, such as he found it 
 in the streets and alleys of Rome. Neglecting his early studies at 
 Venice, he assumed a manner characterised by dark and gloomy shades, 
 illumined by a scanty twilight, as if he painted in a cellar. Having 
 quarrelled over some game with a companion, whom he killed, he fled 
 to Naples; from Naples he went to Malta, where he was made a 
 knight ; but here too he quarrelled with a person of rank, and was 
 thrown into prison. Though he made his escape to Sicily, vengeance 
 pursued him, and he was assaulted by a party of armed men, and 
 grievously wounded and disfigured. His friends having obtained a 
 pardon from the pope for the murder, he set out for Rome, but 
 unfortunately, on landing, he was taken into custody by mistake, and 
 upon being released, could no longer find the vessel, which had all 
 his property on board. Exhausted with fruitless endeavours to find 
 the vessel and his property, he endeavoured to make the best of his 
 way to Rome. The heat, his yet unhealed wounds, and anxiety of 
 mind, brought on so violent a fever, that he could barely reach the 
 Porta Ercole, where he sat down upon a bank and presently expired, 
 at the age of forty, in the year 1609. Caravaggio was rude and 
 negligent in his person and habits ; he scarcely retained a friend, and 
 he defied all rules of civility and decency. 
 
 The principal merit of his pictures consists in the colouring, which 
 is pure and vigorous ; the tints are few, but true to nature. Annibale 
 Caracci said of him that he " ground flesh " (and not colour). The 
 obscurity in which he involves his design gives it a certain air of 
 mysterious grandeur ; but his figures are replete with the unredeemed 
 vulgarity of the models from which he studied, and the extravagance 
 of a self-taught conceit aggravated by abandoned habits. His prin- 
 cipal works are a 1 St. Sebastian,' in the Capitol at Rome, a ' Supper at 
 Emmaus,' in the Borghese Palace, and the 'Entombment of Christ,' now 
 in the Louvre, which in its original place in the Chiesa Nuova was con- 
 sidered to eclipse the rival altar-pieces by Baroccio, Guido, and Rubens. 
 
 Among the number of his imitators, says Lanzi, there is not a 
 eingle bad colourist; Guercino and Guido, and even Annibale Caracci, 
 are said to have profited by the study of his works. (Baldinucci.) 
 
 CARAVA'GGIO, POLIDO'RO DA, a celebrated Italian painter, 
 born at Caravaggio about 1495; his family name was CALDARA. 
 When he was eighteen years of age he was a labourer, and was with 
 many others employed as such about 1512 in the Vatican, when 
 Rafiaelle was painting the loggie and stanze there, in the pontificate of 
 Leo X. He appears to have taken great interest in the progress of the 
 works, and he made some attempts at design himself, which had 
 sufficient merit to induce Maturino of Florence, one of the assistants 
 employed, to undertake to teach him to draw, for which he soon dis- 
 played extraordinary ability. A strong attachment grew up between 
 
 the two young painters. Maturino employed Polidoro to assist him in 
 his work, and their joint labour soon attracted the notice and 
 admiration of Rafiaelle. 
 
 Vasari evidently gives the greater merit in these early works to 
 Polidoro, but as the later works which he painted when alone, were 
 very different in style from these and others which were done iu Borne 
 in this period, in company with Maturino, some recent writers have 
 ventured to give Maturino the greater credit. These works were in 
 fresco and in light and shade, or what the Italians call chiariscuri, and 
 consist mostly of friezes and other decorations, in imitation of bronze 
 or marble, applicable for buildings, interiors or exteriors. Their 
 figures, of which they were not sparing, were drawn in a pure antique 
 style, and not inferior in that respect to the works of any modern 
 master. They imitated ancient statues and bassi-rilievi, and ancient 
 sculptured ornaments of auy kind. Vasari says that there was not 
 a fragment of ancient ornamental art in Rome which they did not 
 copy ; they painted also original works from sacred and modern story. 
 Of all these works however scarcely a vestige remains, but some 
 are in a measure preserved by the prints of Cherubino Alberti, P. S. 
 Bartoli, and Galestruzzi. The last engraved, in five sheets, the story 
 of Niobe, which Maturino and Caravaggio painted as a frieze on the 
 facade of a house opposite the Palazzo Laucellotti : it was one of their 
 masterpieces. 
 
 The sack of Rome, by the soldiers of Bourbon in 1527, put an end 
 to the joint labours of Polidoro and Maturino ; they both fled, but 
 Maturino is supposed to have returned, and to have died of the plague 
 in the same year. Polidoro went to Naples, where he was received into 
 the house of Andrea da Salerno : he practised there some time, but 
 finding that his works were not duly appreciated, he removed to 
 Messina. Here, in 1536, upon the visit of Charles V., on his return 
 from his victorious expedition to Tunis, he was intrusted with the 
 conduct of the triumphal decorations on the occasion. He dwelt 
 several years in Messina in high esteem, and executed many good 
 works, not in the early style of chiariscuri, but in colours ; and some of 
 them were for altar-pieces : Vasari mentions a ' Christ led to Calvary ' 
 amidst a crowd of people, as a masterpiece. In 1543 he made up his 
 mind to return to Rome, haviug, to his misfortune, as it proved, 
 amassed a considerable sum of money. Polidoro had provided himself 
 with a large sum of money, and all things were prepared for his 
 departure the ensuing morning. A servant whom he had had many 
 years was to accompany him ; but the wretch hired some assassins to 
 strangle him during the night, when he was asleep, agreeing to share 
 the booty with the assassins, who having stabbed the body of Polidoro 
 in two or three places, carried it to the door of a house where a lady 
 lived whom he had been in the habit of visiting. The servant went 
 weeping and lamenting, aud related the discovery of the body to a 
 certain count, a friend of Polidoro's, but he eventually suspected the 
 truth of the man's story, and caused him to be put to the rack, upon 
 which he made a circumstantial confession of the whole infamous 
 affair. The miserable creature was tortured with heated forceps, 
 hanged, and quartered. Polidoro was buried in the cathedral of 
 Messina. Some of the pictures which he painted at Messina are in 
 the Gallery of Naples. He excelled in landscape. He also etched 
 several plates in a good style; they are however extremely scarce : the 
 prints after him are likewise scarce. 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de Pittori, &c. ; Gandellini, Notizic Istoriche, &c. ; 
 Lanzi, Storia Pitf.orica, &c.) 
 
 CARBO, CNEIUS PAPI'RIUS, son of Carbo the Roman orator. 
 (Cic. 'De Clar. Orat.,' 27, 43, &c). He espoused the party of Marius, 
 and was consul three times ; a.u.c. 669 he was colleague with Cinna. 
 Cinna had the administration of Italy, while Carbo took the command 
 in Gaul. When Cinna died Carbo remained sole consul, and opposed 
 Sulla in Italy. He procured from the senate and people a decree 
 declaring all who joined the cause of Sulla enemies to the state. 
 Carbo was afterwards defeated by Pompey, and was at last taken 
 prisoner in Sicily, and brought before his tribunal. Pompey pro- 
 nounced a violent invective upon him, and ordered him to be led to 
 execution, A.U.C. 671. (Appian, 'De Bell. Civ.,' vol. i. p. 410.) The 
 ingratitude of Pompey in thus treating a man who had so ably defended 
 him in his youth, when his father's property was going to be confiscated, 
 has been deservedly condemned by Valerius Maximus (v. 3, 5.) 
 
 CARDAN, JEROME. To give any great detail of the life and 
 writings of this singular union of genius and folly would require 
 considerable space. We must therefore confine ourselves for the most 
 part to those circumstances in regard to which his name is principally 
 mentioned in modern writings. 
 
 On the life of Cardan the authorities most in use are — 1. His own 
 treatise 'De Vit4 Propria,' Works, vol. i.— 2. G. Naudseus 'Judicium 
 de Cardano,' 1643. The most accessible accounts of these are iu 
 ' Bayle's Dictionary,' article ' Cardan ; ' and in Teissier, ' Eloges des 
 Hommes Savans,' vol. iv. p. 97. 
 
 The works of Cardan were collected under the title of ' Hicronytni 
 Cardani Opera omnia, curft Caroli Sponii,' Lyon, 1663, in ten volumes, 
 folio. The following list of works, long as it may appear, is perhaps 
 the shortest mode of touching on many points which require only the 
 briefest notice. In all, the date begins the title. 
 
 1539, 'Card. Cassilionei Practica Arithmetica,' &c, Milan. — 1541, 
 'Aphorismi astronomici/ Ulm. — 1542, 'De consolatione,' Venice. - 
 
77 
 
 CARDAN, JEROME. 
 
 78 
 
 1544, 'Do Judiciis Geniturarum exemplis illustratum,' Nuremburg. 
 — 1545, 'Ars Magna,' &c., Nuremburg. — 1545, 'De Malo recent. 
 Medic medendi usu,' Venice. — 1545, 'De Animi Immortaiitate,' 
 Venice. — 1547, 'De Supplemento Almanach,' Nuremburg. — 1547, 'De 
 Qenituris, Revolutionibus,' &c, Nuremburg. — 1550, ' De Rerum Sub- 
 tilitate,' Nuremburg (again in 1557). — 1553, 'An Bain. Articulari 
 Morbo Competat,' Venice. — 1554, 'In quadripart. CI. Ptolemaei. Ejus- 
 dum Geniturarum xii.,' Basel. — 1557, ' De Rerum Varietate,' lib. xvii., 
 folio, Basel. — 1559, ' In Hippocratem de Aere,' &c. Oratio de Medic. 
 Insciti&,' BaseL — 1559, ' Opusc. Artem Med. exereent. utilissima,' 
 BaseL — 1561, ' De Utilitate ex Rebus Adversis capiendo,,' Basel. — 1562, 
 'H. Card. Somniorum Synesiorum,' libri iv., Basel. — 1563, 'De Pro- 
 vidential ex Anni Constitutione,' Bologna. — 1564, 'Comm. in vii 
 Particulas Aphorism. Hippocratis,' Basel. — 1564, ' Ars Curandi parva,' 
 Basel. — 1565, 'De Simpl. Medicament NoxaV Paris. — 1565, 'De 
 Methodo Medendi,' Paris. — 1566, ' Anti-Gorgias, Basel. — 1570, ' H. 
 Card. &c. de Proportionibua Numerorum Motuum, &c. . . . Preterea 
 Artis Magna sive de Regulis Algebra?, liber uuus, &c. . . . Item de 
 Aliza Regula liber,' Basel. — 1573, 'Examen 22 Aegrotorum Hippocratis,' 
 Rome. 
 
 We have chosen this list as containing all we can certainly ascertain 
 to have been published during his lifetime. We have found the 
 dates mostly in old catalogues, and it is very possible that several may 
 be reprints. The list of his works is of considerable length; but 
 many were not published until after his death ; and some not till the 
 collection in ten volumes, already mentioned, was made. He states 
 of himself that he had printed 128 books, had written 40 more, and 
 that 60 authors had cited him. 
 
 Jerome Cardan was born at Pavia in the autumn of 1501 ; his father 
 was a physician and lawyer at Milan. From two circumstances men- 
 tioned by himself, namely, that his mother and father did not live 
 together, and also that the former endeavoured to procure a mis- 
 carriage, it is presumed that he was illegitimate. At twenty years of 
 age he studied in the university of Pavia ; at twenty-two he taught 
 Euclid in the same place. He went to Padua in 1524, and was there 
 received doctor in medicine in 1525. He was successively professor 
 of mathematics or of medicine at Milan, Pavia, or Bologna, and was 
 imprisoned in the latter place (but for what offence is not stated) in 
 
 1570. Having obtained his liberty, he left Bologna in September 
 
 1571, and went to Rome, where he was admitted into the college of 
 physicians, and received a pension from pope Pius V. He died after 
 Oct 1, 1576, and probably not long after, but when is not well known. 
 He was unfortunate in his family, which consisted of two sons and a 
 daughter. The elder poisoned his wife, and died by the hands of the 
 law ; Cardan protested against the sentence, and rested his son's 
 justification upon the conduct of the wife, who, he affirms, had made 
 his son believe that she was a woman of good fame and fortune, being 
 neither. It is an evidence of the extreme vanity of his character, that 
 not denying the fact for which his son suffered, he left on record his 
 belief that the judges, in passing the sentence, had no other object 
 than to deprive him of life or reason. The younger son turned out 
 badly, and was disinherited by his father. His daughter, according to 
 his own account, never caused him any other vexation than the pay- 
 ment of her marriage portion. The treatise ' De Utilitate,' &c. was 
 written on the death of his eldest son. 
 
 If Cardan had left nothing but writings on astrology, mathematics, 
 medicine, or morals, he would have passed among the rest as an 
 eccentric genius, with a full share of all the folly and mysticism which 
 pervaded the philosophy of his day. It is to his own account of him- 
 self that we are indebted for the quantity of description and speculation 
 relative to hi3 personal character which is found in all biographies. 
 There may be in this production a touch of the insanity which delights 
 in accusing itself of crimes, or in exaggerating its foibles : as it is, and 
 taking the character of Cardan as he has given it himself, we see a man 
 — of unequalled self-conceit, as when he says his book of logic (written 
 in seven days, but hardly to be understood by any one else in a year) 
 has not a letter either of omission or superfluity ; and that he is born 
 to deliver the world from a multitude of errors : of little benevolence, 
 as when he avows that his greatest delight in conversation is to say 
 things which he knows will be disagreeable to his hearers : of no 
 veracity, as witness his assertion that he acquired a perfect knowledge 
 of Greek, Latin, French, and Spanish in twenty-four hours from 
 an edition of Apuleius : of violent temper, instanced by his striking 
 one in the face with a dagger whom he discovered to be cheating him 
 at play : and of little honesty, as evidenced by his justification of his 
 refusal to return a pledge, namely, that it was deposited in presence 
 of no witness. He was also a superstitious free-thinker ; attached to 
 his religion, but disposed to treat it in his own way, to an extent 
 which made a worthy divine who claimed, we suppose, to be the 
 adjutant-general of heretics, call him the " chief of the hidden Atheists 
 of the second class." His refusal to accept an advantageous settlement 
 in Denmark, on condition of apostatising, ought to establish his right 
 to some principle. His four gifts — 1. the power of throwing bis 
 wul out of his body (for his words can mean nothing less) — 2. his 
 faculty of seeing whatever he pleased with his eyes, 'oculis, non 
 vj mentis ' — 3. his dreams, which uniformly and on every occasion 
 foretold what was to happen to him ; and 4. his finger naila, which 
 did the same thing ; to say nothing of his astrology, his good demon, 
 
 &c, &c. — establish his claim to be tho chief of the visionaries " of tho 
 first class." Bayle has drawn the distinction between him and other 
 men of equal talent with some point : he says that " nullum magnum 
 ingenium sine mixtura dementia) " is not a maxim which includes 
 Cardan ; for that with him the folly is improved by talent, not the 
 talent adulterated by folly. 
 
 It would hardly have been worth while to have entered into the 
 preceding detail, if Cardan had been a common man. As a physician, 
 his reputation extended through Europe, both a3 a practitioner and a 
 writer. In 1552 he went to Scotland to the assistance of Hamilton, 
 archbishop of St. Andrews, whom he cured : in the memoirs of Melvill 
 the fact is stated, and Cardan is mentioned by name, with the addition 
 that he was an Italian magician. His medical writings have procured 
 him no lasting reputation : those who follow such pursuits seem to 
 have tacitly consented that Cardan shall be left to the mathematicians ; 
 and it is to his discoveries in algebra that he must be considered as 
 entitled to a prominent place in biography. Before proceeding to 
 consider him in this character, we shall only state that De Thou, who 
 knew him personally, and records that he always dressed in a different 
 manner from the rest of the world, says that it was commonly believed 
 his end arose from starvation, voluntarily undergone, that he might 
 not outlive the time which he had predicted for his own death. This 
 story has been frequently copied, as if the fact had been positively 
 asserted by the historian, whereas he only speaks of a rumour. 
 
 The 'Ars Magna,' published in 1545, contains the extensions which 
 Cardan made in the solution of equations. Algebra was then an art 
 contained not in formulae but in rules, and extended no further than 
 the methods of solving numerical equations of the second degree. 
 We shall not here enter into the celebrated dispute between Cardan 
 and Tartaglia, further than to specify the part taken by the former. 
 When he was informed of the solution of cubic equations which 
 Tartaglia had discovered, he applied to the latter, March 25, 1539, and 
 requested he would communicate his method, which Tartaglia declined, 
 intending to reserve the same for the work which he published after- 
 wards in 1554. Cardan then sworo "upon the Holy Gospels, and the 
 faith of a gentleman," that he would not only not divulge the secret, 
 but would engage to write it in such a cipher as no one should be able 
 to read in case of his death. Tartaglia, upon this assurance, commu- 
 nicated his method. This detail rests upon the authority of Tartaglia 
 himself (' Quesiti et Inventioni,' folio, 120), but is amply confirmed by 
 Cardan's subsequent letters, and was never denied by him. Notwith- 
 standing his word thus pledged Cardan published these methods in 
 his ' Ars Magna' (1545), giving the credit of them indeed to Tartaglia, 
 but concealing the promise he had made. 
 
 The communication made to Cardan amounted to the solution, 
 without demonstration, of x 3 + ax + b — 0, in the cases where a and b 
 are, one or both, negative. Cardan himself supplied the demonstrations, 
 showed how to reduce all equations of the third degree to the preceding 
 form, and how to extract the cube root of the binomial surd quantities 
 which the well-known solution involves. He may be said to have 
 arrived, in detached and isolated theorems, at as much, relative to 
 equations of the third degree, as could afterwards be established, in 
 the time of Des Cartes, for equations of all degrees. He was the first 
 who considered negative roots, and comprehended the nature of the 
 connection between them and the positive roots of other equations ; 
 and he even gave the first idea of a method of approximation. 
 
 The algebra of Cardan, owing to the want of general symbols, is 
 difficult to read ; and Montucla, biassed perhaps in favour of his 
 countryman Vieta, has somewhat underrated his merits. On the other 
 hand we have Cossali (' Origine, &c, dell' Algebra,' Parma, 1797), 
 whose object it seems to be to discover something like modern and 
 symbolic analysis in the obscure and verbal rules of the Italians of the 
 16th century. If this learned and estimable writer be considered as 
 holding a brief for Tartaglia, Cardan, and Bombelli, his work may be 
 highly useful. For instance, when he shows, by collecting the various 
 cases propounded by Cardan, that the latter had all the elements 
 which if put together would have been the celebrated rule of signs of 
 Descartes, and thence affirms that Cardan was in possession of that 
 rule so far as equations of the third degree were concerned, he forgets 
 that Cardan neither did nor could put those elements together. And 
 when he attributes a symbolic (or, as it was technically called, a 
 specious) notation to Cardan, because the latter sometimes uses a 
 letter to stand for a number in his general enunciations, he does not 
 remember that Euclid has a prior claim, if in that circumstance merely 
 consists the leading feature of the method of Vieta. 
 
 There is in the algebra of Cardan considerable power of developing 
 the details of his subject, and of explaining the modifications presented 
 by solutions, but not much inventive sagacity. He states himself that 
 he was originally prevented from attempting the solution of cubic 
 equations by the simple assertion of Lucas di Borgo, in his work on 
 algebra, that the solution was impossible ; though Cossali has shown 
 that, had he even read that author with attention, he would have seen 
 that the assertion was not meant to apply to more than algebra as it 
 then existed. In the case of biquadratic equations he attempted 
 nothing himself, but requested his pupil, Ludovico Ferrari, to under- 
 take the investigation, who accordingly produced the reduction now 
 know by his name, and which was published by Cardan. But if we 
 take the whole extent of the ' Ars Magna,' it is sufficiently obvious that 
 
19 
 
 CARDI, LUDOVICO. 
 
 CARLI, GIAN RINALDO. 
 
 M 
 
 Cardan would hare been an analyst of considerable power if he bad 
 lived after Vieta. 
 
 There is in the second volume of Dr. Hutton's ' Tracts ' an account 
 of tbe ' Ars Magna,' the most complete of which we know in English. 
 CARDI, LUDOVICO. [Cigoli.] 
 
 CARDU'CCIO, the' name of two very able Florentine painters, 
 brothers, who settled and chiefly resided in Spain, where, agreeably to 
 {Spanish orthography, they wrote their name Carducho. 
 
 Bartolomeo Cauduccio, tbe elder brother, was born in 1560. He 
 practised as a painter, sculptor, and architect, and was the scholar of 
 Fcderigo Zuccaro, whom both brothers accompanied into Spain in 
 1585, where they attained great distinction iu the service of the kings 
 Philip II., Philip III., and Philip IV. Bartolomeo was equally excel- 
 lent in fresco and in oil, and there are still some of bis works extant 
 in Spain. He drew in the style of the antique, and with great exact- 
 ness ; he excelled also in composition, iu expression, and in colour. 
 There is a ' Deposition from the Cross ' by him in a chapel of San 
 Felipe el Real at Madrid, which Cumberland says may well be taken 
 for one of Raffaelle's. His principal works were the frescoes he painted 
 in the Escurial; he painted also works at Segovia, Valladolid, and 
 Miraflores; and, according to Cean Bermudez, few Italian artists did 
 so much for the arts in Spain as Bartolomeo Carducho. He died at 
 Madrid in 1608, having served the Philips II. and III. for twenty-three 
 years. Philip III., who had appointed him his painter, granted a 
 pension to his widow, and to his two daughters, both of whom were 
 born in Madrid. 
 
 Vincenzio Carducoio was born in 1568, was the scholar of his 
 brother, and succeeded him as painter to Philip III. in 1609. His 
 services iu the advancement of the arts in Spain were even greater 
 than those of his brother, though in the technicalities of art he 
 was a less able painter. He however educated a numerous school, 
 and in 1033 published a book of dialogues on painting, in Spanish, 
 ' Dialogos sobre la Piutura,' &c, which, says Bermudez (1800), is the 
 best work in the Castilian language ou the subject. He died in 1636. 
 There are many of bis works at Madrid, and some at Valencia, Toledo, 
 Salamanca, and Valladolid, but his greatest work is the series of 
 paintings from the life of Saint Bruno and other saints, in the Carthu- 
 sian convent of Paular, commenced in 1626 and finished in 1630. 
 
 (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, <tc. ; Cumberland, Anecdotes 
 of Eminent Painters in Spain.) 
 
 CAREVV, THOMAS, born in 1589, of a good family in Gloucester- 
 shire, was educated at Oxford, and attached himself to the court of 
 Charles I., at which he held several easy offices. He died in 1639, 
 leaving a volume of small poems (1640, 8vo), besides scattered pieces 
 never yet wholly collected, and a masque, ' Ccelum Britannicum,' 4 to, 
 1634. Carew's poems are light and airy effusions, chiefly lyrical, and 
 all dealing with topics of a trifling kind. But their merit in their 
 own kind is great. Thomas Campbell pronounces him to be pre- 
 eminently beautiful among poets of his class ; and Mr. Hallam hesitates 
 iu determining the preference between him and Waller, to whom he 
 holds Carew superior both in fancy and in tenderness, though inferior 
 iu judgment and in care of execution. Two of the best poems in his 
 volume appear also among the pieces of Herrick. 
 
 CAREY, HENRY, said to be an illegitimate son of George Saville, 
 marquis of Halifax, was born towards the end of the 17th century. 
 He was professionally a musician in London, but attained no great 
 success in his art, although he composed both the words and the 
 music of several songs. One of these was tbe popular song of 1 Sally 
 in our Alley.' He wrote several farces and musical pieces for the 
 stage; amon; which were ' Chronouhotonthologos,' 1734, and 'The 
 Dragon of Wantley,' 1737. His pecuniary affairs were repeatedly 
 much embarrassed ; and, in a fit of despondency, owing perhaps to 
 this cause, he put an end to his own existence, Ootober 4, 1743. 
 
 CARI'NUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, succeeded to the throne con- 
 jointly with his brother Numerianus, after the death of their father 
 Cams at the beginning of a d. 284. His conduct at Rome during the 
 absence of his father had been marked by licentiousness, cruelty, and 
 extravagance. His brother Numerianus, whose character was good 
 and mild, having been murdered by Aper on his return from Persia, 
 the soldiers elected Diocletian, a soldier of fortune, who immediately 
 put Aper to death. Diocletian then marched against Carinus. Cariuus 
 collected the troops that were in Italy, and went to meet Diocletian. 
 The two armies met in the plains of Msesia, near Margum and Vimi- 
 uacum. Carinus had at first the advantage ; but many of his own 
 officers, who detested him for his brutal conduct, rose against him, 
 and killed him during the action. The two armies then ceased the 
 fijjht, and proclaimed Diocletian sole emperor, a.d. 285. 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 Coin cf Carinus. 
 Actual size. Silver, 
 
 Weight 28 grains. 
 
 ♦CARLEN, EMILIE, a Swedish novel-writer, whose works are 
 much read in England, appears to be partly of English parentage, as 
 the name of her father is stated iu the ' Svenskt Konversations- 
 Lexikon ' to have been Roger Smith. He was a merchant at Strom- 
 stad, a small sea-port and fishing-town iu the province of Bohusland, 
 close to the Norwegian frontier, where his daughter was born on the 
 8th of August 1807. In her childhood she often accompanied him on 
 his voyages, and a familiarity with the sea and seamen, very unusual 
 in a lady novelist, is a conspicuous feature in many of her writings. 
 In 1827 she was married to a medical man of the name of Flygare, 
 was left a widow in 1833, and in 1841 was united to her present 
 husband, Mr. Carldn, a lawyer residing at Stockholm. Hence, in those 
 of her writings to which her name appears, she is generally desig- 
 nated Emilie Flygare Carlen. Her first novel, ' Waldemar Klein,' 
 was published auouymously in 1838, when she was living a widow at 
 Stromstad ; it was so successful that in 1839 she removed to Stock- 
 holm, and the ' Svensk Bokhandels-Katalog ' contains a list of fourteeu 
 novels which issued from her pen up to the time of its publication in 
 1848. This activity is still continued. The first of her novels which 
 appeared iu an English dress was the ' The Rose of Tistelon,' that is, 
 ' The Rose of Thistle-Island,' in 1844. It became at once popular 
 among novel readers, and not a season has since passed without one 
 or more "translations from Emilie Carle"n. Even the following is perhaps 
 not a complete list: — ' The Birthright ;' 'Gustavus Lindorm ;' 'The 
 Hermit;' 'The Events of a Year' (also translated under the title 
 'Twelve Months of Matrimony'); 'The Lover's Stratagem;' 'The 
 Maiden's Tower ;' ' Marie Louise ;' ' Woman's Life ;' ' The Temptations 
 of Wealth ;' ' A Brilliant Marriage ;' ' The Professor ' (also translated 
 under the title of ' The Professor and his Friends ') ; ' Ivar the 
 Skjuts-Boy;' 'Julie, or Love and Duty;' 'John, or a Cousin in the 
 Hand worth two Counts in the Bush.' The whole of tbe translations 
 first published in England are manifestly made not from the originals, 
 but from German versions; they are however in general very well 
 executed. Some of those which have been first published in America, 
 where Madame Carlen is no less popular than in England, have been 
 made from the Swedish by Swedes, and bear marks of a foreign band. 
 All her writings have the recommendation of being very readable, and 
 the novel-fancier who has commenced one of her stories can seldom 
 lay it down without proceeding to the end They are however not 
 of a kind which invite to a re-perusal, a considerable portion of the 
 interest lying in the incident, and very little in the delineation of 
 character or strength of description. On the other hand, there is in 
 the tales of Madame Carlen none of the exaggerated sensibility which 
 sometimes offends in those of Miss Bremer, the only other Swedish 
 novelist who has found acceptance with the English and American 
 public. Indeed the moral perceptions of Madame Carldn do not appear 
 in her writings to be over acute ; the chief lesson that can be said to 
 be inculcated in the ' Rose of Tistelon,' perhaps the best told of her 
 stories, is, that after a certain time has elapsed, the discovery of the 
 perpetrator of a murder is an extremely inconvenient occurrence, and 
 to be avoided if possible. The scene of her narratives is invariably 
 laid in Sweden, which gives them to a foreign reader the additional 
 charm of introducing him to a country and state of society which, 
 till lately, had never been delineated in a popular work of fiction. The 
 critics of her native country find fault with her for writing too much, 
 and in fact by her rapidity of production she scarcely seems to allow 
 fair play to the powers she undoubtedly possesses. If she were to 
 reserve the right of translating her works iu England, she would secure 
 an income far beyond any that has ever been derived from the profits 
 of a Swedish copyright. 
 
 CA'RLI, GIA'N RINA'LDO, was born in April 1720, of a noble 
 family at Capo d'Istria, in the Venetian territory. He studied first 
 at home, and afterwards at Flambro in the Friuli, where he applied 
 especially to the maths mat'eal sciences. At the age of twenty-fuur 
 he was appointed by the Venetian senate professor of a new chair ui 
 astronomy and navigation established at Padua. He invented seveiui 
 improvements in ship-buildiug for the Venetian navy, and had the 
 superintendence of the naval school at Venice. After seven years he 
 resigned his chair and returned to Istria, to attend to the management 
 of his private affairs. During this time he visited the antiquities of 
 Pola, which he afterwards detailed at length iu his work on Italian 
 antiquities. He had for a companion in his researches the naturalist 
 Vitaliano Donati, whose work on the natural history of the Adriatic 
 was edited by Carli after the author's death : ' Saggio della Storia 
 Naturale Marina dell' Adriatico,' 4to, Venezia, 1750. In 1754 Carli 
 published the first volume of his great work, ' Delle Monete e della 
 Istituzione delle Zecche d' Italia.' (' On the History of the Coins and 
 Currency, and on the Institution of the Mints of Italy.') The second 
 volume appeared in 1757, and the third and fourth in 1760. Carli 
 employed nine years in the compilation of this work, during which he 
 inspected the cabinets of medals and the archives of Milan, Turin, 
 Tuscany, &c. A new edition, with corrections and additions by the 
 author, was published at Milan iu 1785, in 7 vols. 4 to. Carli begins 
 the monetary history of Italy with the mint of Odoacer at Ravenna, 
 after the fall of the Western Empire, and comes down as far as the 
 17th century, describing and illustrating the numerous coins, national 
 and foreign, which were current in Italy during the intervening ages ; 
 their weight, title, legends, and relative value, and also their value 
 
si 
 
 81 
 
 compared with the price of provisions at different epochs. He treata 
 also of the commerce of bullion, and of the frequent alterations and 
 deteriorations which took place in the weight and intrinsic value of 
 the currency : he considers the whole subject both in its economical 
 and legal aspect. 
 
 Carli was appointed president of the new council of commerce and 
 public economy established at Milan as well as of the board of public 
 studies. In these capacities he repaired to Vienna in 1765 to confer 
 with the minister Kaunitz, and was received at court with great 
 distinction. When Joseph II. went to Milan in 1769 he appointed 
 Carli his privy-councillor, aud it was at Carli's suggestion that the 
 emperor finally abolished the tribunal of the Inquisition, which had 
 existed at Milan for centuries. In 1771 Carli was made president of 
 the new council of finances, which made useful reforms in that branch 
 of administration. His labours having seriously impaired his health, 
 he resigned the presidency of the council of commerce, and devoted 
 nis time chiefly to complete his ' Antichita Italiche,' which appeared 
 in 17SS, 5 vols. 4to. Notwithstanding its general name the work is 
 chiefly engrossed by the antiquities of Istria. Carli being now old 
 aud infirm, the emperor Leopold II. restored to him the whole of the 
 emoluments which he had enjoyed when in the full exercise of his 
 office. He lived some years longer, and died in February 1795, leaving 
 behind him the reputation of an enlightened economist, a learned 
 archaeologist, and a virtuous magistrate. He published many other 
 works, among which are ' Ragionamento sopra i Bilanci economici 
 delle Nazioni,' in which Carli asserted, against the then received 
 opinion of the economists, that the balance of trade between nation 
 and nation proved little or nothing as to the real prosperity of each ; 
 ' Sul libero Commercio dei Grani,' addressed to Pompeo Nero in 1771, 
 in which he combated the general application of the principle of the 
 freedom of the corn trade under all circumstances ; ' Relazione sul 
 Ci-n^imento dello Stato di Milauo; ' 'Lettere Americane,' in which he 
 investigates the antiquities of America. In his ' L'Uomo Libero, ossia 
 liagionamento sulla Liberty Naturale e Civile dell' Uomo,' he combats 
 Rousseau's theory of natural liberty : this is perhaps the best refuta- 
 tion of the ' Contrat Social.' He wrcte also ' Saggio sulla Toscana,' 
 ' Delia Patria degli Italiani,' ' Indole del Teatro Tragico,' besides many 
 dissertations on classical subjects, on the triremes, on the Argonauts, 
 on Hesiod's Theogony, on the geography of the ancients, &c. He like- 
 wise wrote a defence of Paolo Vergerio, bishop of Capo d'Istria, who 
 was condemned as a heretic by Pope Paul III. ; a refutation of Tarta- 
 rotti, who even in Carli's time asserted the existence of sorcery ; 
 several poetical compositions, and a letter on the gout, in which he 
 describes a new remedy which he had discovered for that disease. 
 Carli'3 works were published in 19 vols. 8vo, Milan, 1784-94, exclu- 
 sive of his 'Italian Antiquities.' He left also many work3 in 
 mauuscript. 
 
 CAULISLE, SIR ANTHONY, surgeon, was born near Durham, in 
 the year 1768. He commenced his professional education with an 
 uncle at York, and thence he was transferred to Durham, where he 
 remained for some time under the instruction of Mr. Green, the 
 founder of the hospital in that city. Having finished his preparatory 
 studies he repaired to London, and attended the lectures of the 
 Hunters, Dr. Buillie, and Mr. Cruikshank. He was at the same time 
 pnpil to Mr. Watson, then surgeon to the Westminster Hospital. On 
 the death of Mr. Watson iu 1793, Mr. Carlisle was appointed his 
 successor. He became a member of the College of Surgeons, and was 
 early appointed one of the council of that body. He was for many 
 years on the Board of Examiners, and one of the curators of the 
 Hunteriau Museum. He also held the appointment of Professor of 
 Surgery and Anatomy, and in 1829 he filled the office of President. 
 He was appointed Surgeon Extraordinary to George IV., when he 
 was Prince Regent, and was knighted by him at the first lev^e he 
 held as king. He was also surgeon to the late Duke of Gloucester, 
 to whom he was introduced by the learned Dr. Samuel Parr. In 
 1808, on the death of Mr. Sheldon, he was appointed Professor of 
 Anatomy to the Royal Academy, an office he held for sixteen years. 
 
 Sir Anthony Carlisle owed his position to the activity and industry 
 with which he pursued the various departments of science connected 
 with his profession. His early acquaintance with John Hunter gave 
 him a taste for comparative anatomy, which he pursued with much 
 ardour, and many of his earlier literary productions were on this subject. 
 One of his first papers was ' A Case of an unusual Formation in a 
 part of the Brain,' which was printed in the 'Transactions' of a 
 'Society for the Improvement of Medical and Surgical Knowledge' in 
 1793. To the second volume of the 'Transactions of the Linncean 
 Society,' published in 1794, he contributed a paper entitled ' Observa- 
 tions upon the Structure and Economy of those Intestinal Worms 
 called Taenia.' In 1800 he was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society, 
 aDd contributed a paper to the ' Philosophical Transactions ' of that 
 year, entitled ' An Account of a peculiar Arrangement in the Arteries 
 distributed on the Muscles of slow-moving Animals.' There are 
 several other anatomical and physiological papers by him in the 
 'Philosophical Transactions:' 'An Account of a monstrous Lamb,' 
 1801; 'The Physiology of the Stapes,' 1805; 'Account of a Family 
 having hands and feet with supernumerary fingers aud toes,' 1814. 
 After the paper on the distribution of the blood-vessels in the slow- 
 moving animals, bis attention was directed to the connection between 
 
 the circulation of the blood and the action of the muscles, and in 1804 
 he gave the Croonian lecture on 'Muscular Motion.' 
 
 To medical literature more especially Sir Anthony made many con- 
 tributions. One of the first was ' On the Nature of Corns and the 
 mode of removing them,' published iu Simmons's ' Medical Facts and 
 Observations,' 1797 ; 'A New Method of applying the Tourniquet' 
 ('Lond. Med. and Phys. Journal '), 1797; 'On the general and indis- 
 criminate use of Bougies,' Ibid. 1800 ; ' Letter to Sir Gilbert Blane ou 
 Blisters, Rubefacients, and Escharotics, giving an account of the em- 
 ployment of an instrument adapted to transmit a defined degree of 
 heat to effect those several purposes,' London, 1826. In 1817 he 
 published a larger work entitled ' Essay on the Disorders of Old Age 
 and the means of prolonging Human Life,' 4to, London ; a second 
 edition was published in 8vo in 1818. In 1829 Sir Anthony published 
 ' An Alleged Discovery of the Use of the Spleen and Thyroid Gland.' 
 
 During his connection with the College of Surgeons he delivered 
 two of the Hunterian orations — one in 1820 and one in 1826. The 
 first was on the constitution of organised bodies, and the second on 
 the connection between vascular and extra-vascular parts. One of his 
 last papers on medical subjects was published in the 'London Medical 
 Gazette' in 1828, ' On Erysipelas.' He died in London, on the 2nd of 
 November 1840. 
 
 He published numerous other papers : two on plants, in the ' Horti- 
 cultural Transactions;' two on antiquities, in the ' Archaeologia ; ' on 
 the breeding of eels, and the health of workmen in sewers, in the 
 'Philosophical Magazine;' on the decomposition of eggs, in 'Nichol- 
 son's Journal ; ' and on cathartics, the bite of vipers, the venereal 
 disease, &c, in the 'New Medical and Physical Journal.' One of tho 
 most remarkable of his papers on general subjects was one on 
 'Galvanic Electricity,' in 'Nicholson's Journal,' in which he first 
 pointed out the fact that water might be decomposed by the galvanic 
 battery. He was also a frequent contributor to the newspapers, and 
 letters of his appeared in the ' Times ' on the salt-duties, the import- 
 ance of salt to the health of human beings, military flogging, hygeian 
 quackery, man-midwifery, &c. 
 
 CARLOS, DON. [Philip II.] 
 
 CARLOS, DON (Count de Molina), Infante of Spain, and pretender 
 to the Spanish throne, was the second son of Carlos IV. of Spain, and 
 was born on the 29th of March 1788. Left chiefly in the hands of 
 priests, to whom the superintendence of his education had been en- 
 trusted, Don Carlos remained in comparative obscurity during the 
 domination of Godoy. On the first abdication of his father and the 
 accession of his brother Ferdinand VII., Don Carlos was sent to meet 
 Bonaparte, who had announced his intention to visit Spain. The 
 young prince was inveigled beyond the French provinces, and made in 
 effect a prisoner, and Fei-dinand, like his brother, soon found himself 
 also in the hands of the French. Bonaparte next compelled the weak 
 ex-monarch of Spain to proceed to Bayonne, and refusing to acknow- 
 ledge his former abdication, forced him first to resume the crown, and 
 then, for himself and his posterity, to "abdicate all claims to the 
 Spanish kingdom in favour of his ally the Emperor of the French." 
 In this renunciation, after a strenuous opposition, Don Carlos, as well 
 as Ferdinand, was compelled to join. The brothers were sent to Prince 
 Talleyrand's house at Vallencay, where they were detained prisoners, 
 though treated with great respect, till 1813, when Napoleon restored 
 them to liberty and Ferdinand to the throne of Spain. 
 
 When, after the suppression of the constitutional party by the 
 French invasion under the Dae d'Angouleme, Ferdinand appeared 
 inclined to adopt a somewhat more moderate policy, the absolutists 
 turned their attention towards Don Carlos, and determined if possible 
 to raise him to the throne. A conspiracy of a formidable character 
 was organised, and an insurrection broke out in Catalonia in 1825, but 
 was repressed by the vigorous measures of the Count d'Espaiia. 
 
 Dou Carlos had himself taken no open share in the insurrectionary 
 movements of his partisans. He was heir to the throne, and it is 
 probable he was anxious not to endanger his succession by a premature 
 declaration. His hope of legal succession was however quickly dis- 
 pelled. Ferdinand had been three times married without having any 
 children, but by his fourth wife, Christina, he had in October 1830 a 
 daughter, Isabella, the present queen of Spain. By the ancient laws 
 of Spain females could inherit the crown in default of male issue ; but 
 the Salic law of France had been introduced with the Bourbons, and 
 females continued to be excluded from the throne till 1789, when 
 Carlos IV. abrogated the restriction, and restored the ancient rule of 
 succession. In 1812 however the Cortes re-established the Salic 
 law, and Don Carlos was therefore still the heir presumptive to the 
 throne. But Ferdinand now issued a decree which annulled the 
 provision of the Cortes, and restored the order of succession in the 
 female line. Don Carlos protested, but remained quiet His partizans 
 however throughout the kingdom prepared for the struggle which the 
 weak state of the king's health showed to be not very distant. Iu 
 September 1833 Ferdinand was believed by himself and those about 
 him to be dying, and the feeble king, terrified at the mischiefs which 
 ho was assured would result from the measure which excluded his 
 brother from the throne, and acting on the advice of his favourite 
 minister Culomarde, sigued a decree by which he restored the Salio 
 law. [Calomakde.] Ferdinand however rallied, and was easily 
 induced by his sister-in-law to destroy the evidence of his recent 
 
83 
 
 CARLYLE, THOMAS. 
 
 CARLYLE, THOMAS. 
 
 M 
 
 vacillation. He died a few days later, aud his death was the signal for 
 a general rising of the adherents of Don Carlos in opposition to Queen 
 Isabella, who had succeeded to the throne of her father. 
 
 For full five years Spain was desolated by a civil war, in its early 
 period at least one of the most atrociously cruel which has ever 
 disgraced a civilised country. Carlos was supported by the great body ! 
 of the priests, by a large portion of the country party, and by nearly 
 the whole of the inhabitants of the Basque provinces — the bravest and 
 most devoted portion of the Spanish people. Had he been a man of 
 more energy and ability, the great probability is that he would have 
 succeeded. But he possessed in full the hereditary bigotry, weakness, 
 and obstinate folly of his race, and he more often marred, than followed 
 up the successes which his generals achieved. Yet the energy and 
 courage of his generals, Cabrera and Zumalacarregui, maintained the 
 balance decidedly in his favour, till the valuable aid of the British 
 legion under General Sir de Lacy Evans, and the death of Zumala- 
 carregui, turned the scale. The defection of Maroto, and the surrender 
 of his army to Espartero in August 1839, left Carlos no alternative but 
 flight, and he at once took refuge in France. 
 
 Louis Philippe assigned him a residence in the city of Bourges, 
 where he was joined by his family, and where for some years he main- 
 tained a mimic court, in which was observed all the elaborate etiquette 
 of the Spanish monarchy. At length sick of hope deferred, he in 
 1S45 formally relinquished his claim to the Spanish crown in favour 
 of his eldest son Don Carlos Louis Maria Fernando, Count de Monte- 
 molin. The abdication of Don Carlos was strongly opposed by his 
 wife, the Princess Maria Teresa (daughter of John IV. of Portugal), { 
 and by his leading supporters, including General Cabrera. [Cabrera.] 
 In Spain it probably strengthened the hands of the Queen ; and the 
 subsequent rising in favour of the Count de Montemolin was easily 
 suppressed. Don Carlos was permitted iu 1847 to remove to Trieste, 
 where he remained in strict retirement to his death, March 10th, 1S55. 
 
 * CARLYLE, THOMAS, a thinker and writer confessedly among 
 the most original aud influential that Britain has produced, was born 
 iu the parish of Middlebie, near the village of Ecclefechan, in Dum- 
 friesshire, Scotland, ou the 4th of December 1795. His father, a man 
 of remarkable force of character, was a small farmer in comfortable 
 circumstances ; his mother was also no ordinary person. The eldest 
 sou of a considerable family, he received an education the best in its 
 kind that Scotland could then afford — the education of a pious and 
 industrious home, supplemented by that of school and college. 
 (Another son of the family, Dr. John A. Carlyle, a younger brother 
 of Thomas, was educated in a similar manner, and, after practising 
 for many years as a physician in Germany and Rome, ha3 recently 
 become known in British literature as the author of the best prose 
 translation of Dante.) After a few years spent at the ordinary parish 
 school, Thomas was sent, in his thirteenth or fourteenth year, to the 
 grammar-school of the neighbouring town of Annan ; and here it was 
 that he first became acquainted with a man destined, like himself, to 
 a career of great celebrity. " The first time I saw Edward Irving," 
 writes Mr. Carlyle in 1835, " was six-and-twenty years ago, in his 
 native town, Annan. He was fresh from Edinburgh, with college 
 prizes, high character, and promise; he had come to see our school- 
 master, who had also been his. We heard of famed professors — 
 of high matters, classical, mathematical — a whole Wonderland of 
 knowledge ; nothing but joy, health, hopefulness without end, looked 
 out from the blooming young man." Irving was then sixteen years of 
 age— Carlyle fourteen ; and from that time till Irving's sad and pre- 
 mature death the two were intimate and constant friends. It was not 
 long before Carlyle followed Irving to that "Wonderland of know- 
 ledge," the University of Edinburgh, of which, and its " famed pro- 
 fessors," he had received such tidings. If the description of the 
 nameless German university however in ' Sartor Resartus ' is to be 
 supposed as allusive also to Mr. Carlyle's own reminiscences of his 
 training at Edinburgh, he seems afterwards to have held the more 
 formal or academic part of that training in no very high respect. 
 "What vain jargon of controversial metaphysic, etymology, and 
 mechanical manipulation, falsely named science, was current there," 
 says Teufelsdrockh ; " I indeed learned better perhaps than most." 
 At Edinburgh, the professor of " controversial metaphysic" in Car- 
 lyle's day was Dr. Thomas Brown, Dugald Stewart having then just 
 retired ; physical science and mathematics were represented by Play- 
 fair and Sir John Leslie, and classical studies by men less known to 
 fame. While at college,- Carlyle's special bent, so far as the work of 
 the classes was concerned, seems to have been to mathematics and 
 natural philosophy. But it was rather by his voluntary studies and 
 readings, apart from the work of the classes, that Mr. Carlyle in his 
 youth laid the foundation of his vast and varied knowledge. The 
 college session in Edinburgh extends over about half the year — from 
 November to April; and during these months the college library, and 
 other such libraries as were accessible, were laid under contribution 
 by him to an extent till then hardly paralleled by any Scottish 
 Btudent. Works on science and mathematics, works on philosophy, 
 histories of all ages, aud the great classics of British literature, were 
 read by him miscellaneously or in orderly succession; and it was at 
 this period also, if we are not mistaken, he commenced his studies — 
 r ot very usual then in Scotland— in the foreign languages of modern 
 Europe. With the same diligence, and in very much the same way, 
 
 were the summer vacations employed, during which he generally 
 returned to his father's house in Dumfriesshire, or rambled among 
 the hills and moors of that neighbourhood. 
 
 Mr. Carlyle had begun his studies with a view to entering the 
 Scottish Church. About the time however when these studies were 
 nearly ended, aud when, according to the ordinary routine, he might 
 have become a preacher, a change of views induced him to abandon 
 the intended profession. This appears to have been about the year 
 1819 or 1820, when he was twenty-four years of age. For some time, 
 he seems to have been uncertain as to his future course. Along with 
 Irving, he employed himself for a year or two as a teacher in Fifeshire; 
 but, gradually it became clear to him that his true vocation was that 
 of literature. Accordingly, parting from Irving about the year 182£ 
 the younger Scot of Annandale deliberately embraced the alternative 
 opeu to him, and became a general man of letters. Probably few have 
 ever embraced that profession with qualifications so wide, or with 
 aims so high and severe. Apart altogether from his diligence in 
 learning, and from the extraordinary amount of acquired knowledge of 
 all kinds which was the fruit of it, there had been remarked iu him 
 from the first a strong originality of character, a noble earnestness and 
 fervour in all that he said or did, and a vein of inherent constitutional 
 contempt for the mean and the frivolous, inclining him, in some 
 degree, to a life of isolation and solitude. Add to this, that his 
 acquaintance with German literature in particular had familiarised him 
 with ideas, modes of thinking, and types of literary character, not then 
 generally known in this country, and yet, in his opinion, more deserving 
 of being known than much of a corresponding kind that was occupying 
 and ruling British thought. 
 
 The first period of Mr. Carlyle's literary life may be said to extend 
 from 1822 to 1827, or from his twenty-sixth to his thirty-second year. 
 It was during this period that he produced (besides a translation of 
 Legendre's 'Geometry,' to which he prefixed an 'Essay on Proportion') 
 his numerous well-known translations from German writers, and also 
 his ' Life of Schiller.' The latter and a considerable proportion of the 
 former were written by him during the leisure afforded him by an 
 engagement he had formed in 1823 as tutor to Charles Buller, whose 
 subsequent brilliant though brief career in the politics of Britain gives 
 interest to this connection. The first part of the 'Life of Schiller' 
 appeared originally in the ' London Magazine,' of which John Scott 
 was editor, and Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Allan Cunningham, De Quincey, 
 aud Hood, were the best known supporters ; and the second and third 
 parts were published in the same magazine in 1824. In this year 
 appeared also the translation of Gothe' s 'Wilhelm Meister,' which 
 was published by Messrs. Oliver and Boyd of Edinburgh, without the 
 translator's name. This translation, the first real introduction of 
 Gothe to the reading world of Great Britain, attracted much notice. 
 " The translator," said a critic in ' Blackwood,' " is, we understand, a 
 young gentleman in this city, who now for the first time appears 
 before the public. We congratulate him on his very promising debut; 
 and would fain hope to receive a series of really good translations from 
 his hand. He ha3 evidently a perfect knowledge of German ; he 
 already writes English better than is at all common, even at this time; 
 and we know no exercise more likely to produce effects of permanent 
 advantage upon a young mind of intellectual ambition." The advice 
 here given to Mr. Carlyle by his critic was followed by him in so far 
 that in 1827 he published in Edinburgh his ' Specimens of German 
 Romance,' in four volumes — one of these containing, ' Wilhelm Meister's 
 Wanderjahre,' as a fresh specimen of Gothe ; the others containing 
 tales from Jean Paul, Tieck, Musseus, and Hoffmann. Meanwhile, in 
 1825, Mr. Carlyle had revised and enlarged his ' Life of Schiller,' and 
 given it to the world in a separate form through the press of Messrs. 
 Taylor and Hessey, the proprietors of the ' London Magazine.' In the 
 same year, quitting bis tutorship of Charles Buller, he had married a 
 lady fitted in a pre-eminent degree to be the wife of such a man. 
 (It is interesting to know that Mrs. Carlyle, originally Miss Welch, is 
 a lineal descendant of the Scottish Reformer Knox.) For some time 
 after the marriage Mr. Carlyle continued to reside in Edinburgh ; but 
 before 1827 he removed to Craigenputtoch, a small property in the 
 most solitary part of Dumfriesshire. 
 
 The second period of Mr. Carlyle's literary life, extending from 1827 
 to 1834, or from his thirty-second to his thirty-ninth year, was the 
 period of the first decided manifestations of his extraordinary originality 
 as a thinker. Probably the very seclusion in which he lived helped 
 to develope in stronger proportions his native and peculiar tendencies. 
 The following account of his place and mode of life at this time was 
 sent by him in 1828 to Gothe, with whom he was then in correspond- 
 ence, and was published by the great German in the preface to a German 
 translation of the ' Life of Schiller' executed under his immediate care: 
 — " Dumfries is a pleasant town, containing about fifteen thousand 
 inhabitants, and to be considered the centre of the trade and judicial 
 system of a district which possesses some importance in the sphere of 
 Scottish activity. Our residence is not in the town itself, but fifteen 
 miles to the north-we3t of it, among the granite hills and the black 
 morasses which stretch westward through Galloway almost to the Irish 
 Sea. In this wilderness of heath and rock our estate stands forth a 
 green oasis, a tract of ploughed, partly inclosed aud planted ground, 
 where corn ripens and trees afford a shade, although surrounded by 
 sea-mews and rough-wooled sheep. Here, with no small effort, have 
 
CARLYLE, THOMAS. 
 
 we built and furnished a neat substantial dwelling; here, in the 
 absence of a professional or other office, we live to cultivate literature 
 according to our strength, and in our own peculiar way. We wish a 
 joyful growth to the rosea and flowers of our garden ; we hope for 
 health and peaceful thoughts to further our aims. The roses indeed 
 are still in part to be planted, but they blossom already in anticipation. 
 Two ponies which carry us everywhere, aud the mountain air, are the 
 best medicine for weak nerves. This daily exercise, to which I am 
 much devoted, is my only recreation ; for this nook of ours is the 
 loneliest in Britain — six miles removed from any one likely to visit 
 me. Here Rousseau would have been as happy as on his island of 
 Saint-Pierre. My town friends indeed ascribe my sojourn here to a 
 similar disposition, and forbode me no good result ; but I came hither 
 solely with the design to simplify my way of life, and to secure the 
 independence through which I could be enabled to remain true to 
 myself. This bit of earth is our own : here we can live, write, and 
 think as best pleases ourselves, even though Zoilus himself were to 
 be crowned the monarch of literature. Nor is the solitude of such 
 great importance, for a stage-coach takes us speedily to Edinburgh, 
 which we look upon as our British Weimar. And have I not too at 
 this moment, piled upon the table of my little library, a whole cart- 
 load of French, German, American, and English journals and periodi- 
 cals — whatever may b3 their worth ? Of antiquarian studies, too, there 
 is no lack." 
 
 Before this letter was written Mr. Carlyle had already begun the 
 well-known series of his contributions to the 'Edinburgh Review.' 
 The first of these was his essay on 'Jean Paul,' which appeared 
 in 1827 ; and was followed by his striking article on ' German 
 Literature,' and by his singularly beautiful essay on 'Burns' (1828). 
 Other essays in the same periodical followed, as well as articles 
 in the 'Foreign Quarterly Review,' which was established in 1828, 
 and shorter articles of less importance in Brewster's ' Edinburgh 
 Encyclopedia,' then in course of publication. Externally, in short, at 
 this time Mr. Carlyle was a writer for reviews and magazines, choosing 
 to live, for the convenience of his work and the satisfaction of his own 
 tastes, in a retired nook of Scotland, whence he could correspond with 
 his friends, occasionally visit the nearest of them, and occasionally also 
 receive visits from them in turn. Among the friends whom he saw 
 in his occasional visits to Edinburgh were Jeffrey, Wilson, and other 
 literary celebrities of that capital (Sir Walter Scott, we believe, he 
 never met otherwise than casually in the streets) ; among the more 
 distant friends who visited him none was more welcome than the 
 American Emerson, who, having already been attracted to him by his 
 writings, made a journey to Dumfriesshire, during his first visit to 
 England, expressly to see him ; and of hi3 foreigu correspondents the 
 most valued by far was Gbthe, whose death in 1832, and that of Scott 
 in the same year, impressed him deeply, and were finely commemorated 
 by him. 
 
 Meanwhile, though thus ostensibly but an occasional contributor to 
 periodicals, Mr. Carlyle was silently throwing his whole strength 
 into a work which was to reveal him in a far other character than 
 that of a mere literary critic, however able and profound. This 
 was his 'Sartor Resaitus'; or, an imaginary History of the Life and 
 Opinions of Heir Teufelsdrockb, an eccentric German Professor and 
 Philosopher. Under this quaint guise (the name ' Sartor Resaitus ' 
 beiDg, it would appear, a translation into Latin of ' The Tailor done 
 Over,' which is the title of an old Scottish song) Mr. Carlyle pro- 
 pounded, in a style half serious and half grotesque, aud in a manner 
 far more bold and trenchant than the rules of review-writiDg permitted, 
 his own philosophy of life and society in almost all their bearings. 
 The work was truly an anomaly in British literature, exhibiting a 
 combination of deep speculative power, poetical genius, and lofty 
 moral purpose, with wild and riotous humour and shrewd observation 
 and satire, such as had rarely been seen ; and coming into the midst 
 of the more conventional British literature of the day, it was like a fresh 
 but barbaric blast from the hills and moorlands amid which it had 
 been conceived. But the very strangeness and originality of the work 
 prevented it from finding a publisher; and after the manuscript had 
 been returned by several London firms to whom it was offered, the 
 author wa3 glad to cut it into parts and publish it piecemeal in 
 'Fraser'e Magazine.' Here it appeared in the course of 1833-34, 
 scandalising most readers by its gothic mode of thought and its 
 extraordinary torture, as it was called, of the English language ; but 
 eagerly read by some sympathetic miuds, who discerned in the writer 
 a new power in literature, and wondered who and what he was. 
 
 With the publication of the ' Sartor Resai tus ' papers, the third 
 period of Mr. Carlyle's literary life may be said to begin. It was 
 during the negociations for their publication that he was led to con- 
 template removing to London — a step which he finally took, we 
 believe, in 1834. Since that year — the thirty-ninth of his life — 
 Mr. Carlyle has permanently resided in London, in a house situated 
 in one of the quiet streets running at right angles to the river Thames 
 at Chelsea. The change into the bustle of London from the solitude 
 of Ciaigenputtoch was, externally, a great one. In reality however it 
 was less than it seemed. A man in the prime of life when he came 
 to reside in the metropolis, he brought into its roar and confusion not 
 the restless spirit of a youDg adventurer, but the settled energy of one 
 who had ascertained his strength and fixed his methods and his aims. 
 
 Among the Maginns and others who contributed to ' Fraser,' he at 
 once took his place as a man rather to influence than to be influenced ; 
 and gradually as the circle of his acquaintance widened so as to include 
 such notable men as John Mill, Sterling, Maurice, Leigh Hunt, 
 Browning, Thackeray, and others of established or rising fame in all 
 walks of speculation and literature, the recognition of his rare per- 
 sonal powers of influence became more general and deep. In particular 
 in that London circle in which John Sterling moved was his personal 
 influence great, even while as yet he was but the anonymous author 
 of the ' Sartor Resartus ' papers, and of numerous other contributions, 
 also anonymous, to ' Fraser's Magazine, ' and the ' Edinburgh,' ' Foreign 
 Quarterly, ' British and Foreign,' and ' Westminster ' Reviews. It was 
 not till 1837, or his forty-second year, that his name, already so well 
 known to an inner circle of admirers, was openly associated with a 
 work fully proportional to his powers. This was his ' French Revo- 
 lution : a History,' in three volumes, the extraordinary merits of which 
 as at once a history and a gorgeous prose-epic are known to all. In 1838 
 the ' Sartor Resartus ' papers already republished in the United States, 
 were put forth collectively with his name ; and in the same year his 
 various scattered articles in periodicals, after having similarly received 
 the houour of republication in America, were given to the world iu 
 four volumes in their chronological serien from 1827 to 1837, under 
 the title of ' Miscellanies.' Mr. Carlyle's next publication was his 
 little tract on ' Chartism,' published in 1839, in which, to use the 
 words of one of his critics, " he first broke ground on the Condition of 
 England Question." 
 
 During the time when these successive publications were carry- 
 ing his name through the land, Mr. Carlyle appeared in a new 
 capacity, and delivered four courses of lectures in London to select 
 but crowded audiences, including many of the aristocracy both of 
 rank and of literature — the first, a course on ' German Litera- 
 ture,' delivered at Willis's Rooms in 1837 ; the second, a course on 
 ' The History of Literature, or the Successive Periods of Europeau 
 Culture,' delivered in Edward-street, Portman-square, iu 1838 ; the 
 third, a course on 'The Revolutions of Modern Europe,' delivered in 
 1839; and the fourth, a course on 'Heroes, Hero-worship and the 
 Heroic in History,' delivered in 1840. This last course alone was 
 published ; and it became more immediately popular than any of the 
 works which had preceded it. It was followed in 1843 by ' Past and 
 Present,' a work contrasting in a historico-philosophical spirit English 
 society of the middle ages with English society in our own day; aud 
 this again in 1845 by ' Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, with 
 elucidations and a connecting narrative ; ' such being the unpretending 
 form which a work originally intended to be a history of Cromwell 
 and his times ultimately assumed. By the year 1849 this work had 
 reached a third edition. In 1850 appeared the ' Latter-Day Pamphlets,' 
 in which, more than in any previous publication, the author spoke 
 out in the character of a social and political censor of his own age. 
 From their very nature as stern denunciations of what the author 
 considered contemporary fallacies, wrongs, and hypocrisies, these 
 pamphlets produced a storm of critical indignation against Mr. Carlyle, 
 which was still raging when, in 1851, he gave to the world his 
 ' Life of John Sterling.' His latest work, the bulkiest of all his pro- 
 ductions, a work of immense research, and which had long formed his 
 main occupation, was the ' History of Friedrieh II. of Prussia, called 
 Frederick the Great,' 6 vols. 8vo, 1858-65. His 'Collected Works' 
 had been previously published in 16 vols., 1857-8. A collection of some 
 of the most striking opinions, sentiments, and descriptions contained 
 in all his works hitherto written has been published in a single 
 volume, entitled ' Passages selected from the writings of Thomas 
 Carlyle ' (1855), from the memoir prefixed to which by the editor, 
 Mr. Thomas Ballantyue, we have derived most of the facts for this 
 notice. 
 
 An appreciation of Mr. Carlyle's genius and of his influence on 
 British thought and literature is not to be looked for here, and 
 indeed is hardly possible in the still raging conflict of opinions — one 
 might even say, passions and parties— respecting him. The following 
 remarks however by one of his critics, seem to us to express what all 
 must admit to be the literal truth : — " It is nearly half a generation 
 since Mr. Carlyle became an intellectual power iu this country ; and 
 certainly rarely, if ever, in the history of literature has such a 
 phenomenon been witnessed as that of his influence. Throughout the 
 whole atmosphere of this island his spirit has diffused itself, so that 
 there is probably not an educated man under forty years of age, from 
 Caithness to Cornwall, that can honestly say that he has not been 
 more or less affected by it. Not to speak of his express imitators, 
 one can hardly take up a book or a periodical without finding some 
 expression or some mode of thinking that bears the mint-mark of his 
 genius." The same critic notices it as a peculiarity in Mr. Carlyle's 
 literary career that, whereas most men begin with the vehement and 
 the controversial, and gradually become calm and acquiescent in things 
 as they are, he beg;in as an artist in pure literature, a critic of poetry, 
 song, and the drama, and has ended as a vehement moralist and 
 preacher of social reforms, disdaining the etiquette and even the name 
 of pure literature, and more anxious to rouse than to please. With 
 this development of his views of his own function a3 a writer, is 
 connected the development of his literary style, from the quiet and 
 pleasing, though still solid and deep beauty of his earlier writings, to 
 
87 
 
 CARMAGNOLA, FRANCESCO BUSSONE DL 
 
 CARNOT, LAZARE NICHOLAS MARGUERITE. 
 
 that later and more pecuiiar, and to many disagreeable form, which 
 has been nicknamed ' the Carlylese.' 
 
 CARMAGNO'LA, FRANCESCO BUSSO'NE DI, count of Castel- 
 nuovo, was born at Carmagnola, a town of the province of Turin iu 
 Piedmont, about the year 1390, of humble parents. Early in life 
 he enlisted into the troop of Faciuo Cane, a celebrated Condottiere of 
 his time, who was in the service of the Visconti, dukes of Milan. As 
 he rose in rank he took the name of Carmagnola, from the place of 
 his birth. After the death of Facino, Filippo Maria Visconti made 
 Carmagnola his general-in-cbief, as a reward for his bravery and 
 services. Carma^nohi was chiefly instrumental in placing Filippo 
 Maria on the ducal throne of Milan, and he afterwards added to his 
 dominions Piacenza, Brescia, Bergamo, and other towns. Filippo 
 Maria created him Count of Castelnuovo, gave him in marriage his 
 relative Antonietta Visconti, and sent him to Genoa as governor. In 
 1424 Filippo Maria, who was of a dark suspicious temper, having 
 listened to the unfavourable reports of some courtiers around him, 
 ordered Carmagnola to be deprived of his military command, upon 
 which the latter repaired to the duke to remonstrate with him; but 
 being denied an audience, he rode off with a few trusty companions, 
 left the territory of Milan, and after some wanderings repaired to 
 Treviso, in the Venetian territory, where the duke sent an assassin to 
 murder him, but the plot failed. He then went to Venice, where he 
 arrived in February 1425. 
 
 The Venetian senate having declared war against the duke, in 
 January 1426, appointed Carmagnola their captain-general. Carmagnola 
 defeated the duke's troops and took from him the province of Brescia, 
 which was from that time incorporated with the Venetian state. Iu 
 1427 he defeated again, near Maclodio, the duke's troops, which were 
 led by Sforza, Pergola, Picciuino, and Torello, all celebrated Condottieri 
 of that time. After the battle, despite the remonstrances of the 
 Venetian commissioners, Carmagnola permitted his soldiers, who were 
 chiefly mercenaries, to liberate all their prisoners, according to the 
 custom then prevalent among the Italian Condottieri; the reason of 
 which was, that as those troops fought merely for pay, they did not 
 wish utterly to destroy their antagonists, for fear that the war should 
 come to an end too toon. 
 
 In 1428 peace was made between Venice and the duke, but in 1431 
 war broke out again, and Carmagnola, retaiuing the command of the 
 Venetian army, attacked the castle of Soncino, but failed after a con- 
 siderable loss. Shortly after, iu July of the same year, the duke's 
 flotilla on the Po defeated that of Venice, in sight of Carinagnola's 
 camp, who was not in time to support it. That commander was 
 accused of neglect and even suspected of treachery. The senate wrote 
 him a letter of reproof, but continued him in command. In the 
 following October Carmagnola attempted to surprise Cremona; part 
 of his men entered the town, but the citizens rising in a mass, drove 
 out the assailants. This failure increased the suspicions and fears of 
 the Venetian senators, who determined to deprive Carmagnola of his 
 command, but fearing to attempt it while he was in the midst of his 
 soldiers, by whom he was beloved, they invited him by courteous 
 Utters to repair to Venice in order that they might consult with him 
 on the peace to be made with the duke. Carmagnola went to Venice, | 
 where he was received with marked distinction, and was led imme- ! 
 diately to the ducal palace. Being introduced into the hall of the 
 Council of Ten, he was all at once charged with treason, arrested, 
 taken to the adjoining prison, examined secretly, put to the torture, 
 and condemned to death. On the 5th of May 1432 he was led out, 
 with his mouth gagged, to the Piazzetta of St. Mark, and there 
 beheaded between tLe two pillai s. His propeity was confiscated to 
 the state. Concerning the guilt or innocence of this celebrated com- 
 mander much diversity of opinion prevails. Manzoni, in his ' Notizie 
 Storiche,' which accompany his drama ' II Conte di Carmagnola,' has 
 fully examined the question and referred to the authorities on both 
 sides. Of the treacherous conduct of the Venetian senators there can 
 be no question. 
 
 CARNE'ADES, a native of Cy rene in Africa, was the founder of 
 the school of philosophy called the New Academy. The precise date 
 of his birth is difficult to ascertain : it was probably about B.C. 214. 
 He appears to have received his first instruction in philosophy from 
 Diogenes the Stoic, and hence the joke recorded by Cicero ('Acad. 
 Qusest.,' iv. 30) : he sometimes said, " If I have argued correctly, I am 
 satisfied; if badly, Diogenes shall give back his mina." He afterwards 
 attended the lectures of Egesinus, master of the academy, and suc- 
 ceeded him in the chair. In this situation ho attained great eminence, 
 and so high was the estimation in which he was held that (Cicero, 
 ' De Orat.,' ii. 37 ; ' Aul. Gell.,' vii. 14) he was selected with two others, 
 Diogenes the Stoic, and Critolaus the Peripatetic, to go on an embassy 
 from Athens to Rome (b.c. 154.) Cicero ('De Fin.,' iii. 12) praises 
 him for his great eloquence, which Aulus Gellius (vii. 14) describes as 
 vehement and rapid, differing in this respect from the correct and 
 elegant style of Diogenes and the quiet and chaste style of Critolaus. 
 Cicero (' De Orat.,' ii. 38) says that he never defended a point which 
 he did not prove, or opposed an argument which he did not overthrow. 
 Even other philosophers and orators, it is said, constantly resorted to ! 
 his school. (Dieg. Laert., 'Life of Cam.') Carneades not uufre- ! 
 quently sacrificed personal comfort and cleanliness to ardour in his 
 favourite pursuits; he sometimea forgot to take his meals, and often 
 
 grudged the time necessary for combing his hair, &c. Before disputing, 
 as he frequently did, with Chrysippus the Stoic, he was accustomed 
 to brace the powers of his mind by the exhibition of hellebore. 
 (' Valer. Max.,' viii. 7.) He died at the age of ninety, according to 
 Cicero (' Acad. Quaest.,' iv. 6) and Valerius Maximu3 (viii. 7.) 
 
 The doctriues of Carneades appear to have differed little from those 
 of Arcesilaus and the other philosophers of the Middle Academy. 
 The difference consisted more perhaps in the mode of statement than 
 in the tenets themselves. Clitomachus, who succeeded Carneades, 
 owned that he \\ as never able to ascertain what the precise doctrines 
 of his predecessor were. Carneades maintained that as the senses and 
 understanding frequently deceive us, nothing which we learn by 
 means of them cm be Certain; that the highest poiut we can attain is 
 great pv .bability, and that of probability there are several degrees. 
 He con i lered that all the knowledge which the human mind was 
 capable of gaining ought not to be called knowledge but opinion, a3 
 there was no sure test of truth. Arcesilaus appears to have main- 
 tained the same tenets, but to have asserted them iu a broader and 
 more offensive manner. He was chiefly employed in destroying the 
 systems of others by means of his doctrine of uncertainty, aud he 
 almost entirely disregarded the application of his principles in the 
 form of ethics; while Carneades, on the other hand, devoted himself 
 partly to their practical use in the affairs of life. The constructive 
 method of Carneades preserved him from the odium and suspicion 
 which the destructive and aggressive method had brought upon 
 Arcesilaus. [Arcesilaus.] 
 
 CARNEGIE, SIR ROBERT, of Kiuuaird, son of John de Carnegy, 
 who was killed at the battle of Flodden, was sometime chamberlain of 
 1 Arbroath, and having attached himself to the repent Arran, was on 
 July 4th 1547 appointed a lord of s ssion. The following year he was 
 ! sent to England to treat for t :e ransom of the Earl of Huntly, Chan- 
 cellor of Scotland, who had been taken prisoner at the battle of Pinkie. 
 J He was soon afterwards despatched on a mission to the court of 
 France; and when there was requested by King Henri II. to use his 
 influence with Arran for the resignation of the regency in favour of 
 the queen dowager, which was effected. In 1551 we find him clerk to 
 the treasurer of Scotland, and one of the commissioners named to 
 conclude a peace with England ; and in 1554 and 1556 he was again 
 employed in a like capacity. At the breaking out of the Reformation 
 he at first took part with the queen regent, and was employed by her 
 iu negociating with the lords of the congregation; but afterwards he 
 joined the latter, and was despatched by them to the courts of England 
 aud France to explain their intentions. He died on the 5th of July, 
 1566. He wa3 iu all likelihood the author of the work on Scots law, 
 which is cited in Balfour's ' Practicks ' by the quaint title of ' Lib. 
 Carneg.,' or ' Carnegie's Book.' 
 
 CARNOT, LAZARE NICHOLAS MARGUERITE, was born of 
 respectable ancestry at Nolay, in Burgundy, on the 13th of May 1753. 
 He entered the army in the corps of engineers in 1771, and at the 
 time the revolution began was known as a respectable aud well- 
 informed officer, who had gained the prize of the Academy of Dijou 
 for an dloge of Vauban, and had refused large offers to enter the 
 service of Frederick of Prussia. In 1791 he was elected to represent 
 the Pas de Calais in the legislative assembly, and became a member of 
 the military committee. He was one of those who voted the death of 
 the ex king. In 1793 he became a member of the committee of public 
 safety. His name does not directly appear as an advocate of, or an 
 agent in, any of the excesses of the violent republicans ; but he stood 
 high in place during those times of fury. So far as his acts are evi- 
 dence, his attention was entirely directed to the affairs of his profession ; 
 he was in truth the war-minister of the committee. The most glorious 
 period (in a military sense) of the republic was that iu which he 
 directed the raising of all the materiel of the army, and it was after- 
 wards said of him that he had " organise 1 la victoire." Iu 1793 he 
 joined the army of the north with other deputies; the inefficiency of 
 another general called him into action, and he was mainly instrumental 
 in gaining the victory of Watignies. In 1795 he was elected for four- 
 teen different places, but was shortly afterwards proscribed, and sought 
 refuge in Germany. He was recalled by the First Consul, and was 
 made minister of war. This post he lost when he voted against the 
 consulate for life, and at the same time all the other military situa- 
 tions which he held. But after the Russian campaign, when France 
 was on the eve of invasion, he offered his services to Napoleon, aud 
 received the command of Antwerp, which he held until the abdication 
 of 1814. When Napoleon returned from Elba, he wished to return 
 to Antwerp, but the emperor is said to have told him that a machine 
 would answer the purpose there : he was again appointed minister of 
 war. After the restoration he retired first to Warsaw, and then to 
 Magdeburg, where he died on the 2nd of August, 1823. He was 
 twice a member of the Institute, and twice expelled ; the first time 
 by the Directory, and afterwai-ds on the restoration of 1814. 
 
 He published iu 17S6 an 'Essai sur les Machines en general,' and iu 
 1808 his work 'De la Defense des Places Fortes.' The latter is a 
 remonstrance to the officers of the army upon the disposition which 
 existed to consider a place untenable after the enemy had gained the 
 glacis. He endeavours to show that the most serious part of an 
 officer's duty only begins when the body of the place ia attacked, and 
 brings a large number of illustrations from ancient and modern 
 
CARPENTER, DR. LANT. 
 
 CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN, M.D. 
 
 00 
 
 warfare. He also explains the system of defence which goes by his 
 Dame, namely, that of covering the guns from the enemy, and using 
 them for vertical firing only, until the attack upon the body of the 
 place begins. 
 
 The mathematical works of Carnot are remarkable for the elegance 
 of I lis geometry and the clearness of his mode of expression. In his 
 'Re'tlexions sur la Mctaphysique du Calcul Infinitesimal,' he enters upon 
 the consideration of the system of Leibnitz; and the main point of 
 his theory is, that there is a compensation between the infinitesimals 
 of inferior orders which are rejected on both sides of an equation. In 
 bis ' Geome'trie de Position' (Paris, 1S03), his object is to explain 
 the meaning of the negative sign in geometry, but at the same time 
 he gives a large number of new and very general theorems. Here he 
 is the inventor of that class of general theorems which have since been 
 pushed to a great extent by Messrs. Poncelet, Dandelin, Quetelet, 
 Chasles, &c. There is also his memoir upon the relation of five points 
 taken in space, followed by his theory of transversals, Paris, 1806. 
 The essay on machines in general was enlarged and republished in 
 1 S 03, under the title ' Principes fondamentaux d'Equilibre et du 
 Mouvement.' He published also some political tracts, and in particu- 
 lar, a justification of his public conduct iu 1815. 
 
 The fullest and best account of Carnot yet published is Arago's 
 ' Notice Biographique,' read before the Acade"mie des Sciences, August 
 21, 1S37, and published in the first volume of his (Euvres, pp. 511- 
 6 3 ; but it will be well to bear in mind that although M. Arago says 
 '• it is a biography, not a panegyric," it is iu fact an eloge, and as such 
 it must be read. 
 
 CARPENTER, PR. LANT, was born September 2, 1780, at Kidder- 
 minster, and was descended both on the father's and mother's side 
 fiom old non-conformist families in that town. In consequence of his 
 father's failure in business, he was at an early age adopted by a Mr. 
 Pearsall, a relation of his mother, a man of piety and benevolence. 
 Being designed for the ministry, he was sent in 1797 to the dissenters' 
 academy at Northampton. But about a year after Lant Carpenter 
 entered it, the establishment was for a time broken up, the trustees 
 being dissatisfied with its condition, and especially with the real or 
 supposed heterodoxy of the students. Lant Carpenter's friends were 
 probably for the most part Aiians : his own views appear to have 
 been still more remote from the standard of reputed orthodoxy. The 
 students had however their exhibitions continued to them for the full 
 term, and Lant Carpenter finished his academical career at Glasgow. 
 
 On leaving college he was engaged for a time as assistant in the 
 school of the late Rev. J. Corrie at Birmingham, and was afterwards 
 one of the librarians of the Athenaeum at Liverpool, where he 
 became acquainted with Mr. Roscoe, Dr. Currie, and other literary 
 men. While here, he received overtures from several congregations 
 to become their minister, and was offered a tutorship in Manchester 
 College, York, the principal academical institution of the Unitarians. 
 He declined these, but accepted an invitation to succeed the Rev. T. 
 Kenrick as one of the ministers of the Unitarian congregation at 
 Exeter, to which place he removed in 1805. About this time he 
 married. He remained at Exeter twelve yeare, fulfilling the duties of 
 his office with exemplary diligence, and especially devoting himself to 
 the instruction of the young people of the congregation. He had also 
 a 6mall boarding-school. In 1S0G he applied for the degree of M.A. 
 to the university of Glasgow, and the senate sent him instead the 
 degree of LL.D. In the course of the same year he proposed the 
 establishment of a public library at Exeter, took the lead in carrying 
 the proposal into effect, and managed the institution for the first year. 
 He also aided in the establishment of a Lancasterian school and of a 
 savings bank iu the town, and incited his congregation to establish a 
 Sunday-school. He occasionally took part in public affairs when 
 (ju> -tions of religious liberty were concerned. 
 
 In 1817 he removed to Bristol, as one of the ministers of the Unita- 
 lian coiigre.-ation there. Here his laboui'3 in the discharge of his 
 ministerial duties were continued; and his own school was much 
 enlarged. He also interest-d himself iu objects of general utility, and 
 took an active part in organising the Bristol Literary and Philosophical 
 Institution. His health failing, he in 1826 resigned his pastorship at 
 Bris'ol and spent some time in travelling in England and on the 
 continent ; by which his health and spirits were gradually restored. 
 At the fceginuing of 1829 he resumed, by invitation, his ministry at 
 Bristol ; but his school, which had been for a time carried on for him, 
 was given up. Iu 1839 his health, which had been for some time 
 declining, once more gave way, and iu June a painful depression of 
 health and spirits came on. He was again recommended to travel, and 
 while going in a steam-boat from Naples to Leghorn, fell overboard 
 unpeiceived and was drowned, in the night of the 5th of April 1840. 
 His body was afterwards found on the coast of the Papal territory near 
 Porto d'Anzo, the ancient Autium, and was interred on the sea-shore. 
 
 Dr. Carpenter was an industrious and useful writer. His publica- 
 tions, including those which were posthumous, amounted to forty-four. 
 Many of these were polemical or other sermons or pamphlets which 
 do not require notice here. The following are his more important 
 works : — ' An Introduction to the Geography of the New Testament,' 
 12rno, 1805: this work has gone through several editions. ' Unita- 
 lianism the Doctrine of the Gospel,' 12mo, 1809. 'An Examination 
 of the Charges made against Unitarianism, &c. by Dr. Magee, in hw 
 
 BIO. div. vor., IL 
 
 Discourses on Atonement,' &c, 8vo, 1820. 'Principles of Education, 
 Intellectual, Moral, and Physical,' 8vo, 1820 : this work is a reprint of 
 articles which he had contributed to Rees'a 'Cyclopaedia.' 'A Harmony 
 or Synoptical Arrangement of the Gospels,' 8vo, 1835, of which a 
 second edition, under the title of 'An Apostolical Harmony of the 
 Gosp els,' was published iu 1838. It is probably on this valuable work 
 that Dr. Carpenter's reputation as a divine and an author will ulti- 
 mately rest. ' Sermons on Practical Subjects,' 8vo, 1840 : this 
 posthumous volume was edited by his son, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, the 
 subject of the following article. An interesting memoir of Dr. Carpen- 
 ter, by his second son, the Rev. Russell Lant Carpenter of Bridgewater, 
 forms a companion volume to the Sermons, and has furnished the 
 materials of the present article. ' Lectures on the Scripture Doctrine 
 of Atonement,' 12mo, 1843; also posthumous, edited by his third son, 
 the Rev. P. P. Carpenter of Stand near Manchester. Besides his 
 separate publications he contributed the chapters on Grammar, 
 Mental and Moral Philosophy, and Ancient Geography, to a work 
 called 'Systematic Education,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1815; the articles on 
 Grammar, and Mental and Moral Philosophy, to Nicholson's ' Cyclo- 
 paedia;' and several papers to Aikin's 'Annual Review,' and to Rees's 
 ' Cyclopaedia.' He was also a frequent contributor to the periodicals 
 of his own religious denomination. 
 
 * CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN, M.D., one of the most 
 distinguished physiologists and writers on the science of physiology of 
 the present day. He is the son of the late Dr. Lant Carpenter, and 
 waa born in the year 1813. He commenced a course of study pre- 
 paratory to entering upon the career of a civil engineer. His tastes 
 however led him ultimately to enter the medical profession, and he 
 joined the medical classes of University College about 1833, where as a 
 student he was distinguished for his accurate knowledge, and especially 
 for the elegance of his written compositions. He passed his examination 
 at the Royal College of Surgeons and Apothecaries Society in 1835. He 
 subsequently pursued his studies in the University of Edinburgh, where 
 his capacity for original thought and dealing with the most profound 
 physiological discussions became apparent. .One of his earliest papers 
 on the subject of physiology was published in the 'Edinburgh Medical 
 and Surgical Journal ' (No. 132), with the title ' On the Voluntary and 
 Instinctive Actions of Living Beings.' In this paper may be dis- 
 covered the germs of those views which he has since so fully 
 developed in his various works on physiology. He graduated at Edin- 
 burgh in the year 1839, but not until he had published the three 
 following papers:—!. 'On the Unity of Function in Organised Beings' 
 (' Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal ') ; 2. ' On the Differences of 
 the Laws regulating Vital and Physical Phenomena' (Ibid.) ; 3. ' Dis- 
 sertation on the Physiological Inferences to be deduced from the 
 Structure of the Nervous System in the Invertebrate Class of Ani- 
 mals.' This last paper was published in Edinburgh in 1838, and 
 translated in Midler's ' Archiv.' for 1840. In these papers he laid the 
 foundations of those principles which he afterwards developed more 
 fully in an independent work entitled ' Principles of General and 
 Comparative Physiology, intended as an Introduction to the study of 
 Human Physiology, and as a guide to the philosophical pursuit of 
 Natural History,' 8vo, London, 1839. This work was one of the first 
 in our language to give a general view of the science of life, and to 
 point out the relation of physical laws to vital phenomena. That 
 there should be errors iu detail could only be expected. It was a 
 most remarkable production for so youug a man, and at once fixed on 
 him the attention of physiologists as one of the most promising culti- 
 vators of their science. A second edition appeared in 1841. 
 
 He now settled in Bristol with the view of practising his profession, 
 and was appointed lecturer on medical jurisprudence in the medical 
 school of that city. The practice of his profession however was less 
 in accordance with his tastes than the study of the literature of the 
 science by which alone it eau be advanced. With an almost unri- 
 valled facility of acquiring and communicating knowledge, it is not to 
 be wondered at that he found it more agreeable to supply the neces- 
 sities of a family by writing books on science than by submitting to 
 the drudgery demanded of those who would succeed in medical 
 practice. In 1843 and subsequent years he wrote the 'Popular 
 Cyclopaedia of Science,' embracing the subjects of mechanics, vege- 
 table physiology and botany, animal physiology, and zoology. These 
 works were professedly only compilations, but they contain many of 
 the author's original views, and are written in an agreeable style. 
 
 Soon after the publication of these volumes, Dr. Carpenter employed 
 himself in the production of a volume on the ' Principles of Human 
 Physiology,' which was published in London iu IS 16. This work, 
 which perhaps at first hardly did justice to the author's reputation, 
 reached a fourth edition in 1853; of this edition, it may be truly said 
 to be altogether the best work on the subject extant. If the author 
 has not repeated the experiments of other observers, he has the great 
 merit of appreciating correctly the labours of others; and in those 
 departments of physiology which are beyond the region of experi- 
 ment, and demand the more subtle analysis of a logical mind, such as 
 the functions of the nervous system, the science of physiology has no 
 more accomplished exponent. 
 
 Whilst the ' Human Physiology ' was passing through its several 
 editions, the 'Principles of Comparative and General Physiology' 
 reached a third edition, thus forming a companion volume. It has 
 
 u 
 
02 
 
 however been thought advisable to separate the General from the 
 Comparative Physiology, and iu 1854 a volume entitled the 'Princi- 
 ples of Comparative 1'hysiology ' was published. This is to be 
 followed by the ' Principles of General Physiology,' in one volume. 
 The two works will therefore be thenceforth published as three inde- 
 pendent volumes, comprising the whole range of biological science. 
 
 Thcso works are a cyelop;cdia in themselves, and indicate not only 
 a large amount of labour in their production, but a vast extent of 
 careful reading and research. Such works might well have occupied 
 a lifetime. But these are only a portion of Dr. Carpenter's labours ; 
 for he has been a constant contributor to the ' Cyclopaedia of Auatomy 
 and Physiology,' where some of the most important articles— as tho.se 
 on 'Life,' 'Microscope,' 'Nutrition,' 'Secretion,' 'Sleep,' 'Smell,' 
 'Taste,' 'Touch,' and 'Varieties of Mankind ' — are from his pen. Such 
 a writer must bo a critic; aud as a critic Dr. Carpenter has exposed 
 himself to the enmity of men less gifted than himsi If, and he has been 
 charged as a plagiarist, and a mere compiler. This however is not 
 true. If Dr. Carpenter had done nothing inoro than publish his 
 papers on tho 'Structure of Shell*/ and the 'Correlation of Vital and 
 Physical Forces,' he would have stood high as a man of science. In 
 an answer to this charge, in the preface to the third edition of his 
 'General and Comparative Physiology,' he claims the following facts 
 aud doctrines as his own : — 
 
 1. The mutual connection of the vital forces and their relation to 
 the physical. This doctrine is fully developed iu a paper on the 
 'Mutual Relations of the Vital and Physical Forces,' iu the ' Philo- 
 sophical Transactions ' for ] 850. 
 
 2. The general doctrine that the truly vital operations of the 
 animal as well as the vegetable organism are performed by the agency 
 of uutrausformed cells, which was first developed in an ' Es-ay on the 
 Origin and Functions of Cells,' published iu the ' British and Foreign 
 Medical Review' for 1843. 
 
 3. The organic structure of the shells of Mollusca, Ei.hinodcrmala, 
 and Crustacea, of which a full account is contained in the ' Reports 
 of the British Association ' for 1844 and 1847. 
 
 4. The application of Von Bar's law of development from the general 
 to the special, to the interpretation of the succession of organic forms 
 presented iu geological time. 
 
 5. The relation between the two methods of reproduction, that by 
 gemination aud that by sexual union, with the application of this 
 doctrine to the phenomena of the so-called ' alternations of generations' 
 tii st developed iu the 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review' 
 for 1S48 and 1849. 
 
 6. The relation between the different methods of sexual reproduction 
 iu plants, first developed in the 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical 
 Review' for 1849. 
 
 7. The application of the doctrine of reflex action to the nervous 
 system of Invertebrata, especially articulated animals, first developed 
 in the author's prize thesis published in 1839. 
 
 8. The functional relations of the seusory ganglia to the spinal cord 
 on the one hand, aud to the cerebral hemispheres on the other. 
 
 In addition to the works above mentioned, Dr. Carpenter has 
 published a 'Manual of Humau Physiology' for the use of students, 
 which has gone through several editions. His last work, which has 
 just issued (1S5G) from the press, is ' On the Microscope; its Reve- 
 lations and its Uses.' It displays the same industry, accuracy, aud 
 impartiality as his other writings; and undoubtedly deserves a high 
 position amongst works devoted to an account of the structure aud 
 uses of this iustrument. Reference has been made to Dr. Carpenter's 
 researches in the structure of shells. This has led him to investigate 
 the family of small creatures known by the name of Foraminifera. 
 He has already published several papers on the fossil forms of this 
 family, and is preparing a work on the structure, functions, and general 
 history of this group of animals, for publication by the Ray Society. 
 
 Dr. Carpenter for many years edited the ' British and Foreign Medico- 
 Chirurgical Review ;' but whilst thus occupied with writing he has also 
 performed the duties of lecturer. He was professor of medical jurispru- 
 dence in University College, London; lecturer on general anatomy and 
 physiology at the London Hospital School of Medicine; and an ex- 
 aminer in physiology and comparative anatomy in the University of 
 London, but resigned those offices for the registrarship of the Univer- 
 sity of London. In 1819 Dr. Carpenter gained a prize of 100 guineas 
 offered for the be : t essay on the subject of ' Alcoholic Liquors.' His 
 essay was published iu 1850 under the title of the ' Use and Abuse of 
 Alcoholic Liquors,' and acquired great popularity, especially among 
 those who adopt the principle of total abstinence from intoxicating 
 drinks. It has been since more than once reprinted. 
 
 CARPI, UGO DA, a celebrated old Italian wood-engraver.'who lived 
 in the early part of the lb'th century, and has the credit in Italy of 
 having been the inventor of printing in light aud shade with wooden 
 blocks. Scarcely a circumstance of his life is known beyond the above, 
 and that his father was Count Astolfo di Canicho ; though it has been 
 stated that he was born about 1486, and died about 1530 : Passavant 
 places his birth about 1450, and Gualaudi says he died July 20, 
 1523: yet some plates in the 'Opera di Ludovico Vicentino ' bear 
 the inscription " Intag. par Ugo da Carpi, 1532." He lived chiefly 
 at Modena. He was also a painter, and some authorities make 
 him the scholar of Parmegiano, others the scholar of Halfaelle. In 
 
 painting however he did very little ; only one of his pictures is recorded, 
 ' St. Veronica between St. Peter and St. Paul,' aud that for the following 
 singular inscription upon it : — ' Ugo da Carpi ha fatto questa pittura 
 senza pennello ; chi non lo crede si becca il cervello ' (' Ugo da Carpi 
 painted this picture without a brush ; who does not believe it may 
 scratch his head '). He painted it with his fiDger. It is still preserved 
 in the sacristy of St. Peter's at Home, and when it was shown to Michel 
 Angelo he coolly remarked, " It would have been a much better picture 
 if he had used a brush." 
 
 Heineken and Bartsch describe thirty-one of Ugo's prints, but only 
 some of these have hi* name to them. It is difficult therefore to 
 identify his cuts, because Andreani and Antonio da Trento engraved 
 in a similar style, and also published many prints without their names. 
 Ugo's prints are very scarce, and nearly all after Raffaelle aud Parme- 
 giano : some of them are very large. They are generally wll drawn, 
 aud executed with perfect understanding of the light and shade : the 
 earliest date upon them is 1518. Vasari, in the 'Life of Marcantonio,' 
 mentions as among his masterpieces ' Diogenes anil bis Tub,' after 
 Parmegiano ; and ' ./Eneas bearing aw.iy Aucbises,' after Raflaelle. He 
 used generally three blocks : one for the outliue, another for tho 
 middle tints, in which the high lights were cut out, and the third fur 
 the shadows. 
 
 CAHPI'NI, JOHANNES DE PLANO. Early biographers and 
 historians are so silent with regard to this remarkable monk of the 
 13th century, that we can neither discover the time nor the place of 
 his birth. Indeed little is known of him except through his own 
 account of his travels, and this account was probably not all written 
 by himself. The probabilities are that he was born at a village in the 
 pioviuce of Capitauata, in the kingdom of Naples (Piano di Carpino), 
 about 1210. He became a friar of the order of St. Francis, or of the 
 Minorites — an order which was then recently established, and which 
 was distinguished in its earlier stages by the zealous, enterprising, and 
 fearless spirit of its members. In 1246, when Europe was thrown into 
 consternation by the irruptions of the Mongols, who had ravaged 
 Russia, Poland, Hungary, and other countries, Pope Innocent IV., 
 after holding a grand council of the church at Lyon (1245), resolved 
 to sen I legates to these formidable conquerors, in order to pacify 
 them, and if possible to convert them to the Christian faith. For this 
 purpose six monks or friars were selected from the new aud severe 
 orders, namely, two from the Franciscan order and four from the 
 Dominican order. Johannes de Piano Carpini (as his name is Latinised) 
 appears to have been the first chosen by the pope, on account of his 
 abilities and courage ; and his companion, a monk of his own order, 
 was one Benedict, a Pole, whose knowledge of some of the north-eastern 
 countries of Europe was very useful. These two friars were instructed 
 to take their route through Bohemia, Poland, and Russia, and then 
 by the north of the Caspiau Sea. The other four friars, Asceline and 
 Alexander, Albei t and Simon de St. Quintin, were ordered to proceed 
 through Syria, Persia, and Khorassan by the south of the Caspian 
 Sea. The most fearful acouuts prevailed of the ferocity and indomit- 
 able courage of these Asiatic invaders. A letter had been recently 
 circulated, written by oue Yvo of Narbona, or Narbouue, to the Arch- 
 bishop of Bordeaux, containing the confession of an Englishman (who 
 had lived among them), touching the barbarous demeanour of these 
 Tartars, The Englishman, according to his confession, or according' 
 to this letter, had been perpetually banished out of the realm of England 
 for certain notorious crimes, and had betaken himself to the Holy Laud. 
 Not long after his banishment, being at Aeon (Acre, or St. Jean, 
 d'Acre), and thirty years old, he there lost all his mouey at dice.' 
 Then, haviug nothing but a shirt of sackcloth, a pair of shoes, aud a j 
 hair-cap, and being shaven like a fool, he set out on his travels through 
 Syria aud Asia Minor ; and, to prosper the better, he feigned idiotcy 
 and dumbness, for idiots have been at all times objects of superstitious; 
 reverence with the Turk.?; aud the pretence of being dumb aided iu 
 concealing the fact that he was a Giaour, or Christian. After long 
 wandering he fell among the Mongol Tartars, learned their language, 
 and went with them when they began to march upon Europe. The 
 horde which he followed was defeated and driven back by a mighty 
 army collected by the Duke of Austria, the Duke of Bohemia, the 
 patriarch of Aquileia, aud others, including the Prince of Dalmatia, 
 who took eight prisoners, aud among them this strange Englishman. 
 The letter describes our countryman as being " somewhat learned," 
 and as having been employed as interpreter and ambassador by the 
 Tartars in their communications with the Christian princes. The 
 account this man gave to his captors was flimsy and very short, and 
 full of horror and exaggeration. Matthew Paris records this famous 
 letter under the date of the year 1243. 
 
 But the intrepid monks of the two new orders were not deterred 
 by any prospect of danger. "Aud although," says the introductory 
 epistle to the travels of Carpini and his comrade friar Benedict, " we 
 personally dreaded from these Tartars and other nations that we 
 might be siaiu or reduced to perpetual slavery, or should suffer 
 hunger and thirst, the extremes of heat and cold, reproach, and 
 excessive fatigue beyond our strength (all of which, except death and 
 captivity, we have endured, even beyond our first fears) ; yet did we 
 not spare ourselves, in order that we might obey the will of God, 
 according to the orders of our lord the pope, and that we might be 
 useful iu some things to the Christians, or at least, that the will and 
 
n 
 
 CARPINI, JOHANNES DE PLANO. 
 
 CARRARA, DA. 
 
 M 
 
 inteution of these people might be assuredly known and made manifest 
 to Christendom, lest suddenly invading us, they should find us unpre- 
 pared, and so make incredible slaughter of the Christian people." In 
 Poland and Russia, and wherever the widely-spread Slavonian language 
 was spoken, Friar Benedict the Pole served the Italian as interpreter. 
 The two monks ran great danger of being murdered by the people of 
 Lithuania, who appear to have been at this time many degrees less 
 civilised than the Mongols. In Russia they were upon the whole 
 hospitably and kiudly entertained. As the Russiaus adhered to the 
 Greek or Eastern church, Carpini in a public meeting exhorted the 
 grand duke and his bishops to abandon their heresy, and boldly read 
 to them the letters of Pope Innocent, wherein they were admonished 
 to return iuto the unity of the Roman Catholic church. Although 
 our Franciscan effected no conversion, he raised no animosity by this 
 boldness. He and his companion Benedict received good advice as 
 to the best means of dealing with the Tartars, and were sent forward 
 to Kiow, then the chief city of Russia, and not very far from the 
 uncertain moveable frontier of the Mongols. At Kiow they hired an 
 interpreter ; but they afterwards found reason to lament that this 
 roan was unequal to the duties he had undertaken to perform. The 
 Mougols at this time occupied all the country between China, Siberia, 
 and the Caspian Sea, the vau of this nomadic pastoral army being ou 
 the river Dnieper, and its rear under the great wall of China. The 
 subordinate khans or chiefs passed the two monks onward from post 
 to post until they came to the head-quarters of the great Baatu. 
 These posts were far apart. The country whrre Baatu had his camp 
 (called by the travellers Comania) was far beyond the Caspian Sea. 
 But their toils were not yet over : Baatu ordered them to proceed to 
 the court of his sovereign, the Khan of khans aud Emperor of all 
 men. They then entered a country called by them ' the country of 
 the pagan Naymani,' where they travelled for many clays, till they 
 came to the proper lands of the Mongols. Through this latter country 
 they journeyed fur about three weeks, continually riding with great 
 erpeditiou. "In the whole of this journey," say the monks, "we 
 used extraordinary exertion, as our Tartar guides were commanded 
 to bring us on with all expedition: on which account we always 
 travelled from early morning till night, without stopping to take food; 
 and we often came to our quarters so late, as not to get any food that 
 night, but were forced to eat iu the morning what we ought to have 
 had for supper. We changed horses frequently every day, and travelled 
 constantly as hard as our horses could go.'' It is not easy to name 
 the places or even to trace the route which they followed; but they 
 appear to have passed by the head of the Baikal Lake, and to have 
 traversed great part of the country vaguely denominated Chinese 
 Tartary, going in the direction of the ' Everlasting Wall,' or the great 
 wall of China. In all the vast regions occupied by the Mongols and 
 their flocks and herds there was not one fixed town, there was scarcely 
 a house: for the people of all degrees, and even their khans and the 
 very emperor himself, lived constantly in tents, and moved from place 
 to place as pasturage, or war, or other business required. Wherever 
 the great chiefs were, the assemblage of tents and the camp had a 
 name, which the monks set down ; but iu all probability, within a 
 short time after their passage, these tents were all struck and removed 
 to a distant quarter, aud the populous spot was left a solitude in the 
 vast surrounding wilderness. They must have found the Emperor or 
 Great Khan somewhere to the north of the sandy desert which spreads 
 itself between the Great Yv'all and Tartar}', as there is no mention 
 made of their travelling ou camels, or of their entering upon that 
 desert. Here they do not attempt to name the place, merely calling 
 it the Court of the Emperor. This great potentate, whom they call 
 Kujak or Cuyue Khan, had many spacious tents, one being so vast 
 that it could have contained 2000 meu. Princes and great lords from 
 China, a duke from Russia, two sons of the King of Georgia, and an 
 envoy of the Kalif of Baghdad, were waiting submissively upon the 
 Mongol conqueror. In these circumstances, scarcely intelligible letters 
 and an admonitory message from the pope delivered by two poor bare- 
 legged friar3 were not likely to make much impression upon the gnat 
 shepherd-warrior. While the friars, staye 1 about the gilded tent, a 
 warlike ceremony was perform* d, which they interpreted into a 
 defiance against the Church of Rome, the Roman empire, aud all the 
 ChrUtian kingdoms and nations of the West; aud they were other- 
 wise informed that it was the inteution of these Mongols to subdue 
 nil the kingdoms of the earth, as Zinghis (Genghis) Khan had com- 
 manded them to do. The Lord of the World however admitted them 
 to an audience, received from them the letters of the pope, aud gave 
 them in return letters for his Holiness written in the Mongol language 
 and also in Arabic. The monks complain that during their stay there, 
 Which continued a whole month, they were in such extreme distress 
 for victuals and drink that they could hardly keep themselves alive ; 
 adding that they must verily have perished at last if God had not sent 
 to their aid a Russian goldsmith, who was in favour with the emperor, 
 and who procured them some food. At last, on the feast of St. Brice. 
 (the 13th of November 1247), they received permission to depart from 
 this inhospitable court. They returned by the same route, travelling 
 the whole winter through the desert, aud often sleeping at night on 
 the suow. On the 9th of June 1218 they reached Kiow, where their 
 Russian friends joyfully received them. In all they had past sixteen 
 months entirely among the Mongols and the people that had been 
 
 conquered by them. Pope Innocent had enjoined them to be diligent 
 and accurate in their observations, and faithful in reporting what 
 they saw and heard of these strange people who had made all Europe 
 tremble. The friars acted up to these instruction^ and, allowance 
 being made for the state of geography aud other sciences, and for the 
 condition and superstitious of the time, the account which Carpini or 
 his friends gave to the world was an admirable little book of travels, 
 the accuracy of which has been confirmed by John Bell of Anter- 
 mouy [Bell, John], and other and later travellers through the vast 
 regions which intervene between European Russia and China. Carpini 
 was the first to uproot a sot of monstrous fable3, and to give a true 
 and striking picture of the peculiar civilisation of the Tartars. But 
 at the same time he revealed their number, warlike strength, and 
 close political union ; and warned the disunited and distracted king- 
 doms of Christendom that if these hordes moved westward they 
 would be found irresistible, unless a league of Christian princes were 
 previously formed for the single purpose of opposing them. The 
 chapter entitled 'How the Tartars are to be resisted,' is full of good 
 sense. 
 
 It appears that Friar John returned to Italy, and that thpre, with 
 some assistants, he published his plain unvarnished account of his 
 travels in a ' Libellus,' or small book, in Latin. Of this book or manu- 
 script (of which no doubt there wero once many copies) we have 
 never been able to obtain a eight. It seems to be known solely 
 through the 'Speculum Historiale' of Vincentius Belvaeeusis, where it 
 is inserted at full length, together with some information about their 
 journey, which the author or editor, Viucentius, says he received from 
 Simon de St. Quintin, one of the four friars who had gone by tho 
 south of the Caspian, and whose information was very meagre com- 
 pared with that of Carpini. From the. ' Speculum Historiale' Ramusio 
 transferred all this matter, together with an Italian translation to 
 follow the Latin text, into the second volume of his 'Raccolta di 
 Navigazioni e Viaggi,' which was printed by Giunti at Venice, in the 
 year 1556. From this admirable work of Ramusio, our own good 
 compiler, Richard Hakluyt, copied the matter into the first volume of 
 his ' Navigations aud Discoveries,' which was published in London 
 towards the close of Queen Elizabeth's reign, in the year 1599. 
 Hakluyt, who of course only transfers the Latin text, gives a good 
 sterling translation of his own ; but he omits several passages which 
 are given by Ramusio. From I'amusio or from Hakluyt all modern and 
 indeed all existing accounts of Carpini and Friar Benedict have been 
 drawn. Bergeron gave an abridgment of the matter iu his ' Voyages 
 faits priucipalement en Asie dans les 12 c , 13 c , 14<? et 15 e sickles, par 
 Benjamin de Tudele, Carpin, Rubruquis, &c.,' la Haye, 1729-55. A 
 somewhat modernised translation of the Latin text of Hakluyt is 
 given in R. Kerr's ' History and Collections of Voyages aud Travels,' 
 Edinburgh, 1824. 
 
 CARli, JOHN, a noted English architect iu the latter half of the 
 18th century, was bom in 1721, at Horbury, near Wakefield, York- 
 shire, at which place he afterwards built a church that was founded 
 by himself. His practice was very considerable in Yorkshire and the 
 adjoining counties, where he erected several stately mansions, and 
 other buildings both public and private. He was twice lord mayor of 
 York, in 1770 and 1785 ; and realised a handsome fortune, being said 
 to have been at the time of bis death worth not less than 150,000/. 
 He died at his residence, Askam Hall, Yorkshire, February 22, 1807, 
 aged eighty-six. Carr belonged to the Anglo-Palladian school, aud if 
 he rarely displayed much fancy, he never fell into frippery, like Adam, 
 nor did he, like Wyatt, mistake nakedness and tenuity for simplicity. 
 Among his principal works are the Town Hall at Newark, Notts. ; the 
 Crescent at Buxton ; the Bridge at Boroughbridge ; Harewood House, 
 Yorkshire, one of his best mansions ; Tabley House, aud the splendid 
 Mausoleum of the Marquis of Rockingham at Wentworth. This 
 mausoleum is shown in plate 61 of Stieglitz's 'Belle Architecture.' 
 There is a good portrait of Carr iu the second volume of Dance's 
 ' Collection of Portraits,' which work also contains the portraits of 
 several other architects of the same period. 
 
 CARllA'RA, DA, the name of an historical family of Italy, which 
 held sovereign sway over Padua and the neighbouring provinces 
 during the middle ages. Like most of the north Italian nobility of 
 that period the Carrara appear to have been of Longobard origin. 
 One of their ancestors, by name Luitolf, is recorded as the founder of 
 the abbey of Carrara, in the territory of Padua, about 1027, and as 
 having built a castle in the neighbourhood, which had feudal jurisdic- 
 tion granted to the owner by the emperor of Germany. Several of 
 Luitolf's descendants filled municipal offices in the community of 
 Padua. Marailio da Carrara was put to death by Eccelino, tyrant of 
 Padua. After the death of Eccelino, in 1259, Padua was restored to 
 its municipal independence as an important member of the Guelf 
 league, aud as such found itself at variance with the Delia Scala, lords 
 of Verona, who were Ghibelines. Jaoopo da Carrara commanded the 
 troop3 of Padua against Can della Scala in the early part of the 14th 
 century. The citizens of Padua, being distracted by factions, elected 
 Jacopo for their lord in 1318. Jacopo died in 1324, aud was succeeded 
 by his nephew Marsilio, who, being hard-pressed by the Delia Scala of 
 Verona, was assisted by the republic of Venice in repelling them. Ho 
 died in 1388, and was succeeded by bis nephew Ubertino, who, dying 
 iu 1315, was succeeded by Mar.-ilietto his relative, who belonged to a 
 
CARREL, ARMAND NICOLAS. 
 
 CARSTARES, WILLIAM. 
 
 03 
 
 distant branch surnamed Carrara Pappafava. After two months Mar- 
 silietto was stabbed by Jacopo II., nephew of the first Jacopo. This 
 Jacopo II. was himself murdered by a relative in 1350, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Jacopino, jointly with Francesco his nephew, 
 bou of Jacopo II. Francesco da Carrara being at the head of the 
 troops, arrested his uncle in 1355, and confined him in a fortress. He 
 then remained sole lord of Padua. His reign was eventful. He was 
 at the head of the Lombard or Guelf league against the Visconti of 
 Milan. He afterwards entered into a war against Venice, but wa3 
 obliged to conclude a humiliating peace, and to send his son to Venice 
 to make apology. In 1378 he joined the Genoese in their attack 
 against Venice, by which the republic was brought to the brink of 
 ruin, a consummation which Francesco was determined to effect, but 
 which was prevented by the patriotism of the citizens of Venice, and 
 by the timely arrival of Carlo Zeno with his squadron. In 1381 peace 
 was made. A fresh quarrel of Francesco with Antonio della Scala of 
 Verona, led to an alliance of France-co with Giau Galeazzo Visconti, 
 who, after taking Verona, turned round against his ally, took Padua 
 and Treviso, arrested Francesco in 1388, and kept him prisoner till his 
 death at Monza in 1393. Francesco da Carrara was intimate with 
 Petrarch, who speaks of him in his works. 
 
 Francesco II., called Novello, after his father's imprisonment 
 wandered as an emigrant about Italy and France, begging for assist- 
 ance to recover his father's territories, and at last he re-entered Padua 
 in 1390. Having made peace with Visconti, he repaired to Venice, 
 where, in presence of the senate, he expressed his gratitude for the 
 assistance which he had received from the republic during his struggle 
 against Visconti, swore perpetual friendship to Venice, and had his 
 name inscribed in the golden book in the roll of the patricians. He 
 however broke his word, and lost thereby his territory, and was taken 
 prisoner to Venice, where he was strangled with two of his sous, in 
 the dungeons of the ducal palace, in 1106, according to the barbarous 
 practice of the Venetiau senate in those times. Venice took possession 
 of Padua, Treviso, and the other territories of the Carrara. Many 
 years after, the last remaining son of Francesco, named Marsilio, having 
 formed a conspiracy to recover possession of Padua, was seized and 
 put to death in 1435. 
 
 (Litta, Famiylic Celcbri Italiane } Sandi, Storia Civile di Venezia ; 
 Vergerio, Vilce Carrariensium Principum ad arm. 1355 ; Verci, Gian- 
 battista, Notizic Slorico-genealogiche de' Signori da Carrara ; Ticozzi, 
 Viaggi de Messer Francesco Novello da Carrara, Signor di Padova e di 
 Taddca d'Este sua Consortc, Milan, 1823. Thi3 last is a kind of 
 historical novel of the wanderings of Francesco II., after his father's 
 imprisonment.) 
 
 CARREL, ARMAND NICOLAS, was born at Rouen, on the 8th 
 of August 1800. He was the son of a draper in good circumstances 
 in that city. At the age of seventeen he joined a regiment of cavalry, 
 and the following year entered the military school of St.-Cyr. His 
 political opinions had already taken the shape of principles, and these 
 were so liberal, and so frankly enunciated, as to draw upon him, first 
 the friendly remonstrance, and afterwards the censure of the goveruon, 
 General d'Albiguac, who was entirely devoted to the court. At the 
 close of 1819 he was made second lieutenant of the 29th regiment of 
 infantry, which was sent to the garrison of Bdfort iu 1821. The con- 
 spiracy whiih bears the name of this town, and has become historical, 
 broke out in the following January, and Carrel was one of the many 
 officers drawn within its vortex. But this time he was neither 
 molested nor discovered. 
 
 Spain beiug invaded in 1823 by the French army under the Duke 
 of Augoulome, Carrel took part with the Constitutionalists, and 
 fought under Mina. "Some time after," says his fiiend the historian 
 Rabbe, "he was one of the Frenchmen who were obliged to lay down 
 their arms and surrender after the capitulation of Lers in Catalonia; 
 but this capitulation not having been ratified by the French govern- 
 ment, he was arrested on his return to France, aud tried by three 
 successive courts-martial." After being twice sentenced to death, and 
 twice escaping through legal informalities, and suffering thirteen 
 months' imprisonment, he was tried a third time at Toulouse, and, 
 being acquitted, he returned to Paiis in 1825 almost penniless, having 
 clo.-ed against him for ever that profession of arms to which his early 
 years had been devoted. Shortly after, he was engaged by Augustin 
 Thierry, the author of the ' Conquest of England by the Normans,' 
 to act as his secretary, and he took notes and made extracts for the 
 last volume of that celebrated work. Introduced to the leading pub- 
 lishers by Thierry, he now wrote several 'Rdsumes,' or outlines of 
 history, and grew into notice among the literary celebrities of the 
 time. But his keen susceptibility could not endure even the gentle 
 curb of the kindest employer, so he resolved to try his fortune alone. 
 He left Th ierry, and supported himself for several months by con- 
 tributing to the reviews and newspapers. The boldness of his thoughts, 
 and the eloquence and originality of his style, were gradually making 
 their impression on men's minds. But his gains were small, and at 
 one time (1827) he opened a book-shop of his own, to endeavour to 
 increase his precarious income. It was in the little parlour behind 
 that shop that he wrote the book which will survive him, his ' History 
 of the Counter-Revolution in England.' 
 
 On the 1st of January 1830 the 'National' appeared, with Thiers, 
 Mignet, and Carrel as its editors. This journal took at once a most 
 
 decided course of opposition to the government of Charles X., and 
 showed an advocacy equally distinct in favour of the Duke of Orleans, 
 afterwards Louis Philippe : whence arose a suspicion, probably ground- 
 less, that the prince had furnished the capital. When the Polignac 
 ministry issued the fatal ordinances of July, Carrel stood forward and 
 wrote the first declaration of resistance iu the ' National ,' and the 
 next morning appeared the spirited protest, which was universally 
 distributed, and called the nation to arms. " Carrel did not," says 
 Louis Blanc, " mingle in the ranks of the combatants as one of the 
 fighters, but he went about to the different groups, with a black 
 switch in his hand, saying to them, ' Vous n'avez qu'un bataillou* 
 (' You have ouly one battalion')." He did not believe that a popular 
 outbreak could succeed against regular soldiers, and his two previous 
 condemnations explain his reluctance to act rashly. 
 
 His two colleagues beiug employed by the new government, from 
 that time until his deplorable death in 1836, Carrel took up a position 
 aa a journalist, Buch as no man in any country had won before. 
 During the short but powerful administration of Casimir Pcrrier in 
 1832, his spirit proved too strong for the government, and a new 
 stretch of arbitrary power was prevented. Subsequently he was pro- 
 secuted by the crown, and heavy penalties levied on his journal. He 
 was several times imprisoned. On one occasion he spoke as advocate 
 for a fellow-prisoner in the Chamber of Peers, when he startled the 
 whole country by his invocation of the memory of Marshal Ney. 
 After this his name was on every tongue, and he became the idol of 
 the popular party. 
 
 But the well-balanced mind of this writer was not made for either 
 extreme : he resisted the despotism of government; but he shrunk 
 still more from revolutionary violence. Surrounded by all the fretful 
 spirits of the day, he gauged the different parties which were forming, 
 aud found that he did not belong to them. This sad conviction 
 preyed upon his heart. " He shuddered," says a recent historian, 
 " to see himself at the head of certain men whose very obedience was 
 rude and imperative ; he distrusted their zeal, and ascribed to them 
 a longing for vengeance, and a pre determined despotism, which his 
 own moderation disclaimed." This despondency became gradually 
 habitual, and, in such a state of mind, Carrel was too easily drawn 
 into that unhappy newspaper quarrel with Emile de Girardin, the 
 editor of the ' Presse,' which led to the duel that so abruptly closed 
 his career. Mortally wounded by a pistol-shot, he expired at St.- 
 Mandd, on the 24th of July 1836, in his thirty-sixth year. Arago, 
 Beranger, Comemin, and a crowd of distinguished deputies aud 
 writers followed him to the grave. His bust, by the sculptor David, 
 marks the spot where he lies ; but as yet no competent biography of 
 this remarkable man has appiared. 
 
 (Rabbe, Universal Biography ; Louis Blanc, Ten Years ; QaUrie des 
 Cuntemporains Illustres.) 
 
 CARSTARES, WILLIAM, a Scottish ecclesiastic, distinguished for 
 his political exertions in furtherance of the Revolutiou settlement, was 
 born at Cathcart, near Glasgow, on the 11th of February 1619. His 
 father was the Rev. John Carstares, minister of the High Church, 
 Glasgow, who, like his son, but in a less degree and with less diplomatic 
 capacity, took a lively share in the ecclesiastico-political movements 
 of his time ; offered a violent opposition to Cromwell's schemes of 
 general toleration, and suffered by the prevalence of his own principles 
 of clerical coercion during the persecutions of the Covenanters under 
 Charles II. (See ' Notices of the Life of the Rev. John Carstares,' by 
 the Rev. William Ferrie.) William Carstares acquired the rudiments 
 of his education in a neighbouring village school, and afterwards 
 studied in the University of Edinburgh. He appears to have become 
 in early life not only an accomplished scholar, but an accurate observer 
 of men. During a great portion of the latter end of the reign of 
 Charles II. he lived in Holland, and studied theology at Utrecht, where 
 he is supposed to have taken orders. Accident introduced him to the 
 notice of the pensionary Fagel, who, finding in the young clergyman 
 great sagacity and self-reliance, and a knowledge of the political 
 institutions of his own country seldom equalled at his early years, 
 recommended him to his master, the Prince of Orange, afterwards 
 William III., who, anxious to have about his person individuals 
 acquainted with the politics of Britain, chose young Carstares as one of 
 his confidential advisers ; aud events justified the selection. The time 
 of his return to Britain is not precisely known. He was iu Loudon iu 
 1682, and was more or less connected with the projects on which the 
 prosecutions in connection with the Rye-house aud assassination plots 
 were founded. There is reason to presume that he was the medium 
 of communication between the court of Holland and some of the 
 parties prepared for insurrection. He wa«, at all events, in the secrets 
 of the Argyle party in Scotland, and the key to a cipher through 
 which Argyle and Monmouth corresponded was found to be in his 
 handwriting. A warrant to apprehend him was issued, and he was 
 discovered attempting to conceal himself in Kent. Sufficient evidence 
 could not be obtained to bring him to trial in England, aud he sued 
 out a writ of habeas corpus, which was defeated by sending him to 
 Scotland, where the practice of torture still remained a stain on the 
 administration of justice. In the presence of the Privy Council of 
 Scotland he was subjected to the torture of the 'thumbigen,' or thumb- 
 screw, which he bore with great fortitude, refusing to divulge the 
 secrets he possessed. He was subsequently presented by the Privy 
 
97 
 
 98 
 
 Council with one of these cruel instruments, which he bequeathed as 
 an heir loom to hia family ; and it is a traditional anecdote that 
 William III., having desired to experience the initial symptoms of this 
 species of torture, the divine turned the screw at his request, but 
 rather too vigorously for his Majesty's nerves. Carstares was ulti- 
 mately released on a sort of compromise, by which he confessed a 
 knowledge of matters which were otherwise proved in the trial of 
 Baillie of Jerviswood. He returned to Holland with all his really 
 important secrets undivulged, and was warmly received by the prince, 
 who, in devisiug the expedition which created the Revolution of 1688, 
 is said to have mainly relied on the full knowledge of British parties, 
 and the advice, both bold and sagacious, of Carstares. He was subse- 
 quently of great service in producing a reconciliation between the 
 Scottish Presbyterians and William III., who could not precisely 
 understand the pertinacity with which his northern subjects adhered 
 to the principle of spiritual independence. A General Assembly being 
 about to convene, at which it was understood that there would be a 
 violent opposition to the oath of allegiance, the king, taking advice 
 from less sagacious counsellors, had prepared and delivered to a 
 messenger despatches directing the peremptory enforcement of the 
 act. It is said that Carstares assumed authority to stop the messenger 
 in his Majesty's name ; and presenting himself to the king (who had 
 gone to bed) in the middle of the night, in the guise of a petitioner for 
 his life, forfeited by his having thu3 committed high treason, to have 
 prevailed on him to dispense with the oath. Whether the anecdote 
 be true or not in all its circumstances, there is little doubt that his 
 influence obtained the dispensation. He became now virtually prime 
 minister for Scotland ; and received the popular designation of ' Cardinal 
 Carstares.' Even after the death of William, his knowledge of Scottish 
 affairs, and the respect paid to his talents, left him with considerable 
 influence. In 1704 he was chosen Principal of the University of Edin- 
 burgh. He died on the 2Sth of December 1715. (State Papers and 
 Letters addressed to William Carstares; to which is prefixed the Life of 
 Mr. Carstares, 4to, 1774.) 
 
 CARSTENS, ASMUS JACOB, a distinguished German artist, was 
 born at St. Giirgen, near Schleswig, May 10th, 1754. His father was 
 a miller, but his mother, who was the daughter of an advocate at 
 Schleswig, had been exceedingly well-educated, and was therefore able 
 to bring up her three sons in a manner very superior to what the 
 circumstances of the family would otherwise have allowed. After his 
 father's death, which happened when he was about nine years old, 
 Asmus was sent to the public school at Schleswig, where he made 
 little or no progress ; but the pictures in the cathedral there by J urian 
 Ovens, a pupil of Rembrandt, which seemed to him miracles of the 
 pencil, determined him to become himself a painter. His mother 
 readily seconded his inclination, and on his quitting school at the 
 age of sixteen, applied to two painters to take him as a pupil ; but the 
 turn demanded was much greater than could prudently be afforded. 
 
 His mother soon after died, and his guardians refusing to listen to 
 his earnest entreaties, placed him with a wine-merchant at Eckern- 
 forde. After the first feeling of despondency had passed over, he 
 employed the whole of his leisure time, and frequently a considerable 
 portion of the night, in drawing, and the reading of whatever books 
 he could procure relative to art ; and he about this time renewed his 
 acquaintance with Ipscn, a young painter whom he had known at 
 Schleswig, from whose instructions he obtained some insight into the 
 management of colours and ether technical matters. Having served 
 five years, he purchased the remaining two of his apprenticeship, and 
 proceeded to Copenhagen, where he again met with Ipsen, who pro- 
 cured for him free access to the Royal Gallery of Paintings, and to 
 the collection of casts and antiques at the academy. Whilst prosecuting 
 his studies here he endeavoured to support himself by taking likuesses 
 in red chalk, and was so fortunate as to be thus enabled to continue 
 his usual studies for two years longer, during which he produced his 
 'Baldens Death ' and ' yEolus and Ulysses,' compositions that excited 
 much notice, and would have obtained for him admittance into the 
 academy, had he not given offence on a particular occasion. But 
 having thus closed against himself the road to favour, he determined 
 upon leaving Copenhagen and going to Rome along with his youngest 
 brother (who had also been studying painting at Schleswig) and the 
 sculptor Busch. Accordingly, they set out iu the spring of 1783, and 
 Carstens and his brother travelled on foot ss far as Mantua, their 
 companion having parted from them at Nuremberg. After passing 
 an entire month at Mantua, chiefly occupied in examining the works 
 of Giulio Romano, Carstens found that they must abandon their plan 
 and return homewards. They accordingly set out again northward, 
 passing through Switzerland to Lubeck, where Carstens was glad to 
 take up with his former occupation of portrait painting, which he 
 pursued for nearly five years ; but he employed all the time not so 
 occupied in making historical and poetical compositions. He also now 
 began for the firot time to read diligently ; and the fruits of his studies 
 shortly began to manifest themselves in a number of compositions 
 from Homer, the Greek tragedians, and other great masters of poetry, 
 both ancient and modern. But he felt that he was here in a great 
 measure cut off from the hope of being able to produce any works of 
 magnitude; and he therefore gratefully accepted the generous offer 
 of Kodde, a wealthy amateur, who furnished him with the means of 
 ▼writing Berlin. 
 
 In that capital he at first had to contend with pecuniary difficulties, 
 and was obliged to make designs for book-prints. At length, hi« 
 ' Fall of the Angela,' a large composition containing upwards of 200 
 figures, obtained for him an appointment as one of the professors at 
 the academy, and the following year a considerable gratuity was added 
 to his salary. His chief object however iu accepting this post was as 
 a means of obtaining a travelling pension to Rome, which ho was now 
 more than ever de>irou3 of visiting, lie had become acquainted with 
 the architect Genelli, who was just returned from Italy, and on his 
 recommendation was employed to decorate the walls of a saloon iu the 
 Dorville palace with a series of mythological subjects. This work 
 procured for him an introduction to the king, who granted him a 
 travelling pension, and in the summer of 1792 lie again set out for 
 Rome. He travelled through Dresden and Nuremberg, making some 
 stay at the first place for the purpose of visiting the Gallery of 
 Antiques and that of pictures ; and at the latter, in order to become 
 acquainted with the works of Albert Diner, whom, after Michel 
 Angelo and Raffaelle, he held to be one of the greatest masters in 
 his art. 
 
 Arrived at Rome, Rome for a long time existed to him only in the 
 Vatican. His first object was to imbue himself thoroughly with the 
 spirit of Michel Angelo and Raffaelle, to catch if possible their modes 
 of thought, and to trace theis conceptions to their source. Highly 
 wrought up as his expectations had been, he found them here surpassed, 
 and that their works were instinct with a mental power of which no 
 copies or engravings had before conveyed to him any idea. The severity 
 of his principles of criticism obtained for him not a few enemies, and 
 they more than insinuated that he could not perform what he exacted 
 from others. He soon convinced them of the contrary by a large 
 drawing representing the visit of the Argonauts to the centaur Chiron, 
 a subject he had before produced at Berlin, but which he now 
 reeomposed, and iu a style that plainly indicated how much he had 
 already benefited by studying Michel Angelo and Raffaelle. 
 
 The two years to which his stay at Rome wa3 limited having expired, 
 he begged hard for a little longer extension of the term, as he was 
 preparing to make a public exhibition of the subjects which he had 
 produced while in Italy. His exhibition was opeued in April 1795, 
 and consisted of eleven designs mostly poetical and mythological, and 
 few of them ever before treated. Both in style and subject these 
 works were an earnest of powers as superior as they were uncommon, 
 and the artist's fame was soon spread through Germany by an article 
 on the exhibition in Wieland's ' Mercur.' The same year he sent three 
 compositions to Berlin, whereupon he was again urged to return to 
 his post in the academy; but instead of its being complied with, this 
 demand was followed by remonstrance and refusal ou the part of 
 Carstens, and his connection with the Berlin academy soon after ceased 
 altogether. In the course of the two following years he produced 
 many fine compositions, including a series of twenty-four subjects from 
 Pindar, Orpheus, and Apollouius Rhodius, all of them illustrative of 
 the Argouautic expedition. This series it was his intention to etch 
 himself, but in the autumn of 1797 he was attacked by a serious 
 malady, which was succeeded by a slow fever and an obstinate cough, 
 whereby he was so enfeebled that he was unable to employ his pencil 
 except for a very short interval in the day. Yet even after he was 
 incapable of quitting his bed his wonted enthusiasm and energy did 
 not forsake him ; and but a few hours before his death he conversed 
 with his friend Fernow respecting a mythological subject which had 
 suggested itself to him. He expired on the 25th of May 1798, when 
 he had just entered his forty-fifth year. 
 
 Thus may Carstens be said to have been prematurely cut off just as 
 he had begun his career as an artist. In him Germany lost one who 
 gave promise of taking rank among the greatest masters of the art. 
 His life as yet had been a life of preparation. To art he gave himself 
 undividedly ; his whole soul was in it, so that, although he had not 
 mastered some things that lie more on the surface, he had dived iuto 
 its depths and recesses. What he chiefly valued was creative power, 
 intelligence, and mind, of which he regarded external forms merely 
 as the expression. Conformably with such opinions and theory was 
 his own practice. His compositions, which he was in the habit of 
 completely shaping out, maturing, and finishing up mentally, before 
 he committed them to paper, are all marked by a severe simplicity 
 and fine poetic conception ; and had a longer life and health been 
 granted to him, he would doubtless have left behind him works com- 
 mensurate in other respects with their intellectual value, and which 
 would have acquired for him the kind of fame he coveted. 
 
 CARTE, THOMAS, was born in April 1686 at Clifton in Warwick- 
 shire, of which parish hi3 father, the Rev. Samuel Carte, was vicar. 
 He matriculated at Oxford, but took his degree of Master of Arts in 
 the University of Cambridge, and afterwards entered into holy orders, 
 and was attached to the cathedral of Bath. 
 
 Carte's opinions were very strong in favour of the Stuart family, and 
 his zeal brought on him some suffering. On the accession of George L 
 he declined to take the oaths of allegiance, and therefore abandoned 
 the priesthood : in 1715 he was obliged to conceal himself lest he 
 should be apprehended as participating in the rebellion ; and in 1722 
 he was so strongly suspected of being concerned in the conspiracy of 
 Bishop Atterbury (whose secretary he was), that a reward of 1000J. 
 was offered for his apprehension. He escaped to France, where ha 
 
CARTER, ELIZABETH. 
 
 CARUS, MARCUS AURELIUS. 
 
 100 
 
 resided nearly twelve years under an assumed name. Again in 1744 
 he was arrested under a like suspicion of favouring the expected 
 descent of the Pretender, lie died near Abingdon, April 2, 1754. 
 
 So far as great labour and indefatigable research constitute an 
 historian, Carte may lay claim to that character. His works consist of 
 an edition of ' Thuanus,' in 7 vols. fol. ; a ' Life of James, Duke of 
 Ormonde,' in 3 vols, fol., and 4 vols, fol., of the 'History of England,' 
 bringing it down to the year 1G54. Besides pamphlets and some 
 minor works, he likewise published at Paris a Catalogue, in French, of 
 the Gascon, Norman, and French Rolls, preserved in the Tower of 
 London. His manuscripts are preserved in the Bodleian Library at 
 Oxford. 
 
 CARTER, ELIZABETH, was the daughter of Dr. Nicholas Carter, 
 an eminent Latin, Greek, and Hebrew scholar, one of the six preachers 
 in Canterbury cathedral, and perpetual curate of Deal in Kent, where 
 his daughter Elizabeth was born December 16, 1717. Her mother, a 
 Dorsetshire heiress of the name of Swayne, was supposed to have 
 shortened her life by repining over the loss of her fortune, which had 
 been invested in the South Sea Stock. Elizabeth was educated by her 
 father, who made no distinction between her and her brothers. Though 
 slow at first, she afterwards made rapid progress iu the learned 
 languages, to which she added Italian, German, Spanish, and French : 
 6he acquired the last in the houso of a Protestant refugee minister, 
 and the three former by her own exertions. Her proficiency in these 
 studies did not lead her to neglect needlework, music, or the other 
 accomplishments common to her sex. Miss Carter's earliest produc- 
 tions appeared in the 'Gentleman's Magazine ' under the signature of 
 'Eliza.' In 1738 she published some poems in a very thin quarto 
 volume, which were succeeded in the year following by a translation 
 of some strictures by Crousaz on Pope's ' Essay on Man.' In the same 
 year she translated from the Italian of Algarotti ' An Explauatiou of 
 Newton's Philosophy, for the Use of Ladies, in Six Dialogues on Sight 
 and Colours.' These publications appearing before their author was 
 twenty-two gave her immediate celebrity, and brought her into 
 correspondence with most of the learned of that day. Among others 
 may be mentioned Bishop Butler, the author of the ' Analogy ;' Dr. 
 Benson, bishop of Gloucester, and Archbishop Seeker; Dr. Johnson, 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Burke. In the midst of her literary occu- 
 pations she undertook the task of entirely educating her youngest 
 brother for the university, and performed it so as to merit the 
 encomium of his examiners upon his admission. During her intervals 
 of leisure she translated Epictetus for the amusement of her friend 
 Miss Talbot, to whom the sheets were sent as they were finished, and 
 shown to Archbishop Seeker, who took an interest in the progress of 
 the work. In compliaucd with the wishes of her friends she sent her 
 translation to the press, and on its publication the literary journals 
 at home and abroad were full of her praise. Dr. Johnson availed 
 himself of her pen for a paper (No 44) for the ' Rambler.' Of her 
 learning he thought so highly as to say, when speaking of an eminent 
 scholar, that "he understood Greek better than any one whom 
 he had ever known except Elizabeth Carter." This learned lady was 
 never married. She lived to the age of eighty-nine, having died in 
 1806,leaving behind her a character adorned by finer qualities than even 
 those of a highly-cultivated understanding. (Pennington, Memoirs.) 
 
 CARTERET, PHILIP, a naval officer, who commanded the 
 'Swallow,' which sailed on the 22ud of August 1766 on a voyage of 
 discovery to the South Seas, under the orders of Captain Wallis, who 
 sailed in the ' Dolphin.' The ' Swallow ' being a bad sailer, the two 
 ships were unable to keep company, and were at last parted in a gole 
 of wind. Captain Carteret's voyage may therefore be considered as a 
 separate expedition, and several interesting geographical discoveries 
 were the result. He arrived in England on the 20th of February, 
 1769, after an absence of two years and a half. An account of his 
 voyage is given by Dr. Hawkswurth iu the introduction to his 'Narra- 
 tive of Captain Cook's First Voyage.' 
 
 CARTES, DES. [Des Cartes.] 
 
 CARTWR1GHT, EDMUND, was born on the 24th of April 1743, 
 at Marnham, in the county of Nottingham. His family was ancient 
 and highly respectable, aud had suffered in its fortune on account of 
 its attachment to the cause of Charles I. Edmund Cartwright received 
 the early part of his education at Wakefield, and being intended for 
 the church, he afterwards went to University College, Oxford, aud was 
 elected a Fellow of Magdalen College. He afterwards held the living 
 of Brampton, near Chesterfield, and subsequently he removed to the 
 living of Goadby-Marwood in Leicestershire. He wrote some poetical 
 pieces at an early age, some of which were printed anonymously. In 
 1770 he published in his own name a legendary poem, entitled 
 ' Arminia and Elvira,' which was received with much favour, and soon 
 passed through several editions. He wrote also the' Prince of Peace' 
 and ' Sonnets to Eminent Men.' He was for a considerable time a 
 contributor to the ' Monthly Review.' The duties of his calling were 
 besides varied by a literary coirespondence with several eminent 
 individuals. 
 
 In the summer of 1784, during a visit at Matlock, happening to 
 meet with several gentlemen from Manchester, the conversation turned 
 upon the subject of mechanical weaving. Dr. Cartwiight's attention 
 had never been directed to mechanical inventions, but though in his 
 fortieth year, the impulse which his mind received from this accidental 
 
 direction of its powers, enabled him by the following April to bring 
 his first power-loom into action, which, though an extremely rude 
 machine, soon received many valuable improvements. Its first intro- 
 duction was opposed both by manufacturers and their workmen, owing 
 to various prejudices ; and a mill containing 500 of his looms, the first 
 which had been erected, was wilfully burnt down. Iu 1813 there 
 were not more than 2300 power-looms in the United Kingdom. Iu 
 fact, when first introduced, aud before various improvements were 
 mide iu it, the machine was scarcely equivalent in its results to 
 manual labour. It is scarcely necessary to say that the power-loom is 
 now in almost universal use. In April 1790, Dr. Cartwright took out 
 a patent for combing wool ; altogether he obtained ten different patents 
 for inventions and improvements of various kinds. In 1807 a number 
 of the principal cotton-spinners memorialised the government on 
 behalf of Dr. Cartwright, who had hitherto reaped little advantage 
 from the exercise of his inventive talents. He also petitioned the 
 legislature himself iu support of his claims; and iu 1809 parliament 
 grant »d him 10,000^. for "the good service he had rendered the public 
 by his invention of weaving." This was a smaller sum than he had 
 expended on his projects, but it enabled hiin to pa.S3 the remainder of 
 his days in ease aud comfort. He died on the 30th of October 1823, 
 in the eiuhty-first year of his age. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, JOHN, brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Marnham in 1740, and entered the navy at an early age. In 1774 he 
 published 'Letters on American Independence;' and though attached 
 to his profession he declined taking part in the struggle which ensued 
 In tween the mother country and the North American colonies. In 
 1775 he received a major's commission in the Nottiughamshire militia, 
 an appointment which the ministry regarded with displeasure. The 
 attainment of annual parliaments and universal suffrage became the 
 object of his exertions; aud to further this end he was active in 
 establishing the ' Society for Constitutional Information,' and in 
 co-operating with Tooke, Hardy, Thelwall, and other advocates of 
 reform. He was a witness on the trial of the above individuals ; and 
 in 1 SI 0 was himself the object of an ex-officio prosecution for having 
 with others taken steps for procuring a ' legislatorial attorney' to be 
 returned to parliament for the then unrepresented town of Birming- 
 ham. His name is intimately connected with the early history of the 
 question of parliamentary reform. He possessed considerable intelli- 
 gence and ingenuity, and was the author of several useful projects, 
 aud a number of pamphlets and occasional addresses. Though retain- 
 ing his commission in the navy, he was invariably called Major Cart- 
 wright. He died on the 23rd of September, 1824, and would have 
 completed his eighty-fourth year on the 2Sth. A bronze statue hai 
 been erected to his memory in Burton-crescent, LoudoD, by contribu- 
 tions from his admirers and friends. 
 
 (Life and Correspondence of Major Cartwright, edited by his niece, 
 F. D. Cartwright, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1826.) 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM, born iu 1611, was the son of a person 
 who, after having possessed a good estate, had sunk to the station of 
 an innkeeper at Cirencester. He was educated at Westminster and 
 Oxford; aud, taking orders, received in 1642 an appointment in the 
 church of Salisbury. In the same year he was one of the council of 
 war named by the University of Oxford ; and early in 1613 he became 
 junior proctor and reader in metaphysics. He died Dec. 23, 1643, of a 
 malignant fever, then epidemic in Oxford. Although Cartwright thus 
 died before having completed his thirty-second year, he had attained 
 high reputation both fur learning and for genius. Precocity, rather 
 than strength, must have been the quality which gained for him Ben 
 Jonson's commendation, " My son Cartwright writes all like a man." 
 A collected edition of his ' Comedies, Tr igi-Comedies, and other 
 Poems' appeared in 1647, and agaiu in 1651. The miscellaneous 
 poems which the volume contains are much inferior iu merit to the 
 four plays, one of which, ' The Ordinary,' has very justly received a 
 place in the collection first published by Dodsley. 
 
 CA'RUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, prefect of the prsetorium under 
 the emperor Probus, succeeded him by the nomination of the soldiers, 
 after they had murdered Probus (a d. 282) iu his camp near Sirmium, 
 in the Illyricum. Carus was a native of Narbo, an old Roman colony, 
 aud as such he prided himself iu being a Roman citizen by birth. 
 (See his letter to the senate announcing his nomination, in Vopiscus, 
 ' Historia Augusta.') He made war against the Sarmatians, aud 
 defeated them. He marched next against the Persians (a.d. 283), and 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 Coin of Carus. 
 Actual size. Gold. 
 
 Weight 75 grains. 
 
 took with him his younger son Numerianus, leaving his elder son 
 Carinus to rule over Italy and the other provinces of the west ju hi3 
 abseuce. Carus overran Mesopotamia, and conquered Seleucia and 
 Cttsiphon, after which, as he was encamped beyond the Tigi'J, a great 
 
101 
 
 CART. 
 
 CASAS, BARTHOLOMK DE LA3. 
 
 thunder-storm arose, ami it was reported that the emperor was killed 
 iu his tent by the lightning : the servants upon this set fire to his 
 tent, and his body was consumed. His secretary Calpuruius however, 
 in a letter which he wrote to the prefect of Rome, said that the empe- 
 ror, who was already ill, died during the storm. But the strongest 
 suspicions rested upon Arrius Aper, prefect of the praotorium, the 
 same who soon after killed Numerianus. Carus reigned about seven- 
 teen mouths. He was succeeded by his two sons, Carinus and 
 Numerianus. 
 CARY. [Falkland, Lord.] 
 
 CARY, REV. HENRY FRANCIS, was born at Birmingham in 
 1772, and was entered a commoner of Christ Church, Oxford, iu 1790; 
 having however already commenced author by the publication of 'An 
 Irregular Ode to General Elliott' in 1787, and of a 4to pamphlet of 
 'Sonnets and Odes' in 1788. While at the university he devoted 
 much of his time to the study of Italian, French, and English litera- 
 ture, as well as of Greek and Latiu. Haviug taken his degree of 
 M.A. in 1796, he was in 1797 presented by the Marquis of Anglesey 
 to the vicarage of Bromley Abbot's, in Staffordshire, worth 187(1. a 
 year, with a residence. The same year he published 'An Ode to 
 General Kosciusko.' In 1805 appeared his translation of the ' Inferno' 
 of Dante in Euglish blauk verse, accompanied with the origiual Italiau ; 
 and in 1814 his entire version of the ' Divina Commedia.' It was 
 some years however before this work, to which Cary principally owes 
 his literary reputation, attracted much attention. It was first brought 
 into general notice by Coleridge, who spoke of it with warm praise iu 
 bis lectures at the Royal Institution, and who is said to have become 
 acquainted with it and with Cary himself about the same time. 
 Ultimately its merits were generally acknowledged, and the author 
 had the satisfaction of bringiug out a fourth edition of it before his 
 death. It is not only unusually careful and exact, but deserves the 
 praise of very considerable force and expressiveness. It must however 
 be considered as a defect detracting materially fiom its claim to be 
 regarded as a faithful representation of the 'Diviua Commedia' that 
 it is in blank verse : rhyme is an essential element of the Gothic 
 spirit and character of Dante's poetry. Cary afterwards produced 
 verse translations of the 'Birds' of Aristophanes, and of the 'Odes' 
 of Pindar; a series of 'Lives of Euglish Poets,' in continuation of 
 Johnson's, and another of ' Lives of Early French Poets,' in the 
 ' London Magazine ; ' besides editions of the works of Pope, Cowper, 
 Milton, Thomson, and Young. In 1826 he was appointed assistant 
 librarian in the British Museum, but he resigned that situation in 
 1S52, on the claim that he and his friends conceived he had to the 
 office of keeper of the printed books being passed over in favour of 
 another person. He some years afterwards received a pension of 200i. 
 a year from the crown, which he enjoyed till his death, which took 
 place at his bouse in Charlotte-street. Bloomsbury, 14th of August, 1844. 
 He was interred on the 21st in Poet's Corner, Westminster Abbey. 
 
 (Memoir of the Rev, II. F. Cary ; with Literary Journal and Letters, 
 by Ins son, the Rev. II. Cary.) 
 
 CA'SAS, BARTHOLOMK DE LAS, was born at Seville of a noble 
 family in 1174. When he was about twenty he accompanied his 
 father, who embarked with Colombo in his second voyage to the West 
 Indies. On his return to Spain he entered holy orders and became 
 curate of a parish. After some years he went back to Hispaniola, 
 where he found the Indian population cruelly oppressed by the 
 Spaniards. By the system of ' repartimientos,' enacted by orler of 
 King Ferdinand of Aragon, and enforced by the governor Albuquerque, 
 the unfortunate natives were distributed like cattle into lots of so 
 many hundred heads each, and sold to the highest bidders, or given 
 away to courtiers and other men of rank in Spain, who by their 
 agents sold them to the colonists. The mortality became so great 
 among these unhappy beings, who were naturally of a weak constitu- 
 tion, that out of 60,000 Indians, who were on the island of Hispaniola 
 iu 1508, only 14,000 remained in 1516. The Domiuican friars were 
 the only persons who loudly disapproved pf this system ; the secular 
 clergy and even the Franciscans took part with the colouists. Las 
 Casas sided with the Dominicans, and finding that Albuquerque was 
 deaf to all their remonstrances, he sailed for Spain, asked and obtained 
 an audience of Ferdinand, to whom he made such a dreadful picture 
 of the fatal effects of the repartimientos, that the king's conscience 
 became alarmed, and he promised Las Casas that he would remedy 
 the abuse. But Ferdinand died soon after, and Charles I., commonly 
 called Charles V., succeeded him. The minister Ximenes, who 
 governed Spain iu the absence of the young king, listened with 
 favour to Las Casas' remonstrances, and appointed three superintend- 
 ents from among the Hieronymites, an order which enjoyed great 
 consideration in Spain, with instructions to proceed to the West 
 Indies, and examine the matter on the spot, and with full authority 
 to decide finally upon the great question of the freedom or slavery of 
 the Indians. He sent with them a jurist of the name of Zuazo, who 
 had a great reputation for learning and probity, and lastly, he added 
 Las Casas to the commission with the title of 'Protector of the 
 Indians.' The commission proceeded to Hispaniola in 1517. After 
 listening to the statements of both parties, colonists and Dominicans, 
 or friends of the Indians, and having also examined the physical and 
 intellectual condition of the natives themselves, the Hieronymites came 
 to the conclusion that the Indians would not work unless obliged to 
 
 do so; that their mental capacities were much lower than those of 
 Europeans, and could not be stimulated to exertion or be made to 
 follow any moral or religious rules, except by authority ; and there- 
 fore they decided that the system of repartimientos must continue for 
 the present at least, but at the same time they enforced strict regu- 
 lations as to the manner in which the Indians should be treated by 
 their masters, in order to prevent as much as possible any abuse of 
 power on the part of the latter. Las Casas, not satisfied with this 
 decision, set off again for Spain to appeal to Charles V. himself, who 
 came about that time from Flanders to visit his Spanish dominions. 
 The question was discussed in the king's council, and as the difficulty of 
 cultivating the colonies without the repartimientos was the great 
 objection, Las Casas, it is said, observed that the African blacks, who 
 were already imported into the West Indies, were a much stronger 
 race than the Indians, and might make a good substitute. This sug- 
 gestion has beeu made, by most writers on American affairs, a ground 
 of reproach against the memory of Las Casas. It ought to be observed 
 however that the fact of the suggestion rests solely upon the authority 
 of Herrera, who wrote thirty years after the death of Las Casas. 
 The writers contemporary with Las Casas, and Sepulveda himself, his 
 determined antagonist, are silent upon this point. (Grdgoire, ' Apologie 
 de B. de Las Casas,' in the fourth volume of the ' Memoirs of Moral 
 and Political Science of the French Institute.') It is certain, and 
 both Herrara, aud after him Robertson, acknowledge it, that, as early 
 as 1503, negro slaves had been imported into America, and that in 
 1511a large importation took place by King Ferdinand's authorisation. 
 The Portuguese seem to have been the first Europeans who traded iu 
 black slaves. A negro was found to do as much work as four Indians. 
 Charles V. granted a licence to one of his Flemish courtiers to import 
 4000 blacks into the West Indies. The courtier sold his licence to 
 some Genoese speculators for 25,000 ducats, and the Genoese then 
 begau to organise a regular slave-trade between Africa and the New 
 World. But the price of the blacks was so high that few of the 
 colonists could avail themselves of this supply, and consequently the 
 slavery of the Indians was perpetuated for a long time after, until 
 the race became extinct on most of the islands. 
 
 Las Casas, unable to obtain the deliverance of the Indians through 
 his oral remonstrances, resorted to his pen. He wrote — 1st, ' Tratado 
 sobre la materia de los Indies quese ban hecho esclavos por los Castel- 
 lanos;' 2nd, ' Brevissima relacion de la destruycion de las Indias Occi- 
 dentales por los Castellanos,' in which he gives a frightful account of 
 the acts of oppression and barbarity committed by the conquerors; 
 3rd, ' Remedios por la reformacion de las Indias ; ' 4th, ' Treynta pro- 
 posiciones pertenecientes al derecho que la Yglesia y los principes 
 Cristianos tienen sobre los Infieles, y el titulo que los Reyes de Castilla 
 tienen a las Indias Occidentales.' (Navarrete, ' Coleccion de los 
 Viages y Descubriuiieuto3 que hicieron por mar los Espaiioles, &c.,' 
 2 vols. 4to, Madrid, 1825, in which the author treats at length of Las 
 Casas.) 
 
 Las Casas, despairing of effecting any good for the Indians in the 
 Spanish settlements, formed the project of a new colony to be estab- 
 lished on the recently-discovered tierra firma, or mainland, and to be 
 managed according to his own views, which were afterwards realised 
 in a great measure by the Jesuits iu their settlements of Paraguay. 
 Accordingly he obtained from Charles V. a grant of 300 miles along 
 the coast of Cumana. But before he set out he had to sustain a 
 public disputation, in the presence of the king aud council, against 
 Quevedo, bishop of Darien, who had lately returned from the West 
 Indies, and whose opinions concerning the Indians were diametrically 
 opposed to those of Las Casa3. As usual in such cases, the contro- 
 versy did not clear up the matter, and Charles, uncertain what to do, 
 confirmed his grant to Las Casas for the sake of experiment. But 
 before Las Casas could reach his destination, an expedition had sailed 
 from Puerto Rico under Diego Ocampo, for the purpose of invading 
 aud plundering that very coast of Cumana which was inteuded by 
 Las Casas for his pacific settlement. The consequence was, that the 
 remaining natives conceived such a horror against the Spaniards that 
 wheu Las Casas came to settle on the coast they attacked his settle- 
 ment and killed or drove away the settlers. Las Casas, crossed in all 
 his benevolent endeavours, and attacked by the sneers aud reproaches 
 of the colonists, went back to Hispaniola, where he took refuge iu the 
 convent of the Dominicans, whose order he entered in 152^. Some 
 years after he returned to Spain, and made a fresh appeal to Charles V. 
 iu favour of the oppressed Indians. He then met an antagonist in 
 Doctor Gincs de Sepulveda, who had written a book iu defence of the 
 slavery and destruction of the Indians, taking for his argument the 
 treatment of the Canaanites by the Hebrews. Las Casas replied to 
 him, and an account of the whole controversy i3 contained in the 
 work which was published in 1552, styled ' Disputa eutre el Obispo 
 Fray Bartholomew de Las Casas y al Doctor Gines de Sepulveda sobre 
 la justicia de las conquistas de la3 Indias.' Las Casas had meantime 
 been appointed Bishop of Chiapa, in the newly-conquered empire of 
 Mexico. After remaining for many years in his diocese, ever intent; 
 on mitigating the sufferings which the natives endured from the con- 
 querors, Las Casas returned to Spain in 1551, having resigned his 
 bishopric, and died in a convent of his order at Madrid in 1566. He 
 bore among both natives and Spaniards in the New World the names 
 of Father and Protector of the Indians. 
 
103 
 
 101 
 
 He left in manuscript ' Historia General de las Indias,' in 3 parts or 
 volumes, in which he treats of the discovery, conquest, and subsequent 
 occurrences in the New World, as far as the year 1520. This work 
 lias never been published. The first two volumes, in his own hand- 
 writing, are preserved in the library of the Royal Academy of History, 
 and the third in the royal library at Madrid. " In this work," says 
 Navnrrete, " Las Casas has displayed a vast erudition, mixed however 
 with a disregard for temperance and discrimination. He had access 
 to many original documents, which ho has carefully copied or ex- 
 tracted, and for this he is entitled to the highest confidence, lie was 
 also present at several of the early expeditions and conquests, and for 
 them his authority has been followed by Herrera and others. He 
 does not however deserve the same credit when he speaks from hear- 
 say, as he confesses that he wrote both what he had seen and what lie 
 had not sien but heard during sixty years of his life, which he passed 
 chiefly in the New World, and it is no wonder that his memory should 
 fail him at times, so as to confound events and dates." 
 
 CASAUBON, ISAAC, one of the most learned men of his age, was 
 born at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1559. His f.ither and mother, 
 Arnold Casaubou and Jeanne llosseau, were natives of the Dauphiut', 
 and retired to Geneva to avoid a religious persecution. They returned 
 however after th<! persecution ceased to Crest, a small town of Dau- 
 phind, of which Arnold was appointed minister, and here young 
 Casaubon studied under his father until his nineteenth year, when he 
 went to Switzerland to hear the lectures of Francis Tortus, a Cretan, 
 who was then professor of Greek at Lausanne, and whom he succeeded 
 on his death in 15S2. In 1586 he married Florence, daughter of Henry 
 Stephens, the celebrated scholar and printer. About 1591 he was 
 involved in serious pecuniary difficulties from having been surety in a 
 large sum of money for an Englishman named Wotton (probably the 
 well-known Sir Henry, who afterwards brought Casaubon to England), 
 and though Joseph Scaliger aud some other friends assisted him, he 
 was much straitened in his circumstances by this loss, and either this 
 or the moroseness of his father-in-law induced him to accept an offer 
 of the Greek professorship at Montpellier. He removed to Montpellier 
 in the latter end of 1596, and commenced his duties in the February 
 of the following year. In 1599 Henri IV. sent for him to Pari*, and 
 in the following year appointed him one of the Protestant judges in 
 the controversy between Du Perron, bishop of Evreux, and Du 
 Plessis Moruay. In 1603 he succeeded Gosselin as head librarian to 
 the king. The Catholics made many attempts to gain so distinguished 
 a convert; but there does not seem to be any reason for concluding 
 that they had even partial success, although it was given out that he 
 had wavered in a conference with Du Perron. The death of Henri IV., 
 in 1610, rendered his stay in France neither safe nor profitable; and, 
 having obtained permission from the Queen of Fiance, he gladly went 
 over to England with Sir Henry Wotton, the English ambassador. 
 James I. received him with great distinction, and employed him in 
 writing a confutation of Barouius. Casaubon was appointed pre- 
 bendary of Canterbury and Westminster, and had also a pension of 
 300/. He died on the 1st of July 1614, and was interred in West- 
 minster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. His 
 chief works are the following : — 1. ' Strabo,' with Commentaries, 
 Geneva, 1587; reprinted with additions, Paris, 1620, fol. 2. 'Aristo- 
 telis Opera,' with marginal notes, Geneva, 1605, fol. 3. 'Theophrasti 
 Characteres,' Lugd. 1592, 12mo; the best tdition is the third, printed 
 at Lyon in 1612. 4. ' Suetonii Opera,' with an excellent commentary, 
 Geneva, 1596, 4to ; best edition Lutet., 1610, fol. 5. 'Athenocus,' 
 Lugd., 1600, fol.; Lugd., 1612, fol. 6. 'Persii Satyrse,' Lutet., 1605, 
 8vo. 7. 'De Satyrica Grcecorum Poesi,' Lutet., 1605, 8vo. 8. 'Polybii 
 Opera,' Lutt-t., 1609, fol. ; the dedication to Henri IV. is much admired. 
 9. ' Exercitatioues contra Baronium,' London, 1614, fol. 
 
 CASAUBON, MERIC, son of Isaac, was born at Geneva on the 
 14th August 1599. He was educated first at Sedan; then under a 
 private tutor in England, whither he came along with his father, and 
 in 1614 or 1616 he was sent to Christ Church College, Oxford, and 
 elected student of that foundation. He took his degree of M.A. on 
 the 14th June 1621, and in the same year published a defence of his 
 father and the Protestant faith against the Catholics, entitled ' Pietas 
 contra Maledicos Patrii Nominis et Religionis Hostes ; ' and three 
 years afterwards he published another vindication of his father in 
 Latin, written by the command of King James. Bishop Andrews 
 presented him to the living of Bledon, in Somersetshire, in 1624. In 
 1028 Archbishop Laud made him prebendary of Canterbury and rector 
 of Ickham ; and in 1636 he was created D.D. by the University of 
 Oxford at the command of Charles I., who was then residing at that 
 university. The civil war deprived him of all his preferments, and he 
 lived in retirement till the Restoration, notwithstanding many advan- 
 tageous offers from Cromwell, who endeavoured in 1649 to induce 
 Casaubon to write a history of the war, which he declined doing : and 
 from Queen Christina of Sweden, who offered him the government of 
 one, or the superintendence of all the universities in her kingdom. 
 At the Restoration he was restored to all his ecclesiastical preferments, 
 and continued toemploy himself in writing till his death, 14th July 
 1671. He was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. He had several 
 cl ildren by his wife, whom he married in 1651, and who brought him 
 a good fortune. His son Johu was a surgeon at Canterbury. His 
 works, though numerous, are not of great value. In his book on 
 
 'Credulity and Incredulity ' (London, 1668, 8vo; second part, London, 
 1670, 8vo), he maintained the existence of witches aud familiar 
 
 spirits. 
 
 CASES, LAS. [Las Cases.] 
 
 CASIMIR I., son of Miccislaus II., king of Poland, was a minor at 
 his father's death in 1034. His mother Rikscha, neice of the Emperor 
 Otho III., assumed the regency, but the Poles being dissatisfied with 
 her government, she was obliged to fly with her son into Germany, 
 from whence Casimir proceeded to France, where he entered the 
 Benedictine order of Cluni. In 1011 he was recalled by his subjects, 
 who prevailed on the Pope Benedict IX. to absolve him from his 
 vows, upon which he married Maria, sister of Jarosliw, grand duke 
 of Russia. Casimir defeated the Bohemians, and took Silesia from 
 them. He founded a bishopric at Breslau. Ho did much to civilise 
 the Poles, aud he introduced among them his former brethren the 
 Benedictines of Cluni. After a reigu of eighteen years, he died in 
 1058, and was succeeded by his son Boleslas II., styled 'the Bold.' 
 
 CASIMIR II., younger son of Boleslas III., succeeded his brother 
 Miccislaus III., who was deposed by the nobles for his tyrannical 
 conduct in 1177. He defeated the Prussians, who were then heathens, 
 and were very troublesome neighbours to the Poles, aud he obliged 
 them to adopt the Christian faith. He died in 1194, and was succeeded 
 by his son Lesko V. 
 
 CASIMIR III., called ' the Great,' succeeded his father Wladislas in 
 1333. He conquered the Russians and aunexed the greater part of 
 their country to the crown "bC Poland : he also defeated the Bohemians. 
 He married Anne, daughter of Gedemin, grand duke of Lithuania, 
 and died in 1370, leaving no issue. In him the male line of Piast, 
 which had held the crown of Poland since 820, became extinct. 
 Lewis, king of Hungary, the son of Casimir's sister, succeeded him on 
 the throne of Poland. 
 
 CASIMIR IV. was the second son of Jagello, grand duke of 
 Lithuania, who married Hedwige, daughter of King Lewis, aud thus 
 became king of Poland under the name of Wladislas IV. Casimir 
 succeeded to the crowns of Poland and Lithuania after the death of 
 his brother Wladislas V., who lost his life in the battle of Varna 
 against the Ottomans in 1444. Casimir made war against the 
 Teutonic knights, and took from them a great part of Prussia; upon 
 which the grand master of the order acknowledged himself a vassal 
 to the crown of Poland. The duke of AVallachia also about the same 
 time made allegiance to the Polish crown. It was under Casimir that 
 the deputies of the provinces first appeared at the Diet of the kingdom 
 of Poland. (Putfendorf.) This was the epoch of the greatest splendour 
 of that country. Wladislas, son of Casimir, was made king of Bohemia 
 and of Huug .ry. Casimir died iu 1492, and was succeeded by his 
 second son John Albert. It was Casimir who enforced the use of 
 Latin as the official language of Poland. 
 
 CASIMIR V., son of Sigismund III., was elected king of Poland 
 after the death of his brother Wladislas VII. iu 1647. Casimir was 
 then at Rome, where he had entered the church, and had become a 
 cardinal. Having obtained a dispensation from the pope, he married 
 Luisa Maria Gonzaga, his brother's widow. He made war against the 
 Cossacks and against the Russians, with various success. Casimir 
 was attacked by Charles Gustavus, king of Sweden, who overran a 
 great part of Poland, and defeated the Poles in a great battle near 
 Warsaw. By the peace of Oliva in 1660 Poland gave up Livonia to 
 the Swedes, and Smolensk aud Kiew to the Russians. Casimir, seeing 
 his subjects dissatisfied, abdicated the crown in 1667. He retired to 
 France, where Louis XIV. gave him the abbacy of St. Germaiu des 
 Prds, and other benefices. He died at Nevers in 1672. Casimir V. 
 was the last representative of the house of Jagello. 
 
 *CASS, GENERAL LEWIS, was born at Exeter, New Hampshire 
 United States, Oct. 9, 1782, the son of an officer. He was educated 
 for the law, but quitted that profession for the army, and having 
 obtained a commission, served in 1812 in the expedition against Canada. 
 He had not the fortune to be engaged in any actual encounter, but he 
 was included in the army -surrendered by General Hull to the English. 
 Shortly afterwards he was released on an exchange of prisoners ; rose 
 rapidly to the rauk of general of brigade, and had the charge of 
 defending a portion of the frontier - . After the cessation of hostilities 
 he was elected governor of Michigan, in which state he had settled. 
 In 1831 General Jackson appointed him secretary of war, an office 
 which he subsequently exchanged for that of envoy extraordinary and 
 minister plenipotentiary to France. Here he made himself conspicuous 
 by various letters he published in the newspapers, and the publicity 
 he gave to his somewhat strong opinions. His estimate, a very high 
 one, of Louis Philippe and his policy, he gave to the world iu a work 
 entitled ' France, its King, Court, aud Government.' Disapproving of 
 the foreign policy of President Harrison, General Cass resigned his 
 office and returned to America, and immediately took a prominent 
 part in the political proceedings of the States. He was understood to 
 aim at the presidential seat, and he was put in nomination for the 
 election of 1844, but was not return e I by the convention. General 
 Cass is now a senator for the state of Michigau ; aud takes a fore:no»t 
 place among the speakers iu the senate. He belongs to what is termed 
 the democratic party, and i3 noted rather for the passionate ardour of 
 his partizanship than for the comprehensiveness or soundness of his 
 judgment. He i3 a determined defender of the institution of slavery. 
 
103 CASSANDER. 
 
 has always been a decided advocate for the extension of territory ; and 
 consequently strongly supported both the annexation of Texas and 
 the war with Mexico ; is anxious to maintain a high protection tariff; 
 and has made himself especially notorious by the eagerness with which 
 he has on every possible occasion joined in and stimulated the cry for 
 war with Kngland. He took no part in the war of North and South. 
 
 CASSANDER was the son of Antipater, to whom Macedonia was 
 allotted on the division of the Macedonian empire after the death of 
 Alexander. Antipater dying, B.C. 318, appointed Polysperchon to 
 succeed him. [Antipater.] Cassander bore this exclusion with indig- 
 nation ; but finding his party too weak for successful opposition, he 
 fled to Asia, and sought the assistance of Antigonus and Ptolem£eus. 
 Antigouus gave him 4000 men, with whom he sailed to Athens, and 
 was received by Nicauor, the Macedonian governor of the port and 
 fortress of Munychia, who had recently, by a sudden attack, obtained 
 possession of the chief part of Piraeus also. Polysperchon lost no time 
 in conducting an army to besiege him, but was soou obliged, by 
 scarcity of provisions, to draw off the greater part of his troops into 
 Peloponnesus, leaving only an army of observation in Attica. Almost 
 the wLole of Peloponnesus favoured Polysperchon ; Megalopolis how- 
 ever remained firm to the party of Cassander, and defended itself with 
 such resolution that his rival was compelled to retreat from under its 
 walls with mortification and disgrace. Parties were bo balanced in 
 Greece, that a slight thing was enough to turn the scale in favour of 
 one or the other. "Polysperchon falling into disgrace through this 
 failure (says Diodorus, xviii. 74), most of the Greek cities went over to 
 Cassander;" and, among the rest, Athens, seeing no chance of recovering 
 possession of its ports by force of arms, B.C. 317. 
 
 Iu the following year, Cassander marched into Macedonia against 
 Tolysperchon, who, with the view of strengthening his party among 
 the Macedonians, had associated with himself Olympias, the mother of 
 Alexander. Leaving Callas, his general, to oppose Polysperchon, 
 Cassander himself blockaded Olympias in Pydua during the winter. 
 That town yielded on capitulation early in the year B.C. 315, when 
 Olympias, in express contravention of the terms of surrender, was put 
 to death through his agency. Having now gained possession of Mace- 
 donia, with the power, though not the name, of a king, he took to 
 wife Thessalonice, the daughter of Philip and half-sister of Alexander, 
 in hope of confirming his own ascendancy by the powerful associa- 
 tions connected with the royal blood. In the same year he founded 
 the flourishing city of Cassaudria, in Pallene, which was formerly 
 known by the name of Potidaea, and commenced the restoration of 
 Thebes, twenty years after its destruction by Alexander. Soon after 
 he joined the combination of Ptolemseus, Lysimachus, and Seleucus, 
 against Antigonus. The war which ensued was concluded, B.C. 311, 
 on condition, so far as related to Cassander, that he should be military 
 governor (arpaTriybs) of Europe, till the son of Roxana by Alexander 
 should attain his majority. This limitation Cassander made of no 
 avail by immediately putting to death both the young prince and his 
 mother, B.C. 309. Polysperchon set up another rival to him, in the 
 person of Hercule?, the only surviving son of Alexander by Barsine ; 
 but he agreed to put Hercules to death on condition of Peloponnesus 
 being given up to him. Hercules was accordingly murdered, but 
 Polysperchon was not able to take possession of Peloponnesus, which 
 was the stipulated price of his treachery. 
 
 No part of history is more complicated, and less interesting, than 
 that which relates to the wars of Alexander's immediate successors. 
 We therefore pass over the constant employment given to Cassander 
 by the confirmed enmity of the ^Stolians, and by the disturbances 
 continually fomented in Greece by Antigonus. 
 
 During the Rhodian war [Antigonus], Cassander regained much 
 influence in Greece, which he had lost by the iutrigues of Antigonus 
 and the military successes of his son Demetrius. But after the siege 
 of Rhodes wa3 raised, Demetrius again repaired to Greece, and, in the 
 year B.C. 302, became master of the greater part of Peloponnesus. 
 The danger in which Autigonus was involved by the second con- 
 federacy of Ptolemasus, Seleucus, &c, recalled Demetrius to Asia; and 
 the death of Antigonus at the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, removed 
 Caesander's most formidable enemj'. From that time forwards, he 
 held secure possession of Macedonia, though Demetrius retained 
 considerable influence in Greece. He died B.C. 296 (Clinton), leaving 
 the character of an ambitious, able, unscrupulous man, of whom the 
 best that can be said is, that his rivals were no better than himself. 
 He was succeeded in Macedonia by Philip, his eldest son. 
 
 CASSI'NI. We have now for the second time to sketch tho lives 
 and labours of a family of distinguished men, who, though their con- 
 tributions to the stock of knowledge do not rival in extent or value 
 those of the Bernoullis, present nevertheless a succession of talent and 
 industry which rarely occurs. From the date of its establishment iu 
 1670, till the time when the revolution destroyed all hereditary privi- 
 leges, the Observatory of Paris passed from one Cassini to another 
 through four generations, as though it had be?n transmitted by the 
 law of property. 
 
 John Dominic Cassini was born at Perinaldo, in the district of 
 Nice, June 8, 1625, of a respectable family which came from Siena, of 
 which place a Cardinal Cassini was archbishop in 1426. He was 
 educated by the Jesuits at Genoa, and there are some Latin poems of 
 his in a collection of 1616. He attached himself to mathematics and 
 
 bioo. DIV. VOL. II. 
 
 CASSINI. t 0ti 
 
 astronomy, and also it is said to astrology, of which he was cured hf 
 discovering that a prediction which succeeded had been calculated 
 wrongly. He also read the work of Pico di Mirandola against 
 astrologers. In 1644, at the invitation of the Marquis Malvasia, who 
 was building an observatory, he removed to Bologna, and in the 
 university of that place, after the death of Cavalieri, in 1650, he suc- 
 ceeded to the chair of astronomy. He here observed the comet of 
 1652, on which he published his first work. He made various obser- 
 vatious with a gnomon and meridian line constructed in a church at 
 Bologna. Iu 1657 he was deputed, with another, ambassador to the 
 pope, on a quarrel between Bologna and Ferrara relative to the river 
 Po, and on his return was appoiuted to the superintendence of the 
 river for the former place. In 1663 he was appointed to repair the 
 works of Fort Urban. He was at this time patronised by Pope Alex- 
 ander VII., and afterwards by Clement IX. In 1664-5 he made the 
 first of his more brilliant and useful discoveries, namely, the time of 
 the rotation of Jupiter, which he fixed at 9 hours 56 minutes. Professor 
 Airy, by recent observations, makes it 9h. 55 m. 21'3s. He also saw, 
 for the first time, the shadows of the satellites on the disc. [Camfani.] 
 By comparison of his own observations with those of Galileo, he con- 
 structed (1665) his first tables of the satellites. In 1G66-7 he found 
 the rotation of Mars to be 24 h. 40 m. (it is 24 h. 39 m. 2P3s.), and in 
 this same year he ascertained that the rotation of Venus, which is 
 difficult to observe on account of her phases, does not differ much 
 from that of Mars (it is 23 h. 21 m. 7 s.) He made the apparent rota- 
 tion of the sun to be about 27 days, which is very near the truth. 
 These results show considerable skill and assiduity, and made the 
 name of Cassini very well known throughout Europe. 
 
 When Colbert founded the Academy of Sciences, in 1666, and at 
 the same time projected an observatory at Paris, he proposed to 
 Cassini to remove into France, and offered him a pension equivalent 
 to his Italian emoluments. Cassini expressed his willingness to comply 
 if the consent of the pope (Clement IX.) could be obtained ; which 
 was done on condition that Cassini's absence should not last more 
 than two or three years. Ho arrived at Paris April 4, 1669, and began 
 his duties at the observatory September 14, 1671, where his observa- 
 tions extend from 1671 to 1683, In 1673 the Bolognese government, 
 which had kept all his appointments open, required him to return; 
 but Colbert succeeded iu negociating his continued stay in France, 
 and accordingly in the same year he was naturalised in his new 
 country, and married a French lady. He never returned to Italy, 
 except for a short time in 1695, but remained at the head of the Paris 
 Observatory. In the latter years of his life he was totally blind. 
 He died September 14, 1712, without disease, and only, as Fontenelle 
 remarks, " par la seule necessite de mourir." His eldest son was killed 
 at the battle of La Hogue ; of his second we shall have to speak as 
 soon as we have completed the present part of our subject. In 1671-2 
 he discovered the third and fifth satellites of Saturn, and in 1684 the 
 first and second. His gnomon at Bologna led him to more correct 
 solar tables than had been in use, and to more exact values of the 
 refraction. He gave a more complete explanation of the lunar libration 
 than either Kepler or Hevelius, particularly in the determination of 
 the quantities concerned ; and though he did not leave the actual 
 observations, Delambre, who, as we shall see, judges him severely, 
 appears to think that he did establish by observation the coincidence 
 of the nodes of the lunar equator and orbit. He was the first who 
 carefully observed the zodiacal light, which he imagines he discovered. 
 His later tables of the satellites of Jupiter (1668 and 1693) were con- 
 siderable improvements ; but though in possession of facts analogous 
 to those which led to the discovery of the motion of light, he not 
 only did not make that discovery, but rejected it when announced by 
 Roemer. For his arc of the meridian, his observations relative to 
 refraction, with a multitude of other points too long to notice here, 
 we must refer to Delambre, ' Hist. dAstron. Mod.,' vol. ii. 
 
 We have seen that Cassini, as an observer, was no ordinary man. 
 Even if we leave out of view discoveries such as those of the satellites 
 of Saturn, which though brilliant involve no extraordinary sagacity, 
 we have still the continued, systematic, and successful observations of 
 the satellites of Jupiter. But as a philosopher, and a3 a reasoner 
 upon the results of his observations, Cassini doe3 not excel. Au 
 obstinate follower of Descartes, we have no evidence that he ever 
 looked into Newton ; probably his mathematical knowledge was not 
 sufficient to enable Lim to understand the 'Principia.' A devoted, if 
 not a bigoted adherent of the Church of Rome, he was a Ptolemaist 
 long after the time when Galileo had made the speculation of Coper- 
 nicus sound astronomical doctrine ; and we cannot give much admi- 
 ration to the power of a miud which enslaves itself to a church in a 
 matter of science. His unskilful handling of Kepler's laws, his crude 
 and unsatisfactory notions upon comets, and indeed his method of 
 dealing with almost any subject which involved investigation, are so 
 many points which render the extravagant praises of Fontenelle and. 
 Lalande altogether inadmissible. His reputation in fact was alto- 
 gether of a different species from that which it ought to have been. 
 So far as that sort of notoriety is concerned with which the public in 
 general is most struck, Cassini and William Herschel appear to 
 resemble each other. Nevertheless, take from the latter Uranus and 
 six satellites, with two of Saturn, and thers is left a first-rate repu- 
 tation among astronomers ; withdraw the similar discoveries of Cassini 
 
CASSINI. 
 
 108 
 
 und ho remains a commendable ami even a remarkable observer, but 
 by no means in bis present rank. And it must be remarked that 
 there is throughout Cassini's writings a continual tendency, either 
 from ignorance or vatiity, to appropriate the discoveries of prede- 
 cessors or contemporaries. He speaks of himself as the first who 
 observed the variation of the moon's diameter depending upon her 
 altitude. " Oui," says Delatnbre, in one of his parentheses, " le 
 premier apres Kepler, Auzout, et Hevelius." Tho summing up of this 
 searching historian is worth extracting. "But why, we may ask, has 
 Cassini so universal a reputation ? Why has he had more praise to his 
 own share than all astronomers together, at least during their lives? 
 Firstly, because there was in him much to praise, because he was 
 industrious, because he kept public attention constantly awake, because 
 he employed for the most part uuusual means, such as his guomou 
 and his long telescopes; and because, being invited to France as a man 
 who could not be done without, tho world early became accustomed 
 to consider him superior to those who had wished him to join them. 
 He was a conquest for which the monarch was praised, and all the 
 eloges bestowed upon him went indirectly to the king. He attributed 
 (faisait hommage) all his discoveries to Louis XIV.; he was the 
 favourite astronomer of the court, so that it did not need as much as 
 he had to secure him more reputation than any other. All the world 
 understood Cassini's discoveries : Jupiter turned in 9h. 66*10., Venus 
 in 23h. 20m., Mars in 24h. 40m. ; Saturn had four moons, which no 
 one had seen till then, and a medal had been struck to commemorate 
 the latter. In reality, these phenomena were isolated novelties, infi- 
 nitely curious things, which all astronomers are very glad to know, 
 but which could have been omitted without any result in the smallest 
 degree prejudicial to the progress of real astronomy. If we feel 
 authorised to reproach any one it is not Cassini, but his contempo- 
 raries." On the other hand, Lalande, an astronomer of real merit but 
 of great want of judgment, has the following absurd exaggeration : — 
 " Cassini was one of those rare men who seem formed by nature to 
 give a new face to the sciences ; astronomy, augmented and perfected 
 in all its parts by the discoveries of Cassini, underwent in his hands a 
 most astonishing revolution. This great man was the chief glory of 
 the glory of Louis XIV. in this respect, and the name of Cassini is 
 almost synonymous in France with that of the creator of astronomy." 
 On which we cau only say, may every Lalande find a Delambre ! 
 
 The writings of Dominic Cassini are numerous, and a complete list 
 may be found in Lalaude's 'Bibliographie Astronomique.' It is a 
 presumption, so far as it goes, of the accuracy of the character given 
 by Delambre, that none of these writings are now sought after as con- 
 taining matter of any lasting value, except only the pure results of 
 observation. 
 
 James Cassini, son of Dominic, was born at Paris, February 18, 
 1677, and at seventeen years of age was thought of sufficient promise 
 to be received a member of the Academy of Sciences. He accom- 
 panied his father to Italy in 1695, and afterwards travelled in England 
 and Holland, where he became acquainted with Newton, Flamsteed, 
 &c. He succeeded his father at the observatory, was Maitre des 
 Comptes, and died April 16, 1756. He was proceeding to his estate of 
 Toury, when the carriage was upset, and he became immediately 
 paralytic. 
 
 There is not much of brilliancy in the results of the life of James 
 Cassini as compared with those of his father, whom, on the whole, he 
 much resembled in th3 character of his methods of observing and 
 ded uciug. He was a better mathematician, and devoted himself for 
 the most part to fundamental points of astronomy, and to the con- 
 struction of tables. His separate writings are not numerous ; some 
 of them on optics by himself and his brother (afterwards killed as 
 before stated) were published in 1691, being nothiug but college exer- 
 cises. The others are, ' De la Grandeur et de la Figure de la Terre,' 
 Paris, 1720; and 'Elemens d' Astronomic,' Paris, 1740. 
 
 The first of these two works (a suite to the ' Mem. Acad. Sci.' for 
 1719) contains the account of the continuation of Picard's arc of the 
 meridian, begun by Dominic Cassini and La Hire in 1680, and recom- 
 menced by Dominic and James Cassini in 1700. On the results of this 
 measurement Dominic Cassini concluded that the earth was a spheroid 
 elongated towards the poles, contrary both to theory and other 
 observations. Much discussion was excited at the time. The second 
 work is an elementary treatise, which seems intended to explain his 
 own and his father's, astronomy. It is accompanied by a volume of 
 tables, which must be considered as the joint work of the father and 
 sou. This collection was republished when the original edition became 
 scarce, but with so many errors of press as to diminish its value mate- 
 rially. The correct edition is that of the Imprimerie Koyale, Paris, 
 with the fleurde-lys in the title-page. From this work we see that 
 James Cassini seems biassed, uhich is no great matter of surprise, in 
 favour of his father, even to the extent of declaring that the hypothesis 
 of the successive propagation of light, which all the world knew to 
 belong to Roemer, was in fact started, examined, and rejected by 
 Dominic Cassini. He cites the ' Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences,' 
 which when examined by Delambre were found to contain nothing in 
 support of the assertion, but showed very distinctly that Cassini and 
 Roemer were in controversy upon the subject, and that nothing but 
 the rejection of the hypothesis now known by the name of Roemer 
 appears to have belonged to Dominic Cassini. It appears also that 
 
 Jame3 Cassini was rather Coperuican in his notions, but not very 
 strongly determined; that he knew nothing, or next to nothing, of 
 the system and writings of Newton (' Priucipia,' 1687; J. Cassini's 
 'Astronomy,' 1740), which he cites in two places — once to endeavour 
 to explain the acceleration of Jupiter's motion, in another for obser- 
 vations of a comet. He knows nothing of Bradley's discovory of 
 aberration (1727-28) ; but Delambre has forgotten when he adds that 
 he knew nothing of that of nutation, which was not published till 
 1747. He appears to be, like his father, a follower of Descartes, and 
 also, like him, to prefer graphical methods to calculation. His ideas 
 upon the theory of comets would have been much the better for the 
 study of Newton. Nevertheless, as an observer, J. Cassini was dis- 
 tinguished. His determinations of the times of revolution of the five 
 satellites of Saturn then known are very exact: he first observed the 
 inclination of the orbit of the fifth (now the seventh) of them. He 
 improved the methods and tables of refraction ; determined very nearly 
 the variation of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the length of the year 
 by comparison of a large number of equinoxes of his own and others. 
 He left also a great number of good observations. Neverthele-s, it is 
 but justice to Picard and Roemer to remember, that both of the Cassiuis 
 put together, distinguished as they were, did absolutely nothing which 
 can now bring them to the daily remembrance of tho astronomer, 
 though their fame has surpassed that of the re-iuventor of the 
 micrometer, and the inventor of the transit instrument. 
 
 Cjesae Francis Cassini, son of James, was born at Paris, June 17, 
 1714. He is generally known by the name of Cassini de Thury, having 
 been the first to take a territorial appellation from the estate acquired 
 by his father or grandfather. He accompanied his father during his 
 geodesical operations in 1733, and was received member of the Academy 
 at the age of 21. He succeeded his father as director of the observatory 
 and as maitre des comptes, and died September 4, 1784, of small-pox. 
 His most remarkable labour is the large triangulation of France, pub- 
 lished in 1744, under the title of ' La Mdridicnne, &c, verifide, &c.,' 
 Paris. He nearly completed the large map of France, of which his eou 
 presented 124 sheets to the National Assembly in 1789. He made a long 
 succession of observations at the observatory ; but these, though they 
 would have done credit to Dominio Cassini, were too late of their kind. 
 The time was past in which a descendant of the first two Cassinis could 
 compete with the rest of the world by his hereditary means only. We 
 must refer to Lalande's ' Bibliographie ' for a list of his writings, and 
 to Delambre (' Histoire de l'Astronomie xviii. Siecle ') for detail upon 
 his astronomical observations. 
 
 John Dominic Cassini, son of Cassini de Thury, and most com- 
 monly known by his title of Count, was born at Paris June 30, 1747, 
 and died in the same city October 18, 1845. He is the first of his 
 family who decidedly adopted the system of Newton, though the same 
 may perhaps be said of Cassini de Thury, from some isolated passages 
 in his writings. He was elected member of the Academy in 1770, in 
 which year he published the account of a voyage made by order of the 
 king for trial of the chronometers of Le Roy. He was employed iu 
 1787 with Mdchaiu and Legendre iu the operations for the junction of 
 the observatories of Paris and Greenwich by a chain of triangles. He 
 made repeated endeavours to induce the government to re-establish 
 the observatory upon a new footing and with large instruments. The 
 National Convention, apparently with the desire to force him to resign, 
 resolved in 1793 that the observatory should be placed no longer under 
 the control of one person, but of four, who should take annual duty < 
 in rotation. Of the four the Count Cassini was one, and the other < 
 three were his own pupils. To this he refused to submit, and resigned ' 
 his charge September 6, 1793. He received an order to quit the i 
 observatory iu twenty-four hours, and in the following year was 
 imprisoned for seven months. From that time he abandoned astronomy 
 entirely, refusing either to take part in the great survey, or to belong 
 to the Bureau des Longitudes, or to the Institute, though he entered 
 the latter body under the empire. He fixed himself on his own estate, 
 and devoted himself to the duties of the Conseil of his department. 
 
 Alexander Gabriel Cassini, his son, the fifth of the name, was 
 born at Paris May 9, 1781, and began an astronomical career at a very 
 early age, but soon relinquished this pursuit for that of botany. He 
 was a judge of the Cour Royale, and died of the cholera at Paris, 
 April 16, 1832. 
 
 We have thus the history of the occupation of an observatory by 
 the members of one family for 122 years, and in spite of the deserved 
 reputation of all the observers in question for talent and assiduity, it 
 must be asserted that the hereditary system did not succeed. Delambre 
 remarks with 6ome bitterness, that during the whole of the reign of the 
 Cassinis not " one little catalogue of stars " issued from the national 
 observatory. Picard had proposed the erection of large instruments, 
 and the observation of right ascensions and declinations. To this 
 Dominic Cassini was opposed, and in the usual course of things such 
 an error would have lasted for his life, and would have been repaired 
 by his successor. But when the first Cassini was followed by a second 
 and a third wedded to the ideas of their common ancestor, there could 
 he no improvement; and the consequence is that the observatory of 
 Greenwich, for the same period, bears away the palm from that of 
 Paris in actual use to astronomy. Had the National Convention 
 adopted the sound ideas of Count Cassini the case might have been 
 altered. The errors of his predecessors appeared to be fully known 
 
we 
 
 CASSIODORUS, MAGNUS. 
 
 CASTALION, SEBASTIAN. 
 
 110 
 
 to him, and had he been allowed to rectify them, it is probable that 
 the fifth Cassini would not have abandoned the career of his ancestors j 
 and we might have seen the observatory of Paris, such as it has been 
 since the accession of Napoleon, still in the hands of the distinguished 
 family who had connected their name with all its previous history. 
 
 CASSIODO'RUS MAGNUS (or, as some call him, MARCUS) 
 AURELIUS, who lived in the sixth century, was a man of letters, an 
 historian, and a statesman. He was born at Scylacium, in the country 
 of the Bruttii, probably about the year 470, though some date his 
 birth ten years later. His father, also named Cassiodorus, was high 
 in office under Odoacer and Theodoric ; and he himself was early 
 introduced to public life under Odoacer, and obtained the confidence 
 of Theodoric, under whom he filled the offices of secretary and qusestor. 
 By Theodoric's successors he was appointed master of the offices and 
 praetorian prefect. Under the reign of Vitiges, about the age of 70, 
 he retired from the world, and founded the monastery of Viviers, in 
 Calabria, where he lived nearly to the age of 100 in devotional retire- 
 ment, enlivened by the exercise of his mechanical ingenuity in the 
 construction of water-clocks, dials, &c, the collection of a valuable 
 library, and composition. He composed a history of the Goths iu 
 twelve books, which is only extant in the abridgment of Jornandes ; 
 and he caused the ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and 
 Tbeodoret, to be translated into Latin by Epiphanes, under the title 
 of ' Historia Tripartita.' Twelve books of his letters are extant : the 
 first ten consist of instructions relating to the service, and written in 
 the name of Theodoric, and his successors, Amalasontha, Athalaric, 
 Theodatus, and Vitiges ; the last two consist of similar papers written 
 in his owu name. They extend from the year 509 to 539. He also 
 composed a treatise ' De Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Literarum,' 
 upon grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and 
 astronomy ; a treatise on orthography, an exposition of the psalms, 
 ind other religious works. He enjoyed a high reputation among his 
 contemporaries for learning, eloquence, and talent; but his Latin is 
 impure, and his style full of the conceits of the age. His last work, 
 ' De Orthographia,' he states in his preface to have been written in his 
 93rd year. The best edition of his works is that of Caret, Rouen, 
 1679, in 2 vols, fol., reprinted at Venice; which contains the abridg- 
 ment of Jornandes and the ' Historia Tripartata,' with a life prefixed. 
 There is also a life of Cassiodorus in French, by Sainte-Marthe. 
 Paris, 1G90. 12mo. As to the character of Cassiodorus, and the 
 literature of his age, the reader may consult Schlosser, ' Universal 
 Historische Uebersicht,' &c. iii. 4. 
 
 CA'SSIUS, AVI'DIUS, was, according to Dion Cassius, a native of 
 Cyrrhus in Syria, and the son of a rhetoriciau, Heliodorus, who was 
 praofect of Egypt in the joint reign of Antoninus Pius and Marcus 
 Aurelius. Cassius served in the Parthian wars (a.d. 1G2 or 1G5) under 
 Lucius Verus, in which he defeated Vologesus, and took Seleuceia and 
 Ctesiphon on the Tigris. He also served on the Danube, probably 
 about 166. He was subsequently appoiuted governor of Syria, and 
 in 170 he went to Egypt to suppress an insurrection in the lower 
 country which was excited by some fanatic-. He succeeded in putting 
 an end to the rebellion; but a few years after (in 175) he himself 
 rebelled against the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and proclaimed hiui- 
 eelf Imperator in the East. Cassius was assassinated in a few months, 
 and his head was carried to Aurelius. The humaue emperor lamented 
 his death, and declared that he wished Cassius alive that he might 
 upbraid him for his ingratitude. The family and children of Cassius 
 were spared, but it is said that Commodus the son of Aureliu3 burnt 
 alive all the then surviving members of the family of Cassius, on the 
 pretence of a fresh conspiracy. 
 
 Dion Cassius, who loved a tale of scandal, says that Faustina the 
 wife of Aurelius, being apprehensive that her husband would not live 
 long, and considering the youth of her son Commodus, attempted to 
 secure the interests of herself and her family by corresponding with 
 Avidius Cassius, and urging him to proclaim himself emperor when- 
 ever he heard of the death of Aurelius, and take her for his wife. It 
 is said that there was a report of the death of Aurelius, and that this 
 was the immediate occasion of Cassius proclaiming himself emperor. 
 It is also said that he was himself the author of the report of the death 
 of Aurelius. The letters between Aurelius and his wife Faustina on 
 the occasion of the rebellion of Cassius are probably not genuine. 
 Vulcatius attempts to show from these letters that Faustina was not 
 privy to the design of Cassius. 
 
 (Vulcatius Gallicanus, Avidius Cassius; Dion Cassius, lib. lxxi. ; 
 Tillemont, llistoire des Etnpcrcurs, vol. ii.) 
 
 CA'SSIUS, CAIUS LONGI'NUS, appears in history for the first 
 time as the quse3tor of Crassus, in the unfortunate campaign against 
 the Parthians, B.C. 53. He foresaw the consequences of the expedition 
 into Mesopotamia, and warned his general against it, but without 
 effect. He commanded a wing of the Roman army in the battle where 
 they were defeated ; and in the retreat from Carrha:, discovering the 
 treachery of the guides, he took his own course with 500 horse, whom 
 \ie conducted alone out of that army safely back into Syria. Succeeding 
 to the command of that province, he held out Antioch against the 
 Parthians, inflicted a signal defeat upon their troops retiring from 
 Antigonia, ana drove them, for a time, across the Euphrates. Upon 
 the arrival of the proconsul Bibulus, B.C. 51, Cassius returned to Rome, 
 having acquired great credit by his conduct. 
 
 A break occurs iu his history, until, after the battle of Pharsalia, 
 B.C. 48, when we find him in Pompey's service, commanding a fleet iu 
 the Hellespont. There he had the opportunity of ending the war by 
 taking Caisar prisoner, who fell in his way accompanied by a very few 
 ships ; but instead of doing so, by some strange indiscretion or trea- 
 chery, he obeyed Caesar's summons to surrender, and passed over to 
 his side. Again we hear no more of him until the conspiracy against 
 the dictator's life, in which he was a principal; and ho was chiefly 
 instrumental iu drawing M. J. Brutus, whose sister he had married, 
 into the plot. He had shared in Crcsar's favours, having been appointed 
 by 'lim to a prcetorship, and to the command of Syria. Of the latter 
 Antony endeavoured to deprive him, and procured a vote of the 
 people to transfer it to Dolabella. Cassius, who had passed into Greece 
 with Brutus, no sooner heard of this than he hastened into Asia, and 
 speedily collected forces, with which he mastered Syria, Phoenicia, and 
 Judoea; and he was on the point of iuvadiug Egypt, when letters from 
 Brutus summoned him to return towards Europe, to make head 
 against the triumviri. After conquering and plundering Rhodes 
 (B.C. 42), he joined Brutus at SarJis, and the united army marching 
 through Thrace into Macedonia, encountered Antony and Octaviauus 
 iu the plain of Philippi. Cassius wished to avoid a battle as long as 
 possible, being aware that the enemy must soon become straitened for 
 provisions. But Brutus was eager to fight, and as the soldiery also 
 began to murmur at what they called the cowardice of their generals, 
 Cassius was obliged to yield. In the battle he commanded the left 
 wiug, and was opposed to Antony. Brutus in the right broke the 
 troops of Octavianus, aud drove them off the field; but pursuing his 
 advantage too far, he exposed the flank of Cassius, who was then taken 
 at disadvantage by his able antagonist, and compelled to quit the field. 
 Thinking that all was lost, he put an end to his life. On hearing of 
 his death, Brutus honoured him with the appellation of the "last of 
 the Romans." 
 
 Cassius was esteemed one of the best generals of the age; his private 
 character was good, though his temper was stern, and he professed a 
 warm attachment to the republican cause. He has not escaped the 
 imputation of being influenced by private enmity in his hostility to 
 Cresar; and the abrupt way in which he abandoned Pompey's cause is 
 calculated to excite suspicious unfavourable to his character. In his 
 philosophical opinions, he belonged to the Epicureans. See Cicero, 'Ep. 
 ad Div.' xv. 19. 
 
 CASSIVELLAUNUS. [Britannia, iu Geographical Division.] 
 CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL, a distinguished Florentine painter, 
 sometimes called the Infamous, was born at Castagno in Mugello, near 
 Florence, about the year 1406, and died aged about seventy-four. He 
 was contemporary with Cosimo Roselli and Masaccio, and painted in a 
 style which iu some respects resembled the styles of both masters, but 
 he always remained far behind Masaccio, though he survived him 
 many years. He was the first Florentine painter to adopt the new 
 method of oil painting, which he learnt from Domenico Veneziano, 
 and whom, after he had mastered the secret, he basely murdered. 
 [Veneziano, Domenico.] Very few of Castagno's works still remain : 
 there are three iu the gallery of the academy of Florence, of which 
 ' St. Jerome in the Desert' is a work of great merit for its period ; there 
 are also two or three of those noticed by Vasari, in religious buildings 
 of Florence. Iu 1478, the Pazzi and other conspirators concerned in 
 tho murder of Giuliano de' Medici, were all painted by Castagno 
 hanging by the feet on the facade of the palace of the Podesta; they 
 were done with such ability, aud in such a variety of attitudes, that 
 Castagno was thenceforth called Andrea degli Impiccati (of the 
 hanged). It was his best work, but it has long siuce perished. 
 (Vasari, Vice de Pittori, &c. ; Baldinucci, Notizie dei Professori del 
 Disegno, &c.) 
 
 CASTALIO'N or CHASTEILLON, SEBASTIAN, was born iu 
 Dauphine, some say in Savoy, about 1515. He applied early to the 
 ancient languages, and became a great proficient in Greek and Hebrew. 
 Being at Strasbourg in 1540-1, he made the acquaintance of John 
 Calvin, who invited him to Geneva, and had him appointed to a chair 
 in the college of that city. After two or three years, Castalion having 
 become obnoxious to Calvin on account of some of his opinions, which 
 were not in accordance with Calvinistic orthodoxy, especially on the 
 subject of predestination, left Geneva fur Basel, where he employed 
 himself in teaching Greek and in writing several works, chiefly on 
 Scriptural subjects. He wrote ' Psalterium reliquaque sacrarum 
 Literarum Carmina et Precationes,' 1547, with notes; 'Jonas Pro- 
 pheta, heroieo carmine Latino descriptus ;' 'Dialugorum Sacrorutn ad 
 liuguam et mores puerorum formandos, libri iv.' This last work has 
 been translated into English by Dr. Bellamy, under the title, ' Youth's 
 Scripture Remembrancer, or Select Sacred Stories by way of familiar 
 Dialogues, in Latin and English, with a short Application of each 
 Story,' London, 1743. He also published a version iu Latiu verse of 
 the Sibylline Books, with notes, aud a Latin translation of the ' Dia- 
 logues ' of Bernardino Ochino. Before he left Geneva he had under- 
 taken a complete Latin version of the Bible from the Hebrew aud 
 Greek, which he completed at Basel, where it was published in 1551, 
 and dedicated to Edward VI. of England. He published a French 
 version of the same iu 1555. Castalion's versions were made the 
 subject of much conflicting criticism. His Latiu Bible went through 
 several editions; that of Leipzig, 1697, contains also his 'Deliueatio 
 
11] 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, count. 
 
 113 
 
 Reipublicce Judaictc ex Josepbo;' ' Defensio versionis Novi Foederis 
 contra Th. Bezarn ; ' and ' Nota prolixior in cap. ix. Epistola) ad 
 Romanos.' lie carried on an epistolary controversy with Calvin and 
 Beza, who assailed liim with many charges, and even urged, though 
 ineffectually, the magistrates of Basel to drive him away. He passed 
 his latter years at Basel in great poverty, and died in 1503, leaving a 
 numerous family in want. Ho was buried in the cathedral, through 
 the exertions of three Polish gentlemen who had been his pupils. In 
 bis hitler years he was in the habit of resorting to the banks of the 
 Rhine or of the Bin when swollen, where with a crook he endeavoured 
 to catch the pieces of wood and branches of trees which the river 
 carried alon?, in order to procure fuel for his family. This was made 
 the subject of a charge by Calvin, as if he had been guilty of pilfering. 
 In 15C2 Castalion published his eloquent ' Defensio suarum Trausla- 
 tionum Bibliorum et maxime Novi Foederis,' in which he speaks of 
 himself and his works with the frank earnestness of an injured person. 
 His ' Dialogi IV. de Prxdestinatione, Election?, Libero Arbitrio, ao 
 Fide.' were published in 1578 by Faustus Socinus. He ha* beeu 
 abased both by Calvinists and Roman Catholics; Arminian critics 
 have been more indulgent to him. He wrote a treatise to prove that 
 magistrates have no right to punish heretics. (Bayle, Diet., ed. 1730, 
 art. ' Castalion.') 
 
 CASTANOS, FRANCISCO XAVIER, the most eminent Spanish 
 general in the Peninsular war, was born at Madrid, according to the 
 best Spanish authorities, about 1756. His father, who was a military 
 officer, procured him a captain's commission at the age of twelve, and 
 he remained in the service till he was ninety-six, being then probably 
 the oldest soldier on record. In his early years he was sent with 
 General O'Reilly to the court of Frederick the Great to study the 
 Prussian tactics, and he passed through various grades in th-j Spanish 
 army without achieving any high reputation till the invasion of Spain 
 by Napoleon I., when he was fortunate enough to strike the first blow 
 of the long series of victories against the French, which terminated in 
 the downfall of their power. On the 22nd of July 1808, eighteen 
 thousand French, commanded by General Dupout, laid down their arms 
 and surrendered to the Spanish army under Castanos, at Baylen. It is 
 stated by Lord Holland, in his ' Reminiscences,' that when the French 
 general delivered his sword to Castanos, he said, " You may well, 
 General, be proud of this day ; it is remarkable that I have never lost 
 a pitched battle till now : I, who have been in more than twenty, and 
 gained them all ! " " It is the more remarkable," was the Spaniard's 
 quiet reply, " because I never was in one before in my life." The chief 
 merit of the victory has however beeu ascribed by many to the second 
 in command, Aloys Reding, a Swiss patriot, who, after vainly endea- 
 vouring to defend his native country against Napoleon, had eutered 
 the service of Spain. The effect of this great battle was to drive 
 Joseph Bonaparte from Madrid, and on the 23rd of August Castanos 
 made his triumphal entry into the capital, where on the next day 
 Ferdinand was proclaimed. Eater in the same year, iu November, 
 Castanos was defeated by the French at Tudela, and he held but a sub- 
 ordinate position to the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Beresford 
 during the remainder of the war, in which he took a share in the 
 battles of Albuera, Salamanca, and Vittoiia, particularly the last. In 
 1815, on the return of Napoleon, he was in command of an army of 
 SO, 000 Spaniards, which had already partly advanced into France 
 when the news of the battle of Waterloo arrived. In the year before 
 however he had received some disgusts from the government, which 
 excited the indignation of the Duke of Wellington, his companion-in- 
 arms ; and in the years which followed he did not hold a prominent 
 position, though he possessed much of the esteem of both parties. 
 Towards the close of his life however his popularity revived, partly 
 perhaps on account of the phenomenon of his great age, and the Duke 
 of Baylen was looked on as the representative of Spanish chivalry. 
 "In spite of his ninety years of age," says Mellado in 1816, "General 
 Castanos, though much bent, still constantly shows himself in the 
 public streets, moving about on foot and in the enjoyment of astonish- 
 ing health. For some time he has been an almost daily visitor at the 
 royal palace, and has the reputation of being full of sharp and weighty 
 sayings ; maDy of his reputed repartees to King Ferdinand, who was 
 very fond of him, circulating amongst the lower classes." Among 
 other posts of dignity, he held that of one of the guardians of the 
 present Queen of Spain. He died at Madrid, on the 24th of Septem- 
 ber 1852, ten days only after the decease of the Duke of Wellington, 
 and his remains were honoured with a public funeral. 
 
 CASTELLI, BENEDICT, was born at Brescia in 1577, and died at 
 Rome in 1614. He was a Benedictine, and taught mathematics at 
 Pisa, and afterwards at Rome. He is known as having been a defender 
 of the hydrostatical doctrines of Galileo, in his ' Risposta alle oppos- 
 sizione,' &c, Florence, 1615. He was also the first who applied the 
 new doctrines of motion to hydraulics, on which subject he is to be 
 considered the earliest writer of the experimental school. In his 
 treatise 'Delia Misura dell' Acque Correnti,' Rome, 1638, he explains 
 several phenomena, but was misled by a notion that the velocity of 
 issuing water is proportional to the height of the reservoir, instead of 
 the square root of the height. (Montucla, ii. 201, iii. 679, 'Biog. Univ.') 
 He left several papers, some of which were published after his death 
 by Cardinal Leopold de' Medici, and others, which wero among the 
 manuscripts in the library of St. George at Venice, were printed in 
 
 ' De Motu Aquarum Currentium,' Florence, 1723. A life of Castelli 
 
 was published at Dresden in 1746. 
 
 CA'STI, GIOVAN BATISTA, was born in 1721 in the Roman State. 
 He studied in the semiuary of Montefiascone, and afterwards took 
 priest's orders. Little is known of his early life until 1762, when he 
 published ' I Trd Ginli,' a series of 200 sonnets on the subject of a 
 debt amounting to three giuli, or paoli, a Roman coin worth about 
 fivepence, which the author dsecribes himself as having incurred. 
 His merciless creditor insisted upon immediate payment, which the 
 poet endeavours to put off by all sorts of ingenious devices, by flattery, 
 entreaties, threats, &c. A rich veiu of humour and facetiousness runs 
 throughout the whole composition. The ' Tr6 Giuli ' have been 
 translated into English (London, 1826). In 1765 CaBti went to 
 Florence, where by his wit as well as by his real information he found 
 favour with the Grand Duke Leopold and his court. When Joseph II. 
 visited Florence in 17G9 he became acquainted with Casti, and invited 
 him to Vienna, where the poet was well received; and he afterwards 
 Attended Prince Kaunitz, the prime minister, in several diplomatic 
 missions. Iu 1778 he went to Russia, where he was introduced to 
 Catharine II., and where he conceived the plan of his ' Poema Tartaro,' 
 which contains a satire on that empress and her court under fictitious 
 names. He afterwards returned to Vienna, where he obtained the 
 situation of Poeti Cesareo, or court poet, vacant by the death of 
 Metastasio in 1782. He there composed some burlesque dramas, 
 among others ' II Re Teodoro a Venezia,' which was set to music by 
 the great composer Paisiello ; and ' La Grotta di Trofonio,' which is a 
 sort of satire upon philosophers. He wrote auother opera buffa, in 
 which he parodied the story of Catiline's conspiracy and Cicero's part 
 in that transaction. About the time that the French entered Italy in 
 1796, Casti left Vienna for Milan, where he showed himself a warm 
 partisan of republicanism. He lived afterwards some time at Florence, 
 and lastly in 1798 he visited Paris, where he remained till his death 
 in February 1803. At Paris he published in 1802 his ' Animali 
 Parlanti,' a poem, which is his chief title to fame. It has beeu called 
 a satire on courts, but it might be styled as well a satire on political 
 society iu general, for the author la3hes demagogues as well as courtiers. 
 It has been partly translated and partly imitated by W. Stewart Rose 
 iu his 'Court and Parliament of Beasts,' London, 1819. Casti has 
 much of the humour peculiar to Berni's school [Beiini], of which he 
 may be considered as one of the last specimens, although he rose higher 
 iu the choice of his subjects and in the freedom of his allusions. A 
 complete edition of his 'Novelle Galanti' was published in 3 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1801. They are humorous stories in verse, and the subjects are 
 much after the fashion of Boccaccio's tales, written in a fluent style, 
 but mostly licentious. Casti by this work placed himself among the 
 very few indecent Italian writers of the 18th century. 
 
 CASTIGLIO'NE BALDASSA'RRE, was born of a noble family in 
 the State of Mantua in 1478. He studied at Milan under Morula and 
 Demetrius Calchondylas, and afterwards returning to Mantua he 
 entered the service of the Duke Francesco Gonzaga, whom he accom- 
 panied in his campaign in South Italy, when Gonzaga led the French 
 army to the conquest of Naples. After the defeat of the French by 
 Gonzalo of Cordova in 1503, Castiglione repaired to Rome, where he 
 attached himself to the court of Guidobaklo di Montefeltro, duke of 
 Urbino, who was a patron of literature. During his residence at 
 Urbino he enjoyed the company of Bembo, Bibbiena, Giuliano de* 
 Medici, and other distinguished men who graced that little court. In 
 1506 he was sent by the duke to England on a mission to Henry VIII., 
 who was pleased with him, and made him a knight. After Duke 
 Guidobaldo's death he followed his successor, Giuseppe Maria della 
 Rovere, in the campaign against the Venetians. When Leo X. ascended 
 the Papal throne iu 1513, Castiglione was sent as ambassador to him. 
 Some years afterwards he was recalled to Mantua by his natural 
 sovereign the Duke Gonzaga, was employed by him on several missions, 
 and after some years was sent again to Rome to Pope Clement VIL, 
 who took him into his own service, and appoiuted him his ambassador 
 to Charles V. While Castiglione was residing at Madrid in this 
 capacity, the news came of the taking and sacking of Rome by the 
 imperial army in 1527. This unexpected catastrophe affected the 
 mind and the health of Castiglione, who became disgusted with courts 
 and politics. Charles V., who valued him, offered him the bishopric 
 of Avila, which he refused. After lingering iu Spain another year he 
 died at Toledo iu February, 1529. 
 
 The principal work of Castiglione is his treatise in the form of a 
 dialogue, 'Del Cortigiano ' (Of the Courtier). He wrote it while ho 
 was at the court of Urbino, which happened to be then a very favour- 
 able specimen of courts. Castiglione specifies all the qualities which 
 an accomplished and intelligent and at the same time honest courtier 
 ought to possess, and the manner in which he ought to use them for 
 the good of his prince. The ' Cortigiano ' has been much and long 
 admired in Italy both for the thoughts aud the style, and it still ranks 
 among the classical works of the 16th century. Castiglione wrote 
 also poetry, both Latin and Italian : his ' Lettere,' or correspondence, 
 were published by Serassi iu 1769, 2 vols. 4to, with a biography of 
 the author. 
 
 ♦CASTIGLIONE, CARLO-OTTAVIO, Count, was born in 1795, in 
 the city of Milan, and is descended from a family of distinction. He 
 
 early applied himself to the study of languages, and to the explication 
 
Ill 
 
 of ancient coins. In 1819 he published hi? work on the Cufic coins in 
 the Brera cabinet of the Museum of Milan, ' Monete Cufiche del 
 Museo di Milano,' 4to. When Angelo Mai in 1817 had discovered 
 atnoug the palimpsests, or rescript mauuscripts, in the Ambrosian 
 Library at Milan, some portions of the Gothic version of the New 
 Testament by Bishop Ulphilas, he invited Count Castiglione to assist 
 him in preparing some of them for publication. In 1819, Mai, in 
 conjunction with Castiglioue, published 'Ulphiko Partium Inedi- 
 tarum in Ambrosianis Palimpsestis ab Angelo Maio repertarum Editio,' 
 4to, Milan. In 1826 Castiglione published the results of his investi- 
 gations into the origin and history of those cities of Barbary of which 
 the names occur on Arabic coins, in his 'Memoire Gdographique et 
 Numismatique sur la Partie Orientale de la Barberie appelde Afrikiah 
 par les Arabes.' In 1829 he published, with his own name, the Gothic 
 version by Ulphilas of St. Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians ; 
 which was followed in 1834 by such portions as remained of the 
 Epistle to the Romans, the First Epistle to the Curiuthiaus, aud the 
 Epistle to the Ephesians; and again in 1835 whatever had been found 
 of the Epistles to the Galatians, the Philippians, the Colossians, and 
 the First to the Thessalonians, and iu 1839 similar portions of the 
 Second to the Thessalonians, to Timothy, to Titus, and Philemon. 
 All these publications are valuable for the glossaries, the dissertations, 
 and the notes which accompany them, all of which are in Latin. 
 
 Ulphilas was the bishop of those Goths who, in the 4th century, 
 were settled in Mcesia, that is, on the south side of the lower Danube, 
 now Servia and Bulgaria. He made a translation of the New Testa- 
 ment, and of portions of the Old, into the language which has been 
 named the Mceso-Gothic, and by the Germans the Alt Gotisch, or Old 
 Gothic. Of this version, the Four Gospels, nearly complete, were dis- 
 covered in the library of the abbey of Werden iu Westphalia, and are 
 now preserved in the library of Upsala in Sweden, in a manuscript which 
 has been named the ' Argenteus Codex,' or Silver Book. The letters of 
 this codex have not been written by a pen, but have been stamped in 
 silver on the vellum with metal types or tools, probably heated, in the 
 same manner as bookbinders now stamp the titles on the backs of 
 books. Hence the name Silver Book. The ' Argenteus Codex' was first 
 printed by Junius in 1665, with types cut to resemble the letters of 
 the original, and there have been other editions published since printed 
 with the ordinary types. The Rev. Dr. Boswortb, the author of the 
 'Anglo-Saxon Dictionary,' ha3 been for some time engaged in pre- 
 paring for the press the Mce30-Gothic Gospels of Ulphilas in parallel 
 columns with the Anglo-Saxon version. (Bosworth.) The discovery 
 and publication of the Epistles of the New Testament, incomplete in 
 some degree as they are, in addition to the Gospels, are of very great 
 interest to those who study the Germanic languages in this their 
 most ancient known form. 
 
 CASTIGLI'ONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO, called by the French 
 LE BENEDETTE, aDd at Mantua IL GRECHETTO, was born at 
 Genoa in 1616, and was one of the most distinguished of the Genoese 
 painters, and an admirable etcher. He was placed by his father with 
 G. B. Paggi, and upon his death very soon afterwards with Andrea 
 de' Ferrari, and finally, it is said by Soprani, Lanzi, aud others, with 
 Vandyck, who certainly lived some time in Genoa, but, except for a 
 short visit, scarcely later than 1625, when Castiglione was only nine 
 years old, if Soprani's date is correct. This improbability, and the 
 fact that Paggi did not die until 1C27, render the report of his hiving 
 studied with Vandyck highly improbable. Vandyck was established 
 in England in 1632, and Castiglione was then only sixteen years of 
 age, and Vandyck did not settle in England uutil some years after his 
 return from Italy. 
 
 Castiglione painted in various styles, as history, portrait, landscape, 
 and animals. He excelled in all, but most in animal painting and in 
 pastoral landscape; in animals he has not had a superior in Italy. 
 His masterpiece is the ' Nativity of the Saviour ' in the church of 
 San Luca, and it is one of the finest pictures in Genoa : there is an 
 etching of it by himself. He died at Mantua in 1670, in the service 
 of the Duke Carlo I. : he had lived also for short periods in Venice, 
 Florence, Rome, Naples, and Bologna. 
 
 Castiglione executed a considerable number of etchings, which are 
 very highly valued ; many of them are much in the style of those 
 of Rembrandt : Bartseh describes sixty-seven. One, of the 'Entrance 
 of the Beasts into the Ark,' is characteristic of the particular taste of 
 Castiglione; he generally chose subjects in which he could introduce 
 animals, as fairs, markets, &c, and he seem3 to have had also a 
 partiality for treating Scripture subjects of the kind. For execution, 
 three of hi3 best etchings are — ' The Discovery of the bodies of St. 
 Peter and St. Paul,' a night-piece ; ' Diogenes in search of an Honest 
 Man;' and 'Melancholy.' The majority of his paintings are small, 
 and the figures introduced into them are seldom very excellent; he is 
 also sometimes inharmonious in his colouring, and heavy in his 
 shadows. The name of Grechetto was given to Castiglione, according 
 to Soprani and Lanzi, on account of the beauty of his colouring ; but 
 how the term is applicable is not very evident. Salvatore and 
 Francesco Castiglione, the brother and the son of Giovanni Benedetto, 
 were both his pupils, and were able painters. 
 
 * CASTILHO, ANTONIO FELICIANO DE, often spoken of as the 
 blind poet of Portugal,' and certainly one of the most distinguished 
 living poets of that country, was born at Lisbon on the 26th of 
 
 January 1800. In Almeida Garrett's sketch of the Portuguese 
 language and literature prefixed to the 'Parnaso Lusitano' in 1826, 
 he is described as "deprived of sight," but in the ' Conversations- 
 Lexikon,' of 1813, it is mentioned that at the age of six he lost the 
 sight of one eye only by the incasleB, and in the portrait prefixed to 
 his own ' Quadros historicos de Portugal,' he appears to retain the 
 power of vision in one eye. Iu his 'Excavates Poeticas ' (Lisbon, 
 1814), he speaks of his having shown when ten years of age such a 
 predilection and talent for sculpture, that Machado de Castro, the 
 Portuguese sculptor, regarded him as a prodigy, and drew up an 
 application to the Portuguese government to take him under its 
 patronage, and secure his genius due cultivation. He was however 
 educated to the legal profession, which he never appears to have 
 practised. From about the age of mauhood he became known as a 
 poet, and his works have mostly run through several editions with 
 long lists of subscribers, the Portuguese sovereign generally at the 
 head. His first production was ' Letters from Echo to Narcissus,' in 
 imitation of Ovid, five books of whose 'Metamorphoses' he also 
 translated ; in his other productions he often reminds tlie reader of 
 English models, his ' Dia de Primavera ' (Day in Spring) is in 
 imitation of Thomson, aud his 'Noite do Castello ' (Night at the 
 Castle) has the same plot as Monk Lewis's once celebrated ballad of 
 'Alonzo aud Imogene.' He informs us however in an appendix that 
 it was not till 1831, four years after he had written the ' Noite,' that 
 he first learned from his friend Herculano de Carvalho, the existence 
 of Lewis's ballad. Iu the reign of King John VI. Castilho held a 
 post under the Portuguese government, but iu the succeeding reign of 
 Don Miguel he not only lost this, but was obliged to banish himself 
 from Portugal, to which he returned on the success of Don Pedro. In 
 the titlepage to his ' Exeavagoes Poeticas ' he gives a long list of his 
 titles, commencing with that of Knight of the Order of the Tower and 
 Sword, aud including that of ' Memnide Egiueuse ' iu the Arcadian 
 Academy of Rome, an honour to which the Portuguese poets still 
 seem to attach importance. His only prose work of length appears to 
 be the ' Quadros Historicos de Portugal,' a series of descriptions of 
 paintings designed to illustrate Portuguese history, published at 
 Lisbon in folio iu 1838. 
 
 Castilho founded, aud for the first four years — from 1842 to 1845 — 
 conducted, the ' Revista Universal Lisbouense,' now under the editor- 
 ship of Ribeiro de Sa. It is a weekly periodical in quarto, of the nature 
 of a magazine, containing tales and poems, with occasional reviews aud 
 notices of the progress of the arts and literature, and is altogether the 
 best source of information as to the present literary state of Portugal. 
 CASTLEREAGH. [Londonderry, Marquis op.] 
 CASTREN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER, one of the heroes and 
 martyrs of modern philology, was born on the 2nd of December 1813 
 in the province of Uleoborg in Finland, not far from the boundary 
 between Finland and Lapland, a little north of fhe town of Torneo, 
 the place to which travellers usually resort to witness the phenomenon 
 of the midnight sun. He received his early education at Torneo, and 
 afterwards went to Helsiugfors to pursue his studies at the university, 
 which had been removed there by the Russian government after the 
 conflagration of Abo. One effect of the transfer of Finland from 
 Sweden to Russia had been to lessen the importance of the Swedish 
 language, which had up to that period occupied much the same 
 position iu Finland which the English does in Wales, but which then 
 ceased to be the language of the government, though it continued to 
 be that of the educated classes. A lively interest was awukeued in 
 the Finnish, the old language of the country, which is still spoken by 
 the peasantry, and which some recent philologists have not hesitated 
 to pronounce one of the finest languages in Europe. Of the students 
 at Helsiugfors who followed up this study, none were more enthusiastic 
 than Castrdn. He made a resolution to devote hh lite to the language 
 aud literature of his native country. Nor was this an idle vaunt. 
 He commenced a course of inquiries into the mythology of aucieut 
 Finland, and finding that to complete his views it was desirable to 
 ascertain with more exactness than had hitherto been thought requisite 
 the mythology of the Laplanders, he looked about him for the 
 means of making a journey into Lapland, and studying the language 
 and religion of the Laps. In 1838 an opportunity presented itself, 
 and he set out with three companions on a tour, which before its 
 completion took him to Uitzoki and the great lake of Euare\ The 
 travellers had to carry their changes of clothing and all their stores 
 on their backs, aud their journey both out and home was an almost 
 uninterrupted series of labours, hardships, aud privations. Castren 
 could learn less of the Lapland mythology than he had expected, for 
 although the conversion of many of the tribes from heathenism had 
 only taken place in the 18th century, the Christian Laps were so 
 devout that they often spent twenty-four hours in succession in religious 
 exercises, and many of them knew the whole of the New Testament by 
 heart ; the ancient mythology being regarded with proportionate abhor- 
 rence. On his return he learned that the Imperial Academy of Sciences 
 at St. Petersburg contemplated sending an expedition to Siberia to prose- 
 cute researches in ethnology, and he put himself in communication with 
 his fellow-countryman and fellow-philologist Sjogren to undertake the 
 task. For the time he was disappointed ; but the Literary Society of 
 Finland raised a scanty subscription to send him on a mission to 
 Russian Carelia, to collect ballads, legends, and traditions illustrative 
 
115 
 
 CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI. 
 
 CATHARINA II. 
 
 ua 
 
 of his favourite Finnish mythology, and he was remarkably success- 
 ful. Soon after his return, in 1841, he published, at Helsingfors, a 
 translation into Swedish, in the metre of the original, of the great 
 Finnish poem ' Kalevala,' the discovery of which by Dr. Lonurot, 
 who first noted part of it down from the lips of the peasantry, has 
 made an epoch in the history of Finnish literature. It was this trans- 
 lation that first brought the poem into general notice ; and, certainly, 
 since Macpherson's 'Ossian,' no discovery of the kind, real or supposed, 
 has produced an equal sensation. ' Hiawatha,' the recent poem of 
 Professor Longfellow, though purporting to be an embodiment of the 
 traditions of the North American Indians, is borrowed from the 
 'Kalevala' in its general style, in its peculiar metre, and even in some 
 of its more prominent passages. Soon after its publication Castren 
 set out on his third philological journey, which appears to have been 
 made in its outset at the expense of Dr. Lonnrot, and afterwards at 
 that of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It took him first to his 
 old quarters at Euard, then to Kola, the capital of Russian Lapland, 
 and finally to the Samoycds on the coast of the White Sea. Here, 
 with only fifteen rubles to keep him from starvation, he struck up an 
 acquaintance with some of the savage Samoyeds, or cannibals, one of 
 whom for an occasional glass of brandy undertook to teach him the 
 Samoyed language ; and in the hut of this man he passed nearly the 
 whole of a summer, engaged in the study. Towards the end of his 
 travels, which lasted four years, from 1840 to 1849, he crossed the 
 Tundras, or deserts of European Russia, between the White Sea aud 
 the Ural, where not even the rein-deer can front the wintry blast aud 
 live. Philology has its martyrs as well as religion. Castren returned 
 with his constitution ruined. 
 
 While on his travels he had written most interesting and animated 
 letters descriptive of his adventures and discoveries, which were 
 printed in the 'Suomi,'an excellent periodical in the Swedish language 
 published at Helsingfors. Many communications from him on learned 
 subjects, chiefly written in German, appeared at the same time in the 
 'Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences' at St. Petersburg. Ou his 
 return his name was universally known as that of a philologist of the 
 first rank, but it was not till March 1851, on the occasion of a visit of 
 the Grand Duke Alexander, the present Emperor of Russia, to the 
 University of Helsingfors, that he was raised from the position of a 
 ' privat-docent,' or private tutor, to that of professor of the Finnish 
 and old Scandinavian language's. One of his duties was to deliver a 
 course of lectures on Finnish mythology, which he immediately com- 
 menced composing, but before they could be finished he was no more. 
 He died at Helsingfors on the 7th of May 1852, from the effects of his 
 Samoyed journey. 
 
 The translation of the 'Kalevala,' and some of CastreVs other 
 works, have been already mentioned. His lectures, ' Vorlesungeu fiber 
 Finnische Mythologie,' were published in German at St. Petersburg 
 in 1853 under the editorship of Schiefner. A German version of his 
 travels by Helms was published at Leipzig in 1853, aud analysed at 
 some length in the ' Quarterly Review.' His other works were mostly 
 of a philological character : — ' Elementa Grammatices Tcheremissas,' 
 Kuopio, 1845, 8vo ; 'Elementa Grammatices Syrjanse,' Helsingfors, 
 1844, 8vo; 'De affixis personalibus liuguarum Altaicarum,' Helsing- 
 fors, 1850, 4to. There is also an Ostiak Grammar in German, forming a 
 portion of a work called ' Nordische Reisen und Forschungen,' which 
 was commenced at St. Petersburg in 1849. It need hardly be added 
 that all these works are of the highest value to those who take an 
 interest in what is called the Ugrian family of languages, comprising 
 the Finnish, the Hungarian, the Syryaniau, and other dialects scattered 
 over the surface of European Russia, to investigate which was the 
 object of Castren's devoted exertions. It is much to be regretted for 
 the sake of learning, as well as on other accounts, that he was snatched 
 away before he had time to communicate to the world the results of 
 his dauntless and ingenious labours. 
 
 CASTRU'CCIO CASTRACA'NI was born at Lucca about the year 
 1283. His family name was Interminelli, but he assumed that of 
 Castracani on his adoption into the family of that name, which was 
 one of the principal of Lucca. When he was twenty years of age he 
 visited England, where some of the Interminelli, who had been exiled 
 from Lucca as Ghibelines, had settled, and had acquired wealth by 
 trade. Castruccio was admitted iuto the court of Edward I., and 
 served in the armies of that prince, but having killed in a quarrel a 
 nobleman of the court, he was obliged to leave England for Flanders 
 where he served under Philip le Bel, king of France, and greatly 
 distinguished himself by his valour and abilities. About 1313 he 
 returned to Italy, and joined the Ghibelines of Pisa, whom he assisted 
 in expelling the Guelphs from Lucca. But Uguccione della Faggiuola, 
 the leader of the Pisans aud a soldier of fortune, having made himself 
 tyrant of both Pisa and Lucca, threw Castruccio into prison. In 1316 
 an insurrection of both Pisa and Lucca drove away Uguccione, and 
 the citizens of Lucca, having liberated Castruccio, proclaimed him 
 chief of their republic. He was young, handsome, and brave, clever 
 and unscrupulous, and he strengthened himself in his place by 
 removing, by fair or foul means, all those who were ill-disposed towards 
 him. 
 
 He then attacked Florence, which was the stronghold of the Guelph 
 party in Italy. He took Pistoja and completely defeated, at Alto 
 Pascio, the Florentine army under Raymund of Cardona, a Catalonian 
 
 mercenary chief, in September 1325. He then joined the other 
 Ghibeline leadex-s in inviting the Emperor Louis of Bavaria to march 
 into Italy and complete the subjugation of the Guelphs. The emperor 
 came, and Castruccio became his chief adviser. In 1327 Louis reduced 
 Pisa, and then proceeded with Castruccio to Rome, which he entered 
 by force, and was crowned in the Vatican by the bishops of Venice 
 aud Aleria in January 1328, notwithstanding the excommunications 
 of the pope John XXII. Castruccio was made Count Palatine. He 
 had already been acknowledged by the emperor as Duke of Lucca, 
 Pistoja, Volterra, and Lunigiana. Ho aimed at uniting all Tuscany 
 under his sway, and establishing at the same time the supremacy of 
 the emperor over all Italy, according to the principles of the Ghibeline 
 party. While at Rome ho received intelligence that the Florentines 
 had surprised Pistoja, upon which he immediately returned to Tuscauy, 
 and on his way made himself master of Pisa, and besieged and took 
 Pistoja, notwithstanding all the efforts of the Florentines to relieve 
 the place. His exertions during the siege brought on an illness of 
 which he died, 3rd of September 1328, at forty-five years of age. His 
 death relieved Florence of one of its most dangerous enemies, and 
 gave at the same time a fatal blow to the Ghibeline party in Italy. 
 His children were driven away from Lucca in the following year. 
 Castruccio is admitted by Italian historians to have been one of the 
 few Italian chiefs of the middle ages whose ideas soared beyond the 
 narrow circle of municipal ambition, and who entertained enlarged 
 views for consolidating all Italy into one system. His military tactics, 
 the secresy of his plans, and the quickness of their execution, are also 
 highly extolled. The life of Castruccio by Machiavelli is more a 
 romance than a real biography. Aldo Manuzio the younger has 
 written ' Le Attioni di Castruccio Castracani, Signore di Lucc:i,' 4to, 
 Roma, 1590, a good work. Tegrimi of Lucca has written the life of 
 Castruccio, Modena, 1490, and Paris, 1546 : it is also printed in vol xi. 
 of Muratori, ' Rerum Ital. Scriptores.' Sismondi, ' Histoire de3 
 Republiques Italienne3,' a work however decidedly hostile to the 
 Ghibelines in general, may be consulted. 
 CATHARINA L, of Russia. [Peter the Great.] 
 CATHARINA II., ALEXIEWNA, born in 1729, was the daughter 
 of the Prince of Anhalt Zerbst, governor of Stettiu in Prussian Pomc- 
 rauia. Her name was Sophia Augusta von Anhalt. She married in 
 1745 her cousiu Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein Gottorp, whom 
 his aunt the empress Elizabeth of Russia had chosen for her suc- 
 cessor, having made him Grand Duke of Russia. In adopting the 
 Greek communion he took the name of Peter, afterwards Peter III., 
 and his consort that of Catharina Alexiewna. It was an ill-assorted 
 and unhappy match. Catharine was handsome, fond of pleasure, and 
 at the same time clever, ambitious, bold, and unprincipled. Her 
 husband, although not destitute of good qualities, was greatly inferior 
 to her in abilities, and was irresolute and imprudent. In consequence 
 of many disagreements with his wife, as soon as he came to the throne 
 by the death of the empress Elizabeth, he talked of repudiating 
 Catharine, who was then living in retirement at Peterhop, a country 
 residence near St. Petersburg. She on her part determined to antici- 
 pate him by a bolder movement. A confederacy was formed in which 
 several noblemen, officers, and ladies joined ; the regiments of the 
 garrison were gained by bribes and promise.3 ; the emperor was 
 arrested, aud Catharine was proclaimed sole empress of all the Russias, 
 Peter having been induced to sign an act of abdication in July 1762. 
 Six days after, the principal conspirators, fearfng a reaction in the 
 army which might prove fatal to them, went to Ropscha, where Peter 
 was kept in arrest, and while drinking with him, fell suddenly upon 
 him aud strangled him. It does not appear that Catharine actually 
 ordered the murder; but after it was done she showed no sorrow, and 
 she continued her favour to the murderers. In a proclamation which 
 she issued it was said that the emperor had died of the colic. Catha- 
 rine was solemnly crowned at Moscow in 1762. We shall not ente«" 
 on the profligacy of her subsequent private life, and the scandalous 
 chronicles of her court : these matters have been treated with the 
 utmost minuteness by most of her biographers, and especially by 
 Castera. We shall here speak not of the woman but of the sovereign, 
 and record the principal acts of her long reign, which was a most 
 important one for Russia and for Europe. In 1763, on the death of 
 the weak and indolent Augustus III., king of Poland, that country 
 being in a state of exhaustion and confusion, Catharine, by bribing 
 part of the electors and terrifying the rest, procured the election of 
 one of her favourites, Poniatowski, who wa3 chosen king under the 
 name of Stanislaus Augustus. Having accomplished this, she began 
 to interfere in the internal concerns of that kingdom, whose wretched 
 constitution, with its elective crown, turbulent nobility, serf popula- 
 tion, and intolerant clergy, afforded her ample opportunities. In fact, 
 some of the parties in Poland courted her support, as they had been 
 in the habit of courting that of her predecessors and of the other 
 neighbouring states for ages before. 
 
 The Dissidents of Poland, which was the name given to those who 
 did not follow the Roman Catholic religion, including both Protestants 
 and followers of the Greek Church, were placed upon an equal footing 
 with the Catholics by the Pacta Conventa of 1573, confirmed by the 
 treaty of peace of Oliva in 1660. Since this last epoch however, the 
 Catholics, being the majority among the high nobility, had gradually 
 excluded the Dissidents from the Diet, and annoyed them in other 
 
117 
 
 CATHARINA II. 
 
 CATHARINE DE' MEDICI. 
 
 118 
 
 ways. Early in the 18th century the Dissidents applied to Peter the 
 Great, who remonstrated in their behalf, and obtained by his influence 
 more equitable treatment for them. After Peter's death the Polish 
 Dissidents were again deprived of their political and civil rights; 
 they were excluded from all public offices, were forbidden to build 
 any new church, and many of them were exiled or otherwise perse- 
 cuted. In 1781, Russia, Prussia, England, and Denmark, as guarantees 
 of the peace of Oliva, remonstrated with the Diet, but to no purpose. 
 In the session of 1765 the Dissidents were finally subjected to the 
 jurisdiction of the Catholic bishops. In the following year they 
 formed an association, which was called the Confederacy of Thorn, 
 for their common protection, and they were joined by a party of 
 Catholics, who were called Malcontents, upon political grounds, and 
 who now advocated the claims of the Dissidents. The Dissidents 
 were also strongly supported by Russia, the population of which being 
 chiefly of the Greek Church felt a lively interest in the fate of their 
 co-religionists, who were very numerous, especially in the east pro- 
 vinces of Poland. In 1768 Russian troops entered Poland and sur- 
 rounded Warsaw. Several members of the Diet, and the Bishop of 
 Cracow among thero, who were most violent against the Dissidents, 
 were arrested by the Russians and sent into Siberia, where they 
 remained five years. The Diet, being now intimidated, granted the 
 full claims of the Dissidents ; but several Catholic uoblemeu, espe- 
 cially on the south provinces bordering on Turkey, raised the standard 
 of revolt on mixed religious and political grounds, and a civil war 
 ensued, in which the king's troops were defeated. The king and 
 senate at Warsaw petitioned the Russian minister not to withdraw 
 the Russian troops on this emergency, a request which was readily 
 complied with. The insurgents ou their part applied to the Turks 
 for assistance; and a war between Turkey and Russia (1769) was the 
 consequence. During four years Poland was ravaged by civil and 
 religious war, and a dreadful pestilence in 1770 completed the miseries 
 of that country. The re3ult of all this was the first partition of 
 Poland, concerted between Catharine, Frederic of Prussia, and 
 Joseph II. of Austria, which was effected in 1772, and was sanctioned 
 by a subservient Polish Diet. More than one-third of that kingdom 
 was divided among the three powers. Russia had for its share the 
 governments of Polotsk and Mohilow, which include a great part of 
 Lithuania and Livonia. Meantime the war with the Turks had 
 proved highly successful to the Russian arms both by sea and laud. 
 Romanzow defeated the Turks on the Pruth, and the Russian fleet in 
 the Mediterranean defeated and burnt the Turkish fleet at Tschesmd 
 in 1770. By the peace of Kainarji, July 1774, Azof and Taganrog 
 were ceded to Russia, and the Crimea was declared independent of 
 Turkey. Not many years after, the Russians took the Crimea for 
 themselves (1785), and made it a province of their empire. In 
 Jauuary 1787, Catharine set off from St. Petersburg with great pomp 
 to vUit her new acquisitions. Her journey was like a triumphal pro- 
 cession. She was joined ou the road by the emperor Joseph II., who 
 accompanied her into the Crimea, where they concerted measures for 
 a joint war against Turkey. At Cherson, on the Dnieper, she 
 inspected the docks constructed by her orders, aud saw a ship of the 
 line and a frigate launched. Soon after, the Turks and the Swedes, 
 at the iustigation of France and Eugland, declared war against Russia. 
 The object of this war was to check the progress of Russia, but the 
 result was quite the contrary. The Turks were defeated everywhere : 
 they lo3t Ockzakow ; Suwarrow took from them Ismail by storm in 
 1790, with a dreadful massacre of the garrison; and another Russian 
 army entered Georgia. By the peace of Yassi, in 1792, the frontiers 
 of Russia were extended to the Dniester. The war between Russia 
 and Sweden had bten already concluded by the peace of Warela in 
 1790. Meantime the Poles, taking advantage of the war, had shaken 
 off the influence of Russia, and abrogated the articles of the Diet of 
 1775, which had been dictated by Catharine. In 1791 they formed a 
 new constitution, making the crown hereditary, giving greater privi- 
 leges to the royal towns, aud favouring in some degree the emanci- 
 pation of the peasants or serfs. But this constitution was far from 
 being acceptable to all the nobles ; many protested against it, and so 
 did Catharine of Russia, as guarantee of the former constitution. 
 Prussia joined Catharine : and the result was a second partition of 
 Poland in 1793, by which Russia took the whole of Lithuania, Vol- 
 bynia, and Podolia; aud the King of Prussia obtained Posen, Guesen, 
 and the towns of Danzig and Thorn. In 1794 an insurrection broke 
 out at Warsaw, the Russian garrison was almost entirely destroyed, 
 and the gallant Kosciusko placed himself at the head of the Pules, 
 who fought with the courage of despair. After being successful at 
 first, he was defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner. Suwarrow 
 stormfd Praga, the suburb of Warsaw, with a dreadful slaughter of 
 the inhabitants. Warsaw surrendered, the king abdicated, and the 
 third an 1 last partition of Poland took place in 1795. Austria had 
 Gallicia, Prussia took Warsaw, and Russia the rest. Poland thus 
 became extinct as a state. Catharine finally annexed Couilaud also to 
 the Russian empire. 
 
 Catharine began now to turn her attention towards Fiance, and had 
 promised to f-end troops to join the coalition against that country, 
 whep, ou the 17th of November 1790, she died of an apoplectic fit, alter 
 • reign of thirty-five years. She was succeeded by her son Paul I. 
 lu the internal administration of her vast empire Catharine effected 
 
 much real and more seeming good. She reformed the judicial system, 
 which was in a most confused state ; organised proper courts, and gave 
 better salaries to the judges, iu order, as she publicly told them, that 
 ttsy might be placed above temptation. She to a certain extent 
 ameliorated the conditiou of the serfs or peasants. She encouraged 
 instruction, established schools iu all the provinces, schools for teachers 
 after the model of those of Germany, aud numerous special or highe r 
 schools for the military and naval services, for the mining establish- 
 ment, for the study of mediciuo and surgery, for oriental language*, 
 &c. She also sought to promote communication and commerce 
 betweeu the various countries subject to her sway and with foreign 
 states. She has been called the great regenerator of Russia after 
 Peter I., and she worked under more favourable circumstances. She 
 begau several canals, among others the one called Severo Jekaterinski, 
 which uniting the Volga to the Dwina, effects thus a communication 
 between the Caspian and the White Sea. She founded numerous 
 towns, docks, arsenals, banks, and manufactories. She employed several 
 learned men, among others Pallas, Falk, Graeliu, Blumayer, Billings, 
 and Edwards, to explore the interior and the remotest parts of her 
 empire. Her peculiar patronage of the arts and literature, and the 
 favour she showed to D'Alembert, Diderot, Euler, &c., are well known. 
 Her correspondence with Voltaire has been published, and forms half 
 a volume in the collected edition of Voltaire's works. She compiled 
 also a ' Bibliotheque d'Histoire et de Morale' for the instruction of 
 her grand-children Alexander and Constantine. But the most remark- 
 able of her works is her ' Instructions to the Commissioners appointed 
 to frame a new Code of Laws for the Russian Empire,' which were 
 translated into Euglish by M. Tatischeff, London, 4to, 1768. For 
 details concerning her administration, see Tooke's ' History of the 
 Reigu of Catharine II.;' Count Segur's ' Me'uioires,' and Rulhiere's 
 posthumous works. 
 
 CATHARINE OF ARAGON. [Henry VIII.] 
 
 CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA. [Charles II.] 
 
 CATHARINE PARR. [Henry VIII.J 
 
 CATHARI'NE DE' ME'DICI was the daughter of Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, duke of Urbino, the son of Piero, and grandson of Lorenzo 
 the Magnificent, and nephew of Leo X. Her mother Magdeleiue de 
 Boulogne, of the royal house of France, died in giving birth to 
 Catharine, her only child, in 1519. Her father died soon after, aud 
 Catharine was brought up under the care of her great uncle Cardinal 
 Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII. She was remarkably 
 handsome, clever, and accomplished, but crafty, proud, and unprin- 
 cipled. In 1533 she was married to Henri, second son of Francis I. 
 of France. It wa3 a political marriage, contracted between the pope 
 and the king, who met at Marseille on that occasion. In 1547, Henri 
 having ascended the throne upon the death of his father and elder 
 brother, Catharine became queen of France. Her influence at court 
 was not very great during the reign of her husband, it being checked 
 by that of his mistress, Diana of Poitiers, and that of the powerful 
 family of the Guises. Catharine had by her husband five sons, of 
 whom three reigned successively over France — Francis II., Charles IX., 
 and Henri III. During the short reign of Francis II., who succeeded 
 Henri II. in 1547, the chief influence at court was in the hands of the 
 Guises, whose niece Mary Stuart had married Francis II. But when 
 by the premature death of this young prince in 1500, his brother 
 Charles IX., then a minor, ascended the throne, Catharine as regent 
 became the real ruler of France, and remained its ruler after her son 
 had attained his majority. She is therefore accountable for all the 
 mismanagement, corruption, and atrocities of that calamitous reign, 
 aud, above all, for the treacherous massacre of the Protestants in 
 August 1572, which is known by the name of La Sainte Barthelemi, 
 because it wa3 perpetrated on the day dedicated to that saiut by the 
 Roman calendar. The king of Navarre (afterwards Henri IV.) 
 luckily escaped, aud the Protestants defended themselves in several 
 parts of the kingdom, so that the civil war raged again as fiercely as 
 ever. Charles IX. died in 1574, leaving the state iu dreadful confusion. 
 His brother, Henry of Valois, was then in Poland, where he had been 
 elected king by the Diet. As soon as he heard of his brother's death, 
 he left Polaud in secret, and returned to France, where he was crowned 
 iu 1575. Henri III. was, like his brother, a weak and corrupt 
 prince. Catharine had brought up her sons purposely in licentious- 
 ness and effeminacy, in order that she might more easily govern them. 
 The reign of Henri HI. was distracted by the intrigues of his 
 favourites, of the queen-mother, and of the Guises ; by the civil wars 
 between Protestants and Catholics, aud by the war between France 
 and Spain. Catharine, according to her usual policy, favoured some- 
 tiuits one party aud sometimes the other, for fear that any one of 
 them should become too powerful for her to manage. At last 
 assassination was resorted to again in order to get rid of the Guises. 
 The Duke of Guise and the cardinal his brother were murdered at 
 Blois in December 1588, by order of the king. On the 5th of Jauuary 
 1589, Catharine herself died at Blois, an object of aversion to all 
 parties. She was one of the worst sovereigns that ruled over France 
 since the times of the Merovingian dynasty. Even her ambition was 
 nut of an enlarged kind; it was narrow, wavering, treacherous, and 
 undecided, aud it led to no final result. The country was in a state 
 of greater confusion at her death than it had been at any time during 
 her sway ; the monarchy was near its dissolution, and it required all 
 
CATILINA, LUCIUS SERGIUS. 
 
 120 
 
 the address and the brilliant qualities of Henri IV. to rescue it from 
 total ruin. Catharine had only one redeeming quality — her love for 
 the arts and literature, which seems to have been hereditary in 
 the family of Medici. She collected valuable manuscripts, she en- 
 couraged artists, and she began the palace of the Tuileries. She was 
 prodigal in her expenditure, and died much in debt. (De Thou, Sully, 
 Brantorne, and the other French historians and biographers.) 
 
 CATIU'NA, LU'CIUS SE'kGIUS, descended from an illustrious 
 patrician family, was born about B.C. 109. Catiline was quoastor about 
 B.C. 77, and afterwards served as legatus to Scribonius Curio, pro- 
 consul of Macedonia, B.C. 75. He was prator at Rome, B.C. 67. At 
 the expiration of his pnctorship, he obtaiued the province of Africa, 
 which he left to canvass for the consulship ; but he was obliged to 
 give up his canvass in consequence of being accused of malversation 
 in his province. During this year, B.C. 65, he formed a conspiracy 
 with Co. Piso and P. Autronius to assassinate the consuls and part of 
 the senate. Suetonius says that Caesar and M. Crassus were engaged 
 in tb is plot, and cites as his authorities Tanusius Oemiuus, the edicts 
 of Bibulus, the orations of the elder Curio, and Actorius Naso. (See 
 also Cic. in 'Catil.' 4.) The plot was frustrated at first by the back- 
 wardness of Crassus and Caesar, and a second time by the hastiness of 
 Catiline. Having procured an acquittal on his trial (B.C. 65) for 
 maladministration iu Africa by bribing the judices, and, it is said, 
 the prosecutor, P. Clodius, also, he was a candidate for the consulship 
 with Cicero for the year B.C. 63. During the contest he was tried 
 with many others for the murders which he had committed during 
 the proscription of Sulla, to whose party Catiline belonged, and espe- 
 cially for that of Marius Gratidianus, uncle to Cicero, but, through 
 the influence of the consular senatois, he was acquitted. According 
 to some, this murder, which was committed many years before, iu 
 addition to the imputed seduction of Fabia, Cicero's sister-in-law, 
 laid the foundation for that animosity with which Cicero afterwards 
 pursued Catiline. Yet Cicero says ('Ad. Att.' i. 2) that he had some 
 thoughts of defending him on his trial for malversation. 
 
 In the beginning of June, B.C. 64, about a month before the con- 
 sular election, urged by the ruined state of his fortunes, Catiline held 
 the first meeting of his second conspiracy, eleven men of seuatoriau 
 rank and four of equestrian being present. Some rumour of their 
 proceedings got abroad, and Catiline lost his election ; while the 
 previous preparations of Cicero prevented the execution of a design 
 which Catiline had formed to kill the consul and other senators on the 
 day of ilection. Notwithstanding this failure, Catiline still pushed 
 forward his designs with great vigour. Money and arms were col- 
 lected, and Manlius, one of Sulla's veterans, only waited Catiline's 
 orders to take the field with a large body of his comrades, who, after 
 Sulla's victories, had been settled in different parts of Italy. Infor- 
 mation of all their proceedings was conveyed to Cicero, and by him 
 communicated to the senate, who, on the 21st of October, issued the 
 decree in the usual form (Darent operam, &c), which gave dictatorial 
 power to the consuls. On the 6th of November, another meeting of 
 the conspirators was held, at which arrangements were made for firing 
 the town and massacreing the inhabitants, for the bringing up the 
 Tuscan army under Manlius, and for the murder of Cicero, all which 
 was reported the same evening to Cicero. Catiline still kept up the 
 appearance of innocence, and though impeached by L. Paulus under 
 the Plautian law, came down to the senate, which was assembled by 
 Cicero ou the 8th of November. When Cicero concluded, Catiline, 
 in au humble voice and manner, began to defend himself, but was 
 interrupted by the senate calling out that "he was an enemy and a 
 traitor to his country." Catiline abruptly left the senate-house, and 
 set out the same night for the camp of Manlius, with the view of 
 making some decisive movement before the consuls could get an army 
 together to oppose him. The senate immediately declared him and 
 Manlius enemies to the state, and ordered the consuls to raise new 
 troops, of which the command was given to C. Antonius, the colleague 
 of Cicero. Q. Marcius Rex and Q. Metellus Creticus were at this 
 time waiting with their armies outside the gates for the honour of a 
 triumph. It being reported that the slaves were arming in Apulia 
 and Capua, Metellus was despatched into Apulia, and Marcius to 
 Fsesulae, where Manlius was encamped. A remonstrance, addressed 
 to Marcius by Manlius, setting forth their grievances, was answered 
 by a reference to the senate, but it does not appear that any engage- 
 ment took place. Up to this time, Catiline made little progress, in 
 consequence of his plans being regularly divulged, through the mistress 
 of one of the conspirators, to Cicero, and his designs were conse- 
 quently thwarted; while, on the other hand, the prospect of the 
 conspiracy being crushed seemed equally distant. 
 
 A high reward which had been offered by the senate for information 
 respecting the plot had produced no evidence, and it appears certain 
 that a large proportion of the population (Sallust says the whole of 
 the common people) approved of Catiline's design ; but how far they 
 were desirous of change from the hope of plunder, and how far from 
 a well-grounded dissatisfaction with the government of the senatorian 
 oligarchy, it would be a difficult matter to determine. The senate 
 certainly did not appeal to the people for support against a common 
 enemy. An unsuccessful attempt of the remaining conspirators to 
 draw into the plot the ambassadors of the Allobroges, at that time in 
 Rome, and to obtain from them a body of horse, furnished the consul 
 
 with evidence against the principal conspirators. Lentulus, Gabinius 
 Statilius, and Cethegus were arrested. Fresh plots were now rumoured 
 to be hatching among the dependents of the conspirators for their 
 rescue ; and after a long debate in the senate on the 5th of December 
 (Nocis Decembribus), in which Caesar argued against and Cato iu favour 
 of the capital punishment of the conspirators, they were condemned to 
 death without the form of a trial, and executed accordingly. Catiline 
 now found himself hemmed in by Metellus Celer on the side of 
 Cisalpine Gaul, and by Antonius, now proconsul, with a superior force 
 among the Apennines. He made a desperate attack on the troops of 
 Antonius, which were under the command of M. Petreius, was defeated, 
 and fell among the thickest of the enemy, fighting bravely to the last, 
 B.c 62. 
 
 The history of Catiline's conspiracy is chiefly transmitted to us by 
 Cicero and Sallust, and we have only one side of the story. Though 
 there is doubtless great exaggeration in both these writers, and though 
 it seems impossible to penetrate the whole design of Catiline, there 
 is not much difficulty in forming a general opinion of this plot. The 
 civil wars of Marius and Sulla, which terminated in favour of Sulla, 
 led the way to an organised system of murder and plunder, of which 
 few histories present so frightful an example. The partisans of Sulla 
 were enriched by the proscription and robbery of their fellow-citizens. 
 This was the school in which Catiline and many of his accomplices 
 were brought up. A body of profligate young men of rank, over- 
 whelmed with debt, whose only pursuit is pleasure, are the readiest 
 elements out of which to form a conspiracy. The conspiracy of 
 Catiline was a conspiracy of an aristocratic faction against the body 
 of which it formed a part — a body that had its own interested views 
 and exclusive objects, but preferred accomplishing them in a more 
 politic and less violent way. If the conspirators had succeeded they 
 would, as a matter of course, in following up the example of Sulla, 
 have crushed the whole aristocratical party whose views were opposed 
 to their own. The possession of all the influence in the state — the 
 spoliation of their wealthy enemies — would have been the reward of 
 the pai tizans of Catiline ; but it is difficult to conceive that any one 
 useful result to the state would have followed; and, iu the absence of 
 better evidence as to the character and abilities of the conspirators, it 
 is impossible to conclude that Rome would have been fortunate enough 
 to find among them a master who possessed the wisdom and moderation 
 of the dictator Caesar. 
 
 CATO, that is, the Wise, was a surname given to MARCUS POR- 
 CIUS PRISCUS. This extraordinary man, commonly called Cato 
 Censorius, or Cato Major, to distinguish him from his descendant who 
 fell on his sword at Utica, was born in the year B.C. 234. He was 
 descended from a respectable family in Tusculum, and passed his earlier 
 years on a farm in the Sabine country, which he inherited from his 
 father. At the age of seventeen a Roman necessarily became a 
 soldier, and Cato's military career commenced iu the very year when 
 Hannibal was laying waste the north of Italy after the battle of the 
 Trebia, B.C. 217. We find him afterwards serving under the command 
 of Fabius, at the capture of Tarentum, in B.C. 209 ; and two years after 
 he distinguished himself at the memorable battle on the banks of the 
 Metaurus, which was fatal to the brother of Hannibal. In private 
 life he maintained the same character for hardiness, industry, and 
 sobriety which he had earned in the military profession. Occupying 
 a farm adjoining that which had once belouged to Curius Deutatus, 
 he seemed to take that old Roman for a model, and drew upon him 
 the attention of the neighbouring farmers, not more by the simplicity 
 of his habits than by the plain good sense of the laconic maxims which 
 fell from his lips and became current in the neighbourhood. His 
 singular reputation obtained him the name of Cato, and at length 
 attracted the observation of a young Patrician, named L. Valerius 
 Flaccus, who, looking upon him, to use the language of Plutarch, 
 " as a plant that deserved a better soil," persuaded him to remove to 
 Rome, and to offer himself for the public magistracies. With this 
 friend, who thus introduced him to the Roman public, he afterwards 
 held the highest posts in the state, the consulship and the censorship. 
 The first step in the series of Roman offices was the quasstorship. 
 This office he filled in B.C. 204, and was appointed to join the army in 
 Sicily, which Scipio was about to carry across into Africa; but the 
 profuse expenditure of the general offended those notions of strict 
 economy which belonged to the character of Cato. The quaestor 
 returned to Rome, and taking his seat in the senate, to which he was 
 entitled by right of his office, he denounced the conduct of Scipio as 
 fatal to the discipline of the army. Soon after we find him, according 
 to Nepos, acting as quaestor in the island of Sardinia, where he became 
 acquainted with Ennius. It is more probable that the acquaintance 
 with Ennius was formed when Cato was in Sardinia as praetor. The 
 errors of Nepos, or rather of the writer, whose works are ascribed to 
 him, are innumerable. Cato, with all his rustic character, was a friend 
 to literature, and it was he who first brought the Calabrian poet to 
 Rome. After holding the plebeian aedileship and the praetorship, in 
 the latter of which he was the governor of Sardinia, he finally arrived 
 at the consulate, which he filled in B.C. 195, the year of Terence's 
 birth, having his friend Valerius for his colleague. At that period of 
 the Roman commonwealth it was usual for the consuls to hold com- 
 mands at a distance from Rome. Cato was appointed governor of 
 Nearer Spain, where the vigour of his arms and the policy of his 
 
131 
 
 CATS, JACOU. 
 
 123 
 
 counsels added greatly to the Roman influence, and procured liim the 
 honour of a triumph in the following year. He had now attained to 
 the summit of military glory, but his zeal was not fatigued. The new 
 consul, Tiberius Sempronius, being despatched on an expedition against 
 the Thracians and the neighbourhood of the Danube, Cuto accompanied 
 him as one of his lieutenants. 
 
 When Antiochus invaded Greece, we find Cato again in military 
 employment in the Peloponnesus, securing the fidelity of Corinth, 
 JE.giv.xn, and Patrae ; and in 191, by a bold movement, he dislodged 
 Antiochus from the pass of Thermopylae, and had the chief glory of 
 the victory gained there by M. Acilius Glabrio. Iu 184, the year in 
 which Plautus died (it is useful to connect the life of Cato with the 
 literature of his country), he was elected censor, and, as was before 
 observed, with Valerius for his colleague. This censorship he made 
 memorable in the annals of Roman history by the strictness with 
 which he executed its important duties. He was now 50 years of 
 age, and he continued for more than 30 years to take a prominent 
 part in public life. But the unflinching determination with which 
 he attacked the crimes and vices of the nobles called up many assail- 
 ants upon himself. No Roman was ever a party to more public pro- 
 secutions, or had to defend himself against more. Even in his 81st 
 year, he had to support himself against an accusation which had no 
 foundation but the malice of his enemies. But these attacks produced 
 no effect upon his courage. When Sergius Galba had disgraced his 
 country by the massacre of the Lusitaniaus after they had surrendered 
 upon terms, and was brought to public trial at Rome, Cato again 
 subscribed his name as one of the prosecutors, and took an active 
 part in the proceedings. This trial was followed almost immediately 
 by his death, at the age of 85, iu the year B.C. 149. Thus as he 
 entered active life soon after the invasion of Italy by Hannibal, so 
 he just lived to see the commencement of the third Punic war, a 
 war indeed into which the Romans were induced to enter chiefly by 
 the urgent advice of Cato himself. 
 
 So far we have seen in him the successful soldier and the vigorous 
 statesman. As an orator, an agriculturist, an historian, he was 
 scarcely less celebrated. When yet living on his Sabine farm, he had 
 been iu the daily habit of appearing in the petty courts of the neigh- 
 bourhood as the able advocate of his friends ; afterwards at Rome he 
 was oue of the most distinguished orators in the forum ; and as many 
 as 150 of his orations were preserved and admired for many ages. Ab 
 a writer on agriculture, he is still known by his work entitled ' De 
 Re Rustica,' which, however, is certainly not in the form in which he 
 wrote it. The language is not sufficiently antiquated for the age in 
 which he lived ; and besides this, there is abundant evidence that 
 several parts of the work are lost, particularly the dedication to his 
 son. The work, as we have it, consists of very brief directions for the 
 management of a farm, and for economical housekeeping, from the 
 buying of an estate to a charm for curing oxen and a receipt for 
 cheesecakes. It is in this work that he lays down the principle, which 
 excitee the just indignation of Plutarch, the duty of felling off old 
 oxen, old waggons, and old slaves. (§ 2.) Of his historical work but 
 a few fragments remain. It was entitled ' Origines,' and according to 
 the life of Cato, which passes under the name of Cornelius Nepos, the 
 first book treated of the Roman monarchy, the second and third of 
 the origin of the chief cities of Italy, the fourth and fifth of the first 
 and second Punic wars; the sixth and seventh continued the history 
 down to the praetorsbip of Galba above mentioned. In the latter part 
 of his history he enlarged upon his own achievements without auy 
 affectation of modesty. This history was written at the close of his 
 life, so that Livy is guilty of an anachronism iu making the tribune 
 L. Valerius quote the ' Origines ' agaiust the author at the time when 
 Cato was consul. (Li v. xxxiv. 5.) 
 
 Cato was twice married. By his first wife he had a son, Marcus, 
 who married a daughter of L. ^Emilius Paulus, the sister of the second 
 Scipio Africanus, and died while praetor during his father's lifetime. 
 His second wife was Salonia, by whom he had a son, surnamed from 
 his mother Saloninus. This son was the grandfather of Cato Uticensis. 
 The character of Cato is boldly drawn by Livy in the 40th chapter of 
 his 39th book. He was indeed, as Livy calls him, a man of iron body 
 and iron soul, " ferrei prope corporis animique." The chronology of 
 the life of Cato is tolerably certain, notwithstanding the errors of Livy, 
 Plutarch, Valerius Maximus, and Cornelius Nepos. See Clinton's 
 'Fasti.' His historical fragments are printed at the cud of Cort's 
 'Sallust ;' they have been also published by Krause in his ' Fragmenta 
 veterum Historicorum Romanorum,' Berolini, 1833 ; and separately by 
 Lion, under the title ' Catoniana,' Gott, 1826. The fragments of his 
 ' Orations ' are given by Meyer in his ' Oratorum Romanorum Frag- 
 nienta,' Turici, 1842. The 'JDe Re Rustica' is found in Gesuer's and 
 in Schneider's collection of Latin works on that subject. 
 
 CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS, who was surnamed UTICENSIS (of 
 Utica) from the place of his death, was the great-grandson of Cato the 
 CeDi-or, and was born B.C. 93. He is said to have shown iu early youth 
 great powers of mind and firmness of character. When very young he 
 was chosen to fill the office of priest of Apollo, aud that he might the 
 better discharge the duties of his office, he determined to secure the 
 instructions of a preceptor in morality. The character of his mind 
 naturally led him to embrace the philosophy of the Porch, and he 
 became a pupil of Antipater the Stoic. Inflexible decision, severity 
 
 moo. DIV. VOL. II. 
 
 and harshness, appear to have been the prominent features of his mind ; 
 aud the great privations and hardships to which he frequently subjected 
 himself, such as abstaining from food and making long journeys bare' 
 headed and in all weathers, were calculated to strengthen thete 
 peculiarities. His half-brother Caopio was lost at sea, on which occasion 
 he is said to have relaxed the sternness of his spirit, and he who rarely 
 laughed was then seen to weep. The body was cast ashore by the 
 waves, and was buried by Cato with great honours. 
 
 Coin of Cato. 
 
 British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight 60 grains. 
 
 Cato's military career commenced with his serving as a volunteer 
 iu the war of Spartacus, in which campaign he is said to have refused 
 the distinctions with which Gallus, his commander, would have 
 Rewarded him. He afterwards went as a legionary tribune to Mace- 
 donia, and there presented a model of sobriety and courage. The 
 designs of Metellus subsequently induced him to become a candidate 
 for the office of tribune of the people. He was successful in his 
 application, and gained by his conduct the general esteem of the public. 
 Cato took part with Cicero against Catiline, and first gave him the title 
 of 'Pater Patriae' ('Father of his Fatherland') : the speech which be 
 made on this occasion respecting the punishment of the conspirators 
 is preserved in Sallust. (' Catil.,' c. 52.) He vehemently opposed the) 
 union of Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, and though threatened with 
 banishment, fearlessly spoke against Caesar's Agrarian Law. Through 
 the influence of Clodius he was sent to seize Cyprus, in the hope that 
 he would destroy his own influence by failing iu the enterprise ; and, 
 that he might be kept the longer away from Rome, he was ordered to 
 go to Byzantium to settle the affairs of that town. On his return he 
 was elected praetor, in which office he endeavoured as far as possible 
 to put a stop to bribery and corruption. At length, being unable to 
 bring about a reconciliation between Caesar and Pompey, he sided with 
 the latter, and on the death of Pompey went over to Africa. Some 
 dispute arising about the command of the troops iu Africa, Cato resigned 
 it to Q. Metellus Scipio, the father-in-law of Pompey ; but he after- 
 wards repented of this step, and wished that he had retained the 
 command in compliance with the wishes of the army. Africa soon 
 submitted to Caesar, and the little that remained to oppose him was 
 contained in the city of Utica. Cato encouraged his countrymen to 
 stand a siege, but the approach of Caesar alarmed them into submission. 
 Upon this Cato advised his friends to save themselves by flight, and 
 he even accompanied them to the port. Those who remained in Utica 
 chose Lucius Caesar to intercede for them with the conquez'or, and 
 Cato, though he would not allow his own name to be included in the 
 petition, is said to have composed the speech which L. Caesar was to 
 make. After an evening's meal, and a spirited conversation with 
 some other philosophers, he withdrew to his chamber, and after 
 embracing his son and friends with unusual affection, he lay down 
 and read a portion of Plato's 'Phaedon' on the immortality of the soul. 
 His son and friends in vain entreated him to desist from his resolution 
 to commit suicide. He stabbed himself below the breast, and died the 
 same night. The inhabitants of Utica exhibited the utmost sorrow at 
 the death of one whom they regarded as their benefactor and deliverer, 
 nor did the approach of Caesar prevent them from solemnising his 
 funeral with the greatest pomp. When Caesar heard of Cato's death 
 he is said to have exclaimed, " Cato, I envy thee thy death, since thou 
 hast envied me the glory of saving thy life ! " He died, according to 
 some, in the forty-eighth, and according to others, in the fifty-ninth 
 year of his age. 
 
 (Plutarch, Life of Calo ; Cicero, De Offic., i. 31 ; Sallust, Catil., cc. 
 52-54; Valer. Maxim., ii. 10, 7 ; Aul. Gell, iv. 10; Horat., Od. i. 12, 
 35, ii. 1, 24; Lucan, i. 128; Virg., Jin., vi. 841, viii. 670; Juven., 
 xi. 90.) 
 
 CATO DIONYSIUS. [Dionysius.] 
 
 CATS, JACOB, a very eminent Dutch poet, whose writings were 
 for a long period far more popular than those of any of their authors 
 among his countrymen, was born at Brouwershaven, in Zealand, 
 November 10th, 1577. His mother dying while he was very young, 
 and his father marrying again, he was taken iu charge by a maternal 
 uncle, who spared no cost on his education ; but his progress in hi3 
 earlier studies was far from great. At Leyden he went through a 
 course of jurisprudence, and made some proficiency iu Greek. On 
 quitting Leyden, he proceeded to Orleans, where he took the degree of 
 Doctor of Laws; and he remained some time in France, both in order 
 to perfect himself in the language and to enjoy the lively society into 
 which he was introduced there. On his return home, he first practised 
 as advocate in Brouwershaven, where he soou obtained considerable 
 repute in his profession. Being attacked however by an obstinate 
 tertian fever, he was advised to try the effects of travelling and change 
 of air, ou which he visited England, but reaped no other advantage 
 
123 CATTERMOLE, GEORGE. 
 
 from bis journey than an acquaintance with the language, and what 
 he derived from the studies he pursued at both Oxford and Cambridge. 
 At length, after having in vain sought relief from all the medical men 
 whom he consulted, he recovered his health by means of a powder 
 given him by an old alchemist. He now removed to Middleburg, 
 where he married a lady named Valkeuburg, by whom he had five 
 children. It was during this part of his life — the one which ho after- 
 wards, amid the toils and dignities of office, acknowledged to have 
 been by far the most enviable portion of it — that ho produced his 
 'Emblems' and ' Spiegel van den Ondcn en Nieuwen Tijd.' But the 
 war which broke out in 1621 compelled him to quit Middleburg and 
 go to reside at the Hague. After being made pensionary of Dordrecht, 
 in 1625, he was despatched on an embassy to England in 1627, when 
 he was knighted by Charles I. About nine years later he was elevated 
 to the diguity of pensionary of Holland, which he retained till 1651, 
 and in the following year again came over to England on an embassy 
 to Cromwell, although he would fain have excused himself from the 
 honour, and was ultimately obliged to return without having effected 
 any of the objects of his mission. This was tlie close of his public 
 life ; and he was now permitted to enjoy, in his rural retreat at Zorg- 
 vliet, near the Hague, that tranquillity and leisure after which he had 
 long sighed. It was here that, at an ago exceeding threescore and 
 ten by several years, he resumed his literary and poetical pursuits, 
 and composed his 'Buitenleven' (' Country Life'), and numerous other 
 productions, constituting the principal bulk of his works. Thus use- 
 fully, as well as innocently employed, he continued to enjoy life, while 
 he looked forward to death without apprehension, till he expired 
 calmly, September 12th, 1660, shortly before he completed his eighty- 
 third year. 
 
 Cats's popularity with his countrymen was for a long period greater 
 than that of any other of their poets ; aud by them he is eveu now 
 familiarly yet affectionately styled Vader Cats. His popularity was 
 derived from other merits than usually accompany more brilliant 
 genius. His works may be regarded as a fund of moral instruction 
 for all ranks aud ages, aud as a vast store-house of didactic precepts 
 and examples applicable to almost all the varying circumstances of life. 
 His muse never takes any elevated flights; on the contrary, his poetical 
 style, always plain and familiar, occasionally borders on the homely 
 and colloquial ; but most of his poems being iu the form of dialogue, 
 such a style is not only excusable but appropriate, nor does it ever 
 sink into the mean and vulgar. It is for the most part marked by a 
 naivete' of thought and expression, and by a simplicity, which are 
 becoming and agreeable enough. He frequently exhibits however 
 striking originality and felicity of ideas. Like his diction, his versi- 
 fication is easy though rather monotonous, and appears to have flowed 
 from his pen without effort ; aud he certainly did much towards 
 refining and improving his native tongue, imparting to it greater 
 freedom and pliancy. But with him manner was only secondary and 
 subsidiary to matter; his aim was not so much to shine as to instruct; 
 and it is in the character of a moral teacher that he is chiefly to be 
 viewed. His lessons are those of practical wisdom and virtue, appli- 
 cable to the daily concerns of life. He addressed himself to the many, 
 and there can be no doubt that his works have been largely influential 
 for good, and all the better calculated to attain their end by combining 
 entertainment with moral instruction. At the same time he is not 
 exempt from the charge of prolixity and excess. At the present day 
 both his language and manner have become somewhat antiquated ; 
 and accordingly he is now more praised than read. 
 
 * CATTERMOLE, GEORGE, born in 1800, at Dickleburgh in 
 Norfolk, is one of the most powerful aud original of the English 
 school of paiuters iu water-colours. His earliest drawings were made, 
 we believe, for some of Mr. Britton's architectural publications, and 
 the technical skill he thus obtained has been turned to good account 
 iu his more important later works. His pictures, though mostly semi- 
 historical or poetical, embrace a wide range of subjects: many of 
 th em are illustrative of the more striking scenes of Scott's novels ; 
 many are taken from Shakspere's plays ; others represent subsidiary 
 circumstances connected with English history, like his 'Sir Walter 
 Raleigh witnessing the Execution of the Earl of Essex in the Tower;' 
 others again, like his great picture of ' Luther at the Diet of Spiers,' 
 illustrate more important historical events ; some, like ' The Horn of 
 Egremont Castle,' are from texts furnished by the poets; and a large 
 number are wholly imaginative. Especially is he fond of painting 
 knights in armour, or old cavalier and commonwealth soldiers in buff 
 and breastplates, or monks in their refectories or reading in some 
 gloomy old chamber, or (like his 'Salvator Rosa ') brigands in their 
 wdd hauut3; but whatever he paints is marked by striking originality 
 of conception and vigorous execution. He paints in a manner quite 
 his own — in body-colours on a coarse rough paper — in a bold, free, 
 seemingly careless manner, aud sometimes with considerable looseness 
 of drawing; but his pictures always display so much imagination, 
 often such genuine poetic feeling, are so fine in colour, chiaroscuro, 
 and tone, aud show such evident mastery over the materials, that they 
 as certainly retain the attention by their merits as they arrest it by 
 their peculiarities. For a long series of years Mr. Catteriuole's pic- 
 tures were among the chief attractions of the exhibitions of the 
 Society of Paiuters in Water-Colours; but after for three or four 
 seasons contributing only a few small paintings, he in 1853 ceased to 
 
 CATULLUS, CAIUS VALERIUS. 121 
 
 be a member of the society, and his works have since been seldom 
 seen in public exhibition-rooms. He uow paints much in oil. To 
 the general public Mr. Cattermole is perhaps best known by the series 
 of designs engraved for the 'History of the Civil Wars,' by his brothel 
 the Rev. R. Cattermole. 
 
 CATULLUS, CAIUS VALE'RIUS, sometimes, but erroneously, 
 called QUINTUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, was born at Verona, 
 B.C. 87, about seventeen years before Virgil and twenty-two before 
 Horace. His father Valerius was of a respectable municipal family 
 in that city, and lived iu habits of intimacy with C. Julius Caesar, 
 who appears, when his affairs led him to visit or pass through Cis- 
 alpine Gaul, to have taken up his abode at the house of Valerius. 
 Catullus left his paternal roof at an early age for Rome, where he 
 plunged into dissipation and extravagance, mortgaged his estate, and 
 fell into great poverty. His pecuniary misfortunes do not seem to 
 have broken his spirit or abated his good humour. He laughs off his 
 mortgage with a pun, and jokes on his poverty with the utmost 
 indifference. However, to improve his fortune, he, together with his 
 brother, accompauied the praetor Memmius (the same to whom 
 Lucretius dedicated his immortal poem) to Bithynia. This expedition, 
 as respects the object our poet had iu view, was completely unsuccess- 
 ful. He returned as poor as he went, aud on his voyage home had the 
 additional misfortune to lose his brother, to whom he was affectionately 
 attached, and who died on the coast of Troy. The death of his brother 
 he deplores on more than one occasion in his works with great pathos, 
 and in a stylo of natural and genuine feeling. The voyage from Bithy- 
 nia home was performed by sea in a small open pinnace, called a 
 pha3elus, an undertaking which strongly shows the poet's courage and 
 perseverance. A voyage of that length, from its commencement in 
 the Euxiue to its termination on the shores of the Lake Benacus, in 
 so fragile a bark, satisfactorily proves that Catullus was not deficient 
 in at least one Roman virtue — a contempt of danger. He concluded 
 this arduous enterprise by ascending the Po, and finally by the Min- 
 cius reached the promontory of Sermio on Lake Benacus. On this 
 promontory, where he appears to have possessed some property, he 
 dedicated his little bark to Castor and Pollux in some verses which 
 have been much admired. From the time of his return from Bithynia 
 he continued to reside mostly at Rome, pursuing his pleasures, though 
 living, as we collect from his writings, in poverty. From the same 
 sources we derive the information that he possessed estates both in 
 the Sabine country aud at Sirmio, probably of little value. 
 
 His chief or only patron was Manlius Torquatus, on whose marriage 
 with Julia he wrote his ' Carmen Nuptiale.' Notwithstanding his 
 poverty, ho lived iu intimacy with all the men of talent of his day, 
 among whom were Cicero, Cornelius Nepos, Licinius Calvus the orator, 
 Asiuius Pollio, Varus, Cornificius, Caelius of Verona, Hortalus, Caeci- 
 lius, aud others. Cicero is supposed by some to have pleaded a cause 
 for him ; good critics however deny or doubt the fact. Judging from 
 his writings aud the freedom with which he indulges in satire, without 
 regard to the rank, power, or wealth of the object of it, we may fairly 
 pronounce that Catullus possessed a lofty independent spirit. Hia 
 boldest flight was against Julius Caesar, even in the plenitude of his 
 power. He lashed his extravagance and his partiality for Mamurra 
 with unsparing severity. For this however he afterwards apologised ; 
 aud the generous conqueror invited the poet to his table on the same 
 day, aud still continued his intercourse with his father Valerius. 
 
 Of all the poet's favourites, Clodia, who appears under the feigned 
 name of Lesbia, seems to have enjoyed the greatest share of his affec- 
 tion and of the effusions of hi3 muse. His lines on the death of 
 Lesbia's sparrow are perhaps as well known and as often quoted or 
 alluded to as any verses he ever wrote. In his day Catullus bore the 
 character of a learned person, and the epithet 'doctus' is frequently 
 applied to his name in the various testimonials which have reached us 
 of his fame and merits. This he perhaps obtained from his knowledge 
 of the Greek language, and from the translations he made of some of 
 the odes of Sappho and the poems of Callimaehus. 
 
 A considerable part of the writings of Catullus is supposed to be 
 lost. He died, according to some, at the age of forty or thereabouts; 
 according to others he attained the advanced age of seventy-one. The 
 latter opinion is combated at great length, aud very successfully, by 
 Bayle in his ' Historical aud Critical Dictionary.' The concurrent 
 testimony of all the men of wit and learning of his own and after 
 times establishes his character as a man of first-rate talents and a true 
 poet. He possessed a brilliant imagination, and clothed his thoughts 
 in the best language. His style is easy and unaffected ; he is always 
 free from conceit or bombast ; his lines are full of sweetness aud 
 harmony. In his playful moods he has many touches of humour, and 
 is always entertaining and agreeable. When pathetic, his feelings are 
 natural and unrestrained. Many of his thoughts have been borrowed 
 by subsequent writers. He fell into the vice of his age, and several 
 of his pieces are degraded by the most obscene ideas couched in the 
 most revolting expressions. The only palliation for this offence that 
 can be offered is the manners of the times, when the grossest violations 
 of propriety were overlooked, if not encouraged, by those whose power, 
 wealth, and influence enabled them to set the fashion. 
 
 His longest and most beautiful poem is the ' Epithalamium of 
 Peleus and Thetis.' It has been objected to this piece that the author, 
 immediately after it3 commencement, digresses into an episode loDger 
 
 1 
 
CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS. 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, GENERAL. 
 
 lhan all tho rest of the poem, being a narrative of the desertion of 
 Ariadne by Theseus on the shores of Naxos, and having no reference 
 to or connection with the main story, into which it is introduced as a 
 description of the embroidery on the garment of Thetis. To this 
 criticism, which applies to the plan and not to the execution of the 
 poem, it may be observed that what editors and commentators have 
 thought fit to call the ' Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis,' is possi- 
 bly only part of a longer and unfinished work, intended by the author 
 to bear a different designation, or it is only the fragment of the entire 
 work which has come down to us. However that may be, the suffer- 
 ings of Ariadne, and her desertion of her father's house, form a fine 
 contrast with the chaste loves and the happy marriage of the parents 
 of Achilles, and her story may have been selected by the poet with a 
 ■view to produce that effect. 
 
 The poems of Catullus are said to have been unknown to the 
 moderns till the beginning of the loth century, and that it was only 
 about 1425 that a copy, found in a granary, was first sent to the 
 native city of the author. The following are the most esteemed 
 editions of Catullus: — Vossius, Lond. 1684, and Utr. 1691; Vulpius, 
 Patav. 1737; the 'Variorum' of Grrevius, with Tibullus and Propcr- 
 pus, Utr. 16S0 ; Mattaire's in 1715 ; in the ' Corpus Poetarum,' Lond. 
 1713; and Doering, Leipzig, 1788 and 1792, and Altona, 1831 ; and 
 Lachruan, Berlin, 1829. The poems of Catullus have been translated 
 into English by Dr. Nott, 2 vols. 8vo, 1795, and by the Hon. George 
 Lamb, 2 vols. 12mo, 1821. 
 
 (Catullus, Suetonius, Vulpius, Bayle, and the different commentators 
 and editors of Catullus.) 
 
 CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN" LOUIS, mathematician, was born at Paris, 
 21st of August, 1789. His father, Louis Francois, was a poet, and 
 became archiviste of the Chamber of Peers. The son was carefully and 
 religiously educated. In 1801, while at the Ecoles Centrales, he was 
 crowned by the Institute as the pupil who had carried off most prizes, 
 among which was the first in Latin poetry. In the following year he 
 entered the Ecole Polytechnique as second scholar, and in 1806, when 
 only in his seventeenth year, his solution of a difficult problem was 
 printed in the ' Correspondance ' of the school. 
 
 From the Ecole Polytechnique, where he rose to the first place, 
 M. Cauchy entered that of the Ponts et Chaussdes, maintaining the 
 same position. He was afterwards appointed engineer of tho works 
 for the port of Cherbourg; and from this date commences his long 
 series of mathematical researches in questions previously unsolved. 
 Among the first was his demonstration of Euclid's celebrated theorem 
 on the polyedra. In 1813 he published his ' Mdthode pour ddterminer 
 a priori le nombre des racines reetles negatives d'une extraction d'un 
 degrd quelconque,' which was followed by papers on the properties of 
 integrals, taking up questions started by Clairaut. In 1815 he received 
 the grand mathematical and physical prize of the Institute for his 
 paper ' Sur la Thdorie des Ondes,' which became the basis of a theory 
 of light. 
 
 In 1816 Cauchy was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, 
 and was appointed professor of mechnnics in the Ecole Polytechnique, 
 and in the same year he published his demonstration of Fermat's 
 theorem of the polygonal numbers. His lectures had a most salutary 
 influence on the educational results of the school, and the progress of 
 his pupils was materially aided by the works which he successively 
 published : ' Cours d' Analyse,' 1821 ; ' Legons sur le Calcul diffdren- 
 tiel,' 1826; 'Legons sur les Applications du Calcul infinitesimal a la 
 Geometric,' 2 vols. 4to, 1826-28. At the same time he continued his 
 valuable series of papers for the Academy, among which are ' Sur les 
 Integrales ddfinies entre les Limites Imaginaires,' 1825; 'Sur 1' Appli- 
 cation du Calcul des Residus a la solution des Probl6mes de Physique 
 Matbdmatique,' 1827; 'Sur la Resolution d'Equatious numdriques, et 
 aur la Thdorie de l'Elimination,' 1829 ; 'Sur la Thdorie des Noinbres,' 
 and others. The last was presented in May 1830. The revolution 
 which followed deprived M. Cauchy of his public employment, as 
 his loyalty to the Bourbon dynasty prevented his taking the oath of 
 allegiance to the government of Louis Philippe. Under these circum- 
 stances he accepted the offers of the King of Sardinia, who invited 
 him to deliver a course of physico mathematical lectures at the univer- 
 sity of Turin. In 1832 the Royal Society of London elected Cauchy 
 one of their fifty foreign members. In the following year he received 
 •o invitation from Charles X. to undertake the scientific education of 
 the Due de Bordeaux, who then resided at Prague ; and he cheerfully 
 devoted himself to the task. While thus engaged he resumed in 1835 
 the publication of his ' Exercises de Mathdrnatiques,' which had been 
 for some years interrupted. In 1836 he published his ' Mdrnoire sur 
 la Dispersion de la Lumiere.' In 1838, having terminated his work 
 of instruction, he returned to Paris, and took part in a scheme for 
 traiuiog a superior class of professors in the interests of legitimacy. 
 He was chosen a member of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1839, but 
 the minister refused to sanction the choice, remembering the refusal 
 to take the oath of allegiance. 
 
 Cauchy's diligence appears to have increased with his years. The 
 number and nature of his communications to the Academy may best 
 be judged of by reference to the ' Comptes Rendus;' at one time they 
 became so multiplied that their publication overstrained the Academy's 
 funds. Concurrently he wrote papers which appeared in other scien- 
 tific periodicals, chiefly in Liouville's 'Journal de Mathdrnatiques,' 
 
 among which his 'Note sur le ddveloppoment des fonctions en series 
 ordonndes suivaut le3 puissances ascendantes des Variables,' published 
 in 1846, is especially remarkable. 
 
 In 1843 a professorship of mathematical astronomy having been 
 created at tho Faculty of Sciences of Paris, 1L Cauchy was ap- 
 pointed to the chair; but, as had happened eighteen years before, his 
 refusal to take the oath required in 1852, again lost him his public 
 employments. He has since continued his studies; adding every month 
 to the number of his works. He has treated of the higher branches of 
 algebra, the theory of numbers, the infinitesimal calculus, mechanics, 
 astronomy, and physics, exploring indeed every branch of mathematical 
 analysis. Of him it has been said that he has " thrown back the limits 
 of the integral calculus; and if showing a preference for abstract 
 questions, he has on the other hand rendered important service to the 
 elementary portions of science, by simplifying tho theory of asymptotes, 
 introducing the use of limits in all parts of geometry, and by giving 
 an elegant demonstration of the fundamental theorem of the theoz-y 
 of equations." 
 
 M. Cauchy is a member of several scientific societies. Besides 
 the works above mentioned, he published at Turin his 'Resume's 
 Analytiques,' 4to. In 1836 appeared 'Sur la Thdorie de la Lumi&re,' 
 8vo ; ' Sur la Mdeanique celeste,' &c, 8vo, in 1831 — and a large 
 number of others in the 'Mdmoires ' of the Academy, in the ' Aunales 
 de Mathdrnatiques,' and other scientific journals. He has shown too, 
 that he inherits his fither's poetical ability and lively imagination, and 
 relieves at times his severer studies by the composition of French and 
 Latin poetry. In 1834 one of his poems 'Charles V. en Espagne' 
 was published, which has much merit, and exhibits the monarchical 
 predilections and religious opinions which have actuated the whole 
 life of the author. [See Supplement.] 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, GENERAL LOUIS EUGENE, son of Jean-Bap tiste 
 Cavaignac, member of the Convention and of the council of the Five 
 Hundred, and brother of the late Godefroy Cavaignac, repeatedly 
 prosecuted by Louis Philippe, was born at Paris on the 15th of 
 December 1S02. In 1820, at the age of eighteen, he entered the Ecole 
 Polytechnique. In the years 1828-29 he served in the second regiment 
 of Engineers as captain, and took an active part in the campaigns of 
 the Morea. Like most of the sons of the noted republicans of the 
 Great Revolution, he adopted early in life the principles of his father; 
 he was consequently one of the first to adhere to the revolution of 
 July, in 1830. But the free expression of his opinions having given 
 offence to his superiors, he was sent in 1832 to join the army in Africa. 
 Even there he could not control or conceal his republican opinions ; 
 but the brilliant courage he displayed, and the services he rendered, 
 drew upon him the notice and the esteem of his commanding officers. 
 He was employed in the expeditions of Medeyah, Bouffard, and 
 Chirchell ; and in the several battles and skirmishes of Ouara, Col 
 de Moozaia, &c, he gave proofs of that aptitude for war, which bespoke 
 the future general. But it was especially in the expedition against 
 Tlemsen that he proved his capacity, and evinced his valour. 
 
 After the capture of Tlemsen, in January 1836, Marshal Clausel 
 formed a battalion of volunteers to garrison the citadel of that town ; 
 and gavo the command of the place to Oiptaiu Cavaignac. In this 
 isolated position, he maintained himself with great honour. Although 
 frequently attacked by the Arabs, and blockaded by Abd-el Kader, 
 he held out, teaching his troops, both by his example and intrepidity, 
 to endure the severest privations without a murmur. It was not 
 however till May 1837 that he received further promotion. Shortly 
 after the taking of Constantine, Cavaignac was transferred to the 
 Zouaves; after which he had a battalion in the infantry of the line. 
 In 1839 he published a work of considerable value, entitled ' De la 
 Rdgence d' Alger.' 
 
 Although his health and constitution were at all times delicate, 
 Cavaignac sustained with unfaltering resignation the trials and fatigues 
 of a camp life ; being remarked as constantly the first to meet tho 
 enemy, and the last to retire to his tent. At the same time his 
 qualifications for providing resources and administering them when 
 found, were of a high order. Having returned to the corps of Zouaves, 
 as lieutenant-colonel, on the 21st of June 1840, he was created colonel 
 tho following year ; but a short time before the battle of Isly, he 
 joined the 32ud of the line. It was in the capacity of commau.ier of 
 the van-guard, in this memorable action, that he so ably supported 
 General Bugeaud against the army of Marocco. For his behaviour in 
 this battle he was made mardchal de camp on the 16th of September 
 1844. After suppressing several revolts among the tribes on the 
 western frontier in 1845, he invaded Marocco in February 1S46, at 
 the head of 6000 men, driving before him the redoubtable Emir 
 Abd-el-Kader. 
 
 In 1847 he succeeded Lamoriciire in the government of Oran, 
 and on the 24th of February 1848, he received his appointment as 
 governor-general of Algeria, by a decree from the Provisional Govern- 
 ment. Two months after this, Lamartine, having foreseen the im- 
 pending dangers by which France was threa'ened, invited Cavaignac 
 to the capital. His great ability, and his decision in quelling the 
 insurrection of June, established his character both as a citizen and as 
 a soldier. It was by far the most serious revolt which had occurred 
 since 1789. Cavaignac met the threatened danger with promptitude. 
 A force of 75,000 regulars and nearly 200,000 National Guards wai 
 
127 
 
 CAVALIERI, BUONAVENTURA. 
 
 CAVALLO, TIBERIUS. 
 
 128 
 
 collected in and near the metropolis. Several powerful barricades 
 were approached, attacked, and carried in the regular order of battle, 
 Cavaignac himself, accompanied by Lamartiue, leading the attack of the 
 one erected in the Faubourg du Temple. On the second day of the insur- 
 rection, Paris was declared in a state of siege, and General Cavaignac 
 was appointed Dictator, all the civil and military powers being com- 
 mitted to his charge. After four days' hard fighting, the contest 
 came to an end by the defeat of the anarchists. The loss on both 
 sides was appalling: two generals were killed, four others mortally 
 and five badly wounded. In all, some 8000 persons were killed and 
 wounded, aud 14,000 made prisoners. No sooner had he quelled this 
 great revolt, than the general laid down his authority. The National 
 Assembly appointed him President of the Council, after which he 
 became one of the candidates for the new office of President of the 
 Republic. In this contest he was supported by 1,448,302 votes. On 
 the 2nd of December 1851 he was arrested, but released after a short 
 detention; and he has since then continued to reside undisturbed in 
 France, although he has not given his adhesion to the government of 
 the emperor. [See SUPPLEMENT.] 
 
 CAVALIERI, BUONAVENTURA, was born at Milan in 1593, aud 
 entered iuto the order of Jesuits at an early age. He was afterwards 
 professor at Bologna, aud died there December 3, 1017. He was a 
 pupil of Galileo, according to the testimony of his friend Riccioli, who 
 professes himself much indebted to his assistance in his studies. But 
 it is said that he did not obtain the professorship at Bologna, in spite 
 of the strong recommendation of Galileo, until his skill in astrology 
 had been duly certified. He was a victim to the gout both in hand 
 and foot, aud was confined almost entirely to his bed for twelve years 
 before his death. There is an eloge of him by Frisi (quoted by 
 Lacroix, ' Biog. Univ.'). All his works were published at Bologna, 
 being ' Specchio Ustorio,' &c. 1G32; ' Directorium Generale Urano- 
 inetricum,' 1032; ' Geometria Indivisibilibus Coutiuuorum,' &c. 1035; 
 ' Trigonometi ia Plana et Sphairica,' 1035; 'Rota Planetaria/ 1040; 
 ' Exercitationes Geometriea Sex,' 1047. 
 
 If we may judge from a contemporary biographer, Ghilini, ' Teatro 
 d'Uomini Letterati,' Cavalieri (or Cavalerius, as his name is usually 
 Latinised) must have enjoyed a remarkable reputation in his day. 
 But he has descended to posterity solely through his method of 
 indivisibles, one of the predecessors of the doctrine of fluxions, aud 
 which [Barrow, Leibnitz ; Differential Calculus in Arts and 
 Sciences Div.] must be considered as oue of tbe first attempts at an 
 organised method of dealing with the difficulties of the solution of 
 ■which Archimedes had given the first example. Cavalieri considers a 
 line as composed of an infinite number of points, a surface of an 
 infinite number of lines, and so on, as in the following sentence : 
 *' Hinc manifestum est figuras planas nobis ad instar tela3 parallelis 
 filis contextse concipiendas esse; solida vero ad instar librorum, qui 
 parallelis foliis coacervautur. Cum vero in tela sunt semper fila, et 
 in libris semper folia numero fiuita, habet [habent] enim aliquam 
 crassitiem, nobis in figuris planis linea;, in solidis vero plana numero 
 indefinita . . . supponeuda sunt.' This method, absolutely considered, 
 is defective and even erroneous, but the error is of the same kind a3 that 
 of Leibnitz, who considered a curve as composed of an infinite number 
 of infinitely small chords, and a surface of infinitely small rectangles. 
 The error in both is oue which does not affect the result, for this 
 reason, that it consists in using the simplifying effect of a certain 
 supposition too early in the process, by which the logic of the inves- 
 tigation may be injured, but the result is not affected. For instance, 
 Cavalerius would consider a right angled triangle as follows. Let n 
 be the number of points in the base, then the perpendiculars at these 
 points are in arithmetical progression, 0, a, 2 a, &c. ... net ; the 
 sum of all of which is A n (n + 1) a, or n. na, throwing away | na as 
 inconsiderable compared with h n. na, when n is infinite. But h n. na 
 is simply A base x perpendicular. Compare this method (absurd 
 aud almost unintelligible as it is, in the literal sense of the terms) 
 with the following. Divide the base (6) into n equal parts, each of 
 , 6 
 
 which is therefore — . Let the perpendicular be p, consequently the 
 
 . . P 2p np 
 perpendiculars at the extremities of the parts are -» — up to — , 
 
 b 
 
 and each multiplied by — , and the sum of the whole being taken, 
 we have — 
 
 b I p np\ bp n- + n bp/ 1 \ 
 
 n\» + "' + 7j = l n- ~ T \ 1 + n )• 
 This is the sum of the inscribed rectangles, which approaches without 
 limit to the area of the triangle as n is increased without limit. But 
 it approaches to | b p on the same supposition ; whence ^ b p is the 
 area of the triangle. Either method, with caution, might be made to 
 give true results, and in an intelligible manner; but that of Cavalerius 
 is very subject to error, and, we may say, requires a knowledge of 
 better methods to understand it. But it is nevertheless the first 
 attempt at generalisation, and serves to illustrate the position main- 
 tained by us [Barrow], that neither the fluxions of Newton nor the 
 infinitesimals of Leibnitz were the actual methods by means of which 
 the Differential Calculus (as now known) was made powerful. 
 Cavalerius, with the ' methods of development ' of Newton .might have 
 
 established his title to the invention. But his algebra was very 
 imperfect, even for his day : we cannot see proof, in 1647, that he had 
 ever seen the writings of Vieta, who died in 1003. The celebrated 
 Guldinus wrote against the method of indivisible, and was answered 
 by Cavalerius iu the third of the ' Exercitationes Geometriea?.' 
 Roborval claimed the method as his own, but his first publications on 
 the subject followed those of Cavalerius. 
 
 CAVALLI'NI, PIETRO, a celebrated Roman painter of the 14th 
 century, and one of the earliest masters of the modern Roman school, 
 was born at Rome in the latter half of the 13th century, and lived 
 at Rome during the interval that the popes resided at Avignon. 
 Vasari' h account of Cavallini is somewhat inconsistent with the period 
 of his death as adopted by Manni and Lanzi, 1344 ; for if, as Vasari 
 says, he was eighty-five when he died, he must have been a much 
 older painter than Giotto, and can scarcely, as he states, have been 
 his pupil. Vasari indeed says that Cavalliui was living in 1361, but 
 so many of his dates have been found to be incorrect, that he cannot 
 be strictly depended upon. Cavallini was painter, architect, and 
 worker in mosaic. Ho assisted Giotto in the mosaic or navicella of 
 the porch of St. Peter's ; and there are still some of his own mosaics 
 in the Basilica of San Paolo and at Santa Maria in Trastevere at 
 Rome. He executed also many paintings in the churches, but there 
 arc no remains of them ; the last were destroyed by the fire which, in 
 1824, almost entirely consumed the old Basilica of San Paolo : the 
 mosaics however, aud a miracle-working wooden crucifix made by 
 Cavallini, remained uninjured. 
 
 Cavallini painted also several frescoes at Florence, Orvieto, and at 
 Assisi, some of which are still in a tolerable state of preservation. A 
 crucifixion in the church of Assisi is the most remarkable and the 
 best preserved. It contains a crowd of figures, some on horseback, 
 aud dressed in a variety of costumes; in the sky, which is a deep 
 bright blue, are several angels. It is a work of great labour, and 
 though the design is very angular, tbe figures sometimes distorted, 
 and the perspective incorrect, the figures have expression and character, 
 and if we consider the examples which can have been his only guides, 
 we must pronounce it a highly creditable and meritorious work. 
 Vertue believed that Cavallini designed the crosses which were 
 erected to Queen Eleanor, and that he was the Petrus Romanus Civis 
 of the inscription on the shrine of Edward the Confessor in West- 
 minster Abbey, and accordingly the architect of the shrine which 
 was finished iu 1270. Walpole adopts the supposition, and concludes 
 that Cavallini returned to England with the abbot Ware, who was 
 elected iu 1260, and went shortly afterwards to Rome to receive con- 
 secration from Urban IV. But this must be regarded as a mere 
 conjecture. 
 
 The celebrated miracle-performing picture of the 'Annunciation,' 
 or ' La Nunziata,' in the church de' Servi at Florence, formerly attributed 
 to Cavallini, is now with more certainty attributed to a Maestro 
 Bartolomeo who lived at Florence in 1236. 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pitlori, &c. ; Lanzi, Storia Piltorica, &c. ; Walpole, 
 Anecdotes of Painting, dx.) 
 
 CAVALLO, TIBERIUS, a distinguished electrician, was born at 
 Naples iu 1749, and in the university of that city he completed his 
 education. In 1771 he was sent to London, in order that he might 
 obtnin a correct knowledge of the mode in which mercantile trans- 
 actions are conducted in England, but he soon abandoned the pursuits 
 of commerce for those of natural philosophy, and in these he con- 
 tinued to be engaged till his death, which took place December 6, 
 1809. He was buried in old St. Pancras churchyard, London. 
 
 Cavallo was less distinguished for originality of thought than for 
 his vast industry in the research of the laws of nature by the way of 
 observation and experiment, and for his highly retentive memory ; he 
 possessed this faculty to such a degree that, at an age when he was 
 unable to comprehend the reasoning employed, he knew by heart all 
 the propositions aud demonstrations in the books of Euclid. He had 
 considerable skill in music, for which he retained the taste even after 
 his sense of hearing was considerably impaired. He was appointed a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences of Naples in 1779, and in the 
 same year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 The labours of Cavallo consisted chiefly in the performance of 
 experiments relating to electricity aud magnetism, by which he con- 
 tributed much to the improvement of those branches of philosophy : 
 he also made researches concerning the composition of the atmosphere 
 and the characters of minerals. In order to determine the nature of 
 the electricity in the atmosphere he employed what he called an 
 ' atmospherical collector : ' this was a long rod having at one extremity 
 a small glass tube terminating with a cork from which were suspended 
 two pith balls. The rod being held out as far as possible from an 
 upper window of the house, when the balls diverged by the electricity 
 of the atmosphere, they were drawn iu, and the nature of the electric 
 fluid was ascertained by examination. In 1775, while residing near 
 Islington, he made a remarkable experiment with a kite, raised in the 
 air to the height allowed by 120 yards of string, from which he 
 ascertained that a great quantity of electricity may exist in the 
 atmosphere without producing thunder or lightning. A small cloud 
 passing over the house, he charged some jars with the electricity 
 obtained from it, which he found to be positive ; by degrees the 
 quantity diminished till it became insensible, but after a short time 
 
129 
 
 CAVE, EDWARD. 
 
 CAVENDISH, HENRY. 
 
 13d 
 
 a great dark cloud rising towards the zenith, the fluid, which began 
 again to be manifest, was found to be negative : the electricity con- 
 tinuing to increase and the rain falling copiously, he pulled in the kite 
 lest some serious accident should happen; and in doing this, he 
 received many strong shocks in his arms, breast, and legs. He 
 frequently made experiments of this kind, with kites which were 
 about four feet long and two feet wide ; the string was of common 
 twine twisted with threads of fine copper-wire. 
 
 He invented an instrument called a 'condenser of electricity,' which 
 consisted of a tin plate between two part? of a wooden frame covered 
 interiorly with gilt paper : the plate was isolated by being supported 
 on glass pillars ; and one edge being connected with the body contain- 
 ing the electricity, the effect of the condensation was shown, at the 
 opposite edge, by the electrometer. He invented also a ' multiplier ' 
 of electricity, which consisted of two brass plates iusulated by being 
 supported on glass pillars, and of a third plate which could be insu- 
 lated or uninsulated at pleasure : this last being fixed to a lever which 
 turned on a pivot, after receiving electricity from one of the former 
 plates, conveyed it to the other, with which an electrometer was con- 
 nected : returning from the second plate to the first it received a 
 fresh supply of electricity, which it conveyed in like inanuer to the 
 other ; and so on, till a sufficient quantity was accumulated on the 
 latter. 
 
 Among his experiments was one in which were exhibited some 
 remarkable phenomena of the electricity in glass tubes containing 
 mercury. The mercury was boiled in the tube, and the latter being 
 afterwards sealed, on elevating and depressing alternately the ends, 
 electricity was excited by the friction of the mercury : this changed 
 from positive to negative, and the contrary, as the tube was placed in 
 direct and inverted positions. 
 
 Cavallo invented also a simple micrometer consisting of a thin and 
 narrow slip of mother-of-pearl divided into parts each equal to l-200th 
 of an inch ; this being fixed in the diaphragm of a telescope, at the 
 focus of the eye-glass, served for measuring small angles. 
 
 Besides four Bakerian lectures on thermometrical and magnetical 
 phenomena, and several papers on electricity and other subjects, in 
 the 'Philosophical Transactions,' Cavallo published, in London: — 1, 
 'A Complete Treatise on Electricity,' 8vo, 1777; 2, 'An Essay on the 
 Theory aud Practice of Medical Electricity,' 8vo, 1780; 3, 'A Treatise 
 on the Nature and Properties of Air,' &c, 4to, 1781 ; 4, 'The History 
 and Practice of Aerostation,' 8vo, 1785 ; 5, ' Mineralogical Tables,' 
 1785 ; 6, 'A Treatise on Magnetism in Theory and Practice,' 8vo, 
 1787 ; 7, ' Description and Use of the Mother-of-Pearl Micrometer,' 
 8vo, 1793 ; 8, ' Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs,' 
 &c, 8vo, 1798 ; aud 9, ' Elements of Natural and Experimental 
 Philosophy,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1803. 
 
 CAVE, EDWARD, a printer to whom the literary world owes many 
 obligations, was born at Newton in Warwickshire, February 29, 1691. 
 He is principally known as the projector of the ' Gentleman's 
 Magazine,' and as the friend and early patron of Dr. Samuel Johnson, 
 who wrote an account of his life. He died January 10, 1754. 
 
 CAVE, WILLIAM, an eminent scholar and divine, was born 
 December 30th, 1637, at Pickwell in Leicestershire, where his father 
 was rector of the parish. He was admitted at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, in 1653, took the degree of B.A. in 1656, and that of M.A. 
 in 1660. In 1662 he was admitted to the vicarage of Islington in 
 Middlesex, and some time after became one of the king's chaplains in 
 ordinary. He took the degree of D.D. in 1672, and in 1679 was collated 
 by the Archbishop of Canterbury to the rectory of Allhallows the Great 
 in Thames-street, London. In July 1681 he was incorporated D.D. at 
 Oxford, and in November 1684 was installed canon of Windsor. He 
 resigned his rectory of Allhallows in 1C89, and his vicarage of Islington 
 in 1691, having on the 19th of November 1690 been admitted to the 
 ■vicarage of Isleworth in Middlesex. He died at Windsor on the 4th 
 of August 1713, and was buried in Islington church, where a monu- 
 ment was erected to his memory. He published two single sermons, 
 one preached before the lord mayor and citizens of London, November 
 5th, 1680, 4to, London, 1680; the other preached before the king, 
 January 18th, 1684-85, 4to, London, 1685. His works of greater 
 importance are: — 1. 'Primitive Christianity,' in three parts, 8vo, 
 London, 1672; reprinted several times since. 2. ' Tabulae Ecclesias- 
 ticsc, Tables of the Ecclesiastical Writers,' fol., London, 1 G74 ; reprinted 
 at Hamburg in 1676 without his knowledge. 3. ' Antiquitates Apos- 
 tolical ; or, the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms of the Apostles,' fol., 
 London, 1676; republished in 1702. 4. ' Apostolici; or, the History 
 of the Lives, Acts, Deaths, and Martyrdoms of those who were 
 Contemporaries with or immediately succeeded the Apostles ; as also 
 of the most eminent of the Primitive Fathers for the first three hundred 
 years : to which is added, a Chronology of the three first Ages of the 
 Church,' fol., Loudon, 1677. 5. ' Ecclesiastici ; or, the History of the 
 Lives, Acts, Deaths, and Writings of the most eminent Fathers of the 
 Church that flourished in the fourth century,' fol., London, 1682. 
 6. ' A Dissertation concerning the Government of the Ancient Church,' 
 8vo, London, 1683. 7. 'A serious Exhortation, with some important 
 Advices, relating to the late cases about Conformity, recommended to 
 the Protestant Dissenters from the Church of England,' 4to, London, 
 1683. 8. ' Cliartophylax Ecclesiasticus,' 8vo, London, 1685. 9. 
 'Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Ilistoria Literaria a Christo nato usque 
 
 ad Saeculum xiv. facili methodo digosta,' in two parts, fol., tho first 
 printed at London in 1688; the second in 1693; republished, fol. 
 Col. Allob., 1705 and 1720. The best edition is that printed at tho 
 Clarendon press, by subscription, in two vols, fol., 1740-43 : it contaim 
 the author's last corrections and additions. Cave's ' Live3 of tho 
 Apostles,' ' Lives of the Fathers,' and his ' Primitive Christianity,' are 
 justly esteemed the best books upon those subjects. 
 
 CAVENDISH, HliNRY, was tho younger son of Lord Charle* 
 Cavendish, the brother of the great grandfather of the present Duko 
 of Devonshire, and was born at Nice, October 10, 1731. Having 
 received his preliminary education in a private school at Hackney, lie 
 proceeded to Cambridge aud matriculated December 18, 1749. Jf a 
 remained there till 1753, but did not graduate. He had during the 
 life of his father a very moderate income, aud his relatives were 
 estranged from him by his determination not to enter upon public or 
 political life ; with the exception of an uncle, who, on his return from 
 abroad in 1773, not being pleased with the conduct of the family 
 towards Cavendish, made the latter heir to his fortune, which was 
 very large. Cavendish devoted himself to mathematics aud chemUtry, 
 to which his attention was probably turned by his father, who w;u 
 himself a cultivator of the sciences ; but his success, or at least its 
 evidence, did not come very early, for he was more than 35 years of 
 age before he published anything. He lived a retired life, aud never 
 married ; his manners seem to have been eccentric, aud to strangers 
 very reserved. Indeed this reserve extended far beyond what would 
 by ordinary people be considered as strangers. It is said by Dr. 
 Children (Wilson's ' Life of Cavendish') that he was so shy towards 
 females that he would never see even a female domestic, and " if an 
 unfortunate maid showed herself, she was immediately dismissed." 
 In order to avoid communication with his servants, it is added by 
 Lord Brougham, " he used to order his dinner daily by a note, which 
 he left at a certain hour on the hall table, whence the housekeeper 
 was to take it." His library, Biot says, was immense, and he fixed it 
 at a distance from his own residence, that he might not be disturbed 
 by those who came to consult it. His friends were allowed to take 
 books, and he himself never withdrew a book without giving a receipt 
 for it. He died February 24, 1810, leaving more than a million 
 sterling among different relations. 
 
 Of Cavendish as a philosopher, those who judge by the quantity of 
 brilliant discoveries will not be able to form any opinion. His 
 writings consist of a few papers in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' 
 from 1766 to 1809. But in these papers we find methods aud results 
 which have occasioned his being sometimes called the Newton of 
 Chemistry. Without such hyperbole, it may safely be said that he 
 was the first, and one of the most useful, of those who laid the foun- 
 dation of the science in its modern form. At the time when his first 
 paper appeared, pneumatic chemistry had hardly an existence. It is 
 true that different gases were known, that is, had been obtained as 
 results of chemical processes; but they were not recognised as distinct 
 substances. It was thought they consisted of common air mixed with 
 foreign matter; and it was not imagined for instance, that the 
 inflammable air produced by operating with one substance was the 
 same as that from another. In 1766, Cavendish for the first time 
 asserted and demonstrated that the fixed air (carbonic acid gas) was 
 the same, whatever was the substance from which it was derived, and 
 the same for the inflammable air (hydrogen), and that neither had the 
 specific gravity of common air. He investigated for the first time the 
 principal properties of the latter substance, aud noticed the moisture 
 which results from its combustion. In 1784, he completed the syn- 
 thetical formation of water; that is, he found the moisture above 
 mentioned to be simple water, and discovered that the remaining 
 element of air, now therefore called nitrogen, was the constituent of 
 nitric acid. He produced this substance by passing the electric spark 
 through air over mercury, aud saturating the result with a solution 
 of potash, by which he obtained nitrate of potash, commonly called 
 nitre. It has been keenly debated whether the discovery of the com- 
 position of water should be assigned to Cavendish or to Watt ; but 
 the result of the sifting which the question has undergone, appears to 
 be that each arrived at the discovery by a different method and with- 
 out being at all cognisant of the other's investigations. Cavendish's 
 well-known experiment for the determination of the earth's density is 
 described under Attraction in the Arts and Sciences. Div. Caven- 
 dish also wrote on the civil year of the Hindus, and on the division 
 of astronomical instruments, aud various papers on electricity. 
 
 We resist the temptation to swell this article to an extent propor- 
 tionate to what the reputation of Cavendish deserves. The funda- 
 mentality, if we may use such a word, of his chemical results has not 
 been surpassed by those of any other discoverer in chemistry. But 
 he deserves fame for the great accuracy of his experiments, aud the 
 (then) unequalled soundness of his views. One writer asserts that 
 every sentence he has written will bear microscopic examination. A 
 French writer admits (we should say affirms) that he furnished 
 Lavoisier with the materials of his system ; and Sir Humphry Davy 
 in a lecture delivered shortly after the death of Cavendish, speaks as 
 follows : " His processes were all of a finished nature, perfected by the_ 
 hand of a master ; they required no correction; and though many of 
 them were performed in the very infancy of chemical science, yet 
 their accuracy and their beauty have remained unimpaired amidst the 
 
131 
 
 CAVENDISH, MARGARET. 
 
 CAXTON, WILLIAM. 
 
 132 
 
 progress of discovery." The discoveries of Cavendish were finished ; 
 ):e formed his substances both by analysis and synthesis; ascertained 
 that the weight of his product was the sum of that of its components, 
 and determined its specific gravity. He was the first who carried the 
 mind and methods of a mathematician into the field from which 
 the alchemist had not long retired, and in which the speculator still 
 remained. And when we say the mind and methods of a mathema- 
 tician, we do not deny that the inductive philosopher had already 
 been there; but it was to remark phenomena, and not to measure 
 quantities. 
 
 (Geo. Wilson, M.D., Life of the Hon. Henry Cavendish, including 
 Abstracts of his more important scientific papers; printed for the 
 Cavendish Society, Lond., 1851;Biot, Art. Cavendish in Biographic 
 Universelle, (be.) 
 
 CAVENDISH, MARGARET, DUCHESS OF NEWCASTLE. 
 This eccentric lady, the youngest daughter of Sir Charles Lucas, was 
 born in Essex towards the close of the reign of James I. In 1613 she 
 was appointed a maid of honour to Henrietta Maria ; and, accompanying 
 the queen to Paris, she became in 1645 the second wife of William 
 Cavendish, who had formerly been Earl and was then Marquis of 
 Newcastle, aud who had borne arms in the civil war with courage and 
 self-devotion. The exile of the Marchioness and her husband was 
 chiefly spent at Antwerp, and was accompanied by frequent pecuniary 
 embarrassments, which she had the spirit to avow in her memoir of 
 her husband's life. Both of them were forced at one time to pawn 
 even their clothes. A visit which she paid to Fnglaud was unsuccessful 
 in procuring any grant out of the family estates; but assistance fur- 
 nished by relations enabled the Marquis and his wife to subsist more 
 comfortably till the Restoration. On that event they returned to 
 England; aud in 10G1 the Marquis was created Duke of Newcastle. 
 The remainder of their married life was spent in the retirement of the 
 country. The Duchess died in the end of the year 1073, aud her 
 husband, aged eighty-four, in 1C7G. 
 
 The period which succeeded the acquisition of the dukedom was 
 chiefly devoted by the noble pair to that course of literary study and 
 composition, which, however creditable in the motive, was rendered 
 so whimsical by the eccentric character of the parties. Horace Walpole, 
 in his 'Royal and Noble Authors,' found a tempting theme for his 
 ill-natured wit in the picture of the duke and duchess, prosecuting 
 their harmless occupations with an aristocratic forgetfuluess of the 
 whole world besides, each regarding the other as the greatest genius 
 of the times, and each lavishing on the other, in conversation aud in 
 print, the most extravagant hyperboles of commendation. The Duke 
 had long before appeared more than once as an author ; and particularly 
 by the publication of his work on 'Horsemanship,' first printed in 
 French at Antwerp in 1658, and afterwards in English, with altera- 
 tions, at London in 1667. In the later period of his life, the example 
 of his wife tempted him to perpetrate some comedies which were even 
 worse than her own. She was iudeed at once the more ambitious and 
 by far the more industrious writer of the two. There was scarcely 
 any department of composition, either in prose or in verse, on which 
 she did not exercise her ready pen. Her singularly constituted mind 
 was always in fermentation ; and, not content with recording its pro- 
 ducts at ordinary hours, she kept some of her attendant ladies within 
 call even during the night, to write down the bright thoughts that 
 arose in hours of sleeplessness. The result of this distempered activity 
 was a collection of ten printed folios, besides other works that never 
 saw the light. Catalogues of these, and of the Duke's works, will be 
 found in Walpole aud iu the 'Biographia Britaunica.' The best known 
 works of the Duchess are her two volumes of plays, published respect- 
 ively in 1662 and 1668. These effusions deserve a passing inspection 
 from the student of literary history, both as monuments of unredeemed 
 and self-satisfied absurdity, and as examples of some principles in 
 literary composition to which no author before or since has ever been 
 bold enough to avow obedience. Not only for the higher laws of style, 
 but even for the ordinary rules of English grammar, "the thrice noble, 
 illustrious, and excellent Princess" (as her title-pages call her) pro- 
 fessed a sovereign contempt. In several of those nine addresses "to 
 the Readers" which, besides other prefaces, stand in succession before 
 her first volume of plays, she magnanimously declares her willingness 
 that her writings should be unread by " such pedantical scholastieal 
 persons" as attach importance to grammatical distinctions of gender, 
 and to those other laws of language, as to which she announces, that, 
 if she understood them, as she does not, she would not follow them. 
 Her practice was quite conformable to this frank profession. It is 
 rarely, for example, that she condescends to join a plural verb with a 
 plural nominative. But all such technical faults are as nothiug, com- 
 pared with the childish aud senseless extravagancies which in those 
 plays make up the whole tissue of the matter. There is not iu one of 
 them a scene that is dramatic in anything but the form. That they 
 should be free from coarseness was not to be expected in such an 
 age; but some of the most indelicate scenes are carefully marked as 
 having been written by " the Lord Marquess." The philosophical discus- 
 sions which abound throughout are claimed by the lady as her own. 
 
 CAVENDISH, or CANDISH, THOMAS, was the son of a gentle- 
 man of fortune in Suffolk. It appears from Harris that he was of age 
 and inherited his father's property in 1585, immediately after which 
 ke equipped a "stout bark of 120 tons" on his own account, and 
 
 accompanied Sir Richard Grenvillo in his voyage to Virginia and the 
 West Indies. His outlay on this voyago was a serious inroad into his 
 fortune : he derived no profit from it. According to some of his 
 biographers, Cavendish, on his return from Virginia, still further 
 reduced his property by becoming a courtier, and embarking in the 
 extravagances of the gallants of Queen Elizabeth's days ; and they state 
 that his first grand voyage was undertaken (as the second undoubtedly 
 was) to recruit his finances. The practice was common enough in his 
 time, and men of rank and family thought it no disgrace to retrieve 
 their fortunes by plundering on the Spanish Main. Their system 
 to us appears to be scarcely better than that of buccaneering ; but 
 the cruelties of the Spaniards almost justified even the buccaneers : 
 and it is to be remembered that iu the days of Elizabeth there was 
 open war with Spain, and while that power sent armadas to invade 
 England, it was quite fair that England should attack Spain in the 
 richest and most exposed of her transatlantic colonies. 
 
 The expedition, which was mainly fitted out at the expense of 
 Cavendish, who sold or mortgaged the remainder of his estates for 
 the purpose, consisted only of three small vessels — one of 120 tons, 
 one of 60 tons, and the third of 40 tons; aud the united crews, men 
 and officers, did not exceed 123. But the mind of every one of these 
 adventurers was inflamed with ideas of wealth to bo obtained in a 
 predatory voyage against the Spaniards, and they had full confidence 
 in the valour and generosity of their young commander. Cavendish 
 embarked in the largest ship, and sailed from Plymouth on the 21st 
 of July 15S6. Crossing the Atlantic, he ran along all the continent 
 of South America as far as the Straits of Magalhaens, into which he 
 boldly sailed on tho Gth of January 1587. It took him thirty -three 
 days to clear the Straits, but part of that time was well employed iu 
 surveying the coasts, rocks, &c, which were hitherto little known. 
 As soon as he reached the Pacific Ocean (24th of February) he turned 
 northward, and soon came to the scene of action which he had selected 
 as likely to furnish most booty. The men fought and plundered 
 bravely, but not without suffering considerable loss. They burnt Paita, 
 Acapulco, and other settlements on or near the coast ; they took some 
 Spanish ships, destroyed others, and ravaged the sea-board of Chili, 
 Peru, and New Spain. But the crowning blow of the expedition, and 
 that on which Cavendish counted for wealth and honour, was the 
 capture of the annual galleon, the St. Anna, which was loaded with 
 valuable merchandise, and contained 122,000 Spanish dollars in hard 
 cash. This ship was 700 tons burden, and well manned ; yet, after 
 lyiug in ambush for her under Cape Lucas on the coast of California, 
 the English, whose number, small at first, had been greatly reduced 
 by battle aud sickness, attacked her, and carried her by boarding. 
 After this Cavendish, starting from California, crossed the Pacific to 
 the Ladrone Islands ; from the Ladrones he sailed through the Indian 
 Archipelago and the Straits of Java to the Cape of Good Hope; from 
 the Cape he made for England, and he reached Plymouth on the 9th 
 of September 1588, having been absent two years, one month, and a 
 few days. 
 
 The circumnavigation of the globe had not before been performed 
 in so short a time. In addition to despatch, Cavendish had the merit 
 of making some geographical corrections : he reduced to its proper 
 length the distance from Java to the Cape of Good Hope, which the 
 Portuguese bad greatly exaggerated ; and he did a good deal, as already 
 stated, towards the hydrography of the Straits of Magalhaens. He 
 was also the first to point out to the English the local advantages of 
 St. Helena, which before had been resorted to only by the Portuguese. 
 He touched at that island, which he described as a delicious place, 
 then covered with trees. On his return from thi3 voyage he wrote a 
 curious letter to Lord Hounsdon, a chamberlain and favourite of 
 Queen Elizabeth. After telling the courtier how he had gained victory 
 over her majesty's enemies, he sums up : — " I burnt and sunk nineteen 
 sail of ships, small and great ; and all the villages and towns that ever 
 I landed at I burned aud spoiled." Elizabeth knighted the successful 
 depredator, and from the portion of the spoils that fell to his share as 
 capitalist aud commander, Sir Thomas Cavendish was said, in the 
 language of the time, to have been " rich enough to purchase a fair 
 earldom." 
 
 But in three year3 Cavendish was a poor man again, and to better 
 his fortunes he once more turned his eye3 to the New World. An 
 expedition was prepared, not as formerly by himself almost alone, but 
 by a sort of joint-stock of money, bravery, aud adventure — an associ- 
 ation which diminished his authority, aud proved fatal to discipline; 
 for those who had contributed as much as he had pretended to an 
 equality of command with him. Quarrels and dissensions arose; and 
 in addition to this misfortune the " three tall ships and two barques," 
 which are said to have been well equipped, had to encounter tempests 
 not met with in the former voyage. Their only success was the 
 capture of the town of Santos in Brazil, but their reverses were 
 numerous. Cavendish was obliged, by the mutinous spirit of his 
 men, to abandon his bold plans here. Worn out by disappointments 
 and vexations of all kinds, the hardy navigator died at sea on his 
 return towards England in 1593. 
 
 (Harris, Collection of Voyages and Travels.) 
 
 CAVENDISH, WILLIAM, DUKE OF NEWCASTLE. [Cavendish, 
 
 Margaret.] 
 
 CAXTON, WILLIAM, to whom England owes the introduction of 
 
141 
 
 CELLINI, BENVENUTO. 
 
 CELLINI, BENVENUTO. 
 
 Comitum Wettinensium,' 4to, 1697. Cellarins published editions of 
 many of the classics, and he also edited 'B. Fabri Soraui Thesaurus 
 Eruditionis Scholastics;,' with additions. His Academical Dissertations 
 were published at Leipzig, 1712. 
 
 Solomon Cellarios, his son, born about 1670, died in 1700, was a 
 physician, and wrote ' De Originibus et Antiquitatibus Mcdicis,' which 
 some have inserted among his father's works. Andukas Cellarius, 
 a relative of Christopher, wrote ' Regni Polonisc Regiouumque omnium 
 ad id pertinentium novissima Descriptio,' 12mo, Arnst., 1659. Balt- 
 hazar Cellarius, a physician, left several medical works. Five or 
 six other German writers named Cellarius (the Latin form of Keller) 
 are mentioned, but none of their works are of any consequence. 
 
 CELLI'NI, BENVENUTO, was born in Florence, in the year 1500. 
 The narrative of his career we abridge from the very remarkable auto- 
 biography noticed at the end of the article. His father was desirous 
 that Benvenuto should be brought up to the profession of music, but 
 he showed so decided a preference for the art of design that it was 
 found impossible to keep him from his favourite pursuit, and he was 
 eventually permitted to study sculpture : his first essays were made 
 as a chaser and gold-worker. The elder Cellini however removed his 
 son from the person with whom he was working, and made him apply 
 closely to music till he was 15 years of age, when, without his father's 
 cousent, Benvenuto again established himself with a goldsmith called 
 hlarcone. In consequence of being engaged in an affray he was 
 banished from Florence, and retired for a time to Siena. He after- 
 wards went to Rome, where he met with great encouragement in his 
 art. He returned however to his native city, and had every prospect 
 of professional success, when, his ardent temper leading him into a 
 quarrel, in which he severely wounded his antagonist, he found it 
 necessary to disguise himself as a friar, and make his escape to Rome. 
 It appears that he still cultivated music, for Pope Clement VII. was 
 so well pleased at hearing him play at a concert that he took him into 
 his service in the double capacity of artist and musician. 
 
 The talents of Benvenuto were not confined to the arts of design 
 and music : he distinguished himself in arms, and, according to his 
 own account, was equally able as an engineer. When the Constable 
 Duke of Bourbon laid siege to Rome, Cellini acted as a soldier, and he 
 says it was he who killed the duke as he attempted to scale the city 
 walls. He also signalised himself in the defence of the castle of 
 St. An™elo ; and the Prince of Orange, Cellini declares, was killed by 
 a ball from a cannon which he pointed. Soon after this he left Rome, 
 and made his peace with the magistrates of Florence. He nest pro- 
 ceeded to Mantua, and through the interest of his friend Julio 
 Romano, the painter, was noticed favourably by the duke ; but some 
 indiscretion obliged him hastily to quit Mantua, and he again returned 
 to Florence, where he became intimate with Michel Angelo Buona- 
 rotti. At the pope's invitation Benvenuto again went to Rome, where 
 he met with great encouragement, and, among other distinctions, 
 received the appointment of engraver to the mint. In consequence 
 however of the ill-offices and calumny of one Pompeo of Milan, he lost 
 his place, and was even arrested for refusing to give up a work he was 
 engaged upon. A curious instance of Cellini's weakness occurs at 
 this time, in the fact of his devoting himself to necromancy in the 
 hope of recovering his mistress, who had withdrawn to Naples. 
 Having quarrelled with one Benedetto, whom he wounded severely, 
 and being denounced moreover as having killed one Tobia, of Milan, 
 the pope issued orders to have him apprehended, and executed on the 
 spot ; but he contrived to make bis escape, and succeeded in reaching 
 Naples, where, as the promises of the necromancer had assured him, 
 he m^t his mistress Angelica. He was kindly received by the viceroy, 
 who wished to keep him in his service, but finding himself deceived 
 by the fair Angelica, or her mother, Cellini quitted Naples, and, under 
 Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici's protection, returned to Rome and 
 obtained the pope's pardon. In 1534 his great patron Pope Clement 
 VII. died; but Ben venuto's well known talents had now secured him 
 many liberal and powerful friends. He says, in his lite of himself, 
 that on his return from St. Peter's where he went to kiss the feet of 
 the dead pontiff, he met Pompeo, who had falsely accused him of the 
 death of Tobia of Milan, and that a quarrel ensued, which ended in 
 his killing his adversary ; but he adds, exultingly, he was protected 
 from any evil consequences by the interest of his patrons, the Cardinals 
 Cornaro and Medici ; and Paul HI., the new pope, desiring to have 
 him in hi* service, gave him hifl pardon, and also reinstated him in 
 his situation of engraver to the mint. About this time he unfortu- 
 nately excited the enmity of Pier' Luigi, the pope's natural son, who 
 endeavoured to have him assassinated, but Cellini having intelligence 
 of the design, made his escape to Florence, where the grand duke 
 received him with every mark of kindness, and appointed him master 
 of the mint. The pope however, anxious to have him in Rome, sent 
 to invite him back, and Cellini again ventured to establish himself 
 in that city ; where he remained till he was recommended to try his 
 native air as the only means of recovering from a severe illness. He 
 returned however to the pope's service, and was appointed to cany 
 the presents which were made by his holiness to the Emperor 
 Charles V., on his visiting Rome. Cellini some time alter this resolved 
 to visit France, and passing through Padua, visited Cardinal Bembo. 
 On arriving in France he wag most graciously received by Francis I., 
 who offered to take him into his service, but being seized with illness 
 
 he felt a dislike to the country, and returned to Rome by Ferrara, 
 where he was honourably treated by the reigning duke. On arriving 
 at Rome he was accused by his servant of having robbed the castle of 
 St. Angelo, during the war, of immense treasures, which led to his 
 arrest and imprisonment. He was much persecuted ou this occasion 
 by Pier' Luigi, the pope's son, who influenced his father to continue 
 Benvenuto iu prison ; a resolution in which the pope was confirmed 
 from pique at the French king's intercession in his favour. At 
 length, with great ingenuity, and after considerable difficulties, he 
 effected his escape, and proceeded to his kind friend, Cardinal Cornaro, 
 who received and concealed him for some time ; but his eminence 
 being afterwards induced to deliver him up to the pope, he was com- 
 mitted a second time to prison, where he was treated with the greatest 
 severity. He acquaints us, that after he had been confined some time 
 he had a vision, which assured him of his speedy liberation. 
 
 At a banquet at which the pope entertained the Cardinal of Ferrara, 
 on his return from the court of France, his eminence succeeded in pro- 
 curing Cellini's pardon and enlargement, upon which he immediately 
 finished a fine cup for the cardinal, and employed himself in other 
 works — as a ' Venus and Cupid,' ' Amphitrite and Tritons,' and other 
 performances. 
 
 He accompanied the cardinal back to Paris, where he met with a 
 most gracious reception from the king, but being offered by the 
 cardinal what he conceived too low a salary for his work, he left Paris 
 abruptly, intending to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and had even 
 proceeded some way when he was overtaken by those sent in pursuit 
 of him and brought back to Francis I. The king settled a handsome 
 salary upon him, and gave him an order to make various large statues 
 for him iu silver. But he had now the misfortune to offend Madame 
 d'Estampes, the king's favourite, who did all in her power to disgust 
 him, and to excite the king against him. With this view she encou- 
 raged Primaticcio, who was then at the court of France, and set him 
 up as a rival to Benvenuto. He was also engaged in a law-suit, but 
 finding himself, as he says, much troubled and persecuted by the 
 delays of the law, he had recourse to his sword, which intimidated 
 his adversaries, and put an end to the suit. The favourite still con- 
 tinuing to persecute him, he begged permission of the king to leave 
 France. On his return to Florence, the grand-duke Cosmo de' Medici 
 received him with marks of attention, and gave him a studio to 
 exercise his profession in, where he commenced his celebrated 
 'Perseus;' but being offended at some conduct of the grand-duke's 
 servants, he went to Venice, where he made the acquaintance of 
 Titian, Sansovino, and other celebrated artists. Returning once more 
 to Florence, he proceeded, though slowly, for want of means, with his 
 ' Perseus,' which at last he finished. 
 
 On the duke's declaring war against the inhabitants of Siena, 
 Benvenuto was employed to repair the fortifications of Florence. 
 
 After bis 'Perseus' was exposed to public view, his success was so 
 great that he undertook in gratitude a pilgrimage to Valombrosa and 
 Camaldoli. He was now employed upon many important works. The 
 contest between him and Baudinelli for a statue in marble of Neptune 
 is well known. Cellini intimates that the chagrin caused by the prefer- 
 ence given to his design caused the death of the rival sculptor. Not- 
 withstanding this, the duchess, who was Benvenuto's enemy, prevented 
 his having the work, and it was given to Ammanato. He had soon 
 after an opportunity of regaining the duchess's good opinion, by pre- 
 senting to her and the duke a marble crucifix, a work mentioned and 
 highly extolled by Vasari in his ' Life of Cellini.' He was about this 
 time invited by Catharine de' Medici to go to France, to superintend a 
 monument to the memory of her husband, Henri II., but the grand- 
 duke desiring to retain him in his employment, the queen dowager 
 relinquished her proposal, and Cellini did not again quit Italy. He 
 died in Florence, on the 13th of February 1570, and was buried with 
 great pomp in the church of l'Annunziata. 
 
 The works of Benvenuto Cellini may be divided into two classes : 
 the first, for which he is most celebrated, comprises his smaller 
 productions in metal, the embossed decorations of shields, cups, 
 salvers, ornamented sword and dagger hilts, clasps, medals, and coins, 
 in which he showed great skill in composition, and excellence in the 
 details of execution ; the second includes his larger works, as a 
 sculptor, and a reference to his bronze group of ' Perseus,' with the 
 head of 'Medusa,' in the Piazza del Grau' Duca in Florence, will be 
 sufficient to illustrate his merit in the higher walk of his art. He also 
 executed some fine portraits. 
 
 It might be expected, from the constant employment Cellini had, 
 wherever his uncertain and roving habits induced him to settle even 
 for a short time, that a greater number of his highly-finished works 
 would be found in collections. Their rarity must doubtless be 
 accounted for by the temptation which the intrinsic value of the 
 materials in which he usually exercised his talents offered to tasteless 
 cupidity ; and which often no doubt led to the destruction of fine 
 specimens of art for the sake of the gold or silver in which they were 
 worked. 
 
 The life of Benvenuto Celliui, written by himself, is, in its class, 
 one of the most curious and interesting biographies extant. It not 
 only contains very full information respecting the life and professional 
 pursuits of an extraordinary individual, and describes all ranks of 
 persons with whom he was connected during a long and busy career, 
 
148 
 
 CELSIUS, ANDREW. 
 
 CENSORINUS. 
 
 ltl 
 
 but, furnishes a lively and no doubt tolerably accurate picture of the 
 state of society during the greater part of the 16th century. Cellini's 
 vanity and self-satisfaction, displayed throughout the work, are exces- 
 sive and highly ludicrous ; aud, candid or reckless, he does not 
 disguise the excesses into which an ardent temperament and uu- 
 governed passions too frequently urged bim. To the dishonour of 
 those who held the reins of government, aud especially in the States 
 of the Church, bis narrative shows how easily crime was overlooked 
 when the delinquent had talents (eitber useful or agreeable to bis 
 judges) to plead in his behalf, or courtly interest to protect him from 
 the just consequences of a disregard of the laws. 
 
 The best edition of Cellini's life is entitled ' Vita di Beuvenuto 
 Cellini da lui medesinio scritta, &c. &c. da Gio P. Carpaui,' whose notes 
 are valuable, 2 vols. 8vo, 1812. It has been very well translated into 
 English by W. Roscoe. Cellini also wrote a treatise on various branches 
 of his art. 
 
 CE'LSIUS, ANDREW, born 1701, at Upsal, died 1744. lie must 
 not be confounded with bis father (or uncle), Olaus Celsius, 1670-1756, 
 a theologian, or with his grandfather, Magnus Nicholas Celsius, 
 1 021—1079, a mathematician and botanist. Andrew Celsius joined 
 Maupertuis and bis associates in the measurement of the Lapland 
 degree, aud afterwards built an observatory at Upsal. He was the 
 first who employed the centigrade thermometer. He wrote various 
 works, of which it will be worth while to note — 1, his astronomical 
 and meteorological observations in the 'Upsal Acta Literaria;' 2, his 
 collection of the aurora; boreales observed in bis time in Sweden, under 
 the title ' CCCXVI Observatioues de Lumine Boreali,' Nurnberg, 
 1733. 
 
 CELSUS, AURE'LIUS (or AULUS) CORNE'LIUS, appears to have 
 lived in the Augustan age, but this point is by no means settled ; and, 
 as Le Clerc observes, some suppose him to have lived under Tiberius, 
 Caligula, Nero, or even Trajan. Yet the evidence strongly preponde- 
 rates iu favour of his having lived in the age of Augustus and perhaps 
 that of Tiberius. This probability is strengthened by his style, which 
 resembles that of the best writers of the Augustan age. Nor has the 
 profession of Celsus been thought to be perfectly ascertained ; for it 
 has been conjectured that he was not a practical physician, but an 
 amateur, who wrote upon physic as forming a part of philosophy. 
 The observations of Celsus however on the most practical points, 
 exhibit such familiarity with tho subject, that it is impossible to sup- 
 pose they could have proceeded from any but an actual physician ; 
 aud there are several passages in his work which can hardly be sup- 
 posed to refer to anything but his own practice. Thus after mentioning 
 the method adopted by Heraclides of Tarcntum in cases of adhesion 
 of the eyelid to the eyeball, he remarks, that he did not recollect to 
 have seen it successful in a single instauce (lib. vii. 7.) 
 
 Celsus wrote treatises on agriculture, rhetoric, aud military affairs, 
 
 well as on medicine; but all have been lost except the treatise 'De 
 Mcdicina,' and some fragments of his work on rhetoric, published by 
 Sextus Poprua. The work on medicine consists of eight books: the 
 first gives a brief account of the history of medicine, and of the 
 regimen to be observed by persons of various constitutions; the 
 second, of prognosis and diet; the third, of the treatment of general 
 diseases by diet ; the fourth, of the treatment of partial diseases ; the 
 filth, of medicines and diseases to be tie ited by them ; the sixth, of 
 the treatment of local diseases by medicine; the seventh, of surgical 
 operations; the eighth, of the boues, with their diseases, fractures, aud 
 dislocations. Hippocrates and Asclepiades are the chief authors 
 whom Celsu3 follows. He copies the former when he treats of 
 prognosis and of various surgical operations, where he translates, word 
 for word, a great number of passages; owing to which circumstance 
 he has been called the Latin Hippocrates. But in other points he 
 rather preferred Asclepiades; whence he has been classed by some in 
 the sect_ of methodists. But not to mention the perfect impartiality 
 with which he speaks of the three principal sects existing in bis time, 
 namely, the empirics, dogmatics, and methodists (lib. i., Pref.), his 
 practice shows that he was not a blind adherent of any party. Celsus 
 merited the praise of an eclectic physician, and followed the sect to 
 which he seems to incline, only so far as they followed nature. In 
 opposition to Hippocrates, but in conformity with Asclepiades, Celsus 
 rejects the doctrine of critical days, which he supposes to be an offshoot 
 of the Fythagorean numbers. Nor did he copy Hippocrates in the 
 j;reat question of bleeding, which he used far more frequently. Celsus 
 bled in fever when the symptoms were violent, the skin red, and the 
 veins full; in pleurisy; in peripueumony if the patient was strong, 
 but if not, dry cupping was to be employed; in paralysis; in con- 
 vulsions; iu dyspnoea, when it threatened suffocation ; iu apoplexy; 
 in cases of unbearable pain ; iu internal contusions ; in spitting or 
 vomiting of blood ; and in all acute diseases, when he thought that 
 the patient had too much blood. He also bled in cachexia. These 
 instances show that he bled more frequently than Asclepiades, but 
 not more frequently than many modern practitioners, excepting 
 indeed in the article of cachexia. Celsus used cupping glasses, both 
 with aud without scarification ; but it is remarkable that he does not 
 speak of leeches, though they were used by Themisou. 
 
 As Celsus differed from Hippocrates on the subject of bleeding, so 
 he did likewise on that of purging. After remarking that the ancients 
 purged and administered clysters in almost every disease, he says 
 
 that aperients injure the stomach, and that the patient is weakened 
 if the bowels are too much relaxed, either by medicine or clysters ; 
 and be recommends the practitioner to abstaiu from their use in 
 
 fever. 
 
 The first four books also direct the method of employing gestation, 
 friction, baths, fomentations, and the sudorific treatment. As to diet, 
 patients are to abstaiu from eating and drinking at the beginning of 
 their maladies, but they must afterwards take food in moderate 
 
 quantities. 
 
 Among the numerous remedies contained iu the fifth and sixth 
 books, but few are to be taken iuternally; by far tho greater number 
 are unguents, plasters, cataplasms, &c. Among the exceptions are 
 three antidotes ; the first is a compound of opium (Lacrymce papavcrhs) 
 and aroinatics ; the second, called ambrosia, and said to have been 
 composed for one of the Ptolemies by Zopyrus, consists of aroinatics 
 without opium ; the third, again, contains opium, and is the famous 
 Mithridate, by which Mithridates is said to have secured himself 
 agaiust poison. 
 
 The seventh and eighth books give a very favourable idea of the 
 progress which surgery had mado in the Augustan age. The opera- 
 tion of lithotomy, as described by Celsus, has been much praised and 
 very extensively adopted. Mr. Samuel Cooper observes that it was 
 longer practised than all the other methods, " having been continued 
 to the commencement of the 10th century ; and it was performed at 
 Bourdcaux, Paris, and other places in France, on patients of all ages 
 by Raoux, even so late as 150 years ago. Frere Jacques occasionally 
 had recourse to it ; and it was successfully executed by Heister 
 (part ii., chap. 140). A modern author recommends it always to bo 
 preferred on boys under fourteen." (Allan, p, 12.) (' Surgical Diet.' 
 art. ' Lithotomy.') 
 
 Among tho most remarkable points in this division of his work we 
 may mention tho account of cataract, and the operation with the 
 needle for its cure (lib. vii., 7) ; the two fold treatment of goitre by 
 caustic, and extirpation (vii., 13); tapping in dropsy (vii., 15); tho 
 restoration of the prepuce in the circumcised (viL, 25); the employ- 
 ment of the catheter (vii., 26); manual delivery in cases where the 
 child is dead (vii., 29); and the treatment of fractures and dislocations 
 in the last book. Nor will the account given by Celsus of the struc- 
 ture of the human body fail to surprise those who have been told that 
 the ancients were ignorant of anatomy. 
 
 The princeps editio of Celsus is that of Nicolaus, Florent., 1478. 
 The best editions are those of Krause, Leipz., 1766; of Targa ; of 
 Vallart, Lutet., 1772; the 8vo. edition printed at Leyden in 1746; the 
 one edited by Dr. Milligan, second edit., Edin., 1831, and that by 
 Bitter aud Albus, Colon, ad Rhen., 1835. Celsus has been translated 
 into several modern languages. There is a translation into English, 
 with notes, critical and explanatory, by Dr. Grieve, London, 1756, 8vo. 
 
 (Le Clerc, Histoire dc la MCdccine; Dissertatio de Cclsi vita, pre- 
 fixed to Dr. Milligan's edition.) 
 
 CELSUS, P. JUVE'NTIUS, was the son of Juventius Celsus, also 
 a jurist. This Celsus the father is spoken of by Celsus the son, and 
 also by Neratius and Ulpian, iu which passages he is always spoken of 
 as Celsus the father. The extracts from Celsus in the ' Digest ' are 
 supposed to be from the works of Celsus the son. The son was twice 
 consul, according to Pompouius. (' Dig.,' 1, tit. 2.) It is uncertain in 
 what year he was first consul, but his second consulship belongs to 
 the thirteenth year of the emperor Hadrian (a.d. 129), as appears 
 from an extant inscription and a senatusconsultum of that time which 
 is preserved. ('Dig.,' 5, tit. 3, s. 20.) Celsus is also mentioned as a 
 member of Hadrian's consilium by Spartianus (c. 18); but he is called 
 Julius Celsus. 
 
 The younger Celsus was the author of a work entitled 'Dige3ta,' in 
 39 books, as appears from the Florentine Index. He wrote also 
 'Epistola;,' of whicli the eleventh book is cited by Ulpian ('Dig.,' 4, 
 tit. 4, s. 3); 'Commeutarii,' of which the seventh book is cited; and 
 ' Quaestiones,' of which the nineteenth book is quoted in the ' Digest' 
 of Justinian. Celsus is mentioned by Salvius Julianus, his contem- 
 porary, and by subsequent jurists. The tendency of his juristical 
 opinions was to the maintenance of equity and fair dealing (bonum et 
 scquum). His definition of 'jus' is that it is the "ars aequi bonique," 
 a definition quoted with approbation by Ulpian ('Dig.,' 1, tit. 1, s. 1), 
 though it is not a tiue definition. Celsus said more truly that in 
 cases in which the good aud the equitable were matters for considera- 
 tion, mischievous mistakes were made under the authority of legal 
 science ('Dig.,' 45, tit. 1, s. 91), an opinion which is quoted by Paulus, 
 who calls him Celsus Adolescens, apparently to distinguish him from 
 the father. 
 
 CENSOKI'NUS, a Latin grammarian, who lived under the emperors 
 Alexander Severus, Maximinus, aud Marcus Antoninus Pius Gordia- 
 nus, who was proclaimed sole emperor of Rome A.D. 238. Censorinus 
 is the author of a small work entitled ' De Die Natali,' addressed to 
 Q. Cajrellius, bis friend. He treats of the time of the birth of men, 
 and on the influence of the Genii and of the stars on human birth; 
 and he also treats of other matters relating to chronology, mathe- 
 matics, and cosmography. This is the work of a man who in his day 
 was a man of learning. The style is good for the period. The work 
 is of some value for ancient chronology. Carrio, in his edition, con- 
 sidered the last part of the work, from the 24 th chapter, as a separate 
 
MS 
 
 CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA. 
 
 CESAROTTI, MELCillORUi:. 
 
 U6 
 
 treatise of some unkuovvn author, and published it with tho title ' De 
 Naturali Institutioue.' A treatise on accents by Censorinus is men- 
 tioned by Cassioelorus, and one on geometry is also mentioned ; but 
 both are lost. A fragment, ' De Metria,' is still extant. 
 
 The first edition of Censorinus is probably that of Bologna, fob, 
 1497. The edition of L. Carrio was published at Paris, 1585, 8vo. 
 The edition of Haverkamp, Leyden, Svo, 1743, was published after 
 Haverkauip's death by his sous ; it contains also the fragments of 
 the satires of Lucilius. The edition of 17G7 is the same as that of 
 1743, with a new title-page. The last edition is that by J. S. Grubcr, 
 Nurnberg, Svo, 1805 ; the edition of 1810 has only a new title-page. 
 
 CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA, was the daughter of a Lincolnshire 
 gentleman named Freeman, who, being a Dissenter and zealous Parlia- 
 mentarian, was compelled, upon the restoration of Charles II., to seek 
 refuge with his wifo in Ireland, but whether Susanna was born there 
 is uncertain; as is the year, 1667 and 1680 being given by different 
 authorities. Before she had attained her thirteenth year she was 
 left by the death of her mother completely an orphan, and according 
 to some accounts utterly destitute. As the scandalous story which 
 Whineop relates of her does not appear to have any foundation in fact 
 we gladly pass over it, and come at once to her marriage at the early 
 age of sixteen to a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox. A twelvemonth had 
 scarcely elapsed before death deprived her of this new protector. But 
 the wit and the beauty which had probably been the only dower she 
 brought the first, soon procured her a second husband, an officer of 
 the name of Carrol, to whom she appears to have been much attached. 
 About a year and a half after the marriage this gentleman had the 
 misfortune to be killed in a duel, and Mrs. Carrol became a second 
 time a widow. In this state of desolation and distress she first applied 
 to her pen, as well for support as for the amusement of her lonely 
 hour 5 , and several of her early productions were published under the 
 name of Carrol. Among the first was a tragedy, called 'The Perjured 
 Husband ; ' but the natural bent of her genius being towards comedy, 
 we find but one more serious drama amongst the nineteen which bear 
 her name. Such was her attachment to the stage, says her biographer, 
 that she became herself a performer, but her success does not seem to 
 have been great, and her stay iu it was of short duratiau. In 1706, 
 while sustaining the character of Alexander the Great, in Lee's 'Rival 
 Queens,' at Windsor, where the court then was, she won tho heart of 
 Mr. Joseph Centlivre, Yeoman of the Mouth, or principal cook to 
 Queen Anne, and eventually married him. They lived happily 
 together for some years, and she died at his house iu Spring Gardens, 
 December 1, 1723. Of her dramatic works, an alphabetical list is 
 given by Baker in his ' Playhouse Companion ; ' but only three out of 
 the nineteen there enumerated keep possession of the stage — ' The 
 Busy Body,' ' A Bold Stroke for a Wife,' and ' The Wonder.' The 
 first was greatly objected to by the actors, and the coarse expression 
 of Wilks the player respecting the play and its author is well known. 
 
 CERINTHUS, whence the word 'Ceriuthians,' by which his fol- 
 lowers were denominated, was by descent a Jew, and born not many 
 years after, if not before, the death and ascension of Christ. His 
 family appears to have been one of those who were settled without 
 the limits of Palestine towards the north. Perhaps he studied in the 
 schools of Alexandria. But of bis own history little is known, and the 
 preservation of his name and memory is owiug to certain peculiarities 
 of opiuion, by which he was distinguished from other followers of 
 Chiist, having led to the mention of him in the writings of some 
 of the earliest Christian fathers, and in catalogues which were early 
 formed of Christian heretics. The fathers who especially notice him 
 are Irenicu3, Epiphanius, and Theodoret. 
 
 Ceriuthus was one of those persons who looked upon the doctrine 
 of our Saviour as not intended to supersede the doctrine of Moses and 
 the Scribes, but to be engrafted upon it, and when perfectly received 
 to be taken in union with the doctrine and institutions of Lis own 
 nation, even to the point of circumcision. This opinion prevailed 
 very extensively in the first age of the Church, as 13 evident from 
 much of the New Testament. But Cerinthus had some notions more 
 peculiar concerning the creation of the world and the person of 
 Christ. Departing from the simplicity of the Mo.-aic doctrine, that 
 "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth," he 
 maintained that the creation was the effect of some angelic virtue, to 
 use the almost unintelligible phrase of the self-called philosophy of 
 that age and nation. He maintained that Jesu3 of Nazareth was the 
 boii of Joseph and Mary, and that at his baptism the Chiist, the Son 
 of God, descended upon him in the form of a dove, and became united 
 to him, and that thus it was that Jesus became acquainted with the 
 great unknown Father, and was empowered to work miracles ; that at 
 the crucifixion Je.ius only suffered, while Christ remained untouched, 
 and leaving Jesus returned to Heaven. These opinions are attiibuted 
 to him by Irenreus, a very early Christian writer. Authorities less 
 respectable represent him as having denied the resurrection, and as 
 having taught men to expect the reign of Christ for a thousand years 
 on earth, when the saints should delight themselves iu all terrestrial 
 enjoyment. 
 
 However, he seems by common consent to have been placed among 
 those who held singular opinions iu the Christian church, called 
 'heresies.' Epiphanius names him as one of those who opposed 
 St. Peter and St. Paul. St. John the apostle and evangelLt is also 
 
 said to have personally opposed him. Tho following story is told : — 
 The baths in ancient times were places of public resort: St. John, 
 being at Ephesus, repaired to the bath, but happening to find 
 Ceriuthus there, he left thy place without bathing, observing to his 
 friends, that it was proper to leave it lest the building should fall, so 
 great an enemy to the truth as Ceriuthus being within it. This anec- 
 dote is related by Ireuaeus, who says they who told him had it from 
 Polycarp, a contemporary and friend of St. John. Such an anecdote 
 is important, not so much on account of itself as of the way iu which 
 it has been transmitted, showing how the writers of the New Testa- 
 ment, and the persons named iu it, are connected with the writers and 
 persons of the succeeding age, and they again with the men of the age 
 succeeding them. 
 
 CERVANTES. [Saavedra, M. de Cervantes, vol. V. c. 223.] 
 
 CE'SARI, GIUSEPPE, a celebrated Italian painter, commonly 
 called II Cavaliere d'Arpino from the birthplace of his father, who 
 was an obscure painter of votive tablets for the images of saints. The 
 elder Cesari settled iu Rome, where Giuseppe, or Giuseppino, as he 
 was also called, was born, about 1568. When only thirteen years old, 
 and serving in a menial situation under the painters employed by 
 Gregory XIII. iu the loggie of the Vatican, Giuseppe painted some 
 figures by stealth, which led Fra Ignazio Danti, the superintendent of 
 the works, to introduce him to the pope, with whom he eventually 
 became a great favourite, as he was aho with four of his successors — 
 Sixtus V., Clement VIII., Paul V., and Urban VIII. He thus enjoyed 
 the highest patronage, and was a great popular favourite, which pleased 
 him better, for more than half a century. He was made a knight of 
 the order del Abito di Cristo by Clement VIII., and was decorated 
 with the order of St. Mijhel by Henri IV. of France, on the occasion 
 of Henri's marriage with Maria de' Medici. He visited Paris in the 
 train of the Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement VIII., 
 archbishop of Ravenna, and ambassador of the pope at Paris. 
 
 Though Cesari's style is extremely superficial, and, with the excep- 
 tion of great animation of composition, scarcely displays a single 
 essential quality of art, he so carried with him the public taste of 
 Rome, that for many years ho was without a rival. Aunibale Garacci 
 strove in vain to turu the current of public favour, and the rivalship of 
 Michel Angelo Caravaggio himself was of too temporary a nature, and 
 rested upon too feeble a foundation, novelty, to have any permanent 
 effect. Cesari survived them both upwards of thirty years. He died 
 at Rome iu 1610, and left a numerous school of imitators behind him; 
 but with his life ended his influence also, for there was not a singlo 
 painter of ability among his scholars : his brother Bernardiuo, who 
 was one of his assistants, died some years before him. During the life of 
 Caravaggio, the scholars of that painter formed a strong party against 
 Cesari, and a challenge passed between the two principals, but Cesari 
 declined to cross swords with Caravaggio, as he was not a cavaliere. 
 He however himself sent a challenge to Annibale Caracci, who on his 
 part responded, that his we;ipon was the pencil, and he would contend 
 with no other. The partisans of Cesari and Caravaggio were called 
 respectively 'Idealisti' and ' Naturalistic 
 
 The works of Cesari, in fresco and in oil, are very numerous : the 
 chief of them is the series in illustration of Roman history in the 
 Conservatorio in the Capitol, commenced for Clement VIII., but not 
 finished until many years after that pope's death. Cesari uutlertook 
 to complete tho paintings iu four years, by the year 1600 ; he did not 
 complete them however until after a lapse of forty years. They are 
 executed with great spirit, but with an utter disregard of nature; the 
 design is slight and incorrect ; the extremities have little variety, and 
 are merely indicated ; the draperies also are undefined, the heads want 
 character, and the colouring is flat. The horses, of which there are 
 many in the battles, are better than the figures, yet they are heavy. 
 
 (Baglione, Vile d<? Pittori, <bc.) 
 
 CESARO'TTI, MELCHIORRE, born at Padua iu May 1730, studied 
 in the seminary of that city, and showed from his early youth a great 
 taste for learning, and especially for philological studies. Struck by 
 the peculiarity aud novelty of tho style of Ossian's poems recently 
 published by Macpherson, Cesarotti in 1702 translated Ossian into 
 Italian blank verse : the translation is a line specimen of Italian 
 versification, being harmonious and fluent, anel in many parts highly 
 poetical. Cesarotti broke through the tameness into which Italian 
 poetry hael sunk for more than a century before him, and gave the 
 example of a new style and a bolder flight of imagination He however 
 was not of a uiinel likely to be restrained within rational bounds. 
 Born iu a couutry then stationary in learning, aud brought up among 
 writers tame anel timid in their investigations, Cesarotti seems to have 
 determined on breaking through all the boundaries of language, taste, 
 and composition, and attempting to eflVct a complete revolution iu 
 literature. His language is full of neologisms, aud he had the hardihood 
 to assert his preference of Ossian's poems to those of Homer. He 
 attempted a version, or, as he called it, a reform of the ' Iliad,' which 
 he styled 'La Morte di Ettore,' iu which he took such liberties with 
 his text, that it may be consiilered as a parody rather than a transla- 
 tion. A caricature appealed at Rome, representing the head of Homer 
 placed on the shoulders of a French dandy, with the legend 'Trans- 
 lation of Homer.' The ' Saggio della Filoaofia delle Liugue applieata 
 alia Lingua Italiaua,' Padua, 1785, is perhaps Cesarotti's best critical 
 aud philosophical work. In it he contends for the necessity of the 
 
147 
 
 CHAD WICK, EDWIN. 
 
 lis 
 
 written language keeping pace with the progress of ideas, inventions, 
 discoveries, and new wants and habits. Count Galeani Napione wrote, 
 chiefly in reply to Cesarotti, his work, 'Dell' Uso e dei Pregi dclla 
 Lingua Italiana,' to which Cesarotti answered by his ' Rischiarimenti 
 Apologetici sopra alcune Teorie Preliminari, e sul Francesismo.' The 
 whole of this controversy may prove interesting to those who wish to 
 form a clear idea of the disputes concerning language, which have 
 formed a considerable portion of the Italian literature of our age. 
 Cesarotti was appointed by the Venetian senate to the chair of Creek 
 and Hebrew in the university of Padua. In his quality of secretary 
 to the academy of Padua, he wrote, from 1730 till 1798, 'Relazioni 
 Acadcinicbe,' in which ho gave at the end of every year an abstract of 
 the memoirs read by the members of that body; and also ' Elogi di 
 alcune Academici,' among which the most interesting is that of Abate 
 Oliva, the author of the ' Zoologia Adriatica.' The ' Epistolario,' or 
 voluminous correspondence of Cesarotti, was published in 0 vols. 8vo, 
 Florence, 1811. In 1807 Cesarotti went to Milau, to deprecate the 
 wrath of Napoleon against his countrymen of Padua, who had shown 
 some disposition to resist the conqueror. Napoleon, who was a great 
 vdmirer of Ccsarotti's ' Otsian,' received him in a very friendly manner, 
 made him a knight of the iron crown, and bestowed a pension upon 
 him. Cesarotti in return set about writing the praises of his patron in 
 a poetical composit ion, full of allegories and metaphysical abstractions, 
 which he styled ' Pi onea,' the object of which is to show that Napoleon 
 was the envoy of Providence. The ' Pronea' was a still-born work, 
 and its name is now only remembered among the many specimens of 
 the flattery and servility of the Italian literary men in Napoleon's 
 time. He also translated several orations of Demosthenes, Isocrates, 
 ..lischines, Lysias, and other Greek writers, and also Juvenal. His 
 essays and dissertations are numerous. CeBarotti died November 3, 
 1808. His works were collected and published in 42 vols. 8vo, Pisa, 
 1809; the editors of the 'Classici Italiani' published a selection of 
 them in 4 vols. 8vo, Milan, 1820. 
 
 CfiSPE'DES, PABLO DE, the most learned artist and one of the 
 most distinguished men of Spain, was born at Cordova in 1538, and 
 was the son of Alonso de Cdspedes and Olaya (Arroyo) his wife. After 
 he had received as good a literary and scientific education at Cordova 
 and at Alcald de Henares as his country could afford, he went, iu what 
 year is not known, to Rome, where he devoted himself to the study of 
 the arts, having already paid some attention to painting previously to 
 his departure from Spain. In Home Ce'spedes distinguished himself 
 duiiug the pontificate of Gregory XIII. by some frescoes in the 
 churches of Araceli and Trinity de' Monti, and acquired the friendship 
 of Federigo Zuccaro, which however some consider to have been a 
 misfortune. 
 
 His fame reached his native place, and having been appointed to a 
 vacant cauoury in the cathedral, he returned to Cordova-in 1577 to 
 fulfil the duties of his office. These duties however did not engross 
 all his time ; he persevered in painting, and also bestowed much study 
 upon the history and theory of art, the fruits of which he made known 
 in several valuable essays, the principal of which is a comparison 
 between ancient and modern art, published in 1604 — ' De la Compa- 
 racion de la Antigua y Moderna Piutura y Escultura.' He spent his 
 holidays at Seville, where he collected a museum of ancient works of 
 art; but he did not visit that city after the year 1603. He died at 
 Cordova in 1608, and was buried in the cathedral of that city. 
 
 Cespedes was a distinguished Arabic scholar, and was acquainted 
 with Greek and Hebrew. He wrote a history of the cathedral of Cor- 
 dova ; also an account of its martyrs ; a poem on painting ; a practical 
 and theoretical treatise on perspective ; a short treatise on the temple 
 of Solomon ; and a short paper upon the various methods of painting 
 adopted by the ancients. His treatise on perspective is lost; and the 
 preservation of his poem, and of the treatise on the ancient methods 
 of painting, is due to Pacheco, who has inserted them in his ' Arte de 
 la Pintura.' Pacheco describes Ce'spedes as one of the greatest of the 
 Spanish colourists, and the first master of chiaroscuro in the school of 
 Seville. Ponz says of him, that had he had the fortune to have been 
 as intimate with Raffaelle as he was with Federigo Zuccaro, he would 
 have been one of the greatest painters in the world. He excelled 
 chiefly in invention and composition, but was excellent also in all other 
 departments of art. He always, as a rule, made a cartoon before 
 painting a picture, of the same size as the intended picture. There 
 are several of his works in the cathedrals of Seville and Cordova, and 
 in the academy of San Fernando at Madrid. He also practised sculp- 
 ture and architecture. 
 
 Cean Bermudez has inserted in the fifth volume of his ' Dictionary 
 of Spanish Artists' about one hundied pages of fragments from the 
 writings of Ce'spedes on painting, including the entire poem on painting, 
 which contains 608 lines. 
 
 (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, <5cc.) 
 
 CHA'BRIAS, a distinguished Athenian general, who, in B.C. 388, 
 sailed to Cyprus to assist Evagoras in the reduction of the island 
 (Xen. ' Hell.,' iv. 8. 24), of which his father had been deprived by the 
 Persians. In B.C. 376 he gained the sea-battle at Naxos. (Demosth. 
 ' Aristocrat.,' p. 686 ; Clinton, ' Fast. Hell.') In b.c. 373 he and Callis- 
 tratus acted as colleagues of Iphicrates at Coragra. (Xen., ' Hell.,' vi. 
 2. 3y.) He was despatched to settled the affairs of Thrace in B.C. 360. 
 'Demosth., 'Aristocrat.,' p. 677.) In B.C. 357 Chabrias and Chares were 
 
 sent from Athens with an army to besiege Chios, which, with Rhodes, 
 Cos, and Byzantium, had revolted. (Diodor. Sic, xvi. 7.) Chares led 
 the land forces and attacked the walls from shore. Chabrias no sooner 
 approached the harbour than he engaged in a desperate sea-fight ; his 
 ship was shattered by the enemy ; most of his men escaped, but the 
 general himself preferring, as Diodorus says, a glorious death to a 
 disgraceful surrender, fell fighting. (Diod. Sic, xvi. 7 ; Corn. Nep., 
 c. 4.) 
 
 •CHAD WICK, EDWIN. In 1854, the Earl of Carlisle, speaking 
 of " the two measures which in our time seemed to him beyond any 
 others to have affected the internal condition of the great body of the 
 people, the Amendment of the Poor-Law and Sanitary Reform," thus 
 expressed himself with reference to Mr. Chadwick : — " He sincerely 
 believed that the most cflicieut agent in originating and in producing 
 those two great measures, and iu clearing away a host of prejudices 
 which beset their early birth, was Mr. Chadwick; and to one or other 
 of these measures he had ever since devoted his time, his health, and 
 his strength. It might undoubtedly bo true that in takiug up any 
 great question or idea with enthusiasm, a certain portion of positive- 
 ness aud precipitation might be mixed up with it more than w;is 
 desirable ; but he trusted that our contemporaries would not refuse 
 to those who had established great principles and introduced largo 
 measures, some portion of that gratitude and honour which were sure 
 to be awarded to them by an intelligent posterity." (Hansard, July 14, 
 1854.) The " positiveness and precipitation" which were thus con- 
 ceded to a passing clamour, as a set-oil against contemporary gratitude, 
 have belonged, more or less, to every man whose earnestness has hail 
 to struggle with official indifference aud procrastination. Mr. Chadwick 
 came from the people. He was not, as Burke said of himself, 
 "swaddled, aud nursed, and daudled into a legislator ; " and he had 
 to encounter the bitterest hatred of men whose principle was to do 
 nothing till they were forced, and then to do as little as possible. 
 Many of the sanitary measures also with which Mr. Chadwick was 
 connected disturbed various large interests ; and he had thus the 
 common fate of all social reformers who are more anxious to enunciate 
 unwelcome truths than careful to conciliate the supporters of profit- 
 able errors. Mr. Chadwick has retired from this contest with a distin- 
 guished recognition of his merits by the legislature; and it is due la 
 hiin to present a brief view of his remarkable career, as we believe it 
 will be appreciated by "an intelligent posterity.'' 
 
 Edwin Chadwick was born on the 24th of January 1801, in the 
 immediate vicinity of Manchester. His father was a manufacturer 
 there, but removed southward wheu his son was about twelve years 
 old. Edwin Chadwick looked to the bar as his profession; but his 
 inquiring disposition led him to the investigation of many political 
 and social questions which were out of the ordinary range of legal 
 studies. That early connection with the newspaper press, which has 
 extended the mental range of many a law-student, was to Mr. Chad- 
 wick one of the best means of education. He possessed what is called 
 a statistical bent— a quality not much cultivated thirty years ago, 
 wheu tables and figures had little to do with political philosophy, and 
 public writers and speakers made the strongest assertions upon the 
 most vague generalities. Mr. Chadwick's comprehensive manner of 
 viewing large questions under many various aspects was first exhibited 
 in 1828, in a paper on 'Life Assurance,' published in 'The Westminster 
 Review.' The principle which Mr. Chadwick maintained iu this article 
 was, that the old Northampton Tables, upon which most schemes of 
 assurance were founded, represented the probabilities of life at too 
 low a figure ; for as the progress of civilisation had the general tendency 
 to diminish the noxious circumstances by which the population of 
 any locality was surrounded, so in any community in which these 
 noxious circumstances were in course of diminution, human life must 
 have a corresponding tendency to increase in value. The abstract 
 question of the influence of all moral and physical improvements upon 
 health and the duration of life, thus early considered by Mr. Chad- 
 wick, was the gieat problem which he had practically to work out in 
 many years' advocacy aud organisation of remedial measures for social 
 evils. In 1829 he wrote two papers in the 'London Review,' one on 
 ' Preventive Police,' the other on ' The Administration of Medical 
 Charities in France.' The article on ' Preventive Police ' attracted 
 the notice of Mr. Bentham, and led to a friendship between the youDg 
 writer and the venerable philosopher, which lasted till Mr. Bentham'a 
 death iu July 1832. 
 
 At this time Mr. Chadwick was preparing for practice at the common 
 law bar, when he was recommended by Mr. Senior as an assistant- 
 commissioner upon the inquiry into the operation of the poor-laws iu 
 England and Wales. Mr. Senior was one of the commission. Mr. 
 Chadwick's report — which was printed in the selection from the various 
 reports published in 1833 — in the wide range of its investigations, the 
 searching nature of its evidence, the felicity of its illustrations, and 
 the sagacious proofs of the necessity of a most extensive reform, com- 
 manded the most general attention ; and the importance attached to 
 the views of the writer was demonstrated by his being at once made 
 one of the commission of inquiry. He was called off from this duty 
 to be united in an inquiry into factory labour with Dr. Southwood 
 Smith and Mr. Tooke. But on the government feeling the immediate 
 necessity of a great measure of poor-law amendment, a report, in 
 which Mr. Chadwick materially assisted was presented to parliament 
 
159 CHALCONDYLAS LAONICUS. CHALMERS, REV. DR. THOMAS. 150 
 
 in 1834 ; the measure was passed, and the Poor-Law Commission was 
 constituted. Mr. Chadwick was appointed by the government as the 
 secretary to the board. From this period for twenty years Mr. Chad wick 
 was connected with the administration of those large measures of local 
 improvement under central regulation whose principles were advocated 
 by him at an early stage of his life, and which he has been ever actively 
 engaged in working out through good report and evil report. Whatever 
 measure he has advocated or organised has been based upon the prin- 
 ciple of the union of the central and local control, and the parrot-cry 
 of ' centralisation,' which is still feebly heard wherever local authority 
 ia sought to be made an instrument of general good, was always the 
 loudest when the evil to be remedied was most notorious. During 
 this struggle of nearly a quarter of a century, through the labours of 
 Mr. Chadwick in connection with other able and zealous administrators, 
 this once-abused principle has at last come to be generally acknowledged 
 aa (to use the words of Mr. Chadwick) "an agency for the removal of 
 those evils in the repression of which the public at large have an 
 interest; next, as an authority of appeal and adjudication between 
 rival or conflicting local interests ; thirdly, as a security in the distri- 
 bution of charges, for the protection of minorities and absentees 
 against wasteful works or undue charges in respect to them ; and 
 fourthly, as a nvans of communication to each locality, for its guidance, 
 of the facts and principles deduced from the experience of all other 
 places from which information may be obtainable." 
 
 Mr. Chadwick, during his secretaryship of the Poor-Law Board, 
 took much interest in a special inquiry, conducted by Dr. Arnott, 
 Dr. Kay, and Dr. Southwoo 1 Smith, into certain physical causes of 
 fever in the metropolis which might be removed by sanitary measures. 
 Me was also associated with the commission for inquiring iuto the 
 constitution of the constabulary force for England and Wales. The 
 report of this commission, written by him, was presented in 1839. 
 The sanitary inquiry was extended from the metropolis to the country 
 at large, aud in 1842 Mr. Chadwick completed the report ' On the 
 general Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes in Great Britain.' 
 He prepared a supplementary report on ' Interments.' He was also 
 associated with the labours of several eminent engineers and scientific 
 men on the preparation of two reports upon the questions connected 
 with the water supply and drainage of towns. Mr. Chadwick con- 
 tinued in his position of secretary to the Poor-Law Commission, until 
 the constitution of a new board under the presidency of Mr. Charles 
 Buller. During the latter year3 of his connection with Poor-Law 
 administration, Mr. Chadwick advocated a more stringent enforcement 
 of the principles of Poor-Law Amendment than were thought expe- 
 dient ; and a new sphere for his exertions was found, in his appointment 
 to the Metropolitan Sanitary Commission in li)17. The importance 
 of this commission became manifest upon the approach of cholera, 
 upon which subject, and upon fever, valuable reports were published 
 in 1847 and 1848. One effect of the report upon an outbreak of fever 
 in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey was the measure for superseding 
 all local bodies having control over the sewerage of the metropolis, 
 placing this authority under one body. In 18 J 8 the Public Health 
 Act of Lord Morpeth wa? passed, aud a General Board of Health was 
 constituted, of which Lord Cai lisle was tha chief, aud Lord Ashley, 
 Mr. Chadwick, and Dr. Southwood Smith, the other members of the 
 board. Mr. Chadwick, in connection with this board, was an 
 important mover of those local measures which have so materially 
 changed the condition of the country. In between one and two 
 hundred towns new works are in progress under these measures. 
 In various model dwellings aud separate places where the house 
 and town drainage and other works have been partially executed, 
 there has been a marked reduction of epidemic disease, and in several 
 instances a reduction of mortality from a rate of thirty in a thousand 
 to fourteen and thirteen has be-n reported, the general average of 
 mortality in the country being twenty-three in tho thousand. But, 
 as we have said, these sanitary measures disturbed various large 
 interests ; aud the government, in bringing forward a bill for the 
 renewal of the Public Health Act, was taken by surprise, and defeated 
 in July 1854 by a small majority. The administration of the Public 
 Health Act was thenceforth charged upon a member of the House of 
 Commons, and a retiring pension was given to Mr. Chadwick. One 
 part of the Poor-Law Amendment Act was directed to the suppression 
 of appointments to local offices, as mere patronage, and the substitution 
 of appointments for special qualifications tested by competitive exami- 
 nations. Mr. Chadwick's last public paper wa3 one in concurrence 
 with Sir Charles Trevelyan and others, urging the adoption of the 
 principle of competitive examinations as tests of qualifications for 
 appointments to the service of the general government. 
 
 The honour of Companion of the Bath was conferred upon Mr. 
 Chadwick during the period of his labours aa Commissioner of the 
 General Board of Health. 
 
 {North British Review, May, 1850; PoorLaw Reports; Factory and 
 Constabulary Reports; Reports of the Qeneral Board of Health, and 
 other Parliamentary papers.) 
 
 CHALCONDYLAS LAONICUS. [Byzantine Historians.] 
 
 CHALMERS, ALEXANDER, was a native of Aberdeen, where he 
 was born March 29, 1759. His father, who was a printer, and pos- 
 •ested of considerable classical attainments, established the first 
 Aberdeen newspaper. Alexander, after receiving a classical aud ' 
 
 medical education, left his native town for Portsmouth, intending to 
 join a West India ship to which he had been appointed surgeon ; but 
 suddenly altering his intention he went to London, where he settled 
 and maintained himself by his literary labours. He lived in intimate 
 intercourse with most of the eminent Loudon booksellers aud printers 
 of his time, by whom he was almost constantly employed. He died 
 December 10th 1834, aged 75 years. He contributed largely to the 
 political and literary periodicals of the day, and edited a great variety 
 of works. The chief are, * The British Essayists, with Prefaces his- 
 torical and biographical,' in 45 vols, ; ' Shakspeare,' in 9 vols. ; the 
 ' Works of the English Poets from Chaucer to Cowper,' in 21 vols. ; 
 a ' History of the Colleges, Halls, and Public Euildings of Oxford,' and 
 a ' General Biographical Dictionary,' in 32 vols. 
 
 CHALMERS, DAVID, of Ormond, was born in the shire of Ross 
 about the year 1530. He was bred to the church, and having taken 
 orders at Aberdeen, where he had his early education, he proceeded 
 abroad and studied theology aud the laws in France and Italy. At 
 Bologna he was, in 1556, the pupil of Mariannus Sozenus. On his 
 return to Scotland he was successively appointed parson of Suddy, 
 provost of Creichton, aud chancellor of the diocese of Ross. He was 
 then employed in digesting the laws of Scotland, and was principally 
 concerned iu publishing the acts of parliament of that kingdom, by 
 authority, in 15U6. 
 
 On the 26th January 1565, he was admitted an ordinary lord of 
 session on the spiritual side, and he was also called by the queen to 
 her privy council. In December 1566, he obtained a charter of the 
 lands of Castleton, and others in the earldom of Ross, from the crown. 
 This grant was ratified by parliament in April 1567, two months after 
 the murder of Daruley, although he was commonly accused of being 
 concerned in that deed. He is said to have afterwards acknowledged 
 his guilt by a precipitate flight to France. (Tytler's ' Craig,' 95.) If 
 so he must soon have returned again; for on the 19th August 1568, 
 he was forfeited for his assistance to Queen Mary, in her escape from 
 Lochleveu (' Act. Pari.,' iii. 54) ; and on the 2nd June that year, his 
 place of a lord of session was given to Robert Pitcairn, commendator 
 of Dunfermline. (Pitmedden Manuscript.) 
 
 After the deposition of Mary he retired to Spain, where he was 
 well received by Philip II., and after some stay in that country he 
 went to France, where, in 1572, he presented Charles IX. his ' Histoire 
 abregee de tous les Roys de France, Angleterre, et Ecosse ; ' a work 
 which was afterwards enlarged with a History of the Popes and 
 Emperors, and dedicated to King Henri III. In 1573 he published 
 his 'Discours de la Legitime Succession des femmes, et du Gouverne- 
 ment des Princesses aux Empires et Royaumes,' which was meant as 
 an answer to Knox's ' First Blast agaiust the monstrous Regiment of 
 Women.' And in 1579 he published ' La Recherche des Singularitez 
 plus remarkable concernment l'e'tat d'Ecosse,' which he dedicated to 
 Queen Mary. He soon afterwards returned to Scotland, and ou the 
 4th of September 1583, was restored by the king to all his lauds, offices, 
 and diguities. The remission was ratified by parliament on the 22nd 
 of May 1584, but under proviso that it should not cover " the odious 
 murthers of our soverane lordis dearest fader and twa regents." (' Act. 
 Pari.' iii. 314.) He was never brought to trial for these or any other 
 crimes; and on the 21st of July 1586, he was restored to his seat on the 
 bench. He retained hi3 seat till his death, which happened in 1592. 
 
 CHALMERS, GEORGE, was born at Fochabers, in Elginshire, 
 Scotland, about the end of the year 1742. He received his education 
 principally at the university of Aberdeen ; and after studying law, he 
 went to the British colonies of North America, where he practised at 
 the bar until the breaking out of the revolutionary war. He then 
 returned to Britain, and settled in London. He wrote 'Political 
 Annals of the United Colonies, from their settlement till 1763 ; ' and 
 'An Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Great Britain,' which 
 works are said to have introduced him to an official connection with 
 the Board of Trade, which he maintained till his death, May 31, 1825, 
 aged 82 years. 
 
 He was the author of ' Caledonia,' a topographical history of North 
 Britain ; the lives of De Foe, Thomas Ruddiman, Sir John Davis, 
 Allan Ramsay, Sir James Stuart, Gregory King, and Charles Smith, 
 which were prefixed to editions of, or selections from, their works; 
 and under the name of Oldys, he published a life of Thomas Paine. 
 He also contributed occasionally to periodicals, and published a 
 number of pamphlets, some of them anonymously. 
 
 CHALMERS, THE REV. DR. THOMAS, was bom at Anstiuther, 
 in Fifeshire, on the 17th of March 1780. He wa3 tho sixth child of a 
 family of fourteen, born to Mr. John Chalmers, a dyer, shipowner, 
 aud general merchant in Austruther, by his wife Elizabeth HalL 
 Educated first at the parish school of Anstruther, aud next at the 
 University of St. Andrews, he very early displayed powers of no 
 common order — less however in the formal business of the classes, than 
 in his general intercourse with his fellow-students. Having chosen 
 the clerical profession, and gone through the usual theological studies 
 at St. Andrews, he obtained, when yet not past his nineteenth year, 
 a preacher's or probationer's "licence" in the Scottish Church. His 
 first sermon however was preached in England, in the Scotch church 
 in Wigau, on the 25th of August 1799, during a visit to an elder 
 brother. The winter of that year and also that of the next were spent 
 by him in Edinburgh, where he occupied himself in teaching, and also 
 
CHALMERS, REV. DK. THOMAS. 
 
 IBl 
 
 in attending the classes of Dugald Stewart, Robison, Play fair, and 
 Hope, then in the height of their fame. It was at this time that his 
 passion for mathematics and natural science, as well as his tendency 
 to original speculation on moral and social subjects, first conspicuously 
 revealed themselves. After a period of desultory occupation, first as 
 assistant to the clergyman of Cavers in Roxburghshire, and then as 
 assistant to the mathematical professor at St. Andrews, he was 
 nominated to the living of Kilmauy, in his native county of Fifeshire ; 
 into which parish he was inducted on the 12th of May 1803. He was 
 then twenty-three years of age, and he continued in the position of 
 parish clergyman of Kilmauy till July 1815. These twelve years 
 formed a very eventful period iu his mental history. On adopting the 
 clerical profession he had brought into it no very decided views in 
 doctrinal theology. He was attached to what was called the "Mode- 
 rate," as distinct from what was called the "Evangelical" party of the 
 Scottish Church. He was of opinion too, that by devoting a day or 
 two each week to the preparation of his sermons and to official clerical 
 acts, a clergyman could amply discharge all his proper duties, so as to 
 have the rest of his time at his disposal for whatever other occupations 
 interested him. He carried this view into practice. During the first 
 year of his incumbency he varied his professional work at Kilmany by 
 courses of lectures on mathematics and chemistry at St. Andrews. 
 His preference at this time for professorial over clerical work, and for 
 natural science over theology was indicated by his being caudidato in 
 1804 for the chair of Natural Philosophy at St. Andrews. With even 
 less chance of success he offered himself in the following year as a 
 candidate for the mathematical chair iu Edinburgh, vacant by the 
 transference of Mr. Playfair to the natural philosophy chair on 
 Robison' s death. Mr., afterwards Sir John, Leslie, obtained the post, 
 aud it was with reference to an argument in Leslie's favour urged at 
 the time by Playfair, to the effect that " the vigorous prosecution of 
 mathematical or natural seieuco was incompatible with clerical duties 
 aud habits " that Mr. Chalmers mado his first literary appearance. In 
 reply to Playfair he published an anonymous pamphlet, vehemently 
 defending the clergy against what he regarded as a " cruel and illiberal 
 insinuation " — a pamphlet, the main tenor of which, if not its specific 
 statements, he lived to disown. His next publication was iu 1807 
 when, his thoughts on political economy receiving a stimulus from the 
 agitation caused by Napoleon's decrees agaiust British commerce, ho 
 issued a pamphlet entitled ' Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of 
 National Resources.' This publication had success sufficient to iuspire 
 him for a time with the idea of coming to London to increase his 
 literary connections. Circumstances preventing him from realising 
 this idea, he continued at Kilmauy, with a growing reputation for 
 various attainments, as well as for extraordinary energy, accompanied 
 with some eccentricity, of character aud manner. Iu 1809 he made 
 his first speech, in the General Assembly of the Scottish Church — the 
 scene of so mauy of his oratorical triumphs in after life. In the same 
 year he became a contributor to the ' Edinburgh Encyclopaedia ' under 
 the editorship of Dr., now Sir David, Brewster; and it was partly to 
 his studies while preparing an article on ' Christianity ' for that work, 
 aud partly to the solemnising effects of a severe illness which, during 
 the winter of 1809-10 brought him to the very brink of the grave, that 
 he attributed the great moral and spiritual change of his life. Then, 
 for the first time, as he thought, he saw Christianity in its true light ; 
 and then for the first time also were his views of the duties of the 
 clerical office, as he thought, sufficiently deepened and enlarged. Exter- 
 nally the change exhibited itself iu this, that whereas hitherto he had 
 belonged to the "Moderate" party in the Scotch Church then in the 
 majority, he now ranked with the " Evangelic xl " party, which formed 
 but a minority. But the fruits of the change were more immediately 
 visible iu his own altered mauner of performing his clerical duties. 
 Not giving up his studies iu natural science and in political economy, 
 but carrying them ou with the same zeal as before ; contributing 
 also to the 'Christian Instructor,' the 'Eclectic Review,' and other 
 periodicals— it was now observed that in all that Mr. Chalmers did the 
 influence of a deep sense of religion, aud a conviction of the paramount 
 claims of Christian faith, on the thoughts of man, were discernible. 
 Always eloquent in the pulpit, his eloquence now burst forth in strains 
 of such passion and fervour as had never been heard from him before; 
 and from far and near people went to hear the wonderful minister of 
 Kilmany. Bibles and missionary societies, for which he had formerly 
 cared but little, now occupied much of his attention ; and, instead of 
 confining his ministerial studies to his weekly sermons from the 
 pulpit, he began a regular organisation of his parish with a view to 
 make himself familiar with the interests of every individual in it, and 
 to provide for all its spiritual as well as intellectual and economic 
 wants. In the midst of these new occupations, which he prosecuted 
 with his constitutional enthusiasm, he married, in 1812, Miss Grace 
 Pratt, the daughter of a retired captain in the army. In 1813 his 
 article on ' Christianity ' appeared in the ' Edinburgh Encyclopedia ;' 
 and in the same year it was published, with additions, in a separate 
 volume as a treatise on ' The Evidences of Christianity.' The following 
 two years were spent in assiduous parochial work, in theological 
 studies, and iu the composition of occasional works on various topics, 
 including one on the reconciliation of scripture and geology. 
 
 The name of Mr. Chalmers was pretty well known over the south of 
 Scotland as that of a man of powerful mind and extraordinary 
 
 eloquence when, in 1815, or in the thirty-sixth year of his age, he was 
 called from his quiet country parish to assume the pastoral care of 
 Tron parish in the city of Glasgow. He remained in Glasgow in all 
 eight years. In 1810 the degree of D.D. was conferred ou him by 
 the University of Glasgow. From 1815 to 1819 he was minister of 
 Tron paiish. From 1819 to 1823 he was minister of the newly- 
 constituted parish of St. John's. These eight years were the period 
 of his highest celebrity as a pulpit-orator. In this capacity, all 
 Glasgow, and soon all Scotland rang with his fame. One of the most 
 enthusiastic descriptions in Mr. Lockhart's account of Scottish 
 celebrities at that time, published under the title of ' I'eter's Letters 
 to his Kinsfolk,' is that given of Chalmers in his Glasgow pulpit. A 
 picture so elaborate and glowing from such a pen of a man whose 
 professed position was simply that of a Presbyterian clergyman of a 
 Glasgow parish, proves that already he was no longer thought of only 
 in that capacity, but as a man of truly great genius. "1 know not 
 what it is,'' said Jeffrey, in 1816, "but there is something altogether 
 remarkable about that man. It reminds me more of what one reads 
 of as the effect of the eloquence of Demosthenes than anything I ever 
 heard.'' The same impression was afterwards produced on men of all 
 kinds in England, as well as in Scotland — on Hazlitt, Canning, Wilber- 
 force, Hall, aud Foster. Part of the secret was that Chalmers was 
 not one of those orators whose power evanesces in the moment of 
 their actual utterance, but a man of massive, large, and substantial 
 thought, whose every speech was the enunciation and illustration of 
 some principle or generalisation, aud whose language was full of 
 extraordinary felicities, memorable turns of phrase, and gleams of 
 poetic conception. Perhaps the first exhibition of his oratory in 
 which this uuiou in him of high intellectual attainments aud general 
 literary genius with the specific qualities of the orator, was con- 
 spicuously brought out, was on the occasion of the delivery, in 1816, 
 of a series of week-day lectures on Astronomy iu its connection 
 with Religion. The excitement caused by these ' Astronomical Dis- 
 courses ' was unprecedented; and their popularity, when published in 
 the same year, rivalled that of the contemporary ' Waverley Novels.' 
 But his regular pulpit sermons were no less extraordinary as displays 
 of mental and oratorical power; aud on his occasional visits to Edin- 
 burgh, Loudon, aud other places, his fame as an orator preceded him, 
 aud drew crowds to hear him. At Edinburgh his oratory was 
 exhibited not only in the pulpit, but also in debate in the general 
 assembly, or annual ecclesiastical parliament of Scotland. Here as a 
 leader of the " Evangelical " party, then gradually attaining numbers 
 and influence, he took a polemical part iu some of the Scotch eccle- 
 siastical questions of the time, and always with the effect of a man at 
 once great iu wis lom and resistless iu speech. His speeches, like his 
 sermons, were generally read ; and very rarely indeed did he speak 
 extempore. With all his extraordinary popularity as an orator, how- 
 ever, no man better appreciated than he did the exact value of such 
 popularity — "a popularity," which, in his owu characteristic language, 
 "rifles home of its sweets, and by elevatiug a man above his fellows, 
 places him in a region of desolation, where he stands a conspicuous 
 mark for the shafts of malice, envy, and detraction ; a popularity 
 which, with it3 head among storms, and its feet on the treacherous 
 quicksands, has nothing to lull the agonies of its tottering existence 
 but the hosaunahs of a drivelling generation." Far more important 
 in his own eyes than these pulpit services which brought him such 
 hosannahs, were his practical schemes for showing the social efficacy 
 of Christianity. It was Dr. Chalmers's fixed and lifelong belief that in 
 religion alone was there a full remedy for the evils of society, and that 
 all schemes of social amelioration would be futile which did not aim 
 at working Christianity through the hearts of the people down into 
 their habits aud households. Subordinate to this belief was his 
 attachment to the parochial system of social organisation — that system 
 which divides a community into small manageable masses, marked out 
 by local boundaries, and each having a sufficient ecclesiastical and 
 educational apparatus within itself. Disliking with his whole heart 
 the English Poor-Law system, he was of opinion that, if the parochial 
 system were properly worked, pauperism could be provided for without 
 a poor-law at all, by the judicious direction, under clerical and lay 
 superintendence, of private benevolence. In order practically to illus- 
 trate these views, he undertook a vast experiment, first with Tron 
 parish, and then with that of St. John's. The population of this 
 latter parish (iu which Edward Irviug was for some time Dr. Chalmers's 
 assistant) was upwards of 10,000, including perhapj the poorest part 
 of the operative population in Glasgow; but such was his zeal, such 
 his practical sagacity, and such his power of influencing persons fit to 
 be his agents, that in a short time the parish was organised both for 
 economical and educational purposes in a mauner unknown before, 
 schools being set up in every part of it, and the poorest lanes visited 
 periodically each by it3 own special teacher and inspector. The re-:ults 
 of his experiment, with his speculations in connection with it, were 
 published by him (1819-1823) in a series of quarterly tracts, on the 
 ' Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns ; ' which, with two 
 volumes of 'Sermons,' published respectively in 1818 aud 1S20, two 
 articles ou 'Pauperism' contributed to the ' Edinburgh Review ' in 
 1817, and a sermon in the . same year ou the Death of the Princess 
 Charlotte, formed, along with the ' Astronomical Discourses' already 
 mentioned, his chief literary exertions during his residence iu Glasgow. 
 
153 
 
 CHALMERS, REV. DR. THOMAS. 
 
 CHALONER, SIR THOMAS. 
 
 In the midst of the bustle and fatigue of his life in Glasgow, 
 increased ten-fold by tho hospitality which his celebrity obliged him 
 to exercise, Dr. Chalmers had never ceased to sigh for the academic 
 quiet of a professor's chair in one of the Scottish universities ; and in 
 January 1823, much to the suprise of the public, he resigned his 
 charge, and accepted the chair of Moral Philosophy then vacant in his 
 native University of St. Andrews. The new post was one of much 
 less emolument, and of far less publicity than that which he had 
 resigned ; but even had his tastes not disposed him to accept it, he 
 had paramount reasons in the state of his health, which was giving 
 way under the wear and excitement of city-life. Forty-three years 
 old when he accepted the chair, he retained it till his forty-ninth 
 year, or from 1823 to 1828. The winters of these five years were 
 spent by him in the preparation and delivery of his class-lectures, 
 and in the genial society of many of his old friends ; but he carried 
 with him to St. Andrews those notions and schemes of Christian 
 philanthropy which he had matured in Glasgow, and the little Fife- 
 shire town felt during these five years the vivifying influence of his 
 spirit and enthusiasm. Occasionally he preached in St. Andrews and in 
 the neighbourhood round; annually in May he visited Edinburgh to take 
 part in the business of the General Assembly, where his eloquence as 
 before was felt as a conquering force on the " Evangelical" side in all 
 the great ecclesiastical controversies of the time ; and excursions in 
 Scotland and Ireland, and journeys as far as London, varied his summer. 
 It was proposed at one time to elect him to the Moral Philosophy 
 chair in the newly-established University of London ; but this pro- 
 posal, which might have altered the whole tenor of his future career, 
 was not carried out. The literary results of his five years' sojourn at 
 St. Andrews were courses of ' Lectures on Moral Philosophy,' and on 
 'Political Economy,' prepared for his class and reserved for publica- 
 tion ; a third volume of his ' Christian and Civic Economy of Large 
 Towns,' published in 1826; and a treatise on 'Ecclesiastical and 
 Literary Endowments,' published in 1827. 
 
 Dr. Chalmers's next appointment was to the chair of Divinity in the 
 University of Edinburgh. The duties of this office he assumed in 
 1828, and he discharged them during fifteen years — i. e. from 1828 to 
 1843, or from his forty-ninth to his sixty-third year. His activity 
 during these fifteen extraordinary years of bis life (not taking account 
 of his occasional sermons) was made up of three distinct kinds of work 
 — his duties as theological professor; his continued exercises in litera- 
 ture, speculation, and schemes of Christian philanthropy; and his 
 controversial energy in connection with the serious ecclesiastical 
 struggle which during that time convulsed Scotland. 1. His Labours 
 as Theological Professor.— In this important capacity, which involved 
 the theological instruction and training of between one and two 
 hundred young men annually for the Scottish Church, Dr. Chalmers 
 exerted a vast influence, less as a man learned in theological lore, than 
 as a man of noble purpose and burning enthusiasm with whom no 
 young man could come in contact without love and veneration, and 
 who was in the habit not only of communicating massive thoughts of 
 his own on almost all subjects, but also of stirring up thought in 
 others. His class-room was truly a centre of life and intellectual 
 influence ; and those who went forth from it carried with them 
 perforce much of his spirit and many of his views. 2. His independent 
 lalours in literature, speculation, and Christian philanthropy. — Of 
 these it is impossible to take full account ; suffice it to say that in 
 1831 he published his treatise on 'Political Economy,' and in 1833 his 
 Bridgewater treatise ' On the Adaptation of External Nature to the 
 Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man ; ' that in 1838 he delivered 
 in London, and afterwards published, a series of ' Lectures in Defence 
 of Church Establishments;' that in the following year he made a 
 tour through Scotland to advocate the cause of church extension ; that 
 in 1841 he published a volume on ' The sufficiency of the Parochial 
 System without a poor-rate for the right management of the Poor ; ' 
 that during the same period he delivered, during the summer vacations 
 various lectures to popular audiences on topics of natural science ; and 
 that he gave much of his time to the superintending of an attempt to 
 cany out his notions of proper parochial management in one of the 
 poorest districts of Edinburgh. Some of the labours here mentioned 
 received public recognition, in the form of honours conferred upon 
 him. Thus in 1830, he was appointed one of the king's chaplains for 
 Scotland; in 1834 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
 Edinburgh, and a corresponding member of the French Institute ; and 
 in 1835 he received the distinction of Doctor of Laws from the 
 University of Oxford. 3. His connection with the Scotch Church Contro- 
 versy. — The " Evangelical " party with which, since 1810, Dr. Chalmers 
 had been so permanently connected, had gradually increased in the 
 church, so as at last to attain the majority ; and in 1832, Dr. Chalmers 
 was elected to the moderatorship, or presidency, of the General 
 Assembly of that year. In 1834 the Assembly, under the auspices of 
 the ruling party, and with his advice and sanction, passed the famous 
 
 Veto Act," the design of which was to modify the action of the 
 system of patronage of livings in the Church of Scotland, by enabling 
 the Church Courts to reject any nominee of a patron on the ground 
 of hia being displeasing to the majority of the congregation or 
 parishioners over whom he was appointed. Several nominees having 
 in immediately subsequent years been rejected in accordance with 
 this act, appeals were made to the Civil Courts of Scotland and to 
 
 BIOO. DIV, VOL. II. 
 
 the House of Lords, and the result was that the Veto Act was 
 declared to be contrary to the law of the land, and that not only 
 were nominees rejected by it pronounced to be entitled to all tho 
 emoluments of the livings, but that it was pronounced illegal in the 
 church to appoint any other clergymen to the spiritual cure of the 
 parishes in question. Thus arose a controversy which agitated 
 Scotland throughout its whole extent for ten years ; and in which the 
 original question of the " Non-Intrusion " of clergymen upon unwilling 
 congregations was merged in the question of the proper relations 
 between Church and State. Of this controversy Dr. Chalmers was, 
 on one side, the chief champion ; and for several years he was inces- 
 santly occupied in defending his view of the questions in dispute in 
 speeches and through the press, both against the " Moderate " party 
 in the church itself, who had from the first opposed the Veto Act, and 
 also against the civil courts and the government. More than once it 
 seemed as if the legislature was on the point of devising some means 
 of healing the breach which had been made, and restoring quiet to 
 Scotland ; but at last, these hopes being over, the struggle was ended 
 at the meetiug of the General Assembly on the 18th of May 1843, by the 
 so-called "Disruption" — i. e. by the voluntary secession of upwards of 
 400 clergymen, followed by a large portion of the people of Scotland 
 from the Established Church, and the institution of a new ecclesiastical 
 body called " the Free Church." At the head of this secession was 
 Dr. Chalmers, who was nominated moderator of the first General 
 Assembly of the new church. 
 
 The last four years of Dr. Chalmers's life were spent by him as 
 Principal and Professor of Divinity in the New College founded by the 
 adherents of the Free Church for the theological education of its 
 ministers (his chair in Edinburgh University having been necessarily 
 vacated by him on his secession from the establishment). During these 
 years, too, he exerted himself prodigiously in arranging the organisa- 
 tion of the new church, and in raising funds for its support ; and 
 probably at no period of his life was the statesman-like character of 
 his intellect, his power of dealing with new social emergencies and of 
 leading men, more conspicuously shown. He had seen the foundations 
 of the new church laid very much to his mind, and was preparing to 
 resign the farther work of completing its organisation into the hands of 
 his many able and younger colleagues, and to devote the rest of his days 
 to his labours as a theological professor, to Christian and philosophical 
 literature in connection more immediately with the ' North British 
 Review,' then started under his superintendence, and to a new experi- 
 ment of Christian philanthropy which he had begun in one of the 
 most wretched quarters of the old town of Edinburgh, when death 
 removed him. He had just returned from a visit to England in 
 apparently excellent health and spirits, to take part in the proceedings 
 of the General Assembly of the Free Church, when on the morning of 
 the 31st of May 1847, he was found dead in his bed at his house at 
 Morningside near Edinburgh. His death was felt throughout Scotland 
 like a national shock ; and all ranks and parties joined iu doing honour 
 to his memory as one of the greatest men that Scotland had produced. 
 He left a widow who did not survive long, and six daughters, one of 
 them married to the Rev. Dr. Hanna, under whose superintendence a 
 new issue of the collected works of Dr. Chalmers has been put forth 
 in twenty-five volumes, and who has also written his life in four 
 volumes, and edited much of his correspondence. 
 
 Dr. Chalmers was a man of powerful frame, not tall, but massively 
 built ; his head was very large. It was remarkable in a man so cele- 
 brated over Britain as an orator, that he always spoke not only in a 
 broad Scottish, but also in a broad provincial Scottish accent, mis- 
 pronouncing almost every word. Personally he was a man of most 
 simple, bland, and sociable manners, with a great fund of anecdote and 
 broad humour. His works, notwithstanding the force of intellect that 
 they show (and his speculations in social and political economy, in 
 particular, are valued by many of the best thinkers of the day who 
 have no sympathy with his theological or ecclesiastical opinions), but 
 faintly convey an idea of what the man was while he lived, and of what 
 he still is in the memory and imagination of the Scottish people. 
 
 CHALONER, SIR THOMAS, father and son. The elder Sir 
 Thomas Chaloner was born in London about 1515, and educated at 
 Cambridge. He was sent, when a young man, with Sir Henry Knevet, 
 to Germany, and attracted attention in the court of Charles V. He 
 accompanied Chai'les on his expedition to Algiers, was shipwrecked 
 off the coast of Barbary, and narrowly escaped drowning. On his 
 return to England, he was employed about the court, and was knighted 
 for his conduct at the battle of Musselburgh, in the year 1547. The 
 fall of his patron, the Duke of Somerset, affected his fortunes ; but 
 on the accession of Elizabeth, he was sent as ambassador to Ferdi- 
 nand I., emperor of Germany, and was also employed in a similar 
 capacity in Spain. He died October 7, 1565, and was buried in St 
 Paul's. His literary productions consist of a large collection of 
 poetical pieces in Latin, and some prose works, one of which is ' On 
 the right ordering of the English Commonwealth.' He appears to 
 have been highly esteemed by his contemporaries as a brave, able, and 
 worthy man. 
 
 Sir Thomas Chaloner, the son, who inherited a considerable portion 
 of his father's abilities, was born in 1559. To him is attributed the 
 discovery of the alum-mines near Whitby, in Yorkshire, the first that 
 were worked in England : he, at all events, has the merit of having 
 
 M 
 
CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM. 
 
 established the working of the mines. Towards the end of Eliza- 
 beth's reign, he went into Scotland, and rose so high in James's favour 
 a3 to be afterwards appointed the guardian or governor of Prince 
 Henry, with the control both of his education and household, an office 
 which he seems to have creditably discharged. He died November 17, 
 1615. His only literary production is 'A short Discourse of the most 
 rare and excellent virtue of Nitre.' 
 
 One of his sous, Edward, entered into holy orders, and becamo 
 principal of St. Alban's Hall, Oxford. He published several sermons, 
 and a treatise on the ' Authority, Universality, and Visibility of the 
 Church.' Two others, Thomas and James, were members of the Long 
 Parliament, and sat as judges on the trial of Charles I. James 
 Chaloner is the author of a ' Description of the Isle of Man,' printed 
 in the original edition of King's ' Vale Royal,' though the work has 
 been also attributed to another James Chaloner, a native of Chester. 
 Thomas Chaloner was the author of several political pamphlets, which 
 appeared during the civil wars. 
 
 CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM, editor and chief compiler of the 'Cyclo- 
 pedia ' which bears his name, was born at Kendal in the latter part of 
 the 17th century. His father was a small freeholder in Westmorland, 
 in respectable circumstances. Ephraim, his eldest son, was bound 
 apprentice to a mechanical trade in London. Eventually he becamo 
 apprentice to Mr. Senex, the globe-maker ; and it was while in his 
 shop that he conceived the design of the ' Cyclopaedia ' which has 
 chiefly preserved his name. Some of the articles are said to have been 
 written by him while ho stood behind the counter. Before the com- 
 pletion of the work however, but probably after he had made arrange- 
 ments with the bookseller who published it, he left Mr. Senex, and 
 took chambers in Gray's Inn. The first edition of the ' Cycloptedia ' 
 appeared in 2 vols. fol. in 1728, and was very favourably received. 
 It was published by subscription, the price of each copy being four 
 guineas. Immediately after, tho author was made a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. A second edition of the work appeared in 1738, and a 
 third in 1739. Mr. Chambers was also one of the writers in the 
 ' Literary Magazine,' an analytical review of new works, which was 
 begun in 1735, and continued for some years. He was likewise asso- 
 ciated with Mr. Martyn, the botanical professor at Cambridge, in 
 translating and abridging the ' Philosophical History and Memoirs of 
 the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,' which appeared in 5 vols. 
 8vo, in 1742. This task he executed very ill. The only other lite- 
 rary work which has been attributed to him is a translation from the 
 French of a quarto volume, entitled ' The Jesuits' Perspective.' Ho 
 lived to the last the life of a recluse and a hard student, reading and 
 writing from morning to night almost without intermission. A 
 person who was his amanuensis for six years is said to have related 
 that he transcribed for him, and took down from his dictation in that 
 space of time, not less than twenty large folio volumes, containing as 
 much matter as, if it had been printed, would have made thirty such 
 volumes as those of his 'Cyclopaedia.' He died on the 15th of May 
 1740 at Canonbury House, Islington, and was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey, under a short Latin inscription of his own composition. A 
 fourth edition of his 'Cyclopaedia' appeared in 1741, and a fifth in 
 1746. To the sixth edition, which was brought out in 1750, were 
 added two supplementary volumes, which were compiled by Sir John 
 Hill, the botanist, and George Lewis Scott, the mathematician. These, 
 along with much new matter, were incorporated with the original 
 work in a seventh edition, which began to be published in numbers 
 under the superintendence of the late Dr. Abraham Rees in 1778, and 
 was completed in 4 vols, folio, in 1785. Chambers's work is also 
 avowedly the basis of the greatly more extended ' Cyclopaedia ' in the 
 conduct of which Dr. Rees afterwards engaged, and which he lived to 
 complete in 45 vols. 4to. (London, 1802-1819). Indeed it may be said 
 to have originated all the modern Cyclopeedias, both in the English 
 and in other European languages. It was early translated both into 
 French and Italian. In the prospectus of the great French ' Ency- 
 clopedic' of Diderot and D'Alembert (afterwards incorporated in the 
 'Discours Prelirninaire'), it is admitted that Chambers's plan is excel- 
 lent, though the execution of the work is very indifferent. The 
 writers add, that it possibly never would have appeared at all, if there 
 had not previously existed in the French language works from which 
 Chambers drew, without measure and without choice, the greater part 
 of the matter which composed his dictionary. 
 
 CHAMBERS, GEORGE, marine painter, was the son of a poor 
 seaman of Whitby in Yorkshire, where he was born towards the close 
 of the last century. After he had attended for a short time the free 
 school of his native town, he was sent, at the age of ten years, to sea 
 in a small trading sloop, in which he served as cabin-boy for two years. 
 He was afterwards bound apprentice to the master of a brig which 
 traded in the Mediterranean and the Baltic seas. During this appren- 
 ticeship he gave evidence of that talent for which he was subsequently 
 distinguished, by making sketches of various descriptions of shipping, 
 for the amusement and gratification of the seamen. His master, 
 Mr. Storr, appears to have been induced by these efforts to cancel his 
 indentures, and Chambers worked his way home to Whitby in another 
 vessel, with the determination of becoming a painter of ships. At 
 Whitby he knew no better way of making himself acquainted with 
 colours than by apprenticing himself to an old woman who kept a 
 painter's shop. But at the same time that he was plodding his way 
 
 CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 through the business of a house-painter, he took lessons from au 
 obscure drawing-master of Whitby, of the name of Bird, and applied 
 what time he had to spare in painting small pictures of shippiug, for 
 which he found at his humble prices a ready market. He carried on 
 this life for three years, when, being anxious to visit London, he again 
 entered the seafaring life, and worked his way as foremast-man in a 
 trading vessel to the great metropolis. 
 
 In London, though very poor, he refused an offer of employment as 
 a journeyman house-painter at thirty shillings per week, being bent 
 upon painting shipping; and he soon after contrived to obtain con- 
 siderable employment in the representation of ships. Having obtained 
 however an introduction to Mr. Horner, that gentleman employed 
 him for seven years on the great panorama of London at the Colos- 
 seum. At the completion of this work he was engaged as scene- 
 painter at the Pavilion Theatre. While at this theatre some of his 
 works attracted the notice of Vice-Admiral Lord Mark Kerr, who 
 became Chambers's sincere patron, and procured him an introduction 
 to King William IV. and Queen Adelaide. The king chose a sea-fight, 
 and the queen chose a calm coast-scene near Dover. Chambers painted 
 also a view of Greenwich Hospital for the queen, and the ' Opening of 
 New London Bridge ' for the king ; and he received the appointment 
 of Marine-Painter to their Majesties. 
 
 He was now reaping the fruits of his persevering industry. He had | 
 given up his appointment as scene-painter to the Pavilion Theatre, and 
 he was in a fair way of establishing fame and fortune together ; but a 
 constitution originally very weak, and much shattered by a seafaring 
 life, was unable to bear the incessant application his ambitious mind 
 subjected it to, and he gradually fell into a disease which proved fatal 
 to him. He died in October 1840. 
 
 Chambers was a member of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours. | 
 His chief productions however are his naval battles in oil, in which he j 
 was excellent, especially in the construction and rigging of his ships, s 
 though in his colouring there is an unnatural redness of effect pervading 
 everything, the smoke in particular. There are in the hall of Green- 
 wich Hospital three battles by Chambers — ' The Bombardment of Algiers 
 by the Squadron led by Viscount Exmouth, G.C.B., in 1816,' presented 
 in 1836 by the admiral's friends; 'Portobello taken by Admiral Vernon 
 and Commodore Brown in 1739,' presented in 1839 by E. H. Locker, Esq., j 
 commissioner; and a copy of West's picture of the 'Destruction of the 
 French Fleet in the Port of La Hogue by Vice-Admiral Sir George 
 Rooke, Kt., in 1692.' 
 
 (Art- Journal; Catalogue of the Naval Gallery of Greenwich Hospital.) 1 
 
 CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, is said to have derived his descent 
 from a Scotch family of the name of Chalmers, who were barons of 
 Tartas in France. He was born however in 1726 at Stockholm in 
 Sweden, whither his grandfather, an eminent merchant, had proceeded 
 some time before to prosecuto certain claims he had upon the govern- 'A 
 ment of that country. At two years of age he was brought to 
 England, and put to school at Ripon in Yorkshire. We next read of < 
 his making a voyage to China as supercargo, in the service of the 
 Swedish East India Company. This must have been when he was a 
 very young man, for at the age of eighteen he is said to have settled 
 in Loudon, and taken up the profession of an architect and draughts- 
 man. In these capacities, having no formidable rivalry to encounter, i 
 he soon obtained considerable reputation. At length he was intro- 
 duced to the Earl of Bute, and by his influence appointed drawing- i 
 master to the young Prince of Wales, afterwards George III. Soon 
 after the accession of that king he was employed to lay out the royal 1 
 gardens at Kew. In this task he displayed without restraint that 
 predilection for the Chinese style, both of gardening and architecture, 
 of which he had already given intimation in a work, entitled 'Designs 
 for Chinese Buildings,' published in 1759. In 1765 he published in a 
 large folio volume, 'Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Perspective Views 
 of the Gardens and Buildings at Kew, in Surrey.' Meanwhile he had 
 also, by a villa in the Italian style, which he erected at Roehampton 
 for the Earl of Besborough, and by various other buildings, obtained 
 much reputation and employment as an architect. In 1771 he was 
 made a knight of the Swedish order of the Polar Star. In 1772 he 
 published his ' Dissertation on Oriental Gardening.' This is another 
 vindication of Chinese tastes and fashions, and is memorable as 
 having exposed the author to the satiric lash of the poet Mason ; to • 
 the first part of whose ' English Garden,' published immediately 
 before, it was suspected to be intended as a sort of answer and con- 
 futation. The piece in which Mason took his revenge (if indeed he 
 was the author, which he never acknowledged) was the famous 
 'Heroic Epistle to Sir William Chambers, Knight, Comptroller 
 General of his Majesty's Works, and author of a late " Dissertation 
 on Oriental Gardening;" enriched with explanatory Notes, chiefly 
 extracted from that elaborate performance.' This production appeared 
 in 1773, and was followed in 1774 by a short continuation, under the 
 title of 'An Heroic Postscript.' In 1775 Sir William was appointed 
 to superintend the rebuilding of Somerset House, which is his best 
 work. In 1791 he published his 'Treatise on Civil Architecture/ 
 which has been several times reprinted. Sir William died on the 8th 
 of March 1796, leaving a large fortune. As an architect, although his 
 taste was fantastic, he frequently showed considerable ingenuity, and 
 also displayed a certain grandeur in his designs. His staircases in par- 
 ticular used to be much admired. After Somerset House, among 
 
157 
 
 CHAMBERS, WILLIAM AND ROBERT. 
 
 CIIAMISSO, ALDELBERT VON. 
 
 15 
 
 Chambers's most successful efforts, are the mansion which he built 
 for the Marquis of Abercorn at Duddingstone, near Edinburgh, and 
 Milton Abbey in Dorsetshire, which he built in the gothic style 
 for Lord Dorchester. 
 
 •CHAMBERS, WILLIAM and ROBERT, the well-known publishers 
 of Edinburgh, claim a notice here as among the most zealous and 
 successful labourers in the great effort which has been made during 
 the past thirty years, to place sound and wholesome literature within 
 the reach of all classes of the population of this kingdom. The eldest 
 children of a respectable pair settled at Peebles in the south of Scot- 
 land, William was born in 1800, his brother Robert in 1802. They 
 received a good school education in their native town, Robert passing 
 through a complete classical course, and showing from his earliest 
 years a great love of study, while William was of a more practical 
 turn of mind. Through the misfortunes of their father in business, 
 they were thrown in mere boyhood on their own resources. The 
 family having removed to Edinburgh, William was apprenticed to a 
 bookseller there. Robert, failing to get to college as had been 
 designed, made what most people would have thought an eccentric 
 movement, and entered at sixteen on an important career as a book- 
 seller, with very small means. The early struggles of the two young 
 men would form a remarkable narrative as an example of self-relying 
 energy and industry. They conducted separate concerns in Edinburgh 
 till 1832, when they united in starting their well-known popular 
 periodical, ' Chambers's Edinburgh Journal.' Before this time Robert 
 had written his ' Traditions of Edinburgh,' and contributed several 
 popular histories to Constable's ' Miscellany.' He had also for some 
 years conducted a newspaper in Edinburgh. His attention to the 
 antiquities of Edinburgh had early gained him the notice of Sir 
 Walter Scott (who in his diary terms him " a clever young fellow — 
 but hurt3 himself by too much haste "), Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe, 
 and other eminent natives, who took an interest in the stories of the 
 Old Town. William Chambers had meanwhile published a laborious 
 work entitled the ' Book of Scotland.' From 1832 their united career 
 as publishers has been marked by distinguished success. 
 
 As soon as the success of the ' Edinburgh Journal ' became apparent, 
 (in 1834 its sale had reached 50,000 copies), the brothers gave up their 
 separate places of business, and formed one establishment in the High- 
 street, which has gone on increasing in extent till it has grown to be 
 one of the most remarkable printing and publishing houses in Scotland. 
 The faculties which their extensive printing machinery and their 
 organisation for the circulation of the ' Journal ' gave them, Messrs. 
 Chambers were not slow in turning to account in the publication of 
 various cheap works of a popular and instructive character. Among 
 the most important of these have been their ' Information for the 
 People,' ' Popular Library,' ' Instructive and Entertaining Library,' 
 'Repository of Instructive and Entertaining Tracts,' 'Miscellany,' 'Edu- 
 cational Series,' &c. That their works were well calculated to meet a 
 popular want is evidenced by the remarkable extent of the circulation 
 of many of them. In statements published in their 'Journal,' Messrs. 
 Chambers say that the sale of the numbers of the ' Information for the 
 People ' averaged about 130,000 copies ; while the ' Miscellany of Useful 
 and Entertaining Tracts' sold from 150,000 to 200,000 copies, some 
 particular numbers nearly reaching 300,000 copies. 
 
 Mr. Robert Chambers we have said early devoted much attention to 
 literature. His principal works are the ' Traditions of Edinburgh,' 
 already mentioned ; 'History of the Rebellion of 1745-46;' 'Popular 
 Rhymes of Scotland ;' ' Life and Works of Burns ;' and his ' Essays,' in 
 4 vols., selected from the Journal. Much of his leisure time has been 
 devoted to scientific pursuits, and especially to geology, the result of 
 which has been given to the public in a handsomely-illustrated volume 
 entitled 'Ancient Sea-Margins, as Illustrative of Changes of the Relative 
 Level of Sea and Land,' and in occasional papers published in the 
 scientific periodicals. 
 
 Mr. William Chambers also contributed many essays to the 
 'Journal,' but we believe the only separate works published with his 
 name, were his ' Book of Scotland,' and a brief notice of a tour in 
 Holland, until a year or two back, when he wrote an account of his 
 impressions of a tour in the United States, which, having first appeared 
 in the pages of the ' Journal,' was subsequently issued in a revised form 
 as a distinct work under the title of ' Things as they are in America.' 
 He has since published a short notice of ' Peebles and its Neighbour- 
 hood,' and ' Improved Dwelling-Houses for the Humbler and other 
 Classes in Cities ; ' the latter being suggested, it is said, by his experience 
 during the last few years in improving the dwellings of his tenantry on 
 an estate he purchased near Peebles, the cultivation and improvement 
 of which has formed a pleasant occupation of his well-earned leisure. 
 
 CHAMBORD, COUNT DE. [Bordeaux, Due de.] 
 
 CHAMBRAY, GEORGES, MARQUIS DE, was born at Paris in 
 1783. The De Chambray family was one of the oldest in Normandy, 
 but was ruined by the revolution. The young Chambray was educated 
 at the Ecole Polytechnique. He entered the artillery, and served in 
 the German campaigns of 1806-9, in the course of which he rose to 
 the rank of captain. In the disastrous Russian campaign he served as 
 captain in the imperial artillery ; but in the retreat he was left sick at 
 Wilna, where he fell into the hands of the Russians, who sent him 
 into the Ukraine. After the fall of Napoleon in 1815 he returned to 
 France, and was made a major in the garde royale. By 1825 he had 
 
 risen to the rank of colonel-director of the artillery of Perpignan ; but 
 his health had never wholly recovered from his sufferings in Russia, 
 and he was at length (1829) permitted to retire from the service with 
 the honorary title of mardchal-de-camp. Relieved from his military 
 duties, M. de Chambray immediately set about the composition of a 
 work he had for some time meditated, on the Russian campaign, and 
 in the composition of it he had the advantage, besides his own expe- 
 rience, of having access to the documents in the war office as well as 
 to the private papers of officers who had shared like himself in the 
 events he had to narrate. It appeared iu 1833 in 2 vols. 8vo, with an 
 atlas, under the title of 'Histoire de l'Expedition de Russie.' The 
 great importance of the work was at once recognised, and the notices 
 which it called forth in other countries as well as iu France, led M. de 
 Chambray to carefully revise it for another edition, which was pub- 
 lished in 1829 in 3 vols. 8vo ; and subsequently (1835) to add two 
 new chapters. M de Chambray also published a 'Refutation de la 
 brochure intitulee — la verite" sur l'incendie de Moscou, par le comte 
 Rotopschin;' as well as various pamphlets on infantry tactics and 
 other subjects connected with military affairs, reviews of Jomini, ana 
 Carion Nisas, and a life of Vaubau, all of which have been collected 
 and published under the title of ' Melanges.' (Rabbe, Bid. Port, 
 des Contemp. ; Nouv. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 CHAMISSO, ALDELBERT VON, a distinguished poet, naturalist, 
 and traveller, was born on the 27th of January 1781 in the chateau 
 of Boncourt in Champagne. He belonged to a very ancient noble 
 family of Lorraine. Until the outbreak of the French revolution the 
 family lived quietly on their estate, and Adelbert'a brother Charles 
 was one of the pages of Louis XVI., to whom he remained faithful to 
 the last, and for whom he risked his life on several occasions. In 1790 
 the chateau Boncourt was razed to the ground, whereupon the family 
 of the Chamissos quitted France ; and after having wandered about iu 
 the Netherlands and the south of Germany they ultimately went to 
 Berlin in 1796, where, together with other French emigrants, they 
 took up their permanent residence. As they had lost all their property, 
 the whole family lived upon the little income which two of the sons 
 made by painting miniature portraits. Adelbert however was extremely 
 fortunate : the Queen of Prussia made him one of her pages, and took 
 great care of his education, which he received in one of the gymnasiums 
 of Berlin. He made himself thoroughly acquainted with the German 
 language and literature, and the spirit which pervades all his own 
 literary productions shows that he became so completely Germanised 
 that the peculiarities of the German mind, which are most foreign to 
 the French, were in him most prominent. In 1798 he entered the 
 Prussian army, and his parents accepting the offer of Napoleon, then 
 First Consul, returned to France. Shortly after this he began writing 
 poetry in German, and from 1804 to 1806 he edited a 'Musen-almanach' 
 conjointly with Varnhagen von Ense. After the peace of Tilsit, Chamisso 
 quitted the Prussian service ; and in 1810 he returned to France, where 
 his family had recovered a great part of their property. For a short 
 time he was teacher in a school at Napolcouville, but his personal 
 feelings and the friendships he had formed in Germany drew him back 
 to that country. He now devoted himself almost entirely to the study 
 of the natural sciences. In 1813 he wrote for the amusement of the 
 children of a friend a little book called ' Peter Sehlemil,' containing 
 the story of a man who loses his shadow. This amusing little work, 
 which has been translated into English and most other European 
 languages, was first published in Germany by Chamisso' s friend De la 
 Motte Fouque" (1814), which has led some persons to look upon it as 
 the production of Fouque. A second edition, accompanied by some 
 lyric poems and ballads, was published by the author himself in 1827. 
 In 1814 Count Rumjanzow, chancellor of the Russian empire, prepared 
 an exploring expedition round the world at his own expense. He 
 invited Chamisso to accompany the expedition as naturalist, and the 
 invitation was gladly accepted. In 1815 Chamisso embarked at Cron- 
 stadt under Captain Kotzebue, and returned thither in 1818. One of 
 the main objects of the expedition had been the discovery of a north- 
 east passage, in which tho expedition failed ; but in all other respects 
 the discoveries were highly satisfactory. An account of the voyage 
 was published by Kotzebue in two volumes, and Chamisso himself 
 published ' Bemerkungen und Ansichten auf einer Reise um die Welt,' 
 Weimar, 1821, 4to, which forms an indispensable supplement to 
 Kotzebue's work, and contains a most faithful account of everything 
 that came within the range of his personal observation. After his 
 return from this voyage Chamisso again took up his residence at 
 Berlin ; the university conferred upon him the degree of Doctor in 
 Philosophy; he became a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 
 and soon after he received the appointment of inspector of the botanical 
 gardens of the same city. While in this situation he wrote a botanical 
 work, ' Uebersicht der in Norddeutschlaud voikommenden uiitzlichsten 
 und schadlichsten Gewachse, nebst Ansichten iiber das Pflanzenreich 
 und Pflanzenkuude,' Berlin, 1827. These subjects however did not 
 estrange him from the cultivation of poetry, for during the last ten 
 years of his life he produced a great number of small poems, many of 
 which, especially his popular legends and ballads, belong to the best 
 productions of the kind iu German literature. He died on the 21st of 
 August 1838 at Berlin. His poems were collected and published 
 separately, Leipzig, 1831, in 1 vol. 8vo, and a second edition appeared 
 in 1834. A collection of all his works, both in prose and in verse, was 
 
159 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, PHILIPPE DE. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS. 
 
 i«o 
 
 published at Leipzig in 4 vols. 8vo, 1835, and a second edition in 1812 
 in 6 vols. 12mo, the two last of which contain Chamisso's life and 
 correspondence, edited by J. E. Hitzig. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, PHILIPPE DE, was born in Brussels in 1602. His 
 parents, who were in middling circumstances, indulged his early taste 
 for painting, and he was placed under masters in his native place. 
 At the age of nineteen he went to Paris, with the intention of passing 
 on to Rome, but he was unable to accomplish his journey, probably 
 from the want of means. He received some assistance in his studies 
 from Fouquiere, and afterwards became acquainted with Nicholas 
 Poussin, when that great painter returned from Italy, from whose 
 advice and society he derived great advantage. They painted in 
 company in the Luxembourg. Upon the death of Duchesne, Cham- 
 pagne succeeded to his place as painter to the queen. Richelieu 
 endeavoured to withdraw him from his royal patroness, but Champagne 
 refused his most brilliant offers. He was indeed so scrupulous in his 
 conduct that he never touched a brush on holidays, nor ever painted 
 from the naked figure. He married the daughter of Duchesne, by 
 whom he had a son. He was received into the academy upon its first 
 formation in 1648, and was subsequently its rector. He died in 1674. 
 
 Champagne laboured with extreme assiduity, and acquired great 
 facility. His drawing is minutely correct, and his colour pleasing ; 
 but his design and effect are tame. His portraits are most esteemed, 
 particulaidy one of Richelieu. His principal works are at Paris, where 
 he spent nearly the whole of his life. 
 
 * CHAMPOLLION JEAN-JACQUES, commonly named CHAM- 
 POLLION-FIGEAC, to distinguish him from his younger brother, 
 Champollion-le-Jeune, was born in 1778 at Figeac, in the French 
 department of Lot. He at first held an office in the library of Grenoble, 
 capital of the department of Isere, and was afterwards professor of 
 Greek literature in that city. In 1828 he was appointed keeper of the 
 manuscripts in the Royal Library of Paris, an office which he held till 
 1848. In 1849 he became keeper of the library of the palace of Fon- 
 tainebleau, and also private librarian to the Emperor Napoleon III. 
 His first publication was a ' Lettre a M. Fourier sur l'lnscription 
 Grecque du Temple de Denderah en Egypte,' 8vo, Grenoble, 1806, 
 which was followed in 1807 by his 'Antiquitds de Grenoble, ou 
 Histoire Anciennc dc cette Ville, d'apres ses Monuments,' 4to, 
 Grenoble; and in 1809 by ' Nouvelles Reeherches sur fts Patois, ou 
 Idiomes Vulgaircs de la France,' 8vo. His 'Annales des Lagides, ou 
 Chronologic des Rois Grccs d'Egypte, successcurs d'Alexandre le 
 Grand,' 2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1819, received the prize of the Academic des 
 Inscriptions. Ho also republished several charters and other documents 
 appertaining to the history of France in the middle ages. The original 
 manuscripts are preserved in the Royal Library of Paris, and some of 
 them date as far back as the 0th century. One of the most expensive 
 of his publications was ' Les Tournois du Roi Rdue, d'apres les 
 Manuscripts ct les Dessins Originaux de la Bibliothoque Royale,' folio, 
 1827-28. In these ' Tournaments of King Rend,' of which only 200 
 copies were printed, he was assisted by M. Motte, the lithographer. 
 In 1842 he published a ' Notice sur les Manuscripts Autographes de 
 Champollion-le-Jeune, perdus en I'anuee 1832, et retrouves in 1840.' 
 He published in the following year an elementary treatise on 
 Archaeology, and another on Chronology. He was a contributor to 
 several works published periodically, such as the ' Dictionuaire de la 
 Conversation,' the ' Magazin Encyclopcdique,' the ' Revue Encyclopd- 
 dique,' the 'Bulletin des Sciences Historiques,' and the literary portion 
 of the ' Moniteur. ' He also assisted in the preparation and issuing of the 
 ' Documents Historiques ' published by the French government, to 
 which he contributed 6 vols. 4to. After the death of Champollion-le- 
 Jeune he published some of the materials on Egypt, Hieroglyphics, &c, 
 on which his brother had been employed immediately before his death. 
 In 1S64 appeared his 'Monographic du palais de Fontainebleau ' (fol.). 
 
 CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS LE JEUNE, so called to 
 distinguish him from his elder brother, Champollion-Figeac, was born 
 at Figcac, in the department of Lot, December 23, 1790. He studied 
 in the lyceum of Grenoble, and afterwards went to Paris in 1807, where 
 he applied himself to the oriental languages under Langles and De 
 Sacy, but more especially to the study of the Coptic, and to Egyptian 
 archeology in general. In 1811 he was appointed professor of history 
 in the lyceum of Grenoble, and librarian of the public library. In 
 1814 he published his first work, ' L'Egypte sous les Pharaons,' 2 
 vols. 8 vo, which is a geographical description of that country under its 
 ancient kings, with a view to fix its divisions, the sites and names of 
 its towns, &c. The work is accompanied by a map. In the preface, 
 alluding to the hieroglyphics on the Egyptian monuments, he says 
 " that it was to be hoped that from these monuments, on which ancient 
 Egypt painted mere material objects, we should be able at last to 
 discover the sounds of its language, and the expression of its thought." 
 In 1821 he published at Grenoble a little work, ' De l'Ecriture Hiera- 
 tique des Anciens Egyptiens,' in which he stated his opinion "that 
 the hieratic characters were merely a modification of the hieroglyphic 
 symbols, which were adopted for the sake of brevity, and as a sort of 
 hieroglyphic short-hand, and were not alphabetical characters as it 
 had been supposed by some ; the hieratic characters, as well as the 
 hieroglyphic from which they are derived, being expressive of objects 
 and not of sounds." 
 
 In the year following appeared Champollion's letter to M. Dacier, 
 
 the secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, 
 " relative a 1' alphabet des hidroglyphes pbondtiques employe" par les 
 Egyptiens pour inscrire sur leur3 monumens les tltres, les noma, et 
 les surnoms de3 souverains Grecs et Romains,' Paris, 1822. In this 
 letter he retracted what he had formerly asserted, in so far that he now 
 demonstrated what Dr. Young had already stated in November 1819, 
 in the supplement to the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' article ' Egypt,' 
 namely, that the Egyptians used occasionally hieroglyphic signs as 
 alphabetical characters on their monuments, to express the names of 
 foreign sovereigns, Greek and Roman, who ruled over their country. 
 In the introduction to his next work, 'Prdcis du Systdme Hierogly- 
 phique, etc.,' Champollion observes, and his friend Rosellini confirms 
 it in his biography, that he oame to the same conclusion as Dr. Young 
 contemporaneously with the latter, and by his own investigation ; but 
 this assertion, especially with regard to contemporaneousness, is at 
 variance with the statements of the Grenoble work already mentioned, 
 which was published as late as 1821, nearly two years after the publi- 
 cation of Dr. Young's discovery. However this may be, Champollion 
 at least improved upon Dr. Young's hint, and deduced a phonetio 
 alphabet, applicable not only to the names and titles of foreign sove- 
 reigns, but also to those of the native sovereigns and of the divinities 
 of ancient Egypt. By comparing Champollion's alphabet with Dr. 
 Young's, the difference between the two is apparent. Champollion 
 used the word phonetic to express characters denoting sounds, a term 
 which had been used long before him by Zoega in the same sense in 
 his work on ' Obelisks.' In his 'Precis du Systeme Hidroglyphique 
 des Anciens Egyptiens, or Recherches sur les Eldmens premiers de 
 cette Ecriture Sacree, sur leurs diverses combinaisons et sur les rap- 
 ports de ce Systeme avec les autres Mdthodes Graphiques Egyptiennes,' 
 Paris, 1824, he asserted, 1, "that his phonetic alphabet is applicable 
 to all the royal names of the most aucicut epochs ; 2, that the ancient 
 Egyptians employed at all epochs phonetic hieroglyphics to represent 
 alphabetically the sounds of their spoken language ; 3, that all hiero- 
 glyphic inscriptions are in a great measure composed of signs purely 
 alphabetical, and such as are determined in his phonetic alphabet." 
 It seems almost superfluous to remark that the two last positions are 
 mere assertions, unsupported by proof, as any one who will take the 
 pains to examine attentively Champollion's works will easily see. 
 Klaproth, in his ' Observations Critiques sur 1' Alphabet Hidro- 
 glyphique ddcouvert par M. Champollion-le-Jeune,' which precede his 
 'Collection d'Antiquitds Egyptiennes,' Paris, 1829, has in our opinion 
 completely demolished Champollion's general theory, and reduced his 
 discovery to its proper limits. Klaproth concludes his critical 
 observations with the following corollaries : — 1. " That Champollion 
 appears to have had no fixed basis for his system, as he has repeatedly 
 altered the meaning of his characters, both phonetic and symbolic, as 
 appears from comparing the alphabet of the second edition of his 
 'Precis,' 1827, with that of the first. 2. That although he has 
 explained proper names and some particles of speech, yet he has never 
 been able to read satisfactorily one connected sentence of hiero- 
 glyphic writing, nor three or four consecutive words of the demotic 
 characters of the Rosetta stone. 3. That he assumes against all 
 probability that the Coptic language, which is a mixed dialect, and 
 known to us in a very imperfect state, is the language that was spoken 
 by the Egyptians under the Pharaohs ; its sounds, according to him, 
 being represented by the phonetic signs. 4. That it appears that the 
 names of the kings, and the ordinary epithets attached to them, are 
 written alphabetically in the cartouches or frames ; but that besides 
 these every king has another title of honour, or prajnomen, which 
 fills up another cartouche, and which seems composed partly of 
 alphabetic and partly of symbolic characters, which last have hitherto 
 been only explained by conjecture." Besides these and other general 
 arguments against Champollion's system, for which we refer to 
 Klaproth's work, Klaproth charges Champollion with having com- 
 pletely altered several cartouches of the table of Abydos to make 
 them suit his hypothesis. And further, he does not forget to remind 
 us that Champollion, while passing through Aix on his way to Egypt 
 in 1828, saw a fine papyrus belonging to Mr. Sallier, written in demotic 
 characters, which he gravely pronounced to be " a history of the 
 campaigns of Sesostris Ramses, written in the ninth year of that 
 monarch's reign by his bard and friend." This assertion was published* 
 as a great discovery by the Academy of Sciences of Aix, and the report 
 was inserted in Ferussac's ' Bulletin Universel.' 
 
 During Champollion's visit to Turin in 1824, to examine the 
 Egyptian Museum of that city, he wrote two letters to the Duke of 
 Blacas d'Aulps, who had become his patron at the French court. In 
 these letters he explains the names and titles of many of the Pharaohs 
 written upon the monuments in the Turin collection, and he under- 
 takes to class them into dynasties, with the assistance of Manethon. 
 (' Lettres a M. le Due de Blacas d'Aulps, relatives au Musde Royal 
 Egyptien de Turin,' Paris, 1824-25.) His work on the Egyptian gods 
 came out in parts, but has never been completed — ' Panthdon 
 Egyptien, ou Collection des Personnages Mythologiques de l'ancienue 
 Egypte, d'apres les Monumens, avec un texte explicatif.' Charles X. 
 having determined to purchase a valuable collection of Egyptian 
 antiquities, just arrived at Leghorn, for the museum at Paris, Cham- 
 pollion was appointed, through the Duke of Blacas, to proceed to Italy 
 for the purpose of examining and valuing them. From Leghorn he 
 
Ml 
 
 CHANDLER, DR. RICHARD. 
 
 CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, D.D. 
 
 162 
 
 proceeded to Home and Naples, in the company of Rosellini. On his 
 return to Paris he was named Director of the Egyptian Museum at 
 the Louvre, of which he published a description — ' Notice descriptive 
 des Monumen3 Egyptiens du Musee Charles X.,' 1827. In 1828 the 
 King of France appointed a scientific expedition to proceed to Egypt, 
 in order to examine the monuments of that country, under Cham- 
 pollion's direction. At the same time the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, 
 Leopold II., appointed a similar expedition for the same object, at the 
 head of which he placed Rosellini, Champollion's friend. The two 
 expeditions, consisting of six Frenchmen and six Tuscans, sailed 
 together from Toulon, and arrived at Alexandria in August 1828. 
 Champollion remained in Egypt till the end of 1829, during which 
 time he wrote the letters which are published under the title of 
 'Lettres ecrites d'Egypte et de Nubie en 1823-9,' Svo, Paris, 1833. 
 On his return to France, in 1830, he was made a member of the 
 Institute, and subsequently appointed, by Louis Philippe, Professor of 
 Egyptian Antiquities in the College of France. It was agreed between 
 the French and Tuscan governments that the result of the observations 
 of the two expeditions should be published together in one work, in 
 French and Italian, under the direction of Champollion and Rosellini, 
 ' Monumens de l'Egypte et de la Nubie, consideres par rapport a 
 l'Histoire, la Religion, et les Usages Civils et Domestiques de l'Au- 
 cienue Egypte,' &c. The work began to appear in parts in 1832. In 
 the letter-press accompanying this publication, Rosellini baa not only 
 adopted the general system of Champollion, but has carried it much 
 farther than his friend. A sharp criticism upon it by Cataldo Jannelli 
 was published in No. 19 of the 'Progresso,' a Neapolitan journal, 
 Naples, 1835. While Champollion was preparing the first part of the 
 new work for the press, he was attacked by a paralytic fit, and died at 
 Paris on the 5th of March 1832. 
 
 Champollion's merits as a laborious student of Egyptian archaeology 
 are undeniable; but his judgment seems not to have been sound, his 
 deductions from his premises not always correct, and his learning 
 (except on Egyptian antiquities) neither extensive nor exact. He 
 corrected Dr. Young's first crude notions as to the phonetic symbols, 
 and considerably extended the number of known signs ; aud this may 
 perhaps lead to further results. Had he lived longer he might have i 
 modified some of his former assertions, and entered perhaps upon a 
 safer path of investigation. For the controversy concerning the j 
 general application of the phonetic alphabet, see vol ii. of the 
 'Egyptian Antiquities' of the British Museum, published in the | 
 ' Library of Entertaining Knowledge,' ch. x., on the ' Rosetta Stone,' i 
 where the subject is fully investigated. See also Professor Kosegarten, ! 
 'De prisca ^Egyptiorum Literatura Commeutatio,' 4to, 1828; Greppo's 
 ' Essay on the Hieroglyphic System of Champollion,' translated by j 
 Stuart, Boston, 1830. Rosellini wrote a biographical notice of Cham- i 
 pollion in the Florence 'Antologia' for April 1832. Champollion 
 made a Coptic Grammar and Dictionary, which remained unpublished 
 at his death, but which was surreptitiously published at Rome in 1842. 
 The manuscripts of Champollion were purchased by the French govern- 
 ment in 1833, with a view to their publication. The editing of them 
 was confided to M. Chompollion Figeac, and they appeared in 1834-48. 
 A monument was erected by the town-council to the memory of Cham- 
 pollion in the principal place of his native town. His bust was placed 
 in the Museum of Versailles by order of Louis Philippe, and copies of 
 it were made by order of the Minister of the Interior for the town of 
 Figeac, the Museum of Grenoble, and the library of the Institute. 
 
 CHANDLER, DR. RICHARD, was born at Elson in Hampshire, 
 in 1738, studied at Winchester School, and afterwards entered Queen's 
 College, Oxford, in May 1755. Soon after taking his Bachelor's 
 degree (in 1759) he published ' Elegiaca Graeca,' containing the frag- 
 ments of Tyrtseua, Simonide?, Meleager, Alcaus, &c, with notes. Iu 
 1763 he edited the splendid work ' Marmora Oxoniensia.' In 1764 he 
 was sent by the Dilettanti Society to travel into Asia Minor and 
 Greece, in company with Revett the architect and Pars the painter. 
 They spent more thau a year in Asia Minor ; and in 1765 they pro- 
 ceeded to Athens, and passed another year in examining Attica and 
 the Peloponnesus. They returned to England in November 1766. 
 The result of their labours, the ' Ionian Antiquities, or Ruins of Mag- 
 nificent and Famous Buildings in Ionia,' 2 vols, folio, was published in 
 London in 1769. In 1774 Chandler published 'Inscriptiones Antiquae 
 pleraeque nondum editae in Asia Minori et Graecia, praesertim Atheuis 
 collectae,' fol., Oxford. His 'Travels in Asia Minor,' 4to, 1775, and 
 'Travels in Greece,' 4to, 1776, still rank among the best descriptions 
 of those countries. There is a French translation (Paris, 1806) of the 
 ' Travels in Asia Minor and in Greece,' with notes, by J. P. Servois and 
 Barbie^ du Socage. These two works have been since republished 
 together, by the Rev. R. Churton, with Revett's remarks, and a 
 biography of Dr. Chandler, 2 vols. 8vo, 1835. In 1773 Cbandler took 
 the degree of D.D. ; and in 1779 he obtained the living of East World- 
 ham and West Tisted, Hants. In 1785 he married, and afterwards 
 travelled in Switzerland and Italy. In 1800 he was made rector of 
 Tylehurst in Berkshire, when he published his ' History of Ilium, or 
 Troy, including the adjacent country and the opposite coast of the 
 Chersooesus,' 4to, Loudon, 1802, in which he refuted Bryant's assertion 
 " that the Trojan war was a fiction, and that no such a city as Troy in 
 Phrygia ever existed ; " and he vindicated tho veracity of Homer, and 
 e»pec.<dly the truth of his local descriptions. Dr. Chandler died in 
 
 February 1810, in his seventy-second year. He left in manuscript, 
 ' The Life of William Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester, Lord 
 High Chaucellor of England in the reign of Henry VI, and 
 Founder of Magdalen College,' which was published in &vo, London, 
 1811. 
 
 * CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS-ANN E-THEODULE, the recent 
 confidant, and to some extent the rival of Louis Napoleon, was born 
 at Autun, on tho 26th of April 1793. In early life, he was a strong 
 partisan of the legitimist cause, having served in the king's body- 
 guard, which he entered as a private, January 10, 1815. Jn 1821 he 
 was transferred to the 60th regiment of the line, and accompanied the 
 Duke of Augpuleme to Spain two years afterwards. Already, in that 
 campaign, the brilliant coui age aud the capacity of the j-oung soldier 
 drew attention upon him. 
 
 After the revolution of July in 1830, he went as captain of the 
 2nd Leger to Algeria ; where his great activity and constant success, 
 caused him to be sent on many perilous expeditions, in all of which 
 his genius for war gave so much tone and dignity to his enterprises, 
 that he was in reality the general, aud his small troop an army. He 
 soon became a chef-de-bataillon, and the first unsuccessful attempt upon 
 Constantiue, which overshadowed the fame of his brother officers, 
 gave new life to that of Changarnier. Having reached Mansourah 
 (November 24, 1836), at the moment when the 59th and 63rd were in 
 full retreat, Changarnier, with his battalion, reduced to 300 men, took 
 up the ground between the rest of their army and the main body of 
 the enemy. Halting his men, and forming them into a square, he 
 said to them: "Come, lads, let us look those fellows in the face;, 
 they are 6000, we are 300, so the game is equal." Inspirited by the 
 cool decision of their leader, hi3 brave followers met the enemy with 
 intrepid firmness, and drove them back with considerable slaughter. 
 During the conflict a ball reached him in the middle of his square. 
 He was made lieutenant-colonel of the 10th line for his conduct in 
 this affair ; then a colonel in 1838. 
 
 Constantly in the field, his history and that of the French war in 
 Algeria are one. On the 4th of April 1841, when Medeyah was pro- 
 visioned, General Changavuier's brigade was fiercely attacked in the 
 Bois de3 Oliviers, both iu flank and rear, by the cavalry and regular 
 battalions of Abd-el-Kader. Struck on the shoulder, and supposed to 
 be mortally wounded, he refused to quit the field ; but alighting a 
 moment, had the ball extracted, again led his column, and cut his way 
 into the town. In November of the same year, he cleared the country 
 about Boufarick of several wild tribes, taking many prisoners, and an 
 immense herd of cattle. 
 
 His famous expedition in the mountains of Ouarencenes, in company 
 with the Duke of Aumale, largely contributed to the establishment of 
 the French supremacy in Algeria. On the 9th of April 1813 he 
 received the appointment of lieutenant-general. He was sent on 
 almost every expedition, and took part in almost every engagement. 
 Clausel, Vallee, Bugeaud, and the Orleans' princes, spoke of him in the 
 same terms of admiration. His own character lent a greatness to 
 occasions which in themselves were small. 
 
 In 1843 he drew a circle round the country of the Beni-Menacer, 
 where the Emir was once more raising the spirit of revolt, and subdued 
 those warlike mountaineers. With this opeiation the long series of 
 his exploits in Africa came to a close ; and the general returned to 
 France, after a most arduous service of thirteen years. In the month 
 of September 1847, the Duke of Aumale having succeeded Marshal 
 Bugeaud in the government of Algeria, became anxious to avail him- 
 self of the talents of his former comrade, and induced him to accept 
 the command of the army in Algiers. The events which followed in 
 February 1848 removed the prince from that province, but before he 
 left the country he committed the charge of government, provisionally, 
 to the general. On the arrival of General Cavaignac soon after, Chan- 
 garnier delivered to the army an able address on the value and duty of 
 obedience to the state, and returned to France. 
 
 He was now one of the Triumvirate of great names iu France, and 
 in May 1848 was appointed governor-general of Algeria, in the room 
 of Cavaignac, whose presence had been deemed indispensable in the 
 capital. On the 13th of June 1849, it was his good fortune to sup- 
 press, or rather to prevent, an insurrection in Paris by the strength 
 and rapidity of his preparations. On the election of the president of 
 the French republic, Changarnier was appointed Commander of the 
 First Military Division, and all the military power of the metropolis 
 centred in his hands. But this power, and the prestige of his military 
 fame, gave umbrage to Louis Napoleon, who abolished his command, 
 aud reduced him to the state of a private citizen. On the 2nd of 
 December 1851 he was arrested, and exiled soon after. He has siuce 
 resided chiefly at Brussels. 
 
 (Dictionnaire de Conversation; History of General Changarnier, by 
 Fr* * * ; Corkran, History of the National Assembly.) 
 
 CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, D.D., was the son of an 
 eminent merchant of Newport, Rhode Island, United States, where he 
 was born on the 12th of April, 1780. He was educated at Harvard 
 College, and his first views are said to have been directed to the medi- 
 cal profession ; but he was eventually induced by the lectures or advice 
 of the Hollis professor of divinity to enter the ministry in the Uni- 
 tarian communion, which however was not theu distinguished in the 
 United States from what is commonly called orthodox Christianity by 
 
163 
 
 CHANTREY, SIR FItANCIS. 
 
 CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS. 
 
 161 
 
 so clear a line as now. He took his degree in 1798, and soon after 
 ■went to Virginia, and spent some time there as a teacher ; but in 1803 
 he was appointed to the office in which he remained for the rest of his 
 life — that of pastor of the Federal-street congregation in Boston. At 
 this time he was considered to lean to what are called evangelical 
 views ; and several of the neighbouring clergymen of other persuasions 
 used occasionally to preach from his pulpit. His own preaching early 
 drew attention by its superior polish and eloquence; but not, it would 
 appear, to any remarkable degree till he had officiated for some years, 
 when his theology assumed a more decided character, and his congre- 
 gation, having considerably increased, built him a larger church, and 
 in 1824 gave him a colleague, the Rev. Mr. Gannett. •What first 
 brought him into general notice in -his own country were several 
 sermons which he published during the war of 1812. These were 
 followed by a number of papers in the 'Christian Disciple,' the 
 ' Christian Examiner,' and perhaps other Boston reviews or magazines. 
 In England however Dr. Channing's name was not much heard of till 
 after the appearance of his ' Remarks on the Character and Writings 
 of John Milton,' originally published in the form of a review of the 
 ' Treatise of Christian Doctrine' in the ' Christian Examiner' for 1826. 
 In the same publication for 1829 appeared his ' Remarks on the Life 
 and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte,' as a review of Scott's ' Life of 
 Napoleon.' In 1830 a collection of Channing's writings was published 
 in a royal 8vo volume at Boston, under the title of 'Reviews, Dis- 
 courses, and Miscellanies.' He continued to produce occasional tracts, 
 discourses, and other writings during the remainder of his life, of 
 which several subsequent collections were formed, both in America 
 and in England ; but the most complete we believe is that published 
 at Glasgow in 6 vols. 8vo, of which the first five were brought out in 
 1840, with the sanction and assistance of Dr. Chanuing himself, and 
 the sixth in 1814 under the authority of his son, Mr. AV. F. Channing. 
 The subjects principally treated of, besides those already mentioned, 
 are war, temperance, public education, the church, and especially the 
 abolition of negro slavery, of which measure Channing was one of the 
 warmest advocates. His death took place at Burlington, Vermont, cn 
 the 2nd of October 1842. 
 
 Channing is one of the most striking writers America has produced ; 
 and his works, besides their attractions of style, are all animated by a 
 pure and lofty moral spirit. His eloquence however, though often 
 imposing, has not much nature or real fire; its splendour is mostly 
 verbal ; the thoughts are true and just, rather than new or profound ; 
 it is exciting on a first perusal, but will hardly bear a second. Nothing 
 that he has written therefore has much chance of long retaining its 
 reputation; there is too little in it of the spirit of life; too little of 
 anything that c;iu be called its own, and that is not to be found else- 
 where. Both in its rhetorical character however and in its strain of 
 sentiment it was well calculated to produce an immediate effect. 
 
 CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS, was born on the 7th of April 1782, 
 at Norton, in Derbyshire, where his father was a farmer. Chantrey's 
 father wished to make an attorney of him, but he preferred being an 
 artist, and his predilection was for carving. He was accordingly 
 bound for three years to a carver at Sheffield ; but during the time of 
 his apprenticeship he found that it was a style of work which afforded 
 little scope for his true love for art, and he therefore turned his atten- 
 tion to modelling in clay. He tried his fortune as a modeller, first in 
 Dublin, then in Edinburgh, and lastly in London. In Loudon, Nolle- 
 keus was greatly instrumental in promoting Chantrey's fortunes. The 
 young sculptor (he was then four-and-twenty) sent a bust of J. R. Smith 
 to the exhibition of the Royal Academy, which, in the disposition of 
 the works for exhibition, attracted the admiration of Nollekens, who 
 said—" It is a splendid work ; let the man be known : remove one of 
 my busts, and put this in its place." Nollekens himself did all that 
 was in his power to make him known ; but Chantrey, having once 
 iound the opportunity of making himself known, required thenceforth 
 no other recommendation than his busts to ensure himself full employ- 
 ment m that department of art. In 1816 he was chosen an Associate, 
 and in 1818 a Member, of the Royal Academy. In the following year 
 (1819) he paid his first visit to Italy, wheie he was elected a member 
 of the academies of Rome and Floreuce. 
 
 In the career of a uniformly successful artist there are few incidents 
 to record : Chantrey's career for the last twenty years of his life, as a 
 monumental sculptor, was unrivalled ; beyond this sphere however he 
 did not range. He was knighted by the queen in 1837, at which 
 period he was already a sufferer from disease of the heart, and from 
 this time he finished few works himself: their completion was entrusted 
 to his able assistant Mr. Weekes. Of his poetic works, which are not 
 many, few were executed from his own designs : the statue of Lady 
 Louisa Russell, daughter of the late Duke of Bedford, at Woburn 
 Abbey, and the ' Sleeping Children,' in the cathedral of Lichfield, his 
 best sepulchral monument, were both executed from the desigus of 
 Stothard : the first is a child on tiptoe, pressing a dove to her bosom ; 
 the second is a monument to two children of the late W. Robinson, Esq. 
 There are also in Woburn Abbey two reliefs from Homer by Chantrey— 
 the ' Parting of Hector.and Andromache,' and ' Penelope with the bow 
 of Ulysses ; ' but they are calculated rather to detract from his repu- 
 tation, or, in other words, are evidence that poetic art was beyond his 
 sphere. They are engraved in plates xxix. and xxx. of the ' Outline 
 Engravings and Descriptions of the Woburn Abbey Marbles.' 
 
 As a monumental sculptor Chantrey will rank high : some of hia 
 statues in this branch of art are among the finest specimens of their 
 class. One of his best works is the bronze statue of William Pitt, in 
 Hanover-square, London. There are also marble statues by him, in 
 Westminster Abbey, of Francis Horner, Sir T. S. Raffles, George 
 Canning, Rev. E. F. Sutton, and Sir John Malcolm. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are also statues of Washington, in the state-house at 
 Boston, United States; Spencer Percival, in All Saints' Church, North- 
 ampton ; James Watt, in the church of Aston, near Birmingham ; Sir 
 Edward Hyde East and Bishop Ileber, at Calcutta; Canning, in the 
 town-hall of Liverpool; Mountstewart Elphinstone and Sir Charles 
 Forbes, at Bombay ; Dr. Ryder, bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, in 
 Lichfield Cathedral ; and Dr. Bathurst, bishop of Norwich, in Norwich 
 Cathedral. His busts are extremely numerous ; his sitters were a large 
 proportion of the persons of rank and distinction of his time. He 
 executed also a few equestrian statues in bronze, but their postures 
 are formal and want vigour ; the horses are particularly inanimate in 
 the body and limbs. His last work of this class, the Wellington testi- 
 monial, now placed before the Royal Exchange, London, was executed 
 nearly entirely by Mr. Weekes. 
 
 Though deservedly eminent in his style, and certainly one of the 
 best sculptors of his time, Chantrey cannot be reckoned among great 
 sculptors : his busts display no extraordinary powers of conception or 
 of modelling, and the best of his statues are but simple draped figures 
 in repose, well-proportioned, and with much characteristic expression; 
 but they are not superior to similar works by many sculptors of less 
 renown. In the treatment of his portraits however he always disposed 
 the unpicturesque costume of the present day with the greatest judg- 
 ment and with the least possible injury to the proportions of the 
 human figure ; he never left them stiff or stony, as they are on many 
 of the statues in St. Paul's Cathedral, executed by some of Chantrey's 
 contemporaries and immediate predecessors. 
 
 Chantrey had no children or very near relations, and he left the 
 reversion of a portion of his property, at the death or second marriage 
 of his wife, at the disposal, under certain restrictions, of the president 
 aud council of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, for the promo- 
 tion of British Fine Art in painting and sculpture, including an annuity 
 of 3001. for the president and 501. for the secretary, payable on the 1st 
 of January in every year. The interest of the residue is to be laid out 
 in the purchase of works of Fine Art of the highest merit in painting 
 and sculpture that can be obtained, either already executed or which 
 may hereafter be executed by artists of any nation, provided such 
 artists shall have actually resided in Great Britain during the executing 
 and completing of such works ; it being his express direction that no 
 work of art shall be purchased unless it shall have been executed 
 within the shores of Great Britain : and further, that in making such 
 purchases, the works of the highest merit shall be chosen, solely with 
 regard to their intrinsic merit, and a liberal price be paid, wholly at 
 the discretion of the president and council of the Royal Academy. 
 The president and council however will not be obliged to lay out 
 annually the whole or any part of the aunual sum at their disposal, 
 which may be allowed to accumulate for not more than five years. 
 All purchases must be bond fide purchases of finished works. The 
 will expressly provides against commissioning any artist to execute 
 works ; and all purchases must be publicly exhibited for at least one 
 month at the annual exhibition of the Royal Academy or elsewhere. 
 
 All these purchases are to be collected for the purpose of forming 
 and establishing a " Public National Collection of British Fine Art in 
 Painting aud Sculpture," executed within the shores of Great Britain. 
 The will provides also against any expenditure of these funds in the 
 erection of a building to contain permanently the works thus pur- 
 chased; it having been Chantry's expectation that such building would 
 be provided by the nation free of all charge upon his estate. The 
 property devoted by Sir Francis Chantrey to this purpose is his 
 residuary personal estate, over and above the property bequeathed to 
 his wife, and all legacies ; but he expresses a wish that at the decease 
 of his wife all the property bequeathed to her should be by her devoted 
 to the same purpose. Lady Chantrey however, so long as she remains 
 a widow, has a life-interest in this residuary personal estate : its 
 amount is not publicly known, but it is said to be about 2500J. per 
 annum ; it is vested in five trustees, including the president and 
 treasurer of the Royal Academy. Chantrey left to his friend and prin- 
 cipal assistant Allan Cunningham 2000Z., and, in a codicil, a life-annuity 
 of 100L, and, in case of his death, to his widow. He left also to his 
 assistant Henry Weekes, 1000^. ; provided in both case3 that they 
 continued in their offices as assistants, until the completion of his 
 unfinished works, or such as it was necessary to finish. Allan Cunning- 
 ham however did not survive Chantrey an entire year : Chantrey died 
 on the 35th of November 1841; Cunningham died on the 5th of 
 November 1842. 
 
 Chantrey was buried in a vault constructed by himself in the church 
 of his native place, Norton in Derbyshire, and he bequeathed 200i. 
 per annum to the clergyman of the place, so long a3 his tomb shall 
 last, to instruct ten poor boys, and to pay annually 101. to five poor 
 men, and to five poor widows or unmarried women, selected by the 
 clergyman, and being of the parish of Norton ; the residue to be 
 reserved by the clergyman for his own use in consideration of his 
 trouble. 
 
CHAPMAN, GEORGE. 
 
 CHAPPE, CLAUDE. 
 
 163 
 
 Lady Cbantrey presented the original models of the entire scries of 
 Sir Francis Chantrey's busts, the greater part of his monumental figures, 
 and his studies from the antique, to Oxford University, " on condition 
 that a permanent place be assigned to them in the Western Sculpture 
 Gallery " of the Taylor Buildings, where they now are, and form a 
 siDgularly interesting, and in some respects unique, scries of the por- 
 traits of many of the most eminent among Chantrey's contemporaries. 
 
 CHAPMAN, GEORGE, the earliest English translator of Homer, 
 and known also as a prolific writer of dramas, was born in the year 
 155". His birth-place is uncertain. Some have supposed him to have 
 been a native of Hertfordshire, in which county, at Hitching-hill, he 
 is known to have for some time resided. Wood believes him to have 
 been of a Kentish family. The same writer asserts that he studied at 
 Oxford, and that, although eminent in classics, lie neglected philosophy, 
 a fact which has been referred to as accounting for his want of an 
 academical degree. Coming to London, he entered the ranks of the 
 professional authors, and became an esteemed member of the best 
 literary society, associating with Spenser, with Daniel, and with Shaks- 
 pere, who was six or seven years his junior. He was patronised by 
 Sir Thomas Walsingham and his son, by Henry Prince of Wales, and 
 by Somerset the royal favourite. The death of the prince, and the fall 
 of the minion, may be supposed to have had an unfavourable influence 
 on his position ; and even before these events Chapman, with Ben 
 Jonson and Marstou, had narrowly escaped severe punishment for 
 satirical reflections on the Scotch, contained in their comedy of 
 'Eastward Ho !' But, although the particulars of Chapman's history 
 are little known, it is understood that he held some place about court; 
 and there is no evidence of his having ever laboured under those 
 pecuniary distresses which mark so painfully the biography of some 
 of his literary contemporaries. His personal character appears to have 
 been both respectable and amiable. Jonson declared to Drummond 
 that he loved Chapman ; and Anthony Wood asserts him to have been 
 "a person of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate, qualities 
 rarely meeting in a poet." He attained to a ripe old age, and died in 
 London on the 12th of May 1634. He was buried in the church-yard 
 of St. Giles-in-the-fields, where his friend Inigo Jones erected a 
 monument to his memory. 
 
 Chapman's published writings are very numerous. Among his 
 non-dramatic productions, the most valuable, as well as ambitious, 
 was his famous translation of Homer into English fourteeu-syllable 
 verse. Seven books of his 'Iliad' appeared in 1598; twelve books 
 appeared in folio about 1600 ; and, after the accession of King James 
 in 1603, there was published in folio the complete translation: 'The 
 Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets, never before in any language truly 
 translated, with a comment upon some of his chief places, done 
 according to the Greek by George Chapman.' This work was reprinted, 
 with introduction and notes by Dr. W. Cooke Taylor, London, 1843, 
 2 vols. 12mo. The 'Odyssey,' similarly translated, appeared in 1611, 
 and was followed in the same year by the ' Battle of the Frogs and 
 Mice,' and the Homeric Hymns and Epigrams. The following were 
 Chapman's other non-draiuatic works, original and translated : — 1, 
 ' The Shadow of Night, containing two Poeticall Hymnes,' 1591, 4to. 
 2, 'Ovid's Banquet of Seuce,' 1595, 4to. 3, ' Hero aud Leander, begun 
 by Ch. Marlow, and finished by George Chapman,' 1006, 4to. 4, 
 ' Euthymia Raptus, or the Tears of Peace,' 1609, 4to. 5, 'An Epicede, 
 or Funeral Song, on the most disastrous Death of the Highborn 
 Prince of Men, Henry Prince of Wales,' 1612, 4to. 6, 'Andromeda 
 Liberata, or the Nuptialls of Perseus and Andromeda,' 1614, 4to. 7, 
 'The Georgicks of Hesiod, by George Chapman, translated elaborately 
 out of the Greek,' 1618, 4to. 8, ' Pro Vere Autumni Lacrymse, to the 
 Memorie of Sir Horatio Vere,' 1622, 4to. 9, 'A Justification of a 
 strange action of Nero, &c. ; al-o a Just Reproof of a Roman Smell- 
 Feast, being the Fifth Satyre of Juvenall,' 1629, 4to. 
 
 The following are the titles of Chapman's plays, with the dates of 
 their printing : — 1, 'The Blind Beggar of Alexandria,' a comedy, 1598. 
 2, 'An Humourous Day's Mirth,' a comedy, 1599. 3, 'AH Fools,' a 
 comedy ; and 4, 'Eastward Ho,' a comedy, 1605 (by Chapman, Jonson, 
 and Marston) ; both reprinted in Dodsley's collection. 5, 'The 
 Gentleman Uaher,' a comedy, 1606; 6, 'Monsieur d'Olive,' a comedy, 
 1606; and 7, 'Buasy d'Ambois,' a tragedy, 1607; all three reprinted 
 in Dilke's ' Old English Plays.' 8, ' Caesar and Pompey,' a tragedy, 
 
 1607. 9,andl0, 'The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Byron,' two tragedies, 
 
 1608. 11, ' May Day,' a comedy, 1611 ; reprinted in Dilke's collection. 
 12, ' The Widow's Tears,' a comedy, 1612 ; reprinted in Dodsley's col- 
 lection. 13, 'The Revenge of Bussy d'Ambois,' a tragedy, 1613, in 
 Dilke's collection. 14, 'The Masque of the Inns of Court,' 1613. 15, 
 'Two Wise Men and all the rest Fools,' a comedy, 1619. 16, 'The 
 Tragedy of Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany,' 1654. 17, 'Revenge 
 for Honour,' a tragedy, 1654. 18 and 19, 'The Ball,' a. comedy, and 
 ' Chabot, Admiral of France,' a tragedy, both printed in 1639 as works 
 of Chapman and Shirley, and reprinted in the modern edition of 
 Shirley's works by Gifford, who pronounces Chapman to have plainly 
 had the principal share in their composition. Among the many specu- 
 lations as to the authorship of the drama called 'The Two Noble 
 Kinsmen,' in which Shakspere has been asserted to have assisted 
 l'letcher, Mr. Kni *ht, in his editions of the great poet's works, has 
 conjectured that the parts attributed to him may really have been 
 composed by Chapman. 
 
 Chapman's dramas, although works of muclu significance in the 
 history of our old literature, are not the most valuable of his works. 
 They are among the many productions of his time which were written 
 by men tempted, through the fashion of the day, into a walk of com- 
 position for which they were but indifferently qualified. In comedy, 
 which had been formed into a native school more completely than 
 tragedy, Chapman adapts himself readily, and not without success, to 
 the teaobing of his juniors, especially Jonson and Fletcher ; while he 
 gives to the tone of his works not uufrequeutly an elevation of thought 
 aud a fulness of descriptive imagery which make some amends for the 
 pervading stiffness of his portraiture of character and the forced and 
 artificial turn of his incidents. In his tragic dramas he is, in point of 
 plan and form, a semi-classic. He attempts at once to gratify the 
 taste of his age aud nation for the direct aud vivid representation of 
 dramatic horrors, and to maintain that tone of narrative declamation 
 and of didactic reflection which Seneca had taught him, and to which 
 his cast of mind made him naturally prone. The latter part of his 
 ' Byron ' is, as we venture to think, the best of his tragedies, and 
 might better have deserved reprinting thau the extravagant 'Bussy 
 d'Ambois.' But Chapman's memory is best preserved, and his repu- 
 tation as a poetical imaginer and thinker most fully vindicated, by 
 his free translations from the Greek, and especially by his spirited 
 and vigorous version of the Iliad. The republication of this fine old 
 poem is a judicious tribute to the improved taste of our time in 
 poetical literature. His Iliad, like his plays, is deformed by many 
 faults. It is as unequal as careless. Indeed, he himself, on completing 
 the work, re-wrote the first book entirely, and altered very much the 
 other eleven that had previously been published. But his patience 
 was not sufficient, either for correcting adequately what he had already 
 written, or for carrying him carefully through the remainder of his 
 task : the last twelve books were translated by him in less thau fifteen 
 weeks. And again, indolence and strong imagination concurred in 
 tempting him to desert, in many places, the sense of his author, and 
 to paint elaborately pictures for which Homer hardly gave him even 
 the sketch. Yet for vigour of fancy, for a loose kind of faithfulness 
 to the spirit of the original, for constant strength and frequent 
 felicity of diction, the work is one of the finest poems which our 
 language possesses. When Pope, who carefully read it, described it a3 
 a work which Homer might have written before arriving at years of 
 discretion, his fastidious taste led him to do the old poet less justice 
 than that which had been rendered by Waller, who confessed that he 
 could never read Chapman's Iliad without a degree of rapture. 
 
 CHAPPE, CLAUDE, a French mechanician, who, though not the 
 original inventor of a machine for transmitting intelligence with 
 rapidity between places very distant from each other, must be con- 
 sidered as having devised the means of rendering such a machine 
 available for that purpose. He was a nephew of the Abbe" Chappe 
 d'Auteroche, and was born at Brulon in Normandy, in 1763. It is 
 said by his French biographers that, happening on some occasion i n 
 his youth to be separated from his friends, he conceived the idea of 
 corresponding with them by means of signals ; and that the result of 
 his efforts to obtain this end was the invention of the machine which 
 he called a telegraph (xfjAe aud yfid<pw), or a semaphore (crrj/j.a and 
 (/Hpa). Whether or not he had at that time any knowledge of the 
 discoveries of Dr. Hook iu England, or of Amontons in his own 
 country, both of which were nearly a century earlier, is uncertain, but 
 there appears to be some resemblance between his machine and that 
 which was proposed by the former in his discourse to the Royal 
 Society in 1684. Be that as it may, no doubt can exist that M. Chappe 
 is justly entitled to the honour of having invented both a particular 
 system of signals, and the mechanism by which the operations are 
 performed. 
 
 This machine consisted of a vertical pillar of wood fifteen or sixteen 
 feet high, at the top of which was a transverse beam eleven or twelve 
 feet long, which turned on a joint at its centre, and was capable of 
 bring placed at any angle with the pillar; and at each extremity of 
 the beam was a secondary arm, which also turned on a joint, and 
 could be placed either iu the same direction as the beam or at any 
 angle with it, upwards or downwards. The various positions of the 
 beam aud secondary arms were to serve as indications of the letters of 
 the alphabet, and of the ten numerals ; the seuteuce to be transmitted 
 was to be exhibited letter by letter from the first telegraph to the 
 next in the line ; it was to be repeated in the same manner from the 
 second to the third, and so on to the last. 
 
 M. Chappe presented his invention to the French Legislative Assem- 
 bly in 1792, when the revolution had disposed the minds of men for 
 the reception of any novelty which promised to be of national utility; 
 and in the following year the government decreed that an experiment 
 should be made, in presence of certain commissioners, in order to try 
 its efficacy. For this purpose there was formed between Paris and 
 Lisle, at distances from each other equal to three or four leagues, a 
 line of stations, at each of which one of the machines was constructed; 
 and the first, which was immediately under the direction of the 
 inventor, was placed on the roof of the Louvre. The sentence to be 
 conveyed was received there from the hands of the members com- 
 posing the Committee of Public Safety, and in 13 minutes 40 seconds 
 it was delivered through all the intermediate stations to that at Lisle, 
 a distance of 48 leagues. The result of the experiment being con- 
 
167 CHAPPE, D'AUTEROCHE, JOHN. 
 
 sidered satisfactory, the use of the machine became general in France; 
 and it is said that one of the first despatches conveyed in this manner 
 to Paris announced the re-taking of the town of Condd. 
 
 The important advantages which might be derived from the use of 
 the telegraph wi re immediately felt. m A description of it was brought 
 by an emigrant from Paris to Frankfurt-on-theMaiue, where two 
 models were executed, which thence were sent to England by Mr. W. 
 Playfair ; and the invention, with, modifications, was adopted in this 
 country. 
 
 The claim of M. Cliappe to the honour of being the inventor of this 
 kind of machine appears to have been disputed by some of his con- 
 temporaries, who also invidiously represented its imperfections or ex- 
 posed the mistakes which, as they asserted, might be made in using it; 
 and these circumstances are said to have so preyed on his mind that he 
 fell into a profound melancholy, which terminated his life on the 23rd 
 of January, 1805. 
 
 CHAPPE, D'AUTEROCHE, JOHN, born 1722 (1723, Delambre), 
 died 1709, in California, whither he had gone to observe the transit of 
 Venus. He succeeded Lacaille at the Observatory of Paris, as assistant 
 to Cassioi de Thury, and published Halley's 'Tables,' in 1751. For his 
 travels to Siberia and to California, &c, see Delaiubre's 'Hist. d'Astron. 
 XV I II. siecle.' 
 
 CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE, a distinguished French chemist, 
 was born in 1750, at Nozaret (Lozere). His education commenced at 
 Mende, whence he repaired to the School of Medicine at Mont- 
 pelier, and afterwards to Paris. Iu 1781 he was appointed to the 
 chemical chair recently founded by the States of Languedoc. Inhe- 
 riting a large fortune from his uncle, he established some important 
 chemical manufactories iu his adopted city, and thus bestowed upon 
 France several valuable products which were previously obtaiued from 
 foreigners. In 1793 Chaptal was calleil to the capital by the Com- 
 mittee of Public Safety, to manage the manufactory of saltpetre, which 
 substance could no longer be obtained from India, and the want of 
 which was pressing. The gieat establishment of Grcnelle thus became 
 the scene of that zeal and ability of which Chaptal gave so many 
 proofs during the whole of his existence. He was one of the first 
 professors of the Polytechnic School; and the Institute elected hini a 
 member in the place left vacant by the death of Payen. After the 
 establishment of the consulate, Napoleon called him to the Council of 
 State ; and in the year9 (1801) appointed him Minister of the Interior. 
 Towards the end of the year 12 Chaptal retired from these high 
 appointments. During his administration of four years he conferred 
 many benefits upon the state. Devoting much time to the examina- 
 tion of charitable establishments, which had suffered from the 
 misfortunes of the times, he liquidated their debts; and originated 
 several new institutions for the amelioration of the condition of the 
 poor. As might however be expected from his habits, it was to the 
 manufacturing interests of his country that his attentiou was prin- 
 cipally directed ; he established chambers of commerce, and consulting 
 councils of arts and manufactures ; the School of Arts and the 
 Conservatory, w hich have become an important seminary and a great 
 museum, are monuments of his enlightened solicitude for increasing 
 the opportunities aud means of instruction. He published useful 
 processes, visited the manufactories, conversed with the workmen, 
 offered them his advice, applauded their discoveries, aud encouraged 
 the importation of processes and apparatus from abroad ; in fact, he 
 ext< nded his views and his care to every substance and circumstance 
 which he considered favourable to the improvement of manufactories. 
 " Some disappointments which he could not foresee, and certainly did 
 not merit, obscured the close of Chaptal's brilliant career; but he 
 supported them with dignity, without murmuring, and without 
 breathing a complaint. He consoled himself among his friends, by 
 study, aud by fulfilling duties which had been imposed upon him, or 
 which he had mated for himself. Too well informed not to under- 
 stand the nature of his disease, and feeling his end approaching, he 
 resigned himself like a philosopher, and making the requisite arrange- 
 ments for leaving a world where be had but few days to remain, he 
 died beloved and surrounded by his numerous family, bestowing on 
 them his blessing as his last farewell." (Thenard.) He died at Paris, 
 30th July 1832, iu the 76th year of bis age. He was a senator under 
 the Empire, and at the time of his death he was Peer of France and a 
 Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. He was one of the first 
 founders of the Society of Encouragement, over which he presided 
 many years. 
 
 Chaptal's principal works are ' Ele'meus de Chimie,' 3 vols. 8vo. 
 The first edition appeared iu 1790, aud the fourth in 1803. It has 
 been translated into most languages. 'Essai sur le Perfection nement 
 des Arts Chimiquesen France,' Svo, 1800 ; ' AitdeFaire, de Gouverner, 
 et de Perfection ner les Vins,' 1 vol. 8vo (first edition 1801, second, 
 1819); 'Tiaitd thdorique et pratique sur la Culture de la Vigne,' 
 2 vols. 8vo (first edition, 1801 ; second in 1811): 'Art du Teinturier 
 et if u Dc : graisseur,' 8vo, 1800; 'Essai sur le Blauchimeut,' 8vo, 1801 ; 
 ' Chimie appliquec aux Arts,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1807 ; ' Art de la Teinture 
 du Colon en Rouge,' 8vo, 1807; 'De l'lndustrie Francaisc,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, 1819; ' Mduioire sur le Sucre de Betteraves,' 8vo (first edition, 
 1815; second edition, 1821); 'Chimie appliquce a l'Agriculture,' 
 2 vols. Svo (first edition, 1823; second edition, 1829). 
 
 CH^UDIN, SIR JOHN, was born at Paris in November 1013. His 
 
 CHARITON. les 
 
 father, who was a Huguenot, or Protestant, carried on the business of 
 a jeweller in the French capital, and brought up his son to the same 
 profession. As soon however as Chardiu was of age, in order t* 
 gratify his taste for travelling, aud " to endeavour the advancement 
 of his fortunes aud estate," he left France for the East During his 
 first journey, which lasted from 1664 to 1670, he visited Persia and 
 the East Indies, and returning to Paris, he published in 12mo 'An 
 Account of the Coronation of Solyman III., Schah of Persia.' During 
 his residence in Persia he gained access to the court, and was appointed 
 agent to the Schah, who commissioned him to make purchases of jewels 
 and trinkets for him in Europe. At the end of 1671 Chardiu again 
 departed for Persia by the route of Constantinople, the Black Sea, and 
 Armenia. He arrived at Ispahan in June 1673, and remained in Persia 
 till 1677, "chiefly," he says, "following the court in its removals, but 
 also making some particular journeys, as well of curiosity as business, 
 to prosecute my intentions, studying the language, and assiduously 
 frequenting the most eminent and most knowing men of the nation, 
 the better to inform myself iu all things that were curious and new 
 to us iu Europe." Few travellers have been so conscientious and pains- 
 taking, or have had such good opportunities of acquainting themselves 
 with the country and the manners and customs of Persia. He spoke 
 the language like a native, he knew Ispahan better than Paris, and he 
 visited nearly every part of the country, traversing, he says, " the 
 whole length and breadth thereof." 
 
 In April 1681 he came to Loudon, where he settled as jeweller to 
 the court aud nobility. On the 24th of the same month of April 1681 
 he was knighted by Charles II., and on the same day married to a 
 young lady, the daughter of a French Protestant refugee, from Rouen. 
 In the following year he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, 
 which had recently been established, and some papers written by Sir 
 John appear in the earliest number of the 'Transactions' of that society. 
 He continued to carry on a considerable trade in jewels, prosecuting 
 at the same time his studies of the oriental languages and antiquities. 
 He did not publish an account of his eastern travels until 1686, and 
 then he only brought out the first part of them, being his journey 
 from Paris to Ispahan. ('Travels of Sir John Chardin,' fol., London, 
 1686.) This volume, with an unfortunate prophecy of future glory 
 and a long reign, was rather pompously dedicated to James II., who 
 two years later was driven from his throne. Chardin was a good 
 courtier, but he had obligations to acknowledge to James as well as 
 to Charles II. The latter king had employed him diplomatically on 
 an important mission to Holland, and in 1683 Sir John had figured 
 at the Hague and Amsterdam as agent for the English East India 
 Company. In 1711 appeared the second part of his travels. During 
 the latter part of his life he lived at Turnham Green, and, according 
 to an entry in the church books, he was buried at Chiswick on the 
 29th of December 1713. His travels have been translated into various 
 languages, and often reprinted. There is a very good edition (in 
 French) iu 4 vols. 4to, with plates, published at Amsterdam yi 1735, 
 which we have consulted; but the last aud best edition is said to be 
 that of Paris, 1811, in 10 vols. 8vo, with notes, by Langles, which we 
 have not seen. 
 
 About sixty years after hi3 death, some manuscript notes which 
 Chardin had written iu India to illustrate passages in the Scriptures 
 by a comparison of modern eastern usages, and which had long been 
 lost, were recovered by his descendants, who advertised a reward for 
 them. They were nearly all incorporated in Mr. Harmer's ' Observations 
 on divers passages of Scripture, illustrated by books of travels,' &c. 
 
 CHARES of Mitylene, Master of the Ceremonies to Alexander the 
 Great, made a collection of anecdotes, or perhaps rather wrote an 
 account of the private life and adventures of the king. We may judge 
 from the fragments in Athenseus that tbi3 work contained numerous 
 details which were exceedingly curious and interesting, (Athenseus, 
 ' Deipn.,' Casaub., iii. 93, 124 ; x. 434, &c.) 
 
 CHARI'SIUS, "AURE'LIUS ARCA'DIUS, a Roman jurist, who is 
 supposed to have lived about the time of Constantiue the Great. It is 
 certain that he lived at least after Modestinus, whom he quotes. 
 Modcstiuus lived under the emperor Alexander Severus (a.d. 222-235). 
 Charisius was Magister Libellorum Supplicum, a keeper of petitions, 
 as we learn from the title of an excerpt from his own writings (' Dig.' 
 1, tit. 11.) He wrote a work, in one book, 'De Testibus;' a work, iu 
 one book, ' De Officio Prsefecto Prastorio;' and a work, in one book, 
 'De Muneribus Civilibus' (see ' Index Fljrentinus'). 
 
 His writings contain some words that are perhaps not used by the 
 earlier jurists, as ' regimenta,' ' incunctabile.' (' Dig.' 22, tit. 5, s. 21.) 
 His style and the words that he uses clearly show him to be one of the 
 latest of the Roman jurists. Cujacius says that Charisius was a 
 Christian ; but the proof is not given. There are a few excerpts from 
 the three works of Charisius in the ' Digest.' 
 
 CHATUTON, the author of a Greek romance, in eight book*, 
 entitled ' The Loves of Clisereas and Callirrhoe.' The writer calla 
 himself Chariton of Aphrodisias. The time at which he lived is 
 uncertain, but probably not earlier than the fourth century of our era. 
 Though this, like most other Greek romances, displays little invention, 
 it has some merit iu point of style. Chariton was published by 
 D'Orville, Amsterdam, 1750, 3 vols. 4to, with a valuable commentary. 
 It was translated into German by Schmieder, Leipzig, 1806, 8vo, and 
 into French by Larcher, 
 
Its 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 170 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, Karl der Gross, or Charle3 the Great, son 
 of Pepin le Bref, king of the Franks, and of Bertha, daughter of 
 Caribert, count of Laon, and grandson of Charles Martel, was born 
 about 742 in the castle of Salzburg in Bavaria, a country which Pepin 
 had conquered, as well as part of Saxony. Pepin died in 768, and 
 Charles and Karlomann, his sons, succeeded to the vast dominions of 
 the Franks. Charles had Austrasia and Neustria, with part of 
 Germany ; Karlomann had Burgundy and South Gaul. Karlomann 
 died in 771, leaving two infant sous, but Charles possessed himself of 
 his dominions; and Karlomanu's widow, with her children, took 
 refuge at the court of Desiderius, kii g of the Lougobards. Charles 
 was now sovereign of the whole Frankish monarchy, which extended 
 not only over the present France, but also over nearly one-half of 
 Germany. The Franks were still, in a great measure, a German 
 nit ion ; and the native language of Charles was a dialect of the Teu- 
 tonic. In 772 Charles began his wars against the Saxons, which 
 continued with various interruptions till 803. Witikind, the priucipal 
 chief of the Saxons, a cunniDg and brave barbarian, gave him full 
 employment for many years. The Saxons were Pagans, and Charles 
 and bis Franks seem to have felt little scruple in massacreing them 
 by thousands, even after they had laid down their arms. In 774 
 Charles being applied to by Pope Adrian I. against Desiderius, king of 
 the Longobards, who threatened Rome, hastened from Germany to 
 Italy, crossed the Alps by the pass of Susa, defeated Desiderius at 
 Pavia. and took him prisoner. He assumed the crown of Lombardy, 
 and confirmed Pepin's donation of the Exarchate of Ravenna and the 
 Pentapolis to the Pope, who on his part acknowledged Charles as 
 Patrician of Rome and Suzerain of Italy, with the right of confirming 
 the election of the popes. In 775 Charles proceeded again to Germany 
 ajHinst the Saxons. In the following year he returned to Italy to 
 quell some insurrections; in 778 he went to Spain against the Sara- 
 cens, and conquered part of Catalonia, Aragon, and Navarre; but on 
 recrossing the Pyrenees, his rear guard was defeated at Roncesvalles 
 by the Vascones and the Saracens united. Several nobles of Charles's 
 court fell on that day, among whom was Roland, warden of the 
 borders of Brittany, ' Prsefeetus Brittannici Limenis,' who has become 
 the hero of many a romantic tale. In 780 Witikind having defeated 
 Beveral bodies of Franks, Charles found it necessary to visit Germany 
 again in person ; and after several sanguinary campaigns, Witikind 
 was obliged to submit and receive baptism. The alternative of death 
 or Christianity was held out to thousands of the Saxons, who gene- 
 rally preferred the latter ; and Charle3, by transplanting whole colonies 
 of them into remote parts of France or Italy, broke their strength. 
 Tassilo, duke of Bavaria, a feudatory of the Frankish monarchs, 
 having assisted or connived at Witikind's incursions, Charles invaded 
 Bavaria, and brought the duke before the diet of the great lords 
 assembled at Ingelheim, where Tassilo was found guilty of treason 
 and condemned to death. Charles spared his life, but had him con- 
 fined in a convent in 794. As for Witikind he lived the rest of his 
 days in peace, on his domains in the north of Germany, and his 
 posterity is Baid to be perpetuated in the House of Oldenburg, the 
 •tock of the present reigning houses of Denmark and Russia. 
 
 In the year 800 Charles being victorious everywhere, and master 
 of the best part of Europe, visited Rome, where he was solemnly 
 crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III., with the title of 
 Carolus I. Cjesar Augustus. He was called by the historians Carolus 
 Magnus, from which the French have made Charlemagne; German 
 Writers call him Karl der Gross. Nicephorus I., emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, sent an embassy to Charles by which he acknowledged 
 him Emperor of the West, with the title of Augustus, defining at the 
 same time the limits between the two empires, which seem to have 
 be-n the Raab in Hungary, and the mountains of Carniola down to 
 the Gulf of Istria; and in Italy, the old boundary between the duchy 
 of Benevento, and the Greek possessions in Apulia and Magna Grecia. 
 Charlemagne bad therefore Germany, the Netherlands, the Gauls, the 
 (jreater part of Italy and Spain as far as the Ebro, with the Balearic 
 Inlands, Corsica, and Sardinia. From the Ebro to the mouth of the 
 fclbe, from the Atlantic to the mountains of Bohemia and the Raab, 
 and from the British Channel to the Volturno — was the extent of his 
 dominions. He was on good terms with the Saxon kings of Britain. 
 The kalifs of Baghdad sent embassies to him. Bohemia, which was 
 then inhabited by Slavonian tribes, he never subjugated. About 807 
 or 808, the first mention occurs in history of the Normans and Dane3 
 making descents on the coast of France. Charlemagne seems to have 
 felt the danger of this new enemy, for he took great pains to fortify 
 the extensive coast-line of his dominions; he stationed armed vessels 
 in every harbour, and made Boulogne one of his principal naval 
 stations. In 813 Charlemagne named his third son Louis, called after- 
 wards Louis le De'bonnaire, his colleague in the' empire. He had lost 
 his two elder sons, Pepin and Charles ; but he appointed Bernard, the 
 son of Charles, king of Italy. In January 814, Charlemagne died of 
 pleurisy at Aix-la Cbapelle after a reign of forty-seven years. He was 
 buried with great pomp in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 Charlemagne may be considered the principal regenerator of 
 Western Europe after the destruction of the Roman empire. He was 
 ambitious, but his ambition was of an enlarged kind, and led to great 
 and useful results. He was not merely a successful conqueror, but a 
 statesman and a legislator ; and bis mind appears wonderfully enlight- 
 
 W0V» my. you U. 
 
 ened when contrasted witli the barbarism that surrounded him. He 
 was the first to enforce obedience and discipline among the turbulent 
 Franks, and he effectually curbed the insubordination of his vas-als, 
 which his father Pepin had been unable to subdue. He was the 
 founder of the Germanic empire, having transformed tribes of lawless 
 barbarians, such as the Saxons, the Bavarians, the Frisians, &c, into a 
 federation of civilised nations. His predecessors, Charles Martel and 
 Pepin, had checked the advance of the Saracens on the side of the 
 Pyrenees ; Charlemagne drove them back beyond the Ebro. His 
 overthrow of the Longobards in Italy has been viewed in various 
 lights by party historians. He has been considered by some as having, 
 by his alliance with the popes, favoured the encroachments of their 
 spiritual power over temporal affairs. But it ought to be observed 
 that in his lifetime at least he always asserted the superiority of the 
 empire over the church in temporal matters, that he crowned himself 
 king of Italy, and that even at Rome the laws were proclaimed in his 
 name ('Imperante Domino nostro Carolo'), and the coin bore his 
 stamp. Other writers have assumed that the overthrow of the Longo- 
 bards was a misfortune to Italy, because they have fancied that their 
 power was likely to effect that union of the peninsula which has been 
 the favourite vision of the Italians in all ages. But that union, had it 
 been possible, was more likely to be effected by a sovereign like 
 Charlemagne, who ruled singly and firmly over his vassals, and who 
 was acknowledged as emperor of the West and successor to the Caesars, 
 than by an elective king like that of the Longobards, who was every 
 moment at variance either with some one of the numerous dukes, who 
 ruled absolutely each his respective territory, or with the Greek empe- 
 rors, who still retained nearly one-half of Italy. Besides, it ought not 
 to be forgotten that the Longobards, even under their best kings, 
 always retained a broad distinction between themselves the conquerors, 
 and the Romans or conquered race. This humiliating and often 
 oppressive distinction Charlemagne abolished, and by so doing he in 
 fact emancipated the original Italian population from bondage. Those 
 who may wish to look further into this often mis-stated question will 
 find a sober and argumentative discussion of it in Manzoni's 'Discorso 
 storico sopra alcuni punti della Storia Longobardica in Italia,' which 
 accompanies his historical drama of ' Adelchi.' Charlemagne pro- 
 moted instruction by the only means then known, by founding monas- 
 teries and endowing churches with schools attached to them. He 
 enacted a series of regulations upon civil and ecclesiastical matters 
 which may be considered as forming a code of laws. He often assem- 
 bled diets of the great lords and bishops, and consulted them upon 
 important matters, thus showing a deference to the opinion of the 
 only classes that had then any pretensions to education. Upon the 
 same principle, he favoured the clergy as being the only scholars of 
 that age. Alcuin, Paulus Diaconus, and other learned men, were 
 honoured with his favour. He was easy of access to the humble and 
 poor, and showed himself just and merciful towards them. He was, 
 on the contrary, at times harsh and cruel to his enemies and to his 
 rebellious subjects, whom he treated in the same manner that they 
 treated their own enemies or dependents. His first wife was Hermen- 
 garda, daughter of Desiderius, king of the Longobardi, whom he repu- 
 diated after a twelvemonth, with the pope's approbation, to marry 
 Ildegerda, a German princess, by whom he had most of his numerous 
 children. After her death he married successively Fastrada and Lut- 
 garda. He had also several natural children. 
 
 (Eginhard, Vita Caroli Magni, in Duchesne's Rerum FrancorxiM, 
 Scriptores, where are also Annates de Gestis Caroli Magni, and Frag- 
 menta de Rebus Gestis Caroli Magni cum Hunis et Slavis, both by 
 anonymous writers. Eginhard was a contemporary of Charlemagne, 
 aud one of his favourites. See also Struve, Rerum Germanicarum 
 Scriptores, torn, i., and the other numerous French and German 
 historians.) 
 
 CHARLES I., King of England, the third son of James I. aud 
 Anne, daughter of Frederick II., king of Denmark, was bom at Dun- 
 fermline, in Fifeshire, North Britain, on the 19th of November 1600. 
 James's second son, Robert, having died in infancy, and his eldest, 
 Prince Henry, in his nineteenth year, iu 1612, Charles became heir- 
 apparent to the crown. He was not however created Prince of Wales 
 till the 1st (other authorities say the 4th) of November 1616. His 
 title before this was Duke of York and Cornwall. 
 
 Almost the only transaction in which Charles figured before he 
 ascended the throne was the extraordinary expedition to Spain made 
 at the suggestion and in the company of the Duke of Buckingham, in 
 the year 1623, to conclude in person the negociations for his marriage 
 with the Infanta Maria, a business which had occupied his father for 
 nearly the preceding seven years. The affair was probably prevented 
 from being brought to the intended conclusion by this very journey. 
 After it was broken off, Charles and his father directed their views tc 
 a French match, the negociation for which was in progress when Jame3 
 died, on the 27th of March 1625. The new king's marriage with the 
 Princess Henrietta Maria, the youngest daughter of Henri IV., wa« 
 solemnised by proxy, at Paris, on the 11th of May. 
 
 At the accession of Charlss, circumstances and the minds of men 
 were ripe for a renewal of that struggle between the popular and tho 
 monarchical principles of the constitution which his predecessor had 
 with difficulty put down, when it broke out in the parliament assem 
 bled iu 1620. Charles began his reign by retaining as Lis chief adviati' 
 
 N 
 
171 
 
 CHARLES 1. 
 
 CHARLES II. 
 
 173 
 
 his father's favourite, the unpopular, unprincipled and incapable Buck- 
 ingham. At the same time the difficulties in which he was involved 
 by the war that had just been entered into with Spain, offered to the 
 popular party an opportunity of pursuing their objects, which seemed 
 too promising to be neglected. 
 
 The reign commenced accordingly with a contest between the king 
 and the parliament, the latter firmly refusing to grant the supplies 
 demanded by his Majesty until they had obtained both a redress of 
 grievances and a limitation of the prerogative. Charles, on his part, 
 met the resistance of the parliament both by insisting upon preserving 
 the prerogative entire, and by boldly putting it in force. In the 
 course of this first contest three parliaments wero successively called 
 together and dismissed. The first met 13th of June 1G25, and was 
 dissolved 12th of August in the same year; the second met Cth of 
 February 1626, and was dissolved, before it had passed a single act, 
 15th of June; the third met 17th of March 1628, was suddenly pro- 
 rogued 26th of June, was called together for a second session 20th of 
 January 1629, and was finally dissolved 10th of March of the same 
 year. All this time the proceedings of the king continued to be of 
 the most arbitrary character. Money was collected from the people 
 by force ; the influence of the crown was exercised in the most open 
 manner to overawe the judges, in cases in which the liberty of the 
 subject was concerned ; the first privilege of parliament itself was 
 violated by the seizure of members of the House of Commons, and 
 their commitment to prison, for words alleged to have been spoken by 
 them in debate. Nor is Charles free from the charge of having 
 resorted to manoeuvring and subterfuge to escape from the demands 
 with which he was pressed. He is especially exposed to the charge of 
 such insincerity and indirectness by his conduct in the affair of the 
 Petition of Rights, which was passed in the first session of his third 
 parliament, and to which he was eventually compelled to give his 
 assent. This was the greatest, indeed it may be said the only victory 
 obtained by the popular party in the course of the struggle ; and it 
 was rendered ineffectual for the present by the temporary success of 
 the king in the plau which ho at length adopted of governing without 
 parliaments. Immediately before entering on this line of policy he 
 wisely made peace, first, on the 14th of April 1629 with France, with 
 which power he had entered (in July 1626) into a foolish war, every 
 operation in which was a disgraceful failure ; and secondly, on the 5th 
 of November 1630 with Spain, the war with which had not been more 
 creditable to his arms. Meanwhile also the assassination of Buckingham, 
 on the 23rd of August 1628, had rid him of this evil adviser. 
 
 His principal advisers now were the queen, Bishop Laud, and Went- 
 worth, created earl of Strafford. The state of things now established, 
 and which may be described as the complete subjugation of the consti- 
 tution by the prerogative of the crown, lasted for nearly eight years. 
 The only memorable attempt at resistance was that made by Hamp- 
 den, who refused to pay his assessment of ship-money, and whose case 
 was argued before the twelve judges in April 1637, and decided in 
 favour of the crown. Meantime however the opposition of the people 
 of Scotland to the Episcopal form of church government, which had 
 for some time been established among them, suddenly burst out into 
 a flame. The first disturbances took place at Edinburgh, in the end 
 of July 1637, and by the beginning of the following year the whole 
 country was in a state of insurrection against the royal authority. In 
 these circumstances Charles called together his fourth parliament, 
 which met on the 13th of April 1640. The temper which the mem- 
 bers showed however induced him to dissolve it on the 5th of May 
 following. But the Scotch army having entered England on the 20th 
 of August, he again found himself forced to have recourse to the 
 representatives of the people. The result was, the meeting on the 
 3rd of November of a fifth parliament, which is generally known 
 under the name of the Long Parliament. 
 
 The first proceedings of this assembly amounted to entering into a 
 complete alliance with the Scottish insurgents. By one bill after 
 another the king was stripped of all the most objectionable of his 
 prerogatives. The Commons also voted that no bishop shall have any 
 vote in parliament nor bear any sway in temporal affairs, and that no 
 clergyman shall be in the commission of the peace. Of his advisers, 
 Laud was sent to the Tower, and Strafford was executed in conformity 
 ■with an act of attainder, his assenting to which has always been 
 regarded as one of the great stains on the character of Charles. Laud 
 also was executed after he had remained a prisoner in the Tower 
 more than four years. After having yielded everything else however, 
 Charles refused his assent to the Militia Bill, which was presented 
 to him in February 1642, the object of which was to transfer all the 
 military power of the kingdom into the hands of the parliament. The 
 first blood drawn in the civil war which followed was at the indecisive 
 battle of Edgehill, fought on Sunday, the 23rd of October, in that 
 year. After this the war extended itself over the whole kingdom. 
 For some time success seemed to incline to the royal side, and at the 
 beginning of the year 1644, throughout both the west and the north 
 of England, all opposition to the king was nearly subdued. In February 
 of that year however another Scottish army crossed the border, and 
 on the 2nd of July, at Marston Moor, the royalists Sustained a defeat 
 from the combined Scottish and parliamentary forces, which proved a 
 fatal blow to the king's affairs. The brilliant exploits of the Marquis 
 of Moutrotc in Scotland, at the end of this year and the beginning of 
 
 the next, were thrown away in the circumstances in which his royal 
 master now was. At length, on the 14th of June 1615 was fought the 
 battle of Naseby, which may be Baid to have finished the war. On 
 the 5th of May 1646 Charles delivered himself up to the Scotch army 
 encamped before Newark, who on the 30th of January 1647 gave him 
 up to the commissioners of the Euglish parliament. On the 3rd of 
 June ho was forcibly taken by Cornet Joyce out of the hands of the 
 commissioners, and carried to the army then lying at Triplow Heath, 
 and now in open rebellion against their old masters of the parliament. 
 On the 16th of August he was brought by the army to Hampton Court, 
 froiu which he mado his escape on the 11th of November, and eventu- 
 ally sought refugo with Hammond, the parliamentary governor of the 
 Isle of Wight. Here he was detained a close prisoner in Carisbrook 
 Castle till the 30th of November 1648, when he was seized by Colonel 
 Ewer, and carried to Hurst Castle, on the opposite coast of Hampshire, 
 by an order of the council of officers in the army. Meanwhile risings 
 in his favour, which had been attempted in various parts of the 
 kingdom, were all suppressed without difficulty by the now dominant 
 army. An army in the Presbyterian interest, which was advancing 
 from Scotland under the conduct of the Duke of Hamilton, was met 
 on the 17th of August at Langdalo near Preston by Cromwell, who 
 after completely routing it penetrated as far as Edinburgh, and 
 reduced everything to subjection in that quarter. On the 6th of 
 December, Colonel Pride took possession of the House of Commons, 
 with a strong detachment of soldiers, and cleared it by force of all the 
 members, except the minority of about 150, who were in the inde- 
 pendent interest. On the 23rd the king was brought in custody to 
 Windsor, and on the 15th of January 1649 to St. James's. On the 
 20th he was brought to trial in Westminster Hall, before what was 
 designated the High Court of Justice. Sentence of death was pro- 
 nounced against him on the 27th, and he was executed by decapitation 
 on a scaffold erected in front of the Banqueting House at Whitehall, 
 at two in the afternoon of the 30th. 
 
 Charles I. had eight children by Queen Henrietta, of whom six 
 survived him, namely, Charles, prince of Wales, and Jame3, duke of 
 York, afterwards kings of England; Henry, afterwards created duke 
 of Gloucester ; Mary, married to William, prince of Orange, by whom 
 she became mother of William, afterwards king of England ; Elizabeth, 
 who died a prisoner in Carisbrook Castle, 8th of September, 1650, in 
 her fifteenth year; and Henrietta Maria, who married Philip, duke of 
 Orleans, from whom, through a daughter, is descended the royal family 
 of Sardinia. 
 
 The literary works attributed to King Charles have been collected 
 and published under the title of ' Reliquias Sacrse Carolina;.' A list 
 of them may be found in Horace Walpole's 'Royal and Noble 
 Authors.' They consist chiefly of letters and a few state papers, and 
 of the famous ' Eikon Basilike,' which first appeared immediately after 
 the death of the king ; but his claim to the authorship of this work 
 has been much disputed, and is now generally considered to have 
 been disproved, though the Rev. Dr. Ch. Wordsworth in his work 
 entitled, ' Who wrote the Eikon Basilike,' and the replies which he 
 published in answer to the reviews of that work, has strongly contended 
 that the 'Eikon' was the production of the king. Charles however 
 wa3 certainly one of the most elegant and forcible English writers of 
 his time, and a great friend to the fine arts, which he encouraged in 
 the early part of his reign. 
 
 (The original authorities for the history of the reign of Charles I. 
 are very numerous. Among those of greatest importance may be 
 mentioned Rushworth's 'Historical Collections;' Whitelock's 'Memo- 
 rials of English Affairs ; ' Clarendon's ' History of the Grand Rebellion ; ' 
 and May's ' History of the (Long) Parliament ; ' to which must be 
 added, both for its invaluable mass of original letters, as well as for the 
 'Elucidations' of the editor, Carlyle's 'Letters of Oliver Cromwell' An 
 important recent addition to the documentary matter is the collection 
 of letters despatched weekly by Charles to his queen during the whole 
 of the year 1646, and printed under the editorial care of Mr. J. Bruce, 
 by the Camden Society, 1856. The general reader will find perhaps 
 a sufficiently ample detail of the events of the time in the histories of 
 Rapin, Hume, and Lingard, and he will do well to read the recent 
 series of works on this period by M. Guizot, as exhibiting Charles 
 and his opponents from a point of view somewhat different from that 
 of the Euglish historians, and also as giving the running commeutaiy 
 of a thoroughly well-informed historian and statesman, who has him- 
 self lived and taken part in a revolutionary struggle in many respects 
 bearing no faint resemblance to that of the reign of Charles I. It will 
 be enough to mention the volumes of Brodie, Godwin, D'Israeli, &c, 
 as among the more recent works on the reign of Charles I.) 
 
 CHARLES II., King of England, the second son of Chsrles I., 
 was born on the 29th of May, 1630. His elder brother, named 
 Charles James, born 18th March 1629, had died on the day of his 
 birth. On the breaking out of the civil war, in 1642, the Prince of 
 Wales, then only twelve years of age, was appointed by his father to 
 the command of the troop of horse which he raised as a body-guard 
 on taking up his quarters at York; and in 1645 he was sent to serve 
 with the royal troops iu the west, with the title of general. On the 
 ruin of the royal cause after the battle of Naseby, the prinoe retired, 
 first to Scilly, and afterwards to Jersey, from whence in September 
 1646, he went to Paris, and joined the (jueea, his mother. He after* 
 
173 
 
 CHARLES II. 
 
 CHARLES MARTEL. 
 
 174 
 
 wards took up his residence at the Hague, and being there when he 
 received the news of the death of bis father, he immediately assumed 
 the title of king. Ou the 3rd of February 1649, he was proclaimed 
 kin.: of Scotland at Edinburgh. Meantime he had left Holland, and 
 having gone in the first instance to Paris, had afterwards proceeded to 
 Jersey. There he received the deputy of the Committee of Estates of 
 Scotland, and agreed to accept the crown of that kingdom on the 
 conditions imposed by the Presbyterians, who were the dominant party 
 there. He arrived in the north of Scotland 23rd of June 1650, and 
 having been forced to take the covenant before landing, was again pro- 
 claimed at Edinburgh on the 15th of July. On the 1st of January 1651, 
 he was crowned at Scone. Cromwell however had already made him- 
 self master of the greater part of Seotlaud ; on which Charles adopted 
 the resolution of marching to the south. He entered England on 
 the 6th of August, and taking possession of the city of Carlisle, was there 
 proclaimed king. The battle of Worcester however in which he was 
 signally defeated by Cromwell, on the 3rd of September, put an end 
 to his enterprise. For some weeks he wandered about in disguise ; 
 at last on the 15th of October he embarked at Shoreham, in Sussex, 
 and a few days after arrived in safety at Fescamp, in |Normandy. 
 From Fescamp he went to Paris, where he remained till June 1634. 
 He then retired, first to Aix-la-Chapelle, and afterwards to Cologne ; but 
 being obliged to leave the French territory on peace being concluded 
 between England and France, in October 1055, he retired to Bruges and 
 resideJ afterwards principally at that town and at Brussels. He was 
 at Brussels when he received the news of the death of Oliver Cromwell, 
 in the beginning of September 1658. In the confusion into which 
 everything fell in England after the resignation or deposition of the 
 protector Richard, Charles removed to Calais, in August 1659, that he 
 might be ready to take advantage of circumstauces. He had still 
 however to wait for some time longer. He opened a negociation with 
 General Monk, in April 1660, at which time he was at Breda, having 
 arrived there on the 4th of that month. His letters to the House of 
 Lords, his majesty's gracious declaration to all his loving subjects (in 
 which he promised much that he never performed), and his letter to 
 the House of Commons, are all dated from the court at Breda in 
 April 1660. On the 1st of May the parliament voted his restoration, 
 and he was proclaimed in London on the 8th. He embarked at the 
 Hague on the 23rd of the same month, and entered London on 
 the 29th. 
 
 We can give only a very general sketch of the progress of events 
 during this reign. It commenced with a complete restoration of the 
 ancient order of things, both in church and state. Although such of 
 those concerned in the condemnation of the preceding king as could 
 be apprehended were tried and executed, this measure of vengeance 
 appears to have been in accordance with the popular sentiment of the 
 time; and even the ejection of the Presbyterian clergy, which took 
 place in August, 1662, excited no general manifestation of feeling 
 against the government. The first of Charles's acts which seem to 
 have been decidedly unpopular were hi3 sale of Dunkirk to France, and 
 his declaration of indulgence, intended to favour the Catholics, both of 
 which proceedings took place in the latter part of this year. From 
 this time Lord Clarendon, who had till now been the king's chief 
 adviser, but who had opposed the indulgence, began to lose hi3 
 influence at court. That minister also speedily lost his popularity by 
 resisting the war with Holland, into which feelings of commercial 
 jealousy were precipitating the parliament and the nation. The war 
 broke out in February 1665, and was soon made more serious by a 
 rupture with France. Hostilities however were terminated for the 
 present by the peace of Breda, concluded 10th of July 1667. This 
 event was speedily followed by the dismissal of Clarendon from the 
 administration, and eventually his banishment from the realm by act 
 of parliament. In January 1668 was concluded, by the exertions of 
 Sir William Temple, the treaty of triple alliance (as it was called) 
 between England, Holland, and Sweden, with a view of opposing the 
 schemes of France, almost the only meritorious act of this disgraceful 
 reign. It was not long however before the formation of the famous 
 ministry known by the name of the Cabal, whose designs were to make 
 the power of the English crown absolute by the aid of the king of 
 Frauce, overturned the state of things thus established. An alliance 
 with France was followed by a quarrel with Holland, against which 
 power war was declared in March, 1672. These transactions however 
 roused a violent popular opposition both in the nation and in parlia- 
 ment; and after Shaftesbury, the head of the ministry, had retired 
 from the storm, the king was compelled to make peace with Holland 
 in February, 1674. But, although now standing neutral in the war, 
 he still maintained a close connection with the French king, from 
 whom indeed there is no doubt that he was in the receipt of an annual 
 pension. 
 
 The most memorable affair of the following years was the announce- 
 ment, in 1678, of the pretended Popish Plot, in the midst of the 
 ferment excited by which Charles, apprehensive of the lengths to 
 which the parliament, participating in the popular excitement, appeared 
 to be ready to go, adopted the bold course of dissolving that body, 
 which had sat, one year excepted, during the whole course of the 
 reign. Of three more parliaments however which he afterwards suc- 
 cessively called, none turned out more compliant or manageable; and 
 be dissolved the last of them, which had been summoned to meet at 
 
 Oxford on the 28th of March 1681, after it had sat only a week. In 
 tho first of the three, which met in March, 1679, the Habeas Corpuj 
 Act was passed. Meanwhile an alarming insurrection of the Scotch 
 Covenanters, driven mad by the oppressive administration of Lauder- 
 dale, had been suppressed by their defeat at Bothwell Bridge, on the 
 22nd of June 1679. From the year 1681 Charles governed without 
 parliaments, and after the most arbitrary manner. In 1683 many of 
 the municipal corporations in the kingdom were compelled to surrender 
 their charters into the hands of the king, by writs of 'quo warranto' 
 being issued against them. Their charters were restored with such 
 modifications as placed the municipalities entirely under the influence 
 of the crown, and made them subservient to the king's purpose of 
 having the House of Commons under his absolute control. (See the 
 charters of Bedford, Ipswich, Lynn Regis, &c, granted by Charles II.) 
 But Charles did not live long enough to meet a House of Commons 
 elected under this system. The outrageous proceedings of the govern- 
 ment at length provoked the conspiracy of some of the friends of 
 liberty and the constitution, known by the name of the Rye-House 
 Plot, the detection of which was followed by the execution of Lord 
 Russell and Algernon Sidney, the two most eminent persons involved 
 in it, and of several of their subordinate associates. Charles was sud- 
 denly seized with apoplexy on the 2nd of February 1685, and expired 
 on Friday the 0th. lie had for some time been a Roman Catholic, 
 though the fact was carefully concealed, and he died in communion 
 with that church. 
 
 Many of the legislative measures of this reign were of great import- 
 ance. By the Corporation Act, Romau Catholics and Dissenters were 
 excluded from all corporate offices, and it is only in our own day that 
 the exclusion was repealed : this act however it should be remembered 
 was carried in direct opposition to Charles and the court. The Habeas 
 Corpus Act, as already mentioned, was passed in this reign. By a 
 statute passed in the twelfth year of this king's reign, the old military 
 tenures, one of the most oppressive relics of feudalism, were abolished, 
 and one tenure of free and common socage was established for all the 
 freehold lands of the laity. The right of wardship of infant heirs to 
 lands held by military tenure, a right which was for the benefit of the 
 guardian rather than the ward, ceased by the same statute, which 
 enabled every father 1 , by deed or will, to appoint guardians of his 
 estates, and of course of his infant children. 
 
 Charles II. was married on the 21st of May 1662, to Catherine, 
 daughter of John IV. king of Portugal, who long survived him; but 
 he had no children by his queen. His natural children were, 1, 
 James, duke of Monmouth, by Mrs. Lucy Walters, born at Rotterdam 
 in 1649, ancestor of the dukes of Buccleuch; 2, Mary, also by Mrs. 
 Walters; 3, Charlotte-Jemima-Henrietta-Maria Boyle (alias Fitzroy), 
 by Elizabeth Viscountess Shannon; 4, Charles, surnamed Fitz-Charles, 
 by Mrs. Catherine Peg; 5, another daughter by Mrs. Peg, who died in 
 infancy; 6, Charles Fitzroy, duke of Southampton, by the Duchess of 
 Cleveland ; 7, Henry Fitzroy, duke of Grafton, by the same, ancestor 
 of the dukes of Grafton ; 8, George Fitzroy, duke of Northumberland, 
 by the same; 9, Charlotte Fitzroy, by the same; 10, Charles Beauclerc, 
 duke of St. Albans, by Mrs. Nell Gwynu, ancestor of the dukes of 
 St. Albans; 11, Charles Lenox, duke of Richmond, by Louisa Que- 
 rouaille, a French woman, created Duchess of Portsmouth, ancestor of 
 the dukes of Richmond; and 12, Mary Tudor, by Mrs. Mary Davis. 
 
 CHARLES EDWARD. [Stuart Family.] 
 
 CHARLES MARTE'L was a natural son of Pepin d'Heristal, duke 
 of Austrasia, and mayor of the palace under the last Merovingian 
 kings. After Pepin's death Charles was proclaimed Duke of Austrasia, 
 A.D. 715. Having defeated the king Chilperic II. (719), he obliged him 
 to appoint him mayor of the palace, which in fact was the same thing 
 as appointing him irresponsible prime minister, with all the real 
 authority, while the king was a mere shadow. In 720 Chilperic died, 
 and was succeeded by Thierry IV., under whom Charles continued to 
 possess the chief authority in the state. Charles defeated Eudes, 
 duke of Aquitania, and obliged him to do homage to the Frankish 
 crown. He afterwards defeated the Saracens of Spain in a great 
 battle between Tours and Poitiers (732), in which their numerous host 
 was destroyed. He was called Martel (hammer) in consequence of this 
 victory. The battle of Poitiers, and the subsequent conquest of Pro- 
 vence, where the Saracens had formed several strongholds, effectually 
 checked the advance of the Mussulmans into the heart of Europe. 
 This great victory of Charles Martel has been confounded by subse- 
 quent chroniclers and writers of romance with the expeditions of 
 Charlemagne against the Saracens, which, were far from being so 
 momentous or so important in their results. Charles Martel also 
 defeated the Frisians, annexed their country to the monarchy, and 
 obliged them to embrace Christianity. He also fought successfully 
 against the Saxons and other German tribes. After Thierry's death 
 (736), Charles Martel continued to hold the supreme authority, under 
 the title of Duke of the Franks, for the rest of his lite, no king being 
 appointed to succeed Thierry. Charles Martel died in 741, at Crecy, 
 ou the river Oise, and his two sons, Karlomauu and Pepin, divided the 
 dominions of the Franks between them. Charles Martel was not a 
 favourite with the clergy of his time, because he obliged them to 
 contribute towards the expenses of the war against the Saracens. He 
 also is said to have conferred ecclesiastical benefices on some of hi. 
 bravest soldiers. 
 
CHARLES I. 
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 17) 
 
 CHARLES I., Emperor. [Charlemagne.] 
 
 CHARLES II., called the Bald, son of Louis le D<5bonuaire, and 
 king of France, was crowned Emperor of tbe West after the death of 
 Louis II. in 875. He died in 877. He is noticed more fully as 
 Charles II. of France. 
 
 CHARLES III., called the Fat, son of Louis the Germanic, and 
 nephew of Charles II., was elected Emperor and King of the Romans 
 in 881. He was at the same time king of France, but on account of 
 his incapacity he was deposed from both thrones by a general diet of 
 French and German lords, held at Mainz in 887, and died the follow- 
 ing year, near Constance, in the greatest distress. From that epoch 
 the crown of Germany was finally and for ever separated from that 
 of France. [See Charles III. of Prance.] 
 
 CHARLES IV., of the house of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia, 
 was elected emperor in 1347. The most remarkable event of his 
 reign is the promulgation of the Golden Bull at the diet of Niirnberg 
 in 1356, which became the fundamental law of the German empire. 
 By this bull the number of electors was fixed at seven — three eccle- 
 siastic, the archbishops of Maiuz, Treves, and Cologne ; and four 
 secular, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, 
 tbe Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg, and to each 
 of these was attached a high office of the imperial state or household. 
 The Archbishop of Mainz was appointed archchancellor of the empire, 
 the Archbishop of Cologne archchancellor of the kingdom of Italy, 
 and the Archbishop of Treves archchancellor of the kingdom of Aries, 
 a feudal dependence of tbe imperial crown. The secular electors had 
 nominal offices in the imperial household assigned to them. The 
 rights and privileges of the electors, and the forms of the election, 
 were likewise defined. Charles died in November, 1378, at Prag in 
 Bohemia, after thirty years of a comparatively peaceful reign. He is 
 charged by German historians with having preferred the interests of 
 his own family to those of the empire. His son Wenceslaus succeeded 
 him both ,ib emperor and as king of Bohemia. 
 
 CHARLES V. of Germany (Don Carlos I. of Spain) was born at 
 Ghent in the year 1500. His father, the Archduke Philip of Austria, 
 was the son of the emperor Maximilian I., and of Mary, the daughter 
 of Charles the Bold, and heiress of the house of Burgundy. His 
 mother was Joanna, the only child of Ferdinand of Aragon and 
 Isabella of Castile. By the death of Philip in 1506, Charles inherited 
 the Netherlands and Franche Comtek He was brought up in Flanders, 
 under tbe care of William de Croy, lord of Chievres, whom his grand- 
 father Maximilian appointed to be his governor, with Adrian of 
 Utrecht as his preceptor. [Adrian VI.] By the death of Ferdinand 
 of Aragou, January 1516, Charles, then sixteen years of age, inherited 
 the crowns of Aragon and Castile, with their vast possessions in the 
 New World, as well as tbe kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, aud tbe 
 island of Sardinia. After the death of his grandfather Maximilian in 
 1519, he was elected Emperor of Germany, his brother Ferdinand 
 being entrusted with the administration of the hereditary dominions 
 of the house of Austria. 
 
 Upon the death of Ferdinand of Spain, Joanna was acknowledged 
 queen; but being in a state of imbecility, she was unable to exercise 
 the sovereign power. Charles was therefore proclaimed king conjointly 
 with his mother. Cardinal Ximenes, the celebrated minister of Ferdi- 
 nand, sent pressing iuvitations to Charles to repair to his Spanish 
 kingdoms ; but Charles, young and inexperienced, and surrounded by 
 Flemish ministers and favourites who did not wish for his departure 
 from Flanders, delayed more than a twelvemonth before he set out for 
 Spain. At last, in September 1517, he embarked with his Flemish 
 court, and landed at Villa Viciosa in Asturias, where the Castilian 
 nobility hastened to meet him. Ximenes also, old and infirm as he 
 was, went to meet the young king ; but he fell ill on the road, and 
 died at Aranda, after receiving a cold letter of dismissal from Charles. 
 Discontent soon showed itself among the Castilians at the insolence 
 and rapacity of the Flemish courtiers. William de Croy, his wife, his 
 nephew, and Sauvage, whom Charles was imprudently induced to 
 appoint Chancellor of Castile in place of Ximenes, and several other 
 Flemish favourites, thought of nothing but amassing money in Spain 
 and transmitting it to Flanders. Upon Charles assembling the Cortes 
 of Castile at Valladolid, marks of a stubborn spirit soon discovered 
 themselves among the members. At Zaragoza he was obliged to swear 
 to maintain the rights and liberties of the Aragonese before they would 
 acknowledge him king. In Catalonia he likewise assembled the Cortes 
 of that principality. While he was in this province he received the 
 news of the emperor Maximilian's death, which happened in January 
 1519. A few months afterwards he was himself elected to succeed 
 his grandfather, and he hastened his preparations in order to leave 
 Spain for Germany. Having appointed Ad rain of Utrecht regent of 
 Castile, Don Juan de Lanuaa viceroy of Aragon, and Don Diego de 
 Mendoza viceroy of Valencia, he sailed from Coruna in May 1520 ; 
 landed at Dover on his way, where he had an interview with 
 Henry VIII. and Cardinal Wolsey, who showed him great attention ; 
 and was crowned Emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle, 23rd of October 1520. 
 
 Charles found Germany disturbed by Luther's incipient schism. At 
 a diet held at Worms in January 1621, Luther was summoned to 
 appear, and Charles gave him a safe-conduct for his security. Luther 
 came, refused to retract his opinions, and appealed to a general council. 
 He was however allowed to depart in safety the majority of the diet, 
 
 and Charles at their head, refusing to renew the disgraceful scones of 
 Constance. After his departure, an edict of outlawry was issued 
 against him in the name of the emperor and by the authority of the 
 Diet. For the sequel of this momentous controversy see LarHEa. 
 
 While Charles was absent from Spain, the towns of Castile broke 
 out into open insurrection. The nobles were hurt at the influence and 
 interference of the Flemings in the affairs of Spain, and especially at 
 the appointment of Adrian of Utrecht, Charles's former preceptor, 
 as head of the Regency, whose stern and rigid demeanour was not 
 calculated to soothe the pride of the Castilian nobility. The higher 
 clergy were likewise offended at the nomination of young William de 
 Croy, the nephew of the Lord of Chievres, to the archbishopric of 
 Toledo ; and fearing that ecclesiastical benefices would be henceforth 
 bestowed upon strangers, they joined the nobles and commons, and 
 excited the people to resistance by their sermons and writings. "It 
 is certain," says a modern Spanish writer, "that if the procuradores or 
 commoners in tbe Cortes and the towns of the Holy League had offered 
 to maintain unaltered the temporal authority aud privileges of the 
 Church, most of the bishops would have Bided with them." (A. de 
 Arguelles, ' Iutroduccion al Examen Historico de la Reforma Constitu- 
 cional.') The procuradores or deputies of the towns showed a still 
 more determined spirit. The remonstrances of the Cortes bsing 
 unheeded by the Regents, several of the towns openly revolted in 1520, 
 and convoked a junta of their deputies. Padilla, a young nobleman of 
 Toledo, placed himself at the head of the Communeros, as tbe party 
 of the towns was called. They assembled troops, issued proclamations, 
 and renounced all allegiance to the Regency, but appealed to Charles 
 himself, to whom they sent a statement of their grievances, asking for 
 immediate redress, aud the dismissal of obnoxious regents and minis- 
 ters. Padilla took possession of the person of Joanna, who was still 
 styled in all public acts Queen of Castile in conjunction with her sou. 
 Joanna had been for years insane ; but when Padilla and others spoke 
 to her of the injustice which they had suffered, she seemed to have a 
 lucid interval, and promised redress. She even received in state the 
 deputies of the towns and the members of the junta, who kissed her 
 hand and swore allegiance to her ; but after the ceremony she relapsed 
 into her usual melancholy absent mood, and they were uuable to make 
 her sign any paper. For some months the affairs of the Communsros 
 seemed to prosper; they defeated the troops of the Regency at Torde- 
 sillas, and almost all the towns of Castile embraced their cause. But 
 the Junta having showed a disposition to curtail the privileges of the 
 nobility and clergy, among others the important one of being exempt 
 from taxes, they lost the support of those two powerful bodies. The 
 commons agitated the question of the former crown lands, of which 
 many of the nobility had got possession in course of time, and pro- 
 posed that they should be re-annexed to the royal domains. The 
 nobles now openly espoused the part of the crown, and armed their 
 vassals. They attacked the Communeros at Villareal, defeated them, 
 and took Padilla prisoner, who was immediately executed. His wife, 
 Maria Pacheco, defended herself for a short time within Toledo, and 
 at last contrived to escape into Portugal. Charles soon after came 
 into Spain, and assumed the reins of government. He behaved with 
 much indulgence, issued an amnesty for all past political offences, 
 excepting only the leaders, whom however he showed no eagerness to 
 seek after. The war which broke out about that time between him 
 aud France soon engrossed all his atteutiou, and he only assembled 
 the Cortes of Castile to demand fresh supplies of money, till at last 
 they refused in 1539, alleging the privilege of the nobility and clergy 
 to be exempt from taxes. He dismissed them, and from that time 
 summoned neither the nobles nor clergy, but merely the deputies of 
 the eighteen cities, who proved sufficiently manageable. Charles's 
 armies were triumphant in Italy; they drove the Fiench from Lom- 
 bardy, took Genoa, and at last, in February 1525, gained the great 
 battle of Pavia, and made Francis I. prisoner. Francis was taken to 
 Madrid, whence he was released, by a convention between him and 
 Charles, in January 1526, but the war broke out afresh soon after. 
 The pope and the Florentines, having taken alarm at the power of 
 Charles V., joined the French. In 1527 the troops of Charles V., 
 commanded by the Connetable of Bourbon, marched upon Rome, took 
 and plundered it in a shameful manner, and made the pope prisoner. 
 [Clement VII.] Meantime, Charles V. at Madrid was ordering prayers 
 to be offered up in the churches for the deliverance of the pope, saying 
 that he was obliged to make war against the temporal sovereign of 
 Rome, but not upon the spiritual head of the church. The treaty of 
 Cambrai, in 1529, restored peace between Charles aud Francis, who 
 gave up all his claims to Italy and Flanders. In June of the same 
 year, Charles and Pope Clement were also reconciled ; and in March 
 1530 Charles was crowned by the pope at Bologna as emperor and 
 king of Lombardy. He then united his troops to those of the pope 
 against tbe republic of Florence, which still held out ; aud in August 
 of the same year the Florentines were obliged to capitulate, and to 
 receive for their prince Alexander de' Medici. [Cosmo I. de' Medici.] 
 
 Charles after his coronation set out for Germany, where the con- 
 sequences of the religious schism became every day more threatening. 
 At a great diet, held at Augsburg in June 1530, the confession of 
 faith of the Lutheran Church was solemnly presented to him. Charles 
 adopted a temporising policy towards the Protestants of Germany. He 
 allowed them the free exercise of their religion, which in fact he could 
 
177 
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 CHARLES VI. 
 
 m 
 
 not refuse without eutering into a war of extermination ; but lie 
 relerred ultimately the question to the general council, which he urged 
 the pope to convoke, but the council (that of Trent) did not take 
 place till after Charles's death. Charles was not intolerant by dispo- 
 sition ; his mind was of an inquisitive turu, and he allowed at various 
 times considerable indulgence towards the doctrines of the Protestants. 
 After his death d mbts even of his orthodoxy were entertained by the 
 Spanish Inquisition, which imprisoned and examined some of his 
 familiar attendants. 
 
 In 1535, Europe being at peace, Charles sailed with a large arma- 
 ment for Tunis, where Khair Eddin Barbarossa, the dread of the 
 Christians in the Mediterranean, had fortified himself. Charles, sup- 
 ported by his admiral, Andrea Doria, stormed La Goletta, and 
 defeated Barbarossa; the Christian slaves in Tunis meantime having 
 revolted, the gates of the city were opened, and the Imperial soldiers 
 entering in disorder began to plunder and kill the inhabitants, without 
 any possibility of their officers restraining them. About 30,000 
 Mussulmans of all ages and both sexes perished on that occasion. 
 Wnen order was restored, Charles entered Tunis, where he re- 
 established on the throne Muley Hassan, who had been dispossessed 
 by Barbarossa, on condition of acknowledging himself his vassal, and 
 retaiuing a Spanish garrison at La Goletta. Charles returned to 
 Italy and landed at Naples in triumph, having liberated 20,000 
 Cbri>tian slaves, and given, for a time, an effectual blow to Barbarossa 
 and his piracy. On his return to Europe in 1536, he found King 
 Francis again prepared for war. The French invaded Piedmont, but 
 Charles collecting his forces in the north of Italy, drove them back. 
 He invaded Provence, besieged Marseille, but could not take it, and after 
 having devastated Provence and lost nearly one half of his army, he 
 withdrew into Italy with the rest. In 1538 a truce for ten years 
 was entered into between Francis and Charles through the mediation 
 of the pope. The truce however was broken in 1542. In 1539 the 
 people of Ghent, Charles V.'s native place, revolted on account of 
 some encroachment on their privileges, and the rebellion threatening 
 to spread to other towns of Flanders, Charles, who was then in Spain, 
 asked Francis for a safe conduct to cross France on his way to Flanders, 
 which Francis immediately granted. He was received by Francis 
 with the greatest honours, although some of the French courtiers 
 advised hicn to take advantage of the opportunity to secure the 
 person of Charles, and oblige him to sign the cession of the duchy of 
 Milan in favour of one of Francis's sons; but Francis disdained the 
 suggestion. The citizens of Ghent having surrendered at discretion 
 were treated by Charles with great severity ; 26 of the leaders of the 
 revolt being executed in 1540. 
 
 In 1541 Charles sailed with an armament to attack Algiers, against 
 the advice of his old admiral, Andrea Doria. He landed near that 
 city, began the siege, and built a redoubt on a hill commanding the 
 town, which is still called the Fort of the Emperor, but his troops 
 were cut off by disease and by the Arabs. A dreadful storm dispersed 
 his fleet, and Charles re-embarked with, a small portion of his men, 
 leaving his artillery and baggage behind. 
 
 In 1542 war broke out again between Francis and Charles. The 
 ostensible cause of it was the seizure which had taken place the year 
 before of Rincon, a Spanish refugee, who had gone over to Francis, 
 and had been sent by him to Constantinople to contract an alliance 
 with Sultan Solyman against Charles. Ringon succeeded, returned to 
 France, and set off again for Constantinople with Fregoso, a Genoese 
 refugee, whom Francis had also taken into his service. These two 
 emissaries, in passing through Italy, were seized by the Marquis del 
 Vasto, governor of Milan, put to the torture, and then put to death, as 
 traitors to their sovereign. In accordance with the treaty, Solyman 
 sent Barbarossa with a large fleet to ravage the coasts of Italy, and 
 join Francis's squadron on the coast of Provence. [Barbarossa. J The 
 war was carried on by land in Flanders, Roussillon, and in Piedmont, 
 where Charles's troops lost the battle of Cerisolles against the Count 
 of Enghien. Charles however invaded Champagne ; and his ally, 
 Henry VIII. of England, entered Picardy in 1544, but soon after 
 peace was made at Crespi between Charles and Francis. One of the 
 terms of this peace was that both sovereigns engaged themselves to 
 destroy Protestantism in their respective dominions. In France they 
 began to fulfil this engagement by massacreing the Protestants in the 
 towns of Cabrieres and Merindol ; in Germany Charles proceeded by 
 less sanguinary and more formal means. The diet of Worms, in 1545, 
 passed several resolutions against the Protestants, in consequence of 
 which they rose in arms in 1546, under Frederic, elector of Saxony 
 and the landgrave of Hesse. Charles defeated them and took the two 
 princes prisoners. He gave the electorate of Saxony to Maurice, a 
 kinsman of Frederic. Maurice acted with consummate skill, so as to 
 deceive Charles himself, during several years, as to his real intentions. 
 Ke appeared to side with the emperor, fought bravely for him, but at 
 the same time took care that the cause of the Protestants should not 
 be rendered totally desperate ; he urged Charles to liberate the land- 
 grave of Hesse, who was his father-in-law, and on Charles's repeated 
 refusals he entered into secret correspondence with the other Protestant 
 princes to be ready to rise at a given signal. At last, in 1552, Maurice 
 threw off the mask, by taking the field at the head of the Protestant 
 confederacy, and was very near surprising the emperor at Innsbruck, 
 Whence Charles was obliged to fly in a hurry. He also frightened 
 
 away the fathers of the council assembled at Trent. At this crisii 
 Henri II. of France, who had succeeded Francis I., resumed hostilities 
 against the emperor. Under these circumstances Charles was obliged 
 to sign the treaty of Passau with the Protestant princes of Germany, 
 in August 1552, by which the Protestants obtained the free exercise 
 of their religion in their dominions. This treaty was afterwards con- 
 firmed by a solemn declaration of the diet at Augsburg hi 1555, 
 which was called the " peace of religion," for it was the foundation 
 of religious freedom in Germany. 
 
 The war continued with the French on one side and with the Turks 
 in Hungary on the other. In 1554, Philip, Charles's son, married Mary, 
 queen of England, upon which occasion his father made over to him 
 the crowns of Naples and Sicily. In 1555 Joanna of Spain died, after 
 having been insane for nearly fifty years. Charles being now nominally 
 as well as in reality sole king of the Spanish monarchy, put in ( fleet 
 a resolution which he had formed for some years before. Having 
 assembled the States of the Low Countries at Brussels, on the 25th of 
 October 1555, ho appeared there seated between his son Philip and 
 his sister, the Queen of Hungary, and resigned the sovereignty of the 
 Netherlands, his paternal dominions, to Philip. He then rose, and 
 leaning on the Prince of Orange for support, as he was suffering severely 
 from the gout, he addressed the assembly, recapitulating the acts of 
 his long administration. " Ever since the age of seventeen," he said, 
 "he had devoted all his thoughts and exertions to public objects, 
 seldom reserving any portion of his time for the indulgence of ease 
 or pleasure. He had visited Germany nine times, Spain six times, 
 France four, Italy seven, Flauders ten times, Englaud twice, and Africa 
 twice ; had made eleven voyages by sea ; he had not avoided labour or 
 repined under fatigue in the arduous office of governing his extensive 
 dominions; but now his constitution failed him, and his infirmities 
 warned him that it was time to retire from the helm. He was not so 
 fond of reigning as to wish to retain the sceptre with a powerless 
 hand !" He added that "if, in the course of a long administration, 
 he had committed errors— if, under the pressure of a multiplicity of 
 affairs, he had neglected or wronged auy one of his subjects, he now 
 implored their forgiveness, while for his part he felt grateful for their 
 fidelity and attachment, and he should with his last breath pray for 
 their welfare." Then turning to Philip, he gave him some salutary 
 advice, especially to respect the laws and the liberties of his subjects; 
 after which, exhausted with fatigue and emotion, he closed the impres- 
 sive scene. Two weeks after he made over to Philip, with the same 
 solemnity and before a large assembly of Spanish grandees and German 
 princes, the crowns of Spain and of the Indies. In the following year, 
 August 1556, he likewise resigned the imperial crown to his brother 
 Ferdinand, who had already been elected king of the Romans and his 
 successor ; and after visiting his native place, Ghent, he embarked for 
 Spain with a small retinue. On landing at Laredo in Biscay he kissed 
 the ground, saying, ".Naked I came out of my mother's womb, and 
 naked I return to thee, thou common mother of mankind." In 
 February 1557, accompanied by one gentleman attendant and twelve 
 domestics, he retired to the monastery of St. Yuste of the Hieronymite 
 order, situated near Plasencia, in Estremadura, in a sequestered valley 
 at the foot of the Sierra de Gredos, where he had caused apartments 
 to be prepared for him. There he lived for about eighteen months, 
 employed either in his garden, or in contriving works of ingenious 
 mechanism, of which he was remarkably fond, and in which he was 
 assisted by Turriano, a clever mechanician of the time, and occasion- 
 ally diverting himself with literature, in which he wa3 assisted by a 
 learned gentleman of the chamber, William Van Male. In the last six 
 months of his existence, his body becoming more and more enfeebled 
 by repeated fits of the gout, his mind lost its energy, and he frll into 
 gloomy reveries, and the practice of ascetic austerities. Among other 
 things he had his own funeral obsequies performed in the chapel of 
 the convent (August 30, 1558). The fatigue and excitement of this 
 ceremony, in which he took part, brought on a fit of fever, which in 
 about three weeks carried him off : he died on the 21st of September 
 1558, in his fifty-ninth year. 
 
 (Antonio de Vera, Vida y Hechos de D. Carlos I. ; Robertson, 
 History of Charles V. ; Botta, Storia d' Italia ; and numerous other 
 historians. The circumstances of the last months of his life have 
 recently been narrated (from original documents in the French Foreign- 
 Office) in a work of remarkable interest, The Cloister-Life vf t/ie 
 Emperor Charles the Fifth, by W. Stirling.) 
 
 CHARLES VI. of Germany, born in 16S5, was the son ot the 
 Emperor Leopold I. Charles II. of Spain, the last offspring of the 
 Spanish branch of the house of Austria, being childless, Leopold 
 claimed the inheritance of the crown of Spain for one of his children, 
 as next of blood. He fixed upon his younger son, the Archduke 
 Charles, as the presumptive heir, aud king Charles confirmed the 
 choice by his will ; but the intrigues of Louis XIV. and his friends at 
 the court of Spain made the king alter his will before his death in 
 favour of Philip of Aujou, whose grandmother was daughter to 
 Philip IV. of Spain and sister to Charles II. This gave rise to the 
 long war of the Spanish succession, in which most of the other 
 European powers took part. After the death of Charles II. in 
 November 1700, Philip of Anjou was proclaimed under the name of 
 Philip V., but the emperor, England, Hollaud, and Portugal supported 
 the claims of the Archduke Charles, who lauded at Lisbon in March, 
 
no 
 
 CHARLES. 
 
 CHARLES I. 
 
 180 
 
 1704 with some English and Dutch troops, and was assisted by the 
 Portuguese. Catalonia and Aragon declared themselves for Charles, 
 who entered Madrid in 1706, and was there proclaimed king of Spain. 
 The Duke of Berwick however drove him away from the capital, and 
 Charles retired into Valencia. The battle of Almanza, in April 1707, 
 decided the question in favour of Philip. The war continued for 
 several years more in the eastern provinces of Spain, as well as in 
 Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, till 1714, when Charles, who in 
 1711 had succeeded his elder brother Joseph I. on the imperial throne, 
 gave up his claims to the Spanish crown by the treaty of Rastadt, 
 retaining however the kingdom of Naples and the Island of Sardinia, 
 which last he afterwards exchanged for Sicily. In 1716 the Emperor 
 Charles joined the Venetians in a war against the Turks, whom the 
 Prince Eugene defeated at Peterwaradin, after which he took Belgrade 
 and a great part of Servia, which, as well as Temeswar, were formally 
 ceded by the Porte to Austria by the treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, 
 but were afterwards lost again to Austria by the peace of Belgrade 
 in 1739. 
 
 In 1724 Charles issued the Pragmatic Sanction, or fundamental law, 
 which regulates the order of succession in the family of Austria. By 
 this law, in default of male issue, Charles's eldest daughter, Maria 
 Theresa, was called to the inheritance of the Austrian dominions, and 
 her children and descendants after her. The Pragmatic Sanction was 
 guaranteed by all the German princes and several of the other powers 
 of Europe, with the exception of the French and Spanish Bourbons, 
 who were always jealous of the power of Austria. 
 
 The death of Augustus II., king of Poland, in February 1733, was 
 the signal of a new war on the part of the Bourbons against Austria, 
 ostensibly on account of the Polish succession, which was disputed 
 between Augustus III. and Stanislaus Leczinski. By the peace of 
 Vienna in November 1735 the emperor gave up Naples and Sicily to 
 Don Carlos, Infante of Spain, while the succession of Tuscany, after 
 the death of Gian Gastone, the last of the Medici, who was childless, 
 was secured to Maria Theresa of Austria and her husband Francis of 
 Lorraine, who in 1739 took possession of that fine country. The 
 Emperor Charles died at Vienna, 20th of October 1740, and was suc- 
 ceeded in his hereditary dominions, and afterwards in the empire, by 
 his daughter Maria Theresa, after a long and memorable war known 
 by the name of the war of the Austrian succession. [Maria Theresa.] 
 Charles was the last male offspring of the house of Austria Hapsburg. 
 The present house, though frequently called the house of Hapsburg, 
 is Austria-Lorraine, being the descendants of Maria Theresa and 
 Francis of Lorraine. 
 
 CHARLES, the name of several of the kings of France. Charle- 
 magne, especially by English writers, is commonly reckoned as 
 Charles I. of France, and Charles le Chauve, as Charles II.; but then 
 it is necessaiy, in order to bring the later monarchs into conformity 
 with the admitted designations, to reckon both Charles le Gros, 
 and Charles le Simple, as Charles III. There was doubtless much 
 confusion of title while the Carlovingian princes wore the crowu3 of 
 both France and Germany, but it appears to be now the practice of 
 French writers to omit Charlemagne from their list of Charleses, and 
 commence with Charles le Chauve ; and we shall do the same. 
 
 CHARLES L, Le Chauve (the Bald), the son of Louis le Ddbon- 
 naire, and grandson of Charlemagne, was born at Frankfurt-on-the- 
 Maine, a.d. 823 : his mother, Judith, was the second wife of Louis, 
 who had, before the birth of Charles, parted his dominions among 
 his three sons — Lothaire, whom he associated with himself in the 
 empire, and Pepin and Louis, to whom he gave respectively the king- 
 doms of Aquitaine and Bavaria. The birth of Charles was regarded 
 by these princes with jealousy, which was greatly increased when, by 
 a new partition of his dominions, Louis formed for Charles the kiug- 
 dom of Germany, comprehending Switzerland, Swabia, and the Grisons 
 (829.) In the year 833 Charles was shut up in a monastery, in the 
 diocese of Treves, by his brothers, who had successfully revolted 
 against their father; but in a few years (839), new partitions of the 
 empire, one previous to, and another consequent upon the death of 
 Pepin, king of Aquitaine, gave to him much larger dominions than 
 his first kingdom of Germany : the second partition assigned to 
 him all that part of France which lies west of the Rhone and the 
 Meuse. 
 
 Soon after the death of Louis le Ddbonnaire (840), Charles, now 
 approaching manhood, was involved in hostilities with his brother 
 Lothaire (who had claimed the succession to the imperial crown), and 
 with his nephew Pepin, son of the deceased king of Aquitaine. He 
 allied himself with his brother, Louis of Bavaria, and these two gained 
 the victory in a sanguinary engagement at Fontenay, near Auxerre, 
 over Lothaire and Pepin (841) ; but the victors were so weakened by 
 the loss they had sustained, that Charles thought it prudent to retire 
 across the Seine. In the following year, Lothaire, renouncing his 
 claim to supremacy, made proposals of peace to his brothers, and the 
 year 843 was signalised by the final partition of the empire of Charle- 
 magne. By this partition Charles obtained the acknowledged pos- 
 session of that part of France which lies to the west of the Meuse, 
 Saone, and Rhone ; and of that part of Spain which lies between the 
 Pyrenees and the Ebro. The remainder of France, with Italy, formed 
 the portion of Lothaire, and Germany became the portion of Louis, 
 hence denominated Le Germanique. The French portion of Lotbaire's 
 
 dominions took hence the names of France de Lothaire, Lotharingia, 
 and in later times Lorraine. 
 
 The following years of the reign of Charles (843 to 858) were 
 marked by the ravages of the Northmen, who took Rouen (841), 
 Nante3 and Saintes (843), Bordeaux (843 and 848), Paris (845 and 
 856), Tours (853), Blois (854), Orleans (856), and other places; by the 
 sack of Marseille (848), by some Greek pirates ; and by the wars with 
 Noin£no6 of Bretagne and Pepin of Aquitaine, each of whom Charles 
 was obliged to allow to remain in possession of a considerable portion 
 of his dominions, with the title and power of king. In the war with 
 Pepin, Charles put to death Bernard, duke of Septimania, his reputed 
 father. In 852 Pepin was however delivered up. by one of his own 
 partisans, Sancbe, marquis of Gascogne, to Charles, who shaved his head 
 and shut him up in a convent, from which he escaped to dispute again 
 witli Charles the sovereignty of Aquitaine. Before his escape the people 
 of Aquitaine had offered their crown to Louis, son of Louis le Ger- 
 manique, who accepted their offer, and in 855 Charles conferred the i 
 crown of this part of his dominions upon his second son, Charles, 
 who was yet in his minority. The unhappy country of Aquitaiue 
 was ravaged by the troops of these rival claimants, as well as by the 
 Northmen and Saracens, who camo as their allies; and the people 
 themselves, disgusted by their degenerate princes when in prosperity, 
 but pitying them when reduced to adversity, shifted their allegiance I 
 from one to another with great facility. Charles made little effort 
 to defend his kingdom from invasion, and incurred by his misconduct 
 the contempt of his subjects. 
 
 In 858 the subjects of Charles called in his brother Louis le Germa- 
 nique, to whom they offered the crown. Charles was obliged to I 
 abandon his kingdom, but he regained it the following year, and the ] 
 influence of the church brought the brothers to a reconciliation. The | 
 following years of Charles's reign, though marked by the success of j 
 some of his ambitious schemes, yet brought little advantage to his ! 
 people, who continued to suffer under the miseries of civil discord I 
 and the ravages of the savage Northmen. The mighty fabric of | 
 empire which Charlemagne had erected was hastening to decay i 
 through the mi-government of his weak and worthless successors, j 
 and the kingly power was fast sinking, while the power of the great 2 
 feudal lords was rising on its ruins. Iu 863 Charles had to engage in j 
 war with his sons — Louis, whom he had created king of Neustria, and 
 Charles, king of Aquitaine — who h id both married without his consent, 
 and had been excited to revolt by the relations of their wives. They I 
 were however obliged to submit, though they seem to have obtained I 
 by their submission an iucrease of power and possessions. Charles of 1 
 Aquitaine died miserably (866), in consequence of a wound acci- I 
 dentally received two years before. Pepin of Aquitaine had fallen I 
 again into the hands of Charles le Chauve, after having endeavoured 
 in vain to support himself ;igainst him by means of the Northmen; I 
 and having been condemned to death as a traitor by a diet of the 
 French (864), ended his changeful life some years after in a dungeon, \\ 
 to which he had been consigned by a commutation of his sentence. 
 
 In 866, Charles, disheartened by the successes of a party of North- , 
 men who had ascended the Seine, concluded with them a most I 
 disgraceful treaty, agreeing to pay them four thousand pounds weight , 
 of silver, on condition that they should cease their depredations ; to J 
 deliver up or make compensation for all the French whom they had I 
 reduced to slavery and who had escaped, and to pay a certain sum for , 
 every Northman who had 5 been killed by his subjects. But those who j 
 infested the banks of the Loire do not seem to have been included iu ; 1 
 this treaty ; with them therefore hostilities were continued, and in 
 one of the conflicts with them, Robert le Fort, count of Anjou, the 
 most celebrated of the French captains of his day, and the first of 
 that race of ' dukes of France ' which afterwards ascended the throne 
 in the person of Hugues Capet, lost his life. 
 
 The emperor Lothaire, brother of Charle3, had died in the year 855, 
 aud his kingdom had been divided between his three sons. Louis, who 
 took the title of emperor, had Italy ; Lothaire, the younger, had the 
 provinces between the Rhine and the Meuse ; and Charles those 
 between the Rhone and the Alps. Upon the death of this Charles in 
 863, his portion was divided between his two brothers. Charles le 
 Chauve was anxious to seize a portion of the spoil, but was obliged to 
 forego his purpose. In 869, Lothaire the younger, who had been 
 involved in a series of disputes with the pope, arising from his domestic 
 circumstances, died, and his dominions were shared between his uncles, 
 Louis le Germanique and Charles le Chauve, to the injury of the em- 
 peror Louis, his brother and rightful heir. Louis le Germanique sub- 
 sequently restored his share of the spoil to the emperor ; but Charles 
 was not so scrupulous, and retained what he had seized. 
 
 In 875 the emperor Louis II. died without issue, and in him the 
 elder branch of the descendants of Louis le Ddbonnaire became 
 extinct. Louis le Germanique and Charles (both invited by the 
 powerful lords of Italy, who desired to counterbalance the power of 
 one by that of the other) hastened to take possession of their nephew's 
 dominions ; Charles going in person, and Louis sending his two sons, 
 Karlomann and Charles le Gros. These young princes however were 
 compelled or prevailed upon to withdraw, aud Charles, by the favour 
 of the pope, received the imperial crown at Rome on Christmas-Day 
 875, and was again crowned at Poutyon (between Chalons and Langres) 
 in 876. Charles's dominions then attained their greatest extent : be 
 
Ml 
 
 181 
 
 possessed all the countries now comprehended in France (except 
 Alsace, Lorraine, and a part of Burgundy) and Italy. But he was uot 
 secure from attack : the Northmen, though their ravages had some- 
 what slackened, continued to infest the coasts and rivers ; and Louis, 
 irritated by the retreat of his sons from Italy, attacked France (876), 
 before Charles had returned from Italy, but upon his return he 
 retreated. The death of Louis the same year offered new allurement 
 to the ambition of Charles, who prepared forthwith to attack Louis of 
 Saxony, one of the sons of the deceased prince and heir to one part of 
 his dominions. The troops of Charles were defeated (876), and in the 
 following year Charles was driven out of Italy by Karlotnann, another 
 of the sons of Louis, and ended his days at a place called Brios, in the 
 neighbourhood of Mount Cenis in the Alps. He died in 877, at the 
 age of fifty-four, having reigned thirty-seven years from the time of his 
 father's death. 
 
 Charles experienced much trouble in his family : the rebellion of his 
 sons Louis (who succeeded him, and is knowu in French history as 
 Louis le Begue) and Charles has been noticed. His fourth sou, 
 Carloman, whom he had brought up in a cloister, a life quite unsuited 
 to his turbulent genius, gave him much trouble by his disobedience ; 
 but the unhappy youth was at la3t punished by the loss of his eyes, 
 au infliction which he did not long survive. The pope, Adriau II., 
 Biipported the rebellious prince, and addressed to his father a letter 
 marked by arrojauce as yet unparalleled in the feats of papal assump- 
 tion. The king's reply wa3 calm and dignified ; but the honour of it 
 is probably due rather to Hincmar, who wrote it, than to the prince 
 in whose name it wa3 written. Charles was twice married ; his first 
 wife was Hermentrude, daughter of Eudes, count of Orleans ; his 
 second Richilde, daughter of Beuves, count of Ardennes, and sister 
 of Richard, duke of Bourgogue and of Boson, afterwards king of 
 Provence. 
 
 CHARLES II., known as Charles le Gro3, or the Fat, was the son 
 of Louis le Germanique, and by consequence nephew of Charles le 
 Chauve. He was born about 832, and, upon the death of his father in 
 876, had inherited a portion of his dominions, which was designated 
 the kingdom of Suabia, and included Suabia, Switzerland, and Alsace. 
 By the death of his brother Carloman in S80, he acquired the kingdom 
 of Italy, and was crowned at Rome, by the pope, emperor of the West, 
 about the end of the same year or the beginning of the next. In 882 
 he obtained the kingdom of Saxony by the death of his other brother, 
 Louis of Saxony, and the crown of France by the death of C u-loman 
 in 884. He thus reunited under one sceptre the dominions of Charle- 
 magne, with the exception of that part of Spain which lie3 between 
 the Pyrenees and the Ebro, and the country between the Rhone and 
 the Alps, which had been formed into a kingdom by the successful 
 ambition of Boson, and perhaps Bretagne and Gascogne. Charles 
 however showed an utter incapacity of governing the extensive domi- 
 nions thus acquired. The Northmen ravaged his coasts; one of their 
 chieftains, Godfrid, who had previously extorted from the cowardice 
 of the empire the sovereignty of Friedland, began to stir again ; 
 and Hugues, whom the church stigmatised as illegitimate, son of 
 Lothaire II., desolated Lorraine, which he claimed as his inheritance. 
 Charles determined to remove by treachery those whom he dared not 
 face in battle; and at a conference appoiuted by him, Godfrid was 
 assassinated, and Hugues made prisoner, deprived of his eyes, and 
 shut up in a convent. 
 
 In 885-86, Paris was besieged by the Northmen, and bravely defended 
 for more than a year by Eude3, count of Paris, son of Robert le Fort, 
 count of Anjou and duke of France, and two ecclesiastics, and it was 
 not until it was reduced to the last extremity that Charles advanced 
 to its relief. He entered Paris with his army, but not venturing to 
 encounter the Northmen, who had concentrated their forces, he signed 
 a treaty, by virtue of which ho paid to the barbarians a consider- 
 able sum, to engage them to quit the environs of Paris and transfer 
 the war more into the interior of France, to a country as yet little 
 injured. 
 
 The charge which he made in 887 against his chancellor Liutward, 
 bishop of Vercelli, tended by its consequences to increase the contempt 
 into which Charles had fallen, and he was compelled to resign the 
 imperial crown to his nephew Arnolph, an illegitimate son of Karlo- 
 mann, king of Bavaria and Itaty. He survived his deposition only a 
 few weeks, dying January the 12th, 888. at a castle named Indinga, in 
 
 CHARLES III., le Simple, was son of Louis II. le Begue, or the 
 Stutterer, by Adelaide, who claimed to be the second wife of that 
 monarch ; but her title to ba regarded as his wife depended upon the 
 validity of bis first marriage. In the reigns of Louis III. and Carlo- 
 man, the issue of the first marriage of Louis II., she was regarded as 
 his concubine, and consequently Charles was looked upon as illegi- 
 timate; but whatever defects tnere might be in his claim, they were 
 disregarded when the discontented nobles thought it right to set him 
 up in opposition to Eudes, count of Paris, who bad been elected king 
 of France upon the death of Charles le Gro3. By these malcontents 
 he was elected king at Reims in 893, and crowned by the archbishop 
 of that city; but his youth (he was only fourteen) and the weakness 
 ot his character incapaciated him from maintaining himself against 
 l udca. On the death of that prince, Charles, who had experience! 
 7ftrious changes of fortune, was elected king iu 81*8, without any 
 
 competitor, but over a circumscribed territory and with very limited 
 power. 
 
 The reign of Charles was marked by a signal event, the cession to 
 the Northmen, who, uuder their chief Rollon or Rollo, had committed 
 great ravages, of that part of Fiance called from them Norniaudie. 
 This cession, however justly it may be ascribed to the weakness or the 
 cowardice of Charles, was not in itself unwise ; the population of the 
 province was replenished by an infusion of warlike inhabitants, and 
 the activity and energy of the new settlers recovered the district from 
 the desert state to which their previous ravages had reduced it. By 
 the treaty in which the cession was made, Charles agreed to give his 
 own daughter iu marriage to Rollo, while Rollo and his barbarous 
 followers consented to become Christians. The treaty was ratified at 
 a meeting near the river Epte; but when Rollo was required to do 
 homage to Charles as hi3 sovereigu by kissing his foot, he refused, 
 and deputed the duty to one of his followers, who performed his part 
 so roughly as to overset the king : neither Charles nor his nobles 
 ventured however to resent the insult. 
 
 Upon the decease of Louis, king of Germany, the noble? of Lorraine 
 bestowed the sovereignty of that country upon Charles, while the rest 
 of the Germans elected Conrad to the imperial crown. Wars with his 
 vassals, and especially with Henry, duke of 8axony, prevented Conrad 
 from vigorously attackiug Charles; but when the above-mentioned 
 Henry came to the throne, he recovered a portion of Lorraine for the 
 imperial crown. The remainder ot Charles's reign was unfortunate. 
 The Hungarians ravaged his dominions (919), and his powerful and 
 malcontent nobles excited internal troubles. Charles managed to 
 protract his downfall for a year or two ; but at last his subjects, 
 irritated by the favour he showed to his confidant Hagauon, whoso 
 humble parentage and arrogant conduct made him odious to them, 
 drove him from hi3 kingdom, which was seized by Robert, duke of 
 France, and brother of the late king Eudes. By violating an armistice, 
 Charles managed to surprise his rival. Robert was killed in the 
 engagement, but his troops, uuder the command of his sou Hugues, 
 gained the victory ; and Kaoul, duke of Bourgogue, was elected king 
 in his room. Charles, having in vain sought assistance in several 
 quarters, was beguiled by the promises of Heribert, or Herbert, count 
 of Vermandois, who made himself master of his person, and placed 
 him in confinement (923). His wife, sister of Athelstan, king of the 
 Anglo-Saxons, took refuge iu England with her son Louis, theu a boy, 
 but afterwards king under the title of Louis IV. Outremer. A quarrel 
 between the Count of Vermandois and the King Raoul seemed to offer 
 a gleam of hope to Charles, who was set at liberty by Herbert; but 
 the difference was soon made up, and Charles was remanded to confine- 
 ment (928). Raoul treated his fallen rival with considerable kindness, 
 paid him a visit, and bestowed upon him several presents. Charles 
 died in captivity in 929, after a reign distinguished alike by incapacity 
 and misfortune. 
 
 CHARLES IV., le Bel, born 1294, third son of Philippe IV., 
 le Bel, succeeded his brother, Philippe V., le Long, in 1322. He had 
 received in the lifetime of his father the county of La Marche as an 
 appanage. He had in the commencement of his late brother's reign 
 vindicated the right of a female claimant to the throne, but that 
 brother had succeeded in procuring from the states-general of the 
 nation a declaration that females could not succeed to the crown of 
 France; and upon Philippe's death without male issue the principle thus 
 recognised led to the undisputed succession of his brother Charles. 
 
 The reign of Charles was short (1322-28), and not marked by any 
 great events. His first care was to divorce his wife Blanche, daughter 
 of Utho, count of Bourgogue, who had been convicted of adultery, and 
 shut up in prison. He procured a divorce, ou the ground not of 
 adultery, but on that of consanguinity, and married Marie of Luxem- 
 bourg, daughter of the Emperor Henry VII. He proceeded to con- 
 siderable severities against the financiers who had managed the revenues 
 of the late king, causing the chief of them, Girard la Guete, to be put 
 to the torture, of which he died. He also put to death Lille Jouidain, 
 a noble of Languedoc, accused of murder and other crimes ; and is said 
 to have used great severity towards unjust judges. He was engaged 
 in war with Edward II. of England, who had married Isabella, sister 
 of Charles. Isabella being sent to the court of France to compromise 
 the quarrel, succeeded in that object, but obtained from Charles support 
 both of money and men in the armament which she prepared against 
 her husband, and his favourite, Le Lespenser. Charles intrigued also 
 with the pope in order to obtain the imperial crown, then disputed 
 between Frederic of Austria and Louis of Bavaria; and his gold led to 
 the invasion of Germany by a horde of pagan barbarians, Lithuanians, 
 Wallachians, and Russians. It was on occasion of a visit paid by 
 Charles to Toulouse (1323), that the people of that city sought to 
 revive the ancient Provencal poetry by the institution of a yearly 
 concourse of poets at the Floral Games : this institution, with modi- 
 fications, continued down to the revolution. Charles lost his wife and 
 an infant son in 1324. Within three months he married a third wife, 
 Jeanne, daughter of his uncle, the Couut of Evreux ; but he had no 
 male issue by her. He died in 1328 ; and iu him ended the direct 
 succession of the lino of Capet, the crown passing into the collateral 
 branch of Valois. 
 
 CHARLES V., le Sage, was the son of the unfortunate King 
 Jttau II., who was taken prisoner by Edward the Black Prince ut 
 
183 
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 181 
 
 Poitiers in 1356. Charles, then duke of Normandie, was present 
 during this battle, but he escaped by flight, of ■which he is said to 
 have set the first example. 
 
 During the captivity of his father (1350-60), he seems to have 
 held the reins of government as his lieutenant. At the commence- 
 ment of his administration he was involved in disputes with the 
 States-general, the appointed meeting of which was hastened by the 
 disastrous result of the conflict of Poitiers. The spirit of liberty was 
 rising in that assembly, and they presented remonstrances upon the 
 mal administration of the government, respectful in their terms, 
 though strong and pointed in their complaints. Robert le Cocq, 
 bishop of Laon, aud Etienne Marcel, provost of the merchants of 
 Paris, wero the leaders of the popular party in these struggles. The 
 constitution of the French monarchy gave however to the court a 
 resource which frequently baffled the opposition of the States-General. 
 The kings applied to the States of the provinces into which that great 
 kingdom had been all but dismembered : and from these smaller 
 assemblies they experienced more deference than from the combined 
 body, in which the spirit of freedom could display itself with more 
 effect. 
 
 Charles, after dissolving the States-General, obtained a considerable 
 grant from the States of Languedoc, assembled at Toulouse : and the 
 example thus set was followed during the winter iu many other 
 provinces. But Charles was still pressed by pecuniary difficulties ; 
 aud after resorting to a debasement of the coinage, without filling his 
 exchequer, he was compelled again to summon the States-General. 
 From this assembly he procured funds sufficient for the levy and 
 maintenance of 30,000 men, but he had to purchase this aid by various 
 concessions to the public spirit, perhaps also to the ambition of the 
 representative body. A standing committee of thirty-six deputies 
 represented, during the intervals between the meetings of the States, 
 the popular party in that assembly, and maintained a continual 
 struggle with the crown. Over this committee a temporary revulsion 
 of public feeling enabled Charles to triumph; but upon the re- 
 assembling of the States-General, the popular party regained the 
 ascendancy, and Marcel, supported by the unprincipled Charles le 
 Mauva s, king of Navaire, brother-in-law of the Duke of Normandie, 
 proceeded to the most violeut excesses. Strong in the support of 
 the multitude, whom he instructed to wear hoods of red and blue, he 
 burst iuto the presence of the duke, massacred two of his principal 
 officers of state in his presence, while the rabble hunted down and 
 murdered a third. Charles was compelled to wear the colours of 
 Marcel, and assure the infuriated mob that he rejoiced in the 
 destruction of traitors. 
 
 In the States-General the predominance of Marcel was increased by 
 the retirement of many of the prelates and nobles, disgusted by the 
 preponderance of the ' tiers e'tat,' or commons. The States increased 
 however the appearance of Charles's authority by requesting him, as 
 he had now reached the age of twenty-one, to take the title of regent ; 
 and the provincial assemblies, in which the nobles predominated, so 
 far supported him as to enable him to menace the 'bourgeois,' or 
 citizens, of Paris, with blockade. He obtained too the alliance of the 
 King of Navarre, who had been by Marcel's interest invested with the 
 dignity of captain-general of Paris. Marcel's blind confidence in 
 this traitorous prince proved his ruin. He had fortified the castle 
 of the Louvre, and provisioned Paris for a siege ; but arranged 
 with Navarre for the surrender of the gate St. Antoine. Some of 
 his fellow citizens, detecting the design and raising the populace, 
 murdered Marcel, and several of his adherents, and threw their 
 bodies into the Seine. The regent Charles soon occupied the capital, 
 by the submission of the inhabitants, and avenged himself by 
 numberless executions. 
 
 A dispute with the King of Navarre, whose wealth enabled him to 
 assemble a powerful force of mercenaries, was the next trouble of 
 Charles ; and before this dispute was accommodated some of the finest 
 parts of the Isle of France, Picardie, and Vermandois, had been over- 
 run by the mercenaries. ' The free companies,' the name assumed 
 by the soldiery who were disbanded during the existing truce between 
 France and England, pillaged various parts of France without oppo- 
 sition ; and a dreadful insurrection of the peasantry, who assumed the 
 title of the 'Jacquerie,' added to the horrors of the time. [Caillet, 
 Guillaume.] The Jacquerie were supported by the bourgeois of 
 Paris and other places, but the insurrection was completely put down. 
 Negociations for John's release were going on in the interval, but were 
 defeated by the regent, who knew that his power would be brought to 
 an end on his father's return, and by the King of Navarre, to whose 
 plans the existing anarchy offered the greatest scope. At last, after a 
 iresh invasion of France by the English, one of whose commanders, 
 the brave Sir Walter Manny, shattered a lance against one of the 
 barriers of Paris, where the regent was, the release of John was 
 obtained by the treaty of Brctigny (1300), aud he returned to France 
 and resumed the government. 
 
 Upon the deaih of John, in 1364, Charles resumed the reins of 
 power, not now as lieutenant or regent during the absence of another, 
 but as; king in his own right; and though his conduct has been deemed 
 by some to afford no proof of wisdom or energy, yet his measures 
 seem to have been well chosen and well timed. He gained no dis- 
 tinction as a soldier, but in his reign France recovered in a great 
 
 degree from the disasters which preceded his accession. His surname, 
 Le Sage (the Wise), has been supposed to be indicative of his attain- 
 ments in literature, which were, for the age in which he lived, above 
 mediocrity, rather than of his general capacity ; but it seems to have 
 been not inapplicable to his understanding also, for, if he were not 
 wise in the higher acceptation of the word, he certainly possessed 
 a considerable amount of shrewdness aud cunning. The early part of 
 Charles's reign was distinguished by another dispute with the ever 
 faithless and unsettled King of Navarre ; but the valour and conduct 
 of Bertrand du Guesclin gave the superiority to the French. An 
 accommodation with this priuce, combined with the conclusion of the 
 war for the succession of Bretagne, in which the English and French 
 engaged as auxiliaries, and the opening afforded by the civil dissensions 
 of Castile, and by other events, for the engagement of 'the free com- 
 panies' in foreign parts, afforded some relief to France, and allowed 
 Charles to contemplate the recovery of the advantages gained by the 
 English in war, and confirmed to them by the treaty of Bretigny. 
 
 By that treaty Aquitaine had been erected into a principality inde- 
 pendent of the crown of France, in favour of the gallant Edw nd, so 
 well known as the Bhick Prince. But Edward had disgusted hia 
 subjects by the imposts to which he subjected them, in order to 
 supply his necessities; and some of his most important vassals, the 
 Sire d'Albret and the Count d'Armagnac, had been won over to the 
 French interest; and at length a general assembly of the Gascon 
 barons appealed to Charles as suzerain— an appeal to which the latter 
 readily responded, although the complete independence of Aquitaine 
 had been established by the peace of Bretigny. He summoned 
 Edward, whom he knew to be languishing under the disease which 
 finally wore him down to the grave, to appear before the Court of 
 Peers at Paris. The indignant warrior replied to the summons, "that 
 the commands of the King of France should be obeyed ; but that 
 when he attended his pleasure in Paris it should be with his helmet 
 on his head, and with sixty thousand men in his train." A declaration 
 of war was also sent over to England, and insultingly borne by one of 
 Charles's household servants, instead of by a person of rank and 
 importance equal to the occasion (1309). The reason assigned for this 
 indignity was that the Black Prince had imprisoned (some say put to 
 death) those who bore the French king's message to him. It was 
 therefore thought unadvi-able to risk the lives of persons of rank. 
 
 Charles had chosen the time for the rupture with judgment. 
 Edward III. was getting iu years ; the Black Prince was languishing 
 with disease ; and of their best officers several bad been removed by 
 death. Sir John Chandos and Sir Walter Manny, the most dis- 
 tinguished of them, survived the recommencement of hostilities but 
 a very short time, the first falling in battle, and the second dying 
 soon after. Charles forbade his troops to engage in pitched battles, 
 in which experience had shown their inferiority ; but the system of 
 warfare pursued enabled them to gain strength, while that of their 
 opponents wasted away. The re-capture of Limoges, which had been 
 surrendered to the French by the treachery of its bishop, was the last 
 exploit of the Black Prince, who soon returned to England to linger 
 and die ; his subordinates and successors had neitlier ability nor 
 influence ; and the talents and energy of Du Guesclin and Clisson 
 (two natives of Bretagne), and the alliance of Ciistile, gave the pre- 
 dominance to the French, and enabled them to conquer Bretagne, the 
 duke of which took refuge in England. A well-equipped army of 
 30,000 men, under John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, marched indeed 
 right across France from Calais to Bordeaux unopposed. Charles 
 prudently kept his forces in walled towns, and allowed his enemies to 
 waste their strength in struggling with destitution and famine amidst 
 the defiles of Auvergne and Limousin, and of the 30,000 scarcely 
 6000 jreached Bordeaux (1373). A truce for a year was afterwards 
 concluded and prolonged, and negociations were entered into. During 
 the continuance of this truce occurred the deaths of the Black Prince 
 (1376), and of his father, Edward III. (1377). Charles employed the 
 interval in regulating the succession and the guardianship of his 
 children, and in settling the establishments aud portions of the younger 
 branches of the royal family. 
 
 Before intelligence reached France of the death of Edward III., 
 Charles had determined to renew hostilities, and the expiration of the 
 truce enabled him to do so within a week after the English king had 
 breathed his last. The English coast was insulted and ravaged by a 
 combined French aud Castilian fleet, and Charles's brother, the Duke 
 of Anjou, made a prosperous campaign in Guienne (1377). But not- 
 withstanding these advantages, the throne of Charles was surrounded 
 with many increasing difficulties. He met with some success against 
 the King of Navarre, whom he hated, and whom he now stripped of 
 all his possessions in Normandy, except Cherbourg, which .Navarre 
 secured by an alliance with England : but the Castilians, whom ho 
 had engaged to attack the kingdom of Navarre itself, retreated upon 
 the arrival of an English force at Bordeaux. The Duke of Anjou 
 succeeded in suppressing some disturbances at Nimes and Montpellier 
 (1378-80) provoked by the rapacity of his government; but the 
 severity with which he treated the latter city, and the general odious- 
 ness of his administration, rendered him so unpopular, tbat the king 
 deemed it advisable to remove him. The exiled Duke of Bretagne 
 returned from England, and the reviving affections of hi3 people 
 (whose estrangement from him had mainly contributed to the conquest; 
 
IBS 
 
 CHARLES VI. 
 
 CHARLES VI. 
 
 of the ducby by the Frencb) enabled him to regain his dominions. 
 The English assisted him in the enterpi ise ; and a body of their troops 
 marched unresisted from Calais to Bretague (1380), Charles restrain- 
 ing by positive injunction the martial ardour of his brother, the Duke 
 of^Eourgogue, who with a superior body of forces hung upon their 
 rear. 
 
 At this conjuncture Charles died, September the 16th, 1380, after a 
 reign of more than sixteen years. He married Jeanne, daughter of 
 the Duke of Bourbon, by whom he had nine children, of whom three 
 survived him. His learning has already been adverted to : it may be 
 added that the Royal Library at Paris owes its origin to him. Not- 
 withstanding the wars he carried on, Charles left his exchequer well 
 filled. 
 
 CHARLES VI., called Le Bien-aime' (the Well-beloved), son of the 
 last-mentioned prince, came to the throne upon the death of his father 
 in 1330, being yet in his minority. The guardianship of the king's 
 person and the administration of his power became the subject of 
 dispute between his uncles, Louis of Anjou, Jean of Berri, and Philippe 
 of Bourgogne ; the first-mentioned of whom had managed upon the 
 death of Charles V. to possess himself of the crown-jewels and treasure, 
 and of a deposit of the precious metals in bars, which that king had 
 caused to be secretly built into the walls of his palace at Melun. The 
 difference was terminated by an arrangement : Anjou was allowed to 
 retain the valuables which he had purloined, and the king was declared 
 to be of an age to assume the government, which was however really 
 regulated by a council. 
 
 The beginning of Charles's reign was marked by intestine commotions. 
 The Duke of Berri, governor of Languedoc, goaded the people of that 
 province into rebellion by exactions as galling as those of his brother 
 and predecessor Louis of Anjou. These troubles were not immediately 
 extinguished either by the powerful force or dreadful severity of the 
 duke, although he succeeded in repressing open insurrection ; for the 
 peasantry took refuge in the woods, and waged against those of higher 
 fetation a war as much marked by unpitying atrocity as that of the 
 Jacquerie. [Charles V.] An attempt to establish a market-toll led 
 to serious commotions both at Rouen and at Paris ; the commotions 
 were suppressed, and were followed by numerous executions, open and 
 gecret, in both cities. 
 
 Troubles in Flanders, where the wealthy inhabitants of the great 
 manufacturing towns were engaged in perpetual broils with their 
 feudal lords, next engaged the attention of the young king. The 
 Flemings had rebelled against Count Louis, father-in-law of the Duke 
 of Bourgogne; and the king marched to the support of the count with 
 a completely-appointed army, and defeated Philippe von Arteveld, 
 leader of the Flemings, in the great battle of Rosbecque, with dreadful 
 slaughter (1332). Courtray was plundered, and Bruges and Tournay 
 came into the hands of the French; but Ghent and other places held 
 out, and the approach of winter compelled the king to disband his 
 army. Upon his return to Paris, Charles punished severely some 
 tumults which the citizens had raised during his absence, and similar 
 measures of coercion were adopted at Rouen, Chalons-sur-Marne, 
 Reims, Sens, and Orleans. A campaign, the following year, against 
 the Flemings, who were supported by a body of English under Henry 
 le Spenser, the warlike bishop of Norwich, was on the whole successful, 
 though not marked by any brilliant exploit. This war partook of the 
 nature of a religious war, for it was the time of the great schism in 
 the papacy, and the English and Flemings supported Urban VI., one 
 of the claimants, while the French supported Clement VII., his rival. 
 The troubles of Flanders were composed by a treaty (1384), during 
 the negociatiou of which the Count of Flanders died, stabbed, according 
 to some accounts, by the Duke of Berri, the king's uncle. 
 
 The year 13S5 was disti^uished by the marriage of Charles with 
 Ieabelle, daughter of the Duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, as well as by a 
 renewal of the troubles in Flanders ; and the following year (1386) by 
 the assemblage of a vast force for the invasion of England. This force 
 amounted, according to Froiseart, to 20,000 men-at-arms, 20,000 cross- 
 bowmen, partly Genoese, and 20,000 ' stout varlets.' Other accounts 
 enlarge the number to 600,000 fighting men. A fleet almost innu- 
 merable, 1287 vessels according to some, was collected on the coast of 
 Fiai.ders from all parts of Europe, from the Baltic to the extremity of 
 Spain ; and an enormous wooden bulwark was constructed, capable of 
 sheltering, it was said, the whole army from the dreaded archery of 
 England : it could be taken to pieces and replaced at pleasure. But 
 various delays, whether from contrary winds or other causes, prevented 
 the sailing of the fleet, or a tempest so far shattered it as to frustrate 
 its object ; and the king, who was to embark in person, returned to 
 Paris, after exhausting his resources in the equipment of such a force, 
 and desolating by the consequences of its march the face of the country 
 which he traversed. The project of invasion was resumed next year, 
 with preparations of a far less costly nature ; but this expedition was 
 set aside by the captivity of the Constable de Clisson, who was 
 treacherously seized by his mortal enemy De Montfort, duke of 
 Bretagne, who was jealous of De Clisson's proposed alliance with the 
 house of Blois, which had disputed the succession of Bretagne with 
 De Montfort. De Clisson was released, but upon hard conditions; 
 and his hostility was probably diverted from England to Bretague. 
 In the year 1338 Charles undertook an expedition against the Duke 
 of Gueldres, but he could obtain only a qualified submission; and the 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. 11. 
 
 result of the expedition was, considering his superior force, regarded 
 as inglorious. The public murmured, and it is likely their murmurs 
 were chiefly directed against the king's uncles, the dukes of Berri and 
 Bourgogne, for the king took the opportunity to emancipate himself 
 from the tutelage in which he had boen hold by these royal dukes. 
 The cardinal of Laon, who had acted a prominent part in bringing 
 about this change, was taken off by poison : the immediate author of 
 his death was detected, but the probable instigators of the crime were 
 too lofty for punishment. 
 
 A variety of events of greater or less importance, such as an unsuc- 
 cessful expedition of the French to Tunis, under the Duke of BourboD, 
 the king's maternal uncle ; a projected expedition against Tunis, and 
 subsequently against Rome, by Charles himself; an unsuccessful attack 
 on the Viscount of Milan by the Count of Armagnac ; a vain negociation 
 for peace with England, which issued only in the prolongation of the 
 existing truce ; and an illness of the king, the precursor, it is likely, of 
 his subsequent malady, occupied the succeeding period to the spring 
 of the year 1392. In that year an attempt was made to assassinate 
 De Clisson, and the Duke of Bretagne, if he did not instigate the 
 crime, protected the criminal. This determined Charles to march 
 against him ; and it was in this march that the insanity manifested 
 itself, which rendered Charles for the rest of his reign a mere tool in 
 the hands of others. He had indeed brief lucid intervals, and there 
 seemed, on one occasion, a prospect of recovery, when an accident at 
 a masquerade, in 1393, by which he was nearly burnt to death, 
 occasioned a relapse. 
 
 The period which succeeded the king's insanity was mainly occupied 
 in a struggle for that power which he was no longer able to wield, 
 between the Duke of Orleans, his brother, and the Duke of Burgogne, 
 the most energetic and ambitious of his uncles. The latter established 
 a preponderant authority, though not without many fluctuations. He 
 chased from court and despoiled of his office the Constable de Clisson, 
 who retired to his estates in Bretagne, and carried on hostilities against 
 his old enemy, the duke of that province, until 1395, when a treaty 
 terminated their difference. By an edict issued in 1394 the Jews 
 were banished from France: this edict continued unrepealed for 
 centuries. The year 1396 was marked by the marriage of Richard II, 
 of Englaud with the daughter of Charles ; but the deposition of the 
 bridegroom, two or three years afterwards, and the tender age of the 
 bride, rendered it only a marriage in form. The same year was 
 marked by the unfortunate expedition of the Count of Nevers against 
 the Turks, and by the submission of Genoa to France. The Genoese 
 however shook off the French yoke in 1409. The hatred which the 
 Duke of Bourgogne entertained against the Duke of Orleans was 
 marked by his encouraging the popular belief that the Duchess of 
 Orleans had caused the king's disease by magic, and by his supporting 
 the Genoese against the Viscount of Milan, the father of the duchess. 
 Upon the death of the Duke of Bourgogne in 1404, his power, and his 
 rivalry, descended to his son, more ambitious and unscrupulous than 
 his father. 
 
 The death of the Duke of Bourgogne threw the reins of government 
 for a time into the hands of the Duke of Orleans, to whom public 
 opinion imputed too great intimacy with the queen, and whose luxury 
 and thoughtlessness exhausted the revenues of the crown, while his 
 manifestations of hostility against Henry IV. of England would have 
 led probably to a renewal of the war, had not Henry's attention been 
 fully taken up in securing his usurped throne. It is to be observed 
 that the hostilities between the two nations had been suspended by a 
 succession of truces rather than closed by a definitive treaty. The 
 Duke of Bourgogne, who was regarded by the commonalty, especially 
 of Paris, as the champion of their liberties, having acquired, in 1405, 
 possession of the persons of the king and the dauphin Louis, began to 
 gain the ascendancy over Orleans ; a reconciliation, cordial in appear- 
 ance, was effected, but their hatred continued to raukle, until it was 
 revealed by the murder of the latter by the former, in 1407. 
 
 We pass over the subsequent struggles between the factions of the 
 Bourguignons and the Armagnacs, as the rival party was designated, 
 the warfare and massacres to which they led, and the negociations of 
 the Armagnacs with the King of England, in order to come to the 
 invasion of France by Henry V. of England, who had lately succeeded 
 his father Henry IV. on the throne. Henry V. had negociated for the 
 hand of Catherine, daughter of Charles, and demanded as her portion 
 the arrears of the ransom of King John, and all the provinces which 
 had been ceded to the English by the treaty of Bretigny ; while Charles 
 was not willing to give more than 800,000 crowns, and the duchy or 
 principality of Aquitaine, as it had been possessed by Edward the 
 Black Prince; refusing to give up the other territories which by that 
 treaty had been ceded to England. A rupture was evidently impend- 
 ing, and the domestic troubles of France were increased by the dauphin, 
 who at this conjuncture seized the reigns of government, and alienated 
 the leaders of both the contending factions. The Armagnacs however 
 rallied round him for the defence of their country against foreign 
 invasion, and to their party belonged the long list ot nobles and 
 gentlemen who fell in the disastrous battle of Agincourt (1415). The 
 dauphin died shortly after this, and was survived little more than a 
 year by his next brother, Jean, to whom the title devolved : on the 
 death of Jean it came to a still younger brother, Charles, afterwards 
 Charles VII. The Armagnac faction now predominated, and the 
 
 0 
 
167 
 
 predominance was exercised with remorseless oppressiveness by the 
 Count of Armagnac, constable of France. His measures stimulated 
 the Parisians to support the Duke of Burgogne, who was also aided by 
 the Queen Isabelle of Bavaria, whom for her licentiousness the 
 Armagnacs bad exiled to Tours : the Bourguignons consequently sur- 
 prised the capital, the dregs of the populace rose and ferociously 
 murdered Armagnac and his partisans, including many bishops and 
 persons of rank, and many of inferior degree. The king fell into tbeir 
 hands, and the young dauphin was rescued only by the vigour and 
 activity of Tanuegui de Chatel (1418). The dauphin established his 
 court at Poitiers ; and the Bourguignons retained Paris ; while Nor- 
 mandie was overrun, and its capital, Rouen, taken by Henry V. (1419). 
 The subsequent assassination of the Duke of Bourgogne at Montereau 
 threw his party into the arms of the English, and led to the treaty of 
 Troyes, by which the administration of France was placed in the 
 hands of Henry V., and his succession to the throne, upon the death 
 of Charles, was stipulated. He married the Princess Catherine, and 
 prosecuted the war vigorously and successfully against the dauphin, 
 who was driven to take refuge in the southern provinces. During the 
 absence of Henry in England, an English army, under the Duke of 
 Clarence, was defeated at Baugd, but on Henry's return the English 
 regained their superiority, and held it till their king's death, 31st of 
 August 1422. Charles survived him only a few weeks, dying on the 
 21st of October in the same year, after a long and disastrous reign of 
 forty-two years. 
 
 CHARLES VII., le Victorieux (the Victorious), son of Charles VI., 
 succeeded, upon his father's death (October 1422) to a kingdom, the 
 greater part of which was possessed by enemies, foreign or domestic 
 He celebrated his coronation at Poitiers in 1423, and summoned an 
 assembly of the States-General at Bourges. The commencement of 
 hia reign was disastrous ; his troops, of whom Scottish auxiliaries 
 formed a considerable portion, were defeated at Crevant and Verneuil, 
 while his court was btained with the blood of two of his favourites, 
 successively victims to the jealousy of the constable Arthur of Riche- 
 mont, a branch of the ducal family of Bretagne. 
 
 In 1428 a body of English forces, under the most renowned of their 
 officers, besieged Orleans, which was defended by Dunois, a bastard 
 of the family of Orleans, Xaiutrailles, and other distinguished French- 
 men. The siege was vigorously pressed, and Charles manifested little 
 of the energy which the state of his affairs required. The deliverance 
 of Orleans and the revival of the spirit of the French may be ascribed 
 mainly to Jeanne d'Arc [Arc, Jeanne d'], whose extraordinary 
 character and claims to supernatural influence impressed both parties 
 and turned the tide of fortune. Charles carried on the war by his 
 generals, seldom exposing his person in the field, a caution which the 
 death or captivity of nearly all the members of his family, and the 
 evils that would have resulted from any accident to him, seem fully 
 to justify. Success attended his arms ; the English power declined ; 
 and the treaty of Arras, by which Charles wa3 reconciled to the Duke 
 of Bourgogne, and the death of the able Duke of Bedford (regent for 
 his nephew Henry VI. of England) [Bedford, Duke of], both which 
 events occurred in the year 1435, rendered the superiority of the 
 French arms decisive. Paris opened its gates to the French in 1436. 
 Normandie was reconquered in 1450, and the final subjugation of 
 Guienne was secured by the battle of Castillon in 1453, and the 
 English possessions were reduced to Calais and the surrounding terri- 
 tory. It was during the course of the war [1428] that Charles was 
 crowned (for a second time) at Reims. The condition of France, 
 during the continuance of hostilities, was most wretched, not that the 
 war was carried on by the two great powers with energy and vigour, 
 but that the provinces were ravaged by bands of armed marauders, 
 while famine and pestilence wasted Paris and the adjacent provinces 
 shortly after the expulsion of the English from the capital in 1436 : 
 nearly 50,000 persons are said to have died in Paris alone. 
 
 While engaged in struggling with the English, Charles distinguished 
 himself by two measures, which may be considered as the most bene- 
 ficial of his reign. The first of these was the issuing of that ordinance, 
 known in history by the title of the 'Pragmatic Sanction,' which is 
 regarded as having laid the foundation of the liberties of the Gallican 
 church. This ordinance recognised the superiority of oecumenical 
 or general councils over the popes ; and denied to the pontiffs, with a 
 few exceptions, the appointment of bishops, who were to be elected 
 by their respective chapters subject to the royal approval : it prevented 
 the interference of the Romish see in the disposal of inferior benefices, 
 and abol^hed the abuse of ' expectations ' or promises in reversion while 
 the incumbeuts were yet living. It contained several other regulations 
 tending to curtail the revenue or the authority of the papal court. 
 The other great measure of Charles was the reform of the army. 
 The irregular bands which had constituted the military force of the 
 kingdom, served at pleasure and on their own terms, and by their 
 lawless ravages became the scourge of the country which they pro- 
 fessed to defend. By firmness and wisdom the king converted these 
 marauding detachments into a well-disciplined standing army, and 
 however the change may have subsequently tended to consolidate the 
 royal power and extinguish political freedom, it can hardly be con- 
 sidered as other than a benefit at the time it was made [1440]. The 
 provinces were delivered from military licence, and the army, though 
 reduced perhaps in numbers, increased in efficiency. It was not with- 
 
 out considerable opposition that Charles effected his purpose : the 
 great military leaders formed a cabal, which assumed tho name of 
 'Praguerie' (from the popular commotions which had agitated Bohemit 
 in the time of Huss), anil the dauphiu, a youth of seventeen (after- 
 wards Louis XL), joined the malcontents. But the king was supported 
 by the bulk of the nation, and by his firmness carried his point. For 
 the wild and untameable spirits among the common soldiers, a suitable 
 outlet was found in two expeditions, one under the dauphin (who had 
 been brought back to his duty) against the Swiss and iu support of 
 Frederick III. of Austria; another, under the king himself, against 
 Metz, one of the free cities of Lorraine, which R6n of Anjou, duke 
 of Lorraine, wished to incorporate with his duchy. 
 
 Though the success of Charles's arms seems to give justice to his 
 title of ' the Victorious,' and under his government tho kingdom was 
 raised from the lowest point of depression to a respectable and flourish- 
 ing state, yet in his court and iu his family this monarch was far from 
 happy. In his early youth he was the object of his insane father's 
 caprice, and of the hatred of his licentious mother, who had allied her- 
 self to the Bourguignon faction. His wife, Marie of Anjou, was indeed 
 the faithful and affectionate companion of his early distress, notwith- 
 standing the just cause of jealousy which he gave her ; and her spirit 
 is said to have roused him from the indolence and depression in which 
 he was disposed to sink when the predominance of tho Kngli-ih was iu 
 its zenith. Tradition has transferred to another the part which she 
 thus performed : — Agnes Sorel, the mistress of Charles, has been men- 
 tioned as the encourager of the king when he was faint-hearted, but 
 her influence was of later date than the period of Charles's greatest 
 depression (Note Z iu Hallam's ' Middle Ages,' vol. i. chap. 1. part II.) : 
 she died in 1450, and all contemporaries agree in commendation of her 
 loveliness and her intellectual powers. The artfulness and malignity 
 which the dauphin (Charles's eldest son) manifested when he became 
 king [Louis XL], are sufficient to account for the jealousy with which 
 his father from an early period regarded him. The connection of this 
 prince with the ' Praguerie' has been already noticed ; his subsequent 
 disputes with his father increased to such a degree that he fled to the 
 territories of the Duke of Bourgogne, by whom he was sheltered, and 
 who was consequently involved in disputes with Charles, who desired 
 his sou's return. As to the court of Charles, the first person who exer- 
 cised predominant influence there was Tanuegui du Chatel, the prime 
 agent in the murder of Jean Sans Peur, duke of Bourgogne (1419); 
 but when Arthur of Bretagne, count of llichemont, became constable 
 of France, he perceived that the removal of Taunegui was necessary 
 in order to open the way for a reconciliation with the Bourguignons, 
 of the desirableness of which he was early sensible. Tanuegui was 
 consequently sent into honourable exile from the court as seneschal of 
 Beaucaire, iu 1424. The violence of Ricbemont, a blunt rough soldier, 
 involved him in disputes with the minions of the court, and two of 
 them were hastily and arbitrarily executed by his procuration ; a third, 
 La Trdmouille, more artful, maintained his post, and the court became 
 divided into two factions — that of La Trdmouille and that of Riche- 
 mont ; ultimately however the constable prevailed. At a later period, 
 Antony of Chabannes, lord of Dammartin, became predominant. He 
 had caused, in 1453, the ruin, by fatae accusation, of Jacques Cceur, a 
 merchant and banker of Bourges, whose extensive business and great 
 wealth had enabled him to afford Charles most important aid in finan- 
 cial affairs ; and it was from jealousy or fear of Dammartin that the 
 Dauphin Louis fled to Bourgogne. Dammartin seems to have retained 
 his influence until the death of Charles, which took place from a 
 singular cause. He appears to have inherited from his father a taint 
 of insanity, and the latter end of his life was embittered by mono- 
 mania, manifesting itself in the apprehension that his children had 
 conspired to poison him. Under this apprehension he refused food 
 for seven days, and died of exhaustion at Mehunsur-Yevre, near 
 Bourges, on the 22nd of July 1461. 
 
 It was in the reign of this prince that the Greek language was first 
 taught in the University of Paris. That university is said to have 
 contained at this time 25,000 students. 
 
 CHARLES VIII., son of Louis XL, succeeded to the throne upon 
 the death of his father in 1483, being little more than thirteen years 
 old. His father had failed to appoint any regency, and the guardian- 
 ship of the king and the kingdom became consequently an object of 
 ambition to those whose proximity in blood to the crown authorised 
 them in aspiring to such an elevation. The dignity of president of 
 the council of state was bestowed on the Duke of Orleans, next heir 
 to the throne; but the guardianship of the king's person, together 
 with the real power of the government, was bestowed upon Anne of 
 Fiance, lady of Beaujeu, the king's eldest sister, at that time about 
 twenty-two years of age. 
 
 The minority of Charles was troubled by the disturbances raised by 
 the ambitious nobles, impatient of the predominance of the lady of 
 Beaujeu. In 1485 the Duke of Orleans and the Count Dunois, son of 
 the famous Count Dunois who had defended Orleans against the 
 English [Charles VII.], raised the standard of rebellion, but sub- 
 mitted on the king's approach ; their discontent however continued, 
 and Orleans retired into Bretagne, the duke of which province afforded 
 him protection, and united with Maximilian, king of the Romans, iu 
 intrigues against France. In 1485-86 Dunois, with the Count of 
 AngoulOme, attempted an insurrection in Guienne, but was forced to 
 
ISO 
 
 CHARLES IX. 
 
 CHARLES IS? 
 
 ISO 
 
 Biibmit: and after this success the king marched into Picardie to 
 oppose Maximilian. The following year the war continued on the side 
 of Picardie, and the king ordered the invasion of Bretagne by a con- 
 siderable force. The invasion was renewed in 1488, when the French 
 commander, Louis de la Tremoille, or Tremouille, one of the first 
 generals of his day, gained a complete victory over the troops of 
 Lieta^ne, and of the insurgent lords and their allies at St. Aubin de 
 Cormier. The Duke of Orleans, the Prince of Orange, and other per- 
 sons of note were taken ; and La Tremouille executed without delay 
 such of his prisoners as were of rank, except the duke and prince, 
 who were kept in close imprisonment. The submission of the Duke 
 of Bretagne, which resulted from the defeat of his troops at St. Aubin 
 de Cormier, was speedily followed by his death; and the hand of Anne, 
 his daughter and heiress, was eagerly sought by several suitors. Of 
 these, Maximilian, king of the Romans, obtained the preference, and a 
 marriage by proxy took place, probably in 1490; but before the arrival 
 of Maximilian, who delayed above a year, the match was broken off, 
 and the young duchess was united in a firmer union to the King of 
 France. This marriage was preceded by an unexpected revolution at 
 the court of France : Charles, now in his twenty-first year, freed him- 
 self from the guardianship of his Bister, released the Duke of Orleans, 
 and broke off his engagement with a daughter of Maximilian, to 
 whom he had been betrothed, and who had been sent for her edu- 
 cation to the court of France. These events led to a war with Maxi- 
 milian, who was supported by Henry VII. of England, and by 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; but the French averted the hostility 
 of Henry, who had commenced the siege of Boulogne, by a payment 
 of money, and of Ferdinand by the cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne. 
 Maximilian also agreed to terms ; the counties of Bourgogne (Franche 
 Couitd) and Charolois were ceded to him ; and the treaty of Senlis 
 (1493), by delivering Charles from the pressure of hostilities at home, 
 enabled him to turn his thoughts to the prospect opening to his 
 ambition at the extremity of Italy. 
 
 The house of Anjou, a younger branch of the royal family of France, 
 had claimed and contested the crown of Naples with a branch of the 
 royal house of Aragon, which latter had obtained possession. The 
 right of the house of Anjou had been purchased by Louis XI. and 
 transmitted to Charles VIII. ; and this prince, instigated by Ludovico 
 Sforza, surnamed Le More (usurper of the government of Milan under 
 the guise of being regent for his imbecile nephew, Giovanni Galeazzo), 
 determined to support his claim to the kingdom of Naples by force of 
 arms. In 1494 he set out for Italy, at the head of an army of 3600 men- 
 at-arms, 20,000 native infantry, 8000 Swiss mercenaries, and a formid- 
 able train of artillery. In his advance he experienced little resistance, 
 and, in despite of the advice of his most sagacious counsellors, who 
 recommended him to make himself master of the Milanese and of 
 Cenoa, he pushed on towards Naples. Excepting Sforza, none of the 
 Italian potentates seem to have supported him : Pietro de' Medici, who 
 governed Florence, opposed him, as also Pope Alexander VI. Charles 
 however entered Florence and Rome, where he made a treaty with the 
 pope, and early in 1495 he set out from Rome for Naples. He entered 
 this city also without a struggle, the King of Naples having quitted it 
 three days before his arrival. At his entry he wore the insignia of the 
 Eastern Empire, having purchased the rights of Andrew Palaeologus, 
 nephew of the last of the eastern emperors, Constantine Palaeologus ; 
 for his ambitious views extended from the possession of Naples to that 
 of Constantinople, and from that again to the redemption of the Holy 
 Sepulchre. 
 
 While Charles was staying at Naples a league was formed between 
 the pope, the emperor, Ferdinand of Spain, the republic of Venice, 
 and the treacherous Sforza, to intercept him on his return. The Nea- 
 politans, who had at first welcomed the French, began to grow 
 disgusted with them, especially the nobles, who saw themselves 
 excluded from the great offices of state. Charles determined to 
 return with his army, which, after deducting the force left at Naples, 
 ■was reduced to about 9000 men. The confederates awaited him with 
 a far superior force (approaching 40,000 men), near Fornovo, not far 
 from the foot of the Apennines, about ten miles from Piacenza. The 
 French were victorious ; but the victory obtained for them little more 
 than a secure retreat, and the deliverance of the Duke of Orleans, who 
 was besieged in Novara. Naples was recovered by the great captain 
 Qonsalvo of Cordova, a Spanish general, who forced the French under 
 the Duke of Montpensicr to an accommodation, and enabled the King 
 of Naples to re-enter his capital three months after he was driven from 
 it. Charles meditated a second expedition into Italy, and the Duke of 
 Orleans, who had claims on the Milanese, was appointed to the com- 
 mand ; but the duke was not anxious to be distant from the court, 
 and the influence of the party opposed to the expedition, and the want 
 of money, retarded the preparations, and the affair was not pressed 
 with any activity. Charles had three sons by his queen, Anne of Bre- 
 tagne, but all had died ; and Orleans was still next heir to the 
 throne, the prospect of ascending which was brought nearer by the 
 declining health of the king. The short remainder of Charles's reign 
 was occupied in attention to the internal government of the country, 
 in which some useful reforms were commenced. He died in 1498, of 
 the effects of a blow on the head, received while passing through a 
 door-way which was not high enough. 
 
 CHARLES IX. was the second sou of Henri II., and succeeded to 
 
 the throne on the death of his elder brother Francis II. in 1560, being 
 then in his eleventh year. The government during his minority was 
 administered by his mother Catherine de' Medici, while Anthony of 
 Bourbon, king of Navarre, had the title of lieutenant-general of the 
 kingdom. The release of the Prince of Condd, brother of the King of 
 Navarre, who had been imprisoned during the preceding reign, was 
 one of the first acts of the new government; the prince had been 
 looked up to as the leader of the Reformed or Huguenot party, to 
 which the King of Navarre now also joined himself. Alarmed at the 
 glowing strength of the Calviuists, the Constable Montmorenci and 
 the Duke of Guise, previously rivals and enemies, were reconciled, and 
 formed, with the Marshal St. Andrd, a union to which the Huguenots 
 gave the name of the Triumvirate. Thus early in the king's reign 
 did the parties seek to strengthen themselves, whose animosity and 
 struggles deluged France with blood. A project sujgested by the 
 King of Navarre for the resumption by the crowu of all the grants 
 of the last two reigns, in which tho members of the triumvirate had 
 largely shared, had probably considerable influence in the formation 
 of this union. 
 
 An edict prohibiting the public preaching of the reformed religion 
 on pain of exile having been issued in 1561, the Huguenots refused 
 obedience, and took up arms in defence of their liberty. Their chiefs 
 demanded a public conference with the Catholics ; and the demand 
 led to the celebrated 'colloquy of Poissy,' in which Theodore Beza 
 defended the cause of the reformed, and the Cardinal of Lorraine that 
 of the Catholic church, before the king, the princes of the blood, 
 and a number of nobles and dignified ecclesiastics. The disputants 
 remained, as might be supposed, unconverted ; but the conference 
 served the King of Navarre as a pretext for abandoning the party of 
 the reformed, and reconciling himself with the Guises. A promise 
 of the restoration of Navarre proper, which had been conquered by 
 Spain, was probably the lure that drew him over. But it was not by 
 words that the differences of the parties were to be decided : dis- 
 turbances arose in the provinces; and the Queen Mother, jealous of 
 the union of Navarre with the Guises, by which her own influence 
 was diminished, sought to win the support of the Huguenots, by 
 procuring an edict to be issued allowing them the exercise of their 
 religion out of the towns. The peace thus established was of short 
 continuance; a quarrel between some domestics of the Duke of Guise, 
 and a congregation of Protestants at Vassy iu Champagne, led to the 
 massacre of the latter, and became the signal for hostility. The 
 Protestants possessed the predominance in the south and west of 
 France ; they held Orldans, Blois, Tours, Angers, La Rochelle, Poitiers, 
 Rouen, Havre-de-Grace, aud Dieppe ; and they were supported by 
 Elizabeth of England, and the Protestants of Germany. The Catholics 
 had for them the king and the court, the regular army, the capital, 
 the provinces of the north and east, the talent of the Guises, and the 
 support of Philip II. of Spain. The first important event was the 
 siege and capture of Rouen in 1562 by the Catholics, who lost their 
 general, the king of Navarre, mortally wounded during the siege. 
 The Prince of Condd, and the Admiral Coligni, with the Protestant 
 army, threatened the capital; but being obliged to withdraw, were 
 overtakeu at Dreux, where they were defeated, and the prince was 
 made prisoner. The Protestants had however early in the action 
 captured the Constable Montmorenci, commander of the Catholics, 
 and the constable and the prince were soon after exchanged. The 
 Marshal St. Andrd, another member of the triumvirate, fell in this 
 battle. 
 
 The following year (1563) was marked by the siege of Organs, and 
 the assassination of the Duke of Guise, commander of the besieging 
 army, by Poltrot, a Protestant. The removal of the duke probably 
 prepared the way for peace, which was concluded not long after his 
 death. Havre, which had been placed by the Huguenots in the 
 hands of the English, was taken from them in July of this year by 
 a French army under the Constable : and peace with England was 
 subsequently made. In 1564 the king by an edict revoked some of 
 the advantages which had been conceded to the Huguenots at the 
 peace concluded the foregoing year, and disgusted the Prince of Condd, 
 by refusing to fulfil a promise that he should be made lieutenaut- 
 general of the kingdom in the place of his late brother, the King of 
 Navarre. The court, strong in the support of an army, which had 
 been raised to guard the frontier from any violation consequent upon 
 the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, excited the jealousy of 
 the Protestant leaders ; and Condd and Coligni attempted, in 1567, to 
 carry off the king. This led to the second religious war, in which 
 Catherine de' Medici was decidedly hostile to the Huguenots, whom 
 previously she had been inclined to favour. 
 
 The battle of St. Denis, in which the Constable Montmorenci was 
 killed (1567), led to no decisive result. Peace was made in 1568, but 
 it was soon after broken: neither party had confidence in the other ; 
 and the king issued a decree declaring that he would have only one 
 religion in France, and ordering all the ministers of the reformed 
 party to leave the kingdom. The battle of Jarnao in Angoumois was 
 fought in 1569, and the Protestants lost both the victory and their 
 leader the Prince of Condd, who was taken aud shot in cold blood after 
 the battle by Montesquiou, captain of the Guards to the king's brother, 
 the Duke of Anjou, who commanded the Catholic army. Henri of 
 Bourbon, prince of Bdarn, afterwards Henri IV. was now recognised. 
 
3S>1 CHARLES IX. 
 
 as head of the Protestant party, but he was yet only a youth of sixteen, 
 and the command remained in the hands of Coligni. The king was 
 jealous of the rising reputation of his brother; the Protestants were 
 reinforced from Germany, and gained an advantage at La Roche Abeille 
 in Limousin ; however the vain attempt upon Poitiers, and a second 
 bloody defeat which they sustained from the Duke of Anjou at Mon- 
 contour in Poitou in 1569, would perhaps have been fatal to their party 
 but for the resolution of Coligni, and the reviving jealousy of the king 
 towards his brother. Peace was soon afterwards (1570) made on terms 
 more favourable to the Huguenots than the events of the war would 
 lead us to expect. An amnesty was granted to them, and liberty of 
 conscience; their worship was allowed in all places held by them 
 during the war, and at any rate in two towns of each province; and 
 four strong places, Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac, and La Charito, were 
 to be garrisoned by them as securities for the faithful performance of 
 the treaty. In the same year Charles married Elizabeth, daughter of 
 the Emperor Maximilian II. 
 
 For the massacre of St. Bartholomew wo refer below. This dreadful 
 event, if it for a moment paralysed the Protestants, roused them, after 
 the first astonishment had passed away, to resistance and vengeance. 
 They held Rochelle, which the royal forces besieged in vain ; the 
 massacre had alienated many of the Catholics from the court, and led 
 to the formation of a middle party, called Les Politiques, headed by 
 the family of Montmorenci. The Protestant courts and nations, and 
 many even of the Catholic, recoiled with horror and loathing from the 
 perpetrators of so foul a deed. Charles felt that he had covered himself 
 with eternal infamy. Conscience-stricken at the part he had taken in 
 the massacre, he granted peace to the Huguenots. The short remainder 
 of his reign was troubled by the contests of parties at the court, by 
 plots and rumours of plots. Charles died May 30, 1574, having lived 
 nearly twenty-four yearB, and reigned thirteen years and a half. 
 
 The Massacre of St. Bartholomew is so important an event in 
 connection with the life of Charles IX., and with the history of France, 
 that we append here a separate account of it, and the circumstances 
 which led to its perpetration. It is called the ' Bartholomew Massacre,' 
 or simply ' the Bartholomew,' because it occurred on the 24th of August, 
 St. Bartholomew's day. ' Huguenot ' was the name by which the 
 French Protestants are invariably designated by contemporary writers. 
 There has been much discussion as to the origin of the term. According 
 to some, it comes from a German word used in Switzerland, which 
 signifies sworn (' eidgenoss '), or bound by oath. Others, with Castlenau, 
 who lived at the time it first came into use, tell us that it was an 
 epithet of contempt, derived from a very small coin inferior even to 
 the mailles, the smallest coin then in use in France, which had been in 
 circulation since Hugo Capet. 
 
 As the Bartholomew massacre is one of the most contested passages 
 in history, and as there is no historical question upon which it is more 
 difficult to form an opinion not open to objections, it will be conve- 
 nient to divide this article into two portions : 1st, a simple narrative 
 of the transactions; 2nd, a brief summary of the opinions of historians 
 with reference to the probable motives of those who planned and 
 executed it. 
 
 § 1. The progress of the reformation in France was different from 
 what it was in England, where, being the act of the civil magistrate, 
 it was conducted with more moderation : in France, on the contrary, 
 the ruling powers were strongly opposed to it, and its progress was 
 wholly owing to the zeal and courage of individuals. In England 
 there was a sort of compromise with the feelings and opinions of the 
 adherents of the ancient faith ; while in France a Protestant meant not 
 inertly one who shook off the papal authority, but one who denounced 
 the pope as anti-Christ, and the ceremonies of the Romish Church as 
 the worship of Belial. In their tenets and political condition the 
 Huguenots closely resembled the English puritans of the 17th century. 
 Like them, discountenanced and at length persecuted by the court, 
 the French Huguenots became a distinct people in their native country, 
 abhorring and abhorred by their Catholic fellow-subjects ; united to 
 each other by the closest ties of religion and a common temporal 
 interest, and submitting solely and implicitly, in peace and in war, to 
 the guidance of their own leaders. The wars between these irrecon- 
 cileable partios were, as might be expected, frequent and bloody. 
 
 In August 1570 a treaty of peace was concluded between the French 
 king, Charles IX., and his Huguenot subjects. This was the third 
 contract of the kind that had been entered into between these parties 
 within eight years. The two first were shamefully violated as it 
 suited the purpose of the stronger party. It was natural therefore 
 that the Protestant leaders should feel very distrustful as to the 
 motives of the Court with regard to the new act of pacification ; and 
 this distrust was far from being lessened by the circumstance that the 
 overtures to peace proceeded from the Court, and that the terms of 
 the treaty were unusually favourable to the Huguenots. The veteran 
 Coligny [see Coliony], admiral of France, however lent all the 
 influence of his authority, as the leader of the Huguenots, towards 
 promoting the avowed object of the treaty. He was earnestly pressed 
 to court ; but suspicious of the queen-mother, the celebrated Catherine 
 de' Medici, and of the party of the Duke of Guise, he refused the 
 invitation, and retired to the strong Huguenot fortress of Rochelle. 
 He was accompanied by the young Prince of Navarre (afterwards 
 
 CHARLES IX. i»i 
 
 Henri IV.), Cond6, and other chiefs of the Protestant party. This 
 distrust, however, of the admiral, was entirely effaced before the end 
 of the second year from tho date of the treaty. Charles IX. was but 
 twenty years of age when he ostentatiously sought to be reconciled 
 with his Huguenot subjects. The peace was emphatic.lly called his 
 own peace, and he boasted that he had made it in opposition to his 
 .mother and other counsellors, saying, that he was tired of civil 
 dissensions, and 'convinced, from experience, of the impossibility of 
 reducing all his subjects to the same religion. His extreme youth — 
 his impetuous and open temper — and, if we may believe Walsingham, 
 who was the English ambassador at Paris at tho time, the unsettled 
 state of his religious opinions, inclining "to those of the new religion," 
 — naturally operated in removing the distrust of Coligny. Contrary 
 to what had happened after former treaties, pains were taken to 
 observe the articles of pacification, and to punish those who infringed 
 them. Charles spoke of the admiral in terms of praise and admira- 
 tion; the complaints of the Huguenots were listened to with attention, 
 and their reasonable requests granted ; and their friends were in 
 favour, while their enemies were in apparent disgrace at court. 
 Early in 1571 Charles offered his sister in marriage to the Prince of 
 Navarre, the acknowledged head of the Huguenot party; and though 
 the pope refused to grant a dispensation for the marriage, and the 
 Spanish Court and the Guises strongly opposed it, he persisted in 
 bringing it about, threatening the papal nuncio that he would have 
 tho ceremony performed without a dispensation, if the pope continued 
 obstinate in withholding it. He enlisted the personal ambition of the 
 admiral on his side, by offering to send an army, under his command, 
 into Flanders, to co-operate with the Prince of Orange against the King 
 of Spain. 
 
 Charles again, in the summer of 1571, earnestly solicited the admiral 
 to repair to court. The letter of invitation, written with his own 
 hand, was entrusted to Teligny, the admiral's son-in-law. It was 
 backed by warm solicitations from Montmorenci, the admiral's near 
 relation, and the Marshal de Cosse, his intimate friend. Coliguy's 
 apprehensions at length ga7e way, and in September of the same year 
 he repaired to Blois, where Charles held his court. His reception 
 was apparently the most cordial and respectful ; he was restored to 
 all his honours and dignities, and loaded with presents. The king 
 called him " Father," and in a tone of affection added, " We have you 
 at last, and you shall not escape us." 
 
 This apparent favour of the king towards the admiral continued 
 without interruption for many months. When absent from court, 
 Charles maintained a correspondence with him by letters ; and in 
 their private conversation he at least affected to unbosom himself 
 without reserve to his new friend ; cautioned him against his mother 
 and her Italian favourites, spoke disparagingly of his brother Anjou, 
 and in giving the character of his marshals, freely described their 
 faults and censured their vices. Coligny was completely won by this 
 frank demeanour of the young king, and employed his influence tc 
 induce the other Huguenot chiefs to repair to court. Though re 
 peatedly warned of his danger his confidence was unshaken. " Rather,' 
 said he, " than renew the horrors of civil war, I would be dragged a 
 corpse through the streets of Paris." 
 
 The marriage of Henry of Navarre with Margaret, the king's sister, 
 was celebrated with great pomp on Monday the 18th of August 1572. 
 Most of the Protestant nobility and gentry, with the admiral at their 
 head, attended on the occasion ; and as their prejudices would not let 
 them enter a church where mass was celebrated, the ceremony was 
 performed in a temporary building near the cathedral of Notre Dame. 
 The Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday were passed in all sorts of 
 festivities. On Friday the 22nd, Coligny attended a council at the 
 Louvre, and went afterwards with the king to the tennis-court, where 
 Charles and the Duke of Guise played a game against two Huguenot 
 gentlemen. As he walked slowly home, reading a paper, an arquebuss 
 was discharged at him from the upper window of a house occupied by 
 a dependant of the Duke of Guise. One ball shattered his hand, 
 another lodged in his right arm. The king was still playing at tennis 
 with the Duke of Guise when the news of this attack reached him. 
 He threw down his racket — exclaiming " Shall I never have peace \ 
 and retired apparently dejected to his apartment. He joined the King 
 of Navarre and the Prince of Conde" in their lamentations, and 
 promised, with threats of vengeance, to punish the guilty. 
 
 The admiral's wounds were declared on the 23rd not to be danger- 
 ous. He expressed a wish to see the king. Charles visited the wounded 
 man, accompanied by his mother and a train of courtiers. Coligny 
 requested to speak with the king alone, and Charles commanded his 
 mother and brother to remain at a distance. Catherine afterwards 
 acknowledged that these were the most painful moments she ever 
 experienced. "Her consciousness of guilt, the interest with which 
 Charles listened to the admiral, the crowds of armed men in constant 
 motion through the house, their looks and whispers and gestures, all 
 conspired to fill her with terror. Unable to remain any longer in such 
 a situation, she interrupted the conference, by pretending that silence 
 and repose were necessary for the recovery of the admiral. During 
 her return in the same carriage with the king, she employed every 
 artifice to draw from him the particulars of the conversation. He dis- 
 closed sufficient to add to her alarm." This passage, which we have 
 extracted from Lingard's history, is confirmed in the main by the 
 
CHARLES IX. 
 
 narrative of the St. Bartholomew, attributed to the Duke of Adj'ou, 
 afterwards Henri III., who had a large share in its design and 
 execution. He tells us that as the admiral began to speak earnestly, 
 Catherine came up and drew the king away, but not till she had heard 
 the admiral advise him not to let his mother and brother have so 
 much of his authority. 
 
 On the first news of the admiral's wound the Huguenots repaired in 
 crowds to his residence, and offered their services, with menacing 
 language against the Guises — the suspected assassins. A royal guard 
 wa* placed to protect the house of Coligny from popular violence ; 
 and under a similar pretext of regard for his safety, the Catholics were 
 ordered to evacuate and the Protestants to occupy the quarter in 
 which he resided. 
 
 The attempt at assassination was not the work of the Guises : it 
 was planned by the Duke of Anjou, the Duchess of Nemours, and the 
 queen-mother. The father of the Duke of Guise, and first husband of 
 the Duchess of Nemours, was assassinated by a Huguenot fanatic, 
 who alleged that he committed the crime under the sanction of the 
 admiral ; and since that event Coligny always felt that his life was in 
 danger from one who, whether justly or unjustly, regarded him as the 
 murderer of his father. The attempt at assassination having failed, 
 the conspirators met on the morning of Saturday the 23rd, in secret 
 conference. Baffled revenge and the dread of vindictive retaliation 
 augmented the ferocity of their counsels. On Saturday after dinner, 
 the hour for which, at that time was noon, the queen-mother was seen 
 to enter the king's chamber : Anjou and some lords of the Catholic 
 party joined her there soon afterwards. According to Charles's 
 account of this meeting, as reported by his sister Margaret, he was then 
 suddenly informed of a treasonable conspiracy on the part of the 
 Huguenots against himself and family; was told that the admiral and 
 his friends were at that moment plotting his destruction, and that if 
 he did not promptly anticipate the designs of his enemies, and if he 
 waited till next morning, he and his family might be sacrificed. 
 Under this impression, he states, he gave a reluctant hurried consent 
 to the proposition of his counsellors, exclaiming, as he left the room, 
 that he hoped not a single Huguenot would be left alive to reproach 
 him with the deed. The plan of the massacre had been previously 
 arranged, and its execution instrusted to the Dukes of Guise, Anjou, 
 and Aumale, Montpensier, and Marshal Tavanues. 
 
 It wanted two hours of the appointed time : all was still at the 
 Louvre. A short time before the signal was given, Charles, his 
 mother, and Anjou repaired to an open balcony, and awaited the 
 result in breathless silence. This awful suspense was broken by the 
 report of a pistol. Charles shook with horror — his frame trembled, 
 his resolution failed him, and cold drops stood upon his brow. But 
 the die was cast — the bell of a neighbouring church tolled — and the 
 work of slaughter commenced. 
 
 This was at two o'clock in the morning. Before five o'clock the 
 admiral and his friends were murdered in cold blood, and their 
 remains treated with brutal indignity. Revenge and hatred being 
 thus satiated on the Huguenot chiefs, the tocsin was sounded from 
 the parliament house, calling on the populace of Paris to join in the 
 carnage, and protect their religion and their king against Huguenot 
 treason. It is not necessary to enter into the details of this most 
 perfidious butchery. "Death to the Huguenots — treason — courage — 
 our game is in the toils — Kill every man of them — it is the king's 
 orders," shouted the court leaders, as they galloped through the 
 streets, cheering the armed citizens to the slaughter. " Kill ! kill ! — 
 bleeding is as wholesome in August as in May," shouted the Marshal 
 Tavannes, another of the planners of the massacre. The fury of the 
 court was thus seconded by the long pent-up hatred of the Parisian 
 populace ; and the Huguenots were butchered in their beds, or 
 endeavouring to escape, without any regard to age, sex, or condition. 
 Hot was the slaughter wholly confined to the Protestants. Secret 
 revenge and personal hatred embraced that favourable opportunity of 
 gratification, and many Catholics fell by the hand of Catholic assassins. 
 
 Towards evening the excesses of the populace became so alarming 
 that the king, by sound of trumpet, commanded every man to return 
 to his house, under penalty of death, excepting the officers of the 
 guards and the civic authorities; and on the second day he issued 
 another proclamation, declaring, under pain of death, that no person 
 should kill or pillage another, unless duly authorised. Indeed it 
 would seem that the massacre was more extensive and indiscriminate 
 than its projectors had anticipated ; and that it was necessary to check 
 the disorderly fury of the populace. The slaughter however partially 
 continued for three days. On the evening of the first day, Charles 
 despatched letters to his ambassadors in foreign courts, and to all his 
 governors and chief officers in France, bewailing the massacre that 
 had taken place, but imputing it entirely to the private dissension 
 between the houses of Guise and Coligny. 
 
 On the following day, the 25th, he wrote to Schomberg, his agent 
 with the Protestant princes of Germany, that having been apprised by 
 Eome of the Huguenots themselves of a conspiracy formed by the 
 admiral and his friends to murder him, his mother, and brothers, he 
 had been forced to sanction the counter attacks of the house of 
 Ouise, in consequence of which, the admiral, and some gentlemen of 
 his party, had been slain ; since which, the populace, exasperated by 
 the report of the conspiracy, and indignant at the restraint imposed 
 
 CHARLES IX. ibi 
 
 upon the royal family, had been guilty of violent 6XCesse3, and, to hia 
 great regret, had killed all the chiefs of tho Huguenots who were at 
 Paris. 
 
 Next day however Charles went in state to the parliament of Paris, 
 and avowed himself the author of the massacre, claiming to himself 
 the merit of having thereby given peace to his kingdom ; he denounced 
 the admiral and his adherents as traitors, and declared that he had 
 timely defeated a conspiracy to murder the royal family. 
 
 These are the leading facts of the Bartholomew Massacre, concern- 
 ing the truth of which there is no controversy. They are admitted 
 and appealed to by historians who take the most opposite views of 
 the motives which led to them. And this brings us to the second part 
 of the subject. 
 
 § 2. Two questions have arisen out of a consideration of the fact3 
 which we have just narrated : — 1. Was the massacre the result of a 
 premeditated plot, concealed with infinite cunning for months, accord- 
 ing to some, years, that is, since the meeting at Bayonne in 156 1 ; or 
 was it the sudden consequence of the failure of the attack upon the 
 life of the admiral two days before its occurrence ? — 2. Admitting it 
 to have been premeditated, was Charles privy to the plot, and conse- 
 quently, was the peace of 1570, the marriage of his sister, and his 
 friendly demeanour towards the admiral and the Huguenot chiefs, one 
 piece of the most profound treachery and dissimulation ? Volumes 
 have been written in reference to these questions ; our limits confine 
 us to a statement of their results. 
 
 We shall dispose of the first question rather summarily. The 
 conferences at Bayonne between Catherine de' Medici and the Duke of 
 Alva were secret : if ever reduced to writing, no direct proof of the 
 decisions in which they terminated has come down to us. There is 
 however strong substantial evidence to show that they related to the 
 most effectual means of subduing the Protestants in France and 
 Flanders. Mutual succour was stipulated and afforded. Adriano, a 
 contemporary historian of credit, and who is supposed to have derived 
 the materials of his history from the journal of Cosmo, duke of 
 Tuscany, who died in 1574, states that Alva declared for an immediate 
 extermination, and treated the proposition of France (to allure the 
 Huguenot lords and princes back to the bosom of the ancient church) 
 as faint-hearted, and treason to the cause of God. Catherine repre- 
 sented that such an extirpation a3 Alva contemplated was beyond the 
 ability of the royal power in France. They agreed as to the end, but 
 differed as to the best means of accomplishing it ; and the conference 
 terminated with the parties merely agreeing as to the general principle 
 of destroying the incorrigible ringleader of the heretical faction ; each 
 sovereign being at liberty to select the opportunity and modes of 
 execution which best suited the circumstances of his own dominions. 
 This statement is adopted by the judicious De Thou. Strada, the 
 historian of Alva's government in Flanders, who wrote from the papers 
 of the House of Parma, says, in reference to the hypothesis, that the 
 Bartholomew was planned at Bayonne, that he cannot from his own 
 knowledge either affirm or deny the accusation ; but inclines to the 
 belief that it is true (" potius inclinat animus ut credam "). It was on 
 this occasion that Alva made use of the celebrated expression men- 
 tioned by Davila and Mathieu, and which Henri IV., then Prince of 
 Bearn, and a stripling, who was present at the interview, told to 
 Calignor, chancellor of Navarre, that he would rather catch the large 
 fish and let the small fry alone; "one salmon," said he, "is worth a 
 hundred frogs." — " Une t§te de saumon valoit mieux que celles de cent 
 grenouilles." The subsequent conduct of Alva and the queen-mother, 
 coupled with this indirect testimony, enable us to answer the first 
 question thus far in the affirmative : that there existed, as far back a3 
 the conference at Bayonne, a general determination on the part of the 
 courts of Spain and France to subdue, if not extirpate Protestantism ; 
 but no concerted plot, or settled plan of operations. 
 
 The evidence is much more conflicting with regard to the sincerity 
 of Charles in the affair of the peace of 1570, and the events that fol 
 lowed it, with regard to his share in devising the Bartholomew. 
 Against the supposition of his having been perhaps the most profound 
 dissembler that the world has ever seen, there is, in the first place, a 
 strong objection derived from his extreme youth, and his fickle, restless, 
 vehement, and childishly ungovernable character. He was only twenty- 
 four when he died, and though nominally a king from the tenth year 
 of his age, the government was so completely in the hands of his 
 mother, and such was the ascendancy of that remarkable and wicked 
 woman over his mind, that it is hardly possible to speak with 
 certainty as to his genuine disposition, or to affirm on what occasions 
 he was a mere puppet, and when a free agent. His vacillation of 
 purpose has been remarked by those who have stigmatised him as 
 a master of the arts of simulation; while the cruelty of his sports, 
 and the ferocious violence of his temper when under the influ- 
 ence of passion, have been justly referred to as an argument to 
 show that an heretical enemy once in his toils would have little to 
 hope from his humanity. "His education," says Mr. Allen, who ha3 
 sketched his character with no friendly hand, " had been neglected by 
 his mother, who desired to retain the conduct of affairs, and brought 
 him forward on those occasions only when she wished to inspire terror 
 by his furious passions. Active, or rather restless, from temperament, 
 he was never tranquil for an instant, but was continually occupied 
 with some violent exercise or other ; and when he had nothing better 
 
Jf'5 
 
 CHARLES IX. 
 
 CHARLES X. 
 
 to do, be would amuse himself with shoeing a horse, or working at a 
 forge." But this was not the temperament of a deep dissembler. 
 Adopting Fapire Masson's character of him as the true one, that he was 
 impatient, passionate, false, and faithless, is it possible that ho should 
 have played the part of simulator and dissimulator to such perfection, 
 that a scrutinising and suspicious observer like Walsingham, during 
 three years that he was ambassador at the French court, in almost 
 daily personal intercourse with him, never for a moment doubted his 
 sincerity 1 Then, as we have seen, the admiral to the last moment 
 placed the most undoubting confidence in the king's professsions of 
 friendship. Facts however are stubborn things, and we have no 
 favourite hypothesis to support. When the marriage of the king's 
 sister with the Prince of Navarre was under discussion, Pope Pius V. 
 sent his nephew, the Cardinal Alexandrino, to the court of France to 
 prevent it. Charles took the cardinal by the hand, and said (we 
 quote from the ' Lettres d'Ossat,' referred to by Mr. Allen in his con- 
 troversy with Dr. Lingard), "I entirely agree with what you say, and 
 am thankful to you and the pope for your advice : if I had any other 
 means than this marriage of taking vengeance on my enemies, I would 
 not persist in it; but I have not." Cardinal Alexandrino was hardly 
 gone from court, when the Queen of Navarre, the mother of Henri, 
 arrived at Blois to conclude the marriage. CharleB received her with 
 every demonstration of affection and cordiality ; boasted to her that 
 he had treated the monk who came to break off the marriage as his 
 impudence deserved; atiding that he "would give his sister, not to 
 the Prince of Navarre, but to the Huguenots, in order to remove all 
 doubts on their minds as to the peace." " And again, my Aunt," 
 said he, " I honour you more than the pope, and I love my sister more 
 than I fear him. I am no Huguenot, neither am I a fool; and if 
 Mr. Pope does not mend his manners, I will myself give away 
 Margery in full conventicle." (Mathieu ; ' Memoires de l'Etat.') 
 
 It was on this occasion, according to De Thou, Sully, and other 
 authorities, that Charles is said to have exultingly asked hiB mother 
 — " Have I not played my part well ? " " Yes," said she ; " but to 
 commence is nothing, unless you go through." "Leave it to mo," he 
 replied with an oath. " I will net them for you, every one." Others 
 postpone the vaunting of his dissimulation till after the massacre ; 
 and a manuscript in the ' Bibliotheque du Roi,' quoted by Mr. Allen, 
 adds, "That he complained of the hardship of being obliged to dis- 
 simulate so long." There is one other trait of perfidy, among many 
 told of him, which we shall quote, and leave to speak for itself. 
 
 On the evening of St. Bartholomew, and after he had given his 
 orders for the massacre, he redoubled his kindness to the King of 
 Navarre, and desired him to introduce some of his best officers into 
 the Louvre, that they might be at hand in case of any disturbances 
 from the Guises. These officers were butchered next morning in his 
 presence. 
 
 That the peace of 1670 was, so far as Catherine de' Medici and her 
 party was concerned, a piece of treachery, got up for the sole purpose 
 of luring the Huguenot chiefs to their destruction, is the. almost 
 universal opinion of historians, and is admitted by those who deny 
 that Charles had any guilty share in the transaction ; De Thou alone 
 hesitates to admit that long-meditated treachery. Opinions are more 
 divided with respect to the closeness of the connection between the 
 massacre and the general design to cut off the leader (the "tete de 
 saumon " of Alva) of the Protestant party. One great difficulty 
 presents itself. The attempt upon the life of the admiral was made 
 at the instigation of Catherine and her son Anjou, the great 
 devisers of the massacre. If they really designed from the first 
 a general massacre, why did they run the very great risk of 
 defeating their purpose by cutting off the admiral alone without 
 the other leaders ? If the admiral had fallen at the instant by 
 the hand of the assassin, is it not highly probable that his friends 
 would have fled from Paris to a place of safety ? — at all events, they 
 would not have been butchered unresistingly and in cold blood. 
 On the other hand, if the death of the admiral was the sole or chief 
 object of the machinations of the court, why did they defer it so long 
 or attempt it in so bungling a way ? The Italian writer Davila has 
 furnished a refined and subtle explanation of this difficulty, charac- 
 teristic of the dark plotting and wily policy of his country. According 
 to this hypothesis (which is in some degree adopted by De Thou), the 
 plan of Catherine and her secret council was, that Coligny should be 
 assassinated under such circumstances as to fix the guilt upon the 
 Guises, in the hope that the Huguenots would immediately rise in 
 arms and wreak their vengeance upon the Guises; and that object having 
 been obtained, that they would in turn be themselves overpowered and 
 massacred by the royal forces. By this means Catherine would 
 extinguish at one stroke the rival houses of Guise and Chatillon, both 
 equally obnoxious to the court. But we agree with Mr. Allen that 
 this hypothesis is too refined and uncertain a speculation even for 
 Catherine, and that the difficulty is not explained by it. To our 
 minds the difficulty is best explained by the supposition that Charles 
 was not only not privy to the original design of the massacre, but that 
 its plotters were doubtful of obtaining his consent. His occasional 
 ferocity during and after the massacre, and the inconsistencies of his 
 public declarations with respect to its origin, are by no means con- 
 tradictory to this supposition, which moreover receives considerable 
 support from what Sully tells us of his subsequent remorse. While 
 
 the massacre was going on, Charles seemed like one possessed. A few 
 days after, he said to the celebrated Ambrose Pare", his surgeon and a 
 Huguenot, " I know not how it is, but for the last few days I feel like 
 one in a fever; my mind and body are both disturbed. Every 
 moment, whether I am asleep or awake, visions of murdered corpses 
 covered with blood and hideous to the sk'ht, haunt me. Oh, I wish 
 they had spared the innocent and the imbecile I " Charles died in less 
 than two years after the massacre, in agony mental and physical. 
 "In this state," says Sully, "the miserable day of St. Bartholomew 
 was, without ceasing, present to his mind; and he showed by his 
 transports of regret, and by his fears, how much he repented of it." 
 
 CHARLES X., King of France (CHARLES PHILIPPE, Comte 
 d'Artois), born at Versailles, in October 1757, was the youngest son of 
 the Dauphin, grandson of Louis XV., and brother of Louis XVI. 
 His title, as a junior member of the royal family, was Comte d'Artois. 
 The Duke de la Vauguyon, who was appointed tutor to him, as well as 
 to his brothers, selected for their teachers several bishops and abbe's. 1 
 
 Charles married, in the year 1773, Maria Theresa of Savoy, sister 
 to the wife of his brother, afterwards Louis XVIII. His youth was 
 dissipated and stormy, and he fought a duel with the Duke of Bourbon 
 in consequence of a quarrel between them at the opera. When the 
 disturbances which preceded the Revolution begaD, the Count d'Artois 
 showed himself from the first opposed to concession, and he remained 
 consistent in his opposition throughout the whole period of the Revo- 
 lution, whilst his brother Louis, count of Provence, afterwards 
 Louis XVIII., seemed to court popularity, and took pains to please 
 the Constitutional party. Charles was one of the first to emigrate : 
 he left France in July 1789, after the first popular insurrection and 
 the destruction of the Bastille. He repaired to Turin, and from thence 
 went to Vienna, and lastly to Pilnitz, where he attended the first 
 congress of princes assembled to oppose the French revolution. After 
 Louis XVI. had accepted the constitution in 1791, he invited the 
 Count d'Artois to return to France, which he, in concert with his 
 brother the Count of Provence, who had now joined him at CoUcnz, 
 refused to do, and they gave their reasons in a kind of manifesto. 
 In consequence of this, the Legislative Assembly stopped hia allow- 
 ance on the civil list, and ordered the seizure of his property, in May 
 1792. The war having broken out, the Count d'Artois assumed the 
 command of a body of emigrants, who acted in concert with the 
 Prussian and Austrian armies on the Bhine. After the execution of 
 Louis XVI. the Count d'Artois repaired to Russia, where he received 
 fair promises from Catharine, but no efficient assistance. He then 
 made an attempt on the coast of Brittany, but soon after returned to 
 England, and went to reside in Edinburgh, where he remained some 
 years. In 1809 he rejoined his brother, who had assumed the title 
 of Louis XVIII., at Hartwell. In 1814 he went to Germany to wait 
 for events. After Napoleon's abdication, he entered France with 
 the title of Lieutenant- General of the Kingdom, and issued a pro- 
 clamation to the French, in which he promised liberty and order, 
 the reign of the law, the abolition of the conscription, and of the 
 "droits rdunis," and an entire forgetfulness of the past He entered 
 Paris on the 12th of April 1814, attended by a body of national 
 guards. The Senate acknowledged his authority, in expectation of 
 the arrival of Louis XVIII. He told the Senate that his brother was 
 determined to reign as a constitutional king, with two chambers, and 
 to grant individual liberty and the liberty of the press. When 
 Louis XVIII. arrived in Paris, the Count d'Artois, whose title was 
 now that of ' Monsieur,' was made Colonel-General of the National 
 Guards. In March 1815 he was obliged to leave France with the king, 
 in consequence of Bonaparte's return from Elba, but he went back 
 after the battle of Waterloo. In February 1820 he lost his second 
 son, the Due de Berry, by the hand of an assassin. His elder son, 
 the Due d'Angouleme, who had married his cousin, the daughter of 
 Louis XVI., was childless. The Due de Berry left only one daughter, 
 but several months after his death his widow was delivered of a son, 
 the present Due de Bordeaux. 
 
 Louis XVIII. died on the 16th of September 1824, and Charles X. 
 was proclaimed king. On the 27th he made his entrance into Paris in 
 the midst of acclamations. One of his first acts was an ordinance 
 abolishing the censorship of the newspapers and other periodicals, 
 which had been re-established by an ordinance of his predecessor in 
 the previous month of August. This threw over him a momentary 
 gleam of popularity ; but there was a strong party, or rather a com- 
 bination of parties, which disliked and mistrusted him from the first, 
 and by his bigotry and folly he soon justified their mistrust. In April 
 1825, a project of a law, or bill, was laid by ministers before the 
 chambers against the guilt of sacrilege, awarding the penalty of death 
 for the profanation of the consecrated host, and other severe penalties 
 for the profanation of the sacred utensils of churches, &c. The law 
 was passed ; but it had a bad effect on public opinion. By another 
 law, an annual sum of thirty millions of francs was charged on the 
 national debt, to be distributed as an indemnity among the emigrants 
 whose property had been confiscated. In April 1826, a declaration 
 signed by most of the archbishops and bishops of France was pre- 
 sented to the king, denouncing all attempts to subject the temporal 
 authority of kings to the papal power, a principle always reprobated 
 by the Gallican Church. In 1827 a law was passed against the slave- 
 trade, which contained against those engaged in it the penalties ol 
 
CHARLES X. 
 
 MS 
 
 banishment, fines, and confiscation. In the same session a bill was 
 presented by ministers concerning the ' police of the press,' which in 
 effect re established the censorship for all pamphlets of less than 
 21 sheets, though it was not till a few months later that it wa3 
 formally re-established. The new bill also compelled the editors of 
 D^rio Heal papers to declare the names of all the proprietors of the 
 papers, and give security to a heavy amount. Under the third head 
 of the bill, severe penalties were inflicted for offences of the press 
 against the person of the king, the royal dignity, the religion of the 
 state, and other communions acknowledged by the state, foreign 
 sovereigns and princes, the courts of justice, &c. After a warm 
 debate ministers thought proper to withdraw their bill ; this created 
 a lively sensation in Paris. Soon after, at a grand review of the 
 national guards, Charles X. was saluted by cries from the ranks of 
 "Down with the ministers ; " " Down with the Jesuits ! " The king, 
 looking on some of the most clamorous, told them firmly, " I am 
 come here to receive homage, and not lessons." He then disbanded 
 the national guards. In November the king dissolved the House of 
 Deputies, and directed new elections to be proceeded with. He then 
 took off again the censorship of the journals. By another ordinance 
 he created seventy-six new peers. In January 1828 a new ministry 
 wa3 formed. Messrs. Villele, Peyronnet, Corbiere, &c, gave in their 
 nations, and were succeeded by Viscount Martignac, and Counts 
 de la Ferronnays, Portalis, and others. This change was considered 
 as a sort of concession to liberal principles. A commission was 
 appointed, at the suggestion of the new ministry, to frame a project 
 of municipal administration for all France. Another commission was 
 formed to inquire into the discipline and method of education which 
 prevailed in the ' petits Seminaires,' or colleges for clerical students, 
 which were said to have fallen under the direction of disguised Jesuits, 
 as the Society of the Jesuits was not authorised by the laws of 
 France. 
 
 The king's speech at the opening of the session of 1828 was con- 
 ciliatory. A law was passed in the Chambers concerning newspapers 
 and other periodicals, fixing the amount of security to be given by the 
 proprietors, and enacting other regulations for the police of the press. 
 The commission on the clerical seminaries having made its report, 
 stating that seven or eight of those establishments were actually under 
 the direction of members of the Society of Jesuits, the king issued an 
 ordinance placing the establishments thus specified under the juris- 
 diction of the university, and ordering that in future no director or 
 teacher should be admitted in any clerical seminary unless he declared 
 in writing that he did not belong to any of the religious congregations 
 not legally established in France. 
 
 In 1829 an elaborate project of a new municipal law was laid before 
 the Chambers by the Martignac ministry. It was rejected, and the 
 king was encouraged to try a ministry of decided royalists. This new 
 miuistry was appointed in August 1829, after the Chambers bad been 
 prorogued. It consisted of Prince Polignac, Messrs. Montbel, Haussez, 
 La Bourdonnaye, Guernon Rainville, and others. As soon as the new 
 appointments were known the public indignation broke forth, and a 
 loud cry was set up by the newspapers that the king should dismiss 
 the obnoxious ministers. Associations were formed with the object of 
 refusing to pay the taxe3. Prosecutions were instituted by the king's 
 attorneys against the more violent journals, but in several instances 
 the courts acquitted the accused. Meantime the country was thriving, 
 the new ministers were effecting retrenchments, and proposing a 
 corresponding reduction of taxation. 
 
 On the 2nd of March 1830 Charles X. opened the Chambers. He 
 spoke of his friendly relations with the foreign powers, of the final 
 emancipation of Greece, of the intended expedition against Algiers, 
 and he lastly expressed his firm resolve to transmit to his successors 
 the unimpaired rights of the crown, which he said constituted the 
 best safeguard of the public liberties secured by the Charter. In 
 reply to this speech, the address voted in the Chamber of Deputies, by 
 a majority of forty, told the king plainly that his ministers had not 
 the confidence of the representatives of the nation. The deputies who 
 voted this address were 221 in number. The king, on receiving the 
 address, said that his heart was grieved to find that he had not the 
 support of the Chambers, in order to fulfil all the good which he 
 intended : his resolutions however were immoveable. His ministers 
 would let them know his intentions. The next day, the 19th of March, 
 the Chamber was prorogued to the 1st of September, and some time 
 after a dissolution was proclaimed, and new elections were made. 
 During the spiing incendiary fires broke out in Normandy and other 
 provinces, and the sufferers were mostly small farmers and cottagers. 
 Among those who were seized as guilty of incendiarism, the majority 
 were women. Suspicions and mutual accusations were bandied about 
 from one political party to the other concerning these fires, but no 
 clue was obtained as to the real instigator* The new elections 
 increased the opposition majority to nearly two-thirds of the number 
 of deputies. Meantime news arrived of the conquest of Algiers, but 
 the tidings were received surlily by the opposition. Every act of the 
 ministry was reprobated. This state of things could not last. The 
 king called together a council of ministers, in which it was resolved 
 to give an extended interpretation to article 14 of the Charter, which 
 gave the king the power " of providing by ordinances for the safety 
 of th ; state, and for the repression of any attempt against the dignity 
 
 of the crown." On the 25th of July the king issued several ordinances 
 countersigned by his ministers. The first ordiuauco suspended the 
 liberty of the periodical press. No journal or periodic il was to bo 
 allowed to appear without the royal permission. No pamphlet of 
 les3 than twenty sheets was to be published without the permission 
 of the secretary of state for the home department, or of the local 
 prefect. Ordinance 2 dissolved the newly elected House of Deputies, 
 which had not yet assembled. Ordinance 3 altered the sy-tem of 
 election, reduced the number of the deputies from 430 to 258. and 
 placed the new elections under the direct influence of the prefects. 
 All the ordinances showed but too plainly the spirit in which the kin" 
 was ' immoveably ' determined to reign ; but the last ordinance was 
 decidedly an infraction of the constitution or Charter for the kin" 
 had no right to alter the law of election. The sequel is well known" 
 Most of the editors of newspapers signed an energetic protest against 
 the ordinances, and continued to publish as before, and the tribunal 
 of first instance, and the tribunal of commerce, authorised thorn to do 
 so. Then camo the protest of a number of deputies, denouncing the 
 ordinances as illegal, and proclaiming popular insurrection as a duty. 
 Several master manufacturers turned out their men and shut up their 
 factories, and a mass of people took up arms. Meantime Charles 
 remained quietly at St. Cloud, and merely sent Marshal Marmont to 
 take the command of the garrison of the capital, which consisted of 
 about 10,000 men, one-half of whom could not be depended upon. 
 On the 27th of July the first encounter took place between the troops 
 and the people. Next day an ordinance declared Paris to be iu a state 
 of siege, or, in other words, under martial law. The fighting in the 
 streets became more general. Many of the national guards joined the 
 people, who hoisted the tri-coloured flag, in opposition to the white 
 flag of the Bourbons. The Hotel-de-Ville was taken and retaken. On 
 the 29th the people attacked the Louvre and the Tuileries, the regi- 
 ments of the line abandoned their post, and Marmont with tae guards 
 evacuated Paris. On the 30th a number of deputies and peers pro- 
 claimed the Due d'Orleans lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and 
 Charles X. confirmed his nomination on the 1st of August. On the 
 2nd of August Charles X. abdicated the crown in favour of the Due 
 de Bordeaux, and set out for Cherbourg. The Chambers however 
 would not recognise the claims of the Due de Bordeaux, and elected 
 the Due d'Orleans. [Louis Philippe.] From Cherbourg Charles 
 sailed for England, and finally took up his residence at Holyrood 
 House. He afterwards removed to Prague in Bohemia, where the 
 Emperor of Austria gave him the use of the royal palace. In the 
 autumn of 1836 he removed to Goritz in Styria, for the sake of a 
 milder climate. He there rented the chateau or mansion of Griifen- 
 berg, but soon after his arrival he fell ill of the cholera, and died on 
 the 6th of November, 1836. His body was embalmed and buried in 
 the vaults of the Franciscan convent of Goritz. His son, the Due 
 d'Angouleme, who as well as his grandson, the Due de Bordeaux, had 
 attended him in his last moments, did not assume the royal title, but 
 went by the name of Count de Marnes. The Due d'Angouleme died 
 at Goritz in June, 1843. [Bordeaux, Doc de.] 
 
 CHARLES XII., of Sweden, was born at Stockholm, in June 1682. 
 At fifteen years of age, in 1697, he succeeded his father, Charles XL, 
 a harsh and despotic prince, who had abolished the authority of the 
 senate and rendered himself absolute. Charles was brought up in his 
 father's principles, and he showed from his earliest youth great self- 
 will and obstinacy, and an excessive fondness for military exercises. 
 When he was eighteen, a league was formed against him by Frederic 
 IV., king of Denmark, Augustus, elector of Saxony and king of 
 Poland, and Peter I. of Russia, the object of which was to dismember 
 Sweden. Charles sailed immediately with an army for Copenhagen, 
 besieged that city, and in a few weeks obliged the king of Denmark to sue 
 for peace. He next sailed for the coast of Livonia, then a Swedish pro- 
 vince as well as Ingria ; which latter was invaded by the Russians, who 
 besieged Narva. On the 30th November 1700, Charles, at the head 
 of 8000 well disciplined Swedes, attacked a disorderly body of 80,000 
 Russians, and completely defeated them. He next turned his arms 
 against King Augustus ; but not satisfied with defeating him repeatedly 
 and taking Courland from him, he determined upon deposing him and 
 placing on the throne of Poland a young Polish nobleman, Stanislaus 
 Leckzinski, palatine of Posnania, who by his manner and address had 
 won the favour of Charles. In this project he was favoured by a con- 
 siderable faction among the Polish magnates, always dissatisfied with 
 their sovereigns, and ever ready for change. After several battles 
 and negotiations, Charles, having overrun the greater part of Poland, 
 dictated to the Diet the nomination of his favourite, and Stanislaus 
 was proclaimed king of Poland in July 1704. Augustus however, 
 at the head of his Saxon troops and a party of Poles and Lithuanians, 
 assisted by Russian auxiliaries, kept up a desultory warfare in several 
 provinces of Poland ; but Charles, at the head of part of his army, 
 having crossed the Oder and entered Saxony, Augustus was obliged to 
 sue for peace, which was concluded at Leipzig in the beginning of 
 1707. Augustus resigned the crown of Poland to Stanislaus, and 
 retired to his hereditary Saxon dominions. [Augustus II.] 
 
 Charles, in his head-quarters near Leipzig, at the head of a victorious 
 army of nearly 50,000 Swedish veterans, had for a while the eyes of 
 all Europe fixed upon him. He received ambassadors from all the 
 principal powers, and the Duke of Marlborough himself went to Leipzig, 
 
1M CHARLES XIV. 
 
 and had a loDg interview with Charles, whom he wished to induce 
 to join the allies against Louis XIV. But Charles's views were 
 directed to the north ; his great object was to dethrone his rival, 
 Peter of Russia. He however obliged the emperor Joseph I. to sub- 
 scribe to several conditions which he dictated ; among others, he 
 required that the Protestants of Silesia should have the free exercise 
 of their religion, and a certain number of churches given to them by 
 the government. Having settled these affairs, he marched out of 
 Saxony in September 1707, at the head of 43,000 men, to carry the 
 war into Muscovy. Another corps of 20,000 Swedes, under General 
 Lowenhaupt, was stationed in Poland. In January 1708, Charles 
 crossed the Niemen near Grodno, and defeated the Russian troops 
 which had entered Lithuania. In June 1708 he met Peter on the 
 banks of the Berezina. The Swedes crossed the river, and tho 
 Russians fled precipitately to the Dnieper, which Charles crossed after 
 them near Mohilow, and pursued them as far as Smolensk, towards 
 the end of September. But here Charles began to experience the real 
 difficulties of a Russian campaign. The country was desolate, the roads 
 wretched, the winter approaching, and the army had hardly provisions 
 for a fortnight. Charles therefore abandoned his plan of marching 
 upon Moscow, and turned to the south towards the Ukraine, where 
 Mazeppa, hetman or chief of the Cossaks, had agreed to join him 
 against Peter. Charles advanced towards the river Desna, an uffluent 
 of the Dnieper, which it joins near Kiew; but he missed his way among 
 the extensive marshes which cover a great part of the country, and 
 in which almost all his artillery and waggons were lost. Meantime 
 the Russians had dispersed Mazeppa's Cossaks, and Mazeppa himself 
 came to join Charles as a fugitive with a small body of followers. 
 Lowenhaupt also, who was coming from Poland with 15,000 men, 
 was defeated by Peter in person. Charles thus found himself in the 
 wilds of the Ukraine, hemmed in by the Russians, without provisions, 
 and the winter setting in with unusual severity. His army, thinned by 
 cold, hunger, and fatigue, as well as by the sword, was now reduced 
 to 24,000 men. In this condition Charles passed the winter in the 
 Ukraine, his army subsisting chiefly by the exertions of Mazeppa. In 
 the spring, with 18,000 Swedes and as many Cossaks, he laid siege to 
 the town of Pultawa, where the Russians had collected large stores. 
 During the siege he was severely wounded in the foot ; and soon after 
 Peter himself appeared to relieve Pultawa, at the head of 70,000 men. 
 Charles had now no choice but to risk a general battle, which was 
 fought on the 8th of July 1709, and ended in the total defeat of the 
 Swedes, 9000 of whom remained on the field of battle. With the 
 remainder Charles fled towards the frontiers of Turkey, which he 
 reached almost alone at Oczakow, on the limen of the Bog and Dnieper. 
 He claimed the hospitality of Sultan Achmet III., who assigned to 
 him a liberal allowance, and the town of Bender on the Dniester for 
 his residence. We shall not here speak of the foolish behaviour of 
 Charles while a refugee at Bender, of his arrogance towards the Turks, 
 his generous entertainers, whom he absolutely obliged to fight him 
 and his little band of followers, and at last to remove him to Demotica 
 near Adrianople, where they continued to treat him with a generous 
 forbearance. At last in October 1714, Charles left Turkey, and 
 crossing Hungary and all Germany, arrived in sixteen days at Stral- 
 sund. Without going to Stockholm, he immediately took the field 
 against Prussia, Denmark, Saxony, and Russia leagued against him, 
 obtained some advantages, was afterwards besieged in Stralsund, and 
 obliged to retire to Sweden at the end of 1715. In March 1716 he 
 invaded Norway at the head of 20,000 men, and advanced to Chris- 
 tiania, but was obliged by want of provisions to return to Sweden. 
 He entered into negociations with Peter, but still pursued the war 
 against the Danes, and in October 1718 he again invaded Norway, and 
 besieged Friedrichshall in the midst of winter. On the evening of the 
 11th of December, while he was inspecting the trenches exposed to 
 the fire of a, battery, he was struck in the head by a shot, and died 
 instantly, in his thirty-seventh year. For the particulars of his adven- 
 turous career, Voltaire's 'Histoire de Charles XII.' is the chief 
 authority ; it is generally considered correct, and is warranted by 
 the testimony of Stanislaus, king of Poland. (See the ' Attestation ' 
 prefixed to Voltaire's ' Life of Charles XII.') 
 
 Charles was a true specimen of a conqueror for mere glory, as it is 
 called ; his passion for war engrossed all his thoughts, and he seems to 
 have had no idea that a nation could be glorious and happy in a state 
 of peace. In one respect he was superior to most conquerors. He 
 maintained a most exemplary moral discipline in his army, which did 
 not disgrace itself by the licentiousness and the atrocities which have 
 marked the steps of most other invaders. 
 
 CHARLES XIV, of Sweden, CARL XIV. JOHAN (Jean Baptiste 
 Jdles Bernadotte), born at Pau in the Beam, in January 1764, was 
 the second son of a lawyer in that town. He was educated in his 
 paternal home till the age of seventeen, when one day he left it 
 abruptly and enlisted as a volunteer in the regiment royal marine, iu 
 1780. His first service was in the island of Corsica, where he remained 
 two years. On his return to France, he rose gradually through his 
 own good conduct to the rank of adjutant. He was doing garrison 
 duty at Marseille in 1790, when the revolution began. Bernadotte 
 had the good fortune to save his colonel, the Marquis d'Ambert, from 
 the popular fury which was then excited against the nobles. 
 Bernadotte was next promoted into the regiment of Aujou, aud as 
 
 CHARLES XIV. 200 
 
 the royalist officers emigrated in crowds, promotion became rapid for 
 those who remained under their colours. Bernadotte was soon made 
 a colonel, and when the war broke out against Austria and Prussia, 
 he was sent to the army of the Rhine under General Custine, where 
 he distinguished himself, was made chief of brigade, and afterwards 
 became general of division in the army of Sambre-et-Meuse, under 
 Kleber and Jourdau. He served in the well-contested campaigns of 
 1795-96, against the Austrian Generals Clairfait, Kray, and the Arch- 
 duko Charles. At the beginning of 1797, he was ordered by the 
 Directory to march with 20,000 men from the Rhine to Italy, to rein- 
 force General Bonaparte. Bernadotte commanded the advanced guard 
 in the campaign of 1797, and distinguished himself at the passage of 
 the Tagliamento, and in the invasion of Carniola. After the prelimi- 
 naries of peace were signed at Leoben, Bonaparte returned to Milan 
 aud loft Bernadotte in command of the advanced posts in the Venetian 
 province of Friuli. He received afterwards the thanks of the States 
 of Friuli for his humanity and kindness towards the inhabitants of 
 that country. 
 
 During the negociations for the definite peace, Bonaparte sent 
 Bernadotte to Paris to present to the Directory the standards taken 
 from the Austrians. On his return to head-quarters, iu October 1797, 
 Bonaparte interrogated him concerning the disposition of the various 
 parties towards himself. Bernadotte told him frankly that he must 
 not depend upon any party, that the Directory were suspicious of 
 him, that he could not expect any reinforcements in case of a new 
 campaign against Austria, and that the wisest thing that he could do 
 was to hasten to conclude peace with the emperor. Four days after- 
 wards, Bonaparte signed the treaty of Campoformio. On leaving Italy, 
 Bonaparto took away from Bernadotte one-half of the troops which 
 he had brought with him from the Rhine, and ordered them back to 
 France. Bernadotte, offended at this, requested of the Directory a 
 command in the colonies, or if not to accept his resignation. The 
 Directory appointed him ambassador at Vienna. 
 
 In his embassy at Vienna, Bernadotte assumed a conciliatory and 
 temperate tone, and even made no outward display of the revolutionary 
 flag and cockade, till expressly ordered by the Directory to hoist the 
 tri-coloured flag above the entrance of his hotel. This was done on 
 the 13th of April 1798, and led to a riot which was only quelled by 
 the interference of the military. Bernadotte after this left Vienna, 
 but after some diplomatic explanations the affair was hushed up. In 
 the following August, 1798, Bernadotte married at Paris a younger 
 sister of Joseph Bonaparte's wife of the name of Clary. In the following 
 year he was appointed Minister-at-War, at a time when the French 
 armies were discouraged by reverses, and were in a state of great 
 destitution. He exerted himself to re-establish confidence and dis- 
 cipline, and to protect the French frontiers, which were threatened 
 by the allies. He furnished Massena with the means of resuming 
 offensive operations, which led to the defeat of the Russians at Zurich. 
 By one of those intrigues so frequent in the councils of the French 
 Directory, Bernadotte was recalled from the war ministry ; and he 
 was living unemployed at Paris when Bonaparte arrived from Egypt. 
 Bonaparte tried to cajole him into an acquiescence with his views 
 previous to the revolution of Brumaire, but Bernadotte firmly refused 
 to join him in upsetting the constitution of the republic, and would 
 have opposed him by force had the Directory so ordered him. A 
 military man, he remained strictly within the line of military duty. 
 Bonaparte knew this; and having become First Consul, he gave 
 Bernadotte the command of the army of the west, for the purpose of 
 pacifying La Vendee and the other disturbed districts. 
 
 After his assumption of the empire, Napoleon made Bernadotte a 
 marshal, and sent him, in 1804, to command the army which was 
 stationed in Hanover. He there put a stop to the irregularities and 
 arbitrary acts which had taken place in consequence of the military 
 occupation, and contrived to provide for the wants of his soldiers 
 without distressing the inhabitants. This was the beginning of the 
 good reputation which he acquired in North Germany, and which 
 afterwards contributed materially to raise him to the throne of 
 Sweden. In 1805 Marshal Bernadotte left Hanover with his corps to 
 join Napoleon's army against Austria. He was present at the battle 
 of Austerlitz, where he broke through the centre of the Russians. 
 In June 1806, Napoleon created Bernadotte Prince of Pontecorvo, 
 which he designated as " immediate fief of the imperial crown." In 
 the war against Prussia, Bernadotte commanded the first corps. He 
 had some altercation with Davoust about precedence, on the eve of 
 the battle of Jena; he afterwards defeated the Prussians at Halle, 
 and pursued Bliicher as far as Liibeck, where he defeated him. He 
 fought afterwards against the Russians, and was wounded just before 
 the battle of Friedland. After the peace of Tilsit, Napoleon appointed 
 him commander-in-chief in North Germany, from Embden to Liibeck, 
 with orders to take possession of the Hanseatic towns ; to exclude the 
 English trade entirely all along that line, and to induce Denmark to 
 make common cause with France. The English expedition against 
 Copenhagen deranged, in part, Bonaparte's calculations. In March 180S, 
 Napoleon ordered Bernadotte to march into Denmark, and to invade 
 Sweden in concert with the Danes by passing over the ice. But the 
 Danes were slow, the thaw came, the English cruizcrs appeared again 
 in the Sound, and Bernadotte remained in Denmark. Part of the 
 troops uuder him consisted of two Spanish, divisions, lone of which, 
 
201 
 
 CHARLES XIV. 
 
 CHARLES XIV. 
 
 201 
 
 under the Marquis la Romana, was stationed in the island of Fiinen. 
 The marquis, having learnt the invasion of Spain by the French, 
 embarked his men on board the English fleet, and Beruadotte had 
 just time to prevent the other division from following their example. 
 In April 1S09 Bernadotte was ordered to join the army on the 
 Danube, for the war against Austria. He took the commaud of the 
 ninth corps, chiefly composed of Saxon troops. At the battle of 
 Wagram, 5th of July, whilst opposed to the principal body of the 
 Austrian army, he was deprived by Napoleon of his reserve division, 
 which received auother destination. The consequence was that he 
 was obliged to fall back and evacuate the village of Deutsch Wagram. 
 The following morning he expostulated in very strong words with 
 Napoleon, on the order which had deprived him of his reserve, and 
 exposed him to be crushed by superior forces. The battle was 
 resumed, and, after another desperate contest and a fearful loss, was 
 gained by the French. Bernadotte's corps alone lost six thousand 
 men. An armistice being concluded, the marshal demanded his 
 retirement and obtained it. Having returned to Paris, about the time 
 when the English landed at Flushing, the minister of the interior and 
 the minister-at-war urged Bernadotte to take the command of the 
 troops hastily collected to oppose the enemy and protect Antwerp. 
 He did so, but Napoleon soon after took away his command, and 
 replaced him by Marshal Bessieres : he was offended at some sentence 
 of a proclamation which Bernadotte had addressed to his soldiers. 
 The marshal was nettled, but the minister-at-war sent him back to 
 t le army at Vienna. There he had again a warm explanation with 
 Napoleon, and a seeming reconciliation took place. When he set out 
 to return to Paris, Napoleon left Bernadotte in command at Vienna, 
 till the ratification of the treaty of peace with Austria. At the 
 beginning of 1810 Napoleon offered him the government-general of 
 the Roman States. Bernadotte hesitated, but at last accepted, and 
 began making his preparations. 
 
 Meantime important events had taken place in the North, in which 
 Bernadotte was to act an unexpected part. Gustavus IV., king of 
 Sweden, liad been obliged to abdicate the crown in March 1809 on 
 account of his incapacity ; and the States of Sweden had declared him 
 aud his descendants excluded for ever from the throne. His uncle, 
 the Duke of Sudermania, assumed the government under the title of 
 Charles XIII. Being childless, the States chose for prince royal and 
 heir to the throne, Augustus of Holstein Augustenburg, brother of 
 the reigning Prince of Augustenburg. But in less than a year Prince 
 Augustus died suddenly, whilst reviewing some troops at Helsinborg, 
 26th of May 1810. It was necessary to choose another heir to the 
 crown of Sweden. Several candidates presented themselves; the 
 brother of the deceased prince, and the King of Denmark, among 
 others ; but none of them seemed to suit the circumstances of 
 Sweden. Sweden required a man of firmness, a good administrator, 
 aud of tried military abilities. Bernadotte had displayed all these 
 qualities during bis command in North Germany in 1808 and 1809. 
 The people of Hamburg and the other Hanseatic towns spoke highly 
 cf his justice and moderation. He had behaved with kind regard 
 towards the Swedish prisoners of war, and had readily granted an 
 armistice on the fir^t application of the Duke of Sudermania, after- 
 wards Charles XIII., who on the present occasion cast his eyes upon 
 htm, and proposed to the Swedish Diet assembled at Oerebro in 
 August 1810 Marshal Bernadotte, prince of Pontecorvo, as prince 
 royal of Sweden. "His majesty," said the message, "having consulted 
 the Secret Committee, as well as the Council of State, on this important 
 question, has met with a great majority in the first and a unanimity in 
 the second of these bodies in favour of his proposal. The Prince of 
 Pontecorvo being once entrusted with the future destinies of Sweden, 
 bis established military reputation, whilst ensuring the independence 
 of the kingdom, will make him avoid useless wars for the mere sake 
 of renown ; his mature experience and energy of character will main- 
 tain order in the interior ; and the love of justice and humanity which 
 he hag exhibited in hostile countries is a guarantee of hi3 conduct 
 towards the country which should adopt him; and lastly, the existence 
 of his son will put an end to any further uncertainty concerning the 
 succession to the crown." Two Swedish officers had been sent to Paris 
 to sound Bernadotte on the subject of his election. Bernadotte asked 
 the emperor Napoleon, who told him, that if he were elected by the 
 free choice of the Swedes he (the emperor) would consent to his accept- 
 ing the crown. "I cannot assist you however in this," added Napoleon, 
 '' but let tilings take their own course." It being rumoured however 
 that the French minister at Stockholm supported the claims of the 
 •iiog of Denmark, Beruadotte frankly told Napoleon of this, who 
 teemed to disbelieve it, and soon after recalled his minister. The 
 iimperor Alexander, on his part, did not oppose Bernadotte's election, 
 but rather approved of it. On the 21st of August 1810, the Diet 
 Voted unanimously, and in the midst of acclamations, Jean Baptiste 
 Juies Beruadotte, prince of Pontecorvo, to ba prince royal of Sweden 
 aud heir to the throne, on condition of his adopting the Communion 
 of Augsburg. Charles XIII., at the same time, formally adopted him 
 as lug son. A Swedish envoy carried these documents to Paris, with 
 letters from the king to the new-elected prince and to the emperor 
 Napoleon, who both answered in the affirmative. Bernadotte however 
 could not leave France without haviug received letters of emancipation, 
 relieving him from his allegiance to the emperor. After waiting a 
 
 BIOO. l. v. VOL. XI. 
 
 month, Bernadotte complained to Napoleon of the delay, when the 
 latter told him, that his Secret Council had decided that the letters of 
 emancipation should only be delivered to him after he bad signed an 
 engagement never to wage war against France. Bernadotte replied 
 with some warmth, that tho condition was impossible; that by the 
 very act of his election he was precluded from entering into any 
 engagement towards a power for igu to Sweden, and that nothing 
 remained for him but to renounce the proffered dignity. Napoleon 
 mused for a moment, then said, hurriedly, " Well, go ! let our desti- 
 nies be accomplished." He then reverted to the continental system, 
 and said that Sweden must conform itself to it. Bernadotte observed, 
 that he must have time to examine things on the spot, to make out 
 the feelings of the Swedes, and make himself acquainted with their 
 interests. " How long do you require ? " cried out Napoleon. " Till 
 next May," said the prince. This was at the beginning of October. 
 " I grant you this delay," replied Napoleon ; " but then declare your- 
 self, either friend or enemy." Bernadotte hastened to leave France, but 
 did not think himself safe until he had crossed the Sound. The day 
 of his departure from Paris, Napoleon told Duroc that he wished that 
 Bernadotte had refused ; but that Bernadotte did not like him ; that 
 they had never understood one another, and that it was now too late. 
 
 The prince royal was met at Elsinor by several Swedish high digni- 
 taries, and the Archbishop of Upsal among the rest. He told that 
 prelate that he had been in his youth instructed in the reformed 
 religion, which was professed by many in his native Beam, that he had 
 since conversed in Germany with Protestant clergymen on religious 
 subjects, and that he now declared that he believed in the doctrine 
 contained in the Confession of Augsburg, such as it was presented by 
 the princes and states of Germany to the emperor Charles V. On the 
 20th of October he landed at Helsinborg, and he entered Stockholm 
 on the 2nd of November, amidst the salutes of the artillery. On the 
 5th he attended the Assembly of the States, in which Charles XIII. 
 presided. He addressed the king and the States in succession, declaring 
 his intention to live entirely for the good of his adopted country. 
 "Brought up in the camp," he thus concluded, " I have been familiar 
 with war, and am acquainted with all its calamities ; no conquest can 
 console a country for the blood of its children shed in a foreign land. 
 Peace is the only glorious object of a wise and enlightened government. 
 It is not the extent of a country, but its laws, its commerce, its indus- 
 try, and above all its national spirit, that constitute its strength. 
 Sweden has of late experienced great losses, but the honour of the 
 Swedish name remains unscathed. We have still a land sufficient for 
 our wants, and iron to defend ourselves." Two days after despatches 
 came from Napoleon, demanding in the most imperious tone that 
 Sweden should declare immediately war against England. The winter 
 was setting in, precluding all hopes of assistance from England in case 
 of an attack by the French troops through Denmark. In this emer- 
 gency the king declared war against England ; but his situation was 
 well understood by the British cabinet, and the result was a state of 
 non-intercourse rather than hostilities. But Napoleon did not stop 
 here; he demanded a draft of Swedish sailors for the French fleet, 
 a body of Swedish troops for the French army, the introduction of 
 French custom-house officers at Gothenburg, and, lastly, the formation 
 of a Northern Confederation, consisting of Sweden, Denmark, and the 
 duchy of Warsaw, under the protection of France. All these demands 
 were respectfully but firmly refused; but the prince royal became 
 convinced, that with such a man as Napoleon, Sweden could not 
 remain at peace and retain its independence as a nation. He wrote 
 several letters to Napoleon, explaining the delicate and painful position 
 in which he found himself. Sweden could not live without maritime 
 trade. After three months, Napoleon answered by fresh demands of 
 hostilities against Great Britain, and of a vigorous exclusion of all 
 English or colonial goods. Meantime, French privateers in the Baltic 
 and Northern seas seized the Swedish vessels, whilst the Freuch 
 authorities confiscated the Swedish ships in the German ports, aud 
 marched their crews into France to serve in Napoleon's dockyards. 
 Napoleon treated Sweden as an enemy. The year 1811 was a dread- 
 ful period for Sweden, and the prince royal in particular, and his 
 health was affected by his anxiety. At last a fresh act of violence of 
 Napoleon put an end to all uncertainty. In January 1812, Freuch 
 troops invaded Swedish Pomerania and the island of Riigen ; arrested 
 the public functionaries, who were sent to the prisons of Hamburg, 
 and replaced them by Frenchmen ; disarmed two Swedish regiments, 
 which had been surprised under the appearance of peace, and sent the 
 men prisoners into France ; and sequestrated all public property and 
 all Swedish vessels in the port of Stralsund. All Sweden was roused 
 at the news. The prince royal wrote a strong remonstrance to Napo- 
 leon upon this wanton outrage against the rights of Sweden as a nation. 
 Charles XIII. sent an envoy to St. Petersburg to conclude an alliance 
 with the Emperor Alexander, which was signed on the 21th of M trch, 
 and from that time the prince royal, haviug renewed friendly relations 
 with England, exerted himself to promote peace between Russia and 
 England, and Russia and Turkey. All this was well known at Paris, 
 while Napoleon was preparing his gigantic expedition against Russia. 
 It was a very bold step for Sweden thus to throw the gauntlet at the 
 great conqueror; but the step was taken with the courage of despair, 
 for Napoleon would not let auy nation live independent. Those who 
 have talked of Bernadotte's treason, as they call it, of his taking 
 
2n.3 
 
 CHARLES XIV. 
 
 CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE. 
 
 advantage of Bonaparte's Russian disasters to give him an inglorious 
 blow, forget dates and misrepresent circumstances. They have con- 
 founded the treaty of St. Petersburg in March, with the treaty of Abo 
 in August 1812. Sweden had chosen her part, forced to it by Napo- 
 leon's outrageous injustice, long before the breaking out of the Russian 
 war. After that war had begun, and about the middle of August, the 
 prince royal repaired to Abo in Finland to have an interview with 
 the Emperor Alexander, who was delighted with his manner and con- 
 versation. It was then agreed that Sweden should take an active port 
 in the war by landing an army in North Germany, which would be 
 joined by a corps of Russians. At the same time it was stipulated 
 that Norway should bo detached from Denmark, a power closely and 
 pertinaciously allied with the common enemy, Napoleon, and be 
 annexed to the crown of Sweden in compensation for the loss of 
 Finland. The accession of Great Britain to the treaty was solicited, 
 and after a time obtained. This treaty was signed at Abo, 18th of 
 August. The prince royal having reviewed a body of 35,000 Russians, 
 who were to be placed immediately at his disposal, told Alexander, 
 " They are very fine troops, and you can ill spare them just now; send 
 them instead to Riga, to reinforce Wittgenstein, who has great diffi- 
 culty in defending himself against Macdonald and Victor. If the 
 French succeed there they will march on St. Petersburg." " That is 
 very handsome of you," said Alexander; "but how will you obtain 
 possession of Norway." "If you succeed," said the prince, "you will 
 keep your promise. If you succumb, Europe is enslaved ; all crowns 
 will be withered by subjection to Napoleon. Better then go and till a 
 field than reign under that condition." The troops were sent across 
 the Gulf of Finland to Wittgenstein, just in time to save Riga and 
 St. Petersburg. The prince royal, after his return to Stockholm, kept 
 up a familiar correspondence with Alexander during the whole of the 
 memorable Russian campaign, gave him the best advice, and supported 
 his spirits. After the French retreat from Moscow, the Swedish 
 cabinot signified to the French charge 1 d'affaires at Stockholm that all 
 diplomatic relations with France had ceased, and sent him his pass- 
 ports. This was resented in a note by Maret, Napoleon's secretary for 
 foreign affairs, to which the prince royal replied by an eloquent letter 
 addressed to Napoleon, in March 1813, which was afterwards printed 
 and circulated throughout Germany. 
 
 In May the prince royal landed at Stralsund with about 25,000 
 Swedes, and advanced towards the Elbe. Soon after, an armistice 
 having been concluded between the Russians and the French, the prince 
 royal had an interview with the Emperor Alexander and the King of 
 Prussia at Tracheuberg in Silesia. He laid before them a plan of 
 operations for the various allied armies during the ensuing campaign, 
 pointing to Leipzig as their ultimate place of meeting. When hostilities 
 began again, the prince royal, at the head of the army called ' of the 
 North,' which consisted of Swedes, Russians, and Prussians, protected 
 Berlin against the advance of the French under Oudinot, whom he 
 repulsed at Gross Beeren ; and he afterwards defeated Ney at Denne- 
 witz, 6th of September, which saved Berlin a second time, and drove 
 the French upon the left bank of the Elbe. Napoleon began his retreat 
 from Dresden upon Leipzig, whither the movements of the allies were 
 converging, and there he sustained his signal defeat, which decided 
 the evacuation of Germany by the French The prince royal contri- 
 buted greatly to the success of that battle on the 18th of October, and 
 the following day he forced his way into the town, where he met in 
 the great square the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia, 
 according to the agreement of Trachenberg. 
 
 Leaving to others the pursuit of the French to the Rhine, the prince 
 royal turned towards the north to attack Davoust and his allies the 
 Danes on the Lower Elbe. He defeated the Danes, who demanded 
 an armistice, and then blockaded Davoust in Hamburg. On the 14th 
 of January 1814 a treaty was concluded at Kiel between Denmark and 
 Sweden, by which the former power gave up Norway to the crown of 
 Sweden, and joined the coalition. The prince royal then hastened to 
 the Rhine, and fixed his head-quarters at Cologne and afterwards at 
 Liege, whence he urged the Emperor Alexander to make peace with 
 France, having the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees for its boundaries. 
 He wrote in the same strain to the Swedish minister at the Congress 
 of Chatillon, and he also advised Napoleon, through an indirect channel, 
 to make peace, or he would lose his crown. He himself would take 
 no part in the campaign in France in 1814. He always strongly opposed 
 the idea of any dismemberment of France, or of forcing any particular 
 dynasty upon the French. " Let Germany and Holland be free," he 
 said, " and let the French choose their own government." And the 
 Emperor Alexander coincided with him ; but Napoleon, by rejecting 
 all proposals, hurried on his own fall. The prince royal's paramount 
 duties however were towards his adopted country, Sweden, which 
 expected a compensation for all her past sufferings and her present 
 exertions for the common cause. He went to Paris, incognito, to confer 
 with Alexander on the subject of Norway, as Denmark seemed little 
 inclined to fulfil the treaty of Kiel. The emperor, faithful to his 
 word, obtained the sanction of all the allies, and placed at the disposal 
 of the prince royal his troops in North Germany. The prince then 
 pet off for Brussels, where he collected his Swedish troops, and marched 
 them back to the shores of the Baltic. 
 
 Christian Frederic, prince of Denmark, had hoisted in Norway the 
 flag of independence. The Norwegians, he said, were freed from their 
 
 allegiance to the crown of Denmark, but they were not bound by the 
 conditions of the treaty of Kiel. He assembled a sort of diet at 
 Eiswold, which framed a liberal constitution, and elected Christian 
 for their king, who soon after dissolved the assembly. The King of 
 Denmark sent commissaries to summon Christian to fulfil the treaty 
 of Kiel, but little attention was paid to this formality. Four commis- 
 sioners of England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, came to remonstrate 
 in favour of the same treaty, but obtained only evasive answers. A 
 Swedish army and fleet were then put in motion against Christian. 
 King Charles XIII. and the prince royal commanded in person. After 
 some trifling actions on the frontier the Swedes entered Norway ; an j 
 armistice was concluded ; and the Storthing, or general assembly of j 
 Norway, being convoked, required Christian to renounce the authority 
 with which he had been intrusted by the nation. Christian abdicated, 
 and returned to Copenhagen. The Storthing then entered into com- 
 munication with the Swedish commissioners, and after some deliberation i 
 elected unanimously Charles XIII. of Sweden to be king of the kingdom 
 of Norway, and Carl Johan as prince royal. The king and prince, on 
 their part, swore to the constitution of Norway as voted by tho 
 Storthing. The prince royal entered Christiania in the midst of 
 acclamations, and received the oath of allegiance of the deputies to 
 Charles XIII. in November 1814. The Scandinavian peninsula was - 
 now united under one sceptre, and ' No more Dovre' was the common 
 word of union, meaning that the natural boundary of the Dovrefold, ' 
 or mountains between the two countries, was no longer a political 
 barrier. 
 
 In July 1817 Prince Oscar, son of the prince royal, the present King 
 of Sweden and Norway, attained his majority, which was celebrated \, 
 by a public solemnity. This young prince, who had followed hia I 
 father to Sweden in 1810, had been educated as a Swede in every u 
 respect. At the end of that year Charles XIII. fell ill, and on the 5th 
 of the following February, 1818, he expired, happy in the choice of ; 
 his adopted son. Carl XIV., Johan, was immediately proclaimed ri 
 both in Sweden and in Norway, and was in due time acknowledged 3 
 by all the princes of Europe. Even the deposed Gustavus wrote him 
 a letter of congratulation from Switzerland. The new king was 
 crowned at Stockholm in May by tho Archbishop of Upsal, and after- 
 wards at Drontheim in September by the Bishop of Aggerhus, with 
 unusual splendour. 
 
 The twenty-six years of the reign of Charles XIV. were for Sweden 
 and Norway a period of peace and internal improvement. Every branch 
 of the administration, the finances, the navy, the army, the roads and 
 canals, public instruction, all were improved. The great canal of 
 Gothia, which joins the Baltic to the Northern Sea, was opened in 1832. ] 
 Agriculture in all its branches made great progress. Sweden, which 
 was formerly obliged to import large supplies of corn, now produces 
 enough for itself, and even exports corn. The public debt was reduced 
 almost to nothing. Sweden had at the end of this reign more than 
 2500 merchant ships, exclusive of coasting vessels, which is double 
 what she had in 1810. It may be easily supposed that the military 
 Bervice, in all its branches, received the especial attention of Charles 
 -John. In his speech on the opening of the Swedish Diet in January 
 1840, he recapitulated with honest satisfaction all that had been done 
 for the country under his reign. 
 
 Charles John had completed his eightieth year when he was seized 
 by an illness in January 1844, which brought him to the grave on the 
 8th of March following. His son, Oscar I., succeeded him. Upon the ■ 
 whole, the life of Charles John Bernadotte is one of the most instructive 
 biographies of our own times ; it affords subject for serious reflection, 
 and is a useful comment on the history of Napoleon. 
 
 (Touchard-Lafosse, Histoire de Charles XIV. Jean, Roi de Sulde et de 
 Norvtge; F. Schmidt, La Snide sous Charles XIV. Jean ; Daumont, 
 Voyage en Suede; Laing, Tour in Sweden; Count Biornstjerna, On 
 the Moral State and Political Union of Sweden and Norway, ice.) 
 
 CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE, born at 
 St. Quentin in 1682, was educated by the Jesuits, and was admitted 
 into their order in early life. In 1720 he was appointed to one of the 
 Jesuit missions in Canada, and, embarking at Rochelle, he arrived at 
 Quebec in the autumn of that year. He explored a large part of 
 Canada, and examined several of the rivers and lakes, which were then 
 not much visited by Europeans. In going from North America to 
 St. Domingo, he suffered shipwreck ; but a second voyage was more 
 fortunate, and he reached that island in September, 1722. After two 
 or three weeks stay in St. Domingo, he sailed for France, and arrived 
 at Havre in the month of December. He afterwards made a journey 
 into Italy on some business of his order, which frequently entrusted 
 him with important employments. Besides producing the voluminous 
 works that bear his name, he wrote during twenty-two years in the 
 'Me"moires de Trevoux,' a literary journal conducted by the Jesuits. 
 He died at La Fleche in 1761. 
 
 He was a laborious compiler, and the documents and accounts of 
 foreign countries (furnished by Jesuit missionaries, who were scattered 
 in almost every corner of the world) upon which he principally 
 worked, were numerous and occasionally valuable ; but both he and 
 his authorities were partial, prejudiced, credulous, and superstitious, 
 and too much given to tedious details of the proceedings and cere- 
 monies of their own order. His separate works are, 1, ' History and 
 Description of Japan,' 3 vols. 12mo, Rouen, 1715 ; and 2 vols. 4to, 
 
KM 
 
 CHARNOCK, STEPHEN. 
 
 CHASTELLET, MARQUISE DU. 
 
 tot 
 
 Paris, 1736; this work is taken almost entirely from Kampfer ; 
 2, 'History of St. Domingo,' 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1730; 3, 'History of 
 New France,' 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1744, which contains a good account 
 of the French establishments in Canada and North America ; (part of 
 this work, including his own travels in those countries, was translated 
 into English in 1760, under the title of 'Journal of a Voyage to North 
 America;') 4, 'History of Paraguay,' 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1756; which 
 was translated into English in 1769. 
 
 The thick quartos of Charlevoix are a compound of travels and 
 history, not very skilfully mixed ; but although he had neither the 
 order and philosophy necessary to an historian, nor the enterprise 
 and vivacity of a traveller, he was a very industrious man, and col- 
 lected many things which still render his books valuable for occasional 
 reference. 
 
 CHARNOCK, STEPHEN, a nonconformist, was known in his 
 lifetime as an active and eloquent theologian, and is now remembered 
 for the merit of writings not published till after his death. He was 
 born in London, in 1628. At one time he was senior proctor in the 
 University of Oxford; and afterwards he became a preacher in Dublin. 
 Being ejected thence by the Act of Uniformity, he held for fifteen 
 years the charge of a dissenting congregation in London, where he died 
 in 1 6S0. His printed works are the following : — ' Several Discourses 
 of the Existence and Attributes of God,' 1682, fol. ; 'Works,' 1684, 
 2 vols. fol. ; ' Two Discourses, of Man's Enmity to God ; and of the 
 Salvation of Sinners,' 1699, 8vo. 
 
 CHARON, a native of Lampsacus, on the Hellespont, one of those 
 numerous Greek historical writers now only known by their names 
 and a few fragments. Charon lived before Herodotus, who was born 
 B.C. 484, and he was younger than Hecataeus, who was probably in the 
 vigour of hi3 life about B.C. 500. Charon wrote a history of his native 
 town, a history of Persia, a history of Crete, and other works. The 
 loss of the Cretan history is to be regretted, as we possess so few 
 materials for the ancient state of that island. 
 
 (Suidas, Xdpwv ; Creuzer, Eistoricorum Orcecorum Antiquiss. Frag- 
 menta, &c, Heidelberg, 8vo, 1806.) 
 
 Suidas mentions two other writers of the name ; one of Carthage, 
 and the other of Naucratis, in Egypt. 
 
 * CHASLES, MICHEL, an eminent geometer, was born at Epernon 
 (Fure-et-Loire) 15th of November 1793. In 1812 he entered the 
 Ecole Polytechnique, where his researches on the theory of surfaces of 
 the second order, to which he at once devoted himself, soon brought 
 him into notice. They are published in the ' Correspondance sur 
 l'Ecole Polytechnique' for 1813 and 1815. Before then there was no 
 other proof of the double generation of the hyperboloid of one sheet 
 than the analytical demonstration by Monge ; Chasles produced one 
 purely geometrical, which was immediately adopted in the instructions 
 of the school. By another class of researches he established different 
 theorems, which were used by Poncelet in his 'Traite des propridte"3 
 projectives des Figures' (4to, Paris, 1822). In a later series of memoirs 
 he teaches how infinitely thin laminae may be constructed, partaking 
 of the properties of electric films formed on the surfaces of conducting 
 bodies, by methods which give him a distinguished place among 
 analy sts. But it is in pure geometry that his power of generalisation 
 is best seen : he at once extends and simplifies the most important 
 theories. 
 
 The Academy of Sciences at Brussels having proposed as a prize 
 question, " On demande un examen philosophique des differentes 
 mdthodes employees dans la ge'orne'trie rdcente, et particulierement de 
 la mdthode des polaire3 reciproques,' M. Chasles answered it by an 
 elaborate paper which was crowned by the Academy in 1830, and 
 publl-hed in the 11th volume of their ' Mdmoires.' It was considerably 
 amplified and reprinted by the author in 1837, under the title 'Apergu 
 historique sur l'origine et le ddveloppement des mdthodes en gdonidtrie, 
 particulierement de celles qui se rapportent a, la geome'trie moderne, 
 suivi d'un mdmoire sur deux principes gdndraux de la science, la 
 dualite" et l'homographie,' 4to, Pans. This work is not merely a 
 learned history of different geometrical methods ; in the thirty-four 
 notes which accompany it M. Chasles approaches important questions; 
 giving a large extension to the theory of the involution of six points 
 which originates in one of Desargues' theorems, and establishing the basis 
 of a new theory of conic sections and of surfaces of the second order. 
 
 Many questions in pure geometry could only be resolved by a com- 
 plicated process which rendered their solution exceedingly difficult if 
 not impossible, notwithstanding the researches of Carnot and other 
 mathematicians. M Chasles however by an ingenious algorithm suc- 
 ceeded in introducing the principle of signs into pure geometry, and 
 showed moreover that imaginaries might be brought into consideration 
 without difficulty. He has thus created a new branch of mathematics, 
 characterised by the uniformity of the method. Its merits consist in 
 the ability which it gives of deducing immediately from one single 
 principle all those admirable properties of conic sections known as 
 theorems of Pappus, Desargues, Pascal, Newton, Brianchon, and 
 oth ra; and also that it establishes a multitude of new ones by the aid 
 If this principle, and of a certain law of correlation. 
 
 In 1841 M. Chasles was appointed professor of astronomy and of 
 Applied mechanics at the Ecole Polytechnique. It was felt that his 
 brilliant discoveries called for a chair specially devoted to that course 
 of teaching, audio, 1846 the chair of higher geometry was instituted 
 
 at the Faculty of Sciences. Entered on his duties in this new post, 
 M. Chasles co-ordinated the elements of the science, and published tlio 
 first portion in his 'Traite" de Gdome'trie Superieure,' 8vo, Paris, 1852. 
 The method applies equally to conic sections and lines of the higher 
 orders, as the author has demonstrated in various memoirs which aro 
 to form the groundwork of succeeding volumes. 
 
 By his historical researches M. Chasles has promoted science in 
 another way. His 'Apercu historique' contains new ideas on the 
 signification of the porisms of Euclid, and an explanation of the 
 geometrical part of the works of the Hindoos, which bear evidence of 
 profound erudition. In the same work, and in his ' Histoire de 
 TArithme'tique' (4to, 1843), he shews proof that our system of nume- 
 ration is of Pythagorean origin and not Arabian, as is commonly 
 believed. Others of his writings are to be found in the 'Journal 
 de l'Ecole Polytechnique,' Gergonne's 'Annales de Mathdmatiques,' 
 Quetelet's ' Correspondance Mathdrnatique et Physique,' Liouville's 
 ' Journal de Mathdmatiques,' ' Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. des Sciences,' 
 ' Conuaissance des Temps,' &c. 
 
 M. Chasles was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 
 1851, the same year that he commenced his lectures at the Faculty of 
 Sciences. In 1854 he was chosen a foreign member of the Royal Society 
 of London. In 1860 he was nominated officer of the Legion of Honour. 
 
 CHASSE, DAVID HENRY, BARON, the resolute defender of 
 Antwerp, was born at Thiel, in Gueldre, March 18, 1765. In 1775, 
 he entered the Dutch army as a cadet, but he left that service after 
 the revolution in Holland in 1787, and attached himself to the French 
 army, in which he continued for many years. He became a lieutenant- 
 colonel in 1793. In the fierce war with Prussia in 1806, he greatly 
 distinguished himself under the Dutch general Dumorceau, and was 
 made general of brigade. He afterwards took part in the Peninsular 
 War, and displayed so much intrepidity that the soldiers nicknamed 
 him ' General Bayonet,' from his constant use of that weapon. In 
 1811, Napoleon created him a baron of the empire. He was frequently 
 wounded, and during the campaigns of 1813 and 1814 he had several 
 horses killed under him. He fought likewise at Waterloo. Soon after 
 the peace he was made governor of Antwerp, and his admirable 
 defence of the citadel in 1832, with a garrison of 6,000 troops, against 
 an army of 75,000 French soldiers commanded by Marshal Gerard, 
 attracted general attention throughout Europe, anil made the brave 
 old soldier very popular. He died on the 2nd of May 1849. (Biogr. 
 des Contemporains ; Campo, Life of Chaste.) 
 
 CHASTELLET, GABRIELLE-EMILIE LE TONNELIER DE 
 BRETEUIL, MARQUISE DU, the translator of Newton into French, 
 was the daughter of Baron de Breteuil, and was born in 1706. In 
 what manner she was led to study mathematics is not stated; she 
 also became a proficient in Latin, English (in which Voltaire, as he 
 tells us, was her instructor), and Italian. She was married very early 
 to the Marquis du Chastellet-Lomont, a lieutenant-general of a dis- 
 tinguished family of Lorraine. In 1733 she retired to the castle of 
 Cirey, on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine, where she pursued 
 her studies for several years. She died August 10, 1749, her death 
 having been hastened by close application to her translation of 
 Newton. She died in the palace of Luneville, at the court of Stanislas, 
 where her husband filled the office of high steward, and where Voltaire 
 also was then residing. Her liaison (as the French call it) with 
 Voltaire furnished sundry anecdotes for the scandalous chronicles of 
 her day. The state of manners however, and in particular the light 
 in which the marriage contract was regarded among the French, are 
 too well known to require any comment. 
 
 In 1738 Madame du Chastellet wrote, for the prize of the Academy 
 of Sciences, on the nature of fire. In 1740 she published at Paris 
 her ' Institutions de Physique,' addressed to her son, and a second 
 edition appeared at Amsterdam in 1742. This work is a series of 
 letters, in which the systems of Leibnitz and of Newton (the latter 
 then almost new in France) are explained in a familiar style, and with 
 a degree of knowledge of the history of the several opinions, and of 
 sound language and ideas in their discussion, which we read with 
 surprise, remembering that they were the production of a French- 
 woman thirty years of age, written very few years after the introduction 
 of the Newtonian philosophy into France. She takes that inter- 
 mediate view between the refusal to admit the hypothesis of attraction, 
 and the assertion of it as a primary quality of matter, from which 
 very few who consider the subject would now dissent. At the eud 
 of this work is an epistolary discussion with M. de Mairan, on the 
 principle of "vis viva," the metaphysical part of which then created 
 much controversy. 
 
 The translation of Newton was published at Paris in 1759, with a 
 " prdface historique," and an dloge in verse by Voltaire, who probably 
 owed to Madame du Chastellet the smattering of knowledge upon 
 which he wrote his ' Elemens de la Philosophie de Newton,' published 
 in 1738. From it we learn that the translation was submitted to the 
 revision of Clairaut, who was the instructor of the authoress in 
 mathematics. To the work is added a commentary, which bears the 
 name of Clairaut, being in fact his lessons committed to writing and 
 arranged by Madame du Chastellet, aud afterwards revised by their 
 author. We here find, 1, a popular account of Newton's system ; 2, 
 investigations of various points by the analysis of the continental 
 school, to the exclusion of the geometry of Newton; 3, an abridg- 
 
CHATTERTON, THOMAS. 
 
 203 
 
 ment of Clairaut's work on the figure of the earth ; 4, another of 
 Daniel Bernoulli's essay on the tides. The translation itself is a 
 close copy of the original in form and matter, but does not profess to 
 be perfectly literal, where the Latin is concise or obscure. It was 
 used by Delambre in his citations (' Hist. d'Astron.,' xviii. siecle), 
 expressly that he might have the sanction of Clairaut in his versions 
 of Newton. In 1806 the correspondence of Madame du Chastellet 
 with the Count d'Argental was published at Paris, to which was 
 appended a life, and a treatise 'Sur le Bonheuv.' 
 
 (Biog. Univ. ; M£ moires pour scrvir a la Vie de Voltaire, £crits par 
 lui-mtme ; le Vie de Voltaire, par Condorcet.) 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE, VISCOUNT DE, the 
 most celebrated French writer of the Napoleon era, was born at St. Malo 
 on September 4th, 17C8, being the youngest of ten children. He was 
 at first intended for the church, but after a careful education for that 
 calling, he entered the army as sub-lieutenant in 1786. After various 
 adventures he appears to have visited Paris shortly before the Revo- 
 lution, and to have witnessed the capture of the Bastille in 1789. His 
 erratic disposition took him to America in 1791, to look for the North- 
 West passage. He spent several months in the States, had an inter- 
 view with Washington, visited the falls of Niagara, and roamed through 
 those virgin forests and wild scenes of primitive life which he has 
 described so vividly in ' Reh6 ' and ' Atala.' 
 
 On his return home he joined the army of Conde" for a Bhort time 
 in 1792, and the next year he began a life of great misery as an emi- 
 grant in London, amidst a group of exiled nobles, equally wretched. 
 The picture of his sufferings and privations at this time, as he relates 
 them in his ' Memoirs,' is almost incredible. Nevertheless he continued 
 in England nearly eight years, maintaining himself by translating for 
 the booksellers, and giving lessons in French and Latin. In 1797 he 
 published in London his ' Essay on Revolutions,' a work full of scepti- 
 cism ; but the death of his mother in 1798 gave a new direction to his 
 thoughts, and restored his faith. 
 
 In the spring of 1800 he went to Paris, and his excellent friend, 
 M. Fontanes, whose influence was already strong, had been appointed 
 one of the editors of the ' Mercure,' in the columns of which ' Atala ' 
 appeared for the first time. This romance was followed by the ' Genie 
 du Christianisme ' in 1802, which made a deep impression on the 
 public mind. The- First Consul was so pleased with this work that he 
 took the author into favour, and strove to beud him to his service by 
 two successive employments. Unfortunately the execution of the 
 Duke d'Enghien, on the 21st of March 1804, furnished the inflexible 
 Breton with too just an excuse, and he resigned his appointment the 
 same day. Fontanes, Madame Bacciochi, and even Josephine herself 
 could scarcely prevent the consequences of this rash act from falling 
 upon the viscount. 
 
 The reign of Napoleon, which lasted ten years (1804-14) was not 
 favourable to literature, and during this period Chateaubriand pro- 
 duced nothing of note, save the 'Martyres' in 1807, and the 'Itineraire 
 k Jerusalem' in 1811 : the latter was the account of his own visit to 
 the Holy Land in the autumn of 1806. The fall of the empire in 
 1S14 released his pen, and he produced his famous pamphlet, 'De 
 Bonaparte et des Bourbons,' the influence of which in disposing the 
 public mind to welcome the returned family was so powerful, that " it 
 was equal," said Louis XVIIL, "to an army of 100,000 men." The 
 viscount was now received with great favour at the Tuileries, but he 
 refused office as a colleague with Fouchd ; and other circumstances 
 delayed his entrance into public life until 1822, when he was sent as 
 ambassador to the British court, and most honourably greeted by all 
 classes of people. The next year he was appointed Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs, which office he held during the war in Spain conducted by 
 the Duke of Angouleme. In 1824 the minister Villele dismissed him 
 rather abruptly. Then, and for the next three years, Chateaubriand 
 led the opposition against the government with merciless rancour both 
 in pamphlets and newspapers, never desisting till it crumbled beneath 
 his blows. In 1828 M. de Martignac gave him the embassy to Rome; 
 but no sooner had the Polignac ministry been formed (August 8) than 
 he sent in his resignation. 
 
 In 1830, after the fall of the monarchy, which he had assisted to 
 destroy, this inexplicable man, whom the people claimed as their 
 leader, and followed with acclamations, deliberately resigned his titles, 
 his offices, his very means of subsistence, to rally to that cause which 
 had no other supporter. A singular change came over his spirit ; he 
 sank into despondency, and a gloom, which deepened every year, 
 almost extinguished his noble mind. This ennui was so contagious 
 that his most faithful friends shrank from it. This sad state of mind 
 is very visible in the last of his works, which appeared about the time 
 of his death — 1 les M^moires d'Outi e Tombe ' — the reading of which is 
 most painful. He died July 4, 1848. His character has been well 
 summed up by a recent French writer : — " It was almost invariably the 
 fate of M. de Chateaubriand to lead a party whose ruling principle was 
 not his ; so that at the very time he was crushing his adversaries, he 
 had no influence over his friends." 
 
 (Memuires d' Outre Tombe; Biograplde Universelle; Diet, de Con- 
 versation.) 
 
 CHATHAM, EARL OF. [Pitt.] 
 
 CHATTERTON, THOMAS, was born at Bristol on the 20th of 
 November 1752. His father (who died three months before the 
 
 birth of his son) was sexton at Redcliff church, and also master 
 of a charity school in Pyle-street. At the age of five years he was 
 placed under the care of Mr. Love, who succeeded his father in the 
 school ; but his progress was so slow, that after his uiastt-r had 
 exhausted his patience in attempting to teach him, he sent him back 
 to his mother as a "dull boy, and incapable of further instruction." 
 His mother now took him under her care, and at the age of six years 
 he first learned bis letters from the illuminated capitals of an old 
 French musical manuscript, with which, to use her expression, he 
 " fell in love;" and it is probable that his passion for antiquarian 
 pursuits received its first impulse from this circumstance. His 
 progress was now as rapid as it had before been slow ; books of all 
 kinds, but more especially those which treated of ancient customs, 
 were his chief companions. On the 3rd of August 1760, when not 
 quite eight years of age, he was admitted into Colston's school, Bristol, 
 an establishment somewhat similar in plan with Christ's Hospital, in 
 London. He remained there seven years, during which time he wrote 
 some minor pieces of poetry, chiefly satirical, and the celebrated De 
 Bergham pedigree. On the 1st of July 1767, he left the charity 
 school, and was bound apprentice to Mr. John Lambert, attorney of 
 Bristol, for seven years. In the beginning of October 1768, the new 
 bridge at Bristol was completed, and at that time there appeared in 
 Felix Farley's 'Bristol Journal' an article purporting to be the 
 transcript of an ancient manuscript, entitled, ' A Description of the 
 Fryars first passing over the Old Bridge, taken from an Autient 
 Manuscript' This paper, so singularly curious, and exhibiting euch 
 strong powers of invention, was traced to Chatterton, who was at first 
 rather harshly interrogated as to the manner by which it came into 
 his possession. After several contradictory statements, he asserted 
 that he had received the paper in question from his father, who had 
 found it, with many others, in some chests in Redcliff church, where 
 they had been deposited in the muniment room in "Canynge's cofre." 
 Soon after this occurrence he became acquainted with Mr. Catcott, a 
 gentleman fond of antiquarian researches, and with Mr. Barrett, 
 surgeon, who was engaged in writing a history of Bristol. To the 
 former gentleman he took, very soon after his introduction to him, 
 some of the pretended Rowleian poems, among which were ' The 
 Bristow Tragedy,' ' Rowley's Epitaph upon Mr. Canynge's Ancestor,' 
 with some other small pieces. This Rowley, according to Chatterton, 
 was a priest of the 15th century, who had been patronised by C'anynge. 
 He shortly afterwards presented to Mr. Catcott the 'Yellow Roll.' 
 To Mr. Barrett he furnished an account of every church and chapel 
 in Bristol, which he stated to have been found by him among the old 
 parchments. The pretended originals bore all the marks of antiquity, 
 which he had made them assume by rubbing them with ochre, 
 stamping on them, and blacking them in the chimney, or by the 
 flame of a candle. Mr. Barrett published these statements in his work, 
 fully believing them to be genuine. After his introduction to these 
 gentlemen Chatterton's ambition increased daily, and he often spoke 
 in raptures of the undoubted success of the plans that he had formed 
 for his future life. His pursuits were various— heraldry, English 
 antiquities, metaphysics, mathematics, astronomy, music, and physic, 
 by turns occupied his attention ; but the two first were his favourite 
 pursuits. About this time he also wrote various pieces, chiefly 
 satirical ; and several essays, both in prose and verse, which he 
 forwarded to the periodicals of the day. Most of his pieces appeared i 
 in the ' Town and Country Magazine.' Growing disgusted with a 
 profession ill suited to his tastes, and with a master whom he dis- 
 liked, he made an application in March 1769, to Horace Walpole, the 
 ground of which was an offer to supply him with some accounts of a 
 succession of painters who had flourished at Bristol, which Cliatterton 
 affirmed to have been lately discovered, with some old poems, in that 
 city. Walpole accepted the offer with warmth, but afterwards seemed 
 to have cooled upon it, probably from suspecting the forgery of the 
 accounts, or ascribing but little value to them ; and on being impor- 
 tuned by Chatterton for his assistance to release him from his 
 profession, neglected to answer his letters. At last, when he had 
 received a spirited letter from Chatterton, demanding his manuscripts 
 (a letter which he termed " singularly impertinent "), Walpole returned 
 the manuscripts with Chatterton's letters in a blank cover. 
 
 Being determined to relinquish his profession, Chatterton made 
 every effort to accomplish this object. The idea of suicide became 
 familiar to his mind, and he often intimated to Mr. Lambert's servants 
 that he would put an end to his existence. On hearing this the family 
 of his master became alarmed; but Mr. Lambert himself could not be 
 persuaded that his threats meant anything, until he found one day on 
 his desk a paper entitled, ' The last Will and Testament of Thomas 
 Chatterton,' and couched in terms which appeared to indicate an 
 intention to destroy himself. Mr. Lambert now considered it im- 
 prudent to keep him any longer, and accordingly he dismissed him after 
 he had been in his service about two years and nine months. 
 
 Chatterton went up to London, having received liberal ofif-rs from 
 the booksellers. " My first attempt," said he, " shall be in the literal y 
 way : the promises I have received are sufficient to dispel doubt; but 
 should I, contrary to my expectation, find myself deceived, I will in 
 that case turn Methodist preacher. Credulity is as potent a deity as 
 ever; and a new sect may easily be devised. But if that too should 
 fail me, my last and final resource is a pistol." Hi3 first letters from 
 
208 
 
 CHAUCER, GEOFFREY. 
 
 CHAUDET, ANTOINE DENIS. 
 
 210 
 
 London to his mother and sister are full of enthusiasm. "I am 
 settled," says he, " and in such a settlement as I can desire. What a 
 glorious prospect!" Party-writing seems to have been one of his 
 favourite employments, and it would appear that he did not confine 
 himself to one side. This kind of writing was agreeable to his satirical 
 turn, and by raising him into immediate notice gratified his pride, 
 which was unbounded. When recommended by a relation to get into 
 some office, he stormed like a madman, and asserted that " he hoped, 
 with the blessing of Qod, very soon to be sent prisoner to the Tower, 
 which would make his fortune." His writings during his residence in 
 London were numerous and of varied character, from sermons to 
 burlettas for Vauxhall ; but they failed to procure him a comfortable 
 income, and he was plunged from the highest pinnacle of hope to the 
 depths of despair. In the month of July 1770 he removed from 
 Shoreditch, where he had lodged, to an apartment in Brook-street, 
 Holborn, where, on the 24th of August following, being literally in a 
 atate of starvation, he terminated his existence by poison. He was 
 buried on the following day in the burying-ground of Shoe-lane work- 
 house. 
 
 Chatterton was only seventeen years and nine months old when he 
 died. The person of Chatterton was, like his genius, precocious. One 
 of his companions says he looked "like a spirit." His eyes were 
 uncommonly piercing, and one more so than the other. His habits 
 were domestic, and his affection for his relatives unbounded. The 
 controversy as to the Rowleian poems engaged numerous' writers of 
 the day ; but few people now believe the Rowley poems to be anything 
 else than the production of Chatterton himself. Of his genius there 
 can be little doubt. His poetry has immaturity of thought stampt 
 upon every stanza, but as the poetry of a boy it is often wonderfully 
 fine. Had he had a better training and lived under happier circum- 
 stances, he might, unless the taint of insanity had been ineradicable, 
 have come to be one of the first poets of his time. 
 
 CHAUCER, GEOFFREY, a very distinguished name in the long 
 catalogue of eminent Englishmen, and one who, in the words of 
 Hallam, " with Dante and Petrarch filled up the triumvirate of great 
 poets in the middle ages." Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London in 
 1328, and was educated at Cambridge and Oxford. He studied the 
 law in the Inner Temple. He lived much in the court of Edward III., 
 and in familiar intercourse with several members of his family. He 
 was also employed in the public affairs of the realm. But it is as a 
 writer, and especially as a poet, that he claims the notice of posterity. 
 Chaucer wrote in the vernacular language of his own age and country ; 
 he refined it indeed, but neither his labours, nor those of his contem- 
 poraries, Langland, Gower, and Wicliffe, were able to fix the language. 
 The English of Chaucer is so unlike the English of our time, that few 
 persons can read it with ease, and none without the assistance of a 
 dictionary. Yet a little pains would enable any one to master his 
 language and versification, and the pains would be amply rewarded, 
 for his writings are valuable not only as illustrating the manners and 
 habits of the time, but as the productions of a mind eminently poetical. 
 His chief work is a collection of stories, entitled by him ' Canterbury 
 Tales,' being a series of tales told by the individuals of a party of 
 pilgrims going from Southwark to Canterbury, who had agreed thus 
 to beguile the tediousness of the way. 
 
 While at the university Chaucer produced two of his larger works, 
 the ' Court of Love ' and ' the book of Troilus and Cresseide;' but he 
 soon entered on public life. He married Philippa, an attendant on 
 Queen Philippa : his older biographers state that she was the daughter 
 of Sir Payne Roet of Hainault, and sister of Katherine Swinford, who 
 was subsequently married to John of Gaunt. This has indeed been 
 doubted, but as appears to us without sufficient reason. 
 
 In 1358 John of Gaunt married Blanch of Lancaster. It was on 
 occasion of this suit or courtship that Chaucer wrote his ' Parliament 
 of Birds.' In the next year Chaucer appears as a soldier. One of the 
 most authentic and interesting memorials we possess of him is a 
 deposition given by him in the suit between Scrope and Grosvenor, on 
 the question of right to a particular figure in their coat-armour. The 
 depositions are preserved on the rolls at the Tower. Chaucer deposes 
 among other things that he was in the expedition of 1359, when 
 Edward III. invaded France, and was then made prisoner by the 
 French near the town of Betters. How long he remained in captivity 
 is not known, and it i3 not till 1367 that we meet with him again in 
 the national records. In that year he had an annual pension of 20 
 marks granted to him, a sum which his biographer, Mr. Godwin, 
 estimates as equivalent to 24 Ql. : the grant is entered on the patent 
 rolls; there is proof of the payment of it in the issue roll of the 
 Exchequer of the 44th year of Edward III., and also of the payment 
 of 10 marks a year, granted to Philippa Chaucer, his wife. 
 
 In 1369 he wrote ' the Book of the Duchess,' a funeral poem, on the 
 death of Blanch, duchess of Lancaster. From the national records we 
 find that in 1370 Chaucer had letters of protection, being about to 
 depart beyond sea. In 1373 he was in an embassy to Genoa, to treat 
 on some public affairs. On this visit to Italy it seems probable that 
 he saw and conversed with Petrarch, of whom he speaks in the 
 induction to one of hie tales. On his return he had a royal grant of 
 a pitcher of wine, to be taken daily at the port of London, and was 
 Boon after made comptroller of the customs in that port. He is found 
 also on the rolls as having a grant of a wardship in 1375, and another 
 
 m 
 
 of a portion of contraband wool in 1376. About this time it is sup- 
 posed that he wrote the poem which Pope afterwards modernised, called 
 by him the ' House of Fame.' 
 
 In both 1376 and 1377 he was employed in embassies of a secret 
 character, the object of neither of which is known. On the accession 
 of Richard II. he was sent to negociate a marriage between Richard, 
 prince of Wales, and Mary of France, daughter of the French king. 
 In the following May he was sent to Lombardy to negociate with the 
 Duke of Milan, and it is noteworthy that Gower the poet was one of 
 the two persona whom Chaucer left to act as his representatives in 
 England during his absence. 
 
 King Edward III. died in May 1377. To the early years of his 
 successor are referred Chaucer's poems entitled ' The Black Knight,' 
 ' The Legend of Good Women,' and 'The Flower and the Leaf.' Mr. 
 Godwin and others have laboured to prove that Chaucer was in dis- 
 grace and misery during much of the period from 1384 to 1389. He 
 is represented as having been implicated in the affairs of John de 
 Northampton, in his struggle for the mayoralty of London, and to 
 have been in consequence driven into exile, flying to Hainault, and 
 afterwards to Zealand, and on his return to England being imprisoned 
 in the Tower, whence he was not released but at the expense of some 
 disclosures, which are said not to have been creditable to him. But 
 Sir Harris Nicholas has shown that from 1380 to 1388 Chaucer regu- 
 larly received his pension with his own hands, which of course dis- 
 poses at a blow of the hypothesis of his exile. It is to be remarked 
 further, that in 1386 he was returned a knight of the shire for Kent. 
 But there is no doubt that about this time he fell into adversity. His 
 offices were taken from him, probably on account of his being regarded 
 as one of the followers of John of Gaunt, who was then in disgrace ; 
 and as a Wicliffite he perhaps met with some persecution. In 1388 he 
 was constrained to sell his two pensions: his wife had died in 1387, 
 and her pension had of course ceased with her life. In 1389 he 
 appears to have regained at least a measure of court favour, as he was 
 then appointed clerk of the works at the king's palaces, and the 
 repairs at Windsor were executed under his direction. This office he 
 however held for only two years. After this— from 1394 to 1398 — 
 he appears to have been suffering from great pecuniary distress; but 
 Bolingbroke, immediately on his accession to the crown (1399), con- 
 ferred on Chaucer a pension double that he had formerly enjoyed, so 
 that we may hope his last days were spent in comfort. 
 
 In the last ten years of his life he seems to have lived retired from 
 public affairs, though receiving from time to time marks of royal 
 favour. A house at Woodstock, which had been assigned to him by 
 the king, and the castle at Donnington, near Newbury, are believed to 
 have been at this period his usual places of abode. In this part of his 
 life it was that he wrote the ' Canterbury Tales,' and the tradition, 
 both at Woodstock and at Donnington, is, that portions of the work 
 were written at those places. Chaucer died in London, October 25, 
 1400, and was buried in the Abbey Church of Westminster. The 
 monument there erected to his memory was a tribute paid to him a 
 century and a half after his decease by Nicholas Brigham. 
 
 Chaucer had two sons, Sir Thomas and Lewis. Sir Thomas was 
 speaker of the House of Commons, and, marrying an heiress of the 
 house of Burghersh, obtained with her Ewelme in Oxfordshire, and 
 other possessions. He had an only daughter, Alice Chaucer, who 
 married De la Pole, duke of Suffolk. 
 
 The ' Canterbury Tales ' were printed by Caxton, but it was not til 
 1542 that any general collection of his writings was made and com 
 mitted to the press : they have been often reprinted. Mr. Tyrwhitt's 
 edition of the 'Canterbury Tales' is justly celebrated for the purity 
 of the text, which was far superior to that of any previous edition 
 and for the valuable illustrations which he has annexed. 
 
 We have noticed in this article Chaucer's principal works, without 
 professing to enumerate all. Chaucer was the first great English poet, 
 and he remained the greatest English poet till that place was taken by 
 Shakspere. In sublimity and grandeur of thought he has been ex- 
 celled, but in liveliness of imagination, vigour of description, vivacity, 
 and ease, he has few rivals ; and, we may add with Hallam, that " as the 
 first original English poet, if we except Langland — as the inventor of 
 our most approved measure — as an improver, though with too much 
 innovation, of our language — and as a faithful witness to the manners 
 of his age, Chaucer would deserve our reverence, if he had not also 
 intrinsic claims for excellences, which do not depend upon any 
 collateral coDsidsrEitioDS 
 
 CHAUDET, ANTOINE DENIS, a celebrated French sculptor, born 
 at Paris, in 1763. He was the pupil of Stouf, and in 1784 he obtained 
 the grand prize of the Academy for sculpture, by a bas-relief of 
 ' Joseph sold by his Brethren.' He studied some time in Rome, and 
 returned to Paris in 1789, when he was elected an Agree of the 
 Academy of Painting and Sculpture, of which he became later a 
 member and professor of sculpture. He was made a member of the 
 Institute in 1805, and took part in the preparation of the ' Dictionary 
 of the French Academy ; ' he edited the ' Dictionnaire de la Langue 
 des Beaux Arts.' He died April 19, 1810. 
 
 There are several excellent works by Chaudet in public buildings of 
 Paris, but one of his chief performances, the colossal bronze statue 
 of Napoleon in the heroic or Roman costume, which stood on the 
 column of the Place Vendome, was melted down in 1814 by the 
 
 P* 
 
211 CHAUVEAU LAGARDE, CLAUDE FRANCOIS. 
 
 CHGNIER, ANDRE-MARIE DE. 
 
 povernment of Louis XVIII., and the metal was used to form part of 
 the horse of Henri IV. on the Pont Neuf. Chaudet was likewise a 
 painter of considerable merit ; and his widow, Madame Chaudet, also 
 distinguished herself as a genre and portrait painter. 
 
 CHAUVEAU LAGARDE, CLAUDE FRANCOIS, was born at 
 Chartres, in 1767, and like Robespierre, had acquired a respectable 
 name as a lawyer before the revolution. He continued to practise 
 during those days of anarchy, and in the beginning of the Reign of 
 Terror, his eloquent defence saved General Miranda from the scaffold. 
 But in his pleading for the Girondist Brissot, he was less fortunate. 
 His famous defence of Charlotte Corday startled the judges, and his 
 enthusiastic client interrupted him, to disclaim any apology which 
 might throw doubt on her design and motive. He was likewise the 
 advocate for Madame Roland, and assisted her in preparing her 
 defence ; but she would not allow him to venture his life by appearing 
 to plead for her in court. After the trial of Marie Antoinette, in 
 whose cause he was likewise retained, the fearless advocate was thrown 
 into prison, where he remained until released by the fall of Robes- 
 pierre (July 28, 1794). In 1806 Napoleon made him an advocate of 
 the Conseil d'Etat ; and in 1814, Louis XVIII. gave him a patent of 
 nobility. Historians will do well to consult the narratives which he 
 published in 1816, of the trial of Marie Antoinette and that of 
 Madame Elizabeth. Chaveau Lagarde, maintaining to the last his 
 character as a firm and upright man, died at Paris on the 20th of 
 February 1841, aged 77. 
 
 CHEKE, SIR JOHN, alearned writer of the 16th century, descended 
 from an ancient family in the Isle of Wight, was born at Cambridge, 
 June 16, 1614. He was admitted into St John's College, Cambridge, 
 in 1531, where his early studies were chiefly directed to the Latin aud 
 Greek languages, the latter of which was then almost universally 
 neglected. After taking his degrees in arts, he was chosen Greek 
 lecturer of the university, and about 1540 liecame the first professor 
 of Greek in the univer-ity, upon King Henry VIII's foundation. He 
 was highly instrumental in bringing the language into repute, and 
 directed his attention more particularly to reform and restore, what 
 he considered, the original pronunciation of it. Cheke, while pro- 
 fessor, was at the same time University Orator. In 1543 he was 
 incorporated M.A. at Oxford, where he also studied for a short time; 
 and in 1544 was sent for to court, to be made joint-tutor for the 
 Latin tongue with Sir Anthony Cooke to Prince Edward. He seems 
 also to have had the Lady Elizabeth for some time under his care. 
 About 1544 too he became a canon (it is most probable a lay 
 canon, for there is no proof of his having taken orders) of King 
 Henry VIII's first foundation of the colli ge in Oxford, which has 
 been since called Christ Church ; but upon the dissolution of that 
 foundation in 1545, he was allowed a pension in the room of his 
 canonry. When Edward VI. came to the throne he rewarded Cheke 
 with an annuity of a hundred marks, and made him one or two 
 favourable grants in purchase of monastic property. In 1548 he had 
 a grant of the college of Stoke by Clare, in Suffolk, aud in the year 
 following the house and site of the priory of Spalding in Lincolnshire; 
 but surrendered bis annuity upon receiving the latter grant. The 
 king likewise caused him, by a mandamus, to be elected provost of 
 King's College, Cambridge. In 1550 he was made chief gentleman of 
 the king's privy chamber, and in 1551 received the honour of knight- 
 hood. About this time he was engaged in various conferences and 
 disputations, on the Protestant side, on the subject of the sacrament, 
 transubstantiation, &c. In 1552 he became clerk of the council, aud 
 soon after one of the secretaries of state, and privy councillor. This 
 was the height of Sir John Cheke's fortunes. His zeal for the Pro- 
 testant religion induced him to approve of the settlement of the crown 
 upon Lady Jane Grey ; and he acted for a very short time as secretary 
 to her and her council after King Edward's decease. Upon Mary's 
 accession to the throne he was committed to the Tower, aud an 
 indictment was drawn up against him : but he remained in prison, and 
 the year following, having been stripped of his whole substance, re- 
 ceived a pardon, and was set at liberty September 3, 1554. Foreseeing 
 the days of persecution, he obtained a licence to travel for some 
 time, and went to Basel, aud thence to Italy. At Padua he re- 
 newed his Greek studies : and afterwards, in his return from Italy, 
 settled at Strasbourg, where he read a Greek lecture in order to obtain 
 a subsistence. In the beginning of 1556 he came, by a treacherous 
 invitation, to Brussels, though under misgivings, which were only 
 allayed by the consultation of astrology, a pseudo-science to which 
 Sir Juhn Cheke was unfortunately attached, and which upon this 
 occasion deluded him. Between Brussels and Antwerp he was 
 seized by order of Philip II., blindfolded, thrown into a waggon, 
 Convejed to the nearest harbour, put on board a ship under hatches, 
 and brought again to the Tower of London. The desire of gaining 
 the reconciliation of so eminent a man to the church of Rouie had been 
 the indueement to his arrest, and now led the queen not only to send 
 two of her chaplains, but Dr. Feckenham, at that time dean of St. 
 Paul's, to endeavour to convert him. The chaplains had no success 
 with their arguments ; but Feckenham's were brought into a narrower 
 compass : he said, " Either comply or burn." Cheke could not with- 
 stand the dreadful alternative. On July 1 5, after a previous negociatiun 
 with Cardinal Pole, he wrote to the queen, and declared his readiness 
 to obey her laws and other orders of religion. He afterwards not only 
 
 made his solemn submission before the cardinal, but on the 4th of 
 October made a public recantation before the queen, and after that 
 before the whole court. Upon these mortifications his lands were 
 restored to him, but upon condition of an exchange with the qu 
 for others. He was compelled to be present at the examinations and 
 convictions of Protestants, and in various ways to make a puhlic 
 display of his adoption of the new principles. Remorse aud vexation 
 however sate at last so heavy on Cheke's mind, that he pined away 
 with shame and regret. He died September 13, 1557, at the a<„'e of 
 forty-three. Some of Sir John Cheke's works are in very elegant 
 Latin ; but few of them would suit the reading of the present day. 
 Still he was one of the most learned men of his age, one of its greatest 
 ornaments, and one of the revivers of polite literature in England. 
 
 (Strype, Life of Cheke, 8vo, Lond., 1705 ; Biogr. Brit., old edit., 
 vol. ii. p. 1309 ; Bliss, edit, of Wood's Athence Oxonienses, vol. i. p. 241; 
 Chalmers, Biogr. Diet., vol. ix. p. 225.) 
 
 CHEMNITZ, MARTIN, the most eminent of the Protestant divines 
 of the 16th century, after Luther and Melancthon, was the son of 
 parents in an humble condition of life. He was born at Treunbrietzen 
 in the Mark of Brandenburg, on the 9th of November 1522. He 
 received his education at Magdeburg and at Fraukfurt-on-the-Oder, 
 and in 1544 accepted the place of a schoolmaster at VVrietzen-onthe- 
 Oder : he devoted the small salary which he derived from it, in the 
 following year, to the prosecution of his studies at Wittenberg. By 
 the advice of Melancthon he applied to mathematics and astronomy, 
 aud in 1547 went to Kouigsberg, where he obtained in 1548 the place 
 of Rector in the Cathedral School. He composed the calendar for 
 1549-50, and having been recommended for his astronomical knowlcdgo 
 to Duke Albert of Prussia, was appointed his librarian. From that 
 time forward theology became his principal study. In the disputes 
 of Osiander, on the doctrine of justification, he took part with Morlin 
 against him ; but this affair caused him so much vexation, that he 
 requested and obtained the duke's permission in 1553 to return to 
 Wittenberg to pursue his theological studies. Here he delivered 
 lectures on Mclancthou's ' Loci Communes,' from which his own ' Loci 
 Theologici,' published by Leyser (Frankfurt, 1591, folio), arose, and 
 which form a commentary on the doctrines of Melancthon, which is 
 superior to all other works of the kind of that age, aud is still of 
 permanent value. In 1554 ho obtained the situation of pastor at 
 Brunswick, and attacked the Jesuits by an exposition of their dangerous 
 doctrines in his ' Tlieologise Jesuitarum prxcipua Capita' (Leipzig, 
 1562). On the publication of a defence of the order of the Jesuits 
 and of the Council of Trent by the Portuguese Jesuit, Didacus de 
 Paiva de Andrada, he took occasion to subject the resolutions of that 
 council to a severe examination. Hence arose his ' Exatuen Concilii 
 Tridentini' (4 vols., Leipzkr, 1565, 8vo : the best edition is that of 
 Frankfurt, 1707, folio). The 'Examen' is a work full of historical 
 information, and as a solid refutation of the Roman Catholic doctrines 
 it has not been surra>sed by any subsequent publication. The sound 
 judgment, the clear and easy yet serious aud impressive style, and 
 the spirit and moderation manifested in hh3 work, caused even the 
 Roman Catholics to admire and commend him. With equal appro- 
 bation Chemnitz defended Luther's doctrine of the Lord's Supper 
 against the Calvinists in his 'Repetitio sanaeDoctrinse de vera Prajsentia 
 Corporis et Sanguinis Domini in Cccna Sacra' (Leipzig, 1561). He 
 also took a decided part in fixing the doctrines of the Protestant 
 church. In conjunction with Morlin he compiled at Konigsberg, in 
 1566, the 'Corpus Doctrinas Prutenicae,' which acquired great authority 
 among the Protestants in Prussia. Having become superintendent of 
 the diocese of Brunswick in 1567, he drew up a creed for the churches 
 of Lower Saxony, which was adopted in 1571 at the Convention of 
 Wolfenbiittel ; and from 1573 he exerted himself, with Jacob Andrea, 
 to induce the churches of Saxony and Suabia to adopt the ' Formula 
 Concordia?,' which was introduced in Upper and Lower Saxony, Suabia, 
 and Franconia, as a rule of faith. He devoted himself almost exclu- 
 sively to this work ; took with Andrea a leading part in all the meeting3 
 that were held on the subject ; and obtained the admiration of his 
 contemporaries as well by the prudence and firmness of his conduct 
 as by the depth and extent of his knowledge. Having resigned his 
 office in 1585, he died at Brunswick on the 8th of April 1586. The 
 ' Harmony of the Gospels,' which he had begun, was completed by 
 Leyser and Joh. Gerhard. 
 
 Chemnitz was so highly esteemed by his contemporaries that, after 
 his settling at Brunswick, he received offers of important situations 
 from Frederick, king of Denmark; from the electors Louis of the 
 Palatinate, Augustus of Saxony, and John George of Braudenbuig, 
 likewise from Duke Albert of Prussia and the Protestants in Auatini; 
 but he was satisfied with his situation, and declined them. 
 
 (Brockhaus, Conversations- Lexikon ; Die Kirc/un Bistorie, 2 vols. 4to, 
 Jena, 1735.) 
 
 CHENIER, ANDRE-MARIE DE, was born at Constantinople, 
 Oct. 2y, 1762, where his father was consul general of France. The 
 family having returned to France in 1773, Andre was placed at the Col- 
 lege de Navarre in Paris, and went through a long course of study with 
 signal success. In Greek particularly he excelled ; and he became pas- 
 sionately fond of ancient literature. His studies having injured bis 
 health, he was advised to travel. First he visited Switzerland, in 1785; 
 then England, in 1786, as attache - to the embassy of M. de la Luzerne, 
 
213 
 
 CHERUBINI, MARIA-LUIGI. 
 
 21 1 
 
 Finally, in 1783, he returned to Paris, and devoted his fine talents to 
 poetry for the rest of his life. His first essays were eclogues ; they 
 were very beautiful, and, though less known, are quite equal to those 
 of Delille. " His projected labours," says Rabbe, " were vast, aud he 
 had laid the plans of numerous poems. Admiring the majesty of the 
 Bible as much as he did the simple strength of the Greek, he had 
 chosen his subjects as well from the sacred writings as from the 
 mythological themes of Hesiod; so conscious was he of his own 
 powers, that he wanted to embrace the poetry of every age, and the 
 whole circle of nature's beauties." When the revolution broke out, 
 Andrd Chenier took a middle course, as far removed from anarchy as 
 from despotism. He did not conceal his sentiments, and was soon 
 suspected by the Jacobins. During the preparations for the kiug's 
 trial, he wrote to the venerable Malesherbes, aud offered to share the 
 responsibility of his defence. He then became a marked man, and had 
 to conceal himself. He was soon after arrested, was forgotten, and 
 might have escaped ; but his father's anxiety to save him recalled 
 attention to hi3 name, and he was brought before the Revolutionary 
 Tribunal. Even in prison, and after his sentence, he composed passages 
 of true poetry. He was guillotined on the 7th Thermidor (July 25) 
 1794, two days before Robespierre aud St. Just. Although the poems 
 of Andre' Chenier are not generally read, they have certainly served 
 to form the present school : Chateaubriand, Barthdle'my, Casimir 
 Delavigne, Victor Hugo, and Lamartine, owe much of their early 
 inspiration to him. 
 
 Marie Joseph Chenier, brother of Andrd, was born at Constanti- 
 nople, on the 28th of August 1764. He became famous as a member 
 of the Convention, and as the author of several tragedies, written in 
 conformity with the spirit of the times. Among these, his ' Charles IX.,' 
 which still keeps the stage, was the most successful. It appeared 
 November 4, 1789. He also produced ' Tibere,' 'Henri VIII.,' and 
 'Caius Gracchus;' the last in 1792. In 1794 he had the courage to 
 paint the character of a true patriot in ' Timoleon,' his finest tragedy ; 
 but the Committee of Public Safety stopped the performance, and 
 ordered the manuscript to be burnt. Marie Joseph was an elegant 
 prose writer, and a tolerable satirist. He likewise produced several 
 lyrical poems. Being a good speaker, and possessing much self- 
 command, he was elected a member of every legislative assembly 
 from 1792 to 1802. He was also a member of several learned insti- 
 tutions. The report which was spread after the execution of his elder 
 brother, Andrd, that Marie Joseph had contributed to his fall, was the 
 reverse of the truth; but the charge preyed upon his mind, and caused 
 him bitter anguish for the rest of his life. He died January 10, 1811. 
 (Biog. Univers. ; Rabbe ; Lamartine, Girondists.) 
 CHERUBI'NI, MARIA-LUIGI-CARLO-ZENOBI-SALVADOR, was 
 born in Florence in 1760. At nine years of age he commenced the 
 study of composition under the two Felicis, father and son, both of 
 whom dying, he was transferred, first to Bizzari, and afterwards to 
 Castrucci. In 1773 he composed a mass and a motet, which excited a 
 great sensation in his native city ; and during the five following years 
 he produced many other works, both for the church and the theatre, 
 which met with decided success. This attracted the notice of the 
 grand-duke Leopold II. of Tuscany, who in 1778 granted him a pen- 
 sion, and enabled him to complete his studies under the celebrated 
 Sarti, at Bologna, with whom he passed nearly four years, not only 
 receiving much valuable instruction from that master, but also assist- 
 ing him in filling up his scores, a practice to which, under such 
 superintendence, his skill in this branch of composition may in great 
 measure be attributed. In 1784 he was invited to London, where he 
 continued two years, and composed his operas ' La Finta Principessa,' 
 and ' Giulio Sabino,' in the latter of which the famous musico Marchesi 
 made his ddbut at the King's Theatre. In 1786 Cherubini quitted 
 London to settle in Paris, and France thenceforward became his 
 adopted country aud the scene of his greatest triumphs. He however 
 occasionally visited Italy, and in 1788 brought out his * Ifigenia in 
 Aulide ' at Turin. Returning to Paris in the same year, he gave, at 
 the Academie Royale, his ' Demophoon.' The opera of ' Lodoiska ' 
 was produced in 1791, at the Theatre Feydeau, an event that forms an 
 epoch in the annals of the comic opera. 'Lodoiska' was succeeded 
 by 'Elisa,' 'Me'de'e,' 'Les deux Journees,' 'Anacreon,' and 'L'Hotellerie 
 Portugaise.' In 1805 Cherubini was invited to Vienna, and there 
 brought out, at the Imperial Theatre, his ' Faniska.' His fame now 
 became European, and in 1815 he was invited to London by the 
 Philharmonic Society, for which he composed an overture, a sym- 
 phony, and a grand concerted vocal piece, all of which were performed 
 under his own direction at the concerts of that distinguished society. 
 They were however but moderately successful, though they certainly 
 exhibit the pen of a master. Finding himself injured by the changes 
 making by the restored dynasty in the musicil as well as the other 
 government establishments of Paris, Cherubini resigned some of his 
 situations in disgust ; but he was soon recalled, and became composer 
 f the Chapelle du Roi, Professor of Composition at the Ecole-Royale 
 (of which in 1822 he was made Director), a member of the Academic 
 Royale des Beaux Arts, and Chevalier of the Legion d'Honneur. His 
 last theatrical work was ' Ali Baba,' a grand opera, produced in 1833, 
 but, though received with every mark of respect by the French public, 
 it did not keep possession of the stage. He died 15 March 1842, and 
 hia obsequies were celebrated in a most solemn and distinguished 
 
 manner. His own fine ' Requiem,' the last composed of his masses, 
 was performed on the occasion. 
 
 In instrumental music Cherubini's fame has spread throughout 
 Europe. But it is iu the field of sacred music that his genius ex- 
 panded in its full dimensions. His masses, psalms, motets, &c, unite 
 the most learned construction and the charms of the most original 
 and sweetest melody. His mass 'A Trois Voix' is a masterpiece, and 
 of itself sufficient to ensure the composer great and lasting reputation. 
 Of his secular vocal works, we only need mention his admirable finale 
 to 'Les deux Journees,' of which M. CastilBlaze has given so pic- 
 turesque a description and so laboured an analysis in his work on the 
 French opera. The other compositions of this great artist are too 
 numerous to be even named here. 
 
 CHESELDEN, WILLIAM, a distinguished surgeon and anatomist 
 of the last century, was born in Leicestershire, in 1688. At fifteen he 
 commenced his medical studies in London, under the best instructors; 
 and began himself to give lectures in anatomy in 1711, which he 
 continued for twenty years with a reputation not far inferior to that 
 of his master, Cowper. Becoming soon favourably known, he was 
 elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1712, and repaid this early 
 distinction by a variety of interesting papers in the 'Philosophical 
 Transactions.' The most remarkable of them, communicated in 1728, 
 is an account of the sensations of a youth of fourteen, blind from 
 infancy, ou recovering his sight by the formation of an artificial pupil. 
 The memoir has been much quoted by metaphysical writers : the 
 operation, now common, was then perfectly new ; and added con- 
 siderably and justly to Cheselden's fame. 
 
 In 1713 he published a work on anatomy which was long the text- 
 book of that science in England, and was frequently republished both 
 before and after his death. The eleventh edition was printed in 1778. 
 On the retirement of his tutor, Mr. Feme, Cheselden succeeded him as 
 surgeon to St. Thomas's, and was afterwards appointed consulting 
 surgeon to St. George's and the Westminster hospitals. He turned 
 these opportunities to good account in maturing his own skill and 
 advancing the science of surgery, which is largely indebted to him. 
 He was probably never surpassed in dexterity and success as an 
 operator ; his coolness never deserted him ; and he is said to have been 
 as much distinguished for the tenderness as for the judgment that 
 directed his hand. We are told that out of forty-two patients whom 
 he cut for the stone in four years, he lost but one ; the present average 
 being at least six in that number. It is in lithotomy that Cheselden 
 has most repute as an innovator as well as an operator. In 1723 he 
 published a volume on this subject, recommending an improved method 
 of performing what is called the 'high' operation; but after more 
 experience aud investigation, he laid it aside for the 'lateral' method, 
 of which, as practised of late years, he may almost be considered the 
 inventor. His splendid work on the bones wa3 published by subscrip- 
 tion in 1733, with a dedication to Queen Caroline, to whom he held 
 the appointment of surgeon. It consists of a series of plates of the 
 natural size, with short descriptions; and was then unequalled in 
 execution, and unsurpassed in accuracy. It was not successful as a 
 speculation, and was attacked with bitterness by a lithotomist of the 
 name of Douglas. 
 
 In 1737, after a brilliant professional career, and, it is said, partly in 
 disgust at the asperity to which his success had exposed him, Chesel- 
 den retired from practice at the age of forty-nine, and undertook the 
 honorary duties of surgeon to Chelsea Hospital, which he retained for 
 the rest of his life. His last contribution to science, made subsequently 
 to his retirement, consisted of a series of plates with original remarks 
 appended to Gataker's translation of Le Dran's ' Surgery.' 
 
 In 1751 he suffered an attack of apoplexy from which he recovered ; 
 but a return of the complaint caused his sudden death at Bath, on the 
 10th of April 1752, in his sixty-fourth year. 
 
 Cheselden's reputation as a surgeon was solid, and will be lasting. 
 As a man, much that is good is recorded of him, and nothing unfavour- 
 able, unless it be his fondness for pugilistic exhibitions, which might 
 have their interest for him as an anatomist. He associated with Pope 
 and other wits of his time ; but as his classical merit was certainly 
 not considerable, their intimacy may be ascribed to his professional 
 eminence and strong natural talents, rather than to the taste for 
 literature and art, upon which he seems to have prided himself with 
 no great reason. 
 
 CHE3NE, ANDRI5 DU, born in 1584 in the province of Touraine, 
 became distinguished for his historical aud philological erudition, and 
 was one of the most learned men of France in his age. The work for 
 which he is best known is his valuable collection of the oldest French 
 chroniclers: 'Historiae Francorum Scriptores coastanei, ab Gentis 
 Origiue usque ad Philippi IV. tempora,' of which he edited 4 vols. fol. 
 and his son, Francois du Chesne, edited the 5th after his fathers 
 death. He also published : 2. ' Histoire des Rois, Dues, et Comtes 
 de Bourgogne et d'Arles,' 2 vols. 4to. 3. 'Histoire des Cardiuaux 
 Francais.' 4. 'Bibliotheca Cheniacensis.' 5. 'Bibliotheque des Auteurs 
 qui out e"crit l'Histoire et Topographie de la France.' 6. ' Histoire des 
 Papes/ 2 vols. fol. 7. ' Histoire gdnealogique des Maisons de Luxem- 
 bourg, de Montmorency, Vergy, Guisnes, Chatillon, Bethune, &c.,' 
 7 vols, fol., besides a ' History of England ' in 2 vols. foL, Paris, 1634. 
 Duchesne died in 1640 near Paris. He has been called the father of 
 French history. 
 
215 
 
 CHESNEY, COLONEL FRANCIS RAWDON. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, EARL OF 
 
 213 
 
 * CHESNEY, GENERAL FRANCIS RAWDON, was born in 1789. 
 He is a native of Ireland. He commenced his military education at 
 the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, as a second lieutenant in the 
 Royal Artillery, May 9, 1804. He became lieutenant September 20, 
 1805. In 1808 the troops to which his company was attached were 
 sent to protect the Channel Islands. He became captain of artillery 
 June 20, 1815. In 1821 he married, and shortly afterwards was sent 
 to Gibraltar, where his wife died, and with her his only daughter. He 
 afterwards travelled a good deal at intervals, chiefly in order to exa- 
 mine the battle-fields of Europe and Western Asia. In 1829 Captain 
 Chesney was sent to Turkey for the purpose of lending his assistance 
 in fortifying the passes of the Balkan against the advancing armies of 
 Russia ; but before he had reached his destination the Balkan had 
 been crossed, and the war between Russia and Turkey was soon after- 
 wards concluded by the treaty of Adrianople. In 1830 Captain Chesney 
 travelled in Egypt, where he examined the route across the desert 
 from Cairo to Suez, and sent home a report on the passage by sea from 
 Bombay to Suez, and by the Egyptian desert and the Nile from Suez 
 to Cairo and Alexandria. In the same year he made a journey in 
 Palestine and Syria. He crossed the Syrian desert to El Kayem, on 
 the Euphrates, and followed the course of the river to Anah, whence 
 he descended the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf, a distance of 638 
 miles, on a raft supported by inflated skins, his only companions beiug 
 three Arabs to manage the raft, and an interpreter (a Turk) with his 
 boy (a slave). He sent home a map and memoir of his track and 
 explorations along the course of the river. After travelling some time 
 in Persia and Asia Minor he returned to England in 1832. 
 
 In 1834 a committee of the House of Commons received evidence 
 as to the comparative advantages of the routes to India by the Red 
 Sea and by the Euphrates, and the House of Commons voted a sum 
 of 20,000/. for an expedition to examine the route from the Mediterra- 
 nean to the Euphrates, and the course of that river to the Persian 
 Gulf. For this purpose two iron steam-vessels were constructed so as 
 to take to pieces, Captain Chesney being appointed to the command 
 of the expedition with the temporary rank of ' colonel on particular 
 service.' The expedition sailed from Liverpool on the 10th of Feb- 
 ruary 1835, and reached the mouth of the Orontes, on the coast of 
 Syria, on the 3rd of ApriL The two iron steamers were transported 
 in pieces, with excessive labour, partly on rafts and pontoons and 
 partly on waggons, from the mouth of the Orontes to Bir on the 
 Euphrates, a distance of 133 miles. At Port William, near Bir, the 
 steamers were put together, and on the 16th of March 1836 they com- 
 menced the descent of the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf, a distance 
 of 1117 miles. They had proceeded 509 miles to Salahiyah, when a 
 hurricane overwhelmed and sank one of the steamers (the ' Tigris') 
 and everything on board was irrecoverably lost. The other steamer 
 (the ' Euphrates ') escaped with difficulty, but without much damage, 
 and reached Basrah, on the Persian Gulf, on the 19th of June. 
 
 Besides the survey of the river Euphrates, which was the main 
 object of the expedition, materials were collected for a correct map of 
 Northern Syria, a line of levels was carried from Iskenderoon on the 
 Mediterranean to Bir on the Euphrates, Northern Mesopotamia was 
 explored, the river Tigris was twice ascended to upwards of 400 miles 
 frcm its junction with the Euphrates, a line of levels was carried 
 between the Tigris and Euphrates, and other valuable labours per- 
 formed and information collected. Captain Chesney became major 
 December 2, 1836, and his last arduous and dangerous task connected 
 with the Euphrates expedition was that of taking a mail from the 
 Persian Gulf across the great Arabian desert to Beirut on the Mediter- 
 ranean, which he did unaccompanied by any European. 
 
 By the various steps Major Chesney reached in 1864 the rank of 
 lieutenant-general. In 1850 he published 'The Expedition for the 
 Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, carried on by Order of the 
 British Government in the years 1835, 1836, 1837; by Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Chesney, Commander of the Expedition. 4 vols. Vols. I. 
 and II.' He became colonel Nov. 11, 1851. In 1852 he published 
 • Observations on the Past and Present State of Fire-Arms, and on the 
 Probable Effects in War of the New Musket, &c.,' 8vo. In 1854 he pub- 
 lished a narrative of ' The Russo-Turkish Campaigns of 1828 and 1829 ; 
 with a View of the Present State of Affairs in the East, with Maps.' 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, fourth Earl 
 of, was born in London on the 22nd of September, 1694. Treated with 
 colduess almost amounting to aversion by his father, he was placed 
 first in the hands of a private tutor, and at the age of eighteen sent to 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied the Greek and Roman 
 writers with unusual diligence. He tells us that he narrowly escaped 
 becoming a pedant, a character for which he had the greatest contempt 
 in after life; and that he drank and smoked at college notwithstanding 
 his aversion to wine and tobacco, because he thought such practices 
 were genteel, and made him look like a man. In 1714 he left the 
 university to make the usual grand tour of Europe. He passed the 
 summer at the Hague, where his fashionable associates not only laughed 
 him out of his pedantry, but initiated him into a love of play which 
 never forsook him. Many years after he tells his son in one of his 
 letters that at the Hague he thought gambling an accomplishment, 
 and as he aimed at fashionable perfection, he .Adopted cards and dice 
 as a necessary step towards it. From the gamblers of the Hague he 
 Went to the fashionable ladies and titled courtezans of Paris, who, as 
 
 he was accustomed to boast, completed his education and gave him 
 his ' final polish.' He was at Venice when the accession of George I. 
 in 1715 induced him to return home with great speed, in order to be 
 in time for a court place. Through the interest of his family con- 
 nections he was made a gentleman of the bed-chamber to the Prince of 
 Wales, afterwards George II. In the first parliament of the new reign 
 he was returned for St. Germains in Cornwall, and as he was deti r- 
 mined to attract attention, from the moment of his election he studii d 
 nothing and thought of nothing, for a whole month, but his maiden 
 speech. Though he afterwards became an accomplished orator, his 
 first effort was rather a failure, aud betrayed a violence of manner not 
 at all consistent with his smooth silken code. The speech was other- 
 wise uufortunate, for it attracted attention to the fact that he was 
 not quite of age, and consequently liable not only to expulsion from 
 the Commons' house, but also to a fine of 500Z. An opponent mentioned 
 this to him privately as a good mode of silencing his zeal : Chesterfield 
 took the hint, and withdrew for some months to Paris, where, as it 
 was always suspected, he was engaged in some secret court intrigue. 
 He returned in 1716, and, resuming his seat, spoke in favour of the 
 Septennial Act. In the inveterate quarrel which broke out between 
 George I. and his heir he adhered to the Prince of Wales, nor could 
 his uncle, General (afterwards Earl of) Stanhope, who was then at the 
 height of favour, with plenty of places at his disposal, ever induce 
 him to change sides. Being much with the heir-apparent, he undertook 
 the difficult task of transforming a German prince into a British king, 
 and of making a fashionable and a most refined man (as he understood 
 it) of the rough and homely George. 
 
 His first division in parliament against the ministry was on a motion 
 for the repeal of the Schism Bills, where he decidedly took the illiberal 
 side of the question, as he lived to regret. In 1726 he was removed 
 by the death of his father to the House of Lords, where his manner 
 of speaking was much more admired thau it had been in the Commons. 
 He was constitutionally weak and devoid of strong passions, aud as a 
 speaker had little faculty of touching the higher feelings of others ; 
 but he was brilliant, witty, and perspicuous — a great master of irony — 
 and was allowed by all his contemporaries to be one of the most 
 effective debaters of the day. On the accession of George II., whom 
 as prince he had steadily served for thirteen years, Chesterfield 
 expected a rich harvest of honours and places ; but having mistaken 
 the relative amount of the influence exercised on his master's mind 
 by the queen and the mistress, he paid his court to Mrs. Howard 
 (afterwards Lady Suffolk), and neglected Queen Caroline, who eventu- 
 ally proving to be more powerful than the mistress, checked his aspiring 
 hopes. He was not alone in this error ; Lord Bolingbroke, Lord 
 Bathurst, Swift, Pope, and many others of less fame, shared in it, aud 
 in the consequent disappointment. Pope's villa at Twickenham was 
 the place of rendezvous, where the royal mistress used to receive the 
 incense of Chesterfield and the rest who had hoped to rise through her 
 favour. In 1728, the year after the accession, Lord Chesterfield accepted 
 the embassy to Holland, where he gained the friendship of Simon Van 
 Slingeland, a distinguished statesman, and then Graud Pensionary, and 
 assiduously cultivated his talent for diplomacy. To Sliugelaud he 
 afterwards acknowledged the greatest obligations, calling him his 
 "friend, master, and guide," and adding, "for I was then quite new 
 in business, and he instructed me, he loved me, he trusted me." 
 Chesterfield had the merit of averting a war from Hanover, for which 
 service George II. made him High Steward of the Household and 
 Knight of the Garter. Under the plea of ill-health he obtaiued his 
 recall from Holland in 1732, and returning to court, where his office 
 of Steward gave him constant access, he again indulged in the hope of 
 rising. No sooner however had his lordship shown his decided opposition 
 to Sir Robert Walpole, by making his three brothers in the House of 
 Commons vote against the Excise scheme, than he was deprived of 
 the High-Stewardship, and so badly received at court, that he soon 
 ceased visiting there altogether. Lord Chesterfield now took a most 
 decided and active part in the opposition to the minister, and it is 
 even asserted that the real object of a visit which he paid to the Duke 
 of Ormond, at Avignon, during a visit he made to France for his 
 health in the autumn of 1741, was to "solicit through the duke an 
 order from the Pretender to the Jacobites, that they should concur 
 hereafter in any measures aimed against Sir Robert Walpole." The 
 Stuart papers throw no light upon this question, and the supposition 
 appears scarcely justified by any circumstances adduced in support of 
 it. (See Horace Walpole's ' Memoirs,' L 45 ; and Lord Mahon [Earl 
 of Stanhope] ' Hist, of England,' chap, xxiii.) In the ministry formed 
 on the resignation of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742, Chesterfield was 
 excluded from office, and he at once went into opposition against the 
 members of the new cabinet, with whom, when out of place, he had been 
 accustomed to vote in the minority. On the coalition of parties known 
 by the name of the " broad-bottomed treaty," he took office, sorely 
 against the inclination of the king, who considered him as a personal 
 enemy ; but in order to satisfy his majesty, and remove him from the 
 royal presence, he was named while in Holland, Lord-Lieutenant of 
 Ireland. Chesterfield, while in opposition, had still further offended 
 the king by repeatedly denouncing the union of the electorate of 
 Hanover with the kingdom of England, and by proposing that they 
 should be separated from each other, and allotted to different branches 
 of the reigning family. Before proceeding to Ireland, the new lord- 
 
117 
 
 CHETTLE, HENRY. 
 
 CHEYNE, GEORGE. 
 
 218 
 
 lieutenant, at the beginning of 1745, the year of the Pretender's last 
 war in Scotland, and a time of intrigue and difficulties, consented 
 again to proceed as ambassador to Holland. On his return in a few 
 weeks, he immediately repaired to his Irish post, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself, in a season of very great turbulence, by his 
 tolerant spirit, and conciliating popular manners. His short govern- 
 ment in Ireland was perhaps the most brilliant and valuable part of 
 his public life. Instead of treating it as his predecessors had doue, as 
 a sinecure, Chesterfield made his post one of active exertion. He 
 reformed abuses, dealt out even-handed justice to all parties, and 
 though entering on office at a time of turbulence and danger, acted so 
 as to conciliate the disaffected, and to secure a " degree of tranquillity 
 such as Ireland had not often displayed even in orderly and settled 
 time3.'' George II., whose prejudices were removed or weakened, 
 recalled him from Dublin in April 1746, and appointed him principal 
 secretary of state. In consequence of finding himself constantly 
 thwarted by the Pelhams, and being obstructed in some measures 
 which he considered important, and of his now really declining health, 
 he resigned his office in January 1748, much, it is said, to the regret 
 of the king, who offered to make him a duke, an honour which 
 Chesterfield respectfully declined. He was kept from the House of 
 Lords by his giddiness and deafness, but in 1751 he delivered an 
 elegant speech in favour of adopting the New Style, a measure in 
 which he took great interest, and for which he had endeavoured to 
 prepare the public mind by writing in some of the periodicals. His 
 lieclining years, though now and then brightened by flashes of wit 
 and merriment, were clouded by sickness and despondency arising 
 from his loss of hearing. He died on the 24th of March 1773, in the 
 79th year of his age. His natural son, Philip Stanhope, to whom his 
 well-known Letters were addressed, died five years before him. 
 
 By his wife, Melusina Schulemberg, countess of Walsingham, and 
 niece or daughter to George I.'s mistress, the Duchess of Kendal, he 
 had no issue. After much opposition from George II., who pretended 
 to found his objection on Chesterfield's incessant gambling, this 
 German lady married his lordship in 1733. In the will left by 
 George I., and destroyed by George II., it is affirmed that there were 
 large legacies to the Duchess of Kendal and Lady Walsingham, aud 
 that upon Chesterfield threatening a suit in Chancery for his wife's 
 supposed legacy, he received in lieu of it the sum of 20,0002. This 
 affair is said to have been a chief cause of the king's enmity against 
 him. (Walpole, 'Memoirs,' and 'Reminiscences;' Mahon, 'History.') 
 Chesterfield always had a certain taste for literature, and a partiality 
 for the society of literary men. At different times of his life he 
 associated with Addison, Pope, Swift, Gay, Arbuthnot, Voltaire, 
 Montesquieu, and Algarotti. He patronised Hammond, a poet of 
 third-rate merit, but an unfortunate amiable man, and procured him 
 a seat in parliament. In his intercourse with Samuel Johnson he gave 
 himself lordly airs, and the sturdy doctor, thinking himself slighted, 
 avenged himself in the celebrated letter which was prefixed to the 
 first edition of his 'Dictionary.' His 'Letters to his Son,' which were 
 published by his son's widow the year after his death, were never 
 intended for publication. They have been much censured for the 
 loose morality which they inculcate; but still, though their low moral 
 tone must be admitted, it must also be acknowledged that they show 
 a great knowledge of the world, and much practical good sense, 
 expressed in a singularly easy, agreeable, and correct style. His 
 ' Miscellanies,' consisting of papers printed in ' Fog's Journal,' and 
 'Common Sense,' of some of his speeches and other state papers, 
 and a selection from his ' Letters to his Friends,' in French and 
 English, together with a 'Biographical Memoir,' written by his friend 
 and admirer Dr. Maty, were published in 2 vols. 4to, in 1777. A 
 third volume was added in 1778. Chesterfield also wrote Nos. 100 
 and 101 in the ' World,' in praise of Johnson's ' Dictionary,' and 
 sundry copies of very light verses which appeared in Dodsley's 
 collection. 
 
 (Dr. Maty, Life ; Lord Orford, Works, vol. i. p. 533, and vol. iv. 
 p. 277 ; and especially Earl Stanhope's admirably edited Letters aud 
 Works of P. D. Stanhope, Earl of Chesterfield, 5 vols. 8vo, 1853.) 
 
 CHETTLE, HENRY, whose name occurs very frequently in the 
 history of the old English drama, was a contemporary of Shakspere. 
 We read the names of over forty plays attributed to him in whole or 
 in part, the dates of which extend from 1597 to 1602; but his writing 
 for the stage must have begun before 1592, when he published 
 Greene's ' Groatsworth of Wit.' Chettle appears to have been originally 
 a compositor ; and in a receipt given to Henslowe in 1598 he styles 
 himself 'stationer.' He led an unsettled life, was constantly in pecu- 
 niary straits, and more than once in prison for debt. In Henslowe's 
 'Diary' there are numerous entries of small sums advanced to Chettle 
 (or, as Henslowe in his queer orthography more commonly calls him, 
 "harey chcattell") on plays he has undertaken to write. They appear- 
 to be usually written in conjunction with some other persons, but 
 sometimes his name appears alone, thus : — " Lent unto Thomas 
 Downton, the 27 of febreary 1598 [1599], to paye unto harey cheattell, 
 in fulle payment for a pi aye called Troyes Revenge, with the tragedy 
 of polefeme, the sume of fiftye shellenges; and strocken of his deatte, 
 which he owes unto the company, fifty shellinges more." Four 
 only of his plays have been printed, of which an account is given in 
 Collier's 'History of Dramatic Poetry;' and the same editor has 
 
 WOO. DIV. VOL. U. 
 
 inserted, in his 'Supplementary Volume' to Dodnley's collection, 
 'The Death of Robert, Earl of Huntington,' written by Chettle and 
 Anthony Munday. Examples of his style will be found in Lamb's 
 ' Specimens.' 
 
 * CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGENE, a distinguished chemist, was 
 born at Angers, August 31st, 1786. His fattier, who practised as a 
 physician, took good care of his education, and sent him to the Central 
 School at Angers. In 1803 the youth removed to Paris, and studied 
 chemistry under Vauqueliu. In 1810, when not more than twenty-four 
 years of age, he became assistant naturalist to the museum ; but some 
 of the professors having taken umbrage at the growing importance of 
 the appointment, it was abolished. Later M. Chevreul was named 
 professor of science at the College Charlemagne ; then officer of the 
 University ; examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique, and lastly director 
 of the dyeworks, and professor of special chemistry at the Gobelins. 
 Here he signalised his practical science aud judicious taste by his 
 innovations with respect to associated colours. He gave a course of 
 lectures on the subject, which were understood only by a limited 
 number of adepts. The opinion that taste and colours should not be 
 discussed had passed into a proverb : Chevreul denied the assertion, 
 and drew up a species of aesthetics for the use of dyers, manufacturers, 
 and artists. 
 
 In 1826 Chevreul was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, 
 and a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, and in 1829 he 
 succeeded Vauqueliu in the professorship of applied chemistry at the 
 Jardin des Plantes. One of his earliest works, which has contributed 
 in no small degree to his reputation, was an analytical treatise 
 'Recherches chimiques sur les Corps gras d'origiae Animale.' It 
 establishes an epoch in science by its rigorous and philosophical 
 method ; and in the ai ts by the multitude of its applications and the 
 greatness of its results. From it many new branches of industry have 
 been created, and others profitably metamorphosed. Oleic acid, so 
 useful in the preparation of woollen yarns, stearine, and the remark- 
 able imitations of essences and perfumes, all originated in Chevreul's 
 researches. 
 
 In 1831 M. Chevreul published ' Lecons de Chimie appliquee a la 
 Teiuture, faites a la manufacture Roy ale des Gobelins,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 which became a text-book on that subject. In 1839 appeared ' De la 
 Loi du Contraste simultane" des Couleurs, et de l'assortiment des 
 objets colores, considere d'apres cette Loi dans ses rapports avec la 
 peinture,' &c. This is a remarkable work, full of philosophical reflec- 
 tions, apt generalisations, and scientific illustrations of the theory. 
 The laws of harmonious colouring are therein clearly established. It 
 has been translated into English, and wherever known is recognised as 
 a thoroughly scientific and practical authority. By invitation of the 
 minister of commerce, M. Chevreul delivered a course of lectures on 
 the subject at Lyon, from which great advantages accrued to the 
 manufacturers of that city. M. Chevreul shows the applications of his 
 theory to be innumerable, and discusses especially the optical effects 
 of silken stuffs, illustrating his doctrine by contiguous metallic cylin- 
 ders, regarded under four different aspects : according as they are 
 parallel or perpendicular to the plane of the luminous rays that strike 
 them, and according as the observer turns his back or his face to the 
 light, and he examines the question as to whether the light is more 
 particularly reflected by the warp or weft of the tissue. This theory 
 was printed in 1846 at the expense of the Chamber of Commerce of 
 Lyon. 
 
 In 1852 the Socie'te' d'Encouragement awarded to M. Chevreul their 
 prize of 12,000 francs for his work on the ' Corps Gras,' and expressed 
 at the same time by the mouth of M. Dumas, one of the foremost 
 chemists of the day, their high opinion of his merits. 
 
 Among the numerous writings with which M. Chevreul has enriched 
 science for more than forty years, are some of no little importance on 
 the chemical reactions which affect the hygiene of populous cities. 
 Iu these he traces the causes of insalubrity, and treats the subject 
 from a point of view which raises it into a science applicable in sanitary 
 regulations. 
 
 Although in his seventieth year, M. Chevreul retains his intellectual 
 activity, and takes part in the meetings of the Institute, in the adminis- 
 tration of the Jardin des Plantes, in the management of the Societe 
 centrale d' Agriculture, and of the Gobelins, besides delivering every 
 year two or three courses of lectures on chemistry. This latter is his 
 favourite science, and he has for some time been engaged in writing a 
 history of it. His fitness for the task is demonstrated by the many 
 able articles from his pen in the ' Journal des Savants,' the 'Annates 
 de Chimie,' ' Dictionnaire des Sciences naturelles,' ' Me"uioires de 
 l'Acaddmie des Sciences,' and other publications. He is a member of 
 most of the principal scientific societies of Europe. 
 
 CHEYNE, GEORGE, was born in Scotland, in the year 1071. Ha 
 was at first intended for the church, but after attending the lectures 
 of Dr. Archibald Pitcairn, he determined to practise medicine. Having 
 taken his Doctor's degree, he came to London about 1700, aud soon 
 after published his ' Theory of Fevers,' in which he attempts to explain 
 the doctrine of secretion on mechanical principles. His next work, 
 'On Fluxions,' was published in 1705, and procured his admission 
 into the Royal Society. At a maturer age he called this a juvenile 
 production, and acknowledged that it was justly censured by De 
 Moivre, to whom aud to Dr. Oliohaut he makes an apology in the 
 
 Q 
 
glfi 
 
 CHTLD, SIR JOSIAH. 
 
 CHILDREN, JOHN GEORGE. 
 
 126 
 
 preface to his ' Essay on Health and Lour Life,' for having treated 
 their criticisms with rudeness. His 'Philosophical Principles of 
 Natural Religion,' containing the elements of natural philosophy, and 
 the evidence of natural religion to be deduced from them, was 
 dedicated to the Earl of Roxburgh, for whose use it appears to have 
 been written. 
 
 Cheyne's natural disposition to corpulency was so increased by full 
 living in London, that in a few years he became "fat, short-breathed, 
 lethargic, and listless." His health gradually sank, and, after trying 
 a variety of tnatmeut with little benefit, he confined himself to milk, 
 with " seeds, bread, mealy roots, and fruit." The experiment suc- 
 ceeded, and he was soon relieved of his most distressing symptoms. 
 During his illness, being de.-erted by his old associates, lie began to 
 look to religion for consolation, and at last "came to this firm and 
 settled resolution in the main, viz., to neglect nothing to secure 
 my eternal peace, more than if I had been certified I should die 
 within the day ; nor to mind anything that ury secular obligations 
 and duties demanded of me, less than if I had been ensured to live 
 fifty years more. This, though with infinite weakness and imper- 
 fection, has been my settled intention in the main since." (' The 
 English Malady,' 2nd edit., p. 334.) 
 
 In 1722 he published an ' Essay on the true Nature and duo Method 
 of treating the Gout,' together with the virtues of the Bath waters, 
 and the nature and cure of most chronic diseases. He had resided at 
 Bath during the summers of several years, and attributed much of 
 the benefit he had received to drinking the waters. In 1724 appeared 
 his well known 'Es>ay on Health and Long Life,' in which he in- 
 culcates the necessity of a strict regimen, particularly in diet, both 
 in preventing and curing diseases. It was di dicated to Sir Joseph 
 Jekyll, Muster of the Rolls, who had been under the author's care. 
 In the preface he gives an account of his former works, which he 
 censures where faulty, with great frankness, particularly when he had 
 treated other writers with levity or disrespect. In 1733 he brought 
 out his ' English Malady,' a treatise on the spleen and vapours, as 
 well as hysteric and hypochondiiacal diseases in general. This work, 
 once very popular, contains a very minute account of the author's 
 own case. It appears that on his recovery he gradually returned to 
 a more generous diet. " However for near twenty years I continued 
 sober, moderate, and plain in my diet, and in my greatest health 
 drank not above a quart, or three pints at most, of wine any day (which 
 I then absurdly thought necessary in my bulk and stowage, though 
 certainly by far an overdose), and that at dinner only, one half with 
 toy meat, with water, the other after, but none more that day, never 
 tasting any supper, and at breakfast nothing but green tea, without 
 any eatable ; but by these means every dinner necessarily became a 
 surfeit and a debauch ; and in ten or twelve years I swelled to such 
 an enormous size, tliat upon my last weighing I exceeded 32 stone. 
 My breath became so short, that upon stepping into my chariot 
 quickly, and with some effort, I was ready to faint away for want of 
 breath, and my face turned black." (' The English Malady,' 2nd 
 edit, Loud., 1734, p. 312.) 
 
 He now returned to his low diet, and with the same success as 
 before, though it required a longer time to re-establish his health. 
 The proposal of a milk diet appears to have afforded much diversion 
 to contemporary wits, some of whose gibes aud sarcasms rather ruffled 
 our author's complacency. Dr. Cheyne died at Bath, on the 12th of 
 April. 1743. 
 
 CHILD, SIR JOSIAH, Bart., was an eminent London merchant 
 in the latter part of the 17th century, and one of the ablest of our 
 earlier English writers on commerce and political economy. His 
 principal publication is entitled 'Brief Observations concerning Trade 
 and the Interest of Money,' by J. C, 4to, London, 1668. In his preface 
 he tells us that this tract was written at his country-house in the 
 sickness-year, that is, in 16G5. Its leading purpose is to defend the 
 late reduction of the le?al rate of interest from eight to six per cent, 
 (originally made by ordinance of the Long Parliament in 1651, and 
 confirmed at the Restoration), and to urge a still further reduction. 
 The author's great example of commercial success is that of the Dutch, 
 and he maintains that "the lowness of the rate of interest is the causa 
 causavs of all the other causes of the riches of that people." The 
 rate of interest, as is now well understood, is merely a measure or 
 expression of the ratio of the supply of money to the demand. It 
 rises or falls with the rate of profits ; and that again depends in great 
 part upon the quautity of capital seeking for employment; so that, in 
 fact, instead of a low rate of interest being the cause of accumulated 
 wealth in a community, it is more likely to be the consequence of that 
 state of thing.-. This was pointed out in an answer to Child's treatise, 
 published the same year under the title of ' Interest of Money Mistaken, 
 or a Treatise proving that the abatement of Interest is the effect and 
 not the Cause of the Riches of a Nation.' In another respect also 
 Child's notions in this publication are opposed to those now generally 
 entertained : his recommendation, namely, that the natural rate of 
 interest should be kept down, or rather attempted to be kept down, 
 by a legal restriction. In support of his views he reprints, as an 
 appendix, fir Thomas Culpeper's 'Tract against the High Rate of 
 Usurie,' first published in 1623. Notwithstanding some fundamental 
 defects however, the work contains much that is souud and valuable ; 
 and some of the principles laid down in it are both in advance of the 
 
 current opinions of the day una pithily and happily expressed. A 
 second edition, much enlarged, appeared in 1690, under the title of 
 ' A New Discourse of Trade ;' a third in 1698 ; and the work has since 
 been twice reprinted, the last time iu 12mo at Glasgow in 1751. It is 
 in this work that Child has explained his plan for the relief and 
 employment of the poor, of which Sir Frederic Eden has given an 
 account in his 'State of the Poor,' vol. i. pp. 186, &c. It included 
 the substitution of districts or unions for parishes, aud the compulsory 
 transportation of paupers to the colonies. He proposes that the funds i! 
 should be managed by an incorporated body to be styled ' The Fathers B 
 of the Poor,' and to wear, each of them, " some honourable medal, after I 
 the manner of the familiars of the Inqusition iu Spain." In Watt's j| 
 ' Bibliotheca,' and other catalogues, this plan is noticed as a separate I 
 publication (though without date) ; but we do not know that it ever i] 
 appeared except as one of the chapters of the ' New Discourse of I 
 Trade.' Child, who was one of the directors and for some time chair- I 
 man of the East India Company, and who took a leading part in the I 
 conduct of its proceedings, is stated to have written several tracts in I 
 defence of the trade to the East Indies ; but they appear to have been I 
 all anonymous, and the only one which has usually been distinctly I 
 assigned to him is that entitled 'A Treatise wherein it is demonstrated fl 
 that the East India Trade is the most national of all Foreign Trades, I 
 by ♦lAoworpis, 4to, London, 1681. This is affirmed in the work called I 
 ' The British Merchant ' (originally published in 1710), second edition, 1 
 vol. i. p. 162, to have been written by him, or at least by his direction. I 
 It was contended by the opponents of the company tliat the East India I 
 trade was ruinous, or prejudicial, by reason of its draining the country I 
 of gold and silver; it was answered by Child, as it had been many I 
 years before by Thomas Mud, in his ' Discourse of Trade from England I 
 unto the Fast Indies,' that the trade in reality brought more treasure, I 
 or gold and silver, into the country than it took out of it, by our I 
 salts of eastern commodities to other European nations. It was upon I 
 this ground simply that parliament had recently (by the 15 Car. II., I 
 c. 7, 8. 12) so far permitted the trade to be legally carried on in the 1 
 only way it could be carried on at all as to allow the exportation duty- 9 
 free of foreign coin and bullion. 
 
 Taking his stand upon what has been called the mercantile system, 1 
 the principle of which is, that the value of a foreign trade depends I 
 upon the balance which it leaves to be received in money, Child 1 
 admitted the paramount importance of gold and silver; but contended I 
 that the effect of the India trade, taken in its whole extent, as including M 
 the trade with other countries which we carried on by means of our 1 
 imports from the east, was to promote, not to prevent, the accutnu- I 
 lation in our hands of the precious metals. The destruction however 1 
 of the fancy that there was anything necessarily desirable in that j 
 result, as far at least as it could be destroyed by reasoning, and the <1 
 demonstration of the truth that gold and silver do not differ in any il 
 respect in their commercial character from other commodities, were <l 
 accomplished a few years after this date by Sir Dudley North in his I 
 ' Discourses upon Trade, principally directed to the Cases of Interest, I 
 Coinage, Shipping, and Increase of Money,' 4to, London, 1691. 
 
 Sir Josiah Child was the second son of Richard Child, a merchant j 
 of London; he was born in 1630, was created a baronet in 1678, and a 
 died in 1699. He attained to great wealth, was thrice married, and ,1 
 by each of his wives had one or more children, who married into some :] 
 of the highest families among the nobility. His last wife survived till ;fl 
 the year 1735, " at which time," we are told by Morant, the historian ',\\ 
 of Essex, " it was said she was nearly allied to so many of the prime [ 
 nobility that eleven dukes and duchesses used to ask her blessing, and ' 
 it was reckoned that above fifty great falhilies would go into mourning 
 for her." 
 
 CHILDREN, JOHN GEORGE, was born on the 18th of May 1777, 
 at Ferox Hall, Tonbridge. From the Grammar school of that town 
 he went to Eton, and afterwards, in 1794, entered Queen's College, 
 Cambridge, as fellow-commoner. He studied with a view to the 
 church, but the early death of his wife led him to travel in the south 
 of Europe and in the United States, from whence he returned to devote 
 himself to scientific pursuits. 
 
 While studying mineralogy, chemistry, and galvanism, he made the 
 acquaintance of Davy, Wollaston, and other leading men of science. 
 In 1807 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In the following 
 year he contributed a paper to the 'Philosophical Transactions,' on 
 ' Some experiments performed with a view to ascertain the most 
 advantageous method of constructing a voltaic apparatus, for the 
 purposes of chemical research,' iu which he determined the effect of 
 unusually large battery plates. With twenty pairs of plates each four 
 feet long and two feet wide, he confirmed Davy's observation, "that 
 intensity increases with the number [of plates], and the quantity of 
 electricity with the extent of the surface." 
 
 This was followed iu 1815 by a paper, published also in the 'Philo- 
 sophical Transactions,' 'An account of some experiments with a large 
 voltaic battery,' in which a further series of singularly interesting 
 results was described, among them the conversion of iron into steel 
 by union with diamond, under the sole action of the battery. 
 
 Between the dates cf these papers Mr. Children travelled in Spain, 
 and visited the quicksilver mines of Almaden, then but little knouu 
 iu England. In 1816 he was appointed one of the librarians in the 
 department of Antiquities (afterwards of Natural History) of the 
 
131 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM. 
 
 CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL. 
 
 222 
 
 British Museum. In 1819 he published a translation of Thdnard's 
 'Essay on Chemical Analysis,' and in 1S22 of Berzelius's ' Treatise on 
 the Use of the Blowpipe,' with additional experiments and notes. He 
 discovered a method for extracting silver from its ore without amal- 
 gamation, and derived considerable profit by selling the right to use 
 it to several South American miniug companies in 1821. He helped 
 in establishing the 'Zoological Journal,' which appeared iu 1825, and 
 was one of the first editors. In 1826 he was elected secretary of the 
 Royal Society, and resigning the following year on account of ill 
 health, was re elected in 1830, and retained the office for seven years. 
 In 1839, on the death of his third wife, Mr. Children resigned his post 
 at the British Museum. He died on the first day of 1852. 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM, was the son of AVilliam Chilling- 
 worth, mayor of Oxford, where he was born in October, 1602. In 
 1618 he was a scholar, and in 162S a fellow, of Trinity College in that 
 University. Some curious memoirs of him are preserved by Anth. Wood 
 ('Athen. Oxon." c. 20), who says "he would often walk in the college 
 grove, and dispute with any scholar he met, purposely to facilitate 
 and make the way of wrangling common with him, which was a 
 fashion used in those days, especially among the disputing theologists, 
 or those who set themselves apart purposely for divinity." The com- 
 parative merits of the English and Romish churches were at that 
 time a subject of zealous and incessant disputation among the 
 university students ; and several learned Jesuits succeeded iu making 
 distinguished proselytes among the Protestant clergy and nobility. 
 Chillingworth, being an able disputant, was singled out by the famous 
 Jesuit Fisher, alias Johannes Perseus (' Biblioth. Soc. Jesu '), by whom 
 he was convinced of the necessity for an infallible living ' Rule of 
 Faith.' On this he at once adopted the Romau Catholic system, wrote 
 out his reasons for abjuring Protestantism, and joined the Jesuits in 
 their college at Douay. 
 
 After the lapse of a few months, the arguments addressed to him 
 by his godfather, Dr. Laud, then bishop of London, induced him to 
 abandon his new faith, and he returned to Oxford in 1631, where he 
 passed about four years iu reconsidering the Protestant tenets. The 
 great work of Daille on the ' Fathers,' which then first appeared, is said 
 to have finally determined him. 
 
 Iu 1635 he published hi3 ' Religion of Protestants, a safe way to 
 Salvation.' It excited great attention, and passed through two editions 
 in less than five months. The principle of Chillingworth is, that the 
 volume of Divine Scriptures, ascertained to be such by the ordinary 
 rules of historical and critical investigation, is to be considered the sole 
 authority of Christians, to the utter exclusion of ecclesiastical tradition. 
 His assertion of the principle of private judgment wa3 opposed as much 
 by the Puritans as by the Roman Catholics; and while the Jesuit 
 Knott, alias Matthias Wilson (' Biblioth. Patrum Soc. Jesu,' p. 185), 
 contended that he "destroyed the nature of faith by resolving it into 
 reason;" Dr. Cheynell " prayed that God would give him new light to 
 deny his carnal reason, and submit to faith." These were two of the 
 most determined of Chillingworth's antagonists. Cheynell was one of 
 the assembly of divines who, in 1G16, was sent to convert the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford. Chillingworth iu the meantime, unable to reason his 
 conscience into an approval of the 39 Articles, refused to accept any 
 preferment in the church. His long letter on the subject to Dr. 
 Sheldon (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury), a most interesting 
 document, is given in his Life, by Des Maizeaux, p. 86, and in Kippis's 
 'Biog. Brit.' Nothing can be stronger than the expressions of refusal 
 to subscribe with mental reservation. However, iu a very short time 
 he was completely persuaded by the arguments of Drs. Sheldon and 
 Laud, that peace and union are the real object of subscription, not 
 belief or a-sseut — a doctrine held by Archbishop Sancroft and many 
 other eminent divine3. Accordingly he accepted the chancellorship 
 of Sdisbury with the prebeud of Brixworth, Northamptonshire, 
 annexed. Chillingworth, in 1610, was deputed by the chapter of Salis- 
 bury as their proctor to the Convocation in London. He was attached 
 very zealously to the royal party, and wrote a treatise (unpublished) 
 on ' The Unlawfulness of resisting the lawful Prince, although most 
 impious, tyrannical, and idolatrous.' Being present in the army of 
 Charles I. at the siege of Gloucester, August 1643, he acted as engineer, 
 and devised the construction of engines, in imitation of the Roman 
 ' testudines cum pluteis,' to assault the rebels and take the city by 
 storm. Having accompanied the king's forces under Lord Hoptou to 
 Arundel castle, he was there with his comrades taken prisoner by the 
 parliament army under Sir William Waller; and falling ill he was 
 thence conveyed to the Bishop's palace at Chichester, where he died 
 and was buried in January 1614. A singular scene occurred at his 
 funeral. Dr. Cheynell, then rector of Petworth, appeared at the grave, 
 with the work of Chillingworth (' Relig. of Protest.') in hi3 hand, and 
 after an admonitory oration on the dangerous tendency of its rational- 
 ism, he flung it into the grave, exclaiming, "Get thee gone, thou 
 cursed book, which bast seduced so many precious souls — get thee 
 gone, thou corrupt rotten book, earth to earth, dust to dust, go rot 
 with thy author!" He afterwards published ' Chilliugworthi Novis- 
 sima, or the Sicknesse, Heresy, Death, and Burial of Wm. C, with a 
 prophane catechism collected out of his works, by F. Cheynell, Fell. 
 Mert. Col!. Ox.,' 1644 and 1725. In this singular production the object 
 of the author's enmity is jeered at as " this man of reason whose head 
 WM as full of scruples as it was of engines." But the character and 1 
 
 abilities of Chillingworth have been greatly and juslly extolled by many 
 of our most distinguished writers. Tillotsou styled him "the incom- 
 parable Chillingworth," and Locke says (on 'Education') "If you 
 would have your son to reason woll, let him read Chillingworth ;" and 
 again (on 'Study'), "For attaining right reasoning I propose the 
 constant reading of Chillingworth : for this purpose he deserves to be 
 read over and over again;" but Anth. Wood's opiuion is not outdone 
 by auy, for he declares that " Chillingworth had such extraordinary 
 clear reason that if the great Turk or the Devil could bo converted, he 
 was able to do it." The result of his remarkable proficiency in 
 ' wrangling' is however stated by his iutimato frieud Lord Clarendon 
 ('Hist. Rebell.') to have been that '•Chillingworth had contracted 
 such an irresolution and habit of doubting, that at last he was confident 
 of nothing." It is said by Clarendon that "Chillingworth wa3 a man 
 of little stature," and that it was " an age in which many great and 
 wonderful men were of that size." The 10th and best edition of ' The 
 Religion of Protestants ' i3 that iu fol., 1712, with sermons, &c, and a 
 life of the author by Dr. Birch. ' The Religion of Protestants ' h is 
 been siuce often reprinted. There is a recent edition of Chilling- 
 worth's whole works, in 1 vol. 8vo. A complete list of his miscellaneous 
 controversial works is given in Kippis's 'Bio». Brit.,' vol. iii., p. 515, 
 and in the 'Life of Chillingworth,' by Des Maizeaux, 8vo, 1725. 
 
 *CHISHOLM, MRS. CAROLINE, was born about the year 1810, 
 in the parish of Wootton, Northamptonshire, where her father, 
 William Jones, was a small proprietor of laud. He died while bis 
 daughter was young, but she was carefully brought up by her mother, 
 and in her twentieth year was married to Captain Alexauder Chisholm, 
 of the Indian army. Soon after the marriage they proceeded to 
 Madras, where Mrs. Chisholm's commiseration wa3 excited by the 
 neglected condition in which she saw the female children and orphans 
 of the British soldiers. She succeeded in establishing, uuder her own 
 management, a school for girls, and afterwards a school of industry, 
 which had the most satisfactory results. After a residence of some 
 years at Madras, the state of Captain Chisholm's health required a 
 change of climate, and in 183S he obtained leave of absence, and they 
 removed to Australia. They resided for some time at Sydney, and 
 when Captain Chisholm's health was re established, he returned to 
 Madras, but his wife remained at Sydney. About this time large 
 numbers of young women were lauded there from emigrant-ships, 
 who, if they were not immediately engaged, were without frieuds, 
 without money, aud without a place to sleep in. Here again Mrs. 
 Chisholm was excited to benevolent exertion, and her first efforts 
 were directed to obtain an asylum for the destitute girls. Some 
 allowance of food was supplied by the colonial government to those 
 who applied for it, but no place of shelter. Mrs. Chisholm applied to 
 Sir George Gipps, the governor, aud at length, at the end of 1841, a low 
 wooden building was obtaiued, part of au old barracks, and very small, 
 where she herself mostly resided with the girls, iu order to superintend 
 aud train them. Step by step she extended her plans of beuevolence, 
 lent small sums to assist the emigrants, travelled far into the interior, 
 taking young women with her to place them in their situations, 
 became known to the settlers, who willingly supplied food aud shelter, 
 established depots iu the bush, and a registry-office in Sydney, and iu 
 the period from 1841 to the end of 1845 had obtained situations for 
 females and employment for men to the number of 11,000, to whom 
 she lent small sums which amounted altogether to 1200^., the whole of 
 which was repaid, minus only 16i. Iu 1845 Captain Chisholm rejoined 
 his wife, aud in 1846 they decided on revisiting England. B;fore they 
 left the colony several of the most distinguished persons iu Sydney 
 and the vicinity presented Mrs. Chisholm with an address of thanks 
 " for her zealous exertions on behalf of the emigraut population ; " 
 aud a subscription of 150Z. as a testimonial, which, in accepting, she 
 stated should " be expende 1 iu further promoting emigration, and in 
 restoring wives to their husbands and children to their parents." 
 
 Captain Chisholm aud his wife lauded in England at the end of the 
 year 1846, and took up their residence at Islington, where she carried 
 out her plans of assisting the emigrants of the poorer classes. She 
 established a ' Family Colonization Society,' by which passage-money 
 was collected by weekly instalments; she travelled iu the manufac- 
 turing districts, and both there aud in the metropolis explained her 
 plans, and gave many interesting accounts of what she ha 1 done and 
 seen. Large numbers of emigrants, properly and prudently provided 
 for, were sent out iu successive ships, and in 1854 she herself and her 
 family left London in an emigrant ship for Australia, with the inten- 
 tion, as she stated, of there spending the remainder of her life. A 
 considerable sum was subscribed in Great Britain as a testimonial, and 
 presented to her before she left. 
 
 CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL, a distinguished miniature-painter and 
 etcher of the 18th century, was born at Danzig in 1726. His father 
 was a tradesman of Danzig, and Daniel was brought up and continued 
 in the business until his father's death in 1740. In 1743 he removed 
 to Berlin, and entered into the service of an uucle, who seems to have 
 kept a general store. One class of articles which he sold was painted 
 snuflf-boxes, the paintings of which were all executed by Daniel in his 
 leisure hours, many of them on euamel, which art his uncle had had 
 him taught for the purpose. The designs were all copied from prints, 
 ' and were, according to Chodowiecki's own account, miserable perform- 
 1 ances : his whole knowledge of drawing and painting he had learnt 
 
223 
 
 CHODZKO, ALEXANDER. 
 
 CHRISTINA. 
 
 224 
 
 from an aunt in Danzig. Chodowiecki continued some time employed 
 in this bumble way, until through his enamel-master, Haid, he made 
 the acquaintance of some of tho artists of Berlin, whose works and 
 conversation excited his ambition, and induced, him in the year 1754 
 to devote himself arduously aud exclusively to art. He commenced 
 as a miniature-painter, and met with considerable success, but he soon 
 forsook this tedious art for etching. He etched chiefly from his own 
 designs, and as an etcher he ultimately obtained a reputation equal if 
 not superior to that of any artist of his age in Europe. His etchings 
 are very numerous, amounting to at least two thousand, but they are 
 mostly small, and the greater part were executed for booksellers. A 
 piiutseller of Berlin, of the name of Jakoby, published a complete 
 catalogue of his prints in 1814, in one volume octavo ; there ia also a 
 long list of them in his autobiography inserted in Meusel's ' Miscellany,' 
 arranged chronologically ; and another in Heineken's 'Dictionary,' 
 arranged according to the subjects, consisting of heads, portraits, his- 
 torical pieces sacred and profane, figures, and original compositions; 
 landscapes, illustrations for pocket-books and almanacs, from novels, 
 &c, and frontispieces, vignettes, aud tail-pieces for various works. 
 The works engraved after Chodowiecki' s designs or drawings by other 
 engravers are less numerous than his own etchings, but amount never- 
 theless to some hundreds, includiug several designs for Lavater's work 
 on ' Physiognomy,' engraved by J. EL Lips and others. 
 
 Chodowiecki was director of the Royal Academy of the Arts of 
 Berliu, where he died in 1801. Many of his designs are satirical, and 
 he has been called the Hogarth of Berlin. All his works, though on a 
 small scale, are remarkable for their expression, and the character is 
 seldom exaggerated ; his subjects are chiefly illustrative of common 
 life or contemporary and recent history. Many novels and other light 
 works which he illustrated, owed their success chiefly and in some 
 cases entirely to his vignettes; aud the 'Almanac' of the Berlin 
 Academy, which he illustrated from the year 1770, had, from the same 
 cause, a very extensive circulation. 
 
 * CHODZKO, ALEXANDER, a Polish poet, linguist, aud traveller, 
 of whom little is to be gathered but from scattered incidental notices 
 in his own writings. In the poems of Korsak, a Lithuanian author, 
 there is an epistle to Chodzko dated from Wilna in 1826, in which he 
 congratulates him on his good fortune in being able to rove the East. 
 In 1833 a volume of Polish poems by Chodzko himself was published 
 at Posen, but is spoken of in no high terms by Polish critics. His 
 next production was in English, and issued in London in 1842, at the 
 expense of the Oriental Translation Fund. It is entitled ' Specimens 
 of the Popular Poetry of Persia, as found in the adventures and 
 improvisations of Kurroglou, the bandit-minstrel of Northern Persia, 
 and in the songs of the people inhabiting the shores of the Caspian 
 Sea, orally collected and translated with philological and historical 
 notes by Alexander Chodzko.' In the preface, which is dated at 
 London, July 1842, the writer tells us that he collected these poems 
 during a sojourn of eleven years in the countries where they are 
 current, and remarks, very truly, that the Oriental student will regret 
 with him the omission of the original texts, which he had taken down 
 in manuscript from the mouths of the reciters, few of whom could 
 either read or write. These were not printed entire by the Oriental 
 Translation Fund on account of the expense ; but a few specimens in 
 the Tuka-Turkman, the Perso-Turkish, and the Zendo Persian dialects 
 were added in an appendix, " from a hope of their greatly aiding the 
 researches of investigators into the language of the cuneiform inscrip- 
 tions of Van, Bistiin, and Persenolis, and probably of leading to some 
 knowledge even of those of Babylon." The volume is singularly 
 interesting in its contents, which are chiefly descriptive of the ex- 
 ploits of a sort of Turkish Robin Hood, and which are rendered into 
 spirited English by the Polish translator, who however acknowledges 
 his obligations to the revision of the Rev. J. Reynolds, then secretary 
 of the Oriental Fund. His next appearance as a writer was in French, 
 in an essay on the bilingual Lycian inscriptions discovered in Asia 
 Minor by Sir Charles Fellowes, one of the languages of which he 
 attempted to prove was of the Slavonic family. Unfortunately 
 M. Chodzko appears to have taken the inscription from an inaccurate 
 copy, and the speculations founded upon it are therefore untenable. 
 This essay was printed by his friend the poet Adam Mickiewicz, as an 
 appendix to ' L'Eglise Officielle et le Messianisme ' (Paris, 1845), but 
 had been circulated some years before that date. In 1844 Chodzko 
 superintended the edition of Mickiewicz's ' Poems,' printed at Paris, 
 which was the latest issued during the author's lifetime, and is the most 
 important work of modern Polish literature. The first edition of 
 Mickiewicz, printed at Paris in 1828, had been issued by Jakob Leonard 
 Chodzko, who is probably a relative. 
 
 * CHODZKO, JAKOB LEONARD, a Polish writer, whose works 
 are frequently referred to by writers on Polish subjects, was born at 
 Oborek, in the district of Ozmiaua, on the 6th of November 1800, 
 and was educated at the university of Wilna. He entered, with many 
 of the other students, into a secret society formed by the student Zan 
 against the Russian government; but before its discovery by the 
 Russian authorities, which led to the banishment or imprisonment of 
 most of its members, left Poland as secretary to Prince Michael 
 Ogiuski, whom he accompanied on his travels. In 1826, not venturing 
 to return to Poland, he established himself at Paris as an author, and 
 has continued there Bince, in the peaceful exercise of the profession, 
 
 with the exception of a brief interval at the revolution of 1830, when 
 he so distinguished himself at the barricades that he was appointed 
 one of the aides-de-camp of General Lafayette. His chief works, all 
 of which are in French, are, ' Observations on Poland and the Poles, 
 as an Introduction to tho Memoirs of Michael Oginski,' Paris, 1827 ; 
 'History of the Polish Legions in Italy,' 2 vols., Paris, 1829; aud a 
 new edition of Malte-Bruu's ' Picture of Ancient and Modern Poland,' 
 2 vols., 1830, with such considerable additions, especially an essay on 
 Polish legislation by Lelewel, aud a sketch of Polish literature by 
 Podczaszynski, as more than double the value of the original. He 
 also superintended two series of a work entitled ' La Pologne Histo- 
 riquo litteraire, &c.,' Paris, 1839-41, in which he was assisted by 
 Madame Olympe Chodzko, his wife. The whole of his works are of 
 the same character, useful compilations of facts, in which valuable 
 information is brought together in ono language, the materials of which 
 had to be sought in another. He has made accessible to the European 
 reader much that lay buried in the neglected literature of Poland. 
 
 CHOISEUL, ETIENNE FRANCOIS, DUC Dii, born in 1719, 
 rose to the highest offices in the state under Louis XV., aud was in 
 fact the ruling minister during a great part of that reign. He waa 
 made minister for foreign affairs in 1758, minister at war in 1761, and 
 some years after ho resumed the department of foreign affairs. He 
 held this last office till December 1770, when in consequence of his 
 imperious character, which had made him many enemies at court 
 among men of all parties, among whom were the Mareehal de Riche- 
 lieu aud the Due d'Aiguillon, he was exiled to his estate of Chanteloup, 
 where he wrote his memoirs aud a satirical comedy against the royal 
 family, and especially against the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., 
 styled ' Le Royaume d'Arle quinerie,' which he printed himself at 
 Chanteloup and distributed among his friends. His memoirs were 
 published at Paris in 1790, after his death. The administration of the 
 Due de Choiseul was singularly unfortunate. In the war against 
 England, which terminated by the peace of Paris in 1763, France lost 
 Canada, and her fleets, as well as those of Spain, were defeated ; and 
 in the Seven Years' war France took the part of Austria against 
 Frederic of Prussia, who triumphed over both. The Due de Choiseul's 
 partiality for Maria Theresa of Austria has been strongly censured. 
 He concluded the marriage between Marie Antoinette and the dauphin, 
 afterwards Louis XVI. In 1760 he expelled the Jesuits from France. 
 He is also said to have secretly encouraged the first symptoms of 
 discontent among the English colonies of North America. 
 
 The personal character of the duke was generous though haughty ; 
 he was disinterested and splendid in his expenditure, by which he 
 ruined his own fortune. He loved the arts and literature, and was a 
 friend of Voltaire and the other literary characters of that age. His 
 enemies exaggerated his faults, and attributed to him crimes of which 
 there is not the least evidence. He died at Paris in May 1785. 
 
 (Ezamen du Ministere du Due de Choueul in the MSmoires du Due 
 d'Aiguillon.) 
 
 CHRIST, JESUS. [Jesds Christ.] 
 
 CHRISTIERN II., of Denmark, born in 1481, was the son of King 
 John, and grandson of Christiern I. He ascended the throne on bis 
 father's death in 1513. In 1520 he succeeded in having himself 
 elected King of Sweden, which country had been long distracted by 
 civil factions. Christiern took an atrocious, but, as he fancied it, an 
 expeditious way of getting rid of all opposition for the future. HaviDg 
 assembled the chief nobles and prelates of Stockholm on the occasion 
 of his coronation, he had them suddenly arrested and publicly exe- 
 cuted. He also massacred a number of the citizens of Stockholm. 
 (Puffendorf.) Gustavus Erickson, a descendant of the ancient kings, 
 who was a prisoner in Denmark, having contrived to escape, took 
 refuge in the forests of Dalecarlia, where he roused the peasantry, 
 attacked Christiern and his satellite the Archbishop of Upsal, defeated 
 them, and drove the Danes from Sweden. [Gustavus Erickson.] Soon 
 after Christiern was deposed by his own Danish subjects, who elected 
 Frederick, duke of Holstein, in 1523. Christiern retired to Flanders, 
 whence, after ten years, he set off with some Dutch troops, and made 
 an attempt to recover his Danish dominions. He failed; and, beiug 
 taken prisoner, was put in prison, where he died in January 1559. 
 He has been called the Nero of the North. 
 
 CHRISTINA (of Sweden), the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus by 
 Maria Eleonora, princess of Brandenburg, was born on the 8th of De- 
 cember 1626. Her father bestowed great care on her education, and 
 having no son to succeed him was anxious to cultivate in her a strong 
 and masculine disposition. Even when a mere infant he expected that 
 she, as the daughter of a warrior, should hear the roar of artillery 
 without emotion. On his departure for the wars in Germany, 
 Gustavus Adolphus appointed a regency, and. ' arrying his daughter 
 in his arms, presented her to the assembled states of the kingdom ai 
 their future sovereign. 
 
 Gustavus fell at Lutzen in November 1632. Christina, then six 
 years of age, was proclaimed queen by the states, who left her in the 
 hands of regents or guardians, — the five great dignitaries of the crown, 
 who were charged with the administration of affairs and the task of 
 completing the young queen's education. The Chancellor Oxenstiem, 
 an experienced and enlightened statesman, was at the head of these 
 dignitaries, aud the other members of the regency were persons of 
 ability and upright intentions. They however pursued the plan 
 
ns 
 
 CHRISTINA. 
 
 CHRISTINA, MARIA. 
 
 IV, 
 
 of education and discipline that had been traced out by the king 
 himself, a*d to this we must, in part, attribute the singular character 
 afterwards displayed by Christina. 
 
 From her earliest years she was surrounded by grave masters and 
 scholars, who crowded and oppressed her intellect with Latin, Greek, 
 Hebrew, history, and politics ; aud for her lighter amusements she 
 was allowed to ride on horseback in masculine attire, to hunt, to 
 fhoot, and review troops. The society of her own sex was soon in- 
 supportable to her. It is generally stated that she made considerable 
 progress in several ancient and modern languages, and in other 
 branches of knowledge, and that at the council table she showed a 
 searching wit and great precocity of reason. But her knowledge was 
 not digested, aud her mind wanted the equilibrium which is given by 
 refined taste and sound judgment. Bayle says she read daily some 
 pages of Tacitus in the original. 
 
 In 1644 she took the reins of government into her own hands, and, 
 much favoured by circumstances, acted rather a conspicuous part in 
 the affairs of Europe. She at once finished a war with Denmark, 
 obtaining by treaty the cession of some territory to Sweden; she 
 pressed on the peace with Germany against the advice of Oxenstiern 
 and others ; aud finally became a party to the treaty of Westphalia 
 in 1648, by which, in consequence of the victories of her brave troops, 
 she obtained several millions of dollars, three votes in the diet of the 
 Germanic empire, and the cession of Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen, and 
 Veiden. When pressed by the states to marry, she constantly and 
 firmly refused. The as=frgued motives of her refusal have been pre- 
 served in several eccentric speeches. Among those who aspired to 
 her hand was her own cousin Charles Gustavus, a prince of excellent 
 qualities. In 1649 she was induced by the states to declare him her 
 successor; but she would not allow the prince any share of her sove- 
 reign power, of which she was exceedingly jealous. Soon after the 
 naming of her successor was over, she had herself crowned with great 
 pomp, under the title of King. 
 
 Having now no wars to engage her attention, she gave herself up 
 with all the energy of her character to arts and literature, or rather to 
 a mania of patronising artists and men of letters. Her court was soon 
 crowded, good being mixed with the bad, the empty pretender with 
 the real man of science, the sage with the buffoon. She attracted to 
 Stockholm, Saumaise (Salmasius), Vossius, Bochart, Huet, Chevreau, 
 Naud£, Meibom, and other foreigners, chiefly Frenchmen. 
 
 Bourdelot, a gossipiug intriguing French abbe", who pi-etended to 
 some knowledge of medicine, and who was retained in quality of her 
 physician, became the great favourite of the queen by flattering her 
 vanity and ridiculing her court of philosophers and men of letters, 
 whose jealousies and jarrings were incessant. Christina spent enormous 
 Euma, for so poor a country as Sweden, in the purchase of books, 
 manuscripts, statues, pictures, antiquities, and curiosities. But 
 reverence and affection for her father's memory stifled the murmurs 
 of the Swedes, and when, to the astonishment of everybody, she first 
 spoke of abdicating, she was most earnestly entreated to remain on 
 the throne. For some short time after this she showed a renewal of 
 good sense and energy, and a disposition to public business. It was 
 at this interval that Cromwell's ambassador, Whitlock, saw a good 
 deal of her majesty, and that his secretary or follower, Morton, 
 picked up that curious information about her court and herself which 
 was afterwards published in Eugland. (' Journal of an Embassy to 
 Sweden in 1653-54, from the Commonwealth of England,' by Charles 
 Morton ; Whitlock's 'Journal' was also published in 1855.) Her dis- 
 taste for what she called the splendid slavery of royalty, her desire to 
 indulge in all her caprices in perfect liberty, and (a stronger motive 
 perhaps than any other) her wish of presenting an extraordinary spec- 
 tacle to the world, soon returning upon her, she formally signified her 
 decided iutention of renouncing the crown in May 1654, aud on the 
 16th of June her abdication took place with great solemnity, she being 
 then only in the 28th year of her age. 
 
 Christina reserved to herself the revenues of some districts in Sweden 
 and Germany, the entire independence of her person, and supreme 
 authority, with the right of life and death, over all such persons as 
 should enter her service and form her suite. A few days after this 
 public act she set off for Brussels, where she privately abjured the 
 Protestant religion. A little later she publicly embraced Roman 
 Catholicism at Innspruck, From the Tyrol she travelled to Rome, 
 where she made a sort of triumphal entrance, riding on horseback, 
 dressed almost like a man. Here she surrounded herself with poets, 
 painters, musicians, numismatists, and the like. Quarrelling however 
 with some of the College of Cardinals, she made a journey into France 
 in 1656. At Paris she of course made a great sensation. Her constaut 
 companions were authors and academicians; for the society of her 
 own sex she showed a greater contempt than ever, and the only French 
 woman about whom she seemed to take any interest was Ninon 
 L'Enclos. Her stay in Paris is said to have been shortened by Cardinal 
 Mazarin, who, finding her inclined to engage in some intrigues agaiust 
 his authority, took such measures as rendered that capital an unpleasant 
 residence for her. She however returned to France in the following 
 year, and added to her notoriety by causing Moualdeschi, her master 
 of the horse and chief favourite, to be put to death, for some alleged 
 off-nce. This murder she justified by stating that by her deed of 
 abdication she had reserved to herself supreme power over her own 
 
 suite, that she was still a queen wherever she went, and that 
 Monaldeschi was guilty of high treason. Strange to say, she found 
 defenders elsewhere; and among them Leibnitz, who wrote an elaborate 
 justification of the deed at Fontainebleau. 
 
 The court was offeuded, but took no public notice of this atrocious 
 act. Finding herself avoided in France, Christina thought of visiting 
 England, but the Protector Cromwell turned the dark side of his 
 countenance towards her ; she therefore did not laud in England, but 
 returned to Rome, where she presently involved herself in great 
 pecuniary difficulties, and a quarrel with the pope (Alexander VII.). 
 Upon the death of the king, her cousin, Charles Gustavus, in 1660, she 
 travelled hastily from Rome to Stockholm, where, according to most 
 accounts, she showed a strong desire to re-ascend the throne ; but the 
 minds of the people were entirely alienated, and her change of religion 
 was an insuperable barrier. She returned once more to Rome, which 
 she never again left, except for one or two short intervals, durin" the 
 remainiug twenty-eight years of her life. Through that long period 
 her occupations were various, and many of her proceedings indicate 
 eccentricity approaching to insanity. She took part in several political 
 intrigues ; she is even said to have aspired to the elective crown of 
 Poland ; she interested herself for the Venetians in Candia, besieged 
 by the Turks ; she quarrelled anew with the pope and cardinals, who 
 had liberally supplied her with money ; she engaged actively iu the 
 Molinist or Quietist controversy ; she indulged in the dreams of 
 alchemy and judicial astrology ; she violently censured Louis XIV. for 
 his revocation of the Edict of Nantes and his dragonades against the 
 Protestants of France ; she founded an ' Accademia,' or literary society; 
 she corresponded with many savans, and she made a large collection 
 of objects of art aud antiquity. The ruling passion, in short, was the 
 ambition of influencing great political affairs even when all power and 
 influence had departed from her. She died at Rome with great com- 
 posure on the 19th of April, 16S9, in the sixty-third year of her age. 
 Though she wrote continually, not much of her writing has been 
 preserved. Her 'Maxims and Sentences,' aud 'Reflections on the Life 
 and Actions of Alexander the Great,' were collected and published by 
 Archenholtz, in his memoirs of her life, 4 vols. 4to, 1751. From the 
 somewhat tediously minute work of Archenholtz, who was librarian to 
 the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and an honest painstaking man, Lacombe 
 derived the materials for his life of Christina, and D'Alenibert his 
 reflections aud anecdotes of the same personage. Her ' Secret Letters,' 
 and ' Memoirs of her own Life, dedicated to God,' are forgeries. 
 
 (See Archenholtz, as above ; Catteau-Calville, Histoire de Cristine, 
 Heine de la Suede; Fortia, Travels in Sweden; Biographie Universelle ; 
 the works of Bayle, her contemporary and correspoudont ; Voltaire ; 
 and Horace Walpole.) 
 
 * CHRISTINA, MARIA, mother of the Queen of Spain, Isabel II., 
 was born April 27, 1806, in the city of Naples. She is the daughter 
 of the late King of the Two Sicilies, by his second wife, Maria Isabel, 
 daughter of Carlos IV, king of Spain, and is the sister of Ferdinaudo 
 II., the present King of the Two Sicilies. She was married at Madrid 
 Dec. 11, 1829, to the late king of Spain, Fernando VII. Ou the 10th 
 of October, 1830, she gave birth to the present Queen of Spain. Ou the 
 death of the king, September 29, 1833, she became by his will queen- 
 regent (reiua gobernadora) during the minority of her daughter. She 
 was secretly married December 28, 1833, to Don Fernando Mufioz, 
 then an officer in the royal life-guards. Shortly after the kiug's death, 
 his brother, Don Carlos, laid claim to the throne, on the ground that 
 by the Salic law females were ineligible, notwithstanding the law which 
 had been passed before the king's death to make them eligible. A civil 
 war ensued, which lasted till September 1840, when the partizaus of 
 Don Carlos were finally defeated. A conspiracy which was successfully 
 accomplished, August 13, 1836, in the royal residence of La Granja, 
 for a time deprived the queen-regent of her power, and compelled her 
 to swear to the liberal constitution, June 18, 1837 ; after which she 
 regained her authority, and continued to rule till 1840, when she gave 
 her assent to a law which interfered with the deliberations of the 
 ayuntamientos, or town-councils. The consequence of this violation 
 of the constitution to which she had sworn was an insurrection which 
 placed Espartero at the head of affairs, and the queen-regeut abdicated 
 Oct. 12, 1840. She then retired to France. After the fall of Espartero 
 in 1843 she returned to Madrid. It having been decreed that the 
 Queen of Spain had attained her majority November 8, 1843, on the 
 10th of November Maria Isabel took the oath to observe the consti- 
 tution, and the regency of the queen-mother ceased. On the 13th of 
 October 1844 the marriage of Christina with Munoz, theu created 
 Duke of Rianzares, was publicly celebrated. As the queen at the time 
 of her accession was still very young, the influence and power of 
 Christina were little if at all diminished, and the measures of her 
 government were generally arbitrary and unconstitutioual. This state 
 of affairs continued till the beginning of 1854, when insurrections 
 commenced, which continued to extend till the 17th of J uly 1S54, when 
 the people began to fight with the soldiers in the streets of Madrid. 
 On the 19th of July the ministers fled, the soldiers submitted to the 
 people, a national junta was established, aud Espartero was again 
 placed in authority. The conduct of Christina, personal as well as 
 public, had long filled the Spanish people with the greatest disgust 
 Un the 2ith of August 1854 she was comp-.lled to leave the country, 
 and is now (1866) living in exile, 
 
22/ CHRISTOPHE, HENRY. 
 
 CHRISTOPHE, HENRY, was born about 1767 or 1768. The 
 place of bin birth seems to be uncertain, for St. Christopher, St. Croix, 
 St. Domingo, aud Granada are mentioned by different writers. He 
 first attracted attention when a young man as a skilful cook at a tavern 
 in Cape Town, St. Domingo. In 1790, on the insurrection of the 
 blacks in the French part of that island, he joined the insurgents, 
 who paid great respect to his gigantic stature, energy, and courage. 
 As the negroes succeeded he was promoted in military rank. Toussaiut 
 Louverture, the generalissimo of the blacks, employed him to put 
 dowu an insurrection headed by Moise, or Moses, that general's own 
 nephew. Christophe, by employing consummate artifice, got pos- 
 session of Moses, who was put to death by his uncle, on which Chris- 
 tophe succeeded to his command iu the northern province of French 
 St. Domingo. He subsequently suppressed other revolts which troubled 
 the dawn of negro freedom. In 1802, when General Leclerc, brother- 
 in-law of Napoleon Bonaparte, conducted a strong expedition from 
 France to regain St. Domingo from the blacks, Christophe boldly 
 defended Cape-Town ; and when obliged to retn at he burnt a great 
 pait of the town, aud carried off 3000 men, with whom he joined 
 Toussaiut Louverture. When Toussaiut was treacherously seized and 
 transported to Europe, Christophe rallied with Dessalines, who then 
 became commander-in-chief of the blacks. Through the effects of 
 climate and a fierce desultory warfare, in which no one was more dis- 
 tinguished thau Christophe, there was no longer any French force in 
 the i-laud by 1805. De-salines then assumed supreme power in 
 Hayti, and advanced Christophe. Not long afterwards Desaaliues was 
 accused of abuse of powers, and Christophe, joining with the mulatto 
 Pethion, got up au insurrection aud murdered him iu October 1806. 
 Christophe was then proclaimed generalissimo aud president for life 
 of the republic of Hayti, and he named his confederate Tethion his 
 lieutenant and governor iu the southern provinces. The negroes, 
 imitating the republican proceedings of their old masters the French, 
 had a national assembly of their own, which met at Cape-Town, and 
 gave plausible grounds for Pethion, who was probably ouly jealous of 
 his superior, to quarrel with Christophe. The mulatto general accused 
 the president of a design against the liberties of the republic ; the 
 president called the general au anarchist and a revolted subject, and 
 taking up arms drove him back to Port-au-Prince, where Pethion how- 
 ever maintained himself and w hat he called his republic for nearly 
 eleven years. 
 
 In 1811 Christophe being undisputed master of the greater part of 
 the country, had himself proclaimed king of Hayti, under the title of 
 Henry I., royalty at the same time being made hereditary in his 
 family. Still following the fashions of Paris, he then organised a 
 court and an hereditary nobility, creating black dukes, couuts, barons, 
 &c. On June 2, 1S12, he was publicly crowned, and the ceremonies, 
 all after the French pattern, are said to have been very solemn aud 
 imposing. On the fall of Napoleon, the house of Bourbon entertained 
 hopes of regaining their old colony, but they were frustrated by the 
 power and skill of Christophe, who possessed several qualities that 
 fitted him for government. On the death of Pethion, in 1818, he 
 endeavoured to get possession of his state by force of arms, but he 
 was beaten back with great loss by the republican blacks under their 
 new president, General Boyer. These reverses, added to subsequent 
 losses by fire, and other accidents, materially weakened him at a 
 moment when his cruelty had rendered hiui g> ncrally unpopular at 
 home, and the state of his health unfitted him for exertiou. He was 
 lying in bed from the consequences of an apoplectic stroke in Sans- 
 Souci, a fine palace which he had built and fortified, when an insurrec- 
 tion burst around him, which had been aided by President Boyer. 
 The insurgents had already proceeded to extreme measures, and the 
 Duke of Marmalade (a significant title), one of the first dignitaries of 
 the kingdom, had proclaimed the abolition of monarchy. Seeing that 
 nobles, generals, officeis, and men alike deserttd him, to avoid being 
 taken prisoner, Christophe shot himself through the heart on the 8th 
 of October 1820. His w idow and children, with his favourite, Gem ral 
 Noel, took refuge in Fort Henri, but the garrison presently surren- 
 dered, when his eldest son, Noel, and some inferior officers were 
 massacred. 
 
 During hia reign Christophe entertained some enlightened views. 
 At one time he encouraged education, and the printing of books and 
 newspapers. He even made a code of laws, which he called ' Code 
 Henri,' as Bonaparte had called his 'Code Napoleon.' 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, DUKE OF WURTEMBERG, was born in 1515. 
 His early life was past in great troubles. In 1519-20 the conftderab.d 
 Suabian cities expelled his father Ulric from his dominions, and trans- 
 ferred the dukedom to the house of Austria. Christopher was carried 
 to Vienna, where ho narrowly escaped being made a prisoner by the 
 Turks during their siege of that capital, under the great Solyman. 
 In 1532 the Emperor Charles V. determined to confine him in a 
 monastery in Spain, being more apprehensive of his talents than of 
 those of his father the expelled duke, who was still living. When 
 near to the Spanish frontier, Christopher escaped from his escort and 
 fled to Bavaria, where his uucle, the reigning duke, and Philip the 
 landgrave of Hesse, took up his own aud his father's cause. The 
 landgrave in 1534 defeated the Austrians in the battle of Laufen, and 
 ••estorcd Duke Ulric, who was well received by his people, and thence- 
 forward placed under the safe protection of the great Protestant 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN. 2 28 
 
 league of Schmalkalden. The recovery of Wurtemberg was a great 
 advantage on the sido of the Protestants; but it was not until 1552, 
 or two years after the death of Ulric and the accession of Christopher, 
 that the Lutheran religion was fully established in that duchy. 
 Finding, after a reign of two years, his authority was firmly esta- 
 blished, Christopher proceeded to complete the work of the Reforma- 
 tion ; aud it is as a church reformer that he is honourably distinguished 
 from the Protestant princes his contemporaries. The church property 
 he appropriated to the purposes of education, and to the support of 
 the ministers of the new religion. A great fund was formed out of 
 it and kept sacred, under the name of the ' Wurtemberg church 
 property;' the revenue derived from which sufficed to support what 
 were called the Wurtemberg cloister schools— destined for the educa- 
 tion of the clergy — the great theological seminary at Tubingen, and 
 other establishments for the instruction of the people. Christopher 
 also extended the liberties of his subjects, and gave them a code of 
 laws. After a popular aud beneficial reign of eighteen years, he died 
 in December 1568. 
 
 CHRYSIPPUS, son of Apolbmius of Tarsus, was born at Soli in 
 Cilicia, B.C. 280. He appears to have been driven to study by having, 
 in some way, lo-t or squandered his patrimony. When he determine 1 
 on devoting himself to philosophy he went to Athens, and attended 
 the instructions of Cleanthes, whom he afterwards succeeded. (Strabo, 
 xiii., p. 610, Casaub.) Cicero ('De Nat. Deor.' ii. 6; iii. 10), in com- 
 mon with other ancient writers, describes Chrysippus as a skilful and 
 acute dialectician, and (i. 15) accounts him the most ingenious expo- 
 sitor of the Stoic dreams. Habits of industry probably gave him an 
 advantage over his rivals. Diogenes Laertius reports upon the 
 authority of Diocles, a statement of Chrysippus's nurse, that he 
 seldom wrote less than 500 lines a day. It appears however that he 
 indulged largely in quotations; and the actual amount of his original 
 labour in composition cannot be gathered from the number of his 
 productions, lie is said by Diogenes to have written upwards of 705 
 volumes, many on the samo subject. Cicero (' Tusc. Qusest.' i. 108) 
 gives him the character of a careful collector of facts. After Zeno he 
 was considered the main prop of the Porch (Cic. ' Acad. Quscst.' iv. 
 75); and allusions are frequently made to the estimation in which he 
 was held. (Juvenal, 'Sat.' ii. 5.; xiii. 184; Horace, 'Epist.' i. 2, 4.) 
 
 Chrysippus sometimes exposed himself to the attacks of his enemies, 
 Carneades in particular, by defending two opposite sides of the same 
 question : but the arguments which were good in his were good also 
 in others' hautls. He frequently succeeded iu entangling his hearers 
 by the use of the logical form 'sorites,' which is said to have been 
 invented by him, and is called by Persius ('Sat.' vi. 80) ' Chrysippus's 
 heap.' Sorites (<rwpt'nr]s) means 'a heap,' and is in logic a heap of 
 propositions in the syllogistic form. (Cic. 'Acad. Quaest.' iv. 16; 
 Whately, ' Logic,' p. 122.) Chrysippus dii not spare his adversaries 
 in bis replies to their arguments; and some anecdotes which are told 
 of him seem to show that he occasionally overst pped the bounds of 
 moderation. Notwithstanding this, his style of argumentation was so 
 much admired, that it was said, if the gods themselves were to use a 
 system of logic, they would adopt that of Chrysippus. 
 
 Chrysippus appears to have held substantially all the main doctrines 
 of the Stoic theology, though iu some miuute particulars he is Raid 
 to have differed from Zeno aud Cleanthes: the charges of impiety 
 made against him are probably to be ascribed only to a peculiar 
 method of advocating his opinions. He died, apparently from an 
 apoplectic fit, at the age of seventy-three, B.C. 207. 
 
 (Diogenes Laertius, book vii., Life of Chrysippus ; Fabricii, Biblio- 
 theca Gr(tca, vol. ii., pp. 392-93.) 
 
 CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL, a learned Byzantine of the 14th 
 century, was sent to Italy about 1397, by the Emperor Manuel Palaeo- 
 logus, to request the assistance of the Venetians and the pope, aud 
 the other Christian princes, against the Turks. Having fulfilled his 
 mission, he settled at Venice, where he gave lessons in the Greek 
 language. He afterwards taught the sime at Florence, Pavia, and 
 lastly at Rome, where he grew into favour with the papal court, and 
 was sent to the council assembled at Constance, where he died in 
 1415. Poggio Bracciolini, Leonardo Bruni, aud Filelfo, were the most 
 distinguished pupils of Chrysoloras iu Greek. Chrysoloras wrote a 
 Greek grammar (entitled 'EpcoTri.uoTa, ' Questions ' ), which was one of 
 -the first published in Italy, and was afterwards printed at Ferrara in 
 1509. He also wrote several epistles in Latin, La one of which, 
 addressed to the Prince John Palaeologus, son of Manuel, he draws an 
 eloquent comparison between Constantinople and Rome, which has 
 been often quoted. Chrysoloras ranks among the restorers of classical 
 learning in Italy. 
 
 John Chrysoloras, the nephew of Manuel, taught Greek in Italy: 
 he returned to Constantinople, where he died, about a.d. 1427. 
 
 Demetrius Chrysoloras, probably a native of Thessalonica, wrote 
 on philosophy and theology. Some letters of his to the Emperor 
 Manuel Paloeologus, in whose service he wa?, and who employed him 
 on several missions of importance, still exist in manuscript iu the 
 Bodleian, Oxford, and in the Royal Library at Paris. There are also 
 manuscripts of several works by him, but they are of no importance. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN (xpvaoaronos, that is, the golden- 
 mouthed), the most renowned of the Greek fathers, was born of noble 
 and very opulent parents, a.d. 354 (some writers say 344 and 347), at 
 
U9 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN. 
 
 CHUBB, THOMAS. 
 
 280 
 
 Antioch, the capital of Syria. In early life he lost his father Secundus, 
 who wa9 commander of the imperial army in that province; and his 
 mother Anthusa, from the age of twenty, remained a widow, in order 
 to devote herself wholly to her son's improvement and welfare. He 
 was educated for the bar, ami studied oratory at Antioch under 
 Libanius, who declared him worthy to be his successor, were it not 
 that the Christians had made him a proselyte. He was taught philo- 
 sophy by Andragathius, and spent some time in the schools of Athens. 
 After a very successful commencement of legal practice, he relinquished 
 the profession of law for that of divinity. At this time the rage for 
 monachism was extremely prevalent, and Chrysostona retired to a 
 monastery in a mountain solitude near Antioch, where, in opposition 
 to the pathetic entreaties of his mother, he adopted and adl.ered to 
 the ascetic system with rigid austerity during four years. The man- 
 ners and discipline of the anchorites with whom he associated 
 resembled, as described by himself, those of the Essenes, in fasting, 
 praying, reading, subsisting on vegetable food, maintaining silence and 
 celibacy, and discarding all consideration of meum and tuum. (Homil. 
 72, on • Math.,' and 14, on ' Timoth.,' torn, ii.) At the age of twenty- 
 three he wa9 baptised by Meletius, bishop of Antioch, after which he 
 withdrew into a solitary cavern, where, without any companion, he 
 spent about two years in committing to memory the whole of the 
 Bible, and in severely mortifying his carnal affections. Having neither 
 bed nor chair, he reposed suspended by a rope slung from the roof of 
 his cave. The damp and unwholesome air of the place reduced him 
 at last to so ill a state of health, that he was obliged to return to 
 Antioch, where, oeing ordained a deacon by Meletius (381), he com- 
 menced his career as a very eloquent popular preacher, and published 
 several of his declamatory discourses and argumentative treatises. 
 Five years afterwards he was ordained priest, and at the age of forty- 
 three was made vicar to Flavianus, successor to Meletius. His fame 
 as a church orator was now so established, that, on the death of 
 Nectarius, archbishop of Constantinople, he was enthusiastically chosen 
 by the people and priesthood of the city to fill that important office. 
 Chrysostom, on this and former occasions, appears to have reiterated 
 with sincerity the noli me episcopari : however, by the mandate of the 
 Kmperor Arcadius, he was consecrated and enthroned in 398 by 
 Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, who afterwards proved to be 
 one of the most envious and malignant of his enemies. 
 
 Chrysostom bestowed upon the indigent the whole income of his 
 large patrimonial inheritance ; and with the revenues of his episcopal 
 see he founded and endowed an hospital for the sick, which procured 
 for him the appellation of John the Almoner. Several times a week 
 he preached to crowded audiences, and his oratorical sermons were 
 received by the people with such shouts and acclamations of applause 
 that his church became a sort of theatre, which attracted great num- 
 bers who had hitherto attended only the circus and other places of 
 amusement. The resolute and fearless zeal of Chrysostom in the 
 reformation of clerical abuses, and in the denunciation of licentiousness 
 among the great, soon began to draw upon him the enmity of a con- 
 federate party, whose bitter retaliation finally effected his banishment 
 aud death. Much is said by various writers both in commendation 
 and reprehension of his character and conduct. The church historian 
 Socrates describes him as being "sober, temperate, peevish, irascible, 
 simple, sincere; rash, rude, and imprudent in rebuking the highest 
 personages; a zealous reformer of abuses ; extremely ready to reprove 
 an! excommunicate ; shunning society, and apparently morose and 
 ha ighty to strangers." Such qualities embroiled him in continual 
 q nrrels with the secular c lergy, courtiers, and statesmen, and espe- 
 cially with the wealthy female devotees of luxury and fashion, whom 
 he reproved without the slightest reserve. His zeal for the promotion 
 of his own sect was equalled only by his intolerance towards all 
 others. He caused many temples and statues in Phoenicia to be 
 demolished, and especially persecuted the Ariaus, refusing them the 
 use of a church in the city, and parading in the streets Trinitarian 
 singers of hymns, with banners and crosses, until the opposition 
 vocalists fell to fighting and bloodshed. The vigour and perseverance 
 of his efforts to reform the loose ecclesiasti'-al discipline permitted by 
 his indolent predecessor, occasioned the formation of a faction which 
 Bought to be revenged by his assassination. In his visitation in Asia, 
 two years after his consecration, he deposed at one time no less than 
 thirteen bishop* of Ljdia and Phrygia; and in one of his homilies 
 (torn, ix., p. 29) he charges the whole episcopal order with avarice and 
 licentiousness, saying that the number of bishops who could be saved 
 bore a very small proportion to those who would be damned. It 
 appears to have been a common custom at that time among the clergy 
 t > have each one or more young females residing with them, ostensibly 
 f »r the purpose of receiving pious instruction as pupils. When there- 
 fore Chrysostom enjoined the discontinuance of this custom, as in all 
 cases very questionable, and in many most evidently criminal, he at 
 once excited in a great portion of his clergy the bitterest personal 
 animosity. In his invectives against the vanity and vices of the 
 female sex he used no reserve in reproving even royalty itself. The 
 personal resentment and indignation of the beautiful and haughty 
 Empress Eudoxia was probably therefore the real cause, as Gibbon 
 suggests, of all the disasters by which he was henceforth overwhelmed, 
 for she patronised the confederation which the deposed bishops formed 
 with his adversary Theophilus, who assembled at Chalcedon a nume- 
 
 rous synod, by which there were preferred against Chrysostom above 
 forty accusations, chiefly frivolous and vexatious, which, as he refused 
 to acknowledge himself amenable to such a tribunal, and made no 
 defence, were subscribed by forty-five of the bishops present, who in 
 consequence resolved upon his immediate deposition. He WW there- 
 fore suddenly arrested and conveyed to Nicsca in Bithynia, a.d. 403. 
 This Theophilus is described by Socrates, Palladius, and several others, 
 as a bishop addicted to perjury, calumny, violence, persecution, lying, 
 cheating, robbing, &c. After Chrysostom's banishment, Theophilus 
 published a scandalous book concerning him a sort of collect!**! of 
 abusive epithets— in which Chrysostom is called a filthy demon, and is 
 charged with having delivered up his soul to Satan. It was translated 
 into Latin by the friend of Theophilus, St. Jerome, who joined in the 
 abuse. Chrysostom was the idol of the great mass of the people. He 
 was a pathetic advocate of the poor : his pulpit orations were calcu- 
 lated to excite their strongest emotions; when it was known therefore 
 that their popular preacher was banished an alarming insurrection 
 ensued, which rolled on with such fury to the palace gates that even 
 Eudoxia entreated the emperor to recall Chrysostom, for already the 
 mob had begun to murder the Egyptian attendants of Theophilus in 
 the streets. Only two days elapsed before Chrysostom was brought 
 back to Constantinople. The Bosporus on the occasion was covered 
 with innumerable vessels, and each of its shores was illuminated with 
 thousands of torches. The archbishop however gained little wisdom 
 from experience ; for soon after, when a statue of the empress was 
 set up near the great Christian church, and honoured with the cele- 
 bration of festive games, he preached in very uncourteous terms 
 against the ceremony, and compared Eudoxia to the dancing Herodias 
 longing for the head of John in a charger. The result of this offensive 
 conduct was the calling of another synod, which ratified the decision 
 of the former, and again Chrysostom was arrested, and transported to 
 Cucustis, a place iu the mountains of Taurus. Another uproar was 
 made by the mob, in which the great church and the adjoiuing senate- 
 house were burnt to the ground. The death of Eudoxia shortly after- 
 wards, and a tremendous storm of hailstones, were regarded by the 
 people as the avenging visitation of heaven. A great number of the 
 poorer classes, who were always Chrysostom's most faithful adherents, 
 refused to acknowledge his successor, and formed for some time a 
 schism, under the name of Johannites. 
 
 Chrysostom bore his misfortune? with fortitude, and being still 
 possessed of abundant wealth, he carried on very extensive operations 
 for the conversion of the people about his place of banishment. His 
 enemies soon determined to remove him to a more desolate tract on 
 the Euxine, whither he was compelled to travel on foot, beneath a 
 burning sun, which, in addition to many deprivations, produced a 
 violent fever. On arriving at Comana, he was carried into an oratory 
 of St. Basil, where, having put on a white surplice, he crossed him- 
 self and expired, September 14, 407, being about sixty years of age. 
 Thirty-five years after his death and burial at Comana, his remains 
 were brought with great pomp aud veneration to Constantinople by 
 Theodosius II. It is said they were afterwards removed to llouie. 
 The Greek Church celebrates his feast on the 13th of November; the 
 Roman on the 27th of January. 
 
 The works of St. Chrysostom are very numerous. They consist of 
 commentaries, 700 homilies, orations, doctrinal treatises, and 242 
 epistles. The style is uniformly diffuse and overloaded with metaphors 
 and similes. The chief value of Chrysostom's works consists iu the 
 illustration which they furnish of the manners of the 4th and 5th 
 centuries. They contain a great number of incidental but very 
 minute descriptions that indicate the moral and social state of that 
 period. The circus, theatres, spectacles, baths, houses, domestic 
 economy, banquets, dresses, fashions, pictures, processions, chariots, 
 horses, dancing, juggling, tight-rope dancing, funerals, in short every 
 thing has a place in the picture of licentious luxury which it is the 
 object of Chrysostom to denounce. Moutfaucon has made a curious 
 collection of these matters from his great edition of the works of 
 Chrysostom, 13 vols, folio (editio optima). (' Memoires de l'Acad. des 
 Inscrip.,' vol xiii., p. 474, and vol. xx., p. 197; also Jortiu, 'Eccles. 
 Hist.,' vol. iv. p. "169, et seq.) The ' Golden Book' of St. John Chrysos- 
 tom concerning the education of children, 12mo, published in 1659, is 
 translated from a manuscript found iu the cardinal's library at Paris, 
 1656. The precepts are very curious. The boy is to see no feinalA 
 except his mother; to hear, see, smell, taste, touch, nothing that gives 
 pleasure ; to fast twice a week, to read the ' Story of Joseph ' 
 frequently, and to know nothing about hell till he is 15 years old. 
 Chrysostom is described by his biographers as being short in stature, 
 with a large bald head, a spacious and deeply-wrinkled forehead, short 
 and scanty beard, hollow cheeks and sunken eyes, having a look o' 
 extreme mortification, but in his movements remarkably brisk, 
 energetic, and smart. He was strongly attached to the writings of 
 St. Paid. His surname Chrysostom was not. applied until some time 
 after his death. The biographers of Chrysostom are very numerous : 
 Socrates, lib. vi. ; Sozomen, lib. viii. ; Theodoret, lib. v. ; ' Vie de St. 
 Jean C.,' by Herman t, 8vo, 1665; Menard; Erasmus; Du Pin; Tille- 
 mont; Palladius; Photius ; Ribadeneira; Gibbon, c. 32; Moreri's 
 'Diet.' contains a further list; Usher, 'Historia Dogmatica,' p. 33. 
 There is a recent life of Chrysostom by Neander. 
 
 CHUBB, THOMAS, was born iu 1679, at East Harnham, a small 
 
231 
 
 CHUND. 
 
 CHURCHILL, CHARLES. 
 
 233 
 
 ■village near Salisbury. His father died when Thomas, the youngest 
 of four children, was a mere boy. After receiving a little iustruction 
 in reading and writing, Thomas was apprenticed to a leather glove and 
 breeches-maker in Salisbury. He was afterwards, as a journeyman, 
 engaged in the business of a tallow-chandler in the same city. In 
 both these employments he continued to be more or less concerned 
 until the end of his life, notwithstanding which he contrived to acquire 
 a general knowledge of literature and science, and to become a distin- 
 guished writer on subjects of religious and moral controversy. The 
 discussion which arose on the publication, in 1710, of the Arian work 
 of Whiston on ' Primitive Christianity,' induced Chubb to write his 
 'Supremacy of Cod the Father asserted consisting of eight arguments 
 from Scripture, intended to prove the Son to be a subordinate and 
 inferior being. It was published in 1715, under the immediate superin- 
 tendence of Whiston, and by opposite parties was equally extolled and 
 condemned. Chubb replied to his Trinitarian opponents in ' The 
 Supremacy of the Father vindicated.' In 1730 he published a collec- 
 xion of his occasional tracts in a handsome 4to volume ; containing, 
 besides the two works just mentioned, thirty-three others on faith, 
 mysteries, reason, origin of evil, persecution, liberty, virtue, govern- 
 mental authority in religion, &c. Among the eminent individuals who 
 admired the writings of Chubb, and sought to be of servico to him, 
 was Sir Joseph Jekyl, master of the rolls (the early patron of Bishop 
 Butler), who appointed him steward, or supervisor, of his house in 
 London ; an office of which the duties would appear to have been as 
 little suited to the character of Chubb as those of a tallow-chandler. 
 Some of the witty adversaries of Chubb made themselves extremely 
 merry with the grotesque appearance of his short and fat figure as he 
 officiated at his patron's sideboard, adorned with a powdered tie-wig 
 and a dress-sword. After a year or two he relinquished his steward- 
 ship, returned to Salisbury, and to the last " delighted in weighing and 
 selling candles." (Kippis, ' Biog. Brit.') His next publications were 
 'A Discourse on Reason, as a sufficient guide in matters of Religion ;' 
 ' On Moral and Positive Duties, showing the higher claim of the 
 former;' 'On Sincerity;' ' On Future Judgment and Eternal Punish- 
 ment;' 'Inquiry about Inspiration of the New Testament;' 'The 
 Case of Abraham ;' ' Doctrine of vicarious Suffering and Intercession 
 refuted ;' ' Time for keeping a Sabbath ;' and several other tracts upon 
 points of religious dispute. In 1738 appeared his 'True Gospel of 
 Jesus asserted.' Chubb endeavours to show that as Jesus Christ 
 taught Christianity previously to many of the remarkable incidents of 
 his life, and therefore previous to his death, the gospel was properly 
 the doctrine of moral reformation which he announced as a rule of 
 conduct. In the following year, 1739, Chubb put forth a vindication 
 of this work, and of the discourse annexed to it, against the doctrine 
 of a particular Providence. Several answers to this work were pub- 
 lished, by the Rev. Caleb Fleming and others, and replies and rejoinders 
 followed between Chubb and his opponents up to the time of Chubb's 
 decease. In February 1746 Chubb, according to his desire, died 
 suddenly at the age of sixty-eight, as he sat in his chair. Though he 
 left several hundred pounds, his income was to the last so scanty, that 
 it is said he often thankfully accepted from Cheselden, the eminent 
 surgeon, the present of a suit of left-off clothes. His' posthumous 
 works, consisting of numerous tracts similar to those already men- 
 tioned, were published in 2 vols. 8vo, 1748; and were answered by 
 Fleming, his indefatigable opponent, in ' True Deism the Basis of 
 Christianity ; or, Observations on Chubb's posthumous Works.' Dr. 
 Leland, in his 'View of Deistical Writers,' vol. i., has devoted above 
 80 pages to remarks upon them. For notices of Chubb, see also Bishop 
 Law's ' Theory of Religion.' W T ith an occasional blunder, arising from 
 ignorance of the Greek and Hebrew languages, the writings of Chubb, 
 in following the metaphysical school of Dr. Clarke, exhibit considerable 
 argumentative skill, and a style remarkable for a temperate and critical 
 propriety, and a pleasing fluency. 
 
 CHUND, or CHAND, or CHANDRA-BARDAI, the Homer of the 
 Rajpoots, flourished in the 12th century of the Christian era, as the 
 chief professional bard at the court of Prithwiraja, or Prat'hiraj, 
 the last Hindu sovereign of Delhi ; but his poems, which are in the 
 spoken dialect of Canouj, are still thoroughly and universally popular 
 among bis nation after the lapse of more than six centuries. " The 
 most familiar of his images and sentiments," says Colonel Tod, who 
 held the post of English resident in Rajast'han, "I heard daily from 
 the mouths of those around me, the descendants of the men whose 
 deeds he rehearses." His poem, which is called 'Prat'hiraj-Ch6Ldn 
 Rasa,' is a kind of universal history of the period at which he wrote, 
 including something on almost every subject from geography to 
 grammar, interspersed with poetical fiction. It extends to 69 books, 
 comprising about 100,000 stanzas, of which Colonel Tod tells us that 
 he translated into English as many as 30,000. Every noble family in 
 Rajast'han is commemorated in it in some shape, and the bard does 
 not forget to interweave his own exploits into the narrative. The 
 leading action of the poem is the daring exploit of Prithwiraja, who 
 on receiving some stanzas from the Princess of Canouj, inviting him, if 
 he is brave enough, to come and bear her away from her father's court 
 from the midst of the princes assembled as suitors for her hand, 
 accepts the challenge, and succeeds in carrying off the princess for his 
 bride; but, as Chund remarks, to his own destruction, "though it gained 
 him immortality in the song of the bard." A war ensues, and the 
 
 Affghau Shahabuddin, the Mohammedan invader of Prithwiraja' s 
 dominions, is six times defeated and twice taken prisoner; but twice 
 released by the blind and chivalrous generosity of the Hindu sove- 
 reign. At last, in a final battle on the banks of the Caggar, Prithwl- 
 raja's army after three days' fighting is cut to pieces, and he himself 
 is taken prisoner and carried to Ghuzni. Chund describes himself as 
 following the train of the conqueror to the Affghan capital, deter- 
 mined to trace his royal master, and he tells us that though the 
 A ffghans tried to baffle him in his object, "the music of his tongue 
 overcame the resolves of the guardian of the prison." The battle on 
 the Caggar— a memorable date in the history of Hindustan, since it 
 established Mohammedan rule in Delhi for more than 500 years — is 
 stated by chronologists to have taken place in the year of the Christian 
 era 1193. This, by a remarkable coincidence was the identical year in 
 which our Ccour de Lion was imprisoned by the Duke of Austria, and in 
 which Blondel, according to the legend, discovered him in his dungeon. 
 Chund was not destined like Blondel to effect his master's release. 
 The Affghau conqueror had deprived his captive of sight, and one of 
 the finest passages in the poem, to which it is said not even the 
 sternest Rajpoot can listen without emotion, is a soliloquy of the 
 blinded monarch, deploring the fickleness of fortune ami his own 
 unfortunate generosity to the enemy of whom he was now the victim. 
 How the poem concludes Colonel Tod does not mention, but he 
 informs us that " Prithwiraja and the bard perished by their own 
 hands, after causing the death of Shahabuddin." It is possible that 
 the narrative may have been brought to a close by the son or grand- 
 son of Chund, both of whom were eminent poets, though they could 
 not rival the glory of the Rajpootian Homer. 
 
 The fullest account of Chund that has appeared in English is in 
 Colonel Tod's ' Translation of a Sanscrit Inscription relative to the 
 last Hindu King of Delhi,' in the first volume of the ' Transactions of 
 the Royal Asiatic Society,' London, 1827. A few additional par- 
 ticulars may be gleaned in the colonel's ' Annals and Antiquities of 
 Rajast'han' (London, 1829-32). Several translated extracts from the 
 poem are given in the article in the ' Transactions,' which are all of 
 an animated and chivalrous cast, and the spiiit of which is compared 
 by the colonel to that of the ancient Scandinavian poetry. 
 
 CHURCHILL, CHARLES, was born in 1731 in Westminster, where 
 in St. John's parish his father was curate. After passing through the 
 usual course of studies in Westminster School he was taken by his 
 father to Oxford to be matriculated in that university, but the levity 
 of his behaviour at the entrance examination occasioned his rejection. 
 He was shortly after admitted a member of the University of Cam- 
 bridge, where however he did not stay long enough to take a degree, 
 but returned to Westminster; and although he was but in his seven- 
 teenth year, and without any means of subsistence, precipitately 
 married a young lady of the name of Scott. After a year's residence 
 in his father's house he retired with his wife to Sunderland, and 
 prepared for taking orders. At the age of twenty-five he was ordained 
 by Bishop Sherlock. His course of life for the next two or three years 
 is involved in obscurity ; the most probable statement is that he acted 
 as curate of Kainham in Essex, a curacy previously held by his father, 
 and that he there opened a school. In 1758, on the death of his father, 
 he succeeded to the curacy of St. John's in Westminster, and from 
 this period a total alteration took place in his character and habits, 
 which, from having been hitherto tbose of a moral, domestic, and 
 studious man, became gradually ruined, and terminated in avowed and 
 abandoned licentiousness. This change has been attributed to his 
 intimacy with the clever but profligate poet, Robert Lloyd, whose 
 father, Dr. Lloyd, a master of Westminster School, about this time 
 interposed as the friend of Churchill, and rescued him from jail by 
 advancing to his creditors a composition of five shillings in the pound : 
 to the credit of Churchill it must be added that he himself subsequently 
 paid the whole amount. 
 
 Churchill's first poems were the 'Bard' and the 'Conclave,' for 
 which he was unable to obtain a publisher. The ' Rosciad,' a very 
 clever and severe satire upon the principal theatrical managers and 
 performers at that time, was published in 1761, at his own risk; the 
 London publishers having refused to give five guineas for the manu- 
 script. It obtained an amazing popularity, and was answered by the 
 numerous parties attacked in Churchilliads, Murphyads, Examiners, 
 &c. The subject is one on which the author, as a poet and constant 
 playgoer, was well qualified to express a critical judgment. Like 
 moht of his productions, it is more remarkable for energy and eloquent 
 roughness of sarcasm, than for polished phraseology or refined 
 sentiment. His next poem, the 'Apology,' written in reply to his 
 critical adversaries, is perhaps the most finished and correct of his 
 works. The poem called 'Night' was intended as an apology for 
 his own nocturnal habits. These orgies, in which Churchill was asso- 
 ciated with the convivial wits of his time, Colman, Thornton, &c , are 
 well described in Charles Johnson's 'Chrysal; or, the Adventures of 
 a Guinea.' The argument of the 'Apology' is bad enough; showing 
 only that the open avowal of vice and licentiousness is less culpable 
 than the practice of it under the hypocritical assumption of sancti- 
 fied temperance. The ' Ghost,' a poetical satire on the ridiculom 
 imposture of Cock-lane, consists chiefly of a series of rugged Hudi- 
 brastic incongruities. 'Pomposo,' in this poem, is intended for Dr. 
 Johnson, who had designated Churchill 'a shallow fellow.' In 17C2 
 
233 
 
 CHUKRUCA Y ELORZA. 
 
 CIBBER, TIIEOrillLUS. 
 
 234 
 
 Churchill became acquainted witb John Wilkes, and contributed to 
 the pages of the ' North Briton.' To gratify bis political patron, he 
 wrote the ' Prophecy of Famine ; a Scots Pastoral,' which was greatly 
 extolled, not only by Wilkes, and the politicians of his party, who 
 said it was " personal, poetical, and political,' but by the literary 
 public : and the admiration of contemporaries has been so far sustained 
 by posterity. 
 
 The praise and profit which Churchill obtained by this ' jeu d'esprit' 
 seein to have overwhelmed his common sense : he plunged at once 
 into the greatest irregularities of conduct, which drew from his 
 parishioners a serious remonstrance, and induced him to relinquish 
 the clerical profession. At the same time he quarrelled with and 
 separated from his wife, who herself is said to have been anything but 
 a prude. The utter recklessness of his conduct at this period is 
 shown by his seduction of a tradesman's daughter in Westminster, 
 whom he shortly afterwards abandoned. His poem called the ' Con- 
 ference ' was composed whilst he seemed to suffer some feelings of 
 contrition. He boasted however in letters to his friends that he felt 
 "no pricks of conscience " at his abandonment of his wife or his pro- 
 fession — " the woman I was tired of, and the gown I was displeased 
 with," and throwing aside his clerical habit, he appeai-ed in a blue 
 coat, gold-laced waistcoat, large ruffles, and a gold-laced hat. His 
 satirical ' Epistle to Hogarth ' was revenged by the artist's caricature 
 of ' The Reverend Mr. Churchill as a Russian bear ' in canonicals, 
 holding a club and a pot of porter, with a pug-dog which is treating 
 the poet's works with great indignity. We have still to mention 
 several poems, all of which are more or less satirical ; namely, the 
 •Duellist;' the 'Author;' 'Gotham;' the ' Candidate ; ' 'Independ- 
 ence;' the 'Journey;' and 'Farewell.' Of these, the 'Author' is 
 by far the most pleasing and fairest, if it be not in all respects the 
 most powerful. The ' Candidate ' is replete with poetical fire and 
 spirit. ' Farewell ' is comparatively tame, and ' Gotham,' which was 
 written during a short fit of retirement and reformation, is chiefly 
 descriptive. Churchill was a close and occasionally a very successful 
 imitator of Dryden. His verses have much of the fervour and force 
 of this great poet ; and at the same time all the coarseness and rug- 
 gedness of Donne and Oldham. Cowper, in a long passage in his 
 'Table Talk,' assigns him, on the whole, a distinguished place as a 
 poet, calling him a " spendthrift alike of money and of wit." He died 
 at Boulogne, November 4, 1764, while on a visit to his friend Wilkes. 
 His complete works were published in 8vo, in 1804, with a life and 
 portrait. Some interesting particulars are given in ' Genuine Memoirs 
 of Mr. Churchill,' 12mo, 1765. See also Mr. Tooke's 'Memoirs of 
 Charles Churchill,' and Mr. John Forster's able essay on ' Churchill,' 
 republished from the ' Edinburgh Review,' with additions, in Long- 
 man's Traveller's Library. 
 
 CHURRUCA Y ELORZA, COSME DAMIAN DE, one of the most 
 distinguished naval officers whom Spain has ever produced, was born 
 at Motrico, a sea-port of the province of Guipuzcoa, on the 27th of 
 September 1761. He was intended for the church, but in a stay which 
 he made at the palace of Rodriguez de Arellano, archbishop of Burgos, 
 be met with a naval officer a nephew of the prelate, and from his 
 conversation took a warm attachment to the sea, which he adopted 
 as a profession. His first service, after studying at Cadiz and Ferrol, 
 was in the American war, and he distinguished himself in rescuing 
 from the waves some of the sufferers of the floating batteries at 
 Gibraltar. His knowledge of astronomy afterwards recommended 
 him to an appointment with Don Ciriaco de Ceballos in the expe- 
 dition under Cordoba, Bent out by the Spanish government to survey 
 the straits of Magellan, and his diary of the exploration of Tierra del 
 Fuego, which was published at Madrid in 1793, is considered a model 
 of works of the kind. In 1791, though only of the age of thirty, and 
 captain of a frigate, he was appointed to the command of a similar 
 expedition to survey and lay down the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 but the breaking out of the war between France and Spain prevented 
 his execution of more than a part of the plan. He however took 
 back with him to Cadiz four-and-thirty charts of the coasts of Cuba, 
 Hayti, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, &c, only a few of which have been yet 
 published, but those few are esteemed among the choicest products of 
 Spanish hydrography, which as is well known holds a high rank. 
 They were made use of for the French charts of the Antilles pub- 
 lished shortly after, and Churruca had a brilliant reception from 
 Napoleon, then first consul, when not long afterwards sent by his 
 government to Brest. He was bitterly mortified by another com- 
 pliment paid him by the French, who, on the Spaniards agreeing by 
 treaty to give up to them six vessels which they should select, chose 
 for one of them the ' Conquistador,' Churruca's thip, which it had 
 been for some years his constant study to improve and render 
 efficient. On the 20th of October 1805 Churruca was in command of 
 the ' San Juan,' and left Cadiz in company with the French and 
 Spanish fleets under Villeneuve and Gravina, on the next day took 
 place the battle of Trafalgar. He had written to a friend a few days 
 before, "If you bear that rny ship is taken, know for certain that I 
 am dead." His right leg was carried off by a cannon-ball, .and he 
 died three hours after with his flag still flying, but soon after his 
 decease the ship surrendered. The English victors, according to the 
 account of Churruca's Spanish biographer, Captain Don Francisco 
 Pavia, showed a respect to the memory of the fallen commander 
 
 BIOO. DlV. VOL. IL 
 
 which did them honour, and it is well to remember that all of the 
 brave who fell at Trafalgar, were not on one side only. A public 
 fountain was dedicated to the memory of Churruca in 1812 in the 
 great square of Ferrol. 
 
 CIBBER, CAIUS GABRIEL, a celebrated sculptor, a native of 
 Holstein, was born about 1630, and came to England during the 
 Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, or shortly afterwards. The two 
 figures of 'Raging' and 'Melaucholy Madness,' which adorned the 
 principal gate of Old Bethlehem Hospital, were his work ; the statues 
 of the kings and that of ' Gresham' in the Royal Exchange, but most 
 of which perished in the fire which destroyed that building ; and also 
 the bassi-rilievi on the pedestal of the London Monument. He married 
 as his second wife the daughter of William Colley, Esq. of Glaiston, 
 in Rutlandshire, and granddaughter of Sir Anthony Colley, a stanch 
 royalist, who in the cause of Charles I., reduced his estate from 3000?. 
 to 300Z. per annum. By this lady he had Colley Gibber, the actor, 
 dramatist, and poet laureat. Mr. Cibber was employed in the latter 
 years of his life by the Earl, afterwards Duke of Devonshire, in the 
 improvement and decoration of the magnificent family seat at Chats- 
 worth ; and at the time of the revolution in 1688, he took arms under 
 that nobleman in favour of the Prince of Orange. He died about 1700. 
 He acquired considerable wealth, and in 1696 built at his own cost the 
 Danish church in London, and was buried there himself, as well as his 
 second wife. 
 
 CIBBER, COLLEY, was born, according to his own statement, on 
 the 6th of November, os., 1671, in Southampton-street, Covent 
 Garden. In 1682 he was sent to the Free School at Grantham, Lin- 
 colnshire. In 1687 he returned to London, and in 1688 was at his 
 father's request received as a volunteer in the forces raised by the Earl 
 of Devonshire in support of the Prince of Orange. In 1689 he indulged 
 an early conceived inclination for the stage, by fixing upon it seriously 
 as his profession ; and after performing gratuitously for about eight or 
 nine months, obtained an engagement at a salary of ten shillings per 
 week, which was afterwards increased to fifteen shillings ; but a 
 feeble voice and a meagre person were considerable obstacles to his 
 progress, and the trifling part of the Chaplain in Otway's 'Orphan' 
 was the first in which he attracted any attention. His performance of 
 Lord Touchwood at a very short notice, in consequence of Mr. Kynas- 
 ton's illness, obtained him the commendations of Congieve and five 
 additional shillings per week. At this time, being scarcely twenty- 
 two years of age, after a very short courtship, he married Miss Shore, 
 to the great auger of her father, who immediately spent the greatest 
 part of his property in the erection of a little retreat upon the Thames, 
 which he called Shore's Folly. Mr. Cibber's professional progress was 
 very slow for some years, notwithstanding his having turned author, 
 and the success of his comedies, ' Love's Last Shift,' ' Love makes a 
 Man,' ' She Would and She Would Not,' ' The Careless Husband,' &c. 
 In 1711 however he became joint patentee with Collier, Wilks, and 
 Dogget, in the management of Drury Lane, and afterwards with 
 Booth, Wilks, and Sir Richard Steele ; which latter partnership con- 
 tinued till the death of Mr. Eusden, the poet leaureat, in 1730, when 
 Cibber was appointed to succeed him, and sold out, having become 
 during his nineteen years' management so great a favourite with the 
 public in the performance of fops and feeble old men, that after he 
 had retired from the stage he was occasionally tempted back to it by 
 the offer of fifty guineas for one night's performance. In 1745 he 
 played Pandulph in his own tragedy of ' Papal Tyranny.' He died 
 suddenly on the 12th of December 1757. 
 
 Mr. Cibber has described himself with considerable candour in his 
 well-known and very amusing 'Apology' for his life. Vain, incon- 
 sistent, and negligent, he was withal a quick-witted, good-humoured, 
 and elegant gentleman. As a writer of comedy, he is inferior perhaps 
 only to Congreve, Wycherly, and Vanbrugh ; but his Birth day Odes 
 are by no means exceptions to the usual dulness of such compositions. 
 His best comedy is ' The Careless Husband,' the dialogue of which is 
 easy and polished ; but the play which brought him the most money 
 was his adaptation of Moliere's ' Tartuffe,' entitled ' The Nonjuror,' on 
 which Bickerstaff afterwards founded his 'Hypocrite.' For this play 
 King George I., to whom it was dedicated, sent him 200?. He was the 
 author and adapter of nearly thirty dramas of various descriptions, 
 amongst which, besides those already mentioned, we may record ' The 
 Provoked Husband,' written in conjunction with Sir John Vanbrugh, 
 and the modern acting version of Shakspere's 'Richard III.' His 
 'Apology' is published in two vols. 12mo, and his dramatic works in 
 five vols. 12mo. 
 
 CIBBER, THEOPHILUS, the son of the laureat, was born on the 
 26th of November 1703. At the age of thirteen he was sent to 
 Winchester school. In 1721 we find him on the stage performing in 
 the ' Conscious Lovers.' He acquired considerable reputation in 
 characters similar to those supported by his father. He married early 
 an actress of the name of Johnson, who died in 1733, and in 1734 he 
 formed a second union with Miss Arne. His extravagant habits forced 
 him to retire to France in 1733, and on his return he separated from 
 his wife under very discreditable circumstances. After tweuty years 
 more, passed some in prison and the rest in alternate prodigality and 
 penury, he engaged with Mr. Sheridan of the Dublin theatre, and 
 sailed for Ireland ill company with Mr. Maddox, a dancer on the wire, 
 in the mouth of October 1753. The vessel was however driven by a 
 
 B 
 
235 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 28C 
 
 ntorm on the coast of Scotland, and going immediately to pieces, 
 Cibber, his companion, and the greater number of the passengers 
 perished. 
 
 Cibber wrote and altered a few unimportant dramas, and was con- 
 cerned in a work entitled ' An Account of the Lives of the Poets of 
 Great Britain and Ireland,' 5 vols. 12mo, which was published under 
 his name only. 
 
 Susanna Maria Cibber was the sister of Dr. Thomas Arne the 
 composer, and made her first appearance before the public as a singer. 
 In 1734 she married Tln opliilus Cibber, son of the laureat, and in 
 1736 attempted the part of Zarain Hill's tragedy of that name. Her 
 success was most decided, and she rapidly became a great and deserved 
 favourite : at her death she was by many regarded as the best tragic 
 actress on the stage. She died January 30, 1706, and was buried in 
 the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. 
 
 CI'CERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, was born at Arpinum on the 3rd 
 of January, B.C. 106, in the consulship of Q. Servilius Csepio and C. 
 Atilius Serranus, and was thus a few months older than Pompey, who 
 was born on the last day of September in the same year. The family 
 seat was on the south bank of the littlo stream Fibrenus (fiume della 
 posta), near its junction with the Liris ((JariRlano), where the stream 
 of the Fibrenus dividing, forms an island and cascade, the scenery of 
 which is the subject of the dialogue at the beginning of the second 
 book ' De Legibus.' The villa Ciceronis is now occupied as a Domini- 
 can convent. 
 
 The grandfather of Cicero was living here at the time of the birth 
 of Marcus Tullius, and appears to have been a man of influence at 
 Arpinum, where, on a petty scale, the political disputes formed a 
 counterpart to those at Home. The old man seems to have enter- 
 tained the same views of public polity as his son, and vehemently 
 opposed the introduction of the vote by ballot into the municipal pro- 
 ceedings at Arpinum, when a law to that effect was proposed by one 
 Gratidius, whose family was intimately connected with the Marii, and 
 whose sister, it may be observed, was the wife of old Cicero, and con- 
 sequently the grandmother of the orator. The matter in dispute was 
 referred to the consul Scaurus at Rome, who expressed his regret that 
 a man of old Cicero's energy should have preferred to exert his talents 
 in a petty corporation rather than on the great theatre at Pome. 
 There is likewise a characteristic saying of his recorded by his grand- 
 son, that the men of his day were like Syrian slaves, — " the more Greek 
 they knew the greater kuaves they were,'' — an observation probably 
 aimed at his opponent Gratidius, who was well acquainted with that 
 language. This Marcus Cicero had two Bons, Marcus and Lucius. 
 The younger of these, together with his uncle Gratidius, who was 
 killed there, served under Antony the orator in his government of 
 Cdicia. Lucius left a son of the same name, to whom his cousin Cicero 
 was much attached, and whose death he deplores in one of his earliest 
 letters to Atticus. 
 
 Marcus Cicero, the father of the orator, though he was on intimate 
 terms with the leading men of the times, was compelled by the delicacy 
 of his health to live in retirement ; but this enabled him to pay the 
 more attention to the education of his two sons, Marcus and Quiutus. 
 His wife Helvia had a brother, Aculeo, the intimate friend of L. Crassu3, 
 a man equally distinguished for his oratory and the public offices he 
 had held ; and the two sons of Aculeo, with their cousins the young 
 Ciceros, received their education together under teachers selected by 
 Crassus. It is to this circumstance probably that we must attribute 
 the special direction of Cicero's talents to the study of oratory. He 
 was afterwards removed by his father to Rome, where he had the 
 assistance of Greek instructors, more particularly the poet Archias, 
 who was living under the roof of L. Lucullus. As soon as he had 
 exchanged the boy's dress for the toga he was placed under the care 
 of Q. Mucius Scajvola, the augur, and father-in-law of his father's friend 
 Crassus, and upon his death attached himself to the pontifex of the 
 same name, who excelled all his contemporaries in his knowledge of 
 law, and added to his other accomplishments considerable powers of 
 eloquence. While Cicero was thus preparing himself for the forum, 
 he relieved the severity of his leg;d and philosophical studies by an 
 intermixture of poetry. Even as a boy he had composed a poem 
 called ' Pontius Glaucus,' which was extant in Plutarch's time, and he 
 now translated the 'Phenomena' of Aratus into Latin verse, besides 
 writing two original poems, one called 'Marios,' iu honour of his 
 fellow-townsman, which received the commendation of Scasvola, and 
 another entitled * Limon.' But he was now arrived (B.C. 89) at the age 
 when he was calh d by the laws of his country to the military pro- 
 fession, and he served his first campaign in the Marsic war under 
 Pompeius Strabo, the father of the great Pompey, and was present 
 when Sulla captured the Samnite camp before Nola. The termination 
 of the Marsic war in the following year gave Cicero an opportunity of 
 attending the lectures of two distinguished Greek philosophers ; first 
 Philo, who then presided over the Academy, and soon after Apollonius 
 Molo of Rhodes, who had been driven from their homes by the arms 
 of Mithridates. This prince had been long watching for an opportunity 
 of attacking the authority of Rome. The late civil war in Italy had 
 induced him to throw off all disguise. He had overrun the Roman 
 province of Asia, and was already master of nearly all Greece, when 
 the Romans concluded the war with their Italian allies, with the 
 intention of opposing their formidable enemy in the east. But 
 
 unhappily that which should have led to a union of their strength 
 was the cause of divisions still more disastrous. The command of the 
 war against Mithridates was disputed between old Marius and Sulla, 
 and led to a series of civil commotions. Sulla however, who was at 
 the time consul, had tho important province of that war allotted to 
 him. The appointment excited the furious opposition of the Marian 
 party, and Sulla was unable to maintain the superiority of his party 
 at Rome but by bloodshed and proscription. His departure for the 
 Mithridatio war was the signal for re-action, and Marius re-entered 
 Rome (B.C. 87) with the support of the consul Cinna, and put to death 
 all tho most distinguished leaders of the aristocratic party, who were 
 unable to make their escape to Sulla's army in Attica. Cicero's school- 
 fellow Pomponins was probably one of the fugitives, for he left Rome 
 about this period, and by a twenty years' residence in Athens acquired 
 the surname of Atticus. Of Cicero's pursuits during the three or four 
 next years little more is known than that he wrote some rhetorical 
 works, which dissatisfied his maturer judgment; probably the work 
 entitled ' De Inveutione,' besides translating the ' USconomics ' of 
 Xenophon, and several dialogues of Plato. He was also in the habit 
 of declaiming both in Greek and Latin, and received instruction in 
 philosophy and logic from the stoic Diodotus, whom we find after- 
 wards living under his roof, where in fact he diod, leaving his property 
 to Cicero. He had also a second opportunity of hearing Molo at Rome, 
 when the philosopher was sent on an embassy to remiud the senate of 
 the services of his countrymen in the late war against Mithridates. 
 In his twenty-sixth year (b.o. 81), when Sulla had extinguished all 
 the democratic elements of the Roman constitution, Cicero made his 
 first appearanco as an advocate. The speech in favour of Quinctius, 
 though not the first he delivered, is the earliest of those wliich are 
 now extant. In the following year his voice was first heard in the 
 forum in defence of Sextus Roscius of Ameria on a charge of parricide. 
 The subject matter of the trial was intimately mixed up with the late 
 civil dissensions, so that it attracted much public attention. Cicero 
 fully prepared himself for the occasion, and produced bo powerful an 
 impression that, to use his own words, the public voice at once placed 
 him among the first orators of Rome. When he had spent two years in 
 the severe duties of his profession, the delicacy of his health led him 
 to withdraw for a time from Rome. He first visited Athens (b.c. 79), 
 where he devoted six months to Antiochus of Ascalou, the most 
 distinguished philosopher of the old Academy. He also attended 
 Phsedrus and Zeno of the Epicurean school, in company with his friend 
 Atticus, and practised declamation under the directions of an able 
 rhetorician named Diogenes of Syria. He next traversed the whole 
 Roman province of Asia, still cultivating his favourite pursuit of 
 oratory under the first teachers of that country ; and then crossed 
 over into Rhodes, where for the third time he placed himself under 
 Molo, and derived considerable benefit from his instruction, iu 
 correcting the redundancy of his style and moderating the vehemence 
 of his voice and action. He studied philosophy likewise under 
 Posidouius. 
 
 In the year b.c. 77, after a two years' absence, during which Sulla 
 had died, Cicero returned to Rome, and married Terentia, whose rank 
 and station in society we may estimate by the fact that her sister Fabia 
 was one of the vestal virgins. He applied himself again with zeal to 
 the law-courts and the forum, in which at this time the most distin- 
 guished orators were Aurelius Cotta and Hortensius ; but next to them 
 stood Cicero, whose services were in constant demand for causes of the 
 highest importance. But independently of the reputation he was 
 acquiring, he was at the same time opening the way to the political 
 honours of his country ; and it is a somewhat singular coincidence that 
 in the year b.c. 76 the three first orators of Rome, Cotta, Hortensius, 
 and Cicero, were successful candidates for the several offices of consul, 
 sedile, and quaestor, which they respectively filled in the following year. 
 The provinces of the quaestors being distributed to them by lot, the 
 island of Sicily fell to Cicero's share, or rather the western portion of 
 that island, which had Lilybaeum for its chief town ; the whole island 
 being under the government of S. Peducseus as praetor, with whom 
 Cicero, and above all Atticus, lived on terms of the closest intimacy, 
 until Peducteus fell with Pansa at the battle before Mutina. Sicily 
 was one of the granaries as it were of Rome, and the quaestor's chief 
 employment in it was to supply corn for the use of the city ; and as 
 there happened to be a peculiar scarcity this year at Rome, it was 
 necessary to the public quiet to send large and speedy supplies. This 
 task Cicero accomplished, he tells us, and at the same time gave the 
 highest satisfaction to all parties in the province. In the hours of 
 leisure he employed himself, as at Rome, in his rhetorical studies ; so 
 that on his return from Sicily his abilities as an orator were, according 
 to his own judgment, in their full perfection and maturity. Before he 
 left Sicily he made a tour of the island, and gratified himself by a visit 
 to Syracuse, where he discovered the tomb of Archimedes, which had 
 been lo3t sight of by his countrymen, and was found overgrown with 
 briars. He came away from the island extremely pleased with the 
 success of his administration, and flattering himself that all Rome 
 was celebrating his praise. In this imagination he landed at Puteoli, 
 and was not a little mortified on being asked by the first friend he 
 met "How long he had left Rome, and what news he brought from 
 thence?" This mortification however led him to reflect that the 
 people of Rome had dull ears, but quick eyes; so that from this 
 
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 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIU3. 
 
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 239 
 
 moment ha resolved to stick close to the foruui, and to live 
 perpetually in the view of his countrymen. 
 
 Pompey was at this time carrying on the war against Sartoriua in 
 Spain. Nicomedea, king of Bithyuia, soon after died, leaving the 
 strange legacy of his kingdom to the Romans ; and the King of 
 Poutus, ever ready to avail himself of the dissensions of the Romans, 
 and justified on the present occasion by the Bithynian intrigue, 
 renewed his hostilities by a double invasion of Bithynia and Asia. 
 The two consuls, Lucullus and Cotta, were both sent to oppose him ; 
 and while the arms of Rome were thus employed in the different 
 extremities of the empire, a still more alarming war (b.c. 73) broke 
 out at home, which, originating with some gladiators, led to an 
 extensive insurrection of the slaves, and under the able conduct of 
 Spartacus threatened the very existence of the state. During this 
 turbulent period Cicero persevered in a close attendance upon the 
 forum, though none of the speeches which he then delivered have 
 been preserved, excepting those which relate to the prosecution 
 against Verres. Peducaeus had been succeeded, after one year's 
 government of Sicily, by Sacerdos, and he, after the same interval, by 
 Verres; for it was a principle of Roman policy to give to as many as 
 possible a share in the plunder of the provinces; though occasionally 
 superior influence, not the merit of the individual, led to a con- 
 tinuance of his government for two or even three years. Such was 
 the case with Verres, who during three years made the Sicilians feel 
 all those evils in their worst form which the Roman principles of pro- 
 vincial administration in bad hands were so well calculated to produce. 
 Cicero had mauy difficulties to overcome in his endeavours to subject 
 the criminal to the punichment of his crimes. In the first place the 
 judices (jury), under the law of Sulla, would consist exclusively of 
 senators ; that is, of those who had a direct interest in protecting 
 provincial mal-administration. Moreover, at the very outset there 
 started up a rival in one Caecilius, who had been quasstor under Verres, 
 and claimed a preference to Cicero in the task of impeaching him. A 
 previous suit, technically called a divinatio, was necessary to decide 
 between the rival prosecutors. Cicero succeeded in convincing the 
 jury that his opponent's object was, to use another technical term, pre- 
 varicatio, that is, to screen the criminal by a sham prosecution. This 
 previous point being settled in his favour, he made a voyage to Sicily to 
 examine witnesses aud collect facts to support the indictment, taking 
 his cousin Lucius Cicero to assi-t him. Fifty days were spent in their 
 progress through the island, in which he had to encounter the oppo- 
 sition of the new praetor Metellus, who was endeavouring, with many 
 of the leading men at home, to defeat the prosecution. Ou his return 
 to Rome he found it necessary to guard against all the arts of delay 
 which interest or money could procure for the purpose of postponing 
 the trial to the next year, when Horteusius and Metellus were to be 
 consuls, and Metellus's brother one of the praetors, in which character 
 he might have presided as judge on the trial. Cicero was induced 
 therefore to waive the privilege of employing twenty days in the 
 accusation ; and a single speech on the 5th of August, followed by 
 an examination of his witnesses and the production of documentary 
 evidence, produced an impression so unfavourable to Verres that even 
 bis advocate Hortensiua was abashed, and Verres went forthwith into 
 exile. 
 
 The five other speeches against Verres, in which Cicero enters into 
 the details of his charges, were never actually spoken, if we may 
 believe the commentator upon these orations — who passes under the 
 name of Asconius — but were written subsequently at his leisure, 
 partly perhaps to 8ubatantiate his charges before the public, but still 
 wore as specimeus of what he could do in the character of an accuser, 
 which he did not often sustain. 
 
 Though a verdict was given against Verres by the jury of senators, 
 yet the past misconduct of that order in their judicial capacity had 
 been so glaring that the public indignation called for the election of 
 censors, whose office had slept for some years ; and the magistrates so 
 appointed erased from the roll of the aeuate sixty-four of that body, 
 expressly on the ground of judicial corruption. To remedy the evil 
 for the future a new law was passed, at the suggestion of the praetor 
 Aurelius Cotta, hence called the lex Aurelia, by which the eqnites 
 (knights) and certain of the commoners (tribuni cerarii) were asso- 
 ciated with the senators in the constitution of public juries. It was 
 subsequent to the enactment of this law that Cicero made the speeches 
 in defence of Q. Roscius, M. Fouteius, and A. Caecina. The first of 
 th'-ae was the celebrated actor, whose name has sinc^ become pro- 
 verbial. The suit grew out of a compensation which had been made 
 for the death of a slave, whom Roscius had educated in his own 
 profession. M. Fonteiua was the object of a prosecution for extortion 
 and peculation (de repetundis) in the province of Oallia Transalpina, 
 and must have been guilty, if we may judge from the fragments of 
 bis advocate's apeech which have come down to ua. The cause of 
 Caecina was of a private nature, and turned entirely upon dry points 
 of law. The eedileship of Cicero (B.C. 6'J) had little of that magni- 
 ficence which was so commonly displayed in this office, but it gave the 
 Sicilians an opportunity of showing their gratitude to the prosecutor 
 of Verres, by supplies for the public festivals. After an interval of 
 two years, Cicero entered upon the office of praetor (b.c. 66), and it 
 fell opportunely to hia lot to preside in the court of extortion — a court 
 especially provided against that ordinary offence in the administration 
 
 of the provinces. The year of Cicero's praetorahip was marked by the 
 conviction of Licinius Macer, in opposition to the influence of hia 
 kinsman Crassus. But the most remarkable event in his praetorship 
 was the passing of the Manilian law, by which the command of the 
 war against Mithridates was transferred to Pompey, whose claims 
 Cicero supported in a speech which still remains. It was in this year 
 too that he defended Cluentius. This speech likewise exists, and gives 
 a sad spectacle of the uncertainty of life and property at this period. 
 Before the close of his praetorship he betrothed hia daughter Tullia, 
 who could not have been more than ten years old, to C. I'iso Frugi. 
 She was at present his only child, for his son Marcus was not born 
 until the middle of the following year, which was also the birth-year 
 of Horace. 
 
 Ou the expiration of his office he declined the government of a 
 province, which was the usual reward of that magistracy, prelerring 
 to employ his best efforts at home towards the attainment at the 
 proper period of the consular office. This was perhaps his chief 
 object in undertaking the defence of C. Cornelius, the tribune of the 
 preceding year, against a charge of treason, which was supported by 
 the whole influence of the aristocracy. The guilt of Cornelius con- 
 sisted in his energetic aud successful support of the law against 
 bribery in elections, called the Lex Acilia-Calpurnia. Cicero pub- 
 lished two orations spoken in this cause, the loss of which is the more 
 to be regretted as they were reckoned amongst the most finished of 
 his compositions, both by others and by himself. The return of 
 Atticus from Athens at this time was most opportune to his friend 
 Cicero, who looked upon the following year (b.c. 64) as the most 
 critical in his life ; and Atticus being intimately connected with the 
 influential men of the aristocratic party, could give essential assist- 
 ance to a new man, as the phrase was, against six candidates, two of 
 whom were of patrician blood, while the fathers or ancestors of all 
 had already filled public magistracies. Cicero's father just lived to 
 witness the election of his son to the highest office in the state. 
 
 From this point the life of Cicero is the history of the times. Of 
 the orations he made in the year of his consulate he has himself given 
 a list in a letter to Atticus. 
 
 On the kalends of January, immediately upon his assuming the con- 
 sular robes, he attacked a tribune, P. Servilius Rullus, who had a few 
 days before given notice of an Agrarian law. Of this speech, which 
 was addressed to the senate, there exists a considerable fragment, 
 and enough to show that Cicero was already prepared to attach him- 
 self to the aristocratic party, whereas up to this time hia political life 
 had been of an opposite coniplexiou. His panegyrist, Middleton, 
 seems to acknowledge the change, and attributes his past conduct to 
 that necessity by which the candidates for office were forced, in the 
 subordinate magistracies, to practise all the arts of popularity, and to 
 look forward to the consulship as the end of this subjection. Before 
 the people indeed, to whom he addressed two speeches upon the same 
 subject, Cicero still wore the popular mask ; and while he expressed 
 his approbation of the principle of Agrarian laws, and pronounced a 
 panegyric on the two Gracchi, he artfully opposed the particular law 
 in question on the ground that the bill of Rullus created commissioners 
 with despotic powers that might endanger the liberties of Rome, and 
 he prevailed upon one of the other tribunes to put his veto upon the 
 bill. In the defence of Rabirius, who was charged with the murder of 
 the tribune Saturninus three-aud thirty years before, he goes so far as 
 to maintain the right of the senate to place Rome in a state of siege, 
 if we may borrow a modern term, or, in other words, to suspend all 
 the laws which protect the lives of citizens; yet in the same speech he 
 endeavours to curry favour with the people by heapiug the highest 
 praises on their favourite Marius. Rabirius had already been con- 
 victed by the judges appointed to investigate the charge, but appealed, 
 as the law allowed him, to the people, who accordingly assembled in 
 the Field of Mars to hear the appeal. While the trial was proceeding, 
 it was observed that the flag upon the Janiculum on the other side of 
 the Tiber was lowered. This of necessity broke up the assembly, 
 according to an old law which was made when the limits of the 
 Roman empire extended only a few miles from the city, and was 
 intended to protect the citizens from being surprised by the enemy. 
 The object of this law had long passed away, but Roman superstition 
 still maintained the useless ceremony, aud the aristocratic party 
 employed it on the present occasion in the hands of Metellus the 
 prator to annul the proceedings of justice. The orations in which 
 he defended Otho against the populace, who were enraged at his law 
 for setting apart special seats in the theatre for the order of the 
 knights, and that in which he opposed the restoration of their civil 
 rights to the sons of those who had been proscribed by Sulla, were 
 also delivered this year, but nothing remains of them. Of the con- 
 spiracy against Catiline, and the several speeches which were made by 
 Cicero in relation to him, it is unnecessary to say more than will be 
 found under the head Catilina. 
 
 Two other causes, in which Cicero's services as an advocate were 
 called forth during this year, were those iu which he defended C. 
 Calpuruius Piso, the consul of B.C. 67, aud L. Murena, the consul 
 elect. The oration in defence of Piso is not extant, but it appears 
 that the prosecution was for extortion in his government of Cisalpine 
 Gaul, and was maintained at the instance of Caesar. Cicero, in a 
 speech made on a subsequent occasion, seems to admit the guilt of 
 
CICERO, MARCUS TULLIU8. 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 210 
 
 his client, and to account for his acquittal on grounds altogether 
 foreign to the merits of the case ; another proof of the change that 
 had taken place in the patriotic prosecutor of Verres. His conduct 
 is not less reprehensible in the affair of Murena, who was charged 
 with bribery, treating, and other violations of the law, in his late 
 election to the consulship. His guilt will not be doubtful to a careful 
 reader of his advocate's speech. The prosecution was supported by 
 Sulpicius and Cato, the former a man who may be looked upon as 
 almost the founder of Roman law as a science, and Cato certainly the 
 most honest of his party. Yet Cicero, instead of grappling with the 
 charge, descends to a personal attack on the advocates opposed to him, 
 rallying the profession of Sulpicius as trifling, and the principles of 
 Cato as impracticable. His defence amounts in fact to a defence of 
 the crime rather than the criminal, which was the more discreditable, 
 as he himself had only a few weeks before carried a new law against 
 bribery. 
 
 The success of Cicero, in crushing the Catilinarian conspiracy, would 
 probably have earned for him the unmixed good will of the aristo- 
 cratic party, had he not offended them by the vanity and presumption 
 which that success engendered, and which were the more offensive to 
 them in one whose origin they despised. So completely was he 
 carried away by his sense of his services to his country that he wrote 
 a history of his consulship in Greek, and even sung his own glories 
 inverse; but the most decisive evidence of his unbounded vanity is 
 the extraordinary letter which he addressed to his friend Lucceius. 
 ('Ad Fam.,' v. U.) 
 
 On the other side he Lad damaged his reputation with the people 
 by his evident change of principles ; and the precipitate execution of 
 the conspirators, without the form of a trial, was an offence against 
 the laws of the country which the sanction of the senate could not 
 justify. Already on his laying down his office there were symptoms 
 of that hostility which gradually increased, and in a few years drove 
 him in disgrace from the city wliich he had lately saved. 
 
 But we must return for awhile to his forensic exertions. While 
 the associates in the crimes of Catiline were, for the most part, 
 prosecuted and driven into banishment, it pleased the party of the 
 senate to screen P. Sulla, whose guilt is generally asserted by the 
 historians of the times. Horteusius and Cicero were his advocates, 
 and the support of the latter is reported to have been bought by a 
 loan of money, which Cicero required for a purchase he was then 
 making of a house on the Palatine Hill. To see this in its true light, 
 it should be recollected that the receipt of a fee was at variance with 
 the avowed piinciples of the Roman bar. The anecdote stands upon 
 the authority of A. Gellius, which might have been insufficient, were 
 it not indirectly yet decisively confirmed by more than one passage 
 in Cicero's letters. In the following year Quintus Cicero, the brother 
 of the orator, was appointed to the government of the rich province 
 of Asia, as successor to L. Flaccus, who c;ime home with the usual 
 reputation for extortion, for which he was called to account two years 
 after. This L. Flaccus had been the chief praetor in the consulship of 
 Cicero, and in that capacity had been of great service in the detection 
 of the conspiracy, so that he had a certain claim upon Cicero, which was 
 not neglected. But this trial was preceded by one of the same nature 
 which more nearly concerned the orator.* C. Antonius, who had been his 
 colleague in the consulship, was recalled from the province of Macedonia, 
 where he had presided for two years, and had to defend himself against 
 an impeachment for the gross rapacity of which he had been guilty. 
 This province had originally fallen to the lot of Cicero, who took 
 credit on many occasions for his disinterestedness in transferring the 
 lucrative appointment to his colleague. He omitted to state that there 
 was a secret agreement between them, by which Antonius bound 
 himself to make a pecuniary return to Cicero ; and the extortion of 
 which the proconsul had been guilty was in part owing to this obli- 
 gation. The very day on which Antoniu3 was condemned was marked 
 by an event still more fatal to the peace of Cicero — the adoption of 
 Clodius, his enemy, into a plebeian family. The object of this cere- 
 mony was to render Clodius eligible to the tribunate, from which, as 
 a patrician, he was excluded ; and no sooner was the obstacle removed 
 than he offered himself as a candidate, and was elected without oppo- 
 sition. After some little manoeuvring, the cause and object of which 
 are not very intelligible, he made public advertisement of several new 
 laws, which were all aimed at the authority of the senate; and among 
 them was one to the effect that whoever took the life of a citizen un- 
 condemned and without a trial should be interdicted from fire and 
 water. Although Cicero was not named in this law, it was so 
 evidently aimed at him, that it was necessary for him at once to 
 
 * We have omitted a mysterious affair which occurred this same year, (b.c 
 59). The facts are these :— One Vettius, only known to us before this as an 
 informer of Cicero's in the Catilinarian business, and as having endeavoured to 
 implicate Caesar on that occasion, is arrested as a conspirator against Pompey's 
 life. He denounces some leading senators, including M. Brutus, as his accom- 
 plices, and is thrown into jail. The next day, being again brought out by 
 Cassar, he includes Lucullus and Cicero in the charge. That same night he is 
 strangled in jail. While some declared he had been suborned and then murdered 
 by Caesar, others believed the charges made by Vettius, and attributed his death 
 to the accused. The authorities are— Cic, ' ad Att.,' ii 24 ; ' Fro Sextio,' 63 ; 
 ' In Vatin.,' 10 ; Suet., ' Jul. Ca3S.,' 1 7 and 20 ; l'lutarch, ' Lucul.,' 42 ; Appian, 
 Civ.,' 12-2; Dion., 37-41 and 38-9. 
 
 decide upon the course he would pursue. Some recommended him to 
 resist the law by force, but when he found that Pompey was unwilling 
 to support him, he took the advice of his friends Cato and Hortensius, 
 which coincided with the views of Atticus, and leaving the field to bis 
 adversaries, went into voluntary exile. Leaving Rome towards the 
 end of March (b.c. 58), he proceeded to Vibo with the intention of 
 crossing over into Sicily, but from this he was prohibited by the 
 governor, Virgilius, although he was of the same political party, and 
 was under obligations to Cicero. He received about the same time 
 information from Rome that a special law had been passed, which 
 forbade him to appear within a distance of four hundred miles. Under 
 these circumstances he changed his route, and proceeded first to 
 Brundisium, where he was hospitably entertained for some weeks, in 
 defiance of the law. He then crossed over to Dyrrachium, where he 
 was received by Plancius, the qajstor of the province, and conducted 
 by him to Thessalomca. The conduct of Cicero in his exile was such 
 as might have been expected from one whose mind had been so 
 extravagantly elated in prosperity. He gave himself up entirely to 
 despondency; spoke of his best friends as enemies in disguise, not 
 even sparing Atticus and Cato; and so completely lost the control 
 of his feelings and his conduct, that his mind was supposed to be 
 deranged. In the meantime, his friends at Rome, whose fidelity he 
 doubted, were actively engaged in taking measures for his recall. 
 Already on the 1st of June an unsuccessful motion was made in the 
 senate to that effect. The election, too, of his friend Lcntulus 
 Spinther to the consulate, offered a brighter prospect for the ensuing 
 year, but in the interval there occurred a little incident which gave 
 him fresh uneasiness. Some of his enemies had published an oration, 
 which he had composed some years before in an angry moment, 
 against an eminent senator, and had shown privately to his intimate 
 friends. Its appearance at so untoward a moment alarmed Cicero, 
 who imagined that it had been destroyed, and he wrote to Atticus 
 requesting him to disavow it. "Fortunately," says he, " I never had 
 any public dispute with him, and as the speech is not written with my 
 usual care, I think you may convince the world that it is a forgery." 
 
 Towards the end of the year his residence at Thessalonica became 
 disagreeable to him, and indeed he thought dangerous. His enemy 
 Piso had been appointed governor of Macedonia, and the troops who 
 were to serve under him were already expected. Even before this, 
 some of the accomplices of Catiline, who were living in Macedonia as 
 exiles, had been plotting, it was said, against the life of Cicero. He 
 therefore found it safer to remove to Dyrrachium, where he had 
 friends, although it fell within the distance prohibited by the law. 
 His residence upon this coast afforded an opportunity likewise for an 
 interview with his friend Atticus, who was in the habit of visiting a 
 favourite estate near Buthrotum. While Cicero was harassing him- 
 self with perpetual fears and suspicions, his cause was proceeding 
 prosperously at Rome. The tribunate of Clodius terminated in 
 December; the new tribunes were, almost without exception, 
 friendly to his recall ; and on the first day of the new year the new 
 consul Lentulus moved the senate for his restoration. His opponents 
 however were not yet driven from the field. The tribuuitial veto was 
 employed more than once to check the proceedings. Scenes of riot 
 and bloodshed disgraced the streets of Rome. Yet at last, on the 
 25th of May, a decree in his favour passed the senate; and on the 
 4 th of August a law, in confirmation of the decree, was carried by 
 the people in the great meeting of the Centuries. Cicero, in anticipa- 
 tion of these measures, had embarked for Italy on the very day 
 the decree of the senate was passed, and landed the next day at 
 Brundisium, where he was received by his daughter Tullia. The 
 inhabitants of the city were profuse in the honours they paid him, 
 and when the news, that the law had passed the Centuries, summoned 
 him to Rome, the inhabitants of the cities through which he passed 
 flocked in crowds to congratulate him. 
 
 Cicero's return was, what he himself calls it, the beginning of a new 
 life to him. He had been made to feel in what hands the weight of 
 power lay, and how dangerous it was to lean on the support of his 
 aristocratical friends. Pompey had served him on the late occasion of 
 his recall from exile, and had acted with the concurrence of Cassar, so 
 that it was a point of gratitude as well as prudence to be more observ- 
 ant of them than he had hitherto been. To the former he took an 
 early opportunity of showing his gratitude by proposing that he should 
 be commissioned to provide for a better supply of corn at Rome, where 
 the unusual price of bread had already occasioned serious disturbances. 
 For this purpose he recommended that Pompey should be invested 
 with absolute power over all the public stores and corn-rents of the 
 empire for five years. The proposition was readily accepted, and a 
 vote passed that a law to that effect should be brought before the 
 people. This law was favourably received by all parties, and Pompey 
 named the proposer of the law the first among his fifteen assistant 
 commissioners ; an appointment which the latter accepted, with the 
 stipulation that he should not be called away from Rome. Meanwbil^ 
 although Cicero was restored to his former dignity, there was a diffi- 
 culty in the restitution of his property. The chief delay was about 
 his house on the Palatine Hill, which Clodius had contrived to 
 alienate, as he hoped, irretrievably, by demolishing the building aud 
 dedicating a temple upon the ground to the goddess Liberty. The 
 senate therefore could only make a provisional decree, that if the 
 
2-11 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 242 
 
 college of priests discharged the ground from the claims of religion, 
 the consuls should make a contract for rebuilding the house. The 
 pontifical college was accordingly summoned to hear the cause on the 
 last day of September, and Cicero personally addressed them in a 
 speech which he himself considered one of his happiest efforts, and 
 which he thought it a duty to place as a specimen of eloquence in the 
 hands of the Roman youth. The speech however, which now occupies 
 a place among his works under the title ' Pro Domo sua apud Pon- 
 tifices,' aa well as those bearing the names of ' De Haruspicum 
 Responsis, post Reditum in Senatu,' and ' Ad Quirites post Reditum,' 
 all professing to have been delivered during this year, have been 
 pronounced by the ablest critics to be spurious. The college gave a 
 verdict in terms somewhat evasive ; but the senate concluded the 
 matter by a distinct vote in Cicero's favour, and the consuls imme- 
 diately put the decree in execution by estimating the damage which 
 had been done to Cicero's property. In this estimate his villas near 
 Tusculum and Foraiae were included. But the estimation was far 
 below what Cicero thought himself entitled to, and he attributed this 
 injustice to the jealousy of the aristocracy, who, as they had formerly 
 clipped his wings, so were now unwilling that they should grow again. 
 Scarcely had the house upon the Palatine begun to rise, when a mob, 
 instigated, according to Cicero, by Clodius, attacked the workmen, and 
 afterwards set fire to the adjoining house, in which his brother Quintus 
 lived. This riot was only one of many which at this time disgraced 
 the city. Milo, as well as Clodius, had his armed bauds, and was 
 avowedly seeking for an opportunity of murdering Clodius; while 
 Cicero himself appears as a party in a forcible attack upon the Capitol 
 for the purpose of destroying or carrying off the brazen tablets on 
 which the law of his exile had been engraved. One of those who 
 took an active part in the disturbances was P. Sextius, who in his 
 tribunate had been instrumental in the restoration of Cicero. He was 
 brought to trial for these disturbances the following year, when Cicero, 
 in gratitude, undertook his defence, and obtained an acquittal ; and, 
 not satisfied with a mere verdict, he the next day made a furious 
 attack in the senate upon a senator, Vatiuius, who had been one of the 
 chief witnesses against Sextius. Cicero was less fortunate in his 
 defeuce of L. Calpurnius Bestia, who was prosecuted about the same 
 time for bribery in the last election of praetors. In the same year he 
 gratified his powerful friends Pompey and C;esar by appearing as the 
 advocate of L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, who had received 
 the citizenship of Rome. The legality of his franchise was the subject- 
 matter of the trial. It is somewhat strange to find Cicero so closely 
 allied as he was at this time with Caesar, on whom he had showered 
 his abuse on nearly every occasion ; but the fact and the disgrace of it 
 are acknowledged by himself repeatedly in his letters to his friend 
 Atticus. " It is a bitter pill," says he, " and I have been long swallow- 
 ing it, but farewell now to honour and patriotism." There exist two 
 other speeches delivered by him during the same year : one of these 
 was in the senate, on the annual debate about the appointments to 
 the provinces, and he employed the opportunity thus afforded in a 
 furious attack on the private lives and public conduct of Piso and 
 Gabiuius, who had been the consuls at the time of his exile, and had 
 assisted his enemy Clodius, and recommended their recall from the 
 provinces they were then governing. He concluded his harangue by 
 defending hi3 alliance with Caesar. The other speech just referred to 
 was made in defence of Caolius, a man who by his open profligacy and 
 unprincipled conduct was notorious even among his countrymen. He 
 was charged with the crime of procuring the murder of an ambassador 
 from Alexandria, and^lso of attempting to poison a sister of Clodius. 
 Caelius was acquitted, and lived for many years on most intimate terms 
 with Cicero ; indeed the letters that passed between them constitute a 
 whole book in his miscellaneous correspondence. On the return of 
 Piso from his government of Macedonia, at the beginning of the 
 following year, he complained of the attack which had been made 
 upon him by Cicero in the debate about the provinces. Cicero replied 
 to him in another invective, more violent than the former. One would 
 hope that the speech purporting to have been spoken on this occasion 
 was not genuine ; for if it is, no one can read it without awarding to 
 Cicero the prize among orators for coarseness and personality ; and in 
 fact ho takes credit to himself, in his treatise on the perfect orator 
 (' De Oratore'), for his invective powers. 
 
 In the spring of the following year he commenced the treatise on 
 politics (' Lie Republica'), the loss of which the learned had long 
 regretted, when Angelo Maio, in 1823, discovered a considerable 
 portion of it iu the Vatican library. The manuscript, which is of 
 parchment, contained a treatise on the Psalms, in a small distinct 
 character ; but Maio perceived underneath traces of a larger type, in 
 which he soon recognised the style of Cicero, and the matter, nay even 
 the title of the ' fie Republica.' But to return to the narrative, the 
 greater part of the year B.C. 54 was employed by Cicero in his usual 
 occupation of defending the accused. "Not a day passes," sa}s he, 
 in a letter to his brother, " without my appearing iu defence of some 
 one." Among others, he defended Messiu°, one of Caesar's lieutenants, 
 who was summoned from Gaul to take his trial ; then Drusus, who 
 wag accused of prevaricalion, or undertaking a cause with the intention 
 of betraying it; after that, Vatinius, the last year's praetor, and 
 iCmilius Scaurus, one of the consular candidates at the tiuie, who was 
 Moused of peculation in the province of Sardinia ; about the same time 
 
 likewise his old friend Cn. Plaucius, who had received him so gene- 
 rously in his exile, and being now chosen acdile, was accused by a 
 disappointed competitor of bribery and corruption. All these were, 
 as usual, acquitted ; but tho orations are lost, excepting the one which 
 he delivered iu favour of Plancius, and a considerable fragment of 
 that for Scaurus. This fragment is another of the discoveries of Maio, 
 who found it in the year 1814, with some other fragments of Cicero's 
 orations, in the Ambrosian library at Milan. As was the case with the 
 ' De Republica,' the text of Cicero had been obliterated as much as 
 possible from the parchment to make room for the Latin poem of 
 the Christian writer Sedulius. Cicero's undertaking the defence of 
 Vatinius, who had been always intimately allied with C;csar, and on 
 that account had on more than one occasion been the object of 
 Cicero's abuse, his personal deformity being a favourite topic of raillery 
 with the orator, at once surprised and offended the aristocratic party. 
 They did not conceal from him their disgust, and Cicero found it 
 necessary to make what defence he could of his political tergiversation 
 in a long and ably written letter to his friend Lentulus Spiuther, who 
 was then governor of Cilicia (' Ad Fam.' i., 9). The compliment of an 
 epic poem addressed to Caesar was another proof of the change in his 
 political views ; but a still more decisive piece of evidence is furnished 
 by his conduct iu relation to Gabiuius, who returned at this time from 
 his government of Syria, and was immediately overwhelmed with 
 public prosecutions. Cicero had not forgotten that Gabinius, as one 
 of the consuls at the time of his exile, had supported his enemy 
 Clodius ; and he had openly avowed his opinion of his crimes in Syria 
 — crimes, too, which, if we may believe Cicero, included murder, pecu- 
 lation, and treason, iu every form ; but he was willing to sacrifice both 
 his public and his private feelings at the intercession of Pompey. In 
 the first trial he was called as a witness against Gabinius, but had the 
 prudence to put his evidence in such a form as to give the highest 
 satisfaction to the accused. In the second he became still bolder, and 
 appeared as his advocate, but was unable to save him from conviction, 
 fine, and banishment. The speech delivered by Cicero is not extaut, 
 and probably was never published. There is preserved however the 
 speech made by him on the trial of C. Rabirius Postumus, which was 
 an appendix to that of Gabinius. The whole estate of the latter had 
 proved insufficient to answer the damages in which he had been cast ; 
 and the Roman law, in such a case, gave the right of following any 
 money illegally obtained to the parties into whose hands it had passed. 
 Rabirius had acted at Alexandria as the agent of Gabinius with Ptole- 
 maeus, and iu that capacity was said to have received part of the ten 
 thousand talents which the king had paid the Roman general as the 
 price of his services. As this trial followed closely upon the pre- 
 ceding, and was so intimately connected with it, the prosecutors 
 could not spare the opportunity of rallying Cicero for the part 
 which he had acted. In the end of the year Cicero consented to be 
 one of Ppmpey's lieutenants in Spain, and was preparing to set out 
 thither, when he was induced to abandon the appointment, on per- 
 ceiving from his brother's letters, who was at that time serving in Gallia, 
 that such a step would probably give umbrage to Caesar, for the recent 
 death of Julia had already broken the chief link which held Caesar and 
 Pompey together. At the beginning of the following year, news 
 was received of the death of Crassus and his son Publius, with the 
 total defeat of his army by the Parthiaus. By the death of young 
 Crassus a place became vacant in the college of augurs, for which 
 Cicero declared himself a candidate, and being nominated by Pompey 
 and Hortensius, was chosen with the unanimous approbation of the 
 whole college. This appointment had been for some years the 
 highest object of Cicero's ambition ; and the addition to his dignity 
 was of service to him at this time, as he was putting forth all his 
 influence to further the election of his friend Milo to the consulate. 
 The constant disturbances in the city prevented the comitia from 
 being held until the year was closed, and in the middle of January 
 the murder of Clodius by one of Milo's gladiators, in the presence, 
 and at the command too, of his master, placed Milo in a different 
 position. The fury of the people at the death of their favourite 
 broke out in the most violent excesses, which were only aggra- 
 vated by the endeavours of Milo's powerful friends to screen him 
 from punishment. These disturbances were at last quieted by the 
 appointment of Pompey to the consulship, who was armed too with 
 extraordinary powers by the senate, and finally Milo was brought 
 to trial, condemned iu spite of Cicero's eloquence, and banished from 
 Italy. Cicero is said to have been so alarmed on the occasion, by 
 the presence of the military whom Pompey had stationed around the 
 court to prevent any violence, that his usual powers failed him ; and 
 indeed the speech which is found among his works, under the title 
 of the defence of Milo, is very far from being that which ho 
 actually delivered. Iu the two trials of Saufeius, one of Milo's confi- 
 dants, which grew out of the same affair, Cicero was more successful; 
 and he had soon after some amends for the loss of his friend in the 
 condemnation of two of the tribunes, who had been their common 
 enemies, for the part they had taken iu the late commotions. One of 
 these, T. Munatius Plancus, Cicero himself prosecuted, which is the 
 only exception, besides that of Verres, to the principle which he laid 
 down for himself of never acting the part of an accuser. It appears 
 to have been soon after the death of Clodius that Cicero wrote his 
 treatise * On Laws ' (' De Legibus '), three books of which are still 
 
848 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 Ml 
 
 preserved ; but the work in its original form contained probably, like 
 the 'De Republics,' to which it is a kind of supplement, as many as 
 six books, for ancient authors have quoted from the fourth and fifth. 
 But the civil and literary pursuits of Cicero were soon interrupted by 
 the demand for his services abroad. Among the different laws which 
 Pompey brought forward for checking the violence and corruption 
 which the candidates employed for the attainment of public office, was 
 one which disqualified all future consuls and praetors from holding 
 any province until five years after the expiration of their magistracies. 
 But before the law passed, Pompey procured an exception for himself, 
 getting the government of Spain and Africa continued to him for five 
 years longer ; while, to gratify Caesar on the other side, Cicero, at the 
 special request of Pompey, induced one of his friends to bring forward 
 a law by which Caesar's presence might be dispensed with in suing for 
 the consulship in the following year. There was valid ground for this 
 privilege being conferred upon Caesar in the circumstances of the Gallic 
 war, where the success of the Roman arms would have been seriously 
 endangered by his absence. Thus Cicero and Pompey were the chief 
 instruments in passing the very law which they afterwards declared 
 unconstitutional and invalid, and so brought upon their country the 
 horrors of civil war. As the magistrates of the time being were pre- 
 cluded from provincial government by Pompey 's law, it was provided 
 that for the next period of five years the senators of consular and 
 praetorian rank, who had not held foreign command upon the expiration 
 of their magistracies, should divide the vacant provinces by lot : in 
 consequence of which Cicero most reluctantly undertook the govern- 
 ment of Cilicia, with which were united Pisidia, Paniphylia, Cyprus, 
 and three dioceses, as they were called, of the adjoining province of 
 Asia. Thus Cicero found himself in the very position which it had 
 ever been one of his chief objects to avoid, and his friends were the 
 more uneasy as that quarter of the empire was threatened by the 
 Parthiaus in revenge of the late invasion of their territories by Crassus. 
 Under these circumstances Cicero was fortunate in having among his 
 lieutenants two such men as his brothi r and Pontinius. The latter had 
 established a high military reputation by his successes and triumph 
 over the Allobroges, while the merits of Quiutus Cicero as a soldier 
 had been proved and acknowledged by C.csar in Gallia. 
 
 Still the government of a province was suited neiiher to the taste 
 nor the talents of Cicero, aud he urged all his friends before his 
 departure, as well as in nearly every letter he subsequently wrote, 
 not to allow the command to be extended beyond the year which the 
 law of Pompey required, or the year itself to be lengthened out by 
 the caprice of the pontifical college; for the length of the Roman year 
 at this time varied according as it was the pleasure of that body to 
 insert more or less intercalary days in the mouth of February, and the 
 Pontifices were guided in this not by any fixed rule, but by private 
 motives, lengthening or shortening the year to favour a friend or 
 injure an enemy. 
 
 Cicero left the city about the 1st of May, and on his arrival at 
 Tarentum paid a visit to Pompey, with whom he had a conference on 
 the serious aspect of affairs, and was assured by him that he was 
 prepared for the dangers which threatened them. In the middle of 
 June he proceeded from Bruudisium to Corcyra and Actium, thence 
 partly by laud and partly by water to Athens, where he spent ten 
 days, and then crossed in fifteen days to Ephesus, touching at seveial 
 islands on the way. He had here a foretaste of the duties lie would 
 have to perform ; for among the deputations which waited upon him 
 at his lauding was one from the citizens of Salamis in Cyprus, to lay 
 before him their complaints against the extortion and cruelty of a 
 Roman citizen named Scaptius, who had claimed from the city a large 
 sum upon a bond, together with an accumulation of interest at the 
 rate of forty-eight per cent. ; and who had used the military autboi ity 
 he had held under the late governor, Appius, to besiege the senate of 
 Salamis in their council-room, until five had died of starvation. As 
 Brutus had recommended the interests of Scaptius to Appius, who was 
 his father-in-law, so he now laboured to place him in the same d> gree 
 of favour with Cicero, and was seconded in this suit by the letters of 
 Atticus ; but the extortion raised Cicero's indignation, and he resisted 
 the claims of Scaptius, though Brutus, in order to move him the more 
 effectually, at last confessed what he had all along dissembled, that the 
 debt was really his own, and Scaptius only his agent in it. 
 
 Cicero however was the friend of justice up to a certain point only, 
 . for when he refused the usurious interest, Scaptius in a private inter- 
 view told him that though the principal was only 106 talents, the 
 Salaminians through some mistake believed it to be 200, and suggi sted 
 that Cicero might safely give an award for the larger sum. Cicero 
 himself gives us this anecdote in his letters to Atticus (v. 21), adding 
 that he assented to the proposal, but was unable to effect the object 
 because he found the Salaminians more precisely acquainted with the 
 accounts than Scaptius had anticipated. This same Brutus, whose 
 character is so commonly put forward as one of the finest examples of 
 Roman virtue, had applied for the assistance of Cicero in another 
 affair of a nature somewhat similar. The King of Gappadocia, whose 
 empty coffers proved how dearly he paid for the protection of the 
 Roman senate, owed him, he said, a very large sum of money. But 
 Cicero was unable to render him the least assistance in the recovery 
 of this money, as the king owed a much larger sum to Pompey, whose 
 position in the political world at Rome ftave him a higher claim, and 
 
 yet was unable to pay him the full interest of the debt. These 
 instances afford a good example of the miseries which resulted from 
 the Roman form of provincial government. But Cilicia had felt these 
 miseries in a degree more than usually severe under the late governor 
 Appius, the traces of whoso extortion were visible everywhere, and 
 could only be compared, says Cicero, to the track of a wild beast. 
 Indeed he found employment enough in healing the wounds which 
 Appius had inflicted. Cicero appears not to have concealed his 
 feelings upon this subject : at any rate the accounts which reached 
 Appius led him to believe that Cicero was encouraging his enemies at 
 Rome in their determination to bring him to public trial ; nor could 
 he believe the protestations of Cicero to the contrary, when he found 
 his prosecutor Dolabella was about to be married to Cicero's daughter. 
 He again expostulated, but Cicero replied to his complaints by dis- 
 claiming all knowledge of any such matrimonial uegociatiou, the 
 falsehood of which is demonstrable from the letters which he wrote 
 at the same period to Atticus. But Appius and Pompey were allied 
 by the marriage of their children, and the latter induced Cicero to 
 promise everything from the province that could be of service to the 
 accused, so that the guilty governor was acquitted without difficulty. 
 The military proceedings of Cicero were not of a very interesting 
 nature. He had proceeded at once on his arrival in the province to 
 the south eastern frontier, which was threatened by the Pai thians ; 
 but the Roman officer who commanded in the adjoining province of 
 Syria had so completely occupied the attention of the enemy, that 
 Cicero's troops never came in sight of them. Being unwilling how- 
 ever to let the army return into winter-quarters without effecting 
 anything, he attacked some of the mountain tribes of Amanus, whose 
 position had hitherto protected them, and took a number of prisoners; 
 while his troops had a pretext for saluting him 'imperator.' He was 
 also successful in the siege of a robber-fort called Pindenissus, for 
 which his friends at Rome obtained him the honour of a public 
 thanksgiving. His other services in Cilicia include nothing deserving 
 especial notice, and he was happy when the year of his appointment 
 expired, and enabled him to return to Italy. He landed at Brundisium 
 towards the end of November, displaying his laurel-wreathed fasces, 
 for his friends, and among them Pompey, flattered him with the 
 notion that his eminent military services deserved nothing less than a 
 triumph. But when he reached the neighbourhood of Rome on the 
 4th of January, he found matters of a more serious nature in agitation. 
 The senate had just passed a decree that Caesar should dismiss his 
 army, and when M. Antony and another tribune opposed their vote 
 to it, proceeded to that vote which gave the consuls and other magis- 
 trates a power above all the laws. The tribunes fled to the camp of 
 Caesar, who, considering this decree as equivalent to a declaration of 
 war, advanced with a rapidity which destroyed all the arrangements 
 of the senate. The consuls fled from Rome, accompanied in their 
 flight by Cicero and the leading men of the aristocracy, in the hope 
 of defending the southern part of the peninsula. With this view the 
 principal senators had particular districts assigned to them, Cicero 
 undertaking to guard the coast south of Formiae and the country 
 around Capua ; but the rapid advance of Caesar drove Cicero from his 
 purpose. He disavowed the military engagement he had undertaken 
 to fulfil ; made different excuses for not joining Pompey in his march 
 to Brundisium ; and finally, when Caesar made himself master of 
 Corfiuium, aud by his magnanimous liberation of Lentulus Spinther, 
 and other senators, gave the lie to those reports of his cruel iutentions 
 which his enemies industriously circulated, Cicero deemed it a 
 favourable opportunity to open a negociation «vith Caesar, under tho 
 pretext of thanking him for his generosity to his friend Lentulus. 
 In the middle of March Pompey sailed from Brundisium, abandoning 
 Rome and Italy to his opponent. The return of Caesar from Brun- 
 disium to the capital afforded an opportunity for an interview, in 
 which it appears to have been stipulated that Cicero should remain 
 in Italy, and observe a strict neutrality. 
 
 When Caesar proceeded to Spain to oppose the Pompeian troops 
 under Afranius, he left Antony in command of Italy, with especial 
 directions to watch the movements of Cicero, who, residing upon the 
 coast, occasionally showed symptoms of a disposition to slip off and 
 join Pompey in Greece. This vacillation was not unobserved by 
 Antony, and drew from him a monitory letter; but in vain. An 
 account of some temporary success obtained by Afranius in Spaio, 
 magnified by himself and injudicious friends into a certain prospect of 
 speedily destroying Caesar and his arm}', led many of the wavering to 
 fly from Italy to the camp in Greece. Cicero appears to have been 
 one of these ; at any rate he ma ; .e his escape in the* early part of June, 
 and met with a cold welcome from the army of the senate. He was 
 not present at the battle of Pharsalia, having stayed behind at Dyr- 
 rachium, where he received the news of that decisive engagement, 
 and, refusing to join those who determined to cross over into Africa 
 with the intention of still maintaining the war, he again committed 
 himself to the mercy of the conqueror, aud lauded at Brundisium at 
 the end of October B.C. 48. Here he passed many miserable months, 
 the laurels upon his fasces drawing upon him an attention which he 
 would gladly have avoided, while the news of Caesar's difficulties in 
 Egypt and the successes of the Pompeiaus in Africa again inclined the 
 balance of the war. All this time he had received no intimation of par- 
 don from Caesar himself, though he wa3 assured of his safety by Caesar's 
 
CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 
 
 friends. On the other hand, should the Pompeians ultimately succeed 
 (and they were already talking confidently of coming over from Africa 
 into Italy), lie was sure to be treated as a deserter, for he well know 
 that while Caesar pardoned even his enemies when they submitted to 
 his power, it was a declared law ou the other side to consider all as 
 enemies who were not actually iu their camp. After a long series of 
 mortifications, he was cheered at last by a kind letter from Caesar him- 
 self, and still more when Csesar landed at Brundisium after his success- 
 ful expeditions in the east, and gave him a reception which at once 
 removed his fears and induced him to follow the conqueror to Rome. 
 About the end of the year Csesar embarked for Africa, and again the 
 empire wa3 in suspense ; for the name of Scipio was thought ominous 
 and invincible on that ground. Cicero, to relieve his mind, now shut 
 himself up with his books, aDd entered into a close friendship with 
 Varro ; a friendship which was consecrated by the mutual dedication 
 of their learned works to each other — of Cicero's 'Academic Questions' 
 to Varro, of Varro's ' Treatise on the Latin Language ' to Cicero. One 
 of the fruits of this leisure was his dialogue ou famous orators, called 
 1 Brutus,' in which he gives a short character of the chief orators of 
 Greece and Rome. But though the work was finished at this time, it 
 was not made public till the year following after the death of his 
 daughter Tullia. 
 
 He now parted with his wife Tereutia, who had lived with him 
 more than thirty years ; and whatever may have been the causes or 
 pretexts for this separation, he exposed himself to no little suspicion 
 by marrying, almost immediately after, a youn^ ward named Publilia, 
 possessing much beauty and very considerable property, over which 
 he had been placed as trustee by her father's will. Terentia subse- 
 quently married Sallust, the historian, and even after his death again 
 entered the marriage state once, if not twice. She is said to have 
 lived to the age of 103. Amid these domestic troubles, Cicero 
 perhaps found some consolation in the marked attention paid to him 
 by Caesar, who returned victorious from Africa iu tho summer of 
 B.C. 46; but any gratification he may have dtrived from this source 
 must have been diminished by his consciousness of the offence he was 
 giving to his former friends through his close intimacy with the dic- 
 tator. The panegyric which he composed about this time in honour 
 of Cato has indeed often been alleged as a proof of his being no 
 temporiser; but if the treatise had come down to us, wo should pro- 
 bably have found that Cicero had succeeded moat happily in blending 
 his eloge upon the conquered with a well tempered flattery of the 
 conqueror. That he possessed this happy and useful talent is apparent 
 from the speech he delivered at this time iu favour of Ligarius, and 
 the defence of Marcellus might be put in evidence to the same effect, 
 if there were not strong grounds for doubting the authenticity of the 
 oration bearing that name. At the end of the year Caesar was called 
 away in great haste into Spaiu to oppose the sons of Pompey ; and 
 young Cicero requested his father's permission to go to Spain, that he 
 might serve under Caesar with his cousin Quintus, who was already 
 gone thither. Cicero objected to his serving in arms against their 
 former friends, and thought it more desirable that he should go to 
 Athens to devote a few years to philosophy and literature. Soon after 
 be had parted from his son, whom he was doomed never again to see, 
 he was oppressed by the severe. t affliction, the death of his daughter 
 in child-bed. Tullia had been thrice married ; first to Piso, who died 
 about the time of Cicero's return from exile, and then to Crassipes. 
 For her third marriage with Dolabella both parties qualified them- 
 selves by a divorce from their consorts ; aud at the time of her death 
 arrangements for another divorce had been carried so far that her 
 father was already applying for payment of an instalment upon her 
 dowry. 
 
 In this new grief Cicero drew little comfort from the condolence of 
 his friends. All the relief that he found was in reading and writing, 
 and he composed a treatise 'Of Consolation' for himself, which was 
 much read by the fathers of the Christian Church, especially Lac- 
 tantius, to whom we are indebted for the few fragments that remain. 
 1IU domestic grief was completed by the misery of his ill-assorted 
 marriage which he was happy to dissolve after a union of less than a 
 year. In this desolate condition he fled as usual to his book", and no 
 period of his life produced a richer literary harvest. lie has himself 
 given us a list of the works which he wrote in this and the following 
 year. (' De Div.,' ii , 1.) The 'Orator' completed his rhetorical 
 works, forming a sort of supplement to his three books entitled ' De 
 Oratore,' and the ' Brutus.' His philosophical writings of this period 
 were, the ' Hortensius,' so called in honour of his deceased friend, iu 
 which he recommends the study of philosophy ; four books in 
 defence of the Academy, dedicated, as has been already mentioned, to 
 Varro ; five books entitled 'De Finibus,' and addressed to Brutus, in 
 which he contrasts the opinions of the different sects of philosophy 
 on the subject of tho summum bonum ; the Tusculan disputations, 
 in the same number of books, on a variety of points which iuvolve 
 the happiness of human life ; three books on the Nature of the Qods; 
 one on Divination, or the art of seeing into futurity; another on Fate ; 
 and the beautiful treatise on Old Age. These were followed by an 
 easay on Glory, which has been lost since the invention of printing; 
 the ' Tupica,' addressed to his friend Trebatius ; and the ' De Officiis,' 
 which was dedicated to his son. 
 
 The publication of these works extended over the years 45 and 44 
 
 CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS. 248 
 
 B.O. In the autumn of the former of these years Caesar returned 
 from Spaiu, and Cicero was induced to quit his retirement and come 
 to Rome, where he soon after exerted his talents in the service of an 
 old friend. Deiotarus, king of Galatia, who had incurred the displeasure 
 of Ciesar by his firm support of the Pompeians, and indeed was 
 charged with haviug formed a plot to assassinate Cassar a few years 
 before. Cicero failed in obtaiuing pardon for his friend; but his 
 intimacy with the Dictator seemed daily to he increasing, when the 
 Ides of March changed the whole face of affairs. Cicero was present 
 at the scene of assassination in the senate-house, where he had the 
 pleasure, he tells us, of seeing the tyrant perish ; but the conspirators 
 were grievously disappointed in the results of their crime. A3 soon 
 as the first stupor had p issed away, the public iudiguation drove the 
 murderers from Rome, and Cicero himself deemed it prudent to make 
 a temporary retreat. He proceeded first to llhegiurn, then crossing to 
 Sicily, on the 1st of August he arrived at Syracuse, whence he sailed 
 next day, aud was driven back by cross winds to Leucopetra. Here 
 he met with some people lately from Rome, who brought him news of 
 an unexpected turn of affairs there towards a general pacification, so 
 that he was induced to set out immediately on his return. He touched 
 at Velia, where he had his last interview with Iirutus, aud arrived at 
 the capital on tho 31st. The senate mot the next morning, hut 
 Cicero, not fiudiug things in the favourable state which he expected, 
 was uuwilling to meet Antony, and excused himself from attending, 
 as being indisposed by the fatigue of his journey. The next day 
 Antony was absent, and Cicero delivered the first of those orations 
 which he called Philippics, as being rivals of the invectives which 
 Demo-thents directed against the King of Macedou. The violence of 
 this harangue committed him with Antony, and he again retired for 
 security to some of his villas near Naples, where he composed and 
 published the second Philippic. This speech, if that name can be 
 given to what was never spoken, was a furious invective, well charged 
 with falsehood, against the whole life of Antony, and was supposed 
 to have been the chief cause of Cicero's death. The departure of 
 Antony for Cisalpine Gaul left Rome again open to Cicero, who 
 returned there on the 9th of December, and ten days after delivered 
 his third Philippic, the chief object of which was to procure the 
 sanction of the senate to the late proceedings of Octavianus in oppo- 
 sition to Antony. Having effected this object, he passed into the 
 forum and harangued the people upon tho same subject in his fourth 
 Philippic. The ten other speeches bearing this name were delivered 
 from time to time in the senate or the forum, to excite the people of 
 Rome against Antony and his friends; but the prospects of the 
 oligarchy were finally disappointed by the treachery of Octavianus 
 and Lepidus in joining their arms to Antony, and thus sharing the 
 whole power of the state among them. The proscription which 
 followed, though it can in no way be justified, was levelled against 
 men who hail been themselves assassins, or the avowed advocates aud 
 panegyrists of assassination. Cicero himself had lauded the murderers 
 of Caesar as the greatest benefactors of their couutry ; nay, it is 
 doubtful whether he was not himself privy to the conspiracy, though 
 he may have wanted the courage to use the dagger himself ; and after- 
 wards when he found Antony in his way, he repeatedly expressed 
 bis regret that the conspirators had not served up one more dish at 
 the glorious feast of the Ides of March. Cicero was at his Tusculan 
 villa with his brother and nephew when he received the news of the 
 proscription, and of their being included in it. lie fled to Astura on 
 the coast, where he found a vessel ready to receive him, in which he 
 immediately embarked, but was compelled by the weather to land 
 again the same day near Circeii. The followiug day he embarked a 
 second time, but again landed at Caieta, whence he proceeded to his 
 Formian villa. In the middle of the night his slaves informed him 
 of the approach of the soldiers who were intrusted with the murderous 
 commission ; he made an attempt to escape in a litter, but being over- 
 taken in a wood, the scene was speedily finished. The assassins cut 
 off his head and hands, says Plutarch, and carrying them to Rome, 
 presented them to Antony, who had them fixed up on the rostra in 
 the forum. Cicero was killed on the 7th of December, in the year 
 B.C. 43. 
 
 The works of Cicero have been repeatedly published in mass, as 
 well as separately, but perhaps the best edition of his entire writings 
 is that by Orellius. Of his separate works the following editions 
 deserve particular notice. The ' Variorum,' as it is called, by Graevius, 
 containing the Orations, the Letters ad Familiares and ad Atticum, 
 with one volume of his Philosophical Works. The notes of Manu- 
 tius are exceedingly valuable. 2, ' De Divinatioue et de Fato,' G. H. 
 Moser ; 3, ' De Legibus,' Moser etr Creuzer ; 4, ' De Natura Deorum,' 
 by the same; 5, Ditto, by Heindorf; 6, ' De Republica,' by Moser; 7, 
 'Oratio pro Cluentio,' by Classen; 8, ' Pro Miloue,' by Orellius, lS2d; 
 9, 'Pro Plancio,' by Wunder ; 10, ' Orationes Philippics,' by Werns- 
 dorff ; 11, ' The Orations,' by Garatoni, at Naples ; and the ' Orations,' 
 3 vols. 8vo, and ' Cato Major sive de Seuectute, Laelius sive de Ami- 
 citia, et Epistolao Selectae,' by Mr. G. Long. To those who value a 
 correct text, Wunder's Collation of the Krfurdt Manuscript, published 
 at Leipzig in 1827, will be of great service. The critical writings of 
 Madvig of Copenhagen are also deserving of study, together with his 
 excellent 'Disputation on Asconius.' Mention has been made of the 
 doubts as to the genuineness of certain of the Orations. F. A. Wolf has 
 
247 
 
 CICOGNARA, COUNT LEOPOLD, 
 
 CIGNANI, CARLO. 
 
 examined the claims of the four Orations, ' Post Reditum in Senatu,' 
 'Ad Quirites post Reditum,' 'Pro Domo sua,' and 'Do Haruspicum 
 Responsis,' in a volume published at Berlin in 1801. In the following 
 year ho published an edition of the ' Pro Marcello,' with his reasons 
 for believing it to be spurious. In regard to the letters ' Ad Brutum,' 
 see Bkutus. The student of Cicero's writings should also possess the 
 account of his ' Life,' by Conyers Middleton. It has been freely 
 employed in this article, but the strong bias of the author in favour 
 of his hero has been throughout corrected from the writings of 
 Cicero himself, more particularly his letters to Atticus, which having 
 been written in confidence to an intimate friend, and never intended 
 for publication, furnish a test for trying the character of the writer 
 such as few public men could stand with impunity. Middleton has 
 made two great errors in forming his notion of Cicero and the men 
 who lived in his times. He has believed all that lie has said of 
 himself, and all that he has said of his enemies ; and besides this, he 
 has, with something of disingenuity, softened down those points 
 where he has unintentionally borne evidence against himself. The 
 translations of Cicero's writings in English aro not of great merit. 
 One of the best is Melmoth's translation of the 'Letters;' but his 
 style is too florid. The French language possesses an excellent trans- 
 lation of the ' Letters to Atticus,' by the Abbe Mongault, accom- 
 panied by a Commentary no loss excellent ; aud the German language 
 has a still more valuable translation of all the 'Letters' in chrono- 
 logical order, by Wielaud, with notes, aud a number of historical 
 chapters, which are tainted however with an undue partiality to 
 Cicero. A most laborious aud useful work for the student of these 
 times, but still retaining much of the same prejudices, will be found 
 in the ' History of Rome, in its transition from a republican to a 
 monarchical form of government; or Pompey, Caesar, Cicero, and 
 their Contemporaries,' by Professor Drumanu, of Kouigsberg. The 
 work is drawn up in an alphabetical order according to the gentile 
 names. 
 
 CICOGNA'RA, COUNT LEOPOLD, was born at Ferrara, Novem- 
 ber 26, 1767, and, although the inheritor of considerable wealth, began 
 early to distinguish himself by his application to study. While yet a 
 youth he made considerable proficiency in mathematics aud physics, 
 whereby he recommended himself to the notice of Spallanzani, Scarpa, 
 aud many other eminent individuals at the university of Pavia. 
 Having completed his course of studies there he proceeded to Rome, 
 where he occupied many years not only in studying the great works of 
 art, but likewise in practising himself buth in drawing and painting, 
 for which he had almost from his boyhood manifested more than 
 ordinary talent. After visiting Naples aud Sicily, in which latter 
 country he published, at Palermo, his fir3t literary effort, a poem, 
 entitled ' Le Ore del Giorno,' he successively visited Florence, Milan, 
 Bologna, and Venice, for the purpose of making himself thoroughly 
 acquainted with the various treasures of art in those cities. In 1795 
 he fixed himself at Modena, and during the twelve following years 
 appears to have given much of his attention to public affairs, having 
 been for some time minister at the court of Sardinia. He resigned 
 his post in 1808, when he was made president of the Academy of the 
 Fine Arts at Venice ; an office for w hich he was well qualified no less 
 by the public-spirited zeal with which he discharged it than by his 
 knowledge of art itself and the literature belonging to it. From this 
 epoch in his life may be dated the commencement of his career as a 
 writer, during which he enriched the branch of literature just men- 
 tioned by many important works. In the same year (180S) he 
 published a treatise on 'The Beautiful' ('11 Bello'). This was suc- 
 ceeded by his great work, ' The History of Modern Sculpture' ('Storia 
 della Scultura dal suo risorgimento in Italia al Secolo di Napoleone'), 
 an undertaking to which he had been urged by his friends Giordani, 
 D'Agincourt, and Schlegel. It is iu three folio volumes, the first of 
 which appeared in 1S16, aud the last iu 1818, and contains about 180 
 outline plates, exhibiting a vast number of subjects from the earliest 
 period— the age of the Pisani and Douatello— to that of Canova, to a 
 notice of whose works the whole of the seventh or last book is 
 devoted. Although not without defects, it is undeniably a perform- 
 ance of great research aud erudition, bringing down to the present 
 century the history of the art from the point at which it had been 
 left by D'Agincourt, who himself had taken it up where Winckelmann 
 had quitted it. Besides a vast body of information as to the professed 
 subject, this work also embraces much subsidiary matter of great 
 interest, particularly the descriptive and historical notices of St. Mark's 
 at Venice, the cathedrals of Milan and Orvieto, St. Peter's, and many 
 other Basil icae. 
 
 His next publication was a catalogue raisonne" in two thick 8vo 
 volumes of his own library, an immense collection of works in every 
 department of the fine arts. This is a most valuable addition to 
 bibliography, and shows that Cicognara spared no cost in the pursuit 
 of his favourite studies. He likewise produced a work entitled 
 'Memorie per servire alia Storia della Calcografie,' and contributed 
 numerous articles relative to subjects of art and artists to various 
 journals. Even had he produced none of the works above enumerated, 
 the name of Cicognara would have been transmitted to posterity with 
 honour by the two splendid architectural volumes entitled ' Le 
 Fabbriche piu Cospicue di Venezia,' 1815-20, of which the greater 
 •hare of the literary part and the chief conduct of the work belong to 
 
 him, although he was assisted in it by Diedo and Selva, who furnished 
 the accounts of many of the buildings. It is illustrated with 250 
 engravings of all the most interesting structures of Venice. Cicognara 
 died at Venice of a disease of tho lungs, March 5, 1834, and his 
 obsequies were performed with great solemnity in the cathedral of 
 St. Mark. 
 
 CID. The adventures of this famed Castilian hero are nearly as 
 much involved in fable and romance as those of our King Arthur and 
 his Knights of the Rouud-Table, nor is it easy at this distance of time 
 to separate the truth from the exaggeration of tradition aud the inven- 
 tions of ballad-writers. Ferreras aud one or two other Spanish writers 
 think however that they have established the following facts : — 
 
 The Cid (from the Arabic El Seid, ' the Lord ') who was so called by 
 the Moors of Spain whom he subjugated by his victories, was born at 
 Burgos somewhere about 1040: bis real name was Rodrigo Diaz de 
 Bivar. He attached himself to Sanchez II., king of Leon aud Castile, 
 whose life he once saved in battle. At the siege of Zamora, Sanchez 
 was treacherously slain, and his brother Alfonso, the next in order of 
 succession, was suspected of the deed. The Cid insisted that, before 
 taking possession of the vacant throne, Alfonso should purge himself 
 by taking an oath of his innocence of his brother's murder ; and when 
 the rest of the nobles hung back, he alone exacted aud made the king 
 repeat the vow, to which he added the most awful maledictions in 
 case of perjury. After such a step he could expect little court favour, 
 aud the state of Spain encouraged his propensities to war and adven- 
 ture. His life was a continued series of combats with the Moors, who 
 occupied by far the largest and richest parts of. the country. He fell 
 upon them iu Aragon, burning, plundering, and slaughtering wherever 
 he went ; he took Alco9er, and making that place his stronghold, he was 
 gradually joined by a numerous baud, half patriots, half freebooters, 
 with which he made innumerable incursions into the neighbouring 
 territories of the Moors. Still gathering force, he penetrated to the 
 district of Teruel at the south western extremity of Aragon, and there 
 established himself in a strong fortress on a rock, which is still called 
 ' La Peha de el Cid ' (' The Rock of the Cid '). By the sudden death 
 or murder of the Moorish lord of Valencia, he was encouraged to 
 extend his incursions into that province, and to the shores of tho 
 Mediterranean. Here too he was eventually enabled to establish 
 himself. After a long siege he took Valencia, the capital city, and 
 held it until his death, which happened about 1099. 
 
 The Cid appears to have really had a wife named Ximena, tho 
 Chiuiehe of the cebrated French tragedy ' Le Cid,' but the story of his 
 affecting courtship, and the struggle and contrast of affections iu the 
 heart of his mistress, are mainly inventions of Corneille. The Spanish 
 chronicles and ballads from which the French tragedian took the 
 notion of his plot, or from a drama fouuded upon them, do indeed 
 relate that the Cid had killed Ximena's father; but they destroy all 
 interest in the heroine by saying that after her father's death, and 
 before any tender addresses on the part of his slayer, she earnestly 
 begged the king to marry her to the Cid, "because," she is made to 
 say by these naive writers, " I am quite certain that his possessions 
 will one day be greater than those of any man in your dominions." 
 
 The original ' Ciouica de el Famoso Cavallero Cid Ruy Diaz Cam- 
 peador' is supposed to have been written in the 13th century, about 
 150 years after the hero's death. Mr. Southey in his curious work 
 makes use of a printed edition of 1593, and says the first and only 
 other edition was printed iu 1552; but there is a copy of an edition 
 in the library of the British Museum which bears the date of 1541. 
 
 The ' Poema de el Cid,' which is believed to contain rather more 
 historic truth than the prose chronicle, was written about the middle 
 of the 12th century, or only some fifty years after the Cid's death. 
 The author has been called the ' Homer of Spain,' but his name has 
 not been preserved. Though scarcely justifying the extreme praise of 
 Southey, who terms it "the oldest poem in the Spanish language, and 
 beyond comparison the finest," the ' Poema' contains some powerful 
 passages, and is highly interesting from its undoubted antiquity. 
 
 Besides this poem the Spaniards have an immense number of 
 romances and ballads relating to the exploits of the national hero. No 
 fewer than 102 of these are in the real old style of the 13th and 14th 
 centuries ; many are evidently more modern, aud many more have 
 never been printed. In some of these ballads the wonderful achieve- 
 ments of Bernardo de el Carpio, Ferrau Gonzalez, and the rest of the 
 twelve peers (for Spain had her twelve 'peerless' knights as well as 
 Britain and France), are interwoven with the adventures of the great 
 Cid. An ample notice of these different works will be found in Mr. 
 Southey's 'Chronicle of the Cid,' 1 vol. 4 to, 1808. See also Lockhart's 
 ' Spanish Ballads,' and ' the Cid ' by G. Dennis. 
 
 CIGNA'NI, CARLO, was born at Bologna, May 15, 1628. His 
 father was a notary, but claimed his descent from an old Ghibelline 
 family of Florence, who had been driven from their native city by the 
 Guelphs. Carlo, who showed an early taste for painting, was put 
 under Giambatista Cairo for instruction. He soon surpassed his mas- 
 ter, and was removed to the care of Albani, under whom he rapidly 
 rose in reputation and success. He subsequently enlarged his style of 
 painting by a careful study of the works of Correggio aud Annibal 
 Caracci, from whom he learned the art of giving size and space to his 
 pictures, by means of a powerful and skilful use of chiaroscuro. 
 Cignani had a singular degree of prosperity ; commissions crowded 
 
CIMON. 
 
 250 
 
 upon him, he enjoyed the friendship and correspondence of many of 
 the reiguing princes of his time, and acquired great wealth. He was 
 also made a count by Rauuzio II., his native sovereign. 
 
 Being invited to paint the Duomo of Forli, he removed thither with 
 bis family, and resided there for the remainder of his life. While 
 Forli was occupied by some German troops during the war between 
 the pope and tho emperor, Cignani presented a picture to the com- 
 mander of the forces, who in return, besides a handsome gift in money, 
 issued an extraordinary order to his troops to refrain in every way 
 from molesting the good people of the city. The citizens testified 
 their gratitude to Ciguaui by enrolling him among their nobilitj'. In 
 1708, when the Clementine Academy was instituted, Cignani was 
 elected president. He died September 6, 1719, leaving two sons, one 
 of whom, Felice, was a painter. 
 
 Cignani painted an infinite variety of subjects — sacred, classical, and 
 even comic. His colouring is pleasing and brilliant, and his finish most 
 elaborate. His chief work is the Duomo at Forli, an immense compo- 
 sition, ingeniously disposed, which represents the ' Assumption of 
 the Virgin.' 
 
 CIGNARO'LI, GIAMBETTI'NO, one of the most distinguished of 
 the Italian oil- painters of the 18th century, was born at Salo, near 
 Verona, in 1706. He studied first under Sauto Prunati, and after- 
 wards, according to report, with Balestra. There are several excellent 
 works in oil by Cignaroli in Verona, Pontreinoli, Pisa, and at Parma. 
 In the la3t-nauied place there is a ' Journey into Egypt,' in the church 
 of Sant' Antonio Abate, much praised by Lanzi. In his style Cigna- 
 roli resembled Carlo Maratti, but he was inferior to him in colouring : 
 his carnations are occasionally green, with shadows and half-tints, 
 and sometimes too red. He was a great admirer of the works of 
 Guido and of Correggio. With the exception of some works executed 
 in his youth in Venice, he did not paint in fresco ; he found the prac- 
 tice injurious to his health. 
 
 Cignaroli lived chiefly at Verona, where he educated a numerous 
 school, and he died there in 1770, possessed of considerable wealth. 
 He executed several works for other places, and had several invitations 
 to visit foreign courts, all of which however he declined. In 1769 the 
 emperor Joseph II. visited Cignaroli in his studio, and observed after- 
 wards, that in Veroua he had seen two very rare things — the amphi- 
 theatre and the first painter of Europe. 
 
 He is said to have been a very accomplished man ; he was a poet 
 and a writer upon art. A good collection of books on the arts was 
 bequeathed by him to the Academy of Verona, which preserves his 
 bust. A very flattering memoir of him, by Padre Ippolito Bevilac- 
 qua dell' Oratorio, was published at Verona in 1771, the year after his 
 death. 
 
 CI'GOLI, LUDOVICO CARDI DA, Cavaliere, a very celebrated 
 Florentine painter, was born at Cigoli in 1559. He was one of the 
 great reformers of style of the Florentine school, and one of those 
 masters whose works formed an epoch in the history of painting in 
 Tuscany. Cigoli was the first who successfully opposed the anatomical 
 school of the imitators of Michel Angelo, and he was seconded in his 
 efforts by his friend Gregorio Pagani. 
 
 Cigoli was the scholar of Santo di Titi, but his style was founded 
 upon the works of Barroccio and Convggio, and had much in common 
 with the eclectic school of the Caracci. His drawing was generally 
 correct, and in colouring and chiaroscuro he was superior to Barroccio, 
 but inferior to Correggio, especially in local tones. His chief pro- 
 ductions are large altar pieces, some of which are among the finest 
 pictures in Italy. The ' Lame Man healed by St. Peter,' in St. Peter's 
 at Borne, painted for Clement VII., is a very celebrated work, though 
 now destroyed, and was pronounced by Andrea Sacchi the third 
 picture in Home : the first being the ' Transfiguration ' by Raffaelle, 
 and the second the 'Communion of St. Jerome' by Domeuichino, 
 now hanging opposite to each other in the same room in the Vatican. 
 There is also at Florence a ' Martyrdom of St. Stephen,' at the Nuns 
 of Monte Domini, which Pietro da Cortoha pronounced to be one of 
 the Snest pictures in Florence. The ' Lame Man Healed ' lias been 
 engraved by Dorigny, Callot, and Scacciati. As a fresco-painter, Cigoli 
 was not successful. He was also an architect ; and he wrote a prac- 
 tical treatise on perspective, ' Prospettiva pratica di Ludovico Cigoli 
 Cav. e Pittore,' with diagrams engraved in copper by his brother 
 Bantiano Cardi. He invented a perspective-machine, for drawing 
 objects in perspective from nature without the assistance of rules. 
 Cigoli died at Rome, June 8, 1613, after the completion of some 
 frescoes painted for Paul V., in that pope's chapel in the church of 
 Santa Maria Maggiore. Cigoli was himself dissatisfied with his works, 
 and wished to repaint them, but the pope would not permit him. He 
 was a Cavaliere of the Tuscan order of San Stefano, and a Knight of 
 Malta. 
 
 (Baldinucci, Notizie del Profeuori del Diseyno, <L-c. ; Lanzi, Storia 
 PUtorica, ice.) 
 
 CIMABUE, GIOVANNI, was born at Florence, in the year 1240, of 
 » noble family. During his youth he was sent by his father to study 
 letters at the convent of Santa Maria Novella. When some Greek 
 artists came to ornament the convent-church with painting*, he 
 abandoned studies to whicli he was little inclined, and devoted his 
 attention to watching them, and he was ultimately permitted to assist 
 them. Studying earnestly and practising diligently, he soon became 
 
 BIOO. E.'V. VOL. IX. 
 
 noted as one of the best painters of the day, and executed many works 
 for religious persons and communities. His fame having spread abroad, 
 he wa3 invited to adorn the church of St. Francis at Assist lie painted 
 part of the walls in concert with certain Greek painters; but having 
 far surpassed his assistants, his courage and ambition increased, and 
 he went on with the work alone. He was recalled to Florence by 
 private affairs, and obliged to leave his work uncompleted. It was 
 afterwards finished by Giotto. After his return to Florence, among 
 other pictures he painted a Madonna for the church of Santa Maria 
 Novella, which was of a size so unusual at that time, and was considered 
 so novel and splendid, that it was carried to the church in procession ; 
 and according to the tradition, when Charles of Anjou visited the 
 church, multitudes who had not yet obtained a sight of the picture 
 accompanied him with such rejoicing and festivity, tfiat the street waa 
 afterwards called Borgo Allegri, literally ' Merry Borough.' Cimabue 
 was engaged as an architect, in conjunction with Aruolfo Lapi, to 
 build the church of Santa Maria del Fiore; but he died shortly after, 
 in the year 1302. 
 
 Previously to the time of Cimabue, painting had sunk to a merely 
 mechanical occupation, and was chiefly in the hands of Greeks, who 
 worked after certain fixed patterns, each blindly copying his prede- 
 cessor. Cimabue's right to be considered as the restorer of the art 
 has been warmly urged, and as warmly contested. It appears probable 
 that a re-action had taken place, and that contemporary or even 
 preceding artists had shown an inclination to abandon the mechanical 
 dryness of the modern Greek artificers, when Cimabue took up the 
 profession. The ardour of his disposition however, and perhaps his 
 rank in society, induced him to venture upon the most notable 
 deviations from the cramped style of the period ; and the revival of 
 the art would probably have been delayed some time longer, had it 
 not been for the impulse which it received through him. While 
 adhering to the traditional types in his religious subjects, he put some 
 life into the heads and into the action of his figures, abandoning the 
 cold straight Hues of his Greek instructors. He is supposed to have 
 been the first to recur, after a long interval, to the study of nature, 
 and to have drawn from the living model, though but sparingly. Nor 
 is it the least debt whicli painting owes to Cimabue, that he discovered 
 and fostered the genius of Giotto. 
 
 Cimabue worked in fresco and distemper, oil painting being a later 
 discovery. Some of his works still exist; the principal are in the 
 church of Santa Maria Novella at Florence, and that of St. Francis 
 at Assisi. 
 
 (Vasari ; Baldinucci ; Lanzi.) 
 
 CIMARO'SA, DOMENI'CO, one of the most celebrated composers 
 of the Italian theatre, was born at Naples, Dec. 17, 1749. To Aprile he 
 was indebted for his first instructions in music, but he completed his 
 studies under Durante at the Conservatorio of Loretto. His general 
 education was also of a superior kind, and he was not only esteemed 
 for his professional ability, but for his well-informed mind and amiable 
 temper. The first work that made him known was " L'ltaliana in 
 Londra,' performed in 1779. But it is ' 11 Matrimonio Segreto ' which 
 will transmit his name to posterity ; for of his thirty operas, most of 
 which were in their day the admiration of all amateurs, the last- 
 mentioned is the only one now ever performed. When this was 
 brought out at Vienna it so delighted the Emperor Joseph II., that at 
 its conclusion he invited the singers and band to a supper, then sent 
 them back to the theatre, and the whole piece was repeated ; the only 
 instance on record of the encore of an entire opera. In 1787 t'imarosa 
 was invited by the Empress Catherine so St. Petersburg, where he 
 produced three opera-. He returned to Naples, and having shown 
 no little partiality for the French during their occupation of that 
 city, very narrowly escaped the sanguinary proscription which dis- 
 graced the restoration of the old royal family. He died at Venice on 
 January the 11th, 1801. 
 
 Cimarosa excelled most in comic opera, but his ' Orazi e Curiazi ' 
 proves that he could compose well in a different style. He is the 
 link which unites the old and modern schools, his scores exhibiting an 
 instrumentation much stronger than that of Paisiello, though inferior 
 in vigour and richness to that of Mozart. 
 
 CIMON (KI/.IUI/), the name of two Athenians, one the father (Herod, 
 vi. 34) and the other the son of Miltiades. The memory of the elder 
 Cimon rests almost entirely on the fame of his son ; scarcely anything 
 is known of him except that he was remarkably stupid. Cimon, the 
 son of Miltiades and Hegeripyle, was born about B.C. 502. Miltiades 
 died in prison, and Cimon had to pay the fine which had been 
 imposed on his father. Without the aid of the opulent Callias, who 
 is said to have assisted him, fifty talents would probably have made 
 a large aud inconvenient inroad on his patrimony (Herod, vi. 136.) 
 The anecdotes which remain of Ciinon's early youth are not creditable 
 either to his morals or to his intellect. The worst excesses are laid 
 to his charge. Although little confidence can be given to the details 
 of these numerous reports, so much seems to be clear, that he did not 
 do as others of his rank did, or as it was expected that the son of 
 Miltiades would do. He even neglected what in Athens were usually 
 deemed the essential branches of a liberal education. On the other 
 hand, the stupidity which is ascribed to him a', this period, and the 
 reputation for which fixed on him his grandfather's nickname Co:demu8 
 (<kokA(/ip?, 'the idiot'), was probably uothiug more than a naturJ 
 
 B 
 
in 
 
 CIMON. 
 
 CINCIUS. 
 
 253 
 
 reserve, combined with a certain inaptitude to social vivacity or 
 oratorical display, which however may not have at all disqualified 
 him for the services of active life. He seems to have excelled rather 
 in doing, than in talkiug about doing. Aristides almost alone dis- 
 cerned in him the elements of a great character; and it is probably 
 to his fostering charge and counsels that the glorious results which 
 were afterwards developed are partly due. 
 
 Cimou's entrance into public life may be placed at the conquest of 
 Eion, on the Strymou, B.C. 470. This town, which was very import- 
 ant to the Persians, was desperately defended by tho garrison under 
 the command of Boges, who at last, rather than surrender, raised a 
 huge pile, placed on it his wife and children, and servants, and all his 
 treasures, and after throwing his gold and silver into the Strynion, 
 cast himself into the flames. (Herod, vii. 107 ; Thucyd. i. 98.) Cimou's 
 next victory was at the island of Scyros, which he seized under the 
 pretence that it had been guilty of piracy which called for punish- 
 ment. He planted a colony of Athenians, and divided the laud 
 amongst them. (Thucyd. i. 98.) But Cimou's most important victory 
 was at the Eurymedon in Pamphylia, B.C. 400, where he sunk or took 
 200 Persian ships, and carried away prodigious booty from their 
 tents on the banks of the river. A squadron of Phoenician ships 
 which was coming to tho aid of the Persians was met by Cimon, and 
 wholly destroyed. The Persians were still in possession of the coast 
 of Thrace. That Cimon should feel peculiar interest in wresting 
 those possessions from their power is easy to be explained. Olorus, 
 the father of Hegesipyle, had been king of Thrace. (Herod, vi. 39.) 
 Accordingly he sailed with a small force and dislodged them from his 
 patrimony, and from a large extent of adjoining country. Twice he 
 led a force to assist the Lacedaemonians, B.C. 404 and 401, at the siege 
 of Ithome. The insulting manner in which the services of the 
 Athenians were rejected by the Lacedaemonians (Thucyd. i. 101-2) 
 on the latter occasion, seems to have put the people in ill humour 
 with all the friends of Sparta; and this may have had some effect in 
 bringing about Cimon's exile. Towards the end of the same year 
 (B.C. 401) in which they returned from Ithome, Cimon was banished 
 for ten years by ostracism. (Clinton, ' Fast. Hel.,' vol. i. p. 48.) In 
 the year b.c 457 there was a battle between the Lacedaemonians and 
 Athenians, at Tanagra in Bceotia. Cimon presented himself to fight 
 on the side of the Athenians, and took his stand among those of his 
 own tribe. The council of 500 were consulted, and he was not 
 allowed to remain: he left the army beseeching his friends to act 
 like brave men, and to prove their attachment to their country by 
 their deeds. The Athenians however were signally worsted ; and 
 this, with other defeats which they suffered during the exile of Cimon, 
 seems to have led them to wish for his return. In the fifth year of 
 his banishment he was recalled by a decree, of which Pericles himself 
 was the mover. A five years' truce between the Athenians and 
 Lacedaemonians was concluded through the intervention of Cimon 
 B.c 450. In the following year, B.C. 449, he was appointed to the 
 command of a fleet of 200 vessels, which sailed to assist the Egyptian 
 king Amyrtaeus. He sent on a squadron of sixty galleys to the aid of 
 Amyrtaeus, and with the rest besieged Citium in Cyprus. Here he 
 died, either from illness or from a wound. Just before he died he 
 forbade his men to report his death until they arrived at Athens; and 
 Plutarch preserves the remark of Phanodemus, that the army was as 
 it were conducted by Cimon thirty days after he was dead. Though 
 the Athenians were forced by want of provisions to raise the siege of 
 Citium, they did not return home without a victory : they met with 
 a fleet of Phoenician and Cilician ships near Salamis in Cyprus, and 
 completely defeated them. They afterwards defeated a force on 
 shore. 
 
 The slender private fortune to which Cimon succeeded had been 
 considerably augmented by his Persian victories, and especially by the 
 recovery of his patrimonial estates in Thrace. He did not use his 
 acquisitions for personal aggrandisement: his munificence was not 
 only fully equal to his means, but was in many respects judiciously 
 dispensed: he preferred hospitality to luxury, and would rather 
 provide a frugal entertainment for many, than a sumptuous banquet 
 for a few. Many of the splendid improvements which he made in 
 Athens were effected at his own cost. The walls from the city to 
 the harbours of Piraeus and Phalerum were commenced, and in great 
 part executed at Cimon's expense. He changed the Academy from a 
 barren uncultivated field to a shady and pleasant grove, and planted 
 the Agora with plane-trees. It is probable that his taste in these 
 public decorations was improved by his acquaintance with the painter 
 Polygnotus. 
 
 The great object of the policy of Cimon was unceasing war with 
 the Persians, and, in order to prosecute this the more effectually, he 
 strove to maintain the unity of the Greeks. Himself of noble birth, 
 he naturally belonged to the at istocratical party, and was anxious to 
 preserve the old institutions of his country, which time and usage 
 had rendered sacred. He desired to see Sparta independent, nn ally, 
 or even a rival, rather than a subject of Athens ; and this circum- 
 stance exposed him to many odious charges, which, however ground- 
 less and often refuted, probably exerted an influence on the estimation 
 iii which he was held. While Cimon was engaged in continual expe- 
 ditions, and was nearly five years in exile, a line of politics, altogether 
 different from his, came into vogue under the auspices of Pericles 
 
 [Pericles], who must be considered as Cimon's successor on the 
 political stage. 
 
 (Plutarch ; Nepos, Life of Cimon ; Thirl wall, Greece, vol. iii, 
 pp. 1-36; Heeren, Political History of Greece, p. 223, Engl, trausl.) 
 
 CINCINNA'TUS, a celebrated Roman consul. Little is known of 
 him previous to the difficulties of his son Caeso, who, for opposing 
 the tribunes in the performance of their functions, and for ill-treating 
 an old ex-tribune, was to be tried by the Icilian law. Sureties how- 
 ever were bound for his appearance. In the meantime he went into 
 voluntary exile, and, according to Livy, the sum in which the sureties 
 were bound was exacted from Cinciunatus. In order to pay it, he 
 was obliged to sell nearly all his estates, and afterwards retire to a 
 small farm on the banks of the Tiber, where he cultivated the ground 
 with his owu hands. Being subsequently chosen consul, the mes- 
 sengers sent to acquaint him with his election found him engaged in 
 tho labours of agriculture. It is said that Cincinnatus, ou hearing 
 the news which they brought, was less elated by the honour his 
 couutry had paid him, than grieved for the prospects of his farm 
 during his absence. In the year cf his consulship he succeeded in 
 restoring tranquillity to the city, and establishing a partial agreement 
 with the tribunes : the senate wished to continue him in office, but he 
 insisted on resigning it at the close of the year, when he retired to his 
 farm and rural occupations. Soon afterwards (a.u.O. 297) he was 
 chosen dictator, and again received the announcement of his new 
 honour while employed in the cultivation of his field. Conducted 
 into Rome amidst the acclamation of the people, he forthwith marched 
 against the /Equi, and gained a nignal victory, after which he entered 
 the city in triumph. He procured the recall of his son Caeso from 
 exile, and then abdicated the dictatorship on the sixteenth day after 
 ho had received it. He afterwards headed an army against the 
 Volsti, and added another to his former victories. In the absence of 
 military tribunes, he was subsequently created interrex for a short 
 time. A second time he was chosen dictator. Cincinnatus was now 
 more than eighty years of age, and nothing but the solicitations of 
 the consuls and senate induced him to accept the office. In all the 
 posts which he filled at difl'erent times, his virtue and probity, as well 
 as his patriotism and military success, gained him general admiration. 
 Niebuhr (vol. ii. p. 289) rejects the story of Cincinnatus paying the 
 fine of Caeso, as a mere fiction, fabricated to account for the humble 
 circumstances of so great a man. (Dionysius Halicarnassensis, x. ; 
 Livius, iii., 26, 30, 31, &c. ; Cicero, Be Fin., ii, 4 ; Niebuhr, Rome, 
 vol. ii., p. 286, &c, Engl, transl.) 
 
 CINCIUS. L. CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, and his contemporary 
 Fabius Pictor, are mentioned by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (' Koman 
 Autiq.' i., c. 6, ed. Hudson), as the oldest of the Roman annalists. Ali- 
 mentus is also frequently mentioned by Livy (xxi 38, xxvi. 23, &c.) 
 
 The time of the birth and death of Cincius is not known, but he 
 was actively engaged during the occupation of Italy by HanuibaL 
 Alimentus was of a plebeian family. He was qa93tor B.C. 219, tribunus 
 plebis B.C. 214, and plebeian aedile B.C. 212. After Marcellus had taken 
 Syracuse, and left Sicily, Cincius held that province for two years as 
 praetor (Livy, xxvi. 28, xxvii. 7), in the years B.C. 210 and 209. He took 
 with him the soldiers who had survived the defeat at Cannae. In the 
 next year he had the command of a naval force, with which he crossed 
 over from Sicily to Locri, on which he made an unsuccessful attack, 
 and wa3 obliged to retreat. He was afterwards one of three com- 
 missioners who were sent by the Senate to give their advice to T. 
 Quinctius Crispinus, the consul, who was lying wounded at Capua. 
 It is not known whether it was at this time or later that he fell into 
 Hannibal's hands, a circumstance which gave him the opportunity of 
 acquiring a more exact knowledge of the events of that, period. He 
 learned some facts from the mouth of Hannibal himself (Livy, xxi. 38). 
 Cincius wrote a history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 
 his own time, of which Dionysius says that he treated minutely of the 
 events with which he was personally acquainted, but in a summary 
 way of the events which followed the foundation of the city. Neither 
 the title of his work nor the number of books is known. The work 
 of Cincius is stated by Dionysius to have been written in Greek, and 
 there is no evidence to oppose to this. Livy frequently mentions Ali- 
 mentus, and in one passage (vii. 3) he calls him an exact authority. 
 
 Other works were attributed to Cincius — on Gorgias of Leontini, 
 on the Fasti, the Comitia, on the authority of the consuls, on thv 
 office of a Jurisconsult, on Military Matters, on Ancient Words, and 
 De Festis Mystagogicon. But it is not certain that the Cincius who 
 was the author of these works was the same as the historian, though 
 it is likely enough that an historian might write on military tactics. 
 Gellius (xvi. 4) gives several extracts from the work o;i military 
 matters, but he simply calls the author Cincius. The chronological 
 difficulty which Krause raises against the author of the treatise on 
 military matters being also the historian is not very great. His 
 arguments against the probability of Cincius having written a gram- 
 matical work such as that on ancient words are much stronger; and 
 indeed there is no sufficient evidence that the other works that have 
 been mentioned as written by Cincius, were written by the historian. 
 
 The epoch which Cincius assigned to the foundation of Koine is 
 about the fourth year of the twelfth Olympiad, or b.o. 728. The dis- 
 crepancy from other reckonings i3 accounted for by supposing that 
 Cincius either followed other evidence than the annal3 of the Roman 
 
IBS 
 
 CINNA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS. 
 
 CISNEROS, FRANCIS XIMENEZ DE. 254 
 
 poatifices; or that he made his calculation by changing the lunar 
 years of the early Roman king?, which were of ten months, into years 
 of twelve months, according to the reckoning of the period when he 
 wrote. Now if we admit, as Junius Graccha.nus states, that the old 
 calendar was in use to the time of the first Tarquiu, which will give 
 • period of 132 years from the foundation of the city, we may adopt 
 the following solution of Niebuhr : — " If Cincius took theso to be 
 cyclical years, he got exactly a secle (110 years) for the first four 
 kings ; and if he subtracted the difference, twenty-two years, from the 
 era of Polybius, the result for the building of the city would be the 
 very date, OL 12, 4." (Niebuhr, 'Roman History,' Transl. i. 280). 
 
 (The fragments of Cincius are printed in Krause's Vitce et Fragmenta 
 Veterum Historicorum Romanorum, Berlin, 1833.) 
 
 CINNA, LU'CIUS CORNE'LIUS, a Roman patrician, who belonged 
 to the party of Marius. In B.C. 88 he obtained the consulship with 
 Octavius who made a strenuous opposition to his proposal for recalling 
 Marius and his party from banishment. A dispute followed between 
 the consuls, which was attended with bloodshed. Cinna, unable 
 to make head against his opponents in Rome, withdrew to Tibur, 
 Prxuest?, and other neighbouring towns, to seek for aid. By thus 
 leaving his post he resigned his office, and the senate took an early 
 opportunity to appoint another consul, L. C. Merula, in his room. 
 China, now in concert with Marius, Carbo, and Sertorius, advanced to 
 Rome, and laying siege to the city, the senate were forced to propose 
 a treaty, which was at last concluded. Cinna was reinstated in the 
 consulship, and Marius was readmitted as a Roman citizen. Marius 
 however refused to enter the city until the sentence of banishment 
 was formally repealed. Accordingly an assembly of the people was 
 held ; but while the votes were taking, Marius entered Rome with 
 armed men, and forthwith proceeded to take vengeance on his 
 opponents. Sulla's house was destroyed, and every quarter of the 
 city was the scene of robbery and murder. Octavius, the colleague of 
 Cinna, with many senators, fell in the massacre. The partisans of 
 Marius were as reckless as their leader. At last Cinna and Marius 
 themselves became desirous of putting an end to these revolting pro- 
 ceedings, and among other measures they seized on the consulship 
 together. Marius died at the age of seventy year3, on the first day of 
 his entering on the office. Cinna continued the usurpation which he 
 had begun, and chose for hi3 colleague Valerius Flaccus, to whom he 
 assigned the province of Asia. 
 
 When Sulla had brought the Mithridatic war to a close, he contem- 
 plated returning to Italy, in order to punish his enemies. Previously 
 however to setting sail, he sent the senate a statement of the services 
 he had rendered and the wrongs he had suffered, at the same time 
 threatening his enemies with his vengeance. The senate endeavoured 
 to appease Sulla. They also attempted to moderate the fury of Cinna, 
 but he persisted in prosecuting the war. Ha made himself consul, 
 B O. 85, with Papirius Carbo [Carbo], to whom he gave the command 
 in Gaul. Cinna now prepared to oppose Sulla, and intended to meet 
 him in Thessaly, by which route it was supposed he would return to 
 Italy, B.C. *-4. But the troops were reluctant to embark, and an attempt 
 to force them ended in a mutiny, in which Cinna was killed. C. Julius 
 Caesar married Cinna's daughter Cornelia. 
 | (Appian, de Bell. Civ., i., 389-97; Livius, Epit. lxxix.,lxxx., Ixxxiii. ; 
 
 Floras, Hi., 21 ; Velleius Paterculn.s ii., 19-24 ; Dion Cassius in Fragm. ; 
 j Plutarch, Lives of Marius and Sulla.) 
 
 Cornelius Cinna, a grandson of Pompey, headed a conspiracy 
 against Augustus, who however generously pardoned him and made 
 hirn consul. Their friendship remained afterwards unbroken. 
 
 CIONE, ANDREA DI. [Orcagna.] 
 
 CIPRIA'NI, GIOVANNI BATISTA, descended from an ancient 
 family of Pistoia, was born at Florence in 1727. He received his first 
 instructions from an artist named Hugford. He afterwards studied 
 under Gabbiani ; or, according to Lanzi, he studied from a collection 
 of drawings by Gabbiani, upon which he formed his style. In 1755 
 he came to England, and subsequently married an English lady of 
 moderate fortune, by whom he had three children. He was one of 
 the original members of the Royal Academy, and was presented with a 
 silver cup by that body in return for the design for their diploma, 
 which he furnished. He died, much esteemed, December 14, 1785, 
 and was buried at Chelsea. Cipriani executed few paintings. Lanzi 
 
 ■ mentions two, in the Abbey of St. Michael on the Sea. He employed 
 himself chiefly in drawing designs, of which Bartolozzi engraved a 
 
 j great numb' r. His designs exhibit skill in drawing, and a kind of 
 meretricious grace, but they belong to an essentially corrupt school, 
 and the influence of Cipriani upon English art was as far as it extended 
 certainly mischievous. 
 
 CISNEROS, FRANCIS XIMENEZ DE (by the Spaniards generally 
 called Cardinal Cisneros; but in biographical and other works he goes 
 tinder the name of Ximenez), a celebrated statesman and patron of 
 literature, a cardinal and primate of Spain, was born in 1437 at Torre- 
 Lguna in New Castile. He studied at a school at Alcala de Henares 
 and at the university of Salamanca, and afterwards went to Rome, 
 where be acquired such reputation, that Sixtus IV. promised him the 
 first vacant prebend in the cathedral of Toledo; but the Archbishop 
 of Toledo, vexed at this inroad on his patronage, and at the firmness 
 with which Cisneros demanded it as his right, threw him into a 
 dungeon. Being released at the end of six years, Cisneros went to 
 
 Siguenza, where Cardinal Mendoza appointed him his grand vicar. In 
 1482, abandoning his brilliant prospects, he embraced the Franciscan 
 rule. In 1492 Queen Isabella took him for her confessor, and in 14 95 
 nominated him Archbishop of Toledo. This honour he declined with 
 a firmness which nothing but the commands of the pope could over- 
 come. In this exalted station he retained all his monastic severity. 
 He constantly wore under the pontifical robes the coarse frock of St. 
 Francis. In his travels he always endeavoured to lodge at soma 
 convent of his order, and he conformed to all the rules like an ordinary 
 member. He set apart half of his enormous revenue (at that time 
 amounting to 200,000 ducats) for the relief of the necessitous ; and 
 he made a daily distribution of provisions to thirty poor. Ho also 
 expended considerable sums in the ransom of captives. 
 
 In 1498 Cisneros founded the University of Alcala de Henares, in 
 which he provided for poor students, appointed a fund for prizes, and 
 invited distinguished men from Paris, Bologna, Salamanca, and Valla- 
 dolid. He instituted also a seminary for young ladies of respectable 
 families who were destitute of fortune. Adjoining it he established a 
 nunnery for those among them who chose to retire from the world : 
 to the rest he allotted portions, and disposed of them in marriage 
 suitably to their condition. 
 
 In 1502 he undertook, assisted by emiaeut scholars, his Compluten- 
 sian Polyglot, the type and the model of all subsequent ones. He 
 sent to every quarter for manuscripts, and Leo X. obliged him with a 
 communication of what he possessed. He collected seven copies in 
 Hebrew at the expense of 4000 ducats, besides procuring from Rome 
 a Greek manuscript, and from other quarters many Latin manuscripts : 
 not a single manuscript of this collection was of less antiquity than 
 800 years. The whole charge of the undertaking, which was com- 
 pleted in fifteen years, amounted to the immense sum of 50,000 
 ducats. 
 
 On the death of Queen Isabella in 1504, as all parties strove to 
 attach Cisneros to their interest, he became the arbitrator between 
 King Ferdinand and the Archduke Philip, the husband of Joanna, 
 heiress of the crown. On the death of Philip, two years after, 
 Cisneros was appointed regent on account of the incapacity of Joanna 
 and the absence of Ferdinand. This was a critical moment for him, 
 but his prudence overcame all difficulties, and kept all parties in 
 check. He levied troops at the public expense, totally independent 
 of the grandees, from whose hands he succeeded at last in rescuing 
 the crown. He thus began, perhaps unconsciously, to vindicate the 
 rights of the people against the nobility in Europe. By the feudal 
 system, the military power was lodged in the hands of the nobles, 
 and men of inferior condition were called into the field as their 
 vassals. A king with scanty revenues therefore depended on them in 
 all his operations. In 1507 Julius II. gave Cisneros the cardinal's hat. 
 In 1508 the septuagenarian cardinal set off from Malaga at the head of 
 10,000 foot and 4000 horse for the conquest of Oran, on the coast of 
 Africa, which he added to the Spanish dominions at his own expense. 
 
 When Leo X., in order to raise money to complete the church of 
 St. Peter, proposed to sell dispensations, Cisneros opposed the intro- 
 duction of the pope's bulls into his diocese. On another occasion, as 
 a primate of Spain, he prevailed on the king to exclude all bulls but 
 what had received the sanction of the royal council; and ever since 
 that time this salutary advice has beeu acted upon in Spain. At 
 another time he opposed a claim of the same pope to the tenth of 
 ecclesiastical benefices, and obliged him to be content with a tax of a 
 tenth upon the clergy of the States of the Church. 
 
 Ferdinand at his death, 23rd of January 1516, left Cardinal Cisneros 
 regent till the arrival of his grandson, Charles I. of Spain, afterwards 
 Charles V. of Germauy. The Dean of Louvain (afterwards Pope 
 Adrian VI.), opposed this nomination. Cisneros however consented 
 to admit him into the administration, and chose Madrid for his 
 residence, that he might be more independent of the nobility, and 
 better able to control their factions. The grandees objected to the 
 power of Ferdinand to confer the regency, himself being only a regent, 
 as the widower of Isabella; and the letter of Charles, which Cisneros 
 showed them in ratification of Ferdinand's will, they treated as a mere 
 matter of form. To satisfy their objections at once, the cardinal coolly 
 requested them to wait upon him. From a balcony he showed them 
 2000 meu in array, with a formidable train of artillery, which he 
 ordered to be discharged. " There," said he, raising his voice, " are 
 the powers which I have received from his Majesty, and in a word 
 haze est ultima ratio rcgum." 
 
 John Albret, the dispossessed king of Navarre, supported by some 
 of the grandees, was forming a scheme to recover his kingdom. Cis- 
 neros, who had foreseen the danger long before, ordered a powerful 
 body of troops to enter Navarre, and completely frustrated the 
 attempt. To secure Navarre, he caused its numerous aud expensive 
 fortresses to be demolished, except Pampeluna, which he strengthened. 
 To this precaution Spain was not only then but often since indebted 
 for the preservation of Navarre. In order to pay the debts of Ferdi- 
 nand and the officers of his new militia, and to establish numerous 
 and well furnished magazines, Cisneros boldly undertook the abolition 
 of unnecessary pensions, and enforced the restitution of many ex- 
 tensive crown demesnes, which had been alienated chiefly to the 
 nobility in the late reign. He did not spare his dearest friends, nor 
 even men of learning. The historian Peter Martyr of Anphierra and 
 
286 CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS CLAUDE. 
 
 Gonzalez Oviedo suffered with the rest, and in revenge have defamed 
 the cardinal's character. 
 
 While Charles remained in Flanders, every pretender to favour 
 resorted thither, but nothing could be obtained without pecuniary 
 application to his favourite Chievres. Great sums were drawn out of 
 Spain, and everything was disposed of to the highest bidder. The 
 inferior officers followed the example of their head, and this infamous 
 traffic became general. On the other hand, seeing Flanders on the 
 eve of becoming a distant province of a vast monarchy, the Flemish 
 ministers detained the king as long as they could, spreading all the 
 time delusive reports of his instant departure, and cheating the cardi- 
 nal under the pretext of defraying the expense of the king's voyage. 
 When after twenty months of entreaties Cisneros prevailed on Charles 
 to embark for Spain, and was himself proceeding towards the coast to 
 meet him, ho was seized with a violent disorder, at the convent of 
 Bozeguillas, near Aranda de Duero, which was attributed to poison. 
 The Spanish grandees and Flemi-h courtiers now regulated the 
 advance of the court by the probable extent of the cardinal's life. 
 Weakened by disease, fatigue, and austerities, he still directed, to the 
 great vexation of the courtiers, the helm of state, and seemed to sur- 
 vive only to evince his greatness of spirit unimpaired by bodily 
 suffering. Under pretext of giving time to the towns for preparing 
 the honours due to the kin?, they succeeded in deferring his entry 
 into Castile till the cardinal's death, which happened on the 8th of 
 November 1517, but not before Charles, whose pride was worked upon 
 by hi3 flatterers, had written, with signal ingratitude, a letter to Cis- 
 neros signifying to him his dismissal. The rare union of calmness, 
 firmness, and decision in Cisneros, is well shown in Gometius (Gomez 
 de Castro), ' De Rebus gestis a Francisco Ximenio;' in Marsollier, 
 Fle'chier, Morcri, and Robertson. 
 
 CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS CLAUDE, sometimes spelt CLAIRAULT 
 (we have taken the spelling from the title of his own works), was 
 born at Paris, May 7, 1713. His father, John Baptist Clairaut, was a 
 teacher of mathematics. The early proficiency of the eon in mathe- 
 matics is better attested than in any other similar case, by the actual 
 appearance of his celebrated treatise on ' Curves of Double Curvature,' 
 in 1731, when he was eighteen years of age, accompanied by the 
 usual official recommendations, which prove that it was ready for 
 the press two years before; it is said to have been begun when he 
 ■was only thirteen years old. He read the ' Conic Sections ' of De 
 L'Hopital, and also the ' Itifiniments Petits' of the same author, 
 when he was only ten years old ; a fact which we should have forborne 
 to state, had it not been for the evidence contained in the treatise 
 just cited, and in this fact, of public notoriety, that at the age of 
 twelve years he presented a memoir on some remarkable curves to the 
 Academy of Sciences, and removed all doubts as to its authorship by 
 his personal explanations. 
 
 In 1731, being then under the legal age, Clairaut was admitted into 
 the Academy of Sciences. He formed an intimate acquaintance with 
 Maupertuis, and commenced at this period his researches on the figure 
 of the earth. In 1735 he accompanied Maupertuis, Camus, Lemon- 
 nier, &c. in their expedition to Lapland, for the purpose of measuring 
 a degree of the meridian. This measure has frequently been con- 
 sidered as of little value : it must however be remarked, that such an 
 opinion has been formed on the strength of discrepancies which were 
 sufficiently apparent to the measurers themselves, and which caused 
 them to review all their operations; as also, that circumstances con- 
 nected with local attractions are fully sufficient to explain the whole 
 difficulty. The work of Clairaut on the 'Figure of the Earth' 
 appeared in 1743, and was reprinted in 1808. It contains the remark- 
 able discovery which is usually called Clairaut's Theorem. Considering 
 the earth as an elliptic spheroid, it should seem that the variation of 
 gravity on the surface would depend upon the law of density of the 
 interior strata. But Clairaut showed that this variation is altogether 
 independent of the law of density, and may be deduced from a know- 
 ledge of the form of the exterior surface. In this theorem, the 
 second aud higher powers of the eccentricity are rejected. Mr. Airy 
 (in an early volume of the ' Cambridge Transactions ') has shown that 
 it remains true when the higher powers are taken into account. 
 
 In 1750 Clairaut gained the prize of the Petersburg Academy for 
 his paper on the ' Theory of the Moon.' It is more essential for us 
 here to state the position which he occupies among the successors of 
 Newton, than to enter into details which are better suited to other 
 articles. Newton had left one prominent point of the lunar theory 
 altogether unexplained by his theory of gravitation, namely, the 
 motion of the lunar apogee, of which, though able to assign a sufficient 
 reason for the phenomenon of progression, he was not able to deduce 
 more than half the quantity of the phenomenon. Clairaut at first 
 concluded that the law of gravitation was incompletely expressed; 
 but further consideration, and more extensive application of analysis, 
 showed that the whole motion was a necessary consequence of the 
 Newtonian supposition of mutual attraction. In two points of view, 
 therefore, as the first who applied what is now called the modern 
 analysis to the problem of the lunar motion, and as the first who 
 added an unexplained phenomenon to the theory which Newton had 
 left, Clairaut stands in a conspicuous position. 
 
 Clairaut was the first who applied the Newtonian theory to the 
 motion of comets, in reference to the perturbation of their motions 
 
 CLAIRON, CLAIRE JOSEPHE. 266 
 
 by the attraction of the planets. In 1757 astronomers began to expect 
 the fulfilment of Halley's prediction relative to the comet (whose 
 appearance in 1835 again excited much public curiosity). Lalande 
 proposed to Clairaut to undertake the actual computation of the 
 quantity of Jupiter's action on the comet during a revolution, and 
 offered his assistance in the drudgery of the work. For the manner 
 in which this enormous labour was executed the reader may consult 
 the article ' Halley's Comet,' in the ' Companion to the Almauac for 
 1835.' The result was that Clairaut's prediction came very near the 
 truth ; the return of the comet was at first placed in November 1758 ; 
 in that month Clairaut predicted that it would arrive at its nearest 
 point to the sun about April 13, 1759, stating that he might possibly 
 be wrong by a month. The observed perihelion of the comet was on 
 the 13th of March. The error would have been considerably less if 
 the existence of Uranus, and a more correct value of the mass of 
 Saturn, had been known. 
 
 The figure of the earth, the theory of the moon, and Halley's comet, 
 are the three prominent points on which the fame of Clairaut rests. 
 We might mention his work on ' Geometry,' drawn up, it is said, for 
 the use of Madame du Chastellet ; his ' Elements of Algebra,' remark- 
 able at the time for the abandonment of the dogmatical form in which 
 it was customary to write elementary works ; and many papers in the 
 ' Memoirs of the Academy,' containing several remarkable discoveries 
 in pure mathematics. But we shall pass on to some notice of his 
 career in connection with that of D'Alembert. These two great men 
 were rivals in their scientific labours, and though their disputes never 
 passed the bounds of courtesy, the life of each, with respect to the 
 other, was either armed truce or open war. The characters of the 
 two were essentially opposite : Clairaut was a man of the world, of 
 high polish, and who took great care never to offend the self-love of 
 any one; D'Alembert was blunt and rude, though essentially well- 
 meaning and kind ; if we may use such a colloquial phrase, he ' stood 
 no nonsense ;' 'j'amie mieux etre incivil qu'ennuye' was his avowed 
 maxim. Clairaut was always in the world, desirous to shine, and to 
 unite the man of fashion with the philosopher, of all which D'Alembert 
 was the reverse. The attacks usually came from the latter, confined 
 entirely to the writings of his opponent; and he was frequently right, 
 being a thinker of a more safe and cautious order than Clairaut, who 
 was more than once too hasty. For instance, when Clairaut took the 
 whole revolution of Halley's comet, or more than fifty years, as the 
 unit of which the error committed by him should be considered as a 
 fraction, D'Alembert asserted that the magnitude of the latter should 
 be compared, in the estimation of precision, with the difference between 
 two successive revolutions, or about a year and a half. Later aualysts, 
 and Laplace in particular, have considered that D'Alembert was right. 
 The preceding comparison is drawn from Bossut ('Hist, des Math.'), 
 who was the personal friend and the decided eulogist of both. He 
 adds that the polished character of Clairaut procured him an existence 
 and a consideration in the great world which talent alone would not 
 have sufficed to gain ; aud more than insinuates that dissipation 
 destroyed his constitution. However this may be, Clairaut died at 
 Paris, May 17, 1765, at the age of 52. He was never married : his 
 father (who survived him a short time) had a very numerous family, 
 of whom only one daughter survived. 
 
 (See the Eloge in the Memoirs of the Academy ; the Life by Lacroix 
 in the Biog, Univ. ; and the work of Bossut above cited.) 
 
 The works of Clairaut, independently of Memoirs presented to the 
 Academy, are: — 1. 'Ilecherches sur les Courbes k double Courbure,' 
 Paris, 1731. 2. 'Elevens de Ge'ome'trie,' Paris, 1741; and various 
 editions up to 1765. 3. ' La Figure de la Terre de"terminee,' &c. 
 ('Account of the Lapland Measure, by Maupertuis, Clairaut,' &c); 
 Paris, 1738 ; in Latin, by Zeller ; Leipzig, 1742. 4. ' La Theorie de la 
 Figurede la Terre,' Paris, 1743; again in 1808. 5. ' Elemens d'Algebre/ 
 Paris, 1746 ; again in 1760 (' tre3 estimee,' Lacroix); again in 1797 and 
 1801 (marked sixth edition), by Garnier, with a Preliminary Treatise 
 on Arithmetic. 6. ' Theorie de la Lune,' St. Petersburg, 1752 ; (prize 
 essay) second edition, 1765. 7. ' Tables de la Lune,' &c, Paris, 1754; 
 republished with (6) in 1765. 8. ' The'orie du Mouvement des Comeths,' 
 Paris, 1760 ; the account of the great process relative to Halley's comet 
 D'Alembert wrote against this in the ' Journ. Encycl.,' February 1761 ; 
 Clairaut replied in the 'Journ. des Sav.,' June 1761. 9. 'Recherchis 
 sur la Comete,' &c, St. Petersburg, 1762 (Supplement to 8). 10. 
 ' Explication des Pi iucipaux Phenoinenes,' &c, compiled by Madame 
 du Chastellet from Clairaut's instructions, and printed at the end of 
 her translation of Newton, Paris, 1759. [Chastellet, Madame do.] 
 
 CLAIRON, CLAIRE JOSEPHE LEYRIS DE LA TUDE, a cele- 
 brated French actress, whose name frequently occurs in the literary 
 memoirs and correspondence of her day, was born near Cond6, in 
 French Flanders, in 1723. She made her early appearances in the 
 Flemish theatres and those of the neighbouring provinces of France. 
 In 1732 she was called to the Parisian Opera, and soon afterwards to 
 the Com^die Fraucaise. Although her name is now seldom mentioned, 
 no actress of any age or country appears to have been the object of a 
 reputation so wide and an admiration so intense. No one can read 
 the letters of Voltaire and his contemporaries, or the memoirs of 
 Marmontel and others, without being struck by the frequent recur- 
 rence of her name, associated with enthusiastic eulogies. She was 
 evidently a woman of vicious morals, yet she was proud and unbending 
 
867 
 
 CLARENDON, EARL OF. 
 
 268 
 
 in public; and Voltaire, who Lad obvious motives for esteeming her 
 from her successful representation of several of his characters, speaks 
 of her in hia ' Candida ' as a person moving in so hi^h and select a 
 circle, that the boast of having met her in society is put iuto the mouth 
 of an obscure braggart addicted to telling extravagant fictions. The 
 prevailing character of her acting was the natural, aud in this she was 
 distinguished from her rival Dutnesnil, who was considered the repre- 
 sentative of art. Mademoiselle Clairou quitted the Comedie-Fraucaise 
 in 1766. She lived for many years as mistress of the Margrave of 
 Anspach, and died in 1803. Some memoirs relating to her were printed 
 in 1799 by her pupil Mdlle. Raucourt, and there are many anecdotes 
 of her in the memoirs of the Margravine of Anspach and the 'Me'moires 
 de Fleury' (the actor). 
 
 CLAPPERTON, HUGH, was born in 1738, at Annan, in Dum- 
 friesshire, N.B., where his father was settled as a surgeon and country 
 practitioner. After receiving the rudiments of a plain education, 
 with some instruction in mathematics, he went to sea at the age of 
 thirteen, being bound apprentice in a merchaut-ship that sailed 
 between Liverpool and America. After making several voyages he 
 was impressed and sent on board a man-of-war as a common seaman. 
 Fortunately Clapperton had an uncle, a captain of marines, through 
 whose interest with the naval commanders then in commission in the 
 Mediterranean, he was put on the quarter-deck aud made a midship- 
 man. In this capacity he gave proofs both of fortitude and courage. 
 In 1814 he went to Upper Canada, and some time after his arrival he 
 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, and appointed to the com- 
 mand of a schooner belonging to the British flotilla on the lakes. In 
 1817, this flotilla having been dismantled, Lieutenant Clapperton 
 returned home on half-pay. He amused himself in his native district 
 with shooting and fishing, until 1820, when he removed to Edinburgh 
 and became acquainted with Dr. Oudney, whose mind was absorbed 
 by the subject of African discovery. In 1823 he was employed by 
 Lord Bathurst, in conjunction with Dr. Oudney and Major Denham, 
 to make a journey to Timbuctoo, in central Africa. The doctor died 
 at an early stage of the journey in January 1824. Proceeding south 
 from Tripoli, on the Mediterranean, by Musfeia, and by Zangalia, on 
 the east of the great Lake Tchad, Clapperton, after great sufferings, 
 reached Saccatoo, where he was obliged to turn back. He and 
 Denham determined the positions of the kingdoms of Mandara, 
 Bournou, and Houssa, and of their chief towns, but they were not 
 able to ascertain the course and termination of the Niger — the main 
 object of the expedition. Their description of Lake Tchad, with the 
 huge hippopotami in it, and the elephants and other wild animals on 
 its shores, is exceedingly interesting. On the 22nd of June 1S25, soon 
 after his return to England, Clapperton was raised to the rank of 
 commander, and engaged almost immediately to start afresh on the 
 same perilous journey. His companions were Captain Pearce, R.N., 
 Mr. Dickson, and Dr. Morrison, a navy surgeon and naturalist; the 
 party was attended by Richard Lander, Dawson, and two or three 
 other servants. This time Clapperton penetrated iuto Africa from 
 the coast of the Atlantic. The party landed in the Bight of Benin on 
 the 28th of November 1825, and proceeded inland from Badagry, 
 December 7 ; but they had scarcely moved from the shore when they 
 were attacked by the usual maladies of the country. Dawson died at 
 Tshow, not far from Badagry, and Captain Pearce soon after, at 
 Engwa. Dr. Morrison, who had returned towards the coast, expired 
 at Jannah. The survivors, meeting with great kindness and hos- 
 pitality from the natives, reached Katunga, the capital of Yariba, on 
 the 15th of January 1826. They proceeded to the great commercial 
 city of Kano, and thence, bearing to the west, went to Saccatoo, which 
 Clapperton had reached from the side of the Mediterranean on his 
 former journey. Here Bello, the king or chief of the country, detained 
 his old acquaintance on account of wars carrying on, and (it is said) 
 at the jealous suggestions of the Dey of Tripoli, who represented the 
 English as aiming at the possession of all Africa. Clapperton's 
 vigorous constitution gave way under the effects of the climate and 
 privation, and he died of dysentery on the 13th of April 1827, at 
 Chungary, a village four miles from Saccatoo. 
 
 (Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in, Northern and Central 
 Africa in the years 1822, 1823, 1824, by Major Denham, Commander 
 Clapperton, aud the late Dr. Oudney, 4to., Lond., 1820. — Journal of 
 a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa. &c, by the late Com- 
 mander Clapperton. 4to, Lond., 1829. To this volume a Memoir of 
 hia Life is prefixed. — Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition 
 to Africa, by Richard Lander, the only surviving member of the 
 Expedition. 2 vols., small 8vo, Lond., 1830.) 
 
 CLARE, JOHN, was born at Helpstone, near Peterborough, 
 Northamptonshire, July 13, 1793. His parents were extremely poor, 
 his father, a farm labourer, only being able with great difficulty to 
 provide food for Li3 family, and in his latter years constrained from 
 illness to eke out a subsistence by a weekly allowance from the parish. 
 As soon as possible the boy was sent to work in the fields, and by 
 extra work as a plough-boy and by helping his father morning and 
 •vening at threshing, he earned enough to pay for occasional educa- 
 tion at the school of a neighbouring parish. He thus in the course of 
 three years learned sufficient at odd times to be able to read the 
 Bible with ease, and from the little prizes he won by such extra tasks 
 m the repetition by heart of a chapter in Job and the like, he was 
 
 enabled to purchase a few books. A good-natured neighbour kindly 
 assisted him in mastering writing and arithmetic. As early as his 
 thirteenth year the boy had begun to write verses, and when he grew 
 to manhood, notwithstanding the hard toil and poverty of a peasant's 
 life — his highest wages, aud that during only part of the year, were 
 but nine shillings a week— he continued to write them, though they 
 attracted no notice beyond that of his companions, till about the end 
 of 1818, when a 'Sonnet to the Setting Sun,' signed J. C, written on 
 a loose piece of paper, fell into the hands of Mr. Drury, bookseller of 
 Stamford, who, struck by its simplicity and freshness of character, 
 enquired after the author, and having visited him at Helpstone, was 
 shown other poems, with which he was equally pleased. The result 
 was the publication in 1820 of a small volume of ' Poems descriptive 
 of Rural Life and Scenery, by John Clare, a Northamptonshire 
 Peasant,' to which was prefixed a brief account of the author by Mr. 
 Octavius Gilchrist. The volume attracted much attention; the verses 
 were felt to be the genuine utterance of a simple-hearted peasant's love 
 of nature aud natural scenery, and efforts were at once made to place 
 him in a position less hostile to the exercise of his native genius. A 
 sufficient sum was raised to place him in a house free of rent, and a 
 small income (but one larger than he had any prospect of being able, to 
 acquire by field labour) was partly secured to him. His future thus, 
 as it seemed, happily provided for, Clare married the Patty of his 
 verse, and took his parents (his father now a confirmed paralytic) 
 home to live with him. But the annuity, even if regularly paid, would 
 have been insufficient to maintain his household with the new wants 
 which the introduction to a higher grade of society had created. 
 Many of the contributors however failed to keep up their subscriptions, 
 while as the annuity fell off his family increased ; he could find no 
 profitable employment ; the little trading speculations he entered iuto 
 were unsuccessful; aud as want and misery became imminent, he fell 
 into a deep melancholy, which issued in mental alienation. After 
 awhile the worse form of iris disease passed away, and, though still with 
 a mind hopelessly deranged, he requires no constraint. Poetry, whioh as 
 he wrote used iu early life to "lull the throbbings of his woe-worn 
 soul," has proved a solace in the miserable circumstances of his closing 
 days. He lives on talking aud thinking chiefly of poetry, and in the 
 harmless delusion that of every passage which recurs to his memory, 
 or which he hears repeated, he is the author. 
 
 In 1821 Clare's poems were republished with another and longer 
 piece, under the title of the ' Village Minstrel and other Poems ;' a 
 year or two later the ' Shepherd's Calendar and other Poems;' and in 
 1836 appeared another volume entitled the ' Rural Muse.' Hi3 later 
 poems exhibited much greater mechanical dexterity than his earlier 
 ones, aud all their hearty enjoyment of rural life and country scenery; 
 while they showed that he had diligently availed himself of the oppor- 
 tunities afforded him of studying the works of the greater masters of 
 the art. But they showed also that Clare had not escaped the danger 
 which besets most untaught writers, of mistaking imitative skill for 
 creative power. His poems however if they display no great strength 
 of thought or striking originality of manner, are not wanting in origin- 
 ality of matter, while they are invariably kindly in feeling, free from 
 all affectation, and often very pleasing in expression [See Supplement.] 
 
 * CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIEKS, 
 fourth Earl of, born 12th of January 1800, is eldest son of the late Hon. 
 George Villiers, by Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord Boringdon. 
 He succeeded to the title on his uncle's death in December 1838. The 
 founder of the Villiers family was a favourite of James I., whose 
 descendants became ultimately earls of Jersey. About the middle of 
 last century a younger son of the then Earl of Jersey married a 
 daughter of the Earl of Essex, whose countess was heiress of the Hydes, 
 formerly earls of Clareudon and Rochester. [Hyde.] This gentle- 
 man, who was successively joint postmaster-general, chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Lancaster, and ambassador at the Court of Berlin, was 
 ultimately created Earl of Clarendon in 1776; and it is his third son 
 who was the father of the present peer. 
 
 Lord Clarendon was educated at Cambridge. He entered the civil 
 service at an early age ; and iu 1823 was appointed to a commissioner- 
 ship of the excise in Dublin by the late Marquis of Anglesey. The 
 ability, intelligence, mental activity, and general knowledge displayed 
 by him in this capacity, recommended him to the home government for 
 some higher employment. Accordingly, in 1831 he was employed by 
 the government in arranging a commercial treaty with France ; and, 
 when a crisis arrived in Spanish affairs in 1833, he was sent to the 
 Court of Madrid as British Envoy and Minister Plenipotentiary. 
 Here again, though his stay was prolonged through a period of more 
 than ordinary civil strife aud confusion, he was so fortunate as to 
 secure the confidence of the government which he represented, and 
 at the same time the good opinion of the inhabitants of the Spanish 
 metropolis. Soon after his accession to the earldom, in 1838, he 
 returned to England. He had not long taken his seat in the House of 
 Lords, when a speech which he delivered on the question of Spanish 
 affairs attracted the public attention ; and, on a re-arrangement of 
 the Melbourne Cabinet taking place iu January 1840, Lord Clarendon 
 was appointed Lord Privy Seal, an office to which the chancellorship 
 of the Duchy of Lancaster was added on Lord Holland's death iu the 
 Bame year. In 1841 Sir Robert Peel came again into power, and 
 Lord Clarendon's official duties ceasing, he remained iu opposition for 
 
259 
 
 CLARK, WILLIAM TIERNEY. 
 
 2G0 
 
 five years. On the accession of Lord John Russell to the premiership 
 in 1846, he became President of the Board of Trade. This position 
 however he did not long retain, as on the death of the Earl of Bess- 
 borough, he was sent to Ireland as Lord-Lieutenant in May 1847. He 
 entered on his viceregal duties at a period of considerable agitation. 
 Famine and lever had brought on great national distress and suffering, 
 and the death of O'Connell, which had been announced in Dublin a 
 few days previously, was just beginning to cause much popular excite- 
 ment; the Repeal Association were holding larger meetings and using 
 stronger language than ever; and the partial rebellion of 1848 was 
 beginning to cast its shadow before it. The following extract from 
 Lord Clarendon's answer to an address presented to him by the 
 ftoman Catholic prelates, states in few words the spirit in which he 
 entered on his duties as viceroy there : — " The eternal principles of 
 justice and morality can never be violated with impunity, and the 
 unrighteous legislation of byegone times has left in Ireland traces 
 which must bo long and severely felt. By penal enactments, doubt- 
 less, industry was discouraged, property was unequally distributed, 
 the growth of a middle class was retarded, the people were demoral- 
 ised, and the whole fabric of society rendered hollow and insecure. 
 The remedy for such a state of things has of necessity been slow and 
 difficult; but it is for the legislature and the government, and for all 
 those wlio, living in better times and exercising authority, have at 
 heart the truo interests of Ireland, to efface the memory of the past, 
 and by equal laws, impartial justice, and forbearing patience, steadily 
 to cany on the great work of social regeneration, and to place the 
 people of Ireland in the position which they are entitled to occupy." 
 In spite however of this declaration, Lord Clarendon was obliged 
 before the end of the year to proclaim several disaffected districts. 
 
 The energetic and prudent manner iu which he met the threatened 
 danger, and by which he averted the attempt at rebellion in the fol- 
 lowing year, established his political character in a point of view 
 which the historian of that period will gladly turn to as a proof of the 
 efficiency of a just moderation as opposed alike to a blind security or 
 a violent f-ysti m of coercion. At a later period he had to repress the 
 excesses of the Orange party, and in so doing displayed firmness and 
 moderation similar to that which the popular tumults had called 
 forth. Lord Clarendon held the viceregal office till February 1852, 
 when, with the other members of the Russell ministry, he resigned, 
 and was replaced by the Earl of Eglinton. His impartial rule 
 exposed him to the censures of the more violent writers and orators 
 b> lonting to both the extreme parties which so long divided Ireland ; 
 but now that strife has somewhat subsided, all parties seem willing to 
 acknowledge Lord Clarendon's desire to improve the national condition 
 of the people and to increase the prosperity of the country. Imme- 
 diately on the formation of the Aberdeen ministry, Lord Clarendon gave 
 in his adhesion to the coalition cabinet, and took the seals of the 
 Foreign Office, for which it was felt that he was admirably fitted by 
 his address aud skill in diplomacy, and from his deep insight into the 
 views and feelings of the various courts and cabinets of Europe. The 
 ability with which he has discharged the duties of that office since 
 January 1 853 has been repeatedly recognised, not merely by friends, 
 but by political opponents; so much so, that when, in 1855, Lord 
 Derby ineffectually attempted to form a ministry, he confessed that, 
 in the event of becoming premier, he would have been ready to offer 
 the Foreign seals to Lord Clarendon. On the accession of Lord 
 Palmerston to power in February 1855, no change was made in the 
 Foreign depaitinent. Accordinely, in the great and stirring events 
 of the last three years, Lord Clarendon has been forced to occupy a 
 leading position, aud he has played a distinguished part well. But 
 though he showed a proper energy in supporting the conduct of the 
 war, Lord Clarendon was not unmindful of the blessings of peace, and 
 did not desire to carry on hostilities further than was sufficient to 
 secure the foundation of an honourable and lasting peace. Accord- 
 ingly, when it was announced that a peace congress was about to be 
 held at Paris, the nation looked to Lord Clarendon to take part in it 
 on beLalf of England. This duty Lord Clarendon discharged in con- 
 junction with Lord Cowley, the British ambassador at Paris. In a 
 speech delivered at the opening of the session of parliament in 1856, 
 he explained fully the views with which her Majesty's minUters would 
 enter on the nei/ociation with Russia. While he denied that the 
 English government intended to carry on the war after the primary 
 end and object had been attained, he still declared that until those 
 negociatious should be concluded every preparation would continue to 
 l e made for war; and that if a peace should not be arranged the war 
 would be prosecuted with increased activity. It was this speech, 
 probably, which tended more than any other single cause to lead the 
 national mind to acquiesce in the peace recently concluded (April 
 1856) between the belligerent powers; and the judgment and tact 
 displayed by his lordship in the Congress at Paris have been the sub- 
 ject of no slight or partial praise among all classes. His discreet zeal 
 iu the matter of mooted reforms, both civil and religious, in the states 
 of the Italian peninsula, has also been deservedly commended. 
 
 Lord Clarendon married in 1839 a sister of the present Earl of 
 Verulam, by whom he has a youthful family. He was created a 
 G.C.B. (Civil) in 1838, and in 1849 rewarded with the knighthood of 
 the Garter. Of his brothers, one has been recently advanced to the 
 bishopric of Carlisle, and the other is the Right Hon. Charles Pelham 
 
 Villiers, Judge- Advocate-General, and M.P. for Wolverhampton, whose 
 early exertions in the cause of Free Trade are not likely to be easily 
 forgotten by the British public. A sister of the Earl of Clarendon, 
 Lady Theresa Lewis, is favourably known as the authoress of the 
 series of biographical sketches entitled ' Friends and Contemporaries 
 of the Lord Chancellor Clarendon.' [See Supplement.] 
 
 * CLARK, SIR JAMES, Bart., Physician in Ordinary to the Queen, 
 was born at Cullen, Bauffshire, in December 1788. He received his 
 early education at the grammar-school of Fordyce, and afterwards 
 entered King's College, Aberdeen, where he took his M.A. degree. He 
 next studied medicine at Edinburgh, and passed the College of 
 Surgeons of that city and of London. In 1809 he entered the navy, 
 and held his appointment afloat till 1815, when he returned to Edin- 
 burgh, and in 1817 took the degree of M.D. in that university. 
 
 Dr. Clark then travelled on the continent, and settling in Rome 
 practised there eight years as physician ; and during this period he 
 visited the principal universities aud medical schools in Italy, France, 
 and Germany. He had thu3 an opportunity of becoming acquainted 
 with the most eminent professors and physicians iu Europe, and 
 favourable means of observing the state of the profession, and the 
 mode of conducting medical education in the principal medical 
 schools of the continent. He visited also the most reputed mineral 
 waters of those countries with the view of becoming acquainted with 
 their effects on diseases ; and while residing and travelling in Italy, 
 his attention was particularly directed to the nature and effects on 
 health and disease of the different climates of the places frequented by 
 invalids, more especially the effects on consumptive patients. 
 
 Dr. Clark having become known to Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg 
 at Rome, was appointed by him his physician in 1824. Two years 
 later he returned to England, and having settled in London, was soon 
 after appointed physician to St. George's parochial infirmary. In 
 1829 appeared his work 'On the Sanative Influence of Climate' (4th 
 edit. 1856), which has become an authority. It contains the clearest 
 and most philosophical account of the climates resorted to by invalids 
 iu this country aud abroad ; and meteorological tables, which at the 
 date of publication were the best constructed and most complete of 
 any before published in England. They have served as the basis of 
 what has since been done in the same direction. 
 
 In 1832 Dr. Clark was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; and 
 on the death of Dr. Maton in 1835 he was appointed physician to the 
 Duchess of Kent and the Princess Victoria ; and became Physician in 
 Ordinary on her Majesty's accession to the throne. It was in 1835 
 that he published 'A Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption and Scro- 
 fulous Diseases,' which, by its clear exposition and able reasoning, has, 
 had a material influence in altering the once mistaken mode of treating 
 those diseases. Dr. Clark was the first to show the origin of con- 
 sumption to be a deteriorated condition of the system ; that the 
 affection of the lungs was the result of a cachectic state of the consti- 
 tution which he termed Tubercular Cachexia. The accuracy of this 
 view has been recognised, aud the term adopted to express the dete- 
 riorative character of consumptive and scrofulous diseases. 
 
 On the establishment of the University of London, Dr. Clark was 
 chosen on the senate. While inquiring into the state of medical 
 education in the foreign universities and medical schools, he had 
 observed the superiority in several important respects of their 
 methods of instruction, more especially that of clinical instruction. 
 His views on this subject were published in his pamphlet ' On Clinical 
 Instruction.' The defect therein signalised is still, we believe, one of 
 the chief defects in medical education in this country. It has been 
 remedied by the senate of the University of London, so far as regards 
 the medical graduates of that institution. 
 
 Sir James Clark was created a baronet in 1833. He is a member of 
 some of the chief foreign societies, scientific and medical, and has 
 been chosen several times on the council of the Royal Society. In 
 addition to his other claims to distinction, it is well known that he 
 has taken a warm interest in sanitary reform, and has exerted his 
 influence to promote the hygienic measures for the improvement of 
 the public health, which now happily occupy the attention of govern- 
 ment as well a3 of the nation. The article 'Change of Air' in the 
 'Cyclopaedia of Prac. Med.,' 1832, and one or two minor publications 
 on medical reform, are from his pen. 
 
 CLARK, WILLIAM TIERNEY, a civil engineer, was born at 
 Sion House, Somersetshire, August 23, 1783. He was apprenticed 
 when very young to a millwright in Bristol, and followed the trade for 
 several years in that city and at Colebrookdals. In 1808 he removed 
 to London, and entered the service of the late Mr. Rennie as draughts- 
 man ; and held the employment until 1811, when he was appointed 
 engineer of the West Middlesex Waterworks. The establishment was 
 at that time on a very small scale— an engine of twenty-horse power 
 supplying the neighbouring hamlets from an insufficient reservoir, 
 yielding no profit to the company. But under Mr. Clark's advice the 
 works were enlarged, and he spared no exertion to render them com- 
 plete and effectual, until at last there were three pumping-engines of 
 the aggregate power of 245 horses, and reservoirs capacious enough to 
 contain from 35 to 40 million gallons, and producing an annual rental 
 of nearly 70,000£. This post he retained for the rest of his life. 
 
 In 1819 Mr. Clark undertook to complete the Thames and Med way 
 Canal, a work which had been stopped for want of capital, and under 
 
CLARKE, ADAM, LL.D. 
 
 CLARKE, ADAM, LL.D. 
 
 262 
 
 his direction it was finished some years afterwards; and the great 
 tunnel through the Friudsbury hills remains as a solid proof of his 
 ability. His next work was the suspension-bridge over the Thames 
 at Hammersmith, which was commenced in 1824 and finished in 1827. 
 It is chiefly remarkable for the small deflection of the chains between 
 the chord-line or points of suspension. The suspension-bridge at 
 Marlow was also designed by Mr. Clark, and he was employed by the 
 late Duke of Norfolk to build one over the Arun. 
 
 Mr. Clark was however best known by the suspension-bridge which 
 he constructed across the Danube at Pesth. It was begun in 1839 and 
 finished in 1849, at a cost of 622.000Z. At times the bursting of dams 
 and the pressure from accumulated ice in the winter threatened a 
 total stoppage of the works, but all obstacles were overcome by the 
 energy and perseverance of Mr. Clark, and the bridge remains an 
 admirable monument of his genius and skill. To quote his own words 
 from the volume in which he describes the bridge, it " encountered 
 probably more difficulties than any structure of a similar kind in 
 existence. The magnitude of the river over which it is thrown, tho 
 depth and nature of its bed, and the velocity of the current, created the 
 misgivings, at one time almost universal in Hungary, that no permanent 
 communication could ever be established across the Danube between 
 Buda and Pesth. The moral difficulties to be overcome, no less than 
 the physical obstacles, were very great. Pride, prejudice, and jealousy, 
 had each to be encountered." Mr. Clark received a box set in brilliants 
 from the Emperor of Austria in token of his approbation at the suc- 
 cessful completion of the bridge, and the late Emperor of Russia sent 
 hiin a first-class gold medal in return for a design for a magnificent 
 suspension-bridge to be erected across the Neva. 
 
 Mr. Clark was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837 ; he 
 was a Fellow also of the Astronomical Society, and a member of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers. He died September 22, 1852. 
 
 CLARKE, ADAM, LL.D., one of the most esteemed of the early 
 ministers among the Wesleyan Methodists, was born in 1762. His 
 parents resided in the north of Ireland. They appear to have been 
 persons of respe* table character ; and by his mother, who was a native 
 of Scotland, he appears to have become early imbued with a deep 
 gense of the value of high devotional sentiment in union with religious 
 knowledge. Of education, properly scholastic or systematic, he appears 
 to have received little or none, and the want of it gave a character, 
 and that not a favourable one, to the learning which by his own 
 unwearied exertions he afterwards acquired. 
 
 As soon as his mind began to develop its peculiarities, it appeared 
 that Adam Clarke was extremely eager after knowledge, and possessed 
 witLin himself resources which would enable him to overcome very 
 formidable obstacles. Placed with a linen manufacturer, who lived 
 in the neighbourhood of his father, to learn the trade, he soon found 
 that he was in a situation which afforded no means of gratifying his 
 desire for knowltdge. He determined to change the mode of life 
 which had been marked out for him, and he returned to his home. 
 Methodism had been introduced into the part of Ireland in which he 
 resided. Hi3 father and mother belonged to that society ; and a 
 Mr. Breedon, one of Mr. Wesley's earliest ministers, was a friend and 
 the religious instructor of the family, and to him at this period of 
 his life be seems to have owed much. The religious meetings and 
 classes of the new sect afforded to the preachers a ready opportunity 
 of becoming acquainted with the character and mental capacity of 
 the young men connected with the society, and such as were suited 
 to the work and were willing to devote themselves to the ministry 
 were gladly received. The union of considerable natural powers with 
 no mean attainments, considering the great disadvantages under which 
 he lay, and of the love of study, with a mind eminently devotional, 
 pointed out young Clarke to the Methodist preachers who frequented 
 
 . his father's house, as one who might be very useful in the ministry 
 among the people with whom his family had formed their religious 
 connection. Their impression that this was the course of life pointed 
 out for him, was communicated to the great father and director of 
 Methodism. The result was that Clarke removed to England, and 
 wag admitted into the school which Wesley had founded at Kings- 
 wood near Bristol. He now gave himself up wholly to the acquisition 
 of such knowledge as might be useful in hi3 calling. Besides what 
 formed the kind of instruction which was imparted to the students at 
 
 • Kings wood, he undertook to teach himself other things; and it was 
 while here that he began the study of the Hebrew language, which 
 
 ■ was the commencement of that course of oriental study in which he 
 afterwards spent much time, and made considerable progress. 
 
 The time Boon came when he was to leave this school, and enter 
 on the duties of an itinerant or travelling preacher. He was accus- 
 tomed to relate with pride and pleasure that he received his com- 
 
 . mission to go forth from the mouth of Mr. Wesley himself. There 
 wag a peculiar and touching affectionateness in the old man's bene- 
 diction. The circuit, as it is called, to which he was appointed was 
 a tract of country near Bradford iu AViltshire. Thus in 1782 he 
 became a Methodist preacher, and so continued to the time of his 
 death. In tiie first twenty years he resided in various parts of tho 
 
 i kingdom, but afterwards he lived, for the most part, in or about 
 London, or at an estate which was purchased for him iu Lancashire. 
 
 In his ministerial character he was singularly acceptable and useful. 
 Hto preaching attracted crowds. He advanced in influence and repu- 
 
 tation in the body of Christians to whom ho belonged : and for many 
 of the latter years of his life he was regarded as one of the chief 
 lights and brightest ornaments of that religious community. 
 
 If this however had been his only claim to distinction, the name 
 of Dr. Clarke would not have appeared in this work or iu the many 
 writings in which, since his death, mention has been made of him. 
 We have already intimated that he was eminently desirous of know- 
 ledge of very various kinds, and, while leading the laborious life of a 
 travelling preacher, he found time for a great variety of discur-ive 
 reading, as well as for much steady application to his philological 
 studies, especially those of Oriental literature. He first gave public 
 evidence of those studies in the year 1802, when he published, iu six 
 volumes, his book entitled ' A Bibliographical Dictionary.' This work 
 gave him at once a literary reputation, and though it is not a work of 
 much original research, it was at the time of its publication un- 
 doubtedly a very convenient book for the English studeut, containing 
 as it did a great body of information well arranged concerning bookl 
 and authors to which no other easy access was presented. The book had 
 an extensive circulation, and has been more than once reprinted. 
 
 This work placed Clarke high in reputation among his brethren and 
 the members of his connexion, though at first some were ready to doubt 
 the value of this kind of book learning. He gained also by it a certain 
 reputation among the bibliographical and philological inquirers of his 
 time. About this period of his life his acquirements in Biblical 
 knowledge and iu Oriental literature began likewise to be taken notice 
 of. On his coming to reside permanently in London, the Bible 
 Society brought him into connection with some of the dignitaries of 
 the church. His connection with the Surrey Institution gave him 
 access to several persons of literary pursuits, and at the same time an 
 easy access to books. He was admitted a Fellow of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries. The University of St. Andrews conferred on him the degree of 
 M.A., and afterwards of LL.D. Some time after he became a member 
 of the Royal Irish Academy. Clarke and his writings undoubtedly did 
 much to remove the feeling of contempt with which many of the 
 cultivated classes were apt to regard Methodism and its followers. 
 The most extraordinary circumstance in his literary history remains 
 however to be mentioned. The Board of Commissioners on the 
 Public Records selected Dr. Clarke as a proper person to superintend 
 the publication of the new edition of Rymer's ' Foedera,' with the pre- 
 paration of which they were charged. This was a great and difficult 
 undertaking; for it was not the mere reprinting the work of Rymer, 
 but a large mass of new materials were to be found and to be incor- 
 porated with the old. Some eminent antiquarian scholars had 
 shrunk from the task. What particularly pointed out Dr. Clarke as a 
 suitable person for this undertaking is not known, as it was evident 
 that his studies had previously lain in a direction very different from 
 that which pointed to such a work as the 'Foedera,' and he himself 
 acknowledged that he came to the task with very little acquaintance 
 with the nature of it. He however laboured at it with much assiduity 
 for several years. It is needless to say that archaeology gained little 
 by his editorial labours, whatever theology may have lost. His name 
 appears in the title of both parts of the first volume, and in the first 
 part of the second volume, which was published in 1818, and from 
 that time Dr. Clarke relinquished his share in the undertaking. 
 
 From the time when he settled in London he was constantly in 
 communication with the press. Of some works he was only the 
 editor; others he abridged; and he prepared some original works, 
 among which are particularly to be named a ' Supplement ' to his 
 ' Bibliographical Dictionary,' ' Memoirs of the Famdy of Wesley,' and 
 a work for the assistance of biblical students. He was also a frequent 
 contributor to the periodical literature of his day. His, as much 
 perhaps as ever any man's, was at this period a life of incessant literary 
 exertion. 
 
 But there was one great literary undertaking on which above all his 
 mind was intent. This was an edition of the Holy Scriptures in tho 
 English version, illustrated with a commentary and critical notes, into 
 which he proposed to throw the results of his own biblical studies, 
 together with much that he might collect from preceding commen- 
 taries. It was to form a kind of Family Bible, and yet be at the same 
 time a book which the biblical scholar might consult with advantage 
 — a union which has been several times attempted. The first volume 
 appeared in 1810, and excited no small attention on account of the 
 novelty of some opinions expressed in it respecting the tempter of our 
 first parents. From this period he pursued this work as the main 
 business of his life, till he had completed it, which he did in 1S26, 
 when appeared the eighth and last volume. For eight of these years, 
 namely, from 1815 to 1823, he lived at a place called Millbrook in 
 Lancashire, where some friends had purchased for him a house and 
 small estate. 
 
 We have not attempted to give an estimate of the literary value of 
 Dr. Clarke's publications, or even to enumerate them all. As literary 
 works they have their full meed of fame. It would be absurd to place 
 his scholarship on a level with that of the really great scholars who 
 have adorned our country ; and many of the works which he under- 
 took were such as required the union of the greatest attainable 
 scholarship with a carefully-trained judgment aud sound taste. It is 
 perhaps one of the most observable circumstances about Dr. Clarke 
 that his mind never seems to have acquired that refinement which 
 
80S 
 
 CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL, LL.D. 
 
 CLARKE, DR. SAMUEL. 
 
 scholarship, when it is genuine, never fails to give, or that superiority 
 to vulgar prejudices and to the affectation of display which is, we 
 believe, the usual accompaniment of high attainments. There is in 
 Dr. Clarke a remarkable affectation of bringing forward the Oriental 
 learning he in understood to have possessed. He cannot keep it out 
 of the introduction to the 'Focdera.' It appears still more strangely 
 in his 'Lives of the Wesley Family,' where he labours after an Arabic 
 etymon of the surname of Wesley, a word really formed according to 
 one of the commonest analogies of our own language. In the same 
 work he gives encouragement to the most vulgar and childish of the 
 populai superstitions. But while we make these remarks, we wish it 
 to be understood that we regard Dr. Clarke as a person on whom it is 
 impossible to look but with very great respect. He was in every sense 
 of the word a good man, and his life presents an instructive lesson of 
 rewards aud honours attending useful labours and consistent virtuous 
 action. We may add also that it shows how the cultivation and encou- 
 ragement of the devotional spirit may be uuited with very vigorous 
 exertion in things which have but a slight connection with it. 
 
 We mu-t not omit to add two or three circumstances of his later 
 years. While he resided in Lancashire the two Buddhist priests 
 whom Sir Alexander Johnston brought fiom Ceylon for instruction iu 
 Christianity were placed iu his family ; he was the means of establish- 
 ing a Methodist mission in the Shetland Islands; and iu 1831, a little 
 before his death, he had the satisfaction of establishing schools iu the 
 province of Ulster, the part of Ireland in which he was born. He 
 accumulated a good library, including many manuscripts, and had 
 formed a small museum of natural curiosities. From 1823, when he 
 left Lancashire, Dr. Clarke resided at Haydon Hall in Middlesex, 
 about 17 miles from London. He died of cholera, on the 20th of 
 August 1832. His 'Miscellaneous Works' have been published iu 
 13 vols. 12mo, London ; aud a ' Life' by J. B. B. Clarke in 3 vols. 8vo, 
 1833. 
 
 CLARKE, EDWARD DAK I EL. LL.D., &c, was descended from 
 a liteiary family, and born at Williugdon in Sussex on the 5th of June 
 1769. He received part of his early education in the grammar-school 
 of Tuubridge, at that time conducted by Dr. Vicesimus Knox, aud 
 thence proceeded iu 1786 to Jesus College, Cambridge. Having taken 
 his degree, he was engaged by the Duke of Dorset in 1790 as tutor to 
 his nephew, Mr. H. Tuftou, with whom in the course of the following 
 year he made the tour of Great Britain. Clarke had always been fond 
 of books of travel, and this journey confirmed his passion, and led to 
 his first essay in travel-writing. He published his journal, hut without 
 his name, aud was very soon ashamed of it. The edition, which was 
 in 2 vols. 8vo, with plates in aquatinta, is now extremely scarce. In 
 1791 he made a trip to Calais, aud seems to have been delighted beyond 
 measure at putting his feet on foreigu land. In the course of the 
 following year he engaged as a travelling companion to Lord Berwick, 
 with whom he went through France, Switzerland, aud Italy. He 
 returned to England at the end of 1793. In the course of the following 
 year he went again to Italy by the Rhine aud the Tyrol, and returuing 
 again to England he was chosen fellow-elect of his college, a barren 
 houour without any emolument. For want of a better occupation he 
 for some time thought seriously of joining the Shropshire militia, in 
 which he was offered a lieutenaucy : but in September 1791 he became 
 tutor in a distinguished Welsh family (that of Sir Thomas Mostyn), with 
 whom he resided some time in Wales, where he made the acquaintance 
 of Mr. Pennaut. He was afterwards connected in the same manner 
 with the family of Lord Uxbridge, with a member of which he made 
 the tcur of Scotland and the Western Isles in 1797. In all these 
 excursions he kept journals, and practised himself in the art of 
 observing scenes and objects, and describing them. About this time 
 he was elected fellow of his college, and being in addition appointed 
 bursar, he took up his residence at Cambridge at Easter, 1798. Iu 
 the spring of the following year he set out with Mr. Cripps, a young 
 man of fortune, on a tour to the countries north of the Baltic. This 
 journey, which was at first intended to occupy only six months, was 
 continued through more than three years and a half, during which 
 master aud pupil traversed Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Lapland, 
 Finland, Russia, Tartary, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, part 
 of Egypt, Greece, Turkey in Europe, and finally returned from Con- 
 stantinople, acroBS the Balkan Mountains, through Germany, France, 
 &c, to England. In consequence of their donations to the University 
 of Cambridge, and other merits, Clarke received the degree of LL.D., 
 and Cripps that of M.A. Among their valuable donations was a frag- 
 ment of a colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, of the best period of 
 Grecian art. Clarke was also the means of securing for his country 
 the ancient sarcophagus, generally but incorrectly called that of 
 Alexander the Great, now iu the British Museum. He made consider- 
 able collections of medals, minerals, and rare plauts ; many of the latter 
 he procured from Professor Pallas in the Crimea. The valuable 
 collection of manuscripts which he had made during his travels he 
 sold to the Bodleian Library, Oxford. In 1807 he began at Cambridge 
 a course of lectures on mineralogy, which had become his favourite 
 subject ; aud at the end of the following year the university established 
 a regular professorship of mineralogy iu his favour. Having been 
 ordained iu 1805, he received the college living of Hailton, and about 
 four years later he obtained the living of Yeldham from Sir William 
 Hush, whose daughter he had married in 1806. From this time his 
 
 life was almost entirely passed at Cambridge or in its immediate 
 neighbourhood. Inl810he published the first volume of his 'Travels;' 
 the second volume appeared in 1812, the third in 1814, the fourth in 
 1816, and the fifth iu 1819. A concluding volume, edited by Robert 
 WaIpole,was brought out after his death, making the Bixth volume, 4to. 
 His ' Travels,' by which he is chiefly known, are the most popular of his 
 works, aud are written iu a style which invariably captivates the reader. 
 Full of enthusiasm, and gifted with a prolific imagination, he throws 
 a charm over all that he describes; but unfortunately his judgment 
 was not sufficiently formed by proper discipline, aud neither his 
 observations uor his conclusions can always be relied on. His essays 
 and experiments in physics chiefly appeared in Thomson's 'Annals of 
 Philosophy,' which contain his accounts of the blowpipe, cadmium, 
 &c. In 1803 he published ' Testimonies of different authors respecting 
 the colossal Statue of Ceres,' and in 1 805 ' A Dissertation on the 
 Sarcophagus in the British Museum.' He died at Pall Mall, London, 
 ou the 9th of March 1822, and was buried in Jesus College Chapel on 
 the 18th of the same mouth. (Life and Remains of Edward Daniel 
 Clarke, by the Rev. William Otter, M.A., 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1825.) 
 
 CLARKE, DR. SAMUEL, was born in October, 1675, at Norwich, 
 where, at the free school, he was distinguished for his progress in 
 classical studies. He entered, iu 1691, at Caius College, Cambridge, 
 and applied with great success to the mathematics, under an able 
 tutor, Mr., afterwards Sir John Ellis. The text-book then used iu the 
 university was a rugged Latin version of the treatise of Rohault, an 
 implicit follower of the Cartesian theory. Clarke, at the age of 
 twenty-one, after closely studying and justly appreciating the reason- 
 ings of Newton's ' Priucipia,' which had then just appeared, published 
 a more classical version of the text of Rohault, with numerous critical 
 notes, added with the view of bringing the Cartesian system into 
 disrepute by exposing its fallacies. After passing through four editions 
 as the university text-book, it gave place, as Clarke desired, to the 
 adoption of undisguised Newtonian treatises. He now went through 
 a diligent course of biblical reading, in the original languages, in the 
 course of which he carefully studied the eaily Christian fathers. On 
 his ordination he was introduced to Dr. More, bishop of Norwich, by 
 Whi-tou, whom he succeeded as domestic chaplain to that bishop for 
 twelve years. In 1699 he published three essays on Confirmation, 
 Baptism, aud Repentance, together with Reflections on Toland's 
 ' Amyntor/ concerning the uucanonical Gospels. Two years after- 
 wards followed his ' Paraphrase on the Four Gospels,' which induced 
 Bishop More to present him with the living of Drayton, near Norwich. 
 Iu 1704 he was appointed to preach the Boylean lecture at Oxford, 
 when he chose for his subject ' The Being and Attributes of God.' 
 The satisfaction which he gave on this occasion led to his re-election 
 the following year, when ho read a series of lectures on the evidences 
 of natural aud revealed religion. These discourses were arranged and 
 published as a continuous argument, and passed through several editions 
 with successive improvements. 
 
 Clarke's mode of demonstrating the existence of God by a process 
 of reasoning from au a priori axiom, is precisely that of Spinoza, 
 against whom the argument of Clarke is especially directed. Both 
 take the same point of departure, and agree that, since something 
 does exist, something always has existed. They assert that eternity 
 and immensity, time aud space, or duration aud extent (for each of 
 these pairs of terms is used without distinction), have always existed, 
 the conception of their non-existence being impossible. It is then 
 considered that, as these are only attributes or qualities, they must 
 necessarily imply a co-existent substance whose attributes they are : 
 a necessary and eternal Being is therefore acknowledged by both, but 
 as to the nature of this Being they differ entirely. Spinoza, like some 
 of the Greek philosophers, concludes this eternal and necessary sub- 
 stance to be the universe itself, material and mental (to trav), which 
 he declares to be the great and only God in whom we live, and move, 
 and have our being. (Compare the passage of Pope's ' Essay,' " All 
 are but parts of one stupendous whole," &c.) Clarke asserts that this 
 substance, of which duration aud extent are the attributes, is an 
 immaterial aud spiritual Being ; this metaphysical notion i3 probably 
 derived from a passage in a scholium of Newton's 'Principia,' where 
 it is said, " Durat (Deus) semper et adest ubique ; et, existendo semper 
 et ubique, durationem et spatium constiluit," &c. Spinoza takes no 
 notice of design as evidence of intelligence; aud Clarke, in assigning 
 to his personification of eternity and immensity certain moral attri- 
 butes in accordance with his metaphysical hypothesis, admits that 
 intelligence, in which lies all the difference between the Theists and 
 Atheists, cannot be demonstrated by any reasoning a priori, but 
 must depend for proof on the a posteriori evidence from observa- 
 tion and induction (prop. 8.) According to his premises, he cannot 
 by logical sequence avoid landing himself on the same ground with 
 Spinoza. Numerous replies and objections to this a priori argu- 
 ment appeared at the time of its first publication. (See a list 
 iu Kippis's ' Biog. Brit.,' and the correspondence between Butler, 
 afterwards bishop of Durham, aud Clarke, printed at the end of 
 Bishop Butler's Works.) One of the principal was 'An Inquiry into 
 the Ideas of Space, Time,' &c, by Bishop Law. The most subtle 
 scholastics, Albert, Aquinas, and Scotus, rejected the a priori proof as 
 an obvious petitio pi incipii, and mauy modern writers regard the 
 performance of Clarke as a failure. Pope, who on several occasions 
 
265 
 
 CLARKSON, THOMAS. 
 
 268 
 
 says sarcastic things of Clarke, alludes to it in the following passage 
 of the ' Dunciad,' b. iv., L 455 : — 
 
 " We nobly take the high priori road, 
 And reason downward till we doubt of God." 
 
 Other writers and thinkers of perhaps equal ability assent to his 
 argument. The 'Evidences' also met with strong opposition. The 
 foundation of morality, according to Clarke, consists iu the immutable 
 differences, relations, and eternal fitness of things. The last expression 
 being of frequent occurrence in this discourse, acquired a fashionable 
 usage in the ethical vocabularies of the day. Regardless of moral 
 sentiment, so fully developed since by Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, and 
 Adam Smith/.Clarke insists solely upon the principle that the criterion 
 of moral rectitude is in the conformity to, or deviation from, the 
 natural and eternal fitness of things : in other words, that an immoral 
 act is an irrational act, that is, an act in violation of the actual ratios 
 of existent things. The endeavour to reduce moral philosophy to 
 mathematical certainty was characteristic of that age, and led to the 
 formation of theories remarkable perhaps more for their ingenuity 
 than utility. Dr. Price is an apologist for the moral theory of Clarke, 
 and among its oppugners we may instance Sir James Mackintosh. 
 (Dissertat. ' Encyc. Brit.') 
 
 In 1706 Clarke obtained, through Bishop More, the rectory of St. 
 Bennett's in London. He published in the same year an answer to the 
 treatise of Dr. Dodwell ' On the Soul,' in which that divine contends 
 that it is not immortal until made so by baptism. Several rejoinders 
 followed on each side. [Collins, Anthony.] Clarke at this time 
 published a Latin translation of the treatise ' On Optics,' by his friend 
 Sir Isaac Newton, who in acknowledgment presented him with 500?. 
 for his five children. His patron, Dr. More, next procured for him the 
 rectorship of St. James's, and a chaplaincy to Queen Anne, which 
 induced him to take his degree of D.D. In 1712 he published his 
 edition of Caesar's ' Commentaries,' in folio, with notes, afld some fine 
 engravings. The same year appeared his treatise on ' The Scripture 
 Doctrine of the Trinity;' a work which involved him for the remainder 
 of his life in a controversy, in which his principal adversary was 
 Dr. Waterland. The Lower House of Convocation, in 1714, com- 
 plained to the bishops of the heterodox and dangerous tendency of its 
 Arian tenets, and Clarke wa3 prevailed upon to declare that he was 
 sorry for his offence. A circumstantial account of this proceeding is 
 given in the 'Apology for Dr. Clarke,' 1714. His favourite subject 
 was the doctrine of philosophical liberty and necessity ; on which he 
 began, in 1715, to carry on an amicable controversy with Leibnitz. In 
 advocating the doctrine of free will, Dr. Clarke had constantly in view 
 the subversion of the writings of Spinoza. The death of Leibnitz left 
 the controversy undecided, and Clarke soon afterwards resumed his 
 argument in reply to tbe ' Philosophical Inquiry concerning Liberty,' 
 by the friend of Locke, Anthony Collins. 
 
 In 1718 Dr. Robinson, bishop of London, put forth a pastoral letter, 
 in which he strictly prohibited his clergy from adopting the Arian 
 modifications of the primitive doxologies which had been supported 
 by Dr. Clarke, a prohibition which called forth many pamphlets. In 
 1724 Clarke obtained the mastership of Wigston Hospital, and pub- 
 lished a volume of seventeen sermons. On the death of Newton he 
 declined the offer of the mastership of the Mint. AT this time he 
 published in the 'Philosophical Transactions' (401) a paper on the 
 velocity and force of bodies in motion. In 1729 appeared his edition 
 of Homer, with Latin version and notes, which is still used in schools. 
 The last nine books were not prepared by Dr. Clarke. He died rather 
 suddenly, 17 May, 1729. His 'Exposition of the Church Catechism,' 
 and ten volumes of sermons, were published after his death. The 
 moral character of Clarke is praised by all his biographers : his temper 
 wag remarkably mild, and his manners modest- and unassuming. As 
 a writer he is plain and unaffected ; very accurate, but monotonous, 
 tame, and jejune. Voltaire, not inaptly calls him a 'mouliu a ranoune- 
 ment.' He was a wary and very skilful disputant, well disciplined in 
 the scholastic logic. Inferior to Locke in comprehensiveness and origi- 
 nality, ho was greatly superior to him in acquirements, being eminent 
 as a divine, a mathematician, a metaphysician, and a philologist. 
 
 (Life by Bishop Hoadley ; Whiston, Historical Memoirs ; D. Stewart 
 and Mackintosh, Dissertations in Eacy. Brit.) 
 
 CLAUKSON, THOMAS, was born March 26, 1760, at Wisbeach, 
 Cambridgeshire, where his father, who was a clergyman, was master 
 of the free grammar school. He was at first educated under his father, 
 and after that was sent to St. Paul's School, London, and thence to St. 
 John's College, Cambridge, where he gained the first prize for a Latin 
 dissertation proposed for the middle bachelors. In the followug year, 
 1785, the Vice-Chancellor of the University announced as trie subject 
 of a Latin dissertation for the senior bachelors, 'Anne liceat invitos in 
 eervitutem dare?' (' Is it right to make slaves of others against their 
 will?'). The prize was awarded to Clarkson for bis essay, which was 
 read with great applause in the Senate House, in June, 1786. He had 
 used much industry in collecting materials for this dissertation, and 
 had become greatly excited by what he had read of the miseries to 
 which the slaves were subj-cted in the carrying on of the trade. He 
 resolved to use all his cffoits to get it suppressed, and in order to do 
 ao relinquished hi3 chances of advancement in the church, for which 
 be had been intended, and in which he had taken deacon's orders. 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. II. 
 
 He translated his essay into English, and its publication brought him 
 into connection with a small body of Quakers who had for several 
 years formed an association for the suppression of the slave-trade, and 
 he was afterwards introduced to Mr. Wilberforce, and other persons of 
 influence. William Penu in 1668 had denounced the trade as cruel, 
 impolitic, and unchristian ; in 1727, at a general yearly meeting of tho 
 Quakers in London, it was declared " that the importing of negroes is 
 cruel and unjust, and is severely censured by the meeting ;" and iu 
 1760 a similar meeting passed a resolution to exclude from their society 
 all who "participated in any way in that guilty traffic." While Mr. 
 Wilberforce, seconded by a party which gradually increased, repeatedly 
 brought the question before the House of Commons, Mr. Clarkson was 
 labouring without the walls of parliament, was collecting evidence, 
 writing letters and pamphlets, and attending meetings at Liverpool 
 and Bristol, then the chief centres of tho trade, and at Plymouth, 
 Bridgewater, and other places. lie even went to Paris, and remained 
 there six months in the greatest heat of the French revolution, fur- 
 nishing Mirabeau with materials for speeches against the trade, which 
 were delivered beforo the French Convention, but without producing 
 the desired effect. In England however, after more thau twenty years 
 of incessant exertion, the cause was won : a law for the entire abolition 
 of the trade iu slaves was passed March 25, 1807, Mr. Wilberforce 
 having first brought the subject before parliament iu 1787. 
 
 But the exertions of Clarkson and his supporters, who had now 
 become numerous, did not terminate with the suppression of the trade 
 in slaves. The struggle was afterwards continued during another 
 twenty years for the total abolition of slavery in the British West India 
 Islands. In 1833 their efforts were again crowned with success, by 
 the passing of the Emancipation Act, which liberated nearly a million 
 of slaves, and awarded twenty millions of pounds sterling as compen- 
 sation to their late owners. Declining health had prevented Clarkson 
 from appearing in public during the latter years of the movement. 
 Cataract had formed in both his eyes, and for a short time he was 
 quite blind. He underwent an operation which completely restored 
 his sight, and in 1840 he made his last public appearance at a meeting 
 of the Anti-Slavery Convention at Exeter Hall, over which the Duke of 
 Sussex presided. His talents ami untiring energy were unanimously 
 acknowledged, and he was enthusiastically greeted as the patriarch of 
 the cause. He died at his residence, Playford Hall, Sussex, Septem- 
 ber 26, 1846, at the age of eight-six. 
 
 Besides several pamphlets and other small works, all bearing more 
 or less directly on the one great object to which he had devoted his 
 life, Mr. Clarkson published, in 1806, ' A Portraiture of Quakerism,' 
 3 vols. 8vo; in 1808, 'The History of the Abolition of the Slave 
 Trade,' 2 vols. 8vo; in 1813, 'Memoirs of the Public and Private Life 
 of William Penn,' 2 vols. 8 vo ; and iu 1836, ' Researches, Antediluvian, 
 Patriarchal, and Historical,' 8vo. 
 
 (Thomas Taylor, Biographical Sketch of Thomas Clarkson ; Gentle- 
 marts Magazine.) 
 
 CLAUDE. Claude Gellde, called Claude Lorraine, was born at 
 Champagne in Lorraine in 1600. His parents were very poor, aud it 
 is said by Saudrart, who was later in life the intimate associate of 
 Claude, aud his instructor in the practice of painting from nature, 
 that he was originally apprenticed to a pastrycook. At the age of 
 twelve, being left an orphan, he sought a home at the house of his 
 elder brother, who was in business as a carver of wood at Friburg. A 
 relation, who was a travelling dealer, observing some indications of a 
 love for the fine arts, persuaded his brother to allow the lad to accom- 
 pany him to Rome. Here he was somewhat unceremoniously 
 deserted by his relative, but received pecuniary assistance from his 
 brother. Seeing some paintings by Godfrey Waals which pleased him. 
 he determined to go to Naples, where that painter then resided, to 
 obtain the benefit of his instruction. At the expiration of two years 
 he returned to Rome, where he engaged himself at first as house- 
 servant to Agostino Tassi, then iu considerable repute as a landscape- 
 painter, and under him he studied with unwearied diligence to master 
 the principles of art. Having acquired some repute, he made the 
 tour of Italy and France, and part of Germany, staying occasionally 
 for some time at different places to replenish his purse, and paying a 
 visit to his native place. He appears to have frequently suffered 
 through various misadventures, both in health and fortune, during his 
 protracted tour. 
 
 On hi3 return to Rome he was received with a general welcome, and 
 a wide aud increasing demand for his pictures. Commissions came to 
 him from numerous places, and from many illustrious persons of the 
 principal countries of Europe. He died November 21, 16S2. 
 
 Claude is an instance of what may be done by a constant and 
 diligent study of nature, and by unwearied manual practice. It was 
 his custom to spend great part of his time, often whole days, from 
 dawn till night, in watching the changes of the appearance iu earth 
 and sky. He has left proofs of the painstaking labour with which he 
 studied the details of a picture in finished studies of leaves aud bits 
 of ground. By these means, although it is said very slowly, he 
 eventually acquired such mastery of hand and eye as produced him 
 fame, wealth, and the rank of the first among landscape-painters. Hn 
 painted for his study a landscape, compounded of many views, taken 
 in the Villa Madama, with an infinite variety of trees, which he kept 
 aa a store of natural objects. He refused to sell it, even when 
 
CLAUDE, JEAN. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, ALP.TNUS. 
 
 Clement IX. offered to cover it with pieces of gold. This picture, 
 and another of ' Esther and Ahasuerus,' lie is said to have mentioned 
 as his best productions. He used to make drawings of his pictures in 
 a book, in order to prevent their being pirated. Ho left six of these 
 registers, which he called his ' Libri di Verita;' one of them, well 
 known by Earlom's engravings, is in tho possession of tho Duke of 
 Devonshire. 
 
 His colouriug is rich, powerful, and brilliant ; his tints are varied 
 as in nature itself. Ilia aerial perspective is perfect; the fore-ground 
 stands out with the force and brightness of an Italian sunshine ; the 
 distance recedes clear and wide, till the blue hills and blue sky meet 
 in harmonious contrast, or melt into the rich, warm, dewy atmosphere 
 of Rome. His architecture, if not vory correct, is light and fanciful, 
 and often charmingly mixed with foliage, which is graceful and moving. 
 The water ripples and undulates in the tremulous light, or lies calm 
 and glassy, with deepening shadows. His composition is a singular 
 union of freedom and symmetry. If his landscapes have a fault, it is 
 that the graceful is too invariably selected ; a trifle of roughness, or 
 irregularity, would add to the interest of the picture. Rich and 
 varied as is his foliage, it must be confessed that he is often inaccurate 
 in drawing the skeleton of his trees. His figures too are very poor ; 
 this however he freely admitted, saying he sold the landscape and gave 
 away the figures, a trait of modesty which seems in accordance with 
 his mild and amiable character. He left his property to two nephews 
 and a niece, his only surviving relations. Most of the great galleries 
 of Europe possess specimens, more or less excellent, of the paintings 
 of Claude. England is very rich in his works. In the National 
 Gallery there arc ten of Claude's paintings, and some of them rank 
 among his finest works. The gallery of the Earl of Grosvenor, and 
 that of Mr. Mills at Leigh Court, near Bristol, also contain some 
 famous specimens of tho works of this greatest of landscape-painters. 
 The British Museum possesses a good collection of Claude's drawings. 
 
 CLAUDE, JEAN, born in 1019, at Sauvetat, near Agen, was the 
 son of a Protestant clergyman, and was himself brought up to the 
 Church. He distinguished himself in controversial learning, and was 
 appointed professor of theology in the Protestant college of Nismes, 
 which place he filled for eight years. At the cud of this time, the 
 vexations of the government authorities obliging him to abandon his 
 chair, he went to Faris, where he was soon after appointed to the 
 church of Charenton, in 1GCC. In this situation he showed himself 
 by his writings one of the ablest champions of tho Protestant 
 doctrines, an antagonist not unworthy of Bossuet, Aruauld, Nicole, 
 and other distinguished Catholic divines. In 1671 he published his 
 'Reponsc au Traitd de la Perpdtuito de la Poi sur l'Eucharistie,' 
 2 vols. 8yo. [Aunauld.] In 1673 appeared his 'Defense de la 
 Reformation, oil Response aux Trdjugds k'gitimcs de Nicole.' In 
 1681 Claude had a controversial conference with Bossuet, after which 
 he published ' Rt ; ponse a la Conference de Bossuet.' The conference, 
 as usual, led to no approximation between the contending parties. In 
 16S5 the Revocation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. obliged 
 Claude to seek refuge in Holland, where he was well received, on 
 account both of his talents and his personal character, and the Prince 
 of Orange granted him a pension. He died not long alter, January 13, 
 16S7, much regretted by his co-religionists as one of their ablest and 
 most estimable advocates. His ' Plaintes des Protcstans crucllement 
 opprimes dans le Royaume de France ' was published after his death, 
 as well a-s other posthumous works, chiefly on theological and contro- 
 versial subjects ; he left also some sermons. His style though simple 
 was vigorous, being sustained by considerable logical skill and eru- 
 dition. Deveze wrote a biography of Claude, Amsterdam, 1687. His 
 grandson, Jean Jacques Claude, was one of the earliest pastors of the 
 French Protestant Church in Threadneedlestreet, London, and died 
 in 1712. 
 
 CLAUDIA'NUS, CLAU'DIUS, was born at Alexandria in Egypt, 
 a.d. 365. Though of a family originally Roman, his education was 
 Greek ; and he appears to have written first in the Greek language. 
 His work on the 'Antiquities of Tarsus' is lost. His first Latin verses 
 were written during the consulship of Probinus, A.D. 395. In this 
 year he became a dependent of the regent Stilicho, guardian of the 
 two minors, Arcadius and Honorius ; and in his poems he sometimes 
 alludes to his soldier's life. Both Stilicho and his beautiful wife 
 Serena warmly befriended the poet, who repayed their kindness by no 
 stinted measure of praise. Claudian seems to have enjoyed all the 
 splendour and luxuries which the high station of Stilicho afforded; 
 and he either purchased or requited those indulgences by lavishing 
 indiscriminate eulogies on his patrons and bringing infamy and ridicule 
 on their enemies. 
 
 The most important favour for which he was indebted to Serena 
 appears to have been her assisting him to obtain a very wealthy bride. 
 The nuptials were celebrated at Alexandria, and it feoms probable 
 that Claudian and his wife soon after came to Italy. After tho war 
 with Gildo he was honoured with a bronze statue, erected in the 
 forum of Trajan, an honour which, as Gibbon (eh. 30) observes, he 
 acknowledged as a man who deserved it : the inscription which was cut 
 on the statue is still extant. (Orelli, 1 Corpus Inscript.,' vol. i., p. 259.) 
 
 The death of Stilicho (a.d. 408) was soon followed by the ruin of 
 his favourite. Hadrian, the successor of Stilicho, had formerly been 
 the subject of a satirical epigram ('Epigr.,' 25, iu some editions 30) 
 
 of Claudian, and he now began to watch for a favourable opportunity 
 of revenge. The particulars of Claudian's death are not known ; but 
 it seems probable, though some recent scholars have doubted the 
 statement, that his attempts to conciliate Hadrian were ineffectual, and 
 that he finally fell a victim to his resentment. 
 
 Claudian's poetical merits arc considerable. He does not excel in 
 tho chastised and severe beauties of the older poets whom he aspired 
 to imitate, nor is he remarkablo for great invention or a lofty imagi- 
 nation ; but in what may be called the picturesque style he is sur- 
 passed by none : he brings out the smallest details of a scone into a 
 vivid and correct form, amplified and ornamented with all the graces I 
 of diction. The most prosaic topic in his hands is invested with the | 
 charms of poetry. An elegant and harmonious versiDcation always 1 
 delights his reader. " In the decline of arts and of empire, a native I 
 of Egypt, who had received tho education of a Greek, assumed in a 
 mature age the familiar use and absolute command of the Latin lan- 
 guage, soared above tho heads of his feeble contemporaries, and placed | 
 himself, after an interval of 300 years, among tho poets of ancient I 
 Rome." (Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' chap. 30.) 
 
 Claudian's principal poems are, 3 books ' De Raptu Proserpina) ; * 
 3 books 'Do Laudibus Stilichonis ; ' 2 books ' In Rufinum ;' 2 books 
 'In Eutropium;' 'Do Bello Getico;' ' De Bcllo Gildonico,' &c. The 
 best editions are those of Gesncr and Burmann. Claudian is included | 
 in Weber's 'Corpus Poetarum Latinorum,' Frankfurt, 1833. The 1 
 poems of Claudian were translated into English by A. Hawkins, Loud., I 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1817. 
 
 CLAU'DIUS, or CLODIUS, ALBI'NUS, a native of Adrumetum, 
 in Africa, served with distinction under Marcus Aurclius and Corn- 
 modus in various parts of the empire; in Asia, iu Gaul, in Germany I 
 against the Frisians, and lastly in Britain. When Avidius Cassius, I 
 governor of Syria, revolted against M. Aurclius, Albinus, who com- I 
 manded the troops in Bithynia, checked the revolt which was beginning I 
 to spread ^ong his soldiers. In consequence of this service he was 
 raised to the consulate, together with Pompeianus, the emperor's son- 
 in-law, a.d. 176. When Septimius Severus became suspected of 
 aspiring to the empire, Commodus, with the view of strengthening 
 himself, offered to Albinus, who was then commanding in Britain, 
 where he had succcded Pertiuax, the title of Caesar, which Albinus 
 declined. After the assassination of Commodus and of his short-lived 
 successor Pertinax, Didius Juliauus being mado emperor by the 
 praetorian guards of Rome, assumed the right of disposing of the 
 empire to the highest bidder, three commanders of the legions abroad 
 — Albinus in Britain, Severus in Illyricum, and Pescennius Niger in 
 Syria — stood forth to dispute this right by the^orresponding argument 
 of the will of their own soldiers. Severus, who was the nearest to 
 Rome, marched upon the city, upon which the senate proclaimed him 
 emperor, and the praetorians made way for him by assassinating the , 
 unfortunate Julianus. Severus while on his march had written to . 
 Albinus, proclaiming him Ca:sar, and adopting him as his successor. 
 This time Albinus accepted the title, which he assumed publicly at 
 the head of his legions ; and the senate confirmed it, after the acces- 
 sion of Severus. But the new emperor having first overthrown his 
 competitor Pescennius Niger, resolved to rid himself also of his j 
 dubious associate Albinus ; who, having discovered his intentions in I 
 time, passed over into Gaul, where he was proclaimed emperor, and 
 strengthened himself by fresh recruits. Severus hurried from the 
 east against this new enemy, and after several partial engagements a 'I 
 great battle was fought near Lyon, in February a.d. 197, in which ; 
 Severus was worsted at first and wounded, according to Spartianus, i 
 but succeeded in rallying his cavalry, with which he gained the victory. ; 
 The soldiers of Albinus having taken refuge within Lyon, that city 
 was invested, stormed, and burnt, by the troops of Severus. Albinus, 
 according to Dion, killed himself, and his body was earned to Severus, 
 who had the head cut off and taken to Rome, and the body thrown 
 into the Rhone. Severus, with his characteristic inhumanity, put to 
 death the wife and children of Albinus, and ordered a general pro- 
 scription of all his friends, who were numerous in Gaul auel in Spain, 
 and even at Rome. Albinus appears to have been a man of consider- 
 able talents and information. He was a distinguished commander, 
 and had many partisans among the senators, but was harsh and even 
 cruel in his military discipline : and is said by Capitolinus to have 
 been au enormous glutton. (Herodian, Dion, and Spartianus; and 
 Julius Capitolinus in the Historic), Augusta.) 
 
 Coin of Claudius Albinus. 
 British Museum, Actual size. Bronze. Weight 337 grains. 
 
2C) 
 
 CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS. 
 
 CLAVIGERO, FRANCESCO SA VERIO. 
 
 270 
 
 CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, surnanied GOTHICUS, was 
 born hi Illyrioum a.d. 214, served in the army as tribune under Decius, 
 was afterwards governor of bis native province under Valerianus, and 
 after the death of Gallienus in 268, near Milan, was proclaimed 
 emperor by the army. The choice was immediately approved by the 
 Senate. Claudius began his reign by defeating the usurper Aureolus, 
 who had revolted against Gallienus, and had taken possession of 
 Milan. Aureolus was killed in the battle. Claudius afterwards 
 marched against the Germans, who had entered Italy, and defeated 
 them on the banks of the Benacus (Lake of Garda). On arriving at 
 Rome, he was received with great honours, and applied himself to 
 reform many of the abuses which existed in the administration of the 
 empire. In the following year he marched against the Goths, or 
 Scythians, who had invaded the province of Mcesia, defeated them 
 with great slaughter, and made a vast number of prisoners, whom he 
 distributed over various provinces as labourers. In consequence of 
 this victory, he assumed the name of Qothicus. In the year after 
 (a.d. 270) he died at Sirmium, in Pannonia, of a contagious disease 
 which had spread in his army, after a short reign of little more than 
 two years, during which he exhibited virtues and abilities that entitle 
 him to be numbered among the best emperors of Rome. The Senate 
 named his brother Quiutilius his successor, but the army proclaimed 
 Aurelianus, upon which Quintilius was killed, or killed himself 
 according to others. (Trebcllius Pollio in Historia Augusta.) 
 
 Coin of Claudius Gothicus. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Bronze. Weight 125 grains. 
 
 CLAUDIUS NERO, the son of Drusus Nero, the brother of 
 Tiberius, and of Antonia Minor, the daughter of M. Antonius the 
 Triumvir, by Octavia, the sister of Augustus, was born at Lyon 
 B.c. 10. [Augustus.] In his youth he was sickly, weak, and timid, 
 which made his mother say that he was but the half-finished sketch of 
 a man. Augustus, in compassion, used to call him miscllus, *!ittle 
 wretch. He was left to the company of the women and the freedmen 
 of the palace, and little notice was taken of him under Augustus and 
 Tiberius. He lived in privacy, and appears to have applied himself 
 with perseverance to study. He became a proficient in Greek and 
 Latin, and wrote, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavius, a history of 
 Rome, in 43 books, which is lost. He suggested the addition of three 
 new letters to the Roman alphabet, and he enforced the use of them 
 during his reign, after which they full into disuse, but still appeared 
 in the time of Tacitus in the old inscriptions ('Annal.,' xi. 14). He 
 also applied himself with much perseverance to the study and practice 
 of oratory, and Tacitus has transmitted to us a favourable specimen 
 in a speech which he delivered before the senate when emperor, in 
 favour of the Gauls, who were asking to be admitted to the rights of 
 Roman citizens. (' Anual.' xL 24.) 
 
 When Caligula, who was the nephew of Claudius, became emperor, 
 he took his uncle a3 hi3 colleague in the consulship, a.d. 37. After 
 the expiration of his consulship Claudius again withdrew into privacy, 
 from which he was dragged by some mutinous soldiers, who were 
 overrunning the imperial palace after the death of Caligula, and who 
 discovered Claudius concealed behind a tapestry, and trembling from 
 fear. They raised him on their shoulders, and carried him to the camp, 
 where he was proclaimed emperor by the troops in a.d. 41, against 
 the wishes of the senate and of many of the citizens, who were for 
 restoring the republic. This was the first example of that baneful 
 practice, which the soldiers so often repeated, of disposing of the 
 imperial crown. Claudius, who was then fifty years of age, began his 
 reign by acts of justice and of mercy; he recalled exiles, restored to 
 tho rightful owners much property which had been confiscated under 
 Tiberius and Caligula, rejected the honours and titles which tho 
 flattery of courtiers would have bestowed upon him, embellished 
 Rome, formed an aqueduct for a fresh supply of water, which still 
 bears bis name, constructed a harbour at the mouth of the Tiber, and 
 began the emissary of the Lake Fucinus. He also went over to 
 Britain, which country he first permanently occupied, at least in part, 
 by his generals Plautius and Vespasianu3, and afterwards by Ostorius. 
 Caractacus, who wa3 brought prisoner before him at Rome, expe- 
 rienced the imperial clemency. Claudius afterwards fell into a state 
 of apathy and imbecility, being entirely governed by his profligate 
 wife Messalina and the freedmen of tho palace who were leagued with 
 her. They took advantage of hi3 excessive timidity and credulity to 
 make him sign the death-warrants of numerous senators and knights, 
 whom they represented as conspirators, and whose property was con- 
 fiscated for their benefit. Mcssalina openly abandoned herself to the 
 most shameless licentiousness, and no one dared to check her, or 
 remonstrate with the emperor on her conduct, for fear of incurring 
 
 her deadly revenge. She carried her effrontery at last so far as publicly 
 to marry Caius Silius, ono of the handsomest men of Rome, while 
 Claudius was absent at Ostia. The emperor, who was roused from 
 his torpor by the report of this scandal, gave orders that Mcssalina 
 should be put to death. Soon afterwards he married (50) his own 
 niece, Agrippina the younger, the widow of Domitius Aenobarbus, and 
 mother of L. Domitius. Agrippina easily prevailed on the weak 
 Claudius to adopt her sou Domitius, who assumed his stepfather's 
 name of Nero, by which he was afterwards known as emperor, and to 
 give him in marriage his daughter Octavia. Agrippina having thus 
 paved the way for the succession of her own son to the throne, to tho 
 prejudice of Britanuicus, tho son of Claudius by Me.-salina, completed 
 her object by poisoning her husband at Siuucssa, where he had gone 
 for the benefit of his health. Claudius died in 54, in his sixty-fourth 
 year, after being in possession of the sovereign power for thirteen 
 years and nine mouths. His funeral was celebrated with great pomp, 
 and he was numbered among the gods, but his will was not read in 
 public in order to avoid exciting disturbances among tho people on 
 account of the preference given to Nero over Britannicua 
 (Tacitus, Ann. xii. 09; Suetonius, Claudius; Dion.) 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 Coin of Claudius Nero. 
 Actual size. Bronze. AVeight 437 grains. 
 
 CLAUSEL, BERTRAND, COUNT, Marshal of France, was born 
 at Mirepoix, December 12, 1772. He entered the army very young, 
 and became aide-de-camp to General Pdrignou, with whom he served 
 in the army of the Pyrenees, in 1794-95. He was already a brigadier- 
 general when attached to the corps of Leclerc, whom he accompanied 
 to St. Domingo, and soon was raised to the command of a division. 
 On his "return from that ill-fated expedition in 1S04 he served in Italy 
 and Germany. His services were next transferred to Spain, where he 
 greatly distinguished himself. His name appears in most of the 
 narratives of the great battles ; and he was badly wounded at Sala- 
 manca. In 1813 he commanded one of the corps d'armees, which 
 were employed against Wellington, and fought the English almost 
 daily during the retreat into France. Having been induced to join 
 Napoleon during tho Hundred Days, he was obliged after the restora- 
 tion to leave his country for several years, and retire to America. 
 Subsequently, having returned to France, he was appointed to succeed 
 Marshal Bourmont a3 commander-in-chief in Africa in 1830, was 
 created a marshal himself the following year, and governor of Algeria 
 in 1832. Foiled in his attempt upon Constantino in 1S36, he returned 
 dispirited to Paris, and closed his arduous life at Toulouse on the 
 21st of April 1842, his military career in the field having extended 
 over thirty years. 
 
 (Rabbe ; Feller, Biog. Univ. ; Diet, de Conversation.) 
 
 CLAVI'GERO, FRANCESCO SAVERIO, was born at Vera Cruz, 
 in Mexico, about 1720. He entered the order of Jesuits, and was 
 sent as missionary among the Indians in various parts of Mexico, 
 where he says, in the preface to his work, he spent thirty-six years, 
 visiting the country in every direction, living at times entirely among 
 the Indians, whose language he learned, collecting their traditions, 
 and examining the historical paintings, manuscripts, and monuments 
 relative to the ancient history of the aboriginal tribes, with the view of 
 writing a correct account of Mexico; since he had found, on reading 
 the Spanish authors who had preceded him, that their works were 
 disfigured by many errors and misrepresentations. After the Jesuits 
 were suppressed by Spain in 17G7, Clavigero left Mexico for Italy, 
 where the pope granted to the expelled fathers an asylum in the States 
 of the Church. Clavigero, and others of his brethren from Spanish 
 America, had the town of Cesena assigned to them as their residence ; 
 a circumstance which gave Clavigero a good opportunity of comparing 
 his own information with that collected by his brother missionaries in 
 various provinces of Spanish America. He now set about writing his 
 ' History of Mexico,' which he published in Italian, ' Storia antica del 
 Me3sico cavata dai migliori Storici Spagnuoli, e dai Manoscritti e 
 dalli Pitture antiche degl' Indiaui,' 4 vols. 4to, Cesena, 1780-1, with 
 maps and plates, which he dedicated to the learned Carli. In the first 
 volume, after a long and critical list of all the Spanish writers on 
 Mexico, the author give3 an account of the countries constituting 
 that empire; of their natural history, of their early inhabitants, 
 their various migrations, and of the establishment of tho dominion 
 of the Aztecs, and concludes with a sketch of the political state of 
 
271 CLAVIJO Y FAXARDO, JOSEPH. 
 
 the country when Cortez landed on its shores in 1521. The second 
 volume treats of the manners, customs, arts, sciences, and language 
 of the people. The third, which contains the account of the conquest 
 by Cortez, is written with great impartiality. The author feels as a 
 Mexican rather than a Spaniard. The fourth volume consists of 
 dissertations on the physical and moral constitution of the ancient 
 Mexicans, on their progress in the arts and sciences, on their religion, 
 on the proper boundaries of the empire of Ana'auac ; and lastly, the 
 author gives a list of works written in the various native languages 
 since the conquest, either by Spaniards or natives. In these disserta- 
 tions Clavigero has at times shown more industry and honest zeal 
 than critical discrimination; his work however is, upon the whole, the 
 best that has been written on ancient Mexico. It was translated into 
 English by C. Cullen : ' The History of Mexico,' 2 vols. 4to, London, 
 1787. Clavigero died at Cesena in October 1793. 
 
 CLAVIJO Y FAXARDO, JOSEPH, a Spanish writer, whose name 
 is now bi tter known in France and Germany than in Spain from a train 
 of circumstances which have secured him an unenviable immortality. 
 He was born at Lanzarote, one of the Canary islands, on the 19th of 
 March 1720, and was educated in the Islands for the legal profession, 
 but went in 1749 to seek his fortune in Madrid, and was appointed to 
 a place in the war-office, where he had the merit of first suggesting 
 the publication of a Spanish army-list, the series of which commences 
 iu 1703. The year before, 1702, he had begun, under the assumed 
 name of Alvarez y Valhulares, a periodical collection of essays in 
 imitation of the English 'Spectator,' to which he gave the title of ' El 
 Pensador,' or ' The Thinker.' The work was so successful that he soon 
 affixed his real name to it, and the third volume appeared with a 
 royal privilege to protect it from piracy, commencing with the very 
 unusual clause that his majesty had been " informed of the utility and 
 profit which resulted to the public from this periodical undertaking." 
 The king, Charles III., a warm patron of literature, at the same time 
 promised him the first honourable post suited to his merits which 
 should become vacant, and a few weeks after he was named Officer of 
 the Archives of the first Secretary of State. 
 
 For some years Clavijo had been acquainted with two French ladies, 
 Madame Guilbert and Mademoiselle Caron, who carried on some kind 
 of business, probably millinery, at Madrid. He had received from 
 them instruction in the niceties of the French language, and some 
 hints in the composition of the 'Pensador,' much of which, like its 
 English prototype, was occupied with speculations on the fair sex. 
 At his first succ< ss he made proposals for the hand of Mademoiselle 
 Carou, and the marriage was settled to take place as soon as he received 
 his promised appointment. AVhen the appointment came the lover 
 cooled, and though the banns had b en put up, he ceased to frequent 
 the bouse. Some scandal was excited, and the French ambassador 
 was applied to. Clavijo began to be afraid of the result, solicited his 
 betrothed for pardon, renewed his vows, brought the affair for the 
 second time to the verge of marriage, and then repeated his desertion. 
 The younger lady became seriously ill, the elder wrote to Paris to 
 complain to their father and family, and their brother, Pierre Augustiu 
 Caron, came to Madrid to inquire iuto the matter. He was then a 
 man of two aud-thirty, scarcely beginning to be known, but he after- 
 wards became celebrated under the title of nobility which he purchased, 
 the title of Beaumarchais. [Beaumarchais.] 
 
 Beaumarchais on his arrival at Madrid introduced himself with a 
 friend to Clavijo, in the character of a French literary gentleman who 
 was travelling, at the request of a literary society at Paris, to establish 
 a correspondence with the most eminent writers of every country, 
 and was of course attracted to the rising hope of Spain, the distin- 
 guished author of the ' Pensador.' When Clavijo, who welcomed his 
 proposal with eagerness, inquired if he could serve him in any other 
 way, the stranger, fixing his eyes on him, commenced a narrative of 
 the wrongs of a French lady at Madrid, in which, as it proceeded, 
 Clavijo could not fail with gradually darkening countenance to recog- 
 nise the story in which he bore a principal part. " The eldest sister," 
 Beaumarchais went on, " wrote off to France an account of the outrage 
 to which they had been subjected, and the story affected their brother 
 to such a degree that ho made but one leap from Paris to Madrid. I 
 am that brother, come to unmask a traitor, and to write his soul on 
 his face iu lines of blood. The traitor is yourself !" The startled 
 Spaniard began to stammer out an explanation; the prepared and self- 
 possessed Frenchman, pressing his advantage, cut him short with a 
 declaration that what he came to demand was, not the completion of 
 the marriage, but an acknowledgment, under Clavijo's own band, that 
 he was a villain who had deceived, betrayed, outraged his sister, 
 without a cause. In ca?e of refusal, Beaumarchais told him that he 
 would pursue him till he should be obliged to give him a meeting 
 behind Buenretiro, at that time the common spot for duels at Madrid" 
 "Then, if I am more fortunate than you," he said, "I will take my 
 dying sister in my arms, put her in my carriage, and return at once 
 with her to France. If, on the contrary, fortune favours you, there 
 is an end. I made my will before I set out ; you will have every 
 advantage over us, and may laugh at our expence." The interview 
 after a long discussion ended with Clavijo's giving him the declaration 
 he required, bsariug on the face of it that it was "free and spontaneous;" 
 and Beaumarchais left him with the understanding that Clavijo was to 
 be permitted if possible to make his peace with his betrothed. 
 
 CLAVIJO Y FAXARDO, JOSEPH. £? 2 
 
 It was on the 19th of May 1764 that this declaration was given; 
 on the 20th of May, Marie Louise Caron and Joseph Clavijo signed a 
 contract of marriage, in presence of several witnesses. Then for the 
 third time the 'Pensador' began to waver. A duenna made her 
 appearance who asserted that he had made her a promise of marriage 
 several years before. Beaumarchais suspected, not without some cause, 
 that the duenna was set on by the man she appeared to pursue. Clavijo 
 then shifted his residence, and gave out that he was in fear of violence 
 from Beaumarchais, who had forced him with a pistol at his throat 
 to sign a contract for marrying hia sister. The French ambassador 
 advised his countryman to quit Spain as soon as possible for his own 
 safety ; but he took the bolder course of forcing his way to Grimaldi, 
 the minister, and a narrative of the whole affair was put through 
 Grimaldi's intervention into the hands of the king. Finally, the 
 monarch iu person decided that Clavijo should be deprived of his 
 post, and for ever dismissed from the employment of the state. 
 
 Such is the statement of the whole affair made by Beaumarchais 
 ten years after its occurrence. It took place in 1764 ; in 1774 Beau- 
 marchais, who was then in prison at Paris, engaged in a law-suit with 
 a certain Madame Qoczmann, finding that the public was prejudiced 
 against him by a report that he had been expelled from Spain for 
 discreditable proceedings there, published, as one of the legal docu- 
 ments in his defence, an account of his journey to Spain. His 
 antagonists might have argued from it that, even when he had a good 
 causo to defend, his proceedings were full of artifice; and that, in 
 spite of his stratagems, he failed in his object. But nothing of this 
 kind appears to have been said. It was currently remarked that his 
 enemies, by trying to plunge Beaumarchais into an abyss, had forced 
 him to save himself on a pedestal, and his conduct in the affair seems 
 to have passed for a model of spirit and sagacity. In fact it was the 
 narrative of his adventure with Clavijo that first raised him a 
 reputation. It was read with eagerness and sympathy throughout 
 Europe, and in Germany, falling into the hands of Gothe, it was in 
 eight days turned into a tragedy, which became at once popular on 
 the German and the Danish stage. The earlier part of the play, in 
 which the characters bear their actual names, follows with tolerable 
 closeness the narrative of Beaumarchais ; in the latter part the renewed 
 desertion of Clavijo, or as he is called Clavigo, is made to have a fatal 
 effect on his betrothed, who dies of a broken heart, and at her funeral 
 the lover, who is delineated as a man of worth led astray by ambition, 
 dies by the sword of the brother, rejoicing that his death makes some 
 atonement for the wrongs of his beloved. 
 
 ALthe time that Gothe's tragedy was making the names of Clavijo 
 and Maria almost as familiar in northern Europe as those of Romeo and 
 Juliet, Maria Caron had become the wife of a French merchant named 
 Durand, and Clavijo was managing a theatre and editing a newspaper. 
 The narrative of Beaumarchais concludes with the ignominious dis- 
 missal of the Spaniard from all hi3 employments — a dismissal which 
 was to last for life, but which appears to have heen reversed in a very 
 few years. In a Spanish work, the ' Noticias de la Historia General 
 de las Islas de Cauaria,' by Don Joseph de Viera y Clavijo, probably 
 a relative of the author of the 1 Pensador,' the fourth volume, published 
 in 1783, which contains a ' Biblioteca de los Autores Canarios,' has a 
 life of Clavijo y Faxardo, which enables us to obtain a glimpse at his 
 side of the question. " He was," says the friendly biographer, " an I 
 officer of the archives of the chief secretariat of state in 1764, when a 
 monster from France came to disturb his fortunes and to interrupt . 
 his useful labours. I give the name of monster not without reason to 
 that Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais, who is known throughout Europe , 
 for his machinations, his law-suits, his adventures, his writings, his 
 comedies, and his talents. He did not hesitate to publish in Paris in 
 1774 all the harm he had done to our Don Joseph Clavijo, by making 
 himself here in Madrid the Don Quixote of a sister who aspired to 
 his hand (que aspiraba a su mano). It would have been easy for 
 Clavijo to refute a story so full of fictions that Wolfgang Gothe, a 
 German poet, thought he found in it sufficient argument for a German 
 tragedy called 'Clavijo,' which was translated into French by M. 
 Friedel ; but he rather chose to give the world a rare example of 
 Christian philosophy and generosity, by causing to be acted in the 
 theatre of the royal palace, of which he was at that time chief 
 director, a comedy by this very Beaumarchais, entitled the ' Barber of 
 Seville.' " 
 
 The defence of Clavijo, thus put forth evidently under his own 
 auspice?, leaves him in a worse position, when it is known, than he 
 occupied before. In the ' Biographie Universelle,' Bourgoing, and in 
 the ' Dictionnaire de la Conversation,' Audiffret, both Frenchmen, have 
 taken up his defence, remarking that his only fault was that he could 
 not love for ever, and that he was the victim of the hatred of Beau- 
 marchais ; but a man who is only able to reply to an accusation of 
 having three times broken a contract of marriage, in one case formally 
 signed, by a vague sneer at the lady who " aspired to his hand," without 
 a denial of the facts alleged, is a man not to be excused. It should 
 be remarked also that in the memoirs of ' Beaumarchais ct son Temps,' 
 published at Paris in 1856 by Louis dc Lomenie, the statements 
 respecting his proceedings iu Spain appear to be borne out in almost 
 every respect as exact, and that it is shown that he stayed at Madrid 
 for nearly a twelvemonth after his memorable affray with Clavijo, so 
 that theie can be no doubt who remained master of the field. Thf 
 
CLAY, HENRY. 
 
 ODly material objection to the correctness of Lis narrative is that the 
 reader is left to suppose that the disgrace in which Clavijo was plunged 
 was lastiug. On tue contrary, it appears by the 'Bibliotcca de los 
 Autores Canarios,' that at all events as early as 1770 he was again in 
 favour with Grimaldi, who in rccompence of his excellent essays on the 
 drama in the ' Pensador,' conferred on him the direction of the theatre 
 of the palace. In 1773 he was entrusted by the secretary of state 
 with the editorship of the ' Mcrcurio historico y politico,' one of the 
 newspapers of Madrid. He translated some plays from the French, 
 and published an original work bearing the title of ' El Tribunal de las 
 Dam as' ('The Ladies' Tribunal'), which was pirated in four surreptitious 
 editions, the titls probably exciting some curiosity. He was also 
 appointed secretary to the Cabinet of Natural History at Madrid, of 
 which he compiled a catalogue, and he published a translation of 
 Buffon. He died an old bachelor of eighty in 1806. 
 
 In addition to the tragedy of Gothe, which is still a stock play in 
 Germany, the story of Clavijo lias thrice formed the subject of dramatic 
 treatment in France. 'Norac et Javolci' (au anagram of Caron and 
 Clavijo), by Marsollier des Vivetiores, was produced in 1780; 'Beau- 
 marcbais en Espague,' an anonymous work, in 1S04 ; and ' Clavijo, ou 
 la Jeunesse de Beaumarchais,' by Dorat-Cubieres, in 1806. The quarrel 
 between two persons, both of whom were afterwards dramatic authors, 
 and one at least a manager, appears to have found singular favour in 
 the eyes of dramatists. 
 
 It may be observed that the copy of the ' Pensador ' in the British 
 Museum is that which belonged to the German poet Tieck, and contains 
 a note by him to the effect that he obtained it from Baumgartner, for- 
 merly consul at Madrid, who received it from Clavijo himself, and 
 assured Tieck that the third number, which is in manuscript, is in 
 Clavijo's handwriting. 
 
 CLA'VIUS, CHRISTOPHER, of Bamberg, entered into the order 
 of Jesuit3, and died at Rome February 5, 1612, aged seventy-five. He 
 was selected by Gregory XIII. to superintend the reformation of the 
 Calendar, in which capacity he had to endure and reply to the attacks 
 of Moestlinus, Joseph Scaliger, Vieta, and others of less note. As a 
 mathematical writer, Clavius is distinguished by the number of his 
 works, the frequency with which they were reprinted, his rigid 
 adherence to the geometry of the ancients, and the general soundness 
 of his views. According to Riccioli (' Chrouicon, Nov. Almag.'), the 
 most learned Germans resorted to Rome, that they might converse 
 with Clavius, and several were accustomed to say that they would 
 rather be attacked by him than praised by others. As Clavius did 
 not possess any great original talent, his works are now of little con- 
 sequence, except to the mathematical historian. The following is the 
 list of those which have been mentioned by succeeding writers :— ■ 
 
 1, In 'Sphseram Johaunis de Sacro-bosco Commentarius,' Rome, 
 1570, reprinted more than a dozen times : the last edition we can find 
 is that at Leyden, 1618. 2, 'The Works of Euclid,' with a commentary ; 
 Rome, 1574; Cologne, 1591; Frankfurt, 1607, &c. 3, 'Epitome 
 Arithmeticae Practicae,' Rome, 1583; Cologne, 1637, &c. 4, 'Edition 
 of the Spherics of Theodosius, with a Table of Sines, Tangents, &c.,' 
 Rome, 1586. 5, 'A work on Gnomonics,' Rome, 1587; several times 
 reprinted. 6, ' Defence of the Calendar against Moestlinus,' Rome, 
 1588. 7, 'Fabrica et Usus, &c ,' a work on Horology, Rome, 1586; 
 ' Constructio, &c.,' a second work, Louvain, 1595; ' Horol. Nov. Dcscr., 
 &c.,' a third, Rome, 1599. 8, 'On the Astrolabe,' Rome, 1593, &c. 
 9, ' Refutation of J. Scaliger on the Calendar,' Rome, 1595 ; Mayence, 
 1C09. 10, ' Romani Calendarii a Greg. XIII. Restituti Explicatio,' 
 Rome, 1603. This is to us tho most importaut of the works of 
 Clavius : it contains the description of the reasons and methods 
 employed in the alteration of the calendar, with the answer to Vieta 
 and others. 11, 'Elements of Algebra,' Rome, 1604. 12, 'Geometria 
 Practica,' Rome, 1604. 13, 'Refutation of George of Wirteinberg on 
 the Calendar,' Rome, 1610. We have taken the earliest editions 
 which we could find in any of the authors cited at the end. 
 
 A complete edition of the works of Clavius was published at 
 Mayence in 1612. The account of the Calendar is in the fifth and last 
 volume. 
 
 (Riccioli ; Weidler ; Blancanus ; Lipenius ; Bouillaud, Cat. Bill. 
 Tliuan. ; Lalande ; Delambre.) 
 
 CLAY, HENRY, was born in Hanover county, Virginia, April 12, 
 1777. He was the seventh son of a clergyman who died when Henry 
 was very young, leaving his widow and family but scantily provided 
 for. Having received a common school education, Henry obtained a 
 situation as copying clerk in the chancery court of Richmond. Here 
 he probably received a certain amount of initiation in legal pro- 
 ceedings, so that, although he was nineteen years of age when he 
 formally commenced the study of the law, he was when only twenty 
 admitted to practise at the bar. The tide of migration wa3 then 
 setting strongly westward, and the young advocate thought that the 
 fertile valleys of the west offered for him also a promising field of 
 labour. He accordingly removed to Lexington in Kentucky, and there, 
 in October 1799, he fairly commenced his legal career. As au advo- 
 cate he quickly achieved a marked success. Young Clay, it was soon 
 seen, not only possessed great natural ability and doubled its value by 
 constant diligence, but had the more marketable talent of knowing 
 how to manage a jury. Yet though he found himself on the road to 
 fortune, Lis ambition was directed rather towards political than pro- 
 
 fessional success. Tho convention for framing a constitution for the 
 state of Kentucky soon afforded him the opportunity he desired of 
 taking a prominent part in political movements. His advocacy of a 
 provision for the gradual abolition of slavery entailed on him some 
 temporary unpopularity, but this was removed by his opposition to 
 measures which were regarded as an encroachment on the part of the 
 central government, and he was at the next election (1803) returned 
 to the state legislature. 
 
 His political career was now fairly begun, and for nearly fifty years 
 his life may be said to have been devoted to the service of his country. 
 His first election to Congress was in 1806, but it was only for the 
 remaining portion of a term ; and in 1807 he was again elected to the 
 General Assembly of Kentucky, of which he was chosen speaker ; an 
 office he held till he was in 1809 elected for an unexpired term of two 
 years to the senate of the United States. In 1811 he was sent as a 
 representative to Congress, and on the meeting of the House of 
 Representatives he received the very remarkable honour of being 
 elected speaker, though he was now for the first time a member of 
 the house. But his speeches iu the senate, and his conduct as speaker 
 of the Kentucky Assembly, had established his reputation ; and so 
 well satisfied were the members with their choice, that he was five 
 times re-elected speaker. During this period he took a prominent 
 part in the great questions of the day, but especially distinguished 
 himself by his earnest denunciations of the English claims to right of 
 search and other maritime prerogatives; and as he was one of the 
 prime instigators to the war with England, so during its continuance 
 he remained one of its strongest advocates. He was in 1814 appointed, 
 avowedly in consequence of the leading part he had taken in the 
 discussions on the war, one of the commissioners to negociate the 
 treaty of peace; and for him is claimed the credit of having by his 
 adroitness obtained for America some advantageous concessions. In 
 France he was treated with much distinction, and on his return to 
 America he was at once re-elected to Congress. 
 
 He now directed his energies to home legislation ; but when the 
 question of South American independence was mooted, Clay eagerly 
 urged its immediate recognition : he was already promulgating his 
 favourite idea of the eradication of every species of European authority 
 from the American continent. While engaged in a decided course of 
 opposition to the general policy of President Monroe, there were two 
 great measures which specially occupied his mind. One was the 
 establishment of a national system of internal improvements, which 
 the president opposed as unconstitutional, but which Clay successfully 
 vindicated from that objection ; the other was the return to a modified 
 protective system. Both of these measures were carried, and the suc- 
 cessful issue of his exertions placed Clay in the estimation of a large 
 portion of his countrymen in the very first rank of American states- 
 men. He was now looked to by many as the probable successor to 
 the presidential chair, and it was well understood that he himself 
 coveted that elevated post. That he might be in a better position to 
 bear the increased expenditure its acceptance would necessarily entail, 
 he resigned in 1819 his seat iu Congress and returned to the active 
 pursuit of his profession, in which he promptly regained a highly 
 lucrative practice. But when the conventions began to consider the 
 claims of the candidates for the presidency, it was apparent that Clay 
 would not be chosen ; his name was therefore withdrawn, and he 
 returned in 1823 to the House of Representatives, by whom he was 
 immediately restored to his place as speaker. Three candidates went 
 to the vote for the presidency, but as neither could obtain the abso- 
 lute majority required by law, the election lay ultimately in Congress, 
 and there Clay exerted all his influence in favour of Adams, who was 
 chosen ; and he in return appointed Clay secretary of state. This 
 office he held until 1827, aud during his occupancy of it discharged 
 its duties with marked diligence and vigour. The independence of 
 the republics of Central as well as South America was promptly 
 recognised by him, and he exerted every nerve to further the dogma 
 of the annihilation of European influence iu American affairs. His 
 conduct as secretary was the subject of virulent attacks by his political 
 opponents ; and on one occasion he was provoked to challenge Mr. 
 Randolph on account of some strong remarks in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives : happily neither of the combatants was injured. Clay had 
 many years before, wheu speaker of the Kentucky House of Assembly 
 challenged and fought a political opponent who had expressed himself 
 with too much freedom in a debate. 
 
 On the election of General Jackson in 1829, Clay retired for awhile 
 into private life, but in 1831 he was elected to the United States 
 senate. In 1833 Clay was again an unsuccessful candidate for the 
 presidency. He had now to renew the struggle for his protective 
 tariff. The entire subject was re-opened, and the country was agitated 
 from end to end. South and north were almost in open conflict. At 
 length Clay brought forth his 'Compromise bill : ' it was accepted by 
 both parties, and modified protection to national interests became the 
 established law of the United States. His subsequent tour through 
 the middle and eastern states was a continued triumph. Passed over 
 at the presidential election of 1S36, at that of 1S39 his chums were 
 again put forward ; but though his party was now iu the a=cendancy, 
 at their convention he was set aside by them for General Harrison, 
 who was accordingly elected. Clay remained a member of the senate 
 till 1842, when, findiDg that his strength was insufficient to sustain 
 
m 
 
 CLAYTON, ROBERT. 
 
 CLEMENCE, ISAURE. 
 
 276 
 
 him ia bis arduous course of self-imposed labour, and vexed at 
 President Tyler successively vetoing measures wbicb he bad succeeded 
 in persuading Congress to adopt, be took a formal leave of the scene 
 of bis prolonged labours and triumphs in a speech which produced a 
 powerful impression on the senate and on the country. It was gene- 
 rally felt that the veteran statesman had scarcely been treated by his 
 countrymen as his long and on the whole unquestionably popular course 
 of public service deserved. It was acknowledged by his party that 
 in their presidential conventions the honourable claims of their really 
 great man had been set aside, and the coveted honour bestowed on 
 obscure mediocrity. 'Justice to Clay ' was adopted as a rallying cry, 
 and in the election of 1814 he was put in nomination and supported 
 by the full strength of his party.. But this time the majority was on 
 the other side, and Polk was elected. Clay remained in retirement 
 till 1849, when he was again returned to the senate. To him was due 
 the famous slavery ' Compromise Act ' of 1850, which for a brief space 
 quieted the bitter strife which the question of slavery had enkindled 
 in the union. But it only for the moment allayed the storm; and 
 Clay lived long enough to perceive that as a permanent measure his 
 project was a failure. He had laboured beyond his strength in 
 endeavouring to reconcile the irreconcilable, and now he longed only 
 for rest. But his was not to be a rest on earth. He resigned hi3 
 office as senator, but before the day named for his resignation to take 
 effect, he had ceased to live. He died June 29, 1852, aged seventy- 
 five. He was buried with unusual pomp. In the chief towns of 
 Kentucky every external honour was paid to his memory. At New 
 York business was suspended in the city, the shops were closed, and 
 the shipping carried their flags half-mast high during the day. Henry 
 Clay was undoubtedly a man of powerful intellect, but he will hardly 
 retain the rank which his contemporaries too readily assigned him. 
 He was wanting in comprehensiveness. His views were at best too 
 strictly national, and, as in the case of the protective tariff, and in his 
 general foreign policy, he too readily took for granted that what 
 seemed to give an advantage to his countrymen was really for their 
 benefit in the large view of things. As an advocate he had few rivals; 
 his legal learning was but small. Clay was in a word a thoroughly 
 able politician ; he is not likely to take permanent rank among the 
 great statesmen of America. 
 
 CLAYTON, ROBERT, Bishop of Clogher, was born at Dublin in 
 1695, and educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Dublin. 
 He was successively appointed to the sees of Killala, Cork, and Clogher 
 (holding the two latter together), although his orthodoxy seems to 
 have been very doubtful from his first entrance into the Church. His 
 preferment was owing to a lady who was connected with his family 
 by marriage — Mrs. Clayton, afterwards Lady Sundon, who was one of 
 Queen Caroline's chamber-women : his shameless eagerness for pre- 
 ferment, the intensely selfish worldly character of the man, and the 
 degrading condition of ecclesiastical affairs at that period, are made 
 painfully evident in the correspondence published in the so-culled 
 'Memoirs of Viscountess Sundon,' 2 vols., 1847. Clayton's first 
 published work was ' An Introduction to the History of the Jews.' 
 This was followed by 'The Chronology of the Hebrew Bible vindi- 
 cated,' published in 1747; 'A Dissertation. on Prophecy,' in 1749; and 
 'An Essay on Spirit,' 1751 : this essay, which was full of the notions 
 contained in what is called the Arian heresy, gave great offence to the 
 Uhurch, and prevented his being promoted to the archbishopric of 
 Tuam. There is some doubt whether Clayton was really the author 
 of it, but he soon avowed all the sentiments which it contained, and 
 even more, in his ' Vindication of the Old and New Testament, in 
 answer to the Objections of the late Lord Bolingbroke, in Two Letters 
 to a Young Nobleman,' which was published at different periods in 
 three separate parts. 
 
 On the 2nd of February 1756, he made a motion in the Irish House 
 of Lords for the expunging of both the Athanasian and Nicasan creeds 
 from the Liturgy. The motion, which did not find a single supporter 
 in the House, created a violent storm at court and out of doors ; and 
 when he renewed his attack in the following year, in the third part of 
 his ' Vindication of the Old and New Testament,' &c, it burst upon 
 his head'. The king instructed the lord-lieutenant to bring on a legal 
 prosecution of the bishop, but before the day fixed for the opening of 
 the proceedings he was carried off by a nervous fever. He died 
 February 26, 1758. Besides the works already mentioned, Bishop 
 Clayton published ' A Journey to Mount Sinai and back again,' from 
 a manuscript written by the Prefect of Egypt, in company with the 
 missionaries of the Propaganda ; to which are added some ' Remarks 
 on the Origin of Hieroglyphics, and the Mythology of the Ancient 
 Heathens.' His writings are poor in substance, weak in thought, 
 clumsy in structure, and if they ever had any value it has long since 
 passed away. Clayton bore the character of being a generous and 
 benevolent man, and his charities were frequently well directed. 
 
 CLEANTHES (KAedvdris) was the successor of Zeno of Citium in 
 the Stoic school, and was himself succeeded by his pupil Chrysippus. 
 As Zeno died in B.C. 263 or 259, the period of Cleauthes is approxi- 
 mative^ determined by that fact. [Zeno of Citium.] Cleauthes was a 
 native of Assus in the Troad, and originally a boxer. He came to 
 Athens with four drachma? (about Zs.) in his pocket, and began to 
 attend the lectures of Zeno. As he had to pay his teacher a small fee, 
 and at the same time to gain his livelihood, he used to draw water for 
 
 the gardens about Athens in the night, and also grind corn. There is 
 a story that he was brought before the Areopagus in order to show 
 what his means of subsistence were, and he proved that he was an 
 honest man by producing as witnesses the gardener and the niealman 
 for whom he worked, whereupon the Areopagus voted him a present 
 of ten mina>, which however Zeno would not allow him to receive. 
 Ten minoc seems rather a large sum for the Areopagus to vote on such 
 occasion ; and it is not said whether they had a fuud for remune- 
 rating persons who were brought before them on groundless charges. 
 Cleauthes attended the lessons of Zeno for nineteen years. He was 
 slow of comprehension, but very laborious, whence he got the name 
 of the second Hercules. Though he did not learn quick, he kept 
 what he got. He was a copious writer : a list of his numerous 
 treatises is preserved by Diogenes Laertius. Nothing is known of his 
 works, except that we may collect that he indulged in the subtleties 
 of discussion ; but it does not appear that he did much towards the 
 extension or improvement of the Stoic doctrines : that was done by 
 his pupil Chrysippus. But the stern character of Cleanthes was well 
 adapted to give stability to the doctrines of Zeno. The story of his 
 death is characteristic. He had a swelling in his jaw, and at the 
 advice of physicians he abstained from food, and the complaint begau 
 to abate. The physicians told him that he might now take his usual 
 food, but ho remarked that he had already gone a good part of the 
 journey, and so he continued fasting till lie died, at the age of eighty, 
 or of ninety-nine, according to Luciau and Valerius Maximus. 
 
 Cleanthes is the author of a hymn to Jupiter hi Orcek hexameters, 
 which was first published by Fulvius Ursinus, at the end of the 
 'Fragments of the Nine Illustrious Women and of the Lyric Poets,' 
 Antwerp, 1568, 8vo. It is printed in Cudworth's ' Intellectual Sys- 
 tem/ with a Latin poetical version by Duport. The last edition is 
 by Coraes, in his edition of the ' Enchiridion of Epictetus,' Paris 
 1820, 8vo. 
 
 The hymn of Cleanthes has always been a favourite with Christian 
 philosophers ; but the true understanding of it, as Hitter remarks, can 
 only be reacheefby looking at it from the Stoical point of view. 
 
 (Diogenes Laertius, Cleanthes ; Fabricius, BihUoth. Grccc, iii. 550 ; 
 Ritter, Geschkhle der Philosophic, iii. 521.) 
 
 CLEI'STHENES, an Athenian, one of the family of the Alcmaio- 
 uida?, was grandson of Cleisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon. After the 
 expulsion of the Pisistratidic (u.c. 510) he changed his line of politics, 
 and headed the democratical parly : the opposite faction was con- 
 ducted by Isagoras. Cleisthenes soon obtained the favour of the 
 people, and the sanction of an oraclo from Delphi enabled him to 
 effect changes in the constitution of Attica which were productive of 
 very important results. The four tribes into which Attica had 
 anciently been distributed gave place to a division altogether new. 
 He made ten tribes, called severally from the name of some hero : 
 each tribe contained a given number of demi (Sjj^oi), or townships, 
 which were under the direction each of a deinarch (township- 
 governor). Every citizen was obliged to have his name enrolled in 
 the register of some township. Many other changes were also effected. 
 The senate was increased from 400 to 500 ; 50 were sent by each 
 tribe. The process of ostracism is said to have been first formally 
 established by Cleisthenes. The Spartan king Cleomenes, acting on 
 the suggestions of Isagoras, insisted on the expulsion of Cleisthenes 
 and the accursed persons. (Herod., v. 70.) Cleisthenes left Athens 
 (Herod., v. 72), but waited a favourable opportunity for prosecuting 
 his schemes. Seven hundred families were banished at the same time. 
 (Herod., v. 72.) When Cleomenes and Isagoras were besieged in the 
 citadel which they had occupied, and were forced to capitulate, they 
 left Athens with the Spartan troops, and Cleisthenes, with the seven 
 hundred families, returned in triumph. (Thirlwall, Greece, vol. ii. 
 pp. 73-80; Niebuhr, Rome, vol. ii. p. 305, &c, Eng. transL) 
 
 CLE'MENCE, ISAURE, a French poetess, born near Toulouse, but 
 at what time has been a matter of much dispute. The first known 
 writer who spoke of her is Quillaume Benoit, a jurist of the fifteenth 
 century, who says that she instituted the floral games, " jeux floraux," 
 at Toulouse, which were held yearly on the 1st of May, and that she 
 instituted prizes for those who distinguished themselves in various 
 kinds of poetry. The prizes were a gold violet, a silver eglantine, and 
 a gold souci or marigold. This distribution of prizes continued till 
 the Revolution. The capitouls or echevins of Toulouse distributed 
 the prizes, on which occasion an eulogium was recited in memory of 
 Clemence Isaure, and her statue in the Hotel de Ville was crowned 
 with flowers. In 1527, Etieune Dolet, a writer and printer at Lyon, 
 who was hanged and burnt for .heresy in 1546, wrote an eulogium of 
 Clemence in Latin verse, with the title, ' De Muliere quadam qu» 
 Ludos literarios Tolosa? constituit.' These writers were followed by 
 numerous others, and among them De Thou and the President 
 Berthier, who wrote about Clemence, and placed her existence in the 
 14th century. Catel however in his 'Mdmoires du Languedoc,' ex- 
 pressed doubts on the subject, and treated the existence of Clemence 
 as fabulous. Dom Vaissette, ' Histoire du Languedoc,' supports the 
 personality of Clemence, and her foundation of the prizes, as proved 
 by tradition, instruments, and public documents in the Hotel de Ville 
 of Toulouse. In 1775 a Memoir appeared, in which Clemence Isaure 
 is stated to have lived in the latter half of the 15th century. This 
 controversy seems to have originated in having attributed to Clemence 
 
CLEMENCIN, DIEGO. 
 
 CLEMENS, TITUS FLAVIUS. 
 
 2ft 
 
 Isaure the original foundation of the poetical academy known by the 
 name of the floral games. But that academy was founded long before 
 Isaure by the troubadours, and was called the college of Ma gaie 
 science,' or ' gai sc;avoir.' The first authenticated meeting on record 
 dates from the year 1323 ; they then assembled in a garden outside of 
 Toulouse. The registers of this college, till about 1500, make no 
 mention of Isaure. It may be about this latter period that she founded 
 the prizes of gold and silver flowers, from which the academy took its 
 more recent name. A quarto black letter volume of short poetic 
 pieces was published at Toulouse in 1505, entitled ' Dictas de Dona 
 Clemcnsa Isaure' The accounts of Isaure's life and adventures which 
 are found in several compilations appear very problematic. (Encyclo- 
 ffdie Methodique, Ilistoire, art. ' Isaure ;' Moreri, Nouv. Biog. Gen. ; 
 Noulet, de Dame Clcmcnce Isaure, substitute a M. D. la Vicrge Marie, 
 Toulouse, 1852.) 
 
 CLEMENCIN, DTEGO, a patriotic Spanish statesman, and an 
 author distinguished for the purity of his Castilian style, was, accord- 
 ing to his opponent, Puigblauch, the son of a Frenchman. He was 
 born in the city of Murcia on the 27th of September 17C5, entered 
 the college of San Fulgencio in that city at the age of nine, distin- 
 guished himself so much that he was engaged to draw up a plan for 
 the reform of the studies of the college while he was yet a pupil, and 
 was appointed professor of theology and philosophy before he was 
 twenty-one. He gave up the church, for which he was intended, and 
 in which a brilliant prospect was opening before him, from attachment 
 to a lady, whom he married in 1793, after an engagement of ten years, 
 and with whom he lived happily for upwards of thirty. The Duke of 
 Osuna made him tutor to his children, and wli^e he held the post he 
 arranged the duke's magnificent library, which was afterwards thrown 
 open to the public. The favourite, Godoy, to whom the duke wa3 
 obnoxious, drove him into an honourable banishment by appointing him 
 ambassador first to St. Petersburg and then to Vienna ; but his diplo- 
 matic duties never carried him further than Paris, where Clemencin, who 
 accompanied him, made good use of the libraries of the capital. On his 
 return to Madrid in 1801 ho was appointed member of the Academy of 
 History, and for the remainder of his life continued in honourable 
 connection with that body, of which he was for a long time the secre- 
 tary. In July 1807 he read before it his 'elogio,' or eulogy on Queen 
 Isabella the Catholic, the patroness of Columbus, which was first 
 printed by the academy in 1821, so long was the course of literature 
 and study in Spain interrupted by revolution and war. Of these 
 calamities Clemtncin had his full share. Early in 1S07 he had been 
 appointed editor of the official 'Gazette' of Madrid, as well as of 
 the ' Mercurio,' formerly conducted by Clavijo. [Clavijo.] The 
 day after the patriotic insurrection of the 2nd of May 1808, the 
 first outbreak of the great Peninsular war, which was suppressed for 
 the moment with violence by the French, who then had military pos- 
 session of Madrid, Murat, their commander, sent for Clemencin, and 
 demanded of him how he came to insert in the ' Gaceta ' an article 
 which had appeared just before the outbreak, in which he contra- 
 dicted, and with truth, an article in some of the French journals 
 
 '< respecting Ferdinand of Spain, then a prisoner at Valencay. Clemen- 
 
 , cin replied, that he printed nothing without an authorisation from 
 the Spanish government. "Very well," replied Murat, "then unless 
 
 i the order for the insertion of that article is produced within an hour 
 you shall be shot." The threat would doubtless have been carried 
 
 I into effect, but that the official who had transmitted the order, who 
 
 ' was Cienfuegos, a poet of some note, was found within the prescribed 
 
 ! time by the French soldiers sent in search of him, and brought from 
 his bed, where he lay ill, to Murat, who sent him prisoner to France, 
 where he died in the course of the following year from grief and 
 indignation. Clemencin, who joined the cause of the patriots, was 
 first engaged in editing a journal for the junta of Aragon, then as 
 
 1 member of the Cortes of Cadiz, besieged by the French and assailed 
 by the yellow fever, in drawing up and supporting the constitution 
 
 ' of 1812. The absolutist reaction on Ferdinand's return in 1814, sent 
 him to a country retirement .at Fuenfria, a place to which he was 
 much attached, and where, when the times were against him, he was 
 accustomed to devote himself to literary pursuits amid the pleasures 
 of the country. In the second constitutionalist outburst of 1820, 
 Clemencin was again deputy for Murcia, and first secretary, then presi- 
 dent of the Cortes, in which capacity, as also in that of minister, he 
 
 "' found it necessary to address some strong language to King Ferdinand. 
 Such however was the general respect for his high character and his 
 
 i literary acquirements, that on the second reaction of 1823 he was only 
 banished from Madrid, and in 1827 obtained permission to return, 
 after four yenrs of his favourite Fuenfria. The third constitutional 
 period of Spain raised him higher in honours than ever; but they 
 came too late— he bad lost his wife. He was appointed to draw up 
 Ihe oath to be taken by the present queen, was named principal 
 librarian to her majesty, and also a ' procer del reyno,' or peer of the 
 kingdom. He was also appointed to the somewhat less desirable office 
 of censor of the press, pursuant to the new decree on the press of the 
 j iate of the 2nd of May 1833. He died of cholera, on the SOth of 
 1 July 1834, at Madrid. 
 
 During all this active and stormy life Clemencin had found leisure 
 
 I for many literary undertakings, as well as for numerous labours of 
 philanthropy, having as early as 1801 taken a prouiiuent part as a 
 
 member of the association of the ' Buen Pastor,' or ' Good Shepherd,* 
 for the amelioration of the Spanish prisons. Among his early works 
 are translations of portions of scripture and of the classics, the 
 Epistles of St. John, tbo Germania of Tacitus, &c. ; his later are chiefly 
 on subjects of Spanish history. His 'Eulogy on Queen Isabella,' 
 with its annexed dissertations, was the first important work on the 
 subject, and though partly superseded by the better-known history of 
 Prescot, is one of which it would still be desirable to see a translation 
 in English. A French translation by Amauton which appeared at 
 Paris in 1847 is of the 'Eulogy' only without the Dissertations, 
 and thus conveys a very erroneous notion both of the merits 
 and the magnitude of the original, which occupies the whole sixth 
 volume of the 'Memoirs of the Spanish Academy of History,' tho 
 ' Eulogy ' taking up fifty-four pages, and the ' Dissertations,' twenty-one 
 in number, upwards of 500. During one of his compelled retire- 
 ments to Fuenfria, Clemencin composed his great work, the ' Com- 
 mentary on Don Quixote,' first published along with the text of the 
 novel in six quarto volumes, Madrid, 1833-39, of which only the first 
 three saw the light during the author's lifetime. Ticknor in his 
 ' History of Spanish Literature ' describes it as one of the best com- 
 mentaries on any author ancient or modern. The English reader will 
 perhaps be disposed to find fault with what the Spanish biographer 
 Alvarez terms the " admirable prolixity " of the commentator, who 
 thinks it necessary to relate the story of Orpheus, the Thracian 
 musician, as well as that of Roque Guinart, the Catalan robber; but 
 almost the only fault to bo found with the commentary, which 
 exceeds the text in volume, is that it gives too much. It is matter of 
 surprise that nearly twenty years should have elapsed from the date 
 of its publication without its having been made available to the 
 English admirers of Cervantes. [Saavedra.] Clemencin also com- 
 posed a dissertation on the ' History of the Cid,' another on the 
 ' Geography of Mediaeval Spain, &c.,' and was one of the committee 
 appointed by the Spanish Academy for the reformation of Spanish 
 orthography, who proposed the system now generally adopted. His 
 ' Lecciones de Gramatica y Ortografia Castellana ' were first published 
 after his death in 1842. 
 
 CLEMENS, TITUS FLA'VIUS ALEXANDRI'NUS, was born 
 about the middle of the 2nd century of our era. According to St. 
 Epiphanius he was an Athenian, and at first a follower of the Stoic 
 philosophy ; but according to others he belonged to the Platonic 
 school, an opinion which seems countenanced by the manner in which 
 he speaks of Plato and his philosophy in many passages of his writings. 
 He says in his ' Stromateis' (lib. i.), that "he had for teachers several 
 learned and excellent men ; one an Ionian, who lived in Greece, 
 another from Magna Grsecia, a third from Ccclosyria, a fourth from 
 Egypt, and others who had received the Christian doctrine in the East, 
 of whom one was from Assyria, and the other from Palestine, of an 
 ancient Hebrew family ; but that at last he found in Egypt one superior 
 to all, with whom he remained." This was Pantajmus, whom he 
 repeatedly mentions in his works, and who kept a Christian school at 
 Alexandria, in which capacity Clemens succeeded him. St. Jerome 
 says that Clemens was teacher of the catechumeni in that city. He 
 was ordained presbyter of the church of Alexandria, where he appears 
 to have remained the rest of his life. His death is believed to have 
 happened about a.d. 220. Among his disciples were Origen, and 
 Alexander, afterwards bishop of Jerusalem. 
 
 Clemens left many works, in which he has mixed with the precepts 
 of the Christian doctrine and morality, which it was his object to 
 inculcate, much information coucerniug the learning, philosophy, 
 history, aud manners of the heathens. Of the earlier Christian writers, 
 he is the most conversant with the science and learning, with the 
 opinions and practices, of the various nations of that day; and his 
 works are extremely interesting, as showing the state of society, both 
 among Heathen aud Christian subjects of the Roman empire at that 
 early time. They also contain much information on ancient history, 
 chronology, and the various schools of philosophy ; many extracts from 
 ancient writers, whose works are lost ; and also accounts of the early 
 heresies aud schisms which divided the primitive Christian church. 
 The works of Clemens which have come down to us are : — 1. 'Exhor- 
 tatiou to the Greeks,' 1 book. This is an exhortation addressed to the 
 heathens to abandon their false gods, whose absurd stories and 
 obscene adventures he exposes by the testimony of the poets aud 
 philosophers of antiquity. 2. ' Pasdagogus,' in 3 books. This is a 
 treatise on Christian education. His satire of the vice3 and follies of 
 the age is caustic and humorous, aud reminds us at times of Juvenal. 
 When we reflect that he lived under the reigns of Caracalla and 
 Heliogabalus, we do not feel inclined to suspect him of exaggeratiou. 
 3. 'Stromateis,' in 8 books. The word stromateis he has used to mean 
 a party-coloured or patch-work ; " opus varie contextum," from the 
 multifarious kiud of information, religious aud profane, auecdotical, 
 historical, and didactic, put together without much regard to order or 
 plan. Clemens says that ho adopted this want of arrangement "to 
 veil the doctrines of Christianity under the maxims of profane philo- 
 sophy, in order to screen them from the eyes of the curious and the 
 uninitiated, that those only who are intelligent and wdl give them- 
 selves the trouble of studying, may understand the meaumg." 
 Probably also he found this style of composition better adapted for 
 his multifarious information, aud best suited to his old age, in whicU 
 
 ■ 
 
279 
 
 CLEMENT I. 
 
 CLEMENT V. 
 
 2*0 
 
 he apparently wrote it. In the first book he descants upon the utility 
 of philosophy, and concludes by asserting, by the help of chronology 
 and quotations, that the philosophy contained in the sacred books of 
 the Hebrews was the most ancient, and that other nations had borrowed 
 much from it. In the second he treats of faith, sin, and repentance ; 
 he asserts the free will of man, condemns licentiousness, commends 
 lawful marriage with one wife and one alone. In the third he continues 
 the preceding subject, condemns the incontinence of the Nicolaites, 
 Valentinians, and other early heretics, and whilst speaking with great 
 praise of virginity, defends marriage against the Marcionites. He says 
 the apostles Peter and Philip were married and had children. In the 
 fourth book he treats of Christian perfection and martyrdom, exhorting 
 the Christians to submit to death for the love of God and of Christ. 
 Perfection he places in the precept of loving God and our fellow- 
 creatures. Iu the fifth he shows that the method of speaking by 
 figures and symbols is very ancient, both among the Hebrews and the 
 Greeks; the Greeks, he says, borrowed most of the truths they have 
 written from those whom they called barbarians, and especially from 
 the Jews. This book is full of quotations from ancient poets and other 
 writers. In the sixth and seventh books he sketches the portrait of a 
 true Gnostic, a term which with him is synonymous with that of a 
 perfect Christian. It is a complete model of moral conduct. _ He 
 combats the reproach of the Greeks about the divisions and schisms 
 existing among the Christians. He says that schisms will arise in any 
 community ; that they were foretold by Christ; that they had existed 
 among the heathens and the Jews ; that the way to ascertain the 
 truth is to consult the Scriptures, and the whole Scriptures, and not 
 merely some parts of them, and to follow the tradition of the church; 
 that there is only one universal church, older than all heresies, that it 
 began under Tiberius, and was promulgated all over the world under 
 Nero, while the older heresies date only from the reign of Hadrian. 
 He then recapitulates the«ubject of his seven books, and promises to 
 begin the next by a new subject. The eighth book, as we have it in 
 our editions, differs altogether from the rest, being a treatise on logic. 
 Photius, in his ' Bibliotheca,' says, that in some editions in his time 
 the eighth book of the ' Stromateis ' consisted of the treatise ' Can a 
 rich man be saved ?' which however is generally placed as a distinct 
 work, after the eight books of the ' Stromateis.' This treatise has also 
 been published separately, with a copious and learned commentary by 
 a professor of Utrecht. ' Clemeutis Alexandrini liber : Quis dives 
 salutem consequi possit, perpetuo Commentario illustratus a C. Sec- 
 gario,' 1816. Among the works of Clemens which are lost waa the 
 ' Hypotyposeis,' or Commentaries on various parts of the Scriptures, 
 in eight books, mentioned by Photius, who quotes several passages, and 
 severely condemns it as heretical. (Photius among the ' Testimonia,' 
 at the beginning of Clemens' works, Potter's edition.) This seems 
 rather strange, as the other works of Clemens have been esteemed 
 perfectly orthodox, and greatly commended by Eusebius, Jerome, and 
 other ancient fathers, with the exception perhaps of one or two obscure 
 passages concerning the nature of Christ and original sin. The errors 
 however ascribed to the ' Hypotyposeis,' may be accounted for in 
 some manner by the supposition that it was an earlier work of Clemens, 
 written before he was properly instructed in the Christian doctrines, 
 and while he was still much imbued with his Platonic philosophy. 
 Upon the whole Clemens is more of a Christian philosopher and 
 moralist, than a professor of dogmatic theology. Some believe that 
 the ' Excerpta ex Scriptis Theodoti et Doctrina quce Orientalis vocatur,' 
 which appear at the end of Clemens' works as well as some other 
 fragments, are extracts from his ' Hypotyposeis.' He also wrote 
 several treatises, ' De Pascha,' 'De Jejunio,' 'De Obtrectatione,' &c, 
 which are lost. Clemens' works were published, with a Latin transla- 
 tion, by J. Potter, 2 vols, folio, Oxford, 1715 ; and also at Wiirzburg, 
 3 vols. 8vo, 1780. There are several other editions of the whole or of 
 separate works : the latest perhaps is that of Cailleau, vol. iv. of the 
 ' Collectio selecta SS. Eccl. Patrum,' Paris, 1827. 
 
 CLEMENT I., or CLEMENS ROMA'NUS, succeeded Anacletus as 
 Bishop of Rome in the latter part of the first century of our era. The 
 chronology of the early bishops of Rome has been the subject of much 
 controversy. One of the earliest authorities, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, 
 who lived in the latter part of the 2nd century, says that " when the 
 blessed apostles, Peter and Paul, had founded and established the 
 church at Rome, they delivered the office of the bishopric in it to 
 Linus. To him succeeded Anacletus, after whom, in the third place 
 after the apostles, Clement obtained that bishopric, who had seen the 
 blessed apostles, and conversed with them ; who had the preaching 
 of the apostles still sounding in his ears, and their traditions before 
 his eyes. Nor he alone, for there were still many alive who had been 
 taught by the apostles. In the time therefore of this Clement, when 
 there was no small dissension among the brethren at Corinth, the 
 church at Rome sent a most excellent letter to the Corinthians, per- 
 suading them to peace among themselves," &c. This is the epistle 
 which is ascribed to Clemens Romanus, by Clemens Alexandrinus, 
 Origen, Eu?ebius, Jerome, and other ancient fathers, as having been 
 written by him in the name of the Church of Rome to that of Corinth, 
 and which was often read in the time of Eusebius in the churches, 
 after the gospels, on account of the excellent precepts which it contains. 
 Eusebius (' Hist. Ec.,' iii. 13) says that Clement succeeded Anencletus, 
 or Anacletus, in the twelfth year of Domitian (a.d. 92), and that he 
 
 died in the third year of Trajan (a.d. 100), having been bishop nine 
 years. After mentioning his epistle to the Corinthians, Eusebius saya 
 that another epistle was also ascribed to him by some, but was not 
 generally received as genuine; and that "there had been published 
 not long since other large and prolix works in his name, containing 
 dialogues of Peter and Apion, of which the ancients had not made the 
 least mention." Eusebius wrote at the beginning of the 4th century; 
 and Jerome, who lived half a century later, repeats and confirms the 
 remark of Eusebius. The first epistle of Clement, which was written 
 in the name of the Church at Rome to that of Corinth, ' Dei Eccleaia 
 qua; Roma) peregrinatur Ecclesise Dei quae Corinthi peregrinatur,' and 
 was occasioned by a schism which had broken out at Corinth among 
 the Christians, is full of sound and charitable advice. It consists of 
 fifty-nine chapters, and is one of the most interesting-memorials of the 
 primitive church. The second epistle, supposed also to be Clement'8, 
 is only a fragment, containing likewise moral and religious advice; but 
 it breaks off abruptly in the middle of the twelfth chapter, and there 
 is no evidence of its being written to the Corinthians. It is thought 
 by Neander to bo rather a portion of a sermon than of an epistle. 
 Whether it is by Clement or some subsequent writer is uncertain. 
 Both epistles were found at the end of tho New Testament in a 
 manuscript brought from Alexandria, and were published by Patrick 
 Junius, 'Sancti dementis Romaui ad Corinthioa Epistola? dura 
 espresso; ad fidem MS. Cod. Alexandrini,' Oxford, 1633 ; and again by 
 H. Wootton, Cambridge, 1718. A long account of Clement's life, 
 pilgrimages, and martyrdom, has been made out by Gregory of Tourg, 
 Nicephorus, and others, entitled ' Acta S. Clementis,' and adopted by 
 Baronius ; but it is cftisidered doubtful even by most orthodox Roman 
 Catholics. It is not quite certain that Clement suffered martyrdom. 
 He is said by some to have been exiled from Rome, and to have died 
 in the Chersoncsus Taurica; but this is also contested by others, and 
 apparently with sufficient reason. Clement was succeeded in the see 
 of Rome by Evaristus. Several other works have been attributed to 
 Clement which are evidently apocryphal, such as eight books of Insti- 
 tutiones or Constitutioucs, &c. (Tillemont, ' Mdmoires pour l'Hist. 
 de 1'Eglise,' vol. ii. ; Du Pin, * Bibl. des Auteurs Eccles. ;' Neander, 
 ' Genetische Eutwickelung,' &c.) Wetstein published two more epistles 
 attributed to Clement, which he found at the end of a Syriac version 
 of the New Testament : they are chiefly in praise of virginity, and are 
 regarded as spurious. The ' Epistles of Clement ' have been frequently 
 reprinted. Perhaps the most convenient recent edition is that of 
 Hefele, reprinted in England with an introduction by A. Grenfell, 
 M.A., 1841. 
 
 One of the oldest churches at Rome on the Ca;lian Mount is dedi- 
 cated to St. Clement ; but it is not quite certain whether it was built 
 in honour of the bishop, or of Flavius Clement, the martyr, with, 
 whom the other has been often confounded. Flavius Clement waa 
 cousin to Domitian, and his colleague in the consulship (a.d. 9j), and 
 was put to death by order of that emperor on a charge of impiety 
 towards the gods, which is understood to mean that he belonged to 
 the Christian communion. His wife, Domitilla, was exiled on the 
 same charge to Paudataria. Flavius Clemens is numbered among the 
 martyrs by the earliest ecclesiastical historians. The old church, 
 which is believed to have been built in the 5th century, fell to ruins, 
 and was taken down by Adrian I. towards the end of the 8th century, 
 and rebuilt by Nicholas I. in the 9th. In the year 1725, Cardinal 
 Annibale Albani having made excavations under the great altar of 
 St. Clement's, found a tomb with an inscription to Flavius Clemens, 
 martyr. A full account of it, with a dissertation, was published : 
 ' Titi Flavii dementis Viri Consularis et Martyris Tumulus illustratus,' 
 Urbino, 1727. 
 
 CLEMENT II. (Suidger, bishop of Bamberg), succeeded Gregory VI. 
 in the papal chair in 1046, and after crowning the emperor, Henry III., 
 died October 7, 1047, and was succeeded first by Benedict IX., who 
 had be?n previously deposed by the council of Satri, and who was 
 again obliged to abdicate ; and lastly by Damasus II. 
 
 CLEMENT III., a native of Rome, succeeded Gregory VIII. iu 
 1188. He summoned a' crusade against the Saracens, iu which the 
 emperor, Frederick I., Richard of England, and Philip of France 
 embarked. He died after little more than three years' pontificate in 
 March 1191. He was succeeded by Celestiue III. 
 
 There was also an antipope, or competitor, of the celebrated 
 Gregory VII., who assumed the name of Clement III. from 10S0 to 
 1101, but he is not numbered among the legitimate popes. 
 
 CLEMENT IV., a native of St. Gilles, in Languedoc, succeeded 
 Urban IV. in 1265. He showed the same inflexible hostility as his 
 predecessor against the Suabian dynasty of Naples, and assisted 
 Charles of Anjou in the conquest of that kingdom, which waa accom 
 plished by the defeat and death of Manfred at the battle of La Gran 
 della, near Benevento. Charles in return acknowledged himself at his 
 coronation as feudatory of the see of Rome, and agreed to pay tribute. 
 Conradin, Manfred's nephew, having attempted to recover his heredi- 
 tary kingdom, was defeated by Charles at Tagliacozzo, and beheaded 
 in the market-place at Naples, with the approbation of Clement, as it 
 was reported. A month after Conradiu's execution, Clement himself 
 died, in November 1268. His death was followed by an interregnum 
 of about two years, after which the cardinals elected Gregory X. 
 
 CLEMENT V., a Frenchman, and Archbishop of Bordeaux, sues- 
 
£31 
 
 CLEMENT VI. 
 
 CLEMENT XI. 
 
 283 
 
 ceeded Benedict XI. in 1305, by the influence of Philip le Bel, who 
 induced him to remove the papal residence to France. Clement joined 
 Philip in suppressing the order of the Templars, and in condemning 
 the grand master and sixty knights to be burnt alive. Clement died 
 in April 1314, and was succeeded, after a two years' interregnum, by 
 John XXII. His decretals and constitutions were collected and pub- 
 lished in 1303, under the title of 'Liber septimus Decretalium,' being 
 the seventh book in order of time of the decisions and rescripts of the 
 popes on matters of ecclesiastical discipline, and on matters concerning 
 laymen, which then came within the cognisance of the ecclesiastical 
 courts. They are known as the ' Clementines.' 
 
 CLEMENT VI., a Frenchman, succeeded Benedict XII. in 1342. 
 He resided at Avignon like his immediate predecessors, and it was 
 under his pontificate that Rieuzi made the attempt to re-establish the 
 republic at Rome. [Rienzi.] Clement took the part of Joanna I., 
 queen of Naples, against her brother-in-law, Lewis of Hungary, who 
 had invaded her dominions to avenge the murder of her husband. 
 Joanna, on her part, sold or gave away to the papal see the town and 
 county of Avignon, which belonged to her as sovereign of Provence. 
 Clement fixed the jubilee to be held at Rome every fifty years. He 
 died in 1352, and was succeeded by Innocent VI. 
 
 CLEMENT VII. (Giulio de' Medici, the natural son of Giuliano 
 de' Medici, and nephew to Lorenzo the Magnificent), was made cardinal 
 by his cousin, Leo X., and was afterwards promoted, in 1523, to the 
 papal chair, then vacant by the death of Adrian VI. His pontificate 
 was full of vicissitudes and calamities to Italy. He first allied him- 
 self with Francis I. agaiust Charles V., in order to prevent the latter 
 possessing himself of all Italy ; but he only hastened the progress of 
 the imperial arms, and saw his own capital, Rome, stormed and cruelly 
 pillaged by the army of Charles, and himself besieged in the Castle 
 Sant' Angelo. He afterwards made peace with the emperor, and 
 united with him to destroy the independence of Florence, his native 
 country. Clement's quarrel with Henry VIII. of England, which 
 arose from his refusing the bull of divorce between that king and 
 Catharine of Aragon, led to the schism between Henry and Rome. 
 He died in 1534 after a long illness, leaving behind him a character 
 stained by avarice, harshness, and deception : he had most of the 
 failings, but none of the splendid or amiable qualities of his cousiD, 
 Leo X. He wa3 succeeded by Paul III. 
 
 There was also an antipope in the 14th century, who was elected 
 by a party among the cardinals in opposition to Urban VI., and who 
 assumed the name of Clement VII. [Ukban VI. ; Benedict, anti- 
 pope.] 
 
 CLKMENT VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), succeeded Innocent IX. 
 in 1592. He was a man of learning, and of considerable political 
 sagacity. He succeeded in the negotiations with Henri IV. of France, 
 by which that prince made public profession of Catholicism, and was 
 acknowledged king by his subjects. Clement annexed, by force, the 
 duchy of Ferrara to the papal state after the death of Duke Alfonso II., 
 disregarding the claims of the duke's cousin, Cesare d'Este, who was 
 obliged to yield, and retire to Modena. Clement died March 3rd, 
 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XL He published a new edition of 
 the ' Vulgate,' differing in some particulars from that published under 
 Sixtus V. in 1590. He also issued many bulls, the most remarkable 
 of which are the 2Sth, defining the lawful and unlawful rites and 
 usages of the Greek Church, and the 87th, concerning the practice of 
 confession and absolution in writing. 
 
 CLEMENT IX (Giulio Rospigliosi), of a noble family of Pistoia, 
 succeeded Alexander VII. in June 1667. He showed a conciliatory 
 spirit, hushed for awhile the controversy between the Jansenists and 
 the Jesuits [Arnauld], and settled the long-pending dispute between 
 the see of Rome and the king of Portugal, on the right of nomination 
 to the vacant bishoprics, by confirming the prelates appointed by King 
 Pedro II. He took a warm interest in the war between Venice and 
 the Turks, and sent assistance of men and money to the Venetians for 
 the defence of Dalmatia and of Candia. The news of the loss of that 
 island, which was finally conquered by the Turks in 1669, is said to 
 have hastened the death of Clement, which occurred in December of 
 that year. He was much regretted by his subjects as well as by 
 foreign princes. He embellished Rome, and was magnificent in his 
 expenditure. His nephew was made a Roman prince, and married the 
 heiress of the house of Pallavicini of Genoa. 
 
 CLEMENT X (Emilio Altieri), was eighty years of age at the time 
 of his election as successor to Clement IX. in 1670. He entrusted the 
 affairs of the administration chiefly to Cardinal Paluzzi, a distant 
 relative, whom he adopted as hi3 nephew, and gave him his family 
 name of Altieri, as he had no nearer relations living. He died in 1676, 
 and was succeeded by Innocent XI. 
 
 CLEMENT XI. (Gian Francesco Albani), succeeded Innocent XII. 
 in November 1700. He was then fifty-one year3 of age, had been 
 made a cardinal by Alexander VIII., and had a merited reputation for 
 learning and general information. He was one of the men of letters 
 who frequented the society of Christina of Sweden during her residence 
 at Rome. It was with seeming repugnance, and after several days' 
 hesitation, that he accepted the papal dignity. The war of the Spauish 
 succession was then just breaking out, and Clement in vain exerted all 
 his powers of persuasion with the courts of France and of Austria to 
 prevent the impending calamity. Louis XIV., having placed his grand- 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. U. 
 
 son Philip on the throne of Spain, demanded for him of the pope the 
 investiture of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, whilst the emperor 
 claimed it likewise as his right. Clement delayed giving his decision, 
 and the intrigues of the agents of the two rival powers disturbed the 
 peace of his own capital. In 1707 the Austrians, odder Marshal 
 Daun, traversed the papal state to proceed to the conquest of Naples ; 
 and the pope, unable to prevent them, stipulated only that they should 
 not pass through the city of Rome. In the following year the pope 
 came to an open rupture with the emperor, Joseph I., whose troops 
 had taken possession of Comacchio in the papal state. After trying 
 remonstrances in vain, Clement collected an army of 25,000 men, 
 under the command of Count Marsigli ; but the papal troops retreated 
 before the Austrians, who occupied Romagna and the Marches, and 
 the pope was obliged to sue for peace, which the emperor granted in 
 January 1709. Comacchio was ultimately restored to the pope. 
 
 Clement was tenacious of what he considered as the prerogatives of 
 his see over the clergy of other countries, and he quarrelled in 1715 
 with the House of Savoy, which then ruled over Sicily, about a tribunal 
 in that island, called di Monarchia, which interfered with the eccle- 
 siastical immunities and the alleged rights of Rome over Naples and 
 Sicily, as fiefs of the papal see. The king, Victor Amadeus II., stood 
 firm ; and many of the Sicilian clergy, who refused to obey the 
 directions of the tribunal, were either imprisoned or obliged to 
 emigrate. About 400 of them took refuge at Rome. Clement had 
 also long and serious disputes with France. He began by his bull 
 ' Vineam Domini,' renewing the interdict which his predecessors had 
 issued against the Jansenists, and declaring their propositions about 
 grace and free will to be heretical. In 1713 he issued the famous 
 bull ' Unigenitus,' which set the whole kingdom of France, court, 
 parliament, and clergy in an uproar. This bull condemned 101 pro- 
 positions of a book by Father Quesnel, entitled 'Moral Reflections on 
 the New Testament ; ' in which that writer revived several opinions 
 of St. Augustin, St. Prosper, and other old fathers, which souuded 
 favourable to the Jansenistic dogmas of predestination and grace. 
 The Jesuits, who asserted that grace was subordinate to the will of 
 man, and who were accused by the Jansenists of Pelagian heresy, 
 stirred themselves to have Quesnel's book condemned. Several French 
 prelates, Bossuet and Cardinal Noailles among others, approved of 
 the general tenor of Quesnel's book, whish contains much sound 
 moral doctrine. Cardinal Noailles had already indisposed the pope 
 against him by presiding at an assembly of the French clergy in 1705, 
 in which the bishops were declared to be judges in matters of doctrine, 
 independent of the pretensions of the popes, who would reduce them 
 to the condition of mere registrars and executors of the papal decrees. 
 Father le Tellier, a Jesuit and confessor to Louis XIV., urged the 
 king in favour of the bull ' Unigenitus,' which was at last registered 
 by the parliament of Paris, after much opposition, and continued for 
 years after to keep up a sort of schism between France and Rome. 
 
 Another source of trouble to Clement proceeded from the disputes 
 concerning the Jesuit missionaries in China, who had gained consider- 
 able influence at the court of Pekin, and were accused by the other 
 missionaries of latitudiuarianism, of winking at several superstitious 
 practices in order to make proselytes, and of even countenancing 
 idolatry. Clement sent in 1702 Cardinal de Tournon as leg'ate to 
 China; but the cardinal on arriving at Macao was so worried by the 
 angry controversialists that he died of anxiety and disappointment. 
 Clement afterwards issued a constitution, or series of ordinances, by 
 which he regulated the course to be followed by missionaries in 
 making proselytes ; and when that course failed, sent the prelate 
 Mezzabarba as his legate ; but the legate was coldly received by the 
 emperor, who was said to be prepossessed against him by the Jesuits, 
 and soon dismissed from the celestial empire. 
 
 Clement took a warm interest in the expedition of the Pretender, 
 son of James II., in 1715, and furnished him with money. After the 
 failure of that attempt, the Pretender, being forsaken by France, 
 retired to Italy under the name of the Chevalier de St. George, and 
 Clement appointed the town of Urbino for his residence. He after- 
 wards negociated his marriage with Clementina Sobieski, which was 
 celebrated at Monte Fiascone, at the pope's expense, who gave to the 
 married couple a palace to reside in, with an annual pension of 12,000 
 crowns. The court of Rome did not for a long time after give up its 
 favourite scheme of regaining England to Catholicism, by means of 
 the Stuarts. 
 
 Clement was more profitably employed in frustrating the schemes 
 of the Turks, who, having invaded the island of Corfu in 1716, were 
 threatening Italy with an invasion. The pope sent a squadron to join 
 the Venetians, he levied a contribution upon the clergy of all Italy 
 to defray the expenses of the war, and he prevailed on the emperor, 
 Charles VI., to join Venice against the Porte. This led to the brilliant 
 campaign of Prince Eugene, who defeated the Turks at Peterwaradin, 
 and took Temeswar. The Turks were also obliged to raise the siege 
 of Corfu. 
 
 After the fall of the intriguing Alberoni, in 1719, Clement succeeded 
 in settling his disputes with Philip V. of Spain, and his Nunzio was 
 again received at Madrid. Europe was now at peace, and Clement 
 enjoyed a short period of rest, after a long series of agitations, until 
 March 1721, when he died, after a pontificate of more than twenty 
 years. In his private character be was amiable and generous, and his 
 
288 
 
 CLEOMBROTUS II. 
 
 281 
 
 morals were irreproachable. He was moderate in providing for bis 
 nephews, who owed their elevation more to his successors than to 
 himself. He embellished Rome, and established the Calcografia 
 Camerale, which has since given to the world many splendid engravings; 
 he encouraged the art of mosaic, and he introduced at Rome the 
 manufactory of tapestry, on the model of the Gobelins. He added to 
 the Vatican library, and to the museum which is annexed to it ; and 
 he patronised men of letters and of science. A fine edition of his 
 decretals, bulls, and constitutions, was published by his nephew, 
 Cardinal Annibale Albaui, after his death, ' Bullarium Clementis XI.,' 
 1 vol., fol. He wrote also several Latin homilies, which he recited 
 on solemn festivals, and which were translated into Italian by 
 Crescimbeni. 
 
 CLEMENT XII. (Lorenzo Corsini, of Florence) succeeded Benedict 
 XIII. in July 1730. He was then seventy-nine years of age, and infirm. 
 He resumed the old contest with the empire about the reversion of the 
 duchies of Farma and Piacenza, but succeeded no better than his 
 predecessors. He endeavoured, and also in vain, to mediate in the 
 war between the republic of Genoa and the Corsicans. He succeeded 
 better in restoring, in 1740, the little republic of San Marino to its 
 libei ties, which had been encroached upon by Cardinal Alberoni. He 
 died February 6, 1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV. 
 
 CLEMENT XIII. (Carlo Rezzonico), a native of Venice, succeeded 
 Benedict XIV. in July 1758. He was more distinguished for his piety 
 and private virtues than for political abilities or knowledge of the 
 world. His pontificate was a continual, but on his part ineffectual 
 struggle to uphold the ecclesiastical immunities and the old pre- 
 rogatives of the sec of Rome against the determination of the other 
 powers to be complete masters in their respective countries. He 
 strove hard to support the Jesuits, who had become obnoxious to 
 various courts, and who were suddenly suppressed in Portugal, Spain, 
 France, and Naples. In their distress, most of the expelled fathers 
 sought an asylum in the Papal States, and found in Clement a 
 generous protector. All the remonstrances and threats of France and 
 Spain could not induce him to abolish the order, which he considered 
 as the firmest support of the Roman see. The King of France seized 
 upon Avignon, and the King of Naples upon Benevento ; still the 
 pope held firm till his death. The Venetian senate, by a series of 
 decrees passed in September 176S, enforced numerous reforms in eccle- 
 siastical discipline in their own dominions, subjected the clergy to the 
 payment of tithes, suppressed some convents, placed the rest under 
 restrictions with regard to their property and the number of their 
 inmates, and subjected all ecclesiastics to the jurisdiction of the 
 secular courts in temporal matters. Clement strongly remonstrated 
 against these innovations : he threatened excommunication, but the 
 senate persisted in its resolutions. He also came to a rupture with 
 the republic of Genoa, because he had sent an apostolic vicar into 
 Corsica, which was then in a state of revolt against the Genoese. The 
 Elector of Bavaria, about the same time, declared that none but his 
 own subjects should hold benefices within his dominions. Maria 
 Theresa made similar enactments in her own states, and she took 
 away the censorship of books from the ecclesiastical authorities, and 
 gave it to the secular magistrates. Tuscany, Parma, and Naples sup- 
 pressed convents, and checked the practice of donations and legacies 
 to the church. In the midst of all these blows against the papal 
 authority, Clement died in February 1769. A splendid mausoleum 
 was raised to him by Pius VI. iu St. Peter's church, which is much 
 admired, especially for its statue of the pope kneeling at prayers, and 
 the two lions couching at the foot of the monument. It was one of 
 the earlier, and among the best works of Canova, who was employed 
 eight years upon it. 
 
 CLEMENT XIV. (Gian Vincenzo Ganganelli) was born at Sant' 
 Angelo iu Vado, near Rimini, in 1705. At an early age he entered 
 the order of Franciscans, distinguished himself by his learning, was 
 favourably noticed and employed by Benedict XIV., and was made a 
 cardinal by Clement XIII., whom he succeeded in May 1769, after a 
 stormy conclave, which lasted two months. He adopted a conciliating 
 tone towards the foreign powers, which at the death of his prede- 
 cessor were on the eve of an open rupture with Rome. He discon- 
 tinued the public reading of the bull in Ccena Domini, which was 
 considered offensive to the sovereigns. The great question which at 
 that time agitated the Roman Catholic world was the definitive 
 abolition of the order of the Jesuits. Ganganelli took several years 
 to decide on this important subject, and at last, on the 21st of July 
 1773, he issued the bull of suppression. About Easter 1774, Clement 
 was taken dangerously ill, under suspicious symptoms, lingered a few 
 months, and died 22nd of September 1774 ; but the post mortem 
 examination of his body and the report of the physicians did not 
 countenance the suspicion that he had died of poison. Ganganelli 
 was a man of enlightened mind. He had a taste for the arts; he con- 
 tinued the collection of antique sculptures begun by Lambertiui, and 
 ranged them iu a suite of rooms in the Vatican, which was called the 
 Clementine Museum, and was afterwards greatly enlarged by his suc- 
 cessor, Pius VI., when it received the name of Museo Pio-Clementino. 
 He added also to the Vatican library. A fine monument, the work of 
 Canova, was raised to him in the church of S. Apostoli, which 
 belonged to a convent of his order. The letters published by Carac- 
 cioli under the name of Gauganelli are now generally understood to be 
 
 apocryphal. Clement XIV. was simple in his habits, free from 
 ainbition, and not given to nepotism. 
 
 CLEMENTI, MU'ZIO, who is justly entitled to rank as the father 
 of the piano-forte school, both as regards composition and perform- 
 ance, was born in 1752, at Rome, where his father practised as an 
 embosser of silver figures and vases for the service of the church. At 
 nine years of age he had made so much progress in music under 
 Cordicelli that he passed a close examination, and was appointed to 
 an organist's place in his native city. He afterwards studied under 
 Santarelli and Carpani, and wrote a mass for four voices when in his 
 thirteenth year. About that time his talents attracted the notice of 
 Mr. Peter Beckford, an English gentleman then travelling in Italy, 
 who undertook the future education of the young artist, and brought 
 him to his seat in Dorsetshire, where the society of a literary and 
 .accomplished family inspired him with that taste for the belles-lettres 
 which encouraged him to pursue a course of study that had been well 
 commenced under a member of the Society of Jesus, and to acquire 
 an extensive knowledge of the learned and living languages, as well an 
 of various branches of science. But he steadily pursued the studies 
 proper to the art which he had chosen as his profession ; the works of 
 J Taudel and Sebastian Bach being in particular made the subject of 
 close investigation, while he did not neglect the practice of compo- 
 sition, having, before he had completed his eighteenth year, composed 
 his celebrated Opera 2 : " a work which, in the opinion of all good 
 musicians, is the basis on which the whole fabric of modern piano- 
 forte sonatas has been founded." 
 
 At the time agreed on by his father, Clementi quitted Mr. Beckford. 
 He shortly after was engaged to preside at the harpsichord at the 
 King's Theatre, and soon was actively and lucratively employed as a 
 master of the first rank. In 1780 he made a tour on the continent, 
 whither his fame had long preceded him, and enjoyed everywhere the 
 highest patronage and the most flattering applause. In Vienna he 
 made the acquaintance of Haydn, Mozart, &c, and played alternately 
 with the latter before the emperor Joseph II. and other royal per- 
 sonages. While in Paris he wrote his Operas 5 and 6 ; and in Vienna 
 his Operas 7, 8, 9, and 10 were composed. On his return to England 
 he published his Opera 11, and 'Toccata,' as well as his Opera 12. In 
 1783, J. B. Cramer, who had previously studied under Abel and 
 Schrocter, became his pupil, and attended him almost daily. 
 
 About the year 1800, having suffered considerably by the failure of 
 the house of Longman and Broderip, he was, by the advice of somo 
 eminent mercantile friends, induced to take possession of the premises 
 of those partners, to embark in the music publishing and piano-forte 
 manufacturing business, and become the head of a new firm, from 
 which time he declined all pupils, and devoted himself wholly to his 
 new, important, and successful occupation. But the peace of 1802 
 tempted him abroad again, and, accompanied by his pupil, Field, he 
 proceeded from city to city till he reached St. Petersburg, where he 
 made some stay. In Berlin he married, and with his bride proceeded 
 to Rome and Naples. He shortly after lost his wife in childbed of a 
 son, who grew up to be his father's pride and solace, but unhappily 
 lost his life by the accidental discharge of his own pistol. In 1810 
 Mr. Clementi, after encountering many difficulties in his attempts to 
 reach England during the fiercest period of the renewed war, arrived 
 in London, and shortly after again married. During his last visit to 
 the continent he published his Opera 41, and collected materials for 
 many other works which subsequently appeared, among which his 
 'Practical Harmony,' in 4 vols., and his 'Gradus ad Parnassum,' in 
 3 vols, must not be left unnoticed. 
 
 In 1813 Mr. Clementi assisted in founding the Philharmonic Society, 
 of which he frequently consented to act as a director, and presented 
 to it his two symphonic, which were more than once performed by 
 that admirable band. Both these symphonies abound in agreeable 
 melody, and are most skilfully written ; but the real vigour of the 
 composer's genius is exhibited in his piauo-forte works, which are rich 
 and classic in style, aud in the purest taste, but are sometimes charged, 
 especially now that a different style i3 in the ascendaut, with a certain 
 want of animation. His sonatas number over 600, divided into 32 
 opera; ; and he wrote also, besides his symphonies, some overtures. 
 
 After an illness of no long duration, Mr. Clementi died on the 
 16th of April 1832. His remains were deposited in the cloisters of 
 Westminster Abbey, and attended to the grave by the choir of that 
 church, of the King's Chapel, and of St. Paul's, together with 
 numerous friends. 
 
 CLEO'MBROTUS I., brother of Agesipolis, whom he succeeded in 
 B.C. 380 as king of Sparta. In B.C. 378 he marched with an army into 
 Bccotia to attack the Thebaus. Passing into the Theban territory he 
 encamped at Cynoscepbalse, and, after remaining there sixteen days, 
 withdrew to Thcspia?. The purpose of the expedition not requiring 
 his presence longer, he left a third of his forces under Sphodrias, and 
 led back the rest to the Peloponnesus. Two years afterwards, B.C. 376, 
 in consequence of the severe illness of Agesilaus, he was chosen to lead 
 another army against the Thebans. In B.C. 371 he commanded, in 
 the celebrated battle at Leuctra, against Epaminondas. The Lacedae- 
 monian horse were quickly routed and were immediately charged by 
 the Theban phalanx. Cleombrotus was mortally wouuded in the 
 attack, and died soon after. (Xenophon, Hellcn. v. 4, vL 4.) 
 
 CLEO'MBROTUS II., son-in-law of Leonidas, on whose expulsion 
 
:S3 
 
 CLEOMEDES. 
 
 CLEON. 
 
 286 
 
 Cleombrotus was elected king of Sparta, B.C. 243 ; but on the return 
 of Leonidas, Cleombrotus was sent into exile, his life being spared at 
 the intercession of his wife Cheilonis. Cleombrotus left two som, the 
 elder of whom, Agesipolis, was the father of Agesipolis III. 
 
 CLEOME'DES, a Greek writer on astronomy. There is some doubt 
 about the age in which he lived ; or, which is the same thing, whether 
 the manuscripts remaining which bear tho name of Cleomedcs were all 
 written by one man, or by two men at different times. The manu- 
 scripts which, remain are on astronomy, on the doctrine of the sphere, 
 and on arithmetic. Vossius conjectures that the work on music 
 attributed to Cleonidas belongs to Cleomedes. Riccioli seems to have 
 been one of the first who supposed that there were two of this name, 
 one about the time of Augustus, the other in the reign of Theodosius. 
 The work on astronomy was attributed by Vossius to the latter ; but 
 the principal arguments against so late an author lie in his frequent 
 mention of Pythagoras, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, and Posidonius, and 
 his entire silence about Ptolemaeus. See however the arguments of 
 Letronne, 'Journal des Savans,' 1821, p. 713. 
 
 We mean by Cleomedes the one of that name who wrote the work 
 Xlepl KVKAucrjs Oeap'tas fierewpaiv, in two books, ' On the Circular Theory 
 of the Heavenly Bodies.' It is professedly in several parts taken from 
 a writing, or from the public lectures, of Posidonius, who was certainly 
 the contemporary of Cicero. It is a probable conjecture that Cleo- 
 medes was a pupil of Posidonius. The work in question has considerable 
 historical value ; it records the measures of the earth by Posidonius 
 and Eratosthenes, establishes the antiquity of the opinion that the 
 rotation of the moon is equal to her synodical revolution round the 
 earth; — had it been the sidereal revolution, it would have been 
 correct. It gives various arguments in proof of the rotundity of the 
 earth, in opposition to the supposition of flat and cubical forms, &c, 
 and from this source the early English writers drew much of what 
 they said on the same subject. It mentions eclipses as having hap- 
 pened without having been predicted in the ' canons ;' a proof that 
 something answering to an almanac was in common use. It decidedly 
 suggests the possibility of rays of light being bent by the air. Delambre 
 has made it sufficiently apparent that Cleomedes was not acquainted 
 with the writings of Hipparchus, though he frequently cites opinions 
 and methods which he attributes to him. 
 
 The earlier editions of Cleomedes are : — 1. The Latin version of 
 George Valla, Venice, 1497 or 1498. 2. In Latin, with Aristotle and 
 Philo, Basel, 1533. 3. The first Greek edition, by Conrad Neobarius, 
 Paris, 1539. 4. In Greek and Latin with Aratus, Proclus, and Diony- 
 sius, Basel, 1547 ; again in 1561; again in 1585. 5. In Greek and 
 Latin, with a Commentary, by George Balfour, Bordeaux, 4to, 1605. 
 This edition was re-published with additional notes, by Janus Bake, 
 Leipzig, 1820 ; this also was re-published, with additional notes, by 
 C. C. Theoph. Schmidt, Leipzig, 1831. The most esteemed manuscript 
 is that in the public library at Wittenberg. 
 
 (Riccioli, Vossius, Weidler, Heilbronner, Delambre, Hist. Astr. Anc. 
 1218.) 
 
 CLEO'MENES, the name of several kings of Sparta. Cleomenes I., 
 son of Anaxandrides (Herod, v. 39), although not perfectly sane, suc- 
 ceeded his father. (Herod, v. 42.) He expelled the Peisistratidae from 
 Athens (Herod, v. 63, 64), B.C. 510, and espoused the cause of Isagoras in 
 opposition to Cleisthenes [Cleisthenes], who however with the seven 
 hundred families that had been banished, afterwards returned and 
 forced him to leave the city. Demaratus, the colleague of Cleomenes, 
 accused him of favouring the Medes, while on an expedition against 
 the ^Eginetse, and obliged him to return home. By the aid of Leo- 
 tychides, a private enemy of Demaratus, and by bribery of the Delphic 
 oracle, Cleomenes succeeded in effecting the abdication of Demaratus. 
 (Herod, vi. 65, 66.) In a war against the people of Argos (about 
 B.c. 491, Clinton, 'Fast. He].,' p. 425, note x.), Cleomenes was com- 
 pletely victorious, and burnt a great number of the fugitives in a sacred 
 grove where they had taken refuge. (Herod, vi. 80.) The means by 
 which he had contrived to get rid of Demaratus afterwards becoming 
 known, he was banished into Thessaly and subsequently to Arcadia, 
 where he endeavoured to stir up the people against the Lacedaemonians. 
 (Herod, vi. 74.) He was ordered to return, and on his arrival in Sparta 
 he confirmed the belief of his madness by mortally wounding himself 
 (Herod, vi. 75), B.C. 492. 
 
 Cleo'menes II. succeeded hi3 brother Agesipolis II. (Diodor. Sic. 
 xv. 60), B.C. 370, and reigned sixty-one years : he died B.C. 309. 
 (Clinton, Fast. Hcl, pp. 205, 213.) 
 
 Cleo'menes III. succeeded his father Leonidas on the throne of 
 Sparta B.C. 236. Immediately on his accession he set himself to oppose 
 Aratus and the Achaean3, who were endeavouring to draw all the 
 Peloponnesians into their league. The Ephori were averse to the 
 war, and Cleomenes saw no way to attain his ends but by abolishing 
 their power. Accordingly he put four of them to death, and attempted 
 to excuse this act of violence by showing the necessity of restoring the 
 ancient institutions of Lycurgus, which could not be effected by any 
 other means. He renewed the old Spartan system of education, and 
 himself observed great simplicity in his mode of life. His colleague of 
 the house of Proclus, a child named Eurydamidas, the son of Agis IV., 
 died it was said by poison, which Pausauias (2, 9) asserts was adminis- 
 tered by the Ephori at the instigation of Cleomenes; but the story 
 appears very improbable. However that may be, on the death of 
 
 Eurydamidas, Cleomenes shared the kingly power with his own brother 
 Eucleidas. He also abolished the Gerusia, or senate, and transferred 
 their powers to another body (patrcmomi) apparently of his own 
 creating ; but this rests solely on the authority of Pausanias. Cleo- 
 menes in his invasion of Acha;a took several cities, and soon afterwards 
 attacked Argos. In order more effectually to oppose Aratus, who had 
 obtained the assistance of Antigonus, Cleomenes formed an alliance 
 with Ptolemy, king of Egypt. The contending parties fought a 
 decisive battle at Sellasia in Laconica, in which the Lacedaemonians 
 were completely defeated : of 6000 men only 200 survived. After the 
 battle Cleomenes fled to Egypt, where he was hospitably entertained 
 by Ptolemy Euergetes. His son and successor however, Ptolemy 
 Philopator, soon showed considerable jealousy of the royal guest, and 
 accordingly put him in confinement. Cleomenes killed himself in the 
 third year after his flight, and his body was afterwards nailed upon 
 a cross by Ptolemy Philopator, B.C. 220 (Clinton, 'P. H.,' 205). He 
 reigned sixteen years. (Plutarch, 'Cleoia.,' c. 38.) Livy (xxxiv. 26), 
 following Polybius (iv.), represents Cleomenes as a tyrant ; but Poly- 
 bins was a native of a city (Megalopolis) which Cleomenes had destroyed, 
 and the support of the Achaean league was a family concern. The 
 truth appears to be that the great object of Cleomenes was to revive 
 the ancient discipline and institutions of Lycurgus, and to put an end 
 to the luxury and corruption which had crept into the state. If the 
 meaus which he took were sometimes indefensible, it mny perhaps be 
 said in reply that his ends were good, and that such means were not 
 entirely condemned by the positive morality of his age and country. 
 
 CLEON, of Athens, the son of Cleaenetus, was originally a tanner. 
 Early in life he began to take an active part in the political affairs of 
 Athens, and his success seems to have drawn him from his business. 
 He set himself up as the champion of the people, and was especially 
 vehement in their cause when their interests appeared to be opposed 
 to those of the rich. The first important affair in which he took a 
 prominent part was the discussion on the massacre of the Mitylenoean 
 prisoners, B.C. 427, who were sent to Athens after the reduction of 
 the island by Paches. Such was the influence of Cleon on this occasion 
 that he succeeded in persuading the assembly to pass a decree by which 
 all the Mitylenaean prisoners sent to Athens by Paches, and every citizen 
 in Mitylene, should be put to death, and the women and children made 
 slaves. The prisoners, who had been sent to Athens, were massacred 
 the same day to the number of more than one thousand; but the 
 timely remorse of the Athenians prevented the execution of the 
 remainder of the sentence. In an assembly called on the following day 
 to reconsider the decree, Cleon came forward to support it with the 
 utmost vehemence, and the majority of his opponent Diodotus was 
 very small. 
 
 In B.C. 425 the Athenians built a small fort at Pylos, in Messenia, 
 under the direction of their general, Demosthenes. The Lacedaemo- 
 nians, with the view of destroying a post that would prove a great 
 annoyance to them, made preparations to besiege it, and also threw a 
 body of men into the small island of Sphacteria, which lay at the 
 entrance of the harbour of Pylos. The island was immediately 
 blockaded by the Athenians ; but as there seemed no prospect of its 
 being speedily taken, the Athenians at home began to complain, and 
 Cleon accused the generals of want of activity in pressing the blockade. 
 " If he were in command," he said, " he would soon finish the business." 
 The people took him at his word; Nicias, one of the commanders at 
 Pylos, insisted that Cleon should supersede him ; and the demagogue, 
 much against his will, was obliged to accept the command. However, 
 he put the best face on the matter, and said that he would be back at 
 Athens in twenty days, and would either bring with him all the 
 Lacedosmonians in the island prisoners, or he would not leave a man 
 of them alive. Demosthenes wa3 his colleague in the expedition. He 
 was as good as his word, aud brought the Lacedaemonians prisoners to 
 Athens within the twenty days. Thucydides, who rarely indulges in 
 reflections on the character of persons in the body of his history, could 
 not abstain from a side-blow at the demagogue general. The most 
 sensible among the Athenians, he observes, were rather pleased at 
 Cleon's being intrusted with the affair of Pylos, for they thought that 
 the result in any event could not be otherwise than good : they would 
 either get rid of Cleon for ever, which they rather expected, or, if they 
 were disappointed in this, he would probably take the place. 
 
 Whether any of the merit of this exploit belonged to Cleon seems 
 more than doubtful. (Aristoph., 'Equ.,' 54, &c.) His prudence in 
 the selection of his colleague cannot be questioned. The reputation 
 which he gained for energy and promptitude in this affair, added to 
 his inordinate vanity, completely turned his head ; and it would seem 
 by what followed as if many of his countrymen were so far deceived 
 by this lucky business of Pylos as to think that Cleon actually had tho 
 talents that he pretended to. Accordingly in B.C. 422 he was fixed 
 upon as the proper person to oppose the movements of the able Spartan 
 general Brasidas in Macedonia and Thrace, and he received the undi- 
 vided command of 1200 heavy-armed men and 300 horse, with still 
 larger forces of Imbrians and Lemnians, and a fleet of 30 galleys. He 
 did not march direct to Amphipolis, which was the principal object 
 of the expedition, but stopped in his way to recover Torone. Brasidas, 
 who had left the town, had stationed there a garrison which was 
 inadequate for its defence, and accordingly Cleon was successful in his 
 attack on the place. He sold all the women and children as slaves, 
 
:87 
 
 CLEOPATRA. 
 
 CLERC, JEAN LE. 
 
 238 
 
 and sent more than 700 men as prisoners to Athens. Proceeding with 
 increased confidence in his own military powers, he stationed himself 
 at Eion on the Strymon, and delayed the attack on Amphipolis till he 
 had received reinforcements. During this interval he made a fruitless 
 attempt on Stagirus, hut succeeded in his attack on Galepsus. The 
 murmurs of his soldiers, who from the first had not been pleased with 
 Cleon's being appointed to the command, soon induced him to move 
 towards Amphipolis with a view of reconnoitring, but not of fighting. 
 Brasidas however, who was in Amphipolis, did not choose to let him 
 off so easily : he made a sudden sally out of the place, while Cleon, 
 who was quite unprepared for an attack, and had not the least intention 
 to fight, was giving orders for a retreat. In the battle that ensued both 
 the Lacedaemonian and the Athenian generals fell, B.C. 422. Cleon, 
 says Thucydiiles (with a half malicious coolness), who had never had 
 any idea of keeping his ground from the first, was caught as he ran 
 away, and killed by a Myrcinian targeteer. The remains of the 
 Athenian army returned home. 
 
 If Cleon possessed any qualifications at all as a statesman, they con- 
 sisted not in superiority of talent or in political knowledge (for he had 
 little of either), but in a singular facility of speaking and a great 
 command of words, which, combined with low manners, unsparing 
 abuse of those who were better than himself, and a coarse vehement 
 mode of delivery, rendered him acceptable to the mob. Whatever 
 influence he gained with the more considerate citizens seems to have 
 arisen from the reputation which he gained for blunt honesty in the 
 declaration of his sentiments, and a general promptness in action. 
 The real qualities which he contrived to get so favourably inter- 
 preted appear to have been impudence and rashness. The indignation 
 of the comic poet (Aristophanes) was at last roused to endeavour to 
 suppress what seemed to defy all other opposition. Aristophanes 
 levelled at Cleon the shafts of his satire, and held him up to public 
 ridicule in the most ridiculous colours. On one occasion (in the 
 ' Acharnenses '), alluding to the demagogue's former occupation, he 
 threatens to "cut him into shoe-leather - ,'' and the comedy of 'The 
 Knights' (Iiririjj) was composed with the express object of destroying 
 his authority, which had been raised to so extraordinary a pitch by 
 his success in the affair of Pylos. The victory at Spbacteria took 
 place B.C. 425, and ' the Knights ' was represented B.C. 424. Such was 
 the dread of offending Cleon, that not au actor was to be found bold 
 enough to personate him on the stage, while the mask-maker refused 
 to give a representation of his face, and Aristophanes was obliged to 
 act in that character himself, supplying the want of a mask by 
 smearing his face with the lees of wine. [Brasidas; Aristophanes.] 
 
 (Thucyd., iii., 36; iv., 21-40, &c. ; v., 2-10; Aristoph., Equitcs; and 
 Thirlwall, Greece, vol. iii. ; but see also Grote, Hist, of Greece, vol. vi., 
 for an extended and elaborate, though, as we think, unsuccessful 
 effort to remove from Cleon the odium which almost every other 
 historian has concurred in attaching to his name ; Mr. Grote's theory 
 being that Cleon was in fact the resolute champion of popular rights, 
 and that Thucydides and Aristophanes from whom the received 
 opinions respecting Cleon are derived were his personal enemies, 
 while Thucydides was further animated by strong party spirit.) 
 
 CLEOPATRA (KMoTrdrpa), a daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, king of 
 Egypt, was born about B.C. 69. Her father, who died B.C. 51, left 
 ,two sons called Ptolem)', besides Cleopatra and her sister Arsinoe. 
 By her father's will Cleopatra and her elder brother were to be joint 
 sovereigns, but they soon disagreed, and Cleopatra was obliged to take 
 refuge in Syria. In B.C. 48, Julius Caesar arriving in Syria in pursuit 
 of Pompey, who had fled from the battle of Pharsalia, determined to 
 carry the will of Ptolemy into effect, and to settle the dispute between 
 Cleopatra and her brother. The youthful queen, who probably knew 
 the character of the Dictator, contrived to get herself privately con- 
 veyed into his presence, and by her fascinating manners completely 
 gained his favour. Though not remarkable for beauty, according to 
 the testimony of ancient writers, which is confirmed by her medals, 
 she possessed great natural abilities, which had been carefully culti- 
 vated. She is said to have spoken with facility several languages 
 besides her native Greek ; a circumstance in itself well calculated to 
 give an artful woman a great ascendancy over all with whom she 
 came iu contact. Caesar decided that Cleopatra should be restored to 
 her equal share of power. This decision giving dissatisfaction to the 
 young prince and his advisers, led to an attack upon Caesar's quarters 
 under Achillas, the commander of the king's troops. After a blockade 
 of some months Caesar received reinforcements, and completely 
 defeated the party of the king, who was drowned in the Nile. The 
 sovereign power was now given by Caesar, in conformity with the 
 meaning of Ptolemy's will, to Cleopatra and her younger brother 
 Ptolemy. On Caesar's return to Home, Cleopatra shortly afcer 
 followed him, and remained there till his assassination (B.C. 44), when 
 she hastily quitted the city and returned to Egypt. (Cic. ' Ep. ad 
 Att.,' xiv. 8.) 
 
 In the fourth year of their joint reign Cleopatra murdered her 
 brother Ptolemy. Her connection with Marc Antony commenced 
 after the battle of Philippi, about B.C. 40, with the interview at Tarsus 
 in Cilicia, of which Plutarch ('Anton.,' 25-27) has given a minute 
 description, and which Shakspere, in his play of 'Antony and 
 Cleopatra,' has turned into a glowing picture. Antony had no doubt 
 Been Cleopatra during her residence at Rome, but, according to 
 
 Appian, he was first struck with her charms in Egypt (b.o. 55) when 
 he accompanied Gabinius, who was commissioned to restore Ptolemy 
 Aulete3 to his throne. Cleopatra at this their first interview was 
 only in her fifteenth year. From the time of the meeting at Tarsus 
 the destinies of Antony and Cleopatra were united. The voluptuous 
 queen, whose lovo of pleasure was unbounded, found in Antony a 
 companion to her taste ; and she spared no pains to attract him by all 
 the allurements that her inventive talents could devise. Her influence 
 over him seems to have continued undiminished to the end of his life. 
 If we may believe the extant authorities, Antony was even prevailed 
 upon by Cleopatra to order her sister Arsinoe, who had taken sanctuary 
 iu the temple of Diana at Ephesus, to be put to death. 
 
 The return of Antony to Italy, and his marriage with Octavia, the 
 half-sister of Octavianus, for a time separated him from the Queen of 
 Egypt ; but they met again in Syria (b.o. 36) previous to the unsuc- 
 cessful Parthian expedition of that year, after which Antony renounced 
 his wife for the charms of Cleopatra. Cleopatra was present at the 
 decisive battle of Actium, and set the example of flight, which was 
 followed by Antony. On the death of Antony, Cleopatra committed 
 suicide in order to avoid the humiliation of being led in the triumphal 
 procession of Octavianus. Most probably she took poison. According 
 to the story in Plutarch, she was closely watched by the orders of 
 Cctaviauus, who suspected her designs, but she procured a poisonouB 
 serpent to be introduced in a basket of figs. The queen, after using 
 the bath, and partaking of a sumptuous repast, applied the deadly 
 serpent to her arm. Two of her female attendants died with her. 
 The emissaries of Augustus, who had received a letter from Cleopatra 
 declaring her intention, came too late to save her for a Roman 
 triumph. They found her body lying on a golden couch in her royal 
 robes, with one of her attendants dead by her side, and the other 
 with just strength enough remaining to fix the diadem on the head of 
 her mistress. Cleopatra at the time of her death was in her thirty- 
 ninth year. She was buried by order of Octavianus with royal honours 
 iu the same tomb with Antony. With Cleopatra ended (B.C. 30) the 
 dynasty of the Greek kings of Egypt, which commenced with 
 Ptolemocus, the son of Lagus, B.o. 323. 
 
 She had by Julius Caesar a son, Cocsariou, who was put to death by 
 Octavianus at Rome. By Antony she had three children, Alexander, 
 Ptolemeeus, and Cleopatra, all of whom adorned the triumph of 
 Octavianus at Rome. Cleopatra afterwards married Juba, king of 
 Mauritania. [Antony; Augustus; Cesar.] 
 
 (Plutarch ; Appian ; Dion Cassius.) 
 
 CLERC, JEAN LE, born at Geneva in 1657, was the son of Etieune 
 le Clerc, and nephew to David le Clerc, a clergyman and professor of 
 Hebrew at Geneva, both known for several theological works. Jean 
 1c Clerc early manifested great capabilities for learning joined to an 
 extraordinary memory. He travelled in France and England, and at 
 last settled at Amsterdan, where he became professor of philosophy 
 and belles-lettres and of the ancient languages. He wrote a vast 
 number of books, of very unequal merit, on all sorts of subjects. 
 Those which made most noise at the time concern Biblical history and 
 theological controversy, such as Latin commentaries on various books 
 of the Bible, 5 vols, fob, Amsterdam, 1710-31 ; ' Harmonia Evaugelica,' 
 iu Greek and Latin, fol., 1700; ' Traduction du Nouveau Testament, 
 avec des notes,' 4to, 1703. These works pleased neither Catholic nor 
 Protestant divines, from their having a tendency to Socinianism — a 
 tendency made still more manifest by auother work generally attri- 
 buted to him, entitled 'Sentimens de quelques Thdologiens de 
 Hollande touchant l'Histoire Critique du Vieux Testament.' followed 
 by a 'Defense' of the same work, 2 vols. 8vo, 1685. In these the 
 author openly attacks the inspiration of the Scriptures and the very 
 foundation of Revelation. As a critic, Le Clerc published his ' Ars 
 Critica,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1712-30, a work which is much esteemed; and he 
 also edited the ' Bibliotheque Historique et Uuiverselle,' a periodical 
 begun in 1687 and closed in 1693, making 26 vols. 12mo ; the 'Biblio- 
 theque Choisie,' 1712-18, 28 vols. 12mo ; and the 'Bibliotheque 
 Ancienne et Moderne,' 1726-30, 29 vols. 12mo. These literary journals 
 enjoyed a good reputation in their days. He also wrote — 1, ' Parrha- 
 siana, ou Pensees diverses sur des matieres de Critique, d'Histoiie, de 
 Morale, et de Politique,' 2 vols. 12mo, 1701, a compilation to which he 
 has added some hasty reflections, and many favourable comments upon 
 his own works ; 2, ' Histoire des Provinces Unies des Pays Bas,' from 
 1650 to 1728, 2 vols, fob, Amsterdam, 1738; 3, 'Histoire du Cardinal 
 de Richelieu,' 2 vols. 12mo, 1714 ; 4, ' Traite" de l'lncre'duliteV 8vo, 
 1733, in which he examines and discusses the various motives and 
 reasons which occasion many to reject Christianity. He also wrote a 
 number of polemical works and pamphlets, most of which were tinged 
 with bitterness and dogmatism. Le Clerc was one of the first critics 
 of his age, but it was an age in which the critical art had not attained 
 a high degree of excellence. He was learned, had quickness and 
 penetration, and a great facility of composition ; but he generally 
 wrote in haste and upon too many and various subjects, having at 
 times five or six works in hand at once. He published also a supple- 
 ment to ' Moreri's Dictionary ,' and several editions of ancient classics, 
 among others Livy, Ausonius, Sulpicius Severus, &c. His edition of 
 Menauder and Philemon's fragments was severely criticised by Dr. 
 Bentley. In 1728, while he. was giving his lecture, Le Clerc suddenly 
 lost the use of his speech through a paralytic stroke. After lingering 
 
269 
 
 Borne years in a state bordering upon idiocy, he died at Amsterdam, 
 on the 8th of January, 1736. 
 
 CLERC, SEBASTIEN LE, a celebrated French designer and etcher, 
 was born at Metz in 1637. His father, who was a clever goldsmith, 
 instructed him in the rudiments of drawing and engraving. Sebastien 
 Le Clerc commenced his career as a civil and military engineer; but, 
 having met with some unjust treatment, he resigned a place which he 
 held under the Marshal de la Ferte", and in 1665 settled in Paris, 
 where, by the advice of Le Brun, he devoted himself exclusively to 
 engraving or etching, an art for which he showed the highest ability. 
 He had also a fertile invention, and great ability as a designer. 
 
 In 1668 Le Clerc published a ' Ge'ome'trie Pratique ' in eighty plates, 
 which procured him the notice of Colbert, who gave him an appoint- 
 ment in the Gobelins tapestry manufactory, with apartments in the 
 factory, and a salary of 3000 francs. Whilst in this situation he 
 married the daughter of Vander Kerkhove, the dyer of the establish- 
 ment, by whom he had sixteen children ; and his family increased so 
 rapidly that he was forced to give up his situation, and to try his 
 fortune by working for the public at large. About 1684 he was 
 elected a member of the Royal Academy of Painting, and appointed 
 Professor of Perspective, an office which he held for thirty years. In 
 1693 he was nominated Engraver in Ordinary to the King (Louis XIV.) ; 
 and he was created about the same time a Knight, by Pope Clement 
 XI. He used to sign himself Chevalier Romain. He died at Paris 
 October 29, 1714. 
 
 Lc Clerc's etchings and engravings are very numerous. They are 
 said to exceed 3000; and his designs are twice as numerous: they 
 include nearly all subjects except shipping. His master-pieces are, 
 the ' Academy of the Arts and Sciences/ the ' Entrance of Alexander 
 the Great into Babylon,' and the ' Feeding of the Five Thousand.' 
 from his own compositions. A complete list of his works, preceded 
 by a memoir, was published at Paris in 1774, by C. A. de Jombert, 
 entitled ' Catalogue Raisonne" de l'CEuvre de Seb. le Clerc' Heineken 
 also has given a long list of his principal works in his ' Dictionnaire 
 des Artistes,' &c. Le Clerc was the author of several scientific works. 
 He published a 'Traite de Ge'orne'trie,' a 'Nouveau Systeme du 
 Monde,' a ' Systeme de la Vision,' and a ' Traite" d' Architecture.' 
 
 Sebastien Le Clerc, his son, was a good historical painter. He 
 was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1704, and died in 
 1767, aged eighty-three. Several of his works also have been 
 engraved. 
 
 CLERK, JOHN (of Eldin, N.B.), was the inventor of one of the 
 most important parts of the modern British system of naval tactics. 
 Iu 1779 he communicated to some friends his notions concerning what 
 is technically called ' breaking the line.' In 1780 he communicated 
 his plan to Mr. Richard Atkinson, the particular friend of Sir George 
 (afterwards Lord) Rodney, and that distinguished officer, before leaving 
 London, said, he would strictly adhere to it in fighting the enemy. On 
 the 12th of April 1782, when the experiment was tried for the first 
 time, it led to Rodney's decisive victory over the French, under De 
 Grasse, in the West Indies. From that time the principle has been fre- 
 quently adopted; and during the war with France, under Napoleon I., 
 when Howe, Nelson, and others executed the manoeuvre in perfection, 
 it was uniformly attended with success. His views were embodied in 
 ' An Essay on Naval Tactics, systematical and historical, with explana- 
 tory plates, in 4 parts, by John Clerk, Esq., of Eldin, &c.' (see also an 
 excellent article in the 'Edinburgh Review,' vol. vi. p. 301). A few 
 copies of the first part of this valuable essay were distributed among 
 friends in the beginning of 1782. This part was reprinted and pub- 
 lished in 1790, and the second, third, and fourth parts were added in 
 1797. Mr. Clerk was no sailor, and had never even made a single sea- 
 voyage. 
 
 Such is the account given by Mr. Clerk's relatives and friends, but it 
 has been indignantly contradicted in various publications by General 
 Sir Howard Douglas. In a circumstantial narrative of Admiral 
 Rodney's battle, he proves that the passage of the British through the 
 enemy's line, and thereby cutting off the rear ships, arose from the 
 chance position of the two fleets, and was one of those happy and 
 unpremeditated decisions of the moment which always characterise a 
 great and successful commander. By a close examination of dates, he 
 aLo shows that Mr. Clerk's ingenious essay could not have been com- 
 municated to Lord Rodney before the engagement took plaoe ; and he 
 supports these statements by letters and other documents which have 
 fallen into his hands since the death of his father, the late Admiral 
 Kir Charles Douglas, who was at that time Rodney's ' captain of the 
 fleet,' and therefore minutely acquainted with all the transactions. 
 (See the several publications on this subject by Lieutenant-General Sir 
 Howard Douglas, Bart.) Other writers have taken part in the contro- 
 versy, but, as far as we are aware, nothing material has been added 
 beyond what is stated above. Mr. Clerk died in July 1812. 
 
 CLEVELAND, CLEIVELAND, or CLEAVELAND, JOHN, was 
 born at Loughborough, Leicestershire, in 1613, and studied at Cam- 
 bridge, where he became a college tutor and reader in rhetoric. On 
 the breaking out of the civil war he joined the royal army, and dis- 
 tinguished himself both as an active soldier and as one of the most 
 severe and biting writers of lampoons on the Roundheads. He died 
 April 29th, 1658. Those few verses of his, chiefly love-poems, whicli 
 rise above personalities and temporary interests, posse33 occasional 
 
 richness of fancy ; but they are deformed by the most perverse conceits 
 anywhere to bo found in the circle of that which has been called the 
 metaphysical poetry of the 17th century. Tho most complete edition 
 of Cleveland's works appeared in 8vo in 1687. 
 
 CLINTON, DE WITT, has a claim to biographical notice chiefly 
 as the persevering promoter of the project for the formation of the 
 great canal from Lake Erie to the Atlantic. He was born in 1769, at 
 Little Britain, Orange county, New York. His mother was one of the 
 distinguished Dutch family of De Witt ; and his father, who was of 
 English extraction, served with great distinction as brigadier-general 
 in the army of the United States during the revolutionary war. De 
 Witt received his education at Colombia College, Now York, and was 
 admitted to the bar. In 1797 he was elected by the democratic party 
 to the state legislature of New York ; having previously officiated for 
 several years as secretary to his uncle George Clinton, as well as to the 
 regents of the university and board of fortifications <i New York. In 
 1801 he was elected a member of the senate of the United States. He 
 afterwards filled the office of mayor o c New York until 1815, when 
 he resigned, mainly in consequence of having been unsuccessful in his 
 candidateship for the presidency of the United States. During the 
 period between 1817 and 1826, he was several times elected governor 
 of the state of New York by the zealous exertions of the democratic 
 party. He was one of the founders of the New York Historical 
 Society, the Academy of Arts, and the Orphan Asylum of New York, 
 a member of most of the literary and scientific societies of the United 
 States, and of several similar institutions in Europe. His productions 
 consist of his speeches made on various occasions in the performance 
 of his official duties, papers read before literary and benevolent 
 societies, correspondence concerning the canal ; judicial opinions, and 
 various fugitive compositions. His services to his native state were 
 very important, and his character, as a lover of science and polite 
 literature, was adorned by a generous benevolence. He died suddenly 
 in 1828, and was interred with great public demonstrations of respect. 
 
 CLINTON, HENRY FYNES, was born January 14, 1781, at Gam- 
 ston in Nottinghamshire. He was the eldest son of the Rev. Charles 
 Fynes Clinton, D.D., prebendary of Westminster, and incumbent of 
 St. Margaret's, Westminster, and was descended in direct line from 
 Henry, second earl of Lincoln. The family name was Fynes till his 
 father obtained a royal licence, April 26, 1821, to resume the ancient 
 family name of Clinton. 
 
 Mr. Clinton was educated at Southwell School, Nottinghamshire, 
 where he remained from 1789 till 1796, and was well grounded in the 
 classic languages. In September 1796 he was removed to Westminster 
 School, where he remained till Easter 1799, not on the foundation. 
 In April 1799 he went to Oxford, where he was entered a commoner 
 of Christ Church, and remained till 1806. He graduated B.A. in 1803, 
 and M.A. in 1805. 
 
 At the general election of 1806 he was returned M.P. for Aldborough, 
 through the interest of the Duke of Newcastle, and continued to be 
 one of the representatives of that borough till the dissolution of 1826, 
 after which he was succeeded in his seat by his next brother. He was 
 diligent in his parliamentary attendance, but was not a speaker. In 
 his politics he was a conservative. After the death of Mr. Planta, in 
 December 1827, he was a candidate for the office of principal librarian 
 of the British Museum ; but the claims of Sir Henry Ellis from long 
 service and experience determined the choice of the Marquis of Lans- 
 downe, then Home Secretary, in his favour. Mr. Clinton inherited an 
 ample fortune from a distant relative. He died at his residence, 
 Welwyn, Hertfordshire, October 24, 1852. 
 
 Mr. Clinton married June 22, 1809, but his wife died February 2, 
 1810. He married January 6, 1812, a daughter of Dr. Majendie, 
 bishop of Bangor, who survived him, together with eight daughters. 
 His only son, Charles Francis Clinton, graduated B.A. of Christ Church, 
 Oxford, in 1836, served in Spain in the Christino army, was decorated 
 with the Cross of San Fernando by Espartero, was appointed in 1843 
 British arbitrator under the treaty with Portugal for the abolition of 
 slavery, and died at Loando, on the west coast of Africa, in 1844. 
 
 Mr. Clinton was a classical scholar of the highest class. He read 
 carefully all the best works of the Greek and Roman writers with a 
 diligence perhaps unexampled, at least in modem times. He himself 
 states, that while at Oxford, during less than seven years, he read 5223 
 pages of the Greek poet3 and prose-writers ; but that afterwards, 
 between 1810 and 1820, he read about 40,000 pages : the reading at 
 Oxford amounting to 746 pages annually, while the reading during 
 1810-20 amounts to 4000 pages annually, which is at any rate more 
 than five times greater. 
 
 Mr. Clinton's two great works, the 'Fasti Hellenici' and 'Fasti 
 Romani,' have a European reputation, and are literary works of which 
 every English scholar may well be proud. The 'Fasti Hellenici' (the 
 •Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece '), 3 vols. 4to, Oxford, was 
 commenced in 1810, and was published in four separate volumes in 
 1824, 1827, 1830, and 1834; but the work is now divided into 3 vols., 
 which are sold separately — vol. i. extending from the earliest accounts 
 to the 55th Olympiad, vol. ii. from the 55th to the 124th Olympiad, 
 and voL iii. from tho 124th Olympiad to the death of Augustus. 
 Besides the chronological tables, of which these volumes for the most 
 part consist, they are interspersed with dissertations on the early 
 inhabitants of Greece, the Messenian wars, scripture chronology, the 
 1 i» 
 
201 
 
 293 
 
 writings of Homer, the population of ancient Greece, and other inter- 
 esting subjects. The 'Fasti Romani' (the 'Civil and Literary Chro- 
 nology of Home and Constantinople, from the Death of Augustus to 
 the Death of Heraclius'), 2 vols. 4to, Oxford, were published in 1845 
 and 1850. In 1851 Mr. Clinton published 'An Epitome of the Civil 
 and Literary Chronology of Greece, from the Earliest Accounts to the 
 Death of Augustus,' 8vo, Oxford; and in 1853 appeared 'An Epitome 
 of tho Civil and Literary Chronology of Home and Constantinople, 
 from the Death of Augustus to the Death of Heraclius,' 8vo, Oxford : 
 two abridgments which are very useful to those students who cannot 
 afford to purchase the larger and more expensive works. 
 
 (Literary Remains of H. F. Clinton, Edited by C. J. F. Clinton, 1854; 
 Gentleman's Magazine.) 
 
 CLITUS, or CLEITUS. [Alexander III.] 
 
 CLIVE, ROBERT, LORD, was born on the 29th of September 
 1725, at Styche, near Market Drayton, Shropshire. His family was 
 respectable, but poor. He was sent to several schools, but distin- 
 guished himself in all of them rather by a love of mischief and a 
 fearless disposition than by any aptitude or love for learning. He was 
 sent to India, and arrived at Madras, in the civil service, aB a writer, 
 in 1744. Three years after, he quitted the civil service of the Company 
 for the military, which suited him much better. In 1748 he distin- 
 guished himself at the siege of Pondicherry, and shortly after at the 
 taking of Devi-Cotta, in Taujore, on which occasion his superior officer 
 recommended him to the notice of the Company and the British 
 government. Coming into contact with the French (with whom, and 
 not with the natives of India, the main struggle lay), he beat them 
 under their veteran commanders. The taking of Arcot, and the 
 decisive victory gained by the British there, were chiefly owing to this 
 young and comparatively inexperienced officer. On his return to 
 England in 1753 for the recovery of his health, he wa3 highly compli- 
 mented by the Directory of the East India Company. In 1755 he 
 went again to India as governor of Fort St. David, and with the rank 
 of lieutenant-colonel in the king's service. Soon after his arrival, in 
 conjunction with the naval commanders, Watson and Pocock, he 
 reduced the dangerous pirate Augria, taking Gheriah, his capital, and 
 all his treasures. In the meantime the nabob Sujah-u-Dowlah had 
 attacked the British, destroyed their factories, and barbarously thrown 
 part of his prisoners into the memorable ' Black Hole ' of Calcutta. 
 Colonel Clive was then, according to the admission of all parties, the 
 main stay and only hope of the British in India. He sailed at once 
 with Admiral Watson to Calcutta, took Fort St. William in January 
 1757, and following up bis advantages, thoroughly defeated and disor- 
 ganised the Sujah's army. Clive's victories led to a peace highly 
 advantageous to the British power in India, which before this event 
 was dwindling to nothing. A series of intrigues and recriminations 
 followed : Clive accused Dowlah of being wholly devoted to the French 
 interests, — a cruel tyrant over hia subjects, — a man without honour, 
 in whom there could be no faith or confidence. On the other side it 
 was urged that Clive, insatiable of power, influence, and wealth, had 
 from the beginning determined to dethrone that nabob ; that with 
 this view he had engaged in intrigues with Meer Jaffier, one of the 
 nabob's officers, and with Omichund, a Gentoo merchant, whom, it 
 was said, he afterwards defrauded. In all these transactions the 
 observation of the rigid rule of right is not to be expected on either 
 side. Clive's business was to advance the British power in Iudia, and 
 the nabob happened to be at once an impediment in his way, and a 
 cruel tyrant, after the fashion of that country. The war that ensued 
 was short and brilliant, for, with a ' handful of men,' Clive gained the 
 great victory of Plassey, and on the next day entering Moorshedabad 
 in triumph, installed Meer Jaffier, who took the style of Jaffier-Ali- 
 Cawn, in the place of Sujah-u-Dowlah. The deposed nabob was soon 
 taken, and privately put to death by Meer Jaffier's son. The new 
 nabob gave Clive a jaghire, or grant of land, which was said to produce 
 27,000£. per annum. Clive being made governor of Calcutta, held the 
 chief command there, and through the rest of British Bengal, for 
 about two years. 
 
 In 1759 he destroyed a formidable Dutch armament sent against 
 Bengal. In 1760 he returned to England, where he received the 
 unanimous thanks of the Company, and was created by government 
 an Irish peer, under the title of Lord Clive, baron of Plassey. He 
 was returned to parliament for Shrewsbury, and kept his seat in the 
 House of Commons till his death. In politics he was rather liberal, 
 being what was then called a ' moderate Whig ; ' but he exercised a 
 prodigious influence on parliamentary elections. Speaking of his title 
 of Lord, he says, in a letter to his friend Major Carnac, " If health 
 had not deserted me on my arrival iu England, in all probability I 
 should have been an English peer instead of an Irish one, with the 
 promise of a red riband. I know I could have bought the title (which 
 is usual), but that I was above, and the honours I have obtained are 
 free and voluntary." 
 
 After Clive's departure, the affairs of Iudia fell into an apparently 
 hopeless state of confusion, and he was once more sent out (iu 1764) 
 as the only man at all likely to retrieve them. Before this last 
 employment he received the order of the Bath, and was promoted to 
 the rank of major-general. In spite of dissensions and intrigues, and 
 an almost general opposition on the part of the employes of the 
 Company, both civil and military, he set thiugs iu order, and gave | 
 
 security to that broad basis on which the British power has been sines 
 raised in India. He however made many enemies, whose influence he 
 felt a few years later. 
 
 He returned from India on the 14th of July 1767, with a constitu- 
 tion thoroughly shattered. Ho was received with the greatest distinc- 
 tion. Five years later (in 1772) his proceedings in India were made 
 the subject of severe animadversion in parliament, and out of doors ; 
 and in 1773 a select committee of the House of Commons was appointed 
 to examine into them. The charges presented to the House were most 
 serious, involving even a charge of forgery ; but on the great debate 
 on the 22nd of May the combat was narrowed into a motion made by 
 Colonel Burgoyne, and seconded by Sir William Meredith — " That in 
 the acquisition of his wealth Lord Clive had abused the powers with, 
 which he was intrusted." This motion was rejected, and at five 
 o'clock in the morning a resolution was passed — " That Lord Clive 
 had rendered great and praiseworthy services to his country." He 
 was thus acquitted, but the course of the trial was a process of torture 
 to his proud spirit ; nor was the form of the acquittal altogether satis- 
 factory. He never held up his head again, and towards the end of the 
 following year he committed suicide. Soon after his first arrival iu 
 India, in consequence of a painful disorder he accustomed himself to 
 take opium, the pernicious doses of which he gradually increased. ] 
 After his last arrival in England, he suffered from a complication of ! 
 disorders ; and to alleviate the anguish of the gall-stones he swallowed 
 opium in greater quantities than ever. His death took place on the I 
 22nd of November 1774, at his house in Berkeley-square, shortly after 
 completing his forty-ninth year. 
 
 (Life of Robert Lord Clive, collected from the Family Papers, <kc, 
 by Major-General Sir John Malcolm, 3 vols. 8vo, 1836; and see the 
 brilliant examen of Lord Clive's career and services by Macaulay, 
 reprinted in his Essays.) 
 
 CLO'DIUS PU'BLIUS, a Roman patrician, the son of Appius, first 
 became notorious by introducing himself in the disguise of a woman 
 into Caesar's house during the celebration of the sacred rites of the I 
 Bona Dea. For this offence he was tried, but by the help of his hire- 
 lings and dependents, and by bribing the judices, he was acquitted. | 
 (Cicero, ' Ep. ad Attic.,' i. 12. 16.) Cicero, who was called to give 
 evidence on this trial, made a very unfavourable statement respecting j 
 his character, for which Clodiu3 never forgave him. It was chiefly in 
 order to revenge himself on so formidable an enemy, that Clodius took I 
 measures to qualify himself for the office of tribune of the people. ; 
 With this view he got himself adopted into a plebeian family, though 
 with considerable difficulty, and not without the help of Caesar and ! 
 Pompey. No sooner was he elected tribune than he applied all his i 
 energies to effect the ruin of Cicero. [Cicero.] 
 
 In B.C. 57, when Lentulus had brought before the senate a proposal i 
 to recal Cicero from banishment, a day was fixed for taking the sense j 
 of the people. Fabricius, one of the tribunes, who favoured the cau^e 
 of Cicero, endeavoured to possess the place of assembly with armed 
 men, but it had been prc-occupied by Clodius. An encounter followed, 
 in which Clodius was victorious, and followed up his advantage by 
 massacreing a considerable number of persons. Milo undertook to 
 prosecute him for these outrages, but it was useless to proceed in the i 
 regular manner against a man who employed bodies of gladiators in j 
 his defence. Milo accordingly provided himself in a similar way, and 
 the two parties had frequent engagements in the streets of Rome. '. 
 When Cicero was recalled from exile, a question was raised, whether 
 the ground on which his house had stood, and his property, which 
 had been alienated to religious uses, should be restored to him or not. 
 Clodius made a vehement speech against the restoration ; but the 
 point being decided in Cicero's favour, enraged Clodius beyond all 
 bounds, and he made an attempt on Cicero's life. He contrived to 
 screen himself from another trial, which he apprehended, by getting 
 himself elected aedile ; and no sooner was Milo's tribuneship expired, 
 than he took advantage of the circumstance to prosecute him for acts 
 of violence. Cicero appeared in defence of Milo, who was acquitted. 
 In B.C. 52 Clodius was a candidate for the prsetorship. Shortly after, 
 Milo, in his way from Rome to Lanuvium, a distance of about fifteen 
 miles, met Clodius returning from his country-seat at Aricia. The 
 meeting appears to have been accidental ; but through the officious- 
 ness of a gladiator in Milo's retinue, a fray ensued, in which Clodius 
 received a severe wound. He was carried into an inn at Bo villas, to 
 be attended to ; but Milo, wishing his men to make the most of their 
 victory, Clodius was dragged out of the inn, and killed in the high- 
 road. (Appian, ' De Bell. Civ.,' ii. 439.) Milo was tried for the murder, 
 and Cicero spoke, though ineffectually, in his defence. Milo withdre.v 
 before his condemnation, and retired into exile at Massilia (Marseille). 
 
 (Cicero, Ep. ad Atticum, Pro Milone, Pro Domo Sua ; Plutarch, Life 
 of Cicero.) 
 
 CLOOTZ, JEAN BAPTISTE (Du Val de Grace), Baron, whose 
 immeasurable frenzy makes the wildest Jacobins seem tame, was born 
 at Cleves in 1755. He was a nephew of the learned but paradoxical 
 Dutch writer, Cornelius de Pauw. Long before the stormy days of 
 the French revolution he had conceived the idea of reforming the 
 human race, and travelled through England, Germany, Italy, &c, 
 under the name of Anacharsis Clootz, denouncing all kings, princes, 
 and rulers, and even the Deity. He returned to Paris, where he had 
 completed hia education,about the period of the meeting of the States^ 
 
CLOTAIRE I. 
 
 General, attended all the clubs, exceeded in his ravings the most furious 
 demagogues, and was elected a member of the Convention in September 
 1792. He voted for the king's death, adding, " I likewise pass sentence 
 on Frederick William, king of Prussia." A few weak-minded men 
 yielded to his rhapsodies, and this enthusiast was beginning to form a 
 party when Robespierre, feeling uneasy, denounced the ' Orator of the 
 Human Race,' as the baron styled himself, and sent him to the same 
 scaffold as Hebert, on March 24, 1794. He requested that he might 
 be executed the last, " that he might establish one or two more 
 principles whilst his companions' heads were falling." (Rabbe ; Biogr. 
 ties Contempor.) 
 
 CLOTAIRE I., the youngest son of Clovis, the conqueror of the 
 Gauls, and of his wife Clotilda. Clovis having divided his territories 
 at his death in 511 among his four sons, Clotaire became king of 
 Soissons. He joined his brothers in their war against the Burgundians, 
 which ended in the defeat of the Burgundians, and the extinction of 
 the first kingdom of Burgundy, which was divided among the brother 
 kings of the Franks. Clotaire and his brother Childebert, king of 
 Paris, invaded the kingdom of Orleans after the death of their brother 
 Chlodomere, and murdered two of his sons. The third, named Chlo- 
 dovalde, concealed himself in a hermitage near Paris, where the village 
 of St. Cloud has since risen. After the death of his nephew Theodebert, 
 kiug of Austrasia, Clotaire took possession of that kingdom also ; and 
 after the death of Childebert, Clotaire united in his person the whole 
 monarchy of the Franks in 558. His natural son, Chranme, having 
 revolted against him, joined the Count of Brittany, who maintained 
 his independence against the kings of the Franks. Clotaire defeated 
 his son, and burnt him alive with his family in a hut in which he had 
 taken shelter, in 560. In 562 Clotaire died, and was buried in the 
 church of St. Medard of Soissons. He left four sons, among whom, 
 following the example of his father, he divided the monarchy of the 
 Franks. Caribcrt was made king of Paris, Gontran king of Orleans 
 and Burgundy, Siegbert king of Metz or Austrasia, and Chilperic king 
 of Soissons. 
 
 CLOTAIRE II. was the son of Chilperic, king of Soissons, or of 
 Neustria, and of his wife Fredegonda. His father died, and left him 
 an infant, under the regency of his mother. After many cruel wars, 
 occasioned by the rivalships between Fredegonda and Brunehaut, the 
 wife of Siegbert, king of Austrasia, Clotaire united in his person the 
 whole empire of the Franks, as his grandfather Clotaire I. had done 
 before him, in 613. Having taken Brunehaut prisoner, he put her to 
 a cruel death. Clotnire, in order to conciliate his new subjects of the 
 kingdoms of Burgundy and Austrasia, appointed a Maire du Palais, 
 Major Domus Regice, to each for life. The office previously seems to 
 have been held, as well as in Neustria, during pleasure only. The 
 Maires of Austrasia, in the following reigns, became by degrees inde- 
 pendent of the sovereign, and at last usurped the supreme power. At 
 the council of Paris in 615 Clotaire issued general ordinances, which 
 were called ' Capitularia.' He also convoked at times a kind of 
 temporary parliament, which was an assembly of the chief officers of 
 the Franks. Clotaire had to sustain a war in his German dominions 
 lieyoud the Rhine against the Saxons, whom he defeated with the loss 
 of their king in 626. In 628 Clotaire died, aged forty-five years, and 
 was buried at Paris in the church of St. Germain-des-Prez. Clotaire II. 
 was a man of abilities and of considerable information for his time : 
 he was brave" and popular, but ambitious, unprincipled, and cruel, like 
 most of the Merovingian kings. 
 
 CLOTILDE, MARGUERITE ELEONORE, born at Vallon Chalis 
 in the Vivarais, on the bauks of the Ardeehe, about 1405, married 
 Udreuger de Surville, who soon after joined the army of the dauphin, 
 afterwards Charles VII., and was killed at the siege of Orleans. 
 During his absence Clotilde is said to have composed and addressed to 
 him her first epistle, which she called ' Heroide,' in imitation of Ovid's 
 compositions of the same name. Her other poems she is said to have 
 composed during her long widowhood. They consist chiefly of ballads, 
 rondeaux, chansons, epistles, with fragments of an epic poem. The 
 la^t in date is a chant-royal, on the occasion of the battle of Fornovo, 
 gained by Charles VIII. But the authenticity of these compositions 
 j« very much doubted. It rests merely on the reported assertion of 
 Joseph Etienne de Surville, a descendant of Be'renger, and an officer 
 in the royal army, who emigrated at the time of the French revolution, 
 but who, having re-entered France in 1798, was tried and executed. 
 He is caid to have discovered Clotilde's autograph manuscripts among 
 the family papers, which however were all destroyed at the time when 
 the peasantry went about burning the mansions of the nobility. He 
 entrusted some friends with a copy of the poems, which were first 
 published by Vanderbourg in 180-3, with a biography of Clotilde. For 
 the controversy about their authenticity see ' Biographie Universelle,' 
 article ' Surville ' (Clotilde), and the authorities referred to; among 
 others, Rayuouard's article in the 'Journal des Savans,' July, 1824. 
 The poems are not without merit; and if not written by Clotilde they 
 are a very clever imitation of the old French style of the 15th century, 
 although some of the images and expressions appear to betray a later 
 origin. Clotilde is said to have died at a very advanced age. 
 
 CLOVIS, CLODOVEUS, and CHLODWIG in old German, whence 
 Lud wig, the Latinised form Ludovicus, and Louis are derived, was 
 born a.d. 467. He was the son of Childeric, the grandson of Mero- 
 wig, who gave his name to the Merovingian dynasty. Tournay was 
 
 CLOWES, WILLIAM. 291 
 
 then the capital of the S=diau Franks, who had occupied the north-east 
 part of Gaul, and extended their incursions as far as Paris. After the 
 death of Childeric in 481, Clovis attacked Siagrius, the Roman com- 
 mander, defeated him near Soissons, took him prisoner, aud beheaded 
 him. Having conquered the whole country, south and west, as far as 
 the Seine, he fixed his residence at Soissons. He afterwards got rid, 
 by force or treachery, of the other Frankish chiefs, his own relatives, 
 who held various parts of North Gaul : Siegbert, king of Cologne, 
 Cararic, king of the Morini, Ranacarius, king of Cambrai, and others, 
 all perished by his hand. 
 
 In 493 Clovis married Clotilda, the daughter of Childeric, king of 
 the Burgundians, who was a Christian. Clovis and most of the Franks 
 were still Pagans. In 496 Clovis fought a great battle at Tolbiac, near 
 Cologne, against the Alemanni, who had advanced to the Rhine and 
 threatened Gaul. In the most critical moment of the fight, it is said 
 that he made a vow to acknowledge the God of Clotilda if he remained 
 conqueror. The Alemanni were completely defeated, and Clovis and 
 most of his soldiers were christened on Christmas day of the same 
 year, by Remi, archbishop of Rheims. The Gauls and Romans of 
 the western provinces, as far as the mouth of the Loire, submitted 
 voluntarily to Clovis. 
 
 He next turned his arms against Alaric II., kiug of the Visigoths, in 
 the south-west part of Gaul, whom he defeated in the battle of Vouilli, 
 near Poictiers, in 507 ; Alaric fell, aud Clovis took possession of the 
 whole country as far as the Pyrenees. Theodoric, king of the Goths 
 in Italy, coming to the assistance of his countrymen, defeated Clovis 
 near Aries, in 509, after which peace was made between the Goths and 
 the Franks. Anastasius I., emperor of Constantinople, bestowed upon 
 Clovis the titles of Patrician aud Augustus, and in 510 sent him a 
 crown of gold and a mantle of purple. Clovis now fixed his residence 
 at Paris. In 511, at the Council of Orldans, the rights called Regalia, 
 by which on every vacancy of a see, the revenues devolved on the king, 
 who had the right of nomination, were acknowledged by the bishops 
 as vested in the kings of the Franks. Clovis caused the laws and 
 customs of the Salian Franks to be compiled and arranged to serve as 
 a code for his Frankish subjects. His Gaulish and Roman subjects 
 were subject to the Theodosian Code. In 511 Clovis died at Paris, 
 after a reign of thirty years, and was buried in the church of St. Peter 
 and Paul, afterwards called Sainte Genevieve. When the old church 
 of Sainte Genevieve was pulled down on May 10, 1807, two sarcophagi 
 of stone were found with the remains of Clovis and his wife Clotilda, 
 as well as an epitaph upon the former, written long after his death. 
 They are preserved in the ' Muse"e des Monumens Frangais,' as well as 
 a statue of Clovis, erected to his memory by Kiug Robert, towards the 
 beginning of the 11th century. Clovis left four sons, among whom he 
 divided his monarchy. [Clotaire I.] Clovis first reduced the Franks 
 to the condition of a united and partly civilised nation. His conversion 
 to Christianity conciliated the clergy as well as his Roman aud Gaulish 
 subjects, most of whom had embraced that faith. 
 
 CLOWES, WILLIAM, printer, was born at Chichester, January 1, 
 1779 ; died January 26, 1847. The father of Mr. Clowes was educated 
 at Oxford, and kept a large school at Chichester ; but he died when 
 the subject of this notice was an infant, leaving his widow to support 
 two children with straitened means. She was enabled, by keeping a 
 small school, to give her son a business education ; aud he was appren- 
 ticed to Mr. Seagrave, a printer at Chichester. He came to London in 
 1802, and worked as a compositor with Mr. Teape, of Tower Hill. In 
 1803 he commenced business on his own account in Villiers-street, 
 Strand, on a capital of 3501. He purchased one press; engaged one 
 assistant ; and, after working as a compositor through the day, would 
 often, for two or three consecutive nights, toil at press, to have his 
 small stock of type free for the next day's demand. It was this energy 
 of character that raised Mr. Clowes to his subsequent eminence. 
 Fortune favoured his exertions. He married, when he was at the age 
 of twenty-four, a cousin of Mr. Winchester, a stationer, who had much 
 government business ; and by him he was recommended for important 
 official work. His punctual industry and obliging aud kindly disposi- 
 tion brought friends around him ; and in a few years the humble 
 beginner with one press had a considerable printing-office in Northum- 
 berland Court. This office was burnt down ; but a larger rose iu its 
 place. In 1823 he commenced steam-printing. He had two or three 
 machines in a dark cellar; and, the process being novel, his office had 
 many visitors of literary reputation. Mr. Clowes was always a signal 
 example of the honest ardour of manufacturing enterprise to lead the 
 way under new circumstances. He saw that newspapers were printed 
 by steam ; and he estimated the possibility that books might be 
 demanded in sufficiently large numbers to make the new invention of 
 more universal application than was at first considered probable. An 
 action brought by the Duke of Northumberland, whose palace was 
 close to Mr. Clowes's printing-office, to abate the steam-press as a 
 nuisance, was successfully defended; but the printer removed his 
 noise and his dirt, under the award of arbitrators ; aud the decision 
 was a fortunate one for him. In 1826 he became the occupier of the 
 spacious and well-known premises in Duke-street, Stamford-street. In 
 the course of years the humble establishment of the young Sussex 
 compositor grew into 24 steam-presses aud 2S baud-presses, giving 
 employ to 600 persons, in the largest, most complete, and well-organised 
 printing manufactory that had ever existed iu the world. The civatiou 
 
295 
 
 of a literature that should at once reconcile the apparently dissimilar 
 qualities of goodness and cheapness, through a demand for books before 
 unprecedented, gave a considerable impulse to the energies of Mr. 
 Clowes. 'The Fenny Magazine' and 'The Penny Cyclopaedia' issued 
 ■with undeviating regularity for fourteen years from his printing-office. 
 Mr. Clowes was not a common man. His powers of arrangement were 
 most acute ; he was at once bold and prudent. He was one of those 
 few men who would not recognise the word 'impossible' as one to be 
 lightly employed. He who in 1803 had a few hundred weight of type 
 to be worked from day to day like a banker's gold, would not hesitate, 
 in the height of his prosperous career, to have tons of type locked up 
 for months in some ponderous blue-book. To print an Official Report 
 of a hundred folio pages in a day or night, or of a thousand pages in a 
 week, was no uncommon occurrence. Mr. Clowes's name will not be 
 associated with the honours of the great classical printers ; his was 
 another ambition. He lived in an age when knowledge was to become 
 the inheritance of the many ; and he furnished the means of carrying 
 out this literary revolution in a more efficient manner than any of his 
 professional competitors. His name will be permanently associated 
 with the intellectual development of our time. (National Cyclopcedia.) 
 
 CLU'SIUS, CA'ROLUS, or DE LE CLUSE, CHARLES, was born 
 at Antwerp on the 18th of February 152(3. He commenced his edu- 
 cation at Ghent, and from thence was removed to Louvain with the 
 object of studying the law. But in about two years he went to 
 Marburg, where, disgusted with the law, he turned to the study of 
 philosophy. During this period he acquired a great fondness - for 
 botany, and devoted much of his leisure to this pursuit. At Marburg 
 he formed a friendship with Hyperius, who inspired him with au 
 admiration for Melancthon, and in 1549 he left Marburg for the 
 purpose of studying at Wittemberg. From Wittemberg he proceeded 
 to Strasbourg, and from thence to Montpelier, where he became the 
 pupil of Rondelet, and devoted himself to the study of medicine, which 
 he pursued long enough to take the degree of Doctor. He resided 
 for three years at Montpelier, and then proceeded to Paris, where ho 
 remained for two years, but was compelled to leave on account of a 
 civil war which broke out at that period. From this time ho visited 
 most of the countries of Europe for the purpose of adding to his 
 botanical knowledge. In 1564 he travelled through Germany, from 
 thence he went with Fuggers to Spain, and afterwards visited Portugal. 
 In 1571 he returned to Belgium, and again visited Paris, from whence 
 he went to England, where he remained some time, being much inter- 
 ested with the results of the voyages of Sir Francis Drake and other 
 British sailors. He returned to Antwerp in 1573. Here he occupied 
 himself with publishing the result of his botanical labours. Having 
 accepted the invitation of the Emperor Maximilian II. to become 
 curator of the botanical garden at Vienna, he remained there till 
 1587 ; when, through a court intrigue, he was obliged to retire. He 
 then lived at Frankfurt in a state of perfect obscurity till, in 1593, in 
 the sixty-eighth year of his age, he was called to the chair of botany 
 at Leyden. This position he held for sixteen years, and died on the 
 4th of April 1609. 
 
 Few men have suffered more in following a favourite pursuit than 
 Clusius. He has on this account been called " The Martyr of Botany." 
 As early as his twenty-fourth year, by excessive fatigue he contracted 
 a dropsical disease, which it is said his tutor Rondelet cured with 
 chicory. At the age of thirty-nine he broke his right thigh during 
 one of his botanical rambles, and a short time after his right arm. 
 Whilst at Vienna, he dislocated his left ancle, and eight years after 
 this accident he dislocated his right hip. For this he was treated 
 unskilfully, and ever after was obliged to use crutches for support. 
 The want of exercise in one who had habituated himself to so much 
 brought on other diseases, the most distressing of which was stone in 
 the bladder. During his exertions in the early part of his life he 
 also contracted a hernia, which troubled him to the end of his days. 
 But his bodily infirmities never diminished his mental activity, and 
 he continued teaching and writing to the very last. His works are 
 very numerous, for he not only published original descriptions of new 
 plants, but he translated into Latin works from the French, Spanish, 
 and Portuguese, and from the Latin into French, thus rendering a 
 most important service in the diffusion of a knowledge of the plants 
 that were known in his day. 
 
 The following are his principal works :— 1. ' Histoire des Plantes, en 
 laquelle est contenue la Description entiere des Herbes, leurs especes, 
 formes, noms, temperameus, vertus, et operations,' Antwerp, 1557, 
 folio. This was a translation of a work by Dodoens, to which Clusius 
 appended a chapter of his own, on gums, liquors, woods, fruits, and 
 aromatic roots. 2. ' Antidotarium Floreutinum,' Antwerp, 1561, 8vo. 
 This was a translation of an Italiaa work containing an account of the 
 medicines used by the Greek, Arabian, and Florentine physicians. 
 3. 'Aromatum et Simplicium aliquot Medicamentorum apud Iudos 
 nascentium Historia,' Antwerp, 1567, 8vo. This work went through 
 many editions, and was originally a translation of a Portuguese book 
 by Garcias ab Horto, to which Clusius appended many notes and 
 woodcuts. He also translated into Latin two works of the same kind, 
 the one from the Spanish of Nicolas Monardes, the other from the 
 Spanish of Christopher Acosta. These were published at Antwerp iu 
 1574. 4. 'Rariorum aliquot Stirpium per Hispauiam observaturam 
 Historia libris duobus exjjressa,' Antwerp, 1570, 8vo. This work, the 
 
 result of his travels in Spain, was illustrated with 229 figures of 
 plants, some of which were from the works of Didoens. 5. ' Aliquot 
 Notae in Garcias Aromatum Historiam,' Antwerp, 1582. This little 
 work contained an account of many things he had observed iu 
 England, more especially au account of plants, fruits, &c, which had 
 been brought to England by Sir Francis Drake. 6. ' Rariorum aliquot 
 Stirpium et Plantarum per Pannoniatri, Austriam, et vicinas quasdam 
 Provincias obsorvatarum, Historia quatuor libris expressa,' Antwerp, 
 1582, 8vo. This work was of a similar character to the Flora of 
 Spain, and was illustrated with 358 plates. 7. ' Rariorum Plantarum 
 Historia,' Antwerp, 1601, folio. This was a union of the two works 
 on the plants of Austria and Spain, containing many additions from 
 the then living botanists, as Penney, Lobel, Plateau, Dortmann, and 
 others. 8. ' Exoticorum Libri X., quibus Animalium, Plantarum, 
 Aromatum aliorumque Peregrinorum Fructuum Historian descri- 
 buntur,' Antwerp, 1601, folio. He published many other works of 
 less importance, chiefly translations. 
 
 CLUVE'RIUS (CLUWER), PHILIP, was born at Danzig in 1580. 
 His father intending him for the profession of the law, sent him tc 
 study at Leyden ; but Cluverius showed more disposition for the study 
 of geography and antiquities, and was encouraged in hia bias by his 
 acquaintance with Joseph Scaliger. In a journey which he made to 
 Louvain and Antwerp for the purpose of meeting Justus Lipsius, ho 
 fell in with some marauding soldiers, who stripped him of everything. 
 On his return to Holland, finding that his father, being dissatisfied 
 with his conduct, had stopped all remittances for his support, he 
 joined the troops of the emperor, and served for two years in Hungary 
 and Bohemia. In the latter country he made the acquaintance of a 
 Baron Popel, who, being arrested by order of the emperor, had written 
 a pamphlet in his defence, which Cluverius undertook to translate into 
 Latin, and published it on his return to Holland. The pamphlet beiQg 
 considered offensive, Cluverius was imprisoned, at the request of the 
 imperial ambassador to the States-General. He was soon after released, 
 and his mother having sent him some supply of money, he set out on 
 his travels to England, where he wrote * De Tribus Rheni Alveis,' 4to. 
 Returning to the continent, he travelled through France and Germany, 
 and published his ' Germania Antiqua,' folio, Leyden, 1616. It is a 
 work of considerable research, intermixed with much conjecture. 
 Having made a journey into Italy, he was well received there, espe- 
 cially at Rome and Bologna, where his familiar acquaintance with most 
 of the European languages excited great admiration. His next work, 
 ' Sicilise Autiquae Libri Duo,' to which he added a short description of 
 Sardinia and Corsica, folio, 1619, has been considered by many as his 
 best work. On his return to Holland from Italy, he suffered severe 
 domestic losses, and his health rapidly declined. It was under these 
 circumstances that he wrote his ' Italia Antiqua,' which was published 
 after his death, a work of great research, but one that requires cor- 
 rection from the more exact observations or discoveries of later geogra- 
 phers and antiquarians. Cluverius wrote also ' An Introduction to 
 Universal Geography,' which has been repeatedly published. He died 
 at Leyden in 1623, forty- three years of age. Danielis Heinsii, ' Oratio 
 iu'obitum P. Cluverii,' at the end of the ' Introduction to Geography,' 
 Leyden, 1624, gives an account of the principal incidents of Cluverius's 
 life. 
 
 COBBETT, WILLIAM, was the son of a farmer and publican at 
 Farnham in Surrey, where he was born in March 1762. He has himself 
 related the incidents of the first portion of his life in ' The Life and 
 Adventures of Peter Porcupine,' first published in 1796. This tract 
 contains a most interesting account of his self-education, carried on 
 under circumstances of difficulty, and with an ardour and steadiness 
 of purpose that has never been surpassed. He was trained up to 
 country work, and so employed from an early age till the autumn of 
 1782, when on a visit to the neighbourhood of Portsmouth he first 
 beheld the sea, and the next day made an unsuccessful attempt to get 
 employment on board a man-of-war. In May the following year, on 
 the impulse of a sudden thought which took him at Guildford fair, he 
 came to London, and soon, by the assistance of a friend, obtained a 
 situation as copying clerk ; but at the end of nine months he went 
 to Chatham, where he enlisted in a regiment of foot, which was sent 
 out to Nova Scotia, and was eventually ordered to New Brunswick. 
 For his excellent conduct he was made a corporal before the regiment 
 left England, and soon after its arrival in America he was raised at 
 once, over the heads of thirty Serjeants, to the rank of serjeant-major. 
 In New Brunswick he made his acquaintance with his future wife, 
 then a girl of thirteen, the daughter of a serjeant-major of artillery. 
 His own account of his courtship and marriage is, it may be fairly 
 said, one of the most pleasing moral pictures ever drawn. Cobbett'a 
 regiment did not get back to England till the end of the year 1791, 
 when at his earnest request he obtained his discharge, with a testimonial 
 from his commanding officer, declaring that he had served honestly and 
 faithfully for the space of eight years, and was discharged " in con- 
 sideration of his good behaviour and the services he had rendered the 
 regiment." He now engaged iu a proceeding, of his conduct in which 
 and the motives by which he was actuated no intelligible explanation 
 has ever been given ; we mean his bringing charges of peculation 
 against four officers of his late regiment, and then, when a court-martial 
 was appointed to try them, and every arrangement connected with it 
 made in the manner he himself required, decliniug to come forward 
 
887 COBBETT, WILLIAM. 
 
 to prosecute. On the day of trial, to the surprise of all concerned, 
 he did not make his appearance, although forty-seven witnesses named 
 by him had been brought up from Portsmouth to London ; and the 
 court, in the notion that some accident might possibly have happened 
 to him, adjourned to the third day after. In the meantime search 
 was made for him in all directions, but he had crossed over to France. 
 He remained in that country for six months, and then sailed from 
 Havre-de-Grace for New York, where he arrived in October 1792. 
 About two years after this date he made his first appearance as a 
 public writer in an attack upon Dr. Priestley, then newly arrived in 
 the United States, under the title of ' Observations on the Emigration 
 of a Martyr to the Cause of Liberty, by Peter Porcupine.' This 
 pamphlet attracted much notice, and was followed by a long succession 
 of others in the same violent anti-democratic strain, and with the same 
 signature. The whole were afterwards collected and reprinted in 
 England in 1801, in 12 vols. 8vo. The outrageous recklessness and 
 personality of his invective however at length exposed him to several 
 prosecutions for libel, and the inconveniences in which he was thus 
 involved induced him in June 1800 to quit America for England. On 
 arriving in London he immediately started a Tory daily paper under 
 the title of the ' Porcupine,' but it was discontinued after an existence 
 of only a few months. Upon this he commenced his ' Weekly Register,' 
 which rapidly attained a large circulation, and which he kept up 
 without the failure of a single week from its first publication till his 
 death, a period of above thirty-three years. In the course of this 
 time however it wholly changed its politics, haviDg eventually become 
 the most determined among the assailants of the government and the 
 champions of democracy. The first indications of this change appeared 
 in the course of 1803, but it was not till some years later that the 
 conductor of the ' Register ' had completely reversed his original 
 position. In the year 1804 two verdicts had been given against him 
 for libel, in consequence of the first of which (for libels on the Earl 
 of Hardwicke, then lord-lieutenant of Ireland ; Lord Redesdale, lord 
 chancellor of that country ; and other persons connected with the 
 Irish government) he was fined 500/. ; and by the second of which he 
 was cast in 500?. damages to Mr. (afterwards Lord) Plunket, then the 
 Irish solicitor-general. In 1810 he was again tried on an information 
 at the instance of the government for certain observations in the 
 'Register' of the 10th of July, 1809, on the flogging of some local 
 militia-men at Ely ; and the result was a conviction, on which he was 
 sentenced to pay a fine of lOOOi. to the king, and to be imprisoned for 
 two years. When he came out of prison he set in motion a new 
 engine for the annoyance of the administration in the series of papers 
 which he called his ' Twopenny Trash,' the circulation of which is said 
 at one time to have amounted to 100,000 copies. In April 1817 how- 
 ever, professedly to escape from the operation of the Six Acts, but 
 partly also, a3 is believed, in consequence of certain pecuniary embar- 
 rassments, he again visited America. While there he still continued 
 the publication of hi3 ' Register ' in London, the manuscript being 
 regularly transmitted across the Atlantic. He returned to England 
 in 1819, and soon after commenced a daily paper, which lasted only 
 two months, involving him in further losses. Two other actions for 
 libel immediately followed, in both of which he was cast; the damages 
 awarded in the first (brought by Mr. Cleary) being only AOs-, but in 
 the second (brought by Mr. John Wright) 1000?. Amidst all these 
 troubles, neither the regularity nor the spirit of his literary labours 
 ever relaxed. His ' Register' was only one of many productions which 
 his untiring and ever-vigorous pen was constantly giving to the world. 
 In 1820 he made his first attempt to get into parliament by standing 
 a contest for the city of Coventry, in which he was defeated. In 1826 
 he was again unsuccessful in a similar attempt at Preston. In 1829 
 and 1830 he attracted much attention by a number of political lectures 
 which he delivered in several of the principal towns of England and 
 Scotland. In July 1831 he was again tried on a prosecution for libel, 
 the charge being grounded on an article which had appeared in the 
 ' Register,' and which was alleged to have been published with the 
 intent of exciting the agricultural labourers to acts of violence, and to 
 destroy property. He defended himself on this occasion in a speech 
 of six hours; and, the jury not being able to agree in a verdict, the 
 trial ended in his discharge. 
 
 In 1832 Cobbett was returned to the first reformed parliament as 
 one of the members for Oldham. In the course of his parliamentary 
 career he made several effective speeches ; but his success in this new 
 field did not come up to expectation, and. on more than one occasion 
 he damaged himself by those strange blunders which here and there 
 mark every portion of his history. His death took place unexpect- 
 edly, and after a very short illness, on the 18th of June 1835. 
 
 A complete catalogue of Cobbett's publications would occupy more 
 space than we can afford. Among those not already mentioned that 
 have attracted most attention, are his ' Year's Residence in America ; ' 
 'Emigrant's Guide;' 'Poor Man's Friend;' 'Cottage Economy;' 
 'Village Sermons;' 'History of the Protestant Reformation in England 
 and Ireland ; ' ' Advice to Young Men and Women ; ' ' Grammar of 
 the French Language ; ' ' English Grammar,' in a ' Series of Letters 
 to his Son ; ' and his ' Rural Rides,' reprinted from the ' Register.' 
 He also translated from the French Marten's treatise on the ' Law of 
 Nations;' and was the projector and original conductor of the 'Par- 
 liamentary History,' which, for some years, bore his name. 
 
 BIOO. div. vol. u> 
 
 COBDEN, RICHARD. 298 
 
 On the subject of the intellectual character of this remarkable man, 
 there is already a more general agreement of opinion thau might lia.ve 
 beeu expected, considering the vehement partisanship of the greater 
 portion of what he has written. His mind was one of extraordinary 
 native vigour, but apparently not well fitted by original endowment 
 any more than by acquirement for speculations of the highest kind. 
 Cobbett's power lay in wielding more effectively perhaps than they 
 ever were wielded before, those weapons of controversy which tell 
 upon what in tho literal acceptation of the words may be called tho 
 common sense of mankind, that is, those feelings and capacities which 
 nearly all men possess in contradistinction to those of a more refined 
 and exquisite character which belong to a comparatively small number. 
 To these higher feelings and powers he has nothing to say ; they and 
 all things that they delight in are uniformly treated by him with a 
 scorn, real or affected, more frank and reckless certainly in its expres- 
 sion than they have met with from any other great writer. He cares 
 for nothing but what is cared for by the multitude, and by the 
 multitude, too, only of his own day, and, it may be even said, of his 
 own country. Shakspere, the British Museum, antiquity, posterity, 
 America, France, Germany, are, one and all, either wholly indifferent 
 to him, or the objects of his bitter contempt. But in his proper line 
 he is matchless. When he has a subject that suits him, he handles it, 
 not so much with the artificial skill of an accomplished writer, as 
 with the perfect and inimitable natural art with which a dog picks a 
 bone. There are many things that other men can do, which he cannot 
 attempt ; but this he can do as none but himself can or ever could 
 do it. 
 
 COBDEN, RICHARD, was born in 1804, at Dunford, near Mid- 
 hurst, Sussex. His father, who possessed a small property in land 
 which he himself cultivated, died while Richard was yet young, and he 
 was taken charge of by an uncle, who kept a wholesale warehouse in 
 the city of London, and who placed him in his establishment. He 
 commenced business as a partner in a Manchester printed cotton 
 factory, travelling occasionally for commercial purposes. He visited 
 Egypt, Greece, and Turkey in 1834, and in 1835 he was in North 
 America. About this time he published two pamphlets, 'England, 
 Ireland, and America,' by a Manchester manufacturer ; and ' Russia,' 
 by the author of ' England, Ireland, and America.' He had contributed 
 to the establishment of the 'Manchester Athenseum,' and in 1835 
 pronounced the inauguration discourse. 
 
 In 1837 Mr. Cobden stood a contest for the borough of Stockport, 
 but was unsuccessful, and in tho same year travelled in France, 
 Belgium, and Switzerland. In 1838 he made a journey in Germany. 
 Soon after his return to England, at a meeting of the Manchester 
 Chamber of Commerce, he advocated the repeal of all taxes on grain, 
 and carried a petition to that effect, addressed to the House of Com- 
 mons, and very numerously signed. In 1839 about 200 delegates 
 brought up to London a vast number of petitions for the repeal of the 
 corn-laws. Mr. Villiers made a motion for the repeal, which the 
 House of Commons rejected by a very large majority, and immediately 
 afterwards the National Anti-Corn-Law-League was established. In 
 1841 Mr. Cobden was elected M.P. for Stockport. 
 
 The most powerful of the earlier opponents of the corn-laws was 
 Colonel T. P. Thompson, who in 1827 published, in the form of a 
 cheap pamphlet, his ' Catechism of the Corn-Laws,' the substance of 
 which had originally appeared in the ' Westminster Review.' The 
 League, on the 20th of October 1842, announced its "intention of 
 raising 50,000?. for the purpose of sending lecturers to every part of 
 the country, and of spreading information on the effects of the corn- 
 laws, by means of pamphlets, &c." Among these pamphlets was one 
 consisting of 'Extracts from the Works of Colonel T. Perronet 
 Thompson, author of the 'Catechism of the Corn-Laws,' selected 
 and classified by R. Cobden, Esq., M.P., and published with the consent 
 of the author,' 8vo, Manchester. Mr. Cobden became one of the 
 lecturers. He attended public meetings in the principal towns 
 throughout the country, and also occasionally in London, and was 
 distinguished above all the others, not less by the extent and precision 
 of his information than by his acuteness of reasoning, his boldness of 
 declamation, and his popular style of oratory. These qualities also 
 gained him much influence in the House of Commons, where he often 
 spoke in support of his object. The struggle for the repeal of the 
 corn-laws was terminated by Sir Robert Peel's memorable speech, and 
 by the royal assent being given, June 26, 1846, to an Act for repealing 
 the duties on the importation of foreign corn. 
 
 Mr. Cobden, soon after the passing of the Act, set out on a journey 
 on the continent, and visited successively France, Spain, Italy, 
 Germany, Russia, and Sweden, and was received with great applause 
 at meetings in the principal cities and towns. During his absence in 
 1847 he was re-elected M.P. for Stockport, and also for the 'West 
 Riding of Yorkshire. He made his choice to sit for the West Riding, 
 which he still (1856) represents. After the repeal of the corn-laws his 
 political friends set on foot a subscription to remunerate him for his 
 services, and the large sum of 70,000?. is stated to have been collected 
 and given to him. Mr. Cobden is an advocate of the ballot, of exten- 
 sion of the suffrage, of shorter parliaments, of financial reforms, and 
 generally of liberal measures. He is a member of the Peace Society, 
 and at the congresses in Paris in 1849, at Frankfurt in 1S50, and in 
 London in 1851, supported the principles of non intervention and of 
 
 x 
 
299 
 
 COCHIN, CHARLES NICOLAS. 
 
 300 
 
 the prevention of war by arbitration between the states interested. 
 When the designs of Russia against Turkey became known, and war 
 was imminent, he still advocated non-interference ; and during the 
 war urged the policy of terminating it by concession to Russia. In 
 1853 he published two pamphlets, 'How Wars are got up in India: 
 the Burmese War,' 8vo, London, and ' 1793 and 1853, in three Letters,' 
 8vo, London. In 3 855 he published another pamphlet entitled ' What 
 Next?' Some of his speeches have also been published. [See Sup.] 
 
 COCHIN, CHARLES NICOLAS, called Cochin Fils, a celebrated 
 French designer and etcher, the son of Charles Nicolas Cochin 
 the elder, was born at Paris in 1715. His father, likewise au able 
 engraver, was his instructor, and Cochin early displayed a peculiar 
 aptness for art, and general quickness of ability. In 1749 he made a 
 tour through Italy with the Marquis de Marigny, and in 1756 pub- 
 lished a critical account of the various works of Italian art, as a 
 species of amateur's companion in a journey through Italy — ' Voyage 
 Pittoresque d'ltalie,' in 3 vols. 8vo. The work became popular 
 among his own countrymen : Cochin published a third edition of it 
 in 1773. Some years before the appearance of his 'Voyage Pitto- 
 resque* Cochin published an account of the antiquities of Hercu- 
 aneum, ' Observations sur les Antiquitds d'Herculaneum, &c, par 
 MM. Cochin et Bellicard,' which went through two editions : the 
 secoud contains many etchings of ancient works of art and other 
 objects of antiquity. Cochin was knight of the order of St. Michel ; 
 keeper of the Royal Collection of Drawings ; aud secretary to the Royal 
 Academy of Painting and Sculpture. He died at Paris April 29, 1790. 
 
 Cochin was one of the best and most productive of the French 
 engravers; his prints amount to upwards of 1500, comprising almost 
 every variety of subject, from original designs, and from the works of 
 other masters, chiefly French. Among the best are the fourteen large 
 etchings of the sea-ports of Vernet. A ' Catalogue De'taille' ' of his 
 works was published by Jombert in 1770, and copied by Heiucken 
 into his Dictionary, with the addition of some works executed after 
 1770. Cochin was the author of some other literary works besides 
 those already mentioned. He published in 1757, 'Reflexions sur la 
 Critique des Ouvrages Exposed au Louvre,' and ' Recueil de quelques 
 pieces concernant les Arts, avec une Dissertation sur l'effet de la 
 Lumiere et des Ombres relativement h la Peintute;' in 1763, 'Les 
 Misotechnites aux Eufers;' and in 1765, ' Lettres sur les Vies de 
 Slodtz et de Deshayes,' and 'Projet d'une Salle de Spectacle.' 
 
 COCHRANE, LORD. [Dundonald, Earl of.] 
 
 COCHRANE, CAPTAIN JOHN DUNDAS, R.N., born about 1780, 
 distinguished himself by travelling on foot in a very eccentric manner 
 through France, Spain, and Portugal, and afterwards through Russia 
 and Siberia, to the extremity of Kamtchatka. (See ' Narrative of a 
 Pedestrian Journey through Russia and Siberian Tartary, from the 
 Frontiers of China to the Frozen Sea and Kamtchatka,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Loud., 1824.) He subsequently engaged in some of the mining 
 companies in the New World, and died in Colombia August 12, 1825, 
 at a time, it is said, when he was contemplating a journey on foot 
 through the whole of South America. He tells us in his book, that in 
 January, 1820, immediately before he began his journey to Russia, he 
 made an offer of his services to explore the interior of Africa and the 
 course of the Niger, but this offer was declined by Government. His 
 object, when he left London for St. Petersburg, was to travel round 
 the globe, as nearly as can be done by land, crossing from Northern 
 Asia to America at Behring's Straits. " I also," he adds, " determined 
 to perform the journey on foot, for the best of all possible reasons, 
 that my finances allowed of no other." But at the seaport of St. Peter 
 and St. Paul's, at the end of the Kamtchatkan peninsula, he became 
 enamoured of a young lady of the country, and his marriage, together 
 with some other circumstances, induced him to return to England, 
 whither he brought his wife. The eccentricities of this most hardy 
 and indefatigable traveller sometimes approach to insanity, but his 
 book is amusing from its oddness, and contains a good deal of curious 
 information concerning countries rarely visited by Europeans. 
 
 COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS, LORD, a Lord of Session in 
 Scotland, was the son of Archibald Cockburn, of Cockpen, one of the 
 Barons of the Exchequer in Scotland, by a sister of the wife of the 
 first Viscount Melville, and represented an ancient Scottish family 
 which has produced many distinguished members. He was born in 
 1779, and called to the Scottish bar in 1800. His family connections 
 belonged to the Tory school, but although the Scotch patronage of the 
 crown for many years was dispensed by Lord Melville, Mr. Cockburn 
 in early life adopted liberal opinions. 
 
 It was not until November 1830 that any high legal position fell to 
 Mr. Cockburn, when he became solicitor-general for Scotland, upon 
 the promotion of Jeffrey to the attorney-generalship. He had however 
 long before this time risen to considerable eminence in his profession, 
 and was particularly distinguished for the ability of his advocacy, and 
 the influence which he exerted upon the minds of juries. Among 
 other cases in which he was engaged may be particularly mentioned 
 that of the Queensberry title, in which considerable property was at 
 stake. He had also brought himself into notice by gratuitously 
 defending the prisoners charged with treason at Stirling, Glasgow, and 
 other Scotch towns in the year 1818. As a strong proof of his success 
 as au advocate, we may mention that he was engaged to defend Mrs. 
 McDougall, who was put upon her trial at Edinburgh as the accom- 
 
 plice of Burke and Hare, and that he obtained her acquittal. During 
 the earlier part of his legal career the arguments of counsel were 
 delivered partly in writing, and partly 'viva voce' (as is the case 
 now in the House of Lords). The drawing up of these argument) 
 frequently involved points of the greatest nicety, and several drawn 
 up by Mr. Cockburn attracted the observation of the bench, and 
 even as a young man, his papers on feudal law had met with general 
 approval. 
 
 Such a man as Cockburn could not long remain without reaping a 
 more permanent reward than the solicitor-generalship. Accordingly 
 in 1834 he was promoted to the Scottish bench as one of the lords of 
 session, to which three years later was added the further appointment 
 of a lord commissioner of justiciary. Upon the bench Lord Cockburn 
 was surpassed by few in his clear enunciation of law, and in his 
 charges to juries. He was distinguished by a skilful detection of 
 whatever was false in principle or in evidence, as well as by the breadth 
 and grasp of his legal judgments, which were seldom reversed on 
 appeal. 
 
 Besides the ' Life' of his friend Lord Jeffrey in 2 vols. (1852), Lord 
 Cockburn published only one small pamphlet, which was entitled 
 ' On the best way of spoiling the beauties of Edinburgh.' He was an 
 early contributor however to the pages of the 'Edinburgh Review;' 
 and it is said that au article from his pen in that review was mainly 
 instrumental in causing a reform in the method by which Scotch juries 
 had been previously chosen. 
 
 As a friend, neighbour, and citizen, no less than as a relative, Lord 
 Cockburn was beloved. His death, which happened April 26, 1854, 
 while he was on circuit at Ayr, was preceded by au illness of but a few 
 days' duration. He left a large family by his widow, who is sister of 
 the wives of the late Scotch judges, Lords Fullerton and Dundrennan. 
 
 COCKBURN, ADMIRAL, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR 
 GEORGE, G.C.B., who represented a branch of the same family as 
 Lord Cockburn, was born in 1772, and entered the navy in 1781, 
 Having served on the East India, Home, and Mediterranean stations, 
 in 1795 he co-operated with the Austrian troops in Piedmont, and 
 took part in the capture and blockade of Leghorn. He subsequently 
 received the thanks of the House of Commons for his operations 
 against Martinique, which resulted in that island being ceded as a 
 British colony. In 1812 he was sent as commissioner for reconciling 
 Spain and her transatlantic colonies. He was conspicuous in the 
 hostilities with America in 1813 and 1814. On the cessation of 
 hostilities he was employed to convey Napoleon to St. Helena. 
 Having sat in the unreformed parliament from 1818 to 1830 for 
 Portsmouth, Weobley, and Plymouth, he was returned for Ripon in 
 1841. He was a Lord of the Admiralty from 1818 to 1828, and again 
 from 1841 to 1846, when he retired from public life. When far 
 advanced in years he inherited his brother's baronetcy, and died 19 
 August 1853. (Gentleman's Magazine; 0' Byrne' s Naval Biography.) 
 
 COCKER, EDWARD. This writer, whose name is so well known 
 in England, was born about 1632, as appears from the inscription to 
 one of the portraits cited by Granger in his ' Biographical History of 
 England.' He was an engraver, and a teacher of writing and arith- 
 metic. Pepys has in his ' Diary ' some curious notices of Cocker 
 (Aug. 10 and 11, and October 5 and 7, 1664). He employed Cockerto 
 engrave his "new sliding rule with silver plates, it being so small that 
 Brown that made it, could not get one to do it ; " Cocker however did 
 it, and, though so small, without using a magnifying glass. Pepys 
 speaks of finding Cocker " by his discourse very ingenious ; and 
 among other things a great admirer of, and well read in the English 
 poets, and undertakes to judge them all, and that not impertinently." 
 He is said to have published fourteen books of exercises in penman- 
 ship, some of them on silver plates. One of these is in the British 
 Museum, namely, 'Daniel's Copy Book, &c. &c. Ingraven by Edward 
 Cocker, Philomath. London, 1664.' The matter of these exercises 
 in penmanship consists in great part of descriptions of hell-fire, with 
 fiends (or something very like them) in flourishes. We have also 
 ' Cocker's Urania, or the Scholar's Delight,' without date ; and 
 'Cocker's Morals, or the Muses' Spring Garden,' London, 1694 (either 
 a late edition, or a posthumous work). Soon after his death one of 
 his undoubted works was reprinted by the Hawkins referred to below, 
 under the title of ' The Young Clerk's Tutor Enlarged,' &c, 8th 
 edition, 1675, 8vo. Cocker died before 1675, and certainly later 
 than 1671. 
 
 The celebrated work on arithmetic was not published by Cocker 
 himself, but as described in the following title-page : — ' Cocker's 
 Arithmetic : being a plain and familiar method, suitable to the 
 meanest capacity for the full understanding of that incomparable art, 
 as it is now taught by the ablest schoolmasters in City and Country. 
 Compos'd by Edward Cocker, late practitioner in the arts of Writing, 
 Arithmetick, and Engraving. Beiug that so long since promised to 
 the world. Perused and published by John Hawkins, Writing Master 
 near St. George's Church in Southwark, by the Author's correct 
 copy, and commended to the world by many eminent Mathematicians 
 and Writing Masters in and near London.' The first edition was in 
 1677; the fourth in 1682; the thirty-seventh in 1720, from which we 
 have copied the title-page ; the fifty-fifth in 1758. 
 
 Cocker's Arithmetic was the first which entirely excluded all 
 demonstration and reasoning, and confined itself to commercial 
 
SOI 
 
 COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT, R.A. 
 
 COEITORN, BARON DE. 
 
 303 
 
 questions only. This was the secret of its extensive circulation. 
 There is no need of describing it ; for so closely have nine out of ten 
 of the subsequent school treatises been modelled upon it, that a 
 large proportion of our readers would be able immediately to turn 
 to any rule in Cocker, and to guess pretty nearly what they would 
 find there. Every method since his time has been "according to 
 Cocker." 
 
 There are two other works which bear the name of Cocker, and both, 
 published by the same John Hawkins. (1). 'Decimal Arithmetic, 
 accompanied by Artificial Arithmetic (logarithms) and Algebraical 
 Arithmetic:' London, 16S4 and 1685. (2). 'Cocker's English Dic- 
 tionary,' the second edition of wbich bears date London 1715. Now, 
 since in 1677 Cocker had been dead some time, as appears by 
 Hawkins's preface to the Arithmetic, and since Kersey's Algebra, on 
 which Cocker's is professedly founded, was published in 1673, it will 
 appear only just possible that Cocker could have lived to have written 
 this work. Again, the Arithmetic was written by a person who under- 
 stood Latin, as proved by apt quotations from Oughtred and Gemma 
 Frisius : the Decimal Arithmetic is entirely without quotations, 
 though abounding in subjects on which the author of the Arithmetic 
 might be expected to quote. Lastly, to the preface of the Decimal 
 Arithmetic is annexed a very clumsy attempt at a cipher, which 
 eeems utterly unmeaning, unless it be considered as wrapping up a 
 confession of authorship. Deciphered, it is as follows : " Amico suo 
 amantissimo Johanni Perkes, Ptochotrophii Fohliensis in Comitatu 
 Wigorniensi ludimagistro. Sir, if you pleas to bestow some of your 
 spare hours in perusing the following treatise, you will then be the 
 better able to judg how I have spent mine, and if my paines therein 
 may be profitable to the publick I have my wish, but if not, it is not 
 a good thing now indeed I do say so. Sir, I am your humble servant 
 John Hawkins." From all that precedes we are inclined to suspect 
 that Hawkins, being in possession of Cocker's papers, and finding the 
 Arithmetic a successful work, published others of his own in Cocker's 
 name, perhaps with some assistance from the manuscripts of the 
 latter. 
 
 COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT, R.A., architect, and pro- 
 fessor of Architecture in the Royal Academy, was born in London in 
 1788. Having passed through the usual initiatory course of 
 instruction, Mr. Cockerell, like most architects, before commencing 
 the practice of his profession, visited the classic fields of art. But his 
 professional tour was far more prolonged and systematic than the 
 customary one. In Asia Minor, as well as in Italy, he made a laborious 
 investigation of the grander architectural remains, and at ^Egina, Phy- 
 galia, &c, he undertook some extensive excavations. Many of the 
 antiquarian fragments obtained in the course of these researches now 
 adorn the British Museum, and the opinions he arrived at respecting 
 several of the more important works which he thus examined have in 
 various ways been given to the public. 
 
 Mr. Cockerell early obtained a high place as an architect, and many 
 considerable buildings have been entrusted to him. Among the prin- 
 cipal of these are, the New Library at Cambridge (1840), a large and 
 noble pile, the plan of which however has only in part been carried 
 out; the University Galleries at Oxford (1845), also a very extensive 
 aud splendid structure, with many peculiarities of design which have 
 not failed to call forth abundant comment from both the classicists 
 and medicevalists of that ancient seat of learning; the College at 
 Lampeter, a spacious and very striking gothic edifice; the chapel and 
 speech-room at Harrow ; and the Philosophical Institution at Bristol. 
 As architect to the Bank of England, Mr. Cockerell has directed the 
 extensive and successful alterations which during the last twenty 
 years have been made in that masterpiece of Soane's; and he con- 
 structed the branch banks at Liverpool, Manchester, &c. He likewise 
 erected the Sun Fire Office, Bartholomew-lane (one of his happiest 
 designs), and the Westminster Fire Office in the Strand ; and, in con- 
 junction with Mr, Tite, the London and Westminster Bank. Mr. 
 Cockerell also carried out to completion, with considerable variations 
 however from the original design, especially in the approaches and in 
 the interior, St. George's Hall and Assize Courts at Liverpool. As 
 might be expected from his early pursuits, Mr. Cockerell has always 
 displayed a marked predilection for the classic style of architecture, 
 though in practice he has never servilely adhered to a Greek or Roman 
 type. Indeed he ha3 always introduced so many modifications, what- 
 ever might be the order he adopted or the model to which he in the main 
 conformed, as fully to establish his claim to originality and inventive 
 power. His study of Wren perhaps gave him a bold free way of 
 looking at classic forms. In his gothic buildings, such as Lampeter 
 College and the chapel at Harrow, Mr. Cockerell has hardly seemed 
 so much at home. Yet he has in his late years paid great attention to 
 gothic architecture, as shown by his most careful illustrations of the 
 west front of Wells Cathedral, aud of the sculptures, &c., of Lincoln 
 Cathedral, of which he has published very valuable monographs, and 
 his 'Architectural Life of William of Wykeham.' 
 
 Mr. Cockerell was in 1829 elected A.R.A., in 1836 R.A., and in 1840 
 he succeeded Mr. Wilkins as Professor of Architecture in the Royal 
 Academy. He i3 one of the eight foreign associates of the Academy 
 of the Institute of France, member of the Academy of St. Luke, 
 Rome, and of the academies of Munich, Berlin, &c. As professor of 
 architecture, Mr. Cockerell has regularly delivered courses of lectures 
 
 full of valuable information respecting the history and theory nf 
 architecture. Formerly there used to appear occasionally in the 
 architectural room of the Academy exhibition some architectural 
 studies by Mr. Cockerell, which afforded a large amount of interesting 
 information to the general visitor, as well as to the architectural 
 student : we refer to such works as his ' Tribute to the Memory of Sir 
 Christopher Wren,' being a collection of Wren's principal works drawn 
 to the same scale (exhibited in 1838, and since engraved), and his 
 ' Professor's Dream,' a synopsis of the principal architectural monu- 
 ments of ancient and modern times, also drawn on one scale ; but for 
 several years no production of Cockerell's has been seen on the walls 
 of the academy. [See Supplement.] 
 
 CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD, ADMIRAL, G.C.B. was born in 
 1770. He was a grandson of Sir Edward Codrington, first baronet, 
 of Dodington, Gloucestershire. He entered the navy July 18, 1783, 
 aud served in several ships till he became lieutenant, May 28, 1793. 
 He served as lieutenant on board the Queen Charlotte, 100 guns, Lord 
 Howe's flag-ship, in the victory over the French fleet off Brest, June 1, 
 1794, and was appointed to bear to Englaud the duplicate despatches. 
 He was in consequence promoted to the rank of captain, and continued 
 in active service till 1797. He was unemployed from this time till 
 
 1805, when he was appointed to the command of the ' Orion,' 74, and 
 was engaged in the battle of Trafalgar. For his services in this victory 
 he was rewarded by a gold medal. He left the ' Orion' in December 
 
 1806, and in November 1808 was appointed to the command of the 
 'Blake,' 74, in which ship he sailed under Lord Gardner in the expe 
 dition to Walcheren, and was thanked for his services in forcing the 
 Schelde in August 1809. In 1810, 1811, and 1812, Captain Codrington 
 was employed on the coasts of Spain, in the defence of Cadiz and 
 Tarragona, and in co-operating with the Spanish patriots in Catalonia. 
 In January 1813 he returned to England. 
 
 In 1814 Captain Codrington sailed to North America, and while there 
 was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and was appointed captain 
 of the fleet under Sir Alexander Cochrane. He took part in the attack 
 on New Orleans. At the conclusion of the war with the United States 
 he returned to England, and was created a knight commander of the 
 Bath, January 2, 1815. He attained the rank of vice-admiral July 10, 
 1821. 
 
 Sir Edward Codrington was appointed, November 1, 1826, com- 
 mander-in-chief of a squadron in the Mediterranean destined to 
 observe the Turco-Egyptian fleet, and hoisted his flag on board tho 
 'Asia,' 84. He was joined by a French and a Russian squadron, and 
 the battle of Navarino took place October 20, 1827; when the Turco- 
 Egyptian fleet, consisting of 81 ships of war, was almost entirely 
 destroyed. For this victory Sir Edward Codrington was advanced to 
 the dignity of knight grand cross of the Bath ; but as there was much 
 doubt among politicians as to the propriety of destroying this fleet, 
 and the Duke of Wellington admitted that it was an " untoward event," 
 Sir Edward was recalled from the Mediterranean in April 1828. In 
 1832 he was elected M.P. for the borough of Devonport, and was 
 re-elected in 1835, and again in 1837. He was of liberal politics, and 
 very popular. In 1837 he attained tho full rank of admiral, and on 
 the 22nd ofc November 1839 was appointed commander-in-chief at 
 Portsmouth, when he resigned his seat a3 a member of parliament. 
 He occupied his station at Portsmouth for the usual term of three 
 years. He had a good-service pension of 300/. a year. He died in 
 London, April 28, 1851. 
 
 * CODRINGTON, SIR WILLIAM JOHN, K.C.B., was born in 1800. 
 He is the eldest surviving son of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington. 
 He entered the army in 1821, and in 1836 became lieutenant-colonel 
 in the Coldstream Guards. In 1846 he attained the rank of colonel, 
 and in 1854 that of major-general. During the whole of this period 
 he had not been in any actual war-service. 
 
 When the British army was sent out to Turkey in 1854, Sir 
 William Codrington accompanied it as a spectator. Happening to 
 be at Varna immediately before the sailing of the expedition to 
 the Crimea, Lord Raglan appointed him to the command of the first 
 brigade of the light division, which had just then become vacant by 
 the appointment of General Airey to the situation of adjutant- 
 general of the Army of the East. Sir William led this brigade at the 
 battle of the Alma with great steadiness as well as gallantry. When 
 visiting the outlying pickets of his brigade about five o'clock in the 
 morning of the battle of Inkermann, he became aware of the near 
 approach of the Russians, and immediately rode back to turn out his 
 brigade, and to give the first alarm. His bravery during the battlo 
 was noticed by Lord Raglan, and when Sir George Brown in conse- 
 quence of a wound received that day was obliged to retire to Malta, 
 Major-General Codrington was selected by Lord Raglan to take the 
 command of the light division during his absence. After the final 
 retirement of Sir George Brown from the Crimea, Major-General 
 Codrington succeeded him in the command of the light division, and 
 in that situation had the chief direction of the unsuccessful assault on 
 the Redan at the taking of Sebastopol, September 8, 1855. After the 
 resignation of General Simpson he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 of the British army in the Crimea, with the local rank of general. For 
 his services in the Crimea he was made a knight commander of th» 
 Bath. He was gazetted general in 1863. 
 
 COEHOKN, MENNON, BARON DE, a celebrated Dutch engineer 
 
CCELIUS ANTIPATEft. 
 
 who was bora in 1632. He commenced his military career at au early 
 age, and spent the leisure which the intervals of active duty afforded 
 in improving the art of fortifying places, with the view of diminishing 
 the inequality which, by the inventions of his contemporay Vauban, 
 began then to be felt in the means of attack and defence. The services 
 which Coehorn rendered to his country, both as an engineer and a 
 commander, at a time when the defence of its military posts was an 
 object of the first importance, procured for him the most honourable 
 appointments which a soldier can attain. He arrived at the rank of 
 general of artillery, and was made director-general of fortifications and 
 governor of Flanders. 
 
 At the siege of Namur in 1692, Coehorn gallantly defended the fort 
 which he had before constructed for the purpose of strengthening the 
 citadel of that place; but being dangerously wounded he was at length 
 compelled to surrender. Vauban, who conducted the operations of the 
 attack on this occasion, rendered full justice to the talents and valour 
 of his rival. 
 
 Coehorn was engaged at the attack of Trarbach, Limburg, Li&ge, 
 and at that of the citadel of Namur, which three years before he had 
 defended. In the year 1703 he was employed at the siege of Bonu, 
 where, in three days, his heavy and well-directed cannonade caused 
 the surrender of the place. Soon afterwards he forced the French 
 lines at Hanuye, and was appointed with his army to keep in check 
 the Marquis de Bedmar on the right bank of the Scheldt. This was 
 his last service ; on the 17th of May, 1704, he died at the Hague, at 
 the age of seventy-two. 
 
 In 1685 Coehorn published what are called his 'Three Systems of 
 Fortification ;' they are adapted to ground elevated but from three to 
 five feet above the surface of water, and consequently they may be 
 considered as applicable only to the towns of Holland. He was 
 appointed to repair or reconstruct the fortifications of Nimeguen, 
 Breda, Mannheim (since destroyed), and Bergen-op-Zoom. The siege 
 of the last place in 1747, by its duration and the losses which the 
 besiegers sustained in its progress, attests the merit of the system on 
 which the works were constructed. 
 
 CCELIUS, or rather CCELIUS ANTI'PATER (LUCIUS), wrote a 
 history of the secoud Punic war, in a work bearing the name of 
 'Annals,' and extending to at least seven books. Some indeed are of 
 opinion that the history embraced a much wider period, beginning 
 with the first Punic war, and including the times of the Gracci. It 
 was dedicated to L. iElius, the same person to whom the poet Lucilius 
 dedicated his ' Satires.' From his cognomen Antipater he was 
 probably of Greek origin. The precise period of his birth or death 
 cannot be fixed, but he is called by Cicero ('De Leg.' i. 2) the 
 contemporary of C. Fanuius Strabo, himself an historian, and we 
 know that Fanuius was with Scipio at Carthage, in B.C. 146, and consul 
 in B.C. 122. He was also (Cicero, 'De Divinat.' i. 26) a contemporary 
 of Caius Graccus, who was quaestor in B.C. 126, tribune for the first 
 time in B.C. 123, and murdered in B.C. 121. Lastly, the orator, L. 
 Crassus, born B.C. 140, was one among many pupils of Caelius. We 
 shall therefore not be very wrong if we suppose Caelius to have been 
 born about the middle of the second century B.C. 
 
 The historical writings of Caelius were highly valued by his country- 
 men in the time of Cicero, who assigns to him the credit of having 
 surpassed his predecessors in historic composition by the dignity and 
 eloquence of his style. Though he wanted that knowledge of the 
 jurisprudence of his country which is essential to an accurate historian, 
 yet he was a man of an inquisitive temper, and seems generally to 
 have the advantage in point of credibility where he differs from the 
 historians of the same period. Marcus Brutus so highly prized his 
 writings, that he made an epitome or abridgment of them, as he had 
 before done of the histories composed by Polybius and Fannius. But 
 the more complete work of Livius threw all the historical works of 
 his predecessors into oblivion. Caelius was afterwards seldom read, 
 except by antiquarians and those who sought in his writings examples 
 of quaint words and obsolete phraseology; it is to the grammarians 
 therefore that we are chiefly indebted for the fragments of his works 
 that still exist. These fragments, together with those of other Roman 
 historians, may be found in an appendix to Cort's and Havercamp's 
 editions of Sallust. They have also been edited by Krause (' Vitae et 
 Fragmenta Veterum Historicorum Romanorum,' Berol., 1833.) One 
 of the most interesting among them is that in which he bears 
 testimony to having seen a merchant who had sailed from Spain as 
 far as Ethiopia, by which he probably meant the coast of Guinea. It 
 is Caelius too who gives the most direct evidence in favour of Han- 
 nibal's route across the Alps having been by the Little St. Bernard. 
 Two copious dissertations on L. Caelius, by B. A. Nauta and W. G. 
 Van Prinsterer, will be found in the Annals of the Academy of Levden 
 for 1821. J 
 
 COELLO, CLAUDIO, a celebrated Spanish painter, born at Madrid 
 in the earlier half of the 17th century. His father Faustino Coello, 
 who was a Portuguese bronze-worker, wished to bring up his son to 
 his own business, and placed him with Francisco Rizi to learn to draw. 
 Rizi however, who soon perceived the great abilities of young Coello, 
 persuaded his father to allow him to become a painter. By the 
 instruction of Rizi, and by copying a few of the pictures of Titian, 
 Rubens, and Vandyck in the palace at Madrid, Coello became a very 
 able painter, and produced several excellent altar-pieces while still with 
 
 Rizi. He executed also several works in fresco in company with Josei 
 Donoso, especially on the occasion of the marriage of the king 
 Charles II., with Maria Louisa of Orleans. In 1680 he was appointed 
 cabinet painter to that king in the place of Carreno, deceased, with a 
 salary of twenty ducats per month. 
 
 In consequence of the death of Rizi, Coello was ordered by the 
 king to paint the groat altarpiece for the sacristy of the Escurial, in 
 place of one which had been commenced by Rizi. The subject was 
 the procession and ceremony of the Collocation of the Host on the 
 altar of the Sacristy, 'Colocacion de la Santa Forma,' which took 
 place in 1684 in the presence of Charles II. and his officers of state: 
 the picture contains upwards of fifty portraits, and was completed 
 by Coello in about three years, to the utmost satisfaction of the king. 
 It is very large, and contains in the group of persons who form the 
 grand procession of the Collocation, the portraits of the king and all 
 the principal nobility of his court, executed in the most masterly 
 manner. It is Coello's masterpiece, and one of the finest productions 
 of the Spanish school, combining the design of Cano, the colouring 
 of Murillo, and the effect of Velasquez. In Cumberland's opinion, 
 Coello's style very much resembles that of Paul Veronese. Coello in 
 said to have died of jealousy and vexation in 1693, in consequence of 
 the arrival of Luca Giordano at Madrid by the invitation of the king 
 to paint in fresco the great staircase and other principal parts of the 
 Escurial. Giordano arrived in May 1692, and Coello died eleven 
 months afterwards, having from the time of Giordano's arrival, with 
 one exception, resolutely adhered to a determination to paint no more. 
 The ' Martyrdom of St. Stephen,' for the Dominican convent at Sala- 
 manca, was the only work that he finished, of all he had on baud, 
 after the arrival of Giordano at Madrid. It is however to be observed 
 that such stories are very common respecting eminent painters, and 
 that they seem to be transferred from one to another with little 
 ceremony. It may very well have happened that Coello's abstinence 
 from painting for the eleven months preceding his death arose from 
 illness ; and illness rather than mortification seem3 to us a much more 
 likely explanation of such a course. 
 
 There are several altarpieces and frescoes by Coello at Madrid, and 
 some at Saragoza and other places. 
 
 (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historic*), <Ssc; Cumberland, Anecdotes 
 of Eminent Painters in Spain.) 
 
 COELN, WILHELM VON, or William of Cologne, a celebrated 
 old German painter, of the latter part of the 14th century, called 
 also Meister Wilhelm. There are several documents which satis- 
 factorily prove the existence of this painter, but there are no data by 
 which any of his works can be identified : many paintings in distemper 
 of the old Cologne school are attributed to him, upon no other 
 grounds than conjecture ; but none but the best productions of that 
 school are awarded to him. 
 
 The exact date of his birth is not known, but the place appears to 
 have been Herle, a village near Cologne, whence he is also called in 
 some documents Wilhelm or Wilhelmus de Herle. He was settled 
 in Cologne, with his wife Jutta, as early as 1370 ; and there is a 
 passage in the Annals of the Dominican monks of Frankfurt, which 
 testifies to his great reputation : ten years later, it says — " in that 
 time, 1380, there was at Cologne a most excellent painter, to whom 
 there was not the like in his art ; his name was Wilhelm, and he made 
 pictures of men which almost appeared to be alive." There were 
 celebrated painters at Cologne however long before this period, for 
 Wolfram of Escheubacb, who lived at the commencement of the 
 13th century, in speaking, in his poem of 'Parcival,' of the beauty of 
 a knight on horseback, says that no painter of Cologne or Maastricht 
 could make a better picture than the knight on horseback was. Of 
 the works attributed to Meister Wilhelm, the following are the priu- 
 cipal : — the picture over the tomb of Cuno von Falkeustein in the 
 St. Castors-Kirche at Coblenz, (much restored) ; the large altarpiece 
 of the church of St. Clara at Cologne, which is now in one of the 
 chapels of the cathedral ; it is in twenty-six compartments illustrating 
 the life and passion of Christ ; the Sancta Veronica, formerly iu the 
 Boissere'e collection, now belonging to the King of Bavaria, and in the 
 Pinakothek at Munich, and of which there is a beautiful lithograph 
 by Strixner ; and a Crucifixion, and a half-length Madonna and infant 
 Christ, in the Wallraf Museum at Cologne. 
 
 Meister Wilhelm was also supposed to have been the master of the 
 so-called Dom-bild, or Cathedral-picture, which was formerly the 
 altarpiece of the chapel of the Rath-haus of Cologne, but is now in 
 the cathedral, and is at present generally attributed to Meister Stephan, 
 the supposed scholar of Meister Wilhelm. There are also in the 
 Pinakothek at Munich (cabinet i.) four other pictures of various 
 saints, mostly on gold grounds, besides the Sancta Veronica, attributed 
 to this painter. They are all remarkable for richness of colour and 
 extreme diligence of execution, in the head3 in particular, which all 
 have a true nobility of expression. Technically, likewise, tbey are 
 very remarkable works ; for though in water-colours, in a species of 
 tempera, they are equal, or even in some respects superior, in impasto, 
 to the best of oil paintings, and very similar in effect : they are how- 
 ever Gothic in design ; and in the extremities, especially the fingers, 
 are totally devoid of proportion and modelling. Except for this last- 
 mentioned defect, they would bear a perfect resemblance to the works 
 of the so-called school of Van Eyck ; for even in the vehicle in which 
 
MS 
 
 COKAINE, SIR ASTON. 
 
 COKE, EDWARD. 
 
 200 
 
 the colours have been mixed there is no apparent difference. In our 
 National Gallery is a Sancta Veronica, by Meister Wilhehn, from the 
 Lorenz-kirche at Cologne. He died in 1378. 
 
 There is no other record of Stephan von Coln, the Dom-bild 
 Meister, than a note in the journal 'Tagebuch' of Albrecht Diirer, 
 •which attributes this celebrated picture to him. It was painted in 
 1410, and is the most valuable picture of the old school of Cologne. 
 It consists of a centre and two revolving wings, painted on both sides. 
 The outside of the wings represents the Annunciation ; the centre 
 represents the Adoration of the Three Kings ; and on the interior of 
 the wings are patrons of Cologne, St. Gereon and St. Ursula, with 
 their companions in martyrdom. There are three other works of this 
 school, which from their similarity of style are attributed to this 
 master : the altarpiece formerly in the Benedictine Abbey of Heister- 
 bacb, near Bonn, now existing only in parts ; the altarpiece formerly 
 in the church of St. Lawrence, at Cologne, likewise divided into parts 
 and scattered ; and a picture of the Madonna and Child, with Angels, 
 in a private collection at Cologne. 
 
 (Fiorill», Geschichte der Zeichnenden Kiinste in Deuischland, &c. ; 
 Passavant, Altkolnische Malerschule, in his ' Kunstreise durch 
 England und Belgien ; ' Dillis, Yerzeichniss der Qemdlde in der Kdnig- 
 lichen Pinakothek zu Munchen.) 
 
 COKAINE, or COKAYN, SIR ASTON, was born in 1608, at the 
 country-seat of his father, a Derbyshire esquire of old lineage and con- 
 siderable property. After having been educated at both universities, 
 he was entered for form's sake in the inns of court, and travelled on 
 the Continent. He was a Roman Catholic and royalist ; and both of 
 these characters exposed him to much suffering in the civil war. In 
 the latter part of his life he was obliged to part with his estates, 
 reserving a email annuity for his support. He died at Derby in 1684. 
 He published four plays, which, with other poems, were collected, in 
 1669, in two volumes, small octavo, now very rare. The plays and 
 the poems are equally worthless ; but Sir Aston's name deserves some 
 notiee for his close intimacy with the dramatic poets of his time, and 
 for the information furnished, in regard to the history of the drama, 
 by those commendatory verses which make up a large proportion of 
 his compositions. It has been justly regretted that he did not set 
 down in distinct prose the facts of which he was in possession, instead 
 of hinting at them briefly and obscurely in snatches of wretched 
 doggrel. 
 
 COKE, EDWARD, was born at Mileham, in the county of Norfolk, 
 on the 1st of February, 1551-52. He was the only son of Robert 
 Coke of Mileham, and Winifred, daughter and one of the heirs of 
 William Knightley, of Morgrave-Knightley, in the same county. His 
 father, who was a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, died in the year 1561, 
 when Edward Coke was ten years old. Before that event he had been 
 sent to the free grammar-school at Norwich, whence in September 
 156" he removed to Cambridge, and was admitted as a fellow commoner 
 at Trinity College. After having spent three years at the university, 
 he went to London to commence his legal education. According to 
 the practice of that time, he took the first step of his legal course by 
 becoming a member of Clifford's Inn, a house of Chancery, or inferior 
 inn, dependent upon the Inner Temple, and was admitted into the 
 latter society April 24, 1572. On the 20th of April 1578 he was 
 called to the bar. During the continuance of his studies in the Inner 
 Temple he is said to have greatly distinguished himself in the exercises 
 called Mootings and Readings, which constituted a necessary part of 
 the education of an advocate in former times, and which excited a 
 great degree of interest and emulation among the members of the 
 societies called Inns of Court and Chancery. 
 
 In the course of the year after his call to the bar, the society of the 
 Inner Temple appointed him reader at Lyon's Inn ; and the intelli- 
 gence and learning displayed by him in the conduct of the exercises at 
 which he presided in this capacity raised for him a high reputation 
 as a lawyer, and opened the way to that extensive practice at the bar 
 which he acquired with a degree of rapidity almost without a parallel 
 in the history of the profession. Lloyd, in his ' State Worthies,' says 
 that " his learned lecture so spread forth his fame that crowds of 
 clients sued to him for his counsel." In the next term after he was 
 called to the bar he argued a case of much nicety and importance, 
 known to lawyers by the name of Lord Cromwell's Case, which he says, 
 in his own report of it (4 Rep. 146), " was the first cause that he moved 
 in the King's Bench." About three years afterwards he was associated 
 with Popbam, the solicitor-general, in arguing before the chancellor 
 and the twelve judges in the case of Edward Shelley, where the 
 important rule in the law of real property, which has since become 
 celebrated as the 'Rule in Shelley's Case,' was laid down so distinctly 
 that it has taken its name from this case, though the rule itself is of 
 much higher antiquity. From that period until he became solicitor- 
 general hia practice was enormous : it appears from the reports of 
 that time that there was scarcely a single motion or argument before 
 the court of King's Bench in which he was not engaged. Professional 
 honours were the consequence of this large business in the courts : in 
 1586 he was chosen recorder of Norwich, and for years afterwards 
 wa3 called to the bench of the Inner Temple. In January 1591-92 the 
 corporation of London having with much difficulty and at the expense 
 of an annuity of 100?. procured the resignation of Serjeant Fleetwood, 
 unanimously elected Coke their recorder ; but he resigned that office 
 
 in June 1592, on being appointed solicitor-general. In the samo 
 summer he became reader of the Inner Temple, and had delivered 
 several readings on the Statute of Uses to a large audience, consisting 
 of not less than 160 members of the society, when the appearance of 
 the plague compelled him to leave London abruptly for his house at 
 Huntingfield in Suffolk. Such was the honour and respect in which 
 he was held by the profession, that on this occasion, as he records in 
 his ' Notes,' he was accompanied on his journey as far as Romford by 
 a procession composed of nine benchers and forty other members of 
 the Inner Temple. In March 1594 he was appointed attorney-general, 
 and as the office of solicitor-general continued vacant until the close of 
 the following year, the duties and labours of both offices durin" that 
 interval devolved upon him. 
 
 At this period originated the animosity between Coke and Bacon 
 which prevailed with little intermission during the life of the latter. 
 As soon as the office of attorney-general became vacant, upon the 
 removal of Sir Thomas Egerton to the seals, the Earl of Essex used 
 his most strenuous efforts to induce the queen to bestow that placo 
 upon Bacon, instead of promoting Sir Edward Coke from the inferior 
 office of solicitor-general. The letters of Bacon to Essex and others, 
 with relation to this intrigue, abound with sarcastic and contemptuous 
 expressions respecting Coke, whose high reputation and great experience 
 seemed to point him out as a fitter man for the office than his rival, 
 whose practice at the bar was never extensive, and who was then 
 scarcely known in the courts. The state services imposed upon the attor- 
 ney-general at the end of Elizabeth's reign were extremely laborious. 
 The severity of the laws recently introduced against Roman Catholics 
 had occasioned a succession of plots by foreign adventurers against 
 the person of the queen, the investigation of which was necessarily 
 committed to the attorney-general. The treasons of Lopez, of Patrick 
 Cullen, of Williams and Yorke, and numerous others of inferior 
 moment, occurred about this period; and the business of constant 
 examination at the Tower, added to his Star-Chamber duties and his 
 undiminished practice in the common-law courts, must have imposed 
 a weight of labour and responsibility upon Coke which no mind of 
 common activity and energy could have undergone. Whole volumes 
 of examinations in these cases, taken by himself and written with his 
 own hand, which are still preserved at the State Paper Office, sufficiently 
 attest his zeal and assiduity in the service. In February 1593 Coke 
 being at that time solicitor-general, was elected without solicitation 
 on his part, and without opposition, a member of parliament for his 
 native county of Norfolk. At the meeting of this parliament he was 
 chosen Speaker of the House of Commons. 
 
 In the year 1582 Coke married the daughter and heiress of John 
 Paston, Esq., of Huntingfield in Suffolk, through whom he became 
 connected with several families of great opulence and importance, and 
 with whom he received a fortune of 30,000^. By this lady he had ten 
 children. She died in June 1598. In the month of November in the 
 same year Coke contracted a second marriage with the widow of Sir 
 William Hatton, daughter of Thomas Lord Burleigh, and grand-daughter 
 of the lord high treasurer, which, though an advantageous alliance in 
 point of connection and property, was by no means a source of domestic 
 happiness. The marriage itself involved all the parties concerned in 
 it in considerable embarrassment; for having taken place without 
 licence or banns, Coke and his lady, together with the clergyman, 
 Lord Burleigh, and all who were present at the ceremony, were cited 
 to appear in the Archbishop's Court ; and it was only in consequence 
 of their making a full submission, and pleading their ignorance of the 
 law (a singular excuse in Coke's mouth), that they escaped the sentence 
 and penalties of excommunication. 
 
 Sir Edward Coke held the office of attorney-general until the death 
 of Queen Elizabeth ; and having always been favourable to the title 
 of James I., co-operated cordially with Cecil and the other members 
 of the late queen's council in making the necessary arrangements for 
 the peaceable accession of the king of Scotland to the crown. James 
 upon his arrival in London received him into his full confidence and 
 favour, and continued him in his office of attorney-general. 
 
 Coke's sound judgment and extensive legal knowledge, united with 
 his fervent attachment to Protestantism, rendered him a serviceable 
 officer of the crown in the various proceedings against the Roman 
 Catholics at the close of Elizabeth's reign and the beginning of that of 
 James I. In the examinations respecting the several assassination- 
 treasons, which have been already mentioned, as well as that of Squire 
 in 1598, of the Raleigh conspiracy in 1603, of the Gunpowder Plot in 
 1605, and of numerous other treasonable and seditious movements 
 imputed to the Catholics during the period that he filled the office of 
 attorney-general, he engaged with a zeal and ardour far beyond mere 
 professional excitement; and the temper displayed in his speeches 
 and general conduct on the several trials is much more that of a 
 religious patisan than of a legal advocate. It is common with Roman 
 Catholic writers to attribute to him the utmost barbarity in the use of 
 the rack and the general treatment of prisoners under examination. 
 That he, who in his writings forcibly condemns the use of torture 
 was nevertheless in his official character the constant instrument of 
 the crown for applying this odious process, is beyond all question ; 
 but it must be remembered that what he wrote on this subject was 
 written long after the period of which we are now speaking, in the 
 dawn of a better order of things ; aud that the u«9 of the rack for 
 
8C7 COKE, EDWARD. 
 
 discovering state secrets was common throughout Europe in his time, 
 and had been iu common practice in England for centuries before he 
 was bom. There is no satisfactory proof that he was coarse and 
 cruel in his conduct towards prisoners under examination, and on the 
 contrary, Father Cornelius, the Jesuit, who was repeatedly examined 
 by Coke, said he found him "omnium hominutn humanissimus;" and 
 Garnet, in his intercepted correspondence, and also on his trial, admits 
 that he was constantly treated by him with courtesy and kindness. 
 At the same time, there is no doubt that as the advocate of the crown 
 ou trials for state offences, he displayed a degree of intemperance and 
 asperity not only shocking to the feelings of readers familiar only with 
 the more civilised character of criminal proceedings at the present day, 
 but strongly offensive even to contemporaries. 
 
 With the trials of the conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot in 1606, 
 the career of Sir Edward Coke as an advocate closed. In the month 
 of June in that year he received his appointments as Chief Justice of 
 the Common Pleas. He retained the situation upwards of seven years, 
 and in the discharge of the common judicial duties at this period, his 
 profound learning and unwearied industry procured him the highest 
 reputation. At this time too, though he has sometimes been reproached 
 for a haughty and unconciliating deportment on the bench, the bitter- 
 ness of temper which he displayed at the bar appears to have been 
 suppressed or softened ; and iu several constitutional questions of the 
 highest importance which occurred while he was chief justice of the 
 Common Pleas, and in which he resolutely opposed the views of the 
 king, especially iu the conflicts between the ecclesiastical jurisdictions 
 and the courts of common law, and in his resistance to the encroach- 
 ment of prerogative on the subject of royal proclamations, he dis- 
 played great integrity and independence. With a view to subdue his 
 uncompromising disposition, he was promoted to the chief-justiceship 
 of the King's Bench, iu October 1013, and a few days afterwards, in 
 consequence of a special order from the king, took his seat at the 
 board as a privy councillor. In the following year he was elected 
 high steward of the University of Cambridge. But the project of 
 making the chief justice "turn obsequious" by his advancement, 
 which was no doubt entertained by the court, and was expressly 
 avowed by Bacon, altogether failed. In the case of Peacham, who 
 was prosecuted for treason in the year 1615, for having in his pos- 
 session a sermon supposed to contain sedition, written by him, but 
 never preached or published, Coke, after long hesitation to deliver 
 what he quaintly called an "auricular opinion," seems at last to 
 have declared that the offence was not treason. His exertions in the 
 prosecution of the murderers of Sir Thomas Overbury in the same 
 year, though praised by Bacon in conducting the case as attorney- 
 general, gave displeasure to the king ; and his independent conduct in 
 the case of Commendams, which occurred in 1616, finally determined 
 the court to remove him from his office. The transaction was this : 
 a scrjeant-at-law, in the discharge of his duty as an advocate in the 
 Court of Common Pleas, was supposed to have used matter in his 
 argument which tended to question the royal prerogative ; upon this, 
 the king required the judges to proceed no further in the case with- 
 out his warrant. The twelve judges conferred upon thi3 message, and 
 resolved that in a common dispute between party and party it was 
 their duty to proceed notwithstanding the king's mandate. Upon this 
 they were summoned to the council-table, and personally reprimanded 
 by the king; and all of them, excepting the lord chief justice, acknow- 
 ledged their error, and craved pardon for their offence upon their 
 knees. Sir Edward Coke, on the contrary, after craving pardon for 
 any formal errors which he might have committed, boldly justified 
 his opinion upon the substantial point, contending that the king's 
 command for staying the proceedings was a delay of justice, and con- 
 sequently against the law, and contrary to the judges' oath. After 
 much discussion, the lords of the council proposed the following ques- 
 tion to the judges : — " Whether in a case where the king believed his 
 prerogative or interest concerned, and required the judges to attend 
 him for advice, they ought not to stay proceedings till his Majesty 
 had consulted them ? " All the judges at once answered in the 
 affirmative, except Lord Coke, who only said " that, when the case 
 happened, he would do that which should become an honest and just 
 judge." 
 
 The court now despaired of bending the stubborn integrity of the 
 chief justice, and determined at all events to displace him. Accord- 
 ingly, ou the 26th of June 1616, as a preliminary to his removal, he 
 was summoned before the council, and charged with several frivolous 
 accusations, some of them founded upon alleged malversations while 
 he was attorney-general, to all of which he returned distinct answers. 
 Four days afterwards he was again summoned to appear before the 
 council, upon which occasion he was reprimanded, sequestered from 
 the council-table during the king's pleasure, enjoined not to ride the 
 summer circuit as judge of assize, and ordered to employ his leisure 
 in revising many "extravagant and exorbitant opinions" set down in 
 his ' Book of Keports.' In the course of the vacation he was again 
 summoned before the council to answer a list of twenty-eight objections 
 to doctrines contained in his ' Reports,' which, a contemporary writer 
 observes, " were either so weak in themselves, or so well answered, 
 that they were readily reduced to five." (' Chamberlain's Letter to 
 Sir D. Carleton,' 26th of October, 1616.) In November 1616 he 
 received his writ of discharge from the office of chief justice, and 
 
 COKE, EDWARD. m 
 
 was succeeded by Sir Henry Montague, who was expressly warned by 
 the lord-chancellor Egcrton " to avoid the faults of his predecessor, 
 who had been removed for his excessive popularity." 
 
 From causes not very distinctly explained in the letters and histories 
 of the day, which probably were connected with an intrigue for the 
 marriage of his daughter to Sir John Villiers, afterwards Viscount 
 Purbeck, Sir Edward Coke, though he never afterwards filled a judicial 
 situation, was at no long interval restored to a certain degree of royal 
 favour. In September 1617 he was reinstated as a member of the 
 privy council, and in July 1618 he was appointed a ' commissioner for 
 the exercising the office of lord high treasurer of England,' jointly 
 with Archbishop Abbott, Lord Chancellor Bacon, and several others. 
 (See Devon's ' Pell. Records,' temp. Jac. I.) In the course of the next 
 three years he was employed in several other commissions of a public 
 nature, and until the year 1620 he was constant in his attendance at 
 the board. In the parliament which assembled in that year ho was 
 returned as a member for the borough of Liskeard in Cornwall. In 
 this parliament he distinguished himself as one of the most able and 
 zealous advocates of the liberal measures which were proposed. He 
 became a strenuous opponent of the pernicious monopolies by which 
 at that period the freedom of trade was fettered, and took an animated 
 part in that struggle between the prerogative pretensions of James 
 and the freedom of debate, which ended iu the celebrated resolution 
 of the Commons, "that the liberties, franchises, privileges, and juris- 
 dictions of parliament are the antient and undoubted birthright and 
 inheritance of the subjects of England." During the year 1621 ho 
 attended only three times at the privy council ; and on one of thoso 
 occasions, namely, on the 5th of October 1621, he seems to have 
 appeared only to inform the board that he had induced one Johnstone 
 to give up a grant which he had obtained from the king, " both a 
 grievance to the subject, and a disservice to the state ; " which informa- 
 tion he desired might be recorded in the council register. (' Council 
 Books.') His adherence to the popular or country party gave great 
 offence to the court, and he was accused of various offences and mal- 
 practices. The king at this period was so incensed agaiust him that 
 before he would grant his warrant for a general pardon at the end of 
 1621, he expressly commanded the privy council to consult upon the 
 means of excepting Sir Edward Coke from the benefit of it ; and on 
 the 27th of December of that year Coke was arrested and committed 
 to the Tower, where he remained a close prisoner until the 6th of 
 August 1622. While he was in the Tower proceedings were instituted 
 against him both in the star-chamber and the court of wards, the 
 precise nature and issue of which cannot now be ascertained. Upon 
 his enlargement from the Tower, he was ordered to confine himself to 
 hi3 house at Stoke Pogis, and not to repair to the court without express 
 licence from the king. After his disgrace on this occasion, he was 
 never again restored to the council-board. At the end of 1623 he was 
 appointed a commissioner, together with Sir William Jones, one of the 
 judges of the Common Pleas, and two other persons, to inquire into 
 the church establishment in Ireland. That he was on the point of 
 going on this mission appears from the fact that a passport dated 
 January 16th, 1623-24, was actually granted by the council. Some 
 accident however prevented his departure. 
 
 In the first parliament of Charles I., called in April 1 625, Sir E. 
 Coke was again returned as one of the knights of the shire for tho 
 county of Norfolk, as he says in his Note, " sine aliqua motione aut 
 petitione inde a me prsebitis." At the commencement of this parlia- 
 ment he adopted a moderate tone. He dissuaded the house from 
 insisting upon grievances, and urged conciliatory measures ; saying, 
 that "as it was the very beginning of the new king's reign, there could 
 be no grievances as yet." But this disposition to peace was overcome 
 by the determined tendency of the crown to arbitrary measures ; and 
 the king being unable to obtain any answer to his demand of a subsidy, 
 but repeated remonstrances against grievances, abruptly dissolved the 
 parliament. Compelled however by his pecuniary wants, to assemble 
 a new parliament in the course of the same year, he previously 
 appointed Sir Edward Coke and three other popular leaders sherifft 
 of counties, in order to prevent their serving as members. Coke, 
 having been in thi3 manner named Sheriff of Buckinghamshire, was 
 agaiu returned as knight of the shire for Norfolk ; and though in 
 consequence of his shrievalty, he did not take his seat in that parlia- 
 ment, no new writ was issued to supply his place, and it was con- 
 sidered that he was de facto a member of the house. He mentions 
 this circumstance in his 'Fourth Institute,' p. 48, though he does not 
 state it to have been his own case; and says, that "having a subpecua 
 out of chancery served upon him, he had his privilege of parliament 
 allowed unto him by the judgment of the whole House of Commons." 
 On occasion of the third parliament summoned by Charles I. in March 
 1628, Sir Edward Coke was returned for two counties, Buckingham 
 and Suffolk ; but he tells us that " he chose the former, because he 
 resided there, and because his election for that county took place first." 
 In this parliament, though now in his seventy-ninth year, this extra- 
 ordinary man asserted and defended the constitutional rights of the 
 people of England with all the energy of youth, and all the sagacity 
 of age. By his advice, and with his active co-operation and assist- 
 ance, which his extensive and varied experience rendered particularly 
 valuable, the celebrated Bill of Rights was framed; and by his perse- 
 verance and reasoning the lords were, after many conferences, induced 
 
COKE, J. W. 
 
 COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE. 
 
 310 
 
 to concur in the measure, which was, at last, and after many ineffectual 
 attempts at evasion, reluctantly assented to by the king. One of the 
 last acts of his public life was his spirited denunciation of the Duke 
 of Buckingham as the cause of all the misfortunes of the country. 
 As a proof of the earnest feelings by which he was impressed, Rush- 
 worth records that, on this occasion, " Sir Edward Coke, overcome 
 with passion, seeing the desolation likely to ensue, was forced to sit 
 down when he began to speak, through the abundance of tears." At 
 the close of the session of parliament in March 1629, the growing 
 infirmities of advanced age induced him to withdraw from public life, 
 and to spend the remainder of his days in retirement on his estate at 
 Stoke Pogis, in Buckinghamshire. Still it appears that his vigorous 
 and active mind was not without employment; and the last years of 
 his life are said to have been occupied by the revision of the numerous 
 works which he left behind him. 
 
 The last entry in his note-book, written with almost as firm a hand 
 as he wrote at the age of forty, records the following incident, which 
 may possibly have been the cause of his death : — 
 
 "Memorandum. Die Jovis, the iii rd of May. 1632, riding in the 
 morning in Stoke, between eight and nine of the clocke to take the 
 ayre, my horse under me had a strange stumble backward, and fell 
 upon me (being above eighty years old), where my head lighted nere 
 to sharpe stubbes, and the heavy horse upon me. And yet, by the 
 providence of Almighty God, though I was in the greatest danger, yet 
 I had not the least hurt, — nay, no hurt at all. For Almighty God 
 saith by his prophet David, • The angel of the Lord tarrieth rouud 
 about them that feare him, and delivereth them.' Et nomen Domini 
 benedictum, for it was his work ! " 
 
 He died on the 3rd of September, 1631, at Stoke Pogeis, repeating 
 with his last breath the words, " Thy kingdom come, thy will be 
 done ;" and was buried in the family burying-place of the Coke family 
 in the church of Tittleshall, in Norfolk. 
 
 The most celebrated of Sir Edward Coke's works is the treatise 
 commonly known by the name of ' Coke upon Littleton, or the First 
 Institute.' It consists of a minute and laborious commentary upon 
 the text of Littleton's ' Tenures/ in the course of which almost the 
 whole learning of the common law, as it existed in his time, is digested 
 and explained. This book has ever since the time of Lord Coke to the 
 present day been considered as a work of the highest authority in the 
 municipal and constitutional law of England. The ' Second Institute ' 
 contains notes on several ancient statutes ; the ' Third Institute ' is a 
 treatise on criminal law ; and the ' Fourth Institute ' treats of the 
 origin and jurisdiction of different courts. Besides these works, Sir 
 Edward Coke was the author of a treatise on copyholds, entitled ' The 
 Complete Copyholder,' and a ' Reading on Fines.' He also published 
 a collection of Reports, which are still of great value to the profession, 
 and at the time of their appearance formed an epoch in the history of 
 the law. Sir Francis Bacou speaks of this produce of the industry and 
 learning of hi3 great rival in terms of high and deserved commenda- 
 tion ; and justly acribes to the Reports the praise of having pre- 
 served the vessel of the common law in a steady and consistent course ; 
 " For the law," says he, " by this time had been like a ship without 
 ballast, for that the cases of modern experience are fled from those 
 that are adjudged and ruled in former time." It would have been 
 well for the critical fame of Coke had he spoken in as honourable 
 terms of his greater rival's philosophical labours. 
 
 (Many of the dates aud incidents in this sketch of Sir E. Coke's life 
 are taken from some characteristic memoranda in his own hand-writing 
 prefixed to a volume of Notes among the Harleian manuscripts in the 
 British Museum, No. 6687. It is remarkable that these Notes had 
 not been referred to by any of Coke's numerous biographers before the 
 publication of this biography in the ' Penny Cyclopaedia.') 
 
 COKE, J. W. [Leicester, Earl of.] 
 
 COLBE'RT, JEAN BAPTISTE, born in 1619, at Rheims, was 
 brought up to business. He was first employed at Lyon, in a com- 
 mercial house, and afterwards went to Paris, where he was introduced, 
 about 1648, to Mazarin, who employed him first as an amanuensis, 
 but afterwards made him intendant or steward of his vast fortune. 
 Mazarin appointed him his executor on his death-bed in 1661, and 
 recommended him to the king as a man deserving all his confidence. 
 Louis XIV., on appointing Colbert controleur-gdneral des finances, had 
 many conferences with him, which led to the dismissal and imprison- 
 ment of Fouquet, the superintendent of the finances, who had assisted 
 in dilapidating the resources of the state to serve the cupidity of 
 Mazarin. On the trial there was a manifest anxiety on the part of 
 the court and of Colbert to have Fouquet condemned to death, but 
 D'Ormesson, one of the reporting judges, stood firm ; he found much 
 abuse and mal-administration, but no proof of peculation. Fouquet 
 was condemned to banishment, and his property was confiscated. 
 Louis XIV. aggravated this sentence into imprisonment for life in the 
 citadel of Pignerol. 
 
 Colbert advised the king to form a chamber of justice for the liqui- 
 dation of the debts of the state. The finances were in a ruinous 
 condition ; out of eighty-four millions which the people paid the 
 treasury received only thirty-two. The farmers of the revenue had in 
 their hands all the resources of the kingdom ; it was calculated that 
 during the last five years they had appropriated to themselves eighty 
 millions. They were now called to a severe account; aud all the 
 
 forms of inquisitorial process, torture not excluded, were employed to 
 convict them. The result was that Colbert recovered for the king the 
 sources of the public revenue, aud reduced the debts of the state by 
 an arbitrary composition, which was in fact a real bankruptcy. Having 
 got rid of the burdens, he next applied himself to simplify and im- 
 prove the collection of the revenue. He reduced by two-fifths the 
 tailles, or land and income tax, which was unequally distributed, 
 owing to the exemptions of the privileged classes. Finding this tax 
 unmanageable, Colbert preferred reducing it, to make it weigh less 
 heavily on the poorer classes. He founded his chief dependence on 
 indirect taxation, or taxes upon consumption, whieh he raised not less 
 than ten-fold. Besides the octroi, or barrier duty on provisions, of 
 which he appropriated one half to the treasury, and the aides or 
 excise duties on wine aud spirits, he imposed a stamp duty upon 
 paper used in commercial aud judicial proceedings, a stamp on plate, 
 a duty on paper, a licence duty, and he established the monopoly of 
 tobacco, &c. He also made a new aud minute tariff for the custom 
 duties. At his death (1683) the regular revenue of France was 
 116 millions of livres, of which 23 millions were absorbed by the 
 charges of collection and administration, and the reutes or annuities 
 due by the state, leaving 92 millions of net receipt, instead of 32, 
 which he had found when entering office twenty-two years before. 
 (Lemontey, ' Pieces Justificatives.') Oue-half only of this increase 
 was obtained through additional taxation ; the other half was the 
 result of better order and economy. Colbert however had to deal 
 with a sovereign, absolute, young, fond of pleasure, of pomp, aud of 
 war, seconded by an ambitious and unprincipled minister, Louvois. 
 In the latter years of his administration, Colbert was therefore obliged, 
 despite of his often-expressed aversion to loans, to have recourse to 
 ruinous loans, an increase of the oppressive tailles, the sale of offices 
 and honours, and other extraordinary or war expedients. This took 
 place during the second war of Louis XIV., which began in 1672, and 
 ended by the peace of Nimeguen, 1678-79. 
 
 Colbert's most strenuous and effective efforts were directed to the 
 encouragement of commerce and manufactures. To accomplish his 
 object, he adopted tho only means known at that time, perhaps the 
 only means practicable in his situation, and under such a government 
 as that of Louis XIV., privileges, patents,- monopolies, bounties, and 
 honours. He is generally looked upon as the inventor, or at least the 
 great propagator, of the system of the balance of trade. He made 
 numerous regulations to protect, as it was then called, the various 
 branches of national industry. He also forbade the exportation of 
 corn with the view of insuring plenty, but the result was that culti- 
 vation declined, and France suffered several severe dearths under lu3 
 administration. He is accused of having sacrificed agriculture to 
 manufactures, but in fact his principles were erroneous with regard 
 to both. One merchant, more enlightened than the rest, beiug con- 
 sulted by him on the best means of favouring commerce, answered 
 him, " Laissez faire et laissez passer," " let us alone, leave us free and 
 uncontrolled in our transactions, and let goods pass freely," — advice 
 which Colbert did not understand. In the subsequent century there 
 rose in France another school, opposite to his, which saw in agricul- 
 ture alone the real wealth of a state : these men were called " econo- 
 mistes." Mengotti, in his sensible treatise ' II Colbertismo,' has 
 explained the principles and exposed the errors of both. But what- 
 ever may be thought of Colbert's measures, he certainly succeeded in 
 giving a great impulse to French industry ; he roused and directed 
 the national mind towards a new and useful exercise of it3 faculties : 
 the history of French manufactures may be said to begin with Colbert. 
 Woollens, silk, glass, pottery, leather, and iron manufactures, were 
 either created by him, or greatly enlarged and improved. He founded 
 Quebec and Cayenne, made new settlements in India aud on the coast 
 of Africa, and favoured the colonies of Martinique aud St. Domingo. 
 He chartered- privileged companies for the East and West Indies. Ho 
 turned his attention to internal communications, restored the old 
 roads, constructed new ones, planned and effected the great canal of 
 Languedoc, and projected another in Burgundy. He also established 
 a free port at Marseille, sent consuls to the Levant, aud thus secured 
 to France a considerable part of that valuable trade. He bought 
 Dunkerque and Mardyk, on the coast of Flanders, from Charles II. of 
 England for the sum of five millions of livres (1662). He also founded 
 the dockyards of Brest, Toulon, and Rochefort. When he was made 
 minister of marine, in 1669, in addition to the other departments 
 he held, France had only a few old ships of war rotting in the 
 harbours. Colbert purchased new ones abroad, constructed others at 
 home, and in 1672 France had sixty ships of the line and forty frigates. 
 But this creation of a navy was extended by the ambition of the king 
 much beyond Colbert's original views, which were chiefly directed to 
 the protection of the merchant trade. 
 
 Colbert brought the light of science into the various departments 
 of the administration : his arrangement of the various offices, and the 
 distribution of labour in each, have been highly extolled. He caused 
 the first statistical tables of the population to be made out, and he 
 collected the old charters and historical records of the kingdom. He 
 removed the king's library to better premises, and increased it from 
 16,000 to 40,000 volumes. At the same time he formed his own 
 extensive and valuable library, the manuscripts of which alone amounted 
 to 14,300 volumes, which his grandson afterwards sold to the king. 
 
Sll 
 
 COLBY, THOMAS. 
 
 313 
 
 He instituted a commission of legislation which framed the various 
 ordonnances of civil and criminal process, of commerce, of the woods 
 and forests, and of marine, published in 1670 and the following years, 
 and which with all their imperfections constituted the first code of 
 laws for France, and from which the various legislative commissions 
 appointed by Napoleon drew most of their materials. It was the first 
 separation of the various branches of legislation, which had till then 
 been confounded together in the ordonnances issued upon the spur of 
 occasions. He also had a series of laws compiled concerning the 
 negroes and their masters in the colonies, which was called ' le Code 
 Noir.' 
 
 A minister strict, orderly to minuteness, and averse to prodigality, 
 could not well sympathise with Louis XIV. Colbert was ambitious, 
 and strongly attached to his plans, which ho conceived to be for the 
 prosperity and glory of France. In order to captivate the king by 
 means of one of his favourite tastes, that of building, which in some 
 measure coincided with his own views, he purchased the office of 
 superintendent of the public buildings in 1664. The gardens of the 
 Tuileries, the Hotel-des-Invalides, the facade of the Louvre, the 
 triumphal arches of St. Denis and St. Martin, the Boulevards, and 
 some of the quays along the Seine, were erected under him. He also 
 began the structure of Versailles ; but the king's passion for building, 
 thus stimulated, went far beyond Colbert's intentions, and vast 
 treasures were sunk in a gorgeous and useless work. Colbert insti- 
 tuted the Academy of Sciences, and those of Inscriptions and of 
 Architecture. He reformed the Academy of Painting, and established 
 the school at Rome for French artists. He transferred the Acaddmie- 
 Francaise to the Louvre, and became one of its members. His temper 
 was absolute, like that of his sovereign ; he deprived Mdzerai of his 
 pension because he had written on the legality of taxation, and he 
 laboured to lower the influence of the parliament of Paris. His 
 manners were cold and repulsive ; a poet of the time called him " a 
 man of marble." Slow in conceiving his plans, and cautious in deciding 
 upon their execution, he courted and listened to advice ; but, when 
 once resolved upon, his will knew no obstacles either of delicacy, 
 feeling, or commiseration. A clear judgment, an iron will, and an 
 indefatigable labour, supported him through his twenty-two years of 
 administration. At last, seeing his rival Louvois enjoying the ascend- 
 ancy over the king's mind ; Louis preparing himself for new wars, and 
 maintaining the war-taxes which ought to have been repealed at the 
 peace ; grieved also at the incipient persecution of the Protestants, 
 whose commercial and manufacturing industry Colbert fully appre- 
 ciated, among whom he had chosen some of his best subalterns in the 
 administration, and of whose services he was deprived by an edict 
 which excluded the Protestants from financial appointments, Colbert 
 felt all the pangs of disappointment for his ill-appreciated services. 
 Exhausted with labour he fell ill, and shortly after died, on the 6th 
 of September, 1683, at sixty-four years of age. The people, enraged 
 at the taxes, threatened to tear his body to pieces. He was buried in 
 the night, attended by a military escort. 
 
 Colbert's first son was made Marquis of Seignelay, and another 
 became Archbishop of Rheims. His brother held also high offices, 
 and was made Marquis de Croissy. Colbert built himself a splendid 
 mansion at Sceaux, and he left a fortune of ten millions of livres, the 
 fruits of his rigid economy and of the liberality of Louis. 
 
 (Notice sur Jean Baptiste Colbert in the (Euvres de Lemontey, vol. v., 
 Pieces Justificativcs, Paris, 1829 ; see also Mernoires de Charles Perrault, 
 Colbert's secretary ; and Particularites sur les Ministres de Finances, 
 par Montyon. The several Vies and Eloges of Colbert are not worthy 
 of much credit.) 
 
 COLBY, THOMAS, Major-General in the army, and one of the 
 Directors of the Ordnance Survey, was born at Rochester 1st of Sep- 
 tember 1784. When his father, Captain Colby, of the Royal Marines, 
 sailed with the fleet under Lord Howe, he was sent to Dr. Crockell's 
 school at Northfleet, and from thence he entered the Royal Military 
 Academy at Woolwich. He obtained his first commission as second 
 lieutenant of engineers in 1801, being then but seventeen years of age. 
 His diligence and success in scientific study were such that in January 
 of the following year, at the special request of Captain Mudge, then 
 superintendent of the ordnance survey, he was appointed one of the 
 assistants in that great work. Entering at once on his duties he 
 justified the expectations formed of him, by the intelligence and con- 
 scientious activity which he brought to the work of surveying. He 
 was on a tour of inspection in Cornwall, in 1803, when he lost his left 
 hand by the bursting of an old pistol, and suffered at the same time 
 such a fracture of the skull from a fragment of the barrel, that he felt 
 the effects of the accident for the rest of his life whenever he attempted 
 any long-continued mental exertion. Though the loss of his hand 
 was a hindrance to the active discharge of his duties, Colonel Mudge 
 was so well satisfied of his merits, that he kept the young lieutenant 
 permanently attached to the survey. 
 
 In 1803 Lieutenant Colby was observing at Dunnose, one of the 
 prominent points of the survey; in 1804 at Beaumaris; and in 1806 
 with the zenith sector at Burleigh Moor and Delamere Forest. The 
 winter months he passed in the 'Drawing Room' at the Tower, 
 computing and preparing the results for publication, and superin- 
 tending the construction and engraving of the ordnance maps on a I 
 Bcale of one inch to the mile. So thoroughly was he identified with j 
 
 that great national work, that the history of one becomes in great 
 measure the history of the other. In 1807 Colby was promoted to 
 the rank of captain. The third volume of ' An Account of the Trigo- 
 nometrical Survey of England' was published in 1811, and his name 
 appearing jointly with that of Colonel Mudge on the title-page, Bhewed 
 how highly his services had been appreciated by his chief. In 1818 
 it was determined to extend the meridian liue into Scotland, a task 
 which called out in an especial manner the energies for which Captain 
 Colby was remarkable. Within the next three years he visited and 
 observed at the principal stations beyond the Tweed, besides attending 
 to his official business at the Tower. The persevering labour and i 
 activity required for a season of observation on the hills would appear I 
 incredible to one unacquainted with the nature of the work. Besides 
 the mental exercise of keeping all the subordinates to their duty, so 
 as to produce harmony in the results, there was much personal fatigue | 
 to be endured in long walks over the country, together with storms i 
 and wearisome delays on the mountain tops. But with Captain I 
 Colby duty was paramount, and he cared not for privation, so that i 
 the work was perfect. Major Dawson in his account of 'A Season on I 
 the Hills' gives a striking picture of the toils and hardships expe- I 
 rienced : "It was no uncommon occurrence," he remarks, "for the 
 camp to be enveloped in clouds for several weeks together, without I 
 affording even a glimpse of the sun or of the clear sky during j 
 the whole period. And then in a moment the clouds would break ] 
 away or subside into the valleys, leaving the tips of the mountains 
 clear and bright above an ocean of mist, and the atmosphere calm and 
 steady, so as to admit of the observations for which the party had 
 waited days and weeks to be taken in a few hours." At times the I 
 tents would be blown down by storms — or the camps would be I 
 whitened by a fall of hail or snow in July : or the captain taking two 
 or three of the junior officers and a few men with him would start 
 on a ' station-hunt ; ' steering a course direct by compass for the 
 peaks that seemed most suitable, regardless of the nature of the 
 intervening country. In these explorations they walked from thirty j 
 to forty miles a day, wading streams, crossing bogs, scaling cliffs, and 
 sliding down into rocky valleys, Captain Colby ever the foremost; 
 and when they came to a summit which his experience told him was 
 suitable for a station, he would help with his own hand in building 
 up the great pile of stones by which it was to be distinguished and | 
 observed from distant points. Sometimes the resting-place at night | 
 would be a miserable hovel where no other food was to be obtained j 
 than the national porridge ; at others the weary explorers rested under - 
 a ducal roof — and on the west coast during the hot months they were 
 tormented and blistered by the bite3 of innumerable midges. In one 
 trip iu 1819 the party walked 586 miles in twenty-two days. From 
 this brief summary, a notion may be formed of the severe labour of 1 
 the survey, apart from the scientific duty of observing with the 1 
 instruments, which on all favourable occasions was continued from : 
 sunrise to sunset. 
 
 Captain Colby's activity and kindliness of disposition were not less 
 apparent in camp than on the station-hunts. He would assist in 
 erecting houses to "shelter the soldiers; and occasionally join with 
 the men in a game of quoits, or in putting the stone or crowbar, and 
 was a warm promoter of their feast at the close of each trigonometrical 
 season." He was quite indifferent as to personal fame, but not so as 
 to making known the merits of his officers, and he at times permitted 
 them to publish portions of the work in their own names rather as 1 
 principals than assistants. His command over his temper was perfect ; 
 but he disliked to be disturbed by curious visitors when busy with 
 observations for which he had long waited the opportunity. Once, 
 while encamped on Slieve Donard in Ireland, the summit of Sea Fell 
 in Cumberland became visible at the distance of 111 miles, and after 
 many trials the instrument was brought to bear upon it. " Colby was 
 on the point of successfully finishing his observation, which would 
 have been a geodesical triumph, as including the longest side of a 
 triangle ever attempted, when an officer on entering the observatory 
 accidentally struck his elbow, and threw the telescope off the object. 
 A momentary ejaculation of anger escaped his lips, but though he 
 could not again succeed, and the object was therefore lost, he never 
 afterwards alluded to the subject." 
 
 He was one of the party that accompanied Biot on his trip to 
 Shetland in 1817, when, in compliance with the wishes of the French 
 government, one of their savants was permitted to observe on the line 
 of the English arc. A coolness however arose between Biot and Colby, 
 and while the latter, undeterred by fog or storm, made his observations 
 with the sector on the rock of Balta, the former carried on his pen- 
 dulum observations on the island of Uist; and Colby afterwards assisted 
 in connecting the French with the English triangulation by the 
 observations across the straits of Dover. [Biot.] 
 
 In 1820 Captain Colby was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; 
 he took an active part in establishing the Astronomical Society ; and 
 General Mudge having died, he was appointed his successor as super- 
 intendent of the Survey, and in the Board of Longitude. In 1821 he 
 was promoted to the rank of major, and in 1824 he undertook the 1 
 survey of Ireland. In this work the usual mode of proceeding was I 
 modified : the survey was made dependent on actual measurements / 
 with the chain, with a trigonometrical point fixed for every 400 acres;/ 
 and the whole series of operations was so ably combined that ourf t 
 
S13 
 
 portion became a check on the other, and the utmost accuracy was 
 arrived at, although the number of persons employed exceeded two 
 thousand, mostly from the native peasantry. A change was also made 
 in the publication : the sheets were engraved on a scale of six inches 
 to the mile, all the principal farms, fields, and inclosures being repre- 
 sented, so that the maps have ever since been regarded by the govern- 
 ment, land-proprietors, and surveyors, as authentic plans of all the 
 elates in the country. Poor-law boundaries, townlands, land- 
 improvements, engineering works, and the Irish census, have all been 
 based upon them. They are comprised in 1939 sheets. 
 
 In 1825 Major Colby became lieutenant-colonel, and in that year 
 he obtained the Duke of Wellington's sanction for raising and training 
 three companies of sappers and miners to aid in the Irish survey, as 
 the want of really efficient assistants was felt at first as a serious 
 hindrance to the progress of the work. In the course of the operations 
 Colby measured a base-line of eight miles, on the south shore of Lough 
 Foyle, with 'compensation-bars' which he had himself invented. He 
 had carried on a series of experiments on the heating and cooling of 
 niet.il rods, and he succeeded in constructing a bar of brass and iron 
 in combination, the extremities of which remained always the same 
 distance apart whatever might be the temperature. Such is the 
 exactitude obtained with this apparatus that it has since been used in 
 measuring a base of eight miles at the Cape of Good Hope, in the 
 re-measuremeut of the English bases, and in those required for the 
 great arc of the meridian in India. 
 
 In 1833 Colonel Colby resumed the triangulation of Scotland, which 
 had been suspended ; and from this date up to his promotion to the 
 grade of major-general in 1846, when by the regulations of the service 
 his connection with the survey ceased, he continued his usual active 
 and energetic superintendence of the various operations. He brought 
 the engraving of the English maps to an excellence never before 
 achieved. The seconds of latitude and longitude were marked on the 
 margins, and he co-operated with Sir Henry De la Beche in introducing 
 the geological facts and features which have since become so important 
 a part of the survey. He took the necessary measures for a series of 
 tidal observations round the coast of Ireland, for the purpose of 
 establishing a true datum level : " the most important series of tide- 
 observations," says the astronomer-royal, "that has ever been made." 
 
 Through all his scientific career General Colby never sacrificed duty 
 to selfish considerations ; and his rare administrative abilities, and 
 sound judgment combined with high principle, enabled him to 
 accomplish well all that he undertook. He had resources ready for 
 every emergency, and the hardy perseverance that triumphed over all 
 obstacles. He died at Liverpool on the 9th of October 1852, leaving 
 a widow and seven children. He was a fellow of the chief scientific 
 societies of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin ; LL.D. of Aberdeen, and 
 a knight of Denmark. 
 
 (Prof. Papers Roy. Eng. ; Proc. Boy. Soc. ; Monthly Not. Astron. Soc.) 
 
 COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, LORD, was born at Abingdon, 
 on the 14th of October 1757, and was the younger son of the Rev. 
 John Abbot, D.D., rector of All Saints, Colchester, who died about 
 three years after the birth of his son. Mrs. Abbot, who was daughter 
 of Jonathan Farr, Esq., of Long Whittenham, in Berkshire, married, 
 in 1705, Mr. Jeremy Bentham, solicitor, of London, the father, by a 
 former wife, of the distinguished writer on jurisprudence of the 
 same names, and survived to the year 1809. 
 
 Abbot was educated at Westminster School, from which he was 
 elected a student of Christ Church, Oxford, 1775. In 1777 he gained 
 the chancellor's medal for Latin verse; in 1783 he took his degree of 
 B.C.L, and became Vinerian scholar ; and soon after he was called to 
 the bar. In 1795 he published a work on ' The Jurisdiction and 
 Practice of the Court of Great Sessions of Wales upon the Chester 
 Circuit,' in the preface to which he urged the abolition of the separate 
 Welsh judicature, a reform which wa3 at last carried into effect in 
 1830. This same year however he retired from the bar, on succeeding 
 his elder brother, John Farr Abbot, as clerk of the rules in the court 
 of King's Bench. This appointment produced his next publication, 
 entitle i ' Rules and Orders of the King's Bench.' 
 
 In June 1795 Abbot was returned to parliament for the borough of 
 Hclston, in the interest of the Duke of Leeds. He sat for the same 
 plnce in the next two parliaments, and ho spoke on the ministerial 
 rids on several occasions during the first session with much effect. 
 In the same session, on the 12th of April 1796, Abbot moved and 
 obtained the appointment of a select committee to consider the subject 
 of temporary and expiring laws; and the report of this committee, 
 which he laid on the tabic of the House on that day month, led to a 
 great improvement of the practice previously followed in regard to 
 that kind of legislation. In the next session, on the 2nd of November 
 1790, he obtained the appointment of another committee to consider 
 the most expedient mode of promulgating the statutes ; and the plan 
 that is now followed, of sending copies of all new acts as soon as 
 printed to all the municipal bodies and benches of county magistrates 
 throughout the kingdom, was adopted on the recommendation of this 
 committee, and of another, also appointed on his motion, in 1801. 
 'I he activity, clearness of head, and general talent for business, as well 
 as the fipirit of practical improvement, for which he had established a 
 character, led to his being chosen chairman of the committee on the 
 public finances, which was appointed on the motion of Mr. Pitt, on 
 
 V QO. D1V. VOL. IL 
 
 the 10th of March 1797; and of the thirty-six reports presented by 
 this committoe in the course of that and subsequent sessions, three of 
 the most elaborate, namely, those respecting the revenue, the exche- 
 qu r, and the law courts, were prepared by Abbot. His next labours 
 were connected with the public records, the state of which ho brought 
 before the House on the 18th of February 1800, on moving the 
 appointment of a committee to consider what should be done for their 
 better management, preservation, and more convenient use. The 
 committee was appointed accordingly, and, with Abbot for its chair- 
 man, immediately set to work and prosecuted its task with so much 
 diligence, that in the course of the same session it produced, in two 
 successive reports, one of the most complete and masterly surveys of 
 any subject ever laid before parliament. From the recommendation 
 of this committee of the House of Commons originated the royal 
 record commission, the proceedings of which continued to be superin- 
 tended by Abbot till the year 1817. Meanwhile, on the 19th of May 
 1800, he called the attention of the House to the abuse which then 
 prevailed of allowing the proceeds of the taxes and other moneys to 
 lie, often for a considerable time, in the hands of the public accountants 
 without payment of interest, and obtained leave to bring in a bill, 
 establishing a few simple regulations, which he explained, founded 
 substantially on the principle of assimilating the method of accounting 
 between the crown and those of it3 servants entrusted with the collec- 
 tion or disbursement of the public money, to that generally followed 
 in accounts between private parties, and sanctioned by all courts of 
 justice. This scheme of reform was received with unqualified approval 
 by both sides of the House, Mr. Tierney, the chief opposition financial 
 authority, joining the attorney-general in expressing his commendation 
 of it in strong terms; and the bill which Abbot obtained leave to 
 bring in passed through all its stages in both Houses without further 
 discussion. On the 19th of November of the same year, a few days 
 after the commencement of the next session, he introduced to the 
 House perhaps the most important of all the measures with which his 
 name is connected, in a motion for leave to bring in a bill for taking a 
 census of the population of the kingdom. The enumeration taken in 
 the following year, which has been since decenuially repeated, arose 
 out of this proposition, being the first enumeration of the people 
 which had ever been effected in England by public authority, at least 
 in modern times. Abbot's motion was seconded by Mr. Wilberforce, 
 and the bill encountered no opposition in either House. 
 
 On the retirement of Mr. Pitt, Abbot became a member of the new 
 administration, with the offices of chief secretary for Ireland, and 
 keeper of the Irish privy seal. Upon receiving these appointments, 
 and being made a privy councillor, he resigned his place of clerk of 
 the rules in the Court of King's Bench. It seems to have been about 
 this time also that he was chosen recorder of Oxford. His official life 
 lasted scarcely a twelvemonth. On the appointment of Mr. Mitford 
 (afterwards Lord Redesdale), who had succeeded Addington as speaker, 
 to the place of lord chancellor of Ireland, Abbot was, on the 10th of 
 February 1802, elected to the vacant chair of the House of Commons. 
 He continued to serve as speaker throughout the next three parlia- 
 ments, and the greater part of the succeeding one; having been 
 returned to that which met in November, 1802, both for Woodstock and 
 Heytesbury, when he chose to represent the former place, and for the 
 University of Oxford in 1806, again in 1807, and a third time in 1812. 
 He filled the office of speaker to the satisfaction both of the House 
 and of the public ; and, although his demeanour is perhaps rather to 
 be described as correct and graceful than as imposing or dignified, his 
 qualifications for the place were on the whole of a very superior order, 
 and in the performance of some of its duties he acquitted himself in 
 a highly distinguished manner. His addresses in communicating the 
 thanks of the House to the various naval and military officers who 
 received that honour in the course of the war with France, afford 
 many happy examples of rhetorical talent. These speeches were 
 delivered on thirteen different occasions ; and they commemorate all 
 the principal victories of the war from Roleia and Vimiera to Waterloo 
 and the capture of Paris : that in which he communicated the thanks 
 of the House, on the great day of the 1st of July 1814 to the Duke of 
 Wellington, was particularly felicitous. 
 
 It ought also to be noted to the honour of Abbot, that however 
 strong and steady were his party prejudices and attachments, he did 
 not hesitato to make them give way, when upon any occasion they 
 came into competition either with the rights and privileges of the 
 House, or with what he conceived to be his duty as its speaker. A 
 memorable example of this was the course he took on the 8th of April 
 1805, when the House having divided on Mr. Whitbread's motion for 
 the impeachment of Lord Melville, and the numbers having been found 
 equal (216 on each side), he gave his casting vote for the impeachment, 
 on the principle that, whatever he might think of the charges, he was 
 not entitled, in a case such as this, in which there was evidently a 
 contest between the popular feeling and the influence of the govern- 
 ment, to give his aid to the latter, or to make use of his official 
 privilege to prevent a case from being sent to trial upon which the real 
 judgment of the House had been so distinctly pronounced. 
 
 The principal subject as to which Abbot took any prominent part 
 in the debates of the House after his elevation to the chair, was tho 
 question of the emancipation of the Roman Catholics, to which he 
 continued to offer a steady opposition. 
 
816 COLD EN, CADWALLADER. 
 
 Abbot, as speaker, distinguished himself by the attention, correctness, 
 and efficiency with which he performed all the routine duties of the 
 chair, and the House and the public are indebted to him for some 
 important improvements in the conduct of the business of parliament. 
 In particular he gave a new and much more useful form to the printed 
 votes of the House; and it was upon his recommendation, and upon 
 a plan of his suggesting, that the Private Bill Office was established, 
 in 1811. 
 
 He continued speaker till the 30th of May 1817, when a severe 
 attack of erysipelas compelled him to resign the chair. On this the 
 House immediately addressed the crown to bestow on him some mark 
 of favour ; and on the 3rd of June he was elevated to the peerage, as 
 Baron Colchester. Parliament voted a pension of 4000/. a year to 
 himself, aud o/ 3000/. a year to his next successor in the title. The 
 next three years he spent abroad, principally in France and Italy. 
 After he returued home, it was only on rare occasions, as formerly in 
 the Commous, that he took any part in the debates of the upper 
 House of Parliament; but ir, ban been stated that the Lords owe to 
 him the daily publication and distribution of their proceedings, and 
 the establishment of a library on the same plan as that of the 
 Commons. Lord Colchester's last act of a public character was his 
 seuding to the press, iu November 1828, his collected (six) 'Speeches 
 upon the Roman Catholic Claims, delivered in the House of Commons 
 and in the House of Peers; with Preliminary Observations,' on the 
 state of the question of Emancipation as it then stood. He just lived 
 to see or hear of the end of the controversy, and the defeat of his own 
 side, by the passing of the Relief Bill brought in by Mr. Secretary 
 Peel. He died at his house in Spring Gardens, of another attack of 
 erysipelas, on the 8th of May 1829. Lord Colchester married on the 
 9th of December 1796 Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Sir Philip Gibbes, 
 Bart., by whom he left two sons. 
 
 (Biographical dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 COLDEN, CADWALLADER, lieutenant-governor of New York 
 before the revolution, was the author of numerous workB on subjects 
 iu medicine, natural philosophy, and botany. His father was minister 
 of DuDse in Scotland, where he was born in 1688. He received his 
 medical education at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1708 he 
 emigrated to Pennsylvania, where for several years he practised as a 
 physician. After visiting England, and having established a reputa- 
 tion by 'Remarks on Animal Secretions,' he returned to Pennsylvania, 
 aud settled finally, in 1718, in New York, where he was appointed 
 surveyor of the lands of the colony aud master in chancery, with a 
 seat in the king's council. His principal works are — ' A History of 
 the Five Indian Nations,' 'An Account of the Diseases then prevalent 
 in America,' ' Au Essay on the Cause and Remedy of the Yellow 
 Fever, so fatal at New York in 1713,' 'A Treatise on Gravitation,' 
 subsequently enlarged and republished as ' Principles of Action in 
 Matter,' with a treatise annexed, ou the ' Elements of Fluxions, or 
 Differential Calculus;' ' Au Introduction to Medicine,' ' Remarks on 
 the Inaccuracy of the History of New York.' His favourite study was 
 botany. The 'ActaUpsaliensia' (for 1743-44, 'Plautoe Novseboracenses') 
 contain his descriptions of several hundred American plants, of which 
 200 were new species. He left a long series of meteorological obser- 
 vations, with a daily register of the thermometer and barometer; and 
 several valuable manuscripts on tho vital movement, properties of 
 light, intelligence of animals, and on the phenomena attending the 
 mixture of metals. Among his correspondents were most of the 
 leading scientific and learned characters of the age, as Frankliu, 
 the Earl of Macclesfield, Gronovius, aud especially Linuseus, who 
 honoured him by naming a new species of plants Coldcnia. He died 
 at his seat on Long Island, September 28, 1776. 
 
 * COLE, HENRY. The elaborate Introduction to the Official Cata- 
 logue of the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, in 1851, 
 bears the signature of " Henry Cole." That introduction records the 
 gradual steps by which the subject of such an Exhibition was fami- 
 liarised to the public mind, and was at last thought worthy of royal 
 support. In June 1845 a committee of members of the Society of 
 Arts was formed to carry out an Exhibition of National Industry. 
 How the instrumentality of this eociety, which had for many years 
 been powerless and torpid, was brought to bear on so important an 
 object, is not, of course, recorded in the introduction to the catalogue. 
 The society was mainly revived by the exertions of Mr. Cole. He had 
 always taken a deep interest in the diffusion of a knowlege of Art, in 
 connection with Industry ; and had induced some manufacturers of 
 porcelain and earthenware to make copies of works of art, as statuettes, 
 and to produce useful articles, such as jugs and inkstands, of 
 superior design. These were the labours of Mr. Cole's occasional 
 leisure. His business was in the Record Office ; and the vast collection 
 of records in the Carlton Ride owes much of its usefulness to his 
 judicious arrangements for classifying this great mass of national 
 documents. Undeterred by the difficulties that presented themselves 
 in the undertaking of a national exhibition, the committee of the 
 Society of Arts established an exhibition of manufactures in 1847. In 
 1848 aud 1849 more favour was bestowed on their exertions. Prince 
 Albert, who had become President of the Society, took the subject 
 under his personal superintendance; and the Exhibition of 1851 was 
 fully determined on. It is unnecessary to trace the preliminary 
 
 COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS. 310 
 
 labours that were to be encountered before the great idea was accom- 
 plished. It was fortunate that it was carried out without government 
 aid ; and that the most successful enterpriso of our times was accom- 
 plished through the people, acting for themselves. To Mr. Cole much of 
 this success may be justly attributed. He was one of the Executive 
 Committee, aud by his unwearied assiduity, established his position as a 
 most valuable administrative officer. At tbe close of the Exhibition he 
 received the honour of Companion of the Bath, and was subsequently 
 appointed to an important office in that department of the Board of 
 Trade which has the direction of the Schools of Design throughout 
 tbe country. The office which Mr. Cole now holds in that department 
 is Inspector of Schools of Design. Mr. Cole was the English commis- 
 sioner in the Universal Exhibition at Paris, in 1855. In this import- 
 ant position he displayed his accustomed taste and industry ; and by a 
 salutary economy was enabled to accomplish all the purposes required 
 at an expense less by 10,000/. than the sum voted by Parliament. As 
 a writer, Mr. Cole is chiefly kuown by some agreeable Guide Books for 
 Tourists, published under the namo of ' Felix Summerly.' Iu 1840 
 he wrote a popular little work for children on ' Light, Sbade, and 
 Colour.' 
 
 COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS, an eminent Oriental scholar, 
 was the third son of Sir George Colebrooke, Bart., and was born iu 
 1765. His mother was Mary, only daughter and heiress of Patrick 
 Gayuor, Esq. of Antigua. He was never at any public school, but was 
 educated at home by a private tutor. Iu his twelfth year ho was sent 
 to France, and he remained in that country till he was sixteen. His 
 own iucliuation at this time was to enter the church; but the position 
 of Lis father, who was one of the directors of the East India Company, 
 naturally led to the selection of another career for him, and iu 1782 
 he was appointed to a writership in India. For the first three years 
 after he went out he resided at Calcutta, and was attached to tho 
 Board of Accounts; he was then transferred to the revenue depart- 
 ment at Tiihoot. During his residence at this station, he acquired a 
 fondness for field sports, which he retained while he lived. In 1789 
 he was removed to Purneah ; and having been soon after appointed a 
 member of a commission deputed by the government to investigate 
 the resources of Bengal, he drew up, in conjunction with Mr. Lambert, 
 a merchant of Calcutta, and printed for private circulation, in 1794, a 
 very able tract, entitled ' Remarks on the Agriculture aud Commerce 
 of Bengal, by a Civil Servant of the Company,' which, besides a mas* 
 of new and valuable information, announced some propositions much 
 beyond the current ideas of the time ; among others, that of a free 
 trade between India and England. Colebrooke's portion of this treatise 
 was reprinted and published in London, in 1800, under the title of 
 'Remarks ou the Husbandry and Internal Commerce of Bengal ; ' aud 
 an account of it may be read iu the ' Edinburgh Review,' No. 19 (for 
 April 1807), pp. 27-40. Some time before this Mr. Colebrooke had 
 begun to study the Sanscrit ; and, having now undertaken the trans- 
 lation of the collection or digest of Hindoo law formed under the 
 superintendauce of Sir William Jones, he had finished his task before 
 the close of the year 1796; and the work was published, under the 
 title of 'A Digest of Hindu Law on Contracts and Successions, from 
 the Original Sanscrit,' in 3 vols. 8vo, at Calcutta, in 1797. Soon 
 after the foundation of the College of Fort William he was appointed 
 to the Professorship of the Sanscrit Language ; which he appears to 
 have held till he was removed to a judicial situation at Miizapore. 
 He was subsequently promoted to be Chief Judge of the courts of 
 Sudder Dewannee Adawlut and Nizamut Adawlut ; and he was for a 
 time President of the Board of Revenue, and a member of the Supreme 
 Council of Bengal. He was also for some years a Director of the 
 Asiatic Society of Bengal ; and many of the most valuable papers in 
 tLeir transactions (The Asiatic Researches) were contributed by him; 
 particularly, ' On the Duties of a Faithful Hindu Widow,' in vol. iv.; 
 ' Examination of Indian Classes,' in vol. v. ; three ' Essays on tho 
 Religious Ceremonies of the Hindus, and of the Brahmans especially,' 
 in vols. v. and vii. ; ' On the Sanscrit and Pracrit Languages,' and 
 others, in vol. vii.; a highly curious discourse 'On the Veda3, or 
 Sacred Writings of the Hindus,' in vol. viii. ; ' Observations on the 
 Sect of Jains,' 'On the Indian and Arabian Divisions of the Zodiac,' 
 ' On Ancient Monuments containing Sanscrit Inscriptions,' and others, 
 in vol. ix. ; a very elaborate disquisition ' Ou Sanscrit and Pracrit 
 Poetry' (or rather prosody), in vol. x. ; and 'On the Notion of the 
 Hindu Astronomers concerning the Precession of the Equinoxes aud 
 Motions of the Planets,' in vol. xii. To the ' Transactions of the 
 Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain,' after his return to his native 
 country, he contributed a ' Discourse,' read at tho institution of the 
 Society (15th March 1823), and other papers, in vol. L; aud five 
 papers ' On the Philosophy of the Hindus,' in vols. i. and ii. ; and he 
 was also an occasional writer in the 'Asiatic Journal.' He likewise 
 published at various times the following separate works : — ' A Collec- 
 tion of Compositions in Sanscrit, for the use of the Students of the 
 College of Fort William, including the Hitopadesa, with Introductory 
 Remarks,' 4to, Calcutta, 1804; 'Grammar of the Sanscrit Language,' 
 folio, Calcutta, 1805; 'Amera Cosha, or Dictionary of the Sanscrit 
 Language, by Amera Sinha, with an English Interpretation and Anna- 
 tations,' 4to, Calcutta, 1808 ; ' Two Treatises on the Hindu Law of 
 Inheritance, translated from the Sanscrit,' 4to, Calcutta, 1810; 
 'Algebra, with Arithmetic and Mensuration, from the Sanscrit of 
 
COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR. 
 
 Brahmegupta and Bhascara,' 4to, Loud., 1817; a tract 'On the Import 
 of Colonial Corn,' 8vo, Lond., 1818; aud ' Miscellaneous Essays' (or 
 leprints of previously published papers and prefaces), 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Lond., 1837. He also, in conjunction with Professor Wilson, trans- 
 lated from the Sanscrit, for the Oriental Translation Fund, ' Sankhya 
 Karika, or Memorial Verses on the Sankhya Philosophy, also the 
 Bhashya,' &c, 4to, Oxford, 1837. Mr. Colebrooke held, along with his 
 two brothers, tho patent place of Chirographer in the Court of 
 Common Pleas. He died on the 10th of March 1837. 
 
 COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR, was born at Ottery St. Mary, 
 in Dcvoushire, of which parish his father was the vicar, on the 21st 
 of October 1772. He was the youngest of a numerous family, and 
 became au orphan at the age of nine. Owing to the straitened circum- 
 stances of his family, he was sent to be educated at Christ's Hospital, 
 where the late Charles Lamb was among his contemporaries. Here 
 he made very great progress in classical knowledge, as may be inferred 
 from the fact that he had, before his fifteenth year, translated the 
 hymns of Synesius into English Anacreontics. His choice of these 
 Lj:nns for translation is explained by his having, even at that early age, 
 plunged deeply into metaphysics. Speaking of himself in the ' Bio- 
 graphia Literaria' (vol. i. p. 15), he says : — "At a very premature age, 
 even before my fifteenth year, I had bewildered myself in metaphysics 
 and in theological controversy. Nothing else pleased me. History 
 and particular facts lost all interest in my mind. Poetry itself, yea, 
 novels and romances, became insipid to me." From such pursuits 
 he was however weaned for a time, while yet at Christ's Hospital, by 
 the perusal of Mr. Bowles's 'Sonnets,' which had then just been pub- 
 lished. The powerful influence which these sonnets exercised upon 
 his mind is described at length in the first chapter of the 'Biographia 
 Literaria.' 
 
 In 1791 Coleridge entered Jesus College, Cambridge. While at the 
 university he did not turn his attention at all to mathematics, but 
 obtained a prize for a Greek ode, and distinguished himself in a con- 
 te-t for the Craven scholarship, in which Dr. Eutler, afterwards bishop 
 of LicbnVld, was the successful candidate. Coleridge did not stay to 
 take a degree. During the second year of his residence at Cambridge, 
 he suddenly left the university in a fit of despondency, occasioned, it 
 is Baid, by unrequited love ; and after wandering for a while about the 
 streets of London in extreme pecuniary distress, terminated this 
 adventure by enlisting in the 15th Dragoons, under the assumed 
 name of Comberbatcl). One of the officers, accidentally discover- 
 ing his classical acquirements, was led to conclude that Comber- 
 batch was something more than he professed. Questioning him 
 in a friendly manner, and eliciting his real history, he communi- 
 cated Coleridge's situation to his friends, who forthwith effected his 
 discharge. 
 
 Coleridge now betook himself to Bristol, where he joined with 
 three other young and clever men, like himself of ardent poetic tem- 
 peraments, and imbued with strong but vague ideas of universal 
 brotherhood — Southey and a friend, George Burnet from Oxford, and 
 Lovell, a young quaker. They soon formed a scheme for emigrating 
 to the banks of the Susquehanna in North America, in order there to 
 form a social colony, the main principle of which was to be a commu- 
 nity of goods, and where selfishness was to be proscribed. But the 
 friends found that money would be required to establish this 'pantis- 
 ocracy,' as they termed it, and Coleridge had soon not enough to 
 furnish him with daily subsistence. He had, with the other pantiso- 
 cratists, been introduced to Joseph Cottle, a benevolent bookseller at 
 Bristol, and himself a writer of verses; and now, in his emergency, 
 Cottle not only rendered him pecuniary assistance, but, on finding 
 that he had written enough poems to make up a small volume, readily 
 offered him 30 guineas for them, just five times the largest sum he had 
 found a London bookseller willing to give. The social colony was 
 toon dropped. Coleridge quarrelled first with Lovell, and then with 
 Southey, and the whole scheme fell quickly into abeyance. Cottle, 
 after paying in advance the 30 guineas, continued to furnish the young 
 poet with other sums on the strength of promised poems, as his neces- 
 sities became urgent; but it was long before the publisher received 
 airy of the poetry. The volume was published however at last (1794), 
 and other literary schemes were projected. One, from which Coleridge 
 anticipated great results, was a periodical entitled the ' Watchman,' 
 which was to advocate liberal opinions ; and he made a tour through 
 the- northern manufacturing towns for the purpose of canvassing for 
 subscribers. An account of this tour, amusing on the whole, is con- 
 tained in the 10th chapter of the ' Biographia Literaria.' The periodi- 
 cal, owing partly to a want of punctuality in its appearance, and 
 partly to the fact that its opinions were not those which its supporters 
 had expected, did not live beyond the 9th number. 
 
 In the autumn of 1795 Coleridge married Miss Sarah Fricker of 
 Bristol, a sister of the wife of his friend Charles Lloyd, Southey on 
 the same day wedding himself to another sister. Coleridge now took 
 a cottage at Nether Stowey, a village at the foot of the Quantock 
 Hills, in Somersetshire, where he was iu the immediate neighbourhood 
 of his friend and benefactor Mr. Poole, and of Mr. Wordsworth, who 
 was then living at All-Foxden. He was at this time in the habit of 
 contributing verse-i to one of the London papers, as a means of sub- 
 sistence. In 1796 he published a volume of poems, the greater num- 
 ber of which h?d been written at earlier periods, interspersed with 
 
 some by Charles Lamb ; and in 1797 a second edition appeared, with 
 the addition of some poems by Charles Lloyd. 
 
 During the three years, moreover, iu which Coleridge resided at 
 Nether Stowey, the greater part of his principal poems was composed, 
 though most of them were not published until later. Iu the conver- 
 sations on poetry which constantly took place between Mr. Words- 
 worth and himself, was first formed the plan of the afterwards famous 
 ' Lyrical Ballads;' and in pursuance of this tho 'Ancient Mariner' and 
 the first part of 'Christabel' were written in 1797. His tragedy, 
 ' Remorse,' was also written at this period. 
 
 _ Coleridge was at this period of his life a Unitarian. He says of 
 himself, " I was at that time and long after, thou;;h a Trinitarian 
 (i.e., ad normam Platonis) in philosophy, yet a zealous Unitarian in 
 religion ; more accurately, I was a psilanlhropist, one of those who 
 believe our Lord to have been the real sou of Joseph, and who lay the 
 main stress on the resurrection rather than the crucifixion." ('Biog. 
 Lit.,' vol. i. p. 168.) While at Nether Stowey he preached in a 
 Unitarian chapel at Taunton. 
 
 In 1798 Coleridge was enabled, through the munificence of the late 
 Mr. Thomas Wedgwood, to visit Germany, for the purpose, as he ex- 
 presses it, of finishing his education. At Gottingen he atteuded 
 Blumeubach's lectures on physiology and natural history, and studied, 
 in the notes of a young German student, Eichhorn's lectures on the 
 New Testament. He took lessons from Professor Tyschen in tha 
 Gothic of Ulphilas, being anxious to attain a critical knowledge of the 
 German language ; and went through a complete historical course of 
 German literature. His acquaintance with the writings of the later 
 German metaphysicians was not formed until some time after his 
 return to England. 
 
 After his return from Germany, Coleridge resided at the Lakes, 
 where Mr. Southey and Mr. Wordsworth had then settled, the one at 
 Keswick, and the other at Grasmere. The appellation of ' Lake-poets,' 
 given to these three individuals after the publication of the ' Lyrical 
 Ballads,' is well known. 
 
 Coleridge now became connected with the 'Morning Post,' and wroto 
 both on polities and literature. From about 1808 to about 1814, he 
 contributed to the 'Courier.' In 1804 he had visited his friend 
 Dr. Stoddart at Malta; and from May of that year to October of the 
 next, he acted as secretary to Sir Alexander Ball, then governor of the 
 island. After his return to England in 1808, he delivered a course of 
 lectures on poetry and the fine arts at the Royal Institution : lecturing 
 on poetry and history had long before been an occasional occupation 
 of his, partly in conjunction with Southey, at Bristol. The 'Friend' 
 appeared in the course of the next year, being then published as a 
 periodical at the Lakes. As a pecuniary speculation it was not much 
 more successful than the ' Watchman,' nor with reference to pecuniary 
 advantage was it more judiciously conducted ; but it continued for a 
 longer time. Mr. Wordsworth gave some literary assistance, con- 
 tributing the 'Essay on Epitaphs,' which is now appended to the 
 ' Excursion,' and the ' Introductory Essay ' of the third volume. 
 
 Coleridge left the Lakes in 1810, and did not afterwards return to 
 them ; his wife and children remained in the house of Southey, and 
 wholly dependent on him. On Coleridge's first arrival iu London he 
 resided with Mr. Basil Montagu ; and not long afterwards became the 
 guest of Mr. Gillman at Highgate, in whose house he died. The many 
 friendships which Coleridge attracted to himself through life, the sin- 
 cerity and constancy of which were abundantly shown, place in a 
 striking light the amiability of his character ; his neglect of his family 
 and extreme carelessness respecting the obligations, both personal and 
 pecuniary, which devolved upon him, as strikingly illustrate its 
 weakness. 
 
 It was not before the commencement of his residence in London 
 that he formed any Very extensive acquaintance with the writings of 
 the later German metaphysicians, by the adoption of whose method 
 and terminology, rather than by any development of a system, in his 
 subsequent publications, he has come to be accounted the representa- 
 tive of German metaphysics among us. He published successively, 
 between the years 1817 and 1825, the two 'Lay Sermons,' the 'Bio- 
 graphia Literaria,' the rifaccimento of the ' Friend,' the ' Constitution 
 of the Church and State according to the Idea of each,' and the ' Aids 
 to Reflection.' 
 
 Coleridge having no profession, slothful and imprudent, was during 
 the greater part of his life iu pecuniary distress. After his connection 
 with the newspaper-press had ceased, and his remaining hopes of self- 
 support were derived from his later poetical and prose publications, 
 his publisher became a bankrupt in 1819. This was a severe blow to 
 Coleridge. The dependent situation in which it placed him preyed 
 much upon his mind. We see him, in the collection of his letters 
 published since his death, projecting various schemes to relieve 
 himself. One of these was a scheme of systematic contribution to 
 'Blackwood's Magazine,' the publisher of which was his friend. 
 Accordingly, No. 1 of a ' Selection from Mr. Coleridge's Literary 
 Correspondence' appeared in the number of that magazine for October 
 1821, and was to have been followed by a sketch of the history and 
 philosophy of superstition, with other interesting disquisitions; but 
 the No. 2 never appeared. Continued ill health, combined with, and 
 to a certain extent caused by, a habit of using opium which Coleridgo 
 had contracted, having originally resorted to it under a mistaken 
 
SlD 
 
 820 
 
 notion for medicinal purposes, had taken away from Iiim by this 
 time even what little amount of perseverance he might once have 
 possessed. 
 
 On the incorporation of the Royal Society of Literature by George IV. 
 in 1825, Coleridge was selected as one of the ten Royal Associates, and 
 ua such received from that time 100 guineas a year out of the king's 
 private purse. The annuity was withdrawn at the commencement of 
 the reign of William IV. 
 
 i In his latter years Coleridge was in the habit of holding weekly 
 'conversazioni' at Mr. Gillman's house in Highgate. Those who 
 knew little else of Coleridge are familiar by report with his extra- 
 ordinary conversational powers. Of these the volumes of ' Table 
 Talk,' which have been published give no adequate notion. His con- 
 versation was not in fragments, but was wont to continue without aid 
 from others, in the way either of suggestion or of contradiction, for 
 hours at a time. All things human and divine, joined with one 
 another by subtlest links, entered into his discourse ; which, though 
 employed upon abstrusest subjects, was a spell whose fascination even 
 the most dull or ignorant could not resist. 
 
 In June 1833 Coleridge was present at the meeting of the British 
 Association of Science held that year in Cambridge. He died on the 
 25th of July 1834 in his sixty-second year. 
 
 Though not a man of strong character, Coleridge possessed many 
 Bmiable qualities. He had all the social affections strongly developed. 
 Though not .always successful in attaining it, he had an earnest desire 
 of truth. Thus he was by nature tolerant. But in his later years 
 disease seems to have engendered an asperity in judging of the motives 
 of others which was by no means consonant with the tenor of his earlier 
 publications. To the same cause must be assigned a querulousness of 
 disposition, which is exhibited in almost all his prose writings. 
 
 As a writer, Coleridge is to be viewed principally under two aspects : 
 as a poet, and as the author of certain prose writings which, though 
 miscellaneous in character, are chiefly employed upon metaphysical 
 subjects. 
 
 As a poet, he was for a long time coupled, owing to the joint publi- 
 cation of the 'Lyrical Ballads' and other accidental circumstances, 
 with Wordsworth. The silly outcry against the Lake-school has long 
 died away, and the force of reaction has perhaps supplied a tendency 
 as far as Coleridge is concerned, to run into the opposite extreme of 
 admiration. But while we are ready to admit that Coleridge's poetry 
 will not rank in the highest class, we regard it as in the very foremost 
 rank of its own class. As specimens of finished poetic style, some of 
 his odes and later poems are almost perfect. In his translation of 
 Schiller's ' Wallenstein' he has displayed taste and judgment of a high 
 order. His own tragedies, the 'Remorse' and 'Zapolya,' contain 
 many passages excellent for the apt expression of just thoughts and 
 tender feelings, but Coleridge never grappled closely enough with the 
 stern realities of life to enable him to become a great dramatic writer. 
 The 'Ancient Mariner' is a highly successful effort of fancy, in a region 
 which had not before been tried; and the 'Christabel' contains passages 
 which those who have once read cannot forget. In some of his smaller 
 poems again a happy thought, or it may be a happy conceit, is as 
 happily developed. Still he is a poet of art rather than of nature. 
 It may be added that his earlier poems are wanting in the freshness 
 and individuality which have always marked the earliest efforts of the 
 greatest poets, which (to confine ourselves to modern instances) are 
 seen in the poems of Wordsworth, Shelley, and Tennyson. His 
 imagination seems to have been overlaid with reading and reflection. 
 Had he been a less profound metaphysician he might have been a 
 greater poet. Had he been aroused in early life from his morbid 
 subjectiveness (as he would have termed it), and been driven to look 
 with a keener interest on the world around him, to have regarded man 
 rather than mankind, had his passions been fairly called into play and 
 his senses stirred into activity, we might have had in Coleridge one 
 of the most imaginative of what in the true sense of the term might 
 be called our ' metaphysical poets,' and the grander flights as well as 
 the subtleties of thought might have been developed in poetry of 
 matchless melody and exquisite refinement. As it is, while we have 
 detached passages and short poems of the purest poetry, full of the 
 most delicate shades of refined thought, vivid gleams of fancy, and 
 even occasional soarings into the highest regions of imagination, we 
 have no great completed poem, and only some few short stanzas which 
 at once delight and satisfy the mind. 
 
 In his prose writings, as in his poetry, Coleridge is perhaps, rather 
 to be regarded as the successful stimulator of other writers than as 
 himself a writer, whose power is acknowledged by the general public. 
 As regards the attainment of their main professed end, Coleridge's 
 prose writings may have had little direct value. In mental science, 
 or psychology, he espoused a particular hypothesis (that propounded 
 by Schelling) of the ' absolute.' But, apart from the system itself, 
 Coleridge has done little either to advance or diffuse it. As he got it 
 from Germany, so has he left it. 
 
 In^ moral science Coleridge also followed the later German meta- 
 physicians, who make moral science a part of psychology. His 
 political doctrines, — which appear to us confused and often singularly 
 inaccurate — are explained in the first volume of the 'Friend.' His 
 theological views (many of them very far from the standard of 
 orthodoxy, especially on the subject of inspiration), have only been 
 
 given to the world in posthumous publications. It was one of 
 hia most cherished schemes — his favourite vision in cloudland — to 
 compose a work of colossal proportions which should embrace the 
 whole range of mental philosophy taken in its widest meaning. He 
 really only wrote a few disconnected fragments of his mighty task. 
 But these fragments have proved of immense suggestiveness to 
 younger intellects, and whatever be the position which Coleridge shall 
 ultimately take among the thinkers of his country and his age, there 
 can be now no question as to his great influence on the mind of 
 the time. 
 
 And incomplete as they are, there is not one of Coleridge's prose 
 writings which has not incidental merits sufficiently many and great 
 to rescue it from oblivion with the general reader — merits discernible 
 either in scattered criticisms on our older writers both of poetry and 
 prose, or in illustrations drawn from stores of knowledge which a very 
 wide reading had amassed, or in passages of great acuteness and 
 sound practical wisdom, whenever the author lowers his flight to 
 subjects to which such qualities can be applied with any hope as it 
 were of immediate practical profit. And though, from the combined 
 effects of indolence and of an intense devotion to conversational 
 display, his ordinary style of writing is diffuse and obscure, and too 
 much loaded with quotations, these works contain occasional passages 
 of great beauty and power. In treating lighter subjects, his style 
 may even be pronounced happy. Witness his account of Sir Alexander 
 Ball in the third, and the tale of Maria Schoning in the second 
 ' Landing-place ' of the ' Friend.' 
 
 Coleridge's fame will greatly rest upon his powers a? a critic in 
 poetry and the fine arts. To establish his fame in this respect, thera 
 are his 'Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution' (published in 
 the second volume of Coleridge's 'Literary Remains'), his review of 
 Mr. Wordsworth's poetry, in the second volume of the ' Biographia 
 Literaria,' which is perhaps the most philosophical piece of criticism 
 extant in the language; and also his review of Mr. Maturin's ' Bertram,' 
 which, though, when first published, it exposed him to much obloquy 
 and many imputations of jealousy, is distinguished from common 
 criticisms, if by nothing else, by a constant reference to first priuciplej 
 and a freedom from personality. The task of collecting and editing 
 the unpublished works of Coleridge, so carefully and reverently per- 
 formed by the poet's nephew and daughter, Henry Nelson and Sara 
 Coleridge, hes by their, deaths devolved upon his son Derwent, who 
 in 1853 published a fifth and concluding volume of the 'Literary 
 Remains,' and hes been said to be contemplating that much-needed 
 labour, a life of tho poet and a collected edition of his works. 
 
 Hartley Colerii>;;e, the eldest son of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 
 was born at Clevedon, r.«ar Bristol, September 19th, 1796. Two sonnets 
 of his father are commemorative of his birth ; and an exquisite poem 
 of Wordsworth, ' To H. C. six years old,' describes the peculiarities of 
 the child, " whose fancies from afar are brought." His infancy is also 
 associated with two poems of his father, ' Frost at Midnight,' and ' The 
 Nightingale.' In 1800 S. T. Coleridge came to reside near the Lake 
 district ; and here Hartley was reared ; having a brother, Derwent, 
 four years younger than himself, and a Bister, Sara, six years younger. 
 He was taken to London in 1807; and the various sights which he 
 saw " made an indelible impression on his mind, tho effect being imme- 
 diately apparent in the complexion of those extraordinary day-dreams 
 in which he passed his visionary boyhood." In 1808 he was placed, 
 as well as his brother Derwent, as day-scholars of the Rev. John 
 Dawes, at Ambleside. As a school-boy his powers as a story-teller 
 were unique ; his imagination weaving an enormous romance, whose 
 recital lasted night after night for a space of years. During their 
 school-days, the boys had constant intercourse with Mr. Wordsworth 
 and his family ; and Hartley made the acquaintance of Professor 
 AVilson, who was his friend through life. His friendships and con- 
 nections formed the best part of his education, — "by the liviug voice 
 of Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth, Lloyd, Wilson, and De 
 Quincey." In 1814 Hartley left school ; and in 1815 went to Oxford, 
 as a scholar of Merton College. His extraordinary powers as a con- 
 verser, and his numerous invitations to wine-parties, were injurious to 
 him in two ways — he used great freedom of remark upon " all esta- 
 blishments," and he acquired habits over which he had little subse- 
 quent power of control. He passed his examination for his degree in 
 1818, and soon afterwards obtained a fellowship at Oriel, with high dis- 
 tinction. An unhappy issue followed this honourable and independent 
 position. " At the close of his probationary year, he was judged to 
 have forfeited his Oriel fellowship, on the ground, mainly, of intem- 
 perance." The infirmity was heavily visited. We have no record that 
 any friend stepped in to rescue one, so otherwise blameless, so sensi- 
 tive, so unfit for any worldly struggle, from the permanent conse- 
 quences of this early error. His brother, who records this painful 
 epoch of his life, with a manly and touching sincerity says, "As too 
 often happens, the ruin of his fortunes served but to increase the 
 weakness which had caused their overthrow." It is unnecessary for us 
 to follow the biographer's explanation of some of the causes which led 
 to this unhappy result — his morbid consciousness of his own singu- 
 larity — his despondency at being unsuccessful in obtaiuing University 
 prizes — his incapacity for the government of the pupils whom he received 
 while at college — his impatience of control, and a belief that he was 
 watched by those who looked with suspicion upon the most harmlesj 
 
821 
 
 manifestations of his peculiar temperament. Hi8 qualification for 
 future active exertion was irretrievably destroyed. 
 
 After leaving Oxford, Hartley Coleridge remained in London two 
 years, occasionally writing in the ' London Magazine,' in which some 
 of his sonnets first appeared. Against his will he was established at 
 Ambleside to receive pupils. The scheme failed ; and after a vain 
 struggle of four or five years, the attempt to do what he was unfit for 
 was abandoned. From that time to his death, in 1849, he chiefly 
 lived in the Lake district — idle, according to ordinary notions, but a 
 diligent reader, a deep thinker, and a writer of exquisite verses, and 
 of prose of even a rarer order of merit. From 1820 to 1831 he con- 
 tributed to 'Blackwood's Magazine.' In 1832 and 1833 he resided 
 with Mr. Bingley, a young printer and publisher at Leeds ; for whom 
 lie produced a volume of ' Poems,' and those admirable biographies of 
 the 'Worthies of Yorkshire and Lancashire,' which make us more 
 than ever regret that one who wrote with such ease and vivacity, 
 should have accomplished so little. In 1834 his father died, having, 
 in a codicil to his will, expressed great solicitude to ensure for his son 
 that "tranquillity indispensable to any continued and successful exer- 
 tion of his literary talents," by providing for him, through the proper 
 application of a bequest after the death of his mother, "the continued 
 means of a home." Mrs. Coleridge died in 1845, and an annuity was 
 then purchased on Hartley's life. Meanwhile, he lived with a humble 
 family, first at Grasmere, and then at Rydal, watched over by the 
 kind people with whom he was an inmate, and beloved by all the 
 inhabitants of the district. His illustrious friend Wordsworth was 
 his close neighbour ; and the house of the poet was always open to 
 the child-like man of whose wayward career he had been almost pro- 
 phetic. In 1839 Hartley wrote a life of Massinger, prefixed to an 
 edition of his works published by Mr. Moxon ; and during the latter 
 years of his life he wrote many short poems, which appear in the two 
 volumes published by his brother, 'With a Memoir of his Life,' in 
 1851. Hartley Coleridge died in the cottage which he had long 
 occupied on the bank of Rydal Water, on the 6th of January 1849 ; 
 and was buried in Grasmere churchyard. His grave is by the side of 
 that of Wordsworth. 
 
 * The Rev. Der went Coleridge was born atKeswick, Septemberl4, 
 1800, and completed his education at St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 His earliest contributions to literature were made in 'Knight's Quarterly 
 Magazine,' under the signature of ' Davenant Cecil.' Mr. Coleridge was 
 ordained in 1826, but he has been chiefly occupied in connection with 
 various important educational institutions belonging to the Established 
 Church. He is now principal of St. Mark's College, Chelsea — the well- 
 known training establishment for schoolmasters. Mr. Coleridge is 
 author of a work on the ' Scriptural Character of the English Church,' 
 and one or two other theological and educational publications ; but 
 he is best known to the general public by his admirable ' Memoir ' of 
 his brother Hartley, whose 'Poems' and ' Northern Biography' he 
 edited. Since the death of his sister Sara, Mr. Derwent Coleridge has, 
 as already mentioned, taken her place as editor of his father's works ; 
 and he has hitherto fulfilled his editorial duties with excellent taste 
 and judgment. The Rev. Derwent Coleridge is a pi'ebeudary of St. 
 Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 Sara Coleridge, the only daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 
 was born at Keswick in 1803. Until her marriage Bhe resided in the 
 house of Robert Southey, who married her mother's sister. To his 
 influence and paternal kindness the formation of her mental character 
 must be largely ascribed, though she possessed in a remarkable measure 
 the intellectual characteristics of her father. Her opening womanhood 
 was spent at Keswick in the diligent culture and exercise of her 
 remarkable powers. She readily lent her assistance to Southey in 
 lightening as far as she could his literary labours : she often accom- 
 panied Wordsworth in his mountain rambles. In 1822 she had 
 completed her first literary work, 'An Account of the Abipones, an 
 Equestrian People of Paraguay, from the Latin of Martin Dobrizhoffer,' 
 a translation suggested by Southey, and the admirable execution of 
 which he has commemorated in a stanza of his ' Tale of Paraguay.' 
 In 1829 she married her cousin, Henry Nelson Coleridge, the sub- 
 ject of a succeeding article. [Coleridge, Henry Nelson.] She now 
 gave herself to her domestic duties, and her next literary produc- 
 tion was prepared as a Latin lesson-book for her children : it is called 
 'Pretty Lessons for Good Children,' and speedily passed through 
 several editions. On the death of her father in 1834, her husband, 
 who was the poet's literary executor, set himself to the task of pre- 
 paring such of the poet's unpublished works as would serve best to 
 exhibit him as a theologian, philosopher, poet, and critic, and Sara 
 Coleridge most heartily devoted herself to assist in this pious duty. 
 During her husband's life much of the collation and a considerable 
 portion of the annotation fell to her share ; after his death she did not 
 hesitate to take upon herself the whole of the arduous labour. The 
 ' Aids to Reflection,' ' Note3 on Shakspeare and the Dramatists,' and 
 'Essays on his Own Times' were edited by her alone, and to some of 
 them were affixed elaborate discourses on the most weighty matters in 
 theology, morals, and philosophy, which were discussed in a clear and 
 vigorous style, with a closeness of reasoning and an amount of eru- 
 dition quite remarkable in one of her sex. But Sara Coleridge, like 
 her father, had in no stinted measure the imaginative as well as the 
 reasoning faculty. Her fairy tale, ' Phantasmion ' wanted only the 
 
 colouring of verse to have been generally allowed to rank among the 
 more beautiful poems of the age ; but in prose its often exquisite 
 imagery and delicate shades of thought and feeling seemed to lack 
 some clear and palpable intention ; and it was regarded for the most 
 part as vague, visionary, and obscure. Probably it will be on her 
 commentaries upon her father's works — from which they are not likely 
 to be by any future editor dissociated — that her fame will ultimately 
 rest ; but her rare acquirements and rarer gifts being thus expended 
 on annotations, are now scarcely likely ever to meet with their due 
 recognition. Sara Coleridge survived her husband ten years : she died 
 May 3rd, 1852. At her death she was engaged in preparing a new 
 edition of her father's poem9, which was completed and published by 
 her brother : ' Poems of S. T. Culeridge, edited by Derwent and Sara 
 Coleridge,' 1852. 
 
 COLERIDGE, HENRY NELSON, the son of Colonel Coleridge, a 
 brother of the poet [Coleridge, Samuel Taylor], was born at the 
 beginning of this century. He was educated on the foundation at 
 Eton, and in due course was elected scholar, and subsequently fellow- 
 of King's College, Cambridge. He took his degree of B.A. in 1823. 
 The scholars of King's having the somewhat questionable privilego 
 of obtaining their degrees without examination, Mr. Coleridge's name 
 is not found amongst the candidates for classical or mathematical 
 honours ; but he was well known in the university as one of great 
 talents and rich acquirements, and he gave public evidence of his taste 
 and scholarship, in 1820 and 1821, in the first of which years he 
 obtained two out of the three of Sir W. Browne's medals, namely, 
 that for the Greek ode and that for the Latin ode, and in the second 
 year was again the successful candidate for the Greek ode. In 1823 ho 
 was a contributor, in conjunction with W. S. Walker, W. M. Praed, 
 T. B. Macaulay, J. Moultrie, and others of his university, to ' Knight's 
 Quarterly Magazine.' His papers, which bear the signature of ' Joseph 
 Haller,' on ' The English Constitution,' ' The Long Parliament,' 
 ' Mirabeau,' &c, are distinguished for a soundness of opinion, and a 
 liberal and comprehensive view of historical questions, which are 
 evidence of the extent of his acquirements beyond the ordinary 
 range of university reading. Having fallen into ill health, Mr. Cole- 
 ridge, in 1825, accompanied his uncle, the Bishop of Barbadoes, 
 on his outward voyage. Upon his return to England in the same 
 year, he published a most lively and amusing narrative of his tropical 
 experiences, under the title of ' Six Months in the West Indies,' 
 which had the unusual good fortune of quickly passing into a fourth 
 edition. 
 
 His restored health opened to Mr. Coleridge a course of honourablo 
 action. He was called to the bar by the Society of the Middle Temple, 
 on the 24th of November 1826, and, during the ensuing fourteen years, 
 gradually advanced to a good practice in the Court of Chancery. 
 During this period he assiduously cultivated his literary tastes, and 
 more especially dedicated all his leisure to the society of his illustrious 
 uncle, whose conversation was a perpetual store of the most varied 
 knowledge. The accomplished daughter of the poet became the wife 
 of Henry Coleridge soon after he was called to the bar. In 1830 Mr. 
 Henry Coleridge published an ' Introduction to the Study of the Greek 
 Classic Poets.' Until the death of S. T. Coleridge, iu 1834, his nephew 
 most assiduously devoted himself to the grateful task of noting down 
 with all reverence the fragments of this extraordinary man's eloquent 
 talk, or more properly declamation. In 1835 some of the results of 
 this labour of love were given to the world in 'Specimens of the 
 Table Talk of the late Samuel Taylor Coleridge,' in two small 
 volumes. It has been objected that these fragments, iu which Cole- 
 ridge's opinions are arranged under particular subjects, give no just 
 notion of the character of his talk. His nephew anticipates the 
 objection: "I know better than any one can tell me, how inadequately 
 these specimens represent the peculiar splendour and individuality of 
 Mr. Coleridge's conversation. How should it be otherwise ? Who 
 could always follow to the turning-point his long arrow-flights of 
 thought ?" Yet the book must always possess a deep interest. Of its 
 literal truth as a record of Coleridge's opinions, however it may fall 
 short of giving an adequate notion of his mode of expressing them, no 
 one can doubt. The ' Table Talk' was followed in 1836 by two octavo 
 volumes of 'The Literary Remains of S. T. Coleridge,' also edited by 
 his nephew; and a third volume of the same series was published in 
 1838. The care and judgment with which this difficult undertaking 
 is executed, have given to these fragmentary materials — ' Sibylline 
 leaves, — notes of the lecturer, memoranda of the investigator, out- 
 pourings of the solitary and self-communing student,' — a permaneut 
 value. In 1837 Mr. Henry Coleridge republished 'The Friend'— his 
 uncle's little-known periodical work— one of the most remarkable 
 books in modern literature. In 1840 he also edited 'Confessions of 
 an Inquiring Spirit,' — a series of letters on the inspiration of the 
 Scriptures, left by Mr. Coleridge in manuscript at his death. In this 
 mass of materials, which we owe in great part to the unwearied 
 industry of Mr. Henry Coleridge, amidst the short leisure of a laborious 
 profession, will be found the beat evidence of Coleridge's claims to & 
 lasting reputation as a critic and a philosopher. 
 
 We have little to add to this imperfect notice. In 1842 Mr. H. 
 Coleridge had a return of the painful maladies which had received a 
 temporary relief in 1825. For many months he was prostrate on a 
 bed of sickness, enduring pain with a most exemplary fortitude and 
 
324 
 
 cheerfulness, and supported by that strong religious feeling which 
 formed a principal feature of his character. He died on the 26th of 
 January 1843, and was buried by the side of his uncle, in Highgate 
 old church-yard. His wife survived him till 1852. She is noticed 
 further, with the poet's other children, under Coleridge, Samuel 
 Taylor. 
 
 COLET, JOHN, the founder of St. Paul's School, was born in the 
 parish of St. Antholiu, London, in 1466, and was the eldest son of Sir 
 Henry Colet, kuight, twice lord mayor, who had besides him twenty- 
 one children. In 1483 he was sent to Magdalen College, Oxford, where 
 he passed seven years, and took the usual degrees in arts. Here he 
 studied Latin, with some of the Greek authors through a Latin medium, 
 and mathematics. Having thus laid a good foundation of learning at 
 home, he travelled abroad for further improvement ; first to France, 
 and then to Italy, in which two countries he continued from 1493 to 
 1497. Before his departure however, and indeed when only of two 
 years' standing in the university, being then in acolythe's orders, he 
 was instituted to the rectory of Dennington in Suffolk, which he 
 held till his death. His father also presented him in 14S5 to the 
 rectory of Thyrning in Huntingdonshire, which he resigned in 1493. 
 At Paris he became acquainted with Budajus, and was afterwards 
 introduced to Erasmus. In Italy he contracted a friendship with 
 numerous eminent persons, and especially with some of his own 
 countrymen, among whom were Qrocyn, Linacre, Lilly, and Latimer, 
 all of whom were studying the Greek language, then but little known 
 in England. Whilst abroad he devoted himself chiefly to divinity 
 aud tho study of the civil and canon law. During his absence from 
 England ho was made a prebendary of York in 1497, and was also 
 made a canon and prebendary of St. Martin' s-le-Grand in London. He 
 returned in this year, and was ordained deacon ; taking priest's orders 
 in the following year. Soon after this he retired to Oxford, where 
 Erasmus came, aud renewed bis friendship with him. In Oxford he 
 read public lectures upon St. Paul's Epistles gratuitously. In 1502, 
 haviug proceeded in divinity, he became prebendary of Durnsford in 
 the church of Salisbury, and in 1504 resigned his prebendary at St. 
 Martiu's-le-Grand. In the same year he commenced D.D. In May 
 1505 he was instituted to the prebendary of Mora in St. Paul's, 
 London, and in the same year and month was appointed dean. In 
 this office he reformed the decayed discipline of his cathedral, and 
 introduced a new practice of preaching himself upon Sundays and 
 great festivals. 
 
 By his own and by other lectures which he caused to be read in 
 his cathedral, Colet mainly assisted in raising that spirit of inquiry 
 after the holy Scriptures which eventually produced the reformation ; 
 but the contempt which he avowed for the abuses in religious houses, 
 his aversion to the celibacy of the clergy, and the general freedom of 
 his opinions, made him obnoxious to some of the clergy, and especially 
 to Fitzjames, then bishop of London, who accused him to Archbishop 
 Warham as a dangerous man, and even preferred articles against him. 
 Warham however dismissed the case. From Bishop Latimer's sermons 
 it should seem that Fitzjames afterwards tried to stir up the king and 
 court against him. 
 
 At length, tired with trouble and persecution, Colet began to think 
 of retiring from the world. He had now an ample estate, without any 
 near relations, for numerous as his brethren had been, he had outlived 
 them all. He resolved therefore, in the midst of life and health, to 
 consecrate his fortune to some lasting benefaction, which he performed 
 in the foundation of St. Paul's School, of which he appointed William 
 Lilly first master hi 1512. He ordained that there should be in this 
 school a high-master, a sur-master, and a chaplain, who should teach 
 gratis 153 children, divided into eight classes; and he endowed it 
 with lands and houses then producing an income of 1 22?. 4s. 7{d. per 
 annum, of which endowment he made the Company of Mercers 
 trustees. The gross average income of St. Paul's School was, more 
 than twenty years ago, about 5300J. per annum, and is now much 
 larger. (Carlisle's ' Grammar Schools,' vol. ii. p. 94.) To further his 
 scheme of retiring, Colet built for himself a handsome house near the 
 royal palace of Kichmond in Surrey, in which he intended to reside ; 
 but having been seized by the sweatiug-sickness twice, and relapsing 
 into it a third time, a consumption ensued, which proved fatal, Sep- 
 tember 16, 1519, in his fifty-third year. He was buried in St. Paul's 
 choir, with an humble monument which he had himself prepared some 
 years before, bearing simply his name. Another monument was 
 afterwards set up for him by the Mercers' Company, of a handsomer 
 description, but it was destroyed in the fire of 1666. 1% had previously 
 been engraved for Dugdale's ' History of St. Paul's/ 
 
 Dean Colet's works were : — 1. Oratio ad Clerum in Convocatione,' 
 anno 1511 ; reprinted by Dr. Samuel Knight, in the appendix to his 
 ' Life of Colet,' with an old English translation of it, supposed to have 
 been done by the author himself. 2. ' The Construction of the Eight 
 Parts of Speech, entitled Absolutissimus de octo Orationis partium 
 constructione Libellus,' 8vo, Antw., 1530. 3. 'Rudimenta Gramma- 
 tices,' for the use of his school, commonly called 1 Paul's Accidence,' 
 Svo, 1539. 4. ' Daily Devotions,' said not to be all of his composition. 
 5. ' Monition to a Godly Life,' 8vo, 1534, &c. Many of his letters are 
 printed in Erasmus's ' Epistles,' and five, with one from Erasmus, in 
 the appendix to Knight's ' Life.' The original statutes of St. Paul's 
 School, signed by Dean Colet, were some years ago accidentally picked 
 
 up at a bookseller's by the late Mr. Hamper of Birmingham, aud by 
 him presented to the British Museum. 
 
 (Knight, Life of Br. John Colet, 8vo, London, 1724; Wood, Atliena 
 Oxon,, dec.) 
 
 COLIGNY, GASPARD DE, born in February 1517, was the son of 
 Gaspard de Coligny, lord of Chatillon-sur-Loing and marshal of France, 
 and of Louise de Montmorency, sister to the famous duke aud con- 
 stable of that name. ColigDy served in Italy under Francis I., aud 
 was present at the battle of Cerisolee. Henri II. made him colonel- 
 general of infantry, and afterwards in 1552 admiral of France. In the 
 latter capacity he sent a colony to Brazil, which however was soon 
 after driven away by the Portuguese. Coligny himself continued to 
 serve in the army by land. He defended St. Quentin against Philip IL, 
 aud was made prisoner at the surrender of the place. 
 
 HaviDg embraced the reformed religion, Coligny became, with Louis 
 prince of Conde", one of the great leaders of the Protestant party 
 against Catherine de' Medici and the Guises, during the reign of 
 Charles IX. Coligny was much respected by his party : he wa« 
 prudent in his plans and cool in danger; defeat did not dishearten 
 him, and he rose again after it as formidable as ever. After the loss 
 of the battle of Dreux, in which Conde" wa3 taken prisoner, Coligny 
 saved the remains of his army. The following year peace was made, 
 but in 1567 the civil and religious war broke out again, and the battle 
 of St. Denis was fought, in which the old Constable Moutmoreucy, 
 who commanded the royal or Catholic army, was killed. A short 
 truce followed, but hostilities broke out again in 1569, when the battle 
 of Jarnac was fought, in which the Prince of Coudd was killed. 
 Coligny again took the command and saved his army, which was soon 
 after joined by the Prince of Beam (afterwards Henri IV.), then 
 sixteen years of age, aud Henry, the son of Condd, who was but 
 seventeen. The Prince of Beam was declared the head of the Protest- 
 ants, but Coligny exercised all the functions of leader and coinmauder. 
 On the 3rd of October 1569 Coligny lost the battle of Moncontour, 
 against the Duke of Anjou (afterwards Henri III.). Still Coligny 
 continued the war south of the Loire, gained several advantages, and 
 at last a peace was concluded at St. Germain in August 1570, which 
 was called ' la paix boiteuse et mal assise,' because it was concluded 
 by the Sieur de Biron, who was lame, and by De Mesmes, lord of 
 Malassise. The peace however fully deserved its nickname by the 
 spirit in which it was concluded by the court. The leaders of the 
 Protestants, and Coligny among the rest, entertained strong suspicions 
 on the subject ; but they were lulled into security by the apparent 
 frankness of Charles IX., and the approaching marriage of the Prince 
 of Bcarn with the Princess Margaret, the king's sister. Coliguy came 
 to court, and was well received, but on the 22nd of August 1572 he 
 was shot at in the street by an attendant of the Duke of Guise. The 
 wounds however did not prove dangerous. The attempt was made at 
 the instigation of the Duchess of Nemours, whose first husband, 
 Francis, duke of Guise, had been assassinated by a Huguenot fanatic 
 at the siege of Orleans in 1563, when Coligny was unjustly suspected 
 of haviug directed the blow. The Duke of Anjou and the queen-mother 
 were parties to the attempt upon Coligny's life. On the 24th of August 
 1572, two days later, the massacre of ' la Sainte Barthe'lemi' took place. 
 [Charles IX.] The Duke of Guise himself led the murderers to the 
 house of the admiral, but remained in the court below, while Besme, 
 one of his servants, went up followed by others. They found Coligny 
 seated in an arm-chair. " Young man," said he to Besme, " you ought 
 to respect my gray hairs ; but, do what you will, you can but shorten 
 my life by a few days." They stabbed him in several places, and 
 threw him, still breathing, out of a window into the court, where he fell 
 at the feet of the Duke of Guise. His body was left exposed to the 
 fury of the populace, and at last was hung by the feet to a gibbet. 
 His head was cut off and sent to Catherine de' Medici. Montmorency, 
 cousin to the admiral, had his body secretly buried in the vaults of 
 the chateau of Chantilly, where it remained in a leaden coffin till 17S6, 
 when Montesquieu asked for the remains of Coligny from the Duke of 
 Luxembourg, lord of Chatillon, and transferred them to his own estate 
 of Maupertuis, where he raised a sepulchral chapel and a monument 
 to the memory of the admiral. After the revolution the monument 
 was transferred to the Muse"e des Monumens Francais, and a Latin 
 inscription was placed upon it by M. Marron, the head of the Protestant 
 consistory at Paris. 
 
 COLIN, ALEXANDER, the sculptor of the excellent marble alti- 
 rilievi of the celebrated tomb of the Emperor Maximilian I. in the 
 Kreuzkirche at Innsbruck. Colin was born at Mechlin in 1520, and 
 in 1563 was invited by the Emperor Ferdinand I. to Innsbruck, to 
 complete the alti-rilievi of his grandfather's tomb, which had been 
 commenced by the brothers Abel. They were completed by Coliu, 
 with the help of assistants, in three years, for on one side of the 
 monument is "Alexand. Colinus Mechliniensis, sculpsit, anno 1566." 
 The sculptures consist of twenty-four marble tablets, fixed into the 
 four sides of the tomb, and record all the principal acts and victories 
 of the Emperor Maximilian. The figures are small, but they are 
 executed with great skill and extreme care. The tomb is surrounded 
 by twenty-eight colossal bronze statues of heroes of the middle ages ; 
 it is altogether one of the most magnificent monuments in Europe, 
 and has often been mentioned in the very highest terms by old and 
 modern travellers. The bronze statues were executed by a founder of 
 
B26 
 
 the name of Hans Lendenstreich, and Godel and Loffler, two other 
 Tyrolese sculptors and founders. Colin executed also the two monu- 
 ments of his patrou the Archduke Ferdiuand of the Tyrol and his 
 first wife Phihppa, in a chapel in the Hof kirche at Innsbruck : the 
 latter bears the date of 1581. They are both extremely costly and 
 elaborate works. There are other works by Colin in Innsbruck and 
 its vicinity ; some in wood, aud of very minute and excellent work- 
 manship. He was court sculptor to the Emperor Ferdinand I. aud 
 to his son the Archduke Ferdinand of the Tyrol, and died at Inns- 
 bruck, August 17, 1612. 
 (Von Lemmen, Tirolisches Kiinslerlcxikon.) 
 
 COLLE, RAFFAELLINO DAL, a celebrated Italian paintor, born 
 at Colle, near Cttth. San Sepolcro, but in what year is not known. He 
 is generally considered as one of the scholars and assistants of Raffaelle 
 in the Farnesina and in the Vatican ; but he was certainly, according to 
 Vasari, the assistant of Giulio Romano in Rome, and probably at Mantua, 
 and also of Vasari himself at Florence in 1536, upon the occasion of the 
 visit of Charles V., when Vasari had the direction of the decorations 
 ordered by the authorities in honour of the emperor's visit. As 
 Vasari did not write the life of Raffaellino, little is known about him. 
 He appears to have been chiefly employed in the neighbourhood of 
 Citta San Sepolcro, at Urbino, Perugia, Pesaro, Gubbio, Cagli, and 
 Citta di Castello, in which places he executed several fine altarpieces, 
 which still exist, and exhibit him as one of the best disciples of the 
 Roman school. Notwithstanding his own reputation, he did not 
 disdain to enter into the service of Vasari in 1536, when he made, 
 from the designs of Bronzino, cartoons for the tapestries of Cosmo L 
 Another more striking instance of humility, or good-fellowship, is 
 recorded of him, which happened at San Sepolcro : II Rosso arrived 
 in the city at a time when Raffaellino was about to execute a work 
 which he had undertaken to paint, and he surrendered his commission 
 to 11 Rosso as a mark of esteem for his ability. The date of his death 
 is not known. (Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, &c.) 
 
 COLLIER, JEREMY, was born on the 23rd of September 1650, at 
 Stow Qui, in Cambridgeshire. He was educated under his father, 
 who was master of the free school of Ipswich. In 1669 he was 
 admitted of Caius College, Cambridge, and in 1676 took the degree of 
 M.A. He resided some time as chaplain with the countess dowager 
 of Dorset, and then received the small rectory of Ampton, in Suffolk. 
 In 1685 he resigned this living and came to London, when he was 
 soon appointed lecturer of Gray's Inn. At the revolution of 1688 he 
 put himself in opposition to the government and the church as 
 established under William III., and engaged in a hot controversy with 
 Burnet, afterwards Bishop of Salisbury. One of his publications, ' The 
 Desertion Discussed, in a Letter to a Country Gentleman,' (4to, 1638) 
 gave great offence to the new government, and Collier was sent a close 
 prisoner to Newgate, where he remained some months, and whence 
 he was, at last, discharged without ever being brought to trial. This 
 persecution did not cool his zeal : during the four following years he 
 published a number of works, which were all of a political and con- 
 troversial nature. Towards the end of 1692 Collier, with Newton, 
 another non-juring clergyman, was arrested at a solitary place on the 
 Kentish coast, whither he was supposed to have gone for the purpose 
 of communicating with the partisans of the house of Stuart on the 
 other side of the water. After a short examination before the Earl of 
 Nottingham, secretary of state, he was committed to the Gate house. 
 There was no evidence against him ; but in consequence of his 
 questioning the legality of the courts, and refusing bail, he suffered a 
 short imprisonment in the King's Bench. 
 
 In the course of 1692 and 1693 he published six more works, all 
 hostile to government. In 1696 he was prosecuted for giving church 
 absolution to Sir John Friend and Sir William Perkins, who were con- 
 victed of being accessaries in the plot to assassinate King William. 
 Collier absconded and was outlawed. The outlawry was never re- 
 voked, but the energetic divine, after the first rigour was abated, 
 seems to have cared little for it. He lived in London or its suburbs till 
 his death, supporting himself by his literary labours. In the course 
 of the very year in which he was outlawed he put forth five political 
 works. The next year he published the first volume of his ' Essays 
 upon several Moral Subjects,' adding a second volume in 1705, and a 
 third in 1709. These essays were much admired at the time. It was 
 however in 1698 that he produced the work by which he i3 now best 
 known : ' A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the 
 English Stage, together with the Sense of Antiquity upon this Argu- 
 ment,' 1 vol. 8vo. The ' Short View ' was almost as severe upon theatres 
 and theatrical writers as Prynne's famous ' Histrio-Mastix,' published 
 about 65 years before. It led to a controversy with Congreve and 
 Vanbrugh, in which many sheets were printed on both sides, many 
 hard names exchanged, and in which Collier, to whom contest was a 
 delight, is thought to have had the better of his adversaries. After 
 three other defences of his ' View,' he published, in 1703, ' Mr. Collier's 
 Dissuasive from the Play-house, in a Letter to a Person of Quality, 
 occasioned by the late calamity of the Tempest.' This literary 
 combat lasted ten whole years ; but Collier lived to see the English 
 stage become much more decent than it had been — an improvement 
 to which he had doubtlessly contributed. 
 
 Between the years 1701 and 1721 he translated and published 
 Moreri's great ' Historical Dictionary,' and wrote and published ' The 
 
 Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain,' in two huge folio volumes. 
 The history was attacked by Bishop Burnet and others, to whom 
 Collier replied with his usual vigour. Ho was the author of a few 
 other religious and controversial papers. He died on the 26th of 
 April 1726, in the 70th year of his age, and was buried in the church- 
 yard of St. Pancras, London. 
 
 * COLLIER, J. PAYNE, was born in London iu 1789. The chief 
 labours of Mr. Collier's literary life will bo associated with Shakespeare 
 and our early dramatic literature. In 1820, when he was " of the 
 Middle Temple," he published 'The Poetical Decameron; or Ten 
 Conversations on English Poets and Poetry, particularly of the Reigns 
 of Elizabeth and James I.' In these two volumes he displays much 
 bibliographical research, which, probably, would have found more 
 acceptance aud been really more amusing if produced iu a less artificial 
 form than that of dialogue. In 1825 he issued an allegorical poem 
 entitled 'The Poet's Pilgrimage.' A new edition of Dodsley's Old 
 Plays was undertaken by him, six additional plays being added, and a 
 supplementary volume contained five others ; these were issued in 13 
 vols. 8vo, in 1825-27. In 1831 appeared 'The History of English 
 Dramatic Poetry in the Time of Shakespeare, and Annals of the*Stage 
 to the Restoration.' This work, in three volumes, contains a mass of 
 information, chiefly collected from original sources, and is indis- 
 pensable to the student of our dramatic literature. Three small 
 volumes, of which a very limited number of each was printed, 
 appeared in 1835, 1836, and 1839, entitled 'New Facts regarding 
 the Life of Shakespeare ;' ' New Facts regarding the Works of Shake- 
 speare ;' and ' Further Particulars regarding Shakespeare and his 
 Works.' In these little books some curious matters, previously 
 unpublished, first appeared ; and all subsequent biographers of the 
 poet have acknowledged their value. In 1844 Mr. Collier completed, 
 in eight volumes, his edition of the Works of Shakespeare, "founded 
 upon an entirely new collation of the old editions." Without embody- 
 ing any elaborate criticism, or dealing much in conjectural emendations, 
 this edition will always be valuable for its careful exhibition of the 
 various old readings. Mr. Collier was one of the most active and 
 zealous members of the 1 Shakespeare Society.' Amoug the works of 
 that society there are none more useful and curious than those which 
 he wrote or edited. Amongst these are ' Memoirs of Edward Alleyn,' 
 1841 ; ' The Diary of Philip Henslowe,' 1845 ; 'Memoirs of the Prin- 
 cipal Actors in Shakespeare's Plays,' 1846 ; 'Extracts from the Regis- 
 ters of the Stationers' Company,' from 1557 to 1580, in 2 vols, pub- 
 lished in 1848-49. Mr. Collier also published 'Shakespeare's Library,' 
 being a collection of the romances, &c, used as the foundation of his 
 dramas. In 1852 appeared ' Notes and Emendations to the Text of 
 Shakespeare's Plays, from early Manuscript Corrections in a Copy 
 of the folio of 1632, in the possession of J. Payne Collier;' aud in 1853 
 Mr. Collier produced a new edition of the plays of Shakespeare, " the 
 text regulated by the old copies, and by the recently discovered folio 
 of 1632." This edition, in one large volume, contains no note to 
 explaiu what part of the text is from " the recently discovered folio 
 of 1632." The discovery of this folio produced a considerable sen- 
 sation, not only iu this country, but in America and Germany; 
 and much controversy has arisen on the merits of the corrections. 
 This is not the place to offer an opinion of the value in general of 
 these emendations, nor even as to the date at which the " early 
 manuscript corrections " were written on the margin of the folio of 
 1632. Mr. Collier himself is " doubtful regarding some, and opposed to 
 others;" but nevertheless "it is his deliberate opinion that the great 
 majority of them assert a well-founded claim to a place iu every future 
 reprint of Shakespeare's dramatic works." One thing however we may 
 venture to say — that these emendations rest upon no more absolute 
 authority than those of Theobald or any other early or late commenta- 
 tor. A vast number of them are corrections of typographical errors, 
 long since corrected, as a matter of course, in all reprints. Those 
 which are conjectural emendations must be subjected to the usual test 
 of individual appreciation of the meaning of the author, and of the 
 forms of expression which sometimes constitute a portion of his excel- 
 lence, even while they involve difficulties not to be got over by a more 
 familiar rendering. But whatever may be the opinion of the value of 
 these Manuscript Corrections, all must agree that Mr. Collier has acted 
 with the most scrupulous good faith in their publication. 
 
 Mr. Collier married in 1816; he is a Vice-President of the Society of 
 Antiquaries, and he was Secretary to the Royal Commission appointed 
 to inquire into the management of the British Museum, when he 
 proposed a plan for a catalogue of the library, which was not adopted. 
 Mr. Collier is in receipt of a pension from the crown of 100/. a-year, 
 granted to him by Sir Robert Peel, in acknowledgment of his services 
 to the literature of his country. 
 
 COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT, ADMIRAL LORD, was born on 
 the 26th of September 1750, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. At the age of 
 eleven he was sent to sea as a midshipman, under the care of Captain 
 (afterwards Admiral) Brathwaite, who was the son of his mother's 
 sister, and who seems to have taken extraordinary pains in giving him 
 nautical knowledge. After serving some years with this relation, he 
 sailed with Admiral Roddam. In 1774, during the American war, he 
 went to Boston with Admiral Graves, and in 1775 was made a lieu- 
 tenant by him, on the day of the battle of Bunker's HilL when 
 Collingwood, with a party of seamen, supplied the British army with 
 
82 7 
 
 32s 
 
 what it required. In 1776 he took the command of the 'Hornet' 
 sloop, and soon after met, at Jamaica, with his favourite companion 
 Horatio Nelson, who was then lieutenant of the 'Lowestoffe.' Colling- 
 wood says, in one of his interesting letters, " We had been long before 
 in habits of great friendship ; and it happened here, that as Admiral 
 Sir P. Parker, the commander-in-chief, was the friend of both, when- 
 ever Nelson got a step in rank I succeeded him : first in the ' Lowes- 
 toffe,' then in the 'Badger,' into which ship I was made commander 
 in 1779, and afterwards in the ' Hinchinbroke,' a 28-gun frigate, which 
 made us both post-captains." 
 
 Although Nelson, who was a younger man, always kept a remove 
 a-head of him, and came in for a much larger share of famo or popu- 
 larity, Collingwood never had a feeling of jealousy towards his friend, 
 whose merits he was always the first to extol, and whom he loved to 
 the last hour of his life. Nelson, on his part, seems to have had a 
 greater affection for Collingwood than for any other officer in the 
 service. 
 
 In 1780 Nelson was sent, in the 'Hinchinbroke' to the Spanish 
 Maiu, with orders to pass into the South Sea by a navigation of boats 
 along the river San Juan and the lakes Nicaragua and Leon — a physi- 
 cal impossibility, which no skill or perseverance could surmount. 
 Nelson caught the disease of the climate, and his life was with diffi- 
 culty saved by sending him home to England. Collingwood, who 
 succeeded him at the San Juan River, had many attacks; his hardy 
 constitution resisted them all, and he survived the mass of his ship's 
 company, having buried in four months 180 of the 200 men who 
 composed it. Other ships suffered in the same proportion. In August 
 1781, Collingwood was wrecked in the middle of a dreadful night in 
 the ' Pelican,' a small frigate which he then commanded, on the rocks 
 of the Morant keys in the West Indies, and saved his own and his 
 crew's lives with great difficulty. His next appointment was to the 
 'Sampson,' 64. In 1783 he went to the West Indies in the 'Mediator,' 
 and remained with his friend Nelson on that station till the end of 
 1786. He then returned, after twenty-five years' uninterrupted service, 
 to Northumberland, "making," as he says, "my acquaintance with my 
 own family, to whom I had hitherto been, as it were, a stranger." In 
 1790 he again went to the West Indies, but a quarrel with Spain being 
 amicably arranged he soon returned, and seeing, as he says, no further 
 hope of employment at sea, he "went into the north and was married." 
 In 1793 the war with the French republic called him away from his 
 wife and two infant daughters, whom he most tenderly loved, though 
 he was never after permitted to have much of their society. As 
 captain of the ' Barfleur,' he bore a conspicuous part in Lord Howe's 
 victory of the 1st of June 1794. In 1797 he commanded, with his 
 usual bravery and almost unrivalled nautical skill, the ' Excellent,' 74, 
 in Jarvis's victory of the 14th of February, off Cape St. Vincent. In 
 1799 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral. The peace of Amiens, 
 for which he had long prayed, restored him to his wife and children 
 for a few months in 1S02; but the renewed war called him to sea in 
 the spring of 1803, and he never more returned to his happy home. 
 This constant service made him frequently lament that he was hardly 
 known to his own children, and the anxieties and wear and tear of it 
 shortened his valuable life. Passing over many less brilliant but still 
 very important services, Collingwood was second in command in the 
 battle of Trafalgar, fought on the 21st of October 1805. His ship, the 
 'Royal Sovereign,' was the first to attack and break the enemy's line; 
 and, upon Nelson's death, Collingwood finished the victory and con- 
 tinued in command of the fleet. He was now raised to the peerage. 
 After a long and most wearying blockade of Cadiz, the Straits of 
 Gibraltar, and adjacent coasts, during which, for nearly three years, 
 he hardly ever set foot on shore, and showed a degree of patience and 
 conduct never surpassed, he sailed up the Mediterranean, where his 
 position involved him in difficult political transactions, which he 
 generally managed with ability. The letters to foreign princes and 
 ministers, the despatches of this sailor who had been at sea from his 
 childhood, are admirable even in point of style. Completely worn 
 out in body, but with a spirit intent on his duties to the last, Colling- 
 wood died at sea on board the ' Ville de Paris,' near Port Mahon, on 
 the evening of the 7th of March 1810. In command he was firm but 
 mild— most considerate of the comfort and health of his men — averse 
 to flogging and all violent and brutal exercises of authority; the 
 sailors called him their father. As a scientific seaman and naval 
 tactician he had few if any equals, and in action his judgment was as 
 cool as his courage was ardent. His mind was enlightened to an 
 astonishing degree, considering the circumstances of his life; he was 
 liberal and kind-hearted, and all his private virtues were of the most 
 amiable sort. His letters to his wife on the education of his daughters 
 are full of good sense and feeling. 
 
 (A Selection from the Public and Private Correspondence of Vice- 
 Admiral Lord Collingwood; interspersed with Memoirs of his Life. 
 By G. L. Newnham Collingwood, Esq., F.R.S., 2 vols. 8vo, second edit., 
 Lond., 1828.) 
 
 COLLINS, ANTHONY, was born in 1676 at Heston, near Houns- 
 low, in Middlesex. His father, Henry Collins, Esq., was an independent 
 gentleman, with an income of 1800i. a year. After the usual prepara- 
 tory studies at Eton, he went to King's College, Cambridge, and had 
 for his tutor Francis Hare, afterwards bishop of Chichester. He then 
 became a student of tho Temple, and married a daughter of Sir 
 
 Francis Child, Lord Mayor of London. During 1703 and 1704 he 
 carried on a correspondence with Locke, who appears to have cherished 
 a most enthusiastic friendship for him, and regarded him as having 
 "as much of the love of truth for truth's sake as ever he met with in 
 anybody." The letters of Locke to Collins are indeed filled with the 
 strongest expressions of esteem and admiration. Twenty-five letters 
 of Locke to Collins are preserved in the ' Collection of Pieces by Locke, 
 not contained in his works,' published by Des Maizeaux, 8vo, 1720. 
 
 In 1707 Collins published an essay concerning human reason as 
 supporting human testimony. It was replied to by Bishop GastrelL 
 The same year he entered into a controversy with Dr. Samuel Clarke, 
 in support of Dr. Dodwcll's book against the natural immortality of 
 the human soul. Five successive rejoinders were elicited. In 1709 he 
 published ' Priestcraft in perfection, or a detection of the fraud of 
 inserting and continuing this clause (the church hath power to decree 
 rites and ceremonies, and authority in controversies of faith) in the 
 20th article.' It passed through three editions in the same year, and 
 occasioned a very general and anxious inquiry. Numerous pamphlets, 
 sermons, and books discussed the question. Two works especially 
 were written against it with great labour, and were supplied witS 
 hints and materials from all quarters of the church : one, entitled ' A 
 Vindication of the Church of England from Fraud and Forgery, by a 
 Priest,' 8vo, 1710; the other, a long-delayed and elaborate essay on the 
 Thirty-nine Artioles, by Dr. Bennet, 8vo. To these Collins replied in 
 his historical and critical essay on the Thirty -nine Articles, in 1724, 
 proving (p. 277-78) that the clause has neither the authority of the 
 convocation nor of the parliament. Collins's next work was entitled 
 ' A Vindication of the Divine Attributes,' being remarks on a sermon 
 of the archbishop of Dublin, which asserted the consistency of divine 
 foreknowledge and predestination with human free-will. He went in 
 1711 to Holland, where he formed a friendly intercourse with Le 
 Clerc, and other leading characters among the learned of that country. 
 On returning to England he published, in 1713, his 'Discourse on 
 Freethinking,' which excited much animadversion among the clergy. 
 The most important of the replies which appeared was that by Dr. 
 Bentley, entitled ' Remarks on the Discourse of Freethiuking by 
 Phileleutherus Lipsiensis,' which is remarkable as a display of learned 
 sagacity, coarse wit, and intemperate abuse. The object of Collins is 
 to show that, in all ages, the most intellectual and virtuous men have 
 been freethinkers; that is, followers of philosophical reasoning, in 
 disregard of established opinions. There are several French editions 
 of this work. It was reprinted at the Hague, with some additions 
 and corrections derived from Bentley's ' Remarks.' On the continent 
 it was answered by Crousaz, and several others. The ' Clergyman's 
 Thanks to Phileleutherus,' 1713, is by Bishop Hare. Collins, on 
 returning from a second residence in Holland, was made justice of the 
 peace and deputy-lieutenant of the county of Essex, offices which he 
 had previously held in Middlesex. In 1715 he published his 
 ' Philosophical Inquiry concerning Liberty and Necessity,' which was 
 reprinted in 1717 in 8vo, with corrections. It was translated into 
 French, and is printed in the ' Recueil de Pieces sur la Philosophie,' 
 &c, by Des Maizeaux, 2 vols. 12mo, 1720. Dr. Samuel Clarke replied 
 to the necessarian doctrine of Collins, chiefly by insisting on its 
 inexpediency, considered as destructive of moral responsibility. 
 
 In 1718 Collin3 was appointed treasurer of the county of Essex, an 
 office which he performed with great fidelity. He married, in 1724, 
 his second wife, the daughter of Sir Walter Wrottesley, Bart. In the 
 same year he published his ' Grounds and Reasons of the Christian 
 Religion,' in which his object is to show that Christianity is founded 
 and dependent on Judaism ; that the New Testament is based upon 
 the Old, as the canon of Christians ; that the apostles and writers 
 of the former establish and prove their propositions from the latter ; 
 and that none of the passages they adduce are literally, but merely 
 typically and allegorically, applicable, by the assumption of a double 
 construction. This work created a great sensation in the church, and 
 drew forth a great number of replies from some of the most emiuent 
 divines. In the final answer of Collins, ' Scheme of Literal Prophecy,' 
 1726, he enumerates five-and-thirty replies which appeared during the 
 first two years after its publication. The artful way in which Collins 
 availed himself of the theory of Whiston respecting the corruption of 
 the present Hebrew text, so provoked that divine, that he petitioned 
 Lord Chancellor King, though without success, to remove Mr. Collins 
 from the commission of the peace. In 1727 Collins, in a long letter, 
 replied to eight sermons of Dr. Rogers on the necessity of revelation 
 and the truth of Christianity. He died 13th Dec. 1729, at his house 
 in Harley-street. All parties agree that the moral and social cha- 
 racter of Collins was remarkably amiable. His integrity, energy, and 
 impartiality in the exercise of his magisterial functions commanded 
 the highest respect, and by his conduct and writings he ardently 
 endeavoured to promote the cause of civil and religious liberty. 
 Collins, as a writer, is remarkable for the great shrewdness of his 
 reasoning : and for still greater subtilty in masking the real drift of 
 his arguments with orthodox professions. His library, which wa3 of 
 great extent and extremely curious, was open to all men of letters, to 
 whom he readily communicated whatever he know. A catalogue of 
 his books was published by the Rev. Dr. Sykes in 1730. 
 
 COLLINS, JOHN, the son of a Nonconformist clergyman, w;is 
 born at Wood Eaton, in Oxfordshire, March 5, 1624. He was at fir*'. 
 
3i9 
 
 COLLINS, WILLIAM. 
 
 COLLINS, WILLIAM. 
 
 630 
 
 apprenticed to a bookseller at Oxford, but went abroad during the civil 
 war, and served the Venetians at sea against the Turks. After the 
 restoration he was made accountant to the Excise-office, which office 
 was abolished before 1670. From that time he supported himself mostly 
 by his skill in accounts. He died in London, November 10, 1683. 
 
 Collius was an early member of the Royal Society, and contributed 
 some fair papers to its ' Transactions.' (Numbers 30, 46, 69, 159.) He 
 also wrote several elementary works, which it is not now necessary to 
 meution. His claims to remembrance are the intimate communication 
 in which his attainments placed him with all men of science at home 
 and abroad, from Newton downwards. The influence of his request 
 and recommendation produced (as is asserted) Barrow's ' Lectures,' 
 his ' Archimedes and Apollonius,' Branker's translation of ' Rhonius,' 
 Kersey's ' Algebra,' and Wallis's ' History of Algebra.' The esteem in 
 which Collins, a poor accountaut, was held by men so much above 
 him in external position, as Newton, Barrow, Wallis, &c, is honourable 
 to all parties. The principal result however of their epistolary inter- 
 course is the well-known work on the inventidn of fluxions, published 
 in 1712, under the title of ' Commercium Epistolicum,' &c. 
 
 COLLINS, WILLIAM, the son of a hatter at Chichester, was born 
 December 25, 1720. He was educated at Winchester, from which he 
 went to Queen's College, Oxford ; but in about half a year he removed 
 to Magdalen, on being elected a ' demy,' or scholar, of that body. 
 Soon after taking his Bachelor's degree he quitted the university 
 abruptly, about 1744, and repaired to London as a literary adven- 
 turer. He won the cordial regard of Johnson, then a needy labourer 
 in the same vocation, who, in his ' Lives of the Poet3,' has spoken of 
 him with tenderness. He tells us that " his appearance was decent 
 and manly, his knowledge considerable, his views extensive, his con- 
 vers ition elegant, and his disposition cheerful. He designed many 
 works, but his great fault was irresolution ; for the frequent calls of 
 immediate necessity broke his scheme, and suffered him to pursue no 
 settled purpose." 
 
 Collins's ' Ode3' were published on his own account in 1746. They 
 were not popular ; and it is said that, disappointed at the slowness 
 of the sale, he burnt the remaining copies with hia own hands. He 
 was relieved from his embarrassments by a legacy from an uncle of 
 2000/. ; but worse evils than poverty overclouded the rest of his life : 
 he sank gradually into a species of melancholy and intellectual languor, 
 to relieve which he resorted to intoxication. " Those clouds which 
 he perceived gathering on his intellect he endeavoured to disperse by 
 travel, and passed into France ; but found himself constrained to yield 
 to his malady, and returned. He was for some time confined in a house 
 of lunatics, and afterwards retired to the care of his sister at Chichester, 
 where death in 1756 came to his relief." (' Lives of Poets.') 
 
 Collin3 is inferior to no English lyric poet of the 18th century 
 except Gray. His odes to 'Fear' and the 'Passions' afford the best 
 specimens of his genius, and the well-known ' Dirge in Cymbeline ' is 
 admirable in a softer style. Hi3 poetical merits Dr. Johnson did not 
 rightly appreciate. Mis. Barbauld, in her edition of his works, has 
 given a more just and favourable character of them. " He will be 
 acknowledged to possess imagination, sweetness, bold and figurative 
 language. His numbers dwell upon the ear, and easily fix themselves 
 in the memory. His vein of sentiment is by turns tender and lofty, 
 always tinged with a degree of melancholy, but not possessing any 
 claims to originality. His originality consists in his manner, in the 
 highly figurative garb in which he clothes abstract ideas, in the felicity 
 of his expressions, and hi3 skill in embodying ideal creations. As it 
 was, he did not enjoy much of the public favour ; but posterity has 
 done him justice, and assigned him an honourable rank among those of 
 our poets who are more distinguished by excellence than by bulk." 
 
 COLLINS, WILLIAM, li.A., was born in Great Titch 6 eld-street, 
 London, September 18, 1787. His father, a native of Wicklow, was 
 the author of various works which attracted some notice in their 
 day ; among others a poem on the slave trade, a novel entitled 
 ' Memoirs of a Picture,' and a ' Life of George Morland.' The elder 
 Collins was a picture-dealer as well as an author, though in neither 
 calling had he had much pecuniary success. Morland was a friend 
 of his, and when his eon began to exhibit a fondness for art and some 
 skill in drawing, he readily obtained Morland's consent that the youth 
 might stand beside him and watch him paint. William made tolerable 
 progress in his pictorial studies. He entered in 1807 as a student at 
 the Royal Academy at the same time as Etty, and in after life the 
 two RA.'a were fond of comparing their early drawings and subse- 
 quent progress. His earliest appearance as an exhibitor on the walls 
 f>t the Royal Academy was in 1807, when he contributed two small 
 ' Views on Millbank,' and from that time, with the exception of two 
 years when he wa* away in Italy, he did not miss an exhibition for 
 the remaining nine-and-thirty years of his life. His father's death 
 in 1812 threw upon the young painter serious responsibilities, but 
 these only stimulated him to increased exertions. For some time he 
 was forced to paint portraits as the readiest means of securing a 
 moderate income, but his landscapes and rustic groups began to 
 make their way, and he was soon enabled to follow the bent of his 
 genius. Almost from the firBt he showed hia fondness for painting 
 groups of homely children engaged in some favourite diversion, or 
 taking part in some juvenile trick ; but it was not till the year j 
 following his election as associate of the academy, which took place 
 
 HM DIV. VOL. li. 
 
 in 1814, that he struck into that path — the representation of coast 
 scenery— which perhaps most surely led him to fame and fortune. 
 From that time — iudeed, from some three or four years previous 
 — Collins never wanted patrons; hia course from first to last was one 
 of moderate but unbroken success. 
 
 As a painter of rustic life, or rather, perhaps, we ought to say of 
 country children and homely country scenery, Collins had hardly a rival. 
 He watched the habits and noted every movement of the rough and 
 unsophisticated urchins, and seldom failed to depict them iu their most 
 natural and unrestrained gaiety. Swinging on a gate, ' happy as a 
 king ; ' gazing with unbounded admiration at the newly born puppy ; 
 enticing the ' stray kitten ; ' outwitted by the Baucy robin just at the 
 moment when making sure that the pinch of salt was about to fall 
 on the bird's tail; exhibiting the fresh-found nest; buying the 
 cherries, — however the youngsters were represented the truth of the 
 portraiture was at once apparent : and some quaint or novel incident 
 was sure to be added, which marked more graphically than even the 
 principal feature, the keenness of the paiuter'a eye, and the skilfulneaa 
 of his hand. In his coast scenea these characteristics were equally 
 visible ; and equally evident also was hia happiness in his choic-; of 
 a subject. In neither was there ever any attempt to surprise or excite. 
 The painter knew exactly what was within the range of his powers. 
 He saw his subject clearly ; knew what he meant to accomplish, and 
 seldom failed to accomplish it. Hence his pictures, apart altogether 
 from their artistic skill, always appear to have a purpose. They show 
 that there was something which really interested and pleased the 
 painter, and as a consequence the spectator is himself also interested 
 and pleased. But their technical qualities are of a very high order. 
 Collins had an excellent eye for form, chiaroscuro, and colour. From 
 the first he painted always with the greatest conscientiousness. He 
 never slighted any part of his work, and always did his best; and 
 hence his course exhibited continual progress. In his earlier pictures 
 there may be traced something of feebleness arising from an excess of 
 anxiety to render his work perfect. But, with increased command 
 over his materials, he gradually acquired greater breadth and vigour; 
 and though he always continued to finish his pictures with scrupulous 
 care, he early recognised the truth of the axiom that mere elaboration 
 of detail is not finish. And then with this technical and manipulative 
 skill there was shown a close study of nature. The receding or 
 advancing wave, the moist or parched sand, the teeming clouds, every 
 phase and every feature of earth, and sea, and sky, were faithfully 
 observed and unobtrusively represented. No wonder that in a 
 country like this, where every one who can turns to the scenery of 
 nature with never-tiring zest, such faithful transcripts of her com- 
 moner aspects, animated too by life-like groups of those peasant 
 children who, to city dwellers at least, always seem so genuine a part 
 of the scenery, should have found abundant admirers and ready 
 purchasers. 
 
 In 1836 Mr. Collins visited Italy, and remained there nearly two 
 years ; diligently availing himself of every opportunity of examining 
 the works of the great masters, but at the same time filling his sketch- 
 book with transcripts of the more striking features of the natural 
 scenery and careful studies of the monks and peasants, and, above all, 
 of the children, in that land of lazy enjoyment and perennial beauty. 
 On his return in 1839, he sent to the Academy as the fruits of his 
 journey two views in Naples : one with groups of young lazzaroni 
 playing the game of ' arravoglio ; ' the other with ' Poor Travellers at 
 the Door of a Capuchin Convent;' also a view at Subiaco. They 
 manifested an increase of artistic knowledge and power, and were 
 greatly admired. The next year he appeared in quite a new branch 
 of art, that of historical painting. With increasing years, Mr. Collins 
 had been increasing in the depth and earnestness of his devotional 
 feelings, and he not unnaturally felt a strong desire to represent in his 
 own way the scenes on which his imagination loved to dwell. 'Our 
 Saviour with the Doctora in the Temple ' accordingly appeared on the 
 Academy walls in 1840; 'The Two Disciples at Emmaus' in 1841. 
 They of course attracted attention, and supplied a topic of conversa- 
 tion in art circles, nor did they fail of purchasers ; but it was felt to 
 be a positive relief by the great body of the painter's admirers when, 
 after a little coying with native scenery in one or two small pictures 
 exhibited iu 1842, he reappeared with all his old freshness and vigour 
 in 1843 and succeeding years, with his ' Windy Days,' and ' Cromer 
 Sands,' and ' Prawn Fishers,' and ' Cottage Doors,' and the like ; and 
 never did Collins enjoy more general popularity as a painter than in 
 these last three or four years of hia life. 
 
 Collins's journey to Italy not only led him to waste on uncongenial 
 subjects several of the best years of his life, but during it he laid the 
 foundation of the disease which shortened his days. It was not how- 
 ever till 1844 that disease of the heart declared itself in a decided 
 form ; but from that time he obtained only temporary relief from its 
 distressing symptoms, though he laboured on at his calling with un- 
 abated industry, and almost to the last with little perceptible loss of 
 power. He died on the 17th of February 1847, at his house, Devon- 
 port-street, Hyde Park Gardens. 
 
 Collins was elected R.A. in 1820; in 1840 he was appointed librarian 
 to the Academy, but resigned it on finding that its duties required a 
 greater devotion of time than he could afford to give to them. Collins 
 was, as we have already noticed, fortunate in early finding friendly and- 
 \ z 
 
331 
 
 COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE. 
 
 COLONNA, FRA FRANCESCO. 
 
 832 
 
 liberal patrons. As early as 1818 one of bis Norfolk coast scenes 
 obtained a place in tbe Royal Collection, and George IV. subsequently 
 commissioned a companion to it — ' Prawn Fishers at Hastings.' Yet, 
 though so much in request, the painter never obtained any of those 
 extravagant sums for his works which wo sometimes find popular 
 painters demanding. The largest sum he ever received for a picturo 
 was 500 guineas, from Sir Robert Peel, for his large and admirablo 
 ' Frost Scene.' The paintings of Collins arc to be met with in most of 
 the great private collections in this country. In the National Gallery 
 the foreigner would look in vain for a specimen of this, one of the 
 most thoroughly national of English painters. Fortunately, the Vernon 
 collection to a certain extent supplies the deficiency : there may be 
 seen an excellent example of his delineations of rustic enjoyment in 
 ' Happy as a King,' painted in 1836 ; one of his pleasant coast-scenes, 
 in ' The Shrimpers— Evening,' painted in 1831 ; and his ' Fisherman's 
 Widow,' painted in 1835. Mr. Collins married in 1822 the daughter 
 of Mr. Geildes, A.R.A., and sister of Mrs. Carpenter, the well-known 
 portrait-painter; and by her had two sous, who claim a brief notice. 
 
 * William Wilkie Collins was born in 1825, and has studied with 
 a view to the bar, but is known to the public as a writer, chiefly of 
 works of fiction. The earlier works published with his name were 
 an excellent ' Life of William Collins, R.A.,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1848, from 
 which we have drawn the materials for the preceding notice ; the 
 novels 'Antoniua,' 'Basil,' 'Hide and Seek,' with ' Rambles beyond 
 Railways,' &c. : but he owes his present great popularity to his later 
 novels, ' The Woman in White,' ' No Name,' and 'Armadale.' 
 
 * Chaeles Allston Collins, born in 1825, acquired some dis- 
 tinction as a painter, but appears to have definitively exchanged the 
 pencil for the pen. He has published 'A Cruise upon AVheels,' 1862, 
 and the novels ' The Bar Sinister,' and ' Strathcairn.' 
 
 COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE, was born at Paris in 1750. 
 He was in his fortieth year at the taking of the Bastille (July 14, 1789), 
 having for twenty years led the life of a strolling player. During this 
 part of his career he had visited Geneva, where he first imbibed his 
 republican ideas ; and then Lyon, where he wa3 hissed off the stage— 
 a disgrace which he afterwards most fearfully avenged. Some natural 
 talents however he must have possessed, for he produced many 
 dramatic pieces ; and one of these, ' Le Paysan Magistrat,' was very 
 successful, and kept the stage for more than ten years. He first 
 attracted public notice by his popular ' Almanach du P&re Gerard,' in 
 January 1792, for which he received a prize from the Jacobin Society. 
 His next step was his public display of forty liberated convicts, whom 
 he had caused to be released from Brest, and whom he paraded along 
 the whole line of the Boulevards, in a grand triumphal car, surmounted 
 with flags and laurel-wreaths. Collot stood up in the centre of the 
 group, and harangued the multitude. These convicts wore their red 
 caps, to wear which soon after became the fashion. This audacious 
 exhibition made Collot a public man. He was elected in September 
 to sit in the Convention as one of the deputies for Paris. Absent on 
 a mission in December, he did not take part in the trial of Louis XVI., 
 but wrote to the Convention that he voted for the king's death. When 
 the Committee of Public Safety was formed, Collot became a leading 
 member, and his sanguinary proscriptions far exceeded those of 
 Robespierre. It was this fiery zeal, and a certain inflated arrogance 
 of speech, joined to a stentorian voice, which caused him to be sent 
 on several missions into the departments, to propagate the principles 
 of the revolution. 
 
 In November 1793 Collot was despatched to Lyon, with his colleague 
 Fouchd, and in this ill-fated city 1600 persons were destroyed, as well 
 by discharges of artillery as by the guillotine. Moreover, on the 21st 
 Vendemiaire, a decree was issued that Lyon was to be razed to the 
 ground. This ferocious monster made it a crime to look even dejected, 
 and ordered " that all persons were to be treated as suspected in whose 
 countenances any signs of either grief or pity could be traced." On 
 the 23rd of May 1794 Collot was attacked, on his return home after 
 midnight, by a man named Admiral, who discharged two pistols at 
 him, but without effect. The e'clat produced by this event increased 
 Collot's influence in the Convention, and from that hour the fatal eye 
 of the dictator was fixed upon him. During the struggle which followed 
 between them, Collot became President of the Convention, July 19, 
 1794 ; and nine days after, Robespierre (the remnants of all the discom- 
 fited factions having united to overthrow him) was sent to the scaffold. 
 But now his own fall was at hand. Denounced first by Lecointre of 
 Versailles, and then by the butcher Legendre, October 3, 1794, Collot 
 was condemned in the following March to be transported to Cayenne, 
 with Billaud Varennes, and Barere. Here he lingered for a few months, 
 and having caught the fever natural to the climate, he expired amidst 
 convulsions of great agony, January 8, 1796. 
 
 COLMAN, GEORGE, commonly called ' the Elder,' was the son of 
 Francis Colman, Esq., British resident at the court of the Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany, by a sister of Anna-Maria Pulteney, countess of 
 Bath. He was born at Florence about 1733, and was educated at 
 Westminster. He afterwards became a student of Christ Church, 
 Oxford, and forming an acquaintance with Mr. Bonnel Thornton, pub- 
 lished, in conjunction with that gentleman, the periodical paper called 
 ' The Connoisseur.' Fixing on the law for a profession, he was entered 
 at Lincoln's Inn, and duly called to the bar. In 1760 ho produced 
 his first dramatic piece, entitled ' Polly Honeycomb,' at Drury Lane 
 
 with great success. This was followed in 1761 by the comedy ot 
 ' Tho Jealous Wife,' and in 1 766 by that of ' The Clandestine Marriage,' 
 written in conjunction with Mr. Garrick. In 1767 he united with 
 Messrs. Harris, Rutherford, and Powell in tho purchase of Covent 
 Garden Theatre, and became the acting manager, hi which situation 
 he continued seven years, when he sold his share to Mr. Leake. In 
 1777 he purchased of Mr. Foote the little theatre in the Haymarket. 
 In 1785 Mr. Colman was seized with tho palsy, and four years after- 
 wards manifested symptoms of an alienation of mind, which gradually 
 increasing terminated in a state of idiotiam. He died at Paddiugton 
 on the 14th of August 1794, aged sixty-two. Mr. Colman, besides 
 writing and adapting upwards of thirty dramatic pieces, was the 
 author of a very spirited translation in blank verse of Terence, a 
 translation of and commentary on Horace's ' Art of Poetry,' and 
 several fugitive pieces. 
 
 COLMAN, GEORGE, ' the Younger,' son of the preceding, was 
 born October 21, 1762. He proceeded from Westminster school to 
 Christ Church, Oxford, and was thence sent by his father to King's 
 College, Old Aberdeen, and on his return to London was entered of 
 the Temple. The law however had few charms for him, and following 
 the example of his father, he soon commenced writing for tho stage. 
 During the illness of Mr. Colman, sen., he directed the Haymarket 
 Theatre, and on the death of his father, George III. transferred the 
 patent to him. Mr. Colman, jun., was appointed by George IV. Exon 
 of the Yeoman Guard (an office which he afterwards by permission 
 disposed of), and by tho Duke of Montrose, then Lord Chamberlain, 
 Examiner of Hays, which situation he held till his death, October 26, 
 1S36. He wa3 twice married, his second wife being tho popular actress 
 Mrs. Gibbs. Mr. Colman was tho author of several excellent plays 
 and farces : amongst the most popular are ' John Bull ' (for which 
 comedy he received the largest sum of money up to that time ever 
 paid for any drama), 'The Poor Gentleman,' 'Heir at Law,' 'Inkle and 
 Varico,' ' Iron Chest,' ' Mountaineers,' ' Surrender of Calais,' ' Ways 
 and Means,' ' Review,' 'Blue Beard,' 'X. Y. Z.,' and ' Love Laughs at 
 Locksmiths.' He also wrote the well-known comic tales entitled 
 ' Broad Grins,' ' Poetical Vagaries,' &c, aud a variety of smaller poems. 
 His last literary work was the publication of his own memoirs up to 
 the time of his entering on the management of the Haymarket, in 
 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 COLONNA is the name of one of the oldest and most illustrious 
 families of Italy. About 1050 it became possessed of the feudal 
 estate of La Colonna on the Tusculan mount. Pietro, lord of Colonna, 
 who lived in the 12th century, is one of the earliest of the family 
 recorded in history. His son Giovanui was made cardinal by 
 Honorius III. in 1216. The family afterwards divided into several 
 branches, one of which became princes of Palestrina ; another dukes 
 of Zagarolo ; while others were made dukes of Traietto and counts of 
 Fondi, dukes of Paliano and Tagliacozzo, and princes of Sonnino and 
 Stigliano, in the kingdom of Naples. Moreri, art. 'Colonna,' gives 
 their respective genealogies. At one time they were possessed of a 
 great portion of the Campagna of Rome, besides large estates in 
 Abruzzo. The Colonna were of the Ghibeline party : their rivalry 
 with the Orsini and other Roman barons, and their quarrels with 
 several popes, especially with Boniface VIII., are recorded in the 
 history of the middle ages. In the early part of the 15th century, 
 one of the Colonna family was made pope under the name of Martiu V. 
 A century later, two cousins of the same family, Fabrizio aud Prospero 
 Colonna, distinguished themselves in tho service of Ferdinand of 
 Aragon, and afterwards of Charles V., against the French in Italy. 
 Several of the same family attained high honours in the kingdom of 
 Naples and in Spain, and others are numbered among the cardinals 
 of the Roman church. Some branches of the family have become 
 extinct, but the Stigliano of Naples and the Sciarra Colonna at Rome 
 cootinue to exist. The Colonna have an extensive palace with 
 gardens on the slope of the Quirinal at Rome. 
 
 COLONNA, FRA FRANCESCO, a learned Dominican and archi- 
 tectural writer of the 15th century, was author of a very singular, 
 strangely rhapsodical, mystical, and fantastical work, with the equally 
 fantastical title of ' Hypnerotomachia Poliphili,' first printed by Aldus 
 in 1499. This extraordinary production, which is a sort of romance, 
 or rather vision, interwoven with descriptions of imaginary edifices, 
 has drawn forth the most opposite opinions, being treated as con- 
 temptuously by some as it has been extravagantly extolled by others. 
 While Milizia, Nagler, and many more, speak of it as a mere tissue of 
 absurdities, others, who ought to be competent judges of it in that 
 respect, praise it as a work highly deserving to be studied by archi- 
 tects. As such, Mr. Cockerell, professor of architecture at the Royal 
 Academy, earnestly recommended it in one of his lectures (1845), 
 representing it to be equally calculated to inspire with a passion for 
 architecture, as 'Robinson Crusoe' with a yearning after adventures 
 on the sea. From this it would naturally be inferred that the work 
 must be at all events attractive and engaging, and abound with highly 
 graphic and picturesque descriptions ; whereas it is precisely the 
 reverse — so obscure in many parts as to be scarcely intelligible at all, 
 and written in a confused jargon of Italian, Latin, aud other languages 
 and dialects. He must be exceedingly clever, observes Tiraboschi, 
 who can, I will not say understand the book, but even tell in what 
 language it is composed. 
 
333 
 
 COLONNA, VITTORIA. 
 
 COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER. 
 
 834 
 
 Another edition of the ' Hypnerotomachia ' was published at Venice 
 by the younger of the Aldi in 1545. It has been twice translated into 
 French: first by Beroalde de Verville (folio, Paris, 1600); and again 
 by the architect Legrand, under the title of ' Songo de Polyphile,' in 
 2 vols. 12mo, printed by Didot, 1804, and reprinted by Bodoni in a 
 splendid quarto, 1811. Legrand intended to illustrate it by a separate 
 atlas of engravings to it, which had they appeared would doubtless 
 have been of very different character from the wood-cut figures of the 
 original and the copies from it. Those in Beroalde de Verville's trans- 
 lation are said to have been designed by no less an artist than the 
 celebrated sculptor Jean Goujon ; but as far as they are at all archi- 
 tectural in their subjects, which is the case with but few of them, 
 they do not materially differ from the earlier ones, and like them are 
 exceedingly rude both as to drawing and design. Temanza [Temanza, 
 Tojimaso], who is among the warm admirers of the ' Hypnerotomachia,' 
 speaks of it at considerable length in his ' Life of Colonna.' 
 
 After this bibliographical notice of the singular work which has 
 obtained for him so much repute of contradictory kinds, the history 
 of the writer himself may be briefly told. He was born at Venice, 
 about the year 1433, and in his youth fell in love with Ippolita, the 
 niece of Teodoro Lelio, bishop of Trevigi, in the Venetian territory ; 
 and she is the lady whom he has celebrated under the abridged name 
 Polia, in his allegorical romance, and who is supposed to ha7e died 
 shortly after her uncle, in 1466. Colonna then took the Dominican 
 babit, and entered the monastery of Santi Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, 
 where he died in July 1527, at the age of ninety-four. 
 
 COLO'NNA, VITTO'RIA, born in 1490, was the daughter of 
 Fabrizio Colonna, Great Constable of the kingdom of Naples, and of 
 ADna, the daughter of Frederico di Montefeltro, duke of Urbino. At 
 the age of seventeen she married Francis Davalos, son of the Marquis 
 of Pescara, who soon after came to the title at the death of his father. 
 Pescara served with distinction in the armies of Charles V., and con- 
 tributed greatly to the gaining of the battle of Pavia, in which he was 
 wounded. On his recovery, appearing dissatisfied with Charles V., he 
 was sounded by Morone, the old minister of the Duke Sforza of Milan, 
 as to hi3 willingness to enter into a plot concerted with the other 
 Italian princes, by which the Spanish troops were to be driven out of 
 Milan and Lombardy, and ultimately from all Italy. Pescara was 
 then commander-in-chief of Charles's army in Italy. He was promised 
 the kingdom of Naples as a reward for his assistance in the execution 
 of this plot. Pescara appeared to assent at first, but afterwards 
 secretly informed Charles V., who is said however to have had already 
 some previous information on the subject, and who ordered him to 
 take possession of the principal towns of Lombardy, and to arrest 
 Morone, who was soon after put to death. It is reported that Vittoria 
 Colonna contributed by her remonstrances on this occasion to retain 
 her husband within the bounds of his allegiance to the emperor. 
 Shortly after Pescara died, towards the end of 1525, aged thirty-six 
 years, and was succeeded by his cousin the Marquis del Vasto in the 
 command of the imperial army in Italy. Vittoria Colonna, who was 
 inconsolable for the death of her husband, determined on spending 
 the remainder of her life in religious seclusion. She wrote several 
 poetical effusions, lamenting the death of her husband, and also upon 
 religious subjects. ('Rime Spirituali di Vittoria Colonna,' Venezia, 
 1548.) Her beauty, her talents, and her piety were extolled by her 
 contemporaries, and among others by Michel Angelo, and by Ariosto, 
 in canto 37 of the 'Furioso.' She died in 1547, at Rome, and was 
 styled " a model of Italian matrons." (Corniani ; Tiraboschi, &c.) 
 
 COLQUHOUN, PATRICK, a statist and political economist, was 
 born at Dumbarton, on the 14th of March 1745. He appears to have 
 in his youth struggled with difficulties, which prevented his receiving 
 a liberal education. At an early period of life — apparently when he 
 was little more than sixteen years old — he endeavoured to push his 
 fortune in the colony of Virginia. In 1766 he returned to Scotland 
 and settled in Glasgow, where he subsequently became instrumental 
 in the establishment of a coffee-house or news-room, the Exchange, 
 the Chamber of Commerce, and various other public institutions. He 
 afterwards visited the continent, with the view of making his country- 
 men acquainted with the species of textile fabrics which would give 
 our manufactures the best chances of success in the continental mar- 
 kets ; and the subsequent rise and progress of our muslin trade are 
 said to have been produced by his exertions on that occasion. In 
 1789 he settled in London, where he soon afterwards directed his 
 attention to the important question, whether the various police sys- 
 tems of the metropolis were as efficient as they might be made 
 towards the accomplishment of their legitimate end — the suppression 
 of crime. He was one of the three stipendiary justices of peace 
 appointed in 1792. In 1796 he published his well-known work, 
 ' A Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis, explaining the various 
 crimes and misdemeanours which at present are felt as a pressure on 
 the community, and suggesting remedies.' In a letter to Lord Col- 
 chester, in 1798, Bentham states that 7500 copies of this work had 
 then been sold. Although changes both in the police regulations and 
 the state of society have superseded the information contained in this 
 work, it is still frequently referred to, and its statistical data, and 
 i views of the proper principles of police regulations, had much 
 \ influence in the furtherance of that reform of the metropolitan police 
 ) which took place so many years after the book was published. In 
 
 1800 he drew, with the assistance of Bentham, of whom he was u 
 valued friend, the Thames Police Act (40 Ceo. III. c. 87), a measure 
 now understood to have been suggested by Mr. Harriot. In the same 
 year he published ' A Treatise on the Commerce and Police of the 
 River Thames ; containing an Historical View of the Trade of the 
 Port of London ; and suggesting means of preventing tho depredations 
 thereon, by a legislative system of River Police.' Mr. Colquhoun was 
 a great promoter of the system of charity-schools, holding the opinion, 
 which is every day obtaining additional adherents, that the education 
 of the people is the main protection of society from thoso social evils 
 which penal legislation can but partially euro when they have broken 
 out. He died on the 25th of April 1820. 
 
 COLSON, JOHN, born about the beginning of the 18th century, 
 studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and was master at the free- 
 school at Rochester till 1739, when he succeeded Sanderson as 
 Lucasian professor at Cambridge. Ho died in 1760. He is worthy to 
 be remembered for his English edition of Newton's Fluxions, London, 
 1736; and his translation of the Analytical Institutions of Maria 
 Agnesi, which lay in manuscript till 1801, when it was published by 
 the Rev. John Hellins at the expense of Baron Maseres. 
 
 COLUMBA, commonly called the Apostle of the Highlanders, or 
 Scoto-Irish, is believed to have been one of the earliest teachers of 
 Christianity in Scotland, and is known in history as the founder 
 of the abbey and college of Iona in the Western Isles. He was a 
 native of Ireland : his biographers give his pedigree with great pre- 
 cision, but even if its precise accuracy could be trusted, its repetition 
 here would afford the reader nothing more valuable than a series of 
 strange names. He is said to have been born in the year 521. According 
 to the best collations of recent investigators, he arrived in Scotland in 
 the year 563. The island of Hi or Iona, where he established himself 
 with his disciples, may be presumed, from the vestiges of a worship 
 earlier than Christianity still extant there, and commonly called 
 Druidical remains, to have been a seat of the pagan worship of the 
 day, and it is probable that Columba desired to attack the lion in 
 his den. The greater part of the neighbouring west coast of Scot- 
 land was peopled by the Scots, who had emigrated from Ireland ; the 
 districts south of Iona, and the broad tracts of comparatively level 
 land stretching eastward, were inhabited by the people called Picts. 
 Columba is said to have established an equal influence with both 
 races. In the much debated question whether the Picts were of 
 Celtic or Teutonic origin, a passage in Adamnan's 'Life of Columba* 
 gives perhaps the most distinct, though very limited, evidence that 
 exists on the subject. It states that Columba, who as an Irishman 
 must have been of the same Celtic origin as the Scots or Irish Dalriads 
 who surrounded him on the west coast, required an interpreter when 
 he communicated with the king of the Picts. A translation of this 
 work, with critical comments, was published in 1798, with the title 
 ' The Life of St. Columba, the Apostle and Patron Saint of the ancient 
 Scots and Picts,' by John Smith, D.D., a work full of very absurd 
 blunders. Adamnan's ' Life " contains few biographical facts which can 
 be depended on, but it is a very curious memorial of the manners of 
 the day. Even the dreams and miracles with which it is crowded 
 are instructive when critically examined. Columba is believed to have 
 been the founder of the Culdees, and in connection not only with 
 them, but with the pagan rites which he superseded, his memory is 
 traditionally preserved in the highlands of Scotland. There is a High- 
 land proverb, of which the translation is — "Earth, earth, on the 
 mouth of Oran, that he may blab no more." Tho tradition con- 
 nected with this is, that Oran was one of the followers of Columba, 
 who, as a sacrifice at the building of Iona, was buried, whether alive 
 or dead is not stated. This tradition, which is given as the version of 
 the pagan priests, says that Columba opened the grave three days 
 afterwards, and Oran told him that hell was not such a place as he 
 reported it to be. Whereupon Columba, to prevent his impiously 
 communicating the idea to others, called out to those who were with 
 him in the words of the proverb. Columba is said to have died in 
 the year 597. There is an account of his life in Chalmers' ' Caledonia,' 
 i. 311, and in Jamieson's 'Account of the Culdees.' 
 
 COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (a name latinised from the Italiau 
 Colombo, and the Spanish Colon), was born at Genoa, about the year 
 1445 or 1446. The date of his birth is however only inferred from 
 two of his letters to Ferdinand and Isabella, in one of which he states 
 that he went to sea at the age of fourteen, and in another dated 1501, 
 that he had been in maritime service nearly forty years : his place of 
 birth is twice stated in his will. But the history of his early days is 
 involved in obscurity. His son, Fernando, unwilling, from mistaken 
 pride, to reveal the indigence and humble condition from which his 
 father emerged, has left the biography of Columbus very incomplete. 
 The father of Columbus, who was a wool-comber, sent him to Pavia, 
 then the great school of learning in Lombardy ; but Columbus having 
 shown a taste for geometry, geography, and astronomy, or as it was 
 then termed astrology, went to sea at fourteen years of age. In 
 addition to the hardy encounters and dangers attending the sea-faring 
 life of that age, he was often under the rigid discipline of an old 
 relation, Colombo, who carried on a predatory warfare against Moham- 
 medans and Venetians, the great rivals of the Genoese. In February 
 1467, Columbus, in order to ascertain whether Iceland was inhabited, 
 advanced 100 leagues beyond it, and was astonished at not finding the 
 
33fi 
 
 sea frozen. He also visited the Portuguese fort of St. George la Mina, 
 on the coast of Guinea. 
 
 i About the year 1470, he settled at Lisbon, then the great resort of 
 travellers and navigators, whom Prince Henry highly encouraged. 
 Here Columbus married the daughter of an Italian, called Patestrello, 
 who had colonised and who governed the island of Porto Santo, and 
 whose papers, charts, and journals, were highly serviceable to 
 Columbus in his occasional expeditions to Madeira, the Canaries, the 
 Azores, and the Portuguese settlements of Africa, and for the con- 
 struction of maps and charts, which he sold to support his family, and 
 his aged father at Genoa, as well as to defray the education of his 
 younger brothers. Columbus resided also some time at the island of 
 Porto Santo, which had not long been discovered, a circumstance 
 which at a period of great excitement and expectation as to maritimo 
 discovery, kindled his mind to enthusiasm, which was heightened by 
 the allusions in the Bible to the ultimate universal diffusion of the 
 gospel, which Columbus hoped that he was predestined to extend to 
 the eastern extremity of Asia. He considered his projected discoveries 
 as only a means to this end, and also for supplying him with ample 
 treasures to furnish an army of 50,000 foot soldiers and 5000 horse for 
 the recovery of the holy sepulchre. Moreover the legends of the island 
 of CipaDgo (Japan), of Mango (Southern China), and Cathay, the 
 opinions of the ancients, the travels of the moderns, the conjectured 
 sphericity of the earth, its supposed smallness, and the imaginary 
 prolongation of Asia to the east, all this presumptive evidence, added 
 to the recent application of the astrolabe to navigation, gave him so 
 firm a conviction of the practicability of crossing the Atlantic, and of 
 landing on the eastern shores of Asia, that, after long delays, and 
 repeated disappointments and struggles with poverty, he never made 
 any abatement in those conditions which appeared to all the states 
 (Genoa, Portugal, Genoa agaiu, Venice, Fiance, England, and Spain) 
 to whom he made proposals to be the extravagant demands of a mere 
 adventurer. John II. of Portugal, after having referred the project 
 to a maritime junto, and to his council, both of whom regarded it as 
 visionary, nevertheless sent a caravel under the pretext of taking 
 provisions to the Cape Verd Islands, but with secret instructions to 
 try the route marked in the papers of Columbus. The pilots however 
 losing all courage, put back to Lisbon, and ridiculed the scheme. 
 Indignant at such duplicity, Columbus sought patronage elsewhere, 
 and sent his brother Bartholomew to make proposals to Henry VII. 
 of England. 
 
 In 1484 Columbus arrived at Palos de Moguer iu Andalusia. 
 Stopping one day at the Franciscan convent of La Rabida to beg some 
 bread and water for his child, the guardian or superior, Juan Perez 
 Marchena, passing by, and entering iuto conversation with the stranger, 
 was so struck with the grandeur of his views, that he detained him as 
 a guest, and sent for the physician of Palos, Garcia Fernandez, to 
 discuss the project. Now, for the first time, it began to be listened 
 to with admiration. Marchena, taking charge of the maintenance and 
 education of the young son of Columbus, gave the father a letter of 
 introduction to the confessor of Isabella, Fernando de Talavera. This 
 expected patron treated the wandering petitioner as a dreaming specu- 
 lator, and a needy applicant for bread. His humble dress, and his 
 want of connections and academic honours, formed, in the eyes of all 
 the courtiers, an inexplicable contrast with his brilliant proposals and 
 aspirations. But indigence, contumely, and indignities of all kinds, 
 could not shake the perseverance of Columbus. At last, through 
 Cardinal Mendoza, he obtained an audience of King Ferdinand, who 
 referred the matter to a conference of learned monks, which was held 
 in the convent of the Dominicans of St. Stephen at Salamanca. At 
 the very opening of the discussion Columbus was assailed with biblical 
 objections, agaiust which no mathematical demonstration was admitted : 
 but he met them on their own ground. He poured forth texts and 
 predictions as mystical types of his proposed discovery. The inquiry 
 however, after intentional procrastination, ended in an unfavourable 
 report. After seven years wasted at the Spanish court in solicitation, 
 occasional hope, and bitter disappointment, a connection with a lady 
 of Cordoba, Beatriz Enriquez, prevented his entirely breaking with 
 Spain. She was the mother of his second son, Ferdinand, who became 
 his historian, and whom he always treated on terms of perfect equality 
 with his legitimate son Diego. Columbus was now about to apply to 
 the French king, from whom he had received a letter of encourage- 
 ment; when, returning for his eldest son, Diego, to La Rabida, the 
 warm-hearted friar Marchena endeavoured to dissuade him from this 
 project, sent again for the physician, Garcia Fernandez, and also called 
 to their council Alonso Pinzon. This distinguished navigator not 
 only approved of the projected voyage, but offered to engage in it 
 with his money and in person, and even to defray the expenses of a 
 new application at court. 
 
 The ardent friar lost no time in writing directly to Queen Isabella, and 
 on her requesting a verbal explanation of the subject, he immediately 
 went to Santa F6, where she was then superintending with Ferdinand 
 the close investment of Granada. Isabella, who had never heard the 
 proposition urged with such honest zeal, enthusiasm, and eloquence, and 
 who was besides more open to noble impulses than her husband, was 
 at last moved in behalf of Columbus, but her favour was checked by 
 her confessor Talavera, who, being now raised to the see of Granada, 
 wis more astonished than ever at the lofty claims of this indigent and 
 
 threadbare solicitor. Those claims would be exorbitant iu case of 
 success, he observed; how unreasonable then would they appear in 
 case of failure, which was almost sure to happen, and which would 
 prove the gross credulity of the Spauish monarchs. More moderate, 
 yet highly honourable aud advantageous terms were offered to 
 Columbus, but ho considered them beneath the dignity of his enter- 
 prise, and determined once more to abandon Spain for ever. 
 
 Some friends, who considered his departure as an irreparable loss, 
 oncrc more remonstrated with Isabella, who at last offered her own 
 jewels to defray the expenses of the expedition, aud thu3 overcame 
 the coolness of Ferdinand. Accordingly a messenger was sent to 
 overtake Columbus, who, after some hesitation, returned to Santa F<5. 
 Stipulations were at last signed by Ferdinand and Isabella at Granada 
 on the 17th of April 1492. 
 
 On Friday, the 3rd of August 1492, Columbus, as admiral of the 
 seas and lands which he expected to discover, set sail from the bar of 
 Saltes, near Palos, with three vessels and 120 men, who were full of 
 doubts and fears, and were partly pressed into the service. Two of 
 these vessels were caravels, or light barques, no better than our river 
 and coasting craft. This however Columbus considered an advantage, 
 as it would afford him the means of examining shallow rivers and 
 harbours. On the 5th one of the vessels had her rudder broken ; but 
 fortunately ou the 6th he perceived, as he expected, the Canaries, 
 where he refitted. On the 6th of September he hastily quitted Gomera, 
 to avoid three frigates which were sent against hiin by the king of 
 Portugal from spite at seeing Columbus engaged in the Spanish service. 
 As soon as the Canaries were out of sight, consternation and despair 
 spread among the crews, and the admiral was obliged to leave them 
 iu ignorance of the progress they were making. The stratagem he 
 adopted for this purpose, aud in which he persevered throughout the 
 voyage, was that of keeping two reckonings, one true and private for 
 his own guidance, the other merely for the crews, to kefp them in 
 ignorance of the great distance they were advancing. He also forbade 
 the variation of the needle, which he observed on the 13th of Sep- 
 tember, about 200 leagues west of the island of Ferro, to be mentioned 
 to the crew, till it was noticed also by his pilots, when he succeeded 
 in allaying their terrors with his ready ingenuity to meet any emer- 
 gency, by ascribing the phenomenon to the movement of the pole star. 
 The whole expedition being founded on the presumption of finding 
 land to the west, Columbus kept steadily to this course, lest he should 
 appear to doubt and waver, and never went in search of islauds, which 
 floating weeds, birds, and other indications gave him reason to believe 
 were not far off. 
 
 On the 20th of September the wind veered round to the south-west; 
 and although unfavourable to the expedition, this circumstance cheered 
 the dismayed crew, who were alarmed at its continuance from the east, 
 which seemed to preclude all hope of their return. Repeated disap- 
 pointments made the crews at last regard all signs of land as mere 
 delusions. On the evening of the 10th of October they exclaimed 
 more violently than ever against the obstinacy of an ambitious des- 
 perado, in tempting fate on a boundless sea ; they even meditated 
 throwing the admiral overboard and directing their course homeward. 
 Columbus, for the last time, tried to pacify them in a friendly manner; 
 but this only increased their clamour. He then assumed a decided 
 tone, acted in open defiance of his crews, and his situation became 
 desperate. That he ever yielded to his men, rests on no other 
 authority than that of Oviedo, a writer of inferior credit, who was 
 grossly misled by a pilot of the name of Hernea Perez Matheos, an 
 enemy to Columbus. Fortunately, on the 11th, the manifestations of 
 land were such as to convince the most dejected. Accordingly, after 
 the evening prayer, Columbus ordered a careful look out, and himself 
 remained on the high stern of his vessel from ten o'clock, when he 
 observed glimmerings of light, as he supposed, on shore, till two in 
 the morning, when the foremost vessel fired a gun as a signal of land 
 having been discovered. Not an eye was closed that night, all waiting 
 with intense feeling for the dawn of the 12th of October 1492, wliich 
 was to reveal the great mystery of the ocean, whether it was bounded 
 by a savage wilderness, or by spicy groves and spleudid cities, possibly 
 the very Cipango, the constant object of the golden fancies of the 
 admiral. With tears of joy, after fervid thanksgivings, Columbus 
 kissed the earth on which he landed, and with great solemnity planted 
 the cross in the New World at Guanahani, or San Salvador, one of the 
 Gucayos, Lucayan, or Bahama Islands. Those who had lately been 
 most in despair were now the most extravagant in their joy. The 
 most mutinous and outrageous thronged closest round the admiral, 
 and crouched at the feet of a man who in their eyes had already 
 wealth and honours in his gift. 
 
 The naked and painted natives, when they had recovered from their 
 fright, regarded the white men, by whose confidence they were soon 
 won, as visitors from the skies which bounded their horizon ; they 
 received from them with transport toys and trinket*, fragments of 
 glass, and earthenware, as celestial presents possessing a supernatural 
 virtue. They brought in exchange cotton-yarn and cassava bread, 
 which, as it keeps longer than wheaten bread, was highly acceptable to 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 On the 24th Columbus set out in quest of gold aud Cipango. 
 After discovering Concepcion, Exuma, and Isla Larga, Cuba broke 
 upon him like an elysiurn ; he no longer doubted that this beautiful 
 
337 
 
 338 
 
 land was the real Cipango. When this delusion was over, he fancied 
 Cuba to be not far from Mango and Cathay, fo brilliantly depicted 
 in his great oracle, Marco Polo. To the time of his death Columbus 
 believed Cuba to be a part of the mainland of India, aud it was owing 
 to this mistake that the appellation of Indians was extended to all 
 the Aborigines of the Americas. He next took Hayti, or Santo 
 Domingo, for the ancient Ophir, the sources of the riches of Solo- 
 mon, but he gave it the Latin diminutive of Hispaniola, from its 
 resembling the fairest tracts of Spain. Leaving here the germ of a 
 future colony, he set sail homeward the 4th of January 1493. A 
 dreadful storm overtook him on the 12th of February. Columbus 
 fearing the loss of his discovery more than the loss of life, retired to 
 write two copies of a short account of it. He wrapped them in wax, 
 inclosed them in two separate casks, one of which he threw into the 
 sea, and the other he placed on the poop of his vessel, that it might 
 float in case she should sink. Happily the storm subsided, but 
 another drove him off the mouth of the Tagus on the 4th of March ; 
 and although distrustful of the Portuguese, he was obliged to take 
 shelter there. At last he lauded ti iumphautly at Palos, the 15th of 
 March 1493. In his journey through Spain, he received pi'iucely 
 honours all his way to Barcelona, where the court had gone. His 
 entrance here, with some of the natives, and with the arms and 
 utensils of the discovered islands, was a triumph as striking and 
 more glorious than that of a conqueror. Ferdinand and Isabella 
 received him seated in state, rose as he approached, raised him as he 
 kneeled to kiss their hands, and ordered him to be seated in their 
 presence. 
 
 On the 25th of September 1493, Columbus left Cadiz on a second 
 expedition, with 17 ships and 1500 men. He discovered the Caribbee 
 Islands, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica; and alter repeated mutinies of 
 his colonists, and great hardships, he returned against the tradewinds 
 to Cadiz, June 11, 1496. Having dispelled all the calumnies that had 
 been accumulated upon him, Columbus embarked the 30th of May 
 1498 at San Lucar de Barrameda, on a third expedition, with only six 
 vessels. In this voyage he discovered La Trinidad, the mouths of the 
 Orinoco (which river he imagined to proceed from the tree of life in 
 the midst of Paradise, the situation of which was then supposed to 
 be in the remotest parts of the east), the coast of Paria, and the 
 Margarita and Cubagua Islands. On the 14th of August he bore 
 away for Hispaniola to recruit his health. The dissensions which 
 arose here, the calumnies of miscreants who had been shipped off to 
 c paiu, countenanced as they were by envious courtiers at home, the 
 unproductiveness of the new settlement, and regret at having vested 
 such high powers in a subject and a foreigner, who could now be 
 dispensed with, induced Ferdinand, in July 1500, to despatch Fran- 
 cisco Bovadilla to supersede Columbus, and bring him back in chains. 
 Vallejo, the officer who had him in charge, and Martin, the master of 
 the caravel, would have taken his chains off; but Columbus proudly 
 said, "I will wear them till the king orders otherwise, and will pre- 
 serve them as memorials of his gratitude." He hung them up in his 
 cabinet, and requested they should be buried in his grave. The 
 general burst of indignation at Cadiz, which was echoed throughout 
 Spain, on the arrival of Columbus in fetters, compelled Ferdinand 
 himself to disclaim all knowledge of the shameful transaction. But 
 still the king kept Columbus in attendance for nine months, wasting 
 his time in fruitless solicitations for redress ; and at last appointed 
 Nicholas Ovando governor of Hispaniola in his place. 
 
 With restricted powers and a broken frame, but with his ever-soaring 
 and irrepressible enthusiasm, Columbus sailed from Cadiz again on 
 the 9th of May 1502, with four caravels and 150 men, in search of a 
 passage to the East Indies near the Isthmus of Darien, which should 
 supersede that of Vasco de Gama. Being denied relief and even 
 shelter at Santo Domingo, he was swept away by the currents to the 
 north-we:-t ; he however missed Yucatan and Mexico, aud at last 
 reached Truxillo, whence he coasted Honduras, the Mosquito shore, 
 Costa Kica, Veragua, as far as the point which he called El Retrete, 
 where the recent westward coasting of Bastides had terminated. But 
 here, on the 5th of December, he gave up his splendid vision, aud 
 yielded to the clamours of his crews to return iu search of gold to 
 Veragua, a country which he himself mistook for the Aurea Cher- 
 sonesus of the ancients. 
 
 Finally, the fierce resistance of the natives and the crazy state of his 
 ships forced him, a-t the close of April, 1503, to make the best of his 
 way for Hispaniola with only two crowded wrecks, which, being 
 incapable of keeping the sea, came, on the 24tb of June, to anchor at 
 Jamaica. After famine and despair had occasioned a series of mutinies 
 and disasters far greater than any that he had yet experienced, he at 
 last arrived, on the 13th of August, at Santo Domingo. Here he 
 exhausted his funds in relieving his crews, extending his generosity 
 even to those who had been most outrageous. Sailing homewards on 
 the 12th of September, ho anchored his tempest-tossed and shattered 
 baik at San Lucar, the 7th of November 1504. From San Lucar he 
 proceeded to Sevilla, where he soon after received the news of the ! 
 death of his patroness Isabella. He was detained by illness till the ' 
 Jpriug of 1505, when he arrived, wearied aud exhausted, at Segovia, I 
 to have only another courtly denial of redress, and to linger a year ! 
 longer in neglect, poverty, and pain, till death gave him relief at 
 Vulladolid on the 20th of May 150C. Thus ended a noble and glorious [ 
 
 career, inseparably connected with the records of the injustice and 
 ingratitude of kings. To make some amends for the sorrows and 
 wrongs of this great man, his remains received a pompous funeral, and 
 his grave and coat of arms the following motto : — 
 " A Castilla y a Leon 
 Nuevo Murtdo dio Colon." 
 Although Sebastian Cabot discovered Newfoundland and Labrador 
 in June 1497, and Columbus did not touch the American continent 
 till he visited the coast of Paria iu August 1498, yet Columbus first 
 reached Guanahani, and what may properly bo denominated the 
 Columbian Archipelago, aud is really the discoverer of the New 
 World. Rafn (' Antiquitates Americanse,' 1845) seems to have estab- 
 lished —if the passages he quotes from the Sagas are not interpolations — 
 not merely that the Northmen discovered the American continent, but 
 that they formed settlements on the coast between Boston and New 
 York, in or before the 11th century. Humboldt, a great authority in 
 such matters, has adopted this view ('Kosmos,' ii. 234, and Notes) : 
 Bancroft (' Hist, of United States,' chap, i.) examines and rejects it. 
 The legend of an Irish discovery aud colonisation has found no recent 
 supporters among the learned. 
 
 The voyage of one Antonio Sanchez from the Canaries to Hayti in 
 1484, mentioned by the Inca Garcilaso and some other Spanish writers, 
 is regarded as a fable. The accounts however of Spaniards and Portu- 
 guese who had sailed westward so far as to perceive indications of 
 land, were useful to Columbus, according to his own avowal. 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, in a written declaration of the 4th of August 
 1494, ascribe the new discoveries to Columbus. Amerigo "Vespucci, 
 whose name was afterwards given to the new hemisphere, did not see 
 it till he accompanied Ojeda, as a pilot, to the coast of Paria in 1499. 
 
 (The following are the principal authorities for the Life of Colum- 
 bus : — Navigatione del Re di Castiglia delle hole e Paesi nuovamente 
 ritrovati, and the Latin translation, Navigatio Christophori Colombi, 
 Vicenza, 1507; Itinerarium Portugallensium, Milan, 1508; Grinseus, 
 Novus Orbis Regionum, Bale, 1533; Life of the Admiral, by his son 
 Fernando, Oviedo; Chronicle of the Indies, Sevilla, 1535; Manu- 
 script History of Fernando and Isabella, by the curate of Los Palacros; 
 Manuscript History of the Indies, by Las Casas ; Letters and Decades 
 of the Ocean, by Peter Martyr d'Anghierra, or Angleria; Herrera, 
 History of the Indies; Robertson, History of America; Churchill, 
 Voyages, vol. ii. ; Navarrete, Rdacion de los quatro Viojes de Cristobal 
 Colon; Irving, Life of Columbus ; Prescott, Ferdinand and Isabella.) 
 
 COLUMELLA, LU'CIUS JU'NIUS MODERA'TUS, the author of 
 one of the most voluminous and valuable works on Roman agriculture, 
 if not himself a native of Gades (Cadiz), sprung from a family belonging 
 to that town, which had been long most intimately connected with 
 Rome. In several parts of his work he speaks of a paternal uncle, 
 Marcus Columella, who had lived in Bsetica (Andalusia), aud had been 
 well known as an intelligent agriculturist. In particular he speaks of 
 his success in the improvement of the breed of sheep by the intro- 
 duction of rams from Mauritania, aud it has been suggested that the 
 celebrated stock of the Merinos owes its origin to this importation. 
 The author himself possessed an estate in the country of the Ceretani 
 (La Cerdana), near the Pyrenees, where he was eminently successful 
 in the growth of the vine. When he wrote his work he appears to 
 have been residing either at Rome, or in the neighbourhood ; but he 
 had a personal knowledge of many purts of the Roman empire. He 
 himself mentions a residence of some length iu Cilicia and Syria 
 (ii. 10, 18), but without stating the object which carried him into that 
 part of the world. As he mentions having been present at a con- 
 versation on agriculture in which L. Volusius who died a.d. 20 (Tac. 
 ' Annales,' iii. 30), took part (i. 7, 3), and as he again speaks of Seneca 
 (whose death occurred in 66) as still living (iii. 3, 31), he must have 
 been born about the beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 The work of Columella is addressed to Publius Silvinus, and con- 
 sists of twelve books : the first two on the choice of a farm aud farm- 
 house, the selection of slaves, the cultivation of arable and pasture 
 laud ; the next three on the cultivation of the vine, olive, and fruits 
 of the orchard, &c. ; the sixth aud seventh, on the ox, horse, mule, 
 ass, sheep, goat, and dog, that is, the shepherd's dog and the house 
 dog, for he specially excludes the sporting dog, as interfering with, 
 instead of promoting the economic management of a farm. The 
 eighth book treats of the poultry-yard, and the ninth of bees. The 
 next, which has for its subject the vegetable "and flower garden, pre- 
 sents the unusual spectacle of a poem in the middle of a prose work. 
 This form was selected by Columella at the pressing solicitation of 
 his friend Silvinus, and the poem was avowedly put forth as a supple- 
 ment to the Georgics of Virgil, in answer to the challenge of the 
 Mantuan bard (Georg. iv.). In the eleventh book the author is again 
 on the terra firma of prose, and gives us in three long chapters, not 
 very closely connected, the duties of a bailiff, a farmer's almanac, aud 
 the vegetable garden. This book is sometimes entitled the 'Bailiff' 
 (Villicus) ; as the last bears the name of the ' Bailiff's Wife' (Villica), 
 and treats of the iudoor duties, the making wine aud vinegar, preserving 
 fruits, &c. 
 
 In the composition of this work, Columella has made free use of the 
 Roman writers on agriculture who preceded him. Among these we 
 may particularly mention Cato the Censor, Terentius Varro, his own 
 contemporaries; Cornelius Celsus aud Julius Atticus; aud lastly. 
 
839 
 
 COLVILLE, JOHN. 
 
 COMBE, GEORGE. 
 
 3-10 
 
 Julius Graecinus, the father of Agricola, who seems to have shown his 
 predilection for the science by the name he selected for his son. But 
 the author of whom he speaks in the highest terms, and to whom he 
 most willingly appeals, is Mago the Carthaginian, whose work on 
 agriculture, as he tells us, containing eight-and-twenty books, was 
 translated from the Phoenician into Latin, under a special decree of 
 the Roman senate. The latinity of Columella has nearly all the 
 purity of the Augustan age; but wherever his subject gives him an 
 opportunity, he discovers a taste for that sentimental and declamatory 
 style which distinguishes the writers of the first and second centuries. 
 Columella is often cited by Pliny the Elder in his ' Natural History,' 
 but generally with an expression of dissent. He is also quoted by 
 Vegetius and Palladius. But the treatise on agriculture by Palladius 
 appears to have superseded Columella's work, and to have thrown it 
 altogether into oblivion. Besides the great work of Columella, which 
 we have described, there is a single book entitled ' De Arboribus,' in 
 which reference is made to a preceding book now lost. These two 
 appear to have been a portion of an early edition of the work on 
 agriculture, probably in four books, which being afterwards enlarged, 
 swelled into the twelve we now possess. Accordingly the matter of 
 the'De Arboribus' will be found with somo alterations and many 
 additions, in the third, fourth, and fifth books of the greater work ; 
 and Cassiodorus actually speaks of sixteen books written by Colu- 
 mella. In ignorance of this, the writers of many of the manuscripts, 
 as well as the early editors, have inserted the minor treatise after tho 
 second book of the more complete work, thus causing many contra- 
 dictions and great confusion in the numbers of the following books. 
 
 The writings of Columella have generally been published together 
 with tho works of the other authors 'Do Re Rustica.' The chief 
 editions are these: 'The Princeps,' Venice, fol., 1472 ; Bologna, fol., 
 1494; by Aldus, 8vo, 1513, or rather 1514; by R. Stephens, 8vo, 
 1543; by Gesner, Leipzig, 2 vols. 4to, 1735 ; and that which is much 
 the best as well as most complete, the edition by J. G. Schneider, 
 4 vols. 8vo, 1794-7. 
 
 COLVILLE, JOHN, of the family of Colville, of East Wemyss, 
 county of Fife, was some time miuister of Kilbride, and chautor of 
 Glasgow, of which latter office the church of Kilbride was the appro- 
 priate prebend ; but disliking the poverty which, on the Reformation, 
 had become incident to the condition of a Scots clergyman, he aban- 
 doned that profession about the year 1578, got introduced to court, 
 and the following year we find him attending the Privy Council as 
 Master of Requests. ('Act Pari.' iii. 150.) 
 
 He was soon afterwards engaged in the treasonable conspiracy of the 
 Raid of Ruthven, when he was sent by the party that had seized the 
 king, as ambassador to Queen Elizabeth. On the king recovering 
 his liberty, Colville was seized at the instance of Arran, the king's 
 adviser, and imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle. He was probably restored 
 to royal favour not long after; for on the 2nd of June 1587 he was 
 appointed by the king a lord of session in the room of his uncle, 
 Alexander Colville, commendator of Culross. But on the 21st of the 
 same month he gave up the place again in favour of his uncle, and 
 got some appointment, as it seems, in relation to the supply granted 
 by parliament for the king's marriage expenses. About the same time 
 also he sat in parliament for the burgh of Stirling. Soon afterwards he 
 joined the Earl of Bothwell in his attack upon the king in December, 
 1591, for which he was again forfeited in parliament. The next year 
 he accompanied Bothwell to Holyrood House in a new attack upon 
 James. But the party being discovered and defeated, Bothwell was 
 obliged to flee; and Colville, by betraying his associates, obtained a 
 pardon. Bothwell afterwards fled to Orkney, and thence to France, 
 whither Colville also proceeded. Colville, in the hope of obtaining 
 permission to return, used various arts to ingratiate himself with the 
 king. In the year 1600 he published at Edinburgh a treatise entitled 
 ' The Palinode,' which he represented as a refutation of a former 
 treatise of his own against James's title to the English crown, which, 
 "in malice, in time of his exile, he had penned-"" whereas, in fact, 
 no such treatise was ever penned by him. (Spottisw. 'Hist.' 457.) 
 All his arts to obtain his recall to his native country proving unsuc- 
 cessful, he at length professed himself a Roman Catholic, and became 
 a keen writer against the Protestant faith. In 1601 he wrote a 
 'Paraenesis ad Ministros Scotos super sua Conversione,' which was 
 translated and printed at Paris the following year. He wrote also 
 'Capita Controversy' and 'De Causa Comitis Bothwelli,' who, like 
 himself, had turned Roman Catholic. Charteris ('Lives of Scots 
 Writers ') mentions another work of his, ' Oratio Funebris Exequiis 
 Elizabethaj destinata ;' and the author of the ' History of Sutherland' 
 speaks of a manuscript left by him touching the affairs of Scotland. 
 He died while on a pilgrimage to Rome in the year 1607. 
 
 COMBE, DR ANDREW, was born in Edinburgh, October 27, 
 1797, the fifteenth child and seventh son of a family, which numbered 
 seventeen in all. His father was a respectable brewer in Edinburgh, 
 and a man of superior mind and integrity ; his mother also was a 
 superior person. Educated in his boyhood and youth very much 
 under the care of his elder brother George, the subject of the 
 following notice, he chose the medical profession ; and, having studied 
 at Edinburgh and Paris, and taken the degree of M.D., he began 
 practice in Edinburgh in 1823. A pulmonary complaint under which 
 he had laboured since 1819, and which obliged him to make frequent 
 
 journeys into warmer climates, precluded him from such an active 
 career as a physician as ho might otherwise have been fitted for. In 
 1836 he was appointed Consulting Physician to the King of the 
 Belgians. As early as 1818 he had, like his brother George, given his 
 attention to phrenology and become a convert to it ; and both during 
 his practice as a physician and afterwards, he continued to advocate 
 its doctrines through the ' Phrenological JournaL' He was also a 
 distinguished writer on general scientific and medical subject*. The 
 following is a list of his most important separate works : — ' Observa- 
 tions on Mental Derangements,' 12mo, Edinburgh, 1831 ; 'The Prin- 
 ciples of Physiology applied to the preservation of health, and to the 
 improvement of physical and mental Education,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 
 1834 — a work which has been highly appreciated, and has gone through 
 sixteen or seventeen editions ; ' The Physiology of Digestion con- 
 sidered with relation to the principles of Dietetics,' Edinburgh, 1836, 
 also a most popular and useful work ; ' A Treatise on the Physiological 
 and Moral Management of Infancy,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1840, eight 
 editions of which have been sold. These works were written by Dr. 
 Combe in the intervals during which he enjoyed comparative freedom 
 from the malady which he knew was to carry him away. The last 
 years of his life were spent by him as a confirmed invalid, either shut 
 up in his room in Edinburgh, or seeking health by continued travelling 
 and sea-voyages. In 1842 he was iu Madeira. The mildness of his 
 demeanour during his long illness, and the zeal with which he con- 
 tinued to forward every scheme of benevolence which accorded with 
 his sense of what was right and expedient, obtained him the peculiar 
 regards of all who knew him. His death, long expected, took place 
 on the 9th of August 1847 ; and an interesting and affectionate account 
 of his 'Life and Correspondence' was published in 1850 by his 
 brother George. 
 
 COMBE, GEORGE, an elder brother of the subject of the pre- 
 ceding notice, was born at Edinburgh, October 21, 1788. Educated 
 for the legal profession, he became in 1812 a writer to tho Signet in 
 Edinburgh, and remained in practice for about twenty-five years. 
 Led, about his thirtieth year, to take an interest in phrenology, as 
 expounded by Gall and Spurzheim (with the latter of whom he 
 became personally acquainted in Edinburgh iu 1816), he grew to be a 
 firm believer in their speculations ; and during the whole of his subse- 
 quent life he has devoted himself to the propagation of phrenology as 
 a science, to its improvement by studies and observations of his own, 
 and to the exposition of its possible applications. In 1819 he pub- 
 lished his ' Essays on Phrenology, or an Inquiry into the System of 
 Gall and Spurzheim,' subsequently developed into his ' Elements of 
 Phrenology,' and his ' System of Phrenology,' numerous editions of 
 which have been sold. Under his auspices was subsequently (1823) 
 established the 'Edinburgh Phrenological Journal;' and between 
 1820 and 1830 he engaged in various controversies, both on the plat- 
 form and through the press, in behalf of his favourite system. One 
 of these controversies was with Jeffrey, in 1826, in connection with a 
 criticism on phrenology which appeared in the 'Edinburgh Review;' 
 another was with Sir William Hamilton. In 1828 Mr. Combe pub- 
 lished his principal work entitled ' The Constitution of Man con- 
 sidered in relation to External Objects,' a work partly phrenological, 
 but elucidating also the general doctrine that the intellectual and 
 moral procedure of man, as well as the physical procedure of the 
 universe, is regulated by natural laws, which laws must be studied, 
 as the basis of any rational treatment of human beings, educationally 
 or legislatively. The work provoked many attacks from different 
 points of view, but proved highly popular, and having been enlarged 
 and reprinted in a cheap form it has of late years been largely circu- 
 lated, both in Britain and America. In 1833 Mr. Combe delivered in 
 various parts of Britain a course of lectures, afterwards published, on 
 ' Popular Education,' besides being translated into French, German, 
 and Swedish. In 1836 he was a candidate for the chair of logic and 
 metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh, on which occasion Sir 
 William Hamilton obtained the appointment. 
 
 During the years 1838, 1839, and 1840, Mr. Combe travelled and 
 resided in the United States, and the results of this tour were pub- 
 lished at Edinburgh on his return in a work in three volumes, entitled 
 ' Notes on the United States of North America during a phrenologies 
 visit.' There had already appeared, as the produce of his pen during 
 this visit, his ' Lectures on Phrenology,' delivered in America in 1839, 
 his ' Lectures on Moral Philosophy,' delivered in 1840, and various 
 other phrenological pamphlets. Between 1838 and 1843 he paid seve- 
 ral visits to Germany. Alive, from the nature of his speculations, to 
 all movements of social reform or philanthropy as well as to philosophi- 
 cal questions, Mr. Combe published in 1845 ' Notes on the new 
 Reformation in Germany, and on Natural Education and the Common 
 Schools of Massachusetts,' and in 1847 ' Thoughts on Capital Punish- 
 ments,' ' Remarks on Natural Education,' and a tractate on the ' Rela- 
 tion between Religion and Science.' In 1850 he edited the 'Life and 
 Correspondence ' of his eminent brother, Dr. Andrew Combe. In 1851 
 he delivered in Edinburgh and published a ' Lecture on Secular Edu- 
 cation ; ' and about the same time he took much interest in the 
 establishment in Edinburgh of a secular school, in which education 
 Bhould be imparted on the principle of familiarising the pupils with 
 the natural laws, physiological and economical, on which correct and 
 prudent life is to be based, Among Mr. Combe's most recent public*- 
 
COMBERMERE, VISCOUNT. 
 
 tions have been his ' Remarks on the Principles of Criminal Legisla- 
 tion and the Practice of Prison Discipline :' 8vo, London, 1854; and 
 a work entitled ' Phrenology applied to Painting and Sculpture : ' 8vo, 
 London and Edinburgh, 1855. He was also author of some letters 
 on the subject of strikes by workmen, which appeared in the 'Scots- 
 man,' an Edinburgh newspaper, and which were afterwards reprinted 
 in ' The Times.' Mr. Combe resides in Edinburgh, which has been 
 the chief scene of his numerous labour3, both philanthropic and scien- 
 tific. He married in 1833 a daughter of Mrs. Siddons. [See Sop.] 
 
 COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON, FIRST VISCOUNT, 
 is eldest son of the late Sir R. S. Cotton, M.P. for Cheshire, and was born 
 about the year 1770. He entered the army in 1791 ; and served in 
 Flanders in the campaign of 1793-94. Two years later he embarked for 
 the Cape of Good Hope under Sir Thomas Craig, in command of the 
 25th Light Dragoons, and, accompanying his regiment to India, went 
 through the campaign of 1798-99 against Tippoo Sultan, and was 
 present at the siege of Seringapatam. In 1808 he accompanied Lord 
 Wellington to the Peninsula in command of a cavalry brigade ; here 
 he particularly signalised himself during the campaign in the north 
 of Portugal and in the operations at Oporto, and afterwards at the 
 battle of Talavera. In the following year he was promoted to the 
 local rank of lieutenant-general, and in 1810 was appointed to 
 tho command of the allied forces under the Duke of Wellington. In 
 this position he remained till the close of the war in 1814, dis- 
 tinguishing himself at the head of his cavalry upon every occasion, 
 and being frequently mentioned in the despatches. He covered the 
 retreat from Almeida to Torres Vedras, and took part in the battles of 
 Busaco, Fuendes d'Onor, and Salamanca, where he was severely 
 wounded ; and also in those of the Pyrenees, Orthes, and Toulouse. 
 In 1817 he was appointed governor of Barbadoes and commander of 
 the forces in the West Indies, which he exchanged in 1822 for the 
 chief command of the British forces in India, and was at the head of 
 the troops at the siege and capture of Bhurtpore in 1825-26. A 
 peerage had been granted to him for his Peninsular services, and he 
 was now raised to a viscountcy for his Indian exploits. On the death 
 of the Duke of Wellington he was appointed Constable of the Tower 
 of London and lord-lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets; and in 1855 
 was advanced to the rank of Field-Marshal in the army. His lordship 
 is a G.C.B. ; he also holds an appointment in the court as Gold Stick 
 in Waiting to her Majesty. [See Supplement.] 
 
 COME'NIUS, JOHN AMOS, was born in 1592, at Comna, in 
 Moravia, from which place he assumed the name of Comenius. His 
 parents were of the sect of Moravian brethren. After studying at 
 llerborn, near Nassau, he returned to Moravia, and became pastor 
 at Fulueck ; but that town being burnt during the religious war then 
 raging, he lost his property, including books and manuscripts, and 
 took refuge at Lesna, in Poland, where he became rector of a Moravian 
 school. He there published, in 1631, his 'Janua Linguarum,' in 
 Bohemian and Latin. This work established his reputation as a 
 philologist, and was translated into most European and some of the 
 Oriental languages. An edition in Latin, English, and French, was 
 published in London, 1639 : ' The gate of Tongues unlocked and 
 opened, or else a Seminary or Seed-plot of all Tongues and Sciences.' 
 It is a sort of encyclopaedic phrase-book, in 100 chapters, every chapter 
 being devoted to a separate department of natural history, the arts, or 
 the various professions, sciences, and trades, &c, introducing most of 
 the words belonging to each, and giving by means of the context an 
 explanation of the same. His ' Orbis sensualium pictus, hoc est, 
 omnium fundamentalium in mundo rerum et in vita actionum pictura 
 et nomenclatura,' Latin and German, Niirnberg, 1659, is a vocabulary 
 of technical words, likewise arranged in chapters, but not in connected 
 sentences, each chapter being illustrated by a woodcut representing 
 the objects therein mentioned. These two works resemble each other 
 in principle, but differ in the arrangement. The 'Orbis' also has 
 been often reprinted, and translated into various languages. A Latin 
 and English edition appeared in London, 1777. Comenius was sought 
 after by several governments for the purpose of reforming the system 
 of public instruction. He came to England in 1638, and afterwards 
 went to Sweden in 1642, where he was introduced to the Chancellor 
 Oxenstiern ; but he soon after left Sweden and retired to Elbing, 
 where he attended chiefly to the publication of his works. In 1648 
 he returned to Poland. On the invitation of Prince Ragotzky, he 
 went to Transylvania, where he established a school which he after- 
 wards transferred to Patak, near Tokay. After directing the school 
 for four years, he returned to Lesna in 1654, but was driven away 
 by the ravages of the religious war which continued in Poland. 
 Lesna was burnt by the Catholics, and Comenius again lost his books 
 and manuscripts. He at last settled at Amsterdam, where he found 
 a protector in Laurence de Gcer, who defrayed the expense of the 
 publication of his ' Opera didactica,' fol., 1657, in which Comenius 
 collected several of his works already published separately. The 
 principal of these are : 1st. ' Novissima linguarum methodus,' a sort 
 of universal grammar, with references to the German, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Hungarian, and Turkish languages ; 2nd. ' Janua) Linguarum novis- 
 sima Clavis ; ' 3rd. ' Lexicon januale, seu Sylva Latinse Linguae ; ' 4th. 
 'Schola Ludus,' which consists of dramatic pieces composed for his 
 pupils at Patak and Lesna, and in which men of various classes and 
 conditions are introduced, each speakiDg about his own profession or 
 
 COMMANDINE, FREDERIC. 
 
 trade, and using the technical words belonging to it. He wrote 
 numerous other works, some historical: ' Historia Ecclesia) Sclavonics),' 
 Amsterdam, 1660 ; ' Historia Persecutionum Ecclesia) Bohemiae,' 
 called also ' Martyrolof<iuui Bohemicum,' Berlin, 1763; 'Some Con- 
 troversies against the Socinians;' ' AntiquitateB Moravia),' which is 
 still unedited ; a Map of Moravia, with names in German and Boho- 
 mian, Amsterdam, 1027; 'Prodromus Pansophioo,' London, 1639, a 
 sort of prospectus of a universal cyclopredia, which was the dream of 
 his life. In his old age he appears to have adopted the views of some 
 religious visionaries, and to have believed in their revelations. He 
 died at Amsterdam, November 16, 1671. 
 
 COMINES, PHILIPPE DE, Lord of Argenton, was born at the 
 chateau of Comines, near Menin in Flauders, about 1445. His father 
 was in the service of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, who was also 
 sovereign of Flanders, and Philip himself was early introduced into 
 the court of Charles le Te'me'raire, Philip's son, whose councillor and 
 favourite he became for a time. When Charles made Louis XI. prisoner 
 at Pdroone in 1468, Comines exerted all his influence to calm his 
 master's violent temper ; he acted the pari of a conciliator between 
 the two princes, and succeeded in bringing about a treaty of peace 
 between them. This timely service was not forgotten by Louis. In 
 1472 Comines all at once left the service of the Duke of Burgundy, and 
 passed into that of Louis XL, who received him most graciously, and 
 made him his chamberlain and seneschal of Poitou. The reasons for 
 this step on the part of Comines have remained a secret ; probably he 
 was tired of Charles's violent temper, and foresaw his impending ruin. 
 Comines married Hclene, of the family of the counts of Monsoreau in 
 Anjou, who brought him as her marriage portion the fiefs of Argenton, 
 Coppoux, Brisson, and others. Comines was employed by Louis XI. 
 in several diplomatic missions to Savoy and other places. After the 
 death of Louis, Comines having joiued the party of the Duke of 
 Orleans (afterwards Louis XII.), who aspired to be regent during the 
 minority of Charles VIII., was arrested in 1486 on a charge of treason, 
 and shut up for several months in an iron cage at Loches, when he 
 was transferred to Paris. He was at last tried and condemned to 
 banishment, and his property was confiscated, but the sentence was 
 not executed, and the fame of his abilities induced Charles VIII. to 
 employ him in several important negociations. He accompanied Charles 
 in his Italian campaign, of which he gives a good account in his 
 memoirs. Previous to the return of the king through North Italy, in 
 the midst of the hostile armies of the Italian princes, Comines was 
 sent to Venice to endeavour to detach that state from the league, but 
 he did not succeed. The battle of Fornovo (July, 1495) secured the 
 retreat of the French across the Alps. After his return from Italy, 
 Comines retired to his estates, where he began to write his memoirs. 
 When Louis XII. succeeded to the crown in 1498, Comines repaired 
 to court to pay homage to the new sovereign, for whom he had at one 
 time suffered severe imprisonment and risked his life ; but Louis does 
 not seem to have noticed him by any marks of favour. Comines 
 returned into the country, and he died at Argenton in Poitou, October 
 1509, at the age of 04. His body was transferred to Paris, and buried 
 in the church Des Grands Augustins, where Comines had built himself 
 a chapel. His monument has been transferred to the Musee des 
 Monumens Francois. He left one daughter, who married a count of 
 Penthievre. 
 
 The memoirs of Comines contain the history of his own times from 
 the year 1464 to the death of Charles VIII. in 14 9S. He gives a 
 faithful picture of that singular character Louis XL, whom he greatly 
 extols for his political art. He is also a great admirer of the Venetian 
 government. He was a cool and sagacious observer, and seems to 
 have fully understood the crooked policy of those time3. The great 
 value of Comines's ' Memoirs' consists in his frankness and sincerity. 
 He is a matter-of-fact historian ; like his contemporary Machiavelli, he 
 paints men and politics such as he found them to be, with all their 
 selfishness, craft, and evil doings, which he relates with great imper- 
 turbability. Those historians are the mirror of their age, and what 
 that age was may be conceived by reflecting that Louis XL, Ferdinand 
 of Aragon, the Borgias, Ludovico il Moro, and others of the same 
 stamp, were the contemporaries of Comines. The ' Memoirs ' of 
 Comines have been often reprinted, and translated into various 
 languages. The edition by Godefroy and LeDglet du Fresnoy, London, 
 1747, consists of 4 vols. 4to, of which however the first volume only is 
 occupied by the 'Memoirs,' the other three being fi'ied with numerous 
 historical documents and additions. 
 
 COMMANDINE, FREDERIC, born in 1509, at Urbino, of a good 
 family, was at first in the service of Clement VII., after whose death 
 he studied medicine at Padua. Unsatisfied with the state of this 
 science, he applied himself to mathematics, and finally settled at 
 Verona as the instructor of the Duke of Urbino and his son. He died 
 there in September 1575. 
 
 This is all that is generally stated as known of Commandine, except 
 the evidence which his writings afford that he is to be placed at the 
 head of all the commentators on the mathematics of the Greeks, 
 whether as respects the care which he took to select and print valuable 
 remains (several of which would probably have been lost but for him), 
 or the knowledge which he displayed in the treatment of difficult and 
 corrupt texts. The list of works which we have collected is aa follows. 
 The dates stand at the beginning, and separate the titles : — 
 
313 
 
 1 oo S, Venice : the Psammites and Statical Treatise of Archimedes, 
 in Latin, with notes (from a bad text). 1558, Venice : Ptolemy's 
 Planisphere, with commentary, in Latin ; in the same book is Jonlauus, 
 also with a commentary. 1502, Homo: the Analcmma of Ptolemy, 
 with commentary. The original is lost, but n mutilated Latin version 
 was found by Oomtnancliuo. With this came his own work on 
 Horology, printed at Venice. 15C5, Bologna; and Pesaro, 1572: 
 Archimedes on Floating Bodies, with commentary, Latin. 1666, 
 Bologna (and several other editious) : Latin version of the four books 
 (then known) of Apollonius, with the lemmas of Pappus, the com- 
 mentary of Eutocius, and the book of Serenus on the Section of Cones 
 and Cylinders. 1570, Pesaro : the book of Mohammed of Bagdad, on 
 Division of Surfaces, which John Dee, who found it, attributed to 
 Euclid, and gave to Commandine. A translation into English, with 
 Comraandine's preface, is appended to the second edition of Dee's 
 Euclid, 1660. 1572, Pesaro : Euclid in Latin, fifteen books with 
 scholia, in folio. An Italian version of the books most commonly read, 
 under Commandine's inspection, appeared at Urbino in 1575. 1572, 
 Pesaro : Latin edition of Aristarchus, with notes. [Auistahcuus ] 
 1575, Urbino; and Amsterdam, 1680 : the Pneumatics of Hero, with 
 Latin version and notes. 1588, Pesaro; again in 1602; and Venice, 
 1589; lastly, at Bologna, 1660, edited by Manolessius : the mathe- 
 matical collections of Pappus, books 3-8 inclusive, being all which 
 remain, folio. It is sometimes stated that the edition of Pappus 
 appeared in 1558, which is not correct, as Commandine died before 
 the publication, which was superintended by his son-in-law Valerio 
 Spaccioli, as explained in the preface. 
 
 COMMELIN, JEROME, born at Douai in France in tho 16th 
 century, embraced the reformed religion and retired to Geneva, where 
 he carried on the business of a printer. His abilities both as a printer 
 aud a scholar, which in that age were often united in the same person, 
 attracted the attention of Frederic, Elector Palatine, who invited 
 Couimelin to Heidelberg, and made him his librarian. At Heidelberg 
 he published editions of several Greek and Latin authors, which were 
 valued for their correctness ; among others of Eunapius, the text of 
 which he corrected by the manuscripts in the palatine library of 
 Heliodoru?, Apollodorus, &c, to which he added critical notes. He 
 also published a handsome edition of ' Kerum Bi itanuicarum Scriptores 
 Vetustiores ac Prsecipui,' folio, under the fictitious date of Lyon, 1587, 
 dedicated to Frederic, Elector Palatiue. This collection consists of 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth, Pontius Viruunius, Gildas, Bede, Gulielmus 
 Neobrigensis, Froissart, and Buchanan's ' De Jure Regni apud Scotos.' 
 Commelin died in 1598. He has been praised for his accuracy and 
 learning by Scaliger, Casaubon, and De Thou. 
 
 Another of the same name, and probably of the same family, was 
 a printer at Leyden in the 17th century, and published a valuable 
 edition of Virgil, with Servius's Commentaries and numerous notes, 
 4to, Leyden, 1646. 
 
 COMMELINUS, ISAAC, born at Amsterdam in 1598, wrote several 
 historical works in the Dutch language ; among others — 'Hollandsch 
 PlacaatBoek, or Collection of the Acts of the Government of Holland,' 
 2 vols. foL, Amsterdam, 1644; also a 'History of the Dutch East 
 India Company,' 4to, 1646 ; the ' Lives of the Stadthouders William I. 
 and Maurice of Nassau,' fol. 1651 ; and the 'Life of Frederic Henry 
 of Nassau,' which was translated into French; ' Histoire de la Vie et 
 Actes Mdmorables de Frederic Henri de Nassau, Prince d'Orange,' fol., 
 Amsterdam, 1656, which is an interesting historical work. He also 
 collected the materials for a description of Amsterdam, which was pub- 
 lished by his son, Caspar Commelyn, 1693, 2 vols, fol., ' Beschry vinge 
 van Amsterdam, tot den jaare 1691,' fol., 1691, with plates; a second 
 and enlarged edition of which appeared in 1726. It is considered a 
 very good account of that important city. He died January 3, 1676. 
 
 James Commelyn, his brother, collected many curious and scarce 
 historical documents concerning Holland, and wrote in French, 
 ' L'Histoire des Troubles, Divisions, et deplorables Calamity des 
 Guerres Civiles survenues dans les 17 Provinces depuis le Commence- 
 ment du Regne de Philippe II., jusqu' a la Mort de Guillaume, Prince 
 d'Orange,' which remains unedited, as well as his 'Actes et Privileges 
 des Villes de Delft et Leyden, et de leurs banlieues,' 3 vols. foL 
 
 Joun Commelyn, son of Isaac, and a senator of Amsterdam (born 
 1629, died 1692), published several works on descriptive botany. One 
 of the most important of his writings, which however did not appear 
 till after his death, in 1697, was a work in folio, with very fine plates, 
 of the new plants then growing in the Medical Garden of that city. 
 
 Caspar Commelyn (born 1667, died 1731), the nephew of John, gave 
 to the world a second volume in 1702, after which he became the 
 author of two volumes in quarto upon similar subjects. At that time 
 the Dutch held in their hands the commerce of the east, and the 
 Commelyns were among the first who made known in Europe the 
 curious plants of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 CO'MMODUS, LUCIUS .ELIUS AURELIUS, son of Marcus 
 Aurelius and of his wife Faustina, was born ax. 161. At the age of 
 sixteen he accompanied his father in his journey to Syria, which had 
 been disturbed by the revolt of Avidius Cassius. On his return to 
 Rome, Commodus obtained his first consulship. He next accom- 
 panied his father in his last expedition against the Quadi and the 
 Marcomanni, during which Aurelius died at Vindebona (Vienna), aud 
 Commodus became his successor a.d. 160. Having made peace with 
 
 the northern tribes he returned to Rome, where he enjoyed a triumph. 
 For a short time he appears to have governed with moderation, wlnlo 
 several experienced officers — Albinus, Pescennius Niger, Severus, 
 Pertinax, and others — made the name of Rome respected ou the 
 frontiers of the empire. Commodus however, having dismissed the 
 counsellors aud friends of his father, gave himself up to the society of 
 froedmeu, gladiators, aud profligate women, with whom he 6peut his 
 time in debauchery. His elder sister Lucilla conspiring against him 
 with Pompeianus, Quadratus, ami other senators, they were all seized 
 and executed. Having put to death his own wife Crispina, Commodus 
 took for his coucubiue Marcia, a mistress of Quadratus, who seems to 
 have maintained some sort of influence over him till his death. But i 
 a succession of unworthy favourites engrossed all political power, aud i 
 committed every kind of injustice and cruelty. Conspiracy after con- 
 spiracy was discovered or iuveuted by them, aud a number of the 
 principal senators were put to death and their property confisoateri. 
 The favourites themselves destroyed each other in succession. One of 
 them, Perennis, was put to death with all his family, aud was replaced 
 by Cleander, a Phrygian freedman, who put up to sale all the honours 
 and offices of the empire as well as the lives of the citizens. Mean- 
 time the legions in Britain mutinied, and Commodus sent Pertinax, 
 who had been exiled by Perennis, to appease the mutiny. In Gaul 
 also a soldier called Maternus collected a numerous band of deserters, 
 but Pescennius Niger being sent against him, Maternus found means 
 to escape with several of his follower*, and came secretly to Rome 
 with the intention of killing the emperor, but he was discovered aud 
 put to death. A dreadful pestilence afflicted Rome about the same 
 time, which lasted three years, according to Dion. Commodus, to 
 avoid the contagion, retired for a time to Laureutum, where he con- 
 tinued his usual dissolute mode of life. At last a revolt broke out at 
 Rome against the favourite Oleander ; the people repulsed the Praeto- 
 rian cavalry sent agaiust them, and Commodus, to appease the ttorm, 
 ordered the favourite to be put to death. In the year 191, under the 
 consulate of Apronianus and Bradua, the Temple of Peace, one of the 1 
 most splendid buildings of Rome, took fire, and vast treasures, as well 
 as collections of books, which were deposited in it, were consumed. 
 The fire spread to the temple of Vesta, from whence the Vestals ran 
 away to the imperial palace, carrying the Palladium with them. The 
 flames extended to the imperial palace also, aud consumed part of it. 
 In the following year Commodus was consul, for the seventh time, 
 with Pertinax, whom he had recalled to Rome. Having had repeated 
 information of Severu3 aspiring to the empire, Commodus wrote to 
 Albinus in Britain offering him the title of Csesar, which was refused, j 
 [Claudius Albinus.] At the close of his career, Commodu3 set no 
 bounds to his extravagances : he disregarded common decency, exhi- i 
 bited himself in the circu3 and iu the amphitheatre with the gladiators, 
 dressed himself a3 Hercules, whose name he assumed, aud on one : 
 occasion danced naked before the spectators. (Herodian., i. 15.) Being 
 dissuaded by Marcia and some of his officers from degrading himself 
 in public in the company of gladiators, it is said that he wrote down 
 their names for execution, and that the scroll being found by Marcia 
 led to a plot against his life. However this may be, poison was 
 administered to him, and while suffering under its effect-', a powerful 
 athleta wa3 sent in, who strangled him (a.D. 192), in his thirty-second ' 
 year and the thirteenth of his reign. Pertinax, who succeedtd him, j 
 had his body buried privately, but it was afterwards transferred to the ] 
 Mausoleum of Hadrian. (Dion, lib. 12, Lampridius, and Herodiauus, > 
 i. 6-16.) 
 
 Commodus had the advantage of a good education and the example 
 of a virtuous father; he found the empire prosperous after a succession ' j 
 of wise reigns for nearly a century, with a number of able officers, 
 civil and military. He left it a prey to confusion, sedition, ill-repressed 
 irruptions of barbarians, the army demoralised, and rival generals dis- I 
 puting for the supreme power. The visible and rapid decline of the 
 Roman empire may be said to date from his reign. The plea of 
 insanity, which is put forth for Caligula's short career of frenzy, can- 
 not be extended to Commodus : his was decidedly a vicious and 
 depraved disposition, which had a full opportunity of displaying itself 
 iu the possession of unlimited power. 
 
 Coin of Commodus. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Bronze. Weight 332 grains. 
 
 COMNE'NI FAMILY. [Alexis Comnenus.] 
 
 COMTE, AUGUSTE, a French philosopher, whose peculiar system 
 
MB 
 
 COMTE, AUGUSTS. 
 
 CONCA, SEBASTIANO CAVALIIiRE. 
 
 of views has been put forth by himself, and is now generally referred 
 to under the name of " The Positive Philosophy," was born at 
 Montpellier, on the 19th of January, 1798. His family was strongly 
 Catholic and royalist. Educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, he 
 gave very early proofs not only of a speculative turn of mind, but also 
 of a dissatisfaction with the existing methods of knowledge and the 
 existing forms of society, and a belief that he was destined to play the 
 part of a Bacon in the 19th century, and initiate a new philosophical 
 revolution. Mathematics and the physical sciences occupied much of 
 his attention, but he had already extended his views to social questions, 
 and become possessed with the doctrine that the time had come when 
 all science and all philosophy must be treated from the social, as the 
 supreme point of view. It was with views and aims of this kind 
 fermenting in his mind that, while yet a mere youth, he was involved 
 within the powerful vortex of the Saint-Simonian school, which, 
 immediately after the restoration of 1815, began to figure in Paris. 
 The genius of Saint-Simon, then between his fiftieth and sixtieth year, 
 drew around him, as by a kind of magnetic fascination, a number of 
 ardent young men, whom he indoctrinated with his views, and almost 
 all of whom — notwithstanding that few of them in mature years have 
 adhered to the philosophy of their master — have been distinguished 
 in one way or another in the subsequent history of France. Of these 
 Comte was the youngest — the Benjamin, as he was called, of the 
 Saint-Simonian school. Saint-Simon had high hopes of him; and 
 when, about 1820, the school put forth, as one of their propagandist 
 works, an exposition of the scientific basis of their system, it was on 
 Cointe that the preparation of the work was devolved. The work 
 entitled ' Systeme de Politique Positive ' however only partially satis- 
 lied Saint-Simon, who said that while " it expounded the generalities 
 of his system from the Aristotelian point of view," it overlooked 
 "their religious and sentimental aspect." The truth is, Saint-Simon 
 and Comte were beginning to part company. The discrepancy did not 
 become decided till after the death of Saint-Simon in 1825, when 
 Comte broke off from the little band of Saint-Simonians — including 
 Enfantin, Bazard, Rodrigues, and Augustin Thierry — who remained 
 faithful to the views of their master, and set about forming an orga- 
 nisation for their farther propagation. Comte has subsequently spoken 
 disparagingly of Saint-Simon, and represented his temporary connection 
 with that enthusiast as rather an interruption to his own true intel- 
 lectual development than a furtherance of it ; but certainly there are 
 such coincidences between M. Comte's subsequent works and the 
 cardinal speculations promulgated by Saint-Simon when alive, that, 
 unless we can suppose that the pupil prompted the master to a greater 
 extent than usually happens in such cases, it is impossible to acquit 
 M. Comte of a certain appearance of ingratitude in his allusions to this 
 part of his education. In 1826, M. Comte was seized with what he 
 calls " a cerebral crisis," which for the time was believed to be irre- 
 coverable insanity. He did recover however, and lived to propound 
 the philosophy with which his name is associated. Supporting himself 
 by teaching mathematics — in which capacity he was professor at the 
 Slcole Polytechnique, till differences with his colleagues and the 
 accession of Louis Napoleon to the empire, deprived him of his office, 
 and reduced him to a state of indigence in which his chief support has 
 been voluntary contributions from his admirers in France and England 
 — he has within the last six and twenty years published a series of 
 works, all devoted to the elucidation of his " Positive Philosophy," 
 and in which even those who have no sympathy with that system in 
 its fundamental doctrines and its spirit, or even abhor it, recognise 
 great power of intellect, and an extraordinary fertility of generalisation 
 on all subjects. 
 
 First, published at intervals in six large volumes, between 1830 and 
 1842, came his greatest work, entitled ' Cours de Philosophie Positive.' 
 In this work, after propounding his main doctrine, which is, that the 
 human mind has, by a natural law, passed through three successive 
 stages in its thoughts upon all subjects; namely, the theological stage, 
 in which phenomena are accounted for by the supposition of the 
 agency of supernatural beings to produce them; the metaphysical 
 stage, in which, while living supernatural beings are got rid of, certain 
 abstract ideas, such as those involved in the words " Nature," 
 " Harmony," and the like, take their place in men's thoughts as the 
 productive causes of everything ; and the positive stage, in which, 
 shaking off both unseen spiritual agencies and abstractions, the mind 
 grasps the notion of the universe in all its departments as proceeding 
 according to certain laws or uniform sequences, to be ascertained by 
 observation and induction ; — he proceeds to apply this view to the entire 
 system of human knowledge. All that man knows, or can know, he 
 says, consists of certain sciences which may be arranged in a hierarchical 
 order as follows, according to the increasing speciality and complexity 
 of the facts with which they respectively deal : — 1st. Mathematics, the 
 most general and simple of all, which deals with the mere facts of 
 number and magnitude ; 2nd. Astronomy, which pre-supposes mathe- 
 matics, but takes in as additional the facts of the celestial sphere, i. e. 
 suns, planets, moons, comets, &c, as they are seen a3 mutually acting 
 masses ; 3rd. General Physics, which takes for granted mathematical 
 »nd astronomical laws, but concerns itself also with the motions and 
 other mechanical phenomena of bodies on our earth ; 4th. Chemistry, 
 which, in like manner, presupposes all the foregoing, but investigates 
 farther the phenomena of the molecular changes and constitution of 
 
 bioo. div. vol. n. 
 
 bodies; 5th. Biology (subdivided into Vegetablo and Animal, and 
 involving Psychology as a department of Animal Biology concerned 
 more immediately with tho phenomena of nerve and brain-function), 
 undertaking the farther study of individual organised beings; and 
 6thly. Sociology or the Social Science, investigating, as the most 
 complex phenomena of all, those of social or corporate life. Hitherto, 
 according to M. Comte, only the first four of these sciences have been 
 even partially emancipated from the theological and metaphysical 
 spirit, and pursued positively ; but the time has come, he thinks, for 
 the extension of the true positive or scientific spirit to all, and con- 
 sequently for the expulsion of theology and metaphysics from the 
 universe. As the apostle of this great speculative change he first 
 reviews the various sciences up to the last and chief one which, by a 
 gross but convenient grammatical hybridism, he calls Sociology, giving 
 in fact a series of treatises in which the generalities of mathematics, 
 astronomy, general physics, chemistry, and biology, are lucidly ex- 
 pounded, and then reserves his strength, in the last three volumes, for 
 Sociology. Here he reviews the history of the world, and protesting 
 against the anarchy of all existing politics, attempts to lay down the 
 basis of a true or positive politics, such as states will ultimately be 
 governed by, when the positive millennium shall have come. Apart 
 from the main purpose, this portion of the work abounds with striking 
 thoughts and propositions of wide application. 
 
 In 1843 M. Comte published a small mathematical work entitled 
 'Traite Eldmentaire de Ge'ome'trie Analytique a deux et a trois 
 dimensions,' followed not long afterwards by a popular treatise on 
 astronomy, which has been highly admired; and in 1844 he published 
 a ' Discours sur l'Esprit positif,' enforcing popularly the ideas of his 
 larger work. Within the next few years, however, a second vital 
 ' crisis ' of his life— not this time of the ' cerebral ' kind, but of the 
 sentimental —worked a certain change in his views. A virtuous 
 affection, to which he makes frequent allusion in subsequent auto- 
 biographic passages in his prefaces, for a lady named Clotilde, whose 
 death left him miserable, revealed to him, what Saint-Simon had long 
 before hinted, the deficiency and meagreness of his philosophy on the 
 sentimental and religious side. To make up this deficiency has been 
 the object of all his later activity. This he has attempted to do, 
 however, not by obliterating any part of his already-proclaimed 
 philosophy, not by calling back either cashiered theology or cashiered 
 metaphysics into the universe, but by supplementing positivisme with 
 the necessary effusion from the heart. In fact, within the last eight 
 years, M. Comte has been trying to found a new religion, consistent 
 with the fundamental doctrine of positivisme ; to accomplish which, 
 seeing that positivisme denies deity or invisible spirits of any kind 
 apart from humanity, he makes humanity itself the object of the 
 new worship. In 1848 he published a 'Discours sur l'Ensemble du 
 Positivisme,' in which the notion of the new religion, as the necessary 
 appendix to his philosophy, was promulgated, and in 1849 he pub- 
 lished a singular book of a more precise nature, entitled ' Culte Sys- 
 tematique de l'Humanite" : Calendrier positiviste, ou Systeme general 
 de Commemoration publique,' in which work he proposed a systematic 
 worship by humanity of itself, as represented in its greatest men of 
 all age3 — twelve of whom he specified as worthy to preside over the 
 twelve months of the year, while for each week he nominated sub- 
 ordinate men, and for each day minor celebrities still (it was singular 
 to the reader to note how many Frenchmen there were among these 
 gods and godkins) ; and also arranged some of the formalities of the 
 worship. In 1852 appeared the ' Catechisme Positiviste, ou sommaire 
 exposition de la Religion Universelle en onze Entretiens Systernatiques 
 entre une femme et un pretre de l'Huinanite; ' M. Comte himself 
 having in the meantime given practical effect to his views by assuming 
 the office and title of the chief priest of his own religion, preaching 
 as such, and performing the marriage ceremony and funeral rites 
 when called upon by his disciples to do so. His disciples in this 
 sense however have never been numerous ; and while publishing his 
 last work, entitled 'Systeme de Politique Positive, ou traite" de 
 Sociologie, instituant la Religion de l'Huinanite,' the first volume of 
 which appeared in 1851 and the others have been issued since, he has 
 not only been in poor circumstances, but has been complaining of 
 the desertion of his pupils one after another, and expressing his 
 sorrow that he sees no one all over the earth whom, before he dies, 
 he can ordain as his successor in the chair of the new philosophy and 
 the pontificate of the new religion. [&c Supplement.] 
 
 Those who desire farther information respecting the life and views 
 of this very extraordinary personage, will find it either in his own 
 works above enumerated, or in two works published in this country 
 presenting an abstract of his views — 'Comte's Philosophy of the 
 Sciences, being an Exposition of the Cours de Philosophie Positive,' 
 by G. H. Lewes ; and Miss Harriet Martiueau's ' Positive Philosophy 
 of Auguste Comte freely translated and condensed' (2 vols. 1853.) 
 Comte's ' Philosophy of Mathematics ' extracted from his main work, 
 has been translated in America by W. M. Gillespie ; and his ' Popular 
 Astronomy' also, if we mistake not, has found an English translator. 
 
 CONCA, SEBASTIANO CAVALIERE, a celebrated Italian oil and 
 fresco painter, was born at Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1670. 
 He was for sixteen years the pupil of Solimena at Naples, but being 
 convinced of the superiority of the Roman school, he and his brothel: 
 Giovanni determined to settle in 1706 at Rome. Conca now laid wide 
 
 2 & 
 
:17 
 
 CONDE, PRINCE DR. 
 
 the brush, and for five years exerted himself assiduously and exclu- 
 sively with the portcrayon, copying the best ancient and modern 
 works in Rome, with a view to improving his style of design, in which 
 however he was not very successful. Conca was one of the imitators 
 of Pietro da Cortona, and possessed to a great degree the facilities of 
 that master : he was ready, rapid, and superficial. His works are 
 numerous in Rome and in the Roman States. One at Siena is con- 
 sidered his masterpiece, the 'Probatica, or the Sacred Pool of Siloam,' 
 in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala. Several of Conca's works 
 have been engraved by Frey and others, and he etched a few plates 
 himself. Sebastiauo Conca died at Naples in 1764. Giovanni Conca 
 acted chiefly as his brother's assistant. 
 
 CONDE, JOSE ANTONIO, one of the few Spanish orientalists 
 who have attained a European reputation, was born at Paraleja, a 
 small town of the province of Cuenca, about 1765. He was educated 
 at the university of Alcald, where he studied not only Greek, which in 
 the days of Marti was sufficiently rare in Spain, but Hebrew aud 
 Arabic, the latter a language which ought to have peculiar attractions 
 for Spanish scholars, but which had fallen into such neglect in the 
 Peninsula that Casiri, a Syrian, had been engaged to catalogue the 
 Arabic manuscripts in the Escurial. He was intended for the law, but 
 having obtained in early life an appointment at the royal library of 
 Madrid, devoted himself entirely to literature. His first separate 
 publication appears to have been a translation of the Greek minor 
 poets, Anacreon, Theocritus, Biou, and Moschus, in 179G, which was 
 followed in 1799 by a rendering into Spanish of the Nubian geographer 
 Al-Edrisi's 'Description of Spain,' accompanied by the original Arabic, 
 a very dry performance, in which the translation is not free from 
 inaccuracies. It appears however to have acquired for Coude a high 
 reputation, and when he soon after began collecting materials for a 
 history of the Moors in Spain, he obtained the king's permission to 
 have an Arabic manuscript bearing on his purpose transcribed for 
 him at the public expense from the royal library of Paris. IIo was 
 at the same time a member of the Spanish Academy, a member and 
 librarian of the Academy of History, aud one of a commission of 
 three, consisting of Cieufuegos, Navanvte, and himself, to superintend 
 a continuation of Sanchez's famous collection of early Castiliau poetry. 
 The French invasion, which had so blighting an influence on the 
 career of almost every man in Spain, was peculiarly fatal to Conde, 
 for he had the culpable weakness to become an 1 Afrancesado,' or 
 partisan of the invaders. He was appointed by Joseph Bonaparte to 
 the office of chief librarian of the Madrid library, which he retained 
 as long as the French held possession of the capital, and when they 
 were driven from the Peninsula he followed. He pa-sed some years 
 at Paris in arranging the materials he had collected for his history, 
 and was finally permitted to return to Madrid. Gayangos assigns his 
 return to 1819, but Ticknor, the American historian of Spanish 
 literature, who visited Spain in 1818, mentions that "among the men 
 of letters'' whom he earliest knew at Madrid, " was Conde, a retired, 
 gentle, modest scholar," who, "in the honest poverty to which he 
 had been reduced," not unwillingly consented "to assist him in his 
 Spanish studies, and in the collection of his library." " Every possible 
 obstacle," says Gayangos, " was thrown in his way by the members of 
 the government, and these marks of indifference to his pursuits and 
 animosity towards his person on the part of his countrymen, and the 
 extreme poverty to which he was reduced by the refusal of govern- 
 ment to grant him any portion of the emoluments of his former office, 
 seriously affected the health of Conde, who died in 1820, just as his 
 friends were about to print his work by subscription." The first 
 volume only was printed with the advantage of the author's superin- 
 tendence, the remaining two of the history were put together from his 
 manuscripts. Conde's library was sold after his death in London, 
 and much has been said of late years respecting one of the volumes, 
 the ' Cancionero de Baena.' This unique manuscript, a collection of 
 ancient Castilian poetry, formed by a Jew named Baena, was one of 
 the most highly valued treasures of the Escurial library, and is 
 described as such in Rodriguez de Castro's 'Biblioteca Espanola.' 
 At the time that Conde was one of the commission to continue 
 the collection of Sanchez, this volume with others of value was 
 authorised to be delivered to them for the purpose of editing ; when 
 the French invasion broke up the project in 1808, it was still in 
 Conde's hands, and after his death in 1820 it was sold in London by 
 his heirs, purchased by Richard Heber, and at Heber's sale again 
 purchased by a French bookseller, who sold it to the royal library at 
 Paris, whose property it still remains. It was lent from Paris to the 
 Spanish government, for the purposes of an edition which was pub- 
 lished at Madrid by Ochoa in 1851, and it is from the preface to that 
 edition that these facts are taken. They furnish a striking argument 
 in favour of the views of those who maintain the inexpediency of 
 lending valuable books from public libraries. 
 
 The reputation of Conde now rests entirely on his ' History of the 
 Dominion of the Arabs in Spain,' of which translations have been 
 published in several languages, and one in English by Mrs. Jonathan 
 Foster, issued in 1854, occupies three volumes of Bohn's 1 Standard 
 Library.' Previous to the appearance of this work the only writer on 
 tliesubjrct who supplied information from Arabic sources was Casiri, 
 ■vhose materials were made use of by Masden in his elaborate ' Historia 
 •Je Espana,' and by the Rev. T. H. Home in his sketch of the career of 
 
 the Mohammedans inserted in Murphy's ' Arabian Antiquities of 
 Spain.' Conde in his preface is very severe on Casiri, whom ho censures 
 for a "confusion respecting persons, places, and times, which can only 
 be rectified by those who read the originals which Casiri has imper- 
 fectly rendered." Precisely the same accusation has been brought 
 against Coude himself by Gayangos and Dozy, and too conclusively 
 proved to be for a moment doubted. Yet even after the appearance 
 of Gayangos's valuable translation from the Arabic of Al-Makhari's 
 ' History of the Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain' (London, 1810-43, 
 2 vols. 4to), with its still more valuable notes, the work of Conde is 
 one to which the student may often recur with profit, especially now 
 that he is put on his guard against its mistakes and shortcomings. 
 With a great deficiency of critical power, Conde cannot be looked on 
 as au historian, but he is a useful chronicler ; and it should never be 
 forgotten that he carried light into a portion of history where little 
 indeed had been done before him. 
 
 CONDE, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON, PRINCE DE, born at Paris 
 in 1621, was the son of Henri do Bourbon, and grandson of Henri I. 
 of the same name, who with his cousin Henri of Navarre (afterwards 
 Henri IV.), figured in the civil and religious wars of France under the 
 reigns of Charles IX. and Henri III. [Henri IV.] The House of 
 Condd was a branch of the house of Bourbon. The town of Conde', in 
 Hainaut, from which it took its title, came to the house of Bourbon in 
 1487 by the marriage of Francis of Bourbon, count of Vendome, with 
 Mary of Luxembourg, heiress of St. Paul, Soissons, Enghien, aud Coude - . 
 Charles de Bourbon, the son of Francis, had many children ; the eldest, 
 Antoiue, became king of Navarro by marrying Jeanne d'Albret, by 
 whom he had Henri IV. : Louis de Bourbon, another son of Charles, 
 and the first who assumed the title of prince of Conde', was killed at 
 the battle of Jarnac, 1509. [Coligny.] He had married Eldonore de 
 Roye, dame de Couty or Conti, by whom he had Henri I. of Bourbon, 
 prince of Condd above mentioned, aud Francois, who took the title of 
 prince of Conti. 
 
 Louis II., prince of Condd, the subject of the present article, has 
 been styled 'the Great' on account of his military abilities and great 
 success. At the age of twenty-two he won the battle of Rocroi in 
 Flanders, 1G43, against a superior Spanish force. Ho afterwards 
 fought against the troops of the emperor, and gained the battles of 
 Fribourg and Nordlingen. In 1647 he was sent into Catalonia. In 
 the following year he returned into Flanders and defeated the imperial 
 army commanded by the Archduke Leopold, brother to the emperor 
 Ferdinand III., at Lens in the Artois. Meantime, the civil war of the 
 Fronde broke out at Paris; Condd was courted by both parties, aud 
 he served both in succession. He was the means of bringing back 
 young Louis XIV., the queen mother, and Cardinal Mazarin, into Paria 
 in August 1C49. Conde however put a high value on his services; 
 he was haughty and warm-tempered, and the cardinal was jealous and 
 suspicious. The result was, that after several court intrigues, and 
 plots and counterplots, Condd was arrested by order of the queen and 
 the cardinal, and kept in prison for about a year, when the parliament 
 of Paris obtained his deliverance. Being appointed governor of 
 Guienne, he treated with Spain, aud soon after raised the standard 
 of revolt, ostensibly against the cardinal, who continued to exercise 
 the whole political power of the state in spite of the general dissatis- 
 faction. Condd marched upon Paris, engaged Turenne in the Fau- 
 bourg St. Antoine, and entered Paris, where he had the parliament in 
 his favour. The cardinal having at last consented to quit the court, 
 the king published an amnesty, and re-entered Paris, 1652; but the 
 Prince of Condd retired to Flanders, where he served for several years 
 in the Spanish armies. He fought, in 1654, at Arras against Turenne, 
 who obliged him to retire, but the retreat was effected with great skilL 
 In 1656 Conde, with Don Juan of Austria, defeated the Marshal de la 
 Fertd, and obliged Turenne to retire from before Valenciennes. In 
 1658 Condd was defeated by Turenne near Dunkerque, which town 
 was taken by Louis XIV., and given up to the English, according to 
 an agreement with Cromwell. By the peace of the Bidasoa, 1659, 
 Condd was reinstated in all his honours with a full amnesty. In 1668 
 he served under Louis XIV. in the conquest of Franche Comtd. In 
 1672, Louis having declared war against Holland, Condd commanded 
 one of the corps d'armde which invaded that country; he took Weseh 
 and was wounded at the passage of the Rhine. In 1674 he gained the 
 bloody battle of Senef, in Flanders, against the Prince of Orange 
 (William III. of England), and relieved Oudenarde. In 16*75, after 
 Turenne was killed near Satzbach, Condd took the command of bis 
 army, and obliged Marshal Montecuccoli, who commanded the impe- 
 rial troops, to retire. This was Condd's last campaign. Being 
 tormented by the gout, he left the service and retired to his estate 
 of Chantilly, where he spent his latter years in the society of men of 
 letters. Racine, Boileau, Bossuet, and Bourdaloue were often his 
 guests. He died at Fontainebleau in 1686. His personal character has 
 been variously represented. Bossuet is too panegyrical. The memoirs 
 of Count Jean de Coligny, who knew him intimately, and which were 
 published in 1799, are too unfavourable and probably exaggerated. 
 (' GSuvres de Lemontey,' tome v.) Like most of the men high in 
 office at the court of Louis XIV., their master included, Condd seems 
 to have had but imperfect notions of moral principle. Desormeaux 
 has written the ' Life of Condd,' 4 vols. 12mo. The narrative of hiB 
 campaigns is interesting in a military point of view. 
 
CONDER, JOSIAII. 
 
 The line of Condd became extinct in 1830 by the death of the Duke 
 of Bourbon, son of the last prince of Condd, who, in the wars of the 
 revolution, ccmmanded a corps of French emigrants on the Rhine. 
 The Duke of Bourbon never assumed the title of priuce of Condd. 
 His only son, the young Duke d'Eughien, was put to death by Bona- 
 parte in 1804. The Duke de Bourbon himself died at Chantilly soon 
 after the revolution of July, 1830, in a manner which was much com- 
 mented upon in the newspapers of the time. 
 
 CONDER, JOSIAH, was born in Loudon on tho 17th of September, 
 1789. He was the son of a bookseller, aud very early displayed a taste 
 for literature. His first attempts were given to the world in the 
 4 Athenajum,' a monthly magazine then edited by Dr. Aikin ; and in 
 1810, in connection with a few friends, a volume of poems was published 
 under the title of ' The Associate Minstrel.' In 1S14, being at the 
 time a publisher and bookseller in St. Paul's Churchyard, he purchased 
 the ' Eclectic Review,' of which he continued to be editor until 1837, 
 though he retired from the bookselling business in 1819. Under his 
 management the ' Eclectic Review ' received the assistance of many 
 eminent men among the non-conformists, such as Robert Hall, John 
 Foster, Dr. Chalmers, Dr. Vaughan, and others. During this period 
 his industry was displayed by the production of other works also. In 
 1818 appeared two volumes 'On Protestant Nonconformity.' In 1824 
 ' The Modem Traveller' was commenced : it extended to thirty- three 
 volumes, nearly the whole of whicli were compiled by Mr. Conder, and 
 all under his superintendence. In 1S24 also appeared ' The Star in 
 the East,' a poem ; and in 1834 a ' Dictionary of Geography,' and a 
 new translation of the ' Epistle to the Hebrews, with Notes.' In 1836 
 lie edited ' The Congregational Hymn-Book,' issued under the sanction 
 of the Congregational Union ; and iu 1837 he published ' The Choir 
 and Oratory : Sacred Poems,' to w hich Mrs. Conder wa3 a contributor. 
 He was the author of many other works, but we havo mentioned the 
 principal. 
 
 Mr. Conder's reputation having become established among the 
 Dissenters, he was requested in 1832 to undertake the editorship of 
 ' The Patriot,' a newspaper recently established in the dissenting 
 interest. From this time he took a more active part in the public 
 proceedings of the Dissenters, attending their meetings, and affording 
 them the assistance of his counsels. ' The Patriot,' under Mr. Conder's 
 management, became the organ of what may be termed in politics 
 the Whig section of the Dissenters, as opposed to the Radical section ; 
 while in ecclesiastical affairs it represented the Congregationalists and 
 Baptists. For twenty-three years Mr. Conder fulfilled the duties of his 
 office with exemplary care, industry, and liberality ; producing also 
 occasionally works of importance, such as 'Au Analytical and Compara- 
 tive View of all Religions,' ' The Harmony of History with Prophecy,' 
 &c, and several pamphlets on stirring topics of the day. 
 
 Mr. Conder married in 1815 Joan Elizabeth, the daughter of Mr. 
 Thomas of Southgate, by whom he left four sons and a daughter. 
 After a short illness, he died on December 27, 1855. 
 
 CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE, was born at Grenoble in 
 1715, and was distinguished at an early age for his taste for meta- 
 physical inquiries. The works of Locke chiefly attracted his attention, 
 and were the cause of his publishing, in 1746, his ' Essai sur l'origine 
 des connoiasances humaines,' a work intended to promulgate principles 
 founded on those of the English philosopher. The tendency which 
 Locke's works had naturally produced of tracing all knowledge back 
 to sensations, induced him to publish, in 1749, his second work, the 
 ' Traitd des Systemes,' which was designed to oppose the theories of 
 Leibnitz, Spinosa, and others, as based upon abstract principles, rather 
 than what he conceived the more solid foundation of experience. His 
 third work, ' Traitd- des Sensations,' is his master-piece. The author 
 supposes a statue, which he has the power of endowing with one 
 sense at a time. He first gives it smell alone, and then traces what 
 may be the pleasures, pains, abstract ideas, desires, &c, of a being so 
 limited with regard to its faculties ; the other senses are then added, 
 and the statue gradually becomes a complete human being. His 
 works seem to have made but little impression on the general public 
 in his time, but he wa3 much sought after by those of high attain- 
 ments. Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, and Duclos were among the number 
 of bis most intimate friends, and his celebrity spread so far, that he 
 was appointed preceptor to the Prince of Parma. In this capacity he 
 published his ' Coura d'dtudes,' divided into 'L'Art d'dcrire, l'art de 
 raisonner, l'art de penser, and Histoire gendrale des homines et des 
 empires,' a series of works calculated to promote his own philosophical 
 views. Having completed the education of his pupil, he retired to 
 philosophical meditations. In the year 1768 he wa3 admitted a 
 member of the academy in the room of Abbd l'Olivet, though, strange 
 to relate, he never afterwards attended the meetings of this learned 
 body. His labours only terminated with his life, as he published his 
 ' Logique ' but a few months previous to his death, which happened 
 August 3, 1780. His ' Langue des Calculs,' a posthumous work, did 
 not appear till the year 1798. 
 
 As a philosopher, Condillac rather deserves the term ingenious than 
 profound. He has the art of developing his own views in the most 
 entertaining manner possible; in working out his theories he almost 
 becomes prolix. Not satisfied with giving his statue smell alone, 
 examining its situation in that state, and then adding the other 
 •cases, he considers it endowed with each of the other senses alone, 
 
 CONDORCET, MARQUIS DE. 360 
 
 and thus extends his ' Traitd des Sensations,' which is at best but a 
 pleasing example, to a thick volume. 
 
 Professor Stewart has justly censured the French for taking for 
 granted that Condillac was a correct interpreter of Locke, aud at the 
 same time is somewhat severe on their Locke mauia. It is clear 
 enough that Condillac was not a faithful interpreter of Locke, lie 
 had, perhaps wilfully, overlooked a very short chapter iu the ' Essay 
 on the Humau Understanding '—' Of simplo Ideas of Reflection.' 
 Locko traced all our knowledge to sensation and reflection ; Condillac 
 stopped at sensation alone, and thus produced a system which cannot 
 bo surpassed in sensualism. When his statue has smell alone, he tells 
 us, that if a rose be presented to it, it is certainly, with respect to us, 
 a statue smelling a rose ; but is, with respect to itself, nothing but 
 the smell of the flower; the very perceiving subject is to itself 
 nothing but an odour. And this was supposed to be a faithful expo- 
 sition of the doctrines of Locke— of Locke, who allows the mind ideas 
 of reflection, " when it turns its view inward upon itself, and observes 
 its own actions about those ideas it has ; " and therefore can never 
 have conceived that a perceiving being cannot divide itself in thought 
 from the thing perceived. Some have thought that Condillac imbibed 
 this notion of a sensation being to the mind only a modification of 
 itself from Berkeley ; but though Berkeley denied au inanimate sub- 
 stratum to our sensations, he certainly never went so far as to make 
 the mind take itself for a self-perceiviug sensation. 
 
 Condillac's opinion of the importance of words is much more akin 
 to Berkeley's views. AVithout words he contends we should have had 
 no abstract ideas (in tho Locke language) ; that we can only think of 
 a particular image, and our thinking of any general idea, as man, is an 
 absurdity ; that having observed something iu common to several 
 individuals, as Pete?; John, &c, we agree to call them all by the term 
 man, and that the general idea is nothing but an idea of such term, 
 or an acknowledgment that the term may fit each of the individuals 
 equally well. Something very like this may be found in Berkeley's 
 Introduction to his ' Treatise concerning the principles of Human 
 Knowledge.' 
 
 The kuowledge of our own and of other bodies, according to 
 Condillac, commences with the sensation of touch. He gives his 
 statue that sensation, aud making it strike itself with its hand, states 
 that while this hand as it were, says, on the consciousness of a 
 sensation, ' C'est moi ' (It is I), the part touched echoes the declara- 
 tion : thus the statue concludes that both parts belong to its individual 
 self, in other words, that it has a corporeal body. On the other hand, 
 if the statue touch an extraneous body, though the hand says ' C'est 
 moi,' it perceives there is no echoing sensation, and therefore concludes 
 there is another body besides its own. 
 
 Condillac has been much lauded for his ingenious views of the 
 progress of language. He begins with the language of action, and iu 
 the absence of abstract ideas among some American tribes, who have 
 scarcely any language but that of cries aud gestures, he finds a support 
 for his hypothesis that these ideas depend on words. The language 
 of action, he says, preceded that of words, and this latter language 
 still preserved much of the character of its predecessor. Thus the 
 elevation and depression of the voice succeeded the various move- 
 ments of the body. Variation of accent was so much the more neces- 
 sary as the rude people, who were beginning to lay aside their language 
 of gesture, found it easier to express their meaning by changing 
 emphasis than inventing words. This emphatic style of speaking is 
 in itself a sort of prosody, which insensibly leads to music, aud the 
 accompanying of these sounds by gestures leads to dancing, all of 
 which the Greeks called by the common name jj.ovatKii, music. He 
 then proceeds to trace the drama, rhetoric, and even the peculiarity 
 of the Greek language by regular steps, the language of action haviug 
 formed the basis of all. 
 
 On the whole, the philosophy of Condillac is a system of ultra- 
 sensualism ; by omitting reflection (in Locke's sense of the term, that 
 is, Condillac himself employs the word reflection, but signifies by it 
 nothing more than the looking back on past impressions), he makes 
 the mind perceive nothing but sensations, itself being to itself nothing 
 but a combination of sensations, and thus turn which way we will, 
 there is no escape from the world of sense. 
 
 The fullest account of Condillac's philosophy for those who do 
 not wish to peruse his voluminous works, will be found iu La Harpe's 
 ' Cours de la Littdrature : ' a short account of the influence of Locke 
 on France through his medium is given iu Professor Stewart's 'Philo- 
 sophical Essays;' but those who wish to hear Condillac himself 
 without much trouble, will find his system most fully and pleasingly 
 developed in the ' Traitd des Sensations.' 
 
 CONDORCET, MARIE- JEAN-ANTOINE-NICOLAS CARITAT, 
 MARQUIS DE, was born iu Picardy in 1743. His family owed their 
 name and title to the castle of Condorcet, near Nion, in Dauphiny. 
 His uncle, the bishop of Lisieux, who died in 17S3, superintended 
 his education, aud was the means of procuring for him the most 
 powerful patronage as soon as he was old enough to be introduced 
 into public life. He first distinguished himself as a mathematician, 
 and his success in this department soon opeued to him the door of 
 the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 It is on his application of philosophy to subjects connected with 
 the happiness of mankind and the amelioration of social institution* 
 
361 
 
 CONDORCET, MARQUIS DE. 
 
 CONFUCIUS. 
 
 852 
 
 that Lis fame chiefly rests. The friend of D'Alembert and of his 
 illustrious contemporaries, Condorcet was one of the warmest and 
 most distinguished of Voltaire's disciples. He cannot, it is true, be 
 placed in the first rank, either as a deep thinker or original writer ; 
 nevertheless his meditative and lofty mind, his unabated zeal in the 
 pursuit of truth, his generous ardour, which never cooled or shrunk 
 from the difficulties which it had to encounter, his perseverance in 
 applying himself to all sorts of useful pursuits, and the multiplicity 
 of his labours, have all contributed to assign him a conspicuous place 
 among those who have exercised an influence over the destinies of his 
 country. 
 
 His philosophical views have been widely circulated, and the 
 practical effect of them is still visible. The main doctrine which he 
 sought to inculcate, and which is contained in his ' Esquissc des 
 Progres de l'Esprit humaiu,' was the perfectibility of man, considered 
 both in his individual and social capacity. According to him, the 
 human frame and intellect, by the aid of time and education, would 
 infallibly attain to perfection. This was the creed which he proposed 
 to substitute in tho place of the sanctions of morality and religion. 
 This singular notion, with which he was so deeply imbued, has given 
 to his philosophy a peculiar and special character, which distinguishes 
 it alike from the sceptical fatalism of Voltaire and the gloomy dog- 
 matism of Diderot. In the philanthropic mind of Condorcet philo- 
 sophical speculations were blended with the deepest sympathy for his 
 fellow-men, and the most unwearied activity in promoting all such 
 reforms as he thought useful. Of his maguauimity and elevation of 
 soul he gave ample proof in the heroic conduct which ho pursued in 
 the hour of difficulty and danger. Proscribed by the Convention as a 
 ' Qirondin,' he voluntarily quitted tho house of his friend Madame 
 Verney, which had afforded him an asylum during eight months of 
 the first revolution, rather than expose her to the consequences of a 
 decree which might have made it a capital crime to harbour or conceal 
 an outlawed deputy. Houseless, and wandering about the country 
 round Paris, he endeavoured to conceal himself in the numerous 
 quarries with which its neighbourhood abounds. At last the pressure 
 of hunger drove him into a small inn in the village of Clumart, where 
 he incautiously betrayed himself by exhibiting a pocket-book obviously 
 too elegant for one in so destitute a condition. He was arrested, and 
 though exhausted by want and fatigue, and with a sore foot occasioned 
 by excessive walking, he was conveyed to Bourg-la-Reine, and thrown 
 into a dungeon. On the morrow (28th of March 1794), he was found 
 dead in his cell, having put a period to his existence by swallowing 
 poison, which he always carried about him in order to avoid the 
 ignominy of the scaffold. 
 
 The mathematical works of Condorcet are numerous, consisting in 
 great part of memoirs in the ' Transactions' of the academy. In pure 
 mathematics he devoted himself mostly to the development of the 
 differential and integral calculus : he lived during the time when the 
 higher parts of that science began to assume their present powerful 
 form ; and his labours on the subject of differential equations must 
 preserve his name in connection with their history. His applications 
 of mathematics are, — 1, the problem of three bodies, in which he had 
 no particular success ; 2, the application of the mathematical theory 
 of probabilities to judicial decisions, at that time a new and ingenious 
 speculation, the grounds of which are generally misunderstood, but 
 which was treated by Condorcet with a degree of power which entitles 
 his work to no mean rank among those which have led the way to a 
 perception of the extensive bearings of the integral calculus. Con- 
 dorcet is not in the very first rank of mathematicians, but very high 
 in the second. As a literary author, his ' Eloges des Academiciens 
 morts depuis 1699,' procured for him the perpetual secretaryship of 
 the Academy of Sciences, and furthered his election to the French 
 Academy. Though decidedly inferior to Fontenelle's 'Eloges Acade- 
 miques,' both in point and simplicity, they nevertheless show Condorcet 
 to be a pure and elegant writer, as well as a good judge of the merit 
 of others. His ' Lives of Voltaire and Turgot,' in which these 
 qualities are most apparent, are moreover distinguished by the 
 enlightened philanthropy, the philosophical zeal, and that desire for 
 improvement, which was always the strongest feeling in the author's 
 heart. The style in which they are written is clear, and if some- 
 what monotonous, is not altogether devoid of force and spirit. Besides 
 his numerous works (of which he had not time to undertake a regular 
 and careful revision), he contributed several articles to the papers 
 entitled the ' Feuille Villageoise,' and the ' Chronique de Paris.' But 
 the grand work of Condorcet was his ' Esquisse du Progres de l'Esprit 
 humain,' which he wrote while he was seeking refuge from proscription, 
 and for which he had no other materials except such as he had 
 treasured up in his own vast and capacious memory : it is a work 
 more remarkable for depth of thought than brilliancy of style. 
 
 Another of his most remarkable productions was his ' Plan for a 
 Constitution,' which he presented to the Convention, at whose request 
 he had undertaken to draw up a report on public instruction. His 
 treatise on this subject abounds in enlarged and lofty views, and 
 contains the justest notions on the art of expanding the faculties and 
 forming the character. 
 
 Good-nature and kindness were the foundation of his dispositions. 
 If he was deficient in anything, it was in imagination. His outward 
 deportment was cold and reserved, and characterised by a certain 
 
 degree of awkwardness and timidity. Nevertheless he possessed more 
 real warmth of feeling and greatness of soul than those unacquainted 
 with him would have suspected. D' Alembert used to characterise him 
 as a volcano covered with snow. His private as well as public conduct 
 was firm, disinterested, and straightforward ; and being fully satisfied 
 that a system of equality was the only one compatible with tho happi- 
 ness and real interests of mankind, he made no account of his own rank, 
 title, or fortune, but was willing to sacrifice them all to promote the 
 darling object of his hopes and wishes. 
 
 Under the old regime he refused the request of the Academy in 
 1777 to pronounce an dloge on the Duo de la Vrilliere, minister of 
 Louis XV. He subsequently resigned the place which he held under 
 the administration that he might avoid being brought into contact 
 with M. Nccker, whom he suspected of having intrigued against his 
 friend Turgot. In the earlier period of the revolution, Condorcet used 
 every effort to bring about those changes which he had so often desired 
 to see accomplished for the good of his country, and became an active 
 member of the Comitd des Subsistances. 
 
 Being called to the Convention after the fall of the monarchy, he 
 rallied round the Qirondius in order to oppose that portion of the 
 assembly known by the name of Montagnards from their occupying the 
 highest seats in the Convention. In his efforts to found a republic 
 in France upon a philosophical basis, Condorcet sacrificed his life to 
 his opinions. The purity and benevolence of his intentions, and his 
 magnanimous devotion of himself to the cause in which he had 
 embarked, are the imperishable records of his fame. His wife, who 
 was of the family of Grouchy, and one of the most beautiful women 
 of her day, distinguished herself by a correct and elegant translation 
 of Adam Smith's ' Theory of Moral Sentiments.' Condorcct's works 
 have been collected and published in 21 volumes 8vo. 
 
 CONFUCIUS. The real name of Confucius was Koong-foo-tse : the 
 Jesuit missionaries gave it the latinised form in which we use it. 
 
 According to some authorities, Confucius lived five centuries and a 
 half, and, according to others, only four centuries and a half, before 
 the Christian era. There is a difference of opinion as to the place of 
 his birth, but that honour is now generally given to the state of Loo, 
 within the district now called Keo-fow Hien, a little to the eastward 
 of the great canal in Shan-tung province, where he was educated, and 
 where he married in the nineteenth year of his age. He was the only 
 son of a woman of illustrious birth. His father, who had several 
 other sons by another wife, held a high government office, but dying 
 some three years after his birth, seems to have left the future philo- 
 sopher very indifferently provided for. Marvellous stories are told of 
 his love of study when a child, and of his early proficiency in learning 
 and philosophy. The Chinese also record a little fact that may interest 
 phrenologists, namely, that Coufucius's head was remarkable for the 
 elevation of its crown. His object in acquiring knowledge was to turn 
 it practically to the purposes of good government, and he accordingly 
 devoted himself exclusively to moral and political science. He 
 divorced his wife after she had borne him a son, "in order," say the 
 Jesuits, who excuse this part of his conduct, " that he might attend to 
 his studies with greater application." When he thought himself 
 sufficiently qualified to instruct the barbarous age in which he lived, 
 he quitted his solitude for the courts of princes. China was not then 
 united under one emperor : this union did not take place until two or 
 three centuries after the philosopher's death. But when Confucius 
 began his mission there seem to have been as many independent kings 
 in China as there were in England under the Saxon heptarchy. From 
 the vast extent of the country, each of these states or kingdoms was 
 probably as large as all England put together. The Chinese were not 
 then more pacific than the rest of mankind : the neighbouring states 
 made war upon each other, and every part of the Celestial empire was 
 in its turn deluged with blood. Not long before the birth of Confucius 
 the horrors of internal warfare had been augmented by some of tho 
 belligerents calling in the foreign aid of the Tartars; but when the 
 philosopher commenced his travels a powerful international confederacy 
 had been formed, under which the whole of China was comparatively 
 tranquil. He journeyed through these various states in a condition of 
 simplicity and poverty, devoting himself to the instruction of all ranks 
 in his precepts of virtue and social order. His proselytes gradually 
 increased, and he at length reckoned as many as 3000 disciples, of 
 whom seventy-two were more particularly distinguished by their 
 devotion to their master, and ten were so well grounded in all sorts of 
 knowledge that they were called, by way of excellence, 'the ten wise 
 men.' In his visits to the different princes he endeavoured to prevail 
 upon them to establish a wise and peaceful administration. His 
 wisdom, his birth, his popularity, recommended him to the patronage 
 of the king3, but his laudable designs were frequently thwarted by 
 envy and interest. After many wanderings and disappointments he 
 became prime minister, with a recognised authority to carry his 
 theories into practice in his native country Loo. At this time he was 
 fifty-five years old. In three years he is said to have effected a 
 thorough change in the moral condition of the kingdom. The happi* 
 ness and prosperity created by the philosophic prime minister excited 
 the jealousy of the neighbouring kings ; the sovereign of Loo was soon 
 induced to abandon his benefactor, and Confucius was obliged to fly 
 to the northern parts of China. He was subsequently repulsed at 
 three different courts, to which he applied for office in order that he 
 
863 
 
 CONFUCIUS. 
 
 CONGLETON, LORD. 
 
 8M 
 
 might render the people happy; and, after sustaining many other 
 sorrows, he withdrew to the kingdom of Chin, where he lived in great 
 poverty. His doctrines however had taken root, and it was at this 
 time of adversity that his disciples were most numerous. He went 
 again to Loo, his native country, but vainly solicited to be re-employed 
 in the government. 
 
 According to some authorities he enjoyed a few glimpses of royal 
 favour in his latter days, being sought after by the rulers of several 
 states, and employed in high offices, which matured his knowledge 
 and experience ; but it seems more certain that his rigid principles, 
 and the firm uncompromising manner in which he carried them into 
 practice, always made him many enemies. His zeal endangered his 
 life more than once, but he regarded death with a stoical eye. At 
 length, full of years, if not of honours, he retired from the world, in 
 company with a few of his chosen disciples, to write or complete those 
 works which became the sacred books of the Chinese, and which have 
 survived twenty-two centuries. He died in his seventy-third year. 
 His sepulchre was raised on the banks of the Soo river, and many of 
 his disciples, repairing to the spot, deplored the loss of their great 
 master. The envy and hatred of his contemporaries soon passed away. 
 When peace was restored, and the empire amalgamated, his writings, 
 which had largely contributed to that happy issue, were looked upon 
 as of paramount authority in all matters ; and to mutilate, or in any 
 way to alter their sense, was held to be a crime deserving of condign 
 punishment. Unfortunately however the obscurity of the language, 
 and the difficult involved nature of the written character of the 
 Chinese, rendered involuntary alterations and mistakes of the sense 
 numerous and inevitable. 
 
 Though Confucius was left to end his life in obscurity, the greatest 
 honours and privileges were heaped upon his descendants, who have 
 existed through sixty-seven or sixty-eight generations, and may be 
 called the only hereditary nobility in China. They flourish in the 
 very district where their great ancestor was born, and in all the revo- 
 lutions that have occurred their privileges have been respected. In 
 the earlier part of the 18th century, under the great emperor Kang-hy, 
 the total number of descendants amounted to 11,000 males. In every 
 city, down to those of the third rank, styled Hien, there is a temple 
 dedicated to Confucius. The mandarins, all the learned of the land, 
 the emperor himself, are bound to do him service. This service 
 consists in burning scented gums, frankincense, tapers of sandal-wood, 
 &c, and in placing fruit, wine, flowers, and other agreeable objects, 
 before a plain tablet, on which is inscribed, "0 Confucius, our revered 
 master, let thy spiritual part descend and be pleased with this our 
 respect, which we now humbly offer to thee." The ceremony is 
 precisely the same as that which every man is enjoined to observe in 
 the hall of ancestors to his parents, &c. 
 
 " It was the great object of Confucius," says a recent writer, " to 
 regulate the manners of the people. He thought outward decorum 
 the true emblem of excellence of heart ; he therefore digested all the 
 various ceremonies into one general code of rites, which was called 
 Le-ke, or Ly-king, &c. In this work every ritual in all the relations 
 of human life is strictly regulated, so that a true Chinese is a perfect 
 automaton, put in laotion by the regulations of the Ly-king. Some of 
 the rites are most excellent : the duties towards parents, the respect 
 due to superiors, the decorum in the behaviour of common life, &c, 
 speak highly in favour of Confucius ; but his substituting ceremony 
 for simplicity and true politeness is unpardonable. The Ly-king 
 contains many excellent maxims and inculcates morality, but it has 
 come to us in a mutilated state, with many interpolations." (Gutzlaff, 
 ' Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern.') 
 
 In the writings of Confucius the duties of husbands towards their 
 wives were slightly dwelt upon. On the other hand, the duties and 
 implicit submission of children to their parents were extended to the 
 utmost, and most rigidly inculcated. Upon this wide principle of 
 filial obedience the whole of hia system, moral and political, is founded. 
 A family is the prototype of his nation ; and, instead of the notions of 
 independence and equality among men, he enforces the principles of 
 dependence and subordination — as of children to parents, the younger 
 to the elder. (Dr. Morrison.) By an easy fiction the emperor stauds 
 as the father of all hi.a subjects, and is thus entitled to their passive 
 obedience ; and, as Dr. Morrison observes, it is probably (he might say 
 certainly) this feature of his doctrines which has made Confucius such 
 a favourite with all the governments of China, whether of native or 
 Tartar origin, ?or so many centuries. At the same time it should be 
 observed that this fundamental doctrine has rendered the Chinese 
 people slavish, deceitful, and pusillanimous, and has fostered the 
 growth of/ a national character that cannot be redeemed by gentleness 
 of depor/tment and orderliness of conduct. 
 
 CtonMcius was a teacher of morals, but not the founder of a religion. 
 His doctrines constitute rather a system of philosophy in the depart- 
 ment ' of morals and politics than any particular religious faith. 
 (Davfis.) Arnauld and other writers have broadly asserted that he did 
 not frecognise the existence of a God. (Bayle, ' Philos. Diet.,' in article 
 ' Ma ldonat.') In his physics Confucius maintains that " out of nothing 
 ther e cannot possibly be produced anything ; that material bodies 
 mug* have existed from all eternity; that the cause (' lee,' reason) or 
 priu jciple of things must have had a co-existence with the things them- 
 •elv-fes ; that therefore this cause is also eternal, infiuite, indestructible, 
 
 without limits, omnipotent, and omnipresent ; that the central point 
 of influence (strength) whence this cause principally acts is the blue 
 firmament (' Tien '), whence its emanations spread over the wholo 
 universe ; that it is therefore the supreme duty of the prince, in the 
 name of his subjects, to present offerings to Tien, and particularly at 
 the equinoxes ; the one for obtaining a propitious seed-time, and the 
 other a plentiful harvest." He taught his disciples that the human 
 body is composed of two principles— the one light, invisible, and 
 ascending ; the other gross, palpable, and descending : that on the 
 separation of these two principles the light and spiritual part ascends 
 into the air, whilst the heavy and corporeal part sinks into the earth. 
 The word 1 death ' never enters into his philosophy ; nor on common 
 occasions is it employed by the Chinese. (Barrow.) When a person 
 dies, they say " he has returned to his family." The body, it was 
 difficult to deny, resolved itself into its primitive elements, and became 
 a part of the universe ; but, according to Confucius, the spirits of the 
 good were permitted to visit their ancient habitations on earth, or such 
 ancestral halls or other places as might be appointed by their children 
 and descendants, upon whom, while they received their homage, they 
 (the dead) had the power of conferring benefactions. Hence arose the 
 indispensable duty of performing sacred rites in the hall or temple of 
 ancestors ; and all such as neglected this duty would be punished after 
 death by their spiritual part being deprived of the privilege of visiting 
 the hall of ancestors, and of the supreme bliss arising from the homage 
 bestowed by descendants. A belief in good and evil genii, and of 
 tutelar spirits presiding over families, houses, towns, and other places, 
 inevitably arose out of this system. It does not appear however that 
 either Confucius or any of his followers attached the idea of a personal 
 being or form to the Deity ; nor have the true Confucians ever repre- 
 sented the Great First Cause under any image or personification what- 
 soever. The images and idols of China belong to other faiths. It 
 was soon found that the notions of Confucius were too abstract and 
 ideal for the mass of his countrymen, who, like the rest of mankind in 
 nearly all ages and all countries, required something material to fix 
 their attention and excite their devotion. 
 
 The moral doctrines of Confucius include that capital one, which, 
 however neglected in practice, has obtained in theory the universal 
 assent of mankind ; he taught his disciples " to treat others according 
 to the treatment which they themselves would desire at their hands." 
 In his doctrines there is an evident leaning to predestination or 
 fatalism, and to fortune-telling, or predicting events by the mystical 
 lines of Fo-shee. With all his defects and omissions, Confucius was 
 however a most wonderful man. His system, without making any 
 pretension to a divine legation, still continues to prevail throughout 
 the most extensive empire in the world. Some religions may have 
 lasted as loDg, or longer ; but we believe no philosophic code can 
 claim anything like such a lengthened period of active practical exist- 
 ence. The Tibetan, the Buddhist, aud other religions, have divided, 
 and still divide influence with it, but have never overthrown its 
 empire. The superstitious and the vulgar of all classes, from the 
 emperor on the throne to the poor sailor on board the junk, may burn 
 gilt paper and offer sacrifices to wooden idols, practise incantations, 
 and offer up prayers to the " invisible mother of heaven ; " but, at the 
 same time, they all revere the name of Confucius, and the mora 
 enlightened pretend to be wholly guided by his merely philosophical 
 code. The body of his laws and instructions is still followed, not only 
 by the Chinese, but by Coreans, Cochin-Chinese, and other people, 
 who, taken collectively, are estimated at 400,000,000 of souls. 
 
 The classical or sacred works written and compiled by Confucius 
 and his disciples are nine in number ; that is to say, the 'Four Books' 
 and the ' Five Canonical Books.' The first of the ' Four Books ' is the 
 ' Ta-heo,' or ' The School of Adults ;' the second the ' Choong-yoong,' 
 or ' Infallible Medium ; ' the third the ' Lun-yu,' consisting of the 
 conversations and sayings of Confucius, recorded by his disciples, and 
 which, according to Sir J. F. Davis, is " in all respects a complete 
 Chinese ' Boswell ' ;" and the fourth the ' Meng-tse,' which contains the 
 additions and commentary of Meng-tse, or Mencius, as he is called by 
 Europeans, who lived about a century after Confucius. The ' Five 
 Canonical Books,' all said to be written or compiled by Confucius him- 
 self, are, the ' Shy-king,' or ' Book of Sacred Songs ; ' the ' Shoo kiug,' 
 which is a history of the deliberations between the ancient sovereigns 
 of China ; the ' Ly-king,' or ' Book of Rites and Ceremonies,' which is 
 considered as the foundation of the present state of Chinese manners, 
 and one of the causes of their uniform unchangeableness ; and lastly, 
 the ' Chun-tsieu,' which is a history of the philosopher's own times 
 and of those which immediately preceded him. 
 
 (Sir J. F. Davis, The Chinese : a General Description of China and its 
 Inhabitants, London, 1S36 ; Gutzlaff, Sketch of Chinese History, ancient 
 and modern; Travels of the Jesuit Missionaries; Bell (of Antermony), 
 Barrow, Staunton, &c.) 
 
 CONGLETON, RIGHT HONOURABLE HENRY BROOKE PAR- 
 NELL, LORD, was born 3rd of July 1776, and was the second son of 
 the Right Honourable Sir John Parnell, Chancellor of the Irish 
 Exchequer ; his mother was Letitia Charlotte, second daughter and 
 co-heir of Sir Arthur Brooke, of Colebrooke, in the county of Ferma- 
 nagh, Bart. He was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and after 
 leaving the university he spent some time abroad. His elder brother 
 having been born a cripple, and incapable of articulating, the estates 
 
CONON. 
 
 bad, in 1789, been settled by act of parliament upon Henry, and be 
 came into possession of them upon the death of his father in 1801. 
 The baronetcy, an Irish one, fell to him upon the death of his brother 
 in 1812. 
 
 On the 17th of February 1801, Mr. Parnell married Lady Caroline 
 Elizabeth Dawson, eldest daughter of John, first Earl of Portarlington, 
 and granddaughter of the Earl of Bute, George III.'s prime minister; 
 and at the general election in 1 802 he was returned to Parliament for 
 the borough of Portarlington, of which his father-in-law was the 
 political patron. But a few weeks after the opening of the session he 
 resigned his seat to make way for Mr. (afterwards Sir) Thomas 
 Tyrwhitt; and he remained out of parliament till March 1806, when 
 he was again returned as one of the members for Queen's County. 
 This seat was commanded by the conjoint influence of his own pro- 
 perty, of that of Lord Portarlington, and of that of Lord De Vesci, 
 who was also his near relation. Sir Henry sat in every succeeding 
 parliament as one of the members for Queen's County till the general 
 election in 1832, when he declined a contest with the Repeal of the 
 Union party, and Mr. Lalor was elected in his place. In April 1833, 
 he was returned for Dundee ; and he was elected again for the same 
 place in 1835 and 1837. In August 1841 he was removed to the 
 tipper House by being created Baron Congletou, of Cougleton, in the 
 county of Chester, from which county the Parnell family originally 
 came. 
 
 Sir Henry Parnell's political course was throughout that of an 
 adherent to the most liberal section of the Whig party. Upon the 
 accession of the Whig ministry in 180G he was made a Lord of the 
 Treasury in Ireland. He made the motion on the civil list which 
 dissolved the ministry of the Duke of Wellington in the end of 1830 ; 
 and on the accession of his friends to power, which followed, he was 
 made Secretary at War. In 1832 however a difference with his col- 
 leagues on some financial points led to his resignation ; and he 
 remained out of office till the formation of Lord Melbourne's adminis- 
 tration in 1S35, when he was made paymaster of the forces and 
 treasurer of the ordnance and the navy, both which offices he retained 
 till the breaking up of the ministry to which he belonged in August 
 1841. He had also served as chairman of the finance committee 
 appointed by the House of Commons in 1828. In 1833 he was made 
 a member of the government commission appointed to inquire into 
 the excise ; and he was also chairman of the Holyhead Road com- 
 mission. In each of these investigations he took a leading part. 
 Lord Congleton had been for some months in a state of health which 
 made it necessary that he should bo carefully watched ; but on the 
 morning of the 8th of June 1842, having been left for a few minutes 
 alone, he put an end to his life. He left two sons and three 
 daughters. 
 
 Besides corrected reports of five speeches which he delivered in the 
 House of Commons, Sir Henry Parnell published the following trea- 
 tises and pamphlets : — ' Observations on the Currency of Ireland, and 
 upon the Course of Exchange between London and Dublin,' 1804 ; 
 ' The Principles of Currency and Exchange, illustrated by Observa- 
 tions on the State of Ireland,' 1805; 'An Historical Apology for the 
 Irish Catholics,' 1807 ; 'A History of the Penal Laws against the Irish 
 Catholics, from the Treaty of Limerick to the Union,' 1808 ; ' Treatise 
 on the Corn Trade and Agriculture,' 1809; 'Observations on the Irish 
 Butter Acts,' 1825; 'Observations on Paper Money, Banking, and 
 Overtrading,' 1827 ; ' On Financial Reform,' 1830 (his principal work, 
 several times reprinted) ; and ' A Treatise on Roads,' 1833, reprinted 
 183S. 
 
 CONGREVE, WILLIAM, was the second son of Richard Congreve 
 of Congreve in Staffordshire, and was born at Bardsa, near Leeds, 
 about 1072. His father, who held a commission in the army, took him 
 over to Ireland at an early age, and placed him first at the Great 
 School at Kilkenny, and afterwards under the direction of Dr. St. George 
 Ashe, in the University of Dublin. After the revolution in 1688 he 
 returned to England, and was entered as a student in the Temple. 
 His first play, written at the age of nineteen, was the ' Old Bachelor,' 
 which was produced with great applause at Drury-Lane in 1693; and 
 Dryden is said to have remarked that he had never seen such a first 
 play. The next year he produced ' The Double-Dealer,' and in 1695, 
 joining with Betterton, they commenced their campaign at the new 
 house in Lincoln's Inn Fields with a new comedy written by Congreve, 
 called 'Love for Love.' In 1697 he produced his tragedy of 'The 
 Mourning Bride,' and two years afterwards the comedy of ' The Way 
 of the World.' The indifferent success of this last play disgusted him 
 with the theatre, and he determined to write no more for the stage. 
 Through the friendship of his patron the Earl of Halifax, he was first 
 made one of the commissioners for licensing hackney-coaches, then 
 presented with a place in the Pipe Office, and after that with one in 
 the Customs, worth 600?. per annum. On the 14th of November 
 1714 he was appointed commissioner of wine licences, and on the 17th 
 of December, in the same year, nominated secretary of Jamaica. The 
 last twenty years of his life were spent in retirement, and towards its 
 close he was much afflicted with the gout and with blindness. Being 
 overturned in his chariot on a journey to Bath, he received, it is 
 supposed, some internal injury, and, gradually declining in health, 
 died on the l'Jth of January 1729, at his house in Surrey-street in the 
 Strand, Loudon, aged fifty-six, and was buried on the 26th of 
 
 January in Westminster Abbey. Mr. Congrevo was also the author o| 
 a romance called 'The Incognita, or Love and Duty reconciled,' 
 written at the age of seventeen ; ' The Judgment of Paris,' a uia?que ; 
 'Semelo,' an opera, and several poems. Congreve was as Johnson 
 truly enough observed, undoubtedly an 'original' writer, as he " bur- 
 rowed neither the models of plot, nor the manner of his dialogue." 
 But the plot is confused, and in the conduct of it little attention it 
 given to propriety or probability. His characters are untrue, and 
 artificial, with very little of nature, and not much of life. His scenes 
 seldom exhibit humour or passion ; his personages are a kind of intel- 
 lectual gladiators — every sentence is toward or strike; the contest 
 ol smartness is never iutermitted ; his wit is a meteor, playing to and 
 fro with alternate coruscations. He has abundant wit, but it is neither 
 very original nor very choice, and as cold and feeble as genuine wit 
 can well be. His only tragedy, 'The Mourning Bride,' although very 
 successful, is a piece of unrelieved bombast. 'Love for Love' is the 
 only play of Congreve's which has still possession of the stage, aud 
 even that is rarely acted, as its wit cannot atone for the exceeding 
 grossness of the dialogue. 
 
 CONGREVE, SIR WILLIAM, Baronet, was the son of the first 
 baronet, an artillery officer of the same name, and was born in Middle- 
 sex May 20, 1772. He was destined by his father to a military life, 
 and in 1816 had attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel of artillery, 
 when he retired from the service. 
 
 He very early distinguished himself by his inventions in the con- 
 struction of missiles. The rocket which bears his name was invented 
 in 1808, and proved a most destructive engine. It was used with 
 great effect by Lord Cochrane in his attack on the French squadron 
 in the Basque roads, at Walcheren, aud at Waterloo, and the Emperor 
 of Russia 6ent Sir William the decoration of St. Anne for its service at 
 the battle of Leipzig in 1813. The rocket has however been much 
 modified aud improved since, and become an essential part of every 
 armament, not in England alone, but universally. Sir William, who 
 succeeded his father as baronet in 1814, had sat in parliament for 
 Gatton in 1812, aud in 1820 and 1826 he sat for Plymouth. He was 
 patronised by the Duke of York, took an active part in the improve- 
 ments aud ameliorations introduced by him into the army, and was 
 inspector of the royal laboratory at Woolwich. In 1816-17 Sir William 
 was appointed to attend on the Grand-Duke Nicholas (afterwards 
 Emperor of Russia) on his tour through England. In 1826, when the 
 speculative mania ran high, Sir William became connected with the 
 Arigna Mining Company : he in fact contracted to sell certain mines 
 to the company of which he was to become a director. The honesty 
 of the contract was impugned, and became the subject of a suit in 
 chancery, and the Lord Chancellor decided that the transaction was 
 fraudulent. This decision was announced on May 3, 1828 ; Sir William 
 retired to Toulouse, and there he died on the 14th of the same mouth. 
 
 Sir William wrote and published ' An Elementary Treatise on the 
 Mounting of Naval Ordnance,' 1812, and ' A Description of the Hydro- 
 pneumatic Lock,' 1815. In 1815 also he obtained a patent for a new 
 mode of manufacturing gunpowder; and in 1819 a patent for the 
 manufacture of bank-note paper for the prevention of forgery. 
 
 CONON, an Athenian general, was the son of Timotheus. The drat 
 time he is mentioned in history is B.C. 413, in the eighteenth year of 
 the Peloponnesian war, when he had the command at A'aupactus on 
 the Corinthian gulf. (Thucyd. vii. 31.) Conon was the chief of the 
 ten generals who were appointed to the command of the Athenian 
 fleet, when Alcibiade3 and Thrasybulus were removed from office, aud, 
 though at first beaten in a sea-fight by Callicratidas [Callichatidas] 
 the Lacedtemonian general, he afterwards gained a signal victory at 
 Arginusse. Lysander being appointed a second time to the command 
 of the Spartan fleet, engaged with Conon at iEgospotarai, and defeated 
 him, B.C. 405. Immediately despatching to Athens the sacred ship 
 'Paralus' with the news of the defeat, Conon himself fled to Salamis 
 in Cypru?, where the friendship of the king, Evagoras, sheltered him 
 from the obloquy or punishment which he would have encountered at 
 home. 
 
 Isocrates has given us a pleasant picture of the intimacy which 
 subsisted between the Athenian general ana!' the Prince of Salamis 
 during Conon's residence in Cyprus. Here fo\£ a time he kept aloof 
 from action, watching attentively the progress of affairs : the negocia- 
 tions, which he commenced with the Persian saSfcrap Pharnabazus, 
 terminated in a speedy union of the Persian aud AtlieUiian forceB with 
 those of Evagoras, with the view of stopping the progress of the 
 Lacedaemonians. Evagoras, Conon, and Pharnabazus together, raised 
 a powerful fleet, in the command of which Pharnabazus waSi materially 
 assisted by the experience of Conon. Falling in with tMB enemy's 
 fleet near Cnidos, they gained a complete victory, B.C. 394. T»e galley 
 of the Spartan general, Peisander, being driven on shore, mos\t of his 
 crew escaped ; but Peisander disdained to save himself by SigHl^ an( i 
 was killed on board his ship. The consequences of this victorA^f 1 ^ 
 of great importance to the interests of Athens ; and Isocrates ('Plli u P-' 
 §§ 94, 95) represents Conon as having completely destroyed! t' 16 
 Lacedsemoniau empire. Of the Grecian islands, some surrendereif- 
 once, and others showed a readiness to renew their old alliance, '.this 
 was a juncture too favourable to be lost sight of, and accordifco'y 
 Conon and Pharnabazus hastened to follow up their success bjt m 
 invasion of the Thracian Chersonese. Town after town submittc* 
 
ssr 
 
 CONON. 
 
 CONRAD IV. 
 
 tbem, and the people abandoned their lands. Sestos and Abydos still 
 held out, bvit the approach of winter at last put an end to the attempt 
 at reducing them, and the satrap and Athenian admiral began to 
 prepare for the operations of the ensuing spring, at the commencement 
 of which they proceeded without delay to the coast of Lacouia, and 
 ravaged the country in various parts, B.C. 393. Conon seized the 
 opportunity, which the flush of their present success afforded, for 
 obtaining from Pharnabazus many important favours for his country. 
 The satrap allowed him the use of his fleet for recovering the payment 
 of tribute from the islands, and not only gave a large sum of money 
 towards the rebuilding of the long walls at Athens, which had been 
 demolished by the Spartans at the close of the Pelopouneaian war, 
 but sent men to assist in the work. At this time Conon appears to 
 have returned to Athens, amidst the joy and congratulations of his 
 countrymen : hia portrait, with that of Evagoras was placed beside the 
 statue of Zeus Soter, as a memorial of their gratitude. 
 
 At the time when Antalcidas was sent on an embassy from Sparta 
 to conclude a peace with the Persian king, Conon, the Athenian ambas- 
 sador, was one of those who refused to give their assent to such terms 
 as were proposed for their acceptance. The result was that he was 
 imprisoned by the Persian minister Teribazus, on pretence of his 
 adopting measures detrimental to the great king. What became of 
 liim afterwards we have no certain information. According to some 
 he was brought up before the king himself and put to death ; while 
 others affirm that he escaped from confinement. He probably escaped 
 to Cyprus, where he had considerable property. Lysias, who (' On 
 the Property of Aristophanes,' §§ 635-646) gives an account of Conon's 
 property in Cyprus, states that it was disposed of after his death. 
 The words of Lysias (§ 640) certainly imply that he died a natural 
 death, and was not murdered. He appears to have died about B.C. 3S8. 
 (Clinton, ' Fast. Hel.') He had a wife in Cyprus at the time of his 
 death. 
 
 (Isocratea and Lysias, as cited above; Xenophon, Jlelleniea, i. 4-7; 
 iv. 3-8; Diodorus Siculus, xiii. and xiv ; Nepos, Life of Conon; 
 Plutarch, Life oj Lysander, and of Artaxerxes.) ■ 
 
 CONON, of Alexandria, a friend of Archimedes, in whose writings 
 he is mentioned as having a great knowledge of geometry. He was 
 the proposer of the spiral which bears the name of Archimedes. 
 Seneca says that he made a collection of the observations of eclipses 
 made by the Egyptians ; and he i.s said to have given the appellation 
 Coma Berenices to the constellation so named. None of his works 
 have been preserved. 
 
 CONRAD I., Count of Franconia, was elected king of Germany 
 A.D. 911, on the death of young Ludovic IV., the son of Arnulf, and 
 the last of the Carlovingian dynasty in Germany. He was chiefly 
 engaged during his reigu in making Li3 authority respected by the 
 turbulent dukes or great vassals, his electors; among whom Henry, 
 duke of Saxony and Thuringia, wa3 the most powerful and most 
 troublesome. The Huns too attacked Germany, and pushed their 
 depredations a3 far as Bavaria. Conrad went to oppose them, and 
 received a mortal wound in battle, December 918. In his last moments, 
 knowing the ambition and power of Duke Henry, he recommended 
 to his brother Eberhard and his other relatives the propriety of 
 renouncing their own views, and of electing the Saxon duke as the 
 ODly means of giving peace and stability to Germany. His advice 
 prevailed, and Henry, called the Fowler, was elected after his death 
 by the title of Henry I. Conrad was never crowned emperor or king 
 of Italy, the Italians having chosen a separate king, Berengarius, 
 marquis of Friuli. 
 
 CONRAD II., called the Salic, duke of Franconia, was elected king 
 of Germany after the death of Henry II., in 1024. He annexed the 
 vast dominions of Burgundy to the German confederation, forced 
 the king of Poland to do homage for Silesia, and ceded the duchy of 
 Schleswig to Canute, king of Denmark, as a fief, on the same con- 
 dition. The great feudal nobles of Italy were at variance among 
 themselves and with the towns. They had acknowledged the princes 
 of the House of Saxony for their kings, and Conrad their successor 
 crossed the Alps to enforce a like submission. He was crowned king 
 of Italy at Monza by Heribert, archbishop of Milan, in 1026, after 
 which he convoked a general diet of Lombardy in the plain of Ron- 
 caglia, near the Po, not far from Piacenza. In this diet he regulated 
 the feudal legislation of Italy, the jurisdiction of the great feudatories, 
 the successions, &c. He then proceeded to Rome, where he was 
 crowned in 1027 by Pope John XIX., as emperor and king of the 
 Romans, with the titles of Caesar and Augustus : his wife, Gisela, was 
 crowned empress at the same time. Two kings, Rudolf III. of 
 Burgundy and Canute of Denmark, were present at the ceremony. 
 
 Rudolf of Burgundy having died in 1033, the crown of that 
 kingdom devolved upon Henry, Conrad's sou, and Rudolfs nephew 
 by his mother; but it was not without a war that Conrad secured his 
 son's inheritance. About 1035 there was a general rising in Lombardy 
 
 |f the vassals, or sub-feudatories, against the great lords, secular aud 
 elerical, and especially against the archbishop of Milan. A battle was 
 fought between Milan and Lodi, in which the archbishop was defeated, 
 »nd the bishop of Asti was killed. In 1036 Conrad marched into 
 Italy with an army to quell the disturbances; he deposed Heribert 
 and imprisoned him, but the people of Milan rote in favour of their 
 archbishop, and resisted all the forces of the emperor. During the 
 
 two years that Conrad passed in Italy he visited Romo and Monte 
 Casino, deposed Pandolfo, prince of Capua, aud gave the principality 
 to his brother. A pestilence having spread among tho imperial 
 troops in 1038, Conrad returned into Germany, and in June 1039 died 
 at Utrecht. He was succeeded by his son, Henry III. 
 
 CONRAD III., of the House of Hohenstauffen, Duke of Franconia, 
 aud nephew of Henry V., was elected king of Germany in 1138, after 
 the death of Lotharius II., who had succeeded Henry. Conrad had 
 already been proclaimed King of Italy during the life of bis uncle. 
 Henry the Proud, of the House of VVelf, duke of Saxony and of 
 Bavaria, who had married Lotharius's daughter, and whose sway 
 extended from tho Baltic to the Alps, had also pretensions to tho 
 imperial crown. Conrad, assembling a diet at Wurzburg, stripped 
 Henry both of Bavaria, which he bestowed on Leopold V., margrave 
 of Austria, and of Saxony, which he bestowed on Albert the Boar, 
 who was descended from the ancient dukes of that province. A civil 
 war was the result : Henry the Proud preserved Saxony, but dying 
 in the midst of the war, his rights descended to his infant son 
 Henry, afterwards styled the Lion. Welf, brother of Henry the 
 Proud, expelled Leopold from Bavaria, A battle was fought at Wins- 
 berg in Suabia, between Welf and Conrad, which was lost by the 
 former, and is memorable as having given rise to the distinctive names 
 of Guelphs and Ghibelines, which became the rallying words of two 
 opposite parties that desolated Germany and Italy for centuries. At 
 the battle of Winaberg, the war cry of the Saxons and Bavarians was 
 that of their leader ' Welf ; ' and that of the imperial troops was 
 ' Weiblingen,' a town of W iirtemberg, the patrimonial seat of the 
 Hohenstauffen family. The two names were originally applied to 
 the respective adherents of the Saxon duke and of the emperor; but 
 that of Welf soou became extended to all the rebels or disaffected to 
 the imperial authority. The Italians*, adopting the distinction long 
 after, named Guelphs all the opponents, aud Ghibelines the supporters 
 of the imperial authority in Italy. [Guelphs and Ghibelines.] 
 
 For the moment however peace was made in Germany : Henry the 
 Lion was acknowledged Duke of Saxony, and gave up Bavaria to the 
 margrave of Austria. Albert tho Boar was indemnified for the lo3s 
 of Saxony by the erection of Brandenburg into an independent 
 margravate, which his own successes over the Sclavonic tribes bordering 
 on the Baltic soon raised to an equal rank with Saxony, Bavaria, 
 Suabia, aud the other great provinces of the empire. Having thus 
 given peace to Germany, Conrad was induced by the preaching of 
 St. Bernard to assume the cross. He set out with a numerous host 
 for the East, by the way of Constantinople. In conjunction with 
 Louis VII. of France, he penetrated into Syria, and besieged Damascus 
 and Ascalon, but without success. Conrad having lost most of his 
 followers, returned disappointed to Germany, which he found again 
 distracted by the intrigues of Welf. He defeated Welf, and died in 
 1152, as he was preparing to set out for Italy to receive the imperial 
 crown from the hands of the pope. He was succeeded by his nephew, 
 Frederick of Hohenstauffen, duke of Suabia, surnamed by the Italians 
 ' Barbarossa.' 
 
 CONRAD IV., son of Frederic II. emperor of Germany, and king 
 of Italy and of Sicily, was elected King of the Romans in his father's 
 lifetime ; but at the death of Frederic, in 1250, he found a competitor 
 for the crown of Germany in the person of William of Holland, who 
 was supported by all the influence of Innocent IV. The pope excom- 
 municated Conrad, as the son of the excommunicated Frederic, and 
 released all his subjects of Germany and Italy from their allegiance. 
 This was an epoch of the greatest animosity in Italy between the 
 Guelphs and the Ghibelines. The popes were bent on the destruction 
 of the house of Hohenstauffen, the great leaders of the Ghibelines, 
 who had stoutly resisted the universal temporal sovereignty which 
 was assumed by the see of Rome. Naples, Capua, and other towns 
 of Apulia and Sicily, revolted against Conrad, but Manfred, the natural 
 son of Frederic, who had been left regent of the kingdom in the 
 absence of his brother, brought back most of them to their allegiance, 
 and laid siege to Naples. 
 
 In 1251 Conrad, on arriving in Italy, was well received by the 
 Ghibeline party, which was strong in Lombardy, especially at Verona, 
 Pa via, Cremona, Piacenza, Tortona, Pistoia, and Pisa. In 1252 Conrad 
 passed into Apulia, aud on receiving the oath of allegiance from many 
 of the barons, he asked the pope for the investiture of the kingdom 
 of Sicily and Apulia; but the pope maintained that all Conrad's 
 rights were forfeited through the rebellion of his father against the 
 authority of the church. Conrad, strengthening his army with the 
 Saracen colonists who had been removed from Sicily by his father 
 and settled in Apulia, at Lucera, and in the neighbourhood, took 
 Naples after an obstinate defence, and razed the walls of that town. 
 Meantime the pope was offering the crown of Sicily, first to Richard 
 of Cornwall, afterwards to Edmund III., son of Henry Crookback, of 
 England, and lastly, to Charks, count of Anjou, who accepted it. In 
 125°4, while Conrad was preparing to return to Germany to oppose 
 William of Holland, he was taken ill at Lavello. in Apulia, aud died 
 on May 21. The Guelphs spread a report that Manfred had poisoned 
 him in order to possess himself of the crown of Sicily and Apulia, as 
 they had already accused him of having hastened the death of his 
 father Frederic; but these reports are deserving of little notice. 
 Conrad left one only son, called also Conrad, who, on account of hia 
 
SCO 
 
 CONRADIN. 
 
 CONSTANS. 
 
 360 
 
 tender age, was styled by the Italians Conradino, or little Conrad. 
 [Conbadin.] The young prince was brought up in Germany, and 
 Manfred remained regent of the kingdom of Sicily and Apulia in the 
 name of his nephew. For the Ghibeline version of all those tran- 
 sactions, see Raumer's ' Geschichte der Hohenstauffen,' and for the 
 Guelph part, the numerous Italian writers, and Sismondi's ' Histoire 
 des Rdpubliques Italiennes.' 
 
 CONRADIN, CONRADI'NO, son of Conrad IV. and of Elizabeth 
 of Bavaria, was born in 1252; his father died in 1254. He was 
 acknowledged as Duke of Suabia, but his father's splendid inherit- 
 ance of Sicily and Apulia passed into the hands first of Manfred and 
 afterwards of Charles of Anjou, by the battle of La Qrandella, 1265, 
 in which Manfred was killed. 
 
 In the autumn of 1267, Conradin, when not 16 years of age, set 
 out for Italy at the head of a few thousaud men. At Verona he was 
 well received by the great Ghibeline leaders of northern Italy. He 
 entered Rome without opposition, the pope being then at Viterbo, and 
 thence took the road of the Abruzzi. He met his opponent, Charles, 
 at Tagliacozzo, near the Lake of Celano, on the 23rd of August 126S. 
 The battle was long contested ; the Germans had at first the advan- 
 tage, and, elated with success, were pursuing the French, when Charles, 
 who had been lyiug in wait, came up with his reserve and completely 
 routed them. Couradin escaped from the field of battle with his 
 cousin Frederic, duke of Austria, and others, and descending from the 
 mountains reached the village of Astura, on the sea-coast near the 
 Pomptine marshes, expecting to find some means of reaching the fleet 
 of his allies the Fisans, which was in the neighbourhood. But John 
 Frangipani, lord of Astura, seized upon him and delivered him up to 
 Charles for a sum of money. He was taken to Naples, tried, and, not- 
 withstanding the protest of a celebrated jurist, Guido da Luzzano, 
 and others, he was condemned and beheaded in the market-place on 
 the 29th of October 1268, together with Frederic of Austria and 
 several of their followers. The story of the glove said to have been 
 thrown down by Conradin from the scaffold, to be delivered to Peter 
 of Aragon, the husband of Constance, daughter of Manfred, does not 
 seem sufficiently authenticated. A chapel was raised on the place of 
 the execution. The chapel no longer exists ; bnt in the vestry of the 
 new church of Sauta Croce al Mercato, built opposite to it, is a small 
 column of porphyry, which once stood on the very spot of the 
 scaffold, with a Latin distich commemorative of the event. ( Valery, 
 1 Voyages en Italie.') Conradiu's mother hastened from Germany to 
 ransom her son. Coming too late, she used the money in founding 
 the great convent Del Carmine, where the remains of Conradin and 
 Frederic of Austria were deposited behind the great altar. 
 
 CONSALVI, E'RCOLE, CARDINAL, born at Rome in June 1757, 
 studied for the church, but applied himself likewise to belles lettres, 
 music, and the arts. He became a monsignore, or prelate attached to 
 the papal court, and was made, by Pius VI., Uditor di Ruota, or mem- 
 ber of the highest civil court of the Roman state. When Cardinal 
 Chiaramonti became pope he made Consalvi, whom he knew and 
 appreciated, a cardinal deacon, with the title of Santa Maria ad Mar- 
 ty res, in August 1800, and appointed him at the same time his 
 secretary of state, or first minister. 
 
 In 1801 Consalvi repaired to Paris, and concluded the concordat 
 with the first consul, Bonaparte. His pleasing manners and liberal 
 opinions procured him marked attention duriug his stay in the French 
 capital. In 1806, when Bonaparte began to quarrel with the pope, he 
 insisted upon Consalvi being removed from his office, under the pre- 
 tence that he was ill affected towards him, which meant in reality that 
 he defended the interests and rights of his own sovereign. Consalvi 
 himself urged the pope to accept his resignation for the sake of peace. 
 Pius at last unwillingly received it, and appointed Cardinal Casoni his 
 successor. Consalvi remained at Rome during the following years 
 until the abdication of the pope in 1809. After that event he was 
 exiled from Rome with the other cardinals, but some time afterwards 
 he was allowed to join the pope at Fontainebleau. On the release of 
 the pope, and his return to Rome in 1814, Cardinal Consalvi was rein- 
 stated in his office of secretary of state, and continued the presiding 
 minister of the court of Rome till the death of Pius, 20th of August 
 1823. Consalvi did not long survive his master and friend, to whom 
 he had been faithfully attached through all the vicissitudes of a long 
 and stormy pontificate, and between whom and him there was both 
 sympathy of mind and mutual confidence. [Pius VII.] Cardinal 
 Consalvi died at Rome, January 24, 1824. He was buried in the 
 church San Marcello, where a monument was raised to him by the 
 sculptor Rinaldi. An excellent full-length likeness of him by Sir 
 Thomas Lawrence is in the royal gallery at Windsor. 
 
 Consalvi's administration of the papal state forms an epoch in the 
 history of modern Rome. He abolished numerous abuses and old 
 customs which were no longer in accordance with the state of society. 
 He was favourable to rational change. By the Motu Proprio of 1816 
 all feudal taxes, monopolies, and exclusive rights, were suppressed. 
 Torture and the punishment of the corda, or estrapade, the use of 
 which had long disgraced the most frequented street of Rome, were 
 likewise abolished, as well as the punishment of death for the indefinite 
 and undefinable offence of heresy. A new civil code, a commercial 
 code, and a penal code, were ordered to be framed. The maintenance 
 of the registry of mortgages (introduced by the French), a better system 
 
 of police, and the establishment of workhouses for the poor in the 
 principal towns, aro among the results of Consalvi's administration. 
 He also took strong measures to extirpate the banditti from the 
 Campagna, and in one instance, July 1819, he ordered the town of 
 Sonnino, one of their notorious haunts, to be razed to the ground. 
 New concordats were entered into with France, Naples, Bavaria, and 
 other German states. 
 
 (Compendio htorico sil Pio VII., Milano, 1824 ; Biografia degl' 
 Italiani viventi, art. Consalvi ; and Tournon, Etudes Statistiques sur 
 Rome.) 
 
 CONSTABLE, JOHN, was born at East Bergholt, in Suffolk, in 
 1776. His father, Golding Constable, was a miller, and John, the 
 second son, was originally intended for the church ; but as he showed 
 an aversion or disinclination to study, his father gave up this design 
 and endeavoured to make a miller of him, in which business Constable 
 was actually engaged for about a year. His time was however chiefly 
 spent in contemplating and studying the characteristics of natural 
 scenery : he displayed much originality of observation in his attempts 
 at portraying its beauties, and his mind became gradually engrossed 
 in sketching and the study of landscape. His taste for art had early 
 displayed itself : when at school at Dedham he was in the habit of 
 neglecting his lessons for his pencil. 
 
 The result was his adoption of landscape-painting as a profession, 
 and in this he was instructed by R. R. Reinagle, R.A., and he received 
 much encouragement from Sir George Beaumont. In 1795 he visited 
 London, but returned to his native place; in 1799 he again visited 
 London with a view to try his fortune, and in 1800 he was admitted 
 as a student into the Royal Academy. For mauy years he was a 
 steady exhibitor in the Royal Academy, but his works attracted little 
 atteution, owing probably to the unpretending nature and extreme sim- 
 plicity of his style. He professed to despise, and probably did despise 
 all styles and conventionalities ; he used to say, " There is room enough 
 for a natural painter ; the great vice of the day is bravura — an attempt 
 " to do something beyond the truth." He was right ; and in no great 
 number of years his merits were acknowledged by the public. 
 
 In 1820 Constable took a house at Hampstead, where he chiefly 
 resided ; he had also a house in Charlotte-street, Fitzroy-square, where 
 he kept a gallery of his works, for, though admired, many of his 
 paintings remained on his hands. At length in 1S29 he received the 
 tardy professional acknowledgment of his merits by his election as a 
 Royal Academician : he was then in his fifty-third year. He was taken 
 ill on the night of the 30th of March 1837, and died in less than au 
 hour afterwards. 
 
 Constable has painted many excellent pictures, and all his works 
 improve in colour by age; the 'Corn-Field' in the National Gallery is 
 one of his best works, and the 'Valley Farm ' in the Vernon Gallery 
 is a very good example of his style. His style is fresh, original, and 
 peculiar, and his scenes are generally extremely simple. His attention 
 was in fact more engrossed by certain minutiae and transient effects in 
 nature than by a love for the picturesque or beautiful of scenery. 
 He carried this attention to minutiaj so far as to repeat in many of 
 his pictures the representation of the effect of the morning dew, an 
 effect, however pleasing, extremely transient; and but one, and not 
 the most beautiful, of the ever- varying effects of nature. This effect 
 of dew, of which he was so fond, is a distinctive characteristic of his 
 works, and has caused them to be styled mouldy by some critics, who 
 in tho earlier part of his career exercised their functions with little 
 charity towards the painter ; but if the ' connoisseurs ' of art showed 
 little sympathy for the painter's intense love of nature, he in return 
 was not slow to express his contempt for their commonplace conven- 
 tionalities. Constable appears indeed to have been very early influenced 
 by his own views of things, for when a young man, being asked by Sir 
 George Beaumont what style he proposed to adopt, he answered, "None 
 but God Almighty's style, Sir George." 
 
 Constable's character both as a man and an artist is well described 
 in the following account of him by his friend and fellow-academician, 
 Mr. Uwins, in a paper read at the Phrenological Society in 1843 : — 
 " He seemed to think that he came into the world to convince mankind 
 that nature is beautiful. Instead of seeking for the materials of poetic 
 landscape in foreign countries amidst temples and classic groves, or in 
 our own amongst castles, lakes, and mountains — he taught that the 
 simple cottage, the village green, the church, the meadow covered with 
 cattle, the canal with its barges, its locks and weedy banks, contained 
 all the materials and called up all the associations necessary for picture. 
 He doted upon his native fields. ' I love,' said he, ' every stile, and 
 stump, and lane in the village : as long as I am able to hold a brush 
 I shall never cease to paint them.' " 
 
 (Memoirs of the Life of John Constable, Esq., R.A., composed chiefly 
 of his Letters, by C. R. Leslie, Esq., R.A., 4to, London, 1842.) 
 
 CONSTANS, son of Constantine, was at an early age appointed 
 governor of Italy, Africa, and Western Illyricum, and on the division 
 of the empire, these countries were apportioned to him. His elder 
 brother Constantine, being envious of his share, attacked him, but 
 was defeated, and killed near Aquileia, in 340 ; after which Constans 
 took possession of his brother's dominions, and became emperor of 
 the whole west. Magnentius, commander of the troops in Gaul, 
 having revolted against him, and drawn a great part of Gaul into his 
 party, Constans, who happened to be in that province at the time, was 
 
181 
 
 CONSTANT DE REBECQUE. 
 
 CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH. 
 
 obliged to take flight towards Spain, when he was pursued and over- 
 taken at the foot of the Pyrenees by some emissaries of Magnentius, 
 and killed, A.D. 350. He is represented by the historians as indolent 
 and rapacious; Zosimus accuses him also of cruelty and other crimes, 
 but Zosimus wrote under the influence of party feeling. The character 
 however of all the three sons of Constantine is open to much censure. 
 Coustans protected the Christian faith, as established by the couucil 
 of Nicsea, against the Arians and Donatists, and he also shut up many 
 heathen temples. After the death of Constans, Magnentius took pos- 
 session of Italy and of Rome, and styled himself Augustus, until he 
 was overthrown by Constantius. [Constantitjs.] 
 
 CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, HENRI BENJAMIN, was bom at 
 Lausanne, October 25, 1767. Whilst a mere youth his father carried 
 him to England, and placed him at the University of Oxford; he was 
 then sent to a German college, and finished his studies at Edinburgh. 
 There he met with Erskine, Mackintosh, and other young men of 
 liberal opinions, from whom he is supposed to have acquired those 
 principles of political liberty which he retained through life. He was 
 married in 1787 to his first wife, but the union was not auspicious, 
 and he obtained a divorce two years after. Constant returned to France 
 in 1795, after travelling some time in Germany, and the next year his 
 pamphlet, ' On the Strength of the existing Government in France,' 
 was produced. In 1799 the First Consul placed him on the ' Tribunat,' 
 but the independent spirit evinced by the young Swiss in resisting the 
 encroachments of his power displeased Bonaparte, who consequently 
 banished him in 1801. Madame de Stael was ordered to leave the 
 country about the same time. During his exile, Benjamin Constant 
 visited most of the European courts, and in 1808, the authoress of 
 ' Corinne ' having refused his hand, he married Mademoiselle de 
 Hardenberg. His famous brochure, ' On the Spirit of Conquest and 
 Usurpation,' appeared in 1813. 
 
 In 1814 he returned to Paris, and wrote several pamphlets, in all of 
 which he maintained the fundamental interests of constitutional 
 liberty with that sound judgment and lucid exposition, which formed 
 the leading characteristics of his talent. He also advocated the cause 
 of Louis XVIII. in the 'Journal des De"bats ' and other newspapers. 
 It was in this journal that appeared, March 19, 1815, his vehement 
 philippic against Napoleon, on the eve of the emperors return to the 
 Tuileries : " Never will I crawl, like a base deserter, from power to 
 power . . . under Louis XVIII. we enjoy a representative govern- 
 ment . • . under Bonaparte we endured a government of Mamelukes. 
 He i3 an Attila, a Gengis Khan. . . ." But, a few days after this bold 
 denunciation, Constant became a councillor of state under this 
 Attila, and assisted Count Mold in drawing up the Acte Additionnel. 
 
 The second fall of Napoleon restored Constant to France, and the 
 department of La Sarthe elected him their deputy in 1819. For the 
 next eleven years, he attached himself to the opposition party in 
 the Chambers; became its leader after the death of General Fay, 
 in 1825, and was considered by many as the greatest debater France 
 had seen since the Revolution. His popularity was almost unrivalled. 
 But for some time previous to the Revolution of July he was observed 
 to droop, and his friends heard him deplore " the too rapid advance 
 of popular feelings." He openly condemned the insurrection of the 
 Three Days. His health was declining fast, and after lingering a few 
 months, he died on the 8th of December 1830, at the age of 63. M. 
 Constant possessed remarkable facility of composition, and a very 
 large number of political brochures proceeded from his pen, as well as 
 various works in general literature, including a drama founded on 
 Schiller's 'Wallenstein.' One of the most ambitious of his later works, 
 was a treatise, ' De la Religion considered dans sa source, ses formes et 
 ses de'veloppements,' 5 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1824-31 ; and a sort of 
 supplementary publication was his posthumous work, entitled, ' Du 
 Polytheisme romain conside're' dans ses rapports avec la philosophie 
 grecque et la religion Chre'tienne,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1838. 
 
 CoNSTANTINE THE GREAT. [Constantinus, Flavius Vale- 
 Bins.] 
 
 ^ CONSTANTINE, POPE, a native of Syria, succeeded Sisinnius in 
 708. He visited Constantinople and Nicomedia, where he was received 
 with great honour by the Emperor Justinian the younger. After his 
 return to Rome he defended the worship of the images against John, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, and against Philippicus, who had usurped 
 the empire. Felix, archbishop of Ravenna, who had at first refused to 
 acknowledge Constantine, and had been exiled in consequence, made 
 his submission to him, and was reinstated in his see. Constantine died 
 in 715, and was succeeded by Gregory II. 
 
 * CONSTANTINE, NIKOLAEVICH, the second of the four sons 
 of the Emperor Nicholas of Russia, who named them after his brothers 
 and himself, so that in two successive generations of the Russian 
 imperial family the four names present themselves in the same order, 
 Alexander, Constantine, Nicholas, Michael. The second Constantine 
 was born on the 21st of September 1827 (new style), and was declared 
 admiral of the fleet by his father in 1831, when he was four years old. 
 As he grew up he manifested an ardent attachment to the profession 
 to which he had been thus early devoted. His chief instructor was 
 Captain, afterwards Admiral Liitke, a man of science as well as a 
 seaman, who had become celebrated by his voyage from Cronstadt to 
 Kamtschatka and back in 1826-27, in the course of which he discovered 
 several new islands. Under his guidance his pupil became minutely 
 
 MOO. D1V. VOL. IX, 
 
 acquainted with all tho technicalities of the profession, and stoi 
 were current in Russia of disputes between them, in which Liitko 
 had opposed the caprices of the young prince with the manly freedom 
 which we are accustomed to regard as characteristic of a sailor. 
 Whatever truth *here may have been in these reports, it is certain 
 that their manner towards each other when they were on a visit to 
 England in 1847, was such as to convey the notion that in familiar 
 phrase they "got on very well together." Constantine in his boyish 
 studies displayed a marked predilection for everything Russian, and 
 also for the study of the oriental languages, of one of which, Turkish, 
 he made himself completely master. These circumstances, and his 
 general reputation for quickness and talent, earned him a wide popu- 
 larity in Russia, especially with the old Russian or anti-foreign party, 
 to the disadvantage of his elder brother, Alexander, who was looked 
 upon as comparatively dull and spiritless. An id a appeared to gain 
 ground in Russian society, that as in one generation a Constantine 
 had broken the law of succession by vacating the imperial throne, in 
 another a Constantine would do so by mounting it. Stories were 
 current such as we find recorded in Sclmitzler, that once when 
 Alexander remarked that the task of governing a nation was burden- 
 some, his brother instantly rejoined, "If that weighs htavy on you, 
 only speak the word, and I will relieve you of the burden." On one 
 occasion Constantine put his brother under arrest for a breach of 
 discipline, in coming aboard bis, the Admiral's, vessel without having 
 obtained his leave, and the Emperor, who was seriously offended at 
 the proceeding, was not reconciled to Constantine till in return he 
 had made him suffer an arrest of considerable length. In 1845 
 Constantine paid a visit to Constantinople, being the first prince of 
 the Russian imperial family who had done so. The embarrassing 
 visitor was received by Abd-ul-Mejid with every show of welcome, 
 though the way in which he was met by the Greeks evinced that they 
 had not forgotten the old prophecy, that the city which had been lost 
 to the Turks under one Constantine, should be won from the Turks 
 under another. In 1847 he assumed the command of the 'Ingerman- 
 land,' a ship of the line which had been launched at Archangel under 
 his own direction, to make a cruise in the Mediterranean for the 
 purpose of visiting his mother, the empress, then an invalid at Palermo. 
 On this occasion he paid a flying visit to England, and went over 
 many of the public establishments, signing himself at the model-room 
 at Somerset House "post-captain in the Russian navy." He left a 
 favourable impression on almost all with whom he came in contact. 
 His appearance was more that of a vivacious German student than of 
 a Russian prince, to which his practice of wearing spectacles contri- 
 buted. He speaks French and English with perfect fluency, having 
 like the rest of the imperial family, acquired the latter language 
 from Dr. Law, the English chaplain at St. Petersburg. He was soon 
 afterwards received with great distinction at Algiers by the Due 
 d'Aumale, at that time in command of Algeria, and after paying a visit 
 to Naples and Rome, he left his ship and returned home through 
 Germany. On his way he was betrothed to the Princess Alexandra of 
 Saxe Altenburg, to whom he was married the next year, and by whom 
 he has three children, a son and two daughters. In the dispute 
 between Russia and the western powers which led to the war of 1S54- 
 56, Constantine was throughout considered to be ou the warlike side, 
 and the great support of the old Russian party. He was entrusted 
 with the command of the defensive measures against the French and 
 English in the Baltic, in conjunction with his inseparable companion, 
 Admiral Liitke. It can hardly be said that the high expectations 
 entertained of his abilities by his countrymen have been realised. If 
 the English navy has suffered some loss of credit from not having 
 gained any signal victory, the Russian navy can hardly be considered 
 to have come with honour from a contest, in which all its efforts have 
 been directed to avoid the hazard of a battle. So remarkably timid 
 a line of policy was in striking contrast with the reputation which the 
 prince had long enjoyed for spirit. On the other hand his humanity 
 to the prisoners and other good qualities are highly spoken of in Lieu- 
 tenant Rover's 'English Prisoners in Russia.' The death of the 
 Emperor Nicholas led to no collision between his sons, as had long 
 been anticipated, both in and out of the empire, and to all appearance, 
 Constantine has hitherto been the most submissive as well as the first 
 of his brother's subjects. 
 
 CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH, the second son of the Emperor 
 Paul of Russia, and the brother of two other emperors, was born at 
 St. Petersburg on the 8th of May (new style) 1779. The baptismal 
 name of Constantine was bestowed on him at the desire of his grand- 
 mother the reigning empress Catharine, and was generally considered 
 to indicate her wish that this grandson would accomplish the 
 prophecy current among the Greeks, that a Constantine should once 
 more reign at Constantinople. Greeks were placed about him from 
 the cradle to interest him in their native language; but the child 
 took a disgust to it from the vci - y outset. As he grew up his favourite 
 study was military exercises and manoeuvres, and he showed many 
 signs of obstinate and eccentric character like that of his father, th-n 
 the Grand-duke Paul, to whom he also bore a striking resemblance in 
 features, which were the reverse of beautiful. At the age of seven- 
 teen he was united to a lady of fifteen, the Princess Juliana of 
 Saxe-Coburg, sister of the present Duchess of Kent. The marriage, 
 which took place in 1796, the year of Catharine's death, did not turn 
 
303 
 
 CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH. 
 
 CONSTANTINUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS. 
 
 out happily ; four years afterwards the parties separated by mutual 
 consent. In 1799 Constantine took part in the campaigu of Suvorov 
 in Italy, and displayed a daring bravery, but no great talents for 
 command. On the death of his father the Emperor Paul he was 
 eager for revenge, and was only persuaded to be quiet by his respect 
 for his brother Alexander, which was carried to an extent altogether 
 remarkable in so wild and wayward a character, and even exposed him 
 at times to the charge of servility. He earned his proudest military 
 laurels on the field of Austerlitz in 1805, where, at the head of the 
 reserve composed of ten battalions and eighteen squadrons of 
 the guard, he withstood with fiery energy the charge of Bernadotte, 
 and when victory was impossible, retreated in good order. In all the 
 subsequent phases of the contest against Napoleon which terminated 
 so triumphantly for Russia, he maintained the reputation of a brave 
 and hardy soldier. At its close when Alexander succeeded, in spite 
 of a formidable diplomatic opposition in establishing a kingdom of 
 Poland under Russian sway, Constantine was named the commander- 
 in-chief of the Polish troops, or generalissimo of Poland. No appoint- 
 ment could have been more unfortunate if it was intended to carry 
 out in good faith the constitution which had been promised and 
 guaranteed to the new kingdom. The generalissimo's antipathy to 
 the constitution was however not so extreme as to induce him to 
 refuse a voice in the chambers, when he was very unexpectedly elected 
 deputy for Praga, the suburb of Warsaw, whose destruction by 
 Suvorov forms one of the most frightful pages in Polish history. He 
 took his seat, and even affected to oppose on some occasions the 
 measures of the government on local questions; but this was, as 
 might be expected, only an ebullition of wayward humour, and he 
 withdrew when the increasing majorities of the chambers against the 
 government showed that soon one or the other must give way. In 
 fact the generalissimo, who was brother of the emperor, had a greater 
 influence in the government of Poland than the nominal Viceroy 
 Zaiaxczet, an old soldier of Napoleon's, and it was his management of 
 the army, which he brought into excellent discipline, but with a 
 sternness and severity that revolted the feelings of the officers, which 
 gave rise to much of the discontent that prevailed in Poland. In 
 1820 the crisis came, and Alexander, incensed at the manuer in which 
 the Poles availed themselves of their constitution, dissolved the 
 chambers. 
 
 In the same year the charms of a Polish lady led Constantine to a 
 step which changed his own destiny and perhaps that of Russia. The 
 Countess Joanna Grudzynska was a fragile beauty, in delicate health, 
 who seemed little likely to win the regard of a rough and boisterous 
 soldier. Constautine saw her, and became so fascinated that he deter- 
 mined to overcome every obstacle that lay in the way of making her 
 his wife. A decree of the Holy Synod of the Greek Church confirmed 
 an imperial ukase, by which the emperor's brother was, on the 1st of 
 April 1820, divorced from the Princess of Saxe Coburg, with liberty 
 to marry again. By a decree of the same date, the Emperor Alexander 
 ordained however that only the issue of marriages in the imperial 
 family which were sanctioned by the reigning emperor should enjoy 
 the right of succession to the throne. It was known therefore, when 
 in the course of May the marriage of the grand-duke to the countess 
 took place, that their children would not belong to the imperial 
 family ; but the lights of the grand-duke himself were supposed to 
 remain iutact, and he was then the presumptive heir to the czar. 
 Nothing was known to the contrary till the unexpected death of 
 Alexander at Taganrog, on the 1st of December 1825. When the 
 news leached St. Petersburg the Grand-Duke Nicholas called together 
 the Council of the Empire to take the oath to the Emperor Constan- 
 tine, who was then absent at Warsaw, where from generalissimo he 
 had become viceroy of Poland. The council produced a packet 
 deposited with them, on which was written, in the Emperor Alexan- 
 der's hand, that in the event of his death it was to be opened before 
 proceeding to any other business ; and the seal was solemnly broken. 
 A letter from Constantine to his brother was found within, dated in 
 January 1822 : " Conscious," so ran the letter, "that I do not possess 
 the genius, the talents, or the strength necessary to qualify me for the 
 dignity of sovereign, to which my birth would give me a right, I 
 entreat your imperial Majesty to transfer that right to him to whom 
 it belongs after me, and thus ensure the stability of the empire. By 
 this renunciation I shall add a new force to the engagement which I 
 spontaneously and solemnly contracted on the occasion of my divorce 
 from my first wife." There was a reply by Alexander to this com- 
 munication, simply, without a word of comment, accepting the offer it 
 conveyed; and, finally, a declaration that in pursuance of it the 
 Grand-Duke Nicholas was to ascend the throne of Russia. Copies of 
 these documents had been deposited with the Synod and other bodies, 
 yet Nicholas appeared to have been till then unacquainted with their 
 existence. Nicholas declined to accept the crown, and sent his 
 brother Michael to urge Constantine to resume his birthright ; but at 
 Eorpat Michael met a messenger from Warsaw conveying Constantiue's 
 unalterable persistence in his resolution, and turned back in haste to 
 St. Petersburg. It was indeed time to put an end to the interregnum, 
 which had now lasted more than twenty days. A republican con- 
 spiracy had for some time been spreading among the officers of the 
 Russian army; the discovery of its ramifications had saddened the 
 last days of the Emperor Alexander. The ringleaders determined to 
 
 avail themselves of the uncertainty of the succession to excite con- 
 fusion. 
 
 When Nicholas finally ordered the oath to be taken to himself as 
 emperor, they spread a report that he was defrauding his brother of 
 his rights, and that Constantine was on the march from Warsaw to 
 defeat his insidious designs. Growing bolder as they met with some 
 success, they raised the cry of " Long live Constantine and Constitu- 
 tion! " and it is said that the private soldiers who joined it imagined 
 that the word ' constitution,' which is a foreign word in Russian, and 
 has a feminine termination, was the name of Constantine's wife the 
 Polish countess. The formidable revolt which grew from the refusal 
 of the regiments to take the oath to Nicholas, in consequence of the.-e 
 false representations, was crushed by the firmness and presence of 
 mind of the new emperor. The coronation of Nicholas was appointed 
 to take place at Moscow, and on the evening before it Nicholas was 
 greeted with the unexpected intelligence that Constantine had come 
 spontaneously to do him honour. The next day saw the remarkable 
 sight of the elder brother walking in the younger brother's corona- 
 tion procession, and taking the oath of homage — more remarkable 
 still that the difference of age was so great — no less than seventeen 
 years, Nicholas having been born in the year in which Constantine 
 was married* 
 
 Constantine returned to Poland from the coronation at Moscow, 
 and from that moment he was more than ever the master at Warsaw. 
 Constantine was perhaps not naturally savage, and his marriage had 
 made him more disposed to be affable, but his good nature could not 
 be counted on for a moment ; when reviewing his troops he would 
 often at the sight of some trifle not to his mind, fly into a fit of 
 furious passion, and for the venial offence of an individual, inflict 
 some annoying punishment on a body of 40,000 men. In his eyes, 
 too, no consideration at all was due to those who forgot what ho 
 regarded as the duty of unconditional obedience to the sovereign. 
 He was sometimes deliberately cruel himself, and he suffered deliberate 
 cruelties in others to those who had thus put themselves in his opinion 
 beyond the pale of mercy. The proud and spirited Poles, who in 
 their own opinion owed no allegiance at all to the Russian emperor, 
 endured all this remarkably long, but the whole of Poland was ready 
 for a conflagration when the French revolution of 1830 applied the 
 match. It is said that a conspiracy which Constantine fancied he had 
 discovered was fictitious, but on the night of the 29th of November 
 1830, there could be no doubt that a real insurrection burst out 
 The palace of the Belvedere near Warsaw, in which he resided, pro- 
 tected by a girdle of moats, was entered by a budy of insurgents, and 
 he only escaped with his life by the protection of some of his Polish ' 
 guards. In the course of the next few days he is accused of haviug 
 committed an imprudence by meeting with the insurgents on terms !' 
 of equality, but the result was that he was allowed to leave Poland I 
 without any serious obstacle. Nicholas rejected peremptorily the ' 
 terms of the Poles, and in the war which commenced Constautine 
 bore a very insignificant part. He was present at the battle of 
 Grochow, but not in command, and it is said that he could not avoid 
 expressing some satisfaction at the conduct of the Polish army, which 
 had become under his training one of the best disciplined aimies of 
 Europe. Soon after he was obliged to withdraw with the troops 
 under him before a division commanded by his brother-in-law the 
 Polish general Chlapowsky, and an attack of cholera carried him off j 
 at Witepsk, on the 27th of June 1831. His wife who had borne for I 
 some time the title of Princess of Lowicz, died on the 29th of ', 
 November in the same year, at the palace of Tsarskoe Selo. His first 
 wife the Princess Juliana, the aunt of Queen Victoria, is still living. 
 
 CONSTANTI'NUS, FLA'VIUS VALE'RIUS, called the Great, the 
 son of Constantius Chlorus, was born in a.d. 274. He was brought 
 up at the court of Diocletian, and served early with the armies in 
 various expeditions. Being in Britain at the time of his father's 
 death, he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers, but he prudently 
 referred his nomination to Galerius, who acknowledged him only as 
 Caesar, and governor of the provinces which had long been administered 
 by his father. Constantine passing over into Gaul to oppose the 
 Franks who had entered that province, defeated them as well as the 
 Alemanni. He behaved -with great inhumanity to the prisoners, and 
 gave up their chieftains to the wild beasts as a public spectacle. 
 (Eutropius, x.) Meanwhile Maxentius, the son of Maximianus, caused 
 a revolt at Rome while Galerius was absent in the East, and Maxi- 
 mianus himself having come to Rome, resumed the title of emperor, 
 and took Maxentius as his colleague. Severus, whom Galerius ordered 
 to put down this insurrection, was betrayed by his troops, taken 
 prisoner, and put to death by Maximianus. The latter however 
 fearing the vengeance of Galerius, thought of strengthening himself 
 by an alliance with Constantine, whom he went to meet in Gaul, aud 
 gave him his daughter Fausta in marriage. From that time Con- 
 stantine was acknowledged as Emperor by the West. Soon after 
 Maximianus haviug quarrelled with his son Maxentius, left Rome for 
 Pannouia, where he met Galerius and Diocletian, who had left his 
 retirement of Salona for the purpose of appointing Liciniu3 a new 
 Ceesar, in the room of Severus. There were then in the empire no 
 less than six emperors and Caesars, namely, Maximianus, Maxentius, 
 Galerius, Constantine, Maximinus, and Licinius. Galerius soon after 
 acknowledged both Constantiue and Maximinus, as emperors and 
 
366 CONSTANTINUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS. 
 
 CONSTANTINUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS. 
 
 866 
 
 Augusti equal to himself. Maxentiua continuing to maintain himself 
 at Rome, Maximianus visited his son-in-law Constantine, whom he 
 attempted to dispossess of his authority by exciting his soldiers to 
 revolt, but he was defeated and taken at Massilia by Constantine, who 
 treated him with great indulgence, and allowed him to remain in his 
 palace. Maximianus having next attempted to murder him in his 
 bed, was seized" and put to death. In the year 311 Qalerius published 
 an edict to stop the persecution against the Christians ; this document 
 bears the name of three emperors, Galerius, Constantine, and Licinius : 
 Maximums, who was in Asia, is not mentioned in it. Galerius soon 
 after dying at Sardica in Dacia, Licinius took possession of his 
 dominions as far as the Hellespont, and Maximinus had the whole of 
 Asia. Maxentius continued to govern Italy, and was making warlike 
 preparations against the other emperors, when Constantine, in 312, 
 moved with an army from Gaul to attack him. He took Susa, defeated 
 several bodies of troops sent against him by Maxentius, entered Medio- 
 lanum (Milan), and then attacked Verona, where Pompeianus, a general 
 of Maxentius, had stationed himself. After an obstinate fight, Pom- 
 peianus was defeated and killed, and Constantine marched upon Rome, 
 where he defeated Maxentius in person, a few miles from the capital, 
 on the right bank of the Tiber, near the present Ponte Milvio, where 
 Maxentius had constructed a bridge of boats. In recrossing the bridge 
 in his flight, Maxentius was drowned, with many of the fugitives. 
 Constantine entered Rome on the 29th of October, and was acknow- 
 ledged emperor by the senate, who ordered the Triumphal Arch which 
 still exists to be raised to him as the liberator of Rome. He is said 
 to have behaved with moderation after his victory, having put to 
 death only a few of the worst ministers of Maxentius, who is repre- 
 sented as a cruel tyrant both by heathen and Christian historians. 
 
 It was on this occasion that Constantine adopted a new ensign for 
 his army, which was called Labarum or Laborum; it had the figure 
 of a cross, with the Greek letter P above it, and the Greek words if 
 rovTu v'tKa, ' conquer in this ' Eusebius, who gives a description of it, 
 asserts with other Christian historians, that it was assumed in conse- 
 quence of a vision which Constantine had before his battle with 
 Maxentius. Gregorius Nazianzenus says, that the name of Laborum 
 was used as indicating that by the assistance of this new sign all 
 'labours' and tribulations of the empire should cease. Zosimus, 
 Aurelius Victor, and Eutropius, say nothing of it. Much has been 
 written on this subject. (See Gretser, ' De Cruce ; ' and ' Dissertation 
 but la Vision de Constantin,' par J. B. Devoisier, bishop of Nantes.) 
 
 In the year 313 Licinius came to Rome, when both he and Con- 
 stantine were named consuls, and he married Constantia, the sister of 
 Constantine. The old emperor Diocletian died in July of that year 
 at Salons. 
 
 A war having broken out in the East between Licinius and Maxi- 
 minus, the latter was defeated, and died of poison at Tarsus : all his 
 family were put to death by Licinius. The whole empire was now 
 divided between Constantine, who ruled over the West, including Italy 
 and Africa ; and Licinius, who had the eastern provinces, with Egypt. 
 
 Constantine now openly favoured the Christian communion, and 
 discountenanced and ridiculed the practices of the old religion of 
 Rome. He exempted the Christian clergy from personal taxes and 
 from civil duties, and granted donations and privileges to the churches. 
 He ordered a council of the bishops of the West to assemble at Aries 
 to settle the schism of the Donatists, and went himself to Aries ; but 
 while there he received news of the hostile intentions of Licinius, 
 which made him march in haste at the head of an army into Illyricum. 
 The two armies met near Sirmium in Pannonia, and again in the 
 plains of Thrace, after which Licinius sued for and obtained peace, 
 by giving up to Constantine Illyricum, Macedonia, and Greece. On 
 visiting these new provinces, Constantine promulgated several laws, 
 by which he abolished the punishment of the cross ; ordered that the 
 children of destitute parents should be maintained at the public 
 expense ; and allowed the emancipation of slaves to be effected in the 
 Christian churches in presence of the clergy without any interference 
 of the civil magistrate. By another law, promulgated at Sardica in 
 December 316, he gave to the vicars or governors of the provinces 
 full power to try persons of every rank accused of oppressions and 
 robbery, without any appeal to Rome, by which he put a check on 
 the overbearing insolence of the rich towards the poor. In the year 
 318, Crispus, son of Constantine by his first wife, obtained the con- 
 sulship with the younger Licinius, the son of Licinius. Constantine 
 spent several years in visiting the provinces of the empire, and pro- 
 mulgating new laws, which were conceived for the most part in a 
 humane and liberal spirit : he abolished the punishment of flagellation 
 formerly inflicted on defaulters in the payment of taxes, introduced 
 a better discipline into the prisons, repealed the old laws against 
 celibacy, and forbade concubinage, which was then allowed by the 
 Roman laws. He also prohibited nocturnal assemblies, and certain 
 obscene rites of Paganism; but he did not attempt to forbid the 
 exercise of the old religion. 
 
 By an edict of March 321, he ordered the observance of the Sunday, 
 and abstinence from work on that day. In the year 322 he defeated 
 the Sannatians and the Getse or Goths, and repulsed them beyond the 
 Danube. On returning to Thessalonica, where he was constructing a 
 harbour, the Goths appeared again, and invaded Mcesia and Thrace. 
 Constantine again attacked them, and pursued them into the terri- 
 
 tories of Licinius. This was tnado the pretence of a new war between 
 the two emperors, in which Licinius being defeated near Chalcedon, 
 by sea and by land, escaped to Nicomedia, and there surrendered to 
 Constantine, who, at the intercession of his sister Constantia, promised 
 him his life, and sent him to Thessalonica, where however he was 
 soon after (324) put to death. Licinius has been spoken very unfa- 
 vourably of by most historians. Constantine, being now master of the 
 whole empire, extended to the east his laws in favour of the Christian 
 religion. He forbade consulting the haruspices and the oracles; 
 ordered the churches of the Christians which had been demolished 
 under Maximinus and Licinius to be rebuilt, and the property of the 
 church to be restored, and more especially the burial-grounds of the 
 Martyrs; and reinstated in their rank and right all those who had 
 been prosecuted or exiled on account of their religion. In writing 
 to the Metropolitans he styled them 'well-beloved brethren.' He 
 published a Latin edict, which was turned into Greek by Eusebius, 
 addressed to all the subjects of the empire, in which he exhorted them 
 to renounce their old superstitions, and to adore only one God, the 
 Saviour of the Christians. In 325 he assembled the first universal 
 council of Nicsea, which he attended in person. [Aeius.] On the 
 25th of J uly of that year, being the anniversary of his accession to 
 the empire, he gave a great entertainment to all the fathers of the 
 council, to whom he gave considerable gifts and sums to distribute to 
 the poor. From Nicomedia, where he resided for some time, he issued 
 an edict inviting all the subjects of the empire to address their com- 
 plaints to him in person against any abuse of authority of the governors 
 and magistrates. By another edict he abolished the fights of gladiators, 
 and ordered that the convicts, who were formerly compelled to fight 
 against them or against the wild beasts, should be employed in working 
 the mines. These facts show a great alteration in Constantine's mind 
 from the time when he himself gave up the Frankish prisoners to the 
 wild beasts in the amphitheatre. 
 
 In the year 326 he repaired to Milan, and then to Rome, being 
 consul, for the seventh time, with his son Constantius ; he remained 
 at Rome but a short time, and left it in disgust, never to return to it. 
 According to Zosimus and Libanius, the Romans were dissatisfied 
 with him for having forsaken the old religion, and expressed their 
 discontent by biting satires. By the end of the year we find Con- 
 stantine at Sirmium, in Pannonia. In this same year is recorded the 
 tragical death of Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine, by a former 
 wife or concubine ; a young man who had been educated by Lactan- 
 tius, who had been praised by Eusebius, and who had given proofs of 
 his courage and abilities on many occasions. He was falsely accused 
 by his step-mother, Fausta, of having endeavoured to seduce her, 
 some say of having aspired to the sovereign power, and upon one or 
 other of these charges his father had him beheaded. At the same 
 time he put to death young Licinius, his sister's son, who was charged 
 apparently with being concerned with Crispu3 in his alleged treason. 
 But it was soon after discovered, some say through Helena, the mother 
 of Constantine, that the young prince was innocent, and that Fausta 
 herself had been repeatedly guilty of adultery, upon which she also 
 was put to death with several of her accomplices. Constantine's 
 suspicious temper added to the number of the victims. 
 
 About the year 328 Constantine began to build his new capital, 
 which was called by his name, and the spot was judiciously chosen. 
 It was a Christian city, chiefly inhabited by Christians, and no heathen 
 temples were built in it. In May 330 the new town was solemnly 
 dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Meantime the emperor was repeatedly 
 engaged against the Goths and other barbarians on the banks of the 
 Danube. In the year 328 he recalled several Arian bishops, Eusebius 
 of Nicomedia among others, who had been exiled by the council of 
 Nicaea. This change is said to have happened at the suggestion of 
 Constantia, who was herself in the Arian communion, and retained 
 to the last much influence over her brother Constantine. Athanasius 
 having opposed the re-admission of the Arians into the church com- 
 munion, a long controversy ensued between him and the emperor, 
 which lasted till the death of the latter. [Athanasius.] Constantine 
 was fond of religious polemics, and himself wrote on the Arian and 
 Donatist controversy. The remaining years of Constantine's life were 
 chiefly spent in embellishing his new capital and attracting inhabitants, 
 especially Christians, to it ; the rich by privileges, the working men 
 by daily distributions of corn and oil. He made a division of the 
 empire, to take effect after his death, among his three sons, whom he 
 had named Coesars : giving to Constantine, the eldest, the Gauls, Spain, 
 and Britain ; to Constans, Illyricum, Italy, and Africa ; aud the East 
 to Constantius. To Dalmatius, one of his nephews, he gave Mace- 
 donia and Achaia, and the other, Annibalienus, he made king of 
 Pontus and Cappadocia. He likewise divided the authority of the 
 prsefect of the prectorium among four prscfects — of the East, of Mace- 
 donia and Dacia, of the Gauls, and of Italy. These four great govern- 
 ments were subdivided into provinces, administered by vicars or 
 pro-prfcfects. He took away from the prsefects all military power, 
 constituting them merely as civil aud political officers. He is charged 
 by Zosimus, who is strongly biassed against Constantine, with having 
 effected another change which proved fatal to the empire, namely, tho 
 removal of the military stations on the frontiers, aud the placing of 
 the soldier3.in garrison in the towns of the interior; but perhaps 
 this was oniy on some particular points, where the barbarians had 
 
36r 
 
 CONSTANTIUS L 
 
 CONTARINL 
 
 868 
 
 encroached and were likely to cut off the old border stations. We 
 find that he gave lands in Thrace and other provinces south of the 
 Danube to the Sarmatians, who had been driven from their country 
 by the Goths. Constantine probably thought of making one race of 
 barbarians a rampart to the empire against the other. In the year 
 337, when preparing to march against the Persians, who had com- 
 menced hostilities, he fell ill at Nicomedia, and died there, in his 
 sixty-fourth year. He is said to have received baptism on his death- 
 bed from an Arian bishop ; for although long converted to Christianity 
 he was still only a catechumen, as was frequently the case with 
 converts in that age. His body was transferred to Constantinople, 
 where it was buried, after a sumptuous funeral. The senate of Rome 
 placed him among the gods, and the Christians of the East reckoned 
 him among the saints : his festival is still celebrated by the Greek, 
 Coptic, and Russian churches on the 21st of May. 
 
 The character of Constantine has been the object of various and 
 contradictory judgments, according to the religious and political spirit 
 of the various writers. Eusebius, Nazarius, and other Christian con- 
 temporaries, grateful for the protection afforded by the emperor to the 
 Christian religion, may be considered his panegyrists, while Zosimus 
 and other heathen writers, animated by an opposite feeling, were his 
 enemies. The brief summing-up of Eutropius is perhaps nearest the 
 truth. " In the first part of his reign he was equal to the best princes, 
 in the latter to middling ones. He had many great qualities ; he was 
 fond of military glory, and was successful. He was also favourable to 
 civil arts and liberal studies ; fond of being loved and praised, and 
 liberal to most of his friends. He made many laws ; some good and 
 equitable, others superfluous, and some harsh and severe." He has 
 been blamed for dividing the empire, but that had been done already 
 by Diocletian ; in fact it was too large and straggling to remain in the 
 possession of a single dynasty. By founding another capital in the East 
 he probably did not accelerate the fall of the West, while at the same 
 time he established a second empire, which lasted for more than a 
 thousand years after his death. 
 
 (Eusebius, Life of Constantine ; Zosimus ; Aurclius Victor ; Eutro- 
 pius, and other numerous writers, a list of whom is given by J. Vogt ; 
 Bittoria JAtteraria Constantini Mayni, 1720.) 
 
 Coin of Constantine the Great 
 British Museum. Actual size. Gold. Weight 70 grains. 
 
 CONSTA'NTIUS L, called CHLORUS, on account of his habitual 
 paleness, son of Eutropius, of a distinguished Illyrian family, and of 
 Claudia, niece of the Emperor Claudius II., was born about 250. He 
 served with distinction under Aurelian, Probus, and Diocletian. In 
 the year 291 Maximianus, the colleague of Diocletian, named him Caesar 
 and his colleague, while Diocletian chose on his side Galerius: the 
 administration of the empire was divided among the four. Constantius 
 bad for his share the Gauls, Spain, and Britain. Both the new Caesars 
 were obliged to repudiate their wives. Constantius, whose first wife 
 was Helena, the mother of Constantine, married Theodora, daughter 
 of Maximianus; Galerius married Valeria, daughter of Diocletian. 
 Constantius carried on war against the Franks, who began to be 
 troublesome on the Lower Rhine, and took a vast number of them 
 prisoners. He restored the town of Augustodunum (Autun), which 
 had been devastated by Tetricus, one of the thirty tyrants. He then 
 repaired to Britain, with Asclepiodotus, one of his lieutenants, who 
 defeated Allectus (300), the successor of Carausius in the usurped 
 dominion of the island. Britain was thus restored to the empire after 
 a revolt of ten years. On his return to Gaul, Constantius went against 
 the Alemanm, whom he defeated with great slaughter near Vindonissa 
 in Helvetia, some say near Langres, and drove them beyond the Rhine. 
 About this time he founded the town of Constantia (Constanz). In 
 the year 304 the two emperors, with the two Caesars, came to Rome, 
 where they enjoyed the honour of a triumph. In the following year 
 Diocletian and Maximianus abdicated, and appointed Constantius and 
 Galerius their successors, who in their turn appointed two new Caesars 
 as their colleagues, namely, Severus and Maximinus Daia, or Daza. 
 Constantius continued to administer his old government of Gaul, Spain, 
 and Britain. His administration, which was equitable and humane, is 
 greatly praised by the historians, both Christian and heathen. He 
 put a stop to the persecutions against the Christians, and employed 
 many of them about his person. The last campaign of Constantius 
 was against the Caledonians, some say against the Picts, whom he 
 defeated. He died soon after at Eboracum (York), July 25, 306, in 
 the arms of his son Constantine, whom he appointed his successor, 
 306. By his second wife Theodora, Constantius left several children— 
 Dalmalius; Julius Constantius, who was the father of Constantius 
 Gallus and of J ulian the Apostate ; and Constantia, afterwards married 
 to Licinius. 
 
 CONSTA'NTIUS II. (FLAVIUS JULIUS), son of Constantine the 
 
 Great, was left by his father's will Emperor of the East. The troops 
 however, in order to secure the empire to the three sons of Constantine, 
 killed Julius Constantius, half-brother of the late emperor, Dalmatius 
 and Anuibalienus, his nephews, and other of his relatives, with several 
 patricians and ministers. This massacre was allowed by ConBtant'ms, 
 and some say was ordered by him ; only two nephews of Constantine 
 escaped, Gallus and Julianus, afterwards emperor. Constantius was 
 repeatedly engaged in war against the Persians and the Armenians, but 
 with little success on his part. Ammianus Marcellinus, in speaking of 
 these wars, says that the Romans were successful when led by the 
 emperor's lieutenants, but were generally losers when led by the 
 emperor in person. After the death of Constans in 350, Constantius 
 marched with a large force against Magncntius to revenge his brother's 
 death, and at the same time to take possession of his dominions. A 
 desperate battle was fought in 351 near Mursa, on the banks of the 
 Drave, and at last the cavalry of Constantius gained the victory. 
 Magnentius escaped into Italy, but Constantius was too much weakened 
 by his victory to follow him until the next year, when he entered 
 Italy, defeated Magnentius again, and compelled him to escape into 
 Gaul. In the year after, 353, Constantius again defeated Magnentius 
 in Gaul. The usurper, finding himself forsaken by his soldiers, killed 
 himself; and his brother Decentius, whom he had made C;usar, 
 followed his example. Constantius now became master of the West as 
 well as of the East, and thus re-united the whole empire under his 
 dominion. He had appointed his cousin Gallus Ca39ar and governor 
 of the East, when he set out to oppose Magnentius. In the same year, 
 353, Constantius assembled a council at Aries, which was composed 
 of Arian bishops. The emperor favoured that sect, and persecuted 
 the orthodox or Nicaeans, and exiled many of their bishops, among 
 others Libcrius, bishop of Rome. In the year 354, Constantius, having 
 received repeated complaints of the cruelties and oppressions com- 
 mitted by Gallus in the East, sent for him, and caused him to be 
 beheaded in Dalmatia. Several conspiracies were also discovered or 
 invented by the courtiers of Constantius, and numerous persons tortured 
 and put to death. Meantime the Franks and the Alemanni had parsed 
 the Rhine, and destroyed Colonia (Cologne) and other towns ; the 
 Quadi and the Sarmatians were ravaging Pannonia, and the Persians 
 attacked the eastern provinces. It was in this emergency that Cou- 
 stantius, being at Milan in November 355, proclaimed his cousin Julian 
 Caesar, gave him his sister Helena in marriage, and sent him as com- 
 mander to the Gauls. In the following year Constantius issued laws 
 forbidding under pain of death any sacrifice to idols, and condemning 
 to death all magicians, astrologers, and soothsayers. In 357 the 
 emperor repaired to Rome for the first time, and was received with 
 great pomp by the senate, and public festivals and games were 
 celebrated in his honour. He caused the obelisk which Constantino 
 had removed from Heliopolis to Alexandria to be carried to Rome, '■ 
 where it was raised in the Circus Maximus : it was now called the 
 Lateran Obelisk. Constantius having returned to the East, defeated 
 the Sarmatians, while J ulian conquered the Germans on the Rhine. 
 He then marched against the Persians, but was unsuccessful In the 
 meantime Julian had been proclaimed emperor by the soldiers at Paris, 
 Constantius was making preparations to attack him when he was taken 
 ill at Tarsus, and died there in November 361. On his death-bed he < 
 named Julian his successor. Constantius, though not a good prince, 
 had yet some valuable qualities. He was cautious and discriminating 
 in the appointment of his great officers; he took care of the solliera; 
 he bestowed office generally on the most deserving ; was fond of science 
 and application ; was temperate, sober, slept little, and his habits were 
 regular. But he was suspicious, and cruel in consequence of his sus- 
 picions. He oppressed the people with taxes, and spent much money 
 in pomp, parade, and useless building. (Ammianus, b. xiv.) 
 
 CONTARINI, an illustrious family of Venice, which has given to 
 the republic many senators, doges, and statesmen. The first doge of 
 the name was Domenico Contarini, in the 11th century; another, 
 Andrea Contarini, was doge during the war of Chiozza. After the 
 Genoese had taken that place, and were threatening the very existence 
 of Venice, in 1380, Contarini, then eighty years of age, led the 
 Venetian fleet against the enemy; and being assisted by Vettor 
 Pisani and Carlo Zeno, he defeated the Genoese, retook Chiozza, and 
 thus saved the republic. Ambrogio Contarini was sent, in 1473, by 
 the republic, then at war with Mahomet II., as ambassador to Hussum 
 Hassan Bey, sovereign or usurper of Persia, to contract an offensive 
 alliance against the Ottomans. The coastB of Asia Minor and Syria 
 being occupied by the Turks, Contarini was obliged to take his way 
 through Poland and Tartary to Caffa in the Crimea, from whence he 
 crossed the Euxine to the mouth of the Phasis, and thence proceeded 
 through Mingrelia and Armenia to Persia. He met Hussum Hassan 
 at Ispahan, accompanied him to Tabreez, and then returned home- 
 wards by Derbent and the Caspian Sea to Astrakhan, and thence to 
 Moscow, where he was well received by the grand-duke of Muscovy. 
 He returned to Venice in 1477, and published the journal of his 
 mission, which is curious, and written with much apparent regard to 
 truth. 'Itinerario nell' Anno 1473, ad Usun Cassan Re" di Persia,' 
 4to, Venezia, 1524. Hussum Hassan attacked Mahomet, while the 
 Venetian fleet was ravaging the coasts of Asia Minor ; but the Persiaipg 
 were defeated by the Turks near Trebizond, and the alliance led to nit 
 other result than to effect a temporary diversion in favour of Venice. 1, 
 
CONYBEARE, VERY REV. WILLIAM. 
 
 There have been likewise several men of learning of the family of 
 Contarini, such as Cardinal Gaspare Contarini, in the ICth century, 
 who was employed on several important missions, and wrote many 
 philosophical and theological works ; among others, ' De Immortalitate 
 Anima) adversus Petrum Pomponacium,' ' De Libero Arbitrio et 
 Praedestinatione,' and also a treatise, ' De Magistratibus et Republica 
 Venetorum.' His works were collected and published together at 
 Paris, folio, 1571. Vincenzo Contarini was professor at Padua at the 
 beginning of the 17th century. He wrote several works on classical 
 erudition ; ' De re frumeutaria,' ' De Militari Romanorum Stipendio,' 
 and ' Variarum Lectionum Liber.' 
 
 CONYBEARE, VERY REV. WILLIAM DANIEL, Dean of 
 LlandafF, was born at his father's rectory, St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate, 
 7th of June 1787. He entered Christchurch College, Oxford, in 
 January 1305, and took his degrees B.A. in 1808, and M.A. in 1811. 
 Mr. Conybeare was one of the earliest promoters of the Geological 
 Society, and the important services he has rendered to geological 
 science may be seen in his numerous papers printed in the Society's 
 1 Transactions.' He is the discoverer of the Plesiosaurus, that strangest 
 of all the antediluvian monsters, and for his descriptions of the animal 
 Cuvier paid him the highest compliment that can be offered by one 
 scientific philosopher to another. His papers on the coal-fields, giving 
 a description of the physical geography of important districts, estab- 
 lishing the relations of some of the most remarkable British rocks, 
 and their order of superposition, have ever since furnished data for 
 practical purposes, and shown how the absurd mistakes of mining 
 speculators were to be avoided. As will be seen from the subjoined 
 titles, his researches have extended to various branches of inquiry. 
 His fir3t paper presented to the Geological Society is ' On the Origin of 
 a remarkable class of Organic Impressions occurring in Nodules of 
 Flint,' vol. ii., 1814; 'Descriptive Notes referring to the Outline of 
 Sections presented by a part of the Coasts of Antrim and Derry,' 
 vol. iii., 1816, made in a tour conjointly with the Rev. Dr. Buckland, 
 Dean of Westminster ; ' Notice of the Discovery of a New Fossil 
 Animal, forming a link between the Ichthyosaurus and Crocodile,' &c, 
 vol. v., 1821. In vol. i., new series, 1824, further notices are given, 
 and ' On the discovery of an almost perfect Skeleton of the Plesio- 
 saurus ;' and the same volume contains ' Observations on the South- 
 western Coal District of England,' written jointly with the Dean of 
 Westminster ; * Extraordinary Landslip and great convulsion of the 
 Coast near Axmouth,' Jameson's ' Edin. Journal,' 1840; 'On the 
 Phenomena of Geology which seem to bear most directly on Theo- 
 retical speculations,' ' Phil. Mag.,' vols. viii. and ix., second series ; ' On 
 the Structure and Extent of the South- Welsh Coal Basin,' ib. vol. xi, ; 
 ' Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales ; with an introductory 
 Compendium of the general principles of that Science,' &c, 8vo, 
 London, 1822 (jointly with W. Phillips). He also drew up the 'Report 
 on the Progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of Geological 
 Science,' published in the first volume of the ' Reports of the British 
 Association.' 
 
 Mr. Conybeare was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1819. 
 He is a fellow of the Geological Society, and corresponding member of 
 the Institute of France. He became Dean of Llandaff in 1845, having 
 previously been public preacher in his own university, and Bampton 
 lecturer in 1839. [See Supplement.] 
 
 COOK, CAPTAIN JAMES, was the son of an agricultural labourer 
 and farm-bailiff, resident at Marton in Yorkshire, six miles from 
 1 Stockton-upon-Tees, and was born October 27, 1728. At an early age 
 he was apprenticed to a haberdasher at the fishing-town of Staiths, 
 near Whitby. Here his genius soon showed its true bent ; and having 
 procured a discharge from his master, he apprenticed himself to a 
 firm engaged in the coal trade at Whitby, in whose service he con- 
 tinued, rising gradually, till he attained the situation of .mate. Being 
 in the Thames in 1755, when men were greatly sought after, he 
 resolved to take hia chance as a volunteer in the royal navy. He was 
 Boon distinguished as a skilful and trustworthy seaman ; and such 
 effectual interest, backed by the favourable testimony of Captain 
 (afterwards Sir) Hugh Palliser, was made in his behalf at the Admi- 
 ralty by some Yorkshire gentlemen, that in May 1759 he was appointed 
 master, first of the 'Grampus' sloop, and afterwards of the 'Mercury,' 
 in which he was present at the siege and capture of Quebec by Wolfe. 
 He gave eminent proofs of skill and resolution, in taking soundings of 
 the river opposite to the French fortified camp, preparatory to an 
 , attack thereon, a difficult and dangerous service, which he performed 
 so well that he was afterwards employed to lay down a chart of the 
 fiver from Quebec to the sea. This chart was published, and for a 
 long time wai the only one in use. 
 
 In the same autumn he was promoted to be master of the 'Northum- 
 berland' man-of-war, in which he served till 1762, when the ship 
 returned to England. During the winter of 1759-00, which he passed 
 at Halifax in Nova Scotia, he employed the leisure which the season 
 gave him in beginning the study of mathematics, with a view to 
 j qualify himself for the higher departments of his profession. In 1763 
 he went out to survey the Newfoundland Islands; and in 1764, on the 
 appointment of Sir Hugh Palliser to be governor, Cook was appointed 
 marine surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador. The fruit of his 
 labours during the four years in which he held that office was embodied 
 in his valuable charts of those countries. 
 
 COOK, CAPTAIN JAMES. 270 
 
 The credit which ho acquired in the discharge of his functions at 
 Newfoundland, was the causo of his selection, in 1767, as a fit person 
 to conduct a voyage undertaken into the South Pacific Ocean, for 
 astronomioal and geographical purposes. On this occasion Mr. Cook 
 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. For an account of the 
 origin and objects of this undertaking, and the course of the voyager* 
 as far as Otaheite, we refer to the article Banks, Sin Joseph. The 
 transit of Venus having been satisfactorily observed on the 3rd of 
 June, Cook resumed his voyage July 13, 1769, and after cruising for a 
 month among the other Society Islands, sailed southward in quest of 
 the unknown continent, Terra Australia Incognita, which was formerly 
 supposed to exist somewhere, as a counterpoise to the great mass of 
 laud in the northern hemisphere. Lofty mountains were seen 
 October 6th, and it was supposed that the object of their search was 
 found. The land however proved to be New Zealand, which had not 
 been visited by Europeans since it was discovered by Tasman in 1642. 
 Cook spent six months in sailing round it, and found it to consist of 
 two large islands, divided by a narrow channel. The warlike and 
 savage temper of the natives hindered him from doing much to ex- 
 plore the interior. Sailing westward, he reached New Holland, or, as 
 it is now called, Australia, April 19, 1770, and ran down its eastern 
 side from lat. 38° to its northern extremity at Torres Strait, lat. 10^°, 
 where he took possession of the coast which he had explored in the 
 name of Great Britain, and denominated it New South Wales. He 
 then shaped his course towards New Guinea, and by passing between 
 them proved what had been disputed, that Australia and New Guinea 
 were distinct islands. Of the various interesting adventures and 
 narrow escapes which occurred to the navigators during their long 
 sojourn among savage tribes and unknown seas, especially that diffi- 
 cult and tedious navigation of near 2000 miles along one of the most 
 dangerous coasts in the world, we have no room to speak. Cook 
 continued his voyage by Timor and the south coast of Java to Batavia 
 (Oct. 9), where he was compelled to stay two months and a half to 
 repair the ship, which had received most dangerous injuries among the 
 coral-reefs of New South Wales. The pestilential climate of Batavia 
 proved very fatal to the ship's crew, already weakened by the hard- 
 ships of their long voyage. Seven died at Batavia, and twenty-three 
 more on the voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. The 'Endeavour' 
 anchored in the Downs on the 12th of June 1771. 
 
 Shortly after his return Cook was promoted to the rank of com- 
 mander. His journal and the papers of Mr. Banks were entrusted to 
 Dr. Hawkesworth, who from these documents, and the materials of 
 Captains Byron, Wallis, and Carteret, published an account of the 
 several voyages of discovery undertaken during the reign of George IIL 
 into the Pacific, illustrated with plates and charts at the expense of 
 government. 
 
 This voyage proved that neither New Zealand nor Australia was 
 part of the supposed southern continent ; and also that no such con- 
 tinent could exist to the northward of 40° S. lat. It was now deter- 
 mined to send out a second expedition under Cook to explore the 
 higher latitudes ; and the ' Resolution,' of 460 tons, and a smaller 
 ship, the • Adventure,' Captain Furneaux — which parted company in 
 the second year of the voyage — were commissioned for this purpose. 
 Cook was instructed to circumnavigate the globe in high southern 
 latitudes, prosecuting his discoveries as near the South Pole as possible, 
 and making such traverses from time to time into every corner of the 
 Pacific Ocean not before examined, as might finally and effectually 
 resolve the much agitated question about the existence of a southern 
 continent in any part of the southern hemisphere to which access 
 could be had by the efforts of the boldest and most skilful navigator. 
 
 The two ships sailed from Plymouth July 13, 1772, quitted the 
 Cape of Good Hope November 22nd, and traversed the Southern 
 Ocean in high latitudes during near four months, between the limits 
 of 20° and 170° E. long., the extreme point to the southward being 
 lat. 57° 15'. Having satisfied himself that no land of great extent 
 could exist between these limits, Captain Cook made sail for New 
 Zealand, which he reached March 26, 1773. After spending the winter 
 months (our summer) among the Society Islands, he resumed his 
 quest of the southern continent in November, proceeding eastward, 
 principally between the 60th and 70th parallels of latitude, and from 
 170° E. long, to 106° 54' W. long., where he reached his extreme 
 southing, lat. 71° 10', being there finally stopped by the ice. Returning 
 northward, during the winter mouths he traversed the Pacific Ocean 
 in the southern tropic, from Easter Island to the New Hebrides, and 
 discovered another island, the largest in the Pacific except New 
 Zealand, which he called New Caledonia. Thence he returned to New 
 Zealand to refresh the crew, and resumed his quest of a southern 
 continent November 10. Having sailed in different latitudes between 
 43° aud 66° till the 27th, when he was in 138° 56' W. long., he gave 
 up all hope of finding any more land in this ocean, and determined to 
 steer direct for the western entrance of the Strait of Magalhaens, with 
 a view of coasting the south side of Tierra del Fuego, which at that 
 time was very imperfectly known. He passed Cape Hum December 29, 
 and standing southward, discovered Saudwich Land, a desolate coast, 
 the extreme point of which, in lat. 59° 13', W. long, about 22°, was 
 named by him the Southern Thule, as being the most southern land 
 which had been then discovered. Thence he ran to the eastward, 
 nearly to tlrt longitude of the Cape of Good Hope, and having thua 
 
 2B* 
 
171 COOK, CAPTAIN JAMES. 
 
 encompassed the globe in a high latitude, and satisfied himself that no 
 land of considerable magnitude could exist between the 50th and 70th 
 parallels, he thought it inexpedient to prosecute his discoveries in 
 those tempestuous seas with a worn ship and nearly exhausted pro- 
 visions. Accordingly he made sail for the Cape, which he reached 
 March 22, 1774, having sailed no less than 20,000 leagues since he Left 
 it, without meeting even with so trifling an accident as the loss of a 
 mast or yard. On the 30th of July he anchored at Spithead. 
 
 He was immediately raised to the rank of post-captain, and received 
 a more substantial reward for his services in being appointed a captain 
 of Greenwich Hospital. Men of science were powerfully interested, 
 not only by his geographical discoveries but by his unprecedented 
 success during this voyage in preserving the health of his ship's com- 
 pany, of whom he lost only four, and only one of these by any 
 sickness. His method consisted chiefly in a strict attention to diet, 
 and to keeping the ship clean, well-aired, and dry. Much however 
 was found to depend upon the care and influence of the commanding 
 officer; for the crew of the 'Adventure,' fitted out with the same 
 provisions, had suffered considerably even at an early period of the 
 voyage. On the day of Cook's admission to the Royal Society, March 
 7, 1775, a paper of his was read, giving an account of the methods he 
 adopted for preserving the health of his men. On the 18th of April 
 he communicated a second paper, relative to the tides in the South 
 Seas : both of these are printed in the ' Philosophical Transactions/ 
 vol. lxvi. For the former the Society gave him the Copley medal, 
 which is bestowed for the best experimental paper of the year. Of 
 this second voyage he published his own journal, illustrated by maps 
 and engravings ; a supplementary volume containing the astronomical 
 observations was published at the expense of the Commissioners of 
 Longitude. The style is unpretending, clear, and manly, and, con- 
 sidering the imperfection of his education, does credit to his sense and 
 ability. 
 
 "While Cook was exploring the Southern Ocean, the attention of 
 government was also turned towards discoveries in the Arctic regions. 
 It was not thought fair, after so many years of labour and anxiety, to 
 request him immediately to forego his honourable ease ; but when he 
 volunteered his services, they were gladly accepted. Two ships, the 
 'Resolution' and 'Discovery,' the latter commanded by Captain Gierke, 
 who had sailed with Cook in both his former voyages, were fitted out 
 with everything that could promote the health and comfort of the 
 crews and the scientific objects of the voyage. They sailed from 
 Plymouth July 12, 1776. Cook's instructions were to proceed by the 
 Cape of Good Hope to the Pacific, and to revisit the chain of islands 
 lying along the southern tropic, in which he was to endeavour to 
 disseminate and naturalise a variety of useful animals, to be carried 
 from England and the Cape. He was then to bend his course north- 
 ward, and on reaching the western coast of America, to proceed with 
 as little delay as possible to the latitude of 65°, and then to use his 
 best endeavours to return to the Atlantic by the high northern 
 latitudes, between Asia and America, thus reversing the usual course 
 of Arctic voyagers. He arrived at the Friendly Islands too late in 
 the spring of 1777 to attempt anything in the Arctic Seas that year. 
 In December he took a final leave of the Polynesian Archipelago, and 
 on January 18, 1778, came in sight of an unknown group, to which 
 he gave the name of Sandwich Islands, about 20° N. lat. Making no 
 long stay, he reached the coast of America on March 7, being then in 
 44° 33' N. lat. In Nootka Sound, 49° 33' N. lat., he stopped a month 
 to put the ships in perfect repair before encountering the dangers of 
 the Polar Seas, and proceeded April 26, keeping near the coast when- 
 ever the state of the weather permitted. Following this course to the 
 extreme northern point of the Pacific, he there examined a deep bay, 
 afterwards named Cook's Inlet, concerning which strong hopes were 
 entertained that it might lead to the long-sought discovery. These 
 proving unfounded, he ran to the southward, along the narrow 
 peninsula which forms the western boundary of the Kamtschatkan 
 Sea ; and alter touching at Oonalashka, made sail for Behring's Strait. 
 There he determined the position of the most westerly point of 
 America, 65° 40' N. lat, 168° 15' W. long.; and ascertained it to be 
 distant from the coast of Asia only thirteen leagues. On August 18 
 he reached his extreme latitude, 70° 41', where he was stopped by 
 an impenetrable wall of ice. He continued to prosecute his search 
 until August 29, when the daily increase of ice warned him to return. 
 Before proceeding to the south however he spent some time in 
 examining the sea and coasts in the neighbourhood of Behring's Strait, 
 during which he had satisfactory proof of the correctness of that 
 navigator, and made valuable additions to our geographical knowledge 
 of that region. 
 
 Returning to winter at the Sandwich Islands, he discovered two 
 which he had not before visited, Mo wee (Maui) and Owhyhee 
 (Hawaii), the largest of the group. In sailing round the latter he 
 spent ten weeks, from December 1 to February 13, 1779, without any 
 serious disagreement with the natives, who, on the contrary, treated 
 the English with the utmost respect. Speaking of the disappointment 
 in not finding a northern passage, he uses the following words, which 
 conclude his journal :—" To this disappointment we owed our having 
 it in our power to revisit the Sandwich Islands, and to enrich our 
 voyage with a discovery, which, though the last, seethed in many 
 iSBuecta to be the most important that had hitherto been made by 
 
 COOKE, BENJAMIN. 87a 
 
 Europeans throughout the extent of the Pacific Ocean." These 
 pleasant anticipations were cut short by his tragical death. On the 
 night of February 13, one of the ' Discovery's ' boats was stolen. Cook 
 went ashore on the 14th to try to recover it; the natives became 
 alarmed, blows were struck, and Cook was obliged to fire in self, 
 defence. In retreating to the boats, four of the marines who attended 
 him were killed, and Cook, who was the last person left on shore, was 
 struck down from behind. He struggled vigorously; but the con- 
 fusion of the boats' crews was such, that no assistance was given, and 
 he was soon overpowered. His body having been left in the possession 
 of the natives, his bones only were recovered, the flesh having probably 
 been devoured. His remains were committed to the deep with mili- 
 tary honours. Mr. Samwell, an eye-witness, has given the fullest 
 account of this melancholy event, which he ascribed to no scheme of 
 premeditated treachery, but to a sudden impulse, arising from the 
 belief that the loss of the boat would be revenged by hostile measures. 
 Captain Clerke succeeded to the chief command, and returned in the 
 following summer to the Polar Sea; but he was unable to advance as 
 far as in the former year : the voyage therefore failed in its chief 
 object. The ships returned by China and the Cape to England, which 
 they reached in October 1780. An account of the voyage was pub- 
 lished from Cook's Journal, continued by Lieutenant King. Charts 
 and plate3 were executed at the expense of government, and one-half 
 of the profits of the work were bestowed upon Cook's widow and 
 children, upon whom a pension was settled. 
 
 As a navigator, Cook's merits were of the first order. He wag 
 thoroughly acquainted both with the practical and scientific parts of 
 his profession, and possessed the qualities which fit men for responsible 
 situations — a mind inventive, and full of resources, sagacity, self- 
 possession, and decision, and an intuitive readiness of perception in 
 professional matters; so that his first opinion as to a course to be 
 pursued, the nature of an opening, tides, currents, &c, was seldom 
 found to be incorrect. His perseverance was unremitting, and needed 
 no relaxation nor respite. He was a strict disciplinarian, but watchful 
 and solicitous in an uncommon degree for the health and comfort of 
 his crews ; and to this constant care and to his moral influence, aa 
 much as to his judgment, we must attribute that remarkable exemp- 
 tion from disease which his men enjoyed, in his last two voyages, 
 through every variety of climate. He may be said to have banished 
 that horrible disease, scurvy, from our naval service; and it is observed 
 by Mr. Samwell, that his success in this respect afforded him more 
 satisfaction than the reputation which attended hie discoveries. But 
 that which we wish to point out in his character as most rare and 
 truly estimable, was his scrupulous justice and humauity towards 
 the rude tribes whom he visited. For their propensity to thieving he 
 found a candid apology; and any offences committed against their 
 persons or property by his own crew, he strictly punished ; making it 
 a rule to pay liberally, if required, for the slightest articles, even to 
 grass, wood, and water. Nor did he give way to the gratifying of a 
 natural curiosity, when by doing so he was likely to provoke a hostile 
 collision. Once only he was betrayed into an unjust aggression, which 
 ended in bloodshed; an act which he remembered with pain, and in 
 his journal acknowledged to be an error, while explaining the motives 
 which led to the commission of it. The same benevolence and steady 
 principle which he displayed in public, he carried into the private 
 relations of life. Hi3 constitution was robust, inured to fatigue, and 
 patient of self-denial. 
 
 COOKE, BENJAMIN, a highly-distinguished composer and organist, 
 was the son of Benjamin Cooke, a music-publisher in New-street^ 
 Covent Garden. He was born in 1739, and before he had attained his 
 ninth year became the pupil of the calebrated Dr. Pepusch, under 
 whom he made such progress, that when only twelve years old he 
 was found capable of doing the duty of organist at Westminster 
 Abbey, as deputy of Mr. Robinson, son-in-law and successor to Dr. 
 Croft. On the death of Pepusch in 1752, Cooke was chosen as con- 
 ductor of the Academy of Ancient Music, which office he held till 
 1789, when he relinquished it to Dr. Arnold. In 1757 he succeeded 
 Bernard Gates as lay-clerk and master of the choristers at Westminster 
 Abbey, and in 1762 was appointed organist of that venerable church. 
 In 1777 the University of Cambridge conferred on him the degree of 
 Doctor in Music. In 1782, after a severe contest, in which Dr. Burney 
 was his chief opponent, he was elected organist of St. Martin-in-the- 
 Fields. In 1784 he was nominated by George III. as one of the sub- 
 directors of the famous Commemoration of Handel. He died in 1793, 
 leaving two sons, one of whom Robert Cooke, followed his father's 
 profession, and became organist of the abbey on the decease of Dr. 
 Arnold ; but shortly after, in a fit of insanity, threw himself into the 
 Thames, and was drowned. 
 
 Dr. Cooke's compositions were chiefly for the Academy of Ancient 
 Music, the Church, and the Catch Club. For the first he made the 
 important additions, so well known to connoisseurs, to Galliard's 
 'Morning Hymu.' For the church he wrote a service and two 
 anthems, which have always been highly esteemed. To the Catch 
 Club he contributed his fine glees, 'In the merry month of May/ 
 ' How sleep the brave,' 'Hark ! the lark,' 'As now the shades of eve,' 
 &c. ; and obtained seven of the gold prize medals given by that 
 society. He was the intimate friend of Sir John Hawkins, the musical 
 
 hiBtoriau^who profited much by the occasion*! hints of so learned • 
 
873 
 
 COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK. 
 
 COOPER, SIR ASTLEY. 
 
 m 
 
 professor — and the master of some of the deservedly celebrated 
 musicians of the last and present age. 
 
 COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK, a popular actor, was born in the 
 city of Westminster, April 17, 1755. He was the son of an officer in 
 the army, whose widow, on the death of her husband, went to reside 
 at Berwick-upon-Tweed, where George was educated. At the usual 
 age he was articled to a printer ; but having imbibed a strong passion 
 for the stage, he appeared, after various essays in private, as a pro- 
 fessed actor at Brentford, in the character of Dumont in the trasedy 
 of 'Jane Shore.' In 1778 he made his debut in London, at the Hay- 
 market theatre, for a benefit, but without attracting any particular 
 attention. After a period of two-and-twenty yeai'S, during which he 
 became the hero of the Dublin stage, he returned to London, and 
 made his first appearance at Covent Garden theatre, October 31, 1800, 
 in the character of Richard III : his success was decided ; and for ten 
 years he divided the favour of the town with John Kemble. In 1810 
 he sailed for America, and arrived at New York on the ICth of 
 November, in which city, intemperance having been long undermining 
 a wonderfully strong constitution, he expired on the 26th of September 
 1812. His most popular characters were, in tragedy, Richard III., 
 Iago, and Shylock; and in comedy, Kitely, Sir Archy Macsarcasm, 
 and Sir Pertinax Macsycophant. Mr. Kean, in one of his visits to 
 America, caused a monument to be erected over his grave. His 
 memoirs were published by his friend Mr. Dunlop from a manuscript 
 journal kept by Mr. Cooke for many years, and other equally authentic 
 documents, in 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1813. 
 
 COOLEY, THOMAS, an Irish architect, born in 1740, erected what 
 is not only one of the most elegant public buildings in Dublin, but 
 of its kind anywhere, the Royal Exchange in that city. This structure 
 wa3 begun by him in 1709, and although of but moderate size, is in 
 a style at once noble and ornate : on the exterior, a Corinthian order 
 is continued in columns and pilasters, between which there is only a 
 single range of upper windows, the lower part of the intercolumns 
 being filled in with solid rusticated wall, a circumstance that contri- 
 butes materially to character; nor is the interior less remarkable for 
 both elegance and commodiousaess of plan, it being a rotunda inscribed 
 within a square — the circular part formed by a peristyle of twelve 
 columns of the composite order, and covered by a dome. This building 
 is however no longer employed for the purpose for which it was 
 designed. Having been, we believe, found too small for the increased 
 commercial requirements of the city, it was some few years back 
 abandoned by the merchants, and converted into a mechanics insti- 
 tution ; and its architectural character has necessarily undergone some 
 modification. Our description applies to its original condition. Cooley 
 also erected the prison called Newgate (1773) in the same city, and 
 commenced the noble pile of the ' Four Courts,' which was begun by 
 him in 1776, but he did not live to complete it, little more than the 
 west wing being erected at the time of his death in 1784 ; after which 
 the edifice was carried on by Gandon [Gandon, James], with some 
 variations from the original design. 
 
 COOPER, ANTHONY ASHLEY. [Shaftesbury, Earl of.] 
 
 CoOPER, SIR ASTLEY, was born in the village of Brooke in 
 Norfolk, where his father, Dr. Cooper, was curate. His mother was 
 a popular authoress in her day, and published several novels and other 
 literary productions, the object of which was to elevate and dignify 
 the position of woman in society. Astley Cooper was born on the 
 23rd of August 1768, and was the fourth son. As a boy he was 
 remarkable rather for his liveliness and good-humour than for appli- 
 cation to study ; but the following incident determined his choice of 
 surgery as a profession : — A youth had fallen down iu front of a cart, 
 one wheel of which passed over his thigh, lacerating it and wounding 
 the femoral artery. No surgeon was near, and the boy was in danger 
 of dying from loss of blood, when young Astley Cooper bound his 
 handkerchief sufficiently tight over the upper part of the thigh to 
 prevent circulation in the artery, and thus stopped the bleeding till 
 a surgeon arrived. 
 
 When in his thirteenth year his father was presented with the living 
 of Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, to which place he immediately removed. 
 In August 1784 young Cooper left home for London. His uncle, 
 William Cooper, who was then a surgeon at Guy's Hospital, not being 
 able to receive him into his house, he was placed with Mr. Cliue, who 
 was at that time surgeon to St. Thomas's Hospital, and one of the 
 most distinguished surgeons of his day. To his connection with Mr. 
 Cline, and the influence of his example, Sir Astley attributed much 
 of his success in after-life. 
 
 In Loodon he began to devote himself with earnestness to his new 
 pursuit. He early perceived the importance of correct anatomical 
 knowledge to the study of surgery, and made such advances by an 
 habitual attendance in the dissecting-room, as to lead others to consult 
 . him in their difficulties. He also at this time attended the lectures of 
 John Hunter, and was one of the few wuo comprehended the ?eal 
 value of this great man's theories and experiments. In 1787 he visited 
 Edinburgh, and on his return was made demonstrator of anatomy at 
 Jt. Thomas's Hospital. This led to his being in 1791 permitted to 
 take part of the lectures on anatomy and surgery, which were then 
 delivered together, with Mr. Cline. He was married in the same 
 year, and after the close of the winter session paid a visit to Paris in 
 17&2, where he was on the breaking out of the Revolution on the 
 
 10th of August. In the next course of lectures which he gavo he 
 lectured on surgery alone, and this was one of the first courses in 
 London given on that subject independent of anatomy. It was per- 
 fectly successful. He was also this year appointed professor of anatomy 
 at Surgeon's Hall, and was re-appointed iu 1794 and 1795. 
 
 The earliest of Sir Astley Cooper's literary productions appeared in 
 a volume of papers entitled ' Medical Records and Researches,' which 
 was published in 1798. In these essays, the caution in collecting 
 facts, and fearlessness in coming to conclusions when his facts were 
 sufficient, which characterised him through life, are evident. Up to 
 this time, although his reputation was increasing, his income was 
 small. From the time he first commenced, he says, "My receipt for 
 the first year was 51. 5s.; the second, 2QL; the third, Qil. ; the fourth, 
 961. ; the fifth, 100Z. ; the sixth, 2002. ; the seventh, 400Z. ; the eighth, 
 6102." On the death of his uncle in 1800 he was appointed to the 
 office of surgeon at Guy's Hospital, but not without some difficulty, 
 on account of his having been intimate with Home Tooke and 
 Thelwall, and others who held the same political opinions : a con- 
 venient change of politics however removed the difficulty, and he 
 received the appointment. In this and the following year he read 
 two papers before the Royal Society, ' On the effects which take place 
 from the destruction of the membrana tympani, with an account of 
 an operation for the removal of a particular species of deafness.' 
 Although the operation here proposed was apparently successful, its 
 benefits seemed to be only transient, and the practice of it was 
 abandoned. For these papers the author had awarded to him the 
 Copleian medal of the Royal Society for 1802. In 1805 he was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In the same year he took an 
 active part in the formation of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, which 
 originated in some disagreement which took place in the London 
 Medical Society. After some trouble the members of the Medico- 
 Chirurgical Society obtained a royal charter, and it now takes the first 
 position amongst the medical debating societies of London. In the 
 first volume of the ' Transactions ' of this Society is recorded a case of 
 carotid aneurism, in which the artery was tied by Mr. Cooper. 
 Although the case terminated unfavourably, the merit is due to him 
 of having first attempted this operation, which has been successful in 
 the hands of many subsequent operators. 
 
 In 1804 he brought out the first part, and in 1807 the second part, 
 of his great work on ' Hernia.' At the time he first undertook inquiry 
 into this subject, not only was the anatomy of the disease ill under- 
 stood, but the operation for its relief was frequently unsuccessful. 
 This work was published in atlas folio, and got up in an unnecessarily 
 expensive style. Most of the illustrations were of the size of life. 
 When the whole was sold, he was a loser of one thousand pounds by 
 the work. It however added greatly to his increasing reputation, and 
 in a few years after this (1813) his annual income from his profession 
 amounted to twenty-one thousand pounds. This income is probably 
 the largest ever received by a medical practitioner. 
 
 During the constant occupation which an enormous practice, 
 besides his hospital duties and lectures gave him, he found time to 
 pursue his favourite science of anatomy. He had a private dissecting- 
 room over his stables, and here he employed dissectors, artists, and 
 modellers, being present himself every morning by six o'clock t# 
 superintend and direct them for the day. In 1813 he was appointed 
 professor of comparative anatomy to the College of Surgeons. During 
 this year he removed from the City to the West End, not only 
 with the view of cultivating his interest with those about court, 
 but also for the purpose of avoiding the enormous practice of the 
 City. 
 
 In 1817 he performed one of his most remarkable operations, that 
 of tying the aorta. Although not successful, it is undoubtedly the 
 boldest attempt in the annals of surgery. If any circumstances would 
 have justified it, they were those in which Cooper operated. It has 
 been attempted since without success. In 1818, in conjunction with 
 his former pupil and colleague, Mr. Travers, he commenced publishing 
 a series of surgical essays ; but the plan was abandoned after two parts 
 of the work had appeared In 1820 Cooper was called in to attend on 
 George IV., although he held no official position at court. Shortly 
 after this he removed a steatomatous tumour from the head of the 
 king. Six months after this the king offered him a baronetcy, which 
 was accepted on the condition that, as he had no son, the title should 
 descend to his adopted son and nephew Astley Cooper. 
 
 Iu 1822 Sir Astley Cooper was elected one of the Court of Examiners 
 of the College of Surgeons, and the same year he brought out his great 
 work on ' Dislocations and Fractures.' This work was characterised 
 by the same diligence of research, and it was got up in the same style 
 as his work on 'Hernia,' and, like that work, threw great light on 
 many obscure points on the anatomy of the subjects it treated of, as 
 well as suggested improved methods of treatment. 
 
 In 1827 Sir Astley Cooper was elected President of the College of 
 Surgeons, an honour which he again received in 1836. In 1827 he 
 lost his wife, and the grief which this occasioned, added to previous 
 indications of ill-health, determined him to resign practice and retire 
 to his estate at Gadeabridge. Here he lived only a short time, and 
 returned the following year to his practice in London. He had how- 
 ever previously resigned his lectureship at St. Thomas's, which he 
 did not resume. In 1828 he was married a second time, and iu the 
 
375 
 
 COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE. 
 
 COOPER, SAMUEL. 
 
 376 
 
 same year was appointed serjeant-surgeon to the King. In 1830 he 
 was elected a Vice-President of the Royal Society. 
 
 In 1829 he published the first part of a work on the ' Anatomy and 
 Diseases of the Breast.' This was accompanied by admirable illus- 
 trations and was a worthy companion to his previous works. The 
 whole of this work was completed in 1810. In 1832 appeared a work 
 of the same magnitude, on the 'Anatomy of the Thymus Gland,' 
 which was an important addition to the knowledge of a very obscure 
 organ of the human body. He was in the same year elected a mem- 
 ber of the Royal Institute of France, and shortly after a corresponding 
 member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. In 1834, on the occasion 
 of the installation of the Duke of Wellington at Oxford, he received 
 from that university the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Laws. He 
 visited Edinburgh in 1837, where new honours awaited him; he 
 was made an LL.D. of the university, the freedom of the city was 
 voted to him, and a public dinner was given him by the College of 
 Surgeons. 
 
 In the year 1810 attacks of giddiness, to which he had been subject, 
 increased, and he had much difficulty of breathing. These symptoms 
 increased, and he died on the 12th of February 1841, in the seventy- 
 third year of his age. He was interred by his own desire beneath the 
 chapel of Guy's Hospital. A colossal statue by Bailey has been 
 erected to his memory in St. Paul's Cathedral. In his will he left 
 1001. a year to be given every third year to the beBt essay on some 
 surgical subject. 
 
 Sir Astley Cooper is a striking instance of what unceasing industry 
 can accomplish. As a teacher, his kindness, and the easy manner 
 with which he communicated his knowledge, placed him far above 
 most of his contemporaries. His unwearied assiduity in the dissecting- 
 room enabled him to produce those great works which are amongst 
 the most important contributions to modern surgery, and must ever 
 give him an important position in surgical literature. His influence 
 on the surgery of the day was great. " Before his time," says Dr. 
 Furbes, " operations were too often frightful alternatives or hazardous 
 compromises; and they were not seldom considered rather as the 
 resource of despair than as a means of remedy. He always made 
 them follow as it were in a natural course of treatment; he gave 
 them a scientific character; and he moreover succeeded in a great 
 degree in divesting them of their terrors by performing them unos- 
 tentatiously, simply, confidently, and cheerfully, and thereby inspiring 
 the patient with hope of relief, where previously resignation under 
 misfortune had too often been all that could be expected from the 
 sufferer." 
 
 (The Life of Sir Astley Cooper, Bart., by Bransby B. Cooper; British 
 and Foreign Medical Quarterly Review, vols. x. and xvi.) 
 
 COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE, was born at Burlington, New 
 Jersey, United States, on the 15th of September, 1789. His father 
 was of a Buckinghamshire family which emigrated to America some 
 twenty years before the birth of the future novelist. When James 
 was about two years old, his father removed to the banks of the pic- 
 turesque Otsego Lake, Western New York, and there founded the 
 village of Cooperstown ; and somewhat later he was elected a judge 
 of the state of ftew York. Having himself initiated his son in the 
 rudimentary branches of learning, he transferred him to the care of 
 the Rev. J. Ellison, an episcopal clergyman at Albany, by whom he 
 was prepared for college. He remained at Yule College from 1802 to 
 1S05, when, having taken his degree, he entered the navy as a midship- 
 man. He served at sea for six years, and his conduct won the appro- 
 bation of his superiors, and the esteem of his fellow-officers. It was 
 here he acquired that familiarity with a maritime life, and knowledge 
 of the scenes and phenomena of the ocean, which lend such a charm 
 to his naval stories. On retiring from the service he in 1811 married 
 Miss Delancy, a sister of Bishop Delancy of New York, and took up 
 his abode in the family village of Cooperstown. 
 
 His next few years were spent in private life. It was not till 1S21 
 that Mr. Cooper appeared as an author. His first work was a novel, 
 ' Precaution,' which professed to be a story of English life. It met 
 with no success, but the author little daunted, speedily ventured 
 before the public again, with ' The Spy— a tale of the Neutral Ground.' 
 A thoroughly original and genuine American novel caught the 
 American ear, much as * Waverley ' had caught the Scottish. Its success 
 was immediate and unbounded. In England its vivid portraiture of 
 American character and scenery gave it the additional charm of 
 novelty, and Cooper at once took rank with the leading novelists of 
 the day. The 'Pioneers' followed in 1823, and confirmed the repu- 
 taiion of its author. A year later appeared ' The Pilot— a Tale of the 
 Sea.' These were the types of a long series of novels which during 
 many years flowed from Cooper's prolific pen. He had in them 
 brought before his readers the mighty forests and wide prairies, — the 
 backwoods of America, with their original occupants the Red Indians 
 and the Anglo-American hunters and settlers, who were rapidly sup- 
 planting them ; and the sea with its daring American privateers ; and 
 again and again he was to reproduce these in more or less varied 
 forms. The strength of his narrative, his power in delineating cha- 
 racter, his command of the passions, keenness of observation, and 
 descriptive skill were acknowledged without stint, and America was 
 admitted to have produced a great original novelist. 
 
 Cooper like Scott thought the tide of success was to be taken at the 
 
 full ; and he published novel after novel with a rapidity rivalling 
 that of the author of ' Waverley.' For a time his imagination and 
 stores of knowledge appeared to sustain without diminution the heavy 
 drain. He was never happier in depicting peculiarities of character, 
 nor carried the reader along with more rapidity and interest, than in 
 the ' Prairie ' and the ' Last of the Mohicans,' which appeared, after 
 ' Lionel Lincoln ' and one or two others, in 1826 ; in the 1 Red Rover' 
 and the ' Water Witch,' and the ' Wept of the Wish-ton-Wish,' which 
 followed in succeeding years. But in these and a few others he 
 exhausted his genius, and novels like ' Ned Myers,' the ' Sea Lions,' 
 'Mercedes of Castille,' and the 'Headsman of Berue,' served only to 
 call into clearer notico the weak points of their author ; yet the 
 ' Deerslayer' and one or two other of his later stories had so much of 
 beauty aud strength, that had there been no intervening failures, 
 there would have been little reason to fancy that the hand of the great 
 American novelist had lost its skill. 
 
 In 1826 Mr. Cooper visited Europe, where he remained for about 
 ten years, his longest sojourns being made in London and Paris. The 
 fruits of his European travel were the novels of 'The Headsman,' 
 ' The Bravo,' ' Heidenmaur,' and ' Mercedes,' none of which were 
 very successful; and 'Homeward Bound,' and 'Home as Found/ 
 which, with the ' Introductory Letter to his Countrymen,' stirred up 
 some strong feeling. Nor was he, as we have already intimated, 
 happier in the novels he wrote on his return to America, although in 
 several of them he recurred to his old American forests and sea 
 haunts. But he wandered also often into the regions of home and 
 foreign politics, not even keeping clear of controversy in his novels ; 
 and his very inaptitude for reasoning rendered him the more dogmatic 
 in maintaining his own views and irascible under contradiction or 
 dissent. Some of his home critics he prosecuted for libel ; his foreign 
 opponents he denounced with unbounded wrath. However, as time 
 wore on his better spirit resumed its sway, and it was rewarded at 
 home and abroad with a return of the old admiration aud esteem ; so 
 that his death, which occurred at Cooperstown, on the 14th of Sep- 
 tember 1851, caused a general expression of sorrow throughout 
 America, which was sincerely responded to in this country, where 
 he had hardly fewer readers and admirers than in his own land. 
 
 Besides the novels mentioned above, Mr. Cooper wrote ' The Path- 
 finder,' ' The Monikins,' ' The Two Admirals,' ' Wyandotte,' ' Wing 
 and Wing,' ' Afloat and Ashore,' ' Autobiography of a Pocket Hand- 
 kerchief,' ' Satanstoe,' ' The Chainbearer,' ' The Crater,' ' Oak Openings,' 
 ' Jack Tier,' ' The Sea-Lions,' and we believe one or two others. He 
 also wrote a ' History of the United States Navy,' which does not bear 
 a very high reputation ; ' Lives of Distinguished American Naval 
 Officers,' ' Gleanings in Europe,' ' Sketches of Switzerland,' ' Notions 
 of the Americans by a Travelling Bachelor,' and ' The Way of the 
 Hour.' Most European languages have translations of some of Cooper's 
 novels, and it is stated that one or two of the Oriental tongues possess 
 a version of at least one of his stories. Most of the earlier novels and 
 several of the later have been rendered into German ; and in French 
 there is a translation by Defauconpret in 23 vols. 8vo, Pans, 1838-45, 
 and another in 6 vols, by Messrs. Laroche and de Montemont. 
 
 COOPER, SAMUEL, a very distinguished English miniature painter 
 of the 17th century, was born in London in 1609. He was brought 
 up together with his brother Alexander by his uncle John Hoskins, 
 likewise a miniature painter, and much distinguished in the reign of 
 Charles I. Having displayed remarkable ability his uncle took him 
 into partnership with him, but almost immediately dissolved the part- 
 nership, in consequence it is said of the marked preference which was 
 invai-iably displayed for the works of his nephew. Cooper was with- 
 out a rival in the time of the Commonwealth, and during the reign 
 of Charles II. He painted the portrait of Cromwell which has been 
 engraved by Vertue, but the head only was finished. The original 
 is still in existence, but it has changed hands various times, and is at 
 present, we believe, in one of the Royal collections. Walpole speaks 
 in the highest terms of its merits; he says, that "if it could be 
 enlarged to the size of one of Vandyck's portraits, the latter would 
 lose by the comparison : " it is unquestionably a work of a very high 
 order. Another of Cooper's masterpieces was a head of a person 
 named Swingfield, which he took with him to the court of France, 
 where it procured him the highest patronage : he remained some 
 years in France and Holland. He was also much patronised by the 
 court of Charles II. He painted the miniature of Charles, as well as 
 that of his queen; the Duchess of Cleveland, the Duke of York, Monk 
 duke of Albemarle, Archbishop Sheldon, the Chancellor Shaftesbury, 
 and many others. Walpole possessed a drawing by Cooper of Pope's 
 father lying dead in his bed ; Cooper's wife was the sister of Pope's 
 mother. Cooper died in London in 1672, in his sixty-tbird year, and 
 was buried in old St. Pancras church, where a beautiful marble monu- 
 ment was raised to his memory, on which was inscribed a long and 
 highly commendatory epitaph, in Latin, commencing — "Samuel 
 Cooper, Esquire, of England the Apelles, of his age, and of art the 
 ornament," &c. Samuel Cooper was an excellent musician, and alio 
 well versed in several foreign languages. His widow was pensioned 
 by the crown. Cooper's excellence did not extend beyond the head, 
 but so far he was without a rival ; and the following entry in one of 
 the pocket-books of Charles, the husband of Mary Beale, shows that 
 in this respect he enjoyed the highest reputation among his contempo- 
 
877 COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY, A.R.A. 
 
 raries — "Sunday, May 5th, 1672, Mr. Samuel Cooper, the most famous 
 limner of the world for a face, dyed." 
 
 The writer of the ' Essay towards an English school ' (London, 
 1706), says that Cooper acquired this great excellence by copying the 
 pictures of Vandyck and imitating his style. " Our nation," he says, 
 " may be allowed to boast of him, having far exceeded all that went 
 before him in England in that way (miniature), and even equalled the 
 most famous Italians, insomuch that he was commonly styled the 
 Vandyck in little, equalling that master in his beautiful colouring, 
 and agreeable airs of the face, together with that strength, rilievo, 
 and noble spirit ; that soft and tender liveliness of the flesh which is 
 Inimitable." One of the chief excellences of his works is their free- 
 dom of execution, and their vigorous style, for though executed in 
 water-colours they have the power and effect of oil-paintings. 
 
 * COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY, A.R.A., was born at Canterbury, 
 September 26, 1803. His parents were in humble circumstances, and 
 his father having while Thomas was a child deserted his family, the 
 boy was early thrown on his own resources. His fondness for sketching 
 amounted to a passion, and having taught himself to draw, he suc- 
 ceeded in occasionally earning a few shillings by the sale of sketches 
 of some of the old buildings in the city. A scene-painter at the theatre 
 named Doyle, who one day saw him sketching, kindly offered to give 
 him some instruction; and young Cooper profited so well by his lessons, 
 and those of a drawing-master in the city, that on the death of Doyle 
 in the following year, 1820, he was employed to finish the scenes which 
 Doyle had commenced. For some three years he lived by scene- 
 painting and teaching drawing, when (1823) he came to London to 
 enter as a student at the British Museum and the Royal Academy. 
 But he soon found it necessary to return to his teaching at Canterbury, 
 where he remained till 1827, when he went to Holland and Belgium, 
 where, while practising portrait-painting, and subsequently making 
 laudscape-drawings, he carefully studied the works of the old Flemish 
 and Dutch masters, and familiarised himself with the principles and 
 methods of working of the living painters there, especially of M. 
 Verboeckhoven, the eminent animal-painter, of whom Mr. Cooper 
 himself says, " Whatever I have been able to do since I left the 
 Netherlands in my branch of art, I owe to him." 
 
 In 1831 Mr. Cooper returned with his wife and family to England, 
 the revolution of the previous year haviDg overturned all his arrange- 
 ments. He now determined to adopt animal-painting as his particular 
 branch of art; and carrying into it the minuteness of finish and much 
 of the style of the Netherlands painters, the novelty of his manner as 
 applied to English cows and sheep grazing in English meadows, caught 
 the attention of the purchasers of pictures as soon as he was able to 
 bring his works fairly to their notice. His first picture was exhibited 
 at the Gallery of the Society of British Artists in 1833, and was so 
 much admired that Mr. Vernon was led to give him a commission to 
 paint the picture now in the Vernon Gallery. From that time his 
 career ha3 been one of almost unbroken prosperity. Hi3 pictures have 
 always found purchasers, and at steadily advancing prices ; and he has 
 been a general favourite with the critics as well as with the patrons 
 of art. In 1845 Mr. Cooper was elected an associate of the Royal 
 Academy : he has not yet received the honour of full membership. 
 
 The range of Mr. Cooper's art is singularly limited. For the last 
 twenty years he has painted, with little variation of style or character, 
 oxen, cows, sheep, and goats. Almost invariably too they are standing 
 still or lying down. Once he was fond of painting cattle on the fell 
 sides, but now he usually confines himself to the rich Kentish meadows 
 and marshes, with the well-fed cattle and sheep. As a matter of course 
 there is a marvellous monotony in his pictures. Year after year he 
 gives us the same ox and cow and sheep and goat, the same broken 
 bit of foreground, the same grass and dock-leaves, the same trees, the 
 same cloud, and the same thick atmosphere. But then ox and cow 
 and goat and sheep are alike almost perfect in naturalness of attitude 
 and occupation, in colour and in texture, and the other parts of each 
 picture are of corresponding excellence. Whoever sees but one or two 
 of Mr. Cooper's cattle-piece3 at a time, and has not too strong a recol- 
 lection of his other pictures, will perhaps be ready to acquiesce in the 
 assertion of his more ardent admirers, that in his own particular 
 department he is the first of English painters. 
 
 (Autobiographic sketch in Art-Journal, November 1849.) 
 
 *COPE, CHARLES WEST, R.A., was bom at Leeds in 1811. He 
 learnt the rudiments of art from his father, a drawing-master in that 
 town ; then passed to the school of Mr. Sass ; subsequently entered 
 as a student at the Royal Academy ; and completed his art-education 
 by the usual visit to Italy. Mr. Cope's earlier pictures, both historical 
 and genre, attracted favourable notice at the Academy exhibitions ; 
 but he first became generally known as one of the three successful 
 competitors for the 300i. prizes at the cartoon competition of the Royal 
 Commission of the Fine Arts in 1813. Mr. Cope's cartoon, ' The First 
 Trial by Jury,' at the exhibition in Westminster Hall, though felt to 
 be too cold and formal, won general praise for its choice of subject, 
 simplicity and clearness of treatment, excellent composition and good 
 drawing. At the fresco competition in the following year, hi3 fresco 
 of ' The Meeting of Jacob and Rachel' obtained him a commission to 
 paint one of the six frescoes in the House of Lords ; and in due time 
 he painted there ' Edward III. conferring the Order of the Garter on 
 Edward the Black Prince.' He has since painted i« the same edifice 
 
 £100. DIV. TOIa II. 
 
 COPERNICUS, NICOLAUS. S76 
 
 ' Prince Henry's Submission to the Law,' and ' Griselda's First Trial ;' 
 and by common consent his are placed among the most successful of 
 the various attempts in fresco. 
 
 In 1843 Mr. Cope was elected A.R.A., and R.A. in 1848. Hia 
 employment on the frescoes at the houses of parliament has some- 
 what interfered with his contribution of great pictures to the Royal 
 Academy exhibitions, but he has most years sent works of sufficient 
 importance to maintain his title to academic rank. In his earlier works 
 he showed a partiality for subjects of a semi-domestic class, of which 
 his ' Poor-Law Guardians— Board-Day — Application for Bread,' exhi- 
 bited in 1841, and the ' Cotters' Saturday Night,' 1843, may be taken 
 as samples ; and in them he displayed much observation of character 
 and very careful painting, but on the other hand they were wanting 
 in spontaneity — the great deficiency perhaps in most of Mr. Cope's 
 paintings. He also painted many subjects such as the ' Schoolmaster,' 
 the ' Lovers,' &c, suggested by the poetry of Goldsmith, of which he 
 appeared for some years to be a diligent student. He then advanced 
 to a higher range of poetic imaginings, such as the ' Pastorella,' from 
 Spenser ; ' Melancholy ' and the ' Dream ' from Milton, and the like ; 
 and he proved himself not unequal to the effort. Since the fresco 
 commissions directed his attention so forcibly to history, he has con- 
 tributed to the academy exhibitions several excellent works in this 
 highest line of art, and in that branch of poetic painting most nearly 
 allied to it. Of these the principal are — 'Last Days of Cardinal 
 Wolsey,' painted for Prince Albert, and exhibited in 1848 ; 'Lear and 
 Cordelia' (1850); 'Laurence Saunders, the second Marian Martyr, in 
 Prison' (1851); the 'Marquis of Saluce marrying Griselda' (1852); 
 ' Othello relating his Adventures' (1853); and the ' Children of Charles 
 I. in Carisbrook Castle' (1855); and 'Lord and Lady Russell,' 1861. 
 
 COPE'RNICUS, NICOLA'US. The real name was Copernik, or, 
 according to others, Zepemic. We shall not discuss either this, or the 
 somewhat more important question, whether he was born, as Juncti- 
 nus asserts, at 38 minutes past four on the 19th of January 1472; or, 
 as Mcestliuus asserts, at 48 minutes past four in the afternoon, 
 February 19, 1473. Morin adopts the date of the latter, but remarks 
 that the horoscope was a most happy one for talent, as appears by 
 the nativity given by the former. 
 
 The principal authorities for the life of Copernicus are the account 
 of Gassendi, published with the life of Tycho Brahe" [Brahe, Ttcho]; 
 the 'Narratio,' &c, of Rheticus; aud an account prefixed to his 
 ' Ephemeris' for 1551. The latter two we have not seen, but Gassendi 
 cites abundantly from them. Weidler also mentions Adamus, ' Vit. 
 Phil. Germ.' There is nearly a literal translation of a large part of 
 Gassendi's life in Martin's ' Biographia Philosophica ; ' a sufficient 
 abstract in Weidler; and a full account of the writings of Coper- 
 nicus in Delambre's ' Hist, de l'Art Mod.,' vol. i. 
 
 Copernicus was born at Thorn in Prussia, a town on the Vistula, 
 near the place where it crosses the Polish frontier. His family was 
 not noble ; but his uncle, Lucas Watzelrode, was bishop of Warmia 
 (episcopus Warmiensis), whence it is frequently stated that Copernicus 
 afterwards settled at a town of that name ; whereas the cathedral was 
 situated at Frauenburg, a town on the coast, near the mouth of the 
 Vistula, and, as to social position, about 50 miles both from Kouigs- 
 berg and Danzig. Copernicus was educated first at home, and then at 
 the University of Cracow, where he became Doctor of Medicine. He 
 paid more than usual attention to mathematics, and afterwards to 
 perspective and painting. A portrait of himself, painted by himself, 
 passed into the possession of Tycho Brahe (see his 'Epistles,' p. 240), 
 who wrote an epigram on it, the point of which appears to be (the 
 portrait being a half-length) that the whole earth would not contaiu 
 the whole of the man who whirled the earth itself in ether. After 
 the completion of his studies at Cracow, Copernicus went to Italy, 
 and stayed some time at Bologna, under the instruction of Dominieo 
 Maria. His turn for unusual speculation began to appear in his having 
 at this time the notion that the altitude of the pole was not always the 
 same at the same place. He was certainly at Bologna in 1497, and by 
 the year 1500 he had settled himself at Rome, as appears by astrono- 
 mical observations which he is recorded as having made. At Rome 
 he gave public instructions, and in some official capacity (magno 
 applausu factus mathematum professor) : he is said, while thus 
 engaged, to have established a reputation hardly less than that of 
 Regiomontanus. In a few years (but the date is not precisely stated) 
 he returned to his native country, where (having taken orders, we sup- 
 pose, in Italy) his uncle gave him a canonry in his diocesan church of 
 Frauenburg. There, after some contests in defence of his rights, not 
 very intelligibly described, he passed the rest of his days in a three- 
 fold occupation — his ecclesiastical duties, his gratuitous medical prac- 
 tice among the poor, and astronomical researches. He went very little 
 into the world ; he considered all conversation as fruitless, except that 
 of a serious and learned cast ; so that he formed no intimacies except 
 with grave and learned men, among whom are particularly recorded 
 Gysius, bishop of Culm, aud his pupil and follower, the celebrated 
 Rheticus. A large mass of his epistles is said by Gassendi to have 
 fallen into the hands of Broscius, professor at Cracow, but none have 
 been published. He was all this time engaged as well in actual 
 observation as in speculation. His instrumental means however were 
 not superior to those of Ptolemy ; and he perfectly well knew the 
 necessity of improvement in this department. "If,'' said he to Rheticus 
 
370 
 
 COPERNICUS, NICOLAUS. 
 
 (whose Latin has certainly been misprinted, but in a manner which i 
 1 aves the meaning sufficiently clear), " I could determine the true ' 
 places of the heavenly bodies within ten seconds of a degree, I should i 
 not glory less in this than in the rule which Pythagoras has left us." 
 
 Copernicus was struck by the complexity of the Ptolemaic system, 
 and searched all ancient authors to find one of a more simple character. 
 The earth stationary in the centre of the universe, the planets moving 
 round it carried on enormous crystalline spheres (for though many 
 might use this as mere hypothesis, the refutation of Tycho Brahd 
 from the nature of the orbits of comets shows that he considered the 
 material spheres as one of the opinions of bis day), and finally, the 
 enormous sphere of the fixed stars, carried round once in every 
 24 hours, struck him with a feeling that such a system could not be 
 that of nature. He found in Martianus Capella, and others, proofs 
 that an opinion had formerly prevailed to some extent that Mercury 
 and Venus at least moved round the sun ; that the Pythagoreans held 
 the rotation of the earth ; and that Philolaus had even imagined the 
 earth to have an orbit round the sun. It is very doubtful to what 
 point these several opinions were carried, or on what grounds they 
 were supported; it is sufficient for our purpose here that Copernicus 
 found such doctrines attributed to the sects and persons above men- 
 tioned, and took them into consideration, with a view to see how far 
 phenomena could be made to follow from them with more simplicity 
 than in the system of Ptolemy. At what time he finally adopted his 
 own system is not very clear ; his work was completely written in 
 1530, and from that time he did nothing except to add and alter; and 
 since Copernicus says, in his epistle to Paul III., that ho had been 
 very long pressed by his friends to publish, the above date is not 
 improbable. In the mean while his opinion wa3 circulated even 
 among the vulgar ; and he was satirised on the stage at Elburg. His 
 reasons had convinced Reinhold, Rheticu?, Oysius, and others ; and 
 upon the representations made to him, Cardinal Schonberg was 
 desirous of having the work printed, and wrote to Copernicus to that 
 effect from Rome in 1536. But though backed by a cardinal, a bishop, 
 and two of the most learned astronomers of the age, Copernicus was 
 well aware of the odium which an attempt to disturb established 
 opinions would excite ; and it was not it seems till about 1511 that a 
 tardy consent was extorted from him. The work was accordingly 
 delivered to Gysius, and by him to Rheticus, who, thinking that it 
 would be best printed at Nuremberg, entrusted it to Andrew Osiander, 
 who superintended the printing, and wrote the remarkable preface, 
 which is always attributed, and even by Delatnbre, to Copernicus 
 himself. This is explicitly stated by Gassendi, and the reason 
 assigned is the obvious one that Osiander (besides thinking it neces- 
 sary to print the cardinal's request) was afraid of shocking public 
 opiniou, and thought it best to represent the scope of the work, not 
 as actually affirming the motion of the earth, but as using such an 
 hypothesis for the more simple and ready calculation of the heavenly 
 motions. 
 
 He says, "It is not necessary that hypotheses should be true or even 
 probable ; it is sufficient that they lead to results of calculation which 
 agree with observations." He points out the admitted defects, and 
 admitted unlikelihood, of several points of the Ptolemaic system ; 
 requires that the new hypothesis should be admitted on the same 
 footing a3 the ancient ones, and ends thus — " Neither let any one, so 
 far as hypotheses are concerned, expect anything certain from astro- 
 nomy, since that science can afford nothing of the kind ; lest, in case 
 he should adopt for truth things feigned for another purpose, he 
 should leave this study more foolish than he came." 
 
 With such safeguards, headed by the urgent request of a cardinal, 
 and dedicated, probably by permission, to the pope, the work was 
 ushered into the world, of which it was the ultimate destiny to help 
 largely in overthrowing submission to authority in matters of science, 
 whether to the doctrines of the Greeks or to the reputed interpretation 
 of the sacred writings. The title-page is as follows : — 
 
 NICOLAI CO- 
 PERNICI TORINENSIS 
 
 DE EEVOLVTIONIBVS OEBI- 
 
 um ccelestium libri vi. 
 
 Habes in hoc opere iatn recens nato & redito, 
 etudiose lector, Motus stellarum, tarn fixarum 
 quaui erraticarum, cum ex ueteribus turn etiam 
 ex recentibus obseruationibus restitutos: & no- 
 uis iusuper ac admirabilibus hypothesibus or- 
 natos. Habes etiam tabulas expeditissimas, ex 
 quibus eosdem ad quoduis tempus quam facilli 
 me calculare poteris. Igitur erne, lege, fruere. 
 
 'Aytw/j.eTpT)Tos ouSds iiaW<u 
 
 Norimbergss apud Ioh. Petreium. 
 
 Anno M. D. XLIII. 
 
 The taste of what we now should call the puff in the title-page is 
 doubtless that of Osiander, to whom it is due that the great work of 
 
 Copernicm contains an expression of recommendation to buy it in 
 the title-page, being the only instance of the kind we know. The 
 second edition, edited by Rheticus, was published at Basel, 1566, and 
 is little esteemed ; the third, edited by Muler, was printed at 
 Amsterdam in 1617, and again in 1640, with notes : it is the most 
 correct of the three. This same Muler, in his * Tabulas Frisicae,' 
 Alcmaar, 1611, has reduced the hypotheses of Copernicus to the form 
 of tables. 
 
 We now come to the description of the Copernican system, by 
 which we mean, the system actually promulgated by Copernicus, and 
 not the Keplerian, Oallilean, Newtonian, Halleian, Laplacian, &c, 
 system which bears the name. We have before remarked [BiUHfe, 
 Tycho], that it is customary to call all existing notions on the system 
 of the world, Copernican. This matters little, considered as a mere 
 method of expression ; but it becomes of consequence when, by means 
 of it, a degree of lustre is thrown on the speculations of Copernicus, 
 which, properly considered, they do not need, and, critically examined, 
 they will not bear. We are accustomed to see Copernicus represented 
 as a man so far in advance of his age, that in the main points of his 
 system nothing has been added and nothing subtracted. The plates 
 in our elementary works show, uudcr the heading of the ' Copernican 
 system,' planets, satellites, and comets, all with orbits such as the 
 latest discoveries have assigned. We shall therefore exhibit the 
 ' Copernican system ' as far as we can in the words of its author 
 (translated, of course), and at greater length than would have been 
 necessary had no misconception prevailed. It will hardly be supposed 
 that we intend an absolute depreciation of the merits of one of the 
 most original talents that ever existed. Copernicus was a mathema- 
 tician of the first order, a sincere lover of truth, a mind free from 
 trammels to an extent which was then almost unknown, and which 
 we should have deemed almost incredible had we not had the proof 
 before us. It is no easy thing for us to conceive the state of a head 
 furnished in youth with theories upon all things in heaven or earth, 
 proved in as many words by the assertion that Aristotle said it. 
 
 The work ' De Revolutionibus,' &c, consists of an introductory 
 dedication to Paul III., and six books. In the former Copernicus 
 distinctly informs us that, being discontented with the complexity of 
 the prevailing systems, he closely examined all the writings of the 
 ancients, to see if he could find anything better. He found the testi- 
 mouy of Cicero and Plutarch, as to the opinions of Nicetas, Pythagoras, 
 and Philolaus. He thereupon claims for himself the same licence, 
 adverts to his hypothesis as purely fictitious, and says, 'Quamvis 
 absurda opinio videbatur, tamen quia sciebam aliis ante me concessam 
 libertatem, ut quoslibet fingerent circulos ad demonstrandum pheno- 
 mena astrorum. Existimavi mihi quoque facile permitti, ut experirem, 
 an posito terra? aliquo motu firmiores demonstrationes, quam illorum 
 essent, inveniri in revolutione orbium ccelestium possent." With 
 regard to the word demonstration, it must be particularly remembered 
 that at this period the term, as applied to astronomy, always meant 
 a showing how the thing would happen if the supposition were true, 
 not a proof of the supposition itself. Thus, in this sense, the suppo- 
 sition of a daily motion of the sun round the earth may be made to 
 yield a perfect demonstration of the phenomena of day and night ; 
 and it would be legitimate to say that of two hypotheses, one false 
 and one true, the false one might give truer demonstrations of the 
 celestial motions than the other. 
 
 The first book contains the propositions — 1. That the universe is 
 spherical ; which is proved by old reasons, such as that a sphere is the 
 most perfect figure, &c. 2. That the earth is spherical; for which he 
 gives the same reasons as are now given. 3. That the earth and sea 
 make one globe. 4. That the motions of all the heavenly bodies must 
 be either uniform and circular, or compounded of uniform and circular 
 motions. Nothing but circular motion, he asserts, could reproduce 
 phenomena periodically ; and he maintains that a simple body must 
 move circularly. 5. He examines the questions whether the earth 
 can have an axical and an orbital motion, and satisfactorily shows 
 that, supposing the distance of the fixed stars to be immense, there is 
 no astronomical reason to the contrary. 6. He gives what he imagines 
 to be a proof that the sphere of the fixed stars i3 immensely distant 
 It must be observed that he has no notion of a universe of stars 
 unequally distributed throughout space. 7 and 8. He examines and 
 argues against the reasons of the ancients for placing the earth in the 
 centre of the universe, by considerations which are as purely imaginary 
 as those against which he was contending. He says that circular 
 motion must be that of a whole, rectilinear motion that of a part 
 separated from its whole; and from this assumption he deduces the 
 falling of a body to the eai'th. That rectilinear and circular motion 
 can exist together is, according to him, a thing of the same kind as 
 the notion of a horse existing with that of an animal. He is through- 
 out possessed by the opinion that there must be a ' centrum mundi,' 
 or fixed point in the middle of the universe, which however he con- 
 siders to be the sun, not the earth. It is needless to say that the 
 ' centrum mundi' forms no part of the Newtonian system. 9. He 
 contends for the possibility of the earth having several motions. 10. 
 He establishes the order of the planets, remarks that it is impossible 
 to explain the motion of Mercury and Venus upon the supposition of 
 the earth being their centre, and observes that the motion of the 
 other planets round the sun is perfectly possible, consistently with 
 
881 
 
 COPERNICUS, NICOLAUS. 
 
 COPLESTON, REV. EDWARD, D.D. 
 
 that of the earth, if the radii of their orbits be made large enough. 
 He draws a diagram of the system in the manner now usual, and 
 concludes with the following words, which must be considered as the 
 first announcement of the system : — " Proinde nou pudet uos fateri 
 hoc totum, quod luna praecingit, ac centrum terrse per orbem ilium 
 maguum inter caeteras errantes stellas annua revolutione circa soleui 
 trausire, et circa ipsum esse centrum mundi : quo etiam sole immobili 
 permauente, quicquid de motu solis apparet, hoc potiiis in mobilitate 
 terras verificari," &e. It must be observed that he lays down a sphere 
 fur the fixed stars so distinctly, that his commentator Muler finds it 
 necessary to remind the reader that he does not name the spheres of 
 the planets. But we shall presently see that he could not divest 
 himself of the idea that the primitive motions of the planets were such 
 as would be caused by their being fixed in immense crystal spheres 
 which revolve round the sun. 
 
 Before proceeding further it will help us here to observe, that 
 Copernicus does not in the smallest degree attempt to answer the 
 mschanical objections to the earth's motion, which were urged with 
 success against his system till the time of Galileo. The laws of motion, 
 as then explained, and as admitted by Copernicus himself, were alto- 
 gether insufficient to explain why, if the earth moved, a stone should 
 fail directly under the point from which it is dropped. No explanation 
 of such difficulties is given by Copernicus, nor can we find (nor did 
 Delambre find) that they are even alluded to as an element of the 
 question. If the mechanics of Copernicus had been true, the system 
 of Copernicus would have been physically impossible. Now this is an 
 essential element in the character of a discovery, which is materially 
 altered if that which is advanced as true be advanced on false grounds. 
 It is true that fire burns, and it is true that two and two make four ; 
 but it is false that two and two make four because fire burns. We 
 give no credit to the Pythagoreans, if it be true, as asserted, that they 
 placed the sun in the centre of the planets because they thought fire 
 the most excellent of all things. We may consider the omission of 
 Copernicus in two different lights. The first is, that he saw the 
 mechanical difficulties, but was so struck by the simplicity of his 
 astronomical system that he thought it more probable than the 
 mechanics of his day, and suspected that future researches would 
 produce laws of motion which should allow of the possibility of his 
 system ; and thinking thus, he judged it more wisely not to enter 
 upon the mechanical question, so as thereby to shock two sets of 
 received opinions at once. This would do honour to his sagacity ; but 
 unfortunately, the single sentence below alluded to, the equestrian 
 simile, prevents us from supposing that if he considered the subject 
 mechanically at all, he was other than satisfied with his own conclu- 
 sion, " Cum ergo motus circularis sit universorum, partium vero etiam 
 rectus, dicere possumus manere cum recto circularem, sicut cum 
 agio animal." The word in italics must be a misprint for equo, as 
 remarked by Muler. The latter distinctly points out that this is 
 meant to explain the difficulty of a falling stone, and adds, 'Sententise 
 hujus Veritas dependet ex hypothesi Coperniciana ;" that is, the truth 
 of the proof depends upon that of the thing proved. He should have 
 said (and possibly did mean), that upon the truth of this sentence the 
 Copernican hypothesis depends, so far as it was proved by Copernicus 
 himself. Our readers now must begin to have an idea how great an 
 injustice has been done to those who found better reasons for the 
 co-existence of rectilinear and circular motion, by the attachment of 
 the name of Copernicus to the present cosmical system. 
 
 The second method by which we may suppose Copernicus to have 
 reconciled difficulties, is the actual assertion made both by himself 
 and Osiander, that the hypothesis of terrestrial motion was nothing 
 but an hypothesis, valuable only so far as it explained phenomena, and 
 not considered with reference to absolute truth or falsehood. It is 
 usual to consider the expressions in question entirely as a concession 
 to general opinion, and as intended either to avoid the Inquisition, or 
 to induce those to look into the book who would otherwise have put 
 it a->ide as anti-Mosaical and heretical. And though there may be 
 some truth in this, we are on the whole inclined to suspect that the 
 hypothetical hypothesis, as we may term it, really did bias the mind 
 of Copernicus much more than has been supposed. We do not at all 
 concede that the interference of ecclesiastical power was as likely in 
 the case of the Prussian priest of 1540, as in that of the Italian lay- 
 man of 1633. Nothing is more common than to view the middle 
 ages as a whole, without noticing the ebbs and floods of power and 
 opinion. The epoch contained between the last Lateran Council and 
 that of Trent, in which the work of Copernicus was written, printed, 
 and published, was sufficiently occupied by diocesan councils, both 
 against Luther, and on the reformations in discipline, of which the 
 necessity began to be perceived. It appears to us far the most likely 
 that the mind of Copernicus must have balanced between the two 
 views we have described, and probably must have inclined different 
 ways at different times. 
 
 We now come to the brightest jewel in the crown of Copernicus, 
 the method in which he explained, for the first time and with bril- 
 liant success (so far as demonstration went, as before described), the 
 variation of the seasons, the precession of the equinoxes (book i. cap. 2, 
 book iii., and book vi. cap. 35), and the stations and retrogradations 
 of the planets. The latter point is fully made out, and in the manner 
 now adopted, so far as the qualities of the phenomena are con- 
 
 cerned: we shall presently see the method of reotifying the quantities. 
 With regard to the variation of the seasons, Copernicus explains it 
 rightly, from the continual parallelism of the earth's axis. But he 
 cannot obtain this parallelism from his mechanics. He imagines that 
 if the globe of the earth move round the sun, and also round its own 
 axis, the axis of rotation must always preserve the same inclination 
 to the line joining the centre of the earth and sun : just as when a 
 ball fastened by a string is made to spin, and a conical motion is 
 simultaneously given to the string and ball. It is most evident that 
 he got this idea from the solid crystal spheres. If the earth's axis 
 were fixed in an immense sphere, with which it turned round the 
 sun, and if in the first instance the axis produced would pass through 
 the axis of the sphere, the complete phenomenon of Copernicus would 
 be produced. The earth's axis would then describe a cone yearly. 
 To produce parallelism, Copernicus imagines what we may call an 
 anticouical motion, namely, that the earth's axis is itself endued with 
 such motion, independent of its motion in the sphere, as would, did 
 it act alone, carry the axis round the same cone in a year, but the 
 contrary way. The effect of the two motions is to destroy each other, 
 and the axis remains parallel in all its positions. Then, by supposing 
 the anticonical motion to be a little greater than the direct conical 
 motion, by 50" in a year, he produces the phenomenon of the pre- 
 cession of the equinoxes. If we consider that even Newton himself, 
 in tracing the effect of the forces which cause the precession, is thought 
 to have misconceived his own laws of motion, it is not at this part of 
 the mechanics of Copernicus that we need express surprise : and this 
 explanation of the cause of the seasons and of the precession, together 
 with that of the stations, &c. of the planets, must always place him 
 among cosmical discoverers of the first order of sagacity. 
 
 All that we have hitherto described will explain the mean motions 
 of the solar system, and the mean motions only. To account for all 
 irregularities, Copernicus (hampered with the notion that all motions 
 must be compounded of circular ones) is obliged to iutroduce a 
 system of epicycles entirely resembling that of Ptolemaeus. It will 
 surprise many readers to hear that the greater part of the work of 
 Copernicus is taken up with the description of this most essential 
 branch of the real ' Copernican system.' But it must be added that 
 the Copernican epicycles are more successful than the Ptolemaic. 
 The latter were utterly unsufficient as a means of demonstrating the 
 changes of distance of the planets and earth. The former, founded 
 upon a basis which brought this point not very far from the truth at 
 the outset, made a much nearer approximation to a correct repre- 
 sentation of the inequalities. But as the epicyclic system is not now 
 connected with the name of Copernicus, we need pursue this subject 
 no further, satisfied that what we have done will have a tendency to 
 put the reputation of that sagacious investigator in its proper place, 
 and that no mean one, though lower than the one usually assigued 
 to it. 
 
 Of the tables of Copernicus, his trigonometrical formulas, &c, this 
 is not the place to speak : they are more connected with the sciences 
 they belong to than with his biography. 
 
 While Copernicus was in daily expectation of receiving a complete 
 copy of his work from Rheticus, he was seized with hemorrhage, 
 followed by paralysis. The book actually arrived May 23, 1543, and, 
 as Gysius wrote to Rheticus, Copernicus saw it, and touched it, but 
 was too near his end to do more. He died in a few hours after, and 
 was buried in the cathedral to which he belonged. 
 
 We copy the following references to sources of information from 
 the ' Bibliog. Astron.' of Lalande, p. 595 ; Adam, 1 Vitae Phil. Germ. ; ' 
 Tycho Brahd, 'Orat. de Math.;' Jovius, ' Elog. Doct. Vir. ;' Bul- 
 lialdus, 4 Proleg. Astr. Phil. ; ' Vossius, ' De Sci. Math. ; ' Crasso, 
 ' Elog. d'Uom. Letter. ; ' Ghilini, 'Teatro,' torn. ii. ; Freherus, torn. ii. ; 
 Blount, ' Cens. Cel. Auct. ; ' Paschius, ' De Invent. Nov. Ant. ; ' ' Actu 
 Phil.,' part v., p. 884 ; Zernecke, ' Chronik von Thorn,' 2 ed., Berlin, 
 1727 ; ' Pantheon der Deutschen,' 1796 ; ' Berlin. Monatschrifft,' 
 August 1792, March 1793; ' Preussisches Archiv.,' December 1796 ; 
 Wieland, ' Teutscher Merkur,' November 1776. We may here notice 
 that Ghilini asserts an epistle ' De Motu Octava? Sphaerae ' to have 
 been printed; but as Gassendi had never seen it, and we can find no 
 mention of it, we conclude no such epistle was published, though one 
 with that name was certainly written. 
 
 COPLESTON, REV. EDWARD, D.D., was born February 2, 1776, 
 at the rectory-house, Offwell, Devonshire. His father, the Rev. John 
 Bradford Copleston, was the rector of that parish, and he educated at 
 his own residence a limited number of pupils, among whom was his 
 sou Edward. In 1791 Edward Copleston was elected to a scholarship 
 at Corpus Christi, Oxford ; in 1793 he obtained the Chancellor's priae 
 for a Latin poem ; and in 1795 he was elected a Fellow of Oriel College. 
 He obtained the Chancellor's prize for an English essay on ' Agricul- 
 ture' in 1796, and in 1797 wa3 appointed college-tutor, though he had 
 not then taken his degree of M.A. In 1802 he was elected Professor 
 of Poetry to the university, in which office he succeeded Dr. Hurdis. 
 He published in 1813 the substance of the lectures which he had 
 delivered, under the title of ' Prselectioues Academica?,' a work which 
 gained him a high reputation for pure and elegant Latin composition 
 combined with extensive poetical information. Some severe attacks 
 on the University of Oxford having been made in the ' Edinburgh 
 Review,' Mr. Copleston published in 1810 ' A Reply to the Calumnies 
 
383 COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON. 
 
 of the Edinburgh. Review against Oxford,' which was followed by 
 another 'Reply' in the same year, and by a third in 1811. These 
 replies were greatly esteemed by the university, and regarded as a 
 triumphant defence. In 1814 Copleston was elected Provost of Oriel 
 College, and soon afterwards the degree of D.D. was conferred upon 
 him by diploma, the instrument setting forth that this distinction 
 resulted from a grateful sense of the many public benefits which he 
 had conferred upon the university. Dr. Copleston is chiefly remem- 
 bered as a divine by his work on ' Predestination,' which consists, for 
 the most part, of three sermons preached at St. Mary's church, Oxford, 
 ' An Enquiry into the Doctrines of Necessity and Predestination, with 
 Notes and an Appendix on the 17th Article of the Church of England,' 
 8vo, London, 1821. Between the years 1811 and 1822 he contributed 
 many articles to the ' Quarterly Review.' In 1826 Dr. Copleston was 
 appointed to the deanery of Chester, and in 1827 he succeeded Dr. 
 Sumner in the bishopric of LlandafF and deanery of St. Paul's, London. 
 He also held the honorary appointment of professor of ancient history 
 to the Royal Academy of Arts, and was a fellow of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. After he became a bishop his time was chiefly occupied 
 in the performance of the duties of his diocese. Some of his sermons, 
 charges, and speeches in the House of Lords, were published at the 
 time when made. He resided mostly during the latter part of his 
 life at Hardwick House, near Chepstow, where he died October 14, 
 1849. 
 
 {Memoirs of E. Copleston, Bishop of Llandoff, with Selections from 
 his Diary and Correspondence, etc., by William James Copleston, 
 London, 1851, 8vo.) 
 
 COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON, was born at Boston, in the United 
 States, July 3, 1737. His father, who was of English extraction, 
 resided in Ireland until his removal to America, which took place so 
 immediately before his son was born that Ireland has claimed him as 
 a native. He wa3 educated in America ; and without the aid of 
 instructors, simply by studying from nature in the groups around him 
 and the neighbouring woods, he taught himself to paint. In 17G0 he 
 sent a picture of a ' Boy and Tame Squirrel' to the exhibition of the 
 Royal Academy, which was universally admired. By the year 1767 
 he was in the receipt of a considerable income as a portrait-painter, 
 and was well known both by his works and by name to his brother 
 painters on this side of the Atlantic. In 1774 he indulged a long-felt 
 wish to visit Italy, which he reached by way of London. In the fol- 
 lowing year he returned to London, and established himself in George- 
 street, Hanover-square. In 1777 he was elected an associate of the 
 Royal Academy, and in ] 783 hs became a member. He died in 1815. 
 His son, the late Lord Lyndhurst, possessed some of his father's 
 best paintiugs. 
 
 The best known of Copley's works is the 'Death of Lord Chatham,' 
 now in the National Collection. It was engraved by Bartolozzi on a 
 plate of an unusual size, and the engraving was extensively sold. The 
 painter sent an impression to General Washington, and another to 
 John Adams. Copley painted many historical subjects, some sacred, 
 and not a few illustrating the history of England, particularly the 
 period of the revolution. Perhaps the most spirited design from his 
 pencil is the death of Major Pierson, a young officer who died in the 
 defence of St. Helier's in Jersey against the French, at the moment 
 when his troops gained a victory over an enemy of superior numbers. 
 There is a dryness and stiffuess of manner in Copley's paintings 
 generally which is less observable in this picture. It is now in the 
 National collection. 
 
 CORAM, THOMAS, was born about 1668, was brought up in the 
 mercantile navy, and became early in life the captain of a merchant 
 ship trading to the Antilles. While in London his business often led 
 him from the east-end to the city, and his feelings were harrowed 
 by witnessing " young children exposed, sometimes alive, sometimes 
 dead, and sometimes dying." His compassion was awakened; and, 
 finally, his enthusiasm roused, he determined to make an effort to rescue 
 the poor victims from destruction. He began cautiously by making 
 the subject a frequent topic of conversation. He won adherents. 
 He devoted his labours and his fortune to the object in view. He 
 ultimately obtained a wider and more substantial support. At 
 length, after seventeen years of untiring perseverance, on Nov. 20, 
 1739, he presented to a meeting of noblemen and gentlemen at 
 Somerset House, a charter for a ' Hospital for the Maintenance and 
 Education of exposed and deserted Children.' The institution was to 
 be supported by subscription. On October 27, 1740, twenty children 
 were first admitted at the hospital in Hatton Garden. The institution 
 appealed to the benevolent feelings of the public, and in 1756 parlia- 
 ment voted 10,000Z. to enable the hospital (which had by this time 
 been removed to its present site, and is known as the Foundling 
 Hospital) to receive children indiscriminately. This system com- 
 menced in J une, and by the end of the same year 1783 children had been 
 admitted, and in the following year 3727. The effect had not been 
 foreseen. A most material check having been removed, female im- 
 prudence became far more common ; and even the destruction of infant 
 life was vastly increased, for the children were transmitted in baskets 
 from distant parts of the country, and of 14,934 children admitted 
 under this system, only 4400 lived to be apprenticed. The evils 
 became so enormous that parliament again interposed, declared its 
 disapproval of the system, and discontinued the grant of money. 
 
 CORD AY D'ARMANS, CHARLOTTE. 384 
 
 The children are now admitted only uuder certain restrictions, and 
 the charity is much more effectively distributed. 
 
 But the more serious results of the wide extension of the charity 
 were not seen by Captain Coram. While he lived he employed him- 
 self actively in the concerns of the hospital, but not in them alone ; 
 many other useful and patriotic objects, chiefly in regard to the 
 colonies with which he had been formerly connected, received his 
 attention. His benevolence however had exhausted his means. His 
 friends therefore arranged to raise a subscription to provide him with 
 an annuity, but before carrying the scheme into execution, and in 
 order not to offend the good old man, Dr. Brocklesby made the plan 
 known to him. His answer was, " I have not wasted the little wealth 
 of which I was formerly possessed in self-indulgence or vain expenses, 
 and am not ashamed to confess that in my old age I am poor." In 
 1749 an annuity of about 170Z. a year was secured for him, but he did 
 not enjoy it long. He died March 29, 1751, and was buried in the 
 chapel of the hospital under the communion-table, the funeral being 
 attended by the governors, the children, and his numerous friends 
 and admirers. 
 
 CORBET, RICHARD, was the son of a wealthy gardener at Ewell 
 in Surrey, whose professional skill and personal amiability are com- 
 memorated in verses by Ben Jonson. He was born in 1582, and 
 received his education at Westminster School and at Christchurch, 
 Oxford, of which he became dean. After taking orders, he attained 
 high popularity in the pulpit, being, In Anthony Wood's phrase, "a 
 quaint preacher." His talents, his social qualities, and his firm 
 adherence to the High Church party, gained for him, through the 
 patronage of Buckingham, the place of chaplain to James I. ; and he 
 was afterwards elevated in succession to the bishopric of Oxford and 
 to that of Norwich, each of which he held about three years. He 
 died in possession of the latter see, in 1635. Although strongly 
 adverse to the Puritans, and employed by Laud in several of his 
 proceedings against them, he did much to mitigate the harsh com- 
 mands of hi3 superior, both by forbearance in the execution of them, 
 and by the gentleness which he showed when compelled to act. His 
 proved ability, his tolerance and desire for moderate procedure in 
 ecclesiastical affairs, and the cheerful kindliness of his disposition, 
 made Bishop Corbet beloved, and cveu respected, in spite of his exu- 
 berant eccentricities. These indeed were such as even the coarseness 
 and freedom of manners prevalent in that ago could hardly make 
 reconcileable with the clerical character. Although we were to dis- 
 believe some of those anecdotes of unbecoming joviality collected by 
 Aubrey, there would remain abundant evidence of extreme light- ! 
 mindedness. His only published writings are his poems. These were 
 first collected in 1647, 12mo, under the title of ' Poetica Stromata ; ' 
 they were reprinted in 1648 and 1672 ; and they were edited in 1807, 
 12mo, with a life of the author, by Octavius Gilchrist. They are, 
 almost without exception, of a cast more or less ludicrous ; and several 
 of them are Batires on the Puritans. They possess very much merit 
 in their class. The ' Journey to France,' and ' Farewell to the 
 Fairies,' have been inserted in several collections of English poetry; 
 but there are others in the series which, for their humorous merri- 
 ment and pointed terseness, would not have been unworthy of the 
 same distinction. 
 
 CORD AY D'ARMANS, MARIE ANNE CHARLOTTE, commonly 
 called CHARLOTTE CORDAY, who numbered among her ancestors 
 the great tragedian Corneille, and was of noble family, was born at ' 
 St. Saturnin, near Seez, in Normandy, in 1768. The republican prin- 
 ciples of the early revolutionists struck deep root in her enthusiastic 
 mind, and her zeal for their establishment was heightened after the 
 rise of the Jacobins and the overthrow and proscription of the 
 Girondists, May 31, 1793, by the presence and conversation of those 
 chiefs of the latter party who fled into Normandy in hope to rouse 
 the people in their favour. Resolved to advance the cause which she 
 had at heart by some extraordinary action, Charlotte Corday travelled 
 to Paris, where having gained admission to the galleries of the Con- 
 vention, she was still more incensed by the threats and invectives 
 which she heard showered upon her own friends. Her project took 
 the form of a determination to assassinate one of the principals of the 
 dominant faction. Whether to deter them by terror, as an act of 
 revenge, or as an example of what she regarded public justice, she 
 chose Marat, one of the most violent and bloody of the Jacobins, to 
 be her victim. After two unsuccessful attempts, she obtained admis- 
 sion into the chamber in which he was confined by illness, July 15, 
 uuder pretence of communicating important news from Caen ; and 
 being confirmed in her purpose by his declaration that in a few days 
 the Girondists who had fled thither should be guillotined in Paris, she 
 suddenly stabbed him to the heart. He gave one cry and expired. 
 Being immediately arrested and carried before the Tribunal Revolu- 
 tionnaire, she avowed and justified the act. " I have killed one man," 
 she exclaimed, raising her voice to the utmost, " to save a hundred 
 thousand; a villain, to rescue innocents; a wild beast, to give peace to 
 my country. I was a republican before the revoluti.ni, and I have 
 never been wanting in energy." But she indignantly denied that she 
 had any accomplices, declaring that it was her own act, prompted only 
 by a desire to render peace to her country. Notwithstanding her 
 confession, the court, with an affectation of impartiality which in this 
 case could be ventured on, assigned her a defender, and went through 
 
JS8 
 
 CORELLI, ARCANGELO. 
 
 CORIOLANO, GIAMBATTISTA. 
 
 8*1 
 
 all the formalities of trial. The speech of her advocate [Chauveau, 
 Lagarde] is rather remarkable. He neither denied nor extenuated 
 the act; and acknowledged it to have been long premeditated. " She 
 avows everything, and seeks no meana of justification ; this, citizeu- 
 judges, is her whole defence :— this imperturbable calmness, this total 
 Belfabandonment — these sublime feelings, which, even in the very 
 presence of death, show no sign of remorse, are not natural. It is for 
 you, citizen-judges, to fix the moral weight of this consideration in the 
 scales of justice." 
 
 Charlotte Corday returned thanks to the pleader. " You have 
 seized," she said, " the true view of the question ; this was the only 
 method of defence which could have become me." She heard her 
 sentence with perfect calmness, which she maintained to the last 
 momeut of her life. Her personal charms were of a high order ; and 
 her beauty and animation of countenance, even during her passage to 
 execution, added greatly to the interest inspired by her courage and 
 loftiness of demeanour. She was guillotined July 17, 1793. 
 
 (Biog. Univ. ; Montgaillard, Hist, de France, <fcc, vol. iv., pp. 55-59 ; 
 Miguet ; Lamartine, &c.) 
 
 CORELLI, ARCA'NGELO, musical composer, on whom hi3 coun- 
 trymen bestowed the cognomen of ' II Diviuo,' was born at Fusignauo, 
 in the Bolognese territory, in 1653. Adami says that his instructor 
 in counterpoint was Simonelli ; and it appears pretty certain that his 
 master for the violin, the instrument of his early adoption, and which 
 he never abandoned, was Giambattista Bassani of Bologna. It is 
 stated that Corelli went in 1672 to Paris, but that through the jealousy 
 of Lully he was soon obliged to quit that city. In 1680 Corelli 
 visited Germany, where he received extraordinary honours, not only 
 from the public, but from sovereign princes, among whom the elector 
 of Bavaria distinguished himself by the hospitable manner in which 
 he treated the great musical genius. Corelli returned to Rome at the 
 expiration of about two years, and published his first set of ' Twelve 
 Sonatas for two Violins and a Base,' in 1683. A second series appeared 
 in 1685, entitled 'Balletti da Camera.' These were succeeded in 1690 
 by a third set; and the fourth was published in 1694. His admirable 
 sonatas for violin and base, or harpsichord, in which all violinists are 
 early initiated, were printed, with a dedication to the electress of 
 Brandenburg, in 1700. When Jame3 II. sent, in 1686, the Earl of 
 Castlemaine as ambassador to the pope, Christina of Sweden, then at 
 Rome, celebrated the event by having an opera written, composed, 
 and performed, in the holy city. The baud employed on this occasion 
 consisted of 150 stringed instruments, a prodigious and unprecedented 
 force for those days, and Corelli was chosen as leader, which duty he 
 performed in so satisfactory a manner, that the Italian opera in Rome 
 was placed under his direction chiefly, and in 1700 had arrived at a 
 degree of excellence which it had never before attained in the capital 
 of Italy. He now gained the friendship of the well-known patron of 
 art, the Cardinal Ottoboni, at one of whose 'Accademie' he met 
 Handel, then travelling in Italy. As a mark of attention to the great 
 German composer, the cardinal had the serenata, ' II Trionfo del Tempo 
 e della Verita' (afterwards altered into 'The Triumph of Time and 
 Truth') performed, the overture to which being in a style quite new 
 to Corelli, he led it in a manner that displea c ed the irascible composer, 
 who rudely snatched the violin from the hands of the gentle Italian. 
 Corelli no farther resented this indignity than by calmly observing, 
 " My dear Saxon, this music is in the French style, which I do not 
 understand." Some satire was half concealed in this remark, for 
 Handel at that time certainly imitated Lully's overtures, and the 
 inuendo, which was a lenient punishment for conduct so violent, 
 could not have been misunderstood by him. Corelli however, though 
 an exquisite performer in regard to expression and taste, had devoted 
 more of his attention to those high qualities which ought to be consi- 
 dered paramount to all others, than to what is commonly understood 
 by the term execution ; he consequently was sometimes embarrassed 
 by having music placed before him which at first sight he could not 
 easily master, and was abashed on finding that musicians infinitely 
 inferior to himself could play it without preparation or hesitation. It 
 was at Naples that he met with some mortifications of the kind alluded 
 to, which prompted him to quit abruptly, and somewhat chagrined, 
 that city, to which he had been very warmly invited, and where it was 
 intended that he should be received with every mark of distinction. 
 
 Corelli'g greatest work, his ' Concerti Grossi,' or Twelve Concertos, 
 wa3 written many years before it appeared in print. The Concerti 
 were engraved in score at Amsterdam, and published in December 
 1712, s.x weeks only before their author breathed his last, an event 
 which took place on the 18th of January 1713. He wa3 buried in the 
 church of Santa Maria della Rotunda (the ancient Pantheon), where 
 a monument, with a marble bust, is erected to his memory, near that 
 of the greatest of painters, Raffaelle. On the pedestal is a Latin 
 inscription by the Cardinal Ottoboni, which records in simple and 
 elegant terms the merits of the composer and the friendship of the 
 writer. 
 
 Corelli'a best works are imperishable. Rousseau has said that he 
 who without tears can listen to Pergolesi's ' Stabat Mater,' may feel 
 assured that he has no genius for music. We will also risk an assertion 
 — that those who can without admiration hear the eighth concerto of 
 Corelli, as it used to be performed at the Ancient Concert, though 
 they may bo able to boast great powers of execution as instru- 
 
 mentalists or vocalists, can have no conception of the higher beautiea 
 of composition — can possess no soul for pure harmony. 
 
 CORE'NZIO, BELLISA/RIO (Cavaliere), a Greek, and a celebrated 
 painter, distinguished for his ability and notorious for his invidious 
 tyranny over the painters of Naples in his time, whether Neapolitans 
 or strangers, was born about 1558. He was five years the pupil of 
 Tintoretto at Venice, and settled in Naples about 1590. Here in 
 conjunction with Ribera and Carracciolo he obtained a complete 
 ascendancy, which he accomplished partly by his ability, partly by 
 dissimulation, and partly by violence. Corenzio, Ribera, and Carrac- 
 ciolo are said to have formed a triumvirate, whose object was to 
 control all the great undertakings in paintings in Naples, and to allot 
 his portion to each ; and it is added that they did not scruple to resort 
 to the most violent measures to remove the rivals whom they failed 
 to intimidate. Corenzio, though not to be compared with Tintoretto, 
 possessed nearly equal boldness of manner and facility of execution, 
 and he was also little inferior to him in invention. He was an able 
 colourist in oil, but he took little pleasure in that style ; his ambition 
 was to paint great works in fresco, and he executed many at Naples. 
 In the number of his frescoes he has been equalled by few masters, 
 and by still fewer in their extent ; he could execute in a single day as 
 much work as would occupy four painters of ordinary efficiency in the 
 same time. One of his best and greatest works, the ' Feeding of the 
 Five Thousand,' in the refectory of the Benedictines, occupied him 
 only forty days. He died in 1643, at an advanced age: he was 
 repairing one of his frescoes, when he fell from the scaffolding 
 and was killed. (Dominici, Vite dei Pittori, <Ssc. ; Lanzi, Sloria 
 Piltorica, &c.) 
 
 CORINNA, a Greek lyric poetess, was a daughter of Archelodorus 
 or Achelodorus and Procratia, and was born at Tanagra iu Bceotia. 
 As she resided during some period of her life at Thebes, she is some- 
 times called a Theban. She bore the surname Myia (fivTa, a fly), and 
 is often spoken of under this name alone. She lived about B.C. 500, 
 as we must infer from the persons with whom she was connected, and 
 was a woman of unusual beauty. She is said to have been a disciple 
 of the poetess Myrtis, and to have herself instructed Pindar in his 
 youth ; but afterwards to have contended with him in poetical con- 
 tests, and to have gained five victories over him. She appears at any 
 rate to have exercised a very great influence upon the development 
 of Pindar's youthful genius, and to have recognised his extraordinary 
 powers; for she is said to have blamed Myrtis for venturing to enter 
 into competition with him. The poems of Corinna were collected 
 and divided (probably by the grammarians) into five books, and iu 
 addition to this collection we have mention of epigrams and lyric 
 guomes. But not one entire poem of hers has come down to us, and 
 only a very few fragments are extant, which scarcely enable us to 
 form an idea of their merit. Her great reputation however is attested 
 by the statues which were erected to her in several towns of Greece, 
 and by the prominent place which the Alexandrine critics assigned to 
 her among the lyric poetesses. She wrote in the iEolic dialect, which 
 however was interspersed with many Boeotian peculiarities. Her 
 poems moreover appear to have been principally intended for Boeotians; 
 for they abounded in allusions to Boeotian localities. From the frag- 
 ments extant we must infer that the subjects of some of her poems 
 were traditions about mythical heroe3, and as in addition to this we 
 are told that she wrote eir-n, we might suppose that she also composed 
 epic poetry, but we know from Hephsestion (p. 22, ed. Gaisford), that 
 these e-n-T] were contained in the fifth book of her poems, and that they 
 were choral odes or hymns iu the heroic or epic verse. The frag- 
 ments of Corinua's poems are collected in F. Ch. Wolf's ' Fceminarum 
 IX. Illustrium Fragmenta et Elogia,' Hamburg, 1734, p. 42, &c. ; in 
 A. Schneider's ' Poetarum Graecorurn Fragmenta,' Giessen, 1802, 8vo; 
 and best in Th. Bergk's ' Poetse Lyrioi Graeci,' p. 811, &c. 
 
 Suidas, in his article ' Corinna,' mentions two other lyric poetesses 
 of the name of Corinna, the one of Thespise or Corinth, and the other 
 Corinna the younger of Thebes, who was surnamed Myia. But these 
 two are otherwise unknown, and it is generally supposed that Suida3 
 is blundering iu his usual way, and has made three persons out 
 of one. 
 
 (F. G. Welcker iu Creuzer's Meletemata, vol. ii. p. 1, &c. ; Bode, 
 Getchichfe der Hellenischen Dichtkunst, vol. ii. part 2, p. 115, &c.) 
 
 CORIOLA'NO, the name of three celebrated engravers, chiefly in 
 wood, in chiaroscuro. 
 
 Cristofoiio Coriolano, the earliest, appears to have been a German 
 and a native of Niirnberg, whose name, Doppelmayr supposes, was 
 Lederer, but having settled in Italy he translated it into Coriolano. 
 He cut, besides many other works, the very clever portraits in the 
 second edition of Vasari, which was published at Florence in 156S. 
 He died, according to Doppelmayr, iu Venice, in 1600. 
 
 Giambattista Coriolano, the next iu point of time, was born at 
 Bologna, aud is supposed to have been the son of Cristoforo, but from 
 the dates upon his works, 1619-25, that of grandson is a more probabh 
 relationship: he died in 1649. He was the pupil of G. L. Valesio, 
 aud was painter, and engraver on copper and on wood ; but he painted 
 very little, and his cuts iu wood are very few : his works consist 
 chiefly of engravings and etchings on copper, of which Bartsch describes 
 223, among which are several after the Caracci and other celebrated 
 Bolognese painters. 
 
857 CORIOLANUS, CNiEUS MARCIUS. 
 
 The most celebrated of this name was the Cavaliere Bartolomeo 
 Cohiolano, who is likewise said to have been the son of Cristoforo, 
 but the statement in this case is still more doubtful than in that of 
 Gianibattiata, for the earliest date on his works is that of 1627, 
 twenty-seven years after the death of his reputed father, who must 
 have been of a considerable age when he died, as ho was employed by 
 Vasari in 1568. Bartolomeo was made Cavaliere di Loreto by Pope 
 Urban VIII., for some prints after Guido, which he presented to his 
 holiness : from this event he always wrote Eques after his name upon 
 his prints. He was ono of the best of the Italian wood-engravers, and 
 has executed some very effective prints in chiaroscuro, after Guido aud 
 the Caracci ; some with three and some with two blocks. The ' Fall 
 of the Giants,' after Guido, 1638, is one of his principal works ; it is 
 in four sheets, which together measure 32 inches high by 23 inches 
 broad. The latest date to which his signature is found is 1647. His 
 daughter, Teresa Maria, painted and engraved some few works. 
 
 ( D o p pe 1 in a y r, Histqriiehe Nachricht, iio.; Gandeliiui, Notizic htoriche 
 degl' Intagliatori, <Lc. ; Bartscb, Peintre Gravew; Brulliot, Diction- 
 nuire des Monogrammcs, <tc.) 
 
 CORIOLA'NUS, CN^EUS MA'RCIUS, the hero of an ancient 
 Roman legend, belonging to the latter half of the third century of the 
 city. Dionysius calls him Caius ; but Dion and most of the manu- 
 scripts of Livy are in favour of Cntcus. (Niebuhr, ' Hist, of Rome,' 
 vol. ii. p. 234, Eng. Trausl.) The surname Coriolauus was supposed, 
 in later times, to have been derived from his conquest of Corioli; but 
 it probably rose in the same way as a multitude of other Roman sur- 
 names, suoh as Sabinus, Auruncus, Viscellius, &c, which only indicate 
 the origin of the houses which bore them. A similar connection 
 might no doubt be satisfactorily traced in many more cases if the 
 names of the towns remained to justify our conclusions. (Niebuhr, 
 vol. ii. p. 242.) The etory of Coriolanus, as given by the Roman 
 historians, is so completely poetical iu its form, aud so rhetorical in 
 its details, that Niebuhr (p. 242) is of opinion that almost the whole 
 of it must be excluded from history. The tale however runs as 
 follows : — 
 
 Coriolanus was in the Roman camp when the cousul Cominius was 
 laying siege to Corioli. The besieged making a vigorous sally, suc- 
 ceeded in driving back the Romans to their camp ; but Coriolanus 
 immediately rallied them, rushed through the gates, and took the 
 place. Meantime the Antiates had come to relieve the town, and were 
 on the point of engaging with the consul's army, when Coriolanus 
 commenced the battle, and soon completely defeated them, from 
 this time he was greatly admired for his warlike abilities, but his 
 haughty demeanour gave considerable offence to the commonalty. 
 Not long afterwards his implacable anger was excited by being refused 
 the consulship ; and when, on occasion of a severe famine in the city, 
 corn was at last brought from Sicily (some purchased and some given 
 by a Greek prince), and a debate arose whether it should be given 
 gratis or sold to the plebs, Coriolanus strenuously advised that it 
 should be sold. The people in their fury would have torn him to 
 pieces had not the tribunes summoned him to take his trial. He was 
 banished by a majority of the tribes, and retired to Antium, the chief 
 town of the Volsci, where the king, Attius Tullus, received him with 
 great hospitality. Coriolanus promised the Volsci his aid in their war 
 against Rome, and they forthwith granted him the highest civil 
 honours, and appointed him their general. He attacked and took 
 many towns; among others Circii, Satrio> \m, Lougula, and Lavinium. 
 At last he directed his march to Rome itself, and pitched his camp 
 only a few miles from the city, where he dictated the terms at which 
 the Romans might purchase a cessation of hostilities. Among other 
 things he demanded that the land taken from the Volsci should be 
 restored, that the colonies settled there should be recalled, and that 
 the whole people should be received as allies and citizens with equal 
 rights ; and that all those who had enlisted themselves under his 
 banners should be recalled, as well as himself. Coriolanus allowed 
 them two terms, one of thirty and the other of three days, for making 
 up their minds. After thirty days had expired, a deputation of four 
 leading senators came before his tribunal, but were repulsed with 
 threats if they should again offer anything but unreserved submission. 
 
 On the second day, the whole body of priests and augurs came in 
 their official garb and implored him, but in vain. On the third and 
 last day which he had allowed them he intended to lead his army 
 against the city, but another expedient was tried, and succeeded. The 
 noblest matrons of the city, led by Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, 
 and his wife Volumnia, who held her little children by the hand, came 
 to his tent. Their lamentations at last prevailed on his almost un- 
 bending resolution ; and, addressing his mother, he said with a flood 
 of tears, " Take then thy country instead of me, since this is thy 
 choice." The embassy departed ; and, dismissing his forces, he 
 returned and lived among the Volsci to a great age. According to 
 another account, he was murdered by some of the Volsci, who were 
 indignant at his withdrawing from the attack. 
 
 After his death however the Roman women were mourning for him 
 as they had done for some former heroes. The public gratitude for 
 the patriotic services of Volumnia w*re acknowledged by a temple, 
 which was erected to Female Fortune. Shakspere has founded his 
 play of 'Coriolanus ' on certain parts of the legend. 
 
 (Dionysius Halicaruassensis, viii.j Plutarch, Life of Coriolanus; 
 
 CORMONTAINGNE, LOUIS DE. 
 
 Livius, ii. 33-40; Florus, i. 11; Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. ii. 
 
 pp. 234-243.) 
 
 * CORMENIN, LOUIS MARIE, DE LA HAIE, VICOMTE DE, a 
 celebrated French political writer, was born at Paris, January 6, 1788. 
 Tho son and grandson of officers of high rank in the public service, 
 M. de Cormenin received a careful training for public life, though as 
 the colleges were closed during much of his youth, his education was 
 necessarily a private one. The law was his professional study, and 
 at the age of twenty-two he was appointed by Napoleon I. auditor, 
 or secretary, of the council of state ; and during his continuance at 
 the council was charged with the drawing up of some of its most 
 elaborate reports. In 1828 he was elected deputy, and for some twenty 
 years he continued to be re elected, on several occasions more than one 
 aud sometimes as many as four departments contending for the honour 
 of being represented by him. Very soon after his taking his stand 
 as a public man, M. de Cormenin began to exercise a marked influence 
 upon puhho affairs. His great knowledge of jurisprudence, his intimate 
 acquaintance with administrative matters, his clear logical method, 
 and admirable style of writing as well as speaking, gave him immense 
 power ; and the frequency and decision with which he placed his views 
 before the public by means of pamphlets — always a favourite class of 
 works with Parisians, and indeed with educated Frenchmen generally — 
 greatly helped to maintain him prominently before the public eye. 
 In fact, asM. de Lyden observes (' Nouv. Biog. Gen.,' art. 'Cormenin'), 
 " M. de Cormenin is as much the pamphleteer of the reign of Louis 
 Philippe, as Sieyes was of the Revolution and Paul Louis Courier of 
 the Restoration, with the difference that Courier is somewhat more 
 cau^ic and M. de Cormenin more logical." After the first year or two 
 of the reign of Louis Philippe, M. de Cormenin became the most bitter 
 opponent of the policy of the Citizen King ; and the effect of his 
 trenchant pamphlets was sometimes very remarkable. One upon 
 ' Apanages ' is said not only to have led to the withdrawal of the 
 projected law, but to the resignation of the Mold ministry : it was 
 entitled ' Un Mot sur la Liste Civile,' and rapidly ran through twenty- 
 five editions. His pamphlets against the encroachments upon religious 
 liberty also had a great success : the first, ' Oui et Non' (1845), excited 
 a remarkable turmoil, aud called forth numerous answers, besides a 
 demand from a portion of his constituents for a retractation. He 
 replied by a second pamphlet of a still more biting character, ' Feu ! 
 Feu!' of which 60,000 copies were quickly sold. Another, which 
 excited much public attention, was his ' Ordre du Jour sur la Cor- 
 ruption Electorate,' which forcibly exposed that shameless eviL After 
 the revolution of 1848, being elected by four departments to the 
 Chamber, M. de Cormenin diligently set himself to the task of 
 remodelling the constitution, and was named president of the com- 
 mission appointed for that purpose. In this commission he strongly 
 urged the adoption of universal suffrage, and the maintenance of the 
 legion of honour : but he soon resigned his presidency. He continued 
 actively employed during the next two years promoting in the legis- 
 lative assembly, in committees, and by pamphlets, his views on various 
 social subjects, as the condition of the working classes, education, &c. ; 
 and he also published two pamphlets ' Sur l'lndependance de I'ltalie.' 
 After the coup-d'e'tat M. de Cormenin was appointed a member of the 
 council of state reconstituted by Napoleon III. 
 
 Besides his numerous pamphlets, of which it may fairly be said 
 that they were directed to no party end, but to the furtherance of { 
 administrative reform and social progress, M. de Cormenin is the 
 author of a most important work on the administrative law of France, 
 ' Droit Administratis' in 2 vols. 8vo, of which a fifth edition was 
 published some years back ; and he has written a remarkably interest- 
 ing series of sketches of the public life of the leading French orators 
 from Mirabeau to Ledru Rollin, entitled ' Le Livres des Orateurs/ 2 
 vols. 8vo, of which the seventeenth edition was published in 1854. It 
 i3 by these two works that his literary rank will be determined, and 
 the place will be a high one. He is a man of extensive knowledge, 
 great reasoning power, keen wit ; and these he sets forth in a style of 
 admirable force and clearness. M. de Cormenin received his title of 
 vicomte from Louis XVIII. 
 
 CORMONTAINGNE, LOUIS DE, born about 1696, was a French 
 engineer, who distinguished himself both by the services which he 
 performed in the field and by the improvements which he made in 
 the art of fortification. He was present as an engineer at the sieges 
 of Landau and Fribourg in 1713 ; and three years afterwards he 
 addressed a Memoir on Fortification to M. le Pelletier de Souzi, who 
 at that time held the rank of Intendant General des Fortifications de 
 France. In 1734 he was appointed by the Comte, afterwards the 
 Mardchal Due de Bellisle, to direct the siege of Traerbach ; and when 
 the division which performed that service rejoined the main army 
 he accompanied it ; the siege of Philisbourg being then undertaken 
 Cormontaingne was employed to superintend the operations; and it is 
 said that his successful attacks on two of the works were the imme- 
 diate cause that the place was surrendered. 
 
 In the year 1744 he conducted, in Flanders, the sieges of Menin, 
 Ypres, La Knoque, and Furnes ; and, in Germany, that of Fribourg : 
 at thi3 last siege, though the casualties among the engineers were very 
 great, the operations were conducted under the directions of Cormon- 
 taingne with the utmost regularity ; and it is stated, as an example 
 of the precision with which he formed his plans, that all the operations 
 
3S9 CORNARO, LUIQI. 
 
 on the ground were exactly conformable to the written instructions 
 which he drew up aud to the sketches which accompanied them. 
 
 Subsequently to that time he was employed in inspecting the forti- 
 fications of the kingdom, from the Rhone to Calais; and, on this 
 occasion, besides a general tract on the manner of fortifying the 
 frontiers of a state, he wrote particular memoirs on the places of 
 Franche Comptd, Alsace, and the country between the Moselle and 
 Calais. He was afterwards employed in superintending the construc- 
 tions of new works at Strasbourg, Metz, Bitche, and Thionville : at the 
 last of these places he resided, with the rank of Marechal de Camp, 
 and here his useful life terminated. 
 
 Cormontaingne wrote several memoirs relating to fortification and 
 other branches of the military art; and that which is on the subject 
 of the attack of fortresses, is said to hare been composed, during the 
 siege at which he served, from notes written in the trenches and on 
 the breaches, even under the fire of the enemy. None of his writings 
 were published during his life, except one which, without his know- 
 ledge, was printed at the Hague in 1741, under the title of ' Architec- 
 ture Militaire ; ' and after his death, which occurred on the 20th of 
 October 1752, all his papers were deposited iu the Bureau de la 
 Guerre, where they remained above thirty years. Extracts from 
 them were however published, and these served as text-books for 
 the lectures given at the Ecole du Genie, which was established at 
 Mezieres in 1750. The manuscripts were at length obtained by 
 M. Fourcroy from the government offices, and were published at Paris 
 by M. Bayart, capitaine du genie, in three volumes 8vo. The first is 
 entitled 'Memorial pour l'Attaque des Places' (1806); the second, 
 'Memorial pour la Ddfense des Places' (1806); and the third, 'Memo- 
 rial pour les Fortifications permanentes et passageres' (1809). An 
 edition of the first of these works had been published by Bousmard 
 at Berlin in 1803. Cormontaingne did not profess to invent a system 
 of fortification ; but, by certain variations in the constructions, and 
 by additional works, he obviated many defects which are conceived 
 to exist in the systems of Vauban. 
 
 (Bousmard's account of Courmontaingne in the Preface to the 
 Memorial pour l'Attaque des Places ; Biographie Universelle, <kc.) 
 
 CORNA'RO, LUIGI, a Venetian nobleman, celebrated for the 
 successful care he took of his health, by means of diet, was born about 
 1468. He was originally of a weak constitution, and by the time he 
 had attained mature manhood his intemperate indulgence in eating, 
 drinking, and other pleasures, had brought on so many disorders that 
 life was a burden to him. He informs us, that from his thirty-fifth 
 year to his fortieth, he spent his nights and days in almost unremitted 
 suffering. Having tried all their other remedies in vain, hia physicians 
 earnestly recommended a more temperate course of life, and when he 
 was forty he began gradually to diminish the quantity of his food, 
 and to eat and drink nothing but what nature required. At first he 
 found this severe regimen very disagreeable, and he confesses that he 
 did occasionally relapse to " the flesh-pots of Egypt." But as each of 
 these relapses brought back his old symptoms, he soon exerted all his 
 resolution, and by a spare and simple diet became a hale man within 
 a year. From temperance he proceeded to abstemiousness, until at 
 last the yolk of an egg was often considered sufficient for a meal. 
 His health and spirits kept improving all the while, and as for enjoy- 
 ment in eating, he says he brought himself to relish dry bread much 
 more than he had ever done the most exquisite dainties of the table. 
 At the same time he carefully avoided heat and cold, over-fatigue, late 
 hours, sexual excesses, and all violent passions of the mind, having 
 fully ascertained that nothing is more destructive of health and 
 longevity thau an indulgence in ambition, envy, hatred, and the like. 
 Melaneholy was to be equally avoided, but from this depressing pas- 
 sion his light food and peaceful slumbers kept him wholly free. He 
 recommended, by practice, exercise, riding on horseback, the sports of 
 the field, and those gentle excitements derivable from fine scenery in 
 the country, the contemplation of architectural and other works of 
 art in towns and cities, and the hearing and playing of music. 
 
 He records cf himself, that when he was a very old man he used often 
 to sing with his grandchildren, and that too with a voice louder and 
 clearer than when he was a young man. When he was seventy years 
 old he suffered a dreadful accident, by which his head and body were 
 battered, and a leg and arm dislocated. Considering his advanced 
 age, the physicians thought these injuries must speedily prove fatal, 
 but after his limbs had been set, he recovered under the slightest 
 medical treatment, and without experiencing any fever. Hence he 
 inferred that a life of strict temperance is a safeguard against the ill 
 effects that generally follow such accidents. When he was about 
 seventy-eight, the quantity of nourishment he took in the twenty-four 
 hours was, of bread, light meat, yolk of egg, and soup, twelve ounces 
 in all ; of wine, fourteen ounces ; and these were portioned out into 
 four separate meals. By the advice of his medical friends he then 
 added two ounces to his solid food, and two ounces to his wine ; but 
 this trifling increase was soon given over, as it destroyed his ease and 
 vivacity, and made hjm peevish and melancholy. In his eighty-third 
 year he wrote his treatise ' Of the Advantages of a Temperate Life.' 
 He subsequently added three other discourses on the same subject, the 
 fourth and last being included in a letter to Barbaro, the patriarch of 
 Aquilt-ia, to whom he states, that at the age of ninety-five, he is still 
 in possession of health, vigour, and the perfect use of all his faculties. 
 
 CORNEILLE, PIERRE. 3B0 
 
 Cornaro died at Padua in 15C6, when, according to tho beat authori- 
 ties, he was ninety-eight years old. His work was very frequently 
 published in Italy, both in the vernacular tongue and in Latin. It 
 has been translated into all the civilised languages of Europe, and wa? 
 once a most popular book. There are several English translations of 
 it, the best being one which bears the date of 1779. Cornaro's system 
 has had many followers. The best authenticated case we know of its 
 being rigorously and successfully pursued .in England is that of 
 Thomas Wood, a miller of Billericay in Essex, to whom a neighbouring 
 clergyman lent the ' Life of Cornaro.' (' Medical Transactions of tho 
 College of Physicians.') The old Venetian does not insist on such 
 extreme abstinence as he practised— both the quality and the quantity 
 of food, he says, ought to depend on the constitution ; but he i-; pro- 
 bably right in hinting that men of all constitutions shorten their lives 
 and weaken their enjoyments by over-eating aud drinking. 
 
 CORNEILLE, PIERRE, was born in the year 1606, at Rouen, 
 where his father was an advocate. Pierre himself was destined for 
 the bar, and had begun to practise iu that profession, in which how- 
 ever he had but little success. Having been taken by one of his friends 
 to see a lady of whom the latter was enamoured, he fell violeutly in 
 love with her himself, an incident which furnished him with the 
 plot of his first comedy, ' Milete,' produced in 1629, which was followed 
 by the dramas of ' Clitandre,' ' La Veuve,' ' La Galdrie du Palais,' and 
 ' La Place Royale,' all produced between that time aud 1636, the year 
 in which Corneille's fame rose at a bound to its height. M. Chalon 
 had recommended him to study the Spanish dramatists, particularly 
 Guillen de Castro ; and it is on the ' Cid ' of this author that the cele- 
 brated 'Cid' of Corueille was principally founded. This piece delighted 
 the Parisians to enthusiasm ; they had seen nothing equal to it, and they 
 looked on it as a complete miracle. The author had before exhibited 
 some trngic power in a work entitled ' Medde,' but it is not tiil the 
 production of the 'Cid' that we must look on him as "le grand 
 Corueille." But the admiration was not unanimous. Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu as]>ired to be the grand arbiter in matters of dramatic taste, and 
 Comeille had deeply wour.ded his sensitiveness. He had sketched the 
 plan of a comedy, with which Corneille, although a poet patronised by 
 the cardinal, had the hardihood to fiud fault, and this produced a 
 lasting hostility on the part of the priest-prime-minister against tbe 
 dramatist. The French Academy, which was founded by Richelieu, 
 was disposed to abate the general enthusiasm. They (or rather Chape- 
 lain) wrote an elaborate critique on the ' Cid,' in which they ventured 
 to point out some defects, while they allowed the poet geuius of the 
 highest order, and rather found fault with the subject of the drama 
 than Corneille's manner of treating it. This critique is in most 
 editions of Corneille's works affixed to the tragedy of the ' Cid,' under 
 the title of ' Sentimens de l'Acade'mie Frangoise sur la Tragi-Come'die 
 du Cid.' 
 
 Corneille felt himself hurt by an imputation cast upon his inventive 
 powers ; it was hinted that he borrowed his plot from the Spanish, 
 because he had not imagination enough to contrive a new one. He 
 long sought for a subject which should silence these aspersions of his 
 enemies, and at last turned his attention to Roman history, from 
 which he drew the plots of his tragedies ' Horace ' and ' Cinna,' both 
 produced in 1639. The 'Horace' fully proves his ingenuity in 
 moulding a complicated story out of scanty materials. 
 
 These were followed in 1640 by ' Polyeucte,' founded on the history 
 of the martyr of that name, which by some is reckoned his chef- 
 d'oeuvre, and which is by most regarded as the turning-point of his 
 genius. Hi3 future was a slow but sure decline. ' La Mort de 
 Pompde,' and ' Le Menteur' (an adaptation of the Spanish comedy 
 ' La Sospechosa Verdad ') succeeded, and were followed by a train of 
 pieces with varying success till the year 1653, when the tragedy of 
 'Pertharite' was produced, and was decidedly unsuccessful. This 
 misfortune disgusted Corneille for a time with the stage ; he turned 
 his attention to other kinds of poetry, and began to versify Thomas 
 h Kempis, 'De Imitatione Christi.' Six years wore off his disgust, and 
 he returned to the drama : the success of ' GSdipe,' produced in 1659, 
 encouraged him to go on. He even made an essay at opera-writing, 
 and the ' Toison d'Or' remains a specimen of what he has done iu 
 that species of composition. The success of this piece was decided, 
 but it was only the flame of an expiring lamp ; in vain he wrote fresh 
 tragedies, in vain did his friends laud them to the skies; the public 
 began to suspect that his genius was worn out, and he had ceased to 
 be popular before the production of his last pieces, ' Pulcherie' (1672) 
 and 'Surena' (1674). His latter works have sunk entirely into 
 oblivion. He died October 1, 1684, at the age of seventy-eight, 
 having been a member of the Academie thirty-seven years. In private 
 life he was a quiet domestic man, with a bluntnes3 of manners that 
 was almost repulsive. If we may trust his biographers, he had a few 
 small faults, but no vice ; his whole pleasure was centred in his own 
 family. He and his brother had married two sisters, and resided 
 together in one house, till death separated them. 
 
 It was, we have seen, by the 'Cid,' that Corneille first rose into 
 celebrity ; two or three passages of his ' Medee ' are occasionally 
 quoted, to show the development of a young poet, but as a whole it is 
 forgotten, and probably would never have been cited, had not its 
 author distinguished himself by his subsequent productions. His 
 early comedies have sunk deservedly into oblivion, being dry, tedious 
 
891 
 
 Tj2 
 
 pieces of declamation, without point, and founded on a false morality ; 
 their only redeeming merit is ingenuity of construction. 
 
 If we now peruse the ' Cid,' we shall be at a loss to discover the 
 cause of that enthusiasm which its appearance created in France, when, 
 as it is said, all Paris saw Chimene (the heroine) with the eyes of 
 Rodrigue (the hero). But it must be remembered that the French 
 stage was in a wretched state before the appearance of Corueille; the 
 pieces of his predecessors were for the most part dull and heavy, and 
 without the slightest attempt at delineation of character. The chief 
 fault found with the 'Cid' by contemporary critics was the selection 
 of the subject. Don Rodrigue, to revenge a blow given to his father, 
 kills the futher of Chimene, his mistress, in a duel ; she at first makes 
 every effort to accomplish his death, but at length, at the request of 
 the king of Spaiu, marries him. It is the contention between love and 
 duty in the heart of the heroine which is the leading feature of the 
 drama. The Aristarchus of the ' Acaddmie ' called the lady a monster 
 of filial impiety, and said that she had no right to love Rodrigue at 
 all ; the opposite party contended that the preservation of her early 
 love under all circumstances, was perfectly amiable and feminine. 
 This literary battle indeed seemed rather to be fought for the morals 
 of the heroine than the merits of the play. Those who would wish 
 to read the charge and its answer may turn to the ' Examen ' above 
 referred to, and La Harpe's ' Cours de la Littoraturc.' 
 
 The other most celebrated piece of Corneille's is ' Horace,' the last 
 act of 'China' being reckoned a chef-d'oeuvre rather than the whole 
 play. Fontenelle's praise of ' Horace,' for the ingenuity of its con- 
 struction, is unquestionably just. " Corneille," says he, " has but a 
 combat to work upon, that of the Horatii and Curiatii, and out of this 
 scanty subject he constructs a tragedy." The prospect iudeed was 
 but barren, yet the tragedian, by giving Horatius a sister of the Curiatii 
 to wife, while his own sister is (according to the old story) betrothed 
 to one of these Curiatii, and by dwelling on the times immediately 
 preceding and pending the combat, has thrown an interest into his 
 piece which was scarcely to be anticipated. Here indeed his praise 
 ends, for the last two acts are occupied by the murder of Horatius's 
 sister, and its consequences; hence, as La Harpe justly observes, they 
 form a separate plot, totally unconnected with the preceding part of 
 the play. The father of Horatius, as an illustration of the stein Roman 
 character, is the most commended by the admirers of this tragedy. 
 
 The general censure passed on Corneille's comedies does not extend 
 to ' Le Menteur,' which is one of bis later productions, and is an ex- 
 cessively humorous and amusing piece. The English know it well 
 from Foote s version, the ' Liar ; ' but it was introduced into this 
 country long before the time of Foote, an anonymous translation 
 having been acted in 16S5, under the name of the 'Mistaken Beauty,' 
 and a subsequent adaptation was written by Sir R. Steele, called the 
 ' Lying Lover.' 
 
 The chief merit which is assigned to Corneille by his admirers is his 
 dignity : they allow that Racine may be more elegant, more touching, 
 but in a ' noble ferocity ' they say that Corneille stands alone. It 
 must be remembered that when Corneille wrote, the French tongue 
 was still in an uncultivated state ; he must not therefore be takeu 
 as a model of French style, his verse being often defective, and his 
 lansuage disfigured by barbarisms. 
 
 Voltaire, on learning that a great-niece of Corneille was entirely 
 without fortune and almost without friends, took her into his house 
 at Ferney, where she completed her education, and in a few years 
 was married by Voltaire to a captain of dragoons. Besides giving 
 her a marriage-portion, Voltaire undertook to write a commentary 
 on Corneille, for the benefit of his protegee. The work, which was 
 printed by subscription, and liberally patronised by the French king, 
 the Due de Choiseul, Madame de Pompadour and others, brought 
 in 50,000 francs, as an addition to the young lady's marriage-portion. 
 Voltaire, though a great admirer of Corneille, was not blind to his 
 numerous faults, which he has pointed out at full length in his ' Com- 
 mentaries ' in two vols., 8vo (vols, xlviii. xlix.). Edition of Lequien, 
 Paris, 1S26. 
 
 CORNEILLE, THOMAS, brother of Pierre, was twenty years 
 younger, being born in the year 1025. He distinguished himself in 
 early life by a comedy in Latin verse, which he composed during his 
 education at the Jesuits' College. Like his brother, he began by 
 imitating the Spanish dramatists, and in the course of his career pro- 
 duced no less than forty-two pieces, tragedies and comedies. Nothing 
 could exceed the popularity of some of his plays, which however was 
 but transient, as they have, with about two exceptions, been long 
 forgotten. The works by which he is chiefly remembered are ' Le 
 Comte d'Essex,' and ' Ariane,' both tragedies. The former is much 
 censured for the ignorance which it displays of English history. The 
 latter is commended for the character of its heroine ; here however its 
 merit ends, the rest of the dramatis persona; being mere nullities. On 
 the death of his brother, Thomas Corneille took his place in the 
 Acaddmie, and contributed to the ' Dictionnaire.' He also assisted 
 his friend De Vise in editing the 'Mercurie Galant,' a noted periodical, 
 and became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He died at 
 Audelys in 1709, having shortly before lost his sight. 
 
 * CORNELIUS, PETER VON, was born at Diisseldorf, September 
 16, 1787. His father, who was inspector of the picture gallery in that 
 city, gave him a superior education, and encouraged the boy's early 
 
 passion for art. But he died when young Cornelius was in his sixteenth 
 year, leaving his family in straitened circumstances ; and as their 
 maintenance would necessarily devolve upon the future painter and 
 an elder brother, his mother was strongly urged to place him with a 
 goldsmith, that trade promising, it was said, a quicker and more certain 
 means of obtaining a livelihood. His mother however resolutely refused 
 to remove him from his chosen profession, and the young artist pursued 
 witli redoubled zeal his darling studies. He had in the academy of 
 his native city been instructed in the principles of design, and he now 
 devoted himself especially to the study of the works of Raffaelle, 
 exercising himself by reproducing from memory the compositions 
 which he saw of that master either in the originals or engravings. He 
 was soon able to produce designs of his own which manifested no 
 ordinary power, and when he was only nineteen years of age he was 
 employed to paint the cupola of the old church of Neusa, near 
 Diisseldorf, with figures of colossal size in chiaroscuro ; and the work 
 displayed considerable grandeur of conception. 
 
 Ifaving removed to Frankfurt, he there, in 1810, commenced a series 
 of designs illustrative of the Faust of Gothe, to whom he dedicated 
 the engravings. These designs gained him a high reputation ; but his 
 views of art were now greatly expanding, aud he resolved to proceed 
 to the metropolis of art, there to bring his ideas into comparison 
 with the chief productions of the greatest masters. At Rome he 
 united himself in the closest friendship with a kindred genius, Frederic 
 Overbeck, aud the two men looking forward to the regeneration of 
 German art, — a work they were destined to accomplish, — lived and 
 laboured together, while they were elaborating their lofty project. 
 They were joined by Philip Veit, Schadow, Schnorr, and other not 
 unworthy associates; and the new German school fixed on itself the 
 attention of the artists and connoisseurs of Rome, while the friendly 
 criticisms of Schlegel, Gothe, and others, ensured for it the sym- 
 pathies of their countrymen. Fitly to embody their designs, the 
 young painters arrived at the conclusion that only fresco — the material 
 of the giants of old whom they sought at least to emulate — was a 
 suitable material. They accordingly diligently applied themselves to 
 acquire mastery over the almost forgotten art, aud M. Bartholdy, 
 the Prussian consul-general, afforded the desired opportunity of 
 testing their power, by commissioning the leading members of the 
 school to paint the walls of his villa. To Cornelius two of the frescoes 
 were assigned — 'Joseph interpreting the Dream of Pharaoh's Cbief 
 Butler,' and ' Joseph recognising his Brethren.' These paintings 
 excited so much admiration, that the Marquis Massini commissioned 
 Cornelius to adorn his residence with a series of frescoes from the 
 ' Divina Commedia ' of Dante. Cornelius prepared the designs, but 
 before he could commence the paintings he received an invitation 
 from the Crown Prince of Bavaria, afterwards King Ludwig, to execute 
 the frescoes iu the newly erected Glyptothek at Munich ; and at the 
 same time he was appointed Director of the Academy at Diisseldorf. 
 The designs for the villa of Massini, though never painted, were 
 engraved by Schoefer, and published with a commentary by Dollenger; 
 and another elaborate series of designs illustrative of the Niebelungeu 
 Lied, also made during his residence iu Rome, was engraved by Amsler 
 and Lips. Later in life the great German painter made a series of 
 designs from the ' Gerusalemme Liberata' of Tasso. 
 
 Cornelius left Rome in 1819. His first duty was to remodel the 
 Academy of Diisseldorf, and that accomplished, he proceeded to his 
 great work of painting the Glyptothek — one of the noblest oppor- 
 tunities which had in recent times been afforded to a painter. Two 
 spacious halls were given him to paint : in one, the Hall of Heroes, 
 he represented in colossal proportions the leading events in the 'Iliad' 
 of Homer ; in the other, the Hall of the Gods, he endeavoured to 
 symbolise the inner meaning as well as to depict the outward aspect 
 of the events of the Grecian mythology. In connected rooms, sub- 
 sidiary events and idea3 were illustrated. It was in this vast under- 
 taking, which was completed in 1830, that the genius of Cornelius 
 first found ample room to expatiate ; and the completed work has 
 now for a quarter of a century commanded the homage of the artists 
 and judges of art of all nations. 
 
 Whilst this great undertaking was in progress, Cornelius had com- 
 menced another magnificent work, the painting with frescoes the walls 
 of the new Ludwigs-Kirche. Of these frescoes the most important 
 was the 'Last Judgment,' a painting which in size exceeded even the 
 famous 'Last Judgment' of Michel Augelo in the Sistine Chapel, 
 being no less than 64 feet high by 30 feet wide. In severity of style 
 also it exceeds that great work ; and if it may not be put into close 
 comparison with it as a picture, there can be little doubt that among 
 contemporary paintings it is without a rival. The exe;ution of these 
 great works rendered constant residence in Munich necessary, and 
 Cornelius resigned the directorship of the Diisseldorf Academy as soon 
 as he had brought it into a satisfactory state. Shortly after doing so 
 he was made director of the Munich Academy. Munich under him 
 became a great school of art, and a band of devoted disciples placed 
 themselves under his guidance. It was by these that a large portion 
 of his frescoes in the Glyptothek aud the Ludwigs-Kiiche was executed. 
 The extensive series of frescoes illustrative of the history of painting, 
 in the corridor of the Pinakothek, for which he prepared the cartoons, 
 was wholly painted by Zimmermann, Schotthauer, and other pupils 
 under bis supervision. 
 
CORNWALLIS, LORD. 
 
 CORREGGIO, ANTONIO ALLEGRI. 
 
 8»I 
 
 In 1841 Cornelius was invited to Berlin by Frederic William IV. 
 to paint some frescoes in the Campo Santo. He set about the work 
 with his accustomed euergy. Before completing his cartoons he paid 
 a third visit to Rome, and there some of the designs were prepared. 
 They showed no falling-off in grandeur of conception, devotional feeling, 
 or profound knowledge of the resources and the limits of art. They 
 are well known by engravings, having been engraved in eleven plates, 
 with the remarkable cartoon of the ' Four Horsemen ' of the Apocalypse 
 as a twelfth, by Thiiter, Leipz., 1S48. Cornelius also superintended the 
 painting of the frescoes in the Berlin Museum, for which the cartoons had 
 been prepared by Schinkel. The design for the baptismal shield pre- 
 sented by the King of Prussia to the Prince of Wales, was likewise made 
 by Cornelius ; as well as numerous other designs for his royal patron. 
 
 Cornelius is undoubtedly one of the greatest painters of the age. His 
 works are on the largest scale, treat of the loftiest themes, and are 
 designed with a grandeur and beauty befitting their magnitude and ele- 
 vated aim. The mechanical execution of his works is often objected 
 to by critics, and he certainly treats it as of very inferior consequence. 
 His grand idea he seeks to evolve as strongly as possible, and to that 
 he recklessly subordinates everything else. But his mind is so accus- 
 tomed to regard his subject from a subjective and symbolical point of 
 view, that his meaning is frequently somewhat difficult to perceive. 
 No one however suspects that there is not a meaning, though it may 
 be somewhat deeply hidden ; and no one has studied the works of 
 Cornelius without finding in them abundant matter to recompense 
 the study. 
 
 CORNWALLIS, CHARLES, second Earl and first Marquis of Cora- 
 wallis, was born December 31, 173S, and educated at Eton, and St. 
 John's, Cambridge. In 1761, during the Seven Years' War, he served 
 abroad under the title of Lord Broome, as aide-de-camp to the Marquis 
 of Granby. In 1762 he succeeded to the peerage on the death of his 
 father, in 1766 he was made colonel of the 33rd regiment of foot, and 
 in 1770 governor of the Tower. He was also aide-de-camp to the king, 
 who held him in high favour ; yet though a general supporter of the 
 administration, he exercised an independent judgment, and voted 
 against ministers on several important questions. More especially, he 
 was opposed to the steps which led to the American war ; but when 
 his regiment was ordered abroad in 1776, he sailed with it, declining 
 to profit by the special leave of absence obtained from the king. He 
 served actively and with distinction, with the rank of major-general, 
 uuder generals Howe and Clinton, in the campaigns of 1776-79 in New 
 York and the southern states, and in 1780 was left in the command 
 of South Carolina with 1000 men. He gained a victory over General 
 Gates at Camden, August 16, 17S0, and a second, less decisive, over 
 General Greene at Guilford, March 15, 1781 — both against superior 
 numbers. But the hostility of the population rendered these advan- 
 tages transient. In the course of the spring of 1781 Cornwallis 
 invaded Virginia, where he obtained no decided success, but caused 
 an immense amount of damage to private property. On receiving 
 orders from Sir H. Clinton, then at New York, to embark part of his 
 forces for New York, he moved to Portsmouth in Virginia ; but here 
 he received fresh instructions, under which he was ordered to Williams- 
 burg, the colonial capital of Virginia, and directed to make Point 
 Comfort his place of arms. But Point Comfort being found ill-suited 
 for thi3 purpose, Cornwallis moved to York Town on York River, 
 where he entrenched himself in the strongest way he could. He 
 was there besieged by the French and American forces, assisted by 
 the French fleet under De Grasse, and reduced to surrender himself 
 and his troops prisoners of war, after an obstinate defence, October 19, 
 1781. His capture was a death-blow to the British cause, and prin- 
 cipally led to that change of ministers and measures which resulted 
 in the peace of 1782 : Cornwallis himself however, owing perhaps to 
 his favour with the king, escaped censure. 
 
 In 1786 Lord Cornwallis was appointed governor-general and com- 
 mander-in-chief of Bengal. His temper being mild and equitable, and 
 his application to business constant and effective, he was honourably 
 distinguished by a sincere desire to promote the welfare of our Indian 
 subjects, and introduced a variety of internal changes, which were 
 characterised by a great unfitness for the purpose they were intended 
 to serve. His administration is chiefly remarkable for the war under- 
 taken against Tippoo Saib [Tippoo.] The disasters experienced at 
 first by the English caused the governor to take the field himself, in 
 1791 ; and by a change in the quarter of attack, he succeeded in 
 penetrating to the heart of Tippoo's dominions, and captured Bunga- 
 Iore in March. In the following February siege was laid to Seringa- 
 patam, and the capture of that city was averted only by a treaty, 
 which stripped the sultan of half of his dominions. In August 1793 
 Lord Cornwallis returned to England, where he was received with 
 distinguished honours, raised to the rank of marquis, and appointed 
 master general of the ordnance. In 1793 (the era of the rebellion) he 
 was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In the distracted state of that 
 country, a man of generous and conciliatory temper was even more 
 needed than one of military skilL He put down the rebellion : but 
 be also checked the disgraceful outrages practised by the supporters 
 .•>f government, restored tranquillity, and acquired the good-will of the 
 Irish. In 1801 he was succeeded by Lord Hardwicke; and in the 
 same year, being appointed plenipotentiary to France, ho negociated 
 the peace of Amiens. He was re-appointel governor-general of India 
 
 BIOQ. DIV. VOL. It 
 
 in 1805, and arrived at Calcutta in August, in bad health. Pro- 
 ceeding immediately to assume the command of the army in the 
 upper provinces, he was seized with illness, aud died at Ghazapore, in 
 the province of Benares, October 5, 1805. His character a3 a soldier 
 aud statesman was highly respectable ; but ho was more distinguished 
 by diligence, humanity, and integrity, than by the higher mental 
 qualities. 
 
 CORRADI, DOMENICO. [Ghirlandaio.] 
 
 CORRE'GGIO, ANTO'NIO ALLE'GRI, or, as he has been known 
 to write it, LIE'TO, one of the first of painters, surnarned Cor- 
 reggio from the place of his birth, a small town in the duchy of 
 Modena, was born towards the end of the year 1493, or early iu 
 1494. Correggio'a life is involved in impenetrable obscurity. The 
 only authentic records which exist are certain registered documents, 
 public and private; but they serve only to throw a very feeble light 
 upon his domestic life; our knowledge of it remains of a negative 
 character. Some of his biographers, at the head of whom is Vasari, 
 describe him as of bumble origin, indigent, and penurious in his way 
 of living ; others like Mengs and Ratti draw his descent from a noble 
 family of Correggio, once feudal lords of Campagnola and its castle 
 in the Corregese. The truth appears to be that the Allegri family, 
 from which Antonio descended, were a decent family of Correggio, 
 while the conveyance and bequest of considerable property, including 
 money, houses, and small portions of land, are too frequent among 
 Antonio's immediate relations, to leave any doubt of his having been 
 at least in easy circumstances. The statement of his having received 
 very small sums for his pictures is also disproved by documentary 
 evidence. 
 
 It is uncertain who was Correggio's first instructor. Francesco 
 Bianchi, Lombardi, Tonino Bartolotto, and his uncle Lorenzo have 
 been severally named as his instructors in the elements of his art ; 
 and it is added by some that he afterwards studied under the sons of 
 Mantegna. Mantegna himself even has been supposed to be his first 
 master; but the fact of Mantegna having died in 1506, when Correggio 
 was barely twelve years old, renders it very improbable. In Mantegna's 
 works however we may recognise the germ of that sweet and graceful 
 style which Correggio carried to perfection. That Correggio ever went 
 to Rome is far from probable, since a continued series of documents 
 prove him to have been habitually residing in Correggio at the time 
 when some writers have supposed he visited Rome. If he ever went 
 there it must have been for a mere visit. The mastery with which he 
 treats classical subjects, has given rise to the supposition that he 
 received a liberal education, and there is no proof to the contrary. It 
 is certain also that his works display a considerable knowledge of 
 architecture ; but that he practised that art, or sculpture, as some of 
 his biographers have asserted, is entirely without proof. Correggio 
 married, in 1520, Girolama Merlini, of a wealthy family in Mantua, 
 and by her had a son and three daughters. She is said to have been 
 the original in his picture of the Holy Family, kuown as ' La Zinga- 
 rella.' The supposition that he married a second time probably aroso 
 from a mistake in a certain register, iu which his wife's Christian name 
 is misstated. He died on the 5th of March 1534, and was buried iu 
 the church of St. Francis at Correggio. 
 
 Correggio is one of the most original of painters, as well as one of 
 the greatest of colourists. He formed a style completely his own, 
 remarkable for masterly chiaroscuro, exquisite colouring, and the most 
 graceful design. Less varied and decided in his outline than the 
 painters of the Roman aud Florentine schools, he is more anxious to 
 dispose his lines in easy flowing curves than to display knowledge of 
 anatomy or powerful drawing. Nevertheless, his forms are sufficiently 
 correct, and the consummate skill shown in his endless foreshorteniugs 
 proves that his smoother style of drawing was dictated by no want of 
 study or deficiency of ability. While Titian's colouring is bolder, 
 more varied, and more powerful than Correggio's, it is not so full of 
 beauty and a certain mild and rich luxuriousness. There is the same 
 difference between the two that there is between a bed of glowing 
 flowers and a pulpy cluster of grapes laughing from under the vine- 
 leaves. More studied in his use of light and shade than any of his 
 brother painters, he gives to his pictures an air of space which mocks 
 the limits of the frame ; a depth and unity, the force of which Rem- 
 brandt alone has exceeded, and no one else approached ; but the 
 Flemish painter's sun never shines upon forms like the Italian's— it is 
 mostly a "god kissing carrion." The expression which Correggio 
 infuses into the lovely creations of his pencil is in harmony with the 
 grace of his drawing, the pure sweet colouring, and the concordant 
 tone of the picture. Avoiding harsh and unpleasant subjects, and 
 delighting in the play of tender and voluptuous emotions, his mothers 
 fondle their offspring, his children frolic and smile, his lovers pant and 
 sigh, with all the ecstacy of unreproved nature. If his beiugs are of a 
 less mighty mould than Michel Angelo's. his colour less powerful in 
 its tints, and his expression less passionate than Titian's, and if his 
 design be less perfect and less exalted than R«ffaelle*s, no artist has 
 equalled him in gentleness and sweetness, aud none calls forth the 
 affections of the spectator in a more lively manner. 
 
 Correggio's pictures are not so numerous as those of some painters ; 
 but they are sufficiently spread over Europe for his style and fame to 
 be universally recognised. The cupola of the cathedral at Parma is 
 painted with an ' Assumption of the Virgin ' in fresco, of which the 
 
SBfi 
 
 CORT, CORNELIUS. 
 
 numerous beauties, the masterly foreshortening, the grace, the colour, 
 and the design, so excited Titian's admiration, that he is reported to 
 have said, " If I were not Titian, I would be Correggio." In the 
 gallery at Dresden are the ' Notto,' or rather ' Dawn ' — a grand pic- 
 ture on the subject of the Nativity, and a masterpiece of chiaroscuro 
 — and a little cabinet picture, the 'Penitent Magdalen/ in which the 
 saint is represented lying on the ground reading. A blue mantle 
 envelopes the form ; the head, shoulders, bosom, and feet are bare ; 
 a shady nook enshrines the saint. Her brow rests upon one hand, and 
 a tender melancholy trembles on her lips. The soft features, the 
 delicate bosom, the gentle arms, are of the rarest beauty. It is 
 perhaps the most perfect woman ever painted. In our own National 
 Gallery are three or four of his best pictures : — ' Mercury instructing 
 Cupid in the presence of Venus ' (formerly in the possession of 
 Charles I., who purchased it of the Duke of Mantua, and universally 
 allowed to be one of the artist's masterpieces), and an ' Ecce Homo ' 
 (in which the Madonna is painfully true to suffering nature, but 
 redeemed by his usual beauty of form and expression) ; these two 
 pictures were purchased by the British government in 1834 of the 
 Marquis of Londonderry for 10,000/. There is also a Holy Family, 
 known as ' La Vierge au Panier,' and formerly in the Royal Gallery at 
 Madrid — small in size, but of the most exquisite beauty. Another is 
 'Christ's Agony in the Garden,' a duplicate of the one in the pos- 
 session of the Duke of Wellington. Two of the most celebrated of 
 Correggio's pictures were destroyed, it is said, by order of the Regent 
 Duke of Orleans, for the too great freedom of the design — the 'Danae' 
 and the ' Io ' — a strange story for a man of his character. The former 
 was pieced together again by Coypel; of the latter a duplicate still 
 exists. 
 
 Correggio had many good pupils, among whom may be reckoned 
 his son, who painted a fresco in the cathedral at Parma, which has 
 been much commended. He abandoned painting however before he 
 died. Parmigiano may be reckoned among the followers and imitators 
 of Correggio, though not among his pupils. 
 
 (Tiraboschi ; Vasari; Mengs; Ratti ; Lanzi, &c.) 
 
 CORT, CORNELIUS, a designer and very celebrated engraver, was 
 born at Horn in Holland in 1536. He worked in his youth for Jerome 
 Cock, a printseller of Antwerp. He then went to Italy, where in 
 Venice he was received by Titian into his house, and engraved 
 several of his pictures for him in (at that time) an unusually large 
 size : they are dated 1566. Cort however settled finally in Rome, and 
 established a school of engraving there, in which Agostino Caracci is 
 said to have studied. This however is doubtful, as Agostino was only 
 twenty years of age when Cort died, if 1578, as is believed from the 
 letters on an old portrait, was the year of his death. The earliest 
 prints of Agostino are dated 1582, four years after the death of Cort. 
 That Agostino studied the prints of Cort, and to a great extent 
 adopted him as a model, his works sufficiently evince. Cort's prints 
 are large and his outline correct ; they display great mastery of the 
 graver, but a want of perception of the more delicate qualities, such 
 as colour and relative distance; he was also deficient in discriminating 
 the more delicate indications and varieties of expression. His works, 
 for their size and style, and considering, the comparative shortness of 
 his life (forty-two years), are very numerous ; they exceed 150. He 
 made the first engraving after the ' Transfiguration' by Raffaelle ; he 
 engraved also the ' Battle of the Elephants,' and the ' Battle of Con- 
 stantine,' after Raffaelle. He executed also several prints after Federigo 
 Zuccaro, and others after Taddeo Zuccaro, G. Muzziano, Polidoro da 
 Carravaggio, Correggio, Michel Angelo, Sabbatini, and many other 
 celebrated masters, Italian and Flemish ; and likewise some from his 
 own designs. (Gandellini, Nolizie Istoriche degli Intagliatori, &c. ; 
 Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes, dec.) 
 
 CORTES, HERNAN, was born in 1485 at Medellin, a village of 
 Estremadura, in Spain. He was sent to study law at Salamanca ; but 
 being of a turbulent and dissipated disposition, his father wished him 
 to go to Italy as a military adventurer under the Great Captain 
 (Gonzalo). Not succeeding in this, he in 1502 obtained permission to 
 follow his kinsman Ovando, who was appointed governor of Hispaniola; 
 but an accident which befell him in scaling a lady's window prevented 
 his joining Ovando till 1504. In 1511 he distinguished himself under 
 Velasquez in the conquest of Cuba, and in 1518 was selected by this 
 governor to undertake the conquest of Mexico, then just discovered 
 by Grijalva. Accordingly, Cortes set sail from St. Jago de Cuba the 
 18th of November 1518, with ten vessels, ten pieces of cannon, eighteen 
 horsemen, 600 infantry, thirteen only of whom were musketeers, and 
 the rest cross-bowmen. He touched at various places, and among 
 them at Havannah in search of more adventurers ; and setting out 
 again February 10th, 1519, bent his course to Cozumel, left that island 
 on the 4th of March, and proceeded up the river Grijalva or Tabasco. 
 Velasquez soon after he had despatched his lieutenant with the 
 brilliant prospects of conquest, revoked his commission, and attempted 
 to get him brought back under arrest; but the vigilance of Cortes 
 frustrated all the schemes of the governor. 
 
 Having taken the town of Tabasco, with much slaughter, he 
 received from its cacique gold and provisions, and twenty female 
 slaves. One of these, who makes a great figure in the history of the 
 conquest, under the name of Dona Marina, being a native of Mexico, 
 became highly useful as interpreter, in conjunction with Jerome < ] -o 
 
 Aguilar, who had been eight years prisoner in the island of CozumeL 
 Advancing into the interior, Cortes met at San Juan de Ulloa sonif 
 Mexican chiefs, who were anxious to know his intentions. Cortej 
 laid great stress upon the importance of his mission from the great 
 monarch of the east, and the necessity of his waiting upon their king. 
 Native painters in the meantime were delineating on cotton cloth the 
 ships, horses, artillery, &c, of the ominous visitors, in order to 
 acquaint their sovereign with the wonders which words could not 
 describe. To awe them still more, Cortes displayed the evolutions of 
 his men and horses, and the havoc made on trees by the terrific thunder 
 and discharge of cannon-balls. Several of the terrified Indians fell to 
 the ground, and so many ran away, that it was difficult to subdue their 
 alarm and regain their confidence. 
 
 During the negociations for his progress to the capital, Cortes 
 founded the colony of Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, and defeated the 
 faction of the partizans of Velasquez, who, in the midst of the expe- 
 dition, were in full readiness to revolt. Not satisfied with this, to 
 prevent all farther hesitation and division among his followers, by 
 leaving them no other chance of safety than in union and theconqui at 
 of a hostile country in which he shut them up with himself, he 
 deliberately broke his ships to pieces. Cortes moreover gained over 
 the caciques who were impatient of the Mexican yoke. The cacique 
 of Zempoalla implored his assistance, and furnished him with pro- 
 visions and 200 Indians to carry burdens, an invaluable service in a 
 country where beasts of burden were unknown. On arriving at the 
 confines of the Tlascalans, Cortes was attacked by them, under sus- 
 picion of his seeking the friendship of the Mexicans, their implacable 
 enemies ; but after an incredible slaughter, 6000 of them joined the 
 conquerors. With this reinforcement Cortes reached the territory of 
 the Cholulans, who, being the ancient enemies of his new auxiliaries, 
 refused to admit them into their holy city of Cholula. However in 
 obedience to Montezuma's injunction, they received the Spaniards, but 
 at the same time, according to the Spaniards, formed a plot against 
 them. Cortes, anticipating their treachery, destroyed 6000 of them 
 without the loss of a single soldier. The perplexity of the Mexican 
 councils increased with the boldness of the invaders, who were now 
 regarded as those descendants of the sun, destined by prophetic 
 tradition to come from the east, and subvert the Aztec empire. 
 Accordingly, on the 8th of November 1519, they were received at 
 Tenochtitlan, the Mexican capital, as Tcules, or divinities. Soon after 
 however an attack was made by the natives, acting under secret on I era 
 upon Vera Cruz, and the head of a prisoner was carried in triumph 
 through the country up to the court, to disprove the immortality of 
 the Spaniards. Cortes, on this, carried off the emperor Muteczuma, 
 or Montezuma, to his quarters, although he asserted his innocence, 
 and offered to deliver up the chief aggressor. But Cortes demanding 
 also the son of this officer and five officers more, had them all burnt 
 alive in front of the imperial palace, on a pile made of the weapons 
 which were kept in store for the defence of the state. During the 
 execution, the emperor was loaded with irons. Subsequently he 
 acknowledged Charles V. as his lord, but he constantly refused to 
 embrace Christianity ; and when Cortes led his soldiers to stop the 
 human sacrifices and throw down the idols in the grand temple, both 
 priests and people rose in arms and forced him to desist. After this 
 provocation, the Mexicans became resolved to expel the Spaniards, and 
 Montezuma, though a prisoner, assumed the tone of a sovereign, and 
 ordered Cortes to depart. 
 
 After six months' occupation of Mexico, when the danger of tho 
 Spaniards had increased, 18 ships with 80 horsemen, 800 infantry, 120 
 cross-bowmen, and 12 pieces of artillery, were sent under Pamphilo 
 de Narvaez by Velasquez against Cortes. Cortes, deriving fresh 
 courage from his disappointment and indignation, persuaded Monte- 
 zuma that he was going to meet his friends. Leaving him and the 
 capital in charge of Pedro de Alvarado with only 150 men, he marched 
 with 250 against Narvaez, attacked him in the dead of night near 
 Zempoalla, made him prisoner, and with the new army hastened back 
 to Mexico, which had revolted in his absence. Although he resumed 
 his former position there, he had soon to maintain a desperate conflict, 
 and to retreat for safety after Montezuma had perished in attempting 
 to appease his subjects. This success of the Mexicans led to their 
 total defeat in the battle which they fought and lost in the plain of 
 Otompan, or Otumba, July 7, 1520. This victory enabled Cortes to 
 subdue some of the neighbouring territories with the assistance of the 
 Tlascalans, to attach 10,000 more of them to his service, to attack 
 Mexico again six months after his retreat, and to retake it the 13th of 
 August 1521, after seventy-five days of fierce and almost daily fighting. 
 The natives once more reduced to despair rose again, and again they 
 yielded to superior discipline, though on no occasion did native 
 Americans so bravely oppose European troops. Thus a daring adven- 
 turer, regarded and treated by his countrymen as a rebel, after a bloody 
 struggle, gained possession of a country which for more than three 
 centuries formed one of the brightest gems in the Castiliau crown. 
 The atrocities of Cortes were of the most terrible and merciless 
 character; but it ha3 been pleaded in extenuation of them th:it he 
 was a soldier by profession, and while the Inquisition burnt Jews and 
 Protestants in Spain, he could learn from his chaplains no other or 
 better means of converting heathens than by fire and the sword : and 
 to a certain extent the plea may be admitted. 
 
307 CORTESI, JACOPO. 
 
 Indignant at the ingratitude of Charles V., who listened to his 
 Bnemiea, Cortes returned to Spaiu in 1528 to face his accusers. He 
 was received with much respect, and made Marquis of the rich Valle 
 de Oajaca; but in 1530 had to return to Mexico, divested of civil 
 power. Beiug anxious, after his military exploits, to extend his fame 
 by maritime discovery, particularly iu the opening of a passage from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific, he fitted out at his own expense different 
 expeditions, one of which discovered California in 1535, and he himself 
 coasted next year both sides of the gulf of that name, then called the 
 Sea of Cortes. He returned to Spain in 1540, when he was received 
 by Charles V. with cold civility, and by his ministers with insolent 
 neglect. He accompanied however this prince iu 1541 as a volunteer 
 in the disastrous expedition to Algiers, and his advice, had it been 
 listened to, would have saved the Spanish arms from disgrace, and 
 delivered Europe three centuries earlier from maritime barbarians. 
 Envied and ill-requited by the court, Cortes withdrew from it, leaving 
 sycophants and intriguers to reap the fruits of his labours and his 
 genius. He died however in affluence near Seville, on the 2nd of 
 December 1547, in the sixty-third year of his age. Cortes, with all 
 his reckless cruelty, was unquestionably a man of remarkable genius — 
 one of the heroes of Old Spain. The destruction of his fleet at Vera 
 Cruz, with the object of compelling his followers to conquer or die — 
 his fearless entry into Mexico— the still bolder seizure of Montezuma 
 in his own palace — his defeat of Narvaez — his victory of Otumba — 
 and his magnanimity in the siege of Mexico — are deeds which read 
 more like romance than reality. 
 
 Robertson has estimated the character of Cortes at least as highly 
 as his own countrymen — Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Gomara, Herrera, 
 Solis, Lorenzana (who published in 1770 a ' History of New Spain,' 
 founded on the only writings of Cortes, which consist of four letters 
 to Charles V.), and Trueba. The valuable ' History of the Conquest 
 of Mexico,' by Prescott, will supply the general reader with sufficient 
 materials to estimate fairly the character and genius of Cortes. 
 
 CORTESI, JACOPO. [Borgognone.] 
 
 CORTO'NA, PIE'TRO BERRETTI'NI, called Pid.ro da Cortona, 
 was bom on November 1, 1596, at Cortona. His first master was 
 Antonio Commodi, but he afterwards studied under Ciarpi at Rome. 
 Being employed by a gilder to make some little figures, his skill 
 attracted the notice of the Marquis of Sacchetti, who visited the 
 workshop, and Pietro was induced to show some of his paintings. 
 The marquis took him at once under his protection, and procured 
 him numerous commissions, and among them an order to paint some 
 rooms in the palace of the reigning Pope Urban, in the Piazza Barberini. 
 Cortona afterwards travelled, and executed various pictures by the 
 way. He was employed by Ferdinand II. to paint some pictures in 
 the Pitti palace, and stayed some time in Florence ; but he left it in 
 disgust, because the grand duke had listened to certain detractors, 
 who had accused Cortona of palming his own pictures upon the prince 
 '.n place of some of Titian's which Ferdinand desired to purchase of 
 him. He settled finally at Rome, and enjoyed the patronage of suc- 
 cessive pontiffs, until Alexander III. made him a knight. He died, 
 oppressed with years and the gout, May 16, 1669, full of wealth and 
 honour. 
 
 Pietro da Cortona studied the works of Raffaelle, Michel Angelo, and 
 especially those of Polidoro da Carravaggio, from whom he learned to 
 imitate the style of the later antiques, taking for his immediate model 
 the sculpture of Trajan's column. His style of drawing is free, bold, 
 and vigorous, and even coarse ; seldom finished in any except the 
 most conspicuous parts. In design he is learned and masterly, though 
 somewhat mannered and over-charged. His colour is sober and har- 
 monious. His principal works are at Rome, in the Barberini and in 
 the Sacchetti palaces ; and at Florence, in the Pitti palace. 
 
 Cortona practised architecture as well as painting. He was buried 
 in the church of San Martin at Rome, which is considered his best 
 architectural work ; and at his death he bequeathed to it a hundred 
 thousand crowns. Cortona had many famous pupils ; among them were 
 Ciro Ferri, Romanelli, Giordani, Borgognone, and Testa. (Pascoli.) 
 
 CORYAT, THOMAS, "the Odcombian leg-stretcher," as he was 
 wont to call himself, was the son of the Rev. George Coryat, rector of 
 Odcombe, in Somersetshire, and prebendary of York cathedral. 
 Thomas, or, aa he was usually styled, Tom Coryat, was born at 
 Odcombe rectory in 1577, and was educated at Westminster School, 
 and afterwards at Gloucester Hall, Oxford, where he remained three 
 years, and acquired some skill in logic, and more in Greek and Latin. 
 He seems, on leaving the university, to have obtained a post in the 
 household of Prince Henry ; but his eccentricity had probably already 
 become marked, as he is spoken of as holding in the prince's establish- 
 ment a position somewhat analogous to that of court-jester. 
 
 His father died in 1606, and Tom felt himself at liberty to indulge 
 a " very burning desire," which he says had long " itched in him, to 
 survey and contemplate some of the choicest parts of this goodly 
 fabric of the world." Accordingly, in May 1608, he embarked at 
 Dover, and travelled through France and as far as Venice, returning 
 by way of Germany. Travelling on the continent was in those days 
 at best somewhat laborious, but Coryat's was a more than usually 
 arduous journey, for he went as far as possible on foot, and carried 
 very little money in his pocket. He reckoned that in the five months 
 he was absent he had travelled 1 977 miles, of which he had walked 
 
 COSMO I. m 
 
 900, and the same pair of shoes sufficed for the whole journey. On 
 his return he hung up his shoes for a memorial in Odcombe church, 
 where they remained till 1702. Coryat wa3 a diligent observer of all 
 that he saw new to him iu hid travels, and an insatiable inquirer ; and 
 he made notes of everything which struck him as noteworthy. These 
 notes he set himself on his return to arrange; and in 1611 he pub- 
 lished them in a bulky quarto volume, with this strange title : 'Coryat's 
 Crudities, hastily gobbled up in five months' Travels in Franco, Savoy, 
 Italy, Rhetia, commonly called the Orison's Country, Helvetia, alias 
 Switzerland, some parts of High Germany, and the Netherlands ; 
 newly digested in the hungry air of Odcombe in the county of Somer- 
 set, and now dispersed to the nourishment of the travelling members 
 of this kingdom.' Appended to the volume were some sixty sets of 
 verses, written, among others, by Ben Jonson, Chapman, Drayton, 
 Donne, Sir John Harrington, Inigo Jones, and Lawrence Whitaker. 
 They are written in Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, French, Welsh, Irish, 
 ' Macaronic,' and ' Utopian,' and are all very quizzical, some coarsely so. 
 As might be expected, these verses proved the most attractive part 
 of the volume, aud they were reprinted in a separate form under the 
 title of ' The Odcombian Banquet,' with an advertisement prefixed, 
 intended more evidently than were the verses themselves to render 
 poor Coryat ridiculous. Chalmers and others have supposed this 
 volume to have been published by Coryat himself, and have expressed 
 a good deal of surprise at the excess of his simplicity. So far how- 
 ever from writing the ' advertisement,' or even sanctioning the repub- 
 lication, Coryat iu the ' Second Course ' of his ' Crudities,' the ' Cramb, 
 or Colwort twice Sodden,' makes in his way an energetic attack upon 
 it. But the verses themselves were not attached to his book by his 
 own free will. He expressly states that he was commanded to print 
 them by Prince Henry, and he Bhows that he was quite aware of their 
 real purpose. Poor Coryat was in fact evidently made the butt of the 
 cleverer men with whom he was weak enough to desire to associate, 
 and he was treated with as little generosity as the wits have in all ages 
 treated their butts. Coryat's ' Crudities' are, as may be supposed, of 
 little or no value for their descriptions of buildings and cities — the 
 bulk of the book ; but they contain many curious illustrations of the 
 state of society in that time, aud in them many odd scraps of informa- 
 tion on many unexpected matters will be found stored up. 
 
 In 1612, the year following the publication of the 'Crudities,' 
 Coryat departed on a more extended journey : his object being to 
 visit the Holy Land, and walk from there to the East Indies, leaving 
 the actual limits of his travels to be determined by circumstances. 
 Having made a brief stay in Constantinople, he visited various parts of 
 Greece and went to explore the vestiges of Troy, with which he was 
 much delighted. He then went to Jerusalem, and among others of 
 the sacred localities visited all he could discover of the Seven Churches. 
 Thence he started to Aleppo, and so through Persia to Agra, where 
 was the Mogul's court, spending, he says, in his "journey betwixt 
 Jerusalem and the Mogul's court fifteen months and odd days, all of 
 which way I traversed afoot . . . the total distance being 2700 English 
 miles," and in ten months of this journey he only expended " betwixt 
 Aleppo and the Mogul's court but three pounds sterling, yet fared 
 reasonable well every way." Coryat had always a considerable apti- 
 tude for acquiring languages, and in this journey he had learnt to use 
 colloquially Italian, Arabic, Turkish, and Persian, his attainments in 
 which no doubt contributed to his ea9y and economic progress. From 
 Agra he sent to his friends in London some brief notices of what he 
 had seen on his way, with a description of the Mogul's court, which 
 were published, with a portrait prefixed, representing him riding on 
 an elephant. 
 
 At Agra he stayed some little while, being taken much notice of 
 by the Mogul and by Sir Thomas Rowe, the English ambassador 
 there. Of his future proceedings all that is known is told in the 
 voyage of the Rev. Thomas Terry, chaplain to the ambassador. 
 Terry says that Coryat, having stayed long enough to acquire "a 
 great mastery in the Indostan, or more vulgar language," resolved to 
 continue his journey, he having now so extended his plan as to propose 
 to prolong his wanderings for at least ten years, in which time he 
 hoped to be able to explore " Tartaria in the vast plains thereof, with 
 as much as he could of China, and those other large places and pro- 
 vinces interposed betwixt East India and China," after which he 
 intended not only to search for Prester John in Ethiopia, but to "cast 
 his eyes upon many other places." But his journeyings were nearly 
 ended. He set out for Surat, though ill before starting, and full of 
 fear that he should die on the road. He lived to reach Surat, 300 
 miles distant, but died there of a dysentery a few days after hi3 
 arrival, December 1617. Coryat made full notes during this journey, 
 but they were all lost. The 'Crudities' has become a very rare 
 volume, and fetches a high price at the book-sales. 
 
 COSMO THE ELDER. [Medici.1 
 
 COSMO I., duke of Florence, and afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, 
 was the son of Giovanni de Medici, a celebrated condottiere of tho 
 15th century, who was descended in a direct line from Lorenzo, the 
 younger brother of the elder Cosmo. This line formed a collateral 
 branch of the first house of Medici, and its members remained in a 
 private station as wealthy citizens of Florence during the lives of 
 Cosmo, Pietro, Lorenzo the Magnificent, and Leo X., taking little part 
 in the civil broils which agitated the republic under the administration 
 
399 
 
 COSMO I. 
 
 COSWAY, RICHARD, R.A. 
 
 4 CO 
 
 or influence of the elder branch. That branch became extinct by 
 the death in 1519 of Lorenzo de Medici, duke of Urbino, the only 
 legitimate grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent, which was followed 
 Boon after by the death of hia uncle, Pope Leo X. The Duke of 
 Urbino left an illegitimate son, Alessandro, who was made Duke of 
 Florence after the surrender of that city to the allied arms of 
 Charles V. and of Pope Clement VII., in 1530. Alessandro was a 
 profligate prince, and after several years of tyranny was murdered by 
 his relative Lorenzino, who belonged to the junior branch of the 
 Medici, in 1537. Upon perpetrating this murder, Lorenzino fled to 
 Venice. The friends and councillors of the late duke, with Guicciar- 
 dini the historian at their head, proposed to appoint young Cosmo, 
 of the younger branch of the Medici, as successor to Alessandro. 
 Cosmo had against him a number of emigrants, some of the first 
 families of Florence, who were hostile to the Medici, some through 
 jealousy and rival ambition, and others because they wished to 
 re-establish the republic. These emigrants were scattered about the 
 different Italian cities, and were encouraged and supported by Pope 
 Paul III., by Count Pepoli of Bologna, and others. They also relied 
 on the protection of Francis I. of France, while Cosmo on his side 
 was protected by the emperor Charles V., who acknowledged him as 
 Duke of Florence. The emigrants, having collected a few thousand 
 men, invaded the Florentine territory, but were defeated by the troops 
 of Cosmo at Montemurlo ; and their leaders Albizzi, Valori, and 
 Filippo Strozzi, were taken prisoners and put to death. From that 
 time Cosmo reigned absolute lord of Florence. He extinguished all 
 remains of popular liberty, and he established a system of inquisitorial 
 police by means of numerous informers. Persons accused of any 
 designs against the government were tortured, and often put to death. 
 He had ageuts also in various parts of Italy to watch the conduct of 
 the Florentine emigrants, and in some instances to get rid of the most 
 dangerous by assassination or poison, as in the case of Lorenzino, who 
 was murdered at Venice by his order, in 1548. He effected a striking 
 change in the manners of the Florentine people, who were before 
 noted for their garrulity and lightness of conversation ; they became 
 henceforth taciturn and cautious, and spoke in half sentences. In 
 other respects the administration of Cosmo was orderly and wise ; he 
 was attentive to business, and looked himself into all public affairs. 
 He had considerable abilities ; and if he rendered Florence and 
 Tuscany entirely dependent on his will, he at the same time suc- 
 ceeded by consummate political skill in keeping his state independent 
 of all foreign powers. Determined to be master at home, he freed his 
 towns from the imperial garrisons, and resisted several attempts at 
 encroachment from the court of Rome. He was the first to establish 
 the unity and independence of Tuscany as a political state. He formed 
 a native militia of the peasantry, well exercised and disciplined by 
 experienced officers, so that at three days' notice he could collect 
 12,000 men in any particular point, besides the regular regiments 
 which he kept in the towns. His finances were in good condition, and 
 his treasury always well supplied with money. 
 
 Cosmo possessed at first the territories of the two republics of 
 Florence and Pisa, the latter of which had been conquered by the 
 Florentines before his time. In 1552 he added to his dominions, by 
 an agreement with Jacopo d'Appiano, lord of Piombono, that princi- 
 pality, and also the island of Elba, when he fortified Porto Ferrajo, 
 and improved its harbour. But a more important acquisition was that 
 of Siena. That republic had survived the freedom of Florence, and 
 had retained its independence under the protection of Charles V. 
 But in 1552 civil factions having broken out among the citizens, who 
 were excited also by the Florentine refugees, they drove away the 
 Spanish garrison and admitted a French auxiliary force. In the fol- 
 lowing year Charles V. sent troops to reduce Siena, and Cosmo joined 
 his forces to those of the emperor. Not succeeding that year, the 
 emperor withdrew most of his troops; but at the beginning of 1554 
 Cosmo brought together a larger force, attacked Siena, and occupied 
 its territory. At the battle of Marciano, in August of that year, the 
 Siennese and their French allies were defeated. After a long and 
 obstinate resistance, in which the women took part, Siena was com- 
 pelled by famine to surrender to Cosmo in April 1555. The conditions 
 were not harsh. Siena retained her municipal institutions under the 
 protection of the emperor, who was to keep a garrison in it ; but in 
 the meantime Cosmo placed a garrison in it himself. All those citi- 
 zens who chose to emigrate were at liberty to do so. A great many 
 availed themselves of this stipulation, and retired to the town of 
 Montalcino, where they kept up the semblance of a republic a little 
 longer. Of 40,000 inhabitants which Siena had previous to the siege, 
 only 6000 remained ; the rest had either died or emigrated. In July 
 1557, Cosmo received of Philip II, who had succeeded Charles V., the 
 formal possession of Siena and its territory, exclusive of the coast near 
 Monte Argentaro, with the ports of Orbitello, Telamone, Santo Stefano, 
 and Port' Ercole, which remained as a dependency of Spain, and were 
 afterwards annexed to the crown of Naples under the name of ' Stato 
 de' Presidj. The Siennese swore allegiance to Cosmo, who left to them 
 their municipal laws and magistrates. In August 1559 the small 
 residue of the Siennese republic at Montalcino surrendered to Cosmo. 
 All Tuscany was now, for the first time since the fall of the Roman 
 empire, united under one government. 
 
 Cosmo married Leonora, the daughter of Don Pedro de Toledo, 
 
 Spanish viceroy at Naples, and had five sons by her. Two of these, 
 Giovanni, who had been made a Cardinal, and Garzia, died suddenly 
 towards the end of 1562, and their mother soon after followed them 
 to the grave. A report was spread and readily believed by the 
 numerous enemies of Cosmo, that Giovanni had been killed by his 
 brother, after which Cosmo, in his wrath, had killed Garzia with his 
 own hand. Alfieri has made this the subject of a tragedy. Proba- 
 bilities however are against the truth of this assertion. (Botta, ' Storia 
 d'ltalia,' lib. xii.) Cosmo's eldest son, Don Francesco, married the 
 archduchess Joanna, daughter of the Emperor Maximilian. In 1569 
 Pope Pius V., by a solemn bull dated 28th August, conferred upon 
 Cosmo and his successors the title of grand-duke of Tuscany, as 
 superior to all dukes and princes, and inferior in rank only to kings. 
 In the following year Cosmo went to Rome to receive his grand ducal 
 crown from the hands of the pope. In his bull the pope set forth the 
 merits of Cosmo towards the Holy See for having entered zealously 
 into the war against the Turks, and founded the military order of St. 
 Stephen, in imitation of that of St. John of Jerusalem, for having 
 given assistance to the king of France against the Huguenot?, and 
 having prosecuted the heretics in his own dominions : Cosmo hud 
 permitted the Inquisition to be established in Tuscany, and several 
 persons had under its sentence suffered death for heresy or blasphemy. 
 
 Cosmo spent the latter years of his life chiefly at one or other of 
 his villas, having entrusted the cares of administration to his son 
 Francesco in 1564. Many things are said of the irregularity of his 
 life in his old age, and his sons Francesco and Pietro were worse than 
 their father in this particular. In 1570 he married Camilla Martelli, 
 a private lady of Florence. Cosmo died 21st April 1574, in the 
 Pitti palace, which had become the residence of the grand-dukes, and 
 was succeeded by his son Francesco. 
 
 Cosmo, though an unprincipled man, was a very able statesman. Id 
 the general breaking up of most of the Italian independent states in 
 the 16th century, he found means to create and consolidate a new and 
 considerable principality, which has remained ever since independent, 
 and he thus saved that fine country Tuscany from becoming a province 
 of Spain, like Naples, Sicily, and Lombardy. He had the firmness to 
 refuse Philip II.'s first offer of Sienna as a fief of the Spanish crown, 
 answering that he was an independent sovereign, and would not make 
 himself the vassal of another. He refused the crown of Corsica, whi^h 
 was offered to him by the insurgents in 1564, because it would have 
 embroiled him with other powers and endangered his own states. 
 Cosmo encouraged the arts and literature. He founded the Florentine 
 Academy, the Academy del Disegno, or of the fine arts; and he 
 restored the University o jVisa. The Medici dynasty founded by 
 Cosmo became extinct in 1737 by the death of the grand-duke Qian 
 Gastone. He was succeeded in his sovereignty by Francis duke of 
 Lorraine, the husband of Maria Theresa of Austria. 
 
 (Botta, Storia d'ltalia ; Galluzzi, Storia del Gran Ducato di Toscana.) 
 
 COSTA, MICHAEL. [See vol. vi. col. 988 ] 
 
 COSTARD, GEORGE, born about 1710. M.A. of Wadham College, 
 Oxford (of which he afterwards became fellow and tutor), in 1733, 
 rector of Twickenham in 1764, at which place he died, Jauuary 10, 
 1782. He was respectable both as a classical and oriental scholar and 
 as a mathematician ; an account of his miscellaneous writings may be 
 found in Kippis's ' Biographic Britannica.' He was the editor of the 
 second edition of Hyde's work on the ' History of the Persians,' but his 
 claim to notice is principally derived from his 1 History of Astronomy,' 
 &c, London, 1757. This work appears to have obtained more reputation 
 abroad than at home, where it certainly is not appreciated. It is a 
 history of the rise and progress of the fundamental doctrines of 
 astronomy, mixed up with an elementary account of them, in order 
 of discovery, and accessible to a student who can use a common globe, 
 and has the first rudiments of geometry. In all matters of ancient 
 and oriental learning Costard frequently cites the passage and always 
 the reference, which gives his work a lasting value. 
 
 COSTER, LAWRENCE. [Koster.] 
 
 COSWAY, RICHARD, R.A., was born in 1740 at Tiverton, in 
 Devonshire, where his family, originally Flemish, had been long 
 settled, and his father was master of the public school. He was 
 placed by his uncle, the mayor of Tiverton, with Hudson, and after- 
 wards at Shipley's drawing-school in the Strand. At this time Cosway 
 was very diligent, and he obtained between the fourteenth and twenty- 
 fourth years of his age five premiums from the Society of Arts. His 
 chief excellence was in miniature-painting, for which he had very great 
 ability, and in which professionally he was successful to the utmost 
 degree. He was patronised by all the rank and wealth of his time : 
 the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., was among his friends 
 and patrons. He made a large income ; but he was sumptuous and 
 hospitable in his habits, and his expenditure probably kept pace with 
 his income. 
 
 Cosway was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1771, and 
 painted several fancy portraits for its exhibitions. He exhibited 
 1 Rinaldo and Armida/ ' Cupid,' ' St. John,' ' Venus and Cupid,' 
 ' Madonna and Child,' and ' Psyche,' all of which were portraits of 
 some of his titled patrons, good likenesses, and successful works in 
 their style. 
 
 About this time he was married to Maria Hadfield, though of 
 English parentage, a native of Leghorn. She had been educated in a 
 
401 
 
 COTES, FRANCIS, R.A. 
 
 COTTLE, JOSEPH. 
 
 402 
 
 convent, where she was taught music and drawing — arts which she 
 eventually pursued with such success as to excite general admiration 
 both in Italy and in England. After her marriage with Cosway she 
 became a very distinguished exhibitor at the Royal Academy, and her 
 musical parties, in which she was the chief performer, at her house, 
 formerly Astley's, in Pall Mall, and afterwards at 20, Stratford-place, 
 Oxford-street, were among the chief attractions of the age. The Prince 
 of Wales and the leading members of the nobility were frequent 
 visitors, and all the political, literary, artistic, and social ' lions ' of 
 London were there to see and be seen. The house in which these 
 parties were held was furnished in the most costly and gorgeous style 
 imaginable : almost every room was a museum of works of art and unique 
 furniture of the most elaborate workmanship, adorned with natural 
 and artificial curiosities from the four quarters of the globe. In his 
 dress also Cosway was proportionably magnificent, a sort of modern 
 Parrhasius ; and all this magnificence and splendour were the fruit of 
 his industry. His wife was equally industrious, and painted many 
 portraits and other works of a poetic and imaginative nature ; but 
 Co3way would not allow her to paint portraits professionally. There 
 are several prints after her works by Bartolozzi, V. Green, and others. 
 
 Cosway died 4th July, 1821, and his widow retired to Lodi, 
 established a ladies' college there, and became widely known and 
 respected. She had spent some years at Lodi previously, during the 
 war, for the benefit of her health, and had acquired a strong attach- 
 ment for the place. 
 
 (Smith, Nollckens and his Times ; Cunningham, Lives of the most 
 eminent British Painters, &c.) 
 
 COTES, FRANCIS, R.A., one of the origioators of the Royal 
 Academy of Arts in London, was born in London in 1725, where his 
 father was an apothecary. He was the pupil of George Knapton, and 
 distinguished himself by his portraits in crayons, in which he was 
 unrivalled. He was a good painter in oil, and was by many regarded 
 as equal or superior to Reynolds : both painters had recourse to the 
 same artist, Toms, for the painting of their draperies. Cotes was in 
 great practice, and lived in the house in Cavendish-square which after 
 his death was occupied by Romney, and subsequently by Sir M. A. 
 Shee. Walpole mentions a few of his best works — as a full-length 
 of the queen of George III. holding the princess-royal on her lap, 
 engraved by W. W. Ryland ; Mrs. Child, of Osterly Park ; the beautiful 
 daughter of Wilton the sculptor, afterwards the wife of Sir Robert 
 Chambers; his own wife; O'Brien, the comedian; and Polly Jones, a 
 woman of pleasure. Many of his portraits have been engraved by 
 Bartolozzi, Green, M'Ardell, and others. He died in consequence of 
 taking soap-lees for the stone in 1770, before he had completed his 
 forty-fifth year. 
 
 COTES, ROGER, born July 10, 1682, at Burbage, near Leicester, of 
 which place his father was rector. His first education was received 
 partly at Leicester school, partly from an uncle, who was the father 
 of Dr. Robert Smith, the author of the ' Optics.' He was afterwards 
 placed at St. Paul's School, and in April 1699 was admitted at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, of which foundation he was elected fellow in 1705. 
 In January 1706 he was elected Plumian Professor, at the time of the 
 establishment of that chair. In 1713 he took orders. He died June 5, 
 1716, aged 34, and was buried in the chapel of his college, where there 
 is an epitaph upon him by Dr. Bentley. He was succeeded in the 
 Plumian professorship by his cousin, Dr. R. Smith, the editor of his 
 work-". (' Biographia Britannica.') 
 
 The early death of Cotes being taken into account, few persons 
 have left more reputation behind them than he did in matters of exact 
 Bcience. Newton is reported to have said, " If Cotes had lived, we 
 should have known something." As it is, we have not much to say 
 in a biographical article. The discoveries of Cotes have exercised a 
 decided influence upon various parts of mathematics. For his repu- 
 tation on the continent, it is unfortunate that he died so near the 
 termination of the discussion relative to fluxions. The problems which 
 he left were made the subject of a challenge to foreign mathematicians 
 by Dr. Brook Taylor, in the interval which elapsed between his death 
 and the publication of his works; and some bitterness of feeling was 
 excited which was unfavourable to the proper estimation of their 
 merits. (Montucla, ' Hist, des Math.,' vol. iiL, p. 154.) We shall now 
 briefly describe them. 
 
 The first work which Cotes published was the second edition of 
 Newton's 'Principia' (1713), to which he prefixed the well-known 
 preface. This treats of gravitation in general, and of the objections 
 which were made to it. He also published an account of a remarkable 
 meteor in the ' PhiL Trans.' for 1715. His hydrostatical and pneuma- 
 tical lectures were printed after his death, in 1738, by Dr. R. Smith. 
 
 The mathematical papers of Cotes were published after his death 
 by Dr. Smith, under the title of ' Harmonia Mensurarum, sive analysis 
 et synthesis per rationum et angulorum menBuras promotae : accedunt 
 alia opuscula mathematical Cambridge, 1722. The most definite 
 description which can be given of it is, that it was the earliest work 
 in which decided progress was made in the application of logarithms 
 and of the properties of the circle, to the calculus of fluents. The first 
 book contains an extended comparison of systems of logarithms, with 
 applications of them to the finding of areas. The second is what we 
 should now call a table of integrals, depending on logarithms and arcs 
 of a circle. The third consists in applications of the second. Then 
 
 follows a mass of extensions, digested, mostly from Cotes's papers, 
 by Dr. Smith. The opuscula consist in — 1. A tract on the estimation 
 of errors in mixed mathematics, consisting mostly of an investigation 
 of the method of choosing spherical triangles, so that the errors of the 
 data shall produce least effect upon the qurcsita, but ending with what 
 we must call the first glimpse of a method of choosing the proper 
 mean for discordant observations. 2. A tract on the differential 
 method of Newton. 3. On the construction of tables by differences. 
 4. On the descent of heavy bodies ; on cycloidal motion, &c. 
 
 COTMAN, JOHN SELL, an artist whose masterly etchings of 
 architectural subjects — old buildings and other antiquities — have 
 obtained for him the honourable distinction of the English Piranesi, 
 was born at Norwich, about the year 1780, and educated at the free 
 school of that city, on quitting which he immediately took to his 
 pencil as his future profession. He first practised chiefly in water- 
 colour painting, in which he displayed a vigour and boldness very 
 unusual at that period; but though he did not entirely abandon that 
 branch of art, he afterwards applied himself more particularly to 
 architectural drawing and engraving — and to etching upon copper 
 views made for that purpose by himself. His first publication of tho 
 kind was his ' Miscellaneous Etchings of Architectural Antiquities in 
 Yorkshire,' &c, in 28 plates, folio, 1812; immediately succeeded by 
 the 'Architectural Antiquities of Norfolk,' fol., 1812-17; and he at 
 the same time brought out the 'Sepulchral Brasses in Norfolk,' 84 
 plates, large 4to, 1813-16. In 1817 he went to France, where he spent 
 some time in collecting the materials for his next, and the finest of 
 all his works, the ' Architectural Antiquities of Normandy,' which 
 appeared in two volumes folio, 1820, with 100 plates, and descriptive 
 and historical letter-press by Mr. Dawson Turner of Yarmouth, who 
 zealously patronised him during his residence in Norfolk. He after- 
 wards settled entirely in London, and for a few years before his death, 
 which took place in 1843, held the appointment of teacher of drawing 
 in King's College, London. 
 
 COTTI'N, SOPHIE RESTAUD, born in 1773, was brought up at 
 Bordeaux by her mother, who was an accomplished and well-informed 
 woman. At the age of seventeen she married Mr. Cottin, a wealthy 
 Parisian banker, with whom she resided in the capital. Three years 
 after, she lost her husband, which circumstance, added to the horrors 
 of the revolution, induced her to retire to a cottage in the valley 
 D'Orsay. To beguile her solitude she began to write a novel, ' Claire 
 d'Albe,' which, notwithstanding the good intentions of the authoress, 
 whose object was to point out the dangers of seduction, had the 
 unfortunate effect of enlisting the sympathies in favour of the heroine, 
 who is guilty of adultery — a tendency however common to many, 
 and some of the best French novels. In Madam Cottin this was 
 only an error of judgment and inexperience, for her heart was pure, 
 and her sentiments and conduct strictly virtuous. It is said that the 
 publication of ' Claire d'Albe ' was owing to a desire to assist a person 
 of her acquaintance, who, being proscribed during the revolution, 
 stood in need of money to effect his escape ; Madam Cottin hastily 
 offered the sheets, which she had been writing for her amusement, to 
 a bookseller, and gave the produce to the fugitive. She followed 
 ' Claire d'Albe ' by ' Malvina,' ' Amelie Mansfield,' and ' Mathilde,' a 
 tale of the Crusades, which had great popularity. Her last and in 
 mauy respects her best work was ' Elizabeth, or the Exiles in Siberia,' 
 the characters and sentiments of which are most unexceptionable, 
 the action well conducted, and the termination satisfactory. ' Eliza- 
 beth' is accordingly a work, which, for a long succession of years, was 
 generally put into the hands of young persons studying French, and 
 has been translated into most European languages. The style of 
 ' Elizabeth ' is considered more carefully correct and finished than 
 that of her other novels. Madam Cottin, who was a Protestant, and 
 had attentively studied the Scriptures, had begun a work intended to 
 demonstrate the truth of the Christian religion by its sympathy with 
 the be3t sentiments and affections of the heart. She had also begun 
 a work on education. She did not live to finish either : she died in 
 August 1807, at the age of thirty-four. Most of her works were pub- 
 lished anonymously. They were collected and published at Paris, in 
 5 vols. 8vo, 1817. 
 
 COTTLE, JOSEPH, born in 1770, was a bookseller and publisher 
 in Bristol, but retired from business in 1798. Mr. Cottle wrote a 
 poem entitled ' Alfred,' one on ' The Fall of Cambria,' another on 
 ' Malvern Hills,' and some other pieces in verse and prose. But he 
 is more likely to be remembered by his connection with the poets 
 Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth, of which he has given a very 
 full account in his ' Recollections of Coleridge,' a work of some value 
 in connection with the early part of the poet's career. The earliest 
 poems of Coleridge and Southey were published by Mr. Cottle, who 
 was a kind and generous friend to both of the young poets at their 
 outset in life. Mr. Cottle died June 7, 1854, much respected for his 
 personal qualities, and for his active connection with various benevolent 
 projects. He had a brother, Amos Cottle, who also wrote verses, and 
 translated the 'Edda.' Tho name of Amos Cottle seems to have 
 afforded much mirth to the wits of the last generation : Byron has 
 hitched both the brothers into more than one stauza, while the Anti- 
 jacobin has coupled their names in a like ludicrous manner. Amos 
 Cottle is said to have been a superior scholar and an excellent man. 
 He died in 1800. His verses have long been forgotten. 
 
408 
 
 COTTON, CHARLES. 
 
 COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 COTTON, CHARLES was born in 1630, at Beresford Hall in 
 Staffordshire, the seat of his father, which was afterwards his own 
 property and the chief place of his residence. He was educated at 
 Cambridge, and travelled on the Continent, after which he married 
 and lived principally in the country. He died at Westminster in 
 1687. His name is best secured against forgetfulness by his friend- 
 ship for Izaak Walton, and hia co-operation in the later editions of 
 the ' Complete Angler.' [Walton, Izaak.] But he was an active 
 translator from the French, of Montaigne's ' Essays,' of historical and 
 other prose works, and of Corneille's tragedy ' Horace ; ' and he pub- 
 lished also various productions in verse, both serious and comic. Hia 
 most ambitious poem of the former class ia ' The Wonders of the 
 Peak ; ' but none of his serious poems have kept their ground even 
 in the favour of studious critics, while by all other readers they are 
 completely neglected. He ia perhaps more generally known as the 
 author of ' Scarronides, or Virgil Travestie,' a burlesque imitation of 
 three books of the iEneid — coarse in taste, and weak in wit, as well 
 as low in its tone of moral feeling. His prose imitations of Lucian, 
 and his ' Voyage to Ireland ' in verse, are better specimens of hia 
 talents for humour. There are several incomplete collections of his 
 works. 
 
 The translation of Montaigne has great merit. Cotton's genuine 
 version was afterwards spoiled, or, as it is expressed in the preface to 
 the edition of 1759, "it was polished or rather modernised in some 
 pages of our last edition ; but in the present one (1759), it ia corrected 
 and improved throughout, besides the rectifying of many mistakes, 
 which Mr. Cotton probably would not have been guilty of, if he had 
 been assisted by those dictionaries published since his time, that are 
 the best explainers of the Gascon language, which was Montaigne's 
 mother tongue." If this second translation has corrected mistakes, 
 it has certainly not improved the style of Cotton's version, which had 
 considerable merit of its own, as well as affinity to the manner of 
 Montaigne. 
 
 COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, an eminent English antiquary, 
 descended from an ancient family, was the son of Thomas Cotton, Esq., 
 and born at Denton, in Huntingdonshire, January 22, 1570. He was 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of 
 BA. in 1585. His taste for antiquarian studies induced him to 
 repair to London, where he became a member of a society of learned 
 men attached to similar pursuits. He soon distinguished himself aa a 
 diligent collector of records, charters, and instruments of all kinds 
 relating to the history of his country. The dissolution of monasteries, 
 half a century before, had thrown so many manuscripts of every 
 description into private hands, that Mr. Cotton enjoyed peculiar advan- 
 tages in forming his collection. In 1600 he accompanied Camden, the 
 historian, to Carlisle, who acknowledges himself not a little obliged to 
 him for the assistance he received from him in carrying on and com- 
 pleting his ' Britannia.' The same year Cotton wrote ' A Brief Abstract 
 of the Question of Frecedency between England and Spain.' This waa 
 occasioned by Queen Elizabeth desiring the thoughts of the Society of 
 Antiquaries already mentioned upon that point, and is still extant in 
 the Cottonian Library. (' Jul.' C. ix. fol. 120.) Upon the accession of 
 King James I. he received the honour of knighthood, and during this 
 reign was not only courted and esteemed by the great, but consulted 
 as an oracle by the privy councillors and ministers of state upon very 
 difficult points relating to the constitution. In 1608 he was appointed 
 one of the commissioners to inquire into the state of the navy, which 
 had been neglected after the death of Queen Elizabeth ; and he drew 
 up a memorial of their proceedings to be presented to the king, a copy 
 of which is also preserved in the Cottonian Library. (MS. 'Jul.' F. 
 iii.) In 1609 he wrote 'A Discourse of the Lawfulness of Combats 
 to be performed in the Presence of the King, or the Constable and 
 Marshall of England,' which was printed in 1651 and in 1672. He 
 drew up also in the same year, ' An Answer to such Motives as were 
 offered by certain Military Men to Prince Henry, to incite him to affect 
 Arms more than Peace.' This was composed by order of that prince, 
 and the original manuscript remains in the Cottonian Library. 
 (' Cleop.' F. vi. fol. 1.) New projects being contrived to fill the royal 
 treasury, which had been prodigally squandered, none pleased the 
 king, it is said, so much as the creating a new order of knights, called 
 baronets ; and Sir Robert Cotton, who had been the principal suggester 
 of this scheme, was in 1611 chosen to be one, being the thirty-sixth on 
 the list. His principal residence was then at Great Connington, in 
 Huntingdonshire, which he soon exchanged for Hailey St. George, in 
 Cambridgeshire. He was afterwards employed by King James to 
 vindicate the conduct of Mary, queen of Scots, from the supposed 
 misrepresentationa of Buchanan and Thuanus. What he drew up on 
 this subject is thought to be interwoven in Camden's ' Annals of Queen 
 Elizabeth,' or else printed at the end of Camden's ' Epistles.' In 1616 
 the king ordered him to examine whether the Papists, whose numbers 
 then made the nation uneasy, ought by the lawa of the land to be put 
 to death, or to be imprisoned. This task he performed with great 
 learning, and produced upon that occasion twenty-four arguments, 
 which were published afterwards, in 1672, among ' Cottoni Posthuma.' 
 It was probably then that he wrote a piece, still preserved in the 
 Royal Library, entitled ' Considerations for the repressing of the 
 Increase of Priests, Jesuits, and Recusants, without drawing of blood.' 
 He was also employed by the House of Commons when the match 
 
 between Prince Charles and the Infanta of Spain waa in agitation, to 
 show, by a short examination of the treaties between England and the 
 House of Austria, the unfaithfulnesa and insincerity of the latter, and 
 to prove that in all their transactions they aimed at nothing but uni- 
 versal monarchy. Sir Robert Cotton wrote various other works, many 
 of them small pieces in the shape of dissertations, too numerous to bo 
 mentioned here ; some of the n are among his ' Posthuma,' others are 
 printed in Hearne's ' Discourses,' and a few more still remain in 
 manuscript. 
 
 As early as 1615 Sir Robert Cotton's intimacy with Carr, earl of 
 Somerset, laid him under suspicion with the court of having some 
 knowledge of the circumstances of Sir Thomas Overbury's death. He 
 was even committed to the custody of an alderman of London ; nor 
 although nothing could be proved against him, waa he released from 
 this confinement till the end of five months, during which time he 
 appears to have been interdicted the use of his library. The perfidy 
 of Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, about the same time, drew 
 upou him another imputation, his name having been, without founda- 
 tion, inserted in a list suffered to go abroad of persons who had 
 secretly received gratuities from the Spanish ambassador for sinister 
 purposes. From this however his honour was perfectly vindicated. 
 
 Being a member of the first parliament of Charles I., Sir Robert 
 Cotton joined in complaining of the grievance which the nation was 
 said in 1628 to groan under; but he was always for mild remedies, 
 and zealous for the honour and safety of the king. In the next year 
 an occurrence took place, the consequences of which shortened hia 
 days. A tract was handed about in manuscript, entitled ' A Project 
 how a Prince may make himself an absolute Tyrant.' The inquiries 
 that were immediately made for the author of so pernicious a per- 
 formance led at length to the Cottonian Library. Sir Robert, perfectly 
 conscious of his innocence, made strict inquiry into the transaction, 
 and soon found that a copy of this tract, written at Florence in 1613 
 by Robert Dudley, duke of Northumberland, under the less exception- 
 able title of ' Propositions for his Majesty's Service to bridle the Imper- 
 tinency of Parliaments,' had, unknown to him, found its way into his 
 library, and that, equally without his knowledge, his librarian or 
 amanuensis, a3 was suspected, for a pecuniary consideration, had 
 suffered one or more copies of it to be taken, under the former of 
 these titles. Although Sir Robert Cotton completely vindicated his 
 innocence of having written or disseminated this tract, so destructive 
 to the liberties of the people, yet under the renewed pretence that his 
 library was not of a nature to be exposed to public inspection, it was 
 again put in sequestration, and himself once more excluded from all 
 access to it. He died at his house in Westminster, May 6, 1631. A 
 short time before his death he requested Sir Henry Spelman to signify 
 to the Lord Privy Seal, and the rest of the lords of the council, that 
 their so long detaining of his books from him, without rendering any 
 reason for the same, had been the cause of his mortal malady. From 
 this, as well as other circumstances, it appears that his library was 
 never restored to his possession. He was buried on the south side of 
 the church of Connington, where a suitable monument was erected to 
 his memory. 
 
 By his will Sir Robert Cotton directed that his library should not 
 be sold, but should pass entire to his heirs ; and it was much aug- 
 mented by his son, Sir Thomas Cotton, and his grandson, Sir John 
 Cotton. In 1700 an act of parliament passed for the better securing 
 and preserving this library in the name and family of the Cottons, for 
 the benefit of the public ; the mansion house, in which the library was 
 contained, to be preserved for the use of the descendants of Sir Robert 
 Cotton, the founder, for ever, and the library to be made publicly 
 accessible ; and to be vested after Sir John Cotton's death in trustees. 
 Sir John Cotton died in 1702. Another act of parliament was then 
 framed, which passed in 1706, by which the purchase of the house was 
 effected for the sum of 4500£, and that and the library vested thence- 
 forth in the queen, her heirs, and successors for ever : the management 
 of the library being still settled in trustees. Whether it was for the 
 purpose of erecting a new building for the reception of the library on 
 the site of the said house — which indeed was directed by the last- 
 mentioned act — or for what other reason, does not at present appear ; 
 but we are informed in a subsequent report of a committee of the 
 House of Commons, that the library was in the year 1712 removed to 
 Essex House, in Essex-street, Strand, where it continued to the year 
 1730, when it was conveyed back to Westminster, and deposited in a 
 house in Little Dean's Yard, purchased by the crown of the Earl of 
 Ashburnham. Here, shortly after, on the 23rd of October 1731, a 
 fire broke out, in which 111 manuscripts (many of them of the 
 greatest interest) were lost, burnt, or entirely defaced, and 99 rendered 
 imperfect. It had indeed nearly proved fatal to the whole library. 
 What remained were removed, by permission of the dean and chapter, 
 into a new building designed for the dormitory of Westminster school. 
 In 1753, when the legislature was induced by the will of Sir Hans 
 Sloane to found the British Museum, the Cottonian library was 
 included in the act under which that institution waa founded, and 
 was transferred to the British Museum in 1757. The act directed 
 that two trustees, to be nominated in succession by the representatives 
 of the Cotton family, should be for ever added to those appointed by 
 the same act for the general execution of its purposes. 
 
 Besides the library of manuscripts, the Cottonian collection con* 
 
MM 
 
 COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE. 
 
 COUSIN, JEAN. 
 
 tained a considerable number of valuable coins, chiefly Saxon and old 
 English, and several antiquities Roman and English, all of which are 
 now incorporated in the collection of the British Museum. 
 
 A catalogue of this library, in a thiu folio volume, compiled by 
 Dr. Thomas Smith, was printed at Oxford in 1696; and a more 
 ample one, accompanied by a copious index, compiled by the late 
 Joseph Planta, Esq., was published under the orders and at the expense 
 of the Commissioners upon the Public Records, folio, 1802. 
 
 Sir Robert Cotton was liberal in communicating materials out of 
 hi? collections in his life-time. Speed's ' History of England' is said to 
 owe most of its value and ornameuts to it; and Camden acknowledges 
 that he received the coins in the 'Britannia' from his collection. To 
 Knolles, the author of the 'Turkish History,' he communicated 
 authentic letters of the Knights of Rhodes, and the despatches of 
 Edward Barton, ambassador from queen Elizabeth to the Porte. Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, Lord Bacon, Selden, and Lord Herbert, were all 
 indebted to Sir Robert Cotton's library for materials. Almost every 
 recent work of importance connected with English history, is a proof 
 that its treasures continue at this day unexhausted. 
 
 COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE, was born at Angouleme 
 in 1736, studied at Paris, and entered at an early age into the army. 
 After serving with distinction for three years in the West Indies, he 
 returned to Paris, where he became known by a treatise on the equi- 
 librium of vaults (1776). In 1779 he was employed at Rochefort, 
 where he wrote his ' Theorie des Machines Simples,' a treatise on the 
 effects of friction and resistances, which gained the prize of the 
 academy, and was subsequently printed separately in 1809. A 
 project of navigable canals had been offered to the Etats of Bretagne, 
 and Coulomb was appointed by the minister of marine to examine 
 the ground. His report was unfavourable, which so displeased some 
 influential persons that he was placed in confinement : the pretext 
 was, that he had no order from the minister of war. 
 
 The Etats afterwards saw their error, and offered Coulomb a large 
 recompense, but he would accept nothing but a seconds' watch, which 
 afterward served him in all his experiments. In 1784 he was intend- 
 ant des eaux et fontaines ; in 1786 he obtained the reversion of the 
 place of conservateur des plans et reliefs, and was sent to England as 
 a commissioner to obtain information on the hospitals. At the revo- 
 lution he lost his public employments, and devoted himself to his 
 domestic affairs. He was one of the first members of the Institute, 
 and an inspector-general of public instruction. He died August 23, 
 1806, having supported a high moral and social character through life. 
 
 There are many men into whose biographies we are obliged to insert 
 more account of their labours than will be necessary in the case of 
 Coulomb. All his researches are of a permanent character, and 
 belong to treatises of mechanics and electricity. We have no pro- 
 minent acts of mind to record which individualise his discoveries, 
 though they were marked by a union of patient industry and experi- 
 mental sagacity of no common order, accompanied by a strong sense 
 of the necessity of mathematical experiment, or numerical determina- 
 tion of mechanical phenomena. He was, we may say, the founder of 
 the school of experimental physics in France, a country which, till his 
 time, had been by no means pre-eminent in that branch of discovery. 
 His researches on friction, and resistances in general, were the first in 
 which the subject bad been pursued manually by one with the know- 
 ledge of mathematics necessary to combine or separate the results 
 according to the subject and the method. In electricity he was the 
 first who invented the method of measuring the quantity of action, 
 and from it he deduced the fact of electrical attractions and repulsions, 
 following the Newtonian law. He ascertained the non-penetration 
 of these agents into the interior of solid bodies, and on these two 
 conclusions the mathematical theory of electricity is now based. He 
 even deduced the second phenomenon from the first. He extended 
 in a great degree to magnetism his conclusions on electricity. The 
 instrument by which these brilliant results were obtained was of his 
 own invention, the Torsion Balance, the principle of which is a needle 
 hanging from a flexible thread, in which the force of torsion necessary 
 to produce a given effect in producing oscillations of the needle being 
 first ascertained, the instrument remains a determinate measurer of 
 any small forces; or, if the absolute force of torsion be unknown, it 
 may be made to give comparative determinations. This construction, 
 in the hands of Cavendish, determined the mean density of the earth, 
 and is now as much of primary use in delicate measurements of force, 
 as the common balance in analytical chemistry. There is, perhaps, 
 no one to whom either the determination of resistances in mechanics, 
 or the theory of electricity, is so much indebted as to Coulomb. The 
 account of his life is from the article in the ' Biog. Univ.' by M. Biot. 
 
 COURIER, PAUL LOUIS, was born in 1773. His father was a 
 substantial farmer, who gave him a good education. Courier made 
 considerable progress both in classical and mathematical studies. He 
 lerved in the French army in the campaign of Rome in 1798-99. In 
 bis letters written from that country to several friends, and especially 
 in one dated Rome, January 8, 1799, published long after in his 
 ' Correspond ance Inddite,' he gives a frightful account of the spolia- 
 tions, plunder, and cruelties committed by the invaders in that 
 unfortunate country. Courier's love of the arts and literature, which 
 never forsook him during his military career, made him especially 
 indignant at the rapacity with which precious sculptures, paintings, 
 
 and manuscripts were torn from public and private collections, and 
 hastily and often ignorantly or carelessly huddled together and 
 packed up for Paris, by which several valuable objects were injured or 
 lost. He also describes the misery of the people of Rome, many of 
 whom were absolutely starving, while the generals, commissioners, and 
 other agents of the French Directory were revelling in luxury. On his 
 return to France after the first peace, Courier published several trans* 
 lations from the Greek, such as ' Isocrates,' ' Eulogy of Helena,' Xeuo- 
 phon's treatise on the ' Command of Cavalry and on Equitation,' and 
 remarks upon SchweighEeuser's edition of ' Athenaeum' He also began 
 a translation of Herodotus. 
 
 In 1806 he again served in Italy with the army that invaded the 
 kingdom of Naples. He went into Calabria as far as Reggio, and 
 witnessed the desultory but cruel warfare carried on in those regions. 
 His letters from Naples, Calabria, and Puglia, 1806-7, give some 
 valuable information concerning those times and events. Courier 
 served with the rank of chef d'escadron in the Austrian campaign of 
 1809. After the battle of Wagram he gave in his resignation, which 
 was readily accepted; for his inquisitive turn of mind and inde- 
 pendent temper made him looked upon as a troublesome person by 
 the more thoroughgoing officers of Napoleon. On reaching Florence, 
 he discovered in the Laurentian libx'ary an unedited manuscript of 
 Longus, of which he meant to avail himself for a translation of that 
 author. Happening to upset an inkstand on the manuscript, by which 
 accident a page was blotted, the librarian accused him of having done 
 it purposely. Courier defended himself ; but some persons in power 
 at the court of the Princess Eliza, Napoleon's sister, took part against 
 him, and he was ordered out of Tuscany. Courier wrote a humorous 
 account of the whole transaction in a letter addressed to Mr. Ray- 
 nouard, in which he did not spare his accusers. His translation of 
 Longus was published in 1813, and was well received by the learned. 
 
 Retiring to his farm at Veretz, in the department of Indre-et-Loire, 
 Courier heard with no regret the fall of Napoleon, and expressed him- 
 self satisfied with the charter given by Louis XVIII., if conscientiously 
 fulfilled. He however began soon to find fresh matter for his satirical 
 vein. His ' Livret,' or ' Memorandum-book,' and his letters, give a 
 curious picture of provincial politics and of the state of society in the 
 interior of France after the restoration. His letters, several of which 
 were published at the time in the ' Censeur,' have been compared for 
 their power and humour to Pascal's celebrated ' Provinciales.' When, 
 in 1821, a subscription was opened all over France to purchase the 
 estate of Chambord for the infant Duke of Bordeaux, he wrote 
 ' Simple Discours aux Membres de la Commune de Veretz,' for which 
 he was tried, and condemned to one month's imprisonment. He pub- 
 lished an account of his trial, under the title of ' Proces de Paul 
 Louis Courier, vignerou.' Courier was now looked upon as one of 
 the most formidable antagonists of the Bourbonist party. He was 
 however by temper caustic and satirical rather than factious. On 10th 
 of April, 1825, he was found murdered near his house at Veretz, 
 but no clue was discovered to the perpetrators of the crime. Some 
 attributed it to political, others, perhaps with more reason, to private 
 enmity. His works were collected and published in 4 vols. 8vo, Brus- 
 sels, 1828. The fourth volume contaius his unedited letters. They 
 are valuable as sketches of actual life and manners, and as materials 
 for contemporary history. 
 
 COURTOIS, JACQUES. [Boegognone.] 
 
 COUSIN, JEAN, a celebrated French painter, sculptor, and geo- 
 metrician, contemporary with II Rosso and Primaticcio in the 16th 
 century. The date neither of his birth nor death is known ; but he 
 was born at Soucy near Sens, was the first Frenchman who attained 
 distinction in historical painting, and was the principal favourite at 
 the French court in the reigns of Henri II., Francois II., Charles IX., 
 and Henri III. He is sometimes in vague language termed the founder 
 of the French school, which however means nothing more than that 
 he was the first distinguished French historical painter. He married 
 the daughter of a French general officer, Lieut-Gen. Rousseau, of Sens, 
 and he was established chiefly as a painter on glass at Sens, but he 
 generally spent a portion of the year at Paris. His most celebrated 
 picture is the ' Last Judgment,' painted for the Minims of Vincennes, 
 and now in the Louvre. Though not a work of high order, it is care- 
 fully executed, and in parts well drawn though harsh, well fore- 
 shortened, and well though highly coloured. It was engraved by 
 Peter de Jode the elder, in twelve sheets ; the whole print is four 
 French feet high, by three feet four inches wide, and one of the largest 
 prints in existence. 
 
 Many of the old painted windows of the churches of Sens and Paris, 
 and elsewhere, were from the designs of Cousin. There are still 
 some remains of his paintings on glass in the church of St.-Gervais, 
 which were his principal works of this class at Paris. He was also a 
 writer of ability ; he wrote on geometry and perspective, and a small 
 work on the proportions of the human body, with illustrative wood- 
 cuts, which went through many editions; the first work was published 
 in 1560, and an edition of the second was printed in 1625 in 4to, under 
 the following title : — ' Livre de Pourtraicture de Maistre Jean Cousin, 
 Peintre et Geometrien tres excellent,' &c. In sculpture his principal 
 work is the monument of Admiral Chabot, in the church of tho 
 Celestines. Cousin was still living in 1589, but much advanced in 
 years. (Felibien, Entretiens aur lea Vies, des Peintra.) 
 
407 
 
 COUSIN, VICTOR. 
 
 COVERDALE, MILES. 
 
 * COUSIN, VICTOR, was born in Paris, November 28, 1792. He 
 received his education at the Lycee Charlemagne. Scarcely had he 
 entered his sixteenth year when the grand prize of honour was 
 allotted to him at the annual distribution. The minister Moutalivet, 
 who was present, was so struck by his ability as to propose to young 
 Cousin to dedicate himself to public business ; but he declined the 
 alluring offer. Soon after he was admitted into the Ecole Normale, 
 which had recently been founded ; here he was appointed repdtiteur, 
 or private teacher, of Greek literature, and afterwards he obtained a 
 professorship of philosophy. 
 
 In 1811, he attended the lectures of the celebrated Laromiguiere, 
 whose theory was a mixture of Condillac and Descartes, of sensation 
 and spiritualism, and who made it his mission to reconcile the two 
 systems. Cousin was at first fascinated by this theory, and still more 
 by the elegant phraseology and lucid exposition of the lecturer. 
 From him therefore he may be said to have acquired the art of giving 
 to the most abstruse principles that transparent and palpable form 
 which universally appears in his style. It was very probably at the 
 same period, that his great idea first presented itself to his mind, 
 " that each system is true, but incomplete; and that by collecting all 
 the systems together a complete philosophy would be obtained." 
 
 In 1813 and 1814 he attended the courses of philosophical lectures, 
 delivered at the Faculte" des Lettres, by Royer-Collard, whose serious 
 and earnest mind had long distrusted that school of sensation, which 
 Locke and Condillac had established in the 18th century, and who 
 had sought refuge from these doubts in the new doctrines of Reid 
 and Hutcheson and the other founders of the Scotch system. This 
 new doctrine, which insisted that there were notions in the mind 
 totally independent of the senses, was instantly and ardently embraced 
 by Cousin, and so clearly and fully did he conceive this theory that 
 when Louis XVIII. appointed the lecturer president of the Com- 
 mission of Public Education, Royer-Collard obtained permission to 
 transfer his chair of philosophy to his young friend, who was his 
 junior by thirty years. Cousin thus became lecturer at the Faculte" 
 des Lettres, and began his famous course of the History of Philosophy, 
 December 7, 1815, being at that time in his twenty-fourth year. He 
 entered upon his public career with a mind richly stored for his 
 task. His youth heightened the impression he made upon his 
 hearers, and he at once became popular. Damiron and Jouffroy, who 
 had been his fellow students under Royer-Collard, and next to him- 
 self in their master's esteem, now took him for their teacher, and 
 afterwards continued his disciples. Having learned to doubt from 
 Royer-Collard, he resolved to examine in turn all the great philo- 
 sophers, both ancient and modern, before he formed his opinions. 
 He became a universal inquirer. He entered singly and without 
 prejudice upon each philosopher, and in each he believed he had 
 found a system, and in each system a fragment of truth. As fast 
 as he proceeded in this inquiry he communicated what he had found to 
 the public, sometimes in lectures, at other times in books. To enable 
 his pupils to judge for themselves, he published the works of Plato, 
 the inedited works of Proclus, and an edition of Descartes, though 
 the whole did not appear till after his dismission. His translation of 
 Plato in 13 vols, is considered excellent, and would preserve his name 
 had he done nothing else. He also contributed many admirable papers 
 to the 'Journal des Savants,' and the ' Archives Philosophiques.' 
 
 But in the midst of his intellectual labours he suddenly met with a 
 severe discouragement; for having in one of his lectures defined man 
 to be a freely acting force, the Bourbon government became alarmed, 
 and dismissed him from the Faculte" des Lettres in 1821. 
 
 In 1824 Cousin went to Germany in the capacity of tutor to the 
 young Duke of Montebello. During his progress the frank opinions 
 he expressed excited the suspicion of the Prussian authorities, who 
 caused him to be arrested and conveyed to Berlin, where he was thrown 
 into prison as an agitator. He remained in close confinement for six 
 months, but the urgent remonstrances of M. de Damas, then French 
 minister of Foreign Affairs, induced the Prussian ministers to recon- 
 sider the case, and subsequently to grant him his passports to return 
 to his native country. After his return he published, in 1826, his 
 celebrated 'Fragmens Philosophiques,' with a remarkable preface, 
 which is still considered the best summary of his particular doctrine. 
 For no man can be more entitled to the character of an original thinker 
 notwithstanding all he has done to revive and give circulation to the 
 systems of so many of his great predecessors. 
 
 The government of Charles X. restored the distinguished professor 
 to his chair; and in April 1828 he delivered his famous course of 
 lectures on Philosophy, at the Faculte" des Lettres, to a numerous and 
 enthusiastic audience. His former lectures had consisted principally 
 of the history of ideal truth, as it had been explained by the great 
 thinkers who had preceded him. But this time his own theory was 
 exhibited. The first series was published in 1828 under the title of 
 'Cours d'Histoire de la Philosophie,' the second in 1829 as ' Cours de 
 Philosophie.' Soon after, the accession of Louis Philippe introduced his 
 friends Guizot and De Broglie to power. He now became a councillor 
 of state, a member of the Board of Public Education, an officer of the 
 Legion of Honour, and a peer of France, in quick succession. In 
 1831 he was commissioned by the ministry to proceed to Germany to 
 examine the state of education in that country. The results were 
 given to the world in 1832, ' Rapport sur l'etat de l'lnstruction Pub- 
 
 lique dans quelques pays de l'Allemagne : ' this was translated by 
 Mrs. Austin, and published in London in 1834. He succeeded Fourier 
 in the Academy, and delivered his ' dloge,' or reception address, 
 May 5, 1831. He seldom spoke in the Chamber of Peers, and when 
 he did it was almost invariably on the subject of National Instruction. 
 He published a large number of works during the rei^n of Louis 
 Philippe: amongst others, the 'Inedited Works of Abelard,' 1836; 
 ' Aristotle's Metaphysics,' 1838 ; several series of ' Fragmens Philo- 
 sophiques,' 1838-40; the 'History of Moral Philosophy in the 18th 
 Century,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1829 ; ' Cours de Philosophie Morale,' 5 vols., 
 1840-41. His admirable biography of 'Jacqueline Pascal,' the sister 
 of the great author of ' Les Pensdes,' appeared in 1844. The narrative 
 is a compilation ; but the observations on the importance of female 
 education, in the introduction, belong to the highest class of moral 
 argument. Sufficient notice has not yet been taken of the plan and 
 objects of Cousia in writing ' Jacqueline Pascal,' ' La Jeuuesae de 
 Madame de Longueville,' 1853, and his other biographies of women. 
 A collected edition of his principal works, in 22 vols. 18mo, was pub- 
 lished in 1846-47. Since 1848 he has taken no part in public atlairs, 
 but he has published, besides the works named, ' du Vrai, du Beau, 
 etduBien' (1853), ' Histoire Generale de la Philosophie' (1863), &c. 
 
 COUSTOU, the name of two very distinguished French sculptors, 
 brothers, of Lyon. 
 
 Nicolas Coustou was born in 1658, and having received some 
 instruction from his father, who was a carver in wood, went in his 
 nineteenth year to Paris, and became the pupil of his uncle, Antoine 
 Coysevox, a distinguished sculptor. When only twenty-three years 
 of age he obtained the grand Academy prize in sculpture, and went io. 
 consequence as a pensioner to Rome. In Rome, where he remained 
 three years, Coustou paid more attention to the modern than the 
 ancient works in sculpture. His favourite masters were Michel Angelo 
 and Algardi, whom he studied for their opposite qualities, endeavour- 
 ing to combine in his own works the merits of each ; to modify the 
 harsh vigour of Michel Angelo by the less evident grace of Algardi. 
 
 His first great work in Paris was the colossal group representing 
 the junction of the Seine and Marne, now in the garden of the 
 Tuileries. There are four other statues by Coustou in the same 
 garden, of which the best is the ' Berger Chasseur.' He made also 
 the celebrated group of the 'Tritons' for the rustic cascade at Ver- 
 sailles. But his work of highest pretensions is the ' Descent from the 
 Cross ' in the choir of the cathedral of Notre Dame, generally called 
 ' Le Vceu de Louis XIII.;' the figures of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV., 
 which were on each side of it until 1831, when they were destroyed, 
 were by Guillaume Coustou and Coysevox respectively. He executed 
 many other distinguished works at Lyon and at Paris, for which he 
 wa3 well rewarded by Louis XIV., and a small pension was settled 
 upon him by the city of Lyon. He enjoyed two pensions from the 
 crown, amounting together to 6000 francs. He died in 1733, having 
 been forty years a member of the French Academy. 
 
 Guillaume Coustou was born in 1678, and was also the pupil of 
 his uncle Coysevox. He went likewise to Rome as a pensioner of the 
 French government; but the pension was irregularly paid, and for a 
 maintenance he assisted Le Gros on his bas-relief of St. Louis of 
 Gonzaga. After his return to Paris, Guillaume Coustou executed 
 many excellent works, several of which were for the gardens of Marly, 
 but are now at the Tuileries ; others are at Versailles : the two cele- 
 brated grooms checking restive horses, somewhat in the actions of the 
 ancient groups of Monte Cavallo, now at the entrance of the Champs 
 Elysees, were at Marly until 1794. Still more celebrated works are 
 the statues of the facade of the Chateau d'Eau opposite the Palais 
 Royal ; and the more extensive bas-reliefs of the principal entrance of 
 the Hotel des Invalides. He executed also the colossal bronze figure 
 of the river Rhone for the monument of Louis XIV. at Lyon ; the 
 corresponding figure of the Saone was by Nicholas Coustou, and they 
 are now both preserved in the town-hall of Lyon ; the statue of 
 Louis XIV. was destroyed during the revolution. He died in 1746, 
 director of the Royal A cademy of Painting and Sculpture. The French 
 are not agreed as to the relative merits of these two sculptors, some 
 preferring Nicolas, and others Guillaume : the style of Guillaume 
 varied less than that of Nicolas from the ancient standard of propor- 
 tions, but they were both more French in their tastes than Greek. 
 
 Guillaume Coustou the Younger, likewise a distinguished artist, 
 was the son of the elder Guillaume. He was born at Paris in 1716, 
 obtained also the grand prize of the Academy in sculpture, studied 
 five years in Rome, and died treasurer of the Academy in 1777. He 
 designed the sculptures of the front of the church of St. Genevieve, 
 which were removed when that building was converted into the 
 Pantheon : they were executed by a sculptor of the name of Duprd. 
 
 (De Fontenai, Dictionnaire des Artistes, tfce. ; D'Argenville, Vies des 
 fameux Architectes et Sculptews, <tc.) 
 
 COUTO, DIEGO DE. [Babros.] 
 
 COVERDALE, MILES, Bishop of Exeter, a native of Yorkshire, was 
 born in 1487. He was educated in the house of the Augustin friars 
 in Cambridge, of which Dr. Barnes, afterwards one of the Protestant 
 martyrs, was then prior. Whether he took a degree at the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge in early life seems uncertain ; but Goodwin says 
 he afterwards received the degree of D.D. from the University 
 of Tubingen, and was, though later in life, admitted 'ad ewidem' 
 
«09 COWLEY, ABRAHAM. 
 
 at Cambridge. Beiug iu his early years attached to the religion 
 in which he was brought up, he became an Augustin monk. In 
 1514 he entered into holy orders, and was ordained at Norwich; 
 but he afterwards changed his religious opinions. Bale say3 he was 
 one of the first who, together with Dr. Robert Barnes, his 'quondam' 
 prior, taught the purity of the gospel, and dedicated himself wholly 
 to the service of the Reformation. About this time, probably 1530 or 
 1531, the reformed religion began to show itself at Cambridge, where 
 various eminent men, and Miles Coverdale amongst them, began to 
 assemble for conference on those points which had been discussed by 
 the reformers abroad. In 1532 he appears to have been abroad, and 
 assisted Tyndale iu his translation of the Bible ; and in 1535 his own 
 translation of the Bible appeared, with a dedication to King Henry VIII. 
 It formed a folio volume, printed, as Humphrey Wauley thought, 
 from the appearance of the types, at Zurich, by Christopher Fros- 
 cbover. He thus had the honour of editing the first English Bible 
 allowed by royal authority, and the first translation of the whole Bible 
 printed in our language. The Psalms in it are those now used in the 
 Book of Common Prayer. About the end of the year 1538 Coverdale 
 went abroad again on the business of a new edition of the Bible. 
 Grafton, the English printer, had permission from Francis I., at the 
 request of King Henry VIII. himself, to print a Bible at Paris, on 
 account of the superior skill of the workmen, and the goodness and 
 cheapness of the paper. But, notwithstanding the royal licence, the 
 Inquisition interposed by an instrument dated December 17, 1538. 
 The French printers, their English employers, and Coverdale, who 
 was the corrector of the press, were summoned before the inquisitors, 
 and the impression, consisting of 2500 copies, was seized and con- 
 demned to the flames. The avarice of the officer who superintended 
 the burning of the copies however, induced him to sell several chests 
 of them to a haberdasher, for the purpose of wrapping his wares, by 
 which means a few copies were preserved. The English proprietors, 
 who had fled at the alarm, returned to Paris when it subsided ; and 
 not only recovered some of the copies which had escaped the fire, but 
 brought with them to London the presses, types, and printers. This 
 importation enabled Grafton and Whitchurch to print, in 1539, what 
 is called Cranmer's, or ' The Great Bible,' in which Coverdale com- 
 pared the translation with the Hebrew, corrected it in many places, 
 and was the chief overseer of the work. Coverdale was almoner, some 
 time afterward, to Queen Catherine Parr, the last wife of Henry VIII., 
 at whose funeral he officiated in the chapel of Sudeley Castle, 
 in Gloucestershire, in 1548. On August 14, 1551, he succeeded Dr. 
 John Harman, otherwise V oysey, in the see of Exeter. On his appoint- 
 ment to this bishopric, Coverdale was so poor as to be unable to pay 
 the first-fruits, which therefore the king, at the solicitation of Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer, excused. On the accession of Queen Mary, and the 
 consequent re-establishment of Catholicism, he was ejected from his 
 see, and thrown into prison, out of which he was released after two 
 years' imprisonment, at the earnest request of the King of Denmark, 
 whose chaplain, Dr. John Machabseus, had married the sister of Cover- 
 dale's wife. On hia release, which was on the condition of banishing 
 himself, Coverdale repaired to the court of Denmark ; he went after- 
 wards to Wesel, thence to Bergzabern, and finally to Geneva, where 
 he joined several other English exiles in producing that version of the 
 English Bible which is usually called * The Geneva Translation ; ' 
 part of which, the New Testament, was printed at Geneva in 1557, 
 by Conrad Badius, and again in 1560, in which last year the whole 
 Bible was printed in the same place by Rowland Harte. On the 
 accession of Queen Elizabeth, Coverdale returned from exile ; but 
 having imbibed the principles of the Geneva reformers, as far as 
 respected the ecclesiastical habits and ceremonies, he was not allowed 
 to resume his bishopric, nor was any preferment offered to him for 
 a considerable time. In 1563 Bishop Grindal recommended him to 
 the bishopric of Llandaff ; but it is supposed that Coverdale's age and 
 infirmities, and the remains of the plague, from which he had just 
 recovered, made him decline so great a charge. In lieu of it, however, 
 the bishop collated bim to the rectory of St. Magnus London Bridge. 
 He resigned this living in 1566. The date of his death has been 
 variously stated. The parish register of St. Bartholomew, behind the 
 Royal Exchange, however, proves that he was buried February 19, 
 1568, in the chancel of which church a Latin epitaph for him re- 
 mained till it was destroyed along with the church in the great fire of 
 1666. Coverdale was the author of several tracts calculated to pro- 
 mote the doctrines of the Reformation, and of several translations 
 from the writings of the foreign reformers. 
 
 The third centenary of the publication of Coverdale's Bible was cele- 
 brated by the clergy throughout the churches of England, October 4, 
 1835 ; and several medals were struck upon the occasion. 
 
 COWLEY, ABRAHAM, the son of a grocer resident in Fleet-street, 
 London, was born in 1618, and educated at Westminster School, and 
 f rinity College, Cambridge. He was an early poet, and attributes the 
 direction of his genius to the perusal of Spenser, whose works, he says, 
 " were wont to lye in his mother's parlour ;" and with which he made 
 himself familiar before he was twelve years old. At the age of fifteen 
 (not thirteen) be published a volume called 'Poetic Blossoms,' con- 
 taining, among other things, ' The Tragical History of Pyramus and 
 Thisbe,' written when he wa3 ten years old. At college he increased 
 hia reputation by the elegance of his exercises ; and, not to mention 
 D1V. vol. U. 
 
 COWLEY, LORD. 410 
 
 minor works, composed the greater part of his ' Davideis,' an unfinished 
 epic, in four books, on tho troubles of David. Being attached to the 
 court party, he was ejected in 1643, after ho had taken his degree of 
 M.A. ; and he then settled in St. John's College, Oxford, where he 
 became known and esteemed by some leadiug men; and beiug 
 appointed secretary to Lord Jermyn, afterwards Earl of St. Alban's, 
 was employed in the honourable and confidential office of cyphering 
 and decyphering the correspondence of the king and queen. He fol- 
 lowed the queen to Paris in 1646, and remained abroad ten years. 
 Returning iu 1656, as a sort of spy, " to take occasion of giving notice 
 of the posture of affairs in this nation," he was seized, and obliged to 
 give heavy security for his future behaviour. Iu the same year he 
 published an edition of his poems, with a preface, in which he inserted 
 some things suppressed in subsequent editions, which were interpreted 
 to denote some relaxation of his loyalty. He also obtained, Wood 
 says, through the influence of the men then iu power, the degree of 
 M.D. at Oxford in 1657 — having professed the study of physic in order, 
 it is said, to cloak the real motive of his visit to England. He does 
 not appear ever to have practised, and the only fruit of his studies was 
 a Latin poem upon plants in six books. Upon Cromwell's death he 
 returned to France, and resumed his office. At the Restoration he 
 expected to obtain the mastership of the Savoy, which had been pro- 
 mised to him both by Charles I. and Charles II. In this, to his great 
 mortification, he was disappointed ; but some amends were made him 
 by a beneficial lease of the queen's lands at Chertsey in Surrey, whither 
 he retired in 1665, and died in July 1667 in his forty-ninth year. He 
 was buried near Chaucer and Spenser in Westminster Abbey, where 
 in 1675 the Duke of Buckingham erected a monument to his memory. 
 
 Cowley is characterised by Dr. Johnson as " the last and undoubtedly 
 the best " of the metaphysical authors, a curious class, of whom the 
 biographer, in his life of Cowley, has given a critical account :— " In 
 his own time he was considered of unrivalled excellence. Clarendon 
 represents him as having taken a flight beyond all that went before 
 him ; and Milton is said to have declared that the three greatest 
 English poets were Spenser, Shakspeare, and Cowley." For a long 
 time he was an object of supreme admiration, and his Pindaric Odes 
 were imitated to weariness by those who could emulate his extrava- 
 gance, but not his learning, wit, and fertility. This fashion has long 
 been at an end ; and while the simpler of our older poets have of late 
 years been increasing in popularity, Cowley, we conceive, is scarcely 
 known to a majority even of the poetical readers of this country. 
 Hia merits are summed up by Johnson iu the following passage, which, 
 making allowance for its Johnsoniasm of thought and expression, very 
 fairly characterises the poetry of Cowley : — " He brought to his poetic 
 labours a mind replete with learning, and his pages are embellished 
 with all the ornaments which books could supply : he was the first 
 who imparted to English numbers the enthusiasm of the greater ode 
 und the gaiety of the less ; he was qualified for sprightly sallies and 
 for lofty flights ; he was among those who freed translation from 
 servility, and instead of following his author at a distance, walked by 
 his side; and if he left versification yet improvable, he left likewise 
 from time to time such specimens of excellence as enabled succeeding 
 poets to improve it." His faults are — negligent and sometimes vulgar 
 diction, rugged and prosaic versification, pedantry, hyperbolical exag- 
 geration, and an abundance, unchecked by judgment, of that particular 
 sort of wit which Johnson defines to be the discovery of occult 
 resenj^lances in things apparently unlike. His poetry proceeds from 
 the head more than the heart, and dazzles oftener than it touches. 
 The poetry of Cowley, in a word, is forced, affected, and unnatural, 
 yet it is not undeserving of the careful examination of the student. 
 His prose, on the other hand, is simple, manly, and rythmical; easy 
 without vulgarity, and strong without coarseness. 
 
 COWLEY, MRS. HANNAH, whose maiden name was Parkhouse, 
 was born at Tiverton, in Devonshire, in 1743. She was married about 
 1772 to Mr. Cowley, a captain in the East India Compauy's army, by 
 whom she had three children. Her husband was a man of taste, whom 
 she consulted in the composition of her works ; and the first of het 
 plays, 'The Runaway,' wa3 commenced half iu jest, on her husband 
 rallying her for expressing in the theatre a belief that she could write 
 a drama. Her life was spent in retirement, mixing but little in the 
 world, and, notwithstanding her dramatic turn, visiting even the 
 theatre very seldom. She died at Tiverton on the 11th of March 1809, 
 having survived her husband about ten years. ' The Works of Mrs. 
 Cowley, Dramas and Poems,' were published in a collected edition, 
 1809-13, 3 vols. 8vo. Among them are three narrative poems of con- 
 siderable length, but indifferent merit, ' The Maid of Aragon,' * The 
 Scottish Village,' and the ' Siege of Acre.' The artificial character of 
 her poetical taste is indicated by the fact that she was the ' Anna 
 Matilda' who corresponded with Mr. Merry under his newspaper 
 signature of ' Delia Crusca.' Her two tragedies likewise are worthless. 
 Of her nine comedies several are much better. One of them, ' The 
 Belle's Stratagem,' which first appeared in 1780, fatill maintains its 
 place as a lively and excellent acting play ; and ' A Bold Stroke for a 
 Husband,' a play somewhat similar, has been repeatedly revived both 
 in its original shape and with alterations. 
 
 * COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD WELLESLEY, first EARL, 
 eldest son of the first Lord (better known as Sir Henry Wellesley), 
 many years British ambassador at Paris aud other courts, was born iu 
 
ill 
 
 COWPER, EDWARD. 
 
 COWPER, WILLIAM. 
 
 U2 
 
 1804, and entered the diplomatic service at an early age. In 1821 he 
 became an attache" at Vienna, and was consecutively secretary of 
 legation at Stutgardt and secretary of the embassy at Constantinople. 
 In 1848 he was sent as minister-plenipotentiary to Switzerland, and 
 afterwards to Frankfurt ; and in 1851, during the anxious crisis of the 
 resettlement of Germany into tranquillity, he acted as minister to 
 the Germanic Confederation. In 1852 he succeeded the Marquis of 
 Normanby as ambassador to the court of the Tuileries. His name 
 will hereafter be best remembered by haviug represented England, in 
 conjunction with Lord Clarendon, at the Congress of Paris in March 
 1850. He was created Earl in 1857. 
 
 COWPER, EDWARD, was born in 1790. Little or nothing has yet 
 been published concerning the circumstances and events of the early 
 life of this distinguished inventor and improver of machinery. It is 
 known however that it was chiefly owing to some of his inventions 
 in cylinder-printing that Mr. Applegath was induced to build the 
 extensive printing-office in Duke-street, adjoining to Stamford-street, 
 London, now occupied by Messrs. Clowes, and he was a partner with 
 Mr. Applegath in that establishment. They were also connected in 
 making machines for calico-printing, and in the construction of new 
 machinery for printing the 'Times,' of which, in conjunction with 
 Mr. Applegath, he published a description. In fact, some of the most 
 important improvements in machine-printing were of his invention, 
 such especially as the giving a diagonal action to the rollers on the 
 self-acting inking-tables. In the Great Exhibition of 1851 he exhibited 
 a model made by T. B. Winter, a student in King's College, London, 
 of the printing-machine now in general use ; and by such machines the 
 catalogues of the Great Exhibition were printed. He had for many 
 years an engagement at the large blacking-factory of Messrs. Day 
 and Martin, in printing their labels in such a manner as to defy 
 imitation. He also furnished some contributions to the 1 Penny 
 Cyclopaedia.' 
 
 Mr. Cowper, during some of the later years of his life, was professor 
 of mechanics and manufacturing arts at King's College, and it is as a 
 lecturer that he was best known to the public. His process of imparting 
 knowledge consisted not only in giving descriptions and illustrating 
 them by models,but in exhibiting the machines themselves, and showing 
 them at work. His manner of lecturing was simple and popular, and 
 he had always a fall attendance. His knowledge of machinery, of 
 mechanical construction, and the mechanic arts, embraced the most 
 minute as well as the largest objects. He wrote an elaborate article on 
 a ' Button ; ' and he delivered lectures on the mechanical structure of 
 the Crystal Palace of 1851. He was much respected for his urbanity, 
 and for his readiness in making communications from his large stores 
 of information to the humblest individuals as well as to persons of 
 higher station. He died at his residence, Kensington, London, October 
 17 1852 
 
 COWPER, WILLIAM, was born on the 15th of November (old style) 
 1731, at Great Berkhampstead in Hertfordshire, of which place his 
 father, the Rev. John Cowper, was rector. He was first placed, when 
 he was but six years old, at a school kept by Dr. Pitman, at Market- 
 street, in Hertfordshire. The cruelty of an elder boy rendered the 
 two years which he spent here two years of misery. He was next 
 placed in the house of an oculist, apprehensions being then entertained 
 that he would lose his sight ; and under the care of this oculist two 
 more years of his boyhood were passed. At the age of ten he was 
 sent to Westminster School, where he stayed till he was eighteen ; 
 applying during these eight years with diligence to his studies, and 
 entering with spirit into boyish sports. 
 
 After leaving Westminster, Cowper was articled for three years to a 
 solicitor, in whose office he had for a fellow-clerk the future Lord 
 Thurlow. During these three years however he gained no great stock 
 of legal knowledge, and when they were expired he took up his abode 
 in chambers in the Middle Temple. In 1754 he was called to the bar, 
 and in 1759 he was appointed a commissioner of bankrupts. One 
 reason, and doubtless a principal reason, why the law had been fixed 
 upon as Cowper's profession, was the existence of a certain amount of 
 legal patronage in the hands of some of his relations. Having a small 
 patrimony, and looking forward to the exercise in his favour of this 
 influence, he cared not for those objects to which application would 
 lead, any more than he liked the subject to which he was to apply; 
 and accordiugly he neglected the study of law. While residing in the 
 Temple he made love to his cousin, Theodora Cowper, the sister of 
 his correspondent, Lady Hesketh, and dallied with literature. He was 
 a member of a club called the ' Nonsense Club,' consisting entirely of 
 Westminster men, among whom were Bonnell Thornton, Colman, and 
 Lloyd ; and he contributed a few papers to the ' Connoisseur,' of which 
 Thornton and Colman were the joint projectors and writers. 
 
 His residence in the Temple extended through eleven years. In 
 1763, the last year of that residence, the offices of clerk of the journals, 
 reading clerk, and clerk of the committees in the House of Lords, all 
 which offices were at the disposal of a cousin of Cowper's, became 
 vacant about the same time. The two last were conferred on Cowper. 
 His patrimony was by this time well nigh spent, and the gift was 
 therefore so far acceptable. But the duties attached to the offices of 
 reading clerk and clerk of the committees were duties which required 
 that he should frequently appear before the House of Lords ; and to 
 him, who suffered from extreme nervousness, a public exhibition of 
 
 any kind was, as he himself expresses it, " mortal poison." He 
 therefore, almost immediately after having accepted them, resigned 
 these offices, and took that of clerk of the journals. But here again, 
 his cousin's right of nomination having been questioned, Cowper 
 was unexpectedly required to submit himself to an examination at 
 the bar of the house before being allowed to take the office. Thus 
 the evil from which he seemed to have escaped again met him. "A 
 thunderbolt," he writes in his memoir of himself, " would have been 
 as welcome to me as this intelligence. . . . To require my attendance 
 at the bar of the house, that I might there publicly entitle myself to 
 the office, was in effect to exclude me from it. In the meantime the 
 interest of my friend, the honour of his choice, my own reputation, and 
 circumstances, all urged me forward — all pressed me to undertake that 
 which I saw to be impracticable." Unceasing was the anguish which 
 he now suffered. He even looked forward anxiously to the coming 
 of insanity, a constitutional tendency to which had manifested itself 
 some years before, that he might have a reason for throwing up the 
 office ; and when the dreaded day drew near, and he found himself 
 still in possession of his senses, he determined on the commission of 
 suicide. His many attempts to destroy himself all failed of success, 
 owing, as he is pleased to explain it in his memoir, to direct inter- 
 positions of Providence. The office was ultimately resigned on the 
 very day appointed for the examination, and shortly afterwards he 
 became insane. He was immediately placed under the care of Dr. 
 Cotton at St. Alban's, with whom he stayed until his recovery, which 
 took place about eighteen months after, in June 1765. 
 
 The form which Cowper's insanity assumed was that of religious 
 delusion. A belief that he had been irrevocably cut off from a state 
 of grace in this world, and of salvation in the next, was that which 
 preyed upon his mind previous to the coming of the shock, and was 
 predominant while it lasted. In the three subsequent periods of his 
 life during which madness returned to him, from 1773 to 1776, for 
 about six months in 1787, and during tho six years preceding his 
 death, its form was the same. 
 
 On Cowper's recovery in 1765, he took up his residence in Hunting- 
 don, solely that he might be within reach of a younger brother who 
 was then at Cambridge. Here he became acquainted with the family 
 of the Rev. Mr. Unwin, the beneficial influence exercised by whom 
 on Cowper's subsequent life is well known. Finding that his spirits 
 were sinking in the solitude in which he lived, and also that his scanty 
 means were not sufficient to maintain a separate establishment, he 
 became a boarder in Mr. Unwin's house. On Mr. Unwin's death in 
 1767, Cowper and Mrs. Unwin removed to Olney in Buckinghamshire, 
 attracted thither by their esteem for Mr. Newton, who was then curate 
 of the place. Mr. Newton, a man greatly to be respected for his un- 
 questioned piety and moral worth, held strong views on the subject 
 of religious duties ; and having early acquired a powerful influence 
 over Cowper, led him to engage his thoughts continually on religious 
 subjects. Mr. Newton was a prominent member of that section of 
 clergymen known as ' evangelical,' and his zeal had been powerfully 
 stimulated by the religious movement which, originating with Wesley 
 and Whitefield, had deeply penetrated the evangelical body in the 
 Church. It is probable that Cowper, with his constitutional nervous- 
 ness and predisposition to mental derangement, did not derive un- 
 mixed good from the excitement of frequent prayer-meetings and an 
 unremitting attention to religious subjects. Mr. Newton had formed 
 a plan of publishing a volume of hymns, and prevailed on Cowper to 
 assist in composing them. They were afterwards published in 1776, 
 under the title of ' Olney Hymns ; ' but Cowper, before he had pro- 
 ceeded far in their composition, was visited with his second attack of 
 madness, which lasted nearly four years. 
 
 In 1776, after Cowper's recovery, Mr. Newton removed from Olney. 
 By Mrs. Unwin's advice Cowper was now induced to commence a poem, 
 taking, upon her suggestion, the Progress of Error for his subject; 
 and he immediately went on to write three more moral satires, entitled 
 'Truth,' 'Table Talk,' and 'Expostulation.' These, together with 
 the poems entitled ' Error,' ' Hope,' ' Charity,' ' Conversation,' and 
 ' Retirement,' and some smaller pieces, were formed into a volume, 
 which was published in 1782. He published a second volume in 1785, 
 containing the ' Task ' and ' Tirocinium,' the former of which poems 
 had been commenced on the suggestion of another female friend, 
 Lady Austen. It is to the same lady that we are indebted for the 
 'History of John Gilpin.' He had begun in 1784, so soon as the 
 ' Task ' and ' Tirocinium ' had been written, his translation of Homer, 
 which occupied him for the next six years. The translation was pub- 
 lished in 1791. During its progress he had changed his place of 
 residence from Olney to the neighbouring village of Weston, on the 
 recommendation of his cousin, Lady Hesketh, with whom he had 
 recently renewed a correspondence which had been long suspended, 
 and whose attentions contributed much to the comfort of his later 
 years. Almost immediately after the translation of Homer was com- 
 pleted he undertook to superintend a new edition of Milton's Works, 
 and to furnish translations of the Latin and Italian poems. In 1792 
 he paid a visit to Hayley at Eartham, in Sussex, not having made a 
 journey for twenty years before. Symptoms of his constitutional 
 malady had occasionally shown themselves during the eight or ten 
 preceding years ; and in the beginning of 1794 he was again afflicted 
 with madness. A change of scene being judged desirable, he w<w 
 
COX, DAVID. 
 
 COXE, WILLIAM. 
 
 removed first to North Tuddenharn in Norfolk, thence to Mundsloy, 
 and afterwards to East Derebam ; and lie succeeded in obtaining short 
 intervals of comparative tranquillity, during which he composed one 
 or two small pieces and revised his translation of Homer. Mrs. Unwin, 
 his faithful companion, died on the 17th of December 1796 ; and after 
 three dreary years, Cowper followed her to the grave on the 25th of 
 April 1800. He died in his sixty-niuth year. 
 
 Cowper's merits have been summed up by Mr. Southey in the 
 words — "the most popular poet of his generation, and the best of 
 English letter-writers." His letters are written in a genuine unaffected 
 English style, and are marked for the most part by a playfulness and 
 humour which effectually prevent the weary feeling that usually 
 attends a long continuous reading of epistolary correspondence. 
 Absence of affectation is again a chief characteristic of his poems. 
 They are free from all sickly sentimentality or mannerism in language. 
 As regards freedom from the first, the manliness of the poet presents 
 a striking contrast to the feminine character of the man ; while, with 
 reference to the second point, Cowper has the merit of having done 
 much towards that improvement in poetic diction which subsequently 
 received so great an impulse through the poems of Wordsworth. He 
 was an enthusiastic lover of nature ; and some of his descriptions of 
 natural objects are such as Wordsworth himself might be proud to 
 own. His poems contain also, as it is not too strongly expressed by 
 Hazlitt, "a number of pictures of domestic comfort and social refine- 
 ment which can hardly be forgotten but with the language itself." 
 ('Lectures on the English Poets,' p. 182.) There is a striking amount 
 of variety in his poems, or, taking but one of them, in the ' Task ' 
 alone. Some of his smaller pieces, as for instance the ' Lines on 
 receiving his Mother's Portrait,' and those addressed ' To Mary,' are 
 exquisitely pathetic. 
 
 His translation of Homer is unequal in execution, as might be 
 expected in the case of a work of such length, and of an author sub- 
 ject to attacks of melancholy as Cowper was. But taken as a whole, 
 and judged by those rulo3 which should be applied to translations, 
 it must be pronounced tbn best translation of Homer which we pos- 
 sess. He set out with a determination to seize, so far as he could, the 
 real spirit of Homer ; an<ll if he ha? not always succeeded, his failure 
 may be partly attributed to his failing health and the circumstances 
 under which it wa3 written. 
 
 There are numerous lives of Cowper. The first is that by Hayley, 
 and as such, and the work of Cowper's friend, it ought to be men- 
 tioned, though it was never of much value, and has been long super- 
 seded. The best life of Cowper, in every respect, is that of Southey : 
 au edition of it in Bohn's ' Standard Library ' includes the ' Private 
 Correspondence,' which Southey was not able to publish in the original 
 edition, though he embodied nearly all that was essential in it. A 
 poem entitled ' Anti Thelyphthora,' being a satire against those who 
 would do away with the institution of marriage, appears among 
 Cowper's poems for the first time in Southey's edition. 
 
 COX, DAVID, was born at Birmingham in 1783. About the 
 commencement of the present century the representations of land- 
 scapes in water-colours from feeble and ineffective tinted drawings 
 had been raised, chiefly by the genius of Girtin and Turner, almost to 
 rivalry with paintings in oil. Among the many young artists who 
 devoted themselves to this new art, David Cox soon distinguished 
 himself by decided originality of style and familiarity with nature 
 under many of her most striking aspects ; and for some forty years 
 he continued, amid the manifold fluctuations of artistic fashion, to 
 pursue his own quiet course, at times neglected or depreciated, at 
 others eagerly praised and patronised by the critics and connoisseurs, 
 but always finding a goodly number of admirers. The common notion 
 respecting his pictures is that they are mere rough sketches intended 
 ODly to suggest, somewhat rudely and coarsely, certain natural 
 ' effects ' as they are designated. But however coarse and rude they 
 may seem in execution, the works of Mr. Cox are the results not only 
 of a close observance of natural phenomena, but of a well-considered 
 method of conveying his own impressions. He paints on the roughest 
 paper, and entirely disregards all minute details, and what is commonly 
 called ' finish.' Vet though often seemingly mere hasty blots — the 
 smaller drawings at least — his pictures convey to an eye that has 
 observed scenes and circumstances such as are there depicted under 
 similar conditions of season and weather, the broad general appear- 
 ance — the poetic glance — of the whole view, with singular directness, 
 fidelity, and vividness. Often indeed Mr. Cox seems to fail in realising 
 his intention, but his successes are very striking. Rain and wind, 
 bursts of sunshine over dark and lonely moors, long stretches of flat 
 moist sands, dank herbage by the skirts of a marsh, the harvest or the 
 hay-field with the brooding or the passing storm, and a score other of 
 what had been regarded as among the scenes and phenomena to be 
 rather avoided than sought after by the laudscape-sketcher, he showed 
 to be not merely full of poetry but also of Biugular pictorial capability. 
 Of late years Mr. Cox has, it must be confessed, become more loose 
 and rough in style, and his works have shown a more decided mau- 
 , nerism than ever; yet the old vigour is there, and not a little of tho 
 old truth and poetry. Some of his recent sunsets and more sombre 
 effects have been equal to almost anything he ever painted. 
 
 Mr. Cox was one of the early members of the Society of Painters in 
 Water-Colours, and in the gallery of that society his pictures have in 
 
 London been almost exclusively exhibited. Many years back Mr. Cox 
 published a series of very suggestive lessons on water-colour painting, 
 but they have long been out of print. He has for some years resided 
 in the vicinity of Birmingham. Mr. Cox has a son, David, who is an 
 associate of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours, and an able 
 painter, but he appears inclined to imitate somewhat too directly his 
 father's peculiar manner. [See Supplement.] 
 
 COXE, WILLIAM, archdeacon of Wilts, was born in London, 
 March 1747. In 1768 he was a fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 
 In 1771 he was appointed to the curacy of Denham, near Uxbridge, 
 but soon after he went to travel on the continent as tutor to the 
 Marquis of Blandford, son of the Duke of Marlborough, with whom 
 he remained two years. In 1775 he accompanied in the same capacity 
 Lord Herbert, son of the Earl of Pembroke, with whom he visited a 
 considerable part of Europe. His 'Sketches of tho Natural, Civil, 
 and Political State of Switzerland, in a series of Letters to W. Mel- 
 moth,' 8vo, 1779, was translated into French with considerable 
 additions by M. Ramond, a French traveller of taste and information, 
 who rendered Coxe's work, which was rather dry and prosy, more 
 attractive by adding many entertaining details. Coxe's attention 
 had been chiefly directed to the political institutions of the numerous 
 republics of the old Helvetic Confederation, a subject which had been 
 already in some measure treated by Stanyan half a century before. 
 Ramond travelled as a pedestrian through the most remote Alpine 
 districts : he understood the dialects of the country, and in this 
 respect had a great advantage over Coxe. He added to Coxe's work 
 several entire letters, among others one in which he describes the 
 striking scene, which few travellers have witnessed, of a general 
 landsgemeinde, or assembly of the whole sovereign people of the 
 canton of Glarus. Ramond's book is still one of the most interesting 
 works upon old Switzerland, such as it was before the French invasion 
 and subsequent changes. ('Lettres de Mr. W. Coxe sur l'Etat Poli- 
 tique, Civil, et Naturel, de la Suisse, augrnentees des Observations 
 faites dans le meme Pays par le Traducteur,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1781.) 
 In 1789 Coxe published a second edition, much enlarged, of his own 
 work, under the title of ' Travels in Switzerland,' 3 vols. 8vo. The 
 third volume is entirely engrossed by a description of the Grisons. 
 Meantime in 1784, having visited the northern kingdoms of Europe, 
 he published ' Travels iuto Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark,' in 
 5 vols. Svo, which were translated into French. Soon after the pub- 
 lication of this work he accompanied Mr. Samuel Whitbread on a 
 tour on the continent, and in 1786 he went there again with the son 
 of Mr. Portman, of Bryanston, Dorset. In 1788 he was presented 
 to the rectory of Bemerton by the Earl of Pembroke. In 1794 he 
 again visited the continent with Lord Brome, eldest son of the 
 Marquis Cornwallis; and on his return was made chaplain of the 
 Tower. 
 
 Coxe had collected a considerable store of information during his 
 travels, of which he availed himself in writing several historical 
 works, the most important of which is the ' History of the House of 
 Austria from the foundation of the Monarchy by Rudolf of Habsburg 
 to the death of Leopold II. in 1792,' 3 vols. 4to, London, 1807. It is 
 a work of considerable labour and research, and conscientiously 
 written. The author quotes in his preface and in the body of the 
 work his authorities both printed and manuscript; and he also 
 availed himself of oral information which he collected in his travels. 
 The author has confined himself to the German branch of the house 
 of Austria, leaving out the Spanish branch from Philip II. The work 
 was translated into German, and seems to have been well received at 
 Vienna. Coxe also wrote — 1, ' History of the Kings of Spain of the 
 House of Bourbon, from 1700 to 1788,' 3 vols. 4to, 1813. 2, ' Memoirs 
 of John Duke of Marlborough, with his Original Correspondence,' 
 3 vols. 4to, 1817-19.' 3, 'Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole, Earl of 
 Orford, illustrated with Original Correspondence and Authentic 
 Papers,' 3 vols. 4to, 1798. 4, 'Account of the Russian Discoveries 
 between Asia and America; to which are added, the Conquest of 
 Siberia, and the History of the Transactions and Commerce between 
 Russia and China,' in 4to. Gmelin, Pallas, Miiller, and others had 
 already treated these subjects, but Coxe has added more complete 
 information which he collected at St. Petersburg. 5, ' Private and 
 Original Correspondence of Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury, with 
 King William III., the Leaders of the Whig Party, and Others.' 6, 
 ' An Historical Tour in Monmouthshire, illustrated with plates from 
 the drawings of Sir R. C. Hoare,' 2 vols. 4to. 7, 'An Account of the 
 Prisons and Hospitals in Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, with Remarks 
 on the Different Modes of Punishment in those Countries,' Svo. 8, 
 ' Literary Life and Select Works of Benjamin Stillingfleet,' 3 vols. 
 8vo ; besides several minor works. 
 
 In 1803 he married Eleanora, daughter of Walter Shairp, consul- 
 general of Russia. In 1805 he was appointed archdeacon of Wilts. 
 After publishing the 'Memoirs of Marlborough,' in 1819 his sight 
 failed him, and he became gradually blind. He died at Bemerton at 
 au advanced age, June 15, 1828. Coxe, though a heavy writer, occupies 
 a respectable place among modern historians: the subjects that he 
 has treated arc numerous and important; and he spared no pains to 
 collect tho best information, for obtaining which he had facilities of 
 access to some important private collections. The following work 
 was published after his death : ' Memoirs of the Administration of the 
 
 i 
 
41 P 
 
 COXIE, MICHAEL. 
 
 CRABBE, GEORGE. 
 
 411 
 
 Jii^lxt Honourable Henry Pelham, collected from the Family Tapers,' 
 2 vols. 4to, London, 1829. 
 
 COXIE, MICHAEL, a very celebrated old Flemish painter, born at 
 Mechlin, in 1497. He studied first under Bernard van Orley, and 
 devoted afterwards much time to the study of the works of Raffaelle 
 at Rome, in which city he obtained some distinction as a fresco painter. 
 He returned with an Italian wife, and with a good stock of Italian 
 art, to his own country, whore he enjoyed great renown and amassed 
 a large fortune by his works. They were chiefly altar-pieces, and 
 many of the best of them were carried to Spain, but he kept a con- 
 siderable gallery of some of his choicest productions, in three houses 
 or palaces which he possessed at Mechlin. He died at Antwerp in 
 1592, aged ninety-five, in consequence of a fall from a scaffolding, 
 whilst engaged in painting a picture in the town-house of that 
 place. 
 
 Though the works of Coxie had much merit, he is now better 
 known for his elaborate copy of the ' Adoration of the Lamb,' in the 
 church of St. Bavon, at Ghent, by the brothers Van Eyck, than for 
 his own original productions. It is a large altar-piece with folding- 
 wiugs, in two horizontal divisions, an upper and a lower division, each 
 with two wings on aside; six of these wings are now in the royal 
 gallery of lierlin, and the other parts are still at Ghent. Coxie' s copy 
 of the two centre pictures of this altar-piece is also in the Berlin 
 Gallery, ' God the Father,' and the ' Adoration of the Lamb ; ' other 
 parts are in the Pinakothek of Munich, and in the royal gallery of 
 the Hague : in Munich are the large figures of 'John the Baptist' and 
 the 'Virgin Mary;' at the Hague are all the wings. The copy was 
 made by Coxie for Philip II. of Spain, and finished in 1559, after two 
 \ears of uninterrupted labour, for which he was paid 4000 florins, 
 about 400£. sterling. When painting this picture, Coxie complained 
 to Philip that he could not procure a blue good enough to paint the 
 Virgin's drapery with, upon which Philip wrote to Titian for Borne 
 ultramarine, which Coxie received, and he used a quantity of the 
 value of thirty-two ducats over the single blue mantle of the Virgin. 
 The copy was painted with extreme care, and kept somewhat softer 
 than the original ; it remained for a long time in the chapel of the 
 old palace of Madrid, whence it was removed and sent to Brussels by 
 General Belliard during the French occupation of Spain. Ceau 
 Bermudas! says that Coxie himself took it to SpaiD. 
 
 (Van Mander, Leven der Schilders ; KunslLlalt, No. 23-27, 1824 ; 
 Passavant, Kunstreise durch England und Bclgicn ; Waagen, Verzeich- 
 ttiss der Gemdlde-Sammlung des Kbnigliehcn Museums zu Berlin.) 
 
 COYPEL, the name of a family of painters, eminent in the history 
 of French art. 
 
 Noel Coypel, the first of the family who attained any reputation, 
 was the son of Guyon Coypel, a younger son of a Norman family, and 
 was born in 1628. Guyon practised painting, but apparently with little 
 success. He placed his son at an early age with Poncet, a pupil of 
 Vouet, a painter at Orleans, and afterwards under a painter named 
 Quillerier. Noel rose rapidly in reputation, and was received into the 
 Academy at Paris in 1663. He was appointed by the king director of 
 the Academy at Rome, where he resided some time, enjoying the 
 acquaintance of Bernini, Carlo Maratti, and other eminent painters of 
 the day. Noel Coypel was a diligent student, and the French Academy 
 in Pome profited greatly by his assiduous example. Having returned 
 to Paris, he was successively made rector and director of the Academy. 
 He died in 1707, working at his art to the last. To a certain extent 
 he was an imitator of Nicolas Poussiu, and by way of distinguishing 
 him from the other Coypels he is often designated by French writers 
 ' Coypel le Poussin.' His designs are skilful and spirited, but marred 
 by affectation. Noel was married twice, and left two sons, Antoine 
 and Noel Nicholas, and many daughters. 
 
 Antoine Coypel, his father's pupil, was born in 1661, and accom- 
 panied his father to Rome, where he studied the works of the old 
 masters. He afterwards travelled for improvement into Lombardy. 
 He left Rome at the age of eighteen, but had made such progress in 
 his profession, that at the age of twenty he was received into the 
 Academy. In 1707 he was made professor and rector, and in 1714 
 director; in 1716 he was named 'painter to the king,' an office which 
 had been for more than twenty years in abeyance; and in 1717 
 Louis XV. granted him titles of nobility. Antoine Coypel during life 
 had a European reputation. He was by far the most famous of the 
 family, and has much power and variety in his design; but the 
 mannered style of the French school was not corrected by his study 
 of the Italian, since he was too ready to adopt the artificial graces of 
 Bernini, his friend and adviser. Many of his pictures have been 
 engraved, some by himself, and others by eminent engravers of his 
 own and the succeeding age. A large part of ' l'Histoire Numismatique 
 du Regne de Louis XIV.,' is executed from his designs. He wrote a 
 'Discours,' and an 'Epitre en vers,' on painting. He died in 1722, 
 leaving one son, Charles, also a painter, and his father's pupil, who 
 successively passed all the ranks to the highest in the Academy. 
 
 Noel Nicholas, the second son and pupil of Noel, was born in 
 1692. He was received into the Academy in 1720, during his 
 brother's rectorate. He did not attract much notice until after his 
 brother's death, but then rose rapidly in reputation till the time of 
 his own death, in 1734. Noel Nicholas, although not free from the 
 factitious elegance of his relatives, possei"^* a considerable feeling for 
 
 pastoral enjoyment, which is evinced in some rustic compositions. 
 The principal works of all the Coypels are at Paris. 
 
 COYSEVOX, ANTOINE, a distinguished French sculptor, was 
 born at Lyon in 1640: his family was originally Spanish. He distin- 
 guished himself at Lyon as early as his seventeenth year by a statue 
 of the Virgin, and he went afterwards to Paris to perfect himself 
 under Ldrambert. He was scarcely twenty-seven years of age when 
 he was chosen by the Cardinal de Fiirstenberg to decorate hh palace 
 at Saverne in Alsace, in which he was occupied for four years. After 
 the completion of these works he returned to Paris with a reputation 
 equal to that of any of his Parisian contemporaries, and he was elected 
 a member of the Academy in 1C76. He made two bronze statues of 
 Louis XIV., one for the court of the Hotel de Ville, and the other, a 
 colossal equestrian statue, for the States of Bretagne. Among his 
 most celebrated works arc the two winged horses, in marble, mounted 
 by 'Fame' and 'Mercury,' placed one on each side of the entrance to 
 the garden of the Tuileiies from the Place de la Concorde ; they were 
 originally in the garden of Marly : the marble is most elaborately 
 worked, but they show considerable manner. The horse of 'Mercury' 
 has a bridle, and that of 'Fame' is without one, a conceit which is 
 said to have much pleased Napoleon. In the garden of the Tuileries 
 there are also a young fawn, a flute-player, and two other figures, by 
 Coysevox. He made also for tho garden of Marly the groups of 
 'Neptune' and ' Amphitrite,' for Chantilly the marble statue of the 
 great ' Condd,' and many works for Versailles, including two personifi- 
 cations in bronze of the rivers Dordogne and Garonne. Some also of 
 the finest sepulchral monuments in Paris are by Coyscvox, those of— 
 Cardinal Mazarin at Quatre Nations, Prince Ferdinand de Fiirsten- 
 berg at St.-Germain-des-Pres, Mansard at St. Paul ; and the most 
 elaborate of all, that of Colbert at St. Eustache. Coysevox was also 
 an eminent sculptor of busts. When he died, in 1720, he was chan- 
 cellor of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. (De Foutenai, 
 Diclionnaire des Artistes, dec; D'Argenville, Vies des fameux Architectet 
 el Sculptcurs ; Galiguaui, History of Paris.) 
 
 CRABBE, GEORGE, was born at Aldborough, in Suffolk, on the 
 24th of December 1754. His parents were in an humble condition of 
 life, the father being a warehouse-keeper, and collector of the salt- 
 duties, or saltmaster, at Aldborough. The future poet showed, at a 
 very early age, a taste for reading, and a delight in everything that 
 bore the shape of poetry ; and his father was thus led to give him an 
 education better than he could well afford. It was determine 1 that 
 he should follow the profession of a surgeon; and having made some 
 progress iu mathematics at school, and also, as his sou expresses it, 
 "laid the foundations of a fair classical education," he was in his 
 fourteenth year apprenticed to a surgeon at Wickham Brook near 
 Bury St. Edmunds. He stayed with this surgeon three years, and, 
 not having been well treated, was, in 1771, transferred to another at 
 Woodbridge in Suffolk, with whom he finished his apprenticeship. 
 His father had been in the habit of taking in a periodical, called 
 ' Martin's Philosophical Magazine,' the last sheet of which was always 
 devoted to " occasional poetry ; " and when, at the end of the year, he 
 sent the magazines to be bound, these sheets of poetry were con- 
 tumeliously cut out, and became the property of George. He read 
 them over and over again, and when yet very young tried to write 
 pieces of poetry himself. Neither school nor surgery deprived him of 
 the taste formed thus early. While at Wickham Brook he filled a 
 drawer with verses, and at Woodbridge, having written a poem on 
 Hope for a prize offered in ' Wheble's Lady's Magazine,' and having 
 been successful, he was induced to go on contributing to the publi- 
 cation in which he had gained his first laurels, and before his return 
 home published iu a separate form, but anonymously, a poem entitled 
 ' Inebriety.' 
 
 He returned home at the close of 1775, and had now for a time to 
 submit to the drudgery of the warehouse, until his father could afford 
 to send him to London in order to complete his medical education. 
 When at last he went, it was with means too scanty to allow of his 
 gaining any real advantage ; and he returned before a year had 
 expired, but not till his resources, though carefully husbanded, had 
 been exhausted. Shortly after, he was encouraged by his friends to 
 set up as a surgeon and apothecary. He had never, it .appears, liked _ 
 his profession, though, impelled by a sense of duty, he had made 
 more than one effort to apply himself to it with diligence. His pre- 
 paration for the duties which he was now liable to be called upon 
 to perform had been inadequate ; and added therefore to dislike of 
 those duties was uneasiness under the responsibility which attached to 
 him. He was in love, and the object of his attachment (we quote his 
 son's words) " too prudent to marry, where there seemed to be no 
 chance of a competent livelihood ; and he, instead of being in a 
 position to maintain a family, could hardly, by labour which he 
 abhorred, earn daily bread for himself. He was proud too ; and, 
 though conscious that he had not deserved success iu his profession, 
 he was also conscious of possessing no ordinary abilities, and brooded 
 with deep mortification on his failure." After a short struggle with 
 himself, he resolved to abandon his profession, and proceed to London 
 as a literary adventurer. Being without money, he wrote to Mr. 
 Dudley North, whose brother, Mr. Charles LoDg, had been a can- 
 didate for Aldborough, requesting the loan of five pounds. " A very 
 extraordinary letter it was," said Mr. North some years afterwards t« 
 
m CRABBE, GEORGE. 
 
 Crabbe, wheu they met on terms of equality ; " I did not hesitate for 
 a moment." Thus provided with money ho embarked on board a 
 sloop at Aldborough, and, working his way, arrived in London in 
 April 1780. 
 
 He took lodgings near the Exchange, and set about authorship with 
 vigour. He projected the publication of a prose work, entitled ' A 
 Plau for the Examination of our Moral and Religious Opinions ;' but 
 thought it expedient, before publishing this, to make himself known 
 by a poem. Two poems, prepared with this view, were rejected by 
 the booksellers to whom they were offered. He now published, on 
 his own account, a poem entitled ' The Candidate ;' but almost imme- 
 diately after it appeared the publisher failed, and all hopes of profit 
 from this attempt were thus taken away. His stock of money mean- 
 while had gradually disappeared, and he was reduced to great distress. 
 He had been advised at Aldborough to apply for assistance to Lord 
 North : he did so, and received none. He then applied to Lord 
 Shelburne and Lord Thurlow, inclosing some of his poems to both ; 
 but these applications were equally unsuccessful with the former. At 
 last, and not till after he had been threatened with arrest, he bethought 
 himself of Burke. The letter which he addressed to Burke is a beautiful 
 piece of writing, simple, dignified, and pathetic. " The night after I 
 delivered my letter at his door," he told Mr. Lockhart some years after, 
 " I was in such a state of agitation, that I walked Westminster bridge 
 backwards and forwards until daylight." Burke immediately appointed 
 a time at which he would see Crabbe ; he received him with great 
 kindness, and encouraged him to show him all his compositions. 
 Having selected the ' Library ' and the ' Village,' and having suggested 
 in them many alterations which Crabbe assented to, he took these 
 poems himself to Mr. Dodsley. The ' Library ' was in consequence 
 published in 1781. But Burke's attention did not stop here. He 
 assisted him with money, and gave him a room at Beaconsfield, where 
 he was treated in every way as one of the family ; he introduced him 
 to Fox, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Lord Thurlow, and other distinguished 
 friends ; and having advised Crabbe to think of entering the church, 
 towards which he found him by no means disinclined, he exerted all 
 his influence to get him ordained. His conduct towards Crabbe is 
 indeed a brilliant chapter in the history of Burke. 
 
 Crabbe was admitted to deacon's orders in December 1781 by Dr. 
 Yonge, bishop of Norwich, and was ordained a priest in August of the 
 year following. He commenced his clerical life as curate of his native 
 town. Shortly after he obtained, through Burke's influence, the 
 situation of domestic chaplain to the Duke of Rutland, and resided in 
 consequence at Belvoir Castle. The ' Village ' appeared in 1783, having 
 been revised by Dr. Johnson : its success was great, and Crabbe's 
 reputation was now fully established. In the same year Lord Thurlow, 
 who had taken a previous opportunity of apologising for his first 
 repulse of Crabbe, presented him with two small livings in Dorsetshire, 
 telling him, as he gave them, that " he was as like Parson Adams as 
 twelve to the dozen." Crabbe now married Miss Sarah Elmy, the 
 object of his first love. The Duke of Rutland had been in the mean- 
 time appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Crabbe did not accompany 
 him to Ireland, but apartments in Belvoir Castle were assigned to the 
 young married couple. In 1785 Crabbe took the neighbouring curacy 
 of Strathern, and removed from the castle to the parsonage of that 
 parish. 
 
 Crabbe published the ' Newspaper ' in 1785. He did not come 
 forward again as an author until 1807, when after an interval of 
 twenty-two years appeared the ' Parish Register.' He resided in the 
 meanwhile successively at Strathern, at Muston in Leicestershire 
 (Lord Thurlow having in 1789, at the Duchess of Rutland's earnest 
 request, exchanged his two small livings in Dorsetshire for those of 
 Muston and Allington, both situated in the Vale of Belvoir) ; from 
 1792 to 1796 at Parham in Suffolk, taking charge of the neighbouring 
 curacies of Sweffling and Great Glemham; then in Great Glemham 
 Hall, a house belonging to Mr. Dudley North, his early benefactor ; 
 until at last, in 1805, he returned to his rectory at Muston. Though 
 during this long period Crabbe published no poetry, he was not idle. 
 He studied botany, which had always been a favourite pursuit, with 
 great ardour ; and wrote an essay on botany in English, which he was 
 on the point of publishing when, yielding to the remonstrances of a 
 vice-master of Trinity College, Cambridge, against degrading the science 
 by treating it in a modern tongue, he consigned his manuscript to the 
 flames. He also pursued entomology and geology. He taught himself 
 French and Italian, and superintended the education of his sons. He 
 was also, according to his son's account, continually writing; and 
 among his compositions during this period were three novels, which, 
 upon his wife's suggesting that the tales would have been better in 
 verse, he consigned to the same fate with the essay on botany. 
 
 Together with 'Tho Parish Register' there appeared, in 1807, 'Sir 
 Eustace Grey ' and other smaller pieces, and a reprint of his earlier 
 poems; the object of the publication being to enable him to send his 
 second son to Cambridge. Three years after ho published ' The 
 Borough.' In 1813 he sustained a heavy affliction in the loss of his 
 wife ; and it was a fortunate circumstance, at a time when every scene 
 at Muston would excite a painful remembrance, that the Duke of 
 Rutland, the son of his former patron, gave him the living of Trow- 
 bridge in Wiltshire. Tho incumbency of Croxton near Belvoir was 
 •dded shortly after. 
 
 CRAIG, JOHN. 4H» 
 
 The remainder of Crabbe's days were, with the exception of occa- 
 sional visits to his friends in London and elsewhere, passed at Trow- 
 bridge, where his conscientious discharge of his duties and his amiable 
 character gained for him tho love of all his parishioners. When iu 
 London he was much courted by those among the great who are 
 studious to derive distinction from tho patronage of literary men : 
 and he made the acquaintance of most of those who, during his 
 retirement, had earned for themselves fame in his own vocation — ■ 
 Rogers, Moore, Campbell, Wordsworth, Southey, and Sir Walter Scott. 
 His 'Tales of the Hall' were published in 1819 by Mr. Murray, who 
 gave him 3000?. for them and the remaining copyright of his previous 
 poems. In the autumn of 1822 he visited Sir Walter Scott at Ediu- 
 burgh. From 1828 there was a perceptible change iu his health, and 
 though his mind retained its wonted cheerfulness, his strength of 
 body gradually declined. He died on the 3rd of February 1832, ia 
 his seventy-eighth year. The shops in Trowbridge were closed as soon 
 as his death was known, and again on the day of his funeral ; and a 
 subscription was immediately set on foot among his parishioners for a 
 monument to their departed rector, which has since been placed in 
 Trowbridge church. 
 
 The moral character of Crabbe is an almost perfect model. Its 
 greatest fault was an excess of gentleness. Rising from a very low 
 situation in life, he came to associate much with those whom the 
 world sets up for worship ; but, under circumstances whose corrupting 
 influence few have withstood, he never lost that habit of self-dependence 
 without which there is neither dignity nor happiness. Joined with 
 an indifference to factitious distinctions, was an absence of all pride 
 occasioned by his own intellectual eminence. He was meek, observant 
 of merit in others, and eager to impart to those who were, as he had 
 been, distressed, a share of the advantages which his own good fortune 
 had procured for him. As a husband, father, and friend, he was 
 without reproach. His son's account of the manner in which his days 
 were pissed at the parsonage presents a delightful picture of domestic 
 happiness. 
 
 The distinguishing excellences of Crabbe's poetry are simplicity, 
 pathos, force, and truth in describing character. He has said himself 
 that all his characters were taken from persons whom he had seen and 
 known. Observing these closely, and specifying each trait and minute 
 circumstance, he presents his readers with representations not of 
 classes of men, but of individuals. It is the minute accuracy of these 
 representations that constitutes their charm. Who cau forget Isaac 
 Ashford? The celebrated descriptions of the parish workhouse, and 
 of the " disputatious crew " of thieves and smugglers in ' The Parish 
 Register,' show the same faculty of minute observation, and have the 
 same charm of faithful delineation. There are also in his poems some 
 good descriptions of natural scenery, for instance, at the commence- 
 ment of 'The Village;' but then it is only scenery of the sort for 
 which what Jeffrey called his " Chinese accuracy " is fitted. Crabbe 
 had little inventive power. Viewing him moreover not merely as a 
 poet whose business is to please, but as one possessing powers which 
 it is his duty to employ for the improvement of his fellow men and 
 the increase of social happiness, it may be fairly objected to him that 
 he has seldom gone beyond the representation of existing evil, or 
 taught how the poor, of whom he is emphatically called the poet, 
 may be made wiser, and better, and happier. 
 
 An edition of Crabbe's poems in 8 vols, was published by Murray 
 in 1834. The eighth volume consists of a collection of tales in verse, 
 then published for the first time, which will not add much to the 
 author's reputation. The ' Life ' by his son, the Rev. George Crabbe, 
 a very pleasing piece of filial biography, occupies the first volume. 
 
 CRABTREE, WILLIAM. [See Horkox, Jeremiah, as very nearly 
 all that is known of Crabtree arises from the correspondence of the 
 two.] 
 
 CRAIG, JOHN, born in 1511, was educated at St. Andrews, Scot- 
 land, and then became a tutor in England to the children of Lord 
 Dacre. Returning to his native country when the two kingdoms were 
 involved in war, he entered the Domiuican order, but was shortly 
 afterwards imprisoned on a suspicion of heresy. On regaining his 
 liberty, he went into England again, thence to France, and finally to 
 Rome, where his talents recommended him to the notice of Cardinal 
 Pole, under whose direction he entered the Dominican order at 
 Bologna. Here he became entrusted with the education of the novices, 
 and was also employed in various ecclesiastic missions throughout the 
 continent; and for his important services was rewarded by the appoint- 
 ment of rector to one of the schools of the order. Having afterwards 
 become a convert to the opinions of Calvin, he was seized, and accused 
 of heresy, then sent to Rome, where, after an imprisonment of nine 
 months, he was summoned to stand his trial before the court of 
 Inquisition. Here he made a bold confession of his faith, and, being 
 accordingly convicted, was condemned to be burnt. 
 
 It happened however that on the night previous to the day on 
 which this sentence was to be put iu execution, the pope died, and 
 the populace rejoicing to be free from his yoke, rose in a tumultuous 
 manner, and broke open the prisons. Craig came forth from his cell, 
 and fled to Vienna, whence, after remaining there a short time, he was 
 dismissed by the emperor with letters of safe-conduct, under the pro- 
 tection of which he passed through Germany into England, and thenca 
 to Scotland, where he arrived soon after the establishment of t<w 
 
419 
 
 CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE. 
 
 Reformation, lie preached for a short time in Latin to the learned in 
 St. Magdalen's chapel, when, having recovered his native language, he 
 was appointed minister of Holyrood House, and became a principal 
 coadjutor of Knox, the great Scottish reformer, in the work of refor- 
 mation. He was afterwards appointed minister of Montrose, and in 1574 
 minister of Aberdeen, in which capacity he was chosen Moderator of | 
 the General Assembly of the church of Scotland, which met in October j 
 1576. The following year he was removed to Edinburgh; and in 
 1579 was associated with the learned John Duncanson as minister 
 to the royal household. 
 
 Craig drew up the National Covenant in the year 1580; he was 
 also the author of two theological works ; the one an answer to an 
 attack on the Confession of Faith, the other a form of examination 
 entitled ' Craig's Catechism,' which was appointed by the General 
 Assembly to be used in schools and families in place of the ' Little 
 Catechism.' He died at Edinburgh on the 12th of December 1600, 
 at the advanced age of 89 ; but for some years before had performed 
 no public duty. 
 
 (M'Crie, Melville; Tytler, Life of Sir Thomas Craig.) 
 
 CRAIG, JOHN. The dates of his birth and death are unknown; 
 but he was alive in the interval 1685-1718. He was a Scotchman by 
 birth, and was rector of Gillingham, in Dorsetshire. He deserves 
 remembrance as one of those who were active in developing the 
 principles of the theory of fluxions after its appearance. His writings 
 are partly in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' and partly publish id 
 separately. The latter are, 'De Caleulo Fluentium,' London, 1718, 
 with two books, ' De Optica Analytica.' 'De Figurarum, &c, Quadra- 
 turis,' London, 1693. There had previously, in 1685, appeared a 
 tract on the same subject. ' Theologioo Christiana) Principia Mathe- 
 matica,' London, 1699, a very silly attempt to apply numerical reason- 
 ing to historical evidence. He concludes from a formula that the 
 evidences of Christianity will be extinct by lapse of time in 1454 years 
 from 1696, or a.d. 3150, at which date he therefore places the commence- 
 ment of the Millenium. Craig is called by some continental writers 
 the introducer of the Leibnitz' theory of fluxions into England. 
 
 CRAIG, SIR THOMAS, of Riccartou, was, according to Baillie's 
 biographical notice of him prefixed to the last edition of his celebrated 
 treatise on the ' Feudal Law,' the son of Mr. Robert Craig, merchant 
 in Edinburgh, and born about the year 1548 ; but this is plainly a 
 mistake, for in 1552 he was sent to the university of St. Andrews, and 
 entered as a student of St. Leonard's College. He remained at St. 
 Leonard's only till he proceeded Bachelor of Arts, when he went to 
 France to prosecute his studies in the University of Paris. On his 
 return to Scotland, about 1501, the Reformation had just been accom- 
 plished there ; and under the care of his distinguished relative, the 
 Rev. Dr. John Craig, then minister of Holyrood House, the religious 
 views of young Craig were changed ; and, devoting himself entirely to 
 study, he left nearly all his youthful contemporaries in literature far 
 behind him. He passed advocate in the Court of Session at Edinburgh 
 on the 2nd of February 1563, and in July of that year we find him 
 justice depute to Archibald, fifth earl of Argyll, hereditary lord 
 justiciar of Scotland (' Abstract Books of Adjournal, MS. Adv. Libr.'), 
 an ardent friend of the Reformation. In May 1564 he had a grant 
 from the crown of the escheat of Alexander Innes of Crombie, and in 
 the following January another grant from the crown of the unlaws or 
 amerciaments of any six persons he might choose among those unlawed 
 in the justice courts, and this so long as he should enjoy the office 
 of justice depute. In October of the following year the grant was 
 extended for his life. His first appearance as an author was on occasion 
 of the queen's marriage with her cousin Darnley, for which he com- 
 posed an epithalamium, or marriage-song. The piece, which is not to 
 be found among Craig's poems in the ' Delitise Poetarum Scotorum,' 
 was only discovered a few years back. 
 
 In his office of justice depute Craig appears to have been particularly 
 zealous. On the 18th of December he had a grant from the crown of 
 the escheat of Alexander Dunning of Westercrieff, and the week 
 following a grant of the escheat of James Johnston in Middlegill and 
 others. In looking at these grants of escheat, we must bear in mind 
 that in those times the judges were commonly paid out of the issues 
 of their court, and it is probable that Craig had then no other source 
 of remuneration. In 1574 however, when he was promoted in his 
 profession, he received from the lord treasurer 120Z., being his fee as 
 justice depute for three years from Whit-Sunday 1571, at the rate of 
 401, a year, which was an allowance equal to that then paid to the 
 lord advocate. Craig presided in the court of justiciary held in April 
 1566, where Thomas Scot, the sheriff depute of Perth under Lord 
 Ruthven, the hereditary sheriff, and Henry Yaire, a priest, servant to 
 the Lord Ruthven, were adjudged to be hanged and quartered, and 
 their heads set upon the turret of the buildings adjoiuing the royal 
 palace, on the charge of having been accomplices in the murder of 
 Rizzio, who was openly assassinated in the queen's presence by the 
 Lord Ruthven, the Lord Chancellor Morton, and others, at the head 
 of whom was Darnley himself. On the 19th of June following, the 
 queen was delivered of a son, and Craig again appeared as a court-bard, 
 hailing the birth of the young prince in a ' Genethliacum in Jacobi 
 Principia Scotorum.' He seems soon afterwards to have married Helen 
 Hciiot, daughter of the influential laird of Traborun, in the county of 
 Haddington; and in 1569 his eldest sou Lewis was born. 
 
 Craig continued in the office of justice depute till the end of the 
 year 1573, when he was appointed sheriff depute of Edinburgli under 
 the Earl of Morton above mentioned, tho hereditary sheriff; and 
 Craig's younger brother Robert was made justice depute in his room. 
 From the beginning of the year 1576 Craig was in the courts as a 
 practising counsel down to the beginning of the year 1581. Morton 
 was that year committed to Dumbarton Castle for his supposed concern 
 in the murder of Darnley, and the same year Craig was ordered to 
 enter his person in ward in the same castle of Dumbarton. Craig at 
 last obtained his liberty, but was not replaced in the office of sheriff 
 depute. In April of the above year 1576 Craig got a crown charter 
 of the estate of Craigfintray, in the county of Aberdeen, to himself and 
 his heirs male. In April 1588 ho obtained a crown charter of the 
 lands of St. Lawrence Houses, in the county of Haddington, to himself 
 and Helen Heriot, his wife ; and from about that time forward wo find 
 him again in practice at the bar. He resumed also his poetic pen, 
 and wrote some commendatory lines to Jacks Onomastichon, published 
 in 1592. 
 
 It was probably about this time that Craig contemplated his great 
 work on the feudal law. Such a work was in a manner new to the law 
 literature of Scotland. But Craig narrowed his powerful mind, its 
 fancy and genius, and all its accumulated stores of learning and 
 experience, to a temporary object ; and to adopt the sentiment if not 
 the language of one who had weighed his merits, instead of seizing the 
 precious opportunity he enjoyed of presenting to his country a just 
 system of her national jurisprudence, he not only passed by the 
 evidences of her common law which lay beside him, but endeavoured 
 to sink them into oblivion in favour of the civil and feudal laws, 
 (Ross's 'Lectures,' vol. ii. pp. 9, 10.) He had scarcely risen from his 
 learned labours however when he found that Elizabeth was on the eve 
 of her demise, and that various intrigues were carrying on and cabals 
 formed to secure her crown, with a view to the king's succession, to 
 which his treatise on 'Feuds' was composed. On the 1st of January 
 1603 therefore, he dedicated to the king a treatise on the ' Succession 
 to the Throne of England,' which he had written in confutation of 
 the jesuit Parsons' 'Conference on the Disputed Succession,' wherein 
 the right of the people to choose their king was boldly reasoned, and 
 the crown indirectly claimed for the Infanta of Spain. But in less 
 than three months after, the queen repeated on her death-bed her 
 former declaration that her cousin the king of Scots should be her 
 successor. James accordingly ascended the throne of England without 
 dispute, and Craig's reply to Dolemau was never printed. 
 
 On the king's departure for England with his family, Craig wrote a 
 ' Parameticon ' of congratulation, and on the same occasion a ' Pro- 
 pempticon,' or farewell poem, to the young prince Henry. The same 
 year he composed bis ' Stephanaphoria,' in honour of the king's 
 coronation ; of which ceremonial Craig seems to have been a witness, 
 having in all likelihood accompanied the royal party into England; 
 and previous to his return home he addressed to the king a short 
 poem, in which he took a solemn farewell of his majesty, and at the 
 same time of the Muses. 
 
 Soon after his return Craig was appointed one of the commissioners 
 nominated by the parliament to meet with commissioners from England 
 and treat of a union between the two kingdoms, and thereupon in the 
 summer of 1605 he wrote his treatise on the union. About the same 
 time he wrote his treatise on homage, to vindicate Scotland from the 
 charge of feudal dependence on the crown of England, brought against 
 it in the chronicles of Hollinshed. Neither of these work3 was ever 
 published. In the year 1606 Craig held the office of advocate for the 
 Church of Scotland, and some time before his death, as he would not 
 formally accept the honour of knighthood, the king commanded that 
 he should be everywhere saluted by the style accorded to that honour. 
 He died on the 26th of February 1608, when he had been upwards of 
 forty-five years at the bar, and probably therefore when ha was not 
 much short of seventy-five years of age. 
 
 CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE, was born in Fifeshire in 1799, the 
 son of a schoolmaster. At the university of St. Andrews he went 
 through the usual course of a divinity student, but he did not take 
 licence as a preacher. He had contracted an early taste for lite- 
 rature, and after giving some lectures on poetry in Scotland he came 
 to London in 1824. For a short time, among other things, he was 
 connected with the ' Verulam,' a weekly literary and scientific news- 
 paper, started under high patronage, but which had a very short 
 existence. Soon after the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- 
 ledge commenced its operations, Mr. Craik wrote the ' Pursuit of 
 Knowledge under Difficulties,' forming two volumes of the series of 
 ' Entertaining Knowledge ' edited and published by Mr. C. Knight. 
 These volumes appeared in 1831, and though issued without his name, 
 established a reputation for Mr. Craik as a writer of extensive and 
 varied acquirements. Mr. Craik, from the commencement to the close 
 of the ' Penny Cyclopaedia,' was one of the most valuable contributors 
 in history and biography. In 1839 Mr. Craik became the editor of the 
 ' Pictorial History of England,' and he principally wrote the chapters 
 on Religion, Constitution, Government, and Laws, National Industry, 
 and Literature. Some of these chapters were subsequently formed, 
 with additions, into separate works; namely, ' Sketches of the History 
 of Literature and Learning in England from the Norman Conquest to 
 the Present Time/ in 6 vols ; and a ' History of British Commerce from 
 
CRAMER, GABRIEL. 
 
 CRANMER, THOMAS. 
 
 422 
 
 the Earliest Times,' in 3 vols. These appeared in 1844 in the series 
 of ' Knight's Weekly Volume as did also 'Spenser and his Poetry,' 
 ia 3 vols., in 1845 ; and 'Bacon, his Writings and his Philosophy,' in 
 1846. In the same series, in 1847, he issued a concluding volume of 
 the 'Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties,' containing female 
 examples only. In 1849 Mr. Craik was appointed professor of history 
 and English literature in Queen's College, Belfast, where he has ever 
 rince resided. Besides the works mentioned above, he i3 the author 
 of the 'Romance of the Peerage,' in 4 vols., 1849-52; and 'Outlines 
 of the History of the English Lauguage,' 1855. The above are his 
 principal literary labours, but he has also contributed largely to some 
 of the reviews and other periodical works. Scrupulous accuracy, 
 unwearied research, and sound criticism, united with an ardent desire 
 for the safe and gradual advance of all that may practically improve 
 the condition of society, are the leading characteristics of Mr. Craik's 
 writings. Few have laboured more earnestly in the cause of general 
 education. [See Supplement.] 
 
 CRAMER, GABRIEL, born 1704 at Geneva; died 1752 at 
 Bagnols. He was professor of philosophy at Geneva, and author of a 
 large number of works, for a list of which the ' Biog. Univ.' refers to 
 Senebier, ' Hist. Litt. de Geneve.' We have here only to mention him 
 as the editor of the works of John and James Bernoulli, of the corre- 
 spondence of the former with Leibnitz, and to notice his ' Analyse des 
 Lignes Courbes Algebriques,' Geneva, 1750. This work is the largest 
 collection of examples which exists, and is of permanent utility to 
 elementary writers. So far as expressions entirely algebraical (as 
 distinguished from transcendental) are concerned, it is a complete 
 treatise on the elementary theory of curves. 
 
 CRANACH, LUCAS, one of the most celebrated of the old German 
 painters, was born at Cranach, near Bamberg, in 1472. According to 
 a prevailing custom of the time, he was called after the place of his 
 birtb, sometimes also Meister Lucas, and Lucas Mahler, or Luke the 
 Painter, from which appears to have originated the false name of Lucas 
 Miiller; his family name was Suuder. 
 
 He was apparently instructed by his father, and in his twenty-third 
 year (1495) was appointed court-painter to the Elector of Saxony ; he 
 served in this capacity the electors Frederic the Wise, John the 
 Constant, and John Frederic the Magnanimous. In consequence of 
 this appointment, Cranach settled in Wittenberg, the residence of 
 Frederic the Wise, lived there forty-six years, and earned wealth and 
 reputation in abundance ; he was owner of several houses there, and 
 was for many years burgomaster of the place. In 1493 he accom- 
 panied the elector Frederic the Wise to Palestine to the Holy Sepul- 
 Jhre, and made drawings of all that was remarkable and interesting 
 there. For this elector Cranach painted a series of portraits of his 
 ancestors. Cranach was particularly attached to the elector John 
 Frederic, and when that prince was taken prisoner by Charles V., after 
 the battle of Muhlberg, in 1547, he interceded with the emperor in 
 hia behalf, though to little purpose. Charles was well disposed 
 towards Cranach, and requested him to accompany him to the Nether- 
 lands. He had a portrait of himself as a boy, by Cranach, at Mechlin, 
 and he asked the painter when it was painted ; Cranach informed him 
 when he was eight years old, and that to attract his attention so as 
 to enable him to paint the portrait, a beautifully painted arrow was 
 stuck in the wall opposite to where the emperor sat. The narration 
 pleased the emperor, and he dismissed him with a present of a Bilver 
 plate of Hungarian ducats, of which however Cranach took very few ; 
 and he persisted in his refusal to accompany the emperor to the 
 Netherlands. He would not leave his prince the elector John 
 Frederic, with whom he shared his five years' imprisonment at Inns- 
 bruck, and upon his release in 1552 his eldest son and Cranach were 
 his only companions on his return home. Cranach retired to Weimar, 
 
 ! and died there October 16, 1553, which was the eighty-first of his 
 age, according to the inscription to his memory in the church of 
 
 I St. Jakob. 
 
 Cranach was acquainted with many of the principal men of his time 
 and country : he and Luther were intimate friends, and he is said to 
 have brought about the marriage of Luther and Catherine Bora. He 
 appears to have painted Luther's portrait many times, nearly all of 
 which have been engraved, some of them by several engravers. He 
 was acquainted with Melancthon and Bugenhagen. Cranach had 
 ■ several sons and daughters : Johann, the eldest, studied painting in 
 Italy, and died young at Bologna in 1536; another son, Lucas Cranacli 
 I the younger, was born in 1515, and died in 1586 as burgomaster of 
 Wittenberg, and with the reputation of a distinguished painter. After 
 Cranach' s death a medal was struck at Wittenberg to his honour, with 
 his portrait on one side, and the arms granted to him by Frederic the 
 Wise in 1508, consisting in a crowned winged serpent upon a gold 
 ground, on the other. 
 
 The principal works of Cranach were executed between 1506 and 
 1540, and they are nearly all still in Germany, especially in Upper 
 Saxony. In the Dresden Gallery there are twelve, in that of Vienna 
 fourteen, at Munich eight, and at Berlin there are twenty-three 
 attributed to him, but they are mostly of small dimensions. His 
 masterpieces are his altarpieces in various Saxon churches, and one of 
 the principal of these is the large mystical representation of the 
 'Crucifixion' in the church of Weimar. It is painted on a large 
 panel, with folding wings, which are painted on both sides. The 
 
 composition is scarcely intelligible, and is selected without taste ; it 
 contains portraits of John Frederic and his family, and of Granaob. 
 and Luther, which are the best figures in it ; it is executed with all 
 the laborious care and exaetnoss of the best German painters of that 
 period. Cranach was inferior to Albert Diirer alone in his best period, 
 and Diirer's superiority is confined to design and composition. A 
 description of this altarpiece — more remarkable for its execution, swe, 
 and singularity, than any other qualities — was published with en- 
 gravings by H. Meyer, at Weimar, in 1813. 
 
 In colour, and in all respects except elegance of design, unity of 
 effect, and composition, in which he was wholly deficient, Cranach was 
 one of the most distinguished painters tif his time ; and in execution 
 he was one of the most laborious artists that have ever lived. He 
 was a good portrait painter, an excellent animal painter, and also a 
 good miniature painter and illuminator of manuscripts. There aro 
 several manuscript volumes containing drawings in miniature by 
 Cranach in the library of the University of Jena. Cramch is said to 
 have also engraved both in copper and wood, and many works are 
 attributed to him, but with very little certainty ; there are however 
 many prints in both styles after his works, but few of them probably 
 were executed by himself. 
 
 There are many German notices of Cranach, more or less detailed, 
 early and recent, and there are at least three distinct lives of him : 
 the first was written by Professor Christ, and published in the ' Acta 
 erudita et curiosa de Frauconia,' Nurnberg, 1726 ; a second was pub- 
 lished in 1761, at Hamburg, by C. E. Reimer, • Historisch-critische 
 Abhandlung fiber das Leben und die Werke Lucas Cranachs ; ' the 
 last is the very full life by J. Heller, ' Lucas Cranachs Lebon und 
 Werke,' Bamberg, 1821 ; and Schadow's ' Wittenbergs Denkmaler der 
 Bildnerei, Baukunst, und Malerei,' &c, Wittenberg, 1825, contains 
 descriptions and engravings of works of both the Cranachs. Con- 
 cerning the engravings and wood-cuts attributed to Cranach, see 
 Bartsch, ' Peintrc-Oraveur,' and Passavant, ' Peintre-Gravcur.' 
 
 CRANMER, THOMAS, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, the 
 second son of Thomas Cranmer and Agnes, daughter of Laurence 
 Hatfield, his wife, was born at Aslacton, in Nottinghamshire, on tho 
 2nd of July 1489. The respectable family from which he descended 
 had been settled in that county for some generations. His first 
 instruction was received at a village school, from which be was 
 removed by his mother, who had become a widow, and who placed 
 him, in 1503, at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow 
 in 1510-11. He applied with great diligence to the studies of the 
 university : Greek, Hebrew, and theology were the principal objects 
 of his industry. Before he was twenty-three years old Cranmer 
 married a woman of humble station but respectable character, a kins- 
 woman of the landlady of the ' Dolphin ;' and having in consequence 
 forfeited his fellowship, accepted the appointment of lecturer in Buck- 
 ingham (now called Magdalene) College. The duration of this 
 employment was very short ; for in about a year after his marriage, 
 his wife having died in childbed, by a somewhat irregular proceeding 
 he was restored to his fellowship at Jesus College. The agents of 
 Wolsey, who had founded this celebrated college at Oxford, were now 
 searching the kingdom for men of talent and learning to fill tho 
 vacant chairs in that establishment ; and Cranmer wa3 distinguished 
 by them with the flattering offer of high and lucrative employment. 
 After some hesitation, he refused the new dignities. In 1523 he took 
 the degree of D.D. During his residence in the university, he had 
 undertaken, in addition to his other duties, the oharge of educating 
 two sons of a Mr. Cressy, who was connected with him by marriage ; 
 and when the sweating sickness broke out in Cambridge (1528), retired 
 to that gentleman's house at Waltham Abbey, where he was occupied 
 with the instruction of his pupils and the prosecution of his studies. 
 This change of residence influenced the remainder of his life. By 
 order of Henry VIII., six men of learning had been chosen from each 
 university to discuss the validity of his marriage with his brother's 
 widow, Catharine of Aragon ; and Cranmer, among others, was selected. 
 His absence from Cambridge however prevented him from giving his 
 assistance to the delegates, who finally elected a substitute in his 
 place. Either accidentally or by design, Gardiner and Fox (after- 
 wards bishops of Winchester and Hereford) being in attendance upon 
 the king, who was on a journey, met Cranmer at Mr. Cressy's table, 
 and inquired anxiously the opinion of so distinguished a man upon 
 the all-absorbiug matrimonial question. He replied, that although he 
 had not given much consideration to the question, he thought the 
 course to be followed appeared to be sufficiently simple. The case 
 should be determined by reference to the Bible — should be settled by 
 divines, the most proper persons to determine it, and by those of the 
 English universities, who were as well fitted to entertain it as those of 
 Rome or any foreign country. The report of this judgment, which 
 was not wholly new, gave great satisfaction to the king, who imme- 
 diately sent a messenger to require his attendance at the palace. 
 Unwilling to forsake a life of study and retirement, Cranmer endea- 
 voured to excuse himself from attending at court. His excuses how- 
 ever did not avail ; and the reluctant adviser having been graciously 
 received, was commanded to reduce his opinion to writing, and 
 consigned to the hospitality of Lord Wiltshire, the father of Anne 
 Boleyn. The opinion was soon written. It asserted that the marriage 
 of Henry with bis brother's widow was condemned by the authority 
 
CRANMER, THOMAS. 
 
 of the Scriptures, the councils, and the fathers ; and that the pope 
 had no power to give a dispensation for that which was contrary to 
 the word of God. Cranruer having professed his willingness to 
 maintain these positions in the presence of the pope, was acquainted 
 witli the king's intention immediately to send him to Rome. Pains 
 were taken to make this judgment known. Cranmer himself dis- 
 puted upon it at Cambridge, and brought several over to his opinion. 
 He then returned to his attendance upon the court ; and having been 
 appointed chaplain to the king, and presented to a benefice and the 
 nrchdeaconry of Taunton, joined the others who were associated with 
 him in the embassy, and travelled to Rome about the close of 1529. 
 
 The ambassadors, finding all arguments unavailing to persuade 
 Clement to favour the divorce, quickly returned to England. Cran- 
 mer alone remained in. Italy. At length even his patience was 
 exhausted by continued refusals to allow him to maintain in public 
 the judgments of the Euglish and foreign universities, which were 
 for the most part favourable to the king's cause. The pope con- 
 ferred on him, for the sake of conciliation, the empty title of ' Supreme 
 Penitentiary,' and soon afterwards gladly saw him turn his back upon 
 Italy (1530). In prosecution of the same business, Cranmer now 
 went to Fiance, and also to the Emperor of Germany — an expedition 
 which, although it produced no decisive public result, led to an event 
 of great private consequence to himself. Regardless of the Romish 
 injunction for clerical celibacy, during this residence abroad he married 
 (1532) a second time ; the object of his choice being the niece of his 
 friend Osiauder, the pastor of Nuremburg. This imprudent act, whicli 
 he could not avow, exposed him eventually to many unworthy evasions. 
 It was not long after they were united, before Cranmer received news 
 of Archbishop YVarham's death (August 1532), and of Henry's intention 
 to raise him to the see of Canterbury. He suffered four months to 
 elapse, in the hope that the king might change his mind, and then 
 unwillingly accepted this promotion, which the necessary oaths respect- 
 ing celibacy and obedience to the pope rendered unacceptable : he 
 was consecrated on the 30th of March 1533, making a public protesta- 
 tion, at the time when he swore submission to the pope, " That he 
 did not intend by this oath to restrain himself from anything that he 
 was hound to either by his duty to God, or the king, or the country." 
 "By this," says Burnet (' Hist. Reformation,' vol. i.), "if he did not 
 wholly save his integrity, yet it was plain he intended no cheat, but 
 to act fairly and above-board." Afraid of a rupture with England, 
 the pope accepted less than the usual fee. 
 
 Cranmer, soon after his appointment, discussed the king's cause in 
 convocation ; and having travelled to Dunstable, to which town the 
 commission adjourned in order to be near Queen Catharine's residence 
 at Ampthill, he there (23rd of May 1533) declared the marriage null 
 and void. Five days afterwards he publicly married the king to Anne 
 Boleyn, a private marriage having taken place in the January previous. 
 He also officiated at their coronation on the 1st of June, and stood 
 sponsor to the Princess Elizabeth, who was born in the following 
 September. The business of his office and parliamentary duty now 
 occupied his time. With his assistance were passed several statutes, 
 by which the power of the pope in England was materially diminished ; 
 the convocation and universities assented to these statutes, pronouncing 
 that " the bishop of Rome has not any greater jurisdiction conferred 
 on him in this realm of England than any other foreign bishop." 
 
 In 1534, when Sir Thomas More and Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 
 refused the oath of supremacy, Cranmer's best endeavours were used 
 in vain, first to overcome the scruples of the recusants, and after- 
 wards to dissuade the king from executing the sentence that had 
 been pronounced upon them. In this year, with the consent of the 
 convocation, he set on foot a translation of the Bible, by dividing 
 Tyndale's version of the New Testament into nine or ten parts, which 
 he required the most learned bishops to revise ; the translation was 
 completed and ultimately printed at Paris. In 1535 Cranmer assisted 
 in the correction of a second edition of the ' King's Primer,' a book 
 containing doctrines bordering upon Protestantism, of which it has 
 been asserted that the archbishop was originally the compiler. His 
 continual Btudy of the Bible, and the notes that he had collected 
 upon all heads of religion, both from places in scripture, and ancient 
 fathers and doctors, fitted him most fully for the undertaking. In 
 August he wrote a curious letter (Strype) to the king, respecting the 
 publication of his supremacy by the clergy, and urged him to the 
 suppression of the monasteries, which he considered inconsistent with 
 true and full reformation. Cromwell was now raised by the king to 
 be head of his ecclesiastical affairs, under the title of Vicar-general, 
 and Cranmer consecrated Latimer and Shaxton to the sees of Worcester 
 and Salisbury. In 1536 died Catharine the divorced queen ; and 
 Henry being now tired and jealous of Anne Boleyn, soon got rid of 
 her. Cranmer was forbidden the court, lest his presence might impede 
 the proceedings against the queen, from whom he received uniform 
 kindness. In virtue of his office he pronounced her marriage void 
 (1536), and on the day after her execution the king was united to 
 Jane Seymour. In June the archbishop opened the convocation, 
 where Cromwell presided as vicar-general; the record of the late 
 queen's divorce was sanctioned without the opposition of Cranmer or 
 any other member. After much violent and useless discussion, the 
 synod proceeded to debate upon the sacraments. Cranmer spoke at 
 considerable length, and articles were afterwards framed by him, and 
 
 CRANMER, THOMAS. 
 
 others of the ' new learning" as the doctrines of the reformers were 
 then called, by which considerable innovations were effected. The 
 pope, who was watchful of the proceedings of England, threatened to 
 assemble a synod, for the sake of passing censures upon Henry ; in 
 anticipation of which, Cranmer and others signed a declaration that 
 the king need not obey their decisions, in case such an assembly was 
 convened. With the assistance of many eminent divines, Cranmer 
 arranged a compilation called the ' Bishop's Book,' inculcating the 
 doctrines of the reformers as expressed in the articles of the pre- 
 ceding year. The king, to whom this book was submitted, himself 
 inserted some corrections, from which the archbishop was bold enough 
 to dissent. However ill Henry's temper might have brooked such 
 contradiction from another, he bore it patiently from the archbishop, 
 who had been his most useful friend, and we find that in the October 
 of this year, when the queen gave birth to Prince Edward, the 
 primate and the Duke of Norfolk stood sponsors at his baptism. 
 
 The destruction of the greater abbeys was now rapidly proceeding; 
 and the funds which arose from them were lavished by Henry upon 
 unworthy favourites, until Cranmer, who had hoped to apply them to 
 the promotion of religion and education, remonstrated against their 
 improper application. A sum of money was obtained for the founda- 
 tion of some new bishoprics, but the king's prodigality could be 
 checked no further. In the autumn of 1538 the primate came to 
 London to meet an embassy of German Protestant divines, for whom 
 he strove to procure a conference with the English ecclesiastics. To 
 the great disappointment both of the ambassadors and the reformers, 
 the king opposed their wishes, and directed Tonstal, a bishop opposed 
 to the ' new learning,' to draw up an answer to the dissertation 
 which had been compiled by the German divines. 
 
 On the 5th of May 1538, Cranmer and others were appointed com- 
 missioners "to inquire" (Le Bas, vol. L 204) "into the debated doc- 
 trines, and to prepare such articles as would pacify the spirit of 
 controversy." At the end of eleven days the labours of the commis- 
 sioners coming to no result, the Duke of Norfolk offered six articles 
 (J3urnet, vol. i.) for the consideration of the House of Lords. Cran- 
 mer's opinion agreed only with one of these articles. Being desired 
 by the king to explain himself in writing, he composed a treatise 
 upon the case, which, with his secretary, to whom it was intrusted, 
 became the subject of a singular adventure. (Burnet, vol. i.) In 
 parliament he argued for three days with considerable learning and 
 eloquence, until the king, who favoured the articles, augrily desired 
 him not to appear again in that house until they became law. Cran- 
 mer, obedient to Henry in most points, in this respectfully resisted 
 the king's commands ; but although he continued present, he was 
 unable either to throw out the Duke of Norfolk's measure or to alter 
 the sanguinary penalties which it contained. As soon as this act was 
 passed, Latimer and Shaxton resigned their bishoprics, an example 
 which, contrary to expectation, the archbishop did not think it his 
 duty to follow. He retained his see, and lived in retirement with his 
 wife, who however was soon compelled to retreat to Germany. 
 
 In July 1540 the primate presided at the convocation which pro- 
 nounced the unjustifiable sentence of dissolution of the marriage 
 which had been solemnised between Henry and Anne of Cleves. This 
 ceremony was quickly followed by the execution of Cromwell. The 
 misconduct of Catherine Howard, whom Henry had married as 
 soon as he had put away his former queen, coming to the knowledge 
 of the archbishop, he undertook to report her profligacy to the king 
 (1541). After an investigation, the proofs of her crimes were held to 
 be conclusive : she was condemned, and after a delay of somo weeks, 
 during which time Henry, through a message, of which Cranmer wa3 
 the bearer, promised to spare her life, she was executed. 
 
 The maintenance of the ground that the Reformation had gained, 
 and the extension of it where possible, now (1542) became the sole 
 occupation of Cranmer, who had transferred to the universities the 
 task of revising a new edition of the Bible published the year before. 
 This revision it had been proposed to apportion among the bishops, 
 requiring an English version of a part from each, whatever might 
 be his opinions. This was considered a step gained, as it certainly was 
 the preferable method ; and notwithstanding the reformers did not 
 in all things prevail (for a prohibition against Tyndale's Bible was 
 secured by their opponents), they had still further success in procuring 
 an order that the scriptures should be read in English by the ministers 
 in the church service. In a minor degree Cranmer's attention was 
 occupied in reproving the excesses of luxury in which some ecclesias- 
 tical establishments as well as the bishops had indulged. 
 
 In May 1543 appeared the ' King's Book,' which was in fact little 
 more than a new edition of the ' Institution,' altered in some points 
 by the papal party : it received its name from the preface, which was 
 written in Henry's name. The clergy being hostile to this book, 
 Cranmer, at a visitation of his diocese, in submission to the king's 
 supremacy, forbade them from preaching against any portions of it, 
 however they or he himself might dissent from them. The exertions 
 which he had used for the correction of his diocese, in which religious 
 variance was at a great height, were watched and examined by his 
 political adversaries, who hoped to found on them such accusations as 
 would ensure his ruin. The prebendaries of Canterbury and some 
 magistrates in Kent, encouraged by Gardiner, after holding a suc- 
 cession of meetings, finally drew up articles accusing Cranmer of 
 
CRANMER, THOMAS. 
 
 abusing his power. These charges were submitted by the prebendaries 
 to the council, and by the council to the king. Henry immediately 
 caused the accusation to be sifted by a commission, who declared them 
 to be unfounded; and the authors of the conspiracy afterwards sub- 
 mitted themselves to Cranmer, who refrained from bringing them to 
 punishment. 
 
 In 1544 Cranmer successfully exerted himself iu parliament to carry 
 a bill to mitigate the severity of the statute of the Six Articles. He 
 also assisted in compiling an improved English Litany, essentially 
 similar to that which is now in use. Difficulties however were in- 
 creasing around him, and he had the dissatisfaction of seeing the seals, 
 which were now resigned by Lord Audley, his personal and political 
 friend, conferred upon Lord Wriothesley, an adherent of the Roman 
 Catholic party. By this appointment, ns well as by the death of the 
 Duke of Suffolk, it was expected that the king's favour towards the 
 reformers might be weakened. Nor indeed was it long after Suffolk 
 was in his grave before Cranmer, who, with three others, had been 
 associated with the queen in the government of England during Henry's 
 temporary absence in France, had reison to feel his loss. The Duke 
 of Norfolk and other members of the privy council accused him of 
 spreading heresies through the land, a;.d prayed the king that, for the 
 safety of his dominions, the archbishop might immediately be com- 
 mitted to the Tower. Henry, on the same night that the accusation 
 was received, caused Sir Anthony Denny to carry a message to Cranmer, 
 who rose from his bed to attend upon the king at Whitehall. The 
 council aessmbled on the following morning, and summoned before 
 them the primate, who had been insultingly kept for an hour in a 
 servants' waiting-room. At length sentence of imprisonment was 
 passed upon him, but, to their surprise and confusion, he produced 
 the signet of the king, from whose hands he had received it the night 
 before. The council did not venture to proceed any further in the 
 case. 
 
 After a peace had been concluded with France (1546), Anhault, the 
 French admiral, came to England. A resolution was made by him, 
 and sanctioned by the king, that the Reformation should be proceeded 
 with, and that in both countries the mass should be changed into a 
 communion, the form of which Cranmer was ordered forthwith to draw 
 up. This was the last year of Henry's reign. 
 
 The king, who of late had grown so corpulent and unwieldy that 
 he was rai-ed up and let down the stairs by a machine, after an illness 
 of some weeks sank under his disease on the 27th of January, 1547. 
 Cranmer was named one of the executors of his will, and one of the 
 regents of the kingdom. 
 
 On the accession of Edward, who had not yet completed his tenth 
 year, and the better to establish his supremacy, the bishops received 
 anew their bishoprics at his hands. The first public act of the primate 
 was the coronation of the new king (February 20, 1547), and the 
 delivery of a short address which he then substituted for the cus- 
 tomary sermon. No one that heard the expressions of the archbishop 
 could hope for the restoration of papal supremacy ; all things indeed 
 betokened a still further extension of the Reformation. An inquiry 
 into the state of religion, by means of a visitation of the whole king- 
 dom, was immediately set on foot : twelve homilies, four of which are 
 ascribed to Cranmer, were drawn up, and ordered to be placed in every 
 church, with the translation of Erasmus's paraphrase of the New 
 Testament, for the instruction of the people. It is true that these 
 measures, though they had many supporters, met with frequent oppo- 
 sition. Gardiner continued to argue, both in person and in writing, 
 against the homilies and the paraphrase, which the Bishop of London 
 aho proclaimed to be heretical. Nevertheless Cranmer's influence 
 prevailed ; and when he produced in convocation an ordinance that 
 the laity as well as the clergy should receive the sacrament in both 
 kinds, the proposition passed unanimously, and soon after obtained the 
 sanction of the legislature. By the same parliament the Act of the 
 Six Articles and other severe statutes were repealed. 
 
 During this winter session of parliament it was proposed to confer 
 upon the king such chapels, chantries, and colleges as had escaped his 
 father's grasp. There were few subjects upon which Cranmer's opinion 
 coincided with that of the Roman Catholic party, but in this case he 
 joined their ranks, and voted in opposition to the bill. He now (1548) 
 revived the proposal for substituting a communion office for the mass, 
 and a service was framed in time to be circulated to the clergy for 
 their use at the following Easter. 
 
 The more considerable labours which occupied the Piotestants at 
 this time still remain to be told. An English translation of a cate- 
 chism which had been written in German and in Latin by one Justin 
 Jonas, was published by the archbishop, entitled ' Cranmer's Cate- 
 chism.' In the month of May a commission of twelve divines, with 
 Cranmer at their head, was appointed for the compilation of an English 
 liturgy. Nor were these the only additions to the ordinary duties of 
 the primate : he took charge of a bill, which was passed, permitting 
 marriage among the clergy. By the end of November the Prayer-Book 
 was finished, and on the 15th of January, 1549, legal sanction was 
 given to it. Great opposition was made to these changes in different 
 parts of England, in Wiltshire, Somersetshire, Norfolk, and especially 
 in the west, where at the instigation of their religious teachers, the 
 people took auch weapons as they could procure, and mustered in con- 
 liderable force. The legislature, anxious to qwM tW« disturbance, 
 
 BIOO. D1V. VOL. u. 
 
 CRANMER, THOMAS. m 
 
 desired Cranmer to draw up an answer to fifteen articles of remon- 
 strance which had been framed by the insurgents. A very masterly 
 reply (Strype's ' Cranmer,' Appendix 40) was written, but not com- 
 pleted before the leaders of the insurrection were apprehended and 
 executed, and the rebels had dispersed. It would have been more to 
 the honour of the archbishop if the spirit that pervaded his reply had 
 been carried into a commission at which lie presided for the suppression 
 of certain heresies, for he would then have escaped the stain of having 
 condemned two persons to the stake ; but however amiable and for- 
 bearing was his general disposition, no excuse can be offered for him 
 or for his friends Ridley and Goodrich, who, with others, were impli- 
 cated in this affair. Upon the condemnation of Lord Seymour (1549) 
 Cranmer signed the warrant for his execution, notwithstanding the 
 canon law set forth that no churchman should meddle in matters of 
 blood. Whatever may have been the primate's conduct towards 
 Seymour, towards his brother the Protector Somerset it was unexcep- 
 tionable : from the time that his distresses commenced till his execu- 
 tion was effected by the enemies whom the weakness of his character 
 and elevated station had created, he retained Cranmer's firm and 
 invariable friendship. Bonner, the bishop of London, was now 
 degraded by commissioners, of whom Cranmer was one. When this 
 commission was dissolved, an ordinance was signed by the primate, 
 the chancellor, and four others of the council, for the abolition of 
 Roman Catholic books of devotion ; an addition was also made at this 
 time to the ritual that had been substituted for them, in the shape of 
 a formulary for ordination ; and other steps were taken by the primate 
 in order to diffuse a better knowledge of the creed of the Protestants. 
 At Lambeth he received the most eminent foreign divines, Martin 
 Bucer, Fagius, Peter Martyr, and several more. 
 
 Cranmer was greatly troubled at the discussions of the clergy 
 respecting the removal of altars from the churches and the placing of 
 communion tables in their stead. This had been done (1550) partly 
 at the recommendation of Hooper, a divine who had been driven from 
 England by the Act of the Six Articles, and who, during his residence 
 abroad, had adopted very scrupulous opinions. In July, Hooper was 
 made bishop of Gloucester : and soon after Cranmer received from 
 him a refusal to wear the usual episcopal habits. This question, upon 
 which the primate himself seems sometimes to have hesitated, was 
 now brought to an issue. If a dignitary of the church had been 
 suffered to discontinue the vestments of his order, such was the state 
 of the lower clergy that they would immediately have obeyed the 
 signal and relinquished the surplice and the gown. Cranmer, upon 
 consideration, determined to oppose Hooper's intentions, and in case 
 of an obstinate adherence to his scruples, to remove him from his 
 bishopric : a compromise eventually followed, and he adopted some of 
 the usual habits. 
 
 The Bishop of Chichester would not obey the order respecting the 
 removal of altars, and the primate consequently deprived him of his 
 see. The case of Bishop Gardiner, who had now been in prison nearly 
 two years, was also proceeded in. Articles were sent to him touching 
 the king's supremacy — the full obedience owed to him notwith- 
 standing his youth — that he had power to correct what was amiss in 
 the church, &c. ; and these, with some exceptions, he signed. Other 
 articles were then framed, treating of the marriage of the clergy, the 
 suppression of masses and images, the new book of service, &c. ; to 
 these he refused to put his name, upon which the commission, con- 
 sisting of the primate, Bishop Ridley, who had succeeded Bonner in 
 London, and six others, eventually deprived him of his bishopric and 
 sent him back to the Tower. The conduct of Cranmer in the cases 
 of Bonner and Gardiner was a great exception to his usual modera- 
 tion. Gardiner, during his imprisonment, occupied himself in 
 answering a treatise published by Cranmer, entitled the ' Defence of 
 the True Doctrine of the Sacrament.' This controversy was carried 
 on by the archbishop until the end of his iife. The subject of it was 
 one which had greatly occupied the mind of his friend, Bishop Ridley, 
 as well as his own ; he had more than once changed his opinions, 
 which at length became fixed according to the doctrine maintained in 
 his treatise. (Jenkyns's ' Remains of Cranmer.') His arguments with 
 Gardiner and Smythe, his chief opponents, show considerable skill 
 and learning. 
 
 At the close of this year a revision of the Service-book of 154S 
 was commenced by him, with the assistance chiefly of Ridley and 
 Cox, who, with Peter Martyr and Bucer, stated objections and recom- 
 mendations in writing. The undertaking was checked in 1551, by 
 the death of Bucer, who (Burnet says) was, " by order of Cranmer and 
 Sir John Cheek, buried with the highest solemnities that could be 
 devised." The bishops being now (1551) for the most part divines 
 favourable to the Reformation, the compilation of articles for the 
 greater uniformity of faith was undertaken by them at the suggestion 
 of the king. This additional labour so filled the hands of Cranmer, 
 that his time was nearly always occupied by one or other of the great 
 duties that he had imposed upon himself : scarcely could he be 
 spared to attend at the trial of Bishop Tonstal, a man of moderation 
 and learning, against whom accusations were brought forward in 
 December. The bishop was deprived of his see, a sentence which 
 was so contrary to Cranmer's wishes and opinion, that, together with 
 Lord Stourton, a Roman Catholic, he entered his protest against it. 
 It was not till this year (1552) that Cranmer gave up all hope ot 
 
 8« 
 
427 
 
 CRANMER, THOMAS. 
 
 CRASH AW, RICHARD. 
 
 438 
 
 effecting an agreement in religious doctrines among all the churches 
 that had withdrawn from the Papal supremacy, and for the bringing 
 about of which he had entered into an earnest correspondence with 
 Calvin and Melancthon as well as other leading divines of the conti- 
 nental churches. He was greatly disappointed at the failure of a 
 scheme in which he had always been saDguine of success. The 
 reformers had now to lament the declining health of the king, but 
 they did not relax their exertions in the cause of religion, for tho 
 Service-book was finally completed and the Book of Common Prayer 
 adopted by parliament in the spring of 1552. A project for the 
 reformation of the ecclesiastical courts was revived, and soon com- 
 pleted under the superintendence of the archbishop : only the king's 
 signature was required for its validity. In May 1553, Edward issued 
 a mandate that the clergy should subscribe to the Forty-two Articles 
 upon which the divines had agreed ; but ho died soon afterwards 
 without authorising the new ecclesiastical code, which it scarcely need 
 be said was never adopted. 
 
 No sooner was Edward dead than Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed 
 queen ; and a letter was sent to the Princess Mary declaring Queen 
 Jane to be the sovereign. This letter was signed by many of the 
 principal persons in the state, and among others by Cranmer. His 
 zeal for the Protestant cause must have blinded him to the danger of 
 on enterprise directly contrary to the resolution he had formed upon 
 first hearing of the project. On the 9th of July 1553, the chief 
 officers of the state swore allegiance to Jane ; on the 20th we find 
 many of those who had been zealous in her cause, "impatient to send 
 in their submissions to Mary." On the same day an order was sent 
 by Mary to Northumberland to disarm, which paper, strange to say, 
 was signed by Cranmer. The hopes of the Protestants were now at 
 an end ; Queen Mary's unshaken attachment to the Roman Catholic 
 creed was universally known ; Gardiner was released and made 
 chancellor, and power of appointing preachers granted to him instead of 
 to the primate : a commission was also given to the bishops of 
 London, Winchester, Chichester, and Durham, to degrade and imprison 
 Protestant prelates and ministers on the charges of treason, heresy, 
 aud matrimony. 
 
 Cranmer's friends recommended his immediate flight ; but in con- 
 sideration of the high office that he held, he rejected their advice. 
 In the beginning of August he was summoned before the council, and 
 ordered to confine himself to his palace: on the 27th he was again 
 brought before the same tribunal ; and in September, together with 
 Latimer and Ridley, was committed to the Tower. During his con- 
 finement to the palace, in refutation of some reports that the primate 
 would come over to the Roman Catholics, he wrote a declaration 
 against the mass. This was not published, but by some means, 
 respecting which there is a difference of opinion (Todd, vol. ii. ; Burnet, 
 vol. ii.), copies were obtained of it which reached the council, and 
 were openly read in Cheapside. Iu the Star-chamber Cranmer avowed 
 the writing, and his intention of affixing it to every church-door in 
 London. The council committed him not only for treason against 
 the succession of the queen, but for perseverance in " disquieting the 
 state." The queen did not oppose the committal. 
 
 In March 1554 Cranmer was removed, in company with his fellow- 
 prisoners, Bishops Latimer and Ridley, to the prison of Bocardo at 
 Oxford, where was renewed the controversy respecting the Lord's 
 Supper, which, by the queen's desire, was named the subject for 
 discussion. 
 
 On the 13th of April, the persons sent by the convocation to dispute 
 appeared in the university, and Cranmer, who was first called before 
 them, after examining the questions set before him (Burnet, vol. ii.), 
 entered into asgument upon them. After him reasoned Latimer and 
 Ridley, amidst much shouting, hissing, confusion, and insult. On the 
 19th the discussion was revived; and on the 28th they were again 
 brought to St. Mary's, where it was declared, that unless they would 
 turn, they were obstinate heretics, and no longer members of the 
 church. Cranmer then replied, "From this your judgment and 
 sentence I appeal to the just judgment of the Almighty, trusting to 
 be present with Him in Heaven, for whose presence in the altar I 
 am thus condemned : " and having thus spoken he was removed again 
 ko his prison. 
 
 He had some days before sent a petition to the council and the 
 queen, praying pardon for his offences towards her, but the bearer to 
 whom he had intrusted the papers broke them open, and it is not 
 known that they reached their destination. However this may be, 
 the council decreed that the charge of treason should be withdrawn, 
 and the proceedings for heresy followed up, that the pains of fire, and 
 not the axe, might be the manner of his death. 
 
 It was now discovered that the tribunal before which Cranmer had 
 been tried was not competent to decide the case, and that the sentence 
 was illegal. The pope therefore issued a fresh commission, and on the 
 12th of September 1555 the primate was again examined by Brokes, 
 the bishop of Gloucester, and two civilians, Martin and Story. After 
 some discussion, sixteen articles of accusation were produced, touch- 
 ing which eight witnesses were examined, and then the case closed. 
 It is remarkable that, previous to these proceedings, Cranmer was 
 summoned to appear within eighty days before the pope at Rome : 
 this must have been a mere fiction of papal law, not intended for him 
 to obey, as indeed it was impossible for any prisoner to do. Not long 
 
 after Cranmer was sent back to prison, he heard of the execution of 
 Ridley aud Latimer, and after a few more weeks had passed, he 
 received from Cardinal Pole an answer to two letters that he had 
 written to the queen during the interval between the last proceedings 
 at Oxford and the day that these bishops were brought to the stake. 
 It appears from these letters that the primate's adherence to Protestant 
 principles was still unshaken. On the 29th of November the eighty 
 days had elapsed, and on the 4th of December he was excommunicated 
 and deprived of his bishopric. A letter from the pope (Paul IV.), 
 bearing date the 14th of November, affirming him to be contuma- 
 cious, because " ho took no care to appear " at Rome when cited, and 
 declaring him guilty of heresy and other enormities, finally commanded 
 his execution. On the 14th of February, in obedience to this mandate, 
 Cranmer was degraded. It was within a few days after this that the 
 fortitude of a mind which had hitherto been firm gave way under 
 the pressure of misery aud the close prospect of a torturing death. 
 The love of life overcame his firmness : he forsook his principles, and 
 wrote a recantation of his faith. By whose exertions his resolution 
 was shaken we cannot ascertain ; but this unworthy sacrifice of 
 opinion served only to render his enemies triumphant: whatever had 
 been their promises, the recantation was of no avail towards the 
 preservation of his life. On the 20th of March, the eve of his execu- 
 tion, he was visited by Dr. Cole, the provost of Eton College, who 
 had been ordered by the queen to attend him. During this interview 
 Cranmer gave answer that he remained firm in the Catholic faith as 
 he had recently professed it, an answer that has by some been con- 
 sidered equivocal. After Cole had left him, Garcina entered tho 
 prison, and requested him to transcribe a recantation, to be delivered 
 by him at the stake, which the prisoner consented to do. On the 
 following day he was led to St. Mary's church, where, after an exhorta- 
 tion had been read by Dr. Cole, and Cranmer had finished his private 
 devotions, he solemnly addressed the people, openly professing his 
 faitli, and at length declaring, "Now I come to the great thing that 
 troubleth my conscience more than any other thing that I ever said 
 or did in my life ; and that is the setting abroad of writings contrary 
 to the truth which I thought in my heart, and writ for fear of death, 
 and to save my life, if it might be; and that is all such bills which 
 I have written or signed with mine own hand since my degradation, 
 wherein I have written many things untrue. And forasmuch as my 
 hand offended in writing contrary to my heart, therefore my hand 
 shall first be punished. For if I may come to the fire, it shall be 
 first burned. And as for the pope, I refuse him as Christ's enemy, 
 and antichrist, with all his false doctrine." The whole assembly was 
 astonished at this speech ; they bad supposed that he would have 
 confirmed and not retracted his recantation. He was then hurried 
 away to the stake, where he stood motionless, holding up his right 
 hand, and exclaiming, until his utterance was stifled, " This unworthy 
 hand ! Lord Jesus receive my spirit ! " 
 
 Cranmer's diligence and application were unusual : he was deeply 
 read in theology and canon law, and was familiar with Hebrew, Greek, 
 and Latin, as well as French, German, and Italian, which he acquired 
 during his travels ; the copiousness of his common-place books gave 
 weight to his opinion, and readiness to his power of argument. His 
 reservation respecting the oaths which he swore when appointed 
 archbishop, his subserviency to Henry VIII. in annulling his mar- 
 riages, his share in the condemnation of some heretics, his conduct 
 at the disgracing of Bonner and Gardiner, and the want of courage 
 which made him recant after his condemnation, are great blot3 on 
 his character. But though his conduct on these occasions was marked 
 by dishonesty, intemperance, and want of firmness, these were rather 
 impulses than habitual and characteristic vices, for it cannot be 
 denied that Cranmer was sincere, mild, and moderate, and for the 
 most part a firm man : nor is it to be forgotten that persecution was 
 the policy of all religious parties at this period. He had moreover 
 the virtue of constancy to his friends, a very rare quality in the times 
 in which he lived ; and never relaxed his friendship towards Anne 
 Boleyn, Cromwell, or Somerset in their adversity. The affability of 
 his manners, and the gentleness of his temper, made him beloved by 
 many friends and men of learning, to whom he also extended a liberal 
 hospitality ; so that his protracted imprisonment and cruel death was 
 one of the most unpopular measures of Mary's government. A com- 
 plete collection of the extant works of Cranmer has been published 
 at Oxford by Dr. Jenkyns, and the Parker Society has published 
 various iu edited writings under the title of 'Remains of Archbishop 
 Cranmer.' 
 
 (Strype, Memorials of Cranmer; Fox, Acts and Mon.; Burnet, 
 Hist. Reform.; Gilpin, Todd, and Le Bas, Lives of Cranmer; and the 
 general histories of the period.) 
 
 CRASHAW, RICHARD, an English poet, the son of the Rev. 
 William Crashaw, a divine of some note in his day, was born in 
 London, but in what year is uncertain. In early life he was placed, 
 through the kindness of Sir Henry Yelverton and Sir Randolph 
 Crew, upon the foundation at the Charterhouse, whence, in March 
 1632, he went to Pembroke-hall in Cambridge, and took the degree of 
 B.A. in 1G33. He afterwards went to Peterhouse, of which he was a 
 fellow in 1037, and became M.A. in 1638. 
 
 In 1634 he published a volume of Latin poems, mostly devotional, 
 ia which the celebrated line is found upon the miracle at Cana, iu 
 
i20 
 
 CRASSUS. 
 
 CRATINUS. 
 
 Galilee, which has been ascribed to other and greater poets than 
 Crashaw : — 
 
 " Nympha pudioa Deum vidit, et erubuit." 
 " The modest water saw its God, and blushed.** 
 
 A second edition of his Latin poems was published at Cambridge, 
 8vo, 1670. 
 
 At what time Crashaw was admitted into holy orders is uncertain. 
 Wood says he took degrees at Oxford in 1641 ; about which time he 
 seems to have become a popular preacher, full of energy and enthusiasm. 
 His degrees however do not appear in the public register. In 1644, 
 when the parliamentary army expelled those members of that uni- 
 versity who refused to take the covenant, Crashaw was among the 
 number ; and being unable to contemplate with resignation or indiffe- 
 rence the ruins of the church establishment, he went over to France, 
 where his sufferings and their peculiar influence on his mind prepared 
 him to embrace the Roman Catholic religion. In 1646 the poet 
 Cowley found Crashaw in France in great distress, and introduced 
 him to the patronage of Charles I.'s queen, who gave him letters of 
 recommendation to Italy : there he became secretary to one of the 
 cardinals at Rome, and was made a canon in the church of Loretto, 
 where he died of a fever, soon after his promotion, about the year 
 1050. His ' Steps to the Temple, Sacred Poems, with other Delights 
 of the Muses,' was published in 12mo, 1646 ; a second edition, 1648 ; 
 and a third, also called second in the title, 8vo, 1670. Pope occasionally 
 borrowed thoughts from Crashaw, but improved them. Crashaw 
 resembled Herbert in his turn of mind, and possessed equal fancy and 
 genius. In 1652 a posthumous volume of his poems was published at 
 Paris, accompanied with vignettes by Messager, entitled ' Carmen Deo 
 nostro, te decet Hymnus — Sacred Poems, collected, corrected, 
 augmented, most humbly presented to my Lady the Countesse of 
 Denbigh, by her most devoted servant R.C., in hearty acknowledge- 
 ment of his immortall obligation to her goodness and charity,' 8vo. 
 An edition of his English Poems, selected from the two volumes, was 
 published in 12mo, London, 1785. 
 
 CRASSUS, the surname of several Roman families, and especially 
 of the triumvir Marcus Licinius. When he is first mentioned in 
 history, he is spoken of as exceedingly rich ; and it was partly owing 
 to this circumstance that he was appointed to take the command 
 against the revolted gladiators of Capua. In a few days he raised an 
 army of six legions, and marched in quest of the enemy. A battle 
 was fought in the south of Italy, near Rhegium, in which Crassus was 
 completely victorious, and Spartacus fell with 40,000 of his men. 
 Crassus was rewarded with an ovation on his return ; but the victory 
 having been achieved over slaves, instead of the usual myrtle-wreath, 
 he had a laurel crown. (Aul. Gellius, v. 6) At the time of his expe- 
 dition against Spartacus, he held the office of praetor ; and the follow- 
 ing year (a.u.c. 683, 71 B.C.), he was chosen consul with Pompey. 
 The influence which Pompey gained by his popular and engaging 
 manners Crassus succeeded in acquiring by the hospitality and 
 munificence which his immense wealth easily supported. On one 
 occasion he gave a general entertainment to the whole people, and 
 distributed corn enough for three months' provision. No acts of 
 importance however are recorded by historians during this adminis- 
 tration. After some years, Crassus and Pompey dropped that 
 determined violence towards each other, which, though frequently 
 concealed, had never been wholly removed, and joined Caesar in what 
 is called the first triumvirate. While the actual power was almost 
 entirely engrossed by Caosar, he endeavoured to blind Crassus and 
 Pompey to the real state of things by certain concessions which he 
 made. With this view he included them both in a commission for 
 dividing the lands of Campania, and for settling a colony at Capua, 
 and thus enabled them to provide for some needy adherents to their 
 interests. After a time the alliance was discontinued, but it was 
 renowed again; and in B.C. 56 Pompey and Crassus offered them- 
 selves as candidates for the consulship, in order to keep out Domitius 
 Ahenobarbus, who was violently opposed to Coc3ar, and would be 
 likely to thwart his designs. Cajsar had been appointed over the 
 province of Gaul for five years ; and Crassus and Pompey, though 
 for some time they concealed their intentions, at last succeeded in 
 gaining the provinces of Syria and Spain for the same period and on 
 the same terma Pompey did not leave immediately for Spain ; but 
 Crassus set out for Sjria without delay, even before the year of 
 his consulate had expired, B.C. 55. From the great preparations 
 which he made, both in raising forces and in other ways, and from his 
 known avarice, it was clear that a war with the Parthians was the 
 real object at which he aimed ; and the joy which he displayed at the 
 prospect of so vast an increase of his wealth Appian (on the ' Parthian 
 Wars,' a. 135) describes as perfectly childish and ridiculous. The 
 tribune Ateius endeavoured to prevent Crassus from going on this 
 expedition, but in vaiu ; and a3 Crassus was passing through tho gates 
 of Rome, the tribune pronounced certain terrible imprecations upon 
 him over a small fire, which had been lighted according to the usual 
 practice in such cases. A person thus devoted, it was believed, could 
 not possibly escape, and the person who so devoted another could not 
 prosper himself, and therefore it was a course not pursued hastily or 
 on light ground)". (Appian, b. 137; Cicero, 'De Divinatione, i. 16.) 
 This consideration increased the alarm which the curse produced in 
 
 tho people, and even among the army of Crassus himself. Neverthe- 
 less he proceeded by way of Macedonia and the Hellespont, to Asia. 
 He crossed the Euphrates and ravaged Mesopotamia without resist- 
 ance. Orodes (Arsaces XIV.), the king of Parthia, being at the time 
 engaged in an invasion of Armenia, his general Surena commanded 
 the Parthian forces against the Romans. A battle was fought near 
 CarrhEC between Crassus and Surena, in which Crassus was defeated. 
 The clamours of his soldiers obliged him to accept proposals of peace 
 from Surena, to whom the messengers of the Parthian general promised 
 to lead him. His resistance to their insulting treatment provoked 
 their fury, and they put him to death without delay, B.C. 53. Surena 
 had his head and right hand cut off and sent to Orodes, and the 
 Parthian monarch is said to have caused melted gold to be poured 
 into the mouth of the Roman general, exclaiming, " Take your fill 
 now of the gold which during life you so coveted." (Dion Cassius, xl. 
 27.) The Romans are said to have had in this unfortunate campaign 
 30,000 men killed and taken prisoners. 
 
 We have no proof that Crassus possessed talent of any kind, and, 
 but for his wealth, he would probably have been scarcely known. 
 From his father he inherited a large fortune, but the rest of his wealth 
 was not acquired by the most honourable means. He is said to have 
 enriched himself by purchasing at a very low price the estates of those 
 who were proscribed by Syllu ; also by letting for hire slaves whom 
 he had instructed in various arts and trades ; and so high was his own 
 standard of opulence, that he said no one could be rich who was not 
 able to maintain an army at his own expense. With all his avarice 
 he was generally ready to lend money to his friends, and was hospi- 
 table without extravagance. Cicero (' Brut.,' sect. 66) represents him 
 as a man of moderate acquirements and slender abilities, but of great 
 industry and perseverance. In another of his works (' Tusc Qusest.,' 
 v. 40) he says, " Crassus was somewhat deaf, but a greater misfortune 
 than this was the bad character which people gave him, though in my 
 opinion unjustly." 
 
 (Cicero, Epist. ad Atticum, i. 14, 17 ; iv. 13 ; Appian, on the Parthian 
 Wars, ss. 134-155; Dion Cassius, xxxvi., xxxvii.; Plutarch, Life of 
 Crassus.) 
 
 Coin of Crassus. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight 61 \ grains. 
 
 CRASSUS, LUCIUS LICINIUS, was considered the greatest orator 
 of his time. He appears to have superintended the course of Cicero's 
 early education. ('De Oratore,' ii. 1.) Cicero in one place ('Brut.,' 
 s. 38) pronounces him perfect ; and in the treatise before referred 
 to (' De Oratore ') he delivers his own sentiments on eloquence iu the 
 person of Crassus. In the beginning of the third book he takes 
 occasion to lament the death of the interlocutors in the dialogue, 
 Crassus and Antonius. 
 
 CRA'TERUS. [Alexander III.] 
 
 CRATES, the name of several Greek writers. 1, A comedian of 
 Athens, one of the most eminent of the predecessors of Aristophanes, 
 who speaks very favourably of him. (' Eqq.' 537.) He is said to 
 have been originally one of Cratinus' actors (Schol. on Aristoph. 
 ' Eqq.'), but he could not have been so very long, since he was well 
 known as a comic writer in B.C. 450. (Euseb. ' Ad Olymp.,' 82, 2.) 
 Aristotle tells us that he was the first who introduced regular plots 
 into his comedies. (' Poet.' c. v.) 2, A Cynic philosopher, the son of 
 Ascondas of Thebes, who flourished about the year B.C. 328. He was 
 living in B.C. 307, when Demetrius Phalereus retired to Thebes. 
 (Diogen. Laert. vi. 85 ; Plutarch, 'Mor.,' p. 69, c.) He was a disciple 
 of Diogenes and Bryson, and was surnamed the ' door-opener ' 
 (Bupeiravo'iKTris), from his habit of entering any house he pleased whether 
 invited or not. (Suidas.) 3, A philosopher of the old academy, son 
 of Antigenes, and born in the deme cf Thria in Attica. He was a 
 disciple of Polemo, to whom he was much attached, and the instructor 
 of Arcesilaus and Bion the Borysthenite. (Diog. Laert. iv. 4.) He 
 flourished about the year B.C. 287. (Clinton, ' Fasti Hellenici,' ii., 
 p. 183.) Cicero says that his philosophical doctrines did not at all 
 differ from those of Plato. (' Academ.' i. 9.) 4, A celebrated gram- 
 marian and stoic, son of Timocratcs, and born at Mallos in Cilioia. 
 He was sent as ambassador to Rome by Attalus, king of Pergamus, 
 about the year B.C. 159. (Clinton, 'Fasti Hellenici,' iii., P-89.) His 
 works were very numerous. (See a list of them in Clinton, iii., p. 528, 
 note e.) 
 
 CRATI'NUS, the son of Callimedes, a writer of the old comedy, 
 was born at Athens B.C. 519. It is not known when he began to 
 write comedies ; it is inferred however from the words of Aristophanes 
 (' Eqq.' 524-530), that he did not appear as a dramatist till somewhat 
 advanced in life. (Clinton, ' Fasti Hellenici,' voL ii., p. 49.) He was 
 the most formidable adversary of Aristophanes: two occasions are 
 
432 
 
 recorded on which the judges pronounced him only second to that 
 great poet; and in B.C. 423, the first prize was awarded to his comedy 
 called the ' Wine-Flask,' the ' Connus ' of Ameipsias being placed 
 second, and the ' Clouds ' of Aristophanes third. He died the year 
 after. Cratiuus was highly esteemed by his countrymen, and at one 
 time, according to his rival Aristophanes, was so much in fashion, that 
 no songs were listened to at banquets except choruses from his 
 comedies. In his old age he was much addicted to drinking ; and in 
 his last play he shows how his faithful wife 'Comedy' strove to get 
 divorced from him in consequence of his exceeding love for his 
 fascinating mistress the ' Wine-Flask.' (Scholiast on Aristoph. ' Eqq.' 
 401.) Aristophanes frequently alludes to this failing of his con- 
 temporary. (For instance, the ' Peace,' 701.) The names of forty of 
 his comedies have come down to us. (Fabricius, 'Bibl. Grseea,' ii., 
 p. 431.) 
 
 CRATIPPUS, a Peripatetic philosopher, born at Mityleue. He was 
 a contemporary and friend of Cicero, who thought him the first 
 philosopher of the age ('De Officii.-*,' "aCratippo nostro, principe 
 hujus memoria) philosophorum "), and intrusted his son Marcus to his 
 care at Athens. (' De Officiis,' i. 1.) He taught first in his native 
 place, where he was still residing when Pompey came thither after 
 the battle of Pharsalia; he had an interview with the defeated general, 
 with whom he conversed on providence. (Plutarch, 'Pomp.,' c. lxxv.) 
 Afterwards he went to Athens, and Cicero not only got him made a 
 Roman citizen by Julius Caesar, but even prevailed upon the Areopagus 
 to vote that he should be requested to continue at Athens as an 
 instructor of youth, since he was an ornament to the city. (I'lutarch, 
 ' Cicero,' c. xxiv.) Brutus went to Athens to hear Cratippus while 
 engaged in preparations to meet the army of the Triumvirate. (Plu- 
 tarch, 'Brutus,' c. xxiv.) Cratippus wrote a treatise on divination, in 
 which he allowed that kind which was derived from dreams and the 
 ravings of idiots, but denied all other sorts of divination. (Cicero ' De 
 Divinat.,' i. 3 and 32.) In addition to his merits as a philosopher, we 
 are told that he was an amusing companion, and gifted with great 
 powers of conversation. (Cicero, 'Ad Familiares,' xvi. 21,) 
 
 CRAYER, CASPAR DE, one of the most distinguished Flemish 
 historical painters, was born at Antwerp in 1582, and was instructed 
 by Raffaelle, the son of Michael Coxie. He first distinguished himself 
 at Brussels, where he painted several great altar-pieces, but he settled 
 eventually at Ghent, where his greatest works are still preserved in 
 the museum and in various churches : many of his works however are 
 scattered over Germany and the Netherlands. He died at Ghent on 
 January 27, 1669. 
 
 The works of Crayer, in their style, subjects, and dimensions, are 
 generally of the highest pretensions, and they are in a great degree 
 successful, but yet are frequently formal and cold. Besides other 
 great works, he painted at Ghent twenty-one large altar-pieces for the 
 principal churches of that city, some of which, for their fulness and 
 dignity of subject, correct and occasionally vigorous design, and the 
 judicious bestowal of extra care in the execution of their more 
 important parts, command high admiration, notwithstanding a very 
 sensible coldness of effect and a certain formality of treatment. Even 
 the gorgeous taste of Rubens is said to have been vividly impressed 
 with the great merits of Crayer. 
 
 There are fourteen of his works in the museum of Ghent, com- 
 prising some of his principal pictures, as — 'St. Rosalia crowned by 
 tho infant Christ ; ' the ' Martyrdom of St. Blaise,' his last work, 
 painted in his eighty-sixth year; and three of the pictures painted 
 for the triumphal arches erected at Ghent upon the occasion of the 
 formal entry of Prince Ferdinand, Infant of Spain, into Ghent, in 
 1625. One is Francis I. surrendering his sword to Lannoy after the 
 battle of Pavia in 1525; another, the descent of Charles V. upon the 
 coast of Africa in his expedition against Tunis, ten years afterwards : 
 the figures of these works are colossal, and they are slight in their 
 execution, but at the same time remarkably vigorous and correct. 
 There are a few works by Crayer in Spain, and he is supposed to have I 
 visited that country in the reign of Philip IV. Few of his great works 
 have been engraved, and they have comparatively seldom been moved, ; 
 being too large for the commerce of picture-dealers. The large altar- j 
 piece of the ' Virgin and Child enthroned amongst angels and sur- ' 
 rounded by saints,' in the gallery of Munich, about 19 feet long by 
 12 feet wide, and by no means one of the best of his works, cost, 
 with the copy that was substituted in its place, 20,000 rix dollars. 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, who saw this picture in the gallery at Diissel- 
 dorf, makes some severe but just observations upon it in his ' Journey 
 to Flanders and Holland.' It was painted in 1646, and the lower 
 figures are portraits of Crayer and his family. 
 
 (Descamps, La Vie des Peintres Flamands, etc.) 
 
 CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE, was born at Dijon in 
 1674, of an ancient and noble family. He was sent by his father to 
 Paris to study the law, under a person named Prieur. The master 
 and pupil were both attached to the theatre; and the former observing 
 in Crebillon strong marks of a poetic genius, urged him to try his 
 powers on a tragedy. Crebillon accordingly took the subject of the 
 Children of Brutus, which he carried to the actors, who however 
 rejected it in a manner so little flattering to the feelings of an author 
 that he threw his manuscript into the fire, and gave up all thoughts 
 of writing for the stage. Prieur would not suffer him to remain in 
 
 this despondency, and the tragedy of 'Idomende,' produced in 1707, 
 was the fruit of his persuasions. The fifth act did not at first please 
 the audience, but an alteration was made, and the piece was perfectly 
 successful. In 1707 appeared his second piece, called ' Atree,' which 
 is founded on the horrible incident of Atreus bringing to Thyeates a 
 cup filled with the blood of his own son. Prieur being in a declining 
 state of health when this tragedy came out, was carried into a box : 
 at the end of the representation he embraced Crebillon, and said, " I 
 die contented ; I have made you a poet, and I leave a man to the 
 nation." The success of ' Atr^e ' was indeed very fair, but it was not 
 until the production of ' Rhadamiste,' in 1711, that Cre billon's fame 
 rose to its height, and it is on this piece that it chiefly rests. After 
 the production of this piece, Crebillon did not much increase his 
 reputation; his 'Xerxes' (1714) and 'Semiramis' (1717) were not 
 very successful ; and though ' Pyrrhus' (1726) was very well received, 
 the author himself said he was surprised, as it was " the shadow of a 
 tragedy, rather than a tragedy itself." 
 
 He did not bring out any other piece for twenty-two years. The 
 death of his wife, and certain pecuniary difficulties, weighed down hia 
 spirits to such an extent that he was incapable of writing. However, 
 at the end of that period he was allowed by the king a pension of 
 1000 francs, for which he was indebted to the persuasions of Madame 
 Pompadour, who was instigated, it is said, by her hatred to Voltaire 
 to benefit Crebillon, as these two authors were looked on as rivals in 
 the drama. His tragedy of 'Catilina' was now advertised, and great 
 were the expectations of the public ; the court were determined to 
 patronise him, and the kiug himself furnished the requisite dresses. It 
 was produced in 1749, and the applause was tumultuous. The public 
 however on reading it began to retract their hasty praise, and it was 
 objected that the tragedy was a very unfaithful picture of the manners 
 of ancient Rome, a censure which should not be passed on Crebillon 
 as peculiarly distinguishing him from other authors of his school. 
 ' Le Triumvirat' was produced when the author was eighty-one years 
 of age and had but indifferent success ; he also began another tragedy, 
 called ' Cromwell,' about this time, which was never completed. 
 
 Crebillon died in 1762, and a monument was erected to his memory 
 in the church of St. Gervois, by the order of Louis XV. The French 
 actors also caused a magnificent service to be celebrated in the church 
 of St. Jean de Latrau in honour of the veteran dramatist, at which all 
 the literati and most of the nobility of France attended. 
 
 Those who wish to know more of Crebillon may read a chapter on 
 this author in La Harpe's ' Cours de la Litterature.' The chapter is a 
 long one, and the extracts are so copious, and the reader's attention is 
 directed so pointedly to the remarkable passages that he may really 
 learn more of Crebillon by reading that critique than by perusing the 
 author's own works. 
 
 CREBILLON, CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT DE, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Paris in 1707. He wrote a number of romances, 
 which acquired a great popularity, owing, as some say, more to their 
 extreme licentiousness than to any intrinsic merit. His strict moral 
 character is always brought forward as a remarkable contrast to the 
 great laxity of bis writings. He was well known as a member of two 
 convivial societies, called the Dominicaux and the Caveau, the latter 
 of which enrolled among its names those of Piron, Colle, and Gallet. 
 Crebillon the younger died in 1777. 
 
 The remark that his fame is only owing to his obscenity does not to 
 us seem wholly true. The fact is that his novels, in spite of their 
 outrageous indecency, contain a remarkably accurate picture of the 
 motives that actuate persons in a corrupt state of society. Still, the 
 philosophy which they inculcate is of a morbid nature (being much 
 like that of Rochefoucault), and only those whose minds are 
 unassailable by impurity can peruse with any profit the novels of 
 Crebillon. 
 
 CREDI, LORENZO DI, one of the best of the old Florentine 
 painters and sculptors, was born at Florence about 1459, His real 
 name was, according to Vasari, Lorenzo Sciarpelloui, and he acquired 
 the name of Credi from his master, a distinguished goldsmith at 
 Florence in that time. Lorenzo however did not remain long with 
 Credi ; his skill in drawing warranted his exchanging the art of the 
 goldsmith for that of the painter, though he had distinguished himself 
 as a goldsmith, and he accordingly entered the school of Verrocchio, 
 in which he was the fellow-pupil of P. Perugino and of Lionardo da 
 Vinci, the latter of whom he afterwards imitated. 
 
 Lorenzo was Verrocchio's favourite pupil ; and when Verrocchio 
 went to Venice to make the bronze equestrian statue of Bartoloineo 
 Colleoni [Verrocchio, Andrea Del], he left Lorenzo in charge of all 
 his affairs at Florence. Lorenzo visited his master several times while 
 he was engaged at Venice, and after his unexpected death in 1488 
 carried his body home to Florence. Verrocchio made Lorenzo di 
 Credi his principal heir, and expressed a desire in hia will that he 
 might be entrusted with the completion of the monument of Colleoni. 
 Credi did not take possession of any of Verrocchio's property, except 
 his drawings and works of art ; the rest he made over to his 
 relations. 
 
 Lorenzo di Credi was an excellent painter. Hia ' Birth of Christ,' 
 formerly in the monasteiy of Santa Chiara, but now in the gallery of 
 the Academy at Florence, is one of the best works in that admirable 
 collection ; it is excellent in expression, in colouring, and in the exa* 
 
CREECH, THOMAS. 
 
 CRICHTON, JAMES. 
 
 434 
 
 cutiou both of the principal and the accessory parts. His best work 
 however, in the opinion of Vasari, is the picture of the ' Madonna 
 and Child,' with Saints Julian and Nicolas, painted for a chapel of the 
 convent of Cestello, but at present in the Louvre at Paris, No. 958, 
 an>l in excellent preservation. Vasari mentions many of Lorenzo's 
 works, several of which are now lost, but there are still a few ' Holy 
 Pa nilies ' by him in Florence and other parts of Italy. Credi, when 
 old, having become wealthy by his labours, retired into Santa Maria 
 Nuova at Florence, and died there, according to Vasari, in 1530, aged 
 seventy-eight; but the date Gay e has shown to be incorrect. The 
 true date appears to be the 12th of January, 1537. There are two 
 pictures by Loreuzo in the National Gallery, a 'Virgin and Child' 
 (No. 593), and ' The Virgin adoring the Infant Christ ' (648). 
 
 (Vasari, Vite da' Pittori, dsc. ; Gaye, Carteggio d'Artisti.) 
 
 CREECH, THOMAS, is the translator of Lucretius, Horace, Theo- 
 critus, and detached portions of several other Greek and Latin authors, 
 of which a list is given in Kippis's ' Biographia Britannica.' He was 
 born at Blandford in Dorsetshire in 1659, admitted of Wadham College, 
 Oxford (of which he appears from the title-page of his Lucretius to 
 have become a Fellow), in 1675, and elected probationer- fellow of All 
 Souls' in November 1683. He published in 1682 his translation of 
 Lucretius, which appears to have gained much credit at Oxford, and 
 is his best work. Dryden, who himself translated parts of Lucretius, 
 has bestowed high praise on his predecessor. (' Preface to first part 
 of Miscellanies.') Creech published a Latin edition of the same author 
 in 1695, and a translation of Horace in 1684, the latter with very 
 iudiiferent success. He was appointed to the college living of Welwyn, 
 Herts, in 1699; and shortly afterwards in June, 1700, hung himself 
 in his chamber at Oxford. His temper was very morose, which leaves 
 room to ascribe this act to some constitutional infirmity. 
 
 CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA (Cavaliere), a painter and engraver 
 of Bologna, distinguished in his time, was born at Bologna in 1665. 
 He was the scholar of Canuti and of Cignani, and was called Lo 
 Spagnuolo on account of his gay attire. He was also remarkable for 
 his perseverance in copying the works of the Caracci, Correggio, and 
 Barroccio, and some of his copies are said to have been sold at Bologna 
 as originals. He studied later the effect of Guercino and the compo- 
 sition of Pietro da Cortona. He became eventually one of the most 
 careless and capricious of painters, though all his works exhibit great 
 skill, and he had a surprising facility of execution ; indeed he is in 
 this respect probably unequalled. Mengs terms him the destroyer of 
 the Bolognese school, his great facility and equal success having 
 seduced the painters of his time to adopt similar carelessness of 
 manner. There are twelve of his works in the gallery of Dresden, 
 including the ' Seven Sacraments,' painted for Cardinal Ottoboni, and 
 an ' Ecce Homo,' which with all its faults i3 a masterly performance. 
 In colour it is rather green, but in drawing and in character it is 
 excellent, and in boldness and decision of touch surprising ; it appears 
 to have been painted in one heat, and that a short one, though it 
 contains three half-length figures of the size of life — Christ and two 
 soldiers. Crespi died July 17, 1747. 
 
 His two sons, Luigi and Antonio, followed their father's profession, 
 but not his style. Luigi Crespi, or Don Luigi Canonico, as he was 
 designated, is well known for his writings on art, and especially for his 
 continuation of the ' Felsina Pittrice,' or ' Bologna Puintress,' of Count 
 Malvasia. The count's work is in two volumes, and Crespi published 
 a third, with the same title, in 1769. In it he has written a life of 
 his father, and an apology for his faults. He died in 1779. 
 
 (Gtiida di Bologna; Lanzi, Scoria Pitlorica, etc. ; Bartsch, Peintre- 
 Qravew.) 
 
 * CRESWICK, THOMAS, R.A., was born in 1811 at Sheffield, in 
 Yorkshire, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham, where his 
 fondness for drawing became very conspicuous. He removed to 
 London, with a view to prosecute his artistic studies, in 1828. The 
 same year twe of his landscapes appeared in the exhibition of the 
 Royal Academy ; and from that time to the present he has been 
 one of the most regular contributors to the exhibition, besides for 
 many years contributing regularly to the annual exhibition of the 
 British Institution. 
 
 Mr. Creswick is one of the most general favourites among living 
 English landscape-painters. His subjects are almost invariably sug- 
 gestive of pleasing associations, so that their very titles contribute to 
 their popularity ; and they are always thoroughly national. Though 
 often faithful transcripts of particular spots, they seldom receive in 
 the exhibition catalogues " a local habitation," their name being for 
 the most part some pleasant poetic one, or else typical of a class, or 
 pointing to some peculiarity of weather or season of the year. Thus, 
 among his best-known pictures we have in the river class ' A Cool 
 Spot,' ' A Shady Glen,' ' A Rocky Stream,' ' A Greenwood Stream,' 
 ' A Mountain Stream,' and ' Windings of a River ; ' among the wood- 
 lands ' A Glade in the Forest,' ' The Chequered Shade,' ' The Shade of 
 th« Beech Trees ; ' when he depicts atmospheric appearances we have 
 such titles as ' Rain on the Hills,' ' Passing Showers,' ' Doubtful 
 Weather,' 'Passing Clouds,' 'Summer-Time,' Early Spring,' and the 
 like. 
 
 Among the first pictures by which Mr. Creswick made himself known 
 were his Welsh streams, and, to our thinking, the exquisite combina- 
 tions of rocks and light foliage with clear swift running water and 
 
 glimpses of the neighbouring mountains seen in almost matchless 
 perfection in North Wales, were never so charmingly expressed as in 
 Creswick's pictures. The rivers of his native Yorkshire were however 
 not less happily rendered by him. His ' Course of the Greta through 
 Bernal Woods,' exhibited in 1842, and some of those admirable scenes 
 known to have been painted from tho Whaife above Bolton Abbey, 
 are certainly among his choicest works. The scenery of Wales, York- 
 shire, and Cornwall may be said, whatever were the specific titles of 
 his pictures, to have furnished the subjects of his paintings till his 
 Irish tour supplied a new and wider range : his ' Glandalough ' and 
 one or two more seemed then to imply that he was about to grapple 
 with a bolder and sterner class of subjects, but ho soon returned to his 
 old favourites, carrying with him however a somewhat more sombre 
 tone of colour. 
 
 In 1842 Mr. Creswick was elected an Associate of the Royal 
 Academy, and his merits having received that mark of professional 
 recognition, he seemed to work with more freedom and decision. 
 He began to venture on larger canvasses and treat of more ambitious 
 themes. But his powers may perhaps be regarded as having reached 
 their maturity in 1847, when he exhibited two of his greatest works 
 ' England,' and the ' London Road a hundred years ago : ' both dis- 
 playing in conception and execution many of the best attributes of 
 the landscape art ; in the ' Weald of Kent,' and one or two more, he 
 has successfully repeated the same extensive prospects on a scale of 
 nearly equal magnitude. The next year, 1848, Mr. Creswick sur- 
 prised the public by a bold departure from his usual style in two 
 sea-side views, ' Home by the Sands,' and a ' Squally Day,' painted 
 somewhat in the manner of Collins, but with sufficient originality to 
 prevent any charge of imitation, and with so much truth and beauty 
 as to command general admiration. In 1850 Mr. Creswick painted in 
 the same style, ' Wind on Shore,' and ' Over the Sands,' but he appears 
 to have since abandoned his sea side studies. Another branch of the 
 landscape art in which he has been very successful is that of which 
 the 'Forest Farm,' the 'Valley Mill,' and the views of the terrace at 
 Haddon may be taken as the type. Like many other landscape 
 painters Mr. Creswick cannot be regarded as happy in his figures, yet 
 the pictures he has painted in conjunction with Mr. Ansdell, in which 
 the latter has supplied some capitally painted groups of animals, are 
 not among his most desirable productions. He works best alouo. 
 
 Much of the freshness and faithfulness of Mr. Creswick's pictures 
 are due to his practice of painting them in the open air, and direct 
 from the object or from nature — a practice now common enough, but 
 which among oil-painters he was one of the first to adopt as a regular 
 habit. But every picture he has painted bears testimony to this direct 
 study of nature, and to his own thorough enjoyment of his occupation. 
 Neither in composition nor colour has he worked by rule : and if, as 
 is sometimes the case in his later pictures, we desiderate a little more 
 richness and variety in the colour, we feel that the painter so 
 thoroughly comprehends the particular idea he wishes to embody, 
 that we distrust our own impression, and readily accept his reading 
 of the text. 
 
 Mr. Creswick has made numerous designs for various publications, 
 and was for some time engaged in the preparation of a series of views of 
 Welsh scenery for lithographing on a large scale; he has also executed 
 several etchings. He was elected R.A. in 1851. 
 
 CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE, born at Paris in 1693, was the son 
 of a journeyman printer. He studied under Rollin, and afterwards 
 became professor of rhetoric in the college of Beauvais. After Rollin's 
 death he undertook to continue his ' Roman History,' of which he 
 wrote eight volumes. He is less diffuse and digressive than his master, 
 though not so pleasing in his style of composition. He also published 
 an edition of Livy in 6 vols. 4to, 1748, with notes. The work by 
 which he is best known is ' Histoire des Empereurs Romaius jusqu' a 
 Constantin,' 6 vols. 4to, Paris, 1756. The author has scrupulously 
 adhered to the ancient authorities in the statement of facts, but his 
 narrative is deficient in interest and force. Cre'vier wrote also 
 'Histoire de 1' University de Paris,' 7 vols. 12mo, 1761, which is in 
 great measure an abridgment of the larger work of Egasse du Boulay ; 
 and 'Rhdtorique Francaise,' 1765, a good work, which has been 
 frequently reprinted. OreVier died at Paris, 1st December, 1765. 
 
 CRICHTON, JAMES, commonly called the 'Admirable,' son of 
 Robert Ciichton of Eliock, who was lord-advocate to king James VI., 
 was born in Scotland in 1560 or 1561. The precise place of his birth 
 is not mentioned, but he received the best part of his education at 
 St. Andrews, at that time the most celebrated seminary in Scotland, 
 where the illustrious Buchanan was one of his masters. At the early 
 age of fourteen he took his degree of Master of Arts, and was considered 
 a prodigy not only in abilities but in actual attainments. It was the 
 custom of the time for Scotchmen of birth to finish their education 
 abroad, and serve in some foreign army previously to entering that of 
 their own country. When he was only sixteen or seventeen years old, 
 Crichton's father sent him to the continent. He had scarcely arrived 
 in Paris, which, whatever may have been its learning, was then a gay 
 and splendid city, famous for jousting, fencing, and dancing, when he 
 publicly challenged all scholars and philosophers to a disputation at' 
 the College of Navarre, to be carried on in any one of twelve specified 
 language^ " in any science, liberal art, discipline, or faculty, whether 
 practical or theoretic ;" and, as if to show in how little need he stood 
 
43« 
 
 CRICHTON, JAMES. 
 
 CROKER, RT. HON. JOHN WILSON. 
 
 438 
 
 of preparation, or bow lightly he held his adversaries, he spent the six 
 weeks that elapsed between the challenge and the contest in a con- 
 tinual round of" tilting, hunting, and dancing. On the appointed day 
 however he is said to have encountered all " the gravest philosophers 
 and divines," to have acquitted himself to the astonishment of all who 
 heard him, and to have received the public praises of the president 
 and four of the most eminent professors. The very next day he 
 appeared at a tilting match in the Louvre, and carried off the ring 
 from all his accomplished and experienced competitors. Enthusiasm 
 was now at its height, particularly among the ladies of the court ; and 
 from the versatility of his talents, his youth, the gracefulness of his 
 luanneis, and the beauty of his person, he was named ' L' Admirable.' 
 After serving two years in the army of Henri III., who was engaged 
 in a civil war with his Huguenot or Protestant subjects, Crichton 
 repaired to Italy, and repeated at Rome, in the presence of the pope 
 and cardinals, the literary challenge and triumph that had gained him 
 so much honour in Paris. From Rome he went to Venice, at which 
 gay city he arrived in a depressed state of spirits. None of his Scottish 
 biographers are very willing to acknowledge the fact, but it appears 
 quite certain that, spite of his noble birth and connections, he was 
 miserably poor, and became for some time dependent on the bounty 
 and patronage of a Venetian printer — the celebrated Aldus Manutius. 
 After a residence of four months at Venice, where his learning, 
 engaging manners, and various accomplishments excited universal 
 wonder, as is made evident by several Italian writers who were living 
 at the time, and whose lives of him were published, Crichton went to 
 the neighbouring city of Padua, in the learned university of which ho 
 reaped fresh honours by Latin poetry, scholastic disputation, an 
 exposition of the errors of Aristotle and his commentators, and (as a 
 playful wind-up of the day's labour) a declamation upon the happiness 
 of ignorance. Another day was fixed for a public disputation in the 
 palace of the Bishop of Padua, but this being prevented from taking 
 place, gave some incredulous or envious men the opportunity of 
 asserting that Crichton was a literary impostor, whose acquirements 
 were totally superficial. His reply was a public challenge — the contest, 
 which included the Aristotelian and Platonic philosophies, and the 
 mathematics of the time, was prolonged during three days, before an 
 innumerable concourse of people. His friend Aldus Manutius, who 
 was present at what he calls " this miraculous encounter," says he 
 proved completely victorious, and that he was honoured by such a 
 rapture of applause as was never before heard. 
 
 Crichton's journeying from university to university to stick up 
 challenges on church doors and college pillars, though it is said to 
 have been in accordance with customs not then obsolete, certainly 
 attracted some ridicule among the Italians ; for Boccalini, after 
 quoting one of his placards, in which he announces his arrival and 
 his readiness to dispute extemporaneously on all subjects, says that a 
 wit wrote under it, " and whosoever wishes to see him, let him go 
 to the Falcon Inn, where he will be shown," which is the formula 
 used by showmen for the exhibition of a wild beast, or any other 
 monster. (' Ragguagli di Parnasso.') 
 
 We next hear of Crichton at Mantua, and as the hero of a combat 
 more tragical than those carried on by the tongue or pen. A certain 
 Italian gentleman, "of a mighty, able, nimble, and vigorous body, 
 but by nature fierce, cruel, warlike, and audacious, and superlatively 
 expert and dexterous in the use of his weapon," was in the habit of 
 going from one city to another to challenge men to fight with cold 
 steel, just as Crichton did to challenge them to scholastic combats. 
 This itinerant gladiator, who had marked his way through Italy with 
 blood, had just arrived in Mantua, and killed three young men, the 
 best swordsmen of that city. By universal consen the Italians were 
 the ablest masters of fence in Europe — a reputation to which they 
 seem still entitled. To encounter a victor among such masters was a 
 stretch of courage, but Crichton, who had studied the sword from his 
 youth, and who had probably improved himself in the use of the 
 rapier in Italy, did not hesitate to challenge the redoubtable bravo. 
 They fought : the young Scotchman was victorious and the Italian 
 left dead on the spot. 
 
 Soon after this the sovereign Duke of Mantua engaged Crichton as 
 companion or preceptor to his son Vincenzo Gonzaga, a young man 
 who, according to Muratori, had shown a strong inclination for litera- 
 ture, but who was otherwise of a passionate temper and dissolute 
 manners. ('Aunali d'ltalia.') At the court of Mantua, Crichton 
 added to his reputation by writing Italian comedies, and playing the 
 principal parts in them himself. His popularity was immense, but of 
 brief duration. He was cut off in his twenty-third year, without 
 leaving any proofs of his genius except a few Latin verses, printed by 
 Aldus Manutius, and the testimonials of undoubted and extreme 
 admiration of several distinguished Italian authors, who were his con- 
 temporaries and associates. As he was returning one night from the 
 house of his mistress, and playing and singing as he walked (for he 
 was an accomplished musician), he was attacked by several armed 
 men in masks. One of these he disarmed and seized ; the rest took 
 to flight. Upon unmasking his captive he discovered the features of 
 the Prince of Mantua. He instantly dropped upon one knee, and pre- 
 sented his sword to his master, who, inflamed by revenge, and, it is 
 supposed, by jealousy, took the weapon and ran him through the 
 body. Some contemporary accounts attribute his death to an acci- 
 
 dental midnight brawl, others to a premeditated plan of assassination, 
 but all seem to agree that he fell by the hand of the prince ; and a 
 belief, or a popular superstition, prevailed in Italy, that the calamities 
 which befel the house of Gonzaga sho ily after were judgments of the 
 Almighty for that foul murder. Crichton was killed in July, 1583. 
 
 Such appear to be tho well-authenticated points of a wonderful 
 story, that has often been doubted, not only in parts, but almost 
 altogether. It has however been cleared up of lato years by the 
 industry and research of Mr. Patrick Frasor Tytler, who produces a 
 mass of contemporary or nearly contemporary evidence. 
 
 {Life of James Crichton of Cluny, commonly called the A dmirahle 
 Crichton; with an Appendix of Original Papers, 1 vol. 8vo, Edinb., 
 1819.) 
 
 CRG2SUS, the last of the Mermnadce, son of Alyattes, succeeded 
 his father Alyattes as king of Lydia at the age of thirty-five, b.c. 560. 
 (Herod., i. 7 and 26.) But before this time ho seems to have been 
 associated with his father in the government. (Clinton, ' Fast. Hel.,' 
 p. 297 ; and Larcher, ' On Horod.,' L 27.) Ho was contemporary with 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens (Herod., i 59), and with Anaxandrides, 
 king of Sparta (i. 67). He attacked and reduced to subjection all the 
 Ionians and ^Eoliaus in Asia (i. 26), and all the nations west of the 
 Halys (i. 28). The increase of tho Persian power led him, after con- 
 sulting various oraclos in Europe, Asia, and Africa, to form an alliance 
 with Amasis, kiDg of Egypt (t. 77), and with the Lacedaemonians 
 (i. 69), as the most powerful people of Hellas, about B.C. 554. (Clinton, 
 ' Fast. Hel.,' p. 207.) He subsequently attacked and conquered tho 
 Cappadociau Syrians beyond the Halys, and engaged in battle with 
 Cyrus, in which however neither was victorious. Ho returned to 
 Sardis, intending to wait till tho following year to renew the war; but 
 Cyrus, anticipating his designs, attacked him in his own capital, 
 defeated him, and took Sardis, B.o. 546. Crcc3us was made prisoner 
 and was placed on a pile to be burnt, but Cyrus relented, and the fire 
 was extinguished. He reigned fourteen years. After his captivity he 
 became Cyrus's favourite companion and adviser in his future wars. 
 When Cyrus died he recommended Croesus to his son and successor, 
 Cambyses, as one in whom he might confide as a friend. Croesus 
 however did not long continue in the favour of Cambyses ; he took 
 upon himself on one occasion to admonish the king, believing him to 
 be insane, and he had great difficulty in escaping with his life. Little 
 is known of him after this period. While king he was visited by 
 Solon, and Herodotus (i. 30-33) records a long conversation between 
 them on wealth and happiness. The riches of Croesus were so great 
 that his name had almost passed into a proverb. It is said that he 
 had a 6on who was born deaf and dumb, but who gained the faculty 
 of speech by the effort which he made to cry out when he saw a 
 Persian going to kill his father at the capture of Sardis. (Herodotus; 
 Plutarch, Life of Solon.) 
 
 CROFT, WILLIAM (Mus. Doc), who as a composer of cathedral 
 music has no superior, was born in Warwickshire in 1677, and educated 
 in the Chapel-Royal under Dr. Blow. His earliest preferment was to 
 the place of organist of St. Anne's, Soho, when an organ was for 
 the first time erected in that church. In 1700 he was admitted a 
 gentleman-extraordinary of the Chapel-Royal; and in 1704 was 
 appointed joint-organist of the same with Jeremiah Clark, on whose 
 decease, in 1707, he obtained the whole place. In 1708 he succeeded 
 Dr. Blow as Master of the Children and Composer to the Chapel-Royal, 
 and also as organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1711 he published, 
 but without his name, a volume containing the words of the anthems 
 used by the three London choirs, with a preface, giving a brief history 
 of English church-music. In 1715 Croft was created Doctor in Music 
 by the University of Oxford ; his exercise consisted of a Latin and 
 an English Ode, both of which were afterwards curiously engraved in 
 score, and published under the title of ' Musicus Apparatus Acade- 
 micus.' In 1724 he published his noble work, ' Musica Sacra,' in 
 two volumes, folio. He states in the preface that his work is the firet 
 essay in music-printing of the kind, it being in score, engraved, and 
 stamped on plates, and that for want of some such contrivance, the 
 music formerly printed in England was very incorrectly published ; 
 as an instance of which he mentions Purcell's 'Te Deum' and 
 'Jubilate.' Dr. Croft died in 1727, of an illness produced by his 
 attendance at the coronation of George IL, and was interred in West- 
 minster Abbey, where a monument, erected to his memory by his 
 friend Humphrey Wyrley Birch, Esq., records his high merits as a 
 composer, and his amiable and excellent moral qualities as a member 
 of society. As a composer of ecclesiastical music Dr. Croft has no 
 superior. Besides his ecclesiastical music, Dr. Croft was the author 
 of six sonatas for two flutes, six for a flute and a base, and numerous 
 songs, which appeared in the various musical publications of his day. 
 (Hawkins and Burney, Histories of Music.) 
 
 CROKER, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOHN WILSON, 
 represents a branch of an ancient family which was settled for many 
 generations at Lineham, in South Devon. A member of this family 
 emigrated to Ireland about the year 1600, and his sons distinguished 
 themselves at the capture of Waterford in 1650. Various descendants 
 of this branch received grants of land in the south of Ireland, which 
 they increased from time to time by marriages with influential 
 families. Mr. Croker, the father of the subject of our present memoir, 
 was for many years surveyor-general of Ireland, and in that position 
 
CROKER, RT. HON. JOHN WILSON. 
 
 became extremely popular. By Lis marriage with Hester, daughter 
 of the Rev. R. Rathborne, he had an only son, John Wilson, who was 
 born in Qalway, December 20, 1780. 
 
 After receiving his early education at a school in Cork, where he 
 displayed great precocity and an inquisitive disposition, he was entered 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, at the age of sixteen, under the late Dr. 
 Lloyd. He soon hegan to show extraordinary readiness and ability 
 by the part which he took in the ' Historical Debating Society,' since 
 suppressed, but which then was in active operation, drawing out and 
 developing the chararacters of young men, and preparing them for 
 their appearance afterwards on the stage of public life. So highly did 
 the society esteem the share taken in its proceedings by Mr. Croker, 
 that it voted him its first g^ld medal. Intended by his parents for 
 the study of the law, Mr. Cieker had no sooner taken his B.A. degree 
 in 1800, than he was entere 1 as a student at Lincoln's Inn; but he 
 continued to reside in Dublin, and to mix with the society of that 
 capital : he was called to the Irish bar in 1802. He had leisure hours 
 on his hands, and these he devoted to literature. His first production 
 as an author, if we except a short paper of mere ephemeral interest, 
 was a series of ' Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esq., on the present 
 state of the Irish Stage,' which was published in 1803, and was fol- 
 lowed in 1805 by his 'Intercepted Letter from China ; ' both anony- 
 mous. Both were clever and caustic satires, excited much curiosity 
 and attention, and ran speedily through several editions. 
 
 In 1807 he published a work of a graver kind on ' The State of 
 Ireland Past and Present,' in evident imitation of the treatise of 
 Tacitus 'De Moribus Germanorum;' in this pamphlet he strongly 
 advocated Catholic emancipation. At the close of the preceding year 
 Mr. Croker was employed as counsel for Sir J. Rowley at the election 
 for Downpatrick. Sir Josias withdrew just before the election, and 
 Mr. Croker was nominated in his place, but was defeated by a small 
 majority. In the following May however he was returned for the 
 borough, and confirmed in his seat on petition. 
 
 He had not been long in parliament when an opportunity offered 
 for the display of his oratorical powers. Early in 1809 the Duke of 
 York was brought practically upon his trial before the country for 
 corrupt administration at the Horse Guards, and the best and most 
 successful speech made in defence of his royal highness against 
 Colonel Wardle's motion of censure, was delivered by Mr. Croker on 
 the 14th of March. This speech contained a minute dissection of the 
 evidence brought forward against the duke, and was couched in 
 vigorous and pointed language. It may be presumed that the 
 grateful sense which his royal highness thenceforth entertaiued for 
 this support hastened the advance of Mr. Croker to office. In 
 the course of the same session the late Duke of Wellington, then 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley, and chief secretary for Ireland, being obliged 
 to repair to Dublin, entrusted to Mr. Croker the parliamentary busi- 
 ness connected with that country ; and he fulfilled that trust with 
 so much ability and discretion, that shortly afterwards Mr. Perceval, 
 when he formed his ministry in 1809, offered to Mr. Croker the post 
 of Secretary to the Admiralty. For upwards of twenty years Mr. 
 Croker continued to discharge the duties of this post with unremitted 
 application, under three successive First Lords of that department, 
 and under the late King William when Lord High Admiral. During 
 this time he sat in parliament for various boroughs, among others for 
 Aldborough, Yarmouth, and Bodmin; and in 1827 ho had the satis- 
 faction of being returned for the University of Dublin, on the 
 elevation of Lord Plunket to the chancellorship and peerage, with 
 whom he had twice unsuccessfully contested the seat : but his views 
 being in favour of Catholic emancipation, Mr. Croker was subse- 
 quently defeated. He took a very active part in the parliamentary 
 committee appointed to consider the question of erecting New 
 London Bridge ; and his zeal for science and literature was shown in 
 another way soon afterwards, by founding the Athocneum Club. He 
 was amongst the earliest advocates for a state encouragement of the 
 fine arts. His speech on the proposed purchase of the Elgin marbles 
 was much in advance of the general tone of parliament on such 
 subjects. When the Reform Bill was proposed Mr. Croker opposed it 
 at every stage by powerful speeches and a ready pen, as he considered 
 it a revolutionary measure. 
 
 The passing of the Reform Bill compelled Mr. Croker to withdraw 
 from parliamentary life. Even during the most active portion of his 
 parliamentary career, his pen was seldom unemployed. His printed 
 speeches and pamphlets on current political questions amount to a 
 very considerable number, and his contributions to the 'Quarterly 
 Review,' extending over more than a quarter of a century, would alone 
 fill several volumes. His most extensive work is an edition of 
 'Boswell's Life of Johnson,' in 4 vols., 8vo, published in 1831, which 
 was handled with considerable severity by Mr. T. B. Macaulay in the 
 'Edinburgh Review.' His poems of ' Ulm and Trafalgar,' and 'Tala- 
 vera,' are the best known and most admired of his productions in 
 verae. His • Stories from the History of England ' is a highly popular 
 book for children. The following is a list of the most important 
 works not mentioned above, which have been either published or 
 edited by Mr. Croker: 'A Reply to the Letters of Malachi Mala- 
 growther;' 'Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830;' 
 •Letters on the Naval War with America,' and 1 Songs of Trafalgar.' 
 He U also the author of several lyrical poem3 of merit, including 
 
 CROLY, REV. GEORGE, LL.D. 438 
 
 some touchiug lines on the death of Mr. Canning, to whom he was 
 very firmly attached. Mr. Croker also edited 'tho Suffolk Papers,' 
 ' Lady Hervey's Letters ' ' Lord Hervey's Memoirs of the Reign of 
 George II/ and ' Walpole's Letters to Lord Hertford.' An anno- 
 tated edition of Pope's works by Mr. Croker has been announced, and 
 it has been stated that his contributions to the ' Quarterly Review ' 
 are about to be reprinted in a collective form. [<S'ec Suitlement.] 
 
 CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON, was born January 15, 1798, in 
 the city of Cork, Ireland. He was the only sou of Major Thomas 
 Croker, of the 38th regiment of foot. At the age of fifteen he became 
 an apprentice in a mercantile establishment in Cork. Between the 
 years 1812 and 1818 he made excursions occasionally on foot in the 
 south of Ireland; and it was during these rambles that he commenced 
 making his collections of the legends and songs of the peasantry of 
 Ireland. In the year 1818, Moore, in an advertisement to the 7th 
 number of the ' Irish Melodies,' expressed his obligations to him for 
 about forty Irish airs which he had sent, for many curious fragmeuts 
 of Irish poetry, and for several interesting local traditions. Crofton 
 Croker had also acquired considerab'li skill in making pen-and-ink 
 sketches, and some of them were exhibi ied at Cork in 1818. 
 
 Major Croker died in 1818, and his widow soon afterwards made 
 application to Mr. John Wilson Croker, then secretary to the Admi- 
 ralty, who was a friend of the family, but no relation ; and through 
 his interest, in February 1819, Thomas Crofton Croker became a clerk 
 in the Admiralty, with a salary of 21. a week. While in this situation 
 he contributed to the introduction of lithography into the Admiralty 
 a3 a substitute for transcribing several copies of the same document, 
 and for confidential circulars ; and he had for many years the superin- 
 tendence of the private lithographic-press of the Admiralty. He 
 subsequently became a clerk of the first class, with a salary of 800Z. ; 
 and he retired in 1850 with a pension of 580Z. 
 
 Mr. Crofton Croker's first literary work was his ' Researches in the 
 South of Ireland,' published in 1824, in 4to, and consisting for the 
 most part of the notes made during his early excursions in 1812-18, 
 and during a subsequent tour in 1821. His next work was the 'Fairy 
 Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland,' London, 1825, 3 vols, 
 sm. 8vo. In the first edition of this work he was assisted by Dr. 
 MaginD, Mr. Pigott, and Mr. Keightley ; but the materials supplied 
 by his assistants, or at least most of them, were afterwards omitted. 
 A second edition was illustrated with etchings after sketches by 
 Maclise, then, as Croker states, " a young Irish artist of considerable 
 promise.'' The 'Fairy Legends' appeared in 1834 in one volume, 
 forming a part of the ' Family Library.' This work, when first pub- 
 lished in 1825, produced a long complimentary letter from Sir Walter 
 Scott ; and on the 20th of October 1826, he was introduced to Sir 
 Walter at the residence of Mr. Lockhart in Pall Mall. His personal 
 appearance is thus described in Scott's Diary : — " Little as a dwarf, 
 keen-eyed as a hawk, and of easy prepossessing manners, something 
 like Tom Moore." 
 
 In 1829 Mr. Crofton Croker published ' Legends of the Lakes, or 
 Sayings and Doings at Killarney ; collected chiefly from the Manu- 
 scripts of R. Adolphus Lynch, Esq., H.P., King's German Legion,' 
 London, 2 vols. or. 8vo. This work was followed in 1832 by two 
 small novels — 'The Adventures of Barney Mahouey,' and 'My Village 
 versus Our Village,' of which the first was very favourably received, 
 but the second less so. In 1839 he edited, with very copious notes, 
 'The Popular Songs of Ireland,' 12mo. He was a contributor to 
 some of the annuals which were in fashion about 1830-40, especially 
 to ' The Amulet,' and ' Friendship's Offering ; ' and he edited for two 
 or three years ' The Christmas-Box.' He wrote many small articles, 
 some for magazines, and some which were printed privately. He was 
 a constant contributor to the early volumes of ' Fraser'a Magazine,' 
 frequently to ' The Literary Gazette,' and occasionally to ' The New 
 Monthly Magazine.' He had always a taste for antiquities, and he 
 was early elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He was 
 chosen a member of the Royal Irish Academy in 1827. He took part 
 in the foundation of the Camden Society in 1839, and of the Percy 
 Society in 1840. He was a member of the council of both thesp 
 societies, and he edited some of the works published by them. When 
 the British Arch ecological Society was fouuded, in 1843, he became 
 one of the committee. He was also a member of the United Service 
 Institution, of the Irish Archaeological Society, of the Numismatic 
 Society, of the Hakluyt Society, and he was perpetual president of the 
 club of antiquarians called the Society of Noviomagians. He had 
 collected an extremely interesting museum of Irish antiquities, which 
 was sold by auction after his death. He died at his residence, Old 
 Brompton, London, August 8, 1854. 
 
 (Gentleman's Magazine, &c.) 
 CROLY, REV. GEORGE, LL.D., rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, 
 and St. Benets, was born in Dublin in 1780, and educated at Trinity 
 College. His first publication was a poem, 'Paris in 1815.' The 
 ' Lines on the Death of the Princess Charlotte ' appeared in 1818, and 
 the ' Angel of the World ' in 1820. Several satires, a volume of songs 
 and miscellaneous poems, and his tragedy of ' Catiline,' were produced 
 soon after. In 1824 he wrote his comedy of ' Pride shall have a Fall;' 
 his romance of ' Salathiel ' was published in 1827; and he has also 
 written two other popular works of fiction, ' Marstou ' and ' Tales of 
 the Great St. Bernard,' as well as a ' Life of Burke,' and descriptive 
 
138 
 
 CROMWELL, OLIVER. 
 
 CROMWELL, OLIVER. 
 
 no 
 
 essays, &c., accompanying Roberts's ' Holy Land.' His poetical works 
 have been published in 2 vols. 8vo. l)r. Croly's rare talent as a 
 pulpit orator however has acquired for him a more extended fame 
 than his poetical and imaginative writings. Several of his more remark- 
 able sermons have been published. [See Suti'Lement.] 
 
 CROMWELL, OLIVER, the son of Robert Cromwell, M.P. for 
 Huntingdon in the parliament of 1593, and his wife Elizabeth, 
 daughter of Sir Richard Stuart, was born in St. John's parish in the 
 town of Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 1599, and named after his 
 uncle and godfather, Sir Oliver Cromwell, a worthy member of his 
 ancient and respectable family. Many idle stories of his childhood 
 and early youth are related by Noble and some others of his bio- 
 graphers, but without any sufficient authority, and thcro is really 
 nothing authentic known respecting him prior to April 23, 1616, 
 when, having left school at Huntingdon, he was entered at Sidney 
 College, Cambridge ; his tutor being Mr. Richard Howlett. He 
 remained at college little more than a year. At the death of his 
 father, which occurred in June 1617, he was removed from the 
 university by his mother, who is said to have thought it more prudent 
 to enter her son at Lincoln's Inn, that he might follow the profession 
 of the law, but there is no entry of his name on the registers of that 
 or either of the other inns of court. The old account of him goes on 
 to say that Oliver, with little intention to use them for their proper 
 purpose, took possession of his chambers, but being no longer 
 restrained by the vigilance of his father, he gave himself up to profli- 
 gate habits, and became addicted to gambling; and that continuing 
 for the next two or three years to live this dissolute life he forfeited 
 the friendship of his uncle Sir Oliver Cromwell. But the only autho- 
 rity for such statements are the royalist writers, who seem to have 
 taken a strange delight in vilifying the man who had wrought such 
 ruin to their cause. All that is certain is that soon after having 
 completed his twenty-first year, he was married August 22, 1620, to 
 Elizabeth, the daughter of Sir James Bourchier, and that at this time 
 he was closely united with the puritan party, and himself, in their 
 phraseology, " a professor of religion." The next clearly ascertained 
 circumstance in his history is his election as member for the borough 
 of Huntingdon in 1628— a proof that he had thus early succeeded in 
 gaining the confidence of his neighbours, perhaps also that he had 
 already begun to take an active part in local politics. In February 
 1829 the House of Commons having resolved itself into a grand 
 committee on religion, Cromwell made a speech calling attention to 
 the encouragement by the Bishop of Winchester of the " preaohing 
 of flat popery," and steps were in consequence ordered to be taken 
 for procuring evidence against the bishop ; but before any further 
 proceedings could be taken the king dissolved the parliament 
 (March 2). The king, by this impolitic dissolution, still further irri- 
 tated his enemies. Cromwell returned home certainly no more loyal 
 a subject, while his puritanism had been not a little strengthened 
 by his contact with episcopacy. It has been said that his house 
 now became the common resort of those who were of the same way 
 of thinking, and that his hospitality to them increased his expenses 
 until his circumstances became so much embarrassed that a portion 
 of his property was necessarily sold. But this again appears to be 
 only a late scandal. He did however it is certain in 1631 sell his 
 property in Huntingdon, of which place he had been made a justice of 
 the peace in the previous year, and take a grazing farm at St. Ives, 
 where he resided for the next four years, diligently pursuing his new 
 occupation, acting as overseer of the parish, and evidently the leading 
 man amoDg his co-religionists in that part of the country. In January 
 1636, by the death of Sir Thomas Stuart, his maternal uncle, he became 
 possessed under his uncle's will of property in the Isle of Ely amounting 
 to nearly 500Z. a year. Here he continued to reside till 1640, and his 
 family for some years longer. But disgusted with the proceedings of 
 the court, he had determined in 1637 to emigrate to America, and 
 having taken a passage to New England in a ship then lying in the 
 Thames, embarked with his whole family. The vessel wa3 however 
 detained by a proclamation forbidding such embarkations, unless 
 under a licence from the government, which he knew that he should 
 be unable to procure. He returned therefore to Ely; but notwith- 
 standing he saw few persons of importance, the activity and vigour of 
 his understanding became generally known : his open advocacy of 
 principles opposed to the government, and the zeal with which he 
 resisted an attempt of certain proprietors to drain some of the neigh- 
 bouring Cambridgeshire fens, and secure to themselves the drained 
 land, attracted the favourable regard of many public men, and made 
 him so popular in the district that he was commonly spoken of as 
 " Lord of the Fens." In 6uch esteem was he held, that he was elected 
 representative of the town of Cambridge, in opposition to Counsellor 
 Mewtis, the court candidate, both to the short-lived parliament of 
 1640, and afterwards to the Long Parliament, by which it was speedily 
 followed. 
 
 Cromwell was now in the middle age of life : his health was strong, 
 and his judgment matured: so far circumstances were favourable to 
 his further elevation. But he had deficiencies not only in fortune but 
 in person and in manner, which precluded all foresight of the height 
 to which he would rise. The description given of him by Sir Philip 
 Warwick on his entrance to the House of Commons, at the beginning 
 of the Long Parliament, displays in a striking manner his uncourtly 
 
 rusticity : — "The first time that ever I took notice of him was in the 
 very beginning of the parliament held in November 1640, when I 
 vainly thought myself a courtly young gentleman (for we courtiers 
 valued ourselves much upon our good clothes). I came one morning 
 into the house well clad, and perceived a gentleman speaking (whom 
 I knew not), very ordinarily appareled; for it was a plain cloth suit, 
 which seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor; his limn 
 was plain, and not very clean ; and I remember a speck or two of blood 
 upon his little baud, which was not much larger than his collar ; his 
 hat was without a hat-band ; his stature was of a good size ; his sword 
 stuck close to his side ; his countenance swollen and reddish, his voice 
 sharp and untunable, and his eloquence full of fervour ; for the subject- 
 matter would not bear much of reason." And Sir Philip protests that 
 " it lessened much my reverence unto that great council, for he was 
 very much hearkened to. And yet," he continues, " I live d to see 
 this very geutleman, whom out of no ill-will to him I thus deseribe, 
 by multiplied good successes, and by real but usurped power, haviag 
 had a better tailor and more converse among good company, in uiy 
 own eye, when for six weeks together I was a prisoner in his sergeant's 
 hands, and daily waited at Whitehall, appear of a great and majestw 
 deportment and comely presence." (' Memoirs,' p. 247.) This descrip. 
 tion of Warwick's as to his rude presence at this time is strongly 
 corroborated by a coarse passage in an intemperate sermon preached 
 after the Protector's death by Dr. South, in which he thus speaks of 
 Cromwell's appearance when attending the Long Parliament: — 
 " Who," says he, " that beheld such a bankrupt beggarly fellow as 
 Cromwell first entering the parliament house, with a threadbare torn 
 cloak and a greasy hat (and perhaps neither of them paid for), could 
 have suspected that in the space of so few years he should, by the 
 murder of one king and the banishment of another, ascend the throne, 
 be invested in the royal robes, and want nothing of the state of a king 
 but the changing his hat into a crown." He had as yet had no 
 opportunity for displaying tho extent of his energy and abilities; 
 the time was at hand when they were to be proved. It is plain 
 however that Cromwell was taking his place as a leader in the great 
 popular movement. His disregard of courtly manners was not hkely 
 at such a time to be any hindrance to the earnest men now resolutely 
 bent on having their 'grievances' redressed. His fervid eloqueuce, 
 however unpolished, found eager listeners, and his sagacious counsels 
 ready acceptance. 'Mr. Cromwell' was soon a marked man in the 
 great council of the nation ; aud he was one of the very first to con- 
 tribute in pocket and person to the active resistance which soon was 
 raised to the royal measures. The tyranny and maladministration of 
 the weak and obstinate Charles had become the subject in 1641 of a 
 strong remonstrance from his parliament, which at once insured their 
 rupture with the king. Cromwell, now associated in the councils of 
 Hampden, Pym, and the rest of the popular leaders, strenuously 
 supported this remonstrance; and in 1642, when the civil war com- 
 menced, he eagerly raised a troop of horse, under the authority of the 
 parliament, with which he immediately took the field in their cause; 
 and 'Cromwell's Ironsides' were the first of the parliamentary horse 
 who successfully withstood Rupert's cavalry. From the first moment 
 of receiving his commission he was one of the most active and energetic 
 of the parliamentary officers, and he was rapidly promoted to be colonel, 
 governor of Ely, and otherwise placed in posts of honour and trust, 
 In numerous skirmishes in which he engaged he only once met with 
 any serious misadventure. This was at the ' fight of Winceby,' in 
 Lincolnshire, when his horse being shot under him, on attempting to 
 rise he was knocked down by a cavalier, and with difficulty rescued by 
 his own party. 
 
 Notwithstanding the comparatively advanced age at which Cromwell 
 first buckled on the sword, all writers bear testimony to the military 
 abilities that he displayed throughout the succession of battles between 
 the parliamentary and royalist forces. At Marston Moor, at Stamford, 
 and in the second battle of Newbury, he was especially distinguished. 
 With the title of lieutenant-general of the horse he soon became, under 
 Fairfax, the chief mover of a victorious army ; and so valuable were 
 his services considered by the parliament, that he was exempted from 
 obedience to the 'self-denying ordinance' — an injunction which 
 excluded the members of either house from holding any commaud in 
 the army. This measure was brought forward by Cromwell's friends, 
 who trusted to his popularity in the parliament, and the necessity that 
 it had for his services, to procure an exception in his favour. The 
 result fully answered their expectations : his rivals were set aside, his 
 power more widely spread, and a greater scope given to his ambition. 
 At the battle of Naseby (June 1645) Cromwell commanded the 
 right wing, and Ireton, his son-in-law, the left ; the main body of the 
 royalists was commanded by the king in person. As the troops were 
 nearly equal, the event of the day was looked for by each side with 
 anxious hope. Ireton was repulsed early in the day ; but Cromwell 
 and Fairfax, taking advantage of Prince Rupert's temerity, totally dis- 
 persed the king's infantry, and took his artillery and ammunitioa. 
 Elated with victory, the parliamentary army, under the same leaders, 
 vigorously prosecuted their success, until they had reduced moat of 
 the royalists in the west, Cromwell at the storming of Bristol and on 
 various other important occasions taking the principal part. Having 
 in 1646 found leisure to return to London, the thanks of the parliament 
 were voted to him; his services were publicly acknowledged, and 
 
CROMWELL, OLIVER. 
 
 41 . 
 
 rewarded by a grant of 2500?. a year, to be raised from Lord 
 Winchester's estates. 
 
 The king, who had passed the winter (1645-46) at Oxford, in a con- 
 dition to the last degree disastrous and melancholy, in the month of 
 Ha; escaped from that city in disguise, and threw himself upon the 
 protection of the Scottish army, then encamped at Newark. After 
 some negociations, he was delivered up by the Scots to the parlia- 
 mentary commissioners, who kept him prisoner at Holdenby, in 
 Northamptonshire. In proportion as the king's power had dimi- 
 nished, the division between the Independents and Presbyterians had 
 become daily more apparent. In the army, the majority, with Crom- 
 well at their head, were Independents ; in the parliament, Presby- 
 terians. Each body, jealous of the other's power, began to strive for 
 the mastery. At length the army rebelled against the parliament ; 
 and Cromwell, aware of the advantage that would be gained by the 
 possession of the king's person, directed one Joyce, a young and 
 enterprising soldier, to rescue the king from the hands of the com- 
 missioners of the parliament, and to deliver him to the army (June 
 1647). This scheme was quickly put into execution. Cromwell 
 declared that he deeply regretted the disaffection which the army 
 showed towards the parliament, but the members were not deceived. 
 The Presbyterian members resolved, as soon as he should come into 
 the House of Commons, to accuse the lieutenant-general of having 
 promoted this schism, and to commit him to the Tower. Intelligence 
 of these proceedings was quickly carried to the army ; and Cromwell, 
 perceiving that the crisis was desperate, and that some decided step 
 must instantly be taken, hastened to the camp, where he procured 
 himself to be invested with the chief command, and then, threatening 
 the unpopular parliament, marched southward to St. Alban's. 
 
 As long as there remained any balance between the rival powers in 
 the state, each sought the support of the royal name, and the king's 
 cause appeared not altogether hopeless ; he was courted alike by the 
 Presbyterians and by Cromwell. But when the leaders of the army 
 established their dominion, the case was altered. At a conference at 
 Windsor, opened with prayers by Cromwell himself, he announced 
 that he had given up all belief in the royal promises, and opened the 
 daring counsel of punishing the king by judicial sentence. The time 
 however was not quite at hand for this bold measure. The king was 
 left in custody in the Isle of Wight, and Cromwell again took the 
 field against the Scots in the north and the Welsh in the west, making 
 preparations at the same time to resist an invasion from Holland 
 threatened by Prince Rupert, to whom seventeen English ships had 
 deserted. Again he was victorious ; and his army returned to Lon- 
 don, where they broke violently into the parliament-house while the 
 members were in debate, seizing some, and excluding others, by the 
 direction of Colonel Pride. The king's trial now (January 1649) 
 commenced. Cromwell was appointed a member of the court, and 
 attended every meeting of it but one ; and when the sentence was 
 passed he was the third who signed the warrant for the execution. 
 He was now beset with entreaties to spare the king's life, but his 
 answer to all was an echo of that to his cousin Colonel Cromwell : 
 " Go to rest, and expect no answer to carry to the prince, for the 
 council of officers have been seeking God, as I also have done, and it 
 is resolved by them all that the king must die." The execution 
 followed accordingly. Five days afterwards the House of Lords was 
 voted useless ; and a council of state was formed, with Bradshaw for 
 president and Cromwell a principal member. Difficulties soon crowded 
 round their government. A mutiny broke out in the army, which 
 required the immediate presence of the lieutenant-general, but was 
 soon suppressed by him, after the execution of three of the ring- 
 leaders. 
 
 In Ireland the majority were still hostile to the parliament, and an 
 army had been sent there to reduce the royalists to submission. 
 Cromwell having been appointed Lord-Lieutenant and Commander-in- 
 Chief in Ireland, joined the troops in August 1649. He besieged and took 
 Drogheda (or Tredah as it was then usually called) by storm, gave no 
 quarter to the garrison, and proceeded to capture Wexford, Kilkenny, 
 aod Clonmell. Wexford, like Drogheda, resisted t and was stormed, 
 2000 of the garrison found within being put to death ; the other towns 
 terrified by so frightful a slaughter at once surrendered. In nine 
 months the country was nearly subdued. Satisfied with his success, 
 he left to Ireton the conduct of the troops against his panic-struck 
 adversaries ; and having sailed for Bristol, proceeded to London, where 
 he was received with fresh honours by the parliament. 
 
 The children of the late king had suffered deeply from their fallen 
 fortunes : one had died of grief at her father's execution, another had 
 been sent out of the kingdom by Cromwell, and Prince Charles, the 
 heir to the crown, poor and neglected, had lived sometimes in Hol- 
 land, at other times either in Jersey or in France. At length he was 
 induced by the Scottish army to take shelter among them, a pro- 
 tection which he bought by subscription to the covenant, and sub- 
 mission to restrictions so severe as almost to render him a prisoner. 
 Whatever might be the circumstances under which this junction was 
 formed, the return of Charles to his kingdom could not fail to alarm 
 the English. It was instantly resolved, to march northward with all 
 the troops that could be raised. Fairfax, himself a Presbyterian, 
 refused to lead the forces, and Cromwell was therefore nominated to 
 the command, and became the general of the Commonwealth. This 
 
 BIOCJ. DIV. VOL. U. 
 
 vast accession to his power induced him to resign the lieutenancy of 
 Ireland; the prospect of removing Ludlow to that post is said to 
 have formed an additional reason for his withdrawal. Cromwell was 
 thought to be jealous of the influence of Ludlow, who, though he 
 did not receive this appointment, was ultimately set aside by his 
 promotion to an official situation in that kingdom. After those and 
 other preparations, he began his march with 16,000 men (1650). He 
 reached the neighbourhood of Edinburgh unopposed, but at Mussel- 
 burgh the Scottish army under Leslie was encamped, and there the 
 two armies continued for nearly a month watching each other. At 
 length Cromwell withdrew, and his opponents followed him to Dunbar, 
 wherj a battle became inevitable. The battle of Dunbar was gained 
 by the English, and Edinburgh and Perth were taken. Upon this 
 the king suddenly marched into England. Cromwell, who had not 
 expected this movement, sent expresses to the parliament to inform 
 them of what had taken place, and with forced marches pursuing the 
 king, brought him to an engagement near Worcester, the result of 
 which was a total defeat of the royalists (September 3, 1651). For 
 this complete victory the parliament rewarded him with fresh honours 
 and an additional pension of 4000Z. a year. 
 
 The battle of Worcester placed Cromwell avowedly at the head of 
 public affairs. His views of the kind of government required by the 
 state of the nation were, according to Whitelock, now shadowed forth 
 at a meeting of army officers and members of parliament, which he 
 called together at the speaker's house immediately on his arrival in 
 town. He told them that what the nation plainly needed was a settle- 
 ment with somewhat of monarchical power in it. He had made up 
 his mind that there must be government by a single person whatever 
 was the title he took : perhaps he thought that he was that person. 
 But it was not the right time yet. War broke out with Holland, and 
 that fully occupied his attention and engrossed the thoughts of the 
 nation. At length (1653), perceiving that the remnant of the parlia- 
 ment became daily more jealous of his power, he determined to put 
 an end to their authority. He first sent them a remonstrance; his 
 next movement was to enter the House (April 20, 1653) with an 
 armed force, seize the mace, and to declare to them, " You are no 
 longer a parliament : the Lord has done with you ; he has chosen 
 other instruments for carrying on his work." Loading the members 
 with abuse, he drove them before him out of the House. Thus was 
 the memorable ' Long Parliament ' dissolved : and with it disappeared 
 all regularly constituted authority. Power, self-assumed, was wholly 
 in the hands of Cromwell : but it was as captain-general that he 
 wielded it. He now formed an interim council of state, composed 
 chiefly of his principal officers, and their first step was to summon 
 by name 139 persons, some gentry, some mechanics, all of them puri- 
 tans, and to constitute them a parliament. It was obvious that such 
 an assembly could in no way assist in the government of the realm. 
 They met for the first time on the 4th of July 1653. One measure 
 only seemed to be expected from them, and that they quickly deter- 
 mined upon ; it was to surrender (December 12, 1653) their power to 
 Cromwell, who, after their voluntary resignation, was declared ' Pro- 
 tector' by a council of the officers of his army, and solemnly installed 
 into his dignity, February 16, 1654. 
 
 The first charter of the Commonwealth was drawn up by the sam<t 
 council of officers : it was called the ' Instrument of Government.' 
 The second, called the 'Petition and Advice,' was framed in May, 
 1657, by the parliament which the Protector had assembled in the 
 previous year. Under the first charter, the English government may 
 be ranged among republics, with a chief magistrate at its head. Under 
 the second it became substantially a monarchy, and Oliver Cromwell, 
 from 1657 to his death, was de facto king of England (Hallam, 
 'Const. Hist.' ii. 421.) The difficulties of his administration were great, 
 but they were surmounted by his vigorous abilities, which shone forth 
 as much in wielding his power as in obtaining it. That he was both 
 arbitrary and, despotic cannot be denied. Such was the temper of the 
 country, and, notwithstanding his general popularity, such the number 
 of his open or secret enemies, that immediate and forcible action, 
 though sometimes illegal and tyrannical, was absolutely required. 
 There were opposed to him the royalists, who were still numerous ; 
 the nobility, to whom he was hateful ; the whole body of Presby- 
 terians, who were jealous of having no share in the power which they 
 had helped to gain ; and in the army, the mutinous and disaffected 
 ' Levellers.' Severe measures then were requisite, and at times they 
 certainly were used, — not, however, without apparent reluctance. The 
 point that seemed most to perplex him was the calliug together of 
 parliaments : he would neither reign with them nor without them. 
 His first parliament met in September 1653 ; he found it as intract- 
 able as Charles had found his parliaments, and he abruptly dissolved 
 it in the following January, in direct contradiction to the advice of 
 Whitelock and his friends generally, who recollected the abuse that 
 had been poured upon King Charles under similar circumstances. In 
 1656 his successes at home and abroad encouraged him to assemble 
 another parliament. Ireland, being in the hands of the army, elected 
 such officers as he nominated ; Scotland was nearly equally subservient 
 to him ; still the majority was unfavourable to his policy. The next 
 step was difficult. He ordered the doors of the House of Commons to 
 be guarded, and that no member should be admitted unless h<j 
 produced an order from his council. Thisi he excluded nearly one 
 
413 
 
 CROMWELL, OLIVER. 
 
 CROMWELL, RICHARD. 
 
 '144 
 
 hundred members who were obnoxious to him. Thus ' purified,' this 
 assembly voted a renunciation of all title to the throne in the family 
 of the Stuarts ; and Colonel Jephson moved that the crown should be 
 bestowed upon Cromwell. A conference was soon afterwards appointed 
 (1657), at which the Protector's scruples respecting the assumption of 
 the title of king were stated and argued. His mind was wavering 
 whether he should accept or whether he should forbear. But his 
 prudence ultimately prevailed ; he knew that the danger of acceding 
 would be imminent, while the increase of power would be trifling ; the 
 odium in which the army had been taught to hold the regal title 
 could never be overcome, and therefore he consented unwillingly to 
 reject it. The proposition for a house of lords, which accompanied 
 the offer of the crown to himself, he however adopted ; and an upper 
 house of sixty-three persons was summoned, January 20th, 1658. But 
 this experiment failed ; the houses neither agreed with each other, nor 
 supported him ; and on the 4th of February, after a session of only a 
 fortnight, they were unceremoniously dissolved. 
 
 As Cromwell's treatment of his parliaments was arbitrary, so also 
 were his dealings with the courts of justice. He degraded three 
 judges, and so intimidated the barristers that they feared to uphold 
 clients whose causes were contrary to the Protector's wishes. To give an 
 instance of this oppression — One Cory having refused to pay the heavy 
 tax of ten per cent, which was ordered to be levied upon the property 
 of all royalists, sued the collector. Three eminent counsel, Maynard. 
 Twisden, and Wyndham, were employed in his cause ; but Cromwell, 
 without suffering them to enter into their argument, sent them to the 
 Tower even for accepting the brief. Sir Peter Wentworth having 
 brought a similar action, was asked by the council if he would give it 
 up. " If you command me," he replied to Cromwell, " I must 
 submit." The Protector did command, and the action was with- 
 drawn. Equally tyrannical were the means which were used for the 
 erection of the courts, by which, in 1654, Gerard and Vowel, and, in 
 1658, Sliugsby and Hewit, were brought to the scaffold. These, and 
 similar acts, rendered Cromwell hateful to a large number of his 
 subjects. He had suppressed some royalist insurrections at Salisbury, 
 and executed the leaders in 1655 ; but now he entertained fears from 
 the republicans also. Major Wildman, a republican, was arrested for 
 a conspiracy against him ; and such was the ill-will shown to him by 
 the democratic soldiery as to cause anxiety for his personal safety. 
 One Sindercome, who by an accident alone had been prevented from 
 murdering him, was arrested and condemned ; but he committed 
 suicide before the day appointed for his execution. 
 
 The foreign policy of the protector was magnanimous, enterprising, 
 and ultimately successful. He interfered more than would be regarded 
 as tolerable now ; but his interferences were generally to protect the 
 oppressed ; and by his firmness and prudence he made his govern- 
 ment respected by foreign princes as scarcely any English government 
 had ever been before. Many memorable victories were achieved under 
 the parliament and under CromwelL " It is just to say," observes 
 Mr. Hallam ('Const. Hist.,' vol. ii.), "that the maritime glory of 
 England may first be traced from the era of the Commonwealth in a 
 track of continuous light." A treaty, consequent on the successes of 
 Blake, was honourably concluded with the Dutch. An expedition, 
 more politic than just, was made against the West India colonies of 
 Spain; it ended in failure and disappointment, although it gained for 
 England the island of Jamaica, a greater and more advantageous pos- 
 session than many triumphs have produced. An alliance was con- 
 cluded with France in 1655 to act in conjunction against the Spanish 
 forces in the Low Countries; Mardyke and Dunkirk were taken, and 
 the Spaniards were afterwards wholly defeated at Dunes. Denmark, 
 Portugal, and Sweden eagerly sought the protector's friendship; am- 
 bassadors flocked to his court, bearing the most conciliatory and 
 adulatory messages. The anxiety of all princes to be allied with so 
 recent an usurper is in fact not a little remarkable. The servility of 
 eome powers was extreme, as has been proved by several curious 
 instances which have been collected by Mr. Harris. (' Life of Crom- 
 well,' p. 352; and see the Appendix to Guizot's 'Life of Cromwell.') 
 
 Towards the end of his life, Cromwell appears to have become 
 moody and suspicious. He knew that he had few personal adherents, 
 that his life was in danger from the more unscrupulous of both the 
 parties whose hopes he had crushed, and all whose machinations he 
 had hitherto discovered and thwarted. He saw too that neither in 
 his own family nor among the public servants were there any fitted to 
 carry on the work he had commenced. That he was personally un- 
 popular, that his government was hateful to the people, he could have 
 little doubt; and no wonder is it therefore that as he felt age rapidly 
 coming on and health failing he should have grown melancholy, and 
 looked with gloomy anticipations to the future. His death was 
 hastened by that of his favourite daughter, Lady Claypole, who died 
 at Hampton Court, August 6, 1658, aged twenty-nine. A fortnight 
 later he himself was stricken down by fever. By the advice of his 
 physicians, he was removed for better air to Whitehall, and there he 
 died, on the 3rd of September 1658, the anniversary of the victory of 
 Dunbar, and of the 'crowning glory' of Worcester. His body was laid 
 in state at Somerset House, and then buried with the utmost possible 
 solemnity in that famous sepulchre of the kings, Henry VII. 's Chapel 
 at Westminster. But after the restoration his corpse was disinterred, 
 and having been by the orders of the poor-spirited monarch first hung 
 
 on the gallows at Tyburn, the head was fixed upon a pole at West- 
 minster Hall, and the rest of the poor remains were thrust into a hole 
 at the foot of the gallows. 
 
 The character of Cromwell has formed a fertile subject for historians 
 and essayists. We have no intention to add to the number. It may 
 be enough hero to remark that the real greatness of the man, whatever 
 be thought of his conduct in seizing on the supreme authority, is now 
 becomiug more and more generally understood and acknowledged by 
 thoughtful men of all shades of opinion. For this better appreciation 
 of Cromwell, much is undoubtedly due to his ' Letters and Speeches,' 
 as edited and ' elucidated ' by Carlyle ; and to that work we refer the 
 student who is desirous of coming as near as may be to the inner 
 workings of Cromwell's mind, and of understanding the real signifi. 
 cance of this great period in English history. He will do well also 
 to peruse carefully the calm and impartial examination of Cromwell 
 and his times by one of the most distinguished of living French states- 
 men, M. Guizot, whose position and experience, no less than hia 
 attainments and ability, eminently qualify him for such a task. 
 
 The resemblance between the fortunes of Cromwell and of him who 
 in more recent times raised himself from insignificance to a throne, is 
 strong enough to strike the generality of readers. Mr. Hallam has 
 stated (' Const. Hist.') the most striking points in the parallel. But 
 the conclusion of Bonaparte's life was very unlike that of the Pro- 
 tector ; the fortunes of one had declined for years before his death, 
 the other retained his authority to the last hour. 
 
 Cromwell left six children, two sons and four daughters. Of the 
 daughters, Bridget was twice married, first to Ireton, and afterwards 
 to Fleetwood ; Elizabeth was the wife of John Clayton, Esq. ; Mary 
 married Lord Fauconberg ; and Frances was wife first to Mr. Rich and 
 afterwards to Sir John Russell of Chippenham. The sons are noticed 
 below. His widow survived till 1665, when she died in the house of 
 her son-in-law Claypole, at Norborough in Lincolnshire. 
 
 (Clarendon, Hint, of Rebellion ; Hallam, Const. Hist.; Noble, Memoirs 
 of Cromwell's Family ; Tracts on the Civil Wars; Harris, Life of Oliver 
 Cromwell; Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches ; Southey; 
 Guizot ; Villemain ; and the various Histories of England.) 
 
 CROMWELL, RICHARD, the third son of Oliver Cromwell the 
 Protector, but the eldest that survived him, was born at Huntingdon 
 on the 4th of October 1626. He was educated at Felstead, in Essex, 
 with his brothers Henry and Oliver, and thence removed to Lincoln's 
 Inn, where he was admitted in 1647. His study of the law was only 
 nominal, his time being in fact to a great extent wasted in the pursuit 
 of pleasure. Although he had arrived at an age when it would have 
 been most natural for him to have desired to join his father's troops, 
 he appears to have shown little inclination to do so. Besides indolence 
 and apathy, many causes have been assigned for this want of enter- 
 prise ; some have supposed that his father would not suffer him to 
 take arms ; others, that Richard Cromwell's political opinions differed 
 from the Protector's ; and that as his companions were chiefly cava- 
 liers, and the king's health had often been drunk at their carousals, 
 he was favourable to the royal rather than the parliamentary cause. 
 There is however no clear evidence to prove this last fact, unless we 
 may reckon as such the fact that Richard, averse to spilling blood, 
 when the king was condemned, petitioned his father for a remission 
 of the sentence. 
 
 At the age of twenty-three he married Dorothy, the eldest daughter 
 of Richard Major, Esq., of Hursley, in Hampshire, a lady sprung from 
 a cood family, endowed with many virtues, and possessed of a con- 
 siderable fortune. This change in his circumstances induced him to 
 leave his residence in London, and to establish himself at Hursley, 
 where he lived in complete retirement, following the sports of the 
 field and other rural pursuits. As soon however as Oliver Cromwell 
 was made Protector, he called Richard from his obscurity, and nomi- 
 nated him for the counties of Monmouth and Southampton, for which 
 he was elected member of parliament in 1654. His appointment as 
 first lord of trade and navigation followed his election. In 1656, he 
 was again chosen member of parliament for Hampshire and the 
 University of Cambridge ; and in the following year succeeded his 
 father in the chancellorship of Oxford. 
 
 An accident now befel him which nearly cost him his life. After 
 a levee held by the Protector, whilst he and other members of parlia- 
 ment were standing on the upper steps within the banqueting-house, 
 the supporters gave way, and the whole staircase fell with an alarming 
 crash ; youth and a good constitution alone enabled him to recover 
 from the fractures and other iujuries that he sustained. After his 
 health was restored, his father, still anxious for his elevation, made 
 him a privy councillor, a colonel in the army, and leader of the 
 newly-constituted House of Lords. When his father felt that his life 
 was drawing to a close, in the summer of 1658, he sent for his eldest 
 son to attend him in his sickness. Richard Cromwell immediately 
 obeyed the summons, and found the symptoms of his father's illness 
 such as to make him extremely apprehensive for its result. In a 
 letter written in August to a friend near Abingdon (' Pari. Hist.' 21, 
 p. 223), he expresses in feeling and sensible terms the fears which he 
 entertained for his life. On the 3rd of September 1658, Oliver 
 Cromwell died, and on the next day Richard Cromwell received the 
 sceptre of the Commonwealth. 
 
 For a short time the peace of the kingdom was undisturbed, and 
 
446 
 
 CROMWELL, HENRY. 
 
 CROMWELL, THOMAS. 
 
 416 
 
 respect was paid to the new Protector at home by his subjects, and 
 abroad by all foreign states. Thurloe, Whitelock, and Broghill were 
 his chief counsellors, and in ordinary circumstances they would have 
 made judicious advisers. But they were, in the face of so many 
 opposing elements, incompetent to their task : and Richard Cromwell 
 was wholly devoid of the energy which his affairs demanded. In 
 such hauds tranquillity could not long be maintained : the aspect of 
 affairs very soon began to change. Discontents prevailed ; the want 
 of resources was felt; it became necessary to call a parliament (1659), 
 for there was in the treasury no money with which to fulfil the en- 
 gagements with foreign princes, that had been entered into by the 
 late Protector. It was feared that the elections would go against the 
 court j and every means were therefore taken to bias them. Oliver 
 Cromwell's reformed model of representation was abandoned, and the 
 right of returning members was restored to small boroughs, which, 
 from gratitude, it was thought would be favourable to the court : but 
 notwithstanding this, and all the other efforts of the government, the 
 number of presbyterian and republican members nearly equalled that 
 of the ministerial party. In the parliament, then, the weakness of 
 the Protector's government was most apparent. Still it was to this 
 body that he must trust ; for in the army he had scarce auy friends 
 at all ; the whole republican party were combining against his 
 authority ; Lambert was intriguing for his overthrow : even Fleet- 
 wood, his own brother-in-law, joined the discontented officers, whose 
 faction, from the name of Fleetwood's house, in which they met, was 
 called the 'Cabal of Wallingford House.' Richard, who possessed 
 neither penetration nor resolution, took no step to subdue these 
 rebels ; the parliament, more alarmed, took the case in their own 
 hands. A vote was passed that no council of officers should assemble 
 without the Protector's consent: this brought the rupture to a crisis. 
 The army demanded the dissolution of the parliament, which the 
 Protector wanted resolution to deny. The dissolution was equivalent 
 to his dethronement, and he soon afterwards signed his demission 
 in form (22nd April 1659). His brief reign ended, Richard Crom- 
 well descended into humble life, to the enjoyment of which his 
 feeble unambitious character was better adapted than to the posses- 
 sion of power. He had no qualities which fitted him to ride. He 
 was burdened with debts, arising partly from the pompous funeral 
 of his father, the cost of which, amounting to 28,0002., the state 
 unworthily suffered to descend upon bim. To assist him in these 
 difficulties, the parliament voted him 20,0002., annexing a condition 
 that he should leave the palace of Whitehall. In consequence of 
 this grant, he retired to Hampton Court, but so small a portion of the 
 money was paid, that he was still in danger of being arrested by his 
 creditors. To leave England was his only method of escape from 
 them, and accordingly he resided sometimes in Geneva and sometimes 
 at Paris. At length he ventured to return to this country : a house 
 was hired for him at Cheshunt, near London, where at first he con- 
 cealed himself under a feigned name, and continued to live in strict 
 privacy, until July 13, 1712, when he died in his eighty-sixth year. 
 
 Richard Cromwell was the father of two sons and seven daughters : 
 four of his children died young, and two only survived him. 
 
 (Hallam, Const. Hist. ; Noble's Memoirs; Guizot, History of Richard 
 Cromwell and the Restoration — especially the valuable documents in 
 the Appendix ; and the various Histories.) 
 
 CROMWELL, HENRY, the fourth son of Oliver Cromwell, Lord 
 Protector, but the second and youngest that survived him, was born 
 at Huntingdon in January 1627-28. He was educated at Felstead in 
 Essex, and early enrolled in the parliamentary army. In 1649, having 
 become a colonel, he went with his father to Ireland, where he behaved 
 with considerable gallantry. He was one of the members for that 
 kingdom in the Bare-Bones Parliament. He married in 1653 a 
 daughter of Sir Francis Russell of Chippenham in Cambridgeshire, 
 and resided at Whitehall until he was appointed Lord Deputy of 
 Ireland, being at the time (1654) a member for the University of 
 Cambridge. During the following year he was again sent to Ireland. 
 It had become absolutely necessary that the estates and property of 
 the natives should be protected from the rapacity of the republican 
 leaders, who were aggrandising themselves at their expense ; and 
 Henry Cromwell was considered a fit person to undertake this task, 
 both on account of his general abilities and the great esteem in which 
 he was held in that country. The expectations of his friends were 
 not disappointed, for the state received considerable benefit from his 
 services as soon as he succeeded Fleetwood in his office. The impossi- 
 bility of procuring money from England, and the limitations of his 
 power, materially diminished his usefulness. At length, from these 
 causes, his government became so irksome to him that his letters are 
 one series of complaints, interspersed with offers to resign. Still 
 further mortification however was in store for him. When his 
 brother Richard became Protector, the council, over which he had 
 little or no control, contracted still further the power of Henry Crom- 
 well, who, in exchange for the title of Lord Deputy, received that of 
 Lord Lieutenant — a miserable recompense for his lost authority. 
 
 After the deposition of his brother, Henry Cromwell was desirous 
 of keeping Ireland for the king, and it was not until his submission 
 Was forcibly required by the parliament, that his object was finally 
 relinquished. Henry now retired to Chippenham, whence in five or 
 six years he removed to his estate at Soham in Cambridgeshire, where 
 
 he spent the remainder of his days, and died on the 25th of March 
 1674-75. Henry Cromwell had fivi3 sons and two daughters: one of 
 his children died young; the rest survived him. 
 
 CROMWELL, THOMAS, was born at Putney, near London, where, 
 as is said, his father was a blacksmith, and afterwards a brewer. The 
 date of his birth is not recorded, but it was probably about 1490. 
 He was taught reading, writing, and a little Latin ; and as soon as he 
 grew up went to the continent, where he learned several foreign 
 languages. He became clerk in an extensive factory at Antwerp, 
 whence he was taken to Rome (1510) by some citizens of Boston in 
 Lincolnshire, who thought that he would be of assistance to them in 
 some business that they had with the pope. During this journey he 
 learned by heart Erasmus's translation of the New Testament, and he 
 continued to improve himself during his residence in Italy. Foxe 
 states that Cromwell was present at the sack of Rome by the Duke of 
 Bourbon, but this must be erroneous, as that event did not occur till 
 1527, whereas it is almost certain that he was in the service of Wolsey 
 as early as 1525. Dr. Lingard says that " in his early youth Cromwell 
 served as a trooper in the wars of Italy, and from the army passed to 
 the service of a Venetian merchant,'' on quitting whom he returned 
 to England. It is in fact highly probable that he returned to England 
 in or about 1517, as somewhere about that time he married the 
 daughter and heiress of Sir John Prior, knight, and widow of a Welsh 
 gentleman named Williams. On his return to England Cromwell was 
 received into Cardinal Wolsey's house, became hi3 solicitor, and the 
 chief agent in the foundation of his colleges at Oxford and Ipswich. 
 He was also chosen a member of the House of Commons, where he 
 increased his fame by his defence of Wolsey, who had there been 
 indicted for treason. After the cardinal's disgrace, Cromwell was 
 taken into the service of the king; in 1531 he was knighted, and made 
 privy-councillor and master of the jewel-house. It is said that about 
 this time Cromwell first suggested to Henry the project of throwing 
 off the supremacy of the pope in ecclesiastical affairs. Certain it is 
 that from this time he became the close confidant and adviser of the 
 king, and that he rapidly rose to the most important offices in the 
 state. In 1532 he became clerk of the hanaper in the Court of 
 Chancery, and afterwards chancellor of the exchequer; in 1534 he 
 was principal secretary of state, master of the rolls, and chancellor of 
 the university of Cambridge ; in 1535, visitor-general of English 
 monasteries ; and in 1536 keeper of the privy seal. He now resigned 
 the mastership of the rolls, and was created Baron Cromwell of Okeham 
 in Rutlandshire, and appointed vicar-general and vicegerent, in all 
 religious matters the next in authority to the king, who was now the 
 supreme head of the English church. His friendship with Cranmer 
 was intimate, and their views respecting the Reformation very similar. 
 It being Cromwell's object to destroy the pope's authority, he circu- 
 lated new articles of faith, and enjoined the clergy to preach the king's 
 supremacy, to remove images from their altars, and to promote the 
 religious education of all young persons, teaching them the Creed, the 
 Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments. He commanded English 
 Bibles to be placed in the churches, and took active means for the 
 dissolution of the monasteries. These alterations, together with the 
 great increase of his wealth, some of which it was suspected that he 
 obtained by dishonest means, rendered him extremely unpopular, so 
 that there were not wanting many enemies who endeavoured to pre- 
 judice the king against him. The king's esteem for him could not 
 however be shaken : in 1537 he was appointed chief justice of all 
 forests beyond Trent, and in August in the same year was elected 
 knight of the garter, and nominated dean of Wells. The long list of 
 Cromwell's titles and official appointments is still far from completed. 
 In 1538 he was made constable of Carisbrook castle, and obtained a 
 grant of the castle and lordship of Okeham. About this time he issued 
 various injunctions [CranmkrJ to the clergy, by one of which parish- 
 registers were established ; and in 1539, after having received from the 
 king some thirty monastic manors and valuable estates, he was created 
 Earl of Essex, and named lord chamberlain of England ; at the same 
 time Gregory, his son, obtained the barony of Okeham. 
 
 Hitherto there had been little check to the career of Cromwell's 
 prosperity : his favour at Court had always been sufficient to stifle 
 any popular complaints, but he now became aware that both Cranmer 
 and himself were declining in the royal estimation. Gardiner (bishop 
 of Winchester) and his party had gained some ascendancy over the 
 king, and in proportion as the power of these advocates of the Roman 
 Catholic faith increased, the influence of the reformers declined, and 
 both they and their doctrines became unacceptable at court. In 
 order to regain his former ground, or at least to intrench himself 
 firmly in the powerful position which he still retained, Cromwell lost 
 no opportunity of promoting Henry's marriage with Anne of Cleves, 
 taking care to set before the king, as often as circumstances permitted, 
 the many advantages which would arise from such a union. The 
 cause of Cromwell's great zeal was this : Anne and all her friends 
 were Lutherans, and Cromwell counted upon great support from a 
 queen of his own choice, whose religious opinions were in direct oppo- 
 sition to the Roman Catholics. The complete failure of this scheme 
 became the ruin of its contriver. An aversion to the promoter of 
 the marriage quickly followed the king's disgust and disappointment 
 at his ugly bride, and Henry now willingly opened his ears to the 
 flood of complaints which were poured into them from every quarter, 
 
 I 
 
147 
 
 CROTCH, WILLIAM. 
 
 CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE. 
 
 us 
 
 To the laity Cromwell was hateful, on account of the oppressive 
 subsidies that he had raised notwithstanding the large sums which 
 had accrued from the dissolution of the monasteries ; to the nobility 
 he was still more odious, on account of the titles and power that he 
 had obtained notwithstanding the meanness of bis birth ; and to the 
 Roman Catholics he was an object of aversion and horror, on account 
 of the Frotestant doctrines that he held and promulgated. As soon 
 then as it was apparent that the capricious king, who had elevated 
 him from an humble individual to be the most powerful subject in 
 the realm, was no longer willing to support him, his downfal was 
 certain. The numerous important acts of his administration supplied 
 his enemies with abundant proofs of malversation and treason. He 
 was arrested on the 10th of June 1540, and committed to prison. 
 The letters that he wrote to the king praying for mercy were disre- 
 garded, though the king read them thrice over : he was accused on 
 the 17th of June in the House of Lords, which sent the bill of attainder 
 down to the House of Commons on the 19th. Here some objections 
 were raised against the bill ; but after a delay of ten days a new bill 
 was framed by the Commons, which the Lords afterwards passed. 
 This bill contained twelve articles of impeachment, accusing him, 
 among other crimes, of being " the most false and corrupt traitor and 
 deceiver that had been known in that reign," " of being a detestable 
 heretic," and " of having acquired innumerable sums of money and 
 treasure by oppression, bribery, and extortion." To these accusations 
 he was not allowed to answer in court, for fear, as it may be supposed, 
 that he would prove the king's orders, directions, or consent for doing 
 many things of which he was accused. He was kept in close custody 
 for six weeks, when any hope that he might have entertained of a 
 reprieve was put an end to ; the charms of Catherine Howard and 
 the endeavours of the Duke of Norfolk and the Bishop of Winchester 
 prevailed, and the king signed a warrant for his execution, which 
 took place on Tower Hill on the 28th of July 1540. Thus fell this 
 great minister, of whom, as indeed of most of his contemporaries, 
 very opposite characters have been handed down to us by historians. 
 His virtues are greatly magnified by the advocates of the Reforma- 
 tion, his vices by its opponents. It appears doubtful, from a speech 
 that he made at his death, in which religion he died ; but it is very 
 probable that he was a Lutheran, and that he used the term Catholic 
 Faith (which some have held was intentionally ambiguous in his 
 speech and afterwards in Cranmer's) in the Lutheran meaning of the 
 term. Cromwell was no patriot : his own interest, elevation, and 
 aggrandisement seem always to have been uppermost in his thoughts. 
 He was ambitious, unscrupulous, rapacious, hypocritical, and sus- 
 picious. To counterbalance these evil qualities he had few virtues. 
 He is said to have shown cruelty in the condemnation and execution 
 of some heretics, but he could scarce have been without benevolence, 
 for about 200 persons (Stow's 'Survey') were fed twice a day at his 
 gate. He had a powerful understanding; a clear insight into political 
 affairs ; a very retentive memory ; and his attention to business was 
 frequent and assiduous. He was the promoter of many useful altera- 
 tions in the laws, and especially in those respecting the church. 
 These were his chief merits. In passing judgment upon him, the 
 remembrance of the reckless tyrannical caprice of his master, of the 
 rapidity of his own advancement, together with the licentiousness of 
 the times, should enhance the value of his merits, and temper our 
 condemnation of his crimes. 
 
 (Foxe, Acts and Monuments; Stow, Annals; Strype, Memorials ; 
 Lord Herbert, and other Histories of England; Burnet, Reform.; 
 Collier, Ecclcsias. Hist.) 
 
 CROSSE, ANDREW. [See vol. vi col. 989.] 
 
 CROTCH, WILLIAM, Doctor of Music, was born in 1775, in the 
 city of Norwich. While yet a child, he exhibited faculties of musical 
 perception and execution which were quite marvellous, and rival those 
 of Mozart. An account of his precocious talents was given by 
 Dr. Burney, author of the ' History of Music,' and is printed in the 
 ' Philosophical Transactions ' for 1779, when the infant prodigy was 
 only four years of age. Some anecdotes are also extant, written by 
 the Hon. Daines Barrington, who says, " I first heard little Crotch on 
 the 10th of December 1778, when he was only three years and a half 
 old." The following notices are extracted from the memoranda 
 which he made on returning home : " Plays ' God save the King ' 
 and 'Minuet de la Cour' almost throughout with chords; reaches a 
 sixth with his little finger; cries 'no,' when I purposely introduced a 
 wrong note ; delights in chords and running notes for the bass; plays 
 for ten minutes extemporary passages, which have a tolerable con- 
 nection with each other; seldom looks at the harpsichord, and yet 
 generally hits the right intervals, though distant from each other. 
 His father is an ingenious carpenter of Norwich, and had made an 
 organ. His organ rather of a hard touch. Many of his passages 
 hazarded and singular, some of which he executed by his knuckles, 
 tumbling his hands over the keys. The accuracy of this child's ear is 
 such that he not only pronounces immediately what note is struck, 
 hut in what key the music is composed." 
 
 As Crotch advanced in years he became a profound theorist and a 
 Bkilful composer. In 1797, at the early age of twenty-two, he was 
 appointed Professor of Music in the University of Oxford, and the 
 university also conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Music. In 
 1822 he was appointed Principal of the Royal Academy of Music. 
 
 He performed in public for the last time in 1834 in Westminster 
 Abbey, during the royal festival, when he presided at the organ on 
 the third day. Dr. Crotch composed a very large number of pieces 
 for the organ and pianoforte, the opera of ' Palestine,' and some 
 pleasing vocal pieces, among which may be mentioned the fine ode for 
 five voices, ' Moua on Snowdou calls.' He also published ' Elements 
 of Musical Composition and Thorough-Bass,' 1812, and ' Specimens of 
 various Styles of Music of all Ages,' 3 vols. 
 
 Dr. Crotch, during the latter years of his life, resided at Taunton, 
 Somersetshire, with his son, the Rev. W. R. Crotch, master of the 
 free grammar-school. He died December 29, 1847, when Bitting at 
 the dinner-table. 
 
 CROWNE, JOHN, an industrious play-writer, of the time of 
 Charles II., was the son of an Independent preacher in Nova Scotia. 
 Coming to England, and serving an old lady for some time as gentle- 
 man-usher, he next became an author by profession. He had the 
 equivocal honour of being brought forward by the Earl of Rochester, 
 as a dramatic rival of Dryden ; and, even after he had been cast ofl 
 by his capricious patron, he retained the court favour he had gained. 
 His satires on the Whigs, especially in one of his comedies, were about 
 to be rewarded by a post or pension, when he was disappointed by 
 the king's death. The latter part of his life is very obscure ; but he 
 is believed to have died soon after 1703. He left in print seventeen 
 plays. The tragedies, rhymed and bombastic, are among the worst 
 specimens of the corrupt taste which then ruled in the drama. In 
 the construction of the plots they and his comedies are alike per- 
 plexed and undramatic. But the comedies are his best works, and 
 have some merit in their portraiture of characters. His two tragedies 
 entitled ' The Destruction of Jerusalem ' were highly popular when 
 first represented; and his comedy of 'Sir Courtly Nice,' translated or 
 imitated by him from the Spanish by desire of Charles II., was 
 oftener than once reprinted. 
 
 CROZIER, CAPTAIN FRANCIS RA.WDON MOIRA, second in 
 command of the ill-fated Franklin expedition, was born at Baubridge, 
 county Down, Ireland. He entered the navy in June 1810, and, under 
 the command of Sir Thomas Staines, he sailed in the 'Briton' to the 
 Pacific, and visited Pitcairn's Island, which was found peopled by the 
 descendants of the mutineers of the 'Bounty.' In 1824 he was 
 appointed master' s-mate of the ' Fury,' aud he accompanied Parry iu 
 three of his voyages to the Polar Sea. 
 
 In 1826 Mr. Crozier was made lieutenant, and was employed on the 
 coasts of Spain and Portugal till December 1835, when he sailed 
 with Captain (now feir) James Ross, to search for the missing 
 whalers in Baffin's Bay. His reputation for science, seamanship, and 
 fertility of resource, secured his promotion; and he commanded tiie 
 ' Terror ' in the expedition under Sir J. Ross for the exploration of 
 the antarctic regions, which sailed in 1839, and was absent three years. 
 In March 1845 he was re-commissioned to the 'Terror,' and sailed with 
 Franklin to discover the north-west passage : since which time h« has 
 not been heard of. He was in the prime of life on his departure, aud 
 died probably in his fiftieth year. He was a Fellow of the Royal aud 
 Astronomical societies. 
 
 CRUDEN, ALEXANDER. [See vol. vi. col. 990.] 
 
 * CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE, was born in London September 1792. 
 From his father, who was an artist of some standing, he acquired the 
 principles of design, probably also of caricature, as the elder Cruiksi auk 
 occasionally practised in that hue. But George was not brought up to 
 follow his father's profession, and it was some time before he hit upon 
 his right vocation : he is even said to have thought seriously of adopting 
 the theatrical calling, and for a while to have trod the stage. H:.- 
 earliest designs were made for publishers of cheap song and ohildrens' 
 books ; but his satiric vein soon came to the surface, aud in the 
 'Scourge,' and one or two other periodicals, he early showed his 
 proficiency that way. Having become acquainted with Mr. William 
 Hone, he found for some time abundant occupation in makiug designs 
 for the political and other publications of that gentleman. The 
 Queen's trial in particular afforded him ample matter. One work, 
 the ' Queen's Matrimonial Ladder,' for which he furnished the cute, so 
 caught the public fancy that it quickly ran through some fifty editions. 
 'Non MiRicordo,' the 'Political House that Jack Built,' the 'Political 
 Showman,' and ' A Slap at Slop, or the Bridge-Street Gang,' had nearly 
 equal success. But he soon began to tire of personal aud political 
 caricature, and after Mr. Hone ceased to publish works of that kind 
 (about 1823-24), Mr. Cruikshank we believe did not, with very rare 
 exceptions, make any more political designs. He now turned to the 
 illustration of humorous tales, and the delineation of passing follies. 
 Great as had been his success in his former field, it was more than 
 equalled iu this. There was a keenness of observation, a spirit and 
 variety of expression, and a genuine humour — iu a word, an unmistake- 
 able comic genius visible in these thoroughly original designs, which 
 every one felt to be irresistible. It may fairly be doubted whether 
 more hearty fun was ever embodied in designs than appeared in those 
 which flowed with marvellous rapidity from Mr. Cruikshank's pencil 
 between the years 1824-40. Before the first of these years he had 
 been designing with great skill, but somewhat coarsely, a variety; of 
 aquatint plates for such works as ' Tom and Jerry ' and ' Life in Pari a; 
 about the last-named year he sailed into the sentimental latitudes, aikd 
 spoiled his style by giving up his time to etching a series of cov.im 
 
CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB. 
 
 plates for ' Jack Sheppard ' and the ' Tower of London.' Among the 
 many admirable designs which belong to the intermediate period 
 may be mentioned — the ' Points of Humour,' the exquisite illustrations 
 to 'Peter Schlemihl,' and Grimm's 'German Tales;' the rough but 
 excellent sketches for Hone's ' Every-Day Book,' ' Tom Thumb,' 
 ' Three Courses and a Dessert,' and the ' Comic Almanac,' which he 
 sustained with undiminished ability for some dozen years; 'My 
 Sketch-Book,' 'Illustrations of Phrenology,' 'Illustrations of the 
 Novelists,' and the illustrations to 'Boz' and 'Oliver Twist.' Many 
 of these were etched by Mr. Cruikshank himself with a great mastery 
 over the needle, while some of those engraved on wood are among the 
 best examples in their way of the wood-engraver's art. 
 
 After Mr. Cruikshank had tired of the dreary horrors of the Jack 
 Sheppard school, he returned with all his old power to his former 
 style. But he now began to aspire to be a moral teacher, and in the 
 ' Bottle,' a series of eight plates, he illustrated, with as much earnest- 
 ness of purpose as Hogarth, the evils of gin-drinking. These plates, 
 of for him an unusually large size, were published at a very low price, 
 and had an enormous circulation. Their sale was zealously promoted 
 by the temperance societies, and made the subjects of popular addresses 
 and lectures. Mr. Cruikshank himself joined the teetotallers, and for 
 some years past he has given up a large portion of his time and energy 
 to the furtherance of the cause of total abstinence from intoxicating 
 drinks. He is one of the most frequent and effective speakers at 
 public meetings, and he enjoys among the members of the society a 
 remarkable amount of well-earned popularity. 
 
 During the last few years Mr. Cruikshank has chiefly occupied 
 himself professionally with painting in oil. Among the pictures he 
 has exhibited may be mentioned his ' Tarn O'Shanter,' ' Dressing for 
 the Day,' ' Titania and Bottom the Weaver,' ' A Runaway Knock,' 
 ' Cinderella,' and ' Disturbing the Congregation,' the last of which was 
 purchased by Prince Albert, and has been recently engraved. All of 
 these paintings show considerable humour and artistic skill, but they 
 will never win such hearty admirers as his inimitable little etchings 
 and wood-cuts. 
 
 CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB, a Swedish political and 
 miscellaneous writer, was born at Joukoping March 11th, 1795. His 
 grandfather, who had been ennobled by King Adolphus Frederic and 
 raised to a judicial post, was degraded and reduced to the bar in 1773 
 by Gustavus III., on account of his political opinions, which were 
 adverse to the ' regal revolution,' as it has been called, which had beeu 
 effected by that monarch. The grandson pursued for some time a 
 legal career, but was compelled to resign the offices he held in 1834, 
 and has since supported himself on the profits of his literary works, 
 and of a prize in the lottery which he was fortunate enough to win in 
 1837. For one of his works, ' Stallningar och Forhallanden ' (' Positions 
 and Relations '), which contained a series of anecdotes and observations 
 reflecting on the government, he was tried in 1838, and condemned to 
 three years' imprisonment in the fortress of Waxholm. His con- 
 demnation gave rise to a series of riots, which led to loss of life. 
 While undergoing his imprisonment, he composed his most popular 
 work, 'Morianen,' which, in the form of a romance, comprises in fact 
 an embellished history of the house of Holstein Gottorp on the throne 
 of Sweden. Another of his works, 'Carl Johan och Svenskarne ' 
 (' Charles John and the Swedes '), presents a picture of the times of 
 Bernadotte, extremely entertaining to read, but in which the reader is 
 continually at a loss to know how much is fact and how much fiction. 
 Another, the 'Historical Picture of the First Years of Gustavus IV.,' 
 is more satisfactory in this respect, as avowedly and entirely historical ; 
 its materials are chiefly taken from the manuscripts of the Tessin 
 library, which Crusenstolpe had purchased. A list of the whole of his 
 works, which are numerous, is given in Palmblad's 'Biographical 
 Lexicon.' [See Supplement.] 
 
 CRU'SIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST, a philosophical writer, who 
 enjoyed a great but transient reputation, was born on the loth of 
 January 1715, at Leuna, in Merseburg, and died October 18th, 1775, 
 first professor of theology at Leipzig. Hi-! design was a recon- 
 ciliation of philosophy with the orthodox theology. Considering the 
 Wolfian philosophy the great enemy of religion, he made that the 
 chief object of his attack. He was successful in exposing several of 
 the dogmatical assertions of his opponents, particularly what are 
 technically called the ontological and cosmological demonstrations of 
 the being of a God. Unfortunately however he set up a system even 
 more dogmatical than the one which he attempted to subvert, and he 
 had the mortification to outlive the reputation which he had acquired. 
 
 CRUZ, JUANA INES DE LA, the most celebrated poetess whom 
 Mexico has hitherto produced, and well known in Spain by the name 
 of ' the Nun of Mexico,' was born about twelve leagues from that city, 
 »t St. Miguel de Nepanthla, on the 12th of November 1651, and early 
 displayed an ardent love for knowledge. At five years of age she 
 could read and write, cypher, and sew; and soon after, when she was 
 told there was a university at Mexico, she begged her father, Don 
 Pedro de Asbaje, a Spaniard, to allow her to put on boy's clothes and 
 go there. When she was afterwards taken to live in that city, she 
 learned the Latin language in twenty lessons, and became such a pro- 
 ficient as to be able to write and speak it with fluency. She was 
 appointed one of the ladies in attendance on the Marchioness of Man- 
 cera, the wife of the viceroy of Mexico ; and on one occasion, when 
 
 CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER. *f0 
 
 she was seventeen, the marquis invited to an evening party forty of 
 the most learned men in Mexico, professors of mathematics, &c, and 
 brought her into conversation with them all. "Just as a royal galleon 
 would defend itself from an attack of boats," so the viceroy more 
 than once told her biographer Calleja, «' did sho disembarrass herself 
 of all the questions and arguments they could propose to her, each in 
 his own particular branch." It was at this age that she resolved to 
 become a nun ; and though favoured by nature, and repeatedly 
 besought in marriage, the principal objection that she felt to taking 
 the veil was a doubt whether it would be allowable in a nun to occupy 
 herself with books so much as she felt inclined to do. She lived 
 twenty-seven years in the convent of St. Jerome at Mexico, and died 
 on the 17th of April 1695 of the plague, leaving behind her a library 
 of 4000 volumes. Her works, of which six editions had appeared in 
 Spain before 1700 (and as many have been published since), extend 
 to three quarto volumes, and comprise a number of plays, most of 
 them on sacred subjects, but two of less serious character— one on the 
 story of ' Theseus and Ariadne,' the other, ' Los Empefios de una Casa,' 
 a comedy of the usual character of Spanish comedies, with the scene 
 laid at Madrid. Mrs. Hale, in her 'Woman's Record' (New York, 
 1853), gives some pretty and spirited verswi, translated from the Nun 
 of Mexico, directed against the unjust depreciation of her sex. She 
 was commonly called 'the Tenth Muse,' and the same title was 
 bestowed on the other American poetess, her contemporary, Anne 
 Bradstreet, of New England, who died in 1672, aged sixty, but whose 
 poems were published iu 1642, nine years before Ines was born. 
 CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT. [See vol. vi. col. 991.] 
 CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ, an eminent Hungarian poet, was 
 born at Debreczin, on the 17th of November 1773, and educated at 
 the college there, where Joseph Kovacs, who had published a very poor 
 translation of the ' ^Eneid,' was at that time professor of poetry. 
 Kovacs, who was in the habit of making all the pupils write verses, 
 whether they showed any talent for it or not, was surprised to find 
 one of them who at once surpassed himself, and was accustomed to 
 boast in after life that he had developed the talents of Csokonai. At 
 the age of twenty, the young poet, who was by that time well 
 acquainted with most of the leading literary men of Hungary, was 
 himself elected to the professorship. At the age of twenty-two he 
 was expelled for irregularities, of which it appears he was accused 
 with too much justice. The rest of his life was mainly a struggle 
 with poverty and ill-fortune, though his genius occasionally procured 
 him powerful patrons. His last chance of retrieval appears to have 
 been lost, when a lady of Presburg, whom he had celebrated under 
 the name of Lilla, and who at one time appears to have favoured his 
 suit, bestowed her hand on his rival, a merchant. After various wan- 
 derings to Pesth and Presburg, he died at Debreczin on the 28th of 
 January 1805, in the house of his mother, who, early left a widow, 
 had fostered his infant taste for reading, and now survived to superin- 
 tend the publication of some of his poems. His reputation has risen 
 higher since his death. There are several editions of his works, but 
 by far the best and completest is that by Schedel, which was issued 
 between 1844 and 1847, and forms part of the ' Nemze'ti Konyvtdr,' 
 or ' National Library,' a collection of the Hungarian classics issued 
 under the superintendence of the Kisfaludy Society. It contains 
 selections from his correspondence, and is accompanied by an excellent 
 'Life' from the pen of Schedel, from which the above particulars are 
 taken. Csokonai's productions, which are mostly of a comic and 
 lively cast, comprise a series of love-poems to Lilla, three plays of a 
 farcical character, and a burlesque epic entitled ' Dorottya,' the name 
 of the heroine. Schedel has judiciously omitted to reprint some 
 poems, which Csokonai ought never to have written. 
 
 CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER, is the form of name assumed 
 in his published works, all of which are in English, by a scholar of 
 Hungarian or rather of Transylvanian birth, whose name in his own 
 language is written Korosi Csoma Sandor. He was born not long 
 before 1790 at Koros in the district of Transylvania, inhabited by the 
 race callea Szeklers, supposed by many to be descendants of the 
 ancient Huns. His parents, though of noble birth, were extremely 
 poor, and their son received his education gratuitously at the college 
 of Nagy-Enyed, the main support of which we are informed by Paget, 
 the English traveller, is derived from a subscription raised some time 
 ago in England, the proceeds of which, still lodged in the Bank of 
 England, are sufficient to afford the college at the present day a 
 revenue of 1000?. a year. There has always been among the Hunga- 
 rians a great curiosity to learn from what country their ancestors 
 originally came. That they were of Asiatic origin is generally admitted, 
 rumours have been often current that tribes had been found in the 
 Russian possessions in Asia speaking a language akin to the Magyar, 
 which is common to the greater part of Hungary and Transylvania, 
 and among others Klaproth, the Chinese scholar, has brought forward 
 various grounds for believing that the Asiatic nation called by Arabian 
 mediasval writers the Uigurs, must have been the same as the Magyars 
 with a slightly altered name. These investigations and speculations 
 took a strong hold of the fancy of the youug Csoma de Koros. He 
 often talked of them when a boy, and when he was about eighteen 
 he told two of his school companions that he meant to travel across 
 Asia to seek out the country of their ancestors. As he grew older 
 however he ceased to say much on the subject, probably from finding 
 
 2g* 
 
#SJ CSOMA.DE KOROS, ALEXANDER. 
 
 that it exposed him to ridicule, and it was supposed that he had 
 dropped his intention. In 1815 he went to Gbttingen ostensibly to 
 etudy medicine, but in reality his chief view was to acquire a 
 sufficient knowledge of oriental languages to qualify him for his 
 purposes of travel. It was in 1820, when he was upwards of thirty 
 years of age, that he set out on his pilgrimage. His friend Hegedus, 
 one of the professors at Enyed, was surprised to hear from him one 
 ovening when he walked into his room lightly clad and with a little 
 stick in his hand, as if about to set out on a country walk, that he came 
 to take his leave, as he meant to start for the East to-morrow. He 
 had received from his friend Michael Kenderesy, one of the few who 
 encouraged him, a contribution of 100 florins (about 101), and a 
 promise of another 100 yearly, and on this and the produce of his 
 medical skill he meant to rely for subsistence. 
 
 The friends had an animated conversation that evening, and the 
 next morning Hegedus, who relates these particulars in an obituary 
 notice which he wrote of Csoma, accompanied him part of his way, 
 and followed him with his eyes to the banks of the Maros. He never 
 saw him more. Almost the next news that the Transylvanians had of 
 Csoma was in a letter from Teheran, dated the 21st of December 
 1820, addressed to the patrons of the college of Enyed. In this he 
 mentioned that instead of going direct to Asia, he had, after crossing 
 the Balkan and visiting Constantinople, embarked for Alexandria, 
 probably to consult the Arabic libraries at Cairo, and traversing 
 Egypt and Syria, concluded the first year of his travels at Teheran. 
 He was at the time of writing the letter sanguine of finding the 
 object of his search, a nation speaking Hungarian, at no great distance 
 of either time or place, and thought he should be home in about a 
 twelvemonth. Years went by after this and nothing was heard of 
 him, and then a flying rumour came from India that some great 
 Hungarian scholar was studying Tibetan in one of the monasteries of 
 Tibet. At Teheran, where Csoma was very kindly assisted by the 
 English envoy Sir Henry Willock, he appears, on hearing five or six 
 words of Tibetan, to have been struck with their resemblance to 
 Magyar, and to have resolved to master the language. Taciturn in 
 his habits, and peculiarly averse to speaking of himself, he never gave 
 even his friends any but the most general account of the years he 
 spent in Tibet. It is only known that he wandered across Little 
 Bucharia to the desert of Gobi, that partly with Moorcroft, the 
 English traveller, who died before his return, and partly alone, he 
 traversed many of the valleys of the Himalaya, and that he spent four 
 years from 18^7 to 1830 in the Buddhist monastery of Kanam, deeply 
 engaged in the study of Tibetan. For four months of this time he 
 never stirred out of a room nine feet square, in which he remained 
 without fuel, with the temperature below the zero of Fahrenheit, 
 studying from morning till night the Buddhist sacred books. He 
 had written down 40,000 Tibetan words, when, in 1830, he left the 
 mountains to carry his stores of learning to Calcutta, and there a dis- 
 covery awaited him which he afterwards declared occasioned him the 
 bitterest moments in his life. He had soon found that there was no 
 real resemblance between Tibetan and Magyar, but he prosecuted the 
 study in the hope that the literature of the language would throw 
 some light on the early history of the nation of which he was in 
 quest, and now learned from the scholars of Calcutta that the litera- 
 ture of Tibet consisted of translations from the Sanscrit, a language 
 which he might have studied with ease at home. The disappoint- 
 ment was so bitter that it threw him on a bed of sickness, but there 
 were consolations in store for him. His studies in the Buddhist 
 monasteries had made him well acquainted with the literature of the 
 Buddhist religion, to which Hodgson and Tumour were then begin- 
 ning to call attention, and on this subject Csoma became an oracle. 
 
 The library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal contained eleven 
 hundred volumes in Tibetan, which no one had hitherto been able to 
 catalogue. Csoma not only undertook the task, but when he was 
 paid for it, remarked that he should have been willing to pay if he 
 had been a rich man for the pleasure of making the catalogue. The 
 singular disinterestedness of his character, the frugality of his habits 
 and their eccentricity, his strange costume, which was always the 
 long warm blue cloak of Transylvania under an Indian sun, all made 
 him a noted personage in Indian society, which however he shunned 
 instead of courting. The Indian scholars, especially Prinsep and 
 Wilson, treated him with marked generosity and kindness ; he was 
 provided with apartments at the library of the Asiatic Society, and 
 for some time officiated as librarian ; his articles in English on subjects 
 of Tibetan literature were revised by Professor Wilson and published 
 in the journal of the Society, or in the 'Asiatic Researches,' and he 
 was engaged at the government expense to prepare a Tibetan grammar 
 and dictionary. From the Indian journals his" fame travelled home- 
 wards, and the Transylvanians were delighted to hear that their long- 
 missing countryman was now a celebrated scholar on the banks of 
 the Ganges. The Transylvanian diet voted him a sum of about 140Z. 
 for his support ; but Csoma, who received it with extreme gratifica- 
 tion as a token of his country's approval, had already more money 
 than he knew how to employ, and handed this over to Prinsep to 
 purchase Indian books and manuscripts to be presented to native 
 seats of learning on his return. He continued for some years at or 
 about Calcutta, diligently employed in the study of Sanscrit and 
 other languages, avoiding the society of Europeans, and for some 
 
 CSOMA DE KO-ROS, ALEXANDER, 
 
 time making only excursions of no great moment. In 1842 he pre- 
 pared for a final expedition to accomplish the great object of his life. 
 He was at that time convinced that the land of the Uigurs was to be 
 found to the east and north of Lassa, the capital of Eastern Tibet, 
 and on the western confines of China. On the 26th of March 1842 
 he arrived at Darjeeling on his way to Sikkim in Tibet, and Dr. 
 Campbell, the superintendent at that station, sent the vakeel of the 
 rajah of Sikkim to visit him, to convince himself that the rajah might 
 permit him to enter the country without danger. "The vakeel," 
 says Dr. Campbell, " who is a man of intelligence and some learning, 
 was altogether annoyed at finding a Feringhee a complete maBter of 
 the colloquial language of Tibet, and so much his own superior in 
 acquaintance with the religion and literature of that country." 
 While Csoma awaited at Darjeeling a reply to his application to the 
 rajah, he was seized with illness, refused to take medicine, grew 
 rapidly worse, and on the 11th of April expired without a groan or 
 struggle. 
 
 The news of his death was received with great regret throughout 
 India and Europe, and more especially in his native country. The 
 celebrated Hungarian novelist Eotvbs, the author of the ' Village 
 Notary,' the English translation of which was so successful a few 
 years ago, pronounced a funeral oration on him in October 1843, at 
 a meeting of the Hungarian Academy, of which in his absence Csoma 
 had been elected a member. It is from this oration that our par- 
 ticulars respecting his Hungarian life have been taken, those relating 
 to his career in India are chiefly derived from the Indian journals. 
 There is one passage in Eotvbs which an Englishman can hardly deDy 
 himself the gratification of giving at length. 
 
 " Proudly and majestically stands the British nation among the 
 nations of Europe ; the five parts of the globe acknowledge its power, 
 and its banner floats in command of the ocean; but it is not this 
 which constitutes the highest glory of Albion — which inspires every 
 thinking man with involuntary reverence at the mention of its name. 
 The constancy with which it contends for the triumphs of mind ; the 
 victories it has won in the field of humanity and science ; the kindred 
 feeling which every great thought, every lofty sentiment, the just 
 esteem which all true merit like that of Korosi excites in the English 
 nation, — this it is which identifies its existence with civilisation, its 
 supremacy with the supremacy of all that is high and noble ; which 
 makes its name great and glorious among the nations of the earth. 
 It is to the English nation that we stand indebted, after God, for the 
 glory that redounds to us from what was effected by Korosi. In 
 Teheran, Willock ; in Tibet, Moorcroft ; in Calcutta, Prinsep ; in Dar- 
 jeeling, Campbell — always and everywhere it was Englishmen who aided 
 our countryman with their advice and their benefits ; who, recognising 
 his merits, did heartily for him what his country could not do, or had 
 failed to do, for her illustrious son ; and if by the Tibetan Grammar 
 and Dictionary he redeemed his obligations, and could receive without 
 a blush the benefits of strangers, I yet discharge a sacred duty when, 
 in the name of this Academy, in the name of every admirer of Korosi, 
 in the name of the country at large, I publicly return our thanks to 
 the most glorious nation of this earth for the sympathy and assistance 
 which our countryman received at the hands both of its individual 
 citizens and of its government." 
 
 The original purpose of Csoma's travels to the East was not 
 attained. His example, however, has had imitators. Castren 
 [Castren], who travelled to Russia in search of the dialects of 
 Finnish, was, in fact, on the same quest as Csoma, as Finnish and 
 Hungarian are certainly connected, though the degree of their con- 
 nection, like that of the Tartar languages in general, is a fruitful sub- 
 ject of discussion. But in searching for one thing, the Transylvanian 
 traveller found another. He was not so unfortunate as he imagined 
 in having devoted himself to the study of Tibetan ; for, in doing so, 
 he stumbled on a new field. In Remusat's ' Recherches sur lea 
 laugues Tatares,' published in 1820, but which Csoma had not seen 
 till he saw it at Calcutta, the most unsatisfactory chapter is that on 
 Tibetan, in which he successfully demonstrates that all written on th« 
 subject by Fourmont and Georgi is a mass of blunders, but is unable 
 to point out what is to be substituted. The Dictionary of the Bho- 
 tanta language (another name for Tibetan), published by Marshman 
 at Serampore in 1826, from an Italian manuscript, is described as 
 worthless by Schmidt of St. Petersburg and Fougaux of Paris, the 
 two great living authorities on the subject of Tibetan, who, on the 
 contrary, unite in declaring that Csoma had completely entered into 
 the spirit of the language ; that his Dictionary is a standard work, and 
 that if they have succeeded in clearing up some points even more than 
 he did, it is to his guidance that they owe their proficiency. The 
 title of the work is characteristic, 'Essay towards a Dictionary 
 Tibetan and English : prepared with the assistance of Bande Sang*, 
 Rgyas Phun-Tshogs, a learned Lima of Zangskar, by Alexander Csomu 
 de Kerbs, Siculo-Hungarian of Transylvania, during a residence at 
 Kanam, in the Himalaya Mountains, on the confines of India and 
 Tibet, 1827-30.' It was published in one volume quarto at Calcutta, 
 in 1834, and the Grammar followed in the same year. The articles on 
 Tibetan literature by the author in the Journal of the A6iatio Society 
 of Bengal are numerous ; and his analysis of the Kah-Gyur, the 
 principal sacred book of the Buddhist religion, ia printed in tha 
 twentieth volume of the 'Asiatic Researches'. 'Ia the preface to hi» 
 
453 CTESIAS. 
 
 Dictionary, he insinuates that he had discovered a striking connection 
 between Sanscrit and Hungarian ; but his views on this subject are 
 not generally regarded as sound. In the course of his travels and 
 researches, Csoma had altogether studied seventeen or eighteen 
 languages, in several of which he was a proficient. His English is the 
 Enclish of a foreigner. 
 
 CTE'SIAS, the son of Ctesiochus, was a Greek physician aud 
 historian, who flourished about the end of the fifth century B.o. 
 He belonged to an Asclepiad house at Cnidos, but spent seventeen 
 years of his life at the court of Artaxerxes Mnemon. (Diodor. ii. 32.) 
 We gather from Tzetzes (Chil. i. 1, 82), that he was taken prisoner at 
 the battle of Cynaxa (401 B.C.), and Diodorus says that he was raised 
 from the situation of a captive to his post of royal physician ; but it 
 appears from Xenophon and Plutarch (' Anab.' i. 8, § 27 ; vit. 
 'Artaxerxes,' c. xi.) that he was one of Artaxerxes' immediate at- 
 tendants at that battle, so that of course he could not have fallen 
 into the hands of the Persians on that occasion. It is more probable 
 that the great estimation in which Greek physicians were held in 
 Persia, where they had, since the time of Democedes, completely 
 superseded the Egyptian practitioners, induced Ctesias to follow the 
 example of some of his countrymen, and betake himself to a country 
 where his art was so much more appreciated and so much better 
 rewarded than in Greece. Ctesias wrote — 1, 'Persian History,' in 
 twenty-three books, of which the first six treated of the Assyrian 
 monarchy, and the remainder carried down the history of Persia to 
 the year 398 B.C. (Diod. xiv. 46; and the end of the'Persica' in 
 Photius.) 2, 'Indian History,' in one book. 3, 'A Treatise on 
 Mountains.' 4, ' A Description of Sea-coasts.' 5, ' On the Revenues 
 of Asia.' 6, 'On Medicine.' We have many fragments of his his- 
 torical writings, especially of the ' Persian History,' which are maiuly 
 preserved in the ' Myriobiblon ' of Photius: there are also fragments 
 in Diodorus, ^Elian, and other writers. Diodorus says (ii. 32) that he 
 had accesstothe royal archives; but Aristotle, Plutarch, and Lucian, 
 charge him in strong terms with inaccuracy and falsehood. Mr. 
 Clinton thinks that Ctesias had no intention of misrepresenting, but 
 that his materials were not trustworthy ('Fasti Hellenici,' ii. p. 308); 
 and an elaborate justification of his general veracity has been at- 
 tempted by Bahr, in the introduction to the best edition of the 
 remains of this author which has yet appeared. Ctesias wrote 
 maiulv in the Ionic dialect. 
 
 CTESI'BIUS, an Alexandrian Greek who lived about BC. 150-120, 
 or, as some think, B.C. 250 ; the instructor of Hero, and the inventor of 
 vari' us hydraulic and other machine , according to Pliny Vitruvius, 
 Philo of Byzantium, Athenseus, &c. This is all we know of Ctesibius 
 except that he wrote various works, which are referred to by Vitruvius, 
 and cited (cap. 1) with those of Archimedes, where mention is made 
 of authors on physics. A manuscript of Geodesy is said to be in the 
 Vatican, aud another entitled 'Belopceica' in some English library 
 (Heilbronner is authority for both, who cites Possevinus 'Bibl. Sel.,' 
 edit Horn. c. 8, p. 201, and the catalogue of the Cambridge library (?) ). 
 There is a life of Ctesibius by Bernardino Baldi, Aug. Vend., 1614. 
 
 Besides a clepsydra of complex construction which is attributed to 
 Ctesibius by Vitruvius, the remaining inventions attributed to him 
 are the water organ, mentioned by Pliny and Vitruvius, a pump for 
 raising water, described by the Litter, and, according to Philo of By- 
 zantium, a machine similar in principle to the air-gun. But aM these 
 contrivances are imperfectly described, excepting only the pump, 
 which was like what we now call a forcing-pump. The water was 
 raised by exhaustion into a cylinder with an entering and issuing 
 valve : it entered by means of the former, and was expelled through 
 the latter by the descent of the piston. 
 
 CTE'SIPHON, an Athenian, son of Leosthenes, of the deme 
 Anajihlystus. He is known for a decree by which he proposed to 
 present Demosthenes with a golden crown as a public acknowledgment 
 of his services to the state. An accusation founded on this decree was 
 brought against Ctesiphon by ^Eschines, who charged him with uncon- 
 stitutional proceedings. Demosthenes replied in his celebrated oration 
 'On the Crown,' aud Ctesiphon was acquitted. The attack and the 
 d fence are both extant. The case was tried B.C. 330. (Demosthenes, 
 •On the Crown,' §§ 243, 260; Cliuton, 'Fast. Hel.') [^Eschines; 
 Demosthenes.] 
 
 CUBITT, THOMAS, was born in 1788, and was the son of a 
 labouring man at Buxton, a village in Norfolk. Thrown early on his 
 own resources, and denied the advantages of what is called a liberal 
 education, he nevertheless rose into eminence by skill and industry 
 combined with integrity, and amassed a large fortune by the improve- 
 ments which he eflVcted in the architecture and sanatory arrangement 
 of London. His father died while he was stdl a youth. The trade 
 to which he was brought up was that of a carpenter. He worked at 
 the bench for some time, and then went out to India in the capacity 
 of ship's carpenter. Having accumulated some small amount of 
 money during his voyage out and home again, he became a master- 
 carpenter and then a builder in Oray's-inn-road. He was here engaged 
 to build the Metropolitan Institution in Finsbury-circus. About 1823 
 he contracted for the improvement of the property of the late Duke 
 of Bedford in the neighbourhood of Russell and Tavistock squares, 
 »nd a year or two later entered into a similar engagement with the late 
 llar^uid of Westminster and Mr, Lowudes for erecting mansions ou 
 
 CUD WORTH, RALPH. 451 
 
 their property between Knightsbridge and Westminster. The skill 
 with which he laid out and built what is now frequently called 
 ' Belgravia,' recommended him to the late Mr. Kemp, who employed 
 him to build Kemp Town at Brighton. He subsequently laid out aud 
 built Clapham Park, and Southern Belgravia, including Warwick and 
 Eccleston squares at Pimlico. Mr. Cubitt was one of the first persons 
 to propose a comprehensive scheme of draiuiug London by carrying 
 the sewerage to a point in the river Thames considerably below the 
 city. He was also the author of other sanitary plans for th^ prevention 
 of nuisances from smoke, &c, and the appropriation of opeu spaces in 
 the suburbs of London as parks for the people. When her Majesty 
 and Prince Albert determined on rebuilding Osborne in the Isle of 
 Wight, the work was entrusted to Mr. Cubitt. For several years Mr. 
 Thomas Cubitt held the honorary post of examiner of candidates for 
 district surveyorships, and at one time was president of the Builders' 
 Society. Himself originally a working man, he felt aud laboured for 
 the working classes. Thus he erected a workman's library and school- 
 room near his establishment at Thames Bank, and devised a plau for 
 supplying their families with the comforts of life from his own premises. 
 On one occasion, when his large works at Thames Bank were burnt 
 down, thinking nothing of his own loss, he commenced at once a 
 subscription for replacing the tools of his workmen. He died rather 
 suddenly at Denbies, Surrey, December 26, 1855, having just finished 
 his mansion there, and completed his contracts in Belgravia. His 
 brother, Mr. Alderman William Cubitt, formerly his partner in Gray's- 
 inn-road, was sheriff of London in lo47, aud Lord Mayor 1860 — 2, 
 and long represented Andover in parliament. 
 
 CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM, of a different family to the subject of 
 the preceding article, was born at Dilham in Norfolk in 1785. While 
 still a youth he showed a decided talent for the construction of 
 machinery. He was apprenticed to a joiner; and in 1807 made known 
 his invention of the self-regulatiug sails for windmills, having pre- 
 viously commenced business as a millwright. Shortly after he became 
 connected with the Messrs. Ransome of Ipswich, celebrated as agri- 
 cultural instrument makers, but whose business is not confined to 
 that branch of manufacture. Here Mr. Cubitt's talents as a general 
 engineer were more fully developed. He constructed gas-works, and 
 invented the tread-mill for prisons. In 1826 he settled in London as 
 a civil engineer; and his reputation procured him immediate employ- 
 ment, while his ingenuity, industry, and success ensured its continu- 
 ance. In 1827 an act was passed for the improvement of the Norwich 
 and Lowestoft Navigation, and Mr. Cubitt was appointed engineer. 
 The object was to open a navigation for sea-going vessels from 
 Yarmouth or Lowestoft to Norwich. To effect this Mr. Cubitt 
 united the river Yare with the Waveuey, thence to the small lake of 
 Oultou Broad, through Lake Lothing, with a passage onward to the 
 sea, 700 yards long aud 40 wide; Lake Lothing being thus formed 
 into an artificial harbour, the tide-lock of which will admit vessels 
 84 feet long, and 21 feet in beam. This undertaking was completed 
 in 1829. Among his subsequent employments, he designed the South 
 Eastern Railway, including the removal of the South Down Cliff by 
 blasting, which feat was accomplished under his superintendence. He 
 was officially appointed, being then President of the Society of Civil 
 Engineers, to exercise a superintending watchfulness over the con- 
 struction of the building for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde 
 Park; he received the honour of knighthood for thus contributing his 
 scientific experience in carrying out that undertaking. [See Sup.] 
 
 CUD WORTH, RALPH, was born at Aller, in Somersetshire, 
 in 1617. Having been entered at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 
 in 1630, when he was but thirteen, he commenced residence in 
 1632, and became in due course of time, as his father had been 
 before him, a fellow of Emmanuel. He acted for some time as 
 tutor in the college, and had among his pupils the afterwards cele- 
 brated Sir William Temple. He had taken the degree of M.A. in 
 1639 ; he took that of B.D. in 1644, maintaining upon this occasion 
 the two following theses : 1. ' Dautur boni et mali rationes seternas 
 et indispensabilesj ' 2. 'Dantur substantia? incorporese sua natura 
 immortales.' In 1644 he wa3 also appointed master of Clare Hall; 
 and in the succeeding year was elected to the regius professorship of 
 Hebrew. On receiving this appointment he devoted himself with zeal 
 to the subject of Jewish antiquities. He took the degree of D.D. in 
 1651. Though holding the two situations which have been men- 
 tioned, and besides these the living of North Cadbury, in Somerset- 
 shire, worth 300/. a year, to which he had been presented by his 
 college shortly after taking his Master's degree, he did not find his 
 means sufficient for his support. It doe3 not appear that he was a 
 man extravagant in his habits; but owing, it is said, to pecuniary 
 difficulties, he now absented himself for some time from Cambridge. 
 He returned in 1654, having been chosen master of Christ's College. 
 He now married, aud the remainder of his life was spent in this 
 college. In 1662 he was presented by the then Bishop of London to 
 the vicarage of Ashwell, in Hertfordshire ; and in 1678 he was installed 
 prebendary of Gloucester-. Iu this last-mentioned year appeared his 
 great work, the ' True Intellectual System of the Universe ; ' or 
 rather (for though complete in itself, it is but a fragment of a larger 
 work which he designed), the first part of the 'Intellectual System.' 
 This first part is devoted to the refutation of atheism. The whole 
 work was to consist of three parts ; but the second and third parts, 
 
CUDWORTH, RALPH. 
 
 Which were to treat respectively of the nature of moral distinctions 
 and of free will, were, though written, never published by him. 
 Dr. Birch, in the memoir prefixed to his edition of the ' Intellectual 
 System,' having related the calumnious charges of atheism brought 
 against Cudworth on the appearance of this work, goes on to quote 
 the following remark of Warburton' s : — " The silly calumny was 
 helieved ; the much injured author grew disgusted ; his ardour 
 slackened ; and the rest and far greatest part of the defence never 
 appeared," (p. 22.) Though this does not necessarily imply that the 
 remainder of the work was not written, the inference would not be 
 a very forced one. Nor does Dr. Birch ever explicitly Btate that the 
 second and third parts were written, contenting himself with the 
 remark — " He left several posthumous works, most of which seem to 
 be a continuation of his ' Intellectual System,' of which he had given 
 the world only the first part," (p. 31). A reference merely to Dr. 
 Cudworth 's preface, in which he makes a division of his subject, or to 
 the beginning of his first chapter, would have shown that the treatise 
 on Eternal and Immutable Morality, which has been published since 
 his death is the second part, and the treatise on Liberty and Necessity, 
 which is still in manuscript, is the third part of the work. 
 
 Dr. Cudworth died at Cambridge on the 26th of June, 1688, aged 
 seventy-one. and was buried in Christ's College. He left one daughter, 
 who married Sir Francis Masham, and who is known, under the name 
 of Lady Masham, as the friend of Locke. 
 
 Dr. Cudworth was one of that set of Cambridge divines known as 
 Latitudinarians, on whom Bishop Burnet has passed a high eulogium 
 in his history of the reign of Charles II. The chief others at this 
 time were Drs. Whitchcot, Wilkins, Henry More, and Worthington. 
 " Dr. Whitchcot," says Burnet, " set young students much on reading 
 the ancient philosophers, chiefly Plato, Tully, and Plotin ; and on 
 considding the Christian religion as a doctrine sent from God, both 
 to elevate and sweeten human nature, in which he was a great example, 
 as well as wise and kind instructor. Cudworth carried this on with a 
 great strength of genius and a vast compass of learning. He was a 
 man of great conduct and prudence, upon which his enemies did very 
 falsely accuse him of craft and dissimulation." (' Hist, of his own 
 Time,' vol. i. p. 321.) 
 
 The 'Intellectual System,' or that (properly the first) part of it which 
 now passes under the name, is directed, as has been said, against 
 atheism. This is one of three, as Cudworth conceives, false systems 
 or hypotheses of the universe, or one of three possible modes of 
 fatalism. They are thus briefly described in the preface : — "Of the 
 three fatalisms or false hypotheses of the universe mentioned in the 
 beginning of this book, one is absolute Atheism, another immoral 
 Theism, or religion without any natural justice and morality (all just 
 and unjust, according to this hypothesis, being mere thetical or facti- 
 tious things, made by arbitraiy will and command only), the third and 
 last, such a Theism as acknowledges not only a God or omnipotent 
 understanding Being, but also natural justice and morality, founded 
 in him, aud derived from him ; nevertheless, no liberty from necessity 
 anywhere, and therefore no distributive or retributive justice in the 
 world." Before erecting the true intellectual system of the universe 
 (the epithet intellectual being used, as he tells us, " to distinguish it 
 from the other, vulgarly so called, systems of the world, that is, the 
 visible and corporeal world, the Ptolemaic, Tychonic, and Coperni- 
 can "), it was his object to demolish these false systems. And the 
 first of them, Atheism, or the atheistic fate, is attempted to be 
 demolished in the first part, which is all that we have under the name 
 of Intellectual System. It is a work of great learning, and also of 
 great acuteness. But grave charges have been founded upon this 
 work. " There wanted not country clergymen," says Warburton, " to 
 lead the cry and tell the world that, under pretence of defending 
 revelation, he wrote in the very manner that an artful infidel might 
 naturally be supposed to use in writing against it ; . . . . that with 
 incredible industry and reading, he had rummaged all antiquity for 
 atheistical arguments, which he neither knew how, nor intended, to 
 answer ; in a word, that he was an atheist in his heart, and an Arian 
 in his book." ('Divine Legation of Moses,' vol. iii, ed. 1765 : Preface.) 
 The accusation alluded to in these passages is made in a circuitous 
 way by a Mr. John Turner, in a 'Discourse of the Messiah.' 
 
 In attacking atheism, or the atheistic fate, Dr. Cudworth describes 
 the atomic physiology which, as held by Democritus, and other ancient 
 philosophers, involved atheism. It being his object to demolish 
 atheism under every form, and therefore the atomic atheism, he yet 
 adopts the atomic physiology, contending that "so far from being 
 either the mother or nurse of atheism, or any ways favourable there- 
 unto (as is vulgarly supposed), it is indeed the most opposite to it of 
 any, and the greatest defence against the same." For the better con- 
 futation of other forms of atheism, to which he gives the names 
 Hylozoic and Cosmo-plastic, he makes the hypothesis of an "artificial, 
 regular, and plastic nature," working in complete subordination to the 
 Deity. And to avert an argument brought against the oneness of the 
 Deity, from its unnaturalness as shown by the general prevalence of 
 Polytheism among the Pagan nations, he contends that " the Pagan 
 theologers all along acknowledged one sovereign and omnipotent 
 Deity, from which all their other gods were generated or created," and 
 that their Polytheism was but a polyonymy of one God. 
 
 The ' Treatise on Eternal and Immutable Morality ' corresponds to 
 
 CUJACIUS, CUJAS, JACQUES. 
 
 the second part of the ' Intellectual System.' It is directed against 
 those who " affirm justice and injustice to be only by law and not bj 
 nature;" among which affirmers he places, erroneously in our opinion, 
 
 Hobbes. 
 
 Besides the ' Intellectual System,' Dr. Cudworth published, 1, ' A 
 Discourse concerning the true Notion of the Lord's Supper,' in which 
 he maintains, as Warburton has since maintained, that the Lord's 
 Supper is a feast upon a sacrifice ; 2, a treatise, entitled ' The Union 
 of Christ and the Church Shadowed, or in a Shadow ;' 3, ' A Sermon 
 on John ii. 3-4, preached in 1647 before the House of Commons on a 
 Day of Public Humiliation;' 4, 'A Sermon preached in 1664 at Lin- 
 coln's Inn, on 1 Cor. xv. 57 ;' 5, a treatise, entitled ' Deus Justificatus, 
 or the Divine Goodness vindicated and cleared, against the assertors 
 of absolute and inconditioDate Reprobation.' 
 
 Dr. Cudworth left several works in manuscript, only one of which 
 has yet been published, namely, the ' Treatise concerning Eternal and 
 Immutable Morality,' which appeared with a preface by Dr. Chandler, 
 bishop of Durham, in 1731. The rest are — 1, 'A Discourse of Moral 
 Good and Evil; 2, 'A Discourse of Liberty and Necessity, iu which 
 the grounds of the Atheistical Philosophy are confuted, and Morality 
 vindicated and explained ;' 3, 'A Commentary on Daniel's Prophecy 
 of the Seventy Weeks;' 4, 'Of the Verity of the Christian Religion 
 against the Jews ;' 5, ' A Discourse of the Creation of the World and 
 Immortality of the Soul;' 6, 'A Treatise on Hebrew Learning;' 7, 
 'An Explanation of Hobbes's Notion of God, and of the Extension of 
 Spirits.' These manuscripts, after having passed through many dangers, 
 were finally purchased for the British Museum, in which institution 
 they now are. 
 
 An abridgment of the 'Intellectual System' was published in 1706 
 by Mr. Wise, Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, in 2 vols. 4to. In 
 1733 a Latin translation was published by Dr. Mosheim at Jena, in 
 which the numerous errors in Cudworth's numerous quotations are 
 corrected, and whose style is less complicated than that of the original; 
 a French translation, which had been commenced by M. Bourdelin, a 
 member of the French Academy, was prevented from being finished 
 by the death of the translator. That part of the ' Intellectual System' 
 which treats of the ' plastic nature ' gave rise to a controversy between 
 Mr. Bayle and M. Le Clerc ; tho former of whom contended that such 
 an hypothesis went to show the possibility of Hylozoism, while the 
 latter defended Cudworth by representing it as a mere instrument of 
 the Deity. M. Le Clerc's articles, which are valuable commentaries 
 on this part of Cudworth's work, are in the ' Bibliothfeque Choisie,' 
 torn, v., vi., vii , ix. 
 
 (Kippis, Biographia Britannica ; Mosheim and Birch, Lives.) 
 
 CUJA'CIUS, CUJAS, JACQUES, was born at Toulouse in the 
 year 1520. The day of his birth is unknown. His father, a tanner 
 of Toulouse, was named Cujaus, which the son changed into Cujas, 
 for the purpose of making the name better suited for the Latinised 
 form of Cujacius. In the latter part of his life he often signed De 
 Cujas. Cujas, at an early age, distinguished himself by his talents 
 and assiduity, and is said to have learned Greek and Latin by himself 
 without any teacher. He studied law at Toulouse under Arnold 
 Ferrier, for whom he entertained a high respect all his life ; but he 
 acquired the best part of his extensive knowledge by his own industry. 
 With unwearied labour he studied all the works of the best civilians, 
 and exercised himself in discussions with his fellow-students. In 
 1547 he began to lecture on Justinian's Institutes with great applause, 
 and soon acquired such a reputation that the most distinguished men 
 of the country, as President Dufaur and John de Foix, sent their sons 
 to Toulouse to study under Cujas. In 1554 a professorship of the 
 Roman law being vacant in the University of Toulouse, Cujas was a 
 candidate, but, by the intrigues of his enemies, a man of very mode- 
 rate talents, Stephen Forcadel, was preferred. Shortly after, being 
 invited to Cahors as professor of law, he removed there with the 
 greater part of his pupils. In the following year Margaret de Valois, 
 at the suggestion of the Chancellor l'Hopital, invited Cujas, as pro- 
 fessor of law, to the university of Bourges. At that time there were 
 two celebrated lawyers in Bourges, Hugh Doneau (Donellus) and 
 Francis Duarin (Duarenus), both of whom became the rivals and 
 enemies of Cujas. This was particularly the case with Duarin, who 
 excited the students against Cujas to such a degree that, as Cujas 
 also had a party of his own among the students, great disturbances 
 would have arisen if he had not left the place. Having removed to 
 Paris he was invited by a deputation from the city of Valentia to 
 accept a professorship in that university. Cujas accepted the invita- 
 tion ; but Duarin having died in the year 1559, he returned to Bourges, 
 where he resided till 1566. In the meantime Margaret de Valois, his 
 patroness, had married the Duke of Savoy, who gave Cujas an invita- 
 tion as professor to the University of Turin. Not liking Italy, he 
 returned to Valence as professor, and lived there till 1575, with some 
 short interruptions, when he left on account of the religious quarrels 
 which disturbed that city. During his residence in Valence the 
 reputation of Cujas rose to its height. Young men from all parts of 
 Europe, and especially from Germany, not only students of law but 
 those who were devoted to other sciences, came to Valence to study 
 under Cujas. Among his pupils was Joseph Scaliger, the most cele- 
 brated philologist o f his time, and James Augustus de Thou (Thuanus), 
 the French historian. Henri III. of France made Cujas counsellor in 
 
«? CULLEN, WILLIAM. 
 
 the parliament of Grenoble, and loaded him with honours. In 1575 
 Cujas returned to Bourges as professor ; but to avoid the religious 
 troubles he again left Bourges for a year, during which he lectured on 
 the civil law at Paris. Returning to Bourges he resided there till his 
 death, having refused an invitation from Pope Gregory XIII., as 
 professor in the university of Bologna. 
 
 The latter years of his life were greatly troubled by the religious 
 disturbances which then distracted France. On the death of Henri III. 
 the party of the Cardinal de Bourbon made great promises to Cujas, 
 if ho would write in favour of the cardinal against the rights of 
 Henri IV. Cujas refused the proposals, and the fanatics of Bourges 
 being excited against him by his enemies, he nearly lost his life in a 
 tumult. On the 4th of October 1590 Cujas died of grief, as it is said, 
 for the wretched situation of his country, in which civil war had 
 dissolved all social order. Both friends and enemies united in honouring 
 him with a splendid funeral. 
 
 Cujas was twice married. He had a son of great talents, who died 
 in 1581 ; and a daughter by his second marriage, who was notorious 
 for her disorderly life. 
 
 Cujas was distinguished both as a teacher and a writer. His merits 
 principally consisted in substituting a more rational system in place 
 of the unscientific method of Bartolus, and in grounding his interpre- 
 tation of the civil law on a profound study of the original authors, 
 and of the manuscripts of the Roman law. He possessed in his own 
 library 500 manuscripts on the Roman law. His knowledge of 
 archaeology also and his exact acquaintance with the ancient languages 
 gave him a decided superiority over other civilians. In teaching as 
 well as in his writings he followed the exegetical method, in which he 
 may still be considered as a model. 
 
 The works of Cujas are very numerous. They are commonly divi- 
 ded into ' Opera Priora,' which were published in his life by himself : 
 first at Paris, 1577, 5 vols, fol., and again in 1583; and 'Opera 
 Posthuma,' which were edited by his friends after his death. Both 
 the ' Opera Priora ' and ' Posthuma ' were first collected and edited 
 by Alexander Scot, Lyon, 1614. The most complete edition is that by 
 Fabrot, Paris, 1658, 10 vols. fol. As it is very difficult to find what 
 we want in the works of Cujas, the ' Promptuarium Operum Jacobi 
 Cujaci; auctore Dom. Albunensi,' Naples, 1763, 2 vols, fol., is of great 
 assistance. 
 
 The works of Cujas consist : 1, of editions of the original works on 
 the civil law, principally of the ' Codex Theodosianus,' ' Pauli receptee 
 sententiae,' 'Justinian's Institutes,' of the three latter books of the 
 'Codex Justinianus ; ' of the ' Consuetudines Feudorum,' with notes, 
 and a translation of the sixtieth book of the ' Basilika,' of which he 
 also published an edition ; 2, of commentaries, notes, and interpre- 
 tations relating to most parts of the Institutes, Pandects, Code, and 
 Novels ; a ' Commentary on the Decretals ; ' and Lectures on many 
 passages of the Pandects; 3, other important works, as his ' Obser- 
 vationum and Emendationum libri xxviii,' a work which civilians in 
 the time of Cujas called 'opus incomparabile et divinum.' It contains 
 corrections of the original works on law and of a great number of 
 other authors, both Greek and Latin. This work is a real treasure to 
 philologists ; 4. ' Paratilla ad Digesta, et in libros ix., Codicis,' which 
 is a summary of the titles of the Pandects and the Constitutions of 
 the Code. 
 
 (Eloge de Cujas, par Bernard), Lyon, 1775 ; Histoire de Cujas, par 
 Berriot; Saint Prix, History of the Roman Law, which is the best 
 biography of Cujas; Ed. Spangenberg ; Cujas unci seine Zeitgenossen., 
 Leipzig, 1822.) 
 
 CULLEN, WILLIAM, was born in Lanarkshire, in the year 1712. 
 His parent?, being in humble circumstances, he commenced the study 
 and even the practice of physic under certain disadvantages; and after 
 serving ?ji apprenticeship to a surgeon-apothecary in Glasgow, he 
 became surgeon to a merchant vessel, trading between London and 
 the Wast Indies. He soon returned to his own district, and practised 
 iu thei country parish of Shotts, a region proverbial, even in Scotland, 
 for bleakness and poverty. But having been introduced to the Duke 
 of Ar/gyll, who was on a visit to a gentleman in the neighbourhood, 
 heac/quind bi3 good opinion; and was led soon after to remove to 
 HarrJilton. There he was admitted a councillor in 1737, and was 
 ohier magistrate in 1739 and 1740; and heformed a partnership with a 
 yourfcg man destined to attain equal celebrity, William Hunter. The 
 chieJf object of this connection was to enable them to improve their 
 medical education ; and accordingly they agreed that one of them 
 "h(*uld alternately be allowed to study during the winter at some 
 mdtdical school, while the other should carry on the business in the 
 C( »untry for the profit of both parties. Cullen took the first turn, and 
 P aased his winter at Edinburgh. Hunter, when his turn arrived, went 
 t i London, where he soon recommended himself to Dr. Douglas, a 
 'cturer on anatomy and midwifery, who engaged him as an assistant. 
 '1 uus ensued a premature dissolution of partnership ; for Cullen threw 
 n o obstacles in the way of his friend's advancement, but readily 
 cancelled the articles. They maintained ever after a cordial com- 
 mt|inication by letters, though it does not appear that they again met. 
 
 ©ho Duke of Hamilton having been suddenly taken ill at his palace, 
 uni.Y for Cullen, who not only benefited him by his skill, but attracted 
 him Jby his conversation. It appears to have been the interest of this 
 noM Tproan which procured him the situation of Ifcturer of chemistry 
 
 Bl< Lli. 1>IV. VOL. II. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, RICHARD 4a 
 
 in the University of Glasgow ; and having previously taken his Doctor's 
 degree, he began his first course in 1746. His medical practice daily 
 increased; and when a vacancy occurred in 1751, he was appointed by 
 the king to the professorship of medicine. It was now that he began 
 to show the rare talent of giving science an attractive form, diffusing 
 clearness over abstract subjects, and making the most difficult points) 
 accessible to ordinary capacities. 
 
 In 1756 he was called to Edinburgh to fill the chair of chemistry, 
 vacated by the death of Dr. Plummer. While holding this offi e, he 
 for several years delivered clinical lectures at the royal infirmary. 
 Alston, the professor of materia medica, died in 1763, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Cullen, who, though now in the middle of his chemical 
 course, began his new subject a few days after his nomination. So 
 great was his popularity, that while only eight or ten pupils had 
 entered under Alston, he attracted above a hundred. On the death 
 of Dr. Whytt, in 1766, Cullen took the chair of theoretical medicine, 
 resigning that of chemistry to his pupil Black. The chair of practical 
 medicine next became vacant by the death of Dr. Rutherford. 
 Gregory started as a rival candidate to Cullen ; but by au amicable 
 compromise it was agreed that the chairs of theoretical and practical 
 medicine should be shared between them, each lecturing on both 
 subjects ; but when Gregory was suddenly cut off in the prime of life, 
 Cullen occupied the practical professorship alone, till within a few 
 months of his death. As a lecturer, Dr. Cullen, like all who have 
 excelled in that difficult branch of the profession, carried with him 
 not merely the regard but the enthusiasm of his pupils. Alibert bears 
 testimony to the impression he made upon the foreign students who 
 resorted to his lectures, and who preserved indelible recollections of 
 his power to convince and to awaken. He lectured from short notes 
 and this nearly extemporaneous delivery no doubt contributed to that 
 warmth and variety of style which tradition ascribes to his lectures, 
 but which are certainly not the characteristics of his published works. 
 Cullen died on the 5th of February 1790. The following is a list of 
 Dr. Cullen's works : 1. ' First Lines of the Practice of Physic,' Edin., 
 1777, 4 vols., 8vo. This work has been frequently reprinted, and has 
 been translated into French, German, Italian, and Latin. Dr. Cullen's 
 system, as delivered in this book and in his lectures, superseded that 
 of Boerhaave, of which the humoral pathology forms a part. Culleu s 
 division of diseases into four classes is so simple, and yet so ingenious 
 that it is still adopted by some English lecturers. The first class contains 
 the Pyrexiae, or febrile diseases ; the second, the Neuroses, or nervous 
 diseases ; the third, the Cachexiae, or diseases of an ill habit of body ; 
 the fourth, the Locales, or local diseases. To give an example of each, 
 pleurisy belongs to the first class, epilepsy to the second, scurvy to the 
 third, and tumours to the fourth. [Brown, John, M.D.] 2. ' Insti- 
 tutions of Medicine,' Edin., 1777, 12mo. This is a treatise on 
 physiology, which was translated into French, German, and Latin. 
 3. 'An Essay on the Cold produced by evaporating Fluids, and of 
 some other means of producing Cold,' Edin., 1777. This is annexed 
 to Dr. Black's Eperiments upon Magnesia alba, &c. 4. ' A Letter to 
 Lord Cathcart, president of the Board of Police in Scotland, concerning 
 the Recovery of Persons drowned and seemingly dead,' Edin., 1784, 
 8vo. 5. 'Synopsis Nosologise Methodicae,' Edin., 1785, 2 vols., 8vo. 
 The first volume contains the nosologies of Sauvages, Linnaeus, Vogel, 
 Sagar, and Macbride ; the second contains Cullen's own, which is by far 
 the best. This work was translated into German, with some additions, 
 Leipzig, 1786, 2 vols., 8vo. 6. ' A Treatise of the Materia Medica,' 
 Edin., 1789, 2 vols., 4to. Translated into French and Italian, and 
 twice into German ; one of the German translations is by Hahnemann, 
 Leipzig, 1790, 2 vols., 8vo. Cullen's clinical lectures were published 
 in 1797, Lond., 8vo. Dr. Young ('Med. Liter.'), after the title of the 
 book, puts the word surreptitious, so that it was probably printed 
 from the note-book of some student. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, was born in the parish of St. Ann, 
 near Aldersgate, in London, on the 13th of July 1632. He received 
 the early part of his education at St. Paul's School, and went thence 
 to Magdalen College, Cambridge, in 1649. After taking his Master's 
 degree he thought of entering the medical profession, and accordingly 
 studied medicine for a short time ; but he soon relinquished this 
 intention, and took orders. In 1658 he was appointed to the rectory 
 of Brampton, in Northamptonshire, where he remained till 1667, when 
 Sir Orlando Bridgman, who had been his contemporary at Cambridge, 
 aDd had now become lord keeper, first made him his chaplain, and 
 shortly afterwards bestowed on him the living of Allhallows, in 
 Stamford. In both places he performed the duties of minister with 
 the most exemplary assiduity. In Stamford he regularly preached 
 three times every Sunday, having taken upon himself a weekly lecture- 
 ship in addition to his parochial duties. His ' Inquiry into the Laws 
 of Nature,' which was written while he was chaplain to Sir Orlando 
 Bridgman, appeared in 1672, the year in which Puffendorf published 
 his 'Treatise on the Law of Nature and Nations.' His 'Essay on 
 Jewish Weights and Measures,' a work of great learning and acuteness, 
 was published in 1686. 
 
 After the Revolution, Dr. Cumberland was raised to the see of 
 Peterborough, in the room of Dr. Thomas White, who refused the 
 new oath. The manner of his appointment was highly honourable to 
 him, and not less to King William. " The king was told," says Mr. 
 Payne, his chaplain, to whom we are indebted for a brief, and that tho 
 
 2 H 
 
m 
 
 CUMBERLAND, RICHARD. 
 
 CUMMING, JOHN, D.D. 
 
 MO 
 
 only, memoir of Cumberland, " that Dr. Cumberland was the fittest 
 man he could nominate to the bishopric of Peterborough. . . . The 
 doctor walked after hia usual manner on a post-day to the coffee-house, 
 and read in the newspaper that one Dr. Cumberland, of Stamford, was 
 named to the bishopric of Peterborough; a greater surprise to himself 
 than to anybody elfe." (Preface to Sanchoniathon's ' History,' p. xii.) 
 This was in the sixtieth year of his age ; but his health was still good, 
 and he entered with great zeal on the performance of his new duties. 
 He had commenced, some years before, a critical examination of San- 
 choniathon's ' Phoenician History : ' and this work still occupied him 
 for some years after he was made a bishop. It led him to several 
 cognate inquiries, the results of which were published some time after 
 his death under the title of ' Origines Antiquissimse, or Attempts for 
 Discovering the Times of the first Planting of Nations.' Neither was 
 the series of dissertations on Sanchoniathon's History published during 
 his lifetime. They were both edited by Mr. Payne, and published, 
 the latter in 1720, the former in 1724. At the age of eighty-three 
 Dr. Cumberland, having been presented by Dr. Wilkins, with a copy 
 of his Coptic Testament, then just published, commenced, like another 
 Cato, the study of Coptic. "At this age," says Mr. Payne, "he 
 mastered the language, and went through great part of this version, 
 and would often give me excellent hints and remarks as he proceeded 
 in reading of it." He died on the 9th of October 1718, in the eighty- 
 seventh year of his age. 
 
 Dr. Cumberland's private character appears to have been a perfect 
 model of virtue. He was a man also of most extensive learning. 
 " He was thoroughly acquainted with all the branches of philosophy : 
 lie had good judgment in physic, knew everything that was curious in 
 anatomy, had an intimacy with the classics. Indeed he was a stranger 
 to no part of learning, but every subject he had occasion to talk of, 
 lie was as much a master of it as if the direction of his studies had 
 chiefly lain that way. He was thoroughly conversant in Scripture, 
 and had laid up that treasure in his mind. No hard passage ever 
 occurred, either occasionally or in reading, but he could readily givo 
 the meaning of it, and the several interpretations, without needing 
 to consult his books. * 
 
 The 'Inquiry iuto the Laws of Nations' ('De Legibus Naturse 
 Disquisitio Philosophica, in qua earum forma, summa capita, ordo, 
 promulgatio, et obligatio, e reruui natura investigantur ; quinetiam 
 Elementa Philosophise Hobbiause, cum moralis turn civilis, conside- 
 rantur et refutantur') was called forth by the political and moral works 
 of Hobbes. Hobbes is charged therein with atheism ; he is repre- 
 sented, as he is also represented in Cudworth's' Eternal and Immutable 
 Morality,' as denying any standard of moral good and evil other than 
 one fashioned by human law ; he is upbraided for the forms of 
 expression that in a state of nature all men have a right to all things, 
 and that the state of nature is a state of war. These differences 
 between Hobbes and Cumberland may be all traced to a misappre- 
 hension of the former's meaning. As regards Cumberland's own views 
 of moral science, they are substantially correct. Objections may be 
 made to the phrases, ' law of nature ' and • right reason,' by which last 
 he denotes the set of faculties employed in the determination of moral 
 good and eviL But though in a science where the chief disputes that 
 have arisen are verbal disputes, phraseology cannot be accounted 
 unimportant; and though that phraseology, combined with clumsiness 
 of style and arrangement, has prevented a general perception of the 
 substantial merits of the work, we must, while we regret the defect and 
 its consequences, do justice to a really correct system. Tendency to 
 effect the general good is made the standard of morality. To endeavour 
 to effect the greatest amount of general good is the one great duty, or 
 the one great ' law of nature ;' and we know, according to Cumberland, 
 that it is a duty or law of nature, or law of God, because we know 
 that an iudividual derives the greatest happiness from the exercise of 
 benevolence, and that God desires the greatest possible happiness of 
 all his creatures. Carrying out the fundamental principle, that the 
 greatest general good is to be sought, he deduces the several particular 
 duties or particular ' laws of nature.' He founds government upon, 
 and tests it by, the same principle. 
 
 The 'Inquiry,' as may be inferred from the Latin title which has 
 been given, was written in Latin. It was printed in a most inaccurate 
 way, and the innumerable errors of the original edition have been 
 perpetuated in the several German and London reprints. Dr. Cum- 
 berland left an interleaved copy with a few corrections and additions ; 
 in this same copy the whole text was revised by Dr. Bentley ; and 
 thus enriched, the copy was presented to the library of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, by Richard Cumberland, the great-grandson of the bishop, 
 and grandson of Dr. Bentley. An abridged translation was published 
 by Mr. James Tyrrel in 1701, during Dr. Cumberland's lifetime. Mr. 
 Maxwell, an Irish clergyman, published a translation in 1727, prefixing 
 and appending some original dissertations. M. Barbeyrac published a 
 translation into French in 1744, having been allowed the use of the 
 interleaved copy containing the author's and Dr Bentley 's corrections. 
 A third English translation by the Rev. John Towers, D.D., appeared 
 in 1750. 
 
 (Payne's Preface to Cumberland's Sanchoniathon's History ; Kippis, 
 Biographia Britannica.) 
 
 CUMBERLAND, RICHARD, a dramatic writer and miscellaneous 
 author of the last century, great-grandson of Richard Cumberland, 
 
 bishop of Peterborough, and grandson by the mother's side of Dr. 
 Richard Bentley, was born February 19, 1732, in the lodge of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge. He was placed successively at the public schools 
 of Bury St. Edmunds and Westminster, and at the early age of fourteen 
 commenced his residenco at Trinity College, Cambridge. Though 
 during his two first years he had entirely neglected his mathematical 
 Btudies, he distinguished himself highly by readiness and skill as a 
 disputer in the schools, aud obtained the degree of tenth wrangler. 
 Two years after he was elected Fellow of Trinity. It was his intention 
 to enter the church, and devote himself to literature and the duties 
 of his profession. From these views he was withdrawn by being 
 appointed in the same year private secretary to the Earl of Halifax, 
 then first lord of trade, whom he accompanied, on his appointment to 
 be lord-lieutenant, to Ireland in 1760. Through this connection his 
 father became bishop first of Clonfert, afterwards of Kilmore. After 
 passing through one or two subordinate offices, Cumberland was 
 appointed secretary to the Board of Trade, soon after Lord George 
 Germaine became first lord in 1775, and held that office until tbe 
 suppression of the board in 1782. In 1780 he was sent on a confi- 
 dential and secret mission to the court of Madrid. This appointment 
 proved the source of no small loss and vexation, in consequence of his 
 expenditure to the extent of 4500J. beyond the money which he 
 received at starting, of which no portion ever was repaid. On this 
 subject we have only his own ex parte, but uncontradicted, statement : 
 there is every appearance that ho was exceedingly ill-used. 
 
 After the reduction of the Board of Trade, Cumberland received a 
 compensation-allowance, and retired to husband his diminished means 
 at Tunbridge Wells. He now devoted himself altogether to literature, 
 which had hitherto been only his amusement ; and tried his powers 
 in the multifarious departments of opera, farce, comedy, tragedy; 
 occasional, lyric, and sacred poetry ; pamphlets, novels, essays, and 
 even divinity; but he will hardly be remembered except as an essayist, 
 and as the author of several successful comedies, of which only the 
 ' West Indian,' the ' Wheel of Fortune,' and the ' Jew,' need be 
 mentioned. The ' West Indian' obtained great popularity on its first 
 appearance, and is still a stock piece. The ' Jew ' was an honourable 
 attempt to combat popular prejudice against the Jewish nation. The 
 ' Wheel of Fortune ' is identified with John Kemble, who made 
 Penruddock one of his very effective characters. Many other of hia 
 dramatic pieces, of which there are at least thirty-two, were popular 
 at the time of their production; and even those which had little 
 sterling merit added for a time to his reputation, by keeping his name 
 continually before the public. 
 
 As an essayist, Cumberland rode to fame on the shoulders of 
 Bentley, from whose manuscripts he derived the learning of those 
 series of papers in the ' Observer ' on Greek poetry, which contain a 
 rich collection of translated fragments of the comic poets. The merSfel 
 of the translations however belong to Cumberland. There are also a 
 number of valuable critical essays, chiefly on the drama. The entire 
 work proceeded from Cumberland's pen, and affords honourable 
 evidence of the author's fertility of imagination, knowledge, humour, 
 and varied power of composition. His translation of the ' Clouds of 
 Aristophanes ' is elegant, but he has altogether missed the spirit of 
 the original. 
 
 One of Cumberland's pamphlets that appeared without his name, 
 entitled ' Curtius rescued from the Gulph, or the Reply Courteous to 
 the Rev. Dr. Parr, in answer to his learned pamphlet, entitled " A 
 Sequel," ' &c, is no unfavourable specimen of the author's powers of 
 humour and sarcasm, and his readiness at paying off a mass of learned 
 quotations in coin of the same but a more current kind. 
 
 His memoirs, published in 1806, is a very amusing book, full of 
 interesting anecdotes of the men of his time, which will give the reader 
 a thorough insight into the vain and irritable character of the author. 
 His reputation was unblemished in the discharge both of his public 
 and private duties, and his society was much courted for his brilliant 
 conversation. Mr. Cumberland died, after a few days' illness, May 7, 
 1811. 
 
 * CUMMING, JOHN, D.D., a native of Aberdeenshire, Scotia od, was 
 born in 1810, and after completing his literary and theological studies 
 with a view to the Christian ministry in connection with the established 
 Church of Scotland, he accepted an engagement as a tutor in a slchool 
 near London. Having been licensed as a probationer by the presbjytery 
 of London, he became in 1832 minister of the Scotch church in Cirown- 
 court, Covent-Garden, the duties of which office he still discharges 
 with well-sustained efficiency and acceptance. Dr. Cumming\ has 
 distinguished himself a3 a popular preacher, an acute and skilful 
 controversialist, and a diligent and successful author. As secretary* of 
 the Protestant Reformation Society he has been frequently called ito 
 take part in the public agitation of the questions in dispute betweW 
 Roman Catholics and Protestants, and has on several occasions hejld 
 public discussions with adherents of the Roman Catholic Chunou 
 As a friend of establishments, he has defended the propriety of tlhe 
 connection between church and state against the arguments of tlhe 
 friends of the voluntary principle; as attached to the Church/ of 
 Scotland, he has been the principal representative in London of tllose 
 who resisted the anti-patronage, non-iutrusiou, and Free-church n/iofe- 
 ments ; and in questions of church polity he has generally L been 
 associated with the adherents of the moderate party in the Scfottisb 
 
CUNEGO, DOMENICO. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, PETER. 
 
 establishment. Dr. Cumming's published works are numerous, including 
 three volumes of discourses on the Book of Revelations, Daily Bible 
 Readings, and a variety of practical and devotional religious works. 
 Of the peculiar views developed in mauy of these works the reader is 
 left to form his own opinions. One of his published sermons, entitled 
 ' Salvation,' was preached by command before the Queen in the parish 
 church of Crathie, when her Majesty was residing at Balmoral. 
 
 CUNE'GO, DOME'NICO, a distinguished Italian engraver, and one 
 of the best of the 18th century, was born at Verona in 1727. He 
 commenced to study as a painter under Francesco Ferrari, but he 
 found engraving more suited to his taste, and at the age of eighteen 
 he adopted it as his profession. Being a correct draftsman, he was 
 enabled himself to make, from the pictures he engraved, the drawings 
 from which he worked. Cunego settled in Rome in 1761, where his 
 first works were a series of Roman ruins after Clerisseau, for the 
 Count Girolamo dal Pozzo. In 1773 Gavin Hamilton published his 
 ' Schola Italica,' of which the best and the greater part of the plates 
 were engraved by Cunego. He engraved twenty-two, including the 
 three creations — of the water, of the sun and the moon, and of Adam, 
 from the frescoes of Michel Angelo on the ceiling of the Sistine 
 Chapel ; ' La Fornarina ' of Raffaelle, from the Barberini portrait ; and 
 ' Galatea,' from the fresco of Raffaelle in the Farnesina. The others 
 are from Giorgione, Titian, the Caracci, Domenichino, Guido, and 
 other celebrated painters. 
 
 In 1785 Cunego was invited to Berlin to superintend an Engraving 
 Institute (Kupferstich-Institute), which was established by a merchant 
 of the name of Pascal ; but after a trial of four years the undertaking 
 was abandoned, and Cunego returned in 1789 to Rome. He however 
 executed a great many plates, chiefly portraits, during his sojourn in 
 Berlin, including several mezzotint and line portraits of Frederic II. 
 and the royal family of Prussia, after E. F. Cunningham, a Scotch 
 painter, then in repute at Berlin. Besides the works already men- 
 tioned, Cunego engraved eleven mythological subjects after Gavin 
 Hamilton, and numerous other works, religious and profane, after 
 various masters. He engraved also an outline of the great fresco of 
 the 'Last Judgment' by Michel Angelo, in the Sistine Chapel. He 
 died at Rome in 1794. Cunego's execution, as far as respects the 
 mere line, was not the most perfect ; but his style was light, elegant, 
 and correct ; and he was perhaps the best historical engraver in Italy 
 of his immediate time, until he was surpassed in his later years by his 
 junior and rival Volpato. His two sons, Aloisi and Giuseppe, likewise 
 practised engraving with success. 
 
 (Gandellini, Notizie Istoriche degli Intagliatori, &c. ; Huber, Manuel 
 des Amatewi, Stc. ; Gothe, Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert ; 
 Ticozzi, Dizzionario degli Architetli, dec.) 
 
 CUNITZ, MARIA, born at Schweidnitz, in Silesia, about the 
 beginning of the 17th century. She was remarkable, according to 
 report, for the great variety of her knowledge, but the only published 
 specimen is her ' Urania Propitia, eive Tabulae Astronomicte,' &c, 
 printed at Oels in 1650, and at Frankfurt in 1651. This work was 
 composed in a Polish convent, the civil troubles having driven the 
 authoress from her country. It is an attempt to simplify the methods 
 derived from Kepler's laws, and in particular to avoid the use of loga- 
 rithms ; more remarkable from the circumstance of the writer being a 
 female than from any particular merit. 
 
 The principal instructor of Maria Cunitz in astronomy was a 
 countryman of her own named Loewen, whom she married on the 
 death of her father. The preface and dedication of the tables were 
 written by him. She died at Pitschen in Silesia, probably after 1669. 
 
 (Delambre, Astron. Moderne ; Lalande, Bibliog. Astron. The latter 
 cites Desvignoles, Bibl. Germ., vol. iii., and Scheibel, Bibl. Astron., 
 pp. 361-378.) 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, JOHN, the son of a Scotchman settled in Dublin 
 as a wine-merchant, was born there in 1729. An ill-judged passion 
 for the stage tempted him away from home at an early age. His father 
 afterwards became insolvent ; and a pride not discreditable to him 
 forbade him to return and be a burden on his family. Accordingly 
 he continued during his short life to pursue the precarious career of 
 an itinerant player. For a good many of his later years he was chiefly 
 employed at Edinburgh and in the north of England, where his per- 
 sonal character was highly respected. He was the author of a farce 
 now quite unknown, and of several small volumes of poetry, chiefly 
 pastoral, whose sweetness has obtained for some of them a corner iu 
 popular collections, and entitles their author to a plaoe in the list of 
 minor English poets. He died September 18, 1773. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN, was born at Blackwood in Dumfries- 
 shire, in 1785, of parents in humble circumstances, though not of 
 humble descent, ao one of his ancestors lost the family patrimony in 
 Ayrshire by taking the side of Montrose in the time of the Common- 
 wealth. "His father," Bays Allan Cunningham, '"was a man fond of 
 collecting all that was characteristic of his country ; " an inquiry 
 which the son appears to have prosecuted, if not with more zeal, at 
 least with more effect. Young Allan was taken away from school at 
 the early age of eleven, and was bound to a stonemason. Hogg gives 
 us some account of Allan's appearance and character in early life in 
 hia 'Reminiscences of Former Days.' He describes him at the age of 
 eighteen as " a dark ungainly youth, with a broadly frame for his age, 
 and strongly-marked manly features, the very model of Burns, and 
 
 exactly such a man." Hogg continues, that young as Allan Cunning- 
 ham then was, he had heard of the name, and he thought lie had seen 
 one or two of his juvenile pieces. 
 
 In 1810 he came to London, and his name first appeared in print at 
 the same time, as a contributor in the collection of Cromek's 'Remains 
 of Nithsdale and Galloway Song.' This collection, purporting to be 
 the Nithsdale and Galloway relics, was entirely recast aud much of it 
 written by Allan Cunningham ; and Hogg states that when he first 
 saw the book he perceived at once the strains of Allan Cunningham; 
 especially in the ' Mermaid of Galloway,' from the peculiarity of hia 
 style, which he had already noticed, and he adds that "Allan Cunning- 
 ham was the author of all that was beautiful in the work." 
 
 For some time after his arrival in London, Allan Cunningham 
 maintained himself by reporting for newspapers, and contributing to 
 periodicals, especially the ' London Magazine,' to which he was one of 
 the principal supports. At a later period, the situation which he 
 obtained in Chantrey's studio, as foreman or principal assistant in 
 working the marble, and for many years the confidential manager of 
 his extensive statuary establishment, enabled him to prosecute his 
 literary taste without hazard. The following are his chief works : — 
 ' Sir Marmaduke Maxwell,' a drama ; ' Paul Jones ' and ' Sir Michael 
 Scot,' novels ; ' Songs of Scotland, ancient and modern, with Intro- 
 duction and Notes, Historical and Critical, and Characters of tLe Lyric 
 Poets,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1825; 'The Lives of the most eminent British 
 Painters, Sculptors, and Architects,' in Murray's ' Family Library,' 
 6 vols. 12mo, 1829-33; the Literary Illustrations to Major's 'Cabinet 
 Gallery of Pictures,' 1833-34; 'The Maid of Elvar,' a poem; 'Lord 
 Roldan,' a romance; 'The Life of Burns;' and 'The Life of Sir 
 David Wilkie,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1843, a posthumous publication. Allan 
 Cunningham died on the 29th of October 1842. aged fifty-seven. 
 
 Allan Cunningham was highly valued by his literary contemporaries, 
 and especially so by Sir Walter Scott. Hogg, after recounting his 
 first meeting with him, says, " I never missed an opportunity of 
 meeting with Allan when it was in my power to do so. I was 
 astonished at the luxuriousness of his fancy. It was boundless ; but 
 it was the luxury of a rich garden overrun with rampant weeds. He 
 was likewise then a great mannerist in expression, and no man could 
 mistake his verses for those of any other man. I remember seeing 
 some imitations of 03siau by him, which I thought exceedingly good ; 
 and it struck me that that style of composition was peculiarly fitted 
 for his vast and fervent imagination." His " style of poetry is greatly 
 changed of late for the better. I have never seen any style improved 
 so much. It is free of all that crudeness and mannerism that once 
 marked it so decidedly. He is now uniformly lively, serious, descrip- 
 tive, or pathetic, as he changes his subject ; but formerly he jumbled 
 all these together, as in a boiling cauldron, and when once he begau 
 it was impossible to calculate where or when he was going to end." 
 
 Allan Cunningham's ' Lives of the Painters ' was a very popular 
 work. It contains memoirs of Hogarth, Wilson, Reynolds, Gains- 
 borough, West, Barry, Blake, Opie, Morland, Bird, Fuseli, Jamesone, 
 Ramsay, Romney, Runciman, Copley, Mortimer, Raeburn, Hoppner, 
 Owen, Harlow, Bonington, Cosway, Allan, Northcote, Sir G. Beau- 
 mont, Lawrence, Jackson, Liverseege, and James Burnet, painters ; of 
 Gibbons, Cibber, Roubiliac, Wilton, Banks, Nollekens, Bacon, Mrs. 
 Darner, and Flaxman, sculptors; and. of William of Wykeham, Inigo 
 Jones, Wren, Vanbrugh, Gibbs, Kent, Earl of Burlington, and Sir \V. 
 Chambers, architects. It is written in an easy, fluent, aud forcible 
 style. The less satisfactory lives are those of West, Blake, Bird, 
 Fuseli, Jamesone, Cosway, Northcote, Wilton, and Bacon ; in some of 
 these there is the occasional appearance of a spirit of critical severity, 
 remarkable in a man of great kindness of disposition. 
 
 * CUNNINGHAM, PETER, the eldest son of Allan Cunningham, 
 was born in Pimlico, April 7, 1816. He was educated at a private 
 school, and when only eighteen years of age he entered the public 
 service as a junior clerk in the Audit Office, a situation bestowed 
 upon him by Sir Robert Peel as a tribute to the merits of his father. 
 In 1854 he was promoted to one of the chief clerkships, and retained 
 this post till his retirement in 1860. Mr. P. Cunningham com- 
 menced his literary career before entering office by the publication 
 in 1833 of 'The Life of Drummond of Hawthornden.' This was 
 followed in 1835 by 'Songs of England and Scotland,' in 2 vols. ; and 
 in 1841 by a new edition of Campbell's 'Specimens of the British 
 Poets,' with additions, in 1 vol. In 1849 his 'Handbook of Loudon' 
 was published, in 2 vols. ; and a second edition with additions and 
 corrections, iu 1 vol., in 1850. This work, though condensed in its 
 descriptions, is fuller of valuable information founded upon extensive 
 research than many works far more voluminous. But, at the same 
 time, it is not a dry catalogue of places and persons ; it abounds in 
 brief but valuable anecdotes that illustrate political and literary 
 history, and present curious pictures of manners. For these we are 
 always referred to authorities, with precise dates. No topographical 
 work was ever compiled with greater care. Mr. Cunningham has also 
 edited, for Mr. Murray's ' Library of British Classics,' the ' Works of 
 Oliver Goldsmith,' in 4 vols., 1854; and 'Johnson's Lives of the Poets,' 
 with additional lives, in 3 vols., 1854. 
 
 Mr. Cunningham has, iu addition to being a contributor to many 
 periodical works — ' Fraser's Magaziue,' 'Household Words,' the 
 ' Athenaeum,* the ' Illustrated News,' &c. &c— written the following 
 
663 CURRIE, JAMES, M.D. 
 
 works:— 'The Handbook to Westminster Abbey,' 1842 ; 1 The Life of 
 Inigo Jones,' published by the Shakspere Society in 1848; 'Modern 
 London,' 1851 ; ' Prefatory Memoir of J. M. W. Turner,' prefixed to 
 John Burnet's 'Turner and his Works,' 1852; aud 'The Story of Nell 
 Gwynn,' 1852. 
 
 CURRIE, JAMES, M.D., was born 31st of May 1756, at Kirkpatrick- 
 Fieming, in Dumfriesshire, of which pariah his father was clergyman. 
 Being originally intended for a mercantile life, as soon as he had 
 received the rudiments of a liberal education he went to Virginia; 
 but upon the breaking out of the American war in 1776 he returned 
 home, aud soon after commenced the study of medicine at the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. Having completed the usual course, he took 
 his degree of M.D. at Glasgow in 1780, and immediately proceeded to 
 London. His intention was to go out to Jamaica, but a Budden 
 attack of illness preventing him from sailing after he had taken his 
 passage, he settled and began to practise in Liverpool in 1781. Here 
 he soon met with great success in his profession. His first publica- 
 tion was a biographical memoir of a deceased friend, which was 
 printed in the 'Transactions of the Manchester Philosophical and 
 Literary Society ' for 1785. In 1790 a paper on tetanus and convulsive 
 disorders, which he communicated to the third volume of the ' Memoirs 
 of the London Medical Society,' considerably extended his professional 
 reputation. In 1792 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 In 1793 he published a pamphlet against the policy of the war with 
 France, under the title of ' A Letter, Commercial and Political, 
 addressed to the Right Hon. William Pitt, by Jasper Wilson, Esq.,' 
 which attracted a good deal of attention. In 1797 appeared the work 
 on which his professional reputation principally rests, entitled ' Medical 
 Reports on the Effects of Water, cold and warm, as a remedy in 
 Febrile Diseases.' The method of treatment here recommended by 
 Dr. Currie, affusion iu cold water in cases of fever, though a remedy 
 not to be trusted except to the most skilful hands, has since been 
 applied in suitable circumstances with extraordinary success. A 
 second volume of the 'Reports' appeared in 1804, and the author 
 was preparing a new edition of the whole work when he died. The 
 name of Dr. Currie is best known to general readers by his edition 
 of the works of Robert Burns, including both his Poems and Letters, 
 which he published for the benefit of the poet's family, in i vols. 8vo, 
 in 1800. It was introduced by a criticism on the writings of Burns, 
 and ' Some Observations on the character and condition of the Scottish 
 Peasantry,' both of which papers were drawn up with much elegance 
 and ability. This edition has formed the basis of every succeeding 
 collection of the poet's works. In 1804 Dr. Currie felt his health 
 rapidly giving way; and leaving Liverpool, he spent some time in 
 Bath and Clifton. In March 1805 he considered himself to be so far 
 restored, that he took a house and commenced practising in Bath; but 
 'lis illness soon returned, aud he died at Sidmouth on the 31st of 
 August in the same year. 
 
 CUVIE'R, GEORGES - CHRETIEN - LEOPOLD - DAGOBERT, 
 BARON, was born 23rd of August 1769, at Montbe'liard, now in the 
 department of Doubs, but which at that time was a county belonging 
 to the dukes of Wtirtemberg. His father, a half-pay officer of a Swiss 
 regiment in the French service, had married late in life a young and 
 accomplished woman, who took especial care of Cuvier's early educa- 
 tion. He was sent to study first at Tubingen, and he afterwards 
 entered the Academia Carolina, then newly-established at Stutgardt 
 by Prince Charles of Wurtemberg for the purpose of training up 
 yo iing men for public and diplomatic offices. Cuvier however bestowed 
 most of his time on natural history ; he collected specimens, and drew 
 and coloured insects, birds, and plants during his hours of recreation. 
 The limited circumstances of his family obliged him to remove from 
 Stutgardt before he obtained any public employment; and at twenty- 
 one years of age he accepted the situation of tutor to the only son of 
 Count d'Hericy in Normandy. The family residence being near the 
 sea, the study of marine animals became a part of Cuvier's occupa- 
 tion. He compared the living species with the fossil remains found 
 in the neighbourhood; and the dissection of a species of cuttle-fish 
 led him to study the anatomy of the mollusca, and to reduce to 
 order this hitherto neglected branch of zoology. While he was thus 
 employed, a society was formed at Valmont, in his neighbourhood, for 
 the encouragement of agriculture. L'Abbe" Teissier, a venerable and 
 learned old man, the author of the articles on agriculture in the 
 ' Encyclopddie Mdthodique,' had taken refuge at Valmout from the 
 revolution, disguising his obnoxious character of Abbs' under the garb 
 and profession of a surgeon. At a meeting of the new society he 
 expressed his opinions on his favourite subject in a manner which 
 forcibly reminded young Cuvier of the articles which he had read in 
 the ' Encyclope'die.' At the end of the sitting Cuvier addressed the 
 stranger by the name of L'Abbe" Teissier : the abbe" was alarmed, but 
 Cuvier soon removed his apprehensions, and an intimacy was formed 
 between them. 
 
 When the reign of terror had ceased, Teissier wrote to Jussieu and 
 other friends at Paris in terms of high, commendation of his new 
 acquaintance. The result was that Cuvier was requested to forward 
 Eome of his papers to the Society of Natural History, and shortly after, 
 in 1795, being then twenty-six years of age, he went to Paris, and in 
 the same year was appointed assistant to Mertrud in the superintend- 
 ence of the Jardin des Plantes, which locality became from that time 
 
 CUVIER, BARON. 
 
 his home, aud the scene of his labours and of his fame. Here he began 
 the creation of that uow splendid collection of comparative anatomy, 
 and in December of the same year he opened his first course on that 
 branch of science. In 1796 the National Institute was formed, and 
 Cuvier was one of its first members. In 1798 he published his ' Tableau 
 Eldmentaire de l'Histoire Naturelle des Animaux,' and afterwards his 
 'Me'moire sur les Ossemens Fossiles des Quadrupedes,' and 'Mdmoire 
 sur les Ossemens Fossiles qui se trouvent dans les Gypses de Mont- 
 martre.' He continued to illustrate the subject of fossil remains by 
 subsequent memoirs. In the year 1800 he was named professor of 
 natural philosophy at the College de France, continuing at the same 
 time his lectures on comparative anatomy at the Jardiu des Plantes. 
 In that year were published the first two volumes of his ' Lecons 
 d'Anatomie Comparde,' whioh met with the greatest success. The 
 three following volumes appeared in 1805. In 1802 the First Consul 
 Bonaparte appointed Cuvier one of the six inspectors-general for 
 establishing lycea, or public schools, which were supported by the 
 government, in thirty towns of France. Cuvier established those of 
 Marseille, Nice, and Bordeaux. He was about the same time appointed 
 perpetual secretary to the Institute for the Department of Natural 
 Sciences, with a salary of 6000 francs. In 1803 he married the widow 
 of M. Duvancel, a former fermier-gdneral : four children whom he had 
 by this marriage all died before him. In 1808 he was commissioned 
 by Napoleon to write a report on the progress of the natural sciences 
 from the year 1789. The luminous and interesting treatise which he 
 produced on this occasion was formally presented to Napoleon in the 
 council of state. Cuvier declares the true object of science to be, "to 
 lead the mind of man towards its noble destination — a knowledge of 
 truth; to spread sound and wholesome ideas among the lowest classes 
 of the people; to draw human beings from the empire of prejudices 
 and passions ; to make reason the arbitrator and supreme guide of 
 public opinion." His next appointment was that of counsellor for life 
 of the new Imperial University, in which capacity he had frequent 
 personal intercourse with Napoleon. In 1809-10 he was charged with 
 the organisation of the new academies, the name designed to be given 
 to the old universities of the Italian states which were annexed to 
 the empire. He organised those of Piedmont, Genoa, and Tuscany. 
 His reports of those missions exhibit the mild and enlightened spirit 
 which lie brought to the task. Inl811 he was sent on a similar mission 
 to Holland and the Hanseatic towns : his report especially concerning 
 Hollaud is very interesting, as the subject of public instruction in that 
 country is not generally known. He paid particular attention not 
 only to the higher branches of education, but also to popular or 
 elementary instruction : his principle was, that instruction would lead 
 to civilisation, and civilisation to morality, and therefore that primary 
 or elementary instruction should give to the people every means of 
 fully exercising their industry without disgusting them with their 
 condition; that secondary instruction, such as iu the lycea, should 
 expand the mind, without rendering it false or presumptuous ; and 
 that special or scientific instruction should give to France magistrates, 
 physicians, advocates, generals, clergymen, professors, and other men 
 of learning. 
 
 In 1813 Cuvier was sent to Rome, then annexed to the French 
 empire, to organise the universities there. Although his being a 
 Protestant rendered this mission the more delicate, yet his enlightened 
 tolerance and benignity of manner gained him the geueral esteem and 
 approbation in the capital of the Catholic world. Soon after Napoleon 
 appointed him maitre-des-requetes to the council of state, and in 1814, 
 just before his abdication, he named him councillor of state, an appoint- 
 ment which was confirmed by Louis XVIIL, who soon after appointed 
 him chancellor of the university, an office which he held till his death. 
 
 Cuvier published in 1817 a second edition of the 'Recherches sur 
 les Ossemens Fossiles,' in 5 vols. 8vo, and also his 'Regne Animal,' in 
 4 vols., in which the whole subject-matter of zoology, beginning with 
 man, is arranged according to the principle of organisation. In 1818 
 he made a journey to England, where he was received with appropriate 
 honour. In the same year he was elected a member of the French 
 Academy. In 1819 he was appointed president of the committee of 
 the interior in the council of state, an office which, fortunately for him, 
 was beyond the sphere of political intrigues, aud only required order, 
 impartiality, and au exact knowledge of the laws and principles of the 
 administration. In .the same year Louis XVIIL, as a personal mark 
 of his regard, created him a baron. He was appointed also temporary 
 grand master of the university, an office however which he willingly 
 resigned for that of grand master of the Faculties of Protestant 
 Theology in 1822. He himself stipulated that he should receive no 
 salary for this latter office. He was made at the same time one of 
 the vice-presidents of the Bible Society. Through his care fifty new 
 Protestant cures were created in France. He also established new 
 professorships of history, living languages, and natural history, in the 
 minor schools of the kingdom. In 1825 he republished, separately, 
 the preliminary discourse to the ' Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles, 
 which is generally known by the title of ' Discours sur les Revolutions 
 de la Surface du Globe,' and has been translated into most European 
 languages under the title of ' Theory of the Earth.' This work is a 
 series of deductions from actual facts, authenticated by his own 
 researches into the fossil remains, classed according to the strata in 
 which they were found. Cuvier draws the following conclusions : 1st. 
 
CUVIER, BARON. 
 
 CYPRIANUS, ST. 
 
 That in the strata called primitive there are no remains of life or 
 organised existence. 2nd. That all organised existences were not 
 Created at the same time, but at different times, probably very remote 
 from each other — vegetables before animals, the mollusca and fishes 
 before reptiles, and the latter before the njammalia. The transition- 
 limestone exhibits the remains of the lowest forms of existence ; the 
 chalk and clay conceal the remains of fishes, reptiles, and quadrupeds, 
 the beings of a former order of things which have now disappeared. 
 3rd. That among fossil remains no vestige appears of man or his 
 works, no bones of monkeys are found, no specimen of the whole tribe 
 of quadrumauous animals. 4th. That the fossil remains in the more 
 recent strata are those which approach nearest to the present type of 
 the corresponding liviug species. 5th. That the stratified layers which 
 form the crust of the globe are divisible into two classes, one formed 
 by fresh water and the other formed in the waters of the sea ; a fact 
 which leads to the conclusion that several parts of the globe have been 
 alternately covered by the sea and by fresh water. From these and 
 other facts Cuvier concludes that the actual order of things on the 
 surface of our globe did not commence at a very remote time : he 
 agrees with Deluc and Dolomieu, that the surface of the earth was 
 subject to a great and sudden revolution not longer than five or six 
 thousaud years ago, and that this catastrophe caused the disappearance 
 of countries formerly the abode of man and of species of animals now 
 unknown to us; but he also believes that the countries now inhabited 
 had been at some former period, long before the creation of man, 
 inhabited by land animals, which were destroyed by some previous 
 convulsion, and that this globe has undergone two or three such 
 visitations, which destroyed as many orders of animals, of which we 
 find the remains in the various strata. In many respects this work 
 has been left in arrear by the rapid advances of scientific research and 
 deduction, but it ha3 not been superseded ; and it will remain a noble 
 monument to its author's extraordinary attainments and great mental 
 power. 
 
 In 1826 Charles X. bestowed on Cuvier the decoration of grand 
 officer of the legion of honour; and the king of Wiirtemberg, his 
 former sovereign, made him commander of his order of the crown. 
 In 1827, Cuvier, a3 a member of the cabinet of the interior, was 
 intrusted with the superintendence of all affairs concerning the differ- 
 ent religions professed in France, except the Catholic. In the same 
 year he had the misfortune to lose his only remaining child, a daughter, 
 amiable and accomplished, and on the eve of her marriage ; a loss from 
 which he never entirely recovered. In 1828 appeared the first volume 
 of his ' Histoire Naturelle des Poissons ; ' a splendid work, of which 
 however he lived to see only the first eight volumes published. It 
 contains more than 5000 species of fishes, described from real speci- 
 mens and classed, with observations on their anatomy, and critical 
 researches on their nomenclature, ancient as well as modern. 
 
 In 1830 Cuvier opened a course in the College de France on the 
 history and progress of science, and especially of the natural sciences, 
 in all ages. In the same year he paid a second visit to England, and it 
 wa3 during his absence from Paris that the revolution of July took 
 place. On his return he was graciously received by the new king 
 Louis Philippe, who in 1832 made him a peer of France. On the 8th 
 of May of that ye;ir he opened the third and concluding part of his 
 course of lectures on the history of science, by summing up all that he 
 had previously said ; he then pointed out what remained for him to 
 say respecting this earth and its changes, and announced his intention 
 of unfolding his own manner of viewing the present state of creation. 
 This discourse, delivered in a calm solemn manner, produced a deep 
 impression on his hearers, which was increased when he added the 
 concluding words — " These will be the objects of our future investiga- 
 tions, if time, health, and strength shall be given to me to continue 
 and finish them with you." That was his last lecture. The followiog 
 day he fell ill, and soon after paralysis manifested itself. He saw the 
 approach of death with resignation, and he expired on the 13th of 
 May 1832, at the age of sixty-three. He was buried in the cemetery 
 of Pere-la-Chaise : his funeral wa3 attended by deputations from the 
 Council of State, the several academies, by members of the two 
 Chambers, &c. 
 
 The career of this great and good man, passed quietly, but most 
 usefully, in the pursuits of science, and in instructing and benefiting 
 mankind, during forty years the mo3t eventful in the history of France 
 and of Europe, forms a striking contrast with that of the conquerors 
 and politicians who agitated the world during the same period. His 
 works, of which we have mentioned a few of the most important, are 
 very numerous, and even a mere catalogue of them would exceed our 
 limits. The reader will find a full list of them in chronological order 
 in the very interesting ' Memoir ' by Mrs. R. Lee, named below. 
 Besides his scientific works, Cuvier wrote numerous dloges, among 
 others, of Bruguieres, Daubenton, Lemonnier, Priestley, Adanson, 
 Saussure, Bonnet, Fourcroy, Pallan, Rumford, Werner, Sir Joseph 
 Banks, Delambre, Berthollet, Lacdpede, Fabbroni, Ramond, Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy, &c. These dloges, which are really interesting biographies, 
 have been published in 3 vols. 8vo. He also contributed to the ' Dic- 
 tionnaire des Sciences Medicale3,' the ' Biographie Universelle,' and to 
 the ' Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles.' 
 
 (Mrs. R. Lee, Memoir of Baron Cuvier; Duvernoy, Notice Eistorique 
 n*r Us Ouvrages et, la Vie de M. le Baron 0. Cuvier; A. De Candolle, 
 
 Notice sur la Vie et lei Ouvmges de O. Cuvier, in the Bibliotheque 
 Universelle de Oendve, vol. xlix. ; and the Eloges of Messrs. Parisot, 
 Flourens, Pasquier, Laurillard, &c.) 
 
 CUVIER, FREDERIC, the younger brother of Georges Cuvier, was 
 born at Montbdliard, June 28, 1773. Frederic, like his more famous 
 brother, early devoted himself to the study of natural history ; and 
 though he never accomplished anything comparable in scientific value, 
 he was perhaps little his inferior in research, and he contributed many 
 works of considerable learning and interest to the naturalist's library. 
 Of his separate works, the best known is his ' Histoire Naturelle des 
 Mammif&res,' published in 1824, in which scientific precision and 
 popular interest are very happily combined. This work is much 
 admired in France for its elegance and purity of style. M. Frederic 
 Cuvier was a careful observer, and has given the result of his reading 
 and observation in numerous papers on zoology in the ' Dictionnaire 
 des Sciences Naturelles.' The important volume on ' Cetacea,' in the 
 supplement to Georges Cuvier's edition of Buffou, is by Frederic Cuvier; 
 the introduction is especially marked by bi'oad and comprehensive 
 views. But M. F. Cuvier's most strictly scientific work is one he pub- 
 lished in 1822 on the 'Teeth of Animals,' and which is believed to 
 have had considerable influence in leading to the adoption of a more 
 rigorous method of classifying the Mammalia. M. Frederic Cuvier, 
 who was greatly esteemed for his personal qualities as well as for his 
 extensive acquirements, died at Strasbourg, on the 17th of July 1838. 
 
 CUYP. [Kuyp.] 
 
 CYBO, a Genoese family, said to be of Greek extraction, several 
 individuals of which distinguished themselves in the military service 
 of their country during the middle ages. Pope Innocent VIII., who 
 was elected in 1485, was of this family ; and his grandson, Lorenzo 
 Cybo, married, about 1520, Ricciarda Malaspina, heiress of the princely 
 fiefs of Massa and Carrara. His son, Alberico Cyb5 Malaspina, after 
 the death of his parents, became lord of Massa and marquis of Carrara 
 in 1553, and his titles were confirmed by a diploma of the Emperor 
 Maximilian, dated August 1568. Alberico is still remembered both 
 at Massa and at Carrara as a wise and beneficent prince. He died at a 
 very advanced age in 1623, and was succeeded by his grandson Charles, 
 who, dying in 1662, was succeeded by his son Alberico II. Aberico II. 
 obtained of the emperor Leopold I. the title of principality for his 
 marquisate of Carrara, and he and his successors were thenceforth 
 styled dukes of Massa and princes of Carrara. Alberico II. died in 
 1690, and was succeeded by his son Charles II. Alberico III., Charles's 
 son, succeeded his father in 1710, and received the investiture of Massa 
 and Carrara by a diploma of the Emperor Charles VI. Alberico III. 
 died childless in 1715, and was succeeded by his younger brother 
 Alderano, who died in 1731, leaving three daughters, the eldest of 
 whom, named Maria Theresa, married Ercole Rinaldo of Este, prince 
 of Modena, in 1741, having obtained for herself from the emperor 
 Francis I. the investiture of her maternal inheritance. Maria Theresa 
 died in 1790, before her husband, and was succeeded in her dominions 
 of Massa and Carrara by her only child, Maria Beatrice, who remained 
 after the death of her father the heiress of the two houses of Este 
 and Cybo Malaspina. She had married, in 1771, the Archduke Ferdi- 
 nand of Austria, by whom she had the late duke Francis IV. of 
 Modena and other children. Maria Beatrice continued to administer 
 her principalities of Massa and Carrara till the French revolutionary 
 invasion. [Baciocchi.] The treaty of Vienna of 1815 restored Maria 
 Beatrice to her dominions of Massa and Carrara. Maria Beatrice died 
 in 1829, and her dominions reverted to her son, Francis IV. of Modena, 
 who assumed the title of Duke of Massa and Carrara, and who was 
 succeeded in January 1846 by his son, Francis V. (Repetti, Dizionario 
 Geografico Storico delta Toscana, art. 'Massa;' Viani, Memorie Storiche 
 delta Famiglia Cybb ) 
 
 CYPRIANUS, ST., THA'SCIUS CECI'LIUS, one of the most 
 eloquent of the Latin fathers, was archbishop of Carthage towards the 
 middle of the third century. The facts and dates relating to the early 
 portion of his life are stated by different writers with a variation which 
 occasions uncertainty. He was probably born about a.d. 200, at 
 Carthage, where, before his conversion to Christianity, he acquired 
 considerable affluence as a teacher of oratory, then so indispensable to 
 success in all public affairs. His career as a Christian appears not 
 to have exceeded ten or twelve years ; for it was not until about the 
 fiftieth year of his age that he was gained over to the church of 
 Cirthage by Caecilius, a presbyter, whose name he henceforth adopted. 
 On his conversion, he sold his mansion and estate for the benefit of 
 the poor, and observed, in his mode of life, the most ascetic severity. 
 It is stated however that, from some unexplained circumstance, he 
 afterwards became repossessed of his property. Having held for two 
 years the office of presbyter, to which he was elected on his joining 
 the Christian community, he was importuned by the people to become 
 their bishop, in opposition to several other presbyters who sought the 
 promotion, and he is said to have been shut up in his house by 
 the assembled populace, who barricaded all the outlets to prevent his 
 escape, which in vain he attempted to make at an upper window. 
 He was consequently installed archbishop of Carthage, but the perse- 
 cution under the Emperor Decius having soon afterwards commenced, 
 Cyprian fled, and so closely concealed himself during about a year and 
 a half, that the place of his retreat appears never to have been known. 
 This flight and long desertion of his flock occasioned much scandal 
 
467 CYPRIANUS, ST. 
 
 against the church, and caused the clergy of Rome to address those of 
 Carthage on the subject. (Cypr., ' Epist.' 2.) The plea anxiously 
 alleged by the archbishop and his apologist Pontius is an especial 
 revelation from God in a vision. (' Deus secedere mo jussit,' 'Epist.' 
 9.) That this however was a fiction is shown in ' Epist.' 5, where one 
 Tertullus is made responsible for the advice ("a Tertullo ratio 
 reddetur.") When the persecution was abated, Cyprian, having suffered 
 only proscription and the confiscation of his property, returned to 
 Carthage, arid being reinstated in his bishopric, he held seveiid 
 councils, at one of which 85 bishops attended to legislate concerning 
 the rebaptising of heretics, apostates, and deserters, who, after 
 escaping the severity of Decius by renouncing their religious pro- 
 fession, desired to be re-admitted into the church. On the renewal of 
 the persecution by the Emperor Valerian, about six years afterwards, 
 Cyprian was brought before the proconsul l'aternus, with nine bishops 
 of Numidia, who were condemned as profane disturbers of the peace, 
 and sent to work in the mines. Cyprian was banished to Curubis, 
 about 40 miles from Carthage. By Galerius, the successor of Paternus, 
 he was restored to his former dignities ; but on his refusal to sacrifice 
 to the pagan deities in obedience to the emperor's commands, he was 
 seized by a baud of soldiers, and was sentenced to bo beheaded as an 
 enemy to the gods, and a daugerous seducer of the people. He was 
 led from the consular palace of Sextusto an adjoining field surrounded 
 with trees, which were filled with thousands of spectators, in the 
 midst of whom he submitted with much fortitude to his sentence. 
 That the populace must have experienced a great reversion of senti- 
 ment towards their archbishop since they constrained his acceptance 
 of office, is evident from this acquiescence in his death, and from the 
 fact that, previous to this event, they loudly demanded in the theatres 
 that he should be thrown to the lions. This change arose apparently 
 from the harsh and ascetic austerity of Cyprian in denouncing not only 
 idolatiy and licentiousness, but the reasonable and natural gratification 
 of the passions. He was beheaded on the 29th of September, 258. 
 
 The writings of Cyprian are numerous and valuable, as containing 
 much curioua and important information concerning the doctrines 
 and discipline of the primitive church : they consist of two kinds, 
 epistles, and tracts or sermons. Of the epistles there are 83, many of 
 which appear to have been written during the eighteen months of his 
 concealment. The following few notices will show the kind of 
 subject to which these epistles relate. In the one to Donatus he 
 relates, with much rhetorical embellishment, the circumstances of his 
 own conversion, and shows the advantages of monastic seclusion and 
 abstinence. In that to his priests and deacons he gives advice about 
 escaping from persecution. The one to Cornelius contains passages 
 of much importance to the apologists of the church of Rome, in 
 which are mentioned, " Petri cathedra atque ecclesia principalis unde 
 unitas sacerdotalis exorta est." The epistle to Fides contains the 
 judgment of Cyprian and a council of bishops in favour of infant 
 baptism. Another to Magnus on the same subject asserts that 
 sprinkling is no less efficacious than dipping. One to Pomponius 
 reproves the licentious abuses of monachism, and the prevalent custom 
 of virgins living with the clergy, ostensibly for pious instruction, 
 but really for sensual indulgence. An epistle to Caecilius is important 
 as insisting upon the absolute indispensableness of mixing water with 
 the eucharistic wine. In some ancient manuscripts three epistles are 
 given besides the above-mentioned number, one of which, from Pope 
 Cornelius to St. Cyprian, is replete with abuse and insolence. 
 
 The following are the principal tracts of Cyprian : — ' De Lapsis,' 
 that ig, concerning those who, from persecution, had lapsed into 
 idolatry, in which are several miraculous stories of very incredible 
 character. ' On the Unity of the Church : ' this is a treatise which 
 both from the Roman and English hierarchy has received especial 
 attention. It strongly denounces all schismatic separation, declaring 
 that there is no crown, even for martyrdom, out of the pale of the 
 true church. The discourse ' On Mortality ' was written at the time 
 of a dreadful plague, which for several years devastated the Roman 
 empire, and is chiefly remarkable as showing the lamentable want of 
 a due estimate of the value of life which distinguished the religious 
 enthusiasm of that age. The ' Exhortation to Martyrdom ' consists of 
 twelve classes of scriptural passages exhibited to encourage and stimu- 
 late the faithful in submitting to tortures and death. The treatise 
 'Against the Jews' is also a series of texts, quoted and verbally 
 applied, as usual at that time, without any regard to the sense of the 
 context. In the tract 'On the Dress of "Virgins' ('De Habitu Virginum') 
 many facts are mentioned which illustrate the social state of those 
 times. A severe denunciation is directed against the passion among 
 rich and youthful females for immodest attire, extravagant ornaments, 
 the use of paint and cosmetics, and the dyeing of black hair a flaxen 
 yellow in imitation of the Germans. The immoral habits of unmarried 
 women appear to have furnished an especial subject for the sermons 
 not only of Cyprian, but of all the primitive fathers. Besides a dis- 
 course on the Lord's Prayer, which has received high commendation, 
 there are four which are considered to be wrongly ascribed to St 
 Cyprian; one is a turgid declamation in praise of Martyrdom; the 
 second is on Chastity ; and the other two against Theatres, and against 
 the heretic Novatian. 
 
 The style of Cyprian much resembles that of his master and 
 favourite author Tertullian. He treats the same subjects in the same 
 
 CYRIL, ST. 
 
 manner, and though his language is more artificial, it is similar in 
 harshness and occasional barbarisms. His eloquence is admired how- 
 ever by Jerome and even by Lactantius. In credulity he appears to 
 have had but few equals, if indeed he believed (which is very doubtful) 
 all the miraculous stories he relates; for besides his own continual 
 visions, which happened generally to authorise some act of episcopal 
 power unapproved by his clergy and people, he seriously appeals not 
 only to the deeds of demoniacs or rather maniacs, and to the dreams 
 of poor and ignorant women, but to the revelations of ' little boys 
 full of the Holy Ghost.' (' Epist.' 9.) 
 
 There are several good editions of his works, among which may 
 be mentioned that of the 'Opera Omnia,' Oxford, fol., 1682, and 
 Amsterdam, 1700; but the editio optima is that of Paris, in fol., 1726. 
 The following translation of the whole is in general accurate and 
 faithful : ' The genuine Works of St. Cyprian, with his Life, as written 
 by his Deacon Poatius, all done into English from the Oxford edition, 
 and illustrated with notes, by Nathaniel Marshall, LL.B.,' fol., 1717. 
 The whole works and life have also been translated into French, by 
 Lombert, 1 082. Translations of separate tracts we very numerous. 
 That ' On Mortality,' with others, is Englished by Elyot, 1534 ; by 
 Brende, 1553 ; by Story, 1556 ; and by Lupset, 1560. ' On the Lord's 
 Prayer,' by Paynel, 1539. ' On Virgins,' by Barksdale, 1675. 1 On the 
 Unity of the Church,' by Bishop Fell, 4to, 1681; and by Horsburgh, 
 1815. The life and martyrdom of Cyprian, by Pontius, his intimate 
 friend, is still extant, and printed in several editions of the ( Opera 
 Omnia ; ' but the style is too rhetorical for simple truth. The 
 substance of this account is given in Lardner's 'Credib.,' voL iii. 
 
 (Liven of the Saints, by the Rev. Alban Butler, vol. ix., p. 172, 
 contains an elaborate biography of Cyprian ; Dr. Adam Clarke, Suc- 
 cession of Sacred Lit., vol. i., p. 177; Cave, Hist. Lit; Le Clerc, 
 Biblioth. ; Tillemont and Bollandus ; Poole, Life and Times of Cyprian, 
 Oxford, 1840; Taylor, Ancient Christianity; Dr. Middleton, Inquiry.) 
 
 CYRIL, ST., of Jerusalem, was born in that city about A.D. 315, 
 and received among the clergy there an education for the church. In 
 345 he was ordained priest and catechist by Maximus, the Patriarch, 
 or, which is in fact the same thing, Archbishop of Jerusalem. On the 
 death of that prelate in 350, Cyril was chosen to succeed him ; and 
 the commencement of his episcopate is said to have been signalised by 
 a wonderful luminous appearance in the heavens, called the ' Appa- 
 rition of the Cross.' It is spoken of in the Chronicle of Alexandria, 
 by Socrates (lib. iL c. 28), by Philostorgius (lib. iii. c. 26), and by several 
 other ecclesistical historians. The letter immediately written by 
 St. Cyril to the Emperor Constantius describing this miraculous phe- 
 nomenon, is quoted in proof of the fact by Sozomen, Glycas, Theo- 
 phaues, John of Nicsca, Eutychius, and many subsequent writers : 
 Dr. Cave, in his ' Life of St. Cyril,' inserts it entire. It is stated that 
 on the nones (7th) of May, 351, at nine in the morning, a great mass 
 of light, far brighter than the sun, was observed over Golgotha, and 
 extending to Mount Olivet (two English miles) ; that it assumed the 
 form of a cross, and was seen during several hours by all the inhabit- 
 ants of Jerusalem. 
 
 The zeal with which St. Cyril enforced and defended the doctrine 
 of the consubstantiality of the Son, with the jealousy about precedence, 
 and the ambitious encroachment of jurisdiction, which characterise 
 the episcopal history of that age, occasioned Acacius, the Arian bishop 
 of Csesarea, to commence a course of persecution against him, which 
 terminated in his deposition by a council in 357. On thiB he retired 
 to Tarsus until 359, when, by a council of Seleucia, he was re-estab- 
 lished in his see, but through the party of Acacius he was deposed a 
 second time by a council of Constantinople in 360. On the accession 
 of Julian, who, to increase the broils of the church, recalled all the 
 exiled bishops, Cyril returned to his bishopric, from which, under the 
 Emperor Valens, ha was in 367 expelled a third time by Eudoxus, 
 the Arian bishop of Constantinople. Finally, under Theodosius, who 
 favoured the Trinitarian sect, he was again restored by a council of 
 Constantinople in 381 ; and notwithstanding the ambitious and 
 schismatic contests of the bishops and clergy, he remained in his see 
 until his death in 386. An incident noticed by all the biographers of 
 St. Cyril, is the celebrated attempt of the Emperor Julian to rebuild 
 the temple of the Jews at Jerusalem, ostensibly for the purpose of 
 promoting their religion, but really with the sinister view of falsifying 
 the prophecies respecting its irreparable destruction. It is said that 
 notwithstanding the enthusiastic expectations of the Jews, and the 
 prodigious preparations and actual commencement of the work, St. 
 Cyril's reliance on the infallibility of the Scriptures, induced him to 
 persevere in predicting the failure of the project ; and that accordingly 
 a series of earthquakes, storms of lightning, and subterraneous erup- 
 tions of fire and smoke destroyed all the materials and a multitude of 
 workmen, the garments of those who escaped being impressed with 
 shining phosphoric crosses, which even by washing could not be effaced. 
 The particulars of this miraculous fulfilment of Cyril's prediction are 
 related by St. Gregory Nazian (' Orat. 4 advers. Julian ') ; by Theo- 
 doret, Socrates, St. Chrysostom, Philostorgius, Sozomen, and St 
 Ambrose. See also Bishop Warburton's Dissertation on the subject, 
 p. 88. 
 
 The extant writings of St Cyril are in the Greek language, and 
 consist of eighteen books of catecheses, or sermons, delivered during 
 Lent to the catechumens, called before baptism Illuminati ; five similar 
 
■69 
 
 CYRIL, ST. 
 
 CYRUS I. 
 
 00 
 
 discourses delivered during Easter week to the neophytes after baptism, 
 called Mystagogic, being explanatory of the mysteries of the Christian 
 sacraments ; a treatise on words, and the letter to Constantius ; besides 
 which, several homilies and epistles are sometimes improperly included. 
 Rivetus, in his 'Criticus Sacer' (lib. iii., c. 8, 9, 10, 'De Cyrilli 
 Catechesibus), considers the five Mystagogics, and the letter to Con- 
 stantius, as supposititious; but by Vossius, Cave, Mill, Whittaker, and 
 Bishop Bull, they are received as genuine. The books of Catecheses 
 are crowded with quotations from Scripture, and the style is dull and 
 tiresomely prolix ; but the facts they contain relating to the doctrines 
 and discipline of the Eastern church in the 4th century are extremely 
 interesting to the student of Christian antiquities. In the first Catechesis 
 are described the effects of baptism. The fourth gives an exposition 
 of all the Christian doctrines, and treats of numerous questions 
 concerning the body, soul, virginity, marriage, &c. The subsequent 
 discourses exhibit and enjoin a belief in the miraculous virtues of the 
 relics of saints, which are represented as worthy of all veneration ; in 
 the efficacy of prayers and sacrifices for the dead ; in the powers of 
 exorcism, consecrated unction, oil, and water. Christians are exhorted 
 to cross themselves on every occasion and action throughout the day. 
 The enthusiastic adoration of the cross displayed by St. Cyril was 
 probably owing to his officiating in the church of the Holy Cross in 
 Jerusalem, where, after the ' Invention of the Cross,' it was deposited 
 in a silver case, and shown by the archbishop to thousands of pilgrims, 
 who each took a little chip of it without occasioning any diminution 
 of its bulk; hence one of his proofs of the truth of the gospel history 
 of the Crucifixion is the fact of the world being full of chips of the 
 cros3. A description of this cross is given by Dom Toutte'e at the end 
 of his edition of Cyril's works. 
 
 The doctrine of the uninterrupted and perpetual virginity of Mary 
 is taught by Cyril. The state of virginity in general is extolled as 
 equal to that of angels, with an assurance that, in the day of judgment, 
 the noblest crowns will be carried off by the virgins. The resurrection 
 is proved and illustrated by the story of the Phoenix. That Cyril's 
 8uperstitiou3 credulity and love of the marvellous was remarkably 
 great is apparent not only from such instances as the above, but by 
 his relating, without suspicion of their truth, the most puerile and 
 absurd stories. In the five Mystagogics are described the ceremonies 
 which precede baptism ; the anointing with oil the forehead, face, 
 ears, and nose ; the forms of exorcism, the holy chrism, confirmation, 
 the eucharist, liturgy, and communion. The dogma of trans ubstanti- 
 ation is most explicitly enforced : we are said to be made concorporeal 
 and consanguineal with Christ by his body and blood being distributed 
 through our bodies, and extremely minute directions are given for the 
 mode of receiving the eucharist bread and wine. 
 
 Mille's edition of the 'Opera Omnia,' Greece et Latine, fol., 1703, 
 contains notes, three indices, and the various readings ; but the editio 
 optima is that by Augustus Toutte'e, a Maurist monk, Gr. et Lat., 
 fol., 1720. 
 
 ( Lives of Saints, by the Rev. Alban Butler, vol. iii. ; Dr. Adam Clarke, 
 Succession Sac. Lit., vol. i. ; Lardner, vol. iv. ; Grodecius, Vita St. 
 Cyrilli ; Tillemont, Guericke, &c.) 
 
 CYRIL, ST. (CYRILLUS), of Alexandria, was educated under his 
 uncle Theophilus, the bishop of Alexandria, by whom St. Chrysostom 
 was persecuted and deposed. On the death of Theophilus in 412, 
 Cyril was elected patriarch, that is, archbishop of Alexandria. His 
 episcopal power was first displayed in shutting up and plundering the 
 churches of the puritan sect founded by Novatian. Cyril next 
 exhibited his zeal against heretics by heading a furious mob of fanatics, 
 who drove out all the numerous Jewish population from Alexandria, 
 where, since the time of Alexander, its founder, they had enjoyed 
 many privileges, and were politically important as contributors to the 
 public revenue. This arrogant proceeding therefore highly excited 
 the anger of Orestes, the governor of the city, aud made him hence- 
 forth tne implacable opponent of the bishop, who, in the name of the 
 Holy Trinity and Gospels, in vain implored a reconciliation. In con- 
 sequence of the enmity thus created, and of Cyril's resentment of the 
 checks opposed to his ambitious encroachments on the jurisdiction of 
 the civil power, a murderous attack was made on the governor iu 
 his chariot by a band of 500 monks; and one who severely wounded 
 him having suffered death on the rack, Cyril, in his church, pronounced 
 a pompous eulogy over his body as that of a glorious martyr. (Soc, 
 1. vii., c 14.) By the philosopher Eunapius (' Vita JEdesii ') these 
 monks are described as swine in human form. The tragic story of 
 Hypatia, the daughter of the mathematician Theon of Alexandria, 
 furnishes further evidence of the revengeful disposition of St. Cyril. 
 This lady, whose wonderful abilities enabled her to preside over the 
 Alexandrine school of Platonic philosophy, was the especial object of 
 the bishop's enmity, partly, as is said, arising from envy at the depth 
 and extent of her knowledge, which drew to her lectures the greatest 
 philosophers and statesmen, and a crowd of students from Greece and 
 Asia; but chiefly because of her intimacy with the governor and 
 her great influence over him, which Cyril and his clergy suspected was 
 exerted against them. The consequent murder of Hypatia is circum- 
 stantially related by several ecclesiastical historians. (Soc, 1. vii., c. 
 13 and 15; Nicephorus, 1. xiv., c. 16; Damascius, in ' Vita Isidori ;' 
 Hesychius and Suidas, in 'Tttoti'o; Photius, ' Annot ad Socrat.,' ]. vii., 
 c 15.) In these accounts it is stated that Cyril, having vowed the 
 
 destruction of this accomplished woman, a party of infuriated wretches, 
 whom Nicephorus (ubi supra) expressly declares to have been Cyril's 
 clergy, led on by Peter, a preacher, seized her in the street, and having 
 dragged her into a church, completely stripped her, tore her to pieces, 
 carried the mangled fragments of her body through the streets, and 
 finally burnt them to ashes, 415. (See Toland's ' Hypatia, or the 
 History of a most beautiful, virtuous, learned, and accomplished Lady, 
 who was torn to pieces by the Clergy of Alexandria, to gratify the 
 Cruelty of their Archbishop, undeservedly styled St. Cyril,' 8vo, 1730. 
 The story of Hypatia has been made, as will be remembered, the 
 subject of a sort of philosophical novel by the Rev. Charles Kingsley.) 
 
 The titles of Doctor of the Incarnation and Champion of the Virgin 
 have been given to Cyril, on account of his long and tumultuous dis- 
 pute with Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, who denied the mystery 
 of the hypostatic union, and contended that the Divinity cannot be 
 born of a woman — that the divine nature was not incarnate in but 
 only attendant on Jesus as a man, and therefore that Mary was not 
 entitled to the appellation then commonly vised of Mother of God. 
 (Pluquet.) The condemnation and deposition of Nestorius having 
 been decreed by Pope Celestine, Cyril was appointed his vicegerent to 
 execute the sentence, for which he assembled and presided at a council 
 of sixty bishops at Ephesus. But John, the patriarch of Antioch, 
 having a few days afterwards held a council of forty-one bishops, who 
 supported Nestorius and excommunicated Cyril, the two parties 
 appealed to the Emperor Theodosius, who forthwith committed both 
 Cyril and Nestorius to prison, where they remained for some time 
 under rigorous treatment. Cyril, by the influence of Celestiue, was at 
 length liberated and restored (431) to the see of Alexandria, which he 
 retained until his death, which occurred in 444. 
 
 The works of Cyril are numerous, and chiefly on subjects connected 
 with the Arian controversy, the incarnation, consubstantiality of the 
 Son, and similar difficult points, which are iuvolved in additional 
 obscurity by an intricate perplexity of style and the use of barbarous 
 Greek. The following are some of the principal treatises : — ' Thesau- 
 rus on the Trinity,' intended as a complete refutation of Arianism. 
 In ' Dialogues on the Incarnation,' in ' Five Books against Nestorius,' 
 and in an ample ' Commentary on St. John's Gospel,' the same subject 
 is continued. Ten books against Julian contain replies to that em- 
 peror's three books against the Gospels, which, if Cyril's quotations 
 are faithful, were as weak aud absurd as the answers. Seventeen 
 books ' On Worship in Spirit and Truth,' show that all the Mosaical 
 institutions were an allegory of the Gospel ; "a proof," says Dr. Adam 
 Clarke, " how Scripture may be tortured to say any thing." Thirteen 
 books on the Pentateuch and the Prophets are written with a similar 
 view. Thirty paschal Homilies, announcing, as customary at Alex- 
 andria, the time of Easter. Sixty-one Epistles nearly all relate to the 
 Nestorian controversy. Cyril's 'Synodical Letter' contains twelve 
 solemn curses against Nestorius, who as solemnly replied with twelve 
 curses against Cyril. In a treatise against the Anthropomorphites, or 
 those Egyptian monks who taught that as man is made in the express 
 image of his Maker, God has the form aud substance of a human body 
 Cyril reproves them for their gluttony aud idleness, and answers with 
 great metaphysical skill a series of perplexing queries, but such as 
 were most unworthy to be either asked or answered by Christian 
 divines. Cyril throughout his works enforces the adoration of Mary 
 as the mother of God, and explicitly teaches the doctrine of transub- 
 stantiation, declaring that by taking the Lord's body we become con- 
 corporeal with God, being blended together like two portions of 
 melted wax. " The history of none among the Christian fathers," 
 says Dr. Adam Clarke, "is more disgraceful to the Christian character 
 than that of St. Cyril of Alexandria — a man immoderately ambitious, 
 violent, and headstrong; a breeder of disturbances; haughty, impe- 
 rious, aud as unfit for a bishop as a violent, bigoted, unskilful theolo- 
 gian could possibly be — but resolved that if the meek inherit the 
 earth, the violent should have possession of the sees." The editio 
 optima of the ' Opera Omnia' of Cyril is that in 7 torn, fol., Greek aud 
 Lat., Paris, 1638. Spanheim'a edition of Julian's works contains 
 Cyril's work against Julian. 
 
 (Clarke, Succession Sac. Lit., vol. ii. p. 137 ; Cave, Hist. Lit., vol. i.; 
 Socrates, ubi »upra ; Tillemont, torn. xiv. p. 272 ; Butler, Lives of 
 Saints; Ceillier, torn. xiii. p. 241; Rivetus, Critic. Sac; Lardner; 
 Neander, &c.) 
 
 CYRILLUS, the author of a Greek glossary, which some have 
 attributed to the bishop of the same name. It is printed in the 
 appendix to the London edition of H. Stephen's Greek Lexicon, 
 1826. 
 
 CYRUS L, founder of the Persian monarchy, began to reign about 
 B.C. 559. Even in the time of Herodotus the history of Cyrus was 
 so obscured by legendary tales that the truth could not be separated 
 from the fiction. His original name appears to have been Agradatos 
 (Strabo, p. 729 d.) : the word Cyrus is said to have signified the sun, 
 and this name was probably assumed by him when he became king. 
 (Heeren, ' Ideen.') Cyrus was the son of Cambyses, a Persian, and 
 Maudaue, daughter of Astyages, king of Media, and hence was called 
 by the oracle a mule. (Herod, i. 91.) In consequence of a dream of 
 Astyages, which portended that the offspring of his daughter would 
 take the throne of the Medes, he ordered Cyrus to be destroyed as 
 soon as he was born. Harpagus, a person of rank in the king's 
 
171 
 
 CYRUS II. 
 
 CZACKI TADEUSZ. 
 
 in 
 
 household, was charged with the commission, but beiug reluctant to 
 execute it, gave the child to the king's herdsman to put to death. 
 The herdsman's wife, who just at this time was delivered of a still- 
 born male child, persuaded her husband to preserve the life of the 
 royal infant, aud their own dead child was accordingly exposed instead 
 of Cyrus, whom they brought up under their own roof. Among his 
 boyish playmates Cyrus exhibited all the royal symptoms of an 
 inclination to command and be obeyed. In their games the youths 
 made him king, and the severity with which he enforced his orders 
 on one of these occasions led to his being brought before Astyages, 
 who recognised iu his features a likeness to himself, and found that 
 the time of the exposure of his grandson and the age of Cyrus agreed. 
 The circumstances of his preservation were disclosed, and he was 
 sent to his real parents. Astyages was less enraged against the herds- 
 man than agaiust Harpagus, on whom he wreaked his vengeance by 
 the murder of his son : the youth's mangled limbs were dressed and 
 served up at supper when Harpagus was present, and the head, hands, 
 aud feet were afterwards shown to the father in a basket, with iasulting 
 expressions. Harpagus said nothing, but meditated revenge ; and it 
 was not long before he succeeded in rousing Cyrus ngainBt Astyages. 
 Cyrus induced the Persians to revolt agaiust the Medes, and dethroned 
 Astyages B.C. 560. He next attacked and took Sardis, and made 
 Ciccsus prisoner B.C. 546. [Cncasus.] He besieged and took the city 
 of Babylon B.C. 538, which he entered by diverting the course of the 
 Euphrates and leading his army into the city by the dry bed of the 
 river (i. 190-191.) At last he carried his arms against the Massagetae, 
 and was defeated and slain by Tomyris, their queen (b.C. 529), who 
 had his head cut off and put into a leathern bag full of human blood, 
 saying, " Though I am alive and have conquered you, you have undone 
 me by taking my son ; but I will, as I threatened, satiate you with 
 blood." He had reigned twenty-nine years (i. 214.) This is the 
 account giv n by Herodotus, which, with a few variations, is copied 
 by Justin. Xenopbon's work on the education of Cyrus is rather an 
 historical romance than a history, and therefore his narrative is less 
 to be depended on than that of Herodotus, from which it differs mate- 
 rially. Both Xeuophon aud Ctesias (' Persica,' c. 8) [Ctesias], make 
 Cyrus die quietly a natural death. (See the last chapter of Cicero 
 ' De Senectute.') The account of Ctesias as to his death is conforma- 
 ble with the story in Arrian (' Anab.' vi. 29) of the body of Cyrus 
 beiug interred at Pasargadse. [Alexander III.] The fame of Cyrus 
 appears to have lasted to the downfall of the Persian empire ; he was 
 regarded by his countrymen as their great national hero; and his 
 fame is still preserved iu the annals of modern Persia. The Persians 
 gave him the title of father (iii. 89), while they called his son, 
 Cambyses, a tyrant. The capture of Babylon by Cyrus is the point 
 at which sacred hrstory first touches on profane. (Clinton, ' Fast. 
 Hel.,' p. 301.) Cyrus left two sons, Cambyses, who succeeded him on 
 the throne, and Smerdis, who was murdered by the command of 
 Cambyses. (Herod, iii. 30.) 
 
 CYRUS II. was the son of Darius II. and Pary satis. Artaxerxes, 
 the eldest son of Darius, succeeded him as king : but Cyrus disputed 
 the right of succession, and founded his own claim on the fact that he 
 was the first-born after the accession of his father. Cyrus was the 
 favourite of his mother, Parysatis, aud was indebted to her intercession 
 with Artaxerxes for the preservation of his life after he had been 
 charged with a conspiracy against the king. He was sent back to 
 his government in the western provinces of Asia Minor, but did not 
 relinquish his designs on Artaxerxes. Indignant at the disgrace he 
 had suffered by being sentenced to death, he resolved, if possible, to 
 dethrone his brother. The great difficulty was to raise a sufficient 
 force without exciting his brother's suspicions. Clearchus, a Lacedae- 
 monian general, undertook to raise a body of Greek troops for the pur- 
 pose of making war on some Thracian tribes. Aristippus in Thessalia, 
 and Proxenus in Bceotia, raised troops for similar purposes and with 
 a similar object. Artaxerxes had originally been apprised of the 
 designs of Cyrus by Tissaphernes, but the cities which were in the 
 government of Tissaphernes now all revolted to Cyrus, with the 
 exception of Miletus. A war thus arising between Tissaphernes and 
 Cyrus, gave Cyrus a pretext for openly collecting his forces, and even 
 for soliciting the aid of the king, to whom he made heavy complaints 
 of the couduct of Tissaphernes. Artaxerxes was thus blinded to 
 the real aims of Cyrus, who explained his intentions to no Greek 
 but Clearchus, lest they should be deterred from joining him by 
 the boldness of the attempt. When his forces were all collected, he 
 set out from Sardis, the seat of the Persian authority in Western 
 Asia (B.C. 401), without the soldiers knowing anything more of the 
 objects of the expedition than that he was going to march against 
 the Pisidians, who had infested his province. Tissaphernes however 
 with his characteristic cunning saw that the preparations were much 
 too great to be really intended against the Pisidians, and accordingly 
 he went with all expedition to inform the king. Artaxerxes no 
 sooner heard of the armament of Cyrus than he began to make 
 preparations for opposing him. Cyrus in tho meantime was con- 
 tinuing his march through the southern provinces of Asia Minor, 
 passing through Celaenae, Peltae, Thymbrium, Tyraeutn, Iconium, 
 and Dana, till he arrived at the foot of the Taurus, which he crossed 
 and arrived at Tarsus. Here the Greeks refused to march any 
 farther: they suspected that they were going against the king and 
 
 declared that they were hired for no such purpose. The tumult 
 was partially appeased by the influence of Clearchus, who persuaded 
 them to send deputies to Cyrus to enquire what was the real object 
 of the expedition. Cyrus, by au artful evasion, which however 
 was partly seen through by the soldiers, pretended that he had an 
 enemy, Abrocomas, on the banks of the Euphrates, at the distauce of 
 a few days' march, and that he was advancing against him. A 
 promise of half as much pay again as they had received before, 
 induced them to proceed ; but it was not till some time after 
 that it was openly stated that they were going against the king. At 
 last, on arriving at the plain of Cyuaxa, in the province of Babylon, 
 Cyrus found Artaxerxes ready to oppose him with an immense army. 
 Clearchus advised Cyrus not to expose his own person, but he rejected 
 the counsel. As soon as the enemy approached, the Greeks attacked 
 them with such vigour that the disorderly and ill-assorted army of the 
 king forthwith took to flight. While Artaxerxes was preparing to 
 attack in the flank, Cyrus advanced against him with a large body of 
 horse, and with his own hand killed Artagerses, the captain of the 
 king's guards, and routed the whole troop. Just at this moment, 
 spying the king himself, and crying out " I see him ! " he rushed for- 
 ward and engaged with him in close combat. He killed his brother's 
 horse and wounded the king himself. The king mounted another 
 horse, but Cyrus attacked him again, and gave him another wound, 
 aud was in the act of giving him a third when he himself was slain. 
 The select guards and friends of Cyrus, not choosing to survive their 
 master, killed themselves on his body. With the life of Cyrus ended 
 the cause in which he died, and the Greeks effected their retreat under 
 the command of Xeuophon and others. [Xenophon.] The whole 
 expedition occupied fifteen months. 
 
 The character of Cyrus is highly eulogised by Xenophon (' Anab.,' 
 L c. 9.) In his childhood aud youth he excelled all his companions in 
 those pursuits which belonged to their rank. He was fond of war and 
 huuting. His justice was conspicuous in all his conduct, both public 
 and private, and he never suffered the evil-doer to go unpunished. To 
 those who deserved reward for services he was unbounded in his 
 munificence, and his friends received frequent tokens of his kind 
 remembrance. On the whole it was the opiuiou of Xeuophon that no 
 individual had ever secured the affections of a greater number of 
 men, whether Greeks or others. Acoording to a passage in Xenophon 
 quoted by Cicero (' De Senectute,' c. 17), Cyrus was fond of agricul- 
 tural and horticultural labours, and worked with his own hands. 
 
 (Xeuophon, Anabasis, i. ; Plutarch, Artaxerxes ; Diodorus Siculus, 
 xiv.) 
 
 CZACKI, TADEUSZ, an eminent Polish statesman aud author, 
 was born in 1765 or 1766, at Poryck in Volhynia, where his father 
 was a large landed proprietor. Czacki's life has been written by two 
 of his personal friends— by Stanislas Potocki in a funeral panegyric 
 read before the society of 'Friends of Science' at Warsaw in 1817, 
 and by Mostowski in the supplement to the 'Biographie Universelle' 
 published in 1836 ; and it is curious to observe how frequently they 
 differ in the facts of his biography. According to Potocki he was 
 " educated under the eye of his father, and was the consolation and 
 support of his old age; " according to Mostowski he was "deprived 
 from infancy of the assistance of his father, who was kept for seven 
 years a prisoner in Russia." AgaiD, at a later period of life he was, 
 according to Mostowski, for some years a professor at the university 
 of Cracow; Potocki does not allude to the circumstance, but speaks 
 in the portion of his narrative relating to that period of his life of his 
 eminent services in re-establishing the banks at Warsaw. It is agreed 
 by both that Czacki, unlike most of his countrymen of the same rank, 
 received his education in Poland alone ; that he was early distinguished 
 by his consummate knowledge of Polish affairs ; and that at the age 
 of two- or three-and-twenty he became one of the most active minis- 
 ters of the cabinet of King Stanislaus Poniatowski, reforming tho 
 system of weights and measures, proposing improvements in the 
 water-communication, drawing up a map of the rivers of Poland, and 
 finally taking a part in the construction of the new constitution of the 
 Third of May 1791, which was followed by the hostilities terminating 
 in the final dismemberment of Poland. Czacki took an active part iu 
 these disastrous times as an adherent of the patriotic party, and his 
 estates were in consequence confiscated by the Russian victors. The 
 accession of the Emperor Paul to the throne of Russia led to the 
 liberation of Polish captives, and the restoration of Polish estates, and 
 among others Czacki received back his large possessions in Volhynia, 
 and from this period he became known as the munificent patron of 
 Polish education. He was allowed to found a high school, which was 
 opened at Krzemieniec in 1805, to which he devoted almost the whole 
 of his property and his time, and in which he introduced instruction 
 in the fine arts and iu bodily exercises, as well as in the sciences and 
 the languages, with so much success that it speedily became the most 
 popular school in Poland for both sexes, and numbered about six 
 hundred pupils. The suspicions of the Russians were excited that the 
 instruction given was of too patriotic a character, and a commission 
 was appointed in 1807 to inquire into the management of the school, 
 when Czacki vindicated himself so much to the satisfaction of the 
 Emperor Alexander, that he was appointed deputy of Prince Czar- 
 toryski, superintendent of public instruction. These suspicions how- 
 ever revived, and it is perhaps doing no injustice to Czacki to suppose 
 
473 
 
 CZUCZOR, GERGELY. 
 
 that he was not extremely anxious to inculcate into the minds of the 
 youth of Poland the principle of unlimited submission to Russian 
 sway. He again cleared himself before a second Russian commission 
 in 1810, but the school was broken up for the time by Napoleon's 
 invasion of Russia in 1812, and in the following year, on the 8th of 
 February 1813, Czacki died rather suddenly at Dubno. 
 
 A collection of Czacki's works was issued in three volumes in 1843 at 
 Po=en by the indefatigable Count Edward Raczynski. He states in the 
 preface that many of the single books had at that time become rare, 
 and were eagerly bought at high prices. The best however and most 
 extensive is that ' 0 Litewskich i Polskich Prawach ' (' On Lithua- 
 nian and Polish Laws'), which is not a work of legal learning merely, 
 but of miscellaneous information on subjects to which the laws relate, 
 Czacki inserting for instance, when he comes to speak of the coinage, 
 one of the complete3t treatises extaut on Polish numismatics. His 
 shorter works, ' On the Jews,' ' On the Gypsies,' ' On the Statistics of 
 Poland,' &c, are all rich in information on the subjects treated, and 
 are written in a concise and entertaining style, which has been censured 
 for the unusual fault in an antiquary of being too condensed. 
 
 CZARTORYSKI, FAMILY OF. The Czartoryski family is 
 descended from Korygello, one of the sons of Olgerd, the founder 
 of the Jagellonian dynasty of Poland. A son of Korygello, having in 
 the early part of the 15th century become possessor of a domain 
 called Czartorya, assumed the name of Czartoryski. His descendants 
 in course of time came to be reckoned among the wealthiest and most 
 influential of the Polish nobility ; but it was not till towards the 
 middle of the 18th century that the Czartoryskis began to take a 
 leading part in public affairs. At that time, Prince Michael Czar- 
 torvski (born 1696, died 1775), who had been successively castellan 
 of YY'ilna, vice-chancellor of Lithuania, and (in 1752) grand-chancellor, 
 Mid his brother, Prince Augustus (born 1697, died 1782), a pala- 
 tine and lieutenant-general of the army of the crown, determined 
 to endeavour to raise the country from the state of anarchy into 
 which it had fallen by changing the constitution of Poland into that 
 of a well-organised and powerful monarchy. They were both men of 
 considerable activity and energy, and they held positions of great 
 influence ; but they were opposed by the majority of the nobles, who 
 were unwilling to part with any of their privileges. The nobles were 
 supported by the Saxon dynasty, and by Austria, and the Czartoryskis 
 turned to Russia for assistance. Catharine, who was then on the 
 Russian throne, readily rendered them her support, and by her 
 influence her favourite, Stanislas, a relative of the Czartoryskis, was 
 elected king. But they soon found that in calling in Russian aid they 
 had destroyed the last spark of national independence. The Russian 
 court, within a Bhort time, overturned all the reforms which the Czar- 
 toryskis had introduced, and then followed the dismemberment of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Adam Cassimir Czartoryski, son of Prince Augustus, was president 
 of the diet which elected Stanislas Poniatowski. While earnestly 
 labouring to carry out the views of his father and uncle for the regene- 
 ration of Poland, he yet, like them, believed that it was through 
 Russian influence that this object was to be accomplished. He took 
 little part in the struggles of his countrymen after the first partition 
 of Poland, and be wholly retired from public life in 1813. He took 
 up his residence in Austria, and died in Gallicia in 1823. Prince 
 Adam Cassimir was starost-general of Podolia, and master of the 
 ordnance (feldzeugmeister) in the Austrian army. 
 
 Adam George Czartoryski, son of Prince Adam Cassimir, and 
 perhaps the most eminent of the family, was born at Warsaw on 
 the Hth of January 1770. Having received a careful education, for 
 the completion of which he visited France and England, he was intro- 
 duced into the public service ; and on the second partition of Poland 
 in 1792 he joined the Lithuanian army under Zabiello, in the campaign 
 against Russia. On the destruction of that army and the division of 
 the last remnant of the country between the three invading powers, 
 Adam Czartoryski was, by command of Catharine, sent with his 
 brother Constantine as hostages to St. Petersburg. Here he was 
 attached to the Grand-duke Alexander Pavlovich, whose favour he 
 obtained by his prudence and ability. So high a reputation indeed 
 did he gain for these qualities, that in 1797 the Emperor Paul 
 appointed him ambassador to Sardinia. Alexander soon after his 
 accession to the throne recalled Czartoryski, and in 1802 appointed 
 him assistant to the minister of foreign affairs. He was present at the 
 battle of Austerlitz in 1805, and in 1807 took part officially in the 
 conferences at Tilsit. He withdrew afterwards from public life, but 
 in 1813 accompanied the Emperor Alexander to Vienna and to Paris. 
 In the various changes which occurred in Polish affairs during the 
 following years Adam Czartoryski, when not an actor was an observant 
 spectator; but entertaining feelings of strong personal friendship for 
 Alexander, he continued to repose confidence in his good intentions 
 towards his country, and he did what he could to induce his country- 
 men to remain quiet. At the same time he appears to have laboured 
 in secret to keep up a spirit of nationality. When the Academy of 
 n ilna was raised into a university in 1803, Czartoryski was appointed 
 curator of it. The students on more than one occasion showed 
 symptoms of dissatisfaction with the Russian yoke, and the tyranny 
 of the Grand-duke Constantine at length excited them to such a 
 degree that it was easy for the Russian police to establish a charge of 
 
 SIOG. DIV VOL. II. 
 
 sedition against them. Constantine directed the most severe measures 
 to be adopted. A large number of the students were arrested and 
 thrown into prison, others were sent to Siberia, or forced to serve as 
 common soldiers in the army. Czartoryski indignantly protested 
 against these proceedings, and finding his remonstrances disregarded, 
 he threw up his office. His successor, Novossiltzoff stated in his report 
 to the emperor on the condition of the university, that "the Prince 
 Czartoryski by his occupancy during twenty years of the curatorship 
 of the University of Wilna, has thrown back for at least a century 
 the amalgamation of Lithuania with Russia." 
 
 On the breaking out of the Polish revolution in 1830, Czartoryski 
 entered with all his heart into the popular movement. As president 
 of the provisional government he summoned a national diet in Decem- 
 ber 1830. The diet in January 1831 declared the throne of Poland 
 vacant, and elected Adam Czartoryski president of the national 
 government. The prince in accepting the office offered the half of 
 his immense fortune to the public service. Under his direction 
 vigorous measures were adopted, and for awhile success attended the 
 Polish arms. But in addition to the insufficiency of the national 
 resources for opposing the enormous power of Russia, and the covert 
 aid which Prussia afforded to the Czar, there was the perhaps greater 
 evil of internal dissension. This eventually broke out into open insur- 
 rection at Warsaw, August 15, 1831, and the government of Adam 
 Czartoryski formally resigned its functions. The prince himself 
 volunteered to serve as a private in the national army ; but the 
 national cause was crushed. Adam Czartoryski was specially excluded 
 from the benefits of the general amuesty, and his estates were con- 
 fiscated. But he escaped in safety to Paris, where on the proceeds of 
 his Austrian property he has since resided, and where he and his wife, 
 a member of the eminent Polish family Sapieha, have been foremost 
 in every friendly service to the less affluent among their expatriated 
 fellow-countrymen. [See Supplement.] 
 
 Constantine Adam Czartoryski, born in October 1773, who was 
 sent with his brother Adam as a hostage to St Petersburg in 1795, 
 returned to Poland in 1800; in 1809 was named Colonel of a Polish 
 regiment of infantry, and in that capacity served in the campaign of 
 Moscow in 1812. He quitted the Russian service in 1813, and retired 
 to Vienna. [See Supplement.] 
 
 * CZUCZOR, GERGELY, or GREGORY, a living Hungarian poet, 
 prose-writer, and lexicographer, considered by his countrymen to stand 
 in the first rank of their men of letters, and remarkable for the singu- 
 larity of the incidents of his life, as well as the number and value of 
 his literary productions. He was born on the 17th of December 1800, 
 at Andod, in the county of Nyitra, of Catholic parents. In his seven- 
 teenth year he entered the Benedictine order, and after the usual 
 noviciate and years of preliminary study, in his twenty-fourth year he 
 took holy orders. By his frequent and impressive preaching, and by 
 his attention to his priestly duties during the time of the cholera, he 
 acquired a high degree of public esteem. At the same time he was 
 securing a name in literature by the composition of a series of epic 
 poems, of which the first, ' Augsburgi Utkozet ' (' The Battle of Augs- 
 burg') appeared in 1824; the second, ' Aradi GyiileV (' The Meeting 
 at Arad ') in 1828 ; and a third, still incomplete, the best of the three, 
 on the exploits of John Hunyadi, the great Transylvanian hero, was 
 issued in portions in the 'Aurora,' an annual edited by Charles Kis- 
 faludy, which was for some years the receptacle of the best productions 
 of Hungarian literature. When the Hungarian Learned Society was 
 established, which now bears the name of tire Hungarian Academy, 
 Czuczor was elected a member at its first meeting. This was in 1831 ; 
 and in 1835, after several contributions on historical subjects to the 
 ' Transactions ' of the Society, he was chosen assistant-secretary, while 
 his friend Schedel, better known by his assumed name of Toldy, held 
 that of secretary-in-chief. In the next year a collection of Czuczor's 
 poetical works was published at Buda under the editorship of Schedel, 
 and from that moment his career, hitherto so brilliant, was troubled 
 and unhappy. The volumes contained some songs and ballads of high, 
 poetical merit, at which exception was taken as of an improper charac- 
 ter to come from the pen of a priest. The friends of Czuczor defended 
 him against what they stigmatised as a revival of mediaeval prejudice ; 
 but he was involved in a series of unequal contests with his ecclesiasti- 
 cal superiors. His ' Poetical Works ' were prohibited at Vienna, and 
 he was forbidden to publish anything without submitting it to the 
 previous censure of the Abbot of St. Martin, to whose jurisdiction he 
 belonged. Czuczor had at that time just entered into engagements to 
 contribute to the ' Athenaeutn,' a periodical established by Schedel at 
 Pesth, on the plan of the English ' Athenreum,' and the only effect of 
 this injunction was that his articles did not appear in his own name 
 but under different signatures, among others of Andodi, which was 
 sufficiently transparent, as the name of his birthplace was And6d. 
 The abbot of St. Martin's revoked the permission which had been 
 given him to reside at Pesth to attend to his secretaryship, and recalled 
 him to his convent. 
 
 For some years Czuczor again pursued his course in comparative 
 obscurity as a Benedictine, though he was entrusted with the delivery 
 of lectures, which were attended by numerous audiences, and occupied 
 himself with some literary labours, among others a translation of 
 Sparks's ' Life of Washington.' The death of some of his ecclesiastical 
 superiors produced a relaxation of the severity with which he ha4 
 
DACIER, ANDRfi. 
 
 470 
 
 been treated, and which a large party in Hungary regarded as perse- 
 cution. He was permitted to revisit Pesth, and there his reputation 
 stood so high that in 1844, when the Academy decided that the great 
 work of compiling a national dictionary which it resolved to under- 
 take should be conducted under the superintendence of one individual, 
 the choice unanimously fell on Czuczor. He was allowed to accept 
 the illustrious task, and the advance he made was so rapid that in 
 1848 he bad already reached the letter I. In the revolution of that 
 year Czuczor joined the party of Kossuth, and in December gave 
 utterance to his political feelings in an article iu Kossuth's newspaper, 
 entitled ' Riado,' (' The Tocsin.') The consequences to himself were 
 most disastrous. On the 18th of January 1849 when the Austrians 
 entered Testh, he was seized and taken before a military tribunal, which 
 condemned him to six years' imprisonment in irons. The president 
 of the Academy, Count Teleki, himself the historian of Hunyadi, of 
 whom Czuczor was the poet, interceded with Prince Windischgriitz for 
 a mitigation of punishment, chiefly on account of the national import- 
 ance of the lexicographical duties in which Czuczor was engaged, and 
 
 on the 14th of February he was, as a favour, released from his fetter* 
 On the 21st of May the Hungarians took Buda by storm, and among 
 the prisoners whom they found in the castle was Czuczor, who, by his 
 intercession, saved the lives of an Austrian regiment from the rage 
 of the victors. His health had so suffered by his imprisonment that 
 he left the capital for Tihany to try the effect of country air. The 
 final success of the Imperialists, aided by the Russians, left him no 
 choice except between imprisonment and exile, and he surrendered 
 to General Kernpen. He resumed his labours on the dictionary at 
 the Franciscan monastery at Pesth, at which he was first confined, and 
 at Kufstein to which he was afterwards removed, he was allowed a 
 separate cell for that purpose. The amnesty of 1850 set him agaiu 
 at liberty, and by the reports of the proceedings of the academy in 
 the ' Uj Magyar Muzeum,' we perceive that he is steadily advancing in 
 his lexicographical labours. Our notice of his biography is chiefly 
 taken from an article apparently by Schedel in the ' Ujabb kori 
 Ismeretek Tara,' published in 1850. 
 
 D 
 
 T) ACIER, ANDRE, was born at Castres iu 1651, and studied at Sauniur 
 under Taueguy Lefevre, whose daughter Anne (born in 1654) he 
 married in 1683. Both husband and wife became eminent among the 
 classical scholars of the 17th century. They were employed with 
 others to comment upon and edit a series of the ancient authors for 
 the dauphin, which form the collection ' Ad usum Delphini.' Madame 
 Dacier's commentaries are considered as superior to those of her 
 husband. She edited Calimachus, Florus Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, 
 and the history which goes by the name of Dictys Cretensis, all of 
 which have been repeatedly reprinted, with her notes. She published 
 French translations of the Amphitryon, Rudens, and Lepidicus of 
 Plautus, with a good preface; of the comedies of Terence, of the 
 Plutus and the Clouds of Aristophanes, and of Anacreon and Sappho. 
 She also translated the ' Iliad ' and the ' Odyssey,' with a preface aud 
 notes. This led to a controversy between her and La Motte, who had 
 spoken slightingly of Homer. Madame Dacier wrote in 1714 'Con- 
 siderations sur les Causes de la Corruption du Gout,' in which she 
 defended the cause of Homer with great vivacity, as she did also 
 against Father Hardouin, who had written an ' Apology of Homer,' 
 which was more a censure than an apology. The warmth however 
 with which both the Daciers resented anything that was said against 
 the ancient writers was carried to the extreme, and had at times some- 
 thing ludicrous in it ; but Madame Dacier's enthusiasm was real, and 
 unaccompanied by pedantry or conceit. Neither did her learned 
 lucubrations make her neglect her domestic duties as a wife and a 
 mother ; and she was generous and charitable towards the poor. She 
 died in 1720, and her husband in 1722. The latter, besides his editions 
 of the classics, translated also into French the works of Hippocrates, 
 the ' CEdipus ' and ' Electra ' of Sophocles, the ' Poetica ' of Aristotle, 
 and the lives of Plutarch, which last translation is inferior to Amyot's ; 
 he also translated Horace, but neither the translation nor the i:otes 
 are much esteemed. The ' Bibliotheque des Anciens Philosophes,' 9 
 vols. 12mo, was published under Dacier's name, but he only furnished 
 some of Plato's dialogues and the Manual of Epictetus. Dacier was a 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions, secretary to the French 
 Academy, and keeper of the Cabinet of the Louvre, and he had a 
 pension of 2000 francs from Louis XIV. 
 
 D'AGINCOURT, JEAN-BAPTISTE-LOUIS-VEROUX, was born 
 at Beauvais, April 7, 1730. He received a superior education, on 
 completing which he served for a short time in a cavalry regiment, 
 but quitted it while yet young, and was named fermier-ge'ne'ral by 
 Louis XIV. Having devoted himself to the study of archaeology, he 
 in 1777-78 visited England, Holland, aud Germany, and spent the three 
 following years in the chief cities of Italy, his object being to examine 
 the treasures of art and antiquities. He then returned to France, but 
 soon after went to reside in Rome, in order to prepare a work he had 
 long been meditating on the history of the fine arts. This very 
 extensive and valuable production appeared in parts, and was only 
 completed in 1823, long after M. D'Agincourt's death. It was entitled 
 'L'Histoire de l'Art par les Monuments, depuis sa Decadence au 
 Quatricme Siecle jusqu' a son Renouvellement au Seizieme,' and is in 
 6 vols, large folio, with 325 plates. The ' Histoire de l'Art par les 
 Monuments,' though displaying no great grasp of mind, is a monument 
 to tho untiring industry of its author, and a work of great value to 
 the student by bringing together so great a variety of examples in all 
 the various branches of art. An English edition has been published 
 with the plates arranged in a more compact form. M. D'Agincourt 
 also published a ' Recueil de Fragments de Sculpture Antique, en 
 terre cinte,' 4to, Paris, 1814. He died at Rome, September 24, 1814. 
 
 DAGOBE'RT I., son of Clotarius II., succeeded him in 028 iu the 
 Fraukish monarchy. He gave his brother Caribert a part of Aquitania, 
 with the city of Toulouse; but Caribert dying in 630, Dagobert reunited 
 the whole monarchy under his sceptro, and caused Chilperic, Caribert's 
 eldest son, to be put to death. Boggis, another son of Caribert, was 
 
 the head of tho line of the dukes of Aquitaine and of the counts of 
 Armagnac. Dagobert sustained wars against the Saxons from England, 
 the Vascones of the Pyrenees, the Slavonians, and the Bretons, aud he 
 obliged Judicaul, the prince of Brittany, to give him satisfaction for 
 tho incursions which he had made into his territories. When the 
 Bulgarians were flying from before the Huns, they took refuge in 
 Australia, where Dagobert granted them an asylum ; but soon after, 
 fearing that these guests might become too powerful for him, he gave 
 orders to have them all massacred in one night, when 10,000 families 
 were put to the sword. Dagobert was cruel and debauched, like all 
 the rest of the Merovingian kings ; and yet in the old ballads and 
 chronicles he is called ' le bon Roi Dagobert.' He published the laws 
 of the Franks ; he encouraged commerce, and opened negociations for 
 that purpose with the Byzantine emperors ; and he made Paris his 
 permanent residence. The wealth and splendour of his court are 
 extolled by the chroniclers. Eligius, or Eloi, a skilful goldsmith of 
 the time, became his treasurer and confidential minister, and was later 
 in life made bishop of Noyon. Dagobert died in 638 in his thirty-sixth 
 year, and left two sons, Siegbert II., who succeeded him in Austrasia, 
 and Clovis II., who became king of Burgundy aud Neustria. 
 
 DAGOBE'RT II., son of Siegbert II., king of Austrasia, was shut up 
 in a convent after his father's death in 656 by Grimoald, maire of the 
 palace, who gave the crown to his own son. Dagobert was sent to 
 Scotland, and the report of his death was spread in France. In 
 Scotland he married Mathilda, a Scotch princess, and after many years 
 returned, and was acknowledged king of Austrasia. He was murdered 
 in 679 by Ebro'in, maire of the palace of Thierri III., king of Burgundy 
 and Neustria. Pepin d'Heristel succeeded Dagobert in Austrasia, not 
 as king, but with the title of duke. 
 
 DAGOBE'RT III. succeeded his father Childebert III. as king of 
 the Franks in 711. Pepin d'Heristel continued to enjoy the whole 
 authority, as he had done under the preceding reigns, owing to which 
 circumstance the nominal kings have been styled in history ' Rois 
 Fain^ans.' Pepin died in 714, and Rainfroy succeeded as maire of the 
 palace. In 715 Dagobert died, leaving a child called Thierri, who was 
 afterwards called Thierri IV., and was set up as a nominal king by 
 Charles Martel, the natural son of Pepin d'Heristel. (Henscheuiua, 
 Historical Dissertation on the Three Dagoberts, 4to, 1653 ; Sismondi, 
 Hist, des Franpais ; Michelet, Hist, de France.) 
 
 DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDE, was bom iu 1789 at 
 Cormeille in the department of Seine-et-Oise, France. At the outset 
 of life he obtained a situation in a government office, but he early 
 quitted that employment, aud became a pupil of M. Degoti, scene- 
 painter at the opera. As a scene-painter, Daguerre in a few years 
 surpassed his instructor, and placed himself on a level with the first 
 professors of that art in Paris, while he quickly extended the capa- 
 bilities of the art by various ingenious contrivances, which he invented 
 for producing increased pictorial effect. He also assisted M. Provost 
 in the preparation of his panoramic views of the great cities of the 
 world. The experience he thus acquired suggested to M. Daguerre 
 the idea of producing a kind of scenic exhibition, in which the illu- 
 sion should be more perfect than in the panorama, aud he invented, in 
 conjunction with Bouton, a method of so throwing coloured 1 
 and shadows upon the view, as to produce the appearance of changes 
 of season, day and night, storm and sunshine, &c. This they termed 
 a diorama, and when exhibited, July 1822, in a circular structure 
 erected for the purpose in Paris, the success was complete. The 
 diorama in fact, made what the Parisians term a sensation, and no 
 loug time elapsed before Messrs. Bouton and Daguerre erected a similar 
 building in London, to which each picture was removed, when it had 
 been exhibited for its season in Paris. For some seventeen ye;;rs 
 picture followed picture, each rivalling its predecessor, but in 1839 a 
 fire destroyed the building, and the view then exhibiting in it. 
 Daguerre's loss was very great, and the building was not re-erected, ai 
 
477 DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN. 
 
 the public interest in dioramas, which had now lost their novelty, 
 was beginning to flag. 
 
 M. Daguerre had before this been directing his attention to a matter 
 which was destined to secure for him a more permanent reputation 
 than his scenery or his dioramas. This was the mechauical production 
 of fac simile delineations of objects by tho chemical action of light. 
 As early as about the middle of the 16th century, Fabricius had dis- 
 covered the property which salts of silver possess of changing colour 
 when exposed to the action of light, and this property had been tho 
 subject of many experiments by scientific men. Sir Humphry Davy 
 among recent chemists had sought by various applications of this 
 property to obtain copies of simple objects, but though he succeeded 
 in doing this, he was unable to prevent them from being effaced when 
 exposed to the light. In France M. Niepce began about 1814 to 
 pursue a similar course of experiments, and he succeeded in rendering 
 the images he obtained insensible to the subsequent action of the 
 light ; but his discovery remained very incomplete when Daguerre 
 commenced similar experiments. About 1829 Niepce and Daguerre 
 joined in the prosecution of their investigations. Niepce died in 1833, 
 before they had made any decided approach to success. But Daguerre 
 persevered, and at length his zeal and rare ingenuity met with an 
 ample reward. He discovered in fact a method by which he was able 
 so to prepare metallic plates, that by placing them in the darkened 
 chamber of a eamera-obscura, they received a distinct impression of 
 the images thrown upon them by the lens of the camera, which he 
 was enabled by a subsequent process to render indelible. It does not 
 belong to this section of our work to state the steps by which he 
 arrived at this grand discovery, or the method he finally adopted for 
 producing, rendering visible, and fixing this sun-picture. It will be 
 enough to say that with remarkable patience and ingenuity he sur- 
 mounted every difficulty, and eventually produced his discovery, as to 
 ita principles, perfect. Other experimentalists had in this country 
 and elsewhere been at work, unknown to Daguerre, at the same idea, 
 but to M. Daguerre is due the priority of publication of the discovery, 
 and no doubt also the priority of discovery, as far as the producing 
 sun-pictures upon metallic plates is concerned. What has proved to 
 be the more generally applicable process of photography, was as 
 unquestionably the result of the independent investigations of our 
 own countryman, Mr. Talbot; but, as was to be expected, both the 
 processes as now practised are very different to what they were when 
 originally promulgated by their inventors or discoverers. 
 
 Great was the excitement among both learned and unlearned when 
 in January 1839 M. Arago gave, at a sitting of the Acade"mie des 
 Sciences, an account of the new method by which, as was said, the 
 sun himself became the artist, and some of the delineations, with all 
 their wonderful delicacy of detail, were exhibited. At the same time 
 Daguerre made a public exhibition of numerous pictures produced by 
 what he termed the ' Mdthode Niepce perfectionnde.' An examination 
 of the merits of the new method was, at the suggestion of M. Arago, 
 promptly ordered by the French government to be made, and in con- 
 sequence of the favourable nature of the report, M. Daguerre was in 
 June lb39 nominated an Officer of the Legion of Honour; and the 
 project of a law was on the same day presented to the Chambers — by 
 whom it was readily adopted— which accorded to M. Daguerre, on con- 
 dition of the full publication of his method, an annuity for life of 6000 
 francs, and one of 4000 francs to the representative of M. Niepce. 
 [Niepce.] The rapid extension and improvement of the process of 
 Daguerre (or the Daguerreotype, as it soon came to be generally 
 called) after its being thu3 freely made public property, was due 
 perhaps more to others than to M. Daguerre, who however never 
 ceased to labour at its improvement during the remainder of his 
 life. He died July 12th, 1851, at Petit-Brie-sur-Marne, where a hand- 
 some monument has been erected by subscription to his memory. 
 
 M. Daguerre is the author of two short works — ' Histoire et Descrip- 
 tion des proeddes du Daguerreotype, et du Diorama,' 8vo, Paris, 1839; 
 and ' Nouveau Moyen de preparer la couche sensible des plaques 
 destindes a recevoir les images photograph iques,' 8vo, Paris, 1844. 
 
 (Arago, Rapport & V Academic des Sciences; A. de Lacaze, art. 
 Daguerre in Nouv. Biog. Gen. ; and the various historical notices of the 
 Daguerreotype and Photography.) 
 
 •DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, one of the most eminent of the. 
 modern German school of landscape painters, was bom at Bergen in 
 Norway, February 24tb, 1788. He was originally designed for the 
 church, but on reaching manhood abandoned the study of theology 
 for that of art, to which he had been inclined from childhood. In 
 1811 he went to Denmark ; some years later he removed to Berlin ; 
 and he then proceeded to Rome, where he enjoyed the friendship and 
 advice of Bartholdy and Thorwaldsen. Since 1821 he has resided at 
 Dresden; he has been largely patronised by the court and leading 
 admirers of art in Denmark, and has seen his reputation extend 
 throughout Germany, and his pictures find purchasers among the 
 collectors of England and America. Dahl has painted many views of 
 Italian and Tyrolean scenery, and not a few landscape compositions ; 
 but it is by his representations of the remarkable scenery of his 
 native country that he is best known, and on them his fame will 
 depend. To an eye accustomed to the rich colouring of the Italian 
 masters and the freshness of that of the English landscape painters, 
 there ia much that is unsatisfactory in the colouring of Dahl's land- 
 
 DALBERG, KARL THEODOR. 478 
 
 scapes, and there is also a good deal of mannerism in their general 
 stylo, yet the wild grandeur of Norwegian scenery has probably by 
 no one elso been so extensively and well painted, or under suob 
 various aspects. The coast and marine views of Hcrr Dahl are by 
 many of his admirers more highly esteemed than even his rock and 
 forest scenery. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DAHL, MICHAEL, a Swedish portrait-painter, was bom at 
 Stockholm in 1656, was taught painting by Ernstraen Klocke, and 
 came to England in 1678. He went about a year afterwards to Paris, 
 where he remained a year ; and from thence to Italy, where he spent 
 three years in its principal cities. In 1688 Dahl came again to 
 England, where he had a very successful career. During the reigns, 
 of Anne and George I., Dahl was the principal rival of Sir Godfrey 
 Kneller. Walpole mentions, among other works by Dahl, a portrait 
 of his mother at Houghton, which ho says possessed great grace. 
 There is an equestrian portrait by Dahl, at Windsor, of Charles XI. 
 of Sweden, and there are several portraits in the gallery of admirals 
 at Hampton Court, and some whole-lengths of ladies at Petworth. 
 He died in London in 1743, and was buried in St. James's church. 
 
 DAILLE, JEAN, was born at Chatelleraut in 1594, of a Protestant 
 family. In 1612 he undertook the education of the two grandsons 
 of Duplessis Mornay, the friend of Henri IV., and he travelled with 
 them in several countries of Europe. At Venice he became acquainted 
 with the famous Fra Paolo Sarpi. On his return to France he 
 became pastor at Charenton in 1626. He published many works on 
 divinity, both in Latin and French, and especially on controversial 
 subjects ; and was esteemed one of the most learned and powerful 
 advocates of the Protestant doctrines in his time. His principal 
 productions are : — ' Traitd de l'emploi des SS. Peres pour le jugement 
 des difierends de la religion,' Geneva, 1632, which was also published 
 in Latin, with the title ' De Usu Patrum : ' it is one of Dailld's best 
 works and still much esteemed ; ' De la croyance des Peres sur le fait 
 des images ; ' ' Adversus Latinorum traditionem de religiosi cultus 
 objecto ; ' ' De cultibus religiosis Latiuorum.' These three last works 
 attempt to. prove, that in the early or primitive Christian church there 
 was no religious worship paid to the host, to relics, cross, images, &c. 
 ' De confilmatione et extrema unctione ; ' ' De sacramentali sive 
 auriculari Latinorum Confessione,' Geneva, 1661. This last work 
 puts forth the strongest arguments against the practice of auricular 
 or private confession. ' De scriptis quae sub Dionysii Areopagitse et 
 Sancti Ignatii Antiocheui nominibus circumferuntur,' Geneva, 1666. 
 Daiild, in this work, which exhibits much historical and critical 
 learning, looks upon the works attributed to Dionysius and Ignatius, 
 of Antioch, as apocryphal. ' De paenis et satisfactionibus humanis.' 
 He also wrote an apology of the reformed churches and numerous 
 sermons, which have been collected in several volumes, and also 
 ' Dernieres heures de Duplessis Mornay,' Leydeu, 1647. Daiild died 
 at Paris April 15, 1670. His son, Adrien Daiild, left France at the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and retired to Zurich, where he 
 wrote his father's life. 
 
 DALBERG, KARL THEODOR ANTON MARIA VON, was bom 
 on the 8th of February 1744, at Hernsheim. The barony of Dalberg 
 was the oldest in Germany, and his father held high offices under the 
 Archbishop-Elector of Mainz. Young Dalberg received a sound edu- 
 cation at home, and when only fifteen was sent to the University of 
 Gottingen, whence he removed to that of Heidelberg, where in 1761 
 he received the degree of LL.D. He then travelled for a while, and 
 on his return resolved to devote himself to the clerical profession, for 
 which purpose he studied theology and the canon law at Worms, 
 Manheim, and Mainz. He soon received ecclesiastical preferment, 
 being made a prebendary of Mainz, and a canon of Wurzburg and 
 Worms. In 1772 he received the appointment of governor of Erfurt, 
 and during his long continuance in that office distinguished himself 
 highly by his judicious and benevolent conduct. He was unwearied in 
 encouraging art, science, commerce, and agriculture; and the little town 
 and district under his government flourished so remarkably as to testify 
 to his capabilities for a higher situation. He maintained an intercourse 
 during his whole life with the highest minds of Germany — Herder, 
 Gothe, Wieland, Schiller, &c. His abilities and virtues attracted the 
 attention of the Emperor Joseph and of Frederick the Great, by whose 
 influence, in 1787, he was chosen coadjutor in the archbishopric and 
 electorate of Mainz, to which, on the death of the archbishop in 1802, 
 he succeeded, as also to the dignity of archchaucellor of the empire. 
 By the treaty of Luneville however the electorate was abolished, part 
 of the territory surrendered to France, and the remainder secularised. 
 In order to recompense him in some degree, the districts of RatisboD, 
 Aschaffenburg, and Wetzlar were assigned to him. 
 
 In 1804 Dalberg went to Paris to arrange with Pope Pius VII. the 
 affairs of the German Roman Catholic Church, and to obtain, if possi- 
 ble, some milder terms from Napoleon. This journey brought him 
 into ill repute with his countrymen, who, from the extreme com- 
 plaisance he evinced, naming Cardinal Fesch as his successor, and 
 becoming a corresponding member of the Institute, believed that he 
 had sacrificed his country in order to forward his own preferment. 
 He certainly became a favourite with Napoleon, who caused him to be 
 made Prin«e-Primato of the Rhenish Confederation, and President of 
 the Assemljjy of the States. In 1810 he surrendered the principality 
 of Ratisbon to Bavaria, and Napoleon in consequence created him 
 
479 DALBY, ISAAC. 
 
 Grand-Duke of Frankfurt, with a condition that Eugene Beauharnois, j 
 Napoleon's step -sou, should be named his successor instead of Cardinal 
 Fesch. Dalberg's grandeur however was very evanescent. In 1813 he 
 was forced to renouuce all his secular acquisitions, and withdraw him- 
 self to his spiritual duties as archbishop of Ratisbon, the only dignity 
 he retained, and in that town he died on the 10th of February 1817. 
 
 Throughout his career Dalberg maintained his character for active 
 benevolence. During his last residence at Ratisbon, notwithstanding 
 his age, he fulfilled the duties of his office in an efficient and con- 
 scientious manner, relieving the poor, assisting the industrious, encou- 
 raging the good, and reproving the bad, alike by his example and his 
 discourse, in which he was never severe or impatient. As a scholar 
 his reputation was very high, and there were few branches of art or 
 science of which he had not considerable knowledge. His writings 
 were chiefly on subjects of practical philosophy and aesthetics, which 
 a winning eloquence of style rendered very popular. Tho principal 
 are, ' Betrachtung iiber das Universum 1 (' Contemplations of the 
 Universe'), 1777; ' Grundsiisse der iEsthetik ' ('Principles of JEa- 
 thetics '), 1791; 'Von dem Bewustsein als allgemeiuem Grunde dor 
 Weltweisheit ' (' Of the Memory as the General Foundation of Know- 
 ledge '), 1793 ; ' Von dem Einflusse der Wissenschafteu und Kiiuste in 
 Beziehung auf Sffentliche Ruhe ' (' On the Influence of the Sciences 
 and Arts with reference to the Public Quiet '), 1793 ; and ' Perikles, 
 iiber den Einfluss der schonen Kiinste auf das offeutliche Gliick' 
 (' Pericles, on the Influence of the Fine Arts on the Public Pros- 
 perity '), 1806. He also contributed many valuable papers to various 
 German periodical works. 
 
 DALBY, ISAAC, one of the many self-taught men of this country, 
 who have attained considerable eminence in mathematical science by 
 tho mere force of genius, and in defiance of the obstacles opposed by 
 fortune to their progress, was born in Gloucestershire, in the year 
 1744, and he appears to have been instructed in the rudiments of 
 Latin and arithmetic at a grammar-school in that county. By his 
 friends he was destined to be a clothworker, but his taste leading 
 him to the study of mathematics, he laboured, by the aid. of Stone's 
 ' Euclid,' Simpson's 'Algebra,' and Martin's 'Trigonometry,' to qualify 
 himself to be an usher in a country school. In that capacity he was 
 employed for about three years, when he opened a school on his own 
 account in another part of the country, but meeting with no success, 
 he came up to London in 1772. Here he received the appointment of 
 usher to teach arithmetic in Archbishop Tenison's grammar-school 
 near Charing Cross, and while fulfilling the duties of that employ- 
 ment he became known to many of the most celebrated men of science 
 in town. Among these were Dr. Maskeline, the astronomer royal, 
 Dr. Hutton and Mr. Bonnycastle, both of the Royal Military Academy 
 at AVoolwich, the Rev. Messrs. Crakelt and Lawson, and Mr. Landen, 
 Mr. Wales, mathematical master of Christ's Hospital, and Mr. Witchel, 
 master of the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Mr. Bayly, who 
 had been employed in making astronomical observations in a buildiDg 
 erected near Highgate by the Hon. Topham Beauclerk for philoso- 
 phical purposes, being engaged to sail with Captain Cook, Dalby, after 
 having been about a year at the school above mentioned, was appointed 
 to succeed him. In this situation, besides his duties as observer and 
 librarian, he performed, under Dr. Fordyce, that of experimenter in 
 chemistry ; and amidst these employments he found time to make 
 himself acquainted with the French language and revive his know- 
 ledge of Latin. In 1781, Mr. Beauclerk's establishment being broken 
 up, and the library, instruments, &c, sold, Dalby was engaged to make 
 a catalogue of the library of Lord Beauchamp ; and in the following 
 year he was appointed mathematical master of the Naval School at 
 Chelsea. This was supported by voluntary contributions, and it suc- 
 ceeded for a time under the management of Mr. Jonas Hanway ; but 
 the subscriptions falling off, the institution was given up. 
 
 In 1787 Mr. Ramsden, the distinguished maker of philosophical 
 instruments, to whom for several years Dalby had been known, 
 recommended him, as an assistant, to Major-General Roy, who was 
 then employed in the trigonometrical observations for connecting the 
 meridians of Greenwich and Paris ; and during that and the following 
 year he was employed in extending the triangulation through Kent 
 and part of Sussex to the coast opposite France. Dalby was subse- 
 quently employed in making the computations preparatory to the 
 publication of the account of the proceedings ; and on this occasion 
 he was led to apply a theorem (ascribed to Albert Girard) to the 
 purpose of computing the excess of the three angles of a spherical 
 triangle above two right angles. The account was published in the 
 'Philosophical Transactions' for 1790; and in the volume for the 
 same year is a paper by Dalby on the figure of the earth,„in which it 
 is proved that the 'excess' is, without sensible error, the same whether 
 the earth be a sphere or a spheroid. General Roy died in 1790, and 
 in the following year Dalby was engaged, together with Colonel 
 Williams and Captain (since Major-General) Mudge, to carry on the 
 survey of England. The operations commenced by a remeasurement 
 of the original base on Hounslow Heath, and before Mr. Dalby quitted 
 that service the triangulation was extended through the southern 
 counties of England to the Land's End. The accounts of the survey 
 were published in the 'Philosophical Transactions;' but in 1798 
 Dalby, together with Colonel Mudge, made a revision of General Roy's 
 papers, and connected the operations of that officer with those which 
 
 DALGARNO, GEORGE. 
 
 had subsequently taken place to the end of 1796 : these form the 
 subjects of a volume which was published separately. 
 
 In the year 1799, on the formation of tho Royal Military College 
 at High Wycombe, Dalby was appointed professor of mathematics in 
 the senior department of that institution, He continued to hold that 
 appointment during the years that the department to which he 
 belonged remained at High Wycombe, and subsequently to its 
 removal to Faruham in Surrey; but in 1820, it being then united to 
 tho junior department at Sandhurst in Berkshire, his infirmities 
 obliged him to resign. He continued however to reside at Farnhatn 
 till his death, which took place October 14, 1824, when he was in the 
 eighty-first year of his age. 
 
 His attention to his duties was unremitting ; and besides his con- 
 tributions to the ' Ladies' Diary ' and other works, he wrote for the 
 use of the Military College, a valuable ' Course of Mathematics,' in 
 2 vols., which, with successive improvements, extended to a sixth 
 odition. 
 
 (Leybourn, Mathematical Repository, voL v.) 
 D'ALEMBERT. [Alemdert, D*.] 
 
 DALGARNO, GEORGE. The following short notice of this original 
 but neglected author is in Anthony-a- Wood's ' Athenao Oxonienses,' 
 vol. ii., p. 506. " The reader may be pleased to know, that one 
 George Dalgarno, a Scot, wrote a book entitled ' Ars Signorum, Vulgo 
 Character Universalis et Lingua Philosophica,' London, 1661. This 
 book before it went to press the author communicated to Dr. Wilkins, 
 who, from thence taking a hint of greater matter, carried it on, and 
 brought it up to that which you see extant. This Dalgarno was born 
 at Old Aberdeen, and bred in the university of New Aberdeen; taught 
 a private grammar-school with good success for about thirty years 
 together in the parishes of St. Michael and St. Mary Magdalen in 
 Oxford; wrote also ' Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's 
 Tutor ; ' and dying of a fever on the 28th of August 16S7, aged sixty, 
 or more, was buried in the north body of the church of St. Mary 
 Magdalen." According to the above account, Dalgarno was born in 
 or before the year 1627, and he must have been residing at Oxford 
 in the year 1G57; whether previous to that time, it does not appear, 
 but it may not be erroneous to conclude that he went to Oxford to 
 avail himself of the advantages of that seat of learning. From the 
 works which Dalgarno left behind him, it may be concluded that he 
 was a man of original talent, and of great acquirements ; his specu- 
 lations concerning a universal language, a favourite subject with the 
 learned men of his time, undoubtedly preceded those of Bishop 
 Wilkins, at that time dean of Ripon, and he received the testimony 
 of Dr. Seth Ward, the bishop of Salisbury, Dr. John Wallis, and 
 others, that he had discovered a secret " which by the learned men 
 of former ages had been reckoned among the desiderata of learning." 
 We have carefully sought for some acknowledgment of the merits of 
 Dalgarno in the ' Essay towards a Real Character ' of Bishop Wilkins, 
 but his name is not once mentioned, though assistance from Dr. Ward 
 and others is noticed. Wilkins's work was published in 1668. Its 
 appearance had been delayed for two years in consequence of the 
 whole impression, when nearly printed, with the exception of two 
 copies, having been destroyed in the great fire of London. Allowing 
 for this delay, Dalgarno's work had the priority by several years, and 
 Dr. Wilkins had the advantage of seeing it " before it went to press." 
 This treatise, ' Ars Signorum,' &c, exhibits a classification of ideas, 
 and a series of arbitrary signs or characters adapted to the classifica- 
 tion, so as to represent each idea by a specific character, without 
 reference to any language of words. All those persons who are 
 acquainted with the ' Essay ' of Wilkins will see the germ of it in 
 this design of Dalgarno's. The 'Didascalocophus' develops views 
 on the instruction of the deaf and dumb, both comprehensive and 
 practical. It is a truly philosophical guide, by which the writer shows 
 how capable the deaf and dumb are of understanding and applying a 
 written language, and of their capacity to speak and to understand 
 the speech of other persons. He shows that the art of teaching this 
 class of persons requires the exercise of common sense, perseverance, 
 and ordinary patience, under a teacher, fertile in expedients, and one 
 who is able to turn even disadvantages and difficulties to a good 
 account. Dalgarno's style is quaint and pedantic, and rather abounds 
 with long and technological words, which serve to exhibit the learning 
 of the author more than to increase the perspicuity of his work. 
 But this was the garb which learning too often assumed in his day. 
 To Dalgarno is due the credit of inventing what is perhaps the first 
 manual alphabet for the use of the deaf and dumb, and the one from 
 which the two-handed finger-alphabet now in use has probably been 
 derived. As few copies of his work are now to be met with, we 
 shall give his hand-alphabet, and accompany it by as much of his own 
 explanation as seems necessary for understanding his views on dactyl- 
 ology. " After much search and many changes, I have at last fixt 
 upon a finger or hand-alphabet according to my mind ; for I think it 
 cannot be considerably mended, either by myself or any other (without 
 making tinker's work), for the purposes of which I have intended it ; 
 that is, a distinct placing of and easy pointing to the single letter* ; 
 with the like ^distinct and easy abbreviation of double and triple 
 consonants. 
 
 " The scheme (I think) is so distinct and plain in itself, that it needs 
 not much explication, at least for the single letters, which are iw 
 
ill 
 
 DALHOUSIE, MARQUIS OF 
 
 10] 
 
 distinct by their places as the middle and two extremes of a right 
 line can make them. The rules of practice are two : — 1. Touch the 
 places of the vowel3 with a cross touch with any finger of tho right 
 hand. 2. Poynt to the consonants with the thumb of tho right 
 
 I 
 
 hand. This is all that I think to be needful for explaining the scheme, 
 so far as concerns the single letters." Dalgarno's works were privately 
 reprinted by Lord Cockburn and Mr. Thomas Maitland, and presented 
 to the Maitland Club of Glasgow. 
 
 DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN RAMSAY, tenth 
 Earl and first Marquis of, was born in 1812. His father was a general 
 in the army, employed in the Peninsular war and at Waterloo, was 
 for a time governor of Canada, and commander of the forces in India 
 from 1828 to 1832. James was the third son by the heiress of the 
 Brouns of Colstoun in Haddingtonshire. He was educated at Harrow, 
 and subsequently at Christchurcb, Oxford, where he was fourth class 
 in classics (1833), and graduated M.A. in 1838. By the deaths of his 
 elder brothers he became Lord Ramsay in 1832, and in 1834 he strove 
 for a seat in the House of Commons, contesting Edinburgh against 
 Sir John Campbell, now Lord Campbell, and James Abercrombie, after- 
 wards speaker of the House of Commons and Lord Dunfermline. 
 He was unsuccessful then, but in 1837 he was returned for the county 
 of Haddington. In 1838, on hi3 father's death, he was called to the 
 House of Lords, where he showed great attention to business details, 
 but did not distinguish himself as a speaker. He first entered official 
 life in 1843, during the ministry of Sir Robert Peel, to whom his 
 business habits had recommended him. He was appointed Vice- 
 President of the Board of Trade, and in 1844 became President of the 
 Bame department. In these offices he actively investigated all the 
 details of the railway system, made himself acquainted with the 
 financial and practical management of railways, and framed regula- 
 tions for the conduct of the numerous bills that were pressed upon 
 parliament during the railway mania of 1844-45. His reforms and 
 improvements in the Board of Trade had been so extensive and so 
 judicious, that on the accession of Lord John Russell to office in 
 1846, Lord Dalhousie was requested to retain his position, with which 
 request he complied. 
 
 Towards the close of 1847 Lord Hardinge was re-called from India, 
 and the governor-generalship of that country was offered to Lord 
 Dalhousie. He went to India with a plan of action already formed 
 on certain principles, and to those principles he firmly adhered during 
 the eight years of his government. He felt that the pacific policy of 
 hia predecessors had not succeeded, and that situated as India was, it 
 required to be ruled by a firm and uncompromising hand. When he 
 entered on the government of that country peace prevailed. But a 
 long continuance of peace could scarcely be expected among 120 
 millions of subjects, between whom and ourselves conflicting interests 
 and the variety of caste and opinion are apt to raise constant hostilities 
 and feuds. On reaching Calcutta, Lord Dalhousie lost no time in 
 proclaiming his policy : " We are lords paramount of India, and our 
 policy is to acquire as direct a dominion over the territories in pos- 
 session of the native princes, as we already hold over the other half 
 of India." Soon after his arrival, news was brought that British 
 officers were murdered at Mooltan, and that Moolraj was in revolt ; 
 Lord Dalhousie marched a force into the north-western provinces, 
 defeated the Sikhs and Afghans, and annexed the Panjab to our 
 dominions in the East. When little more than two years were passed, 
 the government of India found itself involved in hostilities with 
 Burmah, where British traders 'had been insulted by the officers of 
 the King of Ava, Remonstrance proving useless, Lord Dalhousie 
 
 despatched an expedition against Pegu, and in a few weeks the entire 
 coast of Burmah was in his hands. Finding that the King of Ava 
 still refused our just demands, he ordered tho British troops to occupy 
 Pegu, and incorporated it with our dominions. This was effected 
 at the close of 1852 ; from that time to the end of his administration 
 our Indian empire enjoyed comparative peace. The rich districts of 
 Nagpore, Sattara, Jhansie, Berar, and Oude were severally annexed to 
 our possessions by Lord Dalhousie, either in consequence of the failure 
 of rightful heirs among the native dynasties, or else to put an end to 
 the cruelty and oppression which those princes exercised towards 
 their own subjects. It is almost needless to add that the social condi- 
 tion of each of the annexed provinces has proportionably improved. 
 
 During this time great changes were effected by Lord Dalhousie in 
 the government and civilisation of India, and in the development of 
 its resources. A yearly deficiency in the revenue was converted into 
 a surplus until the years 1853-54 and 1854-55, when, chiefly in conse- 
 quence of the vast public improvements undertaken, there was a 
 deficiency of nearly half a million. The shipping of India doubled 
 in tonnage, a Legislative Council was organised, the civil service was 
 thrown open to competition, the annual accounts were expedited, and 
 prison discipline was improved under the superintendence of Mr. 
 Thomason. A system of uniform cheap postage was also introduced 
 by Lord Dalhousie ; a large portion of the Peninsula intersected by 
 railways, and all the large towns brought into immediate connection 
 by means of the electric telegraph, laid down by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, 
 4000 miles having been constructed and placed in working order 
 between November 1853 and February 1856. The manufacture of 
 salt, the production of cotton, tea, and flax, the breeding of sheep, 
 and the improvement of agricultural implements — none of these 
 points were too trivial for Lord Dalhousie's attention. The develop- 
 ment of the resources of the country in iron, coal, and other minerals, 
 is a matter on which he bestowed peculiar care ; and measures were 
 also taken for the preservation of the forests, and for making their 
 produce available. At the same time a new and uniform survey of 
 the ceded districts was commenced, and the limits of subject states 
 accurately defined. Irrigation on a lai-ge scale was effected in Scinde, 
 Madras, and Bombay ; the navigation of the Ganges, Indus, Nerbudda, 
 and Burrampooter was improved ; grand trunk roads were carried to 
 Delhi, through the Panjab, and to Patna, and others made in Pegu 
 and Scinde. A road is also being constructed from Hindustan to the 
 frontiers of Tibet, commencing from the plains of the Sutlej ; and 
 another is in progress from Arracan over the Yomah ridge to Pegu. 
 The most stupendous work however which signalised his government 
 was the Ganges Canal, carried out by the skill and energy of Sir 
 Proby T. Cautley. Under his vigilant authority also the department 
 of public works was reformed throughout, and a college founded to 
 train young men specially in civil engineering. Schools and colleges 
 were established and placed under government inspection, and the 
 education of female natives provided for. The most strenuous efforts 
 were at the same time made for the eradication of the systems of 
 Suttee and Thuggee, and the practice of infanticide. The condition 
 of the European soldiers was likewise greatly improved. Provision 
 was also made for both Protestant and Roman Catholic worship, on 
 equal terms, and extensive changes were made in matters of criminal 
 and civil justice. Lord Dalhousie was also the author of another 
 important alteration in Indian administration : he required the govern- 
 ment of each presidency, each lieutenant-governor, and the chief 
 officer of every province, to send in to the governor-general an annual 
 report of the chief events that occurred within their several juris- 
 dictions, in order to test the progress mado by the nation at large. 
 
 For his successes in the Panjab, Lord Dalhousie was raised to a 
 marquisate in 1849 ; and on his return to England in May 1856, witli 
 shattered health and a broken constitution, the East India Company 
 settled on him a life pension of 5000£. a year. He had previously 
 been appointed to the Wardenship of the Cinque Ports on the death 
 of the late Duke of Wellington in 1852. [See SoprLissiENT.] 
 
 (Lord Dalhousie, Minute, reviewing his administration in India.) 
 
 DALLAWAY, REV. JAMES, was born at Bristol February 20, 1763. 
 He was educated at the grammar-school, Cirencester, and at Triuity 
 College, Oxford, where he became known by his tuleut for versifica- 
 tion. He took his M.A. degree in 1784, but failed in being elected 
 Fellow of his college on account, it is said, of some satirical verse3 he 
 had written. For several years he sctVi'"\ as curate, and whilst so 
 acting became editor of ' Bigland's Collections for Gloucestershire.' and 
 took the degree of M.B. at Oxford iu 1794. About 1795 the Duke of 
 Norfolk, to whom he had dedicated his ' Origin of Heraldry,' obtained 
 him the appointment of chaplain and physician to the embassy at 
 Constantinople, and on his return to England Mr. Dallaway published 
 ' Constantinople, Ancient and Modern, with Excursions to the Shores 
 and Islands of the Archipelago, and to the Troad,' 4to, 1797. Some 
 years later he contributed to the 1 Archteologia,' vol. xiv., a paper ' On 
 the Walls of Constantinople.' In 1797 the Duke of Norfolk as Earl 
 Marshal appointed Mr. Dallaway his official secretary, and in 1799 
 his grace gave him the rectory of South Stoke in Sussex, and in 1S01 
 the vicarage of Leatherhead in Surrey. He resigned South Stoke 
 in 1803 for the sinecure rectory of Slinfold. During his early years 
 Mr. Dallaway devoted a good deal of attention to the subject of 
 heraldry, aud his first original publication was ' Enquiries into the 
 
183 
 
 DALRYMPLE FAMILY. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, JOHN. 
 
 4M 
 
 Origin and Progress of Heraldry in England,' 4to, 1792. He had 
 before (1789) edited the ' Letters of Dr. Bundle, Bishop of Derry, to 
 Mrs. Sandys.' Later he devoted himself to artistic and topographical 
 antiquities. He published in 1800 ' Anecdotes of the Arts in England, 
 or Comparative Remarks on Architecture, Painting, and Sculpture ; ' 
 in 1806 'Observations on English Architecture;' in 1816 ' Statuary 
 and Sculpture among the Ancients.' He edited in 1826 an edition of 
 Walpole's ' Anecdotes of Painting' and the ' Letters and other Works 
 of Lady Mary Wortley Montague, from her original Manuscripts, 
 with Memoirs of her Life,' 5 vols. 8vo, 1806. He wrote also a 
 ' Memoir' of Bishop Ridley ; but the work by which he is best known, 
 aud one which will serve as the basis of the labours of any future his- 
 torians of Sussex, is his ' History of Western Sussex,' of which the 
 third part (' Rape of Bramber ') was edited by the Rev. E. Cartwright. 
 Mr. Dallaway was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 
 1789; and he contributed several papers to the Society's ' Archceo- 
 logia : ' ho was also an occasional contributor to tho ' Gentleman's 
 Magazine,' the ' Retrospective Review,' &c. Both as an antiquary and 
 a writer on art he belonged to the old school, and there is in all his 
 writings a great want of precision, depth of research, and reach of 
 thought. He died at Leatherhead June 6, 1834. 
 
 DALRYMPLE FAMILY. The surname of this family is derived 
 from the lands of Dalrymple, in the shire of Ayr, of which, in remote 
 times, the chief of the house was proprietor. The family appears to 
 have been of importance very early, for in the reign of King 
 Robert III., Duncan Dalrumpill had a charter of the office of Tos- 
 cheodorach (or principal executive officer of the crown) in Nithsdale; 
 and in 1462 James de Dalrymple was clericus regis. 
 
 The lauds of Stair, whence the viscounty and earldom are derived, 
 came into the family by William de Dalrymple, who became pos- 
 sessed of them in tho middlo of tho 15th century by his marriage 
 with his relation, Agnes Kennedy, heiress of the estate. The son of 
 these parties married a daughter of Sir John Chalmers, of Gadgirth, 
 iu the same shire, whose first ancestor had held the high office of 
 chamberlain of Scotland; and in lineal descent from him was James 
 Dalrymple of Stair, who married Janet, daughter of Kennedy of 
 Knockdaw, and by her had 
 
 James Dalrymple, first Viscount Stair. He was born in May 1619, 
 at Dummurchie, in the parish of Barr, 'county of Ayr, and lost his 
 father before he had attained his fifth year. At that tender age he 
 was left under the guardianship of his mother, who survived her 
 husband upwards of thirty years. His early education was acquired 
 at the school of Mauchline, whence, at the age of fourteen, he was 
 removed to the college of Glasgow, where, applying himself closely to 
 his studies, he qualified himself for taking the degree of A.M. in 
 1637. He left college the following year, aud at the breaking out of 
 the civil war obtained a captain's commission in the Earl of Glencairn's 
 regiment. About this time the chair of philosophy in the University 
 of Glasgow became vacant, and having, by the advice of some of the 
 professors, become a candidate, he was in 1641, being then twenty-two 
 years old, appointed to the place after a comparative trial. It was 
 then the practice for every regent (as the professors appointed by the 
 crown were called) to swear at taking office that he would demit on 
 his marriage. This Dalrymple did, and having in 1643 married 
 Margaret Ross, co-heiress of the estate of Balneil in Wigton, he 
 resigned the chair, but was soon afterwards re-appointed. In this 
 place he sedulously pursued his studies, and particularly the study of 
 the civil law, with the view to the profession of the law, in which a 
 knowledge of the Roman jurisprudence was then of great moment. 
 In 1647 he resigned his chair, removed to Edinburgh, and after the 
 usual trials, was admitted an advocate on the 17th of February 1648. 
 The following year he was appointed secretary to the commissioners 
 sent by the Scottish parliament to treat with Charles II., then an 
 exile in Holland, for his return to his native dominions. He held the 
 same office in the more successful mission of 1650, and was on that 
 occasion particularly noted for his " abilities, sincerity, and modera- 
 tion." During the Protectorate he was warmly recommended to 
 Cromwell by General Monk, as a fit person to be one of the judges 
 of the court of session, and on the 1st of July 1657, Dalrymple took 
 his seat on the bench. At the Restoration he went to London with 
 the Earl of Cassilis to pay his respects to the king. On that occasion 
 the honour of knighthood was conferred upon him; and by letter, 
 dated Whitehall, 14th February 1661, he was also nominated one of 
 the lords of session. But refusing to sign the declaration enacted in 
 1663, bis place was declared vacant 19th of January 1664. Having 
 some time after waited on the king in London, his majesty allowed 
 him to qualify his subscription to the Declaration, and restored him 
 to his seat. He was created a baronet iu June 1664 ; and on the 
 resignation of Sir J ohn Gilmour, he was appointed president of the 
 court of session 7th of January 1671. On the 28th of February 1672, 
 his eldest son, John, was admitted an advocate before the court : on 
 the 25th of June 1675, his next son, James, was admitted; and his 
 third son, Hew, on the 23rd of February 1677. Dalrymple continued 
 president till the year 1681, when, on account of his conduct on 
 occasion of the Test Act, he was superseded, and found it necessary 
 to retire into Holland. In 1681 he published his ' Institutions of the 
 Law of Scotland,' the work of a great and philosophic mind, but one 
 deeply imbued with the principles of the Roman jurisprudence ; it 
 
 gave consistency to the body of Scots law ; and till our own day has 
 guided the determinations of the Scottish lawyers. From his retire- 
 ment at Leyden he transmitted to the Edinburgh press his 'Decisions 
 of the Court of Session from 1661 to 1681 ; ' the first volume appear- 
 ing in 1684, and the second in 1687. And iu 1686 he published at 
 Leyden his ' Philosophia Nova Experimentalis.' He also busied 
 himself about this time on a work relating to the mutual obligations 
 of the sovereign and his people, but it was nover published. On the 
 accession of King James II., Dalrymple's eldest son was appointed 
 lord advocate of Scotland in the room of Sir George Mackenzie ; and 
 in this place he had influence enough to procure a pardon for his 
 father, who, on the testimony of Spence, the secretary of Argyll, had 
 been prosecuted and outlawed for his alleged concern in the Rye- 
 house Plot. Sir John held the situation of lord advocate for about 
 twelve months, when he was appointed successor to Foulis of Coliuton, 
 both as lord justice clerk and as an ordinary lord of session. His 
 father, on coming over to this country with the Prince of Orange 
 with whom he had been much in favour while in Holland, wai 
 reinstated in the ^residency of that court; and on the 21st of April 
 1690, raised to the peerage by the style and title of Viscount Stair. 
 The same year Sir John was re-appointed lord advocate ; and the nest 
 year advanced to be one of the principal secretaries of state, in which 
 latter place he continued till the year 1695, when he was driven from 
 office upon the parliamentary inquiry into the equally impolitic and 
 barbarous massacre of Glencoe, of which he appears to have been the 
 chief instigator. 
 
 Stair died in the end of the same year, on the 23rd of November 
 1695, shortly after the publication of his work entiled ' A Vindication 
 of the Divine Perfections,' and was buried in the high church of 
 Edinburgh. He was succeeded in his title and estate by his eldest 
 son, who on the 8th of April 1703 was advanced to be Earl of Stair, 
 and who died suddenly on the 8th of January 1707, after a warm debate 
 that day on the 22nd article of the treaty of Union, which relates to 
 the number and privileges of Scots peers. By his wife, daughter and 
 heiress of Sir John Dundas of Newliston, in the shire of Edinburgh, he 
 left a younger son, who was 
 
 John Dalrymple, second Earl of Stair. He was born at Edinburgh 
 on the 20th of July 1673, and iu early youth had the misfortune to 
 kill his elder brother by the accidental discharge of a pistol. For 
 some years afterwards he was under the tuition of a clergyman in the 
 shire of Ayr, whence he was at length restored to his father's house. 
 In 1692 he entered as a volunteer under the Earl of Angus, commander 
 of the Cameronian regiment at the battle of Steinkirk. His parents 
 however appear to have been desirous of his adopting the profession of 
 the law, and for that purpose sent him to Leyden ; but on his return 
 in 1701 from his travels he accepted a commission as lieutenant-colonel 
 of the Scots regiment of Foot-guards. The year following he served 
 as aide-de-camp to the Duke of Marlborough at the taking of Venlo 
 and Liege, and the attack on Peer; and in the course of the year 1706 
 he successively obtained the command of the Cameronian regiment 
 and the Scots Greys. On his father's death in the beginning of 1707 
 he succeeded to the earldom of Stair, and was soon afterwards chosen 
 one of the representative peers of Scotland in the united parliament. 
 In the subsequent victories of Oudenarde, Malplaquet, and Ramifies, 
 he held high command and obtained great distinction ; but on the 
 accession of the new ministry in 1711, when the career of Marlborough 
 was stopped, he sold out of the Scots Greys, and retired from the 
 army. When George I. succeeded to the throne the Earl of Stair was 
 appointed a lord of the bedchamber and a privy councillor, and in the 
 absence of the Duke of Argyll was constituted commander-in-chief of 
 the forces in Scotland. The next year he was sent on a diplomatic 
 mission to France ; and it would seem that the embassy was distin- 
 guished by much skill and address, and at the same time by remarkable 
 splendour and magnificence. He was recalled in 1720, and for the 
 next twenty-two years lived in retirement at his seat at Newlistoa, 
 where it is said he planted various groups of trees in a manner designed 
 to represent the arrangement of the British troops at one of the victories 
 he had been engaged in. He also turned his attention to agriculture, 
 and was the first in Scotland to plant turnips and cabbages in the open 
 fields. On the dissolution of the Walpole administration in 1742 he 
 was recalled to public life, and served in a military capacity on different 
 important occasions till his death, which happened at Queensberry 
 House, Edinburgh, on the 9th of May 1747. He left a widow, but no 
 children. 
 
 His next brother, William Dalrymple of Glenmure, who was a 
 colonel in the army, married Penelope, countess of Dumfries, and 
 their issue succeeded to the earldom. His youngest brother, Qeorge. 
 Dalrymple of Dalmahoy, passed advocate, and on Baron Smith's 
 advancement to the chair was made a puisne baron of Exchequer, in 
 which situation he continued till his death in July 1745. More lately 
 there was on the bench of the same court a member of another branch 
 of the same family, Sir John Dalrymple of Cranstoun, Bart., who was 
 appointed in 1776 one of the barons of the Exchequer, and so cou- 
 tinued till the year 1807, when he resigned. He was the author ol 
 'Memoirs of Great Britain,' 'Tracts on Feudal Law,' and other 
 publications. He was descended from James, second son of the first 
 Viscount Stair, who was author of ' Collections concerning Scottish 
 History preceding the Death of David I.,' and who was created a 
 
436 DALRYMPLB, SIR HEW. 
 
 baronet on the 28th of April 1698, the day previous to his younger 
 brother, Hew Dalrymple of North Berwick, being raised to the like 
 dignity. 
 
 Sib Hew Dalrymple, born in 1652, was some time one of the 
 commissaries of Edinburgh, having been appointed to that place on 
 the resignation of his brother James, when the latter was made one of 
 the principal clerks of session. He had also been some time dean of 
 the Faculty of Advocates; and was, on the occasion of his being 
 created a baronet, promoted at once from the outer bar (like the 
 predecessor of his father, Sir George Lockhart, and in more recent 
 times Mr. Blair, the only instances in the history of the court) to the 
 presidency of the Court of Session, which had remained vacant since 
 his father's death in 1695. President Sir Hew Dairy mple collected 
 the decisions of the court from his appointment till the 21st of Juue 
 1720, and continued in the chair till his death, which took place on 
 the 1st of February 1737, in the eighty-fifth year of his age. 
 
 He had a younger son of the same name with himself, Hew Dalrymplc, 
 who passed advocate on the 18th of November 1710, and in December 
 1726 was made a lord of session under the titular designation of Lord 
 Drummore. He was also some time afterwards appointed a lord of 
 justiciary on Erskine of Dun's resignation, and died in the possession 
 of both offices in June 1755, with the character of an acute and learned 
 lawyer, and a very honourable man. By his wife, Anne Horn, heiress 
 of the estates of Horn and Westhall in the county of Aberdeen, he 
 left a large family, one of whom was David Dalrymple of Westhall, 
 who passed advocate in the beginning of 1743, in the twenty-third 
 year of his age, and in 1746 was chosen procurator (or advocate) to 
 the Church of Scotland. In 1748 he was also constituted sheriff depute 
 of the shire of Aberdeen, and he continued in both offices till J uly 
 1777, when he was made a lord of session under the title of Lord 
 Westhall. His elder brother assumed his maternal surname of Horn, 
 aud marrying Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir James Elphinstone 
 of Logie, assumed the additional surname of Elphinstone, and had by 
 his wife a son, who on the 16th of June 1828 was created a baronet 
 by the style and title of Sir Robert Dalrymple Horn Elphinstone, Bart., 
 of Horn and Logie Elphinstone. A younger branch of the same family 
 had a few years before been raised to the like dignity in the person of 
 Sir Hugh Whiteford Dalrymple of Highmark, in the county of Wigton, 
 who was created a baronet on the 6th of May 1815. 
 
 The youngest son of the first Viscount Stair was Sir David Dalrymple 
 of Hailes,Bart., so created on the 8th of May 1700. He passed advocate 
 on the 3rd of November 1688, and in 1709 was appointed lord-advocate 
 of Scotland in the room of Sir James Stewart, who was however re- 
 instated in the office in the year 1711. On Stewart's death Sir David 
 was again appointed lord-advocate, and continued till May 1720, when 
 he was succeeded by Robert Dundas of Arniston, who also succeeded 
 him on his decease, the following year, in his place of dean of the 
 Faculty of Advocates. His eldest son was Sir James Dalrymple of 
 Hailes, Bart., some time auditor of Exchequer ; and by his wife, Lady 
 Christian HamiltoD, daughter of the sixth Earl of Haddington, the 
 father of a numerous family. The eldest of these was the celebrated 
 judge and antiquary, 
 
 Sir David Dalrymple, better known by his titular designation 
 of Lord Haix.es, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of October 
 1726, and after acquiring the rudiments of his education in his native 
 place, was sent to Eton, where, with a competent degree of learning, 
 he imbibed that classical taste, and partiality for the manners aud 
 customs of England, which distinguished the subsequent periods of 
 his life. From Eton he returned to Edinburgh, whence, after passing 
 through the usual course at the university there, he was sent to 
 Utrecht to study the civil law ; and on his return in 1746 he prepared 
 for the bar, and passed advocate on the 24th of February 1748. After 
 eighteen years of professional life he was raised to the bench of the 
 Court of Session ; and ten years after he was also, on the resignation 
 of Lord Coalston, to whose only daughter he was married in October 
 1763, appointed a lord of justiciary. As a judge, his accuracy, 
 diligence, and dignity were eminently conspicuous ; but it is on the 
 broader basis of literary merit that his great fame rests. The earliest 
 of his publications appears to have been sacred poems, being a collec- 
 tion of translations and paraphrases from Scripture by various authors, 
 Ediub., 1751. His next was the ' Wisdom of Solomon and the Book 
 of Ecclesiastes,' 1755. The same year lie wrote in 'The World' 
 No.i. 140 and 147, and the next year No. 204, in which year also he 
 published * Select Discourses,' by John Smith of Cambridge, with a 
 preface and learned notes. The year following, 1757, he republished, 
 with notes, 'A Discourse of the unnatural aud vile Conspiracy 
 attempted jupon the King by the Earl of Gowry.' In the month of 
 October 1761, two vessels being wrecked on the shore between 
 Dunbar and North Berwick, and pillaged by the country people, Sir 
 Oavid published a sermon from Acts xxviii. 2 — "The barbarous 
 people showed us no little kindness." In 1762 he published from the 
 press of Foulis of Glasgow, ' Memorials aud Letters relating to the 
 history of Britain in the reign of James I. of England,' with a 
 preface and notes. From the same press, in 1765, he published the 
 ' Works of the ever memorable Mr. John Hailes, of Eton,' in three 
 vols. ; and the same year at Edinburgh the first specimen of a book 
 entitled 'Ane compendious booke of Godly and Spiritual Songs.' 
 Ihe year following ho published ' Memorials and Letters relating to 
 
 DALRYMTLE, ALEXANDER. m 
 
 the history of Britain in the reign of Charles I.,' from the origiuals 
 collected by Wodrow; an 'Account of the Preservation of Charles 
 II. after the battle of Worcester,' drawn up by himself; and the 
 ' Secret Correspondence between Sir Robert Cecil and James VI.' 
 The next year he published a catalogue of the lords of session from 
 the institution of the court, with historical notes ; and the following 
 year ' The Private Correspondence of Bishop Atterbury aud hi3 Friends 
 in 1725.' In 1769 he published, first, 'An Kxamination of some of 
 the arguments for the high antiquity of the Regiam Majestatem, and 
 an inquiry into the authenticity of the Leges Malcolnii;' 'Historical 
 Memoirs concerning the provincial councils of the Scottish clergy, 
 from the earlist account to the aei a of the Reformation ; ' and third, 
 ' Canons of the Church of Scotland, drawn up in the provincial coun- 
 cils held at Perth in the years 1242 and 1269.' And in 1770 he pub- 
 lished some ancient Scottish poems from manuscripts, with a number of 
 curious notes and a glossary. His next performance was the additional 
 case of Elizabeth, claiming the title of Countess of Sutherland : a 
 singularly able paper, which was subscribed by Alexander Weddeiburn, 
 afterwards Lord Chancellor of England, aud Sir Adam Ferguson, but 
 well known to be the work of Lord Hailes. In 1773 Sir David 
 published ' Remarks on the History of Scotland ; ' and in 1776, ' Letters 
 from Hubert Languet to Sir Philip Sydney.' This last year also he 
 published his ' Annals of Scotland, from the time of Malcolm Canmore 
 to King Robert I.;' 'Tables of the succession of the Scots Kings' 
 during the same period; and in 1779 his 'Annals of Scotland, from 
 the accession of Bruce to the accession of the House of Stuart.' 
 In the above year, 1776, he published another work of much 
 erudition; namely, 'An account of the Martyrs of Smyrna and 
 Lyons in the second century,' with notes. This was intended as the 
 first volume of ' Remains of Christian Antiquity ; ' the second volume 
 of that work appeared in 1778, and the third in 1780. The next 
 year he published ' Octavius,' a dialogue by Marcus Miuucius Felix, 
 with notes and illustrations ; and the year following, the treatise by 
 Lactantius of the manner in which the persecutors died, illustrated 
 in like manner by various notes. In 1783 appeared his 'Disquisitions 
 concerning the Antiquity of the Christian Church ; ' and in 1786, ' An 
 inquiry into the secondary causes which Mr. Gibbon has assigned for 
 the rapid growth of Christianity.' After this followed some biogra- 
 phical sketches, in separate works and at different tiroes, but all 
 intended as a specimen of a Biographia Scotica. In 1788 he published 
 from manuscripts the opinions of Sarah, duchess of Marlborough ; and 
 in 1790 a translation of the address of Q. Septim. Tertullus to Scapula 
 Tertullus, proconsul of Africa, with notes, to illustrate the state of 
 the church in early times. This was the last work which Lord Hailes 
 lived to publish. On the 29th of November 1792 he expired, in the 
 sixty-sixth year of his age, the baronetcy, for want of male issue, 
 descending to his nephew James, eldest son of John Dalrymple, Esq., 
 some time lord provost of Edinburgh, who was brother of Sir David, 
 and also brother of 
 
 Alexander Dalrymple, the hydrographer. He was born at New 
 Hailes, the seat of his father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., on the 
 24th of July 1737, and was the seventh son of a family of sixteen 
 children, all of whom he survived. His scholastic education was very 
 limited, partly from the troubles of the times, and partly from the 
 early death of his father ; aud when scarce sixteen years of age he 
 went abroad as a writer in the East India Company's service. Owing 
 to his deficiency iu the ordinary branches of learning, he was, on his 
 arrival in India, placed under the storekeeper; but at length, through 
 the kindness of friends, he was removed to the secretary's office, Lord 
 Pigot himself giving him some lessons in writing, and Mr. Orme, the 
 historian, instruction in accounts. Iu the records of the secretary's 
 office he found certain papers on the subject of a commerce with the 
 Eastern Archipelago; and so interested iu the subject did he become, 
 that, contrary to Lord Pigot's advice, he refused the secretaryship, and 
 determined on a voyage among the eastern islands. He now also made 
 himself master of the Spanish language by his own efforts, as he had 
 a short time before done in regard to the French. Iu the course of 
 the voyage he concluded a commercial treaty with the sultan of 
 Sooloo ; but not long afterwards the political affairs of that place were 
 altogether changed, and no beneficial effects resulted from the enter- 
 prise. He subsequently returned to Sooloo, and re-established a 
 friendly understanding between the inhabitants and the company; 
 but unfavourable circumstances again intervened to prevent the 
 results which were anticipated, and his exertions in England, whither 
 he afterwards came on the same matter, were equally unfortunate. 
 In 1769 the court of directors voted him 5000^. for his past services, 
 equivalent to the emoluments of secretary at Madras, which he had 
 relinquished in 1759 to proceed on the eastern voyage. From the 
 time of his return to England iu 1765, he employed himself iu collect- 
 ing materials for a full exposition of the importance of the Eastern 
 islands and South Seas ; and the court of directors, satisfied of the 
 important information he possessed, employed him to draw up several 
 charts of the Eastern seas, which were published under their 
 authority. On Lord Pigot's appointment to be governor of Fort St. 
 George in 1775, Dalrymple was reinstated iu the service of the East 
 India Company, aud went out to Madras as a member of council aud 
 one of the committee of circuit ; but iu 1777 he was recalled with 
 others, under a resolution of the general court, to have their conduct 
 
487 
 
 DALRYMPLE, JOHN. 
 
 D ALTON, JOHN. 
 
 183 
 
 inquired into, though nothing appears to have been done thereupon. 
 Two years afterwards he was appointed hydrographer to the East 
 India Company; aud in 1795, when the admiralty at last established 
 the like office, it was given to Dalrymple, to whom it had been promised 
 when its establishment was first proposed nineteen years before. This 
 place he retained till 1808, when the admiralty, having called for his 
 resignation on the ground of superannuation, he refused to resign and 
 was dismissed. A month later, June 19, 1808, he died, it is said from 
 vexation. He left a large library, and rich particularly in works on 
 navigation aud geography, a few of which were purchased by the 
 admiralty, and the remainder were sold by auction. His own works 
 amount to about sixty in number; many of them undoubtedly 
 valuable, but some also of a merely personal and transitory character. 
 A list of them is appended to a memoir of the author, furnished 
 by himself, in the ' European Magazine ' for November aud December 
 1802. 
 
 DALRYMPLE, JOHN, was born in the year 1801 at Norwich, 
 where his father was a surgeon in general practice. Ha studied his 
 profession under his father, in Edinburgh, and in London. He com- 
 menced practice as a surgeon in London in 1827. During the latter 
 part of his career he devoted himself entirely to ocular surgery. He 
 died in 1852. As a surgeon-oculist he was best known for his work 
 on the 'Anatomy of the Human Eye,' which was published in 1834. 
 He was not however known only as a surgeon, but also as a naturalist 
 aud accurate microscopic observer. Amongst his papers on these 
 subjects the following are the most important : ' On a peculiar struc- 
 ture in the eye of Fishes,' published in the 'Magazine of Natural 
 History,' sect. 2, vol. ii. ; ' On the Vascular Arrangement of the Capil- 
 lary Vessels of the Allantoid aud Vitelline Membranes in the Incubated 
 Egg' ('Transactions of the Microscopical Society,' vol. i.); 'On the 
 Family of Clostcrina:' ('Annals of Natural History,' vol. v.) In 1849 
 he read a paper before the Royal Society on a hitherto undescribed 
 iufusory animalcule allied to the genus Notorumata of Ehreuberg. 
 This paper was interesting as confirming the discovery of the sexuality 
 of the rotiferous animalcules, which had been made by BrightwelL 
 This paper was published in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' and in 
 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 Mr. Dalrymple was one of the surgeons of the Royal London 
 Ophthalmic Hospital. He was a Fellow of the Royal College of Sur- 
 geons of England, and in 1851 was elected a member of the council 
 of that body. 
 
 D ALTON, JOHN, was born September 5, 1766, at the village of 
 Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland, where his father, Joseph 
 Dalton, was the owner and cultivator of a small copyhold estate. 
 John Dalton attended a school kept by John Fletcher, a Quaker, till 
 he was twelve years of age. In his thirteenth year he himself began 
 to keep a school at Eaglesfield, but he gave occasional assistance to his 
 father in the farming operations. In 1781, when he was fifteen, he 
 removed to Kendal, iu order to become an usher in the school of his 
 cousin George Bewley. Dalton, for two or three years before he left 
 Eaglesfield, had been kindly noticed and assisted in his studies by Mr. 
 Robinson, a man of property; and a similar good fortune attended 
 him at Kendal, where he obtained the friendship of Mr. Gough, a 
 bliud gentleman who was devoted to the study of natural philosophy, 
 and who, besides the use of his library, afforded Dalton the advantage 
 of his instruction and conversation. Dalton continued in his situation 
 of usher till 1793, when Mr. Gough having been asked to name a 
 person fit to become professor of mathematics and natural philosophy 
 in the New College, Mosley-street, Manchester, recommended Dalton, 
 who was accepted, and immediately removed to Manchester, which 
 became his place of permanent residence during the rest of his life. 
 The college was removed to York in 1799, when Dalton withdrew from 
 it, aud began to give lessons in mathematics and natural philosophy at 
 his residence in Manchester, as well as at private seminaries. He 
 afterwards delivered public lectures, of which the first course was 
 given in the rooms of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- 
 chester, and consisted of twenty lectures on experimental philosophy ; 
 he subsequently gave lectures at London, Leeds, Birmingham, and 
 other places in England and Scotland. He had filled for several years 
 the situations of secretary and vice-president of the Manchester 
 Literary and Philosophical Society, of which he had become a member 
 in 1794; iu 1817 he was elected president, and was re-elected every 
 year till his death. 
 
 In 1822 Dalton paid a visit to Paris, with a single introduction, 
 which was to Brequetthe eminent watchmaker; next day he received 
 an invitation from La Place, by whom he was introduced to the most 
 distinguished scientific and literary men in Paris. Before this time 
 however Dalton had published his most important discoveries in 
 natural philosophy and chemistry ; his merits were consequently well 
 known to the French chemists, and they became more and more highly 
 appreciated in England during every succeeding year of his life. 
 
 George IV. having, in 1826, given 100 guineas to the Royal Society 
 of London for the purchase of two gold medals to be given to persons 
 who had most distinguished themselves by discoveries in science, the 
 first medal was unanimously awarded by the council to Dalton. He 
 Attended at York in 1831 the first meeting of the British Association 
 for the Advancement of Science, and was the object of general respect 
 and admiration ; at the second meeting at Oxford in 1832 the Univer- 
 
 sity conferred on him the title of Doctor of Civil Law; at the third 
 meeting at Cambridge in 1833 Professor Sedgwick, after pronouncing 
 an eulogium on his character, announced that William IV. had granted 
 him a pension of 150Z. a-year; at the fourth meeting in Edinburgh in 
 1834 the University of Edinburgh conferred on him the degree of 
 LL.D., and the Royal Society of Edinburgh eleoted him a member. 
 In 1836 his pension was raised to 2001. a-year. Besides the honours 
 conferred upon Dr. Dalton during the meetings of the British 
 Association, his friends in Manchester in 1833 subscribed 2000J., and 
 employed Chantrey to execute a statue of him in marble, which is now 
 in the entrance-hall of the Royal Manchester Institution. 
 
 On the 10th of April 1837, Dr. Dalton, then in his seventy first year, 
 had a severe attack of paralysis, and another slight attack on the 21st; 
 his right side was paralysed, he was deprived of the power of speak- 
 ing, and his mind appeared to be in some degree affected : after an 
 illness of some mouths his body and mind regained their powers, aud 
 his voice was restored, but his articulation was less distinct ever 
 afterwards. On the 3rd of May 1844, Dr. Dalton had a third paralytic 
 stroke, which affected his right side, and increased the indistinctness 
 of his articulation. He partly recovered from the attack, and on the 
 19th of July attended a meeting of the council of the Manchester 
 Literary and Philosophical Society, when he received a copy, engrossed 
 on vellum, of a complimentary resolution passed at the annual meeting 
 of the society. Being unable to articulate distinctly, he delivered a 
 written reply. He died July 27, 1844. He had made his usual entry of 
 meteorological observations, but with some symptoms of indistinctness 
 of memory, before he retired to rest on the previous night. The 
 inhabitants of Manchester expressed their estimation of his character 
 by a public funeral. His body lay in state in the town-hall, and was 
 visited by more than 40,000 persons in a single day. He was buried 
 in the cemetery at Ard wick-green on the 12th of August. The funeral 
 ceremony was conducted with great magnificence, and was attended 
 by a vast concourse of persons. 
 
 Dalton, during his residence at Kendal, had occasionally contributed 
 to ' The Gentleman's and Lady's Diary,' and in 1788 had commenced a 
 series of meteorological records and observations, the first results of 
 which he published soon after he went to Manchester, under the title 
 of ' Meteorological Observations and Essays,' 8vo, 1793. He continued 
 the habit of observing and recording the state of the atmosphere with 
 the greatest regularity till the day before he died, taking several records 
 daily ; he had registered altogether upwards of 200,000 independent 
 notices. His first essay iu the ' Transactions of the Manchester 
 Literary and Philosophical Society,' related to a peculiarity of his 
 own sight — that of inability to distinguish certain colours — and was 
 entitled ' Extraordinary Facts relating to the Vision of Colours, with 
 Observations, by Mr. John Dalton.' It was read October 31, 1794, 
 and is inserted in the ' Transactions,' vol. v., part 1. This peculiarity of 
 vision has been since very generally designated Daltonism. Iu lfeOl 
 he published ' Elements of English Grammar,' London, 8vo. 
 
 In the 'Manchester Transactions' for 1802, part ii, there are sis 
 papers by Dalton, chiefly on subjects of meteorology, of which the 
 most important is one called 'Experimental Essays on the Constitution 
 of Mixed Gases ; on the Force of Steam, or Vapour from Water and 
 other Liquids, in different Temperatures, both in a Torricellian 
 Vacuum and in Air; on Evaporation; and on the Expansion of Gases 
 by Heat.' He discusses with great acuteness the difficult problem 
 of the equal diffusion throughout each other of gases of unequal 
 densities; and, besides other facts of importance, he proves that water, 
 when it evaporates, i3 always converted into an elastic fluid or vapour, 
 and that the elasticity of this vapour increases as the temperature 
 increases; at 32" of Fahrenheit it balances a column of mercury 
 about half an inch in height; at 212° it balances a column thirty 
 inches high, or is equal to the pressure of the atmosphere. He deter- 
 mines the elasticity of vapour at all temperatures from 32" to 212°, 
 points out the method of determining the quantity of vapour which 
 exists at any time in the atmosphere, and determines the rate of 
 evaporation from the surface of water at all temperatures from 32° to 
 212°. The principles laid down in these essays have been of the 
 highest importance to chemists in their investigations respecting the 
 specific gravity of gases, and have enabled them to solve many 
 interesting problems. 
 
 Dalton began to work out hi3 grand discovery of the atomic theory 
 in 1803; in August 1804 he explained it distinctly and fully to Dr. 
 Thomas Thomson, who was then on a short visit to Manchester ; he 
 touched upon it iu a lecture before the Royal Institution of London in 
 1804, and subsequently in lectures at Manchester, Edinburgh, aud 
 Glasgow ; but Dr. Thomson was the first to publish a short sketch of 
 it in 1807, in the third edition of his 'System of Chemistry.' In 1808 
 Dr. Dalton published ' A New System of Chemical Philosophy,' 8vo, 
 vol. i. In the first chapter he treats of heat ; in the second, of the 
 constitution of bodies, in which his chief object is to oppose the 
 peculiar notions respecting elastic fluids which had been advanced by 
 Berthollet and were supported by Dr. Murray of Edinburgh ; in the 
 third chapter, which occupies only a few pages, he gives the outline of 
 the atomic theory. In a plate at the end of the volume he gives the 
 symbols aud atomic weights of 37 bodies, 20 of which were then 
 considered simple, aud the 17 others compound. In the second 
 volume of his ' New System of Chemical Philosophy,' published in 
 
489 DALTON, JOHN. 
 
 1810, he treats of the elementary principles, or simple bodies, oxygen, 
 hydrogen, azote, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and the metals ; next 
 he treats of the oxygen combined with hydrogen, azote, carbon, sul- 
 phur, and phosphorus; and of hydrogen combined with azote, carbon, 
 sulphur, and phosphorus ; finally, he treats of the fixed alkalies and 
 earths. The table of atomic weights at the end of this volume, though 
 more complete than the one he had given at the end of the first 
 volume, is still very imperfect. 
 
 The atomic theory is undoubtedly one of the most important contri- 
 butions which has ever been made to chemistry ; and hardly less 
 important were Dalton's attempts to determine the atomic weights of 
 the different substances, though scarcely a single number was deter- 
 mined correctly. At the time when he made h»s discovery there was 
 not a single chemical analysis which could properly be considered as 
 correct ; there was not a single gas whose specific gravity was known 
 with any approach to accuracy ; and Dalton displayed infinite sagacity 
 at coming so near the truth as he did. Since the introduction of the 
 atomic theory, the knowledge of chemical combination has been sim- 
 plified to an amazing extent, and the processes of analysis, which 
 constitute the essence of chemistry, have assumed a degree of accuracy 
 almost approaching to mathematical precision. Manufactures have 
 been benefited as well as science ; the quantity of each constituent of 
 any article can be regulated with perfect accuracy, so that there is 
 no waste, and the result of the combination can be reckoned upon 
 with unfailing certainty. 
 
 Dalton represented his atoms by symbols, as, for instance, oxygen 
 by a circle, hydrogen by a circle with a dot, and other elements by 
 Bimilar simple figures. He considers that all bodies are composed of 
 atoms, which, however small, have a definite size and weight. The 
 symbols of oxygen and hydrogen placed together represented water, 
 which he supposed to be composed of an atom of each ; and other 
 symbols were used in a similar manner. The atomic weights are the 
 relative or combining weights, not the absolute weights. Assuming 
 hydrogen to be the lightest body he called it 1 ; oxygen he determined 
 to be 7, but it has since been ascertained to be 8. Dr. Wollaston has 
 called oxygen 1; hydrogen then becomes '125. Dalton not only stated 
 the general principle of combination in definite proportions, but he 
 stated the chief laws of combination on which modern chemical 
 analysis is based : 1, that the same compound consists invariably of 
 the same constituents ; 2, that the elements of every compound 
 always unite in the same proportion by weight (and Guy-Lussac, in 
 1809, proved that gases unite in the same proportion by volume ad 
 well as by weight) ; 3, that, when any element combines in more pro- 
 portions than one, those proportions are multiples — 1, 2, 3, 4 ; 6, 12, 
 18, 24 ; 8, 16, 24, 32, and so on ; 4, that, if two substances combine 
 in a certain proportion with a third, they combine in exactly the same 
 proportion with each other ; 5, that the combining proportion of a 
 compound is the sum of its constituents, as hydrogen 1 + oxygen 8 
 = water 9. Davy substituted the word proportion for that of atom, 
 and Wollaston that of equivalent, which is now generally used ; but 
 whatever be the term, the meaning is the same, and in proportion as 
 analyses have become more accurate, the laws which Dalton laid down 
 have been more remarkably conhrmed. 
 
 The third volume of Dalton's 'New System of Chemical Philosophy ' 
 was not published till 1 827, but the greater part of it had been printed 
 nearly ten years before. He treats of the metallic oxides, the sul- 
 phurets, phosphurets, carburets, and of the alloys. In the interval 
 between the printing and publication, many of the facts had been 
 anticipated by others, and some of them carried much farther. The 
 most important part of the volume is the appendix, of about 90 
 pages, in which he discusses with his usual sagacity various important 
 matters connected with heat and vapour. He gives a new table of 
 atomic weights, much more copious than those contained in the two 
 preceding volumes, and in which he introduces the corrections rendered 
 necessary by the numerous correct analyses which had been made since 
 the publication of the second volume. 
 
 Dr. Dalton's other works, which are tolerably numerous, are inserted 
 in the ' Manchester Transactions,' ' Nicholson's Journal,' the ' Philo- 
 sophical Transactions,' and the ' Philosophical Magazine,' and consist of 
 experiments and observations on heat, vapour, evaporation, rain, wind, 
 the aurora borealis, dew, and a variety of other physical subjects. 
 
 Dr. Dalton was of middle stature and strongly made. His face is 
 eaid to have resembled the portraits of Newton. His power of mind 
 wag naturally strong ; he was a patient observer, and an independent 
 thinker, with the most perfect self-reliance, and with an extraordinary 
 power of tracing the relations of physical phenomena; his experiments 
 had rarely an insulated character, but were steps in some process of 
 wide generalisation. By such a process, comparing the results of 
 numerous experiments and numerous facts which had been estab- 
 lished, he elicited order out of seeming confusion, and may truly be 
 said to have become the legislator of chemistry, which before his time 
 was little better than an experimental art — an accumulated mass of 
 unconnected and imperfectly-developed facts. Dalton laid down the 
 laws of the combination of substances, and at once advanced chemistry 
 to the rank of a science. His moral character was worthy of his intel- 
 lectual. He was a man of the strictest truth and honesty ; inde- 
 pendent, grave, reserved, but not austere; frugal, but not parsimouious. 
 Unassuming, the honours which he received were voluntarily bestowed 
 
 BIOO. D1V. VOL. II. 
 
 DAMASUS I. M 
 
 upon him by those who were best able to estimate the value of his 
 services to science and manufacturing industry ; unostentatious, it 
 was some time before his townsmen in Manchester were aware of his 
 merits, but a small circle of friends appreciated him highly, and long 
 before he received his pension offered to provide him with an inde- 
 pendence that he might devoto the whole of his time to science, but 
 he declined to accept it, observing " that teaching was a kind of 
 recreation, and that if richer he would probably not spend more time 
 in his investigations than he was accustomed to do." His mode of 
 life was singularly uniform. He was rarely from home except when 
 he went to some place to lecture ; he attended the meeting of the 
 Society of Friends, of which he was a member, twice every Sunday ; 
 he went daily to his laboratory, of which the apparatus was of the 
 simplest and indeed rudest kind; he played at bowls on the afternoon 
 of eveiy Thursday; and he paid an annual visit to his friends and 
 the mountains in Cumberland and Westmoreland. He was never 
 married. 
 
 Dalton was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society about 1821; he 
 was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of France, and a 
 few years later was enrolled a Foreign Fellow. He was also a member 
 of the Royal Academies of Science of Berlin and Munich, and of the 
 Natural History Society of Moscow. 
 
 (Thomson, History of Chemistry, vol. ii. ; Pharmaceutical Journal, 
 Oct. 1841; Life and Discoveries of Dalton, in British Quarterly 
 Review, No. 1 ; British Association Reports.) 
 
 DAMASCE'NUS, JOANNES, was born at Damascus towards the 
 end of the 7th or the beginning of the 8th century of our era. His 
 father, Sergius, a wealthy Christian of Syria, was councillor to the 
 kalif, and at his death John succeeded him in the same office. His 
 father had given him for preceptor a monk named Cosmas, whom he 
 had redeemed from slavery. About 728 he wrote several tracts in 
 defence of image-worship against the Iconoclasts, who were then 
 favoured by the emperor Leo the Isaurian. A legendary story is told 
 of Leo having forged a treasonable letter from John to himself, which 
 he contrived should come into the hands of the kalif, who sentenced 
 John to have his right hand cut off, when the severed hand was 
 restored to the arm by a miracle. About that time however John 
 withdrew from the kalif's court to the monastery of St. Saba, near 
 Jerusalem, where he passed the remainder of his life in ascetic practices 
 and study. His numerous philosophical and theological works place 
 him among the most distinguished writers of the Eastern Church in 
 the 8th century. His principal work is an exposition of the ' orthodox 
 faith,' or Christian doctrines, in four books, which unites the two 
 systems of scholastic and dogmatic theology, the former being by 
 ratiocination, according to the Aristotelian or scholastic method, and 
 the second by the authority of the Scriptures and the fathers. This 
 work attained great reputation in the Greek Church, and the author 
 wau styled Chrysorrhoas, or ' Golden-flowing,' on account of his 
 eloquence. He promoted the study of Aristotle, and wrote various 
 popular tracts, in which he collected and illustrated that philosopher's 
 principles. He wrote also letters and treatises against heretics, 
 especially against the Manichseans and Nestorians. His principal 
 works have been published by Lequien, ' Opera J. Damasceui,' Paris 
 and Venice, 1748, 2 vols, folio. 
 
 DAMASCE'NUS, NICOLA'US, a philosopher and historian of the 
 age of Augustus, and the friend of Herod the Great, tetrarch of Judaea, 
 is mentioned by Josephus, Athenaeus, Eusebius, and others. He wrote 
 various works in Greek, and among them one on universal history in 
 144 books, of which we have some fragments, ' N. Damasceni Histo- 
 riarum Excerpta et Fragmenta quae supersunt,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1804 ; 
 and again in Paris, 1805, edited by D. Coray. He also wrote his 
 autobiography, of which a considerable portion has been preserved by 
 Suidas and josephus; a life of Augustus; a life of Herod; some 
 philosophical and some poetical works, none of which have come down 
 to us. The best edition of the remains of N. Damascenus is that of 
 J. C. Orelli, Leipzig, 1804, with a supplement published in 1811. 
 
 DA'MASUS I., the son of a presbyter, was elected Bishop of Rome 
 after the death of Liberius, a.d. 366. A party among the clergy elected 
 the deacon Ursinus in opposition to Damasus, and the people, who had 
 then a share in the elections, being equally divided, the two parties 
 fought iu the streets and in the churches for several days. Ammianus 
 Marcellinus (xxvii. 3), who gives an account of these disorders, states 
 that 137 bodies of the slain were found in one day in the basilica of 
 Sicininus alone. The same author draws a sad picture of the corruption 
 of the clergy of Rome in that age, of their cupidity and luxury, which 
 he contrasts with the modest bearing of some of the provincial clergy. 
 In the Theodosian Code (b. xx.) there is an imperial constitution, which 
 was issued about that time for the better discipline of the clergy, in 
 which they are forbidden receiving legacies from widows and minors, 
 frequenting the houses of matrons, cohabiting with women under the 
 pretence of religion, &c. Damasus being acknowledged by the bishops 
 of Italy, was confirmed by the Emperor Valentinian, who sent Ursinus 
 into exile. The party of Ursinus however kept up disturbances in 
 Italy for several years. Ursinus himself returned to Italy. A Jew 
 having brought a charge of adultery against Damasus, the affair was 
 tried byacouucilof bishops at Rome in 378, and Damasus was acquitted. 
 The Emperor Gratian being appealed to, Bent the Jew into exile, aj 
 well as Ursinus and several of his party. 
 
 S K 
 
191 DAM ASUS II. DANBY, FRANCIS, A.R.A. «j 
 
 Damasus held several councils for the purpose of condemning heretics, 
 and especially the Arians, the Apollinarians, and the Lueiferians. He 
 also was requested by the eastern churches to decide disputes which 
 had arisen among them, particularly on the subject of the election of 
 Flavianus to the see. of Antioch. Among the eastern bishops who 
 repaired to Rome on that occasion was Epiphanius, bishop of Cyprus, 
 accompanied by St. Jerome, who had acquired during his residence in 
 Syria and Palestine a great reputation for theological learning. Jerome 
 became intimate with Damasus, and is said to have acted as his secretary. 
 It was not until the death of Damasus, which happened in 384, that 
 Jerome finally returned to the east, where he died. 
 
 There are a few letters of Damasus which have been preserved by 
 TheodoretuB and St. Jerome. Other letters and verses, as well as a 
 Liber I'outihcalis, which have been published under his name, are now 
 considered apocryphal. The church of San Lorenzo in Damaso at 
 Rome has derived its name from him, as he is believed to have been 
 the founder of a church on the spot where the present structure stands, 
 and where he was buried. Damasus was one of the most learned and 
 influential among the earlier bishops of Rome. He was succeeded 
 by Syricius. 
 
 DAMASUS II. (Poppo, bishop of Brixen) was elected pope in 1048, 
 in the room of Benedict IX., who had been deposed by the council of 
 Sutri for his misconduct. He died, twenty-three days after his election, 
 at Palestrina, and was succeeded by Leo IX. 
 
 DAMIE'NS, ROBERT FRANCOIS, was born in 1715, in a village 
 of Artois, where his father had a small farm. He enlisted in the 
 army, which he left at the peace, and went to Paris, where he ongaged 
 as a menial, first in the College of the Jesuits, and afterwards in 
 several families : he was repeatedly turned out of his situation on 
 account of misconduct. While he was unemployed he used to attend 
 the great hall of the Palace of Justice, which was then the rendezvous 
 of those who were styled Janseuists. At that time France was 
 distracted by the long quarrel concerning the bull Unigenitus. 
 [Clement XL] The parliament of Paris disapproved of the bull, 
 although it had been forced by the court to register it. Several of the 
 parish clergy expressed a similar opinion, and were on that account 
 suspended from their functions by their bishops, who were in general 
 favourable to the prerogatives of the court of Rome. The clergymen 
 thus laid under interdict appealed to the parliament, which returned 
 a decision favourable to them. Upon this the court and the bishop3 
 attacked the parliament, several of whose members were imprisoned 
 by lettres de cachet. The supposed miracles of the Abbe" Paris, brother 
 of a councillor of parliament, and a sturdy opposer of the bull, excited 
 the minds of the people, and created a sect of fanatics, called 
 'convulsionnaires,' or 'shakers.' The archbishop of Paris refused the 
 sacraments, not only to the shakers, but to all those suspected of 
 Jansenism, that is to say, opposed to the bull. The parliament issued 
 arrets to oblige the local clergy to administer the sacraments. The 
 king cashiered these arrets. The outcry now became general against 
 the archbishop, the ministers, and the king ; France was threatened 
 with a schism and a war of religion. Louis XV. had then for his 
 mistress Madame de Pompadour, who was generally disliked on 
 account of her haughtiness and prodigality. All these complaints 
 seem to have made a deep though confused impression on the excitable 
 but ignorant mind of Damiens. Gautier, a servant of one of the 
 councillors of parliament, acknowledged that he had heard Mm speak 
 very violently in defence of the parliament, and against the archbishop 
 of Paris. It would seem that Damiens was particularly irritated at 
 the archbishop refusing the sacraments to so many people, and that he 
 fancied that by killing or at least wounding the king he would effect a 
 change in the system of government, and put down the archbishop 
 and his party. However this may be, Damiens went to Versailles ; 
 and on the 5th of January 1757, about five in the afternoon, as Louis 
 was stepping into his carriage, Damiens, who had made his way 
 unobserved among the attendants, stabbed him on the right side with a 
 knife. The wound was slight, and the king after a few days recovered. 
 It is worthy of remark that the knife had two blades, of which 
 Damiens used the shorter, which seems to confirm what he stated on 
 his interrogatory, that he did not intend to kill the king, but only to 
 frighten him and give him a warning. He did not attempt to run 
 away, but was secured, examined, and put to the torture. He was 
 afterwards removed to Paris, and committed for trial before the 
 grande chambre of parliament, to which the king wrote a letter in 
 which he demanded " a signal vengeance." Damiens was condemned 
 as a regicide to be broken alive by four horses. The sentence was 
 executed on the 28th of March 1757, on the Place de Greve. Before 
 being put to death, he was tortured for one hour and a-half on the 
 place of execution with red-hot pincers, molten lead, resin, wax, and 
 other cruel contrivances. All the windows and roofs of the houses 
 around were filled with spectators, men and women, among whom 
 were many ladies of rank. It was altogether one of the most disgraceful 
 exhibitions that ever took place in a civilised country. Damiens 
 acknowledged no accomplices, and it does not appear that he had any. 
 His crime was the act of a weak and disordered mind. 
 
 (Breton, Pieces orig. et proced. du prods fait & R. F. Damiens, Par. 
 4to, 1757 ; Vie de R. F. Damiens, Par. 1757 ; Histoire du Parlement dc 
 Farts, 8vo, 1769 ; Voltaire. Steele de Louis XV.; Causes Celebres.) 
 
 DAMPIER, WILLIAM, was born in 1652, of a Somersetshire 
 
 family ; he want early to sea, served in the war against the Dutch, 
 and afterwards became overseer of a plantation in Jamaica. He 
 thence went to the Bay of Campeachy with other logwood cutterg, 
 and remained there several years. He kept a journal of his adventures 
 and observations on that coast, which was afterwards published ; 
 ' Voyages to the Bay of Campeachy,' London 1729, with a ' Treatise 
 on Winds and Tides : ' Dampier, besides being a bold seaman, had 
 also studied navigation as a science. In 1679 he joined a party of 
 buccaneers, with whom he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and having 
 embarked in canoes and other small craft on the Pacific Ocean, they 
 captured several Spanish vessels, in which they cruised along the coast 
 of Spanish America, waging a war of extermination both by sea and 
 land against the subjects of Spain. In 1684 Dampier sailed again 
 from Virginia with another expedition, which doubled Cape Horn 
 and cruised along the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico, making 
 depredations upon the Spaniards. From the coast of Mexico they 
 steered for the East Indies, touched at Australia, and after several 
 adventures in the Indian Seas, Dampier went on shore at Bencoolen, 
 from whence he found his way back to England in 1691, when he 
 published his ' Voyage round the World,' a most intere-ting account, 
 and which attracted considerable attention. His abilities becoming 
 known, he was appointed commander of a sloop of war in the king's 
 service, and was sent on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas. 
 Dampier explored the west and north-west coasts of Australia, sur- 
 veyed Shark's Bay, and gave his name to a small archipelago east of 
 North-west Cape. He also explored the coasts of New Guinea, New 
 Britain, and New Ireland, and gave his name to the straits which 
 separate the two former; on his homeward voyage he was wrecked on 
 the Isle of Ascension. He at last returned to Enzland in 1701, when 
 he published the account of this voyage. In 1707 he published a 
 ' Vindication of his Voyage to the South Seas in the ship St. George/ 
 with which he had sailed from Virginia in his former marauding 
 expedition. Dampier went to sea again till 1711, but the particulars 
 of the latter part of his life are little known. He ranks among the 
 most enterprising navigators of England. He was acquainted with 
 botany, and was possessed of considerable information and general 
 knowledge. His style of narrative is vivid, and bears the marks of 
 truth. His voyages were published together in 3 vols. 8vo, London, 
 1697-1709. 
 
 * DANA, RICHARD HENRY, was born at Cambridge, near 
 Boston, United States, November 15th, 1787. He completed his edu- 
 cation at Harvard College, and was called to the bar ; but after 
 practising for a short time, he was compelled to abandon the legal 
 profession by the state of his health, and he directed his attention to 
 literature and politics. About 1817 he began to write a series of 
 articles on the British poets in the ' North American Review.' His 
 articles excited a good deal of attention, and he became associated iu 
 the management of the review ; but in 1820 ceased to be connected 
 with it. He then started on his own account a periodical called 
 ' The Idle Man,' but its career closed with the completion of the first 
 volume. In this work appeared his story of ' Tom Thornton,' which, 
 when republished in a separate form, became very popular, In 1825 
 Mr. Dana wrote his first poem, the 'Dying Raven,' for the 'New 
 York Review,' and the admiration it excited led him to publish in 
 1827 a volume entitled 'The Buccaneer, and other Poems.' The 
 'Buccaneer' never became what i3 termed popular; but its sterling 
 excellence and fine manly tone obtained for it a circle of warm 
 admirers. In 1833 Mr. Dana published a collected edition of his 
 4 Poems and Prose Writings,' and a new edition in 2 vols., 8vo, 
 appeared in 1850. Of late years Mr. Dana has written only mis- 
 cellaneous essays and a few minor poems, most of which were 
 incorporated in the last edition of his works. His only other public 
 appearances have been as a lecturer on poets and poetry. He is how- 
 ever understood to be engaged in preparing for publication the papers 
 of his brother-in-law, Washington Allston, the great American painter. 
 Mr. Dana has written comparatively little, but his works are of a 
 more finished character, and more sober in style and cast of thought, 
 than is usual among his countrymen, and he is altogether one of her 
 literary sons of whom America is justly proud. 
 
 The family of Dana is one in which emiuent ability has been here- 
 ditary. For some generations his ancestors were noticeable men. 
 His father Francis Dana (born 1742, died 1811), an ardent actor in 
 the Revolution, accompanied John Adams to Paris iu 1779 as secretary 
 of legation; in the following year he J was appointed by Cougess 
 minister plenipotentiary to the court of Russia ; and he subsequently 
 became chief justice of Massachusetts. The son of the poet and 
 essayist, * Richard Henry Dana, Junior, is well known to tbft 
 English public as the author of the remarkable work, ' Two Years 
 before the Mast,' which has been several times reprinted in thri 
 country ; he has also written ' The Seaman's Friend, a Treatise on 
 Practical Seamanship,' of which the fourth edition was published at 
 Boston iu 1845. Mr. R. H. Dana, Junior, is now in good practice as <» 
 barrister at Boston. (Griswold, Poets, and Prose Writers of America.) 
 
 DANBY, FRANCIS, A.R.A., was born at Wexford, Ireland, 
 November 16, 1793. He received his earliest lessons in design in the 
 School of Arts, Dublin, and exhibited his first pictures in 1812 at the 
 exhibition in that city. In 1820 he removed to England, and took up 
 his abode in Bristol. He sent some pictures to the Royal Academy 
 
DANCE. 
 
 Exhibition in the following years; but it was not till 1824 that he 
 obtained muoh notice, when a painting in the style which he has since 
 maile -o familiar, entitled 'Sunset at Sea, after a Storm,' at once 
 secured him a high place among the artists of his day. The picture 
 was purchased by Sir Thomas Lawrence, at a price much above that 
 which the obscure artist had ventured to place upon it; and this 
 practical testimony of the president's admiration added no little to his 
 popularity. Stimulated by his success, he the next year exhibited 
 one of his largest and most elaborate paintings, ' The Delivery of Israel 
 out of Egypt ;' and the Royal Academy marked its sense of his ability 
 by electing him in the same year an Associate. The next three years 
 were the most productive in Mr. Danby's career as a painter, several 
 of his most ambitious and best-known poetic and historical landscapes 
 gracing the Academy walls during this period. In 1826 he exhibited 
 'Christ Walking on the Sea;' in 1827 'The Embarkation of Cleopatra 
 on the Cydnus to meet Mark Antony ;' in 1S28 ' The Opening of the 
 Seventh Seal,' and a ' Scene from the Merchant of Venice.' His 
 pictures were now looked for as one of the chief attractions of the 
 annual exhibition, but his public career was suddenly brought to a 
 temporary close. Some family matters caused him in 1829 to leave 
 England, and he remained absent ten or twelve years, during which 
 time he sent only one or two oil-paintings to the Exhibition. In 1841 
 he returned in full strength with his ' Morning at Rhodes/ ' The 
 Sculptor's Triumph when his Statue of Venus ia about to be placed 
 in the Temple,' and an 'Enchanted Island.' These he followed up by 
 a work of very ambitious character : — the 'Deluge ;' a ' Holy Family;' 
 the ' Contest of the Lyre and the Pipe in the Vale of Tempe" ;' ' St. 
 Cloud in the Time of Louis XIV.;' ' The Painter's Holiday;' 'The 
 Last Moment of Sunset ;' ' The Tomb of Christ after the Resurrection ;' 
 ' The Fisherman's Home ;' ' Winter Sunset ;' ' Summer Sunset ;' ' Ship 
 on Fire — calm Moonlight — far at Sea ;' ' Caius Marius amid the Ruins 
 of Carthage ;' ' Departure of Ulysses from Ithaca — Morning ;' ' A Wild 
 Sea-Shore at Sunset ;' ' A Party of Pleasure on the Lake of Wallen- 
 stadt;' 'Evening — Dead Calm;' &c. 
 
 As the titles will have told, Mr. Danby's pictures are never mere 
 delineations of a particular spot. Many of them are of the most 
 ambitious class of poetic landscape ; and they almost reach their lofty 
 aim. His landscapes display considerable imagination, much poetic 
 feeling, refinement, and rich and harmonious, though somewhat too 
 monotonous colour. He delights especially in depicting the glories of 
 the last moment of sunset, or the early twilight which succeeds it; 
 and he bathes every object in the glowing atmosphere proper to that 
 season. What he wants perhaps is something more of strength, fully 
 to realise his intention; but as it is, he has marked out for himself a 
 distinct path in the landscape art, and in it he has found no rival. 
 Mr. Danby still holds only the same professional rank of A.R.A which 
 he held thirty years ago ; but this is well understood to be, even with 
 the Academy, no criterion of his real standing as a painter. His not 
 having attained the honours of full membership has arisen from some 
 of those private reasons which at times sway all close corporations. [See 
 Supplement.] Mr. Danby has two sons, who have adopted the profes- 
 sion of painting; one of them, Thomas Danby, has acquired celebrity by 
 some remarkably faithful pictures of English mountain scenery. 
 
 DANCE. There are two architects of this name, father and son. 
 The elder George Dance was architect to the Corporation of 
 London, and erected in 1739-40 the Mansion House, a structure, 
 which, although certainly far from being in the happiest or most 
 refined taste, by no means deserves the obloquy that has been heaped 
 upon it ; for if in some respects uncouth, it is at all events a stately 
 mass, and has a 'monumental' look. The elder Dance also built 
 the churches of St. Botolpb, Aldgate; St. Luke; and St. Leonard, 
 Shoreditch. He Hied February 8th, 1768, and was succeeded in his 
 appointment of City Surveyor by his fourth son. 
 
 George Dance, Jun. (bom in 1741), whose talent acquired for the 
 family name far higher distinction. Not only trained up to architecture 
 ss a pursuit in which a safe and certain career, if not a brilliant one, 
 was opened for him, he had applied himself to the study of it with a 
 diligence exceeding what was required by the routine of that day, 
 and he further possessed both a natural and cultivated taste for the 
 fine arts generally, poetry included. He certainly stamped something 
 of poetry, as well as energetic character, on the very first public work 
 he executed ; nor had he long to wait for the opportunity by which 
 he signalised himself, for Newgate, the "proudest of prisons," was 
 begun by him in 1770. This structure, one of the few truly monu- 
 mental pieces of architecture in the metropolis, has been chiefly 
 extolled for its striking degree of character; yet Newgate might have 
 been equally prison-like in aspect had it been merely a dismal mass, 
 utterly devoid of all aesthetic charm ; it was by conferring upon it 
 the latter — by breaking up the monotony of such a mass so as not at 
 all to disturb unity, but enhance it — not to dissipate parts into 
 littleness, but blend and condense them into one impressive whole — 
 that Dance showed himself a great artist — let us say, a great tragic 
 architect. Truly felicitous is the manner in which, by being divided 
 into boldly distinct and well articulated parts, the composition 
 acquires artistic play without losing anything of its severity. Truly 
 felicitous also is the effective relief both as to perspective and light and 
 shade thrown into it, not according to the us ual practice of bringing 
 parts foiward, but of recessing them, and placing masses in the rear 
 
 of others, so that the general line of front is preserved unbroken ia 
 its lower part. The great drawback on this otherwise masterly com- 
 position is the centre compartment, or "governor's house." Well 
 intended as is the kind of contrast between that part and the rent, 
 the contrast actually produced is far from the happiest, the character 
 given to the centre being by far too much like that of an ordinary 
 dwelling-house, the windows being so many, in proportion to the space 
 they occupy, as absolutely to crowd it and cut it up, to destroy breadth 
 and repose, and to occasion an air of littleness. The attic story espe- 
 cially is a most paltry termination to the centre of such a pile ; but in the 
 original design the centre of the edifice was crowned by a pediment, 
 which would have given variety to the whole composition, without 
 any sacrifice of dignity : the alteration appears to have been made in 
 order to provide an additional story, which however might just as well 
 have been concealed within the roof. The proximity of Newgate 
 perhaps deprived the late Giltspur Street Compter of some of the 
 celebrity it might else have obtained as a piece of architecture ; and 
 yet the same proximity was not altogether favourable to the other, 
 the fenestration in the design of the Compter being decidedly better 
 than that of the governor's residence in Newgate. Dance derived 
 much more fame from St. Luke's Hospital than from the Compter, 
 though far less worthy of admiration : it is in fact a mere horrible 
 reality without any aesthetic beauty infused into it. As to the front 
 of Guildhall, erected by Dance in 1789, there can be but one opinion. 
 Its ugliness we might tolerate, its absurdity we might excuse, but 
 ugliness, absurdity, and excessive paltriness, without a single redeem- 
 ing feature, combine to render it quite unendurable. Among Dance's 
 minor works are the Shakspere Gallery, Pall Mall, now the British 
 Institution, and the Theatre at Bath, neither of which possesses any 
 great beauty. The west side of Finsbury Square is also by him. 
 
 Dance was not only one of the earliest members of the Royal 
 Academy, but held for several years the office of Professor of Archi- 
 tecture ; yet he never delivered any lectures, nor doeB he seem to have 
 exhibited drawings at its exhibitions. Still if he neither lectured nor 
 wrote upon that branch of art which he pursued as a profession, he 
 gave the world evidence of his ability in a department of art wholly 
 unconnected with architecture, by publishing a series of portraits 
 (chiefly profiles) of the public characters and artists of the day, which 
 appeared in two volumes, folio, 1811-14, and were engraved by William 
 Daniell, R.A., in imitation of the original drawings. Dance held his 
 appointment of City Surveyor till 1816, when he resigned in favour 
 of his pupil, the late W. Montague ; but he survived his retirement 
 from practice several years, and died at his house in Gower Street, 
 January 14th 1825, at the age of eighty-four. He was buried in 
 St. Paul's, near Wren and Rennie. 
 
 His elder brother, Nathaniel Dance, third son of the elder 
 George Dance, began his career as a painter, in which profession he 
 acquired some celebrity, but his fine figure and captivating address 
 having obtained for him the haud of the wealthy Yorkshire heiress, 
 Mrs. Dummer, he abandoned painting, and purchased and destroyed 
 all his former productions which he could meet with. On his marriage 
 he had taken the name of Holland in addition to his own, and he was 
 made a baronet in 1800. The income he acquired with his lady was 
 about 18,000Z. per annum, and as the Dummer estates were entailed, 
 he contrived to amass for himself about 200,000Z. Sir Nathaniel 
 Dance Holland died very suddenly at Winchester, October 15th, 1811. 
 
 DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON, a popular French dramatist 
 and actor of the times of Louis XIV., was born in 1691, and studied 
 at Paris under the Jesuit Larue. His preceptor, observing that his 
 talents were far from ordinary, wished him to devote himself to the 
 religious profession, but Dancourt preferred the law, and acquired 
 some reputation as an advocate. He shortly however fell in love with 
 the daughter of the comedian La Thoriliere, an attachment which 
 induced him to quit his legal studies and appear on the stage. Having 
 married Mademoiselle La Thoriliere, he became one of the king's 
 comedians, and even one of his greatest favourites. An anecdote is 
 told of his being saved from falling by Louis, who caught his shoulder ; 
 and in the days when this story was current, a king who under any 
 circumstances put forth his hand towards a subject was reckoned full 
 as condescending as one of the gods of antiquity who came down to 
 aid some favourite hero. After remaining thirty-eight years in the 
 service of the king, he retired to his estate at Berri, where he passed 
 the remainder of his life in devotional exercises, and wrote some psalms 
 and a sacred tragedy, which is not extant. He died in 1726, having 
 superintended the erection of his own tomb, leaving two daughters, 
 who were both actresses, and both married into families of distinction. 
 The works of this author occupy six volumes : they were most of them 
 successful at the time they were written. The greater number of them 
 are farces, the scene of which lies mostly in low life. There is a 
 drollery about them and a smartness in the dialogue which will always 
 render them amusing, but the interest they possessed at the time of 
 their appearance is now lost. Dancourt, being an unlearned man, 
 sought for subjects among incidents which he himself witnessed, and 
 which were often well known to the public. An author whose chief 
 excellence lies in happily delineating events of a local interest may be 
 sure of popularity, but equally sure that his popularity will b» but 
 transient. Dancourt is believed to have had many assistants in the 
 composition of his plays. 
 
(85 DANDOLO, ENUICO. 
 
 DA'NDOLO, ENRICO, a patrician of Venice, who was elected doge 
 in 1192 at a very advanced age. In the year 1201 the French crusaders 
 applied to the Venetian senate for assistance in their expedition to 
 Palestine. Dandolo warmly supported their petition, lent them money 
 and provisions and ships, and stipulated in return that they should 
 assist him in conquering the town of Zara for the republic. Dandolo, 
 though aged and nearly blind, embarked in the admiral's ship. The 
 crusaders took Zara, and afterwards, being invited by Alexius, son of 
 Isaac Angelus, who had been driven from the throne of Constantinople, 
 the Venetians and crusaders, forgetting the Holy Land, sailed for 
 Constantinople, attacked it, and took it by storm, in 1204. Old 
 Dannolo, then nearly ninety years of age, was the soul of this expe- 
 dition ; he was one of the first to land, on the first attack in 1203, and 
 to take possession of part of the ramparts, on which he planted the 
 standard of St. Mark. For other particulars of this expedition and its 
 results see Baldwin I., emperor of Constantinople. Dandolo refused 
 the imperial crown which the crusaders had offered to him, but accepted 
 the title of Despot of Romania. He died shorly after, in 1205, and 
 was buried in the church of Santa Sophia. Dandolo is one of those 
 who contributed most to the establishment of the maritime power of 
 Venice. There have been other senators and doges of the same name. 
 
 DANIEL, one of the four great prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 
 Daniel). From the first chapter of the book of this prophet we learn 
 that he was of the tribe of Judah ; that when a child he was carried 
 captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, in the third year of the reign 
 of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, B.C. 606; and that he was one of the 
 " children (verse 4) in whom was no blemish, but well-favoured, and 
 skilful in all wisdom, and cunning in knowledge, and understanding 
 science,'' who were chosen by the master of the king of Babylon's 
 eunuchs to be taught " the learning and the tongue of the Chaldeans," 
 and to stand before the king. It appears to have been required of 
 these children to have countenances fair and fat in flesh, and that they 
 might acquire these qualities they were furnished with "a daily pro- 
 vision of the king's meat and wine;" but Daniel, otherwise Belteshazzar, 
 and his three companions, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abeduego, purposing 
 not to defile themselves with the royal meat, obtained permission to 
 adopt a diet of pulse and water instead, and partaking of this food they 
 excelled iu appearance all the other children who were being trained in 
 the palace. "Daniel had understanding in all visions and dreams, and 
 in all matters of wisdom and understanding the king found him and his 
 three companions ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers 
 that were in all his realm " (17, 20). In reward for the interpretation 
 of a dream related in chapter 2, " King Nebuchadnezzar not only gave 
 Daniel many valuable gifts, and made him ruler over the whole 
 province of Babylon, and chief of the governors over all the wise men 
 of Babylon, but he fell upon his face and worshipped bim, and com- 
 manded an oblation and sweet odours to be offered unto him " (46, 48). 
 Daniel's Chaldajau name of Belteshazzar was that of a Babylonian 
 deity, the god of Nebuchadnezzar; and the prophet is repeatedly said 
 to have possessed the spirit of the holy gods, and to have been made 
 master of the magicians, astrologers, Chaldaeans, and soothsayers (iv. 
 8, 9 ; v. 11). For interpreting the mysterious writing on the wall, 
 king Belshazzar clothed him in scarlet, put a chain of gold about his 
 neck, and made him third ruler in the kingdom. Daniel also prospered 
 in the reign of the Median monarch Darius (probably the Cyaxares of 
 the Greek historians), who appointed him the first of three presidents 
 over 120 princes, whom he set over the whole kingdom (vi. 2). Having 
 escaped unhurt from the lions' den into which he was thrown by 
 Darius, he continued to prosper in the reign of Cyrus the Persian (28). 
 He did not return to Judaea on the termination of the captivity, but 
 remained with the large portion of his countrymen who continued at 
 Babylon, where he is generally supposed to have died. Some however 
 state that he died at Susa, on the Eulseus. He was contemporary with 
 Ezekiel (xiv. 14, 20; xxviii. 3). Among the Rabbis it is generally 
 maintained that Daniel was not a true prophet ; that he did not dwell 
 in the Holy Land, out of which they say the spirit of prophecy does 
 not reside ; that he spent his life, not as the other Jewish prophets, in 
 solitude, poverty, and abstinence, but amid the grandeur, pomp, and 
 luxury of a royal palace; that he was a eunuch (2 Kings, xx. 18), one 
 of a class who are excluded from the congregation of the Lord (Deut. 
 xxiiL 1). Some place his writings among the mere Hagiographia, as 
 having less authority than the canonical books. They account for the 
 fact of his not being mentioned when his three companions were cast 
 into the furnace, by saying that he was absent from Babylon on an 
 expedition to Egypt, for the purpose of stealing hogs (Calmet's ' Diet, 
 of the Bible ') ; and they object to his prophecies that they all relate 
 to dreams and visions, which they consider the most imperfect modes 
 of revelation. However it is said by Josephus (' Ant. Jud.,' 1. x. c. 12), 
 that Daniel was a great and true prophet, who was favoured with 
 communications from Jehovah ; he says also that Daniel built a famous 
 palace at Susa, or Ecbatana. Dr. Adam Clarke and others think that 
 Zoroaster was Daniel. 
 
 The twelve chapters of the canonical book of Daniel are partly in the 
 Hebrew and partly in the Chaldaic language. The uncanonical or 
 apocryphal books attributed to this prophet, consisting of the stories 
 of Susannah and Bel and the Dragon, and the Song of the Three 
 Children, are extant only in the Greek of Theodotian, which is adopted 
 in all the Greek churches of the East, the version of the Septuagiut 
 
 DANIEL, LE PERE GABRIEL. 436 
 
 being lost. The following are the principal prophetical subjects of the 
 canonical book of Daniel. Chapter 2 contains the account of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar's dream of the great image of gold, silver, brass, iron, and 
 clay, with Daniel's interpretation. The stone which became a great 
 mountain is considered as prophetic of the Messiah. Chapter 4 relates 
 the same monarch's dream of the great tree, representing himself, as 
 interpreted by Daniel, and which was speedily fulfilled. In chapter 5 
 is recounted Daniel's interpretation of the writing on the wall at the 
 feast of Belshazzar. Chapter 7 contains the prophet's description and 
 interpretation of his own dream of the four great beasts. The com- 
 mentators state that the four kingdoms of the earth designed by these 
 four beasts were the Babylonian, the Medo-Persian, the Macedo- 
 Grecian, and the Roman. The ten horns of the fourth beast are said 
 to be ten kingdoms, rising out of the Roman empire ; but what parti- 
 cular kingdoms are meant appears rather difficult to determine, if we 
 may judge from the conflicting opinions of different writers. The 
 Rev. Hartwell Horne, in his ' Introduction to the Bible,' has tabulated 
 the theories of some of the most eminent commentators, which exhibit 
 scarcely a single instance of agreement in any particular. Thus, in 
 explaining the meaning of the first horn, Machiavel applies it to the 
 Ostrogoths, Dr. Mede to the Britons, Drs. Lloyd and Hales to the 
 Huns, Sir Isaac Newton to the Vandals, and Bishop Newton to 
 the senate of Rome. This dream has always been much insisted on 
 by Protestant writers as a prophecy relating to the destinies of the 
 Church of Rome. Daniel's vision of the ram and the he-goat described 
 in chapter 8 is considered to signify the destruction of the Medo- 
 Persian empire by the Macedonians, who were anciently called Aigmix, 
 or ^Egeatse, that is, the goat-people. The prophecy of the seventy 
 weeks, communicated toDauiel by the angel called the man Gabriel in 
 chapter 9, is regarded by all Christians as a striking prediction of the 
 advent of Jesus as the Messiah. Sir Isaac Newton, iu his 'Commentary 
 on Daniel,' declares it to be the foundation of the Christian religion. 
 The weeks are understood as being prophetic weeks, consisting each 
 of seven years. (Leviticus, xxv. 8.) No scriptural authority is to be 
 found for this interpretation (Le Clerc, 'Biblioth.' torn. xv. p. 201); 
 but an instance of this mode of reckoning occurs in Macrobius, 
 1 Somn. Scip.,' 1. i. c. 6. In the 25th and 26th verses it is said that 
 from the first year of the reign of Darius (ver. 1, 3, 23) unto the 
 Messiah the prince would be 69 weeks, or 483 years, and that then 
 Messiah would be cut off, which disagrees with the best chronologists, 
 who make the first year of Darius 538 B.C. (A. Clarke's ' Bib.') The 
 chronological difficulties of this important prophecy have occasioned a 
 great variety of interpretations, and exercised the pens of the most 
 learned of the fathers and of modern divines. (' Improved Version of 
 Daniel,' by the Rev. Thos. Wintle, 8vo. 1836; Prideaux's 'Connect.' 
 vol. i. p. 306; Vossius, 'De 70 Hebdomad. Dan.,' p. 183). In the 10th 
 and 11th chapters other visions are described which relate chiefly to 
 the conquests and revolutions of several Asiatic nations. The prophecy 
 in the 12th and last chapter extends to the end of time, and speaks of 
 the resurrection and the day of judgment. In the time of Jerome 
 some few rabbis admitted the story of Susannah as canonical, while 
 others rejected it as such ; and Josephus, in speaking of Daniel, says 
 nothing either of Susannah or of Bel and the Dragon. (Hieronymus, 
 ' In Dan.') A learned dissertation on these books is given by fc.ichb.orn 
 in his 'Einleitung in die Apokriphishen Scriften,' p. 419. Porphyry, 
 in the twelfth of his fifteen books against the Christians, impugns the 
 genuineness and authority of the prophecies of Daniel, contending 
 that they are falsely ascribed to him, and that they are really historical, 
 and were written after the occurrence of the events to which they 
 relate. Dr. N. Lardner has collected some of these objections, and 
 accompanied them with the replies of Jerome (Larduer's ' Works,' 
 vol. viii. pp. 185-204). Bishop Chandler, in his ' Vindication of the 
 Defence of Christianity,' and Dr. Samuel Chandler, in a * Vindication 
 of the Prophecies of Daniel,' have elaborately discussed the subject of 
 the genuineness and canonical authority of this prophetical book. It 
 is remarked by Mr. Horne, that " Of all the old prophets Daniel is the 
 easiest to be understood ; " and that " he writes more like an historian 
 than a prophet." Grotius, Le Clerc, and several other learned critics, 
 have maintained that all the prophecies of Daniel relate to and termi- 
 nated in the persecution of the Jews under Antiochus Epiphanes, in 
 the age succeeding that of the prophet. In Mr. Home's ' Introduction,' 
 vol. ii. p. 792-3, an account is given of the principal commentators ou 
 Daniel, as Sir Isaac and Bishop Newton, Drs. Faber, Frere, Hales, &c, 
 and of the numerous disquisitions on the particular prophecies, espe- 
 cially that of the seventy weeks. Numerous sermons on texts, and 
 commentaries on the book of Daniel, are named in the 'Bibliotheca 
 Britannica' by Watts. The book of Daniel has greatly occupied the 
 attention of recent British writers on the prophecies ; and especially in 
 connection with the church of Rome and the Millennium, 
 
 DANIEL, LE PERE GABRIEL, a Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1649, 
 wrote the history of France from the commencement of the monarchy, 
 3 vols, fol., 1713, which he dedicated to Louis XIV., who made him 
 historiographer of the kingdom, with a pension of 2000 francs. The 
 most valuable part of his history is that which relates to the reigns 
 previous to Louis XL, and he is more correct with regard to facts than 
 Mdzerai. But the work altogether is very imperfect : the author suys 
 little concerning the state of Bociety : it is a history of the kings rather 
 than of the people. He enters very largely into religious coutro 
 
197 
 
 DANIEL, SAMUEL. 
 
 versies. and is very intolerant towards those whom he considers 
 heterodox. Hi3 style is feeble and uninteresting. The best edition 
 of tlio history is that in 17 vols. 4to, Paris, 1755-60, with considerable 
 additions by Father Griffet. The other works of Pere Daniel are; — 
 1, ' Observations critiques sur l'Histoire de France e"crite par Mezerai,' 
 in which he endeavours to throw discredit on the rival historian, who, 
 although often inexact, is upon the whole more liberal-minded than 
 Daniel, for which reason he lost his pension. [Colbert.] Both their 
 histories however were superseded by the better one of Velly and 
 Villaret, 1759 ; 2, ' Histoire de la Milice Francaise,' exhibiting the 
 changes that had taken place in the French military establishment, 
 and system of discipline and tactics from the beginning of the 
 monarchy to the reign of Louis XIV. ; 3, ' Le Voyage au monde de 
 Descartes,' a kind of satire of the system of that philosopher ; and 
 several other minor works, among which the ' Entretiens de Cleandre 
 et d'Eudoxe,' are intended as a refutation of the ' Provinciales' of 
 Pascal. Pere Daniel died in June 1728. 
 
 DANIEL, SAMUEL, was born in Somersetshire in 1562, and 
 educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, which however he left without a 
 degree, " his geny being," according to Anthony a Wood, " more 
 prone to easier and smoother subjects than in pecking and hewing 
 at logic." He became tutor to Lady Anne Clifford, subsequently 
 Countess of Pembroke, and was afterwards groom of the privy 
 chamber to Anne, queen of James I. He is said to have been poet- 
 laureat on Spenser's death ; but it is more likely that he was only one of 
 many employed about the court in writing masques and birth-day odes, 
 and in this capacity he seems to have stirred the wrath of Ben Jonson, 
 who probably held him in the light of a rival. Towards the end of 
 his life he retired into Somersetshire, where he died in 1619. 
 
 His poems consist of an Heroic, in six books, on the wars of York 
 •nd Lancaster ; it contains many stanzas in his best style, uniting 
 much grace of language with sweetneBs of thought. Daniel partly 
 conformed to the fashion then prevailing, which consisted in a mode 
 of expression termed euphuism, so well known by the specimen given 
 in ' Kenil worth ; ' but a perusal of his works will show that, of the 
 numerous Latinised words which the revival of learning introduced 
 into our tongue, his good taste prompted him to choose, with very 
 few exceptions, those which are at present in use ; that is, he only 
 admitted those which were really necessary to complete the language. 
 The poem next in length is ' Musophilus,' a dialogue between 
 Musophilus and Philocosmus. It is, we think, his masterpiece both 
 in thought and execution ; the somewhat irregular terza-rima in 
 which it is written seems well adapted for a union of sweetness and 
 continuity of thought. The other poems contained in the edition of 
 1602 are, 'A Letter from Octavia to Mark Antony, which shows to a 
 striking extent that faculty peculiar to a true poet, which has been 
 called " dramatic power," but which would perhaps be better under- 
 stood by the words "power of identification," by which the poet 
 speaks naturally in any character ; ' The Tragedy of Cleopatra,' in 
 alternate rhymes, with chornsses on the antique model ; and ' The 
 Complaint of Rosamond,' who speaks from the infernal regions, but is 
 little encumbered by classical imagery after the first few sentences. 
 1 The Complaint ' is written in a seven-line stanza, of which the first 
 and third, the second, fourth, and fifth, and the two last, rhyme; 
 and contains much beautiful description as well as tender thought, 
 introducing sensuous imagery without the least approach to indelicacy 
 or impurity; indeed the whole character of his poems quite justifies 
 the somewhat quaint assertion of old Fuller that " he carried in his 
 Christian and surname two holy prophets, his monitors, so to qualify 
 his raptures that he abhorred all profaneness." Besides these poems, 
 are fifty-s-even sonnets to Delia, several masques, odes, and epistles. His 
 prose works are, ' A History of England, in two parts, extending to 
 the reign of Edward III.,' and 'An Apology for Rhyme,' which last 
 shows a close acquaintance with the rules and niceties of his art, and 
 contains several remarks on rhythm, interesting in illustration of the 
 change in pronunciation which had taken place since Chaucer. On 
 the whole, whether as a poet or a prose writer, Daniel has been most 
 undeservedly neglected. 
 
 DANIELL. William Daniell, RA., painter and engraver, was 
 born in 1769, and at the age of fourteen accompanied his uncle, 
 Thomas Darnell, to India. They commenced their journey at Cape 
 Comorin, and explored and sketched almost everything that was 
 beautiful or interesting in the country between that point and Serina- 
 gur in the Himalaya Mountains : this arduous undertaking employed 
 them ten years. They took an amazing number of sketches, many of 
 which they afterwards engraved and published in a large form, com- 
 prised in one great work entitled ' Oriental Scenery,' in 6 vols, folio, 
 completed in 1808. Five of these six volumes were engraved by or 
 under the direction of William ; the remaining volume, containing 
 the ' Caves of Ellora,' was executed by Thomas from drawings by 
 James Wales. Besides the above work, William Daniell engraved 
 and published, between 1801 and 1814, the following works:— 'A 
 Picturesque Voyage to India ; ' ' Zoography,' in conjunction with 
 Mr. W. Wood; 'Animated Nature,' 2 vols.; a series of views entitled 
 ' The Docks; ' and * The Hunchback,' after R. Smiike, R.A. Between 
 1814 and 1825 he was chiefly engaged in a work of extraordinary 
 labour, entitled ' Voyage round Great Britain.' In this arduous under- 
 taking he spent the summer of every year, collecting drawings and 
 
 making notes. The difficulties he met with in prosecuting this plan 
 were extreme, and had it not been for the cheering influence of ths 
 hospitable reception which he occasionally experienced from persons 
 to whom he had letters of introduction, the accomplishment of his 
 task would have been impossible : "immense fatigue, exposure to 
 weather of all kinds, wretched fare, and still more wretched accommo- 
 dation, were his constant attendants." 
 
 Besides those works, Daniell painted many large and interesting 
 oil-pictures of remarkable places or scenes in India. In 1832 he 
 painted, in conjunction with Mr. Paris, a panorama of Madras; and, 
 more recently, two others by himself — ' The City of Lucknow,' and 
 ' The Elephant-Hunt ; ' and he was the chief contributor to the 
 ' Oriental Annual.' His style of colouring was rather hard and red, 
 which aross perhaps from the climate of India and the peculiar nature 
 of its scenery. He died August 16, 1837. 
 
 Thomas Daniell was likewise a member of the Royal Academy, and 
 a veryable landscape-painter and engraver; he was originally a heraldry 
 painter. He published some works on India besides that already 
 mentioned. He was a fellow of the Royal, of the Asiatic, and of the 
 Antiquarian societies. He was born in 1749 and died in 1840. 
 Another member of this family, Samuel Daniell, also distinguished 
 himself by some similar works. He spent three years at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and published, in 1808, some prints descriptive of the 
 scenery, habitations, costume, and character of the natives, and an 
 account of the animals of Southern Africa. He published also, in 
 1808, illustrations of the scenery, animals, and native inhabitants of 
 the island of Ceylon. 
 
 DANIELL, JOHN FREDERICK, was born in Essex-street, Strand, 
 on the 12th of March 1790, and was the son of Mr. George Daniell, of 
 West Humble, Surrey, bencher of the Middle Temple. At an early 
 age he became a pupil of Professor Brande, in whose society he made 
 several tours. Mr. Daniell entered originally into business as a sugar- 
 refiner, but his fondness for scientific investigations, manifested at a 
 very early age, prevailed, and he soon relinquished business for pur- 
 suits more congenial to his taste. In 1814 he became a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. In 1816, associated with Professor Brande, he com- 
 menced the ' Quarterly Journal of Science and Art,' the first twenty 
 volumes of which were published under their joint superintendence. 
 He married in the following year Charlotte, youngest daughter of the 
 late Sir W. Rule, surveyor of the navy. From this time to his death 
 hardly a single year elapsed without the appearance of one or more 
 essays on chemical or meteorological subjects from the pen of Mr. 
 Daniell. In 1820 he published the account of his new hydrometer, an 
 instrument which, for the first time, rendered regular and accurate 
 observations on the dryness and moisture of the air practicable. In 
 this instrument he applied the principle of the cryophorus of Wollas- 
 ton to obtain the requisite cold for the production of dew upon a ball 
 of dark-coloured glass containing ether. The temperature of the 
 inclosed ether is measured by a delicate thermometer without the 
 bulb, and corresponds with the dew-point. This instrument has been 
 extensively employed in all climates, and has been of the greatest 
 service to meteorology. In 1823 appeared his great work, 'Meteoro- 
 logical Essays;' a second edition was published in 1827, and he was 
 engaged in revising proofg of the third edition at the time of his 
 death. This was the first synthetic attempt to explain the general 
 principles of meteorology by the known laws which regulate the 
 temperature and constitution of gases and vapours, and in which the 
 scattered observations and isolated phenomena presented by the 
 earth's atmosphere were considered in their most extensive and general 
 bearings. One of the most interesting of his theories conuected with 
 meteorology was that which he proposed to account for the horary 
 oscillations or periodic daily rise and fall of the barometer, by which 
 he predicted the occurrence of a fall near the poles coincident with 
 the rise at the equator. Actual observations soon confirmed the 
 accuracy of his theory, and the existence of this unsuspected 
 phenomenon was established beyond dispute. In the year 1S24 he 
 published an ' Essay on Artificial Climate,' for which he received the 
 silver medal of the Horticultural Society. Dr. Lindley has expressed 
 a strong opinion on the practical value of this paper in completely 
 revolutionising the methods of horticulture till then adopted. 
 
 About this period Mr. Daniell became managing director to the 
 Continental Gas Company, and travelled through most of the principal 
 European cities with Sir W. Congreve and Colonel Landmann, making 
 the arrangements by which many of them are lighted at the present 
 day. He also invented a new process for obtaining inflammable gas 
 from resin, which was successfully applied to the lighting of some of 
 the large towns in America. 
 
 On the establishment of King's College in 1831, Mr. Daniell was 
 appointed professor of chemistry, the duties of which office he dis- 
 charged till his death. About this time he published the account of 
 his new pyrometer, an instrument far superior to any that had been 
 invented, for measuring high temperatures, such as those for fusing 
 metals, furnaces, &c. For this simple and perfect invention, the 
 Royal Society, in 1832, awarded him the Rumford medaL From this 
 time his attention seems to have been principally devoted to voltaic 
 electricity. In 1836 he communicated to the Royal Society a paper 
 in which he described his valuable improvement in the voltaic battery. 
 In this communication he traced the cause of the rapid decline of 
 
m DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH. 
 
 DANTAN, JEAN PIERRE. 
 
 (KM 
 
 power in batteries of the ordinary description, aud pointed out an 
 arrangement by which a powerful and continuous current of voltaic 
 electricity may be maintained for an unlimited period. The import- 
 ance of this discovery was recognised immediately by the whole 
 scientific world, and in appreciation of its merit, the Royal Society, in 
 1837, awarded him the Copley medaL In 1839 he published his 
 ' Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,' an admirable treatise on the 
 action of molecular forces in general, though it modestly professes to 
 give little more than a simple introduction to the discoveries of 
 Faraday, and their applications to chemistry. He continued his 
 researches in the same department of science till the time of his 
 decease, communicating the results of his experiments to the Royal 
 Society. For two of these papers, bearing most essentially on the 
 theory of salts, he received, in 1842, one of the Royal medals. 
 
 In 1843 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary 
 degree of D.C.L., and in the same year he published the second edition 
 of his ' Introduction to Chemical Philosophy.' For more than thirty 
 years lie was a zealous and active member of the Royal Society, aud 
 for the last six years he held the honourable office of foreign secretary 
 to that learned body. Besides his professorship in King's College, he 
 held the post of lecturer to the East India Company's military 
 seminary at Addiscombe, and was examiner in chemistry to the 
 University of London since the opening of that institution. 
 
 On the 13th of March 1845 Mr. Daniell, while attending a meeting 
 of the council of the Royal Society, and having just spoken on a point 
 under consideration, apparently in perfect health, was seized with an 
 apoplectic fit. In five minutes from the commencement of the attack 
 he was dead. A subscription was formed at King's College for the 
 purpose of having a bust executed, and for the establishment, in 
 connection with the college, of a Daniell Scholarship in the science of 
 which he was so distinguished an ornament. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, as illustrating the extent and diversity of 
 his attainments, and the importance of his discoveries, that he is the 
 only individual on whom all the three medals in the gift of the Royal 
 Society were ever bestowed. The following is a list of his most 
 important essays, with their dates: — 1816, 'On some Phenomena 
 attending the process of solution,' in ' Quarterly Journal of Science,' 
 vol. i. 1817, 'On the mechanical structure of iron, developed by 
 solution, and on the combination of silex in cast-iron,' ditto, vol. ii. 
 1818, 1 Observations on the theory of spherical atoms, and the relation 
 which it bears to the forms of certain minerals,' ditto, vol. iv. 1818, 
 ' On the strata of a remarkable chalk found in the vicinity of Brighton 
 and Nottingham,' ditto, vol. iv. 1819, 'On the Formation and 
 Decomposition of Sugar, and the Artificial Production of Crystallised 
 Carbonate of Lime,' ditto, vol. iv. 1819, 'On the Acid formed in the 
 slow Combustion of Ether,' ditto, vol. vi. 1820, ' On a new Hygro- 
 meter,' ditto, vol. viii. 1821, ' Description of a new Pyrometer,' ditto, 
 vol. xi. 1821, ' Experiments to ascertain the effects of the great 
 Eclipse in September, 1820.' 'On the Gaseous and Aqueous Atmo- 
 spheres,' ditto, vol. x. 1822, 'Inquiry, with Experiments, into the 
 Nature of the Products of the slow Combustion of Ether,' ditto, 
 vol. xii. 1822, 'Comparative Remarks (with three table*) on the 
 Weather, and Seasons of the years 1819, 1820, and 1821,' ditto, vol xii. 
 1822, "On the Correction to be applied iu Barometrical Mensuration 
 for the Effects of Atmospheric Vapours by means of the Hygrometer,' 
 ditto, vol. xiii. 1823, 'Meteorological Essays,' first edition, the second 
 edition was published in 1827. 1824, ' Essay on Climate considered 
 with regard to Horticulture,' in 'Horticultural Transactions,' 1821. 
 1825, 'Observations and Experiments of Evaporation,' in 'Q. J. of 
 Science,' xvii. 1825, 'On the Horary Oscillation of the Barometer,' 
 ib. xvii. 1825, ' Observations on the Radiation of Heat in the Atmo- 
 sphere,' ib. xvii. 1826, Two papers ' On the Barometer,' followed by 
 Correspondences, ' Q. j. of Sc.,' vols. xix. and xxi. 1830, ' On certain 
 Phenomena resulting from the Action of Mercury on different Metals,' 
 in 'Royal Institution Journal,' vol. i. 1830, 'On a New Register 
 Pyrometer for measuring the Expansion of SoliHs,and for determining 
 the higher degrees of Temperature upon the Common Thermometric 
 Scale,' 'Phil. Trans.,* 1830. 1831, 'On the Relation between the 
 Polyhedral and Spheroidal Theories of Crystallization, and the Con- 
 nexion of the latter with the Experiments of Professor Mitscherlich,' 
 in 'Royal Institution Journal,' vol. ii. 1831, ' Further Experiments 
 on a New Register Pyrometer for measuring the Expansion of Solids,' 
 in ' Phil. Trans.' 1831. 1832, ' On the Water Barometer erected in the 
 Hall of the Royal Society,' in 'Phil. Trans.,' 1832. Several papers 
 ' On Voltaic Combinations (the Constant Battery),' in ' Phil. Trans.,' 
 1836, 1839, and 1842. 1839, ' Introduction to Chemical Philosophy; ' 
 2nd ed., 1844. Three letters ' On the Electrolysis of Secondary 
 Compounds,' 1839, 1840, and 1844. 1841, On the Spontaneous 
 Fvolution of Sulphuretted Hydrogen in the Waters of the Western 
 Coast of Africa, and of other Localities,' in ' PhiL Mag.,' vol. xix. 
 
 DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINKICH, was born at Stutgardt, 
 Oct. 15, 1768. His father was a groom employed in the stables of the 
 Duke Karl of Wurtemberg, at Stutgardt, where his particular business 
 was with the mules ; and young Dannecker was brought up in a very 
 tumble manner. In 1764 his father was removed to Ludwigsburg, 
 and here Dannecker, though then only six years of age, evinced signs 
 ■of that talent for art for which he was afterwards so eminently dis- 
 vtinguished. His first essays were flowers and soldiers, which he drew 
 
 on any scrap of paper that came into his hands, or he scratched the a 
 upon stones. In 1771, in his fourteenth year, Dannecker entered, by 
 the duke's desire, but against his father's wish, the school established 
 at Ludwigsburg for the education of the children of the court-servants. 
 He was first placed in the dancing-school, in which he met with four 
 fellow-pupils who became the most celebrated of his countrymen in 
 their respective lines — the sculptor Sheffauer, the engraver J. G. 
 Muller, the musician Zumsteeg, and the poet Schiller. He mad* such 
 progresss in drawing in two years as to be removed from the dancing- 
 school and placed in the school of plastic design, under direction of 
 the sculptors Bauer and Le Jeune, the modeller Sonnenschein, and the 
 painters Harper and Quibal. In this school he remained three years, 
 when, in 1780, in his eighteenth year, he obtained the prize for the 
 best model of Milo of Croton destroyed by the lion ; upon which he 
 was appointed sculptor to the duke, with a salary of 300 florins per 
 annum. In 1783 he went with Scheffauer on foot to Paris, and there 
 studied under Pajou ; after a two years' stay in Paris, the two friends 
 departed together, again on foot, for Rome, where Dannecker remained 
 until 1790, and contracted a friendship there with Herder, Gothe, and 
 Canova. A ' Ceres and Bacchus ' which he executed in Rome were 
 Dannecker's first works in marble: they are now in the palaco at 
 Stutgardt. 
 
 After 1790 Dannecker lived, with the exception of a few short 
 intervals, wholly at Stutgardt ; three of these intervals were occasioned 
 — by a visit to Paris, to view the works of art collected together by 
 Napoleon ; by a visit to Zurich to model the bust of Lavater ; and by 
 another to Vienna, in the time of the congress in 1815, to model the 
 bust of Metternich. He was professor of sculpture, and director of the 
 School of Art, at Stutgardt; and inspector of the Royal Gallery of 
 Ludwigsburg. He was offered in 1808 the professorship of sculpture 
 in the Academy of Munich, which he declined. He died on the 8th of 
 December 1841. 
 
 Dannecker's works are chiefly executed in the round; there are few 
 bas-reliefs by him, but those few are excellent : a predilection also for 
 representing the female figure is a characteristic of his taste. He w,is 
 likewise excellent in portraiture ; he had a strong perception of indi- 
 viduality of character, and great facility in expressing it. His works 
 however, during the course of his long career, evince the prevalence of 
 a various taste in design in three different periods. At first his work* 
 were not marked by any particular originality of thought or excellence 
 of design, but were conceived and executed in the spirit of such works 
 as he had access to in Wurtemberg or at Paris, and were in the taste 
 of the French school. In Rome other styles were revealed to him, 
 both in the works of Canova and in the antique, and his own works in 
 a few years were characterised by a strong expression of the ideal, 
 especially in the female form. The following works are eminently dis- 
 tinguished in this respect: — 'Mourning Friendship,' executed in 1804 
 for the monument raised by Frederic, king of Wurtemberg, to bis 
 minister, Count Zeppelin, at Ludwigsburg ; the ' Ariadne reclining on 
 a Leopard,' in the garden of M. Bethmann at Frankfurt; and 'Cupid 
 and Psyche ' in the royal villa of Rosenstein near Stutgardt. His later 
 works were more ideal in character than in form, and his object was 
 to personify religious resignation. Of these his figures of Christ, John 
 the Baptist, and Faith, are the most celebrated. His male figures 
 however are effeminate, arrd in his Christ, meekness, more peculiarly a 
 female quality, is the predominant sentiment. 
 
 Dannecker's greatest excellence was iu his busts ; he has left many 
 interesting monuments in this branch of art, and foremost among them 
 are the small and colossal busts of Schiller; the busts of Lavater, 
 Gluck, the kings Frederic and William of Wiirtemberg, and other 
 members of the royal family, and the medallions of Haug and J ung 
 Stilling. 
 
 Dannecker ranks as* one of the best of the modern sculptors, and his 
 great merit seems to consist in a proper perception and representation 
 of the finer and more gentle qualities of the soul, and of the more 
 delicate characteristics of the human frame. His forms are true to 
 nature, but uniform in character; and the sphere of his art is very 
 circumscribed. Dannecker never attempted, or at least never accom- 
 plished, the representation of manly vigour or robust masculine 
 beauty ; in the female figure however he was natural, graceful, and 
 unaffected ; but in his draperies he was frequently untrue. Instead 
 of the natural and elegant folds which loose draperies assume on the 
 human figure, he gave way to the conventional affectation of showing 
 the exact form of the body beneath the draperies, as if they were wet, 
 and adhered to it ; producing an effect by no means beautiful, and, 
 except when blown by the wind, unnatural ; and in this case the parts 
 not attached to the body must show a corresponding action. 
 
 An account of the life and works of Dannecker was published at 
 Hamburg in 1841, with 25 lithographic prints of his principal works, 
 from drawings by his pupil Wagner, likewise a celebrated sculptor. 
 There is also a notice of Dannecker in the first and second numbers of 
 the Kunstblatt for 1842. 
 
 * DANTAN, JEAN PIERRE, a French sculptor, who has acquired a 
 somewhat peculiar kind of celebrity. He was born at Paris, December 
 28, 1800 ; and received his professional training, first, in the studio of 
 his father, Antoine Laurent Dantan, a Bculptor of high standing, who 
 is still living, and subsequently under Bosio. The young Dantan firs* 
 became known by his busts and portrait statues, which were admired 
 
DANTE, ALIGHIERL 
 
 for thair fidelity, and thought to promise for the artist a high position 
 as a portrait sculptor. But giving way to a strong inclination to 
 caricature, he about 1831 caught the fancy of the Parisian public by 
 issuing in quick succession a series of grotesque statuettes of the 
 leading celebrities of the capital. These ' charges,' as they were called, 
 were in fact something quite new in the world of art ; and they were 
 as clever as they were novel. Dantan seized the leading features of 
 the face and exaggerated and distorted them with singular ingenuity, 
 yet always so as to refrain from rendering the person caricatured in 
 any way ridiculous, whilst the likeness and every peculiarity of expres- 
 sion seemed brought out with a greatly increased force by this good- 
 humoured heightening. But Dantan, instead of confining his caricature 
 to the face like ordinary caricaturists, placed the head on a diminutive 
 body, which seemed at fir>t glance mainly to serve as a pedestal, but 
 in which, and especially in the hands, the characteristic expression 
 was contiuued and strengthened with the most amusing absurdity. 
 No wonder that works of this kind, executed with the mastery of a 
 finished artist, and bringing out with ludicrous vehemence the well- 
 remembered expression and habit of each 'lion of the hour,' should 
 become excessively popular with a race who, whilst almost worshipping 
 the ruling favourite, of all things enjoys best a laugh at his expense. 
 Soon casts from Dantan' s 'charges' of Victor Hugo, Dumas, and many 
 other well-known writers, of Horace Vernet and other artists, of 
 Talleyrand and other statesmen, and especially of Pagauini, Berton, 
 Musard, Lablache, Tamburini, Rubini, Thalberg, aud many more 
 musicians and singers, and of Bouffe', Frederick Lemaitre, and other 
 actors in their most popular characters, were in every window, and 
 some one or other in almost every house; and it may be doubted 
 whether many of these men do not still, when they recur to the 
 memory of the majority of Frenchmen, assume the shape of their 
 Dantanesque ' charges.' Having thus secured the features of the world 
 of Paris M. Dantan determined to do the same kind office for that of 
 London ; and a ludicrous series of British heads — including Wellington 
 and Brougham, O'Connell and Cobbett, Rogers and Rothschild —were 
 the result of his visit to this country : but happily as he caught aud 
 enlarged 'with thrice-piled hyperbole' some of the more strongly- 
 marked physiognomies, he hardly found himself thoroughly at home 
 with our countrymen. M. Dantan has during the last few years 
 executed several marble busts of various eminent persons, free from 
 all tendency to caricature, but admirable as likeuesses. 
 
 DA\NTE or DURANTE, ALIGHIE'RI, was born at Florence on 
 the 8th of May 1265. By a familiar contraction of his Christian 
 name, Durante, he was called Dante, by which name he has become 
 generally known. His family was noble ; he was a great grandson of 
 Cacciaguida Elisei, who married a lady of the family of Alighieri of 
 Ferrara, and whose children assumed the arms and the name of their 
 mother. Cacciaguida accompanied the Einueror Conrad III. in his 
 crusade, was made a knight, and died in battle in Syria in 1147; 
 ('Paradiso,' cantos 15, 16, and 17, in which Cacciaguida is made to 
 relate to Dante his adventures, with an interesting account of the 
 state of Florence and the primitive manners of its citizens in his time, 
 before the breaking out of the great feud between the Guelphs and the 
 Qhibelines). Dante's father, Aldighiero Alighieri, died while Dante 
 was yet a child. As Dante grew up he showed great capabilities for 
 learning, in which he was assisted by Brunetto Latini, a celebrated 
 scholar of the time. He became also intimate with Guido Cavalcanti, 
 a young man of an inqui-itive and philosophical turn of mind. It is 
 asserted by some that Dante stu>licd at Bologna, though this is not 
 clearly ascertained ; it is however evident from his works that he had 
 deeply read and was imbued with all the learning of that age. By his 
 own account he seems to have led rather a licentious life until he fell 
 in love with Beatrice Portinari, of an illustrious family of Florence. 
 His attachment however appears to have been purely piatonic, but it 
 served to purify his sentiments ; the lady herself died about 1290, 
 when Dante was 25 years of age, but he continued to cherish her 
 memory, if we are to judge from his poems, to the latest period of his 
 life. It must have been about or a little before the time of Beatrice's 
 death that he wrote his ' Vita Nuova,' which is a series of canzoni 
 intermixed with prose, in which he sptaks of his love in a spiritual 
 and piatonic strain, and of the change it produced in him, which was 
 the beginning of his " new life." 
 
 The party of the Guelphs was at that time predominant at Florence, 
 haviug some years before driven away the Ghibeliues with the 
 assistance of the pope and of Charles of Anjou, king of Naples. But 
 in the neighbouring city of Arezzo the contrary had occurred ; the 
 Qhibelines, with the bishop at their head, being the stronger party, 
 had turned the Guelphs out of the town. The tiuelphs of Arezzo 
 applied to those of Florence for assistance. This led to a war between 
 Florence and Arezzo, in which the Qhibelines of the latter place were 
 defeated at Campoldino in June 1289, when their bishop was killed. 
 Dante was present at this engagement, and soon after his return to 
 Florence he married Qemma Douati, of a powerful Guelph family. He 
 now became a candidate for civic honours and offices. The citizens of 
 Florence were classed into three ranks:— 1st, graudi, or old families, 
 formerly feudal nobles, many of whom had still feudal estates in 
 various parts of the country, though in the town they enjoyed by law 
 no exclusive privilege; 2nd, popolani grassi, or substantial citizens, 
 men who had risen by trade, and many of whom were wealthier than 
 
 DANTE. ALIGHIERI. 
 
 the nobles; 3rd, piccioli, or inferior tradespeople, artisans, &c. The 
 two last classes, weary of disturbances created by faction, and being 
 directed by some well-meaning men, among whom was Dino Compagni 
 the chronicler, who is the safest guide through this part of Florentine 
 history, had made a law in 1282 by which the citizens being classed 
 according to their trades, the higher trades, " arti maggiori," chose six 
 priori, or aldermen, one for each district of the city, who were called 
 also "iBignori" and constituted the executive. They were renewed 
 every two months. No one could aspire to office who had not his name 
 inscribed on the register of one of the trades. Dante enrolled his 
 name on the register of physicians and apothecaries, though he never 
 exercised that profession. 
 
 The institution of the priori did not prevent the town being distracted 
 by factions as before, as those magistrates often availed themselves of 
 their brief term of office to favour their friends and court favour with 
 the wealthier citizens. To remedy this, the popular party, led by 
 Giano della Bella, in 1293 elected a new officer, called Gonfulouiere di 
 Giustizia, who was to enforce order aud justice, and gave him a guard 
 of 1000 soldiers : they also excluded for ever thirty-three families of 
 the grandi, or nobles, from political office. But a conspiracy of the 
 wealthy families drove away Giano della Bella and his adherents in 
 1294, and the town again fell a prey to factions. Two powerful 
 families, the Donati and the Cerchi, were at the head of the contending 
 parties, and affrays between their respective partisans occurred repeat- 
 edly in the streets of Florence. Both were Guelphs, but the Cerchi 
 were suspected of a bias in favour of the Qhibelines, because they were 
 less rigorous in enforcing the penal laws against the latter; and they 
 had also for them the friends of the unjustly-expelled Giano della 
 Bella. The pope, Boniface VIII., favoured the Donati as being zealous 
 Guelphs. About this time the town of Pistoia was likewise divided 
 between two factions, called Bianchi and Neri, which originated with 
 two branches of the family of Cancellieri. The Florentines being 
 applied to as arbitrators, several of the more violent partisans were 
 exiled from Pistoia, and came to Florence, where the Bianchi became 
 connected with the Cerchi and the Neri with the Donati, and from 
 these connections the two Florentine parties assumed the respective 
 names of Bianchi and Neri. Both, as we have said above, were branches 
 of the great Guelph party then predominant at Florence; but after- 
 wards the Bianchi in their reverses joined the Ghibeliues, with whom 
 they have been often confounded by subsequent writers. It is necessary 
 to bear these things in mind, in order to understand the history aud 
 the political sentiments of Dante. Dante was a Guelph, and connected 
 by marriage with the Donati, the leaders of the Neri. But he was 
 also connected by personal friendship, and perhaps also by a feeling of 
 equity, with the Bianchi, who appear to have shown themselves from 
 the first less overbearing and violent than their antagonists, and to 
 have been in fact the injured party. Dante being made one of the 
 priori iu June of the year 1300, proposed and carried a law by which 
 the chiefs of both parties were exiled for a time out of the territory 
 of the republic. The Bianchi were sent to Sarzana, and the Neri to 
 Castel della Pieve. Some of the Bianchi however soon after returned 
 to Florence, and Dante was accused of having connived at it, chiefly 
 out of friendship for Guido Cavalcanti, who had suffered from the 
 unwholesome climate of Sarzana, and died soon after his return. 
 The Neri, by their agents at Rome, represented to Boniface VIII. 
 that the Bianchi kept up a communication with the Ghibelines of 
 Arezzo, Pisa, and other places, and that if they obtained the pre- 
 ponderance in Florence, they would make common cause with the 
 Colonna, the pope's personal enemies. [Boniface VIII.J Through 
 these suggestions, aided by bribes distributed by the Neri at the 
 Roman court, as Dino says, Boniface was induced to give his support 
 to the Neri, and he sent them Charles de Valois, brother of Philippe 
 le Bel, under the plausible title of peace-maker. 'Charles entered 
 Florence in November 1301, followed by 1200 armed men. Affecting 
 impartiality at first, he let all the Neri return to Florence, followed 
 by the armed peasantry; new priori were made, all favourable to the 
 Neri, and the Bianchi began to be openly attacked in the streets. 
 The Medici, who were already an influential family among the 
 people, killed one of the Bianchi, and no notice was taken of the 
 murder. A general proscription of the Bianchi now began, connived 
 at by the peace-maker, Charles de Valois. " People were murdered in 
 the streets ; others were dragged into the houses of their enemies, 
 where they were put to the torture in order to extort money from 
 them, their houses were plundered and burnt, their daughters were 
 carried away by force ; and when some large house was seen in flames, 
 Charles used to ask, ' What fire is that ? ' aud those around him 
 answered him that it was some wretched hovel, whilst in reality it 
 was a rich palace." (Dino, ' Cronica,' lib. ii.) The house of Dante 
 was one of those that were plundered. Dante was at the time at 
 Rome, whither he had been sent by the Bianchi to counteract, if 
 possible, the suggestions of their antagonists. On hearing the news 
 of the proscription he hastily left Rome, and joined his fugitive 
 friends at Arezzo. In January 1302, a sentence was passed con- 
 demning him to two years' exile and a fine of 8000 florins, and in 
 case of non-payment his property to be sequestrated. By a second 
 sentence, dated March of the same year, he and others were con- 
 demned, as barattieri, or guilty of malversation, peculation, and usury, 
 to be burnt alive. The sentence was grounded merely on the public 
 
£03 DANTE, ALIGHIERI. 
 
 report of his guilt, " fama publica," which in this case meant the 
 report of his enemies. This curious document was found in the 
 archives of Florence in the last century, and has been transcribed by 
 Tiraboschi, ' Storia della Letteratura,' torn, v., part 2, cap. 2. Dante 
 now began his wanderings, renouncing his Guelph connections, and 
 intent upon exciting the Ghibelines of Italy against his enemies and 
 the oppressors of his country. He appears to have repaired first to 
 Verona, which was then ruled by the family of La Scala, powerful 
 leaders among the Ghibelines. But he soon after returned to 
 Tuscany, where the Biancbi and Ghibelines now united were gathering 
 their strength in the neighbourhood of Arezzo. 
 
 The death of Boniface VIII. in September 1303 inspired them with 
 fresh hopes. Benedict XL, the new pope, a man of a mild and concili- 
 atory spirit, sent Cardinal de Prato to endeavour to restore peace in 
 Tuscany, but the cardinal was opposed by the ruling faction at Flo- 
 rence, who frightened him out of the town. Florence was left a prey 
 to anarchy, during which a fire broke out which destroyed 1900 houses 
 in June 1304. The Biancbi and Ghibelines thought of availing them- 
 Belvi s of the confusion to surprise the town ; and some of them actually 
 entered one of the gates, but they were badly supported by those 
 outside, and the attempt totally failed. Dante (' Purgatorio,' xvii.) 
 censures the want of prudence and concord in the leaders on that 
 occasion. He seems soon after to have left them in disgust, deter- 
 mined to regulate himself in future according to his own judgment. 
 He says himself that " it was difficult to say which of the two contend- 
 ing parties was most in the wrong." (' Paradiso,' vi. 102.) Dante 
 appears to have been at Padua about 1306, and in the following year 
 with the Malaspina, the lords of Lunigiana; he was also at times in 
 the valleys of Casentino, and in the mountains near Arezzo ; some say 
 he went afterwards to Paris, and remained there some years ; others 
 believe that he did not go to France until after the death of Henry VII. 
 in 1313. But his visit to Paris is very doubtful ; though in canto x. 
 of the ' Paradiso,' he speaks of a certain Sigieri, professor of that 
 university, and designates the street in which he lived. 
 
 Dante made also an attempt to obtain the revocation of his own 
 sentence by writing to his countrymen a pathetic letter beginning 
 with the words — " Popule mee, quid feci tibi 1 " but all to no purpose. 
 The family of Adimari, who had taken possession of his property, 
 opposed his return. Accordingly, in canto xvi. of the ' Paradiso,' he 
 has lauuehed a violent invective against them. 
 
 The election of Henry of Luxemburg, or Henry VII., to the crown 
 of Germany, revived the hopes of Dante, as Henry was preparing to 
 come to Italy in order to assert the long-neglected rights of his prede- 
 cessors as kings of the Romans. The Ghibeline leaders were ready to 
 support his claims as imperial vicars, and the Ghibeline cities, suoh as 
 Pisa, were likewise in his favour. In order to strengthen their zeal, 
 Dante, about 1310, addressed a circular letter "to the kings, dukes, 
 marquises, counts, the senators of Rome, and all the people of Italy, 
 congratulating them on the prospect of happiness for Italy through 
 the ministry of the pious Henry, who will punish the felons who 
 opposed him and bestow mercy on the repentant," &c. It was about 
 this time that he wrote his book 'de Monarchia,' which may be con- 
 sidered as a profession of Ghibeline political faith : it asserts the 
 rights of the emperors, as successors of the Caesars, to the supreme 
 temporal power, entirely independent of the popes, who are the 
 spiritual heads of the church. This creed was in opposition to the 
 assumed rights of Gregory VII., Innocent III., and other pontiffs, who 
 pretended to be above all crowned heads, and to have the disposal of 
 thrones and principalities, an assumption which the Guelphs favoured 
 in Italy in order to keep themselves free of the imperial authority. 
 Both parties in fact acknowledged an external superior, although both 
 wished to rule in their respective communities with as little sub- 
 serviency as possible to the nominal supremacy of either pope or 
 emperor. But there was this difference, that the imperial, or Ghibe- 
 line party, was mostly supported by the nobles, especially of North 
 Italy, who styled themselves vicars of the emperor, and was therefore 
 more aristocratic in its spirit, while the Guelphs of Tuscany looked 
 upon the pope chiefly as an auxiliary in time of need, whose temporal 
 interference was less direct, and could be more easily evaded than that 
 of the emperor, so as to admit of a more popular or democratic spirit 
 in their institutions. Such at least was the theory of the two parties, 
 for in reality the Guelph or popular families formed an aristocracy of 
 wealth as much as the Ghibelines were an aristocracy of birth and 
 rank. DaDte, in his book, ' de Monarchia,' is no servile advocate for 
 despotism, for he maintains that sovereigns are made to promote the 
 good of their subjects, and not subjects to serve the ambitious pleasure 
 of their sovereigns. The latter are to rule so as to Boothe the way- 
 ward passions of men, in order that all may live in peace and brotherly 
 feeling. But still he derives their authority from God, and he quotes 
 in support of his system, Aristotle, the Scriptures, and the Roman 
 History, agreeably to the scholastic logic of his times. This book ' de 
 Monarchia ' was burnt at Bologna by order of the papal legate after 
 Dante's death. 
 
 Henry VII. came to Italy in 1310, was crowned at Milan as king of 
 Lombardy, and the following year he besieged Cremona, Brescia, and 
 other places. It was about this time that Dante, impatient to see the 
 emperor come into Tuscany to put down the Guelphs, addressed to 
 hira an epistle which begins thu<i :— ' Sanctissimo triumphatori et 
 
 DANTE, ALIGHIERI. eoi 
 
 domino singulari, domino Henrico, diviua Providentia Romannrum 
 regi, semper Augusto, devotissimi sui Dantes Aligherius Florentinus 
 et exul iuimeritus, ac universaliter omnes Tusci qui pacem desiderant 
 terra), OBCulantur pedes.' He then entreats the emperor not to tarry 
 any longer on the banks of the Po, but to advance south of the Apen- 
 nines and put down the spirit of Guelph sedition at Florence, against 
 which he inveighs in no moderate terms, and which, he says, strives 
 to predispose against him the mind of the sovereign pontiff. He 
 speaks of Florence as revolting unnaturally against her parent Rome, 
 for Dante always affects to consider Rome as still the seat of the 
 empire, and Rome and the empire are often employed by him at 
 synonyms. This remarkable epistle, of which we had only an Italian 
 version until the Latin text was discovered some thirty years since hi 
 the library of St. Mark, is dated from Tuscia, near the founts of Arno, 
 April, 1311. ('Dautis Allighieri, Epistolas quae extant, cum notis Cai oli 
 Witte,' Fadua, 1827.) Henry came into Tuscany, threatened Florence, 
 but without effect, was crowned at Rome, and on his return died sud- 
 denly at Buonconvento, near Siena, in August, 1313. This was a 
 terrible blow to the hopes of the Ghibelines, and of Dante especially. 
 He now took refuge at Verona, at the court of Cane della Scala, 
 where he appears to have been before, between 1308 and 1310. Cane 
 was hospitable and generous to the Ghibeline emigrants, but Dante, 
 with his proud spirit and temper soured by adversity, could ill 
 accommodate himself to the flattery of courts and the flippancy of 
 courtiers, and he is said to have had some unpleasant bickerings with 
 the people about Cane. 
 
 In a well-known passage of his poem he feelingly deplores the lot of 
 the exile who is constrained to eat the bitter bread of patronage ;— 
 
 " Tu proverai si come si di sale, 
 Lo pane altrui, e com' c duro calle, 
 Lo scendere, e '1 salir per 1' altrui scale." 
 
 ' Paradiso,' canto xvii. 
 
 " Thou shalt prove 
 Eow salt the savour is of other's bread ; 
 How hard the passage, to descend and climb 
 By others' stairs." — Cakt. 
 
 With Cane himself however he seems to have continued on good 
 terms; he speaks very highly of his hospitality in a passage just 
 preceding the above lines, and there is a cordial letter from him to 
 Cane, written probably in the latter years of his life, in which he 
 dedicates to him his ' Paradiso,' the latter part of his great poem, and 
 explains the object of it. He says that he styled it a comedy, because, 
 contrary to the style of tragedy, it begins with sorrow and ends with 
 joy; he distinguishes between the literal and the allegorical sense 
 of his verses, and observes that his poem may be called polysensuum, 
 having many meanings. He tells Cane the title of his work : — 
 ' Incipit Comcedia Dantis Alligherii, Florentini natione non moribus.' 
 But the title of the part which he sends to him with the letter is: — 
 ' Incipit Cantica tertia Comoodiae Dantis quae dicitur Paradisus.' It is 
 evident from this and other circumstances, that Cane had not seea 
 the rest of the poem ; indeed it is not likely that Dante ever commu- 
 nicated the whole of it to any one during his lifetime, as it would 
 have made it impossible for him to have found refuge anywhere, as 
 Foscolo closely argues in his very elaborate and very critical ' Discorso 
 sul testo di Dante,' which is one of the most judicious and scholar-like 
 commentaries on that poem. 
 
 Of Dante's ' Commedia' we cannot enter here into any details, and we 
 must refer the reader to the numerous commentaries, illustratioDB, 
 and translations of it in every language of Europe. It is one of the 
 few works of imagination w hich have stood the test of ages, and which 
 will pass down to the remotest generations. It resembles no other 
 poem ; it is not an epic ; it consists of descriptions, dialogues, and 
 didactic precepts. It is a vision of the realms of eternal punishment, 
 of expiation, and of bliss, in the invisible world beyond death. Its 
 beauties are scattered about with a lavish hand, in the form of 
 episodes, similitudes, vivid descriptions, and above all, sketches of 
 the deep workings of the human heart. It is especially in this last 
 department of poetical painting that Dante excels. Whether he 
 describes the harrowed feelings of the wretched father in Ugolino, or 
 the self-devotedness of the lover in Francesca, or the melting influence 
 of the sound of the evening bell on the mariner and the pilgrim; 
 whether he paints the despair of the reprobate souls gathered together 
 on the banks of Acheron, cursing God and the authors of their being, 
 or the milder sorrow of the repentant, chanting the ' miserere ' along 
 their wearisome way through the regions of purgatory, — he displays 
 his mastery over the human feelings, and his knowledge of those 
 chords that vibrate deepest in the heart of man. No other writer 
 except Shakspere can be compared to Dante in this respect. His 
 touches are few, but they all tell. His power of invective is grand 
 and terrific ; witness his imprecations against Pisa, against Florence, 
 against his enemies, his address to the German, Albert, representing 
 to him the anarchy of Italy, and his repeated denunciations of the 
 vices of the court of Rome. Yet Dante was a sincere Roman 
 Catholic ; in his poem he places the heretics in hell, and Dominic 
 in Paradise ; and manifestly shows everywhere his belief in the 
 dogmas of the Roman church, but he attacks its discipline, or rather 
 the relaxation of its discipline. He urges, like Petrarch and other 
 
DANTON, GEORGE JAMES. 
 
 Catholic writers of that and the following ages, the necessity of 
 a reform ; and, above all, of a total separation of the spiritual from 
 the temporal authority, things generally confounded by the Roman 
 canonists. That many parts of his poem are allegorical is evident, 
 but that the whole poem is an allegory, a political mystification, as 
 some have pretended, seems a far-fetched hypothesis, an ingenious 
 paradox. Dante was a declared enemy to the Guelphs of Florence 
 and their allies, the papal court and the king of France; and he 
 poetically represents these three at the beginning of his poem by the 
 emblems of the panther, the wolf, and the lion ; but soon after he 
 drops all metaphor, and inveighs against all three in the plainest and 
 the bitterest terms, which he would not have done had he meant to 
 be understood only by the adepts of a secret sect. In canto xix. of 
 the ' Paradiso ' he passes in review all the kings of his time, and 
 spares none of them in his reproof ; in another place he has some- 
 tfling to say against almost every one of the Italian cities and 
 populations. In fact Dante never published his whole poem in his 
 lifetime, for he had spoken in it too plainly to be able to publish it in 
 safety. He wrote it out of the fullness of his heart, in detached 
 parts, and at different periods, and his strains were influenced 
 by the various political vicissitudes of the times, and by his own 
 alternate hopes and despondency. About the year 1316 he had still 
 a chance of his recall to Florence. It was suggested to him by a 
 friend whom Dante in his reply calls father, probably because he was 
 a clergyman, that he might return, provided he acknowledged his 
 guilt and asked absolution. His answer was characteristic of his 
 mind : " No, father, this is not the way that shall lead me back to my 
 country. But I shall return with hasty steps if you or any other can 
 open me a way that shall not derogate from the fame and honour of 
 Dante; but if by no such way Florence can be entered, then to 
 Florence I shall never return. Shall I not everywhere enjoy the sight 
 of the sun and stars? May I not seek and contemplate truth 
 anywhere under heaven without rendering myself inglorious, nay 
 infamous, to the people and commonwealth of Florence ? Bread, I 
 hope, will not fail me." (See text and translation of this letter in 
 Foscolo's ' Essays on Petrarch and Dante,' 8vo., 1823, with a sketch 
 of Dante's character.) 
 
 In 1317-18 Dante appears to have been still wandering about Italy. 
 In 1319 he repaired to Guido da Polenta, lord of Ravenna, where he 
 was hospitably received, and where he appears to have remained till 
 his death, which happened 14th September 1321. He was buried in 
 the church of the Minorites. [See Supplement.] Bernardo Bembo, 
 senator of Venice and podesta of Ravenna, raised to him a mausoleum 
 in 1483, which wa3 afterwards repaired in 1692 by Cardinal Corsi, of 
 Florence, and lastly in 1780 reconstructed altogether in its present 
 form by Cardinal Valenti Gonzaga, legate of pope Pius VI. The 
 reproof— 
 
 " Ungrateful Florence I Dante sleeps afar," 
 
 was at last felt by the Florentines ; a subscription was made and a 
 monument wa3 raised to the memory of Dante in the church of Santa 
 Croce, which was opened to public view with great solemnity on the 
 2lth of March 18^0. In 1865-6 the city erected a colossal statue of 
 Dante by Pazzi. 
 
 Of the manner in which the whole manuscript of Dante's poem was 
 found, collected, transcribed, and published after his death by his sons 
 Jacopo and Piero, the early commentaries on the poem, its early 
 printed editions, and the whole bibliographic history of the work, the 
 reader will fiud ample information in Foscolo's ' Discorso sul testo di 
 Dante,' London, 1825; and also in Missirini, 'Rivista delle varie 
 Lezioni della Divina Commedia, e Catalogo delle piu importanti 
 Edizioni,' Padova, 1832. Among the mostjcomplete editions of Dante's 
 poems are : that of Venice, 5 vols. 4to, 1757-58, with ample notes, and 
 including Dante's Life, by Pelli, and his minor poems and prose 
 works; Lombardi's edition, Rome, 3 vols. 4to, 1791; and that of 
 Florence, with illustrative plates, 1819, 4 vols. fol. Among the host 
 of commentaries the one called ' l'Anonimo,' and also ' l'Ottimo,' 
 written by a contemporary of Dante, who was evidently familiar with 
 the poet, has been published for the first time at Leghorn in 3 vols. 
 8vo, 1827. 
 
 Among the numerous translations of the 'Divina Commedia,' in 
 almost every language of Europe, that in English blank verse by Cary, 
 and the English prose version by Dr. J. A. Carlyle, deserve to be 
 mentioned with especial praise. Au Italian translation of Dante's 
 philological treatise, ' De Vulgari Eloquio,' was published by Trissino 
 in 1529; and the Latin text in 1577 : this work has occasioned a very 
 animated controversy between Italian philologists in our days. 
 
 DANTON, GEORGE JAMES, born at Arcis-sur-Aube, October 26, 
 1759, was one of the most remarkable characters among the leaders of 
 the first French Revolution. He was educated for the bar, and was 
 pursuing the peaceful avocation of a king's counsel when the first 
 shocks of the great political earthquake called him upon the revolu- 
 tionary arena. Danton was gifted by nature with those faculties 
 which qualify a man for the dangerous office of a political agitator. 
 He was tall and muscular, his features were harsh and striking, and 
 his voice resembled the roaring of breakers or the growling of the 
 thunder. He was ambitious and bold ; his eloquence, the offspring of 
 an impassioned imagination, though without the charms of rhetorical 
 
 bioo. div. vol. u. 
 
 DANTON, GEORGE JAMES. 608 
 
 elegance and philosophical depth, was overwhelming by its vehemence. 
 His energy, activity, and courage were unboundfd: he seemed to be 
 the very incarnation of the revolutionary spirit. It is no wonder that 
 such a man soon became the leader of popular commotions and the 
 terror of all who dared to oppose him. 
 
 In 1790, supported by the revolutionary club of the Cordeliers, 
 founded by himself, ho presented to Louis XVI. the petition of the 
 forty-eight sections of the town of Paris against the king's ministers, 
 accusing them of having lost the confidence of the nation. In 1791 
 he was elected member of the departmental administration of the 
 Seine. After the imprisonment of Louis at Varennes, he was the 
 prime mover of the popular assemblage of the Champs dc Mars, iu 
 which he called for the dethronement of the king. On the 8th of 
 August 1791, he presented himself before the legislative assembly, 
 and with unprecedented audacity told the representatives of France 
 that their refusal to declare the throne vacant would be the signal for 
 a general insurrection. The fate of Louis was decided, and Danton 
 being elected minister of justice, became the head of that body of sis 
 men who were intrusted with absolute executive power. In this 
 capacity he showed himself blood-thirsty, ambitious, vindictive, and it 
 is said venal ; but he was also courageous and skilful in conducting 
 public affairs at a time when every step was attended with danger. 
 
 When the Prussian army had entered France, and consternation 
 began to spread in all quarters, when the leaders of the republican 
 party were at a loss what to do to avert the impending hurricane, 
 Danton ascended the tribune, and addressing the convention in one of 
 the most impassioned speeches ever uttered by a popular leader, he 
 ended with these eventful words: — " The country is in danger; to 
 avert the crisis one thing only is needful — boldness, incessant boldness, 
 nothing but boldness." These words acted like a spell upon the 
 French nation ; within a few weeks fourteen republican armies stood 
 upon the field of battle, and repelled with unexampled bravery the 
 aggression of the allied forces. 
 
 If Danton had turned his energies only against the enemies of his 
 country, his memory might have passed unsullied to posterity : but 
 he allowed his wild passions to rage against his fellow-citizens; and 
 most of the horrors of the French Revolution, particularly those of 
 the days of September, were originated, supported, or encouraged by 
 him. After the abolition of royalty Danton gave up the office of 
 minister of justice for that of a president in the constituent committee 
 and in that of Public Safety. While discharging these functions he 
 prepared public opinion for the decapitation of the king. When the 
 tribunal whose business it was to pass the sentence of death was 
 sitting, Danton was absent ; but he returned in time to vote for the 
 king's execution. Like Sieyes, he gave no reason for his vote. 
 
 In the meantime the people of Paris, or rather the party which was 
 headed by the clubs of the Jacobins, had chosen another leader, who in 
 his private conduct was the opposite of Danton, and in his political 
 views his most powerful antagonist. This was Robespierre, a man of 
 singular character, who combined with great personal purity and dis- 
 interestedness a stern, profound, uncompromising political character, 
 and the most inveterate malignity towards all who crossed his path or 
 wounded his intense self-love. Danton, though more free in his 
 private life, was kind and generous in temper, frank, unreserved, and 
 unselfish, and if there be truth in the assertion of his enemies that he 
 sought to turn to his own pecuniary advantage the opportunities 
 afforded by his position, it is certain that he could have done so but to 
 a small extent and with little success, for he lived in comparative 
 poverty, and left almost nothing for his family at his death. But there 
 can be little doubt that he was a self-indulgent man, and his manner 
 of life was one likely to be especially offensive to a man of austere 
 habits like Robespierre, who from the first hated as well as envied 
 him. On the other hand, Danton shrunk with something like dread 
 from Robespierre. He had lost his old energy and decision, or could 
 not put them forth in a personal contest. Robespierre was never more 
 thoroughly in earnest. Foreseeing that if he continued in the capital 
 there must come a struggle the issue of which could not in the present 
 state of affairs be doubtful, Danton withdrew from the theatre of 
 political action, stigmatising his rival by the name of " ultra-revo- 
 lutionist." He had married a young wife, and he was easily persuaded 
 by her to seek happiness in domestic privacy. When summoned to 
 give an account of his financial administration, he refused to submit to 
 such examination, unless his five colleagues were also compelled to do 
 the same, and retired to his native place. Efforts were made to bring 
 about a reconciliation between Robespierre and Danton, and the tw» 
 master-spirits of the revolution met, but there was no friendliness on 
 either side. Robespierre reproached Danton with malversation, and 
 Danton retorted by charging Robespierre with his cruelties : and they 
 parted avowed and irreconcileable enemies. The friends of Danton 
 urged him to strike the first blow or to seek safety by flight. He 
 refused both. He knew, he said, that his death was resolved on, but 
 he would neither fly nor turn executioner. He was denounced by 
 St. Just as a traitor before the Comity de Salut Public, and arrested 
 on the night of the 31st of March 1794. He was carried before the 
 Revolutionary Tribunal on the 2nd of April, along with Desmoulins, 
 Chabot, and twelve others of the Dantonists. The trial was of course 
 a mere mockery; Danton spoke loudly, and on the plea that he was 
 endeavouring to excite the populace he was ordered to be silent ; no 
 
507 
 
 D'ARBLAY, MADAME. 
 
 DARGAN, WILLIAM. 
 
 witnesees were called against him, his own witnesses were refused to 
 be heard, and he and all his companions were declared to be guilty. 
 They-were executed on the 5th of April. Danton, only for a moment 
 ehaken by the recollection of his young wife, died with undaunted 
 courage. He belonged to the school of the French materialists, and 
 did not believe in the immortality of the soul. " Soon," said he to the 
 executioner, " I shall fall back into my original nothingness ; yet my 
 name shall live for ever in the pantheon of history." 
 
 D'ARBLAY, MADAME, originally Miss Frances Burney, was born 
 at Lynn-Regis, on the 13th of June 1752, and was the second daughter 
 of Charles Burney, Mus. Doc, the author of the * History of Music,' 
 who was then organist in that town. Her mother, whom she lost 
 when she was about nine years old, was partly of foreign descent, her 
 maternal grandfather having been a French Protestant, who left his 
 native country on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Madame 
 d'Arl lay has given her own account of her early life in her ' Memoirs 
 of her Father.' She there assures us that she was so backward when 
 a child, that at the age of eight she was still ignorant of her letters. 
 By the time that she was ten, nevertheless, she had begun of her own 
 accord to exercise her talents in composition, and she was soon inces- 
 santly busy in scribbling " elegies, odes, plays, songs, stories, farces, 
 nay, tragedies and epic poems "■ — her confidante at this date being her 
 youngest sister Susannah. At fifteen she burned all her early per- 
 formances ; but one of them, the ' History of Caroline Evelyn,' kept 
 possession of her memory and fancy, and gave rise to her conception 
 of a sequel to it in the story of the daughter of her former heroine. 
 This, we are told, was all " pent up in the inventor's memory " before 
 she committed any of it to paper ; she then wrote down two volumes 
 of it in a feigned hand, and employed her brother to offer them to a 
 publisher. Dodsley declined the work as anonymous ; Lowndes, as 
 unfinished Upon this she completed it by dictating to her brother a 
 third volume. Lowndes gave her 20/. for the manuscript; and it was 
 published under the title of 'Evelina, or the History of a Young 
 Lady's Introduction to the World.' The impression left upon the 
 reader by this detailed account is, that ' Evelina ' was written and 
 published no very long time after the burning of the earlier story of 
 ' Caroline Evelyn ; ' and indeed it used to be generally understood, 
 and has been repeatedly stated, that Miss Burney was only about 
 seventeen when this her first novel appeared. The fact is, that it was 
 published in the year 1778, when she was six-and-twenty. She goes 
 on to inform us that it was written and given to the world without 
 the knowledge of any cf her other relations except her sister and her 
 two brothers ; that she merely told her father, who used to employ 
 her as his amanuensis (on which account she had employed the dis- 
 guised hand in writing out the first two volumes), that she was going 
 to print a little book ; that the work had been six months published 
 before he knew that it was hers ; that she sat as a listener with the 
 rest of the family while it was read through at a friend's house, where 
 she was visiting, without her concern in it being suspected ; but that 
 after a little time it began to make a great stir, passing from the 
 favourable criticism of the Monthly Reviewers into the hands of the 
 beautiful Mrs. Bunbury, from her to the Hon. Mrs. Cholmondeley, 
 from her to Reynolds, Burke, Johnson, and Mrs. Thrale. By the time 
 however that it reached these last the authoress was known, and they 
 were her father's intimate friends, and naturally disposed to admire 
 and applaud. They appear in fact to have vied with one another in 
 the enthusiasm with which they extolled the work, and hailed the 
 wonderful genius who had suddenly started up among them. And 
 ' Evelina ' would no doubt have been in some respects a surprising 
 production for a girl in her seventeenth year ; but it is still more sur- 
 prising, upon the whole, as that of a young woman in her twenty-sixth. 
 It is most probable however that it belongs not exactly to either 
 extreme, but, that commenced early, it was revised and completed 
 later ; as there is no doubt of the third volume having been added at 
 the requisition of the publisher— the negociations with the booksellers 
 commencing in 1776. The most striking characteristic of the work is 
 the immaturity of mind which it displays, the girlishness of con- 
 ception that pervades it, the want of the power of penetrating beyond 
 the outside shows and forms of things, the incapacity of appreciating 
 motives and probabilities, the inconsistencies in the construction and 
 movement of the story, and of the conduct at every turn of the per- 
 sons figuring in it. There is fluency indeed, and some occasional 
 vivacity, but much of it is made up of practical jocularity, and often 
 of exaggeration and the lowest farce. The chief merit is a lively 
 de-cription of the manners and the tone of conversation of the period. 
 Miss Burney had certainly a strong sense of humour ; this is shown in 
 her ' Diary and Letters ;' but in all her novels it too often degenerates 
 into mere, and sometimes vulgar, caricature. Her second novel, 
 'Cecilia, or the Memoirs of an Heiress,' appeared in 1782. It is in 
 5 vols., and is a considerable improvement upon ' Evelina.' For more 
 than a dozen years after the publication of ' Cecilia ' the fair writer 
 laid aside her pen. In July 1786 she was appointed one of the 
 dressers or keepers of the robes to Queen Charlotte, and this situation 
 she held for five years. In July 1793 she married M. Alexandre 
 Piochard d'Arblay, a French emigrant artillery officer ; and the same 
 year she published an 8vo pamphlet, entitled ' Brief Reflections 
 relative to the Emigrant French Clergy.' In 1795 her tragedy of 
 •Edwy and Elgiva' was brought out at Drury Lane; but it was 
 
 speedily withdrawn, and was never printed. The next year she pro- 
 duced another five volume novel, ' Camilla, or a Picture of Youth,' 
 which she published by subscription, thereby realising, it is said, 
 above three thousand pounds. It is not rated by her admirers so 
 high as either of its predecessors. In 1799 she produced a comedy, 
 'Love and Fashion,' which waB accepted by Mr. Harris of Covent 
 Garden, but subsequently withdrawn at the request of her father; 
 but she did it unwillingly, telling him she had all her life intended 
 writing a comedy, and did not fear failure. 
 
 After the peace of Amiens in 1802, her husband and she went to 
 Paris ; and M. D'Arblay having given in his adhesion to the existing 
 government, they remained in France. In 1812 however Madame 
 D'Arblay found means to pass over to her own country ; and she had 
 thus the satisfaction of again seeing her father, who survived till 
 1814, when he died at the age of eighty-seven. Meanwhile she had 
 in the same year published her fourth and last novel, ' The Wanderer, 
 or Female Difficulties,' in five volumes, for which the bookseller is 
 said to have given her 1500/.; but it met with little success, and is 
 considered the poorest of her performances. On the restoration of 
 the Bourbons her husband was raised to the rank of general, and in 
 1814 Madame D'Arblay joined him in Paris. On the return of Napo- 
 leon in 1815 General D'Arblay set out for his regiment, and urged 
 his wife to leave Paris at once. She did so, and tells the tale of her 
 escape to Brussels in her ' Diary ' with all the sentimentality of one of 
 her own heroines. They met again at Brussels just previous to the 
 battle of Waterloo, but on the return of the Bourbons, M. D'Arblay, 
 who had been injured by the kick of a horse, determined to take up 
 his residence in England. They settled in Bath, where in 1818 the 
 general died. In 1832 she once more came before the world through 
 the press with three octavo volumes of 'Memoirs' of her father, Dr. 
 Burney. This work was unlike anything she had previously written, 
 as much in manner as in subject; instead of the fluent, familiar style 
 of her novels, she surprised her former readers and the public in 
 general by a pompous, indirect, long-winded, drawling diction, 
 apparently intended as an improvement upon Johnson or Gibbon, but 
 having rather the efiect of a ludicrous though unintentional caricature. 
 The book however contains many interesting anecdotes. In 1837 
 Madame D'Arblay lost her son, the only issue of her marriage, the 
 Rev. Alexander Charles Louis D'Arblay ; he was a fellow of Christ's 
 College, Cambridge, and perpetual curate of Camden Town Chapel, 
 and he had published several single sermons. Her own death 
 followed at Bath on the 6th of January 1840. From 1835 to the 
 period of her death, her health had been failing, and she suffered from 
 a disorder in the eyes, which rendered reading and writing painful. The 
 entries in her ' Diary ' became few, and there is no entry beyond 1 839. In 
 1842 five volumes of her ' Diary and Letters,' edited by her niece, were 
 published, and the work was completed in two more in 1846, and it has 
 since been reprinted. This ' Diary,' though much of it is frivolous 
 enough, is on the whole an extremely curious record. It commences 
 in 1778 with her account of the publication of 'Evelina,' and of her 
 feelings on the reception of the flattery which poured in on her from 
 every side. Her description of the domestic life of George III. and 
 his family, of the miseries and fatigues attendant on her own position 
 in it, of the absurd formalities observed, as inconvenient to the 
 exacters as to the sufferers, forms a highly interesting portion of it ; 
 and many of the conversations recorded do not surpass in intelligence 
 or polish some of those introduced into her novels. On the whole, 
 the picture it presents of several departments of English life and society 
 in the latter part of the last century is the most ample and the most 
 distinct that has anywhere been given. (6eni.il/a5f.forAug.1840; 
 Memoirs of Dr. Burney ; Diary and Letters.) 
 
 * DAREMBERG, CHARLES VICTOR, was born at Dijon in the 
 department of the Cote-d'Or, on the 14th of April 1817. Educated 
 for the profession of medicine, he received the degree of Doctor in 
 1841, taking for his thesis on examination the anatomy and physiology 
 of Galen. His labours appear to have been thus early directed to the 
 course he has since sedulously followed, a development of the medical 
 and surgical practice and theories of the ancients. In 1843 he was 
 appointed librarian of the Acadejmie de Mddecine, and in 1845 was 
 charged with a mission to Germany and Belgium to procure the 
 materials for a grand collection of Greek and Latin medical works, 
 and for a history of the literature of medical science. In 1847-48 he 
 visited England with the same object. In the latter year he delivered 
 a course of lectures on the history of the literature of medical science. 
 In the following year he was appointed librarian of the Mazarine 
 library. Since that time M. Daremberg has paid repeated visits to 
 England, Germany, and Italy, in connection with the many important 
 works he has published, either alone or in connection with others. 
 The following are a few of them : ' Exposition des Connaissances de 
 Galien sur l'Anatomie et la Physiologie du systeme nerveux,' 1841 ; 
 'CEuvres choisies d'Hippocrate,' 1843, second edit. 1855; 'Traite" sur 
 le Pouls, attribue' a Rufus d'Ephese,' 1846; 'Fragments du Com- 
 mentaire de Galien sur le Time'e de Platon,' 1847; 'GSuvres de 
 Oribase,' 2 vols. 1851-54, by himself and Dr. Bussemaker, with several 
 others on cognate subjects, and some translations from the German. 
 
 * DARGAN, WILLIAM, a native of Ireland, in extensive business 
 as a builder and railway contractor, has had his name brought promi- 
 nently before the public of late years, chiefly in consequence of hia 
 
609 
 
 DARIUS. 
 
 DARIUS III. 
 
 6U 
 
 patriotic exertions and sacrifices in connection with tbo Industrial 
 Exhibition at Dublin in 1853. Mr. Dargan is the son of a farmer in 
 Carlow county. Early in life he was employed in the office of a 
 surveyor, where his conduct was marked by integrity and assiduous 
 attention to his duties. For some time he was employed under 
 Telford in the construction of the Holyhead road, after which he 
 returned to his native country, and by the prudent and skilful 
 management of his business, he succeeded in securing for himself an 
 important position among the large contractors for public works in 
 Ireland. He executed the first railway opened in Ireland, aud he has 
 since been engaged in the promotion and construction of numerous 
 railways, roads, and canals. As already stated, it is to Mr. Dargan's 
 patriotic liberality that Ireland is mainly indebted for the Dublin 
 Exhibition of 1853. The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, followed 
 by the Cork Exhibition of 1852, led Mr. Dargan to devote a sum of 
 20,000J., which, as the plans were gradually extended, was eventually 
 increased to a much greater amount, for the purpose of converting the 
 usual triennial Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures in Merrion 
 Square, Dublin, into a truly national exhibition. The Royal Dublin 
 Society entered warmly into Mr. Dargan's project, and a building was 
 erected, which was opened on the 12th of May 1853, by the Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland. The office of Chairman of the Executive 
 Committee was given to Mr. Dargan, and the result was gratifying to 
 his feelings as an Irishman, although the speculation left him a loser 
 to the amount of several thousand pounds. The Exhibition was 
 visited by her Majesty and Prince Albert in September; and the 
 general estimate of Mr. Dargan's conduct in connection with the 
 enterprise, was well represented by the desire expressed by her 
 Majesty to confer upon him at the close of the Exhibition the honour 
 of knighthood, an honour which was declined by Mr. Dargan : some 
 progress has been made in the founding of a ' Dargan Tribute ' in the 
 shape of a permanent gallery of art in Dublin. The Tower, Mount 
 Anville House, near Dundrum, was erected by Mr. Dargan, and is 
 occupied by him as his country residence. 
 
 DARI'US, the name of several Persian kings. Darius I., commonly 
 called Darius Hystaspia, or the son of Hystaspis, belonged to the 
 royal house of the Achsemenidse, and mounted the throne B.C. 521, 
 after having, with six other conspirators, despatched the usurper 
 Smerdis. It was one day agreed among them, according to Hero- 
 dotus (iii. 82, 83), that they should assemble on the following morning 
 before sunrise on horseback, and that he whose horse neighed first to 
 the rising sun should be kiug : the horse of Darius neighed first, and 
 Darius was saluted king (iii. 84-87). Darius was in fact the founder 
 of the Persian constitution ; to him is due the consolidation of the 
 Persian empire. Countries which Cyrus and Cambyses had only 
 subdued he first organised into a systematic kingdom. He divided his 
 vast empire into twenty satrapies or provinces, and appointed a fixed 
 tribute to be paid, as well as a regular supply to be sent for the 
 provisions of the army and the king's household (iii. 89-96). A 
 system of communication between different parts of the empire was 
 established by means of couriers stationed at certain distances for the 
 transmission of the royal messages, and he devoted much attention to 
 public works and to administrative improvements. 
 
 Soon after his accession to the throne, Darius was visited by 
 Sylo3on, the brother of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, who reminded 
 him of the cloak with which he had obliged him in Egypt, when 
 acting as one of the guards of Cambyses. Darius offered him any 
 reward he would name : he asked to be restored to Samos, and put 
 in possession of the kingdom of his late brother. Darius sent Otanes 
 with an army to Samos, and soon succeeded in reducing the island. 
 Mseandrius, who was in possession of it at the time, was allowed to 
 quit it (iii 139-141). Meanwhile the attention of Darius was called 
 off to another and more important affair. The Babylonians had 
 revolted, and made great preparations for resistance. Darius marched 
 against them with considerable force, and besieged them for a year 
 and eight months, but without success, till the artifice of Zopyrus put 
 him in possession of the city. Zopyrus, one of the officers of Darius, 
 after cutting off his own nose and ears, and lacerating his body in a 
 frightful manner, went over to the enemy, telling them that this was 
 the treatment he got from Darius, and he had therefore come over to 
 them that he might aid in taking revenge on the tyrant. The 
 Babylonians received him gladly, and not doubting for a moment the 
 truth of hia story, gave him an important post of command, and soon 
 entrusted to bim the whole city, which he delivered up to Darius. 
 Darius impaled 3000 of the chief citizens, and destroyed the walls and 
 gates of the city (iii. 150 160). Darius employed the Greek navigator, 
 Scylax of Caryanda, to follow the Indus to the ocean and to survey 
 the country (iv. 44) ; and the discoveries which he made were followed 
 by the subjugation of a portion of the Indians (iv. 44 ; iii. fOl). One 
 of the principal events in his reign was his expedition against the 
 Scythians. He marched against them with a force which is computed 
 at seven or eight hundred thousand men. A bridge of boats was laid 
 across the Bosporus, and the work was executed by Mandrocles, a 
 Sarpian, who received a present from the king as a reward for the skill 
 which he displayed (iv. 85-87). Darius pursued his march through 
 Thrace, across the Danube, to the Don, but met with very ill-success, 
 and had great difficulty in escaping eventually. He returned to the 
 Danube, recrossed it, and came back into Asia, leaving Megabazus in 
 
 Thrace with orders to subdue the Peeones (v. 12-16). Megabazus 
 subdued them and transported them into Asia, where Darius allotted 
 them a district in Phrygia. 
 
 In 501 B.C. some disturbances arose in the island of Naxos, whioh 
 ended in the aristocratical party being obliged to quit the country. 
 They applied to Aristagoras, governor of Miletus, for succour, which 
 he was willing to afford, but was unable to grant without the aid of 
 the Persians. Aristagoras communicated the scheme with splendid 
 promises of success to Artaphernes, the king's brother and governor 
 of Sardis, who, after procuring the king's consent, entrusted a fleet of 
 two hundred ships to the command of Megabates, and ordered it to 
 sail to Miletus to take on board the forces of Aristagoras. After a 
 four months' siege their funds were consumed, and Aristagoras had 
 contracted a debt with the Persian government which it was wholly 
 out of his power to discharge. An insurrection of the Ionian states, 
 whom he had excited to revolt, speedily followed, and ended in the 
 fall of Miletus, B.c. 494. 
 
 The Athenians had given Aristagoras aid in the revolt, and had thus 
 excited the bitter hostility of Darius, who sent, under the command 
 of Datis and Artaphernes, an army to Attica, where they were opposed 
 and defeated by Miltiades in the plain of Marathon B.C. 490. (Herod, 
 vi. 113-17), The conquered Persians returned to Asia. Darius began 
 to make preparations for another expedition against the Greeks, as 
 well as for reducing the Egyptians, who had rebelled, but he died 
 before the commencement of the war, B.C. 485, after a reign of thirty- 
 six years (vii. 4 ; Clinton, 'Fast. H.' ii. 313). He appointed his son 
 Xerxes his successor. (Herod, vii. 3.) 
 
 Before he became king Darius had three sons, two of whom are 
 mentioned (vii. 2-97), Artabazanes and Ariabignes. After hia accession 
 he had four sons by Atossa, and several other wives. 
 
 DARIUS II., called Darius Ochus, or Nothus, because he was the 
 illegitimate son of Artaxerxes. Soon after the murder of Xerxes II., 
 Darius succeeded in deposing Sogdianus, and ascended the throne 
 himself, B.C. 423. By his wife Parysatis he had Artaxerxes Mnemon 
 and Cyrus the younger. Nothing very remarkable occurred during 
 his reign, but some successful wars were carried on under Cyrus and 
 other generals. He died B.C. 404, after a reign of nineteen years, and 
 was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes, who is said to have asked him 
 on his death-bed by what rule he had acted in his administration, that 
 he might adopt the same and find the same success. The king's 
 answer is said to have been, that he had always kept, to the best of 
 his knowledge, the strict path of justice and religion. (Xenophon, 
 Anabasis, i. 1. ; Diodorus, xii. 71 ; Justin, v. 11.) 
 
 DARIUS III., or Codomannus, the last of the Persian monarchs, 
 succeeded Artaxerxes III., B.C. 336, after a short interval, in which 
 Arces, the youngest son of Artaxerxes, was nominally king. Bagoas 
 had poisoned Artaxerxes, and then put Arces on the throne that he 
 himself might reign in his name ; but after two years he deposed him, 
 and put in his place Darius Codomannus. Darius not being so 
 obsequious to his wishes as he desired, he determined to remove him 
 in the same way as he had done with Artaxerxes. The king however, 
 aware of his design, made Bagoas himself drink the poison which ho 
 had prepared for him. Darius was now firmly established on the 
 throne, but had little time to enjoy his security before he found himself 
 opposed by Alexander the Great. 
 
 It was in the second year of Darius's reign that Alexander passed 
 over the Hellespont into Asia : he pursued his march till he arrived 
 at the river Granicus (now the Oostvola), when his first encounter 
 with the Persian army took place. The well-armed and well-disciplined 
 troops of the Macedonians gained a complete victory. Another battle 
 was fought at Issus in Cilicia, where Darius took the command himself, 
 aud was utterly defeated. He engaged in person again in a battle at 
 Gaugemela, commonly called the battle of Arbela, and was defeated. 
 After the battle of Issus, Darius's camp was plundered, and his wife, 
 mother, and children, came into the hands of Alexander, who treated 
 them with the utmost consideration and care. Now that Susa, 
 Persepolis, and all his treasures had come into the possession of the 
 conqueror, Darius took refuge in Ecbatand, but was seized by Bessus, 
 the governor of Bactria, who betrayed him in his misfortunes. Both 
 the traitor and his prisoner fled before the march of Alexander, who 
 hastened tho pursuit till he came in sight of them, when they fled 
 precipitately ; and because Darius would not follow them, Bessus and 
 those about him discharged their darts at him, and left him covered 
 with blood at the mercy of the Macedonians. When the Greeks found 
 him in this state he had just strength enough left to ask for some 
 water to drink ; it was given him by a Macedonian, whom he requested 
 to return his thanks to Alexander for the kindness he had shown to hi8 
 wife, mother, and children, and to say that he prayed the gods to pros- 
 per him in all his undertakings, and to make him monarch of the world. 
 
 Alexander himself came up soon afterwards, and was much afifeoted 
 at seeing the king in this deplorable state. He took off his own oloak 
 and spread it over the corpse, which he ordered to be embalmed and 
 sent in a splendid coffin to Sisigambis, to be interred with the other 
 monarchs of Persia. Darius died B.C. 330, in the sixth year of his 
 reign and the fiftieth of hia age. He enjoyed the reputation of a just 
 and humane prince. With Dariua ended the empire of Persia, whic'.i 
 had lasted for upwarda of two hundred years under thirteen kings. 
 
 (DiodorusSiculu*, xvil 5-77; Plutarch, Life of Alexander; Justin,*.) 
 
611 DARU, COUNT. 
 
 DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOEL BRUNO, COUNT, was born 
 at Montpellier, January 12th, 1767. He was educated in the military 
 academy at Tournon, then directed by the fathers of the Oratory, and 
 very soon distinguished himself by his proficiency in literary exercises. 
 Though destined for an administrative career, he received a brevet as 
 lieutenant of artillery when only seventeen years of age. In 1788 he 
 became secretary to Count Perigord, and was engaged in regulating 
 the taxes in Languedoc, but did not throw aside his literary habits. 
 He translated some of the Latin classics, and wrote an epic poem in 
 twelve books, entitled ' Washington, or the Liberty of North 
 America.' In 1791, after having defended himself against a charge of 
 royalism, he was appointed intendant in the army appointed to act in 
 Brittany against the expected attack of the English. Here he became 
 again suspected, through a ludicrous misunderstanding of an inter- 
 cepted letter, in which he had said, " Here I wait for our friends the 
 English, who are said to be expected to arrive soon." Notwithstand- 
 ing the frivolousness of the cause, he remained a prisoner till the fall 
 of Robespierre restored him to freedom, employing his enforced 
 leisure in translating the Odes and Epistles of Horace, and writing a 
 poem on his jailer, ' Epitre a mon Sans-Culotte,' which was published 
 several years afterwards. 
 
 In 1796 he resumed his official occupations, and as chef-de-division 
 honourably distinguished himself by endeavouring to repress the illicit 
 profits and the rapine so common at that time in all the departments 
 of government. In 1799 he was made intendant of the army in 
 Switzerland under Masseua, and most ably and industriously fulfilled 
 the difficult duties which devolved on him, while he yet found time to 
 finish Horace by translating the ' Satires,' and to write a poem on the 
 Alps, and a ' Chant du guerre,' that was set to music by order of the 
 minister of the interior. He soon after became secretary of war, and 
 was charged with the task of improving the military organisation. 
 The plan was chiefly prepared by Daru, but it was signed by Berthier. 
 Bonaparte however had a plan of his own, to which Daru's was forced 
 to give place, though he defended it with a firmness which made a 
 favourable impression on the First Consul. In 1802 as a member of 
 the Tribunal, where he spoke strongly and eloquently in favour of 
 public instruction and on the monetary system, and took an active part 
 in the discussions generally. He also supported before the legislative 
 body the law for a conscription as a measure favourable to public 
 liberty. In 1805 he was named a councillor of state, and general 
 intendant of the imperial household. He hesitated to accept this 
 office. "I have passed my life,'' he said, "among books, and have not 
 had time to learn the functions of a courtier." " Of courtiers," replied 
 Napoleon, " I have plenty around me ; they will never fail. But I 
 want a minister, at once enlightened, firm, and vigilant ; and it is for 
 these qualities that I have selected you." Under the emperor, Daru 
 was fully employed ; sometimes in the administration at home, at 
 others in foreign missions. Aft^r the battle of Jena he acted as 
 intendant of the army ; he was entrusted with the execution of the 
 treaty of Tilsit, and directed the evacuation of Warsaw and of the 
 Prussian territories ; he was ambassador to the king of Prussia ; he 
 was commissioned to carry into effect the provisions of the treaty of 
 Vienna after the battle of Wagram ; and he opposed the Austrian 
 marriage of Bonaparte, recommending rather that he should choose a 
 Frenchwoman, because his " throne was not founded on the same basis 
 as that of the other sovereigns of Europe ; " an opinion that has been 
 adopted in spirit by the present emperor of the French. Daru had 
 now become the confidential friend of Napoleon, and a number of 
 familiar retorts are recorded of him. When the triumphal arch in the 
 Carrousel was erected it was severely criticised. " Does not every- 
 body speak ill of my triumphal arch?" inquired the emperor. 
 "Excuse me," replied Daru, "I have heard two praise it, yourself 
 and the architect." 
 
 Daru at length, on the retirement of the Duke of Bassano, became 
 the prime minister of Napoleon ; his labour was immense, his position 
 high, but he remained the same modest, honourable, and disinterested 
 man as before. In 1812 he strongly opposed the expedition against 
 Russia, saying it was not men he feared, but nature. When however 
 the war was definitively resolved on, he took the most prompt and 
 active measures for rendering it successful. On the disastrous issue 
 of the campaign he prepared for that in Saxony with the same zealous 
 activity; and during the succeeding events remained firm to his 
 imperial master. He advocated the defending of Paris against the 
 Allies ; he opposed the removal of the government from Paris ; he 
 followed the empress to Blois; and after the abdication of Napoleon 
 at Foutainbleau he retired from public life. He was exiled by the 
 first royal government, and retired to Bourges, whence he was recalled 
 in 1819 and made a peer of France. He occasionally appeared and 
 spoke in his legislative capacity, but his time was now almost entirely 
 devoted to literature. He died Sept. 5, 1829. 
 
 Count Daru's literary works are numerous ; the best known in 
 England is the ' Histoire de la Republique de Venise,' 1819, in 7 vols., 
 which has been frequently reprinted. Among others are ' La 
 Cleope'die, ou la Thdorie des Reputations Littdraire,' 1800; 'Histoire 
 de Bretagne,' 1826, 3 vols.; a number of speeches delivered in the 
 legislative chambers, and many poems, some of them of considerable 
 length. 
 
 * DARWIN, CHARLES, F.R.S., born at Shrewsbury, February 12, 
 
 DARWIN, ERASMUS. 613 
 
 1809, is the grandson of Erasmus Darwin, the subject of the following 
 article. He became known to the public by ' The Voyage of a 
 Naturalist,' which has made his name familiar wherever the English 
 language is read. This work is the record of a voyage made by 
 H.M.S 'Beagle,' under the command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N., from 
 the years 1832 to 1836. Mr. Darwin was attached as naturalist to 
 this expedition, and profited by the great opportunities it afforded him 
 of observing the physical geography of the earth and the habits and 
 structure of its animal inhabitants. 
 
 Most of Mr. Darwin's works have been written since the voyage of 
 the ' Beagle,' and all of them bear evidence of his great industry in 
 collecting and observing the facts which were presented to him during 
 his travels. One of the earliest of his scientific labours was his 
 ' Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the 
 various Countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle.' This was published in 
 1839. In this work he has given a general view of the natural history 
 of the countries he visited. In subsequent works however he has 
 elaborated highly interesting general views as the result of his special 
 observations. Thus, in his ' Geological Observations on South America,' 
 published in 1846, he presents the phenomena afforded by the South 
 American continent in connection with a general theory of the causes 
 of geological changes in this part of the world. The same may be 
 said of his papers on the volcanic islands of Australia, on the distri- 
 bution of the erratic boulders, on tho uustratified deposits of South 
 America, on the geology of the Falkland Islauds, on the areas of 
 elevation and subsidence in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, all of which 
 have been published in the 'Transactions,' or in the 'Journal of the 
 Proceedings of the Geological Society.' His geological writings claim 
 for him a position among the most distinguished geologists of the 
 present day. He is a Fellow of the Geological Society, and was 
 formerly one of its secretaries. 
 
 His zoological publications have given him no less a position as a 
 zoologist. His separate papers on zoology are not numerous. He has 
 contributed an interesting paper on the formation of mould by the 
 agency of the earth-worm to the ' Transactions of the Geological 
 Society.' He also wrote the introduction, and many of the notes, to 
 the ' Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle,' published by the 
 government from 1840 to 1843. He has also published several papers 
 on various departments of zoology in the ' Annals ' and ' Magazine of 
 Natural History.' His great work however, and that on which his 
 reputation as a zoologist is founded and will probably depend, is 
 his ' Monograph of the Family Cirripedia ; ' this family includes the 
 animals commonly known as Barnacles and Sea Acorns. Mr. Darwin, 
 in this work, has given an accurate definition of every known species. 
 In addition to this, he has pointed out several very curious facts in 
 the history and economy of these animals. The excellent style, the 
 great addition made to the existing knowledge of the family to which 
 it is directed, and the remarkable caution exercised by the author in 
 coming to his conclusions, render this work a model of the manner in 
 which such works should be written. It has been characterised by a 
 competent writer as one of the most remarkable works on zoology 
 produced during the present century. This work, which is in 2 vols. 
 8vo, was published by the Ray Society, and distributed to their 
 subscribers in the years 1851 and 1853. 
 
 In the second volume of Agassiz's ' Bibliographia Geologic et 
 Zoologise,' published by the Ray Society in 1850, the number of 
 Mr. Darwin's papers and works mentioned is twenty-two. 
 
 In 1859 he published a work which attracted much greater at- 
 tention than any of his previous productions — ' The Origin of Species 
 by means of Natural Selection ' — a work that produced a profound 
 impression among naturalists, whilst, as is well known, it excited 
 much popular controversy. It was followed, in 1862, by a treatise on 
 ' The Fertilization of Orchids,' and he is understood to be still 
 earnestly engaged on the enquiry. 
 
 • DARWIN, ERASMUS, an English physician and physiologist, 
 was born at Elton, near Newark, on the 12th of December 1731. 
 After studying at St. John's College, Cambridge, and taking the 
 degree of Doctor of Medicine at Edinburgh, he established himself 
 as a physician at Lichfield, where he married, and resided till after 
 the death of his first wife, by whom he had three sons. In the year 
 1781, having again married, he removed to Derby, where he died on 
 the 18th of April 1802, in the seventieth year of his age. He is said 
 to have been a man of an athletic person and of temperate habits, the 
 advantage of which he lost no opportunity of pointing out to 
 those over whom his influence extended. His biographers give him 
 credit for having done much service to the poor of Lichfield in this 
 respect. 
 
 Dr. Darwin claims a place in this work as a general physiologist and 
 a poet. lathe year 1781 he published his 'Botanic Garden,' a poem 
 in two books; in 1793 his 'Zoonomia, or Laws of Organic Life,' 
 which was succeeded in 1796 by a continuation of the subject, the 
 whole forming two volumes in quarto ; and in 1800 his ' Phytologia, or 
 Philosophy of Agriculture and Gardening,' in one volume quarto of 
 rather more than 600 pages. All these works have excited consider- 
 able attention; by some they have been extravagantly praised, by 
 others as unreasonably depreciated, and at the present day they are 
 little read or consulted. Nevertheless they are k far from deserving to 
 sink into neglect and oblivion. The author wap unquestionably a 
 
13 
 
 DASHKOV, EKATERINA ROMANOVA. 
 
 DAUBENTON, LOUIS JEAN MARIE. 
 
 511 
 
 man of a highly original turn of mind ; he was unusually well read in 
 the physics of his day ; he had a singular aptitude for seizing and 
 illustrating natural analogies, and above all he was fully impressed 
 with a sense of the important truths of a universal simplicity and 
 harmony of design throughout the whole creation. It is true that 
 hi3 analogies are often imaginary, his theories untenable, and his 
 illustrations overstrained, but many of these errors were inevitable 
 in the state of natural history in his day, and the others are by no 
 means sufficient to overbalance his claims to fame as a clear-sighted, 
 ingenious, aud often profound physiologist. Darwin's ' Botanic 
 Garden 1 is divided into two books, very unequal in size and in merit. 
 The first, which explains the principal phenomena of vegetation, is 
 superior in every respect to the second, which is devoted to what he 
 calls ' The Loves of the Plants,' which, forming a poetical commentary 
 upon some of the more curious phenomena of vegetable fertilisation, 
 is filled with the most ludicrous analogies and imagery. That the 
 character of the ' Botanic Garden ' as a poem is by no means of a 
 high order must, we think, be on all hands allowed, for its language 
 is often tawdry and tinselly, its similes extravagant, and its machinery 
 in the highest degree fantastical as well as incomprehensible ; but on 
 the other hand it abounds with passages which have seldom been 
 excelled for their elegant and forcible description of natural objects 
 in poetical language, and it can by no means be admitted that where 
 an author's powers are expended upon an illustration of the laws of 
 any part of the creation, they are applied to mean and insignificant 
 subjects. It is only where he calls to his aid the fancies of the 
 Rosicrucians that he wastes his talent and fatigues his reader. His 
 'Phytologia' is remarkable for the number of novel and ingenious 
 ideas which it contains : many of these were too far in advance of 
 those of his contemporaries to be much esteemed when they appeared, 
 but they are singularly in accordance with opinions which now are 
 either altogether recognised, or are under discussion, with a strong 
 probability of being finally adopted. For instance, he particularly 
 insisted upon the close analogy between plants and animals in their 
 functions, showing that the difference between the two kingdoms is 
 the necessary consequence of the difference between their wants, 
 necessities, and habits of life. He urged with great force that every 
 bud of a plant is the seat of a separate and in some measure inde- 
 pendent system, that plants are therefore in one sense congeries of 
 individuals living in concert but growing independently ; finally, he 
 pointed out the analogy between buds and seeds, showing that the 
 woody part of plants is really analogous to the roots of seeds, and 
 produced by the adhesion of the descending matter of organisation 
 which passes downwards from the buds. While however we thus 
 give Darwin credit for a rank in science that has hardly been accorded 
 to him before, we are bound to add that his errors were neither few 
 nor unimportant. He was too fond of tracing analogies between 
 dissimilar objects; he readily adopted the ingenious views of others 
 without sufficient inquiry ; he had the great fault of being often a 
 credulous collector and a fanciful reasoner, and finally his prose writings 
 are often inexcusably inelegant, ill-arranged and ungrimmatical. 
 
 DASHKOV, EKATERINA ROMANOVA, a Russian princess, 
 remarkable for her singular character and career, was the daughter of 
 Count Roman Larionovich Vorontsov, and was born according to her 
 own statement in 1744. If this be correct, at the age of fifteen she 
 was married to Prince Dashkov, and at the age of eighteen she was 
 the principal agent in a revolution which changed the face of Russia. 
 The Grand Duke Peter, averse to his wife the Princess Catharine 
 [Cathaiuna Alexiew.va], had formed the plan of repudiating her and 
 of raising bis mistress, Elizabeth Vorontsov, to her place. It was 
 Elizabeth's sister, the Princess Dashkov, who, according to her own 
 statement, first suggested to the grand duchess the idea and the means 
 of thwarting the plan ; she was according to ail accounts the soul of 
 the conspiracy that was entered into, and she, a woman, took the 
 principal part in the insurrection of 1762, which dethroned Catharine's 
 husband, now become the Emperor Peter the Third, and raised 
 Catharine to the imperial throne. -She was not long however in losing 
 the favour of the empress, whom she displeased by the independence 
 of her character and the bluntness of her manners, and it was even 
 with some difficulty that after she had lost her husband she obtained 
 permission in 1768 to travel abroad. In a somewhat lengthened tour, 
 which carried her over Germany, England, France, and Italy, she 
 became acquainted with many of the leading literary men of the 
 various countries, and we find among her correspondence letters from 
 Garrick, Dr. Blair, and Dr. Robertson, with the last of whom she was 
 desirous of placing her son for the purpose of education. She was 
 partial to England, and her brother, Count Simon Vorontsov (or, as 
 the name is often written, Woronzow), who was for some time 
 ambassador here, was so much so that, after giving up the embassy in 
 1806, he resided in London till his death in 1832. His son, at present 
 (1856) high in the Russian service, and lately governor of the Cau- 
 casian provinces, was educated in England, and his daughter, the 
 princess's niece, is the present Countess Dowager of Pembroke. On 
 the Princess Dashkov's return to Russia in 1782, she found herself 
 again in favour with the Empress Catharine, who had probably 
 discovered in her absence, that a little freedom of character relieves 
 the tedium of a court. One of their bonds of union was a strong 
 partiality to literary occupation in both. 
 
 The empress however somewhat amazed the princess by the proposal 
 to appoint her to the presidency of the St. Petersburg Academy of 
 Arts and Science, and she at firat replied that a more appropriate 
 appointment would be that of ' Directress of her Majesty's Washer- 
 women.' The appointment was however pressed and accepted, and 
 the princess appears to have made a very active and respectable 
 president. She herself proposed to Catharine the establishment of a 
 Russian Academy, in imitation of the French Academy, to promote 
 the cultivation of the Russian language, of which the empress was so 
 ardent an admirer that she once declared that, "combining as it did 
 the richness and energy of German with the sweetness of Italian, it 
 must one day become the leading language of the world." The Russian 
 Academy was founded ; the princess, who became the first president, 
 set the compilation of a dictionary on foot, assigned the different 
 letters to different persons, and herself took three, with the general 
 superintendence of the whole. The work was completed in twelve 
 years, it has since gone to a second edition, and it occupies a highly 
 respectable place among the standard dictionaries. It is remarkable 
 that the priucess proposed the arrangement of the words under the 
 alphabetical order of their roots, instead of the directly alphabetical 
 order of both roots and compounds, which is the ordinary method of 
 dictionaries; and that the method proposed by her is that adopted in 
 Reiff's excellent dictionary of Russian, which is highly valued by 
 philologists on that as well as other accounts. The empress, who, as 
 is well known, traced the plan of the ' Comparative Dictionary of all 
 Languages,' which was executed by Professor Pallas, was less successful 
 as a lexicographer. The princess did not confine herself merely to 
 the presidency of academies ; she wrote some plays, contributed articles 
 to periodicals, and set on foot and edited a monthly magazine, the 
 ' Sobesyednik Lyubiteley Rossiyskago Slovo.' For some time the two 
 literary ladies went on in harmony, till a quarrel arose on the subject 
 of a tragedy by Kniazhnin, the Russian poet, which the princess had 
 allowed to be printed in one of the publications of the Academy, but 
 which the empress asserted contained revolutionary principles, and 
 which, when the princess defended it, she declared should be " burnt by 
 the hands of the common executioner." This quarrel was made up, or 
 appeared to be so ; but not long after the princess resigned her offices, 
 and retired to her estates at Serpukh, in the neighbourhood of Moscow. 
 At the death of Catharine in 1796 she received an intimation from the 
 Emperor Paul that she wa3 dismissed from her offices, and ordered to 
 " retire to her Novgorod estates, and reflect on the events of 1762." 
 As the village which was assigned her for a residence in her exile was 
 only a collection of cabins, she suffered considerable hardship till her 
 friends procured her pardon and permission to return to Serpukh, 
 where she resided till her death on the 4th of January 1810. 
 
 The fullest and best account of the life of the Princess Dashkov is 
 from her own pen in the ' Memoirs of the Princess Daschkaw, Lady 
 of Honour to Catharine II., edited from the Originals by Mrs. W. 
 Bradford,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1840. The memoirs had been written 
 by the princess at the request of Mrs. Bradford, then Miss Wilmot, 
 an English lady, who with her sister spent some years at the princess's 
 country-seat in the early part of the present century. They leave an 
 impression that the princess, however eccentric and abrupt, was both 
 clever and amiable. The memoirs appear to have been originally 
 written in French, though this is not distinctly stated by the editress ; 
 and some letters in English by the princess, which are printed in 
 connection, will even show that she had an excellent knowledge of 
 our language. The volumes, though full of curious matter, seem to 
 have attracted little attention here, and to have been till lately 
 unknown in Russia, though some years ago a rumour was current 
 there that such memoirs existed. 
 
 DAUBENTON, LOUIS JEAN MARIE, a celebrated naturalist 
 and zootomist, was born at Montbard in Burgundy, on the 29th of 
 May 1716. The church was his destination, and he was sent to 
 Paris to study theology ; but he gave in secret those hours to medi- 
 cine and anatomy which his father hoped he was devoting to 
 ecclesiastical reading. The death of his father in 1736 left him at 
 liberty to follow the path he loved : and, having taken his degrees at 
 Rheims, he returned to Montbard, for the purpose of exercising his 
 profession. There he found a kindred spirit who, happily for zoology, 
 had been connected from infancy with Daubenton. The Comte de 
 Buffon, born at the same place, knew him well in youth, and when, in 
 after life, Buffon was appointed intendant of the Jaidin du Roi, his 
 thoughts reverted to Daubenton as the person of all others qualified 
 by his zeal and ability to prosecute those anatomical inquiries, the 
 details of which his own feebleness of sight prevented him from 
 investigating. The count drew Daubenton to Paris in 1742, and in 
 1745 the office of Curator and Demonstrator of the Cabinet of Natural 
 History was conferred upon a man eminently fitted by his quiok 
 discernment, his untiring diligence, and his inexhaustible patience, to 
 fill the situation with the greatest possible advantage to the public. 
 No one can open the ' Histoire Naturelle des Animaux ' without being 
 struck by the multitude and justness of the facts (for he carefully 
 avoided all theory) with which Daubenton enriched that work, and in 
 some degree corrected the fervid imagination of his brilliant coadjutor. 
 But he did this without presuming in the least to draw general 
 inferences ; he confined himself strictly to facts ; and such was his 
 modesty, that Camper used to say of him that he himself was not 
 
«15 DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 D'AVENANT, CHARLES. 
 
 610 
 
 aware of the discoveries which he had made. His valuable labours 
 adorned the first fifteen volumes of Buffon's great work in 4to ; and 
 the editions in which this essential part of the publication is wanting, 
 are justly considered as deprived of their fairest proportions. But 
 Buflbn in au evil hour listened to the suggestions of flatterers, and 
 published an edition in 12mo, of which Daubenton's labours formed 
 no part. The hint was more than sufficient for the modest Daubenton, 
 and from that time the assistance of Gucneau de Montbeillard and of 
 Bexou in the ornithological department but ill supplied the exquisite 
 dissections and demonstrations which had rendered the former part 
 of the work so highly valuable to the physiologist. 
 
 Daubenton now gave himself up more than ever to the duties of 
 his office in the Jardin du Roi. For fifty years, indeed, did Daubenton 
 labour without cessation in enriching and arranging the magnificent 
 collection committed to his charge. He is said to have been the first 
 professor of natural history who gave lectures by public authority 
 in France, one of the chairs qf the College of Medicine having been 
 converted into a chair of natural history at his request ; it was 
 conferred on him in 1778. The Convention having elevated the Jardin 
 du Roi into a public school, under the title of the Museum of Natural 
 History, he was named Professor of Mineralogy, and retained the 
 professorship as long as he lived. In 1783 he became Professor of 
 Rural Economy at Alfort, and gave lessons in natural history at the 
 normal school in 1795. To him France in a great measure owes the 
 introduction and successful propagation of the breed of Spanish sheep. 
 In 1799 he was elected a member of the senate, and the alteration in 
 his habits caused by this new dignity is supposed to have hastened his 
 death, which took place after an apoplectic attack of four days' 
 duration in the night of the 31st December and 1st January 1799 and 
 1500, when he wa3 nearly eighty-four years of age. 
 
 Daubenton's life, with the exception of the cloud that came between 
 him and Buffon, raised by the weakness of the latter, was a happy 
 one. His hours were spent in pursuits that were dear to him ; he 
 was universally respected and beloved, for he was as amiable as he 
 was learned ; and his simple habits gave him, notwithstanding hi3 
 natural weakness of constitution, a long life. Daubenton was married 
 to the authoress of ' Zelie dans le Desert,' and though his union was 
 in other respects most happy, he left no children. 
 
 IS ot withstanding his incessant occupation at the Museum, he found 
 time to publish much in addition to his writings in the ' Histoire 
 Naturelle.' He was a contributor to the first Encyclopddie, and 
 many of his papers on the natural history of animals and on minerals 
 are to be found in the ' Memoires de l'Acade'inie des Sciences,' from 
 1754 to 1764. Two of his most interesting papers (though all are 
 good) are those of 1702, on fossil bones pretended to be those of a 
 giant, but which Daubenton referred to their true species ; and of 
 1764, on the essential differences between man and the orang-outang. 
 His ' Instruction pour les Bergers,' 1 vol., 8vo, Paris, 1782, his 
 'Tableau Mdthodique des Mineraux,' 1784, 8vo, and his 'Me'moire 
 sur le premier drap de laine superfine du cru de France,' which also 
 appeared in 8vo, in 1784, must not be forgotten in a recollection of 
 his works. 
 
 (G. Cuvier, Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Daubenton, in the 
 Memoires de VInstitut, v. iii. ; Biog. Univ. dkc.) 
 
 * DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE, M.D., F.RS., and 
 Professor of Botany and Chemistry in the University of Oxford, was 
 born at Stratton, Gloucestershire, in 1795, educated at Magdalen Col- 
 lege, and graduated B.A. in 1814. His task has been the explanation 
 of natural phenomena by the aid of the facts and principles of 
 chemical science. One of his earliest publications was, ' An Essay on 
 the Geology and Chemical Phenomena of Volcanoes,' which was 
 published at Oxford in 1824. This early direction of his attention to 
 the chemistry of volcanic action resulted in the publication of his 
 great work entitled ' A Description of active and extinct Volcanoes ; ' 
 a second edition of which was published in 1848. This work is 
 remarkable for the application of chemical principles to the expla- 
 nation of the phenomena of one of the most active agents in the 
 production of geological changes upon the earth's surface. The 
 connection between the chemistry of volcanoes and that of mineral 
 waters is evident, and to this subject Dr. Daubeny has paid a large 
 share of attention. He has not only analysed many mineral waters, 
 but in his ' Report on the state of our knowledge with respect to 
 Mineral and Thermal Waters,' given to the British Association for 
 
 1836, has shown the importance of a knowledge of the composition of 
 mineral waters to the explanation of many geological phenomena. In 
 
 1837, Dr. Daubeny visited the United States of America, and made a 
 series of observations on the geology of the New World. These he 
 has published in various papers, of which the principal are the 
 following : 1, ' Notice of the Thermal Springs of North America,' read 
 before the Ashmolean Society in 1838. 2, 'Sketch of the Geology 
 of North America, being the substance of a Memoir read before the 
 Ashmolean Society of Oxford.' 3, 'On the Geology and Thermal 
 Springs of North America,' read at the British Association for 1838. 
 
 The volcanic phenomena of Italy have naturally attracted Dr. 
 Daubeny's attention, and he has published the following papers on 
 this subject : — 1, ' On the Eruption of Vesuvius which occurred in 
 the month of August 1834 ' (' Philosophical Transactions,' exxv.) ; 
 2, ' On the Volcanic Strata exposed by a Section made in the Site of 
 
 the new Thermal Spring discovered near the town of Torre dell' 
 Annunziata, in the Bay of Naples,' published in the ' Proceedings of 
 the Geological Society,' vol. ii. ; 3, 'On the Site of the Ancient City 
 of the Aurunci, and on the Volcanic Phenomena which it exhibits, 
 with some remarks on Craters of Elevation, on the distinction between 
 Plutonic and Volcanic Rocks, and on tho theories of Volcanic Action 
 which are most in repute,' published in the ' Transactions of the 
 Ashmolean Society,' 1846. The interesting volcanic district of 
 Auvergne in France has also been investigated by Dr. Daubeny, and 
 he has published two papers on its geology, one, ' On the Volcanoes of 
 Auvergne/ and the other, ' On the Origin of the Valleys of Auvergne.' 
 These papers were published in the third and tenth volumes of the 
 ' Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.' He has published several 
 other papers on allied subjects in the ' Transactions' of our scientific 
 societies. 
 
 Dr. Daubeny has also written many papers on purely chemical 
 subjects. In 1831 he published 'An Introduction to the Atomic 
 Theory,' to which was added a supplement in 1840, and a new 
 edition appeared in 1850. Various other chemical papers by Dr. 
 Daubeny are scattered in the ' Transactions ' of the scientific societies. 
 Many of them have reference to the chemical phenomena of vegetable 
 life. Amongst them may be enumerated his experiments on the influence 
 of carbonic acid, and of colour on the growth of plants, published in 
 the ' Transactions of the British Association.' His ' Lectures on Agri- 
 culture,' published in 1841, are an exposition of the chemical laws 
 which regulate the life of plants. 
 
 Dr. Daubeny is remarkable as one of the few men who have culti- 
 vated the natural sciences amidst their almost entire neglect in the 
 University of Oxford. To him the British Association was indebted 
 for an invitation to hold its second meeting within the walls of that 
 ancient seat.of learning, and this Association, in having elected him as 
 its president for this year (1856), has recognised the claim he has 
 upon their admiration and gratitude. 
 
 * D'AUBIGNE, JEAN HENRI MERLE, Church historian and 
 theologian, was born at Geneva in Switzerland in 1794, the third son 
 of Louis Merle, a merchant of that city, who again was the grandson 
 of Aime' Merle, who had married a Mademoiselle D'Aubigne", of a 
 distinguished French Protestant family. The historian's name there- 
 fore is Merle; D'Aubign<5 being an addition of honour from the 
 grandmother's side, assumed according to a not uncommon Swiss 
 custom. Educated first at Geneva and then at Berlin, where he 
 attended the lectures of Neauder on Church History, D'Aubigne' 
 settled for a time as pastor of a French church in Hamburg. Thence 
 he removed to Brussels, where he was very popular as a preacher. In 
 1830 he returned to Geneva, where he has resided since as Professor 
 of Church History in Atheological college founded by the ' Evangelical 
 Society of Geneva.' OT D'Aubign^'s great work, the ' History of the 
 Reformation of the 16th Century,' the first portion appeared in Paris 
 in 1835 ; the other volumes have appeared at intervals since that 
 time. The work achieved an immediate and immense popularity in 
 Britain and America, chiefly on account of blending its French 
 vivacity and picturesqueness of style with evangelical religious senti- 
 ments ; and several English translations of it have appeared on 
 both sides of the Atlantic. His subsequent works, among which may 
 be mentioned ' The Protector (Cromwell) ; a Vindication,' 1847, and 
 a volume entitled ' Germany, England, and Scotland : Recollections 
 of a Swiss Minister,' 1848, have also, for the same reason, been more 
 popular among British and American Protestants than on the Conti- 
 nent. Dr. D'Aubigne' is also the author of many theological and 
 ecclesiastical tracts, which have been translated into English. His 
 sympathies with British, and especially with Scottish Evangelical 
 Protestantism, have led him to pay frequent visits to this country ; 
 and during a late visit (1856) he received the freedom of the city of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 DAUDIN, FRANCOIS MARIE, the son of a receiver-general of 
 finance, was born at Paris in May 1774. Nearly deprived of the use 
 of his limbs by natural infirmity,' he early devoted himself to the 
 study of the sciences, and more particularly to natural history. His 
 memoirs soon found their way into the ' Magasin Encyclope'dique 
 and the 'Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle,' and he contri- 
 buted some articles to the ' Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles.' His 
 two principal works are his ' Traite" d'Ornithologie,' which was never 
 finished, and his ' Histoire Naturelle des Reptiles.' For the first much 
 cannot be said : it is on the second that his fame will rest. Cuvier 
 speaks of the latter as the most complete work on that class of animals 
 which had hitherto appeared. His wife, who is represented as 
 amiable both in mind and person, and as having actively assisted in 
 the composition and prepared the illustrations of his works, died of 
 consumption ; and poor Daudin, whose life, as well as that of his 
 partner, had been long embittered by the deranged state of his affairs, 
 followed her in a few days, before he had attained thirty years of age. 
 He died in 1804, and left no children. ('Biogr. Universelle,' &c.) 
 
 D'AVENANT, CHARLES, a writer on politics, political economy, 
 and finance, was born in 1656, and was the eldest son of Sir William 
 D'Avenant, the poet. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford, and first 
 made himself known by a dramatic piece, entitled ' Circe, a Tragedy,' 
 to which Drydeu wrote a prologue and Lord Rochester an epilogue, 
 and which was brought out in 1675, but not printed till 1677. It was 
 
D'AVENANT, WILLIAM. 
 
 DAVID. 
 
 618 
 
 of an operatio character, like most of his father's productions in the 
 same lioe, and of very little merit ; as indeed Dryden intimates, with 
 slight disguise, in his prologue.. D'Avenant however did not pursue 
 poetry, but applied himself to the study of the civil law ; and he was 
 jome years after this made a Doctor of Laws by the University of 
 Cambridge. Of his public employments, the first that is recorded is 
 his appointment in 1 683 as one of the six commissioners to whom the 
 superintendence of the Excise was delegated at this time, on that part 
 of the revenue which had for many years been let out to farm, coming 
 again into the hands of the crown. In 1685 he was appointed 
 Inspector of Plays, conjointly with the Master of the Revels ; and that 
 year also he was returned to parliament as one of the members for 
 St. Ives. He was afterwards returned for Bedwin in 1698, and again 
 in 1700; and on the 3rd of June, 1703, he was appointed Inspector- 
 general of Exports and Imports, being the second person who had 
 held that office, the first having been William Culliford, originally a 
 eustom-house officer in Ireland, who was appointed in 1696, and was 
 now raised to be a commissioner of the customs. This office D'Avenant 
 retained till his death, 6th November 1714. , 
 
 D'Avenant's publications on commerce, finance, and politics range 
 over a period of about eighteen years. We will enumerate the more 
 remarkable of them. ' An Essay upon Ways and Means of Supplying 
 the War,' 1695. This tract immediately gained him considerable 
 reputation for an acquaintance with the subject of the public finances; 
 and for some years all his subsequent publications which he acknow- 
 ledged were designated on the title-page as being by the author of the 
 'Essay on Ways and Means;' but he is believed to have been the 
 author of several pieces upon which no such intimation appears. 
 'Discourses on the Public Revenues, and of the Trade of England,' 
 Part I. 1698 ; and Part II. containing the Discourses ' which more 
 immediately treat of the Foreign Trade of this Kingdom,' also 1698. 
 To the first part is annexed a translation of Xenophou's ' Discourse on 
 the Revenue of Athens,' by Walter Moyle, which is also printed in 
 Moyle's collected works. The subjects discussed in the ' Discourses ' 
 are the use of political arithmetic, credit and the means of restoring 
 it, the management of the king's revenues, the public debts, the 
 general nature of foreign trade, the best way of protecting it, the 
 plantation trade, and the trade with the East Indies. A reply was 
 made to some things in the first part of this work, in ' Remarks upon 
 some wrong computations and conclusions contained in a late tract 
 entitled Discourses, &c. ; in a letter to Mr. D. S.' 1698. ' A Discourse 
 upon Grants and Resumptions,' 1700. This was written to recommend 
 that certain late grants of crown lands, &c, should be resumed ; and 
 it was answered the following year in an elaborate treatise entitled 
 'Jus Regium; or, the King's right to grant forfeitures, and other 
 revenues of the crown, fully set forth,' &c. ' Essay upon the Balance 
 of Power; the Right of Making War, Peace, and Alliances; Universal 
 Monarchy,' 1701. This was another attack upon the government of 
 King William, and was answered the same year in ' Animadversions on 
 a late factious book entitled Essays,' &c. It was also formally censured 
 by the Upper House of Convocation for a passage in which the author 
 had declared that he could point out several persons whom nothing 
 had recommended to places of the highest trust, and often to rich 
 benefices and dignities, but the open enmity which they had, almost 
 from their cradles, ] rofessed to the divinity of Christ. ' Essays upon 
 Peace at home and War abroad,' in two Parts, 1704. To this piece he 
 put his name ; and, being now in office, he of course supports the 
 existing government He still however attached himself to the Tory 
 party ; and in 1710, in a work extending to two 8vo volumes, entitled 
 ' New Dialogues upon the Present Posture of Affairs, by the author of 
 the Essay on Ways and Means,' he renewed an attack upon their oppo- 
 nents, which he is believed to have commenced many years before in 
 an anonymous publication which appeared, in two successive parts, in 
 1701 and 1702, under the title of 'The True Picture of a Modern 
 Whig.' His last performances were ' Reflections upon the Consti- 
 tution and Management of the Trade to Africa' (anonymous), in three 
 parts, fol. 1709 ; and two ' Reports to the Commissioners for putting 
 in execution the Act for examining the Public Accounts of the 
 Kingdom,' 8vo, 1712. A selection of the political and commercial 
 works of Dr. DAvenant was published in 1771, in 5 vols. 8vo, by Sir 
 Charles Whitworth, M.P., afterwards Earl Whitwortb. 
 
 D'Avenant's writings are generally of some value for the informa- 
 tion contained in them, and on some points he saw rather farther 
 than the generality of his contemporaries; but he is a heavy writer, 
 and was evidently (notwithstanding his poetical descent) a dull man, 
 and as such (though the common notion was different) he was by no 
 means a person to be trusted even in the handling and statement of 
 facte. His notions upon the principles of trade and political economy 
 also were very imperfectly systematised, and in some respects extremely 
 immature ; upon no one question perhaps is he more than partially 
 right He is as much behind his contemporary Sir Dudley North, for 
 example, in the conclusions to which he had come, as if they had been 
 separated by a century. 
 
 (Biograpkia Britannica, 2nd edit; Craik, History of British 
 Commerce, ii. 85, &c. ; M'Culloch, Literature of Political Economy. 
 pp. 351, 352.) " 
 
 DAVENANT, WILLIAM, was born at Oxford in 1605. His 
 lather, who appears to have spelt his name Davenent, kept the Crown 
 
 Inn at Oxford, and some have gathered from Wood's words (' Athon, 
 Oxon.') hints of a connection having existed between his mother and 
 Shakespere, who frequented that place of entertainment. He was 
 entered at Lincoln College, Oxford ; but it does not appear that he 
 took a degree. He then became page to the Duchess of Richmond, 
 and was afterwards in the family of Lord Brooke, the poet. In 1637 
 he succeeded Ben Jouson as laureat ; and in 1641 was accused by the 
 parliament, and force to retire to France. Two years after, he was 
 knighted by Charles at the siege of Gloucester; but in 1646 we find 
 him again in France, a Roman Catholic, and in the employ of 
 Henrietta. Being taken prisoner at sea in 1651, he only escaped being 
 tried for his life by the intercession of some friends, among whom art* 
 said to have been Milton and Whitelocke. His works consist of 
 dramas, masques, addresses, and an unfinished epic called ' Uondibert,' 
 which he dedicated to Hobbes. The only work for which he is now 
 remembered is au alteration of the 'Tempest,' in which he was 
 engaged with Dryden; "and marvellous indeed is it that two men of 
 such great and indubitable genius should have combined to debase 
 and vulgarise and pcllute such a poem ; but, to the scandal of the 
 English stage, it is their ' Tempest,' and not Shakspeare's, which is to 
 this day represented.'' (Southey.) It is in fact only within the last 
 two or three years that any managers have ventured to return to tho 
 text of Shakspere. D Avenant appears to have been the first to mix 
 the English drama with the French heroic play, and to introduce the 
 examples of moral virtue " writ in verse, and performed in recitative 
 music." (Dryden.) As he established a theatre as early as 1657, the 
 times might be partly in fault, but his long residence in France had 
 probably influenced his taste. He died in 1668, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. (Wood, Athen. Oxon.; Biogr. Brit.; Southey, 
 British Poets.) 
 
 DAVID, King of Israel, was the youngest son of Jesse, a man of 
 considerable wealth, of the tribe of Judah, dwelling at Bethlehem. 
 David when only a youth was selected from among his father's sons 
 for the throne of Israel by Samuel, and anointed by him. But Saul 
 was then living, and in apparent prosperity, and this consecration of 
 David does not appear to have been made public; for shortly after- 
 wards he was sent for to attend upon Saul in his malady, and by his 
 skill in music to charm " the evil spirit " which possessed him. He 
 became for a time the favourite of Saul, who made him his armour- 
 bearer. When a war commenced between Saul and the Philistines, the 
 three eldest sons of Jesse joined Saul's army, but David returned to 
 keep his father's sheep. Goliath however having challenged a champion 
 of the Israelitish army to settle the contest by single combat, no one 
 was found, until David offered himself, and with his sliDg conquered 
 the Philistine. From this time Jonathan, the son of Saul, conceived 
 a tender friendship, " passing the love of women," for David ; and 
 Saul at first was grateful for the service rendered, placing him over 
 the men of war, and employing him in his armies. Shortly however 
 David became too popular with the people ; Saul's envy was excited, 
 and he sought to kill him. He failed, and to conciliate him made him 
 captain over a thousand, to remove him from his presence, and gave 
 him Michal, his daughter, for a wife. Saul's hatred however con- 
 tinued, and he proposed to his son Jonathan and others to murder 
 David ; but Jonathan disclosed the plot, David hid himself for a while, 
 and Jonathan succeeded in conciliating his father towards his friend. 
 Some further successes against the Philistines embittered Saul against 
 him ; he again endeavoured to kill him, and again failed. He then 
 sent emissaries to put him to death, but Michal, David's wife, effected 
 his escape by letting him down from a window in a basket. David fled 
 to Samuel, and after a time withdrew to Adullam, where he assembled 
 a force, and a sort of civil war commenced, David apparently acting 
 only on the defensive, but at the same time employing his small army 
 in defending his country from the Philistines. Saul pertinaciously 
 pursued him, but at Engedi, while sleeping, David spared his life when 
 it was in his power. Saul was moved by this magnanimity, acknow- 
 ledged that David was destined to succeed him, and made a treaty 
 with him, David swearing he would not destroy Saul's house ; and 
 Saul retired from the pursuit, but David continued to harbour in the 
 rocky fastnesses around Engedi. Here David was straitened for pro- 
 visions, and applying to Nabal, a rich man, for relief, was churlishly 
 refused ; but Abigail, Nabal's wife, afforded the necessary assistance ; 
 and Nabal dying suddenly, David took Abigail to wife, Saul having in 
 the interval taken Michal and married her to another man. 
 
 Saul was again incited to attack David, and marched with an army 
 to the wilderness of Ziph, where David then was. Again David 
 refused to take the life of "the Lord's anointed" when in his power, 
 and Saul again became reconciled. David now removed to Gath, but 
 continued to make war on the Amalekites, the enemies of hi3 country. 
 Saul and Jonathan both fell in a battle with the Philistines, the 
 former by his own hand; and David, proceeding to Hebron, was 
 recognised King of Judah ; but the Israelites under Abner mads 
 Ishbosheth king over them. A civil war commenced, which lasted a 
 considerable time, until Ishbosheth was treacherously murdered by 
 his own servants, when David, being then thirty years old, became 
 king over all Israel, and reigned from B.C. 1048 to 1015. His first 
 undertaking was against the Jebueites, whom he conquered, taking 
 Mount Zion, which he made the capital of his kingdom and the 
 residence of the ark. He then successively attacked and conquered 
 
619 
 
 DAVID, FELICIEN. 
 
 620 
 
 the Philistines, the Amalekites, the Edomites, the Moabites, the 
 Ammonites, and Hadadezer, the king of Zobah, defeating the Syrians 
 of Damascus with great slaughter who came to Hadadezer's assistance. 
 His kingdom then extended from the Euphrates westward to the 
 Mediterranean, and from Phoenicia southward to the Arabian Gulf. 
 He cultivated commerce, particularly through Tyre, and encouraged 
 the arts, especially that of building. His course for a considerable 
 time was a prosperous one ; but the rebellions of his sons Absalom 
 and Adouijah embittered his later years. He died after a reign of 
 forty years, seven over Judah and thirty-three over the united king- 
 dom, appointing Solomon as his successor. 
 
 Independent of his character as a warrior, a statesman, and a king, 
 David holds a yet higher rank as a poet— the author of many of the 
 Psalms. By whom the book as it now stands was compiled is some- 
 what uncertain. The most probable opinion is, that David himself 
 formed a collection, for the sacred service of the priests, of the psalms 
 which he bad himself composed, with others that were existing before 
 him or had been written by his contemporaries, and that Ezra added 
 others which had been written subsequently. A large proportion were 
 certainly by David, and are distinguished by his name ; but it is 
 doubtful whether the titles prefixed to most of the psalms arc not 
 later additions. They are however certainly of great antiquity, 
 possibly earlier than the time of Ezra, and it is most probable that 
 those under David's name are correctly ascribed to him. 
 
 * DAVID, FELICIEN, an eminent French musical composer, was 
 born at Cadeuet, in Vaucluse, ou the 8th of March 1810. From his 
 father, who was a skilful amateur, young David received his first 
 instructions in music, and when little more than seven years old 
 entered the choir of Saint Sauveur at Aix, to which city his parents 
 had removed. Here he soon attracted notice, as much by the intel- 
 ligence with which he rendered the works of the great masters as by 
 the beauty of his voice ; and in his fifteenth year, according to the 
 custom when the young choristers had obtained the approbation of 
 their superiors, he was placed, for the completion of his general 
 education, in the establishment of the Jesuits at Aix. He here 
 successfully prosecuted his musical studies, becoming especially skilful 
 as a player on the violin. He left this establishment at the age of 
 eighteen ; Boon after accepted an engagement in the orchestra of 
 the theatre at Aix ; and in 1829 that of musical director at Saint- 
 Sauveur. But he was now burning with anxiety to go to Paris, in order 
 to study his art under the eminent professors assembled there, and 
 having obtained of an uncle the promise of a small monthly allowance 
 he proceeded to the capital. One of his compositions for the service 
 at Saint-Sauveur, a ' Beatus vir,' which he carried to Cherubini, then 
 director of the Conservatoire, procured for him immediate admission 
 to that fine institution. Here he studied harmony under M. Leseur, 
 counterpoint and fugue under M. Fetis, and finally the organ under 
 M. Benoit ; but so anxious was he to advance as rapidly as possible, 
 that out of his very limited income he contrived to save nearly half in 
 order to obtain private lessons from M. Reber. His progress in the 
 art was remarkably rapid, and several sacred pieces which he composed 
 showed that he was obtaining a thorough mastery over the scientific 
 principles of music. But his studies were suddenly interrupted by the 
 failure of the promised allowance, and he was obliged to betake himself 
 to giving lessons on the piano for a subsistence. And soon another 
 source of interruption occurred. The doctrines of St. Simon were 
 attracting general attention in France, and many young men of ardent 
 dispositions eagerly adopted them. M. David became a convert, and 
 at the end of 1831 removed his name from the Conservatoire to enter 
 it among the confraternity at their retreat in Menilmontant ; and 
 they assigned to him the task of setting to music the hymns which 
 they used there. When the association was broken up, M. David 
 united himself with those members of it who made a pilgrimage to 
 the East. There, in Egypt, in the Holy Laud, and in the Desert, 
 M. David spent some three years, his mind acquiring a certain 
 orientalism of tone, but his religious aspirations becoming decidedly 
 weaned from St. Simonianiasm. He returned to Paris in the summer 
 of 1835, and set about preparing for publication some 'Melodies 
 Orientales,' which he had written during his travels. But the work 
 was coldly received, and M. David retired disconcerted to the house 
 of a friend in the country. 
 
 David did not appear again before the Parisian public until 1838, 
 when he prepared a symphony for the concert of Valentino, which 
 met with but equivocal success. His ' Nonetto ' for wind instruments, 
 played in the following year at Musard's concert, was somewhat better 
 received. He also published some melodies, which served to keep his 
 name before the public. He had however been during his retirement 
 labouring at a work of far higher pretensions— his ' Ode-Symphonie, 
 en trois parties' — the 'Desert,' which was first played at the Con- 
 servatoire in December 1844, and subsequently brought out with great 
 splendour at the Theatre-Italien, where it met with a brilliant success : 
 it was however somewhat leas successful when played at her Majesty's 
 Theatre, London, though it had a considerable vogue. The 'Desert' 
 was followed by ' Mo'ise au Mont Sinai,' styled by the composer an 
 oratorio in two parts. The ' Moise ' was produced at the opera, Paris, 
 in March 1846; but was received very coldly, and has not we believe 
 been repeated elsewhere. David's next work was the grand symphony, 
 in four i arts, of 'Christophe Colomb/ produced at the Conservatoire 
 
 in March 1847, and which iu Paris met with a success at the moment 
 only inferior to that of the ' Desert,' but its popularity was not lasting : 
 for this work Louis Philippe bestowed on M. David the cross of the 
 Legion of Honour. In 1848 ' Eden, a Mystery, in two parts,' was 
 performed at the opera ; but the times were little suited to the pro- 
 duction of musical mysteries, and it passed away unheeded. David's 
 next work for the theatre was an opera in three acts, ' La Perle du 
 Bresil,' played in November 1851 at the Opera-Nationale. Another 
 grand opera, or musical mystery, ' La Fin du Monde,' in four acts, lias 
 been for some time announced as ready for performance. Besides his 
 greater works, M. David has produced some smaller pieces, ae ' L'Ange 
 Rebelle,' ' Les Hirondelles,' &c. ; also a series of thirty glees for four 
 male voices, called ' La Ruche Harmonieuse ;' a ' Hymn h, la Paix,' &c. 
 His latest works are ' Herculaneum,' a grand opera in four acts, 1859, 
 and ' Lalla Roukh,' in two acts, 1862. 
 
 DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS, was born at Paris in 1748. Iu 1774 
 he went to Rome to study ; he returned to France ten years after- 
 wards, and attained considerable reputation as an historical and por- 
 trait painter. Upon the breaking out of the Revolution he threw 
 himself amongst the foremost ranks of the revolutionists. He was the 
 intimate friend of Robespierre, and was appointed manager of all the 
 spectacles and allegorical shows of the republic. He proposed to 
 construct a colossal figure of the people out of the ruins of the statues 
 of the kings, to be placed on the Pont-Neuf, but never proceeded 
 farther than a model, from which however the design for the reverse 
 of the republican coin was taken, which was used several years. When 
 Robespierre, anticipating his downfall, expressed himself ready to die 
 the death of Socrates, David, who was present, exclaimed, " Robes- 
 pierre, if you will drink the hemlock I will drink it also." In 1794 he 
 was denounced, and imprisoned, altogether about a year ; but was 
 ultimately liberated, and appears thenceforward to have taken a less 
 prominent part in political matters. He was appointed principal 
 painter to the National Institute. In 1815 he was banished from 
 Fiance with those who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., and 
 took up his abode at Brussels, where he died December 29, 1825. 
 Many anecdotes of his cruelty during the revolution are related by 
 his enemies, but they are not well authenticated ; others, in proof of 
 his patriotic magnauimity, are scarcely better established. He appears 
 in truth to have been a man of narrow capacity, and of a warm but 
 not malicious disposition. He is described as being afflicted with a 
 tumour in his jaw, which disfigured his appearance and so disturbed 
 his utterance that he could not speak ten words in the same tone. To 
 this imperfect speech he added a blustering manner. 
 
 David is said to have expressed a wish, that if an Athenian were to 
 revisit the earth, he might take him for a Greek painter. This is the 
 key to his style, which is a servile imitation of the Greek .sculptures ; 
 his figures are like statues coloured and put in motion ; his drawing is 
 correct, and his composition classical ; but his design is constrained 
 and artificial, with a hard outline and harsh colour. The ' Rape of 
 the Sabines ' is considered one of the best of his works, which are 
 chiefly at Paris. His portrait of Napoleon I. is well known. 
 
 DA'VILA, HENRFCO CATERI'NO, born at Pieve di Sacco, near 
 Padua, was the son of Antonio Davila, who was great constable of 
 Cyprus when that island was taken by the Turks from the Venetians 
 in 1571. Antonio emigrated to Spain, where he had relations and 
 afterwards to France, where he won the favour of Catherine de' 
 Medicis and of her son King Henri III. Lastly he went to reside in 
 the Venetian states, where a son was born to him in 1576, to whom 
 he gave the names of Henrico Caterino, in homage of his royal 
 French patrons. When Henrico was seven years old his father took 
 him to France for his education. At the age of eighteen he entered 
 the army of Henri IV., in which he served four years, and was 
 severely wounded at the siege of Honfleur. In 1599 he was recalled 
 to Pieve di Sacco by his father, who soon after, in a fit of temporary 
 insanity, put an end to his life by throwing himself out of a window. 
 Davila now began to pay much attention to literature and to associate 
 with literary men. Being at Parma in 1606, he attended the meetings 
 of the academy of the " Innominati," where his hasty temper involved 
 him in a dispute with Stigliani, one of the members, which led to a 
 duel, in which both parties were wounded; and Stigliani, being 
 dangerously hurt, was obliged to quit Parma, and proceed to Venice. 
 Not long afterwards Henrico entered the military service of Venice, 
 and was employed successively in Candia, Friuli, Dalmatia, and other 
 stations. In 1631 he was sent to take the command of the garrison 
 of Crema, with orders from the senate to the postmasters on the road 
 to supply him with every conveyance required for the service. On 
 arriving at the stage of S, Michele, near Verona, the postmaster 
 refused to furnish the necessary accommodations. High words 
 ensued, and the postmaster fired a pistol, and shot Davila dead in 
 sight of his wife and child»en. One of Davila's sons attacked the 
 murderer, and killed him on the spot ; others were wounded in the 
 affray, and the chaplain of Davila was also slain. The parties who 
 assisted the postmaster were arrested, sent to Verona, and sentenced 
 to death. 
 
 Davila is known to the world through his History of the Civil Wars 
 in France, ' Storia delle Guerre Civili di Francia,' from the death of 
 Henri II. to the peace of Vervins in 1598, a period of forty years 
 most eventful in the history of that country. He treads therefore 
 
m DAVIS, JOHN. DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY. 623 
 
 upon the same ground as De Thou in his ' Historia sui Temporis.* 
 Some critics have noticed that Davila evinces a partiality for the 
 French court, and especially for Catharine de Medici, who had been 
 his father's benefactress. The facts however stated by Davila are 
 acknowledged to be true, and he was well acquainted with them 
 through bis awn and his father's connection with France. He was 
 familiar with the politics of his age, and with the leading contempo- 
 rary characters. He was also well acquainted with the topography 
 of the places in which most of the events which he narrates occurred 
 His style is graphic and animated, especially when he describes a 
 popular insurrection, a combat, or the storming of a town. His 
 account of the massacre of St. Bartholomew may be quoted as a 
 specimen. Apostolo Zeno, comparing Davila with Guicciardini, 
 observes, that whilst the prolixity of Guicciardini in dwelling 
 minutely upon minor matters becomes wearisome to the reader, the 
 course of Davila's narrative runs on uninterrupted, adverting briefly to 
 circumstances of subordinate importance, and dwelling chiefly upon 
 those which have materially affected the interests either of religion 
 or the state. By common consent Davila is numbered among the 
 best historical writers of Italy. His work has gone through many 
 editions, and has been translated into several languages. Apostolo 
 Zeno published a splendid edition of it in 2 vols, fol., Venice, 1733, 
 to which he has prefixed a life of the author. 
 
 (Tiraboschi, Storia delta Lettcratura Italiana; Corniani, / Secoli 
 della Letteratura Italiana.) 
 
 DAVIS, JOHN, a celebrated navigator of the 16th century, was 
 born at Sandridge, near Dartmouth, in Devonshire, and distinguished 
 himself by three voyages for the discovery of a North-West Passage, 
 which he undertook between 1585 and 1587. He discovered the strait 
 which bears his name, and sailed along the coast of Greenland as far 
 as 72° N. lat., but was not able to approach the opposite coast, on 
 account of the numerous icebergs which lined it north of the Polar 
 Circle. He afterwards made five voyages to the East Indies, and was 
 killed in the last (1605) in the Strait of Malacca, by some Japanese, 
 as it is reported. He published an account of his second voyage to 
 the north-west, and of one to the East Indies. He also wrote ' The 
 World's Hydrographical Description; wherein is proved that the 
 World, in all its Zones, Climates, and Places, is Habitable and 
 Inhabited, and the Seas likewise universally Navigable ; whereby it 
 appears that there is a short and speedy passage into the South Seas 
 to China, &c, by Northerly Navigation, to the renown, honour, and 
 benefit of her Majesty's Commonality,' 8vo, Lond., 1595; and 'The 
 Seaman's Secrets, divided into two parts ; wherein is taught tht> three 
 kinds of Sailing, Horizontal, Paradoxal, and Sailing upon a Great 
 Circle,' 8vo, Lond., 1595. 
 
 •DAVIS, SIR JOHN FRANCIS, Bart., was born in London in 
 1795. His father was a director of the East India Company; and 
 when Lord Amherst was sent ambassador to China in 1816 Mr. Davis 
 accompanied him. He subsequently succeeded Lord Napier as chief 
 superintendent at Canton. On his return to England, after a residence 
 in China of more than twenty years, he published, in 1836, 'The 
 Chinese : a General Description of China and its Inhabitants,' in 
 2 vols. Thi3 is undoubtedly the most valuable systematic work on 
 China that had been produced in this country. In 1841 he also 
 published 'Sketches in China,' with notices and observations on the 
 war between that country and Great Britain then proceeding. In 
 1841 Mr. Davis was appointed Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the 
 colony of Hong-Kong, which office he held until 1847. He was created 
 a baronet in 1815, and received the civil order of Knight Grand Cross 
 of the Bath in 1854. Sir Francis has also published translations 
 of ' Chinese Romances ' and dramas, and ' Chinese Miscellanies ' (1866). 
 
 DAVOUT (and not DAVOUST as it is usually written), LOUIS 
 NICHOLAS, was born at Annoux in the department of the Yonne 
 (part of the former Burgundy) in the year 1770. His family was 
 noble, and he was sent to the military academy at Brienne, where 
 he was a fellow-student with Bonaparte. In 1785 he was appointed 
 sub-lieutenant in the Royal Champagne cavalry regiment, and in 
 1790 colonel of a regiment of Yonne volunteers. He had already 
 taken the revolutionary side, and under Dumouriez at the battle of 
 Jemappe, on the 8th of November 1792, he distinguished himself 
 by his activity and boldness. After the check which Dumouriez 
 received at Neerwinden in the following March, he began to enter into 
 negociations with the Prince of Coburg for the surrender of his army ; 
 this was suspected, and Davout formed a project for seizing him in 
 the midst of the army, which had nearly succeeded. In June 1793 
 he was nominated a general, but in consequence of the decree 
 incapacitating the nobility from active service, he was forced to resign. 
 The downfall and death of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor (July 
 27) 1794, removed the impediment and restored Davout to his rank 
 in the army. He distinguished himself in the army of the Moselle at 
 the siege of Luxembourg, and afterwards in the army of the Rhine 
 under Pichegru ; but when Pichegru was defeated at Heidelberg in 
 1795, he evacuated Manheim, and Davout was there taken prisoner ; 
 he however soon recovered his liberty by being exchanged. In 1797 
 his prudent generalship in the passage of the Rhine, as well as his 
 personal valour, was greatly admired, and in the campaign in Italy 
 his z*al and activity procured him the friendship and support of 
 Bonapart', under whom he then served. He accompanied that general 
 
 BIOO. DIV, VOL. IX. 
 
 to Egypt, where his bravery was displayed in attacking and taking 
 the village of Aboukir after the action at that place had been fought 
 against the Turks. After the convention of El-Arish, he embarked at 
 Alexandria to return to France. The vessel was captured by an 
 English frigate, and he was carried as a prisoner of war to Leghorn ; 
 but an order was sent for his release within a month. On his return 
 Bonaparte created him general of division and commander-in-chief of 
 the cavalry in the army of Italy, in which capacity he contributed to 
 the victory of Marengo. When Napoleon was declared emperor, 
 Davout was promoted to be a marshal of France, and received the 
 grand cross of the Legion of Honour with the colonelcy of the 
 Imperial Grenadier Guards. He justified these favours by his conduct 
 in the campaign of 1805, especially at the battle of Austerlitz, where he 
 commanded the right wing of the army. After the treaty of Presburg, 
 by which Austria surrendered large portions of her territory, Davout 
 remained with his division in Germany ; Prussia demanded that the 
 French troops should recross the Rhine, but instead of complying 
 with this demand, Napoleon commenced an attack on Prussia, and, 
 on October 14th, 1806, utterly routed the Prussian army at Jena, 
 while Davout on the same day defeated, by his masterly manoeuvres, 
 the Duke of Brunswick at Auerstadt, though the duke's army was 
 greatly superior in numbers. For this exploit he was created Duke 
 of Auerstadt. On the breaking out of the new war with Austria in 1809, 
 he was called on to take an active part. His march through the 
 Upper Palatinate to the Danube and the taking of Ratisbon, was a 
 perilous but a successful enterprise. He was engaged at Eckmiihl, 
 and for his services there was afterwards created Prince of Eckmiihl. 
 At Aspern only one of his four divisions could engage, but at Wagram 
 he commanded the right wing, by whose movements the retreat of 
 the Austrians was mainly necessitated. After the battle he was made 
 commander in Poland. In the expedition to Russia in 1812 Davout 
 commanded one of the eleven corps of which the army was composed. 
 He was at the battle of Borodino, where he was wounded and had 
 several horses killed under him. After the disastrous retreat from 
 Moscow he fixed his head-quarters at Hamburg, which was imme- 
 diately attacked by the allies, but which he held with a tenacity and 
 defended with an ability that rendered vain all their efforts. It was 
 not till April 1814, after the conclusion of peace, that he consented 
 to surrender the place, not to the allied generals, but to General 
 Gerard, the bearer of orders from Louis XVIII. Davout then retired 
 to his estate at Savigny-sur-Orge. On the return of Bonaparte from 
 Elba he became minister of war, and in three months, in concert with 
 the emperor, had restored the French army to the same strength it 
 had before the events of 1814, and provided it with immense quantities 
 of military stores. After the defeat at Waterloo he received the 
 command of the army assembled under the walls of Paris, and 
 would have fought, had he not received the order of the provisional 
 government to treat with the enemy, and having signed the con- 
 vention of Paris he retired with the army beyond the Loire. He 
 made his submission to the Bourbon government on July 14, 1815, 
 and within a few days gave up the command to' Marshal Macdonald. 
 When the ordonnance of July 24th was issued proscribing Generals 
 Gilly, Grouchy, Excelmans, Clauset, &c, he wrote to Marshal Gouvion 
 de St. Cyr, then minister of war, demanding that his name should be 
 substituted for theirs, as they had only acted by his orders ; and he 
 opposed the proceedings against Ney with much determination. For 
 a while he lived in retirement, but re-entered the chamber of peers 
 in 1819. He died on June 1, 1823. 
 
 Davout was unquestionably possessed of great military talents ; he 
 was a brave soldier and a skilful general ; but his severity and firmness 
 too often became cruelty ; his rapacity was insatiable ; and the 
 extortions he exercised on those he was appointed to govern was 
 such that even Bonaparte censured him for his conduct while in 
 Poland, and his treatment of Hamburg will not speedily be forgotten. 
 
 DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY, was born at Penzance, in Cornwall, on 
 the 17th of December 1778. His ancestors had long possessed a small 
 estate at Varfell, in the parish of Ludgvan. His father was a carver 
 in wood. At the time of his father's death Humphry was sixteen years 
 old, but his mother lived to witness the rapid progress made by her 
 son in the various departments of chemical science. In his early youth 
 he appears to have had a vivid and fertile imagination, and his brother 
 has preserved several favourable specimens of his poetic talent ; other- 
 wise he showed no great precocity of talent. Under Dr. Cardew, 
 whose Bchool he quitted in 1793, he appears to have made considerable 
 progress in learning, but certainly not such as gave any indication of 
 his future eminence. In the beginning of 1795 he was apprenticed 
 to Mr. Borlase, a surgeon and apothecary of Penzance, where he 
 appears to have laid down an extensive plan of study, not merely of 
 the sciences which related to his profession, but the learned languages, 
 mathematics, history, &c. Dr. Davy states that he is not able to give 
 a precise account of the nature and extent of his medical studies ; but 
 in the fourth year after he had commenced them he was considered 
 competent by Dr. Beddoes to take chai-ge of an establishment which 
 he had founded at Bristol under the name of the Pneumatic Institution ; 
 this was in 1798, when he was scarcely twenty years old. In the fol- 
 lowing year Dr. Beddoes published a work, entitled ' Contributions to 
 Physical and Medical Knowledge, principally from the West of England.' 
 Among these were contained 'Es-ayson Heat, Light, and the Poaibina- 
 
 2m 
 
m 
 
 DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY. 
 
 DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY. 
 
 Ml 
 
 tions of Light, with a new Theory of Respiration ; on the Generation 
 of Oxygen Gas, and the Causes of the Colours of Organic Bodies. By 
 Humphry Davy.' Most of the peculiar views developed in these essays 
 ■were speedily abandoned by the author; indeed his brother admits 
 that many of the speculations, he might perhaps have said most, were 
 wild and visionary ; and adds, what will be readily admitted, " that 
 the wildest of them are most natural to a young mind just entering 
 on the twilight of physical science, gifted with high powers and a vivid 
 imagination." 
 
 His next recorded experiments relate to the existence of silica in 
 various plants, especially in the epidermis of cane; and in 1800 he 
 published in 1 vol. 8vo a work entitled ' Researches, Chemical and 
 Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration.' 
 In this work, which contained the details of numerous highly-interesting 
 experiments, he has minutely detailed tho extraordinary effects pro- 
 duced both upon himself and others by respiring nitrous oxide, a gas 
 till then deemed irrespirable. This work also contains an account of 
 some extremely hazardous experiments which he made upon himself 
 in breathing carburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, azote, hydrogen, 
 and nitric oxide : in these dangerous trials his life was more than once 
 nearly sacrificed. 
 
 In 1801 Davy came to London, and on the 25th of April he gave his 
 first lecture at the Royal Institution. He began with the history of 
 galvanism, detailed the successive discoveries, and described the 
 different methods of accumulating it; and on the 31st of May 1802 
 he was appointed professor. From 1800 to 1807 a great variety of 
 subjects attracted his attention, especially galvanism and electro- 
 chemical science ; the examination of astriiigent vegetable matter in 
 connection with the art of tanning, and the analysis of rocks and 
 minerals with relation to geology and to agricultural chemistry. In 
 November 1807 his second Bakerian lecture was read, in which he 
 announced the most important and unexpected discovery of the 
 decomposition of the fixed alkalis by galvanism, and of the metallic 
 nature of their bases, to which he gave the names of potassium and 
 sodium. Dr. Paris has well observed that "Since the account given 
 by Newton of his first discoveries in optics, it may be questioned 
 whether so happy and successful an instance of philosophical induction 
 has ever been afforded as that by which Davy discovered the compo- 
 sition of the fixed alkalis." From the year 1808 to 1814 the following 
 papers by Davy were read before the Royal Society, and published in 
 their ' Transactions :' — • Electro-Chemical Researches on the Decom- 
 position of the Earths; with Observations on the Metals obtained from 
 the Alkaline Earths, and on the Amalgam procured from Ammonia,' 
 read J une 30th, 1S08. ' An Account of some New Analytical Researches 
 on the Nature of certain Bodies, particularly the Alkalis, Phosphorus, 
 Sulphur, Carbonaceous Matter, and the Acids hitherto uncompounded; 
 with some general Observations on Chemical Theory,' December 13th, 
 1808. ' New Analytical Remarks on the Nature of certain Bodies; 
 being an Appendix to the Bakerian Lecture for 1808,' February 1809. 
 'The Bakerian Lecture for 1809; on some New Electro-Chemical 
 Researches on various Objects, particularly the Metallic Bodies, from 
 the Alkalis and Earths, and on some Combinations of Hydrogen,' 
 November 16th, 1809. 'Researches on the Oxymuriatic Acid, its 
 Nature and Combinations, and on the Elements of Muriatic Acid; 
 with some Experiments on Sulphur and Phosphorus,' July 12th, 1810. 
 ' The Bakerian Lecture for 1810 ; on some of the Combinations of 
 Oxymuriatic Acid Gas and Oxygen, and on the Chemical Relations of 
 those Principles to Inflammable Bodies,' November 15th, 1810. 'On 
 a Combination of Oxymuriatic Gas and Oxygen Gas,' February 21st, 
 1811. 'On some Combinations of Phosphorus and Sulphur, and on 
 tome other Subjects of Chemical Inquiry,' June 18th, 1812. 'On a 
 New Detonating Compound,' November 5th, 1812. 'Some further 
 Observations on a New Detonating Substance,' July 1st, 1813. 'Some 
 Experiments and Observations on the Substances produced in different 
 Chemical Processes on Fluor Spar,' July 8th, 1813. 'An Account of 
 some New Experiments on the Fluoric Compounds, with some Observa- 
 tions on other Objects of Chemical Inquiry,' February 13th, 1SU. 
 
 After the enumeration of these important subjects, we cannot do 
 better than refer to them in the words of his brother and biographer : 
 " I shall not," says Dr. Davy, " attempt an analysis of these papers ; 
 I shall give merely a sketch of the most important facts and disco- 
 veries which they contain, referring the chemical reader to the original 
 for full satisfaction. After the extraction of metallic bases from° the 
 fixed alkalies, analogies of the strongest kind indicated that the alka- 
 line earths are similarly constituted ; and he succeeded in proving 
 this in a satisfactory manner. But owing to various circumstances of 
 peculiar properties, he was not able on his first attempts to obtain 
 the metals of those earths in a tolerably pure and insulated state for 
 the purpose of examination. On his return to the laboratory after 
 his illness, this was one of his first undertakings. He accomplished it 
 to a certain extent by uniting a process of MM. Berzelius and Pontin, 
 who were then engaged in the same inquiry, with one of his own. By 
 negatively electrifying the earths, slightly moistened, and mixed with 
 red oxide of mercury, in contact with a globule of mercury, he 
 obtained amalgams of their metallic bases ; and by distillation, with 
 peculiar precautions, he expelled the greater part of the mercury. 
 Even now, in consequence of the very minute quantities of the bases 
 which he procured, and their very powerful attraction for oxygen, he 
 
 was only able to ascertain a few of their properties in a hasty manner. 
 They were of silvery lustre, solid at ordinary temperatures, fixed at a 
 red heat, and heavier than water. At a high temperature they 
 abstracted oxygen from the glass, and at ordinary temperatures from 
 the atmosphere and water, the latter of which in consequence they 
 decomposed. 
 
 " The names he proposed for them, and by which they have since 
 been called, were barium, strontium, calcium, and magnium, which 
 he afterwards altered to magnesium. 
 
 " The same analogies were nearly as strong applied to the proper 
 earths ; and he attempted their decomposition in a similar manner, 
 but not with the same success. By the action of potassium proof was 
 obtained that they consist of bases united to oxygen ; but whether 
 these bases were inflammable substances merely, or metallic inflam- 
 mable substances, was yet a problem, which has since been solved by 
 the labours of Wohler, Bussy, and Berzelius. Analogy was in favour 
 of the latter inference, as was also the circumstance that the bases of 
 these earths are capable of entering into union with iron ; and this 
 has been confirmed by the inquiries just mentioned as regards the 
 majority of them, all but the basis of silica, which yet remains 
 doubtful. 
 
 " The application of these facts to geology was full of promise ; and 
 he indulged in the hope that they might serve to explain not only 
 some of the most mysterious phenomena of nature, as earthquakes 
 and volcanoes, and the combustion of meteoric stones and falling 
 stars, but might ultimately lead to a general hypothesis of the forma- 
 tion of the crust of the earth." 
 
 His ideas ou this last subject, which he afterwards in great measure 
 relinquished, may be seen in Dr. Davy's ' Life of Sir Humphry,' 
 vol. L p. 397. 
 
 After effecting the decomposition of the fixed alkalis, Davy, 
 reasoning from analogy, conjectured that ammonia might also contain 
 oxygen, and his first experiments were favourable to this supposition; 
 but they contained a fallacy. In his various papers on 'oxymuriatic 
 acid and it3 compounds,' he establishes the views of Scheele respecting 
 its nature, and proves that the reasoning of Berthollet, which had 
 generally been admitted by chemists, was fallacious. He shows that 
 oxymuriatic acid is not a compound, as supposed, of muriatic acid and 
 oxygen, but an undecomposed body, to which, on account of its green 
 colour, he gave the name of chlorine. In 1810 he published the first 
 volume of his ' Elements of Chemical Philosophy,' which, although 
 they bear marks of haste, contain much interesting matter: no further 
 portion of this work was printed. His 'Elements of Agricultural 
 Chemistry,' which appeared soon after, is a work containing much 
 useful matter, and replete with sound and practical views of the 
 subject. 
 
 One of his greatest inventions was that of the miner's safety-lamp, 
 the first paper in relation to which appeared in the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions ' for 1815, and the last in 1817. 
 
 Sir Humphry became president of the Royal Society in 1820, and 
 he continued to contribute papers on subjects of great interest for 
 some years. Among the most curious of these, and full of promise as 
 to utility, were those which related to the modes of protecting the 
 copper sheathing of ships ; from causes however which even his 
 sagacity could not foresee, the plan proved abortive. 
 
 We have thus given a very imperfect and slight sketch of the 
 discoveries of this very extraordinary man and eminent chemist; a 
 list of his works, or at any rate the principal of them, will be found 
 at the end of Dr. Paris's Life of him. With respect to his philo- 
 sophical character, the parallel which has been drawn between him 
 and Dr. Wollaston by the late Dr. Henry, while it does justice to both, 
 presents the powers of Davy in a strong and clear point of view, and 
 in the language of one who was deeply versed in the sciences of which 
 he is speaking, and intimately acquainted with the philosopher whose 
 portrait he draws. 
 
 " To those high gift3 of nature which are the characteristics of 
 genius, and which constitute its very essence, both these eminent men 
 united an unwearied industry and zeal in research, and habits of 
 accurate reasoning, without which even the energies of genius are 
 inadequate to the achievement of great scientific designs. With these 
 excellences, common to both, they were nevertheless distinguished by 
 marked intellectual peculiarities. Bold, ardent, and enthusiastic, 
 Davy soared to greater heights ; he commanded a wider horizon, and 
 his keen vision penetrated to its utmost boundaries. His imagination, 
 in the highest degree fertile and inventive, took a rapid and extensive 
 range in the pursuit of conjectural analogies, which he submitted to 
 close and patient comparison with known facts, and tried by an appeal 
 to ingenious and conclusive experiments. He was endued with the 
 spirit and was a master of the practice of the inductive logic ; and he 
 has left us some of the noblest examples of the efficacy of that great 
 instrument of human reason in the discovery of truth. He applied 
 it not only to connect classes of facts of more limited extent and 
 importance, but to develop great and comprehensive laws, which 
 embrace phenomena that are almost universal to the natural world. 
 In explaining these laws he cast upon them the illumination of his 
 own clear and vivid conception ; he felt an intense admiration of the 
 beauty, order, and harmony which are conspicuous in the perfect 
 chemistry of nature ; and he expressed those feelings with a force of 
 
DAVY, JOHN, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 eloquence which could issue only from a mind of the highest powers 
 and the finest sensibilities." ('Elements of Chemistry,' 11th edition.) 
 
 Davy was knighted on the 8th of April 1S12, and on the 11th of the 
 game month he married Mrs. Apreece, the widow of Shuckburgh 
 "Ashby Apreece, Esq., eldest son of Sir Thomas Apreece; this lady 
 was the daughter and heiress of Charles Kerr, Esq., of Kelso, and 
 possessed a very considerable fortune. He was afterwards created a 
 baronet. He died on the 29th of May 1829, at Geneva. His widow 
 survived him till 1855. 
 
 * DAVY, JOHN, M.D., F.R.S., the brother and biographer of Sir 
 Humphry Davy, and eminent as a chemist, geologist, and physiologist. 
 Dr. Davy studied medicine in Edinburgh, and took his degree of 
 Doctor of Medicine in that University in 1814. He entered the army 
 as a surgeon, and is now inspector-general of army hospitals on half- 
 pay. He has been a most copious writer, having written several 
 volumes on general subjects, besides a large number of papers ranging 
 over nearly the whole field of natural science. His general works 
 are : — 1, 'An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and of its Inhabitants, 
 with Travels in that Island,' London, 4to, 1821. 2, ' Life of Sir 
 Humphry Davy,' London, 2 vols. 8vo. 3, ' Notes on the Ionian 
 Islands and Malta,' London, 2 vols. 8vo, 1842. 4, ' The West Indies 
 before and since Slave Emancipation,' London, 1 voL 8vo. 5, ' The 
 ADgler and his Friend,' 1 vol. 8vo. 
 
 Dr. Davy's physiological researches have been principally published 
 in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' the 'Transactions' of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, and the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society. 
 He has also published two volumes entitled ' Researches Physiological 
 and Anatomical,' London, 8vo, 1839. It is almost impossible to give 
 in a few words an idea of the extent and variety of these researches. 
 They embrace a wide field of observation, and afford abundant 
 evidence of a highly cultivated mind and habits of accurate obser- 
 vation. The subject of animal heat has perhaps been more illustrated 
 by Dr. Davy's researches than any other on which he has written. 
 The title of some of his papers will show the range of his physical 
 enquiries. ' On the Specific Gravity of different parts of the Human 
 Body,' 'An Account of some Experiments and Observations on the 
 Torpedo,' ' On the early Generative Power of the Goat,' ' On the Com- 
 position of the Colostrum,' ' Miscellaneous Observations on Blood and 
 Milk.' The sciences of meteorology and geology have both received 
 valuable contributions from the pen of Dr. Davy. In all his researches 
 he has displayed an intimate acquaintance with the science of chemistry, 
 and one of his most recent works consists of a series of ' Lectures on 
 the Study of Chemistry,' in which this science is regarded in its 
 relations to the atmosphere, the earth, the ocean, and the art of 
 agriculture. 
 
 DAWES, RICHARD, was born at Market-Bosworth in the year 
 1708. His first teacher was Anthony Blackwall, the well-known 
 author of ' The Sacred Classics,' after which he spent some time at the 
 Charter House, and went to Emanuel College, Cambridge, in the year 
 1725 ; he was elected Fellow in 1731. In 1736 he published a speci- 
 men of a translation of 'Paradise Lost' into Greek hexameters, which 
 proved, as he afterwards admitted (Pref. to his 'Miscellanea Critica'), 
 that he was then very insufficiently acquainted with the Greek 
 language. He became master of the grammar-school at Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne in 1738 ; but his disagreeable manners diminished the 
 number of his scholars, and he resigned the situation in 1749. In his 
 latter days his principal employment was rowing in a boat on the 
 Tyne. He died at Haworth on the 21st of March 1766. The work 
 ou which his fame rests is his ' Miscellanea Critica,' published at 
 Cambridge in 1745, which places him in the same class with Bentley 
 and Porson as a verbal Greek critic. The work is divided into five 
 sections, of which the first contains some emendations of Terentiauus 
 Maurus ; the second is a specimen of the want of accuracy in the 
 Oxford edition of Pindar; in the third are some general observations 
 on the Greek language, to which are added some emendations of 
 Callimachus; the fourth is a short discussion on the Digamma; and 
 the fifth is devoted to the illustration of Aristophanes. The leading 
 characteristic of the scholarship of Dawes is a proneness to rash 
 generalisation; and though it has been termed the scholarship of 
 observation, it must be admitted that Dawes is too apt to form 
 general rules from an insufficient number of passages, and conse- 
 quently that his system scarcely deserves that title. Hardly one of 
 the syntactical rules which Dawes has laid down has been admitted 
 as unexceptionable ; and some of them have been completely over- 
 thrown by the number of passages in which they are violated. The 
 authority of the ' Miscellanea Critica ' was however so great for some 
 twenty or thirty years after its publication, that many readings sup- 
 ported by manuscript authority were altered to meet the canons in 
 that book. The violent animosity which Dawes everywhere shows 
 towards Bentley may perhaps be accounted for by the universal 
 dislike which that great scholar had incurred during his quarrels 
 with Trinity College, about the time when Dawes was a young 
 member of the university. The be3t editions of the ' Miscellanea 
 Critica' (which may now be considered as superseded by the advances 
 fchich Greek scholarship has made during the last thirty years) are 
 those by Burgess, Oxon., 1781, and by Kidd, Cantabr., 1817, in which 
 •pecimens of his other writings may be seen. 
 
 DAY, THOMAS, was born at London in 1748. His father held a 
 
 DE CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAMUS. bu 
 
 place in the Customhouse, and died when Thomas was a year old, 
 leaving him a fortune of 1200£. a year. He received his school educa- 
 tion at the Charterhouse, and at the age of sixteen was entered a 
 gentleman commoner of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he 
 remained for three years, but left without taking a degree. He then 
 spent some summers in travelling through and residing in France and 
 other parts of the continent. He had already adopted certain strong 
 and peculiar opinions on the subject of education, holding apparently 
 on the one hand that the common mode of education was wholly 
 vicious, and on the other, that by a proper education there was scarcely 
 anything that might not be accomplished. About the year 17G9 he 
 proceeded to put his theories to the test of a bold experiment, by 
 selecting from the foundling hospital at Shrewsbury two girls of 
 twelve years of age, with the design of rearing them according to his 
 own notions, and then making one of them his wife ; and although 
 this speculation failed in the main point, its eccentric author never 
 having married either of his protegees, both the girls, with the portions 
 he gave them, obtained husbands, and by the propriety of their con- 
 duct through life did honour to his training. In 1778 Mr. Day married 
 Miss Milnes, of Yorkshire, a lady similar to himself in her tastes and 
 opinions, and having a fortune as large as his own. The following 
 year he was called to the bar ; but he never practised. Meanwhile in 
 1773 he had made his first appearance as an author, in conjunction 
 with his friend Mr. Bicknell, in a poem entitled 'The Dying Negro,' 
 a production which is said to have had a considerable share in 
 exciting the public feeling against the atrocities of the slave-trade. 
 In 1776 he published another poem, called 'The Devoted Legions,' 
 being an attack upon the American War. It was followed the next 
 year by another on the same subject, entitled ' The Desolation of 
 America.' After this he published several political pamphlets in 
 prose; namely, in 1784, 'The Letters of Marius; or Reflections upon 
 the Peace, the East India Bill, and the Present Crisis,' and ' A Frag- 
 ment of a Letter on the Slavery of the Negroes ' (in the United 
 States); in 1785, 'A Dialogue between a Justice of Peace and a 
 Farmer;' and in 1788, 'A Letter to Arthur Young, Esq., on the Bill 
 to prevent the Exportation of Wool.' In 1783 appeared the first 
 volume of the work by which he is now principally remembered, his 
 ' History of Saudford and Merton ; ' the second volume was published 
 in 1786, and the third in 1789. The object of this fiction is to 
 illustrate and recommend the views of the author on education and 
 on human nature generally ; and it is a good picture of both his 
 intellectual and his moral character. Its freshness and vigour, and 
 the strain of disinterestedness and philanthropy that pervades it, have 
 a charm, especially for the young; but the narrowness of the writer's 
 views makes it useless for any practical purpose, and nearly equally 
 valueless as a piece of philosophy. Day is also the author of a shorter 
 work of fiction, called ' The History of Little Jack.' He was killed 
 28th of September 1789, by a kick from a young horse, which he was 
 training upon some new principle. 
 
 DE CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PY'RAMUS, was born at Geneva, 
 where his father was premier syndic, in 1778, the year in which Haller, 
 Linnseus, and Bernard de Jussieu died. His family originally cama 
 from Marseille, but had for more than two centuries been settled at 
 Geneva. His earliest tastes were altogether of a literary kind, and 
 from infancy he was distinguished for the ardour with which he 
 pursued his studies. He was remarkable for the facility with which 
 he wrote verses, a habit in which he indulged throughout life. In 
 1792, with his mother and brother, he sought refuge, whilst the French 
 were besieging Geneva, in a village situated at the foot of the Jura. 
 Here he amused himself in collecting wild plants, and acquired a tasta 
 for botany, which, on subsequently attending the lectures of Professor 
 Vaucher in his native city, became the occupation of his life. In 1796 
 he went to Paris, and attended the lectures of Vauquelin, Cuvier, and 
 Fourcroy. He also became intimately acquainted with Desfontaines 
 and Lamarck. 
 
 The first efforts of De Candolle in botanical science were rather 
 directed to the observation of facts and the accurate distinction of 
 species, than to the theories connected with the physiology or develop- 
 ment of plants. His first publication was a description of succulent 
 plants, delineations of which were supplied by Redoute". He also 
 drew up the descriptions for the magnificent work of the same artist 
 on the 'Liliaceae,' which was published in 1802. After a short with- 
 drawal from Paris on account of the political state of France, he 
 returned there in 1804, and took his degree of Doctor of Medicine. 
 His thesis on this occasion was on the medical properties of plants. 
 In this masterly essay, which he subsequently republished much 
 enlarged, he demonstrated satisfactorily the close connection that 
 exists between the sciences of botany and medicine, and it led to 
 an increasing attention to the structure and secretions of plants, as 
 affording at once the aliment of mau in health and his medicine in 
 disease. In the same year he delivered in the College of France a 
 course of lectures on the principles of botanical arrangement, of which 
 he gave a sketch in the introduction to the third edition of Lamarck's 
 ' Flora of France,' which was published iu the following year. This 
 sketch gave an outline of those principles of classification which in 
 after life became the basis of those great works on which his fame as 
 a botanist must principally rest. Although nearly every botanist had 
 yielded to the influence of the artificial system of Linnxus, De Candolle 
 
627 DE CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAMUS. 
 
 at this period correctly estimated its merits. " The natural method," 
 he observed, " endeavours to place each individual object in the midst 
 of those with which it possesses the greatest number of points of 
 resemblance ; the artificial has no other end than that of enabling us 
 to recognise each individual plant, and to isolate it from the rest of 
 the vegetable kingdom. The former, being truly a science, will servo 
 as an immutable foundation for anatomy and physiology to build 
 upon ; whilst the second, being a mere empirical art, may indeed offer 
 some conveniences for practical purposes, but does nothing towards 
 enlarging the boundaries of science, and places before us an indefinite 
 number of arbitrary arrangements. The former, searching merely 
 after truth, has established its foundation on the organs that are of 
 the greatest importance to the existence of plants, without considering 
 whether these organs are easy or difficult of observation ; the second, 
 aiming only at facility, bases its distinctions upon those which are 
 most readily examined, and therefore present the greatest facilities 
 for study." 
 
 In the collection of plants De Candolle spared no personal pains, 
 and from the time of his being associated with Lamarck to 1812, 
 travelled over every district of the then extensive possessions of Franco 
 for the purpose of examining its native plants. In these excursions 
 also he was frequently employed by the government to report upon 
 the state of agriculture. 
 
 In 1807 De Candolle was made Professor of Botany in the Faculty 
 of Medicine at the university of Montpellier. In 1810, a chair of 
 Botany being constituted in the Faculty of Sciences of the same place, 
 he was appointed to it During his residence at Montpellier he 
 devoted much time to the botanic garden; and published a catalogue 
 of the plants contained in it, with descriptions of many new species. 
 Circumstances however occurred which led him to quit Montpellier, 
 and in 1816 he returned to his native city, which was restored to its 
 independence on the re-establishment of the Bourbons on the throne 
 of France. A chair of natural history was established especially for 
 him at Geneva. In the same year he visited England to examine the 
 collections of plants in the British Museum, the Liunscan and other 
 societies, for the purpose of aiding him in the publication of his great 
 work on tho vegetable kingdom. 
 
 In 1818 appeared the first volume of this work, intended to com- 
 prehend a description of all known plants. He had in a measure 
 enunciated the principles on which this work would be based by the 
 publication of his ' Thdorie Eldrnentaire,' in 1813. In this work he 
 not only carried out the principles of a natural arrangement of plants, 
 which had been previously developed by Jussieu and Adanson, but by 
 a more extended study of the principles of morphology he was enabled 
 to clear up many of the difficulties which existed in the grouping of 
 plants in previous classifications. Whatever may be the claims of 
 previous writers in this department of botanical inquiry, to De Candolle 
 must be conceded the merit of giving definite expressions for the 
 various causes which act upon the structure of plants, and pointing 
 out the relation between abnormal forms in individual plants and 
 normal forms in particular groups. 
 
 The natural system of the vegetable kingdom however was only 
 commenced ; a second volume appeared in 1821, but the author was 
 obliged to abandon the design, as a work of too great magnitude. He 
 therefore in 1824 commenced the publication of a Prodromus of the 
 larger work. But even this proved a work too extensive for com- 
 pletion during his lifetime. This work embraced descriptions of all 
 the known species of plants. Commencing with the phanerogamous 
 plants, each order in the natural system -was exhausted as far as the 
 materials of the author would allow. All the orders belonging to the 
 polypetalous division of Exogens were completed, as well as the orders 
 of the monopetalous division as far as the Composite. To this last 
 difficult order De Candolle had paid much attention, and his desire to 
 give it in as perfect a form as possible led him to devote so much 
 time to it as materially to injure his health. The work was left 
 incomplete at his death, but partly from the materials which he had 
 collected it was continued by his son, assisted by other eminent 
 botanists. The importance of this publication to the working botanist 
 can hardly be overrated, as it supplies him with the means of recog- 
 nising a vast number of species that had before been either undescribed 
 or inaccessible to the student from the places in which they were 
 published. Another point which enhances the value of this work is 
 the care which the author bestowed in drawing up the descriptions of 
 plants, which could not have been done so well by any one who 
 possessed a less extensive herbarium and library than himself. 
 
 But although the labour bestowed on this great work, and the 
 judgment with which it was executed, have given it the most pro- 
 minent position amongst his works, it can only be regarded as the 
 result of an accurate knowledge of the structure and function of 
 plants. On this subject he lectured for many years, and although 
 frequently producing monographs on various departments of botany, 
 which indicated his knowledge of vegetable anatomy and physiology, 
 it w as not till 1827 that he published his ' Organographie Vdgdtale.' 
 [n this work he proceeded on the principle of tracing each organ 
 through all its several modifications of structure in the different 
 plants in which it occurs, and of reducing every part to its organic 
 elements. It is thus not a mere detail of particular structures, but a 
 development of the great doctrine of metamorphosis, which had been 
 
 DECIIALES, CLAUDE FRANCOIS MILLIET. 
 
 explained in his previous work on tho principles of classification. 
 This work was followed in 1832 by one on the physiology of plants. 
 This was a comprehensive digest of all that had been done up to the 
 period at which it was written. It was however published at a time 
 when the chemist and physiologist were both turning their attention 
 to the functions of the vegetable, as affording the means of better 
 understanding the nature of the functions of the animal, and conse- 
 quently many of the views of the author have had to give way before 
 more extended investigation. 
 
 For several years previous to his death, De Candolle suffered from 
 ill-health. In 1841 he was induced to visit the meeting of naturalists 
 held at Turin, in the hope that change of climate would restore his 
 failing powers, but he derived no benefit from his journey, and died 
 on tho 9th of the following September. 
 
 As a botanist De Candolle must be placed in the first rank in the 
 century in which he lived. He possessed a quick apprehension, 
 which enabled him to make use of the labours of others, added to a 
 habit of methodical arrangement, by which he could at once refer the 
 various facts that came to his knowledge to their proper position in 
 the departments of the science which he pursued. It was this which, 
 combined with a clear and pleasing delivery, made him a successful 
 lecturer, and enabled him to produce with rapidity so many works 
 on botany. But he was not only a botanist : he was earnest in his 
 sympathies with mankind, and was a zealous philanthropist and 
 energetic citizen. In Paris, in the early part of his life, under the 
 auspices of Benjamin Delassert, he took an active part in the formation 
 of the Socidtd Philanthropique of Paris, and the Society for the 
 Encouragement of National Industry was formed under his direction 
 and management. He was for many years a member of the legislative 
 body of Geneva, and also rector of the academy in the same place. 
 
 The following is an alphabetical list of his works : — 
 
 1. ' Astragalogia, nempe Astragali, Biserrulse, et Oxytropedis, necnon 
 Phactc, Colutese, et LaBsertia; Historia, Iconibus illustrata a Redoutd,' 
 fol., Paris, 1802. This work was an account of the Astragalus and 
 some allied genera, and was illustrated by Redoutd. 2. ' Catalogue 
 des Arbres Fruitiers et des Vignes du Jardin Botanique de Geneve,' 
 Geneva, 1820. 3. 'Eloge Historique d'Aug. Broussonet' (the botanist), 
 4to, Montpellier, 1809. 4. ' Essai Eldrnentaire de Gdographie Bota- 
 niqu",' 8vo, Paris, 1821: a reprint of an article in the ' Dictionnaire 
 des Sciences Naturelles.' 5. ' Essai sur les Propridtds Mddicinales des 
 Plantes, comparees avec leurs Formes extdrieures et leur Classification 
 Naturelle,' 1804, 8vo, Paris, 1810. This was his inaugural dissertation 
 on the medical properties of plants in 1804, which he republished in 
 the year 1816. 6. ' Flore Franchise, ou Description de toutes les 
 Plantes qui croissent naturellement en France.' The third edition of 
 this work was edited by De Candolle. It was published at different 
 times from 1803 to 1815, and contained a description of 6000 plants, 
 and was accompanied by a coloured chart, indicating the distribution 
 of plants throughout France. 7. ' Icones Plantarum Galliae rariorum,' 
 4to, Paris, 1804. 8. ' Instructions Pratiques sur les Collections 
 Botaniques,' 8vo, Geneva, 1820. 9. ' Mdmoire sur les diffdrentu 
 Especes, Races, et Varidtds de Choux et de Raiforts cultivds en 
 Europe,' 8vo, Paris, 1822. This is a translation of a memoir which 
 appeared in the 'Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London.' 
 10. 'Mdmoires sur la Famille des Ldgumineuses,' illustrated by 70 
 plates, 4to, Paris, 1825. 11. ' Notice sur l'Histoire et 1' Administrations 
 des Jardins Botaniques,' 8vo, Paris, 1822. This was a reprint of an 
 article which appeared in the ' Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles.' 
 12. 'Organographie Vdgdtale,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827. 13. 'Plantarum 
 Succulentarum Historia,' 4 vols. 4to and fol., Paris, 1799. 14. 'Plantes 
 Rares du Jardin de Geneve,' 4to, Geneva, 1825. It was pub- 
 lished in parts, each part containing six plates. 15. ' Prodromus 
 Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis,' 8vo, Pari3 and Loudon, 1824, 
 &c. 16. 'Regni Vegetabilis Sy sterna Naturale,' 8vo. Paris, 1818. 
 This work, which was to have contained a full description of all the 
 plants then known, was only commenced by De Candolle, and the 
 ' Prodromus ' was published in its place. 17. ' Projet d'une Flore 
 Gdographique du Leman,' 8vo, Geneva, 1820. 18. 'Rapport a la 
 Socidtd de Lecture de Geneve,' 8vo, Geneva, 1820. 19. 'Rapport sur 
 la Fondation du Jardin de Botanique de Geneve,' 8vo, 1819. A second 
 report on the same subject was published in 1821. 20. 'Rapport sur 
 la Question des Magazins de Subsistance, fait au Conseil Representant 
 de Geneve,' 8vo, Geneva, 1819. 21. ' Rapport sur la Pomme de Terre, 
 fait a la Classe d'Agriculture de Geneve,' 8vo, Geneva, 1822. This was 
 followed by two other reports on the culture and uses of the potato. 
 22. ' Thdorie Eldmentaire de la Botanique,' 8vo, Paris, 1813 and 1816. 
 
 Besides the above works, De Candolle contributed papers to the 
 ' Transactions ' of almost every scientific society in Europe, a bare 
 list of which would far exceed the limits of this article. 
 
 (Dr. Daubeny, Sketch of the Writings and Philosophical Character oj 
 A. P. De Candolle; Proceedings of the Linncean Society, 1842; Bischoff, 
 Lehrbuch der Botanih ; Qudrard, La France Litteraire.) 
 
 DECHALES, CLAUDE FRANCOIS MILLIET, was born at 
 Chambery, the capital of Savoy, in 1611. He wrote largely on 
 several branches of mathematical, mechanical, and astronomical 
 science ; but the only work by which he is generally known is his 
 edition of Euclid, which was long a favourite text-book in France and 
 iu other parts of the continent. It was also translated into English, 
 
DECIUS CAIUS. 
 
 DECKER, SIR MATTHEW. 
 
 030 
 
 but did not obtain great popularity among our countrymen, whose 
 teste in geometry continued, till recently, to partake strongly of the 
 pure severity of the ancient Greek writers. 
 
 Dechales was however an accurate and elegant writer on the subjects 
 which he treated ; and there are interspersed through his works many 
 marks of considerable invention, as well as of a happy power of 
 adaptation of the knowledge of his predecessors and contemporaries. 
 Still he was not one of those men who had the power greatly to 
 extend the boundaries of science ; it was his province rather to place 
 it in such a light as to facilitate its acquisition by others. 
 
 He was appointed professor of mathematics in the college of Cler- 
 mont, the chair of which he appears to have filled for about four 
 years; and thence he removed to Marseille, where he taught navi- 
 gation, military engineering, and the applications of mathematics to 
 practical science. From Marseille he went to Turin, where he was 
 appointed professor of mathematics in the university, and died in that 
 city on the 28th of March, 1678. 
 
 As a teacher, Dechales was remarkable for his urbanity, and for the 
 adaptation of his instruction to the previous acquirements of his 
 pupils ; and as a man, his probity and amiable spirit gained for him 
 the admiration and love of all with whom he was associated. 
 
 The works of Dechales were published at Lyon in 1690, in four 
 folio volumes, under the title of Mundus Mathematicus. A former 
 edition of these was also published in three volumes ; but this edition 
 is far less complete than that of 1690. 
 
 DECIUS CAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS, the Roman 
 emperor, succeeded Philip, and chiefly distinguished himself for his 
 violent persecution of the Christians. He and his son fell in an expe- 
 dition against the Goths, about a.d. 251. 
 
 Coin of Decius Trajanus. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 303J grains. 
 
 DE'CIUS MUS, a Roman who distinguished himself by many war- 
 like exploits, and received many honours. In a battle against the 
 Latins he voluntarily devoted himself to the Dii Manes. He had made 
 an agreement with his colleague, Manlius Torquatus, that the consul 
 whose wing first gave way should devote himself to death. The cere- 
 mony of consecration was performed with great solemnity, and having 
 directed the lictors to acquaint the other consul that he had given 
 himself up for the safety of the army, he rode into the thick of the 
 enemy, and was soon overpowered by a shower of darts, about B.C. 338. 
 His son Decius Mus followed his heroic example in a war against the 
 Gauls, B.C. 295, as well as his grandson in the war with Pyrrhus, 
 B.C. 280. 
 
 DECKER, JEREMIAS DE, one of the most esteemed Dutch 
 poets of the 17th century, was born at Dordrecht about 1610. His 
 father Abraham do Decker, who had embraced tho reformed religion, 
 was, although of good family, in very moderate circumstances, first 
 as a tradesman, afterwards as a public broker. Aided merely by such 
 instruction as his father could give him, and his own natural aptitude 
 for learning, which was seconded by an excellent memory, young 
 De Decker made so great proficiency that while yet a lad he acquired 
 the Latin, Italian, French, and English languages, notwithstanding he 
 was even then obliged to assist his father in his business. At no time 
 of his life in fact can literature be said to have been his occupation, 
 yet that and poetical composition continued to the last to employ the 
 intervals of leisure allowed by his commercial pursuits. 
 
 His earliest essays in poetry consisted of paraphrases from Jere- 
 miah, &c, and of translations and imitations from Horace, Prudentius, 
 Buchanan, to which may be added his ' Good Friday,' a collection of 
 pieces breathing the most pure devotional feeling. Indeed a strong 
 vein of unaffected religious sentiment runs through all his compositions. 
 Even his ' Puntdichten ' are many of them of a religious, all of a moral 
 tendency, being for the most part so many condensed ethic lessons and 
 reflections rather than epigrams, except as to the ingenious turn and 
 point, which frequently render them highly impressive, although their 
 subjects may be familiar truths. The longest of all his productions 
 is his ' Lof der Geldzucht,' or 'Praise of Avarice,' a poem in which 
 that vice is satirised in a strain of amusing irony. It is replete with 
 learning, felicity of illustration, and a playfulness of tone which only 
 serves to render it all the more caustic ; no wonder therefore that it 
 has been greatly admired, and has earned for itself a place beside 
 Erasmus's celebrated ' Moriso Encomium.' This was almost the very 
 la»t piece he ever wrote, nor did he live to enjoy its reputation, for he 
 died while it was in the press, in November 1666. 
 
 DECKER, SIR MATTHEW, Baut., was born at Amsterdam iu 
 the latter part of the 17th century, of a Protestant family originally 
 from Flaudcrs, where his ancestors had been engaged in commerce till 
 they were driven out in the Spanish persecution under the Duke of 
 Alva, leaving their estates to their Catholic relations, some of whom 
 long continued to occupy eminent positions in the municipal govern- 
 ment at Brussels. Such was the account given by Sir Matthew him- 
 self to Collins, the genealogist, in 1727, as recorded by the hitter in his 
 'English Baronetage,' iv. 185 (published in 1741). Decker came over 
 to England in 1702 ; and he was naturalised the following year by the 
 28th private Act of the 2nd of Anne. Having settled as a merchant 
 in London, he rose to great commercial eminence, was made a baronet 
 in 1716, and in 1719 was returned to Parliament for Bishop's Castle. 
 He only sat however in the House of Commons for four sessions, and 
 his name does not occur in the reported debates. He married Hen- 
 rietta, daughter of the Rev. Dr. Richard Watkins, rector of Wickford, 
 in Warwickshire; and he died March 18th, 1749, when the baronetcy 
 became extinct, and his estates devolved upon his three daughters. 
 It is said to have been in the gardens of Sir Matthew Decker's country- 
 seat at Richmond, in Surrey, that the pine-apple was first brought to 
 maturity in England. 
 
 Decker is believed to be the author of a little work first published 
 in 8vo at London, in 1743, and entitled in the fourth edition, which 
 appeared in the course of the following year, ' Serious Considerations 
 on the several high duties which the nation in general (as well as its 
 trade in particular) labours under ; with a proposal for preventing the 
 running of goods ; discharging the trade from any search, and raising 
 all the public supplies by one single tax. By a well-wisher to the 
 good people of Great Britain.' In the seventh edition, which appeared 
 in the same form in 1756, the tract is stated on the title-page to be 
 ' By the late Sir Matthew Decker, Bart.' It consists in both these 
 editions of only 32 pages. The author explains his object in p. 15 : 
 "My proposal," he says, "in short, is this: that there be but one 
 single excise duty over all Great Britain, and that upon houses." He 
 would in this way raise an annual revenue of 6,000,0002., being as 
 much as the ordinary expenses of the government then amounted to ; 
 with 1,000,0002. over to form a sinking-fund for the discharge of the 
 debt. He calculates that in England, exclusive of Wales, there were 
 then 1,200,000 houses; but of these he would tax only 600,000, 
 counting off 500,000 as inhabited by the working and poorer classes, 
 and 100,000 as uninhabited. 
 
 We do not know whether this scheme attracted much notice when 
 it was first proposed, but, from the frequency with which it was 
 reprinted, we may infer that it did. It was at any rate elaborately 
 answered, soon after its republication in 1756, in a thick pamphlet of 
 120 pp., entitled ' The proposal commonly called Sir Matthew Decker's 
 scheme, for one general tax upon houses, laid open, and showed to be 
 a deep concerted project to traduce the wisdom of the Legislature, 
 disquiet the minds of the people, and ruin the trade and manu- 
 factories [sic] of Great Britain ; most humbly submitted to the con- 
 sideration of Parliament,' 8vo, London, 1757. The author of this 
 attack is understood to be Mr. Joseph Massie, a fertile mercantile 
 writer of that day. It is, as might be expected from the title, very 
 angry, and even somewhat abusive. 
 
 Decker has also been commonly supposed to be the author of 
 another more considerable work, first published in 4to at London, in 
 1744, and reprinted in 12mo at Edinburgh, iu 1756, both editions 
 without a name, under the title of ' An Essay on the Causes of the 
 Decline of the Foreign Trade, consequently of the Value of the Lands 
 of Britain, and on the means to restore both.' Adam Smith notices 
 and comments upon this work as written by Decker, and designates 
 the scheme of taxation advocated in it as " the well-known proposal 
 of Sir Matthew Decker," in the fifth book of his ' Wealth of Nations.' 
 It is very evident however that it cannot be by the author of the 
 ' Serious Considerations,' for various reasons. As Mr. M'Culloch has 
 remarked in his ' Literature of Political Economy,' p. 328, " the 
 'impot unique,' or single tax, proposed by the author of the ' Essay' 
 is quite different from that proposed in the ' Considerations ; ' it is, 
 in his own words, ' one tax on the consumers of luxuries,' or, as Smith 
 has put it, ' that all commodities, even those of which the consumption 
 is either immediate or very speedy, should be taxed in this manner, 
 the dealer advancing nothing, but the consumer paying a certain 
 annual sum for the licence to consume certain goods.' " It may be 
 added, that the edition of the ' Essay ' published iu 1756 is ushered 
 in by a preface, evidently by the author, in which he speaks of this as 
 a second edition, which he had been induced to prepare by the public 
 demand, and in which he had taken an opportunity of correcting some 
 things in the preceding impression. Decker, as we have seen, died 
 in 1749. Mr. M'Culloch states, that in a work by Francis Fauquier, 
 entitled 'An Essay on Ways and Means for raising Money for the 
 support of the present War without increasing the Public Debts,' 
 third edition, 8vo, 1757, it is affirmed that the 'Essay on the Decline 
 of Foreign Trade' was written by a Mr. Richardson. 
 
 This ' Essay ' is rather a remarkable work. Besides his main projeefc 
 for a single tax, which occupies above 200 of the 228 pages of which 
 the volume (in the 12mo edition) consists, he advances the four fol- 
 lowing proposals : — 1, to abolish all our monopolies, unite Ireland, 
 and put all our fellow-subjects on the same footing iu trade; 2, to 
 1 2 ji* 
 
031 
 
 DEE, JOHN. 
 
 withdraw the bounties on exported corn, and to erect public magazines 
 of corn in every county ; 3, to discourage idleness by well regulating 
 our poor (he adopts Sir Josiah Child's plan for the management of 
 the poor, and would transport all able-bodied persons who cannot 
 find employment) ; and 4, to pay off our debts by public bonds, bearing 
 interest, and liquidating part of our debts yearly. The balance of 
 trade theory is assumed, but many of the remarks are both just and 
 ingenious. 
 
 DECKER, or DEKKER, THOMAS, flourished as a dramatic author 
 in the reign of James I., though the precise time of his birth and 
 death, liko that of many of his contemporaries, is uncertain. He is 
 celebrated for a quarrel with Ben Jonson, who satirised him under 
 the name of Crispinus in his ' Poetaster ; 1 Decker returned the com- 
 pliment by writing his ' Satyromastix,' wherein Jonson is attacked 
 under the name of ' Young Horace.' The author of the ' Biographia 
 Drnmatica ' says that he became more famous from this quarrel than 
 from any merit of his own. Later critics have however been more 
 favuiirable to Decker, and Mr. Hazlitt pronounced the character of 
 Friscobaldo in the ' Honest Whore ' to be perfect in its way, as a 
 picture of a broken-hearted father with a sneer on his lips and a tear- 
 drop in his eye. This comedy is written with great power and with 
 a high moral feeling. Decker composed many plays in union with 
 other dramatists ; and his name often occurs in connection with 
 ( 'hettle and others in Henslowe's 'Diary ' as receiving small sums for 
 plays written or promised. The collected works of Webster, Mas- 
 singer, and Ford exhibit specimens of Decker's partnership-writing, 
 though it is hard to assign the respective portions of productions of 
 this sort to their right authors. Mr. Gifford has attributed all the 
 gross indecencies of Massinger'a 'Virgin Martyr' to the hand of 
 Decker; but this is merely a guess, and is hardly a reasonable one. 
 Of tho plays written solely by Decker the ' Honest Whore ' is tho 
 most celebrated, and is printed in Dodsley's Collection. Besides his 
 dramatic works, his ' Gull's Hornbook ' has become better known by 
 an edition published a few years ago ; it contains much valuable 
 information illustrative of the manners of Decker's time. 
 
 DEE, JOHN, a distinguished astrologer and mathematician, was 
 the son of a wealthy vintner, and born in London in 1527. Lilly says 
 he was a Cambro-Briton, but this is not in accordance with better 
 authorities. At the age of fifteen he was entered of St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, where his attention seems to have been chiefly directed to 
 mathematical, astronomical, and chemical studies ; and his assiduity 
 was there, as through life, even to extreme old age, truly remarkable. 
 At twenty he made a twelvemonths' tour on the continent, chiefly in 
 Holland, for the purpose of scientific intercourse ; and returning to 
 Cambridge, he was appointed one of the fellows of Trinity College, 
 upon its foundation by Henry VIII. in 1543. In 1548 the suspicions 
 entertained of his being addicted to the ' black art ' induced him again 
 to go abroad, having first taken his degree of A.M. Whether this 
 prejudice really arose from his having already begun the astrological 
 career for which he was in subsequent life so celebrated, or simply 
 from his astronomical pursuits and his mechanical inventions, there 
 is no distinct proof. 
 
 Dee's first residence on this second continental visit was the 
 University of Louvain, at that period in high repute as a place of 
 education; and he was there much esteemed for his mechanical skill 
 and his intellectual resources, which, combined with his manly 
 character, caused him to be visited by persons of the highest rank. 
 Two years afterwards he went to France, where he read lectures on 
 the ' Elements of Euclid ' at Rheims. The character of the ' lectures ' 
 on Euclid was in those days extremely different from that of our own 
 time. A series of speculations in all the sciences, whether physical, 
 moral, or mental, were usually given under this title, the propositions 
 of Euclid being taken as so many " pegs to hang a speech upon." The 
 more visionary and romantic of the lecturers generally contrived to 
 render a course on Euclid a discourse on all the dogmas of the school- 
 men of the middle ages, whilst the more reasonable and sober of them 
 confined their discourses to natural phenomena and the practical 
 applications of geometry. It is almost unnecessary to say that a 
 proof that " spirits would be in earth and heaven at the same time" 
 (founded on Euclid i. 37), would be more attractive in an academical 
 course than any ' vulgar mechanical ' application of the same pro- 
 position could be. Of Dee's lectures we may form a tolerably good 
 estimate from his preliminary discourse in Billingsley's 'English 
 Euclid,' and a few other occasional paragraphs of his in that work. 
 It places Dee's acquirements in a very favourable light; and his 
 judgment, considering his time and circumstances, in one still more 
 favourable. The dissertation of Dee is however to be found in works 
 subsequently printed, and much more easily obtained ; as in Leeke 
 and Serle's 'Euclid,' two or three editions, &c. To read that dis- 
 sertation is sufficient to convince us that his lectures would be received 
 at Rheims " with great applause," as indeed from direct testimony we 
 otherwise know they were. 
 
 In 1551 Dee returned to England, and was presented to King 
 Edward VI. by Cecil, and a pension of a hundred crowns was assigned 
 to him. This he however relinquished for the rectory of Upton-on- 
 Severn. 
 
 Shortly after the accession of Mary he was accused of " practising 
 against the queen's life by enchantment ;" so that his fame as a dealer 
 
 iu the black art still clung to him. This charge was founded on somo 
 correspondence which was discovered between him and the " servants 
 of the Lady Elizabeth ;" and it led to a long and tedious imprisonment, 
 with frequent examinations; but as nothing could be established 
 against him, he was ultimately (1555) set at liberty by an order of 
 the council. 
 
 On the accession of Elizabeth, Dee was consulted by Lord Dudley 
 respecting " a propitious day" for the coronation. The queen, to whom 
 he was presented, made him great promises. In 1564 he again visited 
 the continent to present a book which he had written and dedicated 
 to the Emperor Maximilian, under the title of ' Monas Hieroglyphica/ 
 and which he printed at Antwerp in that year ; and within the year 
 he returned to England. 
 
 There is reason however to doubt whether the charge of neglecting 
 Dee, brought against Elizabeth and her ministers, is well made out, 
 however strongly and confidently it has been assumed and repeated. 
 Even this visit to the court of Maximilian might have had an object 
 very different from the ostensible one. There is much probability in 
 Lilly's statement, who says : — " To be serious, he was Queen Elizabeth's 
 intelligencer, and had a salary for his maintenance from the secretaries 
 of state. He was a ready-witted man, quick of apprehension, and of 
 great judgment in the Latin and Greek tongues. He was a very great 
 investigator of the more secret hermetical learning, a perfect astronomer, 
 a curious astrologer, a serious geometrician ; to speak truth, he was 
 excellent in all kiuds of learning." (Lilly, 'Memoirs,' p. 224.) Where 
 could a man better adapted to the purpose of ' secret intelligence' than 
 such a one be found ? This view too is borne out by many striking 
 circumstances. Being in 1571 seized with a dangerous illness in 
 Lorraine, the queen sent two physicians to his relief. This is an act 
 the signification of which cannot be doubted. 
 
 He afterwards returned to England and settled at Mortlake in 
 Surrey, where he led a life of privacy for some years, devoting him- 
 self to study with great ardour, and to the collecting of astronomical 
 and philosophical instruments, not omitting of course a sufficient 
 number of beryls, talismans, and the like. He seems also to have 
 been consulted by persons respecting their horoscopes, &c. His repu- 
 tation as one who dealt with the devil seems to have strongly mani- 
 fested itself during this time in his own vicinity, as the mob in 1576 
 assembled, and destroyed all his collection, or nearly so ; and it 
 was with difficulty that he and his family escaped the fury of the 
 rabble. 
 
 In 1578, the queen being much indisposed, Mr. Dee was sent abroad 
 to consult with the German physicians and philosophers (or rather 
 astrologers) relative to the means to be employed for her recovery. 
 This was at least the ostensible object ; but as no account of the 
 result of this mission exists, except that we know that the queen 
 recovered, we may perhaps infer that it was a secret political mission. 
 After his return to England he was employed by the queen to draw 
 up a condensed account of those countries which belonged to her 
 crown, on the ground of being discovered by British subjects, both 
 as to geographical description and the recorded and other evidence 
 upon which her claim rested. With his usual activity he speedily 
 accomplished his task, and in an incredibly short time he presented 
 her majesty with two large rolls in which the discovered countries are 
 geographically described and historically illustrated. These two curious 
 manuscripts still exist in the Cottonian Collection in the British Museum. 
 About this time, too, he paid much attention to the reformation of 
 the Calendar, a treatise on which subject by him, and which is con- 
 sidered both " learned and rational," is still in manuscript in the 
 Ashmolean Library at Oxford. 
 
 Most of the proceedings and writings upon which his fame with 
 posterity as an astrologer rests, were written subsequent to this 
 period, and he was now upwards of fifty years of age. This is not 
 the general period at which men of activity both of mind and occu- 
 pation sink into dotage ; and it is impossible, taking into account 
 several of the succeeding circumstances of the life of Dee, to imagine 
 that this hypothesis can be applied to his case, in explanation of the 
 extravagances which he perpetrated about this time, and soon after. 
 The belief in supernatural agency was general at that period, and the 
 belief in the power of controlling that agency was equally general — 
 we may say universal. That Dee, admitting this in common with 
 all the orthodox, whether of the Roman Catholic or reformed religion, 
 was liable to be the dupe of crafty men, older than himself, is evident, 
 and that with a strong and active imagination he should be led to 
 interpret any sensible phenomena in accordance with it, is extremely 
 probable. Whether he intended to be understood literally, or merely 
 to express under those disguises information and memoranda of a 
 very different nature, it is difficult now to determine. We incline to 
 the latter opinion, and we think this view is borne out by circum- 
 stances ; we shall however annex the usual account, which does indeed 
 contain the ostensible view of his later life. 
 
 In the year 1581 he took into his service an apothecary of Worcester, 
 named Edward Kelly, as an assistant. The " conversations with 
 spirits " were held by Dee, in common with this person ; and indeed 
 Kelly was in general Dee's amanuensis during the time they were 
 together. They had a speculum, which is generally said to have been 
 " a polished piece of cannel coal," but which was doubtless glass — one 
 of the very ' stones ' which Dee used being now in the British 
 
DEE, JOHN. 
 
 DE FOE, DANIEL. 
 
 Museum. In this glass the angels Gabriel and Raphael appeared at 
 their invocation. Hence Butler says 
 
 "Kelly did all his feats upon 
 The devil's looking-glass — a stone." 
 
 The ' Book of Spirits ' is not however to be considered a fair sample 
 of Dee's absurdity, if taken literally ; and we are not sure that Dee 
 was himself the author of it. It was published in 1659, more than 
 half a century after Dee's death, and hence its authenticity is ques- 
 tionable; but admitting its authenticity, it might have been a mere 
 cipher, in which special passages that were worked into the general 
 discourse were to be taken in a secretly specified order, so as to 
 express other facts of a political nature. This was a favourite method 
 of cipher at that period. 
 
 Id 1583 a Polish noble, named Albert Laski, palatine of Siradia, 
 being in England, Dee and Kelly were introduced to him, whether 
 with a political object or not no direct evidence exists to inform us, 
 but they accompauied him to Poland. It is said that the attachment 
 arose from the similarity of their pursuits, that he soon became weary 
 of them by finding himself abused by their idle pretensions, and that 
 to get rid of them he persuaded them to pay a visit to Rodolph, king 
 of Bohemia ; that moreover, though a weak and credulous man, 
 Rodolph was soon disgusted with their nonsense ; and that they had 
 no better success with the King of Poland; but that they were soon 
 after invited by a rich Bohemian noble to his castle of Trebona, 
 where they continued for some time in great affluence, owing, as they 
 asserted, to their power of transforming the baser metals into gold. 
 
 It was very probably from the circumstance of Laski's being 
 addicted to astrology and alchemy, as well as the King of Poland, 
 that Dee was employed by the queen's crafty ministers as a fitting 
 person for a political mission to that country, in the real character of 
 a ' secret intelligencer.' It was in keeping with the unvarying policy 
 of Elizabeth's government, and with the habits and previous occu- 
 pation of Dee. The ridiculous pretensions which he and Kelly set up 
 were well calculated to lull all suspicions of their real purpose. No 
 other hypothesis seems capable of affording a key to Dee's conduct 
 during this singular excursion ; and all the circumstances admit of 
 tolerably complete explanation by it. It is only fair to add however 
 that Dee, in his private ' Diary,' which includes all the period of this 
 Polish journey, gives no indication of any such secret object ; but 
 then he gives no indication of any purpose whatever for undertaking 
 the journey, or for returning home when he did. 
 
 Kelly appears to have been one of those sordid and servile characters 
 that look only at the immediate gain to be made of each single transac- 
 tion, without having either principle or honour in his composition. 
 Dee, on the contrary, was, as Lilly in his gossiping memoirs tells us, 
 " the most ambitious man living, and most desirous of fame and 
 renown, and was never so well pleased as when he heard himself styled 
 Most Excellent." Lilly also gives a curious narrative of the means by 
 which the servant Kelly obtained the art of transmutation from a poor 
 friar, with whom Dee would have no intercourse ; and that when the 
 secret was obtained, the friar was made away with ; and one reason 
 given by this arch-knave of the Protectorate, Butler's ' Sidrophel,' 
 why " many weaknesses in the manage of that way of Mosaical learn- 
 ing (' conference with spirits,' in the book ascribed to Dee), was because 
 Kelly was very vicious, unto whom the angels were not obedient, or 
 willingly did declare the questions propounded." 
 
 Dee and Kelly separated in Bohemia, the former returning to 
 England, the latter remaining at Prague. Of the circumstances attend- 
 ing this rupture nothing is certainly known ; though the narrative 
 given by Sidrophel is characteristic enough of Kelly's character. See 
 William Lilly's History of his Life and Times from 1602 to 1681, 
 p. 224, Baldwin's edition. 
 
 In 1595 the queen appointed Dee warden of Manchester College, he 
 beiDg then sixty-eight years of age. He resided there nine years ; but 
 from some cause not exactly known he left it in 1604, and returned 
 to his house at Mortlake, where he spent the remainder of his days. 
 He died in 1608, aged eighty-one, leaving a numerous family and a 
 great number of works behind him. " He died," says Lilly, " very 
 poor, enforced many times to sell some book or other to buy his 
 dinner with, as Dr. Napier of Linford in Buckinghamshire oft related, 
 who knew him very well : " but Dee was very extravagant in his style 
 of living, and he had for many years been in pecuniary difficulties. 
 Long before and during the period of his wardenship of Manchester 
 College he appears from his 'Diary' to have been ia the constant 
 habit of borrowing money from his friends, and of raising small sums 
 by pawning articles of plate, &c. 
 
 Dee's writings are very numerous, several of which still remain in 
 manuscript. A catalogue of his printed writings may be seen in his 
 ' Compendious Rehearsal,' or his letter to Whitgift; and from these 
 it appears that he then had by him more than forty unpublished writ- 
 ings, the titles of which he gives. His ' Diary,' a curious record of 
 his daily life during some important portion of his later life, was 
 printed in 1842 by the Camden Society, and along with it the Cata- 
 logue of his library of Manuscripts, made by himself before his house 
 was plundered by the populace : it is curious, as containing the titles 
 of several works of mediaeval date, not now known to be in existence. 
 His library is said to have cost him 3000i.,a large sum for those days. 
 
 DEFFA'ND, MARIE DE VICHY, MARQUISE DU, daughter of 
 Gaspard de Vichy, count of Champ Rond, was born in 1697. She 
 had natural parts, wit, playfulness, and taste, which her education, 
 expressly designed to fit her to shine in the Baloons of the capital, 
 tended to stimulate. In 1718 she married the Marquis du Deffand, 
 a colonel, and afterwards general in the French service Having somo 
 time after separated from her husband, she had her own establish- 
 ment, her parties, her admirers, and her petits soupers. She lived 
 like many other ladies of rank and fashion of the times of the Regency 
 and of Louis XV., and her correspondence throws much light on tho 
 manners of that age. She numbered among her friends and corres- 
 spondents some of the most distinguished men of France, such as 
 President Hdnault, Montesquieu, Marmontel, D'Alembert, Voltaire, 
 &c. After the death of her husband, in 1750, in order to accommo- 
 date herself to her reduced income, she gave up her establishment, 
 and took apartments in the external or extra-claustral part of tha 
 Convent of St. Joseph, in the Rue St. Dominique, where she spent tha 
 remaining thirty years of her life. She continued however her 
 evening parties, which were iu great repute for wit, pleasantry, and 
 bon ton, and to which most foreigners of distinction who resorted to 
 Paris were introduced. Being afflicted with blindness, she took as a 
 companion and reader an unprotected young person, Mile, de l'Espin- 
 asse ; but she afterwards became jealous of her, and they parted ; on 
 which occasion Madame du Deffand quarrelled with D'Alembert also. 
 She continued, though blind, to correspond with her friends, and 
 especially with Voltaire and Horace Walpole, to a very advanced age. 
 She died at St. Joseph, September 24, 1780, in her eighty-fourth year. 
 Madame du Deffand possessed some very valuable qualities : she had 
 real wit and taste without affectation, and much tact and sound judg- 
 ment whenever caprice or prejudice did not lead her astray. She 
 had a quick perception of merit of every kind, and her house was 
 always open to it : she had a horror of dogmatism, exaggeration, and 
 pedantry : although a free-thinker, she never partook of that absurd 
 fanaticism against religion which characterised some of the philosophic 
 writers of the 18th century. Her judgment was too calm and sober 
 not to perceive the inconsistency of philosophical intolerance; she 
 even gave some good advice to Voltaire on this subject, and was one 
 of the very few who spoke frankly to him. Her ' Correspondance de 
 Madame du Deffand avec M. Walpole de 1766 a 1780, suivie de ses 
 Lettres a M. de Voltaire de 1759 a 1775/ appeared in 4 vols. 8vo, 
 1810 ; and also ' Correspondance ine'dite de Madame du Deffand aveo 
 D'Alembert, Montesquieu, le President Hdnault, &c, suivie des Lettrea 
 de M. de Voltaire a Madame du Deffand,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1809, 
 with a biographical notice. 
 
 DE FOE, DANIEL, the son of James Foe, a butcher in the parish 
 of St. Giles, Cripplegate, was born in London in 1661. Of his youth- 
 ful years we have nothing particular to relate. His father, who was 
 a Dissenter, sent him to a Dissenting academy at Newington Green, 
 conducted by Charles Morton, a man of learning, and a judicious 
 teacher, where he remained till about 1680. As the only education 
 he received was at this time, we may conclude that he applied with 
 considerable advantage. In 1705 he challenged one of his adversaries 
 " to translate with me any Latin, French, or Italian author, and after 
 that to re-translate them crossways." He himself states that he had 
 been educated for the ministry, but we have no information as to 
 why his destination was altered. Different reasons have been assigned 
 for his prefixing ' De ' to the family name of Foe : the cause of his 
 doing so has not been ascertained, but it was not adopted until after 
 he had attained manhood. De Foe first appeared as an author in 
 1682, when he published a pamphlet against the prevalent high-church 
 notions, under the title of ' Speculum Crape Gownorum; or, a Looking- 
 Glass for the young Academics, new foyld, with Reflections on some 
 of the late high-flown Sermons ; to which is added a Sermon of the 
 Newest Fashion.' In 1783 he issued another pamphlet on the war 
 that was then carried on between the Austrians and the Turks. Two 
 years afterwards, his aversion to James II. and his government, and 
 his zeal for the maintenance of Protestantism, induced him to enlist 
 under the Duke of Monmouth, whose rash and ill-concerted conspiracy 
 was the cause of so many executions. Our author had the good 
 fortune to escape the fate that numbers of his companions suffered. 
 After this he engaged in business; he calls himself a trader, and 
 denies that he was " a hosier or an apprentice." He was probably a 
 hose-factor and wool-dealer (in the prosecution of which latter branch 
 of his business he is said by Wilson, in his ' Life and Times of De 
 Foe,' to have made more than one voyage to Spain). His circum- 
 stances however became involved, and a commission of bankruptcy 
 was taken out against him in 1692, but it was immediately superseded, 
 his creditors accepting a composition, taking his own bonds for the 
 payment. 
 
 In January 1687-88 he was admitted a freeman of the city of 
 London ; and in 1695 was appointed accountant to the commissioners 
 for managing the duties on glass — a short-lived occupation, which he 
 lost in 1699, when the tax was suppressed. During this period he 
 published several pamphlets, chiefly on the ' Occasional Conformity of 
 Dissenters,' which brought him into controversy with John Howe. 
 He had devised many projects for the benefit of the country ; and, 
 when this commissionership was at an end, he determined to iry one 
 for his own advantage. This was for the manufacture of pantiles, 
 
S35 
 
 DE FOE, DANIEL. 
 
 DE FOE, DANIEL. 
 
 SSi 
 
 heretofore brought from Holland. The works were at Tilbury Fort, 
 but they were not very successful as far as regarded profit, and his 
 arrest in 1703 put a complete stop to the undertaking. De Foe's 
 lively imagination, ardent temper, his eager interest in politics, and 
 fondness for literature, disqualified him for commercial matters. He 
 discovered this, and he never again ventured into business. 
 
 In the beginning of 1701 he published the ' True-born Englishman,' 
 a pamphlet in answer to a libel on King William, which had been 
 written by Tutchin. The sale of this work was quite unexampled. 
 De Foe says had he enjoyed the profit of his own labour he would 
 have gained 1000£. ; but it was pirated, and 80,000 copies, published 
 at a penny or twopence, were sold in the streets. The work however 
 pleased the king, who not only admitted the author to an audience, 
 but bestowed on him the more substantial reward of a present of 
 money. In May 1701 the famous Petition of the Freeholders of Kent 
 was presented ; the House of Commons voted it to be " scandalous, 
 insolent, and seditious," and committed the deputation who brought 
 it up to prison. In a few days afterwards a packet was delivered to 
 the speaker, as he entered the House of Commons, containing the 
 ' Legion Memorial,' as it was called, sent by 200,000 Englishmen, 
 declaring that the House had acted illegally in committing any one to 
 prison for presenting any petition whatever, as the subject had a right 
 to present any such in a peaceable way. The paper created a terrible 
 commotion; a committee was appointed to inquire into the terrible 
 conspiracy, and the king was prayed to stop these threatening petitions. 
 The memorial was no doubt De Foe's, and it is most probable that it 
 was delivered by himself. From the good-will that the king appeared 
 to bear him, Do Foe had hopes of again obtaining some public employ- 
 ment; but these expectations were soon destroyed by the death of the 
 king and the accession of Queen Anne. In the new reign he could 
 expect no favours from the government; he had always beeu obnoxious 
 to the house of Stuart and its adherents. This source of profit then 
 being dried up, without much chance of its re-opening, he betook 
 himself diligently to his pen, to which alone he could safely trust for 
 his subsistence. He wrote with unwearied assiduity; but the loss of 
 his patron, the king, was soon severely felt. By an ironical pamphlet, 
 called ' The Shortest Way with the Dissenters,' he gave bitter offence 
 to many powerful bodies in the state. The High Church party 
 resented it as a libel, and offered a reward for the apprehension of the 
 author. The House of Commons (February 25, 1702-3) angrily 
 resolved that this scandalous book should be burnt by the common 
 hangman ; and the secretary of state issued the following proclama- 
 tion : — " Whereas Daniel De Foe, alias De Fooe, is charged with 
 writing a scandalous and seditious pamphlet, entitled 'The Shortest 
 Way with the Dissenters.' He is a middle-sized spare man, about forty 
 years old, of a brown complexion, and dark-brown coloured hair, but 
 wears a wig : a hooked nose, a sharp chin, gray eyes, and a large mole 
 near his mouth ; was born in London, and for many years was a hose- 
 factor in Freeman's Yard in Cornhill, and now is owner of the brick 
 and pantile work near Tilbury Fort in Essex. Whoever shall discover 
 the said Daniel De Foe to one of her Majesty's principal secretaries 
 of state, or any of her Majesty's justices of peace, so as he may be 
 apprehended, shall have a reward of 501. : to be paid upon such 
 discovery." He was shortly after caught, fined, pilloried, and impri- 
 soned. " Thus," says he, " was I a second time ruined ; for by this 
 affair I lost above 3500/." (Ballantyne's 'Mem. of De Foe,' in Sir 
 W. Scott's ' Prose Works,' vol. iv.) During the time that he was 
 confined in Newgate, he wrote a ' Hymn to the Pillory,' published 
 pamphlets and poems, and matured a scheme for ' The Review,' a 
 paper exclusively written by himself, which for more than nine years 
 he continued to publish twice or three times a week. After he had 
 been a prisoner for more than a year, Harley, who was then secretary 
 of state, interceded with the queen for his release, who at once sent 
 money to his wife, who was in great distress, and, after some delay, 
 paid his fine and set him at liberty. De Foe, once more free, took a 
 house at Bury St. Edmunds, whither he removed with his wife and 
 children, and recommenced his literary labours. He did not continue 
 there very long; and he states that both Harley and Godolphin 
 employed him in the service of the queen, commissions attended 
 "oftentimes with difficulty and danger," and once in a "foreign 
 country." He also continued to pour forth pamphlets in verse and 
 prose, on "religious and political subjects;" one of them was the 
 'True Relation of the Apparition of one Mrs. Veal,' affixed to a 
 translation of ' Drelincourt on Death,' which carried off an edition 
 of that work which had been for a long time lumbering the pub- 
 lisher's shelves, and caused many other editions to be subsequently 
 issued. 
 
 i In 1706 De Foe was recommended by Lord Godolphin to the queen 
 as a fit and proper person to send to Scotland to promote the Union. 
 This business being entrusted to him, he resided in Edinburgh until 
 the end of 1707, when, returning to London, he wrote an account of 
 the subject with which he had been engaged, which was published in 
 1709. For his services during this mission the queen granted him a 
 pension, which political changes not long permitting him to enjoy, he 
 was again compelled to gain his livelihood by writing. The attacks in 
 his political pamphlets now a second time got him into difficulties ; 
 for two papers, one entitled 'What if the Queen should die?' the 
 pther called ' What if the Pretender should come?' (the works were 
 
 palpably ironical, but he was again misunderstood), ho was find 800/., 
 and in default of payment was committed to Newgate. His second 
 was not so long as his first imprisonment ; he was liberated by the 
 queen in November 1713. 
 
 After the death of Anne, in 1714, his enemies so assailed him from 
 every quarter, that he was compelled in self-defence to draw up an 
 account of his political conduct, and of the sufferings he had endured. 
 The continual attacks of his opponents so weighed upon his mind and 
 depressed his spirits, that his health gave way, and an illness was 
 brought on which terminated in an apoplectic fit. When he recovered, 
 he continued to write, but thought it prudent to desert his old field of 
 political satire and invective, and to enter upon new ones. His first 
 production was of a religious character, the ' Family Instructor,' 
 published anonymously in 1715, which became so popular that in 
 1722 ho wrote 'Religious Courtship,' which was equally successful. 
 To afford entertainment by talcs of fiction was his next task, and he 
 put forth, in 1719, when he was fifty-eight years old, the first part of 
 his inimitable ' Adventures of Robinson Crusoe,' which no story bis 
 ever exceeded in popularity. The merits of this work have beeu 
 disparaged on account of its want of originality ; " but really the 
 story of Selkirk, which had been published a few years before, appears 
 to have furnished our author with so little beyond the bare idea of a 
 man living on an uninhabited island, that it seems quite immaterial 
 whether he took his hint from that or any other similar story." (Sir 
 Walter Scott, ' Prose Works.') The great success and profits arising 
 from the first induced him to write a second and third part, each of 
 which had less merit than its predecessor, the last being a mere book- 
 making job. We have not space to enumerate the multitude of 
 pamphlets and books which our author published. ' The Adventures 
 of Captain Singleton,' ' The Fortunes of Moll Flanders,' ' The History 
 of Colonel Jack,' ' The Fortunate Mistress,' ' The Memoirs of a 
 Cavalier,' and ' The History of the Plague,' which were among the 
 most popular of his works that succeeded ' Robinson Crusoe,' form 
 only a small portion of his writings. His biographers, Chalmers and 
 Wilson, have published catalogues of the writings of De Foe, and one 
 was also published as a pamphlet by Thomas Rodd, but it is very 
 probable that they are incomplete, and that many of his works which 
 were only of a temporary interest have been lost. 
 
 De Foe died at the age of seventy, on the 24th of April 1731, in 
 the parish of St. Giles's, Cripplegate. He left a widow and several 
 children, among whom was Norton De Foe, the author of ' Memoirs 
 of the Princes of the House of Orange,' who is thus satirised in Pope's 
 Dunciad :— 
 
 " Norton from Daniel and Ostroia sprung, 
 Bless'd with his father's front and mother's tongue." 
 
 A great-grandson is yet (1856) living, reduced at the age of seventy- 
 eight from the position of a master tradesman to poverty, for whom 
 in 1854 and 1855 a fund was raised to prevent a descendant of so great 
 an ornament to his country becoming like his ancestor a sufferer and 
 a sacrifice to extreme want. [James de Foe died in May 1857.] 
 
 De Foe's powers as a writer are of no ordinary stamp. He was 
 not a poet, but he could write vigorous verse, and his satire is bold 
 and trenchant. If he had been in affluent circumstances he might 
 have written less and with more care, but his necessities often drove 
 him to the printing-press. The disputes of the time afforded an 
 inexhaustible fund of topics, and the violence of party spirit was dis- 
 played by all factions in pamphlets, which were the weapons of 
 political warfare. To this style of writing De Foe had two reasons 
 for applying himself ; first, because it was the surest to meet with a 
 ready sale, and to bring him in a pecuniary return ; and secondly, 
 because he was himself an eager politician. As a Whig, he opposed 
 the House of Stuart ; as a Protestant, he wrote against Catholicism ; 
 and as a Dissenter, against the church. His attention however was 
 not confined to the hackneyed topics of the succession and the church : 
 he treated of finance, trade, and bankruptcy, as well as of the union 
 with Scotland ; and all this, independently of his Review, which con- 
 tained articles on foreign and domestic intelligence, politics, aud 
 commerce. " The fertility of De Foe," says Sir Walter Scott, " was 
 astonishing. He wrote on all occasions, and on all subjects, and 
 seemingly had little time for preparation on the subject in hand, but 
 treated it from the stores which his memory retained of early reading, 
 and such hints as he had caught up in society, not one of which seem* 
 to have been lost upon him." (' Prose Works.') Of his Review, we 
 believe no complete copy is in existence : however great was the 
 interest that it excited during the time of its publication, which con- 
 tinued for nine years. But it is not for the class of writings that we 
 have been speaking of, although they were of undoubted ability, that 
 De Foe chiefly is and will continue to be celebrated ; it is by his 
 popular narratives that his great fame has been obtained. Of these 
 we may reckon three kinds : — 1st, The account of remarkable 
 occurrences, as the 'Journal of the Plague Year,' and the 'Memoirs 
 of a Cavalier ; ' 2nd, The account of mariners, privateers, thieves, 
 swindlers, and robbers, as ' Robinson Crusoe,' the piracies of ' Captain 
 Singleton,' the histories of 'Colonel Jack,' 'Moll Flanders,' and 
 ' Roxana ; ' 3rd, The descriptions of supernatural appearances, as the 
 ' Life of Duncan Campbell,' a ' Treatise on Spirits and ApparVic*%" 
 the very degenerate third part of ' Robinson Crusoe,' and the ' Apjis- 
 
b37 
 
 DEIOTARUS. 
 
 rition of Mrs. Veal.* De Foe'a miuute and accurate knowledge of the 
 lower walks of human life was no doubt acquired in the various 
 positions in which he was hiinself placed, joined to an acute observa- 
 tion, and long treasured and matured in his mind, His style has a 
 colloquial ease, but also a colloquial negligence ; it is genuine English; 
 thoroughly idiomatic, but by no means faultless. The remarkable 
 quality of his writiogs is, the appearance of reality that is given to 
 fiction. By a particularity and minuteness of description which his 
 skill prevents from being tedious, he increases the probability of his 
 story, adds to its interest, and carries forward his reader. No author 
 of imaginary tales has impressed so many persons with the belief that 
 they have been reading a true rather than a fictitious narrative. 
 
 (Sir Walter Scott, Biog. prefixed to the edition of De Foe's Works; 
 Wilson, Life of De Foe; Forster, Essay on De Foe.) 
 
 DEIOTARUS, a tetrarch or prince of Galatia, or Gallo-Graecia, was 
 the ally of Rome in the wars against Mithridates, for which he was 
 regarded by the grant of part of Pontus and Little Armenia, with 
 the title of king given to him by the Roman senate. Cicero, during 
 his government of Cilicia, became acquainted with him, and received 
 assistance from him against the Parthians. In the civil war between 
 Cawar and Pompey, Deiotarus took part with Pompey, and was in 
 consequence deprived by Caesar of part of his dominions. After 
 Caesar's return from Spain, Deiotarus was accused by his own grand- 
 son, Castor, of having attempted to assassinate Csesar, while the latter 
 was in Asia. Cicero pleaded before Caesar in favour of his old friend 
 ('Oratio pro Rege Deiotaro.') After Caesar's death, Deiotarus 
 recovered possession of his territories ; he at first took part with 
 Brutus, but afterwards made his peace with the triumvirs, and sub- 
 sequently favoured Octavius against Antony in his final struggle for 
 the empire. Deiotarus was then very old, but the precise time of 
 his death is not known. 
 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 170 grains. 
 DEKKER, THOMAS. [Decker, Thomas.] 
 
 DE LA BECHE, SIR HENRY THOMAS, an eminent geologist. 
 He was the only son of Colonel Thomas de la Beche of Halse Hall, 
 Jamaica, and represented the old family of De la Beche, who lived at 
 Aldworth, near Reading, in the 13th and 14th centuries. Sir Henry 
 was born near London in 1796. He went to Jamaica when young, 
 where his father died, and whilst returning to Europe his mother and 
 her young son suffered shipwreck. On reaching England they lived 
 at Charmouth and Lyme Regis, where the young De la Beche seems 
 to have acquired his first taste for geology. He was educated at the 
 military school at Great Marlow, which was afterwards removed to 
 Sandhurst. He entered the army in 1814. In 1817 he became a 
 Fellow of the Geological Society ; he afterwards became Secretary and 
 Foreign Secretary of this society, and eventually, in 1847, President. 
 In 1818 he married. Before this event he had begun to investigate 
 the geology of Devon, Dorset, and Pembrokeshire; he now travelled 
 on the continent, and dwelt for some time in Switzerland. Here in 
 1820 he produced one of his earliest scientific papers, ' On the tempe- 
 rature and depth of the Lake of Geneva.' This was first published in 
 the ' Bibliotheque Universelle,' and afterwards in the 'Edinburgh 
 Philosophical Journal.' The researches which led to the publication 
 of this paper exercited an important influence on all his subsequent 
 career. He subsequently returned to England, and renewed his 
 
 >ours on the geology of Wales and Devonshire. In conjunction 
 with the Rev. Mr. Conybeare, now the Dean of Llandaff, he first made 
 known the singular form of the Plesiosaurus. This was done in a 
 paper published in 1823 in the ' Transactions of the Geological Society,' 
 aiid entitled ' On the Discovery of a new fossil animal, forming a 
 link between the Icthyosaurus and Crocodile.' 
 
 In 1824 Mr. de la Beche visited his paternal estates in Jamaica. Here 
 he made himself remarkable for attempting to introduce ameliorations 
 IP the condition of the slave. He suffered considerably from the Act 
 of Emancipation. Whilst in Jamaica he lost no opportunity of pur- 
 suing his favourite science, and a paper published in 1826 in the 
 ' Transactions of the Geological Society,' on the ' Geology of Jamaica,' 
 wts the result. Having returned to England, his papers on the 
 geology of Dorset, Devon, and Wales became very numerous, besides 
 others on the general principles of geological enquiry. Such were his 
 papers on the ' Classification of European Rocks,' ' On the Excavation 
 of Valleys,' ' On the Geographical Distribution of Organic Remains,' 
 On the Formation of Extensive Conglomerate and Gravel Deposits,' 
 and many others. In 1831 he published his 'Geological Manual,' 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. II. 
 
 which went through several editions and was translated into French 
 and German soon after its appearance in England. In this year he 
 also projected a plan of forming a geological map of England, in 
 which all the details of the various formations should be accurately laid 
 down. He began this gigantic undertaking on his own responsibility, 
 and commenced a map of Cornwall. This resulted in the government 
 instituting the Geological Survey, at the head of which he was placed. 
 WhiUt working out his plans, he became possessed of a larje col. 
 lection of specimens of rocks and mineral substances used in the 
 arts. This collection served as the nucleus of the Museum of 
 Practical Geology, which was at first deposited in a house in Craig's 
 Court. In 1834 he published 'Researches in Theoretical Geology,' 
 and in 1835, ' How to Observe Geology.' In 1845 the Geological 
 Survey and Museum of Practical Geology were united, and the 
 building in Jermyn Street, Westminster, erected for the reception of 
 the rapidly increasing collection of the latter. Sir Henry succeeded 
 in attracting to this institution a number of ardent young men of 
 science, amongst whom we may mention the late Professor E. Forbes, 
 and through their labours this institution rapidly became one of 
 the most important scientific bodies in the country. In 1851 courses 
 of lectures were given by the various members of the corps, and 
 under the name of the Government School of Mines, they are carried 
 on with increasing vigour and usefulness under the presidency of Sir 
 Henry's successor, Sir Roderick Murchison. 
 
 For several years previous to his death Sir Henry had suffered from 
 a gradually increasing paralytic disorder, which, although it prevented 
 him using his limbs, left hi3 fine intellect almost unimpaired. Day 
 after day it was evident that his frame became feebler, but his atten- 
 tion to the interests of the school he had founded did not diminish, 
 and till within two days of his death he performed the active duties 
 of his responsible position. He died on the 13th of April 1855. 
 
 The distinguishing feature of Sir Henry's mind was its eminently 
 practical character. The establishment of the Geological Survey and 
 the School of Mines was a proof of this. Wherever his knowledge 
 could be made available for practical purposes, his services were at 
 the command of the public. Thus we find him becoming a member of 
 the Health of Towns Commission and also of the Commission of 
 Sewers. He was chairman of one of the juries of the Great Exhibition 
 in 1851. With Sir Charles Barry he formed one of a committee to 
 select building-stone for the New Houses of Parliament. He was 
 associated with Dr. Lyon Playfair in reporting to the government on 
 the coals suited to the steam-navy, also with Dr. Playfair and Mr. 
 Smyth in reporting on the gases and explosions in collieries. He was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1819, in 1848 he had con- 
 ferred on him the honour of knighthood, and in 1853 he was elected 
 a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. 
 
 DELACROIX, FERDINAND-VICTOR- EUGENE, a celebrated 
 French painter, was born at Charenton-Saint-Maurice, near Paris, on 
 the 26th of April 1799. His father, Charles Delacroix de Constant, 
 was a somewhat prominent member of the convention from the trial 
 of Louis XVI. down to the death of Robespierre, when he was a 
 member of the most violent section of the Thermidoriens ; he then 
 held the offices of secretary of the ' Conseil des Anciens,' and minister 
 for foreign affairs till July 1797, when he went to Holland as ambas- 
 sador; and finally, on the triumph of Bonaparte he abaudoned repub- 
 licanism and became prefect of the Bouches-du-Rhone, and of the 
 Gironde; he died in 1805. 
 
 The young Delacroix received a good education, but left college 
 early. At the age of eighteen he entered the Academy of Art, then 
 presided over by Guerin, but from the first he rebelled against the 
 classic tastes of his teacher. Delacroix exhibited his first picture, 
 ' Dante and Virgil making their passage round the Infernal City,' at 
 the Salon in 1822. It was a bold and uncompromisiug departure 
 from the cold correctness of manner then in vogue, and, as its great 
 ability was undeniable, it excited no little critical controversy. Among 
 its most ardent defenders was M. Thiers, then a newspaper critic, who 
 pronounced it the work of one for whom was evidently destined a 
 great future. 1 The Massacre of Scio,' another large work which was 
 exhibited the following year, strengtheued the opinious both of 
 admirers and opponents; and the young artist at once became the 
 acknowledged chief of what was desiguated the Romantic school, by 
 the adherents of the hitherto prevalent classic school. Both the 
 pictures just named have been purchased for the national collection, 
 and now adorn the walls of the Luxembourg. 
 
 From this time, although M. Delacroix had to bear much rough 
 criticism, his position was assured ; and the numerous important 
 works he continued to produce were received with enthusiasm by a 
 constantly increasing body of disciples and admirers. Among the 
 more important of his earlier works may be named the 'Doge Marino 
 Faliero decapiteV ' Christ in the Garden,' ' Mephistopheles appearing 
 to Faust,' ' Justinian,' for the Salon of the Council of State ; ' Sarda- 
 napale mourant, au milieu de ses femmes, qu'on egorge,' ' Milton 
 dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters,' ' Cardinal Richelieu, sur- 
 rounded by his Guards, officiating in the chapel of the Palais Royal,' 
 ' Combat du Giaour et du Pacha,' purchased by the Museum of Nantes. 
 The revolution of 1830 supplied him with new subjects ; he produced 
 iu that year ' La Liberte) guidaut le Peuple sur les Barricades,' now 
 in the Louvre. Some other revolutionary pictures followed ; but his 
 
 2» 
 
6S9 DELAMBRE, JEANBAPTISTEJOSKPH. 
 
 artistic powers received a new direction by the offer of a passage as 
 attache 1 to a government mission to Marocco. One of the first works 
 suggested by his eastern travels was ' Les Femmes d' Alger,' exhibited 
 in 1834, and now in the gallery of the Luxembourg, — a work which 
 it was the general opinion of the Parisian world of art placed M. 
 Delacroix at least on a level with Rubens as a colourist. M. Thiers 
 was dow minister of the interior, and he gave the painter, whose 
 eminence he had foretold, an opportunity of displaying his genius in 
 a higher walk of art than he had yet essayed, by confiding to him the 
 task of painting the walls of the Salon du Roi, at the Palais Bourbon. 
 On this work M. Delacroix was engaged from 1834 to 1837. The 
 paintings are symbolical, and represent justice, law, war, agriculture, 
 industry, peace, &c, and they are regarded as very fine examples of 
 the artist's more elevated style. He has adorned also the library of 
 the same palace with paintings of the ' Golden Age ' and the ' Invasion 
 of Attila.' The admiration excited by these works led to his being 
 called upon to paint portions of the interior of various other public 
 buildings in Paris, including the Hotel de Ville, the Luxembourg, and 
 the Louvre, as well as several churches : indeed M. Delacroix has 
 probably executed more great works of this high class than any other 
 contemporary French artist. But his public commissions have been 
 so far from absorbing his time that, during their execution he has 
 produced a succession of important gallery and cabinet paintings, 
 among which may be named his famous ' Medea,' now in the gallery 
 of the Luxembourg, a ' Cleopatra,' the ' Battle of Taillebourg,' for 
 the gallery at Versailles, ' Hamlet with the skull of Yorick,' the 
 ' Taking of Constantinople by the Latins,' ' Christ at the Tomb,' 
 'Resurrection of Lazarus,' ' Une Odalisque,' 'Femmes d'Alger dans 
 leurs interieur,' and numerous other scriptural and eastern subjects, 
 as well as several from the works of Shakspere, Scott, &c, and a few 
 portraits, among which is a well known one of Madame Dudevant in 
 male attire. 
 
 M. Eugene Delacroix will not assuredly take ultimately anything 
 like the rank his more enthusiastic admirers claim for him ; but he is 
 a man of great mental power, and that he always impresses on his 
 works : and his influence on contemporary French art has unquestion- 
 ably been very great What most characterises his paintings is a 
 certain impetuous energy of style, evident alike in the full though 
 often inaccurate drawing — as though his fiery temperament would not 
 permit him to stay to correct — the freedom of composition often pro- 
 ducing very striking but not seldom harsh and ungainly effects ; the 
 vivid but frequently inharmonious colouring; the crude though decided 
 light and shade ; and the rough rapid mode of execution. He paints 
 in a free bold manner, with a firm touch, occasionally loading his 
 canvas with colour ; and he shows a daring neglect of minute detail 
 singularly at variance with the mincing stroke and elaborate finish 
 affected by our rising historical and genre painters. His admirers 
 compare him with Paolo Veronese. He himself is an ardent admirer 
 of that great master, but he turns with more affection to Rubens and 
 our own Constable — whose influence on the present race of French 
 painters is more considerable than is supposed — and we should be 
 disposed to say, if we were required to indicate his models, that whilst 
 he retains a very decided orginality of conception, he may be regarded 
 as far as the mere technicalities of art are concerned, as a French com- 
 pound of the colour of Rubens with the impasto of Constable : but 
 he falls far short of the voluptuous richness of the one and the fresh- 
 ness of the other. 
 
 M. Delacroix has made several lithographic drawings, and written 
 a few characteristic papers on painting in the ' Revue des Deux Mondes.' 
 
 (Planche, Portraits des Artists Contemporaines ; Diet. Biog. Gen.; 
 Art-Journal, Nov. 1848 ; &c.) [See Supplement.] 
 
 DELAMBRE, JEAN-BAPT1STE-J0SEPH, was born at Amiens, 
 September 19, 1749. His course of study was at the gymnasium of 
 his native town. His excellent disposition, great perseverance, and 
 extraordinary memory, early attracted the notice of his teacher in the 
 college, the poet l'Abbe" Delisle; and the friendship commenced 
 between Delisle and Delambre, while they 6tood in the relation of 
 preceptor and pupil, was continued unabated during the remaining 
 part of Delisle's life ; and Delambre used to express his obligations to 
 that eminent man with great feeling to the latest period of his life. 
 
 Delambre was desirous of pursuing his studies in Paris, but his 
 pecuniary means were inadequate to the expenses in which he would 
 be necessarily involved by such a course. The influence of Delisle 
 however procured for him an exhibition to one of the colleges which 
 was in the gift of his native town, and which it has been commonly 
 said was first founded by one gf Delambre's own family. The time 
 during which he was entitled to hold it having expired, and his family 
 being unable to furnish him the requisite assistance to prolong the 
 period of his studies, he was compelled to adopt some means of sup- 
 porting himself. After more than a year of disappointment, indecision, 
 and privation, he undertook the occupation of translating foreign works 
 into French; and many such translations from the Latin, Greek, 
 Italian, and English writers were executed by him during the first 
 fifteen years after he left college. In addition to this employment he 
 gave lessons in languages to private pupils; and by the combined 
 i moluments of these labours he was not only able to supply his small 
 personal wants, but to make an excellent collection of the best authors 
 in the several languages which he studied. 
 
 DELAMBRE, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH. 6J0 
 
 The parsimonious views of parents on the subject of education have 
 been witnessed by every one whose life has been devoted to instruction, 
 under circumstances similar to those of Delambre. Their continual 
 importunity to men eminent in some one pursuit, whom they have 
 employed, to undertake others with which they have little or no 
 acquaintance, and this for the sake of diminishing the expense of 
 education, is proverbial. It was this continual application to Delambre, 
 who was distinguished both in the philological and philosophical 
 departments of language, to teach mathematics, which induced him 
 at the age of twenty-five to enter upon the study of the exact sciences. 
 Most men would have been soon wearied of a pursuit so undertaken ; 
 and this would have been the case with Delambre, had his mental 
 discipline been merely that of exercising the memory, which is unfor- 
 tunately too much tho tendency of the exclusive study of languages. 
 Order and perseverance were distinguishing characters of Delambre's 
 mind ; and having from professional motives entered on the study of 
 mathematics, and thereby become attached to their pursuit, he deter- 
 mined to pursue a regular course of study in these sciences. He 
 entered the astronomical class of the College of France under Lalande, 
 but not till he had carefully read the works of his master, and made 
 many notes upon them, amounting almost to a commentary. 
 
 On one occasion, shortly after he joined the class, a passage from 
 Aratus was required, which Delambre instantly supplied from memory. 
 Lalande, ever alive to the importance of astronomical history, was 
 immediately interested in Delambre ; and it is probable that to this 
 circumstance much of the future fame and labours of Delambre are to 
 be attributed, as Lalande became immediately his friend, and hence- 
 forth considered Delambre as his fellow-labourer. Many of the most 
 complicated calculations of Lalande were actually performed by 
 Delambre ; but though our author probably entered upon much of thig 
 drudgery for pecuniary considerations, he has given ample proof that 
 the labour was far from a disagreeable one to him, by the tables which 
 he himself subsequently published in later life. 
 
 During a short residence at Compiegne, which he made while he 
 was a professed teacher of languages, he appears to have paid some 
 attention to plane-astronomy ; and when he formed a friendship with 
 Lalande, M. Dassy, in whose family Delambre was domiciled as tutor 
 to his sons, was prevailed on by the astronomer to fit up a small 
 observatory for hi3 use. In this Delambre acquired some skill in the 
 manipulation of his instruments, and also in the management of the 
 formulae which are used in the particular classes of data that the 
 structure of instruments enables us to obtain. He then determined 
 to devote his life to astronomy and its history. The learning requisite 
 for the history of astronomy he had already obtained, though he had 
 probably at this time read comparatively few of the books, and none 
 of the manuscripts, which so arduous a task entailed upon him ; whilst 
 of the incessant labour required by the study of astronomy as a science 
 he had possibly little idea, and of the skill which his future practice 
 gave him his share was also very small. His ardour and perseverance 
 however surmounted all the obstacles that opposed his progress ; and 
 never did any man more completely illustrate the trite proverb, ' labor 
 omnia vincit,' than Delambre. 
 
 When in 1781 the discovery of the planet Herschel was exciting the 
 deep attention of astronomers, Delambre undertook the formation of 
 tables of its motion, being probably urged to this by the Academy of 
 Sciences having proposed the determination of its orbit as the prize 
 of the year. That prize was awarded to Delambre. He then undertook 
 the construction of his solar tables, as well as tables of the motions of 
 Jupiter and Saturn. Shortly afterwards he commenced his tables of 
 the eclipses of Jupiter, which occupied him some years. When at a 
 sitting of the Academy Laplace communicated to that body the results 
 of his researches on the inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn, Delambre 
 determined on constructing complete tables of the motions of those 
 two planets, founded on those results, but more especially of those of 
 Jupiter. The utility of such tables to the navigator was a strong 
 inducement to this undertaking, which he entered upon with great 
 ardour, and completed in an almost incredibly short period, when we 
 consider the great labour which they involved. His ecliptical tables 
 were presented to the Academy in 1792, as a competing paper for the 
 prize on that subject which had been offered the preceding year; but 
 he had been for several years engaged in their calculation. It u 
 indeed very probable that the prize was offered to induce him to 
 complete them, as it was well known that he was engaged in the 
 preparation of such tables. Such indeed is well known to be tho 
 general practice of that body ; and though it has occasionally dono 
 good, in bringing to a completion researches that might not so soon 
 have been completed, it does this mischief — that it almost cuts off all 
 competition, and inevitably gives the prize to a single candidate, by 
 allowing him the advantage of a long previous preparation for it. Wo 
 cannot disapprove of the adjudication on this occasion, as Delambre's 
 labours well merited the distinction ; but we do not think the general 
 practice calculated on the whole to do other than give dclat to tho 
 members of the Institute themselves or their immediate friends. 
 
 When the project of fixing a standard of length was acceded to by 
 the governments of France and England, Delambre and Me'chain were 
 appointed to carry it into execution on the part of the former govern- 
 ment, by measuring the arc from Dunkirk to Barcelona. This laborious 
 undertaking was carried on during the horrors of the French revolution, 
 
61! 
 
 DELAROCHE, PAUL. 
 
 DELAROCHE, PAUL. 
 
 •midst almost every variety of difficulty and personal danger that can 
 be conceived. Mdchain dying during the progress of the work, the 
 completion of it devolved wholly on Delambre. His perseverance, 
 prudence, and zeal however eventually overcame all obstacles; and 
 after eight years of unceasing labour and anxiety he obtained the 
 measurements which constitute the data of the three volumes(180610) 
 of his elaborate and invaluable work, ' Base du Systeme Mdtrique 
 Decimal.' The Institute of France, which had watched over its progress, 
 decreed him the prize for the most valuable work on physical science 
 which had appeared within the preceding ten years ; and it is difficult 
 to conceive that a single objection could possibly arise to the propriety 
 of that decision. 
 
 Of the continuation of Delambre' s arc by Biot and Arago from Bar- 
 celona to Formentera, this is not the place to speak at length ; but it 
 may be necessary to state that discrepancies which had long been 
 observed in this latter arc were found by Puissant to arise out of actual 
 errors committed by these observers. 
 
 Delambre was chosen an associate of almost every learned body in 
 Europe, and was appointed by the French government a member of 
 the Bureau des Longitudes, and Secretaire Perpetuel de l'lnstitut de 
 France, and one of the directors of the University of France. During 
 the twenty years that he filled this latter important and responsible 
 post, his attention to its duties was unwavering, and his decisions 
 remarkable for their justice and impartiality. His eioges of the 
 deceased savans were indeed at the time considered somewhat strained 
 as to praise ; but they were at least kindly meant to the friends of the 
 deceased, and were gratifying to the vanity of the nation. They were 
 remarkable for purity of style and for the researches into the history 
 of the subjects to which the eulogised member had devoted himself. 
 
 In 1814 Delambre was appointed a member of the Council of Public 
 Instruction, but was deprived of it in the following year. He was in 
 Paris when it was taken by the allied armies ; and shortly afterwards, 
 writing to one of his friends, he says he worked with perfect tranquil- 
 lity from eight in the morning till midnight in the continued hearing 
 of the cannonade. Such self-possession for study under that tremen- 
 dous attack, and such absence of interest in the result of the great 
 struggle, to say nothing of indifference to personal danger, is what we 
 confess ourselves unable to understand. In the midst of active exer- 
 tion we may be fearless of personal danger ; but Delambre was in his 
 study, and professes to have felt not only perfectly calm but to have 
 been able to pursue his scientific labours for sixteen hours in the very 
 midst of the cannonade. He escaped uninjured. 
 
 On the creation of the Legion of Honour, Delambre was constituted 
 a member of that body, and soon after an hereditary chevalier, with a 
 pension, as a reward for his scientific services; and finally, in 1821 
 he was created an officer of that body. In 1817 he was created a 
 chevalier of the order of St. Michael. 
 
 The death of Delambre occurred on the l&Jh of August 1822, at the 
 age of seventy-two. It was preceded by a total loss of strength and 
 frequent and long-continued fainting-fits, with the other symptoms of 
 a constitution worn out by hard mental and bodily labour. He died 
 as he had lived, calmly, and though not without great suffering, yet 
 without a single complaint. 
 
 The writings of Delambre are exceedingly numerous. The following 
 is a list of his separate works in the order of their publication : — 
 1, 'Tables de Jupiter et de Saturne,' 1789; 2, 'Tables du Soleil, de 
 Jupiter, de Saturne, d'Uranus, et des Satellites de Jupiter, pour servir 
 a la 3me edition de l'Astronomie de Lalande,' 1792 ; 3, ' Me"thodes 
 Analytiques pour la determination d'un Arc du MeYidien,' 1799 ; 4, 
 
 1 Tables Trigononie'triques De"cimales,' par Borda, revues, augmentees, 
 publics par M. Delambre,' 1801 ; 5, ' Tables du Soleil,' publie"e3 par 
 le Bureau des Longitudes, 1806; 6, 'Base du Systeme Me"trique 
 Decimal,' 3 vols., 1806-10 ; 7, ' Rapport Historique sur les Progres des 
 Sciences Mathe"matiques depuis 1789,' 1810 ; 8, ' Abrege" d'Astronomie, 
 ou Lecons Eldmentaires d'Astronomie Theorique et Pratique;' 9, 
 ' Astionomie Thdorique et Pratique,' 4to, 3 vols., 1814 ; 10, 'Tables 
 Ecliptiques des Satellites de Jupiter,' 1817; 11, 'Histoire de l'Astro- 
 nomie Ancienne,' 2 vols. 4to, 1817 ; 12, ' Histoire de l'Astronomie du 
 Moyen Age,' 1 vol. 4to, 1819 ; 13, ' Histoire de l'Astronomie Moderne,' 
 
 2 vols. 4to, 1821 ; 14, ' Histoire de l'Astronomie au Dix-huitieme 
 Sircle,' 4to, 1827, published under the care of Matthieu. 
 
 Besides these separate works, Delambre published a considerable 
 number of memoirs in the collections of Petersburg, Turin, Stockholm, 
 and Berlin, independently of those which appeared in the ' M^moires 
 de l'lnstitut de France : ' also twenty-eight memoirs on different sub- 
 jects (astronomy, geodesy, and astronomical history) in the ' Connais- 
 sance des Temps,' from 1788 to 1820. A list of these may be seen in 
 Coste's indexes to that work for 1807 and 1822. 
 
 Any attempt to analyse the writings of Delambre would far exceed 
 the limits which can be allowed in this Cyclopsedia. It is sufficient to 
 say they are well worthy of the praise which has been bestowed upon 
 them, as they are not only all excellent in their kind, but throughout 
 marked with an original mind, indicate the most devoted enthusiasm 
 to their several subjects, and prove that their author combined the 
 spirit of scientific inquiry with the feelings and habits of literature in 
 a degree that the history of a single individual has hardly ever before 
 or since exhibited. 
 
 DELAROCHE, PAUL, an eminent French painter, was born at 
 
 Paris in 1797. Early intending to follow art as a profession, he at 
 first studied landscape, and was in 1817 an unsuccessful candidate for 
 the Academy prize in landscape-painting. Convinced that landscape- 
 painting was not his vocation, he entered the atelier of Baron Gros, 
 under whose guidance he made rapid progress in the study of the 
 figure. Gros had himself in a great measure thrown off the classic 
 trammels which his master David had fixed on French art [Gitos, 
 Baron, A. J.], and Delaroche entirely emancipated himself from their 
 thraldom. But he did not, like Delacroix, go to the opposite extreme. 
 He still adhered to the old laws, and many of the conventionalities of 
 art. Choosing his subjects to a great extent from modern history, 
 and painting without much regard to academic attitudes and arrange- 
 ments, he yet sought to maintain something of the old sobriety and 
 dignity of the historic style, and hence when his superiority in his 
 chosen line came to be generally recognised, and Delaroche was the 
 acknowledged chief of a school, that school received the name of the 
 ' Eclectics,' in contradistinction to the Romantic school of Delacroix 
 and the Classic school of David and his followers. 
 
 Paul Delaroche in 1819 and the following years exhibited some 
 paintings of scriptural subjects, but it was not till 1824 that the 
 earliest of that class of works by which he achieved his fame appeared ; 
 these were, ' St. Vincent de Paul preaching in the presence of Louis 
 XIII.;' and 'Jeanne d'Arc interrogated in prison by Cardinal 
 Beaufort,' which pi - oduced a considerable impression. In 1826 M. 
 Delaroche exhibited the first of his very remarkable paintings from 
 English history — • The Death of Queen Elizabeth.' This picture was 
 purchased for the gallery of the Luxembourg, and is thought by 
 French critics to display a wonderful knowledge of English history 
 and English character. It is really the worst of his English pictures, 
 and renders with abundant exaggeration the coarse notion of Elizabeth 
 which alone continental artists and poets seem capable of conceiving : 
 some of the draperies are however very well painted, as indeed his 
 draperies mostly ;are. When M. Delaroche a few years later (1831) 
 again trod on English ground he was a good deal more successful; his 
 'Children of Edward IV. in the Tower,' being of its class a very 
 excellent picture: it is well known in this country by engravings. 
 But of a far higher order was his next great English picture, 
 ' Cromwell contemplating the corpse of Charles I.' He has here 
 imagined a circumstance in itself sufficiently probable, and he has 
 treated it with a calm dignity worthy of the theme. M. Delaroche 
 has been often charged with sacrificing his principal subject to the 
 accessories by his excessive care in the rendering of them, but here the 
 attention is at once arrested by the thoughtful head of the Protector, 
 directed to the lifeless form he is brooding over, and it never 
 wanders from the victim and the victor. The sombre colour and 
 gloomy shades are entoely in unison with the prevalent impression. 
 Simple as is the idea of the picture, it would perhaps be difficult to 
 name another modern painting which so thoroughly succeeds in 
 carrying the mind of the spectator into the very presence of the 
 man represented. This fine picture is now in the possession of the 
 Earl of Ellesmere, but M. Delaroche has painted, we believe, more 
 than one repetition of it; it has been very popular also as an 
 engraving. 
 
 His other more important pictures from English history are the 
 'Execution of Lady Jane Grey' (1834); 'Charles I. in the Guard- 
 room, insulted by the Parliamentary Soldiers' (1837), now in the col- 
 lection of the Earl of Ellesmere, and well engraved by A. Martinel ; 
 ' Lord Strafford on his way to the Scaffold receiving the Blessing of 
 Archbishop Laud' (1837), a companion picture to that of ' Cromwell 
 contemplating the Corpse of Charles,' and equally well known by the 
 engravings, but certainly far less impressive as a work of mind, and 
 inferior in its technical qualities : the original is in the collection of 
 the Duke of Sutherland. M. Delaroche has also painted some illustra- 
 tions of Scott's novels. 
 
 Among the subjects from French history may be named ' Une Scene 
 de la St. Barthelemy' (1826); 'Le Cardinal de Richelieu sur le Rhone, 
 conduisant au supplice Cinq Mars et de Thou,' and a companion, ' Le 
 Cardinal Mazarin mourant' (1831), both of which, as pictures, and in 
 the engravings by F. Giraud, were very popular ; ' La Mort du Due de 
 Guise' (1835), one of his best pictures; ' La Reine Marie-Antoinette 
 apre3 sa Condamnation a Mort ; ' and finally his universally popular 
 pictures of ' Napoleon at Fontainbleau,' and ' Napoleon Crossing the 
 Alps,' of which he has been required to paint several repetitions and 
 smaller copies. His other pictures and portraits are very numerous. 
 
 Perhaps the most remarkable of Delaroche's productions however is 
 his painting of the hemicycle of the Palais des Beaux Arts, in which 
 he has represented the great painters, sculptors, and architects from 
 the earliest time down to the present. From the centre, where 
 Apelles, Phidias, and Ictinus are enthroned as the representatives of 
 the arts in ancient Greece, and marshalled under figures which 
 symbolise the principal eras in the history of art, the great sculptors 
 and architects are ranged in groups, the painters occupying the 
 extremities. The artists in some instances chosen, and those in moro 
 instances omitted, from this artistic Wallhalla, will probably raise a 
 smile on the lips of the student of the history of art; but the work 
 itself cannot fail to excite admiration, it is so elevated in style, treated 
 with so much sobriety and refinement, and is so simple and effective 
 in arrangement and execution. This great work employed the painter 
 
£43 DELAVIGNE, JEAN-FRANCOIS-CASIMIR. 
 
 during the years 1837-41. A very beautiful version of it (in which 
 M. Delaroche had introduced somo alterations) on canvas, of consider- 
 able size, but of course small in comparison with the original, formed 
 the chief attraction at the French Exhibition, London, in 1854. 
 
 M. Delaroche is justly regarded by the French as one of their 
 greatest painters. His pictures never reach the highest order of art. 
 They are rather melodramatic than epic or tragic. They are suggestive 
 always of a certain kind of stage effect. You see that the paiuter is 
 aiming at the actor's trick — that lie is seeking to 'make a point.' But 
 allowing for this, it must be granted that M. Delaroche is almost all 
 bis countrymen pronounce him to be. He has undoubted genius, if 
 it be not of the highest order ; he is a master of his art ; and he is 
 always truthful, conscientious, correct in drawing, on the whole 
 satisfactory as a colourist, and tells his story with admirable 
 perspicuity. 
 
 M. Delaroche was named member of the Institute in 1832, and 
 subsequently professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, in which capacity 
 he has educated a large number of pupils, several of whom have 
 already obtained eminence. He was created an officer of the Legion 
 of Honour in 1834. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DELAVIGNE, JEAN-FRANCOIS-CASIMIR, was the son of a 
 merchant, and was born at Havre on the 4th of April 1793. He was 
 educated at the Lyceum-Napoleon at Paris, and as early as his four- 
 teenth year gave proofs of his addiction to poetry, confiding his 
 attempts however only to his brother, and a fellow-student, Eugene 
 Scribe, with whom his friendship continued to the close of his life. 
 In 1811 he composed a poem on the birth of the son of Napoleon I. 
 (the king of Rome as he was styled), which gained the approval of his 
 tutor, and was presented to Napoleon on his visiting the Lyceum. It 
 also procured him the patronage of the Count de Nantes, who gave 
 him a situation in the excise-office, at which he attended only once a 
 month, his patron advising him to pursue his poetical labours, and not 
 waste his time at the office. While thus situated he published a poem 
 on the death of Delille in 1813. In 1814 he tried for the prizo given 
 by the Acade"mie Francaise with his 'Charles XII. at Narva,' an 
 episode of a contemplated epic. He failed, but his poem received 
 honourable mention. The next year he again competed for the 
 prize with a poem upon the discovery of vaccination ; he was not suc- 
 cessful, but he was second. On the restoration of the Bourbons in 
 1815, he expressed his feelings in two poems, called ' Messdniennes,' 
 in which he laments the misfortunes aud natters the vanity of his 
 countrymen. They were at first circulated in manuscript, but they 
 deserved and obtaiued popularity, for they contain many striking 
 thoughts in poetical language, and when printed in 1824 they had an 
 immense sale. There was in them considerable bitterness against the 
 Bourbons, but Baron Pasquier, then minister of Louis XVIII., sent for 
 the young poet, and appointed him librarian of the chancery, where 
 there was no library. The appointment was very acceptable, as by 
 the change of dynasty he had lost his place in the excise. He did not 
 however change his political opinions, but, choosing for his next sub- 
 ject Joan of Arc, he made constant allusions in the two elegies on her 
 life and death to the evils of a country being subjected to strangers, 
 and to the glory of expelling them. He next turned his thoughts to 
 the stage, aud produced his ' Vepres Siciliennes,' which, owing in a great 
 degree to similar allusions to the recent events in France, had a great 
 success when produced on the stage in 1819, though its dramatic merit 
 is small, a florid diction scarcely supplying a weakness of characterisa- 
 tion and a paucity of poetic ideas. In 1820 he produced the comedy 
 of ' Les Come'diens,' but with less success. These were followed by 
 many others. As a dramatist he takes no high rank either in tragedy 
 or comedy : of the first class perhaps his best work is the ' Louis XI. ; ' 
 of the second, ' L Ecole des Vieillards;' but there is the like want of 
 dramatic power and of capability of fixing character in all of them. 
 Many of them however had much temporary popularity. In 1825 he 
 was elected a member of the Academy, and notwithstanding his 
 avowed political opinions, Charles X. offered him a pension of 1200 
 francs, which was firmly but courteously declined. On the occurrence 
 of the revolution of July 1830, he wrote and published his song of 
 ' La Parisienne,' which for a time rivalled the famous ' La Marseillaise.' 
 He refused offers of employment however under Louis Philippe, but 
 continued industriously, and, as far as profit was concerned, success- 
 fully his literary labours. At length his health began to decline, and 
 on the 11th of December 1843 he died at Lyon, whither he had gone 
 for change of air. After his death there was published a collection of 
 poems, some new and some that had appeared at different times, under 
 the title of 'Dernier Chants,' with a memoir by his brother. The 
 oems are not of a character to increase his poetic reputation greatly ; 
 is best production continues to be the ' Messdniennes,' notwithstand- 
 ing their faults, though some of the shorter pieces occasionally contain 
 a happy thought happily expressed. Various editions of his complete 
 works have been published, the first in 1845, in 8 vols. 8vo. A statue 
 in bronze by David d'Angers has been placed in his native town of 
 Havre. 
 
 DK'LFICO, MELCHIORRE, born of a noble family at Teramo, in 
 the Abruzzo, August 1, 1744, studied at Naples under Genovesi, 
 Mazzocchi, and other learned teachers, and applied himself particularly 
 to the study of the law and of political economy. After his return 
 to his native country he published his first work, an essay in defence 
 
 DELFICO, MELCHIORRE. m 
 
 of matrimony, against some loose opinions of the time — 'Saggio 
 Filosofico nel Matrimonio,' 1774. In 1782 he published a treatise on 
 the advantages of a provincial militia— 'Discorso sul Ristabilimento 
 della Milizia Provinciale.' He next wrote a ' Memoria nella Coltivaziona 
 del Riso Comune in Provincia di Teramo,' in which he recommeuded 
 the removal of the unhealthy rice grounds from the neighbourhood 
 of towns and villages, a suggestion which was approved of and acted 
 upon by King Ferdinand. He also wrote several memoirs against the 
 laws restrictive of the trade in provisions — ' Memorie sul Tribunals 
 della Grascia e sulle Leggi Economiche nelle Provincie confinanti del 
 Regno.' These memoirs being addressed to the king, had also the 
 effect of removing the obnoxious restrictions on the sale and exporta- 
 tion of rural produce. The government of Naples was at that time 
 disposed to useful reforms, and much was done to improve the con- 
 dition of the people, until the French revolution broke out, when the 
 Italian governments became suspicious and averse to change. Previous 
 to that however Delfico continued to assist by his suggestions the 
 progress of social improvement. He wrote in 1787 a memoir against 
 the abuse of the winter transmigration of sheep from the highlands to 
 the maritime districts of the Abruzzo, by which a large tract of fertile 
 land was kept out of cultivation, ' Memoriasu i Regii Stucchi, ossia sulla 
 Servitu dei Pascoli Invernali nelle Provincie Maritime degli Abruzzi,' 
 and soon after he published another treatise on the like practice 
 in the plain of Apulia — 'Discorso sul Travoliere di Puglia,' 8vo, 1788. 
 About the same time he wrote a ' Memoria sti i pesi e le misure del 
 Regno,' recommending a uniform system of weights and measures 
 throughout the various provinces of the kingdom of Naples. His 
 next work was in favour of the free sale of fiefs which reverted to 
 the crown at the extinction of baronial families — 'Riflessioni sulla 
 Vendita dei Feudi,' 1790, aud 'Lettera al Duca di Cantalupo su i 
 feudi devoluti,' 1795. Here again his recommendation prevailed, and 
 a law was issued for the sale of feudal estates reverted to the crown 
 as allodial property. 
 
 Delfico also addressed to the king a ' Rimostranza,' or ' Memorial,' 
 by which he obtained the establishment of a ' Regia Udienza,' or 
 royal court of justice for the province of Teramo, which till then was 
 dependent on the court of Chieti. King Ferdinand made Delfico a 
 Knight of the Order of Constantine. In 1799 the French invaded 
 the kingdom of Naples, and a few months after they were obliged to 
 evacuate it. In the midst of those blood-stained vicissitudes, Delfico 
 thought it prudent to emigrate, and he repaired to San Marino, where 
 he was inscribed among the citizens of that republic, and where he 
 waited for more peaceful times. In gratitude for the hospitality 
 which he there met with, he wrote the history of that little state 
 from the documents which he found in its archives — ' Memorie storiche 
 della repubblica di San Marino raccolte dal Cavaliere Melchiorre 
 Delfico cittadino della medesima,' 4to, Milan, 1804. When Joseph 
 Bonaparte became King of Naples in 1806, Delfico was made coun- 
 cillor of state, and was also for a time intrusted with the manage- 
 ment of the home department. He contributed to the new judiciary 
 organisation of the kingdom and other useful measures, among others 
 to the establishment of the house for the insane at A versa. On the 
 restoration of King Ferdinand in 1815, Delfico was made President of 
 the Commission of the Archives. In 1823 he tendered his resignation 
 on account of his great age, and the king allowed him a handsome 
 pension for life. He left Ndples, aud returned to his native Teramo, 
 where he continued till his death, which occurred on the 21st of 
 June 1835, at the age of ninety-one. A few years before his death, as 
 the new king, the present Ferdinand II., being on a tour through the 
 provinces, repaired to Teramo, in 1832, Delfico, who in his youth had 
 known his great grandfather King Charles Bourbon, the founder of 
 the Neapolitan dynasty, caused himself to be carried to the presence 
 of his youthful king, who received him with marks of respect, had 
 him seated by his side, and conversed long with him. 
 
 Besides the works mentioned in the course of this article, Delfico 
 wrote the following : — 1, ' Ricerche sul vero Carattere della Giuris- 
 prudenza Romana, e de suoi Cultori,' 8vo, 1791, a work that has been 
 reprinted several times. 2, 'Pensieri su' la Storia e su' la Incertezza 
 ed Inutility della medesima,' 8vo, Forli, 1806, also reprinted several 
 times. These two works are worthy of notice for a certain boldness 
 and originality of thought which sometimes assumes the form of 
 paradox. The author speaks of the ancient Romans and their insti- 
 tutions and manners with great severity ; he anticipates Niebuhr in 
 his scepticism concerning the legend of the early ages of Rome, and 
 he repeats the sentence of his countryman Vico, who said that the 
 Roman people, until the second Punic war, knew no other arts but 
 those of digging the ground and cutting the throats of their neigh- 
 bours. It is worthy of remark, that Neapolitan philosophers and 
 critics have shown less classical veneration for Rome than those of 
 other parts of Italy, and have exhibited more of a Samnite than a 
 Roman feeling in their historical investigations. 3, ' Dell' Antica 
 Numismatica della Citta di Atri nel Piceno con alcuni Opuscoli sulle 
 Origini Italiche,' fol., Naples, 1826, a work of much antiquarian and 
 historical erudition. 4, ' Memoria sulla Liberta. del Commercio, diretta 
 a risolvere il Problema proposto dall' Accademia di Padova sullo 
 stes50 Argomento,' inserted in the thirty-ninth volume of Custodi's 
 great collection of the Italian economists. Delfico was an advocate 
 of free trade. 5, ' Sugli Antichi Confini del Regno,' written for the 
 
 E 
 
645 
 
 DE LILLE, JACQUES. 
 
 DELORME, PHILIBERT. 
 
 minister of the interior, but as yet inedited, like many other of his 
 treatises and memoirs. 6, ' Espressioni della particolar Riconoscenza 
 della Citta e Proviucia di Teramo dovuta alia Menioria di Ferdi- 
 nando I.,' inserted in the second volume of the 'Annali Civili del 
 Regno,' and being a recapitulation of all the improvements effected in 
 that province un<ler the reign of the elder Ferdinand, chiefly at the 
 suggestion of Delfico. 
 
 (Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani Illustri ; Mozzetti, Degli Studii, 
 delle Open, e delle Virtu, di Melchiorre Delfico, Teramo, 1835.) 
 
 DELILLE, JACQUES, was born at Aigues-Perse, in Auvergne, 
 June 22, 1738, and educated at Paris at the College de Lisieux. 
 Poverty compelled him to accept the office of subordinate teacher at 
 the College de Beauvais; but he was soon raised to the rank of 
 professor of humanity in the college of Amiens. While holding this 
 office he commenced a translation of Virgil's Georgics. On his return 
 to Paris he was appointed professor at the College de la Marche. He 
 now began to be known as a poet, and several of his pieces attained 
 celebrity, particularly an epistle to M. Laurent. But it was the pub- 
 lication of his Georgics, a work to which he was urged by Racine, 
 that raised him to distinction. The public read this translation with 
 enthusiasm, and thought that the French language was capable of 
 representing all the beauties of antiquity. Envy notwithstanding 
 appeared here and there ; and old forgotten poets were dragged from 
 oblivion, that their works might be lauded at the expense of M. 
 Delille's reputation. In 1774 the author was elected a member of 
 the Academy, and soon after published his celebrated poem, ' Les 
 JarJins.' The popularity of this work does not seem to have been 
 equal to that of the Georgics. 
 
 Delille accompanied M. de Choiseul Gouffier on his embassy to 
 Constantinople, and took the opportunity of visiting Athens. It was 
 on this tour that he composed his poem, ' L'Imagination.' On his 
 return to Paris he became professor of. Belles-lettres at the university 
 and of Latin poetry at the College de France. By the Comte d'Artois 
 he had been presented with the abbacy of A. SeVerin, and thus 
 placed in affluent circumstances. He was unfortunate enough to 
 lose all his property by the Revolution. At the celebration of the 
 Fete de l'Etre Supreme, which took place during the Reign of Terror, 
 Robespierre demanded of Delille an ode for the occasion. The poet, 
 finding refusal was of no use, astonished Robespierre by writing a 
 dithyrambic poem on the immortality of the soul, wherein he warmly 
 supported that doctrine. The troubles of the capital induced him, in 
 1794, to leave Paris for St. Diez, and subsequently to retire to 
 Switzerland, where the government of Berne made him a citizen. 
 Here he finished his ' Homme des Champs ' and ' Les Trois Regnes de 
 la Nature.' He afterwards visited London, where he translated 
 Milton's ' Paradise Lost.' In 1801 he returned to Paris, was treated 
 with marked attention by Bonaparte, but he declined to re-enter 
 the great world, and lived in modest retirement at the College of 
 France. The last two years of his life were spent at Nanterre. He 
 died at Paris, universally regretted, on the 1st of May 1813. 
 
 Delille is one of those poets who will always be honoured by 
 posterity ; he is regarded as a reformer of the language ; and he 
 wrote verse with an ease and elegance before unknown. Those who 
 feel pleasure in hearing the Alexandrine verse must be pleased (as 
 far as structure goes) with the didactic poems of Delille. Nothing 
 can be conceived more smooth and easy than the flowing of his lines; 
 and even when he writes in a measure more irregular, as in ' La Con- 
 versation,' the same correctness is so carefully attended to, that a 
 person of the slightest ear may read him aloud without once hesitating 
 as to the place where the caesura lies. To say he was a poet of great 
 imagination would be going too far; but he is entitled to higher 
 praise than that of a mere verse-maker. His images, as well as his lines, 
 are often exceedingly elegant. His ' Conversation ' is an amusing 
 poem ; it is a Theophrastus in verse, portraying the different sorts of 
 persons who figure in conversation. It has however the fault of 
 most works that treat of characteristics — the persons who appear in 
 it are personified abstractions, instead of individuals as they appear in 
 nature. 
 
 _ DELISLE, WILLIAM, a French geographer of groat celebrity in 
 his own day, was born at Paris in 1675. His inclination for the 
 pursuit in which he afterwards became so eminent, was displayed at 
 an early age, and he made considerable proficiency in the art of con- 
 structing maps before he was nine years old. This taste was induced 
 and carefully cultivated by his father, who appears to have been also 
 much devoted to geographical and astronomical pursuits. In 1699 he 
 published a map of the world, which, with other maps and disserta- 
 tions on geography, led to his election as a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1702 ; and soon afterwards he was appointed geographer 
 to the king, with a pension. Indeed several of his works were 
 written for the use of his royal pupil, in the course of instruction 
 which he condescended to receive from Delisle. 
 
 Deliale's celebrity was not only so great in his own country that no 
 work of history or travel was considered complete without his maps, 
 but it extended all over Europe. He had several flattering invitations 
 from the monarchs of other countries to remove to their capitals ; 
 and Peter the Great paid him a personal visit at Paris, to attempt to 
 induce him to go to Russia. All these offers he rejected, but he gave 
 Peter an excellent series of maps of his immense dominions. Fonte- 
 
 nt lie, in his ' Eloge,' says that the geographer knew their limits better 
 than their owner did himself; and it was probably the respect enter* 
 tained for him by the Czar that led to his brother Joseph being 
 appointed to take charge of the observatory at St. Petersburg, with a 
 very considerable salary. 
 
 In 1726, Delisle died of apoplexy, aged fifty-one. The most 
 valuable of his writings may be seen in the Memoirs of the French 
 Academy ; but any list of them is unnecessary here. 
 
 DELISLE, JOSEPH NICOLAS, a younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding geographer, was trained in the same school, and became very 
 eminent in the same pursuits. He was born in 1688. 
 
 His published labours commenced with an excellent observation of 
 the great total eclipse of the sun in 1706, whon he was only eighteen 
 years of age ; and iu 1714 he was admitted a member of the Academy, 
 in the section of astronomy. In 1724 he visited England, and at the 
 recommendation of Newton and Halley, by both of whom he was 
 greatly esteemed, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, on 
 the foreign list. In 1726, the year in which his brother died, he waa 
 appointed astronomer to the Czar Peter, a situation which he retained 
 twenty-one years, when he returned to Paris on account of his health. 
 He was then appointed professor of astronomy in the Royal College 
 of France, which he held many years. Amongst his pupils were 
 Lalande and Messier. 
 
 He died in 1763, at the age of eighty ; having published, besides his 
 'History of Astronomy' (2 vols. 4to, 1738), no less than 44 papers 
 in the 'Memoirs of the Academy,' and several other dissertations 
 elsewhere. 
 
 DELOLME, JOHN LOUIS, was born at Geneva in 1740. He was 
 an advocate in his native town, when the political dissension which 
 occurred there, and in which he took a part by the publication of his 
 ' Examen de Trois Parts des Droits,' forced him to leave his country, 
 and take refuge iu England. Here, notwithstanding his literary 
 activity, he passed some years in great indigence ; so that at length, 
 though his pride long withheld him from seeking or receiving any 
 such assistance, he was forced to accept pecuniary aid about 1775 from 
 a society for the relief of distressed authors. This however was 
 only taken to enable him to return to his native land, and he died at 
 a village in Switzerland July 16, 1808. 
 
 Delolme's principal work was that on the ' Constitution of England,' 
 which was originally written in French, and published at Amsterdam 
 in 1771, but afterwards translated by himself into English, and pub- 
 lished in London in 1772. It was subsequently enlarged, and has been 
 frequently reprinted. It is a shallow book, of little authority now, 
 but it was popular for awhile as being one of the first written by a 
 foreigner on the subject, explaining some of the peculiarities and 
 excellences of the British constitution as compared with other 
 countries, and as accounting for the prosperity of the people and the 
 strength of the country. His other works were — ' Parallel between 
 the English Government and the former Government of Sweden,' 
 London, 1772 ; ' History of the Flagellants, or Memorials of Human 
 Superstition,' 1782 ; and ' Essays, containing Strictures on the Union 
 of Scotland with England.' 
 
 DELORME, PHILIBERT, was born in 1518 at Lyon, where his 
 father was a builder or undertaker of public works, in extensive 
 practice. As he himself boasts, he was hardly fifteen when he had 
 upwards of three hundred workmen to receive their directions from 
 him; which probably means that such directions were only transmitted 
 through him. In 1533 he was sent to Rome, where in a short time he 
 secured a protector in the Cardinal Santa Croce, who took him into 
 his household. The devoutness which he now affected far exceeded 
 his application to study, which did not extend to more than making 
 ordinary sketches. Yet if he did not profit much by diligence, he 
 made what was then considered an important discovery, namely, that 
 of the mode practised by the ancients for tracing the Ionic volute, as 
 described on a capital in Santa Maria Trastevere — a discovery subse- 
 quently claimed for Palladio, although Delorme's prior right to it is 
 neither to be disputed nor suspected, because the other did not visit 
 Rome till 1549, nor begin to publish any of his writings till 1570, 
 whereas the first edition of Delorme's works appeared in 1567. 
 
 On his return to his native city in 1536, Delorme, who brought back 
 with him a high character for religious strictness, was employed to 
 erect the portal of the church of St. Nizier, which, as far as it was 
 ever finished, gives no very favourable idea of his architectural talent, 
 The alterations of the Hotel Billau, in the same city, obtained for him 
 much more credit ; but nearly the whole of it was due to his brother 
 Jean. That work completed, he was soon afterwards summoned to 
 Paris by Catherine de' Medicis, to whom he had been recommended 
 by the Cardinal du Bellay, who had himself been charged by Santa 
 Croce (raised to the papal see in 1555 by the title of Marcellus II., 
 but who wore the tiara only three-and-twenty days) to promote the 
 advancement of his protege". Catherine perceived in him other merits 
 than those of a mere artist, and rewarded them accordingly. Although 
 he was not in orders, having only received the tonsure when at Rome, 
 several church benefices were conferred upon him, and he was 
 appointed Aumonier du Roi. No wonder therefore, when rewards of 
 that kind were showered upon him so unscrupulously, that he should 
 have obtained much of the most important and lucrative employment 
 in his own profession, without his qualifications being narrowly 
 
617 
 
 inquired into. Delorme was associated with Primaticcio in the 
 erection of the monument of Francis I., and that of the Valois princes 
 at St. Denys (taken down in 1719), but the designs were made by 
 Primaticcio. Among works of a more strictly architectural nature, 
 he built the Chateau de Meudon for the Cardinal de Lorraine, and 
 completed the Chateau de Madrid in the Bois de Boulogne at Paris ; 
 but his work at the latter building was inferior to that of his prede- 
 cessors. To these may be added — the Court (en fer de cheval) at 
 Fontainebleau ; the royal scats of Villers-Cotterets, de la Muette, 
 and St. Germainc-en-Laye ; and the celebrated Chateau d'Anet, built 
 for the Duchess de Valentinois, better known as Diane de Poitiers. 
 Of these buildiugs, such as remain at all have been so altered at 
 different times that their original character is nearly effaced ; but of 
 the Chateau d'Anet the portal, or lofty centre compartment, is pre- 
 served by having been taken down and re-erected as a restoration in 
 the court of the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris. The reputation 
 howevor obtained by that monument for Philibert is, Callet assures 
 us, in reality due to Jean Delorme, his brother. On the death of 
 Henri II. (1559) he not only lost his appointment of Royal Autnonier, 
 but fell into disgrace with the new king Francis II. Nevertheless 
 the queen-mother continued her protection, and he was accordingly 
 intrusted by her with the works of her new palace of the Tuileries 
 (1564) ; but it is far from certain whether Delorme or Bullant, who 
 was also engaged upon the Tuileries, had the greater share in the 
 original structure. According to Callet, it was Bullant who was the 
 author of the general design of the palace ; for Delorme, in the dedi- 
 cation of his works to Catherine (1567), takes credit to himself only 
 for the ' Ionic order ' and some other minor parts, but carefully avoids 
 mentioning the name of the other architect. What Delorme's talent 
 and taste really were, may perhaps be pretty well judged of by a 
 specimen which no one will envy him the credit of, namely, the house 
 which he erected for himself in the Hue de la Cirisai'e, and of which 
 Callet exhibits two elevations and a ground-plan ; for it is of studied 
 inconvenience as a dwelling, and very far from handsome as a design. 
 It was there that Philibert died, May 30, 1577, at the age of fifty-nine. 
 He wrote a work entitled ' Nouvelles Inventions pour bien batir a petit 
 frais,' Paris, 1551, which contains much useful practical information 
 in regard to the carpentry of roofs and domes. 
 
 Of his brother, Jean Delorme, no particulars have come down to 
 us — a circumstance that is accounted for by the fact that Philibert 
 took care that he should be considered as a mere subordinate. The 
 probability is, that Jean died some time before his brother. 
 
 (Callet, Notice Uistoriquc sur quelyues Archilectcs Fran fait du 
 Seiziime Sicclc, Paris, 1843.) 
 
 DELU'C, JEAN ANDRE, was born at Geneva in 1727. His 
 father, Francois Deluc, was a watch manufacturer, not only skilful in 
 his trade, but conversant with other branches of knowledge, and a 
 writer upon religious and political matters. His son also took part in 
 the disputes between the negatifs and the reprdsentans, or aristocratic 
 and democratic parties, of his native republic, to the latter of which he 
 belonged ; and he was sent, in 1768, by his fellow-representatives to 
 Paris to plead their cause with the Duke of Choiseul, the prime 
 minister in France. On his return in 1770 he was made a member 
 of the legislative council ; but not long afterwards he left Geneva and 
 its politics for England, to devote himself entirely to scientific pur- 
 suits. He had from an early age applied himself to the study of 
 geology, and had made excursions into the Alps, while his brother 
 investigated the mountains of Italy for the same object. His own 
 words best explain his purpose: "My brother and I entered together 
 upon our geological career while I yet lived at Geneva, and after a 
 certain period we came to a first conclusion, which from that time has 
 been our guide, namely, that an essential distinction was to be made 
 among the various phenomena which the surface of the earth exhibits, 
 with respect to their causes, by determining as to each of them 
 whether the causes which have produced it are still in action, or have, 
 
 at some epoch, ceased to act Continuing our observations, we 
 
 came at length to a conviction that the formation of our continents, 
 with regard both to their composition and general form, as well as 
 their existence above the level of the sea, should be ascribed to causes 
 no longer in action on our globe, and that the whole of the effects of 
 the still-existing causes have been limited to a modification of that 
 original state. After having quitted Geneva, I continued my observa- 
 tions in various countries, and more particularly on the sea coast ; my 
 brother likewise pursued his, and we communicated our remarks to 
 each other. I saw the possibility of determining, by the action of 
 actual causes, what had been the state of our continents at their 
 birth, and also the possibility of determining the time elapsed since 
 that period. I then wrote my first geological work, 'Lettres Physiques 
 et Morales sur l'Histoire de la Terre et de l'Homme,' 8vo, La Haye, 
 1778." These letters were addressed to Queen Charlotte, consort of 
 George III., who appointed Deluc her reader. They relate only to 
 the Alps of Switzerland ; but in the following year appeared a con- 
 tinuation of the work, under the same title, including Deluc's travels 
 through Rhenish Germany, Hanover, Friesland, Holland, Belgium, &c, 
 in 5 thick vols. 8vo. These letters are not merely scientific treatises ; 
 they are also descriptive of scenery, of the inhabitants, aud their 
 manners; they contain statistical and moral observations, and many 
 of them are full of interest even to the geneial reader. One great 
 
 conclusion which Deluc came to from all his observations was, that 
 the present continents were left dry by a great and sudden revolution 
 of comparatively recent occurrence, not more than four or five 
 thousaud years since, which revolution buried under the sea the 
 countries previously inhabited. This opinion has been also main- 
 tained by Saussure, Dolomieu, and for awhile by Cuvier. Deluo 
 agreed with Saussure in considering that the materials which form 
 our mountains were first deposited in horizontal and continuous 
 strata, and that their present broken and dislocated state is the effect 
 of subsequent catastrophes, which however were previous to that 
 which left them dry. Deluc's whole system concerning the various 
 epochs of the creation corresponding to the six days, or rather 
 periods, of Genesis, appears in several of his numerous works, and 
 especially in his ' Lettres Geologiques sur l'Histoire do la Terre,' 
 addressed to Blunienbach, 1798 ; in his ' Traitd EhSmentaire do 
 Geologic,' 1808, which was also published in English ; and in his 
 'Geological Travels in the North of Europe and in England,' 3 vols. 
 8vo, London, 1810. Deluc made also many observations on th« 
 atmosphere, and the phenomena of air, heat, and light. He wrote 
 'Rccherches sur les Modifications de 1' Atmosphere, contenant 1 i I is- 
 toire critique du Barometre et du Thermomctre, un traits' sur la 
 construction de ces instrumens, des experiences relatives h, leurs 
 usages, et principalement a la mesure dea hauteurs, et it la correction 
 des rdfractions moyennes; avec figures,' 2 vols. 4to, Geneva, 1772. 
 It is perhaps in this branch of experimental philosophy that Deluc 
 rendered the most positive services to science. He made great 
 improvements in the barometer, especially as applied to the measure- 
 ment of heights. He also wrote 'Mdmoire sur un Hygronictre com- 
 parable presentd a la Societe" Royale de Londres.' Among his other 
 works may be mentioned, ' Iddes sur la Meteorologie,' 1786 ; 'Intro- 
 duction h la Physique Terrestre par les Fluides expansibleo,' 1803; 
 ' Traite Ele'mentaire sur le Fluide Electro-Galvanique,' 1804. 
 
 Deluc's earnestness in availing himself of his geological observations 
 to prove the veracity of the Mosaic narrative involved him in contro- 
 versial correspondence with several of his contemporaries, and par- 
 ticularly with Dr. Teller of Berlin: 'Lettres sur le Christianisme, 
 addressees au Dr. Teller,' 1801 ; ' Correspondance particuliere entre le 
 Docteur Teller et J. A. Deluc,' in French and German, 1803-4 ; aud 
 also with Professor Reimarus of Hamburg, ' Annonce d'un Ouvrage 
 de M. J. A. Reimarus sur la Formation du Globe, par J. A. Deluc,' 
 Hanover, 1803. But though Deluc was earnest in - his religious 
 conviction, and in supporting it by arguments, his spirit was far from 
 being intolerant, as he shows in numerous passages of his works, and 
 especially in his ' Discours sur la Tolerance,' in the first volume of 
 the ' Histoire de la Terre et de 1'Homme.' He was a great admirer of 
 Bacon, and wrote 'Precis de la Philosophie de Bacon, et des Progies 
 qu'ont fait les Sciences Naturelles par ses Preceptes et son Example,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1802. He wrote also on education : ' Lettres sur 
 l'Education Religieuse de l'Enfance, prece'de'es et suivies de ddtails 
 historiques,' 8vo, 1799 ; besides many other memoirs, treatises, &c, 
 which appeared in the ' Journal des Scavans,' ' Transactions Philoso- 
 phiques,' and other scientific journals, French, English, and German. 
 He was a member of the Royal Societies of London, Dublin, and 
 Gbttingen, and correspondent of the academies of Paris, Montpellier, 
 &c. He was appointed in 1798 professor of philosophy and geology 
 in the University of Gottingen. He passed several years in Germany, 
 at Berlin, Hanover, Brunswick, &c. After the battle of Jena lie 
 returned to England, where he passed the remainder of his life, chiefly 
 at Windsor, where his situation of reader to the queen gave him a 
 free access to the royal family, by the members of which he was much 
 respected. He died at Windsor, November 1817, in his ninety-first 
 year. His brother and fellow-observer, Guillaume Antoine Deluc, 
 died at Geneva in 1812, and left a rich collection of mineralogy, which 
 was increased by his son Andre Deluc, who wrote an ' Histoire du 
 Passage des Alpes par Annibal,' Geneva, 1818. 
 
 DE'MADES, an Athenian orator and demagogue, contemporary 
 with Demosthenes. According to Suidas he was originally a sailor ; 
 according to Proclus a fishmonger. He took the part of Philip in the 
 Olynthian affair, and was liberally rewarded by that prince, who 
 received him well when he fell into his hands after the battle of 
 Chseronea. He was mainly instrumental in bringing about the peace 
 between Macedon and Athens, which followed that victory. (Demostb., 
 ' de Corona,' p. 320.) When Alexander, in B.C. 335, demanded that 
 the Athenian orators who were opposed to him should be delivered 
 into his hands, Demades induced him to relinquish his claim. (Diod, 
 xvii. 15 ; Plut., ' Dem.,' c. xxiii) Demades seems to have yielded to 
 the bribery of Harpalus. (Dinarch., c. ; Demosth., p. 101.) It appears 
 that he was concerned with Phocion in delivering up Athens to Anti- 
 pater. (Corn. Nepos. ' Phoc. II.') In B.c. 318 he went on an embassy 
 to Antipater to induce him to remove the garrison from Munychia, 
 and took his son Demeas with him. Unfortunately, a letter which he 
 had written to Perdiccas fell into the hands of Cassander, and in 
 revenge for the offensive terms in which Antipater was alluded to in 
 it, that prince put to death the orator and his son. Cicero (' Brut.,' 9) 
 and Quintilian (ii. 17, § 13 ; xii. 10, § 49) assert that he did not write 
 anything; but a fragment of bis speech in defence of his twelve 
 years' administration (virep ttis SwSticaeTias) is still extant, and Suidas 
 attributes to him a history of Delos, aud of the birth of the children 
 
DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS. 
 
 of Latona. Pytheas (' in Athen.,' p. 44 F) describes him as a profligate 
 druuken fellow. He was a great wit, and many of his sallies are 
 recorded. 
 
 DEMETRIUS PHALE'REUS, au Atheniao, the son of Phano- 
 stratus, and a scholar of Theophrastus. His earlier years were devoted 
 to the study of philosophy : he first began to take a part in public 
 affairs about B.C. 320. (Diog. Laert., v. 5-75.) He was condemned 
 to death at the same time with Phocion (b.c. 317) for espousing the 
 Macedonian party, but had the good fortune to escape by flight (Plut., 
 'Phoc.,' cxxxv.), and was shortly after made governor of Athens by 
 Cassander. He maintained his authority for ten years, and, according 
 to Strabo (p. 398), Athens was never more happy than under his govern- 
 ment. In his administration of affairs he was so popular that 360 
 statues were erected in his honour; but when Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 came to Athens (B.C. 307) and proclaimed the old democracy, he was 
 obliged to fly a second time, and would hardly have escaped had not 
 his enemy ensured him a safe retreat to Thebes. (Diodor. Sic. xx., 45, 
 46.) After the death of Cassander (B.C. 296) Demetrius retired to the 
 court of Ptolemy Soter, king of Egypt, where he was received with 
 great distinction, and where he probably wrote most of the numerous 
 works attributed to him by Diogenes, (v. 5-80.) Unfortunately how- 
 ever he made an unsuccessful attempt to dissuade liis patron from 
 altering the succession to his crown iu favour of his children by 
 Berenice. When Ptolemy Philadelphus came to the throne in B.C. 283 
 he had not forgotten the counsel which would, had it been listened to, 
 have deprived him of his father's preference, and banished the author 
 of it to Busiris, where he soon after died from the bite of an asp. A 
 treatise ou rhetoric, ascribed to him, has come down to us, and has 
 been edited separately by Schneider, Altenburg, 1779. 
 
 DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES (the city-taker) was the son of 
 Antigonus (one of the successors of Alexander the Great) and Stra- 
 touice. He appears to have been born about the year B.C. 334, for 
 Plutarch tells us (' Dem.,' v.) he was twenty-two when he was defeated 
 by Ptolemy and Seleucus at Gaza (B.C. 312). Demetrius soon obli- 
 terated the disgrace which had attended his first feat of arms by a 
 brilliaut victory which he gained over Cilles, one of the generals of 
 Ptolemy. (Plut., 'Dem.,' vi.) In the division of Alexander's empire, 
 which shortly followed, it was determined that Greece should be freed 
 from the dominion of Ca3sander, and this duty Demetrius willingly 
 took upon himself. Demetrius Phalereus then governed Athens as 
 
 Coin of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight 200^ grains. 
 
 Cassander' s deputy, and had obtained great popularity ; but when 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes took Munychia and offered a democratical form 
 of government to the Athenians (b.c. 307), the disciple of Theo- 
 phrastus was glad to owe a safe retreat to'Thebes to the generosity 
 of his namesake. In the following year Demetrius gained a great 
 naval victory over Ptolemy, and conquered the isle of Cyprus, in con- 
 sequence of which his father Antigonus assumed the title of king. 
 (Plut., 'Dem.,' xvii., xviii.) In b.c. 304 Demetrius laid siege to Rhodes, 
 but, although he showed all the resources of his genius iu inventing 
 new and extraordinary machines for taking the city, he was unable to 
 make himself master of it, and, after a year's siege, he formed an 
 alliance with the Rhodians against all persons, with the exception of 
 Ptolemy. (Plut., ' Dem.,' xxi.) Demetrius then returned to Greece, 
 forced Cassander to raise the siege of Athens, and pursued him to 
 Thermopylse : after thi3 he took Sicyon by surprise, and then Corinth 
 and Argos, where he married Deidamia, sister of Pyrrhus, king of 
 Epirus. Cassander was willing to make peace, but Antigouu3 showed 
 so little moderation that the other successors of Alexander were 
 induced, through fear of the consequences of his ambition, to form 
 a coalition against him. Antigonus met his enemies at Ipsu3, iu 
 Phrygia, and fell in the battle. (Diod. xxi.; Plut., 'Dem.,' xxviii. — 
 xxx.) Demetrius escaped from the defeat with 9000 men to Ephesus, 
 whence he passed over to the Cyclades, and, being excluded from 
 Athens, sailed for the Chersonese. While he was there engaged in 
 laying waste the lands of Lysimachus, Seleucus sent to him to demand 
 his daughter Stratonice in marriage, a proposal to which he readily 
 agreed. Having made himself master of the surrounding country, he 
 laid siege to Athens, which was under the dominion of the tyrant 
 Lachares. The city soon surrendered (B.C. 295), and was treated with 
 great kindness by the conqueror. (Plut., ' Dem.,' xxxiv.) The quarrel 
 of Alexander and Antipater, the two sons of Cassander, gave him an 
 opportunity of getting possession of Macedon, which he easily accom- 
 plished after having put to death Alexander, who hud called him in to 
 
 DEMETRIUS. tso 
 
 assist him against his brother, (b.c. 294.) Although master of the 
 greater part of Greece, he was eager to get possession of the whole, and 
 attacked and took Thebes. But his popularity was now on the wane, 
 and he was easily driven from tho throne of Macedon by Pyrrhus the 
 Epirote, in B.C. 287, whose good qualities had become known to the 
 subjects of Demetrius. (Plut., 'Dem.,' xliv.) Shortly afterwards he 
 fell into the hands of Seleucus, whose kingdom he had invaded, and 
 was detained by him in honourable confinement till his death in 
 b.c. 283. This celebrated man was so eminently handsome in hia 
 person that sculptors and painters always fell short of his beauty. 
 He was much given to debauchery, and is said to have shortened his 
 life by his excesses. 
 
 DEMETRIUS SOTER, king of Syria, the son of Seleucus Philo- 
 pater, passed his youth at Rome as a hostage. He effected his escape, 
 partly through the assistance afforded him by the historian Polybius, 
 and mounted the throne of his ancestors about B.C. 161. He con- 
 tended in vain with the Maccabees, who then ruled over Judaea, and 
 died valiantly fighting against Alexander Balas about B.C. 150. 
 
 Coin of Demetrius Soter. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight 256^ grains. 
 
 DEMETRIUS NICATOR was the son of Soter. Having hem 
 sent to Cnidos, towards the end of his father's reign, he did not fall 
 into the hands of the successful usurper Bala, and with the assistance 
 of the king of Egypt, whose daughter Cleopatra he had married, soon 
 possessed himself of his father's throne. As however he gave himself 
 up, after awhile, to profligacy, luxury, and indolence, and did not 
 attend to the duties of his station, his numerous enemies contrived 
 to expel him from his kingdom, and he remained for some time in the 
 hands of the Parthians, upon whom he had ventured to make war. 
 While still in captivity he married a daughter of Mithridates, the 
 Parthian king; and his former wife Cleopatra formed a union with 
 his brother Antiochus, who became king of Syria in his absence, and 
 fell in battle with the Parthians. Phraates, before thi3 event hap- 
 pened, had released Demetrius, in order that he might divide his 
 brother's party, and he consequently regained his kingdom after the 
 death of Antiochus. But Demetrius governed Syria no better than 
 before his captivity. He was again expelled by another usurper, and 
 was assassinated by the orders of his wife Cleopatra in a temple at 
 Tyre, where he had taken refuge, B.C. 126. 
 
 Coin of Demetrius Nicator. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight 260, 9 0 grains. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, Tsar (Czar) of Russia, the title assumed by a suc- 
 cession of claimants at the commencement of the 17th century, the 
 first of whom is generally spoken of in history as the ' False Deme- 
 trius.' Ivan the Fourth of Russia, known as ' the Terrible,' iu the 
 year 1584 killed, in one of his customary fits of fury, his eldest son, 
 and died in the same year, partly, it is said, from remorse. Though 
 he had had seven wives he left but two sons, Theodore, or Feodor, 
 who succeeded him, and a child named Demetrius, only three years 
 old ; and these were the sole descendants of the race of Rurik, which 
 had occupied the Russian throne for centuries. Feodor, who was a 
 weak sovereign, was entirely governed by his brother-in-law, Boris 
 Godunov, who sent the young prince Demetrius, with his mother, 
 away from the court of Moscow to the town of Uglich. In the year 
 1591, when Demetrius was ten years old, he was seized with an epileptic 
 fit (to which he was subject), when playing iu the courtyard with his 
 knife, fell so that the knife entered his throat, and died immediately; 
 his mother, who ran to the spot, alarmed by the cries of the specta- 
 tors, called out, in the first anguish of her despair, that he was 
 murdered, and the populace of Uglich, incited by her brothers, the 
 uncles of Demetrius, seized on some of the household and put them 
 
SSI 
 
 DEMETRIUS. 
 
 DEMIDOV, ANATOL. 
 
 5i3 
 
 to death as accomplices in Lis assassination. These are the statements 
 which appear on the evidence of numerous witnesses in an inquiry 
 instituted at the time, nominally under the authority of the Tsar, but 
 in reality under that of Godunov, which terminated in the banish- 
 ment of the uncles of Demetrius, in his mother being compelled to 
 take the veil, and in the ruin of the town of Uglich, the inhabitants 
 of which were sent in a body to Siberia, then a newly-acquired pos- 
 session of the Russian crown. For seven years afterwards the reign 
 of Feodor continued, and in 1598, when the dynasty of the line of 
 Rurik closed with his death, Boris Godunov, who had long been 
 regent, assumed the title of Tsar. By some harsh and siugular 
 measures, in particular by that of making drunkenness a capital crime, 
 Boris rendered his name unpopular, and was generally looked on as a 
 tyrant. In 1603 the public mind was suddenly stirred by the rumour 
 that Demetrius was alive, and had shown himself in Poland. Several 
 versions are to be found in the historians of the time of the way in 
 which the revelation was first made : that adopted by Kavauziu, the 
 modem historian of Russia, is that a stranger who fell seriously ill in 
 a Polish town, sent for a confessor and imparted to him that he was 
 the heir of the Russian throne, and the confessor communicated the 
 event to Prince Adam Wiszuiowiecki, and that on the stranger's 
 recovery the prince made known his claims, and espoused his cause. 
 It is certain that, in 1603, the Prince Constantino Wiszuiowiecki, 
 brother of Adam, introduced to his father-in-law Mniszek, the Palatine 
 of Saudoniir, a young man who asserted himself to be Demetrius, who 
 gave out that, when in bis tenth year, assassins had been sent by 
 Godunov to dispatch him, in order to clear the usurper's way to the 
 throne ; that another boy had been substituted in his place, killed and 
 buncd as the son of Ivan, and that he, the real Demetrius, had been 
 secretly brought up in a convent till he had grown to the age of a 
 man, aud was capable of asserting his rights. A Russian, named 
 Petiovski, who saw him when with Wiszuiowiecki, declared that he 
 had known the young Prince Demetrius well, and that he recognised 
 the stranger as the same person by two warts — one on his forehead, 
 tne other under his right eye, and by one of the arms being a little 
 longer than the other. The Palatine of Sandomir received the stranger 
 as Demetrius, aud presented him to the king of Poland, Sigismundthe 
 Third, who, at a solemn audience, after hearing a statement of his 
 birth and his misfortunes, replied : "God preserve thee, Demetrius, 
 prince of Muscovy, thy birth is known to us, and attested by satis- 
 factory evidence ; we assign thee a pension of forty thousand florins, 
 and, as our friend and our guest, we permit thee to accept the counsel* 
 and services of our subjects." 
 
 Iu May 1604 Demetrius signed a promise of marriage to Marina 
 Mniszek, the daughter of the Palatine, in which he engaged to confer 
 on her the towns of Novgorod and Pskov as a wedding-gift, and to 
 pay her father a million of Polish florins (about 160,000^.) as soon as 
 he should have ascended his throne. In June he signed another 
 document, by which he engaged t > cede the province of Severia to 
 the Palatine and the king of Poland, and iu the same month he 
 privately abjured the Greek faith, and was admitted as a Roman 
 Catholic in the palace of the nuncio. By these acts he secured the 
 services of a little Polish army, with which he invaded Russia towards 
 the close of 1604. Boris, who was of course by this time well aware 
 of the proceedings of his opponent, stigmatised him as an impostor, 
 affirming that he was a renegade monk of the name of Otrepiev, whom 
 an accidental personal resemblance to Demetrius had led into the 
 idea of counterfeiting the deceased prince. Modern historians who 
 have had the advantage of being able to compare all the circum- 
 stances (many of them too minute to be mentioned here), are gene- 
 rally of opinion that the alleged Demetrius was neither what he 
 pretended to be, nor what Boris asserted, leaving it still a matter of 
 mystery who he was and whence he sprung. His campaign in Russia 
 was a mixture of successes and reverses. He won a battle before 
 Novgorod which was bravely defended by Basmanov, the best captain 
 iu Boris's service, and lost a battle at Dobruinicki, after which he 
 retreated to Putivl, where the face of affairs was changed by the 
 sudden death of Boris in April 1605. The Russian populace ascribed 
 the unexpected event to the remorse of the Tsar, which it was 
 believed had induced him to take poison, and Basmanov, the most 
 formidable opponent of the invader, suddenly declared for Demetrius. 
 The commander of the Russian army threw himself at his feet at 
 Putivl and conducted him in triumph to Moscow, which he entered 
 early in June, and was received with shouts of welcome by the 
 people, now thoroughly convinced that he was the real Demetrius. 
 A grr at test however was now approaching. The mother of Demetrius 
 who had been sent by Boris to a convent after the massacre of Uglich 
 was of course released by the triumph of her supposed son, and took 
 her way towards Moscow. The Tsar met her at the village of 
 Toininsk before she entered the capital, and it was so arranged that 
 the first interview took place in a tent with no one to witness their 
 emotions. In a few minutes they emerged from the tent and embraced 
 with signs of warm affection, aud at the sigus the multitude burst 
 into acclamations of joy, the last faint suspicions of doubters being 
 now dissolved. A few days after Demetrius was crowned with great 
 pomp at the cathedral, and he now, with Basmauov for his chief coun- 
 cillor, managed with a firm hand the reins of government. His 
 subjects soon began to perceive with uneasiness that their new master 
 
 was infected with foreign notions, that he surrounded himself with 
 foreign guards, that he laughed at many of their customs, and gave 
 the preference on all occasions to the now triumphant and insolent 
 l oles. Active, vigorous, aud courageous, he was also generous to an 
 imprudent degree, which he shosved by pardoning the Prince Shuisky, 
 who had been detected iu a conspiracy against him. Mi anwhile his 
 engagemeuts to the Poles weighed heavily upon him, not however that 
 which pledged him to his Tsarina, Mariua Mniszek, to whom he 
 appears to have had a real attachment. The nuptial journey of 
 Marina from Kracow to Moscow was magnificent ; it lasted three 
 months, and on the 12th of May 1606 she made her entry into the 
 Russian capital. That marriage was Demetrius' s destruction. The 
 insolence of the Poles who accompanied her, the disregard which 
 Demetrius on various occasions, and on that of his marriage iu par- 
 ticular, showed for the rites of the Russian church, roused the indig- 
 nation of the Russians whose discontent was exasperated by Shuisky, 
 who was convinced of the falsehood of Demetrius's story and of his 
 antagonism to the Russian church. Shuisky told a body of Russians 
 assembled at his palace on May 28th, that their hostility to the 
 impostor was discovered, and that either they or the Tsar must perish, 
 and gave the signal for revolt. Once begun it spread like wildfire, the 
 pent-up enmity of the populace against the foreigners swept all before 
 it, amid cries of " Death to the heretic." The great bell of Moscow 
 was tolled, and 3000 bells answered to the sound. Demetrius, who 
 heard the alarm bell, sent to Shuisky's brother who was on duty at 
 the Kremlin to inquire the cause, and was told it was a fire, but 
 Basmanov soon appeared with the information that it was a revolt 
 Basmanov fell in his defence. Demetrius, pursued from room tc 
 room by the infuriated populace, leaped from a window thirty feet 
 high, broke his leg, and was put to death by the mob, protesting at 
 the last moment that he was " the Tsar — the son of Ivan." A 
 frightful massacre followed. 
 
 The vacant throne was ascended by Prince Shuisky, who afterwards 
 found an unexpected opponent. In spite of a declaration which he 
 caused to be issued by the widow of Ivan, to the effect that the slain 
 Tsar was an impostor, that he was really the monk Otrepiev, and that 
 she had only acknowledged him for her son from fear of his ven- 
 geance if she had denied him, a notion gained ground not only that 
 he was the genuine Demetrius, but that he was still alive. A person 
 who is known to the Russian historians as ' the second False Deme- 
 trius,' or ' the Robber of Tushino ' (the latter appellation derived from 
 his having established his camp at Tushino, a village near Moscow), 
 asserted that he was the Tsar Demetrius, and that another had been 
 slain for him in the massacre at Moscow, as formerly iu the assassi- 
 nation at Uglich. One of his bands took prisoner Marina Mniszek and 
 her father the Palatine, as they were being escorted homeward by a 
 troop of Polish cavaliers ; and Marina was required to declare if the 
 pretender was not her husband, as the Tsarina had been required 
 to declare if the pretender was not her son. Marina also gave an 
 answer in the affirmative, and the anarchy into which Russia had 
 fallen was for years prolonged by this bandit, who on one occasion 
 besieged Moscow for seventeen months, and seemed on the point of 
 making himself master. He was killed in 1610 by a Tartar chieftain, 
 whom he had offended : and Marina ended her days in prison. Mean- 
 while the Poles and Swedes had invaded Russia. Shuisky, defeated 
 by the Poles at the battle of Kluchino, was compelled by his nobles 
 to resign the crown ; and an arrangement was made that Ladislaus, 
 the son of Sigismund III., should ascend the throne of the Tsars. 
 The Poles were driven out in 1612 by the insurrection of Minin aud 
 Pozharski, and the long period of confusion was terminated by the 
 election to the throne of a boy of sixteen, Michael, the founder of the 
 present reigning house of Romanov. 
 
 Even the second false Demetrius was not the last of the pretenders; 
 and there was a false son of the Tsar Feodor who set up claims to the 
 throne ; but none of them obtained the success of the earlier claim- 
 ants. The story of the false Demetriuses has been a favourite one 
 with dramatists and novelists ; the best novel on the subject is that 
 by Bulgarin, and the best plays are the ' Boris Godunov ' of Pushkin, 
 and the unfinished 'False Demetrius ' of Schiller. The best historical 
 monograph on the subject is that by Prosper M4rim£e, 'Demetrius 
 the Impostor,' translated into English by A R. Scoble, London, 1853; 
 but, unfortunately, M. Menmee had never seen the most vivid 
 narrative of the termination of the first Demetrius's career, ' The 
 Report of a bloudie and terrible massacre in the city of Mosco* 
 (London, 1607, 4to), which was reprinted a few years ago by Mr. 
 Asher of Berlin, from the copy in the British Museum. Ustrialov, 
 the Russian historian, published in 1837 a collection of translations 
 of the contemporary accounts of Demetrius, which extended to 
 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 DEMIDOV, or DEMIDOFF, ANATOL, a Russian author of some 
 eminence, is the most conspicuous living member of a family of capi- 
 talists which occupies a position in Russia similar to that of tlio 
 Barings and Rothschilds elsewhere, and which is also celebrated for 
 the useful and benevolent purposes to which its vast wealth has been 
 applied. The founder of the family was Niteita, a serf of the 
 government of Tula in the time of Peter the Great, who left his 
 native village to avoid being taken as a recruit, and afterwards 
 became noted for his skill in the manufacture of arms, who originally 
 
968 
 
 DEMOCRITUS. 
 
 DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM. 
 
 m 
 
 bouDd himself to a blacksmith at Tula to work at a rate equal to 
 about three halfpence a week ; and who, before the close of his 
 career, when presents were made to the empress on the birth of 
 Prince Peter, made her a present of a hundred thousand rubles. He 
 was a favourite with Peter the Great, under whose auspices he 
 established the first iron-foundry in Siberia. His son Akinfi, and his 
 grandson Nikita, discovered the silver- and gold-mines in the Ural 
 Mountains, which they kept concealed till they had ascertained that 
 the government would allow the proprietors of the land to work 
 them to their own profit. For some time the family has been fruitful 
 in members who have distinguished themselves by their liberality in 
 the interests of literature. Paul Demidov, who died at St. Petersburg 
 in 1826, made a gift to the University of Moscow of a valuable 
 museum of natural history, and founded the Demidov Lyceum at 
 Yaroslavl. Nikolay Nikitich Demidov, who had raised a regiment at 
 his own expense in 1812, and led it in person against the French, 
 afterwards spent some years in France, and died at Florence in 1828, 
 leaving two sons, Paul and Anatol. Paul, who died not long after, 
 leaving the bulk of his immense property to his brother, founded a 
 prize of 5000 rubles a year, to be given to the author who, in the 
 judgment of the Academy of Sciences, had enriched Russian literature 
 with the most important and useful work. His brother Anatol has 
 taken the French language as the medium of his contributions to 
 literature. His most important work is that which bears the title of 
 ' Travels in Southern Russia and the Crimea, through Hungary, 
 Wallachia, and Moldavia, during the year 1837,' which was printed at 
 Paris in 1839, and of which an English translation appeared at London 
 in 2 vols. 8vo in 1853. In these volumes, which appear to be partly 
 the production of other writers, who travelled in M. Demidov's com- 
 pany at his expense, may be found the best account that has yet 
 appeared of Sebastopol, Kertch, and Eupatoria. In 1840, Anatol 
 Deinidov was married at Florence to the Princess Matilda de Montfort, 
 daughter of Prince Jerome Bonaparte and of Princess Catharine of 
 Wiirtemberg. Much indignation was excited in Russia by the dis- 
 covery that in the contract of marriage it had been agreed, in 
 accordance with the present claims of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 that all the children should be educated in the Roman Catholic faith, 
 and Demidov had to repair to St. Petersburg to justify himself to the 
 Emperor Nicholas, who in the first movement of indignation had 
 struck him off the list of his chamberlains. The marriage produced 
 no children, and after five years it was dissolved by mutual consent, 
 the Emperor Nicholas, who happened at the time to be in Italy, fixing, 
 it is said, the allowance for the princess at 200,000 rubles a year. 
 M. Demidov is still for the most part resident in Italy ; but he also 
 frequently resides at Spa, where, we observe, that on the 19th of June 
 1856, ther« was a festival to celebrate the inauguration of a bust of 
 Peter the Great, which he presented to the town. The princess takes 
 a conspicuous part at the court of Louis Napoleon at Paris. [Supp.] 
 
 DEMO'CRITUS was born at Abdera in Thrace, or, according to 
 gome, as we learn from Diogenes Laertius (ix. 34), at Miletus, in the 
 year B.C. 460. He was thus forty years younger than Anaxagoras, 
 and eight years younger than Socrates. He received his first lessons 
 in astrology and theology from some Magi, who had been left with 
 his father by Xerxes when passing through Abdera to the invasion of 
 Greece ; and he is said to have been afterwards a hearer of Leucippus 
 and Anaxagoras. That he heard Anaxagoras is doubtful, but, if he 
 did, it must have been while Anaxagoras was at Lampsacus ; for when 
 this philosopher was banished from Athens (B.C. 450) Democritus was 
 only ten years old. Democritus appears to have been a great traveller. 
 He is eaid to have visited Egypt, that he might learn geometry from 
 the Egyptian priests ; to have been in Persis, and with the Gymnoso- 
 phists in India, and to have penetrated into Ethiopia. He sojourned 
 for Borne time at Athens ; but from contempt of notoriety, as it is 
 said, was known to nobody in that city. It is for this reason that 
 Demetrius Phalereus, as cited by Diogenes Laertius (ix. 37), contended 
 that Democritus had never visited Athens. One result of his extensive 
 travels was, that he expended all his patrimony, which is said to 
 have exceeded 100 talents. Now, it was a law of his country, that 
 any one who spent his whole patrimony should be refused burial 
 in his native land ; but Democritus, having read his chief work aloud 
 to his fellow-citizens, so impressed them with an admiration of his 
 harning, that he not merely obtained a special exemption from the 
 above law, but was presented with 500 talents, and was, on his death, 
 buried at the public expense. (Diog. Laert. ix. 39.) A story sub- 
 stantially the same, though varying somewhat in detail, is given in 
 Athenaeus (iv. p. 198.) He is said to have continued travelling till he 
 was eighty years old. He died in the year B.C. 357 at the age of 104. 
 There is a story of his having protracted his life for three days after 
 death seemed inevitable, by means of the smell of either bread or 
 honey, and in order to gratify his sister, who, had he died when first 
 ha seemed likely to die, would have been prevented from attending a 
 festival of Ceres. (Diog. Laert. ix. 43 ; Atham. ii. 7.) 
 
 Democritus loved solitude, and was wholly wrapt up in study. 
 There are several anecdotes illustrative of his devotion to knowledge, 
 and his disregard of everything else. They conflict somewhat with 
 one another in their details ; but accuracy of detail is not to be looked 
 for, and, tending all to the same point, they prove, which is all that 
 we can expect to know, what character was traditionally Assigned to 
 
 woe. div. vol. ii 1 
 
 Democritus. Cicero (' De Fin.,' v. 29) speaks of him as, like Anaxago- 
 ras, leaving his lands uncultivated, in his undivided care for learning; 
 while, as an instance how these Btories conflict, Diogenes Laertius 
 represents him as having, on the division of tho paternal estate with 
 his two brothers, taken his own share entirely in money, as being 
 more convenient than land for a traveller. Valerius Maximus (viii. 7) 
 make3 him show his contempt for worldly things by giving almost 
 the whole of his patrimony to his country. He is said too to have 
 put out his eyes, that he might not be diverted from thought ; but 
 Plutarch (' De Curiositate, p. 521, C) rejects this story, and explains 
 how it might have arisen. It was Democritus who, struck with the 
 ingenuity displayed by Protagoras in the tying up of a bundle, raised 
 him from the humble condition of a porter, and gained him for 
 philosophy. 
 
 Democritus followed Leucippus at a very short distance of time, 
 and preceded Epicurus by somewhat less than a century, as an 
 expounder of the atomic or corpuscular philosophy. He viewed all 
 matter as reducible to particles, which are themselves indivisible 
 (hence called ' atoms '), and which are similar in form. He included 
 mind under the head of matter, recognising only matter and empty 
 space as composing the universe, and viewed mind as consisting of 
 round atoms of fire. (Aristot. 'De Anim.' 1, 2.) Arguing that 
 nothing could arise out of nothing, and also that nothing could 
 utterly perish and become nothing, he contended for the eternity of 
 the universe, and thus dispensed with a creator. He further explained 
 the difference in material substances (mind, as has been said, being 
 one of them) by a difference in the nature and arrangement of their 
 component atoms, and all material (including mental) phenomena by 
 different motions, progressive or regressive, straight or circular, 
 taking place among these atoms and taking place of necessity. Thus 
 the cosmology of Democritus was essentially atheistic. 
 
 In psychology he explained sensation, as did Epicurus after him, by 
 suposing particles, 6<5wAa, as he called them, or sensible images, to 
 issue from bodies. He also thought to explain men's belief in gods 
 by the supposed existence of large images of human form in the air. 
 In moral philosophy he announced nothing more than that a cheerful 
 state of mind (eveariti, Qv6v/j.ia) was the only thing to be sought after. 
 The manner in which the follies of men affected him, and from which 
 he derived his name of the 'laughing philosopher,' is well known. 
 (Juv. x. 33-55.) 
 
 A list of the very numerous writings of Democritus is contained in 
 Diogenes Laertius (ix. 46-49.) They are arranged under the five prin- 
 cipal heads of ethics, physics, mathematics, general literature, and 
 arts ; and there are besides a few of miscellaneous character. The 
 list, classified in the same manner, and enriched with critical remarks, 
 is given in Fabricius (' Bibliotheca Grseca,' ed. Harles. vol. ii., p. 63 4« 
 641.) The reader will see in this work a list of the writings wrongly 
 attributed to Democritus, and statements of the grounds on which 
 they are severally pronounced spurious ; among them are the writings 
 on magic which are spoken of by Pliny ('Hist. Nat.' xxx. 1), and 
 considered by him as genuine. 
 
 For an account of the philosophy of Democritus the reader is 
 referred to Hill, 'De Philosophia Epicurea, Democritea et Theo- 
 phrastea,' Genev., 1669; Ploucquet, 'De Placitis Democriti Abderitse,' 
 Tubing., 1767 ; Cudworth, ' Intellectual System,' chap. i. ; and to the 
 common histories of philosophy ; and for general information con- 
 cerning his life to Bayle's ' Dictionary,' and Fabricius' ' Bibliotheca 
 Grseca,' ed. Harles., vol. ii., p. 628. 
 
 DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM, was born at Vitry in Champagne, on 
 the 26th of May 1667, and was descended of an ancient and honour- 
 able family of the French Protestant church. The revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes in 1685 compelled him to leave his native country, and, 
 like a great number of the refugees created by that revocation, he settled 
 in England, choosing for the field of his efforts the metropolis. He 
 appears at the earliest period to which any account of him reaches to 
 have devoted himself to teaching mathematics, as the surest means of 
 obtaining a subsistence. He also, though he was not the first who 
 adopted that plan, read lectures on natural philosophy : but it does 
 not appear that his attempts in this way were very successful, he being 
 neither fluent iu the use of the English language, nor a good 
 experimental manipulator. 
 
 The popularity, as a book to be talked about, of Newton's great 
 work, compelled Demoivre to enter upon the study of it ; and there 
 is no doubt that he was one of the few who at that time were able {o 
 follow the illustrious Newton in the course of his investigations. 
 Demoivre's power however lay in pure mathematics of the kind now 
 called analytical ; for in all his writings there is scarcely a trace 
 either of physical or geometrical investigation to be discerned. His 
 writings on analysis abound with consummate contrivance and skill ; 
 and one at least of his investigations has had the effect of completely 
 changing the whole character of trigonometrical science in it3 higher 
 departments. 
 
 At a comparatively early period of his residence in London, Demoivre 
 was admitted to the society of Newton and his immediate circle of 
 personal friends ; and many instances of the regard with which ho 
 was treated are current amongst the traditions which have reached 
 our own time. This of course led to an intimacy with the leading 
 mathematicians of that period ; and his great talents soon obtained 
 
6£« 
 
 DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 ESQ 
 
 his election into the Royal Society, aa well as, ultimately, the corre- 
 sponding societies of Paris and Berlin. The estimate formed of his 
 abilities, acquirements, and impartiality, is proved by his being nomi- 
 nated as a fit person to decide on the rival claims of Leibnitz and 
 Newton to the invention of the method of fluxions. 
 
 Demoivre lived to the advanced age of more than eighty-seven ; but 
 as he outlived most of his early associates and friends, his circum- 
 stances became greatly reduced. He is said to have sunk into a state 
 of almost total lethargy, the attacks of which often lasted for several 
 days ; and his subsistence was latterly dependent on the solution of 
 questions relative to games of chance and other matters connected 
 with the value of probabilities, which he was in the habit of giving at 
 a tavern or coffee-house in St. Martin's Lane. Ho died on the 27th 
 of November 1754. 
 
 Dernoivre's writings, we have already remarked, are distinguished 
 by considerable originality of character. His separate publications 
 are as follows : — 
 
 1. 'Miscellanea Analytica, de Sericbus et Quadraturis,' 1730, 4 to. 
 This work contains several very elegant improvements in the then 
 known methods of termination of series, as well as some new methods. 
 
 2. 'The Doctrine of Chances, or the Method of Calculating the 
 Probabilities of Events at Play,' 1718, 4to. This work was dedicated 
 to Sir Isaac Newton : it was reprinted in 1738, with considerable 
 alterations and additions. A third edition was afterwards published, 
 differing little in anything of consequence from the second. 
 
 3. ' Annuities on Lives,' 1724, 8vo. A work on the same subject, 
 published by the distinguished Thomas Simpson, in 1742, in which 
 some well-deserved compliments to Demoivre were introduced, led 
 our author to publish a second edition of his work ; and it is to be 
 regretted that he was induced to insert some harsh reflections on 
 Simpson's work, which were as unfounded as they were uncalled for 
 by the manner in which Simpson had treated his predecessor's first 
 edition. Simpson however replied to it in an appendix to his work in 
 the following year, "containing some remarks on a late book on the 
 subject, with answers to some personal and malignant representations 
 in the preface thereof." The only excuse that can be urged for 
 Demoivre in this matter is, that he was an old man, that he considered 
 the domain his own, and Simpson as a mere poacher on it, and that 
 he was under the influence of men who wished to crush the rising 
 genius and talents of a man like Simpson, who had not been born to 
 the advantages which enabled him to obtain a regular academical 
 education. Demoivre, notwithstanding his age, had the good sense to 
 see that he had attacked a man with whom he could not cope ; but 
 still pride prevented his making any apology to his younger compe- 
 titor. In 1750 he published a third edition of his work, in which he 
 merely omitted the offensive reflections of his former preface ; and 
 here the dispute seems to have terminated. Demoivre also pub- 
 lished a considerable number of papers in the ' Philosophical Tran- 
 sactions.' There is not one of these which is not of sterling value on 
 the subjects of which they treat. 
 
 * DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS, was born in 1S06 at Madura, the 
 capital of the district of that name, in the Madras Presidency. 
 His father was an officer in the Madras army. He can trace his 
 descent also from the mathematician James Dodson, author of the 
 'Anti-Logarithmic Canon.' Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 Mr. De Morgan was Fourth Wrangler in 1827, when he took the degree 
 of B.A. Owing to an objection to the subscription test he did not 
 proceed to the M. A. degree. He bad entered at Lincoln's Inn and begun 
 his studies with a view to the English bar, when the foundation of 
 the University of London (1828) opened up to him a more congenial 
 career. [What is now known as "University College, London," bore 
 at the time of its foundation the name of " The University of London," 
 and retained this name till 1837. Then, on the proposal of the 
 government to constitute a distinct degree-granting body under the 
 designation of the "University of London," to which a number of 
 colleges might be affiliated on the principle of the non-subscription of 
 tests, the original institution agreed to give up the more general 
 name and, as one of the affiliated colleges, to assume the name of 
 " University College."] Appointed to the Professorship of Mathe- 
 matics in the new institution, Mr. De Morgan retained it till 1831, 
 when he resigned. On the death of his successor in 1836 however he 
 returned to the post, which ever since that time he has continued to 
 fill to the great distinction of the college. Besides his professorship, 
 Mr. De Morgan has had ample occupation as a consulting actuary, 
 advising insurance offices, and as one of the secretaries and a member 
 of the council of the Royal Astronomical Society. He is also a 
 member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. But to the world 
 at large he is best known as the author of many mathematical and 
 miscellaneous works. Of the chief of these, published in his own 
 name, the following is a list: — 'Elements of Arithmetic,' 1830; 
 ' Elements of Algebra, preliminary to the Differential Calculus,' 1835 ; 
 ' The Connexion of Number and Maguitude : an Attempt to Explain 
 the Fifth Book of Euclid,' 1836; 'Elements of Trigonometry and 
 Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the Differential Calculus,' 
 1837; 'Essay on Probabilities, and on their Application to Life- 
 Contingencies and Insurance Offices,' 1838; 'First Notions of Logic, 
 preparatory to the study of Geometry,' 1839 ; ' The Globes, Celestial 
 and Terrestrial,' 1845; 'Formal Logic; or the Calculus of Inference 
 
 necessary and probable,' 1847; 'Arithmetical Books, from tho Inven- 
 tion of Printing to tho Present Time ; being brief notices of a large 
 number of works drawn up from actual inspection,' 1847 ; 'Trigono- 
 metry and Double Algebra,' 1849 ; ' The Book of Almanacs, with an 
 Index of Reference by which the Almanac may be found for every 
 year up to a.d. 2000 ; with Means of finding the Day of any New or 
 Full Moon from B.C. 2000 to a.d. 2000,' 1851. Besides these works 
 Professor De Morgan is the author of the treatises on ' The Differential 
 and Integral Calculus,' and 'Spherical Trigonometry,' published by 
 the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. He contributed 
 largely to other publications of this Society, of the mauagiug com- 
 mittee of which he was for some time a member. He was one of the 
 most extensive contributors to the original edition of the ' Penny 
 Cyclopaedia ; ' most of the mathematical and astronomical articles, aa 
 well as many of the articles of scientific biography were written by 
 him. Among other periodicals to which he has contributed are, ' The 
 Companion to the Almanac,' ' The Transactions of the Cambridge 
 Philosophical Society,' ' The Philosophical Magazine,' the ' North 
 British Review,' the ' Athenaeum,' &c, &c. Besides being a profound 
 mathematician and astronomer, he has a great affection for and aa 
 extensive and minute erudition in all kinds of literary hi*tory, 
 biography, and antiquities. He is also versed in metaphysical and 
 logical studies ; and his ' Formal Logic ' mentioned in the above list is 
 one of the most remarkable of recent works in logical science. In 
 connection with this work is still remembered, as one of the most 
 interesting of the learned controversies of the day, a controversy 
 which took place in the year 1847 between Mr. De Morgan and Sir 
 William Hamilton of Edinburgh, relative to Mr. De Morgan's title to 
 an independent discovery of a new principle in the theory of syllogism 
 expounded by Sir William Hamilton. A pamphlet on the subject 
 was published by Sir William ; to which Professor De Morgan replied. 
 In the recent agitation for a decimal coinage Professor De Morgan has 
 taken an active part, throwing much light on the subject by numerous 
 letters and articles. 
 
 DEMO'STHENES was born probably in B.C. 384 or 385. He was 
 the son of Demosthenes, an Athenian citizen of the dermis Pocania, 
 who carried on the trades of cutler and cabinet-maker, and of Cleobule, 
 the daughter of Gylon. This Gylon, who had been governor of Nym- 
 phaeum, an Athenian settlement in the Tauric Chersonesus, betrayed 
 it to the Scythians, and afterwards taking refuge with their chief, 
 married a Scythian woman, who was the maternal grandmother of 
 Demosthenes. This impurity of blood, and the misconduct of Gylon, 
 his maternal grandfather, formed a theme for the taunts of Eschines. 
 ('Oration against Ctesiphon.') There is a well-known allusion in 
 Juvenal to the trade of Demosthenes the elder (x. 130). The point 
 of the satirist is however somewhat lost, when we remember that 
 Plutarch applies to the father a term which expresses all that can be 
 said to the advantage of a man, and that he had two manufactories 
 containing on the whole more than fifty slaves. (Creuzer, ' View of 
 Slavery in Rome,' note 40, and the ' Orations of Demosthenes against 
 Aphobus.') 
 
 Demosthenes the elder died when his son was seven years old, 
 leaving him and a sister, younger than himself, to the care of three 
 guardians — Aphobus and Demophon, his first cousins, and Therippides, 
 a friend. The property left by him amounted to fifteen talents (above 
 3000Z. in specie, taking silver as the standard). The guardians how- 
 ever, as we learn from Demosthenes himself, disregarded all his father's 
 injunctions, and, while they neglected to improve the property of 
 which they were trustees, embezzled nearly the whole of it. (' Orations 
 against Aphobus.') Plutarch states that they also deprived Demos- 
 thenes of proper masters. He himself however, in a passage where it 
 is his object to magnify all that concerns his own history, boasts of 
 the fitting education which he had received. (' Orations on the 
 Crown,' p. 312.) He is said to have studied philosophy under Plato, 
 and to have been a pupil of Eubulides of Miletus. 
 
 Having heard Callistratus plead on one occasion, he was fired by 
 that orator's success with ambition to become an orator himself, and 
 he accordingly received instructions in the rhetorical art from Isaeus. 
 Cicero (' De Oratore,' ii. 94) mentions Demosthenes as one of those 
 who came forth from the school of Isocrates : Plutarch, on the other 
 hand, expressly states that he was not a pupil of Isocrates, and goes 
 out of his way to invent reasons why Demosthenes should have pre- 
 ferred the instructions of Isaeus. We assume however that Isaeus was 
 his principal instructor, in accordance with the testimony of the 
 various biographers. (Libanius, Zosimus.) We are told that many 
 suspected the speeches against bis guardians to have been written, 
 while others said that they were corrected, by Isaeus, partly because 
 Demosthenes was so young when they were delivered, and partly 
 because they bore marks of the style of Isaeus. He is said to have 
 taken lessons in action from Aristonicus, a player. 
 
 The physical disadvantages under which Demosthenes laboured aro 
 well known, and the manner in which he surmounted them is often 
 quoted as an example to encourage others to persevere. It should be 
 observed however that the authority for some of these stories is but 
 small, and that they rest on the assertions of writers of late date. He 
 was naturally of a weak constitution ; he had a feeble voice, an indis- 
 tinct articulation, and a shortness of breath. Finding that these 
 defects impaired the effect of his speeches, he set resolutely to work 
 
DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 to overcome them. The means which he is said to have taken to 
 remedy these defects look very like the inventions of some writer of 
 the rhetorical school, though Plutarch (' Demosth.,' x.) quotes Deme- 
 trius the Phalerian as saying that he had from the orator's own mouth 
 what Plutarch has stated in the chapter just referred to. Among 
 these means we hear of climbing up hills with pebbles in his mouth, 
 declaiming on the sea-shore, or with a sword hung so as to strike his 
 shoulder when he made an uncouth gesture. He is also said to have 
 shut himself up at times in a cave under ground for study's sake, and 
 this for months together. 
 
 Having been emancipated from his guardians, after a minority of 
 ten years, he commenced a prosecution against them to recover his 
 property. Estimating his losses at thirty talents (inclusive of ten years' 
 interest), he sued Aphobus for one-third part, and gained his cause, 
 without however succeeding in obtaining more than a small part of 
 his money. This took place B.C. 364, when he was in his twentieth 
 year, or, as he says himself (' Mid.' 539, § 23), when he was quite a 
 boy ; but the extant orations against his guardians are evidently not 
 the work of a youth of that age, as a careful perusal of these orations 
 will clearly show. He subsequently adopted the profession of writing 
 and delivering, as a hired advocate, speeches for persons engaged in 
 private and public causes— a practice which was now generally adopted 
 by the Greek orators, and was attended with considerable profit. 
 His first speech on a public occasion was made in e.c. 355, in which 
 year he wrote the speech against Androtion, and wrote and delivered 
 that against Leptines. 
 
 Uf his speeches relating to public concerns, there are three which 
 have a direct bearing on his personal history : the speech against 
 Midias ; that concerning Malversation in the Embassy ; and that in 
 behalf of Ctesiphon, or, as it is commonly called, the ' Oration on the 
 Crown.' The two last are briefly noticed under the article .SSschines. 
 [.Eschines.] With reference to the first, it should be premised that, 
 in the year B.C. 351, Demosthenes voluntarily undertook the expensive 
 office of Choragus, and that, during the performances at the Dionysia, 
 when discharging his duties, he was insulted and struck by Midias. 
 Demosthenes brought an action against Midias for assaulting him in 
 the performance of what was regarded as a religious duty, and thus 
 Midias was involved in a prosecution for sacrilege. Demosthenes 
 obtained a verdict. The extant oration against Midias was written 
 three years afterwards. 
 
 The first speech on a public affair that remains, and probably the 
 first which Demosthenes published, is that on the Symmoriae, which 
 was delivered B.C. 354. A few words will be necessary to explain the 
 state of parties at the time. 
 
 About ten year s previous to this oration the power of Sparta had 
 been broken by Thebes, who in her turn sank into inactivity after the 
 death of her great general Epaminondas in the battle of Mantinea, 
 B.C. 362 : three years after this time Philip of Macedon began his 
 reign. His first step, after defeating two other claimants to the 
 throne and compelling the Pseonians and lllyrians to submission, was 
 to possess himself of several Greek colonies to the south of Macedonia, 
 and to interfere in a war of succession then going on in Thessaly. 
 Athens, not yet recovered from the effects of the Peloponnesian war, 
 had been engaged from B.C. 357 to B.C. 355 in a war with her allies, 
 Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Byzantium, which ended in their throwing off 
 the yoke under which she had held them, about a year before the 
 delivery of the oration on the Symmorise. There were, as usual, two 
 parties in Athens. With one of these, which was headed by Phocion, 
 Philip had an intimate connection, and this party was not unfavourable 
 to his designs, either through want of energy or from believing that 
 they would do Greece no injury. The other party, called by Mitford 
 the ' War Party,' was headed by a profligate general named Chares, 
 and was that to which Demosthenes was afterwards attached. 
 
 Perhaps the most important event of the time was the war occasioned 
 by the seizure of the temple of Apollo at Delphi by the Phociaus. 
 There had been a dispute as to the sacred land, which had long 
 belonged to Phocis, and the Amphictyonic council asserting their 
 claim, Philomelus the Phocian seized the temple, and its treasures 
 were freely used in the war, which continued till B.C. 346. It was 
 through this war that Philip contrived to identify his interests with 
 that of the Amphictyons at large, and at last to be elected their 
 leader ; and hence we must generally consider the leading parties in 
 the struggle between Philip and Demosthenes to have been the 
 Amphictyonic states and Macedon on the one side, against Athens 
 uid occasionally Persia on the other ; while we must remember that 
 n Thebes, the principal Amphictyonic state, there was a strong party 
 igainst Philip, as in Athens there was one equally strong for him. 
 
 Under these circumstances, Demosthenes made his oration on the 
 iymmoriae, which in part relates to a question of finance, but more 
 >articularly to a scheme then on foot for sending Chares with an 
 irmament into Asia against the Persians; a project utterly preposterous, 
 a Athens had enough to do to hold her ground against the refractory 
 olonies and subject states, without engaging in other undertakings, 
 igainst this measure Demosthenes directed his eloquence with success, 
 nd this may be considered the beginning of his struggle with Philip, 
 Jf the Macedonian cause would have gained by any loss which Athens 
 night sustain. About a year after, Philip began to take an active 
 art in the affairs of the Sacred War, as that in Phocis is usually 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 668 
 
 called. He defeated the Phocian alliance, and only retired, as it 
 should seem, to avoid any rupture with Athens, such as might preclude 
 all hope of adding her to the number of his auxiliaries. At thin 
 juncture Demosthenes, whq had been opposed to the former war, 
 joined Chares, and delivered his first Philippic. 
 
 The motive of this apparent change of opinion is evident : on the 
 former occasion he saw that war would have been the dispersion of 
 strength which was needful for a nearer struggle ; now, he saw that 
 the time for that struggle was come, and knew that, to be effectual, 
 Athens must direct it. (' Oration on the Crown,' p. 249.) But Athens, 
 however powerful when roused, had lost much of that spirit of indi- 
 vidual bravery which characterised her in the best times of her history. 
 The exhortations of Demosthenes failed in producing the desired effect; 
 nor was it till Philip had defeated Kersobleptes the Thraciap, whom 
 it was the interest of the Athenians to support as his rival, that they 
 considered themselves compelled to commence military operations 
 against him. 
 
 This was at last done by sending successive expeditions to Olynthus, 
 a maritime town near the isthmus of Pallene ; and by an inroad into 
 Eubcea, under the direction of Phocion, by means of which the 
 Macedonian influence was lessened in that island. The former step 
 was however the more important, as Olynthus was a place of strength, 
 and was looked on with great jealousy by Philip. 
 
 Olynthus had made alliance with Athens contrary to a compact with 
 Philip, and although well enough supplied with arms and men, it 
 required the assistance of Athenian soldiers. To provide for these 
 expeditions, Demosthenes, in his Olynthiac orations, advised the appli- 
 cation of the money appropriated to the public festivals, and in so 
 doing was opposed by Phocion. In spite however of the exertions of 
 Demosthenes, Olynthus was taken by Philip in the spring of B.C. 347 
 Early in the succeeding year Demosthenes, with ^Eschines and eight 
 or nine others, went on an embassy to Philip, to treat of peace. 
 According to iEschines, he exhibited great want of self-possession on 
 this occasion. If this were the case, it is surely not too much to 
 attribute it to a consciousness that he had departed through fear of 
 present danger from his one great object of opposition to Philip, who, 
 even during the settlement of preliminaries, seized on several Thracian 
 towns. The motive which urged Demosthenes to agree to a peace is 
 probably that assigned by Schaumaun (see also Demosthenes, ' Oration 
 on the Peace '), that the means of resistance were too small to allow any 
 hope that Athens alone could use them effectually. Be that as it may, 
 Demosthenes never slackened his efforts ; and in B.C. 343 we find him 
 accusing .dischines of malversation in the former embassy, and acting 
 as one in a second embassy to counteract Philip's influence in Ambracia 
 and Peloponnesus. Since the cessation of the Phocian war in B.C. 346 
 this influence appears to have increased, as well by the weakening of 
 Sparta and Thebes as by his acquisition of two votes in the 
 Amphictyonic council; hence the renewed energy of Demosthenes 
 and the expedition of Diopeithes to the Hellespont, for the purpose of 
 protecting the Athenian corn-trade. (' Oration on the Crown,' p. 254). 
 
 About this time too Demosthenes became in a more decided sense 
 the leader of his party in the room of Chares, and for the next two 
 years employed himself in supporting and strengthening the anti- 
 Macedonian party in Greece. His principal measures were an embassy 
 to the Persians ; the strengthening of the alliance with Byzantium and 
 Periuthus for the purpose of forming alliances ; and the relinquishment 
 by Athens of all claim on Eubcea, in which Phocion concurred. 
 
 The struggle now began. Phili|> laid siege to Periuthus, to Selymbria, 
 and afterwards to Byzantium, and fitted out a fleet. At this juncture 
 Demosthenes delivered his fourth Philippic, in which, among other 
 things, he recommended the restoration of the festival-money to its 
 original use, alleging the scruples felt by some concerning its application 
 to military purposes, and the increase in revenue which rendered that 
 application no longer necessary. In B.C. 339 the siege of Byzantium 
 and Periuthus was raised, and a short peace ensued; but in the 
 succeeding spring Philip was chosen Amphictyonic general. The 
 object of Demosthenes was now somewhat changed. Before, he had 
 to oppose a foreign influence which sought to insinuate itself into the 
 affairs of the Grecian States; now that wish had been gained, and his 
 business became that of arranging party against party in the different 
 sections of the same nation. 
 
 From this time till the battle of Chseronea he was engaged in 
 negociations to detach different states from the Amphictyonic alliance. 
 At Thebes he was completely successful : a strict alliance was con- 
 cluded between Thebes and Athens, and Demosthenes became almost 
 as much the minister of the one state as of the other. He defeated 
 all the counter- efforts of Python, Philip's agent, and procured the 
 preparation of an army and fleet to act against Philip, who had seized 
 and fortified Elatea, a principal town in Phocis. But his hopes were 
 again destroyed at the battle of Chseronea in the summer of B.C. 333, 
 and Philip remained apparently master of the destinies of Greece — 
 perhaps not unaided in the conflict by a superstition which considered 
 his cause a3 iu some sort identified with that of Apollo, the Delphian 
 god. Under these circumstances, the party of Phocion made some 
 faint attempts at action ; but Philip, with his usual remarkable policy, 
 forestalled them by releasing his Athenian prisoners, and using his 
 victory with the greatest moderation. 
 
 Demosthenes joined in the flight from Chseronea, not, as his enemies 
 
DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 have affirmed, without some disgrace ; but at the funeral ceremony 
 for those who fell he was called upon to pronounce the customary 
 oration (which however has been decided not to be that which goes 
 under this name), and he resumed his place at the head of the govern- 
 ment. He became victual-provider for the city, superintended the 
 repairs of the fortifications, and was proceeding with his usual vigour 
 in prosecuting his political schemes, when news came that Philip had 
 been assassinated, July B.C. 336. The conduct of Demosthenes on this 
 occasion, as reported by Plutarch and ^Eschines, has sometimes fur- 
 nished a subject for strong animadversion. He is said to have appeared 
 in a white robe, although his daughter was just dead, and he or his 
 friends proposed honours to the memory of the assassin of Philip. As 
 to the first of these charges, it may be said in his defence that it only 
 indicates how completely devoted he was to the cause of his country, 
 even to the exclusion in a great degree of privat9 affections. 
 
 On- the accession of Alexander, Demosthenes persevered in his 
 decided opposition to Macedon. Alexander's first employment, after 
 his election as stateholder by the Amphictyonic league, was to quell 
 an insurrection in the northern and western provinces of Macedonia. 
 While he was absent a report of his death was spread at Thebes, which 
 revolted from tho confederacy. Demosthenes (Plutarch) fanned the 
 flame of this insurrection, and, on Alexander's sudden appearance 
 before Thebes, Demosthenes was appointed to confer with him ; but 
 he went only to the borders of Attica. As Alexander domanded his 
 person immediately after the destruction of Thebes, together with nine 
 other Athenians, on the pretext of trying them as traitors, it is most 
 probable that, when he was sent on the mission to Thebes, he had 
 reason to fear some act of violence if he put himself in the power of 
 Macedon. Demades, a man as high in point of intellect as he was 
 debased in morals, was the negociator in his place, and by some means 
 or other contrived to save Demosthenes. Plutarch relates (' Life of 
 Phociou ') that a bribe w as given to Demades to persuade him to 
 exertion in behalf of Demosthenes, but it is hardly probable. 
 
 During Alexander's Persian expedition Demosthenes had to sustain 
 an attack from his old rival iEschines. He defended himself from 
 the charges brought against him [iEsciiiNEs] in the oration called that 
 ' On the Crown.' But we hear little of him as a public man. He 
 probably considered that, at a time when the chief enemy of the 
 liberties of Greece was employed in schemes most likely to conduco to 
 her welfare, from the ruinous effect they promised to produce on the 
 strength of Macedonia, any measures likely to recall Alexander from 
 Asia would only be the means of binding still faster those chains 
 which it had been his own constant aim to looseD. 
 
 The only affair of moment in which Demosthenes was at this time 
 engaged was occasioned by the treachery of Harpalus, one of Alexan- 
 der's generals, who had been left governor of Babylon when Alexander 
 proceeded on his Indian expedition. Harpalus, having grossly abused 
 his trust, fled to Europe on the return of Alexander, accompanied by 
 C000 Greek soldiers. He came to Athens as a suppliant, and engaged 
 the orators to support him. All but Demosthenes espoused his cause 
 with readiness, and he at last concurred, not without suspicion of 
 bribery. (Plutarch.) The Athenians however refused to listen to his 
 proposal of organising a movement against Alexander, and prosecuted 
 Demosthenes for recommending measures not for the good of the 
 state. He was fined fifty talents by the Areopagus, and being unable 
 or unwilling to pay this sum, retired to iEgina and Trcezene, where 
 he remained from B.C. 324 till the death of Alexander, which occurred 
 in the following year. Immediately on the news of that event he 
 renewed his opposition to Macedon, even before his recall, which 
 Plutarch says was owing to this conduct. He was recalled by a decree 
 of the people ; and a trireme was sent to ^Egina to carry him back to 
 Athens, his progress from the port to the city being a continuous 
 triumph. 
 
 During the Lamian war he presided at Athens, and when Antipater 
 defeated the confederate Greeks, and marched upon the city, Demos- 
 thenes, as the prime mover of the confederacy, judged it prudent to 
 withdraw to Calauria, a little island opposite Trcezene, where he took 
 refuge in a temple of Poseidon. Macedonian messengers were sent to 
 persuade him to accompany them to Antipater, but he resisted all 
 their entreaties. _ Plutarch, from whom this account is taken, says 
 that he retired into the inner part of the temple under pretence of 
 writing a letter, and while there took poison, which he had for some 
 time carried about his person, and died before he could get out of the 
 temple. Another account, which Plutarch also gives as coming from 
 one of Demosthenes' friends, is, that "by the singular favour and 
 providence of the gods he was thus rescued from the barbarous cruelty 
 of the Macedonians ; " in other words, that he died of some sudden 
 attack brought on by the anxiety and disappointments of the last few 
 weeks of his life. He died B.C. October, 322. 
 
 Demosthenes seems to have been actuated all through his political 
 life by the strongest passion to promote the interests of his native 
 state ; and if he only delayed the fate of his country he did what no 
 one else seems to have attempted. It is the highest praise of his 
 prudence and foresight that all his political predictions were verified ; 
 as he distinctly foresaw, it was the influence of Macedon, and not 
 internal dissension, which destroyed the sovereign and independent 
 political communities of Greece. Those who expect to find in his 
 style of oratory the fervid and impassioned language of a man carried 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 660 
 
 away by hia feelings to the prejudice of his judgment, will be disap- 
 pointed. He is said not to have been a ready speaker, and to have 
 required preparation. All his orations bear the marks of an effort to 
 convince the understanding rather than to work on the passions of 
 his hearers. And this is the highest praise. Men may be persuaded 
 by splendid imagery, well-chosen words, and appeals to their passions ; 
 but to convince by a calm and clear address, when the speaker has no 
 unfair advantages of person or of manner, and calls to his aid none of 
 the tricks of rhetoric, — this is what Cicero calls the oratory of Demos- 
 thenes, the ideal model of true eloquence. (' Orations,' c. 7.) Most 
 of the speeches of Demosthenes on political affairs, as we now possess 
 them, are laboured compositions, which have evidently been frequently 
 corrected by the author before he brought them into that state in 
 which they now appear. Notwithstanding the easy flow of the lan- 
 guage, the art and industry of the orator are visible in almost every 
 line ; and in nothing are they more apparent than in the admirable 
 skill by which he makes almost every period produce its effect, and in 
 the well-judged antithesis which gives such force and precision to his 
 expression, that it seems as if no other wordB and no other order of 
 words could be so appropriate as those which he has chosen. The 
 style of many of the orations on civil matters which were delivered 
 before the courts of justice, is very different ; there is an air of easy 
 negligence about them, and an absence of that laboured accuracy 
 which characterises his other compositions. It is not unusual to find 
 sentences that might be called grammatically incorrect. But these 
 orations are invaluable as specimens of what we now call stating a 
 case, and well worth the attentive study of those who would make 
 themselves acquainted with the social condition of Athens at that 
 time. 
 
 The orations of Demosthenes may be divided into two great classes, 
 political and judicial, and this last again into those delivered in 
 public and those in private causes — the distinction between public 
 and private causes being roughly that which in English law exists 
 between criminal and civil cases. 
 
 Those of the first class which are extant were delivered in the 
 following order : — The oration on the Symmoria?, B.C. 354 ; for the 
 Megalopolitans, B.C. 353 ; the 1st Philippic, B.C. 352 ; for the Khodians, 
 B.C. 351 ; the three Olynthiacs, also called the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th 
 Philippics, B.C. 349 ; the 5th Philippic (which forms part of the 1st 
 in our present copies), B.C. 347; the Gth Philippic, also called tho 
 oration on the Peace, B.C. 346; the 7th Philippic, B.C. 344; the 8th 
 Philippic, also called the oration concerning Halonnesus, B.C. 343 ; the 
 9th Philippic, also called the oration on the Chersonesus, the 10th 
 and 11th Philippics (also called the 3rd and 4th), all in B.C. 341 ; the 
 12th Philippic, also called the oration against the Letter, B.C. 339 ; 
 the Funeral oration, B.C. 338 ; and the oration on the treaty with 
 Alexander, after B.C. 334. Of these, that concerning Halonnesus, the 
 11th Philippic, also called the 4th, and that against the Letter, are 
 decided to be of doubtful authority, as is also the oration on the 
 Contribution (irepl auvraltas), which is of doubtful date, that on the 
 treaty with Alexander, and the Funeral oration. 
 
 Of the first division in the second class, we find those against 
 Androtion and Leptines, b.c. 355 ; that against Timocrate3, B.C. 353; 
 that against Aristocrates, B.C. 352; that against Midias, B.C. 348 ; that 
 on Malversation in the Embassy, B.C. 343 ; that against Neaera, about 
 B.C. 340; that against Theocrines, after B.C. 336; the two against 
 Aristogiton, after B.C. 338 ; that on the Crown, B.C. 330. Those who 
 are curious respecting the date of the last-mentioned orations, may 
 refer to Clinton ('Fasti Hellen.,' p. 361), from whom these dates are 
 taken. 
 
 Of the second division are the three against Aphobus, the two 
 against Onetor, and that against Callippus, all in B.C. 364 ; those 
 against Polycles, and on the Naval Crown, after B.C. 361 ; that against 
 Timotheus, before B.C. 351 ; that against Euergus and Mnesibulus, 
 after B.C. 356; that against Zenothemis, after B.C. 355 ; those against 
 BoBotus and for Phormio, B.C. 350; the two against Stephanus, before 
 B.C. 343 ; that against Bceotus about the dowry, B.C. 347 ; that against 
 Pantaenetus, after B.C. 347; that against Eubulides, after bc. 346; 
 that against Conon, after B.C. 343; that against Olympiodorus, after 
 B.c. 343 ; that in the cause of Phormio, after B.C. 336 ; that against 
 Dionysodorus, after B.C. 331. To these must be added, that against 
 Apaturius ; that in the cause of Lacritus ; that against Nausimachus 
 and Xenopithes; those against Spudias, Phsenippus, Macartatus, 
 Leochares, Nicostratus, and Callicles. Of these in the second class 
 doubts are entertained regarding the authenticity of those against 
 Neaera, Theocrines, Aristogiton, Onetor, Timotheus, Euergus and 
 Mnesibulus, Stephanus, Eubulides, Phsenippus, and Nicostratus ; but 
 of these Schaumann decides for those against Timotheus and 
 Eubulides. 
 
 The orations of Demosthenes were edited ten times in the 16th 
 centm-y, and twice in the 17th. They have been re-edited by Taylor, 
 Eeiske, the Abbe" Auger, Schaefer, Bekker, and Dindorf. The text of 
 Bekker, which is now the standard, is founded on a careful collation 
 of the manuscripts. Of separate orations, F. A. Wolf has given an 
 edition of that against Leptines ; Riidiger of that on the Peace, of the 
 first Philippic, and the three Olynthiacs ; Buttman and Blume of th* 
 Midias: and Voemel of the Philippics. 
 
 The omtious of Demosthenes and vEschines were translated Into 
 
DEMOUSTIER, CHARLES ALBERT. 
 
 German with notes, by J. J. Reiske, Lemgo, 1764 ; a correct, but 
 tasteless version. The political speeches were translated with notes, 
 by Fr. Jacobs, Leipzig, 1305-8 ; and the eleven Philippics, by Alb. 
 Gerh. Becker, Halle, 1824-26. There are also other German transla- 
 tions of some of the speeches. There i3 a French translation of 
 Demosthenes and JSschines by Auger. Leland has translated into 
 English all the orations which refer to Philip, including the Philip- 
 pics and Olynthiacs, with the oration of ^Eschines against Ctesiphon, 
 and one by Dinarchus, but with no great success. To express the 
 simplicity, perspicuity, and force of the original, would require the 
 translator to possess powers the same in kind as those which Demos- 
 thenes himself possessed, and near them in degree. 
 
 (Thirlwall, Grote, and Mitford, Histories of Greece; Schaumann, 
 Prolegomena to Demosthenes ; Plutarch, Demosthenes ; Life by Zosimus 
 of Ascalon; Lives of the Ten Orators; Taylor, Life of Demosthenes ; 
 Becker, Demosthenes ah Staatsmann und Redner ; Westermann, 
 Quastiones Demosthenicce ; Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, and the Orations 
 of Demosthenes.) 
 
 Bust of Demosthenes, Townley Gallery, British Museum. 
 Height, 1 foot 8 J inches. 
 
 DEMOUSTIER, CHARLES ALBERT, a French writer, born at 
 Villers-Cottereta, March 11, 1760. He was connected on his father's 
 side with the family of Racine. He was educated at the college of 
 Lisieux ; and for some time followed the profession of advocate, but 
 quitted it for literature. The work which chiefly brought him into 
 notice was his ' Lettres a Emilie sur la Mythologie.' These letters 
 are written in a pleasing style, and attained that popularity which is . 
 usually awarded to works on learned subjects, when written in an 
 amusing manner. Indeed it appears to have gained more than its 
 just meed of applause, and the consequence was, that when this had 
 subsided, a re-action took place, and the work was censured with too 
 much severity. His other works are chiefly theatrical ; of these ' Le 
 Conciliateur,' a comedy in verse, wa3 one of the best and most suc- 
 cessful; there is not much humour in it, and scarcely any delineation 
 of character, but the plot is excellently constructed, the incidents are 
 striking and uncommon, and the author has acquitted himself well 
 of the difficult task of expressing moral sentiments, without being 
 mawkish. An anecdote is told of Demoustier which proves his 
 excessive good humour. A young man being present at the repre- 
 sentation of one of the author's comedies, felt by no means satisfied, 
 and requested the gentleman beside him to lend him a hollow key 
 (whistling with a key being the French mode of expressing disappro- 
 bation) ; the gentleman complied with his request, and was no other 
 than Demoustier himself. His collected works have been published 
 in 5 vols. 8vo and 12mo. He died at the place of his birth on the 
 2nd of March 1801. 
 
 DEMPSTER, THOMAS, was the son of Thomas Dempster, of 
 Muiresk, in Aberdeenshire, where he was born, on the 23rd of August 
 1579. His life is a series of strange adventures, where the literary 
 triumphs of th/e wandering scholar are mingled with fierce controversy 
 and occasional deeds of armed violence. His wild career seems to 
 have commenced in the centre of his domestic circle, of the morality 
 of which ha gives a startling picture, telling how one of his brothers 
 had taken/to wife his father's concubine, collected a band of ruffians, 
 with who/rn he surrounded and attacked that father and his attendants ; 
 afterwanGa fled to Orkney, where he headed a band of freebooters, 
 who, iwhong other violences, burned the bishop's palace, and ended his 
 careey as a soldier in the Netherlands, where he was put to death aB 
 a crifninal by being torn limb from limb by wild horses. Thomas 
 Bernt,ster commenced his classical studies at Pembroke Hall, Cam- 
 kridgL at the ago of teD, and completed his education at Paris, Lou- 
 nta, tnd Rome. He took the degree of D.C.L., and was made regent 
 in th* college of Navarre, in the University of Paris, at a time when, 
 acconlling to his own account, he must have been but seventeen years 
 
 DENHAM, SIR JOHN. 662 
 
 old. The history of his various wanderings from university to univer- 
 sity, his literary contests, and his personal quarrels, is too long to be 
 followed out on this occasion. Being at one time left by tbe principal 
 of the college of Beauvais, in the University of Paris, as his locum 
 tenens, he caused a student of high and powerful connections to be 
 ignominiously flogged. Several relatives took up the student's cause, 
 and made an armed attack upon the college ; but Dempster showed 
 that he had resources equal to the occasion : he fortified his college, 
 stood a sort of siege, and concluded the affair by taking some of the 
 belligerents prisoners and confining them in the college belfry. After 
 this affair he fled from France. At the beginning of the year 1616 he 
 was in England, where he married Susanna Waller, a woman whose 
 disposition appears to have been of a no less hardy and reckless 
 character than his own. Some time afterwards, when he was passing 
 through the streets of Paris with this woman, her remarkable beauty 
 and the degree to which she exposed her person, brought on them tbe 
 dangerous attentions of a mob of followers, and compelled them to 
 seek refuge in an adjoining house. Afterwards, while Dempster was 
 teaching the belles-lettres in the University of Bologna, where he 
 seems to have involved himself in a more than usual number of 
 disputes, he found that his wife had eloped with either one or more 
 of his students. After an ineffectual attempt to overtake the fugitives, 
 he died at Butri, near Bologna, on the 6th of September 1625, the 
 victim apparently of overwrought energies and a broken spirit. Demp- 
 ster's works are more celebrated for their profuse miscellaneous learn- 
 ing than their critical accuracy. They are very numerous. Dr. Irving, 
 in his ' Lives of Scottish Writers,' gives a list of fifty, stating that 
 the list is as complete as he has been able to make it. His ' Antiqui- 
 tatum Romanarum Corpus Absolutissimum,' an edition, or rather an 
 enlargement, of the work by Rosinus, bearing that title, published in 
 1613, is well known. There are many editions of it, and it forms, 
 both in the substance and illustrations, the foundation of Rennet's 
 and other popular books on Roman antiquities. His 'De Etruria 
 Regali,' left in manuscript, was magnificently edited in 1723-4, in two 
 volumes, folio, by Sir Thomas Coke. His ' Historia Ecclesiastica 
 Gentis Scotorum' was published at Bologna in 1627, and was reprinted 
 for the Bannatyne Club in 1829. It is simply a biographical dictionary 
 of Scottish authors, and as such has been often referred to in this 
 work. In many instances its information may be depended on, but 
 whoever consults the work must bring with him some previous critical 
 knowledge of the subject, as the author is very prone to exaggerate 
 the literary achievements of his countrymen. He not only makes 
 out to be Scotsmen persons whose birth-place is the subject of doubt 
 — for example, Joannes de Sacrobosco, Erigena, &c, but also includes 
 such names as Eglesham, Fust, St. Fiacre, St. Novatus, Pelagius, and 
 Rabanus Maurus, who are well known not to have been natives of 
 Scotland. 
 
 DENHAM, SIR JOHN, born at Dublin in the year 1615, was son 
 of Sir John Denham, who was some time chief baron of the Court of 
 Exchequer in Ireland. His father being afterwards made a baron of 
 the Exchequer in England, he was brought to Loudon in 1617, where 
 he received his grammatical education. In the year 1631 he became a 
 gentleman commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, where, after studyiug 
 for three years, he took the degree of Bachelor of Arts. He subse- 
 quently entered himself at Lincoln's Inn, studied the law pretty closely, 
 and might have done well, had not an immoderate passion for gaming 
 exhausted his money, and drawn on him tho displeasure of his father. 
 He however abandoned the mischievous pursuit, and wrote an essay 
 against gaming, by which he regained his father's favour, though his 
 reformation appears to have been feigned, as immediately after his 
 father's death his fondness for play returned. In 1641 he gained great 
 celebrity by his tragedy of ' The Sophy,' which was acted at Black- 
 friars with much applause ; and his fame was increased by his ' Cooper's 
 Hill,' written in 1643, almost the only one of his poems that is now 
 read. In the year 1647 he performed many secret and important 
 services for Charles I., when prisoner iu the hands of the army, which 
 being discovered, he was forced to escape to France. In 1652 he 
 returned to England, and resided at the Earl of Pembroke's ; and at 
 the restoration of Charles II. he was appointed surveyor-general of his 
 majesty's buildings, and created knight of the Bath. He died March 
 19th, 1668, his understanding having been for some time impaired by 
 domestic grievances. 
 
 The admirers of Denham usually limit their praises to ' Cooper's 
 Hill,' and some lines on the Earl of Strafford ; while others confine 
 their commendations to two lines in the former poem, wherein he 
 describes the Thames : — 
 
 " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
 Strong w ithout rage, without o'erflowing full." 
 
 This i3 a most happy combination of words; the bringing into 
 contrast expressions which only vary in shales of meaning is highly 
 ingenious. The whole passage relating to the Thames is written with 
 much spirit, and striking lines might be selected from other parts ; 
 yet, taken as a whole, the poem is heavy and purposeless, and, though 
 short, tedious. 
 
 Readers of the present day, on perusing the poems of Denham, 
 will perhaps wonder what could be the cause of the high commenda- 
 tions bestowed on him by his contemporaries ; but to look at him from 
 
5«3 
 
 a fair point of view, and to assign him his due portion of merit, it will 
 be necessary to consider him as one of the reformers of English verse. 
 At the beginning of the 17th century the art of versification was in a 
 very imperfect state, as may be seen from reading the prologues to our 
 early dramas , and hence a poem of the length of ' Cooper's Hill/ 
 written with tolerable smoothness, was something remarkable. 
 
 DENI'NA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA, born in 1731, at Revello 
 in Piedmont, studied at Saluzzo and Turin, took priest's orders, and 
 was made professor at Pinerolo. Having discussed rather freely, in a 
 play which he composed, the various systems of education, he incurred 
 the dislike of the Jesuits, who had at that time the monopoly of 
 education, and he was dismissed from his chair. Repairing to Milan, 
 he wrote a work. ' De Studio Theologim, et Norma Fidei,' 1758, which 
 was much approved of, and the author was Boon after recalled to 
 Piedmont, and appointed professor of humanities and rhetoric in the 
 High College of Turin. He then began his work on the revolutions 
 of Italy, which is a general nistory of Italy from the Etruscan times 
 to tho beginning of the 17th century: ' Istoria delle Rivoluzioni 
 d'ltalia.' in 24 books, to which he added afterwards a 25th book, which 
 brings the narrative down to 1792. This was the first general history 
 of Italy, with the exception of the 'Annals' of Muratori, and although 
 it is at huies deficient in sound criticism, it is not destitute of merit. 
 The work has been translated into almost all the European languages. 
 In 1777 Deuina went to Florence, where he published anonymously 
 his ' Discorso soil' Iinpiego delle Persone,' which was intended as a 
 reply to certain charges brought against his historical work by eccle- 
 siastical critics, because Denina had censured the abuses of monastic 
 institutions, and had questioned the propriety of binding a vast 
 number of persons to celibacy. There was a law in Piedmont by 
 which any native of that country was forbidden to publish a book, 
 even in a foreign country, without the previous sanction of the Turin 
 censorship. Denina was in consequence deprived of his chair, and 
 banished to his native town. The Archbishop of Turin however took 
 up his defence, and he was allowed to return to the capita!, where 
 some time after he received, through the Prussian envoy, an invitation 
 from Fredaric II. to repair to Berlin, for the purpose of writing a work 
 on the revolutions of Germany. Denina accepted the offer, and 
 repaired, in 1782, to Berlin, where he remained many years, and where 
 he composed his 'Rivoluzioni della Germania,' and also 'La Russiade,' 
 being a panegyrical history, in poetical prose, of Peter the Great. He 
 also wrote a work in French on Prussian literature, ' La Prusse 
 Litteiaire sous Frederic II., ou histoire abre'ge'e de la plupart des 
 auteurs, des acade'tmciens, et des artistes qui sont nes ou qui ont vdcu 
 dans tea Etats Prussiens depuis 1740 jusqu'en 1786, par ordre alpha- 
 be'fcique,' 4 vols. 8vo, Berlin, 1790-91. He also wrote an ' Essai sur la 
 Vie et le Regne de Frederic II.' In 1792 Denina revisited Italy, and 
 after his return to Berlin he wrote ' Considerations d'un Italien sur 
 l'ltalie,' in which he gave an account of the contemporary literature 
 of his native country, for the information of the philologists of 
 Germany. Another and a more important work is his i Vincende della 
 Letteratura,' 4 vols. 8vo, in which he sketches with concise but clever 
 touches the progress and vicissitudes of the literature of the various 
 nations of Europe. The book displays a vast extent of bibliographical 
 erudition. 
 
 In 1804 Denina was introduced to Napoleon at Mainz, to whom he 
 dedicated his ' La Clef des Langues, ou observations sur l'origine et la 
 formation des principales langues de l'Europe.' Soon afterwards he 
 was appointed imperial librarian. He then removed to Paris, where 
 he wrote his ' Istoria dell' Italia Occidentale,' being a sort of supple- 
 ment or continuation of his ' Rivoluzioni d'ltalia.' It is a history of 
 Piedmont and Liguria, and contains much information derived from 
 the local chronicles and documents, which Denina had consulted 
 while he lived in his native country. He also wrote ' Tableau histo- 
 rique, statistique, et moral de la Haute Italie,' which was afterwards 
 translated into Italian. Denina died at Paris, at an advanced age, in 
 December 1813. Besides the works above mentioned, he wrote many 
 
 Emmanuele III., Re" di Sardegna.' 3. ' Elogio storico di Mercurino 
 di Gattinara, Gran Cancelliere dell' Imperatore Carlo V., e Cardinale.' 
 It contains a sketch of the condition of Spain under Charles V. 
 4. ' Elogio del Cardinale Guala Bicchieri,' who was a papal legate in 
 England about 1222. 5. 'Reponse a la question: que doit on a 
 TEspagne { ' Berlin, 1786, and afterwards translated into Spanish. It 
 is a reply to some harsh judgments upon Spain in the article 'Espagne' 
 in the ' EncyclopeVtie Methodique.' Denina shows that Spain has 
 contributed more than is generally supposed to the European stores 
 of sciences, letters, and fine arts. 6. ' Essais sur les traces anciennes 
 du Caractere des Italiens modernes, des Sardes, et des Corses.' Denina 
 was a great supporter of the theory of the influence of climate on the 
 character of nations. 7. 'Bibliopea, ossia l'Arte di compor Libri.' 
 8. ' Istoria politica e litteraria della Grecia libera,' which ends at the 
 death of Philip, father of Alexander. 
 
 (Ugoni, Delia Letteratura Italiana nella seconda meta des Secolo 
 X VIII. ; Barbier, Notice sur la Vie et les principaux ouvrages de 
 Denina, in the Magazin Encyclopedique for January 1814.) 
 
 DENMAN, LOliD. Thomas Denman, first Lord Denman, was the 
 
 only son of a London physician, who held a post in the household of 
 George III., and represented a family settled for several generations 
 near Bake well in Derbyshire. He was born in 1779, and received his 
 early education at Palgrave School in Suffolk, near Diss, under the 
 celebrated Mr. and Mrs. Barbauld, of whom he always spoke with 
 affectionate respect. At the usual age he entered at St. John's College, 
 Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1800, and M.A. in 1803. He 
 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1806. Having distinguished 
 himself by his successful advocacy in several causes and trials con- 
 nected with the liberty of the press, he entered parliament in 1818 as 
 member for Wareham, Dorset. In 1820 he was chosen for Notting- 
 ham, which he represented till the dissolution in 1826, and again 
 in the parliaments of 1830 and 1831. In the House of Commons he 
 connected his name with those of Brougham and Burdett in the advo- 
 cacy of popular freedom, electoral reform, and education. He was 
 particularly active in opposing all the measures of coercion introduced 
 by the existing government for the purpose of suppressing popular 
 meetings. 
 
 In 1820 he was appointed solicitor-general to Queen Caroline, aud 
 took an active part in conducting her cause before the House of Peers, 
 to the great disadvantage of his own chance of professional advance- 
 ment. In this position, he so far won the esteem of the citizens of 
 London that they presented him with the freedom of the city, and 
 appointed him their common serjeant. It was not until the year 
 1828, when the queen's trial was well nigh forgotten, that he obtained 
 his patent of precedence. In 1830 he was appointed attorney-general 
 under the ministry of Earl Grey, and was promoted from that post to 
 the chief- justiceship of the King's Bench on the death of Lord 
 Tenterden in November 1832; he was at the same time sworn a 
 privy councillor. In March 1834 ho was advanced to the peerage. 
 He presided over the Court of Queen's Bench till March 1850, when 
 he retired on account of ill health. During that period he had made 
 his name moro especially known by his memorable decision in the 
 case of ' Stockdale v. Hansard,' in which he ruled, that though 
 parliament is supreme, yet no single branch of parliament is supreme 
 when acting by itself; and that, consequently, the House of Commons 
 could not screen its servants from the legal consequences of their 
 official acts. As a member of the upper house he took a great interest 
 in the abolition of slavery, and in the encouragement of literary and 
 scientific institutions. He was the author of a few small publications, 
 the last of which was a reprint of ' Six Articles from the " Standard," 
 on the Slave Trade, and other subjects.' He died Sept. 22, 1854. 
 
 As a barrister, he was less distinguished for deep legal knowledge 
 than for tact and address. In him the man triumphed over the 
 advocate, and he won many a doubtful cause by his apparent sin- 
 cerity and the fervour of his appeal to the sympathies of those whom 
 he addressed. As a judge, he was dignified and impartial; and his 
 judgments were regarded with respect. By his marriage with Theo- 
 dosia Anne, daughter of the Rev. R. Vevers, rector of Kettering, North- 
 amptonshire, he left a large family. His second son, a captain in the 
 Royal Navy, and captain of the queen's yacht, particularly distin- 
 guished himself in the suppression of the slave trade upon the coast 
 of Africa. 
 
 DENNER, BALTHASAR, a celebrated German portrait painter, 
 was born in Altona in 1685. Of Denner's early life little is known ; 
 he lived some time with a painter at Danzig, and after having dis- 
 tinguished himself at the courts of several German princes, came by 
 the invitation of George I. to London. Here he spent a few years ; 
 but he excited more surprise than admiration, and his success not 
 equalling his anticipations he left this country in 1728. After per- 
 forming various journeys in the north of Europe, and amassing 
 considerable wealth, he died at Rostock, in Mecklenburg, in 1749, or, 
 according to Van Gool, at Hamburg in 1747. Though Denner 
 bestowed more labour upon his pictures than any painter probably 
 ever did, he still contrived to paint a considerable number; some are 
 however more finished than others, but some are finished with a 
 degree of attention to the minutiae incredible to those who have not 
 examined them. In some cases recourse to the magnifying-glass is 
 said to be necessary, to do justice to his laborious execution. Their 
 extraordinary finish is however almost their only, certainly their chief 
 merit. Yet they were in considerable request in their day, and 
 Denner received sums for them at least proportionate to the labour 
 he bestowed upon them. There is the head of an old woman in the 
 gallery of Vienna, for which the Emperor Charles VI. gave him 4700 
 imperial florins ; Denner's own portrait in his forty-secotid year, in a 
 similar style, is placed near it. There are also two old heads of extra- 
 ordinarily high finish in the gallery of Munich, said to be the portraits 
 of the artist's father and mother. Denner painted many of the .German 
 princes of his day, and three kings, one of whom, Frederid, IV. of 
 Denmark, he painted, according to Van Gool, about twenty ■times ; 
 the other two were Peter III. of Russia, and Augustus II. of Pddand. 
 (Van Gool, Nieuwe Schouburg der Nederlantsche Kunstschilders, &c.« 
 
 DENNIS, JOHN, was the son of a saddler of London, where} he 
 was born in 1657. Having been put to school at Harrow, he h 
 
 sent thence in 1675 to Caius College, Cambridge. In 1679 
 removed to Trinity Hall, in the same university, and in 1683 \ 
 
 his degree of AM. There appears to be no foundation for the s tory 
 told in Baker's ' Biogvaphia Dramatica,' that he was expelled fV om 
 
 he 
 
 ook 
 
505 
 
 DENON, BARON. 
 
 DEPARGTEUX, ANTOINE. 
 
 666 
 
 college for attempting to stab a person in the dark. On leaving the 
 university he spent some time in travelling through France and 
 Italy. Returning home from the continent, full of dislike to the 
 manners of the people, and especially to the modes of government he 
 had seen there, and finding himself in possession of a small fortune, 
 the bequest of an uncle, he set up for a politician of the Whig school, 
 and formed connexions with several of the leading political and lite- 
 rary characters of that party. As a man of letters however he did 
 not confine his acquaintance within the limitB of his political par- 
 tialities ; Dryden and Wycherley, for instance, as well as Halifax and 
 Congreve, are enumerated among his friends. In the idle and 
 expensive life which he now led he soon dissipated what property he 
 had, and for the rest of his life he was obliged to depend for subsist- 
 ence upon his pen, and the still more precarious resource of private 
 patronage. No experience however seems to have cured his impro- 
 vidence. In his difficulties the duke of Marlborough procured for 
 him the place of a waiter at the Custom house, a sinecure worth 120Z. 
 a year ; but he was not long in selling this appointment, and it was 
 only the kind interference of Lord Halifax that induced him to reserve 
 out of it a small annuity for a certain term of years. This term he 
 outlived, and, to add to his miseries, he became blind in his last days, 
 so that he was in the end reduced to solicit the charity of the public 
 by having a play acted for his benefit, which some of his old friends, 
 and some also whom he had made his enemies, interested themselves 
 in getting up. Dennis died in 1734. Throughout his life the violence 
 and suspiciousness of his temper were such that he rarely made a 
 friend or an acquaintance in whom his distempered vision did not 
 goon discover an enemy in disguise. Yet Dennis wanted neither 
 talents nor acquirements. Many of his literary productions show 
 much acuteness and good sense, as well as considerable learning. He 
 began to publish occasional pieces in verse, mostly of a satirical cast, 
 about 1C90, and from that time till near his death his name was 
 constantly before the public as a small poet, a political and critical 
 pamphleteer, and a writer for the theatres. His poems and plays 
 were sufficiently worthless; but one or two of the latter obtained 
 some notoriety chiefly from the fuel they administered to certain 
 popular prejudices that happened to rage at the time. His ' Liberty 
 Asserted,' in particular, was acted with great applause in the Lincoln's 
 Inn Fit Ids theatre in 1704, in consequence of the violent strain of its 
 Anti-Gallicism, a sentiment with which the audience, in the excite- 
 ment of the war with France, was then peculiarly disposed to synjpathi.-e. 
 Connected with this play are the two well-known stories about Dennis, 
 during the negotiations that preceded the peace of Utrecht, going to 
 the Duke of Marlborough and asking his grace to get an article 
 inserted in the treaty to protect his person from the French kiug ; 
 and about his afterwards running away from the house of a friend 
 with whom he was staying on the Sussex coast, because he thought 
 that a vessel he saw approaching was coming to seize him. Another 
 of his dramatic attempts, his ' Appius and Virginia,' acted and 
 damned at Drury Lane in 1709, is famous for the new kind of 
 thunder introduced in it, and which the author, when a few nights 
 after he found the players making use of the contrivance in Macbeth, 
 rose in the pit and claimed with an oath as his thunder. Dennis's 
 thunder is said to be that still used at the theatres. 
 
 Among the ablest of his critical disquisitions were his attacks upon 
 Addison's 'Cato,' and Pope's 'Essay on Man.' Addison had been 
 among the number of his friends, but Dennis supposing that some- 
 thing in the second and third numbers of the ' Spectator ' was intended 
 as an offensive allusion to him, took the opportunity of avenging himself 
 when ' Cato ' appeared. Much of his criticism nevertheless has gene- 
 rally been deemed by no means the product of mere spite. It was 
 upon this occasion that Pope, in conjunction with Swift, wrote ' The 
 Narrative of Dr. Robert Norris, concerning the strange and deplorable 
 Frenzy of Mr. John Dennis, an Officer in the Custom house.' Pope 
 also Btuck Dennis in his ' Essay on Criticism,' and afterwards gibbeted 
 him much more conspicuously in the ' Dunciad.' 
 
 DENON, DOMINIQUE VIVANT, BARON, was born of a noble 
 family at Chalons-sur-Saone, on the 4th of January 1747. From his 
 early youth bis bias was for the arts of design, but he for some years 
 devoted himself to them as an amateur only, and as such was early 
 distinguished for his taste and judgment in matters of virtu ; Louis XV. 
 employed him to make a collection of antique gems for Madame Pom- 
 padour. He commenced however his active career in life as a diplo- 
 matist, and was first attached to the Russian embassy. Upon the 
 accession of LouU XVI., he found a valuable patron in the minister for 
 foreign affairs, the Comte de Vergennes, who sent Denon on a mission 
 to Switzerland, when he took the opportunity of visiting Voltaire at 
 Ferney, and drew a portrait of him, which was engraved by St. Aubin. 
 He was next sent by his patron to Naples, as secretary to the embassy 
 under the Comte Clermont d'Amboise. He lived seven years at 
 Naples, and devoted much of his time to the study of the arts, 
 especially etching and mezzotint engraving. The death of the Comte 
 de Vergennes (1787) caused his recal to Paris, and put an end to his 
 liplomatical career. He thenceforth adopted the arts of design as his 
 profession; and through the influence of his friend Quatremcre de 
 ^uincy, he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of the Arts. I 
 Returning to Italy, he spent five years at Venice, and some time at | 
 Florence ; and then visited Switzerland, where he learned that his 
 
 property had been sequestered, and his name enrolled in the list of 
 emigrants. Notwithstanding this threatening state of his affair. , lie 
 ventured to make his appearance at Paris, where, but for the assistance 
 of the painter David, he would have been destitute. David contrived 
 to have his name erased from the list of emigrants, and procured biui 
 an order from the government to design and engrave a set of repub 
 licau costumes. He was engaged in this occupatiou during the hoi u. 
 of the Revolution. 
 
 After the more violent features of the Revolution had subsided, tue 
 house of Madame Beauharnais was a centre of attraction w ere C 
 most distinguished men iu politics, art, literature, ana science rn<- 
 quently met; and here Denou became acquainted with Bonaparte. 
 Denon was a most devoted admirer of the great general aud when 
 Napoleon asked him, in 1798, to accompany him on his expedition to 
 Egypt, Denon, though in his fifty-first year, embraced the opportunity 
 with the utmost enthusiasm. He accompanied General Desaix iu his 
 expedition into Upper Egypt, and during the whole stay of Napoleon 
 in the East he was indefatigable in drawing all the most interesting 
 and striking Egyptian monuments. He returned with Napoleon to 
 France, and in the short space of about two years published his great 
 work on Egypt — ' Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Egypt, pendant 
 les Campagnes du General Bonaparte,' 2 vols, folio, 1802 ; a second 
 edition in 4to was published in the same year, and a smaller edition 
 in 1804. Avery elegant 4to edition was published in London, in 1S02, 
 by M. Peltier, with several appendices by various members of the 
 Egyptian Commission, or Institut du Caire, in addition to Denon's 
 journal, the original text. This work, which, as the production of an 
 individual, is a noble monument of zeal, industry, aud ability, professes 
 to be simply descriptive of what Denon saw and what happened to 
 him; he designedly abstained from all hypothesis, whether with 
 reference to origin, object, or principle. About the time of the publi- 
 cation of this work, Denon was appoiuted by Napoleon directeur- 
 geueral des Musees, a post of great influence, and one for which he 
 was well fitted. Denon accompanied Bonaparte in the campaigns 
 of Austria, Spain and Poland, aud is said to have made his sketches 
 from the most exposed place on the field of battle. To Denon was 
 assigned the duty of pointing out to the emperor the principal objects 
 of art which it was desirable to select from the various conquered 
 cities for the imperial collections in the Louvre. At the Restoration 
 Denon was dismissed from his post as directeur-general des musees, 
 In his retirement, he occupied himself in preparing a general history 
 of art, for which he prepared, by the assistance of able artists, many 
 lithographic drawings, but he did not live to complete the text. The 
 incomplete work was published by his nephews, in 1829, in 4 vols, folio, 
 under the title ' Mouumens des Arts du Dessin, chez les peuples, tant 
 anciens que modernes, recueillis par le Baron de Denon, pour aervir a 
 l'Histoire des Arts,' &c. Denon died at Paris. April 27, 1825. 
 
 Denon's etchings are numerous, amounting to upwards of 300 ; 
 they are chiefly in imitation of the style of Rembrandt, and consist o£ 
 portraits, historical and genre pieces, from Italian aud Flemish 
 masters. Besides his Voyage in Egypt, he is author of the following 
 literary productions : — ' Julie ou Le Bon Pere,' a comedy in three 
 acts, 1769 ; ' Voyage en Sicile et a Malte,' 1788 ; ' Discours sur les 
 Monumens d'Antiquites arrives d'ltalie,' 1804; several biographical 
 notices of painters in the 'Galerie des Hommes ceUebres ; ' and ' Point 
 de Lendemain,' a tale, 1812. 
 
 He was Membre de l'lnstitut, of the class of fine arts, officer of the 
 Legion d'Honneur, and knight of the Russian order of St. Anne, aud 
 of the Bavarian crown. He was created baron by Napoleon. 
 
 (Kunstblalt, 1825; Biographic Universelle, Sappl.) 
 
 DENTA'TUS, the surname of the Roman consul Curius, who 
 defeated king Pyrrbus near Tarentum. He is said by Pliny to have 
 been bom with teeth, and to have received the name Dentatus from 
 this circumstance. He gained several victories over the Samnites, 
 Sabines, and others, aud was remarkable for his great frugality. When 
 the ambasradors of the Samnites went with a quantity of gold to 
 attempt to bribe him, they found him cooking some vegetables on his 
 fire, and were dismissed with the reply, that ho preferred ruling the 
 rich to being rich, and that he who could not be conquered iu battle 
 was not to be corrupted by gold. (Horat. ' Od.' i. 12, 41; Florus, i. 15.) 
 
 DENTA'TUS, LU'UIUS SICI'NIUS, a Roman tribune, who dis- 
 tinguished himself iu battle chiefly against the vEqui aud the Sabines. 
 Livy calls him Lucius Siccius (iii. 43). According to Valerius Maxi- 
 mus (iii. 2), he had been in 120 engagements, had forty-five wounds in 
 the breast, aud had received an accumulation of honours almost 
 incredible. Through the jealousy and treachery of Appius Claudius 
 he was murdered by the soldiers whom he was appointed to command. 
 He no sooner perceived their design than he stood with his back to a 
 rock, and drawing his sword, killed fifteen of his assailants, and 
 wounded thirty more : at length they ascended the rock, and over- 
 whelmed him with stones from above. On their return to their camp 
 they gave out that they had engaged with the enemy, and that 
 Sicinius had fallen in the battle. (Dionys. Halicarnassensis, x. ; 
 Livius iii. 43.) 
 
 DEPARCIEUX, ANTOINE (often written, but erroneously, De 
 Parcieux), an able mathematician, was born on the 18th of October 
 1703, at the village of Cessoux, near Nismes. His father was an 
 humble peasant, and unable to afford him the least education ; but 
 
507 
 
 DEPPING, GEORGE BERNARD. 
 
 DERBY, EARL OF. 
 
 6)3 
 
 the disphy of his precocious talents induced an opulent gentleman in 
 his neighbourhood to place him in the College of Lyon, where his 
 progress in his studies was rapid and striking, especially in the 
 mathematical branches of science. After finishing his course in this 
 institution he repaired to Paris, without money and without friends ; 
 but he turned his talents to account by drawing sun-dials, and engaging 
 in other employment of this kind, by which he was able to obtain a 
 subsistence. His accuracy in these drawings being remarkable, he at 
 length acquired an attachment to the pursuit, and obtained ample 
 employment to secure him a comfortable livelihood. He afterwards 
 appears to have turned his attention to machinery, and probably his 
 talents were extensively employed in civil engineering and other 
 collateral subjects. He died September 2, 1768, aged 65. 
 
 His publications were as follows : — 1, 'Tables Astronomiqucs,' 4to, 
 1740 ; 2, ' Traitd de Trigonometries Rectiligne et Sphdrique, avec 
 Traitd de Gnomonique et des Tables de Logarithmes,' 4to, 1741; 3, 
 'Essai sur les Probability's de la Dutde de la Vie Humaine,' 4to, 1746; 
 
 4, 'Response aux Objections contre l'Essai' (the last work), 4to, 1746; 
 
 5, ' Additions a l'Essai,' &c, 4to, 1760 ; 6, ' Mdmoires sur la Possibilitd 
 et la Facility d'amener aupres d'Estrapade a Paris les Eaux de la 
 Riviere d'lvette,' 4to, 1765. Besides these separate works he published 
 sixteen memoirs amongst those of the Paris Academy, between the 
 years 1735 and 1768. 
 
 Ddparcieux was created Royal Censor and member of the Academy 
 of Sciences in Paris. He was also a member of the academies of 
 Berlin, Stockholm, Metz, Lyon, and Montpellier. 
 
 DEPPING, GEORGE BERNARD, was born at Minister, May 11, 
 1784. Having completed his educational course, he visited Paris in 
 1803, when, forming acquaintances there, and observing the facilities 
 which the city afforded for the prosecution of literary studies, he 
 determined to make it his permanent residence. The rest of his life 
 was spent there in the uneventful career of a busy littdrateur. He 
 was naturalised in 1827. 
 
 For many years M. Depping mainly occupied himself in preparing 
 juvenile and popular works chiefly on geographical subjects, in trans- 
 lating, and in writing for magazines and encyclopaedias. His first 
 important original work was one written for a prize offered by the 
 Institute on the ' Expeditions Maritime des Normands en France au 
 Dixieme Siecle.' It won the prize, was printed in 1826, and revised 
 in 1844 : it is a work of sterling value, and contains the fruits of 
 extensive researches in Scandinavian literature. A more important 
 work, for which this had prepared the way, was his ' Histoire de la 
 Normandie,' from the Conqueror to the re-union of Normandy with 
 Frauce (1066 to 1204), 2 vols. 8vo, 1835. Among his other more 
 important works may be named — ' Histoire du Commerce entre le 
 Levant et l'Europe, depuis les Croisades jusqu' a la Fondation des 
 Colonies d'Amerique,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1830; 'Les Juifs dans le 
 Moyen Age, essai historique sur leur Etat Civil, Commercial, et 
 Littdraire,' 8vo, 1840; 'Reglements sur les Arts et Mdtiers, rddigds au 
 Triezieme Siecle, et conuus sous le nom de Livre des Mdtiers d'Etienne 
 Boileau,' &c, 4to, 1837; ' Gescbichte des Kriegs der Munsterer und 
 Koluer . . . 1672-1674,' 8vo, Minister, 1840: ' Correspondance 
 Administrative sous le Regne de Louis XIV.' (forming vols. i. to hi. 
 of the ' Collection des Documents Inddits de l'Histoire de France '), 
 4to, 1850-53 ; ' Romancero Castellano,' 1 vol. 12mo, Paris, 1817, and, 
 greatly enlarged, 2 vols. 12mo, Leipzig, 1844. Some of the above 
 works have been translated into German and Dutch, while several of 
 his juvenile works have been translated into most of the European 
 languages. M. Depping wrote many of the more important articles in 
 the ' Biographie Universelle,' ' L'Art de Vdrifier les Dates,' &c. He 
 died at Paris, September 5, 1853. 
 
 DE QUINCEY, THOMAS, one of the most remarkable English 
 writers of the 19th century, was born in Manchester in or about the 
 year 1786. He was the fifth child and second son of a family of eight, 
 born to his father, a Manchester merchant in wealthy circumstances, 
 who died while his children were yet young, leaving to his widow for 
 their education a clear fortune of 1600Z. a year. Although the name 
 De Quincey looks as if it were of French extraction, the family is an old 
 English one— as old as the Conquest. After receiving his first educa- 
 tion at his home near Manchester, De Quincey was sent at the age of 
 twelve to the Grammar school of Bath, the head master of which at 
 that time was a Dr. Morgan. Here he remained till his fifteenth year, 
 laying the foundation of his extensive and miscellaneous learning in 
 the studies of the school and in private readings of his own in English 
 and other authors. From 1800 to 1803 the boy spent his time partly 
 at another school, partly in visits to friends in different parts of England 
 and Ireland. From 1803 to 1808 he was at the University of Oxford; 
 and it was during this time that he first contracted the habit of opium- 
 eating, of which, in connection with the peculiarities of his life and 
 genius, he has himself made such proclamation to the world. Of his 
 eccentricities during this period he has given au account in his ' Con- 
 fessions of an English Opium-Eater.' It was in the year 1807 that he 
 first made the acquaintance of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey ; 
 and on quitting college in 1808 he took up his abode at the Lakes, 
 and became one of the intellectual brotherhood there constituted by 
 these men. Wilson was a resident at the Lakes about the same time. 
 The difference between De Quincey and theLakistswas, that his element 
 was exclusively prose. Like Coleridge, but with peculiarities sufficient 
 
 to distinguish him from that thinker, he philosophised and analysed, 
 and speculated, in sympathy with the new literary movement, of which 
 the Lake party was a manifestation. He resided ten or eleven ye;u\s 
 at the Lakes ; and during these ten or eleven years we are to suppose 
 him increasing his knowledge of Greek, of German, and of universal 
 history and literature. In point of time De Quincey preceded Car- 
 lyle as a literary medium between Germany and this country ; and 
 some of his earliest literary efforts wero translations from Lessing, 
 Richter, and other German authors. These literary efforts, begun 
 while he was still a student at the Lakes, were continued with grow- 
 ing abundance after he left them (1819). From first to last, to a 
 degree hardly paralleled in any other instance where equal fame has 
 been attained, Mr. De Quincey's literary career has been that of a 
 writer for periodicals. First at the Lakes, then in London, then in 
 other parts of England, then again and again in London, and lastly in 
 Scotland, where he has resided with his family almost continually since 
 1843 (at Lasswade, a small village near Edinburgh), he has sent forth 
 a succession of papers, in various British periodicals, ranging over an 
 immense variety of subjects, and all so original and subtle, that, 
 being traced to him, they have made his name illustrious. Among 
 the periodicals to which he has contributed may be mentioned the 
 ' London Magazine,' so celebrated about 1822-4, under the editorship 
 of John Scott; 'Blackwood's Magazine,' which began in 1817, and in 
 whose famous ' Noctes Ambrosianre,' written by Wilson, De Quincey 
 is made occasionally one of the collocutors; the 'Encyclopedia 
 Britannica:' 'Tait's Edinburgh Magazine;' and the 'North British 
 Review.' With the exception of ' The Confessions of an English 
 Opium-Eater,' which, after having appeared in parts in the ' London 
 Magazine,' were published separately in the year 1822; and a work, 
 entitled 'The Logic of Political Economy,' published at Edinburgh 
 in 1844, Mr. De Quincey had until recently issued nothing openly in 
 his own name. He was, in fact, buried and scattered in the British 
 periodical literature of his generation ; and though his admirers kept 
 a register of his principal articles, they had to rummage for them in old 
 numbers of reviews and magazines. As has happened in other cases, 
 it was in America that the idea of a republication of Mr. De Quincey's 
 writings in a collected form, was first carried into effect. Between 
 1851 and 1855 a Boston house (co operating we believe with the author) 
 gathered together his papers from all sorts of periodicals, and gave them 
 to the trans-Atlantic public in their aggregate. This edition consists 
 of no fewer than eighteen volumes ; and it is impossible for any one 
 who has not glanced over the contents of these eighteen volumes to 
 form an idea of Mr. De Quincey's versatility, or of the total amount of 
 matter that has proceeded from his pen. 
 
 Mr. De Quincey has begun an issue of his complete works in this 
 country ; but of this issue, only four or five volumes have as yet 
 (1856) been published. In the preface to this edition, however, Mr. De 
 Quincey makes a classification of his writings, which it is useful to 
 remember. The immense medley, which, in the American edition, is 
 arranged on the loosest possible principle, may be distributed, he says, 
 in the main, into three classes of papers : — first, papers whose chief 
 purpose is to interest and amuse (autobiographic sketches, reminis- 
 cences of distinguished contemporaries, biographical memoirs, whim- 
 sical narratives, and such like); secondly, essays of a speculative, 
 critical, or philosophical character, addressing the understanding as 
 an insulated faculty (of these there are many); and thirdly, papers 
 belonging to the order of what may be called ' prose-poetry ; ' that is, 
 phantasies or imaginations in prose (of which class Mr. De Quincey cites 
 the ' Suspiria de Profundis,' originally published in Blackwood, as the 
 most characteristic specimen). Under any one of the three aspects 
 here indicated Mr. De Quincey must rank high in the entire list of 
 British prose-writers. His papers of fact and reminiscence, though 
 somewhat discursive, are among the most delightful in the language; 
 and his essays have the merit of extraordinary subtlety of thought 
 and of invariable originality. Undoubtedly, however, his papers of 
 prose-phantasy are the most splendid manifestations of his genius. 
 Mr. De Quincey himself speaks of them as " modes of impassioned 
 prose, ranging under no precedents that I am aware of in any 
 literature;" and, as such, claims for them more "in right of their 
 conception" than he will venture to do in right of their " execution." 
 Whether one agrees with him or not as to the " utter sterility of 
 universal literature in this one department of impassioned prose," one 
 must admit that his own contributions to this department, or rather 
 to the department of Bubtle-imaginative prose, are, as far as our 
 literature is concerned, almost unique in their kind. They are often 
 of such a weirdly and visionary character as to give an additional 
 significance to the circumstance of his being universally known as 
 " the English Opium-eater." [See Supplement.] 
 
 * DERBY, EDWARD-GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, 14th 
 EARL OF, born March 29, 1799, was the eldest son of Edward 
 Smith, Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th Earl Derby, but then only heir- 
 apparent to his father, the 12th Earl. After quitting Christ Church, 
 Oxford, where, as well as at Eton, he was greatly distinguished, Mr. 
 Stanley entered the House of Commons in 1820 as member for Stock- 
 bridge. It was not till 1824 however that he began to take an active 
 part in the business of the House. From the moment that he did so 
 his pre-eminent powers as a parliamentary debater gave him an 
 acknowledged right to lead ; and these powers, together with his hiijo 
 
DERHAM, REV. WILLIAM, D.D. 
 
 connections, have enabled him ever since to be, whether in or out of 
 office, one of our foremost political men. From 1826 to 1830 he sat 
 aa member for Preston. In this latter year, having been nominated 
 to the post of Under-Secretary for the Colonies under the short 
 Goderich administration, he was thrown out by the constituency of 
 Preston, who elected the democratic favourite Henry Hunt in his 
 stead. He found a seat however in Windsor, which was vacated by 
 Sir Hussey Vivian in his favour. He sat for Windsor till 1832, when 
 he was elected for North Lancashire ; which county he continued to 
 represent during the remainder of his stay in the Lower House. The 
 death of his grandfather in 1834, by raising his father to the earl- 
 dom, devolved on him the courtesy-title of Lord Stanley. This same 
 year brought about a change in his political relations. Since 1830 he 
 had been officially attached to the Reform ministry of Lord Grey — 
 first as Chief Secretary for Ireland (1830-33), and then as Secretary 
 of State for the Colonies (1833-34); and in both capacities he sig- 
 nalised himself by his energy and his eloquence. During the Reform 
 Bill debates, in particular, his services as a speaker on the reform 
 side were of the first order. In 1834 however he, along with Sir 
 James Graham, the Duke of Richmond, and Lord Ripon, separated 
 from Earl Grey, on the question of the farther reduction of the Irish 
 Ecclesiastical Establishment. Since that time accordingly he has 
 taken part in British politics uniformly as a Conservative. In 1841 
 he took office in Sir Robert Peel's Conservative ministry, in his old 
 post of Colonial Secretary ; and of this ministry he was an active 
 member till 1845. In order that the ministry might have the advan- 
 tage of his services in the Upper House, he was in 1844 raised to that 
 House by the change of his courtesy-title of Lord Stanley into the 
 real title of Baron Stanley of Bickerstaffe. Shortly after this eleva- 
 tion, Sir Robert Peel's growing determination towards a free trade 
 policy effected a separation between him and Lord Stanley. No 
 sooner had Sir Robert carried the repeal of the Corn-Laws, than his 
 colleague placed himself at the head of what has since that time been 
 known as the Protectionist party. The efforts of this party, with 
 such men a3 Lord Stanley, Lord George Bentinck, and Mr. Disraeli 
 to lead them, were directed to the disorganisation both of the Whigs 
 and of the Peelite Conservative party ; and with such success that, at 
 length, on the dissolution of the Whig Cabinet of Lord John Russell 
 in February 1852, the Protectionist Conservatives were called into 
 office. Of this ministry the Earl of Derby (raised to that rank by 
 the death of his father, June 30, 1851), was the First Lord, with Mr. 
 Disraeli for Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader in the Commons. 
 The ministry lasted till December 1852; but during its ten months 
 of office did not carry any measures of a peculiarly Protectionist 
 character. Defeated on the financial policy of Mr. Disraeli in 
 December 1852, Lord Derby resigned, and Lord Aberdeen and the 
 Coalition ministry came into office. On the fall of this ministry in 
 1855 Lord Derby had another opportunity of constructing a Pro- 
 tectionist ministry, but he declined the task, on the ground that, in 
 the existing state of parties, no ministry that he could form could 
 stand its ground. Accordingly, at the present moment (1856), Lord 
 Derby's position in the politics of his country is that of leader of a 
 general, rather than a strictly Protectionist, opposition to the policy of 
 Lord Palmerston. The conduct of the war with Russia and the 
 management of the negotiations for peace (March 1856), have afforded 
 the most recent materials for debate to Lord Derby and his associates. 
 Among other honours held by Lord Derby is that of Chancellor of 
 the University of Oxford : he has also been Lord Rector of Glasgow 
 University. He married in 1825 Emma Caroline, daughter of the 
 first Lord Skelmersdale, and has three children ; of whom the eldest, 
 Lord Stanley, M.P. (born 1820), is heir-apparent. [-See Sopi'lement.] 
 DERHAM, REV. WILLIAM, D.D., an eminent English divine 
 and philosopher, was born at Stowton, near Worcester, in Novem- 
 ber 1 057, and received his early education at Blockley in the same 
 county. He was admitted of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1 675. Having 
 completed his academic studies, he was ordained, and in 1685 was 
 instituted in the vicarage of Wargrave in Berkshire ; and four years 
 afterwards to the valuable rectory of Upminster in Essex, where he 
 spent the remainder of hi3 life. To this residence he was much 
 attached ; mainly because it gave him, by its contiguity to London, 
 ample opportunities of associating with the scientific men of the metro- 
 polis. He was made canon of Windsor in 1716, and in 1730 he received 
 from his university the diploma of D.D. He devoted his attention, 
 with great earnestness, to natural and experimental philosophy. He 
 was enrolled a member of the Royal Society ; and he contributed a 
 considerable number of memoirs to its Transactions. These papers 
 prove him to have been a man of indefatigable research and careful 
 observation. 
 
 His first publication was the 'Artificial Clock-Maker,' which has 
 gone through three or four editions, and is considered a useful manual 
 even now. In 1711, 1712, and 1714, he preached those sermons at 
 Boyle's Lecture which he afterwards expanded into the well-known 
 works 'Physico-Theology ' and 'Astro-Theology,' or a demonstration 
 of the being and attribute:* of God from the works of creation and a 
 survey of the heavens, enriched with valuable notes, and good engrav- 
 ings after drawings of his own. His next separate work was ' Christo- 
 Theology,' or a demonstration of the divine authority of the Christian 
 religion, being the substance of a sermon preached in the Abbey 
 
 BIOU. D1V. VOI* U, 
 
 DESAGULIERS, JOHN THEOPHILUS, D.D. 570 
 
 Church of Bath, in 1729. His last published work of his own was 
 entitled 'A Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold Estates,' written 
 in answer to a work entitled ' An Inquiry into the Customary Estates 
 and Tenant-rights of those who hold lands of the Church and other 
 Foundations.' It was published in the name of Everard Fleetwood. 
 
 Dr. Derham also published some of the works of the naturalist Ray, 
 of which he had procured the manuscripts ; and to him the world is 
 indebted for the publication of the philosophical experiments of Dr. 
 Hook. He also gave new editions of other of Ray's works, with valu- 
 able editions, original, and from the author's manuscripts ; besides 
 editing other works of value, amongst which was the ' Miscellanea 
 Curiosa,' in 3 vols, small 8vo. 
 
 A considerable number of his papers were printed in the ' Philoso- 
 phical Transactions,' from the 20th to the 39th volume inclusive, the 
 principal of which are : 1, ' Experiments on Pendulums in Vacuo.' 
 2, ' Of an Instrument for finding the Meridian.' 3, ' Experiments 
 and Observations on the Motion of Sound.' 4, ' On the Migration of 
 Birds.' 5, ' On the Spots on the Sun from 1703 to 1711.' 6, ' Obser- 
 vations on the Northern Lights, 8th October 1726, and 13th October 
 1728.' 7, 'Tables of the Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites.' 8, 'Differ- 
 ence of Time in the Meredian of Different Places.' 9, ' On the 
 Meteor called Ignis Fatuus.' 10, ' The History of the Death-watch.' 
 11, ' Meteorological Tables,' for several years. 
 
 Dr. Derham was of an ungainly appearance, small stature, and dis- 
 torted form. He was not only the moral and religious benefactor of 
 his parishioners, and of all those who came in his way, but he was 
 likewise their physician in sickness, and their pecuniary friend in all 
 their difficulties. He died at his rectory April 5, 1735. 
 
 DERRICK, SAMUEL, was a native of Ireland, and born in 1724. 
 He was first a linen-draper in Dublin, then tried the stage, but not 
 succeeding in either of those occupations, became professionally an 
 author in London. A life of irregularity and debauchery introduced 
 him to some fashionable acquaintances, whose influence procured his 
 appointment to succeed Beau Nash, in 1761, as master of the cere- 
 monies at Bath and Tunbridge. His extravagant habits remained with 
 him there, and he died very poor, March 7, 1769. His avowed literary 
 works are of little importance ; they include ' Fortune, a Rhapsody,' 
 ' A View of the Stage,' ' Letters from Liverpool, Chester, &c. ;' an 
 edition of Dryden, which did more credit to the printer than to the 
 editor ; and a translation of the third Satire of Juvenal. It ought to 
 be mentioned that Johnson, who knew Derrick, always speaks of him 
 with kindness ; and Boswell records that Derrick was his " first tutor 
 in the ways of London .... both literary aud sportive." 
 
 DERZHAVIN, GABRIEL ROMANO VITCH, the most distin- 
 guished lyric poet of Russia, was born at Kasan, 3rd July 1743. 
 After completing his education in the Gymnasium of that city, he 
 commenced the usual military career by entering, in 1760, the 
 engineer service, in which the attention he gave to his mathematical 
 studies soon obtained for him promotion. He did not, however, rise 
 to the grade of lieutenant until 1774, when he was sent with his corps 
 to reduce the rebel Pugachev, on which occasion he displayed much 
 bravery and address. He continued to advance in military promotion ; 
 but quitted the service on being appointed, in 1784, a councillor of 
 state, and afterwards governor of Olonetz and of Tambov successively. 
 In 1791, Catharine bestowed on him the office of secretary of state ; in 
 1793 he was called to the senate, and the following year was made 
 president of the college of commerce. Various other appointments 
 followed, the last of which was that of minister of justice, in 1802: 
 from which he retired the following year, on a full-pay pension. He 
 died 6 th July 1816. 
 
 It was during the busiest portion of his career, both military and 
 official, that the finest of his odes were produced. Pre-eminent among 
 these, and perhaps hardly surpassed by any similar composition in any 
 other language, is his ' Oda Bog ;' or, ' Address to the Deity,' a piece 
 full of sublimity both as regards the ideas and expressions. Indeed, 
 elevation of conception and nobleness of sentiment, no less than great 
 energy and mastery of language, are striking characteristics of Derzha- 
 vin's poetry ; and if occasionally more negligent thau Lomonosov, it is 
 because he is borne away by the intensity of his feelings. On the 
 other hand, he manifests greater freshness, originality, and richness 
 than his predecessor ; and while he delights by the eloquence of his 
 lyre, he elevates and purifies the soul by the moral grandeur of his 
 strains. In the art of which he was so profound a master, he has shown 
 himself no less able as a theorist and critic by his treatise on Lyric 
 Poetry, printed in the ' Tchenie v Beseda?,' a miscellany edited by a 
 society for the cultivation of the Russian language. Besides the essay 
 just mentioned, he wrote some other works in prose, among which is a 
 ' Topographical Description of the Government of Tambov.' A collec- 
 tion of his works was first printed in 1810, in four volumes; to which 
 was added another, shortly before his death. 
 
 DESAGULIERS, JOHN THEOPHILUS, D.D., was born at 
 Rochelle on the 12th of March 1683, and brought to England while an 
 infant by his father the Rev. John Desaguliers, a French Protestant 
 refugee, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His early educa- 
 tion he owed to the instructions of his father, who appears to have 
 been a very respectable scholar and sound divine, and at an early age 
 he was sent to Christchurch, Oxford. In 1702, being then only 
 nineteen, he succeeded Dr. Keil in reading lectures on Experimental 
 
 it 
 
DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS. 
 
 DESCARTES, RENE. 
 
 c?3 
 
 Philosophy at Hart Hall ; and he ever afterwards prosecuted his 
 physical researches with great earnestness and success. Upon his 
 marriage in 1712, he settled in London, where ho was the first that 
 introduced the reading of lectures to the public on natural and expe- 
 rimental philosophy. This he did with great and continued reputation 
 to the end of his life, which terminated February 29, 1744, in his Gist 
 year. The highest personages were attracted by the novelty of his. 
 mode of teaching ; and he was several times honoured with reading 
 his lectures before the king and royal family. 
 
 In 1714 Desaguliers was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, of 
 which he proved a valuable member. The Duke of Chandos appointed 
 him his chaplain, and presented him with the living of Whitchurch, 
 near his seat at Cannons ; and he was afterwards made chaplain to the 
 Prince of Wales. 
 
 From some causes which are not well understood, Desaguliers 
 appears to have fallen into a state of great destitution ; — we say 
 appears, for the authority on which the assertion rests has, so far as 
 we know, neither received collateral proof nor denial. He certainly 
 did remove to lodgings over the Piazza in Covent Garden, in which he 
 continued his lectures ; but the lines of the poet Cawthorn are the 
 only authority on which the statement of extreme indigence rests : — 
 
 Here poor neglected Desaguliers fell ! 
 How he who taught two gracious kings to view 
 AU Boyle ennobled, and all Bacon knew, 
 Died in a cell, without a friend to save, 
 Without a guinea, and without a grave ! " 
 
 If this statement be true, he must either have been the dupe of 
 others to a great extent, or singularly improvident in his own affairs ; 
 as besides his emoluments from hia lecturing, he held two church 
 livings. 
 
 The separate writings of Desaguliers contain an elegant exposition 
 of the more popular portions of experimental philosophy. His mind 
 was more fitted for the popular and the practical than for the pro- 
 founder inquiries into those branches of science ; and for the geome- 
 trical method of investigation than for the higher and then new 
 calculus which has since so completely changed the whole current of 
 research. His works are — 1, 'A Course of Lectures on Experimental 
 Philosophy,' 2 vols. 4to, 1734. 2, ' An Edition of Dr. David Gregory's 
 Elements of Catoptrics and Dioptrics, with an Appendix on Reflecting 
 Telescopes,' 8vo, 1735. This appendix contains some original letters 
 between Sir Isaac Newton and Mr. James Gregory relative to these 
 telescopes, which are worthy of attention. 3, ' A Translation of the 
 curious, valuable, and little known Treatise on Perspective,' by 
 S'Gravesande, 8vo. 4, 'A Translation of S'Gravesande's Natural 
 Philosophy,' 2 vols. 4to, 1747. 5, 'A Translation of Nieuwentyt's 
 Religious Philosopher,' 3 vols. 8vo. Several respectable papers by 
 Desaguliers are inserted in the 'Philosophical Transactions' from 1714 
 to 1743. 
 
 DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS- CHARLES-ANTOINE, was 
 born on the 17th of August 1768, at St. Hilaire-d'Ayat in Auvergne ; 
 his father was a noble, much impoverished, but of ancient descent. 
 In 1776, he was placed at the military school of Effiat, where he re- 
 mained seven years, and then joined an infantry regiment. While 
 at school he had studied diligently, and even in the garrisons of 
 Briancon and Huninguen, where he was quartered on leaving college, 
 he prosecuted his studies with unabated zeal. Those branches which 
 relate to military science occupied him chiefly. 
 
 When the Revolution broke out in 17S9, young Desaix at once 
 adopted its principles, as they were then understood ; but he protested 
 against the proceedings of August 10, for which he was suspended by 
 Carnot, and imprisoned for two months. In the summer of 1792 he 
 became aide-de-camp to Prince Victor de Broglie, in the army of the 
 Rh ine. In this capacity he rendered himself conspicuous by his cool 
 but fearless bravery. In 1793 many generals of note were sent to 
 prison as suspected of treachery to the Republic, and seven com- 
 manders-in-chief were guillotined. All distinction at that time gave 
 umbrage, and the very esteem of his comrades, and the affection of his 
 soldiers for Desaix, exposed him to great peril ; he owed his escape to 
 his consummate prudence ; for during the whole Reign of Terror, he 
 rather avoided promotion. But his mother and sister were sent to 
 prison by the Committee of Public Safety. Desaix himself was 
 suspended a second time ; but Pichegru reclaimed him for the good 
 of the army, and even Saint Just supported the intercession. Soon 
 after (1794), General Pichegru having been transferred to the army of 
 the North, Desaix would have succeeded to the command of that of 
 the Rhine, but for the suspicions entertained of him as a noble, and 
 his own determination at this period to shun distinction. For the 
 next two years he was employed in defending the Alsatian frontier 
 against the Austrians. 
 
 In 1796 Moreau received the command of the army of the Rhine; 
 Desaix, who had remained a general of division since 1793, became his 
 lieutenant, and was employed in the most arduous enterprises. To 
 him was entrusted the passage of the Rhine (January 1796), a most 
 difficult operation, but completely successful. Shortly after, Jourdan's 
 retreat with the army of the Sambre-et-Meuse having exposed Moreau's 
 Brmy to the whole shock of the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, 
 the Freuch commander was compelled to retreat; but his masterly 
 
 manoeuvres extorted general admiration, and for a time raised the 
 name of Moreau to a level with that of Bonaparte. Desaix com- 
 manded the left wing during this retreat, and displayed abilities of 
 the highest order. The French still retained possession of the fort of 
 Kehl, on the right bank of the Rhine ; Desaix was ordered to defend 
 it, and arrest the progress of the enemy. Here, amidst broken and 
 ruined fortifications, this energetic officer delayed the advance of the 
 archduke for two months, refusing to capitulate, until January 1797, 
 when all his ammunition was spent. Towards the end of this cam- 
 paign he was severely wounded, and laid up for three months at Stras- 
 bourg. The armistice of Leoben occurred during his confinement. 
 
 Desaix, who had watched step by step the memorable campaign in 
 Italy, had conceived the greatest admiration for the genius of Bona- 
 parte, and was desirous of studying his tactics on the actual ground 
 where the battles had been fought. He was sent by Moreau, at his 
 own request, on a mission to that general, whom he joined at Milan. 
 Bonaparte announced, among the orders of the day, " The brave 
 General Desaix is come to visit the army of Italy." Thence dated 
 that close union and friendship which was only terminated by the 
 fatal ball at Marengo, three years later. 
 
 The French republic having resolved on the invasion of England 1 , 
 in the beginning of 1798, the conduct of the expedition was entrusted 
 to Bonaparte, General Desaix being appointed quarter-master-general. 
 The command itself devolved upon him for several months, during 
 which he exhibited that energy, activity, and administrative talent, in 
 which he was allowed by his chief to excel all the other republican 
 generals. Some time after, the difficulties and hazards of the invasion 
 caused the enterprise to be postponed ; at least as far as concerned 
 Great Britain. 
 
 During the campaign in Egypt in 1798 and 1799, the reputation of 
 Desaix rose to its highest point, and the conquest of Egypt has been 
 considered his greatest achievement. With a small band of troops, 
 and no other supplies than were to be found in an uncivilised region, 
 Desaix reduced the whole province to submission in less than a year. 
 The fertility of his resources was incredible ; his power of winning 
 and controlling the people he conquered, unprecedented; the inhabit- 
 ants called him the Just Sultan, whilst his own soldiers compared 
 him to Bayard. Nor did this intelligent commander neglect his own 
 instruction at the same time ; he employed the intervals between his 
 battles in visiting all the remarkable places, ruins, and monuments in 
 that ancient land. Having completely subdued Upper Egypt in eight 
 months, be began immediately after a much more arduous labour; he 
 formed a regular government, and opened commercial channels with 
 the Arab tribes. Bonaparte, before leaving Egypt for France, desiring 
 to mark his high sense of these great services, sent Desaix a sword, 
 with this inscription on the blade : " Conquete de la Haute Egypte." 
 He also enjoined his successor, Kl^ber, to send Desaix back to France 
 in the following November. 
 
 Having reached Toulon on the 3rd of May 1800, he was just in 
 time to take part in the battle of Marengo on the 14th of June, when 
 he was killed by a musket-ball during a charge upon the Austrians, 
 His death was instantaneous. The French consul adopted his two 
 aides-de-camp, Rapp and Savary, on the field of battle. A statue 
 has been erected to Desaix in the Place-Dauphine in Paris. 
 
 (Alison; Bourrienne; Nouvelle Biographie Gentrale.) 
 
 DESCARTES, RENE, was born at La Haye, between Tours and 
 Poitiers, in Touraine, on the 31st of March 1596, and died at Stock- 
 holm on the 11th of February 1650, before he had completed his 
 fifty-fourth year. 
 
 Descartes was of noble descent, being a younger son of a councillor 
 in the parliament of Rennes. He is one of the many instances of 
 great delicacy of constitution being combined with the highest order 
 of mind. His early education was among the Jesuits, who had, 
 shortly previous, established one of their seminaries or colleges in 
 the neighbourhood of his father's residence at La-Fleche ; and though 
 Descartes was one of those men who would have educated himself iu 
 the absence of all instruction, there can be little doubt that the 
 system adopted in the colleges of the Jesuits was better calculated to 
 develop the peculiar powers of the students than any other which has 
 ever prevailed in modern Europe. 
 
 During his course in the college of La-Fleche he contracted a friend- 
 ship with Marsenne, which continued -to the end of the life of that 
 distinguished monk, and this circumstance doubtless tended much to 
 increase the attachment of Descartes to mathematical and metaphy- 
 sical studies. Algebra was at this time studied by few, and it bad 
 acquired but little extent and power as an instrument of investigation; 
 whilst geometry, as it was then cultivated, tended too much to run 
 into a mere deduction of isolated but curious and difficult propo- 
 sitions, without much regard to the general principles upon which 
 their analysis and synthesis depended, or to the nature of the funda- 
 mental principles upon which geometrical reasoning was ultimately 
 founded. The comparative novelty of the algebraic methods would 
 give a charm to the study in a mind constituted like that of Descartes; 
 and an examination of its first principles, and the operations of the 
 mind in the actual development of the truths of geometry, would be 
 more likely to arrest his active mind than the mere deduction of 
 curious but necessary consequences. It is easy to conceive that hu 
 reading and course of study iu the college would be somewhat desul- 
 
(73 
 
 DESCARTES, RENE. 
 
 DESHOULIERES, ANTOINETTE. 
 
 674 
 
 tory, and that he often depended more upon his own innate power for 
 joiug through his exercises than upon the lectures of the professor, 
 or the books which were put into his hands. This character in 
 Descartes was properly appreciated by his friends and tutors. He 
 formed the determination of renouncing all books, and endeavouring 
 to efface from his mind the knowledge which he had been taught, so 
 as to employ the power which he had gained by the discipline of his 
 college only to investigate the fundamental principles of human know- 
 ledge ab initio. Still this can hardly be thought to be a suddenly- 
 formed resolution. Even allowing this to have been a plan gradually 
 formed, the execution of it was a Herculean task ; nor was it 
 unattended with personal danger, as the contemporary history of 
 Galileo sufficiently proves. Considering therefore that Descartes was 
 at this time only nineteen years of age, the whole circumstance is one 
 without a parallel in intellectual history. 
 
 Descartes wisely abstained from publishing his views at this time, or 
 indeed his mathematical discoveries, of which there is some probability 
 that he was in possession at this early age ; but conformably with the 
 fashion of the age among men of his social and political condition, he 
 engaged in the profession of arms. He served first as a volunteer in 
 the army of Holland, and then in that of the Duke of Bavaria ; and 
 he was present at the battle of Prague in 1620, in which he conducted 
 himself with great intrepidity. There is no profession more inimical 
 to the study of abstract science than that of arms, and hence Descartes 
 soon abandoned it for the purer and more honourable career to which 
 his previous studies and native ardour of mind were so admirably 
 adapted. But even during his attachment to the camp he did not 
 neglect his mathematical and philosophical inquiries. It is believed 
 to have been during his stay at Breda that Descartes composed his 
 ' Compendium Musicse,' although it was not printed till after his death. 
 Another circumstance indicative of his devotion to geometry is also 
 narrated in connection with the same campaign, and occurring also at 
 Breda. One day, seeing a group of people surrounding a placard, he 
 found it written in Flemish, a language which he did not understand, 
 and therefore applied to one of the bystanders for an explanation. 
 This person chanced to be Btckmann, principal of the college of Dort, 
 who, wondering that a young soldier should take any interest in 
 geometry— the placard being, in keeping with the practice of the age, 
 a problem proposed as a challenge— explained the problem to him; 
 but is said to have displayed something of the collegiate pedantry 
 which was then so common. Descartes however promised him a 
 solution, which he sent to the principal early next morning. 
 
 The cause of his resigning his commission is said to have been disgust 
 at the atrocities which he witnessed in Hungary ; but it is more likely 
 that his object was to see the world under a different aspsct, which 
 his travelling as a private individual would enable him to do. He 
 visited in succession Holland, France, Italy, and Switzerland, and 
 stayed some time in Venice and Rome. It has often created surprise 
 that while in Italy he did not visit Galileo ; and the cause which has 
 been usually assigned was his jealousy of the fame of that father of 
 physics — an assumption which there is reason to fear is too well 
 founded. His repulsive conduct towards Fermat, whose overtures of 
 an amicable correspondence he so long rejected with an appearance of 
 disdain, seems also to intimate the wish of Descartes to reign alone 
 in the circle of his associates, and in the philosophic world altogether. 
 
 After completing his travels, Descartes determined to devote his 
 attention exclusively to philosophical and mathematical inquiries ; and 
 his ambition was to renovate the whole circle of the sciences. He 
 Bold a portion of his patrimony in France, and retired to Holland, 
 where he imagined he should be more free to follow his inclination 
 without the interruptions to which his celebrity in his own country 
 rendered him perpetually liable. His writings however involved him 
 in much controversy, and the vivacity and dogmatism of his temper 
 often led him to treat in a somewhat supercilious manner the greatest 
 men amongst his contemporaries. The personal courage of Descartes 
 was great ; and, unlike many valiant writers, he was valiant in the 
 most trying personal dangers. 
 
 The fame of Descartes was very great, even in his lifetime ; and 
 that not only among the learned, but in the highest circles of society 
 in every part of Europe. When therefore the church rose in arms 
 against the heresy of his philosophy, and he was subjected to much 
 persecution and some danger, he accepted the invitation of Christina, 
 queen of Sweden, who offered hirn an asylum and complete protection 
 from the bigoted hostility of his enemies. He was treated by the 
 queen with the greatest distinction, and was released from the 
 observance of any of the humiliating usages so generally exacted by 
 sovereigns of those times from all whom they admitted into their 
 presence. The queen however, probably from the love of differing 
 from every one else, chose to pursue her studies with Descartes at five 
 o'clock in the morning ; and as his health was always far from robust, 
 and now peculiarly delicate, the rigour of the climate, and the unsea- 
 sonable hour, which formed such a striking contrast with those to 
 which he had been many years habituated, brought on pulmonary 
 disease, of which he very soon expired, in the fifty-fourth year of his 
 age. The queen wished to inter him with great honour in Sweden ; 
 but the French ambassador interposed, and his remains were conveyed 
 for sepulture amongst his countrymen in Paris. Thus fell one of the 
 greatcrt men of his a"e, a victim to the absurd caprice of the royal 
 
 patron under whose auspices he had taken shelter from the persecutions 
 of the church. 
 
 Probably there is scarcely a name on record, the bearer of which 
 has given a greater impulse to mathematical and philosophical inquiry 
 thau Descartes. As a mathematician he actually published but little, 
 and yet in every subject which he treated he has opened a new field 
 of investigation. The simple application of the notation of indices to 
 algebraical powers has totally new-modelled the whole science of 
 algebra. The very simple conception of expressing the fundamental 
 property of curve-lines and curve-surfaces by equations between the 
 co-ordinates, has led to an almost total supersedence of the geometry 
 of the ancients. The view which he proposed of the constitution of 
 equations is contested as to originality ; but admitting, as we do, his 
 claims on this head to be open to dispute, the writings and discoveries 
 of Descartes have laid the foundation for such a change in the general 
 character of mathematical science as renders it extremely difficult for 
 those who have not given very great attention to the older writers to 
 follow the course of reasoning which they employed. The claims of 
 Descartes however to the originality of his views on the composition 
 of equations, and the relation between their roots and their co-efficients, 
 are discussed under the name of his competitor. [Harriott.] 
 
 His speculations in physics have often been ridiculed by subsequent 
 writers, and there can be no doubt that they are sufficiently absurd. 
 Still many reasons may be urged in mitigation of that ridicule, and 
 even of the more temperate censure which careful and judicious histo- 
 rians of science have dealt out upon the intellectual character of Des- 
 cartes. It ought especially to be observed that the theories of all his 
 predecessors were mere empirical conjectures respecting the places and 
 paths of the celestial bodies ; they constituted, so to speak, the plane 
 astronomy of those times, in contradistinction to the physical astro- 
 nomy of ours. Those paths were not deduced as the necessary effect 
 of any given law of force, but as the result of some fixed and unalter- 
 able system of machinery invisible to us, and directly under either the 
 control of original accident or the original will of God. Innumerable 
 hypotheses of the nature of this machinery had been framed before 
 the time of Descartes ; and he, being dissatisfied with all others, 
 adopted that of an ethereal fluid, which was continually revolving 
 round a centre, like the water in a vortex. This was not so unnatural 
 to a philosopher living before the ' Principia ' made its appearance ns 
 it would be absurd in any one to contend for it now. We have indeed 
 been too much in the habit of measuring the philosophical sanity of 
 Descartes by the knowledge of our own times — a most ULjust test to 
 be applied to the intellectual efforts of any man by his successors. 
 We ought rather to look to what he did accomplish under all the diffi- 
 culties of his position in respect to the then state of science, than 
 measure him by the efforts which were attended with no beneficial 
 result. He was, however, the first who brought optical science under 
 the command of mathematics, by the discovery of the law of the 
 refraction of the ordinary ray through diaphanous bodies. He deter- 
 mined the law itself, but not as the result of any law of force. Thia 
 was a later discovery : but Descartes led the way. 
 
 His inquiries in the positive philosophy were distinguished by great 
 acuteness and subtlety ; and though his theory has not in a direct 
 form obtained mauy advocates in this country, it has in reality been 
 the foundation of most of the sects which have since risen in every 
 part of Europe. Differing as these systems do so very widely at first 
 sight, this may be considered a paradoxical assertion. It is nevertheless 
 the fact. 
 
 The works of Descartes have been collected and reprinted three 
 times. The first: 1, 'Opera Omnia,' 1690-1701, 9 vols. 4to, Amst. 
 2, 'Opera Omnia,' 1713, also 9 vols. 4to, Amst. 3, 'Opera Omnia,' 
 1724-26, in 13 vols. 12mo, Paris. 
 
 DESHOULIERES, ANTOINETTE DTJ LIGIER DE LA 
 GARDE, a French poetess, born of distinguished parents in 1633. 
 Great pains were taken with her education : she learned the Latin, 
 Italian, and Spanish languages, and studied poetry under the poet 
 Hesnant, who often assisted her in her juvenile compositions, and 
 polished her verses when defective. Her life was rather a romantic 
 one. In 1651 she married the Signeur Deshoulieres, a lieutenant- 
 colonel in the service of the Prince of Coude. She visited the court of 
 Brussels in company with her husband, where she rendered herself 
 suspected by the government, which caused her to be arrested and 
 imprisoned at Vilvorde, near Brussels. Here she passed her time in 
 reading the Bible and the works of the Fathers, until, after eight 
 months, she found means to escape, with the assistance of her husband. 
 They were shortly afterwards introduced to Louis XIV., and Madame 
 Deshoulieres was soou esteemed one of the literary ornaments of the 
 age. Not only did she write a variety of poems herself, but she was 
 an object of adoration to the contemporary poets, who honoured her 
 with the title of the tenth muse. Racine and Pradon having each 
 written a tragedy on the subject of Phaedra, Madame Deshoulieres 
 brought upon herself some discredit by taking the part of the latter 
 against the former, in ridicule of whom she composed a satirical poem. 
 Racine, however, soon had his revenge, for Madame Deshoulieres 
 brought out a tragedy which met with nothing but ridicule, and 
 afforded him an opportunity of writing a parody. She wrote several 
 other dramatic pieces, but totally without success. The death of her 
 husband, to whom she was greatly attached, was the occasion of one 
 
6"',-, 
 
 DESMAHIS, JOSEPH-FRANCOIS. 
 
 DESS ALINES, JACQUES. 
 
 £76 
 
 of lier most popular Idyls ; indeed her fame rests on her Idyls alone, 
 the rest of her works having fallen into oblivion. She died in 1694, 
 leaving a daughter, Antoiuette-Thercse Deshoulieres (born 1662, died 
 1718), who obtained some celebrity as a poetess, and whose works 
 are often bound up with those of her mother. 
 
 La Harpe, after saying that the Idyls are the only works of Madame 
 Deshoulieres worth noticiujr, limits his commendation to three of 
 them. He justly censures her for treating books, flowers, &c, as if 
 they were living persons. Thus, for instance, she envies a streamlet 
 for bearing fish without pain to itself, and asks it why it murmurs 
 when it is so happy ? However, her little poem of ' Les Oiseaux,' 
 cited in La Harpe's ' Cours de la Litterature,' is written with great 
 lightness and elegance, and fully deserves the commendations bestowed 
 on it by that severe though impartial critic. 
 
 DESMAHIS, JOSEPH-FRANCUIS-EDOUARD DE CORSEM- 
 BLEU, was born in the year 1722, at Sullysur-Loire. His father 
 designed him for the law, but he devoted himself to poetry, and at the 
 age of eighteen went to Paris, where he was well received by Voltaire, 
 and admitted into high society. He distinguished himself by a number 
 of little poems, which enjoyed a considerable reputation in their day, 
 but which, as most of them are suited to particular persons and occa- 
 sions, and moreover are filled with mythological allusions, have little 
 interest at present. The Greek mythology was put to a peculiar use 
 in the days of Louis XIV. and those of our own Queen Anne : poems 
 were written altogether in the court taste, and yet perpetual references 
 were made to pagan gods ; not the slightest attempt however being 
 made to write in the true spirit of the Greeks. Hence a variety of 
 little works, which acquired a great reputation during the reign of a 
 certain fashion, have fallen into oblivion on that fashion having passed 
 away. The poems of Desmahis are precisely of this class. He wrote 
 some comedies, of which ' L'Impertinent ' was very successful in its 
 day, but which soon passed into oblivion. Desmahis was greatly 
 blamed for the articles ' Fat ' and ' Femme ' in the ' Encyclopedic.' 
 Instead of writing something that contained information, he made 
 two satirical essays in the style of Rochefoucauld. He died on the 
 25th of February, 1761. 
 
 DESMOULINS, CAMILLE, was born at Guise, in Picardy, in 1762. 
 His father having obtained for him a free education at the college of 
 Louis le Graud, in Paris, he commenced his studies there in 1776. 
 At this public school he met with Robespierre, when an intimacy was 
 formed which lasted for eighteen years, and this friendship, in the 
 sequel, twice screened him from prosecution. He finished his course 
 of education by the study of the law, and was admitted as an advocate 
 to the parliament of Paris. Having embraced with ardour the new 
 principles of liberty, and issued from time to time several inflammatory 
 pamphlets — ' La Philosophic au Peuple Francais,' appeared in 1788, 
 and 'La France Libre' in 1789 — -these political appeals at once 
 brought him into notice as a bold reformer ; and they contain many 
 of the germs of that socialism which has been more recently formed 
 into a doctrine. 
 
 On the 12th of July 1789 young Desmoulins, in the garden of the 
 Palais-Royal, harangued the people on the dismissal of Necker, and 
 other exciting topics of the day ; described with extreme exaggeration 
 the conduct of the court, and gave the first signal of revolt by 
 brandishing a sword and discharging a pistol. He then invited all 
 the bystanders to arm themselves like him, if they did not wish to 
 perish in a new massacre of St. Bartholomew, which was impending. 
 In the heat of this address he tore off a small twig from one of the 
 trees — an example which was followed by most of the multitude. 
 This led to the immediate adoption of the green ribbon as the national 
 cockade, afterwards replaced by the tricolor. He then moved out 
 of the garden, and, followed by thousands, instigated them to that 
 pillage of arms which prepared the way to the capture of the Bastille 
 on the 14th. 
 
 Camille Desmoulins being afflicted with a most indistinct utterance, 
 which degenerated into a stutter when he was unusually excited, was 
 continually driven to his pen to proclaim his opinions. His n»xt 
 pamphlet was ' La Lanterne aux Parisiens,' a violent attack on all 
 those who were averse to the revolution. He now adopted the title 
 of 'Attorney-General to the Lantern,' in reference to the summary 
 executions in the streets, when the mob took the law into their own 
 hands, and hung up those they considered their opponents by the long 
 ropes to which the lamps were suspended. This was followed by a 
 serial publication in numbers, called ' Les Revolutions de France et 
 de Brabant,' which had great influence on the progress of events. On 
 the 2nd of August 1790, in the Assemble Constituante, Malouet called 
 attention to the malicious misrepresentations of this demagogue, and 
 concluded his denunciation in these words : " Let him excuse himself, 
 if he dare." " So I do dare I" exclaimed Desmoulins, who was in one 
 of the galleries. This turbulent politician had been a visitor at the 
 Palais-Royal, and a constant guest at the table of the Duke of Orleans 
 before the revolution, and had met Mirabeau, Petion, Danton, and 
 Barere in these saloons, where the first riots had been anticipated, and 
 di- cussed, and organised with funds supplied by the prince. Incapable 
 of taking the lead himself, lie first attached himself to Mirabeau, and 
 after the death of that great tribune he became the instrument of 
 Danton. In 1791 he married Lucile Duplessis, an illegitimate daughter 
 vf one of (he chief officers in the household of the Duke of Oilcans: 
 
 the two Robespierres, Danton, Petion, and a great number of repub- 
 licans were present at the ceremony. 
 
 Desmoulins was one of the chief instigators of the insurrection of 
 the 10th of August 1792, and appeared among the insurgeuts during 
 the storming of the Tuileries. He was likewise implicated in the 
 massacres of September, as well as Danton, but he succeeded in saving 
 several valuable lives. Notwithstanding his defective utterance he 
 became a member of the National Convention, and voted for the 
 death of Louis XVI. 
 
 No man perhaps contributed more than Camille Desmoulins to the 
 fall of the Girondists ; his ' Histoire des Brissotins,' which professed 
 to unmask their schemes and objects, had as much influence on the 
 destruction of that party as the denunciations from the Mountain, or 
 ultra-republican party. This powerful satire contained a remorseless re- 
 trospect of the early life of Brissot, their leader, and in it was comprised 
 all the worst calumnies which had been invented against Brissot for 
 the preceding four years. After the execution of the Girondists, 
 Desmoulins attacked the faction of Hdbert in tho same manner, and 
 never desisted until he had sent them to the guillotine. Fatigued at 
 length of so much slaughter he wanted to stop the impetus of the 
 Revolution, and united his efforts with those of Danton and Lacroix, 
 to propose a new course of moderation and indulgence. In the 
 beginning of 1794 he published ' Le Vieux Cordelier,' advocating 
 these new principles ; but his exuberant fancy and irrepressible spirit 
 of raillery carried him beyond the limits of prudence, and in one 
 passage that ridicule touched the dictator. This act of rashness cost 
 him his life. Robespierre, who felt no animosity towards those 
 whom he did not fear, intended to overlook this folly, and proposed 
 to burn the last number of Canaille's work. " Bruler n'est pas 
 rdpondre," cried the unfortunate man. Then his school companion 
 withdrew his shielding hand, the Committee of Public Safety ordered 
 his arrest, he was carried to the cells of the Conciergdrie on the 
 30th of March, and executed with the Dantonists, April 5, 1794. 
 During his transit in the fatal tumbril he was in a state of extreme 
 excitement, reminding the people that he had called them to arms 
 on the 14th of July. He was almost naked when he reached the 
 scaffold. Hi3 wife Lucile was executed soon after. 
 (Thiers; Biographie Universelle ; Rabbe; Michelet.) 
 Di;SNOYERS, AUGUSTE - GASPAKD - LOUIS - BOUCHER, 
 BARON, a celebrated French line engraver, was born at Paris on the 
 1 0th. of December, 1779. Under Lethiere, at the Academy, and as 
 assistant to M. Darcis, he made such rapid progress that in his seven- 
 teenth year he was employed to execute works on his own account. A 
 ' Venus ddsarmant 1' Amour.' after R. Lefevre, obtained him a prize of 
 2000 francs at the Exposition of 1799. In 1801 he received a com- 
 mission from Messrs. Morel d' Arleux and Foubert to engrave Raffaelle's 
 ' Belle Jardiniere' in the gallery of the Luxembourg. This was really 
 the turning point in his career. Although far inferior to many of his 
 subsequent works, M. Desnoyers showed in this plate that he could 
 really appreciate the refinement and elevation of the greatest of 
 painters, and faithfully render his characteristics. He now found 
 ample employment, but though he continued to engrave from the 
 pictures of the leading French artists, especially Ingres and Girard, it 
 was to Raffaelle that he really dedicated his burin, and beyond any of 
 his countrymen he has succeeded as an engraver of the works of 
 Raffaelle. His chief engravings after Raffaelle are (to give the French 
 titles) ' La Vierge au Donaitre,' 'La Vierge au Linge,' ' La Vierge a la 
 Chaise' (an exquisite version), ' La Vierge au Poisson,' ' La Visitation,' 
 ' Ste. Catharine,' ' La Vierge d'Albe,' ' La Vierge au Berceau,' ' La 
 Belle Jardiniere de Florence,' and the 'Transfiguration' — a magnifi- 
 cent work, for which he went to Rome to make the copy. His 
 engravings from Raffaelle are marked by great purity of style, a clear 
 and delicate line, and a considerable feeling : perhaps no other living 
 engraver has on the whole rendered the works of Raffaelle so 
 admirably. M. Desnoyer has also engraved several of the works ot 
 Leonardo da Vinci, Poussiu, and others of the great masters. During 
 the reign of Napoleon I. he was several times called on to engrave 
 court-portraits of the Emperor and of the Empress Marie-Louise. 
 
 M. Desnoyers was elected a Member of the Institute in 1816 ; 
 appointed chief engraver to the king in 1825; created baron in 1828; 
 and an officer of the Legion of Honour in 1835. [See Supplement.] 
 (Sauzay, in Nouv. Biog. Oen.) 
 
 DESSALFNES, JACQUES, a negro from the Gold Coast of Africa, 
 was imported into the French colony of St. Domingo as a slave. 
 Having become free like all his fellow slaves by a decree of the Con- 
 vention, 4th of February 1794, he soon figured among the foremost in 
 the insurrection of the blacks against the white colonists. He 
 attached himself to the negro chief, Toussaint l'Ouverture, who made 
 him his first lieutenant. His intrepidity, his extreme activity and 
 quickness of movements, distinguished him in the war against the 
 French troops, and particularly against Generals Rigaud and Leclerc 
 in 1802. After Toussaint's capture by the French, Dessalines sub- 
 mitted for awhile, and accepted an amnesty, but he was in a short 
 time at the head of a new insurrection against General Rochambeau, 
 Leclerc's successor, and contributed greatly to the victory of tho 
 blacks at the battle of St. Marc, which decided the evacuation of tho 
 island by the French in October 1803. Dessalines encouraged a 
 general massacre of the whites, without distinction of age or sex. 
 
D'HILLIERS, LOUIS-BARAGUAY. 
 
 671 
 
 In 1804 be had himself proclaimed emperor of Haiti, under the uamo 
 of Jacques I., and established his court in imitation of that which 
 Bonaparte had just formed in France. But his cruelty and arbitrary 
 conduct towards his former comrades led to a conspiracy, at the head 
 of which were the negro chief Christophe, and Pethion, a mulatto. 
 They rose upon Dessalines at a review, October 17, 1806, and killed 
 him on the spot. Christophe succeeded him as emperor of Haiti, by 
 the name of Henri I. 
 
 DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE-NERICAULT, was born at Tours, 
 in 16S0. He much displeased his relations by turning actor, when 
 they had designed him for the law. He wandered from town to town 
 as director of a company of comedians, among whom he was distin- 
 guished by his strict morality and his great regard for religion. His 
 first dramatic piece, ' Le Curieux Impertinent,' (founded on the 
 episode of the same name in Don Quixote) was acted in 1710, and 
 received with enthusiastic applause. Three pieces which followed 
 seem to have had more success than they merited. In 1717 Destouches 
 accompanied Cardinal Dubois to England, where he married an 
 English Roman Catholic lady, with whom on his return to France he 
 retired to an estate in the country, where he passed nearly all the 
 remainder of his life. In 1723 he was chosen a member of the 
 Academy. About this time commenced his great reputation as a 
 dramatist, for though his former pieces had been successful, they rose 
 little above mediocrity. His ' Philosophe Marie" ' raised him to a high 
 rank among the comic writers of France, and the envious critiques 
 which were written against it only showed how highly it was valued. 
 ' Le Glorieux,' which followed, was by some critics considered even 
 superior to ' Le Philosophe Marie",' and La Harpe seems to be of this 
 opinion. He continued to write for the stage till his sixtieth year, 
 though the pieces he produced were not equal to the two already 
 mentioned; one of the most favourite was ' La Fausse Agne"s,' a farcical 
 comedy resembling Murphy's ' Citizen.' From that time he devoted 
 himself to theology, and wrote several essays against infidelity. He 
 died July 4,1754. 
 
 DEVEREUX. [Essex, Earl of.] 
 
 D'EWES, SIR SYMONDS, was born at Coxden, in Dorsetshire, 
 December 18, 1602. From the Grammar school of Bury St. Edmunds 
 he proceeded to St. John's College, Cambridge, and having completed 
 the usual course of study there, went to London, entered upon the 
 study of the law, and in due time was called to the bar. But being 
 heir to considerable property, and seeing the threatening state of 
 public affairs, he did not commence prfi lies, but retired to his property 
 at Stow Hall in Suffolk, and to the life of a country gentleman. In 
 1639 he was high-sheriff of Suffolk, and received the honour of 
 knighthood. In the following year he was elected member of parlia- 
 ment for Sudbury ; and he was created a baronet by Charles I. in 
 1641. D'Ewes was a puritan in religion, and naturally adhered to the 
 same party in politics ; but he was opposed to the adoption of 
 extreme measures against the king, and was one of the members 
 expelled from the House by the application of Pride's purge. He 
 died April 18, 1650. Sir Symonds D'Ewes was a man of considerable 
 learning and great industry, and he made an extensive collection of 
 records and historical manuscripts which he placed at the service of 
 the learned, and which were largely used by Selden and other con- 
 stitutional writers and inquirers of that day. He did not himself 
 publish anything, except two speeches which he delivered in the House 
 of Commons — one an endeavour to establish the superior antiquity of 
 Cambridge over Oxford University (4 to, 1642), and another, a dis- 
 proof of the authenticity of the Greek postscripts of the Epistles of 
 Timothy and Titus (directed of course against the claims of episco- 
 pacy) ; but a work of considerable value compiled by him was 
 published some forty years after his death by his nephew Mr. Paul 
 Bowes : ' The Journals of all the Parliaments during the reign of 
 Queen Elizabeth, both of the House of Lords and Commons,' fol., 
 Lond., 1682. A more remarkable record of the man however was 
 published in 1845 : ' The Autobiography and Correspondence of Sir 
 Simonds D'Ewes, Bart., during the reign of James I. and Charles I. ; 
 edited byJ. O. Halliwell, Esq.,' 4 vols. 8vo. It extends down to 1636 
 only, and consequently does not reach the period when contemporary 
 notes of one who was at the same time a moderate puritan, an actor in the 
 parliamentary struggles, and an observer of the great events preceding 
 the death of Charle3, would have been peculiarly valuable; but it 
 contains, amidst a great deal that is wholly valueless, much interesting 
 information illustrative of his times, and of many of his more eminent 
 contemporaries. D'Ewes himself it shows to have been a thorough 
 pedant, with a certain amount of shrewdness as well as of learning, 
 and a most marvellous stock of conceit. 
 
 DE WITT, JOHN, was born at Dort, in the province of Holland, 
 in September 1625. HU father was burgomaster of his native town, 
 and member of the states of Holland, in which capacity he was an 
 opponent of the House of Orange, whose power and influence had 
 been looked upon with jealousy ever since the time of Barneveldt by 
 a considerable party in that province. [Barneveldt.] John de 
 Witt, who inherited his father's principles, was made in 1652 grand 
 pensioner of Holland, an office which gave him great influence over 
 the deliberations of the States-General or Federal Assembly of the 
 Seven United provinces, irf which the vote of the rich and populous 
 province of Holland generally carried with it that of the majority. 
 
 The time appeared favourable to the anti-Orange party. William II. 
 of Orange, the last stadtholder, had died in 1650, and his posthumous 
 son, afterwards William III. of England, was an infant. The object 
 of De Witt and his party was to prevent in future the union of the 
 offices of stadtholder, captain-general, and high-admiral in ono and 
 the same person, which had rendered the princes of the House of 
 Orange almost equal to sovereigns, and which was certainly incon- 
 sistent with the title of a republic, assumed by the united provinces. 
 It must however be observed, that each of these provinces, forming 
 a separate state, was in fact governed by an aristocracy, the respective 
 states or legislature of each consisting of the nobles and the deputies 
 of the principal towns, who were elected by the wealthier burghers; 
 the great majority of the people having no share in the elections. 
 Generally speaking then, the so-called republican party, at the head 
 of which were successively Barneveldt and De Witt, struggled for the 
 continuation or extension of their collective power against the House 
 of Orange, whose influence tended to establish a form nearly 
 monarchical. But that House was popular with the lower classes, 
 and was supported by the majority of the clergy. The nature of the 
 institutions of the United Provinces may be seen in the Act of Union 
 of Utrecht, which was their declaration of independence. During 
 the minority of William III., the office of stadtholder was considered 
 as abolished, and the States-General exercised the supreme authority : 
 De Witt was the soul of their deliberations, and he managed, espe- 
 cially the foreign relations of the country, with great ability. He 
 negociated the peace with Cromwell in 1654, by a secret article of 
 which it was agreed that no member of the House of Orange should 
 be made stadtholder or high admiral. 
 
 After the restoration of Charles II., De Witt, dreading the family 
 connection between him and young William, sought the alliance of 
 France in 1664. A war broke out between England and the United 
 Provinces, which was at first favourable to the English, but De Witt, 
 by his firmness and sagacity, repaired the losses of his countrymen; 
 and while negociations for peace were pending, he hastened their 
 conclusion by sending an armament under Ruyter, which entered the 
 Thames and burnt some of the English shipping in the Medway. This 
 was followed by the peace of Breda, July 1667. The encroaching 
 ambition of Louis XIV., who aimed at taking possession of the Spanish 
 Netherlands, now excited the alarm of De Witt, who hastened to form 
 a triple alliance with England and Sweden, in order to guarantee the 
 possessions of Spain. In his auxiety to secure his country against the 
 approach of the French, he caused the treaty to be ratified by the 
 States-General at once, instead of first referring it, according to the 
 provisions of the Federal Act, to the acceptance of the various provinces 
 separately. This was a cause of violent obloquy against De Witt. 
 
 While thus occupied with the foreign relations he did not forego 
 his plans concerning the internal policy of his country, and the per- 
 manent exclusion of the Orange family from power. In 1667 the states 
 of Holland, at his suggestion, passed " a perpetual edict," abolishing 
 for ever the office of stadtholder. De Witt at the same time introduced 
 the greatest order and economy into the finances of the province of 
 Holland. But all De Witt's calculations, both foreign and domestic, 
 were baffled by the intrigues with which Louis XIV. contrived in 1672 
 not only to detach Charles II. from the Dutch alliance, but to engage 
 him in a counter-alliance with himself against Holland. The French 
 armies now suddenly invaded the United Provinces, Louis XIV. entered 
 Utrecht, and his troops were within a few miles of Amsterdam. There 
 appears to have been great neglect on the part of the officers, civil and 
 military, of the United Provinces, in not having taken measures for 
 resistance, and especially in not having placed their fortresses in a 
 state of defence ; and the blame was chiefly thrown upon De Witt. In 
 this emergency, William, the young prince of Orange, was called to 
 the command of the forces both by land and sea ; but this did not 
 satisfy the popular clamour. Cornelius De Witt, John's brother, who 
 had filled several important stations, both civil and military, was 
 accused, evidently through mere malignity, of having plotted against 
 the life of William of Orange, was thrown into prison at the Hague, 
 and tortured ; but as he could not be convicted of the charge, he was 
 sentenced to banishment. His brother John, whose life had been 
 already attempted by assassins, resigned his office, and went to the 
 Hague in his carriage to receive his brother as he came out of prison. 
 A popular tumult ensued ; the furious mob, instigated by the partisans 
 of the house of Orange, forced its way into the prison, and murdered 
 both brothers with circumstances of the greatest atrocity. Such was 
 the end of this distinguished statesman, whose private character and 
 simplicity were as exemplary as his abilities were high. He wrote 
 his ' Memoirs,' which were published in his lifetime, and in which there 
 is much information on the political and financial condition of Holland 
 at the time. The murder of the brothers occurred July 24, 1672. 
 
 (Cerisier, Histoire des Provinces Unies ; Sir William Temple, 
 Observations on the United Provinces ; The Netherland Historian, 8vo, 
 Amsterdam, 1675, &c.) 
 
 D'HILLIERS, LOUIS-BARAGUAY, was born at Paris on the 13th 
 of August 1764, and was a lieutenant when the revolution broke out 
 In 1793 he was appointed to a brigade in Custine's army, and almos 
 immediately after quarter-master-general. Sent to prison during the 
 Reign of Terror, owiug to his attachment to his unfortunate friend 
 Cuatine, his life was saved by the fall of Robespierre. He took part 
 
D'HILLIERS, BARAGUAY, MARSHAL. 
 
 DIBDIN, THOMAS. 
 
 too 
 
 iu the great Italian campaigns of 1796-97 under Bonaparte, was made 
 a general of division March 10, 1797, and accompanied Bonaparte to 
 Egypt. On the 14th of June 1804, ho received the rank of grand 
 officer of the Legion of Honour. During the campaign of 1805, 
 General Baraguay d'Hilliers greatly distinguished himself, especially 
 at the battle of Elchingen. He defeated, with his single division, a 
 strong body of Austrians at Waldmiinchen ; and at Bolsen all the 
 military stores fell into his hands. In 1806 he held a command in 
 Friuli, and two years after was named governor of Venice. He like- 
 wise took part in the Peninsular war in 1810 and 1811; but here 
 ended the lung series of his successes. During the disastrous cam- 
 paign in Russia, he fell with nearly all his division into the enemy's 
 hands, was bitterly censured by Napoleon, and this reproof broke his 
 heart. He died a few months after this disgrace, in 1S12, at Berlin. 
 (Nuuvelle Biographic Gcndrale.) 
 
 * D'HILLIERS, BARAGUAY, MARSHAL, the son of the republi- 
 can general noticed above, was born on the 6th of September 171*5. 
 He studied for some time at a military college, entered the army as 
 sub-lieutenant in 1812, and served during the arduous Russian cam- 
 paign. The following year he became one of the aides-de-camp of 
 Marshal Marmont, and was present in several of the fierce battles of 
 1813 in Germany, being badly wounded in the head at Kulmsee, and 
 having his fore-arm shattered by a cannon-ball at the battle of Leipsig, 
 October 18, 1813. Soon after he went to Spain, and on the 8th of 
 June 1815 was raised to the rank of captain. In 1823 he accompanied 
 the Duke of Angouleme into Spain, and was made major of the 
 2nd regiment of foot-guards, October 4, 1826. In 1830 he joined the 
 expedition of General Bourmont against Algiers, and after the capture 
 of that city was created colonel. Shortly after the revolution of July 
 (1830) he was raised to the important office of governor of the 
 military school of Saint-Cyr, and in 1832 suppressed a republican plot 
 within the walls of the institution ; two of the ringleaders, Trevenenc 
 and Guimard, afterwards became his colleagues in the National 
 Assembly. On the 29th of September 1836 he was made major- 
 geueral, and lieutenant-general in 1843. The following year he was 
 sent to Algeria, and had the command of Constantina. 
 
 After the fall of Louis Philippe in 1848, General Baraguay d'Hilliers 
 received the command of Besancon, and in 1849 was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the principal corpsd'arme'e of the Mediterranean. 
 The same year he was despatched to Rome, on a mission to the pope. 
 After his return from Italy he was promoted to the command of the 
 3rd Military Division, May 4, 1850. Iu November 1853 he was sent 
 as ambassador to Constantinople ; but in consequence of a difference 
 of opinion among the diplomatic agents, M. Baraguay d'Hilliers 
 requested to be recalled, and he was appoioted by the emperor to 
 the command of the French military force sent to the Baltic. There 
 his principal achievement was the capture, in concert with the English 
 force, of Bomarsuud, August 1854. For this service he was created 
 a marshal of France ; was made one of the vice-presidents of the 
 senate, and also received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In 
 1859 he was nominated commander of the first division of the Army 
 of the Alps, and took the lead in the Italian campaign. In this he 
 greatly distinguished himself, especially at Malegnano and Solferino. 
 
 DIADUMENIA'NUS, MARCUS OPE'LIUS ANTONI'JN US, was 
 the son of Macrinus, who was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers 
 after the murder of Caracalla, a.d. 217. After his father's elevation, 
 Diadumenianus, who was then at Antioch, was proclaimed Caesar by 
 the soldiers, and confirmed by the senate at Rome. He was not 
 quite ten years of age, but is said to have been very handsome and 
 graceful in his person. The reign of Macrinus lasted only fourteen 
 months ; a military insurrection, excited by Msesa, the aunt of Cara- 
 calla, who wished to put on the throne her grandson Bassianus, also 
 called Heliogabalus, led to the overthrow of Macrinus, who was 
 defeated near Antioch, and afterwards made prisoner, but killed him- 
 self. Diadumenianus, who had escaped from Antioch, was also seized 
 and put to death, a.d. 218. He has been numbered among the 
 emperors, because his father in the latter days of his reign is said to 
 have proclaimed him Augustus and his colleague in the empire. 
 Diadumenianus is celebrated for his marvellous beauty ; Lampridius 
 is especially eloquent on this theme. (Lampridius in Historia 
 Augusta; Dion, Epitome, B. 78.) 
 
 Coin of Diadumenianus. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 34. 3i grains. 
 
 DIA'GORAS OF MELOS, known also by the name of the Atheist, 
 flourished, according to Suidasin, the 78th Olympiad, B.C. 408-65. 
 Mr. Clinton has adopted this date; but Scaliger (in Euseb. 'Chron.' 
 p. 101) placed him considerably later, fixing his (light from Athens in 
 the year B.C. 415; and he has been generally followed. The date 
 which Mr. Clinton has taken is the more probable. Diagoras is chiefly 
 known for his asserted open denial of the existence of gods ; but it may 
 be doubted whether this was more than a popular prejudice : what 
 is known of his writings gives no support to the charge of atheism, 
 but the common opinion of the ancients fixes the charge upon him. 
 Diagoras is said to have broached atheism on seeing a man who had 
 stolen one of his writings and published it as his own go unpunished « 
 for the crime. (Sext. Empir. 'adv. Math.' p. 318.) On account of i 
 this atheism it is generally said that the Athenians put a price upon U 
 his head, offering a talent to any who should kill him, and two to || 
 any one who should bring him alive ; though Suidas, Athenagoras, | 
 and Tatian attribute the indignation of the Athenians, and the sub- 9 
 sequent flight of Diagoras, to his having divulged the nature of some | 
 of their mysteries. It is not impossible however that this was one of I 
 the overt acts by which his character for atheism was established ; in 
 which case the two accounts, which seem to differ, would really " 
 coincide. He is said to have been bought as a slave by Democritus, 
 ■■in. 1 also to havo met his death by shipwreck. (Athen. xiii. p. 611, B.) jj 
 Aristophanes in his play of the ' Clouds,' one object of which was to | 
 raise a religious outcry against Socrates, has maliciously fastened on 
 him the odious name of the Melian. ('Clouds,' 830.) 
 
 yElian (' Var. Hist.' ii. 23) says that Diagoras assisted Nicodorus in , 
 drawing up the laws of the Mantineans. Diagoras was also a lyric I 
 poet, though some, apparently without sufficient grounds, have | 
 attempted to separate the lyric poet from the atheist. • 
 
 (Bayle, Dictionary ; Fabricius, Bibliotheca Grveca, ed. Harles, vol. ii. |i 
 pp. 119 and 655; Meier in Griiber's Allgem, Enc. xxiv. pp. 439-48.) 
 
 DIBDIN, CHARLES, in whose person the British bard may be \ 
 said to have been revived, was born in 1745 at Southampton, near 1 
 which place his grandfather, a considerable merchant, founded a i 
 village that bears his name. When Charles Dibdin was born, his 
 mother had reached her fiftieth year, and he was her eighteenth child. I 
 He had a brother, Thomas, twenty-nine years older than himself, on i 
 whose death he wrote the beautiful ballad ' Poor Tom Bowling.' This 
 gentleman was captain of an East-Indiaman, and father of Thomas 
 Frognall Dibdin, D.D. 
 
 The subject of the present notice was educated at Winchester, and 
 originally designed for the clerical profession. But his love for music 
 predominated, and after receiving some instruction from the cele- 
 brated Kent, organist of Winchester Cathedral, he was sent to London, 
 and commenced his career, as poet and musician, at the early age of 
 sixteen, when he produced an opera at Covent Garden Theatre, written 
 and composed by himself, called ' The Shepherd's Artifice.' A few 
 years after he appeared as an actor, and was, in 1768, the original 
 Mungoin his own 'Padlock' In 1778 he became musical manager of 
 Covent Garden theatre, at a salary of ten pounds a week. About 1782 
 he built the Circus theatre (afterwards opened under the name of the 
 Surrey), which continued under his management some three or four 
 years. In 1788 he published his 'Musical Tour,' in one vol. 4to; and 
 in 1789 presented to the public, at Hutchins's auction rooms, King 
 Street, Covent Garden, the first of those entertainments whereby he so 
 eminently distinguished himself, — and of which he was sole author, ' 
 composer, and performer, — under the title of ' The Whim of tbc 
 Moment.' In this, among sixteen other songs, was the ballad 'Poor 
 Jack,' an effusion of genius that immediately established his repu- 
 tation, both as a lyric poet and melodist. The year 1791 saw Dibdia 
 in his Sans Souci, an exhibition-room in the Strand, fitted up by 
 him; and in 1796 he erected a small theatre in Leicester Fields, 
 giving it the above-named title. This he sold in 1 805, and retired 
 from public life ; but not having been provident while the means of 
 making some provision for the future were in his power, his retreat 
 was not accompanied by independence. This having been properly 
 represented, government granted him a pension of 2002. per annum, 
 an act evincing both a sense of justice and a right feeling. Of this he 
 was for a time deprived by Lord Grenville, but a more liberal ministry 
 restored it. Towards the close of the year 1813 he was attacked by 
 paralysis, and died on the 25th July, 1814. Mr. Dibdin published one 
 or two novels, and some smaller works, but his fame is built on his 
 songs, of which — so prolific was his muse, and so great his facility in 
 composition — he produced the amazing number of nine hundred ! 
 Out of this large number we may readily acknowledge a considerable 
 portion to be comparatively worthless. His sea-songs however havo 
 become permanent favourites, and it is said that, during the war, their 
 influence was most strongly felt in supplying the navy with volunteers. 
 And it is not too much to say that no English song writer ever pro- 
 duced so many ballads so thoroughly adapted to the popular taste, and 
 which, as has been truly said, are so generally " on the side of virtue ; ' 
 humanity, constancy, love of country, and courage being almost always 
 the subjects of his song and the themes of his praise. 
 
 DIBDIN, THOMAS, one of the sons of Charles Dibdin, was born 
 in 1771. After having spent some time at a school in the north of 
 England, he was apprenticed at the ago of sixteen to an upholsterer iu 
 London, whom he served for four years. He then joined a compauy 
 
DIBDIN, liEV. THOMAS FROGNALL. 
 
 DIC.EARCHUS. 
 
 of strolling players in Esses, and for several years wandered through 
 the country in that profession. In 1795 he returned to London, where 
 he wrote a number of very successful pieces for the minor theatres ; 
 and in 1797 he was engaged as an actor at Coveut Garden Theatre, 
 with which, as actor or author, he continued to be connected for four- 
 teen years. The latter part of his life was spent in indigence. At 
 the time of his death he was engaged in compiling, an edition of his 
 father's sea-songs, for which he received an allowance from the Lords 
 of the Admiralty. He died at Pentonville on the 16th of September 
 1811, leaving children by each of two marriages. Thomas Dibdin's 
 comedies, operas, and farces are numerous enough to fill a long para- 
 graph with their bare names. Many of them were composed for tem- 
 porary purposes ; and many others had little or no success. But there 
 are one or two, as the opera of the ' Cabinet,' which, either through 
 merits of their own or by their adaptation to particular actora and 
 singers, still maintain a place on the stage. 
 
 DIBDIN, REV. THOMAS FROGNALL, the most conspicuous 
 English writer on Bibliography in the earlier half of the nineteenth 
 century, was born at Calcutta in 1776. His father, Captain Thomas 
 Dibdin, the commander of a sloop of war in the Indian Ocean, was 
 the elder brother of Charles Dibdin, the celebrated naval song-writer. 
 [Dibdin, Charles.] Both he and his wife, whom he had first met in 
 the East Indies, died on their passage home iu the year 1780, and Frog- 
 nall Dibdin first landed on the English shore an orphan of four years 
 old. His mother's brother, Mr. Compton, took charge of him from 
 that age to man's estate ; and of other relations he saw so little, that, 
 he tells us in his 'Reminiscences,' he conversed with his famous uncle 
 Charles but once in his life, though Charles lived till 1S14, when Frog- 
 nail was eight-and-thirty. He was sent to St. John's College, Oxford, 
 but quitted the university without taking a degree, and studied the 
 law under Mr. Basil Montague, whose office he left to practise in the 
 unusual character of a provincial counsel at Worcester. 
 
 Finding no prospect of success, he soon abandoned the law for the 
 church ; and a passage in his ' Reminiscences,' in which he describes 
 his studies, furnishes the key-note of much of his subsequent career. 
 " In Greek Testaments my little library was rather richly stored. I 
 revelled in choice copies of the first Erasmus, and of the first Stephen, 
 and defied any neighbouring clergyman to match me in Elzevirs and 
 in Tonson." In London, to which he speedily returned, and where he 
 became a preacher at some fashionable chapels at the west-end, he 
 was less known in the clerical than in the literary, or rather the book- 
 selling world. At that time, the 'bibliomania,' as it was called, or 
 fancy for purchasing rare and curious books at extravagant prices, 
 was advancing to a height which it had never before attained in Eng- 
 land or elsewhere. It reached its culminating point at the celebrated 
 sale of the library of the Duke of Roxburghe, in June 1812, where a 
 copy of an early edition of Boccaccio, printed by Valdarfer, at 
 Florence, in 1471, wa3 sold to the Marquis of Blandford, afterwards 
 Duke of Marlborough, for the sum of 22601. ; and it was afterwards 
 discovered that an imperfect copy of the same book was in the 
 Sunderland library at Blenheim, at the very time of the purchase, but 
 had three times over escaped being mentioned in the catalogue. 
 
 Dr. Dibdin proposed, at a dinner party at Iiaron Bollaud's, even 
 before the Valdarfer was sold, the establishment of a club, to dine 
 together in honour of Bibliography. The club was established 
 under the name of the Roxburghe Club : and he became the first vice- 
 president. This club afterwards adopted the rule that each of its 
 members should every year reprint a book, to be presented to every 
 member; and this practice seems to have led to the establishment of 
 the numerous printing and publishing clubs now in existence, more 
 liberal in their regulations than the original. The rise and progress 
 of the bibliomania was stimulated and recorded by different publica- 
 tions of Dr. Dibden : an ' Introduction to the Greek and Roman 
 Classics,' in 1802 ; a dialogue, entitled ' Bibliomania,' in 1809, which 
 was reprinted, with great enlargements in 2 vols., in 1811 ; and the 'Bib- 
 liographical Decameron,' in three large vols., in 1817. A new edition of 
 Ames's 'Typographical Antiquities' was also commenced by him, and 
 carried as far as four volumes, between 1810 and 1819 ; and a minute 
 account of the rare books in Earl Spencer's library, under the title of 
 the ' Bibliotheca Spenceriana,' which occupied four volumes, and was 
 extended by the '^Edes Althorpiaua?,' a description of Earl Spencer's 
 seat at Althorp ; and by an account of the Cassano library purchased 
 by him; in the whole seven volumes. In 1818, Dr. Dibdin made a 
 tour abroad, to purchase books for the same patron, and the result 
 was, a ' Bibliographical, Antiquarian, and Picturesque Tour in France 
 and Germany,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1821. These works, particularly the ' Bib- 
 liographical Decameron ' and the ' Tour,' present beautiful specimens of 
 typography and engraving, produced at an expense which the author 
 was never weary of proclaiming. In ' The Library Companion ; or, 
 Young man's Guide and Old Man's Comfort in the Choice of a Library ' 
 (1824), he apparently aspired at producing something of more general 
 and permanent use ; but the result was disastrous. The flippant and 
 tnvolous character of his remarks, and the inaccurate and superficial 
 character of his information, were commented upon in so severe a tone 
 by some of the leading reviews, in particular the 'Quarterly ' and the 
 ' Westminster,' that his reputation never recovered the shock. In the 
 preceding year he had obtained, by the patronage of Earl Spencer, his 
 hret preferment in the church — the living of Exning, near New- 
 
 market; he was afterwards appointed to tho rectory of St. Mary, 
 Bryanstone Squaro ; and his publications for some year.s were chiefly 
 of a theological character. He returned to the field of bibliography 
 in his 'Reminiscences of a Literary Life' (2 vols. 1836), and in his 
 ' Bibliographical, Antiquarian, and Picturesque Tour in the Northern 
 Counties of England and in Scotland' (3 vols. 1838). He also made, 
 not long before his death, a tour in Belgium, of which he also intended 
 to publish an account. He died on the 18th of November 1847, 
 after a long illness, of paralysis of the brain. His latter years had 
 been much clouded with pecuniary difficulties. 
 
 Many of the publications of Dr. Dibdin have already been enume- 
 rated, but it will be necessary to recur to some of them to afford a 
 fuller notion of their character. The most important i3 the ' Typo- 
 graphical Antiquities of Great Britain.' The meritorious work of 
 Ames on that subject, professing to give an account of all the works 
 printed in Englaud from the introduction of tho art to the year 1600, 
 had been expanded from one volume to three by Herbert, who made 
 such extensive additions that the work might justly be regarded as 
 no longer Ames's, but his own. There was still room for extensive 
 improvement on Herbert — a very simple alteration even in the 
 arrangement would have much increased its value to nearly all who 
 consulted it. The titles of the books are disposed under the names of 
 the printers : had they been disposed instead, according to Panzer's 
 plan, in his ' Annals of German Literature,' in the plain order of date, 
 a host of particulars would have presented themselves in combination 
 which are now scattered and inaccessible. It would have been far 
 from uninteresting to observe what books issued from the press in 
 England during the year in which Henry broke up the monasteries, 
 in which Mary lighted the fires of Smithfield, or in which Shakspere 
 first came to London. Dibdin has preserved the old arrangement, and 
 has so much augmented the matter that the four volumes of his edition, 
 which was left imperfect, carry the record no further than the middle 
 of the second volume of Herbert's three. Some of the matter which 
 he has added is of interest, in particular his more minute account of 
 the productions of Caxton, but much is mere idle surplusage — 
 biographies of book-collectors of the 18th century, illustrated with 
 their portraits, which have nothing whatever to do with the history 
 of printing in the 15th and 16th centuries. Much too of the additional 
 matter for which he has obtained credit is taken from the manuscript 
 notes which Herbert had prepared for a second edition, and inserted 
 in a copy of his work which is now in the British Museum. It is to 
 be hoped that the whole subject will be resumed ere long by some 
 competent scholar, with the numerous additional materials now at 
 his command in our public libraries, when, with some industry and 
 intelligence, a work may be produced which will interest not only 
 the bibliographer but all who have a tincture of feeling for literary 
 matters. The ' Bibliotheca Spenceriana,' from its containing parti- 
 culars of many books not accessible to the public in general, is often 
 used as a work of reference ; but those who have consulted it the 
 oftenest regard it with the most distrust. Such was Dr. Dibdin's habit 
 of inaccuracy, that in two accounts of the origin of the Roxburghe 
 Club, to him a matter of great importance and interest, given iu two 
 of his works, the dates are utterly irreconcileable. In the ' Decameron' 
 (vol. iii., p. 69), he distinctly states that the dinner at which he proposed 
 it was on the 4th of June; in the 'Reminiscences' (p. 367), he states no less 
 distinctly that it was "on the evening before the sale of the 'Boccaccio' 
 of 1471, which took place on the 17th of June 1812." It may easily 
 be conceived that his accounts of the dates of rare books are not to 
 be depended on till after they have been verified. It may be remarked 
 also that his way of describing a book has too little of the scholar and 
 the man of letters, and too much of the bookseller and the bookbinder. 
 The width of the margin, and the kind of leather in which a book is 
 coated, attract as much of his attention as the particulars which all 
 copies of the book have in common. The ' Tours ' are a singular 
 compound of anecdotes of rare interest mixed up with the most idle 
 and irrelevant matter. The ' Decameron ' is by far the best of Dr. 
 Dibdin's works, as comprising the least of detail and the most of 
 anecdote ; and it is written in many portions with a degree of care 
 and spirit often wanting in his other works. The ' Reminiscences' 
 afford singular proof that, although the author of an ' Introduction to 
 the Classics,' his acquaintance with some of them was more than usually 
 deficient. On tho whole, though his bibliographical works abound 
 with much that the reader wishes away, they are indispensable in any 
 large library of English literature. His other productions, which are 
 numerous, will be found mentioned in his own ' Reminiscences.' 
 
 DICiEARCHUS, the son of Phidias, was born in the city of 
 Messaua in Sicily. He was a scholar of Aristotle, and is called a 
 peripatetic philosopher by Cicero ('De Officiis,' ii. 5); but though he 
 wrote some works on philosophical subjects, he seems to have devoted 
 his attention principally to geography and statistics. His chief philo- 
 sophical work was one ' On the Soul,' in two dialogues, each divided 
 into three books : one dialogue being supposed to be held at Corinth, 
 the other at Mitylene. In these he argued against the Platonic 
 doctrine of tho soul, and indeed altogether denied its existence. In 
 the second and third books of the Corinthian dialogue, Cicero tells us 
 (' Tuscul. Disput.,' i. 10), he introduced an old Pthiote named Phere- 
 crates, maintaining that the soul was absolutely nothing ; that the 
 word was a mere empty sound ; that there was no soul either in man 
 
583 
 
 MM 
 
 or beast; that the principle by means of which we act and perceive is 
 equally diffused throughout all living bodies, and cannot exist sepa- 
 rated from them ; and that there is no existence except matter, which 
 is one and simple, the parts of which are naturally so arranged that 
 it has life and perception. The greatest performance of Dicaearchus 
 was a treatise on the geography, politics, and manners of Greece, 
 which he called the ' Life of Greece ' (' EKKatios fiios). Of this a frag- 
 ment has come down to us, which is printed in Hudson's 'Geographici 
 Minores,' and also edited by Marx in Creuzer's ' Meletemata e Discipl. 
 Antiquitatis,' p. iii. p. 174. It has been conjectured, with great 
 appearance of truth, that the citations from Dicaearchus, in which his 
 treatises 'On Musical Contests,' 'On the Dionysian Contests,' &c, are 
 referred to, are drawn from this comprehensive work, and that the 
 grammarians have named them by the title of the subdivision to 
 which these subjects belonged, instead of the leading title of the book. 
 (See Nuke in the ' Rhein. Mus.' for 1833, p. 47.) Dicacarchus's maps 
 were extant in the time of Cicero (' Ep. ad Att.,' vi. 2); but his 
 geography was not much to be depended upon. (Strabo, p. 104.) 
 Cicero was very fond of the writings of Dicaearchus, and speaks of 
 him in terms of the warmest admiration. (' Ep. ad Att.,' ii. 2.) In the 
 extant fragment Dicaearchus quotes Posidippus, and must therefore 
 have boen alive in B.C. 289. We must distinguish him from a Lacedae- 
 inonian grammarian of the same name, who was a pupil of Aristarchus. 
 (See Suidas.) 
 
 DICK, THOMAS, L.L.D., was born in 1772. He was educated for 
 the Christian ministry in connection with the Secession Church of 
 Scotland, and we believe held a pastoral charge in connection with 
 that body at Stirling in the early part of his career, but it is as a 
 popular writer on physical science that he is best known to the world. 
 The works by which he first became generally known were the 
 ' Christian Philosopher,' and the ' Philosophy of Religion.' These 
 were followed by works on the 'Improvement of Society by the 
 Diffusion of Knowledge,' the 'Mental Illumination of Mankind,' 'The 
 Philosophy of a Future State,' a ' Treatise on tho Solar System,' 
 ' Celestial Scenery,' ' The Sidereal Heavens,' ' The Practical Astro- 
 nomer,' and an essay on 'Christian Beneficence, contrasted with 
 Covetousness,' written in competition for the prize which was con- 
 ferred on Dr. Harris for his work, entitled ' Mammon : or Covetousness 
 the sin of the Christian Church.' Dr. Dick is a man of singularly 
 unobtrusive disposition, and has been content to labour perseveringly 
 for the public instruction, although his immediate reward is but 
 small. His principal works have been reprinted at low prices, and 
 have had extensive circulation, yet the author has derived little 
 pecuniary benefit from them. A public subscription on his behalf as 
 an acknowledgment of the benefits he has conferred upon society was 
 projected a few years since by some of his admirers, but realised a 
 very small amount, the appeal having been more successful in America 
 than in the author's native country. Dr. Dick's works have been 
 reprinted and very extensively sold in the United States. Dr. Dick 
 resides in the small village of Broughty-Ferry, on the left bank of the 
 river Tay, in Forfarshire. Besides instructing the public by his pen, 
 Dr. Dick has been in the habit of acceptiug occasional appointments 
 to preach in neighbouring churches, and also to deliver popular 
 lectures on scientific subjects. A few years ago a small pension was 
 granted to him by the government in acknowledgment of his services 
 in the advancement of popular science. 
 
 * DICKENS, CHARLES, was born in 1812 at Portsmouth, where 
 his father, Mr. John Dickens, who held a situation in the Navy Pay 
 department, was at that time stationed. The duties of his situa- 
 tion led Mr. John Dickens to reside at various naval ports; and 
 a portion of his distinguished son's childhood was thus spent at 
 Chatham— and perhaps early recollections as well as literary asso- 
 ciations may have had their influence in leading to his recent pur- 
 chase of a property at Gadshill in that neighbourhood (the veritable 
 'Gadshill' of Falstaff's adventures in 'Henry IV.'), as his permanent 
 place of residence (1856). Retiring on a pension shortly after the 
 conclusion of the war in 1815, the father of the novelist became con- 
 nected as a reporter with the London press. Intending his son for 
 the profession of an attorney, he placed him in an attorney's office for 
 that purpose; and here Mr. Dickens acquired experience in life 
 which he has since turned to account. An early passion for literature 
 however— a passion which he was in the habit of gratifying by 
 abundant reading, more especially in the works of the English 
 novelists and dramatists— rendered him unwilling to remain in the 
 destined profession; and his father's connections enabled him to 
 exchange it for that of a newspaper critic and reporter. His first 
 engagement was on the ' True Sun ; ' from which he transferred his 
 services to the 'Morning Chronicle,' then almost the leading daily 
 newspaper in London. His abilities as a reporter and describer of 
 scenes of city-life soon raised him high in the staff of this journal; 
 and probably there could have been no better training for his peculiar 
 talents of observation, whether of scenes or of physiognomies and 
 characters, than his occupation as a reporter afforded him. His debut 
 as a literary artist was made in the columns of the ' Morning Chronicle,' 
 to the evening edition of which he contributed those ' Sketches of 
 Life and Character ' which were afterwards (1836) published collectively 
 in two volumes under the title of 'Sketches by Boz." Almost simul- 
 tantously with the 'Sketches' Mr. Dickens published 'The Village- 
 
 Coquettes : a comic opera ' (1830). The success of the ' Sketches ' 
 was so great, and they showed the possession of such an original vein 
 of humorous narrative and description, that the late Mr. Hall, of 
 the firm of Chapman and Hall, Loudon publishers, proposed to Mr. 
 Dickens to write a story, in the same vein, to be brought out in 
 monthly parts. Mr. Hall, we believe, even suggested as a suitable 
 plan for such a story, that of describing the meetings and adventures 
 of a club of originals. Acting on this hint, though he soon dropped 
 the machinery of a club, or made it subordinate, Mr. Dickens pro- 
 duced his world-famous 'Pickwick Papers,' published in 1837. The 
 success was beyond all calculation ; and Mr. Dickens, — who about 
 this time married the daughter of Mr. George Hogarth, a music writer 
 and critic of eminence — at once took his place, at the age of twenty- 
 five, as the most popular novelist of the day. 'Oliver Twist,' a novel 
 in three volumes, was his next publication (1838); contemporaneous 
 with which were ' The Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi, edited by Boz,' 
 in two volumes. Then, in the same serial form as 'Pickwick,' came 
 ' The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby ' (1839) ; followed by 
 'Master Humphrey's Clock,' published in weekly numbers in 1840 
 and 1841, and containing the stories since known separately as 'The 
 Old Curiosity Shop,' and ' Barnaby Rudge : a Tale of the Riots of 
 1780.' After the conclusion of this publication Mr. Dickens visited 
 America, where he was received with enthusiasm. His impressions 
 of America and the Americans he published on his return in his 
 ' American Notes for General Circulation ' (1842). In 1843 was written 
 his little Christmas book, entitled ' A Christmas Carol ' — the first of 
 that series of beautiful Christmas stories with which he has from time 
 to time varied his larger publications. 
 
 In 1844 appeared, as a monthly serial, ' The Life and Adventures of 
 Martin Chuzzlewit ; ' and in the same year he visited Italy and 
 resided there for some time. His second Christmas book, ' The 
 Chimes,' appeared in 1845. On January 1, 1846, Mr. Dickens pre- 
 sented himself in a new capacity, as the chief editor of ' The Daily 
 News,' then organised as a liberal morning newspaper, with a numerous 
 staff of select writers to support it by their united talents. Here 
 appeared Mr. Dickens's 'Pictures of Italy,' afterwards published 
 collectively (1846). After some time however Mr. Dickens resigned 
 his editorship, and the organisation of the paper was changed. The 
 same year, 1846, saw the publication of his 'Battle of Life : a Love- 
 Story,' and ' The Cricket on the Hearth : a Fairy Tale for Christmas.' 
 His next venture was his 'Dealings with the Firm of Dombey and 
 Son,' commenced in the favourite form of a monthly serial in 1847, 
 and finished in 1848, in time to permit the publication of a Christmas 
 story for that year, called ' The Haunted Man and the Gho»t's 
 Bargain.' Next came the ' History of David Copperfield ' in numbers, 
 concluded in 1850. In this year Mr. Dickens started the weekly 
 literary periodical, which he has since conducted under the title of 
 ' Household Words,' and his own contributions to which during so 
 many years must of themselves amount to a considerable body of lite- 
 rature. Here appeared his ' Child's History of England,' since repub- 
 lished in three volumes (1852-53), and the powerful story called ' Hard 
 Times,' since republished in one volume (1854). In 1853 was con- 
 cluded another of his larger serial stories, ' Bleak House ; ' in 1850 his 
 ' Little Dorrit ; ' in 1865 ' Our Mutual Friend.' 
 
 Any commentary on the genius of a writer, whose works are so 
 well known as those of Mr. Dickens is here unnecessary. Wherever 
 the English language is spoken or read his name is a ' household j 
 word ; ' of many of his works there are translations into the chief 
 European languages ; and, though English literature should go on 
 increasing in bulk for centuries to come, his place in it is secure. We 
 may note however in connection with his influence on the history of 
 our literature, first, his great effects as the founder of a new style of 
 English novel, differing from that of Richardson, from that of Fielding, 
 from that of Scott, and from that of any other preceding writer, with 
 perhaps the exception, to a certain extent, of De Foe ; secondly, his 
 effects on the form of popular publications, as the first eminent practi- 
 tioner of the serial form of narrative. Mr. Dickens's voluminousuess as 
 an author is also to be noted. Nor is it only as an author that he im- 
 presses his contemporaries. He is known as a man taking a lively interest 
 in many social and philanthropic questions, and proving the same by 
 his public conduct, as well as by the zealous criticisms of social 
 wrongs and abuses with which his books abound, and which he has 
 on many occasions enforced with great effect by his speeches on 
 public occasions. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DICTYS, a Cretan who accompanied Idomeneus to the siege of 
 Troy, and the reputed author of a history of the Trojan war, of which 
 a Latin prose translation is still extant. This work, according to the 
 Introduction prefixed to the Latin translation, was discovered in the 
 reign of Nero, in a tomb near Gnossus, which was laid open by an 
 earthquake. It was written in Phoenician characters, and translated 
 into Greek by one Eufraxidas, or Praxis, at the command of Nero : 
 this translation has not come down to us ; the Latin version which we 
 possess is attributed to Quintus Septimius, who lived in the 3rd or 
 4th century a.d., and contains the first five books, with an abridgment 
 of the remainder. The story related above does not seem worthy of 
 much credit, but there is little doubt that the work is very ancient, 
 though its exact date is uncertain. The best edition is that by Peri- 
 zonius (1702, 8vo), to whose preliminary dissertation the reader ii 
 
DIDEROT, DENYS. 
 
 referred for further particulars respecting the historian and his 
 translator. 
 
 DIDEROT, DENYS, was born at Langres, in the province of Cham- 
 pagne, in 1713. His father, a master cutler, a worthy man, much 
 respected in his native town, and confortable in his circumstances, 
 placed his son first in the Jesuits' College at Langres, and afterwards 
 seut him to the College d'Harcourt at Paris to continue his studies. 
 At one time young Diderot was intended for the church, but as he felt 
 no inclination for the clerical profession, his father did not press the 
 point. Diderot made some progress in the ancient and modern lan- 
 guages, and still more in mathematics. On leaving college his father 
 placed him as a boarder with a Paris procureur, in order that he might 
 study the law, but Diderot had no taste for that profession ; he made 
 no progress in its study, and he employed all the time he could steal 
 from the office-desk in reading any books that fell into his hands. 
 After two or three years his father stopped his board wages, desiring 
 him either to betake himself to some profession or to return home, 
 and be several times repeated the offer of this alternative, but to no 
 purpose, as Diderot replied that he felt no iuclination for any worldly 
 profession ; that he loved reading, was happy, and wanted nothing 
 more. For ten years from that time he lived obscurely in Paris, on 
 his wits as the phrase is, and often, as it may be supposed, in very pro- 
 miscuous company. Literature was not then a very marketable com- 
 modity, but Diderot had a facility in writing, and he undertook any- 
 thing that came in his way, advertisements, indexes, catalogues, and 
 even sermons for the colonies, which were bespoken and paid for by a 
 missionary. He next began translating from the English for the book- 
 sellers. He also received indirectly assistance from home. At the age 
 of twenty-nine he married a young woman as poor as himself, who 
 proved to him ever after a. virtuous and affectionate wife, notwith- 
 standing his subsequent neglect of her. In bis drama ' Le Pere de 
 Famille' he has drawn from life some of the incidents of his courtship 
 and marriage. 
 
 Diderot's first original work was the 'Pensees Philosophiques,' 
 1746, a desultory and rather common-place production, which how- 
 ever met with great success among the partisans of the new philo- 
 sophy, as it was then called. From that time he ranked as one of the 
 most strenuous assailants of the established systems in religion and 
 politics. He saw many unseemly parts in the social edifice, and 
 could devise no better mode of mending them than by pulling down 
 the whole. That the state of France under the Regent and Louis XV. 
 was such as easily to lead an impetuous mind to such a conclusion, 
 is made sufficiently evident by the numerous memoirs of those times. 
 In 1749 he published the ' Lettres sur les Aveugles,' for which he 
 was imprisoned for three months at Vincennes, where however he was 
 very indulgently treated, and allowed to receive the visits of his friends, 
 among whom was J. J. Rousseau, to whom it is said that Diderot 
 suggested the idea of his first literary paradox. They afterwards 
 quarrelled upon some foolish ground, and the squabble was not 
 creditable to either. [Rousseau.] After editing, in company with 
 others, a Universal Medical Dictionary, Diderot formed the project of 
 a general Cyclopaedia, to supersede the French version of Chambers's 
 work, and he found a bookseller, Lebreton, willing to undertake the 
 publication, under the title of ' Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonnd 
 des Sciences, des Arts, et Metiers.' Diderot and D'Alembert were 
 joint editors, but D'Alembert withdrew after a time, and Diderot 
 remained sole editor. The work began to appear in 1751, and was 
 concluded in 1765, in 17 vols, fol., besides 11 vols, of plates. The 
 publication was stopped two or three times by the government, and 
 the last volumes were distributed privately, though the king himself 
 was one of the purchasers. The most amusing part of the corre- 
 spondence of Voltaire and D'Alembert was carried on while D'Alem- 
 bert was joint editor of the ' Dictionnaire,' and presents a lively 
 picture of the various difficulties with which the editors had to 
 contend. On this celebrated compilation Diderot himself passed a 
 severe judgment. He said, " that he had had neither time nor the 
 means of being particular in the choice of his contributors, among 
 whom some were excellent, but most of the rest were very inferior ; 
 that moreover the contributors, being badly paid, worked carelessly ; 
 that, in short, it was a patch-work composed of very ill-sorted mate- 
 rials, some master-pieces by the side of schoolboys' performances ; and 
 that there was also considerable neglect in the arrangement of the 
 articles, and especially in the references." Diderot complained like- 
 wise that the publisher, Lebreton, often took upon himself to scratch 
 out of the proof-sheets any passages which he thought might endanger 
 him, and then filled up the gap as well as he could. Notwithstanding 
 all these deficiencies the 'Dictionnaire Encyclopddique ' met with 
 preat success for a time, but it has been since superseded in France 
 by the ' Encyclopddie Mdthodique,' or great French Cyclopaedia. 
 
 The works of Diderot are numerous, and many of them were not pub- 
 lished till after his death. Among those published in his lifetime are; 
 ' Lettres sur les Sourda et Muets,' 1751 ; 'Pensdea sur Interpretation 
 de la Nature,' 1754 ; ' Code de la Nature,' 1755. The principal faults of 
 hie didactic compositions are obscurity in the ideas, and a declamatory 
 ntyle. Among his talea, 'Jacques le Fataliste' and 'Le Neveu de 
 Rameau,' a posthumous publication, are still popular. ' Les Bijoux Indis- 
 crete,' are a series of obscene stories, which he sold to a publisher, and 
 gave the money to his mistresa, Madame de Puisieux. He afterwarda 
 
 woo. D1V. vol. u. 
 
 DIDIUS JULIANUS. Wfl 
 
 formed a connection with Mdlle. Voland, it seems, which lasted till 
 his death. His letters to her form the principal part of the 'Mdmoires, 
 Correspondance, et Ouvrages Inddits de Diderot,' published in 1831, 
 4 vols. 8vo. Diderot's notions on tho sexual connection may be seen 
 in the article ' Marriage,' in the ' Dictionnaire Encyclopddique,' as well 
 as in several of his ' Ouvrages Inddits.' He professed a strict sense of 
 honour, and was generous and kind, though hasty, touchy, and sus- 
 picious. An estimate of his character may be formed not from tho 
 reports of his admirers or enemies, and there were many of both, 
 but from his own works, and especially his correspondence, and also 
 from a well-written and apparently unsophisticated memoir of his lifo 
 by his daughter, Madame de Vandeul, which is printed at the head 
 of the unedited correspondence above mentioned. A collection of his 
 principal works was published by his disciple Naigeon, in 15 vols., 
 8vo, 1798, and reprinted since in 22 vols., 8vo, Paris, 1821, with a life 
 of the author by Naigeon himself, which however is rather a disserta- 
 tion on Diderot's writings and opinions than a real biography. His 
 last work, a life of Seneca, of which he published a second edition 
 enlarged, in 2 vols., under the title of 'Essai sur les Regnesde Claude 
 et de Ndron,' is considered by some one of his best compositions. It 
 has been said of him that there are many good passages in all his 
 works, though he never wrote a single entirely good work. Marmontel, 
 Garat, and others of his contemporaries preferred his conversation 
 greatly to his writings. 
 
 Diderot had not grown rich by his literary labours ; he was getting 
 old, and he thought of selling his library. Catharine of Russia 
 hearing of his intention, purchased it at its full value, and moreover 
 settled upon him a handsome pension as librarian to keep it for her, 
 of which pension she paid him fifty years in advance in ready money. 
 Full of gratitude, Diderot resolved to go and thank his benefactress 
 in person. He went first to Holland, where he spent some months, 
 and thence to St. Petersburg. He was delighted with his reception 
 by the empress, and wrote to Mdlle. Voland that " while in a country 
 called the land of freemen he felt as a slave ; but now in a country 
 called the country of slaves, he felt like a freeman." (' Correspond- 
 ance Inddite,' vol. iii., lettre 138.) After a short stay at St. Peters- 
 burg, he returned to Paris, where the empress hired a splendid suite 
 of apartments for him in the Rue Richelieu. " He enjoyed his new 
 lodgings only twelve days : he was delighted with them ; having 
 always lodged in a garret, he thought himself in a palace. But his 
 body became weaker every day, although his head was not at all 
 affected, and he was quite conscious that his end was approaching. 
 The evening before his death he conversed with his friends upon 
 philosophy, and the various means of attaining it. ' The first step 
 towards philosophy,' said he, 'is incredulity.' This remark is the 
 last which I heard him make." — (' Memoir of Diderot,' by his 
 daughter) — and it was a very characteristic one. Next day, 30th of 
 July 1784, he got up, sat down to dinner with his wife, and after- 
 wards expired without a struggle. Diderot was one of the principal 
 members of the Holbaeh coterie, and the leader of that knot of literary 
 sceptics known in the last century by the name of Encyclopddistes. 
 There are many particulars concerning Diderot in his friend Grimm's 
 'Correspondance Littdraire,' Paris, 1812. 
 
 DIDIUS JULIA'NUS, of a family originally from Milan, and grand- 
 son of Salvius Julianus, a celebrated jurist, was born about a.d. 133. 
 He was educated by Domitia Lucilla, the mother of Marcus Aurelius. 
 He soon rose to important offices, was successively Quaestor, Praetor, 
 and Governor of Belgic Gaul, and having defeated the Chauci, he 
 obtained the Consulship. He was afterwards sent a3 governor to 
 Dalmatia, and next to Gerrnania Inferior. Under Commodus, he was 
 governor of Bithynia : on his return to Rome, he lived in luxury and 
 debauchery, being enormously rich. After the murder of Pertinax 
 in 193, the Praetorians having put up the empire to auction, Didiua 
 proceeded to their camp, and bid against Sulpicianus, the father-in-law 
 of Pertinax, who was trying to make his own bargain with the soldiers. 
 
 Coin of Dldius. 
 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 355 grains. 
 Didius having bid highest, was proclaimed, and was taken by the 
 soldiers into Rome. The senate with its usual servility acknowledged 
 him emperor, but the people openly showed their disoatisfaction, and 
 loaded him with abuse and imprecations in the Circus when ho 
 assisted at the solemn games which were customary on the occasion 
 of a new reign. He is said to have borne the insult with patience, 
 and to have behaved altogether with great moderation during his 
 
687 DIDRON, ADOLPHE-NAPOLEON. 
 
 short reign. Three generals at the head of their respective legions, 
 Pescennius Niger, who commanded in the East, Septimius Severus in 
 Illyricum, and Claudius Albinus in Britain, refused to acknowledge 
 the nomination of the Praetorians. Severus being proclaimed Augustus 
 by his troops, marched upon Rome, and found no opposition on the 
 road, as the towns and garrisons all declared for him. The Praetorians 
 themselves forsook Didius, and the senate readily pronounced his 
 abdication, and proclaimed Severus emperor. A party of soldiers 
 making their way into the palace, and disregarding the entreaties of 
 Didius, who offered to renounce the empire, cut off his head. He 
 had reigned only sixty-six days. Severus soon after entered Rome, 
 put to death the murderers of Pertinax, disarmed the Praetorians, 
 and banished them from the city. (Spartianus in Uistoria Augusta; 
 Dion, Epitome, B. 73.) 
 
 * DIDRON, ADOLPHE-NAPOLEON, born at Hauteville, depart- 
 ment of Marne, France, in March 1806, has devoted his life to the 
 extension of the study of mediaeval Christian art, and particularly of 
 its symbolism, on which subject he is regarded as the chief living 
 authority. M. Didron first examined personally most of the remark- 
 able mediaeval monuments of France, and in particular those of Nor- 
 mandy ; and then, in order to compare the art of the Eastern Church 
 with that of the West, he extended his researches to Greece, and ho 
 made himself familiar with all attainable mediaeval manuscripts. As 
 early as 1838 he delivered in the Bibliotheque Royal a course of lectures 
 on Christian Iconography, and he gave a similar course on his return 
 from Greece in 1840. He founded in 1845 an archaeological library 
 at Paris, and a manufacture of painted glass for ecclesiastical purposes. 
 In 1853 he was appointed by the Minister of Instruction secretary of 
 the ' Cornite' Historique des Arts et Monuments,' and he drew up the 
 elaborate reports issued by the committee. He has been from its 
 commencement the editor of the ' Annales Archdologiques,' and has 
 contributed numerous articles on Christian archaeology to various 
 periodicals. He has also published a ' Manuel d'Iconographie Cliru- 
 tienne, Grecque et Latine, avec une Introduction et des Notes par 
 M. Didron, traduit du MS. Byzantin,' Par., 8vo, 1845. But his chief 
 work is the ' Iconographie Chr^tienue,' 4to, Par., 1843. This is a 
 perfect treasure-house of information on this very curious subject, but 
 it unfortunately remains incomplete, only the first section, the ' His- 
 toire de Dieu,' being yet published. This portion has been translated 
 into English by Mrs. Millington, and formn a volume of Bonn's ' Illus- 
 trated Library.' 
 
 DI'DYMUS, a celebrated grammarian, the son of a seller of fish at 
 Alexandria, was bom in the consulship of Antony and Cicero, B.C. 63 
 (Suidas, sub v.), and lived in the reign of Augustus. Macrobius calls 
 him the greatest grammarian of his own or any other time. (Saturn, 
 v. 22.) According to Athenaeus (iv. p. 139, C.) he published 3500 
 volumes, and had written so much that he was called the forgetter of 
 books {@i0Ato\a.@as), for he often forgot what he had written himself; 
 and also the man with bowels of brass (xahKevrepos), from his un- 
 wearied industry. To judge from the specimens of his writings given 
 by Athenaeus, we need not much regret the loss of them. His criti- 
 cisms were of the Aristarchian school (Suid.) : he wrote, among other 
 things, an explanation of the Agamemnon of Ion (Athen. xL p. p. 418, 
 D.), and also of the plays of Phryuichus (Id. ix. p. 371, F.) ; several 
 treatises against Juba, king of Libya (Suid. 'lofias), a book on the 
 corruption of diction (Athenaeus, ix. p. 368, B.), a history of the city 
 Cabessus (Steph. Byz. sub v. 'Ayddvpcroi), besides essays on the country 
 of Homer, the mother of ^Eneas, and other equally unimportant 
 subjects. The ' Scholia Minora' on Homer have been attributed to 
 him, but wrongly, for Didymus himself is quoted in these notes. The 
 collection of proverbs extant under the name of Zenobius was partly 
 taken from a previous collection made by Didymus, and about sixty 
 fragments of his fifteen books on agriculture are preserved in the 
 collection of Cassianus BaBsus. 
 
 Suidas mentions several other authors of this name, and among them 
 one surnamed Ateius, who was an Academic philosopher, and wrote a 
 treatise in two books on the solutions of probabilities and sophisms. 
 We may also mention Didymus ' the blind,' an Alexandrian father of 
 the church, who was born about the year B.C. 308, and was the teacher 
 of St. Jerome, St. Isidore, Rufinus, and others. He died in B.C. 395. 
 Of his numerous writings, four treatises have come down to us. 
 1, 'On the Holy Spirit.' 2, 'On the Trinity.' 3, 'Against the 
 Manicheans.' 4, 'On the Canonical Epistles.' A Greek Treatise on 
 Farriery by another Didymus is also extant. 
 
 DIEBITSCH - SABALKANSKI, HANS KARL FRIEDRICH 
 ANTON, COUNT VON DIEBITSCH AND NARDEN, was born 
 on May 13, 1785, at Grossleippe in Silesia. His father had been 
 major and aid-de-camp under Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' 
 war, but subsequently entered the Russian service, and attained the 
 rank of major-general. In 1797 the son entered in the corps of cadets 
 at Berlin, but joined his father in 1801. He was attached to the 
 grenadier guards in the Russian service, with which he made the 
 campaign of 1805, and was wounded in the hand at the battle of 
 Austerlitz. After the battle of Friedland he was promoted to the 
 rank of captain. The peace that ensued gave him leisure to pursue 
 his military studies, and in 1812, on the invasion of the French, he 
 was appointed quartermaster-general to Wittgenstein's corps, and dis- 
 tiugujsheJ hiujBelf by the recapture of Poloczk, a service of great 
 
 DIES, ALBERT. e 88 
 
 importance to the army, and for which he was made major-generaL 
 In conjunction with general Yorck, who commanded a part of the 
 Prussian army, with whom he had held a secret correspondence, and 
 whose desertion greatly accelerated the fall of Napoleon, he took 
 possession of Berlin. After the battle of Lutzen he was sent to join 
 Barclay de Tolly's army in Silesia, and commissioned to conclude the 
 secret treaty of Reichenbach between Russia, Austria, Prussia, and 
 England, which was completed on June 14, 1813. He was present a4 
 the battle of Dresden, where he had two horses shot under him, and 
 also at that of Leipzig, when he was created lieutenant-general at 
 the same time with Tolly and Paskewitsch. In 1814 he opposed 
 strongly the hesitation of the allies to march towards Paris, for 
 which, when they met at Montmartre, the Emperor Alexander 
 embraced him, thanked him, and bestowed on him the order of 
 St. Alexander Newski. 
 
 On the return of Bonaparte from Elba he was despatched to Vienna 
 as chief of the imperial staff, with the first division of the army, but 
 he was soon recalled to take the office of adjutant-general, and attached 
 to the person of the emperor. In 1820 he was named chief of the 
 imperial staff, accompanied Alexander to Taganrog, and saw him die. 
 On his return to St. Petersburg, during the revolt that followed the 
 announcement of Alexander's death, he displayed the talents of a 
 statesman and of an experienced soldier. Nicolas then sent him to 
 Constantino at Warsaw, to announce aud explain the occurrence at 
 St. Petersburg, and on his finally accepting the crown created him a 
 count. In the war against Turkey, in 1828-9, he gained great reputa- 
 tion by his conquest of Varna; and being raised to the chief com- 
 mand in February 1829, he largely increased it by the passage of the 
 Balkan, for which he received his additional titles of SabalkanBki, 
 meaning ' beyond the Balkan,' and the rank of field-marshal. He 
 advanced to Adrianople, when, by the efforts of the diplomatists, the 
 treaty of Adrianople was concluded. Thi3 saved his army, which had 
 suffered terribly. He next visited Berlin, and it was rumoured with 
 the intention of quitting the Russian service and re-entering that of his 
 native country. However, the insurrection of Poland recalled him to 
 head a Russian army, and he passed the frontiers of that country on 
 January 25, 1831, but his powers were failing. After the sanguinary 
 battle of Ostrolenka he transferred his head-quarters to Kleczewo, 
 near Pultusk, and there he died from an attack of cholera on Juue 
 9, 1831. His corpse was conveyed to St. Petersburg and iuterred 
 with much pomp, but his heart was deposited in the cathedral church 
 of Pultusk. 
 
 DIEPENBECK, ABRAHAM VAN, a distinguished Dutch historical 
 painter of the Flemish school, was born at Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc) 
 about 1607 according to Descamps, but probably earlier. He wag 
 already a good painter on glass when he entered the school of Rubens 
 at Antwerp, in which he was the fellow-pupil of Vandyck ; and ho is 
 the scholar who i3 said to have been pushed against the great picture 
 of the ' Taking Down from the Cross,' when wet, the consequent damage 
 to which was so admirably repaired by Vandyck. Diepenbeck lived 
 at two periods with. Rubens, before and after a visit to Rome, but in 
 the second period more in the capacity of assistant than scholar. He 
 was one of the best of Rubens's scholars, especially in composition 
 and in colour : in design he was never excellent ; he was too hasty 
 in his execution. He had however a great reputation at Antwerp, 
 and in 1641 was elected director of the academy there, an office which 
 he held until his death in 1675. 
 
 Diepenbeck came to England in the time of Charles I., and was em- 
 ployed by William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, to make the pictures 
 for his book on horsemanship, some of which in Walpole's time were 
 still exhibited in the hall at Welbeck. 
 
 Diepenbeck's works are very numerous, but they consist chiefly of 
 designs made for booksellers. Heineken has given a long list of the 
 engravings after them in his Dictionary. One of his principal works 
 is a series of fifty-nine designs, published in 1655 at Paris, under the 
 title of ' Tableaux du Temple des Muses,' with illustrated letter-press 
 by the Abbe" Marolles : the subjects are from Ovid's ' Metamorphoses,' 
 and the engravings are executed by Bloemart, Matham, and other 
 eminent engravers. There are several later editions and imitations 
 of it. 
 
 His oil paintings on canvass are scarce : some pass probably as the 
 works of Rubens ; but there are still many of his painted windows in 
 the churches of Antwerp. Houbraken says Diepenbeck was the best 
 painter on glass of his time. 
 
 (Houbraken, Oroote Schouburg der Nederlandsche KonstschUders, &c. ; 
 D'Argenville, Abrege de la Vie des plus fameux Peintrcs ; Descuuip.-i, 
 Vies des Peintres Flamands. &c; Heineken, Diclionnawe des ArtisUs, 
 &c. ; Waipole, Anecdotes of Painting, &c.) 
 
 DIES, ALBERT, a landscape-painter and engraver, was born at 
 Hanover in 1755. He learnt the first drudgery of painting under an 
 obscure artist of Hanover, with whom he spent three years ; at the 
 expiration of this period he visited Diisseldorf for a year, whence he 
 went to Rome in 1775, with thirty ducats in his pocket, a donation 
 from the royal treasury. At Rome he attracted the notice of the 
 celebrated Piranesi and of the Earl of Bristol, who wished to make 
 a second Salvator Rosa of Dies, but the painter preferred sketching 
 from nature to copying or to imitating the works of the gloomy 
 Neapolitan : his favourite retreats were about Albauo and Tivoli. 
 
DIETRICH, JOHANN WILHELM. 
 
 Dies remained several years in Rome, but in the meanwhile paid a 
 visit to Naples. He also published a set of landscape-etchings in 
 Rome, executed in company with some other German artists. He 
 returned with a Roman wife to Germany in 1796, and established 
 himself at Vienna, where he obtained a great reputation, notwith- 
 standing a nervous debility which he had brought on by taking whilst 
 in Rome some solution of sugar of lead in mistake for a medicine 
 which he was using. His right side was so much affected by this 
 nervous debility, that he was forced to give up eutirely the use of 
 his right hand, and he painted for some years with his left. He was 
 at length forced to give up painting altogether, and his only remaining 
 resource was poetry, in the composition of which he always indulged. 
 He was also a musical composer, and he performed with skill upon 
 several instruments. Besides several minor pieces upon the arts, he 
 was the author of a comic didactic poem entitled ' Der Genius der 
 KuDst.' A few of his musical compositions have been published, and 
 he wrote a biography of Joseph Haydn. He died at Vienna in 1822, 
 after an illness of thirteen years. 
 
 (Arckiv fur Geschichte, dec., 1825 ; Nagler, Neues -Allgemeines 
 Kimstlei'-Ltxicon. ) 
 
 DIETRICH, JOHANN WILHELM ERNST, one of the most 
 distinguished German painters of the 18th century, was born at 
 Weimar in 1712. His father, Johann Georg Dietrich, who was his 
 first instructor, was court-painter at Weimar, and painted portraits, 
 battles, and genre pictures with considerable success. In his twelfth 
 year his father sent him to Dresden to study under Alexander Thiele, 
 a celebrated landscape-painter, and he attended at the same time the 
 Academy of Dresden. Dietrich rapidly distinguished himself; and in 
 1730, when only eighteen years of age, he was presented at Dresden 
 to Augustus IL, king of Poland, who appointed him his court-painter. 
 He found at the same time a generous and valuable patron in Count 
 Bruhl, for whom he painted much in his house at Grochwitz, since 
 destroyed : the count granted him an annual pension of 400 dollars, 
 or 60?. sterling. 
 
 In 1741 Dietrich was appointed his court-painter by Augustus III., 
 king of Poland ; and in 1743 he was sent by the same king to prosecute 
 his etudies at Rome, but he remained there only one year. In 1746 
 he received an appointment in the picture gallery, with a salary of 
 400 rix-dollars per annum ; and when the Academy of Arts of Dresden 
 was established in 1763, Dietrich was appointed one of the professors, 
 with a salary of 600 rix-dollars, and he was at the same time made 
 director of the school of painting in the porcelain manufactory at 
 Meissen. He died at Dresden, April 24, 1774, and is supposed to 
 have hastened his death by his incessant application to his art ; for, 
 notwithstanding an extremely rapid execution, he was an indefatigable 
 painter, and laboured at his easel with little intermission till within 
 the last few years of his life, when his weak state of health rendered 
 it physically impossible. Dietrich had no original power. He painted 
 in various styles, and copied any master with surprising exactness. 
 Ee was most able however as a landscape-painter ; but his views were 
 generally arbitrary compositions, well coloured, transparent, and 
 effectively lighted. He often painted iu imitation of the style of some 
 ce.ebrated master — Everdiugen, Poelemburg, Berghem, or Claude — 
 and on all occasions the imitations were excellent. He copied also 
 with equal facility the style of Raffaelle, Correggio, Mieris, and Ostade. 
 He likewise repeatedly imitated the style of Rembrandt both in 
 paintings and in etchings, especially in religious pieces, but with 
 somewhat less licence as to the costume and the proportions of the 
 human figure. 
 
 Dietrich painted also many rustic pieces, and pieces in the style and 
 manner of Watteau. Two collections of etchings by him have been 
 published, which are very scarce, especially the first ; the second, con- 
 sisting of eighty-seven plates, was published after his death, retouched 
 by aDd under the direction of Zingg. Some of his etchings are signed 
 1 Dietrich,' and others ' Dietricy ;' the earlier ones are marked with the 
 former name. There are also many prints after his works by other 
 masters. 
 
 There are twenty-seven of Dietrich's pictures in the Royal Gallery 
 at Dresden, and there is a good collection of his drawings and sketches 
 in the collection of prints there. 
 
 (Meusel, Mucellaneen Artisticken Jnhalts; Heineken, Nachrichten 
 von Kuntllern, Ac. ; and Diclionnaire des Artistes, dec.) 
 
 DIGBY, GEORGE, EARL OF BRISTOL, was born in 1612 at 
 Madrid, where his father John, earl of Bristol, was then ambassador. 
 He was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, travelled in France, 
 and in 1640 entered public life as one of the knights of the shire for 
 Dorsetshire. From this time his career was marked by that uninter- 
 rupted series of clever inconsistencies which make his life like a novel 
 and his character a riddle. Neither his character nor the incidents of 
 his history can be adequately understood, unless from a full collection 
 of particulars. Such a collection will be found in the very long 
 memoir of him given in the 'Biographia Britannica.' After distin- 
 guishing himself in the House of Commons as a member of the 
 opposition, he suddenly joined the court in the middle of Strafford's 
 trial ; afterwards he advised the seizure of the six members, and was 
 one of the most violent of the king's imprudent advisers. Compelled 
 to leave England, he served in the French wars of the Fronde, where 
 he gained high reputation, but behaved so intrigningly as to bo 
 
 DIGBY, KENELME. &<« 
 
 cashiered ; and next, seeking service with the king of Spain, ho 
 embraced the Roman Catholic religion, against which be had formerly 
 written a treatise. After the restoration he returned to England, and 
 sat in the Hoilse of Lords, where he, a Roman Catholic, spoke and 
 voted in favour of the Test Act. Another of his most prominent 
 public appearances was his impeachment of Lord Clarendon in 1003. 
 This able but eccentric and useless man died at Chelsea on the 20th 
 of March 1677. His literary character is not more than respectable. 
 His principal works are several speeches, a good many letters, a trans- 
 lation of the first three books of the French romance of ' Cassandra,' 
 and a lively play called ' Elvira, or the Worst not always True, a 
 Comedy, written by a Person of Quality,' which was licensed aud 
 printed in 1667, and is reprinted in Dodsley's ' Old Plays.' 
 
 DIGBY, EVERARD, was born in 1581 of an ancient, honourable, 
 and wealthy family. His father, who was a Roman Catholic and a 
 man reputed for learning, died in 1592, leaving the estates at Tilton 
 andDrystoke in Rutlandshire to his son, the charge of whose education 
 he had committed to some priests of his persuasion. In 1596 Everard 
 married the only daughter and heiress of William Mulsho, or Moulsoe, 
 of Goathurst in Buckinghamshire, whose parents dying soon after the 
 marriage, he acquired a large estate in right of his wife. In 1603 he 
 was knighted by James I. at Belvoir Castle, which the king visited 
 in his journey from Scotland to Loudon to take possession of the 
 throne. 
 
 The share which Sir Everard Digby took in the Gunpowder Plot is 
 the sole cause of his celebrity. This conspiracy was projected when 
 he was twenty-four years old : the oath of secrecy was administered 
 and the design communicated to him by Catesby about Michaelmas 
 1605. When Digby first heard of the plot he was averse to it, but 
 forbore to reveal it on account of his oath ; afterwards, when he found 
 that it was approved by Roman Catholic priests, the religious scruples 
 which he had entertained were removed, and he united cordially in 
 the project, contributing towards its execution a quantity of horses, 
 arms, and ammunition, together with 1500Z. in money. Digby was 
 not concerned in the preparation of the vault ; the share of the plot 
 that was allotted to him was to assemble a number of the Roman 
 Catholic gentry on the 5th of November, at Duncburch in Warwick- 
 shire, under the pretence of hunting on Dunsmoor Heath, from which 
 place, as soon as they had received notice that the blow was struck, 
 a party was to be despatched to seize the Princess Elizabeth at the 
 house of Lord Harrington, near Coventry. The princess was to be 
 immediately proclaimed queen in case of a failure in securing the 
 person of the Prince of Wales or the young Duke of York, and a regent 
 was to be appointed during the minority of the new sovereign. Digby 
 assembled his party, and rode to Lady Catesby 's at Ashby Ledgers to 
 hear the result of the scheme. In the evening five of the party arrived, 
 fatigued and covered with dirt, with news of the discovery of the 
 plot and the apprehension of Fawkes. A short consultation was held 
 as to what was best to be done ; and it was agreed to traverse the 
 counties of Warwick, Worcester, and Stafford into Wales, where it 
 was thought that they should find many adherents, exciting as they 
 went along the Roman Catholic gentry to join them in a general 
 insurrection. They carried off fresh horses in the night by stealth 
 from the stable of a breaker of cavalry horses in Warwick ; they 
 seized arms at Lord Windsor's residence at Whewell ; and on the 7th 
 occupied a house at Holbeach belonging to Stephen Littleton. But 
 all hope of accession to their numbers was at an end. " Not one 
 man," says Sir Everard Digby in his examination, " came to take our 
 part, though we had expected so many." The Roman Catholic gentry 
 drove them from their doors, reproaching them with having brought 
 ruin and disgrace on the Catholic cause by their ill-advised enterprise ; 
 while the common people stood and gazed upon their irregular train, 
 and evinced anything but a disposition to join them. Sir Everard 
 Digby forsook his companions at Holbeach, with the intention, as he 
 stated, of hastening some expected succours : he was overtaken at 
 Dudley, apprehended, and conveyed to London. On Monday, the 
 27th of January 1605-06, he was tried, with his fellow-conspirators. 
 No doubt of their guilt was entertained, though written depositions 
 only were given in by the prisoners, and no witness was orally 
 examined : Digby alone pleaded guilty. They were executed on the 
 following Thursday. Sir Everard Digby has been described by 
 Greenway as profound in judgment and of a great and brilliant under- 
 standing, but we distrust this partial writer : he appears throughout 
 this transaction rather as a weak and bigoted young man, never acting 
 upon his own judgment or impulses, but submitting himself entirely 
 to the control and guidance of the Jesuits. (Abridged from the Library 
 of Entertaining Knowledge, ' Criminal Trials,' vol. ii.) 
 
 DIGBY, KENELME, the son of Sir Everard Digby, was born in 
 1603, three years before his father's execution. He was educated ia 
 the Protestant faith, and sent to Oxford at the age of fifteen, having 
 been entered at Gloucester Hall. His ability was early apparent, 
 and when he had left the university in 1621 with the intention of 
 travelling, he had acquired considerable reputation. After having 
 spent two years in France, Spain, and Italy, he returned to England 
 in 1623, and was knighted at Lord Montague's house, Hinchinbroke, 
 near Huntingdon, in October in the same year. Under Charles I. ha 
 was a gentleman of the bed-chamber, a commissioner of the navy, an l 
 a governor of the Trinity House. In 1028 he obtained the kinjj'i 
 
19} 
 
 DIGGES, LEONARD. 
 
 DINARCHUS. 
 
 E9J 
 
 permission to equip, at bis own expense, a squadron, with which he 
 sailed first against the Algerines, and afterwards against the Venetians, 
 who had some dispute with the English. His conduct as a com- 
 mander was creditable to him. Upon the death of Dr. Allen of 
 Gloucester Hall in 1632, Sir Kenelme Digby became possessed of a 
 valuable collection of books and manuscripts, which were bequeathed 
 to him by his former tutor. The religious principles that he had 
 imbibed under this learned man could not have been deeply rooted ; 
 for when Digby returned to France he was converted (1636) to the 
 religion of his parents. His conversion was the subject of a long 
 correspondence with Archbishop Laud, who had always taken an 
 interest in Digby on account of his unusual ability and learning. 
 
 He returned to England in 1638. On the breaking out of the civil 
 war he was imprisoned as a Royalist in Winchester House : during 
 his confinement he wrote a refutation of Brown's ' Religio Medici,' 
 which occupied him until the petitions made by the queen of France 
 for his relief were granted, and he was allowed to retire to that 
 country. At Paris he was kindly treated by the court ; and he 
 became familiar with the celebrated Descartes, and associated with 
 the principal men of learning. When the Royalist party had broken 
 down, and ceased to be formidable, Digby went homo to England, 
 with the intention of residing upon his estate, but the parliament 
 hearing of his return, forbade him tho kingdom under penalty of 
 death. The cause of this severity was the zeal which his eldest son 
 had shown in the king's service, when, in 1648, with the Duke of 
 Buckingham and others, he made a stand near Kingston in Surrey. 
 Young i >igby was aftewards killed by Colonel Scroop in Huntingdon- 
 shire. Sir Kenelme now again travelled in France and Italy, and 
 was everywhere received as a man of extraordinary merit. In 1655 
 his personal affairs required his presence in England ; and during his 
 stay, his frequent attendance at the Protector's court was in no small 
 degree inconsistent with his prior conduct. The feelings which had 
 led him to fight the duel in which he killed Lord Mount le Ros, 
 because he had drank Charles's health as the " arrantest coward upon 
 earth," were now pretty nearly obliterated. During a subsequent 
 residence in the south of France he read many papers on different 
 philosophical questions before literary societies, of which ho was a 
 member. This course he afterwards followed in England, whither he 
 returned in 1661, and passed the remainder of his life. He died of 
 the stone in 1665. Sir Kenelme Digby married Venetia Anastasia 
 Stanley, daughter of Sir Edward Stanley of Tongue Castle in Shrop- 
 shire, a lady more celebrated for her beauty than her virtue. Sir 
 Kenelme showed great anxiety to preserve her beauty : he invented 
 cosmetics for that purpose, and made her the subject of several 
 strange experiments. There are pictures of her by Vandyke, one of 
 which is now in Windsor Castle. She died suddenly, leaving one son 
 by her husband. 
 
 Sir Kenelme Digby, though he fell into the errors of philosophy 
 and many of the wild dreams which were common in his day, was 
 certainly possessed of no ordinary talents : for his character we must 
 refer our readers to Lord Clarendon (' Life,' vol. i. p. 34), who has 
 ably described it. The following is a list of his writings: — 'A Con- 
 ference with a Lady about the choice of a Religion,' Paris, 1638 ; 
 ' Letters between Lord George Digby and Sir Kenelme Digby con- 
 cerning Religion,' Loud. 1651; 'Observations on Religio Medici,' 
 Lond. 1643; 'Observations on part of Spenser's Fairy Queen,' Lond. 
 1644; ' Treatise on the Nature of Bodies,' Paris, 1644 ; 'A Treatise 
 on the Soul, proving its immortality,' Paris, 1644; 'Five Books of 
 Peripatetick Institutions,' Paris, 1651; 'A Treatise of adhering to 
 God,' Lond. 1654 ; ' Of the cure of wounds by the Powder of 
 Sympathy,' Lond. 1658; 'Discourse on Vegetation,' Lond. 16G1 ; 
 aud what is now the most valuable as well as interesting of his 
 writings, ' Private Memoirs of Sir Kenelm Digby, &c. Written by 
 Himself. Now first published from the original MS., with an Intro- 
 ductory Memoir. By Sir N. Harris Nicolas,' 8vo, Lond. 1827. Sir 
 Kenelme Digby's valuable library, which had been removed to France 
 at the out-breaking of the civil wars, became, on his death, by Droit 
 D'Aubaine, the property of the French king. 
 
 DIGGES, LEONARD, a distinguished mathematician of the 16th 
 century, was descended from an ancient family in the county of Kent. 
 He was born at Digges-court, in the parish of Barham, in the same 
 county. He was educated at Oxford; but having an ample property, 
 he retired to his own seat, devoting his life to the study of geometry 
 and its practical applications, which he cultivated with great success. 
 He died in 1574. His writings abound with invention, and his views 
 are developed with great perspicuity and clearness; but the subjects 
 on which he wrote, aud the improvements which he made, being now 
 familiar to all practical mathematicians, any account of them beyond 
 the titles of the works which he wrote would be superfluous here. 
 
 1. ' Tectonicum ; briefly showing the exact Measuring and speedy 
 Reckoning of all manner of Lands, Squares, Timber, Stones, Steeples, 
 &c.' 4to, 1556. This was enlarged and improved in a second edition 
 by his son Thomas Diggcs, in 1592; and this again was reprinted in 
 1647. 2. A geometrical and practical treatise, under the title of 
 ' Pantometria ; ' in three books; which he left in manuscript, aud 
 which was printed with improvements by his son; fol., 1591. To 
 this was added by the editor, 'A Discourse Geometrical of the Five 
 Regular aud Platonic Bodies, containing sundry Theoretical and 
 
 Practical Propositions arising from the mutual Conference of these 
 Solids, Inscription, Circumscription, and Transformation.' Before 
 this time geometers had but little extended the investigations con- 
 tained in the 15th book of Euclid; aud this curious treatise contained 
 the most ample collection of properties that appeared in any book 
 before the time of the publication of Abraham Sharpe's ' Geometry 
 Improved.' 3. ' Prognostication Everlasting of Right Good Effect ; 
 or Choice Rules to judge of the Weather by the Sun, Moon, Stars, 
 &c.,' 4to, 1555, 1556, and 1564. Also with corrections and additions 
 by his son ; 4to, 1592. 
 
 DIGGES, THOMAS, the only son of Leonard Digges. He was 
 educated by his father with great care, and afterwards at Oxford, 
 where he much distinguished himself; and ultimately became one of 
 the first mathematicians of his age. 
 
 He chose the military profession, and was appointed muster-master' 
 general to the forces sent out by Queen Elizabeth to succour the 
 oppressed inhabitants of the Netherlands. Of his military career 
 however no other evidence is known to exist except his writings on 
 tho subject. These prove that he must have given considerable 
 attention to the details of his profession, and therefore have been a 
 considerable period in active service. He died in 1595. The following 
 is a list of his published writings, independently of editing his father's 
 works : — 1. ' Alaa sive Scalso Mathematical,' 4to, 1573 : a curious work. 
 2. 'A Letter on Parallax,' printed in Dee's ' Parallacticse Commenta- 
 tionis praxeosque nucleus quidam,' 4to, 1573. 3. ' An Arithmetical 
 Military Treatise, containing so much of arithmetic as is necessary 
 towards military discipline,' 4to, 1579. 4. ' An Arithmetical Warlike 
 Treatise, named Stratioticos, compendiously teaching the science of 
 numbers as well in fractions as integers, and so much of the rules and 
 equations algebraical, and art of numbers cossical, as are requisite for 
 the profession of a souldier ; together with the moderne militaire 
 discipline, offices, laws, and orders in every well-governed campe aud 
 armie, inviolably to be observed,' 4to, 1590. 5. 'A brief and true 
 Report of the proceedings of the Earl of Leycester, for the Relief of 
 the town of Sluice, from his arrival at Vlishing, about the end of 
 Juno 1587, untill the surrender thereof, 26 Julii ensuing, whereby it 
 shall plaiulie appear his excellencio was not in anie fault for the 
 surrender of that towne :' published with the last, 1590. 6. ' A brief 
 Discourse what orders were best for repulsing any forraine forces, if 
 at .anie time they should invade us by sea in Kent or elsewhere :' 
 published with the two last, 1590. 7. ' A perfect Description of the 
 Celestial Orbs according to the most ancient doctrine of the Pythago- 
 reans.' This was published as a supplement to his edition of his 
 father's ' Prognostication Everlasting,' 4to, 1592. 8. ' A humble 
 Motive for Association to maintain the Religion Established,' Svo, 
 1601. To this is added a letter to the archbishops and bishops to 
 enforce the same object. 9. 'England's Defence; or a treatise con- 
 cerning invasion :' written in 1599, but not published. It is essen- 
 tially a second edition of the tract already spoken of in the 
 Stratioticos. 
 
 Digges wrote many other works, which he left in manuscript, and 
 which were never published, on account, it is stated, of the perplexity 
 created by lawsuits in which he was engaged. The accomplished 
 politician and elegant writer, Sir Dudley Digges (born 1583, died 
 1639), was the eldest son of Thomas Digges. The work by which he 
 is chiefly remembered is the collection of letters which passed between 
 the ministers of Elizabeth respecting her projected marriage with 
 the Due d'Anjou, and which was published alter his death (1655), 
 under the title of the ' Compleat Ambassador.' 
 
 DILKE, CHARLES WENTWORTH, who has been intimately 
 associated with the literature of his time, was born on the 8th of 
 December 1789. In early life he entered the Navy Pay Office as a 
 clerk; and while there became a contributor to several of the reviews 
 and magazines. A valuable collection of ' Old English Plays,' in 
 6 vols., was edited by Mr. Dilke in 1814. After a long service in the 
 Navy Pay Office, when some alterations were effected by consolidating 
 several divisions, he retired on a pension. He then became proprietor, 
 by purchase, of the ' Athenaeum,' a literary journal, which had been 
 for some time struggling to preserve its existence. His first step was 
 to reduce the price from one shilling to fourpence, and by his 
 judicious management he gradually succeeded in rendering it a 
 popular and influential journal, and ultimately a valuable property. 
 Much of the reputation of thi3 literary paper has been derived from 
 Mr. Dilke's constant and judicious superintendence, although the 
 laborious duties of editor have been recently discharged by others, 
 among whom has been Mr. T. K Hervey, who held the office from 
 1846 to about the end of 1853. Mr. Dilke's researches in curious 
 points of literary history, such as the authorship of ' Junius,' occa- 
 sionally appear in papers of the ' Athenaeum.' [See Supplement.] 
 
 * Charles Weniworth Dilke (Mr. Dilke's son), was one of tho 
 earliest and most active among the originators of the Great Industrial 
 Exhibition of 1851, and he was appointed oue of the executive com- 
 mittee. He also tuok a very prominent part iu the organisation of 
 the International Exhibition of 1862, of which he was one of the five 
 Royal Commissioners, and in recognition of his services in connection 
 with which he was created a baronet, January, 1862. 
 
 DINARCHUS (AeiVopxoj), one of the Greek orators, for the 
 explanation of whose orations Harpocration compiled his lexicoa 
 
£53 
 
 Dinarchy was a Corinthian by birth, who settled in Athens and 
 became intimate with Theophrastus and Demetrius the Phalerian, a 
 circumstance which, combined with others, enables us to determine 
 his age with tolerable precision. Dionysius of Halicarnassus fixes his 
 birth about the archonship of Nicophemus, B.C. 361. The time of 
 his highest reputation was after the death of Alexander, when Demos- 
 thenes and other great orators were dead or banished. He seems to 
 have got his living by writing speeches for those who were in want of 
 them, and he carried on apparently a profitable business this way. 
 After the garrison which Cassander had placed in Munychia had been 
 driven out by Antigonus and Demetrius in the archonship of Anaxi- 
 crates, B.C. 307, Diuarchus, though a foreigner, being involved in a 
 charge of conspiring against the democracy, and having always been 
 attached to the aristocratical party, and perhaps also fearing that his 
 wealth might be a temptation to his enemies, withdrew to Chalcis in 
 Eubcca. Demetrius afterwards allowed him to return to Athens with 
 other exiles, in the archonship of Philippua, B.C. 292, after an absence 
 of fifteen years. On his return, Dinarchus, who had brought all his 
 money back with him, lodged with one Proxenus, an Athenian, a 
 friend of his, who however (if the story is true) proved to be a knave, 
 and robbed the old man of his money, or at least colluded with the 
 thieves. Dinarchus brought an action against him, and for the first 
 time in his life made his appearance in a court of justice. The charge 
 against Proxenus, which is drawn up with a kind of legal formality, is 
 preserved by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. How the suit ended is 
 unknown. Of the numerous orations of Dinarchus only three remain, 
 an 1 they are not entitled to very high praise. One of them is against 
 Demosthenes touching the affair of Harpalus. [Demosthenes.] 
 Dionysius has taken great pains to distinguish the spurious from the 
 genuine orations of Dinarchus. Of his genuine orations, he enume- 
 rates 28 public orations and 31 private. This critic has passed rather 
 a severe judgment on Dinarchus. He considered him merely as an 
 imitator of Lysias, Hyperides, and Demosthenes, and though suc- 
 ceeding to a certain extent in copying the several styles and excellences 
 of these three great orators, yet failing, as all copiers from models 
 must fail, in that natural expression and charm which are the 
 characteristics of originality. 
 
 The few facts that we know about Dinarchus are derived from the 
 Commentary of Dionysius on the Attic orators and the extracts 
 which he gives from Philochorus. The three extant orations of 
 Dinarchus are printed in the usual collections of the Attic orators. 
 The best separate edition is that of Schmidt, Leipz., 1826. 
 
 * DINDORF, WILHELM, was born in 1802 at Leipzig, where his 
 father was professor of Oriental languages. He distinguished himself 
 early at the university, became while yet a youth the associate of flfcmy 
 of his learned countrymen, and in 1819 edited a continuation of the 
 commentaries of Aristophanes, commenced by Beck. He was appointed 
 custos of the royal library at Berlin in 1827, and professor of literary 
 history at Leipzig in 1828, but after giving a course of lectures in 
 1830, he in the following year resigned that office to unite with L. and 
 M. Hase in remoulding the Greek 'Thesaurus' of Stephanus, and he 
 has since mainly devoted himself to editing the Greek and Latin 
 authors. One of his most celebrated editions is that of Demosthenes, 
 which he edited for the University of Oxford (9 vols. 8vo), the text of 
 which is considered very excellent. For the same university he has 
 also edited VEschylus (3 vols., 1833-51), Sophocles, Euripides (3 vols.), 
 Aristophanes (4 vols., 1835-39), &c. ; many of the volumes of the 
 ' Bibliotheque des Classiques Grecs ' published in Paris by M. Didot, 
 and others issued from the presses of Leipzig, &c. The labours of 
 Dindorf have met with severe criticism, but it is evident that they 
 must also have found acceptance among scholars. His texts are per- 
 haps on the whole more highly esteemed than his commentaries. His 
 brother *Ludwiq Dindorf (born 1805) has been associated with him 
 in many of his scholastic undertakings, and has edited alone several 
 Greek authors. He is said to have turned his attention of late years 
 to commercial pursuits, and to have become connected with the rail- 
 ways of his native country. 
 
 DIOCLES, a Greek mathematician, who is chiefly known by his 
 invention of the cissoid. The period at which he flourished is 
 unknown. 
 
 DIOCLETIA'NUS, CAIUS VALERIUS, was bom at Dioclea, in 
 Dalmatia, some say at Salona, about a.d. 245 according to some, but 
 others make him ten years older. His original name was Diocles, 
 which he afterwards changed into Diocletianus. He is said by some 
 to have been the son of a notary, by others the freedman of a senator 
 named Anulinus. He entered the army at an early age, and rose 
 gradually to rank ; he served in Gaul, in Mcesia under Probus, and 
 was present at the campaign against the Persians, in which Carus 
 perished in a mysterious manner. Diocletian commanded the house- 
 hold or imperial body-guards when young Numerianus, the son of 
 Carug, was secretly put to death by Aper his father-in-law, while 
 travelling in a close litter on account of illness, on the return of the 
 army from Persia. The death of Numerianus being discovered after 
 several days by the soldiers near Calchedon, they arrested Aper and 
 proclaimed Diocletian emperor, who addressing the soldiers from his 
 tribunal in the camp, protested his innocence of the death of Nume- 
 rianus, and then upbraiding Aper for the crime, plunged his sword 
 into IiLh body. The new emperor observed to a friend that " he had 
 
 now killed the boar," punning on the word Aper, which means a boar, 
 and alluding to the prediction of a soothsayer in Gaul, who had told 
 him that he would become emperor after having killed a boar. 
 (Vopiscus in 'Hist. Aug.') Diocletian, self-composed and strong- 
 minded iu other respects, was all his life an anxious believer in divina- 
 tion, which superstition led him probably to inflict summary punish- 
 ment upon Aper with his own hands. He made his solemn entrance 
 into Nicomedia iu September, 284, which town he afterwards chose 
 for his favourite residence. Carinus, the other son of Carus, who had 
 remained in Italy, having collected a force to attack Diocletian, the 
 two armies met at Margum in Mcesia, where the soldiers of Carinus 
 had the advantage at first, but Carinus himself being killed during the 
 battle by his officers, who detested him for his cruelty and debauchery, 
 both armies joined in acknowledging Diocletian emperor in 285. 
 Diocletian was generous after his victory, and, contrary to the common 
 practice, there were no executions, proscriptions, or confiscations of 
 property ; he even retained most of the officers of Carinus in their 
 places. (Aurelius Victor.) 
 
 Diocletian on assuming the imperial power found the empire assailed 
 by enemies in various quarters, on the Persian frontiers, on the side 
 of Germany and of Illyricum, and in Britain ; besides which a serious 
 revolt had broken out in Gaul among the rural population, under two 
 leaders who had assumed the title of emperor. To quell the dis- 
 turbance in Gaul, Diocletian sent his old friend Maximianus, a native 
 of Pannonia, and a brave but rude uncultivated soldier. Maximianus 
 defeated the Bagaudi, for such was the name the rustic insurgents 
 had assumed. In the year 286, Diocletian chose Maximianus as his 
 colleague in the empire, under the name of Marcus Valerius Maxi- 
 mianus Augustus, and it is to the credit of both that the latter 
 continued ever after faithful to Diocletian and willing to follow his 
 advice. Maximianus was stationed in Gaul and on the German 
 frontier to repel invasion; Diocletian resided chiefly in the Eaat to 
 watch the Persians, though he appears to have visited Rome in the 
 early part of his reign. About 287 the revolt of Carausius took place. 
 In the following year Maximianus defeated the Germans near Trevir 1 , 
 and Diocletian himself marched against other tribes on the Rhaetiau 
 frontier; the year after he defeated the Sarmatians on the lower 
 Danube. In the same year, 289, peace was made between Carausius 
 and the two emperors, Carausius being allowed to retain possession 
 of Britain. In 290 Maximianus and Diocletian met at Milan to 
 confer together on the state of the empire, after which Diocletian 
 returned to Nicomedia. The Persians soon after again invaded 
 Mesopotamia and threatened Syria, the Quinquegentiaui, a federation 
 of tribes in the Mauritania Caesariensis, revolted, another revolt under 
 one Achillaeus broke out in Egypt, another in Italy under a certain 
 Julianus. Diocletian thought it necessary to increase the number of 
 his colleagues in order to face the attacks in the various quarters. Ou 
 the 1st of March 292, or 291 according to some chronologists, he 
 appointed Galerius as Caesar, and presented him to the troops at 
 Nicomedia. At the same time Maximianus adopted on his part 
 Constantius called Chlorus. The two Caesars repudiated their 
 respective wives ; Galerius married Valeria, Diocletian's daughter, 
 adding to his name that of Valerianus ; and Constantius married 
 Theodora, daughter of Maximianus. Galerius was a native of Dacia, 
 and a good soldier, but violent and cruel ; he had been a herdsman in 
 his youth, for which he has been styled, in derision, Armentarius. 
 The two Caesars remained subordinate to the two Augusti, though 
 each of the four was entrusted with the administration of a part of 
 the empire. Diocletian kept to himself Asia and Egypt ; Maximianus 
 had Italy and Africa ; Galerius, Thrace and Illyricum ; and Con- 
 stantius had Gaul and Spain. But it was rather an administrative 
 than a political division. At the head of the edicts of each prince 
 were put the names of all the four, beginning with that of Diocletian. 
 Diocletian resorted to this arrangement probably as much for reasons 
 of internal as of external policy. For nearly a hundred years before, 
 ever since the death of Commodus, the soldiers had been in the habit of 
 giving or selling the imperial crown, to which any general might aspire. 
 Between thirty and forty emperors had been thus successively made and 
 unmade, many of whom only reigned a few months. By fixing upon 
 four colleagues, one in each of the great divisions of the empire, each 
 having his army, and all mutually checking one another, Diocletian 
 put a stop to military insolence and anarchy. The empire was no 
 longer put up to sale, the immediate and intolerable evil was effectually 
 cured, though another danger remained, that of disputes and wars 
 between the various sharers of the imperial power; still it was a 
 smaller danger and one which did not manifest itself so long as 
 Diocletian remained at the helm. Writers hava been very free of 
 their censure upon this emperor for parcelling, as they call it, the 
 empire; but this was the only chance there was of preventing its 
 crumbling to pieces. Italy, and Rome, in particular, lost by the 
 change : they no longer monopolised the wealth and power of the 
 world, but the other provinces gained. The empire was much too 
 large for one single man or a single central administration, under the 
 dwindled influence of the Roman name, and amidst the numerous 
 causes of local dissension and discontent, private ambition, social 
 corruption, and foreign hostility, that had accumulated for three 
 centuries, since the time of Augustus. 
 
 The new Caesars justified Diocletian's expectations. Coustaatiuv} 
 
695 DlOCLETIANUS, CAIUS VALERIUS. 
 
 defeated the Franks and the Alemanni, and Boon after reconquered 
 Britain. Galerius subjugated the Carpi, and transported the whole 
 tribe into Pannonia. In the year 296, the Persians, under their king 
 Narses, again invaded Mesopotamia and part of Syria. Galerius 
 marched against them, but being too confident was defeated by 
 superior numbers, and obliged to retire. On his meeting Diocletian, 
 the emperor showed his dissatisfaction by letting Galerius walk for 
 a mile, clad in purple as he was, by the side of his car. The following 
 year Galerius again attacked tho Persians, and completely defeated 
 them, taking an immense booty. The wives and children of Narses, 
 who were among the prisoners, were treated by Galerius with 
 humanity and respect. Narses sued for peace, which was granted by 
 Diocletian on condition of the Persians giving up all the territory on 
 the right or western bank of the Tigris. This peace was concluded 
 in 297, and lasted forty years. At the same time Diocletian marched 
 into E?:ypt against Achillaeus, whom he besieged in Alexandria, which 
 he took after a siege of eight months, when the usurper and his chief 
 adherents were put to death. Diocletian is said to have behaved on 
 this occasion with unusual sternness. Several towns of Egypt, among 
 others Busiris and Coptos, were destroyed. Constantine, the son of 
 Constantius, who was educated at Nicomedia, accompanied the 
 emperor in this expedition. Diocletian fixed the limits of the empire 
 on that side at the island of Elcphautiua, where he built a castle, and 
 made peace with the neighbouring tribes, called by some Nubae and 
 by others Nabatae, to whom he gave up the strip of territory which 
 the Romans had conquered, of seven days' march above the first 
 cataract, on condition that they should prevent the Blemmyes and 
 Ethiopians from attacking Egypt. Maximianus in the meantime was 
 engaged in putting down the revolt in Mauritania, which he effected 
 with full success. For several years after this the empire enjoyed 
 peace, and Diocletian and his colleagues were chiefly employed in 
 framing laws and administrative regulations, and in constructing forts 
 on the frontiers. Diocletian kept a splendid court at Nicomedia, 
 which town he embellished with numerous structures. He, or rather 
 Maximianus by his order, caused the magnificent Thermae at Rome 
 to be built, the remains of which still bear Diocletian's name, and 
 which contained, besides the baths, a library, a museum, public walks, 
 and other establishments. 
 
 In February 303 Diocletian issued an edict against the Christians, 
 ! ordering their churches to be pulled down, their sacred books to be 
 burnt, and all Christians to be dismissed from offices civil or military, 
 with other penalties, exclusive however of death. "Various causes 
 have been assigned for this measure. It is known that Galerius had 
 always been hostile .to the Christians, while Diocletian had openly 
 favoured them, had employed them in his armies and about his 
 person ; and Eusebius (' Hist. Eccles.' viii.) speaks of the prosperity, 
 security, and protection which the Christians enjoyed under his reign. 
 They had churches in most towns, and one at Nicomedia in par- 
 ticular under the eye of the emperor. Just before the edict was 
 issued, Galerius had repaired to Nicomedia to induce Diocletian to 
 proscribe the Christians. He filled the emperor's mind with reports of 
 conspiracies and seditions. The imperial palace took fire, Constantine 
 (' Oratio ad Ccetum Sanctorum ') says, from lightning, and Galerius 
 suggested to the emperor that it was a Christian plot. The heathen 
 priests on their part exerted themselves for the same purpose. It 
 happened that on the occasion of a solemn sacrifice in presence of 
 the emperor, while priests were consulting the entrails of the victims, 
 the Christian officers in the imperial retinue crossed themselves; 
 upon which the priests declared that the presence of profane men 
 prevented them from discovering the auspices. Diocletian who was 
 very anxious to pry into futurity, became irritated, and ordered all 
 his Christian officers to sacrifice to the gods under pain of flagellation 
 and dismissal, which many of them underwent. Several oracles 
 which he consulted gave answers unfavourable to the Christians. 
 The church of Nicomedia was the first pulled down by order of the 
 emperor. The rashness of a Christian who publicly tore down the 
 imperial edict exasperated Diocletian still more : the culprit was put 
 to a cruel death. Then came a second edict, ordering all magistrates 
 to arrest the Christian bishops and presbyters, and compel them to 
 sacrifice to the gods. This was giving to their enemies power over 
 their lives, and it proved in fact the beginning of a cruel persecution, 
 whose ravages were the more extensive in proportion to the great 
 diffusion of Christianity during a long period of toleration. This was 
 the last persecution under the Roman empire, and it has been called 
 by the name of Diocletian. But that emperor issued the two edicts 
 reluctantly and after long hesitation, according to Lactantius's acknow- 
 ledgment: he fell ill a few months after, and on recovering from his 
 long illness he abdicated. Galerius who had instigated the persecu- 
 tion, was the most zealous minister of it ; the persecution raged with 
 most fury in the provinces subject to his rule, and he continued it 
 for several years after Diocletian's abdication, so that it might with 
 more propriety be called the Galerian persecution. The countries 
 under the government of Constantius suffered the least from it. 
 ^Eusebius, « Hist. Eccl. ; ' Lactantius, ' De Mort. Persecut. ; ' and 
 Constautine's • Oration,' above quoted, as given by Eusebius.) 
 
 In November of that year (303) Diocletian repaired to Rome, where 
 he and Maximianus enjoyed the honour of a triumph, followed by 
 festive games. This was the last triumph that Rome saw. The popu- 
 
 DIOCLETIANUS, CAIUS VALERIUS. coo 
 
 lace of that city complained of the economy of Dioletian ®n the 
 occasion, who replied that moderation and temperance were luust 
 required when the censor was present. They vented their displeasure 
 in jibes and sarcasms, which so hurt Diocletian that he left Roma 
 abruptly in the month of December for Ravenna, in very cold weather. 
 In this journey he was seized by an illness which affected him the 
 whole of the following year, which he spent at Nicomedia. At one 
 time he was reported to be dead. He rallied however in the spring of 
 305, and showed himself in public, but greatly altered in appearance. 
 Galerius soon after came to Nicomedia, and it is said that he persuaded 
 and almost forced Diocletian to abdicate. Others say that Diocletian 
 did it spontaneously. On the lBt of May he repaired with his guards 
 to a spot three miles out of Nicomedia, where he had thirteen years 
 before proclaimed Galerius as Caesar, and there, addressing his officers 
 and court, ho said that the infirmities of age warned him to retire 
 from power, and to deliver the administration of the state into 
 stronger hands. He then proclaimed Galerius as Augustus, and 
 Maximinus Daza as the new Caesar. Constantino, who has given an 
 account of the ceremony, which is quoted by Eusebius in his life of 
 that prince, was present, and the troops fully expected that he would 
 be the now Caesar ; when they heard another mentioned, they asked 
 each other whether Constantino had changed his name. But Galerius 
 did not leave them long in suspense ; he pushed forward Maximinus 
 and showed him to the assembly, and Diocletian clothed him with 
 the purple vest, after which the old emperor returned privately in his 
 carriage to Nicomedia, and immediately after set off for Salona in 
 Dalmatia, near which he built himself an extensive palace by the 
 sea-shore, in which he lived for the rest of his life, respected by the 
 other emperors, without cares and without regret. Part of the 
 external walls which inclosed the area belonging to his palace and 
 other buildings still remain, with three of the gates, as well as a 
 temple, which is now a church at Spalatro, or Spalato, in Dalmatia, a 
 comparatively modern town, grown out of the decay of the ancient 
 Salona, and built in great part within the walls of Diocletiau's 
 residence, from the name of which, ' Palatium,' it is believed that 
 ' Spalato ' is derived. At the same time that Diocletian abdicated at 
 Nicomedia, Maximianus, according to an agreement between them, 
 performed a similar ceremony at Milan, proclaiming Constantius as 
 Augustus, and Severus as Caesar. Both Severus and Maximinus Daza 
 were inferior persons, and creatures of Galerius, who insisted upon 
 their nomination in preference to that of Maxentius and Constantine, 
 whom Diocletian had at first proposed. Maximianus retired to his 
 seat in Lucania, but not being endowed with the firmness of Diocletian 
 he tried some time after to recover his former power, and wrote to his 
 oM colleague to induce him to do the same. " Were you but to come 
 to Salona,'' answered Diocletian, "and see the vegetables which I grow 
 in my garden with my own hands, you would no longer talk to me of 
 empire." In his retirement he used to observe to his associates how 
 difficult it is even for the best-intentioned man to govern well, as he 
 cannot see everything with his own eyes, but must trust to others, 
 who often deceive him. Once only he left his retirement to meet 
 Galerius in Pannonia for the purpose of appointing a new Caesar, 
 Licinius, in the room of Severus, who had died. Licinius however 
 did not prove grateful, for after the death of Galerius in 311, he ill- 
 treated his widow, Valeria, Diocletian's daughter, who then with her 
 mother, Prisca, took refuge in the territories of Maximinus Daza. Tho 
 latter offered to marry Valeria, but on her refusal exiled both her and 
 her mother into the deserts of Syria, and put to death several of their 
 attendants. Diocletian remonstrated in favour of his wife and 
 daughter, but to no purpose, and his grief on this occasion probably 
 hastened his death, which took place at his residence near Salona in 
 July 313. In the following year his wife and daughter were put to 
 death by order of Licinius. 
 
 Coin of Diocletian. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 167 J grains. 
 
 Diocletian ranks among the most distinguished emperors of Rome ; 
 his reign of twenty-one years was upon the whole prosperous for the 
 empire, and creditable to the Roman name. He was severe, but not 
 wantonly cruel, and we ought to remember that mercy was not a 
 Roman virtue. His conduct after his abdication shows that his was 
 no common mind. The chief charge against him is his haughtiness in 
 introducing the Oriental ceremonial of prostration into the Roman 
 court. The Christian writers, and especially Lactantius, have spoken 
 unfavourably of him ; but Lactantius cannot be implicitly trusted. 
 Of the regular historians of his reign we have only the meagre narra- 
 tives of Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, the others being now lost; 
 but notices of Diocletian's life are scattered about in various authors, 
 
6»7 
 
 DIODATI, JEAN. 
 
 DIOGENES. 
 
 £90 
 
 Libaniua, Vopiscus, Ev eebius, Julian in his ' Caesars,' and the contem- 
 porary panegyrists, Eumenes and Mamertinus. His laws or edicts are 
 in the 'Code.' Among other useful reforms, he abolished the fru- 
 mentarii, or licensed informers, who were stationed in every proviuce 
 to report any attempt at mutiny or rebellion, aud who basely enriched 
 themselves by working on the fears of the inhabitants. He also 
 reformed and reduced the number of the insolent Prcetorians, who 
 were afterwards totally disbanded by Constantino. 
 
 DIODATI, JEAN, was born in Geneva in 1576, of a family 
 originally from Lucca. His progress in learning was so rapid that 
 Beza procured him to be appointed professor of Hebrew in the Uni- 
 versity of Geneva when he was but twenty-one years of age. In 1608 
 he was made pastor, or parish miuister, and in the following year 
 professor of theology. While travelling in Italy about 1608, he 
 became acquainted at Venice with the celebrated Sarpi and his friend 
 Father Fulgenzio, both antagonists of the Court of Rome, and there 
 appears to have been some talk and correspondence between them 
 about attempting a religious reform in Italy, but Sarpi's caution and 
 maturer judgment checked the fervour of the other two. Diodati 
 afterwards translated into French and published at Geneva Sarpi's 
 ' History of the Council of Trent.' In consideration of his theological 
 learning he was sent by the clergy of Geneva on several missions, first 
 to the reformed churches in France, and afterwards to those of Hol- 
 land, where he attended the Synod of Dort (161819), and although a 
 foreigner, he was one of the divines appointed to draw up the acts of 
 that assembly. He fully concurred in the condemnation of the 
 Arminians, or Remonstrants as they were called. Diodati was also 
 distinguished as a preacher ; in his sermons he spoke with conscien- 
 tious frankness, without any regard to worldly considerations. He 
 published an Italian translation of the Bible in 1607, and afterwards a 
 French translation, which was not completed till 1644, having met 
 with considerable opposition from the clergy of Geneva. Diodati died 
 at Geneva in 1649. He wrote also ' Annotationes in Biblia,' folio, 
 Geneva 1607, which were translated into English, and published in 
 London in 1648, and numerous theological and controversial works, 
 among others, ' De Fictitio Pontificiorum Purgatorio,' 1619 ; ' De justa 
 Secessioue Reformatorum ab Ecclesia Romana,' 1628 ; ' De Ecclesia ; ' 
 * De Antichristo,' &c. Seuebier, in his ' Histoire Litteraire de Geneve,' 
 gives a catalogue of Diodati's works. He also wrote an answer to the 
 ecclesiastical assembly in London, in reply to letters addressed to him 
 by some members of that assembly, and which was published in 
 Newcastle in 1647. Diodati translated into French Edwin Sandy's 
 'Account of the State of Religion in the West,' Geneva, 1626. 
 
 DIODO'RUS, a Greek historian, was born at Agyrium in Sicily. 
 (' Biblioth. Hist.,' lib. i. c. 5.) Our principal data for the chronology 
 of his life are derived from his own work. It appears that he was in 
 Egypt about the 180th olympiad, B.C. 60 ('Biblioth. Hist.,' i. c. 44, 
 comp. L c. 83) ; that his history was written after the death of Julius 
 Ca23ar; that it ended with the Gallic war of that general; and that 
 he spent thirty years in writing it. (' Biblioth. Hist.,' i. c. 4, comp. v. 
 c. 21 and 25.) In addition to this, Suidas mentions that he lived in 
 the time of Augustus, and he is named under the year B.C. 49 by 
 Jerome in the ' Chronicle of Eusebius.' The title of the great work 
 of Diodorus is the ' Historical Library,' or ' The Library of Histories ;' 
 and it would therefore seem to have been intended by the author as 
 a compilation from all the different historical works existing in his 
 time. It was divided by him into forty books, and comprehended a 
 period of 1138 years, besides the time precediug the Trojan war. 
 (' Biblioth. Hist,' i. c. 5.) The first s-ix books were devoted to the 
 fabulous history anterior to this event, and of these the three former 
 to the antiquities of barbarian states, the three latter to the archeology 
 of the Greeks. But the historian, though treating of the fabulous 
 history of the barbarians in the first three books, enters into an account 
 of their manners and usages, and carries down the history of these 
 people to a point of time posterior to the Trojan war ; thu3 in the first 
 book he gives a sketch of Egyptian history from the reign of Menes 
 to Ama-is. In the eleven following books he detailed the different 
 events which happened between the Trojan war and the deatli of 
 Alexander the Great ; and the remaining twenty-three books contained 
 the history of the world down to the Gallic war and the conquest of 
 Britain. (' Biblioth. Hint.,' i. c. 4.) Diodorus asserts that he bestowed 
 the greatest possible pains on his history, and had travelled over a 
 considerable part of Europe and Asia in order to prosecute his investi- 
 gations with the greatest advantage. He resided some time at Rome, 
 and having made himself familiar with the Latin language, was enabled 
 to consult the Roman historians in the originals. He objects to the 
 custom so common among Greek and Roman writers of interlarding 
 their narratives with fictitious speeches, to which he says (' Biblioth. 
 Hist.,' lib. xx. init.) they made the whole history a mere appendix, 
 although he seems to have fallen into this fault in his twenty-first 
 book (Niebuhr, ' Hist. Rom.,' iiL, note 848) ; but, on the other hand, 
 he thought it the duty of an historian never to omit a suitable oppor- 
 tunity of pronouncing merited praise or blame. (' Biblioth. Hist.,' lib. 
 xi.) Of the forty books of Diodorus's ' History ' we possess only fifteen, 
 namely, books i. to v., and books xi. to xx. ; but we have many frag- 
 ments of the twenty-five others, to which important additions were a 
 few years back made from manuscripts in the Vatican library. 
 
 With regard to tho historical value of the ' Bibliotheca,' and the 
 
 merits of the author, the most discrepant opinions have been enter- 
 tained by modern writers. Tho Spanish scholar Vives called him a 
 mere trifter, and Jean Bodin accused him in no sparing terms of 
 ignorance and carelessness ; while, on the other hand, he has been 
 defended and extolled by many eminent critics as an accurate aud able 
 writer. The principal fault of Diodorus seems to have been the too 
 great extent of his work. It was not possible for any man living in 
 the time of Augustus to write an unexceptionable universal history ; 
 and it is not therefore a matter of surprise that Diodorus, who does 
 not appear to have been a man of superior abilities, should have fallen 
 into a number of particular errors, and should have placed too much 
 reliance on authorities sometimes far from trustworthy. Wherever 
 he speaks from his own observations he may perhaps generally be 
 relied on, but when he is compiling from the writings of others he 
 has shown little judgment in his selection, and has in many cases 
 proved himself incapable of discriminating between the fabulous and 
 the true. In some instances, as in his account of Egypt (see ' Descrip- 
 tion of the Tomb of Osymaudyas '), it is impossible to say whether 
 he is speaking as an eye-witness or upon the report of others. Although 
 he professes to have paid great attention to chronology, his dates are 
 frequently and obviously incorrect. (See Dodwell's ' Aunal. Thucydid.' 
 and Clinton's 'Fasti Hellenici,' ii., p. 259 and elsewhere; Niebuhr, 
 'Hist. Rome,' ii., and note 1281.) However, we are indebted to him 
 for many particulars which but for him we should never have known ; 
 and we must regret that we have lost the last and probably most 
 valuable portion of his works, as even by the fragments of them which 
 remain we are enabled in many places to correct the errors of Livy. 
 The style of Diodorus, though not very pure or elegant, is sufficiently 
 perspicuous, and presents few difficulties, except where the manuscripts 
 are defective, as is frequently the case. (Niebuhr, ' Hist. Rome,' vol. 
 iii., note 297, and elsewhere.) 
 
 The best editions of Diodorus are Wesseling's, AmsteL, 1745, 2 vols, 
 fol. ; that printed at Deux-Ponts, 1793-1801 ; and Dindorf's, Lips., 
 1829-33, 6 vols. 8vo, which contains the Vatican Excerpta. There is 
 also a smaller edition by Dindorf in 4 vols. 12mo, Lips., 1826. Dio- 
 dorus has been translated into French by Terrasson, and a few years 
 ago a new translation by Miot appeared at Paris. A German trans- 
 lation of Diodorus was begun by F. And, Stroth (1782-85), and finished 
 by T. F. Sal. Kaltwasser (1786-87). Arnyot translated into French 
 books xi. to xvii. of Diodorus's ' History.' 
 
 DIO'GENES, the Cynic philosopher, was the son of Hicesius, a 
 money-changer of Sinope. His father and himself were expelled 
 from their native place on a charge of adulterating the coinage, or, 
 according to another account, Hicesius was thrown into prison and 
 died there, while Diogenes escaped to Athens. On his arrival at that 
 city, he betook himself to Antisthencs, the Cynic, who repulsed him 
 rudely according to his custom, and even on one occasion threatened 
 to strike him. " Strike me," said the Sinopian, " for you will never 
 get so hard a stick as to keep me from you while you speak what I 
 think worth hearing." The philosopher was so pleased with this reply 
 that he at once admitted him among his scholars. Diogenes was 
 soon distinguished for his extraordinary neglect of personal con- 
 veniences, and by a sarcastic and sneering petulance in all that he 
 said. He was dressed in a coarse double robe, which served him as 
 a cloak by day and a coverlet by night, and carried a wallet to receive 
 alms of food. His abode was a cask in the temple of Cybele. In 
 the summer he rolled himself in the burning sand, and in the winter 
 clung to the images in the street covered with snow, in order that he 
 might accustom himself to endure all varieties of weather. A great 
 number of his witty and biting apophthegms are detailed by his 
 namesake and biographer (Diog. Laert., vi., c. 2.) He became acquainted 
 with Alexander the Great, who bade him ask for whatever he wanted. 
 " Do not throw your shadow upon me," was the Cynic's only request. 
 It is reported that Alexander was so struck with his originality that 
 he exclaimed, " Were I not Alexander, I would wish to be Diogenes." 
 Being taken by a piratical captain named Scirpalus, while sailing from 
 Athens to YEgina, he was carried to Crete, and there sold to Xeniades, 
 of Corinth, who took him home to educate his children. He dis- 
 charged the duties of this situation so faithfully and so successfully, 
 that Xeniades went about saying that a good genius had come into 
 his house ; and he was so well treated by his master that he refused 
 an offer on the part of his friends to ransom him from slavery. He 
 spent his time principally in the Cranium, a gymnasium near Corinth, 
 where he died in the same year, and, according to one account, on 
 the same day, with Alexander the Great (b.c. 323), at the advanced 
 age of ninety years. A number of works attributed to him are 
 mentioned by Diogenes Laertius, but none of them are extant. 
 Generally he adhered to the doctrines of the Cynics, to which sect he 
 belonged. The following are a few of the particular opinions ascribed 
 to him by his biographer. He thought exercise (&<TK7jais) was indis- 
 pensable, and able to effect anything ; that there were two kinds of 
 exercise, one of the mind and the other of the body, and that one of 
 these was of no value without the other. By the cultivation of the 
 mind he did not mean the prosecution of any science or the acquire- 
 ment of any mental accomplishment; all such things he considered 
 as useless; but he intended such a cultivation of the mind as might 
 serve to biing it into a healthy and virtuous state, and produce upon 
 it an effect analogous to that which exercise produces upon the body. 
 
B03 
 
 DIOGENES. 
 
 DION. 
 
 003 
 
 He adopted Plato's doctrine, that there should be a community of 
 ■wives and children, and held with the Dorian lawgivers, that order 
 (/crfoytos) was the basis of civil government. 
 
 DIO'GENES of Apollonia, so called from his birthplace, a town iu 
 Crete, was a pupil of Anaximenes and a contemporary of Anaxagoras. 
 The years in which he was born and died are not known, as is the 
 case also with his master Anaximenes. But the birth-year of his 
 contemporary and fellow-pupil Anaxagoras is known to be B.C. 500; 
 and Diogenes would most probably be about the same age, or perhaps 
 rather younger. Sidonius Apollinaris (xv. 91) speaks of Diogenes as 
 younger than Anaxagoras. Schleiermacher, who is followed by 
 Schaubach, the editor of the fragments of Anaxagoras, affirms from 
 the internal evidence of the fragments of the two philosophers, that 
 Diogenes preceded Anaxagoras. But Diogenes might havo written 
 before Anaxagoras, and yet have been his junior, as we know was the 
 case with Empedocles. (Aristotle, 'Met.' i. iii., p. 843 B.) 
 
 Diogenes followed Anaximenes in making air the primal element of 
 all thing-:, that out of which the whole material universe was formed ; 
 but he invested this air with the property of intelligence, or witli 
 what is called by St. Augustin a divine virtue, thus approximating 
 but not attaining to the system of Anaxagoras. It was reserved for 
 this last philosopher to separate mind from matter. "As the con- 
 templation of animal life," says Thirlwall, "had led Anaximenes to 
 adopt air as the basis of his system, a later philosopher, Diogenes of 
 Apollonia, carried this analogy farther, and regarded the universe as 
 issuing from an intelligent principle, by which it was at once vivified 
 and ordered — a rational as well as sensitive soul — still without recog- 
 nising any distinction between matter and mind." (' Hist, of Greece,' 
 vol. ii., p. 134.) Cicero ('De Nat. Deor.,' i. 12) represents Diogenes as 
 making air his deity. 
 
 He wrote several books on Cosmology ; and the first sentence of 
 his work is given by Diogenes Laertius in two places (vi. 81 ; ix. 57). 
 The fragments which remain have been recently collected and edited 
 by Panzerbeiter. 
 
 There is an essay on the philosophy of Diogenes, by Schleiermacher, 
 in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1815; and a contribution 
 to the chronology of his life in an article on the early Ionic philoso- 
 phers, by Mr. Clinton, iu the iPhilological Museum,' vol. i., p. 92. 
 
 (For general information concerning him the reader is referred to 
 Diogenes Laertius, ix. 9 ; Bayle, Dictionary ; Fabricii, BilUothcca 
 Ch'ceea, ed. Harles, vol. ii., p. G5G.) 
 
 DIO'GEN ES, surnamed Laertius, because he was born at Laertes, 
 iu Cilicia, is well known as the biographer of the Greek philosophers. 
 But though he has described the lives of others, he has given us no 
 account of himself, and we know nothing about him. It is supposed 
 that he lived in the reign of Severus or C'aracalla, and that he was an 
 Epicurean. The work by which Diogenes is known is a crude con- 
 tribution towards the history of philosophy. It contains a brief account 
 of the lives, doctrines, and sayings of most persons who had been called 
 philosophers ; and though the author is evidently a most unfit person 
 for the task which he imposed upon himself, and has shown very little 
 judgment and discrimination in the execution, the book is useful as a 
 collection of facts which we could not otherwise have learned, and 
 entertaining as a sort of ' omniana' on the subject. The article on 
 Epicurus is valuable as containing some original letters of that philo- 
 sopher, which comprise a pretty satisfactory epitome of the Epicurean 
 doctrines, and are very useful to the readers of Lucretius. The most 
 convenient edition of Diogenes is that by H. G. Hiibner, Lips., 1828-31, 
 iu 2 vols. 8vo. The commentaries of Casaubon, Menage, and others, 
 on Diogenes Laertius were printed in 2 vols. Svo, 1831, uniformly with 
 the edition of Hiibner. 
 
 DION, sufnamed Chrysostomus, or the Golden-mouthed, on account 
 of the beauty of his style, the son of Pasicrates, a man of considera- 
 tion at Prusa in Bithynia, was a sophist and stoic. He was in Egypt 
 when Vespasian, who had been proclaimed emperor by his own army, 
 came there, and was consulted by that prince on the proper course to 
 be adopted under the circumstances. Dion had the candour, or, as 
 some may think, the want of judgment, to advise him to restore the 
 republic. Afterwards he resided for some years at Rome, till one of 
 his friends, having engaged in a conspiracy against Domitian, was con- 
 demned to death, and Dion, fearing for himself, fled to the modern 
 Moldavia, where he remained till the tyrant's death, labouring for his 
 subsistence with his own hands, and possessing no books but the 
 ' Phaedon' of Plato and Demosthenes irepl UapairpeaPdas. Domitian 
 having been assassinated, the legions quartered on the Danube were 
 about to revolt, when Dion got upon an altar and harangued them so 
 effectually that they submitted to the decision of the senate. Dion 
 was in high favour with Nerva and Trajan, and when the latter 
 triumphed after his Dacian victories the orator sat in the emperor's 
 car in the procession. He returned to Bithynia, where he spent the 
 remainder of his life. Accusations of peculation and treason were 
 brought against him, but rejected as frivolous. Dion died at an 
 advanced age, but it is not known in what year. We have eighty 
 orations attributed to him, which are very prettily written, but not 
 of much intrinsic value. The best edition is that of Reiske, 2 vols. 
 8yo, Lips., 1784. The name Cocceianus, which Pliny ('Epist.' x. 85, 86) 
 gives to Dion, probably refers to his connection with the emperor 
 Cocceiue Nerva. 
 
 DION CA'SSIUS COCCEIA'NUS, or Cocceius, was the son of 
 Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator, and born at Nicao in Bithynia 
 about a.d. 155. On his mother's side ho waB descended from Dioa 
 Chrysostom, and it was from this branch of his family that he took 
 the uauie of Dion. Thus though he was on his mother's side of Greek 
 descent, and though in his writings he adopted the then prevailing 
 language of his native province, he must be considered as a Koman. 
 Under Commodus he lived iu Rome, where he enjoyed the rank of 
 senator. After the death of Septiuoius Severus and Caracalla, under 
 whom he held no public office, bo was made governor of Smyrna and 
 Pergamus by Macriuus. He was afterwards consul and proconsul iu 
 the provinces of Africa and Pannonia, probably under Alexander 
 Severus (Suidas, Ai'we), who esteemed him so highly as to make him 
 consul for the second time with himself. In his old age he is said to 
 have returned to his native country. (Photius, ' Dion Cassius.') 
 - Dion wrote a history of Rome in Greek, from the arrival of vEneas 
 iu Italy and the foundation of Alba and Rome to a.d. 229. To the 
 time of Julius Caesar his history was only a rapid sketch, but from 
 that date, and more particularly from the time of Commodus, when 
 he is a contemporary writer, his narrative is very complete. Of the 
 first 3(5 books there are only fragments extant; but there is a consider- 
 able fragment of the 35th book on the war of Lucullus against 
 Mithridates, and of the 36th, on the war with the Pirates and the 
 expedition of Pompey against Mithridates. The following books to 
 the 54th inclusive are nearly all entire ; they comprehend a period 
 from B.C. 65 to B.C. 10, or from the eastern campaigu of Pompey and 
 the death of Mithridates to the death of Agrippa. The 55th book 
 has a considerable gap in it. The 56th to the 60th, both included, 
 which comprehend the period from a.d. 9 to 54, are complete, and 
 contain the events from the defeat of Varus in Germany to the reign 
 of Claudius. Of the following 20 books we have only fragments, and 
 the meagre abridgment of Xiphilinus. The 80th or last book com- 
 prehends the period from a.d. 222 to 229, in the reign of Alexander 
 Severus. The abridgment of Xiphilinus, as now extant, commences 
 with the 35th and continues to the end of the 80th book : it is a very 
 indifferent performance. 
 
 The fragments of the first 36 books, a? now collected, are — 1, those 
 called 'Valesiana,' which were collected by Henri of Valois from 
 various scholiasts, lexicographers, and grammarians; 2, the 'Fragment 
 a Peireseiaua,' taken from the great work or compilation of Constan- 
 tinus Porphyrogenetus [Byzantine Historians] ; 3, ' Fragment a 
 Ursiniana,' also taken from the same compilation of Constantinus 
 Porphyrogenetus ; 4, ' Excerpta Vaticana,' by Mai, which contain 
 fragments of books 1-35 and 61-80, have been published iu the 
 second volume of the ' Scriptorum Veterum Nova Collectio,' 
 pp. 135-233. To these are added the fragments of an unknown 
 coutinuator of Dion (pp. 234-246), which go down to the time of 
 Constantine. Other fragments from Dion, belonging chiefly to the 
 first 35 books, also published in the same collection (pp. 527-5G7), 
 were found by Mai in two Vatican manuscripts, which contain a 
 sylloge or collection made by Maximus Planudes. 
 
 The annals of Zonaras contain numerous extracts from Dion. 
 
 Dion as an historian is not characterised by any great critical 
 power or judgment; indeed his own remarks are sometimes trifling. 
 His style is generally clear, though there are occasionally obscure 
 passages where there appears to be no corruption in the text. His 
 diligence is unquestionable, and from his opportunities he was well 
 acquainted with the circumstances of the empire during the period 
 for which he is a contemporary authority, and indeed we may assign 
 a high value to his history of the whole period from the time of 
 Augustus to his own age. Nor is his history without value for the 
 earlier periods of Roman history, in which, though he has fallen into 
 errors, like all the Greek and Roman writers who have handled the 
 same obscure subject, he still enables us to correct some erroneous 
 statements of Livy and Dionysius. 
 
 Other writings are attributed to Dion ; among them a life of Arrian 
 by Suidas. 
 
 The first edition of the Greek text of Dion was by R. Stephens, 
 Paris, 1548, foL, from one manuscript, and that very incorrect and 
 defective. Between this edition and that of Reimar there were several 
 editions. J. Alb. Fabriciu3 undertook a new edition of Dion, but 
 dying before he had completed his labour, his papers came into the 
 hands of H. S. Reimar, his son-in-law, who published the new edition 
 at Hamburg, 1751-52, 2 vols, fol., with a Latin translation. The 
 edition of Reimar is valuable, as he availed himself of the labours of 
 all his predecessors, arranged the fragments in order, and improved 
 the text and translation, to which he added notes. Some fragments 
 were afterwards discovered in a manuscript in the library of St. Mark, 
 by Morelli, and published by him at Bassano in 1798, 8vo. They were 
 reprinted at Paris in 1800, fol., in a form to accompany the edition of 
 Reimar. The small Tauchnitz print of Dion Cassius, 4 vols. 16mo, 
 contains the fragments. The most recent, and perhaps most useful 
 edition is by F. W. Sturz, Leipzig, 1824-25, 8 vols. 8vo ; a ninth 
 volume, published in 1843, contains the ' Excerpta Vaticana,' dis- 
 covered and first published by Mai. 
 
 DION, of Syracuse, son of Hipparinus, one of the chief men in that 
 city, lived under the reigns of both the Dionysii. He was originally 
 introduced to Dionysius the Elder by his sister Aristomache, one of 
 
801 DIONYSIUS THE ELDER. 
 
 (be kill's wives, but his own merit appears afterwards to have gained 
 him so much favour at court that he could speak to Dionysius with the 
 freedom of an equal. He had early become the disciple of Plato, 
 whom Dionysius had invited to Syracuse, and Plato is said to have 
 considered him the most ardent of his pupils. Soon after his accession 
 the younger Dionysius began to show the effects of an imperfect and 
 vicious education, while in private he abandoned himself to all kinds 
 of excesses. The prospects of his country roused Dion, and he 
 endeavoured to counteract the errors and to supply the deficiencies of 
 the tyrant by prudent counsels and exhortations. AmoDg other things 
 he advised him to invite Plato to revisit the Syracusan court, setting 
 forth the advantages which he would derive from his conversation and 
 knowledge. Dionysius wrote a letter of invitation, but the philosopher 
 had not forgotten the treatment which he had received from the 
 tyrant's father, and it was with the utmost difficulty that he was pre- 
 vailed on to go. The presence of Plato was dreaded by the dissolute 
 courtiers who surrounded Dionysius, and to counteract any influence 
 he might have, they obtained the recall of Philistus, whose talents 
 and tyrannical tendencies they thought were likely to be a match for 
 the philosopher. The enemies of Dion availed themselves of the same 
 opportunity to insinuate suspicions of Dion's loyalty, and succeeded 
 in procuring his banishment. He went first to Italy and then to 
 Greece, where he received the highest honours. Dionysius however 
 endeavoured to embitter his exile, and soon confiscated his lands and 
 effects, and forced bis wife to marry another person. Dion no sooner 
 heard of this outrage, than he determined to make an effort to expel 
 the tyrant. Though dissuaded by Plato, he began to raise troops 
 privately, and at last assembled his forces to the number of about 
 eight hundred in the island of Zacynthus, whence he sailed to Sicily. 
 On landing, he found that Dionysius was absent in Italy, and he was 
 accordingly received by the people with great joy. Dionysius at once 
 returned to Sicily, and made some fruitless attempts to regain his 
 influence, but after several defeats was forced to quit the island for 
 Italy. Dion however did not long enjoy the favour of his countrymen, 
 and by the influence of Heraclides, who estranged the minds of the 
 people from him, he was obliged to leave Sicily ; he was afterwards 
 recalled, but was treacherously murdered, B.C. 354, at about fifty-five 
 years of age, by his supposed friend Calippus, an Athenian. His death 
 was generally regretted ; and in honour of his high courage and 
 patriotism a monument was raised to him at the public expense. 
 (Diodorus Siculus, xvi. 6—20; Plutarch, Life of Dion; Nepos, Life 
 of Dion.) 
 
 DIONYSIUS THE ELDER was born at Syracuse about B.C. 430. 
 In the civil troubles of Syracuse, between the party of Diocles and 
 that of Hermocrates, who was accused of aspiring to the supreme 
 power, Dionysius took part with the latter, and was wounded in an 
 attempt which Hermocrates made to take possession of Syracuse. He 
 afterwards married the daughter of Hermocrates. Meantime the 
 Carthaginians had effected their second invasion of Sicily, and had 
 taken Selinus, Himera, and Agrigentum. (Xenophon, ' Hellenika,' 
 ii. 2.) All Sicily was in danger of falling into the hands of the con- 
 querors. In the assembly of the people of Syracuse, convoked after 
 the fall of Agrigentum, Dionysius accused the commanders and the 
 magistrates of neglect and treachery. In consequence of this charge 
 he was condemned to a heavy fine, which Philistus, the historian, 
 paid for him, and he then repeated his charges against those who were 
 at the head of the commonwealth, until he persuaded the people to 
 change the military commanders, and appoint new ones, among whom 
 himself waB one. His next measure was to obtain the recall of the 
 exiles, to whom he gave arms. Being sent to the relief of Gela, then 
 besieged by the Carthaginians, he effected nothing against the enemy, 
 pretending that he wa3 not seconded by the other commanders, and 
 his friends suggested that in order to save the state the supreme 
 power ought to be confided to one man, reminding the people of the 
 times of Gelon, who had defeated the Carthaginian host and given 
 peace to Sicily. The general assembly proclaimed Dionysius supreme 
 chief of the republic about B.C. 405, when he was twenty-five years of 
 age. He increased the pay of the soldiers, enlisted new ones, and 
 under pretence of a conspiracy against his person, formed a guard of 
 mercenaries. He then proceeded to the relief of Gela, but failed in 
 his attack on the Carthaginian camp ; he however penetrated into the 
 town, the inhabitants of which he advised to leave it quietly in the 
 night under the escort of his troops. On bis retreat he persuaded 
 those of Camarina to do the same. This raised suspicions among his 
 troops, and a party of horsemen, riding on before the rest, on their 
 arrival at Syracuse raised an insurrection against Dionysius, plundered 
 his house, and treated his wife so cruelly that she died in conse- 
 quence. Dionysiu.-', with a chosen body, followed close after, set fire 
 to the gate of Acradina, forced his way into the city, put to death the 
 leaders of the revolt, and remained undisputed possessor of the 
 supreme power. The Carthaginians, being afflicted by a pestilence, 
 made proposals of peace, which were accepted by Dionysius, on con- 
 dition that they should retain, besides their old colonies, the territories 
 of Agrigentum, Selinus, and Himci a ; that Gela and Camarina should 
 be restored to the inhabitants, who were to pay tribute to the 
 Carthaginians, and that Messana, Syracuse, Leontini, and whole 
 eastern division of the island as well as the towns of the Siculi, in 
 '.be interior, should remain independent. Himilco with the Caitha- 
 
 BIOG. JDIV. VOL. II. 
 
 DIONYSIUS THE ELDER. 602 
 
 ginian army returned to Africa, and Dionysius applied himself to 
 fortify Syracuse, and especially the island Ortygia, which lie made his 
 stronghold, and which he peopled entirely with his trusty partisans 
 and mercenaries, by the aid of whom he put down several revolts 
 which broke out against him. He took, partly by stratagem and 
 partly by force, the towns of Leontini, Cataua, and Naxus, and sub- 
 jected them to Syracuse. He next prepared for a new war against 
 Carthage by collecting men from every quarter, manufacturing a 
 large quantity of arms, and inventing new engines for besieging 
 towns. The termination of the Peloponnesiau war (B.C. 404) had 
 filled the Greek towns of Sicily with emigrants and disbanded mer- 
 cenaries, many of whom Dionysius enlisted in his service. In the 
 year B.C. 397, he convoked a general assembly of the people and 
 proposed the war, which was unanimously voted, aud which was 
 begun by the people plundering the houses and vessels of the Cartha- 
 ginian traders. Dionysius sent a herald to Carthage, which was then 
 afflicted by the plague, to declare war, unless all the Greek towns in 
 Sicily were evacuated. He next laid siege to Motya, one of the prin- 
 cipal Carthaginian colonies in Sicily, which his brother Leptines 
 attacked by sea. In this siege he tried his new engines, which 
 battered down the walls, and the town being taken, the inhabitants 
 were either killed or sold, and an immense booty was made by the 
 Syracusaus. Dionysius reduced also the other towns belonging to 
 the Carthaginians, except Panormos, Soloeis, and Egeste. Meantime 
 the Carthaginians collected a large force under Himilco, who landed 
 at Panormos, while his fleet took the island of Lipara ; he then 
 marched against Messana, which he took and destroyed; and thence 
 advanced towards Syracuse. Most of the towns inhabited by the 
 Siculi joined the Carthaginians. On arriving at Tauromenium 
 Himilco found his way along the sea-coast, but was stopped by a great 
 eruption of lava from ^Etna, and was obliged to march round by the 
 western base of the mountain. Meantime Mago with the Carthaginian 
 fleet attacked the Syracusan fleet off Catana, and completely defeated 
 it. Himilco encamped under the walls of Syracuse, while his victorious 
 fleet entered the great harbour. Dionysius, on his side, received ships 
 and men from Sparta. A dreadful pestilence breaking out in Himilco's 
 camp, Dionysius availed himself of it to attack the Carthaginians, 
 defeated them, and burnt mo3t of their ships. Himilco with the 
 remainder escaped to Carthage, having paid secretly a large sum to 
 Dionysius for his forbearance. 
 
 Dionysius settled the disbanded mercenaries as colonists at Leontini 
 and Messana, which latter city he caused to be rebuilt. Mago, with a 
 new Carthaginian army, having landed in Sicily, B.C. 392, was com- 
 pelled to re-embark on condition of paying the expenses of the war. 
 Dionysius now proceeded against Rhegium, with which the other 
 towns of Magna Grsecia had formed an alliance, while he gained over 
 to his side the Lucanians, and both together defeated the allies, devas- 
 tated the territories of Thurii, Croton, Caulon, Hipponium, and Locri, 
 and obliged the Greeks to sue for peace. About this time he is said 
 by Justinus, xx. 5, to have received an embassy from the Gauls, who 
 had just burnt Rome, offering him their alliance. In B.C. 387 he again 
 attacked Rhegium, and took it after a long and obstinate siege. He 
 sold the surviving inhabitants as slaves, and put their commander to a 
 cruel death. 
 
 Dionysius was now feared both in Italy and Sicily, and he seems to 
 have aspired at one time to the dominion of both countries. In order 
 to raise money he allied himself with the Illyrians, and proposed to 
 them the joint plunder of the temple of Delphi : the enterprise how- 
 ever failed. He then plundered several temples, such as that of 
 Proserpina, at Locri, aud as he sailed back with the plunder with a 
 fair wind, he, who was a humorist in his way, observed to his friends, 
 " You see how the immortal Gods favour sacrilege." With these 
 resources he was preparing himself for a new expedition to Italy, 
 when a fresh Carthaginian armament landed in Sicily, B.C. 383, and 
 defeated Dionysius, whose brother, Leptines, fell in the battle. A 
 peace followed, of which Carthage dictated the conditions. The 
 boundary of the two states was fixed at the river Halycus, and Diony- 
 sius had to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the war. This peace 
 lasted fourteen years, during which Dionysius remained the undis- 
 turbed ruler of Syracuse and one-half of Sicily, with part of Southern 
 Italy. He sent colonies to the coasts of the Adriatic, and his fleets 
 navigated both seas. Twice he sent assistance to his old ally, Sparta, 
 once against the Athenians, B.C. 374, and again in 369, after the battle 
 of Leuctra, when the Spartans were hard pressed by Epaminondas. 
 Meantime the court of Dionysius was frequented by many distinguished 
 men, philosophers and poets. Plato is said to have been among the 
 former, being invited by Dion, the brother-in-law of Dionysius ; but 
 the philosopher's declamations against tyranny led to his being sent 
 away from Syracuse. The poets fared little better, as Dionysius him- 
 self aspired to poetical glory, for which however he was not so well 
 qualified as for political success. Those who did not praise his verses 
 were in danger of being sent to prison. Dionysius twice sent some 
 of his poems to be recited at the Olympic games, but they were hissed 
 by the assembly. He was more successful at Athens. A tragedy of 
 his obtained the prize, and the news of his success almost turned his 
 brain. He had just concluded a fresh truce with the Carthaginians, 
 after having made an unsuccessful attack upon Lilybcsum at the 
 expiration of the fourteen years' peace; and he now gave himself uj 
 
DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER. 
 
 DIONYSIUS CATO. 
 
 to rejoicings and feasting for his poetical triumph. In a debauch 
 with his friends he ate and drank so intemperately that he fell sense- 
 less, and soon after died; some say he was poisoned, B.C. 367, in the 
 sixty-third year of his age, having been tyrant of Syracuse thirty- 
 eight years. After the death of his first wife he married two wives 
 at once, namely, Doris of Locri, and Aristajneta, daughter of Hippa- 
 rinus, of Syracuse : by these women he had seven children, of whom 
 Dionysius, hia elder son by Doris, succeeded him in the sovereignty. 
 
 Dionysius was a clever statesman, and generally successful in his 
 undertakings; he did much to strengthen and extend the power of 
 Syracuse, and it was probably owiug to him that all Sicily did not 
 fall into the hands of the Carthaginians after the taking of Agrigentum. 
 He was unscrupulous, rapacious, and vindictive, but several of the 
 stories stated of his cruelty and suspicious temper appear improbable, 
 or at least exaggerated. The works of Fhilistus, who had written his 
 life, and who is praised by Cicero, are lost. Diodorus, who is our 
 principal remaining authority concerning Dionysius, lived nearly three 
 centuries after, and was not a critical writer. The government of 
 Dionysius, like that of many others who are styled tyrants in ancient 
 history, was not a despotism ; it resembled rather that of the first 
 Medici and other leaders of the Italian republics in the middle ages, 
 or that of the Stadtholders in Holland. The popular forms still 
 remained, and we find Dionysius repeatedly convoking the assembly 
 of the people on important occasions, when full freedom of speech 
 seems to have been allowed. 
 
 British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight 2G3 grains. 
 
 DIONY'SIUS THE YOUNGER, sou of Dionysius the Elder, suc- 
 ceeded him as tyrant of Syracuse, being acknowledged as such by the 
 people. His father had left the state in a prosperous condition, but 
 young Dionysius had neither his abilities nor his prudence and expe- 
 rience. He followed at first the advice of Dion, who, although a 
 republican in principle, had remained faithful to hi3 father, and who 
 now endeavoured to direct the inexperienced son for the good of his 
 country. For this purpose Dion invited his friend Plato to Syracuse 
 about B.C. 3C4. Dionysius received the philosopher with great respect, 
 and in deference to his advice reformed for a while his loose habits 
 and the manners of his court. But a faction, led by Philistus, who 
 had always been a supporter of the tyranny of the elder Dionysius, 
 succeeded in prejudicing his son against both Dion and Plato. Dion 
 was exiled under pretence that he had written privately to the 
 senate of Carthage for the purpose of concluding a peace. Plato 
 urgently demanded of Dionysius the recall of Dion, and not being able 
 to obtain it, he left Syracuse, after which Dionysius gave himself up 
 to debauchery without restraint. Aristippus, who was then at his 
 court, was the kind of philosopher best suited to the taste of Diony- 
 sius. Dion meantime was travelling through Greece, where his 
 character gained him numerous friends. Dionysius, moved by jealousy, 
 confiscated his property, and obliged his wife to marry another. Upon 
 this Dion collected a small force at Zacynthus, with which he sailed 
 for Sicily, and entered Syracuse without resistance. Dionysius was 
 absent at the time, but his adherents retired to the citadel in the 
 Ortygia. Diouysius soon returned, and after some resistance, in which 
 old Philistus, his best supporter, was taken prisoner and put to death, 
 he quitted Syracuse, and retired to Locri, the country of his mother, 
 where he had connections and friends. 
 
 After the murder of Dion [Dion] several tyrants succeeded each 
 other in Syracuse, until Dionysius himself came and retook it about 
 B.C. 346. Dionysius however, instead of improving by his ten years' 
 exile, had grown worse ; haviDg usurped the supreme power in Locri, 
 he had committed many atrocities, had put to death several citizens, 
 and abused their wives and daughters. (Justinus, yElianus.) Upon 
 his return to Syracuse, his cruelty and profligacy drove away a great 
 number of people, who emigrated to various parts of Italy and Greece, 
 whilst others joined Iketas, tyrant of Leontini, and a former friend of 
 Dion. The latter sent messengers to Corinth to request assistance 
 against Dionysius. The Corinthians appointed as leader of the expe- 
 dition Timoleon, who had already figured in the affairs of his own 
 country as a determined opponent of tyranny. Timoleon landed in 
 Sicily B.C. 344, notwithstanding the opposition of the Carthaginians 
 and of Iketas, who acted a perfidious part on this occasion; he entered 
 Syracuse, and soon after obliged Dionysius to surrender. Dionysius 
 was sent to Coriuth, where he spent the remainder of his life iu the 
 company of actors and low women ; some say that at oue time he kept 
 a school. Justin (xxi. 5) says that he purposely affected low habits in 
 order to disarm revenge, and that being despised, he might no longer 
 
 be feared or hated for his former tyranny. Several repartees are 
 related of him iu answer to those who taunted him upon his altered 
 fortunes, which are not destitute of wit or wisdom. 
 (Plutarch, Dion ; Diodorus, xvL) 
 
 DIONY'SIUS, the sou of Alexander, an historian and critic, bom 
 at Halicarnassus in the first century B.c. We know nothing of his 
 history beyond what he has told us of himself. He states (' Antiq.,' 
 p. 20-24) that he came to Italy at the termination of the civil war 
 between Augustus and Antony (b.c. 29), and that he spent the fol- 
 lowing two-and-twenty years at Rome in learning the Latin language 
 and in collecting materials for his history. (Phot. ' Biblioth.,' 
 cod. lxxxvi.) He also says (' Antiq.,' p. 1725) that he lived in the 
 time of the great civil war. The principal work of Dionysius is his 
 ' Roman Antiquities,' which commenced with the early history of the 
 people of Italy, and terminated with the beginning of the first Punic 
 war, B.C. 265. (' Antiq.' i., p. 22.) It originally consisted of twenty 
 books, of which the first ten remain entire. The eleventh breaks off 
 in the year B.C. 312, but several fragments of the latter half of the 
 history are preserved in the collection of Constantinus Porphyroge- 
 netus, and to these a valuable addition was made in 1816 by Mai, 
 from an old manuscript. Besides, the first three books of Appian 
 were founded entirely upon Dionysius ; and Plutarch's biography of 
 Camillus must also be considered as a compilation mostly taken from 
 the Roman Antiquities, so that perhaps upon the whole we have not 
 lost much of this work. With regard to the trustworthiness and 
 general value of Dionysiua's history, considerable doubts may be justly 
 entertained ; for though he has evidently written with much greater 
 care than Livy, and has studied Cato and the old annalists more 
 diligently than hia Roman contemporary, yet he wrote with an object 
 which at once invalidates his claim to be considered a veracious and 
 impartial historian. Dionysius wrote for the Greeks ; and his object 
 was to relieve them from the mortification which they felt at being 
 conquered by a race of barbarians, aa they considered the Romans to 
 be ; and this he endeavoured to effect by twisting and forging testi- 
 monies and botching up the old legends, so as to make out a primd 
 facie proof of the Greek origin of the city of Rome, and he inserts 
 arbitrarily a great number of set speeches, evidently composed for 
 the same purpose. He indulges in a minuteness of detail which, 
 though it might be some proof of veracity in a contemporary history, 
 is a palpable indication of want of faith in the case of an ancient 
 history so obscure and uncertain as that of Rome. With all his 
 study and research, Dionysius was so imperfectly acquainted with the 
 Roman constitution that he often misrepresents the plainest statements 
 about it. (Niebuhr, * Hist. Home,' vol. ii., p. 13, Engl, tr.) For iustauce, 
 he imagines that the patricians had all the influence in the centuries, 
 and that the plebeians and equites had nothing to do with the first 
 class. ('Antiq.' vii. 82-87, x. 17. See Niebuhr, 'Hist. Rome,' ii, 
 p. 178, Engl, tr.) He thought the original constitution of Rome was 
 a monarchical democracy, and calls the curies the ' demus ' (Sri/aos). 
 He believed when he wrote his second book that the decrees of the 
 people were enacted by the curies and confirmed by the senate 
 ('Antiq.' ii. 14), and not, as he afterwards discovered, the converse. 
 (' Antiq.' vii. 38.) In a word, though the critical historian may be 
 able to extract much that is of great importance for the early history 
 of Rome from the garbled narrative and the dull trifling of Dionysius, 
 he cannot be regarded as a meritorious writer, or recommended to 
 the student of ancient history as a faithful guide. Dionysius also 
 wrote a treatise on rhetoric; criticisms on the style of Thucydides, 
 Lysias, Isocrates, Isceus, Diuarchus, Plato, and Demosthenes; a 
 treatise on the arrangement of words, and some other short essays. 
 His critical works are much more valuable than his history, and are 
 indeed written with considerable power. The criticism on Dinarchus 
 [Dinaechus] displays good sense and judgment, and shows the greas 
 pains which the author took to separate the genuine writings of the 
 Attic orators from the fabrications which passed under their name. 
 The best edition of Dionysius is that of Reiske, ' Lips.,' 1774-1777, 
 6 vols., in 8vo. Mai's fragments were first published at Milan in 1816, 
 and reprinted the following year at Frankfurt. They also appear in 
 the second volume of Mai's ' Nova Coll«ctio,' Rome, 1827. Hi3 
 rhetoric has been published separately by Schott, Lips., 8vo, 1804; 
 and his remarks on Thucydides by Kriiger, Hal. Sax., 8vo, 1823. 
 
 DION'YSIUS of Byzantium lived before the year a.d. 196. His 
 voyage ('AvdirXovs) in the Thracian Bosporus was extant in the 16th 
 century, for Gyllius, who died in 1555, has given extracts in Latin 
 from it in his work on the ' Thracian Bosporus.' A single fragment 
 from this work is printed in Ducange's ' Constantinopolis Christiana, 
 and in Hudson's ' Minor Greek Geographers.' Perhaps there is some 
 confusion between this Dionysius and the author of the ' Periegesis, 
 whom Suidas (Aiovvaios) caDs a Corinthian. 
 
 DIONY'SIUS CATO. This is the name given to the author of a 
 Latin work in four books entitled ' Dionysii Catonis Disticha de 
 Moribus ad Filium.' But the real name of the author is unknown, 
 and also the time when he lived. It is admitted however that he 
 lived before the time of the Emperor Valentinian. These Disiicba, 
 which are in verse, are short moral precepts intended for the edifica- 
 tion of youth. 
 
 There was a work by M. Cato (probably the younger Cato) entitled 
 'Carmen de Moribus,' from which Aulus Gellius (xi. 2) has given 
 
toe 
 
 several extracts ; but it was not a poem, as some critics have falsely 
 concluded from the word Carmen ; for that word meant something 
 expressed concisely, and did not necessarily imply any metrical 
 arrangement of the words. The work of Cato seems mainly to have 
 consisted of moral precepts, and the existence of such a work may 
 have induced the writer or compiler of these Distichs to attach to it 
 the name of Cato. 
 
 The style of these Distichs is simple, and the language generally 
 pure. During the middle ages they were much used in the schools 
 for the purposes of instruction, both on the continent of Europe and 
 in England, and they have been used in some parts of England even 
 to the present century. 
 
 The great number of editions shows the popularity which this little 
 work once had. The earliest known edition is without date : a copy 
 of it, apparently the only copy known to exist, is in the library of 
 Earl Spencer. One of the latest and best editions is by Arntzenius, 
 Utrecht, 8vo, 1735, There is a Greek translation of the Distichs by 
 Maximus Planudes, which was published at Paris, 4to, 1543, Weigel. 
 There are translations of the Distichs into many of the languages of 
 Europe. Caxton published an English version of the Distichs, which 
 was made from the French, folio, 1483. There are several English 
 translations from the Latin, the latest of which perhaps is that of 
 N. Bailey, 8vo, London, 1771. 
 
 (Biihr, Geschichte Rom. Lit. ; Schweiger, Handbuch der Classischen 
 Bibliographic) 
 
 DIONY'SIUS OF CO'LOPHON, a celebrated Greek painter, who 
 lived in the time of Pericles. His works were known to Aristotle, 
 who, in speaking of imitation, says, that it must be superior, inferior, 
 or equal to its model, which he exemplifies by the works of three 
 painters. Polygnotus, he says, painted men better than they are, 
 Pauson worse than they are, and Dionysius as they are ; by which we 
 may infer that Dionysius was a good portrait painter. His style was 
 laboured, as we learn from Plutarch, who states that his works had 
 both force and spirit, yet they appeared to be too much laboured. 
 
 Polygnotus and Dionysius were contemporaries, and, according to 
 Aelian, painted similar subjects in a similar style, except that Diony- 
 sius painted in small and Polygnotus in large. Aelian, in the passage 
 alluded to, evidently refers to the styles of the two painters, and not 
 their pictures ; he says that Dionysius imitated in every respect, 
 except in size, the art of Polygnotus. Nearly the same might be said 
 of Garofolo with respect to his small works and the art of Raffaelle, 
 without implying that Garofolo copied in small the pictures of 
 Raffaelle, which is the interpretation given by Sillig and others to 
 \he words of Aelian, namely, that Dionysius copied in small the 
 pictures of Polygnotus. 
 
 There was another painter of this name, who lived in Rome about 
 the time of the first Roman emperors. Pliny states that his works 
 filled picture-galleries. He was probably the same Dionysius who was 
 called, according to Pliny, the ' Anthropograph,' because he painted 
 nothing but men ; some however think that it was Dionysius of 
 Colophon who was so designated. 
 
 (Aristotle, Poet., c. 2; Plutarch, Timol, 36; Aelian, Vat: Hkt,, 
 iv. 3; Plinv, Hist. Nat, xxxv. 37, 40.) 
 
 DIONY'SIUS PERIEGE'TES, the author of a Greek poem in 1186 
 hexameter verses, entitled T?js OiKovfiiv^ Uepiiiyriais, or 'a description 
 of the habitable world.' It is not known where Dionysius was born, 
 nor where he lived. Perhaps the most probable opinion is, that 
 he was a native of Byzantium and belonged to the latter part of 
 the 3rd or the beginning of the 4th century a.d. As a poem the 
 ' Periegeais ' i3 of little value, and as a geographical work, not worth 
 the trouble of reading. The commentary of Eustathius on the 
 'Periegesis' possesses some value for the miscellaneous information 
 which is scattered through it. There are two Latin translations of 
 this poem, one by Rufus Festus Avienus, and the other by Priscianus. 
 There are numerous editions of Dionysius. The best edition of the 
 'PeriegesU' is by G. Bernhardy, Leipzig, 8vo, 1828, in the first 
 volume of his ' Geographi Graeci Minores.' 
 
 DIOPHANTUS, a native of Alexandria, the exact date of whose 
 birth i3 unknown, some authors asserting that he lived in the reign of 
 Augustus, whilst others place him under Nero, or even the Antonines. 
 The fact is that we do not know when he lived. He lived however, as 
 is well ascertained, to eighty-four years of age. 
 
 Diophantus left behind him thirteen books of ' Arithmetical Ques- 
 tions,' of which however only six are extant ; but from their distinct 
 and peculiar character, in comparison with all the other writings of 
 the Greek mathematicians, these books have given rise to much dis- 
 cussion. It is however scarcely to be conceived that whilst the 
 cumbrous machinery of common language constituted the sole instru- 
 ment of investigation, the very curious conclusions which we find iu 
 this work could have resulted from the researches of one single mind. 
 To suppose that Diophantus was the inventor of the analysis which 
 bears his name, is so contrary to all analogy with experience and the 
 history of mental phenomena, as to be utterly impossible to admit. 
 Still, if we inquire into the history of this branch of analysis, and 
 ask who were the predecessors of Diophantus, or whether they were 
 Greeks or Hindus, no satisfactory answer can be given. The question 
 whether Diophantus was the original inventor, or whether he derived 
 the original suggestion from India, will be noticed under Viqa Ganita. 
 
 Diophantus also wrote a book on 'Polygon Numbers' (irepl 
 ■Kokvywvwv api0fiui>). Holzmann published at Easel, in 1575, folio, a 
 Latin translation of both the works of Diophantus. The first Greek 
 edition was by Meziriac, Paris, 1621, folio; an improved edition of 
 Meziriac's edition was published by S. de Format," Toulouse, 1670, 
 folio. A valuable translation of the ' Arithmetical Questions ' into 
 German was published by Otto Schulz, Berlin, 1822, 8vo; to which is 
 added Poselger's translation of the work on ' Polygon Numbers.' 
 
 DIOSCO'RIDES, PEDA'CIUS, or PEDA'NIUS, a Greek writer 
 on materia medica, was born at Anazarbus, in Cilicia, and flourished 
 in the reign of Nero, as appears from the dedication of his books to 
 Areus Asclepiadeus, who was a friend of the consul Licinius or 
 Lecanius Bassus. In early life he seems to have been attached to the 
 army ; and either at that time or subsequently he travelled through 
 Greece, Italy, Asia Minor, and some parts of Gaul, collecting plants 
 with diligence and acquainting himself with their properties, real or 
 reputed. He also gathered together the opinions current in his day 
 concerning the medical plants brought from countries not visited by 
 himself, especially from India, which at that time furnished many 
 drugs to the western markets. From such materials he compiled his 
 celebrated work on 'Materia Medica,' in five books, wherein between 
 500 and 600 medicinal plants are named and briefly described. He is 
 moreover reputed the author of some additional books on therapeutics, 
 &c. ; but in the judgment of Sprengel the latter are spurious, and, 
 from the mixture of Latin and Greek names of plants, are probably 
 some monkish forgery. 
 
 Few books have ever enjoyed such long and universal celebrity as 
 the ' Materia Medica ' of Dioscorides. For sixteen centuries and more, 
 to use the words of one of his biographers, this work was referred to 
 as the fountain-head of all authority by everybody who studied either 
 botany or the mere virtues of plants. Up to the commencement of 
 the 17th century the whole of academical or private study in such 
 subjects was begun and ended with the works of Dioscorides; and it 
 was only when the rapidly increasing numbers of new plants and the 
 general advance in all branches of physical knowledge compelled 
 people to admit that the vegetable kingdom might contain more things 
 than were dreamt of by the Anazarbian philosopher, that his authority 
 ceased to be acknowledged. 
 
 This is the more surprising, considering the real nature of these 
 famous books. The author introduced no order into the arrangement 
 of his matter, unless by consulting a similarity of sound in the names 
 he gave his plants. Thus, medium was placed with epimedium, 
 althse cannabina with cannabis, hippophEestum (cnicus stellatus) with 
 hippopbae, and so on ; the mere separation of aromatic and gum- 
 bearing trees, esculents and corn-plants, hardly forms an exception to 
 this statement. Of many of his plants no description is given, but 
 they are merely designated by a name. In others the descriptions 
 are comparative, contradictory, or unintelligible. He employs the 
 same word in different senses, and evidently attached no exactness to 
 the terms he made use of. He described the same plant twice under the 
 same name or different names ; he was often exceedingly careless, and 
 he appears to have been ready to state too much upon the authority 
 of others. Nevertheless, his writings are extremely interesting as 
 showing the amount of materia medica knowledge in the author's day, 
 and his descriptions are in many cases far from bad ; but we must be 
 careful not to look upon them as evidence of the state of botany at 
 the same period, for Dioscorides has no pretension to be ranked among 
 the botanists of antiquity, considering that the writings of Theo- 
 phrastus, four centuries earlier, show that botany had even at that 
 time begun to be cultivated as a science distinct from the art of the 
 herbalist. 
 
 The most celebrated manuscript of Dioscorides is one at Vienna, 
 illuminated with rude figures. It was sent by Busbequius, the 
 Austrian ambassador at Constantinople, to Mathiolus, who quotes it 
 under the name of the ' Cantacuzene Codex,' and is believed to have 
 been written in the 6th century. Copies of some of the figures were 
 inserted by Dodoens in his ' Historia Stirpium,' and others were 
 " engraved in the reign of the Empress Maria Theresa, under the 
 inspection of Jacquin ; two impressions only of these plates, as far as 
 we can learn, have ever been taken off, as the work was not prosecuted." 
 One of them is now in the Library of the Liunrean Society ; the other 
 is, we believe, with Sibthorp's collection at Oxford. They are of little 
 importance, as the figures are of the rudest imaginable description. 
 Another manuscript of the 9th century exists at Paris, and was used 
 by Salmasius ; this also is illustrated with figures, and has both Arabic 
 and Coptic names introduced, on which account it is supposed to have 
 been written in Egypt. Besides these, there is at Vienna a manuscript 
 believed to be still more ancient than that first mentioned, and three 
 others are preserved at Leyden. 
 
 The first edition of the Greek text of Dioscorides was published by 
 Aldus at Venice, in 1499, fol. A far better one is that of Paris, 1549, 
 in 8vo, by J. Goupyl ; but a better still is the folio Frankfurt edition, 
 of 1598, by Sarracenus. Sprengel laments, " nullum rei herbaria? 
 peritum virum utilissimo huic scriptori operam impendisse." Never- 
 theless, there have been many commentators, of whom some, such as 
 Fuchsius, Amatus Lusitanus, Ruellius, Tabernaemontanus, Tragus, and 
 Dalechampius, are of no sort of authority, while others, especially 
 Matthiolus, Maranta, Cordus, John Bauhin, and Tournefort, among 
 
C07 
 
 DIOSCU HIDES. 
 
 the older, with Sibthorp, Smith, and Sprengel, among modern com- 
 mentators, deserve to be consulted with attention. The last edition 
 of the Greek text is by Spreugel, in the collection of ' Greek Phy- 
 sicians ' by Klihn, Leipzig, 1829, 8vo, which has been improved by a 
 collation of several manuscripts. Dr. Sibthorp, who visited Greece 
 for the purpose of studying on the spot the Greek plants of Diosco- 
 rides, must be accounted of the highest critical authority ; for it 
 frequently happens that the traditions of the country, localities, or 
 other sources of information, throw far more light upon the state- 
 ments of this ancient author than his own descriptions. It will ever 
 be a subject of regret to scholars, that Dr. Sibthorp should have died 
 before he was able to prepare for the press the result of his inquiries ; 
 what is known of them is embodied in the ' Prodromus Flora) Grxcse,' 
 published from his materials by the late Sir James Edward Smith, 
 and in the ' Flora Grseca' itself, consisting of 10 vols, fol., with nearly 
 1000 coloured plates, commenced by the same botanist, and since 
 completed under the direction of Professor Lindley. [Sibthorp.] So 
 far as European plants are in question, we may suppose that the 
 means of illustrating Dioscorides are now nearly exhausted ; but it is 
 far otherwise with his Indian and Persian plants. Concerning the 
 latter, it is probable that much may still be learned from a study of 
 the modern materia medica of India, though something has been 
 effected by the researches of Dr. Royle. When the Nestorians, iu the 
 5th century, were driven into exile, they sought refuge among the 
 Arabs, with whom they established their celebrated school of medi- 
 cine, the ramifications of which extended into Persia and India, and 
 laid the foundation of the present medical practice of the natives of 
 those countries. In this way the Greek names of Dioscorides, altered 
 indeed, and adapted to the genius of the new countries, became intro- 
 duced into the languages of Persia, Arabia, and Hindustan, and have 
 been handed down traditionally to the present day. Thus Dr. Royle 
 has shown, by an examination of this sort of evidence, that the 
 Kalamos aromatikos of Dioscorides is not a Gentian, as has been 
 imagined ; that Nardos Indikc is unquestionably the N ardostachys 
 Jatamansi of De Candolle, and that the Lukion Indikon was neither a 
 Rhamuus nor a Lycium, but as Prosper Alpinus long ago asserted, a 
 Berberis. With regard to the last plant, Dr. Royle states that Berberis 
 is at the present day called in India ' hooziz hindee,' or Indian hooziz. 
 This last word has for its Arabic synonym ' loofyon,' or ' lookyon ; ' 
 therefore the Berbery is still called Indian lycium, with the reputed 
 qualities and uses of which it moreover corresponds. 
 
 DIOSCU'RIDES (AiocrKovp'iSrjs), a very celebrated ancient gem 
 engraver who lived at Rome about the time of the Emperor Augustus. 
 Augustus and later emperors were in the habit, according to Suetonius, 
 of using a seal, representing Augustus's portrait, which was engraved 
 by Dioscurides. There are still several gems extant which bear the 
 name of Dioscurides, but the genuineness of most of them has been 
 questioned ; a few of them however are beautifully finished, and are 
 perhaps worthy of the reputation of the greatest gem engraver of 
 antiquity, a reputation which Dioscurides had, according to Pliny. 
 
 A Dioscorides of Samos was a worker in mosaic; two of his works 
 have been discovered in Pompeii. 
 
 (Suetonius, Augustus, 50; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxvii. 4; Bracci, Com- 
 mcntaria de Antiquis Sculptoribus, &c. ; Winckelmann, Geschichte dcr 
 Kunst des Alterthums.) 
 
 DISRAELI, ISAAC, was born at Enfield in 1766. His father, 
 Benjamin Disraeli, was the descendant of a family of Spanish Jews, who, 
 driven from the Peninsula in the 15th century by the persecutions of 
 the Inquisition, had settled in Venice, and there, to mark their race, 
 had exchanged the Gothic-Spanish name they had hitherto borne for 
 that of Disraeli — "a name never borne before or since by any other 
 family " (the name was originally written DTsraeli ; but in his later 
 years the subject of this memoir was in the habit of omitting the 
 apostrophe). He had come over to England from Italy in 1748, and 
 made a considerable fortune by commerce. He married in 1705 
 " the beautiful daughter of a family " of his own race " who had 
 suffered much from persecution." She was a person of strong sense 
 but no imagination, whose ruling feeling was "a dislike for her 
 race. ' The only child of this union was the subject of our notice. 
 His sensitive and poetical character as a boy puzzled both his 
 parents, and, in particular, occasioned continual discord between 
 him and his mother. His father destined him for commerce; but 
 from the first he showed a decided aversion to an active life. 
 Educated first at a school near Enfield, and then at Amsterdam, 
 where the only advantage he received was that derived from access to 
 a large library, he was not more than eighteen when, in spite of all 
 that his father could say or do, he signified his intention of being a 
 literary man. " He had written a poem of considerable length, which 
 he wished to publish, against commerce." His father naturally 
 opposed this intention, and accordingly " he enclosed his poem to 
 Dr. Johnson with an impassioned statement of his case, complaining 
 that he had never found a counsellor or literary friend. He left his 
 packet himtelf at Bolt Court, where he was received by Mr. Francis 
 Barber, the doctor's well known black servant, and told to call again in 
 a week." When he did call the packet was returned to him unopened, 
 with a message that the doctor was too ill to read anything. The doctor, 
 in fact, was then on his death bed. In 1788 Disraeli's father sent him 
 to travel in France. On his return, finding Peter Pindar's satires in 
 
 everybody's mouth, he ventured anonymously to publish by way 
 of corrective some verses " On the Abuse of Satire," which Walcot 
 attributed to Hayley. About this time he became acquainted with 
 Mr. Pye, afterwards poet laureate, who was of service to him in many 
 ways, and who persuaded his father to allow him to follow his own 
 inclinations. Accordingly from about 1790, without any farther 
 opposition on the part of his family, and with sufficient means 
 supplied by his father (who survived till 1819, when he was nearly 
 ninety years of age), he was free to devote himself entirely to litera- 
 ture. His first efforts were in poetry and romance. His early verses 
 are forgotten ; but a volume of romantic tales, including one called 
 ' The Loves of Mejnoun and Leila,' published by him BOtne time 
 before the close of the 18th century, reached a second edition. But, 
 though he had much poetic taste, he was not fitted to be a poet or 
 creative writer; and he was not long in finding out that his true 
 destiny was " to give to his country a series of works illustrative of 
 its literary and political history " — in other words, to prosecute 
 researches in literary history and gossip. It was in the year 1790 that 
 he published anonymously a little volume entitled ' Curiosities of 
 Literature.' The success of this volume determined him to prosecute 
 the walk which he had there entered upon. Accordingly, with the 
 exception of the volume of romance above alluded to, and we believe, 
 one other anonymous publication, all Mr. Disraeli's farther productions 
 during his long life consisted of the fruits of his literary and historical 
 researches. These researches were prosecuted partly in the British 
 Museum, where he was a constant visitor at a time when the readers 
 who had access to its treasures were not more than half-a dozen daily; 
 partly in his own library, which, especially in the end of his life (when 
 lie resided on his own manor of Bradenham in Buckinghamshire) was 
 very extensive. The results of these researches were put forth from 
 time to time either as additions to his ' Curiosities of Literature ' 
 (which thus eventually attained, in the eleventh edition published iu 
 1839, the bulk of six volumes); or as independent publications. 
 Among the independent publications may be mentioned his ' Essay 
 on the Literary Character ' originally published in 1795 ; his 
 ' Calamities of Authors,' his ' Quarrels of Authors,' or ' Memoirs of 
 Literary Controversy,' and his ' Inquiry into the Literary and 
 Political Character of James the First ' — works originally published 
 between 1812 and 1822, and since then published collectively under 
 the title of ' Miscellanies of Literature ; ' and his ' Life and Reign of 
 Charles the First,' published in five volumes at intervals between 
 1828 and 1831. In acknowledgment of this last work he was made 
 D.C.L. by the University of Oxford. He contemplated a 'Life of 
 Pope,' and also 'A History of the English Free-thinkers,' and had 
 collected materials for both ; but a paralysis of the optic nerve which 
 attacked him in 1839 prevented him from executing either. With 
 the assistance of his daughter he selected from his manuscripts three 
 volumes, which were published in 1841 under the title of ' Amenities 
 of Literature.' His last years were spent in revising and re-editinj, 
 his former works; and he died on the 19th of January, 18m. 
 " He was," says his fou, from whose memoir, prefixed to a new 
 and posthumous edition of his ' Curiosities of Literature,' we have 
 derived the foregoing particulars, " a complete literary character, a 
 man who really passed his life in his library. Even marriage pro- 
 duced no change in these habits : he rose to enter the chamber where 
 he lived alone with his bookB, and at night his lamp was ever lit 
 within the same walls." In his old age his appearance was mild and 
 venerable ; he had then become rather corpulent. 
 
 * DISRAELI, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE BENJAMIN, one of 
 the sons of the subject of the preceding notice, was born in Loudon iu 
 December 1805. He showed great precocity of talent; which how- 
 ever was for some time kept in check by drudgery iu an attorney's 
 office, where he had been placed by his father to qualify him for the 
 legal profession. His first efforts with his pen were in 1826, when he 
 contributed articles to a daily metropolitan newspaper then started in 
 the Tory interest, under the name of ' The Representative.' The 
 paper did not exist longer than five months. The experiment he had 
 made in connection with it however was sufficient to confirm young 
 Disraeli's determination to combine political ambition with what he 
 might consider his hereditary right to distinction in literature. In 
 1828 he published his novel of ' Vivian Grey,' painting the career in 
 modern society of a youth of talent, ambitious of a political celebrity. 
 This work made a great sensation. From 1829 to 1831 Mr. Disraeli 
 travelled on the Continent, and in the East, whence he brought home 
 those impressions of Oriental life, the pictures of which appear in so 
 many of his novels ; and about the same time apparently he begau 
 those musings as to the function in the modern world of the race to 
 which he belonged, which have since, under the form of a theory of 
 the supremacy of the Semitic mind (Mr. Disraeli misnames it the 
 Caucasian mind) pervaded most of his works. While on his travels 
 Mr. Disraeli wrote and published two additional novels, ' Contarini 
 Fleming ' and ' The Young Duke.' On his return, at a time when the 
 Reform Bill agitation had introduced a new era in British politics, he 
 made various efforts to get elected to Parliament. He stood, with 
 recommendations from Mr. Hume and Mr. O'Connell to back him, for 
 the small borough of Wycombe in Bucks, his position being that of a 
 candidate of Radical opinions, whom however the Tories as well as 
 the Radicals supported, from opposition to the Whigs. Defeated iu 
 
aog 
 
 DISSEN, GEORGE LUDOLF. 
 
 cio 
 
 this election be became a candidate (1833) in tbe Radical interest for 
 the borough of Mary lebone; describing himself in bis address to tbe 
 electors as a man who " had already fought the battle of the people," 
 and who " was supported by neither of tbe aristocratic parties," and 
 avowing himself a friend to Triennial Parliaments and Vote by Ballot. 
 He was again unsuccessful ; and seeing no chance of being elected by 
 any other constituency, he resumed bis literary occupations. Tbe 
 'Wondrous Tale of Alroy,' and 'The Rise of Iskauder,' published 
 together in 1833 provoked some critical ridicule from the extravagance 
 of their style, as well as from the extravag*uce of tbe author's claims 
 in their behalf as novelties in the modern literary art. They were 
 followed by the 'Revolutionary Epic,' a quarto poem (1834), tbe high 
 pretensions of which were not confirmed by any impression it made 
 on the reading public. In tbe same year be published a political 
 pamphlet entitled, ' The Crisis Examined,' and in 1835 another 
 pamphlet entitled, ' A Vindication of tbe English Constitution.' In 
 this year be became a candidate for the borough of Taunton, and as 
 he now came forward in tbe Conservative interest, O'Connell in reply 
 to an attack made by Mr. Disraeli on bim at the hustings, issued a 
 diatribe against bim, in which he accused him of inconsistency in 
 language coarser and more personal than was perhaps ever used before 
 on any similar occasion. This led to a hostile correspondence between 
 Mr. Disraeli and Mr. O'Connell's son, and to altercations in tbe news- 
 papers, in the course of which Mr. Disraeli explained his political 
 principles in a manner intended to show how his professions and 
 conduct in 1831 and 1833 might be reconciled with his professions 
 and conduct in 1835. In a letter addressed to Mr. O'Connell himself, 
 after his failure in tbe election, he said, alluding to this fact of bis 
 repeated failures : — " I have a deep conviction that the hour is at 
 hand when I shall be more successful. I expect to be a representative 
 of the people before the repeal of the union. We shall meet again at 
 Philippi; and rest assured that, confident in a good cause, and in 
 some energies which have not been altogether unimproved, I will seize 
 the first opportunity of inflicting upon you a castigation which will 
 at the same time make you remember and repent the insults that 
 you have lavished upon Benjamin Disraeli.'' This was thought 
 bravado at the time ; but the prediction was realised. After an 
 interval of two years — during which he published his novels 
 'Henrietta Temple' (1836) and 'Venetia' (1837)— Mr. Disraeli at the 
 age of thirty-two was returned as Conservative member for Maidstone 
 (1837). But the list of his failures was not yet closed. His maiden 
 speech — prepared beforehand and in a very highflown style — was a 
 total failure ; he was accompanied through it by the laughter of tbe 
 House, and at last was obliged to sit down. But before be did so, 
 he energetically uttered the following sentences, "I have begun 
 several times many things, and have often succeeded at last. / shall 
 sit down now, but the lime will come when you will hear me." This 
 proved to be true. Speaking little for some time, and carefully 
 training himself to the parliamentary style and manner, he began 
 about 1839 to obtain the attention of the House; and by tbe year 
 1841 he was recognised as tbe leader of the " Young England Party," 
 who were trying to give a new form and application to Tory prin- 
 ciples. His marriage in 1839 with Mrs. Wyndham Lewis, the wealthy 
 widow of his parliamentary colleague for Maidstone, gave his talents 
 the social means necessary for their full success in public life. It was 
 during the Peel ministry of 1841-46 that he acquired his highest 
 distinction as a master of parliamentary invective : during the latter 
 portion of this period his attacks on Peel were incessant. He was 
 then member no longer for Maidstone but for Shrewsbury (1841-47). 
 After the repeal of the Corn Laws and the retirement of Sir Robert 
 Peel from office, Mr. Disraeli laboured, in conjunction with Lord 
 George Bentinck, to form the new Protectionist party as distinct from 
 both the Peel-Conservatives and tbe Whigs. The results were decisive. 
 After Lord George Bentinck's death in 1848, Mr. Disraeli (elected for 
 Bucks in 1847) became the leader of the Protectionist or old Tory 
 party in the House of Commons ; and be led it with such consum- 
 mate ability, that, on tbe retirement of Lord John Russell's cabinet 
 in 1852, and the formation of a Tory government under Lord Derby, 
 Mr. Disraeli became Chancellor of the Exchequer. This government 
 however lasted only from March to December 1852, when it broke 
 down on Mr. Disraeli's budget. The Coalition Ministry of Lord 
 Aberdeen succeeded, to be followed by that of Lord l'almerston ; and 
 while we write (1856) Mr. Disraeli has never again been in office, but, 
 like Lord Derby, has exercised his talents in parliamentary opposition 
 to Whigs and Peelites. It is only necessary to add tbe list of his 
 works published since the commencement of his parliamentary career 
 in 1837. These are 'Alarcos: a Tragedy,' published in 1839; 
 ' Coningsby : or the New Generation,' a political novel on Young 
 England principles, published in 1844 ; 'Sybil, or the Two Nations,' 
 a novel of similar purpose, published in 1845 ; 'Tancred, or the New 
 Crusade,' also a political novel, published in 1847; and a ' Political 
 Biography of Lord George Bentinck.' Of more trifling writings it is 
 unnecessary to take note. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DISSEN, GEORGE LUDOLF, an eminent German scholar, was 
 born on the 17th of December 1784, at Grossen-Schneeu, near Gcit- 
 tingen, where his father was pastor. He lost both his parents at the 
 age of thirteen, but a benevolent friend procured for him admission, 
 free of expense, to the celebrated school at Pforta in Saxony, whither 
 
 the boy was sent iu bis lourteenth year, and there he laid an excellent 
 foundation for his future philological studies. In 1804 he went to the 
 university of Gottingen, where until the year 1808 he devoted himself 
 to tbe study of philology and philosophy under Heyne and Herbart. 
 His former friend continued to support bim in the university ; but he 
 was obliged to increase bis means by private tuition. The study of 
 art and poetry, and of the beautiful in general, was his delight, and 
 gave to his mind that tone and tendency which we can trace in all his 
 literary productions. On his return to Gottingen he obtained tbe 
 degree of Doctor iu Philosophy, together with permission to deliver 
 lectures in tbe university. On that occasion he published his first 
 work, a dissertation — ' De Temporibus et Modis Verbi Graeci,' Got- 
 tingen, 1809, 4to. The principal subjects with which he now occupied 
 himself, and on which he lectured, were Greek Grammar and Greek 
 philosophy, especially Plato, the study of whose writings brought 
 about an intimate friendship between him and Boeckh, who then used 
 to visit Gottingen very often. His natural tendency to assemble 
 around bim young men' of talent and congenial pursuits, induced bim, 
 towards the end of 1811, to form a philological society at Gcittingeu, 
 of which he was elected president. In 1812 he accepted the offer of 
 an extraordinary professorship of Classical Philology in the University 
 of Marburg. He entered upon his new office with an inaugural disser- 
 tation — ' De Philosophia Morali in Xenophontis de Socrate Com- 
 mentariis tradita,' Marburg, 1812. Philological studies were at that 
 time rather neglected at Marburg, but Dissen gave a fresh impulse to 
 them, although he did not remain there more than eighteen months ; 
 for in the autumn of 1813 he accepted an invitation as extraordinary 
 professor of Classical Literature in the University of Gottingen, which 
 was always his favourite place, and where in 1817 he was appointed 
 ordinary professor. Incessant study and a secluded life had already 
 impaired his health, but his activity as a lecturer was very great. His 
 lecture-room was always filled, and he succeeded in inspiring his 
 audience with an ardent love of the study of antiquity. The zeal with 
 which he devoted himself to his professional duties and the cultiva- 
 tion of his own mind prevented his doing much as an author ; and all 
 that was published by him during the period from 1815 to 1825 con- 
 sists of the part he took in Boeckh's great edition of Pindar, and some 
 reviews which he wrote for the ' Gottinger Gelehrten Anzeigen.' In 
 regard to ancient writers, and poets in particular, Dissen directed his 
 attention more particularly to analysing the connection of the ideas, 
 a point which had been much neglected by previous commentators. 
 With a view to supply this want he prepared a new edition of Pindar, 
 which appeared in 1830 in 2 vols. 8vo ; and of which a second edition 
 with some improvements was published by Schueidewin in 1843. In 
 this work Dissen propounded his sesthetical views respecting the 
 artistic construction of the Pindaric odes. The manner in which he 
 has executed bis task clearly shows that Dissen was not only no poet, 
 but that he had little conception of the manner in which a poet sets to 
 work. He displays great analytical powers, but they would have been 
 more properly applied to the works of a philosopher than to those of a 
 poet. His edition of Pindar is nevertheless one of the best that we have. 
 
 Dissen's illness was of an asthmatic nature, and about this time had 
 become so much worse, that he was obliged to give up lecturing ; but 
 in proportion as his professional occupations decreased, his literary 
 activity increased. Thus he produced in 1835 an edition of Tibullus, 
 with valuable dissertations and a commentary, and in 1837 an edition 
 of Demosthenes's oration ' De Corona.' The great object of these two 
 publications is the same as that of his Pindar, to establish a mode of 
 interpreting the ancients, which should not merely explain the lan- 
 guage and subject-matter of a writer, but tbe artistic construction of 
 his work, and should thus, as it were, trace the secret processes in the 
 author's own mind. This mode of treating an ancient author may be 
 very interesting and instructive, but it opens a wide field of specula- 
 tion, and the results are seldom satisfactory. Immediately after the 
 appearance of his 'Pindar,' Dissen was severely criticised, and among 
 others by his friend Boeckh, which greatly irritated him. His edition 
 of Tibullus is perhaps his best and most satisfactory production : it 
 should not be used without Dissen's ' Supplementum editionis Albii 
 Tibulli Heynio-Wuuderlichianae,' which he published in 1819. His 
 edition of the oration of Demosthenes contains many valuable remarks 
 on the style and peculiarities of that orator : it was his last production, 
 and appeared only a few days before his death, which took place about 
 the middle of September, 1837. 
 
 Dissen was never married ; but he supported with paternal care 
 several young men of talent whose fathers had been his friends during 
 their lifetime. He was a man of great sensibility, enthusiastic for 
 everything great and noble, and capable of the most devoted friend- 
 ship, though in his social intercourse he seldom conversed on any other 
 topics than those relating to the study of antiquity, for bis whole 
 mental faculties were absorbed in his pursuits. Besides the works 
 already mentioned, we must not leave unuoticed aD excellent little 
 treatise entitled ' Anleitung fiir Erzieher, die Odyssee mit Knaben zu 
 lesen,' with a preface by the philosopher Herbart, Gottingen, 1S09, 
 8vo. A number of smaller dissertations iu Latin and German, together 
 with a selection of the reviews written by Dissen, was published as a 
 collection after his death by bis friend K. O. Muller, under tbe title of 
 ' Kleiuo Lateiniscbe und Deutsche Scbriften, von Ludolf Dissen,' Got- 
 tingen, 1S39, 8vo. It is preceded by biographical notices written by 
 
 2 k* 
 
oil 
 
 DITTON, HUMPHREY. 
 
 DOBRENTEI, GABOR. 
 
 cm 
 
 liis friends Fr. Thiei-sch, F. G. Welcker, and K. 0. Miiller, from which 
 the above notice is derived. 
 
 DITTON, HUMPHREY, an eminent divine and mathematician, 
 was born at Salisbury May 29, 1675. He was an only son; aud 
 manifesting good abilities for learning, hia father procured for him an 
 excellent private education. It does not appear that he was ever at 
 either of the universities, a circumstance owing probably to the reli- 
 gious principles of his parenta. Contrary, it is understood, to his own 
 inclination, but in conformity with his father's wishca, he chose the 
 profession of theology ; and he filled a dissenting pulpit for several 
 years at Tunbridge with great credit and usefulness. His constitution 
 being delicate, and the restraints of his father's authority being 
 removed — he also having married at Tunbridge — he began to think 
 of turning his talents into another channel. His mathematical attain- 
 ments having gained for him the friendship of Mr. Whiston and Ur. 
 Harris, they made him known to Sir Isaac Newton, by whom he was 
 greatly esteemed, and by whose recommendation and influence he was 
 elected mathematical master of Christ's Hospital. This office he held 
 during the rest of his life, which however was but short, as he died in 
 1715, in the fortieth year of his age. 
 
 Ditton was highly esteemed amongst his friends ; and great expec- 
 tations were entertained that he would have proved one of the most 
 eminent men of his time. He however attained a high degree of 
 celebrity, and published several works and papers of considerable 
 value, of which the following list contains the principal : — 
 
 1. ' On the Tangents of Curves,' &c, 'Phil. Trans.,' vol. xxiii. 2. 'A 
 Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics,' in the 'Phil. Trans.' for 1705; from 
 whence it was copied and reprinted in the ' Acta Eruditorum,' 1707. 
 8. 'General Laws of Nature and Motion,' 8vo, 1705. Wolfms men- 
 tions this vi-ork, and says that it illustrates and renders easy the 
 writings of Galileo, Huygens, and the 'Priucipia' of Newton. 4. 'An 
 Institution of Fluxions, containing the first Principles, Operations, and 
 Applications of that admirable Method, aa invented by Sir Isaac 
 Newton,' 8vo, 1706. 5. In 1703 he published the 'Synopsis Alge- 
 braica' of John Alexander, with many additions and corrections. 
 6. His ' Treatise on Perspective' was published in 1712. In this work 
 he explained the principles of that art mathematically; and besides 
 teaching the methods then generally practised, gave the first hints of 
 the new method, afterwards enlarged upon and improved by Dr. Brook 
 Taylor, and which waa published in the year 1715. In 1714 Mr. Ditton 
 published several pieces, both theological and mathematical, particu- 
 larly (7.) his ' Discourse on the Resurrection of Jesua Christ,' and (8.) 
 the ' New Law of Fluids, or a Discourse concerning the Ascent of 
 Liquids, in exact Geometrical Figures, between two nearly contiguous 
 Surfaces.' To this was annexed a tract to demonstrate the impossi- 
 bility of thinking or perception being the result of any combination 
 of the parts of matter and motion : a subject which was much agitated 
 about that time. To this work was also added an advertisement from 
 him aud Mr. Whiston concerning a method for discovering the longi- 
 tude, which it seems they had published about half a year before. 
 This attempt probably cost our author hia life ; for though it was 
 approved and countenanced by Sir Isaac Newton before it was pre- 
 sented to the Board of Longitude, and the method has since been 
 successfully put in practice in finding the longitude between Paris 
 aud Vienna, yet that board determined against it. The disappoint- 
 ment, together with some ridicule (particularly in some verses written 
 by Dean Swift), so far affected his health, that he died in the ensuing 
 year, 1715. 
 
 In the account of Mr. Ditton, prefixed to the German translation of 
 his discourse on the Resurrection, it is said that he had published, in 
 his owu name only, another method for finding the longitude ; but this 
 Mr. Whiston denied. However, Raphael Levi, a learned Jew, who had 
 studied under Leibnitz, informed the German editor that he well knew 
 that Ditton and Leibnitz had made a delineation of a machine which 
 he had invented for that purpose, that it was a piece of mechanism 
 constructed with many wheels like a clock, and that Leibnitz highly 
 approved of it for land use, but doubted whether it would answer on 
 shipboard, on account of the motion of the ship. 
 
 * DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH, was born in 1821. In 1846 
 he came to London, and soon became known by his writings in period- 
 ical works. In the 'Daily News' he published a series of papers 
 On the Literature of the Lower Orders,' which attracted attention ; 
 and another series on ' London Prisons.' These papers, greatly 
 enlarged, formed an interesting volume, published in 1850. His volume 
 on 'London Prisons' had been preceded by 'John Howard and the 
 Prison World of Europe.' In 1851 appeared 'William Penn, an Historical 
 Biography.' Independently of the value of this Life, it haa attracted 
 great attention with reference to what Mr. Dixon calls ' The Macaulay 
 Charges.' Mr. Macaulay, in the first two volumes of his ' History of 
 England,' made several strong statements regarding the character of 
 Penn, which Mr. Dixon undertook to refute, especially with regard to 
 the accusation of Penn having received a bribe for intervening to save 
 the lives of some persons at Taunton, implicated in Monmouth's 
 rebellion. To Mr. Dixon's statements Mr. Macaulay never replied ; 
 and upon the publication of his third and fourth volumes, continued 
 to maintain his opinions of the conduct of the celebrated Quaker. Mr. 
 Dixon again came forward, in a temperate but firm Preface to a new 
 edition of hia 'Biography.' In 1852 he published the 'Life of 
 
 Blake;' and he also wrote in that year a pamphlet to repel the fear 
 of an invasion from France. Towards the end of 1853 he was 
 appointed editor of the ' Athensoum.' Mr. Dixon's biographical works 
 display a great amount of original research ; and the results of many 
 careful investigations of original documents are presented ia an 
 agreeable form. 
 
 DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVITCH, waa born in 1760, in the 
 government of Simbirsk, where his father, who was himself a man 
 of superior information, possessed an estate. After being educated 
 at Kazan until his twelfth year, he was pursuing his studies at Sim- 
 birsk, when that part of the empire was thrown into an unsettled state 
 by Pugatchev's rebellion, in consequence of which his family deter- 
 mined to leave it, and he was sent to St. Petersburg, where he wag 
 entered in the Semenovsky regiment of guards, and within a short 
 time put on active service, in which he continued until the reign of 
 the emperor Paul, when an appointment in the civil service was 
 bestowed upon him. After the accession of Alexander he was made 
 successively minister of justice and privy councillor, and finally retired 
 from public life with a pension and the order of St. Vladimir of the 
 first class. Although a life passed in such occupations was little 
 favourable to literary pursuits, particularly the earlier part of it, a 
 strong natural attachment to them led him to devote himself to 
 them as sedulously aa circumstances would permit, and with such 
 success, that, after Karamzin, he was, among contemporary writers, 
 the one who most contributed to polish the Russian language, impart- 
 ing to it more ease and gracefulness of style and elegance of diction. 
 His poems, which have passed through many editions, and are deser- 
 vedly popular, consist principally of odes, epistles, satires, tales, and 
 fables, in which last-meutioued species of composition — a very favourite 
 one with his countrymen — he particularly excelled; and if we except 
 Krilov, he occupiea the first rank among the Russian fabulists. By 
 some he has been styled the Lafontaine of Russia, as well on account 
 of the refined tone of his subjects as the studied simplicity of his 
 language. In his poetical tales he ia unrivalled among his country- 
 men, not less for the playfulness and shrewdness of his satire than for 
 the peculiar happiness and finish of hia style. His odes likewise possess 
 considerable merit ; but as a lyric poet he falls short of Lomouosov, 
 Derzhavin, and Petrov. He died October, 15, 1837. 
 
 DOBREK, PETER PAUL, was born in the island of Guernsey in 
 the year 1782. At an early age he was sent to Dr. Valpy's school at 
 Reading, and stayed there till he became an under-graduate of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, in 1800; and took his B.A. degree in 1804. Having 
 been elected a fellow of his college, he continued to reside at Cambridge, 
 devoting himself to classical studies, and enjoying the intimacy of 
 Porson, to whom he was devotedly attached, and from whom he derived 
 all the spirit of his scholarship. After Porson's death, the booka and 
 manuscripts of that great critic were purchased by Trinity College, and 
 the task of editing part of Porson's notes was intrusted to Dobree : he 
 was prevented however by illness, a subsequent journey to Spain, and 
 other causes, from publishing the portion of these remains assigned to 
 him till 1820, when he brought out an edition of the Plutus and of 
 all that Porson had left upon Aristophanes, along with some learned 
 notes of his own. Iu 1822 he published Porson's transcript of the 
 lexicon of Photius. In the following year he was elected Regius 
 professor of Greek. He died on the 24th of September 1825. He 
 was engaged on an edition of Demosthenes at the time of his death : 
 his notes on this and other Greek and Latin authors were collected 
 and published by his successor in 1831. Some of his remarks are very 
 acute, and some of his conjectures most ingenious ; but the greater 
 part of his observations were certainly never intended for the press. 
 As a. scholar, Dobree was accurate and fastidious; he had some taste 
 and much common sense, which preserved him from committing 
 blunders. His unwearying industry supplied him with a vast induction 
 of particular observations, but he was unwilling, perhaps unable, to 
 generalise ; and on the whole it must be allowed that he has neither 
 done nor shown a power of doiug anything to justify the extravagant 
 encomiums of some of his friends. 
 
 DOBRENTEI, GABOR or GABRIEL, an Hungarian author and 
 antiquary of distinguished merit, was born at Nagy Szollos, in the 
 county of Veszprim in 1786. He showed very early not only a remark- 
 able zeal for the Hungarian language and literature, but a singular 
 social talent for enlisting others in his views. At Oedenburg, a town 
 not far within the frontier from Austria, and chiefly inhabited by 
 Germans, he succeeded in getting up an Hungarian literary society, of 
 which he became the secretary ; and under his superintendence, when 
 a youth of nineteen, a volume of ' Transactions ' was published. At 
 twenty he studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, and in 1807 was recom- 
 mended by Kazinczy, then the almost acknowledged head of Hungarian 
 literature, ta the post of tutor to Count Louis Gyulay, a nobleman of 
 Transylvania, which made him for some years a resident iu that 
 country. With the literary contributions of some of his Hungarian 
 and Transylvanian friends, and the pecuniary contributions of the 
 Transylvanian magnates, he set on foot and edited a magazine, the 
 ' Erdelyi Muze"um,' of which the first number was issued at Klau-en- 
 burg aud the remaining nine at Pesth, after which it ceased for want 
 of support ; but it contained so many articles of interest that no 
 Hungarian library is considered complete without it. In 1820 
 Dobrentei removed to Pestb, where he continued to reside for the 
 
DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH. 
 
 814 
 
 remainder of his life, in the occupation of several highly-respectable 
 official posts of a legal character, and in such constant literary activity 
 that he became the acquaintance or friend of almost every person of 
 I uy note connected with Hungarian literature. Indeed almost all the 
 information that has been put in circulation on that subject in England 
 had its origin in Dobrentei. He was the friend and correspondent of 
 Dr. now Sir John Bowring, to whom he supplied much of the informa- 
 tion for his ' Poetry of the Magyars ;' he also communicated to Miss 
 Pardoe materials for her account of Hungarian literature and authors 
 in her ' City of the Magyar,' and he wrote the article on the subject in 
 the Leipsic ' Conversations-Lexikon,' which, by its being translated in 
 Lieber'a ' Encyclopedia Americana,' and the translation reprinted in 
 the Glasgow ' Popular Encyclopaedia,' has become familiar to thousands 
 of English readers. As a poetical writer, Dobrentei was not successful; 
 his crigiual poems appear to have been pleasing, and no more; and 
 though his translation of Shakspere's ' Macbeth ' was acted at Presburg 
 in 1S25, it did not receive such a welcome as to encourage the publi- 
 cation of his versions of the other masterpieces of Shakspere, which 
 were reserved in Hungarian for the more successful pen of a lady, 
 Emilia Lemouton, who is, we believe, the only translatress of our great 
 poet in any language. Dobrentei was more at home in his exertions 
 to establish a 'Casino' at Pesth, an establishment of nearly the same 
 kind as an English club of our own days, but borrowed, both in plan 
 and name from Italy, where it is made use of not to render more 
 exclusive the society of the capital, but to enliven the dullness of the 
 provincial towns. He was, after Count Stephen Szechenyi, the most 
 influential person in promoting this institution, and was for some years 
 its secretary, but relinquished the post to take that of one of the 
 secretaries of the Hungarian Academy in 1831, of which he was also 
 a zealous promoter. Kohl, the traveller, bears testimony to the 
 extraordinary influence of these establishments on the whole tone of 
 Bociety even in Hungarian villages, where they were imitated on a 
 small scale. In 1837 Dobrentei received an intimation from the 
 government that his holding the post of secretary to the Academy any 
 loDger would be incompatible with his official duties, and he then 
 devoted himself to the editorship of his great work, the ' Regi Magyar 
 Nyelvemiekek,' or ' Ancient Monuments of the Magyar Language,' the 
 first volume of which, a substantial quarto, was published at Buda in 
 1825, and the fifth was in preparation at the time of Dobrentei' s death. 
 His labours on this work were the delight of his life, he pursued 
 them with irrepressible ardour, and on the result his reputation rests 
 securely. Wheu he began hardly anything was known of the history 
 of the Magyar language for centuries, and a subject that he found in 
 darkness he left environed with light. He was indefatigable in dis- 
 coveiiog the existence of old correspondence or documents in family 
 archives; when he had once discovered them, he was no less eager in 
 obtaining permission to copy and make use of them, and he was not a 
 man to take easily a refusal. By this combination of qualities he 
 amassed a quantity of materials which nobody before him had ever 
 supposed to exist, and he made such good use of them that the works 
 of subsequent authors are full of constant references to Dobrentei' s 
 ' Nyelvemiekek,' which h,is become one of the principal monuments of 
 Hungarian literature. How the revolution of 1848 affected him we 
 have not seen stated, but it is well known that his friend and fellow- 
 promoter of prosress, Count Stephen Szechdnyi, became a maniac. 
 Dobrentei was still engaged in collecting materials for his great work 
 when surprised by death on the 27th of March 1851, at the age of Go. 
 He was the author of numerous lives of Hungarian worthies both in 
 the periodicals to which he contributed and in the ' Esmeretch TaVa,' 
 or Hungarian translation of the Leipsic 'Conversations-Lexikon,' with 
 original additions to the Hungarian articles, and in editions of Berz- 
 senyi and other authors published under his superintendence, but no 
 extended account of himself appears to have been published since bis 
 death. 
 
 DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN, Jesuit missionary to the South 
 American Indians, was born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1717. He was 
 admitted into the Society of Jesus in 1730, and having undergone the 
 regular course of training and probation, was sent in 1749 to the 
 society's mission in Paraguay. Dobrizhoffer dwelt among the Abipones 
 and Guarinis for eighteen years, when, on the expulsion of the Jesuit 
 missionaries from Spanish South America, in 1767, he was compelled 
 to return to Europe. He took up his residence at Vienna, where he 
 became much noticed, on account of his descriptions of the people 
 among whom he had laboured. The empress Maria-Theresa i3 said 
 to have been a frequent auditor to his animated narratives. At 
 length he was induced to write an account of the more remarkable 
 of the two races. In 1784 this account was published at Vienna, under 
 the title of ' Historia de Abiponibus, equestri bellicosaque Paraguaricc 
 Natione, locupletata copiosis barbarum gentium, urbium, hominum, 
 ferarum, amphibiorum, insectorum, serpentium prtecipuorum, piscium, 
 avium, arborum, plantarurn, aliarumque ejusdem provincial proprie- 
 tatum observationibus,' 3 vols. 8vo. Dobrizhoffer's account of tue 
 Abipones is very ample, and minute even to tediousuess ; and though 
 it contains many curious and interesting facts about a people long 
 since (1770) migrated from their own country [Abii'ones, in Eng. Cvc, 
 Geoo. Div.], it is impossible to read it without considerable scepti- 
 cism. Dobrizhoffer was in fact an old man when he wrote his history, 
 and s.->rae sixteen y. ars had passed away since he was compelled to 
 
 leavo the couutry ; and, like Bruce, his imagination had como to play 
 falsely with his memory. Thus when, in illustration of the longevity 
 of this wonderful race, he says that an Abiponian who dies at eighty 
 is thought to have come to an untimely end, and that in ordinary 
 cases a man of a hundred has his sight and hearing unimpaired, and 
 can leap on his horse as nimbly as a boy, and without fatigue sit thero 
 for hours, we are constrained to hesitate about accepting the state- 
 ment without some grains of allowance. Dobrizhoffer's book was a 
 favourite with Southey, and at his suggestion Sara Coleridge trans- 
 lated it into English : 'An Account of the Abipones, an Equestrian 
 people of Paraguay,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1822. It has also been translated 
 into German. Dobrizhoffer died in 1791. 
 
 DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH, known as the patriarch of modern 
 Bohemian literature, was the son of a Bohemian sergeant in an 
 Austrian regiment of dragoons, and was born on the 17th of August 
 1753 at Gyarmat near Raab in Hungary, where the regiment was in 
 quarters. His father's name was Daubrawsky, but the regimental 
 chaplain, who was ignorant of Bohemian spelling, entered the child 
 in the baptismal register as Dobrowsky, and this was ever afterwards 
 recognised as his name. The boy did not learn the Bohemian language 
 till he was ten years old, wheu he was sent to Deutschbrot for his 
 education, and in after-life it was long before he took any particular 
 interest in the subject. His taste for study made him adopt an eccle- 
 siastical life, and he entered the order of Jesuits in October 1772, only 
 ten months before its dissolution, after which he prosecuted his 
 studies at the university of Prague, and acquired some reputation for 
 his knowledge of the oriental languages. He then became a tutor in 
 the family of the Count von Nostitz, one of the great families of 
 Bohemia, where he found as fellow-tutor Durich, the historian of 
 Slavonic literature, and Pelzel, a noted miscellaneous writer, who 
 was then engaged in compiling his 'Biographies of Bohemian and 
 Moravian Authors and Artists,' in German and Latin, the book which, 
 with Balbinus's ' Bohemia Docta,' has been the source of most that is 
 in circulation on the Bohemian worthies. Pelzel requested Dobrowsky 
 to assist him in collecting particulars for some of his biographies, and 
 Dobrowsky, who had a most tenacious memory, became by this means 
 so versed in a short time in the minutire of the subject, that he 
 warmed more and more into interest for it, and it finally became the 
 business of his life. It may be remarked that Dobrowsky subse- 
 quently wrote the lives of both Durich and Pelzel, but that, though 
 as a member of the Bohemian Society he was bound to furnish the 
 society with some account of his own, he always deferred doing so 
 for more than forty years, and finally the careful biographer died 
 without leaving any particulars of his own biography. His first 
 separate publication was in 1778, when he issued an edition of the 
 fragment of St. Mark's Gospel preserved at Prague, and believed to 
 be in the handwriting of the apostle, but which he so forcibly demon- 
 strated to be spurious, that the papal nuncio of Vienna openly 
 expressed his opinion that he had settled the question. Such an out- 
 cry however was raised against him by the inferior clergy in Bohemia, 
 that he found it advisable to print a pamphlet which had been 
 written against his views at his own expense, and to circulate his 
 answer to it only in manuscript. He next commenced a periodical 
 review of Bohemian and Moravian literature, but this was soon 
 stopped by the censorship for some incautious expressions in one of 
 his prefaces complained of by some ecclesiastical authority, and which 
 he refused to retract. It was evident to his friends that with his 
 ardeut and somowhat refractory temperament he would make no way 
 in the church, and after the death of the emperor Joseph in 1790, 
 he quietly withdrew into a learned retirement, subsisting on a pension 
 which was paid him by the Austrian government as a compensation 
 for a suppressed post he had held in the time of Joseph, and on 
 another granted him by the Nostitz family. He made in 1792 an 
 expedition to Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, at the expense of the 
 Royal Bohemian Scientific Society, to inquire into the fate of the 
 books and manuscripts, which at the time of the capture of Prague 
 by the Swedes in the Thirty Years War, had been carried off from 
 the Bohemian libraries. He also made at different times excursions 
 through every part of Bohemia and Moravia, but with this exception 
 his life was chiefly passed in quiet at the country-seat of one of the 
 Nostitzes. For this there was unfortunately a strong reason. In 
 1795 he was for some time out of his senses; in 1801 he was obliged 
 to be confined in a lunatic asylum, and though he soon recovered 
 from this violent attack, yet ever after, on an average twice a year, he 
 became occasionally disordered in mind. His physicians considered 
 that this was owing to over-study, Dobrowsky stoutly maintained that 
 study never did harm to any man, but attributed his illness to a shot 
 which had entered his breast in 1782 at a hunting party, and remained 
 unextracted to his death. The longest interval of freedom from his 
 disorder which he enjoyed was once for eighteen months, when he 
 was writing the ' Institutioues lingua: Slavicae dialecti veteris,' on which 
 his mind was fully occupied. Meauwhile his fame was constantly 
 spreading, ho was elected a member of all the distinguished academies 
 of tho east of Europe, and spoken of very highly by Gbthe. For 
 about twenty years, from 1S09 to 1S29, he was generally recognised 
 as the highest authority on questions connected with the history of 
 the Bohemian language and literature, then every year coming moro 
 and more into notico. This position was not alw ays a pleasant one ; 
 
616 DOBSON, WILLIAM. 
 
 it led to his involvement in a controversy respecting an ancient 
 manuscript, the discussions on which aro said to have embittered his 
 life for some years. This controversy is in many points one of the 
 most singular aud interesting in the whole history of literature. 
 
 In 1818, shortly after the foundation of the Bohemian Museum at 
 Prague, its conductors received an anonymous letter, evidently 
 written in a feigned hand, inclosing a Bohemian manuscript, which 
 the writer of the letter stated that he had purloined from his master, 
 whose name was of course not given, because he knew that he would 
 rather burn it than present it to the museum. The manuscript con- 
 tained a poem, since well known under the name of ' The Judgment 
 of Libussa,' which those who maintain its genuineness regard as the 
 most ancient monument of the Bohemian language, and older than 
 the 10th century. Dobrowsky suspected its authenticity from the 
 first, aud immediately on seeing it pronounced it without hesitation 
 to be a forgery, the production of some Bohemian Chatterton, adding, 
 to his friends, that he had no doubt it was from the hands of Waclaw 
 Hanka. Hanka was a young antiquary, who had recently made a tour 
 for the purpose of collecting poetical manuscripts, and had been 
 fortunate enough to find at Kralodvor a collection of ancient poetry 
 which has been since universally recognised as the finest relic of 
 ancient Bohemian literature, if it bo really ancient, which was at first 
 not generally believed. 
 
 The accused protested his innocence; but the judgment of Dobrow- 
 sky in such matters was regarded as almost infallible, and it was 
 thought best by Bohemian patriots to let the matter fall quietly into 
 oblivion. In 1820 however Rakowiecki printed the fragment of 
 'Libussa's Judgment' in his 'Prawda Rusha,' at Warsaw, as authentic; 
 in 1821 Admiral Shishkov reproduced it in the 'Accounts' of the 
 Russian Academy at St. Petersburg ; and an opinion now began to 
 gain ground in Bohemia that authentic or not it was a piece of great 
 value. Dobrowsky, indignant at the revival of the affair, published, 
 in Hormayr's ' Archiv,' a Vienna periodical, an article upon it, headed 
 'Literary Fraud,' and concluding with the words that "it was the 
 obvious imposture of a scoundrel who wished to play his tricks on his 
 credulous countrymen." In 1828 however Hanka, then (and now) 
 librarian of the museum, made a third discovery. He stated that he 
 had purchased from a second-hand bookseller at Prague a volume 
 bound in parchment, and on removing and examining the cover — 
 unfortunately without informing any one else of his proceedings — ■ 
 had found it was a portion of a manuscript of St. John's Gospel, 
 in Latin, with an interlineary Bohemian translation, supposed to be 
 of a date anterior to the tenth century. Dobrowsky examined this 
 manuscript, and pronounced in favour of its genuineness. He was 
 then placed on the horns of a cruel dilemma : the manuscript of the 
 St. John had many of the peculiarities which had been thought a 
 proof against the ' Libussa.' Dobrowsky was so thoroughly perplexed 
 that when a professor of chemistry proposed to apply some chemical 
 tests to the ink of the ' Libussa ' manuscript — but said that of course 
 in doing so a part of it would be destroyed — Dobrowsky opposed the 
 proposal, because, as he said, " the manuscript might be genuine after 
 all." An elaborate examination of the subject by Safarik and Palacky 
 (' Aeltesten Denkmiiler der Bohmischen Sprache,' Prague, 1840) left 
 them convinced that the manuscript was what it professed to be, and 
 Hanka enjoys the reputation, not of an excellent poet, but of a very 
 fortunate antiquary. The whole of his poetical discoveries were 
 translated into English by Wratislaw as undoubtedly genuine, and 
 published at Cambridge in 1852. Dobrowsky, who was much annoyed 
 at the turn the affair had taken, died on a journey at Brunn in Mora- 
 via, on the 6th of January, 1829, the year after the production of the 
 manuscript of St. John. 
 
 The works of Dobrowsky are numerous : a complete list of them is 
 given in Palacky 's 'Joseph Dobrowskys Leben und gelehrtes Wirken,' 
 Prague, 1833. It is singular that nearly all of them are in the German 
 language, it being iu fact the opinion of Dobrowsky that the Bohemian 
 language should only be made use of in works intended for the people. 
 The modern Bohemian writers have, on the contrary, lately made it a 
 point to write in their native language even their works of erudition. 
 His essays ' On the Introduction of Printing into Bohemia,' ' On the 
 earliest Bohemian Translation of the Bible,' ' On the History of the 
 Bohemian Adamites,' &c, first appeared in the German ' Transactions 
 of the Bohemian Scientific Society,' a most valuable series of volumes, 
 and almost all of his compositions in his native language in the 
 ' Casopis Ceske'ho Muzeuma,' a Bohemian periodical. His more 
 important productions are a ' German and Bohemian Dictionary,' a 
 ' Grammar of the Bohemian Language,' a ' History of the Bohemian 
 Language and Elder Literature,' and, above all, the ' Institutiones 
 Linguae Slavicse Dialecti Veteris,' Vienna, 1822, a book by which he 
 threw a flood of light on a subject before involved in obscurity. The 
 language treated of is that still used by the Russians in their church- 
 service, and the book has been recognised by the Russians as of the 
 highest value. 
 
 DOBSON, WILLIAM, was born in the parish of St. Andrews, 
 Holborn, in 1610. He was a very distinguished painter, and suc- 
 ceeded Vandyck in the favour of Charles I., who used to call him the 
 English Tintoret. His father was of a good family of St. Albans, but 
 being at length in poor circumstances, his son was apprenticed to 
 Mr. Peake, afterwards Sir Robert Peake, painter and picture-dealer, | 
 
 DODD, REV. WILLIAM, LL.D. 
 
 who kept a shop at Holborn Bridge ; but he learnt more, according to 
 R. Symonda, of Francis Cleyn, a German, who stood also in great 
 favour with Charles I. 
 
 Sir Robert Peake set Dobson to copy pictures for him, and exposed 
 the copies for sale in his shop-window. One of these copies was seen 
 by Vandyck in a shop-window on Snow Hill, and having made 
 inquiries for the artist, he found him at work in a poor garret, whence 
 he took him and introduced him to the king. After the death of 
 Vandyck, Charles I. appointed Dobson sergeant-painter and groom of 
 the privy-chamber, and he accompanied the king to Oxford, where 
 he painted the king, Prince Rupert, and many of the nobility. Tho 
 Rebellion however and his own extravagance got Dobson into 
 difficulties, and he was thrown into prison for debt, from which he 
 was released by a Mr. Vaughan, whose portrait he painted, and he 
 considered it his best work in that class. He did not long enjoy bis 
 liberty : he died in London in poverty, October 28, 1646, and was 
 buried at St. Martin's-in-the- Fields. 
 
 Dobson painted both portrait and history ; and his portraits are 
 generally considered so excellent, that he has been termed the English 
 Vandyck : his reputation was certainly unrivalled by that of any 
 English portrait painter until the appearance of Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 There aro several excellent historical pictures by Dobson in various 
 parts of England. There is a 'Beheading of John the Baptist' at 
 Wilton, in which the head of John is from Prince Rupert ; at 
 Blenheim is Francis Carter, an architect and pupil of Inigo Jones, 
 with his family, a picture, says Walpole, equal to anything he had 
 ever seen by Dobson. Walpole mentions several other family pieces, 
 and many portraits with one or more figures, of which he particularly 
 praises one at Drayton, in Northamptonshire, of Henry Mordaunt, earl 
 of Peterborough, in armour, with a page holding his horse and au 
 angel giving him his helmet. Walpole says further, "Dobson's wife, 
 by him, is on the stairs of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford; and 
 his own head is at Earl Paulett's : the hands were added long since 
 by Gibson, as he himself told Vertue." He also etched his own 
 portrait. At Hampton Court there is a bright and vigorous, though 
 somewhat coarsely painted picture by Dobson, representing his wife 
 and himself sitting in the open air. Considering Dobson's short 
 life and the very unsettled period in which he lived, a great pro- 
 portion of his works have evidently been preserved, and it is to 
 be regretted that there is not a single specimen of " the English 
 Vandyck " in the British National Gallery. Dobson is said by 
 Dargenville to have been the first artist to adopt the system of 
 requiring half the payment of a portrait at the commencement of it: 
 he did it to reduce the number of his sitters to withiu a practicable 
 limit. 
 
 (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting, &c. ; Waagen, Treasures of AH 
 in England ; D'Argenville, Abrege de la Vie des plus fameux Peintres.) 
 
 DODD, THE REV. WILLIAM, LL.D., was born in 1729, at 
 Bourn, in Lincolnshire, of which place his father was vicar. In 1745, 
 he was admitted a sizar of Clare Hall, Cambridge, and took hie 
 Bachelor's degree with reputation in 1750. Soon afterwards he 
 removed to London, where he contracted an imprudent marriage. In •' 
 1753 he received priest's orders from the Bishop of London; and 
 from this time he continued to obtain a succession of small prefer- I 
 ments in the church, holding, in the latter part of his life, two chapels 
 in London with a rectory and vicarage in the country, and possessing 
 an ecclesiastical income of 800/. a year. His character as a popular 
 preacher, and as a man of letters, aided by his assiduous courtship of 
 persons of rank, procured for him patronage of a high order. He 
 was one of the king's chaplains till he was displaced for a simoniacal 
 offer; and in 1763 he was intrusted with the education of Philip 
 Stanhope, afterwards the famous Earl of Chesterfield. During all 
 this time his literary activity was great and varied. In February 
 1777 he was arrested on a charge of having forged the signature oi 
 his late pupil, Lord Chesterfield, to a bond for 4000?., of which he had 
 obtained payment. He repaid the money, but was brought to trial 
 and convicted. He was executed on the 27th of June 1777. The 
 writings of this unfortunate person are numerous, and in their matter 
 exceedingly various. There are poems, among which are ' A New 
 Book of the Dunciad,' published anonymously in 1750; and the blank 
 verse poem, called ' Thoughts in Prison,' which was composed in the 
 interval betwen his conviction and execution. Among the prose works 
 are many sermons, and the well-known ' Reflections on Death,' 1763. 
 A work of another character is his ' Beauties of Shakspere,' in which, 
 besides the extracts which make up the body of the volume, are inter- 
 spersed many criticisms. These, like Dodd's other works, are fluent 
 and tasteful rather than original or vigorous. Indeed some of them 
 are mere plagiarisms. It is worth while to observe, that just before 
 his apprehension he had entered on negociations for publishing an 
 expensive edition of Shakspere's works ; and that the desire of raising 
 money for the engraving of the plates has been assigned as most 
 probably his reason for committing the forgery. It is further stated 
 in Cooke's ' Memoirs of Foote,' i. 195, that during his confinement in 
 Newgate, Dodd completed a comedy he had begun some time before, 
 entitled ' Sir Roger de Coverley ; ' and that after his condemnation 
 he sent for Woodfall the printer to consult with him respecting its 
 publication : but the comedy if finished was never acted or printed, 
 I and we are disposed, although the story has often been repeated aud 
 
617 
 
 DODDRIDGE, PHILIP, D.D. 
 
 DODSWORTH, ROGER. 
 
 never, as far as we are aware, contradicted, to doubt its correctness. 
 Foote is a very unsafe authority for such a statement. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, PHILIP, D.D., was born in 1702, of an old dis- 
 senting family living in London, where he had the early part of 
 his education. He was then for a time at St. Albans ; and it having 
 been early perceived that his turn of mind peculiarly pointed to the 
 profession of a minister, he was entered about 1718 at a dissenting 
 theological academy at Kibworth in Leicestershire, over which Mr. 
 John Jennings presided. In 1722 he commenced his ministry at 
 Kibworth, his late tutor Mr. Jennings removing in that year to 
 Hinckley, where he died in the succeeding year. The death of Mr. 
 Jenoings was an important event in the history of Doddridge. Great 
 expectations had been formed among the Dissenters of the success of 
 Mr. Jennings in the education of ministers, and it was thought a point 
 of importance to maintain an academy of that kind in one of the 
 central counties. Mr. Jennings had mentioned his pupil Doddridge 
 as being a person eminently qualified to carry on the work, and the 
 eyes of the Dissenters were generally directed to him as the person 
 best qualified to do so. However, several years passed, during which 
 Doddridce was leading the life of a non-conformist minister, his 
 services being divided between the chapel at Kibworth, and one at the 
 neiehbouring town of Market Harborough. He was diligent in his 
 ministry both in public and private, but he found time also for much 
 theological reading, by which means he qualified himself the better 
 for the office which he and his friends had in view. 
 
 In 1729 he began his academy, which soon attained a high reputa- 
 tion. It was the institution in which most of the more distinguished 
 ministers of the Old or orthodox Dissenters in the middle of the ISth 
 century were educated. It was first established at Market Har- 
 borough, where he at the time resided ; but before the end of the 
 year he removed to Northampton, having been invited to become the 
 minister of the Dissenting congregation in that town ; and at North- 
 ampton he continued both as pastor of the Dissenting congregation, 
 and head of the Dissenting academy, till his death. Having gone to 
 Lisbon on account of ill health, he died there thirteen days after his 
 arrival, October 26, 1751. 
 
 Doddridge lived at a time when the zeal of the class of persons to 
 whom he belonged had lost some part of its former fervour. This he 
 saw with regret, and was very desirous to revive it. This appears to 
 have been a principal object, and one kept steadily in view both in 
 his ministerial labours and his published writings. His printed 
 sermons are remarkable for the earnestness with which he presses the 
 great importance of a religious life, the evil of spiritual indifference 
 or carelessness, and the indispensable necessity of uniting with the 
 practice of the moral duties the cultivation of the spirit of piety, and 
 a deep and serious regard to the momentous truths of religion. This 
 appears particularly in a book of his which has been very popular 
 both at home and abroad, entitled ' The Rise and Progress of Religion 
 in the Soul,' and it i3 also very apparent in the practical part of 
 another very excellent publication of his entitled ' The Family 
 Expositor,' in which is given the whole of the New Testament (the 
 gospels being in a harmony), with a paraphrase, a series of critical 
 notes, aud reflections, or, as he calk them, improvements of each 
 section into which the whole is divided. This work has also been 
 often printed, and it marks the extent of his learning, as well as the 
 depth of his piety ; the notes abound with critical remarks, gathered 
 out of numerous authors, or suggestions of his own mind, full of that 
 knowledge which fits a man to illustrate those difficult writings. The 
 course of metaphysical, ethical, and theological lectures, through 
 which he conducted the young men who were trained by him for the 
 Christian ministry, was published after his death in 2 vols. 8vo, and 
 supplied for the time an excellent text-book of systematic divinity, as 
 well as a very useful body of references to writers on metaphysics, 
 ethics, and divinity. To Doddridge also the Dissenters owe some of 
 the best hymns which are sung by them in their public services. 
 
 Two accounts of his life by contemporaries have been published : 
 the first by Job Orton, another divine of a kindred spirit, who 
 belonged to the same community; the second by the Rev. Dr. Kippis, 
 a pupil of Dr. Doddridge, who has introduced it in the ' Biographia 
 Britannica,' of which he was the editor. More recently his ' Corre- 
 spondence ' has been, published by one of his descendants. 
 
 DODSLEY, ROBERT, was born in 1703, as is supposed, near 
 Mausfield, in Nottinghamshire, where his father is said to have kept 
 the Free school. Robert and several brothers however appear to have 
 all commenced life as working artisans or servants. Robert is said to 
 have been put apprentice to a stocking-weaver, from whom, finding 
 himself in danger of being starved, he ran away, and took the place of 
 a footman. After living in that capacity with one or two persons, he 
 entered the service of the Honourable Mrs. Lowther, and while with 
 that lady he published by subscription in 1732 an octavo volume of 
 poetical pieces, under the title of 'The Muse in Livery, or tho 
 Footman's Miscellany.' The situation of the author naturally drew 
 considerable attention to this work at the moment of its appearance ; 
 but the poetry was of no remarkable merit. His next production was 
 a dramatic piece, called 'The Toyshop;' he sent it in manuscript to 
 rope, by whom it was much relished, and who recommended it to 
 Kich, the manager of Coven t Garden Theatre, where it was acted in 
 1735 with great success. With the profits of his plav, Dodsley the 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. IL 
 
 same year set up as a bookseller ; and, under the patronage which 
 Pope's friendship and his own reputation and talents procured him, 
 his shop in Pall Mall soon became a distinguished resort of the literary 
 loungers about town. His business, which he conducted with great 
 spirit aud ability, prospered accordingly; and in his latter days he 
 might be considered as standing at the head of the bookselling trade. 
 He continued also throughout his life to keep himself before the 
 public in his first profession of an author, and produced a considerable 
 number of works of varying degrees of merit, both in prose and 
 verse. In 1737 his farce of 'The King and tho Miller of Mansfield' 
 was acted at Drury Lane with great applause. It was followed the 
 same year by a sequel, under the title of ' Sir John Cockle at Court,' 
 which however was not so successful. Nor was he more fortunate 
 with his ballad farce of ' The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green,' which 
 was brought out at Drury Lane in 1741. This year also he set up a 
 weekly magazine, under the title of ' The Public Register,' to which 
 he was himself a principal contributor ; but it was discontinued after 
 the publication of the 24th number. It is curious to note that, in 
 his farewell address to his readers, he complains that certain rival 
 magazine publishers (understood to mean the proprietors of the 
 ' Gentleman's Magazine ') had exerted their influence with success to 
 prevent the newspapers from advertising his work. In 1745 he 
 published another short dramatic piece, entitled ' Rex et Poutifex, 
 being an attempt to introduce upon the stage a new species of panto- 
 mime;' but this was never acted. A collected edition of all these 
 dramas was published in 1748, in a volume, to which he gave the title 
 of ' Trifles.' 
 
 The following year he produced a masque on the subject of the 
 peace of Aix-la-Uhapelle, under the title of ' The Triumphs of Peace,' 
 which was set to music by Dr. Arne, and performed at Drury Lane. 
 In 1750 appeared anonymously the first part of the ingenious and 
 well-known little work, ' The Economy of Human Life,' which was 
 long attributed to Lord Chesterfield, and was from the first extremely 
 popular. It was, after Dodsley's death, ascribed to him by tho 
 'Monthly Review,' and has ever since been confidently stated to be his 
 writing : as far as we know however its authorship is by no means 
 ascertained. The first part, entitled 'Agriculture,' of a poem in blank 
 verse, on the subject of public virtue, which Dodsley published in 
 1754, was so coldly received that the second and third parts which he 
 originally contemplated were never produced. In 1758 he closed his 
 career of dramatic authorship with a tragedy entitled ' Cleone,' which 
 was acted at Covent Garden with extraordinary applause, and drew 
 crowded audiences during a long run. When it was published, 2000 
 copies were sold the first day, and it reached a fourth edition within 
 the year. ' Cleone ' however is now pretty well forgotten. Dodsley 
 died at Durham, while on a visit to a friend, on the 25th of September 
 1764. He had retired from business some years before, having made 
 a good fortune. Besides his 'Select Collection of Old Plays,' 12 vols. 
 8vo, 1780, in connection with which his name is now most frequently 
 mentioned, and his ' Collection of Poems by Several Hands,' 4 vols. 
 12mo, 1748, in which many since famous short poems appeared for 
 the first time, Dodsley's name is associated with several works of 
 which he was only the projector and the publisher, but from his 
 connection with which he is now more generally remembered than for 
 his own productions. Among them may be mentioned the two 
 periodical works, ' The Museum,' begun in 1746 and extended to 
 three volumes, in which there are many able essays by Horace 
 Walpole, the two Wartons, Akenside, &e. (of this Dodsley was only 
 one of the shareholders), and ' The World,' 1754-57, conducted by 
 Edward Moore, and contributed to by Lords Lyttleton, Chesterfield, 
 Bath, and Cork, Horace Walpole, Soame Jenyns, &c; 'The Preceptor,' 
 2 vols., 1748, to which Johnson wrote a preface ; and especially the 
 'Annual Register,' begun in 1758, aud still carried on. These, and 
 the other works in which he was engaged, brought him into intimate 
 connection with most of the eminent men belonging to the world of 
 letters during the period of his able aud honourable career. He has 
 also the credit of having first encouraged the talents of Dr. Johnson, 
 by purchasing his poem of 'London' in 1738 for the sum of 10 guineas, 
 aud of having many years afterwards been the projector of the 'English 
 Dictionary.' A second volume of Dodsley's collected works, forming 
 a continuation of the ' Trifles,' was published under the title of 
 ' Miscellanies,' in 1772. (Besides the articles iu the second edition of 
 the 'Biographia Britannica,' in Chalmers, and in the 'Biographia 
 Dramatica,' there are many notices respecting Dodsley iu Nichols's 
 'Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century.') 
 
 DODSWORTH, ROGER, an emiuent antiquary, was the son of 
 Matthew Dodsworth, registrar of York Cathedral, and chancellor to 
 Archbishop Matthews. He was born on July 24th, 1585, at Newton 
 Grange in the parish of St. Oswald, iu Rydale, Yorkshire. He died 
 iu the month of August, 1654, and was buried at Rulford in Lanca- 
 shire. His manuscript collections, partly relating to Yorkshire, in 
 102 volumes folio and quarto, 122 of them in his own handwriting, 
 were bequeathed to the Bodleian Library at Oxford in 1671, by General 
 Fairfax, who had been Dodsworth's patron. Chalmers says that Fair- 
 fax allowed Dodsworth a yearly salary to preserve the inscriptions iu 
 churches. 
 
 Dodsworth was the projector, and collected many of the materials 
 for the early part, of the work now known as ' Dugdale's Monasticon,' 
 
 2 8 
 
619 
 
 62' 
 
 in the title-page of the first volume of which his name appears as one 
 of the compilers. 
 
 There is a detailed catalogue of the contents of Dods worth's collec- 
 tions, now in the Bodleian Library, in the great catalogue of the 
 Manuscripts of England and Ireland, folio, Oxon., 1 697. 
 
 (Gough, Brit. Top. vol. i., pp. 123-24 ; Chalmers, Ding. Diet., vol. xii., 
 p. 180 ; and the Preface to the hist edition of the Monasticon.) 
 
 DODWELL, EDWARD, F.S.A., was a man of fortune, and was 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He left the university in 
 1800, and from that time till his death May 14, 1832, he mostly resided 
 abroad, and occupied himself in researches connected with the earlier 
 antiquities of Greece and her colonies. The first results of his inves- 
 tigations and studies in this field he gave to the world in 1819, in two 
 quarto volumes entitled 'A Classical and Topographical Tour through 
 Greece during the years 1801, 1805, and 1806.' This learned and 
 accurate work was followed in 1821 by a folio volumo of 'Views in 
 Greece, from Drawings by Edward Dodwell, Esq.,' containing thirty 
 coloured prints, accompanied by short descriptions in French and 
 English, from a collection of nearly a thousand drawings which he had 
 made of architectural objects and natural scenery. In the summer of 
 1830 Mr. Dodwell brought on a severe illness by fatigue and loug 
 exposure to the sun while engaged in seeking for the situation of some 
 ancient cities in the Sabine Mountains; and from this he never com- 
 pletely recovered. He left on his death a very large collection of 
 drawings, from which a folio volume of lithographic plates was pub- 
 lished at London in 1834, under the title of 1 Views and Descriptions 
 of Cyclopian or Pelasgic Remains in Greece and Italy ; with Construc- 
 tions of a later Period, from Drawings by the late Edward Dodwell, 
 Esq., F.S.A., &c, intended as a Supplement to his Classical and Topo- 
 graphical Tour in Greece,' &c. Of the views seventy-one are Grecian, 
 fifty-five Italian. The descriptions by which the plates are accompanied 
 are very brief. 
 
 DODWELL, HENRY, was born in Dublin in 1641. His father, 
 who had been in the army, possessed some property in Ireland, but 
 having lost it in the rebellion, he brought over his family to England, 
 aud settled at York, in 1648. Young Dodwell was sent to the York 
 Free school, where he remained for five years. In the meantime both 
 his father and mother had died, and he was reduced to great distress 
 from the want of all pecuniary means, till, in 1654, he was taken under 
 the protection of a brother of his mother's, at whose expense he was 
 sent, in 1656, to Trinity College, Dublin. There he eventually obtained 
 a fellowship, which however he relinquished in 1666, owing to certain 
 conscientious scruples against taking holy orders. In 1672, on his 
 return to Ireland, after having resided some years at Oxford, he made 
 his first appearance as an author by a learned preface, with which he 
 introduced to the public a theological tract of the late Dr. Steam, who 
 had been his college tutor : it was entitled ' De Obstinatione,' and 
 published at Dublin. Dodwell's next publication was a volume en- 
 titled ' Two Letters of Advice : 1. For the Susception of Holy Orders : 
 2. For Studies Theological, especially such as are Rational.' It appeared 
 : n a second edition in 1681, accompanied with a 'Discourse on the 
 Phoenician History of Sanchoniathon,' the fragments of which, found 
 in Porphyry and Eusebius, he contends to be spurious. Meanwhile, in 
 1674, Dodwell had settled in London, and from this time to his death 
 he led a life of busy authorship. Many of his publications were on 
 the popish and nonconformist controversies; they have the reputation 
 of showing, like everything else he wrote, extensive and minute learn- 
 ing, and great skill in the application of his scholarship, but little 
 judgment of a larger kind. Few, if any, of the champions of the 
 Church of England have strained the pretensions of that establishment 
 so far as Dodwell seems to have done ; but his whole life attested the 
 perfect conscientiousness and disregard of personal consequences under 
 which he wrote and acted. In 1688 he was elected Camden Professor 
 of History by the University of Oxford, but was deprived of his office, 
 after he had held it about three years, for refusing to take the oath 
 of allegiance to William and Mary. He then retired to the village of 
 Cookham in Berkshire, and soon after to Shottesbrooke in the same 
 neighbourhood, where he spent the rest of his days. He possessed, 
 it appears, an estate in Ireland, but he allowed a relation to enjoy 
 the principal part of the rent, only reserving such a moderate main- 
 tenance for himself as sufficed for his simple and inexpensive habits 
 of life. It is said however that his relation at length began to grumble 
 at the subtraction even of this pittance ; and on that Dodwell resumed 
 his property, and married. He took this step in 1694, in his fifty-third 
 year, and he lived to see himself the father of ten children. The 
 works for which he is now chiefly remembered were also all produced 
 in the latter part of his life. Among these are his ' Dissertations aud 
 Annotations on the Greek Geographers,' published in Hudson's ' Geo- 
 graphise Veteris Scriptores Grseei Minores,' Oxon., 1698, 1703, and 1712 ; 
 his 'Annates Thucydidei et Xenophontei,' 1696; his ' Chronologia 
 Groeco-Romaua pro Hypothesibus Diou. Halicaruassei,' 1692 ; and his 
 ' Annales Velleiani, Quintiliaui, Statiani/ 1698. These several chrono- 
 logical essays, which are drawn up with great ability, have all been 
 repeatedly reprinted. Dodwell's principal work is considered to be 
 his 'De Veteribus Grsecorum Romanorumque Cyclis, Obiterque de 
 Cyclo Judreorum ac ^Etate Christi, Dissertatkmes,' 4to, Oxon., 1701. 
 He also published in 8vo., in 1706, 'An Epistolary Discourse, proving 
 from the Scriptures and the first Fathers, that the Soul ia a principle 
 
 naturally mortal, but immortalised actually by the pleasure of God, to 
 punishment or to reward, by its union with the divine baptism*! 
 spirit; where it is proved that none have the power of giving thn 
 divine immortalising spirit since the Apostles, but only the Bishops.' 
 This attempt to make out for the bishops the new power of conferring 
 immortality raised no small outory agaiust the writer, and staggered 
 many even of those who had not seen any extravagance in his former 
 polemical lucubrations. Of course it gave great offence to the Dis- 
 senters, all of whoso souls it unceremoniously shut out from a future 
 existence on any terms. Dodwell died at Shottesbrooke on the 7th of 
 June 1711. Of his sons, the eldest, Henry, who was a barrister, pub- 
 lished anonymously in 1742, a tract, which has been generally, but 
 perhaps erroneously, looked upon as a covert attack upon revealed 
 religion, under the title of ' Christianity not founded on Argument ;' 
 and another, William, who was in the church, distinguished himself 
 by some pamphlets iu the controversy with Dr. Conyers Middleton 
 about miracles ; and also wrote an answer to his brother's anonymous 
 tract just mentioned. 
 
 DOLCI, CARLO, was born at Florence, May 25, 1616. His father 
 Andrew, and his mother's father and brother, Pietro and Bartolomeo 
 Marinari, were all painters, and much esteemed and respected iu their 
 native city. At the ago of four years, Carlo had the misfortune to 
 lose his father, and his mother was obliged to maintain a numerous 
 family by her industry. At the age of nine Bhe placed him with 
 Jacopo Vignali, a pupil of Roselli, who was famous for his powers of 
 teaching. In four years Carlo could paint. His first efforts attracted 
 the notice of Piero de' Medici, an amateur, who procured him the 
 notice of the court, and he was soon busily and profitably employed. 
 In 1654 he married Theresa Bucherelli, by whom he had a numerous 
 family. About 1670 he was invited to paint the likeness of Claudia, 
 the daughter of Ferdinand of Austria, at Innspruck, which place he 
 visited for a short time. After his return he was afflicted with 
 melancholy, and he died on Friday, January 17, 1686, leaving one son 
 in holy orders, aud seven daughters, of whom Agnese, married to 
 Carlo Baci, a silk merchant, painted in the manner of her father. 
 
 Dolci's biographer, Baldinucci, attributes his excellence in painliag 
 to the goodness of Heaven, as a just reward for his singular piety, in 
 illustration of which numerous anecdotes are told. When invited to 
 take Claudia's portrait, he declined for fear of the length of the 
 journey, never having lost sight of the cathedral dome and campanile 
 of his favourite city since his birth ; and his assent was only procured 
 by obtaining the commands of his confessor, which he obeyed at 
 once. In like manner he was recovered from his first fit of melancholy 
 by the command of his confessor to proceed with a picture of the 
 Virgin. He appears to have been extremely good and amiable, but 
 singularly timid. His last illness is said to have been brought on by 
 a remark which Luca Giordano uttered in joke, according to hia 
 intimate friend Baldinucci, that his slowness would never allow him 
 to amass 150,000 dollars as the expeditious Giordano had done, but 
 that he must starve. Upon this, poor Carlo seems to have grown 
 bewildered; fancied that the threatened evil was imminent, and refused 
 food for some time. In the midst of his troubles, his excellent wife 
 died, aud death soon released him from his grief. In all his insanity 
 he was never violent, but dejected and helpless, and as obedient as 
 a child to his ghostly adviser. 
 
 From his first attempts at painting, Carlo determined to paint none 
 but sacred subjects, and he almost literally observed this rule. His 
 style is pleasing, and full of gentle and tender expressions ; his 
 drawing for the most part, but not always, correct ; his colouring 
 varied, soft, bright, and harmonious ; sometimes too pearly in its tint. 
 He elaborated all he did with the most consummate patience and 
 delicacy. His pictures are numerous, and found in many collections, 
 for he painted many duplicates, and many copies were made by his 
 pupils Alessandro Lomi and Bartolomeo Mancini, and Agnese, his 
 daughter. Onorio Marinar-i, his cousin and scholar, gave great promise, 
 but died young. (Baldinucci.) 
 
 DOLLOND, JOHN, an eminent optician, was descended from a 
 French refugee family, settled in Spitalfields, and born on the 10th of 
 June 1706. His parents were in humble circumstances, his father 
 being an operative silk weaver ; and the son was brought up to the 
 same occupation. The little leisure however which he had was spent 
 in the acquisition of a varied circle of knowledge. Besides the study 
 of mathematics and physics, to the latter of which his reputation is 
 chiefly due, he studied anatomy and natural history in general, on the 
 one hand, and theology and ecclesiastical history on the other. Iu 
 furtherance of this diversified class of subjects, which, considering 
 the toil to which the day was devoted, was sufficiently extensive, he 
 undertook the Greek and Roman classics ; he was partially acquainted 
 with several of the modern languages, but with French, German, and 
 Italian he was intimately conversant. Notwithstanding the cares of 
 a family and the duties which it imposed upon him, Dollond still 
 found means to cultivate the sciences ; and having apprenticed his 
 eldest son, Peter, to an optical instrument-maker, he was in due time 
 able to establish him in business in Vine-court, Spitalfields. _ In this 
 business he finally joined his son, for the especial purpose, it would 
 seem, of being able to unite his tastes with his business more perfectly 
 than silk-weaving enabled him to do. 
 Immediately on this arrangement being completed, Dollond com- 
 
Ml 
 
 DOLOMIEU, DEODAT-GUY-SILVAIN. 
 
 DOMAT, JEAN. 
 
 BS9 
 
 uienced a series of experiments on the dispersion of light, and other 
 subjects connected with the improvement of optical instruments, and 
 especially of telescopes and microscopes, the results of which were 
 communicated to the Royal Society in a scries of papers. Three of 
 them were printed in the 'Philosophical Transactions' for 1753, one 
 iu 1754, and the last in 1758, the titles of which are given below. It 
 was about 1755 that he entered upon a systematic course of experi- 
 ments on dispersion, and after, to use his own words, ' a resolute 
 perseverance' for more than a year and a half, he made the decisive 
 experiment which showed the error of Newton's conclusions on this 
 subject. The memoir in which the series of investigations was 
 detailed appeared in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' and was the 
 last which he gave to the world. It was rewarded by the council of 
 the Royal Society with the Copley medal. 
 
 It was the lot of Dollond to undergo considerable annoyance on 
 account of the claims set up for this discovery in favour of others, 
 especially of Euler; but there is not a shadow of a doubt of Dol- 
 lond's priority as well as originality, in this very important discovery, 
 left on the minds of the scientific world. The discrepancies which 
 followed the application of Newton's doctrine to the varied cases that 
 presented themselves in the course of different experiments might, in 
 speculative minds, have created a suspicion of the accuracy of that 
 doctrine ; yet there does not appear to have been the least hesitation 
 among scientific men iu attributing these discrepancies to errors of 
 observation exclusively, and consequently not the least ground for 
 honestly attempting to deprive Dollond of the honour of the 
 discovery. 
 
 In the beginning of the year 1761 Dollond was elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society, and appointed optician to the king. He did not 
 long survive to enjoy the honour or advantages of his discoveries ; as 
 on the 30th of November of that year, he was attacked by a fit of 
 apoplexy, brought on by a too close and long continued application to 
 a paper which he was studying. This attack immediately deprived 
 him of speech, and in a few hours of life itself. 
 
 Besides his eldest son Peter, already mentioned (who survived him 
 till 1820, when he died aged ninety), he left another son John, and 
 three daughters. The two sons carried on the business jointly with 
 i,Teat reputation and success; and upon the death of the younger in 
 1804, Peter Dollond took into partnership a nephew, George Huggins, 
 who assumed the name of Dollond, and who continued the busi- 
 ness without diminution of the high character attached to the name 
 of Dollond, till his death in May 1832. Mr. George Dollond trans- 
 mitted the now famous busiuess to a nephew of his, also named 
 George Huggins, and he in his turn obtained the royal permission to 
 assume the surname of Dollond instead of Huggins. 
 
 The following is the list of John Dollond's published papers : — 1, 
 'A Letter to Mr. James Short, F.R.S., concerning an Improvement 
 in Reflecting Telescopes;' ' Phil. Trans.,' 1753, p. 103. 2, ' Letter to 
 James Short, A.M., F.R.S., concerning a mistake in Mr. Euler's Theo- 
 ivm for correcting the Aberration in the Object Glasses of Refracting 
 Tti -scopes;' 'PhiL Trans.,* 1753, p. 287. 3, 'A Description of a 
 Contrivance for measuring Small Angles; ' ' Phil. Trans.,' 1753, p. 17S. 
 4, 'An Explanation of an Instrument for measuring Small Augles ; ' 
 'Phil. Trans.,' 1754, p. 551. 5, ' An account of some Expei'iments 
 concerning the different Refrangibility of Light ; ' ' Phil. Trans.,' 1758, 
 p. 733. 
 
 DOLOMIEU, DEODAT-GUY-SILVAIN TANCREDE GRATET 
 DE, was born at Grenoble on the 24th of June 1750. Iu early youth 
 he was admitted a member of the religious order of Malta, but iu 
 consequence of a quarrel with one of his companions which ended iu 
 a duel fatal to his adversary he received sentence of death, but after 
 imprisonment he was pardoned, and went to France. After some 
 hesitation whether he should devote himself to classical literature or 
 to natural history, he decided iu favour of the latter. While at Metz 
 with the regiment of carbineers, in which he had obtained a commission, 
 he formed an acquaintance with the celebrated La lloehefoucault, which 
 ceased but with his existence. Dolomieu was soon afterwards elected 
 a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences, and quitted the 
 military profession. 
 
 At the age of twenty-six Dolomieu went to Sicily, and his first 
 labour was an examination of the environs and strata of /Etna. He 
 next visited Vesuvius, the Apennines, and the Alps, and in 1783 
 published an account of his visit to the Lipari Islands. He returned 
 to France at the commencement of the revolution, and early ranged 
 himself on the popular side. He had however no public employment 
 ^iintil the third year of the republic, when he was included in the Ecole 
 de Mines, then established ; and he was one of the original members 
 of the National Institute, founded about the same time. He was 
 indefatigable in the pursuit of geological and miueralogical science, and 
 id leas than three years he published twenty-seven original memoirs, 
 among which were those on the nature of Leucite, Peridot, Anthracite, 
 1'yroxene, &c. 
 
 When Bonaparte undertook the conquest of Egypt, Dolomieu accom- 
 panied the expedition. He visited Alexandria, the Delta, Cairo, the 
 Pyramids, and a part of the mountains which bound the valley of the 
 Nile; and he proposed also to explore the more interesting parts of 
 the country, but before he could carry his plan into execution his 
 health became so deranged that he was compelled to return to Europe. 
 
 On his passage home he was with his friend Cordier, the mineralogist, 
 and many others of his countrymen, made prisoner after being driven 
 into the Gulf of Tarentum. His companions were soon set at liberty, 
 but the remembrance of the disputes which had existed between him 
 and the members of the Order of Malta led to his removal and sub- 
 sequent imprisonment at Messina, where he was confined in a dungeon 
 lighted only by one small opening, which, with barbarous precaution, 
 was closely shut every night. The heat, and the small quantity of 
 fresh air admitted by the window of his prison, compelled him to 
 spend nearly the whole of his time iu fanning himself with the few 
 tattered remnants of his clothes, in order to increase the circulation of 
 the air. Great exertion aud urgent demands were made by the 
 scientific men of various countries to obtain his enlargement , and 
 when, after the battle of Marengo, peace was made with Naples, the 
 first article of the treaty was a stipulation for the immediate release of 
 Dolomieu. On the death of Daubeutou he was appointed professor 
 of mineralogy, and soon after his return to France he delivered a 
 course of lectures on the philosophy of mineralogy at the Museum of 
 Natural History. 
 
 In a short time Dolomieu again quitted Paris, visited the Alps, and 
 returned to Lyon by Lucerne, the glaciers of Grindelvvald aud Geneva, 
 and thence to Chateauneuf, to visit his sister and his brother-in-law 
 De Dre"e : here he was attacked by a disorder from the effects of which 
 he died, November 26, 1801. 
 
 Dolomieu had projected two journeys for adding to his vast store 
 of geological knowledge — the first through Germany, and the second 
 through Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. He also proposed to publish 
 a work which he had planned in his prison at Messina ; of this there 
 was printed a fragment on ' Mineral Species,' which is a monument 
 at once of his misfortunes and his genius, being written iu his dungeon 
 in Sicily, on the margin of a few books, with a bone sharpened against 
 his prison-walls for a pen, and the black of his lamp-smoke mixed with 
 water for ink. In this work the author proposes that the integral 
 molecule shall be regarded as the principle by which the species is to 
 be determined, aud that no other specific characters should be admitted 
 than those which result from the composition or form of the integral 
 molecule. It must however be admitted as an objection to this 
 proposal that the integral molecule is not always easily ascertained or 
 characterised. 
 
 Soon after his death was published, 'Journal du Dernier Voyage du 
 Citoyen Dolomieu dans les Alpcs,' edited by Brunu-Nelgard, Paris, 8vo, 
 1802. M. Dolomieu's numerous ' Mdmoires ' are contained in the 
 'Me^moires de l'Institut,' 'Journal des Mines,' 'Journal de Physique,' 
 1 Recueil de l'Acade'iriie des Sciences,' and the 'Voyage Pittoresque de 
 Naples et de Sicile ;' he also wrote several articles for the ' Dictioiinaire 
 Miueralogique,' and the ' Nouvellc Encyclopedic.' 
 
 Dr. Thomson, in the 'Annals of Philosophy,' vol. xii., p. 166, has 
 drawn up an elaborate summary of the " results of Dolomieu's 
 observations and the bases of his geological systems." 
 
 DOMAT, or DOUMAT, JEAN, a distinguished French civilian, was 
 born at Clermont in Auvergne, on the 30th of November 1625. He 
 connected himself with the brilliant circle of literary recluses at the 
 Port-Royal, among whom his reputation stood high both for juris- 
 prudence and ethic-. He was a very modest man, and comparatively 
 little is known of his personal history. For nearly thirty years he 
 presided, with marked credit, in the lower court of judicature at 
 Clermont. He was in the confidence of Pascal, attended him on his 
 death-bed, and was intrusted with many of his papers. His great 
 systematic work on the civil law appears to have long existed and 
 been perused by his friends in manuscript before it was published. 
 Rumours of the value of the work coming to Louis XIV., Doruat 
 received a pension, and took up his abode in Paris, where he received 
 encouragement from the kindness of D'Aguesseau, then conseiller 
 d'eHat, through whose patronage many distinguished jurists appear 
 to have found their way to notice. Domat married Mademoiselle 
 Blonde], by whom ho had thirteen children — a circumstauce deemed 
 worthy of particular commemoration in France. He died at Paris on 
 the 14th of March 1695, and, notwithstanding his pension and his 
 office, is said to have ended his days in extreme poverty. In his works 
 he stands pre-eminently above all jurists of his age, and acquired a 
 reputation throughout Europe that has hardly been subsequently 
 reached by any of his countrymen. His work, ' Les Loix Civiles dans 
 leur Ordre Naturel, suivies du Droit Public,' appeared anonymously 
 in 1089, aud is said to have been for some time attributed to Delauney, 
 professor of jurisprudence in the University of Paris — a statement 
 scarcely reconcileable with the alleged reputation of the work while 
 in manuscript. The author's method of dividing the subject is, by 
 first treating of the rules of law in general. This branch of the work 
 is almost of an ethical character. The principle of every law, as having 
 a foundation in utility or some other reason connected with morals or 
 religion, is the main feature of the work, aud in this it adopts the 
 system which was afterwards more elaborately carried out and applied 
 to a larger number of subjects by Montesquieu. The substance of 
 the law is divided iuto private aud public. The former class is sub- 
 divided into the law of contracts aud the law of succession. The 
 public law is divided into government, official and executorial arrange- 
 ments, crimes, and procedure civil aud criminal. There have been 
 several editions of the work in French, generally in two volumes, folio. 
 
628 
 
 DOMENICHINO. 
 
 DOMINIS, MARCUS ANTONIUS DE. 
 
 Although intended for the use of Frenchmen, it does not include the 
 provincial peculiarities of tenure, but is nearly an echo of the Roman 
 law purified of matters peculiar to Roman habits and customs, and 
 thus it became a book for Europe at large. Iu 1722 it was translated 
 into English by William Strahau, ' with additional remarks on some 
 material differences between the civil law and the law of England,' 
 2 vols, folio. This translation is the most extensive systematic work 
 on the civil law in the English language. Domat paid great attention 
 to mercantile law, and it is believed that this translation has been of 
 extensive service in keeping the mercantile law iu general, and the 
 admiralty and consistorial systems of England in unison with the civil 
 law, and consequently with the practice of the rest of Europe. Domat's 
 work used to be in high esteem iu Scotland before the study of civil 
 law was neglected at the Scottish bar. A posthumous work by Domat, 
 ' Legum Delectus, ex Libris Digestorum et Codicis,' was published at 
 Amsterdam in 1703, 4to. M. Victor Cousin wrote iu the 'Journal des 
 Savants,' 1843, a series of articles on Domat, in which he published 
 some particulars inspecting him previously little known. 
 
 DOMENICHI'NO. DuMENI'CO ZAMPIEKI, called DOMENI- 
 CHINO, was born at Bologna, in 1581, of poor parents. According 
 to some authorities, his first master was Denis Calvart; but Bellori 
 gives him Fiammingo for his first teacher. Fiammiugo, entertaining 
 a jealous dislike (says the biographer) to the Caracci, beat his pupil, 
 and turned him out of doors, because ho found the boy copying a 
 desigu by Antiibale. On the occasion of his dismissal being made 
 known to Agostiuo Caracci, he was admitted to the school of the 
 Caracci, and he soon gained one of the prizes which Lodovico cus- 
 tomarily distributed, much to the surprise of his fellow-students, who 
 had expected little from a youth of his retiring awkward manners. 
 After visiting Parma, Domenichino went to Rome, where he studied 
 and worked for some time under Annibale Caracci. He afterwards 
 obtained the patronage of Cardinal Gieronimo Agucchi, and while he 
 lived iu his house painted many pictures for him. Besides painting, 
 he studied architecture, and was appointed architect to the apostolic 
 palace by Gregory XV. After the death of that pontiff, finding him- 
 self somewhat reduced in circumstances, and receiving an invitation 
 to Naples, he removed thither with his wife and children. He died 
 at Naples, April 15, 1641. Duriug his life he was much respected. 
 He formed a particularly strict friendship with Albano, in whose 
 house he lived for two years when he first arrived in Rome. 
 
 Domenichino was so slow in his early progress as to disappoint 
 many of his friends, and he had the appellation of Bue (ox) among 
 his fellow-students ; but Annibale Caracci, who perceived in him the 
 marks of that genius which he afterwards developed, told the jeerers 
 that their nickname was only applicable to the patience and fruitful 
 industry of the laborious student. He retained the utmost delibe- 
 ration in his mode of working to the last ; though when after long 
 reflection he once began to work at his picture he did not leave it 
 until he had completed it. It is said that he had many maxims 
 which justified his slowness, such as, that no line was worthy of an 
 artist which was not iu his mind before it was traced by his hand. 
 He was so entirely devoted to his art that he only left his retired 
 study to make sketches and observations upon expression in active 
 life; much of his time was however spent in reading history and 
 poetry. 
 
 Domenichino was profoundly studied in his drawing, rich and 
 natural in his colouring, and, above all, correct and life like in his 
 expression. Annibale Caracci is said to have been decided in his 
 judgment between two pictures of the 'Scourging of St. Andrew,' 
 painted in competition by Domenichino and Agostino Caracci, by 
 hearing an old woman point out with much earnestness the beauties 
 of Domenichino's to a little child, describing every part of it as if it 
 were a living scene, while she passed the other over in silence. To 
 the grayer design of the Bolognese school Domenichino added some- 
 thing of the ornamental manner of the Venetian, his pictures being 
 rich in the accessaries of architecture and costume. His genius how- 
 ever is not characterised by great invention ; he has been accused of 
 borrowing too directly from the works of others, and his draperies 
 are regarded as harsh and too scanty in the folds. Nevertheless, he 
 has been esteemed by the best judges (and among them are the Caracci 
 and Nicholas Poussiu) as one of the first of painters, and by some 
 second only to Raffaelle. Such however he will never be thought by 
 the world at large. 
 
 Domenichino excelled also in landscape, and was famous for his 
 admirable execution of the figures with which he enliveued them. 
 His principal works are at Rome and Naples ; among them the ' Com- 
 munion of St. Jerome,' now placed opposite Raffaelle's 'Transfigura- 
 tion,' in the Vatican, and the ' Martyrdom of St. Agnes,' are the most 
 celebrated. There are three or four of Domenichino's pictures in the 
 National Gallery, London, but neither of them is of any remarkable 
 merit. 
 
 DOMINIC, SAINT. Domingo de Guzman, founder of the Order 
 of Dominicans, was born in 1170 at Calahorra, in Castilla la Vieja, 
 Spain. He completed his education at the University of Palentia; in 
 1193 was made canon of the cathedral of Osma; and in 1198 a priest 
 aud archdeacon. He subsequently became known as an eloquent and 
 earnest preacher, and was sent on missions to various parts of Spain, 
 r.nd into France. Having had his zeal inflamed by the progress of the 
 
 Albi^ensi^s, he bent all his energies to their conversion. Finding his 
 own efforts insullicieut, he appears to have conceived the idea of 
 founding an order of preaching friars, whose special duty should be 
 the conversion of heretics ; and about the confmencement of the 13th 
 century he began to carry his purpose into effect. He soon found 
 numerous volunteers to his new order, and, to disarm opposition, he 
 aud his followers adopted the rule of St. Augustine. As a distinct 
 order they did not however receive the formal verbal approval of the 
 pope, Innocent III., till 1215. This order was confirmed in the 
 following year by a bull of Honorius III., under the name of the 
 Predicants, or Preaching Friars : they were afterwards called Domini- 
 cans, from their founder. In England they were known as Black-Friars, 
 from the colour of their habits ; in France as Jacobin.', from their 
 first house in that country being situated in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris. 
 Dominic was the first general of the order. He was also about the 
 same time created by the pope Master of the Sacred Palace at Roma, 
 an office since always held by a Dominican. The order rapidly 
 increased in numbers, and spread all over Europe: at the dissolution 
 of the monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII. the Dominicans had 
 fifty-eight houses in England and Wales. 
 
 Dominic did not however trust for the uprooting of heresy simply 
 to his own preaching and that of his followers. Finding that his 
 eloquence failed to convert the Albigenses, he, with the papal legates, 
 Peter of Castelnau and Rainier of Raoul, obtained permission of 
 Innocent III. to hold courts, before which they might summon by 
 authority of the pope, and without reference to the local bishops, any 
 individuals suspected of heresy, and inflict upon them if obstinate 
 capital punishment, or otherwise any lesser penalty. Peter of Castelnau, 
 who had made himself especially obnoxious by his severity, was killed 
 at Toulouse in 1208 ; and then was proclaimed by the pope, at the 
 instigation of Dominic, that fearful ' crusade,' as it was designated by 
 Innocent, to which all the barons of France were summoned, and 
 which, under the captaincy of De Montfort, led to the slaughter of so 
 many thousands of these so-called heretics. Dominic himself, it has 
 been said, was not personally cruel; but towards heretics he had no 
 compassion, and it is certain that, so far from attempting to lessen the 
 horrible slaughter, he did what he could to stimulate it. Dominic is 
 very frequently said to have been the founder of the Inquisition : 
 but this is an error. He and his companions in the commission to 
 examine aud punish the Albigenses were commonly called ' Inquisitors,' 
 but their commission was merely local aud temporary. The ' Holy 
 Office ' was not formally established till 1233, when Gregory IX. laid 
 down the rules and defined the jurisdiction of the courts, which he 
 appointed for various countries under the name of ' Inquisitorial 
 Missions.' It is however worthy of notice that the chief inquisitor 
 was a Dominican monk, Pietro da Verona; and that the governance 
 of the Inquisition was placed pretty much in the hands of the 
 Dominicans. 
 
 According to the biographers of Dominic, he was permitted to 
 exhibit the divine sanction to his missions by raising the dead to life, 
 as in the case of a young nobleman named Napoleon at Rome, on the 
 Ash- Wednesday of 1218, and by other miracles. Dominic died at 
 Bologna in 1221. He was canonised by Pope Gregory IX. on the 3rd 
 of July 1234 : the Church of Rome keeps his festival on the 4th of 
 August Dominic is said to have written some commentaries upon 
 St. Matthew, St. Paul, and the Canonical Epistles, but they have not 
 come down to us. 
 
 DO'MINIS, MARCUS ANTONIUS DE, au Italian theologian and 
 natural philosopher, was born in 1566, of an ancient family, at Arba, 
 on the coast of Dalmatia ; and, having been educated in a college of 
 the Jesuits at Loretto, he completed his studies at the University of 
 Padua. The progress which lie made in the sciences was so satis- 
 factory that the persons in authority at the university used their 
 influence to induce him to enter the order of Jesuits : to this he 
 appears to have consented ; and, while passing his novitiate, he gave 
 instruction in mathematics, physics, and eloquence. At the same 
 time he employed his leisure in the study of theology ; and it was 
 then that he composed his work entitled 'De Radiis Visus et Lucis in 
 Vitris perspectivis et Iride,' which was published at Venice by one of 
 his pupils in 1611. 
 
 The routine of a college life not suiting his taste, De Dominis 
 quitted Padua ; and, on the recommendation of the Emperor 
 Rodolphus, he was appointed bishop of Segni. Two years after- 
 wards he was made archbishop of Spalatro ; but, while holding this 
 dignity, he became embroiled with the pope (Paul V.) by taking a 
 part in the disputes between that pontiff aud the Venetians respecting - 
 the endowment of ecclesiastical establishments. On this occasion he 
 threw out a censure on the conduct of the pope; and he further gave 
 offence by entering upon the important but personally dangerous 
 subject of reforming the manners of the clergy. 
 
 Being suspected of an inclination in favour of the reformed religion, 
 he found it convenient to consult his safety by resigning his arch- 
 bishopric and retiring to Venice ; this was in the year 1615, and in 
 the following year he came to England, where he experienced a 
 favourable reception from James I. The king appointed him to the 
 deanery of Wiudsor; and at this time he composed his work entitled 
 1 De Republica Eeclesiastica,' the object of which is to show that the 
 pope has no supremacy over other bishops ; it is in two parts, of 
 
DOMITIANUS, TITUS FLAVIUS. 
 
 DONALDSON, THOMAS LEVEIITON. 
 
 626 
 
 which one was published iu 1017, and the other iu 1020, both iu 
 Loudon. The work was much esteemed at the time, but is now 
 scarcely remembered. He also published a sermon, which he preached 
 iu 1617, in the chapel belonging to the Mercers' Company; and, in the 
 following year, a work entitled 'Scogli del Cristiauo Naufragio quali va 
 scopendo la Santa Chiesa.' De Dominis appears to have been restless 
 an 1 inconstant; for after a few years he expressed a wish to return to 
 the bosom of the Catholic Church, and having received from the pope 
 (Gregory XV.) a promise of pardon, he set out for Rome. Soon after 
 his arrival, some intercepted letters gave indications that his repentance 
 was not sincere, and he was in consequence committed to the castle of 
 Sb Angelo, where, after an imprisonment of a few months, he die I, 
 September 1624. Being convicted after his death of heresy, his body 
 was disinterred and burnt. 
 
 De Dominis has the merit of being the first who assumed that the 
 rainbow was produced by two refractions of light in each drop of rain, 
 with an intermediate reflection from the back part of the drop; and 
 he verified the hypothesis by receiving the ray of light from a globe 
 of glass exposed to the sun in the same manner as the drops of raiu 
 are supposed to be situated with respect to that luminary. He knew 
 nothing of the different refrangibilities of the rays of light ; and he 
 conceived that the colours were produced by the different forces with 
 which the rays strike the eye in consequence of the different lengths 
 of path described within the drop, by which it was supposed that 
 they retain more or less of the original impulsive force. He erred 
 also in supposing that the rays which formed one of the bows came 
 from the upper part of the sun's disc, and those which formed the 
 other from the lower. 
 
 DOMITIA'NUS, TITUS FLAVIUS, younger son of the Emperor 
 Vespasianus, succeeded his brother Titus as emperor a.d. 81. Tacitus 
 (' Hist.,' iv. 51, 68), gives an unfavourable account of his previous youth. 
 The beginning of his reign was marked by moderation and a display 
 of justice bordering upon severity. He affected great zeal for the 
 reformation of public morals, and punished with death several persons 
 guilty of adultery, as well as some vestals who had broken their vows. 
 He completed several splendid buildings begun by Titus ; among others 
 an Odeum, or theatre for musical performances. The most important 
 event of his reign was the conquest of Britain by Agricola; but 
 Domitian grew jealous of that great commander's reputation, and 
 recalled him to Rome. His suspicious temper and his pusillanimity 
 made him afraid of every man who was distinguished either by birth 
 and connexions or by merit and popularity, and he mercilessly sacri- 
 ficed many to his fears, while his avarice led him to put to death a 
 number of wealthy persons for the sake of their property. The usual 
 pretext for these murders was the charge of conspiracy or treason ; 
 and thus a numerous race of informers was created and maintained by 
 this system of spoliation. His cruelty was united to a deep dissimu- 
 lation, and in this particular he resembled Tiberius rather than Caligula 
 or Nero. He cither put to death or drove away from Rome the philo- 
 sophers and men of letters; Epictetus was one of the exiled. He 
 found however some flatterers among the poets, such as Martial, Silius 
 It&licua, and Statius. The latter dedicated to him his ' Thebais' and 
 'Achilleis,' and commemorated the events of his reign in his ' Silvao.' 
 But in reality the reign of Domitian was auything but favourable to 
 the Roman arms, except in Britain. In Mcesia and Dacia, in Germany 
 and Pannonia, the armies were defeated, and whole provinces lost. 
 (Tacitus, 'Agricola,' 41.) Domitian himself went twice into Mcosia to 
 oppose the Uacians, but after several defeats he concluded a disgraceful 
 peace with their chief Decebalus, whom he acknowledged as king, and 
 agreed to pay a tribute, which was afterwards discontinued by Trajan ; 
 and yet Domitian made a pompous report of his victories to the 
 Benate, and assumed the honour of a triumph. In the same manner 
 he triumphed over the Catti and the Sarmatians, which made Pliny 
 the Younger say that the triumphs of Domitian were always evidence 
 of some advantages gained by the enemies of Rome. In a.d. 95 
 Douiitian assumed the consulship for the seventeenth time, together 
 with Flavius Clemens, who had married Domitilla, a relative of the 
 emperor. In that year a persecution of the Christians is recorded in 
 the hi.-tory of the Church, but it appears to have been directed par- 
 ticularly against the Jews, with whom the Christians were then con- 
 founded by the Romans. Suetonius ascribes the proscriptions of the 
 Jews, or those who lived after the manner of the Jews, and whom he 
 styles a9 ' iinprofessi,' to the rapacity of Domitian. Flavius Clemens 
 and his wife were among the victims. [Clemens Romanus.] In the 
 following year (96), under the consulship of Fabius Valens and C. 
 Autistius Vetus, a conspiracy was formed against Domitiau among the 
 officers of his guards and several of his intimate friends, and his wife 
 herself is said to have participated in it. The immediate cause of it 
 was his increasing suspicions, which threatened the life of every one 
 "round him, and which are said to have been stimulated by the pre- 
 dictions of astrologers and soothsayers, whom he was very ready to 
 consult. He was killed in his apartments by several of the conspira- 
 tors, after struggling with them for some time ; he was in his forty- 
 fifth year, and bad reigned fifteen years. On the news of his death the 
 senate assembled and elected M. Cocceius Nerva emperor. 
 
 The character of Domitian is represented by all ancient historians 
 in the darkest colours, as being a compound of timidity and cruelty, 
 of dissimulation and arrogance, of self-indulgence and stern severity 
 
 towards others. He punished satirists, but encouraged secret iuformers. 
 He took a delight in inspiring others with terror, and Dion relates a 
 singular banquet, to which ho invited the senators, with all the appa- 
 ratus of a funeral and an execution. He is also said to have spent 
 whole hours in hunting after and killing flies. At one time, before 
 his becoming emperor, he had applied himself to literature and poetry, 
 aud he is said to have composed several poems and other work* 
 (Tacitus, Suetonius, Dion, and ITiny the Younger.) 
 
 Coin of Domitian. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 4 3 2 J grains. 
 
 DON, DAVID, was born at Forfar in Scotland, in 1800. His 
 father was proprietor of a nursery and botanic garden in this place, 
 aud is well known as having been an acute practical botanist, and one 
 who cultivated the botany of his native country with great success. 
 When David was still a young man his father was appointed to the 
 charge of the botanic garden at Edinburgh, and the knowledge which 
 David then possessed of botany attracted the notice of Mr. Patrick 
 Neill, and other gentlemeu connected with the garden, and they pro- 
 cured for hiui the means of attending on some of the classes in the 
 university. His father however soon quitted Ediuburgh, and again 
 opened his garden iu Forfar. David afterwards procured a situation 
 in the establishment of Messrs. Dickson of Broughton, near Edinburgh, 
 where he had the care of the finest collection of plants in Scotland. 
 Iu 1S19 he came to London, and was recommended to Mr. Lambert, 
 who had at that time a large collection of plants. He was soon 
 appointed by Mr. Lambert to be his librarian and curator, aud lived 
 entirely in his house. 
 
 One of his earliest publications was the description of a number of 
 species of plants which were either entirely new, or had only been 
 found in a few localities where they had been collected by his father 
 and others in Scotland. It was entitled 'Descriptions of several New 
 or Rare Native Plants, fouud in Scotland chiefly by the late Mr. 
 George Don of Forfar,' and was published in vol. iii. of the Memoirs 
 of the Weruerian Society of Ediuburgh. He shortly after published 
 in the ' Transactions of the Linnaean Society,' vol. xiii. ' A Monograph 
 of the genus Saxifraga ; ' this attempt at describing the various species of 
 the genus gained for him a reputation as a Bound botanist. In 1822 the 
 office of librarian to the Linnaean Society became vacant, and he wa3 
 appointed to that post. In this position he had great opportunities 
 of improving his knowledge of botany. The collections of plants from 
 India in the Liunaean Museum turned his attention to that part of the 
 world, and in 1825 he published descriptions of species of plants in 
 Nepaul under the title ' Prodromus Florae Nepalensis,' 12mo. Almost 
 every volume of the ' Transactions of the Linnoean Society ' after his 
 appointment as librarian contains papers by him on various depart- 
 ments of systematic botany. 
 
 On the death of Professor Burnett, in 1836, he was appointed to the 
 chair of botany at King's College, London, a position which he held 
 with great credit to himself and advantage to the institution, till his 
 decease. His numerous papers descriptive of various new genera and 
 species, and on various points in the physiology of plants, which are 
 contained in every volume of the ' Transactions of the Linnsean 
 Society,' from vol. xiii. to vol. xviii. ; in the 'Memoirs of the 
 Wernerian Society of Edinburgh,' vols, iii.-v. ; and in the ' Edinburgh 
 New Philosophical Journal,' vols, ii.-xix., are sufficient proof of his 
 industry : and they have a real value. Don's knowledge of plants 
 was most extensive, and his appreciation of species ready and exact. 
 He was not however fully alive to the importance of studying plants 
 in their morphological relations, and many of his papers are open to 
 criticism on this ground. His constitution was robust aud strong, but 
 at the end of 1840 a malignant tumour appeared on his lip, which, 
 although removed at first, speedily reappeared, and terminated his 
 existence on the 8th of December of the same year. 
 
 (Proceedings of the Linnwan Society. — Don's Works.) 
 
 ♦DONALDSON, THOMAS LEVERTON, Architect, Professor of 
 Architecture in University College London, and author of literary and 
 illustrative works relating to architecture, was born October 17th, 
 1795, in Eloomsbury Square, London. At nine years of age Donald- 
 son was sent to St. Albans Grammar School, where he remained till 
 the age of fourteen. He then accompanied one of his father's friends 
 to the Cape of Good Hope, whence he was allowed to join the 87th 
 Regiment iu the expedition to the Isle of France, with the prospect 
 of receiving a commission. Before Port Louis he had joined those 
 chosen for a storming party, when the place was yielded by the 
 
627 DONALDSON, THOMAS LEVERTON. 
 
 French without firing a shot. Thus compelled to choose a different 
 path in life he returned to England, and at the age of sixteen began 
 architectural studies under his father, an architect, and in the antique 
 school of the Royal Academy. Iu 1817 he gained the silver medal. 
 In 1818 he went to pursue his studies abroad, visiting the most inter- 
 esting localities in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. Many of the 
 results of his elaborate researches have been published — some by 
 Colonel Leake. In conjunction with Mr. Jenkins and Mr. Lewis 
 Wolfe he measured the ruins of the temple of Apollo EpicuriuS at 
 Bassse, near Phigaleia in Arcadia, whence were afterwards obtained 
 the Phigaleian marbles. There, was discovered a curious variety of 
 the Ionic order, and fragments of a Corinthian column, interesting 
 from the small number of examples of the latter order iu Greece. 
 Subsequently, Messrs. Donaldson and Jenkins travelled through Sicily, 
 and also resided for a short time amongst the ruins of Pompeii. 
 Mr. Donaldson next spent a year iu Rome, revisited Naples and 
 examined the ruins of Pactum. Afterwards, at Rome, he drew out 
 a design for a temple of Victory according to ancient usages, which 
 procured his election to the Academy of St. Luke, of which Canova 
 was then president. The course of study which Mr. Donaldson had 
 been pursuing was such a3 was then deemed best for the architect's 
 profession ; but it differed in many respects from the course at present. 
 The requirements of professional architecture have now widened. 
 But elaborate illustrated works and present facilities of travel have not 
 been made to afford similar advantages to those which were formerly 
 Bought, and the practice of studying the art of architecture from the 
 monuments themselves, has lately been pursued mainly with reference 
 to mediaeval works. After visiting the chief cities of Northern Italy, 
 where his drawings procured his election to several of the Academies, 
 Mr. Donaldson returned to England after an absence of nearly five 
 years. 
 
 At home his first success was iu a competition for the church at 
 Broinptou, Middlesex. His studies had been directed to classic art 
 rather than the style chosen, which circumstance was a subject of 
 regret to him; and the design itself was injured by unwise restric- 
 tions. In 1827 he supplied architectural details and descriptive 
 letterpress to a folio book on Pompeii, published by W« B. Cooke. 
 In 1830 Mr. VVeale published the supplementary volume to Stuart's 
 ' Athens,' edited by Mr. Kinuaird, Mr. Donaldson supplying the 
 matter as regarded the temple at Bassa), the treasury of Atreus, 
 various details to which his uame is attached, and the chapter on the 
 theatre of the Greeks, the latter an admirable exposition of what 
 had been a difficult subject. In 1833 and 1830 appeared his ' Collec- 
 tion of the most approved examples of Doorways from Ancient and 
 Modern Buildings in Greece and Italy,' about which time he was 
 elected a corresponding member of the Institute of Franco. In 1834 
 he was invited by some junior members of the profession to co-operate 
 in forming a new architectural society, but was led to put forth the 
 plan of an institution on a more important basis, and on the 15th of 
 June 1835, was inaugurated the Institute of British Architects, Messrs. 
 Donaldson and Charles Fowler being the first secretaries. Somewhat 
 previous to this, at Mr. Donaldson's suggestion, a medal was struck in 
 honour of Sir John Soane, and on the death of that architect in 1837 
 Mr. Donaldson read at the Institute a memoir of him, afterwards pub- 
 lished. Mr. Donaldson during a period of ten years filled the responsible 
 office of Chairman of the Commissioners of Sewers for Westminster 
 and part of the County of Middlesex, superintending and promoting the 
 construction of 50 miles of sewerage, and an expenditure of 300,000? , 
 which onerous duties were wholly gratuitous. In 1843 he was 
 appointed Professor of Architecture and Construction at University 
 College, London. In 1844, on the passing of the Metropolitan 
 Buildings Act (now to be distinguished as that of 7 and 8 Vict.), he 
 was appointed surveyor to the district of South Kensington. He also 
 published in 1847 a small volume of architectural maxims and 
 theorems, and a lecture on the ' Education and Character of the 
 Architect.' On retiring from office as one of the ordinary secretaries 
 of the Institute, the members presented to him a silver candelabrum, 
 value 100 guineas; and iu 1851 he had awarded to him the Royal 
 Gold Medal. With Sir Charles Barry and Mr. Cockerell, architects, 
 and Messrs. W. Cubitt, Stephenson, and Brunei, engineers, he was on 
 the Building Committee for the selection of a design for the building 
 of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and with Messrs. Cockerell and Scott 
 on the committee for selection of architectural drawings to be 
 forwarded to the ' Exposition Universelle ' of 1855, whereat he himself 
 received from the jury one of the first-class gold medals. 
 
 Mr. Donaldson designed and superintended the erection of All 
 Saints' Church, near Gordon-square ; the library, Flaxmau Hall, and 
 staircase at University College ; and was associated with a French 
 architect in the erection of Mr. Hope's residence in Piccadilly; and he 
 has also built the Scots Church, Woolwich, and various houses and 
 churches in the country. In 1840 his design for the Royal Exchange 
 was adjudged to be the best in what was considered to be the first 
 class; but was regarded as not complying in all respects with the 
 requisitions. This however the architect denied. The chief feature 
 was a noble portico, somewhat resembling what exists in the present 
 building. The conduct of the committee with reference to the com- 
 petitors generally, as too frequently in such cases, justified animadver- 
 sion ; and eventually a second competition was got up, from which 
 
 DONATUS. <r>6 
 
 Mr. Donaldson and other competitors were excluded, — Mr. Tite's 
 design being at last carried out. Mr. Donaldson has from time to 
 time, with pains and alacrity, prepared materials of great interest for 
 the Institute— of which body he was president in 1864; and his 
 relations with foreign and English architects have enabled him to do 
 considerable service to his professional brethren and to students. 
 
 DONATE LLO. DONATO DI BELTO DI BARDO, called Dona- 
 tello, was born at Florence in the year 1383. He was brought up in 
 the house of a Florentine gentleman named Ruberto Martelli, a liberal 
 p itron of the arts, and received his first instructions from Lorenzo 
 Bicci, from whom he learned painting in fresco; but he afterwards 
 became more famous as a sculptor. He also practised architecture. 
 In the course of his life he visited many towns of Italy, among which 
 were Venice, Padua (where the people wanted to detain and 
 naturalise him), and Rome. Douatello was much esteemed by his 
 contemporaries, and executed a great number of works, both in 
 private and public buildings, and for the grand-duke Cosmo I. He 
 was the first to employ bas-relief in telling stories, according to the 
 more elaborate stylo of Italian sculpture. When he first became so 
 infirm as to be unable to work, the grand-duke Piero I. gave him a 
 small estate : but he was so much annoyed by the troublesome refer- 
 ences of his labourers, that he insisted on relinquishing it; and Piero 
 gave him a pension instead, iu daily payments, which perfectly con- 
 tented him. He died paralytic, December 13, 1466. 
 
 The principal works of Donatello are at Florence; but some have 
 decayed, or been removed from their original station. One, a figure 
 of St. Mark, which was nicknamed (according to the common pro- 
 pensity of the Florentines) Lo Zuccone (the Gourd), on account of its 
 bald head, is much commended. A St. George is also much esteemed; 
 and Vasari, speaking of a Judith bearing the head of Holofernes, in 
 bronze, calls it, with all the strength he gathered from his intense 
 love of his art, " A work of great excellence and mastery, which, to 
 him who considers the simplicity of the outside, in the drapery aud 
 in the aspect of Judith, sees manifested from within it the grest 
 heart (animo) of that woman and the aid of God ; as in the air of that 
 Holofernes, wine and sleep, and death iu his members, which, haviDg 
 lo3t their spirit, show themselves cold and falling." Douatello left 
 several pupils, to whom he bequeathed his tools. The most noted 
 are Bertoldo, Nanni d' Anton di Bianco, Rossellino, Disederio, and 
 Vellano di Padova. To the last he left all the works which he retained 
 at his death. (Vasari ; Baldinucci.) 
 
 DONA'TQS, -/ELIIJS, a celebrated grammarian, who lived in the 
 middle of the 4th century. He wrote a Grammar, which long con- 
 tinued in the schools ; and also Notes upon Terence and Virgil. He 
 was most eminent in the time of Constantius, and taught rhetoric and 
 polite literature atRome in the year 356, about which time St. Jerome 
 studied grammar under him. Donatus has given ample employment 
 to the bibliographers, who all speak of an ' Editio Tabellaris sine ulla 
 nota' of his Grammar, as one of the first efforts at printing by means 
 of letters cut on wooden blocks. (See Meerman, 1 Origines Typo- 
 graph.' of this and other editions, 4to, Hag. Com., 1765, torn. L 
 pp. 126, 132 ; ii., pp. 107, 215, 218.) This Grammar has been printed 
 with several titles, as ' Donatus,' ' Donatus Minor,' ' Donatus Ethi- 
 molyzatus,' ' Donatus pro puerulis,' &c, but the work is the same, 
 namely, ' Elements of the Latin Language for the use of Children.' 
 In the volume of the 'Grammatici Vetere3,' printed by Nic. Jenson, 
 without date, it is entitled ' Donatus de Barbarismo et de octo parti- 
 bus Orationis.' Dr. Clarke, in his ' Bibliographical Dictionary,' vol. iii. 
 pp. 144-148, has given a long list of editions of Donatus, to which 
 the more inquisitive reader is referred. Donatus's ' Commeatarii in 
 quinque Comoedias Terentii,' were first printed without date, pro- 
 bably before 1460, and reprinted in 1471 and 1476. The ' Com- 
 mentarius in Virgilium,' fol., Ven., 1529, though ascribed to him, is 
 thought by many not to be his. 
 
 Donat, iu the middle ages, both in English and French, became a 
 synonym for any system of grammar : as in Piers Plowman — 
 
 " Then drave I me among drapers my Donet to lerne." 
 
 In the statutes of Winchester College, written about 1386, grammar 
 is called ' Antiquus Donatus,' the old Donat. Cotgrave quotes an old 
 French proverb, " Les Diables estoient encores en leur Donat," " the 
 devils were but yet in their grammar." 
 
 (Harles, Introd. in Hist. Ling. Latinw, 8vo, Bremae, 1773, pp. 202, 
 203 ; Clarke, Bibliogr. Diet., ut supra ; Warton, Hist. Eng. Poet, 4to, 
 vol. i. p. 281 ; &c.) 
 
 DONATUS, Bishop of Casa Nigra in Numidia, from whom, and 
 from another Donatus originated the schismatic sect of the Donatists. 
 Donatus was the great opponent to the election of Cecilianus into the 
 bishopric of Carthage. He accused Cecilianus of having delivered up 
 the sacred books to the Pagans, and pretended that his election was 
 thereby void, and all those who adhered to him heretics. Under this 
 pretext of zeal he set up for the head of a party, and, about the year 
 312, taught that baptism administered by heretics was ineffectual; 
 that the church was not infallible ; that it had erred in his time, and 
 that he was to be the restorer of it. But a council held at Aries, in 
 314, acquitted Cecilianus, and declared his election valid. The parti- 
 sans of Donatus, who were very numerous, irritated at the decision, 
 refused to acquiesce in the sentence of the council ; and the better to 
 
DONEAU, HUGUES. 
 
 <S30 
 
 support their cause, they subscribed to the opinions of Donatus, and 
 openly declaimed against the Catholics. It is said that they gave out 
 that the church was become prostituted; re-baptised the Catholics; 
 trod under foot the hosts consecrated by priests attached to the Holy 
 See; burned their churches: and committed various other acts of 
 violence. They had chosen into the place of Cecilianus one Majorinus, 
 but he dying soon after, they brought in another Donatus, different 
 from him of Casa Nigra, as bishop of Carthage. It was from this 
 new head of the sect, who used so much violence against the Catholics, 
 that the Donatists are believed to have received their name. They 
 appear to have sent one of their bishops to Rome, and to have 
 attempted likewise to send some bishops into Spain, that they might 
 say their church began to spread itself everywhere. They attained 
 their greatest prosperity in the beginning of the 5th century, when 
 they are said to have been little inferior in numbers to the orthodox 
 party in Africa, and to have been directed by four hundred bishops. 
 After many ineffectual efforts to crush this schism, the emperor Hono- 
 rius ordered a council of bishops to assemble at Carthage in the year 
 410, where a disputation was held between seven of each party, when 
 it was decided that the laws enacted against heretics had force against 
 the Donatists. The glory of their defeat was due to St. Augustine, 
 bishop of Hippo, who bore the principal part in this controversy. 
 The Donatists however continued as a separate body, and attempted 
 to multiply their sect even in the 6th century ; but the orthodox 
 bishops used so much prudence that they insensibly brought over 
 most of those who had strayed from the bosom of the church. The 
 church of the Donatists gradually dwindled to nothing, and became quite 
 extinct in the 7th ceutuiy. (Broughton, Diet, of all Religions, folio, 
 Loud.. 1756, pp. 340, 341; Mosheim, Eeel. History, 4to, Lond., 1765, 
 vol. i. pp. 211, 214, 259, 305; Moreri, Diet. Historique, folio, Paris, 
 1759, tom.iv. p. 214.) 
 
 DONEAU, Latinised DONELLUS, HUGUES, a lawyer, was born 
 at Chalons-sur-Saone, in France, December 23, 1527. He is said to 
 have been idle in his youth, and an anecdote is preserved, according 
 to which he was frightened into diligence by a threat of his father to 
 have him brought up as an assistant to a swineherd. He studied 
 literature at Tournon and jurisprudence at Toulouse, and subsequently 
 atBourges, where he took a degree as Doctor of Laws in 1551. He 
 soon afterwards began to teach jurisprudence at Bourges, and con- 
 tinued to do so till the massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1572. He 
 had embraced the opinions of the Huguenots, and, dreading to be 
 involved in ruin with others of his persuasion, he made his escape to 
 Geneva, being aided by his pupils, among whom he seems to have been 
 popular, and who had determined to defend his person if he were 
 attacked. After having remained a short time in Geneva, he was 
 called by the Calvinist Elector Palatine Frederic III. to be Professor 
 of Law at Heidelberg. Ludwig IV., the successor of this prince, who 
 did not follow his religious opinions, made changes in the university 
 which drove Doneau thence, and leaving Heidelberg in 1579, he settled 
 in Leyden. Having adopted the faction in favour of the Earl of Lei- 
 cester, he was obliged to leave Holland and return to Germany. He 
 died at Altorf on the 4th of May 1591. He was a voluminous com- 
 mentator. His earliest work appears to have been ' In titulum de 
 Usuris in Pandectis Commentarius,' Paris, 1556. A collection of his 
 commentaries was published in five volumes, fol., at Frankfurt, iu 1 596, 
 and again in 1626, with the title ' Commentariorum de Jure Civili libri 
 xxviii, ex recensione et cum supplements Scipionis Gentilis.' One 
 of the most complete extant lists of Doneau's works will be found in 
 the printed catalogue of law books in the Advocates' Library, Edin- 
 burgh. His Life is in the Supplement of ' Les Vies des plus celebres 
 Juriaconsultes,' by Taisand. 
 
 DONELLUS. [Doneau.] 
 
 DONIZETTI, GAETANO, was born September 25, 1798, at Ber- 
 gamo, in Northern Italy. He studied in the Lyceum of that town, 
 and his father having originally destiued him for the law, it was some- 
 what late before he commenced his musical studies. He received his 
 first instruction at the Musical Institute of Bergamo, of which Simone 
 Mayer was then director. Here he remained three years, and in 1815 
 removed to Bologna, where hi3 musical education was completed under 
 l'ilotti and Mattei. In consequence of some dispute with his father, 
 he entered into the army, and while in garrison with his regiment at 
 Venice in 1818 produced his first opera, ' Enrico di Borgogna.' He 
 continued to write for the theatre, and in 1822 left the army. His 
 earliest pieces are forgotten, or at least are no longer performed, and 
 it was not till 1830, when he produced 'Anna Bolena' at Milan, that 
 he began to take rank with the higher class of musical composers. In 
 the course of these first twelve years of his career he composed 
 ■Jl operas. During the fourteen years from 1830 to 1844, when his 
 last opera, 'Catarino Cornaro' was performed, he produced 33 operas, 
 of which several have sunk into oblivion, but others still retain their 
 places on the stages of Italy, Germany, France, and England. Some 
 are especial favourites, and frequently performed. Among these more 
 fortunate productions may be mentioned 'Anna Bolena,' Milan, 1830 ; 
 |LElisire d'Amore,' Milan, 1832; 'Lucrezia Borgia,' Milan, 1833; 
 
 Marino Faliero,' Paris, 1835 ; ' Lucia di Lammermoor,' Naples, 1835 ; 
 
 Betly,' Naples, 1836; 'La Fille du Regiment,' Paris, 1840; 'La 
 favorite,' Paris, 1840; 'Linda di Chamouni,' Vienna, 1842; 'Don 
 rascruale,* Paris, 1843 ; ' Maria di Rohan,' Vienna, 1843. Most of these 
 
 later operas, besides his usual grace and facility, exhibit strength, 
 solidity, command of the resources of counterpoint, and skill in instru- 
 mentation, much superior to his earlier productions. His artistic 
 powers were thus manifestly improving and expanding towards the 
 termination of his musical career. Soon after the performance of his 
 'Lucia,' which excited great admiration, he was appointed Professor 
 of Counterpoint iu the Koyal College of Music at Naples, and after the 
 production of 'Linda' at Vienna, he was named chapel-inaster and 
 composer to the imperial court. In 1845, while iu Paris, symptoms 
 of mental decay, arising chiefly from habits of intemperance, began to 
 show themselves, and he was for some time in a lunatic asylum. In 
 October 1847 he was removed to his native town of Bergamo, where 
 he died on the 8th of April 1848. (Nouvclle Bio'graphie Oinerale.) 
 
 DONNE, JOHN, was born at London in the year 1573 of respect- 
 able parents. At the early age of eleven, being esteemed a good 
 Latiu and French scholar, he was sent to the University of Oxford, 
 and after remaining there a' few years was removed to Cambridge. 
 Although he greatly distinguished himself in his studies he took no 
 degree, as his family being Roman Catholic had conscientious objections 
 to his making the requisite oath. At the age of seventeen he went 
 to Lincoln's Inn to study the law; and while here, in order to satisfy 
 certain religious doubts, he read the controversies between the Romau 
 Catholics and Protestants, and decided iu favour of the latter. After 
 travelling for about a year in Spain and Italy, he became on his return 
 secretary to Lord Elsinore, and fell in love with that nobleman's 
 niece, the daughter of Sir George More. The lady returned his 
 affection, and they were privately married. When this union was 
 discovered by Sir George he was so indignant, that he induced Lord 
 Elsinore to dismiss Donne from his service. The unfortunate secre- 
 tary was afterwards imprisoned by his father-in-law, and his wife was 
 taken from him ; but by an expensive law-proceeding, which consumed 
 nearly all his property, he was enabled to recover her. Sir George 
 forgave him shortly afterwards, but absolutely refused to contribute 
 anything towards his support, and he was forced to live with his 
 kinsman, Sir Francis Whalley. Dr. Morton, afterwards bishop of 
 Gloucester, advised Donne to enter into the Church, and offered him 
 a benefice ; but although in great poverty he refused the offer, 
 thinking himself not holy enough for the priesthood. Sir Francis 
 Whalley at last effected a complete reconciliation between Donne and 
 Sir George, who allowed his son-in-law 800/., in quarterly sums of 
 20/. each, till the whole should be paid. Still he continued to be iu 
 embarrassed circumstances, and after residing some time at Mitcham, 
 whither he had removed for the sake of his wife's health, he lived in 
 the house of Sir Robert Drury, at Drury Lane. He accompanied that 
 gentleman to Paris, contrary to the solicitations of his wife, who 
 could not bear to be parted from him, and who, as she said, felt a 
 foreboding of some evil. While Donne was in Paris, there is a story 
 that he saw the apparition of his wife enter his apartment bearing a 
 dead child, and shortly afterwards received the intelligence that his 
 wife had actually been delivered of a dead child at that very moment. 
 The honest angler, Izaak Walton, who writes Donne's biography, 
 seems inclined to believe this story. On Donne's return to England 
 he was introduced to James I., and delighted the king by a polemic 
 treatise against Catholicism, entitled 'Pseudo-Martyr.' James was so 
 anxious that he should take holy orders, that Donne at length com- 
 plied, and became the king's chaplain-in-ordinary. His style of 
 preaching is thus described by Walton : " always preaching as an 
 angel from a cloud, but not in a cloud." The University of Cambridge 
 made him doctor of divinity ; the benchers of Lincoln's Inn presented 
 him with their lectureship ; and after accompanying an embassy to 
 the Queen of Bohemia, James's daughter, he became dean of St. 
 Paul's and vicar of St. Dunstan's, being then in the fifty-fourth year 
 of his age. Falling into a consumption, he was unable to perform 
 his clerical duties ; but some enemy having hinted that he merely 
 feigned illness because he was too idle to preach, he mounted his 
 pulpit, and almost in a dying state, preached what Walton has called 
 his " own funeral sermon." This discourse was afterwards printed 
 under the quaint title of 'Death's Duel.' From this time he 
 abandoned all thoughts of life, aud even had a portrait painted of 
 himself, enveloped in a shroud, a design apparently for the shrouded 
 effigy afterwards placed as his monument in St. Paul's cathedral : 
 this portrait he kept in his bed-room. He died March' 31st, 1G31, 
 having exalted himself (according to Walton), almost to a state of 
 angelic beatitude. 
 
 Of the real goodness and piety of Donne there can be no doubt. 
 But while we admire these genuine qualities, we must not be blind to 
 the superstitions which were blended with Donne's religion, though 
 these might be attributed partially (but not wholly) to the age. 
 There was evidently a great deal of simplicity about him, as well as 
 about his biographer Walton, who, enthusiastic in his admiration, 
 exalts a weakness as much as his hero's most brilliant qualities, 
 However, to those who wish to see characters like Donne treated in 
 the spirit of their own time, we caunot recommend a more delightful 
 book than Walton's ' Life of Donne.' 
 
 As a poet, Donne was one of those writers whom Johnson has (to 
 uso Wordsworth's expression) ' strangely ' designated metaphysical 
 poet3 ; a more infelicitous expression could not well have been devised. 
 The fact is, that 'quaint conceits' are only the deformities of Donne'a 
 
69] 
 
 DONOSO CORTES. 
 
 DOO, GEORGE THOMAS. 
 
 mi 
 
 poetical spirit : the man himself had a rich vein of poetry, which 
 was rarely concealed even when most laboriously encumbered, while 
 some of his pieces, both for thought and even melody, are absolute 
 gems. His fault, far from being coldness, is too much erotic fervour : 
 he allows his imagination to ruu loose, at least in some of his poems 
 written before adopting the ecclesiastical profession, into the most 
 prurient expressions; and in some of his amatory pieces, the conceit 
 stands as a corrective to their excessive warmth. His satires, though 
 written in a measure inconceivably harsh, are models of streugth and 
 energy. Their merits were discovered by Pope, who (to use his own 
 odd phrase) translated them into English, but in the process deprived 
 them of no small portion of their strength and freshness, 
 
 Donne's principal theological works, besides sermons, are the 
 ' Pseudo-Marl} r,' and a treatise against suicide, called ' Bia-thanatos.' 
 His works, edited by the Rev. H. Alford, were published in 1839 iu 
 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 DONOSO CORTES, JUAN, an eminent Spanish statesman and 
 author, was born iu 1809, of wealthy parents, at the town of El Valle 
 in Estremaduia. He was so precocious that at the age of eleven he 
 studied logic at Salamanca, and had completed his legal studies at Seville 
 long before he was competent to be admitted as advocate at the age of 
 twenty-four. He was known to a large circle of friends at Seville as 
 a promising poet, and an ode which he published on the nuptials of 
 King Ferdinand with Maria Christina was particularly distinguished 
 amoDg all those on the occasion. In 1832, when the temporary 
 revocation by Ferdinand of the decree for the succession of the 
 present Queen Isabel [Calomaude] awakened the apprehensions of 
 the liberal party that all progress would be checked, a large number 
 of the principal young men of Madrid waited on Queen Christina to 
 offer her their lives in defence of the rights of her infant daughter, and 
 at their head was Donoso Cortes. From this time ho was distinguished 
 by the favour of Queen Christina, and entered upon a political career 
 before he was of age to enter on a legal one. A pamphlet however 
 which he composed under the title of a 'Memoir on the rights of 
 Isabel the Second,' was suppressed by the advice of his friends as con- 
 taining ideas so ultra-liberal as to be certain to give offence. He was 
 appointed in the same year to a post in the ministry of Grace and 
 Justice, and in the next published his ' Considerations on Diplomacy 
 and its Influence on the Political and Social Stato of Europe, from the 
 time of the Revolution of July to that of the Quadruple Alliance.' 
 
 In 1835 he was sent as a royal commissioner with General Rodil 
 to bring back to obedience his native province of Estremadura, and 
 acted with such success as to receive the grand cross of Carlos III. 
 and a higher official station ; but, dissatisfied with the turn that affairs 
 were taking, he resigned his post, and for some time occupied himself 
 in combating the party which supported the revolution of La Granja. 
 He founded the newspaper ' El Piloto,' in which he was assisted by 
 Alcald Galiano [Galiano], and was for some time editor of the 
 'Revista de Madrid,' a review or rather magazine established on the 
 plan of the French 'Revue des deux Mondes,' his first article in which 
 was one of a series on 'Spain since 1834,' He delivered in 1837 at 
 the Athenseum of Madrid, a series of lectures on the science of politics, 
 which atlracted much attention. He was in France in 1840 at the 
 time of the expulsion of Queen Christina, hastened to offer her his 
 services on her arrival in that country, and is said to have been the 
 author of the manifesto which she issued from Marseille. He after- 
 wards went to Madrid on a commission from her to defend her rights 
 against Espartero, but his efforts were unsuccessful. He then returned 
 to France and occupied himself with the composition of a ' History 
 of the Minority of Queen Isabel II.,' passages of which were published 
 in the ' Revista de Madrid,' and have received high applause from 
 Spanish critics. He returned to Spain in 1844 after the fall of 
 Espartero, and was named plenipotentiary to invite Queen Christina 
 back to Madrid, when his services were rewarded with the title of 
 Marquis de Valdegamas. His pen, which never ceased to be active, 
 was by this time active in an entirely different cause from that in 
 which he had first won his laurels. From an ultra-liberal Donoso 
 Cortes had become a Catholic conservative, and after Balmes, the most 
 distinguished literary advocate of Catholicism in Spain. He was 
 ambassador to Prussia at the time of the revolution in 1848, and after- 
 wards ambassador to France, a country for which he always avowed 
 a strong partiality. It was while holding that post, and very soon 
 after he had officiated as Spanish ambassador at the marriage of Louis 
 Napoleon with a Spanish consort, that he was seized with an attack 
 of pericarditis, which carried him off, after about a month's illness, on 
 the 3rd of May 1853 at Paris. 
 
 A select collection of his writings, ' Coleccion escogida de los escritos 
 del excelentisimo Senor Don Juan Donoso Cortes,' was published in 
 two volumes at Madrid in 1848. It comprises none of his poetry but 
 most of his political writings that we have mentioned, and several of 
 his articles from the reviews, which seem, like those of Macaulay, to 
 be considered the brightest ornaments of his literary coronet. For 
 brilliancy of style they are remarkable among the general flatness of 
 Spanish composition, but for soundness of thought they are not, we 
 think, likely to acquire a high reputation in England. One of them 
 on Pius IX., talks of the " singular privilege which Italy enjoys in 
 conjunction with Spain of drawing towards itself the attention of the 
 civilised world," and goes on to affirm that " the nations always keep 
 
 their eyes fixed by instinct on the Italian and the Spanish race." 
 There is much that is as questionable on most of the subjects on which 
 
 he touches. 
 
 DONOVAN, EDWARD, a writer on various departments of natural 
 
 history. One of his earliest publications was ' A Natural History of 
 British Insects,' 16 vols. 8vo, commenced in 1792 and finished in 1816. 
 Although at the time this work was published, especially the earlier 
 volumes, it was of great assistance in the study of entomology, it has 
 been surpassed both in execution and matter by more recent works. 
 It will however always be an important work in the history of the 
 literature of entomology. Iu 1794 he published a little work on the 
 formation of museums of natural history, entitled 'Instructions for 
 Collecting and Preserving various Subjects in Natural History,' 8vo, 
 London. From 1794 to 1797 he published at intervals four volumes 
 of a work containing drawings and descriptions of British birds, entitled 
 ' The Natural History of British Birds,' 8vo. In 1798 he commenced 
 a series of illustrated works on the insects of Asia. These were called 
 4 An Epitome of the Insects of China,' 1798, 4to, London ; ' Au Epitome 
 of the Natural History of the Insects of India,' 1800, 4to, Loudon; 
 'An Epitome of the Insects of Asia,' 1798-1805, 3 vols. 4to, Loudon. 
 These works had an extensive sale, and did much for creating a taste 
 for the study of general entomology. In 1805 he published a work 
 entitled 'Descriptive Excursions through South Wales and Monmouth- 
 shire in the year 1804 and four preceding Summers,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 London. In 1823 he commenced a periodical work entitled 'The 
 Naturalist's Repository, or Monthly Miscellany of Exotic Natural 
 History.' Of this work three volumes appeared containing descriptions 
 and drawings of various animals from different parts of the world. 
 He also published 'An Essay on the Minute Parts of Plants in generaL' 
 Although constantly occupied on his various works, his profits from 
 them seem to have been small. So great was his dissatisfaction at the 
 small profits which he received from the publishers of his works, that 
 in 1833 he published ' A Memorial respecting my Publications on 
 Natural History,' in which he endeavours to prove that, whilst he had 
 been ruined, those who Eold his books had realised largo sums. 
 
 Science i3 not indebted to Donovan for any new discovery or 
 important generalisation ; but the field which his labours occupied 
 was an important one, and his illustrated works have done much to 
 diffuse a knowledge of and engender a taste for tho study of natural 
 history. He died on the 1st of February 1837. 
 
 * DOO, GEO KG E THOMAS, though not the best known, is perhaps 
 the most emiuent living English historical engraver. Line-engraving, 
 when executed by the conscientious artist without the assistance of 
 'prentice hands or mechanical appliances, is in any case a slow 
 process. When the plates are of large size, and require in their 
 progress frequent comparison with the original pictures, years are 
 consumed in their execution. Such have been the character of some 
 of Mr. Doo's works, and such is the natural explanation of his com- 
 paratively infrequent appearance before the public; but besides this, 
 it has somehow happened in the present day that the taste for the 
 higher class of line-engravings has passed away, or greatly declined, 
 among English purchasers of modern prints ; and while the engravers 
 in mezzotint, and other showy but less elaborate and costly styles, find 
 ample patronage, the historical line-engravers have been left without 
 commissions, and some of the best of them have in consequence, like 
 Mr. Doo, almost or quite abandoned the practice of their profession. 
 The works by which Mr. Doo is best known perhaps are his large and 
 finely-conceived plate of 'Knox preaching before the Lords of tho 
 Congregation,' after Wilkie ; his vigorous rendering of Etty's ' Combat ;' 
 his elaborate and exquisitely-finished version of Eastlake's picture of 
 ' Italian Pilgrims coming in Sight of Rome ;' the ' Portia and Bassano' 
 and ' Sterne and the Grisette,' after Newton, prints in their day 
 universally popular ; the heads of women and children after Lawrence, 
 such as the 'Lady Meade,' the ' Calmady Children,' aud the ' Child 
 with Flowers ;' or, in a lower walk, the ' Fair Forester ' and Vac 
 ' Proffered Kiss,' after Wyatt ; and lastly, what was far the best 
 portrait yet published of the late Prince Consort, after Partridge 
 But the lover of the highest class of art will cherish as among the 
 choicest examples of modern line-engraving, Mr. Doo's admirable 
 engravings — evidently works of love — from Kaffaelle's ' Messiah,' and 
 his ' Infant Christ bearing the Cross,' so true in drawing, exquisite in 
 tone, delicate in feeling ; and the ' Ecce Homo ' of Correggio, and ' La- 
 zarus ' of Seb istian. The style of Mr. Doo is of a rare order of merit. 
 He is always true to the original, yet there is always something of bis 
 own in his rendering of it. His handling is firm, his line free, spirited, 
 and masterly, entirely removed from conventionalism aud pedantry, 
 while thoroughly conscientious. He is in tone and tint harmonious, 
 yet clear and brilliant. Everywhere he exhibits grandeur and largeness 
 of style combined with a refined and artistic feeling. 
 
 Mr. Doo was born January 6, 1800, in the parish cf Christ Church, 
 Surrey. He has for some time past resided at Stanmore, and for 
 the last few years has painted iu oil numerous small, highly-finished, 
 aud very characteristic portraits, chiefly of eminent naturalists : por- 
 traits by him of Bell, Brown, Yarrell, Latham, and Henfrey, were m 
 the Exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1855. His grandest plate is 
 that from Sebastian del Piombo's ' Raising of Lazarus,' in the National 
 Gallery. Mr. Doo was elected Associate Engraver of the Royal 
 Academy in 1856, and Academician in 1857. He U an honorary 
 
683 
 
 member of the Society of Arts, Amsterdam, and of the Pennsylvania!! 
 Academy of the Fine Arts, and a corresponding member of the 
 Academy of the Fine Arts, Parma. Mr. Doo was elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society, June 5, 1851. 
 
 DOPPELMAYER, JOHANN GABRIEL, a German mathematician, 
 born at Nurnberg in 1671, was the son of a trader in that city, who 
 had distinguished himself by his taste for physics, and is said to have 
 made some improvements iu the air-pump. Johann was sent for 
 instruction to Altorf, and he completed his education at the University 
 of Halle, where he applied himself to the study of the law ; but, 
 abandoning this pursuit, he cultivated with diligence the different 
 braDcb.es of natural philosophy. In 1700 he made a journey to Basel, 
 wheuce he proceeded to Holland, and he subsequently visited England. 
 After an absence of two years he returned to Nurnberg, where in 1704 
 he was appointed professor of mathematics and astronomy, which post 
 he hi- Id during the remainder of his life. In December 1733 he was 
 admitted a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and in 1740 a 
 member of the academies of Sciences at St. Petersburg and Berlin. 
 He died December 1, 1750. 
 
 Doppelmayer was acquainted with the French, Italian, and English 
 languages, besides Latin and his native tongue. He had acquired 
 considerable skill in grinding lenses for object-glasses, and in polishing 
 specula for reflecting telescopes ; and iu the latter part of his life he 
 distinguished himself by the performance of electrical experiments. 
 He published in German (1714), and also in Latin (1731), an 'Intro- 
 duction to Geography,' as an accompaniment to the 'Atlas' of Homann ; 
 
 ices of the Mathematicians and Artists of Niirnberg,' in German 
 (1730); and a ' Celestial Atla3,' engraved on thirty plates, with descrip- 
 tions in Latin (1742); a translation, in Latin, of Street's ' Astronomical 
 Tables ;' also translations, in German, of Wilkins's ' Defence of Coper- 
 nicus,' and of Bion's ' Traite" de la Construction, etc., des Instruments 
 d' Astronomic ;' but his principal work is one entitled ' Neu-entdeckte 
 Phenomena von Bewunderns-wiirdigen Wiirokungen der Natur, welche 
 bey der fa;t alien Corpern zukommenden electrischen Kraft in eineni 
 Systemati vorstellig geinacht,' 4to, Nurnberg, 1774. 
 
 DORAT, CLAUDE JOSEPH, was born at Paris, December 31, 1734. 
 He was educated for the bar, but having a considerable fortune, he 
 devoted himself entirely to poetry, and produced a number of tragedies, 
 which, though some were successful, drew on him torrents of ridicule 
 from contemporary wits. He seems however to have attained some 
 reputation as a writer of the lighter class of poems. He had a great 
 passion for bringing out splendid editions of his own works, the cost 
 of which consumed his fortune. He died on the 29th of April 1780. 
 The works of Dorat fill twenty volumes, but they are not highly 
 estimated. La Harpe will scarcely allow him mediocrity. ' La 
 Declamation Theatrale,' a work on the proper department of actors, 
 is considered his chef-d'ceuvre ; but, though it is replete with whole- 
 some advice to performers, it is deficient in everything that can be 
 called poetry. His lighter tales in verse are told with naivete" and 
 humour : of these ' Alphonse ' enjoys the best reputation, but they are 
 terribly indecent. His dramas are entirely forgotten. The edition of 
 the works of Dorat in twenty volumes is adorned with engravings 
 superior to most works of the time ; and though we may blame the 
 author for his prodigality, we must not refuse the praise which is due 
 to his taste, considering that these choice engravings were made at his 
 own suggestion. 
 
 DO'KIA, ANDRE' A, was born in 1466 at Oneglia, in the western 
 Riviera of Genoa, of an ancient noble family, to which Oneglia 
 bsloDged as an imperial fief. Having lost his parents at an early age, 
 Doria embraced the profession of arms, served under several princes 
 in various parts of Italy, and lastly entered the service of Francis I., 
 who made him commander of his fleet in the Mediterranean. Genoa 
 I. ad been for a long time distracted by factions, which had brought it 
 under the dominion or protection, as it was styled, of the Visconti 
 and Sforza, duke3 of Milan. The French having conquered the duchy 
 of Milan, placed a garrison in Genoa, upon condition of respecting the 
 liberties of the citizens, a promise which they kept with the usual 
 faith of conquerors. The citizens were oppressed in various ways, and 
 Doria haviug remonstrated with the agents of Francis iu behalf of his 
 eou i] try men, a secret order came for his arrest, just after his nephew 
 aud lieutenant, Filippino Doria, had gained an important victory for 
 the French over the imperial fleet near the coast of Naples in 1528. 
 The French were then besieging Naples by land. Barbezieux, a French 
 naval officer, was sent to Genoa with twelve galleys to seize on the 
 person of Andrea Doria, who, having had intimation of this design, 
 retired into the Gulf of La Spezia, sent for his nephew to join him 
 with the galleys which he had fitted out at his own expense, and 
 offered his services to Charles V., who received him with open arms. 
 Doria stipulated with Charles that Genoa, as soon as it was freed from 
 the French, should be restored to its independence under the imperial 
 protection, but no foreign garrison or government should be admitted 
 into it. At the same time he engaged to serve the emperor with 
 twelve galleys, fitted out by himself, which number was afterwards 
 raised to fifteen, for which Charles agreed to pay him 90,000 ducats 
 * year. 
 
 Doria soon after appeared before Genoa with his little squadron, 
 ind, being favoured by the inhabitants, he obtained possession of the 
 aty, and drove the French away. It is said that Charles offgred him 
 
 WOO. DIV. VOL. U. 
 
 the sovereignty of Genoa ; but Doi ia preferred a nobler course. He 
 re-organised the government of the republic, and, in order to extin- 
 guish the factions, he named a curtain number of families of nobles 
 aud citizens, out of which the legislative council was to be chosen, 
 annually. New families might be added to the number from time to 
 time. A 'signoria,' or council of sixteen, with a doge, renewed every 
 two years, composed the executive, and five censors were appointed 
 for five years as guardians of the laws. Doria was appointed censor 
 for life, with the title of ' Father and Liberator of his Country.' He 
 now resumed his naval career as admiral of Churles V., and distin- 
 guished himself against the Turks and the Barbary pirates. He 
 escorted Charles V. to the expedition of Tunis in 1535, and con- 
 tributed greatly to the takiug of the place. In 1538 he joined the 
 Venetian fleet off Corfu, when he lost the opportunity of attacking, 
 with every chance of success, the Turkish armament commanded by 
 the famous Barbarossa. [Barbarossa.] His conduct on the occasion 
 was attributed to secret instructions from the emperor. In 1541 
 Doria commanded the fleet in the expedition of Charles V. against 
 Algiers, from which he is said to have tried in vain to dissuade the 
 emperor. It turned out as ho had foreseen, and he could only save 
 the emperor with a small part of the army. In his old age Doria 
 retired to Genoa, where he lived in great splendour and reputation, 
 the first among his fellow-citizens, respected by all, and consulted 
 upon all matters of importance. Charles V. created him Prince of 
 Melfi and Tarsi in the kingdom of Naples. At the beginning of 1547 
 his life was threatened by the conspiracy of Fieschi; his nephew 
 Giannettiuo was murdered, but Andrea escaped, and Fieschi perished 
 in the attempt. A few months after a fresh conspiracy was formed 
 against him by Giulio Cibo, a Genoese emigrant, who however was 
 discovered and executed. In 1548 some of the ministers of the 
 emperor proposed to build a fortress and introduce a Spanish garrison 
 in Genoa, under the pretence of preventing any new conspiracies, but 
 the Genoese appealed to Doria, who interposed and prevented the 
 execution of the project. In 1552, Doria, then eighty-five years old, 
 went to sea again, to attack his old enemies the Turks, who, under 
 Dragut Reis, were ravaging the coast of Naples. Doria lost some of 
 his galleys, which were surprised by the Turks, but Dragut sailed 
 away for the Levant. In 1556 he resigned his command to his 
 nephew, Gian Andrea Doria, who was confirmed as admiral by 
 Philip II. Andrea Doria died in his palace at Genoa, November 25, 
 1560, being then ninety-four years of age. He left no issue, and no 
 very large fortune, owing to his splendid way of living and generous 
 disposition. The Genoese paid great honours to his memory, and 
 lamented his death as a public calamity. 
 
 Doria was one of the greatest characters that Italy produced during 
 the middle ages, and one of the few that were fortunate to the last. 
 Several individuals of his family have distinguished themselves at 
 various times in the service of the republic of Genoa. A branch of 
 the Doria family are settled at Rome, with the title of princes. 
 (Casoni, Annali di Genova; Botta, Storia d' Italia.) 
 DORIGNY, SIR NICOLAS, a distinguished French designer and 
 engraver, was born at Paris in 1657. He was the son of Michel 
 Dorigny, a painter and engraver of some celebrity in his day, who 
 married Vouet's daughter; but his father died when he was very young, 
 and Nicolas was educated as an advocate. His taste however led him to 
 follow the arts as a profession, and he accordingly went to his brother 
 Louis at Rome, who was, like his father, a painter and engraver, and 
 put himself under his tuition. He lived twenty-eight years in Italy, 
 devoting his time chiefly to etching and engraving, and he became one 
 of the first of the French historical engravers in his style, being 
 inferior to Girard Audran alone. His works are however very hard, 
 though they are drawn with great vigour and abound in expression, 
 and his bold heavy lines appear to have been executed with extreme 
 ease ; but there is no delicacy of light and shade or tone in any of his 
 works. 
 
 Dorigny engraved many celebrated Italian paintings during his long 
 stay in Italy, including three of the best pictures in Rome : the 
 'Transfiguration,' by Ratfaelle, in 1705, on the whole his finest work; 
 the 'Taking Down from the Cross,' by Daniele da Volterra, in 1710; 
 aud the 'Lame Man Healed by St. Peter,' by Cigoli. He engraved also 
 the ' Martyrdom of St. Sebastian,' after Domenichino, and other 
 celebrated pictures. 
 
 He became acquainted at Rome with some English gentlemen, who 
 persuaded him to visit England for the purpose of engraving the 
 cartoons of Raffaelle. He arrived in England in 1711, and commenced 
 his task in the spring of the following year. Queen Anne had given 
 him a room in Hampton Court, with the necessary perquisites. The 
 expense was defrayed by subscription at four guineas the set. The 
 prints were, with the assistance of Charles Dupuis and Claude Dubose, 
 finished April 1, 1719, when he presented two complete Bets to 
 George I., who gave him a purse of 100 guineas, and knighted him 
 in the following year. As his sight at length failed him, he deter- 
 mined to desist from further practice, and iu 1723 he made a sale of 
 his drawings, and in 1724 returned to Paris. His drawings were sold 
 for 3202., at the sale of which the drawings of the cartoons brought 52 
 guineas, and a lot of 104 heads and other studies from them, 74/. 
 
 These heads were afterwards eDgraved by various French artists, 
 aud published with some other studies by John Boydell, uuder the 
 
 2x 
 
ess 
 
 DOSSI, DOSSO and GIOBATTISTA. 
 
 DOUGLAS FAMILY. 
 
 title of 1 The School of Kaffaelle, or the Student's Guide to Expression 
 in Historical Painting.' Dorigny was elected a member of the French 
 Academy of Painting in 1725, and died at Paris in 1746. He engraved 
 altogether 153 plates, according to Vertue. 
 
 His elder brother Louis was a good fresco-painter ; he lived chiefly 
 in Italy, and died at Verona in 1742, aged eighty-eight. 
 
 (Vertue, Catalogue of Engravers, &c. ; Watelet, Dictionnaire des 
 Arts, dec. ; Huber, Manuel des Amateurs, dec.) 
 
 DOSSI, DOSSO and GIOBATTISTA, two celebrated Ferrarese 
 painters of the early half of the 16th century. They were born 
 about 1480-1490, in Dosso, near Ferrara, and first entered the school 
 of Lorenzo Costa, after leaving whom they studied together six years 
 in Rome, and five years in Venice. Though they always worked 
 together, they were constantly disputing : Giobattista, the younger, 
 was deformed, and his disposition was the type of his body. He had 
 great skill in landscape and in decoration, but no skill in the human 
 figure. Dosso, on the other hand, was a master in the figure. They 
 were together employed by Alfonzo I. and Ercole II., dukes of Ferrara; 
 and Giobattista somewhat against his inclination was forced to execute 
 the accessory parts of his brother's pictures. 
 
 There are still several of their joint works in or about Ferrara ; 
 they made the cartoons of the tapestries in the cathedral of Ferrara, 
 and of those in the palace and in San Francesco at Modena, repre- 
 senting the deeds of the family of Este, which, according to Vnsari, 
 Pordenone was commissioned by Ercole to execute, but he died in 
 1540, by poison it is alleged, shortly after his arrival at Ferrara for 
 the purpose ; Vasari mentions the two Dossi with unjust depreciation. 
 They are praised and enumerated by Ariosto among the other great 
 painters of Italy and the immortal artists of Greece ('Or. Fur.' 
 xxxiii. 2.) Dosso painted the portrait of Ariosto, and made illustra- 
 tions to the Orlando Furioso ; he painted also the head of Ariosto 
 in a picture of Paradise on the ceiling of the vestibule of the refectory 
 of the convent of San Benedetto ai Ferrara : the portrait is in the 
 possession of the Academy of Sciences of Ferrara, formerly the 
 Academy Degli Intrepidi. Giobattista Dossi died in 1549. 
 
 There is a good collection of Dosso's oil paintings in the gallery of 
 Dresden, where there are several of his works, the best of which is the 
 four fathers, Saints Gregory, Ambrose, Augustus, and Jerome, dis- 
 puting on the miraculous conception of the Virgin ; the figures are of 
 the size of life, but the style has much of the hardness of the early 
 Italian schools. Dosso survived his brother some years : he died about 
 lo60. The National Gallery has an ' Adoration of the Magi' by him. 
 
 (Frizzi, Quida di Ferrara ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, dec. ; Valery, 
 Voyages en Italie.) 
 
 DOUAREN. [Duaben.] 
 
 DOUBLEDAY, EDWARD, a naturalist of eminence, was born in 
 1810, and died December 14, 1849. The family .of Doubleday are 
 honourably distinguished for their devotion to natural history pursuits, 
 and the subject of this notice early distinguished himself by his con- 
 tributions to the literature of Ornithology and Entomology. His 
 first papers were devoted to the subject of entomology, of which 
 many were published in the volumes of the 'Entomological Maga- 
 zine.' In the early part of his life he made a tour through the United 
 States of America, and made many important observations on the 
 animals of that country. These he published in a paper ' On the 
 Natural History of America,' in the fifth volume of the 'Entomological 
 Magazine.' On his return from America he was appointed one of the 
 curators of the British Museum. The large collections in this insti- 
 tution afforded him abundant materials for increasing his knowledge 
 and developing his views of the structure of insects. The results he 
 made known in a variety of papers, but more especially in his work 
 ' On the genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera.' This work which was pub- 
 Mshed in parts and left unfinished at the author's death, consisted of 
 descriptions, with coloured illustrations of great beauty and accuracy 
 by Mr. Hewitson, of all the genera of butterflies. This family of 
 insects was studied by Mr. Doubleday with the greatest industry, and 
 his contributions to our knowledge of their forms are the most 
 valuable of his labours. He devoted also considerable attention to 
 ornithology, and assisted his brother Henry in publishing a work on 
 this subj. ct. He also contributed a paper ' On the Occurrence of 
 Alligators in East Florida,* to the ' Zoologist.' A list of his papers 
 will be found in the second volume of Agassia's ' Bibliographia 
 Zoologia,' published by the Ray Society. 
 
 DOUCE, FRANCIS, was born in 1762. He was the youngest son 
 of Thomas Douce, who was one of the Six Clerks of the Court of 
 Chancery. Francis was sent to school at Richmond in Surrey, where 
 he learnt Latin and some Greek. He afterwards held a situation in 
 the Six Clerks' office. His father died in 1799, having previously 
 resigned to him his lucrative office as one of the Six Clerks. The 
 bulk of his father's property, which was very considerable, was 
 bequeathed to his elder brother, and the rest was left to himself and 
 his sisters. A very large addition was made to his property in 1823, 
 by Nollekens, the sculptor, who made him one of his executors, and 
 left him nearly one-half of the fortune which he had accumulated. 
 [Nollekens.] Douce was a Fellow of the Antiquarian Society, and 
 was in habits of constant intercourse, both personal and by corre- 
 spondence, with almost all the leading antiquarians of his time. He 
 was a great collector of scarce books, prints, coins, medals, and all 
 
 kinds of curious antiquities. He died at his residence in Gower- 
 
 street, London, March 30, 1834. 
 
 Douce published in 1807 ' Illustrations of Shakspeare and Ancient 
 Manners,' 2 vols. 8vo, London. The book was roughly treated bj 
 some of the reviews, and the author was greatly offended. He also 
 published, about the beginning of 1834, ' The Dance of Death, 
 exhibited in elegant Engravings on Wood, with a Dissertation on the 
 several Representations of that Subject, but more particularly of those 
 ascribed to Macaber and Hans Holbein, by Francis Douce, F.A.S., 
 Esq.,' 8vo, London. The substance of the dissertation had appeared 
 about forty years before, in illustration of Hollar's etchings, published 
 by Edwards, of Pall Mall, London. The engravings, of which there 
 were forty-nine, were executed by Bonner and Byfield, two of the best 
 engravers on wood then living. These are the only works which 
 Douce published separately. He has some essays in the ' Archaologia,' 
 and there are many communications by him to the 'Gentleman's 
 Magazine.' 
 
 Douce was a mere antiquarian without any largeness of view eveD 
 in antiquarian matters. As a critic on Shakspere, his remarks are ol 
 little value when true, and they aro frequently erroneous, though 
 'sufficiently arrogant. As an illustrator of ancient manners, he hai 
 been somewhat more successful. 
 
 Douce left his valuable collection of printed books, prints, drawings, 
 illuminated manuscripts, coins, and medals, to the Bodleian Library. 
 Oxford. His miscellaneous antiquities he left to Dr. afterwards Sii 
 Samuel Meyrick, of Goodrich Castle, Wales. The manuscripts of hif 
 own writing, together with all his correspondence, he directed to b< 
 inclosed in a strong box, and sealed up, and given to the British 
 Museum, with this inscription on the box, " Mr. Douce's Papers, tc 
 be opened in the year 1900." If the British Museum refused tc 
 accept the box on these terms, it was then to be given to the Bodleian 
 Library. 
 
 DOUGLAS FAMILY. This family derives its name from certain 
 lands on the Douglas or Black Water, in the shire of Lanark, which 
 were granted out about the middle of the 12th century by Arnold, 
 abbot of Kelso, to one Theobald, a Fleming, whose son was thence 
 called William de Douglas. 
 
 William married a sister of Friskin de Kerdal, in the province oi 
 Moray, and had several children, all of whom, except the eldest, 
 settled in the north. Brice, the second son, became bishop of Moray : 
 Alexander, the third son, became sheriff of Elgin ; and their sister, 
 Margaret, married Hervey de Keith, great mareschal of the kingdom. 
 
 Archenbald, the eldest son, married one of the daughters and co- 
 heiresses of Sir John de Crawford, of Crawford, and had two sons, 
 William and Andrew, each of whom had two sons likewise. William's 
 eldest son married a sister of Lord Abernethy, but dying without 
 issue, was succeeded by his brother, some time governor of the castle 
 of Berwick. Andrew's eldest son married the only daughter of Alex- 
 ander, lord high steward of Scotland, and had two sons, the eldest 
 of whom was Sir James Douglas of Loudon, so called to distinguish 
 him from his cousin, 'the good Sir James,' one of the chief associates 
 of Bruce in achieving the independence of his country. ' The good 
 Sir James' was made a knight-banneret under the royal standard at 
 Bannockbum, where he commanded the centre division of the Scottish 
 van. He died in a contest with the Saracens when, in fulfilment oi 
 the trust committed to him, he was on his way to deposit the heart 
 of Bruce in the Holy Land. 
 
 William de Douglas, some time governor of Edinburgh Castle, was 
 a natural son of Sir James of Loudon, whose eldest lawful son, also 
 William de Douglas, had the earldom of Athol conferred upon him on 
 the death of John Campbell without issue ; but he soon afterwards 
 resigned the title, and gave a charter of the earldom to Robert, lord 
 high Steward of Scotland. This William de Douglas was lord of 
 Liddisdale, and though himself ' the flower of chivalry,' as he was 
 called, is to be particularly distinguished from Sir William Douglas, 
 the knight of Liddesdale, natural son of the good Sir James. The 
 knight of Liddesdale long merited the eulogy which Fordun gives him, 
 of being " England's scourge and Scotland's bulwark ; " but the praise 
 of patriotism, and even of humanity itself, he outlived ; for beius; 
 hurt at Ramsay of Dalwolsey's appointment to the sheriffship of Rox- 
 burgh, he waited his opportunity, and came upon the brave and 
 virtuous Ramsay with an armed band, wounded him, and dragged him 
 away to Hermitage Castle. There Douglas immured his unoffending 
 victim, faint with thirst, and with his rankling wounds, till, after a 
 period of seventeen days' suffering, death at length terminated his 
 existence. The government of the country was in such a state at the 
 time, that the king not only could not avenge the outrage, but was 
 obliged to pardon the relentless murderer, and moreover to put him 
 into the vacant sheriffship. He at last died by the hand of an assassin 
 of the house of Douglas. 
 
 The good Sir James had another natural son, whom we shall men- 
 tion presently, but having no lawful issue, he was succeeded by his 
 brothers, Hugh and Archibald, the latter of whom married the daughter 
 of John Cumyn, of Badenoch, by Marjory, sister of John Baliol, kipg 
 of Scotland, and had two sons, the younger of whom, William, in- 
 herited the family estates, and became Earl of Douglas, in which 
 character we find him lord justiciar of Lothian the year in which king 
 Robert II. ascended the throne. He was thrice married. He married 
 
DOUGLAS FAMILY. 
 
 638 
 
 first a daughter of the twelfth Earl of Mar, and in her right was 
 styled Earl of Douglas and Mar. His sou James, second Earl of 
 Douglas and Mar, married Margaret, eldest daughter of king Robert II., 
 but leaving no surviving male issue, the earldom of Mar devolved on 
 his sister, and the earldom of Douglas on Archibald Douglas, the natural 
 son of the good Sir James above alluded to, by special settlement. 
 This Archibald, third Earl of Douglas, styled from his great prowess 
 'Archibald the Grim,' had himself a natural son, who married a 
 daughter of king Robert II. 
 
 William, the first Earl of Douglas, had no children by his second 
 marriage. By his third marriage, which was with the Lady Margaret, 
 sister and heir of the third Earl of Angus, he had a son, George, who 
 obtained, on his mother's resignation, a grant of the earldom of Angus. 
 He also got a grant of the sheriffship of Roxburgh, and is found in 
 that office anno 1398. The previous year he married Mary, second 
 daughter of king Robert III. 
 
 Sir John Douglas, who gallantly defended the castle of Lochleven 
 against the English in the minority of David II., was a younger brother 
 of William, lord of Liddesdale, above mentioned. He had several 
 children, three of whom only however we shall here notice, James, 
 Henry, and John. The last of these married Mariota, daughter of 
 Reginald de Cheyne, co-justiciar of Scotland beyond the Grampians, 
 with John de Vaux. Sir Henry married a niece of king Robert II., 
 and by her had a son, who married a granddaughter of the same 
 king. Sir James, the eldest, succeeded his uncle, the lord of Liddis- 
 dale, in the lordship of Dalkeith and his other extensive possessions. 
 He was twice married, his second wife being a sister of king Robert II. 
 His eldest son, by his first marriage, married a daughter of king 
 Robert IIL, and had a grandson, who married Johanna, daughter of 
 king James I., and relict of James, third Earl of Angus, and was on 
 the 14th of March 1457-58 created Earl of Morton. 
 
 We have thus three earls of the house of Douglas : the Earl of 
 Douglas, the Earl of Angus, and the Earl of Morton. 
 
 Archibald IV., earl of Douglas, eldest son of Archibald the Grim, 
 married the eldest daughter of king Robert IIL, and by her had a son 
 of the same name, who in the lifetime of his father was styled Earl 
 of Wigtou. On the death of king James I. he was chosen one of the 
 council of regency, and the next year made lieutenant-general of the 
 realm. His two sons, particularly William, the young Earl of 
 Douglas, despising the authority of an infant prince, and encouraged 
 by the divisions which arose among the nobility, erected a sort of 
 independent power within the kingdom, and forbidding the vassals 
 of the house to acknowledge any other authority, created knights, 
 appointed a privy council, and assumed all the exteriors of royalty. 
 They were both at length however beheaded, and the earldom of 
 Douglas passed to a grand-uncle, whose eldest son married his cousin, 
 'the fair maid of Galloway,' and restored the house to its former 
 splendour. He became lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and no less 
 formidable to the crown than the last in his family who held that high 
 office. But this power proved his ruin, and dying without issue, he 
 was succeeded by his brother, in whom this great branch of the house 
 of Douglas was cut down and overthrown for treason. 
 
 Archibald V., earl of Angus, great-grandson of William, first earl of 
 Douglas, through George, who obtained the earldom of Angus on his 
 mother's resignation as above-mentioned, was some time warden of 
 the East Marches, and on the death of Argyle was made lord high 
 chancellor of the kingdom, and so continued till 1498, when he 
 resigned He was commonly called ' the Great Earl of Angus ; ' and 
 according to the historian of his house, "was a man every way 
 accomplished both for mind and body." Gawin, bishop of Dunkeld, 
 the translator of Virgil, was his third son by his first marriage, which 
 was with a daughter of the lord high chamberlain of Scotland. The 
 bishop's two elder brothers, George, master of Angus, and Sir William 
 Douglas of Glenbervie, fell on the fatal field of Flodden ; and their 
 father, the old earl, who had in vain dissuaded the king from the 
 ruinous enterprise, bending under the calamity, retired into Galloway, 
 and soon after died. Sir Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie, the earl's 
 son by a second marriage, was made lord treasurer of Scotland towards 
 the end of the year 1526, by king James V., who used to style him, 
 his ' Grey Steil and the next year we find Archibald VI., earl of 
 Angus, eldest son of the deceased George, master of Angus, lord high 
 chancellor of the kingdom. This Archibald, the sixth earl of Angus, 
 married Margaret of England, queen dowager of James IV., and had 
 by her a daughter, who became the mother of Henry, lord Darnley, 
 husband of Mary, queen of Scots, and father of James I. of England. 
 On the fall of Angus, Sir George, his brother, was exiled, and spent 
 the remainder of James's reign in England; and their sister Jean 
 wag burnt as a witch on the castle hill of Edinburgh. The sou of 
 Sir Qeorge succeeded his uncle as seventh earl of Angus ; and on the 
 death of his son, the eighth earl, commonly called " the Good Earl of 
 Angus," without male issue, Sir William Douglas of Glenbervie, 
 great-grandson of Archibald, the great earl, succeeded to the earldom, 
 and had soon afterwards a charter from King James V., confirming all 
 the ancient privileges of the Douglas, namely, to have the first vote in 
 council, to be the king's lieutenant, to lead the van of the army in the 
 day of battle, and to carry the crown at coronations. 
 
 The seventh Earl of Angus had a younger brother, who became 
 fourth Earl of Morton, and was the famous Regent Morton. He was 
 
 condemned to death for the murder of Darnley, and was executed by 
 the maiden, an instrument which he himself introduced into Scotland. 
 
 Sir William Douglas of Glenbervie above mentioned conveyed the 
 lands of Glenbervie to a younger son. His eldest son became tenth 
 Earl of Angus; and the son of the latter was in 1633 created Marquis 
 of Douglas, the same year in which another branch of the Douglas 
 family was advanced to be Earl of Queensberry. Archibald, eldest 
 son of the first Marquis of Douglas, officiated as lord high chamberlain 
 at the coronation of king Charles II., and was thereupon created Earl 
 of Ormond. His younger brother William had been some years before 
 created Earl of Selkirk ; but marryiug afterwards Anne, duchess of 
 Hamilton, he was on her grace's petition created Duke of Hamilton 
 for life, and a new patent of the earldom of Selkirk issued in favour of 
 his younger sons, two of whom were themselves also elevated to the 
 peerage. The third Marquis of Douglas was advanced to be Duke of 
 Douglas; but on his death the dukedom became extinct, and the 
 marquisate devolved on the seventh Duke of Hamilton. His grace 
 was one of the parties in the great " Douglas cause," the subject of 
 which was the Douglas estates ; but these were ultimately awarded to 
 his opponent, who becoming entitled to the estate, assumed the name 
 and arms of Douglas, and in 1790 was raised to the peerage as Baron 
 Douglas of Douglas castle, in the shire of Lanark. 
 
 The year following, George, 16th Earl of Morton, was enrolled among 
 the peers of Great Britain as Baron Douglas of Lochleven. The third 
 Earl of Queensberry had previously been raised to a marquisate and 
 dukedom ; and the fourth Duke of Queensberry, who was also third 
 Earl of March, made a peer of England by the title of Baron Douglas 
 of Amesbury; but on the death of his grace in 1810, the English 
 barony, conferred upon himself, and the Earldom of March, conferred 
 upon his grandfather, expired ; while the dukedom devolved on the 
 Duke of Buccleuch, and the original peerage descended to the Marquis 
 of Queensberry. 
 
 DOUGLAS, DAVID, was born at Scone, in Perthshire, in 1798, 
 where his father was a working mason. He received a plain education 
 at the parish school of Kinnoul, and was early placed as an apprentice 
 in the garden of the Earl of Mansfield, at Scone Palace. As a lad he 
 was remarkable for his fondness for books and the study of plants. 
 In the winter he devoted his evenings to reading, and in the summer 
 to making botanical excursions for the purpose of collecting the wild 
 plants of the neighbourhood. In 1818 he went to live at Valleyfield, 
 the seat of Sir Robert Preston, Bart., whose garden was then celebrated 
 for its choice collection of exotic plants. Here he was treated with 
 great kindness by the head-gardener, Mr. Stewart, who procured him 
 access to Sir Robert's valuable botanical library. From Valleyfield he 
 removed to Glasgow, where he was employed in the botanic garden of 
 the university. His intelligence attracted the attention of Dr. (now 
 Sir William) Hooker, who was the professor of botany at Glasgow, 
 and he made him his companion in his botanical excursions for the 
 purpose of collecting materials for his ' Flora Scotica.' By Sir William 
 Hooker he was recommended to the Horticultural Society of London 
 as a botanical collector, and in 1823 he was sent to the United States, 
 where he procured many fine plants, and greatly increased the 
 collection of fruit-trees in the possession of the society. In 1824 
 he was sent by the Horticultural Society to explore the vegetable 
 productions of the country adjoining the Columbia River, and south- 
 ward towards California. The vessel in which he went out touched 
 at Rio de Janeiro, where he collected many rare orchidaceous plants 
 and bulbs. In the course of his voyage round Cape Horn he shot 
 many rare and curious birds. He visited the island of Juan Fernan- 
 dez, where he sowed a quantity of garden-seed, with the wish, he says, 
 that he might " add to the collection of a second Robinson Crusoe, 
 should one appear." He arrived at Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia 
 River, in April 1825. During his journey he sent home from time to 
 time large numbers of beautiful plants, with seeds and dried speci- 
 mens, the latter of which were added to the herbarium of the society 
 at Chiswick. Of the genus Pinus he discovered several species of 
 gigantic size, one of which has been named after himself, P. Douglatii. 
 In the spring of 1827 he went from Fort Vancouver across the Rocky 
 Mountains to Hudson's Bay, where he met Captain (afterwards Sir 
 John) Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Captain (now Sir George) Back, 
 returning from their second overland arctic expedition. With these 
 travellers he returned to England, bringing with him the results of 
 his researches. Shortly after his return he was elected, free of 
 expense, fellow of the Linnean, Zoological, and Geological societies. 
 He remaiued in London two years, and sailed again for the Columbia 
 River in 1829. He afterwards went to the Sandwich Islands, where 
 he had remained some months when an accident put an end to his 
 existence. The natives of the Sandwich Islands are in the habit of 
 making pits, in which they catch the wild bulls. In one of his 
 excursions, Mr. Douglas fell accidentally into one of these pits, in 
 which an infuriated animal was already trapped. The animal fell 
 upon him, and he was found dreadfully mutilated and quite dead. 
 This occurred on the 12th of July 1834. 
 
 Of modern botanical travellers, Douglas was one of the most enter- 
 prising and successful. Almost all the new hardy plants of our 
 gardens were introduced by him. To him we are not only iudebted 
 for many valuable timber-trees, for numerous species of the beautiful 
 genus Ribes, and other ornamental shrubs, but the favourites of every 
 
839 DOUGLAS, GAWIN. 
 
 garden— the Clarkias, Penstemons, GSuothpras, and Lupines, were 
 almost all first collected by him. A list of all the plants collected 
 by him would occupy too much space, but an idea of the value of hia 
 labours may be formed when we mention that of the species com- 
 monly growing in our gardens no less than 217 species, belonging to 
 43 genera, are the result of his various voyages. Of these, 53 are 
 woody plants and 145 herbaceous plants. His dried collection of 
 Californian plants alone consists of about 800 species, but these were 
 only a part of his extensive herbarium. (Gardener s Magazine, vols. xi. 
 and xii. ; Companion to the Botanical Magazine.) 
 
 DOUGLAS, GAWIN, was born in the year 1474 or 1475, and was 
 the third son of Archibald, sixth earl of Angus, surnamed Bell-the- 
 Cat. Being intended for the church, he received the best education 
 which Scotlaud aud Franco could give. He obtained successively the 
 provostship of the collegiate church of St. Giles's, Edinburgh, and the 
 rectorship of Heriot church. He was then made abbot of Aber- 
 brothick, aud lastly, bishop of Dunkeld ; but his elevation to the 
 archbishopric of St. Andrews was prevented by the pope. In 1513 
 some political intrigues compelled him to retire to England, where 
 he was favourably received by Henry VIII. He died of the plague 
 in April, 1522, at the Savoy, where he had resided during the whole 
 of his stay. 
 
 In his early years he translated Ovid's ' Art of Love,' and composed 
 two allegorical poems, 'King Hart' and the ' Palace of Honour;' but 
 ho is best and most deservedly known by his translation of Virgil's 
 '/Eneid,' which, with the thirteenth book by Mapheus Vegius, was 
 produced in 1513. To each book is prefixed an original prologue, 
 some of which give lively and simple descriptions of scenery, written 
 in a manner which proves their author to have been possessed of con- 
 siderable poetical power. At the end of the work (p. 380, ed. of 1553) 
 he informs us that " compilet was this work Virgilean .... in 
 eighteen moneths space," for two months whereof he "wrote never 
 one word." 
 
 Those who take the trouble to examine Douglas for themselves, 
 will find his language not nearly so different from our own as might 
 be imagined from a cursory glance at the pages. The chief difference 
 consists in the spelling and the accent, which we may suppose to have 
 borne, as in Chaucer, a considerable resemblance to the present pro- 
 nunciation of French ; at least without some such supposition it 
 appears impracticable to scan either. 
 
 ( Warton, Hist. Engl. Poetry, who gives copious extracts ; Biog. Brit., 
 art. Douglas.) 
 
 DOUGLAS, GENERAL SIR HOWARD, Bart., was born in 
 1776, at Gosport, Hampshire. His father, Admiral Sir Charles 
 Douglas, was a distinguished naval officer, who received his title for 
 having in 1776 forced a passage up the river St. Lawrence, in order to 
 relieve the city of Quebec. Sir Charles Douglas was Captain of the 
 Fleet in the West Indies under Admiral Rodney, when the naval action 
 of the 12th of April 1782 was fought between the French and English 
 fleets ; and to Sir Charles Douglas has been ascribed, apparently with 
 truth, the merit of suggesting the manoeuvre of breaking through the 
 centre of the French line of battle, and by this operation rendering 
 some of the enemy's ships useless, and thus gaining the victory. 
 
 Sir Howard Douglas entered the army at an early age : he served 
 in the expedition to Waleheren, was present at the battle of Coruna, 
 and served in Portugal and Spain in 1808-9. In 1809, on the death 
 of his brother he succeeded to the title, and returned to England. 
 He served again in Spain in 1811-12. Sir Howard Douglas, while thus 
 actively employed in the army, appears not only to have studied his 
 own profession, but to have watched also with peculiar interest the 
 operations of the navy in all parts of the world. In 1816 he published 
 an ' Essay on the Principles and Construction of Military Bridges, and 
 the Passage of Rivers in Military Operations,' 8vo, London. In 1817 
 he sent to the Lords of the Admiralty the manuscript of his treatise 
 on Naval Gunnery, which, having received their approbation, was pub- 
 lished in 1819, 'A Treatise on Naval Gunnery, dedicated by special 
 Permission to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,' 8vo, London. 
 The 3rd edition, revised and much enlarged, was published in 1851, 
 and a 4th edition, revised, in 1855. 
 
 Sir Howard Douglas was governor of New Brunswick from 1823 
 to 1829, in which last year he received the degree of D.C.L. from the 
 University of Oxford. From 1835 to the end of 1840 he was Lord 
 High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands. He was elected member 
 of parliament for Liverpool in 1842, and continued to represent that 
 borough till 1847. He became general in 1851 and also colonel of the 
 15th Regiment of Foot. Sir Howard Douglas married in 1799, and 
 his wife died in 1854. His son, the heir to the baronetcy, became 
 a lieutenant-colonel in the army in 1842. 
 
 The first edition of the ' Treatise on Naval Gunnery' contained cer- 
 tain plans for the establishment of schools of naval gunnery. The 
 government however did nothing towards carrying out the author's 
 recommendations till the political horizon became clouded in 1830, 
 when a gunner-school was instituted on board her Majesty's ship 
 'Excellent' at Portsmouth, to which was afterwards added a naval 
 college in the dockyard, and the whole es'abli.-hment has been since 
 extended and improved. The third edition of the ' Naval Gunnery,' 
 as enlarged by the author, is divided into five parts, of which the first 
 part treats of the general organisation and tr lining of gunners, aud is 
 
 DOYLE, RICHARD. 
 
 more historical than didactic ; the second part deals with the theory 
 and practice of gunnery, more particularly as applied to the service of 
 naval ordnance; the other three parts treat of the construction of 
 guns and mortars, the forms of shot and shell, the machinery of ships 
 of war, the service of guns in action, and the entire theory and practice 
 of naval operations. In the fourth edition, published at the beginning 
 of 1855, Sir Howard censured very decidedly the whole conductof the 
 war in the Crimea, and intimated that Sebastopol would not be taken 
 till another plan of operations had been entered upon— till in fact the 
 north side of the harbour had been assaulted and carried by the alliee, 
 and the guns of the northern forts directed against the town and forts 
 of the southern side. The result has added another proof to those of 
 previous times of the uncertainty, in matters of actual war, of predic- 
 tions founded on scientific reasoning. 
 
 Besides some ' Observations on Carnot's Fortification,' and ' Consider- 
 ations on the Value and Importance of the British and North American 
 Provinces,' Sir Howard Douglas published an elaborate exposition of 
 his father's claim to the manoeuvre of the 12th of April 1782, the 
 object of which work will be best explained by giving the title-page 
 in full : ' Naval Evolutions ; a Memoir by Sir Howard Douglas, Bart, 
 K.S.B., C.B., F.R.S., &c., containing a Review and Refutation of the 
 principal Essays and Arguments advocating Mr. Clerk's Claims in Rela- 
 tion to the Manoeuvre of the 12th of April 1782, and vindicating by 
 tactical Demonstration and numerous authentic Docutneuts the pro- 
 fessional Skill of the British Officers employed on that Occasion,' 8vo, 
 London. 1832. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DOUW, or DOW, GERARD, was bom at Leyden in 1613. In 1622 
 he was put by his father, a glazier, to study drawing under Bartho- 
 lomew Dolendo, an engraver, with whom he remained eighteen months. 
 He afterwards received the instructions of Peter Kouwhoorn, a painter 
 on glass, and learned his art so well that he proved of great advantage 
 to his father. It being determined that he should study painting in 
 oil, the illustrious Rembrandt was in 1628 chosen for the lad's master. 
 From that great painter Gerard learned the mastery of colour and 
 chiaroscuro, but wheu he began to practise on his own account he 
 differed entirely from his teacher in his manner of paiuting. Instead 
 of growing bolder and rougher in his handling as he grew older, he 
 became more a.nd more delicate in his finish, elaborating everything 
 which he touched with the most exquisite delicacy and minuteness, 
 insomuch that the threads of brocades and of fine carpets are expressed 
 even in his smallest paintings. Nothing escaped his eye or his pencil. 
 And yet, with all his elaboration of detail, his pictures are powerful 
 in effect and harmonious and brilliant in colour. As specimens of 
 technical ability they are admirable, as illustrations of mental power 
 their value is very little. He was accustomed to prepare his own tools, 
 that he might have them of the requisite fineness. 
 
 Gerard Douw has been charged with excessive slowness in finishing, 
 and some anecdotes are told in proof of it. Sandrart says that he 
 once visited Gerard's study in company with Bamboccio, and on their 
 both expressing their admiration of a certain miniature broom-handle 
 in one of his pictures, he said that he should spend three more days 
 upon it before he left it : "uid this story, whether true or not, very 
 fairly illustrates the character of his pictures — the amount of care 
 and thought expended on a broom-handle is precisely the same as is 
 expended on the head of the principal figure in the composition. It 
 is said that his sitters were so wearied by his dilatoriness, and disgusts'! 
 by the transcripts of their jaded faces, which he faithfully put upon 
 the canvass, that others were deterred from sitting, and he was obliged 
 to abandon portrait painting. But Karel de Moore, who had been a 
 pupil of his, averred that he was not so slow as had been asserted ; 
 and the number of his pictures tends to corroborate his statement. 
 Douw, like most minute finishers, got excellent prices for his painting?, 
 generally from 600 to 1000 florins; and Sandrart informs us that 
 Spiering, a gentleman of the Hague, paid him an annual salary of 1000 
 florins for the mere right of refusal of all the pictures he painted, at 
 the highest price he could obtain. Gerard Douw died in February, 
 1675. His Portrait by himself is in the National Gallery. (No. 192.) 
 
 * DOVE, HEINRICH WILHELM. [See vol. vi., col. 992.] 
 
 * DOYLE, RICHARD, was born in London in 1826. He is the eon 
 of Mr. John Doyle, generally believed to be the author of the celebrated 
 'H.B.' political sketches which were a few years ago so remarkably popu- 
 lar, and which, while exhibiting with abundant keenness the prominent 
 features and peculiarities of the persons caricatured, were always gentle- 
 manly in feeling and free from any appearance of malice. The younger 
 Mr. Richard Doyle's designs were for some years a chief attraction in the 
 pages of ' Punch,' and possibly no previous pictorial satirist of passing 
 customs and follies ever exhibited so much graceful fancy and playful 
 exuberance of quaint invention and humour. And with all the 
 temptations from the pressure of haste, political excitement, and the 
 necessity of catching the passing whim or hitting the current fault or 
 folly, he never, as far as we can recollect, was charged or chargeable 
 with descending to coarseness or vulgarity. Mr. Doyle possesses a 
 surprising facility and accuracy of drawing, great keenDess of 
 observation, and considerable range of character. But he is most at 
 home in London life. Nothing cau exceed the infinite variety of his 
 men about town, and their doincrs, in ' Ye Manners and Customs of 
 ye Euglish ;' or the richness of his ' Brown, Jones, aud Robinson, 
 whether at home or abroad. But with his foreigners he is not 90 
 
DRACO. 
 
 happy ; while his sentimental young ladies and gentlemen of the Ethel 
 and Clive Newcome class are " most tolerable and not to be endured." 
 Since he ceased in 1850 to contribute to 'Punch,' Mr. Doyle has 
 illustrated various fairy tales, &c, besides publishing his admirable 
 Christmas book, ' The Foreign Tour of Messrs. Brown, Jones, and 
 RobiDSon ;' but his later works have hardly the light mirthfulness or 
 the vigour of those he executed under the stimulus of constant 
 occupation, constant applause, and the assurauce that every satirical 
 or humorous touch would produce its immediate and intended effect. 
 
 DRACO, an Athenian legislator, who flourished about the 39th 
 Olympiad, B.C. 621. Suidas tells us that he brought forward his code 
 of laws in this year, and that he was then an old man. Aristotle says 
 (' Polit.,' ii., at the end), that Draco adapted his laws to the existing 
 constitution, and that they contained nothing peculiar beyond the 
 eeverity of their penalties. The slightest theft was punished capitally 
 as well as the most atrocious murder, and Demades remarked of his 
 laws that they were written with blood, and not with ink. (Plutarch, 
 'Solon,' cxvii.) Draco however deserves credit as the first who 
 introduced written laws at Athens, and it is probable that he improved 
 the criminal courts by his transfer of cases of bloodshed from the 
 archon to the ephetse (Jul. Pollux, viii. 124, 125), since before his time 
 the archon had a right of settling all cases arbitrarily, and without 
 appeal — a right whi.h they enjoyed in other cases till Solon's time. 
 (Bekker's ' Anecdota,' p. 449, 1. 23.) It appears that there were some 
 offences which he did not punish with death ; for instance, loss of the 
 civil rights was the punishment for an attempt to alter one of his 
 laws. (Demosth., 'C. Aristocr.,' p. 714, Bekk.) Draco was archon 
 (Pausan., ix. 36, § 8), and consequently an eupatrid ; it is not therefore 
 to bo supposed that his object was to favour the lower orders, though 
 his code seems to have tended to abridge the power of the nobles. He 
 died in the island of .lEgina. On the legislation of Draco in general, 
 see Wachsmuth, 'Hellenisehe Alterthumskunde,' ii. 1, p. 239, and 
 following. 
 
 DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS, was born in or after the year 1541 
 (Barrow's ' Life of Drake,' ch. i.) in an humble cottage on the banks 
 of the Tavy, in Devonshire. His father, who was, according to the 
 common accounts, a poor and obscure yeoman, had twelve sons, of 
 whom Francis was the eldest. According to Camden, who derived 
 his information from Drake himself, Francis Russel, afterwards earl 
 of Bedford, stood as his godfather, and John Hawkins, a distinguished 
 navigator, defrayed the slight expenses of his short school education. 
 In the days of persecution under Queen Mary, his father, who was 
 known in his neighbourhood as a zealous Protestant and a man of 
 some acquirements, fled from Devonshire into Kent, where Drake was 
 brought up; " God dividing the honour," says Fuller, "betwixt two 
 counties, that the one might have his birth and the other his educa- 
 tion." Under Elizabeth his father obtained an appointment "among 
 the seamen in the king's navy to read prayers to them ; " and soon 
 afterwards is stated by Camden and others to have been ordained 
 deacon, and made vicar of Upnor church on the Medway, a little 
 below Chatham, where the royal fleet usually anchored. But there 
 must be some inaccuracy here, as " there is not now and never was 
 either church or chapel at Upnor, but a small castle was built there 
 by Elizabeth to protect the anchorage." (Barrow.) The suggestion 
 of Mr. Barrow has considerable likelihood : "he was more probably 
 one who in those days bore the title of ' preacher' or ' minister,' who 
 had received holy orders, but was without church preferment, and 
 engaged in giving instruction to the neighbouring people, and reading 
 prayers to them." 
 
 Francis thus grew up among sailors ; and while he was yet very 
 young, his father, " by reason of his poverty, apprenticed him to a 
 neighbour, the master of a bark, who carried on a coasting trade, and 
 sometimes made voyages to Zeeland and France." This master kept 
 Drake close to his work, and " pains, with patience in his youth," 
 says Fuller, " knit the joints of his soul, and made them more solid 
 and compact" When his master died, having no children of his own, 
 he bequeathed to young Drake the bark and its equipments. With 
 this he continued in the old trade, and had got together some little 
 money, and was in the fair way of becoming a thriving man, when 
 his imagination was inflamed by the exploits of his protector Haw- 
 kins in the New World; and suddenly selling his ship, he repaired to 
 Plymouth, and embarked himself and his fortunes in that com- 
 mander's last and unfortunate adventure to the Spanish Main. In 
 this disastrous expedition Drake lost all the money he had in the 
 world ; he suffered moreover somewhat in character, being charged 
 with having disobeyed orders, and deserted his superior. He however 
 showed skilful seamacship, and brought the vessel he commanded — 
 the 'Judith,' a small bark of fifty tons— safely home. A chaplain 
 belonging to the fleet comforted Drake with the assurance that, as he 
 had been treacherously used by the Spaniards, he might lawfully 
 recover in value upon the King of Spain, and repair his losses upon 
 him whenever and wherever he could. Fuller says, " The case was 
 clear in sea divinity; and few are such infidels as not to believe 
 doctrines which make for their profit. Whereupon Drake, though a 
 poor private man, undertook to revenge himself on so mighty a 
 monarch, who, not contented that the sun riseth and setteth in his 
 dominions, may seem to desire to make all his own where.he shineth." 
 Being readily joined by a number of sea adventurers, who mustered 
 
 DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS. <M,S 
 
 among them money enough to fit out a vessel, Drake made two or 
 three voyages to the West Indies, to gain intelligence and learn the 
 navigation of those parts; but Camden adds, that ha also got some 
 stor3 of money there, " by playing the seaman and the pirate." In 
 1570 he obtained a regular commission from Queen Elizabeth, and 
 cruised to some purpose in the West Indies. In 1572 he sailed again 
 for the Spanish Main, with the ' Pasha' of seventy tons, and the ' Swan' 
 of twenty-five tons, the united crews of which amounted to seventy- 
 three men and boys — the oldest man being fifty, all the rest under 
 thirty years of age. At Port Pheasant on the coast of South America 
 he landed and put together the three pinnaces, of which they had 
 brought the frame-work with them, and here they were joined by 
 another bark, from the Isle of Wight, with thirty-eight men. With 
 this insignificant force he partly plundered the town of Nombre de 
 Dios, and made great spoil among the Spanish shipping. He partially 
 crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and obtained a view of the great 
 Pacific, an ocean as yet closed to English enterprise ; and with his 
 eyes anxiously fixed upon its waters, he prayed God to grant him 
 " life and leave once to sail an English ship in those seas." After some 
 extraordinary adventures, Drake returned to England, with his frail 
 barks absolutely loaded and crammed with treasure and plundered 
 merchandise ; and on the 9th of August 1573 anchored at Plymouth. 
 It was a Sunday, and the townsfolk were at church ; but when the 
 news spread thither that Drake was come, " there remained few or no 
 people with the preacher," all running out to welcome the Devon- 
 shire hero. A ' Relation ' of this voyage, revised by Drake himself, 
 was published by his nephew in 1646 in a small and now very rare 
 quarto volume. In this ' Relation ' Drake himself asserts strongly 
 that the voyage was undertaken by him expressly to avenge himself 
 for his treacherous usage by the viceroy of Mexico. 
 
 Drake being employed in the interval in the service of the queen 
 in Ireland, was forestalled in the honour of being the first English- 
 man to sail on the Pacific by one John Oxenham, who had served 
 under him as common sailor and cook ; but as this man merely floated 
 a ' pinnace ' on the South Sea, and was taken by the Spaniards and 
 executed as a pirate, he could scarcely be an object of envy. 
 
 In 1577, under the secret sanction of Queen Elizabeth, Drake 
 departed on another marauding expedition, taking with him five 
 vessels, the largest of which was of 100, and the smallest of 15 tons. 
 The united crews of this miniature fleet amounted to 164 men, 
 gentlemen and sailors. Among the gentlemen, were some young ineu 
 of noble families, who (not to mention the plunder anticipated) " went 
 out to learn the art of navigation." After many adventures along the 
 coasts of the South American continent, where some of his attacks 
 were completely successful, Drake and his choice comrades came to 
 Port Julian, on the coast of Patagonia, near the Straits of Magalhaens, 
 where they were much comforted by finding a gibbet standing — a 
 proof that Christian people had been there before them. Drake, 
 during his stay in Port Julian, put to death ' Master Doughtie,' a 
 gentleman of birth and education, whose fate is stilf involved in some 
 mystery, notwithstanding the laudable endeavours of Dr. Soutuey 
 and Mr. Barrow to rescue the fame of one of our greatest naval heroes 
 from the suspicion of a foul murder. 
 
 On the 20th of August Drake reached Cape Virgenes, and sailed 
 through the Strait of Magalhaens, being the third navigator who had 
 performed that passage. On the seventeenth day after making Cape 
 Virgenes he cleared the strait, and entered the Pacific or South Sea. 
 Having obtained an immense booty by plundering the Spanish towns 
 on the coast of Chili and Peru, and by taking, among many other 
 vessels, a royal galleon called the ' Cacafuego,' richly laden with plate, 
 he boldly determined to sail in his little vessel of 100 tons, with its 
 diminished and sickly crew, to the north-east, in the hope of finding 
 in that direction a passage back to the Atlantic. He reached 48" 
 North lat., where the extreme severity of the cold discouraged his men, 
 and contrary winds arising he put back ten degrees, and took shelter 
 in Port San Francisco. Here he established friendly relations with the 
 natives, and formally took possession of the country, which he named 
 New Albion, in the name of the Queen of Eugland. After staying 
 five weeks in that port, he determined to follow the example of 
 Magalhaens, and steer across the Pacific for the Moluccas. He made 
 Ternate, one of the Molucca group, in safety, and thence set his course 
 for Java. From Java he sailed right across the Indian Ocean to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, which he doubled without accident, and thence 
 shaped his course homewards. 
 
 Drake arrived at Plymouth on Sunday the 26th of September 1579, 
 after an absence of two years and nearly ten months, during which he 
 had circumnavigated the globe, and spent many mouths on the almost 
 unknown south-western coasts of America. Drake was most graciously 
 received at court, and Elizabeth now asserted more firmly than ever her 
 right of navigating the ocean in all its parte, and denied the exclusive 
 right which the Spaniards claimed over the seas and lauds of the 
 New World. And though the queen yielded so far as to pay a con- 
 siderable sum out of the treasure Drake had brought home to the 
 procurator of certain merchants who urged, " with some reason," that 
 they had been unjustly robbed, enough was left to make it a profitable 
 adventure for the privateers, who appear to have received payment at 
 the rate of 471. for every 11. ventured. (Barrow, p. 177.) At her 
 orders Drake's ship was drawn up in a little creek near Dsptford, 
 
DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS. 
 
 DRAKENBORCH, ARNOLD. 
 
 there to be preserved as a monument of the most memorable voyage 
 that the English had ever yet performed : she partook of a banquet 
 on board the vessel, and there knighted the captain. 
 
 During part of the year 1585, and the whole of 1586, Drake was 
 actively employed with a fleet of 21 Bhips, against Philip II. on the 
 coasts of Spain and Portugal, in the Canaries, the Cape de Verdes, 
 the West India Islands, and on the coast of South America and St. 
 Domingo. Carthagena and other towns were taken and plundered. In 
 the course of this expedition Drake visited the English colony in 
 Virginia, which had been recently planted by Raleigh, and finding 
 the colonists in great distress, he took them on board and brought 
 them home with him. It is said that tobacco was first brought into 
 England by the men who returned from Virginia with Drake. 
 
 In 1587, when formidable preparations were making in the Spanish 
 ports for the invasion of England, Elizabeth appointed Drake to the 
 command of a fleet equipped for the purpose of destroying the 
 enemy's ships in their own harbours. This force did not amount to 
 thirty sail, and only four were of the Navy Royal, the rest, with the 
 exception of two yachts belonging to the queen, being furnished by 
 merchant adventurers. In the port of Cadiz, the first place he 
 attacked, he found sixty ships and many vessels of inferior size, all 
 protected by land batteries. Drake entered the roads on the morning 
 of the 19th of April, and before night he had burnt, sunk, or taken 
 a hundred ships, some of which were of the largest size ; and it 
 appears he might have done much more mischief but for the necessity 
 he was under of securing as much booty, in goods, as he could for the 
 benefit of the merchant adventurers. He then turned back along the 
 coast, takiDg or burning nearly a hundred vessels between Cadiz and 
 Cape St. Vincent, besides destroying four castles on shore. This was 
 what Drake called " singeing the king of Spaiu's beard." From Cape 
 St. Vincent he sailed to the Tagus, and entering that river, came to 
 anchor near Cascaes, whence he sent to tell the Marquis Santa-Cruz, 
 who was lying up the river with a large force of galleys, that he was 
 ready to exchange bullets with him. The marquis, who had been 
 appointed general of the Armada preparing for the invasion of 
 England, and who was esteemed the best sailor of Spain, declined the 
 challenge, and he died (the English writers say of vexation at the 
 mischief done by Drake) before tbat ill-fated expedition could sail. 
 
 The operations we have briefly related delayed the sailing of that 
 armament more than a year, and gave Elizabeth time to prepare for 
 her defence. Having thus performed the public service, Drake bore 
 away to the Azores, on the look-out for the treasure ships from 
 India, and he was so fortunate as to fall in with an immense carrack 
 most richly laden. He took it, of course, and " the taking of this ship," 
 says a contemporary, " was of a greater advantage to the English mer- 
 chants than the value of her cargo to the captors ; for, by the papers 
 found on board, they so fully understood the rich value of the Indian 
 merchandises, and the manner of trading into the eastern world, that 
 they afterwards set up a gainful traffic, and established a company of 
 East India merchants." Drake generously spent a considerable part 
 of his prize-money in supplying the town of Plymouth with good, 
 fresh water, for hitherto there was none, except what the inhabitants 
 fetched from a mile distance. 
 
 His next service at sea was as vice-admiral in the fleet under Charles 
 Lord Howard of Effingham, lord high admiral of England, which, 
 with the assistance of the elements, scattered and destroyed the 
 ' Invincible Armada ' of Spain. The seamanship of Drake, Hawkins, 
 and Frobisher contributed largely to the happy result. In the following 
 year, 1589, Drake was employed as admiral in an expedition sent to 
 Portugal, in the hope of expelling the Spaniards, who had taken 
 possession of that kingdom, by establishing the claims of Antonio, a 
 pretender, around whom the English expected the Portuguese would 
 rally. The whole expedition was badly planned, most miserably 
 supplied with money and the other means of war, and but lamely 
 executed after the landing of the troops. 
 
 After his return, Drake was elected member of parliament for 
 Plymouth, and in the session of 1592-93 he appears to have taken an 
 active part, his name appearing upon all the committees upon public 
 business, and he having the charge of several bills. In 1595 Drake 
 and Sir John Hawkins, who had good experience in those parts, 
 represented to Elizabeth that the best place for striking a blow at 
 the gigantic power of Spain was in the West Indies ; and an expedition 
 thither was prepared, Drake and Hawkins sailing together with twenty- 
 six ships, of which however only six belonged to the royal navy, on 
 board of which was embarked a land-force under the orders of Sir 
 Thomas Baskerville and Sir Nicholas Clifford. There were too many 
 in command, and Hawkins, who divided the naval command with 
 Drake, was nearly eighty years of age. The usual bad consequences 
 ensued. After losing time in debate which Drake if alone would have 
 spent in action, they were obliged to give up an attempt on the 
 Canaries with some loss. When they got among the West India 
 islands Drake and Hawkins not only quarrelled but separated for 
 some time, and before reaching the east end of Puerto Rico Hawkins 
 died, his death being generally attributed to the agitation of his mind. 
 
 One of Drake's smallest vessels was captured by the Spaniards, 
 who, by putting the crew of it to the torture, extracted information 
 respecting the plans of the expedition. When Drake attacked Puerto 
 Rico he found that place fully warned and prepared, and his desperate 
 
 attack was defeated. Sailing away, he took and burned Rio de la 
 Hacha, Rancheria, Santa Martha, and Nombre de Dios, getting no 
 greater spoil than twenty tons of silver and two bars of gold. Drake 
 remained in the harbour of Nombre de Dios, a most unhealthy place, 
 while Baskerville with a part of the land-forces made a vain and ruinous 
 attempt to cross the Isthmus of Darien, in order to plunder and destroy 
 the city of Panamd. A fatal disease broke out among soldiers and 
 sailors, and soon deprived them of the important services of the chief 
 surgeon of the fleet. When many of his men and three of his captains 
 had died, the hardy Drake himself fell sick, and after struggling some 
 twenty days with his malady and the grief occasioned by his failures, 
 he expired on the 28th of January, 1596. On the same day the fleet 
 anchored at Puerto Bello, and in sight of that place, which he had 
 formerly takeu and plundered, his body received a sailor's funeral, in 
 the words of one of his admiring contemporaries : — 
 
 "The waves became his winding-sheet, the waters were his tomb; 
 But for his fame the ocean sea was not sufficient room." 
 
 Though the reputation of Drake as one of the most skilful of English 
 seamen, a commander of almost unparalleled courage, and one of the 
 founders of English naval eminence, is deservedly great and generally 
 admitted, still, unless we judge him by the circumstances and the 
 standard of the times, he must appear in many of his exploits in no 
 other light than that of a daring and skilful buccaneer. 
 
 (Southey, Naval Ilittory ; Harris, Collection of Voyages ; Barrow, 
 Life, Voyages, and Exploits of Admiral Sir Francis Drake.) 
 
 DRAKENBERO, CHRISTIAN JACOBSEN, one of the most 
 extraordinary instances of longevity on record, was born on the 18th 
 of November 1626, at Blomsholm in Norway. The son of a sea-captain, 
 he went in his thirteenth year to sea, and continued a seafaring life till 
 1694, when in his sixty-eighth year he was captured on a voyage from 
 Hamburg to Spain by Algerine pirates. He continued in slavery at 
 Algiers, Tripoli, and elsewhere till 1710, when, by the assistance of an 
 Englishman named John Smith, he and five other slaves made their 
 escape from Aleppo, and arrived in safety in Smith's vessel at Bor- 
 deaux, where Drakenberg heard there was war between Denmark and 
 Sweden, and went home to take part in it. In 1712, Drakenberg, when 
 at Christiania, in a quarrel with Lieutenant Wessel for not taking off his 
 hat to him, was struck by that officer with, his sword, on which he 
 wrenched the sword from the lieutenant's hand, and threw it over a 
 house. He was put in irons, but released after an hour's confinement, 
 the officer probably not feeling very well satisfied with himself at 
 having assaulted a man of eighty-six. It was this Lieutenant Wessel 
 who afterwards became, under the name of Admiral Tordenskigld, 
 the most distinguished seaman Denmark has produced. 
 
 Drakenberg took his leave of the sea in 1717, on account of weak- 
 ness of sight, but was still able to do work on land, and in 1728 was 
 taken into the service of Count Danneskjold Samsoe, with whom he 
 afterwards went to Copenhagen. In August 1732, as he was waiting 
 behind the count's chair at table, his master told some of the foreign 
 ministers who were his guests of his servant's being more than a 
 hundred years old ; but they refused to believe him. As the con- 
 versation was carried on in French they thought Drakenberg did not 
 understand them ; but he was acquainted with that language, and was 
 seized with such indignation that he went out of the room, and, with- 
 out saying a word to any one, set off on foot through Siaelland on his 
 way to Norway. On the 2nd of December, in the same year, he 
 procured his baptismal certificate, and in the next February made his 
 reappearance at Copenhagen, after a long journey on foot through 
 Sweden, with the proof that he was then 106 years old. In 1735 he 
 was presented to the King of Denmark ; and in 1737, being then ia 
 his 111th year, he was married to a widow of sixty, who died a few 
 years after. About 1759 he went to live at Aarhuus, and still continued 
 to take long exercises on foot; but his eyelids were then grown so heavy 
 that he could not lift them, and was therefore obliged to have some 
 one to lead him. He died very quietly, after thirteen days' illness, on 
 the 9th of October 1772, at the age of a hundred and forty-five years 
 and more than ten months. His strength was so remarkable that, it 
 is said, on an officer once observing to him, " You are a hundred and 
 twenty years old, I believe," Drakenberg took him by the hand, and 
 pressed it so hard that the officer sunk on his knee. " Now, you see," 
 said Drakenberg, " that I am twenty years old ; the hundred I have 
 thrown away." He was of middle size, and very red in the face, but 
 otherwise good-looking. In his food he was dainty, but he was never 
 known to be drunk. He was in disposition lustful, prone to anger, 
 and vindictive. 
 
 He was buried in the cathedral of Aarhuus, where Schytte, the 
 author of a description of the building, remarks, in 1835, that his 
 body remained after sixty-three years in excellent preservation, a kind 
 of natural mummy, and was made a show of to visitors. 
 
 DRAKENBORCH, ARNOLD, was born at Utrecht in 1684, studied 
 in that university under Grsevius and Peter Burmann, and at the age 
 of twenty wrote an elaborate dissertation, ' De Prsefectis Urbis,' which 
 established his reputation as a scholar. This work treated in eleven 
 chapters of the origin, nature, importance, and various duties and 
 powers, belonging to the office of Prefect of Rome. This valuable 
 little work of Drakenborch has gone through several editions ; that 
 of Bareuth, 1787, contains an extract from the author's funeral oration 
 
DRAYTON, MICHAEL. 
 
 DROUYN DE LHUYS, EDWARD. 
 
 by Professor Oosterdyk, in which the other works of Drakenborch are 
 mentioned. Upon leaving Utrecht he went to Leyden to study the 
 law, but there also he devoted his chief attention to the classical 
 lessons of Perizonius and Gronovius. He wrote in 1707 another dis- 
 sertation, *De Officio Prsefectorum Prsetorio,' in which he explains 
 and illustrates the nature and duties of that important military office, 
 and the changes it underwent in the course of time, in the same 
 manner as he had done for that of the prefects of the city. Draken- 
 borch undertook, by the advice of Peter Burmann, an edition of Silius 
 Italicus, which appeared in 1717. On Burmann's removal to Leyden, 
 Drakenborch succeeded him in the chair of history and eloquence at 
 Utrecht. His edition of Livy, on which he bestowed much time and 
 labour, was published in 1738-46, in 7 vols. 4to. The value of the 
 edition lies in the large collection of various readings, and the illus- 
 tration of idioms by parallel passages drawn from the writings of Livy. 
 The text is decidedly inferior to that which is found in the unpre- 
 tending editions by Stroth, Raschig, &c. He published also — ' De 
 Utilitate et Fructu humanarum Disciplinarum Oratio inauguralis,' 
 ' Oratio funebris in Mortem Francisci Burmanni,' and other orations 
 and dissertations ; and also a ' History of Utrecht,' and ' Genealogies 
 of the Noble Families of Holland.' He died at Utrecht in 1747. 
 
 DKAYTON, MICHAEL, was born at Hartshill in the county of 
 Warwick, in the year 1563. His life is involved iu great obscurity, 
 and different circumstances concerning him are rather conjectured 
 than affirmed. It is supposed that he went to the University of 
 Oxford, but without taking any degree, and also that he was in the 
 army at an early period of life. Nine or ten years before the death of 
 Queen Elizabeth he is said to have written poems. His earliest work 
 was a collection of pastoral poems, published in 1593, under the title 
 of the ' Shepherd's Garland ; ' it was afterwards revised and reprinted 
 in 1619, under the name of ' Eclogues.' Shortly after the ' Shepherd's 
 Garland ' appeared his long historical poems, ' The Barons' Wars,' 
 ' England's Heroical Epistles,' fcc. His ' Polyolbion,' a descriptive 
 poem on England, her natural productions and legends, made its 
 appearance in 1613. This is the most celebrated of all his works : 
 independently of its merits as a poem, the most respectable antiquaries 
 refer to it for information, and consider it as authority : the curious 
 Notes appended to it were written by Selden. In 1626 we hear of 
 Drayton as poet-laureate. He died iu 1631. 
 
 The merits of Drayton as a poet are very great. His historical 
 poems have about them a heavy magnificence, the most gorgeous 
 images and the boldest descriptions follow in stately array, clothed in 
 well-turned and appropriate verse, but unfortunately the obscurity of 
 diction renders them unattractive. The construction is most painfully 
 involved : a nominative case is often parted from its verb by an inter- 
 val of six or seven lines ; and hence, though these poems contain but 
 few obsolete words, the reading of them is a serious study. The same 
 observations will apply to the ' Polyolbion,' which is an immense mass 
 of good sterling matter. All the counties and rivers of England are 
 named one after another, but the descriptions are so close that what 
 we gain in instruction we lose iu amusement. This poem is written 
 in Alexandrines, and the measure is admirably managed. ' The Wars 
 of the Barons' are written in ottava rima. Drayton has left one work 
 which, in its way, has never been surpassed — a short fairy poem, called 
 ' Nymphidia.' A more elfin work than this could not be penned : the 
 author has contrived to throw himself into the feelings of the diminu- 
 tive beings whom he represents. His descriptions of helmets made 
 of beetles, ear- wigs bring used as chargers, and other oddities of a like 
 nature, display the very highest powers of fancy : a Lilliputian air 
 breathes through the whole performance. Had Drayton written 
 nothing but ' Nymphidia,' he would deserve immortality. 
 
 In Campbell's ' Selections from the British Poets,' a specimen is 
 given of every style in which this fine old author wrote. Drayton has 
 a tomb in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey. 
 
 DREBBEL, CORNELIUS VAN, was born at Alkmaar, in Holland, 
 in 1572. He is chiefly distinguished by being the inventor of the 
 thermometer ; or, at least, by sharing that honour with Santorio. His 
 instrument, which is said to have been first used in Germany in 1621, 
 consisted of a tube of glass containing water and connected with a 
 bulb containing air : by the expansion and contraction of the air, in 
 consequence of the variations of temperature, the column of water 
 was allowed to rise or fall in the tube; and thus the height of 
 the column, being measured by a scale, served as an indication of the 
 temperature. 
 
 Drebbel also discovered the means of producing a bright scarlet dye 
 for woollens and silks; and, according to Beckmann, he communicated 
 the discovery to Kuffler, a dyer at Leyden, who had married his 
 daughter. The process was afterwards introduced into France by the 
 persona who established the Gobelines manufacture, the objects of 
 which were celebrated for the brilliancy of their scarlets. It has been 
 asserted that he was the inventor of the telescope and microscope ; 
 but it is more probable that he may have made some improvements 
 on those instruments. 
 
 The reputation which Drebbel acquired during his life is less due 
 to his useful discoveries than to a pretended knowledge of the causes 
 of many natural phenomena; few persons, in an age of ignorance 
 respecting physical science, being able to impugn his claim to such 
 knowledge. Many of his pretended inventions are palpably fabulous, 
 
 or have been absurdly exaggerated by the ignorance and credulity of 
 the narrators. The emperor Rudolph II. granted him a pension, and 
 Ferdinand II. made him the tutor of his son; but a revolution taking 
 place in Austria, he was imprisoned in that country, and, but for the 
 interference of the king of England, James L, he would have been 
 executed. Drebbel spent the rest of his life in this country ; and it 
 is said that, on his arrival, he presented to the king a glass globe 
 which exhibited the phenomena of the tides, thunder, and rain, with 
 the sun and planets in perpetual motion ; he is also said to have con- 
 trived a boat which could be rowed under the surface of water, and 
 in which a person might read without artificial light. He died in 
 London in the year 1634. 
 
 Drebbel wrote, in Dutch, two works which were afterwards trans- 
 lated into Latin and French : one of these is on the ' Nature of the 
 Elements, the Winds, Rain,' &c. ; and the other on the ' Quintessence,' 
 with the manner of obtaining it from minerals, vegetables, &c. 
 
 DREVET, PIERRE, the name of two very distinguished French 
 engravers, father and son. The father was born at Lyon in 1664, and 
 was the pupil of Germain Audran; and, says Watelet, but for his son, 
 who surpassed him, would have been the best portrait-engraver of 
 his own or any previous time. He died at Paris in 1739, aged 
 seventy-five. 
 
 Pierre Drevet, the son, was born at Paris in 1697, and was, it is 
 affirmed, a master in his art in his thirteenth year, when he executed a 
 plate of the ' Resurrection of Christ,' after J. Audre, which, in correct- 
 ness of drawing and delicacy of execution, is equal to the works of 
 any of his contemporaries : this however may without much hesita- 
 tion be doubted. In his twenty-sixth, or as some say in his thirtieth, 
 year he produced his masterpiece, the full-length portrait of Bossuet, 
 after Rigaud, in which every object in the picture is executed with great 
 truth and delicacy, and all have a peculiar and characteristic style of 
 execution. He executed several other portraits of nearly equal merit. 
 His style, in the opinion of some, was less adapted for history than for 
 portrait, as being extremely laboured ; it drew the attention from the 
 subject as a whole to the parts, and destroyed the unity of effect. 
 Some of his last works are executed in a freer style. He engraved 
 exclusively after French masters, but his works are not numerous. He 
 died at Paris in the same year as his father, 1739. 
 
 (Watelet, Dictionnaire des Arts, <kc; Huber, Manuel des Amateurs; 
 Basan, Diet, des Graveurs.) 
 
 DROUET D'ERLON, JEAN-BAPTISTE, was born at Rheims, on 
 the 29th of July 1765. At the age of seventeen he enlisted as a 
 private soldier, and, progressively risiug by his merit, became aide-de- 
 camp to General Lefevre, August 14, 1794. He was present at the 
 siege of Valenciennes, and at those of Coudd and Quesnay. After an 
 arduous service of eight years under Pichegru, Hoche, and Moreau, 
 he took part as general of brigade in the battle of Zurich under 
 Massena, and was present at the capture of Con.-tauz. After the 
 battle of Hohenlinden, in which he considerably distinguished him- 
 self, he was made general of division, August 27, 1S00. On Oc- 
 tober 14, 1806, his well-timed attack on a Prussian column, con- 
 tributed to the victory of Jena. His skill was conspicuous in the 
 attack and defence of fortified places, and at the siege of Dantzig his 
 exertions were praised by Napoleon himself, who, after the battle of 
 Friedland, in 1807, in which he was badly wounded, bestowed on him 
 the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, with the title of Count 
 d'Erlon, and a pension of 25,000 francs. General Drouet was engaged 
 in the Peninsular war ; and at the Col-de-Maya, according to French 
 accounts, he defeated Lord Hill, June 22, 1811. After the restoration 
 of Louis XVIII., he received the command of the 16th Military 
 Division, and was made president of the court-martial by which 
 Excelmans was tried and acquitted. But soon after, being suspected 
 of a share in the conspiracy of General Lefebre-Desnouettes, he was 
 arrested by orders of his former friend, the Due de Feltre. The 
 escape of Napoleon from Elba, March 1815, restored him however to 
 liberty. General Drouet was at Waterloo, but, from some mistake, 
 his corps was not brought into action. After this battle he retired 
 to Germany, but returned to France after the amnesty which followed 
 the coronation of Charles X., May 28, 1825. In 1830, after the revo- 
 lution of July and the accession of Louis Philippe, the name of the 
 Count d'Erlon was replaced on the Army List, and he received the 
 command of the 12th Military Division, stationed at Nantes, where 
 he was present at the arrest of the Duchess of Berry. In 1834 he 
 was appointed governor-general of Algeria, and on the 9th of April 
 1843 marshal of Fiance. He died on the 25th of January 1844, 
 having been constantly engaged during the wars for 21 years, and 
 58 years in the service of the French armies. 
 
 * DROUYN DE LHUYS, EDWARD, a French statesman and 
 diplomatist, was born at Paris, on the 19th of November 1805. His 
 father's condition secured him a sound education, and afterwards 
 enabled him, at an early age, to enter with advantage upon his 
 political life. In 1831 he became attache" to the French ambassador 
 at Madrid, the Count de Rayneval, who discovered his talents, and 
 soon gave him his entire confidence. Although only in his twenty-sixth 
 year, he at once acquired, and has since retained, that credit and 
 authority as a diplomatist which have since rendered his name so popular. 
 He went to the Hague iu 1833 as charged' affaires, and mainly con- 
 ducted the diplomatic relations at the critical juncture of the transition 
 
617 
 
 DRUMMOND, CAPTAIN THOMAS. 
 
 when the union of Belgium and Holland was dissolved, and two king- 
 doms established. The crisis was uaost difficult, and the maintenance 
 of a pood understanding very precarious ; but the discretion and 
 conciliatory manners of the charge-d'affaires prevented a rupture. 
 King Leopold was much gratified ; and Prince Talleyrand, who had 
 watched the progress of the conference, pointed him out to the 
 French government as a young diplomatist of the greatest promise. 
 From 1831 to 1842 M. Drouyn de Lhuys was assiduously engaged in 
 office as a painstaking subaltern, and passed through that long course 
 of trainiug which in France is the prevailing system, and which has 
 produced so many efficient administrators. He was elected to the 
 Chamber of Deputies in 1842. 
 
 Even at that time he foresaw a great political change, and longed 
 to remove, or at least mitigate, the evil by timely preparation and 
 amendments. He therefore expostulated with Guizot, who resisted 
 all change, and formed a phalanx of moderate constitutional members, 
 as a barrier between the two contending parties. He recorded his vote 
 in 1845 against Guizot's policy, and was dismissed from office. He 
 then joined the opposition more openly, continued in their ranks until 
 the revolution of February 1848, and was one of those deputies who 
 signed the propositions or list of charges against the ministers, drawn 
 up by Odilon Barrot. 
 
 After the accession of the president, Louis Napoleon, M. Drouyn 
 de Lhuys was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in the first 
 government formed by him. The election of a new chamber, in 1850, 
 dissolved this government, and he was sent as ambassador to England. 
 Short and interrupted as his residence was at the court of St. James, 
 his conduct in the affair of the Greek Pacifico, joined to his general 
 discretion and good temper, gained him general esteem. Alter three 
 successive appointments to the French Foreign Office, he addressed, 
 in 1852, those public letters to the several foreign courts which 
 announced the establishment of the French empire, the style and 
 language of which were thought worthy of the occasion. In 1854 
 his credit was still enhanced by the issue of an exposition of the 
 views of France relative to the war with Russia. But in the con- 
 feiences at Vienna, in April 1855, he was considered to hold opinions 
 too favourable to Austria; he was therefore superseded, and Count 
 Walewski appointed to his office. In 1SG2 he was restored to his 
 post as Minister fur Foreign Affairs. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DROZ, FRANCIS-XAV1ER-J0SEPH, was born at Besancon on 
 the 31st of October 1773. Having visited Paris for a few months in 
 1792 lie witnessed the massacres of September; after which he 
 returned to Besancon, and enlisted as a volunteer during the national 
 enrolments. His comrades, according to the fashion of the times, 
 elected him as their captain. But after a short service of little better 
 than three years, he quitted the army for ever in 1796, and devoted 
 the rest of his life to study. About the same time he obtained by his 
 family influence the appointment of Professor de Belles Lettres to a 
 public school in his native town; and in 1799 he published his ' Essai 
 sur l'Art Oratoire.' 
 
 In 1802 his school having been suppressed, he went to Paris, where 
 he settled defiuitively, and became connected with Villemain, Cabanis, 
 and all the leading literati of the time. By the advice of Cabanis, he 
 published his' Liua,' a work of fiction in 1804, to attract attention to his 
 philosophical writings. In 1806 appeared his 'Essai sur l'Art d'etre 
 Heureux ' which was followed by an ' Eloge de Montaigne,' in 1811, 
 for which a medal was awarded to him. From 1816 to 1820 he 
 wrote for several newspapers, inculcating his temperate views of moral 
 philosophy, but refraining from politics. He then joined Picard in 
 writing his ' Memoires de Jacques Fauvel,' a tame imitation of Gil 
 Bias; the work appeared in 1823. The next year he carried off the 
 Montyon prize for his treatise: 'De la Philosophie morale, ou des 
 different* Systemes sur la Science de la Vie.' In 1825 he was elected 
 a member of the French Academy. 
 
 He had long desired to hold a professorship, and at length in 1832 
 he was appointed to lecture, by authority, at the Institute, on Moral 
 and Political science. In 1839 he published his best work, ' L'Histoire 
 du Regne de Louis XVI.' His gentle and unambitious life came to a 
 close on the 4th of November 1850, when he died as peaceably as he 
 had lived. Although his works are written in a very unpretending 
 *t) le, they will be found well stored with suggestive ideas, and all 
 the principal critics of his country have mentioned them with esteem. 
 
 DRUMMOND, CAPTAIN THOMAS, was born at Edinburgh, in 
 October 1797, the second of three sons. His father died whilst he was 
 an infant; his mother removed to Musselburgh, where she resided 
 many years, devoting herself entirely to the education of her children. 
 Drummond was early entered at the High School of Edinburgh, and 
 there formed an acquaintance with Professors Playfair, Leslie, and 
 Brewster, and also with Professors Wallace and Jardine, whose pupil 
 he more especially was. In February 1813 he was appointed to a 
 cadetship at Woolwich. His mathematical abilities soon made him 
 conspicuous, and he passed with very unusual rapidity through all the 
 grades of the academy. Much of his success was doubtless to be 
 attributed to the admirable preliminary education he had received, 
 but much also to a character of determined perseverance, and to the 
 vigorous and well-regulated mind he brought to bear on all subjects. 
 To this it was probably due that he never became exclusively a 
 mathematician, but advanced equally in all the various branches of 
 
 study, beiug at that time, as he continued through life, distinguished 
 for general knowledge and for aptitude to seize ou information of 
 every kind. His friend and master, Professor Barlow, notices a cir- 
 cumstance which will illustrate his character: "While a cadet in a 
 junior academy (at Woolwich), not beiug satisfied with a rather difficult 
 demonstration in the conic sections, he supplied oue himself on an 
 entirely original principle, which at the time was published in 
 Leybourne's ' Mathematical Repository,' and was subsequently taken 
 to replace that given in Dr. Hutton's ' Course of Mathematics,' to 
 which he had objected. This apparently trifling event <.;ave an 
 increased stimulus to his exertions, and may perhaps be considered 
 the foundation atone of his future scientific fame. After leaving the 
 academy he still continued his intercourse with his mathematical 
 masters, with whom he formed a friendship which only terminated in 
 his much lamented death." 
 
 During his preliminary and practical instruction in the special 
 duties of the Engineering Department, his talent for mechauical 
 combinations became conspicuous, and a pontoon which he invented 
 was particularly admired as suitable to its immediate purpose, and 
 remarkably easy of transport, while according to his contemporary and 
 friend, Captain Dawson, to whose information this notice is largely 
 indebted, each section into which it was cut for facility of transport, 
 as well as to prevent it from sinking if injured in any one part, was 
 said by the dockyard-men to whom he showed it, to be easier to row 
 than any boat except a gig. This early period of his career was also 
 largely devoted to the acquisition of military knowledge, partly from 
 the associations around him, and partly from the circuinstauces of 
 the times. Jomiui and Bousmard were his favourite authors, and 
 often has the morning light surprised him in deep discussion on the 
 details of Waterloo and the strategy of the recent campaigns. At 
 Chatham, the practical and varied applications of scientific knowledge 
 brought by Colonel (now General) Pasley to the aid of military 
 science, offered the highest attractions to a mind like Drummond's. 
 Before he joined at Chatham he had served a short time at Plymouth, 
 and after his Chatham course was completed he was stationed at 
 Edinburgh. The duties there offered nothing to engage his attention, 
 relating merely to the charge and repairs of public works ; but he 
 was happy in being again thrown among his family and friends, and 
 more in the opportunity again afforded him of pursuing the higher 
 studies in which he delighted, at the college and classes, and among 
 the scientific society of his native city. He found the duties how- 
 ever so trivial, and the prospects of the service so dishearteniug, that 
 for some time he meditated leaving the army for the bar, and had 
 actually entered his name at Lincoln's Inn with this view. But in the 
 autumn of 1819 he fortunately became acquainted with Colonel 
 Colby, when that officer was passing through Edinburgh on his return 
 from the trigonometrical operations in the Scottish Highlands. The 
 opportunity which these duties afforded him of combining scientific 
 pursuits with the military service induced him to abandon his intention 
 of forsaking the corps, and in the course of the following year an 
 offer from Colonel Colby to take part in the trigonometrical survey 
 was gladly accepted. He had now the advantage of a residence during 
 each winter in London, and, with a definite object in view, again 
 devoted himself, and more closely than ever, to the study of the 
 higher branches of mathematics. 
 
 During this period he also devoted considerable attention to 
 the study of chemistry, and attended the lectures of professors 
 Brande and Faraday. The society of his friend Dr. Piout, it is 
 believed, first led his mind to this science, and, with his usual felicity 
 of application, he soon made his new knowledge available to the 
 duties he was employed on. The incandescence of lime having been 
 spoken of in one of the lectures, the idea struck him that it could be 
 employed to advantage as a substitute for argand lamps in the 
 reflectors used on the survey for rendering visible distant stations; 
 because, in addition to greater intensity, it afforded the advantage of 
 concentrating the light as nearly as possible into the focal point of 
 the parabolic mirror, by which the whole light would be available for 
 reflecting in a pencil of parallel rays, whereas of the argand lamp only 
 the small portion of rays near the focus was so reflected. On tbia 
 subject his first chemical experiments were formed. Captain Dawson 
 recollects Drummond mentioning the idea when returning from the 
 lecture, and that on the way he purchased a blowpipe, charcoal, &c 
 That evening he set to work, and resolved that he would thenceforth 
 devote to his new pursuit the hour or two before his evening studies 
 began, remarking " how much Dr. Prout had done during the intervals 
 of active professional occupations." 
 
 At this period (1824) a committee of the House of Commons recom- 
 mended that the survey of Ireland should be begun, and that Colonel 
 Colby should make arrangements for carrying it on. The objects of 
 this survey required a work very different from the survey in England. 
 Except himself and a small number of officers, everything was to be 
 formed by Colonel Colby for the work. Instruments of improved 
 construction were required. Among others, a means of rendering 
 visible distant stations was desirable. The recent experience of the 
 Western Islands had shown the probability that in a climate so misty 
 as Ireland the difficulty of distant observations would be greatly 
 increased, and Colonel Colby at once saw the important results which 
 might follow such an improvement of the lamp- as that which 
 
649 
 
 DRUMMOND, CAPTAIN THOMAS. 
 
 DRUMMOND, WILLIAM. 
 
 ceo 
 
 Druuimond bad devised. Under his judicious advice the experiments 
 were prosecuted, and were rapidly attended with success : their 
 progress and results are detailed by the author in the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions ' for 1826, as well as the first application of the lamp to 
 actual use in Ireland. When a station, Slieve Suaught, in Donegal, 
 had long in vain been looked for from Davis Mountain, near Belfast, 
 the distance being sixty-six miles and passing across the haze of Lough 
 Neagh, Mr. Drummond took the lamp and a small party to Slieve 
 Snaught, and by calculation succeeded so well in directing the axis of 
 the reflector to the instrument, that the light was seen, and its first 
 appearance will long be remembered by those who witnessed it. The 
 night was dark and cloudless, the mountain and the camp were covered 
 with snow, and a cold wind made the duty of observing no enviable 
 task. The light was to be exhibited at a given hour, and to guide the 
 observer, one of the lamps formerly used, an argand in a lighthouse 
 reflector, was placed on the tower of Randalstown church, which hap- 
 pened to be nearly in the line at fifteen miles. The time approached 
 and passed, and the observer had quitted the telescope, when the 
 sentry cried, " The light ! " and the light indeed burst into view, a 
 steady blaze of surpassing splendour, which completely effaced the 
 much nearer guiding beacon. 
 
 An apparatus invented by Colonel Colby, consisting of flat plates of 
 polished tin, at angles calculated to reflect the sun's rays in the 
 required direction, was resorted to, and with entire success. It was 
 however somewhat elaborate ; because, from the rapid motion of the 
 Bun, or rather of the earth, in its orbit, the same pole and set of plates 
 would only answer for a single station, and for a short time on a very 
 few days ; the principle however was now obvious, and the elements 
 which had been called into play soon suggested the more perfect 
 instrument. From a calculation, of which the variables were the 
 relative position of two stations and that of the sun, a happy step led 
 to an instrument by which the problem should be as it were solved 
 by construction — a telescope in the line between the objects, connected 
 with one to be directed on the sun and carrying a mirror: such 
 accordingly was the first heliostat of Drummond ; it3 mechanism is 
 described in the paper already referred to ('Phil. Trans.,' 1826), and, 
 like the lamp, it was used successfully in the first season of the 
 trigonometrical operations in Ireland. It was originally intended to 
 give thi3 instrument a divided circle, by which its direction could be 
 fixed ; but as this was not effected, a theodolite was necessary in con- 
 junction with it, and practice soon showed that if a theodolite were 
 used, a more simple and less costly heliostat might be adopted. This 
 accordingly was devised by Mr. Drummond before the second season ; 
 the direction being effected entirely by the theodolite, instead of being 
 as before dependent partly on the theodolite and partly on the adjust- 
 ments of the heliostat. The telescope of the heliostat now became 
 useless, and it remained a simple mirror moveable in two directions, 
 that is, on a horizontal and on a vertical axis, of which the light was 
 guided by a directing staff previously placed by aid of the theodolite. 
 This instrument proved so satisfactory that it has ever since remained 
 in the form adopted on the survey, and it is every season found more 
 and more useful. By its aid several observations have been made at 
 distances exceeding one hundred miles ; and such is its facility of 
 direction — owing also no doubt in some degree to the great divergenc; 
 which even the best mirrors give to reflected light— that the theodolite 
 is now frequently dispensed with, and by a few simple distances and 
 measurements computed beforehand, a single soldier is sent with a 
 heliostat to some remote mountain or island, with tolerable certainty that 
 bis reflection will be seen as soon as the sun shines after he reaches it. 
 
 Mr. Drummond's original heliostat was not completed till 1825. A 
 heliostat had also been invented by Professor Gauss, of Gottingen, in 
 the process of a survey carried on by him in Hanover. A very simple 
 one had also been used by the late Commander Mudge, of the Royal 
 Navy, while surveying on the coast of Africa in 1823-24, which con- 
 sisted merely of a sextant sent forward to the station to be observed, 
 and so adjusted as to throw the sun's light to the observer. 
 
 In the autumn of 1824 Colonel Colby made a general reconnaissance 
 of Ireland for the purpose of fixing on the mode of survey, the choice 
 of stations for the great triangulatioD, and the most fitting place for a 
 base. He selected Mr. Drummond to accompany him on this tour. 
 The Plain of Magilligan was chosen, and Colonel Colby's attention was 
 next directed to a fitting apparatus for the measurement. 
 
 Colonel Colby's Jong experience had shown him the defects of the 
 apparatus formerly employed, and he boldly devised one altogether 
 new, in which compensating expansions were to be used to form an 
 unalterable linear measure. The construction of the instruments 
 required long and careful experiments, the charge of which was con- 
 fided to Mr. Drummond ; and so far as was necessary to prepare the 
 instruments for use in the field, they were performed by him or under 
 his direction. It occurred to him that mica, which had then recently 
 been recommended by Sir David Brewster for pendulum rods, might 
 be applicable to this new purpose. Colonel Colby allowed experi- 
 ments to be tried on that substance, but they were not satisfactory, 
 and Mr. Drummond abandoned the idea. The apparatus was com- 
 pleted according to Colonel Colby's original plan, and successfully 
 used in the base at Magilligan. In the measurement Mr. Drummond 
 wag again employed, and whenever Colonel Colby was absent on other 
 duty the charge of the operations devolved upon him. 
 £100. div. vol. n. 
 
 At this period of invention and improvement which preceded the 
 commencement of the survey of Ireland, Mr. Drummond gave some 
 consideration to the barometer, an instrument even now susceptible 
 of improvement, but which had not then received so much attention 
 as it has since. His favourite construction was the siphon, and he 
 made one with his own hands, which performed remarkably well; but 
 he was not in possession of various modes of reading which have since 
 been used: and he devised a singular mode of bisecting a reflected 
 image of the surface — a ghost, as he called it ; but he arrived at no 
 permanent or practical result, and at length abandoned tho subj-ct 
 from a conviction, to use his own words, that the errors to which the 
 barometer was liable from causes beyond control, were greater thau 
 the quantities he had been dealing with. His researches on light, and 
 his intimacy with Professor Leslie, led him to the use of the photo- 
 meter, the sethroscope, and other philosophical instrument of more 
 or less practical utility — among others, Wollaston's thermo ba rometer ; 
 indeed, at this period so active was his mind and so constant his 
 application, that scarcely an instrument existed that he did not examine 
 and consider, with a view to render it useful for the purposes of the 
 survey; and the elaborate collection with which the meteorological 
 observatory on Divis was furnished, presented a singular spectacle ou 
 the mountain-top. He carefully made observations and recorded the in, 
 till a calamitous storm destroyed the observatory and all its contents 
 together. 
 
 A severe illness which Mr. Drummond contracted from exposure 
 during the Irish survey compelled him to return to Edinburgh, where 
 he was unable to devote himself to study, but he had taken much 
 pains to perfect his light, and he now began to revert to the idea 
 that he had early formed of adapting it to lighthouses. In this he 
 was liberally met by the corporation of Trinity-house, and to it he 
 devoted much of his time during the following winters : the experi- 
 ments he made, with their success, are detailed in the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions' for 1830. The corporation of Trinity -house placed at 
 his disposal a small lighthouse at Purfieet ; and the brilliant effect of 
 the light as seen from Blackwall, where at a distance of ten miles, it 
 was sufficiently strong to cast shadows, made it an object of very 
 general interest. With regard to his share in the application it may 
 be proper to remark, that Mr. Drummond's merit was in rendering 
 practically useful a recondite experiment, — by devising a means of 
 procuring and using without danger agents so turbulent as the mixed 
 gases, making the apparatus sufficiently portable and simple to be 
 employed in the circumstances of exposure required for the survey, 
 and, perhaps more than all, for the happy idea of using this minute 
 spherule of concentrated light as the radiating focus of a parabolic 
 mirror. But the original object of the lamp, its application to light- 
 houses, presents difficulties which have yet to be overcome. The abstrac- 
 tion of Mr. Drummond's attention at the moment when he was nearest 
 to success, must, so far as the light is concerned, be considered matter 
 of regret. 
 
 Mr. Drummond was employed to superintend the very laborious 
 operations necessary to the perfecting the schedules and laying down 
 the boundaries to the old and the new boroughs under the provisions of 
 the Reform Bill. Mr. Drummond was appointed to this commission 
 on the recommendation of Lord Brougham, not however without 
 some severe opposition from one of his colleagues, who doubted much 
 as to the propriety of putting at the head of so important a depart- 
 ment a young lieutenant of the Engineers. He however more than 
 justified the expectation formed by his patron.' 
 
 When the Reform Bill was passed, Mr. Drummond returned to his 
 duties on the survey, and he had made preparation for giving an 
 account of the base before adverted to, when he was again called into 
 public life by being appointed Lord Spencer's private secretary. On 
 the dissolution of the government he received a pension of 30(M. a 
 year, obtained for him by Lord Brougham, his constant friend. 
 
 In 1835 he was made under-secretary for Ireland; he much dis- 
 tinguished himself in the report on railways in Ireland, being at the 
 head of the commission. We shall not attempt to trace his labours 
 as a politician or on the railway commission, but his talents and 
 assiduity were admitted by all, even his strongest political opponents. 
 He laboured incessantly at his duties, and probably hastened his death 
 by his continued application. This took place April 15, 1840, " in 
 the plenitude of mental power and maturity of knowledge, beloved in 
 private and esteemed in public." Soon after his death there was a 
 subscription for a statue, which was executed at Rome, and erected 
 in Dublin. 
 
 DRUMMOND, WILLIAM, the son of Sir William Drummond of 
 Hawthornden, was born December 13, 1585. He was educated at 
 Edinburgh, and studied civil law in France. On his father's death in 
 1610, he relinquished his profession and devoted himself to literary 
 pursuits at his paternal mansion of Hawthornden. He did not however 
 experience that freedom from trials which he had probably anticipated 
 in his retirement. His betrothed bride died on the eve of their 
 marriage ; and in order to divert his thoughts from brooding over 
 this deep and bitter affliction, he undertook a tour which lasted eight 
 years, during which time he visited Germany, France, and Italy, and 
 collected a library of great value, of which part, is now in the pos- 
 session of the University of Edinburgh. In his forty-fifth year he 
 married a lady whose fancied likeness to the former object of his 
 
 2 u 
 
661 
 
 DRUSUS. 
 
 DRYDEN, JOHN. 
 
 affections is said to have constituted her chief attraction for him. 
 When the civil war broke out, his political bias exposed him to 
 griuvous annoyances, particularly that of being compelled to supply 
 his quota of men to serve against the king. This, and regret for 
 Charles's death, shortened and embittered his days, and he died at 
 Hawthornden, December 4, 1649. 
 
 Southey has observed that he was the first Scotch poet who wrote 
 well in English. A comparison of his works with those of his pre- 
 decessors, Douglas and Dunbar, will show the progress made during 
 the 16th century towards fixing and perfecting the language, as well 
 in Scotland as in England. His sonnets, and indeed nearly all his 
 poems, mark strongly that indulgence in sorrow which causes it to 
 take the form of habit, and as such conveys a feeling of passive pleasure 
 by its exercise. The resemblance which his versification presents to 
 that of Milton's minor poems is so striking as only to require mention 
 in order to be acknowledged ; and few, we should think, could read 
 his poem on the death of Prince Henry without being reminded of 
 ' Lycidas.' Besides his poetical works, he wrote a history of the five 
 Jameses, kings of Scotland, several pamphlets and tracts, which, with 
 his letters, were published at Edinburgh in 1711. But the work by 
 which he is most commonly known now is the ' Notes of Ben Jonson's 
 Conversations with William Drummond of Hawthornden, January 
 1619.' These notes though very brief contain a good deal of curious 
 and amusing matter, but the student of English literature should be 
 cautious not to trust them too implicitly. Hawthornden was no 
 Boswell : and his accuracy in repeating Ben Jonson's opinions may 
 fairly be doubted, as he certainly is often inaccurate in repeating his 
 statements of facts. An abstract of these notes was printed in the 
 edition of Drummond's works published in 1711, but it is full of 
 inaccuracies. A correct text, with some useful notes, was for the first 
 time priuted in 1842 by the Shakespeare Society under the editorial 
 care of Mr. David Laing, by whom the manuscript was discovered. 
 An edition of the poems of Drummond was published, with a life of 
 the author, by Mr. R Cunningham, 8vo, Edin., 1852. 
 
 DRUSUS, the son of Tiberius by Vipsania, daughter of Agrippa, 
 served with distinction in Pannonia and the Illyricum, and was consul 
 with his father a.d. 21. In a quarrel he had with the favourite 
 Sejanus, he gave him a blow in the face ; Sejanus, in revenge, seduced 
 his wife Livia or Livilla, daughter of Drusus the elder and of Antonia, 
 and the guilty pair got rid of Drusus by poison, which was administered 
 by the eunuch Lygdus. The crime remained a secret for eight years, 
 when it was discovered after the death of Sejanus, and Livia was put 
 to death. (Tacitus, 'Annal.') 
 
 DRUSUS, CLAU'DIUS NERO, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and 
 of Livia, was born in the year B.C. 38, three months after his mother's 
 marriage with Augustus. He served early in the army, and was sent 
 in B.C. 17, with his brother Tiberius, against the Rhaeti and Vindelici, 
 who had made an irruption into Italy. He defeated the invaders, 
 pursued them across the Alps, and reduced their country. Horace 
 celebrated this victory in one of his finest Odes (lib. iv. 4.) Drusus 
 married Antonia Minor, daughter of Antony and Octavia, by whom 
 he bad Germanicus and Claudius, afterwards emperor, and Livia or 
 Livilla. In B.C. 14, being sent to quell an insurrection in Gaul occa- 
 sioned by the extortions of the Roman tax-gatherers, he succeeded 
 by his conciliatory address. In the following year he attacked the 
 Germans, and carrying the war beyond the Rhine, he obtained a series 
 of victories over the Sicambri, Cherusci, Catti, and Tencteri, and 
 advanced as far as the Visurgis, or Weser, for which the senate 
 bestowed the surname of Germanicus upon him and his posterity. 
 
 Coin of Drusus. 
 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 428 J grains. 
 
 In B.C. 9 Drusus was made consul, with L. Quintius Crispinus. He 
 was soon after sent again by Augustus against the Germans, crossed 
 the Visurgis, and advanced as far as the Albis or Elbe. He imposed 
 a moderate tribute on the Frisians, consisting of a certain quantity 
 of hides, which, being afterwards aggravated by the extortion of his 
 successors, caused a revolt under the reign of Tiberius. (Tacitus, 
 'Ann.,' iv. 72.) He caused a canal to be cut, for the purpose of 
 uniting the Rhine to the Yssel, which was known long after by the 
 name of Fossa Drusi ; and he also began to raise dykes to prevent the 
 inundations of the Rhine, which were completed by Paulinus Pompeius 
 under the reign of Nero. Drusus did not cross the Albis, probably 
 because he thought he had advanced ahead" far enough : he retired 
 
 towards the Rhine, but before he reached that river he died, at the 
 age of thirty, in consequence, as it was reported, of his horse falling 
 upon him and fracturing his leg. (Livy, ' Epitome.') Tiberius, who 
 was scut for in haste, and found his brother expiring, accompanied 
 his body to Rome, where his funeral was performed with the greatest 
 solemnity. Both Augustus and Tiberius delivered orations in his 
 praise. Drusus was much regretted both by the army and by the 
 Romans in general, who had formed great expectations from his 
 manly and generous sentiments. One of his grandsons, Drusus, son 
 of Germanicus and of Agrippina, was starved to death by order of 
 Tiberius, and Nero, the other, was put to death in the island of Ponza. 
 
 DRYDEN, JOHN, was born on the 9th of August 1631, at 
 Aldwinckle, in Northamptonshire. He was the eldest son of Erasmus 
 Driden, who was the third son of Sir Erasmus Driden of Canons 
 Ashby, in that county, created a baronet in 1619. The poet was 
 educated as a king's scholar at Westminster School under Dr. Busby, 
 where he wrote some poetic translations, which were much noticed, 
 and, in 1649, an 'Elegy on the Death of Lord Hastings,' and some 
 verses on the 'Divine Epigrams' of John Hoddesdon, which were 
 published in 1620. He was elected a Westminster scholar to Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, May 11, 1650. Almost the only notice which the 
 college archives give respecting him is one dated July 19th, 1652, 
 whereby he is "put out of Commons for a fortnight at least," confined 
 to walls, and sentenced to read a confession of his crime at the fellows' 
 table during dinner-time. 
 
 In 1654 bis father's death put him in possession of an estate worth 
 about 60i. per annum (subject to his mother's life interest of a third). 
 He did not however leave Cambridge till three years afterwards, when, 
 having been admitted M.A. by dispensation from the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, he was introduced into a subordinate public office by his 
 maternal relation Sir Gilbert Pickering. The stanzas on Cromwell's 
 death, his first poem of any importance, were written in the following 
 year, and iu 1660 he signalised himself by 'Astrsea Redux,' a congratu- 
 latory address on the Restoration. 
 
 It seems scarcely worth while attempting to excuse this change of 
 views. Dryden was yet a young man, and had probably never before 
 been in a situation to express his own opinions, apart from the 
 influence of his kinsman ; and after all, the Unes on Cromwell contain, 
 as Sir W. Scott has observed, little or nothing in the way of eulogy 
 which his worst enemies could have denied him. In the year 1663 
 Dryden began his dramatic career with ' The Wild Gallant.' The 
 plague and fire of London soon interrupted him for a time, and he 
 employed himself upon his 'Essay on Dramatic Poesy,' a performance 
 containing much elegant writing, and worthy of notice as the earliest 
 work of the kind in our language. It would be easy to show the 
 deficiencies and mistakes of this composition, but they are fully coun- 
 terbalanced by the manly avowal — the first since the Restoration — 
 of the supremacy of Shakspere. In December 1663 he married a 
 daughter of the first Earl of Berkshire ; with her he received a settle- 
 ment of about 60i. a year ; and in 1670 he was appointed poet-laureate 
 and historiographer, with a salary of 200i. a year ; so that, allowing 
 for the then much greater value of money, he must have been in 
 receipt of for the times a very handsome income. On the revival of 
 stage plays, Dryden became one of the most active dramatic writers, 
 and soon acquired so much celebrity that he was engaged to supply 
 the King's Theatre with three plays a year, for the annual sum of 300i 
 to 400£. He did not however fulfil his share of the contract. Malone 
 has proved that the number really produced did not amount to more 
 than eighteen in sixteen years. 
 
 Towards the end of 1671, the celebrated attack on heroic dramas 
 called the ' Rehearsal' was produced on the stage. Its effect, though 
 sure, was not immediate ; except that Dryden exchanged tragedy for 
 comedy, and composed two comedies in 1672. A few years after- 
 wards he took leave of rhyme ; his last rhyming tragedy, called 
 ' Aureng-Zebe,' being brought out in 1675 ; but he continued to write 
 for the stage until 1681, when the struggle between the parties of the 
 dukes of Monmouth and York seemed drawing to a crisis, and there 
 appeared some need that the scurrilous abuse which had been in every 
 way poured on the court party by means of epigram and satire should 
 be rebutted in similar fashion. 
 
 This Dryden effected by the famous satire called ' Absalom and 
 Achitophel,' wherein Monmouth figures as Absalom. Monmouth is 
 treated with great levity, but all the vials of the poet's wrath are 
 poured out on Buckingham, the author of the ' Rehearsal,' as Zimri, 
 and on Shaftesbury as Achitophel. The last-named nobleman had 
 been committed to the Tower, not long before, under a charge of high 
 treason : he was however released upon the grand jury's refusal to 
 find a true bill against him, which the Whig party celebrated by a 
 medal struck for the occasion. This afforded Dryden a fresh subject, 
 and in March 1681 appeared ' The Medal,' a bitter lampoon on Shaftes- 
 bury, followed up in the next year by ' Mac Flecknoe,' and the second 
 part of ' Absalom and Achitophel,' the larger part of which was written 
 by N. Tate, but revised by Dryden. Together these satires gave the 
 finishing stroke to his old enemies Settle and Shadwell, besides a 
 numerous host of petty satirists. With Settle he had quarrelled some 
 years before, whose chief supporter, Rochester, having become impli- 
 cated, and suspecting Dryden of indulging anonymous revenge, caused 
 him, in 1679, U be attacked and beaten by hired ruffians. 
 
ess 
 
 DRYDEN, JOHN. 
 
 DU CANGE, CHARLES DUFRESNE. 
 
 651 
 
 During the four years from 1682 to 1685 Dryden produced nothing 
 worth notice, with tho exception of a translation of Maimbourg'a 
 ' History of the League,' undertaken, as Dr. Johnson says, to promote 
 popery. We should be at a loss to account for this apparent want of 
 purpose, but an event which occurred in the year last mentioned clears 
 up the difficulty. Soon after the death of Charles II. Dryden turned 
 Roman Catholic — not without due consideration — as the 'Religio 
 Laici,' written nearly four years before, contains sufficient evidence of 
 his mental struggles at that period, and not, it is to be hoped, other- 
 wise than conscientiously, as indeed his subsequent conduct appears 
 to show. Johnson indeed has hinted, and Macaulay pretty broadly 
 asserted, that the renunciation of Protestantism was made by the 
 " illustrious renegade, ' as Macaulay designates him, with a view to the 
 personal and pecuniary advantages to be derived from it. Mr. Bell, the 
 most recent biographer of Dryden, has shown however that the addi- 
 tional pension of 100Z., with which, as Macaulay says, he was "gratified," 
 by James II. immediately " he declared himself a papist," was not a 
 new grant, but the resumption of an annuity granted by his predecessor 
 about a year before his death, but which had remained unpaid from 
 the decease of Charles — in fact, that it was a formal continuation of 
 a grant " which had lapsed in common with all other personal gratui- 
 ties by the death of the late king." But Mr. Bell clearly goes too far 
 when he adds that this fact contributes " materially to remove the 
 suspicion hitherto attached to this pension." It shows that Macaulay, 
 who seems to entertain for the memory of Dryden a kind of personal 
 ill-feeling, made an assertion somewhat broader and more positive 
 than was quite justifiable ; but of course the renewal of a lapsed 
 annuity may be as much the 'gratification' for a service performed, 
 or a seasonable apostacy, as the granting of a new pension. Still, as 
 we have said already, the whole tenor of Dryden's subsequent life 
 speaks for his conscientiousness on this occasion. Moreover, Dryden 
 was a poet, and, as his 'Religio Laici' showed, a high churchman, 
 and any one who observed the course of reasoning which, on a well- 
 known occasion a few years back, led many adherents of the high 
 church portion of the establishment, whose views were to a great 
 extent a matter of sentiment and feeling, to pass over to the Church 
 of Rome (as Dryden did) "with the crowd," will shrink from branding 
 him as a renegade and a barterer of his faith for a paltry pension, so 
 long as no direct evidence is brought to prove him one. Dryden, we 
 may add, educated his sons as Roman Catholics, and himself remained 
 in strict connection with that church to his death : it ought to be 
 noticed further, that when William III. had become firmly established 
 on the throne, and the court seemed disposed to look kindly on the 
 veteran poet, Dryden, as late as 1699 (the year before his death), in 
 announcing his willingness to promise his "acquiescence under the 
 present government, and forbearing satire on it," adds, " but I can 
 neither take the oaths nor forsake my religion." His conversion to 
 tne papacy was announced to the world in 1687 by his ' Hind and 
 Panther,' " an allegory," as Johnson happily expressed it, " intended 
 to comprise and to describe the controversy between the Romanists 
 and the Protestants." It did not, we know, decide nor materially 
 influence the controversy ; but it is a brilliant specimen of the poet's 
 almost unrivalled power of reasoning in verse. Whatever may be 
 thought of the arguments, and absurd as is the allegory, the ' Hind 
 and Panther' is certainly of its kind one of the finest pieces in the 
 entire range of English poetry. 
 
 In 1690 Dryden returned to his old employment, and produced four 
 plays between that year and 1 694. This was no doubt owing to poverty, 
 as the revolution deprived him of the laureateship, which he had ob- 
 tained on the death of Davenant in 1668, and the expenses of his 
 family were now increasing. For the next three years he was busied 
 in his translation of the ' ^Eneid,' and about the same time with it 
 appeared his celebrated ode on St. Cecilia's day, which is in its way 
 perhaps one of the finest pieces of exact lyrical poetry which our 
 language possesses. 
 
 In the middle of 1698 he undertook his adaptations of Chaucer, and 
 about a year and a half afterwards completed his Fables. His last 
 work — a masque, with prologue and epilogue — was written about 
 three weeks before his death, which happened, after a short illness 
 arising from neglected inflammation of the foot, on the 1st of May 
 1700. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument was 
 erected to his memory by John duke of Buckingham. A portrait of 
 him hangs in the hall of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 
 It is extremely difficult to form an opinion on the character of a 
 man of whose liie we possess such scanty notice, and who, for the 
 greater part of his literary career, wrote entirely to please others. 
 Congreve has left a description of him, and there seems no reason to 
 distrust it, which ensures for him the praise of modesty, self-respect, 
 true-heartedness, and a forgiving spirit His manners are said to have 
 jeen easy without forwardness ; but it has been said that his powers 
 4 conversation were rather limited. It does not seem necessary that 
 Je should attribute his extreme indelicacy as a dramatic writer to 
 correiponding coarseness or impurity as a man. The close connection 
 which existed between the Cavaliers and the court of France had 
 tended mu ch to vitiate the taste of those who were the received judges 
 •f literary merit. To the Italian sources, whence Spenser and Milton 
 drew, was preferred the French school ; and the consequences are as 
 M'parent in the grosanesa of Dryden's comedies as in tho stilts and 
 
 extravagance of his heroic drama. Dryden appears to have been very 
 late in discovering that style for which ho was most fitted, namely, 
 satire, in which he has never been surpassed, and rarely equalled. 
 His translations of Virgil and Juvenal deserve very high praise, par- 
 ticularly when they are compared with the style of translation usual 
 in his time. In his version of Chaucer be has not been so successful. 
 That substitution of general for particular images which characterises 
 the performance is always a step away from poetry. Perhaps the 
 most striking instance of the superiority of Chaucer is that description 
 of the Temple of Mars which occurs towards the close of the second 
 book of 'Palamon and Arcite' in Dryden, and a little past the middle 
 of Chaucer's ' Knighte's Tale.' This passage is also curious as an 
 instance of Dryden's hatred of the clergy ; he introduced two lines to 
 convert Chaucer's "smiler with the knife under the cloak" into a 
 priest. In his diction Dryden is thoroughly English, free from affec- 
 tation, and always perspicuous. His versification is that of a master : 
 no one else has used the heroic measure with such ease and vigour. 
 
 Dryden's prose works consist mostly of dedications, the extravagant 
 flattery of which is only palliated by custom, and of prefaces, which 
 are in fact rather essays, and many of them very remarkable ones. 
 His ' Essay on Dramatic Poesy ' has been already noticed ; that on 
 Painting is a good example alike of the excellences and defects of 
 his prose — of its colloquial ease and rhythm, of its shallowness, loose 
 reasoning, its frequent egotism, and at times somewhat excessive fami- 
 liarity. He also wrote Lives of Polybius, Lucian, and Plutarch (' Biog. 
 Brit.'), and assisted in translating the last-named author : perhaps, 
 however, only from the French. 
 
 (Langbaine, Dramatic Poets; Johnson, Malone, Scott, and Bell, 
 Lives of Dryden ; Quarterly Review for 1826; Edinburgh Review, 1808 ; 
 Life of Sir W. Scott, vol. ii.) 
 
 DUAREN, DOUAREN, or DUARE'NUS FRANCOIS, a French 
 lawyer, was born about 1509. His youth was chiefly devoted to litera- 
 ture; and he is said to have acquired the rudiments of his professional 
 education from conversation with M. Bude", Mattre des Requetes at 
 Paris, to whose children he was employed as tutor. He afterwards 
 taught law at Bourges, where in his old age, as defender of the estab- 
 lished system of jurisprudential instruction, he carried on a long con- 
 troversy with Cujacius, then in his youth. This dispute, of a kind so 
 frequently exhibited when a rising genius invades old settled prin- 
 ciples, was conducted with so much animation between the factions, 
 headed by these two leaders, that it was compared to a civil war. 
 Cujacius acknowledged that to the exertions he had to make in this 
 controversy he owed much of his subsequent legal knowledge and 
 critical discrimination. 
 
 Duaren died at Bourges in 1559. His works were published at 
 Leyden, in 1584, in two volumes folio, and there are subsequent 
 editions. Some of his minor works are published in the ' Tractatus 
 Tractatuum.' There is a Memoir of him in Taisand's ' Les Vies des 
 plus celebres J urisconsultes.' 
 
 DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE, was born at Beauvais in December 
 1670. He began to study theology, but soon abandoned it for politics. 
 He was employed by M. De Torcy, minister of foreign affairs, on several 
 secret negociations with the governments of England, Holland, Ger- 
 many, and Italy. His services were rewarded by a pension and by 
 several benefices. Having retired from his political avocations, he 
 devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1720 he was admitted into 
 the Academy, of which two years later he became secretary for life. 
 He died at Paris in 1742, after a long illness. 
 
 The work by which he is chiefly known, ' Reflexions Critiques sur 
 la Podsie et sur la Peinture,' is in its kind, and for its time, excellent. 
 He first inquires into the cause of the fine arts, and discovers it in the 
 love of excitement which is naturally implanted in the human breast : 
 man, he thinks, would rather be unpleasantly excited than not excited 
 at all. He then proceeds to the cause of the pleasure felt in witnessing 
 tragical representations. He observes that, from the before-named 
 love of excitement, people are fond of lookiug at executions, &c, and 
 concludes that a method should be devised by which we may have tho 
 excitement without the subsequent painful reflection that a fellow- 
 creature has been suffering intensely. This end is accomplished by 
 tragedy or a tragical picture, where the suffering, being feigned, leaves 
 behind no feeling of regret. Keeping this principle in view, he goes 
 on to inquire what are the proper subjects for poetry and painting, 
 using as the standard of his judgment the greater or less degree of 
 excitement occasioned by such and such subjects. His discussions-, 
 whether the hero of a tragedy should be a person of ancient or 
 modern history, on the appropriate use of allegories, and similar 
 topics, are managed in the pleasantest style possible, and are besides, 
 if we make due allowance for the French dramatic prejudices, very 
 instructive, as well for the critical views which they contain as for the 
 historical anecdotes with which they are illustrated. Dubos is also 
 known as an historian by his ' Histoire de la Ligue de Cambrai,' and 
 ' De l'Establissement de la Monarchic Francaise dans les Gaules,' works 
 which were admired by some of his contemporaries and slighted by 
 others. 
 
 DU CANGE, CHARLES DUFRESNE, SEIGNEUR, was born at 
 Amiens, December 18, 1610, in Jesuits' College of which place he 
 was educated. He studied the law, but after a time gave himself up 
 entirely to history and philosophy. His first work was ' Histoire de 
 
835 DUCAREL, ANDREW COLTEE. 
 
 I'Empiro de Constantinople sous les Empereurs Francois,' folio, 1657 ; 
 but he is better known for bis ' Glossarium ad Scriptores mediae et 
 infima; Latiuitatis,' 3 vols, folio, afterwards republished in 6 vols, iu 
 1733, to which were added 4 more vols, by Carpentier, a Benedictine 
 of the order of Cluni. It is a most useful work for the understanding 
 of the numerous writers of the dark or middle ages, when for many 
 centuries a corrupt and barbarous Latiu was the only literary language 
 of Europe. All the words used by these writers, which are not found 
 in classical Latiuity, are ranged in alphabetical order, with their 
 various meanings, their etymology, and references to the authorities. 
 This work is also useful for understanding old charters, and other 
 legal documents of an early date. The labour and research required 
 for tho compilation of such a work can be best appreciated by those 
 who have frequent occasion to consult it. Du Cange was one of the 
 editors of the 'Corpus Historias Byzantince.' He died in 1688. 
 Louis XIV. bestowed a pension of 2000 franos upon his children. 
 [Byzantine Histoiuans.] He wrote also: — 1, 'Historia Byzantina 
 illustrata,' folio, 1680, being an historical description of Constantinople 
 and its lnonumi nts, with biographies and genealogies of several dis- 
 tinguished families of that city ; 2, ' Glossarium ad Scriptores mediae 
 et iufimie Girocitati-j,' Paris, 1688, 2 vols, folio, a work that is very 
 necessary for those who are studying the lower Byzantine writers. 
 He left a vast quantity of manuscripts, especially on historical, 
 archaeological, and genealogical subjects, which have been collected in 
 the Imperial Library at Paris, and of which an account is given in the 
 ' Mdmoiro Historique sur les MSS. de M. Du Cange,' Paris, 1752. Du 
 Cange is often quoted by the name of Du Fresne, under which he is 
 also registered in many catalogues. 
 
 DUCAREL, ANDREW COLTEE, an eminent English antiquary, 
 was born in 1713 in Normandy, whence his father, who was descended 
 from an ancient family at Caen in that province, came to England 
 Boon after the birth of his second son James, and resided at Greenwich. 
 In 1729, whilst a scholar at Eton, Ducarel was for three months under 
 the care of Sir Hans Sloane, on account of an accident which deprived 
 him of the sight of one eye. In 1731 he was admitted a gentleman- 
 commoner of St. John's College, Oxford; B.C.L. in 1738; LL.D. in 
 1742; and became a member of Doctors' Commons in 1743. He was 
 elected commissary of the exempt jurisdiction of the collegiate church 
 of St. Katharine, near the Tower of Loudon, in 1755 ; and was 
 appointed commissary and official of the city and diocese of Canter- 
 bury by Archbishop Herring in 1758. Upon the incorporation of the 
 Society of Antiquaries in 1755, he was appointed one of its first 
 fellows. 
 
 Dr. Ducarel's earliest publication (without his name) was a ' A Tour 
 through Normandy, described in a Letter to a Friend,' published in 
 1754 in 4to, enlarged and republished in folio in 1767 under the title 
 of ' Anglo-Norman Antiquities, considered in a Tour through part of 
 Normandy, by Dr. Ducarel, illustrated with twenty-seven plates.' His 
 second publication was 'A Series of above two hundred Anglo-Gallic, 
 or Norman and Aquitain, Coins of the Ancient Kings of England, 
 exhibited in sixteen copper-plates, and illustrated in Twelve Letters, 
 addressed to the Society of Antiquaries of London and several of its 
 Members,' 4to, London, 1757. In 1760 he printed for private distri- 
 bution, in 4 to, an account of his friend Browne Willis, read at the 
 Society of Antiquaries that year. In 1763 he published 'A Repertory 
 of the Endowments of Vicarages in the Diocese of Canterbury,' in 4to, 
 which was reprinted with large additions in 8vo in 1782, with the 
 further addition of a repertory of endowments of vicarages in the 
 diocese of Rochester. Dr. Ducarel gave a manuscript abstract of the 
 large history of the Benedictine Abbey of Bee, in Normandy, drawn 
 up by Dom John Bourget, a monk of that house, to Mr. John Nichols, 
 who printed it in 1779 in 8vo, with an appendix of original deeds; 
 and who likewise printed in the same year, in 2 vols. 8vo, ' Some 
 Account of the Alien Priories, and of such lands as they are known 
 to have possessed in England and Wales,' the chief materials of which 
 were also collected by Dr. Ducarel. The greater part of the materials 
 of the ' Collection of Royal and Noble Wills,' from the Conqueror to 
 Henry VII, printed by Mr. Nichols in 1780, were likewise furnished 
 by Dr. Ducarel. 
 
 In 1782 he published ' The History of the Collegiate Church of St. 
 Katharine, near the Tower of London, from its Foundation in 1273.' 
 This work had been compiled by the doctor for the use of Queen 
 Charlotte, this church being the only ecclesiastical preferment in the 
 gift of the Queen-Consort of England. An appendix to this work was 
 published iu 1790 in No.LII. of Mr. Nichols's 'BibliothecaTopographica 
 Bntannica.' Iu 1783 he published, as No. XII. of the ' Bibliotheca 
 Topographica Biitannica,' 'Some Account of the Town, Church, and 
 Arcliiepiscopal Palace of Croydon, in the County of Surrey, from its 
 Foundation to 1783,' 4to, originally drawn up by him in 1754 at the 
 reqmst of Archbishop Herring. He also drew up in the 'Bibliotheca 
 Topographia Biitannica,' No. XXVII., ' The History and Antiquities 
 of the Archiepiscopal Palace of Lambeth, from its Foundation to the 
 Present Time,' 1785, 4to, dedicated to Archbishop Moore. 
 
 Dr. Ducarel's life was one of indefatigable industry. Exclusive of 
 the works already mentioned, the publication of Snelling's plates of 
 English medals originated with him. He wrote in the ' Philosophical 
 Transactions ' upon the subject of trees indigenous to Great Britain, 
 followed by an account of the early cultivation of botany in England. 
 
 DUCHESNE, ANDRE. 
 
 His letter to Gerard Meerman, grand-pensionary at the Hague, on the 
 dispute concerning Corsellis as the first printer in England, translated 
 into Latin by Dr. Musgrave, with Meerman's answer, was published in 
 the second volume of Meerman's ' Origines Typograpbicse ' in 1765. 
 He entered deeply into the Rowleiau controversy, of which he enter- 
 tained what is now the general opinion. He completed a list of 
 various editions of the Bible and parts thereof, in English, from 1526 
 to 1770, an improved edition of which was published in 1778 at the 
 expense of Archbishop Cornwallis. His memoirs of Archbishop Hutton 
 and his family, fairly written, were purchased at the sale of his library, 
 by Dr. Lort for the Hutton family. He perfected the catalogues of 
 the different portions of the Lambeth library, and made a general 
 index to all the archiepiscopal registers at Lambeth, from Pecham to 
 Herring, in 48 vols, folio, his own duplicate of which was bought at 
 the sale of the late Mr. Gough's library, for the manuscript department 
 of tho British Museum. In addition to all these literary labours, his 
 official attendance to the duties of Doctors' Commons was unremitting. 
 Dr. Ducarel died at his house at South Lambeth on the 29th of May, 
 1785. 
 
 (Nichols, Literary Anecdotes, vol. vi. p. 380-404 ; Chalmers, Biog. 
 Diet., vol. xii. p. 375-385.) 
 
 DUCCIO, DI BUONINSEGNA, a celebrated old painter of Siena, 
 and one of the earliest of the Italian painters, was born at Siena 
 about 1260; he is first mentioned in 1282. He signed himself 
 Duccius, or Magr. Duccius ; Buoninsegna, or Segna, was the name of 
 his master or father, who wa3 still liviug in 1303. There are some of 
 his works in the Siena Academy. 
 
 Duccio was to the school of Siena what Cimabue was to that of 
 Florence. His active career wag probably between 1285 and about 
 1315; he is mentioned in the Siena archives of 1285, when he may 
 have been about twenty-five or thirty years of age ; and he is mentioned 
 also as late as 1311, when he completed his great work, the celebrated 
 altarpiece of the cathedral, which he commenced in October 1308. 
 This picture was the most extensive production of its class in its time, 
 and cost, including gold and ultramarine, about 3000 florins, an 
 immense sum. Duccio's share however was small, though probably 
 not an illiberal one : it was only sixteen pence or soldi per day, but 
 at this time ten soldi would buy a picture. The picture was on a 
 pannel made of poplar and chestnut, covered over with canvas which 
 was primed with plaster. It was carried in procession to the cathedral, 
 and placed on the high-altar with great ceremony. As the altar was 
 free on all sides, Duccio painted the altarpieces on both sides : on the 
 principal side, or that facing the people, are represented in large figures 
 the Madonna and child, surrounded by saints and angels and the four 
 patrons of Siena; on the other side is a series of small pictures illus- 
 trating the history of the passion of Christ, in figures about six inches 
 high, all executed with great skill and suprising care, but in the 
 Byzantine style of design. It was removed from the altar in the early 
 part of the 16th century to give place to a tabernacle, and was after- 
 wards cut in two : the halves were placed in the choir, where they 
 still remain. 
 
 There are other works by Duccio extant, but Rumohr has shown 
 Vasari's statement respecting him and the pavement of the cathedral 
 of Siena to be incorrect. The first mention of the pavement in the 
 archives is in 1445, more than a century after the death of Duccio. 
 Vasari states that Duccio was the artist of some of the decorations of 
 the pavement, and was the inventor of the peculiar style in which the 
 figures are executed, which he terms gray-in-gray. But these figures 
 are in various styles — some in a species of niello, and others in a kind 
 of mosaic; and they were executed at different periods by various 
 artists, and all apparently subsequently to 1445. (Rumohr, ' Italiau 
 Researches,' vol. ii., p. 4, et seq.) Titius, vicar-general of Siena, and 
 Duccio's contemporary, says of him, that as many painters proceeded 
 from his studio as the warriors who of old descended out of the Trojan 
 horse. The year of his death is not known ; Delia Valle supposes he 
 died about 1340; the latest accounts of him extend down to 
 1339. 
 
 (Von Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen ; Vasari, Vile de Pittori, 
 <kc, ed. Schorn; Delia Valle, Lettere Sanesi, ii. 75, 76; Lauzi, Storia 
 Pittorica, tic.) 
 
 DUCHANGE, GASPARD, an able French etcher and engraver, was 
 born at Paris in 1662. He was the pupil of Jean Audran, and was 
 one of the best historical and portrait engravers of his period. He 
 was, according to Watelet, the best of all engravers in representing 
 female flesh. Three of his most celebrated works were the Io, Danae, 
 and Leda of Correggio, of which he afterwards destroyed the plates 
 on account of their indelicacy. He engraved until his ninety-Bret 
 year, and his works are consequently numerous. He died at Paris in 
 1756, aged ninety-four. (Watelet, Dictionnaire des Arts, <bc; Huber, 
 Manuel des Amateurs, <Lx.) 
 
 DUCHESNE, ANDRE, a French historian, was bom in 1584 at 
 Isle-Bouchard, a small town in the department of Indre-et-Loire. He 
 commenced his studies at Loudun, and completed them at Paris under 
 Jules-Cesar Boulanger. He applied himself especially to geography 
 and history, and became so greatly distinguished for his acquisitions 
 in these two departments of knowledge as to obtain the patronage of 
 Cardinal Richelieu and other noblemen of influence, and to be appointed 
 successively geographer and historiographer to the king. He died on 
 
DUCIS, JEAN-FRANCOIS. 
 
 DUDEVANT, MADAME AMANTINE-AURORE. 853 
 
 May 30, 1640, from Laving been crushed by a carriage when travel- 
 ling from Paris to his country-residence. 
 
 Duchesne was a writer of considerable erudition and of the most 
 laborious research in various departments of history. His works are 
 so numerous and of such importance as to have acquired for him, per- 
 haps not unfairly, the title of the ' Father of French History.' Among 
 the more important of his publications may be mentioned the fol- 
 lowing : — ' Historiae Francorum Scriptores Coetanei,' 5 vols, folio, 1630, 
 &c. ; 'Historke Normannorum Scriptores Antiqui,' folio, Paris, 1619 ; 
 ' Histoire des Rois, Dues, et Comtes de Bourgogne depuis 408 jusqu'en 
 1350,' 4 vols. 4 to, Paris, 1628; 7 vols, folio of Genealogical Histories 
 of various Families of French Nobility. Among his earlier works is a 
 translation of the ' Satires ' of Juvenal, with notes, which is now very 
 scarce, ' Satires de Juvenal, ttaduites en Francois, avec des Notes,' 8vo, 
 Paris, 1616. He appears also to have edited the first edition of the 
 works of Abelard and Eloisa, though many copies have the name of 
 Francois d'Amboise in place of that of Andre" Duchesne, ' Petri 
 Abelardi et Heloisse Conju^is ejus Opera, nunc primum edita ex MSS. 
 Codd.,' 4 to, Paris, 1616. [Abelakd.] Nicerou makes the following 
 remarks on this extraordinary fact : — "If it may be allowed to make 
 a conjecture, one might believe that from some secret motive which it 
 has not been thought proper to transmit to posterity, Duchesne may 
 have relinquished the glory of his work to D'Amboise, who was then 
 in a situation to recompense a sacrifice of this nature." 
 
 Franqois Duchesne, son of Andr£, who was born in 1616 and died 
 in 1693, completed and published several of the works of his father, 
 among which is the ' Histoire des Chanceliers et Gardes des Sceaux de 
 France,' folio, 1680. 
 
 (Nouvelle Biographie Genirale.) 
 
 DUCIS, JEAN-FRANCOIS, was born at Versailles in 1733, and 
 became a dramatic writer somewhat late in life. His first pieces made 
 but little impression, and it was not until he had produced a version 
 of Shakspere' s ' Hamlet ' that his name began to acquire some 
 celebrity. ' Romeo and Juliet,' the second tragedy from Shakspere, 
 had great success. But Ducis has so altered the works of our great 
 author, that were it not for the name we should with difficulty dis- 
 cover any connection between the original and the version. He 
 subsequently tried to imitate the Greek drama in a tragedy called 
 ' CEdipus with Admetus ; ' but he soon returned to Shakspere, and 
 produced, among other pieces, ' Macbeth,' ' Othello,' and ' Lear.' In 
 1778 he was called to the Academy to fill the vacancy left by 
 Voltaire. He afterwards became secretary to Louis XVIII., and was 
 ever most devotedly attached to him. Even when almost starving, 
 he refused a pension of 40,000 francs and the cross of the legion of 
 honour, which were offered him by Napoleon. The restoration of his 
 beloved kiDg rendered his old age happy. At his first audience the 
 king recited to him some of his own verses : " I am more fortunate," 
 cried the old poet in ecstacy, " than Poileau or Racine ; they recited 
 their verses to Louis XIV., but my king recites my verses to me." 
 He died March 31, 1816. 
 
 DUCKWORTH, ADMIRAL SIR JOHN THOMAS, Bart., G.C.B., 
 was a son of the Rev. H. Duckworth, rector of Fulmer, Bucks, and 
 was born February 28, 1748. His family was anciently settled in 
 Devonshire. He was sent to Eton at an early age, and entered the 
 navy in 1759 under Admiral Boscawcn, on board the 'Namur,' and in 
 the same year took part in two naval engagements with the French 
 admirals De la Clue and De Conflans. After serving in several ships, 
 in 1776 he went to America as lieutenant of the ' Diamond,' and con- 
 tinued there for three years, when he was appointed to the ' Princess 
 Royal,' and subsequently served on the West India station. In 1793 
 he was attached to Lord Howe's fleet, and is mentioned with great 
 praise in that admiral's despatches for the part lie took in the action 
 of the 1st of June 1794, as having displayed not only great bravery 
 but great skill in naval tactics. Having again served on the West 
 India and Channel stations, he reduced Minorca in 1798 without the 
 loss of a siDgle man. In 1800 he was appointed to the command of 
 the Leeward Isles, and in 1801 having taken part iu the reduction of 
 the Danish and Swedish West India islands, was created a K.C.B. 
 In 1803 he was commander-in-chief at Jamaica, and blockaded the 
 harbours of the island of St. Domingo. His success in protecting the 
 commerce and the coasts of Jamaica was acknowledged by the House 
 of Assembly of Jamaica, who presented him with a sword of 1000Z. 
 value. In 1805, reliuquishing the blockade of Cadiz in which he was 
 engaged, he defeated the French in the bay of St. Domingo, for which 
 he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament and an annuity 
 of 1 OOOi. Having been sent out to watch the Turkish fleet, in 
 February 1807, he forced the passage of the Dardanelles, an enter- 
 prise at once most successful aud unexampled, and also most import- 
 ant in its consequences. From 1810 to 1815 he was governor and 
 commander-in-chief of Newfoundland, when he was recalled to 
 Hngland aud appointed governor of Plymouth. He was created a 
 baronet in 1813, and died at Plymouth Dock, now culled Devonport, 
 August 31st, 1817. 
 
 DUCLOS, CHARLES-PINEAU, was born in the year 1704, at 
 Dinant, in Bretagne, whence he was sent to Paris to prosecute his 
 studict, He soon formed. a connection with the wits of the age, and 
 published a Romance called ' Acajon et Zirphile.' This work attained 
 Dnly moderate celebrity; but a subsequent romance, entitled ' Con- 
 
 fessions du Comte de * * *,' was more successful. His reputation 
 however depends on a collection of moral essays, published under tha 
 title of ' Considerations sur les Mceurs de ce Siecle,' which have been 
 greatly extolled by many writers, and which Louis XV. characterised 
 as " the work of an honest man." In 1739 Duclos was admitted into 
 the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1747 into the Acaddmie 
 Francaise, of which he became perpetual secretary. The citizens of 
 his native town, to testify their respect for him, made him their mayor 
 in 1744, but he contined to reside at Paris, where he died in 1772. 
 
 The romances of Duclos, though less indecent than the works of 
 Crebillon the younger, are sufficiently indelicate to offend persons of 
 refined taste, while they lack the bitter satire and deep knowledge 
 of human nature which characterise that acute though obscene author. 
 His ' Considerations ' are a series of essays on the opinions which 
 regulate society, and though free from the misanthropic ill-nature 
 which appears in Rochefoucauld and occasionally in La Bruyere, they 
 are deficient in the real depth which those writers exhibit, and want 
 that charm of novelty and originality which is necessary to make mere 
 moral essays palatable. The romances and essays have been collected 
 into four vols., 8vo, under the title of ' (Euvre3 Morales et Galantes.' 
 Duclos also wrote a history of Louis XL, and a secret history of 
 Louis XIV. and XV., which have acquired some reputation. 
 
 * DUDEVANT, MADAME AMANTINE-AURORE, better known 
 by her assumed name of George Sand, was born in 1804, in the 
 department of Indre (part of the old province of Berri), in the very 
 centre of France. Her father, Maurice Dupin, was a captain in the 
 army of the empire, after haviug served since 1793 in the wars of the 
 revolution. His father was a fermier-ge'neral ; but his mother, who 
 had been previously married to Count de Horn, was the only daughter 
 of the celebrated Mareschal Maurice de Saxe, who was a natural son 
 of the handsome Augustus II. of Poland. Thus the future authoress, 
 by her paternal descent, had the royal blood of Poland in her veins — 
 a fact which, with the mixture of that blood through her mother 
 with blood more plebeian and popular, she herself commemorates. 
 Left an orphan by the death of her father, who was killed by a fall 
 from his horse, Mademoiselle Dupin was educated under the care of 
 her grandmother, the Comtesse de Horn, who still survived, at the 
 Chateau de Nohaut, in a retired valley in her native proviuce of Berri. 
 As her grandmother (a genuine Frenchwoman of the revolution) was 
 a believer in the doctrines of Rousseau, the education of the young 
 Aurore was somewhat peculiar. She roamed about as she chose, and 
 was brought up very much as if she had been a boy. Already how- 
 ever her intellectual tastes had declared themselves, and she was an 
 ardent and a various reader. At the age of fifteen, her grandmother, 
 persuaded at last that a girl educated on Rousseau's system in the 
 country would be an anachronism in the France of the restoration, 
 sent her to Paris, where she was placed in the Convent des Dames 
 Anglaises. Here, with all the enthusiasm of her nature, she entered 
 into the spirit of the place, so totally novel to her at the time, and 
 became an ardent Catholic. Her devoteeism went so f;ir that, on her 
 grandmother's death, she determined to take the veil. The remon- 
 strances of her family, if not their authority, prevented her from 
 carrying the design into effect ; and at the age of seventeen she was 
 married, by family arrangement, to M. Dudevant, a country gentleman 
 of Berri, to whom she brought some fortune. She lived with him 
 about ten years, during which they had two children, a son and a 
 daughter. But, although there was no disparity of years or other 
 ordinary cause of incompatibility between the husband and the wife, 
 the marriage was not a suitable one ; and Madame Dudevant having, 
 in consequence of a severe illness, been sent to the Pyrenees for 
 change of air, and having then, for the first time since her girlhood, 
 come into free contact with the world, conceived such a distaste for 
 her existing mode of life that she resolved to bring it to a close. 
 Accordingly, she separated from her husband in 1831, allowing him to 
 retain her fortune, and came to Paris, to begin, at the age of twenty- 
 seven, a life of absolute independence. She resided first at the convent 
 where she had been educated, but afterwards in an obscure lodging in 
 the Quai-St.-Michel, where Jules Sandeau, a young student- with whom 
 she had some time before become acquainted, also had his abode. In 
 order to earn a mere subsistence, the two friends, so associated, betook 
 themselves to literature ; and, after some contributions to ' Figaro,' a 
 journal of that day, they jointly wrote a novel called 'Rose et Blanche,' 
 which was published (1832) with 'Jules Sand' on the title-page as the 
 author's name. The proceeds of this work enabled the friends to live 
 for some time; but again, on the compulsion of necessity, they agreed, 
 during a separation caused by Madame Dudevant's return on business 
 to Berri, to write each a portion of a tale to be published as one. 
 Madame Dudevant alone executed her part of the work, and the result 
 was 'Indiana,' which was published in 1832, and to which, in com- 
 memoration of her friendship with Sandeau, she affixed the name of 
 ' George Sand.' This work at once made her celebrated, and her 
 celebrity was increased by her next tales — ' Valentine,' published in 
 the 'Revue de Paris' (1832); aud ' Zelia,' published in the 'Revue 
 des Deux Mondes' (1833). The genius of these works was acknow- 
 ledged by all, while the daring spirit of social revolt which they 
 showed, and especially their doctrines as to the institution of marriage, 
 gave a peculiarity to their reputation which much affected their 
 reception as specimens of literary art. The same admiration of the 
 
859 
 
 DUFF, ALEXANDER, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 DUQDALE, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 60! 
 
 genius of the authoress, as shown in her powers of description, 
 narration, and character-painting, and in her almost unmatched 
 mastery of eloquent French prose, accompanied by the same fear of 
 the influence of her doctrines on the minds of the young, has attended 
 her throughout her whole subsequent career — except that of late the 
 admiration has become more general, and the fear has considerably 
 abated. Her works have been extremely numerous. In addition to 
 thoso already mentioned, more than a dozen novels — among which 
 were ' Le Secretaire Intime,' ' Andre*,' ' Leone-Leoni,' ' Jacques,' 
 'Mauprat,' and 'Spiridion' — proceeded from her ready pen before 
 1837, published generally first in the feuilletons of journals. About 
 this time she was successful in a suit against her husband instituted 
 for the recovery of her private property, and for obtaining the 
 guardianship of her children. With her children she removed to the 
 Chateau de Nohant, where she has chiefly resided since, often however 
 removing to Paris. When M. Fierre Leroux and others started the 
 'Repue Independaute,' she became a contributor to that periodical, 
 and here appeared perhaps her finest tale, ' Cousuelo.' She also con- 
 tributed to ' Le Monde,' a journal edited by Latnennais. Among her 
 novels, besides ' Consuelo,' published since 1837, are 'Horace,' 'La 
 Petite Fadette,' 'Jeanne,' 'Fauchette,' and 'La Comtesse do Rudol- 
 stadt;' but her tales in all amount to about thirty, and while there is 
 not one of them that does not display genius, hardly any two of them 
 are precisely alike. In 1841 she published ' Un Hiver au Midi,' com- 
 memorating a residence in the island of Majorca. Prepared by long 
 association with Lamennais, Pierre Leroux, and other distinguished 
 thinkers characterised by faith in philosophic democracy, and in the 
 possibility of reorganising society on new religious and political 
 principles, Madame Dudevant entered with enthusiasm into the san- 
 guine hopes of a new era for France which were produced by the 
 revolution of 1848. For some time she edited a democratic newspaper 
 of her own, in which she addressed the people in the express character 
 of a journalist from day to day. The regime of Louia Napoleon, 
 first as president and next as emperor, having repressed democratic 
 politics in France, Madame Sand, while still retaining her political 
 beliefs and aspirations, was obliged to resume her more purely literary 
 labours. Within the last few years, residing either at Nohant or at 
 Paiis, where her daughter is married, she has, to a great extent, 
 forsaken the novel for the drama. Here she has not been so success- 
 ful as in the novel, some of her pieces having failed. Her late pieces 
 however have been popular on the stage. She ha3 recently published 
 a voluminous autobiography, which appeared in parts in the ' Presse,' 
 and ' Sibylle ' and other romances in the ' Revue des Deux-Mondes.' 
 
 * DUFF, ALEXANDER, D.D., LL.D., the chief agent of the Free 
 Presbyterian Mission in Calcutta, was born in 1808, at Pitlochry, in 
 Perthshire, and prosecuted his studies for the Christian ministry at St. 
 Andrews University. Having been early impressed with a sense of 
 the importance of missions to heathen lands, he was the more easily 
 persuaded to go out to India as a missionary of the Church of Scotland. 
 After a stormy and protracted voyage, in which the vessel in which 
 he set sail from Portsmouth, was shipwrecked near Cape Town, and 
 the passengers and crew barely escaped with their lives, Mr. Duff 
 arrived in May 1830 at the scene of his labours. From that time till 
 the disruption of the established church of Scotland in 1843, he con- 
 tinued with unremitting earnestness and zeal to promote the moral 
 and spiritual welfare of the people of India, visiting his native country 
 once during this period for the purpose of giving information and 
 exciting a deeper interest throughout the churches at home in favour 
 of Indian missions. An address which he delivered in the General 
 Assembly in 1835 was published separately, under the title of 'The 
 Church of Scotland's India Mission ; ' another address to the same 
 venerable body in 1837 appeared under the title of a 'Vindication of 
 the Church of Scotland's India Mission ; ' a speech on the same subject 
 delivered in Exeter Hall in 1837 was likewise published. About the 
 same time Mr. Duff received the degree of D.D. in acknowledgment 
 of his valuable labours in the East. Dr. Duff did not confine his 
 views exclusively to the more direct object of his mission to India, 
 but took much pains to promote general education, and particularly a 
 knowledge of the English language and literature among the natives 
 of Hindustan. _ To this subject he in 1837 directed the attention of 
 those persons in Britain who took an interest in the civilisation of 
 British India, in a work entitled ' New Era of the English Language 
 and Literature in India.' In 1839, previous to his return to resume 
 his important duties, Dr. Duff published a thick 8vo volume on 'India 
 and India Missions ; ' a discourse entitled ' Missions the chief end of 
 the Christian Church,' and a treatise on the ' Qualifications, Duties, 
 and Trials of an Indian Missionary.' When the Free Church was 
 formed in Scotland in 1843, and the foreign missionaries of the Church 
 of Scotland found it necessary to make their choice as to which of 
 the two bodies they would be connected with, Dr. Duff chose to be 
 associated with the Free Church, and succeeded in establishing and 
 carrying on with increased efficiency new educational and religious 
 Institutions for the benefit of the native population. Schools attended 
 by hundreds of pupils, asylums for orphans, colleges for the more 
 intelligent Hindoo youths, and other similar schemes have been brought 
 by his zeal into successful operation. Several native students have 
 been trained for the Christian ministry, and are now preaching the 
 doctrines of Christianity to their Indian brethren. Dr. Duff had the 
 
 principal part in establishing a quarterly periodical, conducted witb 
 great ability, entitled the ' Calcutta Review.' After a visit to bit 
 native country for the benefit of his health, and to promote the 
 interests of the mission, Dr. Duff in 1855 returned to his favourite 
 field of exertion. While in Scotland he was chosen Moderator or 
 President of the General Assembly of the Free Church, which met 
 at Edinburgh in May 1851. He finally quitted India in 1863. 
 DUFRESNE. [Ducanqe.] 
 
 DUFRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE, was born at Paris in 
 1611. His father, who was an apothecary, gave him a classical educa- 
 tion, with a view to bringing him up as a physician ; but he gave way 
 to his strong inclination for painting, and he devoted himself to the 
 study of the art, first under Perier, and afterwards with Vouet. At 
 the age of one-and-twenty he went to Rome, where he supported him- 
 self with difficulty by taking views of ruins and buildings. Subse- 
 quently he was employed with his fellow-student, Mignard, to copy 
 pictures in the Farnese gallery. Dufresnoy afterwards visited Venice, 
 where he remained there engaged in copying and examining the 
 works of the great Venetian painters. He returned to France in 1656, 
 whither he was followed by Mignard in 1662, and they again lodged 
 together. He died paralytic in 1665, in the house of his brother, at 
 Villiers-le-Bel, near Paris. He was never married, and left no pupils. 
 He executed very few pictures, and they are not remarkable for any- 
 thing beyond correctness. He is best known as the author of a didactic 
 poem, ' De Arte Graphica,' in Latin verse, which has been translated 
 into several languages. There are three English translations : by 
 Dryden, in prose ; by Wills, a painter, in very poor verse ; and bj 
 Mason, in rhyme. The last is accompanied by annotations written by 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds. The work is rather a critical treatise on the 
 practice of painting, with general advice to the student, than a manual 
 for the art. It is dry, and not remarkable for elegance, imagination, 
 or originality. Had it been in prose, it would probably not have 
 survived the author ; but the circumstance of its being in verse, and 
 in Latin, perhaps added a zest to its perusal in the shape of a little 
 difficulty, and gave it an extrinsic importance. Sir Joshua's notes are 
 pertinent and useful, but not so instructive as his lectures. 
 
 DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM, was the only son of John Dugdale, 
 Esq., of Shustoke, in the county of Warwick, where he was born 
 September 12, 1605. His mother was Elizabeth, daughter of Arthur 
 Swynfen, Esq., of Staffordshire. He was in part educated in the free 
 school at Coventry, and subsequently with his father, with whom he 
 also read ' Littleton's Tenures,' some other law-books, and history. 
 In 1622 he married Margery, the second daughter of John Huntbach, 
 Esq., of Seawall, in Staffordshire. Upon his father's death in 1624, 
 he succeeded to a small estate in Shustoke, to which he added by 
 purchase the manor of Blythe, in that parish, in 1625. 
 
 Dugdale's natural inclination, which was chiefly the study of 
 antiquities, brought him acquainted with the most eminent antiquaries 
 of his day. Sir Symon Archer, of Tamworth, introduced him to Sir 
 Christopher Hatton and Sir Henry Spelman, by whose joint interest 
 with the Earl of Arundel, then Earl Marshal, he was created a 
 pursuivant-atarms extraordinary, by the name of Blanche Lyon, ia 
 September 1638. Afterwards he was made Rouge Croix pursuivant 
 in ordinary, by letters patent dated March 18, 1639-40; by which 
 means, having lodging in the Heralds' College, and convenient oppor- 
 tunities, he made large collections from the Records in the Tower of 
 London, as well as from other places. 
 
 In 1641, by Sir Christopher Hatton's encouragement, he superin- 
 tended the making of exact drafts of all the monuments in West- 
 minster Abbey, St. Paul's Cathedral, and in many other cathedral and 
 parochial churches of England ; particularly those at Peterborough, 
 Ely, Norwich, Lincoln, Newark-upon-Trent, Beverley, Southwark, 
 Kingston-upon-Hull, York, Selby, Chester, Lichfield, Tamworth, 
 Warwick, &c. The drawings were made by one William Sedgewick, 
 an arms-painter, then a servant of Sir Christopher Hatton; the 
 inscriptions were copied by Dugdale. Both were deposited in Sir 
 Christopher Hatton's library, that the memory of these monuments 
 might at least be preserved; the state of the times threatening 
 imminent destruction to the originals. 
 
 In June 1642 the king, who had retired to York, summoned Mr. 
 Dugdale to attend upon him, according to the duty of his office. 
 Dugdale accordingly repaired to York, and was afterwards com- 
 manded to attend the Earl of Northampton, who was marching into 
 Worcestershire to oppose the forces raised by Lord Brooke for the 
 service of the parliament. He attended upon the king at the battle 
 of Edgehill, and afterwards at Oxford, where he continued with his 
 majesty till the surrender of the garrison there to the parliament, 
 June 22, 1646. He was created M.A. November 1, 1642 ; and April 16, 
 1644, was promoted to the office of Chester-herald. During his long 
 residence at Oxford, he applied himself to such researches in the 
 Bodleian, and the different college libraries, as he thought might 
 conduce toward the furtherance of the ' Monasticon,' then designed 
 by Roger Dodsworth and himself; as well as to the history of the 
 ancient nobility of the realm, and of which he afterwards made much 
 use in his 'Baronage.' 
 
 After the surrender of Oxford upon articles, Dugdale, having the 
 benefit of them, and having compounded for his estate, went to 
 London ; where he and Dodsworth proceeded vigorously in completing 
 
DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 DUMAS, ALEXANDRE. 
 
 663 
 
 their collections from the Tower Records and Cottonian library. A 
 short absence from England in 1648, when he attended Lord and 
 Lady Hatton to Paris, enabled him to improve his and Dodsworth's 
 collections with notices and charters relating to the Alien Priories of 
 England, from the papers of Andrew Duchesne. When their col- 
 lections were ready, the booksellers declining to venture upon so 
 large and hazardous a work, Dodsworth and Dugdale printed the first 
 volume at their own charge, and it was published in 1655, in folio, 
 under the title of ' Monasticon Anglicanum,' adorned with the views 
 of abbeys, churches, &c. The second volume was published in folio, 
 in 1661. These two volumes were collected, and chiefly written by 
 Dodsworth ; but Dugdale took great pains in methodising and dis- 
 posing the materials, in making several indexes to them, and in 
 correcting the press. Dodsworth died in August 1654, before the 
 tenth part of the first volume was printed off. A third volume was 
 published in 1673. 
 
 From an entry in bis diary, as early as 1658, Dugdale appears to 
 have feared that a translation of the 'Monasticon' would have been 
 published by Mr. King, probably Gregory King, at that time his clerk. 
 That such a one was prepared, as far as the first volume was concerned, 
 is evident, since Dugdale describes it as " erroneously Englished in a 
 multitude of places." The translation however, or rather the epitome 
 which was subsequently printed, did not appear till 1692, six years 
 after Sir William Dugdale's death. The dedication to William Brom- 
 ley, Esq., is signed J.W. It is ascribed to James Wright, who, in 
 1684, published the ' History and Antiquities of the County of 
 Rutland.' Another epitome, by an anonymous writer, was published 
 in 1718: but believed to have been by Captain John Stevens, who, 
 in 1722 and 1723, published two additional volumes to the 'Monas- 
 ticon,' which, besides an abundance of additional information in 
 English, contained a very large collection of new charters, together 
 with the ' History of the Friaries,' to which no place had been assigned 
 in the volumes published by Dugdale. The Rev. Samuel Peck, in 
 1735, promised a fourth volume of the ' Monasticon,' which was 
 never completed. His collections for it are in the British Museum. 
 
 An improved edition of the 'Monasticon' was undertaken in 1812 
 by the Rev. Bulkeley Bandinel, D.D., keeper of the Bodleian library 
 at Oxford, who soon relinquished his task to two other gentlemen 
 who had been called in as coadjutors, John Caley, Esq., of the 
 Augmentation Office, and Henry Ellis, Esq., keeper of the manu- 
 scripts in the British Museum (now Sir Henry Ellis). An account of 
 each religious house, in English, was prefixed to its respective series 
 of Latin charters, and many new materials from leiger books, rolls, 
 and other documents were added, including all that was valuable 
 ia Stevens's volumes, with the history of several hundred religious 
 foundations which were unknown to Dugdale. The chief of the 
 prints, by Hollar, which ornamented the original edition, were 
 re-engraved, and above 200 plates of churches and monasteries added, 
 from drawings made exclusively for the work. This new edition 
 was completed in 1830 in six volumes folio, the last volume divided 
 into three parts. 
 
 In 1656 Dugdale published, at his own charge, 'The Antiquities of 
 Warwickshire, illustrated from Records, Leiger-Books, Manuscripts, 
 Charters, Evidences, Tombes, and Armes, beautified with Maps, 
 Prospects, and Portraietures,' folio, London : this is one of the very 
 best of our county histories. A second edition was published, in two 
 volumes folio, in 1730, revised and augmented by William Thomas, D.D. 
 While this work was printing, Dugdale remained in London, during 
 which time he had an opportunity of collecting materials for another 
 work, which he published in 1658, ' The History of St. Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, in London,' folio. A second edition of this work, enlarged, was 
 published in 1716, in folio, by Edward Maynard, D.D., rector of Bod- 
 dington in Northamptonshire ; and a third, in 1818, by Henry Ellis, Esq. 
 The plates of the original editions, both of the ' Warwickshire ' and 
 the 'St. Paul's,' were by Hollar. To the two last editions of the 
 ' St. Paul's ' a life of Dugdale was prefixed. 
 
 Upon the restoration of King Charles IL, through Lord Chancellor 
 Hyde's recommendation Dugdale was advanced to the office of Norroy 
 King of Arms. In 1662 he published ' The History of Imbanking 
 and Drayning of divers Fenns and Marshes, both in Foreign Parts and 
 in this Kingdom, and of the Improvements thereby,' folio, London, 
 1662; a second edition of which, revised and corrected by Charles 
 Nalson Cole, Esq., appeared in folio, London, 1772. This work was 
 written at the desire of the Lord Gorges, Sir John Marsham, and 
 others, who were adventurers in draining the great level which extends 
 itself into a considerable part of the counties of Cambridge, Hunting- 
 don, Northampton, Norfolk, and Suffolk. About the same time Dug- 
 dale completed the second volume of Sir Henry Spelman's ' Councils,' 
 which was published in 1664 under the title of ' Concilia, Decreta, 
 Leges, Constitutiones in Re Ecclesiarum Orbis Britannici, &c, ab 
 Introitu Normannorum, A.D. 1066, ad Exutum Papam, a.d. 1531. 
 Accesaerunt etiam alia ad Rem Ecclesiasticam spectantia,' folio. 
 Archbishop Sheldon and Lord Clarendon, who were the great encou- 
 rage™ of this labour, likewise employed Dugdale to publish the second 
 part of Sir Henry Spelman's ' Glossary.' Having revised the first part, 
 which had been published in 1626, and arranged the materials of the 
 second, both were printed together in 1664 under the title of ' Glos- 
 ■arium Archaiologiciun, continens Latino-barbara, Pcregrina, Obsoleta, 
 
 et Novse Significationis Vocabula.' The second part, digested by 
 Dugdale, began with the letter M. There was another edition of thin 
 work in 1687. 
 
 In 1666 he published, in folio, ' Origines Juridiciales ; or, Historical 
 Memoirs of the English Laws, Courts of Justice, Forms of Trial, 
 Punishment in Cases Criminal, Law Writers,' &c, &c, with portraits 
 of several of the judges, and some other plates. A second edition was 
 published in 1671, and a third in 1680. The first volume of 'The 
 Baronage of Eugland' appeared in 1675, and the second and third in 
 1676, folio. Upon this work he had spent thirty years of labour; and 
 though the corrections to be made in it are numerous, it still remains 
 one of the best works which exist as a foundation of English history. 
 
 In May 1677 Dugdale was created Garter King of Arms, and the 
 day after received from his Majesty the honour of knighthood, much 
 against his will, on account of the smallness of his estate. In 1681 he 
 published 'A short View of the late Troubles in England, briefly 
 setting forth their Rise, Growth, and Tragical Conclusion,' folio. This 
 is the least valued of his publications. He published also, at the same 
 time, ' The Antient Usage in bearing of such Ensigns of Honour as 
 are commonly called Arms,' &c, 8vo, a second edition of which, with 
 large additions, was published in the beginning of the year following ; 
 and a third edited by T. C. Banks, Esq., folio, London, 1811. 
 
 The last work which Dugdale published was ' A perfect Copy of all 
 Summons of the Nobility to the Great Councils and Parliaments of 
 this Realm, from the 49th of King Henry III. until these present Times,' 
 folio, London, 1685. A fac-simile, with the original date of this work, 
 was printed at Birmingham towards the close of the last century. 
 
 This industrious man died at Ely the Hall on the 10 th of February, 
 1686, in his eighty-first year, in consequence of a cold, and was interred 
 at Shustoke. His epitaph in Latin, written by himself, is inscribed 
 upon a tablet near the spot of his interment. 
 
 An account of Dugdale's manuscript collections remaining in the 
 Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and in the possession of his descendant, 
 the late Dugdale Stratford Dugdale, Esq., at Merevale in Warwick- 
 shire, will be found appended to his ' Life, Diary, and Correspondence,' 
 edited by William Hamper, Esq., 4to, London, 1827, whence the prin- 
 cipal particulars of the present life have been obtained. See also the 
 ' Life' prefixed to the last edition of the ' History of St. Paul's; ' and 
 Chalmers's 'Biographical Dictionary,' vol. xii. pp. 420-427. 
 
 DUKER, CHARLES ANDREW, a distinguished scholar, born at 
 Unna in La Marck, iu 1670. He studied first at Hammon, and after- 
 wards, under Perizonius, at Franeker. About 1700 he became pro- 
 fessor of history and eloquence at Herborn, in Nassau, which he 
 exchanged, four or five years afterwards, for the place of under-master 
 in the school at the Hague. On the death of Perizonius iu 1716, the 
 Greek chair in the university of Leyden became vacant, and was 
 offered to Burmann, who accepted it, and thereby vacated the pro- 
 fessorship of history and eloquence which he held at Utrecht, and 
 which was divided between Duker and Drakenborch, Burmann's pupil 
 and friend. In 1734 Duker gave up his professorship and retired to 
 the country. He died at Meyderic on the 5th of November 1752. 
 Duker is best known by his edition of Thucydides, published at 
 Amsterdam in 1731, folio, which was, till Bekker's appeared iu 1821, 
 by far the best edition of that author. The great care and labour 
 which he bestowed upon this work made Schroder (' Prsef. ad Senec. 
 Tragajdias ') call him ' Varilectionarius Thucydideus.' Duker also 
 edited Florus in 1722, and contributed to the edition of Livy published 
 by his colleague Drakenborch, to the ' Origines Babylonica? et iEgypti- 
 acee ' of his friend Perizonius, and to other works. All his notes are 
 sensible and accurate ; but it has been remarked that in his ' Thu- 
 cydides' in particular he has been rather capricious iu choosing 
 passages for illustration, and has omitted explanations iu the very 
 places where they were most necessary : in this however it must be 
 confessed he is by no means alone among commentators. 
 
 * DUMAS, ALEXANDRE, was born at Villers-Cotterets, in the 
 department of the Aisne, July 24, 1803. His father, who died in 
 1806, was a general of some distinction in the republican armies, one 
 of which he commanded in 1794. The future author of eighty dramas 
 and forty fictions received his education in his native town from the 
 pastor, an Abbe" Gregaine. This instruction seems, by the account 
 given in his ' Me'moires,' to have been somewhat imperfect, including 
 however a little Latin and a faint notion of history. But the youth 
 delighted in every kind of open-air exercise, and laid in a stock of 
 health and strength for which he was afterwards remarkable. He 
 became a good wrestler and fencer, a first-rate shot, and a keen 
 sportsman. At the age of fifteen he was placed as copying-clerk with 
 a notary named Menesson, who had settled at Villers-Cotterets ; he 
 remained with him above eighteen months, and afterwards went to 
 another office of the same kind in another town. He does not appear 
 to have had any early taste for literature, nor to have given any signs 
 of precocious talents. His initiation to the author's craft was acci- 
 dental. In 1820 a young gentleman from Paris, Adolphe de Leuven, 
 who had begun to write for the theatre, proposed to him to unite their 
 efforts, with this observation, " that to write for the theatre was a 
 trade like any other, and only required practice." 
 
 Two years were thus spent. Several plays were written conjointly 
 by the two friends, sent to Paris, and rejected by the managers. But 
 the pressure of family circumstances rendered it necessary that somo 
 
683 
 
 DUMAS, ALEXANDRE. 
 
 DUMONT, PIERRE-ETIENNE-LOC1S. 
 
 C81 
 
 plan of life should be adopted. In 1822, at the age of twenty, Dumas 
 found himself without any profession, with an aged invalid mother 
 and a sister to provide for. His father's rank in the army had not 
 secured any fortune to the family, because he had retained his 
 republican principles, and quarrelled with the emperor; but General 
 Duuias had been the fellow-soldier of surviving generals and marshals, 
 and he had left behind him papers and documents in proof of that 
 affinity. Furnished with these papers, and with several letters of 
 recommendation, the youthful aspirant went up to Paris, in the month 
 of March 1822, to seek his fortune. The passage in his autobiography 
 relating to this period is extremely interesting. One of the letters of 
 introduction was to General Foy, who at once took him by the hand, 
 and obtained an appointment fur him as supernumerary clerk at the 
 Palais Royal, on the establishment of the Duke of Orleans, with a 
 salary of 1200 francs. 
 
 Dumas continued eight years in the service of the Duke of Orleans, 
 and availed himself of his more settled fortune to complete his 
 education by self-culture. The fine library in the palace was open to 
 him, and he read a great deal, and made notes. He laboured at his 
 leisure hours in constructing dramatic pieces, and he attended the 
 theatre to study scenic effects. The first play of Dumas's which was 
 represented was ' La Chasse et 1' Amour,' produced at the Ambigu in 
 1825. He is said to have had two assistants in composing it, M. de 
 Leuven and M. Rousseau. His receipts at that period were so small 
 that, during the seven years preceding his first success in 1829, they 
 did not exceed 201. a year. Yet with this income of less than 80/. 
 (including his office salary), he maintained his mother and sister for 
 many years, and was perfectly contented and happy. 
 
 The arrival in Paris of Mr. Abbott with a company of English actors 
 in 1827, and the performance of Shakspere's plays, gave a new turn to 
 his fortune. Dumas saw Macready in ' Hamlet,' and immediately 
 conceived a new world of ideas. He wrote two tragedies, ' Christine ' 
 and ' Henri III.'; he wrote them entirely himself. When they were 
 finished, he submitted them to Charles Nodier, who recommended 
 them to Baron Taylor of the TheYitre-Francais. 'Henri III.' was the 
 first to appear; it was produced with great success, February 11, 1829, 
 the author's receipts exceeding 1200/. during the first season, and 
 extending since then to 100,000 francs. The Duke of Orleans, at the 
 writer's request, attended with a large party of friends. This dramatic 
 triumph was the first victory obtained by the new romantic school over 
 the classic, and was the chief topic of conversation in all public resorts. 
 But it was denounced by the critics as a dangerous innovation. 
 ' Christine' was brought out at the Odcon, March 30, 1830, and was 
 likewise successful. ' Charles VII.,' another tragedy, appeared at the 
 same house, October 20, 1831. ' Richard D' Arlington ' was performed 
 for the first time at the Ode"on, December 10, 1831. The two last 
 are understood to have been written by his assistants, but were care- 
 fully revised by himself. His great facility in constructing a plot, and 
 conducting the intrigue, as the French call the development of a piece, 
 afforded him unusual resources, and rendered him impatient of minor 
 labour. His knowledge of stage-effect enabled him afterwards to make 
 organic changes in the work of his ablest collaborateurs. The same 
 may be said of his romances, in which all the artifices of the drama 
 are constantly obvious. His tragedy of 'Antony ' was rejected at the 
 Theatre-Francaise, and was transferred to the Porte-Saint-Martin, 
 where it was produced, May 3, 1831, with extraordinary success. 
 'Napoleon Bonaparte,' a six-act drama, was produced at the Odebn, 
 January 10, 1831; ' Terese,' a drama, at the Ambigu, February 6, 
 1832; 'Le Mari de la Veuve,' a comedy, at the Theatre-Francais, 
 April 14, 1832. 'La Tour de Nesle,' written by Gaillardet, and 
 corrected by Dumas, was produced at the Porte-Saint-Martin, May 29, 
 1832: it led to a literary controversy, and afterwards to a duel 
 between the authors. The principal of his subsequent plays, for which 
 alone we can find room, are the following : — ' Kean,' a comedy, at the 
 VarhSte's, August 31, 1836 ; ' Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle,' written con- 
 jointly with Count Walewski, at the Theatre-Francais, April 2, 1839; 
 'Les Demoiselles de Saint-Cyr,' at the same, July 25, 1843; 'Les 
 Mousquetaires,' at the Ambigu, October 27, 1845; 'La Reine Margot,' 
 at the Theatre-Histoi ique in 1848 ; 'Benvenuto Cellini,' at the Porte- 
 Saint-Martin, 1850; and 'L'Orestie,' a tragedy, altered from Eschylus, 
 represented at the Porte-Saint-Martin, January 5, 1856. Dumas has 
 likewise published a series of sketchy travels, under the title of 
 'Impressions de Voyages.' 
 
 Dumas's list of romances is very long, and two of these, • Le3 Trois 
 Mousquetaires ' and ' Le Comte de Monte- Christo,' so far excel his 
 dramatic works as to give a very different character to his literary 
 reputation. The extreme fertility of Dumas has led to the general 
 opinion that he produces his extensive works with the aid of assistants, 
 as a great painter sometimes employs other artists for drapery and 
 background, and even for minor groups and simple figures. ' Les 
 Trois Mousquetaires' and ' Monte-C'hristo,' forming together twenty 
 volumes, appeared both in 1844, but the volumes in that year bearing 
 his name amount to sixty. He is reported to have received the sum 
 of one million of francs during that year, including his rights of 
 authorship on his former theatrical pieces. 
 
 Dumas began to publish his ' Mcmoires ' in 1852, aud about twenty- 
 seven volumes had appeared in March 1856. Taken collectively the 
 catalogue of hiis writings is scarcely conceivable for its extent : he 
 
 already speaks of his 1200 volumes. All his writings have the taint 
 of that low standard of morals which renders them unsuited to our 
 English notions. [See Supplement.] 
 
 * DUMAS, ALEXANDRE, the son of the preceding, was bom in 
 Paris, July 23, 1824. He has already produced a great many short 
 novels, of which ' Trois Hommes Forts,' which was published in 1850, 
 displays most talent; but his reputation chiefly rests on his two 
 comedies, ' La Dame aux Camelias,' represented for the first time at 
 the Vaudeville, February 2, 1852, and his 'Demi Monde,' produced at 
 the Gymuase in April 1855. Each of these comedies haB been per 
 formed upwards of one hundred nights, aud the receipts of both have 
 nearly reached 200,000 francs. The real talent and accurate delineation 
 of manners exhibited by this young dramatist are not to be disputed, 
 but the tendency of what he has written is perhaps still more 
 pernicious than that of his father's productions. 
 
 * DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE, one of the most celebrated of living 
 French chemists. He was born at Alais, department of Gard, in 1800, 
 aud studied pharmacy in his native village. In 1814 he commenced 
 his medical studies at Geneva, where his devotion to the sciences of 
 botany and chemistry attracted the notice of the celebrated De 
 Candolle, professor of botany in that university, who gave him free 
 access to his library and herbarium. He made also the acquaintance 
 of another distinguished Genevese philosopher, Dr. Prevost. In con- 
 junction with the latter he performed mauy experiments, and 
 published many papers on physiological and pathological subjects 
 These papers attracted so much attention that when M. Dumas went 
 to Paris in 1821, he found that his fame had gone before him, aud he 
 received there a very flattering reception. In 1823 he was appointed 
 demonstrator of chemistry at the Ecole Poly technique and pi ofessor 
 of chemistry at the Atheuee. He shortly after married a daughter of 
 the distinguished chemist Alexandre Brongniart, and from this time 
 devoted himself exclusively to the study and advancement of chemical 
 science. His attention was early drawn to the subject of organic 
 chemistry, and the vast progress which this department of science has 
 made within the last twenty-five years is indissolubly connected with 
 the name of Dumas. His researches upon the ethers, the laws of 
 isomerism, the law of substitution, and the atomic weights of 
 elementary substances, stand out as amongst the researches which 
 must make the 19th century remarkable in the annals of science. 
 
 The papers and works published by M. Dumas are very numerous, 
 and many of them of the highest practical value. His earlie>t 
 literary labours were principally physiological, and were chiefly 
 devoted to an examination of the blood and muscular fibre, and 
 experiments upon generation. It is however in these papers that we 
 discover that early taste for physiological study that has given so 
 decided a character to his subsequent career as a chemist. In these 
 researches he associated himself with Prevoat, and in his latter 
 researches we find his name frequently associated with another cele- 
 brated Frenchman, Boussingault. His papers are by far too numerous 
 to enumerate. They have been devoted to such subjects as statical 
 chemistry, the action of heat upon organic bodies, on chemical types, 
 on the true atomic weight of carbon, on the constitution of atmo- 
 spheric air, on the neutral azotised matters of organised bodies, on the 
 fattening of cattle and the formation of milk, on the composition of 
 water, on the combinations of phosphorus, on the oxide of carbon, on< 
 isomerism, on the chlorides of sulphur, on the nature of indigo, on 
 the combinations of hydrogen and carbon, on compound ethers, on 
 ethyle. These are the subjects of some of his papers, and the 
 chemist will immediately detect amongst them some of the most 
 important questions that have occupied the minds of chemists during 
 the last twenty-five years. Many of these papers have been collected 
 aud published in a larger work, entitled, ' Recherches sur la Chimie 
 Organique.' He has also published a course of lectures entitled 
 ' Legons sur la Philosophe Chimique.' 
 
 Whilst continually publishing the results of his chemical researches, 
 Dumas has been one of the most active of the public men of France. 
 He was one of the founders in 1829 of the Ecole Centrale des Arts et 
 Manufactures, and one of its teachers of chemistry. In 1834 alter 
 a brilliant concours he was made professor of organic chemistry in 
 the Ecole de Medecine. In his position as teacher he not only 
 exhibited the accuracy of the profound chemist, but by his eloquence 
 he succeeded in attracting large audiences to his lectures. In 1845 
 he was made president of the Society for the Encouragement of 
 Industry. He has been often selected by the government of France 
 to report on the various economic questions in which the science of 
 chemistry was needed for the full development of a subject. In 1849 
 he was entrusted with the portefeuille of agriculture and commerce, 
 which office he held till 1851. In this year he acted as vice-president 
 of the Great Exhibition of London. After the coup d'dtat he became 
 one of the consultative commission, and has since been made vice- 
 president of the superior council of public instruction in France. In 
 all movements which have had for their object the extension of 
 education and the amelioration of the condition of the people, 
 M. Dumas has been a leading spirit, and few men of science occupy a 
 higher rank in their own country, and have obtained more widely the 
 admiration and esteem of the world, than the subject of this notice. 
 
 DUMONT, PIERRE-ETIEN1SE-LOUIS, was born at Geneva in 
 July 1759. His father died when he was very young, leaving a 
 
063 
 
 widow, three daughters, and a son (the subject of the present article), 
 with very small means of support. The mother however was a 
 woman of strong mind, and struggled against the difficulties arising 
 from her straitened circumstances, that she might give her son a good 
 education. At college Dumont assisted to support himself by giving 
 private lessons. In his twenty-second year he was ordained minister 
 of the Protestant church iu Geneva ; and we are told by M. Sismondi 
 that his preaching was greatly admired. He left Geneva in the spring 
 of 1783, owing to the triumph then achieved by the aristocratical 
 party in that state through foreign interference ; and he betook him- 
 «elf, a voluntary exile, to St. Petersburg, where he assumed the 
 charge of the French Protestant church. He stayed in that city 
 eighteen months, acquiring fame by his preaching; when lie was 
 invited to London by Lord Shelburne, afterwards the Marquis of 
 Lansdowne, to undertake the education of his sons. In Lord 
 Shelburne's house he made the acquaintance of Fox, of Sir Samuel 
 Romilly, of Lord Holland, and most of the other distinguished 
 members of the Whig party ; and with Sir Samuel Romilly in par- 
 ticular he formed a strong friendship. In 1788 Dumont and Sir 
 Samuel Romilly visited Paris together, and it was on the occasion of 
 this visit, which, lasted only two months, that Dumont first became 
 acquainted with Mirabeau. 
 
 In 1789 Dumont made a second visit to Paris, accompanied by 
 M. Duroverai, in order to negociate with M. Necker, who was then 
 minister, for the liberty of Geneva and the return of her exiles. He 
 stayed in Paris until the beginning of 1791, and during this second 
 visit the acquaintance previously formed with Mirabeau ripened into 
 intimacy. We learn from Dumont's posthumous work, entitled, 
 'Souvenirs sur Mirabeau,' (a work which has thrown great light on 
 Mirabeau's character, and which is further interesting as giving 
 Dumont's views concerning the French 'Revolution), that Mirabeau 
 frequently during this period availed himself of the assistance of 
 Dumont and Duroverai, especially the former, in the preparation of 
 speeches and reports. 'Ihese three also set on foot conjointly a paper 
 called the ' Courier de Provence ; ' though Mirabeau's share in the 
 composition of it was not very great. 
 
 It was not until Dumont's return to England in 1791 that his inti- 
 macy and co-operation with Mr. Bentham commenced. [Bentham.] 
 Admiring Mr. Bentham's talents, and impressed with the importance 
 of his pursuits, he craved leave to arrange and edit those writings on 
 legislation which their author would not himself publish. The task 
 was one comparatively humble, yet useful. Further, it was a task of 
 Borne difficulty. *' I have had," says Dumont himself, in his preface 
 to the ' Traitds de Legislation,' " to select from among a large number 
 of various readings, to suppress repetitions, to clear up obscurities, 
 and to fill up lacunae which the author had left that he might not 
 slacken in his work. I have had to do much more in the way of 
 curtailment than of addition, of abridgment than of extension. The 
 mass of manuscripts which has passed through my hands, and which 
 I have had to decipher and compare, is considerable. I have had to 
 do much to attain uniformity of style, and in the way of correction ; 
 nothing or next to nothing as regards the fundamental ideas. The 
 profuseness of their wealth was such as to need only the care of an 
 economist, and being appointed steward of this large fortune, I have 
 neglected nothing which could improve its value or help to put it into 
 circulation." (p. 2.) 
 
 The following are those of Mr. Bentham's works which were edited 
 by Dumont. 1. The ' Traites de Legislation,' 3 vols., published in 
 1802. 2. The ' Thdorie des Peines et des Recompenses,' 2 vols, in 1811. 
 3. The ' Tactique des Assemblies Legislatives,' in 1815. 4. The 
 ' Preuves Judicaires,' 2 vols, in 1823. The ' Organisation Judiciaire et 
 Codification,' in 1828. 
 
 In 1814 Dumont had returned to Geneva, his native state having 
 then recovered her independence. He was elected a member of the 
 representative council of Geneva, and having been appointed on a 
 committee that was to draw up laws and regulations for the council 
 1^ was the author of the plan that was ultimately adopted. He after- 
 wards directed his efforts to a reform of the penal system and the 
 prison system existing at Geneva. Under his auspices, a penitentiary 
 establishment was erected at Geneva in 1824, on the Panopticon plan 
 of Mr. Bentham. Dividing his time between his senatorial duties and 
 the publication of those of Mr. Bentham's works which have been 
 named, he lived a useful and a happy life to the age of sixty. He 
 'lied suddenly, September the 29th, 1829, while travelling in the north 
 of Italy. 
 
 'ihere U a brief memoir of Dumont by M. de Sismondi in the 
 ' Revue Enyclopddique,' torn. 44, p. 258 ; and another by M. de 
 CaDdolU in the 'Bibliotheque Universelle ' for November 1829. 
 M. Duroverai has also prefixed a short notice of his life to the 
 ' Souvenirs sur Mirabeau.' 
 
 DUMONT D'URVILLE, JULE8-SEBASTIEN-CFSAR, a French 
 navigator and naturalist, was born May 23, 1790. He is known in 
 the scientific world as having made several valuable contributions to 
 the science of botany. One of his earliest contributions to botany 
 was a memoir on the plants which ho had himself collected in the 
 Grecian Islands, and which was published at Paris in 1822, with the 
 title ' Eoumeratio Plantarum quas in insulis Archipelagi aut Littoribus 
 i'onti Euiiui, annis 1819 et 1820, collegit atque cietexit.' In the 
 
 BIOO. D1V. VOL. II. 
 
 Memoirs of the Linnccan Society of Paris in 1820,' he published a 
 Flora of Falkland's Island, with the title ' Flores des Malouines.' In 
 the sixth volume of the ' Anuales des Sciences Naturelles' he published 
 an essay on the distribution of the ferns over tho surface of the earth. 
 These are his principal labours as a botanist, but Dumont D'Urville 
 will be better known to posterity as an able, persevering, and successful 
 navigator. In 1826 he was appointed by the king of France to the 
 command of the frigate ' Astrolabe,' for the purpose of making a 
 voyage in search of information with regard to the unfortunate La 
 Perouse and his companions. The vessel left Toulon in March 1826, 
 and continued out till 1829. During the first part of his voyage 
 Dumont D'Urville failed of attaining the object of his expedition, but 
 having put in at Hobart Town in Van Diemen's Laud, he heard that 
 Captain Dillon had obtained information with regard to tho object of 
 his search at the island of Vanikoro, or Malicolo. He accordingly 
 sailed for that island, and reached it in January 1828. Here he found 
 undoubted evidence of the wreck of the two frigates, on the breakers 
 of this island, which were under the command of La Perouse. This 
 island is one of the group called Solomon's Islands, iu 11° 41' S. lat. 
 and 167° 5' E. long. Having ascertained that the lives of many of 
 the sailors had been saved from the wreck, but that they had built 
 another vessel and sailed from the island, he erected a monument to 
 the memory of those who perished, and returned home. Some of 
 the portions of the wrecks of the two vessels were recovered. During 
 this voyage very important surveys of coasts and islands were made ; 
 among them a survey of the north part of New Zealand, Tongataboo, 
 Fidjee Archipelago, Loyalty, Deliverance, New Britain, New Ireland, 
 New Guinea, Fataka, Vanikoro, Hogollu, Guam, and the Moluccas. A 
 full account of this memorable voyage was published in 1830 and 
 successive years by Dumont D'Urville. This work is a splendid con- 
 tribution to science. The five volumes descriptive of the voyage were 
 written by Dumont D'Urville ; one volume, on the Botany of the islands 
 of the South Seas, was written by Lesson and Richaid ; one volume, 
 on the Entomology, by Boisduval; and four volumes, on the Zoology 
 of the same districts, by Quoi and Qaimard. The work was accom- 
 panied by an atlas of 45 maps, 213 plates of views, portraits of natives, 
 &c, and above 100 plates of objects in natural history. The title of 
 this work is ' Voyage de la Corvette 1' Astrolabe execute par ordre du 
 Roi pendant les anndes 1826, 1827, 1828, 1829,' Paris, 8vo, plates, 
 folio. 
 
 In 1837 Dumont D'Urville had placed under his command the frigates 
 'Astrolabe' and 'Zele,'for the purpose of making a voyage to the 
 South Pole. In a first attempt he reached the latitude 64° S., and 
 explored to some extent what he thought to be a new coast ; he was 
 obliged however to retire on account of the icebergs. Having remained 
 for some time at Conception, he made a secoud attempt, and discovered 
 a coast at 66° 33' S. lat., 138° 21' E. long. He found himself here 
 close to the south magnetic pole, the magnetic needle becoming nearly 
 vertical. The coast thus discovered appeared one mass of ice, but 
 portions of rock here and there projected, from wljich specimens were 
 obtained by means of a boat's crew. It appears that the same laud 
 was discovered the same day by an American vessel in 64° 20' S. lat., 
 154° 18' E. long. Captain Ross has since reached 78° 11' S. lat., 
 161° 27' W. long. The laud thus discovered by Dumont D'Urville 
 he named after his wife Adelie. On his return to Paris he published 
 an account of this expedition with the official reports of the minister 
 of marine, under the title ' Expedition au Pole Austral et dans 
 l'Ocdane des Corvettes de sa Majeste,' Paris, 1839. 
 
 This brave sailor and excellent man met with his death on the 
 8th of May 1842, by a railway accident that occurred between Ver- 
 sailles and Meudon, by which himself, with his wife and son, and nearly 
 fifty fellow passengers, were killed. 
 
 DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES- FRANCOIS, was born at Cambrai in 
 1739. His father was commissary in the army, and was also au author 
 and a poet. Dumouriez entered the army at au early age, and served 
 in Germany during the Seven Years' war. After the peace of Paris, 
 1763, he travelled about Europe, offering his services to several states: 
 he visited Corsica, and afterwards Spain and Portugal, and wrote an 
 essay on the military situation and resources of the latter kingdom. 
 Having returned to France, he was appointed quarter-master-general 
 to the French expedition for the conquest of Corsica, 176S-69. He 
 was afterwards sent to Poland on a mission to the confederates of Bar, 
 with whom he made the campaign of 1771 against Russia. He was 
 subsequently sent by Louis XV. on a confidential mission to Sweden, 
 in the same manner as the Chevalier D'Eon, count Broglie, and others, 
 who were sent to England and other countries, and who corresponded 
 directly with the king without the intervention of his ministers. The 
 ministers however became jealous of Dumouriez, and found means to 
 arrest him at Hamburg, whence he was brought back to Paris under a 
 lettre de cachet, and lodged in the Bastile. 
 
 He was released by Louis XVI. on his coming to the throne, and 
 restored to his rank of colonel. Iu 177S he was sent to Cherbourg to 
 form there a great naval establishment connected with the proposed 
 invasion of England, and he furnished the ministry with plans for the 
 conquest of the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, and Wight. At the 
 beginning of the revolution he took the popular side, and became con- 
 nected with the Girondins, by whose interest he was appointed minister 
 of foreign affairs, in which capacity he prevailed ujon the king to 
 
667 
 
 DUNBAR, WILLIAM. 
 
 DUNDONALD, EARL OP. 
 
 declare war against Austria iu April 1792. Soon after lie left office, 
 upon the dismissal of the other Giro-.din ministers, Roland, Servan, 
 Claviere, &c. Dumouriez had now become afraid of the violence of 
 the revolutionary movement, the J icobins hated him, and even the 
 Girondins grew cool towards him. Like La Fayette, he professed his 
 attachment to the constitutional monarchy of 1791, which the others 
 had given up. He withdrew himself however from internal politics 
 and went to serve under General Luckuer on the northern frontiers. 
 After the lOtli of August he was appointed to replace La Fayette in 
 the command of the army which was opposed to the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick. The army was disorganised, but Dumouriez soon re-established 
 order and confidence ; he obtained a series of partial but brilliant 
 successes, which checked the advance of the Prussians, and, lastly, 
 he made a determined stand in the forest of Argonue, which he styled 
 the Thermopylae of France, by which means he gave time to Keller- 
 man and other generals to come up with fresh divisions, and give 
 battle to the Prussians at Valmy, 20th September 1792, an engagement 
 which was won by Kellerman. It is generally allowed that Dumou- 
 riez's stand at Argonne was the means of saving France from a 
 successful invasion. 
 
 At the end of October Dumouriez began his campaign of Flanders ; 
 gained the battle of Jemmapes against the Austrians, 5th and 6th of 
 November; took Liego, Antwerp, and a great part of Flanders, but, 
 on account of some disagreement with Pache, the minister at war, he 
 was obliged to return to Paris during the trial of Louis XVI. After 
 the execution of the king, Dumouriez returned to his head-quarters, 
 determined to support, on the first opportunity, the re-establishment 
 of the constitutional monarchy under the son of Louis. Meantime 
 he pushed on with his army, entered Holland, and took Breda and 
 other places, but being obliged, by the advance of Prince Cobourg, to 
 retire, he experienced a partial defeat at Neerwinde, and ag:iin at 
 Louvain. Meantime he had displeased tho convention by opposing 
 its oppressive decrees concerning the Belgians, and lie wrote a strong 
 letter on the subject to that assembly on the 12th of March, which 
 however was not publicly read. Danton, Lacroix, and other commis- 
 sioners of tho convention came successively to his head-quarters to 
 watch and remonstrate with him, but he openly told them that a 
 republic in Fi ance was only another name for anarchy, and that the 
 only means of saving the country was to re-establish the constitutional 
 monarchy of 1791. Dumouriez entered into secret negociations with 
 Prince Cobourg, by which he was allowed to withdraw his army un- 
 molested to the frontiers of France, and also his garrisons and artillery 
 which he had left in Holland, and which were cut off by the advance 
 of the enemy. These favourable conditions were granted by Cobourg 
 on the understanding that Dumouriez should exert himself to re- 
 establish the constitutional monarchy in France. Dumouriez retired 
 quietly to Tournay, and evacuating Belgium withdrew within the 
 French frontiers, where he placed his head-quarters at St. Amand, 
 30th March 1793. He was now accused of treason at Paris: the con- 
 vention passed a decree summoning him to their bar, and four com- 
 missioners, with Camus at their head, came to St. Amand to announce 
 to him the summons. Dumouriez replied that he was ready to resign 
 the command, if the troops consented, but he would not go to Paris 
 to be butchered. After a violent alternation he gave the commis- 
 sioners in charge to some hussars, and sent them over to the Austrian 
 general Clairfait, at Tournay, to be detained as hostages. 
 
 His design was now to march upon Paris, but his troops, and espe- 
 cially the volunteers, refusing, he was obliged to take refuge himself, 
 with a few officers, at the Austrian head-quarters, April 1793. He 
 there found out that his plan of a constitutional monarchy was disa- 
 vowed by the allies, and in consequence he refused to serve in the 
 Austrian army against his country. He wandered about various 
 towns of Germany, treated with suspicion, and annoyed by the royalist 
 emigrants, who hated him as a constitutionalist, while in France the 
 Convention offered a reward of 300,000 francs for his head. Having 
 crossed over to England, he was obliged to depart under the Alien 
 Act, and took refuge at Hamburg, where he remained for several 
 years, and wrote his memoirs and several political pamphlets. In 
 1801 or 1805 he obtained permission to come to England, where he 
 afterwards chiefly resided. He is said to have furnished plans to the 
 British and Portuguese governments for the operations of the Penin- 
 sular war ; and he received a pension from the British government, 
 upon which he lived to a very advanced age. It is remarkable that 
 after the restoration he was not recalled to France by Louis XVIII. 
 In 1821 he wrote a plan of defence for the Neapolitan constitution- 
 alists. He died March 14, 1823, at Turvillc Park, near Henley-upon- 
 Thames, at the age of eighty-four. {Mcmoires du General Dumouriez, 
 written by himself; Supplement to the 6th Volume of the Biographic 
 des ContemporoAns.) 
 
 DUNBAR, WILLIAM, is supposed to have been a grandson of Sir 
 Patrick Dunbar, of Eeil, in the shire of Haddington. This Sir 
 Patrick Dunbar was a yourjger son of George, tenth earl of March. 
 He was thus also a younger brother of George, eleventh eai - l, who 
 ivas attainted in an arbitrary manner, and had his possessions forfeited 
 by king James I. in the parliament held at Perth on the 10th of 
 January 1434-35; and it appears that Dunbar, being involved in the 
 common ruin of the house, lived in a state of great dependence with- 
 out any patrimonial inheritance. From his earliest years Dunbar was 
 
 destined for the church. Iu 1475 he was sent to the University of 
 St. Andrews, where he passed Bachelor of Arts, in St. Salvator's Col- 
 lege there, in 1477, and in 1479 Master of Arts. He afterwards entered 
 the monastic order of St. Francis; and in the habit of a friar travelled 
 throughout the south of Scotland, into England, and on the continent. 
 From his writings we learn that he was frequently employed abroad 
 in the king's service, probably as a ' clerk' iu some of the numerous 
 missions despatched by kiug James IV. to foreign courts. Of his own 
 fidelity to his royal master on these occasions he entertained a tolerably 
 high opinion ; and few opportunities escaped of his reminding the 
 king of the nature and extent of his services, with not merely distant 
 hints, but direct intimations of the propriety of a recompense. On 
 the 15th of August 1500, he had a grant from the king of an annual 
 provision of 10^. during his life, or until he Bhould be promoted to a 
 benefice of the value of 40i. or more yearly. 
 
 In 1501 he was again in England, probably in the train of the 
 ambassadors who were sent thither to conclude the negociations for 
 the king's marriage. Tho preparations for this marriage began on the 
 4th of May 1503 ; and upon the 9th of that month Dunbar composed 
 his poem of ' The Thistle and the Rose,' an elegant allegory iu cele- 
 bration of the union. On the 7th of March following he said mass lor 
 the first time in the royal presence, and received a liberal gift as the 
 king's offering on the occasion. In 1505 he also received a sum from 
 the king in addition to his stated pension ; and both that year and 
 the next a sum equal each time to his half-yearly allowance in lieu of 
 his 'yule-gown.' In 1507 his pension was doubled; and besides occa- 
 sional marks of the royal bounty, he had a letter under the privy seal 
 in August 1510, increasing the sum to fourscore pounds a year, and 
 until he should be promoted to a benefice of 100J. or upwards. This 
 allowance he continued to receive, with other gifts, till the time of the 
 king's death at Flodden in September 1513, after which we find no 
 farther mention of Dunbar's name in the treasurer's account, or other 
 like records. He is supposed to have died about 1520. 
 
 Whether he at last obtained a benefice, the great object of his 
 desires, does not appear. His remaining works do not show that he 
 ever did. On the contrary, they contain many supplications for a 
 benefice, and many lamentations for the want of one ; and the various 
 forms and character of these pieces display not a little of that fertility 
 of invention by which Dunbar is distinguished. He seizes every 
 occasion and seems to exhaust every expedient to rouse the king to 
 bestow upon him the long-cherished wish of his heart. 
 
 Dunbar's writings now extant are not numerous, but they exhibit a 
 remarkable versatility of genius, from grave to gay, from witty to 
 severe. At one time we find him the sober moralist; at another, 
 indulging in all the immodesty of licentiousness. But it is in descrip- 
 tion that he shows his various powers most conspicuously. Thus, in 
 his ' Golden Terge,' as in ' The Thistle and the Rose,' we have imagery 
 brilliant and dazzling. In the ' Dance of the Deadly Sins in Hell,' the 
 same creative hand appears. ' The Feigned Friar of Tungland' and 
 ' The Justs between the Taylor and the Souter,' display a like power of 
 vividly portraying character, mingled with bitter sarcasm and biting 
 satire. And in the doggerel lines ' On James Doig' we see the burly 
 wardrobe-keeper pass before us. 
 
 The existence of Dunbar's works is a signal proof of the immor- 
 tality of real merit. We know not at what precise time he was bora, 
 nor when he died ; his very name, it has been remarked, is, with one 
 solitary exception, not to be met with in the whole compass of our 
 literature for 200 years ; and it is only after the lapse of three centuries 
 that his poems have been collected and published ; and yet he now 
 once more stands forth as, in the opinion of his countrymen, one of 
 the greatest of Scotland's poets. 
 
 DUNCAN, ADAM, first VISCOUNT, was born July 1, 1731, at 
 Dundee, of which his father was provost in 1745. By tho mother's 
 side he was descended, through the Haldanes of Gleneagles, from the 
 Earl of Lennox and Monteith. He entered the navy in 1746, was made 
 post-captain in 1761, and distinguished himself in several actions, 
 especially at that of Cape St. Vincent. In 1787 he became a rear- 
 admiral, and seven years afterwards was appointed to command in the 
 North Seas. In this service he watched the mouth of the Texel, 
 where a large Dutch fleet lay at the time of the mutiny at the Nore. 
 By skilful manoeuvring, although deserted by every ship except one 
 ('Adamant,' 50), he detained the Dutch until he was joined by the rest 
 of the fleet, and, on their leaving port, cut off their retreat and 
 brought them to action at Camperdown, where, after a brilliant action, 
 he captured nine sail of the line and two frigates. For this service 
 Admiral Duncan was created a Viscount, and received the thanks of 
 parliament. He died suddenly, August 4th, 1S04. By his lady, the 
 daughter of Lord President Dundas, he left two sons and several 
 daughters. His eldest sou was created Earl of Camperdown, at 
 the coronation of William IV. His youngest, Sir Henry Duncan, 
 was principal storekeeper to the Board of Ordnance, and died iu 
 1835. 
 
 DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE, tenth EARL OF, was 
 born in December 1775, the eldest sou of Archibald, earl of Dundonald, 
 who had considerable distinction as a chemist. In 1793 he entered 
 the naval service under his uncle, Captain afterwards Sir Alexander 
 Cochrane. In a course of service in various ships on theAmeiicau 
 const, and also in the Mediterranean, during the war between Great 
 
KS 
 
 870 
 
 Britain and Fiance, he distinguished himself by actions of extraordi- 
 nary daring and intrepidity, assisting in capturing enemy's vessels at 
 sea against great odds, or in cutting rich prizes out of harbours where 
 they were protected by laud-fortresses. For one such action— the 
 capture by boarding of a Spanish frigate off Barcelona — he was made 
 po^t-captain in 1S01. His ship, the ' Speedy,' sloop-of-war, having been 
 captured in the following year by a French squadron, he was for some 
 time a prisoner of war. On his exchange he served, a3 commander of 
 the 'Arab' frigate, at the blockade of Boulogne iu 1803. From 1304 
 to 1806 he commanded the 'Pallas' frigate, and from 1806 to 1809 the 
 1 Imperieuse ' frigate, both employed in cruising about the Spanish 
 and French coasts. Uniformly successful in actions of the most 
 desperate character against both ships and batteries on these coasts, 
 he was chosen by the Admiralty in 1809 to command a fleet of fire- 
 ships sent to destroy the French fleet then blockaded in the Basque 
 roads by Lord Gambier. He accomplished the difficult aud dangerous 
 work most successfully on the night of the 11th of April, and was 
 rewarded with the Knighthood of the Bath. Before this period he had 
 been elected to the House of Commons, first for Honiton, and after- 
 wards (1807) for Westminster. In parliament he distiuguished himself 
 by his strong opposition to the government and his opinions on radical 
 reform, more especially after the accession of the Liverpool-Castlereagh 
 administration in 1812. An opportunity of taking revenge upon him 
 for this soon occurred. In February 1814 a false rumour was spread 
 of Napoleon's abdication, which caused a great rise in the funds, and 
 he was accused of being concerned in the propagation of the report for 
 interested purposes. Tried on this charge, he was found guilty of 
 fraud, and was sentenced on the 5th of July to stand in the pillory, 
 pay a fine of 1000i., and undergo one year's imprisonment; and he 
 was at the same time expelled from the House of Commons, deprived 
 of the Order of the Bath, and struck off the list of captains. That part 
 of his sentence which involved the punishment of the pillory was 
 remitted ; and bo convinced were the public that he had been 
 the victim of party feelings, that he was immediately re-elected to 
 parliament for Westminster. Having made a daring escape from 
 prison, and appeared in his place in parliament, he was recommitted, 
 but his fine was paid by public subscription, aud on the expiration of 
 his imprisonment he resumed his seat as an opponent of the ministry. 
 SeeiDg no prospect of further employment in the British service, he 
 accepted in 1818 the command of the fleet of the Chilians, then fighting 
 for their independence. In this capacity he distinguished himself, as 
 before, by actions of almost incredible courage and skill — such as 
 cutting out the frigate 'Esmeralda' from under the guns of Callao on 
 the 5th of November 1S20. In 1822 he exchanged the Chilian service 
 for that of Brazil, and in 1823 he was made Marquis of Maranao by 
 the Brazilian emperor, Don Pedro. On quitting the Brazilian service 
 he returned to England; but again, in 1827 and 1828, his talents were 
 employed with their usual success in a foreign naval service — that of 
 the Greeks, then asserting their independence. Returning to England, 
 aud succeeding to the title of Lord Dundonald by his father's death, 
 he was, on the accession of the Whigs to power in the first year of 
 the reign of William IV. (1830), reinstated in his command in the 
 British navy, and made rear-admiral. He was made Vice-Admiral of 
 the Blue in 1841 ; in 1847 the Order of the Bath was restored to him ; 
 in 1848 he received the command-in-chief of the fleet on the West 
 Indian and North American stations ; iu 1851 he became Vice-Admiral 
 of the White ; and in 1854 Admiral of the United Kingdom. That he 
 was perfectly innocent of the Stock-Exchange fraud was satisfactorily 
 established before these official recognitions of his great merits were 
 added to the public esteem. Of great scientific attainments, Lord 
 Dundonald is understood long to have been iu possession of some 
 extraordinary submarine method for blowing up ships; and during 
 the Russian war he offered to the British government to destroy 
 Sebastopol in a few hours by a plan of his own. A committee was 
 appointed to confer with him on his plan, which however was rejected. 
 Lord Dundonald is the author of one or two works, in one of which, 
 entitled ' Observations on Naval Affairs,' &c, published in 1847, he gives 
 an account of his naval services, and of the "injustices experienced by 
 him" at the hands of the British government. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DUNN, SAMUEL, was a native of Crediton, Devonshire, where he 
 kept a mathematical school for several years ; but he afterwards 
 removed to Chelsea, and occupied himself in the same manner. He 
 was well skilled in nautical astronomy, and was a good practical 
 observer, which led to his being appointed mathematical examiner of 
 the candidates for the East India Company's service. He was the 
 author of several useful and ingenious papers in the 'Philosophical 
 Transactions,' as well as (if some separate works on the practical 
 branches of science. He also published a folio Atlas, which has been 
 held in some estimation. Mr. Dunn bequeathed an estate of about 
 a year to found a mathematical school in his native town, the 
 fii it master to which was appointed in 1793. Mr. Dunn died in 1792. 
 
 DUNNING, JOHN, Lord Ashburton, the son of an attorney at 
 Ashburton in Devonshire, was born on the 18th of October 1731. He 
 waa removed from the freo-school at Ashburton, and articled to his 
 father as a clerk, in the thirteenth year of his age. Sir Thomas 
 Clarke, the then master of the rolls, who employed old Mr. Dunning 
 as ha attorney, having observed the young man's capabilities for 
 active business, induced him to study for the bar. He entered of the 
 
 Middle Temple, May 8th 1752, and was called to the bar, according to 
 the Temple books, July 2, 1756. 
 
 Dunning travelled the western circuit for some years without any 
 success ; but in 1761, through the good offices of Mr. Hussey, a king's 
 counsel, being appointed to draw up the reply of the East India 
 Company to the Dutch memorial, he acquired some connections, 
 which were considerably increased by his argument in the case of 
 Combe v. Pitt (Trin. Term, 1763), which he was called upon to make 
 in consequence of the illness of bis leader. In the course of the same 
 year the question as to the legality of genoral warrants arose, in con- 
 sequence of the arrest of the publishers of the 'North Briton.' 
 Dunning throughout the whole litigation was employed as the 
 advocate of his friend Wilkes ; and the argument on the Bill of 
 Exceptions (June 1765) afforded him an opportunity of establishing 
 his reputation. After this his business rapidly increased : he was 
 shortly after chosen recorder of Bristol, and in December 1767, 
 appoiuted solicitor-general. 
 
 In the following year he entered parliament as one of the nominees 
 of Lord Shelburne for the borough of Calne. A Whig in his politics, 
 and an accomplished constitutional lawyer, Dunning throughout his 
 parliamentary career unflinchingly opposed the Tories. He laboured 
 strenuously while in opposition to reduce the pension list, but became 
 himself a pensioner to the amount of 4000Z. a year, when in the spring 
 of 1782, he was raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Ashburton, 
 of Ashburton in the county of Devon. Possessing the most lucrative 
 practice of the day, which had already enabled him to purchase con- 
 siderable landed property, and to save a sum little short of 180,000?., and 
 having besides within a week after this promotion possessed himself 
 of a lucrative sinecure, the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster, 
 Dunning had not even the poor excuse of poverty for this political 
 profligacy. This venality and want of principle, which so often 
 unfortunately obscure the fair fame of individuals, are not wholly 
 without profit to the public ; they afford an example which acts as a 
 warning to them against placing implicit confidence in the unbounded 
 professions of ambitious and unprincipled men ; for however popular, 
 however distinguished may be the name of such a man in his own 
 day, a few short years are sure to consign him to well merited 
 neglect, if not contempt. Such, as a politician aud a pretender to 
 probity, has been the lot of Dunning. As a lawyer none of his con- 
 temporaries enjoyed a higher reputation, or more lucrative practice : 
 his wit appears to have been of that brilliant nature which defies 
 description. In person Dunning was small, aud siugularly weak and 
 awkward ; his action in speaking clumsy and uucouth, but the 
 awkwardness of his gesticulation was soon lost sight of in the interest 
 aroused by his eloquence. Notwithstanding his disadvantages, he was 
 extremely vain of his personal appearance, and wished to encourage 
 the belief that his face and figure had irresistible charms in the eyes 
 of the fair sex. 
 
 Dunning married in 1780 Miss Elizabeth Baring, the daughter of a 
 retail tradesman at Exeter, by whom he had two sons. The death of 
 the eldest in April 1783, is supposed to have given so great a shock 
 to the already enervated frame of Lord Ashburton as to have 
 hastened his death, which took place at Exmouth in the August 
 following. 
 
 The title of Baron Ashburton having become extinct, was revived iu 
 the year 1835, in the person of Mr. Baring, a descendant of the Miss 
 Elizabeth Baring mentioned above. 
 
 DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN, was born most probably about the year 
 1265. The English, the Scotch, and the Irish, have all claimed him 
 as a countryman. According to one of the Irish accounts, he was born 
 at Thathmon, or Taghmon, in Wexford ; according to another, in the 
 town of Down, or Downpatrick. The Scotch say he was a native of 
 Dunse in Berwickshire. The English story is, that ho was born at a 
 hamlet called Dunston, or Dunstauce, in the parish of Emilden, or 
 Embleton, not far from Alnwick, in Northumberland. Camden con- 
 ceives he was called Scotus because descended from Scottish parents. 
 It seems however to be agreed on all hands that he was chiefly educated 
 in Englaud. He is said to have been found when a boy tending his 
 father's cows by two Franciscans who were greatly struck with his 
 intelligence ; aud by the monks of this order he was first instructed 
 in the elements of learning, and then sent to Merton College, Oxford, 
 of which in due course he became a fellow. He also entered the order 
 of Franciscans. Passing over various stories that are told of him of 
 a legendary cast, we may enumerate in a few lines the authentic events 
 of his life. While yet a student, he is said to have become greatly 
 distinguished for his proficiency in theology, in logic and metaphysics, 
 iu civil and canon law, in mathematics, iu natural philosophy, aud in 
 astronomy. In 1301, on the removal of William Varron to Paris, he 
 was appoiuted to the theological chair. His prelections were attended 
 by crowds of auditors, the number of students at Oxford at this time, 
 it is affirmed, exceeding 30,000; but many of these, according to 
 Anthony h. Wood, were more given to habits of dissipation than to 
 study. In 1307 Duns removed from Oxford to Paris, iu which city he 
 had on a visit some time before distinguished himself in an extra- 
 ordinary manner by his defence, in a public disputation, of the doctrine 
 of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary. He began, we are 
 told, by demolishing two hundred objections to the doctrine, aud 
 concluded by establishing it with a cloud of arguments. A writer 
 
C71 
 
 DUNSTAN, SAINT. 
 
 DUNSTAN, SAINT. 
 
 073 
 
 who was present, Pelbartus a Temeswar, says tliat he resolved the 
 knottiest syllogisms of his adversaries as Samson did the bands of 
 Delilah. The result was the conversion of the whole university to the 
 doctrine thus demonstrated, and the passing of a regulation that no 
 person should afterwards be admitted to a degree without swearing to 
 defend the immaculate conception. On this occasion, it is said, there 
 was formally conferred on Scotus the title of the Subtle Doctor (Doctor 
 vel Magistcr Subtilis), by which he is commonly distinguished among 
 the schoolmen. He taught in his new chair with as much applause as 
 at Oxford, but he was not allowed to remain long at Paris. In 130S 
 lie was ordered by the general of his order to remove to Cologne to 
 found a new university there. On reaching Cologne lie was met by 
 nearly the whole body of the citizens, and drawn into the city in a 
 triumphal car. But his splendid career was now near its close. On 
 the 8th of November, in this same year, he was carried off by a fit 
 of apoplexy. Some accounts make him to have died in his forty-third, 
 others in his thirty-fourth year. Paulus Jovius relates that he was 
 buried before he was dead, and that it was afterwards found, upon 
 inspection of the grave, that in his misery he had knocked out his 
 brains against his coffin. Another version of the story is, that he 
 was found to have gnawed the flesh from his arms. 
 
 Various separato treatises of Duns Scotus were sent to the press 
 soon after the invention of printing, and several of thein have been 
 repeatedly printed. At length, in 16'39, bis collected works appeared 
 at Lyon, in 12 vols, folio, under the title of ' R. P. F. Joannis Duns 
 Scoti, Doctoris Subtilis, Ordinis Minorum, Opera omnia quae hucusque 
 reperiri potuerunt, collecta, recoguita, notis, scholiis, ct commentariis 
 illustrata; a PP. Hibernis Collegii Koinani S. Isidori Professoribus, 
 Jussu et Auspiciis Rmi. T. F. Joannis Baptistse a Companea, Ministri 
 Qeneralis.' A complete copy of this collection is exceedingly rare. It 
 is dedicated to Philip IV. of Spain, and the editor is Luke Wadding, 
 an Irishman by birth. It does not however, as has been often stated, 
 contain all the works of Scotus, but only those designated his ' Opera 
 Speculativa,' the ' Positiva,' if they should be completely recovered, 
 having been intended to form a future publication. The principal 
 pieces of which it is composed are Questions or Commentaries on the 
 Sentences of Peter Lombard, and on the physical, logical, and meta- 
 physical writings of Aristotle. There are also a treatise on Grammar; 
 four books (forming a volume) entitled ' Reportatorum Parisiensium ;' 
 and a volume of ' Qusestiones Quodlibitates,' the authenticity of which 
 however is doubted by Wadding. The following are enumerated by 
 Wadding as the ' Opera Positiva ' of Scotus : — ' Tractatus de Perfec- 
 tione Statuum ' (of doubtful authenticity) ; ' Lectura in Genesim ;' 
 ' Commentarii in Evaugelia;' ' Commentarii in Epistolas Pauli;' 
 ' Sermones de Tempore ;' and 'Sermones de Sanctis.' 
 
 The admirers of Scotus extol his acuteness and subtlety as unrivalled, 
 and he has always been accounted the chief glory of the Franciscans, 
 as Thomas Aquinas has been of their rivals the Dominicaus. If in his 
 short life he actually wrote all the works that are commonly attributed 
 to him, his industry at least must have been prodigious. His fame 
 during his lifetime, and long after his death, was not exceeded by that 
 of any other of the scholastic doctors. From him and Aquiuas two 
 opposing sects in theology took the names of Scotists and Thomists, 
 nnd divided the schools down almost to the last age. The leading 
 tenet of the Scotists was the immaculate conception of the Virgin, and 
 they also differed from the Thomists on the subjects of free-will and 
 the efficacy of divine grace. In philosophy the Scotists are opposed 
 to the Occamists, or followers of William Occam, who was himself a 
 pupil of Scotus, but differed from his master on the subject of 
 Universals, or general terms, which the Scotists maintained to be 
 expressive of real existences, while the Occamists held them to be 
 nothing more than names. Hence the Scotists are called Realists, the 
 Occamists Nominalists. It is a favourite opinion of Bayle's, that this 
 doctrine of the Scotists was nothing less than an undeveloped Spinozism. 
 (' Diet. Crit,,' art. ' Abelard,' note C, and ' Andre" Cisalpin,' note B.) 
 It may be added that the English term ' dunce ' has been commonly 
 considered to be derived from the name of the subtle doctor — 
 "perhaps," says Johnson, "a word of reproach first used by the 
 Thomists, from Duns Scotus, their antagonist." It is worth noting 
 however that a dolt or a blockhead appears to be a very modern 
 meaning of the word 'dunce,' or Duns. It does not seem to have 
 been known in this sense, for instance, to Richard Stanihurst, the 
 compiler of the 'Description of Ireland' in Holinshed, who speaks of 
 the name of Scotus being a term " so trivial and common in all schools, 
 that whoso surpasseth others either in cavilling sophistry or subtile 
 philosophy is forthwith nicknamed a Duns." This was no doubt the 
 kind of reproach originally intended to be conveyed by the epithet. 
 
 Wadding has prefixed to his edition of the works of Scotus an 
 elaborate life of the author, which was reprinted at Mons in 12mo in 
 1644. There is also a 'Tractatus de Joannis Scoti Vita, &c, Auctore 
 R. F. Joanne Colgano, ordinis Fratrum Minorum Hibornorum Padua? ' 
 12 mo, Antwerp, 1655. Both these works, the latter especially, are 
 full of legendary matter, detailed with the most confiding gravity. 
 
 DUNSTAN, SAINT, was born of noble parents at or near Glaston- 
 bury in Somersetshire, in the first year of the reign of Athelstan, 925. 
 His father's name was Heorstan; his mother's, Cyuethryth, or Cyue- 
 dryda. His earliest instruction in the learning of his time was 
 received in the neighbouring monastery ; but afterwards, under the 
 
 patronage of his uncle, Athhelm, archbishop of Canterbury, he was 
 introduced at Athelstan's court, where he passed some years. The 
 jealousy of the courtiers at his superior attainments at length led 
 them to circulate against him a charge of sorcery; and, finding that 
 he had lost the favour of the king, he retired to Winchester. Urged 
 by the entreaties and remonstrances of his uncle to become a monk, 
 Dunstan, who is said to have been passionately in love with a young 
 lady of surpassing beauty, for a time strongly resisted ; but, viaited 
 by a serious illness, which his uncle pronounced to be a manifestation 
 of the divine displeasure at his preference for an earthly bride to the 
 Holy Church, he made a vow to renounce the world. Accordingly, on 
 his recovery, he built for himself, against the walls of the church of 
 Glastonbury, according to the common account, but, as others say, 
 against Winchester Cathedral (Wright, 'Biog. Brit.,' 448), a sort of cell, 
 with an oratory, employing his time partly in devotional austerities, and 
 partly in the exercise of such manual arts as were useful to the Bervice 
 of the church, in the formation of crosses, censers, &c. He is also 
 reputed to have painted, and to have copied manuscripts. His austeri- 
 ties procured for him a general reputation for extraordinary sanctity, 
 while he himself believed that he was the object of continual perse- 
 cution by demons and evil spirits. The story is well known, how on 
 one occasion the devil came to him at his smithy (for in his cell ho 
 kept a forge for tho manufacture of metal articles of ecclesiastical 
 furniture), and brought him a piece of iron which he wished him to 
 forgo to a particular form. Dunstan willingly undertook the task, 
 but soon discovering who his visitor really was, seized him by the 
 nose with a pair of red-hot pincers, as he put his head into the cell, 
 and held him there till the malignant spirit made the whole neigh- 
 bourhood resound with his bellowings. Tho story was said to have 
 been told by Dunstan himself to the people who flocked to his cell to 
 learn the cause of the extraordinary noise. It may readily be set 
 down as one of those monkish fictions with which the biographies of 
 the saints were in the middle ages so profusely garnished. 
 
 Glastonbury having by the successive incursions of the Danes been 
 reduced nearly to ruin, Edmund, the successor of Athelstan, appointed 
 Dunstan to be the abbot of that house, with full power to draw funds 
 from the royal treasury for its restoration. This was in 942, and 
 from a charter granted in 944 the work appears to have been soon 
 accomplished. 
 
 Edred, the successor of Edmund, on the retirement of Turketul to 
 the cloister, in 948, surrendered his conscience, his treasures, and his 
 authority into the hands of Dunstan. Taking advantage of the 
 implicit confidence reposed in him by the king, Dunstan determined 
 to carry out his favourite project of the establishment of a strictly 
 monastic system, and the bringing the clergy under the more direct 
 supremacy of the papal power. As the first step, he imported into 
 England a new order of monks, the Benedictines, who, by changing 
 the state of ecclesiastical affairs, excited on their first establishment 
 the most violent commotions. The discontinuance of marriage among 
 the clergy, and the adoption of the most rigid monastic rules, were his 
 great objects, and he introduced that reformation into the monasteries 
 of Glastonbury and Abingdon. This conduct however incurred the 
 resentment of the secular clergy, who, joining with such of the 
 courtiers as had become indignant at the haughty demeanour of 
 Dunstan, formed a powerful party against him. Upon the death of 
 Edred, and succession of Edwy, Dunstan was accused of malversation 
 in his office. On attempting to maintain his authority, he even went 
 so far as to use personal violence to the king [Edwy] ; but he was 
 deprived of his abbacy, and banished the kingdom in 955, demoniacal 
 laughter being heard to ring through the church, according to his 
 partisans, at his departure, as, on the other hand, miraculous mani- 
 festations had on various occasions been exhibited on his behalf. 
 Edgar, who succeeded Edwy in the following year, restored him to 
 Glastonbury, having promoted him first to the see of Worcester; he 
 then made him bishop of London, and in 959 advanced him to the 
 archiepiscopal see of Canterbury. Dunstan repaired to Rome to 
 receive the papal sanction to his appointment, and not only obtained 
 that, but the pope's own appointment of him to be the papal legate 
 in England. Upon his return, so absolute did his influence over the 
 king become, that he was enabled to give the Romish see an authority 
 and j urisdiction of which the English clergy had been before to a 
 considerable degree independent. In order more effectually and 
 completely to accomplish this object, the secular clergy were excluded 
 from their livings and disgraced, and the monks were appointed to 
 supply their places. The scandalous lives of the secular clergy 
 furnished one plea for this measure, and it was not altogether ground- 
 less ; but the principal motive was that of rendering the papal power 
 absolute in the English Church. Dunstan, supported by Edgar's 
 authority, overpowered the resistance which the countiy had long 
 maintained against the papal dominion, and gave to tho monks an 
 influence, the baneful effects of which were experienced in England 
 till the Reformation. Dunstan has accordingly been highly extolled 
 by the monks and partisans of the Romish Church. During the 
 whole reign of Edgar, Dunstan maintained his interest at court ; and 
 upon Edgar's death, in 975, his influence served to raise Edward, 
 Edgar's eldest son, to the throne, though the succession of Ethelre;], 
 the younger son, was much pressed by Elfrida. Whilst Edward was 
 in his minority, Dunstan ruled with absolute sway both in church and 
 
873 
 
 DUNTON, JOHN. 
 
 DUPERREY, LOUIS-ISIDORE. 
 
 (571 
 
 state ; but upon the murder of that princo in 979, ami the accession 
 of Ethelred, his credit and influence declined ; and the contempt with 
 which his threatenings of divine vengeance were regarded by the king 
 is said to have mortified him to such a degree that, on his return to 
 his archbishopric, he died of grief and vexation, May 19th, 988. A 
 volume of St. Dunstan's works was published at Douay in 1626. His 
 successful ambition has given him a considerable place iu ecclesiastical 
 and civil history. He appears to have been a man of extraordinary 
 talents, of great energy, stern self-will, and unscrupulous purpose ; 
 and he exerted all his talents, energy, and unscrupulousness to advance 
 the ecclesiastical power, and to subject all to papal supremacy. Dun- 
 stan's 'Concord of Monastic Rules' is priuted at large in Reyner's 
 'Aposto]atii3 Bencdictinorum iu Auglia,' fol., Duac, 1626, at the 
 beginning of the third part of the Appendix, p. 77. A notice of the 
 other writings attributed to him will be found in Wright, pp. 459-62. 
 
 (William of Malmesbury, History ; Life of St. Duustan in the Acta 
 Sanctorum of the Bollandists, month of May, torn, iv., pp. 344-84; 
 Wright, Biog. Brit. Lit., Ang. Sax. Period ; Kemble, Saxons in Eng- 
 land, book ii. ; Lingard, Hist, of Eng. ; Knight, Pop. Hist, of Eng.) 
 
 DUNTON, JOHN, an eccentric bookseller and voluminous writer 
 of the 17th and 18th centuries, was born at Graffham in Hunting- 
 donshire, on the 4th of May, 1659. The events of his life are soon 
 told, the main interest attached to his name being comprised in his 
 writings. His father was rector of Graffham, and, later in life, of 
 Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire, and was the third John Dunton 
 in regular descent who had been minister in the church. The fourth 
 John Dunton was designed by his father to follow the same course, 
 but after trying a private school, and then a private education under 
 his father, it was found that he had " such a disgust to the languages, 
 that though he had acquired enough Latin to speak it pretty well 
 extempore, the difficulties of Greek were unconquerable." His father 
 at length resolved to apprentice him to a London bookseller when he 
 was nearly fifteen. He served his time with satisfaction to his master, 
 but became a zealous Whig in politics, and a dissenter in religion. 
 Before he was out of his time he was active in getting up, from the 
 apprentices of London, a remonstrance to the king, in reply to a long 
 address praying for the prevention of petitions to parliament. This 
 remonstrance was presented by the Lord Mayor. Dunton himself 
 states that " the Tory apprentices had gathered five thousand names 
 to their address ; but ours, I speak modestly, had at least thirty 
 thousand." Thi3 must be an exaggeration, if it means apprentices ; 
 but probably though got up by the apprentices it was signed by 
 anybody. 
 
 In 1665 he commenced business for himself, and was for a time 
 successful. He married a daughter of the non-conforming minister, 
 Dr. Annesley, of whom another daughter married Samuel AVesley, 
 afterwards rector of Epworth, and father of the distinguished founder 
 of the sect of Methodists. Dunton's business however fell off greatly, 
 indeed business of all kind suffered, after the defeat of the Duke of 
 Monmouth at Sedgemoor ; he therefore took a cargo of books to 
 Boston in America. He was four months on his voyage, and suffered 
 from the want of food and water. The venture was successful, and 
 he remained there some time. While in America he visited an Indian 
 station, of which he gives a curious but not a very correct account, 
 and saw the Rev. John Eliot, the apostle of the Indians, of whose 
 character and successful efforts for the conversion of the natives he 
 speaks very highly. Towards the end of 1686 he returned, but found 
 himself involved by having become surety for a sister of his wife. To 
 escape the consequences he made an excursion to Holland, Flanders, 
 and Germany. 
 
 On his return Dunton found his affairs settled, and again embarked 
 in business as a publisher, in which he continued for ten years. He 
 lost his wife, married again, had disputes with his wife and her mother 
 about property, failed in business, and continued publishing pamph- 
 lets and other works till 1723, after which nothing is known of him 
 except that he died in 1733. 
 
 DuDton was a most prolific writer, and a not less prolific projector. 
 His writings were chiefly on religious, moral, or political subjects, but 
 in nearly all of them he contrived to introduce much of his own per- 
 sonal affairs. With an inordinate degree of vanity he mixed consider- 
 able shrewdness of observation, and in the most entertaining of his 
 works, ' The Life and Errors of John Dunton,' printed in 1705, he has 
 given the " Lives and Characters of a Thousand Persons." It is 
 amusing to see the principle on which they are introduced entirely 
 with reference to himself — the authors who wrote for him, the book- 
 sellers he associated with, the printers he employed, and the person 
 even who made the printer's ink. When he goes abroad it is the 
 same; no eminence attracts him, but all with whom he has any 
 acquaintance are charactered. The characters on the whole are done 
 without ill-nature or prejudice, but are not very discriminative, and 
 as he occasionally had intercourse with men whose memory yet lives, 
 the sketches he gives are not uninteresting. In his characters of the 
 booksellers he incidentally relates some curious facts with reference 
 to their business. It thence appears that some single sermons and 
 occasional pamphlets had a very large sale. Of Lukin's ' Practice of 
 Godliness,' 10,000 were sold ; of Reach's 'War with the Devil,' and 
 ' Travels of True Godliness,' 10,000 were printed, and " they will sell 
 io the md cf time." With Goodwin, the printer to the Houso of 
 
 Commons, and two other printers, Dunton was in partnership for tha 
 printing of 'Dying Speeches;' a singular undertaking, as it seems to 
 us now, to require the union of four respectable firms. 
 
 Of his other works, the most important were ' The Athenian 
 Mercury,' which was published in weekly numbers from 1690 to 
 1696, forming twenty volumes. From this a selection in threo 
 volumes was made, under the title of the ' Athenian Oracle.' Tho 
 papers consist of answers to queries, most of them imaginary, upon 
 all sorts of questions. The plan, of which he was extremely proud, 
 was Dunton's own, aud his assistants were, at first, his brother-in-law, 
 Wesley, Mr. 11. Sault, a Cambridge theologian, and Dr. John Norris. 
 The 'Dublin Scuffle' contains some curious particulars relating to 
 social manners in Ireland; and 'Dunton's Creed, or the Religion of a 
 Bookseller, in imitation of Brown's Religio Medici,' is a singular 
 production. 
 
 DUPERRE, VICTOR GUY, a baron of the empire and a French 
 admiral, was bom at La Rochelle on the 20th of February 1775. He 
 commenced his maritime career in the merchant navy, and went to 
 India, but returned to France after a voyage of eighteen months ; aud 
 war having broken out, he entered the republican service in 1795. 
 During the next ten years he took part in many single ship-fights with 
 the English, until he was promoted to the staff on board the Veteran, 
 commanded by Prince Jerome Bonaparte, iu 1804. In September 
 1806 he became captain, and took the command of the Sirene frigate. 
 In March 1S08 whilst off the coast of Bretagne, in company with the 
 Italienne, Duperre" was chased by two ships and three frigates, and 
 whilst making for the port of L'Orient, his passage was intercepted and 
 he had to sustain for an hour aud twenty minutes an unequal combat 
 with two of the enemy's ships, keeping up a constant fire at once from 
 both broadsides. Though repeatedly summoned to surrender, he 
 contrived to bring off his frigate ; an act of skilful intrepidity which 
 did not escape the notice of Napoleon, who promoted him to the rank 
 of ship captain. He performed several brilliant exploits in the 
 Indian Ocean in 1808 and 1809, after which he became a baron of the 
 empire and contre-amiral, August 20, 1810. In September 1823, he 
 was appointed to command the French squadron lying before Cadiz, 
 and contributed to the capture of that city. In 1826 he became 
 commander in chief of the combined fleet in the Antilles. 
 
 In 1830 he was summoned to Paris in February by the government 
 of Charles X. to be consulted respecting the meditated expedition 
 against Algiers. In his reply, Duperrd represented the undertaking 
 as extremely perilous and uncertain, but in spite of his representations 
 it was resolved upon, and the absolute command of the naval forces 
 was confided to him. This fleet set sail on the 25th of May 1830. It 
 consisted of 103 ships of war, and 572 vessels belonging to the 
 merchant service, and other craft, the whole having on board 37,331 
 men and 4000 horses. After encountering many difficulties from the 
 nature of the coast and contrary winds, Duperre appeared before the 
 batteries of Algiers on the morning of the 13th of June. The signal 
 share taken by Duperrd in the siege and capture of this formidable 
 fort, induced Charles X. to raise him to the peerage, July 14th, 1830, 
 a few days before his own fall. This appointment was revoked by 
 the government of July; but on the 13th of August 1830 the same 
 government made him an admiral, and restored his peerage. He 
 became minister of the naval department November 22, 1834; and 
 was afterwards recalled twice to the same office under different 
 administrations. He resigned this office on account of declining 
 health, February 7, 1843, and died November 2, 1846. 
 
 * DUPERREY, LOUIS-ISIDORE, was born at Paris on the 21st 
 of October, 1786. He entered into the military marine in 1803, and 
 served on board various ships during the war. In 1817, when the 
 corvette L'Uranie, under the command of Captain Louis de Frey- 
 cinet, was sent out on a voyage of observation, Duperrey was specially 
 charged with the operations of hydrography. The observations were 
 chiefly oarried on in the North Pacific Ocean, and Duperrey made a 
 general map of the Marianne (Ladrone) Islands, and maps and plans 
 of portions of the Caroline Islands, of the island of Guam, of anchor- 
 ages among the Sandwich Islands, &c. Iu the night of February 15, 
 1820, the Uranie struck on a rock, and Duperrey having in one of 
 the boats discovered a small bay, the Uranie was conducted there, and 
 became a wreck, but everything on board was saved. Here the ship- 
 wrecked voyagers had remained about ten weeks, when the Mercury, 
 an American three-masted vessel, came in sight, and was engaged to 
 conduct the crew and their property to Monte Video. Having per- 
 formed this service, the Mercury was purchased by Capt. de Freycinet, 
 and named La Physicienne. The expedition returned to France iu 
 November 1820. The place of the shipwreck is shown in Duperrey's 
 ' Plans de la Partie Occidental de la Baie Fraucaise,de la Riviere de 
 Bougainville, et des Ports St. Louis et Duperrey aux lies Malouines.' 
 
 Within a year after his return M. Duperrey submitted to the minis- 
 ter of marine the plan of a new expedition, which was accepted : he 
 was then raised to the rank of lieutenant, and appointed to the com- 
 mand of La Coquille, which, having been armed and equipped at 
 Toulon, sailed thence August 11th, 1822. The Coquille crossed the 
 meridian of Cape Horn January 1st, 1823, and soon afterwards entered 
 the great South Pacific Ocean. After remaining some months among 
 the islands, the expedition passed by the eastern end of New Guinea, 
 and on the 17th of January 1824 cast anchor in Port Jackson, 
 
675 DUPIN, ANDRG-MARIE-JE AN- JACQUES. 
 
 Australia. Sir Thomas Brisbane, wlio was thea governor of New 
 South Wale?, afforded the naturalists the means of exploring the Blue 
 Mountains and the plains of Bathurst. M. Duperrey then set sail for 
 New Zealand, and after a short stay entered again among the islands 
 of the Facific Ocean. Several islands were discovered, among which 
 was a group which received the name of the Duperrey Islands. M. 
 Duperrey afterwards examined the northern part of New Guinea, 
 traversed the Moluccas, made a short stay at the islands of Mauritius 
 and Bourbon, and then passing round the Cape of Good Hope, reached 
 the port of Marseille on the 24th of April 1825. 
 
 The principal results of this important scientific expedition were 
 presented to the public under the title of a ' Voyage autour du Monde, 
 executd par Ordre du Roi sur la Corvette La Coquille, pendant les 
 Anndes 1822, 1823, 1824, et 1825,' Paris, 1826-30. The historical 
 part consists of text (not completed), 1 vol. royal 4to, with atlas, royal 
 folio, containing 60 coloured plates; Zoology, 2 vols. 4to, and 1 vol. 
 folio (complete); Botany, 1 vol. 4to and 1 vol. folio (not complete); 
 Hydrography, 1 vol. 4to (not complete), and 1 vol. folio (complete). 
 The Zoology is by Messrs. Lesson and Garuot. The Botany is by 
 Dumont d'Urville, Bory de Saiut-Vincent, and Bronguiart. The 
 Hydrography is by M. Duperrey ; and the Physical Science, also by 
 him, forms 1 vol. roy. 4to, with maps, exhibiting the terrestrial mag- 
 netism, and is complete. 
 
 DUPIN, ANDRE-MARIE-JEAN- JACQUES, was born February 
 1, 1783, at Varzy, in the French department of Nievre. He is the 
 oldest of three brothers, of whom Baron Charles Dupin is the second, 
 and Philippe Dupiu, a lawyer, who was born October 7, 1795, and 
 died February 14, 1846, was the third. The father, Charles Andrd 
 Dupin, was a lawyer and magistrate of eminence, and himself super- 
 intended the early education of his sons. 
 
 Andrd Dupiu, after having been some time in the office of a lawyer, 
 was sent to the Academie de Legislation at Paris, as the pupil elect 
 of the department of Ni6vre; and when the schools of law were 
 re-established in 1804, he received from them successively the degree 
 of licenciate and doctor of laws. In 1810 he failed in a competition 
 for a professorship of law, and thenceforward devoted himself to the 
 bar. In 1813 he became secretary to a commission for the classifica- 
 tion of the laws of the empire. In May 1815 he was elected a 
 member of the chamber of representatives, and in the committee of 
 the 23rd of June opposed the proposal to proclaim the young King 
 of Rome as emperor under the title of Napoleon II. In October 1815 
 he published his ' Libre Defense des Accuses,' and in November he 
 was united with Berryer in the defence of Marshal Ney. In 1816 
 he defended the three Englishmen, Wilson, Bruce, and Hutchinson, 
 who were accused of aiding the escape of Lavalette from prison. 
 Among many other instances in which his aid was given to those who 
 were exposed to danger either from party violence or from the 
 injustice of arbitrary power, may be mentioned his eloquent defence 
 of the poet Beranger in 1821, and of the 'Journal desDdbats' in 
 1829 ; and so great was his reputation as a sound lawyer that he was 
 scarcely less employed in chamber practice than in public causes. 
 
 In 1826 he was elected a member of the chamber of deputies, and 
 he retained his seat till 1842. He was active and influential in the 
 measures of opposition which produced the revolution of 1830. In 
 August 1830 he was appointed procureur-gdodral of the court of 
 cassation, and was called to take part in the first cabinet formed by 
 Louis Philippe. At this period he spoke in the chamber of deputies 
 frequently and energetically, not only for the adoption of liberal 
 measures by the government but against the abuses of liberty by the 
 press and the working classes. On the 21st of November 1832 he 
 was elected president of the chamber of deputies, and he was seven 
 times re-elected. In the same year he was chosen a member of the 
 Academie Franchise. 
 
 When the revolution of 1848 compelled Louis Philippe to abdicate 
 the throne, M. Dupin led the young Comte de Paris into the chamber 
 of deputies, and proposed him as King of the French, with the 
 Duchess of Orleans as regent during his minority. This attempt to 
 stem the tide of republicanism having failed, he yielded to the national 
 will, and retaining his office of procureur-gdndral, obtained a decision 
 of the court of cassation that in future justice should be administered 
 in the name of the French people. Having been elected a member of 
 the Assemblee Constituante he forthwith became actively engaged in 
 the formation of the new government, as president of the commission 
 of regulation, president of the committee of legislation, and member 
 of the constitutional commission. On the 13th of May 1849 M. Dupin 
 was elected a member of the legislative assembly, of which, on the 
 1st of June following, he was chosen president, and he retained this 
 situation till the assembly was dissolved. The courage, coolness, and 
 firmness which he displayed amidst the tumultuous violeuce of the 
 factions of that stormy period, were regarded with general admiration. 
 He continued to retain his situation of procurer-general even after 
 the act of December 2, 1851, but resigned it in 1852, on the day 
 after the publication of the decrees confiscating the property of the 
 house of Orleans. 
 
 The publications of M. Andre" Dupin are numerous and valuable. 
 They are nearly all on legal subjects. His earliest work was the 
 'Principia Juris Civilis,' 5 vols., 12mo, Paris, 1806, and he com- 
 menced in the same year his ' Mdmoires et Plaidoyers de 1806 au ler 
 
 DUPIN, CHARLES, BARON. fl79 
 
 Janvier 1830,' 20 vols. 4to. His 'Manuel du droit Ecclesiastique 
 Fraucais,' 12mo, Paris, was censured by the Congregation of tha 
 Index at Rome and by the Archbishop of Lyon, whose mandate 
 against it was suppressed by the French council of state. One of his 
 latest works, and almost the only one not connected with the law, is 
 ' Le Morvan ; Topographie, Agriculture, Moaurs des Habitants, litat 
 Ancien, Etat Actuel,' 12mo, Paris, 1853. It was followed by ' Md- 
 moires de M. Dupin,' in 4 vols. 8vo, 1855 — 63. [See Supplement.] 
 
 * DUPIN, CHARLES, BARON, brother of Audr6 Dupin, wag born 
 October 6, 1784, at Varzy, in the department of Nievre. After 
 receiving his rudimentary education from his father, he was sent in 
 1801 to the Ecole Polytechnique of Paris. In 1803 he entered the 
 French navy as an engineer. He was employed in 1805 on the arsenal 
 and other defensive works of Antwerp, and afterwards assisted in the 
 works of reconstruction of the harbour of Genoa. In 1808 he pro- 
 ceeded with the squadron which was sent by Napoleon I. to take 
 possession of the Ionian Islands, which were ceded to France in 1807 
 by the treaty of Tilsit. The squadron returned to France, but Charles 
 Dupin remained at Corfu, where he assisted at the formation of the 
 Ionian Academy, and became its secretary, and also its professor of 
 mechanics and the physical sciences. He left the Ionian Islands in 
 1811, and after being detained in Italy several months by illness, 
 returned to Paris in 1812. He presented some memoirs to the French 
 Institute, and was elected a corresponding member. In 1813 he was 
 sent to Toulon, where he instituted the Musde Maritime. 
 
 After the peace ho was sent in 1815 to take charge of the works of 
 the arsenal of Dunkerquo, and while there formed the desire of passing 
 over to England, in order to study the great works of construction of 
 that country. His request to be authorised to do this, at his own 
 expense, was at first refused by the French government, but was at 
 length conceded ; and in 1816 he commenced his travels and investi- 
 gations in Great Britain. In these labours, which occupied about 
 twenty months, peculiar opportunities of observation were afforded to 
 him ; he received assistance from some of the most distinguished men 
 of science in the country, and he was granted access to a large mass 
 of official documents, many of which were by him for the first time 
 reduced to a popular and comprehensive shape. He returned to France 
 in 1818, but made two or three additional journeys in Great Britain 
 and Ireland before his great work was completed. The publication of 
 the first part was commenced in 1820 under the title of ' Voyages dans 
 la Grande-Bretagne de 1816 a 1819,' 6 vols. 4to, with atlas, Pari?, 
 1820-24; and also the 'Force Commerciale de la Grande-Bretagne,' 
 2 vols. 4to, of which a translation into English was published under 
 the title of ' The Commercial Power of Great Britain, exhibiting a 
 complete View of the Public Works of this Country, under the several 
 Heads of Streets, Roads, Canals, Aqueducts, Bridges, Coasts, and 
 Maritime Ports ; by the Baron Dupin, Member of the Institute of 
 France,' 2 vols. 8vo, with 4to atlas of Plans, Elevations, &c, London, 
 1825. While the publication of his work was in progress, M. Charles 
 Dupin was made a member of the French Academy of Sciences, 
 received the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1824 
 was created a Baron. During the same period he was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Mechanics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Mdtiers, and 
 published his courses of lectures as three separate works, under the 
 titles of ' La Gdomdtrie appliqude aux Arts,' ' La Mdchanique appliqude i 
 aux Arts,' and ' La Dynamie, ou Science des Forces Motrices utiles a , 
 l'lndustrie.' He afterwards published ' Ge'ome'trie et Mdchanique des 
 Arts et Mdtiers et des Beaux-Arts,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1825-26. In 1827 
 he published the ' Forces Productives et Commerciales de la France,' 
 2 vols. 4to, with atlas, and the ' Situation Progressive de la France 
 depuis 1814,' 4to. 
 
 These laborious and useful publications had rendered the name of 
 Baron Dupin so popular that the electors of the department of Tarn 
 in 1828 chose him as their representative in the chamber of deputies, 
 without having ever seen him. He spoke frequently in that session 
 and the following, and in 1830 voted with that majority which changed 
 the dynasty. 
 
 After the revolution of 1830 he was elected a member of the 
 chamber of deputies for the department of the Seine, and performed 
 an important part in the debates. In 1831 the king appointed him a 
 councillor of state and a member of the Board of Admiralty, and 
 during four years he was minister of marine. In 1838 he was created 
 a peer of France. 
 
 After the revolution of February 1848, Baron Dupin represented 
 the department of Seine-Infdrieure in the Constituent Assembly and 
 the Legislative Assembly. He was president of the French jury sent, 
 iu 1851, by the minister of commerce to the Great Exhibition ol 
 Industry in London. After the coup d'etat of December 1851 he 
 resigned his seat at the Board of Admiralty ; but when the votes of 
 universal suffrage had sanctioned successively the decennial presidency 
 and the empire, he accepted a seat in the senate. 
 
 The following are some of the most important of the later works of 
 Baron Dupin : — ' Essai sur l'Organisation Progressive de la Marine et 
 des Colonies,' 8vo, Paris, 1834 ; ' Rapport du Jury Central sur let 
 Products de l'lndustrie Fraucais Exposes en 1834,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1836-37 ; ' Constitution, Histoire, et Avenir des Caisses d'Epargne de 
 France,' 18mo, Paris, 1844 ; 'Industries compardes de Paris et de 
 Londrw?/ 18mo, Paris, 1852. 
 
677 
 
 DUPLEIX, JOSEPH-FRANCOIS. 
 
 DUPUIS, CHARLES-FRANCOIS. 
 
 DUPLEIX, JOSEPH-FRANCOIS, was born towards the end of 
 the 17th century. His father was a farmer-general of the French 
 revenues and a director of the French East India Company. Intend- 
 ing to form his son for commercial pursuits of the highest kind, he 
 had him educated in mathematics, engineering, and fortification, and 
 in 1715 sent him to sea, and he made several voyages to America and 
 the Indies. The influence of his father procured him the situation 
 of a member of the council at Pondicherry, then the seat of govern- 
 ment of the French East India Company in Hindustan, and Dupleix 
 landed there in 1720. He remained in this situation about ten years, 
 during which he devoted himself to the business of his office, made 
 himself well acquainted with the commerce of the country, embarked 
 in it on his own account, and realised a large property. Meantime 
 his talents and information pointed him out as the most proper person 
 to superintend the business of the company at their settlement of 
 Chandernagore, on the river Hoogly, about 16 miles above Calcutta. 
 His activity and enterprise soon produced a favourable change on the 
 place ; the colonists multiplied, he entered into the country trade, 
 and he and his partners had not less than twelve vessels trading to 
 Surat, the coast of Malabar, the Maldives, the Philippines, and else- 
 where. He increased his own property to a very great amount, aod 
 during his administration of about ten years, more than 2000 brick- 
 houses were built at Chandernagore, a new establishment for the 
 French company was formed at Patna, and their commerce in Bengal 
 was greatly extended. 
 
 The reputation which Dupleix had acquired by his administration 
 at Chandernagore pointed him out as the most suitable person to be 
 appointed governor at Pondicherry of all the establishments of the 
 French in Hindustan. To this situation he was accordingly appointed 
 in 1712. The French had at this time another governor in the East 
 Indies, with distinct and independent power, whose seat of govern- 
 ment was in the Isle of France (Mauritius), and included the island 
 of Bourbon. This governor was La Bourdonnais, a naval officer of 
 the greatest skill and courage. War having broken out in 1744 
 between the French_and English, La Bourdonnais collected a squadron 
 at Mauritius, with which the English ships off the coast of the Car- 
 natic were unable to contend ; he then landed a body of troops, 
 September 14, 1740, and compelled Madras, at that time a settlement 
 of the English, to surrender ; but entered into a treaty to restore it 
 on the payment of a stipulated sum. This was in accordance with 
 direct orders from the French government, who did not at that time 
 deem it prudent to extend their territory in Hindustan. Dupleix 
 however was of a directly opposite opinion, and he refused to abide 
 by the terms of the capitulation. This led to violent disputes 
 between Dupleix and La Bourdonnais, the result of which was that 
 La Bourdonnais was recalled home, and Dupleix retained Madras, 
 and plundered it. He afterwards made three or four attempts, but 
 without success, to capture Fort St. David, another English settle- 
 ment on the Coromandel coast, about twelve miles south from 
 Pondicherry. As it was the main object of Dupleix to expel the 
 English from Hindustan, or at least from its eastern coast, and he 
 was unable to accomplish it by his own troops, he entered into various 
 intrigues with the native princes, especially with the soubahdar or 
 viceroy of the Deccan, and the nabob of the Carnatic. The conflicts 
 between the French and English, each supported alternately by the 
 native rulers, continued till 1754. In that year a conference was held 
 in London between agents appointed by the French and English 
 East India Companies, and attended also by a minister from each 
 government. By a decision of this conference Dupleix was recalled 
 to France, and M. Qodheu, who superseded him in the government of 
 all the French possessions in Hindustan, landed at Pondicherry on 
 the 2nd of August. Dupleix, after his return to Paris, in vain 
 endeavoured to obtain repayment of vast sums of money which he 
 had expended on account of the East India Company, and after a 
 series of unsuccessful law-suits, died of grief. Voltaire, ' Prdcis du 
 Siecle de Louis XIV.,' ch. 39, says, "II en inourut bientot de 
 chagrin." He died, according to the 'Biographie Universclle,' in 1763. 
 
 DUPONCEAU, PETER, STEPHEN, was born in the ile de Rhd.in 
 France, about 1760. He went early to the United States cf North 
 America, served in the army, and afterwards in the office of the 
 secretary of state. He subsequently practised for some years at the 
 bar, but quitted the law for literature. Ho was a member of several 
 literary societies, and in 1828 became president of the American 
 Philosophical Society. In 1835 he gained the Volney prize at the 
 Institute of Fiance by a ' Mdmoire sur le Syst6me Grammatical des 
 Langues de quelques Nations Indienne3 de l'Amdrique du Nord,' 
 which was printed in 8vo at Paris, in 1838, under the care of M. J. B. 
 B. Eyries. This ' Mdmoire ' contains an account and examination of 
 the languages of what the author denominates the Algonquin races, or 
 the tribes calling themselves the Chippewaya, or Ojibbeways. Among 
 the other works of Duponceau are : — ' A. Dissertation on the Nature 
 and Extent of the Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States,' 
 8vo, Philadelphia, 1834; 'A Brief View of the Constitution of the 
 United States,' 8vo, Philadelphia, 1834 ; and ' A Dissertation on the 
 Nature and Character of the Chinese System of Writing,' 8vq, Phil- 
 adelphia, 1838. The object of this last work is to refute the common 
 notion that the Chinese written characters do not in any Bense repre- 
 sent words, but only ideas, and the inference thence deduced, that they 
 
 may be read and made use of by other nations who do not understand 
 the Chinese spoken language — as for instance by the Japanese and 
 Coreans. This able man, whose works are all, as far as we havo 
 examined them, marked by careful research and sound information, 
 as well as by just and independent thinking, died at Philadelphia on 
 the 2nd of April 1844. 
 
 DUPONT DE L'EURE, JACQUES-CHARLES, was born at 
 Neubourg, department de l'Eure, on the 27th of February 1707. 
 He was an advocate, practising in Normandy, when the revolution 
 began in 1789, and was made a judge iu one of the law-courts of 
 Louviers in 1792. In 1798 he was a member of the Council of Five 
 Hundred, and on the 18th Brumaire was driven out by the bayonets 
 of Murat. He belonged to the Corps Legislatif in 1813, and the 
 following year was elected a deputy of the new Chamber. During 
 the governments of Louis XVIII., of Charles X., and of Louis Philippe, 
 he attached himself without deviation to the cause he had first adopted 
 of constitutional reform, and on more than one critical occasion took 
 the lead of the liberal party. After the revolution of July 1830, 
 Dupont de l'Eure became a commissioner of the law in the provisional 
 government in his own department, and soon after, yielding to the 
 entreaties of Lafitte, he accepted the office of Minister of Justice; but 
 his principles and want of flexibility were suited neither to his col- 
 leagues nor to his sovereign, so that he resigned his portfolio on the 
 27th of December 1830, and resumed his place in the ranks of the 
 opposition. After the fall of Louis Philippe in February 1848, Dupont 
 de l'Eure became, against his own wish, a member of the provisional 
 government. He died in 1855, at the age of eighty-eight. A firm but 
 by no means a violent republican, he was generally respected as a 
 consistent and honest politician. 
 
 * DUPONT, PIERKE, was born at Lyon, in France, April 21, 1821, 
 the son of labouring people. He was educated by his godfather, a 
 priest, and very early began to write songs, which he also sang. He 
 attracted notice, and in 1844 a volume of poems was published by 
 subscription, entitled ' The Two Angels.' He then went to Paris, and 
 obtained a place in the office of the secretary of the Institute. He 
 continued to pour forth songs, most of them vividly descriptive of the 
 scenes and feelings of country life, with a freshness, a strength, and a 
 simplicity, that remind us of some of the best of our English lyrical 
 peasant poets. He did not however confine himself to rural subjects. 
 He wrote many political songs in favour of republicanism, which 
 became extremely popular : one was ' The Song of Bread,' written in 
 1848; another was 'The Song of the Workers.' On the coup-d'dtat 
 (December, 1851) taking place he was arrested, but was released in 
 consequence of the strong intercessions in his favour. 
 
 DUPUIS, CHARLES-FRANCOIS, was born of poor parents, at 
 Fryd-Chateau, between Gisors and Chaumont, on the 26th of October 
 1742. His early instructions were due to his father, who, though iu 
 very humble circumstances, appears to have been a man of some 
 learning and considerable intelligence ; and the early turn of mind iu 
 young Dupuis was very decidedly to mathematics and astronomy. 
 It was his good fortune to become known while yet a boy to the 
 Due de Rochefoucault, who procured him an exhibition to the college 
 of Harcourt. His studies here took a new direction, and he made 
 such rapid progress in them as to secure the highest opinion of the 
 professors of the college, and give promise of distinction iu future life. 
 
 Before the age of twenty-four, he was appointed professor of rhetoric 
 in the college of Lisieux; and having sufficient leisure allowed him 
 by his duties, he completed his course of law studies, and in 1770 
 was admitted an advocate of the parliament. Being directed by the 
 rector of his university to pronounce the discourse on the distribu- 
 tion of the prizes, this led also to his being nominated to deliver the 
 funeral oration, in the name of the university, on the queen Marie- 
 Thdrese. With these his literary reputation commenced, and they 
 are considered good specimens of purity and elegance in Latin 
 composition. 
 
 The nature of his literary pursuits again led him into contact with 
 the subjects of his early study ; and profiting by the lessons and the 
 friendship of Lalande, he entered upon the study of astronomical 
 history with a zeal which never abated to the close of his life. His 
 attention was especially directed in the first place to the probable 
 signification of the astronomical symbols which constituted the signs 
 of the zodiac ; and thence to all the other ancient constellations. 
 His active mind however even in the midst of these deeply interesting 
 speculations, was alive to other objects ; and among his amusements 
 wa3 the construction of a telegraph, founded on the suggestions of 
 Amontons, by means of which, from 1778 to the commencement of 
 the Revolution, he carried on a correspondence with his friend M. 
 Fortin, who was resident at Bagneux, he himself being located at 
 Belleville. This mode of correspondence he however very prudently 
 laid aside, lest it should lay him open to suspicion from the factions 
 that then governed France. 
 
 In 1777 and 1778 he published in the 'Journal des Savans ' tho 
 first sketches of the theory at which he had arrived ; and shortly 
 after, both in the astronomy of his friend Lalande, and in a separate 
 4to volume under the title of 'Mdmoire sur l'Origine des Constella- 
 tions et sur l'explication de la Fable par l'Astronomie,' 1781. The 
 sceptical tendency of the views entertained by Dupuis led Condorcet 
 to recommend him to Frederick the Great, as professor of literature 
 
DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANCOIS. 
 
 DUPUYTREN, BARON. 
 
 060 
 
 iu the College of Berlin, and successor to Thidbault ; and the offei 
 was accepted by Dupuis. The death of Frederick however prevented 
 the arrangement from being carried into effect; but the chair of Latin 
 eloquence in the College of France becoming then vacant by the 
 death of Bejot, he was appointed to fill it. In the same year (1778) 
 he was named a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and was 
 appointed one of the four commissioners of public instruction for the 
 department of Paris. The danger of hi < residence in the capital now 
 induced him to seek a retreat at Evreux. He was, notwithstanding 
 his retirement, named member of the Convention for the department 
 of Seiue-et-Oise ; and was remarkable for the moderation of his views. 
 Caution was the characteristic of hia political career. In the year II. 
 he was elected secretary of the Assembly; and iu the fullowiug year 
 a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He was elected one of the 
 forty-eight members of the French Institute, though after much 
 determined and discreditable opposition from the ultra-revolution 
 party. On the 18th Brumaire, year IV., he was elected by the depart- 
 ment of Seine-et-Oise their member of the legislative body, and soon 
 after president of that assembly, and ultimately was nominated a 
 candidate for the senate. Hopeless of the regeneration of France, he 
 retired at once from public life, and devoted the remainder of his d iys 
 to the investigations of the questions which arose out of his early 
 speculations. We have hence to trace his progress only as a man of 
 letters and a man of science, and to give Rome general idea of the 
 views which are contained in his several works. 
 
 On the publication of the ' Mdmoire sur les Constellations' a now 
 course of erudite inquiry was opened ; and though the arguments and 
 conclusions were contested by Bailly, he gave Dupuis full credit for 
 the ability and learning displayed in the work. He afterwards 
 renewed his researches, and made them the subject of a course of 
 lectures delivered from his chair in the college of Lisieux. In 1794 
 he published his great work entitled ' Origine de tous les Cultes, ou 
 la Religion Uuiverselle,' 3 vols. 4to, with an AtlaB ; and also, slightly 
 abridged in one of its parts (the 'Justification'), in 12 vols. 8vo. 
 This work gave rise to much discussion, often conducted with a 
 sectarian bitterness little creditable to philosophical or theological 
 investigation. In 1798 he published an abridgment of the 'Origine' 
 iu one vol. 8vo, or rather a series of extracts from his large work, 
 under the same title ; but a much more methodical abridgment was 
 shortly after given to the world by Destutt de-Tracy. 
 
 The wildly-displayed hatred towards Christianity which so strongly 
 developed itself during the eventful period of the French Revolution 
 was well calculated to create deep intorest in the work of Dupuis. 
 He had been led to conclude that the earliest traces of the general 
 mythology of the southern climate3 would be found in Upper Egypt, 
 if indeed they had not their origin there. Iu this celebrated work 
 therefore originated the ' Commission' to explore the ruins of that 
 country, which was undertaken by Napoleon after his return from 
 Italy. Nothing indeed can show so clearly the influence which this 
 work had exercised over the ' regenerated nation,' as that the most 
 ambitious of all the men of his time should leave the scene of the 
 most glittering hopes to a daring spirit like his, to lead an expedition 
 such as this. Out of that expedition what new and unexpected 
 results have arisen ! The very phraseology of history has been 
 changed ; and the sacred rites and domestic manners of ancient 
 Egypt are now scarcely, if at all, less understood than those of Greece 
 and Rome. 
 
 The Zodiac of Tentyra (or Denderah) engaged much of the attention 
 of Dupuis, upon which he published a Memoire and an Explication, 
 iu the ' Revue Philosophique' for May 1806, which he afterwards pub- 
 lished in an enlarged and separate form, in 1 vol. 4to, under the title 
 of ' Memoire explicatif du Zodiaque Chronologique et Mythologique.' 
 In this curious dissertation he compares the Greek and Egyptian 
 zodiacs with those cf the Chinese, the Persians, the Arabs, and all the 
 others of which he could obtain any distinct notices. He afterwards 
 read to his class of the Institute a ' Memoire sur le Phdnix,' which, a3 
 he contended, signified the reproduction of the cycle of 1461 common 
 (vague) Egyptian years. In the ' Nouvel Almanach deB Muses' for 
 1805 he also published a fragment of the poem of Nonnius; it is 
 indeed said that his astronomical system was suggested by this poem 
 originally, and it is certain that his 'Origine des Cultes' is but a 
 voluminous commentary on the ideas contained in that poem. 
 
 Dupuis died at Is-sur-Tille on September 29, 1809, aged sixty-seven. 
 He was a member of the Legion of Honour. He was a man of strict 
 probity, and much esteemed by his friends for his personal qualities. 
 He amassed no fortune, being satisfied to expend his income upon the 
 materials for his researches. 
 
 He left in manuscript a work on Cosmogonies and Theogonies, 
 intended as a defence and illustration of the doctrines of the ' Origine 
 des Cultes.' In this work Leblond considered that Dupuis had at last 
 discovered the interpretation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics — a con- 
 clusion that few, since the researches of Dr. Young and Champollion, 
 will feel disposed to admit. There is also "reason to believe that it 
 was in consequence of conversations with Dupuis that Voluey com- 
 posed his celebrated work on the ' Ruins of Empires.' 
 
 Dupuis has been often stigmatised as a paradoxical writer. Bold 
 and speculative he was, but there is certainly little cause to call him 
 paradoxical. His conjectures are often plausible, though his deduc- 
 
 tions from them are frequently inconsequential. Whatever mi^ht 
 have been the immediate effect of his scepticism, there can be little 
 doubt that the ultimate effect has been alike favourable to early history 
 and to the Christian religion. He was a sincere and candid man, and 
 always appeared to be fully impressed with tho truth of the conclusions 
 at which he had arrived. It was indeed that earnestness of character 
 that gave so much weight to his opinions and so much influence to 
 his suggestions. Had this featuro been wanting in the character of 
 Dupuis, the expedition to Egypt would never have been undertaken, 
 nor consequently would tho brilliant discoveries to which it finally led 
 have been made. 
 
 DUPUIS, THOMAS SAUNDERS, Mus. Doc., the composer of much 
 good music for the chapels-royal, aud a very distinguished organist, 
 was born iu London iu 1733, and received his education iu the royal 
 chapel, of which he became organist and composer on the death of 
 Dr. Boyce iu 1779. Iu 1790 he was admitted to tho degree of Doctor 
 in Music by the University of Oxford, and died in 1796. After hie 
 death a selection from his works was published in two volumes, by 
 his pupil, John Spencer, Esq., nephew and son-in-law of the Duke of 
 Marlborough ; but many of his best productions btill continue in 
 manuscript, and remain buried in the books of the king's chapel, 
 among several other compositions of undisputed merit. 
 
 DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, LE BARON, was born at Pierre- 
 Buffiere, a little village of the department of Haute-Vienue, iu France, 
 on the 5th of October 1777. His parents were poor, and at the age 
 of three years he was stolen from them by a lady of rank, who wished 
 to adopt him as her son. He wa3 however returned to his parents, 
 and received his early education at the college of Magnac-Laval. 
 During one of his college vacations, whilst he was playing in his 
 native village when a troop of cavalry passed through, one of tho 
 officers was much struck with the appearance of young Dupuytren, 
 and being pleased with his answers to his questions, obtained hia own 
 and hia parents' consent to take him with him to Paris, and to educate 
 him. The officer had a brother in the College de la Marche, under 
 whose care Dupuytren was placed. Here he had a brilliant career, 
 and determined on pursuing medicine as a profession. He commenced 
 the study of pharmacy under Lagrange and Vauquelin, and also 
 attended the dissecting-room. He ia described at this time as occu- 
 pying a room with a fellow-student, the furniture of which consisted 
 of three chairs, a table, and a sort of bed on which the friends alter- 
 nately reposed; and their means were so scanty that they were obliged 
 to live on bread and water. During this period he always commenced 
 hia work at four o'clock in the morning. 
 
 In the month Frimaire of the year III. of the republic of France 
 (the end of 1794), a new school of medicine was formed in Paria under 
 Fourcroy. The office of proaector, aa well as the chairs of the pro- 
 fessors, were given by concours; for one of these positions Dupuytren 
 contended, aud was placed first on the list. His emolument was 
 barely sufficient to keep him in health. In 1801 he contended with 
 
 ! M. Dumeril for the position of chef des travaux anatomiques, which 
 he lost by one vote ; but a few months after, Dumeril having been 
 appointed to a professorship, the place was given to Dupuytren. 
 
 Up to this time morbid anatomy had only been pursued in the same 
 manner as descriptive anatomy. Little had been done towards regard- 
 ing the appearances of bodies after death as the result of certain 
 definite actions in life ; aud the facts recorded by Bartholin, Bouet, 
 Manget, Morgagui, and Lieutaud, had never been systematise!), nor 
 any general principles deduced from them. Dupuytren saw this, and 
 devoted himself with ardour to pathological anatomy. He however 
 determined to connect this branch of inquiry with surgery. The 
 results of his labour were not however published by himself, as indeed 
 very little that he has done has ever been, but appeared in a work by 
 M. Marandel, entitled 'Essai sur les Irritations,' Paris, 1807. In this 
 
 i work the organic lesions of the body are distributed into species, 
 genera, orders, and classes ; and although the work contains many 
 errors of observation, aud much hasty generalisation, it must be 
 regarded as a successful effort towards forming a science of morbid 
 anatomy. 
 
 In 1803 Dupuytren took his degree in the faculty of medicine. On 
 this occasion he wrote a thesis on some points of anatomy, physiology, 
 chemistry, and pathological anatomy. This thesis contained important 
 statements of facts and deductions. The principal subjects were, the 
 structure of the various canals of the bones, the use of the lateral 
 ligaments, the nature of the chyle, and the nature of the morbid 
 formations called false membranes. It was published iu Paris in 
 1804. In 1S03 a society was constituted in the faculty of medicine 
 for the purpose of discussing and publishing papers ou medical sub- 
 jects. From 1804 to 1821 this society published seven volumes, under 
 the title ' Bulletin de la Faculte de Me"decine de Paris, et de la Socidtc 
 dtablie dans son sein,' 8vo. The bulletins were drawn up by Merat 
 and Dumeril, and contain a great number of reports and memoirs 
 which had been communicated to the society by Dupuytren. Amou 0 ' 
 the most important were papers on the influence of organic lesions on 
 health ; a description of several monstrous foetuses ; description of 
 two children, one a dwarf, the other a giant ; and on the cause of 
 death in drains and cess-pools. The result of his researches on this 
 last subject led to important alterations in the construction of drains, 
 &c, so as to secure a more perfect ventilation, and thus the frequent 
 
6-1 
 
 DUPUYTREN, BARON. 
 
 DURAN, DON AGUSTIN. 
 
 893 
 
 occurrence of death amongst the workmen has been prevented. In 
 his researches on this subject he was assisted by The'nai'd the chemist, 
 who was his intimate friend. Thdnard also assisted him at this time 
 in some researches upon the nature of diabetes mellitus. Although 
 the surgeon and the chemist arrived at no satisfactory conclusions with 
 regard to this disease, they observed aud recorded many important 
 facts. The result of their investigations was published in the 'Bulletin' 
 for 1S06. 
 
 In the year 1803 the office of assistant-surgeon at the Hotel- 
 Dieu was given to Dupuytren after examination by public concours. 
 In 1811 Sabatier died, who had long filled the chair of surgery with 
 the highest reputation. The concours for this office took place in 
 1S12, when Dupuytren, Roux, Tartra, and Marjolin were the candi- 
 dates. The examination consisted of written replies to certain surgical 
 and anatomical questions, a defence by each of the candidates of his 
 own particular positions, operations upon the dead body, and a thesis. 
 Dupuytren was successful. The subject of the thesis was the operation 
 of lithotomy. That presented by Dupuytren was published in Paris, 
 with the title ' De la Lithotomie : These pre'sentde au Concours pour 
 la Chaire de Me'decine Operatoire,' 4to. In 1815 he was transferred 
 to the chair of clinical surgery, which he held till his death. In 
 1818 he was advanced to the post of senior surgeon to the Hotel- 
 Dieu. 
 
 Although it would be difficult to point out a single department of 
 surgery or morbid anatomy on which the views, opinions, and 
 observations of Dupuytren are not known, yet he has left no record 
 of these in works written by himself. During the twenty years how- 
 ever that he held the office of professor of clinical surgery at the 
 Hdtel-Dieu, his lectures were published in the various French medical 
 periodicals, and many courses have been also published in the English 
 medical periodicals. A collection of them was published in Paris 
 by a society of young medical men, under the title ' Lecons Orales 
 de Ciinique Chirurgicale, faites a l'Hotel-Dieu de Paris, par M. le Baron 
 Dupuytren, recueillies et publiees par une Socidtd de Medecins,' 1832, 
 8vo. This work extended to four volumes, and embraces the views 
 of Dupuytren on most of the important points of surgery. His views 
 on morbid anatomy have been fully given by Koche and Sanson in 
 their great work on medico-chirurgical pathology, entitled ' Nouveau 
 Elcuiens de Pathologie Me'dico-Chirurgicale,' 5 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1833. 
 In the 'Repertoire d'Anatomie ' of Breschet and Royer-Collard, and 
 the 'Me'decine Operatoire de Sabatier' of Sanson and Beguin, the 
 surgical and pathological views of Dupuytren have found faithful 
 reporters. 
 
 The improvements introduced by Dupuytren in the treatment of 
 surgical diseases were always founded on his great anatomical and 
 pathological knowledge, and modern surgery owes much of its success 
 to his exertions. One subject to which he turned his attention was 
 artificial anus, and he proposed an operation in this painful state which 
 has been perfectly successful. On this subject he presented a memoir 
 from his own hand to the Academie Royale de Me'decine. It was 
 published under the title ' Mdmoire sur une Mdthode Nouvelle pour 
 traiter les Anus Accidentels.' Besides this, and the papers before 
 referred to, the following subjects on which he wrote are amongst those 
 which have distinguished him both as a pathologist and surgeon : — 
 On the Nerves of the Tongue ; on the Motions of the Brain ; on the 
 Function of Absorption; on the Influence of the Eighth Pair of 
 Nerves ; on Amputation of the lower Jaw-bone ; on the Ligature of 
 Arteries ; on Fracture of the Fibula ; on Congenital Dislocations ; on 
 Retraction of the Fingers. 
 
 In the department of practical surgery he was eminently successful; 
 he possessed almost entire control over his feelings ; and with great 
 anatomical knowledge, accuracy of perception, and perfect steadiness 
 of manipulation, hi3 operations were regarded as the most successful 
 of the Burgical staff of the Parisian hospitals. His presence of mind 
 never forsook him, and the difficulties and accidents which must 
 sometimes occur iu operative surgery were always made subservient 
 to the instruction and guidance of the pupils. During his career as 
 an operative surgeon he invented many instruments. Amongst these 
 is the enterotome, with which the operation for artificial anus is 
 performed, and which has rescued many victims from the grave. 
 Other instruments of his invention are— a double-bladed bistoury, for 
 the bilateral operation for stone in the bladder ; a cataract-needle ; a 
 compressor in cases of hemorrhage; a porteligature ; and others. 
 
 His performance of his duties, as surgeon and clinical teacher, was 
 remarkable. Although he had one of the largest private practices in 
 Europe, and accumulated through it probably the largest fortune ever 
 made by a medical man, he never neglected his public duties. He 
 spent from four to five hours every morning in visiting his patients 
 at the Hdtel-Dieu, performing operations, making post-mortem examin- 
 ations, giving clinical instruction, and in consultations. Every evening 
 he returned to the hospital at six, for the purpose of visiting the worst 
 CM*« and performing urgent operations. These severe duties he never 
 atermittt-d even during sickness, and when suffering from attacks of 
 disease. These labours however at last told upon even his iron con- 
 stitution, and in November 1833 ho first gave symptoms of decay. 
 On the 5th of that mouth he was seized with a slight attack of 
 apoplexy, which lasted only a short time, but left behind it a difficulty 
 of speaking, as well as an inclination of the mouth towards the right 
 
 BIOO. DIT. VOL. 1L. 
 
 side. He still continued his duties at the Hdtel-Dieu, but his friends 
 at last persuaded him to make a journey to Naples. He remained in 
 that city till May 1834. He resumed his visits and lectures at the 
 hospital, and struggled on till February 1835. He died on the 8th of 
 the same month. He retained his intellectual faculties to the last, 
 and, aware of his approaching end, wished that the medical paper 
 might be read to him the evening before he died, " in order," as he 
 observed, "that he might carry the latest news of disease out of the 
 world." He however repudiated the suggestion that he was a sceptic 
 in religion, and received, previous to his death, the last sacrament of 
 the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 In his will he left the bulk of his enormous fortune, amounting to 
 280,000Z. to an only daughter. He also left 200,000 francs for the 
 purpose of endowing a chair of pathological anatomy. This sum being 
 found larger than was necessary to endow merely the chair, a certain 
 portion of the income has been appropriated to maintaining in con- 
 nection with the chair, a museum of pathological anatomy, which is 
 called the Musee Dupuytren. He left his body, to be carefully 
 examined, to his two friends Messrs. Broussais and Cruveilhier, who 
 published a minute account of the post-mortem examination. He was 
 buried in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise, on the 10th of February. 
 The funeral was attended by all the professors of the faculty, and 
 deputations from the Academy of Medicine and the Institute, and the 
 funeral car was drawn by students from the church to the tomb. 
 Orations were delivered at the grave by Messrs. Orfila, Larrey, 
 Bouillaud, Royer-Collard, and Tessier. 
 
 Although Dupuytren will ever be remembered as a clever and a 
 brilliant operative surgeon, it is not on this that his reputation rests. 
 It was the scientific character that he gave to his clinical instruction 
 that placed him far above those who had preceded him, and which led 
 to the cultivation of surgery upon principles founded on physiological 
 and pathological inquiries, rather than on rules founded on the 
 practice and authority of previous writers. If he left no great works 
 by which to judge of the value of his labours, he yet raised up a body 
 of enlightened practitioners of surgery in France, who in their 
 numerous writings have ever been anxious to acknowledge Dupuytren 
 as their master. His personal character commanded little respect and 
 won no esteem ; he was cold, cynical, selfish, and intolerant. 
 
 (Lancet, vol. i. 1834-35; Eloye du Baron O. Dupuytren, par E. 
 Pariset; Revue Medicate, 1835 ; Callisen, Medicinisch.es Schriftsfellev 
 Lexicon ; and notices of Dupuytren by Salgues, Vidal de Cassis, Brive 
 de Boismont, Cruveilhier, Bardinet, &c.) 
 
 DURAN, DON AGUSTIN, a Spanish critical and miscellaneous 
 writer of great influence and reputation, was born at Madrid towards 
 the close of the 18th century; we are not told by his biographers in 
 what year, but as he was admitted to practice as an advocate in 1817, 
 and the legal age for such admission is iu Spain fixed at twenty-four, 
 the date of his birth cannot be later than 1793. He lost his mother 
 early ; his father, who was physician to the royal family, was unable 
 to send him to the usual places of education on account of his ill- 
 health, to which he was from childhood a martyr. At Vergara, to 
 which he was sent for the benefit of the country air, he went through 
 a course of reading such as his own pleasure dictated, the old romances, 
 the story of the Cid, and the comedies of Calderon and Moreto, and 
 when he returned to Madrid he had completely forgotten what Latin 
 and mathematics he had learned. He was also such a firm believer 
 in ghosts that, to cure him, his father found it necessary to make him 
 go through the discipline of attending a course of dissections. Under 
 the guidance of Manuel Quiutana, the poet, and Alberto Lista, the 
 literary historian, both friends of the elder Duran, and both, till very 
 lately, still living friends of the younger, he soon recovered his lost 
 ground, and if we may believe his Spanish biographers, made such 
 progress in metaphysics as to " comprehend easily the works of Kant 
 and his disciples," but as in the last work that Duran has published he 
 avows himself to be utterly unacquainted with German, their state- 
 ments seem to require modification. Though admitted an advocate 
 he never appears to have pursued the law, but to have occupied him- 
 self with politics and literature. In 1821 he obtained an appointment 
 in the " Direccion general de estudios,' or department of public instruc- 
 tion, which he lost in consequence of his political opinions being of a 
 liberal cast, on the French invasion of 1823 ; in 1834 he was named 
 secretary of the board for the inspection of printing-houses, and soon 
 afterwards one of the secretaries of the national library at Madrid. In 
 the 'Galeriade Espanoles Celebres,' it is said that he was the principal 
 librarian, but this appeal's to be a mistake ; in the ' Catalogo del 
 Museo de Antiguedades,' by Castellauos de Losada, himself an official of 
 the library, it is stated that the then principal librarian was Patifio, 
 author of ' El Bibliotecario,' and that Duran, who was dismissed for 
 political causes in 1840 and re appointed in 1843, is now the elder 
 librarian (Bibliotecario decano) and second iu rank, the first being 
 Breton de los Herreros, the noted dramatist. 
 
 The first work by which Duran became known was his essay 1 On 
 the influence which modern criticism has exercised on the decline of 
 the Spanish drama, and the manner in which that drama ought to 
 be considered to form a proper estimate of its peculiar merits,' Madrid, 
 1828. In this production, which contained much that was novel to 
 the Spanish reader, but much that was otherwise to those acquainted 
 with the writings of Schlegel, Duran, who had for a short time beea 
 
 2 Y 
 
693 DURAND, JEAN-NICOLAS-LOUIS. 
 
 induced to submit to the now antiquated French school of criticism, 
 returned to his youthful allegiance to Calderon and Lope de Vega, 
 and contended for the principles of aesthetics, to which the epithet of 
 'romantic' has been generally applied. His book came exactly at 
 the right moment. A complete revolution has taken place in the state 
 of the Spanish drama, mainly produced by this work of Durau, and 
 by the encouragement which he gave in society to the young authors 
 who showed a disposition to adopt his principles, and undoubtedly 
 the most brilliant epoch in its history Bince the timo of Canizares is 
 that of the last quarter of a century. His next step was also one 
 that had been suggested by the example of the Germans. He pub- 
 lished in 1828 a 1 Koraaneero de Romances Moriscos,' or collection of 
 the old Spanish ballads on Moorish subjects, on the plan of that of 
 Depping. Duran remarks in his preface on the attention that had 
 been paid of late years to the elder Spanish literature in Germany, 
 France, and England, and observes that in a short time the Spaniards 
 would have to go to foreign libraries to study the works that belonged 
 to themselves. The observation is so true, that of the materials for 
 recent collections of Spanish ballads, some are to be found only at 
 l'rague and somo at the British Museum. The success of Duran's 
 ' Rouiancero ' was great, and it was followed up in subsequent years 
 by ' Romanceros' on other subjects and other collections by the same 
 editor, till a series was formed which was indispensable in every good 
 Spanish library. In 1849 and 1851 he re-edited the whole of the 
 ballads as a portion of the extensive 'Bibliotecade Autores Espaholes,' 
 issued at Madrid by Aribau and Rivadeneyra, the greatest and most 
 useful undertaking that has been ventured on for the last century by 
 a Spanish publisher. The new edition is called 'Romancero General,' 
 or Collection of Spanish ballads anterior to the 18th century, cor- 
 rected, arranged, classified, and annotated by Don Agustin Duran, 
 and occupies two volumes of more than COO pages each, closely printed 
 in double columns. In the prefaces the author does not forget to 
 acknowledge his obligations to foreign critics who have treated of the 
 subject, in particular to Ferdinand Wolff of Vienna, and in biblio- 
 graphical notices appended he treats in full of all previous collections 
 of the ballads in a way to supersede all bibliography on the subject 
 of an earlier date. Duran has written several but not numerous 
 articles in various periodicals on literary topics, iu particular one in 
 the 'Revista de Madrid' on 'Lope de Vega.' Some years ago ho 
 commenced the publication of what was intended to be an extensive 
 collection of the old Spanish comedies, with critical remarks, but it 
 was dropped in a short time for want of encouragement, after a few 
 numbers of ' Tirso de Molina ' had been issued. He has completed 
 in manuscript a history of the Spanish theatre from its origin to the 
 middle of the 18th century, including a bibliography of all the plays 
 extant, which is likely when it appears to supersede even the valuable 
 history by Schack. In poetry he has been chiefly successful in pro- 
 ducing excellent imitations of the older Spanish writers, with all the 
 peculiarities of their antiquated language applied to modern events, the 
 marriage of Queen Christina, &c. As a political writer he manifests, like 
 many other writers of his country, an exaggerated notion of its import- 
 ance, and what seems to an Englishman a very inadequate notion of the 
 services rendered to it by England in the Peninsular war : thus ho 
 concludes a violent philippic against England by the observation that 
 "Spain has almost always been the shield of Europe, almost always it 
 lias repressed social catastrophes, and always Europe has been ungrate- 
 ful." Don Agustin is a knight of the order of Carlos III. (1833), and 
 a member of the Royal Spanish Academy. [See Supplement.] 
 
 DURAND, JEAN-NICOLAS-LOUIS, Professor of Architecture at 
 the Ecole Polytechnique, was born at Paris, September 18, 1760. His 
 father was a shoemaker iu very poor circumstances, but young Durand 
 had the good fortune to find a patron in a benevolent individual, who, 
 having been struck by the boy's natural cleverness, o(fered to defray 
 the expense of his education. He was accordingly placed in the Col- 
 lege Montaigne, where, though he quitted it much sooner than was 
 intend! d, owing to the strictness of the discipline there, he imbibed a 
 taste for classical studies which he continued to cultivate. On leaving 
 college, a sculptor who had seen several sketches and drawings by 
 him proposed to take him (then about the ago of fourteen) as his 
 pupil. Rut his progress did not answer the expectation of his in- 
 structor, all his leisure time and voluntary studies being given to 
 architecture. His first benefactor being informed of his passion for 
 architectural studies, recommended him to Panseron the architect 
 (author of 'Elenier.s d'Architecture,' Paris, 1772), under whom his 
 advance was exceedingly rapid. In about two years he became drafts- 
 man to Boulee, the king's architect, who was so delighted with his 
 assiduity and ability, that he several times offered to raise his salary, 
 and when he refused to accept any advance, afterwards settled an 
 annuity upon him, which he received till his death. While with 
 Boule'e, he also attended some of the courses of instruction at the 
 Acaddmie Royale d'Architecture, where he in 1780 obtained the great 
 prize, the subject being a design for a college adapted to a site whose 
 shape was an equilateral triangle. About a dozen years later, the 
 demand on the part of the National Convention (1793) for designs for 
 public edifices of utility or embellishment, proposed to be erected iu 
 -various parts of France, afforded Durand and Thibaud (who had become 
 utrungly attached to each other while both were with Boulee) an 
 Opportunity of displaying their talents upon a variety of subjects. 
 
 DURER, ALBRECHT. est 
 
 They produced conjointly eleven different designs, of which lour 
 obtained the great prize, and are published in Detournelle's collection 
 of ' Les Grands Prix.' After this, though the friendship between 
 Durand and Thibaud continued unabated, they ceased to practise in con- 
 cert with each other, In fact Durand, on being appointed to the pro- 
 fessorship at the newly-founded Ecole Centrale des Travaux Publique, 
 afterwards the Ecole Polytechnique, which he held for forty years, 
 gave himself up almost entirely to its duties, and to the self-imposed 
 task of providing works of instruction for the pupils and the profes- 
 sion in general. Of these the most celebrated as a ' show-book,' is 
 the 'Recueil et Parallele des Edifices de tous Genres,' 1800, consisting 
 of eighty-six plates of oblong or double folio size, and forming a 
 sort of historical gallery or museum of architecture. Yet though 
 interesting as facilitating a general view of the subject, and affording 
 a comparison of different buildings drawn to the same scale, its real 
 usefulness is by no means eo great as it at first seems. Notwith- 
 standing the size of the volume, which is such as to render reference to 
 it very inconvenient, there are so many different subjects upon the same 
 plate that they arc necessarily upon a very inadequate scale, and some 
 of them so small, that they might have been larger even on a duo- 
 decimo page. In other respects too they are far from being shown 
 satisfactorily, there beiug seldom more than a mere general plan and 
 elevation of each ; besides which the collection is little other than a 
 compilation of all the most celebrated, consequently the most generally 
 known buildings. Thus, without being sufficiently popular in form 
 and matter for the mass of the public, the work is too general in its 
 nature for professional study except as a synopsis of the subject, and 
 a sort of catalogue raisonnd. A new edition was published a few years 
 back, iu which were several new plates, but they consist for the most 
 part of subjects taken and reduced from the works of Schinkcl, Klenze, 
 and other architects. The 'Recueil' itself contains no text, but 
 Legrand's ' Essai sur l'Histoire Gdndrale de 1' Architecture' was pub- 
 lished as an accompaniment to it in a separate octavo volume. Durand's 
 other work, the ' Prdcis des Lecons d'Architecture,' 2 torn. 4to, is 
 generally considered a valuable one of its kind, yet has been objected 
 to as seeking to establish formal mechanical rules that are rather 
 derogatory from true art. Accordingly, though greatly commended 
 by some, his ' interaxal system' of laying out a plan by first dividing 
 the whole of it into a number of squares, determined by the iuter- 
 columniation adopted for the order, if there be one, has been denounced 
 by others as a dull and plodding process, calculated only to produce 
 wearisome monotony of arrangement, and to cramp the imagination. 
 There is another publication by him entitled ' Prdcis Graphique des 
 Cours d'Architecture,' &c, 4to, Paris, 1821. Durand died at Thiais, 
 in the neighbourhood of Paris, December 31st, 1834. 
 
 DURANTE, FRANCESCO, a celebrated Italian composer, was 
 born in Naples in 1693, and educated under Alessandro Scarlatti 
 His works are not numerous, and chiefly of the sacred kind. They 
 are said to be sweet yet solemn in style, but wanting in brilliancy. 
 He is now best remembered as the master of Pergolesi, Piccini, Sac- 
 chini, Paisiello, &c., who received instructions from him at the 
 Neapolitan Conservatorios of St. Onofrio, and the Poveri di Gesu 
 Christo, of both of which Durante was the principal. He died in 1755.' 
 
 DURER, ALBRECHT, or ALBERT, born at Nurnberg on the 20th 
 of May 1471, was the son of a skilful goldsmith, and received that 
 sound education which the wealthy burghers of the free towns of 
 Germany were accustomed to give to their children. In all branches 
 of instruction Albrecht made great progress, and showed also much 
 ingenuity in the profession for which he was intended ; but his genius 
 being bent towards a nobler art, to the great vexation of his father, 
 he gave up the working of gold, and placed himself under Martin 
 Schbn (1486), and on his death, Michael Wohlgemuth (1487). 
 After finishing his apprenticeship he set out on his travels, and in 
 1490 went through Germany. On his journey he painted portraits 
 and other pictures, which were highly admired. Improved by expe- 
 rience, and with increased reputation, he returned home in 1494, and 
 soon after executed his masterpiece, as it was called, a drawing of 
 Orpheus. It was the custom of those times for a painter in Germany, 
 iu order to be received and acknowledged as a master, to exhibit a 
 piece which merited the approbation of his teacher and of the other 
 masters of his craft. When this was accomplished, the candidate 
 received a kind of diploma, and was entitled to the honours and rights 
 of a master. 
 
 After obtaining the mastership Diirer visited Holland and Italy, 
 where he executed some of his best pictures, such as the 'Martyrdom 
 of St. Bartholomew ' for the church of St. Mark, and ' Adam and Eve 
 for the German church in Venice, which was afterwards bought for 
 the Gallery of Prague. In Bologna he became acquainted with 
 Raflaelle, who esteemed him highly. Iu token of their friendship; 
 each preseuted the other with his portrait. He returned home in 
 1507, with the reputation of beiug the first, painter of his country 
 " Certainly," says Vasari (' Vite de' Pittori '), " if this diligent, indus 
 trious, universal man had been a native of Tuscany, and if he couk 
 have studied as we have done in Rome, he would have been the besl 
 painter in our country, as he was the most cele^-ated that German) 
 ever had." * 
 
 His productions were indeed so highly valued as to attract the 
 notice of the most powerful sovereigns ot his time, Maximilian I. ant 
 
D'URFEY, THOMAS. 
 
 DURHAM, EARL OF. 
 
 88a 
 
 Charles V., who appointed him their painter, and bestowed upon him 
 riches and honours. 
 
 To please his father, Diirer had married, against his inclination, the 
 daughter of a wealthy neighbour ; but the match turned out so unfor- 
 tuuate that it embittered his life, and his countrymen attributed his 
 premature death to his domestic misfortune. He died April 6, 1528, 
 in the 56th year of his age. The senate of Niirnb rg, to honour the 
 memory of their illustrious citizen, decreed him a public funeral, 
 which was celebrated with great pomp and solemnity. 
 
 Diirer was the first man in Germany who taught the rules of per- 
 spective and the proportions of the human body according to mathe- 
 matical and anatomical principles. In fact, his works were in this 
 respect so classical, that even his prints and wood-cuts were purchased 
 by the Italian painters for their improvement in those branches. 
 
 His paintings are admired for the vivid and fertile imagination, the 
 sublime conception, and the wonderful union of boldness and correct- 
 ness of design which they display. Some critics have found fault 
 with the unnecessary, or, as it has been termed, ostentatious correct- 
 ness of drawing and the exuberance of his imagination ; but the only 
 fault that can be really objected to iu him is his total neglect of 
 costume. Yet the censure of this fault arises from his adopting a 
 conventional costume, whioh is contrary in its character to that of the 
 great Italian masters, rather than' from the costume being untrue. 
 His costume certainly appears faulty enough, but the fault is that it 
 is over-elaborate rather than neglected. His pictures, in spite of this 
 violation of the rules of taste, produce lasting impressions of the 
 sublime and beautiful ; and impartial judges must always honour in 
 him the greatest master of the old German school. 
 
 Besides his great historical paintings, the best of which are in the 
 collections of Vienna, Prague, Munich, and Dresden, Diirer has left 
 some landscapes that are highly valued. Durer's portraits were also 
 highly esteemed : it was said of him that he not only possessed the 
 talent of catching the exact expression of the features, but also of 
 delineating the different characters and passions. Diirer was also an 
 excellent engraver in copper and wood; hi3 wood-cuts are masterpieces 
 of the art, and considered equal to those of Hugo da Carpi. The 
 best among his wood-cuts, both in respect of invention and execution, 
 are his greater ' Passion ' and his ' Revelation of St. John.' So much 
 were they sought after, even during his lifetime, that a Venetian artist 
 was induced to counterfeit them. When Diirer heard of this forgery 
 he went to Venice and commenced a suit against the man, whose name 
 was Marc Antonio Franci. The senate of Venice would have punished 
 the offender severely if Diirer had not obtained hi3 pardon. There 
 is a volume containing more than 200 original drawings by Albert 
 Diirer in the print-room of the British Museum, which formerly 
 belonged to the collection of Sir Hans Sloane, and was probably part 
 of the celebrated collection of Durer's friend, W. Pirkhamer. In the 
 same room is preserved an exquisite carving by him, in hone-stone, of 
 the 'Birth of St. John,' bequeathed to the museum by Mr. R. P. Knight, 
 who had purchased it at the price of 5001. It is dated 1510. 
 
 An extensive collection of Albert Durer's engravings was bequeathed 
 to the British Museum by the sculptor Nollekeus, and many have 
 since been purchased. The only picture by Albert Diirer in the 
 National Gallery is a small 'Portrait of a Senator.' The Diirer 
 engravings in the British Museum are of course, under present 
 arrangements, not open to public inspection ; though it certainly 
 appears very desirable that a selection of the magnificent collection 
 of drawings and engravings now in that museum should be shown to 
 the public, and the exhibition of the Raffaelle drawings in the Taylor 
 Buildings at Oxford proves that it is perfectly practicable. 
 
 Two inventions are attributed to Diirer : that of printing wood-cuts 
 in two colours, aud that of etching. His claim to the invention of 
 the art of etching is however disputed, though it is not denied that he 
 was the first who excelled in it. 
 
 Diirer wrote several valuable works on geometry, perspective, and 
 fortification. He bestowed such labour on the purity of his native 
 tongue that his writings even now are regarded well worth the study 
 of the German scholar. In his private life Diirer was amiable, 
 upright, aud benevolent. 
 
 Hjs life has been written by Arend and Roth, and lately by Heller, 
 who has given the most critical and complete catalogue of all his 
 works. _ Gothe, Tieck, Wackenrode, and other distinguished writers 
 have vindicated his claims, which under the baneful influence of 
 French ta3te had been so disregarded, that Diirer had come by his 
 own countrymen to be regarded as a barbarian. Since the revival of 
 German art, Diirer has been looked upon by all Germans as the great 
 exemplar of national art. 
 
 D'UUFEY, THOMAS, was born in Devonshire, but the exact time 
 of his birth is uncertain. He was designed for the law, but quitted 
 that profession for poetry. His dramas had remarkable success in 
 the days of Charles II., but were soon aftewards banished from the 
 stage on account of their outrageous indecency, and at present scarcely 
 their names are known, except to the students of English dramatic 
 hiatory. Much of his fame was owing to his sougs and satirical odes, 
 which have- a good deal of vivacity, and which he is said to have him- 
 self sung in a lively and agreeable maimer. He is represented in the 
 'Guardian ' as being on such terms of intimacy with Charles II., that 
 the king would sometimes leau ou his shoulder aud hum tunes with 
 
 him : he wa^ also a favourite at most convivial parties, aud was ho 
 much celebrated for his qualities as a good companion, that it was 
 considered a kind of honour to have been in his company. He how- 
 ever outlived his reputation, probably outlived also his convivial 
 powers, and was reduced to such distress in the latter part of his life, 
 that he applied to the managers of the theatre, who performed for his 
 benefit one of his comedies, and Addison wrote a kind-hearted paper 
 iu the 'Guardian' to procure him a full house. The profits which 
 were acquired seem to have been sufficient to render his last days 
 comparatively easy, if any judgment is to be founded on his poems of 
 this period, which are written with liveliness. He died in 1723, and 
 was buried in St. James's, Westminster. 
 
 A collection of D'Urfey's poems, entitled ' Pills to purge Melan- 
 choly,' is extremely rare, and sells for a high price. It is much 
 esteemed by those bibliographers who think licentious works valuable 
 if they are but scarce. 
 
 DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, EARL OF, was born 
 at the family seat of Lambton Hall, or, as it is usually called, 
 Lambton Castle, in Durham, on the 12th of April 1792. His father 
 was William Henry Lambton, Esq. ; his mother, the Lady Anne 
 Barbara Francis Villiers, second daughter of George Bussey, fourth 
 Earl of Jersey. The family is said to have possessed its manor of 
 Lambton ever since the 12th century, the male succession never having 
 been interrupted since that remote date. The property was originally 
 of inconsiderable value ; the wealth of the family, arising principally 
 from coal mines, dates from the time of Major-General John Lambton, 
 the late Lord Durham's grandfather, who succeeded to the estate iu 
 1774, and died, at the age of eighty-four, in 1794. The Lauibtons 
 however had held an eminent place among the county gentry from the 
 beginning of the last century ; and either the head or some other 
 member of the family represented the city of Durham in parliament 
 from 1727 till the death of the late earl's father, at the age of thirty- 
 three, 30th of December 1797, after he had sat in the House of 
 Commons for about ten years. Mr. William Henry Lambton, who 
 was, like his ancestors, a decided Whig, was an intimate friend and 
 associate of Charles Fox, and the other leaders or chief members of 
 his party ; and he was also highly popular with his constituents. 
 
 The subject of the present notice was educated at Eton. On the 
 1st of January 1812, he was married at Gretna Green to Miss Harriet 
 Cholmondelej', described in the ' Annual Register ' as " daughter of the 
 late celebrated Madam St. Alban;" and about the same time he is 
 stated to have entered the 10th Hussars. By Miss Cholmondeley, 
 who died 11th July, 1815, he had three daughters, who all died before 
 himself, though not till after they had all attained the age of woman- 
 hood. On the 9th of December 1816 he married the Lady Louisa 
 Elizabeth Grey, eldest daughter of Earl Grey. 
 
 Meanwhile, on the vacancy occasioned by the death of Sir Henry 
 Vane Tempest, Bart., on the 1st of August 1813, Mr. Lambton had 
 been returned to parliament for his native county. He very soon 
 took a part in the proceedings of the House, his maiden speech 
 having been delivered on the 12th of May 1814, in seconding an 
 unsuccessful motion of Mr. C. W. Wynne, for an address to tho 
 Prince Regent against the annexation of Norway to Sweden. He con- 
 tinued to sit for the county of Durham so long as he remained a 
 commoner, aud, though he did not speak often, took a part in many 
 important debates ; opposing the new Corn Law Bill in 1815 ; opposing 
 the additions made to the incomes of the royal dukes, aud the con- 
 tinuance of the Alien and Bank Restriction Acts in 1816; opposing 
 the Indemnity Bill demanded by ministers in 1818, and the six 
 repressive bills brought in by the government after the great Reform 
 meeting at Manchester in 1819; aud by a plan of parliamentary 
 reform which he submitted to the House on the 17th of April 1821. 
 
 Hi3 exertions in the House of Commons however began to relax 
 under the pressure of ill-health ; and his name is scarcely connected 
 with any measure of consequence down to the great and eventually 
 successful renewal of the Reform agitation iu 1830. With the gene- 
 rality of his party, he supported both the Canning ministry of May 
 1827, and that of Lord Goderich, by which it was succeeded, in 
 October of the same year ; and on the dissolution of the latter, in 
 January 1828, he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron 
 Durham of the City of Durham. 
 
 On the formation of the ministry of Lord Grey, iu November 1830, 
 Lord Durham was made Lord Privy Seal ; and the preparation of the 
 government Reform Bill was intrusted to four persons, of whom he 
 was one, the others being Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham, and 
 Lord Duncannon. It is known that Lord Durham proposed the 
 introduction of the ballot into the scheme, aud persuaded his col- 
 leagues to agree with him; but the ballot was excluded from the bill 
 as actually drawn up and brought forward in the Commons by Lord 
 John Russell on the memorable 1st of March 1831. A speech which 
 Lord Durham delivered on the 28th of March, in the House of Lords, 
 in explanation of the measure, was published. The plau reported by 
 the four persons was also materially improved by making the qualifi- 
 cation 10/. instead of 20/. He took no part iu the discussion of the 
 second Reform Bill in the House of Lords, where it was defeated on 
 the second reading, ou the 3rd of October. His eldest son, a beautiful 
 boy, whose features will live for ever in the well-known picture by 
 Lawrence, had died of consumption, at the age of thirteen, on tho 
 
C r <7 
 
 DU SOMMERARD, ALEXANDRE. 
 
 DUTENS, JOSEPH-MICHEL. 
 
 24th of September. He spoke several times however in support of 
 the third aud last bill, which was discussed in the Lords in April and 
 May 1832, and especially made a very able speech in committee on 
 the 22nd of May, ' on the enfranchisement of the metropolitan 
 districts,' which was published. On the 12th of March 1833 he 
 resigned his office in the government, and three days after was made 
 Earl of Durham. 
 
 In the summer of 1833 Lord Durham was despatched on a special 
 mission to Russia, with the object of indvicing the emperor to soften 
 the severity of the proceedings against the unhappy persons who had 
 been engaged in the late Polish insurrection ; but it was not attended 
 with any success. From the time of his return to England, after a 
 few mouths' absence, he may be regarded as having more distinctly 
 joined the section of the Liberal party which advocated still further 
 reforms in the representation, and as having thus gone to a certain 
 extent into opposition to the existing government. The difference of 
 views that had arisen between his lordship and his former colleagues 
 was proclaimed somewhat explosively at the great dinner given to 
 Lord Grey at Edinburgh, on the 15th of Septomber 1834 ; and he 
 followed up this beginning by a succession of similar exhibitions in 
 various parts of the country during the remainder of the year. A 
 collection of his speeches upon these occasions was afterwards pub- 
 lished. In 1835 however he was removed from that noisy scene by 
 being a second time sent out to Russia, as ambassador at the court of 
 St. Petersburg; and he retained that post till the summer of 1837, 
 and made himself, it is said, extremely acceptable to the emperor. 
 
 Lord Durham's last political undertaking was perhaps his most 
 important — the pacification of the troubles and dissensions of Canada, 
 to which country he was sent out as high commissioner and governor- 
 general, with extraordinary powers, in 1839. He arrived at Quebec 
 on the 27th of May, succeeded in allaying the jealousies of the 
 French party in Lower Canada, and published an act of indemnity 
 for those engaged in the previous rebellious outbreak. But a mis- 
 understanding or difference of views soon arose between him and the 
 ministry at home ; and, conceiving that he was not supported as he 
 ought to be, without having been either recalled or having obtained 
 leave to return, he re-embarked from the same port on the 1st of 
 November following. His arrival in London on the 7th of December 
 was speedily followed by the publication of a report addressed to the 
 Queen, dated "London, 31st of January 1839," of great ability and 
 interest, detailing the history of his colonial administration, vindi- 
 cating his conduct, and explaining the principles on which he had pro- 
 ceeded, and on which he conceived that the management of the affairs 
 of Canada ought to be conducted. But his unprecedented step of 
 leaving his government without permission occasioned a rebuke, and 
 he was not allowed to land under the usual salute. He in consequence 
 made his wife resign her place in the Queen's household. 
 
 The state of his health now no longer permitted him to take any 
 part in public affairs, at least beyond attending occasionally in the 
 House of Lords. At last, early in the summer of 1840, he retired, 
 with no hope of recovery, to the Isle of Wight; and he died at Cowes, 
 on the 28th of July. A son, the present earl, and three daughters, 
 one of whom is since dead, survived him. 
 
 DU SOMMERARD, ALEXANDRE, a French archteologist, was 
 born in 1779 at Bar-sur-Aube, department de l'Aube. At the age of 
 fourteen he entered the republican army, and though in 1796 he with- 
 drew from it in order to pursue a civil career, he was recalled and 
 compelled to serve till 1801, when he was allowed to retire on his 
 father consenting to occupy his post. He received an appointment in 
 1807 as member of the Cour des Comptes, an office he held till 1823, 
 when he was raised to the post of conseiller rel'erendaire, and made 
 vice-president of the Electoral College of the Seine; in 1831 he was 
 created chief conseiller. At the fall of Bonaparte he made himself 
 conspicuous by his Bourbonism, and a song very popular with the 
 partisans of the restored house, ' Rendez-nous notre Pere de Gaud ! ' 
 was commonly attributed to him. His zeal, manifested in various 
 ways, was recognised by Louis XVIII., who in 1816 conferred on him 
 the cross of the Legion of Honour. 
 
 From an early period M. Du Sommerard had devoted all his leisure 
 to the study of mediaeval arts and antiquities, and as his means 
 increased he applied himself with great zeal and industry to the 
 collection of examples of the arts of that period. For this purpose he 
 visited various parts of France, and employed persons to assist him in 
 his inquiries and purchases. His collection, which soon became very 
 rich in manuscripts, miniatures, arms, carvings, furniture, &c, he depo- 
 sited in the ancient Hotel de Cluny, of which he purchased a lease for 
 that especial purpose ; and in 1834 he published ' Notices sur l'Hotel 
 de Cluny et sur le Palais des Thermes, avec des Notes sur la Culture 
 des Arts, principalement dans les quinzieme et seizieme siecles.' This 
 work attracted general attention to the subject of the antiquities of 
 France, aud the government was led to appoint a ' Commission des 
 Monuments Historiques,' and the 'Comite Historiques des Arts et 
 Monuments,' noticed under Didron, with a view to the study and 
 preservation of the existing antiquities of France. M. Du Sommerard 
 followed with his great work, partly the result of his early and 
 independent studies, but owing its chief value to the facilities afforded 
 for more extended inquiries by the government commissions, 'Les 
 Arts au Moyen Age,' Paris, 1838-46. This splendid work is in 5 vols. 
 
 8vo, with an Atlas in folio of above a hundred plates, and an ' Album 
 Suppldmentaire ' of more than five hundred plates, giving characteristic 
 examples of the pictures, sculptures, monuments, stained glass, enamels, 
 porcelain and earthenware, goldsmiths' work, illuminations and miuia- 
 tures, arms, and furniture of the middle ages. 
 
 The prolonged and unceasing labours of M, Du Sommerard began 
 at length to tell severely on his constitution. A journey which he 
 made into Italy in 1842, for the purpose of addiog to his collection, 
 proved too much for his already-enfeebled strength, and shortly after 
 his return to Paris he died, August 19, 1842. 
 
 After the death of M. Du Sommerard his fine collection was pur- 
 chased by the government, and converted into a public museum. It 
 remains in the Hdtel de Cluny, which became the property of the 
 nation, and to which was adjoined the Palais des Thermes. Of these 
 buildings, and of the Musee Cluny, M. Edmond Du Sommerard, one 
 of the sons of the founder of the museum, was appointed director. 
 
 (Biographies dot llommes du Jour; Nouv. Biog. Q6n6raU.) 
 
 DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG, a celebrated musical composer 
 aud pianist, was born in 1761 atCzaslau in Bohemia. He was the son 
 of an organist, and his father early instructed him in the principles of 
 his art, so that at the age of nine he waa a skilful player on the 
 pianoforte and a good accompanist on the organ. He received further 
 instruction in music from Spenaz, a musician of considerable note in 
 his native place, and for his general education he was sent to the 
 University of Prague. He afterwards filled the office of organist at 
 Malines and at BergeD-ap-Zoom. He then visited Amsterdam, where his 
 playing on the pianoforte excited great attention, and where he made 
 a somewhat prolonged stay. On quitting Holland he visited the chief 
 cities of Germany, his reputation increasing as he proceeded. At 
 Paris, where he was in 1788, his playing was so much admired that 
 the queen, Marie-Antoinette, endeavoured to induce him to establish 
 himself there ; but alarmed at the threatening aspect of public affairs, 
 he came to London in 1790, and here as elsewhere he immediately 
 distinguished himself, and might have realised an ample fortune 
 had his industry and discretion borne any proportion to his talents. 
 Unfortunately he engaged in business, for which his habits were quite 
 unfitted, and to escape from his creditors he in 1800 quitted England, 
 and two years after became part of the household, and also the 
 intimate and confidential friend, of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, 
 who died so bravely at Saalfield iu 1806. He then entered into the 
 service of Prince Talleyrand, in which he continued till his death in 
 1812. As a pianist, Dussek was in his day almost unrivalled. His 
 style was large yet neat, aud he was as effective in the most refined 
 aud delicate as he was in the grandest passages. His tone was 
 exquisite, and hi3 mechanical dexterity was remarkable. Dussek 
 composed seventy-six pieces — including symphonies, concertos, sonatos, 
 roudeaux, quintets, quartets, trios, variations, &c. — for the pianoforte ; 
 also some oratorios, several pieces of church music, and two unsuc- 
 cessful operas. Amidst many that are of little or no value, there are 
 some of Dussek's compositions for the piano that are iu every respect 
 excellent. 
 
 DUTENS, JOSEPH-MICHEL, the son of Michel-Francois, was 
 born at Tours on October 15, 1765. He was entered when eighteen 
 at the Ecole des Ponts et Chausse'es, and at twenty-two year3 of age he 
 left it with the brevet of engineer. In 1800 he printed his first work at 
 Evreux, 'Des Moyens de Naturaliser l'lnstruction et la Doctrine,' and in 
 the same year published a topographical description of the arroudisse- 
 meut of Louviers, in the department of Eure. In 1804 he gave to the 
 world his first work on political economy, an analytical exposition of 
 its fundamental principles. In 1818 he was commissioned by the 
 government to travel in England in order to obtain a knowledge of 
 the canal system there, and he extended his labours to all the great 
 commercial works of the country, the results of which were pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1819 in 'Memoirs on the Public Works of England.' 
 The work is divided into two parts ; the first is devoted to engineering, 
 describing the canals, the works of art employed in their construction, 
 the cost of making, the expense of maintaining, aud the system of 
 working ; the second is principally to develop the mode of concession 
 of public works in England, and its advantages in a country where the 
 energies of association are in almost all cases employed instead of 
 the intervention of the government. 
 
 Desirous of enabling his country to profit by his studies in England, 
 Dutens published in 1829 a 'History of the Interior Navigation of 
 France,' in which he gives a detailed description of the geographical 
 features of France, and an account of its rivers and canals ; with an 
 analysis cf the agricultural and industrial products of France, showing 
 their value if made available by a net-work of canals, sketching a 
 scheme of what should be the principal branches, and discussing the 
 financial condition which would ensure its success. In 1835 Dutens 
 published his greatest work, the 'Philosophy of Political Economy; 
 or a new Exposition of the Principles of this Science,' in 2 vols. 8vo. 
 It was an expansion with considerable modifications of his previous 
 work, and occasioned much opposition from the economists of the 
 school of Adam Smith. Blanqui says, "it is only a new edition of the 
 doctrines of Quesnay, but with less of advancement in respect to com- 
 mercial freedom and duties." The severe criticisms occasioned M. 
 Dutens to publish in 1837 a defence of his work, and a second in 1839 ; 
 and the oontest was still going on when the Acaddmie des Sciences 
 
BBS 
 
 DC TENS, LOUIS. 
 
 690 
 
 elected him a member of their body. He then published iu 1842 his 
 •Essai comparatif sur la formation et la distribution du llevenu de la 
 France en 1815 et 1335,' a work which contains the best statistical 
 resume of the productive riches of France, and has received and 
 deserves high praise. In his last issued work, 'Des pretendues 
 erreurs dans lesquelles, au jugement des modernes economistes, 
 seraient tombes les anciens economistes relativement au principo de 
 la richesse nationale,' in which he defends the theory of Quesnay, 
 Turgot, and their followers, that manufactures and commerce do not 
 constitute the wealth of a country, but that this advantage is only due 
 to agriculture. M. Dutens died August 6, 1818. 
 (Nouvdle Biographie Ginerale.) 
 
 DUTENS, LOUIS, was born at Tours, of a Protestant family, 
 January 16, 1730. When about eighteen years of age he wrote a 
 tragedy, the 'Keturn of Ulysses,' which met with success at Orleans, 
 where it was played after being rejected by the managers of Paris. 
 But Dutens did not repeat his dramatic venture. About this time a 
 sister some six or seven years younger than himself was taken by order 
 of the Archbishop of Tours and was shut up in a convent in order to 
 force her to become a Roman Catholic, and Dutens disgusted with 
 this tyranny left his country and came to England, where he found 
 patrons, studied the oriental languages and mathematics, and travelled 
 with several noblemen in succession over the Continent. He also 
 acted for a time as secretary to the English minister at the court of 
 Turin. On hi3 return to England he was presented to the living of 
 Elsdon in Northumberland. He was made member of the Royal 
 Society of London, and of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles 
 Lettres of Paris. Being well versed in ancient and modern philology, 
 and in archaeology and numismatics, he wrote many works, the prin- 
 cipal of which are: — 1. 'Recherches sur l'Origine des De'couverte3 
 attributes aux Modernes, ou Ton demontre que nos plus celebres 
 Philoaophes ont puise la plupart de leurs Connoissances dans les 
 Ouvrages des Anciens, et que plusieurs verites importautes sur la 
 lie i^ion ont etc: connues des Sages du Paganisme,' 8vo, Paris, 1776. 
 This work went through several editions, revised by the author, to the 
 last of which, 1812, he added his 'Recherches sur le terns le plus 
 recule de 1' Usage des Voutes,' which he had previously published 
 separately. In his zeal to vindicate the often-overlooked claims of the 
 ancients to several discoveries which have been reproduced in modern 
 times, Dutens oversteps at times the boundaries of sound criticism, 
 and seems to wish to attribute almost every invention to the nations 
 of antiquity. 2. ' Explication de quelques Me'dailles Greques et 
 Pheniciennes, avec une Paleographie Numismatique,' 4to, 1776, to 
 which are added several previously-written dissertations on numis- 
 matics. 3. ' Itine'raire des Routes les plus frequenters de l'Europe,' a 
 work often reprinted. 4. ' Guide Moral, Physique, et Politique des 
 Etrangers qui voyagent en Angleterre.' 5. 'Appel au Bons Sens,' a 
 defence of Christianity against Voltaire and the Encyclope'distes. 
 6. 'Des Pierres prccieuses et des Pierres fines, avec les Moyens de les 
 connoitre et de les e'valuer,' Paris, 1776. 7. ' Histoire de ce qui s'est 
 passe" pour l'elablissement d'une Re'gence en Angleterre,' 8vo, 1789. 
 8. ' Nouveaux Intcrets de l'Europe depuis la Revolution Francaise,' 
 1793. 9. ' Considerations Thdologiques sur les Moyens de reunir 
 toutes les Eglises Chrdtiennes,' 8vo, 1798, a well meaning speculation 
 towards a hopeless object. 10. ' Mdmoires d'un Voyageur qui se 
 repose,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1806, which contain anecdotes of Dutens's 
 life and travels. Dutens died in London, May 23, 1812. 
 
 DUTROCHET, RENE-JOACHIM-HENRI, a distinguished French 
 botanist and natural philosopher. He was born at the Chateau de 
 Ne"on, Poitou, on the 14th of November 1776, and died at Paris on 
 the 4th of February 1847. He was the son of a military officer, 
 who emigrated, and whose property was confiscated. Young Dutrochet 
 in 1799 entered as a private the military marine, but afterwards 
 deserted. In 1802 he commenced at Paris the study of medicine. 
 He made a brilliant career as a student, was created Doctor in 1806, 
 and in 1808 was appointed physician to Joseph Bonaparte, king of 
 Spain. He became principal physician to the Hospital of Burgos, 
 which was then devastated with typhus. He displayed here great 
 energy and skill. In 1809 he returned to France, and gave himself up 
 to the study of those natural sciences for which his medical education 
 fitted him. The tendency of Dutrochet's mind was to develope the 
 laws which regulated the existence of organic beings, and many of his 
 researches have had a permanent influence on the development of the 
 departments of science to which they relate. His name is best known 
 to physiologists from his researches on the passages of fluids through 
 animal and vegetable membranes. The laws which he observed to 
 regulate these phenomena he applied to the explanation of the 
 functions of absorption and excretion in the animal and vegetable 
 body. The passage of a fluid from without inwards he called 
 endosmosis,' and the passage from within outwards ' exosmosis.' 
 His views on this subject were published in a work which appeared 
 both in London and Paris in 1828, with the title ' Nouvelles recherches 
 sur 1' End osmose et l'Exosmose, suivies de 1' application experimentale 
 de ces actions physiques a la solution du probleme de l'irritabilitd 
 vegdtale et a la determination de la cause de Fascension des tiges, de 
 la descente des racines.' The phenomena comprehended under the 
 terms endosmose and exosmose were rightly described by Dutrochet, 
 but he was hasty in tracing their cause to electricity, and failed to 
 
 see that they were parts of a much more general set of phenomena 
 than he had described. His other papers are very numerous, and 
 were on a variety of subjects not immediately related. Thus we lind 
 his inquiries embraced amongst other things the following subjects : 
 a New Theory of Voice ; a New Theory of Harmony ; on the Family of 
 Wheel-Animalcules ; History of the Egg of the Bird ; on the Envelopes 
 of the Footus; Researches on the Metamorphosis of the Alimentary 
 Canal in Insects; on the Structure and Regeneration of Feathers; 
 on the Height of the Meteor which projected Aerolites at Charsonvillo 
 in 1810 ; on the Growth and Reproduction of Plants ; on the Special 
 Directions taken by certain parts of Plants. The results of all his 
 labours and a connected view of the subjects to which he devoted 
 his attention, he gave iu a volume entitled ' Mdmoires pour servir 
 a l'Histoire Anatomique et Physiologique des Vegdtaux et des 
 Animaux.' 
 
 DUVERNOY, GEORGES-LOUIS, a distinguished anatomist and 
 zoologist. He was born at Montbelliard, then a dependency of the 
 duchy of Wiirtemburg, now an arrondissement in the department of 
 Doubs in France, on the 6th of August 1777, and died at Paris on the 
 1st of March 1855. His father practised as a physician at Montbelliard, 
 and he was brought up to the same profession. He commenced his 
 studies at Stutgardt iu 1792 ; but the principality of Montbelliard 
 having been ceded to the French in 1793, he was compelled to finish 
 his studies at Strasbourg. He subsequently went to Paris, where he 
 graduated in 1801. In 1802 he was associated with M. C. Dumeril in 
 reporting the lectures of Georges Cuvier, then in the zenith of his 
 reputation. The ' Legons d'Anatomie comparers' were concluded 
 and published in 1805. On the completion of this labour he married, 
 and, as natural science afforded him little hope of support for a family, 
 he retired to his native town to practise his profession. In 1809 he 
 was recalled to Paris, and named by De Fontaues joint professor of 
 zoology in the faculty of science. Again however he returned to 
 practise his profession in Montbelliard, and for nearly twenty years 
 this distinguished zoologist pursued its harassing and laborious duties. 
 In 1827 the chair of natural history in the faculty of science in 
 Strasbourg was offered him : this he accepted ; and from this time 
 to his death we find him pursuing with unwearied industry zoological 
 researches. In 1837 he was offered the chair of natural history in 
 the College of France, vacated by the death of his great master, 
 Cuvier. This chair he accepted, and held till 1850, when the death of 
 De Biainville having created a vacancy in the chair of comparative 
 anatomy he was appointed to it, and held it for four years. Duvernoy's 
 contributions to zoological science are extremely numerous. In his 
 writings and lectures he was more remarkable for the accuracy and 
 extent of his knowledge than for the novelty and originality of his 
 views. He was an industrious compiler, and was an extensive con 
 tributor to the ' Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles,' and also to the 
 ' Dictionnaire Universelle d'Histoire Naturelle.' 
 
 DWIGHT, TIMOTHY, an eminent American Presbyterian divine, 
 was born at Northampton in Massachusetts, May 14, 1752. His father 
 was a merchant; his mother was daughter of the celebrated American 
 theologian and metaphysician Jonathan Edwards. From infancy he 
 made rapid progress in general and scholastic learning ; insomuch 
 that, at the age of seventeen, very soon after taking the degree of 
 B.A. at Yale College, Newhaven, he was appointed master of a 
 grammar-school in that town, and, before he was twenty, one of the 
 tutors of Yale College. He was licensed to preach in 1777, in which 
 year, the sessions of the college having been stopped by the war of the 
 revolution, he offered his services as chaplain in the American army. 
 The death of his father in the following year rendered it desirable 
 that he should return to Northampton, and the rest of his life was 
 principally occupied in discharging the duties of tuition, first as 
 master of a private seminary, next as president of Yale College, to 
 which office he was appointed in 1795. He also held the professorship 
 of theology. He died January 11, 1817. 
 
 His early life was extremely laborious. It is stated that while he 
 kept school at Newhaven his time was regularly divided : six hours of 
 each day in school, eight hours in close and severe study, and the 
 remaining ten hours in exercise and sleep. (' Life,' p. 20.) Over- 
 exertion nearly brought on blindness ; from the age of twenty-three 
 he was continually subjected to acute pain behind the eyes, and was 
 unable for the space of forty years to read longer than fifteen minutes 
 in the day. This makes the extent; and variety of his knowledge, 
 which was acquired almost entirely through the ear, the more remark- 
 able ; and the mastery which he c.cquired over his mental powers by 
 discipline was so complete that he could dictate two or thrwe letters 
 to different amanuenses at once, and he seldom forgot or found diffi- 
 culty in producing any fact which was once stored iu his memory. In 
 1774 he resorted to a severe system of abstinence iu food and exercise, 
 which had nearly proved fatal. He recovered a vigorous state of 
 health, chiefly by returning to a daily course of strong exercise, and 
 the benefit thus derived led him in after-life to devote his recreations 
 regularly to a series of excursions, of which we have the fruits iu his 
 ' Travels in New England and New York,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1823. These 
 contain a great quantity of statistical and topographical information, 
 which, considering Dr. Dwight's mental habits and opportunities, 
 there is every reason to presume represent accurately the condition of 
 the country during the first quarter p*. the present century. Tho 
 
 2T* 
 
historical parts, especially those relating to the Indian history, man- 
 ners, and warfare, are of much interest. Dr. Dwight's earliest publi- 
 cation was an epic entitled the ' Conquest of Canaan,' finished in his 
 twenty second year, and he subsequently published Beveral other 
 volumes of religious verse, which were read in their days, but have 
 long since passed into oblivion. His chief work is his 'Theology 
 Explained and Defended in a Series of Sermons,' 5 vols. 8vo. It is a 
 course of 173 lectures, delivered by him as professor of divinity on 
 the Sundays in term-time, so as to occupy about four years. His 
 method of preaching was from very concise notes or heads, his eyes 
 not permitting him to undergo tho labour of writing ; so that this 
 voluminous body of divinity was not committed to paper till 1805, in 
 which year he was provided witii an amanuensis at the expense of the 
 college. Two more volumes of his sermons, fifty-nine in number, 
 were published in 1827, and many sermons, essays, &c, remain 
 unpublished. Dr. Dwight was a pleasing as well as a prolific writer; 
 but he had little originality or depth of thought, and his florid, 
 diffuse, and unoitical writings are not likely to be of lasting reputa- 
 tion. Dr. Dwight is said to have been eminently a useful and effective 
 as well as a learned preacher, and his life bore witness to the efficacy 
 of his own belief. 
 
 (Life, prefixed to his Theology Explained.) 
 
 *DYCE, REV. ALEXANDER, was born in Edinburgh in 1798, 
 and iu the High School of that city he received the early part of his 
 education. Being intended for the church, he proceeded to Exeter 
 College, Oxford ; was ordained, and officiated for several years as a 
 curate in Cornwall and Suffolk. Iu 1S27 he came to reside in London, 
 and entered upon a literary career, in which his g. neral learning and 
 critical acquaintance with old writers have gaiued him a well-merited 
 distinction. His first publication was ' Select Translations from 
 Quintus Smyrnoeus,' followed by an edition of the poems of Collins, 
 and ' Specimens of British Poetesses.' Of our elder dramatists, his 
 editions of Peele, Greene, Webster, Middleton, Beaumont and Fletcher, 
 and Marlowe and Shirley, display great research and critical sagacity, 
 and are now recognised as the standard editions. Mr. Dyce has like- 
 wise edited the poetical works of John Skelton, and contributed 
 memoirs to the editions of Pope, Collins, Beattie, Aken-ide, and others, 
 for the ' Aldine British Poets,' published by Mr. Pickering. The 
 critical aud theological works of Bentley were also published by Mr. 
 Dyce. As a commentator upon Shakspere, he has produced ' Remarks 
 on Collier's and Knight's Editions of Shakespeare,' ' A Few Notes on 
 Shakespeare,' and a volume examining some of the emendations pro- 
 posed by Mr. Collier, on the authority of the manuscript corrections 
 he discovered on a copy of the second folio. In these publications Mr. 
 Dyce not unfrequently injures the real value of his own knowledge by 
 displaying something of the same sneering and self-satisfied temper 
 with which Stevens was accustomed to assail his brother commentators. 
 Mr. Dyce is a member of several literary societies, and has edited 
 Kemp's ' Nine Days' Wonder ' for the Camden Society ; ' Timon ' aud 
 'Sir Thomas More,' two tragedies, for the Shakspeare Society; aud some 
 tracts for the Percy Society : also two eds. of Shakspere, in (i and 8 vols. 
 
 DYCE, WILLIAM, R.A., was born at Aberdeen, Scotland, about 
 1806. He received his education in art at the Scottish Academy, aud 
 at the academy's exhibition iu 1827 made his first public appearance as 
 a painter of classical subjects. For more prosaic patrons he painted 
 portraits. Some three or four years later Mr. Dyce appeared as a 
 contributor to the Royal Academy, London, without attracting much 
 notice, though his career was watched by his countrymen with some 
 interest. He gradually made his way as a correct draughtsman and a 
 careful painter, with aspirations towards a high class of art ; and when 
 it was proposed to impart to the new School of Design at Somerset 
 House a really artistic character, Mr. Dyce was selected as the head- 
 master. This office he retained only about three years — too brief a 
 time to effect any real good, but a rather long period for that very 
 variable institution. On his return to the undivided pursuit of his 
 profession, he showed that the interval had not been ill-employed. 
 His contribution to the Exhibition of 1844 was a work more original 
 and characteristic, and far more effective, than any he had hitherto 
 painted, 'King Joash Shooting the Arrow of Deliverance;' and its 
 purity of style and admirable execution at once secured Mr. Dyce 
 admission as an Associate within the coveted precincts of the Royal 
 Academy. He had in fact not only been, as his style showed, studying 
 the works of the eminent living German historical painters, but he 
 had also been making himself master of their methods of fresco- 
 paiuting, of his skill in which art he exhibited some examples at the 
 Fresco Exhibition in the same year. These, parts of a large historical 
 composition, were regarded as among the most successful specimens 
 sent to Westminster Hall. Soon after Prince Albert gave him a 
 commission to paint in fresco one of the compartments of his summer- 
 house at Buckingham Palace, and subsequently he was employed to 
 execute some fresco-paintings at Osborne. Mr. Dyce was also one of 
 the first artists employed upon the new Palace of Westminster. In 
 the House of Lords his fresco of the ' Baptism of Ethelbert ' is generally 
 regarded as one of the best paintings in the room. So much indeed 
 was it approved of by the authorities, that Mr. Dyce has since been 
 pretty constantly employed in adorning the walls of that vast building. 
 The Queen's robing-room is being entirely painted by him. 
 
 Mr. Dyce's occupation at the houses of parliament has interfered of 
 
 course with his practice as a painter of cabinet and gallery pictures, 
 and his contributions to the Royal Academy exhibitions during the 
 last ten years have been somewhat scanty. In 1846 he sent a 
 ' Madonna and Child ;' in 1847 only a sketch. The next year he was 
 elected R.A., and signalised his accession of dignity by sending to the 
 exhibition an ' Omnia Vanitas,' and another sketch for a fresco. In 
 1850 he contributed a ' Meeting of Jacob and Rachel,' of which subject 
 he sent another version in 1853. The only other pictures which have 
 appeared from his easel are — 'King Lear and the Fool in the Storm' 
 (1851); 'Christabel' in 1855 (a very nice German face, very nicely 
 painted in the German manner, but certainly not the Christabel of 
 Coleridge); and the ' Good Shepherd' (1856). [See Supplement.] 
 
 DYER, GEORGE, was born in London on the 15th of March, 1755. 
 He was educated at Christ's Hospital, where, when his standing in the 
 school gained him access to the library, he acquired that taste fof 
 extensive reading which produced the works that will preserve his 
 name : he was at the school from the age of seven to nineteen. 
 While at school he was much noticed by Dr. Askew, physician to the 
 hospital, at whose table he was a frequent guest, in company with 
 much of the distinguished part of the literary world. Iu 1774 h* 
 entered at Emanuel College, Cambridge, and took the degree of B.A, 
 in 1778. After being for a time usher at a free grammar school and 
 several others, he returned to Cambridge, not taking up his residence 
 in college, but, having become a Baptist, in the family of his friend 
 the Rev. R. Robinson, the Baptist minister, as tutor to his children 
 and pupil of their father. He next officiated for some time at Oxford 
 as a Baptist minister ; but after relinquishing this duty, and again, 
 residing for some time in Cambridge, he finally settled in London in 
 1792. From that time till 1830 his time was employed at first as a 
 reporter iu the House of Commons (which occupation he abandoned 
 after two months' trial of it), afterwards as a private teacher, finally 
 in various literary undertakings presently mentioned. In 1830 his 
 eyesight gradually failed, and at length he became totally blind. He 
 died at his chambers in Clifford's Inn, on the 2nd of March 1841. 
 
 Dyer was a poet, a scholar, and an antiquarian, deeply versed in 
 books and their history. As a poet he attracted notice, but not 
 fame ; as a scholar he edited some play3 of Euripides and an edition 
 of the Greek Testament ; but he is best known as editor, or joint 
 editor, of Valpy's combination of the Delphin, Bipont, and Variorum 
 editions of the Classics, in a hundred aud forty-one volumes, in which 
 all the original matter and ' additamenta,' except the preface, were con- 
 tributed by him. As au antiquary his principal works are — ' History 
 of the University aud Colleges of Cambridge,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 
 1814; 'Privileges of the University of Cambridge,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 London, 1824 ; the first volume containing the charters, statutes, &c, 
 the second being a supplement to the history ; and in connection with 
 these, 'Academic Unity,' 8vo, London, 1827, being a translation with 
 additions of the ' Dissertatio Generalis ' in the second work. Dyer 
 published a ' Life of the Rev. Robert Robinson,' and many other works 
 of less note (a list of which is in the postscript of the second volume 
 of the 'Privileges,' &c, just mentioned), and was a large contributor 
 to the magazines. 
 
 Dyer was a man of a remarkable single-mindedness and simplicity 
 of character ; and not only remarkable, but remarked and recorded, 
 and that in a singular manner, by his friend Charles Lamb (so well 
 known under the signature of 'Elia') in the 'London Magazine' for 
 October and December 1823, and republished in the ' Essays of Elia.' 
 
 Dyer's ' History of Cambridge ' is rather a sketch than a history ; 
 but it is the sketch of a man who had all the reading necessary for 
 writing the history ; and it may be added that the materials for the 
 early annals of the university are very defective. Dyer has given a 
 good account of his materials ; but it is much to be regretted that he 
 has not made more specific references to them in the body of the work. 
 It will be found however, on examination, to bo the work not only of 
 a laborious but of a very honest man — for to this character he has a 
 most unimpeachable title — and as such the 'History of Cambridge' is 
 a very important addition to what existed on the subject ; aud nothing 
 but the opportunities of a Wood will surpass it. 
 
 DYER, JOHN, born in 1700, was the second son of a respectable 
 solicitor of Aberglasney in Caermarthenshire. He received his educa- 
 tion at Westminster school, and when that was completed, began the 
 study of the law. An early taste for poetry and painting led him to 
 relinquish his legal pursuits, aud he travelled about South Wales in 
 the capacity of au itinerant painter. At this period he wrote his poem 
 ' Grongar Hill,' which was published in 1727. Though he seems tc 
 have made but small proficiency in painting, he went to Italy to study, 
 where he wrote the ' Ruins of Rome,' a descriptive poem, published 
 in 1740. On his return to England, having a small independence, he 
 retired into the country, entered into holy orders, and married a lady 
 named Ensor, whom he states to be a descendant of Shakspere. He 
 was a man of excellent moral habits, of a singularly modest and un- 
 ambitious temper, and strongly imbued with the love of a country 
 life. He died in 1758, shortly after the publication of his longer poem, 
 ' The Fleece.' 
 
 'The Fleece' is a long poem, of a purely didactic kind. The middle 
 of the last century was remarkably prolific in poems which took for 
 their model Virgil's ' Georgics.' Dyer's ' Fleece,' Grainger's ' Sugar- 
 cane,' and Phillips's 'Cyder,' are all of this class. By selecting 
 
C93 
 
 EADMER. 
 
 EASTLAKE, SIR CHARLES, P.R.A. 
 
 subjects essentially unpoetical, whatever niyht be the ingenuity of the 
 writers, they could do uo more than make a tolerable poem of a bad 
 kind ; for they did not confine themselves to a mere outline of the 
 subject, which they might fill up with what colouring they pleased, 
 but essayed to give, in a poetioal form, the intricacies and minutiae of 
 various branches of manufacture. The selection of Virgil's ' Georgics' 
 for a model was in itself a fallacy, as we qu-stion whether this work, 
 with all its beauties, would be much read at the present time were it 
 not for the opportunity which it affords of studying one of the most 
 elegant writers of the Augustan a^e, and for the light it throws on 
 the agriculture of the ancients. But Dyer's 'Fleece' contains many 
 very pleasing passages of description, and there is about it, as in all of 
 his pceins, a simple, unassuming, unaffected strain of genuine, though 
 it may be somewhat humble, poetic feeling. The ' Ruins of Rome,' 
 
 though less elaborate, is of a higher order. It displays considerable 
 imagination and a fine and well cultivated fueling for the beauty and 
 harmony of nature ; and the descriptions are imbued and vivified with 
 a pure tone of moral sentiment. Perhaps hia most popular, though 
 his le.ist thoughtful and least fiuished poem, is his earliest one — 
 ' Grongar Hill.' There is perhaps no new idea in this work, but it 
 is a vivid and brilliaut combination of pleasing images. The poet 
 invokes the muse to " draw the landskip bright and strong," and the 
 muse seems to grant his request. We may conceive the poem to bo 
 the work of a man walking up-hill, and struck with the succession of 
 scenery which opens all around, he says the first thiu^ that comes into 
 his head ; and as he is affected by none but beautiful prospects, what 
 he says is sure to be pleasing. 
 
 E 
 
 "TADMER, or EDMER, the friend and historian of Archbishop 
 Anselm, lived in the 12th century, but we have no information 
 respecting his parents, or the particular time and place of his nativity. 
 He received a learned education, was a monk of Canterbury, and 
 became the bosom friend and inseparable companion of two arch- 
 bishops of that see, St. Anselm and his successor Ralph. To the former 
 of these he was appointed spiritual director by the pope. In 1120, by 
 the desire of Alexander I. of Scotland, he was elected Bishop of St. 
 Andrews; but on the day of his election a dispute arose between the 
 king and Eadmer respecting his consecration. Eadmer wished to be 
 consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who, he contended, was 
 the primate of all Britain ; while Alexander contended that the see of 
 Canterbury had no pre-eminence over that of St. Andrews. Eadmer 
 finally abandoned his bishopric and returned to England, where he 
 was kindly received by the archbishop and clergy of Canterbury, who 
 yet thought him too precipitate in leaving his bishopric. Eadmer at 
 last wrote a long and submissive letter to the king of Scotland, but 
 without producing the desired effect. Wharton fixes his death in 
 1124, the very year in which the bishopric of St. Andrews was filled 
 up. Eadmer is now best known for his history of the affairs of England 
 in his own time, from 1066 to 1122, in which he has inserted many 
 original papers, and preserved many facts which are nowhere else to 
 be found. His style is regular and good, and his work more free from 
 legendary tales than is usual with the works of his time. The best 
 edition is that by Selden, entitled ' Eadmeri Mouachi Cantuariensis 
 Historic Novorum, sive sui Seeculi, Libri Sex,' folio, London, 1623. 
 His life of St. Anselm was first printed in 12mo, at Antwerp, in 1551, 
 under the title of ' Fratris Edmeri Augli de Vita D. Anselmi Archie- 
 piscopi Cantuariensis, Libri duo.' Several others of his works, with 
 the ' Historia Novorum,' were edited by the congregation of St. Maur 
 at the end of Father Gerberon's editions of the works of St. Anselm, 
 fol., Par., 1675 and 1721. His lives of St. Wilfrid, St. Oswald, St. 
 Dunstan, &c, with that of St. Anselm, were inserted by Wharton in 
 hLi ' Anglia Sacra.' 
 
 EARLE, JOHN, was born at York about 1601. Being sent to 
 Oxford, and entered as a commoner at Christchurch College, he was 
 afterwards, in 1620, admitted as a probationary fellow on the founda- 
 tion of Merton College. He took the degree of Master of Arts in 1624, 
 and that of Doctor in Divinity in 1642. About 1631, when he was 
 proctor, he was appointed chaplain to Philip, earl of Pembroke, who 
 wa3 then chancellor of the university, and lord chamberlain of the 
 king* s household. The earl presented him to the rectory of Bishop- 
 Btone in Wiltshire, and to the same influence probably he owed also 
 his appointment to be chaplain and tutor to Prince Charles, and 
 chancellor of the cathedral of Salisbury. Of all these preferments he 
 was soon deprived by the civil wars. After the battle of Worcester 
 he fled from England, and, meeting Charles II. at Rouen, was made 
 his chaplain and clerk of the closet. Earle remained abroad during 
 the whole exile of his master. Immediately after the Restoration he 
 was made Dean of Westminster. In 1662 he was consecrated Bishop 
 of Worcester, whence he was translated in the next year to the see of 
 Salisbury. He continued to attend much at court, and on the breaking 
 out of the plague in 1665, he accompanied the king and queen to 
 Oxford, where, in University College, he died on the 17th of November 
 in that year. His tomb stands near the high altar of Merton College 
 ChapeL Bishop Earle was a zealous cavalier and staunch high- 
 churchman, but is represented on all hands, by Baxter as well as 
 others, as having been a man of moderate and kindly dispositions. 
 He is now remembered on account of his work called ' Microcosmo- 
 graphy, or a Piece of the World discovertd, in Essays and Characters,' 
 8vo, 1628. This volume was several times reprinted with additions 
 in the author's own lifetime, the eighth edition appearing in 1650. 
 The edition by Dr. Bliss, 1811, 12mo, is the eleventh, and contains 
 notices of the author's life and of his other works, with several small 
 English poems of his, and specimens of his Latinity. Except these 
 little pieces, and the ' Microcosmography,' he published nothing but a 
 Latin translation of the Icon Basilike; 'EIk6v Ba<nAi/<4 vel Imago 
 Regis Caroli, in Illis suis ^Erumuis et Solitudine,' Hapuo, 1649, 12mo. 
 
 Wood mentions an unprintcd Latin translation of Hooker's ' Eccle- 
 siastical Polity' by" him, which however has not been seen by any one 
 in modern times. Earle's ' Microcosmography' is one of the best, as 
 it was one of the most popular, among the brief sketches of character 
 and manners which were so abundant in our literature for a century 
 after the middle of Elizabeth's reign, and which, receiving the 
 addition of narrative matter, were transformed, in the beginning of 
 the 18th century, into the little novels of the 'Spectator' and 
 other periodical works. The bishop's portraits, especially the ethical 
 ones, abound both in shrewdness and in humour, and are very often 
 expressed with great terseness and epigrammatic point. 
 
 EARLOM, RICHARD, one of the most distinguished English 
 engravers of the 18th century, was born in the early half of that 
 century, according to Bryan. He died October the 9th, 1822. A few 
 foreign works speak more definitely of the when and whereabouts of 
 Earlom's birth, but they are at the same time vague and contradictory; 
 some state that he was a native of Somersetshire, others that he was 
 born in London about 1728. The dates of his works, which are very 
 numerous, range between 1760 and 1790. As a mezzotinto engraver 
 Earlom has scarcely been equalled ; his historical and other figure 
 pieces in this line are excellent, but some fruit and flower pieces, after 
 Van Os and Van Huysum, are of unrivalled beauty and effect. 
 Earlom also executed many etchings and imitations of chalk drawings, 
 the principal of which is the celebrated ' Liber Veritatis,' published 
 by Boydell, consisting of a series of fac-simile3 from the original 
 sketches of Claude Lorraine, in the possession of the Duke of Devon- 
 shire. He engraved from a great variety of masters, English and 
 foreign, as Correggio, Ann. Caracci, Domenichino, Guido, Guercino, 
 Carlo Dolci, Luca Giordano, S. Cantarini, Quintin Matsys, Hemskerk, 
 Teniers, Snyders, Rubens, Vandyck, Rembrandt, Vanderwerf, Velaz- 
 quez, Mengs, Zoffany, Reynolds, Loutherbourg, West, Wilson, Gains- 
 borough, Jos. Wright, Northcote, Romney, &c. &c. Among his 
 masterpieces are — -the ' Royal Academy,' after Zoffany ; ' Lord Heath- 
 field,' after Reynolds ; and the ' Iron Forge,' after Wright. There is 
 a list of his principal works in Bryan's ' Dictionary of Painters and 
 Engravers.' 
 
 EASTLAKE, SIR CHARLES LOCK, P.R.A., was born in 1793 
 at Plymouth, Devonshire. Having, after the usual course of educa- 
 tion at the grammar schools of Plymouth and Plympton, and for a 
 brief space at the Charterhouse, decided on adopting painting as a 
 profession, he entered as a student at the Royal Academy, Loudon, 
 where under Fuseli he considerably distinguished himself. At this 
 time too he availed himself of the advice and experience of his fellow 
 townsman, Haydon. Soon after completing his preparatory studies, 
 Mr. Eastlake visited Paris in order to study and copy some of the 
 many great works which Napoleon had collected in the Louvre. His 
 labours were however interrupted by the Emperor's return from Elba, 
 and he came back to England and established himself at Plymouth as a 
 portrait-painter. When the Bellerophon lay off Plymouth with Bona- 
 parte on board of it, Mr. Eastlake made sketches of him as he walked 
 the deck from a boat, and from these painted a full-length portrait of 
 the fallen emperor — the last painted from him in Europe. Mr. 
 Eastlake in 1817-18 visited Italy, Greece, and Sicily; and then 
 settled for some time in Rome. In 1823 he sent to the exhibition of 
 the Royal Academy some views of Rome and its neighbourhood. 
 These were followed by various pictures of the peasantry of Italy and 
 Greece, chiefly what have been called costume pieces, but some of 
 them — as the 'Brigand's Wife Defending her Wounded Husband,' 
 ' Byron's Dream,' &c. — of a somewhat more ambitious character. In 
 1827 he sent to the exhibition a painting of the 'Spartan Isidas,' 
 and he was the same year elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. 
 The following year he contributed his 'Peasants on a Pilgrimage to 
 Rome first coming in sight of the Holy City ;' a work which showed 
 a far greater amount of power, than any he had previously painted, and 
 in fact formed one of the leading features of the years exhibition. 
 Thi3 admirable picture has been two or three times engraved, and 
 Mr. Eastlake has painted a duplicate of it with some variations. In 
 1830 Mr. Eastlake was elected R.A. For several seasons his contri- 
 
1)96 
 
 m 
 
 butions to the Academy exhibitions consisted chiefly of Italian and 
 Greek subjects, such as the ' Contadina and Family returning from 
 a Festa — prisoners to Banditti;' ' Gaston de Foix before the Battle of 
 Ravenna, in which he was slain ;' ' Salutation of the Aged Friar,' &c. 
 He at length sent a work of much more elevated aim, his now uni- 
 versally known ' Christ Weeping over Jerusalem.' This, though of 
 but moderate size, was really one of the most important productions 
 in the historical style which the English school had for a considerable 
 period produced. With the utmost refinement and purity, there was 
 combined a deep religious earnestness of character and expression, 
 breadth and simplicity of treatment, and subdued but rich colour; 
 and the well-filled canvass had neither figure nor feature to let, or in 
 the way. And whilst every part was finished with the most scrupulous 
 care, there were no ostentatious details, no coat-trimmings, or pebble- 
 stones, or wall-lichens set forth with the pedantry of a collector or the 
 fussiness of an antiquary. The deep sentiment of the picture found 
 its way to every heart ; and many hoped that it was the inauguration 
 of a new and nobler school of English historical painting. The 
 ' Christ Blessing Little Children,' and the ' Hagar and Ishmael,' how- 
 ever admirable, as in many respects they both were, did not certainly 
 increase, if indeed they sustained, the high reputation acquired by the 
 ' Christ Weeping over Jerusalem.' There were all the refinement and 
 purity of that work, but the delicai y verged on feebleness, and the 
 colour was less true and powerful. But Mr. Eastlake's energies had 
 been diverted away from constant attention to his art, and art is too 
 jealous a mistress to allow of a divided service. 
 
 In 1841 Mr. Eastlake was appointed Secretary to the Royal Com- 
 mission of Fine Arts, formed for inquiring whether advantage might 
 not be taken of the opportunity afforded by the rebuilding of the 
 houses of parliament for promoting and encouraging the fine arts. 
 The direction of the proceedings of this commission, the laborious col- 
 lection of materials for arriving at a decision as to tho best means of 
 carrying out the purpose for which the commission was appointed, 
 the investigations respecting the history and processes of fresco- 
 painting, and other connected matters, occupied for some years a con- 
 siderable portion of Mr. Eastlake's time ; and to his zeal and unselfish 
 exertions much of the success of the commission was due. The 
 reports presented by the commission to parliament represent but a 
 small portion of Mr. Eastlake's labours as its secretary, an office he 
 still retains. In November 1843 Mr. Eastlake was appointed Keeper 
 of the National Gallery, but resigned in October 1847. 
 
 Mr. Eastlake exhibited his 'Hagar and Ishmael ' in 1844 ; his sub- 
 sequent works have been comparatively few. In 1845 appeared 
 ' Heloise,' one of the female heads he always paints so gracefully ; in 
 1844 a 'Scene from Couius,' a study for a royal fresco; in 1846 'A 
 Visit to the Nun;' 'An Italian Peasant Family — prisoners with 
 Banditti' in 1848 ; 'Helena' in 1849; 'The Good Samaritan,' and 
 • The Escape of Francesco Novello di Carrara, with Taddea d'Este, 
 his wife, from the Duke of Milan,' in 1850; 'Ippolita Torelli' in 1851; 
 'Ruth sleeping at the feet of Boaz ' and ' Violante ' in 1853 ; ' Irene ' 
 in 1854, and 'Beatrice' in 1855. Mr. Eastlake has also exhibited a 
 few portraits, one of which ' The Sisters ' may be mentioned as almost 
 unrivalled among modern female portraits for exquisite gracefulness 
 and refinement of style. 
 
 In 1850 Mr. Eastlake was elected President of the Royal Academy, 
 and at the same time he received the honour of knighthood. In 1855 
 he was appointed to the newly-established post of Director of the 
 National Gallery with a salary of 1000/. a year. This appointment, 
 as well as his previous management as Keeper of the National Gallery, 
 has been the subject of a series of attacks on Sir Charles, made with 
 so much virulence and personality as to have despoiled them of their 
 sting, and rendered them far more hurtful to their utterers than to 
 the object of their enmity. Sir Charles was in 1838 elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society; in 1853 he received the degree of D.C.L. from 
 the University of Oxford; and in 1855 he was created Knight of the 
 Legion of Honour. 
 
 Sir Charles is not only one of the most able but also one of the 
 most learned of living English painters, and he has made several 
 valuable contributions to the literature of art. For the 'Penny 
 Cyclopaedia' he wrote the articles 'Bassi-Rilievi' and 'Bologna, School 
 of;' he has also written some excellent articles for the 'Quarterly 
 Review ; ' and some elaborate papers on Fresco painting, &c. for the 
 Reports of the Fine Arts Commission. His separate publications 
 consist of a translation of Gothe's ' Farbenlehre,' 1 vol. 8vo, 1840, 
 which he has enriched with some valuable notes on the practice of 
 painting and the vehicles employed by the great Venetian and Flemish 
 painters— subjects he has much more amply illustrated in his next 
 work, 'Materials for a History of Oil-Painting,' 1 vol. 8vo, 1847. His 
 scattered essays he has collected under the title of ' Contributions to 
 the Literature of the Fine Arts.' Sir Charles has also edited and anno- 
 tated a translation, said to be by Lady Eastlake, of * Kugler's Hand- 
 book to the Italian Schools of Painting.' [See Supplement.] 
 
 A repetition of Eastlake's grand picture 'Christ Weeping over 
 Jerusalem,' forms one of the chief features of the Vernon Gallery, in 
 which collection are also his 'Escape of Francesco di Carrara,' and a 
 ' Head of a Lady in Greek Costume.' These have all been engraved 
 among the series of engravings from the Vernon Gallery in the ' Art 
 Journal;' tho 'Christ WeepiDg over Jerusalem' has also been admi- 
 
 rably engraved on a much larger scale by Mr. Cousin in mezzotint. 
 ' The Pilgrims first coming in sight of Rome,' ' Hagar and Ishmael/ 
 and ' Christ Blessing Little Children,' have been eDgraved in line. 
 
 EBEL, JOHN GOTTFRIED, an esteemed writer on statistics and 
 geology, born at Fraukfurt-on-the-Oder, October 6, 1764 : died at 
 Zurich, 1830. After completing his studies and taking his degree na 
 Doctor of Medicine, he went to France, and became intimate with the 
 Abbd Sieyes. In 1801 he went to Switzerland, and resided chiefly at 
 Zurich. He travelled through Switzerland in all directions, and pub- 
 lished some valuable works on the natural history and statistics of 
 the country. The most popular is his ' Guide to Travellers in 
 Switzerland.' In his description of the mountaineers of Switzerland, 
 he draws an interesting picture of the inhabitants of Appenzel and 
 Glarus. His work on the geology of the Alps touches also on the 
 structure of the globe in general, and contains much information on 
 the geognostical relations of tho Alps. 
 
 EBELING, CHRISTOPHER DANIEL, born 1741, at Garmissen 
 in Hildesheim : died in 1817. He studied theology at GSttingen, and 
 acquired great knowledge of the oriental languages, especially the 
 Arabic, and was thoroughly acquainted not ouly with the classical 
 literature of Greece and Rome, but also with that of modern Europe,, 
 particularly England. He published numerous translations, &c, but 
 his chief work is his ' Geography and History of tho United States 
 of North America,' 7 vols. 8vo, which was justly esteemed, not only 
 in Europe, but still more in America itself. He was chosen a member 
 of almost all the learned societies of the country, and the Congress 
 voted hitn public thanks for his services. That part of his library 
 which related to America, consisting of 3900 volumes, was purchased 
 after his death by M. Israel Thoredino, a friend of learning, at Boston, 
 and presented to Harvard College. Ebeling was for thirty years 
 professor of history and of the Greek language in the gymnasium at 
 Hamburg. His industry wa3 extraordinary. Besides the duties of 
 his professorship and the composition of his chief work, he was for 
 above twenty years keeper of the public library of the city, into 
 which he introduced order and judicious arrangement, and composed 
 a catalogue, which was much wanted. He besides contributed largely 
 to numerous periodicals. He was of a friendly, cheerful, and social 
 disposition; and he bore with remarkable patience and equanimity 
 for thirty years a hardness of hearing, which gradually increased to 
 almost total deafness, so that a loud voice was scarcely perceptible to 
 him even with the aid of an ear-trumpet. 
 
 EBELMEN, JACQUES-JOSEPH, French chemist, was born July 
 10, 1814, at Beaume-les-Dames, in France. Having passed successively 
 through the colleges Henri IV. and Besancon, he iu 1831 entered the 
 Ecole Polytechnique, and in 1833 passed from it to the Ecole des 
 Mines. His ability and attainments early attracted notice; in 1840 
 he was appointed assistant, and in 1845 chief professor of analysis at 
 the Ecole des Mines; in 1841 he was made one of the secretaries of 
 the ' Annales des Mines,' and experimental chemist at the Ecole 
 Polytechnique. A wider field was however opened before him by the 
 appointment in 1847 of director of the Mauufacture-Royale of Sevres. 
 To the duties of this office he applied all his energies. New and 
 improved modes of operation, and the latest chemical discoveries, were 
 employed with a view to economise the cost and improve the quality 
 of the manufacture, while the most able designers and painters were 
 called in for the purpose of obtaining the best models and the richest 
 ornamentation ; and under his direction the porcelain of Sesvres 
 acquired a reputation fully equal to that it had ever held, while the 
 establishment was regarded as a model for the excellence of its 
 arrangements. M. Ebelmeu was a member of the commission sent by 
 the French government to the Great Exhibition, London. In tho 
 beginning of March 1852 M. Ebelmen was named engineer-in-chief of 
 the mines, but he survived the appointment only a few days, dying ou 
 the 31st of March, 1852, in his thirty-eighth year. 
 
 Ebelmen was regarded with great hope for his combination of 
 sound and minute scientific knowledge with practical administrative 
 ability, and extensive powers of generalisation ; and his early death 
 was generally regretted. He contributed a great many papers to the 
 ' Annales des Mines,' the ' Annales de Physique et de Chemie,' and the 
 ' Bulletins de l'Academie des Sciences.' Among the more important 
 were some upon the composition of coal-gas, and its employment iu 
 metallic manufactures; and several upon the composition of rocks, 
 the artificial reproduction of minerals, &c, of which we may mention — 
 ' Sur les Produits de la Decomposition des especes Mine'rales de la 
 famille des Silicates,' 1845 ; ' Sur une nouvelle Mesthode pour obtenir 
 des Combinaisons Cristallisdes par la voie seche, et sur ses applications 
 a la reproduction des especes Minerales,' 1847 ; ' Sur la Decomposition 
 des Roches,' 1848, and particularly ' Sur les Alterations des Roches 
 stratifiees sous l'iufluence des agents atmospheriques et des eaux 
 d'infiltration,' 1851. The more important of his 'Me'moires' have 
 been collected and published under the care of M. Salvetat with the 
 title of ' Recueil des Travaux Scientifiques de M. Ebelmen,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1855. 
 
 (M. Chevreul, Notice sur M. Ebelmen; Nouv. Biog. Generate.) 
 
 ECHARD, LAWRENCE. It is unknown when this author was 
 born; but his translation of the ' Atnphitryo ' of Plautus was pub- 
 lished in 1694. He was educated at Cambridge, and having taken 
 orders, was presented to a living in Lincolnshire. In 1712 he became 
 
w 
 
 ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARY. 
 
 EDGAR. 
 
 6d8 
 
 archdeacon of Stowe aud prebendary of Lincoln. His historical works 
 have long ceased to be read ; but hia translation of Terence is still 
 frequently purchased by indolent schoolboys, who could not well buy 
 a more unprofitable or worthless book. The characters of the elegant 
 aud refined Terence are made to utter all the vulgarisms and scurri- 
 lities of the 18th century, yet Echard has written a self-complacent 
 preface, wherein he says that he could not have followed his author 
 more closely without destroying his design " of giving an easy comic 
 style." He died August 16, 1730. 
 
 ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARY, an eminent antiquary and numis- 
 matist, was born at Entzersfeld, in Austria, January 13, 1737. His 
 father, who was in the service of Count Ziuzendorf, seut him at a very 
 early age to the Jesuits' College at Vienna, where, in 1751, he was 
 enrolled in their society. He studied philosophy, mathematics, 
 divinity, aud the learned languages, but devoted himself chiefly to 
 antiquities and medals. His skill in the latter induced the superiors 
 of the college, a few years afterwards, to give him the place of keeper 
 of their cabinet of medals aud coins. In 1772 he went to Italy, where 
 the grand-duke of Tuscauy, Leopold II., engaged him to arrange his 
 collection; aud on his return to Vienna, in 1774, he was appointed 
 director of the Imperial Cabinet of Medals, and professor of antiquities. 
 In 1775 he published his first work upon his favourite study, entitled 
 ' Numi veteres Anecdoti ex Museis Cse3areo Vindobonensi, Florentino 
 Magni Ducis Etiurise, Granelliano nunc Ctesareo, Vitzaino, Festetic- 
 siano, Savorgnano Veneto, aliisque,' 4to, Vienna. This was followed 
 iu 1776 by 'Catalogus Musei Caesarei Vindobouensis Numorum Vete- 
 rum, distributes in partes ii. quarum prior Monetam Urbium, Popu- 
 loruin, Regum, altera Romanoruui complectitur,' 2 torn, folio, accom- 
 panied by eight plates of inedited coins. In 1786 he published his 
 'Syllo^e I. numorum anecdotorum Thesauri Csesarei,' 4to; his'Des- 
 ciiptio Numorum Antiochise Syrise, sive Specimen Artis criticae 
 Nutnarise,' 4to, was likewise printed at Vienna the same year ; and in 
 17 5 7 he produced a small elementary work on coins for the use of 
 schools, iu his native language, entitled ' Kurzgefasste Anfangsgriinde 
 zur alten Nuinismatik,' 8vo, Vien. This work has since been improved 
 and published in France, under the title of ' Traite Elemeutaire de 
 Numismatique Grecque et Romaine, compose d'apr&s celui d Eckhel,' 
 par Gerard Jacob, 2 torn. 8vo, Par., 1825. In 1788 Eckhel published 
 a folio volume upon the gems of the Imperial Collection, ' Choix de 
 Pierres gravies du Cabinet Imperial des Antiques, representees en xl. 
 Plaoches;' and in 1792 the first volume of his 'Doctrina Numorum 
 Veterum,' Vienna, 4to ; the eighth and last volume of which was pub- 
 lished in 1798. A supplement to it, with his portrait prefixed, after- 
 wards appeared, 'Addenda ad Eckh^lii Doctrinam Numorum Veterum 
 ex ejusdem Autographo postumo,' 4to, Vindob., 1826. This work, 
 which embraces the science of numismatics in general, has placed 
 Eckhel at the head of writers upon ancient coins. He died May 16th, 
 1798, at the house of his friend the Baron de Locella. 
 
 In his younger years Eckhel published three or four small pieces 
 unconnected with numismatics : namely, two Latin odes on the nuptials 
 of Joseph II., in 1765 ; another in German, in 1768, on the departure 
 of Maria Carolina, archduchess of Austria, from Vienna; and two 
 years afterwards an oration in German on the occasion of the emperor's 
 visit to Italy, ' Rede auf die Reise Josephs II. in Italieu,' 8vo, Wien., 
 1770. An ' Explication Grammaticale des Prophecies d'Haggee,' by 
 him, appeared in Millin's Magasin Encyclope'dique, II e annee, torn ii., 
 p. 461. 
 
 (Saxii, Onomasticon; Visconti's account of Eckhel, in the Biographic 
 Universelle ; aud the Notitia Lileraria de Vitd et Scriptis J. H. Eckhel, 
 translated from the French of Millin, prefixed to the Addenda ad 
 Doctrinam Numorum Veterum.) 
 
 EDELINCK, GERARD, a distinguished engraver, and likewise 
 painter, was born in 1649, at Antwerp, where he acquired the rudi- 
 ments of his art ; but it was in France that his talents were fully 
 developed ; and the favours bestowed on him by Louis XIV. induced 
 him to fix his abode in that country. Among his engravings the 
 following are especially worthy of notice : ' the Holy Family,' after 
 Raffaelle; 'Alexander in the Tent of Darius,' after Lebrun ; 'the Combat 
 of Cavalry,' after Leonardo da Vinci ; and, above all, 'the Crucifixion,' 
 after Lebrun. In his Jarger plates of historical subjects, we too often 
 have r< asou to lament the work selected ; many pictures owe all their 
 celebrity to his master-hand. Edelinck was no less happy in his por- 
 traits than in his historical engraviugs ; he has left a great number of 
 portraits of the most distinguished characters of his age. Several of 
 them are in the collection of eminent men by Perrault. A remarkably 
 pur- ami brilliant burin, a bold manner, correct drawing, fidelity to 
 naiure, and inimitable harmony of execution, place the works of 
 Edeliuck in the highest rank among those of his nation. He was 
 engraver to the king, and member of the Royal Academy of Painting, 
 and died at Paris in 1707. Neither his brother John, born 1630, nor 
 his sou iNicbolas, born at Paris, 1680, equalled him in his art. 
 
 EDUAR surnauied the Peaceable, was the second and youngest son 
 of King Edmund I. by his wife Elgiva, or Algiva. He appears to have 
 been bom iu 943, aud consequently was only about three years old 
 at his father's death, in 946. His brother Edwy, or Eadwy, may have 
 been a year or perhaps two years older. In these circumstances, 
 Edmund's brother Edred was unanimously chosen to succeed him by 
 the Witenagemote. On the death of Edred however iu 956, Edwy 
 
 3100. DIV. VOL. U. 
 
 was placed on the throne ; and at the same time his brother Edgar 
 was appointed governor or sub-regulus of Mercia, which was still con- 
 sidered as a distinct though subject kingdom. When, about two 
 years after his accession, the enmity between Edwy and the church 
 interest broke out into an open quarrel, the people of Mercia and 
 Northumbria, instigated to revolt by Archbishop Odo, or at least 
 timing their movement very opportunely for the purposes of the 
 clerical party, placed Edgar at their head and proclaimed him king. 
 It was finally arranged that Edwy should retain the sovereignty of 
 the territory to the south of the Thames, and that all the rest of the 
 kingdom should be made over to Edgar. The death of Edwy, 
 however, about a year after, made Edgar king of all Englaud in 959. 
 
 Dunstan, who had been banished by Edwy, had been recalled by 
 Edgar, and made his chief counsellor, as soon as he found himself 
 established as king of the country to the north of the Thames. Being 
 as yet only in his sixteenth year (or perhaps not quite so old) wheu 
 he became full king, he was of course entirely in the hands of the 
 monks and clergy, whose instrument he had hitherto been. Dunstan, 
 already Bishop both of Worcester and London, was now promoted to 
 the primacy, as well as restored to his abbey of Glastonbury, and 
 became the chief director of affairs both in church and state. The 
 government of the kingdom by Edgar, under the guidance of this 
 ecclesiastic (or rather under the direction of this ecclesiastic, for Edgar 
 was evidently a mere instrument in the hands of Dunstan) was 
 unquestionably conducted with a certain amount of ability and success. 
 Throughout the whole reign England remained undisturbed by war ; 
 the northern pirates, who had harassed the country so incessantly for 
 150 years before, and who, twenty years after the death of Edgar, 
 renewed their attacks, and did not desist until they had effected its 
 conquest, during his life did not once attack the English coasts. 
 According to the monkish writers, they were deterred from doing so 
 by the powerful naval force that was kept up by the king. These 
 writers make the fleet of Edgar to have consisted of 3600 ships. "The 
 number," says a modern historian, iu a somewhat decisive style of 
 narration, " appears to me enormous ; I have therefore retrenched a 
 cipher." (Lingard, ' Hist. Engl.') In this fleet, which was divided 
 into three squadrons, Edgar is said by Malmsbury to have every 
 Easter circumnavigated the island in person ; but this looks very like 
 merely one of the improbable inventions by which Edgar's monkish 
 admirers have laboured to magnify his name, and, in fact, the entire 
 story wears a somewhat apocryphal aspect. It may be doubted 
 whether we ought not to regard in the same light what some of the 
 chroniclers tell us about his making annually a progress through the 
 different provinces of his kingdom for the administration of justice. 
 Another work of great public benefit which is attributed to him is the 
 reformation of the coinage. He is also said to have freed Wales 
 from wolves by commuting the money tribute imposed upon the 
 Welsh by his predecessors for a tribute of 300 heads of these animals 
 annually ; by which means the wolves were extirpated iu four years. 
 But there were wolves in England long after this. Edgar has been 
 chiefly lauded by the monkish annalists for his restoration of the 
 church both to its ancient possessions and to a more perfect state of 
 discipline than it had probably ever before known. And this is no 
 doubt the true explanation of the extravagant eulogies which the 
 monkish writers lavish upon Edgar, who was plainly a weak, selfish, 
 and luxurious prince — that he raised, or permitted to be raised, the 
 ecclesiastical power to a higher point than it had yet attained in 
 England, and placed the supreme secular authority in the hands of a 
 priest who ruled the country with a despotic sway, to which the 
 people were compelled to yield a sullen obedience. The reigu of 
 Edgar was a peaceful and apparently a powerful one ; but under 
 priestly domination and Danish favouritism, the Anglo-Saxon spirit 
 was broken, and the country was left, when the strong hand of 
 Dunstan was removed, to fall a helpless prey to intestine turbulence 
 and the assault of the foreigner. Under the vigorous administration 
 of Dunstan and his subservient associates Ethelwold and Oswald, the 
 bishops of Winchester and Worcester, the married clergy were removed 
 almost to a man from the cathedrals and abbeys ; and no fewer than 
 fifty-four monasteries were founded or restored in different parts of 
 the kingdom, and filled with monks as well as richly endowed. They 
 were all subjected to the Benedictine rule. 
 
 The laws of Edgar that have been preserved consist partly of some 
 enactments touching the payment of the tithes and other ohurch-dues, 
 and partly of a few civil regulations chiefly relating to the improve- 
 ment of the police of the kingdom and the better administration of 
 justice. One is directed against the crime of malicious defamation, 
 aud enacts that if the falsehood of the evil report can be proved, the 
 defamer should either have his tongue cut out (that was no doubt 
 thought a peculiarly appropriate punishment), or should redeem it 
 with the value of his head, that is to say, should pay the sum at wnioh 
 his life was valued according to the class of society in which he was 
 ranked. Another directs that the Winchester measure should be the 
 standard for the kingdom. These laws however were only enforced 
 in the Saxon provinces of Edgar's dominions. To his Danish subjects, 
 who occupied nearly or fully half the kingdom, he appears to have only 
 recommended the adoption of some of the Euglish laws. The majority 
 of these Danes resident in England were still pagans, and were governed 1 
 by earls of their own nation, though they acknowledged the Buprejnu-;/ 
 
 2z 
 
899 EDGAll ATHELING. 
 
 of the Saxon king ; and it was not till towards the close of the reign 
 of the Confessor that the authority of the English law was fully 
 extended over the part of the country which they occupied. Edgar 
 however had spent his earliest years among the Danes, and it was by 
 their aid chiefly that he had acquired his first throne ; he consequently 
 was attached to them, and during his reign their preponderance was 
 studiously maintained — a circumstance which perhaps more than the 
 king's 3000 ships served to preserve the country from Danish invasion. 
 
 The monkish chroniclers give the loftiest descriptions of the power 
 and extensivo authority of Edgar, telling us that he was acknowledged 
 as their supreme lord by all the other kings of Britain and the sur- 
 rounding islands. The story told in the Saxon chronicle and elsewhcro 
 of his having been rowed in his barge on the Dee by the eight subject 
 kings of Scotland, Cumberland, Anglesey with the Isle of Man and 
 the Hebrides, Westmorland, Galloway, North, South, and Middle 
 Wales, is well known. It is also affirmed that tho greater part of 
 Ireland had submitted to his authority. The dominion which he 
 arrogated to himself appears in fact not to have been inferior to what 
 we find claimed for him by his panegyrists. Among the titles assumed 
 by him on his seals and in charters are — 1 Edgarus Anglorum Basileus, 
 omniumque regum insularum oceani quoe Britanniam circumjacent, 
 cunctarumque nationum quae infra earn includuntur, Imperator ct 
 Dominuo' — 'Rex et Primicerius tocius Albionis' — 'Basileus dilectrc 
 insulco Albionis, subditis nobis sceptris Scottorum, Cumbrorumque, 
 otque Brittonum, ct omnium circumcirca regiouum,' &c. These 
 " pompous and boastful titles," observes Mr. Turner, " sometimes run 
 to the length of fifteen or eighteen lines." Much difficulty in believing 
 that this assumption of power had any real foundation is occasioned 
 by the absence of any record or notice of the subjugation of the more 
 important of these neighbouring kingdoms by any of the Anglo-Saxou 
 monarchs. What event ever happened, for instance, that could possibly 
 have induced the kiog of Scotland to acknowledge himself in this 
 manner as the vassal of the king of England ? The pacific character 
 claimed for the reign of Edgar, who is said never to have had occasion 
 to draw the sword against an enemy, makes it still more difficult to 
 understand how he should thus have compelled all his neighbours to 
 do him homage, and take him for their lord and master. 
 
 The monkish writers, with whom Edgar is such a favourite, have 
 not altogether concealed the fact that he was no saint in his morals. 
 The story appears to be sufficiently authenticated which attributes to 
 him the violation of a lady of noble birth, and that too while she was 
 resident in a convent. He was twice married, first to Elfleda the Fair, 
 by whom he had a son, Edward, who succeeded him ; and, secondly, 
 to Elfrida, the daughter of Ordgar, earl of Devonshire, who bore him 
 Edmund, who died in his infancy, and Ethelred, for whom his infamous 
 mother opened a way to the throne by the murder of Edward. The 
 circumstances of the marriage of Edgar and Elfrida — the commission 
 given by the king to Ethelwold to visit the lady and ascertain the 
 truth of the reports of her beauty — the treachery of Ethelwold, who 
 '•epresented her to his royal master as unworthy of her fame, and then 
 married her himself — the discovery by her and Edgar of the deceit 
 that had been practised on both of them — and the subsequent assassi- 
 nation by the king of his unfaithful emissary — are related by Malmsbury 
 on the faith of an ancient ballad. There is nothing in the character 
 either of Elfrida or Edgar that need occasion us any difficulty in 
 believing the story. 
 
 Edgar was not solemnly crowned till the fourteenth year after he 
 succeeded to the throne. This has been accounted for by stating that 
 Dunstan imposed on Edgar a severe penance of seven years duration 
 for the abduction of the nun Wulfrida, with the additional penalty 
 that during that period Edgar should not wear the crown : but this 
 would not account for the ceremony being deferred for fourteen years. 
 The ceremony was at length performed at Akemanceastre, that is, 
 Bath, on the 11th of May 973. He lived only two years longer, dying 
 July 8, 975. He was succeeded by his eldest son Edward, afterwards 
 designated the Martyr. 
 
 EDGAR ATHELING, that is, Edgar of the blood royal, or Prince 
 Edgar, as we should now say. The personage commonly understood 
 in English history by this title is Edgar, the grandson of King Edmund 
 Ironside through his son Edward, surnamed the Outlaw. Edward and 
 his brother had been sent from England by Canute in 1017, the year 
 after his accession, to his half-brother Olave, king of Sweden, by whom 
 it was probably intended that they should be made away with ; but 
 Olave spared the lives of the children, and had them removed to the 
 court of the king of Hungary. All the English historians make the 
 Hungarian king by whom they were received to be Solomon ; but this 
 must be a mistake, for that king did not ascend the throne till 1062, 
 and was only born in 1051. The king of Hungary at the time when 
 the children of Edmund Ironside were sent to that country was 
 Stephen L, who reigned from 1001 to 1038. The story, as commonly 
 related, goes on to state that one of the brothers, Edmund (or, as 
 some call him, Edwin), married a daughter of the Hungarian king, but 
 died without issue ; and that the other, Edward, married Agatha, the 
 daughter of the Emperor Henry II. and the sister of Queen Sophia, 
 the wife of Solomon. Here again there must be some great mistake, 
 for the Emperor Henry II. never had any children. Who Agatha 
 roaiiy was, therefore, it is impossible to say. She bore to her 
 husband, besides Edgar, two daughters, Margaret and Christina. 
 
 EDGAR ATHELING. 
 
 Edgar, as well as his sisters, must have been born in Hungary ; but 
 the year of his birth has not, we believe, been recorded. His father, 
 after an exile of forty years, was sent for to England, in 1057, by his 
 uncle King Edward the Confessor, who professed an intention of 
 acknowledging him as next heir to tho crown : the Outlaw accordingly 
 came to this country with his wife and children, but he was never 
 admitted to his uncle's presence, and he died shortly after, not 
 without the suspicion of foul play, which one hypothesis attributes to 
 Earl Harold, another to the Duko of Normandy. There in nothing 
 like proof, however, of the guilt of either. The event in the mean- 
 time was generally considered as placing young Edgar in tho position 
 of his father a3 heir to the crown ; and it seems to havo been now 
 that tho title of Atheling (which had been borne by his father) was 
 assumed by or conferred upon him. He was at any rate the Con- 
 fessor's nearest relation ; and if Edmund Ironside, from whom he 
 sprung, was illegitimate, as some have supposed, the circumstance of 
 his having worn the crown seems to have been regarded as sufficient 
 to wipe away the stain, and to bring his descendants into the regular 
 line of the succession. All Edmund's brothers and half-brothers, with 
 the exception of the reigning king, had perished, most of them having 
 been cut off by Canute and the other kings of the Danish stock ; and 
 the Confessor himself and his grandnephew, young Edgar, were now 
 the only remaining male descendants of Ethelred II. 
 
 Edgar was still in England when the Confessor died in January 
 1066 ; but he was yet very young, and appeared to be feeble in mind 
 as well as in body, and therefore was in nowise fitted either to take a 
 part, or to be used as an instrument by others, in tho first tumult of 
 the contest in which two such energetic spirits as Harold and the 
 Norman William now proceeded to try their strength. Insignificant 
 as he was however from his personal 'endowments, the Atheling 
 derived an importance from his descent and his position which after 
 wards occasioned him to be conspicuously brought forward on various 
 occasions, and has made him an historic character. On the destruc- 
 tion of the power of Harold at the battle of Hastings, he was actually 
 proclaimed as king by the citizens of London ; but on the approach of 
 the Conqueror, he was one of the first to go to him at Berkhamstead 
 and to otl'er full submission. He then took up his residence at the 
 court of William, who allowed him to retain the earldom of Oxford, 
 which had been bestowed upon him by Harold. When the Conqueror 
 the following year visited his Norman dominions, we find him taking the 
 Atheling in his train. In 1068 however Edgar appears to have fallen 
 into the hands of the discontented Northumbrian lords Maerleswegen 
 (or Marleswiue), Cospatric, and others, who, deserting the Norman 
 conqueror, carried the heir of the Saxon line and his mother and 
 sisters with them to the court of the Scottish king Malcolm Canmore. 
 This movement was attended with important consequences. Malcolm 
 soon after married Edgar's eldest sister Margaret, and of this marriage 
 came Matilda, whose union in 1100 with Henry I. of England was 
 the first step towards the reconcilement of the Saxon and Norman 
 races. Meanwhile Edgar and his friends were followed to Scotland 
 by many other Saxon fugitives, who were the means of introducing 
 into that country much of the superior civilisation of the southern 
 part of the island. A connection between Scotland and Hungary 
 appears also to have arisen out of this flight of Edgar, and the 
 subsequent marriage of his sister with the Scottish king. 
 
 It was not intended however by Cospatric and his associates that 
 Scotland should serve them merely as a place of refuge. A powerful 
 confederacy was immediately formed against the English king, in 
 which they and their protege Edgar were associated with the men of 
 Northumberland and Sweyn Estridsen the king of Denmark. The 
 united forces of these several powers stormed the castle of York on 
 the 22nd of October 1069, and put the Norman garrison to the 
 sword ; on which, according to some authorities, Edgar Atheling was 
 a second time actually proclaimed king. But the approach of 
 William soon compelled him to fly for his life, and he again took 
 refuge in Scotland. Here he appears to have remained inactive till 
 the year 1073, when he was again induced to engage in a scheme for 
 annoying the English king at the instigation of Philip king of France, 
 who invited him to come to that country, promising to give him some 
 place of strength from which he might attack either England or 
 Normandy. Edgar on this set out with a few ships ; but he was 
 wrecked in a storm on the coast of Northumberland, from which he 
 with difficulty made his escape for the third time to Scotland, in a 
 state of almost complete destitution. He was now advised by his 
 brother-in-law Malcolm to make his peace with William ; and that king 
 having received his overtui'es favourably, he proceeded to England, 
 where William gave him an apartment in his palace, and a daily 
 allowance of a pound of silver for his support. In this state of 
 dependence he remained for some years; but at length he seems to 
 have gone over to Normandy, where, after the death of the Conqueror, 
 his son Duke Robert made the Saxon prince a grant of some lands. 
 The grant however for some reason which does not appear, was soon 
 resumed, and the Atheling was compelled, for the fourth time, to 
 betake himself to Scotland in 1091. In the end of the same year it 
 is related that a peace was effected by the good offices of Edgar and 
 Duke Robert between Malcolm and William Rufus, when their armies 
 had met and were ready to engage, in Lothene or Loidis (that is, most 
 probably, the part of Scotland now called Lothian, then considered an 
 
roi EDGE WORTH, RICHARD LOVELL. 
 
 a part of England). On this occasion Edgar was reconciled to tho 
 English king, and he again took up his abode at the court of William. 
 In January 1092 however Duke Robert and ho suddenly withdrew 
 together to Normandy ; and not long after Malcolm and William were 
 again at war. The Scottish king fell in a conflict with an English 
 force commanded by Robert de Moubray near Alnwick on the 13th 
 of November 1 093 ; his eldest son Edward was slain with him ; and 
 his queen, the sister of Edgar Atheling, died three days after, having 
 only survived to learn the loss of her husband and her son. Imme- 
 diately after this we read of Edgar securing the children of his 
 deceased brother-in-law and sister from the attempts of their uncle, 
 Donald Bane, who had usurped the Scottish throne, and conveying 
 them to a place of safety in England, a circumstance that would 
 apparently imply that he had himself returned to that country from 
 Normandy, and once more secured the protection of the English king. 
 Here he seems to have continued during the remainder of the reign of 
 Rufus. In 1097 he is recorded to have raised, with the approbation 
 and aid of that king, a body of troops, and marched with them into 
 Scotland, where he drove Donald Bane from the throne, and placed on 
 it his nephew Edgar, the son of Malcolm. One account makes him 
 to have immediately after this joined his old friend Robert duke of 
 Xormandy in the Holy Land, with a force of 20,000 men, collected 
 from all parts of England and Scotland ; but this part of his story is 
 neither well supported nor very probable in itself. It is certain how- 
 ever that on the breaking out of the war between Henry I. and his. 
 brother Robert, a few years after the accession of the former to the 
 English throne, Edgar was found on the side of Robert, although the 
 recent marriage of his sister to Henry might be supposed to have 
 attached him to the interests of that prince. He was one of the 
 prisoners taken by Henry at the decisive battle of Tinchebrai on the 
 27th of September 1106, in which Robert finally lost his dukedom and 
 his liberty. The victor however treated the Saxon prince with more 
 lenity or contempt than he showed in his treatment of his own 
 brother. Soon after being brought to England, Edgar was restored to 
 liberty ; and some accounts state that he subsequently visited 
 Palestine. But the remainder of his history is very obscure. Malms- 
 bury only informs us, without specifying any date of his decease, that 
 he died in England after having lived to a good old age, without ever 
 having been married or having had any issue, leaving behind him the 
 character of a weak but inoffensive and well-intentioned man. He 
 has certainly the distinction of being about the most insipid hero of 
 anything like romance on record, and the narrative of his life may be 
 quoted as a curious instance of the interest that will be sometimes 
 awakened by the position and fortunes of an individual however 
 personally insignificant. 
 
 EDGEWORTH, RICHARD LOVELL, an ingenious mechanical 
 philosopher, but better known as the father and literary associate of 
 Maria Edgeworth, was born at Bath, in 1744. He was descended 
 from an English family, which had settled in Ireland in the reign of 
 Queen Elizabeth, and resided in Edgeworthtown, in the county of 
 Longford, where his boyhood was chiefly spent. A hasty marriage, 
 contracted at the age of nineteen, while he was an under-graduate of 
 Corpus College, Oxford, cut short his studies at that university, and 
 kd him to return home ; but in 1765, intending to be called to the 
 bar, he came to England, and took a house at Hare Hatch, between 
 Maidenhead and Reading. During his visits to Loudon to keep his 
 terms, he became acquainted with Sir Francis Delaval and other gay 
 and sporting men of the day, concerning whom a number of anecdotes 
 are preserved in Mr. Edgeworth's autobiography. In that society he 
 was distinguished by a high flow of spirits, and an uncommon share 
 of that activity and ingenuity which adapts itself to the lighter 
 pursuits of Bocial amusement as readily a3 to higher and more 
 serious purposes. At home he was chiefly occupied in prosecuting a 
 variety of ingenious mechanical contrivances, among which we may 
 mention the first erection of a telegraph in England, originating in a 
 bet relative to the speedy transmission of racing news from New- 
 market to London. During this residence in Berkshire he became 
 acquainted with the eccentric philanthropist Thomas Day, with whom 
 he lived in the closest friendship. His mechanical pursuits introduced 
 him to Dr. Darwin, and subsequently to Watt and Bolton, Wedgwood, 
 and other eminent scientific men. In 1769, by his father's death, he 
 came into possession of a handsome fortune, and gave up the intention 
 of following the law as a profession. 
 
 Mr. Edgeworth returned to Ireland in 1782, "with the firm deter- 
 mination," he says, "to dedicate the remainder of his life to the 
 improvement of his estate and the education of his children, and with 
 the sincere hope of contributing to the amelioration of the inhabitants 
 of the country from which he drew his subsistence." To this resolu- 
 tion, during the remaining thirty-five years of his life he steadfastly 
 adhered ; devoting his best powers to the useful performance of his 
 duties as a magistrate, a landlord, and a father. He was an active 
 and influential member of the Irish Volunteers, and continued, after 
 their dissolution, and through life, a steady advocate of reform in 
 parliament, he was a member of the last Irish house of commons, and 
 spoke and voted in opposition to the Uuion. Retaining the ardent 
 (pint of his youth, he engaged in a variety of projpcts for reclaiming 
 bogs, establishing a system of telegraphic communication, experiments 
 on the construction of carriages, moveable railroads, &c. In the 
 
 EDGEWORTH, MARIA. 702 
 
 cultivation of his estate and in the management of his tenantry ha 
 was skilful, prudent, and humane. His judicious and discriminating 
 kindness and his acknowledged impartiality as a magistrate (a rare 
 quality then in Ireland) gained their sincere affection, insomuch that 
 in the insurrection of 1798, though he was absent and assisting with 
 his corps of yeomanry in the defence of Longford, his house at 
 Edgeworthtown was visited by the rebels, and yet was preserved 
 uninjured and untouched. He died June 13, 1817, after an old age 
 of unusual activity and power of enjoyment. 
 
 Mr. Edgeworth married four wives, by all of whom he had children. 
 The number of his children, and their unusual difference in age, a 
 difference amounting, between the eldest and youngest, to more than 
 forty years, gave him peculiar opportunities of trying experiments in 
 education, and watching their results. His family were brought up 
 almost entirely at home, and with au unusual degree of parental care. 
 The results of his experiments were made public in 1798, in a work 
 which at the time attracted much attention — 'Practical Education,' 
 a treatise written principally by Miss Edgeworth, but partly by 
 himself; and based on his theory of education, his observation, and 
 the experience of his own house. 
 
 Mr. Edgeworth was not a ready writer ; and it may have been 
 partly owing to this that he preferred engaging in a sort of literary 
 partnership with his daughter to embarking alone in any work of 
 length. ' Practical Education ' and ' Irish Bulls ' were avowedly 
 written by them in common ; and Miss E. in her father's ' Memoirs ' 
 (vol. ii., chap, xvi.) has recorded in warm terms of filial affection her 
 obligations to him in her other works. It was his habit to revise and 
 correct all her productions carefully, and to sanction their issue to 
 the world by his paternal imprimatur; a form which the world 
 thought might as well be omitted. 
 
 The following works are published in his name: — 'Rational 
 Primer:' 'Poetry Explained;' 'Readings in Poetry;' 'Professional 
 Education ; ' ' Letter to Lord Charlemont on the Telegraph ; ' 
 ' Speeches in Parliament ; ' ' Essay on the Construction of Roads and 
 Carriages.' He also published papers in the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions, Nicholson's Journal, and the transactions of the Royal Irish 
 Academy on various subjects, as the Telegraph, Resistance of the 
 Air, Aerostation, Railroads, the Construction of Carriages, and the 
 description of a handsome spire which he had caused to be erected 
 inside the steeple of the parish church, and then lifted into its place. 
 
 {Memoirs of R. L. Edgeworth, 1820.) 
 
 EDGEWORTH, MARIA, the daughter of the preceding, by his 
 first wife, was born on January 1, 1767, at Hare Hatch, near Reading, 
 in Berkshire. In the year 1782 her father went with his family to 
 reside on his paternal estate at Edgeworthtown, until when, except 
 for a few months in her childhood, his daughter had never been in 
 Ireland. From that time however Edgeworthtown became her abode 
 for the remainder of her long life, with the exception of occasional 
 visits of a few weeks only to England, Scotland, and France, and for 
 about two years at Clifton in attendance on her sick step-mother. 
 The neighbourhood of Edgeworthtown did not afford much congenial 
 society, the family of the Earl of Longford at Pakenham Hall, that of 
 the Earl of Granard at Castle Forbes, and that of a Mr. Brookes, 
 being the only ones whom they visited ; and Pakenham Hall, she says, 
 was twelve miles distant, with "a vast Serbonian bog between us, 
 with a bad road, an awkward ferry, and a country so frightful, and so 
 overrun with yellow weeds, that it was aptly called by Mrs. Greville, 
 ' the yellow dwarf's country.'" 
 
 Miss Edgeworth was principally educated by her father, as all his 
 other children were. They all lived on the most confidential terms 
 with him, and she was very early selected as his business assistant, 
 copying letters, receiving rents, and welcoming his tenants, while his 
 office of magistrate gave her still further opportunities of observing 
 the manners and habits of the peasantry around her. These occupa- 
 tions soon led to her becoming a co-operator with her father in lite- 
 rary productions. The first was a series of 'Essays on Practical 
 Education,' published in 1798 ; and ' Early Lessons,' which had been 
 commenced by Mr. Edgeworth and his second wife, was continued by 
 him and his daughter; the 'Parent's Assistant' was also a joint 
 production, as was the 'Essay on Irish Bulls,' published in 1803. 
 But Miss Edgeworth's fame rests upon her novels, which were pro- 
 duced without assistance, though fhey always had the benefit of her 
 father's revision, while he was living. The series commenced with 
 ' Castle Rackrent,' published in 1801, and closed in 1834 with ' Helen.' 
 In the interval there appeared ' Moral Tales,' ' Belinda,' ' Leonora,' 
 ' The Modern Griselda,' ' Popular Tales,' ' Tales of Fashionable Life,' 
 'Patronage,' 'Frank,' 'Harrington,' and ' Ormond,' with some minor 
 tales. Her last production was ' Orlandino,' a children's tale, published 
 by the Messrs. Chambers in 1847. 
 
 The novels of Miss Edgeworth were published some years ago in 
 a collected series. The manners which they describe, especially those 
 of fashionable life, belong in some degree to a past generation. But 
 her delineations of character, more particularly of Irish character, 
 are so true to nature, and there is such a vein of quiet humour and 
 practical good sense running through them all, that amidst the more 
 exciting plots and strong situations of the novels of our own time, 
 the more important may be referred to as worthy of a lasting place 
 in our literature. 
 
EDMUND I. 
 
 EDRISI. 
 
 Miss Edgeworth passed a quiet but useful life with her family ; she 
 maintained an extensive correspondence with many friends and literary 
 acquaintances, and at length died on May 21, 1849, at the venerable 
 age of eighty-three. 
 
 EDMUND I., King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the son of King 
 Edward the Elder, by his third wife Edgiva. According to the 
 common statement, he was born in 923, or about two years before his 
 father's death, but we are inclined to believe that his birth was some 
 years earlier: he is said to have fought at the battle of Brunanburh 
 in 934, when, if 923 be the correct date of his birth, he could have 
 been only el ven years old ; and was twice married, and by one of Lis 
 wives had two children, yet his death took place in 946. 
 
 Edmund succeeded his half-brother Athelstane on the 27th of 
 October 941. Immediately after his accession the Danish people of 
 Noi thumbria rose in revolt under the same Anlaf or Olave who had 
 be.n defeated by Athelstane in the great battle of Brunanburh, and 
 forced to flee to Ireland. After the war had lasted about a year, an 
 accommodation was brought about by the ArchbishopB Odo and 
 VVolstan, by which it was arranged that all the territory to the north 
 of Watling-street should be given up to Anlaf. The Danish earl how- 
 ever died the next year, and Edmund, by a prompt and vigorous use 
 of the opportunity, was successful in recovering all that he had lost. 
 In 945 he also succeeded in reducing the hitherto independent state of 
 Cuuibiia (including the monies, Cumberland and Westmoreland), 
 which, after cruelly putting out the eyes of the two sons of the king, 
 Dun mail, he made over to Malcolm I. of Scotland, to be held by him 
 as the vassal of the English crown. The reign of Edmund, who was 
 distinguished not only for his personal courage, but by his taste for 
 elegance and splendour, on which account he received the surname of 
 the Magnificent, was terminated on the 26th of May 946, by a blow 
 which lie received from an outlaw named Liof, who had the audacity 
 to pn sent himself at tho royal table as the king was celebrating the 
 feast of St. Augustine at Pucklekirk, in Gloucestershire. Edmund, 
 on his refusal to leave the room, rose himself to assist in expelling 
 him, when the intruder, with a da«ger which he had concealed under 
 his clothes, stabbt d him to the heart. King Edmund I. left by his 
 wife E'giva two sons, Edwy and Edgar, who eventually both sat on 
 the throne; but as they were mere children at the time of their 
 father's decease, they were set aside for the present, and his imme- 
 diate successor was his brother Edred. 
 
 EDMUND II., King of the Anglo-Saxons, surnamed Ironside, 
 either from his great strength, or the armour which he wore, was the 
 son of King Ethelred II., and was born in 989. According to the 
 account that has commonly been received, his mother was Elgiva, or 
 Ethelsnva, the daughter of Earl Thored, or Toreth, who was Ethelred's 
 first wife. Other authorities however assert that the mother of 
 Edmund, and also of several of his brothers, was a foreign lady, who 
 was only Ethelred's concubine. On the whole, the point of his 
 legitimacy must be considered doubtful. 
 
 Edmund appears, in the history of the latter years of his father's 
 calamitous reign, as the chief champion of the English cause against 
 Canute and his Danes, who bad by this time nearly overrun the king- 
 dom. On the death of Ethelred in 1016, Edmund was proclaimed 
 king by the burgesses of London, and soon after, at least all the 
 kingdom of Wessex, the hereditary dominion of his family, and which 
 was now considered as comprehending the whole territory to the south 
 of the Thames, appears to have submitted to his authority. He had 
 tho year before, by a marriage with Elgiva, the widow of Sigeferth, a 
 thane of Danish descent, who had been put to death by Ethelred, 
 mtde himself master, in defiance of the despised and dying king, of 
 estates of great extent ; and. the power he thus acquired is supposed 
 to have materially assisted him in securing the throne. 
 
 The short reign of Edmund was nearly all spent in a continuation 
 of the sanguinary struggle in which he had already so greatly distin- 
 guished himself. His exploits are dwelt upon by the old national 
 chroniclers with fond amplification, but it is not very easy to separate 
 what is of historical value in their narratives from the romantic deco- 
 rations. Immediately on Edmund's accession the Danish forces appear 
 to have besieged London. The English king remained in the capital 
 till it was considered secure; after which we find him engaging Canute, 
 first at Pen, in Dorsetshire (or, according to another account, near 
 Gillingham, in Somersetshire) ; and then at a place called Sceorstan, 
 which is supposed to be the spot still marked by a stone at the meeting 
 of the four counties of Oxford, Gloucester, Worcester, and Warwick. 
 In both these fights Edmund appears to have been victorious ; that of 
 Sceorstan lasted two days. A third engagement took place at Brent- 
 ford, the issue of which is disputed. Soon after, the two armies met 
 again at Ottenl'ord, or Otford, in Kent, when the Danes were defeated 
 with great slaughter. Finally however Edmund sustained a decisive 
 di-comfituie at the great battle of Assandun, supposed to be Assing- 
 ton, in Essex. After this, according to one account, which however 
 has been generally discredited by modern historians, Canute and 
 Edmuud agreed to decide their quarrel by single combat, and the 
 encounter accordingly took place on an islet called Alney, or Olney, 
 in the Severn, which some place near Deerhurst, others near Glouces- 
 ter, between Overbridge and Maysemore. The result was, that Canute 
 was obliged to yield and sue for his life. Whether the single combat 
 fook place or not. it is certain that an arrangement between the 
 
 parties was now made, by which Mercia and Northumbria wore made 
 over to Canute, while Edmund was allowed to retain possession of the 
 rest of the kingdom, with tho nominal sovereignty of the whole. It 
 is also said to have been stipulated that when either should die tbe 
 other should be his successor. Edmund died a few weeks after this 
 pacification, having worn the crown only about seven months ; and 
 although there is considerable variation and obscurity in the accounts 
 of his death, there are strong reasons for believing that he was made 
 away with by the contrivance of Canute. The northern historians 
 state this in distinct terms. Canute immediately mounted the vacant 
 throne, 1016. Edmund Ironside left by his wife Algitha two sons, 
 Edward, called the Outlaw, and another, whom some call Edmund, 
 others Edwin, and of whom it is not known whether he was older or 
 younger than Edward. [Edgar Athelino.] Edwy, the brother of 
 Edmund, was put to death by command of Canute. 
 
 EDRED, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the youngest of the eons of 
 Edward the Elder, by his wife Edgiva. [Edward the Elder.] 
 When the throne became vacant, in 946, by the death of his elder 
 brother, Edmund I., Edred was recognised as his successor, — Edwy 
 and Edgar, the two sons of Edmund, being considered to be excluded 
 for the present by their extreme youth. Edred was in a bad state of 
 health when he came to the throne, and he does not seem ever to havo 
 recovered. Yet he is recorded to have, soon after his accession, 
 repressed in person an insurrection of the turbulent Danish popula- 
 tion of Northumberland ; and he appears to have reduced tliat 
 province to greater quiet and subjection than any of his predecessors. 
 In these military operations, as well as in the management of civil 
 affairs, he was mainly directed by the counsels of his chancellor 
 Turketul, who had served in the same capacity under the t.vo 
 preceding kings, Athelstane and Edmund. Another distinguished 
 character of this reign was the celebrated Dunstan, who owed his first 
 rise at court to the patronage of Turketul, and acquired under Edred 
 that extraordinary power in the state which he preserved during 
 several succeeding reigns. [Dunstan.] Edred died, after a reign of 
 between nine and ten years, on the 23rd of November (St. Clement's 
 Day), 955, and was succeeded by his nephew Edwy, the eldest of tbe 
 two sons of his predecessor, king Edmund. 
 
 EDRISI, with his complete name Abu-Abdallah Mohammed ben 
 Mohammed ben Abdallah ben Edris, a well known Arabian writer on 
 Geography, who flourished about the middle of the sixth century of 
 the Mohammedan era. Of the circumstances of his life little is 
 known. He was a descendant of the family of the Edrisides, who for 
 upwards of a century possessed the sovereignty over the Moham- 
 medan proviuces of Northern Africa. When, in a.d. 919, the Edriside 
 dynasty in Africa was overthrown by Mahedi Abdallah, the survivors 
 of the family went to Sicily; and there our Edrisi seems to have been 
 born. The geographical treatise, which has made his name cele- 
 brated, was written at the command of Roger II. king of Sicily, whom 
 he frequently mentions in the body of the work ; he informs us iu the 
 preface that he completed it in the year548of the Hegira, a.d. 1153-4; 
 and that it was intended to illustrate a silver terrestrial globe, 450 
 Graek pounds in weight, which King Roger had caused to be made. 
 The time at which he wrote it is further ascertained from an inci- 
 dental allusion to the fact of the town of Jerusalem being then in the 
 possession of the Christians, which occurs in the work, and to the 
 capture of Tripolis and Bona by Roger, which events happened in the 
 years 540 and 548 of the Hegira (1145-6 and 1153-4 of our era). The 
 work itself also affords internal evidence of its having been written by 
 a person who had visited Spain and Italy. Gabriel Siouita aud 
 Johannes Hesronita, who, in 1619, published a Latin translation of an 
 abridgment of Edrisi's work, were induced by an erroneous reading of 
 the only manuscript which they had, in a passage where EJusi 
 speaks of the Nile dividing the country adjoining it into two halves 
 (ardind 'our country,' instead of ardihd 'its country,' the true 
 reading), to suppose him a native of Nubia; and this mistake gave 
 occasion to the designation of Geographus Nubiensis, under which 
 Edrisi, of whose real name the translators were ignorant, soon became 
 universally known. His work bears the title ' Nuzhat al-inu-btak fi 
 ikhtirak al-afak,' i.e. ' Amusement of the curious iu the exploriug of 
 countries.' Besides the abridged translation above mentioned, we now 
 possess a Fi ench version of what seems to be the complete original 
 work, by M. Aniedee Jaubert, made from two Arabic manuscripts, tbe 
 one found in the royal library at Paris, the other (which is accom- 
 panied with maps) recently procured in Egypt by M. Asselin, and now 
 likewise belonging to the Bibliotheque du Roi. Two other manu- 
 scripts of the original work of Edrisi are preserved in the Bodleian 
 library at Oxford (Cod. Graves. No. 3837, and Cod. Pocock, 375). The 
 globe which this treatise was intended to illustrate is entirely lost ; 
 but a planisphere, which is inserted iu one of the Bodleian manuscripts, 
 may be seen engraved in Vincent's ' Periplus of the Ery threan Sea,' 
 who observes (p. 568) that "it is evidently founded upon the error of 
 Ptolemy, which carries the coast of Africa round to the ea3t, and forms 
 a southern continent totally excluding the circumnavigation into the 
 Atlantic Ocean." It appears, from a comparison of this planisphere 
 with the maps of Fra Mauro and the globe of Martin Behem at 
 Nuremberg, that for upwards of three centuries the globe of Edrisi 
 remained the foundation upon which all subsequent representations 
 of the earth's surface were constructed. In his descriptive treatise, 
 
res 
 
 EDWARD L 
 
 701 
 
 Edrisi, like all other Arabian geographers, distributes the portion of 
 the globe known at his time into seven climates, each of which he 
 subdivides into ten regions : in the account which he gives of them he 
 follows the uniform plan of proceeding from west to east ; but he does 
 no:, like Abulfeda, determine the longitude and latitude of the places 
 which he mentions. The abridgment of the work contains little more 
 than an itinerary of these different regions; but the origiual perform- 
 ance now translated adds many remarks ou their inhabitants, natural 
 productions, &c. Edrisi frequently refers to writers that have pre- 
 ceded him : among others to an Arabic translation of Ptolemy of 
 Claudias, to Abdallah ben Khordadbeh, and Masudi. 
 
 The Arabic text of the abridgment of Edrisi's work, which is now 
 extremely scarce, appeared under the following Latin title : ' De 
 Geographia universali, Hortulus cultissimus, mire orbis regiones, pro- 
 vincias, insulas, urbes, earumque dimensiones et orizonta, describens,' 
 Roma?, in typographia Medioea, 1592, 4to. The Latin translation of 
 the same by Gabriel Siouita and Johannes Hesrouita, bears the title : 
 'Geographia Nubiensis, id est, accuratissima totius orbis in septem 
 climata divisi descriptio,' Paris, 1619, 4to. Of other publications 
 relating to the work of Edrisi we shall mention only two : 'Descripcion 
 de Espafia de Xerif Aledris conocido por el Nubiense ; con traduccion 
 y notas de Don J. A. Conde,' Madrid, 1799, 8vo ; and J. M. Hartmann's 
 ' Coiumentatio de Geographia Africoe Edrisiana,' Gottingen, 1791, 4to. 
 M. Jaubert's French translation appeared under the auspices of the 
 French Geographical Society, and forms the fifth and sixth volumes of 
 the ' Recueil de Voyages et de Metnoire?,' published by that society. 
 It has also the following separate title, ' Ge'ographie d'Edrisi, traduite 
 de 1 Arabe en Francais, d'apres deux MSS. de la Bibliotheque du Roi, 
 et accompagnee de notes par M. Amddee Jaubert,' Paris, 1836,1840, 4to. 
 
 EDWARD I., surnamed the Elder, King of the West Saxons, and 
 with some pretensions to be regarded as king of all England, was the 
 eldest son of Alfred the Great, by his queen Alswitha, the daughter 
 of Earl Ethelred. On the death of his father, 26th of October 901, 
 Edward was recognised by the Witenagemote as his successor; but 
 the thone was contested by his cousin Ethelwald, who was the son of 
 Ethelred, one of the three elder brothers and predecessors of Alfred. 
 The cause of Ethelwald received from the first the support of the 
 Danes of the north, and by their assistance in 904 he compelled the 
 submission of the people of Essex, and in the following year that of 
 the East Anglians. The contest however was at length terminated in 
 906 or 907 by the death of Ethelwald, in a battle fought between his 
 forces and those of Edward. The people of East Anglia on this re- 
 turned under submission to the king of Wessex, and the Northumbrian 
 Danes concluded a peace with him ; but three or four years afterwards 
 we find the Danes breaking this pacification, nor do they appear to 
 have been quieted, or the people of Essex finally brought back to their 
 obedience, till the year 920 or 921. Mercia in the meantime had 
 continued to be governed as a separate state, though subject to the 
 supremacy of Wessex, first by the ealdorman Ethered, or Ethelred, to 
 whom it had been entrusted by Alfred, and after his death in 912 by 
 his widow Ethelfleda, the sister of Edward. The Lady Ethelfleda 
 survived till 920, conducting the affairs of her government with dis- 
 tinguished ability, and all along acting in concert with her brother in 
 his efforts against the Danes and his other enemies. On her death, 
 Edward took the government of Mercia into his own hands. After 
 this, if we may believe the old historians., not only did all the Danes, 
 including even those of Northumbria, make full submission to Edward, 
 but their example was followed by the Welsh and the people of 
 Strathclyde, and the king of the Scots and all his subjects also chose 
 the English monarch as their lord. The military successes however, 
 which must have been achieved to compel the submission of all these 
 neighbouring powers, if such submission actually took place, are not 
 recorded. 
 
 Some of the laws of Edward the Elder are preserved, but they do 
 not demand any particular notice. He died in 925, and was succeeded 
 by bis eldest son Athelstane, born to him by a shepherd's daughter 
 named Egwina, who is stated by some of the old writers to have 
 been his wife, by others only his mistress. He had also another son 
 aDd a daughter by Egwina. By another lady, to whom he is allowed 
 to have betn married, but whose name is unknown, he had two sons 
 and six daughters ; and by another wife, Edgiva, he had two sons, 
 Edmund and Edred, both of whom were afterwards kings of England, 
 and two daughters. 
 
 EDWARD II., King of the Anglo-Saxons, surnamed the Martyr, was 
 the eldest son of Edgar the Peaceable, by his first wife, Elfleda. On 
 the death of Edgar in 975, the accession of Edward was opposed by a 
 faction headed by his father's widow, Elfrida, who, on the pretence 
 that the elder brother was excluded by the circumstance of having 
 been born before his father had been crowned, maintained that the 
 right to the vacant throne lay with her own son Ethelred. To create 
 for herself the appearance of a national party, she and her associates 
 proclaimed themselves the patrons of the cause of the married clergy 
 in opposition to Dunstan and the monks ; but after a short period of 
 confusion the latter prevailed in the Witenagemote, and Edward was 
 formally accepted as king by that assembly. Elfrida however seems 
 still to have continued her intrigues, and her unscrupulous ambition 
 •t last lead her to the perpetration of a deed which has covered her 
 name with infamy. This was the murder of her step-son by a hired 
 
 assassin, as he stopped one day while hunting at her residence, Corfe 
 Castle, in Dorsetshire : he was stabbed in the back as he sat on his 
 horse at the gate of the castle drinking a cup of mead. The 18th of 
 March 978 is the date assigned to the murder of King Edward, who 
 was only in his seventeenth year when he was thus cut off. He was 
 never married, and leaving no children, was succeeded by his half- 
 brother, Ethelred, the only individual then remaining whose birth 
 gave him any pretensions to the throne. 
 
 It was in the reign of Edward that the national council for deter- 
 mining the question at issue between the secular and monastic clergy 
 was held at Calne, which is so famous for the catastrophe of the floor 
 giving way, with the exception of the part on which Dunstan and his 
 friends stood. [Dunstan.] 
 
 EDWARD III., King of the Anglo-Saxons, surnamed the Confessor, 
 was the eldest of the two sons of Ethelred II. by his second wife 
 Emma, the daughter of Richard I., duke of Normandy. He was born 
 at Islip, in Oxfordshire, probably in the year 1004. In the close of 
 1013, when the successes of Sweyu, the Dane, drove Ethelred from 
 his throne, and compelled him to retire to the Isle of Wight, he sent 
 over his wife, with Edward and his younger brother Alfred, to 
 Normandy, to the care of their uncle Duke Richard II. Hither 
 Ethelred himself, being assured of a favourable reception, followed his 
 family, about the middle of Jauuary 1014. When, on the death of 
 Sweyn, withiu three weeks after, Ethelred was recalled by the Witen- 
 agemote, he sent back his son Edward along with the plenipotentiaries, 
 whom he despatched previously to setting out himself to complete the 
 arrangements for his restoration. On the death of Ethelred in 1016, 
 Emma and her two sons returned to Normandy. When Canute the 
 Dane obtained the throne in the latter part of the same year by the 
 death of Edmund Ironside, it is affirmed that Duke Richard either 
 fitted out a naval force or threatened to do so, with a view of support- 
 ing the claims of his nephew Edward ; but this intention, if it ever 
 was entertained, was effectually diverted before it led to anything by 
 the proposals which now proceeded from Canute for the hand of the 
 widowed Emma. Canute and Emma were married in July 1017. 
 From this time till the death of Canute in 1035, Edward appears to 
 have remained quiet in Normandy. He is said to have spent his 
 time chiefly in the performance of the offices of religion and in 
 hunting, which continued to be his favourite occupations to the end 
 of his days. On Canute's death, and the disputes for the succession 
 between his sons Harold and Hardicanute, Edward was induced to 
 make a momentary demonstration in assertion of his pretensions : he 
 crossed the channel with a fleet of forty ships, and landed at South- 
 ampton ; but finding that instead of being supported, he would be 
 vigorously opposed by his mother, who was exerting all her efforts for 
 her son Hardicanute, he gave up the attempt, aud returned to 
 Normandy after merely plundering a few villages. In 1037 his 
 younger brother Alfred was tempted by an invitation purporting to 
 come from Emma to proceed to England at the head of another 
 expedition, which terminated in his destruction, brought about appa- 
 rently by treachery, though there does not seem to be any sufficient 
 ground for the horrid suspicion, which some writers have been 
 disposed to entertain, that the contriver of the plot was his own mother. 
 When Hardicanute became undisputed king of all England by the 
 death of Harold in 1040, he sent for his half-brother Edward, who 
 immediately came to England, where he was allowed a handsome 
 establishment, and appears to have been considered as the heir to 
 the crown in default of issue of the reigning king. Hardicanute died 
 on the 4th of June 1042, and Edward was immediately recognised as 
 king by the assembled body of the clerical aud lay nobility ; the 
 former, it is said, having been chiefly swayed by Livingus, bishop of 
 Worcester, the latter by the powerful Earl Godwin. 
 
 A menace of opposition to this settlement of the English crown by 
 Magnus, king of Norway, was defeated, after it had put Edward to 
 the expense of fitting out a fleet to maintain his rights, first by the 
 occupation which Magnus found at home in defending himself agiinst 
 another claimant to the Danish throne, Sweyn, the nephew of Canute, 
 and soon after, more effectually, by the death of Magnus. In 1044, 
 Edward, probably in compliance with a promise which he had made 
 to Godwin, married Editha, the only daughter of that earl, haviug 
 previously informed her however that although he would make her 
 his queen, she should not share his bed. This unnatural proceeding, 
 by which Edward gained from his church the honour of canonisation 
 and the title of Confessor, and by which, to pass over his treatment 
 of his wife and his violation of his marriage vows, he involved his 
 country in the calamities of a disputed succession, and eventually of 
 a foreign conquest, has been usually attributed to religious motives. 
 The Confessor seems to have been without human aSections of any 
 kind. His first act after coming to the throne was to proceed to the 
 residence of his mother at Winchester, and to seize by force not only 
 all her treasures, but even the cattle and corn upon her lands. One 
 account further states that he endeavoured to destroy her by an 
 accusation from which she freed herself by the ordeal — though this 
 part of the story has been generally rejected by modern writers. 
 
 The public events that form the history of the reign of the Confessor 
 resolve themselves for the most part into a oontest between two great 
 parties or interests which divided the court and the country. The 
 connection between England and Normandy had commenced forty 
 
EDWARD I. 
 
 70 
 
 years before the accession of this king by the marriage of Ethelred ; 
 but it became very intimate after the accession of Edward, who had 
 spent in Normandy all his life since his childhood, whose tastes and 
 habits had been formed in that country, and all whose oldest personal 
 friends were necessarily Normans. In fact Edward himself, when he 
 came to the throne, was much more a Norman than an Englishman; 
 and he not unnaturally surrounded himself with persons belonging 
 to the nation whose language and manners and mode of life were 
 those with which he had been ao long familiar, rather than with his 
 less polished fellow-countrymen. Many Normans came over to Eugland 
 as soon as he became king, and some of the highest preferments in the 
 kingdom were bestowed upon these foreigners. But while the incli- 
 nations of Edward were probably from the first with the Normans, he 
 was to a great extent in the hands of the opposite, or English party, 
 from his connection with Earl Godwin, its head. Besides the influence 
 which he derived from having his daughter on the throne, this power- 
 ful nobleman held in his own hands, and in those of his sons, the 
 government of more than the half of all England. The eldest of 
 these sons, Sweyn, very early in the reign of Edward, had been obliged 
 to fly from the vengeance of the law for the daring crime of violating 
 the person of an abbess ; but after some time Edward consented, or 
 found himself obliged, to pardon him, and to restore him to all his 
 estates and honours. It was not till the year 1051 that the strength 
 of the English and Norman parties was tried in any direct encounter ; 
 but that year, on occasion of a broil which arose out of the visit to 
 England of Edward's brother-in-law, Eustace, count of Boulogne, their 
 long-accumulated enmity broke forth into a violent collision. The 
 first effect was the banishment of all the Godwin family, and the degra- 
 dation and imprisonment of the queen. At this crisis William, the 
 young duke of Normandy, afterwards king of England, came over 
 with a powerful fleet, and prepared to render Edward what assistance 
 he might have needed. The following summer however witnessed the 
 complete overthrow of all that had been thus accomplished. Godwin 
 and his son Harold forced their way back to the country at the head 
 of armaments which they had prepared — the former in Flanders, the 
 latter in Ireland : a negotiation was entered into with the king, and 
 the issue was, that the earl and his party were restored to greater 
 power than ever ; the queen was re-established in her possessions and 
 her place, and the Normans were all expelled from the kingdom. 
 
 Earl Godwin only survived this counter-revolution a few months; 
 he died suddenly as he sat at the royal table, on the 15th April 1053. 
 His son Harold however inherited his possessions and his power, and 
 the ascendancy of the family under its new head continued as great 
 as ever during the remainder of the Confessor's reign. In 1055 a 
 dispute arose between Harold and the rival family of Leofric, earl of 
 Leicester, which disturbed the kingdom for nearly two years. Leofric 
 died in 1057; but the feud was continued by his son Alfgar, who 
 called in to his assistance Griffith, or Griffin, king of the Welsh. 
 This drew down the vengeance of Harold upon that prince and his 
 subjects ; and the issue was, that, after some fighting, Griffin consented 
 to swear fealty to Edward. This event is assigned by the Saxon 
 chronicle to the year 1056. The war with the Welsh was renewed in 
 1063 : Harold had again the command, and prosecuted hostilities with 
 so much success, that king Griffin's head was cut off by his own sub- 
 jects, and sent by them to the English king in token of their submis- 
 sion. In 1065 the public tranquillity was for a short time disturbed 
 by an insurrection of the Northumbrians ; but this was quelled with- 
 out bloodshed. Edward died on the 5th of January 1066, and was 
 buried the following day in the new Abbey of Westminster, which 
 had just been finished and consecrated with great pomp about a week 
 before. On the same day Earl Harold was solemnly crowned King of 
 England. [Edgar Atheling; Hahold II.] 
 
 England undoubtedly made a considerable advance in civilisation 
 during the reign of the Confessor. For this it was indebted partly 
 to the intercourse which Edward's accession opened with Normandy 
 and France, but perhaps in a still greater degree to the freedom which 
 the kingdom enjoyed from those foreign invasions and internal wars 
 which had distracted it, with the exception of some short intervals 
 of tranquillity, for the greater part of a century preceding. The only 
 events, as we have seen, which disturbed the public peace during the 
 reign of Edward, were one or two border wars and local insurrections, 
 none of which occasioned any general disquiet, or lasted for any 
 considerable time. This period accordingly was long traditionally 
 remembered as the happiest that England had known. It formed in 
 the national imagination the bright spot between the time of the 
 Danish rule on the one hand, and that of the Norman on the other ; 
 the age of English freedom and independence which succeeded the 
 deliverance of the country from the one foreign conquest, and pre- 
 ceded its subjection to the other. For many generations after the 
 establishment of the Norman power in the island, the constant demand 
 of the great body of the people to their rulers was for the restoration 
 of the laws and customs of the Confessor. But we have no reason 
 to suppose that this king was the author of any entirely new code of 
 laws, or even that he made any material additions to the laws that 
 had been in force before his time. On coming to the throne he was 
 required by the Witenagemote to promise to observe the laws of 
 King Canute, which seem to have been then universally held to be 
 the fairest and the best the nation had known. Edward took an oath 
 
 in conformity with this demand at his coronation. There has beei) 
 preserved, both in Latin aud in Romance, or Romanic French, a body 
 of laws and constitutions which the Conqueror is said to have granted 
 at an assembly of the most distinguished of his English subjects, held 
 about four years after his seizure of the crown, and they are described 
 in the title as the same which his predecessor aud cousin, King Edward, 
 had before observed. The French text, preserved in Ingulphus, has 
 generally been held to bo the original ; but Sir Francis Palgrave has 
 stated reasons which throw considerable doubt upon this supposition. 
 Both versions are given in the most correct form, and accompanied 
 with a learned and valuable commentary, in the Proofs and Illustra- 
 tions appended to Sir Francis Palgrave's ' Rise and Progress of tlie 
 English Commonwealth,' pp. lxxxviii. — cxl. (See also Kemble'e 'Saxoua 
 in England.') 
 
 Edward the Confessor has the credit of being the first of our kings 
 who touched for the king's evil. He was canonised by Pope Alex- 
 ander III. about a century after his death, and the title of the Confessor 
 was first bestowed upon him in the bull of canonisation. It may also 
 be mentioned, that the use of the Great Seal was first introduced in 
 this reign. 
 
 EDWARD I., King of England, surnamed Long-Shanks, from the 
 excessive length of his legs, was the eldest son of King Henry III., 
 by his wife Eleanor, second daughter of Raymond, count of Provence. 
 He was born at Westminster, June 16, 1239. In 1252 he was invested 
 by his father with the duchy of Guienne ; but a claim being set up 
 to this territory by Alphonso X., king of Castile, who pretended that 
 it had been made over to his ancestor Alphonso VIII. by his father- 
 in-law, Henry II., it was arranged the following year that the dispute 
 should be settled by the marriage of Prince Edward with Eleanor, 
 the sister of Alphonso, who thereupon resigned whatever right ho 
 had to the duchy to his brother-in-law. After this, by letters patent, 
 dated February 14, 1254, we find the lordship of Ireland, and by 
 others dated February 18, in the same year, all the provinces which 
 had been seized from his father, John, by the King of France, granted 
 by Henry III. to his son Prince Edward. (Rymer I.) 
 
 Edward early manifested a character very unlike that of his weak 
 and imprudent father. While yet only entering upon manhood, we 
 find him taking part in important affairs of state. Thus the agree- 
 ment which Henry made in 1256 with Popo Alexander IV. in relation 
 to the kingdom of Sicily, which the pope granted to Henry's second 
 son Edmund, was ratified by Prince Edward in a letter to his Holiness, 
 still preserved. In 1258 he signed, along with his father, the agree- 
 ment called the Provisions or Statutes of Oxford, by which it was 
 arranged that the government of the country should be put into the 
 hands of twenty-four commissioners, appointed by the barons ; and 
 two years after, when Heniy violently broke through this engage- 
 ment, Edward came over from Guienne, where he was resident, and 
 publicly expressed his disapprobation of the king's conduct. For the 
 next two or three years Edward may be regarded as placed in oppo- 
 sition to his father's government. In 1262 however Henry, in a visit 
 which he paid him in Guienne, succeeded in gaining him over to his 
 side, and from this time the prince became the king's most efficient 
 supporter. In the summer of 1263, the quarrel between Henry and 
 his barons came to a contest of arms, which lasted, with some brief 
 intermissions, for four years. During this period the military opera- 
 tions on the king's side were principally conducted by Prince Edward. 
 In the beginning he was unfortunate, having been driven first from 
 Bristol and then from Windsor, and having been finally defeated and 
 taken prisoner with his father at the battle of Lewes, fought May 14, 
 1264. After being detained however about a twelvemonth, he made 
 his escape out of the hands of the Earl of Leicester; and on the 4th 
 of August, 1265, his forces having encouutered those of that noble- 
 man at Evesham, the result was that Leicester was defeated and lost 
 his life, and the king was restored to liberty. From this time Edward 
 and his father carried everything before them till the war was con- 
 cluded, in July 1267, by the surrender of the last of the insurgents, 
 who had taken up their position in the Isle of Ely. 
 
 Soon after this, at a parliament held at Northampton, Prince 
 Edward, together with several noblemen and a great number of 
 knights, pledged themselves to proceed to join the crusaders in the 
 Holy Land. The prince, accordingly, having first, in a visit to Paris, 
 in August, 1269, made his arrangements with St. Louis, set sail from 
 England to join that king in May, the year following. St. Louis died 
 on his way to Palestine; and Edward, having spent the winter in 
 Sicily waiting for him, did not arrive at the scene of action till the 
 end of May, 1271. Here he performed several valorous exploits, 
 which however were attended with no important result. His most 
 memorable adventure was an encounter with a Saracen, who attempted 
 to assassinate him, and whom he slew on the spot, but not before he 
 had received a wound in the arm from a poisoned dagger, from the 
 effects of which he is said to have been delivered by the princess, hi« 
 wife, who sucked the poison from the wound. At last, having con- 
 cluded a ten years' truce with the Saracens, he left Palestine in 
 August 1272, and set out on his return to England. He was at 
 Messina, on his way home, in January 1273, when he heard of the 
 death of his father on the 16th of November preceding.. He pro- 
 ceeded on his journey, and landed with his queen in England 25th 
 July 1274. They were both solemnly crowned at Westminster on 
 
EDWARD I. 
 
 711 
 
 the 19th of August following. The reign of Edward I. however 
 appears to have been reckoned not from the day of his coronation, 
 according to the practice observed in the cases of all the preceding 
 kings since the Conquest, but according to thfc modern practice, from 
 the day on which the throne became vacant, or rather from the 20th 
 of November, the day of his father's funeral, immediately after which 
 the clerical and lay nobility who were present in Westminster Abbey 
 on the occasion had sworn fealty to the new king at the high altar of 
 that church. 
 
 The first military operations of Edward's reign were directed 
 against the Welsh, whose prince Llewellyn, on being summoned to do 
 homage, had contemptuously refused. Llewellyn was forced to sue 
 for peace in November 1277, after a single campaign; but in 1281 he 
 again rose in arms, and the insurrection was not put down till 
 Llewellyn himself was slain at Llanfair, 11th December 1282, and his 
 surviving brother Prince David was taken prisoner soon after. The 
 following year the last-mentioned prince was barbarously put to death 
 by drawing, hanging, and quartering, and Wales was finally united to 
 Ed gland. 
 
 The conquest of Wales was followed by the attempt to conquer 
 Scotland. By the death of Alexander III. in 1285, the crown of that 
 country had fallen to his grand-daughter Margaret, called the Maiden 
 of Norway, a child only three years old. By the treaty of Brigham, 
 concluded in July 1290, it was agreed that Margaret should be 
 married to Edward, the eldest surviving son of the English king ; but 
 the young queen died in one of the Orkney Islands on her voyage from 
 Norway, in September of the same year. Edward made the first open 
 declaration of his designs against the independence of Scotland at a 
 conference held at Norham on the Tweed with the clergy and nobility 
 of that kingdom on the 10th of May 1291. Ten different competitors 
 for the crown had advanced their claims ; but they were all induced 
 to acknowledge Edward for their lord paramount, and to consent to 
 receive judgment from him on the matter in dispute. His decision 
 was finally pronounced in favour of John Balliol, at Berwick, on the 
 17th of November 1292; on the next day Balliol swore fealty to him 
 in the castle of Norham. [Balliol.] He was crowned at Scone under 
 a commission from his liege lord on the 30th of the same month ; and 
 on the 26th of December he did homage to Edward for his crown at 
 Newcastle. The subject king however was soon made to feel all the 
 humiliation of his position ; and the discontent of his countrymen 
 equalling his owd, by the summer of 1294 all Scotland was in open 
 insurrection against the authority of Edward. Meanwhile Edward 
 had become involved in a war with the French king Philip IV. The 
 first act of the assembled estates of Scotland was to enter into a 
 treaty of alliance with that sovereign. But although he was farther 
 embarrassed at this inconvenient moment by a revolt of the Welsh, 
 Edward's wonderful energy in a few months recovered for him all 
 that he had lost. In the spring of 1296 he laid a great part of 
 Scotland waste with fire and sword, compelled Balliol to resign the 
 kingdom into his hands, and then made a triumphant progress through 
 the country as far as Elgin in Moray, exacting oaths of fealty from 
 all classes wherever he appeared. It was on his return from this 
 progress that Edward, as he passed the cathedral of Scone in the 
 beginning of August, carried away with him the famous stone, now in 
 Westminster Abbey, on which the Scottish kings had been accustomed 
 to be crowned. He now placed the government of Scotland in the 
 hands of officers appointed by himself, and bearing the titles of his 
 ministers. But by the month of May in the following year Scotland 
 was again in flames. The leader of the insurrection now was the 
 celebrated William Wallace. He and his countrymen had been 
 excited to make this attempt to effect their deliverance from a foreign 
 domination, partly by the severities of their English governors, partly 
 by the circumstances in which Edward was at this time involved. 
 The expenses of his Scottish and French wars had pressed heavily 
 upon the resources of the kingdom ; and when he asked for more 
 money, both clergy and laity refused to make him any farther grant 
 without a redress of grievances and a confirmation of the several 
 great national charters. After standing out for some time, he was 
 obliged to comply with these terms : Magua Charta and the Charter 
 of Forests were both confirmed, with some additional articles, in a 
 parliament held at Westminster in October of this year. 
 
 Meanwhile, although he had got disencumbered for the present of 
 the war on the Continent, by the conclusion of a truce with King 
 Philip, the rebellion in Scotland had already gained Buch a height as 
 to have almost wholly cleared that country of the English authorities. 
 The forces of the government had been completely put to the rout by 
 Wallace at the battle of Stirling, fought on the 11th September, and 
 in a few weeks more not a Scottish fortress remained in Edward's 
 hands. Wallace wa3 now appointed Governor of Scotland in the name 
 of King John (Balliol). In this state of things Edward, about the 
 middle of March 1298, returned to England from Flanders, where he 
 had spent the winter. He immediately prepared to march for Scot- 
 land. The great battle of Falkirk followed on the 22nd of July, in 
 which Wallace sustained a complete defeat. But although one conse- 
 quence of this event was the resignation by Wallace of his office of 
 governor, it was not followed by the general submission of the 
 country. The next five years were spent in a succession of indecisive 
 ottempta on the part of the English king to regain possession of Scot- 
 
 laud; the military operations being frequently suspended by long 
 truces. At length, having satisfied his barons by repeated renewals of 
 the charters, and having finally relieved himself from all interference 
 on the part of the king of France by a definitive treaty of peace con- 
 cluded with him at Amiens, on the 20th May 1303, Edward once more 
 set out for Scotland at the head of a force too numerous and too well 
 appointed to be resisted by any strength that exhausted country could 
 now command. The result was again its temporary conquest, and 
 merciless devastation from the Tweed to the Moray Firth. The 
 Castle of Stirling was the last fortress that held out ; it did not sur- 
 render till the 20th of July in the following year. Edward mean- 
 while had wintered in Dunfermline ; he only returned to England in 
 time to keep his Christmas in Lincoln. Wallace fell into his hands in 
 a few months afterwards, and was hanged, drawn, and quartered as a 
 traitor, at Smithfield in London, on the 23rd of August 1305. But 
 another champion of the Scottish independence was not long in appear- 
 ing. Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrink, whose grandfather had been the 
 chief competitor for the crown with Balliol, had resided for some years 
 at the English court ; but he now, in the beginning of February 1306, 
 suddenly made his escape to Scotland ; and in a few weeks the banner 
 of revolt against the English dominion was again unfurled in that 
 country, and the insurgent people gathered around this new leader. 
 Bruce was solemnly crowned at Scone, on the 27th of March. On 
 receiving this news, Edward immediately prepared for a new expedi- 
 tion to Scotland ; and sent the Earl of Pembroke forward to encounter 
 Bruce, intending to follow himself as soon as he had completed the 
 necessary arrangements. The army of Bruce was dispersed at Perth, 
 on the 19th of June, by Pembroke, who had thrown himself into that 
 town ; and the king of the Scots became for a time a houseless fugi- 
 tive. But the English monarch had now reached the last stage of his 
 destructive career. Edward got no farther than a few miles beyond 
 Carlisle in his last journey to the north. After spending the winter 
 months at Lanercost, where he was detained by a severe illness, he 
 appears to have arrived at Carlisle in the beginning of March 1307 ; 
 here he was again taken ill, but his eagerness to advance continued 
 unabated : having somewhat recovered, he again set out, although ho 
 was still so weak, and suffered so much from pain, that he could 
 accomplish no more than six miles in four days. On the 6th of July 
 he reached the village of Burgh-upou-Sands, " and next day expired," 
 to copy the words of Lord Hailes, " in sight of that country which he 
 had devoted to destruction." On his death-bed he is said to have 
 enjoined his son and successor to prosecute the design which it was 
 not given to himself to finish. According to Froissart, he made him 
 swear that after the breath had departed from the royal body he 
 would cause it to be boiled in a cauldron till the flesh fell off, and 
 that he would preserve the bones to carry with him against the Scots 
 as often as they should rebel. This oath however, if it was taken, was 
 not kept. The corpse of King Edward was interred in Westminster 
 Abbey on the 28th of October. 
 
 Edward I. was twice married. By his first wife Eleanor, daughter 
 of Ferdinand III., king of Castile and Leon, he had four sons : John 
 and Henry, who both died in infancy while their father was in the 
 Holy Land ; Alphonso, born at Maine in Gascony, 23rd November 1273, 
 who died at Windsor, 4th August 1285 ; and Edward, who succeeded 
 him. He had also by Eleanor nine daughters : Eleanor, born in 1266, 
 married to Henry earl of Bar ; Joanna of Acre, born in that town in 
 1272, married first to Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester and Hereford, 
 and secondly to Sir Ralph Monthermer; Margaret, born in 1275, 
 married to Joha duke of Brabant; Berengera, born in 1276; Alice; 
 Mary, born 22nd April 1279, who at ten years of age took the veil in 
 the monastery of Ambresbury ; Elizabeth, born in 1284, married first 
 to John earl of Holland and Zealand, secondly, to Humphrey Bohun 
 earl of Hertford and Essex; Beatrice; and Blanch. Queen Eleanor 
 died 28th November 1291, at Grantham, or, according to another 
 account, at Hardeby, in Lincolnshire : her body was brought to West- 
 minster Abbey to be interred, and crosses were afterwards erected on 
 the several spots where it rested on the way, namely, at Lincoln, 
 Grantham, Stamford, Goddington, Northampton (near which town 
 one exists), Stoney Stratford, Dunstable, St. Albans, Waltham (where 
 the cross, a very beautiful one, still stands), and Charing, then a village 
 near London, but now the centre of the metropolis, under the name 
 of Charing Cross. Edward's second wife was Margaret, eldest 
 daughter of Philip III., and sister of Philip IV., kings of France. He 
 was married to her on the 10th of September 1299, she being then in 
 her eighteenth year. By Queen Margaret he had two sons : Thomas, 
 born at Brotherton in Yorkshire, 1st June 1300, afterwards created 
 Earl of Norfolk and earl marshal ; and Edmund, bom 5th August 
 1301, afterwards created Earl of Kent; and one daughter, Eleanor, 
 born at Winchester, 6th May 1306, who died in her childhood. Queen 
 Margaret died in 1317. 
 
 The rapid narrative that has been given of the acts of his reign 
 sufficiently indicates the main constituents of the character of this 
 king. He had his full share of the ability and the daring of the 
 vigorous line from which he was sprung ; a line that (including 
 himself) had now given nine kings to England, and only two of them 
 not men of extraordinary force of character. With all his ambition 
 and stern determination however Edward neither loved bloodshed 
 for itself, nor was he a professed or systematic despiser of the rules o£ 
 
711 
 
 EDWARD I. 
 
 EDWARD II. 
 
 right Mid justice. It is probable that in his persevering contest with 
 the Scots he believed that he was only enforcing the just claims of 
 his crown ; and his conduct, therefore, ferocious and vindictive as in 
 mauy respects it was, may be vindicated from the charge of want of 
 principle, if tried by the current opinions and sentiments of his age. 
 Putting aside considerations of morality, we perceive in him an ample 
 endowment of many of the qualities that most conduce to eminence — 
 activity, decision, foresight, inflexibility, perseverance, military skill, 
 personal courage and power of endurance ; and, united with boldness 
 in conceiving and executing his designs, great patience and sagacity 
 in preparing and managing his instruments, and bending circumstances 
 to his will. Engaged as he was during the greater part of his reign 
 in war, he was not advantageously placed for the full application of 
 his talents to the business of civil government ; but his reign is 
 notwithstanding one of the most remarkable in our history, for the 
 progress which was made in it towards the settlement of the laws 
 and the constitution. On this account Edward I. has often been 
 styl. d the Euulish Justinian (tliough, as is obvious to any one who 
 knows what Justinian's legislation was, not with any propriety); and 
 Sir Matthew Hale (' Hist, of the Common Law of England,' chap. 7) 
 lias remarked that more was done in the first thirteen years of bia 
 seign to settle aud establish the distributive justice of the kingdom 
 than in all the next four centuries. Blackstone has enumerated under 
 fifteen heads the principal alterations aud improvements which the 
 law underwent in the reign of Edward I. : we can only here notice 
 the confirmation and final establishment of the two great charters ; 
 the definition and limitation of the bounds of ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
 tion ; the ascertainment aud distribution of the powers and functions 
 l oth of the supreme and the inferior courts; the abolition of the 
 p actice of issuing royal mandates in private causes ; the establish- 
 ment of a repository for the public records of the kingdom, "few of 
 wliich," as Blackstone remarks, "are antienter than the reign of his 
 father, and those were by him collected ; '' the improvement of the 
 law and process for the recovery of debts by the Statutes Merchant 
 and Elegit; and the check imposed on the encroachments of the 
 church by the passing of several statutes of mortmain. The object 
 of the statute De Donis was to render lauds which were the subject 
 of this particular form of grant inalienable, and so far to put restraints 
 upon the disposal of landed property, which however were soon 
 evaded. " Upon the whole, we may observe," concludes Blackstone 
 after Hale, " that the very scheme and model of the administration 
 of common justice between party and party was entirely settled by 
 this king." The forms of writs by which actions are commenced, it 
 is added, were perfected in this reign. 
 
 \V hile the English laws were fully extended to Ireland and Wales, 
 it was under Edward I., also, that the foundations of the constitution 
 of the kingdom may be considered to have been laid by the new form 
 aud the new powers which were then assumed by the parliament. 
 The earliest writs that have been preserved for summoning knights, 
 citizens, and burgesses to parliament, are, as is well known, those that 
 were issued by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, the leader of the 
 barons, in 12b'4, in the name of king Henry III., who was then a pri- 
 soner in his hands. Whether this representation of the commons was 
 then first introduced or not, it was in the course of the succeeding 
 reign that it first became regular aud influential. The division of the 
 legislature into two houses, in other words the institution of our 
 preseut House of Commons, appears to be clearly traceable to the 
 time of Edward I. It was in his time also that the practice began 
 fairly to take root of the king refraining from arbitrary exactions and 
 coming to parliament for supplies, and that the earliest effective 
 examples were afforded of the grant of supplies by that assembly 
 being made dependent upon the redress of grievances. Edward L, 
 with all his military habits and genius, had at length the good sense 
 to perceive that the time was come for abandoning the attempt to 
 govern by the prerogative alone, which had been clung to by all his 
 predecessors from the Conquest : in his disputes with the barons he 
 never allowed matters to come to a contest of force, as his father and 
 grandfather had done ; and in the latter part of his reign, although 
 more than once compelled to stop short in his most favourite designs 
 by the refusal of the national representatives to furnish him with the 
 necessary means, he seems to have kept to the system of never resort- 
 ing to any other weapon than policy and management to overcome the 
 opposition with which he was thus thwarted. It was in the last year 
 but one of this reign that the royal assent was given to the famous 
 enactment commonly called the ' Statute de Tallagio non Concedendo,' 
 by which the right of taxation was first distinctly affirmed to reside in 
 the parliament : " no tallage or aid," the first chapter runs (in the old 
 English translation), " shall be levied by us or our heirs in our realm, 
 without the good will and assent of Archbishops, Bishops, Earls, 
 Barons, Knights, Burgesses, and other Freemen of the land." The 
 same principle had been conceded ten years before (by the 25th 
 Edward L, c. 6), but not in such explicit terms. 
 
 The trade and foreign commerce of England appear to have 
 advanced considerably during the reign of Edward I. ; but rather 
 owing to the natural progress of the civilisation of this country and 
 of Europe, than from any enlightened attention which the king showed 
 to these interests. He seems to have been principally solicitous to 
 turn the increasing intercourse of the country with foreign parts to his 
 
 own particular profit by the increase of the customs. A few of his 
 laws however were beneficial to the trading community, and were 
 made with this express object, especially the act for the better recovery 
 of debts, commonly called the Statute of Merchants, passed at Acton- 
 Burnell in 1283 ; the extension of the same by a subsequent act; and 
 the Elegit above mentioned. On the other hand he lowered, though 
 slightly, the real value of the coin, thereby setting the first example 
 of a most pernicious process, which was afterwards carried much 
 farther. He also cruelly pillaged and oppressed the Jews ; and finally, 
 in 1290, expelled the entire body of that people from England, and 
 seized all their houses and tenements. Before this (in 1275) a law had 
 been passed prohibiting the Jews from taking interest for money on 
 pain of death. 
 
 The most distinguished names in literature and science that belong 
 to the reign of Edward I. are Duns Scotus, his disciple William Occam, 
 and the illustrious Roger Bacon. Among the historical writers or 
 chroniclers who flourished at this time may be meutioued Thomas 
 Wikes, Nicolas Trivet, Walter de Hemmiugford, and, according to one 
 account, the writer known as Matthew of Westminster. The law 
 writers of this reign are the author of the work entitled 'Fleta,' Britton 
 (if that be not a corruption of Bracton), Heugham, and Gilbert de 
 Thornton, chief j ustice of the King's Bench, the author of an abridgment 
 of Bracton. 
 
 EDWARD II., the eldest surviving son of Edward I., was born at 
 Caernarvon 25th April 1284, and became the heir apparent to the 
 crown by the death of his elder brother, Alphonso, a few months after. 
 In 1289 he was affianced to the young queen of Scotland, who died the 
 following year. On the 1st of August 1297 his father, before setting 
 out for Flanders, assembled a great council at London, aud made the 
 nobility swear fealty to the prince, whom he then appointed regent 
 during his absence. The parliament in which the first statute ' De 
 Tallagio non Concedendo' received the royal assent was held at West- 
 minster by Prince Edward a few mouths after his father's departure. 
 In the summer of 1300 we find him accompanying his father in a 
 military expedition to Scotland, and he is particularly mentioned as 
 leading one of the divisions of the army, called the ' Shining Battalion,' 
 in an encounter with the Scottish forces on the banks of the river 
 Irvine. As he grew towards manhood however he appears to have 
 begun to form those vicious associations which were the chief source 
 of the calamities of his life. In October of this same year (1300) the 
 notorious Piers Gaveston was banished by the king from about the 
 person of Prince Edward, who, through his persuasion, had been 
 guilty of several outrages against the Bishop of Lichfield, and the 
 prince himself was ordered to prison for stealing the bi»hop's deer. 
 Gaveston was the son of a knight of Gascony, and is admitted to 
 have been distinguished by his wit and accomplishments as w. 11 as 
 by his personal advantages, but he is affirmed to have, as the prince's 
 minion, carried himself to men of all ranks with unbearable insolence. 
 In 1301 Edward was created Prince of Wales and Eail of Chester. 
 He was again in Scotland with his father in the expedition in the 
 summer of 1 303 : while the king proceeded along the east coast, the 
 prince marched westward, and afterwards wintered in Perth, while his 
 father remained in Dunfermline. When Edward was preparing for 
 his last Scottish expedition after the insurrection under Robert Bruce, 
 he knighted his eldest son at Westminster on the morrow of Whit- 
 suntide 1306 ; after which the prince bestowed the same honour on 
 300 gentlemen, his intended companions in arms. He was at the 
 same time invested by his father with the duchy of Guienne. The 
 royal banquet that was given on this occasion is celebrated for what ia 
 called the ' Vow of the Swans,' an oath taken by the king to God and 
 to two swans, which were brought in and set upon the table, that he 
 would take vengeance on Robert Bruce and punish the treachery of 
 the Scots. The prince also vowed that he would not remain two nights 
 in the same place until he reached Scotland. He set out accordingly 
 before his father, and as soon as he had crossed the borders he began 
 to signalise his march by such unsparing devastation that even the old 
 king is said to have reproved him for his cruelty. While King E> 1 ward 
 was at Lanercost in February 1307, he found it necessary, with the 
 consent of the parliament there assembled, to issue an order bauishiug 
 Gaveston for ever from the kingdom, as a corrupter of the prince. 
 It is doubtful, notwithstanding the story told by Froissart [Edward I.] 
 if the Prince of Wales was with his father when he died on the 7th of 
 July following ; but he was at any rate at no great distance, and he 
 was immediately recognised as king. His reign appears to have been 
 reckoned from the day following. 
 
 The new king obeyed his father's injunctions to prosecute the war 
 with Scotland by proceeding on his march into that country as far as 
 Cumnock in Ayrshire ; but here he turned round without having done 
 anything, and made his way back to England. Meanwhile his whole 
 mind seems to have been occupied only with one object — the advance- 
 ment of the favourite. A few dates will best show the violence of hia 
 infatuation. His first recorded act of government was to confer upon 
 Gaveston, now recalled to England, the earldom of Cornwall, a dignity 
 which had hitherto been held only by princes of the blood, and had a 
 few years before reverted to the crown by the death, without issue, of 
 Edmund Plantagenet, the late king's cousin. The grant, bestowing 
 all the lands of the earldom as well as the dignity, is dated at Dum- 
 fries, the 6th of Aueust 1307. About the same time Waiter do 
 
713 
 
 EDWARD IL 
 
 714 
 
 Langton, bishop of Lichfield, who was lord high treasurer, was 
 imprisoned in Wallingford Castle, as having been the principal pro- 
 moter of Gavestou's banishment. In October the new Earl of Corn- 
 wall married the king's niece, Margaret de Clare, the daughter of his 
 sister Joanna, countess of Gloucester. He was also made guardian 
 duriDg his minority to her brother, the young earl. The grant of 
 several other lordships followed immediately, and it is even said that 
 the reckless prodigality of the weak king went the length of making 
 over all the treasure his father had collected for the Scottish war, 
 amounting to nearly a hundred thousand pounds, to the object of his 
 insane attachment. Finally, he left him guardian of the realm while 
 he set out for Boulogne in January 1308, to marry Isabella, the 
 daughter of the French king, Philip V., to whom he had been 
 affianced ever since the treaty concluded between Philip and his 
 father in 1299. The marriage took place on the 25th of January, 
 and on the 25th of February the king and queen were crowned at 
 Westminster. 
 
 The history of the kingdom for the nest five years is merely that of 
 a long struggle between the king and his disgusted nobility about this 
 Oaveston. The banishment of the favourite being insisted upon by a 
 formidable league of the barons, Edward was obliged to yield ; but 
 instead of being ignominiously sent out of the country, Gaveston was 
 merely appointed to the government of Ireland. In June his royal 
 master accompanied him as far as Bristol on his way to that country. 
 Even from this honourable exile however he returned in October 
 following. The barons immediately again remonstrated, and in March 
 1310 the king found himself compelled to sign a commission by which 
 he resigned the government of the kingdom for the ensuing year into 
 the hands of a committee appointed by the parliament. A sentence 
 of banishment was soon after passed upon Gaveston, and he retired to 
 France; but by the close of the year 1311 we find him again in 
 England. The Earl of Lancaster, the king's cousin, now placed him- 
 self at the head of the malecontents : finding petitions and remon- 
 strances unattended to, he and his associates at lerjgth openly rose in 
 arms. Gaveston was besieged in Scarborough Castle, arid having been 
 forced to surrender, his career was ended by his summary execution 
 at Warwick on the 19th of June 1312. Having thus attained their 
 main object, the insurgent barons made their submission to the king, 
 and a peace was finally concluded between the parties in December. 
 
 In the course of the last two or three years, Robert Bruce, left 
 unmolested in Scotland, had not only nearly recovered every place of 
 strength in that country, but had been accustomed to make an annual 
 plundering inroad across the borders. It was now determined to take 
 advantage of the ce ssation of domestic dissensions to effect the re-con» 
 quest of the northern kingdom ; and in June 1314 Edward set out 
 for that purpose at the head of the most numerous army that had 
 ever been raised in England. The issue of this expedition was the 
 signal defeat sustained at the battle of Bannockburn, fought the 24th 
 of June, at which the magnificent host of the English king was com- 
 pletely scattered, he himself narrowly escaping captivity. After this 
 the few remaining fortresses in Scotland that were still held by 
 English garrisons speedily fell into the hands of Bruce ; the predatory 
 and devastating incursions of the Scots into England were renewed 
 with more audacity than ever; and Bruce and his brother Edward 
 even made a descent upon Ireland, and for some time contested the 
 dominion of that island with its English masters. At length, in 
 September 1319, a truce for two years with the Scots was arranged 
 with difficulty. Nor was it long observed by the party most interested 
 in breikiug it. The Scots easily found pretences on which to renew 
 their attacks, and Edward's efforts to check them proved as impotent 
 as before. 
 
 ?vl<;anwhile, a new favourite began to engross him, Hugh le 
 Despencer, the son of a nobleman of the same name. Upon him 
 Edward now bestowed another daughter of his sister, the Countess of 
 Gloucester, in marriage, and many large possessions. Another armed 
 insurrection of the barons was the consequence ; and in July 1321 the 
 Despencers, father and son, were both banished by act of parliament. 
 Eefore the end of the same year however they were recalled by the 
 king ; and now for a short time the fortune of the contest changed. 
 The Eirl of Lancaster was taken and beheaded at Pontefract on the 
 23rd of March 1322 ; and the sentence against the Despencers was 
 soon after formally revoked by parliament. About twenty of the 
 leaders of the insurrection in all were put to death ; but the estates 
 of many more were forfeited, and most of the immense amount of 
 plunder thus obtained by the crown was at once bestowed upon the 
 youDger Despencer. Edward, imagining that he had now an oppor- 
 tunity of which he might take advantage, set out once more for the 
 conquest of Scotland in August 1322; but after advancing as far as 
 CuirosB, in Fife, he returned without having accomplished anything 
 mure than the destruction of a few religiouB houses ; and on the 30th 
 of March 1323 he concluded another truce with the Scots, to last for 
 thirteen yean. 
 
 New storms however were already rising against the unhappy king. 
 Charles IV., called the Fair, the youngest brother of Edward's queen, 
 had recently succeeded to the French throne, and had begun his reign 
 by quarrelling on some pretence with his brother-in-law, and seizing 
 Cluieniie and Edward's other tcnitories in France. After some other 
 attempts at negociation, it was rs.-olved that Queen Isabella should 
 
 laoo. WT. vol. u. 
 
 herself go over to France to endeavour to bring about an arrange- 
 ment. The queen had been already excited against the Despencers ; 
 she had long probably despised a husband who was the object of such 
 general contempt, and who besides openly preferred his male 
 favourites to her society. At the French court she found collected 
 many English nobles and other persons of distinction, whom their 
 dissatisfaction with the state of affairs, or the enmity of the 
 Despencers, had driven from their country. All these circumstances 
 considered, it is easy to understand how she might naturally become 
 the centre and head of a combination formed by the discontented 
 exiles among whom she was thrown, and their connections still in 
 England, for the professed object of compelling her husband to change 
 his system of government and of removing the pernicious power that 
 stood between the nation and the throne. Amongst the foremost 
 figures of the association with which she thus became surrounded was 
 the young Roger de Mortimer, a powerful baron, who had made his 
 escape from England after having been condemned, for taking part in 
 the former confederacy against the Despencers, to imprisonment for 
 life. There is no doubt that the connection between Isabella and 
 Roger de Mortimer became eventually a criminal one. The plot 
 against the king was begun by the conspirators contriving to get the 
 heir-apparent, Prince Edward, into their power. It was arranged 
 that King Charles should restore Guienne upon receiving from the 
 prince the homage which his father had refused to render. On this 
 Prince Edward, now in his thirteenth year, was sent over to France 
 to his mother. The first use Isabella made of this important acqui- 
 sition was to affiance the boy to Philippa, the daughter of the Earl of 
 Hainault, who in return agreed to assist her and the confederates 
 with troops and money. Thus supported, she set sail from Dort with 
 a force of 3000 men, under the command of the earl's brother, and 
 landed at Orwell in Suffolk, the 22nd of September 1326. She was 
 immediately joined by all the most distinguished persons in the 
 kingdom, including even the Earl of Kent, the king's own brother. 
 Edward, deserted by all except the two Despencers and a few of their 
 creatures, left London, and took refuge at first in Bristol : he then 
 embarked for Ireland, or, as another account says, with the design of 
 making for the small isle of Lundy, at the mouth of the Bristol 
 Channel ; but being driven back by contrary winds, he landed again 
 in Wales, and shut himself up in Neath Abbey, in Glamorganshire. 
 Meanwhile the queen's forces attacked the castle of Bristol, where the 
 elder Despencer, styled Earl of Winchester, had been left governor 
 by the king. When the siege had lasted only a few days, the garrison 
 rose in mutiny and delivered up the old man ; he was ninety years of 
 age ; but his grey hairs did not save him ; he was immediately 
 executed with every circumstance of barbarous insult the ingenuity of 
 his captors could devise. The next day (26th of October) the prelates 
 and barons in the queen's camp declared Prince Edward guardian of 
 the kingdom. The king was discovered in his place of concealment 
 about three weeks after, and was conducted in custody first to the 
 castle of Monmouth, and then to that of Kenilworth. The younger 
 Despencer was also taken ; he was hanged and quartered at Hereford 
 on the 24th of November. The parliament assembled on the 1st of 
 January 1327 ; and after going through some forms of negociation 
 with the imprisoned king, it was resolved on the 25th of that mouth, 
 that the crown should be taken from him and conferred upon his son 
 Prince Edward. A deputation announced this resolution to the 
 deposed monarch. He remained for some months longer at Kenil- 
 worth : he was then transferred successively to Corfe, Bristol, and 
 Berkeley Castles. At length when it was found that mere insult 
 would not kill him, he was, on the night of the 20th of September, 
 murdered in the last-mentioned place by his keepers Sir Thomas 
 Gournay and Sir John Maltravers. 
 
 Edward II. left by his queen, Isabella of France, two sons, Edward, 
 who succeeded him, and John, born at Eltham, 15th of August 1316, 
 created Earl of Cornwall, in 1327, who died at Perth in October 1336 ; 
 and two daughters, Joanna, married 12th July, 1328, to Prince 
 David, eldest son of Robert Bruce, afterwards King David II. of 
 Scotland, and Eleanor, who became the wife of Reginald Count of 
 Guelders. 
 
 Some attempts have been made in modern times to dispute the 
 justice of the character which has been generally given of this king, 
 and to throw the blame of the civil distractions which rendered his 
 reign so unhappy and so ignominious a one, rather upon his turbulent 
 nobility than himself. Hume has written the history of the reign 
 with a studied endeavour to put the barons in the wrong throughout, 
 and to represent Edward as the victim, not of his own weakness and 
 vices, but rather of the barbarism of the age. The facts however on 
 which the common verdict rests cannot be thus explained away. It may 
 be admitted that among the motives which excited and sustained the 
 several confederacies against the king, and in the conduct of some of 
 those who took the lead in them, there was violence and want of 
 principle enough ; it is of the nature of things that the baser passions 
 should mix themselves up and even act an important part in all such 
 conflicts, however righteous in their origin and general object; but 
 nothing that can be alleged on this head can affect the question of 
 Edward's unfitness to wear the crown. That question must be con- 
 sidered as settled, if not by the course of outrage against all decency 
 manifested by hi3 conduct in the matter of Gaveston, certainly by hia 
 
 3 a 
 
{•15 EDWARD III. 
 
 relapse into the same fatal fatuity a few years after, when he fell iuto 
 the hands of his second favourite Despencer. 
 
 To the reign of Edward II. belongs the memorable event of the 
 suppression in England, as in the other countries of Europe, of the 
 great order of the Knights-Templars. Their property was seized all 
 over England in 1308 ; but the suppression of the order in this 
 country was not accompanied by any of that cruel treatment of the 
 persons of the members which they had experienced in France. In 
 1324 the lands which had belonged to the Templars were bestowed 
 upon the order of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 
 The most important legal innovation of this reign was that made 
 by the statute of sheriffs (9 Edward II., st. 2), by which the right of 
 appointing those officers was taken from the people and committed to 
 the chancellor, the treasurer, and the judges. Several of the royal 
 prerogatives, relating principally to tenures, were also defined by the 
 statute entitled 'Prerogativa Regis' (17 Edward II., st. 1). The 
 statutes down to the end of the reign of Edward II. are commonly 
 distinguished as the ' Vetera Statuta.' Pleading now began to assume 
 a scientific form. The series of year-books, or reports by authority of 
 adjudged cases, is nearly perfect from the commencement of this 
 reign. The only law treatise belonging, or supposed to belong, to the 
 reign of Edward II. is Home's 'Miroir des Justices.' 
 
 The circumstances of the reign were as little favourable to litera- 
 ture as to commerce .and the arts. Warton observes that though 
 much poetry now began to be written, he has found only one 
 English poet of the period whose name has descended to posterity ; 
 Adniu Davy or Davie, the author of various poems of a religious cast, 
 which have never been printed. Among these however is not to be 
 reckoned the long work entitled ' The Life of Alexander,' which is 
 erroneously attributed to him by Warton, but which has since been 
 conclusively shown not to be his. There is still extant a curious 
 Latin poem on the battle of Bannockburn, written in rhyming 
 hexameters by Robert Baston, a Carmelite friar, whom Edward carried 
 along with him to celebrate his anticipated victory, but who, being 
 taken prisoner, was compelled by the Scotch to sing the defeat of his 
 couutrymm in this jingling effusion. Bale speaks of this Baston as a 
 writer of tragedies and comedies, some of which appear to have been 
 English ; but none of them are now know to exist. 
 
 EDWARD III., King of England, the eldest son of Edward II. and 
 Isabella of France, was born at Windsor (whence he took his surname) 
 on the 13th of November 1312. In the first negociations with the 
 court of France after the breaking out of the quarrel about Guienne 
 in 1324, a proposal seems to have been made by the French king, 
 Charles IV., for a marriage between a daughter of his uncle, the Count 
 de Valois, and the young Prince of Wales, as Edward was styled ; but 
 it was coolly received by the king of England, and ended in nothing. 
 In September of the year following Prince Edward proceeded to Paris, 
 where his mother then was, and did homage to his uncle, King Charles, 
 for the duchy of Guienne and the earldom of Ponthieu, which his 
 father had previously resigned to him. He was induced by his mother 
 to remain with her at the French court, notwithstanding the most 
 pressing letters from his father (Rymer, iv.), begging and commanding 
 him to return. Meanwhile Isabella, having previously solicited from 
 the pope a dispensation (which however she did not obtain), to permit 
 her to marry her son without his father's knowledge, had arranged a 
 compact with William earl of Hainault, by which the prince was 
 affianced to Philippa, the second of the earl's four daughters. Edward 
 was soon after carried by his mother to Valenciennes, the residence of 
 the Earl of Hainault, where he met Philippa, aud iti s said fell ardently 
 in love with her. He landed with his mother in England in Septem- 
 ber 1326, was declared guardian or regent of the kingdom about a 
 month after, and was proclaimed king on the deposition of his father, 
 January 25th, 1327. [ Edwar D II.] He was crowned at Westminster 
 the following day. 
 
 The government of the kingdom during the king's minority was 
 placed by the parliament in the hands of a regency consisting of twelve 
 noblemen and bishops, with Henry earl of Lancaster (the brother of 
 Thomas, executed in the preceding reign) at their head. The queen 
 however and Mortimer (now created Earl of March) from the first 
 assumed the chief management of affairs, and soon monopolised all 
 power. They must be considered as having been the real authors of 
 the murder of the deposed king. Their authority seemed for the 
 moment to be rather strengthened than otherwise by the failure of a 
 confederacy formed among the nobility to effect their overthrow in 
 the winter of 1328-29. In March 1329 signal proof was given of 
 their determination and daring in the maintenance of their position 
 by the fate of the king's uncle, the Earl of Kent, who having become 
 involved in what was construed to be a plot against the government, 
 was put to death on that charge. 
 
 Meanwhile the king, young as he was, and although thus excluded 
 from the government, had not passed his time in inactivity. He was 
 married to Philippa of Hainault on the 24th of January 1328. A few 
 months after his accession he had marched at the head of a numerous 
 army against the Scots, who had again invaded and ravaged the 
 northern counties ; but they eluded all his attempts to come up with 
 them, and after a campaign of three weeks this expedition ended in 
 nothing. Soon after this a treaty of peace was concluded between 
 the two kingdoms, on the basis of the recognition of the complete 
 
 EDWARD III. 7U 
 
 independence of Scotland. This important treaty was signed at 
 Edinburgh on the 17th of March 1328, and confirmed in a parliament 
 held at Northampton on the 4th of May following. One of the 
 articles was, that a marriage should take place between Prince David, 
 the only son of the king of Scotland, and the sister of the king of 
 England, the Princess Joanna ; and, although the bride was only in 
 her seventh, and the bridegroom in his fifth year, the marriage was 
 celebrated accordingly at Berwick on the 12th of July. The illus- 
 trious Bruce just lived to see this truly epic consummation of his 
 heroic labours. He was able to receive the youthful pair on their 
 arrival at Edinburgh after the nuptials ; but he was now worn out by 
 a disease which had for some time preyed upon him, and he expired 
 in the following June. 
 
 The settlement of the dispute between the two countries which 
 thus seemed to be effected, proved of very short duration. In a few 
 months a concurrence of important events altogether changed both 
 the domestic condition and the external relations of England. In 
 the close of the year 1330, Edward at length determined to make a 
 bold effort to throw off the government of Mortimer. The necessary 
 arrangements having been made, the earl and the queen-mother were 
 seized in the castle of Nottingham on the 19th of October; the execu- 
 tion of Mortimer followed at London on the 29th of November; 
 many of his adherents were also put to death ; Isabella was placed 
 in confinement in her house at Risings (where she was detained for 
 the remaining twenty-seven years of her life) ; and the king took the 
 government into his own hands. In the course of the following year 
 Edward seems to have formed the design of resuming the grand 
 project of his father and his grandfather — the conquest of Scotland. 
 Kor this design he found an instrument in Edward Balliol, the sou of 
 the late King John, who, in April 1332, landed with a small force at 
 Kinghorn, in Fife, and succeeded so far, in the disorganised state of 
 the Scottish kingdom under the incompetent regency of the Earl of 
 Mar, and by the suddenness and unexpectedness of his attack, as to 
 get himself crowned at Scone on the 24th of September. Edward, 
 on this, immediately came to York ; and on the 23rd of November 
 Balliol met him at Roxburgh, and there made a solemn surrender to 
 him of the liberties of Scotland, and acknowledged him as his liege 
 lord. The violation of his late solemn engagements committed by 
 Edward in this affair was rendered still more dishonourable by the 
 caution and elaborate duplicity with which he had masked his design. 
 Only a few weeks after doing his homage, Balliol found himself obliged 
 to fly from his kingdom ; he took refuge in England ; various military 
 operations followed ; but at last Edward advanced into Scotland at 
 the head of a numerous army. On the 19th of July 1333, a great 
 defeat was sustained by the Scotch at the battle of Halidon Hill, 
 near Berwick; the regent Douglas himself was mortally wounded and 
 taken prisoner; and everything was once more subjected to Edward 
 Balliol. King David and his queen were conveyed in safety to France. 
 On the 12th of June 1334, at Newcastle, Balliol, by a solemn instru- 
 ment, made an absolute surrender to Edward of the greater part of 
 Scotland to the south of the Forth. But within three or four months 
 Balliol was again compelled to take flight to England. Two invasions 
 of Scotland by Edward followed ; the first in November of this year ; 
 the second in July 1335 ; in the course of which he wasted the country 
 with fire and sword almost to its extreme northern confines, but did 
 not succeed in bringing about an engagement with the native forces, 
 which notwithstanding still kept the field. In the summer of 1336 
 he took his devastating course for the third time through the northern 
 counties, with as little permanent effect. On now retiring to England 
 he left the command to his brother John, styled earl of Cornwall, who 
 soon after died at Perth. 
 
 From this time however the efforts of the English king were in 
 great part drawn off from Scotland by a new object. This was the 
 claim which he had first advanced some years before to the crown of 
 France, but which he only now proceeded seriously to prosecuts, 
 determined probably by the more open manner in which theFrenchking 
 had lately begun to exert himself in favour of the Scots, whom, after 
 repeated endeavours to serve them by mediation and intercession, he 
 had at length ventured to assist by supplies of money and warlike 
 stores. Charles IV. of France had died in February 1328, leaving a 
 daughter who was acknowledged on all hands to have no claim to the 
 crown, which it was agreed did not descend to females. In these 
 circumstances Philip of Valois mounted the throne, taking the title 
 of Philip VI. He was without dispute the next in the line of the 
 succession if both females and the descendants of females were to be 
 excluded. Edward's claim rested on the position that although his 
 mother, Isabella, as a female, was herself excluded, he, as her son, 
 was not. If this position had been assented to he would undoubtedly 
 have had a better claim than Philip, who was only descended from 
 the younger brother of Isabella's father. But the principle assumed 
 was, we believe, altogether new and unheard of— and would besides, 
 if it had been admitted, have excluded both Philip and Edward, 
 seeing that the true heir in that case would have been the son of 
 Joanna Countess d'Evreux, who was the daughter of Louis X.. 
 Isabella's brother. It would also have followed that the two last 
 kings, Philip V. and Charles IV., must have been usurpers as well as 
 Philip VI. ; the son of Joanna, the daughter of their predecessor and 
 elder brother, would, upon the scheme of succession alleged by the 
 
ru 
 
 EDWARD III. 
 
 EDWARD III. 
 
 718 
 
 king of England, have come in before both. Undeterred by these 
 considerations however, or even by the circumstance that he had 
 himself in the first instance acknowledged Philip's title, and even 
 done homage to him for the Duchy of Guieune, Edward, having first 
 entered into alliance with the Earl of Brabant, and taken other 
 measures with the view of supporting his pretensions, made an open 
 declaration of them, and prepared to vindicate them by the sword. 
 The earliest formal announcement of his determination to enforce his 
 claim appears to have been made in a commission which he gave to 
 the Earl of Brabant and others to demand the crown of France and 
 to take possession of it in his name, dated 7th of October 1337. 
 
 AVe cannot here pursue in detail the progress of the long war that 
 followed. Edward embarked for the continent on the 16th of July 
 1338, and arrived at Antwerp on the 22nd. Of his allies the chief 
 were the emperor and the free towns of Flanders, under nominal 
 subjection to their earl, but at this time actually governed by the 
 celebrated James Van Arteveldt. The emperor made him his vicar, 
 and at Arteveldt's suggestion he assumed the title of King of France. 
 The first important action that took place was the sea-fight ofFSluys, 
 on the 22nd of June 1340, in which the English were completely 
 victorious. It was followed by long truces, which protracted the 
 contest without any decisive events. Meanwhile in Scotland the war 
 proceeded, also with occasional intermissions, but on the whole to the 
 advantage of the national cause. Balliol left the country about the 
 close of 1338; and in May 1341 King David and his consort Joanna 
 returned from France. In 1342 the Scots even made several inroads 
 into the northern counties of England. A suspension of hostilities 
 however took place soon after this, which lasted till the close of 1344. 
 
 In 1345 Edward lost the services of his efficient ally Van Arteveldt, 
 who was murdered in an insurrection of the populace of Ghent, 
 excited by an attempt, which he appears to have made somewhat too 
 precipitately, to induce the free towns to cast off their sovereign, the 
 Earl of Flanders, and to place themselves under the dominion of the 
 son of the king of England, Edward, prince of Wales. Edward, 
 afterwards so distinguished under the name of the Black Prince (given 
 to him from the colour of his armour), was born at Woodstock, 
 15th of June 1330, and was consequently only yet in his sixteenth 
 year. His father nevertheless took him along with him to win his 
 spurs, when in July 1346 he set out on another expedition to France 
 with the greatest army he had yet raised. After reducing Caen and 
 Lower Normandy, he proceeded along the left bank of the Seine till 
 he reached the suburbs of the capital, and burnt the villages of St. 
 Germains and St. Cloud. The memorable battle of Crecy followed 
 on the 26th of August, in which the main division of the English 
 army was commanded by the prince. Between 30,000 and 40,000 of 
 the French are said to have been slain in this terrible defeat. Among 
 those who fell was John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia; he fell by 
 the hand of Prince Edward, who thence assumed his armorial ensign 
 of three ostrich feathers and the motto Ich Dim (' I serve '), and 
 transmitted the badge to all succeeding princes of Wales. 
 
 The defeat of the French at Crecy was followed on the 17th of 
 October, in the same year, by the equally signal defeat of the Scots 
 at the battle cf N evil's Cross, near Durham, in which the greater part 
 of the nobility of Scotland were either taken prisoners or slain, and 
 the king himself, after being wounded, fell into the hands of the 
 enemy. Froissart says that Queen Philippa led the English army 
 into the field on this occasion ; but no native contemporary or very 
 ancient writer mentions this remarkable circumstance. 
 
 Three days after the battle of Crecy, Edward sat down before the 
 town of Calais. It did not however open its gates to him till after a 
 noble defence of nearly eleven months. On its surrender the English 
 king was prevented, by the intercession of Queen Philippa, from making 
 his name infamous by taking the lives of the six burgesses whom he 
 commanded to be given up to his mercy as the price for which he 
 consented to spare their fellow-citizens. The reduction of Calais was 
 followed by a truce with France, which lasted till 1355. When the 
 war was renewed, Philip VI. had been dead for five years, and the 
 throne was occupied by his son John. On the 19th of September 1356 
 the Black Prince gained the battle of Poictiera, at which the French 
 king was taken prisoner. The kings both of France and Scotland were 
 now in Edward's hands, but neither country was yet subjugated. At 
 last, after many negotiations, David II. was released, in November 
 1357, for a ransom of 100,0000., to be discharged in ten yearly pay- 
 ments. King John was released on his parole in 1360, when a treaty 
 of peace was concluded between the two countries at Bretigny, con- 
 firming to the English the possession of all their recent conquests. 
 But after remaining in France for about four years, John returned to 
 captivity on finding that he could not comply with the conditions on 
 which he had received his liberty, and died in London, 8th of April, 
 1364. He was succeeded by his son, Charles V., who had acted as 
 lieutenant of the kingdom during his absence. 
 
 It would appear that during the Scottish king's long detention in 
 England he had been prevailed upon to come into the views of Edward, 
 at least to the extent of consenting to sacrifice the independence of his 
 country after his own death ; and it is probable that it was only upon 
 a secret compact to this effect that he obtained his liberty. Joanna, 
 the consort of David, died childless in 1362 ; and in a parliament held 
 at Scone the following year the king astounded the estates by proposing 
 
 that they should choose Lionel, duke of Clarence, the third son of 
 the king of England, to fill the throno in the event of his death without 
 issue. At this time the next heir to the throne in the regular line of 
 the succession was the Stewart of Scotland, the son of David's elder 
 sister Marjory ; and a wish to exclude his nephew, against whom he 
 entertained strong feelings of dislike, is supposed to have had a con- 
 siderable share in influencing the conduct of the king. The proposal 
 was rejected by the parliament unanimously and with indignation. A 
 few months after this the death of Edward Balliol without issue 
 removed all chance of any competitor arising to contest David's own 
 rights, and he became of course a personage of more importance than 
 ever to the purpose? of the ambitious and wily king of England. 
 David now repaired to London ; and here it was agreed in a secret 
 conference held between the two kings on the 23rd of November, that 
 in default of the king of Scots and his issue male, the king of England 
 for the time being should succeed to the crown of Scotland. In the 
 meantime the king of Scots was to sound the inclinations of his people, 
 and to inform the English king and his council of the result. (See 
 the articles of the agreement, twenty-eight in number, in the sixth 
 volume of Rymer's ' Fcedera.') From this time David acted with little 
 disguise in the interests of the English king, and even spent as much 
 of his time as he could in England. One effect of this policy was, that 
 actual hostilities between the two countries ceased; but no public 
 misery could exceed that of Scotland, distracted as it was by internal 
 convulsions, exhausted by the sufferings and exertions of many pre- 
 ceding years, and vexed by the exactions necessary to defray the ransom 
 of the king, his claim to which Edward artfully took advantage of as 
 a pretext for many insults and injuries, and a cover for all sorts of 
 intrigues. In 1365 however it was agreed that the truce (for the 
 cessation from hostilities was as yet nothing more) should be prolonged 
 till 1371. 
 
 In 1361 the Prince of Wales had married Joanna, styled the Fair, 
 the daughter of his great uncle the Earl of Kent, who had been put to 
 death in the beginning of the present reign. This lady had been first 
 married to William de Montacute, earl of Salisbury, from whom she 
 had been divorced ; and she had now been about three months the 
 widow of Sir Thomas Holland, who assumed in her right the title of 
 Earl of Kent, and was summoned to parliament as such. Soon after 
 his marriage the Prince of Wales was raised by his father to the new 
 dignity of Prince of Aquitaine and Gascony (the two provinces or 
 districts of Guienne) ; and in 1363 he took up his residence, and 
 established a splendid court in that quality, at Bordeaux. Edward's 
 administration of his continental principality was very able and suc- 
 cessful, till he unfortunately became involved in the contest carried 
 on by Pedro, surnamed the Cruel, with his illegitimate brother, Henry 
 of Trastamare, for the crown of Castile. Pedro having been driven 
 from his throne by Henry, applied to the Black Prince for aid to 
 expel the usurper. At this call Edward, forgetting everything except 
 the martial feelings of the age, and what he conceived to be the rights 
 of legitimacy, marched into Spain, and defeated Henry at the battle 
 of Najera, fought on the 3rd of April 1367. He did not however 
 attain even his immediate object by this success. Pedro had reigned 
 little more than a year when he was again driven from his throne by 
 Henry, by whom he was soon after murdered. Henry kept possession 
 of the throne which he had thus obtained till his death, ten years after. 
 Prince Edward meanwhile, owing to Pedro's misfortunes, having been 
 disappointed of the money which that king had engaged to supply, 
 found himself obliged to lay additional taxes upon his subjects of 
 Guienne, to obtain the means of paying his troops. These imposts 
 several of the Gascon lords refused to submit to, and appealed to the 
 king of France as the lord paramount. Charles on this summoned 
 Edward to appear before the parliament of Paris as his vassal; and 
 on the refusal of the prince, immediately confiscated all the lands held 
 by him and his father in France. A new war forthwith broke out 
 between the two countries. For a time the wonted valour of Prince 
 Edward again shone forth ; but among the other fruits of his Spanish 
 expedition was an illness caught by his exposure in that climate, 
 which gradually undermined his constitution, and at length com- 
 pelled him, in January 1371, to return to England. He had just 
 before this lost his eldest son, Edward, a child of six years old. 
 King Edward's consort, Queen Philippa, had died on the 15th of 
 August 1369. 
 
 On his departure from Guienne, Prince Edward left the government 
 of the principality in the hands of his brother John of Gaunt, duke 
 of Lancaster. The duke shortly after married a daughter of Pedro the 
 Cruel, in whose right he assumed the title of King of Castile, and 
 before the end of the year followed his brother to England. Affairs 
 on the continent now went rapidly from bad to worse. The great 
 French general, Duguesclin, drove the English everywhere before him. 
 In the summer of 1372 two expeditions were fitted out from Eugland, 
 the first commanded by the Earl of Pembroke, the second by King 
 Edward in person, accompanied by the Black Prince; but both com- 
 pletely failed. The forces of the Earl of Pembroke were defeated while 
 attempting to land at Rochelle by the fleet of Henry, king of Castile ; 
 and those conducted by the king and his son, which were embarked 
 in 400 ships, after being at sea for six weeks, were prevented from 
 landing by contrary winds, and obliged to put back 'to England. At 
 last, in 1374, when he had lost everything that had been secured to 
 
U9 
 
 EDWARD III. 
 
 720 
 
 him by the treaty of Bretigny, Edward was glad to conclude a truce 
 for three years. 
 
 Thus ended the French wars of this king, which had cost England 
 so much blood and treasure. Those which he waged against Scotland 
 equally failed of their object. David II. had died in February 1371, 
 and the Stewart of Scotland immediately ascended the throne without 
 opposition under the title of Robert II. No serious attempt was ever 
 made by Edward to disturb this settlement, though he at one time 
 seemed inclined to threaten another Scottish war, and he never would 
 give Robert the title of king ; he contented himself with styling him 
 " the most noble and potent prince, our dear cousin of Scotland." 
 
 The latter years of Edward's long reign presented in all respects a 
 melancholy contrast to its brilliant commencement. The harmony 
 which had hitherto pn-vailed between the king and his parliament 
 gave way under the public misfortunes, and the opposition to the 
 king's government was headed by his eldest son. The Black Frince 
 however died in his forty-sixth year, on the 8th of June 1376. He 
 was in the popular estimation the first hero of the age, and to this 
 reputation his military skill, his valour, and other brilliant and noble 
 qualities, may be admitted to have entitled him ; but, with all his 
 merits, he was not superior to his age, nor without his share of some 
 of the worst of its faults. He left by his wife Joanna one sou, Richard, 
 a child in his tenth year ; and he appears also to have had a daughter, 
 who became the wife of Walerau de Luxemburg, count de Ligny : his 
 illegitimate sons were Sir John Sounder and Sir Roger de Clarendon. 
 King Edward, in the weakness of old age, had now for some time given 
 up the entire management of affairs to his second son, the unpopular 
 Duke of Lancaster, and fears were entertained that he intended the 
 duke to inherit the crown ; but these apprehensions were removed by 
 his creating Richard of Bordeaux Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, 
 and Earl of Chester, and declaring him in parliament his heir and 
 successor. Since the death of his queen also he had attached himself 
 with doting fondness to Alice Ferers, one of the ladies of her bed- 
 chamber, and had excited great public disgust by the excesses to which 
 this folly carried him. The last fortnight of his life he spent at his 
 manor of Shenc, now Richmond, attended only by this lady. But 
 even she deserted him on the morning of his death ; and no one, it is 
 asserted, save a single priest, was by his bed-side, or even in the house, 
 when he breathed his last. Thi3 event happened on the 21st of June 
 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of his age and the fifty -first of his reign. 
 
 Edward III. had by his queen, Philippa of Hainault, seven sons : 
 1, Edward prince of Wales; 2, William of Hatfield, born 1336, who 
 died young ; 3, Lionel, duke of Clarence, born at Antwerp 29th of 
 November 1338 ; 4, John, duke of Lancaster, called of Gaunt, or Ghent, 
 where he was born in 1340 ; 5, Edmund, duke of York, born at Lang- 
 ley, near St. Alban's, in 1341 ; 6, William, born at AVindsor, who died 
 young; 7, Thomas, duke of Gloucester, born at Woodstock 7th of 
 January 1355 ; and five daughters : 1, Isabella, married to Ingelram 
 de Courcy, earl of Soissons and Bedford; 2, Joanna, born in August 
 1334, who was contracted, in 1345, to Pedro the Cruel, afterwards king 
 of Castile, but died of the plague at Bordeaux, in 1349, before being 
 married; 3, Blanche, called De la Tour, from having been born in the 
 Tower of London, who died in infancy ; 4, Mary, married to John de 
 Montford, duke of Bretagne ; and 5, Margaret, married to John de 
 Hastings, earl of Pembroke. 
 
 It has been observed, in regard to Edward III., by Sir James Mack- 
 intosh, that " though his victories left few lasting acquisitions, yet 
 they surrounded the name of his country with a lustre which pro- 
 duced strength and safety ; which perhaps also gave a loftier tone to 
 the feelings of England, and a more vigorous activity to her faculties." 
 "During a reign of fifty years," it is added, " Edward III. issued writs 
 of summons, which are extant to this day, to assemble seventy parlia- 
 ments or great councils : he thus engaged the pride and passions of 
 the parliament and the people so deeply in support of his projects of 
 aggrandisement, that they became his zealous and enthusiastic followers. 
 His ambition was caught by the nation, and men of the humblest 
 station became proud of his brilliant victories. To form and keep up 
 this state of public temper was the mainspring of his domestic adminis- 
 tration, and satisfactorily explains the internal tranquillity of England 
 during the forty years of his effective reign. It was the natural con- 
 sequence of so long and watchful a pursuit of popularity that most 
 grievances were redressed as soon as felt, that parliamentary authority 
 was yearly strengthened by exercise, and that the minds of the 
 turbulent barons were exclusively turned towards a share in their 
 sovereign's glory. Quiet at home was partly the fruit of fame 
 abroad." 
 
 The two great charters were repeatedly confirmed in this reign, and 
 a greater number of important new laws were passed than in all the 
 preceding reigns since the Conquest. Among them may be parti- 
 cularly noticed the celebrated statute (25 Ed. III., st. 5, c. 2) defining 
 and limiting the offence of high treason ; the numerous provisions 
 made to regulate the royal prerogative of purveyance, and diminish 
 the grievances occasioned by it ; the law (1 Ed. III., c. 12) permitting 
 tenants in chief to alienate their lands on payment of a reasonable 
 fine ; the several prohibitions against the payment of Peter's Pence ; 
 and the first statute (the 27th Ed. III., st. 1, c. 1) giving a writ of 
 praemunire against such as should presume to cite any of the king's 
 subjects to the court of Rome. In this reign also began the legisla- 
 
 tion respecting the poor, by the enactment of the statute of Labourers 
 (23 Ed. III., c. 1), which was followed by several other acts of the 
 same kind, setting a price upon labour as well as upon provisions. 
 Trial by Jury also now began to acquire a decided ascendancy ovor 
 the old modes of trial, and various regulations were made for improving 
 the procedure of the courts and the administration of justice. Justices 
 (at first called keepers) of the peaco were established by tho statute 
 34 Ed. III., c. 1. In 1362 was passed the important act (36 Ed. IIL, 
 st. 5, c. 15) declaring that henceforth " all pleas should be pleaded, 
 showed, defended, amended, debated, and judged in the English 
 tongue," and no longer in tho French, which is described as " much 
 unknown in tho realm." They were ordered still however to be 
 entered and enrolled in Latin. The acts of parliament continued to 
 be written sometimes in Latin, but most generally in French, loDg 
 after this time. The science of legal pleading is considered by Coke 
 to have been brought to perfection in this reign. The only law treatises 
 which belong to this reign are those entitled the ' Old Tenures,' the 
 ' Old Natura Brevium,' the ' Novae Narrationes,' and the book on the 
 ' Diversity of Courts.' They are all iu Norman French. 
 
 The commerce and manufactures of the country made some advances 
 with the general progress of the age in the course of this reign ; but 
 they certainly were not considerable for so long a space of time. The 
 woollen manufacture was introduced from the Netherlands, and firmly 
 rooted in England before tho close of the reign. Some augmentation 
 also seems to havo taken place in the shipping and exports of the 
 country. On the other hand, the king's incessant wars operated in 
 various ways to the discouragement of commerce. Sometimes foreign 
 merchants were afraid to send their vessels to sea lest they should 
 be captured by some of the belligerents. On one occasion at hast 
 (in 1338), Edward made a general seizure of the property belonging 
 to foreign merchants within his dominions, to supply his necessities. 
 At other times he resorted to the ruinous expedient of debasing the 
 coin. Many acts were passed by the parliament on the subject of 
 trade, but they involved for the most part the falsest principles ; some 
 prohibiting the exportation of money, of wool, and of other articles; 
 others imposing penalties for forestalling ; others attempting to regulate 
 wages, prices, and expenditure. Of course such laws could not bo 
 executed ; they only tormented the people, and aggravated the mis- 
 chiefs they were intended to cure ; but in consequence of being thus 
 inefficient, they were constantly renewed. The most memorable inven- 
 tion of this age is that of gunpowder, or rather its application in 
 war. It has been asserted that cannons were used at the battle of 
 Crecy in 1346; and there is reason to believe that they were in use 
 about twenty years earlier. They were certainly familiarly known 
 before the close of the reign. 
 
 Among the more elegant arts, architecture was that which was 
 carried to the greatest height. Edward III. nearly rebuilt the castle 
 of Windsor, which however has undergone great improvements and 
 alterations since his time ; the chapel of St. George, built by this 
 king, was reconstructed by Edward IV. Splendour and luxury 
 generally made undoubtedly great advances among the wealthier 
 classes, although it may be questioned if wealth was more generally 
 diffused throughout the community, or if the poverty and wretch- 
 edness of the great body of the people were not rather increased 
 than diminished. The increase of licentiousness of manners among 
 the higher ranks appears to have kept pace with that of magnificence 
 in their mode of living. This was the age of tournaments, and of 
 the most complete ascendancy of the system of chivalry. The Order 
 of the Garter was instituted by Edward III., it is generally supposed 
 in the year 1349. 
 
 In literature, this was the age of Chaucer, the Morning Star of 
 our poetry, and of his friend Gower, and also of Wicliffe, who first 
 translated the Scriptures into English, and who has been called the 
 Morning Star of the Reformation. The principal chroniclers of the 
 time of Edward III. are Thomas Stubbs, William Thorn, Ralph Higden, 
 Adam Merimuth, Henry de Knighton, and Robert de Avesbury. 
 
 The convulsion in the church, excited by Wicliffe, began in the last 
 years of Edward III., but the history of it more properly belongs to 
 the next reign, that of his grandson Richard II. 
 
 EDWARD IV., King of England. During the reign of Richard II. 
 the heir presumptive to the crown was Roger Mortimer, earl of March, 
 the son of Philippa Plantagenet, who was the only child of Lionel, 
 duke of Clarence, the second of the sons of Edwr.rd III. that left any 
 descendants. Roger, earl of March, died in Ireland, where he was 
 lord-lieutenant, or governor, in 1398. His son, Edmund Mortimer, 
 earl of March, was a child of only ten years of age at the deposition 
 of Richard II. in 1399 ; but in his person resided the right to the 
 crown by lineal descent so long as he lived. Although however his 
 name was mentioned on several occasions in connection with his 
 dangerous pretensions, and he more than once ran the risk of being 
 made a tool of in the hands of persons more ambitious than himself, 
 he never made any attempt against the house of Lancaster. We may 
 here remark that much confusion has been introduced into the 
 common accounts of Edmund Mortimer by his being confounded with 
 his uncle Sir Edmund Mortimer. It was the latter personage, for 
 instance, who, having married the daughter of Owen Glendower, 
 engaged with the Percies in their insurrection in 1403, and performed 
 the rest of the part assigned to the Lord Mortimer in Shaksperc'a 
 
EDWARD IV. 
 
 EDWARD IV. 
 
 733 
 
 play of the First Part of ' Henry the Fourth.' It is to him also we 
 suppose that we are to attribute the pun put by the common histories 
 into the mouth of his nephew the Earl of March at the coronation of 
 Henry IV., when, on that king claiming the crown as the heir male of 
 Henry III., he said that he was indeed Hares Mains. The young 
 Earl of March, with the other children of his father, was detained in 
 a sort of imprisonment at Windsor during all the reign of Henry IV., 
 but on the accession of Henry V. he was set at liberty. In 1415 he 
 became involved in the conspiracy planned against Henry V. by 
 Richard, earl of Cambridge ; but it is most probable that he was not 
 answerable for the use which was made, or rather intended to be 
 made, on this occasion, of his name. Indeed the common account 
 makes him to have been the person who gave Henry information of 
 the conspiracy, after he had been applied to by the Earl of Cambridge, 
 who had married his sister, to join it. After the accession of Henry VI. 
 he was sent as lord lieutenant to Ireland ; and he died there, in the 
 castle of Trim, in 1424. He left no issue, nor did his brother Roger, 
 nor his sister Eleanor ; but his sister Ann, married to the Earl of 
 Cambridge, had a son named Richard, who consequently became his 
 uncle's representative, and (at least after the death of his mother) the 
 individual on whom had devolved the claim by lineal descent to the 
 crown. This Richard was also the representative of Edward III.'s 
 fifth son, Edmund, duke of York, his father, the Earl of Cambridge, 
 having been the second son of that prince, whose eldest son and heir, 
 Edward, duke of York, had fallen at the battle of Agincourt, leaving 
 no issue, only a few months after his brother had been executed for 
 the conspiracy mentioned above. At the time of his uncle's death, 
 Richard, in consequence of his father's forfeiture, had no title ; but 
 he seems to have immediately assumed that of Earl of March, at least 
 he is so called by some of the chroniclers, and the same title was also 
 afterwards borne by his son, although the right of either to it may be 
 questioned, inasmuch as it appears to have been only descendible to 
 heirs male. Richard however is best known by his title of Duke of 
 York, which he took in 1425, on being restored in blood and allowed 
 to inherit the honours both of his father and uncle. But it is 
 important to recollect that the claim of the house of York to the 
 crown in opposition to the house of Lancaster was not derived from 
 Edward III.'s fifth son, Edmund, duke of York, who was younger 
 than John of Gaunt, the founder of the house of Lancaster, but from 
 Lionel, duke of Clarence, who was that king's third son, John of 
 Gaunt being his fourth. 
 
 As a clear notion of the above genealogical statement is important 
 to the understanding of a considerable portion of English history, it 
 may be proper once for all to exhibit it in the form most convenient 
 for its ready apprehension and for future reference to it. The line of 
 the eldest son of Edward III. having failed in Richard II., and hi3 
 second son having died without issue, the contest for the crown in 
 the 15th century lay among the descendants of his third, fourth, and 
 fifth sons, whose connection with him and among themselves stood 
 thus: — 
 
 but in 1447 he was recalled, through the iuCuence of the queen and 
 the favourite, the Marquis of Suffolk, and Edmund Beaufort, earl 
 (afterwards duke) of Somerset, the chief of the younger branch of the 
 Lancaster family, was appointed his successor. It is understood that 
 before this the unpopular government of the queen and the favourite 
 had turned men's minds to the claims of the Duke of York; and it 
 is said that he himself, though ho moved warily in the matter, was 
 not idle by his emissaries in encouraging the disposition that began 
 to grow up in his favour. The progress of events in course of time 
 enabled him to take a bolder part in the promotion of the design he 
 had already in all probability formed, of securing the crown for 
 himself and his family. In 1449 he gained additional popularity by 
 the able and conciliatory manner in which he suppressed an insurrec- 
 tion in Ireland. In the rising of the people of Kent the next year, 
 their leader, Jack Cade, assumed the name of Mortimer as a sort of 
 title. When he rode in triumph through the streets of the metro- 
 polis, he called out, as he struck London Stone with his sword, " Now 
 is Mortimer lord of the city ! " When the duke returned from 
 Ireland, in August 1451, some steps seem to have been taken by the 
 court to oppose his landing; but he made his way to London, and 
 immediately entered there into consultations with his friends. It was 
 determined to demand the dismissal and punishment of the Duke of 
 Somerset, now the king's chief minister; but although this attempt 
 was supported by an armed demonstration, it ended after a few 
 months in the Duke of York dismissing his followers, returning to his 
 allegiance, and agreeing to retire to his estate. 
 
 The king had now been married for several years without having 
 any children, and it appears to have been generally expected that the 
 duke, by merely waiting for his death, would obtaiu the crown 
 without any risk or trouble. On the birth of the Prince of Wales 
 however in October 1453, it became necessary to adopt another course. 
 The spirit that showed itself in the parliament the following year 
 forced the court to admit the Duke of York and his chief friends and 
 confederates, the two Nevilles (father and son), earls of Salisbury and 
 Warwick, into the council, where their first act was to arrest the 
 Duke of Somerset and send him to the Tower. A few weeks after this 
 (on the 3rd of April 1454), the Duke of York was appointed by the par- 
 liament protector and defender of the kingdom during the illness of the 
 king, who had fallen into a state of mental as well as bodily imbecility. 
 In the following spring however Henry partially recovered, aud 
 resuming the management of affairs, released Somerset. This brought 
 matters to a crisis. The Duke of York now withdrew from court, and 
 both parties collected their forces to decide their quarrel by the sword. 
 The two armies met at St. Albans on the 23rd of May 1455, when 
 the king was defeated, he himself being wounded and taken prisoner, 
 and the Duke of Somerset and others of the royal leaders slain. 
 Henry, detained in the hands of the victor, was obliged to call a 
 parliament, which met at Westminster on the 9th of July ; and here 
 the helpless king declared the duke and his friends to be innocent of 
 the slaughter at St. Albans, aud greeted them as his " free and 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 8. Lionel, Duke of Clarence. 
 
 Phllippa = Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March. 
 
 Roger Mortimer, Earl of March, 
 died 1398. 
 
 4. John, Duke of Lancaster. 
 
 6. Edmund, Duke 
 of York. 
 
 Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, 
 died 1424. 
 
 Ann Mortimer. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 died 1413. 
 
 Henry V. 
 died 1422. 
 
 Henry VI. 
 
 Edward, Duke of 
 York, killed 
 1415. 
 
 Richard, Earl of = Ann Mot timer, dan. 
 
 Cambridge, of Roger Mortimer, 
 executed 1415. Earl of March. 
 
 Richard, Duke of York, 
 died 1460. 
 
 Edward, Earl of March 
 (afterwards Edward IV.) 
 
 The persons whose names are printed in Italics arc those in whom successively the hereditary right vested. We cannot discover however how long Ann 
 Mortimer survived her brother, or even that she survived him at all, although it seems to be usually assumed that she did. 
 
 Richard, duke of York, first makes his appearance in public affairs 
 in the end of the year 1435, when he was appointed by Henry VI. to 
 the regency of France on the death of the Duke of Bedford. By the 
 time he entered upon his office however Paris had been evacuated, and 
 their French dominion was fast passing out of the hands of the 
 English. He was recalled in 1437, but was reappointed on the death 
 of his successor, the Earl of Warwick, in July 1440. On the 29th of 
 April 1441 (or, according to another account, in September 1442), his 
 son Edward, earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., was born at 
 Honen. The Duke of York remained in France till after the con- 
 clusion of the king's marriage with Margaret of Anjou, in 1446; and 
 his government was then prolonged for another term of five years ; 
 
 faithful liegemen." The parliament met again, after prorogation, on 
 the 12th of November, when the duke was a second time appointed 
 protector. He was removed however by the king on the 23rd of 
 February 1456 ; on which he again retired from court with his 
 friends. The next two years passed without any further encounter, 
 each party hesitating to attack the other. At last in the spring of 
 1458, York and his friends were invited by the queen to London to 
 be reconciled to the Lancastrian party ; an agreement to live for the 
 future in peace was made with much solemnity ; and the Duke of 
 York and the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick were again admitted into 
 the council. All this however seems to have been merely a stratagem 
 of the queen's to «et them into her power : their danger soon became 
 
723 
 
 EDWARD IV. 
 
 EDWARD IV. 
 
 apparent; and before the end of the year they all again withdrew 
 from court. The resort to the final arbitrament could not now be 
 much longer deferred. Both parties again collected their armed 
 strength. Their first meeting took place at Blore-heath, near Drayton, 
 in Shropshire, on the 23rd of September 1459, when the royal forces 
 under Lord Audley were defeated by the Earl of Salisbury, Audley 
 himself being islain. On the 12th of October however the king's army 
 met that of York and Warwick near Ludlow : ample offers of pardon 
 were made to all who would come over to the royal side; and the 
 consequence was, that so many of the insurgents deserted, that, almost 
 without striking a blow, the rest threw down their arms, and their 
 leaders were obliged to save themselves by flight. The Duke of 
 York and his adherents were attainted and their estates confiscated, at 
 a parliament which met at Coventry a few weeks after. By June 
 1460 however the dispersed insurgents were again in arms. York 
 landed from Ireland and Warwick from France nearly at the same 
 time; the latter, whose numbers had now increased to nearly 40,000 
 men, entered London on the 2nd of July; and on the 9th the royal 
 forces, advancing from Coventry, were met near Northampton, by 
 York's son Edward, the young earl of March, and signally defeated, 
 the king being taken prisoner, and the queen and her son obliged to 
 ily for their lives. This is the fiiv,t appearance of Edward on the 
 scene. Up to this time also the Duke of York had never disputed 
 Henry's title to the crown ; he professed to have taken arms only to 
 compel the king to dismiss his evil counsellors and to govern accord- 
 ing to the laws. Even now Henry's name was still made use of by 
 the victorious party. He was made to call a parliament, which met 
 at Westminster on the 2nd of October, and immediately annulled 
 everything that had been done by the late parliament of Coventry. 
 But at this point the duke at last threw off all disguise. On the 
 lGth he delivered to the parliament by his counsel a written claim to 
 the crown. The question was formally discussed, and it was at 
 length determined that Henry should be allowed to remain king 
 during his life, but that the Duke of York should be immediately 
 declared his successor. Richard was accordingly, on the 1st of 
 November, solemnly proclaimed heir apparent aud protector of the 
 realm ; being in the latter capacity invested with rights and powers 
 which already threw into his hands all of royalty except the name. 
 But his dignity and authority were soon brought to an end. The 
 queen found means to assemble an army in the north ; on hearing 
 which news the duke, on the 2nd of December, marched from 
 London to give her battle. They met on Wakefield Green on the 
 31st, and the issue of their encounter was the complete defeat of 
 York. He himself and one of his youuger sons were slain, and the 
 Earl of Salisbury was taken prisoner, and executed the next day at 
 Pomfret with twelve of his associates. Edward, now duke of York, 
 was at Gloucester when he heard of this disaster. A formidable royal 
 force, commanded by the Earls of Pembroke and Ormond, hung on 
 his rear; this he attacked on the 2nd of February 1461, at Mortimer's 
 Cross, near Hereford, and completely routed. He then set out for 
 London, upon which the queen also was now directing her march. 
 The next engagement that took place was at Bernard's Heath, near 
 St. Albans, where the queen was met on the 17th by the Earl of 
 Warwick : the ear], who had the king with him in the field, was 
 defeated, and his majesty regained his liberty. The approach of the 
 Duke of York however deterred Margaret from continuing her 
 advances upon the capital ; she retired to the north, while he 
 entered London on the 28th, amid the congratulations of the citizens. 
 On the 2nd of March he laid his claim to the crown, founded on 
 King Henry's alleged breach of the late agreement, before an assembly 
 of lay and clerical lords ; on the same afternoon an assembly of the 
 people was held in St. John's Fields, at which his nomination as king 
 was received with unanimous acclamations of assent ; and two days 
 after he was solemnly proclaimed by the name of Edward IV. The 
 4th of March was considered as the day of his accession. 
 
 The first three years of the reign of Edward IV. were occupied by 
 a prolongation of the contest that raged when he mounted the throne. 
 The Lancastrians sustained a severe defeat from the king in person at 
 Towton in Yorkshire, on the 29th of March 1461 ; but Queen Margaret 
 was unwearied in her applications for assistance to France and Scot- 
 land, and she was at last enabled to take the field with a new army. 
 That too however waB routed and dispersed at Hexham by the forces 
 of Edward under the command of Lord Montagu, on the 17th of May 
 1464. This victory, and the capture of Henry, which took place a 
 few days after, put an end to the war. An event however occurred 
 about the same time out of which new troubles soon arose. This 
 was the marriage of the king with Elizabeth Woodville, the young 
 and beautiful widow of Sir Thomas Gray, and the daughter of Sir 
 Richard Woodville (afterwards created Earl Rivers) by Jacquetta of 
 Luxembourg, whose first husband had been the late Duke of Bedford. 
 The connections of the lady, both by her birth and by her first 
 marriage, were all of the Lancastrian party ; but Edward's passion 
 was too violent to allow him to be stopped by this consideration ; he 
 was privately married to her at Grafton, near Stoney Stratford, on the 
 1st of May 1464 : she was publicly acknowledged as his wife in 
 September ; and she was crowned at Westminster on Ascension Day 
 in the following year. The first effect of this marriage was to put an 
 end to a negociation, in which some progress had been made, with the 
 
 French King Louis XI. for Edward's marriage with his sister-in-law 
 the Princess Bonne of Savoy, an alliance which it was hoped might 
 have proved a bond of amity betwixt the two kingdoms. It at the 
 same time alienated from the king the most powerful of his supporters, 
 the Earl of Warwick, by whom the French negociation had been 
 conducted, and whose disapprobation of the king's conduct in a 
 political point of view was consequently sharpened by the sense of 
 personal ill-usage. Above all, the honours and bounties lavished by 
 Edward upon tho obscure family of his queen disgusted the old 
 nobility, and raised even a national feeling against him. It was some 
 time before matters came to extremities; but at last, Warwick and 
 Queen Margaret having entered into close alliance, England was once 
 more, in 1469, deluged with the blood of a civil war. Nearly the 
 whole of that and the following year was a season of confusion, of 
 which it is scarcely possible to derive any consistent or intelligible 
 account from the imperfect documents of the time that remain, and 
 the ill-informed chroniclers who have attempted to describe the course 
 of occurrences. At last, in the beginning of October 1470, Edward 
 found himself obliged to embark and fly to Holland. King Henry 
 was now released from the Tower, in which he had been confined for 
 the preceding six years, and the royal authority was again exercised 
 in his name. This revolution earned for Warwick his well-known 
 title of the King-maker. Henry's restoration however was a very 
 short one. On the 14th of March 1471 Edward landed at the mouth 
 of the Humber, with a force which he had raised in the Low Countries, 
 made his way to London, was received with acclamations by the 
 citizens, again obtained possession of the imbecile Henry, and shut 
 him up in his old prison. He then, on the 14th of April, went out 
 to meet Warwick, who was advancing from St. Albans : the two 
 armies encountered at Barnet ; and the result was that the forces of 
 the earl were completely defeated, and both he and his brother Lord 
 Montagu were left dead on the field. The war was finished by the 
 second defeat of the Lancastrians on the 14th of May, at the great 
 battle of Tewkesbury, where both Queen Margaret and her son Prince 
 Edward fell into the hands of their enemies. Margaret was sent to 
 the Tower, and was detained there till she was set at liberty in 
 conformity with one of the articles of the treaty of Pecquigny, con- 
 cluded with France in 1475, the French king paying for her a ransom 
 of 50,000 crowns. Her unfortunate son was brought before Edward 
 on the day after the battle, and brutally put to death in his presence 
 by the hands of the dukes of Clarence and Gloucester (the king's 
 brothers), assisted by two other noblemen. King Henry terminated 
 his days in the Tower about three weeks after ; and it has generally 
 been believed that he was also violently taken off, and that his murderer 
 was the Duke of Gloucester. Many executions of the members of the 
 Lancastrian party followed, and confiscations of their property in all 
 parts of the kingdom. 
 
 The remainder of the reign of Edward IV. was marked by few 
 memorable events. One that may deserve to be noticed is the fate of 
 the king's next brother, George, duke of Clarence, who was attainted 
 of treason by a parliament which met in January 1478, and imme- 
 diately after privately put to death, being drowned, it was generally 
 believed, in a butt of malmsey. He had at one time taken part with 
 Warwick against his brother, and had sealed his alliance with the 
 earl by marrying his daughter; nor, although he afterwards saw it 
 prudent to break this connection, had he and Edward ever probably 
 been cordially reconciled. It seems to have been chiefly his nearness 
 to the throne that at last fixed his brother in the determination of 
 getting rid of him. Edward was at war both with Scotland and with 
 France during the greater part of his reign ; but the military opera- 
 tions that took place were unimportant, and are not worth relating : 
 they were never carried on with any vigour, and were frequently 
 suspended by long truces, which however, in their turn, were generally 
 broken by the one nation or the other before the proper term. In 
 June 1475, Edward having previously sent a herald to King Louis to 
 summon him to surrender the whole kingdom of France, embarked 
 with a large force, and landed at Calais; but the expedition ended 
 within three months in the treaty of Pecquigny, or Amiens, already 
 mentioned. By one of the articles it was agreed that the dauphin, 
 Charles, should marry Elizabeth, the king of England's eldest 
 daughter; and Louis also engaged to pay Edward an annuity of 
 50,000 crowns a year as long as they both lived. It appears that 
 Edward's ministers as well as their royal master consented to receive 
 pensions from the French king; large amounts of money were dis- 
 tributed among them from time to time ; and in their case at least 
 this foreign pay was a mere bribe to engage them in the interests of 
 the power from which they received it. Edward however is asserted 
 to have himself shared in their gains ; indeed his own acknowledged 
 annuity, though it might bear the appearance of a compensation for 
 advantages which he had given up, was itself in reality nothing else 
 than a bribe ; it was a supply obtained independently of parliament 
 and the country. He was driven indeed to many other shifts and 
 illegal methods, as well as this, to raise money for his wasteful 
 debaucheries and extravagant expenditure on the mistresses, favourites, 
 and others that ministered to his personal pleasures. Louis however 
 appears never to have had any intention of fulfilling his engagement 
 as to the marriage; for some years he evaded Edward's importunities 
 as well as he could; till at length, in 1482, he contracted tho dauphin 
 
EDWARD V. 
 
 in another quarter. Edward, incensed in the highest degree, was 
 preparing to avenge this affront by a new descent upon France, in 
 which the parliament had eagerly promised to assist him with their 
 lives and fortunes, when he was suddenly cut off by a fever, on tho 
 9th of April 1483, after a reign of twenty-two years. 
 
 Edward IV. had by his wife Elizabeth three sons — Edward, who 
 succeeded him; Richard, duke of York, born in 1474; and George, 
 duke of Bedford, who died in infancy; and seven daughters — Elizabeth, 
 born 11th of February 1466, contracted to the dauphin, and afterwards 
 married to Henry VII. ; Cecilia, contracted to Prince James (afterwards 
 James IV.) of Scotland, and afterwards married first to John, viscount 
 Wells, secondly to Mr. Kyme, of Lincolnshire ; Anne, contracted to 
 Philip, son of the Archduke Maximilian of Austria and his wife the 
 Duchess of Burgundy, and afterwards married to Thomas Howard, 
 duke of Norfolk; Bridget, born at Eltham, 10th of November 1480, 
 who became a nun at Dartford ; Mary, contracted to John I., king of 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, but who died at Greenwich in 1482, 
 before the marriage was solemnised ; Margaret, born 1 9th of April 1472, 
 who died 11th of December following; and Catherine, contracted to 
 John, eldest son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, aud afterwards 
 married to William Courtenay, earl of Devonshire. By one of his 
 many mistresses, Elizabeth Lucy, he had two natural children — Arthur, 
 surnamed Plantagenet, created Viscount Lisle by Henry VIII. ; and 
 Elizabeth, who became the wife of Thomas, lord Lumley. 
 
 Edward IV. has the reputation of having been zealous and impartial 
 in the administration of justice; but with the exception of some 
 statutes abridging the ancient jurisdiction of sheriffs, and transferring 
 part of the powers of those officers to the quarter-sessions, no important 
 innovations were made in the law during this reign. It is from this 
 period however that the rise of what is called indirect pleading is dated. 
 In this reign also the practice of suffering common recoveries by a 
 tenant in tail, as a means of barring his estate tail, and also all the 
 estates in remainder and reversion, was fully established by judicial 
 decision (in the twelfth year of this king), after it had been interrupted 
 for some time by the statute of Westminster 2, 13 Ed. I., c. 32. The 
 reduction of the law and its practice to a scientific form is considered 
 to have made great progress in the latter part of the reign of Henry VI. 
 and in that of Edward IV. To the latter belong the treatise ' De 
 Laudibus Legum Angliae' of Sir John Fortescue, the celebrated treatise 
 on ' Tenures ' of Sir Thomas Littleton, and the work called Statham's 
 'Abridgment of the Law.' The Year Books also began now to be 
 much more copious than in former reigns. 
 
 Many laws relating to trade and commerce passed in the reign of 
 Edward IV. attest the growing consequence of those interests, but are 
 not in other respects important, and do not show that more enlightened 
 views began to be entertained than had heretofore prevailed. The 
 manufacture of articles of silk, though only by the hand, was now 
 introduced into this country; and we find the parliament endeavouring 
 to protect it by the usual method of prohibiting the importation of 
 similar articles made abroad. This reign is illustrious as being that 
 in which the art of printing was introduced into England. [Caxton.] 
 
 The testimony of historians concurs with the probabilities of the 
 ca3e in assuring us that the country must have been subjected to much 
 devastation and many miseries during the bloody and destructive wars 
 of York and Lancaster ; but this contest was undoubtedly useful in 
 shaking the iron-bound system of feudalism, and clearing away much 
 that obstructed the establishment of a better order of things. The 
 country seems to have very soon recovered from the immediate 
 destruction of capital and property occasioned by these wars. 
 
 EDWARD V., the eldest son of Edward IV., was born on the 4th 
 of November 1470, in the Sanctuary of Westminster Abbey, where his 
 mother had taken shelter when her husband was obliged to fly to the 
 continent on the return of Queen Margaret and the Earl of Warwick. 
 He was consequently only in his thirteenth year when his father died. 
 His reign is reckoned from the 9th of April 1483, the day of his 
 father's decease ; but during the few weeks it lasted he never was a 
 king in more than name. The public transactions of his reign all 
 beloDg properly to the history of his uncle, Richard III. Edward 
 was at_ Ludlow in Shropshire at the time of his father's death, and 
 possession of his person was obtaiued at Northampton by Richard 
 (then Duke of Gloucester) as he was on his way to London in charge 
 of his maternal uncle Anthony, earl Rivers. He appears not to have 
 been brought to London till the beginning of May. In the course of 
 that month, and probably between the 24th and 27th, Richard was 
 declared at a great council protector of the king and the kingdom. 
 On the 16th of June he contrived to obtain Edward's younger brother, 
 the Duke of York, out of the hands of the queen his mother, who had 
 taken refuge in Westminster Abbey with him and his sister. The 
 two boys were forthwith removed to the Tower, then considered one 
 of the royal palaces, there to remain, as was pretended, till the 
 coronation of the young king, which was appointed to take place on 
 the 22nd. Before that day arrived however Richard had completed 
 his measures for placing the crown on his own head. The 26th of 
 June is reckoned the commencement of his reign, and the close of that 
 of his nephew. After this Edward and his brother were seen no more. 
 They were however universally believed to have been made away with 
 by Richard. The account which has been generally received is that 
 given by Sir Thomas More, whose testimony may be regarded as that 
 
 EDWARD V. r?/} 
 
 of a contemporary, for he was born some years before the death of 
 Edward IV. His statement is in substance that Richard, while on his 
 way to pay a visit to the town of Gloucester after his coronation, sent 
 one John Green, "whom he specially trusted," to Sir Robert Brackim- 
 bury, the constable of the Tower, with a letter desiring Sir Robert to 
 put the children to death ; that Brackenbury declared he would not 
 commit so dangerous a deed ; that Sir James Tyrrel was then despatched 
 with a commission to receive the k«ys of the Tower for one night; 
 and that under his directions the children were about midnight stifled 
 in bed with their feather-beds and pillows, by Miles Forest, "one of 
 the four that kept them, a fellow fleshed in murder beforetime," and 
 John Dighton, Tyrrel's own horse-keeper, " a big, broad, square, and 
 strong knave." The relation is given in the fullest and most particular 
 form, not in the Latin translation of More's ' History,' or in the retraus- 
 lation of that into English, published (with a strange ignorance that 
 the work already existed in English) in Bishop Rennet's ' Collection of 
 Histories' (3 vols, folio, 1706), but in the English work, which we 
 believe is the original. It is printed in full from More's works in 
 Holinshed, who describes it as written about the year 1513. More 
 doe3 not give the story as merely " one of the various tales he had 
 heard concerning the death of the two princes " (Henry's ' History of 
 Great Britain,' and Walpole's ' Historic Doubts on the Life aud Reign 
 of Richard III.') ; he introduces it by saying, " I shall rehearse you 
 the dolorous end of those babes, not after every way that I have heard, 
 but after that way that I have so heard by such men and by such 
 means, as methinketh it were hard but it should be true ;" and he 
 closes the narrative by repeating that it is what he had " learned of 
 them that much knew, and little cause had tn He." It is perfectly 
 evident that he had not himself a doubt of its truth. " Very truth it 
 is," he says moreover, "and well known, that at such time as Sir 
 James Tyrrel was in the Tower, for treason committed against the 
 most famous prince, King Henry VII., both Dighton and he were 
 examined, and confessed the murder in manner above written." Tho 
 common story seems to be supported by the honours and rewards 
 which were immediately bestowed by Richard upon Tyrrel, Bracken- 
 bury, Green, and Dighton. (See these stated in Strype's ' Notes on 
 Sir George Buck's Life and Reign of Richard III.,' book 3rd.) Symnel, 
 or Sulford, who in the reign of Henry VII. assumed the character of 
 Edward Plantagenet, son of George, duke of Clarence, seems to have 
 originally intended to pass himself as Edward V. Perkin Wat-beck, 
 who appeared some years after, called himself Edward's brother, 
 Richard, duke of York. 
 
 Buck and others, who have endeavoured to disprove King Richard's 
 guilt, have rested much of their argument on the fact that the 
 remains of Edward and his brother never could be found in the 
 Tower, although much search had been made for them ; but on the 
 17th of July 1674, in making some alterations, the labourers found 
 covered with a heap of stones at the foot of an old pair of stairs a 
 quantity of partially-consumed bones, which on examination appeared 
 to be those of two boys of the ages of the two princes. They were 
 removed by order of Charles II. to Henry VII.'s Chapel in West- 
 minster Abbey, where the inscription placed over them recites that 
 they appeared by undoubted indications to be those of Edward V. 
 and his brother. (" Ossa desideratorum diu et multum qusesita, &c, 
 scalarum in ruderibus (scalse istae ad sacellum Turris Albae nuper 
 ducebant) alte defossa, indiciis certissimis sunt reperta, &c") This 
 discovery is sufficiently in conformity with More's account, who tells 
 us that Tyrrel caused the murderers to bury the bodies " at the stair 
 foot, meetly deep in the ground under a great heap of stones." It is 
 true he mentions a report that Richard " allowed not the burying in 
 so vile a corner, saying that he would have them buried in a better 
 place, because they were a king's sons ; whereupon they say that a 
 priest of Sir Robert Brackenbury's took up the bodies again, and 
 secretly interred them in such place as, by the occasion of his death 
 which only knew it, could never since come to light." This however 
 is evidently a story both improbable in itself, and one which, although 
 it might naturally enough arise and get into circulation, could never 
 have rested on any trustworthy authority. More gives it as a mere 
 rumour, and we may fairly infer, from the words (" as I have heard ") 
 with which it is introduced, that he did not himself believe it. He 
 carefully adds, in his notice of the examination of Tyrrel and Dighton, 
 " but whither the bodies were removed they could nothing tell." 
 Tyrrel was executed for his treason ; but Dighton still lived when 
 More wrote. He says of him, " Dighton indeed yet walketh on alive, 
 in good possibility to be hanged ere he die." According to Grafton, 
 " Dighton lived at Calais long after, no less disdained and hated than 
 pointed at." The reader may also compare upon this subject the 
 account of the examinations of Tyrrel and Dighton given by Bacon 
 in his * History of King Henry VII.' (Montagu's edition of Bacon's 
 Works, iii, 287, 288.) It agrees very closely with the story told by 
 More. Bacon says that Dighton, who was set at liberty after the 
 examinations, "was the principal means of divulging this tradition; " 
 and from the use of that expression it has been inferred that Bacon 
 regarded the whole as an idle tale ; but he has in several places in 
 this work distinctly expressed his belief of the guilt both of Richard 
 and Tyrrel, especially in his notice (p. 385) of the execution of Tyrrel, 
 " against whom," he says, " the blood of the innocent princes, 
 Edward V. and his brother, did still cry from under the altar." 
 
727 
 
 EDWARD VI. 
 
 EDWARD VI. 
 
 Tyrrel's examination, we may observe, appears to Lave taken place in 
 1493, but he was not executed till 1503. He was committed to the 
 Tower in the first of these years on the appearance of Perkin Warbeck, 
 expressly that he might be examined touching the murder; and it 
 was on "quite another charge that he was executed ten years after. 
 More's account therefore of the circumstances of his confession is 
 slightly inaccurate. He does not however expressly say, as Sir James 
 Mackintosh makes him do ('Hist. Eng.,' ii. 59), that Tyrrel "confessed 
 his guilt when he was executed twenty years after for concealing the 
 murder of the Earl of Suffolk." Bacon himself, who relates, in their 
 proper places, both his first imprisonment and his execution, Bays, 
 inaccurately, that he was beheaded r soon after" the examinations. 
 [Richard III.] 
 
 EDWARD VI., the only son of Henry VIII. who survived him, 
 was born at Hampton Court 12th of October 1537. His mother, queen 
 Jane Seymour, died on the twelfth day after giving him birth. The 
 child had three stepmothers in succession after this; but he was 
 probably not much an object of attention with any of them. Sir John 
 Hayward, who has written the history of his life and reign with great 
 fulness, says that he " was brought up among nurses until he arrived 
 to the age of six years." He was then committed to the care of Dr. 
 (afterwards Sir Anthony) Cooke, and Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Cheke, 
 the former of whom appears to havo undertaken his instruction in 
 philosophy and divinity, the latter in Greek and Latin. The prince 
 made great proficiency under these able masters. Henry VIII. died 
 at his palace at Westminster early in the morning of Friday the 28th 
 of January 1547; but it is remarkable that no announcement of his 
 decease appears to have been made till Monday the 31st, although the 
 parliament met and transacted business on the intervening Saturday. 
 Edward, who was at Hatfield when the event happened, was brought 
 thence in the first instance to the residence of his sister Elizabeth at 
 Enfield, and from that place, on the 31st, to the Tower at London, 
 where he was proclaimed the same clay. The council now opened the 
 will of the late king (executed on the 30th of December preceding), 
 by which it was found that he had (according to the powers granted 
 him by the acts 28 Hen. VIII., ch. 7, and 35 Hen. VIII., ch. 1) appointed 
 sixteen persons under the name of executors, to exercise the powers of 
 the government during the minority of his son. One of these, the 
 king's maternal uncle, Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford, was imme- 
 diately elected by the rest their president, and either received from 
 them in this character, or assumed of his own authority, the titles of 
 governor of his majesty, lord protector of all his realms, and lieu- 
 tenant-general of all his armies. He was also created Duke of Somer- 
 set, and soon after took to himself the office of lord high treasurer, 
 and was further honoured by being made earl marshal for life. About 
 the same time his brother, Sir Thomas Seymour, was created Baron 
 Seymour of Sudley, and appointed lord high admiral. The elevation 
 of Somerset had been opposed by the lord chancellor Wriothesley (now 
 Earl of Southampton) ; but the protector in a few weeks got rid of 
 his further interference by taking advantage of an informality into 
 which the earl had fallen in the execution of his office of chancellor, 
 and frightening him into a resignation both of the seals and of his 
 seat in the executive council. 
 
 The period of the administration of the protector Somerset forms 
 the first of the two parts into which the reign of Edward VI. divides 
 itself. The character of the protector has been the subject of much 
 controversy ; but opinions have differed rather as to the general esti- 
 mate that is to be formed of him, or the balance of his merits and 
 defects, than as to the particular qualities, good and bad, by which he 
 was distinguished. It may be said to be admitted on all hands that 
 he was a brave and able soldier, but certainly with no pretensions in 
 that capacity to a humanity beyond his age ; that as a statesman he 
 was averse to measures of severity, and fond of popular applause, 
 but unstable, easily influenced by appeals either to his vanity or his 
 fears, and without any fertility of resources, or political genius of a 
 high order. It must be admitted also that he was both ambitious and 
 rapacious in no ordinary degree. Add to all this, that with one of 
 the two great parties that divided the country he had the merit, with 
 the other the demerit, of being a patron of the new opinions in reli- 
 gion—and it becomes easy to undei-stand the opposite feelings with 
 which he was regarded in his own time, and the contradictory repre- 
 sentations that have been given of him by party writers since. 
 
 One of the first acts of his administration was an expedition into 
 Scotland, undertaken with the object of compelling the government 
 of that country to fulfil the treaty entered into with Henry VIII. in 
 1543 for the marriage of the young Queen Mary to Edward. The 
 Scottish forces were signally defeated by the English protector at the 
 battle of Pinkie, fought 10th of September 1547 ; but the state of 
 politics, as bearing upon his personal interests in England, compelled 
 Somerset to hasten back to the south without securing any of the 
 advantages of his victory. He returned to Scotland in the summer of 
 the following year ; but he wholly failed in attaining any of the objects 
 of the war. The young queen was conveyed to France ; and the 
 ascendancy of the French or Catholic party in the Scottish government 
 was confirmed, and continued unbroken during all the rest of the reign 
 of Edward. 
 
 Meanwhile great changes were effected in the domestic state of 
 England. The renunciation of the supremacy of the pope, the disso- 
 
 lution of the religious houses, and the qualified allowance of the 
 reading of the Scriptures in English, were the principal alterations in 
 religion that had been made up to the death of the late king. Only a 
 few months before the close of the reign of Henry, Protestants as well 
 as Catholics had been burned in Smithfield. Under Somerset and the 
 new king measures were immediately taken to establish Protestantism 
 as the religion of the state. Even before the meeting of Parliament, 
 the practice of reading the service in English was adopted in the royal 
 chapel, and a visitation, appointed by the council, removed the images 
 from the churches throughout the kingdom. Bishops Gardiner of 
 Winchester and Bonner of London, who resisted these measures, were 
 committed to the Fleet. The parliament met in November, when bills 
 were passed allowing the cup to the laity, giving the nomination of 
 bishops to the king, and enacting that all processes in the ecclesiastical 
 courts should run in the king's name. The statute of the Six Articles, 
 commonly called the Bloody Statute, passed in 1539, was repealed, 
 along with various other acts of the preceding reign for the regulation 
 of religion. By tho parliament of 1548 the use of the Book of Com- 
 mon Prayer was established, and all laws prohibiting spiritual persons 
 to marry were declared void. At the same time an act was passed 
 (2 and 3 Ed. VI., c. 19) abolishing the old laws against eating flesh on 
 certain days, but still enforcing the observance of the former practice 
 by new penalties, "the king's majesty," says the preamble, " consider- 
 ing that due and godly abstinence is a mean to virtue, and to subdue 
 men's bodies to their soul and spirit, and considering also specially 
 that fishers, and men using the trade of living by fishing in the sea, 
 may thereby the l ather be set on work, and that by eating of fish much 
 flesh shall be saved and increased." 
 
 But Somerset's path was now crossed by a new opponent, in the 
 person of his own brother, Lord Seymour. That nobleman, equally 
 ambitious with the protector, but of a much more violent and unscru- 
 pulous temper, is supposed to have formed the design, very soon after 
 the king's accession, of disputing the supreme power with his brother. 
 It is said to have been a notice of his intrigues that suddenly recalled 
 Somerset from Scotland after the battle of Pinkie. The crime of 
 Seymour does not appear to have gone farther than caballing agaiuat 
 his brother ; but Somerset contrived to represent it as amounting to 
 high treason. On this charge he was consigned to the Tower ; a bill 
 attainting him was brought into the House of Lords, and read a first 
 time on the 25th of February 1549 ; it was passed unauimoufly on 
 the 27th. The accused was not heard in his own defence, nor wen 
 any witnesses examined against him ; the House proceeded simply on 
 the assurance of his brother, and of other members of the council, that 
 he was guilty. The bill was afterwards passed, with little hesitation, 
 by the House of Commons ; it received the royal assent on the 14th 
 of March ; and on the 20th Lord Seymour was beheaded on Tower- 
 hill, with his last breath solemnly protesting his innocence. 
 
 During the summer of this year the kingdom was disturbed by 
 formidable insurrections of the populace in Somerset, Lincoln, Kent, 
 Essex, Suffolk, Devon, Cornwall, and especially in Norfolk, where a 
 tanner of the name of Kett opposed the government at the head of 
 a body of 20,000 followers. The dearness of provisions, the lowness 
 of wages, the enclosure of common fields, and in some places the abo- 
 lition of the old religion, with it3 monasteries where the poor used to 
 be fed, and its numerous ceremonies and holidays that used to gladden 
 labour with so much relaxation and amusement, were the principal 
 topics of the popular clamour. It is worth noticing that the agency 
 of the press was on this occasion employed, probably for the first time, 
 as an instrument of government. Holinshed records that " while 
 these wicked commotions and tumults, through the rage of the undis- 
 creet commons, were thus raised in sundry parts of the realm, sundry 
 wholesome and godly exhortations were published, to advertise them 
 of their duty, and to lay before them their heinous offences." Among 
 them was a tract by Sir John Cheke, entitled ' The Hurt of Sedition, 
 how grievous it is to a Commonwealth,' which is a very able and 
 vigorous piece of writing. It was found necessary however to call 
 auother force into operation : the insurgents were not put down with- 
 out much fighting and bloodshed ; and many of the rebels were 
 executed after the suppression of the commotions. The institution of 
 lords-lieutenants of counties arose out of these disturbances. 
 
 A few months after these events brought Somerset's domination to 
 a close. His new enemy, John Dudley, formerly Viscount Lisle, and 
 now Earl of Warwick, the son of that Dudley whose name is infamous 
 in history for his oppressions in the reign of the seventh Henry, had 
 probably been watching his opportunity, and carefully maturing his 
 designs against the protector for a long time. It is supposed to have 
 been through his dark and interested counsel that Somerset was 
 chiefly impelled to take the course which he did against his brother; 
 Warwick's object was to destroy both, and he probably counted that 
 by the admiral's death, and the part which the protector was m»de to 
 take in it, he both removed one formidable rival, and struck a fatal 
 blow at the character and reputation of another. He himself mean- 
 while had been industriously accumulating popularity and power. 
 He had greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Pinkie, and in 
 other passages of the Scotch war ; and it had been chiefly by him 
 that the late insurrection in Norfolk had been so effectually quelled. 
 The energy which he showed on this occasion was contrasted by the 
 enemies of the protector with what they represented as the feehleneaa 
 
729 
 
 EDWARD VI. 
 
 EDWARDES, MAJOR HERBERT BENJAMIN. 
 
 730 
 
 of the latter, w ho had, they contended, encouraged the insurrection 
 by the hesitation and reluctance which he manifested, on the first 
 tlireatenings of it, to take the necessary measures for putting it down. 
 The protector had at this time incurred considerable odium by his 
 lavish expenditure (out of the spoils, as it was said, of the church) on 
 his new palace of Somerset House, and certain violations both of 
 public and of private rights, of which he was accused of having been 
 guilty in procuring the space and the materials for that magnificent 
 structure. A cry was also raised against him on account of a propo- 
 sition he had made in the council for a peace with France on the 
 condition of resigning Boulogne for a sum of money. In the beginning 
 of October he learned that measures were about to be immediately- 
 taken against him. In fact Warwick and his associates in the council 
 had collected their armed retainers, and were now ready to employ 
 force if other means should fail. They had retired from Hampton 
 Court, where the king resided, and fixed themselves in London, where 
 they had contrived to obtain possession of the Tower. Somerset, on 
 the first notice of their proceedings, carried off the king to Windsor 
 Castle, and shut himself up there as if with the intention of holding 
 out ; but he soon found himself nearly deserted by all ; and after a 
 few days the king himself was obliged to sanction the vote for his 
 deposition passed by the majority of the council. On the 14th he was 
 brought to London in custody, and sent to the Tower. From this 
 moment Warwick, though without his title of protector, enjoyed his 
 power. Somerset, reduced to insignificance by this usage, but espe- 
 cially by an abject submission which he made in the first moments of 
 danger, was some time after this released from confinement, and was 
 even allowed again to take his seat at the council-table; but he 
 either engaged in designs to regain hi3 lost place, or Warwick, now 
 Duke of Northumberland, and possessed almost of undivided power 
 in the state, felt that he should not be quite secure so long as his old 
 rival lived. An apparent reconciliation had been effected between 
 the two, and ratified by the marriage of Warwick's eldest son to 
 Somerset's daughter; but this connection was no shelter to the over- 
 thrown protector : on the 1st of December 1551, he was brought to 
 trial before the high steward and a committee of the House of Lords, 
 on charges both of high treason and of felony ; he was convicted of 
 the latter crime, and was executed on Tower Hill, the 22nd of 
 January 1552. He met his death with great manliness, and the 
 popular sympathy was deeply excited in his favour, both by the 
 feeling that, with some faults, he had fallen the victim of a much 
 worse man than himself, and by the apprehension that in his 
 destruction the great stay which had hitherto supported the Reforma- 
 tion in England was thrown down. 
 
 Warwick however (although at his death, a few years after this, he 
 declared that he had always been a Catholic) did not feel himself 
 strong enough to take any measures openly in favour of the ancient 
 faith, opposed as he knew he would be in that course by the great 
 mass of the nation. It is probable that he cared little which religion 
 prevailed so that he remained at the head of affairs. The government 
 accordingly continued to be conducted in all respects nearly as it had 
 heretofore been. In March 1550 a peace had been concluded with 
 France, one of the articles stipulating for the surrender of Boulogne, 
 the support of which very proposition had been made the principal 
 charge against Somerset a few months before. In the following July 
 another treaty between the two countries was signed at Angers, by 
 which it was agreed that the King of England should receive in 
 marriage Elizabeth, the daughter of the King of France. Meanwhile 
 at home the matter of religion continued to be treated by the new 
 government much as it had been by the old. No Roman Catholics 
 were put to death during this reign, though many were fined, 
 imprisoned, and others not capitally punished ; but on the 2nd of 
 May 1550, an unfortunate fanatic, Joan Becher, commonly called Joan 
 of Kent, was burnt for certain opinions considered to be neither 
 Roman Catholic nor Protestant, in conformity with a warrant extorted 
 by Cranmer from the king about a year before ; and on the 2nd of 
 May 1551, an eminent surgeon, named Von Panis, of Dutch extraction, 
 but resident in London, paid the same penalty for his adherence to a 
 similar heresy. Bishop Bonner was deprived of his see in September 
 1549 ; Gardiner in January 1551; and Day of Chichester, and Heath 
 of W orcester, in October of the same year. The forty-two articles of 
 belief, afterwards reduced to thirty-three, were promulgated in the 
 early part of this year. 
 
 In April 1552, Edward was attacked by small-pox; and, although 
 he recovered from that disease, the debility in which it left him pro- 
 duced other complaints, which ere long began to assume an alarming 
 appearance. By the beginning of the following year he was very ill. 
 Northumberland now lost no time in arranging his plan3 for bringing 
 the crown into his own family. In May his son Lord Guildford Dudley 
 married the Lady Jane Grey, the eldest daughter of the Duchess of 
 Suffolk, who was herself the eldest daughter, by her second marriage 
 with Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, of Mary Tudor, ex-queen of 
 France, and the daughter of Henry VII., upon whose descendants 
 Henry VIII. had by his will settled the crown on failure of the 
 lines of his son Edward and of his daughters Mary and Elizabeth. 
 This settlement, it is to be remembered, had been made by Henry 
 under the express authority of an act of parliament, which empowered 
 him to dispose of the kingdom to whomsoever he chose, on failure of 
 
 eioo. Div. vor,. it 
 
 his t^iree children. Northumberland now applied himself to induce 
 Edward to make a new settlement excluding Mary and Elizabeth, who 
 had both been declared illegitimate by parliament, and to nominate 
 Lady Jane Grey (in whose favour her mother the Duchess of .-Suffolk, 
 still alive, agreed to renounce her claim) as his immediate successor. 
 The interest of the Protestant religion, which it was argued would be 
 more secure with a sovereign on the throne whose attachment to the 
 principles of the Reformation was undoubted, and on whose birth 
 there was no stain, than if the succession were left to be deputed 
 between the king's two sisters, one of whom was a bigoted Roman 
 Catholic, and the legitimacy of either of whom almost implied the 
 illegitimacy of the other, is believed to have been the chi'-f considera- 
 tion that was urged upon the dying prince. Edward at all events was 
 brought over to his minister's views. On the 11th of June, Montague, 
 the chief justice of the Common Pleas, and two of his brethren, were 
 sent for to Greenwich, and desired to draw up a settlement of the 
 crown upon the Lady Jane. After some hesitation they agreed, on 
 the 14th, to comply with the king's commands, on his assurance that 
 a parliament should be immediately called to ratify what was done. 
 When the settlement was drawn up, an engagement to sustain it was 
 subscribed by fifteen lords of the council and nine of the judges. 
 Edward sunk rapidly after this, and lived only till the evening of the 
 6th of July, when he expired at Greenwich. His death however was 
 concealed for two days, and it was not till the 9th that Lady Jane 
 Grey was proclaimed. 
 
 Edward VI. is stated by the famous Jerome Cardan, who was 
 brought to see him in his last illness, to have spoken both French and 
 Latin with perfect readiness and propriety, and to have been also 
 master of Greek, Italian, and Spanish. In his conversation with 
 Cardan, which the latter has preserved, he showed an intelligence and 
 dexterity which appear to have rather puzzled the philosopher. 
 Walpole has set him down among his royal authors on the strength of 
 his ' Diary,' printed by Burnet in his ' History of the Reformation,' 
 and the original of which is still preserved among the Cottonian 
 manuscripts ; a lost comedy which is attributed to him, called ' The 
 Whore of Babylon;' some Latin epistles and orations, of which speci- 
 mens are given by Strype ; a translation into French of several 
 passages of Scripture, preserved in the library of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge; a tract in French against popery, entitled 'L'Encontre 
 des abus du monde;' and a few other productions of a similar kind 
 which have not been printed. 
 
 The act of the 1st Edward VI. gave to the king all the colleges, 
 free chapels, chauntries, hospitals, &c, which were not in the possession 
 of his father by the act passed in the 37th year of Henry's reign. 
 This act was much abused ; for though one professed object of it was 
 the encouragement of learning, many places of learning were actually 
 suppressed under it. The king however afterwards founded a con- 
 siderable number of grammar-schools, which still exist, and are 
 popularly known as King Edward's Schools. 
 
 In 1556, in the reign of Queen Mary, a boy of the name of William 
 Fetherstone, or Constable, a miller's son, was hanged at Tyburn for 
 giving himself out to be Edward VI. 
 
 EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE. [Edwahd III.] 
 
 * EDWARDES, HERBERT BENJAMIN, Major in the East India 
 Company's service, was born November 12, 1819, at Frodesley in Shrop- 
 shire. His father, the Rev. B. Edwardes, was rector of Frodesley. 
 He completed his education at King's College, London. His uncle, 
 Sir Henry Edwardes, of Ryton Grove, Shrewsbury, having procured 
 him a nomination to a cadetship, he was examined and passed on the 
 26th of August 1840. He landed at Calcutta in January 1841, and 
 was soon afterwards attached to the 1st European regiment. In 
 November 1845 Lieutenant Edwardes was appointed aide-de-camp to 
 Sir Hugh Gough (now Viscount Gough), then commander-in-chief of 
 the British army in Hindustan, and was present at the battle of 
 Moodkee, December 18, 1845, when he was wounded. Having 
 recovered from his wound, and resumed his duties as aide-de-camp, 
 he was actively engaged at the battle of Sobraon, February 10, 1846. 
 Lieutenant Edwardes, having studied the native languages, was 
 declared qualified to act as interpreter, and in April 1846 was 
 appointed third assistant to the Commissioners of the Trans-Sutlej 
 Territory, and in January 1847 first assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence, 
 the Resident at Lahore. 
 
 Lieutenant Edwardes was employed to collect the revenue in the 
 north-west of the Punjab, and here he commenced that series of 
 skilful and energetic operations which, though limited to the short 
 period of one year, have obtained for him a place among the most 
 distinguished of the military officers of the present day. He has 
 himself given a narrative of the operations in which he was engaged 
 in a work which he published in 1851, 'A Year on the Punjab Frontier 
 in 1848-49, by Major Herbert B. Edwardes, C.B.,' 2 vols. 8vo. The 
 services performed by Lieutenant Edwardes during the first three 
 months of that eventful year are unknown in this country except by 
 those who have read his own account of them. What those services 
 were may be best stated in his own words, merely premising, that the 
 valley of Bunnoo is in the north-west of the Punjab, and is estimated 
 to yield a revenue of about 15,000i He observes, that his object in 
 writing tho first part of his book " is to put on record a victory whioh 
 I myself remember with more satisfaction than any I helped to gain 
 
 3 b 
 
731 
 
 EDWARDS, BRYAN. 
 
 EDWARDS, JONATHAN. 
 
 732 
 
 before Mooltan — the bloodless conquest of the wild valley of Buunoo. 
 It was gained neither by shot nor shell, but simply by balancing two 
 races and two creeds. For fear of a Sikh army, two warlike and 
 independent Muhommudan tribes levelled to the ground at my bidding 
 the four hundred forts which constituted the strength of their country ; 
 and for fear of these same Muhommudan tribes, the same Sikh army, 
 at my bidding, constructed a fortress for the crown, which completed 
 the subjugation of the valley." 
 
 The operations by which Lieutenant Edwardes obtained his celebrity 
 in Great Britain were commenced in April 1848. Mr. Vans Agnew of the ] 
 Bengal Civil Service, and Lieutenant Anderson of the Bombay Fusileers, ' 
 having accompanied the newly-appointed governor of Mooltan from ! 
 Lahore, arrived at the city of Mooltan on the 19th of April, and were 
 murdered on the 20th by order of the Dewan Moolraj, who was to 
 have been superseded in his government. On the following morning 
 Moolraj began to make preparations for a war with the British, who, 
 on the 9th of March 1846, had become by treaty the protectors of ; 
 Dhuleep Sing, the Maharaja of Lahore. Lieutenant Edwardes, who 
 was then on the west bank of the Indus, near Dera Fati Khan, having 
 communicated with Sir Henry Lawrence, and received his authority to 
 operate against Moolraj, immediately wrote to General Cortlandt, 
 who was in the Bunnoo districts, to come to his assistance. Edwardes 
 having been joined by Cortlandt, they descended the Indus on the 
 western side, while 10,000 troops sent against them by Moolraj 
 descended on the eastern side. Meantime the Nawab of Bhawulpoor 
 had put his army in motion against Moolraj, and threatened Mooltan. 
 Muolraj, fearing for his capital, recalled his army, which fell back to 
 the left bank of the Cheuab, between Mooltan and the nawab's 
 troops. This retrograde movement having left open the passage of 
 the Indus, Edwardes brought over his troops, and hastened to throw 
 them across the Chenab, and form a junction with the Bhawulpoor 
 army before it could be attacked by the forces of Moolraj. On the 
 evening of the 17th of June, he got over with great difficulty, for 
 want of boats, 3000 irregular infantry and 80 horse (mounted officers), 
 but no guns, Cortlandt remaining behind to obtain boats and transport 
 the guns with the remainder of the troops. The Bhawulpoor army was 
 attacked at eight o'clock in the morning of the 18th of June, near 
 Kennyree, and after fighting about two hours, withdrew to some strong 
 ground out of range, leaving Edwardes with his small body of men to 
 resist the attack of the whole Sikh army till Cortlandt could get the 
 guns over the river. The enemy now bore down in front on Edwardes's 
 position with about 10,000 men and ten guns, whilst about 2000 
 cavalry hovered on his flanks. Fortunately the ground was broken, 
 and afforded good cover, and they resisted repeated attacks till the 
 little band was in such danger of being swept away, that Edwardes, 
 as a last effort to gain time, ordered the mounted officers to charge 
 the foremost of the enemy. They obeyed his command nobly, with 
 the loss of several of the small troop, but checking for a time the 
 advance of the enemy. Edwardes, speaking of that critical moment, 
 observed, " I did not think I had ten minutes to live." Short as the 
 check was it gave time for one gun to be brought up, which wa3 
 immediately opened, and was followed by a regiment of Cortlandt's 
 infantry, then by another gun and another regiment, till there were six 
 guns pouring in grape and round shot, and upwards of 4000 infantry 
 in action. The Sikh army was put to flight, and never halted till it 
 was safe within the defences of the city of Mooltan. For his conduct 
 in this battle and the series of operations which preceded it Lieutenant 
 Edwardes received the local rank of major in the Lahore territories. 
 
 Moolraj and his troops were confined within the fortifications of 
 Mooltan, but not without incessant watching, fighting, and danger to \ 
 the besiegers, during which, in the month of July, a pistol, which : 
 Major Edwardes was thrusting into his belt, exploded, and the ! 
 contents passed through his right hand, shattering it in such a manner 
 that amputation became necessary. General Whish's army reached 
 Mooltan on the 18th and 19th of August, and regular siege was soon 
 afterwards laid to the city, but on the defection of Shere Sing, who 
 withdrew with all his troops and artillery, it was deemed prudent to 
 suspend the siege, and wait for additional troops and guns from Bom- 
 bay. These arrived on the loth of December, and the siege was 
 recommenced. The city was taken January 4, 1849, and the citadel, 
 January 22. Major Eawardes's brother, a lieutenant in the Bengal 
 Native Infantry, was killed by the falling of his horse at Ferozepoor, 
 on the 13th of December 1848. 
 
 After the termination of the war Major Edwardes came to England, 
 where he married. He spent a few months in Wales, wrote and pub- 
 lished his 'Year on the Punjab Frontier,' and in 1851 returned to 
 India. On the 20th of October 1849 he was created by special statute an 
 extra member of the companions of the Order of the Bath. He is now 
 Commissioner at Peshawar. He has a pension for his wound received 
 at the battle of Moodkee, but none for the loss of his hand, that 
 having been by accident and not in action. The East India Company 
 have voted him an annuity of 1002., and the Court of Directors have 
 struck a gold medal in his honour. [See Supplement.] 
 
 EDWARDS, BRYAN, the historian of the British West India 
 colonies, was born at Westbury, in AViltshire, May 21, 1743. Family 
 losses caused him, towards the end of 1759, to go to Jamaica, where 
 he was kindly received by his mother's brother, Zachary Bayly, a rich, 
 generous, and enlightened planter, who, seeing the young man's fond- 
 
 ness for books, and thinking well of his talents, engaged a tutor to 
 reside with him. His early instruction had been confined to reading, 
 writing, and the French and English languages ; and his studies in 
 Jamaica, by his own account, were slight and desultory : still we may 
 fairly ascribe to them no small share in preserving him from that 
 intellectual listlessness into which Europeans sent out in early life to 
 tropical climates are apt to fall. At this period the autobiography 
 prefixed to the second and later editions of his ' History of the West 
 Indies ' ends ; and the accounts given of his remaining life are extremely 
 scanty. It appears however that in duo time he succeeded to his 
 uncle's estate, and became a wealthy merchant, and an active member 
 of the House of Assembly. In 1784 he published a pamphlet in 
 opposition to the government policy of limiting the trade between the 
 West Indies and the United States to English bottoms, in which he 
 maintains that " even the welfare of the planter concurs with the 
 honour of government and the interests of humanity, in wishing for 
 the total abolition of the slave-trade : " an opinion which he recanted 
 after the subject of the slave-trade had been brought before parliament. 
 In 1791 he went to St. Domingo, on the breaking out of the insurrec- 
 tiou of the negroes, and acquired the materials for his ' Historical 
 Survey' of that inland, published in 1797. Afterwards he removed 
 to England, where, in 179G, we find him member of parliament for 
 Grampound, which he represented uutil his death, July 15, 1800. 
 
 His principal work, the ' History, Civil and Ecclesiastic, of the 
 British Colonies in the West Indies,' was published in 1793. It 
 treats of the history, constitution, and political relations towards 
 Britain, of these colonies ; the manners and dispositions of the inhabit- 
 ants, especially the negroes; the mode of agriculture and produce. 
 It is a valuable contribution to our literature. The style is some- 
 what ambitious, but lively and attractive ; the matter varied and 
 interesting. The author enters largely into the question of the slave- 
 trade, the cruelty of which be does not attempt to deny, though he 
 is warm in defence of the planters against the charges of cruelty 
 brought against them in England; but his arguments are evidently 
 tinctured by the feeling that, lamentable as it may be, slaves must 
 be had. Mr. Edwards has the merit of having carried a law to pre- 
 vent cruelties to which slaves in Jamaica were at least legally exposed, 
 whatever the practice might be. 
 
 The edition of 1819 contains also the history of St. Domingo, pro- 
 ceedings of the governor, &c, in regard to the Maroon negroes (1796), 
 a continuation of the history down to that time, &c. 
 
 •EDWARDS, HENRI-MILNE. See vol. vi. col. 993. 
 
 EDWARDS, JONATHAN, was born at East Windsor, in the pro- 
 vince of Connecticut, on the 5th of October 1703. He was the only 
 son, among eleven children, of Timothy Edwards, who was minister of 
 East Windsor, or (as it was then) the eastern parish of Windsor, 
 during a period of sixty-three years, and who, being a learned, ex- 
 emplary, and devout man, was much beloved and respected by his 
 flock. Until the age of thirteen Jonathan was educated at home. 
 He began to learn Latin when six years old, under the care of his 
 father and elder sisters, all of whom the father had made proficients 
 in that language. He seems to have begun writing letters and essays 
 at a very early age ; and such of his early compositions as are pre- 
 served 6how a remarkable inquisitiveness concerning both mental and 
 natural phenomena, and a by no means contemptible skill in explain- 
 ing them. President Dwight, his biographer, has given a fragment 
 written by him in the bantering style, when he could not have been 
 more than twelve years old, against some one who had contended for 
 the materiality of the soul, which shows considerable wit, reach of 
 thought, and power of expression. There is also preserved an enter- 
 taining and instructive account of the habits of spiders, as observed 
 by himself, which was written before he was thirteen. He was also 
 led very early to religious meditation, and imbued wit»h a deep sense 
 of religion. He says of himself, in an account of his religious pro- 
 gress, written later in life for the benefit of his children : — " I had a 
 variety of concerns and exercises about my soul from my childhood ; 
 but had two more remarkable seasons of awakening before I met with 
 that change by which I was brought to those new dispositions, and 
 that new sense of things, that I have since had. The fiist time was 
 when I was a boy, some years before I went to college, at a time of 
 remarkable awakening in my father's congregation. I was then very 
 much affected for many mouths, and concerned about the things of 
 religion and my soul's salvation ; and was abundant in religious duties. 
 I used to pray five times a day in secret, and to spend much time in 
 
 religious conversation with other boys I, with some of my 
 
 school-fellows, joined together, and built a booth in a swamp, in a 
 very retired spot, for a place of prayer. And besides I had parti- 
 cular secret places of my own in the woods, where I used to retire by 
 myself, and was from time to time much affected." 
 
 He went to Yale College, in Newhaven, at the age of thirteen. In 
 the second year of his residence at the college, when only fourteen, he 
 read through Locke's 'Essay on the Human Undei standing;' and 
 President Dwight has published some of his notes on the topics treated 
 of in the essay, which show that he could then understand and appre- 
 ciate it. The same biographer has published notes on the natural 
 sciences and on theology, which were collected by Edwards during his 
 stay at college. It was in the fourth and last year of his collegiate 
 life that his second 'awakening' took place, an awakening which was 
 
733 
 
 EDWARDS, JONATHAN. 
 
 734 
 
 speedily followed by a second relapse. " But iu process of time," lie 
 observes, iu continuation of what has been already quoted, " my 
 convictions and affections wore off; and I entirely lost all those 
 affections and delights, and left off secret prayer, at least as to any 
 constant performance of it; and returned like a dog to his vomit, and 
 went on in the ways of sin. Indeed I was at times very uneasy, 
 especially towards the latter part of my time at college ; when it 
 pleased God to seize me with a pleurisy, in which he brought me nigh 
 to the grave, and shook me over the pit of hell. And yet it was not 
 long after my recovery before I fell again into my old ways of sin." 
 His final and entire conversion took place shortly after his taking his 
 B.A. degree in September 1720. The chief symptom of his 'con- 
 version ' is thus described by him : — " From my childhood up, my 
 mind had been full of objections against the doctrine of God's sove- 
 reignty in choosing whom he would to eternal life, and rejecting whom 
 he pleased ; leaving them eternally to perish, and be everlastingly 
 tormented in hell. It used to appear like a horrible doctrine to me ; 
 but I remember the time very well when I seemed to be convinced, 
 and fully satisfied, as to this sovereignty of God, and his justice in 
 thus eternally disposing of men according to his sovereign pleasure. 
 ...... And there has been a wonderful alteration in my mind with 
 
 respect to the doctrine of God's sovereignty from that day to this ; so 
 that I scarce ever have found so much as the rising of an objection 
 against it in the most absolute sense, in God showing mercy to whom 
 he will show mercy, and hardening whom he will. God's absolute 
 sovereignty and justice, with respect to salvation and damnation, is 
 what my mind seems to rest assured of, as much as of anything that I 
 see with my eye3 ; at least it is so at times." 
 
 Edwards stayed at college two years after taking his B.A. degree, 
 preparing for the ministry. In August 1722 he went to New York, 
 having been invited by the English Presbyterians in that town to 
 become their minister. His diary records constant religious medi- 
 tations during his eight months' stay at New York, and on the 1 2th 
 of January 1723 he relates that he solemnly dedicated himself to God. 
 " I made a solemn dedication of myself to God, and wrote it down, 
 giving up myself, and all that I had, to God ; to be for the future in 
 no respect my own ; to act as one that had no right to himself in any 
 respect." He left New York in April 1723, and returned home. In 
 September of the same year he took his M.A. degree, and shortly after 
 he was chosen tutor of Yale College, an office which he filled with 
 great credit. Two years after he accepted an invitation from North- 
 ampton, in Massachusetts, to assist his maternal grandfather, the Rev. 
 Solomon Stoddard, in the ministry ; and, having resigned his tutor- 
 ship, he was ordained colleague to his grandfather at Northampton in 
 February 1727, in the twenty-fourth year of his age. Shortly after, 
 he married. 
 
 Between the time of his going to New York and his settlement at 
 Northampton, Edwards wrote out seventy resolutions, which he kept 
 before him as his guides through the remainder of his life. They are 
 published in President D wight's ' Life.' They mostly refer to the 
 governing of his morals and the performance of religious exercises. 
 
 He remained at Northampton first as assistant to his grandfather, 
 and after his grandfather's death as sole minister for twenty-three 
 years. He was all this while indefatigable in the discharge of his 
 duties as minister, and diligent in self-improvement. He was an 
 effective preacher, and acquired much fame on the occasion of a very 
 general ' revival ' in the years 1740 and 1741 : ministers and congrega- 
 tions from all parts of New England applied to Edwards for assistance, 
 and solicited him to come among them and preach. It was at the 
 time of this revival, and in order to moderate men's zeal, that he 
 wrote his treatise on ' Religious Affections.' A revival had previously 
 taken place in his own parish of Northampton in 1734, an account of 
 which was at the time published by himself under the title, ' A Faithful 
 Narrative of the Surprising Work of God, in the Conversion of many 
 hundred Souls in Northampton :' this work excited much interest 
 among what is known as the religious public of England, where it was 
 republished in 1736 uuder the editorship of Dr. Isaac Watts. 
 
 On the 22nd of June 1750, Edwards was dismissed ignominiously 
 from his charge at Northampton. He had offended a large aud 
 influential part of his congregation, no less than six years previously, 
 by taking some very active and, as they appeared, arbitrary measures, 
 in consequence of a reported circulation of obscene books among the 
 younger members of his flock. He was openly resisted in his attempts 
 to make a public example of the offenders, and from that time his 
 influence over his flock wa3 greatly weakened. But the cause of the 
 final rupture between himself and his flock, and of his dismissal, was 
 a different one. It was a refusal to admit " unconverted " persons, or 
 (in other words) persons who either could or would not say that they 
 had really embraced Christianity, to a participation in the sacrament. 
 The custom of admitting such persons had been introduced by his 
 p.edectBsor, and not witliout opposition; and now, after the custom 
 had been established some time, a fiercer opposition was raised by an 
 attempt to get rid of it. On Edwards's first announcement of his 
 disapprobation of the custom, and of his determination to end it, his 
 dismissal was immediately clamoured for. This was in the spring of 
 1744 ; and the six intervening years having been spent in continual 
 disputes, and fruitless attempts to effect a reconciliation, he was 
 dismissed in 1750. A couucil had been appointed, consisting of ten 
 
 neighbouring ministers, to adjudicate between Edwards and his flock ; 
 and this council determined by a majority of one " that it is expedient 
 that the pastoral relation between Mr. Edwards and his church be 
 immediately dissolved, if the people still persist in desiring it." On its 
 being put to the people, more than two hundred voted for his dismissal, 
 and only twenty against it. 
 
 In August 1751 Edwards went as missionary to the Indians at 
 Stockbridge, a town in the western part of Massachusetts Bay, having 
 been applied to for the purpose by the Boston Commissioners for 
 Indian Affairs, and having also received an invitation from the inhabit- 
 ants of Stockbridge. Here he had much leisure ; and it was during 
 his stay at Stockbridge that he wrote his ' Inquiry into the Freedom 
 of the Will,' and his Treatise on ' Original Sin.' The first of these 
 works, and that on which his fame chiefly rests, was written in nine 
 months, and was published in 1754. In 1757 he was chosen, without 
 any solicitation on his part, and much to his surprise, president of 
 Princeton College, New Jersey. Having after some deliberation 
 accepted the appointment, he went to Princeton in January 1758, and 
 was installed president. He died of the small-pox on the 22nd of 
 the following March. 
 
 It may be inferred, from the account which we have given of his 
 life, that the character of Jonathan Edwards was eminently estimable. 
 He was an industrious, meek, conscientious, kind, and just man. In 
 religion he was a Calvinist; and his principal work, that on the Will, 
 was written in defence of the Calvinistic views on that subject and 
 against those entertained by Arminians. 
 
 Edwards's chief works are : — 1, ' A Treatise concerning Religious 
 Affections;' 2, 'An Inquiry into the modern prevailing notions 
 respecting that Freedom of the Will which is supposed to be essential 
 to Moral Agency, Virtue, and Vice, Reward and Punishment, Praise 
 and Blame ; ' 3, ' The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin 
 defended ; containing a Reply to the Objections of Dr. John Taylor ; ' 
 4, ' The History of Redemption ; ' 5, ' A Dissertation concerning the 
 end for which God created the World ; ' and 6, ' A Dissertation con- 
 cerning the true nature of Christian Virtue.' The three last works 
 were published after his death. 
 
 Jonathan Edwards's works on the ' Freedom of the Will ' and 
 ' Original Sin ' are the acknowledged authorities in defence of the 
 leading views of what is generally known as Calvinistic Divinity. 
 The 'Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will ' is beyond dispute the 
 most comprehensive and masterly treatise in which that subject is 
 regarded as a question of metaphysical theology ; and whatever may 
 be the opinion arrived at by the reader as regards either the principal 
 or secondary conclusions of the author, there can be no question as 
 to the profundity of his reasoning, or the clearness and force with 
 which he sets forth his arguments. Edwards was in fact one of the 
 greatest metaphysicians and most powerful reasoners of his age, and 
 his writings, though deficient iu the graces of style, will, apart from 
 their value as exponent of the views of a great theological party, be 
 of permanent value as examples of comprehensive investigation and 
 acute logic. 
 
 The best and most complete edition of Edwards's works is that 
 edited by President Dwight, in ten volumes. There is also an edition 
 in eight volumes, published in London, 1817. The ' Inquiry into tho 
 Freedom of the Will' has been published separately, with an 
 ' Introductory Essay ' by Mr. Taylor, the author of ' The Natural 
 History of Enthusiasm.' 
 
 EDWARDS, RICHARD, one of our earliest dramatic writers, was 
 born in Somersetshire in 1523. He was educated at Oxford, in Corpus 
 Christi College, where he was successively a scholar aud fellow : he 
 took his degree of Master of Arts in 1547. Removing to Lincoln's 
 Inn, he was made, in the beginning of Elizabeth's reign, one of the 
 gentlemen of the Queen's Chapel, and master of the children there, a 
 post which engaged him in theatrical management. He is first hr ard 
 of as a dramatic poet in the year 1564-5 ; aud his death is said to 
 have taken place in 1566. Although he is highly commended for his 
 dramatic works by Putteuham (no very competent judge), who sets 
 him down as one of the two best writers iu comedy and interlude, 
 we learn the names of no more than two of his dramas. One of 
 these, ' Palamou and Arcite,' was never printed, and is lost : the 
 other, ' The excellent comedie of two the moste faithf ullest freendes 
 Damon and Pithias,' was printed iu a black-letter 4to, in 1571, again 
 in black-letter 4to, 1582, and is included in the first volume of 
 Dodsley's ' Old Plays.' Edwards also wrote some of the poems 
 inserted in 'The Paradise of Dainty Devises,' 1575, reprinted in 
 the ' British Bibliographer,' and a death-bed poem, called ' Edwards' 
 Soul-Knell.' His name is interesting as belonging to one of the rude 
 founders of our drama; but his surviving play, in its artificial 
 structure and uupoetical and undramatic details, offers little that can 
 attract any but the student of literary antiquity. 
 
 EDWIN, King of Northumbria, was the son of Ella, who appears 
 to have reigned in that kingdom from about a.d. 559 to 589. On the 
 death of Ella the throne was seized by Edilfrid, or Ethilfrith, the 
 husband of his daughter Acca, and Edwin, an infaut, of only three 
 years old, was conveyed to the court of C'advau, the king of North 
 Wales. Edilfrid ou this made war upon Cadvan, and defeated hiin 
 near Chester, on which occasion it is said that 1200 monks of the 
 monastery of Bangor, who had assembled on a neighbouring hill to 
 
735 
 
 EDWY. 
 
 EECKHUTO, GERBRANT VANDER. 
 
 73d 
 
 offer up their prayers for the success of Cadvan, were put to death 
 by the pagan victor. After this Edwin wandered about for some 
 years till he was, at last, received and protected by Redwald, king of 
 the East Angles. It appears to have been while resident here that he 
 married Cweuburgha, the daughter of Ceorl, king of Mercia. Edilfrid 
 however, who had made himself by his military success very formidable 
 to all the neighbouring princes, still pursued him, and partly by 
 threats, partly by promises, had nearly induced Redwald to give him 
 up, when (by a miraculous interposition, aa Bede would have U3 
 believe) more generous counsels prevailed, and the East Anglian king 
 determined to brave the hostility of Edilfrid. Redwald is the fifth in 
 the list of the Bretwaldas, or supreme kings of Britain, as given by 
 Bede; and as he succeeded Ethelbert of Kent, who died in 61C, he 
 probably now held that dignity. The consequence of his refusal to 
 deliver up Edwin was a war with Edilfrid ; they met on the right 
 bank of the Idel in Nottinghamshire in 617, and in a great battle 
 which was there fought, Edilfrid was defeated and slain. His children, 
 of whom the names of Bix are recorded, fled, and Edwin ascended 
 the throne of Northumbria. His valour and abilities eventually 
 acquired for him great power. On the death of his friend Redwald 
 in 624, he was acknowledged as hia successor in the dignity of Bret- 
 walda ; and two years after he made war upon the powerful state of 
 Wessex, whose king Cuichelin is accused of having attempted to take 
 him off by assassination, and reduced it for the moment to subjection, 
 though it does not appear that he retaiued his conquest. Bede affirms 
 that his sovereignty extended over all the English, excepting only 
 the people of Kent, and that he also subjected to his dominions all 
 the Britons, and the islands of Man and Anglesey. It is probable that 
 he was accounted the leading power among the sovereigns of Britain 
 in his time. Bede says that lie was addressed by Pope Boniface as 
 ' Rex Anglorum.' 
 
 The event for which the reign of Edwin in Northumbria is chiefly 
 memorable is the introduction of Christianity into that kingdom. 
 The legend is related at great length by Bede in the second book of 
 his 1 History.' Of the dreams or visions, the prophecies, and the 
 supernatural visitations, which constitute the greater part of it, it is 
 impossible to make anything in the absence of all other testimony 
 except that of the credulous historian ; but the result appears to have 
 been brought about by the exertions of Edwin's second wife, Edil- 
 berga, the daughter of Augustine's patron, Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
 and of Pauliuus, a Roman missionary whom she had been allowed to 
 bring with her from her father's court. Edwin had long stood out 
 against the persuasions of his queen and Pauliuus ; but his escape 
 from the attempt against his lite by the King of Wessex, or of the 
 West Saxons, and the birth of a daughter, happening simultaneously, 
 powerfully affected him, and Edilberga and her chaplain, taking 
 advantage of the moment of emotion, prevailed with him to call a 
 U'eetiug of his witan to discuss the question of the two religious. 
 When the nobility of Northumbria assembled, Coiffi, the high priest, 
 was himself the first to profess his disbelief in the deities he had been 
 accustomed to serve. This ended the dispute ; the chief temple of 
 the idol?, which stood at a place still called Godmundham (that is, 
 the hamlet of the iuclosure of the God), was profaned and set fire to 
 by the hand of Coiffi ; the king and all the chief men of the country 
 offered themselves to be baptised, and the commonalty soon followed 
 their example. Paulinus was made bishop of Northumbria, his 
 residence being established at York, in conformity with the design 
 of Gregory the Great, when the original mission to England was 
 arranged. The archiepiscopal dignity was soon after conferred upon 
 Pauliuus by Pope Honorius. Edwin however did not long survive 
 these events. The Mercians, under their king Penda, revolted against 
 the supremacy claimed by Northumbria ; and a war which arose in 
 consequence was ended on the 12th of October 633 by a battle fought 
 at Heathfield, or Hatfield, in Yorkshire, in which Edwin was defeated 
 by Penda and his ally CeadwaUa, king of North Wales, and lost at 
 once his kingdom and his life. His eldest sou was slain at the same 
 time ; another, whom he also had by his first wife, was afterwards put 
 to death by Penda ; and Edilberga, with her children and Pauliuus, 
 was compelled to fly to the court of her brother in Kent. One of 
 Edwin's daughters, Eanfled, afterwards married Oswio, a son of 
 Edilfrid, who mounted the throne of Northumbria in 642 and reigned 
 till 670. He defeated Penda, and regained the title of Bretwalda, 
 which Edwin had first brought into his house. 
 
 EDWY, or EADWIG, called the Fair, King of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 was the eldest of the two sons of Edmund I., but, being only in his 
 seventh or eighth year at his father's death in 946, he and his brother 
 Edgar were set aside for the present in favour of their uncle Edred. 
 On Edred's death in 955, Edwy became king, and his brother appears 
 to have been at the same time appointed subregulus of Mercia. About 
 two years after, the Mercians and Northumbrians rose in revolt, with 
 Edgar as their leader, and a war ensued, which terminated in an 
 agreement between the two brothers that Edwy should retain the 
 country to the south of the Thames, and that Edgar should be 
 acknowledged king of all England to the north of that river. In this 
 revolt Edgar, a mere boy, seems to have been an instrument in the 
 hands of the clerical party, whom Edwy had made his enemies almost 
 from the moment of his accession. In whatever it was that the 
 quarrel began, it soon led to the dismissal of Dunstan and his friends, 
 
 who had acquired so great an ascendancy in the government in the 
 reign of the preceding king. The writerB upon whom we are 
 dependent for the history of this period were all monks, and, as he 
 was the only obstacle to the triumph of their order, their testimony 
 is to be cautiously received. They concur in representing Edwy as a 
 prince of the most dissolute manners, and the kingdom as given up 
 to oppression and anarchy under his rule. Henry of Huntingdon 
 however says, " This king woro the diadem not unworthily ; but after 
 a prosperous and becoming commencement of his reign, its happy 
 promise was cut short by a premature death." The tragical story of 
 Elgiva (or ^Elgyfu), as commonly told, is familiar to most readers. 
 Edwy is said to have married this lady, though they were related 
 within the prohibited degrees, and to have incurred the enmity of the 
 ecclesiastics by that violation of canonical law more than by any 
 other part of his conduct. On the day of his coronation Dunstan 
 tore him rudely from the arms of Elgiva, to whose apartment he had 
 retired from the drunken revelry of the feast. Dunstan's friend, 
 Archbishop Odo, subsequently broke into one of the royal houses 
 with a party of soldiers, and, carrying off the lady, had her conveyed 
 to Ireland, after having disfigured her by searing her face with a red- 
 hot iron ; and when some time after she ventured to return to 
 England, some of the archbishop's retainers seized her again, and put 
 her to death by the barbarous process of cutting the sinews of her 
 legs with their swords. This story has been the subject of some 
 controversy, and tho defence of Dunstan and Odo has been under- 
 taken by Dr. Lingard, who does not however deuy the main facts of 
 the conduct imputed to them. " Ham-stringing," he says, " was a cruel 
 but not unusual mode of punishment in that age." He attempted to 
 show that the lady was not the wife but the mistress of Edwy ; and, 
 that being the case, he contends that Odo was justified, first, in 
 sending her to Ireland, by a law of King Edward the Elder, wbich 
 declared that "if a known whore-quean be found in any place, men 
 shall drive her out of the realm ; " and then in having her put to 
 death on her return, inasmuch as " he believes that, according to the 
 stern maxims of Saxon jurisprudence, a person returning without 
 permission from banishment might be executed without the formality 
 of a trial." But Mr. Kemble has found a document in which 
 " ^Elfgyfu, the king's wife," was an attesting witness, along with her 
 mother, and several bishops, to an exchange of lands, " by leave of 
 King Eadwig, between Bishop Byrhthelm and Abbot Ethelwold;" 
 and, as he justly observes, " This was not a thing done in a corner, 
 and the testimony is conclusive that iElgyfu was Eadwig's queen." 
 For the full discussion the reader is referred to Lingard, ' Antiquities 
 of the Anglo-Saxon Church,' 'History of England,' and 'Vindication 
 of his History,' 8vo ; ' Letter to Francis Jeffrey, Esq.,' by John 
 Allen, Esq., 8vo, 1827; and the articles on Dr. Lingard's two works 
 in the ' Edinburgh Review,' vol. xxv. pp. 346-354, and vol. xlii. 
 pp. 1-31, both in that letter acknowledged to be by Mr. Allen : see 
 also Kemble, 'Saxons in England,' vol. ii. ; and Knight, 'Pop. Hist, 
 of Eng.,' i. 134, &c. 
 
 Edwy died in 958, within a year after the pacification with his 
 brother. It is difficult to say whether the expressions of the 
 chroniclers imply that he was murdered, or only that he died of a 
 broken heart. Edgar now became sole king. 
 
 EECKHOUT, ANTHONY VANDER, was born at Brussels in 
 1656. It is not known under whom he studied; but he went to 
 Italy with his brother-in-law, Lewis Deyster, a very eminent artist, and 
 painted in conjunction with him during his residence abroad — Deyster 
 painting the figures, and Eeckhout the fruit aud flowers : yet there 
 was such a harmony in their style of colouring and touch, that their 
 works appear to be all by one hand. Though he was received with 
 great marks of distinction on his return to Brussels, and appointed to 
 an honourable office, he was resolved to leave hi3 friends and country, 
 and the brilliant prospects which he had before him, in order to return 
 to Italy, intending to spend there the remainder of his days. The 
 vessel however chanced to touch at Lisbon, and he was induced to 
 stop in that city. His pictures sold at excessively high prices; and 
 he had made so many sketches of fine fruit and flowers in Italy, that he 
 had sufficient for all his future compositions, in which he arranged them 
 with infinite variety and great taste. He had not been above two 
 years in Lisbon when a young lady of quality and large fortune 
 married him. Unhappily his success and his wealth excited the envy 
 of some miscreants, who, in 1695, shot him as he wa3 taking an airing 
 in his carriage. The assassins were never discovered. 
 
 EECKHOUT, GERBRANT VANDER, born at Amsterdam in 
 1621, was a disciple of Rembrandt, whose manner of designing, colour- 
 ing, and pencilling, he imitated with such felicity, that it is difficult 
 to distinguish some of his paintings from those of his master ; and 
 he rather excelled him in the extremity of his figures. His principal 
 employment was for portraits, in which he was admirable, and ho 
 especially surpassed all his contemporaries in the power of portraying 
 the mind in the countenance. His masterpiece was the portrait of his 
 own father, which astonished even Rembrandt. 
 
 But though his excellence in portraits brought him continual em- 
 ployment in tli at branch, he greatly preferred painting historical 
 subjects, in which he was equally successful. His composition is rich 
 and judicious ; and his distribution of light and shade excellent. Hia 
 back -grounds are in general clearer aud brighter than those of Rem- 
 
737 
 
 EFFEN, JUSTUS VAN. 
 
 EGEDE, HANS. 
 
 738 
 
 brandt; and he was by far the best disciple of that master : on the 
 other hand, it must be allowed that he shared in his defects, being I 
 incorrect in drawing, deficient in elegance and grace, and negligent ; 
 of costume, while he was wanting in Rembrandt's originality and 
 marvellous vigour. He died in 1674. 
 
 EFFEN, JUSTUS VAN, a Dutch man of letters of the 18th century 
 who was connected in various ways with the literature of France and 
 England, was born on the 11th of February, 1683 (O.S.) at Utrecht, and 
 studied at that university and at Leyden, where he finally took his 
 degree as Doctor of Law. So early as at the age of fifteen he became 
 private tutor to the son of a nobleman at the university, and spent 
 the greater part of his life in the same line of occupation, for which he 
 seems to have been peculiarly qualified. It was not till he was seven- 
 teen that he became acquainted with the French language, of which 
 he made himself such a master that some of his anonymous productions 
 in it had the honour of being attributed to Fonteuelle. His first work 
 of any consequence was ' Le Misanthrope,' a series of periodical essays 
 in French on the plan of the English ' Spectator.' The original had 
 been commenced at London in March 1711, and the imitation made 
 its appearance at the Hague in May — a striking proof of the rapid 
 popularity of the masterpieces of Addison. Three years afterwards 
 Van Effen visited England in the capacity of secretary of embassy to 
 the Baron Van Wassenaer Duivenwoorde, the father of his first pupil, 
 who was sent by the States to congratulate George I. on his accession 
 to the throne. He afterwards made a second visit as secretary of 
 embassy to Count Van Welderen, who was sent on a similar occasion 
 to congratulate George II. These journeys, and one which he made 
 to Sweden as a companion to the Prince of Hesse-Philipsthal, seem to 
 have been the only occasions of his leaving Holland. 
 
 When he was first in London he heard so much in society of Swift's 
 'Tale of a Tub,' and of the difficulty, if not impracticability, of 
 transferring its force and humour to any other language, that he 
 resolved to make the attempt, and produced a successful French 
 translation. Ho afterwards rendered the same service to the i 
 ' Guardian ' when it appeared, and to ' Robinson Crusoe.' His most 
 important literary labours however were in connection with the 
 'Journal Litteraire,' a review published in the Hague, in which Van 
 Effen took the principal part, sometimes writing whole numbers, and 
 in which he had for a colleague, among others, Dr. Maty, who after- 
 wards resided in England, and became principal librarian of the 
 British Museum. All these works and some others, ' La Bagatelle,' 
 ' Le Nouveau Spectateur,' &c, were in French, and Van Effen, who 
 had never been in France, was forty-seven years of age before he 
 published anything in his native language. In 1731 he commenced, 
 and, as was usual with him anonymously, ' De Hollandsche Spectator,' 
 or ' Dutch Spectator,' a fresh imitation of the English work, which he 
 had begun his literary career by imitating. He kept it up with very 
 little assistance till the 8th of April 1735, and he died on the 18th of 
 September in the same year at Bois le-duc, where he had been living 
 for some time in easy competence, on the profits of a place which 
 had been secured for him by one of his patrons. 
 
 The French works of Van Effen were collected and published at 
 Amsterdam in 1712, in five volumes, with his life prefixed. Another 
 and fuller life by Verwer is given in the second edition of his 
 ' Hollandsche Spectator,' published at Amsterdam in 1756. The 
 French works have long ceased to be reprinted ; the Dutch one, 
 which is by much Van Effen's best, is still in high repute for the 
 beauty and lucidity of its style, in regard to which Van Effen may be 
 considered as the Addison of Holland. In the select collation of the 
 Dutch classics now publishing by Fuhri at the Hague, one volume is 
 formed by 'Jest and Earnest, from the Dutch Spectator.' The pieces 
 which have been taken in this selection are chiefly ethical essays or 
 pictures of manners, one of which ' Kobus en Agnietje,' a sketch of 
 courtship among the middle classes, is especially popular ; but to an 
 English reader some of the most interesting portions of the ' Spectator ' 
 are those which are omitted, the frequent references to English society, 
 manners, and language, which have the recommendations of coming 
 from an enlightened foreigner who had seen the London of Addison 
 and Pope. 
 
 EGBERT, styled the Great, king of the West Saxons, was, accord- 
 ing to the Saxon Chronicle, the son of Alckmund, whose descent is 
 traced up through Esa, or Eata, and Eoppa, to Inigisil, or Ingild, the 
 brother of the great Ina, and the undoubted descendant of Cerdic. 
 The 'Chronicle' states Alckmund to have reigned in Kent; but this 
 point, as well as the whole of the genealogy of Egbert, must be con- 
 sidered as doubtful. All that can be certainly affirmed is, that he was 
 of the blood of Cerdic, and that he eventually came to be regarded as 
 the representative, if not the only remaining male descendant of that 
 founder of the royal house of Wessex. When Beohrtric, or Brihtric, 
 became king in 786, Egbert, then very young, or his friends for him, 
 had claimed the throne. Brihtric is said to have soon after made an 
 attempt on his life, upon which he took refuge at the court of Offa, 
 the powerful king of Mercia. After a short time however he lost 
 Offa's protection, on Brihtric marrying Eadburga, the daughter of 
 that king. Egbert then fled to France, where he was received by the 
 Emperor Charlemagne, and at his court he abode till the death of 
 Brihtric in 800. He was then recalled, and by the unanimous vote of 
 the witan appointed to the vacant throne. William of Malme6bury, 
 
 who wrote in the 12th century, is the only authority for this history 
 of Egbert's early life. He says, that besides other accomplishments 
 he learned the art of war under Charlemagne, in whose armies he 
 served for three years. 
 
 At the date of Egbert's accession the Saxon states in England were 
 reduced to three independent sovereignties : Northumbna, compre- 
 hending what had occasionally been the separate kingdoms of Deira 
 and Bernicia ; Mercia, which had reduced to subjection Kent, Essex, 
 and East Anglia ; and Wessex, with which Sussex had become incor- 
 porated. Of these three powers, Northumbria was torn by internal 
 dissensions, and probably was indebted for the preservation of its inde- 
 pendence chiefly to the rivalry between the other two. The conquests 
 and the able rule of Offa however had raised Mercia to a decided pre- 
 eminence over Wessex ; and at this time the Mercian throne was 
 occupied by Cenwulf, who was well qualified to wield the sceptre of 
 Offa, and who had even extended the territory which he had inherited 
 from that king. The two states were at war when Egbert became 
 king ; but a peace was soon concluded between them ; and so long as 
 Cenwulf lived Egbert made no attempt at conquest over any part of 
 Saxon England. For the first nine years of his reign indeed he seems 
 not to have drawn his sword. He then (809) engaged in war against 
 the alien tribes that still remained unsubdued iu the west ; and 
 between that year and 814 he is recorded to have subjugated, or at 
 least overrun and reduced to temporary submission, all Cornwall 
 (including Devon) and South Wales. But soon after the death of 
 Cenwulf in 819 we find him entering upon a new career. In 823 a 
 dispute about the succession to the Mercian crown raised the East 
 Angles in revolt. Egbert's aid, upon being applied for, was readily 
 given to the insurgents ; and a great battle took place at Ellenduno 
 (supposed to be Wilton), which ended in the complete defeat of the 
 Mercians. Essex and Kent were immediately seized by Egbert, or 
 voluntarily submitted to him. The East Angles in the meantime he 
 professed to leave independent ; and Mercia itself he did not think 
 yet sufficiently weakened to be attacked with effect. A continuance 
 of the dispute about the succession however, and another revolt of 
 the East Angles, soon produced the state of things he waited for. In 
 827 he marched against Mercia ; Wiglaf, the king, fled on his approach 
 to the monastery of Croyland, but soon after made his submission, 
 and was permitted to retain his kingdom as the vassal or tributary of 
 Egbert. Egbert appears to have now taken East Anglia under his own 
 immediate government. He is affirmed by Bede to have subjected to 
 his rule all England to the south of the Humber. Without loss of 
 time also he led his army against the Northumbrians ; their king, 
 Eanred, offered no resistance ; but meeting Egbert at a place called 
 Dore, to the north of the Humber, acknowledged him as Bretwalda. 
 He is the eighth Saxon king who is stated to have acquired this 
 dignity ; the last wa3 the Northumbrian king Oswio. 
 
 In the last year of the reign of Egbert several of those descents of 
 the Danes or northern pirates were made upon the English coasts, 
 which produced so much public confusion and calamity when renewed 
 in the times of his son and his grandsons. Iu 832 they ravaged the 
 Isle of Sheppey; and next year, appearing with a fleet of five and 
 thirty sail in the river Dart, they landed and defeated a force that 
 Egbert sent against them. When they returned however in 831!, and 
 landed in Cornwall, they and a number of the people of tha>t district 
 whom they had induced to join them, sustained a decisive overthrow 
 from the king of Wessex in person. Egbert died the next year (836), 
 after a reign of thirty-seven years and seven months, leaving his 
 dominions between his eldest son Ethelwulf and Athelstane, who 
 appears to have been the son of Ethelwulf. [Ethelwulf.] 
 
 Egbert is commonly said to have been the first Anglo-Saxon king 
 who cdled himself ' King of the Angles,' or of England ; but though a 
 charter exists in which he is styled Rex Anglorum, in general both he 
 and his successors down to Alfred inclusive call themselves only kings 
 of the West Saxons. And although Egbert asserted a supremacy over 
 the other states, which remained ever after with his kingdom of 
 Wessex, it is to be recollected that he did not incorporate either 
 Mercia or Northumbria with his own domiuions. It does not appear 
 that he even assumed to himself the appointment of the kings of those 
 states. The reigning families seem to have continued in possession, 
 with merely an acknowledgment of his supremacy as Bretwalda. 
 
 EGEDE, HANS, the apostle of Greenland, from whose arrival in 
 that country the Greenlanders date a new era, was by birth a Norwe- 
 gian. His father, a sorenskriver, or village judge, at Harstad, in the 
 district of Nordlandene, in Norway, was the son of a Dane, the parish 
 priest of Vester- Egede in Sisellaud, who was the first of the family to 
 assume the surname of Egede, which he took from his parish. Hans 
 Egede was born at Harstad on the 31st of January 1086, studied at 
 Copenhagen, which, before the foundation of the University of Chris- 
 tiauia, was the only university open to the natives of Norway ; and in 
 1707, at the age of twenty-one, was ordained priest of Vaagen in 
 northern Norway, and married a neighbour's daughter, Gertrude 
 Rask, of the age of thirty-four. He had been married about a year 
 when his mind began to dwell on the circumstance which he had seen 
 mentioned in a description of Norway, that formerly there had been 
 Christians in Greenland, where now there were only heathens, and he 
 could not help considering with interest if it were possible that some 
 descendants of the old Norwegians who had colonised the country 
 
730 
 
 EGEDE, HANS. 
 
 EGEDE, HANS. 
 
 710 
 
 might be living ignorant of the Gospel. Greenland had m fact been 
 discovered and colonised, not long before the year 1000, by the Nor- 
 wegians settled in Iceland, who, conscious of the bad effect of the 
 name of ' Iceland,' had taken care to give to their new, and still less 
 attractive, discovery the seductive appellation of 'Greenland,' which 
 had probably a great effect in drawing to those coasts the emigration 
 which might otherwise have set in to their third discovery, Vinland, 
 supposed by modern northern antiquaries to be Massachusetts. The 
 ' black death,' or destructive plague of the year 1349, and the attacks 
 of the native Skroollings, or Esquimaux, had put an end to the main 
 or ' western colony ' of the Norwegians in Greenland, but in the 
 time of Egede the eastern coast had been for some centuries almost 
 inaccessible from ice, and it was supposed by many that the ' eastern 
 colony,' spoken of by the old Icelandic writers, was on the eastern 
 coast, and might therefore be still existing unknown to the rest of the 
 world. Egede, after receiving some suggestions to this effect from a 
 friend in Bergen, became so enthusiastic on the subject, that he wrote 
 to the bishops of Bergen and Trondhjcm in 1710, proposing an ex- 
 pedition to conveit the Greenlanders; and on its striking him that 
 such a recommendation would come with an ill grace from one who 
 did not offer to undertake it himself, he made the offer, supposing 
 however, as he himself tells us, that as it was war-time, and the expe- 
 dition would require some money, the proposal would not be accepted. 
 He received in reply a strange letter from the bishop of Trondhjem, 
 Krog, in which the prelate suggested that " Greenland was undoubtedly 
 a part of America, and could not be very far from Cuba and Hispaniola, 
 where there was found such abundance of gold;" concluding that it 
 was very likely that those who went to Greenland would bring home 
 "incredible riches." Egede had made this offer, very oddly, with- 
 out acquainting his wife ; and as soon as she became aware of it, by 
 the receipt of the bishop's letters, she with her mother and his 
 mother, assailed Egede with such strong remonstrances, that, he says in 
 his own account, he was quite conquered, and repulsed his folly with 
 a promise to remain in the land which " God had placed him in." 
 
 Matters remained in this state till some quarrels with a neighbour- 
 ing clergyman, and the trouble they occasioned, led Egede, "fishing," 
 as he says, "in troubled waters," to mention the project again to his 
 wife, when he no longer found her so unwilling, aud having obtained 
 her consent he thought lightly of any other obstacle. So strongly 
 were both their minds now set on the undertaking that in 1717 he threw 
 up his benefice at Vaagen, aud went with his wife and four children 
 to Bergen to endeavour to found a company to trade with Greenland, 
 which he considered an indispensable part of his plan for founding a 
 mission. Most of the merchants laughed at his project, and some 
 considered him mad ; but just about this time Charles XII. of Sweden 
 was killed at Frederikshald, when apparently on the point of con- 
 quering Norway, peace was restored, and Egede determined to lay his 
 plans before the king at Copenhagen. Frederick IV. of Denmark, 
 who had already in 1714 founded a college for the propagation of the 
 Gospel, sent Egede back to Bergen with his approbation; a company 
 was formed, to which Egede put down his name for the first subscrip- 
 tion of 300 dollars, and finally on the 3rd of May 1721, a ship called 
 ' Haabet,' or ' The Hope,' set sail for Greenland, with forty-six souls 
 on board, including Egede and his family. On the 3rd of July, after 
 a dangerous voyage, they set foot on shore at Baalsrevier on the 
 western coast, and were on the whole hospitably received by the 
 natives. The very appearance of the Greenlanders at once put a 
 negative on the supposition that they were descended from the 
 Northmen, and their language, which it was now the missionary's 
 business to learn, was found to be entirely of a different kind, being 
 in fact nearly related to that spoken by the Esquimaux of Labrador. 
 The climate and the soil were both harsher and ruder than the 
 Norwegians had expected, and the only circumstance that was in their 
 favour was the character of the inhabitants, which, though at first 
 excessively phlegmatic, so as to give the idea that their feelings had 
 been frozen, was neither cruel, nor, as was found by further experience, 
 unadapted to receive religious impressions. The natives however 
 grew apprehensive when they found that their visitors built a house 
 and intended to stay out the winter, and they were encouraged in 
 their fears by the Dutch captains who visited the coast for the 
 purposes of trade. The Dutchmen, Egede remarked, did more trade in 
 half an hour with the natives than the Danes could succeed in doing in 
 half a year, by the simple expedient of giving more wares in exchange 
 and of better quality. For some years following both the mission 
 and the factory had a hard battle for life. The settlers, unable to 
 obtain sufficient food by fishing and the chase, were entirely dependent 
 on the supply of provisions sent them by annual store-ships from 
 Denmark, and when this supply was delayed, were reduced to short 
 rations and the dread of starvation. On one occasion even Egede's 
 courage gave way, and he had made up his mind to abandon the 
 mission and return to Europe unless the provisions arrived within 
 fourteen days. His wife alone opposed the resolution and refused to 
 pack up, persisting in predicting that the store-ship would airive in 
 time, and ere the time had elapsed the ships, which had missed the 
 coast, found their way, and brought tidings that rather than give up 
 the attempt to Christianise Greenland, the king had ordered a lottery 
 in favour of it, and on the lottery's failing had imposed a special tax on 
 Denmark and Norway under the name of the Greenland Assessment. 
 
 In 1727 the Bergen company for trading with Greenland was dissolved, 
 from the losses it had sustaiued, aud the Danish government then 
 resolved on founding a colony in Greenland, and sent in 1728 a ship 
 of war, with a body of soldiers under the command of a Major Paars, 
 and several horses, a sufficient proof that the nature of the country 
 was not understood in Denmark, as horses among the rocks of 
 Greenland were totally useless. The soldiers grew mutinous when 
 they saw to what a country they had been sent, and Egede found his 
 life in more danger from his countrymen than it had ever been from the 
 natives. The death of King Frederick IV. in 1731 occasioned a change 
 of affairs. The new king, Christian VI., determined to break up the 
 colony and recall all his subjects from Greenland, with the exception 
 of such as chose to remain of their own free will, to whom he gave 
 directions that provisions were to be allowed for one year, but that 
 they were to be led to expect no further supply. Egcdo had then 
 been ten years in Greenlaud, and his labours were beginning to bear 
 fruit. His eldest son Paul, who was a boy of twelve when they landed, 
 had been of much assistance in learning the language and in other 
 ways ; his wifo and the younger children had aided greatly in producing 
 a favourable effect on the natives, who had seen no Europeans before 
 except the crews of the Dutch trading-vessels. The Angekoks, or con- 
 jurers, who might almost be called the priests of the native religion, 
 had been awed, some into respect and others into silence, by the mild- 
 ness and active benevolence of the foreign Angekok ; the natives had 
 seen with wonder the interest he took in their welfare, and if they 
 refused to believe the new doctrines themselves, had not forbidden 
 them to their children, of whom Egede had a hundred and fifty 
 baptised. The elder Greenlanders, when Egede told them of the 
 efficacy of prayer, asked him to pray that there should be no winter, 
 and when he spoke of the torment of fire said they should prefer it 
 to frost. Egede, confirmed by his wife, resolved to remain, and this 
 resolution greatly increased his iuflueuce over the, Greenlanders, who 
 knew that it could only proceed from zeal in their behalf. 
 
 The king of Denmark, unable to resist his constancy, sent another 
 year's provision beyond what he had promised, and finally, in 1733, 
 announced that he had changed his mind and determined to devote 
 a yearly sum to the Greenland mission. A dreadful trial was 
 approaching. The Greenlaud children, of whom some had occasionally 
 been sent to Denmark, almost all died of the small pox. Two of 
 them were returning home from Copenhagen in the vessel whick 
 came in 1733, one of them died on the voyage, the other brought the 
 disorder to Greenland, and the mortality was dreadful. From 
 September 1733 to June 1734 the contagion raged to a degree that 
 threatened to depopulate Greenlaud. When the trading agents after- 
 wards went over the country they found every dwelling-house empty 
 for thirty leagues to the north of the Danish colony, and the same 
 devastation was said to have extended still farther south : the number 
 of the dead was computed at 3000. That winter in Greenlaud offered 
 a combination of horrors which could seldom be equalled, but they 
 were met with admirable constancy by Egede and his indefatigable 
 wife. The same ship that brought the small pox had brought the 
 assistance of some Moravian missionaries, the first of that devoted 
 band who were to continue in Greenland the work that Egede had 
 begun. In the year 1734 his son Povel Egede returned from Copen- 
 hagen, whither he had been sent to study, and the elder Egede, finding 
 his health begin to fail, applied for leave to return home. He was 
 now unable to continue his active labours as a missionary, but thought 
 he might be of use in instructing in the language those who might 
 devote themselves to the work, and would otherwise have to lose a 
 portion of their time on arriving at the spot in studying the rudi- 
 ments. The permission reached him in 1735, but his return was 
 delayed from the illness of his wife, who longed to see her native 
 land again, but was denied that gratification, dying finally in Green- 
 land on the 21st of December 1735, at the age of sixty-two. Egede 
 carried her coffin with him to Denmark, aud she was buried in 
 Copenhagen, where she was followed to the grave by the whole of the 
 clergy of the city. A seminary for the Greenland mission was estab- 
 lished there in 1740, and Egede was appointed superintendent with 
 the title of bishop. In the same year he preferred a memorial for an 
 expedition to be sent out to discover the lost 'eastern colony' of the 
 old Norwegians, and offered to accompany it in person, but the 
 proposal was not adopted. He had when in Greenland made a land 
 expedition with a similar view, and discovered some ruins of buildings 
 of a different character from those of the Greenlanders. It is now 
 generally believed, since the researches of Graah and others, that the 
 ' eastern colony ' or ' Osterbygd ' was so named merely from its position 
 with regard to the other, and that both the ' eastern ' aud ' western ' 
 colonies were on the western coast. In 1747 Egede retired from hU 
 office at Copenhagen, and spent most of the remainder of his life at 
 the house of his daughter Christine, who was married to a clergyman 
 of the island of Falster. While he was at Copenhagen he had married 
 a second wife, who accompanied him to Falster, but before his last 
 illness he expressed his wish that he should be buried by the side of 
 his first wife at Copenhagen, and said that if they would not promise 
 to carry this wish into effect, he would go to Copenhagen to die 
 there. He died at Falster on tho 5th of November 1758. 
 
 Egede was the author of two works on the subject that occupied 
 his life. One, tho history of his mission, ' Omstondelig Relation. 
 
742 
 
 angaaende den Groulandske Missions Begyndelse,' published at 
 Copenhagen in 1738, is rich in materials, but is in itself of a somewhat 
 dry and unattractive character. Its chief recommendation is its plain 
 sincerity. The reader is disposed to give entire confidence to the 
 missionary, who not only tells him that on one occasion he laboured 
 earnestly in his vocation, but that on another he occupied himself for 
 days in the study of alchemy, who not only speaks of the ardour of 
 his faith at times, but tells us that at others he was seized with a 
 hatred of his task and of religion altogether. This book has been 
 translated into GermaD, but not as yet into auy other language. 
 Egede's second work, 'Den gamle Gronlands nye Perlustration ' 
 (Copenhagen, 1741-4), was translated into English in 1745 under the 
 title of * A Description of Greenland,' and the translation was reprinted 
 in 1818. It comprises his observations on the geography and natural 
 history of Greenland, and the manners of its inhabitants. 
 
 The account of the mission was continued by his son Povel or 
 Paul Egede, who, as has been stated, had gone to Greenland in 1720 
 in his twelfth year, had afterwards studied at Copenhagen, returned 
 to Greenland in 1734, finally left it in 1740, became like his father 
 superintendent of the mission with the title of bishop, and died in 
 1789. He wrote and published a Greenland Grammar and Diction- 
 ary, which have been since improved by Fabricius, translated the 
 New Testament into the language, and was the author of a work 
 ' Efterretninger om Gronland ' (' Information on Greenland '), which 
 is one of the most interesting in Danish literature. It gives a history 
 of the mission from 1720 to 1788 in a more interesting style than his 
 father was master of. 
 
 Another son of Hans Egede, Niels Egede, who had spent his 
 youth in Greenland, returned there in 1738 from Denmark, disgusted 
 with the coldness of the reception he met with in Europe, and wished 
 to spend the rest of his life among the Greenlanders, but was com- 
 pelled to return by the state of his health in 1743. He founded 
 the settlement of Egedesminde, so named in remembrance of his 
 father. 
 
 EGERTON, THOMAS, Lord Chancellor of England, was born in 
 1540, in the parish of Doddlestone, Cheshire. He was the natural 
 son of Sir Richard Egerton, of an ancient family in that county. 
 IlaviDg been well grounded in Latin and Greek by private tuition, he 
 was entered in 1556 of Brazenose College, Oxford, where he remained 
 three years ; and then, having taken his Bachelor's degree, removed to 
 Lincoln's Inn, London. In due time he was called to the bar, and 
 60on acquired reputation and practice. It was not long before Queen 
 Elizabeth discovered his value, and made him one of her counsel, 
 which entitled him to wear a silk gown, and to have precedence of 
 the other barristers. He was appointed solicitor general June 28, 
 1581, and he held this office till June 2, 1592, when he became 
 attorney-general. Meantime, in 1582, he was chosen Lent Reader to 
 Lincoln's Ihu ; he wa3 also made one of the. governors of that society, 
 and so continued for twelve years successively. He was knighted in 
 1593, and was appointed chamberlain of the county-palatine of 
 Chester. On the 10th of April 1594 he was made Master of the 
 Rolls; and on the 6th of May 1596 he succeeded Sir John Puckering 
 as Lord Keeper, the queen herself delivering the great seal to him at 
 Greenwich. As a special mark of her favour, he continued to hold 
 the office of Master of the Rolls, together with that of Keeper of the 
 Great Seal, during the remainder of her reign. He was also sworn of 
 her Majesty's privy council. Besides the performance of his duties as 
 a lawyer and a judge, he was consulted and employed by the queen 
 in her most secret councils and most important state affairs, and con- 
 tinued an especial favourite till her death. In August 1602 she paid 
 him a visit of three days at his country-house of Harefield, near 
 Uxbridge, Middlesex, where, among other entertainments provided 
 for her, Shakspere's tragedy of ' Othello ' was played by Burbidge 
 aud his company. In her last illness at Richmond, in March 1603, she 
 named to him the King of Scotland as her successor. 
 
 After Elizabeth's death, King James, by sign-manual, dated Holyrood 
 House, Edinburgh, April 5, 1603, directed him to retain the office of 
 Lord Keeper till further orders ; and, having arrived in London, James, 
 on the 19th of July caused the great seal to be broken, and placed a new 
 one in Sir Thomas Egertcn's hands, accompanied by a paper in his 
 own writing, by which he created him Baron of Ellesmere, " for his 
 good and faithful services, not only in the administration of justice, 
 but also in council." On the 24th of July 1603 he was named Lord 
 lli<;h Chancellor of England. After being made Lord Chancellor, he 
 resigned the office of Master of the Rolls, which he had held nine 
 years. In 1 605 Lord Ellesmere was appointed High Steward of the 
 City of Oxford, and on the 2nd of December 1610 was elected 
 Chancellor of the University of Oxford. 
 
 On the 7th of November 1616, the king, with much reluctance, 
 granted him permission to retire from office, and at the same time 
 created him Viscount Brackley. On the 3rd of March 1617 he 
 resigned the great seal, when Lord Bacon was appointed his successor. 
 While he lay ill the king sent Buckingham and Lord Bacon to offer 
 him the title of Earl of Bridgewater, and a pension of 3000i. a year. 
 He refused both, saying "these things were now to him but vanities." 
 He expired at York House, London, March 15, 1617, in the seventy- 
 seventh year of his age, having held the great seal for a longer period 
 continually than any of his predecessors or successors. He was 
 
 buried in the chancel of Doddlestone Church, Cheshire. His son, 
 John Egerton, was created Earl of Bridgewater. 
 
 Thomas Egerton was a tall aud athletic man, and very handsome, 
 and retained his good looks to the last. Ben Jonson says, '' He was a 
 grave and great orator, and best when he was provoked." Lord 
 Campbell, speaking of him as an equity-judge, makes the following 
 observations :— " With a knowledge of law equal to Edward the 
 Third's lay-chancellors Parnyng and Knyvet, so highly eulogised by 
 Lord Coke, he was much more familiar with the principles of general 
 jurisprudence. Not less noted for despatch and purity thau Sir 
 Thomas More, he was much better acquainted with the law of real 
 property, as well as the practice of the court, in which he had long 
 practised as an advocate ; and exhibiting all the patience and suavity 
 of Sir Nicholas Bacon, he possessed more quickness of perception, 
 and a more vigorous grasp of intellect." (' Lives of the Chancellors,' 
 vol. ii.) 
 
 EGG, AUGUSTUS, A.R.A., was born in London iu 1816. After 
 the usual educational course in the schools of Mr. Sass aud of the 
 Royal Academy, Mr. Egg became for the first time in 1838 a con- 
 tributor to the Academy exhibition by sending a ' Spanish Girl ; ' ho 
 also in these early years sent pictures to the Society of British 
 Artists, and to the provincial exhibitions. The peculiar turn of his 
 mind was perhaps first distinctly shown by the picture he exhibited 
 at the Academy in 1840, ' A Scene in the Boar's Head, Cheapside ; ' 
 and he has since been a pretty constant contributor of pictures illus- 
 trating scenes of humour from the pages of Shakspere, Scott, 
 Le Sage, &c, of the order technically styled 'genre.' Their clear 
 bright colouring, vivacity, aud a certain coarse theatrical freedom aud 
 geniality, made them favourites with those who relish a less refined 
 fare than was afforded by Mr. Leslie, previously the chief caterer in 
 the same walk. Without any marked departure from his original 
 manner, Mr. Egg has shown a steady advance in the mechanical 
 departments of his art, and he has on more thau one occasion shown 
 too that he has as yet done but imperfect justice to his talents. The 
 following are the principal works he has contributed to the Royal 
 Academy exhibitions since 1840: — 'Scene from Romeo and Juliet,' 
 and an 'Italian Festa,' in 1841; ' Cromwell discovering his chaplain 
 Jeremiah White making love to his daughter Frances,' 1842 ; ' The 
 Introduction of Sir Piercie Shafton to Herbert Gleudhiniug,' 1843 ; 
 'Scene from the Devil on Two Sticks,' 1844, now in the Vernon 
 Gallery ; ' Scene from the Winter's Tale,' 1845 ; ' Buckingham 
 Rebuffed,' 1S46; 'The Wooing of Katherine — from the Taming of 
 the Shrew,' 1847 ; ' Queen Elizabeth discovers she is no longer young,' 
 1848, a ridiculous caricature in the very lowest grade of broad farce ; 
 ' Henrietta Maria in Distress relieved by Cardinal du Retz,' and 
 ' Lauuce's substitute for Proteus's Dog,' 1849 ; ' Peter the Great sees 
 Katherine, his future Empress, for the first time,' I860 ; 'Pepys's 
 Introduction to Nell Gwynne,' 1851, like the last, a very clever 
 rendering of a subject not remarkable for its pictorial capability ; 
 'Dame Ursula and Margaret,' 1854; and 'The Life aud Death of 
 Buckingham,' 1855. The 'Life and Death of Buckingham' is repre- 
 sented in dramatic fashion— within the same frame the profligate duke 
 and his sovereign revelling with the courtiers and the courtezans of 
 "the merry monarch," and the death of the debauchee, accordiug to 
 Pope's version of it, " in the worst inu's worst room " — both scenes 
 being wrought out with uncompromising fidelity. In power it far 
 surpassed any of Mr. Egg's previous productions, but it was sickening 
 and repulsive, exactly in proportion to its truth and force. Mr. Egg 
 was elected an associate of the Royal Academy iu 1848. [See Sup.] 
 
 EGINHARDT, a native of Austrasia or East France, was instructed 
 by Alcuinus, and by him introduced to Charlemagne, who made him 
 his secretary, aud afterwards superintendent of his buildings. His 
 wife Emma, or Imma, is said by some to have been a daughter of 
 that prince, and a curious story is related of their amours previous to 
 their marriage, but the whole seems an invention. Eginhardt himself 
 does not reckon Emma in his enumeration of the children of Charles. 
 After the death of that monarch, Eginhardt continued to serve his 
 successor, Louis le Dribonnaire, who entrusted him with the education 
 of his son Lotharius. But after a time Eginhardt resigned his offices, 
 left the court, and withdrew to the monastery of Fontenelle, of which 
 he became abbot : his wife also retired into a nunnery. After remain- 
 ing seven years at Fontenelle, he left it about a.d. 823, and went to 
 another monastery, but iu 827, having received from Rome the relics 
 of the martyrs Marcellinus aud Petrus, he placed them in his residence 
 at Mulinheim, which he converted into au abbey, which took after- 
 wards the name of Seligenstadt, where he fixed his residence. (' De 
 Tr inslatione SS. martyrum Marcellini et Petri,' in the ' Acta 
 Sanctorum ' of Bollandus. The account is written by Eginhardt.) 
 Eginhardt seems to have still repaired to court from time to time, 
 when his advice was needed, and he appears by his own letters to 
 have endeavoured to thwart the conspiracy of Louis's sons against 
 that unfortunate monarch. He spent his latter years in retirement 
 and study : according to one account he was still living in 848, when 
 he attended the council of Mayence, but by others he is said to have 
 died about 841. His wife had died before him, a loss by which he 
 was greatly grieved, although they had lived separately for many 
 years. Eginhardt wrote, 1, 'Vita et Couveisatio gloriosissimi Impe- 
 ratoris Karoh Regis magui,' divided into two parts, one relating to 
 
743 
 
 EGMONT. 
 
 EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GODFREY. 
 
 7-14 
 
 the public and the other to the private life of his hero. It has gone 
 through many editions, and lias been also translated into various 
 languages. The style is remarkably good for the times. 2, ' Annales 
 Regum Francorum, Pipini, Karolitnagni, et Ludovici Pii, ab anno 741 
 ad annum 829.' 3, ' EpistolcB,' which are found in Duchesne's 
 'Historian Francorum Scriptores,' vol. ii. These letters, of which 
 only sixty-two lmve been preserved, show Egiuhardt's character to 
 great advantage, and afford considerable information on the manners 
 of that period. 4, ' Breviarium Chronologicum ab orbe coDdito ad 
 ann. D. 829,' which is an abridgment of Bede's Chronicle. There is 
 a notice of Eginhardt by Duchesne, prefixed to his life of Charlemagne, 
 in the collection already mentioned. There is also a life of Eginhardt 
 by M. Teulet, prefixed to his edition, with a translation into French, 
 of the works of Eginhardt, in 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1840. 
 
 EGMONT, Count of Lumoral, Prince of Gavre, a descendant of 
 those dukes of Guelders who had signalised themselves against the 
 house of Austria, was born in 1522 in Amsterdam. The fame of his 
 ancestors is celebrated in the annals of his country, one of whom 
 enjoyed, during the reign of Maximilian, the supreme magistracy of 
 Holland. 
 
 Egmont's marriage with Sabiua, duchess of Bavaria, reflected 
 additional lustre upon his noble birth, and increased his influence by 
 powerful alliances. In the year 1516 Charles V. conferred upon him 
 the order of the Golden Fleece. Under this emperor he learned the 
 art of war, and, being appointed by Philip II. commander of the 
 cavalry, he gathered his first laurels in the fields of St. Quentin and 
 Gravclingen(1557, 1558). 
 
 The Flemish people, chiefly occupied with commerce, and indebted 
 for the preservation of their prosperity to these victories, were justly 
 proud of their countryman, whose fame was spread through all 
 Europe. The circumstances of Egmont being the father of a numerous 
 family served also to increase their affection, and they saw with 
 delight the prospect of this illustrious family being perpetuated 
 among them. 
 
 Egmont'3 demeanour was courteous and noble; his open counte- 
 nance was an index of the singleness of his mind ; his life was one of 
 mercy and philanthropy; far from being a bigoted Romanist, or a 
 reckless reformer, he elevated himself above the contending parties, 
 and laboured to bring about a peaceful reconciliation. It was only 
 towards the close of his life, when all attempts to disarm the fury of 
 the Spaniards against his Protestant countrymen had failed, that he 
 showed himself willing to defend them against their oppressors. His 
 motives however do not appear to have been any predilection for the 
 Protestant doctrine, but pure love of justice, peace, and humanity. 
 
 A man possessed of such qualities, and enjoying so much popular 
 influence, naturally awoke suspicion and jealousy in the hearts of the 
 Spanish despots whenever the interests of the Flemish came into 
 collision with those of the crown. Philip however, in order to conceal 
 his dark designs against the supposed protectors of the religion of bis 
 rebellious subjects, on visiting Brabant gave to Egmont the govern- 
 ment of Artois and Flanders, and exempted his estates from taxation. 
 But upon his return to Madrid the tyrant changed his plans, and sent 
 his favourite, Alva, to Flanders, with instructions to get rid of Egmont 
 and his friend Count Horn. 
 
 In order to secure them both, Alva invited them to dinner, under 
 the pretence of wishing to consult them on public affairs, When 
 they had entered his private room, they were seized, and thrown into 
 prison in Ghent, where they remained during nine months. At the 
 expiration of this time they were carried to Brussels under an escort 
 of ten companies of Spanish soldiers. Here Alva, invested with the 
 power of captain-general and supreme judge, compelled the criminal 
 court to pronounce Egmont guilty of high treason and rebellion, and 
 to sentence him to be beheaded. This sentence was pronounced on 
 the 4th of June 1568, without any substantial evidence, and was 
 supported only by the depositions of his accusers. His estates were 
 also confiscated. During his imprisonment the emperor of Germany, 
 the knights of the Golden Fleece, the electors, the duchess of Parma, 
 and his wife, used every possible exertion to save his life ; but Philip 
 was immovable. The sentence was executed on the 5th of June 1568, 
 and both Egmont and Horn fell by the sword of the executioner on a 
 scaffold erected in one of the principal squares of Brussels. Egmont 
 died with courage, after having written a dignified letter to the king 
 and a tender one to his wife. 
 
 He was but forty-six years of age. The people, who assembled in 
 crowds to witness this mournful spectacle, were loud in their lamenta- 
 tions; they rushed towards the scaffold and dipped their handkerchiefs 
 in the blood of the martyrs of Flemish independence. His friend, 
 Count Horn, was executed immediately after him. Egmont's wife 
 died the 19th of June 1598. It is said that the bishop of Ypres, a 
 most pious and upright prelate, who had been deputed by Alva to 
 prepare the two prisoners for their execution, after hearing the con- 
 fession of Egmont, was so persuaded of his innocence that he went 
 to Alva and begged him on his knees to suspend the execution. But 
 Alva, besides his natural ferocity, bore a mortal enmity to Egmont on 
 account of his military reputation, and rejected the bishop's inter- 
 cession with insolent contempt. When Philip II. heard that these 
 two noble lords had been executed he exclaimed, " I have caused these 
 two heads to fall because the heads of such salmons are worth more 
 
 than many thousand frogs." But the perfidy of the monarch proved 
 to be an ill policy. The judicial murder of Egmont and Horn 
 exasperated the people beyond all endurance, and the revolt became 
 general and irrepressible, and the last years of Philip were rendered 
 miserable by the failure of all his efforts to restore his authority in 
 the Netherlands. 
 
 The death of Egmont has supplied to Gbthe an admirable subject 
 for one of the best of his historical tragedies, for which Beethoven 
 composed one of his finest overtures and some beautiful melodies to 
 the songs interspersed through the play. 
 
 The latest life of Egmont is that by Clouet, ' flloge historique du 
 Comte d'Egmont,' Bruxellea, 1825. 
 
 * EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GODFREY, the celebrated German 
 naturalist and microscopist, was born on the 19th of April 179"), at 
 Delitsch in Prussian Saxony. He received his early education at 
 Schulpforte, and commenced the study of medicine at Leipzig in 1815. 
 Iu 1817 he was called to Berlin by the law of military service. Here 
 he became acquainted with the celebrated Hemprich, and afterwards 
 accompanied him in his travels in the East. At Berlin Ehrenberg 
 gave himself up to the study of organic life, and his first essay was ' On 
 the Structure and Classification of the Fungi.' This paper appeared 
 in the 'Annales des Botanique' of Schrceder, Sprengel, aud Link in 
 the year 1818. He took his degree of Doctor of Medicine the same 
 year, taking as the subject of his inaugural thesis, ' Sylvas Mycologies 
 Berolinenses.' In this paper he described two hundred and forty-eight 
 species of cryptogamic plants, sixty-two of which were new. In 1819 
 and 1820 ho published other papers on cryptogamic botany, more 
 especially one on the Flora of llatisbon, in the 10th volume of the 
 ' Memoirs of the Leopoldine Academy of Naturalists of Berne,' of 
 which academy he had at that time been elected a member. 
 
 In April 1820 he embarked with his friend Hemprich on his travels 
 in Egypt. They first visited Alexandria, and explored the coasts of 
 Libya, and in 1821 visited Middle Egypt, especially the Pyramids. 
 They arrived at Dongola in February 1822, where the governor 
 was so much struck with the genius of M. Ehrenberg that he insisted 
 on his giving him a plan of a fortress. The naturalist pleaded in 
 vain his want of knowledge, and at last gave the plan of the fortress 
 of Kasr-Dongola-el-Gedide, which to this day is the residence of the 
 governor. Under the protection of the governor, the travellers 
 penetrated as far as Ambukohl, in Upper Dongola. The travellers 
 after returning to Cairo visited Sinai, the height of which mountain 
 Ehrenberg accurately ascertained by means of the thermometer. 
 Various scientific expeditions were made into Syria and Arabia, and 
 Ehrenberg returned to Berlin in 1826. He lost however his friend 
 Hemprich, who died of a fever at Massawa, an island in the Arabian 
 Gulf. Berghaus has given to two groups of islands to the south aud 
 north of Dhalak the names of the islauds of Hemprich and the islands 
 of Ehrenberg. « 
 
 On his return Ehrenberg was named one of the professors of the 
 Faculty of Medicine, a position he still occupies. Soon after arranging 
 his materials he commenced publishing his observations upon various 
 departments of natural history. Besides a complete history of 
 his travels he produced many monographs on various branches of 
 natural history. The principal series was the ' Symbols Physics seu 
 Icones et Descriptiones Animalium ex Itinera per Africam borealeni 
 et Asiam occidentalem,' &c, published at Berlin from 1828 to 1832. 
 Another paper should be mentioned, ' On the Acalephre of the Red 
 Sea,' in which he contributed largely to the existing knowledge of the 
 Medusce. During his travels Ehrenberg made many observations, 
 which have been published, on the useful plants growing iu the 
 districts which he visited. 
 
 In 1829 he accepted an invitation to join in the journey of Alexander 
 von Humboldt into the Ural Mountains, an expedition which was 
 prolonged into the Altai. It was during this journey that Ehrenberg's 
 attention was more especially directed to the importance of investi- 
 gations with the microscope. This instrument, which was gradually 
 attracting attention, more especially through the important labours of 
 our own countryman, Robert Brown [Brown, Robert], became in his 
 hands a mighty instrument of research. It would not be consistent 
 with our present notice to refer to all Ehrenberg's papers on micro- 
 scopic objects. Between sixty and seventy are referred to in Agassiz's 
 ' Bibliography,' and probably as many more are extant. They arc 
 diffused throughout the transactions of the scientific societies and the 
 pages of the scientific journals of Europe. When Ehrenberg com- 
 menced his labours, little had been done towards studying the structure 
 of or classifying the organic beings whose existence could only be 
 learned by the aid of the microscope. This instrument opened up to 
 his view a new world, and if in his enthusiasm he too rapidly inter- 
 preted some of the phenomena, it should never be forgotten that 
 Ehrenberg was the first to demonstrate the existence of the large mass 
 of beings known as microscopic plants and animals. His observations, 
 as far as they had gone, were published in his great folio work iu 
 1838, entitled 'Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene Organismen 
 an den Grenzen der Seh-Kraft.' This work comprised a general 
 history, with a detailed account, of the structure of several hundred 
 species of organic beings. He regarded these all as animals, and 
 included them all in one group, which he called Infusoria. Since the 
 publication of this work it has been shown that a portion of these 
 
EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED. 
 
 EICHHORN, CHARLES FREDERICK. 
 
 organisma, the Wheel-Animalcules [Rotifera, in Nat. Hist. Div.], are 
 much higher in organisation than the rest. His division Polygaslrica, 
 or many-stomaohed, has also been shown to be unfounded; whilst 
 a large number of them have been demonstrated to belong to the 
 vegetable kingdom. [Infusoria, Diatomace^e, Desmideje, in Nat. 
 Hist. Div.] 
 
 A very imperfect idea would be formed of Ehrenberg's labours from 
 his great work on ' Infusorial Animalcules.' Since the publication of 
 that work he has devoted himself with great success to the investi- 
 gation of the fossil forms of microscopic organic beings, and shown 
 that their siliceous and calcareous skeletons constitute a very important 
 element in the constitution of many of the strata of the earth's surface. 
 These researches he has also published in a large work entitled 
 ' Micro-geologie.' 
 
 EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED, an eminent professor of 
 oriental and biblical literature in the University of Gottingen, and one 
 of the most learned and distinguished scholars of Germany, was born 
 in October 1752 at Dorrenzimmern, in the principality of Hohenlohe 
 Oeringen, and at first was rector of the school at Ohrdruf, in the 
 principality of Gotha. Having applied with great success to the study 
 of the oriental languages, he obtained in 1775 a professor's chair in the 
 University of Jena, where he continued thirteen years, giving instruction 
 in Hebrew, Arabic, &c, and was made in 1783 a court councillor by 
 the Duke of Saxe- Weimar. In 1788 he was appointed to the professor- 
 ship previously held by Michaelis in the University of Gottingen, of 
 which institution he continued a very distinguished ornament during 
 the remainder of his life, as professor of oriental and biblical literature. 
 
 His reputation was equally high as a proficient in oriental, classical, 
 and scriptural antiquities ; in philosophical criticism ; in the history 
 of nations, and of ancient and modern literature and science ; and in 
 universal bibliology. He was made in 1811 a doctor of divinity; in 
 1813 the directorship of the Royal Scientific Society of Gottingen was 
 conferred on him, and he received the appointment of pro-rector of 
 the University of Gottingen ; in 1819 he was appointed privy councillor 
 of justice for the kingdom of Hanover (Geheimer Justizrath). He died 
 on the 25th of June 1827, at the age of seventy-five. In completing 
 the present notice it is only necessary to enumerate thej principal 
 works of Eichhorn, and to give a brief and general account of his 
 doctrines as a divine and a critic. 
 
 While at Jena, Eichhorn first displayed his knowledge of oriental 
 literature in a history of East Indian commerce prior to the time of 
 Mohammed (' Geschichte des Ostindischen handels vor Mohammed '), 
 Gotha, 1775. This wa3 followed by a survey of the most ancient monu- 
 ments of the Arabs (' Monumenta antiquissimse Historiae Arabum, post 
 Schultensium collecta atque edita, cum animadversionibus'), Gotha, 
 1775 ; and a treatise on the ancient numismatical history of Arabia, 
 Gotha, 1775. He next published a large collection of learned and 
 valuable treatises, entitled a repertory of biblical and oriental literature 
 ('Repertorium fur biblische und morgenlandische Litteratur '), 18 
 vols., Leipzig, 1777-86. After removing to Gottingen he devoted his 
 attention almost exclusively to the archaeology of biblical literature, 
 and the results of his studies appeared in a general repository of 
 biblical literature (' Allgemeine Bibliothek der biblischen Litteratur '), 
 10 vols., 1788-1801 ; and in a disquisition on primitive history 
 ('Urgeschichte*), 2 vols., Altdorf and Niirnberg, 1790-93, with an 
 introduction and notes by the learned Gabler. This work contains a 
 searching and bold criticism of the Mosaic Pentateuch. The two next 
 are among the most important of the author's productions, namely, 
 the introduction to the Old Testament (' Einleitung in das Alte Test.'), 
 of which he published a fourth and improved edition in 5 vols, at 
 Gotha, in 1824 ; and the introduction to the New Testament 
 ('Einleitung in das Neue Test.'), new edition, in 2 vols., 1827. These 
 were accompanied with an introduction to the apocryphal writings of 
 the Old Testament (' Einleitung in die apokryphischen Schriften des 
 Alten Test.'), Leipzig, 1795, Gottingen, 1798 ; and a revised and 
 uniform edition of the three, with the title of critical writings 
 (' Kritische Schriften '), was published at Leipzig in 7 vols., 1804-14. 
 
 The other works of Eichhorn on biblical criticism and philology 
 are a commentary on Revelations (' Commentarius in Apocalypsin 
 Joannia'), 2 vols., Gottingen, 1791 ; a revised and enlarged edition of 
 Professor Simon's Hebrew and Chaldaic Lexicon, Halle, 1793 ; a critical 
 translation and exposition of the writings of the Hebrew prophets 
 ('Die Hebraischen Propheten '), 3 vols., Gottingen, 1816-20 ; commen- 
 taries on the prophetic poetry of the Hebrews (' Commentationes de 
 Prophetica Poesi Hebraeorum '), 4to, Gottingen, 1823 ; preface to the 
 'Nova Bibliotbeca Hebraica' by Koecherus; and numerous critical 
 treatises in a learned periodical work entitled ' Mines of the East ' 
 (' F undgruben des Orients '), and in the Commentaries of the Gottingen 
 Royal Society of Sciences (' Commentarii Societat. Reg. Scientarium 
 Gottingensis '). 
 
 In 1796 he published the plan of a comprehensive history of arts 
 and sciences from their revival in Europe to the end of the 18th 
 century, and wrote as a part of the work a general history of civilisation 
 and literature in modern Europe (' Allgemeine Geschichte der Cultur 
 und Litteratur des neuern Europa '), 2 vols., Gottingen, 1796-99. The 
 'History of Modern Poetry and Eloquence' by Bouterwek, and the 
 'HUtory of Military Science ' by Hoyer, constituted other parts of the 
 undertaking, which was left unfinished. The first three parts, and 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL, U, 
 
 the fifth part, of a similarly extensive and uncompleted work, were 
 written by Eichhorn, namely, the history of literature, ancient and 
 modern, from its commencement to the present time (' Geschichte der 
 Litteratur von ihrem Ursprunge bis auf die neuesten Zeiten '), G vols., 
 Gottingen, 1805-11. He also wrote literary history (' Literargeschichte '), 
 2 vols., Gottingen, 2nd edition, 1813-14; a history of all parts of the 
 world during the last three centuries (' Geschichte der drey letzten 
 Jahrhunderte,' &c), 6 vols., Gottingen, 3rd edition, 1818 ; an historical 
 survey of the French revolution (' Uebersicht der franz. Revolution '), 
 2 vols., Gottingen, 1797; and a universal history (' Weltgeschichte ') 
 on the plan of Gatterer's universal statistics (' Weltstatistik '), 4 vols., 
 Gottingen, 3rd edition, 1818-20. The two following laborious and 
 judicious compilations have obtained a high repute in the schools of 
 Germany, namely, a history of ancient Rome, composed entirely of 
 connected passages from the ancient Roman writers (' Antiqua Hi3toria 
 ex ipsis veterum script. Roman, narrationibus contexta '), 2 vols., 
 Gottingen, 1811; and a history of ancient Greece, constructed on the 
 same plan, from the ancient Greek historians ('Antiqua Historia,' &c), 
 4 vols., Leipzig, 1812. His last historical work was a curious research 
 on the early history of the illustrious house of the Guelphs, in which 
 the ancestors of the present royal family of England are traced up to 
 the middle of the 5th century (' Urgeschichte des erlauchten Hauses 
 der Welfen, von 449-1055 '), 4to, Hanover, 1817. From the year 1813 
 to his death in 1827, Professor Eichhorn was the editor of the Gottingen 
 ' Literary Gazette ' (' Gottingische gelehrte Auzeigen '). His critical 
 writings display extensive and exact learning, which in his biblical 
 treatises he employs for the development of doctrines often the reverse 
 of those which are generally regarded as orthodox. Eichhorn applies 
 to the Hebrew Scriptures the principles on which Heyne explained the 
 mythology of the Greeks, and his name is conspicuous in the theo- 
 logical school commenced by Michaelis and Semler, and extended by 
 Rosenmuller, Kuhnoel, Doderlein, Rohr, Teller, Schmidt, Henke, 
 Ammon, Steinbart, Wegscheider, &c, as an ultra-rationalist, and a 
 promoter of the system of logical religion and morality, founded on 
 the Kantian transcendental theory of ideology, at that time so generally 
 prevalent in the universities of Germany, and which in truth is a 
 system of mere moral philosophy and philosophical theism, exhibited 
 under the ostensible profession of Christianity ; since all traditionary 
 doctrines and statements are made to give way to the operation of 
 " abstract, universal, and eternal principles of reason." By his superior 
 knowledge of oriental antiquities, and by his bold mode of thinking, 
 Eichhorn established a new system of scriptural explication, in which 
 he displays a degree of learned and philosophical scepticism much 
 beyond that of his predecessor Michaelis. He denies all supernatural 
 revelation to the Hebrew prophets, believing them to have been clever 
 and experienced persons, who, from their peculiar abilities, were likely 
 to foresee political and other events. He examines, questions, and 
 rejects the authenticity of several books of the Old Testament, and of 
 some of the epistles in the New Testament ; and asserts generally that 
 miraculous appearances, visions, voices, &c, are explainable by the 
 laws of nature and the principles of human physiology and psychology, 
 and that supernatural communications are chiefly referable to the 
 mysterious traditions and superstitious notions common to all people 
 in a state of ignorance and barbarism. His theory of the origin of 
 the canonical gospels, which regards them as compilations from anterior 
 documents, has been adopted by many subsequent critics. (See Dr. 
 Schleiermacher's work on the ' Gospels.') Many of the sceptical 
 positions of Eichhorn have been attacked in Germany by the anti- 
 rationalist class of divines. On this point see ' The Present State of 
 Protestantism in Germany,' by the Rev. Hugh Rose, 2nd edition, 1829, 
 and the controversial publications which it elicited. 
 
 EICHHORN, CHARLES FREDERICK, son of the preceding, 
 obtained considerable celebrity as an able and learned jurisconsulist. 
 He was born at Jena on the 20th of November 1781 ; and after passing 
 through the usual course of academic and legal training, was named 
 in 1805 Professor of German Law at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. In 1811 
 he removed to Berlin, and in 1817 to Gottingen, in each place holding 
 the same chair as at Frankfurt. Ill-health however compelled him in 
 1828 to resign, and to retire to an estate he possessed near Tubingen. 
 Having somewhat recovered, he was in 1831 again summoned to Berlin, 
 and along with his professorship he received an appointment in the 
 ministry of foreign affairs. At length in 1833 he resigned his professor- 
 ship, and devoted himself entirely to his official duties and to writing. 
 About this time he was made a member of the Prussian council 
 of state, and of the commission of legislation. He died in July 
 1854. 
 
 Charles Eichhorn was one of the most erudite expounders of th 3 
 ancient Germanic law, of its origin, its growth, and its various bearinga. 
 As the associate and fellow-labourer of Savigny, though taking a some- 
 what different branch of the subject as the main object of his investi- 
 gations, and as holding the chair of German law for so many years, 
 Eichhorn exercised an important influence on the study of law in 
 Prussia, His principal writings are — 'Deutsche Staats und Rechts- 
 geschichte,' 4 vols. 8vo, Gottingen, 1808-18, which work has passed 
 through eight editions ; ' Grundsatze des Kirchenrechts der Katho- 
 lischen und Evangelischen Religionspartei in Deutschland,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, Gottingen, 1831-33; and ' Einleitung in das Deutsche Privatrecht 
 mit Einschluss des Lehnrechts.' In conjunction with Savigny and 
 
 8fl 
 
M7 
 
 EICHWALD, EDWARD. 
 
 ELDON, EARL OF. 
 
 Goschen he also carried on the ' Zeitschrift fiir geshichtliche Rechts- 
 vvisseDBchaft,' Berlin, 1815-1843. 
 
 * EICHWALD, EDWARD, a Russian naturalist, was born at 
 Mittau on the 4th of July 1795, and was educated in the gymnasium 
 of that town till 1814, when ha went to Berlin, where he studied 
 medicine and natural history. In 1817 he began to travel, and visited 
 Germany, Switzerland, France, and England. After residing at Wilna 
 and Dorpat during the years 1819-23, he was appointed professor of 
 zoology and midwifery in the university of Casan. Two years after- 
 wards he undertook a scientific journey to tho Caspian Sea, to the 
 Caucasus, and into Persia. On his return in 1827 he was made pro- 
 fessor of zoology and comparative anatomy in the university of Wilna, 
 and again set out to investigate the western provincos of Russia as far 
 as the Black Sea. The university of Wilna was suppressed, but Eich- 
 wald remained as secretary of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy there 
 till 1838, when he removed to St. Petersburg as professor of mineralogy 
 and zoology in the academy of that city. On receiving tho appoint- 
 ment he undertook a new journey and traversed Esthonia, Finland, 
 the government of St. Petersburg, and tho Scandinavian provinces. 
 In 1840 he made a geological journey through Italy, Sicily, and 
 Algeria. The results of his journeys have been published in numerous 
 works, of which the more important are — ' Zoologia specialis,' 1829; 
 'Sketches of Natural History from Lithuania, Volhynia, and Podolia,' 
 1830 ; ' Plantarum novarum quas in Itinere Caspio-Caucasio observa- 
 bit,' 1831-33 ; ' Memoria Bojani,' 1835 ; ' Treatise on the Mineral 
 Wealth of the Western Provinces of Russia,' 1835 ; ' Ancient Geogra- 
 phy of the Caspian Sea, of the Caucasus, and of the Southern Provinces 
 of Russia,' 1838 ; 'On the Strata of the Silurian System of Esthonia,' 
 1840; 'Faunia Caspio-Caucasia,' 1846 ; 'Observations in Natural 
 History during a Journey through the Tyrol,' 1851; ' The Paleontology 
 of Russia,' 1851. Eichwald has been created a councillor of state by 
 the Emperor of Russia, and he is member of a number of scientific 
 societies. 
 
 ELAGABA'LUS, called also HELIOGABA'LUS, was the grandson 
 of Msesa, sister to the empress Julia, the wife of Septimius Severus. 
 Msesa had two daughters, Saemis, or Semiamira, the mother of Varius 
 Avitus Bassianus, afterwards called Elagabalus, who was reported to 
 be the illegitimate son of Caracallaand Mammsea, mother of Alexander 
 Severus. Elagabalus was born at Antioch a.D. 204. Majsa took care 
 of his infancy and placed him, when five years of age, in the temple 
 of the Sun at Emesa to be educated by the priests ; and through her 
 influence he was made, while yet a boy, high priest of the Sun. That 
 divinity was called in Syria ' Elagabal,' which name the boy assumed. 
 After the death of Caracalla and the elevation of Macrinus, the latter 
 having incurred by his severity the dislike of the soldiers, Msesa availed 
 herself of this feeling to induce the officers to rise in favour of her 
 grandson, whom she presented to them as the son of the murdered 
 Caracalla. Elagabalus, who was then in his fifteenth year, was proclaimed 
 emperor by the legion stationed at Emesa. Having put himself at 
 their head he was attacked by Macrinus, who at first had the advantage, 
 but he and his mother Saemis, with great spirit, brought the soldiers 
 again to the charge, and defeated Macrinus, who was overtaken in his 
 flight and put to death a.d. 218. Elagabalus having entered Antioch, 
 wrote a letter to the senate, professing to take for his model Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus, a name revered at Rome : Elagabalus also assumed 
 that emperor's name. The senate acknowledged him, and he set off 
 for Rome, but tarried several months on his way amidst festivals and 
 amusements, and at last stopped at Nicomedia for the winter. Iu the 
 following year he arrived at Rome, and began a career of debauchery, 
 extravagance, and cruelty, which lasted the remaining three years of 
 his reign, and the disgusting details of which are given by Lampri- 
 dius, Herodianus, and Dion. Some critics have imagined, especially 
 from the shortness of his reign, that there must be some exaggeration 
 in these accounts, for he could hardly have done in so short a time 
 all the mischief that is attributed to him. That he was extremely 
 dissolute and totally incapable is certain; and this is not to be 
 wondered at, from his previous eastern education, his extreme youth, 
 the corrupt example of his mother, his sudden elevation, and the 
 general profligacy of the times. He surrounded himself with gladia- 
 tors, actors, and other base favourites, who made an unworthy use of 
 their influence. He married several wives, among others a vestal. 
 The imperial palace became a scene of debauch and open prostitution. 
 Elagabalus being attached to the superstitions of the East, raised a 
 temple on the Palatine hill to the Syrian god whose name he bore, 
 and plundered the temples of the Roman gods to enrich his own. He 
 put to death many senators ; he established a senate of women, under 
 the presidency of his mother Saetnis, which body decided all questions 
 relative to female dresses, visits, precedence, amusements, &c. He 
 wore his pontifical vest as high priest of the Sun, with a rich tiara 
 on his head. His grandmother Meesa, seeing his folly, thought of con- 
 ciliating the Romans by associating with him as Csesar his younger 
 cousin, Alexander Severus, who soon became a favourite with the 
 people. Elagabalus, who had consented to the association, became 
 afterwards jealous of bis cousin, and wished to deprive him of his 
 honours, but he could not obtain the consent of the senate. His 
 next measure was to spread the report of Alexander's death, which 
 produced an insurrection among the proetorians, and Elagabalus having 
 reuaired to their camp to quell the mutiny, was murdered together 
 
 with his mother and favourites, and his body was thrown into the 
 Tiber, March, a.d. 222. He was succeeded by Alexander Severus. 
 [Severus.] The coins of Elagabalus bear the names of Marcus Aure- 
 lius Antoninus, like those of Caracalla, with which they are often con- 
 founded. The names of Varius Avitus Bassianus, which he also bore 
 before his elevation to the throne, are not found on his medals. He 
 took the name of Varius from Sextus Varius Marcellus, who was his 
 mother's husband. 
 
 Coin of Elagabalus. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 380 grains. 
 
 ELDON, JOHN SCOTT, EARL OF, rose to the eminent station 
 which he ultimately held from a humble beginning. All that is 
 known about his ancestry is that his grandfather is reported by tradi- 
 tion to have been a clerk in the office of a coal-fitter at Newcastle, 
 and a man of very good repute ; he is described in a written docu- 
 ment, of the year 1716, as William Scott, of Sandgate (one of the 
 streets of that town), yeoman. His son, Mr. William Scott, the father 
 of Lord Eldon, followed the business of what is called a coal-fitter, 
 defined by his son's biographer to be " the factor who conducts the 
 sales between the owner and the shipper, taking the shipper's order 
 for the commodity, supplying the cargo to him, and receiving from 
 him the price of it for the owner." In this line he prospered so much 
 that at his death, at the age of seventy-nine, 6th November 1776, he 
 appears to have left to his family, including what some of them had 
 previously received from him, property to the amount of between 
 thirty and forty thousand pounds. Mr. William Scott was twice 
 married. By his first wife, Isabella Noble, who died January 1734, he 
 had three children, all of whose descendants are extinct ; by his second, 
 Jane Atkinson, daughter of Henry Atkinson, Esq., of Newcastle, whom 
 he married in August 1740, he had thirteen children, of whom the 
 eldest son, William, afterwards Lord Stowell, was born in 1745, and 
 of whom John, the future chancellor, was the eighth. 
 
 John Scott was born in 1751 — as he believed, on the 4th of June— 
 at his father's house in Love-lane, Newcastle, the site of which is now 
 partly occupied by other smaller houses, partly taken in to widen 
 Forster-street. He was educated, with his elder brothers, William and 
 Henry, at the grammar school of his native place, commonly called 
 the Head School, where the head master was the Rev. Hugh Moises, a 
 respectable scholar and an excellent teacher, but one who did not 
 spare the rod. William went to Oxford in 1761. [Stowell, Lord.] 
 It was their father's intention to bring up John to his own business; 
 but when he was making arrangements for that purpose in 1766, 
 William wrote home from Oxford, advising that he should be sent up 
 to him : " I can," he said, " do better for him here." Accordingly, 
 on the 15th of May of that year, he was entered a commoner ol 
 University College. On the 11th of July 1767, he was elected to a 
 fellowship in his college, having then just completed his sixteenth 
 year; he took his Bachelor's degree 20th February 1770; gained, in 
 1771, the chancellor's prize of 201. for an English prose essay on 'The 
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Foreign Travel' (published in ' Tal- 
 boys's Collection of the Oxford English Prize Essays,' 1830) ; but for- 
 feited his fellowship by running off, on the 18th of November 1772, 
 with Miss Elizabeth Surtees, daughter of Aubone Surtees, Esq., banker 
 of Newcastle, whom he married at Blackshiels, in Scotland, the next 
 day. The lady's father was very angry ; and it was some little time 
 before he was reconciled ; but at last he agreed to give his daughter a 
 portion of 1000i., Mr. Scott making over to his son an equal sum. 
 Meanwhile, it is said, a groc?r of Newcastle, a friend of the family, 
 who was well to do in the world, had kindly offered to take the young 
 man into partnership; and it was only another interference of his 
 elder brother William which prevented the father closing with this 
 proposal. It was then determined that he should enter into holy 
 orders if a University College living fell vacant during the twelve 
 months of grace, as they are called, for which he was still allowed to 
 hold his fellowship ; that event did not happen, and he then made up 
 his mind, it is said with some reluctance, to try the profession of the 
 law. He had entered himself a student of the Middle Temple in 
 January 1773 ; and he took his degree of Master of Arts on the 13th 
 of February in the same year. 
 
 During the years 1774 and 1775 he held the office of a tutor of 
 University College, where his brother William was at the time senior 
 tutor ; but it is believed that all he did in that capacity was to attend 
 to the law studies of some of the members of the college. He 
 received none of the emoluments of the office. One or both of thesa 
 
ELDON, EARL OF. 
 
 ELDON, EARL OP. 
 
 760 
 
 years also he read the law lectures, as deputy for Sir Robert Chambers, 
 the Vinerian professor; and for this service he had 602. a year. 
 Awkwardly enough, the first lecture he had to read was upon the 
 statue 4 and 5 Phil, and M., c. 8, ' Of young men running away with 
 maidens ; ' and it so chanced that he had to deliver it immediately 
 after it was put into his hands, and without knowing a word that 
 was in it. " Fancy me reading," he said, when telling the story long 
 afterwards, "with about 140 boys all giggling at the professor. Such 
 a tittering audience no one ever had." 
 
 Mr. Scott was called to the bar on the 9th of February 1776, on 
 which he came up with his wife to London, and took a small house 
 in Cursitor-street, from which he soon after removed to another in 
 Carey-street. He naturally joined the Northern Circuit; but it was, 
 as usual, some time before he began to make much by his practice. 
 Indeed after a trial of two or three years his prospects of success in 
 London seemed so unpromising, that he had made arrangements for 
 Bettling as a provincial counsel in his native town, when, in July 1778, 
 he was brought into considerable notice by his argument in the cause 
 of Ackroyd v. Smithson (1 Bro. C. C. 503), heard before Sir Thomas 
 Sewell, Master of the Rolls ; and he obtained still more repute when 
 Sir Thomas's judgment, which was adverse to his client, was reversed 
 in March 1780, by Lord Chancellor Thurlow, in accordance with 
 Scott's reasoning, which has decided all similar questions ever since. 
 The question was what should be done with one of a number of shares 
 into which a testator had directed that the money obtained by the 
 Bale of his real estates should be divided, the party to whom he had 
 given the share by his will having died in the testator's lifetime. Mr. 
 Scott contended that the share, being land, at the death of the testator 
 came to the heir-at-law. Even for some time after this success how- 
 ever he still retained the idea of settling in Newcastle; and had 
 actually made a house be taken for him in that town, of which he 
 had also accepted the Recordership. One year, apparently 1780, he 
 did not go the circuit, because he could not afford it ; he had already, 
 to use his own words, borrowed of his brother for several circuits, 
 without getting adequate remuneration. But when matters were in 
 this state he unexpectedly found such an opportunity of distinguishing 
 himself in an election case (that of Clitheroe) before a committee of 
 the House of Commons as at once changed his position, and with that 
 his plans for the future. Having been applied to in the absence of 
 the counsel who was to have led, Mr. Scott, upon the refusal of the 
 next counsel to lead because he was not prepared, was persuaded to 
 take the conduct of the case at a few hours' notice. It lasted for 
 fifteen days. " It found me poor enough," said he, relating the 
 circumstances in his old age, " but I began to be rich before it was 
 done : they left me fifty guineas at the beginning ; then there were 
 ten guineas every day, and five guineas every evening for a consulta- 
 tion — more money than I could count. But, better still, the length 
 of the cause gave me time to make myself thoroughly acquainted with 
 the law." He was beaten in the committee by one vote ; but the 
 ability he had shown did not the less establish his reputation. 
 
 All thought of leaving London was now abandoned ; his practice 
 from this time increased rapidly; and in June 1783, on the formation 
 of the coalition ministry of Lord North and Mr. Fox, and the great 
 seal on Lord Thurlow's resignation being put into commission, he was 
 one of several junior counsel who were called within the bar. Erskine 
 was another ; and it was at first intended to give precedence to him 
 and Mr. Pigott, both of whom were Scott's juniors ; but to this 
 arrangement the latter firmly refused to submit ; and his patent, as 
 ultimately drawn out, gave him precedence next after the king's 
 counsel then being, and after Harry Peckham, who had been made 
 one a few days previously, and had been placed before Erskine, though 
 Erskine's patent was of earlier date. A few days after he received 
 this promotion, he was made a bencher of his Inn of Court. 
 
 About the same time he was returned to parliament for the borough 
 of Weobly, through the patronage of Lord Weymouth, with whom 
 however he stipulated that he should not be expected uniformly, or 
 as a matter of course, to represent his lordship's opinions. The 
 election took place on the 16th of June. He and Erskine both made 
 their maiden speeches in the same debate, that on the 20th of 
 November, about a week after the opening of the session, on a motion 
 connected with the famous India Bill, which eventually upset Fox's 
 government. The two young lawyers were however on opposite 
 (ides — Erskine with ministers, Scott with Pitt and the party destined 
 soon after to come into power. The Coalition ministry was turned 
 out on the 18th of December ; and on the 24th of March 1784, the 
 king prorogued, and the next day dissolved parliament, after the 
 opposition to Pitt and the new government had been gradually brought 
 down in the course of a long series of divisions to a majority of one. 
 Mr. Scott was again returned for Weobly ; and in the new parliament 
 he took a prominent part in most of the legal questions that came 
 before the House. In the session of 1785, on the 9th of March, he 
 spoke and voted with Fox against ministers on one of the questions 
 connected with the great Westminster scrutiny ; and his speech was 
 considered to have established the doctrine " that the election must 
 be finally closed before the return of the writ, and that the writ must 
 oe returned on or before the day specified in it." This principle the 
 government soon after consented to enact as law by the statute 
 26 Geo. III. c. 84, "To limit the duration of polls and scrutinies." 
 
 In March 1787 Mr. Scott was appointed chancellor of the bishopric 
 and county palatine of Durham, by the bishop, who was a brother of 
 Lord Thurlow, and had just been translated to the see. In June 
 1788, on Lord Mansfield's resignation and the appointment of Sir 
 Lloyd Kenyon as his successor in the chief-justiceship of the King's 
 Bench, the attorney-general, Mr. Pepper Arden, was made master of 
 the rolls, in room of Kenyon; the solicitor-general, Sir Archibald 
 Macdonald, became attorney-general ; and the office of solicitor-general 
 was conferred on Scott. At the same time he was also knighted. A 
 few days afterwards he was re-elected for AVeobly; and he was a 
 fourth time returned for the same place to the new parliament which 
 met in November 1790. He held the office of solicitor-general till 
 February 1793, when he was made attorney-general on the promotion 
 of Sir Archibald Macdonald to the place of Chief Baron of the 
 Exchequer. On this occasion he was returned a fifth time for Weobly. 
 To the next parliament, which met in September 1796, the last in 
 which he sat as a member of the House of Commons, he was returned, 
 along with Sir Francis Burdett, for the Duke of Newcastle's borough 
 of Boroughbridge. 
 
 The period of Sir John Scott's tenure of the office of attorney- 
 general extends to the year 1799. It is memorable for the state trials 
 connected with the political excitement produced in this country by 
 the breaking out of the French Revolution. Muir, Palmer, Skirving, 
 Margarot, and Gerald, had all been convicted of sedition in Scotland, 
 and sentenced to fourteen years transportation, when in October 1794, 
 Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, Holcroft, and their associates, were 
 indicted for high treason at the Old Bailey. Only Hardy, Tooke, and 
 Thelwall were tried ; all three were acquitted ; and the prosecutions 
 against the other prisoners were dropped. There has been much 
 difference of opinion as to the wisdom of the course taken by the 
 government on this occasion, but perhaps too much stress has com- 
 monly been laid on the single fact that none of the trials issued in a 
 conviction. There can be no doubt that the evidence, although it 
 was held insufficient to support the charge of high treason, produced 
 an immense effect upon the public mind ; and the accused were dis- 
 missed from the bar unharmed, but to a great extent disarmed. The 
 attorney-general naturally came in for a principal share of the obloquy 
 which the proceedings excited ; but his demeanour in the conduct of 
 the trials was admitted on all hands to have been characterised by 
 moderation and good temper. His answer to the question so often 
 asked, — Why he had not prosecuted for a misdemeanour? always 
 was, that in his deliberate opinion the offence was treason or nothing; 
 but he never could get over the next question, How could anyone 
 expect a jury to convict of treason, when it required a speech of 
 eleven hours to state the charge? In his own written account how- 
 ever, as quoted by Mr. Twiss from the 'Anecdote-Book,' vol. i. 
 pp. 282-86, he lays the principal stress upon the desirableness of 
 bringing out all the evidence. His words are, " The mass of evidence, 
 in my judgment, was such as ought to go to the jury for their 
 opinion, whether they were guilty or not guilty of treason. Unless 
 the whole evidence was laid before the jury, it would have been 
 impossible that the country could ever have been made fully acquainted 
 
 with the danger to which it was exposed ; and it appeared to 
 
 me to be more essential to securing the public safety that the whole 
 of their transactions should be published, than that any of these 
 individuals should be convicted." 
 
 In July 1799, on the death of Sir James Eyre, chief justice of the 
 Common Pleas, Sir John Scott claimed and obtained that office, 
 agreeing at the same time to go into the House of Lords. His title 
 of Baron Eldon was taken from a manor of that name, consisting of 
 above 1300 acres, in the county of Durham, which he had purchased 
 for 22,0002. in 1792. It appears from Lord Eldon's fee books, as far 
 as they have been preserved, that his annual receipts when at the bar 
 had been in 1785, 6054?.; in 1786, 68332. ; in 1787, 76002. ; in 1788, 
 8419^.; in 1789, 9559?.; in 1790, 96842.; in 1791, 10,2132.; in 1792, 
 90802.; in 1793, 10,3302.; in 1794, 11,5922.; in 1795, 11,1492.; in 
 179 6, 12,1402. ; in 1797, 10,8612. ; and in 1798, 10,5572. His removal 
 to the bench was a great sacrifice of income, but he considered that 
 his health and comfort required his retirement from the laborious 
 office of attorney-general. His claim however was at first opposed 
 by both Pitt and Loughborough the chancellor, who were desirous of 
 giving the office to Sir R. Pepper Arden, then master of the rolls. 
 
 When it became known that Sir John Scott was to be the new chief 
 justice of the Common Pleas, Lord Kenyon, then chief justice of the 
 King's Bench, publicly congratulated the profession upon the appoint- 
 ment of one, who, he said, would probably be found " the most 
 consummate judge that ever sate in judgment : " and Lord Eldon 
 proved an admirable common law judge. "On the bench of a 
 common law court," it is remarked by his biographer, " no scope was 
 allowed to his only judicial imperfection, the tendency to hesitate. 
 
 Compelled to decide without postponement, Lord Eldon at 
 
 once established the highest judicial reputation; a reputation indeed 
 which afterwards wrought somewhat disadvantageous^ against him- 
 self when lord chancellor, by showing how little ground there was for 
 his diffidence, and consequently how little necessity for his doubts and 
 delays." He was also much attached to his office, and to the end of 
 his life used to express the strong regret with which he had left the 
 Court of Common Pleas. 
 
751 
 
 ELGIN, EARL OF. 
 
 ELIE t»E BEAllMONT. 
 
 in 
 
 But on Lord Loughborough's resignation of the great seal in April 
 1801, about a month after Mr. Pitt had been succeeded as prime 
 minister by Mr. Addington, Lord Eldon became lord chancellor 
 (April 14th). His own account was, that when he Was made chief 
 justice of the Common Pleas, the king had insisted upon his giving a 
 promise, that whenever he should be called upon to take the office of 
 chancellor he would do so. He continued to hold this office till the 
 7th of February 1806, when, on the accession of the Whig ministry of 
 Mr. Fox and Lord Qrenville, he was succeeded by Lord Erskine ; he 
 resumed it on the 1st of April 1807, on the return of his party to 
 power; and he finally resigned it on the 30th of April 1827, when 
 Mr. Canning beoame prime minister, and the great seal was given to 
 Lord Lyndhurst. He was raised to the dignities of Viscount 
 Eucombe and Earl of Eldon in 1821. 
 
 Lord Eldon's judicial character has been elaborately drawn by 
 several competent pens. The reader may be especially referred to 
 the volumes of his biographer, Mr. Twiss ; to a series of articles in 
 the ' Law Magazine,' Nos. 41 to 44 inclusive; to the second series of 
 Lord Brougham's ' Historical Sketches of Statesmen who flourished in 
 the time of George III. ; ' and to Lord Campbell's ' Lives of the 
 Chancellors.' It is admitted on all hands that in legal learning lie 
 never had a superior, if he had an equal, in Westminster Hall ; and, 
 although his intellect was not capacious, nor his general powers of 
 mind of a commanding order, in the acuteness and subtlety with 
 which he applied his professional knowledge he was perhaps unrivalled 
 by any judge that ever sat upon the bench. The great fault that is 
 imputed to him is the hesitation which he showed in coming to a 
 decision, or at any rate, as has been said to have been rather the case, 
 in pronouncing one. But this habit, however distressing to individual 
 suitors, was not so permanently mischievous as might be feared. 
 Indeed the anxious consideration with which his judgments were 
 formed enhances their value and authority. 
 
 During nearly all the time that Lord Eldon sat on the woolsack he 
 l;ook a leading part in the general debates of the House of Lords ; he 
 was also understood to be one of the most influential members of the 
 cabinet; and he was certainly one of the staunchest and most uncom- 
 promising supporters of all the great principles of the old Tory or 
 Conservative party. The two great measures of Parliamentary Reform 
 and Roman Catholic Emancipation in particular were steadily opposed 
 by him on all occasions, and to the last. Indeed it was his inflexi- 
 bility on the latter question that occasioned his final retirement from 
 office. 
 
 Opinions will of course be divided on Lord Eldon's character as a 
 public man. The facts of his long career are now generally known ; 
 and sufficient time has elapsed to enable the present generation to 
 form a tolerably correct estimate of the men who directed affairs in 
 the eventful period of the latter part of the reign of George III. and 
 the regency. So much we may affirm without incurring the impu- 
 tation of judging in a mere party spirit; that the reputation of Lord 
 Eldon as a profound lawyer will be permanent, while his career as a 
 statesman was not marked by any measure that places him among the 
 great men of his age or country. 
 
 Lord Eldon survived in retirement till the 13th of January 1838, 
 and was succeeded in his peerage by his grandson, the late earl, the 
 son of his eldest son John, who was born at Oxford on the 8th of 
 March 1774, and died on the 24th of December 1805. Lord Eldon's 
 other children were Elizabeth, born in 1783, who married George 
 Stanley Repton, Esq. ; Edward William, born in 1791, and Henry 
 John, born in 1793, who both died in infancy; William Henry John, 
 born in 1795, who died in 1832; Frances Jane, born in 1798, who 
 married the Rev. Edward Bankes, rector of Corfe Castle and pre- 
 bendary of Gloucester and Norwich, and died in 1838. Lady Eldon 
 died in 1831. John, second earl of Eldon, was declared of unsound 
 mind in 1853, and died in September 1854. His son John, the present 
 earl, was born in 1845, and succeeded to the title on the death of 
 his father. 
 
 {The Public and Private Life of Lord Chancellor Eldon, with 
 Selections from his Correspondence, by Horace Twiss, Esq., one of her 
 Majesty's Counsel, 3 vols. 8vo, Lond., 1844.) 
 
 ELGIN, EARL OF. Thomas Bhuce, seventh earl of Elgin and 
 Kincardine, was descended from the royal family of Bruce, and was 
 born in 1766. After having passed some years at Harrow and West- 
 minster, he went to the University of St. Andrews; thence he 
 proceeded to Paris, where he studied law ; and he afterwards prose- 
 cuted military studies in Germany. He subsequently entered the 
 army, in which he rose gradually to the rank of general. The greater 
 part of his life however was spent in diplomatic posts. He was 
 appointed envoy at Brussels in 1792, and accompanied the Prussian 
 army during its operations in Germany in the following year. In 
 1795 he was sent to Berlin as envoy extraordinary, and in 1799 to 
 Constantinople in the same capacity. Here he continued until the 
 French were driven out of Egypt in 1802. On his appointment to the 
 embassy to Turkey it had been suggested to him as desirable to obtain 
 some better knowledge of the remains of art at Athens than then 
 existed. Lord Elgin submitted the proposition to the British govern- 
 ment, but it was not encouraged. On his way however he stopped at 
 Palermo, where he was persuaded by Sir William Hamilton to pursue 
 the design, and accordingly he engaged six artists at his own expense, 
 
 who reached Athens in August 1800, and they were eventually able 
 to secure and to bring over to England a large number of caRts, monu- 
 ments, statues, bas-reliefs, medals, and fragments of architecture of 
 the best age of Athenian art. In spite of considerable censure and 
 opposition, in 1816 the collection was purchased by the government, 
 and placed in the British Museum, where it is known aB the ' Elgin 
 Marbles.' From this time forward Lord Elgin held no public appoint- 
 ment. He was a Scotch representative peer for fifty years, but, 
 except when employed as a diplomatist, he lived a very private and 
 retired life. He died at Paris, in November 1841, 
 
 ELGIN, EARL OF. James Bruce, eighth earl of Elgin and 
 Kincardine, son of the preceding nobleman, was bora in 1811, and 
 received his early education at Eton, and at Christchurch, Oxford, 
 where he graduated B.A. in 1833, as a first class in classical honours. 
 He was subsequently elected Fellow of Merton College. In 1841 he 
 was chosen one of the representatives for Southampton, but suc- 
 ceeded to the Scottish earldom on his father's death before the close 
 of the year. In 1842 he was appointed governor of Jamaica, and htld 
 that post for four years. The ability which ho here displayed induced 
 the existing government to select him as successor of Lord Cathcarfc 
 in the still more arduous post of governor-general of Canada, whither 
 he proceeded in 1846. Here his policy was liberal and enlightened, 
 and correspondingly popular. He carried out the principles of adminis- 
 tration recommended by tho late Earl of Durham, by cherishing a 
 representative system and self-government. Maintaining a diguified 
 neutrality among the extremes of contending parties in Canadian 
 politics, he interested himself in the development of the agricultural 
 and commercial resources of the province, and especially in its export 
 manufactures, thus securing the good opinion at once of the colonists 
 themselves and of more than one ministry at home. In 1849 he was 
 rewarded with an English peerage, and the lord-lieutenancy of Fife- 
 shire was conferred upon him in 1854. He has been twice married ; 
 his second wife was a daughter of the first earl of Durham. [Sup.] 
 
 ELI, the High Priest of the Jews, who succeeded Samson as judge 
 of Israel, or, as is generally supposed, was his colleague for the last 
 twenty years of his government. He was the first high priest of the 
 race of Itharaar, the second son of Aaron— the race of Eleazar, which 
 was not extinct, being for some reason superseded, and it was not 
 restored till the time of Solomon, who expelled Abiathar, and 
 appointed Zadok, of the elder race, in his place. Eli flourished, 
 according to Hales, about B.C. 1182, and his government endured for 
 about thirty years. He was a good and pious man, but deficient in 
 firmness. We first hear of him in the first book of Samuel, when he 
 mistook the fervour of Hannah for drunkenness, as she prayed for 
 issue in the temple. But she remonstrated, " Count not thine hand- 
 maid for a daughter of Belial ; for out of the abundance of my 
 complaint and grief have I Bpoken hitherto :" and Eli blessed her, 
 saying, "Go in peace; and the God of Israel grant thee thy petition 
 that thou hast asked of him." As Eli advanced in years he delegated 
 much of his power to his two sons, Hophni and Phinheas. They were 
 dissolute and violent young men, who not only abstracted the sacrifices 
 brought to the temple, but were guilty of other enormities, so that 
 " men abhorred the offering of the Lord." A prophet was sent, who 
 told Eli of the misconduct of hia sons, and denounced vengeance upon 
 their crimes. This seems to have been ineffectual in restraining them, 
 for, still later, " when his eyes began to wax dim, and he could not 
 see," Samuel was commissioned to announce to him that his house 
 would be judged, "because his sons made themselves vile, and he 
 restrained them not ; " to which he answered, " Let the Lord do what 
 seemeth him good." A war with the Philistines occurred shortly 
 afterwards, and the Israelites were defeated at Eben-ezer, whereupon 
 they fetched the ark from Shiloh, and it was accompanied by Hophni 
 and Phinehas. Another battle took place; the ark was captured; 
 and Hophni and Phinehas were slain, together with thirty thousand 
 Israelites. On learning this disastrous news, Eli fell back from his 
 chair and broke his neck, at the age of ninety-eight. He was suc- 
 ceeded as judge by Samuel, who held the office until the nomiuation 
 of Saul as king. 
 
 *ELIE DE BEAUMONT, JEAN-BAPTISTE-ARMAND-LOUIS- 
 LEONCE, was born at Canon, in the department of Calvados, on the 
 25th of September, 1798. He was educated at the Lycee Henri IV., 
 where he gained the first prize in mathematics in 1817, and with it 
 the privilege of entering the Ecole Polytechnique. On quitting this 
 in 1819 he studied for two years in the Ecole des Mines, and then 
 commenced the series of mineralogical and geological travels that have 
 given him renown. In 1823, in company with M. Dufrenoy, he visited 
 England and Scotland. In 1825, again in conjunction with M. Dufre- 
 noy, he prepared a geological chart of France on a large scale. From 
 this time his studies have been chiefly devoted to geology, although in 
 January 1852 he was nominated by the President to a seat in the 
 Senate, but M. de Beaumont has always abstained from politics. His 
 chief works are ' Coup d'ceil sur les Mines,' 1824 ; ' Observations Geo- 
 logiques sur les diffcrentes Formations qui, dans le Systeme des Vosges, 
 soparent la Formation Hpuilliere de celle du Lias,' 1829 ; ' Sur la Con- 
 stitution Gdologique des lies Baleares,' 1829 ; ' Recherches sur quelqities- 
 uues des Revolutions de la Surface du Globe,' 1829; ' Lecontjide 
 Geologic,' 1845. M. de Beaumont was elected a foreign meinbeij of 
 the Royal Society of London in 1835 ; he is also a member of sevu.ral 
 
 \ 
 
ELIZABETH. 
 
 other scientific societies ; and on the death of Arago in 1853 he suc- 
 ceeded him as perpetual secretary to the Acade'mie des Sciences. 
 
 ELIOT, JOHN, often called the ' Apostle of the Indians,' was a native 
 of England, born in 1604. He was educated at the University of 
 Cambridge, and distinguished himself by proficiency in theology and 
 in ancient languages. Having seceded from the established church 
 and embraced the ministry, he emigrated, like many other sufferers 
 for conscience, to New England, and arrived at Boston in 1631. In 
 the following year he married, and finally established his abode at 
 Roxbury, only a mile distant, as minister of a small congregation, 
 composed chiefly of friends to whose religious service he had previously 
 engaged himself, in case they should follow him across the Atlantic. 
 In discharging the duties of his function he wa3 zealous and efficient ; 
 and he was also earnest in spreading the blessings of education, by 
 promoting the establishment of schools. One of his occupations was 
 the preparing, in conjunction with Richard Mather and another minis- 
 ter named Wilde, a new metrical version of the Psalms for congrega- 
 tional use. 
 
 Having qualified himself, by learning their language, to become a 
 preacher to the Indians, he commenced his missionary labours on the 
 28th of October 1646, before a large assemblage collected by his invita- 
 tion on the site of what is now the town of Newton, a few miles from 
 Roxbury. Many, it is said, on this and on a subsequent occasion 
 seemed deeply touched ; and it is evident, by the questions asked of 
 the preacher, that the understandings as well as the feelings of his 
 audience, were roused. From the chiefs and priests, or medicine-men, 
 both of whom felt interested in maintaining ancient manners and 
 superstitions, he usually met with opposition. Still no small number 
 were converted : and these, abandoning their savage life, united in 
 communities, to which lands were granted by the provincial govern- 
 ment. In 1674 there were seven Indian ' praying-towns,' containing 
 near 500 persons, thus settled in Massachusetts, under the care of 
 Eliot, besides a still greater number of converts, to whom land had 
 not been thus assigned. 
 
 In travelling among the woods Eliot underwent great physical labour 
 and hardship, and his mental labour was unremitting. He translated 
 the Old and New Testament, and several religious treatises, into the 
 Indian tongue, which were printed for distribution chiefly at the 
 expense of the Society for Propagating the Gospel ; he composed an 
 Indian grammar, and several treatises on subjects not directly 
 religious, for the use of his converts and pupils, and also wrote a 
 number of English works. Nevertheless, he lived to the age of eighty- 
 Bix, and resigned his pastoral charge at Roxbury only two years before 
 his death, which took place on the 20th of May 1690. A colleague 
 had been appointed to assist him in 1650, in consequence of his neces- 
 sary and frequent absence. His private character appears to have 
 been very beautiful : he was not only disinterested and zealous, but 
 benevolent, self-denying, and humble. Baxter says, in one of his 
 letters, " There was no man on earth whom I honoured above him." 
 A handsome memorial to the ' Apostle of the Indians, and the pastor 
 for fifty-eight years of the first church in Roxbury,' has been erected 
 in the picturesque ' Forest Hills Cemetery,' Roxbury. 
 
 (Cotton Mather, Ecc. Hist., b. iiL, and Life of John Eliot. A modern 
 Life of John Eliot, Edinburgh, 12mo, 1828, contains a good deal of 
 information concerning the early attempts to convert the Indians.) 
 
 ELIOTT, GEORGE AUGUSTUS, LORD HEATHFIELD, was 
 born at Stobbs in Scotland in 1718. He studied the mathematics 
 and other sciences at Edinburgh, and afterwards went to the Univer- 
 sity of Leyden, where he made great proficiency in classical literature, 
 and was remarkable for the elegance and fluency with which he spoke 
 the French and German languages. His knowledge of tactics was 
 acquired in the celebrated school at La Fere. Having attained the 
 rank of lieutenant-colonel, he accompanied George II. to Germany in 
 1743 as his majesty's aide-de-camp, and was wounded in the battle of 
 Dettingen. In the Seven Years War, he fought in 1757 under the 
 Duke of Cumberland and Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, and greatly 
 distinguished himself at the head of his celebrated regiment of light- 
 horse, raised and formed by himself, and called by his name. He 
 was second in command in the expedition against the Havannah, the 
 capture of which important place was highly honourable to the 
 courage and perseverance of the British troops. After the peace he 
 obtained the rank of lieutenant-general, and was appointed in 1775 to 
 the government of Gibraltar. His memorable defence of that import- 
 ant fortress against the combined efforts of France and Spain was the 
 last exploit of his life, the splendour of which so far eclipsed all that 
 had preceded it, that he is most familiarly known as 'the gallant 
 defender of Gibraltar.' This last and most memorable of all the 
 sieges of Gibraltar was commenced in 1779, and did not terminate 
 till the 2nd of February 1783. For a detailed account of the siege 
 the reader is referred to the interesting work of Captain John Drink- 
 water and M. Bourgoing, to the ' Life of General George Augustus 
 Elliot (afterwards Lord Heathfield),' and to chap. lxiv. of Malvon's 
 ' History of England.' The conduct of the governor and brave 
 defender of Gibraltar throughout forms one great example of moral 
 virtue and military talent. The grand attack took place on tho 13th 
 of September 1782. On the land side, besides stupendous batteries 
 mounting 200 pieces of heavy ordnance, there was an army of 40,000 
 men, commanded by a victorious general, the Due de Crillon, and 
 
 animated by the immediate presence of two princes of the crown of 
 France. In the bay lay the combined fleets of France and Spain, 
 consisting of 47 sail-of-the-line, numerous frigates and smaller armed 
 vessels, besides 10 battering ships, which alone had cost upwards of 
 500,000?. Four hundred pieces of the heaviest artillery (reckoning 
 both sides) were playing at once. The battering ships were found to 
 be of so formidable a construction that the heaviest shells rebounded 
 from them. Eventually however two of them were destroyed by the 
 incessant discharge of red-hot shot from the garrison, and the remain- 
 ing eight were burnt by the enemy to prevent them from falling into 
 the hands of the besieged. The remainder of the enemy's squadron 
 also suffered considerably; but notwithstanding their failure the 
 assailants kept up a less vivid fire for more than two months, and the 
 siege did not finally terminate till the 2nd of February 1783, when 
 it was announced that the preliminaries of a general peace had been 
 signed. The expenditure of the garrison exceeded 8300 rounds (more 
 than half of which were hot balls), and 716 barrels of powder. That 
 of the enemy could not be ascertained, but their loss, including 
 prisoners, was estimated at 2000, while that of the garrison only 
 amounted to 16 killed and 68 wounded. While the floating batteries 
 were on fire a detachment of British marines under Brigadier Curtis, 
 was humanely and successfully employed in rescuing numbers of the 
 enemy from their burning citadels. The failure of this memorable 
 attempt to wrest Gibraltar from the possession of England has been 
 partly attributed to a want of co-operation among the enemy's forces, 
 but the principal cause was, no doubt, the gallant defence made by 
 General Eliott and his brave garrison, notwithstanding their frequent 
 and extreme suffering from want of provisions and from the prevalence 
 of disease. 
 
 After the peace General Eliotfc was created a peer by the title of 
 Lord Heathfield of Gibraltar. His lordship died at his favourite 
 country seat Kalkofen, near Aix-la-Chapelle, whither he had gone in 
 1790, in the seventy-third year of his age. 
 
 ELIZABETH, Queen of England, the daughter of Henry VIII. by 
 his second wife, Anne Boleyn, was born at Greenwich, 7th of September 
 1533. She was not three years old therefore when her mother was 
 brought to the block in May 1536. Very soon after her birth it was 
 declared, by the Act 25 Henry VIII., c. 22, that if Queen Anne should 
 decease without issue male, to be begotten of the body of the king, 
 then the crown, on the death of the king, should go " to the Lady 
 Elizabeth, now princess, and to the heirs of her body lawfully 
 begotten." By this act therefore Henry's female issue by his present 
 queen was placed in the order of succession before the male issue he 
 might have by any future wife. By the 28 Henry VIII., c. 7, however, 
 passed after his marriage with Jane Seymour, his two former marriages 
 were declared to be unlawful and void, and both Elizabeth and her 
 elder sister Mary were bastardised. But finally, by the 35 Henry VIII., 
 c. 1, passed soon after his marriage with his last wife, Catharine Parr, 
 it was declared that if Prince Edward should die without heirs, then 
 the crown should remain first to the Lady Mary, and, failing her, to 
 the Lady Elizabeth. This was the last legal settlement of the crown, 
 by which her position was affected, made previous to Elizabeth's 
 accession; unless indeed she might be considered to be excluded by 
 implication by the Act 1 Mary, st. 2, c. 1, which legitimatised her 
 sister Mary, declared the validity of Henry's first marriage, and 
 pronounced his divorce from Catherine of Aragon to be void. 
 
 In 1535 a negociation was entered into for the marriage of Elizabeth 
 to the Duke of Angouleme, the third son of Francis I. of France ; 
 but it was broken off before any agreement was come to. In 1546 
 also Henry proposed to the Emperor Charles V., with the view of 
 breaking off a match then contemplated between the emperor's son, 
 the prince of Spain, afterwards Philip II., with a daughter of the 
 French king, that Philip should marry the Princess Elizabeth ; but 
 neither alliance took place. Elizabeth's next suitor, though he does 
 not seem to have formally declared his pretensions, was the protector 
 Somerset's unfortunate brother, the Lord Seymour of Sudley. He is 
 said to have made some advances to her even before his marriage 
 with Queen Catharine Parr, although Elizabeth was then only in her 
 fourteenth year. Catharine, who died a few months after her marriage 
 (poisoned, as many supposed, by her husband), appears to have been 
 made somewhat uncomfortable while she lived by the freedoms the 
 princess continued to allow Sudley to take with her, which went 
 beyond ordinary flirtation ; the scandal of the day indeed was, that 
 "the Lady Elizabeth did bear some affection to the admiral." After 
 his wife's death he was accused of having renewed his designs upon 
 her hand; and it was part of the charge on which he was attainted 
 that he had plotted to seize the king's person and to force the princess 
 to marry him ; but his execution in the course of a few months 
 stopped this and all his other ambitious schemes. 
 
 In 1550, in the rtign of Edward VI., it was proposed that Elizabeth 
 should be married to the eldest son of Christian III. of Denmark; 
 but the negociation seems to have been stopped by her refusal to 
 consent to the match. She was a favourite with her brother, who 
 used to call her his ' sweet sister Temperance ; ' but he was never- 
 theless prevailed upon by the artful and interested representations of 
 Dudley to pass over her, as well as Mary, in the settlement of 
 the crown which he made by will a short time before his death. 
 [Edward VI.] 
 
ELIZABETH. 
 
 ELIZABETH. 
 
 Camden gives the following account of the situation and employ- 
 ments of Elizabeth at this period of her life, in the introduction to 
 his history of her reign. She was both, he says, " in great grace and 
 favour with Kiug Edward, her brother, as likewise in singular esteem 
 with the nobility aud people ; for she was of admirable beauty, and 
 well deserving a crown, of a modest gravity, excellent wit, royal soul, 
 happy memory, and indefatigably given to the study of learning; 
 insomuch, as before she was seventeen years of age she understood 
 well the Latin, French, and Italian tongues, and had an indifferent 
 knowledge of the Greek. Neither did she neglect music, so far as it 
 became a princess, beiug able to sing sweetly, and play handsomely 
 on the lute. With Roger Ascham, who was her tutor, she read over 
 Melancthon's ' Common-Places,' all Tully, a great part of the histories 
 of Titus Livius, certain select oratious of Isocrates (whereof two she 
 turned into Latin), Sophocles's Tragedies, and the New Testament iu 
 Greek, by which means she both framed her tongue to a pure and 
 elegant way of speaking, &c." ('English Translation in Kennet's 
 Collection,') 
 
 It appears from what Ascham himself tells us in his 'Schoolmaster' 
 that Elizabeth continued her Greek studies after she ascended the 
 throne : "After dinner " (at Windsor Castle, 10th December 1563), he 
 says, " I went up to read with the Queen's Majesty : we read there 
 together in the Greek tongue, as I well remember, that noble oration 
 of Demosthenes against ^Eschines for his false dealing in his embassage 
 to king Philip of Macedonia." 
 
 On the death of Edward, Camden says that an attempt was made 
 by Dudley to induce Elizabeth to resign her title to the crown for a 
 sum of money, and certain lands to be settled on her : her reply was, 
 " that her elder sister, the Lady Mary, was first to be agreed withal ; 
 for as long as the said Lady Mary lived she, for her part, could challenge 
 no right at all." Burnett says that both she and Mary, having been 
 allured by messages from Dudley, who no doubt wished to get them 
 into his hands, were on their way to town, when the news of Edward's 
 approaching end induced them to turn back. When Mary came to 
 London after being proclaimed queen, the Lady Elizabeth went to 
 meet her with 500 horse, according to Camden, others say with 2000. 
 Fox, the martyrologist, relates that " Queen Mary, when she was first 
 queen, before she was crowned, would go no whither, but would have 
 her by the hand, and send for her to dinner and supper." At Mary's 
 coronation, in October 1553, according to Holinshed, as the queen rode 
 through the city towards Westminster, the chariot in which she sat 
 was followed by another " having a covering of cloth of silver, all 
 white, and six horses trapped with the like, wherein sate the Lady 
 Elizabeth and the Lady Anne of Cleve." Another account says that 
 Elizabeth carried the crown on this occasion. 
 
 From this time Elizabeth, who had been brought up in their reli- 
 gion, became the hope of the Protestant party. Her position however 
 was one of great difficulty. At first she refused to attend her sister 
 to mass, endeavouring to soothe Mary by appealing to her compassion : 
 after some time however she yielded an outward compliance. The act 
 passed by the parliament, which, although it did not mention her by 
 name, bastardised her by implication, by annulling her father's divorce 
 from his first wife, could not fail to give her deep offence. Availing 
 herself of an order of Mary, assigning her a rank below what her 
 birth entitled her to, as an excuse for wishing to retire from court, she 
 obtained leave to go to her house at Ashridge, in Buckinghamshire, in 
 the beginning of December. About the same time Mary has been 
 supposed to have been irritated agrinst her sister by the preference 
 shown for Elizabeth by her kinsman Edward Courtenay, whom, after 
 releasing from the Tower, the queen had restored to his father's title 
 of Earl of Devon, and is said to have had some thoughts of marrying. 
 It appears to have been part of the design of the rash and unfortunate 
 attempt of Wyatt, in the beginning of the following year, to bring 
 about a marriage between Elizabeth and Courtenay, who was one of 
 those engaged in the revolt. This affair involved Elizabeth in the 
 greatest danger. On the 8th of February, the day after the suppres- 
 sion of the insurrection, certain members of the council were sent 
 with a party of 250 (other accounts say 600) horse to Ashridge, with 
 orders to bring her to London " quick or dead." They arrived during 
 the night, and although they found her sick in bed, they immediately 
 forced their way into her chamber, and informed her that she must 
 " prepare against the morning, at nine of the clock, to go with them, 
 declaring that they had brought with them the queen's litter for her." 
 She was so ill however that it was not till the fourth night that she 
 reached Highgate. " Here," says Fox, " she being very sick, tarried 
 that night and the next day ; during which time of her abode there 
 came many pursuivants and messengers from the court, but for what 
 purpose I cannot tell." When she entered London great multitudes 
 of people came flocking about her litter, which she ordered to be 
 opened to show herself. The city was at this time covered with 
 gibbets ; fifteen had been erected in different places, on which fifty- 
 two persons were hanged ; and it appears to have been the general 
 belief that Elizabeth would suffer, as Lady Jane Grey had done a few 
 days before. From the time of her arrival in town she was kept in 
 close confinement in Whitehall. It appears that her case was twice 
 debated in council ; and although no evidence had been obtained by 
 all the exertions of the crown lawyers which went farther than to make 
 it probable that Wyatt and Courtenay had solicited her to give her 
 
 assent to their projects of revolt, her Immediate destruction was 
 strongly advised by some of the members. Elizabeth long afterwards 
 used to declare that she fully expected death, and that she knew her 
 sister thirsted for her blood. It was at last determined however that 
 for the present she should only be committed to the Tower, although 
 she seems herself still to have been left in doubt as to her fate. She 
 was conveyed to her prison by water on the morning of the 11th of 
 March, being Palm Sunday, orders being issued that, in the meantime, 
 "every one should keep the church and carry their palms." In 
 attempting to shoot the bridge the boat was nearly swamped. She at 
 first refused to land at the stairs leading to the Traitor's Gate ; but 
 one of the lords with her told her she should have no choice ; " and 
 because it did then rain," continues Fox, " he offered to her his cloak, 
 which she (putting it back with her hand with a good dash) refused. 
 So she coming out, having one foot upon the stair, said, ' Here landeth 
 as true a subject as ever landed at these stairs ; and before thee, 
 O God, I speak it, having none other friends but thee alone.' " She 
 remained in close custody for about a month, after which she was 
 allowed to walk in a small garden within the walls of the fortress. 
 On the 19th of May she was removed, in charge of Sir Henry Beding- 
 field, to Woodstock. Here she was guarded with great strictness and 
 severity by her new jailor. Camden says that at this time she received 
 private letters both from Henry II. of France, inviting her to that 
 country, and from Christian III. of Denmark (who had lately embraced 
 the Protestant religion), soliciting her hand for his son Frederick. 
 When these things came to the cars of her enemies, her life was again 
 threatened. " The Lady Elizabeth," adds the historian, " now guiding 
 herself as a ship in blustering weather, both heard divine service 
 after the Romish manner, and was frequently confessed ; and at the 
 pressing instances and menaoes of cardinal Pole, professed herself, for 
 fear of death, a Roman Catholic. Yet did not Queen Mary believe 
 her." She remained at Woodstock till April 1555, when she was, on 
 the interposition, as it was made to appear, of King Philip, allowed to 
 take up her residence at the royal palace of Hatfield, under the 
 superintendence of a Roman Catholic gentleman, Sir Thonws Pope, 
 by whom she was treated with respect and kindness. Philip was 
 anxious to have the credit of advising mild measures iu regard to 
 the princess, and perhaps he was really more disposed to treat her 
 with indulgence than his wife. According to Camden, some of the 
 Roman Catholic party wished to remove her to a distance from England, 
 and to marry her to Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy ; but Philip 
 opposed this scheme, designing her for his eldest son Charles (the 
 unfortunate Don Carlos). Elizabeth also was herself averse to a 
 marriage with the Savoyard. 
 
 She continued to reside at Hatfield till the death of Mary, which 
 took place on the 17th of November 1558. The news was commu- 
 nicated the same day, but not till after the lapse of some hours, to 
 the House of Lords, which was sitting at the time. " They were 
 seized at first," says Camden (or rather his translator), " with a mighty 
 grief and surprise, but soon wore off those impressions, and, with an 
 handsome mixture of joy and sorrow, upon the loss of a deceased and 
 the prospect of a succeeding princess, they betook themselves to 
 public business, and, with one consent, agreed that the Lady Elizabeth 
 should be declared the true and lawful heir of the kingdom according 
 to the act of succession made 35 Henry VIII." It is probable that 
 Elizabeth's outward compliance in the matter of religion had con- 
 siderable effect in producing this unanimity, for the majority of the 
 lords were Catholics, and certainly both the bishops and many of the 
 lay peers would have been strongly inclined to oppose her accession 
 if they had expected that she would venture to disturb the established 
 order of things. The members of the lower house were now called up, 
 and informed of what had been done by Archbishop Heath, the 
 chancellor. He concluded by saying that, since no doubt could or 
 ought to be made of the Lady Elizabeth's right of succession, the 
 House of Peers only wanted their consent to proclaim her queen. A 
 vote to that effect immediately passed by acclamation ; and, as soon 
 as the houses rose, the proclamation took place. Elizabeth came to 
 London on Wednesday the 23rd : she was met by all the bishops in a 
 body at Highgate, and escorted by an immense multitude of people 
 of all ranks to the metropolis, where she took up her lodgings at the 
 residence of Lord North, in the Charter House. On the afternoon 
 of Monday the 28th she made a progress through the city in a chariot 
 to the royal palace of the Tower : here she continued till Monday the 
 5th of December, on the morning of which day she removed by water 
 to Somerset House. 
 
 Elizabeth was twenty-five years of age when she came to the throne ; 
 and one of her earliest acts of royalty, by which, as Camden remarks, 
 she gave proof of a prudence above her years, was what we should 
 now call the appointment of her ministers. She retained of her privy 
 council thirteen Roman Catholics, who had been of that of her sister ; 
 including Heath, archbishop of York and lord chancellor ; William 
 Paulett, marquis of Winchester, the lord high treasurer; Edward, 
 Lord Clinton, the lord high admiral ; and William, Lord Howard of 
 Effingham, the lord chamberlain. But with these she associated seven 
 others of her own religion, the most eminent of whom was the cele- 
 brated William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burleigh, whom she appointed 
 to the office of secretary of state, which he had already held under 
 Edward VI. Soon after, Nicholas Bacon (the father of the great 
 
767 ELIZABETH. 
 
 chancellor) was added to the number of the privy councillors, and 
 made at first lord privy seal, and next year lord keeper of the great 
 seal, on the resignation of Archbishop Heatb. Cecil became lord high 
 treasurer on the death of the Marquis of Winchester in 1572, and con- 
 tinued to be Elizabeth's principal adviser till his death in 1598, when 
 he was succeeded by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst (afterwards 
 made Earl of Dorset by James I.). Of the other persons who served 
 as ministers during Elizabeth's long reign, by far the most worthy of 
 note were Sir Francis Walsingham (who was principal secretary of 
 state from 1573 till his death in 1590, and was all the time they were 
 in office together the confidential friend and chief assistant of Cecil 
 the premier, under whose patronage he had entered public life), and 
 Burleigh's son, Bobert Cecil (afterwards Earl of Salisbury), who suc- 
 ceeded Walsingham as secretary of state, and held that office till the 
 end of the reign. Among the other persons of ability that were 
 employed in the course of the reign, in different capacities, may be 
 mentioned Sir Nicholas Throckmorton ; " a man," says Camden, " of 
 a large experience, piercing judgment, and singular prudence, who 
 discharged several embassies with a great deal of diligence and much 
 to his praise, yet could he not be master of much wealth, nor rise 
 higher than to those small dignities (though glorious in title) of chief 
 cupbearer of England and chamberlain of the Exchequer ; and this 
 because he acted in favour of Leicester against Cecil, whose greatness 
 he envied : " Sir Thomas Smith, the learned friend of Cheke, who had 
 been one of the secretaries of state along with him under Edward VI., 
 and held the same office again under Elizabeth for some years before 
 his death in 1577 ; and Sir Christopher Hatton, who was lord 
 chancellor from 1587 till his death in 1591, and whom Camden, after 
 having related his singular rise from being one of the band of gentle- 
 men pensioners, to which he was appointed by the queen, who was 
 taken with his handsome shape and elegant dancing at a court masque, 
 characterises as " a great patron of learning and good sense, and one 
 that managed that weighty part of lord chancellor with that equity 
 and clearness of principle as to be able to satisfy his conscience and 
 the world too." 
 
 The affair to which Elizabeth first applied her attention on coming 
 to the throne, and that in connection with which all the transactions 
 of her reign must be viewed, was the settlement of the national 
 religion. The opinions of Cecil strongly concurred with her own in 
 favour of the reformed doctrines, to which also undoubtedly the great 
 mass of the people was attached. For a short time however she kept 
 her intentions a secret from the majority of the council, taking her 
 measures in concert only with Cecil and the few others who might be 
 said to form her cabinet. She began by giving permission, by pro- 
 clamation, to read part of the church-service in English, but at the 
 same time strictly prohibited the addition of any comments, and all 
 preaching on controversial points. This however was enough to show 
 the Boman Catholic party what was coming : accordingly, at her 
 coronation, on the 15th of January 1559, the bishops in general refused 
 to assist, and it was with difficulty that one of them, Oglethorp of 
 Carlisle, was prevailed upon to set the crown on her head. The 
 principal alterations were reserved to be made by the parliament, 
 which met on the 25th of this month. Of the acts which were passed, 
 one restored to the crown the jurisdiction established in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. over the estate ecclesiastical and spiritual, and abolished 
 all foreign powers repugnant to the same ; and another restored the 
 use of King Edward's book of common prayer, with certain alterations, 
 that had been suggested by a royal commission over which Parker 
 (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury) presided. In accordance with 
 this last statute public worship began to be performed in English 
 throughout the kingdom on Whit-Sunday, which fell on the 8th of 
 May. By a third act the first fruits and tenths of benefices were 
 restored to the crown ; and by a fourth, her Majesty was authorised, 
 upon the avoidance of any archbishopric or bishopric, to take certain 
 of the revenues intojher own hands ; and conveyances of the tempora- 
 lities by the holder for a longer term than twenty-one years, or three 
 live.?, were made void. The effect of these laws was generally to 
 restore the church to the state in which it was in the reign of 
 Edward VI., the royal supremacy sufficing for such further necessary 
 alterations as were not expressly provided for by statute. A strong 
 opposition was made to the bills in the House of Lords by the bishops ; 
 and fourteen of them, being the whole number, with the exception of 
 Anthony, bishop of Llandaff, were now deprived for refusing to take 
 the oath of supremacy. About one hundred prebendaries, deans, 
 archdeacons, and heads of colleges, were also ejected. The number of 
 the inferior clergy however that held out was very small, amounting 
 to no more than eighty rectors and other parochial ministers, out of 
 between nine and ten thousand. On thiB subject it is only necessary 
 further to state that the frame of ecclesiastical polity now set up, being 
 in all essential particulars the same that still subsists, was zealously 
 and steadily maintained by Elizabeth and her ministers to the end of 
 her reign. The Church of England has good reason to look upon her 
 and Cecil as the true planters and rearers of its authority. They had 
 soon to defend it against the Puritans on the one hand as well as 
 against the Boman Catholics on the other, and they yielded to the 
 former as little as to the latter. The Puritans had been growing in 
 the country ever since the dawn of the Beformation, but they first 
 made their appearance in any considerable force in the parliament 
 
 ELIZABETH. 789 
 
 whish met in 1570. At first their attempts were met on the part of 
 the crown by evasive measures and slight checks; but in 1587, on 
 four members of the House of Commons presenting to the house a 
 bill for establishing a new Directory of Public Worship, Elizabeth at 
 once gave orders that they should be seized and sent to the Tower, 
 where they were kept some time. The High Commission Court also, 
 which was established by a clause in one of the acts for the settlement 
 of religion passed in the first year of her reign, was, occasionally at 
 least, prompted or permitted to exercise its authority in the punish- 
 ment of what was called heresy, and in enforcing uniformity of worship 
 with great strictness. The determination upon which the queen acted 
 in these matters, as she expressed it in a letter to the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, was, " that no man should be suffered to decline either to 
 the left or to the right baud, from the drawn line limited by authority, 
 and by her laws and injunctions." Besides the deprivation of their 
 livings, which many of the clergy underwent for their refusal to comply 
 with certain particulars of the established ritual, many other persons 
 suffered imprisonment for violations of the Statute of Uniformity. It 
 was against the Boman Catholics however that the most severe 
 measures were taken. By an act passed in 1585 (the 27th Etiz., c. 2), 
 every Jesuit or other popish priest was commanded to depart from 
 the realm within forty days, on pain of death as a traitor, and every 
 person receiviog or relieving any such priest was declared guilty of 
 felony. Many priests were afterwards executed under this act. 
 
 It was the struggle with popery that moved and directed nearly the 
 whole policy of the reign, foreign as well as domestic. When Elizabeth 
 came to the throne she found the country at peace with Spain, the 
 head of which kingdom had been her predecessor's husband, but at 
 war with France, the great continental opponent of Spain and the 
 Empire. Philip, with the view of preserving his English alliance, 
 almost immediately after her accession offered himself to Elizabeth in 
 marriage ; but, after deliberating on the proposal, she determined 
 upon declining it, swayed by various considerations, and especially, as 
 it would appear, by the feeling that, by consenting to marry her 
 sister's husband on a dispensation from the pope, she would in a 
 manner be affirming the lawfulness of her father's marriage with 
 Catharine of Aragon, the widow of his brother Arthur, and condemning 
 his subsequent marriage with her own mother, the sole validity of 
 which rested on the alleged illegality of that previous connection. A 
 general peace however, comprehending all the three powers and also 
 Scotland, was established in April 1559, by the treaty of Cateau 
 Cambresis. By this treaty it was agreed that Calais, which had been 
 taken by France in the time of Queen Mary, and formed the only 
 difficult subject of negociation, should be restored to England in eight 
 years, if no hostile act should be committed by Elizabeth within that 
 period. Scarcely however had this compact been signed when the war 
 was suddenly rekindled, in consequence of the assumption by the new 
 French king, Francis II., of the arms and royal titles of England, in 
 right, as was pretended, of his wife, the young Mary, queen of Scots. 
 Elizabeth instantly resented this act of hostility by sending a body of 
 5000 troops to Scotland, to act there with the Duke of Chatelherault 
 and the Lords of the Congregation, as the leaders of the Protestant 
 party called themselves, against the government of the queen and her 
 mother, the regent, Mary of Guise. The town of Leith soon yielded 
 to this force ; and the French king was speedily compelled both to 
 renounce his wife's pretensions to the English throne and to withdraw 
 his own troops from Scotland, by the treaty of Edinburgh, executed 
 7th of July 1560. The treaty however never was ratified either by 
 Francis or his queen, and in consequence the relations between the 
 three countries continued in an unsatisfactory state. Charles IX. 
 succeeded his brother on tha throne of France before the end of this 
 year, and in a few months afterwards Mary of Scotland returned to 
 her own country. 
 
 Meanwhile, although the two countries continued at peace, Eliza- 
 beth's proceedings in regard to the church had wholly alienated Philip 
 of Spain. The whole course of events, and the position which she 
 occupied, had already in fact caused the English queen to be looked 
 upon as the head of the Protestant interest throughout Europe as 
 much as she was at home. When the dispute therefore between the 
 Boman Catholics and the Huguenots, or reformed party, in France 
 came to a contest of arms in 1562, the latter immediately applied for 
 assistance to Elizabeth, who concluded a treaty with them, and sent 
 them succour both in men and money. The war that followed 
 produced no events of importance in so far as England was concerned, 
 and was terminated by a treaty signed at Troyes, 11th of April 1561. 
 A long period followed, during which England preserved in appearance 
 the ordinary relations of peace both with France and Spain, though 
 interferences repeatedly took place on each side that all but amounted 
 to actual hostilities. The Protestants alike in Scotland, in France, and 
 in the Netherlands (then subject to the dominion of Philip), regarded 
 Elizabeth as firmly bound to their cause by her own interests ; and 
 she on her part kept a watchful eye on the religious and political 
 contentions of all these countries, with a view to the maintenauce and 
 support of the Protestant party, by every species of countenance and 
 aid short of actually making war in their behalf. With the Protestant 
 government in Scotland, which had deposed and imprisoned the queen, 
 she was in open and intimate alliance ; in favour of the French 
 Huguenots she at one time negociated or threatened, at another even 
 
;c.9 
 
 ELIZABETH. 
 
 7<X> 
 
 Went the length, scarcely with any concealment, of affording them 
 pecuniary assistance ; and when the people of the Netherlands at 
 length rose in revolt against the oppressive government of Philip, 
 although she refused the sovereignty of their country, which they 
 offered to her, she lent them money, and in various other ways openly 
 expressed her sympathy and goodwill. On the other hand, Philip, 
 although he refrained from any declaration of war, and the usual 
 intercourse both commercial and political long went on between the 
 two countries without interruption, was incessant in his endeavours 
 to undermine the throne of the English queen, and the order of things 
 at the head of which she stood, by instigating plot3 and commotions 
 against her authority within her own dominions. He attempted to 
 turn to account in this way the Roman Catholic interest, which was 
 still so powerful both in England and in Ireland — the iutrigues of 
 the Scottish queen and her partisans materially contributing to the 
 same end. 
 
 The history of Mary Stewart and of the affairs of Scotland during 
 her reign and that of her son must be reserved for a separate article. 
 But it is necessary to observe here, that Mary was not merely the 
 head of the Roman Catholic party in Scotland, but as the descendant 
 of the eldest daughter of Henry VII., had pretensions to the English 
 crown which were of a very formidable kind. Although she was 
 kept in confinement by the English government after her flight from 
 the hands of her own subjects in 1568, the imprisonment of her 
 person did not extinguish the hopes or put an end to the efforts of 
 her adherents. Repeated rebellions in Ireland, in some instances 
 openly aided by supplies from Spain — the attempt made by the Duke 
 of Alva in 1569, through the agency of Vitelli, to concert with the 
 Roman Catholic party the scheme of an invasion of England — the 
 rising of the Roman Catholics of the northern counties under the 
 earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland the same year — the plot 
 of the Duke of Norfolk with Ridolfi in 1571, for which that unfor- 
 tunate nobleman lost his head — the plots of Throgmorton and 
 Creichton in 1584, and of Babington in 1586 — to omit several minor 
 attempts of the same kind — all testified the restless zeal with which 
 the various enemies of the established order of things pursued their 
 common end. Meanwhile however events were tending to a crisis 
 which was to put an end to the outward show of friendship that had 
 been so long kept up between parties that were not only fiercely 
 hostile in their hearts, but had even been constantly working for each 
 other's overthrow behind the thin screen of their professions and 
 courtesies. The Queen of Scots was put to death in 1587, by an act 
 of which it is easier to defend the state policy than either the justice 
 or the legality. By thi3 time also, although no actual declaration of 
 war had yet proceeded either from England or Spain, the cause of the 
 people of the Netherlands had been openly espoused by Elizabeth, 
 whose general, the Earl of Leicester, was now at the head of the 
 troops of the United Provinces, as the revolted states called them- 
 selves. An English fleet at the same time attacked and ravaged the 
 Spanish settlements in the West Indies. At last, in the summer of 
 1588, the great Spanish fleet, arrogantly styled the Invincible Armada, 
 sailed for the invasion of England, and, as is noticed below [see the 
 end of this article], was in the greater part dashed to pieces on the 
 coasts which it came to assail. From this time hostilities proceeded 
 with more or less activity between the two countries during the 
 remainder of the reign of Elizabeth. Meanwhile Henri III., and after 
 his assassination in 1589 the young King of Navarre, assuming the 
 title of Henri IV., at the head of the Huguenots, had been maintain- 
 ing a desperate contest in France with the Duke of Guise and the 
 League. For some years Elizabeth and Philip remained only spec- 
 tators of the struggle ; but at length they were both drawn to take a 
 principal part in it. The French war however, in so far as Elizabeth 
 was concerned, must be considered as only another appendage to the 
 war with Spain ; it was Philip chiefly, and not the League, that she 
 opposed in France— just as in the Netherlands, and formerly in 
 Scotland, it was not the cause of liberty against despotism, or of 
 revolted subjects against their legitimate sovereign, that she sup- 
 ported, or even the cause of Protestantism against Roman Catholicism, 
 but her own cause against Philip, her own right to the English throne 
 against his, or that of the competitor with whom he took part. Since 
 the death of Mary of Scotland, Philip professed to consider himself 
 as the rightful king of England, partly on the ground of his descent 
 from J ohn of Gaunt, and partly in consequence of Mary having by 
 her will bequeathed her pretensions to him should her son persist in 
 remaining a heretic. Henri IV., having previously embraced Catho- 
 licism, made peace with Philip by the treaty of Vervins, concluded in 
 May 1598 ; and the death of Philip followed in September of the 
 same year. But the war between England and Spain was nevertheless 
 still kept up. In 1601 Philip III. sent a force to Ireland, which 
 landed in that country and took the town of Kinsale ; and the 
 following year Elizabeth retaliated by fitting out a naval expedition 
 against her adversary, which captured some rich prizes, and otherwise 
 annoyed the Spaniard. Her forces continued to act in conj unction 
 with those of the Seven United Provinces both by sea and land. 
 
 Elizabeth died on the 24th of March 1603, in the seventieth year of 
 her age and the forty-fifth of her reign. In the very general account 
 to which we have necessarily confined ourselves of the course of 
 public transactions during the long period of the English annals with 
 
 which her name is associated, we have omitted all reference to many 
 subordinate particulars, which yet strongly illustrate both her personal 
 conduct and character and the history of her government. One of 
 the first requests addressed to her by the parliament after she came 
 to the throne was that she would marry ; but for reasons which were 
 probably various, though with regard to their precise nature we are 
 rather left to speculation and conjecture than possessed of any satis- 
 factory information, she persisted in remaining single to the end of 
 her days. Yet she coquetted with many suitors almost to the last. 
 In the beginning of her reign, among those who aspired to her hand, 
 after she had rejected the offer of Philip of Spain, were Charles, arch- 
 duke of Austria (a younger sou of the Emperor Ferdinand L)j James 
 Hamilton, earl of Arran, the head of the Protestant party in Scotland ; 
 Erick XIV., king of Sweden (whom she had refused in the reigu 
 of her sister Mary) ; and Adolphus, duke of Holstein (uncle to 
 Ferdinand II. of Denmark). "Nor were there wanting at home," 
 adds Camden, "some persons who fed themselves (as lovers use to do) 
 with golden dreams of marrying their sovereign;" and he mentions 
 particularly Sir William Pickering, " a gentlemen well born, of a 
 narrow estate, but much esteemed for his learning, his handsome way 
 of living, and the management of some embassies into France and 
 Germany;" Henry, earl of Arundel; and Robert Dudley (afterwards 
 the notorious earl of Leicester), a younger son of the Duke of 
 Northumberland, " restored by Queen Mary to his honour and estate; 
 a person of youth and vigour, and of a fine shape and proportion, 
 whose father and grandfather were not so much hated by the people, 
 but he was as high in the favour of Queen Elizabeth, who out of her 
 royal and princely clemency heaped honours upon him, and saved 
 his life whose father would have destroyed her's." 
 
 Leicester continued the royal favourite till his death in 1588, dis- 
 gracing by his profligacy the honours and grants that were lavished 
 upon him by Elizabeth, who, having appointed him commander-in- 
 chief of the forces which she sent to the assistance of the Dutch, 
 insisted upon maintaining him in that situation, notwithstanding the 
 mischiefs produced by his incapacity and misconduct, and, at the 
 perilous crisis of the Spanish invasion, was on the point of constituting 
 him lieutenant-governor of England and Ireland. Camden says that 
 the letters-patent were already drawn, when Burghley and Hatton 
 interfered, and put a stop to the matter. Of the foreign princes that 
 have been mentioned, the archduke Charles persisted longest in his 
 suit : a serious negociation took place on the subject of the match in 
 1567, but it came to nothing. In 1571 proposals were made by 
 Catherine de' Medici for a marriage between Elizabeth and her son 
 Charles IX., and afterwards in succession with her two younger sous, 
 Henry, duke of Anjou (afterwards Henri III.), and Francis, duke of 
 Alencon (afterwards Duke of Anjou). The last match was again 
 strongly pressed some years after; and in 1581 the arrangement for it 
 had been all but brought to a conclusion when, at the last moment, 
 Elizabeth drew back, declining to sign the marriage articles, after she 
 had taken up the pen for the purpose. Very soon after the death of 
 Leicester, the young Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, whose mother 
 Leicester had married, was taken into the same favour that had been 
 so long enjoyed by the deceased nobleman ; and his tenure of the royal 
 partiality lasted, with some intermissions, till he destroyed himself by 
 his own hot-headedness and violence. He was executed for a frantic 
 attempt to excite an insurrection against the government in 1601. 
 Elizabeth however never recovered from this shock ; and she may be 
 said to have sealed her own sentence of death in signing the death- 
 warrant of Essex. . 
 
 Both the personal character of Elizabeth and the character of her 
 government have been estimated very differently by writers of oppo- 
 site parties. That she had great qualities will hardly be disputed by 
 any one who duly reflects on the difficulties of the position she occu- 
 pied, the consummate policy and success with which she directed her 
 course through the dangers that beset her on all sides, the courage 
 and strength of heart that never failed her, the imposing attitude she 
 maintained in the eyes of foreign nations, and the admiration aud 
 pride of which she was the object at home. She was undeniably 
 endowed with great good sense, and with a true feeling of what became 
 her place. The weaknesses, and also the more forbidding features of 
 her character, on the other hand, are so obvious as scarcely to require 
 to be specified. Many of the least respectable mental peculiarities of 
 her own sex were mixed in her with some of the least attractive among 
 those of the other. Her selfishness and her vanity were both intense ; 
 and of the sympathetic affections and finer sensibilities of every kind 
 she was nearly destitute. 
 
 Her literary knowledge was certainly very considerable ; but of her 
 compositions (a few of which are in verse) none are of much value, 
 nor evidence any very superior ability, with the exception perhaps of 
 some of her speeches to the parliament. A list of the pieces attributed 
 to her may be found in Walpole's ' Royal and Noble Authors.' 
 
 There has been a good deal of controversy as to the proportion in 
 which the elements of liberty and despotism were combined in the 
 English constitution, or in the practice of the government, in the reign 
 of Elizabeth ; the object of one party being to convict the Stuarts of 
 deviating into a new course in those exertions of the prerogative and 
 that resistance to the popular demands which led to the civil wars of 
 the 17 th century, — of the other, to vindicate them from that charge, 
 
761 
 
 7*2 
 
 by showing that the previous government of Elizabeth had been as 
 arbitrary as theirs. There can be no doubt that the first James and 
 the first Charles pursued their object with much less art, and much 
 less knowledge and skill in managing the national character, as well as 
 in less advantageous circumstances, than Elizabeth and her ministers ; 
 they did not know nearly so well when to resist and when to yield as 
 she did ; but it may notwithstanding be reasonably questioned if her 
 notion of the rightful supremacy of the crown was very different from 
 theirs. However constitutional also (in the modern sense of the term) 
 may have been the general course of her government, her occasional 
 practice was certainly despotic enough. Sue never threw aside the 
 sword of the prerogative, although she may have usually kept it in its 
 scabbard. 
 
 Her reign however, take it all in all, was a happy as well as a 
 glorious one for England. The kingdom under her government 
 acquired and maintained a higher and more influential place among 
 the states of Europe, principally by policy, than it had ever been 
 raised to by the most successful military exertions of former ages. 
 Commerce flourished and made great advances, and wealth was much 
 more extensively and rapidly diffused among the body of the people 
 than at any former period. It is the feeling of progress, rather than 
 any degree of actual attainment, that keeps a nation in spirits ; and 
 this feeling everything conspired to keep alive in the hearts of the 
 English in the age of Elizabeth ; even the remembrance of the stormy 
 times of their fathers, from which they had escaped, lending its aid to 
 heighten the charm of the present calm. To these happy circum- 
 stances of the national condition was owing, above all, and destined to 
 survive all their other products, the rich native literature, more espe- 
 cially in poetry and the drama, which now rushed up, as if from the 
 tillage of a virgin soil, covering the land with its perennial fruit and 
 flowers. Spenser and Shakspere, Beaumont and Fletcher, Raleigh and 
 Bacon, and many other eminently distinguished names, gained their 
 earliest celebrity in the Elizabethan age. 
 
 The invasion of England by the Spanish Armada is so important 
 an occurrence in English history that we deem it advisable to relate 
 here, as fully as our limits permit, the story of the descent and 
 destruction of that famous fleet, rather than merely to introduce it as 
 an episode in the life of Elizabeth. In the beginning of May 1588, 
 the preparations of Philip II. for the invasion of England, which had 
 so long kept Europe in amazement and suspense, were brought to a 
 conclusion ; and the Spaniards, in the confidence of success, previous 
 to its sailing, gave their fleet the name of the Invincible Armada. It 
 consisted at this time of 130 vessels : 65 of these were galleons and 
 larger ships; 25 were pink-built ships; 19 tenders; 13 small frigates; 
 4 were galeasses ; and 4 galleys. The soldiers on board amounted to 
 19,295, the mariners to 8050 ; of these, 3330 soldiers and 1293 mariners 
 had been supplied by Portugal : besides which, the rowers in the 
 galeasses amounted to 1200, and in the galleys to 888. There were 
 also on board 2431 pieces of artillery, and 4575 quintals of powder : 
 347 of the pieceB of artillery had likewise been supplied by Portugal. 
 Two thousand volunteers of the most distinguished families in Spain, 
 exclusive of the sailors and soldiers already mentioned, are stated to 
 have accompanied the expedition. 
 
 Philip's preparations in the Netherlands, of a further force, were 
 not less advanced than those of Spain. Besides a well-appointed army 
 of 30,000 foot and 4000 horse, which the Duke of Parma had 
 assembled in the neighbourhood of Nieuport and Dunkirk, that active 
 general had provided a number of flat-bottomed vessels, fit for 
 transporting both horse and foot, and had brought sailors to navigate 
 them from the towns in the Baltic. Most of these vessels had been 
 built at Antwerp; and to prevent the Dutch from intercepting them 
 should they pass by sea, they were sent along the Schelde to Ghent, 
 thence by the canal to Bruges, and so to Nieuport by a new canal 
 dug for the particular occasion. This laborious undertaking, in which 
 several thousand workmen had been employed, was already finished, 
 and the duke now only waited for the arrival of the Spanish fleet ; 
 hoping that, as soon as it should approach, the Dutch and English 
 ships, which cruised upon the coast, would retire into their harbours. 
 
 The details of the regular force which the English assembled to 
 oppose the Armada, both by sea and land, are minutely given in a 
 manuscript now in the British Museum ('MS. Reg.' 18 C. xxi.), 
 formerly belonging to the Royal Library. At the time when Queen 
 Elizabeth began her preparations, her fleet did not amount to more 
 than thirty ships, none of them near equal in size to those of the 
 enemy. Ultimately however the different descriptions of vessels, large 
 and small, which formed her navy, amounted to 181 ships, manned by 
 17,472 sailors. The military force consisted of two armies, one for 
 immediately opposing the enemy, under the Earl of Leicester ; the 
 other for the defence of the queen's person, commanded by Lord 
 Hunsdon. The army appointed for the defence of the queen's pei'son 
 amounted to 45,362, besides the band of pensioners, with 36 pieces of 
 ordnance. Lord Leicester's army amounted to 18,449 ; the total of both 
 armies to 63,811, besides 2000 foot who were expected from the Low 
 Countries. The forces of the Presidentship of the North remained 
 stationary, in case anything should be attempted on the side of 
 Scotland ; as were also the forces of the Presidentship of Wales. 
 
 The Armada was to have left Lisbon in the beginning of May, but 
 bioo. div. vol. n. 
 
 the Marquess de Santa Cruz, who had been appointed admiral, at the 
 moment fixed for the departure was seized with a fever, of which ho 
 died in a few days; and by a singular fatality, the Duke de l'aliano, 
 the vice-admiral, died likewise at the same time. Santa Cruz was 
 reckoned the first naval officer in Spain ; and Philip found it extremely 
 difficult to supply his place : he at last filled it with the Duke de 
 Medina Sidonia, a nobleman of high reputation, but entirely unac- 
 quainted with maritime affairs. Martinez de Recaldo however, a 
 seaman of great experience, was made vice-admiral. 
 
 In these arrangements so much time was lost, that the fleet could 
 not leave Lisbon till the 29th of May. It had not advanced far in its 
 voyage to Corunna, at which place it was to receive some troops and 
 stores, when it was overtaken by a violent storm and dispersed. All 
 the ships however reached Corunna, La Corufia (the Groyne, as it is 
 called by our historians and sailors), though considerably damaged, 
 except four. They were repaired with the utmost diligence, the king 
 sending messengers every day to hasten their departure ; yet several 
 weeks passed before they were in a condition to resume the voyage. 
 
 In the meantime a report was brought to England that the Armada 
 had suffered so much by the storm as to be unfit for proceeding iu 
 the intended enterprise; aud so well attested did the intelligence 
 appear, that, at the queen's desire, Secretary Walsingham wrote tc 
 the English admiral, requiring him to lay up four of his largest ships 
 and to discharge the seamen. Lord Howard was happily less credulous 
 on this occasion than either Elizabeth or Walsingham, and desired 
 that he might be allowed to retain these ships iu the service, even 
 though it should be at his own expense, till more certain information 
 were received. In order to procure it, he set sail with a brisk north 
 wind for Corunna, intending, in case he should find the Armada so 
 much disabled as had been reported, to complete its destruction. On 
 the coast of Spain he received intelligence of the truth : at the same 
 time, the wind having changed from north to south, he began to dread 
 that the Spaniards might have sailed for England, and therefore 
 returned without delay to his former station at Plymouth. 
 
 Soon after his arrival Lord Howard was informed that the Armada 
 was in sight. He immediately weighed anchor, and sailed out of the 
 harbour, still uncertain of the course which the enemy intended 
 to pursue. On the next day he perceived them steering directly 
 towards him, drawn up in the form of a crescent, which extended 
 seven miles from one extremity to the other. Plymouth was at first 
 supposed to be the place of destination ; but it was soon apparent 
 that the Duke de Medina adhered to the execution of the plan which 
 had been laid down for him by the court of Madrid. This was, to 
 steer quite through the Channel till he should reach the coast of 
 Flanders, and, after raising the blockade of the harbours of Nieuport 
 and Dunkirk by the English and Dutch ships, to escort the Duke of 
 Parma's army to England, as well as land the forces which were on 
 board his own fleet. Lord Howard, instead of coming to close and 
 unequal fight, contented himself with harassing the Spaniards on 
 their voyage, and with watching attentively all the advantages which 
 might be derived from storms, cross-winds, and other accidents. It 
 was not long before he discerned a favourable opportunity of attacking 
 the vice-admiral Recaldo. This he did in person ; aud on that occa- 
 sion displayed so much dexterity in working his ship, and in loading 
 and firing his guns, as greatly alarmed the Spaniards for the fate of 
 their vice-admiral. From that time they kept closer to each other ; 
 notwithstanding which, the English on the same day attacked one of 
 the largest galeasses. Other Spanish ships came up in time to her 
 relief, but in their hurry, one of the principal galleons, which had a 
 great part of the treasure on board, ran foul of another ship, and lost 
 one of her masts. In consequence of this misfortuue she fell behind, 
 and was taken by Sir Francis Drake ; who, on the same day, took 
 another capital ship, which had been accidentally set on fire. Several 
 other rencontres happened, and in all of them the English proved 
 victorious. Their ships were lighter, and their sailors more dexterous 
 than those of the Spaniards. The Spanish guns were planted too 
 high, while every shot from the English proved effectual. The 
 Spaniards however still continued to advance till they came opposite 
 to Calais, where the Duke de Medina, having ordered them to cast 
 anchor, sent information to the Duke of Parma of his arrival, and 
 entreated him to hasten the embarkation of his forces. But the 
 duke, though he embarked a few of his troops, informed Medina that 
 the vessels which he had prepared were proper only for transporting 
 the troops, but were utterly unfit for fighting ; and for this reason, 
 till the Armada was brought nearer, and the coast cleared of the 
 Dutch ships which had blocked up the harbours of Nieuport and 
 Dunkirk, he could not stir from his then station (at Bruges) without 
 exposing his army to certain ruin. In compliance with this request, 
 the Armada was ordered to advance ; and it had arrived within sight of 
 Dunkirk, between the English fleet on one hand and the Dutch on the 
 other, when a sudden calm put a stop to its motions. In this situation 
 the fleets remained for a whole day. About the middle of the night 
 of August the 7th a breeze sprung up, aud Lord Howard had recourse 
 to an expedient which had been planned the day before. Having 
 filled eight ships with pitch, sulphur, aud other combustible materials, 
 he set fire to them, aud sent them before the wind against the different 
 divisions of the Spanish fleet. The Spaniards beheld these ships in 
 flames approaching them with great dismay : the darkness of the night 
 
763 ELIZABETH. 
 
 increased their terror, and tlie panic flew entirely through tho fleet. 
 The crews of the different vessels, anxious only for their own preserva- 
 tion, thought of nothing but how to escape from immediate danger. 
 Some weighed their anchors, whilst others cut their cables, and 
 suffered their ships to drive before the wind. In this confusion many 
 of the ships ran foul of one another, and several of them received such 
 damage as to be rendered unfit for future use. 
 
 "When daj light returned, Lord Howard had the satisfaction to 
 perceive that* his stratagem had produced the desired effect. The 
 enemy was still in extreme disorder, and their ships widely separated 
 and dispersed. His fleet having received a great augmentation by the 
 ships fitted out by the nobility and gentry, as well as by those of Lord 
 Seymour, who had left Justin do Nassau as alone sufficient to guard 
 the coast of Flanders, and being bravely seconded by Sir Francis 
 Drake and all the other officers, he hastened to improve the advantage 
 which was now presented to him, and attacked the enemy in different 
 quarters at the same time with the utmost impetuosity aud ardour. 
 The engagement began at four in the morning of August the 8th, and 
 lasted till six at oi lit. The Spaniards in every r- nenntre displayed 
 the most intrepid bravery ; but, from the causes already mentioned, 
 did little execution agaiust the English, while many of their own ships 
 were greatly damaged, and ten of the largest were either run aground, 
 Bunk, or compelled to surrender. 
 
 The principal galeass, commanded by Moncada, having Mauriquez, 
 the inspector-general, on board, with 300 galley-slaves and 400 soldiers, 
 was driven a-hore near Calais. Fifty thousand ducats wore found 
 on board of her. One of the capital ships, having beeu long battered 
 by au English captaiu of the name of Cross, was sunk during the 
 engagement. A few only of the crew were saved, who related that 
 one of the officers on board having proposed to surrender, he was killed 
 by another who was enraged at his proposal ; that this other was 
 killed by the brother of the first ; and that it was in the midst of this 
 bloody scene that the ship went to the bottom. The fate of two other 
 of the Spanish galleons is paiticiilarly mentioned by contemporary 
 historians, the St. Philip aud the St. Matthew : after an obstinate en- 
 gagement with the English admiral's ship they were obliged to run 
 ashore ou the coast of Flanders, where they were taken by the Dutch. 
 
 The Duke de Medina now not only despaired of success, but saw 
 clearly that by a continuance of the combat he should risk the entire 
 destruction of his fleet. The bulk of his vessels rendered them unfit 
 not only for fighting, but for navigation in the narrow seas. He 
 therefore determined to abandon the further prosecution of his 
 enterprise; yet even to get back to Spain was difficult: he resolved 
 therefore to sail northward, and return by making the circuit of the 
 British Isles. Lord Seymour was detached to follow in his rear, but 
 from the bad supply of ammunition which he had received from the 
 public offices, was deterred from renewing au attack which in all 
 probability would have led to the Duke de Medina's surrender. 
 
 A dreadful storm arose after the Spaniards had rounded the 
 Orkneys, and the whole fleet was dispersed. Horses, mules, and 
 baggage were thrown overboard to lighten a few of the vessels. Some 
 of the ships were dashed to pieces on the rocks of Norway; some 
 sunk in the middle of the North Sea; others were thrown upon the 
 coasts of Scotland and the Western Isles— the wreck of one being 
 still visible, it is said, at Tobermory, in the Isle of Mull ; and more 
 than thirty wer»- driven by another storm, which overtook them from 
 the west, on different parts of the coast of Ireland. Port ua Spagna, 
 on the coast of Antrim, near the Giants' Causeway, obtained its name 
 from this circumstance. (See ' Trans, of Geol. Soc.,' voL iii., plate 10.) 
 Of these, some afterwards reached home in the most shattered con- 
 dition, under the Vice- Admiral Kecaldo ; others were shipwrecked 
 among the rocks and shallows ; and of those which reached the shore 
 many of the crews were barbarously murdered, from an apprehension, 
 it w as pretended, that in a country where there were so mauy dis- 
 affected Catholics it would have been dangerous to show mercy to so 
 great a number of the enemy. Camden says, " They were slain, some 
 of them by the wild Irish, and others put to the sword by command 
 of the lord-deputy ; for he, fearing lest they would join with the Irish 
 rebels, and seeing that Bingham, governor of Counaught, whom he 
 had once or twice commanded to show rigour towards them as they 
 yielded themselves, had refused to do it, sent Fowl, deputy-marshal, 
 ■who drew them out of their lurking-holes and hiding-places, and 
 beheaded about two hundred of them." 
 
 The Duke de Medina, having kept out in the open seas, escaped 
 shipwreck ; and, according to the official accounts, arrived at Santander 
 in the Bay of Biscay about the end of September, " with noe more than 
 sixty sayle oute of his whole fleete, and those verye much shattered." 
 
 Strype, in his ' Annals,' reckons the Spanish loss upon the coast of 
 England to have amounted to 15 ships and above 10,000 men, besides 
 17 ships and 6394 men sunk, drowned, and taken upon the coast of 
 Ireland. 
 
 The statements however published at the time, apparently upon 
 authority, say :— "In July and August, shipsl5, men 4791 ; sunk, &c, 
 upon the coast of Ireland, 17 ships, 5394 men;" making a total of 32 
 ships and 10,185 men. 
 
 There is a very curious work relating to the Spanish Armada pre- 
 served in the king's Library at the British Museum— a volume of 
 extreme rarity, which was finished at Lisbon, May 9, 1588, while the 
 
 ELIZABETH PETROWNA. 764 
 
 fleet was iu the port of that place prepared for the expedition, entitled, 
 ' La Felicissima Armada, que el Rey Don Felipe nuestro Senor umndi) 
 juntar en el puerto de la Uiudad de Lisboa, en el Rey no da Portugal, 
 el Alio de mil y quinientos y ochenta y ocho ; hecha por Pedro de Paz 
 Salas,' fol. Lisb. 1588 ; por Antonio Alvarez, Impressor. This copy in 
 the Kind's Library was the identical one which was procured at the 
 time of its publication for Lord Burghley, to acquaint him with the 
 true detail of all the preparations ; aud he has noted in his owu hand, 
 iu the margins of different pages, a variety of particulars relating to 
 the defeat. In one instauce he has noted the change of a commander 
 from one Spanish vessel to another different vessel. The following are 
 a few of Lord Burghiey's notes: — 
 
 " Galeon S. Phelippe : 4 taken at Flushyng, 31 July.' D. Francesco 
 de Toledo : ' this man escaped into Nuport.' La Nao Capitana : ' this 
 shipp was taken by Sir Francis Drake.' El Gran Grifon Capitana : 
 ' this man's ship was drowned, 17 September, in the lie of Fun-mare, 
 Scotlaud.' Barca de Amburg : ' she was drowned over against Irelaud.' 
 San Pedro Mayor : ' wrecked in October, in Devonshire, neare Plitn- 
 mouthe.' La Galeaca Capitana nombrada S. Loren90 : ' this was 
 drowned afor Callys.' " 
 
 The following entries perhaps afford an explanation of the lord- 
 deputy's barbarous conduct in Ireland. Members of some Irish 
 families were on board the Spanish fleet: — 
 
 " Admundio Estacio : ' brother to James Eustace, Viscount Ba'.ty- 
 glass.' Don Carlos Oconore : ' of Offolly, sonn to old Oconore ' Tristan 
 Vinnlade : ' Wynsland.' Ricardo Bereey, Roberto Laseo, Christoval 
 Lot) bard o : 'of Mounster.' " 
 
 The copy of this work iu the Royal Library, from which a few 
 particulars in the earlier part of the preceding account have been 
 takeu, is accompanied by twelve charts of the coast of England, showing 
 the different situations of the Spanish Armada aud the English fleet 
 through the whole of the contest. This also, which is a separate work, 
 is of very rare occurrence, entitled ' Kxpeditionis Hispanorum in 
 Angliam Vera Descriptio, Anno Do. MDLX.XXVIIL, published by 
 Robert Adam, and engraved by Augustin Ryther.' The different 
 actions and positions represented in these charts are minutely explained 
 in a quarto tract, printed by A. Hatfield in 1590, and sold at Augustin 
 Ryther's shop, entitled ' A Discourse concerning the Spanish Fleet 
 invading England in the yeere 1588' — a copy of which is also preserved 
 in the library of the British Museum. 
 
 Camden, speaking of this great victory, says : — "Whereupon several 
 monies were coined, some in memory of the victory, with a fleet flying 
 with full sails, and this inscription, ' Venit, vidit, fugit,' ' It came, it 
 saw, it fled ;' others in honour of the queen, with fire-ships aud a fleet 
 all in confusion, inscribed, 'Dux foeuiiua facti,' that is, 'A woman was 
 conductor of the exploit.'" The medals and jettons however, which 
 were struck on this occasion, were entirely Dutch : none were struck 
 in Euglaud. The most remarkable, of considerable size, is that which 
 represents the Spanish fleet upon the obverse, with the words ' Flavit 
 Jehovah et dissipati sunt, 1588,' 'Jehovah blew, aud they were 
 scattered.' Reverse, a church on a rock, beaten by the waves, ' Allidor 
 nou laedor.' These, and one or two more, will be found in the ' Histoire 
 Medallique des Pays-Baa, tome i., pp. 383-386 ; and in Pinkertou's 
 ♦ Medalhc History of England,' pi. viii.,'no. 7, 8 ; pi. ix., no. 1, 6. 
 
 Philip II. published two jettons, with the inscription, ' Immensi 
 Tremor Oceani,' 1587 and 1588. 
 
 ELIZABETH PETROWNA, daughter of Peter the Great and of 
 Catharine I., was born in 1709. After the death of her nephew, 
 Peter II., in 1730, she was urged to assert her claims to the cro*n, 
 but she declined to do so through indolence or timidity, and her 
 cousin Anna, duchess of Courland, was raised to the throne. After 
 the death of Anna in 1740, Iwan, the infaut son of the Duke of 
 Brunswick and of Ann, niece to the late empress, was proclaimed 
 emperor under the tutelage of his mother, in conformity to the will 
 of the defunct sovereign. A conspiracy however was soon after hatched 
 by some of Elizabeth's attendants, especially a surgeon of the name of 
 Lestoq, who found great difficulty in conquering her irresolution : the 
 officers of the guards were drawn into the plot, and a military insur- 
 rection followed in 1741, when Elizabeth was proclaimed empress, aud 
 Ann and her husband, the Duke of Brunswick, and the child lwan, 
 were put into confinement. Several noblemen were sent iuto Siberia. 
 Bestuchcff, who had been minister under the Empress Anna, was 
 retained in office and appointed chancellor. Elizabeth took an active 
 part in the war of the Austrian succession, and sent troops to the 
 assistance of Maria Theresa, and she afterwards concurred iu the peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. During the Seven Years' War, Elizabeth 
 took part against Frederick of Prussia, it was said, from personal 
 pique at some sarcastic reflections of the Prussiau king. Tue Russian 
 army invaded Prussia, won the hard-fought battle of Kunnersdorf, 
 crossed the Oder, entered Berlin, and reduced Frederick to the verge 
 of ruin and despair. But the illness and death of Elizabeth soon 
 retrieved his fortunes. She died in December 1761, after a rt-L'u of 
 twenty years, and was succeeded by the Duke of Holstein Gottorp, 
 son of her sister Anna Petrowna, duchess of Holstein, who assumed 
 the title of Peter III. 
 
 The government of Elizabeth was directed in great measure by 
 favourites, who succeeded one another. The empress herself was 
 good-natured and even amiable to those who pleased her, but indolent 
 
re 3 
 
 ELLENBOROUGH, EARL OF. 
 
 ELLIOTT, EBENEZER. 
 
 768 
 
 »nd very Bensual, and many acts of oppression aud cruelty were per- 
 petrated under her reign. She was averse to the punishment of death, 
 but numerous persons were sentenced to the knout and to exile in 
 Siberia. Several ladies, among others Madame Lapoukiu, a handsome 
 and clever woman, who had given offence to Elizabeth, experienced 
 the same fate. Elizabeth exerted herself to forward the compilation 
 of a code of laws for the Russian empire, a task begun under Peter 
 the Great, but which was not completed till the reign of Catharine II. 
 She was never married, but left several natural children. 
 
 •ELLENBOROUGH, EDWARD LAW, First EARL OF, eldest son 
 of the first Lord fc-llenborough, was born in 1790, and succeeded to the 
 peerage as second baron in 1818; for a few years previous to which 
 time he had sat in the House of Commons as member for the now 
 disfranchised borough of St. Michael's. His first political employment 
 was bestowed upon him in 1828, when he became president of the 
 Board of Control under the Duke of Wellington's administration. 
 Under the short-lived ministry of Sir Robert Peel in 1834-35, he again 
 filled the same office. In 1842 he was sent out to India to supersede 
 the late Earl of Auckland as governor-general. On reaching India he 
 professed pacific intentions, but soon fouud himself compelled to draw 
 the sword. Affairs in Afghanistan having been brought to a successful 
 issue, aud General Sir G. Pollock and his comrades having recovered 
 the persons of Lady Sale and the other captives from the hands of the 
 Afghans, the British forces evacuated the country of Afghanistan. 
 Upon this the Ameers of Sinde took up arms; but the late General 
 Sir C. Napier was despatched against them, and after one or two 
 decisive victories had been gained, Sinde was annexed to the British 
 dominion. In 1843 he invaded the independent Mahratta state of 
 Gwalior, in conjunction with General Sir Hugh (now Lord) Gough, 
 for the purpose of putting an end to the civil strife which was raging 
 there during the regency of the youthful rajah. Scarcely had the 
 war been brought to a close by the defeat of the Mahratta force by 
 the troops under Gough and Littler, when Lord Ellenborough was 
 recalled by the Board of East India Directors, contrary to the wishes 
 of the government of Sir Robert Peel, who in the following year 
 (1845) appointed him first lord of the a dmiralty. This post he only 
 held until 1846, when he resigned on the change of administration. 
 Since that time Lord Ellenborough has kept his attention steadily 
 fixed on Indian affairs, which he criticises from time to time with 
 considerable ability in his place as a member of the House of Peers. 
 
 ELLESMERE, EARL OF. Lord Francis Leveson Gower was 
 born in London, January 1, 1800. He is the second son of the first 
 Duke of Sutherland, and brother of the present duke. He was 
 educated at Eton College, and afterwards at Christchurch, Oxford. 
 He left the university in 1820, in which year he was returned as M.P. 
 for Bletchin.ly in Surrey, since disfranchised by the Reform Act. At 
 a time when the German language was little studied in England, he 
 distinguished himself by a translation of the 'Faust' of Gothe, in two 
 volumes, which was more than once reprinted before the author resolved 
 to withdraw it from circulation ; it has now been several years out of 
 print. The ' Faust ' was followed by ' Translations from the German, 
 and Original Poems, by Lord Frauds Leveson Gower,' 8vo, London, 
 1824. This small volume consists of translations of seven lyrical poems 
 by Schiller, one by Gothe, one by Salis, and three by Kbrner, and of 
 thirteen original poems. He was M.P. for Sutherlandshire from 1826 
 to 18a0. In 1»27 he was made a lord of the treasury. From January 
 182S to July ls30 he was chief secretary for Ireland, and from July 
 to November 1830 he was secretary at war. After the death of his 
 father in 1833, having received as his inheritance the Bridgewater 
 estates, which his father had inherited from the last Duke of Eridge- 
 water, he assumed the name of Egerton. From 1835 to 1846 Lord 
 Francis Egerton was M.P. for South Lancashire. In the autumn of 
 1839 he commenced a voyage in his own yacht up the Mediterranean 
 Sea. He wintered at Rome, whence he sailed for Malta in April 1840, 
 and having lauded on the coast of Syria, made a tour in Palestine. 
 In 1841 he was elected rector of the uuiversity of Aberdeen. In 1843 
 he published ' Mediterranean Sketches, by Lord Francis Egerton,' 
 12mo. In this volume tne poem called ' The Pilgrimage ' records 
 some of the most interesting impressions of his tour in Palestine. It 
 is followed by extracts from his journal and by a few poems. A new 
 edition of these poem-, with several additions, has been published this 
 year (1856), 'The Pilgrimage, nnd other Poems,' 4to. In 1846 he was 
 created Earl of Ellesmere and Viscount Brackley, titles nearly corre- 
 sponding to those held by Lord Chaucellor Egerton, who, at the time 
 of his death, held the title of Viscount Brackley, and had previously 
 held that of Baron Ellesmere. [Egerton, Thomas.] The Earl of 
 Ellesmere was elected President of the Asiatic Society in 1849. In 
 1865 he was created a knight of the Garter, aud in the same year became 
 colonel-comuaaudaut of the Lancashire yeomanry cavalry; he is also 
 deputy lieutenant of Sutherlandshire. 
 
 Besides the works before mentioned, the Earl of Ellesmere has 
 published the ' Camp of r?alleDSth n, and other Poems ; ' the tragedies 
 of ' Catherine of Cleves and Hernaui ; ' ' The Sieges of Vienna by the 
 
 Turks, from the German of K. A. Schimmer, aud other sources,' 16ino, 
 1847; 'Military Events in Italy, transcribed from the German,' 12mo, 
 185] ; 'Life aud Character of the Duke of Wellington,' 12mo, 1852; 
 
 History of the Two Tartar Conquerors of China, from the French of 
 J. P. D'Orleans,' 8vo, 1854. 
 
 The Earl of Ellesmere, at his residence, Bridgewater House, Cleve- 
 land Square, London, has one of the very finest galleries of paintings 
 possessed by any individual in the kingdom. He inherited the chief 
 portion of it as a part of the property of the Duke of Bridgewater, but 
 he has made some additions to it himself, and he has in a v^ry hand- 
 some manner made it accessible to the public. We ought to mention 
 that his lordship in March 1856 presented to t'>e nation his celebrated 
 portrait of Shakspere, known as the Chandos Shakspere, with a 
 view to its forming a portiou of the projected National Gallery of 
 Portraits. Sui'i'LEMENT.J 
 
 * ELLIOTSON, DR. JOHN, was bom in London towards the close 
 of the 18th century, and entered first at the university of Edinburgh, 
 and subsequently at that of Cambridge. His early medical education 
 was pursued in St. Thomas's and Guy's hospitals. In 1817 he 
 was appointed assistant physician of the latter, and in 1822 ho became 
 physician, alter some controversy with the governors, of St. Thomas's. 
 Here he introduced the practice of giving clinical lectures, a practice 
 at first opposed by the governors, but now become geueral. He also 
 gave lectures, which were numerously attended. Still his position 
 was rendered unpleasant by the opposition which his more advauced 
 views received, and in 1834 he resigned his appointment, when the 
 hospital of University College was established, having been appointed 
 professor of medical science in the college in 1831. This situation he 
 held till 1838, when he resigned in consequence of the opposition raised 
 to his system of mesmeric treatment of cases in that hospital. In 1849 
 a mesmeric hospital was established, of which he is the physician. 
 
 It is not our purpose here to enter into details of the many and 
 violent disputes in which Dr. Elliotson has been engaged in conse- 
 quence of his having adopted what was styled heterodox views and 
 practice in medicine. His peculiarly active and energetic mind seems 
 to have been ever open to the reception of novelties, but it must be 
 admitted that in mauy cases, his adoption of them, however exposed 
 to ridicule in the first instance, has not been without sufficient 
 grounds. His advocacy of the use of prussic acid as a preventive 
 of vomiting, and thus preparing the stomach for medicines it would 
 otherwise reject; of the use of larger doses of quinine than had been 
 previously administered ; of iron in cases of chorea, and creosote in 
 cases of vomiting and nausea; and of the use of auscultation; which 
 were all opposed, and are now established. Of the most doubtful of his 
 doctrines, that of the use of mesmerism in disease, we can only say 
 that at least it must have been adopted conscientiously, as he sacrificed 
 much to his belief, which he still practises according to, and ener- 
 getically maintains its truth in, the pages of the 'Zoist.' His lectures 
 were published in the ' Lancet,' and in the ' Medical Gazette ; ' and 
 he has been a large contributor to the ' Medico-Chirurgical Transac- 
 tions.' In 1S17 he published a translation of Blumenbach's 'Physiology,' 
 with annotations; these in subsequent editions became so numerous, 
 and the modifications of the text so important, that at length the 
 work appeared as ' Human Physiology, &c, with which is incorporated 
 much of the elemantary part of the Institutiones Physiologica of J. 
 F. Blumenbach.' In 1S30 he issued his ' Lumleyan Lectures, on 
 the recent improvements in the art of distinguishing the various 
 Diseases of the Heart,' which he had delivered before the Royal 
 College of Physicians in the previous year. He is a Fellow of the 
 Royal College of Physicians, a Fellow of the Royal Society, the 
 founder and president of the Phrenological Society, and has been 
 president of the Royal Medical and Chirurgicil Society. 
 
 ELLIOTT, EBENEZER, the Corn-law Rhymer, was born March 
 17th, 1781, at the New Foundry, Masbro', near Rotherhara, Yorkshire. 
 His father, a clerk at the foundry, was an ardent politician and a stern 
 ultra calvinistic dissenter of the Berean sect ; and he employed his 
 " brother Berean, Tommy Wright, the Barnesley tinker " to baptise 
 his son — as the poet relates iu his 'Autobiography,' published soon 
 after his death in the ' Athenaeum ' (January 12, 1850). The elder 
 Elliott (also an Ebenezer) was accustomed to preach in his own room 
 every fourth Sunday, to persons of a similar persuasion, who used to 
 come twelve or fourteen miles to hear him ; and on the week-days he 
 "delighted to declaim on the virtues of slandered Cromwell and of 
 Washington, the rebel," as he pointed to prints of them which hung 
 ou the walls : and here, as Elliott wrote, "is the key which will unlock 
 all the future politics " of the Corn-law Rhymer. The young Ebenezer 
 was regarded as a dull child, loved to be alone, made little progress 
 at school, where he could never master grammar, or attain to vulgar 
 fractions, was a frequent truant, and seemed to be a confirmed dunce ; 
 and eventually, out of sheer hopelessness, was sent by his father to 
 work in the foundry. At the foundry work however he was thought 
 to be eveu clever, but with the workmen's skid he acquired also the 
 workmen's evil habits, and for awhile gave way to intemperance. 
 But from sinking into thoroughly vicious courses his early love of 
 nature saved him. A copy of Sowerby's 'English Botany,' lent him 
 by an aunt, led him to collect botanical specimens, and after a while 
 he became interested iu poetry that treated of his favourite flowers, 
 and of country scenes. He soon became a diligent reader, studying 
 "after Milton, Shakspere— then Ossian, then Junius," and soon, while 
 "of Barrow," he says, "I was never weary; he aud Young taught me 
 to condense." In time too he began to write verses himself, though 
 his early efforts, he confesses, were very unsuccessful ; and he set 
 himself doggedly to learn in his own way grammar, and even French, 
 
5-e; ELLIOTT, EBENEZER 
 
 but could master neither. Meanwhile he was not neglecting his 
 ordinary duties. His father had been induced to purchase the foundry 
 business on credit, and from his sixteenth to his twenty-third year 
 Elliott " worked for his father as laboriously as any servant he had, 
 and without wages, except an occasional shilling or two for pocket- 
 money." It was while thus engaged that ho composed (in his 
 seventeenth year) his first published poem, the 1 Vernal Walk ; ' this 
 was followed ^oon after by ' Night,' ' Wharncliffe,' and others : and 
 Elliott, between his rhymes and politics, began to be a local 
 celebrity. He had the good fortune to form the acquaintance of 
 Southey, who was earnest in giving him the full benefit of his own 
 wide experience in poetical studies, and . Elliott was in after years 
 proud of proclaiming that Southey taught him poetry. Happily for 
 his lasting fame, he did not let his respect for the genius or his 
 gratitude for the kindness of the laureate lead him to become an 
 imitator, or to tame down his wild notes to the orthodox tunes. 
 Between ' Wharncliffe,' and the ' Corn-law Rhymes,' he published in 
 1823 'Love,' and another poem, accompanying them with a 'Letter to 
 Lord Byron.' 
 
 Elliott's father was too much hampered by the liabilities he had 
 incurred, and his want of capital, to carry on the foundry with 
 success. After a time young Elliott commenced business at Rother- 
 ham on his own account ; but failing there he removed to Sheffield, 
 wherein 1821 he, at tho age of forty, recommenced the battle of life 
 as a bar-iron merchant, with a borrowed capital of 100Z. Here he had 
 a series of commercial successes, built himself a handsome residence 
 in the suburb of Upper Thorpe, and carried on a flourishing business 
 till the great panic of 1837, when heavy losses caused him to 
 contract the scale of his dealings. He finally withdrew from business 
 in 1841, and retired to a pretty country residence he had built for 
 himself on an estate of his own at Great Houghton, near Barnesley, 
 and there he resided at ease in his circumstances, the centre and 
 oracle of a circle of admiring friends, till his death, which occurred 
 on the 1st of December 1849, having lived to see the great change 
 effected in the commercial policy of the country which he had 
 laboured so earnestly to bring about. 
 
 Elliott says of himself, iu the 'Autobiography' already quoted: 
 " There is not iu my poetry one good idea that has not been suggested 
 to me by some real occurrence, or by some object actually before my 
 eyes, or by some remembered object or occurrence, or by the thoughts 
 of other men, heard or read." And this is evidently true. All his 
 poetry — all the true and living part of it at least — was suggested by 
 some passing event, or was written to serve some temporary purpose. 
 None of it is the result of a long meditated design, or the completely 
 formed issue of a vivid and vigorous imagination; or, on the other 
 hand, the unpremeditated melody of a heart imbued with happy 
 thoughts and fancies — singing as the wild-bird sings. Nevertheless it 
 is true, albeit often very harsh and rugged, poetry. It is the passionate 
 protest against wrong — the fiery remonstrance with the wrongdoer 
 — spurning the cold incumbrance of prose, and finding its only suf- 
 ficient utterance in the unrestrained flow of poetry. The great public 
 evil that came nearest home to his own hearth, that, as it seemed to 
 him, which was inflicting dire mischief on the labouring classes of 
 his own neighbourhood, and which was undermining the prosperity 
 of the manufactures of his native place, and as he believed of the 
 country generally, was the Corn-laws ; and he resolved to set forth 
 the mischiefs those laws were producing, and the greater dangers they 
 were threatening. He had not been long settled at Sheffield when his 
 'Corn-law Rhymes' began to appear iu a local paper, and their 
 effect on the hard Yorkshire artisans was immediate and lasting. And 
 their influence was assuredly well-earned. Rude and rugged in lan- 
 guage, intensely bitter, even savage in their indignation, often, as might 
 be expected, inconsiderate and sometimes unjust in their denunciations, 
 they yet showed everywhere a thoroughly honest hatred of oppression, 
 and fellow-feeling with the oppressed and suffering. With quite a 
 Crabbe-like familiarity with the poverty of the poor, they displayed a 
 far warmer, deeper, and more genial sympathy. The wrath and the 
 pathos, too, uttered in the most impassioned and the most direct words, 
 were yet conveyed in genuine music, which made its way at once to 
 the heart. When from a local they appealed to the general public 
 they were equally successful. 
 
 The ' Corn-law Rhymes,' published in a single volume with ' The 
 Ranter,' at once made Elliott's name famous. Men of all shades of 
 opinion joined in the admiration. The language was occasionally 
 objected to, but it was generally felt that the language was really a 
 part of the man. Noticing the objection in the preface to a new 
 edition of the Rhymes, Elliott asked, " Is it strange that my language is 
 fervent as a welding heat, when my thoughts are passions that rush 
 burning from my mind, like white-hot bolts of steel 1" But this, while^a 
 sufficient explanation of what reads so like excessive vehemence, serves 
 really to take off the edge of his poetic declamation, while it destroys 
 the impression of his prose, as placing within the category of passion 
 what ought to be the result of reason. Elliott followed his ' Corn- 
 law Rhymes' by publishing in 1829 the ' Village Patriarch,' another 
 but longer corn-law rhyme, much the best of his longer pieces, and one 
 which, with many faults, shows that he was capable of producing a 
 great work, could he have subjected his mind to the necessary dis- 
 cipline. 'Love,' 'They Met Again, 'Withered Wild-Flowers,' 'Ker- 
 
 ELLIS, REV. WILLIAM. 7o8 
 
 honah,' a dramatic fragment, and numerous beautiful little pieces, in 
 which descriptions of the scenery of his much-loved Yorkshire formed 
 the most attractive part, followed ; and iu 1834 he published his 
 collected works in three volumes. Three or four more editions of 
 his poetry were called for during his life, and to the last he continued 
 to write rhymes, epigrams, songs, and short snatches of verse, which 
 usually appeared from time to timo in the corner of a local newspaper 
 or the pages of ' Tait's Magazine.' Since his death two volumes of 
 his inedited remains have appeared under the title of ' More Prose and 
 Verse, by the Corn-law Rhymer,' but they contain nothing that can 
 materially add to his reputation. Two memoirs of him have been 
 published, written by Sheffield friends : but his biography remains to 
 be written ; and it is greatly to be desired that a fitting biography 
 should be written of one who is emphatically the poet of Yorkshire 
 — of its moors and streams, its towns and townsmen — tho poet of the 
 corn-law struggle, and the poet of the poor. 
 
 ELLIS, GEORGE, was born in 1745, and early distinguished him- 
 self by his wit and ability. His first literary appearance was as one 
 of the authors of the 'Rolliad,' to which he contributed the 'Birth- 
 day Ode;' the 'Ode on Dundas;' the poetical eclogue ' Charles Jen- 
 kinson,' and several of the 'Criticisms' and 'Epigrams;' he was also 
 one of the writers of ' Probationary Odes ;' and later he was, after 
 Canning, one of the most prolific and piquant contributors of loth 
 verse and prose to the ' Anti- Jacobin.' While taking a lively interest 
 in politics, he devoted his leisure to the study of our early literature ; 
 and few men have combined as wide a knowledge of English literature 
 with as refined and genial a taste. In minute antiquarian details he has 
 been far surpassed, but while he always displayed a competent know- 
 ledge, there was iu him nothing of the pedantry of minute information, 
 which often enables an inferior person to pass off as a better scholar 
 than he really is. Sir Walter Scott, who was first introduced to Ellis 
 iu 1800, and who, in his poetical investigations, derived no little benefit 
 from his critical skill and friendly assistance, declared that George Ellis 
 was "one of the most accomplished scholars and delightful companions 
 he had ever known;" and that seemed to be the estimate formed or 
 him by those who were best acquainted with him. Mr. Ellis's principal 
 works were his ' Specimens of Ancient English Poetry,' of which the 
 first edition appeared in 1780, an enlarged edition in 1801, and a 
 fourth edition in 1811 ; and 'Specimens of Aucient English Romances, 
 3 vols. 8vo, 1805 — two works which very largely contributed to bring 
 about that increased study of our older writers which marked the early 
 part of the present century, and had so important an influence in 
 restoring to our current literature a healthier tone of thought and 
 a more simple and masculine style. The 'Specimens of Ancient 
 English Romances' was reprinted in 1848, in a very convenient form, 
 in Mr. Bohu's generally well-edited ' Antiquarian Library ; ' but unfor 
 tunately the editor (Mr. Halliwell) thought proper to " silently amend" 
 what he conceived to bo " the various philological errors iuto which 
 Ellis had fallen," and consequently the volume is worthless as a boofc 
 of reference, as the reader is always at a loss to tell whether what 
 he reads is the opinion of Mr. Ellis or of his editor. Mr. Ellis died 
 on the 15th of April 1815. His epitaph was written by his warn) 
 friend George Canning, who however, before it was engraved, sub- 
 mitted it to Sir Walter Scott for revision. Mr. Ellis was a member of 
 the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 * ELLIS, SIR HENRY, was born in London in 1777. He received 
 his early education at the Merchant Taylors School, and then pro 
 ceeded to St. John's, Oxford, where he took his degree. In 1805 he 
 married. About this period he became one of the assistant librarian 1 ! 
 of the British Museum ; and the facilities which this position afforded 
 him for pursuing those antiquarian researches, in which he took an 
 eager interest, were manifested in several valuable publications. In 
 1813 a new and enlarged edition of Brand's ' Observations on Populas 
 Antiquities,' in two quarto volumes, was edited by him. It was sub- 
 sequently republished in a popular form in 1842. In 1816 he was 
 entrusted by the Commissioners "of Public Records to write the general 
 Introduction to 'Domesday Book,' and he discharged this trust with 
 an industry and care which renders this Introduction one of the mart 
 valuable aids to the proper understanding of that important survey. 
 He was a contributor to the new edition of Dugdale's ' Mouasticon.' 
 commenced in 1817. In 1824 he published his first series of 'Letter!- 
 illustrative of English History,' and a second series in 1827. In thai 
 year he was appointed principal librarian of the British Museum, a' 
 office which he filled with great efficiency, and with an urbanity whiol 
 won for him the regard of all persons with whom his official duties 
 brought him into communication. In the early part of 1856 he 
 resigned this honourable post. He was for many years a member and 
 joint-secretary of the Society of Antiquaries. Hi3 papers iu the 
 ' Archseologia ' are numerous and most interesting. Sir Henry Elli 
 has thus been a large contributor to the literature of his country. 
 Without striking into any new tract of antiquarian research, he has, 
 during this long course of unwearied labour, produced most valuable 
 contributions to the knowledge of our national antiquities. Hi.-: 
 classical knowledge enabled him to prepare four interesting volumes 
 on ' The Elgin Marbles ' and ' The Townley Marbles.' In 183^ 
 he was created a Knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order, 
 and promoted in 1838 to the rank of Knight Bachelor. 
 
 \ELLIS, REV. WILLIAM, whose name has become associated 
 
m 
 
 ELLIS, WILLIAM. 
 
 ELLISTON, ROBERT WILLIAM. 
 
 with the progress of Christian missions in the Sandwich and South 
 Sea Islands, became officially connected with the London Missionary 
 Society in 1815. In November of that year Mr. Ellis married Miss 
 Mary Mercy, a young lady who, under deep religious convictions, had 
 been led to offer herself for missionary work before she became 
 acquainted with her future husband and fellow-labourer. In Decem- 
 ber 1815 Mr. and Mrs. Ellis embarked at Portsmouth, and finally sailed 
 from Spithead on January 23rd, 1816. The vessel in which they took 
 tbeir passage visited New South Wales and New Zealand, called at 
 Tahiti, and reached the island of Eiiueo about thirteen months after 
 leaving England. From this period till October 1824, Mr. and Mrs. 
 Ellis were constantly and zealously engaged in promoting the instruc- 
 tion and welfare of the natives of Raiatea, Hualiine, and other of the 
 South Sea Islands : Mr. Ellis visited in 1822 Hawaii, or Owhyhee, the 
 chief island of the Sandwich group, and in the following year removed 
 pis family thither. The result of his acquaintance with the condition 
 of the islands and the character of the population, he has given in a 
 work of great interest, entitled ' Polynesian Researches.' Among 
 other works brought out by the missionaries for the benefit of the 
 natives, in 1823, a small book of hymns, in the native language, for use 
 in religious worship, was prepared uuder Mr. Ellis's superintendence, 
 and printed at the mission press at Oahu. 
 
 The health of Mrs. Ellis having become seriously affected, her 
 husband found it necessary to leave the scene of their labours, and in 
 October 1824 they set sail on board the ' Russell,' an American ship, 
 and arrived at New Bedford, Massachusetts, in March 1825. The 
 owners of the vessel declined remuneration for the passage, and by 
 numerous persous in Boston and the neighbourhood Mr. Ellis and his 
 family were treated with much kindness. During his residence in 
 America he took part in public meetings on behalf of the missionary 
 cause, the more readily that he had been on terms of cordial friendship 
 with Mr. Stewart and other American missionaries at Honolulu, the 
 capital of the Sandwich Islands. Mr. and Mrs. Ellis arrived in London 
 in August 1825. Mrs. Ellis experienced occasional intervals of im- 
 provement in the state of her health, and her husband was occupied 
 in connection with the business of the London Missionary Society at 
 home. Mrs. Ellis died on January 18th, 1835. Mr. Ellis subsequently 
 married Miss Sarah Stickney, a lady known as the author of several 
 useful works on female education and the promotion of social im- 
 provement Of these may be named ' The Women of England,' 
 ' The Mothers of England,' and ' The Daughters of England ; ' ' Family 
 S crets, or How to Make Home Happy ; ' 'A Voice from the Vintage,' 
 and other works bearing on the Temperance Reformation. Mr. Ellis 
 being in poor health, and suffering from depression of spirits, paid a 
 visit to Pau, accompanied by his wife, and the result of their resi- 
 dence there was published for the information of other excursionists, 
 under the title of ' Summer and Winter in the Pyrenees.' They after- 
 wards resided at Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, where Mrs. Ellis long con- 
 ducted an educational establishment for females. Among the more 
 important of Mr. Kllis's productions may be named a ' History of 
 Madagascar,' published in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1839, prepared by him from 
 information received from the missionaries and from government 
 official documents. The state of affairs in Madagascar having been 
 much improved of late, and the profession of the Christian religion 
 being now tolerated in that island, Mr. Ellis, in the course of the year 
 1856, proceeded to Madagascar on a mission of observation for the 
 London Missionary Society. Among his other works are — ' Narrative 
 of a Tour through Owhyhee,' 1826; 'History of the London Mis- 
 sionary Society,' p.ad ' A Vindication of the South Sea Missions from 
 the Msrepresentations of M. von Kotzebue,' 1831 ; 'Village Lectures 
 on Popery,' 1851 ; also an interesting memoir of the first Mr3. Ellis, 
 published in 1835; and 'Three Visits to Madagascar,' 1858. 
 
 * ELLIS, WILLIAM, claims a place in this work, not merely as 
 a writer on Social Science, but as having been the means of intro- 
 ducing it into schools a3 an important branch of elementary educa- 
 tion. He was born in the city of London in 1800. The son of a 
 gentleman engaged in commercial pursuits, he was early placed in a 
 mercantile office, and soon acquired such a position among commercial 
 men, that, at the age of twenty-six, he was appointed manager of a 
 marine insurance office — a post he has ever since held, the office under 
 his management having become one of the most successful establish- 
 ments of its kind in the metropolis. But commercial pursuits did not 
 at any time entirely engross his thoughts. His attention was in early 
 life drawn to the Bubject of political economy by the circumstance of 
 his copying for Mr. Tooke (who was a friend of his father) the manu- 
 script of his work on Prices ; and it was for Mr. Ellis a fortunate cir- 
 cumstance that, while involved in the difficulties which that mass of 
 facts was sure to present to a young inquirer, he found no less able 
 a guide than the late James Mill, under whose advice he prosecuted 
 the study with great ardour and with corresponding success. And 
 here perhaps it may be worth while to call attention to one fact in 
 Mr. Ellis's hi»tory, which, besides exercising probably a very powerful 
 influence in the moulding of his opinions, both on literary and political 
 subjects, has certainly impressed a marked character upon his educa- 
 tional efforts. His study of economic science in early life, like his 
 teaching of it in his riper years, was not a thing of books merely. 
 Not undervaluing books, yet Dot content to rest his belief on authority 
 tt juch, he invettigated for himself, and so conducts his lea ons that 
 
 the boys do really investigate for themselves. The conclusions of the 
 writers on political economy were in his hands propositions for inves- 
 tigation. He tried them against the phenomena of industrial life, as 
 his daily commercial experience gave him opportunity ; and the know- 
 ledge so gained has rendered him one of the discoverers in the science, 
 as well as perhaps one of its most zealous and able advocates. And 
 when we call to mind the great social changes of the present century, 
 it will not be difficult to understand how large the fieW, and how im- 
 portant the subjects on which Mr. Ellis's observation has been exer- 
 cised. In his boyhood Mr. Tooke put him in possession of all that 
 was then understood of Bank restriction acts and a depreciated currency. 
 Since then he has seen our currency, as at present established, assailed 
 in every panic from that of 1825 to that of 1848; and during the 
 same period there have passed under his scrutiny all the great strikes 
 by which workmen have been deluded into the hone of alleviat- 
 ing the sufferings incident to insufficient wages. These evils in- 
 duced Mr. Ellis to make some attempt at removing them ; and 
 further impelled, it may be, by the kindly feelings towards children 
 which form a prominent feature in his character, he determined, if 
 possible, to introduce into schools such instruction as should send 
 boys into the world furnished with intelligent thoughts upon all the 
 great questions relating to industrial life. With this view he began in 
 1846 a series of lessons to the elder boys of a British school to which 
 for some years previously he had been accustomed to render assist- 
 ance ; and about the same time he also gathered rouud him a group 
 of schoolmasters with whom he went over the course of inquiry which 
 will be found in his 'Progressive Lessons;' and these 'L-ssons' will 
 also furnish a good illustration of the mode of teaching adopted. The 
 boys had no tasks to learn by rote, but the whole of the subjects 
 brought before them, with the exception of things merely technical 
 and arbitrary, were, so to speak, developed by the boys themselves, 
 they being guided in their inquiries of course by the questions of tbe 
 teacher. Thus these lessons came to be something more than the 
 mere teaching of dry academical political economy. Tbey assumed in 
 fact the character of moral lessons. For, thus taught, not only do 
 children learn as a matter of fact about what is going on as the every- 
 day work of industrial life, but they are continually invited to inves- 
 tigate what ought to be the rule of conduct of those who are engaged 
 both in production and distribution. Not only, for example, would 
 children learn the fact that the merchant does buy iu the cheapest 
 and sell in the dearest market, but tlie questions would come, ' Ought 
 he to buy iu the cheapest market V 'Ought he to sell in the dearest 
 market V ' Why ? or why not ?' And such questioning, as may easily 
 be perceived, when managed by a competent teacher, tends to a high 
 order of mental and moral training. 
 
 Having thus " satisfied himself that social science may be made 
 attractive to intelligent boys . . . and feeling certain that the habits 
 of reflection and self-examination, which its study calls fortb, cannot 
 fail to impart a useful bias to their character and couduct in after- 
 life," Mr. Ellis proceeded to. establish schools in which instruction in 
 social science should be a leading feature. The Birkbeck schools are 
 all his, and, with the exception of the one in the London Mechanics 
 Institute, they have been established, and three of the largest of them 
 erected, wholly at his expense. Besides these, there are many schools 
 about the country that have been influenced by his books or his 
 teaching; and his views have found, or are finding, acceptance with 
 all tbe leading educationalists of the day. 
 
 As supplementary to his ' Lessons,' and to assist teachers in giving 
 similar lessons, Mr. Ellis prepared a series of elementary works on 
 social science. Of these the principal are— the ' Outlines of Social 
 Economy ;' ' Introduction to the Study of the Social Sciences ;' 
 'Outlines of the History and Formation of the Understanding;' 
 ' Questions and Answers, suggested by a Consideration of some of 
 the Arrangements of Social Life ;' and 1 Progressive Lessons in Social 
 Science.' The most recent of these introductory works, the ' Pheno- 
 mena of Industrial Life,' edited by the Dean of Hereford, might be 
 taken as an epitome of v. hat Mr. Ellis has taught and is teaching 
 as social science. He has also written 'Education as a Means of 
 preventing Destitution,' and some other pamphlets, besides contributing 
 some articles to the ' Westminster Review.' 
 
 ELLISTON, ROBERT WILLIAM, was born in Bloomsbury, Lon- 
 don, on the 7th of April 1774. His father was a watchmaker, one of 
 whose brothers was Master of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. 
 Young Elliston was placed at St. Paul's School, where he distinguished 
 himself by recitations : but, when he was the fourth boy, he ran away 
 from school, became for a few weeks a lottery-clerk at Bath, and in 
 that town, in April 1791, appeared on the stage fur the first time, per- 
 sonating a very humble character in ' Richard the Third.' He then 
 obtained an engagement in the company of Tate Wilkinson at York : 
 but, soon becoming tired of playing petty parts, he obtained though 
 his uncle a reconciliation with his family, and returned home. But 
 the truant disposition was invincibie. In the season of 1793 he played 
 regularly at Bath, undertaking characters of all sorts . and iu 1796 he 
 married Miss Rundall, a teacher of dancing there. In June of that 
 year he made his first appearance on a Loudou stage, playing at the 
 Haymarket, in the same evening, the part of Octaviau, and that of 
 Vapour iu the farce of ' My Grandmother.' After occasional appear- 
 ances in that theatre, aud a temporary engagement at Covent-Gsrden, 
 
 3 D 1 ' 
 
in 
 
 ELMSLEY, PETER. 
 
 772 
 
 he became in 1803, under Mr. Colman, priacipal actor and acting 
 manager of the Haycnarket. Next year ho succeeded John Kemble 
 at Drury-Lane ; but, after the burning of the theatre, he quarrelled 
 with Thomas Sheridan and left the company. He now took on his 
 own account the small house then occupied as the Circus, to which he 
 gave the name of the Surrey Theatre. There he and his company 
 performed some of Shakspere's plays and several operas, altering tliem 
 so as to evade the licence of the patent theatres ; and in 1805 he pub- 
 lished his only literary effort, 'The Venetian Outlaw,' a drama, in three 
 acts, adapted from the French. 
 
 On tho reopening of Drury-Lane Theatre, Elliston, again a leading 
 actor in its company, delivered Byron's address and performed ' Ham- 
 let.' In 1819 he became the lessee of that theatre, at a rent of 
 1U,200J. ; and he held this lease till his bankruptcy in 182G. From 
 tho date of that event he sunk into a subordinate position. After 
 speculating in tho Olympic Theatre, ho became again manager of the 
 Surrey; aud there, till near the closo of his life, he continued occa- 
 sionally to perform. He died of apoplexy on the 7th of July 1831. 
 
 Elliston lias been asserted, not without some show of reason, to 
 have been the very best comedian of our time. Others surpassed him 
 in particular excellences ; but none united so many of the merits 
 essential to eminent success in the highest walk of comic acting. So, 
 likewise, he rose higher perhaps in tragedy than any other actor who 
 was distinguished for excellence in comedy : he was admirable in 
 those tragic parts which do not pass altogether out of the sphere of 
 ordinary life. The weaknesses and eccentricities of his own character 
 have furnished to Charles Lamb and others the themes for an infinite 
 fund of good-humoured raillery. His predominant failing was inor- 
 dinate self-esteem. He was vain of himself as an actor, vainer of 
 himself as a manager : and in both phases his vanity was continually 
 breaking out in incidents which, while they were irresistibly diverting, 
 exhibited a humorous whimsicality, and a fervid sincerity of self-de- 
 ceiving imagination, making him one of the most curious objects upon 
 which a kindly observer of human oddities could exercise his scrutiny. 
 
 ELMES, JAMES, was formerly in practice as an architect, and 
 was at one time surveyor and civil engineer to the port of London. 
 He was born in the city of London on the 15th of October 1782, and 
 acquired a knowledge of building under his father, and of architec- 
 ture under Mr. George Gibson. He gained the silver medal in 
 architecture at the Royal Academy in 1804, and afterwards designed 
 aud carried out public and private buildings in London, aud the 
 neighbouring counties, and in Ireland. He relinquished his principal 
 office, and that of vice-president of a society " for the diffusion of the 
 knowledge of the Fine Arts among the people" in 1828, through 
 loss of sight, which however he partially recovered a few years since. 
 Mr. Elmes is the author of a memoir of the ' Life and Works of Sir 
 Christopher Wren,' published in 1823. More recently he has published 
 a volume on 'Sir Christopher Wren : his Life and Times.' He is also 
 the author of well-known works on The Law of Dilapidations, and 
 on Architectural Jurisprudence ; and has printed a volume of 
 'Lectures on Architecture,' a ' General and Bibliographical Dictionary 
 of the Fine Arts,' 'Elmes's Quarterly Review,' 'The Annals of the 
 Fine Arts,' and other works, with some of which Haydon was con- 
 nected as contributor and projector. He also supplied the literary 
 matter for Jones's 'Metropolitan Improvements in London in the 19th 
 Century,' and articles on Bridge Building and other subjects for tho 
 'Encyclopedia Metropolitana.' One of his latest works, 'Thomas 
 Clark son : a Monograph,' appeared in 1854. [.Sec Supplement.] 
 
 ELMES, HARVEY LONSDALE, son of the preceding, was born 
 near Chichester, about the year 1814. He was sent to school at 
 Mortlake in Surrey, and subsequently was taken into the office of 
 his father, who had removed to London ; and at the age of twenty-one 
 he joined his father in partnership, and together they designed and 
 superintended buildings in Park-street and the South Mall, St. James's 
 Park. His independent fame dates from his success in the competition 
 for the building of St. George's Hall, Liverpool ; his design being 
 chosen from the drawings of eighty-six competitors. He was then 
 aged twenty-three. The building was at first intended for a music-hall 
 only, and a foundation-stone was laid on the 28th of June 1838, though 
 not quite on the present site. A competition for the Assize Courts 
 shortly succeeded the other ; and in this also Elmes was successful, 
 there being seventy-five competitors. It was however decided to erect 
 one grand edifice, and for this a fresh design by Elmes was approved 
 of in 1841, when the work at length commenced. It was carried on 
 under the architect's direction till the year 1847, when he was obliged | 
 to succumb to the encroachments of a fatal malady, and, after a brief j 
 sojourn at the Isle of Wight, he quitted England for Jamaica, with 
 the hope of restoration in a warm climate, but died at Spanish Town 
 on November 26, 1847, in the thirty-third year of his age. He had 
 delegated the superintendence of his great work during his expected 
 abseuce, to his friend Mr. R. Rawlinson, Mr. Cockerell having agreed to 
 attend to architectural detail. Under the first of these gentlemen the 
 hall was arched over, contrary to many predictions which the architect 
 bad borne the brunt of — feeling probably that what had been accom- ' 
 plished in the works of the Romans should be allowed to present no 
 insurmountable difficulty in the present century. The present deco- 
 rative character of the interior, and some of the external accessories, aro ' 
 due to Mr. Cockerell, who also designed the sculpture of the pediment, i 
 
 To understand tho importance of Elmes's great work, it would be 
 necessary to review the history of architecture, and especially th» 
 adaptation of Greek models, during the course of some years pre- 
 ceding the date of the St. George's Hall design. The proper use of 
 ancient models had been completely lost sight of, and especially as to 
 Greek architecture. In many parts of the kingdom buildings were 
 erected, supposed to be classicil, but which realised neither art nor 
 the lower quality, the very imitation. Thus an idea had begun to 
 prevail that the Greek system was so limited in its scope, whilst at 
 variance with modern requirements, as to bo in itself the cause of 
 the failure in certain ambitious productions. Elmes however repeated 
 the proof how that it is possible to use the works of preceding minds, 
 aud yet to realise the grandest new conception. Considered as to tho 
 attributes of art, Elmes's work is more Greek than many modern 
 buildings which may exhibit even accurato reproduction. The design 
 may well be claimed by this country as amongst the noblest efforts of 
 architecture in Europe. 
 
 After years spent most worthily in the pursuit of art, Elmes had 
 not realised anything commensurate with the extent and merit of his 
 exertions. An average of 450Z. a year, subject to deductions for 
 travelling, clerks, office and other heavy expenses, was all that one who 
 had the highest gifts, received from that work which forms the chief 
 adornment of a rich provincial town ; aud after his death a subscription 
 was raised to provide a moderate income for his wife and child. 
 ' *ELMORK, ALFRED, R.A., born June 1815, at Clonakilty, Cork, 
 first attracted attention in London by the pictures of the 'Crucifixion,' 
 exhibited at the British Institution in 1838, and the ' Martyrdom of 
 Thomas h Becket,' painted for Daniel O'Connell, and exhibited at the 
 Royal Academy in 1840. Mr. Elmore now went for awhile to study 
 the great historic painters at Rome, and on his return in 1843 sent a 
 picture without a title to the Academy. From this time he has been 
 a tolerably regular contributor to the walls of the Royal Academy, 
 but he has selected a somewhat lower brauch of the historic art for 
 his special culture than his early essays promised. His chief pictures 
 have been — 'Rienzi in the Forum,' 1844 ; ' The Origin of the Guelph 
 and Ghibeline Quarrels at Florence,' 1845, which secured his election 
 the following November as Associate of the Royal Academy ; ' The 
 Fainting of Hero,' 1846; 'The Inventor of the Stocking-Loom,' 1847 
 (this, perhaps the most popular of Mr. Elmore's pictures, has been 
 very well engraved); 'The Death-bed of Robert King of Naples,' 
 1848 ; 'Religious Controversy in the time of Louis XIV.,' and a 
 subject from 'Tristram Shandy,' 1849; 'Griselda,' and a subject from 
 the 'Decameron,' 1850; 'Hotspur and the Fop,' 1851; 'A Subject 
 from Pepys's Diary/ 1852; ' Queen Blanch ordering her son Louis IX. 
 from the presence of his Wife,' 1853; and 'The Emperor Charles V. 
 at Yuste,' 1856, a very skilful rendering of a passage from Stirling's 
 ' Cloister Life of Charles V.,' but having the fault too common with 
 Mr. Elmore's works, of requiring a commentary to render its intention 
 clear ; ' Invention of the Combing Machine,' 1862 ; ' On the Brink/ 
 1862. Mr. Elmore was elected R.A. in 1856. 
 
 ELMSLEY, PETER, was born in 1773, and educated at West- 
 minster and Oxford. In 1798 he was presented to the chapelry of 
 Little Horkesley, in Essex. By the death of his uncle Elmsley, the 
 well-known bookseller, he succeeded to a competent fortune, which 
 enabled him to live in independence, and devote his whole time to 
 literary pursuits. For some time after his uncle's death he resided 
 in Edinburgh, and was one of the earliest contributors to the ' Edin- 
 burgh Review.' The articles on ' Wyttenbach's Plutarch/ 'Schweig- 
 hiiuser's Athenasus/ ' Blomfield's iEschylus,' and ' Porson's Hecuba ' 
 are generally understood to have been written by him. While at 
 Edinburgh he superintended an edition of Herodotus (1804, 6 vols. 
 12mo), in which he gave the first proof of the love of Atticisms 
 which always distinguished him, by introducing into the text the 
 Attic forms of the tenses, in spite of all the manuscripts. He was 
 also an early contributor to the ' Quarterly Review : ' his paper on 
 ' Markland's Euripides ' (in the seventh volume) is well-known to 
 scholars. As soon as the state of Europe permitted, Elmsley went 
 abroad, and collated manuscripts in the continental libraries. Hs 
 spent the whole of the winter of 1818 in the Laurentian library at 
 Florence. In 1819 Elmsley was appointed by the government to 
 assist Sir Humphry Davy in unrolling and deciphering the papyri at 
 Herculaneum ; but the attempt was not attended with success, and in 
 the prosecution of his duties Elmsley caught a fever, from which he 
 never fully recovered. 
 
 On his return to Oxford he became Principal of St. Alban's Hall, 
 and Camden Professor of Modern History in that university. He 
 died of a disease of the heart on the 8th of March 1825. Elmsley's 
 acknowledged works were editions of Greek plays. He published the 
 ' Acharnians of Aristophanes ' in 1809 ; the ' CEdipus Tyrannus of 
 Sophocles ' in 1811 ; the ' Heracleida;, Medea, and Baccha? of Euripides ' 
 in the years 1815, 1818, and 1821; and the ' ffidipus Coloneus of 
 Sophocles' in 1823. His transcript of the 'Florentine Scholia on 
 Sophocles ' was published after his death. As a scholar, Elmsley did 
 not pretend to be more than a follower of Porson, but he did far more 
 for Greek scholarship than any English scholar who followed that 
 great critic. His character has been drawn with great truth by the 
 celebrated G. Hermann of Leipzig (in the ' Wien. Jahrbiicher/ vol. liv., 
 p. 236) :— " The way laid open by Porson was pursued and enlarged 
 
773 ELPHINSTONE, WILLIAM. 
 
 by P. Elmsley, a man worthy of all honourable mention as well on 
 account of hia sound scholarship, as his great fairness and earnest 
 love of truth. We owe to his unweariable accuracy and great appli- 
 cation a rich treasure of excellent observations on the Attic dialect ; 
 and if he was too fond of making general rules, and for the sake of 
 these rules introducing many wrong and unnecessary emendations, we 
 should remember how easily diligent observation induces one to form 
 a rule, and how easily the adoption of a general rule inclines one to 
 set aside all deviations from it. But Elmsley had too much good 
 sense and too sincere a love of truth not to turn back from his error, 
 and to use it only for a confirmation of the truth and a new advance 
 on the right way : and of this he has given many proofs." 
 
 ELPHINSTONE, WILLIAM, founder of King's College, Aberdeen, 
 was born at Glasgow in 1437. His father, whose name he bore, 
 entered into holy orders on the death of his wife, and was first rector 
 of Kirkmichael, and at length archdeacon of Teviotdale, in which 
 station he died in 1486, being then also, as it seems, provost of the 
 collegiate church of St. Mary's, Glasgow. 
 
 At the head of those who in congregation e confirmed the statutes 
 of the faculty of arts in Glasgow college, on the erection of that 
 seminary in 1451, stands the name of William Elphinstone, Dean of 
 Faculty. This was, no doubt, the archdeacon of Teviotdale. Among 
 those incorporated in the university the same year appears also the 
 name " Will 1 "- Elphinstoun," in all probability the youthful Elphin- 
 stone, who, it is admitted on all hands, was educated at the University 
 of Glasgow. Here he passed A.M. probably in the twentieth year of 
 his age. (Keith's 'Bishops,' p. 116.) Afterwards, applying himself 
 to theology, he was made priest of St. Michael's, or Kirkmichael, 
 Glasgow, in which place he served four years, and then proceeded 
 to France, where, after three years study of the laws, he was appointed 
 professor of law, first at Paris and then at Orleans. He continued 
 abroad till 1471, when he returned home at the earnest request of his 
 friends, particularly Bishop Muirhead, who thereupon made him 
 parson of Glasgow and official of the diocese. 
 
 On Muirhead's decease, in the end of 1473, the archbishop of St. 
 Andrews made him official of Lothian, which he continued to be till 
 the year 1478. In the spring of that year We find John Otterburn 
 in the office ; yet in June following Mr. Elphinstone is marked in the 
 parliament rolls as official of Lothian, and in that capacity elected 
 ad causas. He was also made a privy councillor. About the same 
 time he was joined in an embassy to France with the Earl of Buchan 
 and the Bishop of Dunblane, to compose some differences which had 
 arisen between the two crowns; and on his return, in 1479, he was 
 made Archdeacon of Argyle, and then Bishop of Ross, whence, in 
 1484, he wa3 translated to the diocese of Aberdeen. 
 
 The same year, as Bishop of Aberdeen, he was one of the com- 
 missioners from Scotland to treat of a truce and matrimonial alliance 
 with England, whither he was again despatched as an ambassador on 
 the accession of King Henry VII. When affairs at home came to be 
 troubled between the king and his nobles, he took the part of the 
 former; and when the Earl of Argyll was sent on an embassy into 
 England, he was, on the 21st of February 1488, constituted lord 
 chaocellor of the kingdom, in which place however he continued only 
 till the king's demise in June following. In October of the same year 
 he was in the parliament then held at Edinburgh, where we also find 
 him assisting at the coronation of the new king. He was afterwards 
 sent on an embassy to Germany ; and on his return thence was 
 appointed to the office of lord privy seal, where he seems to have 
 remained till hi3 death, which happened at Ediuburgh on the 25th of 
 October 1514, while negociations were pending with the court of Rome 
 for his elevation to the primacy of St. Andrews. 
 
 Besides a book of canons, extracted out of the ancient canons, 
 Elphinstone wrote a history of Scotland, chiefly out of Fordun. He 
 wrote also some lives of Scotch saints ; and in the college of Aberdeen 
 are preserved several large folio volumes of his compilations on the 
 canon law. The civil and canon laws indeed were his favourite 
 studies, and to their establishment as the laws of Scotland he long 
 and steadily directed his attention. It is to him we may in all 
 probability ascribe the crafty acts 1487, c. 105, seq. to recover the 
 former large jurisdiction of the chancellor and court of session, a3 
 well as the act 1494, c. 54, the object of which appears to have been 
 to enforce in the courts the study of the Roman laws ; and we shall 
 not perhaps greatly err in conceiving his zeal to have been employed 
 in the erection of the Court of Daily Council in 1503. It was more- 
 over at his solicitation that the convent of Grey Friars at Stirling and 
 the Chapel Royal were founded in 1494, the same year in which he 
 also obtained a papal bull for the erection of a university at Aber- 
 deen, in place of the narrow seminary previously existing there. To 
 Bishop Elphinstone Aberdeen also owes another great work, namely 
 the bridge across the river Dee : to the completion of his plans the 
 prelate left 10,000?. Scots in money lying in his coffers at his death. 
 
 ELSHEIMER, or ELZHEIMER, ADAM, was born at Frankfurt in 
 1574, and, according to the most probable account, died in 1620 ; but 
 the statements of writers on the subject differ extremely. Finding 
 that he wag not likely to acquire in his own country that knowledge 
 of the art which he saw to be necessary, he resolved to go to Rome, 
 where he soon formed an intimacy with Pinas, Lastman, Thomas of 
 Landau, and other eminent painters. Having carefully examined the 
 
 ETLOT, SIR THOMAS. 77 1 
 
 curiosities of Ro ne and tho works of the greatest artists, both ancient 
 and modern, he formed a style of painting peculiar to himself ; this 
 wa3 the designing of landscapes with historical figures on a small 
 scale, which he finished in so exquisite a manner that he was not only 
 far superior to all his contemporaries, but is probably unrivalled in 
 his own line by any artist of subsequent times. He designed entirely 
 after nature; and a retentive memory enabled him to recollect every- 
 thing that had struck him, and to make a judicious use of it in his 
 compositions. Allowing for a certain conventionalism, it is difficult 
 to speak in too high terms of the rare uaion of excellences in the 
 works of Elsheimer ; he is equally admirable for the fine taste of his 
 design, the correct drawing of his figures, the lightness, spirit, and 
 delicacy of his touch, the beauty of his colouring, the high finishing 
 of his works, so that the minutest parts will bear the closest inspection, 
 and his skilful management and distribution of light and shade, and 
 thorough knowledge of the principles of chiaroscuro, which was 
 manifested in his pieces representing scenes by torch or candlelight, 
 moonlight, sunrise, or sunset. Even during his lifetime his pictures 
 bore a very high price, but the price was considerably increased after 
 his death. Yet it is said that he was unable to acquire even comfort 
 by the exercise of his talents. He had a large family ; and though he 
 received high prices for his works, he spent so much time and labour 
 upon them, that he could not subsist by what he earned. He was at 
 length cast into prison for debt ; and though very soon released, the 
 disgrace of the confinement preyed on his spirits, and he sunk under 
 his misfortunes. The Italians, who highly honoured and esteemed 
 him, deeply regretted his untimely death; and his friend Thomas of 
 Landau was so grieved at his loss that he could no longer bear Rome, 
 but retired to his own country. Old Teniers and Bamboccio are 
 considered to have been indebted for great part of their excellence to 
 their study of the works of Elsheimer. 
 
 ELSTOB, WILLIAM, descended from an ancient family in the 
 county of Durham, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, January 1, 1673. 
 His father was Mr. Ralph Elstob, a merchant of that place. He received 
 his earliest education in his native town, but was afterwards sent to 
 Eton, and thence to Catherine Hall, Cambridge. Being of a consumptive 
 habit, and the air of the place not agreeing with him, he removed to 
 Queen's College, Oxford, whence in 1696 he was chosen fellow of 
 University College. In 1701 he translated the Saxon Homily of Lupus 
 into Latin, with notes, for Dr. Hickes ; and about the same time he 
 translated Sir John Cheke's Latin version of Plutarch's treatise on 
 ' Superstition,' which was printed at the end of Strype's life of Cheke. 
 In 1702 he was presented by the dean and chapter of Canterbury to 
 the rectory of the united parishes of St. Swithin and St. Mary Bothaw, 
 in London, where he continued till his death. In 1703 he published 
 at Oxford an edition of Roger Ascham's ' Letters ;' and in 1709, in the 
 Saxon language, with a Latin translation, the Homily on St. Gregory's 
 day. He intended the publication of several other works in Saxon 
 literature, more particularly the Saxon laws, and Alfred's paraphrastic 
 version of Orosius. He died March 3, 1714-15. He published one or 
 two other works, but of leas consequence than his Saxon labours. 
 
 Elizabeth Elstob, sister of the above, was born at Newcastle, 
 September 29, 1683. During her brother's continuance at Oxford she 
 resided chiefly in that city with him, and afterwards removed with 
 him to London, where she joined him in his Saxon studies. The first 
 public proof she gave of this was in 1709, when, upon her brother 
 printiug the Homily upon St. Gregory's day, she accompanied it by 
 an English translation and a preface. Her next publication was a 
 translation of Madame Scudery's essay on ' Glory.' By the encourage- 
 ment of Dr. Hickes, she undertook a Saxon 'Homiliarium,' with an 
 English translation, notes, and various readings, of which a few sheets 
 only were printed at Oxford, in folio, when the work was abandoned. 
 Her transcript of the Saxon homilies, in preparation for this work, is 
 preserved in the Lansdowne Collection of Manuscripts in the British 
 Museum. In 1715 she published a Saxon grammar in quarto, the 
 types for which were cut at the expense of Lord Chief Justice Parker, 
 afterwards earl of Macclesfield. After her brother's death, Miss Elstob 
 retired to Evesham in Worcestershire, where she subsisted with diffi- 
 culty by keeping a small school under a feigned name. Each scholar 
 paid her fourpence a week. She was subsequently patronised by 
 Queen Caroline, who granted her a pension of 201. a year, but this 
 bounty died with the queen. In 1 739 the Duchess Dowager of Portland 
 took Miss Elstob into her family as governess to her children, where 
 she continued till her death, May 30, 1756. She was buried on the 
 3rd of June at St. Margaret's, Westminster. (Pegge, Account of the 
 Textus Ruffensis, and of Mr. Elstob and his Sister, in the Bibl. Top. 
 Brit., No. xxv.; Kippis, Biog. Brit.; Tindal, History of Evesham; 
 Nichols, Literary Anecdotes ; Notes and Queries, vols. ix. and x.) 
 
 ELYOT, SIR THOMAS, one of the best writers of the time of 
 Henry VIII., was the son of Sir Richard Elyot, of the county of 
 Suffolk, according to the received accounts, but as it would seem 
 from a passage in Leland's 'Collectanea,' iv. 141, and an inquisition 
 in tho Exchequer (cited in ' Note3 and Queries,' viii. 276), of Wiltshire. 
 Thomas Elyot received his university education at St. Mary's Hall in 
 Oxford. He afterwards travelled through Europe, and upon his return 
 was introduced at the court of Henry VIII., who conferred upon him 
 the honour of knighthood, and subsequently employed him in several 
 embassies, particularly to Rome in 1532 in the affair of the divorce, 
 
m ELZEVIRS. 
 
 and afterwards in 1536 to the emperor Charles V. Sir Thomas Elyot's 
 literary and philosophical attainments were various, and he was courted 
 by most of the learned men of his time, and by none in a more friendly 
 manner than by Sir Thomas More. He died in 1546, and was buried 
 in the church of Carleton in Cambridgeshire, of which county he had 
 been sheriff. 
 
 From a letter of Sir Thomas Elvot to Secretary Cromwell, among 
 the Cottoniau Manuscripts in the British Museum, it appears that 
 Wolsey made him clerk of the king's council. 
 
 Sir Thomas Kl \ ot's works of greatest note were his book named the 
 'Governor,' his 'Castle of Health,' and his 'Dictionary,' all of which 
 went through num. rous editions between 1531 and 1580. He also 
 published a Bmall treatise 'Of the Knowledge which maketh a Wise 
 Man,' 8vo, London, 1533; and 'The Banquet of Sapi. nee,' 8vo, 1545; 
 besides seveial translations from Plutarch, Isocrates, St. Cyprian, &c. 
 
 ELZEVIRS, the Dame of a family of celebrated printers and pub- 
 lishers at Amsterdam, Leyden, the Hague, and Utrecht, who adorned 
 the republic of letters with many beautiful editions of the best authors 
 of antiquity. The right name of the family was Elzevier. They are 
 believed to have come originally either from Liege or Louvain. In 
 neatness and in the elegance of small type they exceeded even the 
 family of the Stephens. [Stephens.] Their Virgil, their Terence, 
 and their Greek Testament, are considered the masterpieces of their 
 productions; but the Virgil is said to be incorrect. 
 
 The first trace of the name of Elzevir is found in an edition of 
 Eutropius, printed in 1592, published at Leyden by Louis Elzevir, who 
 was still living there in 1617. Matthew, his eldest son, died at Leyden 
 in 1640. Giles, his second son, was a bookseller at the Hague in 1599. 
 Isaac, the eldest son of Matthew, was the first printer of his family, 
 and printed from 1617 to 1628. Abraham and Bonaventure, the third 
 and fourth sons of Matthew, were printers and booksellers. Bona- 
 venture was a partner with his father in 1618, and occurs associated 
 with his brother Abraham in 1626. The set of Elzevirs which the 
 French call ' Les Petites Re'publiques,' the 'Accounts of the Nations 
 of the World,' were published by Abraham and Bonaventure, and in 
 fact gave to the family their celebrity. Their brother Jacob printed 
 at the Hague in 1626. Both Abraham and Bonaventure died at 
 Leyden in 1652. Louis, the 6econd of the name, the son of Isaac, was 
 established as a printer at Amsterdam from 1640 to his death in 1662. 
 Peter, the son of Arnout, the second son of Matthew Elzevir, printed 
 at Utrecht in 1669, and was living in 1680. John and Daniel were 
 sons of Abraham, and printed in partnership in 1652; but John 
 printed alone in 1655, when Daniel appears to have been associated 
 with his cousin Louis. John died in 1661 ; Daniel in 1680. Daniel 
 left children who carried on the business, but passes for the last of 
 the family who excelled in it. Their descendants still remain, but no 
 Elzevir has for considerably over a century been engaged in printing. 
 Isaac Elzevir was governor of Curacao in 1820. 
 
 The Elzevirs printed several catalogues of their editions ; but the 
 best, as beiDg the latest lists and accounts of them, are contained in 
 the ' Notice de la Collection d'Auteurs Latin, Francais, et Italiens, 
 imprimee de format petit en 12mo, par les Elzevier,' in Bruuet's 
 'Manuel du Libraire,' 3rd edit., 8vo, Paris, 1820, vol. iv. pp. 533-567; 
 and in Berard's ' Essai Bibliographique sur les Editions des Elzevirs, 
 pre'ee'de' d'une Notice sur ces Imprimeurs Celehres,' 8vo, Paris Didot, 
 1822. See also Pietiers, ' Analyse des MateYiaux les plus utiles pour 
 de futures Annales de l'lmprimerie des Elsevier,' Gand., 1843; De 
 Baume, 'Recherches historiques, genealogiques, et bibliographiques 
 sur les Elsevier,' Brnxelles, 1847; Ch. M. [Motteley], 'Apercu sur les 
 Erreurs de la Bibliographie Speciale des Elsevirs et de leurs Annexes,' 
 Paris, 1849 ; Brunet iu ' Nouv. Biog. Gen.,' 1856. 
 
 The usual imprint upon the Elzevir editions is either 'Apud 
 Elzevirios,' or ' Ex officina Elzeviriorum,' or ' Elzeviriana :' the names 
 of the differ eut branches of this family are rarely found in the title- 
 pages of their editions. 'Else' iu Dutch signifies an elm, and, by 
 extension of signification, wood in general; 'vuur' is fire. These 
 words explain a device of a wood-pile burning in the title-pages of 
 some of the Elz. vir productions, as in that of the Sleidanus, 1631 ; of 
 'Cunseus de Republics Hebiseorum,' 1632; the Caesar and Terence of 
 1635; the 'Memoirs of Comines,' &c. 
 
 * EMERSON, RALPH WALDO, the son of a Unitarian clergyman 
 at Boston, United States, was born about 1803. Haviug graduated in 
 bis eighteenth year at Harvard University, Mr. Emerson accepted an 
 invitation to become the pastor of aUniiaiian church in his native 
 city. For some seven or eight years he continued to discharge the 
 duties of this office, when differences of opinion respecting some of 
 the forms of woiship and points of creed, led to the severance of the 
 connection ; and, abandoning the ministry, he retired to the village of 
 Concord, where he gave himself up to the free investigation of the 
 principles of theology, of morals, and of philosophy. During some 
 winters he lectured in Boston, and he contributed to the ' North 
 American Review ' papers on the great writers and artists of Europe. 
 But it was not till the publication of his « Nature,' in 1836, that his 
 original strain of thinking began to be recognised. In August 1837 
 be delivered an oration before the Phi Beta Kappa Society, Cambridge, 
 U.S., on ' Man Thinking,' which produced a marked sensation, and this 
 was diffused throughout the intellectual circles of America on its 
 publication. On a Sunday evening in July 1838 he delivered an 
 
 EMERSON, WILLIAM. 778 
 
 address before the senior class in Divinity College, Cambridge, in 
 which he treated of man and his relations to the universe, of Christ 
 and Christianity, the present condition of religion, and like lofty 
 subjects from the most transcendental point of view ; layiug down at 
 the same time a " sublime creed," which has been described as an 
 " idealistic pantheism." It was at any rate a great advance on any 
 theory of philo.-ophical religion which had yet been put forth in 
 America, although American theologians and metaphysicians had 
 been by no means timid in their enterprises in that direction. 
 Contemporaneously with the 'Address,' appeared an oration entitled 
 ' Literary Ethics,' delivered a few days after the ' Address' before the 
 Literary Societies of Dartmouth College, in which the same style of 
 thought was pursued ; and the literary student, like the divine, was 
 urged to put off the past, or " blend it with the new and divine life, 
 and grow with God." Profound was the impression everywhere pro- 
 duced by these addresses, and Emerson soon came to be looked up to 
 by a large section of the young theological students and literary men 
 of America as their guide and master, while the orthodox regarded 
 him with something like horror. These remarkable productions soon 
 reached England, and found much acceptance as well as stirred up 
 much opposition here; but to the majority they appeared to be a 
 scarcely intelligible rifacimento of the speculations of Coleridge and 
 Carlyle, with a seasoning of German transcendentalism ; and though 
 Emerson has doubtless influenced to a certain extent the substance 
 and the style of English literature, the influence began at a later 
 period, and has not extended very far. 
 
 In 1840 Mr. Emerson commenced the publication of a monthly 
 magaziue called the 'Dial,' in which religion, philosophy, and lite- 
 rature were freely discussed: it lasted four years. In 1841 he 
 published ' Man the Reformer,' a lecture ; ' The Method of Nature,' 
 an oration delivered before the Society of the Adelphi, in Waterville 
 College, Maine; 'Lectures on the Times;' and the first series of his 
 ' Essays.' His second series of ' Essays ' appeared in 1844, and he also 
 gave some lectures on ' New England Reformers,' ' Negro Emanci- 
 pation,' &c. In 1846 he published a volume of poems, containing 
 much that is very striking along with much that is in hardly any sense 
 poetical. In all these publications there was the same resolute self- 
 dependency, the same fearless condemnation of the master evils of 
 American society, the same eager calls to live and work under an 
 abiding sense of duty without regard to public opinion, which gave so 
 fresh and vigorous a tone to his earlier public addresses, and, it 
 must be confessed, the same crudeuess of thought and obscurity of 
 expression. 
 
 Iu 1849 Mr. Emerson visited England, and met with a very cordial 
 reception from the literary and general society of the metropolis. 
 Whilst here he delivered a series of lectures, which formed the 
 substance of his volume entitled ' Representative Men.' Here, as in 
 his previous volumes, there was much of mysticism, much that was 
 obscure, paradoxical, strange; but when speaking of men whose 
 names are common property, — of Shakspere and Go the, of Napoleon 
 and Montaigne, — where he laid aside the ' terminology ' of his meta- 
 physics, there was much that to every mind seemed as true and 
 impressive as it was novel and graceful. But here, as in his orations 
 and essays, or even more than in his orations and essays, the sense of 
 an oppressive vagueness and insufficiency was predominant. Nothing 
 of much consequence has since appeared from the pen of Mr. Emerson, 
 unless it be his portion of the strangely-constructed ' Memoirs 
 of Margaret Fuller.' In 1856 appeared his 'English Traits,' notes on 
 the persons he met here, and in 1860, ' The Conduct of Life,' both 
 small and comparatively unpretending publications. 
 
 EMERSON, WILLIAM, an eminent mathematician, philosopher, 
 and mechanist, was born at Hurworth, a village about three miles 
 from Darlington, in June 1701. He died May 20th, 1782, at his native 
 place, a?ed nearly eighty-one years. 
 
 His father, Dudley Emerson, was a schoolmaster, and is said to have 
 been a tolerable proficient in the mathematics of that time : this 
 circumstance furnished his son with ample means of cultivating his 
 taste for the same science, both by means of a good mathematical 
 library which his father possessed, and the good mathematical tuition 
 which he received in his earlier years. A young clergyman, then 
 curate of Hurworth, also lodged in his father's house, and from him 
 he received all requisite assistance in the study of the Greek and 
 Roman classics, in which he became well versed. 
 
 After the death of his father, Emerson attempted to continue the 
 school, which however he soon relinquished ; but whether it arose 
 from the impetuosity of bis temper, which rendered hiin unfit for 
 such an occupation, or that a small competence left him by his father 
 (he being an only child) rendered it a matter of indifference to him to 
 increase his income, cannot be ascertained. He devoted his long life 
 to writing a series of mathematical works, which, except those of 
 Simpson, were, till a comparatively recent time, the very best in our 
 language. He also contributed largely to the different mathematical 
 periodicals of his time, though almost always under some fanciful 
 name, as Merones, Philofluentimecanalgegeomastrolongo, &c. 
 
 Mr. Emerson was in person rather short, but strong and well formed, 
 with an open honest countenance and ruddy complexion. A portrait 
 of him, by Sykes, was painted and engraved in the latter part of his 
 life ; but it is not often to be met with, an only a few copies of it were 
 
777 EM Ml US UBBO. 
 
 circulated. His health was generally excellent till near the latter part 
 of his life, when he became a great sufferer from the stone. 
 
 Emerson was in many respects a very eccentric person, fancifully 
 coarse in his dress, and uncourteous in his conversation. He was 
 nevertheless, when in his happier moods, a delightful companion, and 
 his discourse full of instruction, deep thought, and startling originality 
 of opinion. 
 
 All his books were published in London ; and it was his invariable 
 practice to walk to town and shut himself up in some obscure lodging 
 to devote himself sedulously to the correction of the successive sheets 
 of his works with a care never exceeded even by Hamilton or Cruden ; 
 and certainly, of all the mathematical works that have ever been 
 published, those of Emerson are the freest from errata. 
 
 Emerson was married, but had no children. He amused himself 
 with fishing, a diversion to which he was much attached, and would 
 frequently stand up to his middle in the water for hours together 
 when he found it gave him a better position for the use of his fly or 
 his angle. He was an excellent practical mechanic, and of most of 
 the machines described in his work on mechanics he had made very 
 good models. The spinning-wheel delineated in that w.ork was the 
 one on which his wife employed her leisure hours. He had also a 
 very profound knowledge of the musical scales, both ancient and 
 modern, although he was but a poor performer; still he was dexterous 
 iu the repair of musical instruments, and was generally employed to 
 tune the harpsichords and clean the clocks throughout the district in 
 which he resided. 
 
 The bold and frank manner in which Emerson spoke on all subjects 
 has led some persons to affirm that he was a sceptic in religion. Of 
 this however there is cot the slightest evidence ; but it appears to 
 have arisen from the insinuations of his scieutific opponents, who thus 
 attempted to crush his reputation with the world, and thereby weaken 
 his authority in matters connected with science — a course too often 
 adopted in our own day by those who contend for victory rather than 
 truth. Emerson was through a long life universally accounted a man 
 of integrity; but his honesty often led to dogmatism, and his indig- 
 nation at error to an expression of feeling that gave his controversial 
 writings an air of ungracious severity. 
 
 A considerable number of Emerson's processes are marked with 
 peculiar elegance and considerable powers of invention ; still there is 
 apparent in all of them a want of that power of generalisation which 
 distinguishes the highest order of minds. His 'Method of Increments' 
 is the most original of his works ; and his ' Doctrine of Fluxions ' is 
 perhaps the most elegant. His ' Mechanics' is the work by which he 
 is most generally known, a circumstance probably owing to its con- 
 taining descriptions, of so many of the more usual and useful 
 machines ; but it is a work singularly crude and ill-digested, and 
 not less singularly incomplete in even the enunciation of the most 
 important principles of mechanical science. 
 
 The following is a list of his works, all in 8vo, except his ' Mechanics 
 and Increment^' in 4to, and his 'Navigation' in 12mo: — 1, 'Doctriue 
 of Fluxions;' 'Projection of the Sphere, Orthographic, Stereographic, 
 and Gnomonic;' 3, 'The Elements of Trigonometry;' 4, 'Principles 
 of .V.»chani^8 5, 'A Treatise on Navigation;' 6, 'A Treatise on 
 Arithmetic,-'' i t 'A Treatise on Geometry;' 8, 'A Treatise on Algebra;' 
 9, 'The Method of Increments;' 10, 'Arithmetic of Infinities, and 
 the Conic Sections, with other curve lines ;' 11, ' Elements of Optics 
 and Perspective;' 12, 'Astronomy;' 13, 'Mechanics, with Centripetal 
 and Centrifugal Forces;' 14, 'Mathematical Principles of Geography, 
 Navigation, aL 1( j Dialling ;' 15, 'Commentary on the Principia, with a 
 Defence of Ntb w ton;' 16, 'Miscellanies.' 
 
 EMMIUS UiBBO, was born at Gretha, in East Friesland, iu 1547. 
 His father was a clergyman of the Lutheran communion. Emmius 
 studied at Brer neD) Rostock, and lastly at Geneva, where he became 
 intimate with l*eza. He afterwards returned to his native country, 
 and in 1589 was made rector of the school of Norden, in East Fries- 
 land. In 1594 he. wa3 appointed to the chair of history and the Greek 
 language in the (college of Groningen, and when the university of 
 Groningen was instituted in 1614, Emmius was made rector of the 
 same. He was deejay imbued with classical learning, and he excelled 
 in the knowledge cf history, ancient and modern. Among his his- 
 torical works the nri os t important is the 'Vetus Grrccia illustrata,' 
 3 vols. Leyden, J §26. The first volume consists of a description 
 of ancient Greece, ( including the islands; the second contains a history 
 of that country; an d the third, which is the most elaborate and 
 interesting, gi^es an account of the political institutions and social 
 manners of th/ e various Greek states, namely, of Athens, Sparta, Creta, 
 Argos, Theb» g) Corinth, Syracuse, Corcyra, Samos, Chios, Rhodes, 
 Achaia, ^Eto'ja, Massilia in Gaul, Locri in Italy, and Lycia in Asia. 
 The author .baa also introduced a brief sketch of the Carthaginian 
 republic, ^fhe appendix contains an account of the decline and fall of 
 three of tjfte above states — Athens, Carthage, and Sparta. Emmius 
 gives a kng list of ancient authors from whom he derived his informa- 
 tion, ^fhe work is altogether useful, and was still more so at the time 
 °* appearance, when good works on classical learning were more 
 •caijrce than they are at present. The other works of Emmius are — 
 A 'Opus Chronologicum,' or a General Chronology, folio, 1619. 3, 
 R'jrum Frisicarum Historia, a gentis origine usque ad ann. 1565,' 
 L**deD, 1632 : it is a good history of Friesland, toe author's native 
 
 Jbioo. DIV. VOL. IL 
 
 EMPEDOCLES. 778 
 
 country, to which is added ' De Frisiorum Republica Commeutarius,' 
 published before separately at Embden iu 1619. 4, ' De Agio Krisise 
 inter Amasum et Lavicum flumina.' 5, ' Historia nostri Temporis,' 
 Groningen, 1732. Emmius Ubbo died at Groningen, December 9, 
 1625. At the time of his death he was busv writing a history of Philip 
 of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the Great, which he intended as 
 a warning to the republic of the United Provinces against the designs 
 and intrigues of their enemies. He had written as far as the fifteenth 
 year of Philip's reign. Emmius was acquainted with, and appreciated 
 by, most of the learned men of his time, such as De Thou, Gruter, 
 Gomar the theologian, Pezelius, and others. He was especially a 
 favourite with William Louis, of Nassau, the governor of Friealaud 
 and Groningen. 
 
 EMPE'DOCLES, a native of Agrigentum in Sicily, who flourished 
 about B.C. 450: he was distinguished not only as a philosopher, but 
 also for his knowledge of natural history aud medicine, and as a poet 
 and statesman. It is generally believed that he perished iu the crater 
 of Mount ^Etua. The story that he threw himself into it in order 
 that by disappearing suddenly and without a trace, he might establish 
 his claim to divinity, and the charge of arrogance fouuded upon that 
 pretension, seems to have rested on a misconception of his doctrine 
 that the human soul (aud consequently his o wn) is divine and immoiiaL 
 
 His masters in philosophy are variously given. By some, like the 
 Eleatoe generally, he is called a Pythagorean, in consequence of a 
 resemblance of doctrine iu a few unessential points. But the prin- 
 ciples of his theory evidently show that he belongs to the Eleatic 
 school, though the statement which makes him a disciple of Parme- 
 nides rests apparently upon no other foundation than a comparison of 
 their systems ; as, iu like manner, the common employment of the 
 mechanical physiology has led to an opinion that he was a hearer of 
 his contemporary Auaxagoras. 
 
 He taught that originally All was one : — God, eternal and at rest : 
 a sphere and a mixture (artpaipos, fJ-iy/J-a) — without a vacuum — iu 
 which the elements of things were held together in undistinguishable 
 confusion by love (<pi\'ia) — the primal force which uuites like to 
 unlike. In a portion of this whole however, or, as he expresses it, in 
 the members of the Deity, strife (yeTicos) — the force which binds like 
 to like — prevailed and gave to the elements a tendency to separate 
 themselves, whereby they first became perceptible as such, although 
 the separation was not so complete, but that each contained portions 
 of the others. Hence arose the multiplicity of things : by the vivify- 
 ing counteraction of love organic life was produced, not however so 
 perfect and so full of design as it now appears ; but at first single 
 limbs, then irregular combinations, till ultimately they received their 
 present adjustments aud perfection. But as the forces of love aud 
 hate are constantly actiug upon each other for production or destruc- 
 tion, the present condition of things cannot persist for ever, aud the 
 world which, properly, is not the All, but only the ordered part of it, 
 will again be reduced to a chaotic unity, out of which a new system 
 will be formed, and so on for ever. 
 
 There is no real destruction of anything, only a change of combina- 
 tions. It must be remarked that the primal forces, love and hate, 
 must not be supposed to be extrinsically impressed upon matter ; on 
 the contrary, while strife is inherent in the elements separately, love 
 is in the mass of things — nay, more, is one with it — God. Of the 
 elements (which he seems to have been the first to exhibit as four 
 distinct species of matter), fire, as the rarest and most powerful, he 
 held to be the chief, and consequently the soul of all sentient and 
 intellectual beings which issue from the central fire, or soul of the 
 world. The soul migrates through animal and vegetable bodies in 
 atonement for some guilt committed in its unembodied state when it 
 is a daemon ; of which he supposed that an infinite number existed. 
 The seat of the daemon when in a human body is the blood. 
 
 Closely connected with his view of the objects of knowledge was his 
 theory of humau knowledge. In the impure separation of the 
 elements it is only the predominant one that the senses can apprehend, 
 and consequently, although man can know all the elements of the 
 whole singly, he is unable to see them in their perfect unity wherein 
 consists their truth. Empedocles therefore rejects the testimony of 
 the senses, and maintains that puro intellect alone cau arrive at a 
 knowledge of the truth. This is the attribute of the Deity, for man 
 cannot overlook the work of love in all its extent ; aud the true unity 
 is only open to itself. Hence he was led to distinguish between the 
 world, as presented to our senses (ic6<t/.ws aiadrjTos), and its type the 
 intellectual world (icSfffios vot)t6s). 
 
 His explanation of the cognitive faculty, which rested upon the 
 assumption that " like can only be known by like," is drawn naturally 
 enough from his physical view. Man is capable of knowing outward 
 things, since he is, like them, composed of the four elements, and of 
 the two forces love and hate ; and it is especially by the presence of 
 love within him that he is able to arrive at an intellectual knowledge 
 of the whole, however imperfect and inferior to the divine. 
 
 (The Fragments of Empedocles were published with a commentary 
 by Fr. W. Sturz, Leipzig, 1805, 8vo; see also Empedoclis and Parme- 
 nidis Fragmenta, ex Cod. Taur. Bibl. restituta et illustrata, ab A. 
 Peyron, Lips. 1810, 8vo ; Karsten, Empedoclis Agrigentini Carmin. 
 Reliq., in vol. ii. of Philosophorum Grxcorum veterum reliquiae,, Anist, , 
 1838 ; and Zeller, die Philosophie der Oriech, Tubingen, 1844. 
 
 3 E 
 
779 
 
 ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ. 
 
 ENGHIEN, DUC D'. 
 
 780 
 
 ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ, director of the Royal Observatory at 
 Berlin, was born at Hamburg on September 23, 1791. His father was 
 a clergyman, and after being prepared at home he was eeut to the 
 University of Gottingen, where he studied under Professor Gauss. 
 On leaving the university he entered the Prussian military service, 
 and was acting as lieutenant of artillery in the fortress of Kolberg, 
 when he became acquainted with the Saxon minister of state Lindenau, 
 who gave him a situation in the observatory of Seeberg, near Gotha. 
 He remained here till 1825, when he was appointed Director of the 
 Royal Observatory at Berlin, which situation he has ever since occu- 
 pied. In the same year he was elected a foreign member of the Royal 
 Society of London, and somewhat later ho was chosen secretary of 
 the mathematical section of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and 
 he was created a knight by Frederick William IV. in 1840. His first 
 work was his collected observations on the transit of Venus, in his 
 work on 'Die Entfernung der Sonne,' published at Gotha in two 
 volumes in 1822-24. But his greatest work was two treatises ' On the 
 Comet of Pons,' which appeared at Berlin in 1831-32. Eucke had 
 been engaged since its appearance in 1818 in endeavouring to discover 
 the elements of its orbit. He had been enabled, from the shortness 
 of its revolution, to identify it with the comet described by Mechain 
 and Messier in 1786, in the constellation Aquarius; with that dis- 
 covered in 1795 in the constellation Cygnus, by Miss Herschel ; and 
 with the comet observed by Pons in 1805, and which had hitherto 
 been considered as separate bodies. His investigations had enabled 
 him to predict its return in 1822, adding the probability that it would 
 not be seen in Europe. His prediction was verified : the comet 
 appeared, and was seen by M. Rumker in New South Wales on 
 June 3, 1822. This gentleman's observations enabled Eucke to recon- 
 struct his calculations for its orbit more definitely, and to compute 
 its return with greater confidence in 1825. Its reappearauce occurred 
 as foretold, and the fresh materials then acquired gave him the means 
 of more certainly fixing its return for 1828, when it was first observed 
 by Mr. Smith on October 30. It has thence received the name of Encke's 
 comet. Its appearance in 1828 afforded him an opportunity of fixing 
 its orbit, which is within that of Jupiter, and its period of recurrence 
 is about three years and three- tenths, or more exactly, as determined on 
 its reappearauce in 1832, in 3'29 years. From some of the phenomena 
 connected with it, Encke drew the conclusion that the heavens oppose 
 a resisting medium to the motion of bodies, an idea to which he has 
 drawn attention in his treatises. From 1830 he has issued yearly the 
 1 Astronomische Jahrbiicher,' a well-known and valuable series, and 
 ■ Astronomical Observations made at the Royal Observatory at Berlin,' 
 of which the first volume appeared in 1840. He also in 1845 pub- 
 lished dissertations 'De Formulis Dioptricis,' and in 1846 another 
 ' On the Relation of Astronomy to the other Sciences.' Encke's first 
 two treatises, originally published in the ' Astronomische Nachrichten,' 
 were translated by Professor Airy in 1832 under the title of 'Encke's 
 Dissertation,' and contained a full account of Encke's comet, with a 
 discussion of the question, suggested by Encke's resolution of its 
 orbit, and his hypothesis of a resisting medium, as to the gradual 
 approach of this comet to the sun. [See Supplement.] 
 
 ENFIELD, WILLIAM, was born at Sudbury, in Suffolk, on March 
 29, 1741, of humble but respectable parents. The disadvantages of 
 his early education were made amends for, in a great degree, by a 
 fondness for reading and incessant labour towards improving his 
 mind. This disposition to literary application introduced him to the 
 notice of Mr. Hextall, the dissenting minister of the place, who kindly 
 and judiciously directed him in his studies, and by his encouragement 
 and advice led him to devote himself to the Christian ministry. In 
 his seventeenth year he was admitted to the Academy or Dissenting 
 College at Daventry, then conducted by the Rev. Dr. Ashworth. Here 
 he passed through the usual course of study of five years, and was 
 distinguished for his habitual diligence and for an unusual facility 
 and elegance of composition. It was here also that he, with some 
 others of his fellow-students, formed the design of making Christian 
 morality, rather than points of faith, the object of their discourses. 
 Immediately on leaving the academy he was invited to the office of 
 minister to the congregation of Benn's Garden, in Liverpool. In 1767 
 he married Mary, the only daughter of Mr. Holland, draper in Liver- 
 pool — a connection which constituted his principal happiness for the 
 rest of his life. In 1768 and 1770 he published two volumes of 
 sermons, which were very favourably received. One of these volumes, 
 now scarce, is rather remarkable for being embellished with vignette 
 sketches illustrative of the subject of each discourse, from the, pencil 
 of Fuseli. He took his leave of Liverpool on being invited to the 
 office of tutor in the belles-lettres and resident conductor of the 
 discipline at the academy of Warrington. These offices he accepted 
 in conjunction with that of minister to the dissenting congregation 
 of Warrington. The degree of Doctor of Laws was obtained from 
 Edinburgh for him by the trustees of the academy. 
 
 Of Dr. Enfield's industry some idea may be formed from the following 
 listof the works which he published during his residence atWarriugton, 
 and in. the midst of his other various and important occupations : — 
 ' The Preacher's Directory,' 4 to, 1771; 'The English Preacher, a Col- 
 lection of Sermons abridged and selected from various Authors,' 9 
 vols. 12mo, 1773; 'An Essay towards the History of Liverpool, 
 principally from the Papers of Mr. George Perry/ fol., 1774; 
 
 'Observations on Literary Property,' 4to, 1774; ' The Speaker, or 
 Miscellaneous Pieces selected from the best English Writers, for the 
 purposes of Reading and Speaking,' 8vo, 1774 ; ' Biographical Sermons 
 on the Principal Characters of the Old and New Testament,' 12mo, 
 1777; 'Exercises in Elocution, being a Sequel to the Speaker,' 8 vo, 
 1781; 'A Translation of Rosignol's Elements of Geometry,' 8vo; 
 ' Institutes of Natural Philosophy, Theoretical and Experimental,' 4to, 
 1783. He published also various occasional sermons. None of these, 
 however useful in their day, are of much value now. The ' Speaker,' 
 it should however be noted, was one of the first selections from our 
 English classical writers. Dr. Enfield published also while at War- 
 rington another small volume of sermons ou the principal characters 
 of the Old and New Testament, aud Dr. Aikin says that while there 
 he drew up a series of discourses ou the principal incidents and moral 
 precepts of the gospel. This work was not published, but a selection 
 of twenty sermons from it forms the last of three volumes of discourses 
 which were published after his decease by subscription for the benefit 
 of his widow. The series of discourses on the gospels was written 
 chielly, if not altogether, at Norwich. 
 
 After the dissolution of the academy, Dr. Enfield remained two 
 years at Warrington, occupied iu the education of private pupils and 
 in his duties as minister of the congregation. In 1785 he accepted an 
 invitation from the Octagon dissenting (Unitarian) congregation at 
 Norwich. He first settled at the village of Thorpe, where he received 
 private pupils, and afterwards removed to Norwich, where at length 
 he devoted his whole time to literary occupations and his official 
 duties. It was during his residence at Norwich that, besides being 
 engaged as a writer in the ' Monthly ' and 'Analytical' reviews, he 
 undertook an abridgment of Brucker's ' History of Philosophy,' in 
 2 vols. 4 to. In this task he was kindly encouraged by Dr. Bagot, at 
 that time bishop of Norwich, who accommodated him with books 
 from Cambridge aad from his own library. 
 
 Dr. Enfield was also, a frequent contributor to the ' Monthly 
 Magazine ' at its commencement, in which the papers under the title 
 of the 'Enquirer' are mostly-from his pen. His last literary under- 
 taking was that of a 'General Biographical Dictionary,' in conjunction 
 with one of his oldest and most valued friends, Dr. John Aikin. He 
 resided at Norwich till his death, which, after a short but painful 
 illness, took place ou November 3, 1797. 
 
 As a sermon-writer, Dr. Enfield obtained so great a reputation as not 
 only to be applied to for assistance by his 1MB industrious dissenting 
 brethren, but also, through the agency of A London bookseller, by 
 several of the clergy of the Establishment, for sermons on particular 
 occasions, for which he was liberally remunerated. As a preacher, 
 his manner of delivery was grave and impressive, affecting rather a 
 uniform dignity than a variety of expression. As a companion, he 
 was universally esteemed in every situation, and 3* every period of 
 his life. 
 
 ENGHIEN, LOUIS- ANTOI NE-H ENRI-DE-BOUR 1 BON, DUC D', 
 was born at Chantilly in August 1772. He was the s'ipn of the Duke 
 of Bourbon and grandson of the Prince of Conde", hieing a lateral 
 branch of the then reigning family of France. Aftel" the French 
 revolution broke out, young d'Enghien served under hisi grandfather 
 in the corps of the French emigrants who fought on the Rhine. At 
 the peace of Luneville in Austria in 1801 the corps was disbanded, 
 and d'Enghien fixed his residence at Ettenheim, a chateau on the 
 German side of the Rhine, a few miles from that river,l and in the 
 territories of the margrave of Badeu. An attachment Ivetween him 
 and the Princess Charlotte of Rohan, who resided at Et tenheim with 
 her relative the Cardinal de Rohan, induced the duke to remain there. 
 After the war had broken out again between England and France, 
 iu 1803, the English government took the French emigrants again 
 into its pay, and they were directed to go to the Gen'man side of the 
 Rhine to act when required. The Duke of Enghieu v,vas looked upon 
 as their head. Meantime the conspiracy of Georguss and Pichegru 
 against the persou of the first consul, Bonaparte, w as discovered at 
 Paris. It has never been proved that the Duke of Finghien was privy 
 to that conspiracy, but it appears that he was led t>o expect an insur- 
 rectionary movement in France in favour of the iBourbons, of which 
 he intended to avail himself by entering France/ at the head of the 
 emigrants. Bonaparte, alarmed at the conspiracy^ and at the avowed 
 intention of Georges to assassinate him, seems tip have persuaded 
 himself that the Duke of Eughien was connected 1 ^ with the Paris 
 conspirators, and that the whole was a plan directed is^y the Bourbons 
 in England and by the English government ; and he determined upon 
 getting rid of bis enemies by summary means. He\i accordingly 
 despatched a party of gendarmes, who crossed the Rbj ine, entered 
 without ceremony the neutral territory of Baden, suiprounded the 
 chateau of Ettenheim, and took the Duke of Eughien tprisoner, the 
 15th of March 1804. [For the following part of the transaction, 8ee 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon I., vol. L, col. 788.] The duke und\erweut the 
 mockery of a trial before a secret court, which evidently actN^ merely 
 as the instrument of the first consul; aud its sentence was\£ar ne ^ 
 into execution with a most indecent haste. The duke was fjto» nd 
 guilty of all the charges preferred against him, some of which wV re 
 never proved. Even the recommendation of the court for a respite! *° 
 the prisoner was overruled by Savary, who was present at the sittil°8 
 aj a sort of extra-judicial authority to watch over the proceediulp 
 
781 ENNIUS, QUINTUS. 
 
 It was one of the worst instauces on record of a judicial murder, and 
 has stamped an ineffaceable stain on the fame of Napoleon, who at 
 the time openly avowed to the Council of State his firm purpose of 
 making an example of the duke in order to deter the other Bourbon 
 princes and their partisans from plotting against him in future. 
 And again, at St. Helena, almost at his dying hour, he took upon 
 himself alone the whole responsibility of that deed. ('Testament de 
 Napoleon.') After the Restoration, Hullin, president of the court, 
 Savary, Caulincourt, and others who had a share in the arrest, trial, 
 and execution of the duke, wrote each in justification or extenuation 
 of their respective conduct. The fate of the Duke of Enghien 
 excited iuterest and commiseration throughout Europe ; he was 
 young, brave, amiable, and one of the most promising of the Bourbon 
 princes. The duke was shot on the morning of Match 21, 1804. 
 
 E'NNIUS, QUINTUS, the old epic poet of Rome, was born at 
 Rudiae, now Ruge, in Calabria, in the year B.C. 239, two years after 
 the termination of the first Punic war. He was a Greek by birth, 
 and is one among many instances how much Roman literature was 
 indebted even directly to foreign talent. History does not inform us 
 what his original Greek name was, for that of Ennius is evidently of 
 Latin form, and was probably adopted by him when he was admitted 
 to the privileges of a Roman citizen. Of his early life little is posi- 
 tively known. He entered the military service of the Romans, and in 
 the year 204 was serving as a centurion in the island of Sardinia, 
 where his abilities attracted the notice of Cato, who was then acting 
 as qutestor under the first Scipio Africanus. When Cato left the 
 island, the poet accompanied him to Rome, and fixed his residence on 
 the Aventine Hill. The introduction of Cato, his military character, 
 and his poetical abilities, won for him the friendship and intimacy of 
 the first men of Rome, and he was largely instrumental in introducing 
 letters among a nobility who had hitherto gloried as much in their 
 ignorance as their courage. Cato himself learned Greek from him. 
 Scipio Africanus found in him a companion in peace and the herald of 
 his glories in war. Scipio Na3ica, the son of Africanus, delighted in 
 his society; and M. Fulvius Nobilior, the consul, B.C. 189, himself 
 possessing a high literary character, prevailed on the soldier-poet to 
 accompany him in the war against the ^Etolians. It was to the son 
 of this Fulvius that be was indebted for his admission to the citizen- 
 ship of Rome. His great social qualities unfortunately led him into 
 intemperance, for which he paid the penalty in severe sufferings from 
 gout. Still a hardy constitution enabled him to complete his seventieth 
 year, and to the very last to devote himself to his favourite muses. 
 He died in the year B.C. 169, and was buried iu the Cornelian 
 fepulchre, one mile out of Rome, on the Appian road, where his 
 statue still appeared with those of Publius and Lucius Scipio, even 
 in the age of Livy, a lasting monument of his intimacy with those 
 great men. He lived, as we have already said, iu the splendid dawn 
 of Roman literature. Noevius, the first poet of Rome, and Livius 
 Audronicus, were his predecessors by not many years. The tragic 
 poet Pacuvius was his sister's sou. Plautus was his contemporary, 
 and the comic writer CaDcilius his companion in arms. The writings 
 of Ennius were numerous and various. His great work called, some- 
 what unpoetically, by the name of ' Annals,' was an historical epic in 
 eighteeu books, written in hexameter verse, a form of metre which he 
 is said to have been the first to introduce into Roman literature. 
 This work traced the history of Rome from the mythical age of 
 ./Eneas down to his own time. His labours in tragedy were extensive. 
 He gave tli3 Romans a translation, but evidently a very free one, of 
 the ' Eumenides of ^Eschylus,' the ' Medea,' ' Iphigenia in Aulis,' and 
 ' Hecuba of Euripides,' the ' Ajax Flagellifer of Sophocles,' besides as 
 many as nineteen from other Greek poets. He also wrote comedies. 
 His other works were ' Phagetica,' a poem on gastronomy, especially 
 on the merits of fishes; an epic, or panegyric, entitled 'Scipio;' a 
 metrical translation from a philosophic work of Epicharmus, partly 
 in dactylic hexameters, partly in trochaic tetrameters ; poems entitled 
 ' Asotus,' ' Sotadicus,' ' Protreptica,' and ' Praocopta ; ' also satires, 
 epigrams, and acrostics; and a prose translation of the sacred history 
 of Kumerus. Of all these works there is only an unconnected mass 
 of fragments collected from quotations in Cicero and other writer.?. 
 The work entitled 'Annals' was for a long time the national epic of 
 Roman literature, and Virgil has not scrupled to borrow freely from 
 it. The best edition of Ennius is that by Hesselius, 4to, Amsterdam, 
 1707. 
 
 EON DE BEAUMONT, CHARLES - GENEVIEVE - LOUIS - 
 AUOUSTK-ANDRE-TIMOTfi D', generally known as the Chevalier 
 b'Eon, owes his celebrity chiefly to the doubts long entertained of his 
 sex. He was born of a respectable family at Tonnerre in Burgundy, 
 October 17, 1727, received a good education, was called to the bar of 
 the parliament in Paris as an advocate, and obtained some reputation 
 by his literary productions. In 1755 he was introduced to Louis XV., 
 and employed in diplomatic missions to Russia and to Austria; and 
 in 1759 he served in the French army in Germany as a captain of 
 dragoons and aid-de-camp to Marshal Broglio. In 1761 he came to 
 England as secretary of embassy. Dissatisfied at being superseded 
 in the post of minister plenipotentiary, which he had held for a short 
 interval, he published ' Lettres, Me"moires, et Negociations particulicres 
 de Chevalier D'Eon,' exposing the secrets of his own court, and libel- 
 ling both foes ani friends. For one of these on the Count de Guerclry 
 
 EOTVOS, JOZSEF. 792 
 
 he was prosecuted in the Court of King's Bench in 1764, and found 
 guilty. In the meantime he pretended to be iu dread of being kid- 
 napped by agents of the French government, and applied to Lord 
 Mansfield for information as to whether he might not resist, and repel 
 force by force ; and in 1764 presented a bill of indictment against De 
 Guerchy for a conspiracy against his life. He however disappeared 
 just before beiu^ called up to receive judgment for the libel, and 
 on the 13th of June 1765 he was outlawed. He probably retired 
 to France. 
 
 Notwithstanding his intemperate and discreditable conduct in pub- 
 lishing the private papers of the embassy, he received the continued 
 confidence of Louis XV., who, in 1766, settled a pension on him for 
 his services in Russia. In 1769 he returned to England. In 1777 au 
 action was brought in the King's Bench before Lord Mansfield, to 
 recover a wager laid as to the sex of Chevalier D'Eon, when the plain- 
 tiff produced witnesses, one of whom, a surgeon, swore to his being 
 a female; and the plaintiff got a verdict for 700Z. It was understood 
 that many other sums, to a large amount, depended on this suit, but 
 they were not paid, an act of parliament haviug been passed to restrain 
 such gambling speculations. The chevalier now x-eturned to France, 
 wearing the dress of a woman ; and coming back to England gave 
 lessons in fencing in his female garb. Matched against professors such 
 as St. George and M. Angelo, he showed himself a master of his art. 
 This occupation he pursued for some years ; but in 1791 he advertised 
 a sale of his effects, the catalogue of which enumerated books, prints, 
 medals, fire-arms, sabre3, military uniforms, petticoats, gowns, silks, 
 jewels — articles alike suited for a cavalry officer or a fashionable lady. 
 He was resolved, he says, "to take nothing away but his honour." 
 Again in France, the National Assembly being sitting, he petitioned on 
 May 11, 1792, as Madame D'Eon, to serve in the army. She stated 
 that, though she had worn the dress of a woman for fifteen years, she 
 wa3 desirous of exchanging her cap and petticoats for her old helmet 
 and her sabre. The petition was received with bursts of applause, and 
 was ordered to be honourably mentioned in the minutes ; but as no 
 other result followed, the chevalier once more returned to England, 
 where, in poverty and ill-health, he lingered for a few years, and died 
 on May 21, 1810. After his death his body was examined, and dis- 
 sected by Mr. J. Copelaud, au eminent surgeon, and no doubt was left 
 as to the petticoat imposture. 
 
 *EOTVOS, JOZSEF, one of the most conspicuous name3 of modern 
 Hungary, both in the literary and the political world. His grand- 
 father was a government officer of high rank in Hungary ; his father, 
 who also held high posts in the government, married a German lady, 
 the Baroness Lilien. Eotvos was born at Buda, on the 3rd of Sep- 
 tember 1813. His education was entrusted to the care of a private 
 tutor of the name of Pruszinsky, who was of republican sentiments, 
 and had been concerned in the conspiracy of Martinovics, which had 
 been punished with great severity by the government of Vienna 
 towards the close of the last century. The boy was sent to a public 
 school just at the period when his grandfather had rendered himself 
 obnoxious by taking part in the proceedings commenced by the 
 Austrian court in 1823 to raise taxes and recruits in Hungary without 
 the consent of the Hungarian Diet, and he was at once told by his 
 schoolfellows that his grandfather was a traitor, and that he too was a 
 traitor, for he was almost thirteen and could hardly speak Hungarian. 
 Stung by these reproaches, and full of the republican sentiments of 
 his tutor, the boy made a speech to his schoolfellows to the effect that 
 he would atone for the crimes of his father, and be "liberty's servant 
 and his country's slave." From that day dates his mastery of the 
 Hungarian language, of which he is perhaps the first living writer. 
 In the year 1826 the Austrian government, met by the steady consti- 
 tutional opposition of the Hungarian counties, was obliged to give 
 way, and a quieter period succeeded, which was speedily marked by 
 the rapid progress of Hungary in the path of material and mental 
 improvement, in which Count Szeche'nyi led the van. Eotvos, who 
 in 1830 had already commenced his literary career by a translation of 
 Gbthe's ' Goetz von Berlichingen,' followed it up before 1833 by two 
 original comedies, 'The Critics' and ' The Weddings,' and a tragedy, 
 ' Boszu,' or ' Revenge,' which wero considered of high promise, and 
 showed a singular beauty of style. In 1836 he travelled in Germany, 
 Switzerland, France, and England, when he probably formed the high 
 opinion of our country which he has expressed in his funeral oration 
 on Csoma de Kbros. [Csoma.] Soon after his return to Hungary, 
 the calamitous inundations at Pesth led, among other projects, to the 
 publication of a work made up of contributions from the pens of the 
 first Hungarian authors, the profits of which were to be given to the 
 relief of the sufferers. Of this work, the 'Budapesti Arvizkonyv,' 
 which extended to 5 vols., and was published between 1838 and 1841, 
 Kotvbs was the editor, and he also contributed the longest article, a 
 novel, entitled ' The Carthusian,' which at once revealed a writer of 
 remarkable powers. The views of life contained in it, which are of 
 the Byronic school, led to severe censure on the part of some of the 
 Hungarian critics, who could not however contest that the style 
 placed its author on a level with Kdlcsey, who had hitherto been 
 without a rival in the literature of the day. The young novelist soon 
 made himself conspicuous in a new career as a parliamentary orator. 
 His views of political matters differed not only from those of the con- 
 servative party, but from those of the rival leaders, Szeche'nyi and 
 
763 EOTVOS, JOZSEF. 
 
 Kossuth, though most nearly allied to those of the latter. While 
 Kossuth was at that time disposed to rely on the old machinery of the 
 Hungarian institutions, objectionable as much of it was, as the best 
 means of counteracting the despotic tendencies of the Austrian court, 
 Eotvos advocated a bolder course, and was for extensive reforms, in 
 accordance with the spirit of the age, to be carried out by a vigorous 
 centralised government, unchecked by the prejudices of local authori- 
 ties, to which he thought too much power of obstruction was already 
 conceded. Though the Eotvos party was far from equal, either in 
 numbers or influence, to the others, it had considerable effect on the 
 progress of affairs, A pamphlet by its leader on prison discipline, in 
 vshieh he oppo-ed the American system, which had been advocated by 
 Farkas, the American traveller, produced a strong impression ; and 
 a committee of the diet was appointed to consider the subject, in 
 which he had a seat. Count Louis Batthyaui and Eotvos were at this 
 time the leaders of the opposition in the upper house of the Hungarian 
 Diet, and Eotvos was its ablest speaker, occupying, from his rauk, his 
 fine person, and his splendid talents, one of the very first positions in 
 Hungarian society. 
 
 At this time from some unfortunate financial speculations of his 
 father, which were shipwrecked by the monetary crisis of 1841, the 
 family fortune was irretrievably ruined. Eotvos was reduced to com- 
 parative poverty, and though a career of power and wealth would 
 undoubtedly have been open to him if he had chosen to accept them 
 from the Austrian court, with the sacrifice of some portion of his 
 piineiples, he at once, without wavering, trusted his fortunes to the 
 Ecantily remunerated labours of the pen. To demonstrate the vices 
 of the old Hungarian system of government by county elections, he 
 commenced a tale, intended at first to be little more than a political 
 pamphlet in action, on the plan of Miss Martiueau's ' Illustrations of 
 Political Economy.' It was published in numbers, and, as in the case 
 of the ' Pickwick Club,' it grew both on the author and the public as 
 it went on till at last it turned out something very superior to what 
 either had expected. ' A' Falu Jegyzoje,' or ' The Village Notary,' is 
 one of the best national tales iu the whole circle of European litera- 
 ture. In the second volume in particular the liveliness and vigour of 
 the narrative, the easy and natural manner iu which incident after 
 incident keeps turning up, some of a humorous, some of a political 
 character, and both treated with an equal mastery, present a combina- 
 tion of excelleuee which will not easily be matched, except in the 
 masterpieces of Walter Scott. Strange to say, the Hungarian critics 
 were some of the last to discover an excellence which soon carried the 
 work into circles which no Hungarian novel had ever visited before. 
 The English translation by Otto Wenckstern, published in 1850, with 
 a preface by Pulszky, the author's former friend, to whom the original 
 was dedicated, is executed with remarkable freedom and vigour, but 
 is less close to the Hungarian than the German one by Mailath, which 
 is an exact reproduction of the original. The ' Notary,' which was 
 published in 1845, was followed in 1847 by a third romance 'Magya- 
 lorszog 1514-hen,' or 'Hungary iu 1514,' which is a delineation of the 
 peasants' revolt, crushed at that time with singular cruelty by the 
 nobles. The scene is laid on the banks of the Temes in the very 
 localities which a few years later were destined to be the theatre of 
 the momentous struggle which has terminated in the temporary loss 
 of Hungarian independence. Eotvos's political labours were continued 
 with as much vigour as his literary ones. For some time he wrote 
 the leading articles in the ' Pesti Hirlap,' one of the leading news- 
 papers of Hungary, and these were collected and published in a volume 
 under the title of ' Reform.' His opponents were of course not slow 
 to avail themselves of the old reproaches which have been directed 
 against the combination of politics and literature, and perhaps the 
 authorities which he cites in his defence in one of his articles will 
 haidty be regarded as conclusive. "Richelieu," he says, " occupied 
 hiu.i-elf with writing tragedies, Frederick the Great considered himself 
 a poet, Canning is not regarded as an altogether brainless statesman, 
 though he is the author of some fine verses, and the whole of the last 
 Whig ministry, which consisted almost exclusively of poets, did not 
 govern England so badly after all— so long as it had a majority." 
 The time was now approaching in which the whole existence of 
 Hungary was to be shaken to its foundations. Eotvos, when after 
 the revolution of February 1848, he went to attend the diet of 
 Piesburt;, told his friends, "I shall return a minister of state." He 
 was correct in his prediction. He was offered and accepted the post 
 of minister of public instruction in the Batthyani administration. He 
 brought forward a large plan for the improvement of education, which 
 was strongly opposed by diffeient religious parties on the same 
 ground on which similar plans have been opposed in England, the 
 Catholics protesting that Eotvos showed too much favour to the 
 Protestants, and the Protestants to the Catholics. At length Kossuth 
 by threat eniug to resign if the measure was rejected, carried it through 
 the diet. Put the headlongcour.se of events which followed had much 
 that was so alien to the feelings and opinions of Eotvos that he 
 became every day more averse to his position, and finally the out- 
 break on the bridge at Pesth in which Count Lamberg, appointed by 
 the emperor of Austria governor of Hungary, was torn to pieces by 
 the populace,' determined him to withdraw. He left the country and 
 went first to his family at Vienna, then to Munich, and during the 
 momentous crisis that succeeded remained quietly iu Bavaria. "To 
 
 EPAM1N0NDAS. 781 
 
 those who know me and my way of thinking," he wrote to a friend, 
 "it is easy to explain why I retired, to others it is impossible." 
 " Amid these contests," he said on another occasion, " 1 feel myself 
 useless ; Heaven did not make me for a man of revolutions." His 
 friend Pulszky informs us in the preface to the English translation of 
 the ' Village Notary,' that Eotvos was often in the habit of relating to 
 his friends that, when at Paris in 1837, ho had visited Madame Lo 
 Normant, the famous fortune-teller, and that she had told him, " You 
 are rich ; you will be poor : you will marry a rich wife ; you will bo 
 a minister of state, and you will die on the scaffold." The other 
 portions of the prediction had been accomplished, and Batthyani, the 
 head of the ministry of which Eotvos was a member, did die on the 
 scaffold, a victim of the Austrian government. 
 
 From Bavaria Eotvos issued a German pamphlet ' On the Giving of 
 Equal Rights to Different Nationalities,' in which he aimed at showing 
 that to do so was destructive of the unity and vigour of a state. He 
 has since returned to Hungary, and has published a large political 
 treatise 'On the Influence of the Loading Ideas of the Nineteenth 
 Century on the State,' both in Hungarian and German, the German 
 translation made by himself. The first volume of this work was issued 
 in 1851, and the second in 1854. It has been remarked, and apparently 
 with truth, that, although the ideas with which he commenced his 
 political career were revolutionary in the extreme, Eotvos, the poet 
 and novelist, has long been remarkable among Hungarian politicians 
 for the sobriety and moderation of his views, which have lost him the 
 favour of both of the extreme parties in his native country. The 
 remark with which he commences his last work is one quite opposed 
 to ordinary notions, yet one that is not unlikely to be ratified by 
 
 posterity: "Although it is usual to accuse the age iu which we are 
 
 living of the grossest materialism, a calm consideration of what is 
 going on around us must convince any one that scarcely a century is 
 to be found in history in which whole nations have more readily offered 
 up all considerations of their material welfare to the realisation of 
 ideas." 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, aTheban statesman and soldier, in whose praise, 
 both for talents and virtue, there is a remarkable concurrence of 
 ancient writers. Nepo3 observes that, before Epaminondas was born, 
 and after his death, Thebes was always in subjection to some other 
 power : on the contrary, while he directed her councils, she was the 
 head of Greece. His public life extends from the restoration of 
 democracy by Pelopidas and the other exiles, B.C. 379, to the battle 
 of Mantiueia, B.C. 362. In the conspiracy by which that revolution 
 was effected he took no part, refusing to stain his hands with the blood 
 of his couutrymeu ; but thenceforward he became the prime mover of 
 the Theban state. His policy was first directed to assert the right 
 and to secure the power to Thebes of controlling the other citiej of 
 Boeotia, several of which claimed to be independent. In this cause 
 he ventured to enga-e his country, single-handed, in war with the 
 Spartans, who mar ched into Boeotia. B.C. 371, with a force superior to 
 any which could be brought against them. The Theban generals were 
 divided in opinion whether a battle should be risked - for to encounter 
 the Lacedaemonians with inferior numbers was universally esteemed 
 hopeless. Epaminondas prevailed with his colleagues to venture it, 
 and devised on this occasion a new method of attack. Instead of 
 joining battle along the whole line, he concentrated an overwhelming i 
 force on one point, directing the weaker part of his Hue to keep back. 
 The Spartan right wing being broken, and the king slain, the rest of 
 the army found it necessary to abandon the field. This memorable 
 battle was fought at Leuctra. The moral effect of it was much more 
 important than the mere loss inflicted on Sparta, for it overthrew the 
 prescriptive superiority in arms claimed by that state ever since its 
 reformation by Lycurgus. 
 
 This brilliant success led Epaminondas to the second object of his 
 policy — the overthrow of the supremacy of Sparta, and the substitu- 
 tion of Thebes as the leader of Greece in the democratical interest. 
 In this hope a Theban army, under his command, marched into 
 Peloponnesus early in the winter, B.C. 369, and, in conjunction with 
 the Eleians, Arcadians, and Argians, invaded and laid waste a large 
 part of Lacouia. Numbers of the Helots took that opportunity to 
 shake off a most oppressive slavery ; and Epaminondas struck a 
 deadly blow at the power of Sparta, by establishing these descendants 
 of the old Messenians [Aristomenes] on Mount Ithome, in Messenia, 
 as an independent state, and inviting their countrymen, scattered 
 through Sicily and Italy, to return to their ancient patrimony. 
 Numbers, after the lapse of 200 years, obeyed the calL This memo- 
 rable event is known in history as the return of the Messenians. 
 
 In B.C. 368 Epaminondas again led an army into Peloponnesus; 
 but not fulfilling the expectations of the people, he was disgraced, 
 and, according to Diodorus (xv. 71), was ordered to serve in the ranks. 
 In that capacity he is said to have saved the army in Thessaly, when 
 entangled in dangers which threatened it with destruction; being 
 required by the general voice to assume the command. He is not 
 again heard of in a public capacity till B.C. 306, when he was sent to 
 support the democratic interest in Achaia, and by his moderation and 
 judgment brought that whole confederation over to the Theban 
 alliance without bloodshed or banishment. 
 
 As the narrowness of our limits forbids us to trace the motives 
 which led to the formation of so powerful a Thebau party iu Pelopon 
 
EPEE, CHARLES MICHEL DE L*. 
 
 EPHRAEM. 
 
 7=8 
 
 nesu?, so we cannot enter into the causes of its decline, except by 
 saying, that it soon became plain that a mere change of masters, 
 Thebes instead of Sparta, would be of no service to the other states. 
 Achaia first, then Elis, then Mautiueia and great part of Arcadia, 
 returned to the Laeedsetnoniau alliance. To check this defection 
 Epamiuondas led an army into Peloponnesus for the fourth time, 
 B.C. 362. Joined by the Argians, Messenians, and part of the Arca- 
 dians, he entered Lacouia, and endeavoured to take Sparta by surprise ; 
 but the vigilance of Agesilaus just frustrated this scheme. Epami- 
 non las then marched against Mantineia, near which was fought the 
 celebrated battle ia which he fell. The disposition of hi3 troops on 
 this occasion was an improvement on that by which he had gained the 
 battle of Leuctra, and would have had the same decisive success, but 
 that in the critical moment, when the Lacedaemonian line was just 
 broken, he received a mortal wound. The Theban army was paralysed 
 by this misfortune; nothing was done to improve a victory which 
 might have been made certain, and thi3 battle, on which the expecta- 
 tion of all Greece waited, led to no important result. " Each party," 
 says Xenophon, " claimed the victory and neither gained any advan- 
 tage : indecision, trouble, and confusion, more than ever before that 
 battle pervaded Greece." 
 
 Whether Epaminondas could much longer have upheld Thebes in 
 the rank to which he had raised her, is very doubtful : without him 
 she fell at once to her former obscurity. His character is certainly 
 one of the fairest recorded in Greek history. His private life was 
 moral and refined ; his public conduct uninfluenced by personal 
 ambition, or by personal hatred. He was a sincere lover of las 
 country, and if, in his schemes for her advancement, he was indifferent 
 to the injury done to other members of the Grecian family, this is 
 a fault from which, perhaps, no Greek statesman, except Aristide3, 
 was free. 
 
 (Xenophon, Hdlen. ; Plutarch, Pelopidas, Ag!s, &c.) 
 
 EPEE, CHARLES-MICHEL DE L'. This distinguished friend 
 and instructor of the deaf and dumb was born at Versailles, in 
 November 1712. His father, a man of talent and probity, was the 
 king's architect. Young l'Epee was educated for the church, a pro- 
 fession for which his mild, cheerful, and pious disposition peculiarly 
 fitted him. There were difficulties at first in the way of his admission 
 to the priesthood. He was required, according to the established 
 practice of the diocese of Paris, to sign a formulary of faith ; and this 
 being opposed to his own opinions (which, were Jansenist), he could 
 not do so uonscientiously. He was however admitted to the rank of 
 deacon, but was told never to pretend to holy orders. He was then 
 led to engage in the study of the law, but this profession did not suit 
 the bias of his mind. At last he succeeded in obtaining holy orders, 
 being ordained by the Bishop of Troyes, a nephew of Bossuet, and 
 received from him a canonry in the cathedral of Troyes. 
 
 An accidental circumstance led him to devote himself to the 
 instruction of the deaf and dumb. Business took him one day to a 
 house where he found only two young women, who were busily en- 
 gaged in needlework, but who paid no attention to his questions. The 
 mother of the young women arriving shortly afterwards, explained to 
 him with tears that they were deaf and dumb. An ecclesiastic named 
 Vanin had commenced the education of these young persons by 
 means of pictures ; but death had removed him, and no other person 
 had offered to instruct the mutes. " Believing," says M. de l'Epee, 
 " that these two children would live and die in ignorance of their 
 religion, if I did not attempt some means of instructing them, I was 
 touched with compassion, and told the mother that she might send 
 them daily to my house, and that I would do whatever I might find 
 possible for them." 
 
 John Paul Bonet's book came iu the way of M. de l'Epee ; a person 
 offered a copy of it to him, urging him to buy it, which he at first 
 refused, not knowing the nature of the work, and alleging that he did 
 not understand Spanish, and that the book was therefore of no use to 
 him. Opening it casually, he found the copper-plate engraving of 
 Bonet's one-handed alphabet. The book was immediately bought, 
 and De l'Epee learned Spanish to enable him to read it. De l'Epee 
 was persevering and disinterested in his instruction of the deaf and 
 dumb. He persevered until he converted opposition and contempt 
 into approbation, eventually enlisting the public in favour of his 
 teaching to a much greater extent than any of his predecessors iu the 
 work of instructing the deaf and dumb had done. De l'Epee employed 
 the finger-alphabet only partially in his method, his dependence being 
 placed chiefly on methodical signs and writing for the conveyauce of 
 ideas ; but he failed to see that in teaching signs he was not teaching 
 ideas. He professed to teach the meaning with the Bigns and words, 
 but the end would have been accomplished more simply by u-*ing the 
 words only. Yet, though the mettiods of the AbbiS de l'Epee were 
 incomplete and somewhat cumbrous, there can be no reasonable doubt 
 that he employed them because they were the best with which he 
 was acquainted, or of which he was able to obtain information ; and he 
 devoted his life and his means with entire single-mindedness to the 
 promotion of the moral and intellectual elevation of the unfortunate 
 class whose cause he had espoused. His income was about 4007., of 
 which he allowed about 1002. for his own expenses, and appropriated 
 the remainder to the support and instruction of indigent mutes. "The 
 rich," he said, " only come to my house by tolerance: it is not to them 
 
 that I devote myself— it is to the poor; but for them, I should never 
 have undertaken the education of the deaf and dumb." 
 
 M. de l'Epde died December 23, 1789, aged seventy-seven. His 
 memory received various honours: his fuueral oration was pronounced 
 by the Abb6 Fauchet, the king's preacher. He rauks deservedly among 
 those whose lives have been devoted to the amelioration of the condition 
 of their follow-meu, and the fruits of whoso labours do not die with 
 them. 
 
 E'PHORUS, a Greek historian, born at Cyme in JEolis, in the year 
 
 B. C. 405. (Suidas.) He survived the passage of Alexander into Asia 
 (b.c. 333), which he mentioned in his history. (Clem. Al., 'Strom.,' 
 i. p. 337 a.) He studied rhetoric under Isocrates, but with so little 
 success that after he had returned from Athens his father Demophilus 
 sent him back to the rhetorician for fresh instructions. (Plutarch, 
 ' Vit. Isocratis,' p. 366, Wyttenb.) Isocrates, perceiving hi3 unfitness 
 for public speaking, recommended him to turn his attention to histo- 
 rical composition (Seneca, ' de Trauquillit. Animi,' c. vi.) ; but his 
 style was low and slovenly even iu his histories (Dio., i. p. 479} ; and 
 Plutarch remarks upon the silliness of the set speeches which he 
 introduced. (' Polit. Prascon.,' p. 803 B.) Polybius observes that, 
 though in his account of naval matters he is sometimes happy, he 
 always fails in describing battles by land, and was entirely ignorant of 
 tactics. (' Excerpt. Vatican.,' p. 391.) Ephorus wrote — 1. 'A History 
 of Greece,' iu 30 books, beginning with the siege of Troy, and termi- 
 nating with the siege of Periuthus (b.c. 340). Part of the 30th book 
 was written by his son Demophilus. (Diod., xvi. 14.) 2. • On 
 Inventions,' in 2 books. 3. 'On Goods aud Ills,' in 24 books. 4. 'On 
 Remarkable Objects in Various Countries,' 15 books. 5. ' The Topo- 
 graphy of Cyme.' 6. ' On Diction.' The fragments of these works 
 have been collected by Meier Marx, Carlsruhe, 1815 ; and by 
 
 C. & Th. Muller, in pp. 234-277 of 'Frag. Hist. Grac.,' Paris, 1841. 
 EPHRAEM, or EPHRAIM ('E<fy)ai», an ecclesiastical writer of the 
 
 4th century of our era, was probably born in the town of Nisibis, 
 though some state that he was born at Edessa. The time at which 
 he attained the height of his fame is about a.d. 370. In his early 
 youth he entered the monastic life, and in seclusion he carried ou his 
 philosophical studies with zeal and success. But at a later period he 
 seems to have become tired of solitary life, and feeling a strong desire 
 to benefit others by the talent and knowledge which he possessed, he 
 went to Edessa, whither the most distinguished Syrians came to 
 receive his instruction. He soon became deacon of the church at 
 Edessa, but declined accepting any higher ecclesiastical office, aud 
 when he was elected bishop and received intelligence of it he rushed 
 forth into the market-place and acted in such a manner that the 
 people thought he was out of bis senses. He then absconded until 
 another had been appointed to the office of bishop in his place. He 
 now went to Csesarea in Cappadocia, to see Basilius the Great, who 
 formed the highest opinion of his learning and piety. Ephraem spent 
 the greater part of his life iu writing and preaching on devotional and 
 moral subjects, and especially against the Arian heresy ; but he was 
 equally energetic whenever there was any occasion to show by his 
 acts that he really was the benevolent man that he appeared to be. 
 This was especially manifest at the time when Edessa was suffering 
 from famine : he gave his assistance everywhere ; he called upon the 
 rich to help the poor, and he himself undertook the care of seeing 
 that the poor received what was intended for them. He was looked 
 up to with admiration and reverence by his contemporaries, who 
 distinguished him by the honourable designation of ' the prophet of 
 the Syrians.' He died about 378, having ordered in his will that no 
 one should praise him, according to the common practice, in a funeral 
 oration, that his body should not be wrapped up in costly robes, and 
 that no monument should be erected on his tomb. An interesting 
 life of Ephraem, though not free from marvellous stories, is contained 
 in the 'Acta Sanctorum,' torn. i. Febr. 49, &c. ; comp. Nyssenus, 
 'Opera,' torn. ii. c. 60; Sozomen, iii. 16; Hieronymus, ' De Seriptor.,*' 
 c. 115; Photius, 'Biblioth. Cod.,' 196; aud some other sources col- 
 lected by G. Vossius, in the first volume of his edition of the works of 
 Ephraem. 
 
 Ephraem was one of the most prolific writers of his time. He 
 knew no other language than the Syriac, but was considered to sur- 
 pass all his contemporaries in the elegance aud power of his oratory. 
 Nearly all his works were translated into Greek in his own lifetime, 
 aud their popularity was so great that iu some churches tney were 
 publicly read after the Scriptures. The Greek Church down to this 
 day regards him as a saint. According to Photius, he wrote upwards 
 of a thousand orations, besides mauy hymns, poems, aud treatises on 
 a variety of theological, philosophical, and moral subjects, which are 
 still highly esteemed by theologians. Nearly all his works are extant, 
 either iu Syriac or in Greek and Arabic translations. The first 
 collection of them that was published, though it is not complete, and 
 only in a Latiu translation, is that of G. Vossius, in 3 vols, folio, Rome, 
 1586-97; reprinted at Cologne, 1603, and at Antwerp, 1619. The 
 publication of this Latin translation created a strong desire to see all 
 the works of Ephraem, if not in the original Syriac, at least iu the 
 Greek translations which were made in the author's lifetime. This 
 arduous task was undertaken, by Assemani, who intended to publish 
 the Greek in three folio volumes, aud the Syriac in three others. The 
 first three volumes, edited by Assemani himself, appeared at Rome in 
 
787 
 
 EPICHARMUS. 
 
 EPICURUS. 
 
 788 
 
 1732-46; and the last three, containing the Syriac, were edited by 
 Father Benedetti and Stefano Assemani. Tho Prolegomena to this 
 edition contain everything worth knowing respecting tho life and 
 writings of Ephraom. 
 
 (Cave, Ilistoria Litevaria, vol. i. p. 188, &c. ; Fabricius, Biblioth. 
 Grcec , vol. viii. p. 217, &c\, ed. Harles.) 
 
 EPICHARMUS, the son of Helothales, was born in the island of 
 Cos, and accompanied Cadmus, the son of Scythes, to Sicily about the 
 year B.C. 485. Ho must have arrived at maturity by this time; for 
 he was a pupil of Pythagoras (who died in B.C. 497), and, according to 
 Aristotle ('Poet.,' iii. 5), lived long before Chionides and Magnes (who, 
 if we may believe Suidas, began to exhibit in B.C. 487) ; so that there 
 can be no truth in the statement of Diogenes, that Epicharmus was 
 brought from Cos to Sicily when a child of three months old (viii. 78). 
 He and his brother were physician?, and therefore perhaps belonged 
 to the Coan house of the Asclepiads. It appears that he resided some 
 short time at Megara, and possibly removed to Syracuse when Gelo 
 transported the inhabitants of Megara thither (B.C. 484). It was at 
 Megara that Epicharmus probably got the idea of writing comedies; 
 for the Megareaus, as well in Greece as in Sicily, are always spoken of 
 as the originators of that branch of the drama. Epicharmus is called 
 by Theocritus ('Epigram.,' xvii.) the inventor of comedy, and Plato 
 says that he was the chief comedian, just as Homer was the chief 
 tragodian. (' TheaHet.,' p. 152, E.) The latter remarks refer, we 
 believe, to his having first furnished the comus, or band of revellers, 
 who were the original chorus in comedy, with a systematic dialogue 
 and a plot of an epic character. That the comedies of Epicharmus 
 had a chorus, and that this chorus was the representative of the comus, 
 asin the old Athenian comedy, appears probable from tho fact thatoue 
 of his dramas was called ' Vulcan,' or the ' Comasta;.' " The subjects 
 of the plays of Epicharmus," says Miiller ('Dorians,' iv. 7, S 2), 
 " were mostly mythological, that is, parodies or travesties of 
 mythology, nearly iu the style of the satirical drama of Athens. 
 Thus, in the comedy of ' Busiris,' Hercules was represented in the 
 most ludicrous light, as a voracious glutton ; and he was again 
 exhibited in the same character (with a mixture perhaps of satirical 
 remarks on the luxury of the times), in ' The Marriage of Hebe,' in 
 which an astonishing number of dishes was mentioned. He also, like 
 Aristophanes, handled political subjects and invented comic characters 
 like the later Athenian poets; and indeed the extent of his subjects 
 was very wide. The piece called 'The Plunderings,' which described 
 the devastation of Sicily in his time, had a political meaning; and 
 this was perhaps also the case with ' The Islands,' at least it was 
 mentioned in this play that Hieron had prevented Anaxilas from 
 destroying Locri. In his ' Persians ' also there were allusions to the 
 history of the times. Epicharmus also introduced and almost per- 
 fected characters which were very common in the drama of later 
 times; and if the plot of 'The Mena;chr±ii' of Plautus was, as the 
 poet seems to state in the prologue, taken from a comedy of Epichar- 
 mus, it must be granted that the ingenious construction of plots was 
 not beyond the powers of that poet." Epicharmus lived to the age 
 of ninety (Diog., ' Laert.,' viii. 78), or ninety-seven (Lucian, Macrob., 
 xxv.). The titles of thirty-five of his comedies are given in Fabricius 
 (ii. p. 300). 
 
 EPICTE'TUS was born at Hierapolis, a city of Phrygia. The year 
 of his birth is not known, nor are we able to make any very close 
 approximation to it. He must have been bom however before the 
 end of the reign of the emperor Nero, a.d. 08, else he could not 
 have been more than twenty-one when Domitian published that edict 
 against philosophers, in the year 89, in consequence of which Epictetus 
 retired from Rome. At the age of twenty-one, he was not likely to 
 have attained sufficient notoriety to bring him within the operation of 
 such an edict. 
 
 Epictetus w as born most probably during the last eight years of 
 Nero's reign. The names and condition of his parents are unknown; 
 neither do we know how he came to be brought to Rome. But at 
 Rome he was for some time slave to Epaphroditus, who was a freed- 
 man of Nero's, and one of his body-guard. An anecdote related by 
 Origen, which illustrates the fortitude of Epictetus, would also show, 
 if it is true, that Epaphroditus was a most cruel master. " Epictetus, 
 when his master was twisting his leg one day, smiled and quietly 
 said, 'you will break it; ' and when he did break it, only observed, 
 ' Did I not tell you that you would do so ? "' (Origen, ' 0. Cels.' vii., 
 p. 368.) We are not told how or when Epictetus managed to effect 
 his freedom ; but he could not have been still a slave when he left 
 Rome in consequence of the edict against philosophers. This, which 
 is the only event in his life whose date we can assign, took place, as 
 has been said, in the year 89, being the eighth year of Domitiau's 
 reign. Epictetus then retired to Nicopolis, in Epirus; and it is a 
 question whether he ever returned to Rome. The chief ground for 
 believing that he did is a statement of Spartiau (' Vit. Hadr.' 16), that 
 Epictetus lived on terms of intimacy with the emperor Hadrian ; while 
 it is argued on the other hand, that there is no evidence of any of 
 his discourses having been delivered at Rome, but that they contain 
 frequent mention of Nicopolis. This argument is however hardly 
 sufficient to overthrow the express testimony of Spartiau. 
 
 We do not know when he died. Suidas says that he lived till the 
 reign of Marcus Aurelius; and a confirmation of this statement has 
 
 been thought to be furnished by Themistius, who says (' Orat. V. ad 
 Jovian. Imp.') that the two Autonines patronised Epictetus. But if, 
 as there is good reason to believe, Epictetus was born before 68, the 
 adoption of Suidas's statement would make him almost a hundred 
 years old at his death ; and what is said by Themistius might very 
 well be true, even though Epictetus did not live under either of the 
 Antonines. It may be added, that Suidas's account of Epictetus is in 
 other respects inaccurate. But the strongest argument against Suidas 
 is derived from Aulus Gellius, who, writing during the reign of the 
 first Antoniue, speaks of Epictetus in two places as being dead. 
 (' Noct. Att.' ii. 18 ; xvii. 19.) 
 
 Epictetus led a life of exemplary contentment, simplicity, and 
 virtue, practising in all particulars the morality he taught. He lived 
 for a long while iu a small hut, with no other furniture than a bed 
 and lamp, and without an attendant; until he benevolently adopted 
 a child whom a friend had been compelled by poverty to expose, and 
 hired a nurse for its sake. There is a story connected with his lamp 
 which illustrates the equanimity of Epictetus. He had bought one 
 day an iron lamp, which was very soon after stolen from his hut, while 
 he was himself standing in a corner wrapped in meditation ; and when 
 on looking up he came to miss it, he observed with a smile, " I shall 
 disappoint this thief to-morrow, for if he comes back for another 
 lamp, he shall only find an earthen one." (Arriau, 'Epict.' ii. 6.) 
 Neither was it in trifles alone that his equanimity was manifested, as 
 the anecdote of his patience under his master's cruelty may suffice to 
 prove. The biographers of Epictetus have taken particular care to 
 commemorate his love of neatness. 
 
 Epictetus was a teacher of tho Stoic philosophy, and the chief of 
 those who lived during the period of the Roman empire. An anecdote 
 given in the ' Discourses ' collected by Arrian (i. 7) seems to show 
 that he had been a pupil of Musonius Rufus, a Stoic philosopher 
 whom Nero banished to Gyara, and who was subsequently recalled to 
 Rome by Vespasian. The lessons of Epictetus were principally, if 
 not solely, directed to practical morality. His favourite maxim, and 
 that into which he resolved all practical morality, was ' bear and 
 forbear.' He appears to have differed from the Stoics on the matter 
 of suicide. (Arrian, ' Epict.' i. 8.) We are told by Arrian in hi3 
 Preface to the 'Discourses,' that he was a powerful and exciting 
 lecturer ; and, according to Origen (' C. Cels.' vi. ad init.), his style 
 was superior to that of Plato. It is a proof of the estimation in 
 which Epictetus was held that, on his death, his lamp was purchased 
 by some more eager than wise aspirant after philosophy for three 
 thousand drachmee. (Lucian, 'Adv. Indoct. libr. ement.,' torn, ii., 
 p. 386.) 
 
 Though it is said by Suidas that Epictetus wrote much, there is 
 good reason to believe that he himself wrote nothing. His ' Discourses ' 
 were taken down by his pupil Arrian, and published after his death 
 in six books, of which four remain. The same Arrian compiled the 
 ' Encheiridion,' and wrote a life of Epictetus, which has been lost. 
 [Arrian.] Some fragments have also been preserved by Stobajus. 
 
 The best edition of all the remains of Epictetus is that by 
 Schweighseuser, in six volumes, Leipzig, 1799. The same editor has 
 published the ' Encheiridion,' together with the ' Tablet of Cebes,' iu 
 a separate volume. Coray published an edition of the ' Encheiridion,' 
 with a French translation by another hand, in the seventh volume of 
 the Parerga of his 'Bibliotheca Graca,' Paris, 1826, 8vo. There is 
 an English translation of the ' Encheiridion, or Manual,' by Mrs. 
 Carter. 
 
 (Bayle, Dictionary ; Fabricii, Bibliotheca Grceca, ed. Harles., voL v., 
 
 p. 61.) 
 
 EPICU'RUS was born in the year B.C. 341, seven years after the 
 death of Plato. He was born in the island of Samos, whither his 
 father had gone from Athens in the year B.C. 352, among 2000 colonists 
 then sent out by the Athenians. (Strab. xiv., p. 638.) He was how- 
 ever an Athenian born, belonging to the deme Gargettus, and to the 
 tribe iEgeis. His father Neocles is said to have been a schoolmaster, 
 and his mother Chaeristrata to have practised arts of magic, in which 
 it was afterwards made a charge against Epicurus that, when he was 
 young, he assisted her. (Diog. Laert., x. 4.) Having passed his early 
 years in Samos and Teos, Epicurus went to Athens at the age of 
 eighteen. We are told that he had begun to study philosophy when 
 only fourteen, having been incited thereto by a desire, which the 
 teachers whom he had applied to had failed to satisfy, of understanding 
 Hesiod's description of chaos ; and that he began with the writings of 
 Democritus. In Samos he is said to have received lessons from 
 Pamphilus, a follower of Plato. (Suidas ; Cic. ' De Nat. Deor.,' i. 26.) 
 At the time when Epicurus arrived in Athens, Xenocrates was teaching 
 in the academy, and Theophrastus in the Lyceum; and we may 
 suppose that he did not fail to avail himself of the opportunities of 
 instruction which were thus within his reach. Indeed it was stated 
 by Demetrius Magnes (Diog. Laert., x. 13) that Epicurus was a pupil 
 of Xenocrates. He is also said, on the testimony of Apollodorus, to 
 have received lessons from Lysiphanes and Praxiphanes ; and again it 
 is stated that he was a pupil of Nausiphanes. (Id. x. 14; Suid.) It 
 was however Epicurus's wont to boast that he had learnt from no man 
 but himself. 
 
 On the occasion of his first visit to Athens, Epicurus stayed there 
 for a very short time. He left it in conseauence of the measures taken 
 
789 
 
 EPICURUS. 
 
 EPIMENIDES. 
 
 J50 
 
 by Ferdiccas after the death of Alexander the Great, and went to 
 Colophon to join his father. In his thirty-second year, B.C. 310, he 
 went to Mitylene, where he set up a school. Staying only one year at 
 Mitylene, he next went to Lampsaeus, where he taught for four years. 
 He returned to Athens in the year B.C. 306 ; and now founded the 
 school which ever after was named from him. He purchased a garden 
 for eighty ininae, wherein he might live with his disciples and deliver 
 his lessons, and heuceforth remained in Athens, with the exception 
 only of two or three visits to his friends in Asia Minor, until his death 
 in the year B.C. 270. The disease which brought on his death was 
 the stone. He was in his seventy-second year when he died, and he 
 had been then settled in Athens as a teacher for thirty-six years. 
 
 Epicurus is said by Diogenes Laertius (x. 9) to have had so many 
 friends "that even whole cities could not coutain them." Pupils 
 came to him from distant places, very many from Lampsaeus ; and 
 while men often deserted other schools to join that of Epicurus, 
 there were only two instances at most of Epicurus being deserted for 
 any other teacher. So remarkably was this the case (and it continued 
 to be so as long as the Epicurean school lasted), that it ia related as a 
 question put to Arcesilaus, " why men change from other sects to 
 that of the Epicureans, but never leave this I" (Diog. Laert., iv. 43.) 
 Epicurus and his pupils lived together, in the garden which ha3 been 
 mentioned, in a state of friendship, which, as it is usually represented, 
 could not be surpassed ; abstaining from putting their properties 
 together, and enjoying them in common, for the quaint yet significant 
 reason that such a plau implied mutual distrust. The friendship 
 subsisting between Epicurus and his pupils is commemorated by 
 Cicero ('De Fin.,' i. 20.) In this garden too they lived in the most 
 frugal and virtuous manner, though it was the delight of the enemies 
 of Epicurus to represent it differently, and though Timocrates, who 
 had once been his pupil, and had abandoned him, spread such stories 
 as that Epicurus used to vomit twice a day after a surfeit, and that 
 many immodest women were inmates of the garden. (Diog. Laert., x. 
 6, 7.) An iuscription over the gate of the garden told him who might 
 be disposed to enter, that barley-cakes and water would be the fare 
 provided for him (Senec, ' Ep.' 31) ; and such was the chastity of 
 Epicurus, that one of his principal opponents, Chrysippus, endea- 
 voured to account for it, so as to deny him any merit, by saying that 
 he was without passions. (Stob., 'Serm.' 117.) Epicurus did not 
 many, in order that he might be able to prosecute philosophy with 
 les3 interruption. His niost attached friends and pupils were 
 Hermachus of Mitylene, whom he appointed by will to succeed him 
 as master of the school ; Metrodorus, who wrote several books in 
 defence of his system, and for whose children Epicurus in his will 
 liberally provided ; and Polyaenus. Epicurus's three brothers, Neocle3, 
 Chaeredemus, and Aristobulus followed his philosophy ; as also one of 
 his servants, Mys, whom at his death he made free. Besides the 
 garden in Athens, from which the followers of Epicurus in succeeding 
 time came to be named the philosophers of the garden (J uv., ' Sat.' 
 xiii. 122, xiv. 319), Epicurus possessed a house in Melite, a village 
 near Athens, to which he used often to retire with his friends. On 
 his death, he left this house, together with the garden, to Hermachus, 
 as head of the school, to be left by him again to whomsoever might 
 be his successor. 
 
 Epicurus divided the whole field of knowledge into three parts, to 
 which he gave the names respectively of ' cauonics,' ' physics,' and 
 'ethics.' The first two were subordinate to the third. The end of 
 all knowledge, of ethic3 directly or immediately, of canonics and 
 physics indirectly or mediately through ethics, was, according to 
 Epicurus, to increase the happiness of man. 
 
 Canonics, which was a subject altogether introductory both to physics 
 and ethics, treated of the meaus by which knowledge, both physical 
 and ethical, was obtained, and of the conditions or (as they were called 
 by Epicurus) 'criteria' of truth. These conditions or criteria were, 
 according to him, sensations (aiaBricrtis), ideas or imaginations (irpo- 
 Kri^/tis), and affections (iradi)). From these three sorts of consciousness 
 we get all our knowledge. What Epicurus then called canonics, viewed 
 in relation to physics and ethics, is, viewed absolutely or in itself, 
 psychology. Epicurus seems to have explained rightly the depend- 
 ence of ideas upon sensations (Diog. Laert., x. 33); but in accouutiug 
 for sensations, he, like Democritus, left the path of sound psychology, 
 and introduced the fanciful hypothesis of emanations from bodies. 
 
 In physics he trod pretty closely in the footsteps of Democritus 
 [Democritus] ; so much so that he was accused of taking his atomic 
 cosmology from that philosopher without acknowledgment : he made 
 indeed very few and unimportant alterations. According to Epicurus, 
 as also to Democritus and Leucippus before him, the universe consists 
 of two parts, matter and space, or vacuum, in which matter exists and 
 moves ; and all matter, of every kind and form, is reducible to certain 
 indivisible particles, atoms, which are eternal. These atoms, moving, 
 according to a natural tendency, straightdownwards, and also obliquely, 
 have thereby come to form the different bodies which are found in the 
 world, and which differ, in kind and shape, according as the atoms are 
 differently placed in respect of one another. It is clear that iu this 
 system a creator is dispensed with ; and indeed Epicurus, here again 
 following Democritus, set about to prove, in an a priori way, that 
 this creator could not exist, inasmuch as nothing could arise out of 
 nothing, any more than it could utterly perish and become nothing. 
 
 The atoms have existed always, and always will exist; and all tho 
 various physical pheuomena are brought about, from time to time, by 
 their various motions. 
 
 It remains to speak of the Epicurean system of ethics. Butting out 
 from the two facts, that man i3 susceptible of pleasure and pain, and 
 that he seeks the one and avoids the other, Epicurus propounded that 
 it is a man's duty to eudeavour to increase to the utmost his pleasures 
 and diminish to the utmost his pains; choosing that which tends to 
 pleasure rather than that which tends to pain, and that which tends to 
 a greater pleasure or to a lesser pain, rather thau that which tends 
 respectively to a lesser pleasure or to a greater pain. He used the 
 terms pleasure and pain in the most comprehensive way, as including 
 pleasure and pain both of mind and of body ; and he esteemed the 
 pleasures aud pains of the mind as incomparably greater than those of 
 the body. Making then good and evil, or virtue aud vice, depend on 
 a tendency to increase pleasure and diminish pain, or the opposite, he 
 arrived, as he easily might do, at the several virtues to be inculcated 
 and vices to be denounced. And when he got thus far, even his adver- 
 saries had nothing to say against him. It is strange that they should 
 have continued to revile the principle, no matter by what name it 
 might be called, when they saw that it was a principle that led to 
 truth. But even in our own age and country the same cry has been 
 raised ; and men, ignorant of the principles of the ancient and of the 
 modern philosopher alike, have endeavoured, by bringing to bear on 
 it as a hard name the name Epicurean, to crush the philosophy of 
 Beutham. 
 
 Though Epicurus dispensed with a Divine Being as creator of the 
 world, he yet did not deny the existence of gods. That there was an 
 inconsistency in this is obvious. But he professed that the universal 
 prevalence of the ideas of gods was sufficient to prove that they 
 existed ; and thinking it necessary to derive these ideas, like all other 
 ideas, from sensations, he imagined that the gods were beings of human 
 form, hovering about in the air, and made known to men by the 
 customary emanations. He believed that these gods were eternal and 
 supremely happy, living in a state of quiet, aud meddling not with 
 the affairs of the world. He contended that they were to be wor- 
 shipped on account of the excellence of their nature, not because they 
 could do men either good or harm. (Cic, ' De Nat. Deor.,' i. 41 ; Senec, 
 'De Benef.,' iv. 19.) 
 
 The two chief sources of knowledge concerning the doctrines of 
 Epicurus are the tenth book of Diogenes Laertius, and the poem of 
 Lucretius ' De Rerum Natura.' In the first of these are letters from 
 Epicurus himself to three of his friends, which give a brief account 
 of all the parts of his system. Information is furnished also by the 
 writings of Cicero, principally the 'DeFinibus' and the 'De Natura 
 Deorum;' by those of Seneca; and the treatise of Plutarch, entitled 
 ' Against Colotes.' 
 
 Epicurus was, according to Diogenes Laertius, a more voluminous 
 writer than any other philosopher, having written as many as 300 
 volumes, in all of which he is said to have studiously avoided making 
 quotations. All that now remains of his works are the letters con- 
 tained in the tenth book of Diogenes Laertius, and parts of two books 
 of his treatise on Nature (irtpl <pu<rews), which were discovered at Her- 
 culaneum. The last were published at Leipzig in 1818, being edited 
 by Orelli. A critical edition of the first two letters of Epicurus was 
 edited by J. Glo. Schneider, Leipzig, 1813. 
 
 Diogenes Laertius is the principal authority for the life of Epicurus ; 
 brief and incidental notices are also supplied by Suidas, Cicero, Seneca, 
 aud Plutarch. There is an account of the life and defence of the 
 character of Epicurus, in eight books, by Gassendi (Lugd. Bat., 1647), 
 and a life by a Frenchman of the name of Rendal (Par., 1679). It ia 
 unnecessary to mention the accounts given in Fabricius, Bayle, aud all 
 the common histories of philosophy. 
 
 The Epicurean school was carried on, after Hermachus, by Poly- 
 stratus and many others, concerning whom nothing particular is known ; 
 and the doctrines which Epicurus had taught underwent few modi- 
 fications. When introduced among the ltomans, these doctrines, 
 though very much opposed, were yet adopted by many distinguished 
 men, as Lucretius, Atticus, Horace ; and under the emperors, Pliny 
 the Younger and Lucian of Samosata were Epicureans. A list of 
 Epicureans among the Greeks and Romans will be found in Fabricius, 
 ' Bibliotheca Graeca,' ed. Harles., vol. iii. pp. 598-614. 
 
 EPIME'NIDES was born in the year B.C. 659 (Suidas), at Phsestus, 
 in Crete, according to some accounts ; or at Cnossus, according to others ; 
 he was certainly a citizen of the latter place, though his father appears 
 to have been a Phaostian. (Diog. Laert., i. 109.) He passed his youth 
 in solitary retirement, which is explained in the ancient account as a 
 supernatural sleep into which he fell when a youth, and did not awake 
 till more than fifty years after, when he made his appearance among 
 his fellow-citizens with long hair and a flowing beard, and with know- 
 ledge of medicine and natural history, which then appeared more than 
 human. The event of his life for which he is best known, was his 
 visit to Athens at the request of the inhabitants, in order to pave the 
 way for tho legislation of Solon by purifications and propitiatory 
 sacrifices. These rites were calculated, according to the spirit of the 
 age, to allay the feuds aud party dissensions which prevailed there ; 
 aud although what he enjoined was mostly of a religious nature (for 
 instance, the sacrifice of a human victim, the consecration of a temple 
 
ERASMUS. 
 
 to the Eumenidca, and of two altars to Hybris and Ansodeia, the two 
 evil powers which were exerting their influence on the Athenians), 
 there can be little doubt but that his object was political, and that 
 Solon's constitution would hardly have beeu accepted had it not been 
 recommended and sanctioned by some person who, like Epimenides, 
 claimed from men little less than the veneration due to a superior 
 being. The Athenians wished to reward Epimenides with wealth and 
 public honours, but he refused to accept any remuneration, and only 
 demanded a branch of the sacred olive-tree and a decree of perpetual 
 friendship between Athens and his own country, Cuossus. Epimenides 
 visited Athens about the year B.C. 596, and died soon after his return 
 to Crete. He wrote a poem on the Argonautie expedition, and other 
 works, which are entirely lost. For a more detailed account of this 
 remarkable personage the reader is referred to C. P. Heinrich's 
 'Epimenides aus Kreta,' Leipzig, 1801. 
 
 EPIPHA'NIUS, SAINT, a Christian bishop and author, of the 4th 
 century, was born of Jewish parents at a village called Besanducan, 
 near Eleutheropolis, in Palestine. He spent his youth under the 
 discipline of the Gnostics in Egypt, where he acquired a great fond- 
 ness for the monkish asceticism then so prevalent in that country. 
 Having become a zealous disciple of Ililarion, the patriarch of 
 the monks of Palestine, he founded and long presided over a 
 monastery near his native village. About the year 368 he was 
 made bishop of Salamis, the metropolis of the island of Cyprus, where 
 he continued about 36 years, and composed most of his writings. 
 His Bpirit of oppo-ition was especially excited by the Platonic 
 doctrines of the learned and laborious Urigen, against which he wrote 
 and preached with implacable bitterness. On this subject he hotly 
 quarrelled, in 391, with John, bishop of Jerusalem, who favoured 
 Origeu's views ; but he found in Theophilus, the violent bishop of 
 Alexandria, a worthy coadjutor, who in 399 convened a council, and 
 condemned all the works of Origen. Epiphanius himself then called 
 a council in Cyprus a.d. 401, and reiterated this condemnation, after 
 which he wrote to St. Chrysobtom, then bishop of Constantinople, 
 requesting him to do the same ; and on finding this prelate disinclined 
 to sanction his violent proceedings, he forthwith repaired to Constan- 
 tinople lor the purpose of exciting the bishops of that diocese to join 
 in executing the decrees which his Cyprian council had issued ; but 
 having entered a church in the city in order to repeat his anathemas, 
 he was forewarned by Chrysostom of the illegality of his conduct, and 
 tvas obliged to desist. Exasperated at this disappointment, he applied 
 to the imperial court for assistance, where he soon embroiled himself 
 with the Empress Eudoxia; for, on the occasion of her asking him to 
 pray for the young Theodosius, who was dangerously ill, he replied 
 that her son should not die provided she would not patronise the 
 defenders of Origen. To this presumptuous message the empress 
 indignantly answered, that her son's life was not in the power of 
 Epiphanius, whose prayers were unable to save that of his own arch- 
 deacon, who had recently died. Failing to gratify his animosity, he 
 resolved to return home, but died at sea, on his passage to Cyprus, 
 a.d. 403. His works in Greek were first printed in fol. at Basel, in 
 1544. Several editions, with a Latin translation by Cornarius, subse- 
 quently appeared at Basel and at Paris during the 16th century; but 
 the best is by Petavius, who made a new Latin translation of the 
 Greek text, and added a biography of the author and critical notes. 
 This edition is in 2 vols, fol., Paris, 1622, and Cologne, 1682. In the 
 'Epiphanii Opuscula, ex editione Petavii,' are some very curious and 
 valuable old prints. The principal works of Epiphanius are, 1, The 
 ' Panarion,' or a treatise on Heresies, that is, peculiar sects. This is 
 the most important of the author's writings. It treats of 80 sects, 
 from the time of Adam to the latter part of the 4th century. The 
 first section of the first three books into which the treatise is divided 
 contains an account of 20 heretical sects before the birth of Christ ; 
 the remaining portion is occupied with the description of 60 heresies 
 of Christianity. 2, ' Anacephakcosis,' or an Epitome of the Panarion. 
 3, 'Ancoratus,' or a Discourse on the Faith; explaining the doctrine 
 of the Trinity, Resurrection, &c, in confutation of the Pagans, Mani- 
 cheans, Sabellians, and Arians. 4, A Treatise on the ancient Weights, 
 Measures, and Coins of the Jews, with a Catalogue of Canonical 
 Scriptures. Besides this there are several treatises and epistles, some 
 of which are falsely attributed to Epiphanius. (See Riveti, ' Crit 
 Sacr.' c. 28 and 29.) 
 
 Epiphanius was an austere and superstitious ascetic, and, as a bitter 
 controversialist, he often resorts to untrue arguments for the refuta- 
 tion of heretics. That his inaccuracy and credulity were equal to his 
 religious zeal is apparent from his numerous mistakes in important 
 historical facts," and his reliance on any false and foolish reports. 
 Jerome admires Epiphanius for his skill in the Hebrew, Syriac, 
 Egyptian, Greek, and Latin languages, and accordingly styles him, 
 Pentaglottos, or the Five-tongued ; but Scaliger calls him an ignorant 
 man, who committed the greatest blunders, told the greatest false- 
 hoods, and knew next to nothing about either Hebrew or Greek. 
 However his writings are of great value as containing numerous 
 citations from curious works which are no longer extant. 
 
 (Du Pin, Bibliotheque Eccles. torn. 2; Cave, Lit. Hist.; Bayle, Diet; 
 Dr. A. Clark, Succession of Sacred Literature ; Neander, Church 
 History.) 
 
 EPJSCO'PIUS, SIMON (whose real Dutch name was Bisschop), 
 
 was one of the most learned men of the 17th century, aud the chief 
 supporter of the anti-calvinistic doctrines advocated by his contempo- 
 rary Arminius. He was born in the year 1583, at Amsterdam, where 
 he received his school education. In 1600 he went to the then newly- 
 founded university of Leyden, of which he became a distinguished 
 member, and entered with zeal and great ability into the predestinariau 
 controversy between the Arminians aud Gomarites, which at that 
 time excited a deep and general interest. He was ordained in 1610, 
 as the minister of the village of Bleyswyck, near Rotterdam, and in 
 the following year he was deputed to the office of Arminian advocate 
 at the conference held at the Hague between the Remonstrants and 
 their opponents, the Calvinists. He was chosen to fill the chair of 
 professor of divinity in the university of Leyden, as the successor of 
 Professor Gomar. The predestinarian controversy was carried on 
 shortly after with such virulence and popular excitement that 
 Episcopius was not only exposed in the streets and in the pulpit to 
 the greatest abuse and insult, but, on one occasion, barely escaped 
 from being stoned to death. The predominant party of Calvinists 
 treated him with great injustice and tyrauuy at the synod of Dort, to 
 which he went as a deputy from the states of Holland. He was 
 refused a hearing in behalf of tho less numerous party of Arminians. 
 He was told that the synod had met not to discuss but to judge, 
 and it having been decreed that he and the other professors who 
 formed tho body of the Arminian delegates should neither explain nor 
 maintain any point without being asked to speak, Episcopius aud his 
 colleagues refused to submit. They were, in consequence, expelled 
 from the synod, and were subsequently deposed from the function* 
 of the ministry and bauished from the territory. Episcopius retired 
 to France, and continued to write in defence of Arminianism, and to 
 console and encourage his unfortunate brethren. In 1626, when 
 sectarian animosity had somewhat subsided, he returned to Holland, 
 and became the minister of the church of Remonstrants at Rotter- 
 dam. Finally, he was made rector of the college founded by the 
 Remonstrant party at Amsterdam, where he died in 1613, at tho age 
 of sixty. His works were published collectively in 2 vols, fol., 
 entitled ' Opera Omnia Theolo^'ica,' &c, Curcellaci edita. Amsterdam, 
 1650, 1665, aud 1671 ; and in London in 1678. They consist chiefly 
 of the following treatises : 'Collegium Disputationuin Theologicarum 
 iu Academia Leydensi,' Dortdrecti, 1688; ' Fur Praedestinatus,' Dort, 
 1642; 'Antidotum ad versus Synodi Dortdracenaj Canones;' 'Con- 
 fession of Faith;' 'Popish Labyrinth, or a Treatise on Infallibility,' 
 &c, English translation, London, 1763. The latter works were written 
 on the occasion of the author's being solicited by Peter Wadingus, a 
 learned Jesuit, to become a Papist. 
 
 (Life of Episcopius, by Limborch, aud by Curcellseus ; Life and 
 Death of Arminius and, Episcopius, London, 1672, 12mo; Moreri, &c.) 
 
 ERASMUS was born on the 28th of October 1467, at Rotterdam. 
 He was the illegitimate son of a citizen of Gouda, named Geirit 
 (Gerard), which, according to a pedantic fashiou of the day, he trans- 
 lated doubly into Desiderius Erasmus ; and in future years he found 
 time to lament his carelessness in calling himself Erasmus instead of 
 by the more accurate form Erasmius. During his father's life he was 
 well and tenderly educated ; but at the age of fourteen he fell into 
 tho hands of dishonest guardians, who wasted his patrimony, and to 
 conceal their peculations, drove him, very unwillingly, into a monas- 
 tery. He took the vows at Stein in 1486. Fortunately his skill in 
 Latin caused him to be employed as private secretary to the bishop of 
 Cambrai, who in 1496, at the end of their connection, authorised Lim 
 to proceed to Paris to continue his studies, instead of returning to the 
 monastic life, which he hated. At Paris Erasmus barely supported 
 himself, by taking pupils, in sickuess and poverty. For many years 
 he led a wandering life, relying on the bounty of those patrona who 
 were attracted by his learning and sprightly wit, sometimes in France, 
 sometimes in the Netherlands, sometimes in England, to which he was 
 a frequent visitor. In England he became intimate with More, Colet, 
 dean of St. Paul's, and other learned men, of whom he has spoken in 
 high terms of praise ; and England, if any permanent establishment 
 had been offered, would have been the home of his choice. For seve- 
 ral years he applied himself diligently to the study of Greek, which, 
 after ages of general neglect, was j ust beginning to be an object of 
 attention. He was ' autodidactos ' (self-taught) he says ; and one of 
 his favourite employments was the translation of short Greek treatises 
 into Latin, which answered the double purpose of improving himself, 
 aud furnishing him with a number of books to dedicate to his wealthy 
 friends ; for in those days the honour of a dedication was generally 
 acknowledged by a handsome present. Careless however of economy, 
 and not averse to pleasure, Erasmus was continually in want ; and in 
 one of his letters (xii. 21) he duns Colet for fifteen angels, promised as 
 the price of the dedication of his treatise ' De Copia Verborum.' 
 
 In 1506 Erasmus paid his first visit to Italy, during which he 
 obtained from Pope Julius II. a dispensation from his monastic vows. 
 At Bologna, Venice, and Padua, he improved his knowledge of Greek 
 under the instruction of the best Greek and Italian scholars. At 
 Rome he met with a flattering reception, and promises of high 
 advancement ; but having engaged to return to England he did so in 
 1510, in the expectation that the recent accession of Henry VIII., 
 with whom he had for some time maintained a correspondence, would 
 ensure to him an honourable provision. During this visit he resided 
 
793 ERASMUS. 
 
 for some time at Cambridge, where he was appointed Lady Margaret 
 professor (in divinity), and also lectui - ed on Greek. His lodging was 
 ia Queen's College, in the grounds of which Erasmus's Walk is still 
 shown. But not finding his expectations likely to be fulfilled, he 
 accepted an invitation from the archduke, afterwards Charles V., and 
 went to Brabant in 1514, with the office of councillor, and a salary of 
 200 florins. After this we find him resident sometimes in the Nether- 
 lands, sometimes at Basel, where the great work in which he had been 
 many years engaged, the first edition of the New Testament in Greek, 
 was published in 1516, accompanied by a new Latin translation. Some 
 amusing specimens of the objections made to this undertaking by the 
 ignorant clergy will be found in his ' Letters ' (vi. 2). 
 
 At the dawn of the Reformation, Erasmus, who in his witty 
 writings had exposed many abuses of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 especially those connected with the monastic system, was much 
 embarrassed. It is clear that at heart he weut a long way with the 
 reformers, whose tenets he cautiously abstains from censuring, even in 
 letters to dignitaries of the church, where he speaks of Luther him- 
 self in no very friendly terms. But he was of a timid temper, 
 disinclined to sacrifice either life or comfort to his opinions, for he 
 says of himself, in a letter to Pace, dean of St. Paul's, "Even if 
 Luther had spoken everything in the most unobjectionable manner, 
 I had no inclination to die for the sake of truth. Every man has not 
 the courage to make a martyr ; and I am afraid, if I were put to the 
 trial, I should imitate St. Peter." This backwardness brought on him 
 some harsh rebukes from Luther, who nevertheless had an esteem for 
 his person as well as a regard for his talents ; and calls him, in a letter 
 written in 1519 (vi. 3), "Decus nostrum et spes nostra" ("our glory 
 and our hope"). Neither did the zealots of the other side regard 
 him with more favour. Erasmus, it was said, laid the egg, and Luther 
 hatched it ; and no doubt the pungency of his satire had its effect in 
 opening men's eyes, and preparing for the graver warfare of the great 
 reformer. 
 
 He removed to Basel in 1521, where, in 1522, his celebrated 'Col- 
 loquies ' were published. They were composed ostensibly to supply 
 young persons with an easy school-book in the Latin language, and at 
 the same time to teach them religion and morals. For the purpose 
 of teaching the Latin language this little book seems peculiarly well 
 adapted : it was long used for this purpose in England, in the northern 
 parts of which it was, till very lately, in use, and perhaps still is in 
 some places. In these ' Colloquies,' which are generally very amusing, 
 Erasmus has made some of his smartest attacks on various super- 
 stitions of the Roman Catholic Church. On this account the book 
 was prohibited. In 1529 Erasmus removed to Freiburg, when the 
 reformed party acquired the ascendancy in Basel : for to the last he 
 never threw off an external adherence at least to the ancient faith. 
 But in 1535 he returned to his former place of abode, endeared as it 
 was by the presence of his most valued friends, in hope of renovating 
 his declining health. About this time he received testimonies of high 
 respect from Pope Paul III., who gave him a benefice, and expressed 
 the intention of raising him to the rank of cardinal. But these 
 favours came too late to benefit him. He died at Basel, July 12, 1536, 
 leaving an enduring reputation as the first wit of his age, the man of 
 most general learning, and the most active and serviceable instrument 
 in bringing about the revival of sound learning. Nor were his con- 
 tributions small towards the success of the Reformation ; he was an 
 able sapper, though he wanted energy to storm the breach with 
 Luther and his associates. 
 
 His 'Encomium Moriee ' ('Praise of Folly'), written in England in 
 1510, a very witty production, was meant to show that there are 
 fools in all places, however high, even in the court of Rome. It had 
 a great run, and Leo X. is said to have been much amused by it ; but 
 at the same time it made its author many enemies among those who 
 loved the abuses or were too partial to see the faults of the church, 
 and did more than any of his works, except the ' Colloquies,' to fix 
 the charge of heterodoxy on him. The 'Adagia' (1498), a large 
 collection of proverbs, explained and commented upon with great 
 learning, i3 another of his most interesting works. 'Enchiridion 
 Militia Christiani ' (1503) is a valuable manual of practical religion ; 
 the ' Ciceronianus ' is an elegant and stiDging satire on the folly of 
 those peri ants who, with a blind devotion, refused to use in their 
 compositions any words or phrases not to be found in Cicero. 
 Erasmus's own Latin style is clear and elegant : not always strictly 
 classical, but like that of one who spoke and wrote Latin as readily 
 as hia mother tongue. His ' Letters,' comprising those of many learned 
 men to himself, form a most valuable and amusing collection to those 
 who are interested in the manners and literary histories of the age 
 in which they were written ; and several of them in particular are 
 highly valuable to Englishmen as containing a picture of the manners 
 of the English of that day. Of his numerous works, those which we 
 have mentioned are most likely to be read with pleasure in the present 
 day; the rest of them consist chiefly of translations, theology, grammar, 
 and occasional treatises addressed to his friends and patrons. 
 
 His greatest work however waB the edition of the New Testament, 
 in Greek, from manuscripts, for the first time; for though that 
 portion of Scripture was printed in the Conplutensian Polyglot so 
 early as 1514, it was not published till 1522 ; while the Editio Princeps 
 of Erasmus was published in 1516. It is much commended by 
 
 KIOO. CIV, VOL. D. 
 
 ERASTUS, THOMAS. m 
 
 Michaelis, who says—" Natural abilities, profound learning, a readiness 
 in detecting errors, with every qualification that is requisite to produce 
 critical sagacity, Erasmus possessed in the highest degree ; and perhaps 
 there never existed a moro able editor of the New Testament. As an 
 edition for common use however, it is of course superseded, in conse- 
 quence of the accumulated knowledge of later labourers, and the 
 great improvement in biblical criticism. Erasmus superintended the 
 first Greek edition of the Geography of Ptolernseus, which was printed 
 at Basel by Frobenius in 1533, 4to. The edition was founded on good 
 manuscript, but it contains numerous typographical errors. At Rot- 
 terdam there is a fine bronze statue of Erasmus, erected in 1622 ; at 
 Basel there is a portrait of him by Holbein. The last edition of the 
 complete works of Erasmus is that of Leyden, by Leclerc, 1703, 
 10 vols, folio, often bound in eleven. 
 
 ERASTUS, THOMAS, a physician, and the author of various 
 medical works, but better known for the use made of his name in 
 ecclesiastical discussions than in connection with his own profession 
 was born at Baden in Switzerland, on the 7th of September 1524! 
 He obtained the rudiments of his education in his native place, and 
 studied in the neighbouring city of Basel in 1540. There in 1544 he 
 was attacked by the plague, and narrowly escaped death. He is said 
 to have either on that or some other occasion lost the use of his right 
 hand, but to have acquired the power of writing rapidly with the left. 
 At Basel he seems to have studied divinity, philosophy, and literature. 
 He afterwards went to Bologna, where he studied medicine, and 
 appears to have speedily acquired a high scientific reputation. After 
 having remained nine years in Italy, he went to Germany, and was by 
 the Elector Palatine Frederic III. made professor of physic in the 
 University of Heidelberg. The scientific character which he acquired 
 in his own profession appears to have been that of one who did not 
 take dogmas or theories for granted, but acted on induction from hia 
 own experience. He was appointed physician to the prince, and held 
 rank as councillor of state in the Palatinate. He soon afterwards 
 entered into polemical controversy. In 1564 a conference was held 
 in the monastery of Maulbronn on the question of the real presence, 
 or rather on the question whether the reference to the body and blood 
 was not entirely figurative, at which Erastus maintained the view that 
 it is figurative. He soon afterwards became involved in his celebrated 
 controversy as to excommunication. A sort of fanaticism in favour of 
 the use of ecclesiastical censures and punishments had been introduced 
 by Olevianus, a refugee from Trier or Treves, and by several fugitives 
 from the cruelties of the Duke of Alva in the Low Countries, and had 
 spread among the Protestants of the Palatinate. Erastus termed it 
 ' febris excommunicatoria,' and thought it an unwise policy for the 
 Protestants, surrounded by their enemies, to be zealous in cutting off 
 members from their own communion. He examined the principles 
 and biblical authority of ecclesiastical censures, and carried on a con- 
 troversy in which he was violently opposed by Dathenus, and more 
 mildly by his friend Beza. This controversy would have probably 
 died as a local dispute, had it not been revived by Castelvetro, who 
 had married the widow of Erastus, publishing from his papers the 
 theses called ' Explicatio Quaestionis gravissimse de Excommuuicatione,' 
 which bears to have been written in 1568, and was thus published in 
 1589. The general principle adopted by Erastus is, that ecclesiastical 
 censures and other inflictions are not the proper method of punishing 
 crimes, but that the administration of the penal law, and of the law 
 for compelling performance of civil obligations, should rest with the 
 temporal magistrate. He held that the proper ground on which a 
 person could be prohibited from receiving the ordinances of a church — 
 such as the sacrament or communion of the Lord's Supper was not 
 vice or immorality, but a difference in theological opinion with the 
 church from which he sought the privilege. The church was to decide 
 who were its members, and thereby entitled to partake in its privi- 
 leges, but was not entitled to take upon itself the punishment of 
 offences by withholding these privileges, or by inflicting any other 
 punishments, on the ground of moral misconduct. 
 
 Few authors so often referred to have been so little read as Erastus. 
 The original theses are very rare. An English translation was pub- 
 lished in 1669, and was re-edited by the Rev. Robert Lee in 1845. By 
 some inscrutable exaggeration, it had become the popular view of the 
 doctrines of Erastus, that his leading principle was to maintain the 
 authority of the civil magistrate over the conscience, and to subject 
 all ecclesiastical bodies to his direction and control, both in their 
 doctrine and their discipline. In the discussions in the Church of 
 Scotland, of which the result was the secession of a large body of the 
 clergy and people because it was found that the Church could not 
 make a law to nullify the operation of lay patronage, those who main- 
 tained within the church the principle that it had no such power were 
 called Erastians as a term of reproach. As in all cases where such 
 words as Socinian, Arian, Antinomian, &c, are used in polemical 
 debates, the party rejected with disdain the name thus applied to it 
 But it is singular that in the course of this dispute no one seems to 
 have thought of explaining that the controversy in which Erastus was 
 engaged was about a totally different matter, and that only a few 
 general and very vague remarks in his writings have given occasion for 
 the supposition that he must have held the principle that all ecclesi- 
 astical authorities are subordinate to the civil. Erastus died at Basel 
 ou the 31st of December 1583, leaving a considerable sum for the 
 
 3r 
 
ERCILLA Y ZUNIGA, ALONSO. 
 
 793 
 
 promotion of education in Basel and Heidelberg. He had published 
 at the former town in 1565 a work ' De Discrimine Logicse et Sdontia; 
 Demonstrative. ' He also wrote several works on medical science. 
 
 (Ersch und Gruber, AUgoineine Encyclopddic ; Adamus, Vital Ger- 
 manorum Medicorum, 107-109.) 
 
 ERATO'STHENES, a distinguished contemporary of Archimedes, 
 is said to have been born at Cyrene in the year B.C. 276. He possessed 
 a variety of talents seldom united in the same individual, but not all 
 in the same eminent degree ; his mathematical, astronomical, and geo- 
 graphical labours, are those which have rescued his name from oblivion. 
 
 The Alexandrian school of sciences, which flourished under the first 
 Ptolemies, had already produced Timochares and Aristyllus, whose 
 solstieial observations, made probably by the shadows of a gnomon, 
 and by the armillary circles imitative of those of the celestial vault, 
 retained considerable credit for centuries afterwards, though from 
 these methods of observation they must have been extremely rude 
 and imperfect. 
 
 Eratosthenes had not only the advantages arising from the instru- 
 ments and observations of his predecessors, but the great Alexandrian 
 library, which probably contained all the Phoenician, Chaldaic, 
 Egyptian, and Greek learning of the time, was entrusted to his 
 superintendence by the third Ptolemy (Euergetes), who invited him 
 to Alexandria; and we have proof in tho scattered fragments which 
 remain to us of this great man, that these advantages were duly 
 cultivated to his own happiness and the progress of infant astronomy. 
 
 The only work attributed to Eratosthenes, which has come down to 
 us entire, is entitled ' Catasterismi,' and is merely a catalogue of the 
 names of forty-four constellations, and the situations in each constella- 
 tion of the principal stars, of which he enumerates nearly five hundred, 
 but without one reference to astronomical measurement : we find 
 Hipparchus quoted in it, and mention made of the motion of the pole, 
 that of the polar star having been recognised by Pytheas. These 
 circumstances, taken in conjunction with the vagueness of the 
 descriptions, render its genuineness extremely doubtful ; at all events, 
 it is a work of little value. It may be seen in the Oxford edition of 
 'Aratus,' and was republished by Shaubach, with notes by Heyne 
 (Gott., 1795). A more correct edition of the text was published by 
 F. K. Matthiaj, in his edition of 'Aratus' (Frankfurt, 1817, 8vo) ; and 
 by A. Weshrmann, in his ' Scriptores Historic Poeticae Graeci,' pp. 
 239-267. 
 
 If Eratosthenes be really the author of the treatise ' Catasterismi,' 
 it must have been composed merely as a ' vade mecum,' for we find 
 him engaged in astronomical researches far more exact and more 
 worthy of his genius. By his observations he determined that the 
 distance between the tropica, that is, twice the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
 was Ji of an entire circumference, or 47° 42' 39", which makes the 
 obliquity to be 23° 51' 19"5", nearly the same as that supposed by 
 Hipparchus and Ptolemoeus. As the means of observation were at that 
 time very imperfect, the instruments divided only to intervals of 10', 
 and corrections for the greater refraction at the winter solstice, for 
 the diameter of the solar disc, &c, then unknown, we must regard 
 this conclusion as highly creditable to Eratosthenes. 
 
 His next achievement was to measure the circumference of the earth. 
 He knew that at Syene (now Assouan) the sun was vertical at noon 
 in the summer solstice; while at. Alexandria, at the same moment, it 
 was below the zenith by the fiftieth part of a circumference : the two 
 places are nearly on the same meridian (error 2°) ; neglecting the solar 
 parallax, he concluded that the distance from Alexandria to Syene is 
 the fiftieth part of the circumference of the earth ; this distance he 
 estimated at 5000 stadia,' which gives 250,000 stadia for the circum- 
 ference : the following diagram will explain the principle of this 
 admeasurement 
 
 C the centre of the earth, A Alexandria, s Syene, S the sun, <ZAS 
 tne sb of four right angles, < ASC the sun's parallax, which is very 
 small : ,*. < ACS is very nearly = ZAS ; therefore distance AsC — A of 
 circumference of earth. 
 
 Thus Eratosthenes has the merit of pointing out a method for 
 finding the circumference of the earth : but his data were not suffi- 
 ciently exact, nor had he the means of measuring the distance As with 
 sufficient precision. 
 
 Eratosthenes has been called a poet, and Scaliger, in his commentary 
 on Manilius, gives some fragments of a poem attributed to him, entitled 
 ' Hermes, or de Zonis,' one of which is a description of the terrestrial 
 zones : it is not improbable that these are authentic ; tho chroniclers 
 as well as philosophers of all nations, in a state of incipient civilisation, 
 have called in the aid of metre to popularise their labours. Eratos- 
 thenes is therefore entitled to the name of a versifier rather than a 
 pout, liko his precursor Manetho, who wrote 'AiroTiAea/j-ariKci (effects 
 or influences), a mixture of astrology and astronomy ; one of whose 
 lines, containing the names of the sun and planets, may be taken as a 
 specimen ; — 
 
 Zei/s"Ap?)S IToi^i't) Mrjvri Kp6vos"HKws 'Ep/xrjs. 
 
 The wretched doggrcl arising from forcing names, scientific terms, and 
 reasonings into verse, may be judged by some ridiculous productions 
 of the kind in our own language. 
 
 That Eratosthenes was an excellent geometer we cannot doubt, from 
 his still extant solution of the problem of two mean proportionals, 
 preserved by Theon, and a lost treatise quoted by Pappus, ' De Locis 
 ad Medietates,' on which Montucla has offered some conjectures, 
 ' llistoire des Math.,' an. vii,, p. 280. 
 
 Kratosthenes appears to have been one of the first who attempted 
 to form a system of geography. His work on this subject, entitled 
 ' Geographica ' (Ttuypa<pii«i), wa3 divided into three books. The first 
 book contained a history of geography, a critical notice of the autho- 
 rities used by him, and the elements of physical geography. The 
 second book treated of mathematical geography, and contained the 
 method above explained, by which he determined the earth's circum- 
 ference. The third book contained the political or historical geography, 
 arranged according to the three great divisions of the known globe, 
 Europe, Asia, and Libya. The whole work was accompanied with a 
 map of the known world. The geography of Eratosthenes is lost ; the 
 fragments which remain have been chiefly preserved by Strabo, who 
 was doubtless much indebted to him. 
 
 Eratosthenes also busied himself with chronology. The reader 
 will find some remarks on his Greek chronology in Clinton's ' Fasti 
 Hellenici ;' and on his list of Theban kings, by R. RaBk, in his little 
 work on the ancient Egyptian chronology, German translation, 
 Altona, 1830. 
 
 The properties of numbers attracted the attention of philosophers 
 from the earliest period, and Eratosthenes also distinguished himself 
 in this branch by a work which he denominated k6kkivov, ' Cribrum,' 
 or ' Sieve,' the object of which is to separate prime from composite 
 numbers, a curious memoir on which was published by Horsley in the 
 ' Philosophical Transactions/ 1772. The principle of the method is 
 to reject all the multiples of the primes, tabulating first all the odd 
 numbers ; the multiples of 3 will be found with intervals of two places, 
 those of 5 with intervals of 4, and by placing a mark over each such 
 multiple, none but prime numbers will remain after this shifting. 
 The same method, which is indeed indirect, but comparatively rapid 
 in application, has been employed by Ladislaus Chernac, in forming a 
 table of primes from 1 to 1,020,000, in a treatise published in 1811 : 
 the following example will explain the method : — ■ 
 
 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41, 
 
 43, 45, 47, 49. 
 
 By actually trying this method it will be seen how readily the 
 composite numbers are marked out, and we may terminate the operation 
 when our commencing number exceeds a third of the last number in 
 the table. 
 
 Eratosthenes arrived at the age of eighty years, and ultimately 
 becoming weary of life, died by voluntary starvation. (Suidas, 
 'Eratosthenes.') Montucla, with his usual naivete', says it would 
 have been more philosophical to await death " de pied ferine." 
 
 (Montucla, Histoire des Math., p. 239 ; Delambre, Hist, de V Astro- 
 nomie Ancienne, p. 86 ; Lalande, Bibl. Astron. in art. ; Sentenlice Or. et 
 Lat. in Poetis Min.,Eadulphi Wintertoni, Cambridge, 1700 ; Fragmenta 
 Or. et Lat, by Shaubach, Gottingen; Aratus, Oxford edition, 1672; 
 Horsley, Tracts and Memoir in Phil. Trans., 1772; Catusterismi, Heyne; 
 Cribrum Arith., by L. Chernac; Geographicorum Fragmenta, 1787; 
 Eutocius, Commentary on Archimedes. The edition of the Fragments 
 of Eratosthenes, by Bernhardy (Berlin, 1822, 8vo), does not contain 
 the ' Catasterismi.' See Cleomedes.) 
 
 ERCILLA Y ZUNIGA, ALONSO, the author of the ' Araucana,' 
 an epic poem, and better known out of Spain than many other 
 Spanish works of greater merit. Alonso was the third son of a cele- 
 brated lawyer, Fortun Garcia, lord of the castle of Ercilla, and was 
 born at Madrid in 1533. His mother, Dona Leonor de Zufiiga, 
 became a widow the following year, and being appointed 'guarda 
 damas ' to the wife of Charles V., soon obtained for her son a place 
 among the pages of the prince of Asturias, afterwards Philip II. At 
 the age of fourteen, Ercilla attended that prince through Italy, 
 Germany, and the Netherlands, in a pompous progress of which the 
 
ERICK. 
 
 793 
 
 chronicler of Philip II., Calvete de Estrella, Las left a picturesque 
 account. He also accompanied Philip in his subsequent travels, and 
 on the occasion of his marriage with Queen Mary, Ercilla came to 
 England in 1551. While in London, he heard of a revolt of the 
 brave Araucanians (Araucanos) against the Spaniards in Chile, and 
 his military ardour being excited by the news, he volunteered to go 
 to America. It was amidst the incessant toils and dangers of a 
 campaign against barbarians, without shelter and with nothing to 
 write on but small scraps of waste paper, and often only leather, 
 struggling at once against enemies and surrounding circumstances, 
 that, for the first time an iron clad poet attempted to describe in epic 
 strains the exploits in which he himself participated, and which he 
 often directed. Thus did Ercilla write the first part of his ' Arau- 
 cana,' so named from the war and country of Arauca. After numerous 
 escapes from the dangers of the war, he was ordered to the scaffold 
 (a.d. 1558) by a young and hasty commander, who thought he per- 
 ceived a premeditated mutiny in a private quarrel which arose in the 
 American city of Imperial, while the people were celebrating the 
 accession of Philip II. to the crown. Ercilla, who on that occasion 
 had to draw his sword in defence of his honour and life, was saved by 
 the timely discovery of the injustice of the sentence which had been 
 passed on him. Much impaired in health, although then only in his 
 twenty-ninth year, the poet-soldier returned to Spain, but only to 
 experience the continued neglect and disdain of Philip whom he had 
 served all his life, whom he had already invoked as his Augustus, and 
 whom he celebrated in the sequel of his poem. To exalt and pro- 
 pitiate his reluctant patron, he introduced into it the episodical 
 battles of St. Quentin and Lepanto. The indignity which he still 
 experienced induced Ercilla to ramble for some time over different 
 parts of Europe, where the only favour he received was from the 
 emperor Rudolph, who appointed him gentleman of his bed-chamber. 
 At last he settled at Madrid, where he lingered in retirement and 
 penury, writing poetry till his death, the time of which is not clearly 
 ascertained. He was however alive in 1596, for Musquera de Figue- 
 roa, in his ' Comentario de Disciplina Militar,' speaks of Ercilla as then 
 engaged in celebrating the victories of Don Alvaro Bazan, marques 
 de Santa Cruz, in a poem which was never published, and was 
 perhaps left incomplete. 
 
 The 'Parnaso Espanol' contains a short erotic poem, written by 
 Ercilla in his youth, and highly commended by Lope de Vega in his 
 'Laurel de Apolo.' But it is only the ' Araucana' which has recom- 
 mended Ercilla to posterity. He published the first part by itself ; then 
 the first and second parts together in 1577 ; and the whole three parts 
 in 1590, many editions of which have appeared successively in different 
 places. The severe censures passed on this poem by a host of bio- 
 graphers or compilers are in fact only a long file of repetitions, and 
 much of the censure is founded on misconception. 
 
 Nothing short of a sketch, however brief, of the ' Araucana,' could 
 give a just idea of it3 plan and execution. But it would however be 
 unfair not to remind those who consider Ercilla as a second Lucan, 
 that he undertook a much harder task than the Cordovan poet, who 
 sung a mighty contest for the mastery of the world ; while Ercilla had 
 to contend against two features in his subject, the most unfavourable 
 to an epic — a conquest not yet accomplished over a narrow, rocky, and 
 unknown spot, and a brave and injured enemy struggling for their 
 freedom. Still he succeeded in infusiug an Homeric spirit into his 
 long narration, which, independently of its other merits, is a real 
 historical record. 
 
 ERICK, in Swedish, is synonymous with the German Heinrich, and 
 the English Henry, and is the name of many kings of Sweden and of 
 Denmark. Of the earlier kings of this name little is known, for the 
 history of the Scandinavian nations previous to the 9th or 10th 
 centuries of our era is very confused, and much of it is semi-fabulous. 
 In the earlier centuries of our era the country now called Sweden was 
 divided into several kingdoms or states, of which Sweden Proper and 
 Gothia were the two principal. Sweden Proper comprised the central 
 part of the present Sweden, and included the provinces of Upland, 
 Sudermanland, Westmanland, Nerike, and part of Dalecarlia. The 
 kingdom of Gothia comprised the southern part of the great Scandi- 
 navian peninsula, including the provinces of Ostrogothia and Westro- 
 gothia, divided by the Wetter Lake, Smaland, Bohusland, Skane, and 
 Blekiogen, with the isles of Gothland and Oeland. But the most 
 southern provinces, especially Skane, were for a long time a subject of 
 contention with the Danes, who frequently occupied them. 
 
 There was also the kingdom of Warmeland, north and west of the 
 great Wener Lake, extending to the borders of Norway, and the 
 kingdom of Halsingland, north of Sweden Proper, which included 
 the provinces of Angermanland, Jamteland, East and West Bothnia, 
 up to the wilderness of Lapland. Most of these provinces had each 
 its separate chief or king, something like the earlier Saxon kingdoms 
 in England ; but the king of Sweden Proper, or of Upsal, as he was 
 also called, was considered in ordinary times as the head of the whole, 
 like the Bretwalda of the Saxon Heptarchy. Odin or Wodin, the 
 conqueror of Scandinavia in the century previous to our era, is said to 
 have kept Sweden for himself, allowing his relatives or companions to 
 settle in the rest of Scandinavia as his vassals ; and this superiority of 
 Sweden was acknowledged for several centuries after, so that at the 
 great general meetings of the Scandinavian nations the king of Den- 
 
 mark used to hold tho bridle and tho king of Norway the stirrup of 
 the king of Sweden's horse. (PnfFendorf.) 
 
 Among tho earlier kings of Sweden, in the 5th and Gth centuries, 
 we find several Ericks, of whom little or nothing is known. One of 
 these reigned together with his brother Aliick as kings of Upsal from 
 about 465 to 485. Another Erick and his brother Jorund, being the 
 sons of Yngue Alrickson, were following the then common profession 
 of sea-kiugs, or pirates, when a vacancy on the throne of Sweden, to 
 which they had some family claim, recalled them home, about 525. 
 They were opposed by the usurper Haco, when Erick was killed, and 
 Jorund was obliged to escape. In the 9th century we find Erick 
 Biornson reigning together with his father Biorn Jarnside, about 864. 
 Biorn died in 870, and Erick reigned alone till 874, when he died abroad 
 in some expedition. He was succeeded by his son Biorn and his nephew 
 Erick, the son of Refil, the Sea King,, who reigned together for a time. 
 The two kings went with a host to join their Norman friends at the 
 siege of Paris in 886, when Chaides the Fat was obliged to conclude a 
 dishonourable peace. Biorn appears to have died at the siege, aud 
 Erick Refilsou returned home and died some years after. He was 
 succeeded by Erick, son of the late Biorn, who reigned together with 
 his brother Biorn, called of Hoga, from the place of his residence. 
 After his death Erick Emundson, a grandson of Erick Refilson, was 
 proclaimed king about 910, under the guardianship of his great uncle 
 Biorn of Hoga. Biorn died in 925, and Erick remained sole king of 
 Upsal. He sustained a war against Harald Harfager, king of Norway, 
 and at his death was succeeded by his son, Biorn IV. 
 
 Erick Segersall, or the Victorious, reigned from 970 to 994. He 
 retook Skane and Hallaud from the Danes, and at last drove away 
 their king, Sweno, from Denmark itself. He also defeated the Nor- 
 wegians aud Finlanders, aud conquered Livonia, Esthonia, and 
 Courland. Erick was succeeded by his son Olaf, or Olaus, who is 
 mentioned as the first Christian king of Sweden. 
 
 In the year 1155, after the death of Swerker Kolson, the Otho- 
 gothians chose his son Charles for their king, but the Swedes at their 
 general assembly at Upsal elected Erick Jadwardson, a nobleman 
 connected by alliance with both the royal families of Sweden and 
 Denmark. He is styled Erick IX. by most chronologists, aud he is 
 also called Erick the Pious, or St. Erick. After some demur, the 
 Gothians agreed that he should reign over both kingdoms, but that 
 after his death Charles Svverkerson should succeed him. Erick 
 brought back the Halsingers and the Jammtlanders to the Swedish 
 allegiance. In 1157 he proceeded with troops to Finland, in order to 
 subdue the natives and convert them to the Christian faith, and the 
 Bishop of Upsal accompanied him on this expedition. The Finlanders 
 were defeated, many of them were slain, aud the rest were baptised. 
 Christian churches were founded by the bishop, who remained in the 
 country, while Erick returned to Sweden, where he employed himself 
 in compiling a code of laws out of the ancient constitutions of the 
 kingdom. This compilation is known by the name of St. Erick 's law. 
 Erick is remembered in history as a good king. In 1161, on the 11th 
 of May, as he was in the neighbourhood of Upsal, a party of Danes 
 who had landed on the coast under Prince Magnus, surprised and 
 killed him after a brave defence on his part. Magnus had his head 
 cut off, and afterwards proclaimed himself king ; but the Swedes and 
 Gothians, uniting under Charles Svverkerson, fell upon the Danes and 
 killed them all, together with their prince, and out of the spoil they 
 built a church on the spot. Charles was then acknowledged as king 
 of the Swedes and the Goths, the title which the kings of Sweden 
 bear to this day. 
 
 Charles was killed by Kuut, St. Erick's son, about 1168, who 
 succeeded him; but after Kuut's death, in 1192, the crown was again 
 disputed between Erick Knutsou aud Swerker, the son of Charles, 
 who was supported by the Gothians. After a long war Swerker was 
 killed in battle, 1210, and left Erick Knutsou in quiet possession of 
 the throne. St. Erick's convention was then renewed, and John, the 
 son of Swerker, was constituted heir to the throne, which was after- 
 wards to return to Erick's descendants. Erick died in 1219, at 
 Wisingsoe, which was the usual place of residence of the Swedish 
 kings in those days. 
 
 Erick Erickson, son of the preceding, succeeded John in 1222, 
 according to the convention, and reigned till 1250. His reign was at 
 first distracted by civil war. The powerful family of Tolekunger, 
 who were allied to the king by marriage, revolted against him ; but 
 they were defeated, and two of the leaders were put to death. Under 
 this king Gulielmus Sabinensis, the pope's legate, first forbade marriage 
 to the Swedish priests. Erick made war upon the Finlanders, who 
 had revolted, and built several fortresses on their frontiers. He died 
 at Wisingsoe without issue, and was succeeded by Waldemar I., his 
 sister's son. 
 
 Erick, son of King Magnus, and of Blanche, daughter of the Flemish 
 Earl of Namur, was made colleague to his father by a powerful party 
 of the nobility in 1344. A war broke out between father and son in 
 1357, and at last the kingdom was divided between them, Erick having 
 the whole southern part, including Skane, East Gothia, Smiiland, &c. 
 Erick was shortly after poisoned at an interview with his father, and, 
 it was reported, by the agency of his own mother. 
 
 EltlCK, styled XIII. The Duke of Pomerauia aud nephew to Queen 
 Margaret of Waldemar, who had united Sweden, Norway, and Den- 
 
769 
 
 ERICK XIV. 
 
 ERINNA. 
 
 600 
 
 mark under her sceptre, was appointed by the General States of the 
 three kingdoms assembled at Calmar in 1396 to be her successor. He 
 married in 1410 Philippa, daughter of Henry IV. of England, and in 
 1412, after Margaret's death, he assumed the reins of government. 
 But he soon gave proofs of incapacity, and his capricious and tyran- 
 nical sway disgusted the Swedes, to whom he preferred his Danish 
 subjects. Becoming entangled in a tedious war with the dukes of 
 Holstein and Mecklenburg and the Hanse Towns, in order to carry it 
 on he loaded his subjects with taxes, while their commerce was ruined. 
 He violated the articles of the Calmar union, stripped Sweden of its 
 archives, which he took with him to Denmark, and filled most military 
 and civil offices in Sweden with Danes and other foreigners. The 
 Dalecarlians were the first to revolt, being led by a nobleman of the 
 name of Englebrecht. They were joined by the North Hallanders 
 and others, and at last they obliged the senate of the kingdom 
 assembled at Wadstena to renounce its allegiance to Erick. Erick 
 made a hasty peace with the Hanse Towns, collected a fleet with 
 troops on board, and sailed for Stockholm. After repeated attempts, 
 he was obliged to make a convention with the insurgents, by which 
 the king retained garrisons in the three castles of Stockholm, Calmar, 
 and Nykoping ; all other situations in the kingdom being filled by 
 Swedish natives. At the same time ho promised to respect the 
 articles of the Calmar union, and returned to Denmark. But his bad 
 faith kept alive the discontent, and in 1438 the leaders of the Swedes 
 entered into secret negociations with the chief men in Denmark, who 
 were likewise dissatisfied with Erick, and a general revolt ensued. 
 Eri. k had already withdrawn from Denmark into the island of Goth- 
 land with his treasures. The Danes chose for their king Christopher, 
 duke of Bavaria, kins Erick's sister's son, and the Swedish Diet 
 assembled at Arboga offered him likewise their crown under the stipu- 
 lations of the Calmar union. Erick was allowed by Christopher to 
 retain possession of the island of Gothland ; but after Christopher's 
 death in 1448 Charles Knutson, who succeeded to the throne of 
 Sweden, besieged Erick in the town of AVisby. Erick escaped into 
 Pomerania, with the assistance of Christian, king of Denmark, who 
 sent him to the island of Rugen, where he ended his days. 
 
 Erick xiv. of Sweden, the son of Gustavus Vasa, was acknowledged, 
 by a diet held at Westeraas in 1544, as heir to the throne while he 
 was in his eleventh year : he succeeded his father in 1559. He began 
 by showing a considerable degree of jealousy towards his brothers 
 John, Magnus, and Charles, whom their father had made dukes of 
 Finland, East Gothia, and Sudermanland, as feudatories of the crown. 
 He was also engaged in war with the Liflanders, or Livonians, who had 
 placed themselves under the protection of Denmark and of Poland ; 
 but the Esthlanders remaining attached to Sweden, Erick sent an army 
 to Revel for their protection, and successfully defended that place 
 against the Poles. Erick had at one time, before he was king, been a 
 suitor for the hand of Elizabeth of England, and after his accession 
 to the throne he embarked to pursue his addresses in person. A 
 violent tempest however having driven him back to Sweden, Erick, 
 who was superstitious and a believer in astrology, gave up all thoughts 
 of the match, and turned his attentions to Mary, queen of Scotland, 
 but with no better result. His brother John haviog married Catharine, 
 daughter of Sigismund, king of Poland, without Erick's consent, Erick 
 besieged him in the castle of Abo, made him prisoner, and kept him 
 and his wife in close confinement, until the remonstrances of the people 
 obliged him to release them. At the same time a war broke out 
 between Denmark and Sweden, in which the Swedes had the advantage 
 in several sea-fights. Meantime King Erick gave himself up entirely 
 to his mistresses, and entrusted the care of the kingdom to his favourite 
 Joram Peerson, an unprincipled man, by whose advice and that of 
 Dionysius Burraus, a Frenchman by birth and his former tutor, he 
 put to death several noblemen, among others the Stures, father and 
 eon, who belonged to a powerful Swedish family of Nils Sture : one 
 of them was stabbed by the king with his own hand. Erick even 
 went so far as to concert a scheme to put to death his brothers at a 
 great festival to be given at Stockholm, but having been apprised of 
 it, they conspired against him, seized upon several castles, collected a 
 force, and marched upon the capital. Erick, after some defence, was 
 obliged to surrender; the assembly of the states deposed him in 1568, 
 and he was kept a close prisoner in the castle of Gripsholm, where he 
 was treated very severely. His brother John was proclaimed king of 
 Sweden. After nine years' confinement, Erick was put to death by 
 poison, by order of his brother, in 1577. 
 
 (Celsius, K'dnung Erick dm Fiortondes Historia, 1795.) 
 
 ERICK, the name of several kings of Denmark : — 
 
 Erick l reigned about the 9th century. He is commonly reckoned 
 as the first Christian king of Denmark, and it was under his reign that 
 Ansgarius, bishop of Bremen, preached Christianity both in Denmark 
 and in Sweden. 
 
 Erick n. succeeded his brother Olaf, or Olaus IV, about the year 
 1095. He made war in Pomerania, and took Jutin, then a considerable 
 town of that country. He greatly favoured the Christian religion, and 
 obtained of the pope the establishment of the archbishopric of Laud 
 in Sc:.nia, which then belonged to Denmark. Erick visited Rome, and 
 died in the island of Cyprus about 1103, while on a pilgrimage to tho 
 Holy Land. 
 
 Erick hi., son of the preceding, maJe war against the AVendes, or 
 
 Vandals, who were carrying on piracy in the Baltic. He died about 
 1138, and was succeeded by 
 
 Erick iv., his son, called the ' Lamb,' who turned monk at Odensee, 
 in 1147. 
 
 Erick v. succeeded his father Waldemar II. in 1241, and was 
 murdered by his brother Abel in 1250, who succeeded him on the 
 
 throne. 
 
 EniCK vl succeeded his father Christopher I. in 1259, was engaged 
 in war against the king of Norway, and was involved in disputes with 
 his own nobles, who, at a diet held at Wyborg in 1282, obliged him 
 to sign an act defining their privileges and the limits of the royal 
 authority. He was taken prisoner in battle by Erick, duke of Holstein, 
 and cruelly murdered in 1286. 
 
 Erick vii. succeeded his father Erick VI., and continued the war 
 against the king of Norway. He reigned till 1319, and was succeeded 
 by his brother, Christopher II. 
 
 Erick viii., styled by some vn., is the same as Erick XIII. of 
 Sweden, the nephew and successor of Margaret of Waldemar. [See 
 Erick XIII. op Sweden.] 
 
 ERICSSON, JOHN, engineer, a native of Sweden, but whose 
 inventions have been brought before the scientific world in England 
 and America, was born in the province of Vermeland in 1803. In 
 1814, by the friendship of Count Platen, who observed his mechanical 
 tastes, he obtained a cadetship in a corps of Engineers. He subse- 
 quently entered the regular army as an ensign, and at length reached 
 the rank of lieutenant. In 1826 he visited England in order to bring 
 into notice a new kind of engine which he had invented, and which 
 he proposed to work without steam, by the condensation of flame. 
 The project failed from the impossibility of procuring suitable fuel for 
 the engine. He competed for the prize which was offered by the 
 Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company in 1829, for the produc- 
 tion of the best locomotive, and presented an engine which went at 
 the rate of fifty miles an hour. Ericsson's subsequent career lay 
 chiefly in America. In tho Great Industrial Exhibition of London in 
 1851, several instruments for the measurements of distances at sea, for 
 measuring fluids under pressure, and other similar purposes, appeared 
 in the American department under Mr. Ericsson's name, and were 
 described by him in a Bmall work which he issued at the time. His 
 nssme is chiefly known in connection with a project for a caloric 
 engine, which was to supersede steam, an object which, if accom- 
 plished would, by removing the necessity of carrying large cargoes of 
 fuel, have effected a great commercial change in the intercourse 
 between distant parts of the globe. As the principle did not obtain 
 the sanction of the scientific men to whom the British government 
 referred its consideration, Mr. Ericsson tried it in America, and 
 obtained sufficient cooperation to enable him to launch a vessel named 
 after himself, and measuring 2000 tons. This vessel made a trial trip, 
 in which she sailed at the rate of twelve miles an hour, but on her 
 return she was struck by a squall, filled, and foundered close to the 
 city of Jersey. The Ericsson was subsequently raised, and the 
 caloric engine was replaced by a steam engine, which possessed some 
 improvements invented by Mr. Ericsson. Mr. Ericsson was a member 
 of numerous scientific societies and a knight of the Swedish order of 
 Vasa. He died on the 2nd of November 1853. 
 
 ERI'GENA, JOANNES SCOTUS, a native of Ireland, whence his ' 
 appellation of Erigena is derived, that of Scotus being synonymous 
 with it, as the Irish were still called in foreign countries Scots in 
 those times, flourished about the middle of the 9th century, and was a 
 celebrated scholar of that age. He resided chiefly in France, at the 
 court of Charles the Bald, who seems to have been very partial to him. 
 His writings on theological matters were considered as heterodox, and 
 his treatise on the Eucharist was condemned to be burnt by the council 
 of Rome, in 1059. [Berenger.] His treatise on predestination is 
 found in the ' Vindiciae Prsedestinationis et Gratise,' 2 vols. 4to, 1650. 
 In his work ' Dialogus de Divisione Naturaa ' he displays a wonderful 
 information for the times he lived in, and an intimate acquaintance 
 with the Greek language. He gives large extracts from the Greek 
 fathers, and also quotes Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, Pliny, and other 
 ancient philosophers; and he gives the opinions of Pythagoras and 
 Eratosthenes on some astronomical topics. In another part he inserts 
 a very elaborate discussion on arithmetic. Hallam says that "it 
 admits of no doubt that John Scotus was, in a literary and philoso- 
 phical sense, the most remarkable man of the dark ages : no one else 
 had his boldness, his subtlety in threading the labyrinths of meta- 
 physical speculations, which in the west of Europe had been utterly 
 disregarded." ('Middle Ages,' c. ix., pt. i., note 2.) Erigena also 
 translated from the Greek certain theological works attributed to 
 Dionysius Areopagita. To the writings and translations of Erigena is 
 attributed by some the introduction of the later Platonism of the 
 Alexandrian school into the theology and metaphysics of Europe. 
 Erigena is believed to have died in France about 875. He must not 
 be confounded with Joannes Duns Scotus, who lived in the 13th 
 century. [Duns Scotus.] 
 
 ERINNA, a poetess and the friend of Sappho, flourished about the 
 year B.C. 595. All that is known of her is contained in the following 
 words of Eustathius (ai 'Iliad,' ii. p. 327): — "Erinna was born iu 
 Lesbos, or in Rhodes, or in Teos, or in Telos, the little island near 
 Cuidos. She was a poetess, and wrote a poem called ' The Distallj, 
 
SCI 
 
 8H 
 
 in the ^Eolic and Doric dialect : it consisted of 300 hexameter Hues. 
 She was the friend of Sappho, and died unmarried. It was thought 
 that her verses rivalled those of Homer. She was only nineteen years 
 old when she died." Another poetess of this name is mentioned by 
 Eusebius under the year B.C. 354. This appears to be the same person 
 who is mentioned by Pliny (' Hist. Nat.,' xxxiv. 8) as having celebrated 
 Myro in her poems. We possess no fragments of either of these 
 poetesses. 
 
 ERNESTI, JOHN AUGUSTUS, was born at Tennstadt, in the 
 Thuringer Wald, on the 4th of August 1707. He was educated at 
 Wittenberg and Leipzig, and in 1731 became conrector of the school 
 of St. Thomas, Leipzig. He succeeded J. M. Gessner as rector in 1734. 
 While engaged in this situation he acquired so great a reputation as 
 a classical scholar that, in 1742, the University of Leipzig violated its 
 own rule of never electing to any professorship the master of a school, 
 and appointed him professor extraordinary of ancient literature. He 
 was made professor of eloquence in 1756, and professor of theology, 
 with the degree of Doctor, in 1758 : he held the two last-named pro- 
 fessorships together till 1770, when he gave up the former to his 
 nephew, Augustus William. He died on the 11th September 1781. 
 Ernesti was a man of considerable abilities, and especially of a very 
 methodical mind, to which are due the great improvements in the 
 system of teaching introduced by him. He was well acquainted with 
 classics, and no mean proficient in theological learning. His Latin 
 style is little inferior indeed to that of Ruhnken, and fully equal to 
 that of Wyttenbach ; his knowledge of Greek, though less accurate, 
 was very respectable. The work for which he is best known is his 
 edition of Cicero, which has been made the basis of all subsequent 
 ones. The third and last edition of this author published by him was 
 printed at Halle in 1775. His ' Clavis Ciceroniana,' or Index of words 
 and subjects to Cicero's works, is still in general use. Besides his 
 Cicero, Ernesti's ' Initia Doctrinoe Solidioris ' and ' Institutio Inter- 
 prets NoviTestamenti' are much esteemed by students at the present 
 day ; the latter has been translated into English. His edition of 
 Callimachus, which appeared in 1761, is suspected to have owed a good 
 deal of what is valuable in it to the contributions of Ruhnken. An 
 account of it is given in the 'Museum Criticum,' vol. ii. p. 151. 
 Ernesti's editions of Homer, Polybius, Tacitus, and Suetonius, have 
 been long superseded by more recent and superior ones. 
 
 ERNESTI, AUGUSTUS WILLIAM, nephew of the preceding, was 
 born at Frohndorf, near Tennstadt, the 26th of November 1733. He 
 was a pupil of his uncle at Leipzig, was made professor of philosophy 
 there in 1765, and, as has been mentioned, succeeded, in 1770, on his 
 uncle's resignation, to the professorship of eloquence. He died of 
 apoplexy on the 29th of July 1801. He was principally distinguished 
 as a very good Latin scholar. His best known work is an edition of 
 Livy, with a very copious glossary, which was reprinted twice in his 
 lifetime ; the third edition was in the press when he died, and was 
 completed by Schiifer. 
 
 ERNESTI, JOHN CHRISTIAN THEOPHILUS, also a nephew of 
 John Augustus, was born at Arnstadt, in the Thuringer Wald, in 1756. 
 He was professor of philosophy in the University of Leipzig from 1782 
 to 1801, when he succeeded his cousin, Augustus William, as professor 
 of eloquence. He died on the 5th of June in the following year. 
 This scholar published editions of Silius Italicus and iEsop ; ' Lexicon 
 Technologiae Graecae Rhetoricae,' Lips., 1795 ; ' Lex. Techn. Romanorum 
 Rhetorics,' Lips., 1797 (both very useful works) ; ' Hesychii Glossse 
 Sacrae,' 1785; ' Suidae et Phavorini Glossae Sacrae,' 1786 ; a translation 
 into German of Dumesnil's Latin Synonyms, and a German version of 
 the principal works of Cicero. 
 
 ERPE'NIUS, THOMAS, or THOMAS VAN ERPEN, the cele- 
 brated orientalist, was born at Gorkum, Holland, on the 7th of Sep- 
 tember 1584. At the age of ten years he was sent to Leyden, where 
 he received his education ; and in 1608 he took the degree of Master 
 of Arts in the university of that town. He had studied chiefly theo- 
 logy and oriental literature, and after the termination of his academic 
 education, he undertook a tour to England, France, Italy, and Germany, 
 for the farther prosecution of his favourite pursuits. At Paris he 
 became acquainted with Isaac Casaubon, and availed himself of the 
 Arabic instructions of a learned Maronite, Joseph Barbatus, then a 
 resident in the French capital. Erpenius returned to his native country 
 in 1612, and was in the following year appointed professor of Oriental 
 languages in the University of Leyden, an office to which was added 
 subsequently that of Arabic interpreter to the Netherlands. On two 
 occasions, in 1620 and 1621, he was sent to Paris on business of the 
 University of Leyden. With these interruptions he seems to have 
 devoted himself exclusively to the cultivation of Oriental literature. 
 He established an Arabic press at his own house, and employed him- 
 self in editiog a number of works, which have been of the greatest 
 utility in promoting the cause of Oriental learning. He died of a 
 contagious disease at the age of forty, November 13th, 1624. The 
 work which has contributed most to give celebrity to the name of 
 Erpenius is his ' Grammatica Arabica, quinque libris methodice expli- 
 cata,' published at Leyden in 1613, 4to. It has often been re-edited 
 with additions and alterations, and formed the basis of nearly every 
 subsequent Arabic grammar printed in Europe down to that of Sil- 
 vestre da Sacy. The most remarkable of Erpenius's other publications 
 we the following : — ' Proverbiorum Arabicorum centuriae duae,' Leyden, 
 
 1614 and 1623, 8vo ; ' Locmani Sapientis Fabulaa et selecta quaedam 
 Arabuni Adagia,' Leyden, 1615, 8vo ; an edition of an Arabic version 
 of the New Testament and of the Pentateuch, the former published in 
 1616, the latter in 1622; an edition of the chronicle of Elmakin, with 
 a Latin translation, published after his death, under the title of 
 ' Historia Saracenica,' Leyden, 1625, fol. ; two original treatises on 
 Arabic grammar, bearing the title ' Grammatica Arabica, dicta Gia- 
 rumia, et libellus centum Regentium,' Leyden, 1617, 4to; and a 
 Hebrew Grammar, ' Grammatica Ebraea generalis,' Leyden, 1621, 8vo. 
 
 ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL, was born June 23, 1766, at Glogau, 
 in the Prussian province of Silesia. He commenced his studies in the 
 gymnasium of his native town, and in the spring of 1785 removed to 
 the university of Halle. Here he became acquainted with Professor 
 Fabri, with whom in 1786 he went- to Jena, where they became 
 associated with Schiitz and Hufeland in the publication of several 
 political, geographical, and bibliographical works. In 1794 he 
 removed to Gottingen, and in 1800 returned to Jena, where he was 
 appointed librarian to the university. In 1803 he became professor 
 of geography and statistics in the university of Halle, and in 1808 
 was appointed principal librarian. Besides being employed at all 
 these places on various periodical publications, sometimes as editor 
 and sometimes as contributor, he acquired a knowledge of the French, 
 Italian, English, Swedish, and Danish languages, and became well 
 acquainted with the literature and literary history of the respective 
 nations. Thus the employments of his life as well as his favourite 
 studies had peculiarly qualified him for undertaking, in conjunction 
 with Gruber, the great German ' Universal Encyclopaedia of Sciences 
 and Arts,' which was commenced in 1818, and formed the chief 
 occupation of the remainder of his life. He died at Halle, January 
 16, 1828. 
 
 Ersch's associate in this vast undertaking, Johann Gottfried 
 Gruber, was born November 29, 1774, at Naumburg, in the Prussian 
 province of Saxony. After studying in the gymnasium of his native 
 town, he proceeded in 1792 to the university of Leipzig. In 1803 he 
 became a private tutor in Jena. He afterwards removed to Weimar, 
 where he became acquainted with Wieland, who held him in such 
 esteem that he supplied him with materials for writing his biography. 
 In 1811 he obtained a professorship in the University of Wittenberg. 
 Returning to Leipzig he became a contributor to the ' Conversations 
 Lexikon,' and published his Life of Wieland, ' Wieland's Leben,' 4 
 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1815-16. He also superintended the publication of 
 Wieland's Collected Works, ' Wieland's Sammtlichen Werken,' Leipzig, 
 1818-28, and added to it, in an improved form, his own Life of the poet, 
 which forms vols. 50, 51, 52, 53. In 1815 Gruber was appointed 
 professor of philosophy in the university of Halle, and in 1818 became 
 associated with Ersch in the editorship of the great work so well 
 known to German scholars as Ersch und Gruber's ' Encyclopiidie der 
 Wissenschaften und Kunste,' 4to, Leipzig, 1818. This work is divided 
 into three sections, of which not one is yet complete. The first section is 
 to include from letter A to G ; the second section is to extend from H to 
 N ; the third from 0 to Z. The 66th part of the first section, published 
 in 1857, ends with the article Gidom. The second section was com- 
 menced in 1827, and the 20th part, published in 1853, includes 
 the end of letter J. The third section was commenced in 1830, and 
 the 25th part, published in 1850, ends with ' Phyxios.' Gruber, after 
 Ersch's death, became sole editor of the first section. The editors of 
 the second section are G. Hassel and W. Miiller ; of the third section 
 are M. H. E. Meier and L. F. Kiimtz. 
 
 ERSKINE, EBENEZER, founder of a considerable sect of seceders 
 from the established church in Scotland, called the Secession Church, 
 wa3 born on the 22nd of June 1680. He studied in the university of 
 Edinburgh, for some time acted as tutor and chaplain in the family 
 of the Earl of Rothes, and became a licentiate in divinity in 1702. 
 In 1703 he was chosen minister of Portmoak in the shire of Kinross. 
 He beoame a very popular preacher, and though his charge was in a 
 retired district people flocked from distant parts of Scotland to attend 
 on his ministration. After having resisted various offers of ministerial 
 appointments in other places, he was prevailed on to accept of a 
 charge in the town of Stirling in 1731, after he had served for twenty- 
 eight years in Portmoak. Mr. Erskine' s first difference with his col- 
 leagues of the Church of Scotland was in his support of the principles 
 of " the Marrow of Modern Divinity," a subject of great contention 
 during the early part of the 18th century. He was one of several 
 clergymen who, in connection with this subject, were " rebuked and 
 admonished " by the General Assembly. The secession of the body 
 headed by Mr. Erskine was occasioned by the operation of the Act of 
 Queen Anne's reign restoring lay patronage in the Church of Scotland, 
 and, though not in all respects technically the same, it was virtually 
 on the same ground as the late secession of " The Free Church." 
 The presbytery of Kinross, led by Erskiue's brother Ralph, had 
 refused to induct a presentee forced on an objecting congregation by 
 the law of patronage. In 1732, the General Assembly enjoined the 
 presbytery to receive the presentee. At the same time they passed 
 an act of Assembly regulating inductions, which, as it tended to 
 enforce the law of patronage, was offensive to Mr. Erskine, and ho 
 preached against it. After some discussion the General Araembly 
 decided that he should be " rebuked and admonished," confirming a 
 decision of the inferior ecclesiastical courts. Against this decision 
 
663 ERSKINE, JOHN. 
 
 Mr. Erskine entered a " protest," in which he was joined by several of 
 his brethren. He was afterwards suspended from his functions. The 
 Assembly subsequently endeavoured to smooth the way for his resto- 
 ration, but he declined to take advantage of it, and he and his friends, 
 including his brother Ralph, formally seceded in 1736. When the 
 Secession was divided into the two sects of Burghers and Anti-Buighcrs, 
 Mr. Erskine and his brother were of the Burgher party. He died on 
 the 2nd of June, 1754. The Secession Church, re-united by the 
 junction of the Burghers and Anti-Burghers in 1820, remained a 
 distinct body till 1847, when a union being effected with the Relief 
 Synod (a body which arose from Mr. Gillespie's secession from tho 
 established church of Scotland in 1752), the aggregate body assumed 
 the name of the United Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Ralph Eeskine, his brother, was the author of ' Gospel Sonnets,' 
 and other religious works, but his celebrity chiefly rests on his 
 alliance with his brother Ebenezer in the founding of the sect of the 
 Seceders in Scotland. He was born on the 18th of March 1685, 
 became clergyman of the parish of Dunfermline in 1711, and died 
 on the 6th of November 1752. 
 
 ERSKINE, JOHN, a writer on law, was born in tho year 1695. 
 His father was the honourable John Erskine, son of Lord Cardross, 
 and he was thus the cousin-german of Lord Chancellor Erskine. 
 Erskine's life was that of a recluse student, and was marked by few 
 incidents. In 1719 he became a member of the faculty of advocates, 
 but he does not appear to have had much practice. In 1737, he was 
 appointed professor of Scots Law in the university of Edinburgh. In 
 1754, he published ' Principles of the Law of Scotland ' in 1 vol. 8vo, 
 a work remarkable for its lucid arrangement, and for the terseness 
 and clearness of its exposition of the leading principles of the law. 
 It was destined to be a text-book for his students, but became a 
 leading law authority. It passed through several editions, the last 
 of which was edited in 1827, by Professor More, for several years 
 occupant of Erskine's chair. Erskine retired from his professorship 
 in 1760, and died at his own estate of Cardross in 1765. He had 
 employed his years of retirement in expanding the matter of his 
 'Principles' into a larger work, which he left behind him nearly 
 finished, and which was published in 1773, in 2 vols, folio, with the 
 title, 'An Institute of the Law of Scotland.' This work has been 
 repeatedly republished with notes, bringing down the law to the 
 dates of the respective editions. It is the great oracle of Scottish 
 law, an authority almost without appeal, and as firmly established as 
 ' Coke upon Littleton ' is in England. It is of little value in respect 
 of its constitutional law, which the author seems not to have been 
 capable of observing otherwise than in mere detail. Owing to the 
 increase of commerce and manufactures in Scotland, the portion 
 relating to these subjects is meagre and antiquated. In all things 
 however relating^ to the rights of persons arising from their relation 
 to each other, and in the peculiar rules of the feudal system in Scot- 
 land, the work continues to be of great value, and to be as useful to 
 the practical lawyer as in its profundity of research and clearness of 
 detail it is an object of admiration to the theoretical student. 
 
 ERSKINE, JOHN, an ecclesiastical leader, son of the preceding, 
 was born on the 2nd of June 1721. He was licensed as a preacher in 
 1743, and in 1744 obtained the charge of the parish of Kirkintilloch, 
 near Glasgow. In 1763 he received the degree of D.D. from the 
 university of Glasgow. In 1767 he was appointed one of the ministers 
 of the collegiate church of the Greyfriars in Edinburgh. He had for 
 his colleague Dr. Robertson the historian, who was leader of the 
 moderate party in church politics, or that body which had the least 
 affection for the predominant characteristics of the Presbyterian 
 creed and polity, while Erskine was the leader of the popular 
 Evangelical, or as it was sometimes called Orthodox party — the same 
 which in 1843 seceded from the Church of Scotland, and formed the 
 " Free Church." Erskine was an active popular preacher and leader, 
 and the titles of the books and pamphlets written by him would fill 
 a considerable space. He died on the 19th of January 1803. His 
 memory is still revered by his own party. 
 
 (Account of the Life and Writings of John Erskine, by Sir Henry 
 Moncrief Wellwood.) 
 
 ERSKINE, THOMAS, LORD, was the third and youngest son of 
 David, earl of Buchan. He was born in 1750, and received the rudi- 
 ments of his education partly in the high-school of Edinburgh, aDd 
 partly at the University of St. Andrews. In 1764 he entered the navy 
 as a midshipman, but not thinking his prospects of promotion in that 
 service sufficiently good, he accepted a commission in the first regiment 
 of foot in 1768. In 1770 he married Frances, daughter of Daniel 
 Moore, M.P. for Marlow, and soon after went with his regiment to 
 Minorca. Upon his return to England in 1772, he appears to have 
 become remarkable for the brilliancy of his conversational talents. 
 (Wraxall's ' Memoirs,' vol. i., p. 152, and Bos well's ' Life of Johnson,' 
 under April 6, 1772.) In 1775 he commenced the study of the law, 
 and entered himself a student of Lincoln's Inn, and also as a fellow- 
 commoner of Trinity College, Cambridge, but only for the purpose of 
 obtaining a degree, and thereby saving the additional term of two 
 years, during which his name must otherwise have remained on the 
 books of Lincoln's Inn. He became the pupil of Mr. Buller, and after- 
 wards of Mr. Wood, both of whom were subsequently raised to the 
 Bench. In Trinity term 1778 Mr. Erskine was called to the bar, 
 
 ESPARTERO, JOAQUIN BALDOMERO. 801 
 
 where his success was as rapid as it was brilliant. In the same term 
 he was employed as one of the counsel for Captain Baillie, lieutenant 
 governor of Greenwich Hospital, who was prosecuted for an alleged 
 libel on the other officers of that establishment. The prosecution was 
 in fact instituted by Lord Sandwich, then at the head of the admi- 
 ralty, who, it appeared, had abused the charity by appointing landsmen 
 as pensioners, to serve his own electioneering purposes. Mr. Krskino's 
 eloquent and indignant speech at once established his reputation ; 
 such indeed was its instantaneous effect that thirty retainers were 
 presented to him before he left the court. His practice and reputa- 
 tion increased so rapidly that in 1783, when he had been scarcely five 
 years at the bar, he received a patent of precedence at the suggestion 
 of Lord Mansfield, who then presided in the court of King's Bench. 
 In the same year Mr. Erskine was returned member for Portsmouth, 
 through the interest of Mr. Fox, with tho immediate view of support- 
 ing that minister's famous India Bill. In the House of Commons 
 however his success by no means equalled the expectations which his 
 friends had formed, though his parliamentary speeches would appear 
 to have been far above mediocrity. In the same year also he was 
 made attorney-general to the Prince of Wales, an appointment which 
 he was called upon to resign in 1792, in consequence of his refusing to 
 abandon the defence of Thomas Paine when he was prosecuted for his 
 publication ' The Rights of Man.' In 1802 he was made chancellor 
 of the duchy of Cornwall ; and in 1806, on the formation of the Gren- 
 ville ministry, he was appointed lord chancellor, and raised to tho 
 peerage by the title of Baron Erskine, of Restormel Castle, in Corn- 
 wall. His tenure of office was however brief, for on the dissolution of 
 the ministry in 1807 he retired from public life. After this period 
 Lord Erskine seldom appeared in his place iu the House of Lords, but 
 in 1820 he took a prominent part on the occasion of the trial of Queen 
 Caroline. 
 
 In the later years of his life he was harassed by pecuniary embarrass- 
 ments, arising from the loss of his large professional income, and an 
 unfortunate investment of the fruits of his industry in laud. His first 
 wife died in 1805, and an ill-assorted second marriage increased his 
 domestic disquietudes, injured his reputation, and gave pain to his 
 friends. His later years were marked by eccentricities, which seemed 
 to indicate mental disease. He died November 17th, 1823. 
 
 Lord Erskine's talents were peculiarly those of an accomplished and 
 dexterous advocate : his eloquence formed an era at the bar, and his 
 addresses to juries captivated their understandings, their imaginations, 
 and their passions ; they were not marked by beauty of diction, rich- 
 ness of ornament, or felicity of illustration, but by strength, vigour, 
 and simplicity, and a perfect freedom from colloquial vulgarisms. A 
 remarkable feature in his speeches is an exact and sedulous adherence 
 to some one great principle which he laid down, and to which all his 
 efforts were referrible and subsidiary. As the principle thus proposed 
 was founded on truth and justice, whatever might be his ingenuity in 
 applying it to the particular case, it naturally gave to his address an 
 air of honesty and sincerity which had great influence with the jury. 
 His extraordinary talent was developed by the times in which he 
 lived ; his indignant eloquence was called forth in defence of those 
 individuals in whose persons the court and the government attacked 
 the liberty of the press and constitutional freedom. The public mind 
 was in a state of ferment from the recent events of the French revolu- 
 tion ; and the government, in their hatred of the great principles of 
 liberty then being established, forgot that actions, not principles, are 
 the proper subjects for prosecution. As counsel for the defendants in 
 these political prosecutions, Lord Erskine made his noblest and most 
 successful efforts ; fearless and zealous in the cause of his client, he spoke 
 homo truths without using unnecessary violence or low invective. 
 
 Lord Erskine has left few productions in writing ; the principal are 
 the ' Preface to Fox's Speeches,' the political romance called ' Armata/ 
 and a pamphlet entitled ' View of the Causes and Consequences of the 
 War with France,' which passed through forty-eight editions. His 
 speeches have been published in 5 vols. 8vo. Lord Erskine is not to 
 be considered as a literary man ; but with a scanty stock of what is 
 usually called literature, he was one of our purest classical speakers 
 and writers. His study was confined to a few of the greatest models, 
 and these he almost knew by heart. He greatly admired the writings 
 of Burke, and frequently quoted them in his speeches. 
 
 ESCULAPIUS. [^EscuLAnus.] 
 * ESPARTERO, JOAQUIN BALDOMERO, was born February 27, 
 1793, at Grandtula, a village about six miles south-we3t from Almagro, 
 in the modern Spanish province of Ciudad Real (old province of La 
 Mancha). His father was a carretero, a maker of carts and similar 
 vehicles, and had nine children, who were all respectably brought up. 
 Baldomero, being while young of delicate constitution, was destined 
 to literary occupation, and was well instructed in Latin by an ecclesi- 
 astic of his native village. In 1806 he was sent to Almagro, which had 
 then a university, in which he studied two years. Having accompanied 
 an elder brother into Andalucia in 1808, he entered as a common soldier 
 the infantry regiment of Ciudad Real, which was then at Seville ; but 
 in 1809 he was removed into the Batallon Sagrado of the University of 
 Toledo, which consisted for the most part of students from that city. 
 When the French invaded Andalucia, the central junta took refuge in 
 Cadiz, and this battalion went with it. Soon afterwards a military 
 school was established at Cadiz, into which Espartero obtained 
 
ESPARTERO, JOAQUIN BALDOMERO. 
 
 803 
 
 admission, and there studied engineering, fortification, and military 
 tactics generally. In 1S14 he was promoted to a sub-lieutenaucy iu 
 the infantry regiment of the province of Soria, and at the termination 
 of the peninsular war remained with his regiment in garrison at 
 Madrid. 
 
 In February 1815 Espartero joined the expedition under General 
 Morillo which was sent out to defend the Spanish provinces in South 
 America against the insurrectionists, of whom Bolivar was the principal 
 leader. The regiment of Estremadura, to which Espartero was 
 attached, was destined for Lima, where it arrived in September 1815. 
 After the first campaign in Peru, Espartero was made captain of a 
 regiment ; and having been successful, as he himself states, iu seventeen 
 consecutive actions, was appointed to the command of a battalion, 
 January 10, 1817. In 1820 and 1822 he was raised to the rank of 
 colonel and brigadier, and was named chief of the general staff (estado 
 mayor). In 1821 he was sent by the viceroy Laserna with special 
 despatches to the king, and landed iu Spain in October. After a short 
 stay he set sail on his return to South America. The passage was 
 long and stormy; and in the meantime the victory of Ayacucho had 
 been gained by Bolivar, December 9, 1824, with irreparable loss to the 
 royalists ; and all the Spanish generals had set sail on their return to 
 the Peninsula. Espartero landed at Quilca in May 1825, where, instead 
 of meeting with his old companions in arms, he was seized by Bolivar's 
 troops, thrown into prison at Arequipa, and was treated with such 
 cruelty that his health gave way, and he was transferred to the hospital. 
 At the end of July he made his escape to Quilca, where he was taken 
 on board a French ship, and landed in Spain at the end of November 
 1825. 
 
 After his return to Spain, Espartero was again attached to the 
 regiment of Soria, and while in quarters at Logroiio became acquainted 
 with the daughter of a rich proprietor, Dona Jacinta Sicilia, and married 
 her in September 1827. He remained in quarters at Logroiio, Pam- 
 plona, and Barcelona till November 1832, when he was sent with his 
 regiment to the Balearic Islands. He was stationed at Palma, in Ma- 
 jorca, and continued there till the civil war broke out in the Basque 
 Provinces, in 1833, when he solicited and obtained permission to pro- 
 ceed there with his regiment, in order to act with the queen's troops 
 against those of Don Carlos. He was then colonel of the infantry 
 regiment of Soria. On the 1st of January 1S34 he was named Coman- 
 dante-Geueral of the province of Biscaya, and soon afterwards was 
 raised to the dignity of Field-Marshal. On the 20th of June 1835 he 
 was appointed Lieutenant-General of the National Armies, and on the 
 17th of September in the same year was named General-in-Chief of the 
 Army of the North. He co-operated with General Evans in the relief 
 of Bilbao and other operations in 1836, and with a body of about 
 7000 men routed the expeditionary army of Gomez, which had 
 advanced with great rapidity towards Madrid. In 1837 he advanced 
 from the Ebro against the Pretender's army in Castile, which he routed 
 near Aranda de Douro, and interposing between the two columns into 
 which it had separated, drove part of them into the mountains and the 
 rest across the Ebro into the Basque Provinces. When the army of 
 Don Carlos advanced towards Madrid, in 1837, he forced it to retreat, 
 September 12, and drove it back over the Ebro. For seizing the 
 position of Luchana, aud by this operation raising the siege of Bilbao, 
 he was created Coude de Luchana. He was active iu 1838, but in 1S39 
 the northern provinces, where the rebellion had originated, became 
 tired of the war, and the army of Don Carlos, unpaid, ill fed, and 
 badly clothed, were themselves disposed to join the queen's party. 
 On the 1st of June 1839, Espartero was created a Grandee of the first 
 class, with the title of Duque de la Victoria y de Morella ; and on the 
 31st of August a convention wa3 signed at Vergara between the Duque 
 de la Victoria and Don Rafael Maroto, lieutenant-general of the 
 armies of Don Carlos, by which twenty-four battalions of veteran 
 troops laid down their arms, and acknowledged the supremacy of the 
 queen — " thu3," says General Sir De Lacy Evans, "consummating an 
 act of forgiveness, reconciliation, and peace, in a cordial spirit, and 
 under conditions completely honourable to both parties ; and which 
 afforded one of the most gratifying and remarkable instances of good 
 sense and good feeling on the part of previously conflicting armies and 
 opposing partisans to be found in the records of any nation." Don 
 Carlos immediately fled into France, and the few troops that remained 
 faithful to him were disbanded and dispersed. 
 
 The mother of the Queen of Spain had been appointed Queen 
 Regent during the minority of her daughter, but in cousequence of 
 her giving her assent to a law which interfered with the freedom of 
 deliberation in the ayuntamientos, or town councils, an insurrection 
 broke out, which obliged her on the 12th of October 1840 to resign 
 her office of Reina Gobernadora, and retire to France. By a decision of 
 the Cortes, May 8, 1841, Espartero was appointed regent of the king- 
 dom during the remainder of the minority of the queen. He performed 
 the duties of this office till 1843, when a conspiracy and combination 
 of parties obliged him to leave Madrid, and on the 30th of July he 
 was taken on board an English ship of war in the Bay of Cadiz, 
 whence he soon afterwards set sail for England, aud fixed his resi- 
 dence in London, where he was treated with the respect to which his 
 services in the cause of constitutional government so well entitled 
 him. The Queen of Spain, by a decree of the Cortes, was declared 
 to have reached her majority on the 8th of November 1813, though 
 
 by the terms of the constitution the date was fixed for October 10th 
 1844. Espartero resided in London till December 29th 1847, when 
 he set sail on his return to Spaiu. He afterwards lived in retirement 
 at Logrono. Meantime Narvacz had succeeded Espartero as the head 
 of the government; Queen Christina had returned to Madrid ; Mulioz 
 her husband had been created Duke of Rianzares ; aud despotism 
 contiuued iu favour with the court and government till the Spanish 
 people again revolted, and Espartero having been recalled to power, 
 on the 17th of July 1854 the Queen Mother was obliged to quit the 
 kingdom. The Duque de la Victoria contiuued to be the head of the 
 government till the 14th of July 185G, when, in consequence of a 
 ministerial difficulty, which appears to have been artfully prepared 
 aud provided for by O'Donnell, now leader of the absolutist party, 
 Espartero thought fit to tender his resignation. It was accepted by 
 the queen; she appointed O'Donnell as his successor, aud tbe liberal 
 government ceased to exist. The nomination of O'Donnell as prime 
 minister was rejected by the Cortes, consisting of 93 assembled 
 members, with only one dissenting vote. An insurrection broke out 
 in Madrid, which, after some fighting, was overcome ; similar risings 
 in Barcelona, San Sebastian, and elsewhere, were speedily suppressed. 
 The whole kingdom however was declared in a state of siege. Es- 
 partero adhered to his resolution not to participate in an armed 
 movement, and the excitement gradually subsided. In 1857 he 
 resigned his position as senator, and he has not since taken a pro- 
 minent part in political affairs. 
 
 (Espartero. Historia de su Vida Militar y Politico., y de los grandes 
 Sucesos Coatemporaneos. Esorila bajo la Direccion de D. Jose Scgundo 
 Florez, 4 vols. 8vo, Madrid, 2nd ed., 1844.) 
 
 ESPRONCEDA, JOSE DE, a Spanish poet of great popularity aud 
 reputation, was born on the high road near Almendralejo iu Estrema- 
 dura, during a march of the campaign of 1808. His father was 
 colonel of the regiment of Bourbon which distinguished itself at the 
 battle of Talavera, and at the age of five, as soon as the child was old 
 enough to mount on horseback, he was entered as a cadet of the 
 regiment. At the conclusion of the war he was sent to school at 
 Madrid, and when at the college of St. Matthew became a favouriie 
 pupil of Alberto Lista, the poet and lecturer on literature, who, 
 discovering his talents, encouraged him to compose and corrected his 
 verses. Politics however divided the youth's attention with poetry, 
 and before the age of fifteen he was in prison as a conspirator, as one 
 of the society of ' Numautines,' a secret combiuation against the 
 despotic rule of the minister Calomarde [Calomarde], On account 
 of his tender age he was allowed to escape with only four months' 
 imprisonment and a short ' reclusiou ' iu a convent, aud it was while 
 iu the convent at Guadalajara that he commenced an epic poem on 
 the favourite subject of the Spanish writers, 'Pelayo,' the hero of the 
 epic, which a few years later Ruiz de la Vega composed when a refugee 
 in England. On leaving the convent Espronceda made himself 
 again so troublesome, that at the age of seventeen he was obliged to 
 banish himself to Lisbon. When there he was shut up by Don 
 Miguel in the castle of St. George, and one day with several of the 
 other Spanish refugees put on board a ship and sent to England. In 
 the castle of St. George he had became enamoured of a girl of sixteen, 
 the daughter of a fellow-prisoner, a Spanish military officer of rank, 
 and his absence from Portugal was felt as irksome, till one day on 
 witnessing the arrival of a ship in the Thames, he unexpectedly saw 
 her disembark. His residence in England he afterwards looked back 
 upon as the happiest period of his life. He made himself acquainted 
 with the language and studied Shakspere, Milton, and Byron, espe- 
 cially the last of the three, whom he took in many respects as his 
 model. One of his poems which has been much, admired, an 'Ode 
 to Spain on its fallen condition,' is dated from London in 1829. A 
 darkness rests on the conclusion of his love affair, and towards the 
 end of 1829 he was in Paris, where in the following year he fought 
 bravely at the barricades. The success of the revolution of 1830 
 naturally led the Spanish refugees to try their fortune on their native 
 soil, but the expedition of Pablo de Chapalangarra, in which 
 Espronceda took a part, only gave him an opportunity of displaying 
 his signal courage and of writing a poem on the death of the leader. 
 The change which the exiles had been unable in the least to accelerate, 
 was effected as if by magic by the death of Ferdinand ; and Espronceda, 
 who returned to Madrid and entered the regiment of body-guards of 
 the queen, seemed for a short time at the commencement of a career 
 of good fortune. A song which he wrote for a banquet of the regiment 
 soou altered his prospects— it contained some offensive political allu- 
 sions, which not only led to his dismissal by the ministry, ha£~hisr 
 banishment to Cuellar, where he occupied himself by writing < Sancho 
 Saldaha 6 el Castellano de Cuellar,' an historical novel 'm the style of 
 Walter Scott. On the promulgation of the ' Estattffo Real,' the con- 
 stitutional charter of modern Spain, he returned to Madrid, and took 
 part in the newspaper 'El Siglo,' or 'The Ag e .' At this time his 
 political sentiments were not only of a republican but a socialist 
 character, aud he was so ready to carry thein j u to action, that twice 
 iu the years 1835 and 1836 he was engaged i Q defending barricades in 
 the streets of Madrid. His friends, who. continued so to the last, 
 make it no secret that at the same tii^e hjg private life was one of 
 disorder and excess. At length in 184^ after some years of struggle, 
 varied with occasional ilights from tj le reach °f tue authorities, he 
 
 / 
 / 
 
fC7 
 
 ESSEX, EARLS OF. 
 
 was fortunate enough to take part in a successful ' pronuuciamiento,' 
 or outbreak, in the September of that year, and in 1841, as a reward, 
 was named secretary of embassy at the Hague. He travelled to his 
 post in the depth of winter, and found his health so affected in 
 consequence, that he was obliged to return soon after to Spain, where 
 ho was highly gratified by being chosen representative of Almeria, 
 and thus becoming a member of the Cortes, long an object of his 
 ambition. In the midst of bright anticipations he was suddenly 
 carried off on the 23rd of May 1842 by an inflammation in the throat, 
 in the thirty-second year of his age, and his death produced a strong 
 and sad impression. 
 
 The works of Espronceda consist of a single volume of ' Poesias,' 
 and of the historical novel already mentioned, which was published 
 at Madrid in 1834 in six small volumes, the whole of which would be 
 easily comprised in a single volume of au English ' Railway Library.' 
 The poems were printed at Madrid in 1840 during the author's 
 absence by his friend Villalta, who in the preface calls him " the great 
 Spanish poet of the present epoch," and appeals to " the enthusiasm 
 which the sublime compositions of the 'Pirate,' the 'Beggar,' the 
 ' Executioner,' the ' Hymn to the Sun,' and others excited " in all 
 classes of Spanish society, when circulated in manuscript, as a proof 
 of the justice of his estimate. Other Spanish critics, and one English 
 writer, Mr. Kennedy, author of the ' Modern Poets and Poetry of 
 Spain,' have concurred in the same view. Espronceda certainly 
 deserves the credit of having been one of the first to introduce into 
 Spanish literature some forms of poetical composition, which in other 
 parts of Europe have been invented or adopted by men of high 
 genius, but his originality is for Spaniards only, and it may be doubted 
 if his high reputation is likely to be durable. The ' Pirate,' which 
 is of the same class precisely as 'The Sea, the Sea,' of Barry 
 Cornwall, will hardly sustain a comparison with its English rival. It 
 may be said indeed that the Spanish language, rich, grave, and 
 sonorous, is sometimes from those very qualities singularly unadapted 
 for the expression of those brief and abrupt bursts of passion which 
 form some of the brightest ornaments of the English poetical treasury. 
 Perhaps the finest short poem by Espronceda is ' The Night of the 
 Condemned to Death,' in which, like Victor Hugo, he aims at 
 delineating the feelings of a criminal the night before execution. 
 This with some of his other poems has been translated by Mr. 
 Kennedy. An extensive fragment of a long poem, ' The Devil World,' 
 was first published in a second edition of Espronceda's poems issued 
 after his death by Hartzenbusch in 1848, with a biographical notice 
 by Ferrer del Rio. 
 
 ESSEX, EARLS OF. Walter Devereux, first earl of Essex, the 
 son of Sir Richard Devereux and Dorothy, daughter of George, earl 
 of Huntingdon, was born in Caermarthenshire, at the castle of his 
 grandfather, Walter Viscount Hereford, about the year 1540. He 
 succeeded to the titles of Viscount Hereford and Lord Ferrers of 
 Chartley in his nineteenth year, and was early married to Lettice, 
 daughter of Sir Francis Knolles. When the rebellion, headed by the 
 earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, broke out in 1569, he 
 raised a considerable body of troops, and, in conjunction with other 
 forces, compelled the rebels to retreat into Scotland. The courage 
 that he displayed during this warfare recommended him to Queen 
 Elizabeth, who had ever esteemed his loyalty and superior intelli- 
 gence : in gratitude for the service that he had rendered her, she 
 conferred on him the order of the Garter, and created him Earl of 
 Essex (1572). He now became so great a favourite with the queen, 
 that Leicester and others about the court, jealous of his increasing 
 influence, encouraged Essex to enter upon a scheme for subduing and 
 colonising a district of the province of Ulster. He had for some time 
 contemplated such an expedition, and having been persuaded to take 
 the command, embarked from Liverpool in August 1573, in company 
 with Lord Darcy, Lord Rich, and other persons of distinction. He 
 contracted to furnish one-half of the expense of the undertaking, in 
 consideration of which he was to have one-half of the colony as soon 
 as it was established. His arms at the outset met with various 
 success ; but after a time his English friends deserted him, and their 
 loss, together with the enmity of many courtiers at home, soon 
 multiplied difficulties round him. He was obliged to resume the 
 government of Ulster, which he had previously resigned ; and he was 
 compelled to make peace with O'Neil when his pursuit of the rebels 
 under that leader gave every prospect of success. He was required 
 to give up his command when he had nearly dispossessed the Scots, 
 who had invaded the western islands in his territory, and with no 
 other title than that of captain was made to serve at the head of a 
 small body of 300 men. Feeling himself harassed and oppressed, he 
 returned to England; but having received, with the title of Earl 
 Marshal of Ireland, promises that he should have greater liberty of 
 action allowed him if he would go back to that country, he consented 
 to return to his post. The improvement of his situation however 
 was so small that his spirits were affected ; the effects of grief were 
 soon visible in his constitution ; a dysentery attacked him, and, after 
 a month's paiu and misery, he died at Dublin, on the 22nd of September 
 1576 : his body was removed for interment to the parish church at 
 Caermarthen. The sudden failure of his health gave rise to a sus- 
 picion of his having been poisoned ; but no evidence whatever could 
 be adduced to prove the fact. The speedy marriage of the Countess 
 
 of Essex to Leicester, who was suspected of being a party to the 
 murder of her late husband, did not tend to throw discredit on the 
 report. Essex left two sons and two daughters. Of the sons we 
 subjoin a further account. Of the daughters, Penelope (the Stella of 
 Sir Philip Sidney) first married Robert Lord Rich, afterwards Charles 
 Blount, earl of Devonshire ; and Dorothy married first Sir Thomas 
 Perrot, and afterwards Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland. 
 
 Robert Devereux, Earl op Essex, the son of the preceding, was 
 born at Netherwood, in Herefordshire, in November 1567, and was 
 educated, according to his father's wish, under the superintendence of 
 Lord Burleigh, by whose direction he was sent to Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, in 1577, and remained there four years. Upon leaving 
 the university, he retired for some time to his estate in South Wales, 
 and did not appear at court till 1584. His station, his agreeable 
 manners, handsome person, and vigorous mind soon brought him iuto 
 notice. He was reconciled to Leicester, now his father-in law ; and 
 received the appointment of Master of the Horse from the hands of 
 the queen, who also mado him a Knight of the Garter. Elizabeth at 
 the same time remitted the debt to the exchequer incurred by his 
 father ; and when Leicester went with an army into the Netherlands 
 in 1587, she gave to Essex, who accompanied him, the responsible 
 commission of a captain-general of the cavalry. On the death of 
 Leicester in 1588, Essex became her chief favourite. In 1589 he 
 suddenly joined the expedition of Drake and Norris, who had under- 
 taken to restore Antonio to the throne of Portugal. The queen, 
 exasperated at his departure from court without licence, despatched 
 the Earl of Huntingdon to Plymouth with a peremptory order for 
 his return. The messenger was too late ; Essex had sailed. He 
 joined the expedition on the coast of Portugal, marched to Lisbon as 
 a volunteer, behaved himself throughout the enterprise with great 
 gallantry and humanity, and on hi3 return to England found that, in 
 spite of his disobedience, ho retained beyond all comparison the first 
 place in the queen's favour. His chief rivals in her esteem were Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, whose removal from court by the means of an appoint- 
 ment in Ireland had been attributed to the contrivance of Essex, and 
 Sir Charles Blount, of whom he was so jealous, that upon the queen's 
 bestowing a trifling mark of favour upon him at a tilting-match, 
 Essex used such insulting expressions to him that a duel ensued, in 
 which the earl was wounded in the knee. In 1590 he married a 
 daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham, the widow of Sir Philip Sidney, 
 and in the following year was despatched to assist Henry IV. of 
 France in his resistance of the King of Spain, who sought to obtain 
 possession of the duchy of Brittany. He encamped under Rouen, and 
 here, as at Lisbon, idly challenged the governor to a duel. The 
 expedition was wholly unsuccessful, and the earl lost, by a musket- 
 shot, his only brother Walter Devereux, to whom he was greatly 
 attached. 
 
 In 1594, Essex, who had once before come into collision with the 
 Cecils respecting the appointment of the queen's secretary, became a 
 second time at variance with them. Having, as he conceived, dis- 
 covered a plot in which Lopez and others had resolved to murder the 
 queen, he apprised her Majesty of his suspicions; but Lord Burlei;;h 
 and Sir Robert Cecil, who, at the queen's desire, had examined iuto 
 the case, declared the accusation to be unfounded, so that the queen 
 severely rebuked Essex. Mortified both at this rebuke and at the i 
 conduct of his rivals, he renewed the inquiry, and eventually elicited 
 evidence upon which Lopez and his confederates were executed. The 
 opposition of the Cecils to the counsels of the Earl of Essex was 
 renewed in 1596. Lord Howard, then lord admiral, advised the 
 queen again to invade Spain, a proposal which Essex warmly 
 seconded ; Burleigh, on the contrary, denounced the scheme as 
 impolitic and imprudent. The queen gave her consent to the expe- 
 dition : Howard and Essex sailed ; Cadiz was taken, plundered, and 
 burned; fifty-seven Spanish ships of war and merchantmen were 
 taken or destroyed; and the Spanish government suffered considerable 
 loss. But though the enterprise was successful, and commanded with 
 the greatest gallantry, the benefits resulting to the English govern- 
 ment were hardly equivalent to the expense incurred. After some 
 trifling attacks upon the coast of Spain, the fleet, which had been 
 absent little more than two months, returned to England. The 
 enemies of Essex had endeavoured during his absence to poison the 
 mind of the queen to his prejudice, but his publication of the 'Censure 
 of the Omissions in the Expedition to Cadiz' completely reinstated him 
 in her favour. He continued to meet with disappointments in his 
 endeavour to obtain official situations for his friends, but was himself 
 created Master of the Ordnance. In July 1597, Essex, as commander- 
 in-chief, with Lord Thomas Howard as vice-admiral, and Sir Walter 
 Raleigh as rear-admiral, sailed against the Spanish fleet, with a view 
 also of making conquests among the Azores. The English ships, 
 shattered and crippled by a storm, were immediately driven back to 
 Plymouth. In August they again set sail, and though they could not 
 burn the Spanish ships which they now found in harbour, they suc- 
 ceeded in making captures to the amount of 100,000£, with which 
 booty they returned to England in November. The queen received 
 Essex with reproaches and discontent, and the expedition was gene- 
 rally deemed a failure. He now retired to Wanstead, angry on several 
 accounts : the chief of these was the elevation of the lord admiral to 
 the earldom of Nottingham, by which he thought himself doubly 
 
80S 
 
 ESSEX, EARLS OF. 
 
 £10 
 
 affronted ; first, because Lord Howard's services at Cadiz wore recited, 
 and, in the second place, because by his new title Lord Howard gained 
 preeedence of hiui according to a regulation made in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. He was pacified by being appointed hereditary earl 
 marshal, which by the same regulation restored him to his rank. In 
 1598 a quarrel occurred between the queen and Essex, who, having 
 differed from her respecting an Irish appointment, angrily and con- 
 temptuously turned his back upon her in the presence of several of 
 the ministers. The queen, unable to bear the affront, gave him a box 
 on the ear, and bade him " go and be hanged." Essex immediately 
 seized his sword, and the lord admiral stepping in between, he swore 
 "that he neither could nor would put up with an affront of that 
 nature, nor would he have taken it at the hands of Henry the Eighth 
 himself." He withdrew from the court, and some months passed 
 before he would make any submission. His friends dated his ruin 
 from this unfortuuate circumstance. It was hastened by the death of 
 Burleigh, which was on the whole a great misfortune to Essex. Had 
 Burleigh lived Essex might not have undertaken the unfortunate Irish 
 expedition on which he at this time entered (1599). The province of 
 Ulster was in a state of rebellion ; and with the hope that his rauk 
 and military popularity might prevail in that country, he accepted 
 the commission of lord lieutenant of Ireland. His government in 
 that country was inconsiderate and ill-advised ; and his opposition to 
 the queen's wishes in the nomination of Lord Southampton to the 
 generalship of the horse, which he was peremptorily ordered to 
 revoke, gave great offence. His delay in sending troops to Ulster, the 
 loss of men and money consequent on the delay, and the ultimate 
 failure of the expedition, were the causes of many and loud reproaches. 
 Essex returned to England in September : at their first interview the 
 queen received him in a friendly manner, but on the following day he 
 was put into " free custody," and detained a prisoner in his house. 
 In June 1600 he was denied the privileges and authority of his offices; 
 and it was not until the 26th of August that he was liberated. The 
 queen still denied him access to court, and refused the renewal of a 
 valuable patent for the monopoly of sweet wines, which his friends 
 used all their endeavours to procure, declaring that " in order to 
 manage an ungovernable beast, he must be stinted in his provender." 
 
 The weight of these grievances upon his haughty and impetuous 
 mind told the more heavily from the knowledge that his general popu- 
 larity was undiminished. So deep was his impression of resentment 
 against those whom he conceived to have biassed the queen against 
 him, that he listened to the rash and desperate advice of Cuffe, his 
 secretary, to remove Cecil, Cobham, and Raleigh by force from the 
 queen's councils. In order to strengthen his interest, the gates of 
 Essex House were with almost inconceivable imprudence thrown open 
 to all persons who professed to be discontented with the queen or her 
 advisers. With the same view, he courted both the Roman Catholics 
 and Puritans, and a concourse met daily to hear sermons in his house. 
 The multitude that attended the delivery of these discourses could not 
 fail to attract the attention of the vigilant government. Essex was 
 warned to be careful of his safety, and his attendance was required 
 before the council. At this summons he took alarm, fearing a renewal 
 of his imprisonment, and consequently the defeat of his scheme. He 
 determined therefore to commence his proceediugs on the following 
 morning (Sunday, February 8, 1600-1); and during the night messen- 
 gers were sent in all directions to acquaint Essex's friends that his 
 life was threatened by Raleigh and Lord Cobham. In consequence of 
 this intelligence, Lords Sandys and Monteagle, the earls of Rutland 
 and Southampton, with nearly three hundred other gentlemen, assem- 
 bled at Essex House, where it was divulged that Essex had resolved 
 at once to rid himself of his enemies by forcing his way to the queen, 
 and informing her of his danger from those who had so long abused 
 their influence with her majesty. Essex having shut up within his 
 gates the lord keeper, the chief j ustice, and others whom the queen, 
 aware of what was passing, had sent to inquire into the cause of the 
 tumult, proceeded with his friends to the city, where, crying " For the 
 queen, for the queen, a plot is laid against my life," he tried to enlist 
 the citizens in his favour. But, as might have been anticipated, not- 
 withstanding his popularity, not one man was found mad enough to take 
 up arms. At length the earl endeavoured to return home, but a party 
 of soldiers met him at Ludgate, and a skirmish ensued, in which he 
 was twice shot through the hat. He however reached Essex House, 
 but after a short defence he was compelled to surrender himself, and 
 With Lord Southampton was committed to the Tower : the rest of the 
 conspirators were lodged in various other prisons. He was tried for 
 treason in Westminster Hall on the 19th of February, condemned, and 
 executed the 25th of the same month. (' Criminal Trials,' vol. i.) 
 Essex was undoubtedly a bravo and high-spirited man, and with many 
 brilliant qualities possessed an ardent and susceptible mind, and was 
 naturally disposed to the admiration of all that is great and beautiful. 
 Towards his friends he was amiable, to his inferiors and dependents 
 frank, generous, and considerate ; but all his good qualities were ren- 
 dered useless to his country and dangerous to his friends by his over- 
 weening vanity and ambition, and his utter disregard of common 
 prudence, and even common sense, in carrying his purely personal 
 objects. 
 
 He left one son (of whom we give an account below) and two 
 daughters. Frances married first the Earl of Hertford, and after- 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. II, 
 
 wards the Duke of Somerset. Dorothy was the wife first of Sir 
 Henry Shirley, and lastly of William Stafford, of Blatherwyck, in 
 Northamptonshire. 
 
 Robert Devereux, third Eail of Essex, was born in Essex House, 
 in the Strand, in 1592. He was sent to Eton by his grandmother, 
 who, after his father's death, received him into her house; and in 1602 
 he was removed to Merton College, Oxford, where the warden, Mr. 
 (afterwards Sir Henry) Savile, who had been an intimate friend of his 
 father, took charge of his education. He was restored to his hereditary 
 honours in 1603, and three years afterwards was unhappily married to 
 lady Frances Howard, a child of no more than thirteen years old. The 
 new-married couple being too young to live together, Es^ex was sent 
 to improve himself abroad; while "the bride, who was celebrated for 
 her beauty, continued with her mother. It was four years before he 
 returned to claim his wife, and in the meantime she had contracted 
 so great an affection for Lord Rochester, afterwards Earl of Somerset, 
 that, until she was compelled by her father, she could not bo brought 
 to cohabit with her husband. The union never was a happy one. 
 Not many months after they had met, she instituted proceedings 
 against him praying for a separation on a real or pretended charge of 
 physical disability. A divorce was granted, and the lady was soon 
 after married to Lord Rochester. The slur thus cast upon Essex drove 
 him to the retirement of his country-house and the pursuit of rural 
 occupations. After some years however, a solitary life became irksome 
 to him. Tired of inaction, he joined Lord Oxford in 1620, raised a 
 troop, and marched with the Elector Palatine in the war against 
 Holland. In the winter he returned to England, where his opposition 
 to the government rendered him unpopular at court; indeed the 
 reception that he met with at home was so little agreeable that he 
 willingly renewed his military avocations abroad during the two follow- 
 ing summers; and in 1625 again raised a troop, with which he sailed 
 to aid the United Provinces. His disposition and capability for mili- 
 tary service now struck the king, and he was appointed vice-admiral of 
 a fleet which was employed in a fruitless expedition against Spain. Ho 
 engaged in another expedition in the Low Countries, and was after- 
 wards bold enough to marry a second time. Iu this second choice of 
 a wife (the daughter of Sir William Paulet) he was scarcely more for- 
 tunate than in his first. It is true indeed that the lady soon after 
 her marriage bore a son, which Essex owned and christened after his 
 name, but her familiarities with Mr. Uvedale gave him cause to suspect 
 her fidelity, and after much mutual crimination, on the one side for 
 inconstancy, on the other, a renewal of former charges, a separation 
 took place. The child died at the age of five, and Essex never showed 
 further inclination to matrimony. 
 
 Between his journey to Ireland in 1632 and his appointment in the 
 fleet that sailed to Holland in 1635, Lord Essex spent his time either 
 in his house at Chartley or in London. His inclination to seek 
 popularity among the Presbyterians was evident and undisguised; 
 nevertheless the king employed him as lieutenant-general of his troops 
 that were sent against the Covenanters (1639). In 1640 he was one 
 of twelve peers that signed a petition that a parliament should be 
 called and an attempt made to settle the difficulties of the state 
 without further bloodshed. He was also one of the commissioners 
 sent to Ripon to treat with the Scots ; and when, at the opening of 
 the Long Parliament, the king saw that it was necessary that he should 
 endeavour to conciliate the Presbyterian party, he made Essex lord 
 chamberlain. It was the wish of many of the royalists that Essex, 
 whose popularity was great among the Presbyterians, should also have 
 been placed at the head of the army ; but Charles, who disliked him 
 on account of the roughness of his manner, and doubted the firmness 
 of his attachment to him, refused to appoint him, and would yield to 
 their requests no further than to make him lieutenant-general of his 
 forces south of the Trent. When the Commons demanded of the king 
 that a guard should be raised iu the city of London, it was Essex 
 whom they desired to have placed at its head. Charles, unwilling to 
 listen to this request, left London suddenly, and called upon Essex to 
 follow him ; but Essex, indisposed to the king on account of the 
 incivility with which he had always been treated at court, refused to 
 follow, pleading his duty to remain in attendance of parliament. 
 Vehemently angry at this refusal, the king instantly deprived him of 
 all his offices. Essex now became the chief favourite and leader of the 
 parliamentary or presbyterian party. He became parliamentary general 
 in 1642, and was in consequence proclaimed a traitor by the king. He 
 opposed Charles in person at Edgehill (1642) ; he also took Reading 
 (1643); but on accouut of a disease with which his troops were infected 
 he was obliged to abandon any further attack, at which the disappoint' 
 rnent of the parliamentary leaders was so great that they nearly 
 dismissed him from his command. On the recovery and reinforcement 
 of his soldiers he triumphantly entered Gloucester, from which he 
 had driven the king away, surprised Cirencester, and after fighting 
 courageously at the doubtful battle of Newbury, succeeded in covering 
 London. As the supporters of the parliament were supposed to be 
 numerous in Cornwall, in the hope of increasing his forces he marched 
 to that county pursued by the royalist troops : the number of adherents 
 however had been exaggerated, his expectations were disappointed, 
 and as he was completely hemmed in by his pursuers, the scarcity of 
 provisions began to be severely felt. At this crisis the king proposed 
 • treaty, but Essex had no authority to make any agreement without 
 
311 
 
 the sanction of his parliamentary masters ; and as the royalists, finding 
 that he did not comply with the king's offer, continued to press their 
 advantage, after some of his troops had abandoned hitn, he was obliged 
 to escape by sea from Fowey. Having sailed from Plymouth to 
 London, he once more collected an army, and was placed at its head, 
 but an illness compelled him to quit his command. 
 
 When he returned to London, Essex found a state of confusion and 
 distrust that scarcely could bo expected. At a meeting held at his 
 house it was proposed to impeach Cromwell, but this served no other 
 purpose than to irritate that leader. The independents soon afterwards 
 succeeded in carrying the ' self-denying ordinance,' which forbad 
 members of either house of parliament to hold any command in the 
 army : thus Essex ceased to be parliamentary general. It was voted 
 that for his services he should be raised to the rank of a duke, and be 
 granted a pension of 10,000£. a year. He did not however live to 
 enjoy these honours, being carried off by a sudden and violent illness 
 on the 14th of September, 1646. He was publicly interred in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 The chiof defects in the character of the Earl of Essex were inde- 
 cision and vacillation; when he erred, it was more from want of 
 judgment than from bad intention. His bearing was always manly, 
 and his courage has never been impeached. At his death the title 
 became extinct. 
 
 ESSEX, JAMES, the first professional man in the 18th century 
 who made Gothic architecture his study and practice, was the son of 
 a carpenter in good business at Cambridge, where he was born in 1723. 
 Educated in the school of King's College, the unrivalled chapel became 
 the object of his admiration, and finally impressed him with the 
 powers and beauties of a style which was then neither valued nor 
 understood. Except his own eyes and his own diligence, he had 
 nothing to assist or direct him in the study of it«— nothing to give 
 him even the slightest insight into its principles. Greatly therefore is 
 it to his credit that his own judgment and perseverance enabled him 
 to attain the knowledge of it, and to do in it what he did, instead of 
 being led astray like Batty Langley, who had about that time just 
 published his ' Gothic Architecture Improved by Rules and Propor- 
 tions.' In 1757 Essex was employed by Bentham to make drawings 
 for his work on Ely Cathedral, and from him he acquired much 
 information relative to the history of Gothic architecture and its 
 leading styles ; and of that cathedral itself he altered the choir in 
 1770, and conducted extensive repairs in other parts for many years 
 afterwards. He was also engaged in repairing Lincoln minster, where 
 he erected a stone altar-piece of his own designing. Besides various 
 alterations at several of the colleges at Cambridge, he executed some 
 repairs at King's College Chapel, and designed some stone-screens. 
 Among his other works was a monumental cross at Ampthill in 
 memory of Catherine of Aragon, and improvements in the ancient 
 mansion at Maddiugley, Cambridgeshire, the seat of Sir John Hinde 
 Cotton. He also published designs for new buildings at King's, Benet 
 (Corpus Christi), and Emmanuel colleges, and for a new Public Library 
 at Cambridge. His reputation as an antiquary was considerable, and 
 he was acquainted with most of those who were noted for their 
 attachment to similar studies— Gray the poet, Horace Walpole, Gough, 
 Tyson, Cole of Melton, and others. Besides being a member of the 
 Society of Antiquaries, he contributed some papers to their ' Archseo- 
 logia,' namely, ' Remarks on the Antiquity of different Modes of Brick 
 aud Stone Buildings in England,' vol. iv. ; ' Observations on Lincoln 
 Cathedral,' vol. iv. ; ' On the Origin and Antiquity of Round Churches,' 
 vol. vi. He died at Cambridge of a paralytic stroke, September 14th, 
 1784. 
 
 ESTE, HOUSE OF, one of the oldest historical families of modern 
 Europe, and the oldest among those which have retained sovereign 
 power to the present time, the house of Savoy perhaps excepted. 
 Some chrouologista, such as Pigna, have endeavoured to trace back 
 the genealogy of the house of Este to the 5th century of our era, 
 when we find the names of Atius, Aurelius, and Tiberius mentioned 
 as princes of Este, Vicenza, and Feltre. But to pretend to ascertain 
 the lineal succession of these princes down to the 9th century is a 
 matter at least very dubious. The more sober and judicious Muratori, 
 in his ' Antichith, Estensi,' has traced the ancestry of the Este to the 
 dukes and marquises who governed Tuscany as a great imperial fief 
 under the Carlovingian emperors, and who were probably, like most 
 other great Italian feudatories at that time, of Longobard origin. 
 Some old chroniclers, such as Mario Equicola, in his 'History of 
 Mantua,' state positively that they were Longobards, and related to 
 the Longobard dukes of Spoleto. The succession however of these 
 marquises or dukes, among whom are registered two of the name of 
 Adalbert, in the 9th century, is not clearly ascertained until we come 
 to another Adalbert, who is styled marquis, but of whom little is 
 known, and who died about 917. He left however two sons, Guido 
 and Lamberto, who were stripped of their fiefs by Hugo and 
 Lotharius, kings of Italy. A son or nephew of either Guido or 
 Lamberto, Darned Oberto, took the part of Berengarius II., who was 
 elected kiug of Italy about 950 ; and this Oberto was possessed, either 
 by inheritance or through the favour of Berengarius, of several fiefs 
 in Tuscany and Lunigiana. Being afterwards dissatisfied with the 
 conduct of Berengarius, he was one of the Italian nobles who repaired 
 to Otho of Saxony to offer him the crown of Italy. Otho, on his 
 
 exaltation, appointed Oberto 'comes sacri palatii,' which was one of 
 the first dignitaries of the kingdom, and gave him iu marriage his 
 daughter Alda. Oberto died about the year 972, leaving two sons, 
 Adalbert and Oberto II., the latter of whom was lord of Lunigiana 
 and of the county of Obertengo in Tuscany. Oberto took the part of 
 Hardouin, marquis of Ivrea, against Henry of Bavaria, for the crown 
 of Italy. Oberto died about 1014, and was succeeded by his sou, 
 Alberto Azzo I., who in his turn was succeeded by his son Alberto 
 Azzo, or Albertazzo II. This Albertazzo, besides his paternal fiefs of 
 Lunigiana and Tuscany, inherited also from his uncle Ugo the fiefs of 
 Este, Rovigo, and Casalmaggiore, in Lombardy. In the year 1045 he 
 was appointed by the emperor Henry HI. count and governor Oi 
 Milan ; and soon after he married Kunitza, or Cunegonda, of the 
 great German house of Wolf, and sister to Welf III., on whom the 
 Emperor Henry had bestowed the duchy of Cariuthia and the inarch 
 of Verona. Welf III., dying without issue, his inheritance fell to 
 his sister's eldest son by Albertazzo, who took tho name of Welf IV. 
 This Welf IV. was made duke of Bavaria about 1070, and from him 
 the line of Brunswick and Hanover, known also by the name of Este- 
 Guelphs, is descended. 
 
 Albertazzo having lost his German wife, married Garisenda, countess 
 of Maine in France, by whom he had two sons, Folco and Hugo. To 
 Folco he left his Italian estates, and Hugo inherited tho French 
 property of his mother, namely, the county of Maine, which lie after- 
 wards sold. Hugo married a daughter of Robert Guiscard, the con- 
 queror of Naples, and died without issue. Muratori transcribes a 
 diploma of the emperor Henry IV., dated 1077, confirming the 
 possessions of the Italian fiefs to Hugo and Folco, sons of the Marquis 
 Azzo of Este. Folco, after his father's death, was sued by bis half- 
 brother Welf for a share of his paternal inheritance ; but after a long 
 contention, an arrangement was made by which Folco retained the 
 greater part of the Italian estates, including the fief of Este. Folco 
 died in 1135, and his Bon Obizzo succeeded him. Like his father, he 
 assumed the title of marquis of Este, from the town of that name, by 
 which his house was designated ever after. The town of Este, built 
 near the ruins of the ancient Ateste, lies in the Venetian state, north 
 of the Adige, in the province of Padua. The Emperor Frederic 
 Barbarossa, at a court held at Verona in 1184, bestowed upon Obizzo 
 the investiture of the marquisates of Milan and Genoa, which were 
 then however merely nominal, as the two cities had become free. 
 
 In Obizzo's time the foundation of the dominion of the house of 
 Este over Ferrara was first laid. The family of Adelardi had long 
 been the popular leaders at Ferrara, and enjoyed the chief authority 
 in that community. Marchesella, the last offspring of this family, 
 was betrothed by her uncle and guardian Guglielmo on his death-bed 
 to one of the Torelli, a rival family ; but the girl was carried away 
 and compelled to marry Azzo of Este, the son of Obizzo, and from 
 that time the Este were considered a3 citizens of Ferrara. " A veil 
 has been thrown over the whole transaction, which seems to imply 
 that fraud or violence had been committed." (Litta, ' Famiglie 
 celebri Italiaue.') This Azzo, styled the Fifth, died about the end of 
 the 12th century, and was succeeded by his son Azzo VI., who was 
 elected in 1208 by the citizens of Ferrara as vicar or lord of that city, 
 with power to appoint his successor. " This," says Litta, " was the 
 first example of a tree Italian city giving itself over to a lord, and the 
 beginning of those numerous principalities into which Italy became 
 divided." 
 
 Aldobrandino succeeded his father Azzo "VI. in 1212, and was him- 
 self succeeded by Azzo VII., called also Azzo Novello, who took part 
 with the pope against Frederic II. ; for the Este were naturally of the 
 Guelph party. He was mainly instrumental in the fall of the tyrant 
 Eccelino : he favoured learning, patronised the Provencal troubadora 
 who resorted to his court at Ferrara, and established schools in that 
 city. He was succeeded by Rinaldo, and the latter by Obizzo in 1252. 
 Obizzo was elected lord of Modena in 1288, and of Reggio in the 
 following year, according to the prevailing fashion of the Italian cities 
 at that period. These lordships of Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio how- 
 ever were not held by the Este in undisturbed possession, for they 
 were repeatedly invaded and recovered during the frequent wars of 
 the Italian states in the 14th century. While the family of Este were 
 acquiring a princely dominion, they lost the original fief from which 
 they derived their name. About 1293 the Paduans took possession of 
 the town and territory of Este by conquest, and annexed it to their 
 community. It afterwards, in 1405, passed into the hands of the 
 Venetians. 
 
 Nicholas, called 'the Lame,' one of the successors of Obizzo, was 
 vicar of Ferrara from 1377 to 1389 : he fought for the pope agaiu-. 
 Barnaba Visconti, duke of Milan. He. was succeeded in 1389 by hi* 
 brother Albert, and Albert by another Nicholas, who died in 1440, 
 leaving two illegitimate sons yet in their infancy, and several natural 
 sons grown up, to one of whom, Lionel, he bequeathed his dominions. 
 Lionel proved a good prince : he restored the university of Ferrara, 
 and after nine years of a mild and liberal administration he died in 
 1450, leaving the government of the state to his brother Borso, who 
 was illegitimate like himself. Borso was one of the most distinguished 
 princes of his age. He was a patron of arts and letters, and was 
 generous, enlightened, and just. He recalled his two legitimate 
 brothers, Ercole and Sigismondo, from Naples ; treated them with 
 
ESTE, HOUSE OF. 
 
 brotherly affection, and, iii order to secure the succession to them 
 after his death, he abstained from marrying. Iu 1452 Borso received 
 from the emperor Frederic III. the titles of Duke of Modena and 
 Keggio and Count of Rovigo ; and in 1471 Pope Paul II. gave him the 
 title of Duke of Ferrara, upon which town the Roman see claimed a 
 right of patronage. Borso died soon after, leaving a large and 
 prosperous state to his brother Ercole. 
 
 His successor Ercole I. was likewise a man of considerable talents 
 and a patron of literature. He was also remarkable for that wary and 
 cautious policy which has been stigmatised as peculiarly Italian, but 
 which was in reality indispensable to the Italian princes in order to 
 protect themselves from the overbearing violence of foreign invaders, 
 after Ludovico Sforza through ambition committed the suicidal act of 
 calling the French into Italy. Ercole checked the fury of Louis XII., 
 who, after he had driven the Sforzas from Milan, was bent on exter- 
 minating all the other Italian princes. Ercole was fond of travelling : 
 he visited the various Italian courts, aud encouraged tournaments, 
 festivals, and hunting parties. He gave the first theatrical entertain- 
 ments exhibited at Ferrara, where the Mensechmi of Plautus was per- 
 formed in 1486. His court was frequented by Bojardo, Collenuccio, 
 Tibaldeo, Guarino of Verona, and other learned men of his time. He 
 caused many Greek manuscripts to be translated, and had a Hebrew 
 press established at Ferrara in 1476. 
 
 Alfonso I., son of Ercole, succeeded him in 1505. He married the 
 daughter of Pope Alexander VI. [Bokgia, Lucrezia.] Alfonso had 
 a long and troubled reign. He was attacked by Julius II. aud the 
 Venetians ; he lost Modena and Reggio, and the Venetians also 
 threatened Ferrara. The death of Julius afforded him some respite. 
 Leo X. continued to withhold Reggio and Modena from him, and 
 made also an attempt to surprise Ferrara. Alfonso displayed conside- 
 rable abilities and great perseverance. He and his brother, Cardinal 
 Ippolito, the patron of Ariosto, often took the field in person : their 
 artillery was the best served in Europe ; and they defeated the 
 Venetians. After the death of Leo X., Alfonso, who had till then 
 sided with the French, made his peace with Charles V., who by an 
 imperial decree dated 21st April 1531, confirmed the rights of the 
 houae of Este over Modena, Reggio, and Rubiera, upon the duke 
 paying him 150,000 sequins ; and thus Alfonso was restored to the 
 possession of those states. Alfonso died in 1534 and was succeeded 
 by Ercole II., and the latter by Alfonso II., who is unfavourably 
 known by the misfortunes of Tasso, which however the poet in a great 
 measure brought upon himself. [Tasso.] Alfonso II. dying in 
 October 1597, without issue, Pope Clement VIII. immediately sent 
 Cardinal Aldobrandino with troops to take possession of Ferrara as 
 haviug devolved to the see of Rome, which had first invested Borso 
 with the title of Duke. Cesare d'Este, Alfonso's cousin and heir, 
 entrusted Lucrezia, Alfonso's sister, with full power to negociate. 
 Lucrezia, who had hated the Marquis of Montecchio, son of Alfonso I. 
 and father to Cesare, on account of the share he had taken in the 
 transactions of 1575 relative to Tasso, disliked Cesare also. Cardinal 
 Aldobrandino having offered her the title and revenues of Duchess of 
 Bertiuoro in the Romagna, she signed a hasty convention, by which 
 she gave up in the name of the house of Este, Ferrara, Comacchio, 
 and their dependencies, to the see of Rome. Cesare transferred his 
 court to Modena, and Lucrezia died at Ferrara a few days after the 
 entrance of the Papal troops, in February 1598. The city of Ferrara, 
 which, under the house of Este, had a population of 60,000 inhabitants, 
 gradually became reduced to 20,000. 
 
 Cesare, duke of Modena aud Reggio, died in 1628. His son 
 Alfonso III., who had remained as hostage at Ferrara, had shown in 
 his youth marks of a violent dispositiou. In 1619 he caused Ercole 
 Pepoli to be assassinated at Ferrara. Stung by remorse, he abdicated 
 the ducal throne soon aftor his father's death, and became a Franciscan 
 monk. He distinguished himself as a zealous preacher, and founded 
 several convents. He died in 1644, iu a convent which he had founded in 
 the mountains of Garfagnana, His son Francis I. affected a great zeal 
 for religion, had his food scrupulously weighed on fast days, and he 
 sentenced a relative of Marshal Gassion to be shot for want of proper 
 respect while at church. He first separated the Jews from the rest 
 of the population at Modena in 1630, and confined them to the Ghetto. 
 He began the magnificent ducal palace at Modena as well as the 
 country residence and gardens at Sassuolo. His successor, Alfonso IV., 
 received in 1660 of the emperor Leopold the investiture of the prin- 
 cipality of Correggio, which he had previously purchased. Alfonso 
 loved the fine arts, and ho was the founder of the Este gallery of 
 paintings. He left at his death a son two yearB old, who was after- 
 wards duke by tb* name of Francis II. During his minority his 
 mother, Laura Martinozzi, Cardinal Mazarin's niece, held the govern- 
 ment. She collected together all the bad characters in her dominions, 
 and delivered them over to the Venetians, who employed them in the 
 war of Candia against the Turks. Francis II. founded tho university 
 of Modena, as well as the splendid library called Estense, of which 
 Zaccarja, Muratori, and Tiraboschi were successively librarians. 
 Francis II. dying in 1694 without issue, was succeeded by his uncle, 
 Cardinal Itinaldo, who, after resigning his hat, married a daughter of 
 the Duke of Brunswick Lunenburg, and sister-in-law to the emperor 
 Joseph I. By this marriage the two branches of Este and Brunswick 
 which had been separated since 1070, became again competed. 
 
 ESTHER eid 
 
 During the war of the Spanish succession, the Duke Rinaldo, notwith- 
 standing his professed neutrality, was obliged by the French to quit 
 Modena and to take shelter at Rome. The victorious Austriaus, com- 
 manded by Princo Eugene of Savoy, restored him to his dominions, 
 where he resided quietly till 1733, when the war for the succession to 
 the crown of Poland, iu wlrigh Italy had no concern whatever, but for 
 which Italy was as usual devastated by the belligerents, obliged 
 Ilinaldo again to leave his territories, which became the battle-field 
 between the French and Piedmontese on one side, and tho Austrians 
 on the other. In 1736 Rinaldo returned to Modena. His repeated 
 misfortunes affected and perhaps improved his disposition : he became 
 serious and economical after having been inclined to pomp and mag- 
 nificence. He enlarged his dominions by the purchase of the duchy 
 of Mirandola and the county of Bagnolo. Rinaldo was succeeded in 
 1537 by his son Francis III., who was serving iu Hungary against 
 the Turks at the time. During the war of the Austrian succession he 
 took part for the house of Bourbon, and commanded the Spanish 
 armies in Italy. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle restored him to the 
 quiet possession of his dominions. In 1754 Duke Francis was appointed 
 by Maria Theresa governor of Lombardy during the minority of her 
 son the Arohduke Ferdinand, who was betrothed to the Duke's grand- 
 daughter Beatrice d'Este, a child then four years old. In 1771 
 Francis gave up his trust to the Archduke Ferdinand, but continued 
 to reside in Lombardy, and died at Varese in 1780. His son Ercole 
 Rinaldo, the father of Beatrice, succeeded him as duke of Modena. 
 His administration was peaceful and economical. He was ever 
 watchful against the temporal interference of the court of Rome in 
 his dominions; and he was equally averse to the remains of feudality 
 which still lingered in his states. When the French entered Italy in 
 1796, the duke made a convention with Bonaparte, paid a heavy con- 
 tribution, gave up some valuable paintings, but not trusting to the 
 faith of the conqueror, he withdrew to Venice with hi3 treasures, 
 leaving a council of regency at Modena. An insurrection excited at 
 Reggio by some Corsican soldiers in the French service afforded a 
 pretext to Bonaparte to violate the convention, and to occupy the 
 states of Modena, which were afterwards annexed to the Cisalpine 
 republic. (Botta, ' Storia d'ltalia ; Paridisi, ' Lettere a Carlo Botta.') 
 When in the following year the French occupied Venice, the duke 
 had escaped to Trieste, but a deposit of 200,000 sequins which he had 
 left behind was seized. Ercole Rinaldo died in the Austrian States 
 in 1803. His daughter Maria Beatrice, the last offspring of the house 
 of Este, lost her husband, the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, in the 
 year 1800, and their eldest son, Francis IV., was restored by the peace 
 of Paris in 1814 to the dominions of his maternal ancestors, namely, 
 the duchy of Modena, Reggio, and their dependencies, including the 
 district of Garfagnana, on the borders of Lucca. By the death of his 
 mother he also inherited the duchy of Massa and Carrara, of which 
 his grandmother, of the house of Cibo Malaspina, was the heiress. He 
 died January 21, 1846, and was succeeded in all his titles and 
 possessions by his son Francis V. 
 
 ESTHER was the orphan cousin and adopted daughter of Mordecai, 
 descended from a Benjamite family of the Babylonian captives of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar (Esther, ii. 5-7). The place of her residence was in the city 
 Shusan, or Susa, now Sus (not Shuster, as stated by Dr. Adam Clarke 
 — see ' Trans. Geog. Soc.,' vol. iii.), which, throughout the book, is in 
 English mistranslated ' Shushan the palace,' though, iu the Septuagiut 
 version, it is rightly h> Sovcrois rfj ir6\ei, that is, ' in Susa the city.' 
 The monarch, Ahasuerus (chap, i.), after having entertained all his 
 nobles and princes with sumptuous festivity during more than six 
 months, gave a great feast in his palace-garden to all the men of Susa, 
 great and small, while the women were separately feasted by the 
 queen in the royal house. To the men royal wine was supplied in 
 abundance, and the drinking was according to every man's pleasure ; 
 when the king, being on the seventh day merry with wine, sent his 
 seven chamberlains with orders to bring the queen to exhibit herself 
 before his guests ; but Vashti (which in Persian means the beauti- 
 fully fair) refusing to come (the command was improper), he was very 
 wroth, and his auger burned within him. Ahasuerus however punished 
 her by degradation and banishment, and by his royal mandate letters 
 were despatched to the people of each province, decreeing that every 
 man bear rule in his own house. To furnish the royal harem with 
 the greatest means of choice, there was made throughout the empire 
 (ch. ii.) a general levy of the fairest virgins ; and Esther, the beautiful 
 young Jewess, being preferred by Hege, tne keeper of the king's 
 women, before all others of the numerous assemblage, she succeeded 
 to the place of the banished queen Vashti. The twelve months' 
 cosmetical purification of the maidens previous to their admission to 
 the king (ver. 12) was required, says Dr. Clarke, " to show if they 
 were with child, that the monarch might not be imposed on by 
 fathering a spurious offspring ; and because many having been brought 
 up in low life, aud fed on coarse, strong, and indigestible food, they 
 had a copious and strongly-odorous perspiration, which was far from 
 pleasant." Esther's foster-father, Mordecai the Jew (chap, iii.), having 
 refused to do reverence to Hainan, the chief minister and favourite of 
 Ahasuerus, he, with all the other Jews from Babylon then dispersed 
 throughout the Persian empire, were by Haman devoted to destruction, 
 and the royal mandate being accordingly issued " to destroy, to kill, 
 aud to sause to perish all Jews, young and old, little children and 
 
?1B 
 
 ESTIENNE. 
 
 ETIIELBERT. 
 
 en 
 
 women, in one day, and to take the spoil of them for a prey (ver. 13), 
 the king and Haman sat down to drink ;" but the fickle tyrant, 
 influenced in the meantime by the pathetic entreatios of Esther, and 
 by the recollection that Mordecai had discovered a conspiracy against 
 his life, was iuduced to hang his favourite Haman on a gallows thirty 
 yards high, which that minister had prepared for Mordecai. He then 
 promoted Mordecai to the highest honours in the empire ; and still 
 yielding to the influence of the fair Jewess and of Mordecai, he hastily 
 issued orders empowering ail the Jews " to destroy, to Blay, and to 
 cause to perish all the people that would assault them, U>th little 
 ones and women, in one day, throughout all the provinces of King 
 Ahasuerus, and to take the spoil of them for a prey" (viii. 11, 12), so 
 that "the Jews smoto all their enemies with the sword, with slaughter 
 and destruction, and did what they would unto those that hated them" 
 (chap. ix. 5). By the special request of Esther, the ten sons of Haman 
 were hanged on the gallows, and in the city of Susa the Jews massacred 
 800 of the king's Persian subjects, and in the provinces 75,000 (ix. 12, 
 13, 15, 16). This signal revenge of Haman's intended destruction of 
 the Jews in Fersia has ever since been commemorated (ix. 21-28) on 
 the 14th and 15th days of the month Adar, in the Jewish 'Feast of 
 Purim,' that is, in Persian, ' the lots,' with reference to those which 
 were cast before Haman (chap. iii. 7 ; ix. 26). The word which in 
 the authorised version is repeatedly translated ' gallows/ should 
 properly be ' cross,' or tree. Hence it was that in the first ages of 
 Christianity the Jews, when celebrating this feast of Purim, were 
 accused of deriding the Christian crucifixion, in abusing and setting 
 fire to an effigy of Haman affixed to a lofty wooden cross — a custom 
 which on this account was abolished in the Koman empire by the 
 decrees of Justinian and Theodosius. 
 
 The book of Esther is a canonical book, and though placed after 
 that of Neheuiiah, comes chronologically between the sixth and 
 seventh chapters of the book of Ezra. Various opinions have been held 
 as to who was the writer of it. Augustiu, Epiphanius, and Isidore sup- 
 posed the author to have been Ezra. Eusebius assigns a later date. 
 Some writers have attributed it to the high-priest Joachim ; others 
 believe it to have been composed by the Jewish synagogue, to whom 
 Esther and Mordecai wrote (ix. 20-29) ; but by the greater number 
 Mordecai himself is thought to be the author, and Elias Levita, in his 
 'Mass. Hainuui,' asserts this to be a fact unquestionable. The original, 
 according to Dr. Adam Clarke, was probably written in the language 
 of ancient Fersia. The most likely opinion, that of Home, is that, with 
 some explanations and adaptations, it was extracted from the Persian 
 annals, possibly by Ezra, Nehemiah, or Mordecai, which would account 
 for its peculiarities. (St. Hierouymus and several other fathers regarded 
 this book as wholly uucanonical, because the name of God or religion 
 is not once mentioned or alluded to, and they have been followed by 
 some modern writers, as Cajetan and De Lyra; but the Council of 
 Trent pronounced it to be wholly canonical ; and while the Protestant 
 churches admit into the canon only what is found in the Hebrew 
 copies, that is, as far as to the end of the third verse of chapter x., the 
 Greek and Koman churches use as canonical the Greek version and 
 Latin Vulgate, which contain each ten more verses of chapter x. and 
 six additional chapters. By the Jews the book has been always 
 considered as one of the most precious of their sacred scriptures, and 
 as a perfectly authentic history of real events which took place about 
 B.C. 519. They call it ' Megilah,' that is, * The Volume,' and hold it 
 in the highest estimation; believing that whatever destruction may 
 happen to the other scriptures, Esther and the Pentateuch will always 
 be preserved by a particular Providence. Copies exist in the Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Chaldaic, Greek, and Latin ; each of which widely differs from 
 the others, and all, especially the Greek and Chaldaic, are greatly 
 different from the Hebrew. The Chaldaic text contains five times 
 more than the Hebrew, and a notice of the various readings would 
 fill a large volume. Commentators differ much in determining to 
 which of the Persian and Median kings belongs the name of Ahasuerus, 
 whose kingdom extended from India to Ethiopia over 127 provinces 
 (i. 1). Some suppose him to be Darius Hystaspes. Scaliger and Jahn 
 say Xerxes. By Capellus he is identified with Ochus, and by Arch- 
 bishop Usher with Darius the son of Hystaspes. Dean Prideaux and 
 Dr. Adam Clarke with greater probability take him to be Artaxerxes, 
 who received the cognomen of Longimanus, or Longhanded. 
 
 ESTIENNE. [Stephens.] 
 
 ETHELBALD, King of Wessex, was the eldest surviving son of 
 Ethelwulf, who resigued'to him the throne of that state in 855 or 856. 
 [Ethelwulf.] On the death of Ethelwulf in 857 or 858, Ethelbald 
 married his young stepmother, Judith of France ; but the vehement 
 remonstrances of Swithin, bishop of Winchester, prevailed upon him, 
 after some time, to abandon the incestuous connection. Judith 
 afterwards became the wife of Baldwin, count of Flanders, and the 
 ancestress of Matilda, the wife of William the Conqueror, and, through 
 her, of all the succeeding kings of England. The chroniclers speak in 
 very favourable terms of the subsequent conduct of Ethelbald ; but 
 although he had greatly distinguished himself in the wars with the 
 Danes in his father's time, his own reign is not marked by any military 
 events. He died in 860, and was succeeded by his next brother, 
 Ethelbert. 
 
 ETHELBERT, or, as the name is written by Bede, AEDILBERCT, 
 is described as the fourth king of Kent in lineal descent from Hengist, 
 
 through Eric or Aesc, Ocha or Ochta, andErmeric, whom he succeeded 
 while yet a child in the year 560. As the representative of the first 
 leader of the Anglo-Saxons and the founder of the oldest kingdom of 
 the Heptarchy, Ethelbert, as soon as he attained manhood, engaged in 
 a contest for the title of Brctwalda with Ceawlin, king of Wessex, who 
 claimed that supreme dignity as the grandson of Cerdic. He invaded 
 Wessex in 568, but the war was speedily ended by his defeat in a great 
 battle fought at Wibbandune, now Wimbledon, in Surrey. This was 
 the first instance of one of the states of the Heptarchy drawing the 
 sword against another. Ethelbert however, according to Bede, came 
 to be acknowledged as Bretwalda about the year 589, after the decline 
 of the fortunes of Ceawlin, who was deposed about this time by his 
 subjects, and died a few years after. Ethelbert retained the supremacy 
 during all the remainder of his reign, though it would seem tbat his 
 title never was acknowledged by the kings of Northumberland. 
 
 The most memorable event in the reign of Ethelbert was his 
 conversion to Christianity, and the establishment of that religion in 
 his dominions by the ministration of St. Augustin. [Auqdstin, St.] 
 Ethelbert professed himself a Christian, and was baptised on the feast 
 of Pentecost, 597. The Christian worship however must have been 
 familiar to him long before this time, for he had been married to a 
 Christian wife, Bertha, the daughter of Charibert, king of Paris, in the 
 year 570, and she and her attendants had continued to practise their 
 own religion under the guidance of Liudhard, a bishop who had 
 accompanied her from France. After his conversion, Ethelbert exerted 
 himself with zeal in the diffusion of his new faith. He founded the 
 bishopric of Rochester about the year 604 in his own dominions, in 
 addition to the archbishopric of Canterbury, the establishment of 
 which is dated from the arrival of Augustin. To him also must be 
 principally atrributed the foundation, about the same time with that 
 of Rochester, of the bishopric of London, in the state of Essex, which 
 was at that time governed in subordination to Kent by Sebert, 
 Saebryht, or Saba, a nephew of Ethelbert. Bede says that the cathe- 
 dral of London, which was dedicated, like the others that have since 
 been built on the same site, to St. Paul, was erected at the joint 
 expense of Ethelbert and Sebert. The conversion of the king and 
 people of Essex had previously been effected through the influence of 
 the king of Kent. It was also through his daughter Edilberga, who 
 married Edwin, king of Northumbria, that Christianity was introduced 
 into that state. [Edwin.] 
 
 Ethelbert deserves especial remembrance in English history on 
 another account. He is the author of the earliest of our written laws, 
 the collection of 'Dooms,' as Bede calls them, "which he established 
 with the consent of his Witan in the days of St. Augustin." They 
 are written in Saxon, or English, as it is termed by Bede, although 
 all the other Teutonic nations employed the Latin language in their 
 codes ; and they are the earliest laws that exist in any barbarous or 
 modern tongue. There is no reason however to suppose that the 
 regulations which they established were in general new. They relate, 
 to quote the words of Sir F. Palgrave (' Eng. Com.,' p. 44), " only to 
 the amount of the pecuniary fines payable for various transgressions, 
 the offences against the church being first enumerated. These were 
 of new introduction ; but every other mulct was known before ; and 
 it is probable that the principal benefit of the law consisted in a 
 fairer apportionment of the compensation to the crime than could be 
 obtained according to the older customs." The collection consists 
 altogether of eighty-nine enactments or clauses ; at least as it has come 
 down to modern times. But the only copy of it which we possess is 
 that contained in the volume called the ' Textus Roffensis,' which 
 was compiled by Ernulphus, bishop of Rochester, in the early part of 
 the 12 th century; and "it is difficult to believe," as Sir F. Palgrave 
 has observed, " that the text of an Anglo-Norman manuscript of the 
 12th century exhibits an unaltered specimen of the Anglo-Saxon of 
 the reign of Ethelbert. The language has evidently been modernised 
 and corrupted by successive transcriptions. Some passages are quite 
 unintelligible. . . . Neither is there any proof whatever of the integrity 
 of the text. It cannot be asserted with any degree of confidence that 
 we have the whole of the law. Destitute of any statutory clause or 
 enactment, it is from the title or rubric alone that we leam the name 
 of the legislator." The next oldest Anglo-Saxon laws that have been 
 preserved (those of Hlothaere and Eadric, also kings of Kent) are 
 more than a century and a half later than Ethelbert. 
 
 Ethelbert died in 616. He appears in his old age to have married 
 a second wife, but her name has not been recorded. All tbat we 
 know of her is, that after the death of Ethelbert, her youth and 
 beauty were sufficient to tempt his son and successor, Eadbald, to 
 take her to his bed, and of course to renounce at the same time thi 
 profession of Christianity. After a short time however Eadbald 
 dismissed his stepmother, and returned to the faith he had abandoned, 
 of which he ever after continued a firm supporter. 
 
 ETHELBERT, King of Wessex, was the second surviving son of 
 Ethelwulf, by whom he was made king of the subordinate state 
 composed of Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Surrey in 852, on the death of 
 Athclstan. [Ethelwulf.] On the death of his elder brother Ethel- 
 bald, in 860, although excluded by his father's will from the succession 
 to the supreme crown of Wessex, he was preferred by the Witan to 
 his younger brother Ethelred, who claimed under the will. The 
 chronicles celebrate the courage and military talents of Ethelbert: 
 
517 
 
 ETHELRED I. 
 
 ETHELRED I. 
 
 but no events of his short reign are distinctly recorded. It appears 
 however that the Northmen continued to make occasional descents 
 both on the coasts of Wessex, and on those of other parts of the 
 island. All that we are told of Ethelbert is, that he died in 865 or 
 866. He appears to have left a son, Ethelwald, and other children ; 
 but he was succeeded on the throne of Wessex by his younger brother 
 Ethelred. 
 
 ETHELRED I. (called also Edelred and Ethered), King of Wessex 
 tnd head of the Heptarchy, was the third surviving son of King 
 Ethelwulf, who in his will (ratified by the Witan) appointed Ethelred 
 to succeed to the throne immediately after his eldest brother Ethel- 
 bald ; he did not however succeed till after the death of his elder 
 brother Ethelbert in 866. [Ethelwulf and Ethelbert of Wessex.] 
 The reign of Ethelred was eminently disastrous both for Wessex and 
 for the other states of England. In the last year of the preceding 
 king, the great Danish chief, Ragnar Lodbrog, had been taken prisoner 
 while making an attack on Northumbria, and put to death with cruel 
 tortures. It appears to have been with the purpose of avenging this 
 loss that the various Scandinavian nations immediately united their 
 Btrength in that great expedition against England, which terminated 
 in the conquest of half the country. The invaders, to the number of 
 several thousands, under the command of Inguar (or Ivar) and Ubbo 
 (or Hubba) landed on the coast of East Anglia, immediately after the 
 accession of Ethelred to the throne of Wessex. Having encamped 
 and passed the winter on shore, they marched into Yorkshire in the 
 spring of 867, took possession (1st of March) of the city of York, and 
 having there (12th of April) repulsed with great slaughter au attack 
 of the Northumbrians under Osbert and Ella, made themselves masters 
 of all the kingdom of Northumbria to the south of the Tyne, and 
 placed Inguar over it as king. They then marched into the kingdom 
 of Mercia, and passed the winter of 867-8 in the town of Nottingham. 
 Beorhed, the Mercian king, now solicited the aid of Ethelred ; and 
 the King of Wessex, accompanied by his younger brother Alfred, 
 whom he appears to have admitted to a share of the royal power, 
 advanced with an army against the foreigners. The Danes however 
 did not venture to engage the allied forces of Wessex and Mercia ; 
 and a treaty was made by which they agreed to evacuate Nottingham 
 and to retire to York. In that city they remained quiet for the 
 remainder of this year, and all the next, during which England was 
 afflicted by a severe famine, followed by a terrible mortality both of 
 human beings and cattle. But, in the spring of 870, disregarding the 
 late pacification, the Danes resumed hostilities, carrying their arms 
 across the Humber into Lincolnshire, which was included in the 
 dominions of Mercia. Notwithstanding some attempts to check their 
 progress, which were made by Earl Algar, the governor of the district, 
 they speedily overran all Lincoln, and pushed their way into the 
 adjoining territory of East Anglia, sacking and destroying in their 
 course the abbeys of Croyland and Medehamstead (or Peterborough), 
 the town of Huntingdon, and the nunnery of Ely, and massacreing and 
 laying waste wherever they appeared with unheard-of ferocity. At 
 a village called Hoxton, iu Norfolk, they seized Edmund, the East 
 Anglian king, and put him to death : he sustained the torments they 
 inflicted upon him with such constancy that he was afterwards 
 revered as a martyr, and the 20th of November, the day on which he 
 met his fate, was assigned to him in the calendar. His death made 
 the Danes masters of East Anglia, over which they placed Godrun, 
 one of their chiefs, as king. They now resolved to invade Wessex, 
 the only state which they had not either conquered or rendered 
 powerless. They entered Berkshire, under the command of Halfden 
 and Bacseg, and took the town of Reading without encountering any 
 resistance ; but they were soon after attacked by Earl Ethelwulf at 
 the neighbouring village of Inglefield, and driven from their ground 
 with the loss of Sidnor, one of their most renowned captains. Four 
 days after they were fallen upon at Reading by King Ethelred and 
 his brother Alfred ; but on this occasion the Saxons were repulsed 
 with great loss, the brave Earl Ethelwulf being among the slain. The 
 battle of Reading however was followed in four days more by 
 another more important encounter at a place which the old writers 
 call Aescesdun, or the Ash-tree Hill, and which has been supposed 
 by some to be Ashhampstead in the west, by others Ashton in the 
 east, of Berkshire. The Danes were here attacked with great impetu- 
 osity and valour by Alfred, and, notwithstanding their advantageous 
 position, were, after a struggle of seme length, completely defeated 
 and put to flight. It is said that the English chased them for the 
 whole of the night and next day over the country till they reached 
 the town of Reading, in which they again shut themselves up. But 
 a fortnight after the battle of Ash-tree Hill they again met the two 
 kings of Wessex at Basing, in the north of Hampshire, and this time 
 the English were worsted. A similar result attended the next battle, 
 fought, about two months after, at a place called Merton, which has 
 been variously conjectured to be places named Merton in Surrey, 
 Oxfordshire, Wilts, and Berkshire. In this engagement, which must 
 have taken place early in 871, Ethelred received a wound, of which 
 he died goon after Easter, leaving the now almost shadowy inheritance 
 of the crown of Wessex, and what would at a later period have been 
 called the suzerainty of England, to his younger brother Alfred. 
 
 ETHKLRED II., surnamedthe Unready, King of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 was the youngest son of King Edgar, by hia second wife, the infamous 
 
 Elfrida, On the murder by Elfrida of his elder brother, Edward the 
 Martyr, in 978, he was reluctantly acknowledged as king by the 
 Witan, in the absence of any other individual having pretensions to 
 the crown ; even Dunstan, who had steadily opposed the party of 
 Elfrida throughout the late reign, finding himself now obliged to 
 acquiesce iu the accession of her son. He was crowned by Dunstan 
 at Kingston-on-the-Thames on the 14th of April, being at this time 
 only a boy of ten years old ; but the haughty prelate is stated by 
 Malmesbury to have declared as he placed the crown on the boy's 
 head that the sins of his mother and her accomplices should be visited 
 on the head of her son, and that in bis reign such evils should befall 
 the English as they had never yet suffered since they came into 
 Britain. The curse thus solemnly denounced by the chief priest and 
 leading statesman in the kingdom, no doubt did something towards 
 working out its own accomplishment. Certain it is that the reign of 
 Ethelred the Unready is on the whole the most calamitous and dis- 
 graceful in English history. The feeble and distracted government 
 that arose out of his minority, the circumstances of his accession, and 
 the unpatriotic conduct of Dunstan, immediately drew once more 
 upon England the attention of the northern piratical powers, who had 
 now remitted their attacks for nearly a century. / A small body of 
 Danes landed at Southampton in 980 ; and scarcely a year passed after- 
 wards in which one part or other of the coast was not in like manner 
 visited aud ravaged, usually with impunity. At length, in 991, a much 
 larger force than had before appeared arrived under two leaders named 
 Justin and Gurthmund, aud after taking the town of Ipswich, pro- 
 ceeded to Maldon, and there encountering the English army commanded 
 by the alderman Brithnod, obtained a complete victory, Brithnod him- 
 self being slain. On this it was resolved by the English Witan, on the 
 advice, it is said, of Siric, who had succeeded Dunstan as the king's 
 chief counsellor, to buy off the invaders with a sum of money. They 
 agreed to accept 10,000 pounds of silver, which was accordingly paid 
 to them, being raised by au impost on all the landed property in the 
 kingdom, which from this time became a regular tax, under the name 
 of the Danegeld, and was perhaps the first direct tax imposed in 
 England. It was felt however that this was a very precarious expe- 
 dient to trust to ; and as soon as the Danes were gone, the govern- 
 ment proceeded to fit out a formidable fleet, which might perhaps 
 have been of service if it had been ready to meet them when they 
 arrived. As it was, it was no sooner afloat than it was rendered useless 
 by treachery and mismanagement. A squadron of Danes having again 
 appeared on the coast in 992, Alfric, the commander of the English 
 fleet, when sent to surprise them, secretly gave them information of 
 the intended attack, and then went over aud joined them. The next 
 year, when the Northmen made a descent upon the coast of Northum- 
 berland and took by storm the castle of Bamborough, the leaders of 
 the force sent against them in like manner deserted to the enemy. In 
 994 a much more powerful armament than had yet appeared sailed up 
 the Thames under the command of Sweyn or Svein, king of Denmark, 
 and Olave king of Norway ; it consisted of ninety-four ships, and 
 directed its first efforts against London, which however defended itself 
 successfully against the assault. The invaders then overran and laid 
 waste a great part of Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire. In the 
 end they were again bought off by the payment of a sum of money, 
 their demand this time rising to 16,000 pounds of silver. Olave now 
 consented to embrace Christiauity ; and he faithfully kept his promise 
 of never again molesting England. Not so the king of Denmark ; his 
 forces continued their attacks year after year; aud at last, in 1001, 
 Ethelred found himself once more compelled to rid himself of them 
 by his old expedient. He was now obliged to pay them 21,000 pounds 
 of silver. 
 
 For what length of time the relief which he thus purchased might 
 have lasted it is impossible to say. Ethelred now resorted to another 
 mode of dealing with the evil, which was of a very different character 
 from that to which he had hitherto adhered, but combined the quali- 
 ties of being at once still more unjustifiable and still less likely to 
 prove efficacious. On the 13th of November (the festival of St. Brice) 
 in the year 1002, the English inhabitants, in obedience, it is said, to 
 secret instructions received in every city from the government the 
 evening before, suddenly rose in all parts of the kingdom upon the 
 Danes who were resident among them, and put them to death — men, 
 women, and children. There has been some dispute as to the precise 
 extent to which the massacre was carried, and it cannot be supposed 
 to have comprehended all the persons of Danish descent resident in 
 the country, for in many districts it is certain that the majority of the 
 inhabitants were of this description ; but there can be no doubt that 
 a very large number of persons perished. This atrocious and in every 
 way unwise proceeding did not long remain without its fit punishment. 
 The next year Sweyn, whose sister, married to an English earl, had 
 been among the butchered, again appeared on the south coast ; and 
 from this time it may be said the kingdom had no rest. After the 
 devastations of the invaders had been continued for four years, they 
 were once more bought off in 1007 by a payment of 36,000 pounds of 
 silver. The next year, by extraordinary efforts a numerous fleet was 
 built, and assembled at Sandwich ; but a dispute arising among the 
 captains, one of them deserted with twenty vessels, and turned pirate, 
 and nearly all the rest were soon after destroyed by a tempest. 
 Meanwhile, all the other forms of public calamity combined to afflict 
 
ETHICUS. 
 
 82'i 
 
 the nation. The king was an object of goneral hatred or contempt ; 
 tho nobility were divided into hostile factions ; and famines and con- 
 tagious diseases vied with the swords of tho invaders in destroying the 
 miserable people. In 1009 a new Danish force arrived, under a leader 
 named Thurkil, who for the three following years spread devastation 
 throughout the only part of the country that had hitherto afforded an 
 asylum from the foreigners — the fens of East Auglia. At last, after 
 he had sacked and burned the city of Canterbury, Thurkil was bought 
 off in 1012 by a payment of 48,000 pounds of silver, and he and his 
 followers agreed, on being allowed to settle in the country, to become 
 the subjects of the English king. But the next year Sweyu himself 
 again made his appearance, now avowing his determination not to 
 depart till he had effected the conquest of the country. Entering the 
 Plumber, he received the submission both of the Northumbrians and 
 of the parts of Lincoln that were in like manner chiefly inhabited 'by 
 a population of Danish descent. He then marched across the country 
 to London, putting all the males to the sword as lie advanced ; but 
 the capital, which was defended by Ethelred and Thurkil, resisting 
 his assault, he turned to the west, and, compelling the nobles to make 
 their submission to him wherever he passed, he proceeded to Lath, 
 and there caused himself to be proclaimed king of England. Soon 
 after this Loudon submitted to his authority ; and in the middle of 
 January 1011 Ethelred fled to the court of Richard, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, whose sister Emma he had married some years before. He 
 had previously sent thither Emma and her two children. 
 
 On the 2nd of February however Sweyn died. His son Canute was 
 immediately proclaimed king by the army ; but the English deter- 
 mined to recall Ethelred. He was brought back accordingly, after 
 entering into a solemn agreement with the Witau, that he would be 
 a good lord to them, and amend all they wished to have amended, and 
 that all things should be forgiven which had been done or said against 
 him, they on their parts promising that they would all turn to him 
 without fraud, and would never again permit the Danes to have 
 dominion in England. Canute deemed it prudent to take flight before 
 the national enthusiasm of the moment ; and it is said that another 
 general massacre of the Danes that were left behind in the country 
 signalised the restoration of a national government. But Canute 
 returned the following year with a powerful fleet ; he was immediately 
 joined by Thurkil, who till now had remaiued faithful to his English 
 allegiance ; other chiefs followed Thurkil's example, and a great part 
 of the country appears to have again speedily submitted to the Danes. 
 Ethelred was confined to his bed by illness when Canute arrived, and 
 he died in London on the 23rd of April 1016, at the moment when 
 the enemy was preparing to attack that city. He was succeeded by 
 Edmund, surnamed Ironside, his eldest son by a lady named Elgiva 
 or Elfleda, who is said to have borne him six sons and four daughters, 
 but to whom it has been doubted whether he was ever married. 
 Edward, one of his two sons by Emma of Normandy, whom he 
 married in 1002, also afterwards ascended the throne. [Edmund 
 Ironside ; Edward the Confessor.] 
 
 ETHELWULF was the son of Egbert, whom he succeeded in the 
 throne of Wessex and the supremacy over the other states of the 
 Heptarchy, in 836. The provinces of Kent, Essex, and Sussex, which 
 Egbert had conquered and annexed to his dominions, and also that 
 of Surrey, which had hitherto been included in Wessex, were at the 
 same time formed into a separate but subordinate kingdom, and put 
 under the government of Athelstane, his eldest son. There is no older 
 authority than that of Malmesbury (whose account is indisputably 
 incorrect in several particulars and improbable in others) for the 
 story that Ethelwulf was a monk at the time of his father's death. 
 His early education is recorded to have been conducted first by Helm- 
 stan, bishop of Winchester, and afterwards by Swithin, whom, on 
 coming to the throne, he advanced to the same see ; and he had also 
 served with distinction in the field in the lifetime of his father. When 
 he succeeded to the crown he retained as his chief counsellor the able 
 Alstan, bishop of Sherborne, who had been in great favour with Egbert. 
 What has been preserved of the history of the first fourteen or fifteen 
 years of the reign of Ethelwulf consists almost exclusively of the 
 detail of a series of contests with the Danes, who now continued with 
 incessant perseverance those descents upon the English coasts which 
 they had commenced in the preceding reign. In 837 three squadrons 
 of them made attacks on different points nearly at the same time. The 
 next year they landed again in great strength in Lincolnshire, and, after 
 defeating the troops sent to oppose them, marched across and ravaged 
 the country down to the Thames. In 839 three hard battles are recorded 
 to have been fought at Rochester, Canterbury, and London, besides an 
 action at sea, near Charmouth, in which the English fleet, commanded 
 by Ethelwulf in person, sustained a defeat. For some years after this 
 however the Northmen, abandoning Britain, directed all their efforts 
 against the coasts of France. But in the latter part of the year 850 a 
 body of them landed in the Isle of Thanet, when, so ill-prepared was 
 Ethelwulf for the attack, that the foreigners were enabled for the first 
 time to pass the winter in the country. In the spring of 851 they 
 were joined by great numbers of their countrymen, and the whole 
 multitude ascending the Thames in a fleet of 350 vessels, plundered 
 Canterbury and London. They then penetrated into Surrey ; but here 
 they were met by Ethelwulf at Okeley, and after a long and obstinate 
 battle, were defeated with immense loss. They were soon after worsted 
 
 \ 
 
 in another battle at Wenbury, iu Devonshire, and also in a sea-fight 
 near Sandwich by Athelstane, the king of Kent. The consequence 
 was, that the Danes did not again make any attempt on England during 
 the reign of Ethelwulf. 
 
 In 852, on the death of Athelstane, the kingdom of Kent was assigned 
 by Ethelwulf to his second son, Etholbert, he himself retaining the 
 chief sovereignty as before. The following year, at the request of 
 Beohred, or Burhred, king of Mercia, he led an army against the Welsh, 
 and marched through their country as far as the Isle of Anglesey, com- 
 pelling them to acknowledge themselves the subjects of himself and 
 Beohred. On the termination of this expedition ho gave his daughter 
 Ethelswitha in marriage to the king of Mercia. In 855 he undertook 
 a journey to Rome, accompanied by his youngest son Alfred, who had 
 been also carried to that city in the preceding year by bishop Swithin. 
 On his return through France, Ethelwulf married Judith, daughter of 
 Charles the Bald, king of that country, although she had not yet reached 
 her twelfth year. Meanwhile however his eldest son Ethelbald, taking 
 advantage of his father's absence (whom perhaps he represented as 
 being in his dotage), had entered into a scheme for seizing the throne. 
 It is said that among his accomplices was the prime minister Alstan, 
 aud that he was also supported by the chief nobility, from which we 
 may conjecture that the attempted revolution was not without some 
 strong reasons in its favour. And although the return of Ethelwulf is 
 said to have prevented the full success of the design, it was substan- 
 tially carried into effect. It was agreed at a solemn meeting of the 
 Witau that Ethelbald should become king of Wessex, and that Ethel- 
 wulf should reign as sovereign, with Ethelbert under him, in Kent 
 and the other eastern provinces. It may be supposed that iu Mb new 
 position Ethelwulf enjoyed little more than a nominal authority. He 
 spent the remainder of his days mostly in exercises of devotion, and 
 died in 857 or 858. By his will, which was confirmed by the Witan, 
 he left the kingdom of Kent to his second son Ethelbert, and that 
 of Wessex in succession to his other sons, Ethelbald, Ethelred, and 
 Alfred. 
 
 One of the legislative acts of the reign of Ethelwulf has given rise 
 to much discussion, namely, the grant which he made in 854 or 855, 
 with the consent of the Witan, in favour of the church, and which 
 was wont to be considered as the original foundation of the right of 
 the clergy to the tithes; but this position is abandoned by recent 
 authorities : it appears rather to be intended, as Turner thinks, as " a 
 liberation of the laud which the clergy had before been in possession 
 of from all the services and payments to which the Anglo-Saxon lands 
 were generally liable, or that it was an additional gift of land, not of 
 tithes, either of the king's private patrimony, or of some other which 
 is not explained." Palgrave contends that it was a grant of the tenth 
 part of the land by metes and bounds, to be held free from all secular 
 services; yet he admits that thei nterpretation which construes the 
 grant into an enfranchisement of all the lands which the church then 
 possessed, is " not altogether void of probability." (' Eng. Com.,' 
 p. 159.) 
 
 ETHEREGE, sometimes written ETHERIDGE, SIR GEORGE, 
 born about 1630, was a distinguished wit and dramatic writer of the 
 reign of Charles II. According to the usual routiue of a gentleman's 
 education at that time, he studied law at an inn of court and travelled. 
 In 1664 he made his first public appearance as author of the comedy 
 called ' Love in a Tub.' 'She Would if She Could' followed in 1668, 
 and 'The Man of Mode, or Sir Fopling Flutter,' in 1676. All these 
 were received with much favour by the public. They placed him, with 
 Buckingham, Rochester, Sedley, &c, in the first rank of the wits of 
 the day. Ease and liveliness of dialect are their characteristic excel- 
 lence; but they have an ingrained taint of licentiousness running 
 through the whole conception as well as the language, which has long 
 excluded them from the stage. If the characters are supposed (which 
 is the author's best excuse) to be but highly-coloured copies of the 
 fine gentlemen and ladies of the day, we shall marvel that the name 
 and estimation of gentlemen should ever have been sullied by such a 
 total want of truth and honour. Sir George Etherege's verses are not 
 numerous, and consist of occasional pieces, lampoons, songs, and short 
 amatory poems, some of which are of a grossly licentious character. 
 Etherege's private life may be guessed from his writings : play iujured 
 his fortune, debauchery his constitution. He repaired the former by 
 marrying a rich widow, whose price was a title ; and to win her he 
 purchased his knighthood. He was in James II.'s household, and was 
 afterwards employed by that king as minister to Ratisbon, where, by 
 one account, he died from a fall down stairs after a convivial enter- 
 tainment; but, according to another account, he followed James II. 
 to France. His death seems to have occurred about or soon after the 
 Revolution of 16&S. There is an edition of his Plays and Poems in 
 8vo, London, 1704 ; and one in 12mo, London, 1715. 
 
 E'THICUS, or ^E'THICUS, is conjectured to have lived about the 
 4th century of our era, and is the reputed author of a 'Cosmography,' 
 or short description of the world, being an enumeration of the seas, 
 islands, mountains, provinces, cities, and towns of the then known 
 world, with a short account of the sources and course of the principal 
 rivers. In speaking of the Tiber's course through Roroe, he mentions 
 the gate of St. Peter, that of St. Paul, and the Via Portuensis, or of 
 'the martyr St. Felix.' He also speaks of Rome as the mistress of 
 the world, of the games held by the Romans, of the prae*ctus urbia, 
 
ill 
 
 ETIENNE. 
 
 ETTY, WILLIAM. 
 
 B2J 
 
 &c. These circumstances may serve to fix the time of the compilation 
 of the work towards the end of the 4th century, when Rome had 
 become completely Christian, but yet before Alaric's invasion. 
 JEthicus and hia ' Cosmography ' are mentioned by several writers 
 of the following ages, and among others by Isidorus of Seville, who 
 lived in the early part of the 7th century. Rabauus Maurus ('de 
 Inventione Linguarum '), a writer of the 9th century, calls ..Ethicus 
 "a Scythian;" and Flodoardus, a writer of the following century, 
 calls him "Ister" from "Istria." (Vossius, 'de Historicis Latinis,' 
 b. iii.) At the beginning of his ' Cosmography,' /Ethicus states that 
 Julius Caesar, during his consulship with M. Antony, by virtue of a 
 senatus consultum, ordered a survey of the Roman world to be taken, 
 and that the work was entrusted to three geometers — Zenodoxus for 
 the eastern part, Polycleitus for the south, and Theodotus for the 
 north — who completed their work under Augustus. This survey was 
 probably the source from which the Antonine Itinerary was derived, 
 which Itinerary in its present shape has also been attributed by some 
 to ethicus. The 'Cosmography ' in most publications is followed by 
 another and somewhat fuller description of the various parts and 
 provinces of the world, apparently of the same period, entitled 'Alia 
 totius Orbis Descriptio,' and generally attributed to iEthicus also, 
 though there are doubts concerning his authorship. The second work 
 is also found almost literally in Orosius, forming the second chapter 
 of his history. It has been suggested that Orosius may have copied 
 it from .Ethicus, and the text of Orosius has certainly the appearance 
 of a copy, as he has shortened the beginning or introductory part, 
 and also left out the concluding sentence, in which the author of the 
 description, as we have it separately, promises to give a continuation 
 of his work, or an ampler description of the towns, &c, beginning 
 from Rome, which he styles " Caput Mundi et Domina Senatus." 
 (Simler's edition of iEthicus, Basil, 1575.) This last sentence pro- 
 mising a fuller account the author did not fulfil, or the account has 
 been lost. But it is also worthy of remark, that in two manuscripts 
 of Orosius in the national library at Paris, Nos. 4878 and 4882, the 
 second chapter ends with these words, which are not found in the 
 other manuscripts and printed editions of Orosius — " Percensui 
 breviter ut jiotui provincias et insulas Orbis Universi, quas Solinus ita 
 descripsit." This would seem to attribute the work to Solinus. 
 
 To the two Cosmographies attributed to iEthicus is added, in some 
 editions, another extract, which is styled "Julii Honorii Oratoiis 
 Excerpta quae ad Cosmographiam pertinent." It is in its plan similar 
 to the first Cosmography of iEthicus, only perhaps still drier and 
 more incorrect. The three have been published, together with 
 'Pomponius Mela,' by Gronovius, Leyden, 1G35. 
 
 ETIENNE. [Stephens.] 
 
 ETTY, WILLIAM, R.A., was born at York, March 10, 1787. His 
 father rented a mill in the vicinity, and kept a baker's shop in the 
 city; and the boy assisted in the shop till he was of age to be put to 
 learn a trade. He had already shown a marked foudness for drawing, 
 and hia mother, as in after-life the great painter was fond of relating, 
 had encouraged his propensity, while neighbours used to ' patronise ' 
 the incipient artist with halfpence and pennies to buy chalk and 
 pencils. In his twelfth year he waa apprenticed to a printer at Hull, 
 in which aituatiou, over-worked, without frienda and distant from his 
 family, and denied the privilege of drawiug, he appears to have at 
 first led a very uncomfortable life. But after awhile his muster was 
 persuaded to let the boy "at lawful hours" indulge his artistic tastes, 
 and, though still without instruction, Etty soon began to acquire 
 sufficient facility in drawing to make his companions in the printing- 
 office desirous to possea3, and some of them careful to preserve, his 
 sketches and rude attempts at painting. At length, his seven years' 
 apprenticeship having expired, lie gladly obeyed the invitation of an 
 uncle to come up to London. Hia uncle, himself a skilful draughts- 
 man, saw promise in the youth's crude efforts, and generously afforded 
 him the means of practically solving the question whether his inclination 
 for the life of a painter waa an impulse merely, or the result of a native 
 aptitude. 
 
 At first, without any formal instruction, he drew, as he says in his 
 1 Autobiographical Sketch,' " from prints, or from nature, or from any- 
 thing he could ; • . . his first academy being a plaster-cast shop, 
 kept by Gianelli, near Smithfield." Haviug thua sufficiently mastered 
 the difficulties of drawiug " from the round," he obtained an intro- 
 duction to Fuseli, then keeper of the Royal Academy, and was admitted 
 by him to study there as a probationer. He entered as a student in 
 January 1807, along with Collins, from whose companionship in study, 
 with that of Hilton and Haydon, he derived considerable benefit. In 
 the following July Etty became an in-door pupil for twelve months to 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence, then in the height of his reputation — Etty's 
 uncle kindly paying the hundred guineas required aa a premium. 
 From the great portrait painter Etty received little direct instruction ; 
 he however saw him paint, and though at first the extreme facility of 
 the master's execution almost overwhelmed the pupil with despair, he 
 gradually learnt this very important part of a painter's craft — " the 
 great key to art," as he calls it ; and he found, when he could copy 
 Lawrence's pictures, that those of other painters, including the great 
 painters of Italy, presented comparatively few difficulties. Etty 
 laboured with untiring diligence in the school of the Royal Academy, 
 »nd in copying at the British Institution and elsewhere, whilst pre- 
 
 paring his earliest original works for the Academy Exhibition ; but 
 though his copies met with purchasers, and his original efforts with 
 praise, it was long before he could find au opportunity to bring any 
 of his works before the public. Year after year all the pictures he 
 seut were returned from both the Royal Academy and the British 
 Gallery. He applied in his despondency for advice to his old master. 
 "Lawrence," he says, "told me tho truth in no flattering terms; he 
 said I had a very good eye for colour, but that I was lamentably 
 deficient iu all other respects almost." Etty took the reproof in good 
 part, worked day and night, " and with such energy, to cure his radical 
 defects, that at last a better state of things began to dawn." He had 
 the delight to find one of his pictures, a ' Telemachus Rescuing Antiope,' 
 admitted to a place on the walls of the Royal Academy in 1811. 
 But the place was a bad one, and the picture attracted no notice. 
 However he went on, and at each succeeding exhibition of the Aca- 
 demy and the British Institution some of his paintings found a plac.\ 
 His subjects, with the exception of a few portraits, were mostly 
 classical, though not of the kind by which he ultimately acquired fame 
 and fortune ; and the impression among his companions iu the schools 
 — where he was still one of the most regular attendants — as well as 
 among artists and patrons, was, that he was a good-tempered plodding 
 fellow, but would never become a successful painter. His friends 
 suggested a visit to Italy, and for Italy accordingly — intending a year's 
 stay in the land of art — he set out in the autumn of 1816. But he 
 soon became home-sick — moreover one of his oft-recurring love-fits — 
 for "one of my prevailing weaknesses was a propensity to fall in 
 love" — was strong upon him, and within three months he was back 
 again and hard at work in London. 
 
 But his run into Italy, and still more a short stay among tho 
 painters of Paris, did him good service. He saw a new style of art, 
 and new methods of execution, and had a fresh range of subjects 
 suggested to his mind. It was not however till some three or four 
 more years had passed away that he began to catch the eye of tho 
 artistic world. In 1820 he says, "I sent a small picture to the 
 British Gallery, highly finished and carefully wrought ; it made a con- 
 siderable noise. I seut a larger the same year to the Royal Academy ; 
 it made a still greater noise." This last was the ' Coral Finders — 
 Venus and her youthful Satellites arriving at the Isle of Paphos,' the 
 first of his long series of representation of the undraped feminine form, 
 for which Grecian and Roman poetry or legend suggested the subject 
 or furnished the apology. This was followed the next year by his 
 ' Cleopatra's arrival in Cilicia,' a work far more glowing in colour, 
 skilful in composition, and brillant in general effect ; and its success 
 was complete. The painter at once became famous. It was com- 
 missioned by Sir Francis Freeling, who however, startled by tho 
 then unusual freedom with which the painter had depicted his bevy 
 of fair forms — for Etty, reading as literally as possible the statement 
 that Cleopatra appeared in the character of Venus, with her attendants 
 as Nereides, Graces, Cupids, and Tritons, had rendered the voluptuous 
 subject with infinite gusto — besought the painter to add a little 
 drapery ; and, though he never added too much, the hint was not 
 lost, for while, duriug the rest of his life the nude female form con- 
 tinued to be the chief subject on which he exercised his pencil, he 
 henceforth seldom suffered one to ajjpaar without some, however 
 scant and unserviceable, clothing. 
 
 After this great success Etty resolved again to visit Italy, and 
 though he this time also carried with him a new love sorrow, he did 
 not suffer himself again to return without seeing Rome. There, and 
 at Venice, where he stayed seven months, he laboured with a diligence 
 and copied with a rapidity and decision of execution, which astonished 
 the degenerate native painters ; and the effect of his studies of the 
 great Venetian colourists was displayed in every picture he subse- 
 quently executed. On his return he painted a ' Pandora crowned by 
 the Seasons,' which at the exhibition of 1824 won for him new laurels, 
 had the singular honour of being purchased by the President, and pro- 
 cured his election as Associate of the Royal Academy. "Strike while 
 the iron is hot ; you see what may be done by a little courage," was the 
 advice now tendered by his old master, and Etty profited by the well- 
 timed counsel. A succession of important works followed, some of 
 large size and in the historical style, but mostly classic subjects of the 
 order indicated above, and each succeeding one, — until he became 
 careless or negligent under the pressure of competing patrons claiming 
 ever new pictures from him, — contributing its share towards placing 
 him in the position he ultimately obtained by general consent, of the 
 first English colourist of his day, and also by far the first English 
 painter iu his own peculiar walk of any day. 
 
 His life was a very quiet one. His days were almost entirely spent 
 in London and in his painting-room — the only breaks being an occa- 
 sional visit to a friend in the country, a run to Edinburgh or to the 
 Netherlands, and a brief stay on account of illness at York. Hi3 
 evenings he passed, during the academic session, almost invariably iu 
 the Life School at the Royal Academy, where to the last he was one 
 of the most regular and diligent among the students — it being his 
 practice to paint studies in oil from the liviug model aa shown thero 
 by gas-light— a practice which explains much that is evil aa well as 
 good in his painting of flesh : and so much attached was he to the 
 Life Academy, that when it was formally suggested to him from the 
 academicians, in prospect of his election, aa R.A. in 1828, that those 
 
£23 ETTY, WILLIAM. 
 
 gentlemen wished him to discontinue his attendance, as they deemed 
 his taking his place among the students incompatible with the dignity 
 of an academician, he replied that he would rather forego that honour, 
 though the chief object of his ambition, than give up the Life 
 Academy. Though always in love, Etty never married. A niece 
 kept his house, aud his quiet and blameless life passed on without 
 adventure, in the steady practice of his calling, till 1848, when 
 failing health and powers induced him to return to his native city ; 
 where in a pleasant little house his remaining days, with the exception 
 of his visits to London, passed in almost unbroken tranquillity. Ho 
 died there on the 13th of November 1849, and was buried in the 
 churchyard of St. Olave Marygate ; his funeral being attended by a 
 large number of the citizens, headed by the mayor and other muni- 
 cipal authorities, with the Council of the Yorkshire Philosophical 
 Society, the pupils of York School of Design (in the establishment of 
 which he took an active part), &c. 
 
 We have not attempted to record the appearance of more than a 
 few of Etty's earlier pictures. To have mentioned in succession even 
 the more attractive of the works of so prolific a painter during his 
 career of nearly forty years would have been manifestly impossible 
 here. The great event of his life was the collection of as many of his 
 works as could be obtained, and their exhibition in 1819, in the rooms 
 of the Society of Arts, aud on that occasion were exhibited about 
 130 paintings, many of them of very large size. Few who saw that 
 remarkable gathering will be likely to forget it, and the painter may 
 well have felt proud as he gazed on so splendid a spectacle — and all 
 the work of his own right hand. 
 
 Etty has himself, in the ' Autobiography ' so often quoted, given a 
 list of his principal paintings. And first he places of course his great 
 historical pictures, his account of which will serve in some measure 
 to illustrate the peculiar character of the man :— " My aim in all my 
 great pictures has been to paint some great moral on the heart : 
 'The Combat,' the Beauty of Mercy; the three 'Judith' pictures 
 — Patriotism, and self-devotion to her country, her people, and her 
 God; 'Benaiah, David's chief Captain,' Valour; 'Ulysses and the 
 Syrens,' the importance of resisting Sensual Delights, or an Homeric 
 paraphrase on the ' Wages of Sin is Death ; ' the three pictures of 
 'Joan of Arc,' Religion, Valour, Loyalty and Patriotism, like the 
 modern Judith; these in all make nine colossal pictures, as it was 
 my desire to paint three times three." Of his other principal works 
 the following may be mentioned as characteristic examples: — 'The 
 Judgment of Pari* ; ' ' Venu3 attired by the Graces; ' * Hylas and the 
 Nymph;* 'The Bevy of Fair Women;' 'The Rape of Proserpine;' 
 ' La Fleur-de-Lis ; ' ' The Parting of Hero and Leander ; ' ' Diana and 
 Eudymion ;' ' The Death of Hero and Leander; ' ' The Graces ; ' ' A 
 Bivouac of Cupid and his Company;' and numberless Cupids and 
 Psyches, Venuses, Ledas, or as he more prudishly terms them 'Nymphs 
 with Swans,' &c. ; besides his 'Samson and Delilah;' 'Magdalen;' 
 ' Captives by the Waters of Babylon ; ' ' Parable of the Ten Virgins ; ' 
 and other scriptural subjects treated in a very unpuritanic style. 
 The ' Judith' series, the ' Combat,' and 'Benaiah,' five colossal pictures 
 magnificent in colour and execution, and in many respects admirable 
 in conception and composition — even if they are not fairly to be 
 classed in the highest style of historic art, — were purchased in a fine 
 spirit by the Royal Scottish Academy ; ' Ulysses and the Syrens ' is 
 the property of the Royal Manchester Institution. The nation pos- 
 sesses fourteen paintings by Etty, twelve in the National Gallery aud 
 two in the Sheepshanks Collection, but some of them are mere studies. 
 
 Etty is undoubtedly one of the greatest names in English art. He 
 chose for himself a somewhat remarkable path, and in it he walked 
 without a rival. His want of classical knowledge— his learning being 
 pretty nearly confined to Lempriere's Dictionary— together with his 
 deficiency in every kind of intellectual culture, except in the technics 
 of painting, of course militated against his taking a first rank as a 
 painter of classic themes. All his works evidence his want of acquaint- 
 ance with the history, the archeology, and even with the poetry of 
 Greece and Rome. But, allowance being made for these deficiencies, 
 or rather regarding his pictures as the mere vehicles for the exhibition 
 of the undraped human form, his paintings must be allowed a very 
 high place in comparison with those of any other modern painter. 
 
 To the highest order of female beauty either in face or form he never 
 attained— hardly pretended ; yet there is evidenced in all his female 
 figures such a thorough sense of enjoyment, so much life and hearti- 
 ness, and, looking at them as pictures, there is shown so remarkable a 
 knowledge of the female form, and such facility in rendering it in free 
 spontaneous action, as few if any modern artists of any country have 
 equalled, and none even in olden times surpassed. 
 
 Etty towards the close of his life seems to have become especially 
 disturbed by the strong remarks occasionally made on his choice of 
 subjects, and still more on his mode of treatment. He seems to have 
 thought (and his admirers have spoken as though they thought so 
 too), that the objections raised to so free a display of the female form 
 on the score of morality, was in fact an implication that the painter 
 was immoral. But no such charge could have been intended by any 
 one who knew anything of the painter. Few men in private life have 
 given less occasion to the breath of scandal. He was scrupulously 
 upright, sober, and pure. An enthusiast in his art he was one of the 
 most single-minded of men ; but it was not to be wondered at that the 
 
 EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA. i?j 
 
 painter of works so opposed to the current notions of propriety should 
 have had to bear with some hard judgments on the tendency of his 
 works. He sought to vindicate himself and his intentions with his pen 
 as well as his tongue, but while personally he needed no vindication, 
 the only vindication his pencil can receive must be that which the 
 works themselves furnish. 
 
 (Autobiography in Art-Journal, 1849; Gilchrist, Life of William, 
 Etty, R.A., 2 vols..8vo, 1855.) 
 
 EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA. A writer who has given his own 
 name to a science cannot be fairly treated of in any other place than 
 its history. We shall therefore devote the present article to such an 
 imperfect sketch of the early progress of the science of geometry as 
 its meagre history, combined with the narrowness of our limits, will 
 allow. 
 
 There is a stock history of the rise of geometry, supported by the 
 names of Strabo, Diodorus, and Proclus, namely, that the Egyptians, 
 having their landmarks yearly destroyed by the rise of the Nile, were 
 obliged to invent an ait of land-surveying in order to preserve the 
 memory of the bounds of property — out of which art geometry arose. 
 This story, combined with another attributing the science directly to 
 the gods, forms the first light which we have on the subject, and both 
 in one are worthily sung by the poet who figures at the head of an 
 obsolete English course of mathematics : — 
 
 " To teach weak mortals property lo scan, 
 Down came Geometry and forra'd a plan." 
 
 There is no proof whatever that the Egyptians wero more of 
 geometers than of astronomers, and the supposition that the rise of 
 the Nile obliged the builders of the Pyramids to make new landmarks 
 once a year, requires at least contemporary evidence to make it history. 
 At the same time, the question of the actual origin of geometry is a 
 very difficult one, and any conclusion can only be of very moderate 
 probability. 
 
 Among the Chinese the Jesuit missionaries found very little know- 
 ledge of the properties of space : a few rules for mensuration, and the 
 famous property of the right-angled triangle, being all that they could 
 ascertain. Of all the books which Gaubil could find professing to be 
 written before B.C. 200, there is only one which contains anything 
 immediately connected with geometry. From this writing (called 
 ' Tcheou-pey ') it is not very certain whether the Chinese possessed 
 the property of the right-angled triangle generally, or only one parti- 
 cular case, namely, when the sides are 3, 4, aud 5 ; and nothing appears 
 which directly or indirectly resembles demonstration. The Hindoos 
 produce a much larger boiiy of knowledge, but of uncertain date. The 
 works of Brahmegupta and Bhascara, of the 7th and 12th centuries of 
 the Christian era (according to Colebrooke), contain a system of 
 arithmetical mensuration which is certainly older than the compilers 
 mentioned, and in which the property of the right-angled triangle is 
 made to produce a considerable number of results ; for instance, the 
 method of finding the area of a triangle of which the three sides are 
 given. By a figure drawn on the margin of some manuscripts, it 
 appears that a demonstration of the property in question had been 
 obtained. The circumference of the circle is given as bearing to the 
 diameter the proportion of 3927 to 1250 by the later writer, being 
 exactly that of 31416 to 1. Brahmegupta takes the proportion of 
 the square root of 10 to 1, or 3 - 16 to 1. The superior correctness of 
 the later writer could not have arisen from any intermediate commu- 
 nication with Europe, since the true ratio was not known so near as 
 3'1416 till after the 12th century; and the Persians (as appears by 
 the work of Mohammed-ben-Musa) had adopted this ratio from the 
 Hindoos, before the discovery of an equally exact ratio in Europe. 
 We shall enter into more details on this subject in the article Viqa 
 Ganita, merely observing that though no date can be fixed to the 
 commencement of geometry in India, yet the certainty which we now 
 have that algebra and the decimal arithmetic have come from that 
 quarter, the recorded visits of the earlier Greek philosophers to Hin- 
 dustan (though we allow weight rather to the tendency to suppose that 
 philosophers visited India, than to the strength of the evidence that 
 they actually did so), together with the very striking proofs of 
 originality which abound in the writings of that country, make it 
 essential to consider the claim of the Hindoos, or of their predecessors, 
 to the invention of geometry. That is, waiving the question whether 
 they were Hindoos who invented decimal arithmetic and algebra, we 
 advance that the people which first taught those branches of science 
 is very likely to have been the first which taught geometry ; and again, 
 seeing that we certainly obtained the former two either from or at 
 least through India, we think it highly probable that the earliest 
 European geometry came either from or through the same country. 
 
 Of the Babylonian and of the Egyptian geometry we have no 
 remains whatever, though each nation has been often said to have 
 invented the science. In reference to the authorities mentioned above 
 in favour of the Egyptians, to whom we may add Diogenes Laertius, 
 &c, we may say that no one of the writers who tells the story in 
 question is known as a geometer except Proclus, the latest of them 
 all ; and as if to give the assertion the character of an hypothesis, this 
 last writer also adds that the Phoenicians, on account of the wants 
 of their commerce, became the inventors of arithmetic. In the Jewish 
 writings there is no trace of any knowledge of geometry. So tlut, 
 
let 
 
 826 
 
 allowing the Greeks to Lave received the merest rudiments either from 
 Kgypt or India, or any other country, it is impossible to name any 
 (inarter from which we can with a shadow of probability imagine them 
 to have received a deductive system, to ever so small an extent. That 
 their geometry, or any of it, came direct from India, is a supposition 
 of some difficulty : those who brought it could hardly have failed to 
 biiug with it the decimal notation of arithmetic. That Pythagoras 
 travelled into India, is (according to Stanley) only the assertion of 
 Apuleius and Clemens Alexandrinus, though rendered probable by 
 several of his tenets. 
 
 Thales (b.o. 600) and Pythagoras (b.c. 540) founded the earliest 
 schools of geometry. The latter is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb 
 when he discovered the property of the hypothenuse before alluded 
 to, and this silly story is repeated whenever the early history of 
 geometry is given. A large collection of miscellanies might easily be 
 made from the works of writers who were not themselves acquainted 
 with geometry ; but, rejecting such authorities, we shall content our- 
 selves with citing Pappus and Proclus, both geometers, who, living in 
 the 4th and 5th centuries after Christ, had abundant opportunities of 
 hearing the stories to which we allude, and of receiving or rejecting 
 them. 
 
 According to Proclus (book ii. ch. 4, ' Comm. in Eucl.'), Pythagoras 
 was the first who gave geometry the form of a science, after whom 
 came Anaxagoras, (Enopides, Hippocrate3 of Chios (who invented the 
 well-known quadrature of the lunules), and Theodorus of Gyrene. 
 Plato was the next great advancer of the science, with whom were 
 contemporary Leodamas, Archytas, and Thesetetus of Thasus, 
 Tareutum, and Athens. After Laodainas came Neoclides, whose 
 duciple L?o made many discoveries, added to the accuracy of the 
 elements, and gave a method of deciding upon the possibility or 
 impossibility of a problem. After Leo came Eudoxus, the friend of 
 Plato, who generalised various results which came from the school of 
 the latter. Amyclas, another friend of Plato, and the brothers 
 .Mi uccchmus and Dinostratus, made geometry more perfect. Theudius 
 wrote excellent elements, and generalised various theorems. Cyzicinus 
 of Athens cultivated other parts of mathematics, but particularly 
 geometry. Hermotimus enlarged the results of Eudoxus and These- 
 tetus, and wrote on 'loci.' Next is mentioucd Philippus, and after 
 him Euclid, " who was not much younger than those mentioned, and 
 who put together elements, and arranged many things of Eudoxus, 
 and gave unanswerable demonstrations of many thiugs which had been 
 loosely demonstrated before him." He lived under the first Ptolemy, 
 by whom he was asked for an easy method of learning geometry ; to 
 which he made the celebrated answer, that there was no royal road. 
 He was younger than the time of Plato, and older than EratostheneB 
 and Archimedes. He was of the Platonic sect. 
 
 Such is, very nearly entire, the account which Proclus gives of the 
 rise of geometry in Greece. 
 
 Before the time of Euclid demonstration had been introduced, 
 about the time, perhaps by the instrumentality, of Pythagoras; pure 
 geometry had been restricted to the right line and circle, but by 
 whom is not at all known : the geometrical analysis, and the study of 
 the conic sections, as also the considerations of the problems of the 
 duplication of the cube, the finding of two mean proportionals, and 
 the trisection of the angle, had been cultivated by the school of Plato ; 
 the quadrature of a certain circular space had been attained, and the 
 general problem suggested and attempted by Hippocrates and others; 
 a curve of double curvature had been imagined and used by 
 Archytas ; writings existed both on the elements, and on conic 
 sections, loci, and detached subjects. It is in this part of the present 
 article that we have judged it best to introduce what would otherwise 
 Lave formed the article Euclid. 
 
 It is not known where Euclid of Alexandria was born. He opened 
 a school of mathematics at Alexandria, in the reign of Ptoleuicous the 
 son of Lagus (323 — 284 B.C.), from which school came Eratosthenes, 
 Archimedes, Apollonius, Ptolemajus, the Theons, &c, &c, so that from 
 and after Euclid the history of the school of Alexandria is that of 
 Greek geometry. He was, according to Pappus, of a mild and gentle 
 temper, particularly towards those who studied the mathematical 
 eciences : but Pappus is too late an authority for the personal demea- 
 nour of Euclid, and moreover may have been incited to praise him 
 for the purpose of depreciating Apollonius, of whom he is then 
 (peaking, and against whom he several times expresses himself. 
 Besides the Elements, Euclid wrote, or is supposed to have written, 
 the following works : — 
 
 1. 2uyypan/ia Vevhap'mv, a treatise on 'Fallacies,' preparatory to 
 geometrical reasoning. This book, mentioned by Proclus, does not 
 low exist, and there is no Greek work of which we so much regret 
 the loss. Had it survived, mathematical students would not have 
 teen thrown directly upon the Elements, without any previous 
 exercise in reasoning. 
 
 2. Four books of ' Conic Sections,' afterwards amplified and appro- 
 priated by Apollonius, who added four others. So says Pappus, as 
 already mentioned in Apollonius Perclv.us. That Euclid did not \ 
 write these books, rppears to us more than probable from the silence i 
 of I'rocloa the I'latonist, who, eulogising Euclid the Platonist, and 
 ■tating that ho wrote on the regular solids (a part of geometry culti- 
 vated by tho Platoni.it»), being led thereto by I'latouism, never 
 
 BIOG. DJV, VOI* XL 
 
 mentions his writing ou the still more Platonic subject of the conic 
 sections. But that Aristams had written on the subject is known, 
 and that Euclid taught it cannot be doubted, any more than that 
 Apollonius, like other writers, prefixed to his own discoveries all 
 that he judged fit out of what was previously known on the subject. 
 
 3. rifpi Aiaipiaeuv, on 'Divisions.' This work is mentioned by 
 Proclus in two words. John Dee imagined the book of Mohammed 
 of Bagdad (which is annexed to the English edition of Euclid herein- 
 after cited) on the division of surfaces to be that of Euclid now under 
 consideration ; but there seems to be no ground for this notion. The 
 Latin of this work (from the Arabic) is given at the end of Gregory's 
 Euclid, together with a fragment 'De Levi et Ponderoso,' attributed, 
 without any foundation, to Euclid. 
 
 4. riepi' nopta/xaruv, on ' Porisms,' in three books. This is men- 
 tioned both by Pappus and Proclus, the former of whom gives the 
 enunciations of various propositions in it, but the text is so corrupt 
 that they can hardly be understood. 
 
 5. T6iro>v itphs iTTHpdvfiav, ' Locorum ad Superficiom,' which we cannot 
 translate. It is mentioned by Pappus, but has not come down to us. 
 
 The preceding works are either lost or doubtful; those which follow 
 all exist, and are contained in Gregory's edition, in the order inverse to 
 that in which they are here mentioned. 
 
 6. 'Oktiko. /col KarowTpiKa, on 'Optics and Catoptrics.' These books 
 are attributed to Euclid by Proclus, and by Marinu3 in the preface to 
 the 'Data,' or rather books on these subjects. Savile, Gregory, and 
 others doubt that the books which have come down to us are those of 
 Euclid, and Grejory gives his reasons in the preface, which are— that 
 Pappus, though he demonstrates propositions in optics and also in 
 astronomy, and mentions the ' Phreuomena ' of Euclid with reference 
 to the latter, does not mention the 'Optics' with reference to the 
 former; and that there are many errors in the works in question, such 
 as it is not likely Euclid would have made. Proceeding on the sup- 
 position that rays of light are carried from the eye to the object, the 
 first of these books demonstrates some relations of apparent magni- 
 tude, and shows how to measure an unknown height by the well-known 
 law of reflected light. In the second an imperfect theory of convex 
 and concave mirrors is given. 
 
 7. $aiv6ij.eva, on ' Astronomical Appearances,' mentioned by Pappus 
 and Philoponus (cited by Gregory). It contains a geometrical doctrine 
 of the sphere, and, though probably much corrupted by time, is 
 undoubtedly Euclid's. 
 
 8. KaraTOfj.^] Kavovos and EiVaywy?; ap/xoviK-q, the ' Division of the 
 Scale' and ' Introduction to Harmony.' Proclus mentions that Euclid 
 wrote on harmony, but the first of these treatises is a distinct geo- 
 metrical refutation of the principles laid down in the second, which 
 renders it unlikely that Euclid should have written both. The second 
 treatise is Aristoxenian [Aristoxenus], while the first proceeds on 
 principles of which Gregory states he never found a vestige in any 
 other writer who was reputed anterior to Ptolemseus (to whom he attri- 
 butes it). The second treatise is not geometrical, but is purely a 
 description of the system mentioned, and as this treatise is not alluded 
 to by Ptolemaeus nor by any previous writer on the subject, it is very 
 probable that Euclid did not write it. 
 
 0. Ae5o,ueVa, a ' Book of Data.' This is the most valuable specimen 
 which we have left of the rudiments of tho geometrical analysis of the 
 Greeks. Before a result can be fouud, it should be known whether 
 the given hypotheses are sufficient to determine it. The application 
 of algebra settles both points ; that is, ascertains whether one or 
 more definite results cau be determined, and determines them. But 
 in geometry it is possible to propose a question which is really inde- 
 terminate, and in a determinate form, while at the same time the 
 methods of geometry which give one answer may not give the means 
 of ascertaining whether the answer thus obtained is the only one. 
 Thus the two following questions seem equally to require one specific 
 answer, to one not versed in geometry :— 
 
 Given, the area of a parallelogram, and the ratio of its sides ; 
 required, the lengths of those sides : and 
 
 Given, the area of a parallelogram, the ratio of its sides and one of 
 its angles ; required, the lengths of the sides. 
 
 The first question admits of an infinite number of answers, and the 
 second of only one; or, in the language of Euclid, if the area, ratio of 
 sides, and an angle of a parallelogram be given, the sides themselves 
 are given. The same process by which it may be shown that they are 
 given serves to find them ; so that the Data of Euclid may be looked 
 upon as a collection of geometrical problems, in which the attention of 
 the reader is directed more to the question of the sufficiency of the 
 hypothesis to produce one result, and one only, than to tho method 
 of obtain iug the result. 
 
 A preface to this book was written by one Marinas, the disciple and 
 successor of Proclus, explaining at tedious length the distinction of 
 'given' and 'not given.' 
 
 10. 2toix6?o, the 'Elements' (of Geometry). For a long time 
 writers hardly considered it necessary to state whose 'Elements' they 
 referred to, since a certain book of the elements always signified that 
 book of Euclid ; and it was customary in Euglaud to call each book 
 an elcmeut ; thus in Hilliugsloy's old translation the sixth book is 
 called the sixth element. 
 
 The reason why the 'Elements' have maintained their ground is 
 
 3 a 
 
E2> EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 not their extreme precision in the statement of what they demand ; 
 for it frequently happens that a result is appealed to as self-evident 
 which is not to be found in the expressed axioms. Neither does their 
 fame arise from their never assuming what might be proved ; for in 
 the very definitions we find it asserted that the diameter of a circle 
 bisects the figure, which might be readily proved from the axioms. 
 Neither is it the complete freedom from redundancy, nor the perfec- 
 tion of the arrangement; for book i., prop. 4, which is very much out 
 of place, considering that it is never wanted in the first book, is, in 
 point of fact, proved agaiu, though not expressed, in prop. 19. Neither 
 is it the manner in which our ideas of magnitude are rendered com- 
 plete, as well as definite : for instance, book iii. prop. 20 is incomplete 
 without Euclid's definition and use of the term ' angle ; ' nor with that 
 term, as used by him, can the 21st proposition of that book be fully 
 demonstrated without the help of the subsequent 22nd. In fact, the 
 ' Elements' abound in defects, which, if we may so speak, are clearly 
 seen by the light of their excellences ; the high standard of accuracy 
 which they inculcate in general, the positive and explicit statement 
 which they make upon all real and important assumptions, the natural 
 character of the arrangement, the complete and perfect absence of 
 false conclusion or fallacious reasoning, and the judicious choice of the 
 demonstrations, considered with reference to the wants of the beginner, 
 are the causes of the universal celebrity which this book has enjoyed. 
 We shall now describe the contents of the ' Elements.' 
 
 There are thirteen books certainly written by Euclid, and two more 
 (the fourteenth and fifteenth) which are supposed to have been added 
 by Hypsicles of Alexandria (about a. D. 170). 
 
 Book i. lays down the definitions and postulates required in the 
 establishment of plane geometry, a few definitions being prefixed also 
 to books ii.,iii., iv., and vi. It then treats of such 'properties of straight 
 lines and triangles as do not require any particular consideration of 
 the properties of the circle nor of proportion. It contains the cele- 
 brated proposition of Pythagoras. 
 
 Eroru this book it appears that Euclid lays down, as all the instru- 
 mental aid permitted in geometry, the description of a right line of 
 indefinite length, the indefinite continuation of such right line, and 
 the description of a circle with a given centre, the circumference of 
 which is to pass through a given point. It is usual to say, then, that 
 the rule and compasses are the instruments of Euclid's geometry, 
 which is not altogether correct, unless it be remembered that with 
 neither ruler nor compasses is a straight line allowed to be transferred, 
 of a given length, from one part of space to another. It is a plain 
 ruler, whose ends are not allowed to be touched, and compasses which 
 close the moment they are taken off the paper, of which the Greek 
 geometry permits the use. It is altogether uncertain by whom these 
 restrictive postulates were introduced, but it must have been before 
 the time of Plato, who was contemporary with (if he did not come 
 after) the introduction of those problems whose difficulty depends 
 upon the restrictions. We may here observe that in actual construc- 
 tion the ruler might have been dispensed with. It was reserved for 
 an Italian abbe, at the end of the 18th century, when all who studied 
 geometry had for two thousand years admired the smallness of the 
 bases on which its conclusions are built, to inquire whether, small as 
 they were, less would not have been sufficient In Mascheroni's 
 ' Geometria del Compassa,' published at Pavia in 1797, it is shown 
 that all the fundamental constructions of geometry can be made with- 
 out the necessity of determining any point by the intersections of 
 straight lines ; that is, by using only those of circles. This singular 
 and very original work was translated into Freuch, and published at 
 Paris in 1798 and 1828. 
 
 Book ii. treats of the squares and rectangles described upon the 
 parts into which a line is divided. It opens the way for the applica- 
 tion of geometry to arithmetic, and ends by showing how to make a 
 rectangle equal to any rectilinear figure. It also points out what 
 modification the proposition of Pythagoras undergoes in the case of a 
 triangle not right-angled. 
 
 Book iii. treats of the circle, establishing such properties as can be 
 deduced by means of the preceding books. 
 
 Book iv. treats of such regular figures as can readily be described 
 by means of the circle only, including the pentagon, hexagon, and 
 quindecagon. It is of no use in what immediately follows. 
 
 Book v. treats of proportion generally, that is, with regard to mag- 
 nitude in general. Whether this most admirable theory, which 
 though abstruse is indispensable, was the work of Euclid himself, or 
 a predecessor, cannot now be known. The introduction of any 
 numerical definition of proportion is rendered inaccurate by the 
 necessity of reasoning on quantities between which no exact numerical 
 ratio exists. The method of Euclid avoids the error altogether, by 
 laying down a definition which applies equally to commensurables aud 
 incommensurables, so that it is not even necessary to mention this 
 distinction. 
 
 Book vi. applies the theory of proportion to geometry, and treats of 
 similar figures, that is, of figures which differ only in size, and not in 
 form. 
 
 Book vii. lays down arithmetical definitions ; shows how to find 
 the greatest common measure and least common multiple of any two 
 numbers ; proves that numbers which are the least in any ratio are 
 prime to one another, &c. 
 
 EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA. 629 
 
 Book viii. treats of continued and mean proportionals, showing 
 when it is possible to insert two integer mean proportionals between 
 two integers. 
 
 Book ix. treats of square and cube numbers, as also of plane and 
 solid numbers (meaning numbers of two and three factors). It also 
 contiuues the consideration of continued proportionals, and of prime 
 numbers, shows that there is an infinite number of prime numbers, 
 and demonstrates the method of finding what aro called perfect 
 numbers. 
 
 Book x. contains 117 propositions, and is entirely filled with the 
 investigation and classification of incommensurable quantities. It 
 shows how far geometry can proceed in this branch of the subject j 
 without algebra ; and though of all the other books it may be said I 
 that they remain at this time as much adapted for instruction as 
 when they were written, yet of this particular book it must be 
 asserted that it should never be read «xcept by a student versed in 
 algebra, and then not as a part of mathematics, but of the history of 
 mathematics. The book finishes with a demonstration that the side 
 and diagonal of a square are incommensurable. From this book it 
 is mo»t evident that the arithmetical character of geometrical magni- 
 tude had been very extensively considered; and it seems to us 
 sufficiently clear that an arithmetic of a character approximating 
 closely to algebra must have been the guide, as well as that some 
 definite object was sought— perhaps the attainment of the quadrature 
 of the circle. 
 
 Book xi. lays down the definitions of solid geometry, or of geometry 
 which considers lines iu different planes and solid figures. It then 
 proceeds to treat of the intersections of planes, and of the properties 
 of parallelopipeds, or what might be called solid rectangles. 
 
 Book xii. treats of prisms, cylinders, pyramids, and cones, estab- 
 lishing the properties which are analogous to those of triangles, &c, 
 in the first and sixth books. It also shows that circles are to one 
 another as the squares on their diameters, and spheres as the cubes 
 on their diameters, in which for the first time in Euclid, the cele- 
 brated Method of Exhaustions is employed, which, with the theory 
 of proportion, forms the most remarkable part of this most remark- 
 able work. 
 
 Book xiii., the last of those written by Euclid, applies some results 
 of the tenth book to the sides of regular figures, and shows how to 
 describe the five regular bodies. 
 
 Books xiv. and xv., attributed to Hypsicles of Alexandria, treat 
 entirely of the relative proportions of the five regular solids, and of 
 their inscription in one another. 
 
 The writings of Euclid continued to be the geometrical standard 
 as long as the Greek language was cultivated. The Romans never 
 made any progress in mathematical learning. Boethius [Boethius] 
 translated, it is said, the first book of Euclid (Cassiodorus, cited by 
 HeilbroDner), but all which has come down to U3 on the subject 
 from this writer (who lived at the beginning of the 6th century) is 
 contained in two books, the first of which has the enunciations and 
 figures of the principal propositions of the first four books of the 
 Elements, and the second of which is arithmetical. Some of the 
 manuscripts of this writer contain an appendix which professes to 
 give an account of a letter of Julius Caesar, in which he expresses his 
 intention of cultivating geometry throughout the Roman dominions. 
 But no such result ever arrived as long as the Western Empire 
 lasted ; and this short account of Roman geometry is a larger pro- 
 portion of the present article than the importance of the subject 
 warrants. These books of Boethius continued to be the standard 
 text books until Euclid was brought in again from the Arabs. 
 
 Among the last-mentioned race geometry made no actual progress, 
 though many of the works of the Greek writers were translated, and 
 Euclid among the rest. There are several Arabic versions, the most 
 perfect of which is that of Othman of Damascus, who augmented 
 the usual imperfect translations by means of a Greek manuscript 
 which he saw at Rome. D'Herbelot (at the words Aklides and 
 Oclides) states that the Orientals believe Euclid to have been a native 
 of Tyre, and also that they frequently gave his name to the science 
 which he taught. The same author gives the names of the Arabic 
 versions, one of which, that of Nasir eddin, the most celebrated of all, 
 was printed at the Medicean press at Rome in 1594. The astronomer 
 Thabet ben Korrah was one of the translators, or rather, perhaps, 
 revised the translation of Honein ben Ishak, who died a.d. 873. There 
 is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library, purporting to be the transla- 
 tion of the latter edited by the former. 
 
 The first translation of Euclid into Latin, of which the date can be 
 tolerably well fixed, is that of Athelard, or Adelard, a monk of Bath, 
 who lived under Henry I. (about a.d. 1150). We have given [Cam- 
 pands] a summary of authorities to show that Campanus, supposed to 
 be another translator of Euclid, lived after this period ; but we are 
 inclined to believe that this translation (so called) of Campanus 
 (printed 1482), is in fact that of Athelard, with a commentary by 
 Campanus. 
 
 There is a considerable number of Greek manuscripts of the Ele- 
 ments, for which see Fabricius and Heilbronner. There is no account 
 of the manuscripts which they consulted by the earlier Latin trans- 
 lators (from the Greek), nor by Gregory. It appears however that 
 several, if not many, of the manuscripts are entitled EwcaeiSou <ttoix«">"' 
 
888 
 
 EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 EUCLID OF MEGARA. 
 
 830 
 
 0ifS\ia le e'« tuv Qeayos (rvvovaiiov, from which it was inferred that the 
 compilation of the elements was the work of Theon, from the mate- 
 rials left by Euclid. It is certain that Theon, in his commentary on 
 the Almagest, speaks of his edition (etcSovts) of Euclid, and mentions 
 that the part of the last proposition which relates to the sectors was 
 added by himself. On looking at that proposition, it is found that the 
 demonstration relative to the sectors comes after the * Strep eSei 5eT£ai,' 
 with which Euclid usually ends his propositions. And Alexander, the 
 commentator on Aristotle, who lived before Theon, calls that the 
 'fourth' proposition of the tenth book which is the 'fifth' in all the 
 manuscripts. We can then distinctly trace the hand of Theon as a 
 commentator, and may suspect that he performed the duty of a revis- 
 ing editor to the work of Euclid as it now appears; but there is not 
 the smallest reason to suppose that Theon actually digested the work 
 into the form which it now has. These remarks relative to the claims 
 of Theon were first made by Sir Henry Savile, who opened the chair of 
 geometry which he founded at Oxford by thirteen lectures on the 
 fundamental parts of the first book of Euclid, which were delivered 
 in 1620, and published in 1621. 
 
 We now give a short summary of the early editions of Euclid, 
 which have appeared in Greek or Latin. It is unnecessary to specify 
 the common editions of Simson, Playfair, &c, which confine them- 
 selves to the first six books, and the eleventh and twelfth, and are 
 generally known. 
 
 I. Editions of the whole of Euclid's works : — 1. An imperfect Latin 
 edition, by Bartholomew Zamberti, Venice, 1505. 2. A Latin edition, 
 printed at Basel, marked ' Basileae apud Johannem Hervagium,' 1537, 
 1546, and 1558. 3. Greek edition, with Scholia, Basel, 1539. But the 
 principal edition of all the works of Euclid is that published by the 
 Oxford press in 1703, under the care of David Gregory, then Savilian 
 professor. 
 
 IL Greek editions of the Elements only : — 1. An edition cur& Simonis 
 Grynsei, Basel, 1530. 2. Another, with the commentary of Proclus, 
 'Basilece apud Johannem Hervagium,' 1533. 3. Greek and Italian, 
 by Angeli Cajani, Rome, 1545. 4. At Strasbourg, 1559. 5. Gree-k and 
 Latin, with Scholia, by Conrad Dasypodius, Strasburg, 1564. 
 
 III. Latin editions of the Elements only : — 1. That of Campanus, 
 the first Euclid printed, Ratdolt, Venice, 1482. 2. A reprint of the 
 preceding, marked ' Vincentiae, anno salutis 1491.' 3. An edition con- 
 taining the text and comment of Campanus, from the Arabic ; also the 
 text and comment of Zamberti, from the Greek ; Paris, Henry Stephens, 
 1505; and again in 1516. This edition is very commodious for a 
 general comparison of the Greek and Arabic. 4. Edition of Lucas de 
 Burgo, Venice, 1509, according to Murhard, and 1489 according to 
 Heilbronner, who appears to be the authority for the existence of this 
 edition, and is doubted (with reason, we think) by Harles, in his Fabri- 
 cius. 5. Edition of Stephen Gracilis, Paris, 1557, 1573, and 1578. The 
 first edition of Clavius is that of Rome, 1574 ; of Commandine, Pesaro, 
 1572. [Clavius; Commandine.] 
 
 IV. Earliest editions of the Elements in modern tongues :— English 
 — ' The Elements of Geometry of the most antient philosopher Euclid 
 of Megara, &c.,' by H. Billingsley, with a preface by John Dee, London, 
 1570, and again in 1661. French—' Les quinze livres des EMments, &c, 
 &c.,' Par D. Henrion, Mathematicum, First edition, Paris, 1565 (?); 
 second, 1623, with various others. According to Fabricius there was 
 an edition by Peter Forcadel, in 1565. German — 'Die sechs ersten 
 Bucher, &c.,' by William Holtzmann, Augsburg, 1562. Scheubelius 
 had previously given the 7th, 8th, and 9th books in 1555. Italian— 
 ' Euclide Megarense Philosophe, &c.,' per Nicolo Tartalea, Venice, 1543. 
 Butch — 'De ses erste boecken Euclidis, &c.,' dor Jan Pieterszoon Dou, 
 Amsterdam, 1603 (or 1606). Swedish—' De sex Forsta, &c.,' by Marten 
 Stromer, Upsal, 1753. Spanish— By Joseph Saiagoza, Valeutia, 1673. 
 Murhard (compared with Fabricius) is the authority for all of these, 
 except the first. 
 
 It has long ceased to be usual to read more of Euclid than the 
 first six books and the eleveuth. Those who wish to see more of the 
 ' Elements ' will probably most easily obtain those of Williamson 
 (London, 1788, two vols. 4to), the translation of which is very literal. 
 Those who prefer the Latin may find all the twelve books in the 
 edition of Horsley (from Ccmmandine and Gregory), Oxford, 1802. 
 Am to the Greek, the edition of Gregory is scarce, as is the edition of 
 Peyrard, in Greek, Latin, and French, Paris, 1814 ; that of Camerer 
 and Hauber, Berlin, 1824, contains the first six books in Greek and 
 Latin, with valuable notes. Tho number of editors of Euclid is 
 extremely great, but our limits will not allow of further recapitu- 
 lation. 
 
 Under the names of Archimedes, Apollonius, Pappus, Proclus, 
 Theon, &c, the reader will find further details upon the progress of 
 Greek geometry, which continued to flourish at Alexandria till the 
 taking of that town by the" Saracen, a d. 640. But its latter day 
 produced only commentators upon the writere of the former, or, at 
 most, original writers of no great note. The following list contains 
 the names of the most celebrated geometers who lived before the 
 decline of the Greek language : the dates represent nearly thj middle 
 rm? e * r *' ve8 ' * )ut are ' n man y instances uncertain :— 
 Thalea, b.c. 600 ; Ameristus (?) ; Pythagoras, B.C. 550; Anaxagoras; 
 tt-nopides; Hippocrates, B.C. 450; Theodorus; Archytas (?) preceptor 
 of Plato; Leodamae; Thetetetus; Aristscus, b.o. 350; Perseus (?); 
 
 riato, b.c. 310 ; Meuaschmus, Dinostratus, Eudoxus, contemporaries 
 of Plato; Neoclides; Leon; Amy clas; Theudius ; Cyzicinus; Hermo- 
 timus; Philippus; Euclid, B.C. 285; Archimedes, B.C. 240; Apollonius, 
 B.C. 240; Eratosthenes, B.C. 240; Nicomedes, B.C. 150; Hipparchus, 
 B.C. 150; Hypsicles, B.C. 130 (?); Geminus, B.C. 100; Theodosius, B.C. 
 100; Menelaus, a.d. 80; Ptolemseus, a.d. 125; Pappus, a.d. 390 ; Sere- 
 uus, a.d. 390; Diodes (?), Proclus, a.d. 440; Marinus (?), Isidorus (?), 
 Eutocius, a.d. 540. 
 
 The age of Diophantus is not sufficiently well known even for so 
 rough a summary as the preceding. 
 
 The following is tho summary of books of geometrical analysis 
 (qui ad resolutum locum pertinent), given by Pappus as extant in his 
 time : of Euclid, the ' Data,' three books of porisms, and two books 
 'Locorum ad Superficiem ; ' of Apollonius, two books 'De Propor- 
 tionis Sectione,' two ' De Spatii Sectione,' two ' De Tactionibus,' two 
 ' De Inclinationibus,' two ' Planorum Locorum,' and eight on conic 
 sections; of Aristaus, five books 'Locorum Solidorum;' of Eras- 
 tosthenes two books on finding mean proportionals. But besides 
 these he describes a book (of Apollonius) which treats 'De Determinate 
 Sectione.' 
 
 The manifold beauties of the 'Elements' of Euclid secured their 
 universal reception, and it was not long before geometers began to 
 extend their results. It became frequent to attempt the restitution 
 of a lost book by the description given of it by Pappus or others ; 
 and from Vieta to Robert Simson, a long list of names might be 
 collected of those who have endeavoured to repair the losses of time. 
 On the advance of geometry in general the reader may consult the 
 lives of Vieta, Metius, Magini, Pitiscus, Snell, Napier, Guldiuus, 
 Cavalieri, Robeval, Fermat, Pascal, Descartes, Kepler, &c. 
 
 The application of algebra to geometry, ot which some instances 
 had been given by Bombelli, and many more by Vieta, grew into a 
 science in the hands of Descartes (1596-1650). It drew the attention 
 of mathematicians completely away from the methods of the ancient 
 geometry, and considering the latter as a method of discovery, the 
 change was very much for the better. But the close aud grasping 
 character of the ancient reasoning did not accompany that of the new 
 method : algebra was rather a half-understood art than a science, and 
 all who valued strictness of demonstration adhered as close as possible 
 to the ancient geometry. This was particularly the case in our own 
 country, and unfortunately the usual attendants of rigour were 
 mistaken for rigour itself, and vice vend. The algebraical symbols 
 and methods were by many reputed inaccurate, while the same pro- 
 cesses, conducted on the same principles, in a geometrical form, were 
 preferred and even advanced as more correct. Newton, an admirei 
 of the Greek geometry, clothed his Principia in a dress which was 
 meant to make it look (so far as mathematical methods were con- 
 cerned) like the child of Archimedes, aud not of Vieta or Descartes ; 
 but the end was not attained in reality, for though the reasoning is 
 really unexceptionable, yet the method of exhaustions must be 
 applied to most of the lemmas of the first section, before the Greek 
 geometer would own them. 
 
 The methods of algebra, so far as expressions of the first and 
 second degrees are concerned, apply with great facility to many large 
 classes of questions connected with straight lines, circles, and other 
 sections of the cone. Practical facility was gained by them, frequently 
 at the expense of reasoning : the time came when a new Descartes 
 showed how to return to geometrical construction with means supe- 
 rior to those of algebra, in many matters connected with practice. 
 This was Monge, the inventor of descriptive geometry. The science 
 of perspective and many other applications of geometry to the arts 
 had previously required isolated methods of obtaining lines, angles, 
 or areas, described under laws not readily admitting of the applica- 
 tion of algebra, and its consequence, the construction of tables. The 
 descriptive geometry is a systomatised form of the method by which 
 a ground-plan and an elevation are made to give the form and 
 dimensions of a building. The projections of a point upon two planes 
 at right angles to one another being given, the position of the point 
 itself is given. From this it is possible, knowing the projections of 
 any solid figure upon two such planes, to lay down on either of those 
 planes a figure similar and equal to any plane section of the solid. 
 In the case where the section is a curve it is constructed by laying 
 down a large number of consecutive contiguous points. The methods 
 by which such an object is to be attained were generalised and 
 simplified by Monge, whose ' Geomdtrie Descriptive ' (the second 
 edition of which was published in 1820) is one of the most elegant 
 and lucid elementary works in existence. 
 
 The methods of descriptive geometry recalled the attention of 
 geometers to the properties of projections in general, of which such 
 only had been particularly noticed as could be applied in the arts of 
 design or in the investigation of primary properties of the conic 
 sections. From the time of Monge to the present this subject has 
 been cultivated with a vigour which has produced most remarkable 
 results, and promises more. Pure geometry has made no advance 
 since the time of the Greeks which gives greater help to its means of 
 invention than that which the labours of what we must call the 
 school of Monge have effected. 
 
 EUCLID (Euk\6i'55)s) of Megara is said to be a different person from 
 the geometrician of the same name. He was a scholar of Socrates, 
 
SSI 
 
 EUDOCIA 
 
 EUGENIUS II. 
 
 633 
 
 and the founder of tlie school called the Megario, which tuay be con- 
 sidered as tbe predecessor of the Sceptical school of a later date. 
 This school was distinguished by its dialectic subtlety, by which 
 contradictory propositions could be proved, the consequence of which 
 was universal doubt. The Supreme Good, according to Euclid, was 
 always the same and unchangeable. He wrote six dialogues, which 
 are lost. (See ' De Megaricorum Doctriua ejusque apud Platoncrn et 
 Aristotelem vestigiis,' Ferd. Deycks, Bonn, 1827, Svo.) 
 
 EUDO'CIA, daughter of Leoutius, an Athenian sophist, was called 
 Athenais before her baptism. She was celebrated for her beauty, and 
 also for her learning, having been carefully instructed by her father in 
 literature and the sciences. After her father's death, being deprived by 
 her brothers of all share in the inheritance, she repaired to Constan- 
 tinople, aud appealed to Pulcheria, sister of Theodosius II., who was 
 so phased with her that she induced Theodosius to marry her, a.d. 421. 
 Eudocia surrounded herself with learned men; but about 449 the 
 emperor, through jealousy, dismissed all her court, and had her 
 exiled to Palestine, where she continued to reside after his death. 
 She there embraced the opinions of Eutyches, aud supported by her 
 liberality and influence the monk Theodosius, who forced himself 
 into the see of Jerusalem, after driving away Juvenal, the orthodox 
 bishop, aud kept it until he was himself driven away by order of tho 
 Emperor Marcianus. Euthymius, called the Saint, by his reasonings 
 brought back Eudocia to the orthodox faith, after which she spent 
 the remainder of her days at Jerusalem, where she died in 4G0, pro- 
 testing her innocence of the guilt with which her husband had charged 
 her. Eudocia wrote several works, of which Photius quote3 a trans- 
 lation in verse of the first eight books of the Old Testament. There 
 is also attributed to her a ' Life of Christ,' composed of lines taken 
 from Homer, which was translated into Latin by Echard, and pub- 
 lished under the title of ' Homerici Centones Grajce et Latine, 
 interprete Echardo,' Paris, 1578. Most critics however believe that it 
 is not the work of Eudocia, though Ducange is of the contrary opinion. 
 
 EUDOCIA the Younger, daughter of the preceding and of Theo- 
 dosius II., married Valentinianus III. After the assassination of her 
 husband by Petrouius Maximus, she was obliged to marry the usurper. 
 Eudocia, out of indignation and revenge, called in Gcuseric, king of 
 the Vandals, who came to Italy, plundered Pome, and carried Eudocia 
 to Africa with him. Some years afterwards she was sent back to 
 Constantinople, a.d. 102, where she died. 
 
 liUDOCIA, the widow of Constautinus Ducas, married Romanus 
 Diogeues, an officer of distinction, in 1008, and associated him with 
 her on the throne. Three years after, Michael, her son, by means of 
 a revolt, was proclaimed emperor, and caused his mother to be shut 
 up in a convent, where she lived the rest of her life. She left a 
 treatise on the genealogies of the gods and heroes, which displays an 
 extensive acquaintance with the subject. It is printed in Villoison's 
 'Anecdota Craeca,' 2 vols. 4to, 1781. 
 
 EUDOXUS, a native of Cnidus, a city of Caria, in Asia Minor, and 
 the son of jEschiues, flourished about B.C. 370. He studied geometry 
 under Archytas, and afterwards travelled into Egypt to study the 
 sciences under the priests of that country. Diogenes Laertius informs 
 us that he and Plato studied in these schools for about thirteen years, 
 after which Eudoxus came to Athens, and opened a school of his own, 
 which he supported with such reputation that it excited the envy 
 even of Plato himself. To him is attributed the introduction of the 
 sphere into Greece ; and, according to Pliny, he first made (probably 
 from Egyptian sources) the length of the year 365£- days. Proclus 
 informs us that Euclid very liberally borrowed from the elements of 
 geometry composed by Eudoxus. Cicero calls Eudoxus the greatest 
 astronomer that had ever lived; and we learn from Petronius that he 
 retired to the top of a very high mountain that he might observe the 
 celestial phenomena with more convenience than he could on a plain 
 or in a crowded city. Strabo (p. 119) says that the observatory of 
 Eudoxus was at Cuidus, from which the astronomer saw the star 
 Canopus. Vitruvius (ix. 9) describes a sun-dial constructed by him ; 
 Strabo (p. 390) quotes him as a distinguished mathematician. 
 Nothing of his works remains. He died in the fifty-third year of 
 his age. 
 
 EUDOXUS of Cyzicus was sent by Ptoleniams VTL, of Egypt, on a 
 voyage to India about B.C. 125. (Strabo, p. 98; Casaub.) The passage 
 of Strabo referred to contains an account of his adventures. From 
 this Eudoxus, or another of the name, Strabo derived some materials 
 for his great work (379, 550, &c.) 
 
 EUGENE, FPAN^OIS DE SAVOIE, commonly called Prince 
 Eugene, was paternally descended, in the third degree, from the ducal 
 house of Savoy, but was a French subject by birth, being a younger 
 son of the Comte de Soissons, and born at Paris October 18, ltit>3. 
 He was designed for the church, but Laving formed a decided prefer- 
 ence for a military life, and being also moved by certain wrongs which 
 he conceived to have been done to his family by Louis XIV., aud 
 which he deeply resented, he entered the service of the emperor Leo- 
 pold. From this time he renounced his allegiance to France, and long 
 after, when his reputation was at its height, rejected the most brilliant 
 offers made by the French government to purchase his return to the 
 service of his native country. His first campaign was against the 
 Turks, at the celebrated siege of Vienna in 1083. Eminent bravery 
 nod talent, joined to high birth, cusured him rapid promotion. In 
 
 1088-89, on the breaking out of war between France and the Empire, 
 he was employed on a diplomatic mission to the Duke of Savoy, and 
 in 1091 was raised to the command of the imperial army in Piedmont. 
 During two campaigns he maintained a decided advantage over the 
 French : in 1693 he was less successful. The duke having returned to 
 the French alliance, we next find Prince Eugene commanding the army 
 in Hungary, where he won a great victory over the Turks at Zenta, 
 on the river Theis3, September 11, 1097. The peace of Carlowitz (1099) 
 closed this scene of action; but a more brilliant one was opened in 
 1701 by the war of the Spanish succession. During two years Eugene 
 maintained the imperial cause in Italy with honour against superior 
 forces commanded successively by Catiuat, Villeroi, and Veudome, 
 against tho last of whom he fought the indecisive battle of Luzara, 
 August 1, 1702, in which the flower of his troops was destroyed. At 
 the end of this campaign he returned to Vienna, and was appointed 
 president of the council of war. 
 
 In 1701 he commanded the imperial troops at the battle of Blen- 
 heim, August 13, 1704. The successes of the French iu Piedmont 
 made it expedient for him to return thither in 1705. He soon re- 
 stored the Duke of Savoy's declining fortunes, aud won the decisive 
 battle of Turin, September 7, 1706, after whicli the French evacuated 
 the country. He was thus set again at liberty to co-operate with 
 Marlborough in 1708, aud had a share in the victory of Oudeuarde, 
 and in the capture of Lille, the siege of which was entrusted to him, 
 while Marlborough protected his operations. In 1709 he was wounded 
 at the bloody battle of Malplaquet, of whicli he was the chief adviser, 
 and in which he led the attack upon the left wing. On the death of 
 the emperor Joseph in 1711, he took an important part in securing 
 the succession to his brother Charles VI., and he visited Eugland at 
 the end of that year, in hope of preventing the secession of England 
 from the alliance. He was received as his services deserved, but made 
 no progress towards his object ; for the dismissal of the Whig ministry 
 was soon followed by the congress and peace of Utrecht. The emperor 
 beiug no party to that treaty, Eugene invaded France in 1712 with 
 little advantage, and it became evident that the interests of the empire 
 would be beat consulted by peace: the preliminaries were accordingly 
 signed at llastadt, March 0, 1714. 
 
 In 1716 Prince Eugene aguin marched against the Turks, and won the 
 battle of Peterwaradin, August 6, against an enormous disproportion 
 of numbers. In the following year he besieged Belgrade with 40,000 
 men. With troops wasted by disease, pressed by an army of 150,000 
 men from without and opposed by a powerful garrison from within, 
 he was in the utmost danger, when, with the happy boldness which 
 distinguished him, he seized the right moment, and inflicted a signal 
 defeat on the army which threatened him. Upon this the town 
 surrendered. Peace was concluded in the following year. 
 
 He now took up his residence at Vienna, honoured and trusted by 
 the emperor, in whose political service he was much employed. In 
 1733 a fresh quarrel with France called him again to command the 
 imperial army on the banks of the Rhine. This war is said to have 
 been undertaken against his advice : at all events age had diminished 
 his energy : he contented himself with standing on the defensive, aud 
 used his iuflueuce to effect a reconciliation. Preliminaries of peace 
 were signed at Vienna, October 5, 1735. He died suddenly in that 
 capital April 21, 1730, aged 73. 
 
 As a general Prince Eugene ranks among the first of his kind, but 
 that kind was not of the highest order of excellence. His name is 
 memorable for no improvements iu the art of war, neither was he 
 famous for skill in manoeuvring or combining the operations of dis- 
 tinct masses upon one object. His characteristics were penetration, 
 quickness of perception, decision, and what usually goes along with 
 them, readiness in amending a fault when made; so that his skill lay 
 rather in making the best of given circumstances than in bending cir- 
 cumstances to his will beforehand. It is said that he always took great 
 pains to learn the character of the general opposed to him. Careless 
 of his own person (he was thirteen times wounded in battle), he was 
 also somewhat prodigal of his soldiers' live3. However, he threw a 
 glory round the Austrian arms such as has never dignified them cither 
 before or since. 
 
 The best account of his exploits is ' L'Histoire du Prince Eugene,' 
 5 vols. 12mo, by M. de Maubillon, but published without his name. 
 Iu English, there is Campbell's ' Military History of Prince Eugene and 
 the Duke of Marlborough,' 2 vols, folio, besides several smaller works. 
 Prince Eugene wrote memoirs of himself, which have been published 
 both in French and English. 
 
 EUGE'NIUS I., pope, a native of Rome, was elected by the Romans 
 in 654, as successor to Martin I., who had been seut into banishment 
 to the Thracian Chersonesus by order of the emperor Constaus II., 
 who favoured tho schism of the Monothelites. Martin dying iu the 
 following year, Eugenius continued in dispute with the court ol 
 Constantinople till he died iu 658, and was succeeded by Vitaliauus. 
 
 EUGENIUS II., a native of Rome, succeeded Paschas I. in 824, in 
 the midst of great disorder which occurred at Rome owing to the 
 corrupt state of society aud mal-administration of that city. To 
 reform these, the emperor, Louis the Good, sent his son Lotharius to 
 Rome, who corrected many abuses which, by the account of Egiuhardt 
 aud other chroniclers, had grown to an enormous extent. He confirmed 
 the right of electing the pope to the clergy and people of Rome, but 
 
»3S 
 
 EUGENIUS III. 
 
 EULER, LEONARD. 
 
 under the condition that the pontiff elect should swear fidelity to the 
 emperor before the imperial missus or representative. Eugeuius held 
 a council at Rome, in which, among other things, it was decreed that 
 in every episcopal residence, as well as in every country parsonage, 
 there should be a master for teaching the people and explaining the 
 Scriptures. Eugeuius died in S27, and was succeeded by Valeutinus, 
 who, dying also after a few weeks, was succeeded by Gregory IV. 
 
 EUCiENIUS III., a native of Pisa, of the Cistercian order, and a 
 disciple of St. Bernard, succeeded in 1145 Lucius II., who had died of 
 a blow from a stone inflicted in a riot of the Eomau people. Arnaldo 
 da Brescia was then preaching his reform at Rome, the senate had 
 declared itself independent of the pope, and Eugenius wa3 obliged to 
 take up his residence at Viterbo. After some fighting and many 
 negociations between the pope, assisted by the people of Tivoli, aud 
 the Romans, Eugenius repaired to France in 1117, and the following 
 year held a eouucil at Rheirns. He afterwards returned to Italy in 
 1149, and with the assistance of Roger king of Sicily defeated the 
 Romans, and entered the city. New disturbances however arose, 
 which obliged him to take refuge in Campania, where he received of 
 St. Bernard the book ' De Cousideratioue,' the subject of which was 
 advice on his pontifical station aud its duties. After having resided 
 some time at Segui he made peace with the Romans, and returned to 
 Rome in 1152. He died July 8, 1153, and was succeeded by 
 Anastasius IV. It was under the pontificate of Eugeuius III. that 
 Gratiauus, a Benedictine monk at Bologna, compiled his code of canon 
 law called 'Decretuni Gratiani,' which greatly favoured the extension 
 of the papal power. 
 
 EUGENIUS IV., Gabriele Condulmero, a native of Venice, suc- 
 ceeded Martin V. in March 1431. His was a most stormy pontificate. 
 He drove away the powerful family of Colonua, including the nephews 
 of the late pone, from Rome, charging them with having enriched 
 themselves at the expense of the papal treasury. Two hundred of 
 their adherents were put to death, and the palaces of the Colonna 
 were plundered ; but their party collected troops iu the country and 
 besieged Rome. Eugenius, through the assistance of Queen Joauua II. 
 of Naples, defeated the Colonua, and obliged them to sue for peace 
 and surrender several towns and castles they held in the Roman state. 
 He afterwards made war agaiu3t the various lords of Romagna, who 
 were supported by the Viseonti of Milan ; and he appointed as his 
 general the patriarch Vitelleschi, a militaut prelate, who showed con- 
 siderable abilities and little scrupulousness iu that protracted warfare, 
 by which the pope ultimately recovered a considerable portion of 
 territory. But as Vitelleschi intended to keep Romagna for himself, 
 the pope had him put to death. The famous condottiere Sforza 
 figured in all these broils. But the greatest annoyance to Eugeuius 
 proceeded from the council of Basel, which had been convoked by his 
 predecessor, and which protracted its sittings year after year, broaching 
 doctrines very unfavourable to papal supremacy. After solemnly 
 asserting the superiority of the council over the pope, it forbade the 
 creation of new cardinals, prohibited appeals from the council to the 
 pope, suppressed the annate?, or payments of one year's income upou 
 benefices, which were a great source of revenue to the papal treasury, 
 and made other important reforms. Eugenius, who had been obliged 
 to escape from Rome in disguise on account of a popular revolt, aud 
 had taken up his residence at Bologna in 1437, now issued a bull 
 dissolving the council, recalling his nuncio who presided at it, aud 
 convoking another council at Ferrara. Most of the fathers assembled 
 at Basel refused to submit, and summoned the pope himself to appear 
 before them, to answer the charge of simony, schism, and others; 
 and after a time proceeded against him as contumacious, and deposed 
 him. Eugenius meanwhile had opened in person his new council at 
 Ferrara, in February 1438, in which, after annulling all the obnoxious 
 decrees of the council of Basel, he launched a bull of excommunica- 
 tion against the bishops who remained in that assembly, which he 
 characterised as a " satanic conclave, which was spreading the abomina- 
 tion of desolation into the bosom of the church." The Catholic 
 world was divided between the two councils ; that of Basel proceeded 
 to elect a new pope in the person of Amadous VIII. of Savoy, who 
 assumed the name of Felix V., and was solemnly crowned at Basel. 
 The council of Ferrara in the meantime afforded a novel sight. The 
 Emperor John Paleologus II. came with Joseph, patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople, aud more than twenty Greek bishops, attended by a 
 numerous retinue, and took his seat in the assembly. The object 
 was the reconciliation of the eastern and western churches, which 
 Eugenius had greatly at heart, and to which Paleologus was also 
 favourably inclined, as he wanted the assistance of the powers of 
 western Europe against the Turks. The plague having broken out 
 at Ferrara, the council was removed to Florence. After many 
 theological disputations on the subject of the Holy Ghost, of the 
 primacy of the pope, of purgatory, and other controverted points, the 
 decree of reunion of the two churches was passed, and signed by 
 both parties in July 1439. The emperor and patriarch returned to 
 Constantinople highly pleased with Eugenius; but the Greeks took 
 offence at the terms of the union, the schism broke out afresh, aud 
 the separation of the two churches has continued ever since. 
 
 A grave charge against Eugenius is, that he encouraged the 
 Hungarians aud Poles to break the peace they had solemnly sworn 
 with the Turks, UDder pretence that their o.iths w. re not valid 
 
 without the sanction of the pope ; he even sent Cardinal Julian as his 
 nuncio to attend tho Christian army. The result was the battle of 
 Varna, 1444, iu which the Christians wcro completely defeated, aud 
 King Uladislaus of Poland and Cardinal Julian lost their lives. 
 
 Eugeuius died at Rome in 1447, after a reign of sixteen years, an< : 
 iu the sixty-fourth year of his age. He left tho church in a state of 
 schism between him and his competitor Felix, Lis own states a prey 
 to war, and all Christendom alarmed at the progress of the Turkisn 
 arms. Iu his last days he is said to have expressed himself weary of 
 agitation, aud to have regretted the loss of his former monastic 
 tranquillity before his exaltation. He recommended peaco and con- 
 ciliation to the cardinals assembled round him. He was succeeded by 
 Nicholas V., in favour of whom Feliz V. scon after abdicated. The 
 pontificate of Eugeuius forms a stirring and interesting though painful 
 period in the history of Italy aud of the church. L'Enfant and 
 ^Eueas Silvius, afterwards pope, have v/ritten the history of the 
 council of Basel. See also the general collections of the councils and 
 Baluze's ' Miscellanies.' 
 
 EULER, LEONARD, a celebrated mathematician of the last 
 century, was born on the 15th of April 1707, at Basel, iu Switzerland ; 
 his father, Paul Euler, was the Calvinistic paster of the neighbouring 
 village of Rieehen. He was a man remarkable for unostentatious 
 piety, aud imbued with a considerable knowledge of mathematics, 
 which he had acquired under the tuition of James Bernoulli. 
 
 After being instructed by his father in analytical science, young 
 Euler wa3 sent to the university of Basel, in which John Bernoulli 
 was at that time professor, and by his rapid progress and decided 
 mathematical genius he so far gained the esteem cf his teacher and of 
 the sons, Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli, that his father was easily 
 dissuaded from his original intention of forming his son into a divine, 
 and wisely allowed him to pursue uushacL.lcd the high distinctions 
 then conferred b}' a profound scientific reputation. 
 
 A prize having been proposed by the French Academy of Sciences 
 on the management of vessels at sea, the ambition of Euler, then 
 only niueteeu years of age, induced him to attempt an essay, which 
 was received with considerable applause, though the prize was con- 
 ferred on Bouguer, an old and experienced professor of hydrography. 
 
 The Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg was then rising to a 
 distinguished rank amongst similar institutions in Europe under the 
 fostering patronage of Catharine L, who had invited several philo- 
 sophers to her capital, among whom were tho Bernoullis above 
 mentioned. On the retirement of Daniel Bernoulli, Euler was 
 appointed professor of mathematics under Peter I. in 1733; soon after 
 which he married a Swiss lady named Gsell, by whom he had a 
 numerous family. 
 
 His works previous to tho date at which we have arrived were, 
 with few exceptions, confined to those mathematical questions arising 
 from the progressive march of the Integral Calculus, which, at that 
 time, caused much emulation iu different countries. In general, 
 Euler was far more in his element in the abstruser parts of pure 
 mathematics than in the applied ; in many of the latter he was 
 frequently conducted to paradoxical results. 
 
 In the memoirs of the Petropolitan Academy, 1|29 and 1732, are 
 found several of his memoirs on trajectories, tautochrouous curves, 
 the shortest line along a surface between two given points, and on 
 differential equations ; besides which he had published at Basel a 
 physical dissertation on sound. 
 
 Euler found it convenient at this time to apply himself intensely 
 to study, not more from his natural ardour for the sciences aud the 
 incentive of au increasing reputation than from the desire to avoid 
 the political intrigues which, under a suspicious and tyrannical 
 minister, then agitated Russia. 
 
 During this interval he published au excellent treatise on mechanics 
 (Petersburg, 1736, 2 vols., 4to), a treatise on the theory of music, and 
 one on arithmetic, together with numerous papers in the Petersburg 
 Memoirs, chiefly on astronomical and purely mathematical subjects, 
 among which are contained his views on the solution of Isoperi- 
 metiical Problems, which embodied the profoundest researches on a 
 matter of great analytical difficulty previous to the discovery of the 
 Calculus of Variations by Lagrange. Upon the fall of liireu he 
 gladly accepted an invitation from the King of Prussia to visit Berlin. 
 When he was introduced to the queen-dowager in 1741, she was so 
 much struck with the paucity of his conversation that on requiring 
 an explanation, he replied that he had just returned from a country 
 where those who spoke were hanged. 
 
 The princess of Anhalt-Dessau, being desirous to profit by the 
 presence of Euler iu Berlin, requested to be favoured with iustructions 
 on the kuown facts in the physical sciences. To this wish he fully 
 acceded on his return to St. Petersburg in 1760, by publishing his 
 celebrated work, ' Letters to a German Princess' (3 vols., 8vo, 170S); 
 iu which he discusses with clearness the most important truths in 
 mechauics, optics, sound, and physical astronomy, having published 
 previous to this date several isolated treatises and some hundred 
 memoirs touching ou every known branch of theoretical and practical 
 mathematics. During his residence in Prussia he was much employed 
 by the enlightened monarch who then governed that kingdom in 
 questions connected with the mint, with navigable canals, &c. In 
 the midst of such varied employments he was not forgetful of the 
 
6c5 
 
 EUPHRANOR. 
 
 BM 
 
 ties wbich bound him to his native home; having learned his father's 
 death, he went in 1750 to Frankfurt to receive his widowed mother, 
 and brought her to Berlin, where she lived until 1761, enjoying with 
 u mother's feeling the glorious distinction to which her sou by his 
 talents and indefatigable industry had arrived. 
 
 An incident which occurred in 1760 showed how highly Euler was 
 in general esteemed. The Russians having entered Brandenburg, 
 advanced to Charlottenburg, and plundered a farm which belonged 
 to Euler. When General Tottleben was informed who the proprietor 
 was, he ordered immediate reparation to be made to an amount far 
 above the injury, and the Empress Elizabeth presented him with 
 4000 florins. 
 
 In consequence of his unceasing application to study, Euler had the 
 misfortune to lose the sight of one eye in 1735, and in 1766 that of the 
 other ; he however continued his valuable researches, some of his 
 family acting as amanuensis, and his powers of memory are said to 
 have been wonderfully increased even in his old age. He accepted the 
 invitation of the Empress Catharine II. of Russia to return to St. Peters- 
 burg in 1766, where he would have fallen a victim to an accidental fire 
 which destroyed his house and property in 1771, but for the courageous 
 efforts of a fellow-countryman (M. Grirnon), who bore the old man 
 away in his arms. His manuscripts were saved by the exertions of 
 Count Orloff. 
 
 On the 7th of September 1783, after some calculations on the 
 motions of balloons, then newly invented, Euler dined with Lexell, 
 and conversed on the lately-discovered planet Herschel. While playing 
 with his grandchild, who was taking tea, he expired suddenly and 
 without pain. 
 
 Euler was twice married in the same family, and had many children 
 and grand-children ; his habit of life was strictly religious, the labours 
 of each day being closed with a chapter from the Bible and family 
 prayer. A catalogue of his published and unpublished writings is 
 given at the end of the 2nd volume of his ' Institutions Calculi 
 Differentialis,' 1787 ; and to the first is prefixed an eloquent Eloge by 
 Condorcet. 
 
 Every useful subject of mathematical research engaged at some 
 time the attention of Euler; and for relaxation he amused himself 
 with questions of pure curiosity, such as the knight's move in chess 
 so as to cover all the squares. His various researches have gone far 
 towards creating the geometry of situation, a subject still imperfectly 
 known. The following is one of the questions which Euler has gene- 
 ralised : — ' At Konigburg, in Prussia, the river divides into two 
 branches, with an island in the middle, connected by seven bridges 
 with the adjoining shores ; it was proposed to determine how a man 
 should travel so as to pass over each bridge once and once only.' 
 
 The memoirs of Euler are principally contained in the following 
 works : — ' Comment. Acad. Petrop.,' 1729-51 ; ' Novi Comment. Acad. 
 Petrop.,' 1750-76; 'Nova Acta Acad. Petrop.,' 1777-81 ; 'Mem. de 
 l'Acad. des Sciences,' 1765-78 ; ' Receuil de l'Acad.,' 1727, &c. ; ' Miscell. 
 Beroll.,' torn. vii. ; ' Mem. de l'Acad. de Berlin,' 1745-67. 
 
 EU'MENES, of Cardia, a town in the Thracian Chersonese, was 
 an important actor in the troubled times which followed the death of 
 Alexander the Great. [Alexander III ; Antipater ; Arrhid^eus ; 
 Perdiccas.] Being early taken into the service of Philip of Macedon, 
 he served him for seven, and Alexander for thirteen years, in the 
 confidential office of secretary. He also displayed great talent for 
 military affairs through the Persian campaigns, and was one of Alex- 
 ander's favourite and most esteemed officers. After Alexander's death, 
 in the general division of his conquests, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and 
 the coast of the Euxiue as far as Trapezus, fell to the share of Eumenes. 
 This was an expectancy rather than a provision, for the Macedonian 
 army had passed south of these countries in the march to Persia, and 
 as yet they were unsubdued. Perdiccas however took arms to establish 
 Eumenes in his new government, and did so at the expense of a single 
 
 Coin of Eumenes. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight 2G3 grains. 
 
 battle. To Perdiccas as regent, and after his death to the royal family 
 of Macedon, Eumenes was a faithful ally through good and evil ; indeed 
 he is the only one of Alexander's officers in whose conduct any appear- 
 ance of gratitude or disinterestedness can be traced. When war broke 
 out between Ptolemseus and Perdiccas (B.C. 321), he was appointed by 
 the latter to the chief command in Asia Minor between Mount Taurus 
 and the Hellespont (Cor. Nep., c. 3), to resist the expected invasion of 
 Antipater and Craterus. He defeated Craterus; but the death of 
 Perdiccas in Egypt threw the balano? of power into the hands of 
 
 Antipater, who made a new allotment of the provinces, in which 
 Eumenes was omitted, and Cappadocia given to another. The task of 
 reducing him was assigned to Autigonus, about B. c. 320. The rest of 
 his life was spent in open hostility or doubtful alliance with Antiqo- 
 nus, into whose hands he was at length betrayed, and by whom he 
 was put to death, B.C. 316, as is related in that article, vol. i., col. 238. 
 Eumenes was an admirable partisan soldier, brave, full of resources, 
 and of unbroken spirits. Those parts of DiodoruB Siculus (book xviii.) 
 which relate to him, and Plutarch's ' Life,' will be read with pleasure 
 by those who are fond of military adventure. Plutarch (' Life of 
 Eumenes,' c. ii.) speaks of some of his letters. The reader may also 
 consult also Droysen, ' Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders,' Ham- 
 burg, 1836. 
 
 EUNA'PIUS, aByzantiue historian and sophist, was born at Sardes, 
 in Lydia, a.d. 347. He began his studies under Chrysanthius the 
 Sophist, by whose advice he is said to have composed the lives of some 
 philosophers and physicians. In his sixteenth year he left Asia for 
 Athens to attend the lectures of Proajresius, by whom he appears to 
 have been subsequently treated with the utmost kindness. After 
 attending Proseresius for five years he meditated a journey to Egypt, 
 in imitation, as Hadrian Junius says, of Plato and Eudoxus : this 
 intention however he was prevented from fulfilling. He practised 
 medicine with considerable repute, and distinguished himself by ardent 
 Neoplatonism, and a vehement antipathy to Christianity. Besides his 
 biographical works, he wrote a continuation of Dexippus's history, 
 from the reign of Claudius Gothicus, where he quitted it, to the year 
 404. All that remain of his historical works are contained in the 
 edition of the 'Byzantine Historians' by Niebuhr and Bekker, vol. i. 
 [Byzantine Historians.] There is a complete edition of the works 
 of Eunapius by Boissonade in 2 vols. 8vo, Amsterdam, 1822, with 
 Wyttenbach's notes, and a life by Hadrian Junius. (See Photius, 
 codd. 77, 219 ; Suidas, under the word ' Kwi/crTavrTvos ;' and Eunapius 
 in his life of ' Proocresius.') 
 
 EUNO'MIUS, one of the chiefs of the Arian sect during the greater 
 part of the 4 th century, was a native of the town of Dacora in Cappa- 
 docia, and at first was a lawyer. It is said that he also followed for 
 some time the military profession. He then became a disciple of 
 JStius, uuder whom he very successfully studied the doctrinal theory 
 of Christianity as understood by the Anti-Trinitarians. At Antioch 
 he was ordaiued a deacon, and about 360 was elected Bishop of 
 Cyzicum. The divinity of Christ was at this period the all-ab3orbing 
 subject of ecclesiastical controversy. The Trinitarians contended for 
 the Athanasian or Homoousian doctrine (from by-oovaios, ' of the same 
 essence'), against the Semi-Arians, who held the Homoiousian doctrine 
 (from dixowvaios, ' of the like essence '), and against the doctrine of 
 the Anomoians (from avofioios, ' of a different essence '). In defence 
 of the Auomoian theory, or as it is by some called the Eunomian — 
 Eunomius being asserted to have originated it — or that of unmodified 
 Arianism, Eunomius exerted a high degree of natural abilities, asserting 
 the impossibility of two principles in a simple substance, one of which 
 is generated from the other, and exhibits the relation of a son to his 
 father. The divine essence, he said, is necessarily characterised by 
 oneness and indivisibility ; the persons of the Godhead, like the divine 
 attributes of wisdom, justice, mercy, &c, are merely names of ideal 
 distinctions of the one Supreme Essence, as considered in its different 
 relations with exterior objects ; and it is contradiction and manifest 
 absurdity to suppose this simple essence to consist of a plurality of 
 principles or parts. In reply to these psychological subtleties, the 
 advocates of the Trinitarian doctrine alleged the total incomprehen- 
 sibility of the nature of God. (St. Basil, ' Epist.,' 166 ; St. Chrysostom, 
 ' De Incomprehensibilitate Dei Naturae.') Eunomius still acknowledged 
 a father, son, and holy spirit, but the father as supreme, eternal, and 
 distinct ; the son as generated from the father, and the holy spirit as 
 generated from the son. In the ceremony of baptism he dipped only 
 the head and shoulders, regarding the lower parts of the body as 
 disreputable, and unworthy of immersion in the holy water ; and it 
 is said he taught that those who faithfully adhered to his own theory 
 of Christian doctrine might commit any degree of sin without incur- 
 ring the danger of perdition ; but this is probably a misrepresentation 
 by his opponents, who also accuse him of being an Antinomian, that 
 is, one of those who reject the Mosaic law. (Theodoret, ' Haeret.,' L 
 4,c. 3; St. Augustin, ' De Hoeres. ;' Epiphanius, ' Haeres.,' 76 ; Baronius, 
 ' ad an.,' 356.) Eunomius experienced a great severity of persecution 
 without swerving in any degree from the Arian tenets with which he 
 commenced his career. He was thrice banished from his episcopal 
 see; first, by Constantius to Phrygia; then by Valens to Mauritania; 
 and lastly, by Theodosius to the island of Naxos : however, he died 
 in peace, at a very advanced age, in the year 394. Most of his works 
 are lost, including a copious commentary on the 'Epistle to the 
 Romans' in 7 vols., and numerous letters. Two of his principal 
 treatises are printed in the 'Bibliotheca Graeca' of Fabricius in Greek 
 and Latin (torn. 8, pp. 235-305) : — ' A Confession of Faith,' presented 
 in 388 to the Emperor Theodosius; and an 'Apologetic Discourse ' in 
 28 chapters. (Cave, Prim. Christianity, part 2, c. 11 ; Pluquet, Diet, 
 de Heresies; Broughton, Historical Diet. ; Dr. A. Clarke, Succession of 
 Sac. Lit., vol. i., p. 318; Basnage, in Canisius, L 172.) 
 
 EUPHRA'NOR, of the Isthmus of Corinth, or the Isthmian, as 
 Pliny terms him, was one of the most celebrated of the ancient Greek 
 
887 EUPOLIS. 
 
 artists; he was the contemporary of Apelles and Praxiteles, and 
 flourished during the second half of the 4th century before Christ, 
 from about B.C. 360 to 320. He was equally celebrated as painter and 
 as statuary, and, says Pliny, was in all things excellent, and at all times 
 equal to himself. Euphranor, continues Pliny, was the first to repre- 
 sent heroes with dignity ; and. first used symmetry, where symmetry 
 probably means as much a general keeping of design as correctness of 
 proportions. One peculiarity of his design was a large and muscular 
 limb in proportion to the body. It was this character of his figures 
 probably, as well as colour, that he alluded to, when he said, in 
 reference to two pictures of Theseus by Parrhasius and by himself, 
 that his own had fed upon beef, while that of Parrhasius had been 
 fed upon roses : the picture of Euphranor probably resembling more 
 nearly the figure of a Greek athlete, while that of Parrhasius was 
 more in accordance with the ideal form of a divinity, as we find 
 them expressed in the Theseus of the Parthenon and the Apollo 
 Belvedere respectively, and in many other Greek statues. [Parrhasius.] 
 There are notices of many of Euphranor's works both in paintiug and 
 in sculpture. He painted in encaustic. There were three noble 
 pictures by him at Ephesus — a group of philosophers in consultation, 
 clothed in the pallium ; a general sheathing his sword, probably a 
 portrait ; and the feigned insanity of Ulysses. His most celebrated 
 works however were a picture of the ' Twelve Gods,' and a ' Battle 
 of Mantinea,' painted in the Ceramicus at Athens. The latter was 
 painted, according to Plutarch, with a degree of inspiration ; it repre- 
 sented Gryllus, the son of Xenophon, at the head of some Athenian 
 horse, defeating the Boeotians under Epaminondas, who is said to have 
 been slain by Gryllus : Plutarch, Pliny, and Pausanias call it a cavalry 
 fight : it took place B.C. 362. Euphranor's most celebrated work in 
 sculpture was a statue of Paris, which was praised, says Pliny, for 
 showing at the same time the judge of the goddesses, the lover of 
 Helen, and even the slayer of Achilles. Pliny mentions also several 
 statues by Euphranor, which were at Rome. He left writings on 
 symmetry and on colours. (Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxiv. 8, 19 ; xxxv. ii. 
 40; Quintilian, Inst. Orator., xii. 10, 3; Plutarch, Be Glor. Athen., 2; 
 Pausanias, i. 3; Eustathius, Ad Iliad., i. 529; Valerius Maximus, 
 viii. ii. 5.) 
 
 EU'POLIS, a writer of the old comedy, was born at Athens about 
 the year B.C. 446 (Clinton's ' Fasti Hellenici,' ii. p. 63), and was there- 
 fore a contemporary of Aristophanes, who was in all probability born 
 a year or two after. The time and manner of hi3 death are involved 
 in great obscurity. It is generally said that he was thrown overboard 
 by the orders of Alcibiades, when that general was on his way to 
 Sicily in B.C. 415, because Eupolis had ridiculed him in his comedy 
 of the ' Baptse ; ' but this story, which is sufficiently improbable in 
 itself, was refuted by Eratosthenes, who brought forward some 
 comedies which he had written subsequently to that period (Cicero, 
 'ad Attic' vi. 1); besides, his tomb was, according to Pausanias (ii. 
 7, 3), on the banks of the Asopus, in the territory of the Sicyonians. 
 Another account states that he fell in a sea-fight in the Hellespont, 
 and that he was buried in ^Egina. We have the names of twenty- 
 four of his plays, but no adequate specimens of them. To judge from 
 the titles, the object of Eupolis must have been, in almost every case, 
 mere personal satire. The ' Maiicas,' which appeared in B.C., 421 was 
 an attack upon Hyperbolus, the demagogue ; the Autolycus (B.C. 420) 
 was intended to ridicule a handsome pancratiast of that name, who is 
 the hero of Xenophon's 'Symposium;' the 'Lacedaemonians' was 
 directed against the political opinions of Cimon; and the object of 
 the ' Baptae ' was to ridicule Alcibiades for taking part in the obscene 
 rites of Cotytto. (See Buttmann's 'Essay on the Cotyttia and the 
 Baptae, Mythologus,' ii. p. 159, &c.) Aristophanes and Eupolis were 
 not upon good terms. Aristophanes speaks very harshly of his 
 brother poet in the ' Clouds ' (551, &c), and charges him with having 
 pillaged from 'The Knights' the materials for his 'Maricas;' and 
 Eupolis in his turn made jokes on the baldness of the great comedian 
 (SchoL on ' The Clouds,' 532). Eupolis published his first play when 
 he was only seventeen years old (Suidas). 
 
 EURI'PIDES of Athens is said to have been born at Salamis in the 
 year B.C. 480, on the day of the great victory obtained over the fleet 
 of Xerxes. His father Mnesarchus and his mother Clito were among 
 the refugees driven to Salamis by the progress of the invading army. 
 They seem to have been Athenian citizens of the poorer class, as we 
 find that the mean occupation of this poet's mother was made by 
 Aristophanes one of the standing subjects of the ridicule which he so 
 perseveringly heaped upon him. Philochorus, on the contrary, says 
 that be was of noble birth; but still his parents might be poor. 
 (Suidas, EirpiTri'Sej). Euripides however found means to devote him- 
 self early and closely to the study of philosophy in the school of 
 Anaxagoras, as well as to that of eloquence under Prodicus. While 
 he was yet very young, the persecution and banishment of Anaxagoras 
 appear to have deterred him from the cultivation of philosophy as a 
 profession, and combined with the strong natural bent of his genius 
 to have directed his exertions chiefly to dramatic composition. He is 
 said to have commenced writing at the age of eighteen ; and in the 
 course of a long life he composed not fewer than seventy-five, or, 
 according to other authorities, ninety-two tragedies, which rivalled in 
 the public approbation the contemporary productions of Sophocles; 
 »nd notwithstanding the constant and bitterly satirical attacks which, 
 
 EURIPIDES. 8S8 
 
 in the author's own time, they sustained from such as were exclusively 
 and intolerantly attached to the elder tragic school, they secured him 
 for all succeeding ages a place beside its two great master*. When 
 upwards of seventy years old, weary, it should seem, of the feverish 
 excitement in which he must have been kept alike by the petulant 
 criticism and the turbulent applause that attended bim at Athens, he 
 accepted the invitation of Archelaus, king of Macedon, and went to 
 live in honoured and tranquil retirement at his court. Here however 
 a singular as well as tragical end awaited him. According to one 
 account (for, in this as in many other matters of ancient biography, 
 there are discrepancies), he had spent three years in this retreat, when 
 walking one day in a solitary spot, he was met by some of the king's 
 hounds, which, rushing furiously upon him, tore him so violently that 
 he died in consequence of the laceration. Aulus Gellius tells us that 
 the Athenians sent to Macedon to ask for the body of Euripides, but 
 that the Macedonians constantly refused it, in order that their own 
 country might retain the honour of the magnificent tomb which they 
 erected for him at Pella, and which, according to Ammianus Mar- 
 cellinus, was sanctified by the thunder-stroke, as Plutarch informs us 
 had been the case with Lycurgus. Thus Athens was obliged to con- 
 tent herself with engraving the name of Euripides upon an empty 
 monument, which in the time of Pausanias was yet standing beside 
 the road from the Pineus to Athens (Pausan., ' Attic' 1, 2), near the 
 tomb of Menander. 
 
 Of the numerous tragedies of Euripides, nineteen survive — a much 
 larger proportion than has descended to us of the works of either of 
 the two elder tragic masters. We may point out his 'Electra' to the 
 reader's attention, not as a favourable specimen of the general powers 
 of Euripides — for indeed, as a work of art it is decidedly one of the 
 least meritorious of his extant pieces — but as affording the clearest 
 point of comparison between his most prominently distinctive features 
 a3 a dramatist and those of his two great predecessors ; this being the 
 only instance in which we have a piece from each of the three com- 
 posed upon one and the same historical or mythological subject. 
 ' Orestes,' the subject of which, inasmuch as it relates to the persecu- 
 tion of that hero by the furies of his mother and his proscription as 
 a matricide, is the same as that of the ' Eumenides ' of ^Eschylus, 
 though in scene, incident, and character, excepting that of Orestes 
 himself, they are wholly different, is more vigorous and more affecting 
 than the 'Electra.' ' Iphigenia in Tauris ' and 'Andromache' follow 
 out still farther the fortunes of Orestes; both rank among those pieces 
 of the second order in which the highest praise can be given only to 
 certain portions. The same may be said of the six following pieces : 
 the ' Troades,' the mournfully grand conclusion of which exhibits the 
 captive Trojan women leaving Troy in fiame3 behind them ; ' Hecuba,' 
 relating to the subsequent history of the captive queen ; the ' Hercules 
 Furens,' or 'Raging Hercules;' the ' Phcenissae,' having the same 
 historical groundwork as the 'Seven against Thebes' of ^E^chylus; 
 the ' Heraclid£e,' which celebrates the Athenian protection of the 
 children of Hercules, ancestors of the Lacedcctnonian kings, from the 
 persecutionof Eurystheus; and the 'Supplices,' which in like manner 
 commemorates the interment of the Seven before Thebes and their 
 army, effected, on behalf of Adrastus king of Argos, by a victory of 
 the Athenians over the Thebans. 'Helen' is a very entertaining and 
 singular drama, full of marvellous adventures and appearances, being 
 founded on the assertion of the Egyptian priests that Helen had in 
 fact remained concealed in Egypt, while Paris had merely carried off 
 an airy semblance of her. The genuineness of ' Rhesus,' taken from 
 the eleventh book of the ' Iliad,' has been much disputed, chiefly on 
 the ground of its great relative inferiority — au argument which is 
 outweighed by certaiu internal characteristics of the piece itself, com- 
 bined with the external testimony of the ancient writers ascribing it 
 to Euripides. For beautiful morality and unaffected yet overpowering 
 pathos, his ' Ion,' his 'Iphigenia in Aulis,' and above all, his ' Alcestis,' 
 are peculiarly distinguished. He found subjects especially suited to 
 the development of his finer powers in the purity and sanctity of the 
 youth from whom the first of these three tragedies is named, in the 
 unsuspecting innocence of the heroine of the second, and in the tender 
 yet resolute devoteduess of connubial affection portrayed in the third. 
 The ' Hippoly tus ' and the ' Medea,' exhibiting all the romantic violence 
 of irregular and vehement feminine passions, are deservedly celebrated 
 among the greatest and most thoroughly successful achievements of 
 this dramatist. After the ' Hippolytus,' Schlegel is disposed to assign 
 the next place among all the remaining works of Euripides to the 
 ' Bacchse,' on account of its harmonious unity, its well-sustained 
 vigour, and of the appropriateness to the very peculiar subject here 
 treated, of that luxuriance of ornament which Euripides constantly 
 displays. This piece also merits especial attention as being the only 
 one remaining of the 'serious' dramas that were composed expressly 
 and immediately in honour of Bacchus himself, the patron deity of the 
 theatre. In this instance the glory and the power of Bacchus are not 
 merely the occasion— they form the subject of the tragedy ; and the 
 wildly picturesque chorus of Bacchantes, as Schlegel observes, "repre- 
 sent the infectious and tumultuous inspiration of the worship of 
 Bacchus with great sensual power and vividness of conception." 
 
 An interest yet more peculiar attaches to the ' Cyclops,' as being 
 the sole remaining specimen of the ' satyric' tragedy, so called from the 
 chorus of satyrs, which formed an essential part of its compos itieq. 
 
RIO 
 
 This therefore seems to be the fittest place in which to give a brief 
 account of that particular and somewhat remarkable dramatic species. 
 From this piece itself aod from all collateral evidence, it is to be 
 inferred that the satyric drama was never acted but as a kind of 
 shorter and lighter after-piece, to relieve the minds of the audience, 
 especially the ruder portion of them, after the grave impression of 
 the serious performances : for which purpose however it seems to 
 have been very constantly employed, each tragic trilogy being almost 
 invariably accompanied by one of these shorter and lighter pro- 
 ductions. Thus we find mention made of five satyric pieces of 
 ./Eschylus, ceven or eight of Sophocles, five of Euripides, besides a 
 number of others by various minor authors. Notwithstanding its 
 burlesque ingredients, tin; tragic character was so far preserved in the 
 satyric play, thr.t the subject appears to have been always historical, 
 and the action partly serious, though with a fortunate catastrophe. 
 No lens than tragedy and comedy, the satyric drama had its peculiar 
 and appropriate stage decorations, representing woods, cave?, moun- 
 tain-,, and other diversities of the sylvan landscape. Satyrs old and 
 j oung, with Silcnus in his various ages, were distinguished from one 
 another by the variety of their grotesquo masks, crowned with long 
 shaggy goats' hair ; while the satyrs were negligently clad in skins of 
 beasts, and tho Gileni decorated with garlands of flowers skilfully 
 woven. The satyr parts too appear to have been sometimes acted by 
 pantomimic performers moving on a kind of stilts, to give more com- 
 pletely tho appearance of goats' legs. The choral dance, it is hardly 
 necessary to remark, was thoroughly rustic, .peculiarly lively, and 
 quite opposite in character to the solemn and impressive movements 
 which accompanied the serious tragedy. The piece of Euripides has 
 for its subject the adventure of Ulysses with Polyphemus, as related 
 in the ' Odyssey,' with the addition of Silenus and his satyr band ; 
 the characters are accurately discrim inated and consistently maintained ; 
 and the nature of the plot produces such natural contrasts and even 
 blendings of the ludicrous with the horrible, as above all things else, 
 render thi3 drama unique among the Grecian remains. 
 
 The editions of Euripides are numerous. The first edition, that of 
 J. Laskaris, Florence, near the close of the loth century, contains 
 only the ' Medea,' ' Hippoly tus,' ' Alcestis,' and 'Andromache.' That 
 of Aldus, Venice, 1503, contains seventeen plays, among which is the 
 ' Cyclops.' .Among Bubssquent editions are those by Canter, Antwerp, 
 1571; Barnes, Cambridge, 1G91 ; Musgrave, Oxford, 1778 ; Beck, 
 Leipzig, 177 S-1783. The last complete editions are by Aug. Matthia, 
 Leipzig, 1813-29, in 9 vols., a variorum edition in 9 vols., Glasgow, 
 1S25, and that by F. H. Bothe, Leipzig, 1825. The editions of separate 
 plays arc also numerous ; among which that of the ' Hecuba,' 
 'Orestes.' ' Pho nissac,' and 'Medea,' by Poison, is the best known. 
 Euripides has been translated into German by F. H. Bothe, and into 
 English by Potter. There are also translations in German of several 
 of the separate plays, 
 
 EUSEBIUS PA'MrHILI, Bishop of Caasarea, in Palestine, the 
 frieud of Constantino, and 0113 of the most distinguished among the 
 earlier Christian wriieis, was born in Palestine towards the end of the 
 reign of Gallieuus, about 261. He passed the earlier part of his life at 
 Antioch, and acquired a great reputation for learning; it was said of 
 him "that h? knew all that had been written before him." He became 
 intimate with Pamphilu3, bishop of Cajsarea, who suffered martyrdom 
 under Galerius in the year 309, and in memory of whose friendship he 
 added to his name that of Pcraphili. In 313 he was himself raised to 
 the sec of Ctcsarea, which he filled uutil his death. He attended the 
 great council of Nicrca in 325, where he joined his brethren in con- 
 demning the tenets of Arius ; but he is said to have raised some 
 objections to tho word " corcubstantial with the Father" as applied 
 to the Son, in the Nicccnn creed. His intimacy with hi3 namesake 
 Eusebius, bishop of Nicomtdia, who openly espoused the cause of 
 Arius, led him also to favour the same, and to use his influence with 
 the emperor for the purpose of reinstating Arius in his church, in 
 defiance of the opposition of Athauasius. [Arius; Athanasius.] The 
 party to which he attached himself were called Eusebiaus, from their 
 loader, Eusebius of Nicoinedia ; and they seem to have acted in great 
 measure from hostility against Athanasius and his supporters, as they 
 did not as yet openly advocate the objectionable tenets of Arius, who 
 had himself apparently submitted to the decrees of the council of 
 Nica:a. In 331 Eusebius attended a council at Antioch, consisting of 
 prelates of this party, who deposed, on some insidious charge, the 
 bishop Eustathius, a zealous supporter of the Nicaean doctrine, and 
 offered the see of Antioch to Eusebius of Cajsarea, which he declined. 
 At the council of Tyre, in 335, Eusebius joined in condemning and 
 deposing Athanasius on the charges of disobedience to the emperor in 
 not reinstating Alius, want of respect to the council, and an alleged 
 desecration of some sacred vessels. Eusebius was deputed by the 
 council to defend before Constantine the judgment which they had 
 passed against Athanasius, and he appears to have used his influence 
 with the emperor to have Athanasius banished. The part which he 
 took in this unfortunate controversy caused him to be stigmatised as 
 an Arian, though it appears that he fully admitted the divinity of 
 Christ ; and all that his accusers can prove is, that in his earlier 
 writings he asserted his belief that there was a certain subordination 
 among the persons of the Trinity. Eusebius of Csesarea died in 310. 
 
 Eusebius was possessed of most extensile erudition, sacred as well 
 
 as profane, and he was one of the warmest defenders and expounders 
 of Christianity. His principal works are : — 1. The ' Ecclesiastical 
 History,' in ten books, from the advent of our Saviour to the defeat of 
 Liciuius by Constantine in 321. Eusebius has been styled the father 
 of ecclesiastical history. He is silent on the subject of the Arian 
 controversy, although it had begun at the time when he ends his 
 narrative. Upon the whole, his history is written with considerable 
 discrimination and impartiality. 2. ' De Praeparatione Evangelici,' in 
 fifteen books. In this work he examines the various systems of theo- 
 sophy aud cosmogony of the ancient philosophers, the purest part of 
 which, he maintains, was borrowed from the Jewish sacred writings. 
 Among the writers whom he quotes, and whose works are now lost, 
 are the Phoenician Sanchoniatho and tho Egyptian Manetho. From 
 the aberrations of the heathens and the speculations of the philoso- 
 phers he draws arguments in favour of the truth of the Christian 
 doctrines. This work of Eusebius was followed by another — 3, ' Do 
 Dcmonstratione Evangelica,' in twenty books, of which only ten have 
 come down to us. It consists of further proofs of the truth of the 
 Christian faith, chiefly directed against the Jews, being drawn from 
 the books of the Old Testament. 4, ' The Chronicle or Universal 
 History,' was only known by fragments until it was discovered entire 
 in an Armenian manuscript version, found at Constantinople, and 
 published by Zohrab and Mai at Milan in 1818. The work is divided 
 into two books : the first, entitled ' Curonography,' contains brief 
 separate sketches of the history of the various nations aud states of 
 the old world, from the Creation till the year 325 of our era. The 
 author gives extracts from Berosus, Alexander Polyhistor, Abydenus, 
 Cephaliou, Manetho, and other lost writers. The second book consists 
 of synchronical tables, with the names of the contemporary rulers of 
 the various nations aud the principal occurrences in the history of 
 each, from the age of Abraham till tho tiino of Eusebius. The 
 author has made use of the works of Africanus, Josephus, and others. 
 The discovery of the Armenian copy of Eusebius has been a valuable 
 acquisition, as it serves to correct several errors and to supply many 
 deficiencies in chronology and ancient history. The other works of 
 Eusebius are — 5, 'Onomasticon Urbium et Locorum Sacra! Scriptural.' 
 C, ' The Life of Constantine,' in four books, a piece of panegyrical 
 biography. 7, ' A Life of his friend Pamphilus,' of which only a 
 fragment remains ; aud o.ther minor works. 
 
 EUSEBIUS, Bishop of Nicomedia, was born about 324, and was 
 related on his mother's side to the emperor Julian. Before he was 
 made bishop of Nicomedia he had held the bishopric of Berytu*, or 
 Beyrout, in Syria, At the council of Isicsea he joined with Eusebius 
 of Cesarea in advocating moderate measures towards Arius ; aud he 
 refused to sign the condemnation which the council issued against 
 him; but he appeuded his signature to the orthodox creed promulgated 
 by the council. Having shortly after more openly favoured the Arian 
 doctrines, he was deposed from his bishopric and banished; but the 
 influence of Constantia, the emperor's sister, who had embraced Arian 
 views, speedily procured his recall and his restitution to his see. It 
 ' was Eusebius of Nicomedia who was employed to administer baptism 
 ' to Constantine in his last illness. He appears now to have openly 
 tiught the Arian tenets, which indeed were from him commonly 
 styled Eusebian. He absolved Alius from the excommunication of the 
 Alexandrian synod; and he exerted himself to procure, by means of 
 synods specially called for the purpose, the restoration of Arius to the 
 full privileges of church communion. [Ar.ius.] 
 
 On the death of Alexander bishop of Constantinople, the great 
 opponent of the Arians, 339, Eusebius procured himself, contrary to 
 the canon, to be named his successor, and he obtained for the Arians 
 permission to celebrate public worship at Alexandria and elsewhere. 
 He died in 312. The character of Eusebius has come down to us in a 
 very unfavourable light : not merely is he represented as heterodox 
 in doctrine, but as worldly, selfish, and dishonest in conduct. But 
 we must remember, that, regarded as the most important advocate and 
 patron of the Arian heresy, he was the object of abhorrence on the 
 part of the orthodox, on whose notices of him we are alone dependent, 
 and it is only fair therefore to give him the benefit of any doubt 
 which a critical reading of their narratives may suggest. As we have 
 seen, during his life, and for some time subsequently, the followers 
 of Arius were called indifferently Arians aud Eusebians; but when 
 the party became divided, those who held what were called Homoiou- 
 sian views in opposition to strict A nanism, quoted Eusebius as their 
 authority ; and it was the doctrines of this Eusebian section which 
 was sanctioned by the council of Seleucia in 359, and the synods of 
 Aries and Milan. [Amos.] 
 
 EUSE'BIUS, Bishop of Emesa in Phoenicia, was born about the 
 end of the 3rd century in the neighbourhood of Edessa, and belonged 
 to a very illustrious family. He was from his early youth instructed 
 in the principles of the Christian religion, and had the most distin- 
 guished teachers of the time. He afterwards devoted himself to the 
 study of theology under the direction of the celebrated Eusebius of 
 CaBsarea and Patrophilus of Scythopolis. However as he wished to 
 avoid being appointed to any ecclesiastical office too early, he went to 
 Alexandria to spend some time in the study of philosophy. On his 
 return from Alexandria he stayed for awhile at Antioch, and formed 
 an intimate friendship with Flaccillus, the bishop of that place. In 
 311 Athanasius was deprived by the Synod of Antioch of his biahonrio 
 
EUSTACHIUS. 
 
 EUTYCHES. 
 
 543 
 
 of Alexandria, and Eusebius, to whom it waa offered, refused it, though 
 soon after he accepted the bishopric of Emesa. During the solemnity 
 of his ordination the people of Emesa rose agaiust him, charging him 
 with pursuing mathematics and magic. Eusebius took to flight, and 
 for a time he stayed with his friend Georgius, bishop of Laodicea, but 
 afterwards he returned to Emesa, where he was tolerated, owing to 
 the influence of his friend Georgius. He died at Autioch in 360. 
 Eubesius was a great favourite of the Emperor Constantius, who is 
 said to have been accompanied by him on several military expeditions. 
 Some of his contemporaries charged him with favouring the Sabellian 
 heresies, but Sozomen thinks that this accusation was suggested to his 
 enemies only by their envy of his great virtues. Hieronymus even 
 calls him the ringleader of the Arian party— a strong expression — 
 which, from the pen of Hieronymus, must be taken with great caution ; 
 for, as far as we know, all that can be said is, that Eusebius had a 
 leaning towards the views of the semi-Arians. Eusebius waa a man 
 of a very cultivated mind and great eloquence : he wrote a great 
 number of works which were well received by his contemporaries, but 
 all of them are lost with the exception of a few said still to exist in 
 manuscript in some libraries. (Socrates, ' Hist. Eccles.,' ii. 9 ; Sozomen, 
 iii. 6; Hieronymus, 'De Scriptor.,' 91 ; Nicephorus, ix. 5.) His life, 
 written by his friend Georgiua of Antioch, is lost. There exists, under 
 the name of Eusebiu3, a collection of fifty homilies, which were pub- 
 lished in a Latin translation by J. Gagneius, Paris, 1547 (reprinted at 
 Paris, 1561, 8vo, and at Antwerp, 1555) ; but all critics agree that 
 these homilies are the productions of a much later age than that of 
 Eusebius of Emesa. (Cave, Historia Literaria, vol. i. p. 156, &c; 
 Fabriciu8, Biblioth. Grcec, vii. p. 412, &c.) 
 
 EUSTA'CHIUS. Bariolomeo Eustachio, or Eustachius, was one 
 of the distinguished band of Italian professors to whom we owe the 
 restoration of anatomy and much of ita advancement in modern times. 
 He was born in the early part of the 16th century at San Severino, 
 in the marquisate of Ancona. Having accomplished himself in the 
 classical and Arabic languages, he studied medicine at Rome, and 
 afterwards settled there with a view to practise as a physician, under 
 the patronage of the celebrated Cardinal Borromeo. The interest he 
 could thus command, and his unusual talents, were sufficient to elevate 
 him to the chair of medicine in the Collegio della Sapienza ; yet he 
 never obtained any degree of professional success, and after a long 
 struggle with poverty and sickness, died in great indigence about 
 1574. 
 
 It is not surprising that Eustachius should have failed as a practical 
 physician, for the exclusive devotion with which he pursued his 
 favourite study must have left him little time for the cultivation of 
 the lucrative branches of his art ; but the complete failure as a teacher, 
 of a man of so much genius and enthusiasm, is remarkable. It may 
 be attributed perhaps to the ascendancy of the rival school of Padua, 
 supported by the wealth of Venice, and illustrated by the established 
 fame of Vesaliua and his successors; and may be due in part to a 
 defective temper, of which some indications may be observed in his 
 writings, and to the jealousy with which he concealed his discoveries. 
 Eustachius published little in hia lifetime, though he lived long and 
 laboured much ; yet his treatises, short and few as they are, and 
 composed when anatomy was yet an infant science, are of high 
 authority even at the present day, and bear witness to the accuracy 
 and extent of his researches. They are all in Latin, and are nearly all 
 collected in his ' Opuscula Anatomica,' published in 4to at Venice in 
 1564 by himself, and again by Boerhaave, Leyden, 1707, in 8vo. He 
 also published an edition, with annotations, of Erotian's ' Lexicon 
 Hippocraticum.' His principal work, ' On the Disputed Points of 
 Anatomy,' upon which he evidently intended to rest his fame, was 
 unpublished to the time of his death, although announced in the 
 ' Opuscula,' probably for want of means ; it was then lost, and has 
 never been recovered ; but thirty-nine copper-plates, engraved as early 
 as 1552, and intended to illustrate the text of this work, were found 
 at Urbino in 1712, and given to the world two years afterwards by 
 Lancisi, with the aid of Morgagni, Pacchioni, and other anatomists of 
 distinction. Several editions of them have since appeared with 
 voluminous commentaries ; the best is that of Albinus, published at 
 Leyden in 1744 in folio, and reprinted in 1762. The importance 
 attached to these plates, after so long an interval of oblivion, shows 
 how much Eustachius must have preceded his age ; and they prove 
 that many facts of great importance in anatomy were accurately known 
 to him, the partial re-discovery of which had shed lustre on a century 
 and a half of subsequent inquiry. 
 
 Haller declares it to be impossible, without writing a treatise on the 
 subject, to particularise the discoveries and corrections that Eustachius 
 introduced into anatomy. The tube leading from the ear-drum to the 
 throat, and a certain valvular membrane in the heart, which bear his 
 name, are among the former. 
 
 EUSTA'THIUS, Archbishop of Thessalonica in the latter part of 
 the 12th century, was one of the most learned scholiasts of his age. 
 He wrote a commentary upon the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey,' which 
 is a mine of ancient erudition, aud contains extracts from the older 
 commentators, such as Apion, Heliodorus, Demosthenes of Thrace, 
 Porphyrius, and others. It was first printed at Rome in the edition 
 of Homer, 4 vols, folio, 1542-48; the latest edition is that of Leipzig, 
 1827. Eustathius wrote likewise a Commentary on Dionysius Perie- 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. IL 
 
 getes, or the Geographer, which was published by Robert Stephens in 
 1547, and often reprinted since. He also wrote a commentary on 
 Pindar, which is lost. There are letters of Eustathius existing in 
 manuscripts in several libraries, but they have never been published. 
 The novel of ' Hysmine and Hysminias,' published at Paris in 1618, 
 has been also attributed to Eustathius, but, as it is now proved, 
 erroneously. 
 
 EUTO'ClUS, a Greek mathematician of Ascalon in Palestine, who 
 flourished about 550. He was pupil of Isidorus, the architect who 
 designed aud chiefly built the celebrated church (now the mosque) of 
 St. Sophia at Constantinople ; and he became ultimately one of tho 
 most distinguished geometricians of his time. 
 
 It was the general custom of mathematical and philosophical 
 authors, during the decline of learning, to give their views and their 
 discoveries, where they made any, in the form of commentaries on 
 some earlier writer. Eutocius, like Proclus and others, delivered his 
 views in this way ; and, like them, he furnishes some valuable contri- 
 butions to the history of mathematical science amongst the Greeks. 
 The commentaries of Eutocius on the works of Archimedes and 
 Apollonius are the only works by which he is known to modern 
 readers. His commentaries on Apollonius were published in Halley's 
 Oxford edition of the works of that author, 1710; and those on 
 Archimedes in various editions, from that of Basel, 1544, to that of 
 Oxford, 1792. 
 
 Of the commentaries of Eutocius, those on the treatise of Archimedes 
 'On the Sphere and Cylinder' are moat valued; and chiefly for hia 
 account of the various mode3 of solving the Delian problem of tho 
 Duplication of the Cube. All of them however, though of less value 
 both as to historical and geometrical matter, are still interesting to 
 every one who takes a pleasure in investigating the history of pure 
 science. The commentary on the ' Measurement of the Circle,' by 
 Archimedes, was translated into German, together with the text of 
 Archimedes to which it refers, by J. Gutenacker, Wiirzburg, 1825 and 
 1828, 8vo. 
 
 EUTRO'PIUS, FLAVIUS, was a Latin historian of the 4th century. 
 Little is known of his life : he was secretary to the emperors Constan- 
 tine and J ulian, and accompanied the latter in his unfortunate Parthian 
 campaign. He is believed to have been of senatorial rank. He is 
 known as the author of a compendium of Roman history, in ten books, 
 from the foundation of the city down to the accession of Valens, a.d. 365, 
 which, being short and easy, has been much used as a school-book. 
 Meagre as it is — for it might be contained in 100 common-sized octavo 
 pages — it is still of some use towards filling up those gaps in history 
 which are left in consequence of the total loss of some writers and the 
 imperfect condition in which others have come down to us. The best 
 edition is said to be that of Haverkamp, Leyden, 1729, 12mo, 
 improved by Verseik, Leyden, 1762, 2 vols. 8vo. Among the mo3t 
 useful editions is that of Tzschucke, Lips. 1796. 
 
 EUTYCHES, the reputed founder of the Eutychians, a sect of 
 Christians which began in the East in the 5th century, though the 
 opinions attributed to Eutyches are said to have existed before (' De 
 Eutyohianismo ante Eutychen,' by Christ. Aug. Selig., and also 
 Assemani, 'Bibliotheca Orientalis,' torn, i., p. 219.) Eutyches was a 
 monk who lived near Constantinople, and had a great reputatiou for 
 austerity and sanctity. He waa already advanced in years when he 
 came out of his retirement, a.d. 448, in order to oppose the Nesto- 
 riaus, who were accused of teaching " that the divine nature was not 
 incarnate in, but only attendant on Jesus, being superadded to his 
 human nature after the latter was formed ; " an opiuion however 
 which Nestoriua himself had disavowed. In his zeal for opposing the 
 error ascribed to the Nestorians, Eutyches ran into the opposite 
 extreme of saying that in Christ there was "only one nature, that of 
 the incarnate Word," his human nature having been absorbed in a 
 manner by his divine nature. Eusebius, bishop of Dorylajuin, who 
 had already opposed the Neatorians, denounced Eutyches before a 
 council assembled at Constantinople by Flavianus, bishop of that 
 city. That assembly condemned Eutyches, who, being supported by 
 friends at the court of Theodosius II., appealed to a general council, 
 which was soon after convoked by the emperor at Ephesus in 449, 
 under the presidency of Dioacorua, bishop of Alexandria, aud suc- 
 cessor to the famous Cyril, who had himself broached a doctrine very 
 similar to that of Eutyches. The majority of the council tumul- 
 tously acquitted Eutyches and condemned Flavianus ; the bishops 
 opposed to him were obliged to escape, and Flavianus was cruelly 
 scourged by the soldiers ; it was in short a scene of disgraceful 
 violence, which earned for the council of Epheaus the name of ' a 
 meeting of robbers.' Flavianus appealed to Leo the Great, bishop of 
 Rome, who, in his answer, condemned the doctrine of Eutyches, but 
 could not obtain of Theodosius the convocation of another couucil. 
 After the death of that emperor, his successor, Marcianus, convoked 
 a council at Chalcedon in 451, which is reckoned as the fourth 
 oecumenical council of the Church, and which the pope's legates 
 attended. By this assembly the acts of the council of Ephesus were 
 annulled, Dioscorus was deposed and banished, and Eutyches, who 
 had already been banished by the emperor, was again condemned, 
 and deprived of his sacerdotal office. The doctrine was at the same 
 time expounded that "in Christ two distinct natures are united in 
 one person, and that without any change, mixture, or confusion." 
 
Bill 
 
 EVAGORAS. 
 
 EVALD. JOHANNES. 
 
 Eutyches died in exile ; but several monks, especially in Syria, con- 
 tinued the schism, and having found a protectress in the empress 
 Kudocia, the widow of Theodosius, who was living in Palestine, they 
 became more daring, and excited the peoplo against the partizans of 
 the council of Chalcedon, whom they Btigmatised as Nestorians. The 
 emperor was obliged to send troops to repress these disorders. 
 
 The doctrine of Eutyches was perpetuated in the East under cer- 
 tain modifications, or rather quibbling of words, which caused the 
 sect to be subdivided under various names, all however comprehended 
 under the general name of Monophysites, or believers in one nature. 
 (Assemani, ' De Monophysitia,' at the beginning of vol. ii. of his 
 'Bibliotheca Orientalis,' and Albufarragius's 'Arguments' in favour 
 of that doctrine in the same volume, pp. 288-89.) In the sixth cen- 
 tury a fresh impulse was given to the Eutychian doctrine by one 
 Jacob, a monk, surnamed Baradocus, who reconciled the various divi- 
 sions of the Monophysites throughout the East, and spread their tenets 
 through Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Kgypt, found supporters 
 amoDg several prelates (among others in the bishop of Alexandria), 
 and died himself bishop of Edessa in 588. He was considered as the 
 second founder of the Monophysites, who assumed from him the name 
 of Jacobites, under which appellation they still constitute a very 
 numerous church, equally separate from the Greek, the Roman or 
 Latin, and the Nestorian churches. The Armenians and the Copts 
 are Jacobites, and so are likewise many Syrian Christians in contra- 
 distinction to the Melchites, who belong to the Greek Church. Jacobite 
 congregations are found in Mesopotamia. 
 
 The Monothelites who appeared in the 7th century have been con- 
 sidered as an offshoot of the Eutychians or Monophysites, though 
 they pretended to be quite unconnected with them. They admitted 
 the two natures in Christ, explaining that after the union of the two 
 into one person there was in liim only one will and one operation. 
 This was an attempt to conciliate the Monophysites with tho Ortho- 
 dox Church, and it succeeded for a time. It was approved of by 
 many eastern prelates, and even by Pope Honorius L, in two epistles 
 to Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople, which are found in the Acts 
 of the Councils. But the successors of Honorius condemned the 
 Monothelites, and Martin I., in a bull of excommunication, 649, con- 
 signed them and their patrons (meaning the Emperor Constans, who 
 protected them) " to the devil and his angels." Constans, indignant 
 at this, caused his exarch in Italy to arrest Martin, and send him 
 prisoner to the Chersonesus. At last, under Constantino, who suc- 
 ceeded Constans, the council of Constantinople, which is the sixth 
 oecumenical council, in C80, condemned the Monothelites, and with 
 them Pope Honorius himself. 
 
 EVA'GORAS, king of Salamis in the island of Cyprus, from B.C. 410 
 to 375. His family, the Teucridoo, had been deprived of the govern- 
 ment of Salamis by a Phoenician, Abdymon, who, with the view of 
 securing himself against the Greeks, placed his usurped kingdom under 
 the protection of Persia, and promised to reduce the whole island 
 under the Persian dominion. During the reign of the usurper, Eva- 
 goras spent his boyhood at Salamis without being molested ; but when 
 the usurper had been murdered by one of the Cyprian nobles, Evagoras 
 fled to Soli in Cilicia, for the murderer, in order to secure the throne 
 to himself, was anxious to get rid of Evagoras also, who was then a 
 very promising youth, and distinguished for his intellect as well as 
 bodily strength. Evagoras now resolved to recover the kingdom of 
 his ancestors, and, accompanied by a band of fifty faithful friends, he 
 made a descent upon Cyprus, defeated his enemies, and fully accom- 
 plished his object, B.C. 410. Isocrates, to whom we are chiefly indebted 
 for our knowledge of the history of Evagoras, describes him as a man 
 of great talent as an administrator : he restored the fortifications and 
 the harbour of Salamis, built ships, and endeavoured to establish 
 commerce ; but his great ambition seems to have been to establish 
 Greek manners and literature in his kingdom. Hence many a Greek 
 exile, especially Athenian, found a welcome reception there; and 
 Conon, after the battle of ^Egospotami, in B.C. 405, was most hospitably 
 received by Evagoras. But he could not hope permanently to improve 
 the condition of his kingdom without previously securing himself 
 against any attacks of the Persians. Through the mediation of Ctesias, the 
 physician of Cnidus, a treaty was concluded between king Artaxerxe3 II. 
 and Evagoras, in consequence of which Evagoras supported the Persians 
 with money and ships in their war against Lacedamion, and was after- 
 wards honoured by the Athenians with a statue and the Attic fran- 
 chise. The friendly relation with Persia however did not last long, for 
 Evagoras had enlarged his kingdom, partly by persuading the towns of 
 Cyprus, and partly by force. This was against the interests of Persia ; 
 several towns solicited the protection of Artaxerxes, who was prevailed 
 upon to declare war against his vassal. Hecatomnus, a dynast of Caria, 
 received the command of the Persian fleet, and Autophradates that of 
 the army ; and according to some accounts Artaxerxes himself went 
 to Cyprus, B.C. 391. Evagoras was supported by the Athenians with 
 ships, and other friends advanced him money. But his small fleet was 
 captured by the Spartan Teleutias, almost as soon as it had left the 
 harbour of Salamis. Notwithstanding this misfortune the Persians 
 made no progress, probably because Hecatomnus' had already entered 
 into a secret understanding with Evagoras, In the meantime Eva- 
 goras concluded an alliance with king Acoris of Egypt, and in B.C. 388 
 he received from the Athenians a fleet under the command of Cha. 
 
 brias. Thus strengthened, Evagoras in a short time mado himself 
 master of nearly all Cyprus, ravaged Phoenicia, and induced Cilicia to 
 revolt against Persia. Artaxerxes, who had reason to dread the fur- 
 ther progress of Evagoras, concluded a peace with the Spartan Antal- 
 cidas, B.C. 370, in which Cyprus was recognised as a province of the 
 Persian empire. The Athenians accordingly recalled Chabrias and the 
 fleet they had sent to the assistance of Evagoras, who nevertheless 
 refused to submit to Persia, relying as he did on the aid of Acoris. 
 Artaxerxes made great preparations for war ; on tho other hand Eva- 
 goras was not wanting either in courage or in the means of defending 
 himself, and although the Persians landed an army in Cyprus, Eva- 
 goras contrived to cut off their supplies, which caused an insurrection 
 in the Persian camp ; and Evagoras, who had increased his fleet to 200 
 sail, ventured upon a sea-fight off Citium, but he was defeated, and 
 lost many of his ships. Salamis was now blockaded by the Persians 
 by laud and by sea, but availing himself of the jealousies between the 
 Persian commanders, and by entering on timely negociations with 
 Orontes, one of them, separately, he succeeded in protracting the 
 war, till at the end of ten years, the war having lasted from B.C. 385 
 to 376, it was brought to a close very honourable to Evagoras. 
 He did not long survive the conclusion of the peace, for in B.C. 374, 
 being then at an advanced age, he was murdered by a eunuch whose 
 wife had been seduced by a Bon of Evagoras. He had been married 
 to Leto, by whom he was the father of a large family. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Nicocles. (Isocrates, Evagoras; Diod., xiv. 39, 98, 
 110; xv. 2-9, 47; Photius, Bill. Cod., 176; Pausanias, i. 3, 2; 
 Xeuophon, JMlen., iv. 8, 24 ; Aristotle, Polit, v. 8 ; Lucian, Pro 
 Imag., 27.) 
 
 From this Evagoras we must distinguish another, who was likewise 
 king of Salamis, and, so far as chronology is concerned, may have been 
 either a son or grandson of the first Evagoras. He was deprived 
 of his kingdom by one Protagoras, but recovered it in B.C. 350, with 
 the assistance of Persia. Soon after however, some calumnies against 
 him having been brought before the Persian king, he was expelled a 
 second time by Protagoras. Evagoras indeed succeeded in justifying 
 himself before the king, but instead of his principality he received a 
 satrapy as a compensation. In consequence of his bad administration 
 he was obliged to escape ; ho fled to Cyprus, but was overtaken and 
 put to death. (Diodorus, xvi. 42, 46.) 
 
 EVA'GRIUS, born at Epiphania, in Syria, about the year 536, prac- 
 tised as an advocate at Antioch, where he acquired a brilliant reputa- 
 tion. He was afterwards appointed qurcstor, and filled other public 
 offices. He wrote an ecclesiastical history in six books, beginning with 
 a.d. 431, about the period where the histories of Socrates and Theo- 
 doretus terminate, and continuing to the year 593. Nothing is known 
 of the personal history of Evagrius subsequent to the completion of 
 his history about 594. His work is spoken of favourably by Photius. 
 Evagrius, though not always to be trusted implicitly, yet shows greater 
 discrimination than Socrates; he consulted the original documents, 
 and appears to have been tolerably impartial. He was well acquainted 
 with profane as well as ecclesiastical history. His work was published 
 by Robert Stephens, and afterwards by Valois, Paris, 1679, in an im- 
 proved edition founded upon two different manuscripts. It was 
 published again with notes at Cambridge, 1720. 
 
 EVALD, JOHANNES, the most distinguished Danish poet of the 
 ISth century, was born at Copenhagen, November 18th, 1743. His 
 father, who was a clergyman in that city, possessed considerable 
 theological attainments, but was prevented by ill-health from acting 
 as preceptor to his sons. Johannes therefore, the second and most 
 gifted of the three, was shortly before his father's death (1754) sent to 
 Sleswig, where his tutor left him entirely to his own choice of books 
 for his leisure reading. Among these were translations of ' Robinson 
 Crusoe' and 'Tom Jones,' the former of which so captivated his 
 imagination that he proposed its hero as a practical model to himself, 
 and, at the age of thirteen, eloped with the view of making his way to 
 Holland, and there get on board ship for Batavia; but he was over- 
 taken, and his project frustrated. He was still however left as before 
 to inflame his fancy with romantic reading and with legendary lore, 
 including that of saints and martyrs, as well as of northern fable and 
 mythology. In reading the classics it was the adventurous part that 
 chiefly engaged his attention. Notwithstanding he was of exceedingly 
 weak frame of body, he longed to devote himself to a military career, 
 and the war then carried on between Prussia and Austria afforded an 
 opportunity; but his thoughts were for a while diverted from such 
 views by a very different object. He suddenly became violently 
 enamoured with a young lady, a relation of his stepfather's, for his 
 mother was now married agaiu, whom he has celebrated under the 
 name of Arense, and his passion for whom he has described in the most 
 glowing colours. This passion, although the source of heartfelt bitter- 
 ness to him — since Arense bestowed her hand upon another — while it 
 cast a shade of melancholy over his whole life, had a favourable in- 
 fluence on his poetical talent, producing in him that depth of feeling 
 and pathos which discovers itself in his ' Balders Dbd' (Death of 
 Balder). At this period however poetry, at least authorship, formed 
 no part of hi3 plans. He joined with his elder brother iu the scheme 
 of entering the Prussian service as hussars, but his brother returned 
 after reaching Hamburg. Johannes however proceeded to Magdeburg, 
 where he enlisted, but was received only as a foot-soldier. In sonae- 
 
EVANS, SIR DE LACY. 
 
 quence of this disappointment he deserted to the Austriaus ; served 
 in Bohemia ; and was at Dresden when that capital was besieged by 
 the Prussians. On his return to Denmark he applied himself to the 
 study of theology, with the view of settling in that profession and 
 marrying, but his hopes of the latter were frustrated, as already 
 noticed. He now regarded with indifference all schemes of earthly 
 felicity ; and it was in this frame of mind that he took up his pen 
 and produced his ' Lykken's Temple' (The Temple of Fortune, a 
 vision), which at once stamped his reputation. This was succeeded 
 by his 'Adam and Eve,' a dramatic composition replete with poetical 
 energy, though in many respects defective and anomalous. Conscious 
 of its imperfections, he devoted two years entirely to the study of 
 poetry, in order to prepare himself for some more finished under- 
 taking. Having made himself master of the English language, he 
 carefully perused Shakspere and Ossian ; and when he again took up 
 his pen, he composed his ' Rolf Krage,' a tragedy strongly tinctured 
 with Ossianic taste. It was first given to the public in 1770 ; about 
 which time he wa3 attacked with a painful disorder in his limbs, 
 that continued to afilict him with little intermission during the rest 
 of his life. Notwithstanding his severe sufferings and distressed cir- 
 cumstances, he not only pursued his literary occupations, but wrote 
 his comedy of ' Harlequin Patriot,' a masterpiece of its kind, abound- 
 ing with pleasantry and satire chiefly directed against pseudo-reformers. 
 In the following year, 1773, he executed his literary chef-d'ecuvre, 
 ' Haiders Dod,' a drama of much poetical beauty, and greatly superior 
 to anything of the kind that had then appeared in the Danish language. 
 Yet although well received, its merits were not so well appreciated by 
 its author's contemporaries as they have been since. It is on this and 
 his other poetical works that his reputation chiefly rests, but Evald 
 produced also several things in prose, some of which, as his ' Forslg 
 om Pebersveude' (Project respecting Old Bachelors), are replete with 
 shrewd satire and strong comic humour. Their liveliness forms a 
 strong contrast to the seriousness and even melancholy that pervade 
 his other writings : in which respect he presents a parallel to the 
 author of 'John Gilpin.' There is likewise another point of resem- 
 blance between Evald and Cowper ; each in his affliction met with 
 generous sympathy and succour from a female friend. What Mary 
 Unwin was to the one, Madame Skou was to the other; and it was 
 beneath the hospitable roof of the latter that the Danish poet breathed 
 his last, on the 17th March 1781, after being confined during two 
 years to his bed or arm chair, and almost deprived of the use of his 
 limbs. The two poets may further be likened to each other for the 
 high moral tone of their writings, vividness of conception, and happiness 
 of expression. 
 
 *EVANS, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR DE LACY, K.C.B., 
 is the son of John Evans, Esq., of Miltown, Irclaud, and was born at 
 Moig in 1787. He became ensign in the 22nd Regiment of Foot in 
 1807, and served three years in India. In 1812 he joined the 3rd 
 Light Dragoons, with which regiment he served in Portugal and 
 Spain in the campaigns of 1812, 1813, and 1814. He was present at 
 the retreat from Burgos and the action on the Hurmaza, in which he 
 was wounded ; as also at the battle of Vittoria, the investment of 
 Pampcluna, the battle of the Pyrenees, the investment of Bayonne, 
 and at the battle of Toulouse, where his horse was shot under him. 
 In 1814 he was appointed Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel in the 5th West 
 India Regiment, and took part in the capture of Washington under 
 General Ross aud Admiral Cochrane. He was likewise present at 
 the attack on Baltimore and the operations before New Orleans, when 
 the American flotilla was captured. Returning to England early in 
 the following year, he accompanied the army under the Duke of 
 Wellington into Belgium, and was assistant-quarter-master-general at 
 Quatre Bras and at Waterloo, where his horse was shot under him, 
 and also at the subsequent investment and capitulation of Paris, 
 where he remained for some time upon the staff of the army of occu- 
 pation. His next military employment was in 1835, when he 
 volunteered to command the British Legion, 10,000 in number, raised 
 with the consent of the existing government in aid of the Queen of 
 Spain against Don Carlos. In Spain his first service was to save the 
 corps under General Espaletta from destruction at Bilboa ; he subse- 
 quently took possession of San Sebastian, defeating the Carlist troops 
 by which it was invested. After several fierce engagements with the 
 enemy, in which both skill and bravery were displayed, but in which 
 success was too frequently purchased at a great loss, lie succeeded in 
 storming and capturing the fortress of Irun, in the spring of 1837. 
 For these exploits he received the Order of the Bath, aud the Cross 
 of San Ferdinand and San Charles of Spain. 
 
 In 1831 he was elected to the House of Commons a3 member for 
 Rye, but lost liia seat in the following year. In May 1833 he was 
 chosen for Westminster, which, except the years 1841-47, he continued 
 to represent down to 1865, when he retired from Parliament. In 
 1854 Sir De Lacy Evans was appointed to the command of the Second 
 Division of the army in the East. He particularly signalised himself 
 at the battle of the Alma, aud in the attack of the Russians on 
 October 26. At the battle of Inkermann he rose from a sick bed aud 
 joined his division, though he refused to take the honours of the day 
 from General Pennefather, who was in command during his absence. 
 *or this action, and for his gallantry at the Alma, he was mentioned 
 With high praise by Lord Kaglan, and received the thanks of the 
 
 EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL. 816 
 
 House of Cominon3 on his return to England in February 1855. At 
 the same time he was honoured with the Grand Cross of the Bath. 
 In 1853 he obtained the colonelcy of the 21st Fusiliers. 
 
 EVELYN, JOHN, author of 'Sylva,' 'Memoirs,' &c, was the 
 second son of Richard Evelyn, Esq., of Wotton, in Surrey, and was 
 born at that place October 31, 1620. He received his education at 
 Lewes' free school and Balliol College, Oxford. In 1641 he went 
 abroad, and served for a short timo as a volunteer in Flanders. 
 Instead of taking arms in the royalist cause, as his family politics 
 would have inclined him, he went abroad a second time in 1611, with 
 the king's permission, and spent, with one interval, the next seven 
 years on the continent, diligently employed in studying natural philo- 
 sophy, cultivating the fine arts, and acquainting himself with tuch 
 particulars of manners, trade, and manufacture as were most worthy 
 of notice. In June 1647 he married the daughter of Sir Richard 
 Browne, the royalist ambassador at Paris, and in right of his wife 
 became possessed of Sayes Court, near Deptford, where he fixed his 
 abode on returning to England in 1652. He lived in privacy and 
 study till the Restoration ; after which, being much esteemed by the 
 king and of some weight by family, fortune, and character, he was often 
 withdrawn from his retirement and engaged in many capacities in the 
 public service. He was appointed a commissioner to take care of the 
 sick and wounded, on the Dutch war breaking out in 1664, commis- 
 sioner for the rebuilding of St. Paul's, a member of the Board of 
 Trade on its first institution, &c. He was also one of the first 
 members of the Royal Society, and continued through life a diligent 
 contributor to its ' Transactions.' His most favourite pursuits were 
 horticulture and planting, upon which he wrote a variety of treatises 
 which are collected at the end of the fifth edition (1729) of Lis 
 ' Sylva, or a Discourse on Forest Trees aud the Propagation of Timber 
 in his Majesty's Dominions,' first published in 1664. The object of 
 this, the best known aud chief of Evelyn's works, was to encourage 
 planting, both as a matter of national interest and of private adventure. 
 It sold largely, and, as Evelyn himself says, had no small effect. In 
 the same year he published the first ' Gardener's Almanac,' containing 
 directions for the employment of each month. This was dedicated 
 to Cowley, and drew forth one of his best pieces, entitled ' The 
 Garden,' in acknowledgment. 
 
 Mr. Evelyn's works on the fine arts are : ' Sculptura,' 1662, a history 
 of the art of engraving, in which the first account is given of Prince 
 Rupert's new method of mezzotinto engraving : ' A Parallel of Antient 
 and Modern Architecture,' 1669 : ' Numismata, a Discourse upon 
 Medals,' 1697. All these, though long superseded, were much 
 esteemed, and were in fact valuable additions to the then existing 
 stock of literature. 
 
 By the death of his brother, in October 1699, Mr. Evelyn succeeded 
 to the family estate at Wotton, where he died, February 27, 1706, full 
 of honour as of years. He was a diligent and successful labourer, in 
 that age of discovery, in the subordinate departments of science ; a 
 valuable pioneer, as he used to call himself, in the service of the 
 Royal Society. Besides this, he was a model for the character of a 
 gentleman. A friend of the learned and the good, devoid of jealousy, 
 pious, beneficent, intellectual, delighting in the occupations of his 
 station, yet always ready to quit them for the public service : he was 
 respected even by the court profligates to whom his example was a 
 daily reproach. To the present age he is best known by his Memoirs, 
 a journal extending nearly from his childhood to his death, which 
 contains much curious and valuable matter relative to his travels, and 
 to the manners and history, political and scientific, of the age. Many 
 of his letters, and the private correspondence of Charles I. with 
 Secretary Nicholas, aud Clarendon with Sir R. Browne, are subjoined 
 to these memoirs, which were first printed in 1818 in 4to, but have 
 since been several times reprinted in a more convenient and less 
 expensive form. 
 
 EVERDINGEN, ALDERT VAN, a very able Dutch landscape 
 painter and etcher, born at Alkmaar in 1621. He studied under Roland 
 Savery and Peter Molyn, known as the Cavaliere Tempesta, and he sur- 
 passed them both. The wild and the rugged is the prevalent style of his 
 landscapes, and chiefly from Norwegian scenery ; he spent upwards of 
 a year in Norway, and took the greatest delight in sketching the wild 
 scenery of its rugged coast. Everdingen was excellent also in sea- 
 storms, and in all his works showed himself a master of aerial per- 
 spective. Some of his fine forests are extremely true and picturesque, 
 and he excelled in figures and animals. He died at Alkmaar in 1675. 
 Everdingen's etchings are numerous, but scarce ; among them are £ 
 series of one hundred Norwegian landscapes, and a series of fifty-six 
 original illustrations to the celebrated Dutch fable of 'Reynard the 
 Fox : ' his plates are generally marked A. V. E. 
 
 Aldert's elder brother, C/esar van Everdingen, was likewise a 
 clever painter, and an architect; he painted history and portrait. 
 He was born at Alkmaar in 1600, and died there in 1679. 
 
 (Houbraken, Groote Schouburg, tbc. ; Bartsch, Pcintrc-Gi aveur.) 
 
 EVERIiTT, ALEXANDER HILL, was born March the 19th, 
 1790, at Boston, United States of North America, where his father 
 occupied a high position as a clergyman. He graduated with dis- 
 tinction at Harvard University in 1S06 ; was for a while tutor in an 
 academy ; and then entered the office of Mr. John Quincy Adams, as 
 a law student. He accompanied Mr. Adams ill his mission to Russia 
 
84* 
 
 EVERETT, EDWARD, D.C.L. 
 
 in 1809; spent two years at St. Petersburg in the study of the modern 
 languages, political economy, &c. ; then spent about a year in England, 
 and made a short stay at Paris. On his return to America he com- 
 menced the practice of the law in Boston. He afterwards accepted 
 the office of Secretary of Legation to the Netherlands ; and from 
 1818 to 1821 served as Charge* d'Affaires there. Whilst practising as 
 tin advocate at Boston, Mr. Everett had become connected with the 
 periodical literature of that city, and he availed himself of the 
 opportunities afforded by his official position in Europe to carry out 
 on a broader scale bis studies and researches. The result of his 
 investigations he published in 1821 in a work which attracted con- 
 siderable attention, and was speedily translated into the French, 
 German, and Spanish languages : ' Europe, or a General Survey of 
 the Principal Powers, with conjectures on their future Prospect?.' 
 He also published in 1822 'New Ideas on Population, with Remarks 
 on the Theories of Godwin and Malthus.' 
 
 In 1825 Mr. Everett was appointed by President Adams minister 
 to the court of Spain ; and he retained this honourable post for 
 nearly five years. The duties of this office were at that time of a 
 very onerous character, but Mr. Everett, besides discharging them to 
 the satisfaction of the American government, found time to devote to 
 literature, and to aid the literary inquiries of Mr. Ticknor, Washing- 
 ton Irving, and other eminent Americans. He wrote whilst in Spain 
 a companion work to that already mentioned, entitled ' America, or 
 a General Survey of the Political Situation of the several Powers of 
 the Western Continent, with Conjectures on their future Prospects.' 
 Whilst in the Netherlands and in Spain Mr. Everett had contributed 
 numerous articles on French aud American literature, political 
 economy, and other important subjects, to the ' North American 
 Review,' then edited by his brother; and on his return to America 
 he purchased this review, and for some four or five years was its 
 editor and chief contributor. He also at this time and subsequently 
 took a prominent part in politics, acting with the democratic party, 
 and serving as a senator in the Massachusetts legislature. He was sent 
 as ;if;ent of the American government to the Island of Cuba in 1840. 
 In 1841 he was elected President of Jefferson College, Louisiana, but 
 was compelled after a short time to resign on account of enfeebled 
 health. In 1845 he was sent as Minister Plenipotentiary to China; 
 but owing to ill-health did not get beyond Rio de Janeiro. He went 
 again in 1846, and died at Canton, Juno 28, 184". 
 
 Mr. Everett enjoys a high reputation in his own country as a 
 scholar, a writer, aud a publicist. His writings are very numerous, 
 including besides those mentioned above, a large number of essays 
 contributed to the North American aud other reviews, orations 
 delivered on public occasions, &c, and some poems. The more 
 important of these he collected in two volumes, 1845-47 : a second 
 edition of the first volume was published in 1846. [See Supplement.] 
 
 EVERETT, EDWARD, D.C.L. , brother of the preceding, was 
 born in April 1794 at Dorchester, near Boston, United States ; graduated 
 at Harvard University in 1811 ; and after a brief trial of the study of 
 the law, entered the Divinity School, acting at the same time as Latin 
 tutor. He had been scarcely two years engaged in the study of 
 theology when he was invited to succeed the Rev. J. S. Buckmiuster, 
 who at his death was regarded as the most eloquent pulpit orator in 
 America, and was the pastor of one of the largest aud wealthiest Uni- 
 tarian congregations in Boston. Mr. Everett was at this time only 
 nineteen years of age, but it is said that he amply justified the con- 
 fidence reposed in him, and fully sustained the high reputation of 
 the Brattle-street pulpit for intellect and eloquence. Before he was 
 twenty he had published an elaborate ' Defence of Christianity against 
 the work of G. B. English, entitled The Grounds of Christianity 
 Examined.' His close attention to his ministerial duties soon began 
 to affect his health; and he, in 1815, exchanged his pastoral office for 
 that of Eliot Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in 
 Harvard University, permission being accorded him to visit Europe 
 for the benefit of his health, and to prepare himself for his professional 
 duties. 
 
 Being shut out from Germany by the disturbed state of the continent, 
 consequent upon Napoleon I.'s escape from Elba, Mr. Everett came to 
 England, where he stayed till after" the battle of Waterloo, when he 
 proceeded to Gottingen. There he resided for about two years, study- 
 ing the German language, and making himself acquainted with the 
 methods of instruction adopted in that and other German universities. 
 In 1817 he proceeded to Paris, thence the next year to England, and 
 in the winter of 1818 to Rome, where he availed himself of the literary 
 treasures of the Vatican ; and, being in frequent intercourse with the 
 leading artists and archaeologists of Italy, he studied the arts and 
 literature of ancient and modern Rome. In 1819 he visited Greece, 
 Turkey, &c, his way being smoothed by letters of introduction fur- 
 nished him by Lord Byron; he afterwards visited Austria, Hungary, 
 &c. He returned home, after an absence of about five years and a 
 half, a ripened scholar, and with an enlarged acquaintance with men 
 and manners ; and he carried into the discharge of his duties at the 
 university all the advantages he had thus derived, giving to his 
 prelections an unusual breadth and scope, together with decided prac- 
 ticability of purpose. In 1820 he added to his occupations that of 
 conducting the 'North American Review,' and under his editorship it 
 attained a much higher celebrity than any similar work had previously 
 
 obtained in America, and came to be received in Europe as tho 
 exponent of the current literary culture of the States. During the 
 four years that he remained its editor, Mr. Everett is said to have 
 furnished no less than fifty articles to the pages of the ' North 
 American Review,' many of them of a very learned, and others of a 
 very important character. 
 
 Although at first known merely as a divine and a scholar, Mr. 
 Everett, like most of his countrymen, early took a share in political 
 discussions. In the ' Review ' he found many opportunities of making 
 his sentiments known, and his masterly style of public speaking pro- 
 cured him to be in great request for the delivery of those favourite 
 semi-poetical, semi-political flourishings of the American people called 
 ' Orations.' At length in 1824 he was elected to the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, and he continued to be a member of congress till 1836, 
 when he was chosen governor of Massachusetts ; an office to which he 
 was re-elected at the three following annual elections. 
 
 When General Harrison became president of the United States in 
 1841, he appointed Mr. Everett his minister to the English court, aud 
 this distinguished post he held for nearly five years, with credit to 
 himself and his government, at least equal to that of any other 
 American minister who ever resided here. In England Mr. Everett 
 in fact gained the esteem of all with whom the duties of his office, or 
 the courtesies of society, brought him into connection ; and whilst 
 here the University of Oxford marked its opiuion of his scholarship 
 aud the general sense of his merits by bestowing upon him the 
 degree of D.C.L. On his return to America Mr. Everett was imme- 
 diately elected President of Harvard University, an office he retained 
 till 1849, when ill-health compelled him to resign it. He was in 
 1853 elected member of the senate for Massachusetts. 
 
 Mr. Everett is regarded as one of the first scholars, most eloquent 
 orators, and accomplished aud liberal-minded statesman of America, 
 and his high public and private character gives additional weight to 
 his intellectual eminence. To his literary powers he has hardly how- 
 ever done full justice, having never concentrated his energies on any 
 important work. He published in 1826 a volume of twenty-seven 
 Orations and Speeches delivered by him on various public occasions ; 
 which in a second edition in 1850 he extended to two volumes. His 
 subsequent discourses, many of which attracted great notice when 
 delivered, his critical aud miscellaneous essays, aud various short 
 poems, remain at present in a fugitive form. A ' Biographical 
 Memoir of the Public Life of Daniel Webster,' by Mr. Everett, is 
 prefixed to the ' Works ' of Mr. Webster. [See Supplement.] 
 
 EVLIYA, a celebrated Turkish traveller, generally spoken of as 
 Evlita Efpendi, was born at Constantinople in the year 1020 of the 
 Hegira, answering to a.D. 1611. The circumstances of his parentage 
 are characteristic. His mother was a slave from the Abaza tribe on 
 the Black Sea, who was sent when young with her brother to Sultan 
 Ahmed, who kept the boy for a page, and gave the girl to Mohammed 
 Dervisb, chief of the goldsmiths. Mohammed Dervish, the father of 
 Evliya, had when young been the standard-bearer to Sultan Solyman 
 at the memorable siege of Sigeth, or Sziget, in Hungary, in 1564, aud 
 one of his ancestors had been the standard-bearer to Mohammed II. 
 at the siege of Constantinople. His share of the spoil at the capture 
 had been a house and piece of ground in a good situation, on which 
 he had built 100 shops, and the profits of this speculation he had 
 assigned to a mosque, not however so entirely but that the adminis- 
 tration of the revenues remained in the hands of his family. Evliya 
 received a careful education, aud attended for seven years the college 
 of Hamid Effendi in one of the quarters of Constantinople. One of 
 his accomplishments was that of knowing the Koran by heart, as a 
 token of which he assumed the technical appellation of Hafiz, but he 
 tells us that in his own time there were 6000 men aud 3000 women 
 at Constantinople who had the same proficiency. A dream which he 
 had on the night of his twenty-first birthday, and which he relates 
 with great minuteness at the commencement of his travels, made him 
 resolve to devote his life to seeing the world and writing a description 
 of what he saw, and the next forty-one years of his life were chiefly 
 occupied in travelling. His movements were almost always connected 
 with military expeditions or with diplomatic and financial missions, 
 for his appointment to which he had a powerful friend in his uncle, 
 the Abaza slave, Melek Ahmed, who rose from the post of sword-bearer 
 to the sultan, to that of grand-vizier. Evliya tells us that in the 
 course of his career he had seen twenty-two battles, had visited the 
 countries of eighteen different monarchs, and had heard 147 different 
 languages spoken. He made the pilgrimage to Mecca, went to the 
 Morea, Syria, and Persia, and in 1664 was secretary to Kara Moham- 
 med on his embassy to Vienna, after which he obtained permission to 
 travel on his own account through Germany and the .Netherlands as 
 far as Dunkirk, returning through Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and 
 the Crimea. The last ten years of his life were devoted to writing 
 his travels in retirement at Adrianople, and he died about the year 
 1679. 
 
 The travels of Evliya occupy four volumes in Turkish, and the 
 narrative comes down no later than the year 1655, so that it would 
 appear he did not live to complete it. One volume of the four has 
 been published in English (part 1 in 1834, part 2 in 1846) by the 
 Oriental Translation Fund, from the pen of the celebrated orientalist 
 Von Hammer. It consists of a curiously minute account of Con- 
 
U3 
 
 EXMOUTII, VISCOUNT. 
 
 tantiaople, of a character which seems to entitle Evliya to the appel- 
 ation which ho tells us one of his ancestors rejoiced iu, " the Turk 
 of Turks." The most cbildish credulity and superstition are apparent 
 in every page : with some powers of observation and memory there 
 is a total lack of judgment. A detailed statement of the distances 
 round Constantinople, which Evliya walked round for the purpose in 
 1634 — as careful and circumstantial a narrative as Dr. Birch's of his 
 similar walk round London — is followed by a lengthy enumeration of 
 the different talismans by which the city was protected by the ancient 
 Greeks, a striking testimony of tbe ignorant awe with wbich the 
 savage conquerors looked up to the superior civilisation they had 
 subdued. There is no work now extant in a European language, 
 from which a correct idea of the Turkish mind may be so easily 
 formed, as from the travels of Evliya. 
 
 EVREMOND. Charles de St. Denys, Seigneur de St. Evre- 
 mond, was bom April 1, 1613, at St.-Denys-le-Guast, near Coutances 
 in Normandy. He entered the army early, and by his literary talents 
 and sprightly wit, as well as bravery, acquired the friendship of 
 Turenue, Conde", and other of the most distinguished men of that 
 brilliant epoch. Cond^ made him lieutenant of his guards, for the 
 sake of his society ; and he fought with that great commander at the 
 battles of Rocroi and Nordlingen. But the prince, though fond of 
 raillery at the expense of others, could not bear it levelled against 
 himself; and St. Evremond, by an imprudent exercise of his satiric 
 humour, lost his patron and his lieutenancy in 1648. In the wars of 
 the Fronde he espoused the royal cause, and was rewarded with pro- 
 motion and a pension. He incurred a three months' imprisonment in 
 the Bastile by making too free with Cardinal Mazariu ; but found 
 means to reinstate himself in the minister's favour. Another indis- 
 cretion in ridiculing the treaty of the Pyrenees (unless, as has been 
 said, there was some secret cause for his disgrace, and this was only 
 a pretext), led to a second order for his arrest in 1661. He received 
 timely notice, and fled, first to Holland, then to England, in which 
 two countries the rest of his long life was spent. Louis XIV., though 
 solicited by his most favourite courtiers to pardon St. Evremond, 
 remained inflexible till 1689, when be granted the exile a tardy per- 
 mission to return. But it was then too late for St. Evremond again 
 to change the scene ; and though in banishment, his life had all that 
 he required for happiness. He was a favourite with Charles II., who 
 gave him a pension of 300Z., and his society was courted by the most 
 distinguished wits and beauties of that reign ; nor was he less 
 fortunate in possessing the regard of William III., who had known 
 him in Holland, and took much pleasure in hi3 company. Devoted 
 to the enjoyment of the present, and availing himself moderately of 
 every source of social pleasure, he retained his faculties, mental and 
 bodily, to the last, and died in his ninety-first year, September 20, 1703. 
 
 St. Evremond was one of those who, aiming chiefly at success in 
 society, leave no memorials sufficient to sustain the reputation which 
 they have enjoyed in life. He possessed however extensive reading 
 and an independent and acute judgment, as well as wit. His verses 
 are deservedly forgotten ; and his treatises on lloman literature and 
 on the modern drama, though ranked among his best works, are 
 probably seldom read. His letters are among the most brilliant 
 specimens of that style of composition in which the French have 
 excelled. He appears to have been a disbeliever in revealed religion, 
 but he was not a scoffer, and he checked wanton insult to religion in 
 others. He never authorised the publication of his works, so that the 
 earlier editions, which were all pirated, contain much that was foisted 
 in by the booksellers to profit by his popularity. The first correct 
 edition is that of Des Maizeaux, 3 vols. 4to, Lond., 1705, with a life 
 prefixed, from manuscripts revised by the author and editor jointly, 
 shortly before the death of the former. Des Maizeaux also translated 
 the whole into English. 
 
 * EWART, WILLIAM, M.P., the son of a merchant and broker at 
 Liverpool, was born in 1798. Ho was educated at Eton and at Christ- 
 church, Oxford, where he gained the Newdegate prize for English 
 Verse in 1819. He subsequently was called to the bar at the Middle 
 Temple. He was chosen member for Bletchingley in 1828 ; sat for 
 Liverpool from 1830 to 1837, and for Wigan from 1839 to 1841; 
 since which time he has represented Dumfries. Mr. Ewart has 
 distinguished himself in Parliament not only for his constant motions 
 for the abolition of capital punishment, but also for having proposed 
 and carried by steady perseverance several bills for the establishment 
 of public libraries and museums and schools of design. He is one of 
 those individuals who have contributed most largely in a variety of 
 ways towards the spread of national secular education and the repeal 
 of taxes on knowledge. 
 
 EXCELMANS, KEMI-JOSEPH-ISIDORE, BARON, Marshal, was 
 a native of Bar-le-Duc, where he wa3 born November 13, 1775. He 
 entered the army very young, and first drew attention to his services, 
 in 1799, whilst under General Oudiuot, during the campaign which 
 terminated in the conquest of Naples. In 1800 lie became aide-de- 
 camp to General Brouseier; but exchanged that for the same post 
 under Murat. At the combat of Wertingeu, on the Danube, October 8, 
 1805, he had threo horses killed under him ; and being commissioned to 
 lay the numerous flags taken from the enemy at the feet of Napoleon I., 
 he received from the hands of the emperor the decoration of officer 
 of the Legion of Honour. 
 
 In 1806 ho was made colonel of the first regiment of Chasseurs, 
 and was mainly instrumental iu the capture, of Posen, iu Poland. Ho 
 was afterwards eugaged at the doubtful battle of Eylau, and for his 
 conduct in that action (1807) he was appointed to command a brigade, 
 and placed on the staff of Prince Murat, whom he afterwards accom- 
 panied to Spain. It was General Excelrnaus who was commissioned 
 to head the escort by which King Charles was attended to Bayonno, 
 after he had been induced to abdicate iu favour of His sou. A few 
 weeks after this special service, Excelmans was arrested with other 
 officers, and sent to England, where he remained a prisoner until 
 1811. On his release he again joined his former general, who bad 
 ascended the throne of Naples. Sent to Russia iu 1812, in Junot's 
 corps, as second in command, he was several times wounded, and was 
 created a general of division, September 8, 1812. Savary, in his 
 ' Memoirs,' ascribes entirely to Excelmans the merit of saving the 
 remnant of this corps, which returned homo after that arduous 
 campaign. 
 
 In 1813 his division was placed under the orders of Marshal 
 Macdonald ; he took an active part in the operations in Saxony and 
 Silesia, and was rewarded with the cordon of great officer of the 
 Legion of Honour. Iu 1814 he commanded the cavalry of the Impe- 
 rial Guard, and was present in most of the battles fought by Napoleon 
 to defend the French territory. After the return from Elba, General 
 Excelmans was called to the Chamber of Peers, June 2, 1815 ; and 
 despatched to join the army of the north. He was not present at 
 Waterloo, but he had the merit of bringing back his division to the 
 walls of Paris, in time to defend the capital, and to check the advance 
 of the Prussians, whom he defeated at Versailles in the last action of 
 the war. Excelmans was included in the decree of July 24, 1815, 
 and banished from France with many other generals, who had served 
 the emperor during the hundred days. It wa3 not until 1819 that 
 he was permitted to return to France, during the ministry of Marshal 
 Gouvion Saint-Cyr; in 1831 Louis Philippe restored to him his title 
 and rank in the Chamber of Peers. 
 
 Louis Napoleon raised him to the dignity of Marshal of France in 
 the early part of 1849, and nominated him Chancellor of the Legion 
 of Honour in August of the same year. On the 2nd of December 
 1851, Marshal Excelmans powerfully assisted iu securing to the 
 government of Napoleon the faithful adherence of the army. On 
 the 21st of July 1852, the marshal was on his way to the house of 
 the Princesse Mathilde, in company with one of his sons, when he was 
 suddenly jerked from his horse, and fell on the road, not far from the 
 bridge of Sevres. He never spoke afterwards, and expired at two 
 o'clock the next morning. 
 
 (Rabbe ; Savary, Memoirs ; Biogv. des Contemp. ; Dictionnaire de 
 Conversation.) 
 
 EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW, VISCOUNT, a distinguished 
 naval commander, was born April 19, 1757, at Dover, where his 
 father was captain of a government packet. Edward Pellew entered 
 the navy in 1770, and iu that year sailed with Captain Stott when he 
 was sent out to retake possession of Port Egmont, on the island of 
 West Falkland, which had been captured and restored by the Spaniards. 
 He was afterwards in the Mediterranean, and was in the BloDde 
 frigate, employed in the relief of Quebec. He first distinguished 
 himself in the battle on Lake Champlaiu, October 11, 1776. After 
 his return to England, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in 
 1779, and in 1782 obtained his commission as post-captain. From 
 1786 to 1789 he was stationed off the coast of Newfoundland. In 
 1793, having been appointed to the command of the Nymphe, 
 frigate, 36 guns, he fell in with La Cleopatra, French frigate, 
 36 guns. The French ship was fought with skill and bravery, but 
 after a desperate battle struck her colours. His gallantry on this 
 occasion was rewarded with the honour of knighthood. Sir Edward 
 Pellew was soon afterwards appointed to the command of the 
 Arethusa, frigate, 44 guns, and was engaged in several actions off 
 Jersey and other parts of the French coast, in which some frigates 
 and numerous smaller vessels were captured or destroyed. He was 
 afterwards transferred to the Indefatigable, 49 guns. In 1796, after 
 a chase of fifteen hours he came up with La Vii'ginie, French frigate, 
 and captured her. On the 13th of January 1797, the Indefatigable 
 and Amazon having engaged a large French ship iu foggy weather, 
 after an action of five hours the Indefatigable was obliged to sheer 
 off to secure her masts. Early in the morning breakers were seen, 
 and the skill and energy of Sir Edward Pellew saved the Inde- 
 fatigable, but the Amazon and the French ship were wrecked 
 together. The French ship proved to be a two-decker of 80 guns, 
 and had on board, including soldiers, 1700 persons, of whom 1350 
 perished. 
 
 In the early part of 1799 Sir Edward Pellew was appointed to the 
 command of the Impetueux, 78 guns, and was actively employed 
 iu various services on the French coast. In 1802 he was nominated 
 Colonel of Marines, and iu the same year was elected M.P. for the 
 borough of Barnstaple, in Devonshire. On the renewal of the war 
 after the peace of Amiens Sir Edward was appointed to the Tonnaut, 
 84 guns, and on the 23rd of April 1804, was promoted to the rank of 
 Rear-Admiral of the Red, and made commander iu the East Indies, iu 
 consequence of which he resigned his seat in the Hoiue of Commons, 
 July 26, 1804. On the 28th of April 1803, he was advanced to the 
 
e.'.i 
 
 ETCK, JOHN VAN. 
 
 rank of Vice-Admiral of the Blue, and returned home at the com- 
 mencement of the following year. In 1810 he was employed in 
 blockading Flushing, and soon afterwards was sent to the Mediter- 
 ranean as commander-in-chief there. On the 14th of May 1814 Sir 
 Edward Pcllew was elevated to the peerage, with the title of Baron 
 Exmouth of Canonteign in Devonshire, with a pension of 2000/. a 
 year for his long and eminent services. On the 4th of June 1814, 
 Lord Exmouth was promoted to the rank of full admiral; on the 2nd 
 of January 1815 he was created a K.C.B., and on the 16th of March 
 1816 a G.C.I!. 
 
 During his command in the Mediterranean Lord Exmouth had con- 
 cluded treaties with the rulers of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, for the 
 abolition of Christian slavery in those states; but after his return to 
 England it became known that the Dey of Algiers had violated his 
 treaty in the most flagrant manner. The British government, in 
 conjunction with that of Hollaud, having resolved to chastise the 
 Algerines, Lord Exmouth set sail on board the Queen Charlotte with 
 eighteen other vessels of war, and having been joined by the Dutch 
 admiral with six frigates, they appeared before the city of Algiers on 
 the 26th of August 1816. The plan of attack was one of the most 
 daring on record. The Queen Charlotte sailed into the harbour, 
 and took her station within the mole at eighty yards from the prin- 
 cipal batteries, and with her bowsprit almost touching the houses. 
 The other ships were placed in admirable order to support each 
 other and act with most effect against the enemy. A tremendous fire 
 was commenced on both sides at a quarter to three in the afternoon. 
 The Algeriue fleet, consisting of four large frigates, five large corvettes, 
 and a Luge number of smaller vessels, were all on fire at once, and 
 the flames had extended to the arsenal and other public and private 
 buildings. At ten o'clock p.m. the firing ceased, the Dey of Algiers 
 having consented to every demand. On the 30th of August a treaty 
 was concluded on the terms dictated by the conquerors. Lord 
 Exmouth was slightly wounded in the leg and al so on the check, 
 and his coat is described as having been almost torn into strips by 
 grape and musket shot. On his return to England he received the 
 tli inks of both Houses of Parliament, and on the 10th of December 
 1816 was raised to the rank of Viscount. About 1200 Christian 
 slaves were set at liberty, and insignia of knighthood were sent to 
 Lord Exmouth from several states to which they belonged. On the 
 death of Sir Thomas Duckworth he was appointed to the chief 
 command at Plymouth, but after 1821 he retired from public service. 
 He died January 23, 1833. 
 
 EYCK, HUBERT VAN. This celebrated old Flemish painter, the 
 elder brother and master of Jchn Van Eyck, was born, according to 
 Van Mander, in 1366, and probably at Eyck (now Alden Eyck), a 
 small village near Maaseyck on the Maas. The two brothers established 
 themselves first in Bruges and afterwards in Ghent. The name of 
 Hubert Van Eyck is nearly lost in that of his younger brother and 
 pupil John, apparently from no other reason than that John alone is 
 mentioned by Vasari in his story of the invention of the new method 
 of oil-painting, while he takes no notice whatever of Hubert ; John's 
 name therefore appears as the principal or indeed sole name in nearly 
 all subsequent investigations relating to the origin of this method of 
 oil-painting, and the joint productions of the two brothers are generally 
 adduced as the works of John alone. But the great probability is that 
 much of the invention or improvement was the result of their joint 
 experiments, and it is not unlikely that their great merit really con- 
 sisted in carrying forward to a much higher_ point of success the 
 practice of their predecessors. 
 
 Van Mander says that the Van Eycks must have painted in their 
 new method as early as 1410, and as Hubert did not die till the 18th 
 of September 1426, according to the inscription on his tomb in the 
 church of St. Bavon at Ghent, they worked a sufficient number of 
 years together to completely develope it in practice. John Van Eyck 
 cannot have been very old in 1426, as, according to an authentic 
 lottery notice of his widow, though alive in 1440, he died before the 
 24th of February 1446, and he was still young when he died, according 
 to Marcus Van Vaernewyck, who published a ' History of Belgium ' in 
 1565. This is somewhat corroborated by a portrait of John in the 
 Museum of Berlin, dated 1430, in wtiich he appears under thirty-five 
 years of age. John was probably above twenty years younger than his 
 brother Hubert, supposing the latter to have been born in 1366, and 
 accordingly he can have been at first little more than the assistant of 
 Hubert in their masterpiece, the great altar-piece of St. Bavon' s, Ghent, 
 which was finished by John in 1432. His name is clearly subordinate 
 to Hubert's in the inscription on the work, which is as follows, the 
 last verse being a chronogr am : — 
 
 " Pictor Hubertus e Eyck, major quo nemo repertus 
 
 Incepit ; pondusque Johannes arte secundus 
 
 Frater perfecit, Judoci Vyd prece fretus 
 
 yersV seXta Mai Vos CoLLoCat aCta tVerl.'* 
 The capitals in the Jast line, when added together according to then- 
 value as Koman numerals, make 1432. 
 
 The altar-piece is about fourteen feet wide by twelve feet high, and 
 is in two horizontal divisions, each centre covered by revolving wings 
 or doors, two on each side. There are twelve pictures in all : God the 
 Father, with the Virgin and St. John the Baptist, as large as life, ono 
 on each side in distinct compartments, constitute the upper centre ; 
 
 the extreme wings of this division are full-length naked figures of 
 Adam and Eve, Adam on the right and Eve on the left of the centre : 
 the interior wings represent on the right hand angels singing, on tho 
 loft, angels playing musical instruments. The lower centre represents 
 in one picture the actual Adoration of the Lamb in small figures ; the 
 two wings to the right represent the just judges, Justi Judices, and 
 the soldiers of Christ, Christi Milites ; the two on the left, the holy 
 hermits, Heyremiti Sti., and the holy pilgrims, Perigrini Sti. : there are 
 in all about 60 figures and 300 heads. An elaborate copy of it was 
 made by Coxie for Philip II. of Spain. [Coxie, Michael.] The 
 colouring of the whole work is beautiful, and many parts are admirably 
 executed ; and the painting is still in excellent preservation, owing to 
 the excellent oil-vehicle discovered by the Van Eycks. The original 
 picture remained entire till the French obtained possession of Belgium. 
 The clergy of the cathedral of St. Bavon succeeded in concealing eight 
 of the twelve panels, so that only four were taken to Paris, whence 
 they were brought back in 1815. Only the two central divisions 
 however now remain at St. Bavon' s, the wings having been sold and 
 removed to Berlin, where they are now in the Royal Museum, united 
 with a part of the copy made by Coxie for Philip II. 
 
 The medium employed by the Van Eycks was not merely oil : it 
 was Beveral oils mixed with resins, or some such substances, and pre- 
 pared by fire. Many useless and intemperate discussions have arisen 
 from Vasari's attributing the invention of oil-painting to John Van 
 Eyck, but they are due chiefly to a careless or partial consideration 
 of what Vasari really says. In one passage in the Life of Antonello 
 he fully describes, though in general terms, what the Vau Eyck 
 medium was, but in others he merely terms it oil-painting, a term, 
 after what he had said before, sufficiently characteristic and distinctive. 
 The Cav e Tambroni however in his preface to the treatise of Cennino 
 Ceunini (Rome, 1821), has, with much disingenuousness, argued solely 
 upon the general impressions of Vasari, and ridiculed the story as an 
 absurd fiction, because mere oil-painting was known in Italy before it 
 was introduced by Antonello of Messina. [Antonello da Messina.] 
 It is true that Cennino Ccnuiui wrote his book iu 1437, and it con- 
 tains five chapters on oil-painting, but he prefaces his remarks by the 
 following observation : — " I will now teach you to paint in oil, a 
 method much practised by the Germans." The oil-painting which 
 Cennino teaches is no more that of the Van Eycks than tempera 
 painting is ; it is the very method which the Van Eycks superseded. 
 An old German monk of the name of Tutilo or Theophilus wrote on 
 the same subject centuries b> fore Cennini. [Tuiilo.] The words of 
 Vasari are — "At last, having tried many things, separately and com- 
 pounded, he discovered that linseed and nut oils were the most 
 siccative : these therefore he boiled with other mixtures, and pro- 
 duced that varnish (vehicle) which he, and indeed every painter in 
 the world, had long desired." This is what the Cav e . Tambroni and 
 others have treated as an assertion that John Van Eyck invented and 
 introduced the practice of mixing colours with oil. Sir C. L. Eastlake, 
 after an elaborate investigation of every passage of contemporary 
 or nearly contemporary authority which in any way bears on the 
 subject, arrives at the conclusion that their new vehicle was an oleo- 
 resiDOus one, the resin being probably amber or copal ; and that the 
 use of that in conjunction with a great superiority of technical skill 
 would he amply sufficient to account for their works appearing so 
 much finer than those of their predecessors and contemporaries, the 
 painters in tempera and plain oil, as fully to explain the fact of their 
 being termed the inventors of a new method. 
 
 Several interesting notices of the brothers Van Eyck appeared in 
 the Messagcr des Sciences et des Arts, Gaud., 1824 ; and in the Kunsblatt 
 in 1824 and 1826; see also Passavant, Kunstreise, &c. (in which there 
 is an outline of the altar-piece of Ghent) ; and Rathgeber, Annalen der 
 Niederlandischen Malerei ; see also Eastlake, Materials for a History 
 of Oil-painting, chaps, vii. and viii. ; and Carton, Les Trois Frires Van 
 Eyck. 
 
 EYCK, JOHN VAN, the younger brother of Hubert and the 
 improver and supposed inventor of oil-painting, sometimes called 
 John of Bruges from his having settled in that place, was born at 
 Maaseyck, between 1385 and 1390, and studied under his elder 
 brother Hubert. There are however some reasons for supposing 
 John to have been born much later than 1370. As noticed under 
 Hubert Van Eyck, although the Van Eycks did not invent, they 
 greatly improved the art of oil-painting, and brought it into general 
 use. After having long resided in the rich and flourishing city of 
 Bruges, the two brothers removed about 1420 to Ghent, where their 
 greatest and most renowned work, the adoration of the Lamb for 
 the altar-piece at St. Bavou's, was painted between the years 1420 
 and 1432. Some say it was painted for Iodocus Vyts, a rich citizen 
 of Ghent, while others affirm that it was by order of Philip, duke of 
 Burgundy, count of Flanders, who came to the government in 1420. 
 It is certain however that John Van Eyck was long attached to the 
 brilliant court of Philip. John Van Eyck probably greatly advanced 
 in the path opened by his elder brother. He was endowed, as East- 
 lake observes, " with an extraordinary capacity for seeing nature," an 
 endowment of the very first consequence for the painter ; " and thus 
 gifted, and aided by the example and instruction of Hubert, a world 
 was opened to him, which his predecessors had not attempted to repre- 
 sent." The best works of John Van Eyck are now chiefly in tho 
 
85.1 
 
 EZEKIEL. 
 
 EZRA. 
 
 BM 
 
 galleries of Germany and the Low Countries; in our National Gallery 
 there is one painting, entitled, a ' Flemish Gentleman and Lady,' which 
 was executed by him in 1434, but is still in perfect preservation, and 
 is a remarkable illustration of his brilliancy of colouring, general 
 effect, and surprising technical skill. John Van Eyck died July 9, 
 1440. 
 
 EZEKIEL, the Prophet, was partially contemporaneous with Jere- 
 miah, and is one of the prophets called ' The Greater,' a distinction 
 which relates to the comparative magnitude and importance of their 
 books. Ho was a priest, the son of Buzi (i. 3), and, according to the 
 account of his life, ascribed (erroneously) to Epiphanius, he was born 
 at a place called Saresa. In the first Babylonian captivity he was 
 carried away by Nebuchadnezzar into Mesopotamia, with the kings 
 Jeconiah and Jehoiachim, and all the principal inhabitants of Jerusa- 
 lem, who were stationed at Tel-abib (iii. 15) and at other places on the 
 river Chebar (i. 1, 3), the Chaboras of Ptolemaeus, which flows into 
 the east side of the Euphrates at Carcheinisb, about 300 miles north- 
 west from Babylon. He is stated to have commenced his prophesying 
 in the fifth year of his captivity (i. 2), about B.C. 598, and to have 
 continued it during more than twenty-two years, that is, until the 
 fourteenth year after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 The pseudo-Epiphanius says that Ezekiel, on account of his aversion 
 to adopt the Chaldaean idolatry, was put to death by the Jewish prince 
 or commander of the captives. Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela states that 
 his tomb is between the Euphrates and the Chebar, in a vault built by 
 King Jehoiachim, and that within it the Jews keep a lamp perpetually 
 burning. The same writer asserts, with equal appearauce of tra- 
 ditional falsehood, that the Jews possess the book of Ezekiel in the 
 original autograph, which they read every year on the great day of 
 expiation. Greatly inconsistent with such veneration is the fact related 
 by Calmet, that the Jews speak of this prophet very contemptuously 
 as having been Jeremiah's servant-boy, and the object of popular ridi- 
 cule and raillery, whence his name 'son of Buzi' (ro, buz, contempt). 
 Josephus speaks of two books of Ezekiel, but commentators under- 
 stand him to mean the present book, divided at the end of chap, xxxix., 
 for the nine remaining chapters are distinctly different with regard 
 both to subject and style. 
 
 The book of Ezekiel is a canonical book of the Old Testament, 
 divid;d in our English version into forty-eight chapters, and placed 
 next after Jeremiah's Book of Lamentations, and before the book of 
 Daniel. The first thirty-nine chapters are occupied with the prophet's 
 highly poetic and impassioned announcement of God's wrath and 
 vengeance against the rebellious idolatry, perverseness, and sensuality 
 of the Jews, as well as against their enemies, the surrounding nations. 
 All this portion is replete with dreadful pictures of the calamities of 
 war — of ruin, desolation, death, and destruction — slaughter, pestilence, 
 famine, and every imaginable state of misery ; but in the nine chapters 
 of the latter portion the prophet describes, in a more prosaic style, his 
 visions of the new temple and city of Jerusalem. In visionary presence 
 he walks about the holy metropolis of Judaea as raised from its ruins 
 in which it was left by the Chaldaean conqueror, and restored to the 
 splendour which it displayed in the reign of Solomon. He measures 
 and observes minutely all the dimensions of the Temple and city ; 
 gives directions for the celebration of sacrificial rites, feasts, and cere- 
 monies ; partitions the country among the several tribes ; and enume- 
 rates the duties of priests, king, and people. Dr. A. Clarke, iu his 
 edition of the Bible, gives a plate of the Temple, according to Ezekiel's 
 description, and a map of Judaea as allotted by this prophet to the 
 different tribes. A full and particular analysis of the contents of the 
 whole forty-eight chapters is given in Mr. Home's ' Introduction to 
 the Bible.' The following is a brief and general survey : — Chapters i. 
 to iii. (and see chapter x.) describe the vision of the wheels and cheru- 
 bim, called 'Jehovah's Chariot,' and the prophet's reception of the 
 divine instructions and commission. Chapters iv. to xxiv. reiterate 
 reproaches and denunciations against the Israelites and their prophets, 
 announcing, in various visions and parables, the numerous calamities 
 about to come upon them as a punishment of their rebellious idolatry 
 and depravity. The species of idolatry adopted by the Jews in prefer- 
 ence to the religious system of Moses appears, by the declarations of 
 Ezekiel and the other prophets, to have been Sabism, or the worship 
 of the sun on high places planted with trees. (See chapters viii., xiv., 
 xvi., xvii., xx., xxviiL, &c.) The 390 years signified by the prophet's 
 lying as many days (vv. 4, 5) on his right side, are said by biblical 
 chronologists to be the period from B.C. 970 to 580 ; and the forty 
 years signified by his lying forty days on his right side (v. 6) is the 
 period from B.C. 580 to 540. Chapters xxiv. to xxxii. declare the 
 dreadful judgments of God against the enemies of the Jews, namely, 
 the surrounding nations of Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, and 
 Philistines ; against the cities of Tyre and Zidon ; and against all the 
 land of Eaypt. Chapters xxxiii. to xxxvii. are occupied with declara- 
 tions of the justice and forgiveness of God to the repentant — the fall 
 of Jerusalem — a severe rebuke (chapter xxxiv.) of the avarice, idleness, 
 and cruelty of the shepherds or priests of Israel — and consolatory 
 promises of the people's restoration and return to Palestine. Chapters 
 xxxviiL and xxxix. contain the prophecy of Gog and Magog ; and the 
 nine concluding chapters, as already stated, contain the prophet's 
 visions of the temple and city of Jerusalem — their dimensions, struc- 
 ture, embellishments, &c. — the ceremonial arrangements of the hierar- 
 
 chy, and the allotment of the land of Judaea among the several tribes 
 on their return from captivity. The subject-matter of Ezekiel is, for 
 the most part, identical with that of his contemporary Jeremiah, and 
 much similarity is observable in their declarations. The conquests 
 and devastations of Nebuchadnezzar form the principal theme of 
 each ; but Ezekiel views them chiefly as affecting Israel, while Jere- 
 miah describes them with especial reference to Judah. Both declaim 
 with vehement indignation against the depravity of the priests, and 
 against the ' lying divinations ' of the prophets who sought to induce 
 the people to shake off their Babylonian slavery. (Compare Jeremiah, 
 chapters xxiii., xxvii., xxviii., xxix. with Ezekiel, chapters xiii., xxxiv.) 
 Parts of the book of Revelations may be compared with some portions 
 of Ezekiel : Rev. iv. with Ezek. i. and x., respecting the cherubim 
 with wings full of eyes ; and Rev. xi., xxi., xxii. with Ezek. xL to xliil, 
 describing the New Jerusalem. 
 
 That Ezekiel is a very obscure writer is asserted by all who have 
 attempted to explain his prophecies. The ancient Jews considered 
 them as inexplicable, and the council of the Sanhedrim once deliberated 
 long on the propriety of excluding them, on this account, from the 
 canon (Calmet, Praef. ad Ezech.); but to prevent this exclusion, Rabbi 
 Ananias undertook to explain completely the vision of Jehovah's chariot 
 (i. and x.) ; and his proposal, it is said, was accepted by the council. 
 One of the reasons alleged for rejecting Ezekiel from the canon was 
 that he teaches, in direct contradiction to the Mosaic doctrine, that 
 children shall not suffer punishment for the offences of their parents 
 (xyiii. 2-20). (See Hueti, ' Demonstrate Evang., prop. 4, de Prophet. 
 Ezech.') St. Jerome considers Ezekiel's visions and expressions very 
 difficult to be understood, and says that no one under the age of 
 thirty was permitted to read them. (Hieron. proem, in lib. Ezech.) 
 Much remains likewise to be done to restore the original Hebrew text 
 to a state of purity. Michaelis, Eichhorn, Newcome, and many other 
 commentators, have written copiously on the peculiarities of Ezekiel's 
 style. Grotius (' Praef. ad Ezech.') speaks of it with the highest 
 admiration, and compares the prophet to Homer. Michaelis admits its 
 bold and striking originality, but denies that sublimity is any part of 
 its character, though the passion of terror is highly excited. Bishop 
 Lo wth (' PrEelect. Heb. Poet.') regards Ezekiel as bold, vehement, tragical ; 
 wholly intent on exaggeration ; in sentiment fervid, bitter, indignant ; 
 in imagery magnificent, harsh, and almost deformed ; in diction grand, 
 austere, rough, rude, uncultivated; abounding in repetitions from 
 indignation and violence. This eminent judge of Hebrew literature 
 assigns to the poetry of Ezekiel the same rank among the Jewish 
 writers as that of ^Eschylus among the Greeks ; and in speaking of 
 the great obscurity of his visions, he believes it to consist not so much 
 iu the language as iu the conception. Eichhorn (the peculiar character 
 of whose criticism we have noticed under that article) regards the Book 
 of Ezekiel as a series of highly-wrought and extremely artificial poetical 
 pictures. In accordance with the doctrines of the German rationalism, 
 he considers the prophecies as nothing more than the poetical fictions 
 of a heated oriental imagination of a similar nature with the poetry 
 of the Book of Revelations. The same character of thought and 
 expression is exhibited in the writings of the two other greater 
 prophets, Isaiah and Jeremiah. (Compare Ezek. xvi. 4 to 37 ; xxiii. 
 17-21 ; Isaiah, xxviii. 7, 8 ; xxxvi. 12.) 
 
 EZRA, the author of the canonical book bearing his name, and, as 
 is supposed, of the two books of Chronicles and the book of Esther. 
 Ezra, Esdras, or Esdra, in the Hebrew signifies ' help,' or ' succour.' 
 His genealogy up to Aaron is given in chap. vii. 1-5. In verses 6 and 
 11 he is said to have been a priest and ready scribe of the words of 
 the law of Moses, and he appears to have been an able and important 
 agent in the principal events of his age and nation. The prophets 
 Haggai and Zechariah were contemporary with Ezra. (Compare 
 Hagg. i. 12, Zech. iii. 4, and Ezra v.) There are four books of Ezra 
 so called. The book of Ezra, which as a canonical book of th6 Old 
 Testament is placed next after the second book of Chronicles and 
 before the book of Nehemiah, and, in the English version, is divided 
 into ten chapters. By Jews and Christians it has generally been 
 attributed to the priest whose name it bears, chiefly because through- 
 out chapters viii. and ix. the actions of Ezra are related in the first 
 person. The book of Nehemiah, which by the ancient Jews and by 
 the Greek and Roman churches is considered as the second book of 
 Ezra, and two books of Ezra, or Esdras, in the Apocrypha. The first 
 of the two apocryphal books contains the substance of the canonical 
 one, with many circumstantial additions, and in the Greek Church it 
 is read as canonical ; but the second exhibits a more decided appear- 
 ance of fiction, and by no church is regarded as a work of inspiration, 
 though it is cited by several of the ancient fathers. The first six 
 chapters of the canonical book are regarded by some biblical critics 
 as improperly ascribed to Ezra, for between the event with which the 
 seventh chapter commences, that is, the commission from Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus, in the seventh year of his reign, to Ezra to go up to 
 Jerusalem, B.C. 458, and that which terminates the sixth chapter, 
 namely, the completion of the second temple, in the sixth year of the 
 reign of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 516, there is a chasm of fifty-eight 
 years. The events recorded in the whole ten chapters of the canonical 
 book of Ezra embrace a period of ninety-one years, that is, from the 
 edict of Cyrus issued in the first year of his reign, B.C. 536, for the 
 return of the captive Jews to Jerusalem, to the termination of Ezra's 
 
BSS 
 
 EZRA. 
 
 EZRA. 
 
 050 
 
 government by the mission of Nehemiah to Jerusalem from Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus, in the twentieth year of his reign, B.C. 445. As Daniel's 
 seventy prophetic weeks commence at the going forth of the edict of 
 Cyrus to Zerubbabel, or that of Artaxerxes to Ezra, these events 
 have been the subject of much critical investigation among biblical 
 critics. 
 
 The contents of the first six chapters are briefly as follows : — Chap. i. 
 gives an account of the proclamation of Cyrus concerning his release 
 of the captive Jews, permitting them to go from Babylon to Jerusalem 
 to rebuild the temple ; of the restoration of thoir property, sacred 
 vessels and utensils; and of presents made by the Chaldaeans of money 
 and various provisions. Chap. ii. states the numbers of each of the 
 families composing the multitude which returned to Judaea with Zerub- 
 babel, and the number of their beasts of burden. All this account, 
 except some of the numbers, is repeated word for word in the seventh 
 chapter of Nehemiah, beginning at verse 6. In verses 64 and 05 of 
 Ezra, the total number of the people is said to have been 42,300, 
 which appears not to agree with the preceding particulars, since the 
 addition of these produces only 29,818, that is, a deficiency of 12,542. 
 The numbers given in Nehemiah occasionally differ very widely from 
 those in Ezra : for instance, the children of Azgad are said in Ezra 
 (ii. 12) to have been 1222 ; but in Nehemiah (vii. 17) they arc said to 
 have been 2322, or 1100 more. Nehemiah repeats precisely the total 
 given by Ezra, 42,360; but the addition of Nehemiah's particular 
 numbers makes 31,089, or a deficiency of 11,271. The numbers of 
 horses, 736, mules, 245, camels 435, and asses 0720, exactly agree in the 
 two accounts ; but in Ezra, verse 69, the chief fathers give to the trea- 
 sury 61,000 drams of gold ; in Nehemiah, ver. 71, they give only 20,000. 
 Chap. iii. records the events of setting up the altar at Jerusalem and 
 re-establishing the Jewish sacrificial worship. An account of the 
 interruption of the building of the Temple by the decree of Artaxerxes, 
 and its completion by a subsequent decree of the same monarch, with 
 transcripts of the documents written on these occasions, occupy chap- 
 ters iv., v., and vi. Chapters vii. and viii. contain an account of Ezra's 
 commission from Artaxerxes to undertake the government of Judaea, 
 his preparations and reception of presents for his journey thither, with 
 a multitude of Jews, who it appears still remained in Babylon after 
 the return to Judaea of the multitude under Zerubbabel ; an enumera- 
 tion of the people and families who returned, and the weight of gold 
 and silver contributed by the king, his councillors, and the Israelites, 
 for the use of the Temple at Jerusalem (viii. 25-28). The value of 
 these presents amounts to 803,600?. Chapters ix. and x. relate the 
 proceedings of Ezra in separating from their wives and children all the 
 Israelites who had married women from among the surrounding nations, 
 and thus " mingled the holy seed with the abominations of the Gen- 
 tiles." Ezra (x. 3, 5, 19, 44) made all the Israelites who had " strange 
 wives and children" swear, and give their hands, that they would put 
 them away, which accordingly was done. The latter half of the last 
 chapter contains a long list of the husbands and fathers who were the 
 subjects of this national renovation. The part from iv. 8 to vii. 27 is 
 written in the Chaldee idiom, the rest in Hebrew. The period to 
 which the four last chapters relate, comprising the Jewish history from 
 B.C. 458 to 445, is coeval with the age of Pericles. The subject-matter 
 of the book of Nehemiah being identical with that of Ezra, the colla- 
 tion of the two affords a mutual illustration. Chapter viii. of Nehe- 
 miah relates circumstantially the fact of Ezra's solemn reading and 
 exposition of the law to the assembled Israelites, who, according to 
 Dr. Prideaux, were taught the signification of the Hebrew words by 
 means of Chaldaic interpreters (8) ; for, siuce their seventy years' 
 captivity in Babylon, the Chaldee instead of the Hebrew had become 
 their vernacular language. (Dean Prideaux's ' Connection,' fol., p. 263.) 
 The critical arguments adduced in opposition to the opinion that the 
 Israelites lost the Hebrew language, and understood only the Chaldoeau, 
 are well exhibited in Dr. Gill's learned ' Dissertation on the Antiquity 
 of the Hebrew Language,' 8vo, 1767. The two principal undertakings 
 of Ezra were— 1. The restoration of the Jewish law and ritual, accord- 
 ing to *he modes observed before the captivity ; and 2. The collection 
 and rectification of the Sacred Scriptures. On account of these im- 
 portant services the Jews regarded Ezra as a second Moses. It was 
 commonly believed by the ancienK/athers of the Christian church 
 that all the Sacred Scriptures of the Jews were entirely destroyed in 
 the conflagration of the temple and city of Jerusalem by the king of 
 Babylon, and that, on the return of the Jews from the Chaldaean cap- 
 tivity, these writings were wholly reproduced by a divine inspiration 
 of Ezra. (See Irenaeus, ' Adversus Haeres.,' 1. iii. c. 25 ; Tertullian, 
 'De Habitu Mulierum,' c. iii.; Clemens Alexandrinus, 'Strom.,' i. ; 
 Basil, in ' Epist. ad Chilonem.') The following passages from the 
 second Apocryphal book of Ezra, xiv. 26, 45, 46, 47, appear to sanction 
 this opinion. "Behold, Lord," says Ezra, "I will go as thou hast 
 commanded me, and reprove the people. The world is set in dark- 
 
 ness, and thoy that dwell therein are without light, for ' thy law is 
 burnt ; ' therefore no man ko.oweth the things that are done of thee ; 
 but if I have found grace before thee, send the Holy Ghost into me, 
 and I shall write all thing3 that have been done in the world since 
 the beginning, which were w ritten in the law ; And God said, Go, 
 prepare to write swiftly, and wheji thou hast done, some things shalt 
 thou publish, aud some things shalt thou show secretly to the wise." 
 The learned Dr. Prideaux ( ' Connection,' p. 200, folio) remarks, that 
 " in the time of king Josiah (b.o. 640), through the impiety of the two 
 preceding reigns of Manasseh and Ammon (a period of sixty years), 
 the book of the law was so destroyed and lost, that, besides the copy 
 of it which Hilkiah, the high-priest, accidentally found in the Temple 
 (2 King3 xxii. 8, &c. ; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 14, &c), there was then no other 
 to be had ; for Hilkiah's surprise in finding it, aud Josiah's grief in 
 hearing it read, do plainly show that neither of them had ever seen it 
 before ; and if this pious king and the high-priest were without it, it 
 cauuot be thought that any one else had it." If this were the authentic 
 copy laid up before the Lord in the Temple, it was burned, as believed 
 by all Jewish aud Christian writers, in the burning of the Temple, fifty- 
 two years afterwards, by Nebuchadnezzar. Dr. Prideaux takes it to 
 be implied in several passages which he cite3 that, from the copy 
 accidentally found by the high-priest Hilkiah, some transcriptions were 
 made previous to the destruction of the Temple, and that from theso 
 scattered copies Ezra formed his improved edition of the sacred text. 
 In common with most other modern divines, he rejects the opiuion of 
 the fathers respecting the restoration of the Scriptures by a new reve- 
 lation to Ezra. All, he continues, that Ezra did was — " he got together 
 a3 many copies of the sacred writings as he could, and out of them all 
 he set forth a corrected edition, in which he took care of the follow- 
 ing particulars : — 1. He corrected all the errors introduced into these 
 copies by the negligence or mistakes of transcribers; for, by comparing 
 them, he found out the true reading, and set all to rights. 2. He col- 
 lected together all the books of which the Sacred Scriptures did then 
 consist, disposed them in proper order, and settled the canon of Scrip- 
 ture up to that time." The Jewish writers state that the canon was 
 decided by a congress of 120 elders under the presidency of Ezra; but 
 since they mention as members of it, not only the contemporaries Of 
 Ezra, as Daniel, Shadrach, Meschech, and Abednego, but the high-priest 
 Simon the Just, who lived 250 years later, it is evident that they mean 
 the number of those who 'successively' arranged and rectified the 
 canonical books. Ezra divided all the books he collected into three 
 parts — the Law, that is, the Pentateuch; the Prophets, containing all 
 the historical and prophetical books; and the Hagiographa, which 
 comprised all the writings not included in the two other divisions. 
 (Josephus, 'Advers. Apion.') He divided the Pentateuch into fifty- 
 four sections, one of which was read every Sabbath ; and, according to 
 the Jewish authorities, he was also the author of the smaller divisions 
 called Pesukim, or verses, and of the various readings and suggested 
 corrections inserted in the margins of the Hebrew copies. These, 
 called Keri Cetib (that which is read and that which is written), appear 
 however in the books attributed to Ezra himself. (On these particulars 
 see the remarks of Prideaux ; Buxtorf, ' Vindiciae Veritatis Hebraica?,' 
 par. ii. c. 4 ; Walton, 'Prolegom.,' viii. § 18 ; and Dr. Gill, 'Dissertation 
 on the Hebrew Language.') Most Biblical critics state that Ezra changed 
 the ancient names of places for those by which these places were known 
 in his time, and some say that he wrote out all the Scriptures in the 
 Chaldee character, which alone was used and understood by the Jews 
 after the Chaldaean captivity. Whether Ezra added the vowel-points, 
 and whether they were invented by the Masorite grammarians at a 
 period far posterior to the rise of Christianity, are subjects of great 
 controversy among Hebrew critics. A concise and able view of this 
 dispute is contained in Houbigant's ' Racines Hebraiques,' 1732. The 
 Jewish commentators assert that all the rules and observances pre- 
 served by tradition from the time anterior to the captivity were care- 
 fully collected by Ezra, and that having reviewed them, those which 
 he sanctioned by his authority henceforth constituted the oral law, in 
 contradistinction to that which is written ; the Church of J erusalem, 
 like the Church of Rome, regarding Scripture and tradition of equal 
 authority, and believing the latter to be highly necessary for clearing 
 the obscurities, supplying the defects, and solving the difficulties of 
 the former. (See the Rabbinical authorities cited by Dr. Prideaux.) 
 It is a theory suggested by this learned divine, and since adopted by 
 many others, that all the numerous passages of the Hebrew Scriptures 
 which involve chronological inconsistencies were interpolations made 
 by Ezra, and that this is the only possible way to solve the difficulties 
 which arise from considering the several books as the productions of 
 the persons to whom they are commonly ascribed. The Book of Ezra, 
 with the two Books of Chronicles, Nehemiah, Esther, and Malachi, aro 
 supposed by Dr. Prideaux to have been added to the sacred canon bj 
 the high-priest Simon the Ju3t, in the year B.C. 150. 
 
86T FABBRONI, ANQELO. FAB1US MAXIMUS. fiM 
 
 F 
 
 FABBRO'NI, A'NGELO, bom at Florence in 1732, studied at Rome, 
 where he distinguished himself for his ability in Latin composition, 
 through which he became acquainted with the learned Bottari, who 
 introduced him to the Papal Court. Iu 1766 Fabbroni published the 
 first volume of his Latin biographies of the learned men of modern 
 Italy, ' Vitae Italorum Doctrina Illustrium ; ' a work which he after- 
 wards extended to twenty volumes Svo, and for which he has been 
 styled by some the Plutarch of modern Italy. His patron Bottari not 
 being on friendly terms with the Jesuits, who had great influence at 
 Rome under Pope Clement XIII., and who accused Bottari of a bias 
 in favour of the Jansenists, Fabbroni found that he had little chance 
 of making his way at the Papal Court, and he returned to Florence in 
 1767, where the Grand-Duke Leopold appointed him President of the 
 Collegiate Church of San Lorenzo, and afterwards made him Prefect 
 of the University of Pisa, and Prior of the military order of San 
 Stefano. After this Fabbroni travelled through Germany, France, and 
 England, and made the acquaintance of many learned men in those 
 countries. On his return to Tuscany in 1773, he devoted himself 
 entirely to literary pursuits. He continued his series of Latin biogra- 
 phies already mentioned ; wrote also some Italian biographies ; edited 
 the ' Giornale Pisano,' a literary magazine, which enjoyed considerable 
 reputation in the latter part of the 18th century; and published an 
 interesting history of the University of Pisa, ' Historia Academite 
 Pisana;,' 3 vols. 4to, Pisa, 1791. Fabbroni died at Pi3a in 1803. A 
 cenotaph was raised to his memory in the Campo Santo of that city. 
 Fabbroni was considered one of the best Latin scholars and writers of 
 Italy in the 18th century. His Italian works are — ' Elogj di alcuni 
 Illustri Italiani,' 2 vols. 8vo, Pisa, 1789 ; ' Elogj di Dante, di Poliziano, 
 di Ariosto, e di Tasso,' 8vo, Parma, 1800 ; ' Dissertazione sulle Statue 
 appartenenti alia Favola di Niobe,' Florence, 1799. He also contri- 
 buted to the collection of ' Memorie de' piu Illustri Pisani,' 4 vols. 
 4to, Pisn, 1790. 
 
 (Lombardi, Sloria della Letteratura Italiana nel Secolo XVIII.; 
 Gamba, Serie di Testi di Lingua ; Life of Fabbroni, written by him- 
 self, and inserted in the last volume of his ' Vita; Italorum.') 
 
 FABER, REV. GEORGE STANLEY, was born on the 25th of 
 October 1773. He was the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Faber, 
 who was descended from a French refugee who came over to England 
 after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. He was educated at the 
 grammar-school of Heppenholme, near Halifax in Yorkshire, where 
 he remained till 1789, when he was entered of University College, 
 Oxford. He took his degree of B.A. in 1792, and before he had reached 
 his twenty-first year was elected a Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln 
 College. He took his degree of M.A. in 1796, served the office of 
 Proctor in 1801, and in the same year, as Bampton Lecturer, preached 
 the discourses which he shortly afterwards published under the title 
 of ' Horse Mosaics:.' He took the degree of B.D. in 1803, and married 
 in the same year. Having by this step relinquished his fellowship, he 
 went to reside with his father at Calvcrley, near Bradford in York- 
 shire, where for two years he acted as curate. Iu 1805 he was collated 
 to the vicarage of Stockton-upon-Tees, in the county of Durham, 
 which he resigned in 1808 for that of Redmarshall, in the same 
 county. In 1811 he was collated to the vicarage of Long-Newton, 
 where he remained till 1831, when Bishop Burgess presented him to 
 a prebend in the cathedral of Salisbury. In 1832 Bishop Van Mildert 
 gave him the mastership of Sherburn Hospital, near the city of 
 Durham, when he resigned the vicarage of LoDg-Newton. During his 
 mastership he considerably increased the value of the estates of the 
 Hospital. He rebuilt the chapel, the house, and the offices, and 
 greatly improved the grounds ; he augmented the incomes of the 
 incumbents of livings under his patronage, restored the chancels of 
 their churches, and erected agricultural buildings on the farms. He 
 died at his residence, Sherburn Hospital, on the 27th of January, 
 1854. 
 
 The theological writings of Mr. Faber, particularly those on prophecy, 
 have had a very wide circulation. One of the principles for the inter- 
 pretation of prophecy which ho chiefly laboured to establish and 
 exemplify, was, that the delineations of events in prophecy are not 
 applicable to the destinies of individuals, but to those of governments 
 and nations. His writings are numerous, and we can only mention a 
 few of the most important : — ' Hoi aj Mosaicse, or a View of the Mosaical 
 Kecords, with respect to their Coincidence with Profane Antiquity, 
 their internal Credibility, and their Connexion with Christianity,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1801 ; ' A Dissertation on the Mysteries of the Cabyri, or 
 the great gods of Phoenicia, Samothrace, Egypt, Troas, Greece, Italy, 
 and Crete,' 2 vols. 8vo ; ' Di-sertation on the Prophecies that have 
 ►■con fulfilled, arc now fulfilling, or will hereafter be fulfilled, relative 
 to the great Period of 1260 Years,' 2 vols. Svo, 1806; ' A General and 
 Connected View of the Prophecies relating to the Conversion, Restora- 
 tion, Union, and future Glory of Judah and Israel,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1808 ; 
 'The Origin of Pagan Idolatry,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1816; 'A Treatise on 
 the Genius aud Object of the Patriarchal, the Lcvitical, and the 
 
 woo. div. vol. ii. 
 
 Christian Dispensation,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1823; 'The Sacred Calendar of 
 Prophecy, or a Dissertation on the Prophecies which treat of the 
 Grand Period of Seven Times,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1828 : ' Eight Dissertations 
 on certain connected Prophetical Passages of Holy Scriptures bearing 
 more or less upon the Promise of a Mighty Deliverer,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 1845. 
 
 FA'BIUS MA'XIMUS and the FAB 1 1 FAMILY. The Fabii were 
 a numerous aud powerful gens or patrician house of ancient Rome, 
 which became subdivided into several families or branches distinguished 
 by their respective cognomina, such as Fabii Maximi, Fabii Ambusti, 
 Fabii Vibulanii, &c. They were of Sabine origin, and settled on the 
 Quirinal from the time of the earliest kings. After the expulsion of the 
 Tarquinii, the Fabii a3 one of the older houses exercised considerable 
 influence in the senate. Cseso Fabius being Quasstor with L. Valerius, 
 impeached Spurius Cassius in the year of Rome 268 (b.c. 486), and 
 had him executed. It has been noted as a remarkable fact, that for 
 seven consecutive years from that time, one of the two annual consul- 
 ships was filled by three brothers Fabii in rotation. Niebuhr has 
 particularly investigated this period of Roman history, and speculated 
 on the causes of this long retention of office by the Fabii as con- 
 nected with the struggle then pending between the patricians and the 
 plebeians, and the attempt of the former to monopolise the elections. 
 ('History of Rome,' vol. ii., 'The Seven Consulships of the Fabii.') 
 One of the three brothers, Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, fell in battle 
 against the Veientes, in the year 274 of Rome. In the following year, 
 under the consulship of Cecso Fabius and Titus Virginius, the whole 
 house of the Fabii proposed to leave Rome and settle on the borders 
 of the territory of Veii, in order to take the war against the Veientes 
 entirely into their hands. After performing solemn sacrifices, they 
 left Rome in a body, mustering 306 patricians, besides their families, 
 clients, and freedmen, and encamped on the banks of the Cremera in 
 sight of Veii. There they fortified themselves, and maintained for 
 nearly two years a harassing warfare against the Veientes and other 
 people of Etruria, At last in one of their predatory incursions they 
 fell into an ambuscade, and fighting desperately, were all exterminated. 
 (Livy, ii. 48, 50; and Niebuhr's 'History,' on the Veientine War.) 
 One only of the house, Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, who had remained 
 at Rome, escaped, and became the parent stock of all the subsequent 
 Fabii. He was repeatedly consul, and was afterwards one of the 
 decemviri with Appius Claudius for two consecutive years, in which 
 office he disgraced himself by his connivance at the oppressions of 
 his colleague, which caused the fall of the decemvirate. In subse- 
 quent years we find several Fabii filling the consulship, until we come 
 to M. Fabius Ambustus, who was consul iu the year 393 of Rome, 
 and again several times after. He fought against the Hernici aud the 
 Tarquinians, and left several sons, one of whom, known by the name 
 of Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus, attacked and defeated the 
 Samnites (429 of Rome) in the absence and against the orders of his 
 commanding officer, the Dictator Papirius, who would have brought 
 him to punishment for disobedience, but was prevented by the inter- 
 cession of the soldiers and the people. This Fabius was five times 
 consul, and dictator twice. He triumphed over the Samnites, Marsi, 
 Gauls, and Tuscans. His son, Quintus Fabius Gurges, was thrice 
 consul, and was the grandfather of Quintus Fabius Maximus Ver- 
 rucosus, one of the most celebrated generals of Rome. Iu his first 
 consulate he triumphed over the Ligurians. After the Thrasymeniati 
 defeat he was named Prodictator by the unauimous voice of the 
 people, and was intrusted with the salvation of the Republic. The 
 system which he adopted to check the advance of Hannibal is well 
 known. By a succession of skilful movements, marches, and counter- 
 marches, always choosing good defensive positions, he harassed his 
 antagonist, who could never draw him into ground favourable for his 
 attack, while Fabius watched every opportunity of availing himself 
 of any error or neglect on the part of the Carthaginians. 
 
 This mode of warfare, which was new to the Romans, acquired for 
 Fabius the name of Cunctator, or ' temporiser,' and was censured by 
 the young, the rash, aud the ignorant; but it probably was the means 
 of saving Rome from ruin. Minucius, who shared with Fabius the 
 command of the army, having imprudently engaged Hannibal, was 
 saved from total destruction by the timely assistance of the dictator. 
 In the following year however, 536 of Rome, Fabius being recalled to 
 Rome, the command of the army was intrusted to the consul T. 
 Varro, who rushed imprudently to battle, when the defeat of C'annaj 
 made manifest the wisdom of the dictator's previous caution. Fabius 
 was made consul in the next year, and was again employed iu keeping 
 Hannibal iu check. In 543 of Rome, being consul for the fifth time, 
 he re-took Tarentum by stratagem, after which he narrowly escaped 
 being caught himself in a snaro by Hannibal near Metapontum. 
 (Livy, xxvii. 15, 16.) When some yesw after tb.3 question was dis- 
 cussed in the seuate of sending 1'. Scipio with an army into Africa, 
 Fabius opposed it, saying that Italy ought first to be rid of Hannibal 
 Fabius died some time after at a very advanced age. His son, called 
 
 3 K 
 
ssrt 
 
 FABIUS, PICTOIt. 
 
 FABRICIUS, JOANNES ALBERTUS. 
 
 likewise Quintus Fabius Maximus, who bad also been consul, died 
 before him. His grandson Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, being 
 proconsul, fougbt against Viriatus in Spain, and concluded with him 
 an honourable peace. (Livy, 'Epitome,' 54.) He was afterwards 
 consul repeatedly, and also cenBor. He wrote 'Annals,' which are 
 quoted by Macrobius. ('Saturu.,' i. 16.) His brother by adoption 
 Quintus Fabius Maximus ^Emilianus, the son of Paulus ^Emilius 
 (Livy, xlv. 41), was consul in 609 of Rome, and was the father of 
 Fabius, called Allobrogicus, who subdued not only the Allobroges, but 
 also tho people of Southern Gaul, which he reduced into a Roman 
 province, called from that time ' provincia,' or ' Gallia ulterior.' 
 Quintus Fabius Maximus, a grandson of Fabius Maximus Servilianus, 
 served in Spain under Julius Cccsar, and was made consul in the year 
 709 of Rome. Two of his sons or nephews, Paulus Fabius Maximus 
 and Quintus Fabius Maximus were consuls in succession under 
 Augustus. Thore was also a Fabius consul under Tiberius. Pauvinius 
 and others have reckoned that during a period of about five centuries, 
 from the time of the first Fabius, who is mentioned as consul, to the 
 reign of Tiberius, forty-eight consulships, seven dictatorships, eight 
 censorships, seven augurships, besides the offices of master of the 
 horse and military tribune with consular power, were filled by 
 individuals of the Fabian house. It also could boast of thirteen 
 triumphs and two ovations. 
 (Augustinus, Be Familiis Romanorum.) 
 
 FA'BIUS PICTOR, the historian, was descended from Marcus 
 Fabius Ambustus, tho consul. Caius Fabius, one of the sons of 
 Ambustus, was called Pictor, because about B.C. 304 he painted the 
 temple of the goddess of health, which painting existed till the reign 
 of Claudius, when the temple was burnt. (Pliny, xxxv. c. 4.) The 
 surname of Pictor was continued to his children, one of whom, Caius 
 Fabius Pictor, was consul with Ogulnius Gallus B.C. 271, and was the 
 father of the historian. Quintus Fabius Pictor, the historian, lived 
 in the time of the second Punic war, according to the testimony of 
 Livy (xxi.), who says, in speaking of the battle of the Thrasymene 
 Lake, that he followed in his narrative the authority of Fabius Pictor, 
 who was contemporary with that memorable event. Fabius appears, 
 from the testimony of Dionysius and Cicero, to have written both in 
 Greek and in Latin. Of the extracts from or references to his ' Annals,' 
 which have' been transmitted to us, some concern the antiquities of 
 Italy, and the beginning of Rome, others the subsequent fasti, or 
 history of the Romans. He was the first who compiled a history of 
 his country from the records of the pontiffs, and from popular 
 tradition. He is spoken of with praise by Livy, who evidently 
 borrowed largely from him, and by Cicero, Pliny, Appian, and others. 
 Polybius however censures his obvious partiality for the Romans, and 
 his unfairness towards the Carthaginians, in his account of the second 
 Punic war. His ' Annals ' are lost, with the exception of some 
 fragments, which have been preserved by subsequent writers, and are 
 printed in the collections of Antonius Augustinus, Antwerp, 1595, 
 Antonius Riccobonus, Venice, 1568, and others. The well-known 
 impostor, Annio da Viterbo, published a small work on the origin of 
 Rome, under the name of Fabius Pictor, but the fraud was discovered. 
 Quintus Fabius Pictor was sent by thj senate to Delphi after the 
 battle of Cannae, to consult the Oracle about the ultimate result of 
 the war. He must not be confounded with Servius Fabius Pictor, 
 who lived in the time of Cato the Elder, and who is praised by Cicero 
 for his knowledge of jurisprudence, literature, and antiquity. 
 
 FABRETTI, RAFFAELE, born at Urbino in 1619, was secretary 
 of Pope Alexander VIII., and prsefect of the papal archives in the 
 castle of St. Angelo under Innocent XII. Fabretti spent most of his 
 time in searching the ruins which are scattered about Rome and its 
 neighbourhood, and digging for those which were under ground. He 
 explored catacombs, columbaria, sepulchres, and other subterraneous 
 receptacles ; and he gathered an abundant harvest of antiquities, and 
 chiefly of inscriptions, which he ranged in a collection at his house at 
 Urbino, which collection has been since transferred to the ducal 
 palace of the same town. It is related that the horse upon which he 
 rode for many years in his perambulations through the Campagna, 
 and which his friends had nicknamed Marco Polo, became so accus- 
 tomed to his master's hunting after inscriptions that he used to stop 
 of himself whenever he met with any. Fabretti wrote, 1°, ' Inscriptio- 
 num Autiquarum Explicatio,' fol., 1699; 2°, 'De Coluinna Trajani,' 
 fol., 1683, an elaborate work, in which he illustrated with much 
 erudition and judgment the sculptures of that celebrated monument. 
 He added to it an explanation of the Iliac table which is in the 
 Capitoline Museum. 3°, ' De Aquis et Aqureductibus Veteris Romae,' 
 4to, 1680, reprinted with notes and additions in 1788. Fabretti 
 rendered great services to arch ecology by his system of illustrating one 
 monument by the help of another. Fabretti died at Rome in January 
 1700 at the age of eighty. He may be considered as the predecessor 
 of Bianchini, Bottari, and other archaeologists who illustrated the 
 antiquities of Rome during the 18th century. 
 
 FABRIA'NO, FRANCESCO DI GENTILE DA, commonly called 
 Gentile da Fabriano, was born at Fabriano, in the Marc of Ancona, 
 about 1370. He was instructed by his father Niccol5 in the physical 
 and mathematical sciences, and was placed with Allegretto di Nuzio, 
 called Gritto da Fabriano, to learn painting. Gentile executed many 
 works in fresco and a tempera at Gubbio and other cities of the 
 
 Marc of Ancona; and also at Orvieto, Florence, and Siena. He 
 painted in 1423 a Madonna for the Cathedral of Orvieto, and he is 
 Btyled in the register of the cathedral— " egregius magister roagis- 
 trorum." He painted in the same year at Florence a picture of the 
 ' Adoration of the Kings,' for the sacristy of Santa Trinita, which is 
 now in the gallery of the academy at Florence, and is one of its 
 choicest pieces. But his masterpiece, according to Vasari, was an 
 altar-piece of the Virgin, &c, in the church of San Niccolo at the 
 gate of San Miniato, painted in 1425, now lost, with the exception of 
 two fragments still in the church. Gentile worked also with great 
 distinction at Venice and at Rome : he was presented by the Senate 
 of Venice with the patrician toga, and a pension for life was granted 
 to him for a painting in the council-chamber of the naval victory of 
 the Venetians over the fleet of Frederic Barbarossa in 1177: it fell to 
 pieces in the 16th century through damp. At Rome he painted some 
 of the decorations of the church of San Giovanni in Laterano, ordered 
 by Pope Martin V. ; and a fresco of the ' Madonna and child with 
 St. Benedict and St. Joseph,' over the tomb of Cardinal Adimari, in 
 the church of Santa Maria Nuova ; all of which have now perished. 
 It was the latter work which excited the admiration of Michel Angelo, 
 and led him to say that his style was like his name — Gentile. 
 
 The colouring and execution of Gentile were excellent for his 
 period, and he was one of the most meritorious artists of his time. 
 His works, though not to be compared with those of Masaccio, or 
 even of Fra Giovanni da Fiesole, were an immense improvement upon 
 the rigid meagre forms of Giotto and his school. Gentile taught 
 Jacoppo Bellini at Venice, and that painter's son Gentile was Fabriano's 
 namesake. Gentile left various writings on the origin and progress of 
 art, on the mixing of colours, and on the art of drawing lines ; but 
 whether they still exist, does not appear. He died about 1450. 
 
 FABRI'CIUS, CAIUS, surnamed Luscinus, was consul for the first 
 time in the year 471 of Rome, 283 B.C., when he triumphed over the 
 Boii and the Etruscans. After the defeat of the Romans under the 
 consul Lacvinus by Pyrrhus (b.c. 281), Fabricius was sent by the 
 senate as legate to the king to treat for the ransom of the prisoners, 
 or, according to others, to propose terms of peace. Pyrrhus is said to 
 have endeavoured to bribe him by large offers, which Fabricius, poor 
 as he was, rejected with scorn, to the great admiration of the king. 
 Fabricius being again consul (b.c. 279) was sent against Pyrrhus, who 
 was then encamped near Tarentum. The physician to the king is 
 said to have come secretly to the Roman camp, and to have proposed 
 to Fabricius to poison his master for a bribe, at which the consul, 
 indignant, had him put in fetters and sent back to Pyrrhus, upon 
 whom this instance of Roman integrity made a great impression. 
 Pyrrhus 60on after sailed for Sicily, where he was called by the 
 Syracusans, then hard pressed by the Carthaginians. Fabricius having 
 defeated the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttii, who had joined 
 Pyrrhus against Romo, triumphed over those people. Pyrrhus, after- 
 wards returning to Italy, was finally defeated and driven away by M. 
 Curius Dentatus (b.c. 276). Two years after, Fabricius being consul 
 for the third time, with Claudius Cinna for his colleague, legates came 
 from king Ptolemy of Egypt to contract an alliance with Rome. 
 Several instances are related of the extreme frugality and simplicity 
 of the manners of Fabricius, which are conformable to what is recorded 
 of the austerity of Roman life previous to the Punic wars. When 
 censor, he dismissed from the senate P. Cornelius Rufinus because he 
 had in his possession ten pounds' weight of silver plate. Fabricius 
 died poor, and the senate was obliged to make provision for his 
 daughters. 
 
 FABRI'CIUS, JOANNES ALBERTUS, born at Leipzig in 1668, 
 early distinguished himself by his proficiency in classical literature, 
 and his penetration and judgment, assisted by an excellent memory. 
 Having finished his studies at Leipzig, he went to Hamburg, where I. 
 F. Meyer appointed him his librarian. He was afterwards appointed 
 professor in the college of Hamburg, where he remained to the end 
 of his life, having refused several advantageous offers made to him by 
 the landgrave of Hesse Cassel and others. He was the author of 
 many elaborate works, the principal of which are : — ' Bibliotheca 
 Grasca,' 14 vols. 4to, Hamburg, 1705-28. A new edition, with con- 
 ' siderable improvements, was published by Harles, Hamburg, 1790- 
 1809. The 'Bibliotheca Graca' is a most valuable work; it contains 
 notices of all the Greek authors, from the oldest known down to 
 those who flourished in the last period of the Byzantine empire, with 
 lists of their works and remarks on them. * Bibliotheca Latina,' 3 
 vols. 4to, 1 708-21. The ' Bibliotheca Latina ' is inferior in research and 
 copiousness to the ' Bibliotheca Graeca,' but is still a useful work, espe- 
 cially in the amended edition of Ernesti, Leipzig, 1773. 'Bibliotheca 
 Latina Ecclesiastica,' fol., Hamburg, 1718. ' Bibliotheca Latina media) 
 et infimae iEtatis, cum Supplemento C. Schoettgenii, ex recensione 
 Dominici Mansi,' Padua, 0 vols. 4to, 1754. ' Memoriae Hamburgenses,' 
 7 vols. 8vo ; to which Reimar, the son-in-law of Fabricius, added an 
 eighth volume in 1745. 'Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1719; being a Collection of the false Gospels, Acts of the 
 Apostles, and other apocryphal books which appeared in the early 
 ages of Christianity. ' Dibliographia Antiquaria,' 4to, 1760 ; being 
 notices of the authors who have written upon Hebrew, Greek, Roman, 
 and ecclesiastical antiquities. 'Delectus Argumentorum et Syllabm 
 Scriptorum, qui veritatem Religionis Christianae lucubrationibus sui/ 
 
SCI 
 
 FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN. 
 
 FABYAN, ROBERT. 
 
 Ml 
 
 asseruerunt,' 4to, 1725. ' Hydrotheologia,' written in German, and 
 translated into French under the title ' Thdologie dc l'Eau, ou Easai 
 gur la Bonte", la Sagesse, et la Puissance de Dieu, manifestoes dans la 
 Crdation de l'Eau,' 8vo, La Haye, 1741. 'Codes pseudepigraphus 
 Veteris Testauienti,' being a counterpart of his work on the Apocrypha 
 of the New Testament. 'Conspectus Thesauri Litterarii Italiae,' 8vo, 
 1749, or notices of the principal collections of the Historians of Italy, 
 as well as of other writers who have illustrated the antiquities, geo- 
 graphy, &c, of that country, including the great works of Burmannus 
 and Qrsevius, with an account of the Italian literary journals existing 
 or which had existed before the time of Fabricius, of the Italian 
 academies, and a catalogue of Italian bibliographers and biographers 
 classed according to the particular towns which they have illustrated. 
 ' Imp. Caes. Augusti Temporum Notatio, Genus et Scriptorum Frag- 
 ments,' with ' Nicolai Damasceni De Institution Augusti,' 4to, 1727. 
 ' Salutaris Lux Evangelii, sive Notitia Propagatorum per Orbem totum 
 Sacrorum : accedunt Epistolae qusedam ineditse Juliani Imperatoris, 
 Gregorii Habessini Theologia iEthiopica, necnon Index geographicus 
 Episcopatuum Orbis Christiani,' 4to, 1731; a work which contains 
 useful information for students of ecclesiastical history. ' Centifolium 
 Lutheranum, sive Notitia Literaria Scriptorum omnia generis de 
 Martino Luthero, ejus Vita, Scriptis, et Reformatione Ecclesite 
 editorum,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1730. ' Centuria Fabriciorum Scriptis clarorum 
 qui jam diem suam obierunt collecta,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1709, with a con- 
 tinuation in 1727. The author has included in his list not only the 
 authors whose name or surname was Fabricius, but also those whose 
 names may be turned into the Latin Fabricius ; such as Le Fevre, 
 Fabri, the German Schmidts, &c. Independently of the above and 
 other minor works, Fabricius published editions of Sextus Empiricus, 
 of the Gallia Orientalis of Father Colomies, of the works of St. 
 Hippolytus, and many others. The catalogue of the works published 
 by him exceeds 100. Fabricius died at Hamburg April 30, 1736, in 
 his sixty-ninth year. His private character was as praiseworthy as his 
 learning was great. He was modest, hospitable to strangers who came 
 to visit him, indefatigable in the duties of his professorship and rector- 
 ship, and yet he found time for the compilation of the numerous 
 works already mentioned. Reimar, his son-in-law, wrote his biography 
 in Latin, 8vo, 1732. 
 
 FABRI'CIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, was born Jan. 7, 1743, at 
 Tundern, in the duchy of Sleswick. He was brought up to the 
 medical profession, and at the age of twenty-three was made professor 
 of natural history and rural economy at KieL 
 
 Fabricius studied under Linnaeus, and afterwards enjoyed perhaps a 
 more brilliant reputation than any other pupil of that great naturalist. 
 He was early induced, by the circumstance of Linnaeus quoting him in 
 his ' Systems Naturae,' especially to devote himself to the study of 
 entomology, a science at that time in its infancy. The first results of 
 his investigations were made known in 1775 in his ' Systema Entomo- 
 logiae,' where he proposed a new arrangement of the insect tribe, the 
 novelty of which consisted in choosing for his divisions the modifications 
 observable in the parts of the mouth. Fabricius subsequently published 
 numerous other works of still greater importance, a list of which is 
 given at the end of this article. Possessing a great knowledge of 
 languages, Fabricius travelled through the northern and middle states 
 of Europe, collecting new materials, and frequenting the various 
 museums, from which he described all such insects as had hitherto 
 been unpublished. Accounts of his travels in Norway, Russia, and 
 England, were published by him. He visited England seven times, and 
 received great assistance from inspecting the collections of Sir Joseph 
 Banks, John Hunter, Drury, Francillon, and others. 
 
 Although chiefly known as an entomologist, Fabricius was not a 
 stranger to other branches of zoology ; he was also versed in botany 
 and mineralogy. He died at Kiel, on the 3rd of March, 1808. His 
 principal works are : — ' Systema Entomologia!, sisteus Insectorum 
 Classes,' &c, 1 vol. 8vo, Flensburgi et Lipsiae, 1775 ; ' Philosophia 
 Entomologica,' 8vo, Hamburgi et Kilonii, 1778 ; 'Reise nach Nor- 
 wegen, mit Bemerkungen aus der Natur Historie und CEconomie,' 8vo, 
 Hamburg, 1779 ; ' Species Insectorum, sistens eorum differentias 
 specificas, synonymia auctorum, loca natalia, metamorphosis,' &c, 2 
 vols. 8vo, Hamburgi et Kilonii, 1781; 'Mantissa Insectorum, sistens 
 species nuper detectas,' &c, 2 vols. 8vo, Hafniac, 1787 ; 'Genera 
 iQsectoram,' 1vol. 8vo (Chilonii), Kiel, 1776; 'Entomologia Syste- 
 matica, emendata et aucta,' 4 vols. 8vo, Hafnia), 1792-93-94; 'Index 
 Alphabeticus,' 1796 ; ' Supplementum Entomologia) Systematica?,' 1 
 vol. 8vo, Hafni;e, 1798 ; ' Systema Eleuteratorum,' 2 vols. 8vo, Kiliaj, 
 1801; 'Index,' 8vo, Kiliae, 1802; 'Systema Rhyngotorum,' 8vo, 
 Brunsvigae, 1801; 'Index Alphabeticus Rhyngotorum, genera et 
 species continens,' quarto, Brunsvigae, 1803; 'Systema Piezatorum,' 
 8vo, Brunsvigae, 1804 ; and ' Systema Antliatorum,' 8vo, Brunsvigae, 
 1805. 
 
 FABRI'ZIO, GERO'NIMO, commonly called FABRICIUS AB 
 ACQUAPENDENTE, was born in 1537 at Acquapendente in Italy, 
 a city near Orvieto, in the Papal States. His parents, although poor, 
 contrived to furnish him with the means of obtaining an excellent 
 education at Padua, which was then rapidly approaching tho eminence 
 it long held, especially as a school of medicine, among the universities 
 of Europe. He became at an early age a pupil of Fallopius, who then 
 htld tho chair of anatomy and surgery at Padus^and speedily attracted 
 
 the attention and goodwill of his instructor ; and so well did he avail 
 himself of the advantages thus opened to him, that he was appointed 
 on the death of Fallopius iri 1562 to succeed him in the direction of 
 the anatomical studies of the university, and three years later to the 
 full emoluments of the professorship. The growing perception of tho 
 importance of anatomical knowledge led in 1584 to the institution of 
 a separate chair for the teaching of that branch of medicine, which 
 however Fabricius appears to have still hold in conjunction with that 
 of surgery up to a late period of his life, with the able assistance of 
 Casserius. 
 
 _ His reputation as a teacher drew students from all parts of Europe, 
 till at length the theatre of anatomy, built originally by himself, 
 became so crowded, that the Venetian senate provided him in 1593 
 with another of ample dimensions at the public expense ; and at the 
 same time added largely to his salary, and granted him many exclusive 
 privileges and titles of honour. The fame and wealth he derived from 
 his practice as a surgeon was even more than equal to that which he 
 enjoyed as an anatomist,and after upwards of fifty years of uninterrupted 
 prosperity he retired from public life the possessor of au enormous 
 fortune and the object of universal esteem. Yet he doe3 not appear 
 to have found the contentment he sought in his retirement. His 
 latter years were embittered by domestic dissensions and the unfeeling 
 conduct of those who expected to become his heirs, and he died on 
 the 21st of May, 1619, not without the suspicion of poison, 
 at his country-seat on the banks of the Brenta, still known as the 
 Montagnuola d' Acquapendente. 
 
 The name of Fabricius is endeared to the cultivators of his science 
 by the circumstance of his having been the tutor of William Harvey, 
 whose discovery of the circulation of the blood (by far the most 
 important yet achieved in physiology) was suggested, according to his 
 own statement, by the remarks of Fabricius on the valvular structuro 
 of the veins. The title of Fabricius to the minor discovery has been 
 disputed, though strongly asserted by some anatomists. The truth 
 is, that his merit did not so much consist in original discovery as in 
 the systematic arrangement and dissemination of the knowledge 
 acquired by his predecessors. It is as a practical surgeon that he is 
 now chiefly remembered : the observations recorded in his works 
 having however been sinoe wrought up in the general body of surgical 
 knowledge, are now seldom consulted or quoted specifically as derived 
 from himself. 
 
 Fabricius published many tracts both in anatomy and surgery. 
 Those on anatomy and physiology, often referred to, but not with 
 unmixed praise, by Harvey and the writers of the period immediately 
 subsequent to his own, were collected in one volume folio, and repub- 
 lished, with a biographical memoir of the author, by Albinus at Leyden 
 in 1738. The best edition of his surgical works, the twenty-fifth, was 
 printed, also in one folio volume, at Padua in 1666. His writings are 
 all in Latin, and display a considerable knowledge of the literature, 
 general and medical, of that language and of the Greek. 
 
 FABROT, or FABROTUS, CHARLES-ANNIBAL, a jurist, was 
 born at Aix, in Provence, in 1580 or 1581. In tho memoirs of the 
 French jurists the names and conduct of their patrons generally 
 occupy an important position : among those who were instrumental 
 in bringing Fabrot into notice occur the names of two distinguished 
 men, Fabri de Peiresc and Bignou the avocat-generaL With au 
 interval of a short residence in Paris in 1617, Fabrot appears to have 
 taught law in the University of Aix from the year 1609 to 1637, when 
 he went to Paris to print his edition of the ' Institute of Theophilus,' 
 or the Greek version of Justinian's ' Institute ' (' Institutionum 
 Justiniani Imperatori3 Paraphrasis Grseca, etc., recensuit, et Scholiis 
 Grascis auxit, Car. Annibal Fabrotus '). Having got access to the 
 manuscripts in the possession of Cujacius, and to others in the public 
 libraries, he long laboured in the preparation of an edition of the 
 ' Basilica,' which, containing a version of the several parts of the 
 'Corpus Juris,' and also the additions made under the Eastern 
 emperors, were, unless through the fragments edited in Latin by 
 Hervetus, known to the jurists only in manuscript. Fabrot's edition 
 was published at Paris iu 1647 in 7 vols, folio (' Basilicorum Libri 
 Sexaginta, cum Versione Latina C. A. Fabrotti et aliorum '). This 
 edition contains thirty-three complete and ten incomplete books of 
 the sixty. In 1658 Fabrot edited at Paris the works of Cujacius, in 
 10 vols, folio ; a well-known edition, but not well provided with 
 means of reference. The labour conuected with this work is said to 
 have occasioned the death of its editor : he died at Paris on the 16th 
 of January 1659. He wrote several minor works on jurisprudence, 
 and some on the science now called medical jurisprudence, e. g., 
 ' Disquisitiones ducc : prior de Justo Partu— altera de Numero 
 PuerperiL' Some of these minor works are iu the ' Thesaurus J uris 
 Romani' of Everard Otto. 
 
 FABYAN, ROBERT, the historian, was descended from a respect- 
 able family of Essex. Bishop Tanner says he was born in London. 
 We have no dates of his early life, but he is known to have belonged, 
 as a citizen, to the Company of Drapers. From records in the city 
 archives, it appears that he was alderman of the ward of Farriugdou 
 Without, and in 1493 served the office of sheriff. In 1496, in the 
 mayoralty of Sir Henry Colet, we find him " assigned and chosen," 
 with Mr. Recorder and certain commoners, to ride to the king " for 
 redress of tho new impositions raised and levied upon English clotha 
 
E63 
 
 FACCIOLATI, JACOPO. 
 
 FAIRBAIRN, WILLIAM. 
 
 in the archduke's land," (that is, the Low Countries), an exaction 
 which was desisted from in the following year. In 1502, on the plea 
 of poverty, he resigned the alderman's gown, not willing to take the 
 mayoralty, aud probably retired to the mansion in Essex, mentioned 
 in his will, at Theydon Gernon. That he was opulent at this period 
 cannot be doubted, but he seems to have considered that the expenses 
 of the chief magistracy, even at that time, were too great to be sus- 
 tained by a man who had a numerous family. He ordered the figures, 
 as may be seen in his will, of sixteen children, in brass, to be placed 
 upon his monument. Stow, in his 'Survey of London' (edit. 1G03, 
 ]>. 198), gives the English part of the epitaph on Fabyan's tomb, from 
 the church of St. Michael, Cornhill, and says he died in 1511, adding 
 that his monument was gone. Bale, who places Fabyan's death on 
 February 28th, 1512, is probably nearest to the truth, as his will, 
 though dated July 11, 1511, was not proved till July 12, 1513. 
 Fabyan's will, printed with the last edition of his ' Chronicle,' affords 
 a curious comment on the manners of the time of Henry VIII. 
 
 There have been printed five editions of Fabyan's ' Chronicle.' The 
 first was printed by Pynson in 1516, and is of great rarity, in a perfect 
 ..'-ate. Bale says that Wolsey ordered many copies of it (' exemplaria 
 noanulla') to be burnt. The second was printed by Rastell in 1533; 
 the third in 1512 by Reynes ; the fourth in 1559 by Kyngeston. The 
 changes of religion gave rise to many alterations and omissions in 
 the third and fourth editions ; but all the editions, as well as a manu- 
 script of the second part of the book, were collated by Sir Henry Ellis 
 for the fifth edition, 4to, Loudon, 1811, from the preface to which the 
 present account of the historian has been principally taken. Fabyan, 
 whose object was to reconcile the discordant testimonies of historians, 
 named his book ' The Concordance of Histories,' adding the fruits of 
 personal observation in the latter part of his ' Chronicle.' The first 
 edition had no regular title; the latest is called ' The New Chronicles 
 of England and France, in two parts, by Robert Fabyan, named by 
 himself the Concordance of Histories.' The first edition, which may 
 be considered as Fabyan's genuine work, extends from the time when 
 "Brute eutryd firste the He of Albion" to 1485 ; the second continued 
 the history to 1509 ; the third to 1541 ; and the fourth to the month 
 of May 1559. The names of the several authors who were the con- 
 tinuators are unknown. 
 
 _ FACCIOLA'TI, JA'COPO, was horn in 1G82 at Toriggia on the 
 Euganeau Hills, in the province of Padua. He studied first in the 
 college of Este, and was afterwards placed by Cardinal Barbarigo, 
 bishop of Padua, in the clerical seminary of that city, where he com- 
 pleted his studies and was admitted into holy orders. He was then 
 appointed teacher and afterwards praifect or superior of the same 
 establishment. The seminary of Padua had then as subsequently a 
 high reputation ns a place for the study of Latin and for the nume- 
 rous and generally accurate editions of the classics and other school- 
 books which have come from its press. Facciolati contributed to 
 support this reputation by his labours. Among other works he pub- 
 lished improved editions of the 'Lexicon' of Schrevelius, of the 
 ' Thesaurus Ciceronianus ' of Nizolius, and of the vocabulary of seven 
 languages, known by the name of ' Calepino,' 2 vols, fol., 1731. In 
 this last undertaking he was greatly assisted by his pupil, Egidio 
 Foreellini, although he was not willing to acknowledge the obligation. 
 The work however being still incomplete, J. B. Gallizioli made a new 
 edition of the ' Calepino,' 2 vols, fol., Venice, 1778, and added many 
 oriental and other words. It was in the course of his joint labours 
 with Facciolati that Foreellini conceived the plan of a totally new 
 Latin Dictionary, which, after more than thirty years assiduous appli- 
 cation, he brought to light under the title of ' Totius Latinitatis 
 Lexicon,' i vols. foL, Padua, 1771. This work has superseded all 
 other Latin dictionaries. Foreellini, more generous than Facciolati, 
 acknowledged in the title-page of his work that its production was in 
 great measure due to the advice and instruction of his deceased master. 
 The manuscript of his 'Lexicon,' in 12 vols, fol., is preserved in the 
 library of the seminary. A new edition of Forcellini's ' Lexicon ' was 
 published some years back by the Abate Furlanetto of the same 
 institution. 
 
 In 1722, Facciolati being appointed professor of logic in the uni- 
 versity of Padua, delivered a series of introductory Latin discourses 
 to the students of his class, which were received with considerable 
 applause. Iu 1739 he began to write in Latin the 'Fasti of the 
 University of Padua:' the introductory part, in which he describes 
 the origin, the laws and regulations, and the object of that celebrated 
 institution, is very well written, but the 'Fasti' themselves contain 
 little more than dry lists of the successive professors, with few and 
 unimportant remarks. His Latiu epistles, as well as his 'Orations,' or 
 ■ liscourses, have been admired for the purity of their diction. The 
 King of Portugal sent Facciolati a flattering invitation to Lisbon to 
 ake the direction of the public studies in his kingdom, but Facciolati 
 ..eclmed the offer on account of his advanced age. He however wrote 
 instructions for the re-organisation of the scholastic establishments 
 of that country, which had become necessary after the expulsion of 
 the Jesuits. Facciolati died at Padua in 1769, in his eighty-eighth 
 year. He left numerous works, mostly in Latin, besides those already 
 mentioned. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL, an able experimenter in 
 natural philosophy, was born at Danzig near the end of the 17th 
 
 century, according to some authorities in the year 1 686. His father 
 intended that he should engage in a mercantile occupation, but his 
 own taste inclining strongly to scientific pursuits, he used every 
 opportunity of employing himself in such physical researches as his 
 circumstances permitted. 
 
 Having travelled through different part3 of Germany in order to 
 acquire information respecting the subjects of his studies, he finally 
 established himself at Amsterdam as a maker of philosophical instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Fahrenheit considerably improved the araeometer; but he is chiefly 
 distinguished for the invention of that particular scale which he applied 
 to thermometers, and which has ever since been generally iu use in 
 this country. The fluid which he employed in the construction of 
 the thermometer was mercury ; and to the bulb, instead of a globular 
 he gave a cylindrical form. The graduations were generally executed 
 on paper which was wrapped about and made to adhere to the tube, 
 and the instrument was contained in a glass cylinder. 
 
 Fahrenheit was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London iu 
 1724 ; and in the ' Philosophical Transactions' for that year are papers 
 by him on the heat of liquids in a state of ebullition ; on the freezing 
 of water in vacuo ; on the specific gravity of certain bodies ; also on 
 an improved barometer and araeometer. He contrived a machine 
 which he intended to be used for the purpose of draining marshes ; 
 but he died in 1740. or, as some say, in 1736, before completing it. 
 
 * FAIRBAIRN, WILLIAM, civil engineer and machinist, has been 
 associated with many of the important mechanical and structural works 
 executed during some years past. He was born at Kelso on the Tweed, 
 in 1789 ; was educated as a mechanic near Newcastle-upon-Tyne; and 
 after working at his trade in London and Manchester, commenced 
 business in partnership with Mr. Lillie about the year 1817. The firm 
 was known as that of the leading machine-makers of Manchester up 
 to about twenty years ago, when the partnership was dissolved, Mr. 
 Fairbairn continuing the same business. Amongst Mr. Fairbairn'a 
 improvements may be named the introduction of light shafting, and 
 contrivances for driving the machinery of factories more simple than 
 those previously in use ; modifications in valves of steam-engines ; and 
 the introduction of the double-flued boiler for alternate firing, pro- 
 ductive of economy in fuel and consumption of smoke ; improvements 
 in the feeding apparatus of mill-stones ; the adoption of a better prin- 
 ciple of suspension, and the use of ventilated buckets in water-wheels; 
 the invention of the rivetting machine ; and about the year 1833, the 
 introduction, which is claimed for him, of a more ornamental style in 
 the architecture of factories. In the year 1830 or 1831 he made some 
 important experiments on the form and traction of boats, on the Forth 
 and Clyde Canal, which he published in the latter year. His attention 
 was thereby directed to the advantage of iron as a material for ship-build- 
 ing, and one of his works was a small sea-going vessel, which, being con- 
 structed in Manchester, was conveyed through the streets and down the 
 nearest water-way to its destination. This is believed to have been one 
 of the earliest essays in iron ship-building, which Mr. Fairbairn began to 
 develope in 1836 in the construction of vessels of the largest class, at the 
 premises since occupied by Mr. J. Scott Russell, at Millwall, London. 
 A year or two later, Mr. Fairbairn made one of the first attempts 
 iu iron house and store building, in the designing and construction of 
 a corn-mill ; the castings and other iron-work for which were sent out 
 to Constantinople, where the building was erected and is still in use. 
 Mr. Fairbairn was one of the early members of the British Association for 
 the Advancement of Science, to which the results of his most valuable 
 researches have been communicated. At his works were made an 
 important series of experiments on the comparative strength of hot 
 and cold blast iron ; Mr. Hodgkinson's experiments by which was 
 determined the best form of section for iron beams ; and others with 
 reference to the strength of certain materials under specific conditions. 
 Particulars of these may be found in the ' Transactions of the British 
 Association,' the ' Philosophical Transactions,' the ' Transactions of 
 the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,' and other 
 publications. When the means for crossing the Menai Strait by the 
 Chester and Holyhead railway were under consideration, Mr. Fair- 
 bairn's practical and theoretical knowledge of wrought and cast iron 
 as materials, and of the available disposition of them in the best form 
 for strength obviously pointed to him as an authority to be consulted. 
 The relative portions of the merit due to Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. 
 Stephenson ultimately became the subject of somewhat angry dispute, 
 much being said and written on both sides. With the strength aud 
 other advantageous properties of rivetted boiler plates Mr. Fairbairn 
 was of course well acquainted. Doubtless very high merit is due to 
 all parties. [Stephenson, Robert.] Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. Hodg- 
 kinson engaged upon an elaborate series of experiments, some of 
 which produced unexpected results; and from those experiments the 
 best form and dimensions of the tubes were deduced, and they have 
 perhaps mainly led to the general use of wrought iron plate girder? 
 in ordinary building operations, as well as in railway engineering. 
 The same investigations have also contributed to the present extensive 
 use of iron in ship-building. For the use of that material Mr. Fairbairn 
 is a consistent advocate. In the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for 1850, 
 appeared his 'Experimental Enquiry into the strength of Wrought 
 Iron Plates, and their rivetted joints, as applied to Ship-building and 
 Vessels exposed to severe strains; ' aud he lias made many researches 
 
see 
 
 into tha causes which lead to explosions in steam-boilers, in reference 
 to which and to cases of fracture in girders, his evidence has often 
 proved of value. Mr. Fairbairn recently delivered a series of lectures 
 to working engineers of Yorkshire and Lancashire, on boilers and 
 explosions, on the consumption of fuel, on iron ship-building, the 
 nature of heat and other subjects, and these have been lately published 
 under the title, ' Useful Information for Engineers.' He is also the 
 author of works on the construction of the Britannia and Conway 
 Bridges, and on the Application of Cast and Wrought Iron Beams iu 
 Floors and Bridges. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, fills the 
 chair of Dalton in the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- 
 chester, is a corresponding member of the National Institute of 
 Frauce, and has received marks of respect from the chief sovereigns of 
 Europe. 
 
 FAIRFAX, EDWARD, was the second son of Sir Thomas Fairfax, 
 of Denton in Yorkshire. The date of his birth is unknown ; but as 
 his translation of Tasso's 'Jerusalem Delivered' was published in 
 1600, we may suppose that it fell some time in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth. Contrary to the habits of his family, who were of a mili- 
 tary turn, he led a life of complete retirement at his native place, 
 where his time was spent in literary pursuits, and in the education of 
 hi3 own children and those of his brother, one of whom became the 
 father of the celebrated Lord Fairfax. We learn from his own 
 writings that he was neither 'a superstitious Papist nor a fantastic 
 Puritan ; ' but farther particulars of his life there are none. He is 
 supposed to have died about the year 1632. 
 
 Fairfax is now known only for his translation of Tasso's 'Jerusalem 
 Delivered,' which is executed in a manner which makes it wonderful 
 how the frigid, jingling, and affected version by Hoole ever survived 
 its birth. The measure which he chose for his work (that of the 
 original Italian) is one less stately perhaps than the Spenserian stanza, 
 but not less fitted for heroic subjects. It consists of eight-line stanzas, 
 of which the first six lines are in terza rirna and the last two rhyme 
 with each other. It has this great superiority over the common 
 heroic couplet, that all jingle is avoided by the occasional introduc- 
 tion of a different species of rhyme. Moreover the verses are much 
 more harmonious than those of Hoole ; the diction is more simple, 
 and the English more pure. Now perhaps most readers would smile 
 at the assertion of Hoole in the Preface to his translation of Tasso, 
 that Fairfax's translation " is in stanzas that cannot be read with 
 pleasure by the generality of those who have a taste for English 
 poetry ; " but we must at the same time regret that a literary school 
 like that of the followers of Pope should have usurped for so long a 
 time such entire dominion as to enable one of its humblest members 
 to make assertions so sweeping and insolent as those contained in the 
 preface from which we have just quoted. Fairfax's studies were to a 
 great extent of a theological and metaphysical turn, and he was 
 induced to undertake the defence of the doctrine and discipline of the 
 Church of England in reply to one Dorrel, a Roman Catholic, but his 
 writings on this subject have never been published. He also paid a 
 good deal of attention to the subject of deinouology, in which he 
 was a believer, and he left a manuscript treatise, entitled 'A Discourse 
 of Witchcraft, as it was acted in the family of Mr. Edward Fairfax 
 of Faystone, in the county of York, in the year 1621.' 
 
 FAIRFAX, SIR THOMAS, afterwards Lord Fairfax, the son of 
 Ferdinaudo Lord Fairfax and his wife, Mary, daughter of Edmund. 
 Sheffield, Lord Mulgrave, was born in 1611, at Denton, twelve miles 
 N.W. from Leeds. He was sent from school to St. John's College, 
 Cambridge ; but his disposition inclined him to military employment 
 rather than to study. Accordingly, as soon as he left college, he enlisted 
 in the army of Lord Vere, and served under his command in Holland. 
 The connection of Fairfax with Lord Vere afterwards became more 
 close. When he returned to England, he married Anne, the fourth 
 daughter of that peer, who, like her father, was a zealous Presbyterian, 
 and disaffected to the king. When the king began to raise troops, as it 
 was said, for the defence of his person, Fairfax, who foresaw that it 
 was intended to collect an army, in the presence of nearly 100,000 
 people assembled on Hey worth Moor, presented a petition to the king 
 in person, praying that he would listen to his parliament and refrain 
 from raising forces. In 1642, when the civil wars broke out, he 
 accepted a commission of general of the horse under his father, who 
 was general of the parliamentary forces in the north. His first 
 employment was in the county of York, where at first the greater 
 number of actions between the parliamentary and royalist troops were 
 in favour of the kiDg, whose army was under the conduct of the 
 Earl of Newcastle. Sir Thomas Fairfax, somewhat dispirited, was 
 despatched from Lincoln, where he was in quarters, to raise the siege 
 of Naatwich, in Cheshire. In this expedition he was not only suc- 
 cessful in the main object, but be also took several garrisons, and on 
 his return defeated the troops under Colonel Bellasis, the governor of 
 York, and effected a junction with his father's forces (April, 1614). 
 Thus Fairfax became master of the field, and, in obedience to his 
 orders, proceeded towards Northumberland, to enable the Scots to 
 march southwards, in spite of the king's forces, which were quartered 
 at Durham. A junction took place between the Scots and Fairfax, 
 who acted in concert during the spring (1614), and fought together iu 
 the memorable battle of Marston Moor (July 2, 1644), where the 
 king's troops experienced Bach a signal defeat that the whole north, 
 
 with the exception of a few garrisons, submitted to the parliament. 
 Before Helmesley Castle, one of these fortresses, which Sir Thomas 
 Fairfax was afterwards (September) sent to besiege, he received a 
 wound iu his shoulder that caused his life to be despaired of. When 
 the Earl of Essex ceased to be parliamentary general [Essex], it was 
 unanimously voted that Fairfax should be his successor (January 
 1644-45), and Cromwell, by whom his actions were afterwards so 
 greatly influenced, was appoiuted his lieutenant-general. Fairfax 
 hastened to London, where, upon the receipt of his commission, the 
 speaker paid him the highest compliments. After having been 
 nominated governor of Hull, he marched to the succour of Taunton, 
 in which place the parliamentary troops were closely besieged ; but 
 upon the king's leaving Oxford and taking the field with Prince 
 Rupert, he was recalled before he had proceeded farther than Bland- 
 ford, and received ordei-3 to join Cromwell and watchfully attend upon 
 the movements of the king. On the 14th of June he commanded 
 the parliamentary forces at the decisive battle of Nasoby ; and 
 when the king had fled into Wales, Fairfax, marching through Glou- 
 cester, possessed himself of Bath, Bristol, and other important posts 
 in Somersetshire. From thence, by the way of Dorsetshire, he 
 carried his arms into Cornwall, and entirely dispersed the forces of 
 the king. 
 
 After the surrender of Exeter, which was the last event of this 
 western campaign, Fairfax returned to Oxford, which as well as 
 Wallingford, surrendered upon articles. In the autumn, after further 
 active and successful employment, he was seized with a fit of illness 
 under which he laboured for some weeks. In November, when he 
 returned to London, he was welcomed by crowds who came out to 
 meet him on his road, was publicly thanked for his services, and 
 received from the parliament a jewel of great value set with diamonds, 
 together with a considerable grant of money. The payment of the 
 200,000i. to the Scottish army, in consideration of which they delivered 
 up the king, was entrusted to Fairfax, who marched northward for this 
 purpose. The discontent of the army, who were fearful either that 
 they should be disbanded or sent to Ireland, now rose to a great height. 
 Their complaints were encouraged by Cromwell and Ireton ; a council 
 was formed in the army by selecting two soldiers from each troop, 
 and the Independents showed an evident desire to form a party 
 distinct from the Presbyterians and the parliament, and to usurp for 
 themselves a greater authority. Fairfax saw these violent proceedings 
 with regret, but he had not the resolution to resign his command. 
 He succumbed before the greater genius of Cromwell, following his 
 counsels, until the army had become master both of the parliament 
 and the kiugdom. 
 
 In 1647 he was made Constable of the Tower ; and in the follow- 
 ing year, at his father's death, he inherited his titles, appointments, 
 and estates. The difference of his condition made no alteration in his 
 life ; he continued to attack or besiege the royal troops wherever they 
 were mustered or entrenched. Many towns in the east, and among 
 them Colchester, which he treated with great severity, yielded to his 
 arms. In December he marched to London, menaced the parliament 
 and quartered himself in the palace at Whitehall. He was named one 
 of the king's judges, but refused to act ; and he was voted one of the 
 new council of state (February 1618-49), but refused to subscribe the 
 test. In May he marched against the Levellers, who were numerous 
 in Oxfordshire. He continued in command of the army until June 
 1650, when, upon the Scots declaring for the king, he declined 
 marching against them, and consequently resigned his commission. 
 He now retired to hi3 house at Nun Appletou, in Yorkshire, which 
 for some years he made his principal residence. He left it (in 1659) 
 to assist General Monk against Lambert's forces. In January 1659-60. 
 he made himself master of York. In the same month and in the 
 February following he was chosen one of the council of state by 
 the Rump Parliament, was elected one of the members for the county 
 of York, and formed one of the committee appointed to promote 
 the return and restoration of Charles II. In November 1671, while 
 residing privately at his country-house, he was seized with an illness, 
 which terminated in his death. He was buried at Bilburgh, near 
 York. He left issue two daughters, Mary, who married the Duke of 
 Buckingham, and Elizabeth, of whom we have no account. 
 
 FAITHORNE, WILLIAM. This distinguished English engraver 
 of the time of Charle3 I. was born in London, but in what year is not 
 known. He was instructed by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peake, 
 painter and priutseller, with whom he worked three or four years before 
 the breaking out of the rebellion ; and when Sir Robert Peake wa3 
 made lieutenant-colonel, and intrusted with a command in Basing- 
 House, Faithorno enlisted under him, and they were both taken 
 prisoners together. Faithorne was brought to London and confined 
 in Aldersgate, where he resumed the graver ; he was however shortly 
 afterwards released and permitted to go to France. He returned about 
 1650, and opened a print-shop in the Strand, near Temple Bar, and 
 prosecuted his art at the same time. About 1680 he gave up this 
 shop, removed to Printing-House Yard, Blackfriars, and iu addition to 
 engraving pursued portrait-painting in crayons. He died in 1691, and 
 was buried in St. Anne's, Blackfriars. 
 
 In 1662 Faithorne published a treatise on eugravkg, dedicated to 
 Sir Robert Peake, entitled, 'The Art of Graveiug and Etching, wherein 
 is expressed the true way of Graveing in Copper. Also the Manner 
 
887 
 
 and Method of that famous Callot, and M. Bosse, iu their several ways 
 of Etching.' 
 
 Walpole has given a considerable list of Faithorne's prints, of which 
 the following are some of the best : — His own 'Head' looking over his 
 shoulder, with long hair; 'Sir William Paston, Bart.,' 1G59, which 
 Walpole terms his most perfect work ; ' Lady Paston,' same date, pro- 
 bably after Vandyck ; ' Margaret Smith,' widow, wife of Sir Edward 
 Herbert, after Vandyck ; ' Montagu Bertie,' second Earl of Lindsey, 
 after Vandyck; 'Sanderson,' 1658, prefixed to his ' Graphice,' after 
 Zoust ; ' Anne Bridges,' Countess of Exeter, after Vandyck ; ' Thomas 
 Hobbes, rctat. seventy-six ;' ' Henrietta Maria,' with a veil, executed in 
 Paris ; a large full-length emblematical print of ' Cromwell,' in armour ; 
 ' Queen Catherine,' in the dress in which she arrived in England ; 
 ' Barbara, Countess of Castlemaine ; ' ' Prince Rupert,' after Dobson ; 
 'Dr. Harvey,' bust on a pedestal ; 'Sir Thomas Fairfax,' after Walker; 
 ' John Milton, setat. sixty-two,' drawn by Faithorne himself, &c. ; and 
 four illustrations to Taylor's ' Life of Christ,' the ' Last Supper,' 
 'Christ Praying in the Garden,' the 'Scourging,' and the 'Marriage of 
 Cana.' His works were chiefly portraits. His son William, caUed 
 William Faithorne the Younger, engraved portraits in mezzotint, but 
 ho was of dissipated habits, and he died towards the close of the 17th 
 century, aged "about thirty. There are heads by him of ' Mary, 
 Princess of Orange,' ' Queen Anno,' ' Prince George of Denmark,' 
 'Charles XII. of Sweden,' 'Dryden,' &c. 
 
 FALCONER, WILLIAM, was born about 1730, being one of a large 
 family, all of whom, except himself, were deaf and dumb. When 
 very young, he served his apprenticeship on board a merchantman, and 
 was afterwards second-mate of a vessel in the Levant trade, which 
 was shipwrecked on the coast of Attica, himself with two others 
 being the only survivors. This event laid the foundation of Falconer's 
 fame, by forming the groundwork of 'The Shipwreck,' which poem he 
 published iu 1702. Tho notice which the poem received enabled him 
 to enter the navy, during tho ensuing year, as midshipman in the 
 ' Royal George.' After some other appointments, he became purser to 
 the ' Aurora ' frigate, and was lest in her somewhere in the Mozam- 
 bique Channel, during the outward voyage to India, in the winter 
 of 1769. 
 
 Falconer was the author of a 'Nautical Dictionary' of considerable 
 merit, as well as of some minor poems ; but his chief claim to repu- 
 tation consists in 'The Shipwreck,' the merit of which is owing to 
 the vividness and power of description which pervade the work, and 
 to the facility the author has shown in introducing nautical language. 
 His style is formed on that of Pope ; and the mixture of phrases, such 
 as ' weather back-stays,' ' parrels, lifts, and clew-lines,' with the affecta- 
 tions of 'nymph,' 'swain,' ' Paphian graces,' &c, form rather a ludi- 
 crous contrast. To call ' The Shipwreck' a first-rate poem, or to com- 
 pare it with the ^Eneid of Virgil, would not now enter into many men's 
 thoughts, although this was done at the time when it first appeared ; 
 but after making every abatement, it must be allowed that Falconer 
 has done what no one else has attempted, and we must give him a high 
 place among the writers of didactic poems. 
 
 FALCONER, WILLIAM, M.D. This eminent physician, who 
 resided many years in Bath, was the author of many professional and 
 literary productions, which obtained for him from Dr. Parr the charac- 
 ter of " a man whose knowledge is various and profound, and whose 
 discriminations upon all topics of literature are ready, vigorous, and 
 comprehensive." He was the son of William Falcener, Recorder of 
 Chester, was born in 1744, and died in 1824. His numerous books 
 and tracts combine the accurate knowledge of the physician with the 
 enlarged views of the philosopher. His ' Remarks on the Influence of 
 Climate, Situation, Nature of Country, Population, Food, &c. on the 
 Disposition and Temper, Manners, Laws and Customs, Government, 
 and Religion of Mankind,' 1782, is a work that may be read with 
 advantage ; and so his ' Dissertation on the Influence of the Passions 
 on the Disorders of the Body,' to which the first Fothergillian gold 
 medal was awarded. 
 
 Dr. Falconer's only child, the Rev. Thomas Falconer, was horn in 
 1772, and died in 1839. He was educated at Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford, of which he was a Fellow, and was Bampton Lecturer in 1810. 
 In 1797 he published a translation of the 'Periplus' of Hanno; and 
 he took a large share in editing the Oxford edition of Strabo. Although 
 occasionally performing the duties of a clergyman, he declined receiv- 
 ing any church preferment, and in 1823 took, the degree of M.D. at 
 Oxford. Under his learned father he had made medicine his assiduous 
 study ; and during the years of his long residence at Bath he was 
 unremitting in giving gratuitous medical advice to all afflicted persons 
 who sought his aid. Possessed of a handsome competency, his private 
 charities were as liberal as they were unostentatious. His second sou, 
 * Thomas Falconer, was called to the Bar in 1830. He is the author 
 of many able articles and pamphlets on the public topics of his day, 
 especially on The Oregon Question, on Canadian Affairs, and on 
 Texas, through which country and Mexico he travelled in 1841-42. 
 In 1850 he was chosen as one of the arbitrators to determine the 
 boundaries between the provinces of Canada and New Brunswick. In 
 1851 he was appointed a Judge of the County Courts of Glamorgan- 
 shire, Brecknockshire, and Radnorshire. Descended from a family 
 distinguished by their cultivation of letters, Mr. Thomas Falconer has 
 honourably maintained the reputation of the name he bears. 
 
 FALCONET, ETIENNE-MORIA, was born in 171 6, of poor parents, 
 at Vivay iu Switzerland. His parents early removed to Paris, and 
 there he studied sculpture under Lemoine, whom he soon surpassed. 
 He executed several groups and statues, which are at Paris, in the 
 church of St. Roch, in the Musde des MonumenB Francais, and in 
 several private collections. In 1766 he accepted the invitation of 
 Catharine II. to repair to Petersburg, in order to execute the colossal 
 statue of Peter the Great. He remained in that capital twelve years, 
 during which he completed his work, which is now in the square 
 called the Square of the Senate, and is by far his most celebrated 
 production. As he and the Russian founder appointed to cast the 
 statue could not agree, Falconet cast it himself. He placed it upon 
 an enormous block of granite, weighing about 1700 tons, which was 
 found iu some marshy ground at a considerable distance from Peters- 
 burg, and was brought to the capital by machinery. Catharine, who 
 had shown him the greatest attentiou during the first years of his 
 residenco iu the Russian capital, grew cool towards him at last, owing 
 to the misrepresentations of some of her courtiers. Falconet returned 
 to Paris in 1778. In May 1783, as he was going to set off for Italy, a 
 country which he had never visited, he had a paralytic stroke. Ho 
 survived however till January 179L Falconet wrote strictures and 
 commentaries on the books of Pliny which treat of the sculpture and 
 painting of the ancients : he also wrote ' Observations sur la Statue de 
 Marc Aurele.' In general Falconet had no great veneration for ancient 
 art. His writings were collected and published under the title, 
 ' QSuvres Completes de Falconet,' 6 vols. 8vo, Lausanne, 1782, and 
 reprinted in 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1808, to which is prefixed an account 
 of his life. 
 
 FALKLAND, HENRY CARY, VISCOUNT, descended from the 
 Carys of Cockiugton, was the son of Sir Edward Cary of Berkhamsted 
 and Aldeuham in Hertfordshire, at which latter place he was born late 
 in the roign of Queen Elizabeth. When about sixteen years of age, 
 he was sent to Exeter College, Oxford ; but he left that university 
 without taking a degree. In 1608 he was made one of the Knights 
 of the Bath, at tho creation of Henry, prince of Wales; and iu 
 1017 he was sworn in comptroller of his majesty's household, and 
 made one of his privy council. On the 10th of November 1620 
 he was created Viscount of Falkland, in the county of Fife, in Scot- 
 land. King James I., knowing his abilities and experience, constituted 
 him Lord Deputy of Ireland, into which office he was sworn Septem- 
 ber 18th, 1622, and continued in it till 1629. During his administra- 
 tion he is said to have kept a strict hand over the Roman Catholics 
 iu that kingdom, which gave them occasion to send complaints to the 
 court of England against him, till, by their clamour and prevailing 
 power, he was removed in disgrace. Leland, in his ' History of Ire- 
 land,' has given the character of his government. " Lord Falkland," 
 he says, " seems to have been more distinguished by his rectitude 
 than abilities. In a government which required vigour and austerity, 
 he was indolent and gentle ; courting rather than terrifying the factious. 
 He was harassed by the intrigues and clamours of the king's ministers, 
 whom he could not always gratify to thef ull extent of their desires ; 
 his actions were severely maligned at the court of England ; his admi- 
 nistration in consequence was cautious and embarrassed. Such a 
 governor was little qualified to awe the numerous and powerful body 
 of recusants, relying on their merits, and stimulated by their eccle- 
 siastics to the most imprudent excesses." Lord Falkland returned and 
 lived in honour and esteem till 1633, in which year, in the month of 
 September, he died, in consequence of having broken one of his legs 
 by an accident in Theobalds Park. A ' History of the most unfor- 
 tunate Prince Edward II.,' written by him, was published under the 
 editorship of Sir James Harrington, in folio and octavo, in 1680. Lord 
 Orford ('Royal and Noble Authors,' vol. v., p. 65) says he was remark- 
 able for an invention to prevent his name being counterfeited, by art- 
 fully concealing in it the successive years of his age, and by that 
 means, detecting a mm who had not observed so nice a particularity. 
 
 FALKLAND, LUCIUS CARY, VISCOUNT, was the eldest son 
 of the preceding, and born in 1610. From 1622 till 1629, during 
 which time his father was Lord-Deputy of Ireland, he was educated 
 at Trinity College, Dublin : but afterwards at St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge. Before he was of age he inherited an ample fortune from his 
 grandfather, and soon afterwards went over to the Netherlands, with 
 the intention of taking a command, but finding the campaign inactive, 
 he returned to England. He had greatly displeased his father by 
 marrying a lady of small fortune ; and though the marriage was a very 
 happy one, troubled by his father's anger, he resolved to retire to the 
 country and devote himself to literary studies. Having conceived a 
 desire to be able to read accurately the Greek authors, he secluded 
 himself at his seat near Burford in Oxfordshire, and prosecuted his 
 design with such vigorous industry that he became a master of the 
 language in an incredibly short time. His house was only about ten 
 miles from Oxford, and Chillingworth and other learned men of the 
 university were at this time in the habit not only of visiting him, 
 but of residing with him. In 1639 he joined the expedition against 
 the Scotch. His peerage, being Scotch, did not entitle him to sit in 
 the House of Lords, and in 1640 he was elected member for Newport, 
 Isle of Wight, in the parliament which assembled on the 13th of April. 
 He was again elected for the same borough in the parliament which 
 met on the 3rd of November in the same year. In the Commons, Lord 
 
NO 
 
 FALLOPPIO, GABRIELLO. 
 
 FANTUZZI. 
 
 670 
 
 Falkland, whilst fully concurring in the proposition for prosecuting 
 the Earl of Strafford, urged strenuously, though without avail, and 
 almost without support, the propriety, as a matter of justice, of 
 appointing a committee to inquire into the earl's conduct, and to 
 frame specific charges, before proceeding to impeach him of high 
 treason. 
 
 Lord Falkland was free from any party bias, and thinking that the 
 leaders of the popular party were in certain instances pushing their 
 measures to an extent which was illegal and fraught with danger, and 
 that the king was disposed to acquiesce in the just demands of the 
 nation, he opposed them strenuously : hence he came to be regarded 
 as an advocate of the court, and Charles I. invited him to become one 
 of his privy council, and offered to make him secretary of state in the 
 room of Sir Henry Vane, whom the king had dismissed. Lord Falk- 
 land was much disinclined to associate himself with the court party, 
 but after much persuasion by Lord Clarendon and other personal 
 friends, he was prevailed upon to accept the king's offers. His severity 
 of moral principle was ill fitted to harmonise with Charles's duplicity 
 and unconstitutional designs, but the civil war having commenced, he 
 adhered to him with inflexible firmness, using every effort to reconcile 
 the contending powers, and, though without any military command, 
 attending the king on all occasions of conflict or danger. But his 
 alacrity of spirit had deserted him, and when sitting among his friends, 
 after long silence and frequent sighs, he would ejaculate, " Peace, peace," 
 iti a mournful tone, and passionately profess that " the very agony of 
 the war, and the view of the calamities and desolation the kingdom 
 did and must endure, took his sleep from him, and would shortly 
 break his heart." He insisted on making one in the first rank of 
 Lord Byron's cavalry at the battle of Newbury, September 20, 1643, 
 and on the first encounter was shot in the belly with a musket-ball; 
 he instantly fell from his horse, and his body was not found till the 
 following day. 
 
 Lord Clarendon, who was bis intimate friend, has pronounced a 
 long and eloquent eulogium on his character, which indeed appears to 
 have been worthy of the highest admiration. His chief work was, 
 ' A Discourse on the Infallibility of the Church of Rome.' 
 
 FALLOPPIO, or FALLO'PIUS, GABRIELLO, was born at Modena 
 about 1523. He was one of the three distinguished anatomists of the 
 10th century to whom Cuvier, an unquestionable authority on such 
 subjects, has assigned the merit of restoring, or rather creating, their 
 science in its modern and exact form. His associates in this award 
 of praise are Vesalius and Eustachius, the former of whom he 
 succeeded in the united professorships of anatomy and surgery at 
 Padua in 1551 : the latter taught at Rome during the same period. 
 TEustachids.] 
 
 Fallopius appears at one time to have held an ecclesiastical appoint- 
 ment in the cathedral at Modena, which he resigned to devote himself 
 to more congenial pursuits. Having gratified his curiosity by travelling 
 through the most interesting parts of Europe, he settled for a time as 
 a public teacher of anatomy at Ferrara, where he had received a 
 medical education. But he soon quitted that university, which was 
 in fact a sphere too narrow for his talents; and had lectured at Pisa 
 for some years with increasing reputation under the patronage of the 
 first Grand Duke of Tuscany [Cosmo I.], when he was induced by the 
 liberal proffers of the Venetian senate to repair to Padua to take the 
 place of Vesalius, who had been obliged to resign his academic offices 
 by one of the disastrous incidents which have thrown a romantic 
 interest over the latter part of bis remarkable life. [Vesalius.] 
 
 The studies of Fallopius were by no means confined to one depart- 
 ment of natural history. He appears to have occupied himself, among 
 the rest, with the subject of systematic botany, which had very recently 
 begun to attract attention. In this, as in all other steps in the revival 
 of learning, Italy took the lead. The first botanic garden had been 
 established at Pisa by Cosmo de' Medici in 1543, and was at this time 
 under the management of Csesalpinus. The second was established 
 two years later at Padua ; and the charge of this garden, with the 
 professorial duties annexed to it, was committed to Fallopius soon 
 after his arrival in that university. The botanical researches and 
 collections he had made during his travels, and his subsequent 
 opportunities at Pisa of access to the best sources of contemporary 
 information, had probably fitted him in no common degree to under- 
 take this additional charge, which he is said to have sustained with 
 great ability and applause. 
 
 In addition to his merit as a naturalist and a teacher, Fallopius was 
 an excellent and expeditious operator, and otherwise, for his time, a 
 good practical surgeon. His character with posterity in this respect 
 is however somewhat tainted by the appearance of a degree of quackery 
 in the concealment of his remedies, and a trumpeting forth of their 
 virtues, which his experience of them could not have justified. After 
 a abort but brilliant career of eleven years, both iu practice and as a 
 teacher, he died at Padua in 1562, and was succeeded by his favourite 
 pupil Fabrizio, or Fabricius ab Acquapendente. [Fabhizio.] 
 
 The only work certainly knowu to have been revised by himself 
 wan a volume entitled ' Anatomical Observations.' It was first printed 
 in 8yo at Venice in the year before his death, and has been frequently 
 reprinted. The publication of this work forms an epoch in the science 
 of human anatomy. There is no part of the frame with which the 
 author does not display a masterly acquaintance. Many important 
 
 parts of it he was the first to describe, if not to observe, and several 
 of them still bear his name. His lectures on pharmacy, surgery, and 
 anatomy were published after his death in various forms, and with 
 very different degrees of fidelity, by his pupils. The best of them 
 were collected and published with his ' Observations ' in 3 vols, folio, 
 Venice, 1584, and have passed through several editions. They are 
 now superseded by more complete and systematic treatises, and are 
 seldom consulted but by antiquarians in medical literature, or to support 
 novel opinions ; for in these sciences, as in others, much that is new 
 is likewise old. 
 
 FANSHAWE, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR RICHARD, was 
 the youngest son of Sir H. Fanshawe, and was born in 1608 at Ware 
 Park, in the county of Hertford. He became a fellow-commoner of 
 Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1623, and removed to the Inner Temple 
 in 1626. On the death of his mother, who had long survived his 
 father, he betook himself to travel, and visited France and Spain. He 
 was subsequently appointed secretary to the embassy at Madrid, and 
 was left resident there till 1638. After his return, and on the breaking 
 out of the civil war, he declared himself a royalist, and attended the 
 court at Oxford, where he received the degree of Doctor of Civil Law. 
 He followed the Prince of Wales to the islands of Scilly and Jersey in 
 the capacity of secretary, and in 1648 became treasurer to the navy 
 under Prince Rupert. At the battle of Worcester he was taken 
 prisoner; but being released, he repaired to Charles II. at Breda, and 
 was by him appointed his master of requests and Latin secretary. 
 He returned to England with Charle3, represented Cambridge in 1661, 
 and was employed in negociating Charles's marriage with Catherine. 
 He was sent as ambassador to Philip IV. of Spain in 1664, and died 
 at Madrid in 1666, leaving a widow and five children. His body was 
 sent home embalmed. 
 
 Notwithstanding the active life of Fanshawe, he found leisure to 
 attend to literature, and produced several works, the most celebrated 
 of which is a translation of Guarini's 'Pastor Fido.' The parts of this 
 work written in heroic measure are harsh and ill-managed, but the 
 lighter lyric passages are playful and often melodious, and some of the 
 more sublime choruses are sonorous and majestic. This book is not 
 very easily procured. It was published in 1664, and is adorned with 
 a curious portrait of Guarini. Besides the ' Pastor Fido ' the volume 
 contains some translations from Virgil and Martial ; some short 
 original pieces in verse ; and a 'Short Discourse of the long Civil Wars 
 of Rome ' in prose. 
 
 FANT, ERIK MICHAEL, an investigator of the early political 
 and literary history of Sweden, whose labours are of considerable 
 value, was born at Eskilstuna in Sudermanland, on the 9th of January 
 1754, studied at the university of Upsal, became assistant-librarian 
 there in 1779, and Professor of History in 1781. He retired in 1816 
 on a pension, which he enjoyed for a very short time, dying at Upsal 
 on the 23rd of October 1817. His life was written by his friend and 
 pupil J. H. Schroder, the present librarian of Upsal, and is included 
 in a small volume published by him in 1839 under the title of ' Tal 
 och Minnestechningar.' 
 
 The most important work with which Fant was connected was the 
 collection entitled ' Scriptores rerum Svecicarum medii £evi.' He had 
 originally projected it with his friend Nordin when both of them were 
 sub-librarians at Upsal, but the project slept for want of encourage- 
 ment for forty years, and Bishop Nordin was dead wheu Fant at the 
 age of sixty-two retired from his professorship with the view of 
 devoting himself to the realisation of their youthful project, and died 
 before the publication of the first volume. That volume was issued 
 in 1818, and a second was published in 1828 by Geijer and Schroder. 
 The work appears to have advanced no further than these two 
 folios, but even in this imperfect state it is an indispensable book iu 
 every Swedish library. It contains the only editions of several con- 
 temporary histories, bearing on the introduction of the Reforma- 
 tion into the North. A peculiar feature in the literature of Sweden 
 consists in the number and importance of its academical theses or 
 dissertations, which are nearly as various in their subject-matter and iu 
 their mode of treatment as the articles of English reviews. The name 
 of Fant is attached to no less than three hundred and twenty-eight of 
 these compositions. Two names appear on the title-page in connection 
 with each thesis — that of the ' Prreses,' generally the professor of the 
 branch of knowledge to which it belongs, and that of the ' Respondent,' 
 or candidate for a degree ; and by a very unfortunate rule of academi- 
 cal etiquette the reader is generally left in the dark as to whether the 
 Prases or the Respondent is the author of the thesis. 
 
 Fant is spoken of by friends at the university acquainted with the 
 facts of the case, as the author of a ' History of Greek Literature in 
 Sweden,' to which his name is appended as Respondent, and of ' Annals 
 of Swedish Typography, in the 16th Century,' to which his name is 
 appended as Prases. Many of the other dissertations, which are said 
 to be of very unequal merit, and with some of which he may have had 
 no other concern than that of lending his name, are on equally curious 
 subjects —miscellaneous Swedish biography, the history of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, the history of the Reformation in Sweden, &c. He pub- 
 lished also some more ambitious attempts at a continuation of the 
 history of Sweden, by Lagerbring, as a general outline of Swedish, 
 history, &c, but these do not appear to have enhanced his reputation. 
 
 FANTUZZI. [Tkento, Antonio da.] 
 
871 
 
 FARADAY, MICHAEL. 
 
 FAREY, JOHN. 
 
 873 
 
 * FARADAY, MICHAEL, one of the most distinguished living 
 chemists and natural philosophers. He is one of the numerous 
 examples afforded by this country, that the highest genius is not 
 dependent on rank or station, and that, in spite of the almost entire 
 neglect of the cultivation of natural science in our schools and colleges, ! 
 we can boast of men whose investigations and discoveries are second 
 to none. He was born at Newington, Surrey, Sept. 22, 1791, the 
 son of a blacksmith. With little preliminary education, he w.ns 
 apprenticed to a bookbinder and stationer named Riebau in Blandford- 
 street. During his apprenticeship he spent his leisure hours in the 
 construction of philosophical apparatus, and more especially an 
 elcc'rifying machine. This was the occasion of hiB being iutroduced 
 to Mr. Dance of Manchester-street, then a member of the lloyal 
 Institution, who, finding the young man interested in science, obtained 
 permission for him to attend the last four of a course of lectures on 
 chemistry then being delivered by Sir Humphry Davy. The lectures 
 thus attended were not only listened to with delight, but ample notes 
 made and afterwards carefully re-written, and Faraday, as he has 
 related in a letter to Dr. Paris, the biographer of Davy, was led by 
 his strong desire to escape from trade, and the kind-heartedness 
 which he fancied he saw in the lecturer, to take the bold step of 
 writing to Sir H. Davy, expressing his wishes, and a hope that if an 
 opportunity came in his way he would favour his views. At the 
 same time Faraday sent the notes he had taken of the lectures. 
 Sir Humphry Davy replied to the young applicant as follows : — 
 "December 24th, 1812. — Sir, — I am far from displeased with the 
 proof you have given me of your confidence, and which displays 
 great zeal, power of memory, and attention. I am obliged to go out 
 of town, and shall not bo settled iu town till the end of January. I 
 will then see you at any time you wish. It would gratify me to be of 
 any service to you. I wish it may be in my power. — I am, Sir, your 
 obedient, humble servant, H. Davy." "Early in 1813," continues 
 Mr. Faraday, " Sir Humphry requested to see me, and told me of 
 the situation of assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institution, 
 then just vacant. At the same time that lie thus gratified my desires 
 as to scientific employment, he still advised me not to give up the 
 prospects I had before me, telling me that science was a harsh mistress, 
 and in a pecuniary point of view but poorly rewarding those who 
 devoted themselves to her service. He smiled at my notion of the 
 superior moral feelings of philosophic men, and said he would leave 
 me to the experience of a few years to set me right on the matter. 
 Finally, through his good efforts, I went to the Royal Institution early 
 in March 1813 as assistant in the laboratory ; and in October of the 
 same year went with him abroad as his assistant iu experiments and 
 in writing. I returned with him in April 1815, resumed my station 
 iu the Royal Institution, and have, as you know, ever since remained 
 there.'' 
 
 Faraday remained for some years at the Royal Institution without 
 publishing anything to attract general attention. Sir H. Davy had the 
 highest opinion of him ; and all who knew him at this period regarded 
 him as likely to fill the position of that great chemist in the eyes of 
 the world. One of his earliest works was his volume on chemical 
 manipulation, which was published in 1827, and reached a second 
 edition in 1S36. In 1830 he published a paper on the manufacture of 
 glass, and another, in 1831, on acoustical figures. It was, however, in 
 1831 that he commenced the publication of those experimental inves- 
 tigations on the subject of electricity, in the ' Philosophical Transac- 
 tions,' that have made his name famous wherever science is cultivated, 
 or the labours of the investigator of natural laws are appreciated. 
 These papers have been almost regularly published (two in the course 
 of the year) from that time to the present ; and there is not one of 
 them that does not contain either a discovery of importance, or a 
 criticism, arising out of some original discovery, upon the labours of 
 others. These papers embraced the wide subject of electricity. To 
 ascertain the nature of this force ; to evolve the laws which it obeyed ; 
 to exhibit the modes of its development, and its relations to heat, 
 light, and the other great forces in nature, were the objects of these 
 papers. If Faraday did not discover the science of electro-magnetism, 
 he established its laws, and made the science of magneto-electricity. 
 If the thought that the phenomena of free electricity, galvanism, and 
 magnetism, were the manifestations of the same force, was not origi- 
 nally his, it has been mainly through his experiments that it has been 
 demonstrated to be true. The science of electricity, comprehending 
 the great facts of voltaic electricity and magnetism, presents multitudes 
 of facts with the widest generalisation ; and although this science is 
 indebted to a large number of inquirers for its present position, there 
 is one name that shines more brightly than any other through the 
 whole of these researches, and that is Faraday. 
 
 All his investigations on the phenomena of electricity have been 
 collected together and published in three volumes, entitled ' Experi- 
 mental Researches in Electricity.' The first volume was published in 
 1839, and embraced papers published in the ' Philosophical Transac- 
 tions,' from 1831 to 1838. These first papers deal with the phenomena 
 of static electricity and the chemical phenomena of voltaic electricity. 
 The second volume was published in 1814, and embraces papers from 
 the 'Philosophical Transactions,' the 'Quarterly Journal of Science,' 
 end the 'Philosophical Magazine,' from 1838 to 1843. It commences 
 with his paper ou the electricity of the gymuotus, and with experi- 
 
 ments on electro-magnetism and magneto-electricity. The third 
 volume, published in 1855, embraces papers published from 1846 to 1852, 
 in the ' Proceedings of the Royal Institution ' and the ' Philosophical 
 Magazine.' This work contains all Faraday's late researches on mag- 
 netism, the discovery of dia-magnetism, and the magnetic nature of 
 oxygen gas, the magnetic nature of light, and other important points. 
 These papers are, some of them, the most remarkable examples of 
 inductive inquiry that have been given to the world since the time of 
 Bacon. They deal with forces whose phenomena are exceedingly 
 difficult to investigate, presenting a greater amount of complication 
 than any others in the region of natural science. They present us 
 with iustances of the boldest speculation in commencing experiments, 
 combined with the greatest accuracy in conducting them, and the 
 utmost caution in arriving at conclusions. The multitude of experi- 
 ments by which they are illustrated indicate a life of unwearied assi- 
 duity and perseverance in pursuit of the great object of a philosopher's 
 existence — a knowledge of the truth. Amidst the absorbing interests 
 of his own experiments and conclusions, he is ever alive to the labour 
 of others, and everywhere betrays the most scrupulous anxiety to give 
 every one his due share of credit. In no philosophic writings do we 
 see less of the author and more of the subject. His object being to get 
 at the truth, he is never wedded to an opinion or conclusion, but is 
 ever ready to give way to the opinion of another, when this is seen to 
 be based on fact. " In short," to use the language of a recent writer, 
 "intellectually and morally, Faraday is a philosopher of the highest 
 rank, of whom the country has juBt reason to be proud." 
 
 With all these high qualities as an investigator and thinker, Faraday 
 has the most happy power of expression. He is the prince of popular 
 lecturers ; and the most popular singers and actors are deserted when 
 Faraday delivers a lecture ou Friday evenings, at the Royal Institu- 
 tion. It is here the philosopher is seen in his glory ; as absorbed and 
 earnest as a child over his toys, he repeats again his experiments 
 before an admiring audience, none, perhaps, so absorbed iu the lecture 
 as he is in the subject of his discourse. His lectures to children are, 
 perhaps, the most perfect expressions of his own genius, and the most 
 complete examples of extemporaneous teaching. Their merit does not 
 however consist alone in the grace and ease of his expression, but in 
 the marvellous facility he possesses of experimenting at the same time 
 that he is talking. This facility in experimenting is evidently the gift 
 of genius, aud a part of those admirable natural endowments which 
 have made him the great philosopher he is. 
 
 In private life, Mr. Faraday is admired for the simplicity, truthful- 
 ness, and kindness of his character. Averse to strife and the gaze of 
 the world, he has refused all offers of place and honour. He has felt 
 that the sphere of his mission lay in the development of those disco- 
 veries which were first made in the laboratory of the Royal Institu- 
 tion. This spot witnessed his first triumph, and there he still 
 remains, to win fresh laurels on those fields of science where he has 
 no equal. Since 1835 Mr. Faraday has enjoyed a pension of 300Z. 
 
 FAREY, JOHN, civil engineer and draughtsman, was born at 
 Lambeth on March 20, 1791, and was educated at Woburn, where his 
 father was agent to the Duke of Bedford, who took much interest in 
 the progress of agriculture. John Farey, Senior, was frequently 
 employed in making reports on geological questions ; wrote a ' General 
 View of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire,' &c, (2 vols. 8vo, 
 London, 1811,) a work which had some reputation, and contributed 
 to the 'Agricultural Magazine.' Farey, junior — with his brother and 
 sisters, becoming at an early age attached to kindred pursuits — was 
 engaged in making drawings for the plates of ' Rees's Encyclopaedia,' 
 'The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,' 'Tilloch's Magazine,' 'Gregory's 
 Mechanics,' and ' Mechanical Dictionary,' the ' Pantalogia,' and many 
 other publications, some of which he contributed articles to, or 
 edited. To him, in conjunction with the Messrs. Lowry, the en- 
 gravers, has been ascribed in a great degree, the merit of introducing 
 a better explanatory style of illustration in scientific works, aud 
 which has not Bince been improved upon in the bulk of publica- 
 tions, in a ratio commensurate with mechanical facilities. His 
 avocations connected him with eminent scientific men of the 
 time; and thus with Huddart, Jessop, Mylne, and Rennie, he was 
 engaged in the publication of Smeaton's reports and drawings. In 
 1807 he had received the silver medal of the Society of Arts for au 
 instrument for making perspective drawings, described in their 
 Transactions; and in 1813 the gold medal was awarded to him on 
 the invention of his machine for drawing ellipses. This last he after- 
 wards improved upon, besides effecting many improvements in the 
 scales and drawing instruments now in use. In 1819 he went to 
 Russia, and was engaged in the construction of iron-works. In Russia 
 he first saw a steam-engine indicator — an instrument which it was 
 attempted to keep secret — and on his return he had similar con- 
 trivances manufactured, and was often employed to use them in 
 disputed cases. In 1821 he resigned his professional engagements in 
 favour of his brother, and embarked in a lace manufactory in Devon- 
 shire, but gave that up in 1823. In 1825 he took the engineering 
 direction of flax-mills at Leeds; but in 1826, on the failure of his 
 brother's health, he returned to London, and from that time to near 
 his death, which took place in his sixty-first year, on the 17th of July 
 1851, he was employed as a consulting engiueer, or referee, in most 
 of the novel inventions and litigated patent cases, during the quarter 
 
of a century. For such duties he was peculiarly qualified from 
 retentive memory as to details of machines and processes, names and 
 dates, and from habits of conscientious and laborious research into 
 authorities for cases. In his investigations and in the preparation 
 of drawings for specifications, he was assisted by his wife, a lady of 
 great scientific attainments. From the shock of her decease he never 
 wholly recovered. Some time before, part of his library and docu- 
 ments had been burnt with his house in Guildford-street. Farey 
 commenced a ' Treatise on the Steam-engine, Historical, Practical, 
 and Descriptive,' (4to, London, 1827, with plates,) a valuable work, 
 but which did not get beyond a first volume, and he was an active 
 member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, from whose Report of 
 1851-52 many of these particulars are derived. 
 
 FARIA E SO USA, a Portuguese escudero, and a writer on various 
 subjects, chiefly in the Spanish language, was born in 1590, in a country 
 residence called Caravella, in the province of Entre Minho e Douro. 
 His talents were so precocious, that in 1600 he attended the lectures 
 of his father and others at the University of Braga. Being desirous 
 to become familiar with the Greek and Roman classics, he repaired, in 
 1604, to the learned Goucalo de Moraes, bishop of Oporto. This new 
 tutor soon appointed him his secretary, notwithstanding Faria's con- 
 stant rejection of all offers of preferment on condition of entering the 
 church, and notwithstanding his consecrating the first essays of his 
 muse to his mistress Amelia. This lady was probably the same Donna 
 Catalina Machado whom Faria married in 1614, whose stoical calmness 
 in a tremendous storm at sea he celebrated in his ' Fuente de Aga- 
 nippe' (Od. ii. part 3). In 1619 Faria quitted Portugal to try his fortune 
 at the Spanish court; but his independent character prevented his 
 success, and he returned to Portugal. Being unable to improve his 
 prospects in Portugal, he once more resorted to Madrid, and at last in 
 1631 obtained the secretaryship to the Spanish embassy at Rome under 
 the Marquis of Castel Rodrigo. He attracted the notice of the Italian 
 literati, and even numbered Pope Urban VIII. among his patrons, but 
 he could not agree with the marquis, and returned to Spain in 1634. 
 After many sufferings, proceeding from the resentment of this person- 
 age, he was allowed at last to settle as a prisoner at Madrid, where, 
 abandoning all thoughts of advancement, he devoted the remainder of 
 his life solely to letters with such ardour as to hasten his death, which 
 took place on the 3rd of June 1649. 
 
 Faria adhered closely to that extravagant school which in Spain was 
 fostered so much by that of the Martinists in Italy. He revelled in 
 bold flights of fancy, but all his beauties are like flowers buried in 
 parasitical weeds. He wrote daily, as he says himself, twelve sheets ; 
 and moreover had such facility in rhetorical turns and flourishes, that 
 in a single day he could compose a hundred different addresses of 
 congratulation and condolence. On the other hand, his historical 
 works, which are written in Spanish, are still valuable for their subject- 
 matter. The rest of his works are not all in that language, as we find 
 it stated in the ' Biographie Universelle.' Out of his select 600, or, 
 as he terms them, ' six centuries,' of sonnets, exactly 200 are in 
 Portuguese, and twelve of his eclogues are also in that language. 
 
 His works are — 1st. ' Noches Claras, o Discursos morales y politicos.' 
 2nd. ' Comentarios sobre la Lusiada,' on which he laboured twenty-five 
 years, and yet the commentary, except on historical points, rather 
 obscures than illustrates the original. It wa3 prohibited first by the 
 Inquisition of Spain, and more strictly afterwards by that of Portugal. 
 This occasioned the following work : — 3rd. ' Defensa por los Comen- 
 tarios sobre la Lusiada.' 4th. 'Epitome de las Historias Portuguesas,' 
 or a History of Portugal. 5th. ' Imperio de la China, y Cultura 
 Evangdlica por los Religioso3 de la Compania de Jesus,' written by 
 Samedo, but published by Faria. The following are his posthumous 
 works: — 'El Asia Portuguesa desde 1497 hasta 1640;' 'La Europa 
 Portuguesa hasta 1557 ;' 'El Africa Portuguesa,' translated by John 
 Stevens, 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1796 ; • El America Portuguesa,' inedited; 
 'Fuente de Aganippe, o Rimas varias;' 'Divinas y humanas Flores ; ' 
 ' Gran Justicia de Aragon ; ' at the end of which is the ' Retrato de 
 Manuel Faria,' that is to say, his Life, by his friend Porcel. Besides 
 this work the reader may consult Bouterwek, ' Spanish and Portuguese 
 Literature ; ' Nicholas Antonius, ' Biblio. Hisp. : ' Niceron, ' Memoires,' 
 &c, vol. xxxvi. 
 
 FARINA'TI, PAOLO, a celebrated painter of Verona, where he 
 was born in 1522. He studied first under Niccolo Giolfino, at Verona, 
 and afterwards under Giorgione and Titian at Venice. There are several 
 excellent works in fresco and in oil by him in the principal cities about 
 Verona, where he and his wife died, in 1606, on the same day. His 
 style of design is robust and vigorous, similar to that of Julio Romano, 
 and his colouring has much of the character of that of the Venetian 
 school. He etched a few designs from sacred and mythological history : 
 they are described by Bartach. 
 
 FARMER, DIt. RICHARD, descended from a respectable family in 
 Leicestershire, was born at Leicester, August 28, 1735. He received 
 the early part of his education in the Free Grammar School of his 
 native town, and in 1753 was entered a pensioner of Emmanuel 
 College, Cambridge. In due time he took his degrees ; was elected 
 fellow, and in 1760 became classical tutor of Emmanuel College, 
 which office he held until his election to the mastership in 1775. He 
 served the office of Vice-Chancellor in the same year, and in 1778 was 
 elected Chief Librarian to the University. In 1780 he was collated 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. 1L 
 
 to a prebeudal stall at Lichfield, and some time afterwards becamo 
 Prebendary of Canterbury, which he resigned (1788) for the office of 
 a Cauon Residentiary at St. Paul's. lie died alter a long and painful 
 illness, at Emmanuel Lodge, September 8, 1797, and was buried in 
 the chapel. An epitaph to his memory was written by Dr. Parr, and 
 is inscribed on the college cloisters. Dr. Farmer collected a valuable 
 library of tracts and early English literature, wh ich was sold after 
 his death and produced, as it is said, a great deal more than it 
 originally cost. 
 
 Dr. Farmer was a tory in politics, and belonged to the party which 
 goes by the name of ' orthodox, ' in the church ; his manners wero 
 frank and unreserved, and his habits rather those of a boon companion 
 than of a clergyman. It is reported of him that he declined a 
 bishopric rather than forego his favourite amusement of seeing 
 Shakspere performed on the stage, a reason which, if founded on 
 truth, had at all events more cogency in the time of Garrick than at 
 present. Dr. Farmer is now only remembered by his ' Essay on the 
 Learning of Shakspeare,' a work which, on its first appearance, was 
 described as learned, ingenious, and laborious. It deserves this 
 character, but no more. It contains the result of much reading, but 
 is distinguished by neither taste nor judgment. 
 
 FARNABY, or FARNABIE, THOMAS, a learned critic and gram- 
 marian, was born in London in 1575. His grandfather was of Truro 
 in Cornwall ; but his great-graudfather, an Italian musician, was the 
 first of his family who settled in England. He was admitted as a 
 servitor of Merton College, Oxford, in 1590 ; but being of an unsettled 
 disposition, he quitted the university abruptly, changed his religion, 
 and passed over to Spain, where he was received iuto a Jesuits' college. 
 But he soon grew weary of their discipline ; and in 1595 joined Sir 
 Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins in their last expedition. He 
 is reported also to have served subsequently as a soldier in the Low 
 Countries. Gaining no profit in these expeditions, he returned to 
 England, landed in Cornwall, and in the urgency of his necessities 
 descended to the humble employment of teaching children their horn- 
 book. In this situation he assumed the name of Thomas Bainrafe, 
 the anagram of Farnabie. After some time he changed his residence 
 to Martock in Somersetshire, where he established a grammar-school 
 for youth with great success, under his own name. From Martock 
 he removed to London, and opened a school in Goldsmiths' Rents 
 behind Red-cross-street, near Cripplegate, where his reputation 
 became so established, that the number of his scholars, chiefly the 
 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, amounted at one time to more than 
 300. Antony a Wood says, his school was so frequented that more 
 churchmen and statesmen issued from it than from any school taught 
 by one mau in England. Whilst here he was created M.A. in the 
 University of Cambridge, and on the 24th of April 1616 was incor- 
 porated in the same degree at Oxford. In 1636 he quitted London 
 to reside at Sevenoaks in Kent, resuming his former occupation, and, 
 with the wealth which he had accumulated, purchased landed property 
 both in Kent and Sussex. In 1641 he became mixed up in the com- 
 motions of the times as a favourer of the royal cause, and was committed 
 to prison, first in Newgate, and afterwards in Ely House. It was at 
 one time debated in the House of Commons whether he should not 
 be transported to America. Wood insinuates that some of the 
 members of both Houses who had been his scholars were among those 
 who urged his being treated with severity. He died on the 12th of 
 June 1647, and was interred in the chancel of the church at 
 Sevenoaks. 
 
 His own works were — 1, 1 Index Rhetoricus Scholis accommodatus,' 
 12mo, Lond., 1625 : to which in 1646 were added 'Formulas Oratorio? 
 et Index Poeticus :' the fifth edition was printed in 1654 ; 2, 'Flori- 
 legium Epigrammatum Grsecorum, eorumque Latino versu a variis 
 redditorum,' 8vo, Lond., 1629, 1650; 3, 'Systema Grammaticum,' 8vo, 
 Lond., 1641 ; 4, ' Phrasaeologia Anglo-Latina,' 8vo, Lond. ; 5, ' Tabuloe 
 Linguae Groecee/ 4to, Lond. ; 6, ' Syntaxis,' 8vo, Lond. His editions 
 of the classics, with annotations, were, Juvenal and Persius, 12mo( 
 Lond., 1612; Amst., 1662; Hag., 1663 ; Seneca, 12mo, Lond., 1613, 
 Amst, 1632, 1634; 8vo, Pat., 1659; 12mo, Amst., 1665; Martial, 
 12mo, Lond., 1615; Gen., 1623; Lond., 1633; Lucan, 12mo, Lond., 
 1618 ; 8vo, Francof., 1624 ; Virgil, 8vo, Lond., 1634 ; Ovid, fol., Par., 
 1637; 12mo, Lond., 1677, &c. His 'Notes upon Terence' were 
 finished only as far as the fourth comedy when he died ; but Dr, 
 Meric Casaubon completed the last two comedies, and published the 
 whole at London, 12mo, 1651. Other editions were 8vo, 1669 ; and 
 Salm, 1671. Dr. Bliss, iu his additions to Wood's 'Athenae,' says, 
 " Farnaby intended an edition of Petronius Arbiter's ' Satyricon.' " 
 
 FARNE'SE, the name of a noble family of modern Rome, who 
 were originally feudatories of the territory of Farnese and Moutalto, 
 iu the Papal States, south-west of the Lake of Bolsena, and near the 
 borders of Tuscany. The splendour of this family was greatly 
 increased by the exaltation of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese to the 
 Papal See after the demise of Clement VII. in October 1534. 
 [Paul III.] This pope had a natural son, Pier Luigi Farnese, whom 
 he determined to make a sovereign prince. For this purpose he first 
 of all alienated part of the territory of the church in the neighbour- 
 hood of the feudal domain of his family, and formed a duchy called 
 that of Castro, from the name of its chief town, adding to it the 
 towns of Rouciglione and Nepi, with their territories. This district, 
 
875 FARQUHAR, GEORGE. 
 
 which comprised nearly one-half of the province called Patrimonio 
 di San Pietro, he bestowed on Pier Luigi and his descendants, with 
 the title of Duke of Castro, as a great fief of the Holy See. He also 
 obtained for him from Charles V. the investiture of the Marquisate of 
 Novara as an imperial fief, and from the Venetian Senate permission 
 to be inscribed on the golden book of the patricians of Venice, an 
 honour considered as equal, if not superior, to that of a feudal title. 
 The pope also made his son Gonfaloniero, or Captain General of the 
 Holy See, an office which Pier Luigi dishonoured by the most 
 depraved conduct. Lastly, Paul III. in 1545 gave his son the investi- 
 ture of Parma and Piaoenza, which Pope Julius II. had conquered, 
 with the title of sovereign duke of those states, on condition that 
 the duke and his successors should pay an annual sum of 8000 ducats 
 to the Roman See. The emperor Charles V. however, who, as Duke 
 of Milan, had claims on Parma and Piacenza, would not bestow the 
 investiture upon Pier Luigi. The new Duke of Parma and Piacenza 
 soon became hateful to his subjects for his vices and oppression, and 
 a conspiracy was formed by Count Anguissola and other noblemen, 
 secretly countenanced by Don Ferrante Gonzaga, imperial governor 
 of Milan, who hated Pier Luigi. On the morning of the 10th of 
 September 1547, Anguissola stabbed the duke while at dinner in the 
 ducal palace of Piacenza, and threw his body out of the window, 
 when it was mutilated and dragged about by the mob. Piacenza 
 was taken possession of by the imperial troops, but Parma remained 
 in possession of Ottavio Farnese, son of the murdered duke. In 
 1556, Philip II., as sovereign of the Milanese, restored Piacenza to 
 the Duke Ottavio, but the citadel continued to be garrisoned by 
 Spanish soldiers. Ottavio dying in 1587, was succeeded as Duke of 
 Parma and Piacenza by his son Alessandro Farnese, who distinguished 
 himself as general of the Spanish armies in the wars against France. 
 He was made governor of the Spanish Netherlands by Philip II., and 
 carried on the war against the Prince of Orange. He is known in 
 history by the name of the Duke of Parma. Alessandro died in 
 1592, and was succeeded by Ranuccio Farnese, a suspicious and cruel 
 prince. A conspiracy was hatched against him at Rome, but it being 
 discovered, a number of people were put to death in 1612. His 
 successor, Odoardo Farnese, quarrelled with Pope Urban VIII. about 
 the Duchy of Castro, which that pope wished to take away from him 
 to give it to his own nephews, the Barberini. This gave rise to an 
 absurd and tedious warfare between the papal troops and those of 
 Parma. Ultimately, through the mediation of other princes, the 
 Farnese were left in possession of Castro, but under the following 
 pontificate of Innocent X. they were finally deprived of that territory 
 in 1650, and the pope razed the town of Castro to the ground, under 
 the pretence of its bishop having been murdered by some assassins. 
 This occurred under Ranuccio II., Farnese, duke of Parma, who had 
 succeeded Odoardo. The Farnese continued to rule over Parma and 
 Piacenza till 1731, when the last duke, Antonio Farnese, having died 
 without issue, the male line of the Farnese became extinct. But 
 Elizabeth Farnese, wife of Philip V. of Spain, claiming the duchy for 
 her children, it was ultimately given, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 to her younger son Don Filippo. The other fiefs however, and the 
 personal property of the Farnese, including the rich museum and the 
 splendid palaces at Rome, were given to his brother, Don Carlos, 
 king of the two Sicilies, and some of the finest statues and paintings 
 in the museum of Naples are derived from that inheritance. The 
 Farnese palace at Rome, which belongs to the King of Naples, is 
 considered the finest among the numerous palaces of that city. The 
 Farnesina or smaller mansion on the opposite or right bank of the 
 Tiber is known for the beautiful frescoes of Raffaele. The Orti 
 Farnesiani occupy a great part of the Palatine, and include some 
 remains of the palace of the Caesars. 
 
 Among the various families which have owed their aggrandisement 
 entirely to a papal ancestor, the Farnese attained the highest rank 
 among Italian princes, and retained it the longest. It has produced 
 several cardinals, distinguished for their learning. 
 
 (Ciacconius, Vita; et Gesta summorum Ponlificum et Cardinalium ; 
 Moreri, Dictionary, article 'Farnese;' Affo, Vita di Pier Luigi 
 Farnese, and the Italian historians of the 16th century.) 
 
 FARQUHAR, GEORGE, was born at Londonderry in 1678, and 
 received his education at the University of Dublin. Though he 
 displayed talents at an early age he did not take any degree, but 
 forsook his severer studies for the stage, and appeared at the Dublin 
 theatre. He never however made any great figure as an actor, and 
 having had the misfortune to wound a brother comedian with a real 
 sword, which he mistook for a foil, he forsook the stage, being at 
 that time only seventeen years of age. He accompanied the actor 
 Wilks to London, and attracted the notice of the Earl of Orrery, who 
 gave him a commission in his own regiment, which was then in 
 Ireland. 
 
 Wilks exhorted him to try his powers as a dramatist. Accordingly 
 in 1698 he produced his comedy of 'Love and a Bottle,' which was 
 so successful as to encourage him to another effort. His ' Constant 
 Couple,' which appeared two years afterwards, was played fifty-three 
 nights in the first season, and was the cause of the favourable 
 reception of a very indifferent sequel which he wrote under the title 
 of 'Sir Harry Wildair.' In 1703 he produced a version of Beaumont 
 and Fletcher's ' Wild-goose Chase,' under the name of the ' Incon- 
 
 FATIMIDES. 876 
 
 stant,' which long continued to be occasionally played at the Loudon 
 theatres. He was married in the same year, and getting into great 
 difficulties was forced to sell his commission; other mortifications 
 and disappointments ensued, and he became so deeply affected that 
 he fell into a decline, and died in 1707. During his last illuesa he 
 wrote his celebrated 'Beaux Stratagem.' 
 
 The appearance of Farquhar's comedies may be regarded as an 
 important epoch in the history of the English drama. He was the 
 first of his period to write in an easy flowing style, equally removed 
 from the pedantic stiffness of Congrcve and the formal viciousuess of 
 the Etherege school, and he also attended more to character than 
 most writers of the day. Immorul and licentious as his plays may 
 appear to readers of the present day, those who are conversaut with 
 writings of that time must acknowledge them to be considerably 
 more pure than those of his contemporaries, if we except his fim 
 piefie ' Love and a Bottle.' It is singular enough, that the critics 
 regarded as Farquhar's chef d'eeuvre a serious comedy called thu 
 'Twin Rivals,' which has now sunk entirely into oblivion, or at best 
 is only remembered by readers of the old English drama as containing 
 a masterly though disgusting portrait of ' Mother Midnight.' 
 
 FARR, WILLIAM, M.D. [See vol. vi., col. 993.] 
 
 F ARRANT, RICHARD, one of the fathers of English church 
 music, was born in the early part of the 10th century. He was a 
 gentleman of the chapel-royal in 1564, and subsequently organist and 
 master of the choristers of St. George's chapel, Windsor. He is sup- 
 posed to have died about 1585. So long as solemn harmony of the 
 purest and finest kind shall find admirers, so long will his service in 
 G minor, and more especially his two anthems, " Hide not thou thy 
 face," and "Call to remembrance," be productive of the most 
 delightful emotions that can arise out of a love of art combined with 
 religious feeling. 
 
 FATIMIDES, the name of a race of kings, who assumed the title 
 of kalifs, and reigned for many years over the north of Africa and 
 Egypt. They obtained the name from the pretensions of the founder 
 of the dynasty, Abu Mohammed Obeidallah, who asserted that he 
 was descended from Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed and wife 
 of Ali. The Arabic historians however generally deny the truth of 
 this assertion ; and many of them say that his grandfather was a Jew 
 or of the Magian religion. The princes of this family were also called 
 the Aliades, in consequence of their descent, real or pretended, from 
 Ali. 
 
 1. Obeidallah, the first Fatimide kalif, was born a.d. 882. Having 
 incurred the displeasure of Moktafi, the reigning Abasside kalif, he was 
 obliged to wander through various parts of Africa, till through fortunate 
 circumstances he was raised in 910 from a dungeon in Segelmessa to 
 sovereign power. He assumed the title of Mahadi, or " director of the 
 faithful," according to a prophecy of Mohammed's that in the space 
 of 300 years such an individual would arise in the west. He subdued 
 the princes in the north of Africa, who had become independent of 
 the Abassides, and established his authority from the Atlantic to the 
 borders of Egypt. He founded Mahadi on the site of the ancient 
 Aphrodisium, a town on the coast of Africa, about a hundred miles 
 south of Tunis, and made it his capital. He became the author of a 
 great schism among the Mohammedans by disowning the authority 
 of the Abassides, and assuming the title of Emir al Mumenin, 
 "prince of the faithful," which belonged exclusively to the kalifs. 
 His fleets ravaged the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and his armies 
 frequently invaded Egypt, but withont any permanent success. 
 
 2. Caiem succeeded his father in 933. During his reign an 
 impostor, Abu Yezid, originally an Ethiopian slave, advanced certain 
 peculiar doctrines in religion, which he was enabled to propagate over 
 the whole of the north of Africa, and was so successful in his military 
 expeditions as to deprive Caiem of all his dominions, and confine him 
 to his capital, Mahadi, which he was besieging when Caiem died. 
 
 3. Mansour succeeded his father in 946, when the kingdom was in 
 a state of the greatest confusion. By his valour and prudence he 
 regained the greater part of the dominions of his grandfather Obei- 
 dallah, defeated the usurper Yezid, and laid the foundation of that 
 power which enabled his son Moez to conquer Egypt. 
 
 4. Moez (955) was the most powerful of the Fatimide kalifs. He 
 was successful in a naval war with Spain, and took the island of 
 Sicily ; but his most celebrated conquest was that of Egypt, which 
 was subdued by his lieutenant in 972. Two years afterwards he 
 removed his court to Egypt, and founded Cairo. The name of the 
 Abasside kalif was omitted in the public prayers, and hi3 own substi- 
 tuted in its place ; from which time the great schism of the 
 Fatimide and Abasside kalifs is more frequently dated than from the 
 assumption of the title by Obeidallah. The armies of Moez conquered 
 the whole of Palestine and Syria as far as Damascus. His virtues are 
 highly extolled by the Arabic historians. 
 
 5. Aziz (978). The dominions recently acquired by Moez were 
 secured to the Fatimide kalifs by the wise government of his son 
 Aziz, who took several towns in Syria. He married a Christian woman, 
 whose brothers he made patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem. 
 
 6. Hakem was only eleven years of age when he succeeded his 
 father in 996. He is distinguished even among oriental despots by 
 his cruelty and folly. His tyranny caused frequent insurrections in 
 Cairo. He persecuted the Jews and Christians, and burnt their 
 
PAUCHER, LEON. 
 
 places of worship. By his order the church of the Resurrection at 
 Jerusalem was destroyed (1009). His persecutions of the Christians 
 induced them to appeal to their brethren in the West, and was one 
 of the causes that led to the crusades. He carried his folly so far as 
 to seek to become the founder of a new religion, and to assert that he 
 was the express image of God. He was assassinated in 1021, and was 
 succeeded by his son. 
 
 7. Dhaher. He was not so cruel as his father, but was addicted 
 to pleasure, and resigned all the cares of government to his vizirs. In 
 his reign the power of the Fatimide kalifs began to decline. 
 They possessed nothiDg but the external show of royalty : secluded 
 in the harem, they were the slaves of their vizirs, whom they could 
 not remove, and dared not disobey. In addition to the evils of mis- 
 goveinment, Egypt was afflicted in the reign of Dhaher with one of 
 the most dreadful famines that ever visited the country. 
 
 8. Mostansf.r (1037) was only nine years old when he succeededliis 
 father. The Turks invaded Syria and Palestine in his reign, t >ok 
 Damascus and Jerusalem (1076), where the princes of the hou=e of 
 Ortok, a Turkish family, established an independent kingdom. They 
 advanced to the Kile with the intention of conquering Egypt, but 
 were repulsed. 
 
 9. Mostali (1094), the second son of Mostanser, was seated on the 
 throne by the all-powerful vizir Afdhal, in whose hands the entire 
 power rested during the whole of Mostali's reign. The invasion of 
 Asia Minor by the crusaders in 1097 appeared to Afdhal a favourable 
 opportunity for the recovery of Jerusalem. Refusing to assist the 
 Turks against the crusaders, he marched against Jerusalem, took it 
 
 (1098) , and deprived the Ortok princes of the sovereignty which they 
 had exercised for twenty years. His possession of Jerusalem was how- 
 ever of very short duration, for it was taken in the following year 
 
 (1099) hy the crusaders. Anxious to recover his loss, he led an im- 
 mense army in the same year against Jerusalem, but was entirely 
 defeated by the crusaders near Ascalon. 
 
 10-13. The reigns of Amer (1101-29), Hafedh (1129-49), Dhafer 
 (1149-54), Faiez (1154-60), contain nothing worthy of notice. During 
 their reigns the power of the Fatimides rapidly decayed. 
 
 14. Adhed (1160) was the last kalif of the Fatimide dynasty. At 
 the commencement of his reign Egypt was divided into two factions, 
 the respective chiefs of which, Dargham and Shawer, disputed for the 
 dignity of vizir. Shawer implored the assistance of Noor-ed-deen, or 
 Noureddin, who sent an army into Egypt under the command of 
 Shiracouh, by means of which his rival was crushed. But becoming 
 jealous of Noor-ed-deen's power in Egypt, he solicited the aid of 
 Amauri, king of Jerusalem, who marched into Egypt and expelled 
 Shiracouh from the country. Noor-ed-deen soon sent another army 
 into Egypt under the same commander, who was accompanied by his 
 nephew, the celebrated Saladin. [Saladin.] Shiracouh was again 
 unsuccessful, and was obliged to retreat. The ambition of Amauri 
 afforded shortly afterwards a more favourable opportunity for the 
 reduction of Egypt. Amauri, after driving Shiracouh out of the 
 country, meditated the design of reducing it to his own authority. 
 Shawer, alarmed at the success of Amauri, entreated the assistance 
 of Noor-ed-deen, who sent Shiracouh for the third time at the head 
 of a numerous army. He repulsed the Christians, and afterwards put 
 the treacherous vizir to death. Shiracouh succeeded to his dignity, 
 but dying shortly after, Saladin obtained the post of vizir. As Noor- 
 ed-deen was attached to the interests of the Abassides, he gave orders 
 for the proclamation of Mosthadi, the Abasside kalif (1171), aud for 
 depriving the Fatimides of the kalifate. Adhed, who was then on a 
 sick-bed, died a few days after, ignorant, as it is said, of his loss. 
 
 < Mili, History of Muhamrnedanism, pp. 134-143; Mill, History of the 
 Crusaders, vol i. ; D'Herbelot, Bibliothlque Oricntale, articles ' Fathe- 
 miah,' ' Obeidallah,' ' Hakem,' 'Adhed,' 'Saladin,' &c. ; Gibbon, 
 Decline and Fall, cc. 57, 58, 59.) 
 
 FAUCHER, LEON, an ex-minister of the French government, 
 and a writer on subjects of political economy, born Sept. 8, 1803, was 
 occupied during the greater part of his life as a journalist. His 
 connection with the periodical press of Paris commenced about the 
 year 1830; from 1836 to 1843 he was a contributor to the ' Courrier 
 Francais,' and was afterwards a leading writer in the ' Revue des Deux 
 , Mondes,' which is published on the 1st and 15th of every month, and 
 occupies an influential place among those periodicals which arc chiefly 
 devoted to the discussion of questions of political economy and the 
 investigation of the actual condition of the various nations of the 
 world. M. Leon Faucher was, during the last ten years of the dynasty 
 of Louis Philippe, a member of the Chamber of Deputies for the 
 department of Marne. He was re-elected by the same department in 
 1848 as one of its representatives in the National Assembly of the 
 French Republic. He became Minister of the Interior, December 29, 
 1848, and held the office till May 14, 1849. He was again appointed 
 Minuter of the Interior, April 10, 1851, and was succeeded by the 
 Comte de Persigny, January 22, 1SJ52. M. Le"on Faucher died on the 
 14th of December 1854, at Marseille. 
 
 M. Leon Faucher published in 1845 'Etudes sur l'Angleterre,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, a work descriptive of the social and industrial con- 
 dition of certain districts of England — Whitechapel, St. Giles's, 
 the City; Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, and adjoin- 
 ing districts — together with dissertations on the Bank of England, 
 
 FAWKES, GUY. fa 
 
 the Lower Classes, Middle Classes, Aristocracy, the Corn-Lawa and 
 the League, and the Balance of Powers. Several portions of this work 
 had appeared in 1843 and 1844 in the 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' and 
 the description of Manchester had been translated into English under 
 the title of ' Manchester in 1841 ; its Present Condition/ 12mo. The 
 work is written in a fair and impartial spirit, and affords evidence of 
 diligent research and patient investigation; but contains many mis- 
 taken views and exaggerated descriptions. Other dissertations by 
 M. Leon Faucher are the following : — • De l'lmpot sur le Revenue; ' 
 'Du Systome de M. Louis Blanc' 'De la Situation Financiere et du 
 Budget,' 8vo, 1850, appeared originally in the 'Revue des Deux 
 Mondes,' in 1849. ' Remarks on the Production of the Precious 
 Metals and the Demonetization of Gold in several Countries in Europe, 
 by Mons. Leon Faucher ; translated by Thomas Hanley, Junior,' 8vo, 
 Lond., 1852. These remarks appeared first in the ' Revue des Deux 
 Mondes,' and were subsequently published, somewhat modified, in the 
 Reports of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. 
 
 FAUSTI'NA, ANNIA, was the daughter of Aunius Verus, prefect 
 of Rome ; she married Antoninus before his adoption by Hadrian, and 
 died in the third year of her husband's reign, thirty-six years of age. 
 She left only one surviving child, named Faustina. The historians 
 have represented her conduct as very licentious. [Antoninus Pius.] 
 
 Coin of Faustina the Elder. 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 346 J grains. 
 
 FAUSTI'NA the Younger, daughter of the preceding, married her 
 cousin Marcus Aurelius, and died a.d. 176 in a village of Cappadocia 
 at the foot of Mount Taurus, on her husband's return from Syria. 
 She is represented by Dion and Capitolinus as even more profligate 
 in her conduct than her mother, and yet Marcus in his 'Meditations' 
 (i. 17) extols her obedience, simplicity, and affection. Her daughter 
 Lucilla married Lucius Verus, whom Marcus Aurelius associated with 
 him in the empire, and her son Commodus succeeded his father as 
 emperor. [Aurelius, Marcus.] 
 
 Coin of Faustina the Younger 
 British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight 39 5 J grains. 
 
 FAWKES, GUIDO or GUY. During the latter years of the reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth the Protestants, who, since the death of Mary, 
 had so increased in numbers and in power as to have acquired the 
 undisputed ascendancy in the government of the kingdom, endea- 
 voured, by the severity of laws enacted against Roman Catholics, to 
 extirpate that religion from England. " Not only were the Catholics 
 forbidden to use the rites and ceremonies of their own faith, but were 
 required to attend upon the services of a church which, if conscien- 
 tious and consistent, they were bound to abhor. If they refused or 
 forbore to come to a Protestant church on the Sabbath, they were 
 liable to a penalty of 201. for every lunar month during which they 
 absented themselves." Every priest who said mass, and every person 
 who heard it, was liable to a fine of 100 marks, and imprisonment 
 for a year. The ministers of their religion, without whose presence 
 they were precluded from the exercise of the sacraments and other 
 rites, were in effect proscribed aud banished ; for by a statute passed 
 in 1585 it was enacted that all Jesuits, seminary and other priests, 
 ordained since the beginning of the queen's reign, should depart out 
 of the realm within forty days after the end of that session of parlia- 
 ment, and that all such priests or other religious persons ordained 
 since the same time should not come into England or remain there 
 under the paiu of suffering death as in case of treason. It was also 
 enacted by the same statute that all persons receiving or assisting such 
 priests should be guilty of a capital felony. It may be truly said thai 
 
8=0 
 
 these and other rigorous statutes were not at all times enforced ; but 
 they placed the whole body of the Roman Catholics at the mercy of 
 the Protestant government ; for them therefore there was no liberty, 
 personal or religious, but such as the privy council thought proper to 
 allow ; and with reference to their religion, the law gave them no 
 rights, and afforded them no protection. 
 
 The facts that James I., although himself a Protestant, was born of 
 Roman Catholic parents, had been baptised by a Roman Catholic 
 archbishop, and approved of several of the ordinances of the Roman 
 Church, gave to the Roman Catholics at his accession hopes of a 
 revival of their liberties. At first, indeed, it appeared that their 
 wishes would be realised, and the severity used towards them relaxed ; 
 for the fines paid by the recusants, which in the last year of Elizabeth 
 had amounted to 10,333Z., in the first year of James's reign scarcely 
 exceeded 3001., and in the second they were little more than 200i. 
 James however was no sooner firmly seated upon the throne, than he 
 overthrew all their expectations. In February 1604 he assured his 
 council that " he had never any intention of granting toleration to the 
 Catholics," that he would fortify the laws against them, and cause 
 them to be put into execution to the utmost. This occasioned among 
 the Roman Catholic party much discontent with the government, the 
 king, and the Protestants in general. The design of blowing up the 
 House of Lords with gunpowder at the opening of parliament, and 
 thus destroying at a single blow the King, the Lords, and the Com- 
 mons, was formed about the summer of 1604. The conceiver of this 
 desperate and bloody vengeance was Robert Catesby, a Roman Catho- 
 lic, the son of Sir William Catesby, who had been several times 
 imprisoned for recusancy. Catesby disclosed his scheme to John Wright 
 and Thomas Winter, the former descended from a respectable family 
 in Yorkshire — the Wrights of Plowland in Holderness ; the latter from 
 the Winters of Huddington in Worcestershire, where they had been in 
 possession of estates since the time of Henry VI. At a conversation 
 held between these conspirators it was agreed that Winter should go 
 over to the Netherlands to meet Velasco, constable of Castile, who 
 had arrived at Flanders on his way to England to conclude a peace 
 between James and the king of Spain, and request him to solicit his 
 majesty to recal the penal laws against the Roman Catholics, and to 
 admit them into the rank of his other subjects. Winter received no 
 encouragement from Velasco that he would stipulate in the treaty of 
 peace for the liberties of the English Roman Catholics, and so returned 
 to Kngland, having in company Guido Fawkes, who, it was thought, 
 would be of assistance in the business. Fawkes was a gentleman of 
 good parentage and respectable family in Yorkshire ; his father, 
 Edward Fawkes, was a notary at York, and held the office of registrar 
 aud advocate of the Consistory Court of the CathedraL Of his educa- 
 tion and early history nothing is known ; but having spent the little 
 property that he derived from his father, he enlisted in the Spanish 
 army in Flanders, and was present at the taking of Calais by the Arch- 
 duke Albert in 1598. Soon after Winter's return to London, Thomas 
 Percy, the relation and confidential steward of the Earl of Northum- 
 berland, joined the four conspirators already mentioned, and the 
 following oath of secrecy was administered to each, kneeling, with his 
 hands placed upon the Primer : — " You swear by the blessed Trinity, 
 and by the sacrament you now propose to receive, never to disclose, 
 directly or indirectly, by word or circumstance, the matter that shall 
 be proposed to you to keep secret, nor desist from the execution 
 thereof until the rest shall give you leave." They then heard mass, 
 and received the sacrament from Father Gerard in confirmation of 
 their vow. Percy took the next step. He was a gentleman-pensioner, 
 and upon pretence that it would be convenient to him when in attend- 
 ance in that capacity, he purchased of one Ferris the remainder of a 
 Bhort term which he had in the lease of a house 'adjoining the parlia- 
 ment-house. Fawkes, who was unknown in London, and had assumed 
 the came of JohnsoD, acted as Percy's servant, and took possession of 
 the house. Parliament was soon afterwards adjourned till the 7th of 
 February, and the conspirators having first hired a house in Lambeth 
 fo-t the preparation of timber for the mine and a place of deposit for 
 combustibles, agreed to meet in London about the beginning of 
 November. The custody of the house in Lambeth was committed to 
 Robert Keyes, the son of a Protestant clergyman in Derbyshire, but 
 himself a Roman Catholic ; the oath of secrecy was administered to 
 him also. The proceedings of the star-chamber during the interval of 
 their meetings so exasperated the conspirators that they became more 
 eager than ever about the plot. Cate B by and his confederates, accord- 
 ing to a previous agreement, assembled in the house about the 11th of 
 December, and a mine was immediately commenced. The stone wall 
 however which separated them from the parliament-house being found 
 three yards in thickness, Keyes and the younger brother of John 
 Wiight (who was enlisted as the others had been) were called in to 
 assist, and the seven men were thus occupied until Christmas-Eve 
 without their ever appearing in the upper part of the house. During 
 their laborious employment they had much consultation respecting 
 the scheme to be adopted. It was supposed that Prince Henry would 
 accompany the king to the parliament-house, and perish there with 
 his father. The Duke of York (afterwards Charles I.) would then bo 
 the next heir, and Percy undertook to secure his person, and carry 
 him off in safety as soon as the fatal blow was struck. If this scheme 
 nhould fail, the Princess Elizabeth was to be surprised and secured by 
 
 a party provided in tho country. It was tho intention to proclaim one 
 of tho royal family as king. It was also arranged that Warwickshire 
 should be the general rendezvous, and that supplies of horses and 
 armour should be sent to the houses of several of the conspirators in 
 that county, to be used a3 occasion might require. 
 
 In the midst of these deliberations Fawkes brought intelligence 
 that the parliament had again been prorogued from the 7th of February 
 to the 3rd of October following. The conspirators therefore separated 
 for a time; and in the meanwhile John Grant of Norbrook, in War- 
 wickshire, and Robert Winter of Huddington, were sworn in among 
 their number. In February (1604-5) their labours were resumed, 
 and the stone wall nearly half broken through. One morning while 
 working upon the wall, they suddenly heard a rushing noise in a 
 cellar nearly above their heads. At first they feared they had been 
 discovered ; but Fawkes being despatched to reconnoitre, found that 
 one Bright, to whom the cellar belonged, was selling off his coals in 
 order to remove. Fawkes carefully surveyed this large vault situated 
 immediately below the House of Lords, aud perceived its fitness for 
 their purpose. The difficulties connected with breaking through the 
 wall, its thickness, the damp of the situation, for water was continually 
 oozing through tho stone-work, and the danger of discovery from 
 noise, disposed the confederates to abandon their operations, and to 
 possess themselves of the cellar of Bright. The vault was imme- 
 diately hired, and about twenty barrels of powder were carried by night 
 from Lambeth : iron bars and other tools that had been used in mining 
 were also thrown among the powder, that the breach might be the 
 greater, and the whole was covered over with faggots. Lumber of 
 various kinds was placed in the cellar to prevent any suspicion of the 
 curious or the watchful. In May 1605 the preparations were complete : 
 the conspirators having marked the door, in order that it might be 
 seen if any one entered the vault, consented to separate; before their 
 separation however it was proposed that an attempt should be made 
 to obtain foreign co-operation by informing Sir William Stanley and 
 Owen of the project. This was agreed to on condition of their being 
 sworn to secrecy, and Fawkes was despatched to Flanders for the 
 purpose of conferring with them. Sir Edmund Baynham was also sent 
 on a mission to the pope, that when the news of the explosion 
 arrived at Rome he might be prepared to negotiate on behalf of the 
 conspirators, and to explain that the design of the plot was the 
 re-establishment of Roman Catholicism. Soon after Fawkes's return 
 from Flanders the parliament was further prorogued from October to 
 the 5th of November. These repeated prorogations alarmed the 
 conspirators, and led them to fear that their project was suspected. 
 Their alarms however having been discovered to be groundless, 
 Catesby purchased horses, arms, and powder, and under the pretence 
 of making levies for the Archduke of Flanders, assembled friends who 
 might be armed in the country when the first blow was struck. As 
 considerable sums of money were necessary for these purposes, it was 
 proposed to admit into the confederacy three wealthy men, Sir 
 Everard Digby [Digby], Ambrose Rookwood of Coldham Hall, in 
 Suffolk, and Francis Tresham, the son of Sir Thomas Tresham of 
 Rushton, in Northamptonshire. These gentlemen were afterwards 
 sworn iD. 
 
 As the day of meeting of parliament approached, it was finally 
 determined that Fawkes should fire the mine with a slow match, 
 which would allow him a quarter of an hour to escape. Sir Everard 
 Digby was to assemble a number of Roman Catholic gentlemen in 
 Warwickshire on the 5th of November under pretence of a hunting 
 party, and Percy was to seize the Prince of Wales, or the Duke of 
 York if the prince should go to the parliament-house with the king. 
 One subject of discussion only arose, whether and how the Roman 
 Catholic peers should be warned of their danger. Each conspirator 
 had friends, if not relations among them ; but the danger of commu- 
 nicating the project to so large a number of persons was considered 
 so imminent that they despaired of saving all of them, and it was 
 concluded that no express notice should be given them, but only such 
 persuasion, upon general grounds, as might deter them from attending. 
 Many of the conspirators were averse to this advice and angry at its 
 adoption ; and Tresham in particular, for his sisters had married 
 Lords Stourton and Mounteagle. Indeed Tresham so passionately 
 required that Lord Mounteagle should have warning of his danger, 
 that very high words ensued ; and when he was thwarted in his 
 wishes, he hinted that the money he had promised would not be forth- 
 coming ; and from this time he ceased to attend their councils. 
 
 On Saturday the 26th of October, ten days before the meeting of 
 parliament, Lord Mounteagle unexpectedly gave a supper in a house 
 which he had not lately occupied. Circumstances have given rise to 
 a belief that he was privy to the plot at the time that he invited his 
 friends, and that the supper was only given as a convenient oppor- 
 tunity of discovering the conspiracy to them. Be this as it may, 
 whilst he was at table a letter was brought to him by one of his pages, 
 who stated that he had received it in the street from a stranger, who 
 pressed its instant delivery into his master's hands. The letter ran 
 thus : — " My lord out of the love i beare to some of youer frends have 
 a caer of youer preservacion therefor i would advyse yowe as yowe 
 tender youer lyf to devyse some exscuse to shift of youer attendance 
 at this parleament for God and man bathe concurred to punishe the 
 wickednes of this time, and thinke not slightlye of this advertisement 
 
HI 
 
 FAWKES, GUY. 
 
 FEDOIt IVANOVICn. 
 
 but retyere youre self into youre contri wheare yowe may expect the 
 event in safti for thowghe theare be no apparance of anni stir yet 
 i saye they shall receyve a terrible blowe this parliament and yet they 
 shall not seie who hurts them, this couucel is not to be contemned 
 because it may do yowe good and can do yowe no harme for the 
 dangere is passed as soon as yowe have burnt the letter, and i hope 
 God will give yowe the grace to mak good use of it to whose holy 
 protection i commend yowe." "To the right honorable the Lord 
 Mounteagle." This letter has been ascribed to Anne, the daughter of 
 Lord Vaux, to Miss Abiugton, Lord Mounteagle's sister, to Percy, and 
 to others ; but there seem greater reasons for believing that no one 
 of these was the writer of it, but rather that Tresham was its author. 
 It is a point however we have not room to discuss, and therefore must 
 refer the inquiring reader to ' Criminal Trials ' (vol. ii. p. 66) for 
 further remarks upon it. 
 
 On the same eveniDg Lord Mouuteagle showed the letter to seveTal 
 lords of the council, who with him agreed that no steps should be 
 taken until the king returned from hunting at Royston. The contents 
 of the letter and its communication to many of the council, as well 
 as to the secretary of state, soon reached the ears of the conspirators ; 
 but though their danger was evident, and the vessel which was to 
 convey Fawkes to Flanders was lying in the river, they made no 
 attempt to escape. All suspected Tresham to be their betrayer, and 
 he was accused by them, but he vehemently denied the accusation. 
 Since they did not know accurately to what extent their proceedings 
 had been divulged, they had still hope of effecting their design, espe- 
 cially as, upon examination, Fawkes found that the cellar was not 
 watched, and had not been disturbed. When however they heard 
 that on the 31st of October the letter had been shown to the king, 
 their hope diminished and their fears increased. Some of the csn- 
 spirator3 left London; others concealed themselves in an obscure 
 lodging ; all held themselves ready to start at a moment's warning. 
 Fawkes alone, with the extraordinary courage which he had displayed 
 throughout the transaction, took up his station in the cellar. Thus 
 they passed three days of anxiety and suspense. On Monday the 
 chamberlain, with Lord Mounteagle, commenced the search, which 
 appears to have been somewhat strangely delayed. Their suspicions 
 were excited both at finding that Percy was the occupier of a house 
 of which he was known to make no use, and at the unaccountably 
 large store of fuel which filled the cellars, and by the side of which a 
 tall dark suspicious-looking man (Fawkes) was standing. They there- 
 fore gave orders to Sir Thomas Knevet, a magistrate in Westminster, 
 to search the houses, the cellars, and the whole neighbourhood. The 
 search was commenced, and about twelve o'clock on the night of the 
 4th, Fawkes was seized as he came out of the cellar : matches and 
 touchwood were found upon his person, a dark lantern with a lighted 
 candle stood behind the cellar door, and under the faggots thirty-six 
 casks of gunpowder. Fawkes at once avowed his purpose to the 
 magistrate, and declared that " if he had happened to be within the 
 house when he took him, he would not have failed to have blown him 
 up, house and all." His courage and composure were not disturbed 
 when he was examined before the king and council. He gave his 
 name as J ohn Johnson, the servant of Thomas Percy, declared his 
 intention to blow up the king, lords, and bishops, and others who 
 should have assembled at the opening of the parliament, refused to 
 accuse any one as his accomplice, and upon being asked by the king 
 how he could enter upon so bloody a conspiracy against so many 
 innocent persons, declared that "Dangerous diseases require a desperate 
 remedy." 
 
 After having received the news of the apprehension of Fawkes, it 
 was agreed by the conspirators, who had assembled at Ashby Ledgers, 
 to take up arms with the few followers they could collect, and to 
 endeavour to excite to rebellion the Roman Catholics in the counties 
 of Warwick, Worcester, and Stafford, together with those of Wales. 
 This scheme was immediately adopted ; arms and horses were seized 
 upon, and different parties despatched over the country. But all their 
 efforts were in vain [Digbt], and the failure of the project so complete, 
 that their proceedings served no other purpose than to point them 
 out as members of the confederacy. A party of the king's troops 
 pursued some of the conspirators to Holbeach, and here an obstinate 
 defence was made, in which the two Wrights, Percy, and Catesby 
 were killed, and Rookwood and Thomas Winter wounded. The others 
 were eventually taken. Tresham died a natural death in prison, and 
 on the 27th of January 1606, eight persons, namely, Robert Winter, 
 Thomas Winter, Guy Fawkes, John Grant, Ambrose Rookwood, Robert 
 Keyes, and Thomas Bates, were tried at Westminster by a special 
 commission, for being concerned in the powder-plot. Sir Everard 
 Digby was arraigned and tried separately for the same crime. Upon 
 the trials no witness was orally examined : the evidence consisted of 
 the written declarations of Digby's servant and of the prisoners them- 
 selves. There is reason to believe that Fawkes was tortured in order 
 to make him confess more fully. All the prisoners were found guilty, 
 and upon all the sentence of death was passed. Care was taken to 
 render their execution, which took place on the following Thursday 
 and Friday, as solemn and impressive as possible. 
 
 Of the implication of the Jesuits in this conspiracy we shall speak 
 in the article Garnet. 
 
 The atrocity of the design and th» extent of the mischief con- 
 
 templated form the principal features of the gunpowder-plot. It is 
 also remarkable for haviug been imagined and contrived, not by 
 needy and low-born adventurers, but by gentlemen of good family 
 and for the most part ample fortune. Its effect continued long to 
 be felt ; for it not only determined the feeble and wavering mind of 
 the king against the Roman Catholics, but prejudiced the whole 
 nation against them to such an extent, that not only were the severe 
 acts then in force against them left unrepealed, but others equally 
 harsh were enacted. 
 
 (Abridged and extracted from Criminal Trials, vol. ii.) 
 
 FAYETTE LA. [Lafayette.] 
 
 FEDERI'CI CAMILLO, an Italian dramatic writer of note, whose 
 real name, Giovanni Battista Viassolo, is, like that of Poquelin (Moliere), 
 quite lost in that which he assumed on joining a company of actors 
 and beginning to write for the stage, and which he took from the 
 title of his first dramatic effort, ' Camillo e Federico.' He was born at 
 Garessio in Piedmont, 9th April 1749. Intended by his family for 
 either the church or the bar, he was educated accordingly at Turin, 
 but a passionate taste for the theatre, which had captivated his 
 imagination while he was yet in his boyhood, prevailed over all other 
 considerations. After being for some years in different companies in 
 the double capacity of a performer upon the stage and a writer for it, 
 he had, in 1777, the good fortune to find an excellent wife in the 
 widow of Vicenzo Bazzigotti, who had realised some fortune by tho 
 theatre as a manager. The union was a happy one on both sides, for 
 his wife was not only an amiable, but an intelligent and well-educated 
 woman, possessing considerable literary taste. Federici now quitted 
 the boards, and settled at Padua, where he employed himself in com- 
 posing a succession of new pieces for the theatres of both that city and 
 Venice. The juncture was a favourable one, for Goldoni's popularity 
 was upon the wane, Gozzi had ceased to write for the stage, and 
 Chiari was altogether forgotten. Without treading in the footsteps of 
 Goldoni, Federici showed himself a worthy successor to him, inferior 
 in comic force, but equally fertile in invention, and more varied in his 
 subjects, many of his pieces being of a serious and sentimental kind — 
 then just brought into fashion in Germany — accordingly answering 
 better to the title of domestic drama than comedy. Federici's fame 
 was not confined to the applause of the public whose favour he had 
 more immediately in view, for his pieces were brought out with equal 
 success in almost every theatre throughout Italy. But this full tide 
 of prosperity was suddenly checked by a calamity that human pru- 
 dence could neither foresee nor avert. He was attacked, in 1791, by a 
 malady of the chest, that rendered him incapable of all exertion, either 
 bodily or mental ; nor did he ever afterwards recover from it further 
 than to be able to dictate either to his wife or one of his sons, who 
 served him as amanuenses. To add to his distress, soon after his 
 disorder first seized him, he learnt that Pellandi, the manager of one 
 of the companies for which he had written, had surreptitiously sold 
 twenty-nine of his pieces to a publisher at Turin— an injury which the 
 increased celebrity it brought to his name could hardly soften. 
 
 Federici died 23rd December 1802. Amiable and unassuming, he 
 had invariably resisted every proposal to his becoming a member of 
 any literary or learned society ; but he could not prevent one public 
 mark of honour being paid him, namely, a medal being struck, with 
 the head of Alfieri on one side, and his own on the other — as the 
 effigies of the two dramatic writers whom Piedmont had reason to be 
 proud of having given birth to. The high reputation he obtained has 
 been confirmed by the testimony of foreign critics. One quality that 
 recommends his productions is the healthy tone of morality that 
 generally pervades them ; neither is it the least of his merits, that he 
 enlarged the resources of the Italian stage, by bringing subjects upon 
 it that were calculated to amend and improve as well as amuse. 
 Besides his serious pieces, he produced a few tragedies, which would, 
 however, hardly have associated him in the manner above mentioned 
 with Alfieri. The most complete collection of his works is that pub- 
 lished under the title of ' Opere Teatrali di Camillo Federici,' Padova e 
 Venezia, 1802-16, in fourteen volumes. 
 
 FEDOR IVANOVICH, the last Czar of Russia of the dynasty of 
 Ruric, ascended the throne in 1584, after the death of his father, the 
 celebrated tyrant Ivan Vasilevich. He was weak in body and mind; 
 but the affairs of the government were conducted by Godoonoff during 
 his reign, which was marked by some events that produced a decisive 
 influence on the destinies of the Russian empire. It was during 
 Fedor's reign that the peasants of Muscovy, who had hitherto enjojed 
 personal liberty, and could pass from the estate of one landowner to 
 that of any other who would grant them better conditions, were con- 
 verted into serfs attached to the ground (servi glebae adscripti). This 
 change was introduced in 1592, by the instrumentality of Godoonoff, who 
 adopted that measure in order to obtain a party among the landowners. 
 There had been, previously to that epoch, domestic slaves in Russia, 
 but the predial serfs date only from that time. The Greek church of 
 Moscow originally depended on the patriarch of Constantinople, who 
 consecrated the metropolitan of Moscow ; but after the capture of Con 
 stantinople by the Turks, the supremacy of the Greek patriarch over 
 the Muscovite church was almost destroyed. Jeremy, patriarch of 
 Constantinople, arriving in 1588 at Moscow, in order to collect alms 
 for the erection of churches, was received with great honours by Fedor, 
 who, being exceedingly devout, presented the head of the Greek 
 
FEDOR ALEXEYEVICH. 
 
 FEJER, GYORGY. 
 
 894 
 
 church with rich donations. Jeremy acknowledged the kindness of 
 Fedor by consecrating a patriarch of Moscow, which dignity lasted till 
 the time of Peter the Great, who abolished it, and declared himself the 
 head of the Russian church. The conquest of Siberia, which had 
 been commenced under Ivan Vasilevich, was completed under Fedor, 
 during whose reign Russia made the first attempt to extend its influ- 
 ence over the Caucasian regions. The khan of Crimea invaded Russia, 
 and penetrated to the capital, but he was repulsed from the walls of 
 Moscow in 1591. The reign of Fedor is also remarkable for many 
 diplomatical relations with foreign courts, and particularly with that 
 of England. The most important event of Fedor's reign was his 
 attempt to get himself elected king of Poland, in 1587. Fedor, or 
 rather his prime minister Godunov, promised to the states of Poland 
 and Lithuania, that if they elected him king, he would unite all the 
 forces of Moscow with those of Poland, and conquer the Crimea for 
 Moscow, and Wallachia, Moldavia, and Hungary for Poland. The pro- 
 posed union would have easily created a power capable of accomplish- 
 ing not only the projected but even much more extensive conquests. 
 Fedor's proposals were readily accepted by the majority of the Lithu- 
 anians, and they found many partisans even amongst the Poles. He 
 was on the point of being elected, when the overbearing conduct of the 
 Muscivite ambassadors destroyed the hopes of Fedor, and Sigismund 
 Vasa, prince of Sweden, was elected king of Poland. Fedor died in 
 1598, and with him ended the dynasty of Ruric on the throne of 
 Moscow, his younger brother Demetrius having been murdered 
 through the instrumentality of Godunov. [See Godunov.] 
 
 FEDOR ALICXEYKV1CH, Czar of Russia, the eldest brother of 
 Peter the Great, ascended the throne after the death of his father, 
 Alexius Michaylowich, 1676, being only nineteen years of age. His 
 youth and delicate constitution did not prevent him from displaying 
 remarkable talents and energy, and the strong will which he constantly 
 evinced to improve the barbarous institutions of his country, may 
 almost justify us in supposing that but for his death he might have 
 accomplished the greater part of what was afterwards performed by 
 his brother Peter the Great. Fedor distinguished his reign particularly 
 by putting an end to a monstrous custom which had acquired the 
 force of law in Muscovy. According to this custom, called Me3t- 
 nichestvo (literally 'placeship,' from Mesto, place), no member of a 
 great family could be put under the command of 04. give precedence 
 to a person whose birth was considered inferior to his. All the noble 
 families of the country were registered in a roll called ' Razriad,' or 
 ' Arrangement,' and all the disputes which frequently arose about 
 precedent, not only at the court but even in active service, were 
 settled by referring to this kind of herald's office. Such a system 
 necessarily frequently proved very detrimental to the public service ; 
 but it was so dee-ply rooted, that even Ivan Vasilevich, who deluged 
 Muscovy with blood and decimated its nobility, was unable to destroy 
 the Mestnichestvo. Fedor abolished the practice by very simple 
 means : he assembled his boyards, or principal nobles, and having 
 expostulated with them on the bad consequences of the above- 
 mentioned custom, threw, in the presence of the assembly, all the 
 rolls of the ' Razriad ' into the fire. The genealogical records of the 
 Muscovite nobles, which did not relate to their claims of precedence, 
 were spared by Fedor, and arranged in order by his command. Fedor 
 died in 1682, at the age of twenty-five. 
 
 FEITH, RHYNVIS, a Dutch poet of high reputation, was born on 
 the 7th of February 1753 at Zwolle, the chief town of the province 
 of Overyssel, in which the family had been a noted one since the 
 time of Everard Feith, a distinguished classical scholar, who flourished 
 in the sixteenth century. Rhynvis, who was the only child of his 
 parents, received an excellent education under a private tutor, and 
 afterwards studied at Leyden, where he took his degree of Doctor of 
 Laws in 1770, at the unusually early age of seventeen. At the age of 
 nineteen he was married to Okje Groeneveld, with whom he spent the 
 next forty years of his life in an uninterrupted current of domestic 
 happiness, sweetened by literary fame. His first poem, ' The Transitori- 
 ness of the Universe,' which appeared in 1779, was followed by sufficient 
 prose and verse to fill about thirty octavo volumes. The most 
 successful poem of all, 'Fanny,' which was published in 1787, was 
 devoted to celebrating the connubial felicity of an imaginary Fanny 
 and Edward, concluding with a scene of Fanny at Edward's grave. 
 It was so popular for some years in Holland that it was customary 
 for young persons to learn it by heart, and the whole was set to 
 music. Its reputation has now entirely faded ; and two prose novels 
 by the author, ' Ferdinand and Constantia' and 'Julia,' written at the 
 time of the Werter mania, were from the first condemned as too 
 sentimental. The other works of Feith have been more fortunate. 
 They are almost all either of a religious or a patriotic cast, and the 
 latter are eminently spirited. A series of his odes, which commences 
 with the outbreak of the American war and lasts to about the com- 
 mencement of the French revolution, is interesting in an historical as 
 well as a poetical point of view, from the light it throws on the 
 sentiments of the Dutch patriotic or anti-Oranger's party of the 
 period. His ' Song of Triumph on the Anniversary of the Victory of 
 the Doggerbank,' 'Washington and Necker,' ■ To the Foes of Nether- 
 land,' are all animated with the same feelings — shame at the degeneracy 
 of his countrymen compared with their glorious ancestors of the times 
 of Troujp and De Ruiter,a most exaggerated estimate of these bygone 
 
 heroes, and a bitter hostility to England, which, at the time of the 
 American war, is spoken of as the relentless tyrant of the seas, and 
 viewed in no other light. The same spirit pervades a very fine eulogy 
 on De Ruiter, and an ode on the same hero, both of which were sent 
 anonymously by Feith in 1785 to a society which offered a reward 
 for poems on the subject, and to the first of which the society awarded 
 its first prize, a gold medal, and to the other its second, a silver one, 
 unaware of course at the time that they were from tho same hand. 
 Feith closed the first series of his patriotic odes at the time of the 
 Dutch revolution of 1787, too indignant at the turn affairs had taken 
 to continue them, and little foreseeing at that time what more serious 
 calamities were in store for Holland. He resumed them in 1809, 
 when the country was at the lowest ebb of its fortunes, and he had 
 the satisfaction of concluding the whole with an ode on the fall of 
 Napoleon. Of his didactic poems, ' The Grave' and 'Old Age' are 
 regarded as masterpieces. He wrote four tragedies, one of which k 
 on the subject of Lady Jane Grey, but the best is that entitled 
 ' Thirsa, or the Triumph of Religion,' the heroine of which is thi 
 Hebrew mother recorded in the book of Maccabees, who exhorted hef 
 seven sons to martyrdom. He wrote, in conjunction with Bilderdyk 
 [Bildeudtk], a new version of Van Haren's poem of ' De Geuzen,' 
 and edited a complete edition of the works of Jacob Cats, the 
 preface to which, a panegyric on the Holland of the seventeenth 
 century, is a fine specimen of vigorous prose. His prose works are 
 chiefly of a religious character, written for prizes offered by a society 
 at the Hague and by the trustees of the Teylerian legacy, a fund 
 analogous to the Bridgewater fund, founded by a miser of Haarlem, 
 which has given birth to a long series of quarto volumes. Another of 
 his works which gained a prize is an ' Essay on Epic Poetry,' in which 
 he gives an account of his intercourse with Klopstock during an 
 excursion to Hamburgh, which seems to have been his only taste of 
 foreign travel. The usual course of his life was to spend the winter 
 months at Zwolle, where he filled some municipal offices, and the 
 summer ones at Boschwyh, a rural retreat near that town, to which 
 he was much attached and where he gratified his taste for landscape 
 gardening. His domestic tranquillity was first broken by the death 
 of his wife in 1813, a loss which he never entirely recovered. In the 
 next year he was invited to form one of the " notables " assembled at 
 Amsterdam to consult on a constitution, but he declined on account 
 of old age and failing health. He survived however till 1824, when 
 he died, after a tedious illness, on the 8th of February, one day after 
 his seventy-first birthday. He left nine children, one of whom wrote 
 a poem of some merit descriptive of his father's funeral, which is 
 given in the volume entitled, ' Gedenkzuil voor Mr. Rhynvis Feith,' 
 published at Leeuwarden in 1825. A collected edition of his works, 
 compressed into thirteen volumes, was printed in the same year at 
 the Hague, with a life by Van Kampen. 
 
 FEJER, GYORGY, a very industrious Hungarian author, was born 
 at Keszthely in the year 1766, studied at the university of Pesth and 
 Buda, was for fifteen years a priest at Stuhlweissenburg, and after 
 occupying the post of professor of dogmatic theology and some others 
 of an analogous character, became in 1824 librarian of the university 
 of Pesth and Buda. During all this period his pen had been in 
 incessant activity, and in a list of his own printed works which he 
 published in 1830 he gives the titles of 102, beginning with the year 
 1784 when he was eighteen. They are of various kinds from poetry 
 to dogmatic theology, and of various sizes from mere pamphlets to 
 works in five or more volumes, all in the Latin language or in the 
 Hungarian. He specifies some articles of considerable extent which 
 had appeared in periodical publications, but very many of less con- 
 sequence in the ' Halle Litteratur-Zeitung,' and the ' Tudomanyot 
 Gyujteme'ny,' are passed over. Of the ' Tudomdnyos Gyujteme'ny,' 
 a very valuable publication, which was for a quarter of a century, 
 from 1817 to 1841, the best magazine and review that Hungary pos« 
 sessed, he was the original editor as well as a frequent contributor to 
 its pages. His great contribution to the literature of his country ii 
 however the ' Codex diplomaticus Hungariae ecclesiasticus ac civilis,' 
 published between 1829 and 1844 in twelve so-called volumes, which 
 are generally bound in eight-and-twenty, some of the volumes being 
 divided into several sections, each of the size of an ordinary volume. 
 In this ' Codex,' which is a general collection of charters and other 
 documents relating to Hungarian history from the earliest times to 
 the year 1440, it is said that many errors and inaccuracies are to be 
 found, but the work is a stupendous monument of industry and 
 perseverance, especially when the circumstances under which it was 
 produced are considered. " I have sought for the documents it 
 contains," says Fejer, in the preface to one of the volumes of the 
 Index published in 1835, "and applied forthem in season and out of 
 season; I have transcribed them with my own fist (' proprio transcripsi 
 pugno'), and let me be allowed to add, I have been led by no hope 
 of recompense ; I have had no patronage and no assistance ; this work 
 I dedicate to the public use at an expense from my own purse of 
 12,000 florins " (about 1200Z.) Several Latin dissertations on disputed 
 points in Hungarian history are interspersed, and the whole forms an 
 appropriate companion to Katona's great ' Historia critica regum 
 Hungarise.' The last works of FejeY that we have seen mentioned 
 are, ' A' Kunok eredeterol ' (' On the Origin of the Huns '), and ' A' 
 politikai Forradalmok okai ' (' The Causes of Political Revolutions '), 
 
both published in 1850. The last work was prohibited by the 
 Austrian government as of too liberal a character. Fejer died at 
 Pesth, July 1851. 
 
 FELIBIEN, ANDRE, was born in May 1619 at Chartres, depart- 
 ment of Eure et-Loir, France. He was appointed secretary of embassy 
 to the Marquis de Fontenay-Mareuil on his mission to Rome in 1647 ; 
 and there formed an acquaintance with Poussin and other eminent 
 artists, and gave much attention to the study of the Fine Arts. On his 
 return to Fiance he married and settled at Chartres, but subsequently 
 went to Paris, where he acquired the friendship of Colbert, from whom 
 he received in succession the appointments of Historiographer du Roi, 
 superintendent of the royal buildings, and of arts and manufactures, 
 keeper of the antiquities of the Palais Prion, and secretary of the 
 Acade"mie d' Architecture, instituted in 1671. Felibien was one of the 
 eight who formed the Acade"mie des Inscriptions, founded by Colbert 
 in 1663. Louvois appointed Felibien comptroller-general of the 
 highways and bridges, and he held some other offices. As a kind of 
 official director in matters of art in the court of Louis XIV., Felibien's 
 position was one of great influence, and his writings on artistic 
 patters were long regarded as of high authority. The work by which 
 \e is now chiefly known is his ' Entretiens sur les Vies et sur lea 
 Ouvrages des plus excellens Peintres anciens et moderns,' 4to, Paris, 
 1666. This work was several times reprinted in other countries as well 
 as in France, translated into various languages, and is still regarded as 
 a valuable book of reference. It is by far the best of Felibien's pro- 
 ductions, but is crude, immethodical, and diffuse. He also published 
 ' Origine de la Peinture,' 4to, Paris, 1660; 'Principes de 1' Architec- 
 ture, de la Sculpture, de la Peinture, et des autre3 Arts qui en 
 ddpendant, avec un Dictionnaire des Termes propres,' 4to, Paris, 
 1676-90; ' Conferences de l'Acade'mie de Peinture,' 4to, Paris, 1669; 
 and descriptions of the palace of Versailles, and of its artistic treasures, 
 of the Abbey of La Trappe, and of various entertainments given by 
 Louis XIV., besides some religious pieces, translations, &c. All the 
 inscriptions placed in the court of the Hotel de Ville at Paris between 
 1660 and 1686 were written by Felibien. He died June 11, 1695. 
 
 Jean Franqois Felibien, eldest son of Andre, was born in 1658 ; 
 he inherited his father's love for the arts, assisted him in several of his 
 works, and succeeded him in some of his offices. He was a conseiller 
 du roi, secretary of the Acaddmie d' Architecture, and treasurer of the 
 Academie des Inscriptions. His best known work is the 'Receuil 
 Historique de la Vie et des Ouvrages des plus celebres Architectes,' 
 4to, Paris, 1687, which was several times reprinted, but is a work of 
 little value. He also wrote several descriptions of public buildings. 
 He was removed from his office of treasurer of the Academie des 
 Inscriptions in 1716, on suspicion of being concerned in some dis- 
 honourable transactions, and in 1722 his name was struck off the 
 list of the Academy. He published a ' Requete au Roi, pour 
 demander d'etre remis sur la liste des Acade"rniciens, et de conserver 
 son rang dans l'Aeade'niie,' 12mo, 1722; and an arret du conseil of 
 July 18, 1722 acquitted him of the charges brought against him, but 
 he was not re-admitted into the Academy. He died at Paris, June 
 23, 1733. 
 
 Doii Michel Felibien, another son of Andr<§, was born at Chartres, 
 September 14, 1666. At the age of sixteen he entered the congrega- 
 tion of St. Maur. Feeble health preventing him from active exertions, 
 he devoted himself chiefly to literature. His principal work is a 
 * Histoire de l'Abbaye Royale de St. Denis,' fol., Paris, 1706. This 
 work contained besides an elaborate description of the church, an 
 account of its privileges and lives of its abbe's, of its benefactors, and 
 of the celebrated men connected with it. So high a reputation did 
 this work gain for its author as a learned, painstaking and faithful 
 historian, that the merchants of Paris by their provost, M. Bignon, 
 applied to Dom Felibien to write a history of Paris. He entered 
 upon the task with ardour, and published his 'Projet' in 1714, but 
 died before he could complete his undertaking, September 25, 1719. 
 It was finished by Dom Lobineau, and published in 5 vols, fol., Paris, 
 1755, under the title of 'L'Histoire de la Ville de Paris,' with an 
 dloge of Dom Michel Felibien prefixed. 
 
 FELIX L, Pope, a native of Rome, succeeded Dionyeius the 
 )alabrian as bishop of that city a.d. 269, and suffered martyrdom in 
 275. He was succeeded by Eutychianus, bishop of Luna. There is 
 extant an epistle of Felix to Maximus, bishop of Alexandria, against 
 Paul of Samosata. 
 
 FELIX IL, by some styled III., on account of an anti-pope who 
 assumed the title of Felix II. in the schism against Liberius (a.d. 
 355-66), wa3 a native of Rome, and succeed Simplicius in the year 
 483. He had a dispute upon questions of ecclesiastical supremacy 
 with Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, who was supported by the 
 i mperor and by most of the eastern clergy ; in consequence of which 
 a schism ensued between the Greek and Latin churches, which con- 
 tinued after the death of Felix, which happened in 492. He was 
 succeeded by Qelaaius I. 
 
 FELIX HI., also called IV., a native of Beneventum, succeeded 
 John I. a.d. 526, and died in 530. He was succeeded by Boniface II. 
 
 FELIX V. [Amadecs.] 
 
 FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES, was born in 1799, at Nottingham, 
 where his father, John Fellows, Esq., held a property which the 
 family had possessed during four previous generations. In the early 
 
 part of the year 1838 Mr. Charles Fellows made a tour in that part of 
 Asia Minor which lies between 42° and 36° N. lat., 26° and 32° E. 
 long. He started from Smyrna on the 22nd of February. Parts of 
 his route, which lay through the interior and southern districts of 
 Asia Minor, had not, as far a3 is known, been previously traversed 
 by any European, and led him to the remains of several ancient 
 cities. All these cities had their origin prior to the conquest of the 
 country by the Romans in the third century B.C., and some of them 
 were of very remote antiquity. Having passed through Lydia and 
 Mysia, and crossed the Sea of Marmora to Constantinople, he pro- 
 ceeded thence through Bithynia, Phrygia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. 
 When he was approaching Lycia it occurred to him that Colonel 
 Leake and others had remarked that the valley of the river Xanthus 
 had not been visited, and that it would probably be found to contain 
 remains of ancient cities. Mr. Fellows therefore resolved to explore 
 it, and commenced his researches at Patara, at the mouth of the 
 Xanthus. Only nine miles up the river he discovered on a bold 
 rocky elevation the extensive ruins of the city of Xanthus, the 
 former capital of Lycia. Some fourteen or fifteen miles higher up 
 the river he discovered in a most beautiful site the ruins of another 
 large city, which he found by inscriptions to be the ancient city of 
 Tlos. Among the ruins of Xanthus were some exceedingly interesting 
 remains of architecture, with many beautiful sculptures. Having 
 made drawings of the architectural remains and sculptures, and 
 copied the most legible of the inscriptions, he continued his journey 
 through Caria and Lydia to Smyrna, where he arrived on the 12th 
 of May. 
 
 Mr. Fellows, after his return to England, published 'A Journal 
 written during an Excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles Fellows, 1838/ 
 8vo, London, 1839. This work excited a very strong interest, and 
 Mr. Hawkins of the British Museum, authorised by the trustees, 
 requested Lord Palmerston to ask the Sultan for a firman granting 
 leave to bring away some of the works of art which Mr. Fellows had 
 discovered. Lord Palmerston accordingly wrote to the British 
 minister at Constantinople, directing him to make application for the 
 necessary firman, or letter of authorisation. 
 
 Not anticipating any difficulty in obtaining the firman, Mr. Fellows 
 offered his services to the British Museum in pointing out such of the 
 works of art as it would be most desirable to bring to Eiigland. His 
 offer was accepted by the authorities of the British Museum, and in 
 the autumn of 1839 he again left England for Lycia, more fully pre- 
 pared than before for an examination of its geography and remains of 
 antiquity. He also took with him Mr. George Scharf, then a 
 young artist, to assist him in making the drawings. He proceeded 
 to Smyrna, and thence to Lycia, through which he made another 
 excursion, and discovered thirteen other cities, each containing works 
 of art. At length, on the 7th of March 1840, he received a letter from 
 Lord Ponsonby, informing him that the Porte objected to the extent 
 and generality of the required firman. 
 
 Having returned to England, Mr. Fellows laid his second journal 
 before the public, ' An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, being a- 
 Journal kept during a Second Excursion in Asia Minor,' 8vo, London, 
 1841. The public read the work with increased interest and admira- 
 tion, and the government with increased zeal requested Lord Ponsonby 
 to use his influence with the Porte to obtain the firman. At length, 
 in October 1841, the trustees of the British Museum were informed 
 that the firman was obtained. 
 
 On the 12th of October 1841, Mr. Fellows wrote to the trustees of 
 the British Museum, offering his services to accompany the expedition, 
 and to point out the objects for removal, requiring no remuneration, 
 and offering to pay his own expenses, except a free passage to Lycia 
 and back again, and rations with the officers during the voyages. His 
 offer was again accepted, and on the 16th of October he was on board 
 the Tagus steam-boat off Southampton, ready to sail. He arrived at 
 Smyrna on the 15th of November. Here he received the supposed 
 firman, which proved to be nothing more than a letter requiring infor- 
 mation as to the precise object of the explorers. Finding that there 
 had been some mistake in making the application to the Porte, Mr. 
 Fellows went himself to Constantinople, explained the matter to the 
 prime minister of the Sultan, and obtained without difficulty the 
 required firman. After purchasing spades, pick-axes, &c, he joined 
 the expedition at Rhodes on the 18th of December. Here another 
 difficulty occured. The district of the Pasha extended only to one 
 side of the river Xanthus, and the ruins were on the other side, in the 
 district of the Pasha of Adalia. The Pasha very kindly however took 
 on himself the responsibility of authorising them to proceed with 
 their work. The Xanthus in the winter season is much wider than 
 the Thames at Richmond, contains a very great volume of water, and 
 is an exceedingly powerful and wild river. They were consequently 
 four days partly rowing and partly dragging with ropes the two boats 
 which contained their stores, though the distance is only nine miles, 
 which they descended in a boat in three quarters of an hour. They 
 pitched their tents in the plain immediately below the ruins of the 
 ancient city on the 30th of December. After they had been some 
 weeks at work among the ruins, their proceedings were confirmed by 
 a message from the Pasha of Adalia, saying that the Queen of England 
 was good, the Sultan was good, that they were all brothers, and were 
 at liberty to take what they liked. Having, as far as their means 
 
887 FELLTHAM, OWEN. 
 
 allowed them, accomplished tbeir undertaking, they re-embarked, and 
 arrived at Rhodes with their packages on the 5th of March 1842. 
 
 Another expedition was afterwards sent out by the trustees of the 
 British Museum, also under the superintendence of Mr. Fellows, and 
 the collected treasures, consisting of twenty cases of marbles and 
 casts, were safely shipped on board her Majesty's ship Medea on the 
 15th of March 1844, leaving soven cases of the most unwieldy masses 
 to be afterwards taken on board a larger vessel. 
 
 These interesting remains of ancient art are now deposited in one 
 of the rooms of the British Museum, which is called the Lycian Saloon, 
 and they are described in the ' Synopsis of the Contents of the British 
 Museum.' 
 
 Mr. Fellows in 1845 received the honour of knighthood for his dis- 
 coveries in Lycia, and bis services in the removal of the Xanthian 
 Marbles. In the same year he married the only daughter of Francis 
 Hart, Esq., of Nottingham. She died in 1847, and in 1848 he married 
 the relict of the late William Knight, Esq., of Uatland*, Hertfordshire. 
 
 In translating and elucidating the inscriptions contained in the first 
 of his Journals, Sir Charles Fellows was assisted by Mr. James Yates : 
 in those of the second by the late Mr. Daniel Sharpe, president of the 
 Geological Society. Several of the inscriptions are in the Lycian 
 language, which was different from the Greek. 
 
 In 1843 Sir Charles Fellows, in consequence of some mis-statements 
 which had been made, published a pamphlet, entitled ' The Xanthian 
 Marbles : their Acquisition and Transmission to England,' 8vo. He 
 has since published ' An Account of the Ionic Trophy Monument 
 excavated at Xanthus,' 8vo, 1848, and 'Coins of Ancient Lycia before 
 the reign of Alexander ; with an Essay on the Relative Dates of the 
 Lycian Monuments in the British Museum,' 8vo, 1855. Ho has also 
 published his two Journals in one volume, in a cheaper form, under 
 the title of ' Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, particularly in the 
 Province of Lycia,' 12mo, 1S52. [See Supplement.] 
 
 FELLTHAM, OWEN, lived in the time of James L ; but the par- 
 ticulars of his life are almost entirely unknown. From his statement 
 that a part of his ' Resolves ' was written when he was only eighteen, 
 he must have been born before 1610 : he is believed to have been 
 living in 1677, when the tenth edition of his work was published. 
 He appears to have resided during the greater part of his life in the 
 house of the Earl of Thomond, as is supposed in the capacity of secre- 
 tary. To the lover of English literary antiquities he is known as the 
 author of a curious book called ' Resolves,' consisting of pious and 
 moral treatises collected into centuries ; of which the first edition was 
 published in 1628. It somewhat resembles Lord Bacon's Essays, and 
 exhibits a surprising exuberance of wit and fancy. Metaphor follows 
 metaphor ; and they are not merely introduced as an idle and 
 unmeaning sport, but are the exponents of thoughts in themselves 
 often acute and profound. All liberal minds must admire the spirit 
 in which the book is written. Felltham displays himself as a man 
 delighting in reflection, and at the same time as a man of the world ; 
 as one of sincere and fervent piety, but at the same time as one of 
 .a cheerful and lively temper, loving the good things of this life, and 
 always preserving a clear understanding. His style is however often 
 affected, and he not unseldom indulges in a paradoxical strain. A 
 series of poetic pieces entitled ' Lusoria, ' and a ' Brief Character of 
 the Low Countries,' with 'Nineteen Letters on Various Subjects,' are 
 usually bound up with the early editions of the ' Resolves.' 
 
 FELTON. [Buckingham, Duke op.] 
 
 FELTRE, HENRI-JACQUES-GUILLAUME-CLARKE, DUC DE, 
 was a native of Landrecies, and traced his descent from one of those 
 Irish families whom the fall of James II. compelled to establish them- 
 selves in France. He was born October 17, 1765 ; entered the Mili- 
 tary School of Paris, as gentleman cadet, on September 17, 1781, and 
 left it November 11, 1782, as second lieutenant in the regiment of 
 Berwick. He became a cornet of hussars in 1784, and a captain of 
 dragoons in 1790. This rapid promotion was very unusual at that 
 period ; and the young officer owed his good fortune to the protection 
 of the Due d'Orleans. He saw much service during the first campaigns 
 of the Revolution ; and his good conduct procured him the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel February 5, 1792, at the age of twenty-seven. For 
 his skill and bravery in a combat near Landau, on the 17th of May 
 1793, he was rewarded with the command of a brigade, conferred on 
 the field of battle. 
 
 On the 12th of October 1793, General Clarke was removed by the 
 commissioners deputed by the Convention to purge the army of every 
 general officer belonging to the noblesse ; nor did he recover his rank 
 until after the fall of Robespierre. But he had been introduced to 
 Carnot, and that sngacious minister, appreciating his character and 
 zeal, gave him his protection, and placed him at the head of an office 
 of military topography. He became a general of division in 1795, 
 and the following year he was sent by Carnot on a mission to Vienna, 
 with secret instructions to visit the various seats of war in Germany 
 and Italy, and to watch the rising ambition of Napoleon I. But the 
 office of a spy was not suited to his character; and yielding to the 
 spell of that fascination, which few men could resist, he attached him- 
 self to the fortunes of Napoleon I., and continued in his service for 
 eighteen years. 
 
 After the battle of Marengo the First Consul commissioned General 
 Clarke to open the negotiations of Luueville, appointed him governor 
 
 FENELON, FRANCOIS-DE-SALIGNAC. 888 
 
 of that town, September 1800, and then made him minister of France 
 at Florence. In 1805 he accompanied Napoleon I. to the campaign 
 in Germany, was present and took part in the capture of Ulm ; and 
 after the fall of Vienna was made governor of that city, and of a vast 
 extent of territory recently subdued. On the 27th of October Napo- 
 leon I. appointed him governor of Berlin, observing — " I wish in one 
 year to place under your orders the capitals of two monarchies." 
 Although one of the most upright men in the French army, General 
 Clarke was severe, and even cruel, and many complaints were preferred 
 against him during his government for his inexorable rigour. But if 
 he was sometimes strict, he was always just ; he protected the inhabit- 
 ants of the cities he held under his authority from the rapacity of 
 other generals, and compelled Vandamme to dcaist from plundering 
 the palace of Potsdam, and selling the king's furniture for his own 
 advantage. The skill and resolution shown by him during his govern- 
 ments of Vienna and Berlin were fully appreciated by the emperor, and 
 in spite of the ill-will and clamour of certain generals and marshals; 
 he was appointed to succeed Berthier, as Minister of War, in 1807. 
 In this high charge he displayed honesty, diligence, considerable 
 administrative skill, and a familiar acquaintance with every branch of 
 military science. Murmurs without end assailed him, and complaints 
 without number reached his master. But Napoleon I. knew how to value 
 integrity iu a minister, and not only created him Due de Feltre in 
 1809, but retained him in his office until his own fall, in 1814. 
 
 The Due de Feltre accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent iu 1815, 
 and after the second return of the Bourbons was reinstated in his old 
 office as Minister of War. Again he evinced the same zeal, and the 
 same fearless opposition to private interests. The clamour of dis- 
 appointed men, ambitious of places without the due qualifications to 
 fill them, was renewed. But Louis XVIII., not so uuyieldiug as hi3 
 minister, gave way to these misrepresentations, and sent the duke into 
 honourable exile at Rouen, with the command of the 15th Division. 
 He died on the 28th of October 1818, at the age of fifty-three. His 
 disregard of all personal interests had been so great, that instead of 
 leaving a princely fortune ,to his family, like most of Napoleon's 
 ministers and generals, he left them in comparative indigence; the 
 duchess being compelled to sell immediately after his death the small 
 estate he had possessed at Puteaux, near the bridge of Neuilly. 
 
 (Rabbe ; Thiers, French Revolution ; Bioyraphie Universelle.) 
 
 FENELON, FRANCOIS -DE-SALIGN AC -DE-LAMOTHE, was 
 born at the Chateau de Fenelon, in Perigord, in the year 1651. So 
 rapid was his progress that he preached a sermon at the early age of 
 fifteen before a select assembly at Paris, whither he had been called 
 by his uncle, the Marquis de Fenelon, who afterwards fearing lest the 
 praises of the world should create pride and vanity, caused him to 
 enter the seminary of St. Sulpice, and there for several years imitate 
 ' the silence of Jesus.' Here he took orders. His first work was a 
 treatise, 'De l'Education des Filles,' which is well known, and has 
 been translated into our language. The intimacy which he formed 
 with Bossuet, and Bossuet's example, led him to write a treatise 
 against heretics, entitled ' Du Miuistere des Pasteurs,' in which 
 heretics are attacked, thougli with more moderation than they had 
 been by Bossuet. Fenelon being intrusted by Louis XIV. with a 
 mission to Poitou, to convert the Protestants, refused the aid of 
 dragoons, and employed persuasion alone as an instrument of con- 
 version. His conduct on this occasion gained him many friends. In 
 1689 he was appointed tutor to the young Duke of Burgundy, which 
 brought him into attendance on the court. Though the polish and 
 grace which pervade his writings extended to his conversation, ho 
 never seems to have been a great favourite of Louis; his political 
 opinions always tended to liberality, and in a letter to Mad. de 
 Maintenon he animadverted rather freely on the character of the king. 
 Notwithstanding this, after he had been tutor for five years, Louis 
 made him archbishop of Cambray. Unfortunately, at the very 
 moment when he had gained this elevated post, that series of events 
 commenced which caused his future disgrace. He formed an acquaint- 
 ance with the celebrated quietist, Madame Guyon, who was at first in 
 high favour with Mad. de Maintenon, and who was encouraged by her 
 to spread her doctrines at St. Cyr. This lady was afterwards perse* 
 cuted by Bossuet; and as Fenelon was suspected of favouring her 
 doctrines, Bossuet required him to condemn them. Not only did 
 Fenelon refuse, but he published a book called ' Explication des 
 Maximes des Saints,' in which the principles of quietism were openly 
 avowed. Upon this, Bossuet denounced him to the king as a heretic. 
 To increase his troubles, his palace caught fire about the same time, 
 and all his manuscripts and books were destroyed. The persecution 
 of Bossuet continued ; and the protection of Mad. de Maintenon, who 
 had at first encouraged Fenelon, was withdrawn. Bossuet required 
 that the difference should be settled by a controversy : Fenelon would 
 not accede to these terms, but offered to submit his book to the 
 tribunal at Rome. His persecutor however succeeded so far as to 
 cause him to be banished from the court, and endeavoured, though 
 unsuccessfully, to involve Beauvilliers, governor to the Duke of 
 Burgundy, in his disgrace. Pope Innocent VIII., though strongly 
 urged by Louis, was not willing at once to condemn a prelate so noted 
 for learning and piety, and a violent paper war was waged by both 
 parties. At last the papal letter arrived, and the archbishop of 
 Cambray was forced to submit; he signed a renunciation, and would 
 
FENTON, ELIJAH. 
 
 have been restored to regal favour bad not the celebrated romance of 
 ' Telemaque,' wbich be bad written some years before, been published 
 against his will through the treachery of a servant. Several passages 
 in this work were suspected by Louis to be directed against himself; 
 it was suppressed in France, but rapidly circulated in Holland. 
 Hearing of the unfortunate impression which his book had made, 
 Fenelon resolved to remain quietly in bis diocese. Cambray being 
 situated on the frontiers of France, he was visited by many illustrious 
 foreigners. Fenelon's acts of benevolence were munificent : in the 
 year 1709 he fed the French army at his own expense. It has been 
 already remarked that his political opinions were liberal; be bad 
 always conceived it just that the people should have a share in the 
 government, and it was expected that the Duke of Burgundy would 
 have acted in accordance with his preceptor's views. But all hopes 
 of this sort were cut off by the sudden death of that prince. Fenelon 
 himself died Jan. 7, 1715. 
 
 The works of Fenelou are very numerous ; consisting, besides the 
 romance of ' Telemaque,' of a variety of religious and moral treatises. 
 ' Telemaque ' has been translated into every European language, and 
 was until lately read at almost every European school. Had it been 
 written in this age, it is very questionable whether its popularity 
 would have been so great; the spirit of the Greeks is much better 
 understood than it was formerly, and the classic reader, though he 
 may admire the language of ' Telemaque,' as well as the general accu- 
 racy of the writer's information on matters of ancient history and 
 geography, will find it strange that the sentimental speeches, however 
 good in themselves, should flow from the mouth of Homeric heroes, 
 who of all beings were the least moralising, in the modern sense of 
 the word. The religious and moral essays of Fenelon are only calcu- 
 lated for persons in whose mental constitution warmth and suscepti- 
 bility are predominant, and who can suffer themselves to be led on 
 by the fervour and eloquence of the author. To the cool and more 
 intellectual inquirer after truth his works will appear diffuse and 
 tedious. So much use does he make of the imaginative faculties, that 
 he exhorts teachers to impress on the minds of children that the 
 Deity is sitting on a throne, with very bright eyes looking through 
 everything, and supporting the universe with his hands. Hence his 
 natural theology is chiefly the ejaculation of a pious man admiring 
 the works of Nature. In politics Fenelon's opinions are far in advance 
 of his age and country : in one of his treatises he declaims against 
 checking liberty of conscience, and boldly proclaims the injustice of 
 levying taxes without the sanction of a parliament. A handsome 
 quarto edition of his works was published at Paris in 1787. 
 
 FENTON, ELIJAH, was born in Staffordshire, in the year 1683. 
 Being designed for the church, he was admitted a pensioner of Je3us 
 College, Cambridge, in 1700. After taking a bachelor's degree, he was 
 forced to leave the University in consequence of being a non-juror. He 
 became secretary to the Earl of Orrery, and accompanied that noble- 
 man to Flanders. After bi3 return to England, in 1705, he accepted 
 the situation of assistant at Mr. Bonwicke's school, at Headly in 
 Surrey, and subsequently became head-master of the free grammar- 
 school at Sevenoaks in Kent. Mr. St. John (afterwards Lord Boling- 
 broke) persuaded him to retire from this school, promising to do 
 great thiDgs for him, which promises were never fulfilled. Lord 
 Orrery again befriended him, and made him tutor to his son, Lord 
 Broghill. This office lasted for six or seven years, during which 
 Feu ton became acquainted with Pope, and assisted him in the transla- 
 tion of the ' Odyssey.' The first, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth 
 books are said to be the work of Fenton. In 1723 he produced, at the 
 theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, a tragedy, called ' Mariamne,' which 
 was so successful that be is reported to have gained 1000i by its 
 representation, and to have employed great part of the money in paying 
 off the debts which St. John's conduct had caused him to incur. In 
 1727 he revised a new edition of Milton's works, and prefixed a life 
 of the author; and in 1729 he published a fine edition of Waller. 
 Through the recommendation of Pope, he became tutor to the son of 
 Lady Trumbull ; and when that occupation was at an end, she made 
 him auditor of her accounts. He died July 13, 1730. 
 
 All biographers bear testimony to Fenton's character as an upright 
 and honourable man. His poetical works are but few in number, and 
 consist of short pieces, chiefly paraphrases from the ancients. As they 
 have scarcely any merit but that of correct versification, they will 
 probably never be rescued from the neglect into which they now have 
 sunk. The tragedy of ' Mariamne,' like most of that time, is totally 
 forgotten. 
 
 FERDINAND I. of Austria, younger brother of Charles V., was 
 born in 1503. He was elected king of the Romans during his brother's 
 reign, and succeeded him as emperor in consequence of the abdication 
 of Charles, which was sanctioned by the diet of the empire in 1558. 
 Ferdinand had married, in 1521, Anna, daughter of Ladislaus VI., 
 kiDg of Bohemia and Hungary, and sister of Louis, who having suc- 
 ceeded his father in the crown of those realms, was killed in the disas- 
 trous battle of Mohacz, by the Turks, in 1520, and left no issue. 
 Ferdinand, claiming a right to the succession in the name of his wife, 
 the states of Bohemia acknowledged him, but in Hungary a strong 
 party declared for John of Zapoli, palatine of Transylvania. This was 
 the beginning of a long and desolating war, interrupted by occasional 
 truces, in which Solyman, sultan of the Turks, interfered on behalf of 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. II. 
 
 FERDINAND II. 
 
 John, and after John's death, iu li)40, on behalf of his son, Sigismuud, 
 who continued to hold a part of Hungary till the death of Ferdinand, 
 In Bohemia the religious disputes between the Callixtines, who were a 
 remnant of the Hussites, and the Roman Catholics, occasioned consi- 
 derable uneasiness to Ferdinand, who found at last that it was his 
 policy to tolerate the former. At the same time however he effected 
 a thorough change in the institutions of that kingdom, by declaring 
 the crown of Bohemia hereditary in his family, without the sanction of 
 the states. Thi3 gave rise to a confederacy which opposed Ferdinand 
 by force of arms, but was at length overpowered and dissolved. On 
 being proclaimed Emperor of Germany, after having signed certain 
 conditions with the electors, which defined the boundaries of the impe- 
 rial authority, and gave security to the Protestant religion, Ferdinand 
 notified his election to Pope Paul IV., expressing a desire to be 
 crowned by his hands. Paul refused, under the plea that the abdica- 
 tion of Charles V. was effected without the consent of the papal see, 
 and required a fresh election to be made. Ferdinand, indignant at 
 these pretensions, ordered his ambassador to quit Rome. Paul, how- 
 ever, dying soon after, his successor, Pius IV., showed himself more 
 tractable in acknowledging Ferdinand as head of the empire. It was 
 then resolved by the electors, Roman Catholic as well as Protestant, 
 that in future no emperor should receive the crown from the hands of 
 the pope, and that, instead of the customary form in which the empe- 
 ror-elect professed his obedience to the head of the church, a mere 
 complimentary epistle should be substituted. Thus ended the last 
 remains of that temporal dependence of the German empire on the 
 see of Rome, which had been the subject of so many controversies 
 and wars. 
 
 Ferdinand continued throughout his reign to hold the balance even 
 between the Protestants and Roman Catholics with regard to their 
 mutual toleration and outward harmony ; he even endeavoured, 
 though unsuccessfully, to effect a union of the two communions, by 
 trying to persuade the Protestants to send deputies to, and acknow- 
 ledge the authority of the council assembled at Trent. This however 
 they refused to do, unless their theologians were acknowledged as 
 equal in dignity to the Roman Catholic bishops, and unless the 
 council were transferred from Trent to some city of the empire. 
 Ferdinand, on the other side, in order to conciliate some at least of 
 the various dissenting sects in his own hereditary states, attempted to 
 obtain of the pope, among other concessions, the use of the cup at the 
 communion-table for the laity, and the liberty of marriage for the 
 priests. Pius IV., however, would not listen to the latter proposition, 
 and the negociations were still pending with regard to the former, 
 when the emperor died at Vienna, July 25, 1564. He left three sons : 
 1, Maximilian, who succeeded him as emperor, archduke of Austria, 
 and king of Bohemia and Hungary ; 2, Ferdinand, whom he made 
 count of Tyrol; 3, Charles, whom he appoiuted Duke of Styria, 
 Caiinthia, and Carniola. Upon the whole, the administration of Fer- 
 dinand was able and enlightened ; he maintained religious peace in 
 Germany, he effected some useful reforms, and he saw the closing of 
 the council of Trent. 
 
 FERDINAND II. of Austria, son of Charles, duke of Styria, and 
 grandson of Ferdinand I., succeeded his cousin Matthias in 1619. 
 But the states of Bohemia, who were already in open revolt against 
 Matthias, both from political and religious grievances, refused to 
 acknowledge Ferdinand, and declared the throne vacant. Count 
 Thorn, who was at the head of the Bohemian insurgents, was joined 
 by the dissidents of Moravia, Silesia, and Upper Austria, and Ferdiuand 
 found himself besieged within the walls of Vienna by the insurgents, 
 who threatened to put to death his ministers, to confine Ferdinand 
 himself in a monastery, and educate his children in the Protestant 
 faith. His friends however found means to raise the siege, and 
 Ferdinand hastened to Germany to claim the imperial crown, having 
 been acknowledged King of the Romans during the reign of his pre- 
 decessor. He carried his election by means of the Roman Catholic 
 electors, who formed the majority. But the Bohemian states elected 
 as their king Frederic, count Palatine, son-in-law of James I. of 
 England, and Hungary joined in the revolt, supported by Bethlen 
 Gabor, Prince of Transylvania. This was the beginning of the Thirty 
 Years' War, a war both religious and political, and one of the most 
 desolating in the history of modern Europe. In the midst of these 
 difficulties Ferdinand was ably supported by his general, Count de 
 Tilly, who re-conquered Bohemia and expelled Frederic. Hungary 
 was soon after obliged to submit, and Bethlen Gabor sued for 
 peace. Another confederacy was formed against Ferdinand by the 
 Protestant states of Saxony, supported by Christian IV. of Denmark, 
 who put himself at their head in 1625. Ferdinand opposed to 
 him Tilly and Waldstein, or Wallenstein, another commander of 
 extraordinary abilities. In two campaigns the confederates were 
 defeated, Christian was driven into his hereditary states, and the 
 peace of Lubeck, 1629, put an end to the war. Ferdinand now 
 adopted measures of retaliation which drove the Protestants to 
 despair: he abolished the exercise of the Protestant religion in 
 Bohemia ; he exiled or put to death the leaders of that and other 
 dissident communions ; he confiscated their property ; seven hundred 
 noble families were proscribed, aud the common people were forced to 
 change their faith. Above 30,000 families, preferring their consciences 
 to their country, sought refuge in Protestant states. Ferdinand 
 
FERDINAND 1H. 
 
 FERDINAND VII. 
 
 P9S 
 
 intended to carry on the same sweeping measures throughout Ger- 
 many, but here he adopted a more cautious plan. He began by 
 dividing the Lutherans from the Calvinists, and he called for the 
 execution of a former act which allowed to the Lutherans only the 
 free exercise of their religion, but condemned the Calvinists to 
 upostacy or exile. He also insisted on the restitution of such eccle- 
 siastical property as the Protestants had seized since the treaty of 
 Passau in 1032. The Protestant princes were compelled in many 
 cases to give up the lands and revenues which they had seized to the 
 monastic and collegiate bodies, their former owners. But the Roman 
 L'atliolic priuces prevented the entire execution of the decree. They 
 nad themselves, in the general confusion which followed the reforma- 
 tion, seized upon ecclesiastical property, which thoy did not wish to 
 restore, and they moreover felt jealous of the threatening power of 
 the house of Austria, allied as it was to the Spanish branch of the 
 same house. They feared also that they might be made as completely 
 dependant upon the emperor as the grandees of Spain had become 
 upon t heir king. In this feeling they secretly encouraged their l'ro- 
 iestant countrymen in resisting the further execution of the decree. 
 The diet at Ratisbon, on Ferdinand's request that his son Maximilian 
 might be elected King of the Romans, replied by insisting that the 
 emperor should reduce his army and dismiss Waldstein, who had 
 rendered himself hateful by the disorders of his troops. Soon after- 
 wards Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomcrania, and put himself at 
 the head of the Protestant party in Germany. The events of the 
 memorable campaigns that followod are well known from Schiller's 
 ' Thirty Years' War,' and other historians. [Gustavus Adolphus.] 
 The Protestant cause triumphed in Germany until Gustavus fell at 
 the battle of Lutzen, 1C32, after which the Swedes and German Pro- 
 testants continued the war ; but the victory of Nordlingen, gained by 
 Ferdinand, eldest son of the emperor, had the effect of detaching the 
 Elector of Saxony from the Swedes, an example followed by almost 
 all the other German states. Ferdinand died February 15, 1637, after 
 having witnessed the election and coronation of his son Ferdinand as 
 King of the Romans. 
 
 Ferdinand II. reigned in very troubled times; his bigotry and 
 ruthless intolerance were the cause of most of his troubles, but he 
 was not deficient in abilities or perseverance. His connivance at the 
 assassination of bis best general Waldstein, whose ambition and arro- 
 gance had made him suspected and feared, is an everlasting blot on 
 his memory, but it was only accordant with the general tenor of his 
 character. 
 
 FERDINAND III., son of Ferdinand II., had to continue the war 
 against the Swedes, who had been joined by the French, for several 
 years more, until the peace of Westphalia, 1648, put an end to the 
 desolating struggle. This celebrated treaty forms an important epoch 
 in the history of Germany and of Europe. The remainder of the 
 reign of Ferdinand III. was passed in tranquillity. He died in 1657, 
 leaving behind him the character of a prudent, temperate, and a brave 
 prince. He was succeeded by his son, Leopold I. 
 
 FERDINAND, or FERNANDO I., styled the Great, the son of 
 Sancho, called Mayor, king of Navarra and Castile, succeeded his 
 father in 1035, and having defeated and killed Veremund, king of 
 Leon, in 1038, succeeded him as king of Leon and of Asturias. 
 Navarra became the appanage of Ferdinand's brother Garcia. Ferdi- 
 nand, called the Great, made war against the Moors, whom he drove 
 away from the northern part of Portugal as far as the Mondego. He 
 died in 1065, leaving three sons — Sanctius, to whom he gave Castile ; 
 Alfonso, who had Leon ; and Garcia, who retained Gallicia. 
 
 FERDINAND II., second son of Alonso VIII. of Castile and Leon, 
 succeeded his father in the latter kingdom only in 1157. He was 
 engaged in wars with Alfonso Henrique, king of Portugal, and also 
 with his own nephew, Alonso of Castile. He died in 1187. 
 
 FERDINAND III., called ' the Saint,' son of Alonso IX., king of 
 Leon, and of Berengaria of Castile, inherited both crowns after the 
 death of his parents. Ferdinand was successful in his wars against 
 the Moors beyond any of his predecessors : he took from them Badajoz 
 and Merida in 1230, Cordova in 1236, and Jaen, Seville, and Murcia in 
 1243. He was making preparations for carrying the war into Africa 
 when he died, in 1252. Ferdinand collected the laws of his prede- 
 cessors into a code ; he established the council of Castile ; he cleared 
 his states from robbers, and checked the arbitrary acts of the nobles. 
 He was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the old Spanish 
 monarchy. His son, Alonso X., called ' the Wise,' succeeded him. 
 
 FERDINAND IV. succeeded his father, Sancho IV., in 1295, while 
 yet a minor. His reign was engrossed chiefly by wars with the 
 Moors : he died in 1312, and was succeeded by his son, Alonso XI. , 
 
 FERDINAND V. of Castile and II. of Aragon, son of John II. of 
 Aragou, married in 1469 Isabella, daughter of John II. of Castile, and 
 heiress to that crown, by whom he had several daughters, one of whom 
 married Emmanuel, king of Portugal ; another, Catherine, was mar- 
 ried to Henry VIII. of England, and the other, Joanna, married Philip, 
 archduke of Austria, son of the Emperor Maximilian I. Ferdinand 
 succeeded to the crowns of Aragon and of Sicily by the death of his 
 father, and his wife Isabella had already succeeded in her own right, 
 and with the sanction of the Cortes, to the throne of Castile by the 
 death of her brother, Henry IV., in 1472. Thus were the two great 
 divisions of Spain united, though the two kingdoms remained under 
 
 separate administrations. Castile was still governed in the name of 
 the queen until the death of Isabella in 1504, followed by that of the 
 Archduke Philip in 1506, when Ferdinand, owing to the insanity of 
 his daughter Joanna, assumed the government of Castile, wliich he 
 retained till his death, when his grandson, Charles V., succeeded to 
 the whole inheritance. 
 
 Ferdinand took from the Moors the kingdom of Granada, their last 
 possession in Spain, in 1492, after a war of several years; at the same 
 time Columbus was discovering for him the New World, where the 
 Spaniards soon after made immense conquests. Ferdinand's general, 
 Gonzalo of Cordova, conquered for him the kingdom of Naples, partly 
 by force, and partly by treachery. By similar means Ferdinand con- 
 quered Navarra, which he added to his other dominions. He was the 
 most powerful monarch of his time, and was also the cleverest ; but 
 his abilities were disgraced by a total want of faith, and a recklessness 
 of principle of which ho made no scruple of boasting. He was styled 
 'the Catholic' — a title which the kings of Spain have continued to 
 assume ever since, in consequence of his having cleared the soil of 
 Spain of the Mohammedans. He was also called 1 the Prudent,' and 
 ' the Wise.' He was ably assisted by his minister, Ximenes [Cisneiios], 
 who emancipated the crown from the power of the feudal nobles by 
 raising troops at the expense of the state, and by favouring the privi- 
 leges of the municipal towns. Ferdinand established the Inquisition 
 in Spain, which fearful tribunal continued till 1820, when it was finally 
 abolished. Acting from the same intolerant principle, he drove away 
 the Jews from Spain ; but ho also established a severe system of police 
 throughout his dominions by means of the association called the Santa 
 Hermandad, which did summary justice upon all offenders without 
 distinction of ranks. He also forbade any papal bull to be promul- 
 gated without the previous sanction of the royal council. He may be 
 considered as the restorer, if not the founder, of the Spanish monarchy. 
 Ferdinand died January 23, 1516, at sixty-three years of age. 
 
 FERDINAND VI., eldest son of Philip V. of Bourbon, king of 
 Spain, succeeded his father in 1746. He made several useful reforms 
 in the administration, and gave encouragement to commerce and 
 manufactures. He had the character of a good and prudent prince, 
 willing to admiuister impartial justice, and to redress the grievances 
 of his subjects. He died without issue August 10, 1759, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Don Carlos, king of the Two Sicilies, who 
 assumed the title of Charles III. of Spain. 
 
 FERDINAND VII., eldest son of Charles IV, king of Spain, and 
 of Maria Louisa of Parma, was born on the 14th of October 1784. 
 When six years of age, he was proclaimed Prince of Asturias. At 
 that time Godoy, afterwards called the Prince of Peace, was the 
 favourite minister and ruler at the Spanish court. Both he and the 
 queen kept young Ferdinand, who was of a sickly constitution, in a 
 state of thraldom and seclusion little suited to the heir-apparent of 
 the throne. He had however some well-informed preceptors ; among 
 others the canon Escoiquiz, who figured afterwards in the political 
 events of his reign. In 1802 Ferdinand married his first cousin, 
 Maria Antoinetta, daughter of Ferdinand IV., king of the Two 
 Sicilies, a princess of a superior mind, who endeavoured to restore 
 her husband to his proper sphere and influence at court; in attempting 
 which she drew upon herself the dislike of the queen and of the 
 favourite, and from that time both she and her husband were kept 
 in a state of retirement and humiliation. She died suddenly in May 
 1806, under suspicious circumstances, and left no issue. 
 
 In the meantime the administration of Spain was in a wretched 
 state ; everything was done through bribery or favour ; the monarchy 
 was sinking lower and lower in the estimation of Europe, having 
 become a mere dependent of France, and the people were highly 
 dissatisfied. Some friends of Ferdinand, and among others his pre- 
 ceptor Escoiquiz, formed a plan for overthrowing the favourite 
 Godoy. Being in want of powerful support, they unwarily advised 
 Ferdinand to address himself to the Emperor Napoleon, to whom the 
 prince wrote a letter, dated 11th of October 1807, in which he com- 
 plained of Godoy's influence and the state of thraldom in which both 
 the king his father and himself were kept, and expressed a desire to 
 form a connection with a princess of Napoleon's family, and to place 
 himself under his protection. A memorial was at the same time 
 penned by Escoiquiz, and copied by Ferdinand with his own baud, 
 pointing out in vivid language the mal-administration of the king- 
 dom, and asking, as the first remedy, the dismissal of the favourite. 
 Ferdinand was to have read this memorial to the king his father, but 
 Godoy being apprised of the plot, hastened to Charles, and told him 
 that his son was conspiring both against his crown and his life. 
 Upon this Ferdinand was arrested, his papers were seized, and after 
 some days of close confinement he was frightened into an acknow- 
 ledgment of what there appears reason to believe he really was inno- 
 cent — a conspiracy to dethrone his own father. This scandalous 
 affair caused great excitement in the country, and the people in 
 general, who disliked Godoy, took the part of the young prince, who 
 from his infancy had been the victim of court intrigues. Meanwhile 
 French troops had entered Spain under the pretence of marching 
 against Portugal — had taken possession by surprise of several fortresses, 
 and Napoleon's further intentions becoming more alarming, the court 
 decided upon abandoning Spain and retiring to Mexico. The 17th 
 of March 1808 was fixed for the departure, when a revolt broke out 
 
FERDINAND VIT. 
 
 among the guards at Aranjuez, and Godoy was in danger of his life ; 
 but Ferdinand himself came to rescue him from the hands of the 
 mutineers, saying that he would answer for his appearance before the 
 proper court. King Charles being alarmed for his own safety, and 
 perceiving the popularity of his son, abdicated on the 19th of March 
 in favour of Ferdinand, who assumed the title of King of Spain and 
 the Indies. But this did not suit Napoleon, who contrived under 
 specious pretexts to draw both father and son to Bayoune, and there 
 obliged them both to resign in his favour. Ferdinand and his brother 
 Don Carlos were sent to Talleyrand's country residence at Valencay, 
 where they were treated with outward marks of respect, but kept 
 under a strict watch. There Ferdinand remained passive and resigned 
 till the end of 1813, when the reverses of the French both in Spain 
 and in Germany induced Napoleon to restore Ferdinand to the throne 
 of Spain, on condition that he should send the Euglish out of the 
 peninsula, who were, as Napoleon said, spreading anarchy and 
 jacobinism in the country. A treaty to that effect was sigued at 
 Valencay between the two parties, but the Cortes of Madrid refused 
 to ratify it, and wrote to Ferdinand that they would receive him in 
 his capital as their lawful king, provided he would sign the constitu- 
 tion which had been proclaimed at Cadiz in 1812 by the repre- 
 sentatives of the nation. Ferdinand set off from "Valencay in March 
 1814, and it was only on the road that he read for the first time a 
 copy of the new constitution, having been kept in ignorance till then 
 of the proceedings of the Cortes, except what he had read in the 
 garbled accounts of the French newspapers. On arriving at the 
 frontiers of Spain, instead of proceeding direct to Madrid, he went to 
 Zaragoza, and thence to Valencia, where he was surrounded by a host 
 of people, military and civilians, churchmen and laymen, who were 
 hostile to the constitution, and who advised him to reign, as his fathers 
 had done before him, an absolute king : advice with which his own 
 inclination fully accorded. The lower classes, excited by the clergy, 
 and especially by the friars, were loud in their denunciations of the 
 constitution, which they called heretical, and Ferdinand easily per- 
 suading himself that the constitution was unpopular, determined not 
 to sanction it. At Valencia he appointed a ministry from among the 
 servilee, or absolutists; and on the 4th of May 1814, he issued a 
 decree annulling the constitution and all the enactments of the Cortes 
 made in his absence. Soon afterwards he made his entrance into 
 Madrid among the acclamations of the populace and of the absolutists, 
 or clergy party ; an event which was speedily followed by a violent 
 proscription of the constitutionalists, or liberals, as they were styled, 
 including the members of the Cortes. As the British ambassador 
 had obtained from Ferdinand at Valencia a promise that the punish- 
 ment of death should not be inflicted for past political conduct, the 
 courts appointed to try the leading constitutionalists resorted to every 
 kind of subterfuge in order to find them guilty of some imprudent 
 demonstration or expression since the king's return, and sentences of 
 imprisoament, exile, banishment to the presidios in Africa, and con- 
 fiscation, were freely awarded. The military insurrections of Porlier, 
 LacA", and others, came to add fresh fuel to the spirit of persecution. 
 All the abuses of the old administrative and judicial system now 
 re-appeared ; the finances were in a wretched state, the American 
 colonists were in open revolt. Ferdinand was pai'tly overawed by the 
 clergy and absolutist party, who, at that time, seemed to have on 
 their side the great mass of the population, but he feared and hated 
 the liberals. 
 
 On the 1st of January 1820, part of the troops stationed on the Isla 
 of Leon, near Cadiz, under Colouels Quiroga and Riego, proclaimed the 
 constitution of 1812; the example was followed by other garrisons; 
 the ministers at Madrid hesitated, and Ferdinand, on the 9th of 
 March of that year, swore his adherence to the constitution. The 
 Cortes were assembled, and the deputies and other liberals, who had 
 been exiled or imprisoned, re-appeared on the political stage. During 
 the following three yeara the country was in a thoroughly dis- 
 organised condition. At one time Ferdinand appeared reconciled to 
 the constitutional system, but then would occur some opportunity for 
 the display of his old fears and antipathies; whilst, on the other side, 
 the partisans of absolutism, who still lingered near the king's person, 
 kept alive by their intrigues the mistrust even of the moderate con- 
 stitutionalists. Of this period of Ferdinand's reign there is a sketch 
 in a work written by a Spanish emigrant at Paris, styled ' Revolution 
 d'Espagne, Examen Critique,' 8vo, 1836, which is worth consulting. 
 
 At the beginning of 1823 Louis XVIII. declared to the French 
 chambers that he was going to send his nephew the Duke of Angou- 
 leme, with an army of 100,000 Frenchmen into Spain to deliver 
 Ferdinand VII. from the slavery in which he was kept by a factious 
 party, and to restore him to his freedom of action. The English 
 ministry protested against this interference, and the Cortes of Spain, 
 on their side, rejected the mediation of the northern courts, who, to 
 prevent the entrance of the French, required certain modifications in 
 the constitution of 1812. The Cortes, on the 20th of March, removed 
 to Seville, where the king was induced to follow them. On the 7th 
 of April the French entered Spain, with little or no opposition, and 
 on the 23rd they entered Madrid, where they were received with 
 acclamations by the clergy and the lower classes, while the grandees 
 or high nobility presented a congratulatory address to the Duke of 
 AngouKmc. The Cortes, not judging themselves safe at Seville 
 
 FERDINAND IL MM 
 
 removed to Cadiz, and, as Ferdinand refiifled to quit Seville, they 
 passed a resolution, alter a stormy debate on the 11th of June, 
 declaring the king in a state of incapacity, and appointing a regency 
 pro tempore. Ferdinand was then compelled to Bel off with his 
 family on the evening of the 12th, under a strong escort, for Cadiz, 
 where he arrived ou the 15th. Iu the following September the 
 French besieged Cadiz, and after some negociations Ferdinand was 
 allowed by the Cortes to repair to the French camp to treat with the 
 Duke of Augouleme. Before leaving Cadiz Ferdinand published a 
 proclamation on the 30th of September, iu which he promised a 
 general amnesty for the past; he acknowledged all the debts and 
 obligations contracted by the constitutional government, and " declared 
 of his own free and spontaneous will that if it should be found 
 necessary to make alterations in the actual political institutions, he 
 would adopt a system of government which should guarantee the 
 security of persons and property and the civil liberty of the Spaniards." 
 None of these solemn promises were kept : nor were they in all pro- 
 bability ever intended to be kept. Ferdinand was one to whom false- 
 hood was habitual, aud an oath offered no obstacle. The liberals 
 were persecuted worse than before, the debts contracted under the 
 Cortes were disavowed, and the old system of absolutism with all its 
 nial-administrations was resumed. The sequel is well known. Fer- 
 dinand continued to govern, at least nominally, checked on one side 
 by fear of the liberals, and on the other by mistrust of the more 
 violent absolutists, or apostolical party as it was called, who found 
 even Ferdinand too moderate for them, aud who would have re-estab- 
 lished the Inquisition, and ruled Spain by terror-. In his latter years 
 Ferdinand, never of a very active intellect, became more and more 
 lethargic ; seemed to take little or no interest in public affairs, and 
 left things to go ou as they could. Having lost his third wife, who 
 was a Saxon princess, and having yet no children, he married in 
 November 1829, Maria Christina, daughter of Francis, king of the 
 Two Sicilies, and his own niece by the mother's side [Christina, 
 Maria]. By her he had two daughters — Maria Isabella, now queen 
 of Spaiu, born 10th October 1830, and Maria Louisa Ferdinanda, born 
 1832. Ferdinand died on the 29th of September 1833, after being 
 loug in a bad state of health. He was buried with great pomp in the 
 royal vaults under the chapel of the EscuriaL 
 
 FERDINAND I. of Naples was the natural son of Alfonso V. of 
 Ara gon and of Sicily. His father obtained of the Neapolitan barons in 
 Parliament assembled, in 1442, the acknowledgment of Ferdinand as 
 duke of Calabria and heir to the Crown of Naples, thus securing to his 
 favourite and only son one of his several kingdoms, as Aragon, Sardi- 
 nia, and Sicily devolved upon John of Aragon, Alfonso's brother. In 
 1458, after the death of his father, Ferdinand assumed the crown of 
 Naples. Pope Calixtus III. refused him the investiture, which how- 
 ever was granted to him by Pius II., the successor of Calixtus. His 
 reigii began well, but a conspiracy of the barons, who called in John 
 of Anjou, who had some remote claim to the throne, threw the 
 country into a civil war. Ferdinand, assisted by Scanderbeg, prince 
 of Albania, gave battle to John near Troja, in Apulia, and defeated 
 him completely, in the year 1462. After the battle he concluded a 
 peace with the revolted barons upon conciliatory terms; but in a 
 short time, breaking the treaty, he put to death two of them, an act 
 which kept alive the jealousy and fears of the rest. In 1480, Moham- 
 med II. sent an armament on the coast of Apulia, which took the 
 town of Otrauto, and caused great alarm in all Italy. Ferdinand, 
 however, quickly recalled his son Alfonso, duke of Calabria, who was 
 then in Tuscany at the head of an army, and who retook Otrauto. A 
 fresh conspiracy of the barons broke out, encouraged by Pope Inno- 
 cent VIII., but it was again repressed, and Ferdinand solemnly pro- 
 mised a general amnesty. But he kept his word no better than 
 before ; for having contrived, on the occasion of the marriage of his 
 niece, to collect at Naples most of the leading barons, he arrested 
 them all, and threw them into prison, where most of them were 
 strangled. The whole of this tragedy, which was attended by 
 circumstances of fearful treachery and cruelty, is eloquently related 
 by Porzio, in his work, ' La Congiura dei Baroni contra il lie" Ferdi- 
 naudo L' Ferdinand continued to reign for several years after this, 
 feared and hated by his subjects, and himself in perpetual anxiety, 
 which was increased by the advance of Charles VIII. of France, who 
 was coming for the purpose of asserting his claims, derived from the 
 Anjous, to the throne of Naples. In the midst of the alarm at the 
 approaching storm, which he had not the means of averting, 
 Ferdinand died iu 1494, at the age of 71. He was succeeded by his 
 son Alfonso, a gloomy aud cruel prince, who, terrified at the approach 
 of the French, abdicated in favour of his sou Ferdinand, and retired 
 to a convent iu Sicily. 
 
 FERDINAND II. was very young when he found himself occupy- 
 ing a throne threatened by enemies from without and by disaffection 
 from within. He endeavoured to rally his troops against the French, 
 but being forsaken by all, he withdrew to Sicily with his uncle 
 Frederic. The French occupied Naples, where their conduct soon 
 disgusted the Neapolitans, while the other states of Italy formed a 
 league against them in the North. Ferdinand seized the opportunity 
 to ask assistance from Ferdinand V. of Spain, who sent him his great 
 Captain Gonzalo of Cordova, with a body of troops, who soon recon- 
 quered the kingdom of Naples. Ferdinand returned in triumph to 
 
8W5 FERDINAND IV. 
 
 his capital, but did not long enjoy his prosperity ; be died suddenly 
 in 14 9G, at the age of 28 years, regretted by his subjects, who had 
 formed great hopes of him from his amiable qualities and abilities. 
 He was succeeded by bis uncle Frederic, who was soon after treach- 
 erously deprived of his kingdom by his pretended ally, Ferdinand of 
 Spain. 
 
 FERDINAND IV. of Naples, afterwards styled Ferdinand I. of the 
 United Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, born in January 1751, was the 
 sou of Don Carlos of Bourbon, king of the Two Sicilies, afterwards 
 Charles III. of Spain. The life of Ferdinand is remarkable, not so 
 much on account of his personal character, as from the uncommon 
 length of his reign and its many vicissitudes being closely connected 
 with all the great events of Europe during the last half century, as 
 well as the singular good fortune which attended him to the end of 
 his life with little or no exertion on his part. The education of Fer- 
 dinand was greatly neglected. He was little more than eight years of 
 ago when his father Charles, being called to the throne of Spain by the 
 death of his brother Ferdinand VI., made over to him the kingdom of 
 Naples and Sicily, appointing a council of regency, at the head of which 
 ho placed the Marquis Tanucci, an able minister, who however does 
 not seem to have been very anxious about the instruction of his 
 young sovereign. In April 1768 Ferdinand, being now of age, married 
 Maria Carolina of Austria, daughter of Maria Theresa, a princess accom- 
 plished, clever, and ambitious, who in fact ruled under her husband's 
 name till her death, assisted by the various ministers who succeeded 
 each other at the helm of affairs, the king himself being generally 
 passive, and his time being much engrossed by hunting, shooting, and 
 other diversions. Yet Ferdinand was by no means deficient in natural 
 penetration ; he often saw things more clearly than those around him, 
 as is manifest from many of his shrewd though blunt remarks which 
 are still remembered at Naples ; but his want of instruction, of which 
 he was aware, and his dislike of application, prevented him from exert- 
 ing or enforcing his own judgment. The first thirty years of his 
 reign, those of the regency included, were for Naples years of peace 
 and comparative happiness ; many useful reforms were effected by his 
 ministers, and especially by Tanucci, who continued at the head of 
 affairs till 1777. (See Colletta, 'Storia del Reame di Napoli,' 1834, and 
 also Count Orloff in the second volume of his ' Me'moires sur le 
 Royaume de Naples.') Ferdinand was popular with the lower classes ; 
 and as he was the first king born at Naples for centuries past, they 
 called him emphatically ' our king.' 
 
 Tanucci being dismissed in 1777 for having objected to the queen 
 taking her seat in the council of state, Caracciolo and others followed 
 for a short time, until John Acton, an Englishman, and a naval officer 
 in the service of Leopold of Tuscany, was sent for to organise the 
 Neapolitan navy and army, which had fallen into decline during a 
 long season of peace. The advanr/rnent of Acton was extremely 
 rapid ; he was made general, then captain-general of the kingdom, 
 and lastly premier, or rather sole minister (for the other ministers were 
 merely his creatures), and in this office he remained for many years. 
 His administration was neither so economical nor so wise as that of 
 Tanucci. Things went on however quietly and smoothly for several 
 years. A considerable degree of liberty of speech, and even of the 
 press, prevailed at Naples, and the country was prosperous and the 
 people contented until the breaking out of the French revolution, of 
 which Naples, however remote, felt the shock. The queen being the 
 .sister of Marie Antoinette, was indignant at the treatment her relatives 
 of France met with at the hands of the revolutionists ; and as many 
 young men at Naples, mostly belonging to the higher ranks of society, 
 seemed to approve of the principles of the revolution, the court took 
 alarm, and the men who had always been averse to reform and improve- 
 ment seized the opportunity to regain the ascendancy. Arrests were 
 made, and a giunta, or state tribunal, was formed to try the real or 
 pretended conspirators, three of whom were sentenced to death, others 
 to perpetual imprisonment, but the majority (against whom the 
 judges, notwithstanding all the exertions of the attorney -general, 
 Vauni, could find no evidence), were acquitted after four years' 
 confinement. 
 
 The court of Naples had joined the first coalition against France in 
 1792, and had sent some troops to join the Austrians in the North of 
 Italy, and others with a squadron to the expedition against Toulon. 
 In 1796 however, alarmed by the successes of Napoleon I., a peace 
 was purchased of the Directory by paying a few millions of francs. 
 In 1798, the French having occupied the papal state, the court of 
 Naples formed a secret alliance with Austria, England, and Russia, 
 but, instead of waiting for the opening of the campaign in Lombardy, 
 which was to take place in the following spring, the Neapolitan army, 
 60,000 strong, began hostilities in November 1798, and marched upon 
 Rome, which it occupied only for a few days, as the French generals, 
 having collected their forces, attacked and routed several divisions of 
 the Neapolitans, and cut off the communications between the rest; 
 a general panic spread through the army ; the king, who had accom- 
 panied it as far as Rome, fled back to Naples ; Mack, who was his 
 commander-in-chief, followed his example ; and of the various corps 
 that>were left to themselves without any concerted plan or prepara- 
 tions in case of a reverse, some were dispersed or made prisoners, and 
 others made good their retreat to their own frontiers, whither the 
 French followed them closely. The greatest confusion prevailed at 
 
 FERDINAND IV. eoe 
 
 the court of Naples ; the queen, beset by informers, fancied that the 
 capital was full of conspirators, and determined to withdraw to Sicily. 
 Ferdinand was easily persuaded to do the same, and the royal family 
 left Naples on the 21st of December 1798. The French meantime 
 were approaching, and the populace, left without a government and 
 excited by denunciations against the Jacobins, rose, murdered a num- 
 ber of persons, and for three days fought desperately against the 
 advancing French in the streets of the capital. The events of Naples 
 in 1799 form a romantic but tragical episode in the history of the 
 Continental war, and they have become the theme of numerous narra- 
 tives. The reverses of the French in Lombardy in the spring of 1799, 
 obliged them to abandon Naples, leaving only a small garrison in it. 
 The native republicans, or patriots as they were called, were few, and 
 disliked by the lower classes. Cardinal Ruflfo landed in Calabria from 
 Sicily, and preached a sort of political and religious crusade against 
 the French and tl eiv partisans, and the whole kingdom was recon- 
 quered for Ferdina ?i in a short time. A dreadful reaction took place, 
 in which thousand i lost their lives, either murdered by the royalists, 
 or condemned by the f.ourta instituted to try all those who were 
 accused of republicanism. 
 
 Ferdinand returned 1o Naples, and in 1801 he concluded, through 
 the mediatiou of Rmsia, a treaty of peace with France. But the 
 past events and tl le proscriptions that had taken place in his name 
 had destroyed all confidence between the government and the more 
 enlightened part ( f che nation. In 1805 the court of Naples com- 
 mitted a second political error, worse than that of 1798. While 
 professing to be at peace with France, it entered secretly into the 
 coalition against that power; and while Napoleon was defeating the 
 Austrians on the Danube, Russian and English troops were landed at 
 Naples to join the army of that kingdom for the avowed purpose of 
 attacking the French in the north of Italy. The consequence was, 
 that Napoleon, after his victory at Austerlitz, declared that "the 
 Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign at Naples," and he sent a force 
 under Massena to occupy that kingdom. Ferdinand and his court 
 withdrew to Sicily a second time, where being protected by the 
 English forces, they remained till 1815. A desultory but cruel war- 
 fare wa3 carried on for several years in Calabria between the partisans 
 of Ferdinand and those of Murat, whom Napoleon had made King of 
 Naples, the details of which are vividly described by Botta, ' Storia 
 d'ltalia,' twenty-fourth book, towards the end. But even in Sicily 
 the reign of Ferdinand did not run smooth. The court was extrava- 
 gant in its expenditure, the queen was as arbitrary as ever, and great 
 jealousy existed between the Sicilians and the Neapolitan courtiers 
 and emigrants. But Sicily had a parliament consisting of three 
 orders, barons, clergy, and deputies of the towns, aud the parliament 
 would not sanction the levying of fresh taxes. The queen then 
 ordered the imprisonment of five of the most influential barons. 
 Meantime it was suspected that that princess, who had conceived a 
 dislike against the English, whom she considered as a check upon her, 
 entertained secret communications with Napoleon, who in 1810 had 
 married her grand-niece Maria Louisa. A conspiracy against the 
 English was discovered at Messina. All these circumstances obliged 
 the English government to interfere, and in January 1812 Ferdinand 
 resigned his authority into the hands of his eldest son, Francis. A 
 parliament was assembled, which abolished feudality, and framed a 
 new constitution upon a liberal basis. The queen's influence was 
 now at an end, and after some fruitless intrigues she embarked in 1813 
 for Constantinople, from whence she went to Vienna, where she died 
 in the following year. For an account of these important SiciliaD 
 transactions see Botta, and also a work styled ' De la Sicile et de ses 
 Rapports avec l'Angleterre a l'dpoque de la Constitution de 1812,' 
 Paris, 1827. In 1814 Ferdinand resumed the reins of government, 
 and opened in person the Sicilian parliament of that year. In 1815, 
 after the defeat of Joachim Murat by the Austrians, Ferdinand was 
 recalled to the throne of Naples, and in June of that year he 
 returned to his old capital. In a well-written proclamation to the 
 Neapolitans he promised them peace, a complete forgetfulness of the 
 past, impartial justice, and a steady administration ; aud to a great 
 extent he kept his word. The government of Ferdinand at Naples 
 from 1815 till 1820 was comparatively mild, impartial, and orderly. 
 But in Sicily, having dissolved the parliament, he never convoked it 
 afterwards. By a decree of December 1816, he assumed the title of 
 Ferdinand I., King of the United Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 
 declaring that Sicily and Naples formed no longer distinct states, but 
 were both subject to the same system of government. 
 
 Meantime a secret society, called Carbonari, were spreading them- 
 selves fast through the kingdom, especially among the landed proprie- 
 tors in the provinces, and consequently through the ranks of the 
 provincial militia. The land-tax, which was more than 20 per cent 
 on the rent, made this class of people dissatisfied and ready for change. 
 The origin of this society or sect, tor it was religious as well as politi- 
 cal, is somewhat obscure : it seems to have come from France into 
 Italy, and was established in the kingdom of Naples under Murat, 
 with his sanction ; but was afterwards proscribed by him, and it then 
 found favour with the court of Sicily. On the 2nd of July 1820, a 
 military revolt, led by two subalterns, broke out in a regiment of 
 cavalry stationed near Naples ; other troops joined in it, and the Car- 
 bonari of the capital and provinces onenly espoused its cause, demand- 
 
FERDUSI. 
 
 ing .1 representative oonstitution for the kingdom. Ferdinand, presse 1 
 by hia ministers, promised to establish a constitution in a given time ; 
 but the Carbonari would not wait, saying it was better to adopt one 
 already made, namely, that of the Cortes of Spain ; and thus the 
 Spanisli constitution was proclaimed, and a parliament was convoked 
 at Naples. Meantime the Sicilians, ever jealous of their nationality, 
 demanded a separate parliament for themselves, and a repeal of the 
 union of the two kingdoms, which the parliament at Naples refusing, 
 a revolt broke out at Palermo, which was put down after much blood- 
 shed. Soon after, the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
 assembled at froppau, wrote to King Ferdinand, inviting him to a 
 conference at Laybach, in Carinthia, without which they stated that 
 they could not acknowledge the new system of government established 
 at Naples. Ferdinand, after some demur, obtained leave of the par- 
 liament to proceed to the congress in December 1820, leaving his son, 
 Francis, as his vicegerent at Naples. In February 1821, Ferdinand, 
 by a letter written from Laybach, signified to his son that the allied 
 sovereigns were determined not to acknowledge the actual constitu- 
 tional government as established at Naples, deeming it incompatible 
 with the peace of that country and the security of the neighbouring 
 6tates ; but that they wished Ferdinand himself, assisted by the wisest 
 and most able among his subjects, to give to his kingdom institutions 
 calculated to secure peace and prosperity to the country. Soon after- 
 wards the Austrian army passed the Po, moving on towards Naples. 
 The parliament of Naples determined upon resistance, but at the first 
 encounter, near Rieti, a Neapolitan division was defeated ; the rest of 
 the army being alarmed at the thought of fighting against the will of 
 their own king, disbanded, and the Austrians entered Naples without 
 any further opposition, at the end of March 1821. Ferdinand soon 
 afterwards returned to his capital on what may be styled his third 
 restoration. The leading constitutionalists were allowed to emigrate ; 
 but of those who remained some were tried and sent to the Presidii. 
 The government again became absolute; and — Ferdinand now having 
 his dread of the constitutionalists pretty well removed — not so lenient 
 or liberal as it was before 1820. After reigning four years longer, 
 Ferdinand died suddenly on the morning of the 4th of January 1825, 
 aged seventy-six, having been king sixty-five years. He was succeeded 
 by his son, Francis I. 
 FERDUSI. [Firdusi.] 
 
 FERGUSON, ADAM, born in 1724, was the son of a parish minister 
 in Perthshire. He studied at St. Andrews and at Edinburgh, with a 
 view to the Christian ministry. On being ordained, he was appointed 
 chaplain to the 42nd, a Highland regiment, in which he remained till 
 1757, when he retired, and was appointed keeper of the advocates' 
 library of Edinburgh. In 1759 he was made professor of natural 
 philosophy in the college of that city, and in 1764 he was appointed to 
 the chair of moral philosophy, a branch of science to which he had 
 more particularly applied himself. In 1767 he published his 'Essay 
 on the History of Civil Society,' a work which was well received, and 
 which procured him the notice of public men. It was reprinted 
 several times, and translated into the French, German, and Swedish 
 languages. In 1774 he accompanied the young Earl of Chesterfield on 
 his travels, but remained with him only a twelvemonth. In 1776 he 
 wrote 'Remarks on a Pamphlet of Dr. Price, entitled Observations 
 on the Nature of Civil Liberty.' In 1778 he was appointed secretary 
 to the commissioners who were sent to America in order to try to 
 effect a reconciliation with the mother country, an office in which 
 Ferguson took a clearer view of the state of the question, and of the 
 temper of the American people, than was common at that time with 
 Englishmen. On hia return in 1779 he resumed the duties of his pro- 
 fessorship, and in 1783 he published his ' History of the Progress and 
 the Termination of the Roman Republic,' 3 vols. 4to. This work, 
 which has been reprinted several times, and by which Ferguson is 
 most generally known, is not so much a regular narrative of the 
 events of Roman history, as a commentary on that history; its object 
 is to elucidate the progress and changes of the internal policy of the 
 Roman commonwealth, the successive conditions of its social state, as 
 well as the progress of the military system of the Romans, and the 
 varied but studied course of their external policy towards foreign 
 nations. He carries his work down to the end of the reign of Tibe- 
 rius, when all remains of the old institutions may be said to have 
 become effaced. Ferguson's work forms therefore a kind of introduc- 
 tion to that of Gibbon on the decline and fall of the empire. Ferguson 
 and hia contemporary, the French Abbe" Auger, were foremost among 
 those who, previous to Niebuhr, investigated the internal working of the 
 institutions of the Roman republic. [Auger]. In 1784 Ferguson re- 
 signed his professorship on account of ill health, and was succeeded by 
 Dugald Stewart. In 1792 he published ' Principles of Moral and Politi- 
 cal Science,' being chiefly a retrospect of lectures on ethics and politics, 
 delivered in the College of Edinburgh,' 2 vols. 4to. Another work of 
 Dr. Ferguson on the same subject, though a more elementary one, 
 the 'Institutes of Moral Philosophy,' which he first published in 1769, 
 hag been translated into the French and German languages, and often 
 reprinted. Ferguson died at St. Andrews February 22, 1816, being 
 above ninety years of age. He had been on terms of friendship with 
 Hume, Robertson, Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, Playfair, and other 
 distinguished contemporaries. 
 
 FERGUSON, JAMES, was born in 1710, at a Bhort distance from 
 
 FERGUSON, JAMES. MS 
 
 Keith, a village in Banffshire. His father, who was a day-labourer, 
 taught him to read and write, and sent him to school for three months 
 at Keith. 
 
 When only seven or eight years old, having seen his father use a 
 beam as a lever, with a prop for a fulcrum, in order to raise the roof 
 of their cottage, which had partly fallen in, his curiosity was so much 
 excited by the ease with which what appeared to him so stupendous 
 an effect was accomplished, that he thought about it, and made trials, 
 and constructed models, and drew diagrams, till he became acquainted 
 with the chief properties of the lever, not only in its simple appli- 
 cation, but as modified by the wheel and axle. The taste for 
 practical mechanics thus formed continued to distinguish him through 
 life, and, together with an equally decided taste for astronomy, 
 conducted him in his later years to distinction and independence. 
 
 His astronomical pursuits commenced soon afterwards. His father 
 sent him to a neighbouring farmer, who employed him in watching 
 his sheep. While thus occupied, he amused himself at night iu 
 studying the stars, and during the day in making models of mills, 
 spinning-wheels, and similar thiDgs. When a little older, he entered 
 into the service of another farmer, who treated him with great kind- 
 ness, and encouraged and assisted him in his astronomical studies. " I 
 used," he says, " to stretch a thread with small beads on it at arm's 
 length between my eye and the stars, sliding the beads upon it till 
 they hid such and such stars from my eye, in order to take their 
 apparent distances from one another; and then laying the thread 
 down on a paper, I marked the stars thereon by the beads." " My 
 master," he adds, "that I might make fair copies in the day-time of 
 what I had done in the night, often worked for me himself." Mr. 
 Gilchrist, the minister of Keith, having seen his drawings, gave him 
 a map of the earth to copy, and furnished him with compasses, ruler, 
 pens, ink, and paper. 
 
 At the house of Mr. Gilchrist he met Mr. Grant of Achoynaney, 
 with whom, at the termination of his engagement with his present 
 master, he went to reside, being then in his twentieth year. He had 
 learnt vulgar arithmetic from books, and Mr. Grant's butler, Mr. 
 Cantley, taught him decimal arithmetic and the elements of algebra, 
 and was about to commence instructing him in geometry when he 
 left the employment of that gentleman. 
 
 Ferguson soon afterwards entered into the service of a miller in 
 the neighbourhood, where he was overworked, and scarcely supplied 
 with food enough for subsistence. After remaining a year in this 
 situation, he was engaged by Dr. Young, who was a farmer as well as 
 a physician, and who promised to instruct him in medicine, but broke 
 his promise, and treated him with so much harshness that, though his 
 engagement was for half a year, he left at the quarter, and forfeited 
 the wages which were due to him. A severe hurt of the arm and 
 hand, which he had got in the doctor's service, confined him to his 
 bed for two months after his return home. During this time he 
 amused himself with constructing a wooden clock. He afterwards 
 made a wooden watch with a whalebone spring ; and his talents 
 having been turned in this direction, he began to earn a little money 
 in the neighbourhood by cleaning and mending clocks. 
 
 He was about this time invited to reside with Sir James Dunbar of 
 Dura, and, at the suggestion of Lady Dipple, Sir James's sister, 
 began to draw patterns for ladies' dresses. He says, "I was sent for 
 by other ladies in the country, and began to think myself growing 
 rich by the money I got by such drawings ; out of which I had the 
 pleasure of occasionally supplying the wants of my poor father." 
 His studies iu astronomy however were not neglected, and he still 
 continued to use his thread and beads. 
 
 Besides drawing patterns, he copied pictures and prints with pen 
 and ink ; and having left the residence of Sir James Dunbar for that 
 of Mr. Baird of Auchmeddan, Lady Dipple's son-in-law, he drew a 
 portrait of that gentleman which was much admired, and now began 
 to draw likenesses from the life in Indian ink. These appeared to 
 his patrons to be so excellent, that they took him to Edinburgh with 
 the intention of having him regularly instructed in drawing, but a 
 premium having been unexpectedly demanded, he boldly commenced 
 the practice of his art at once. The Marchioness of Douglas having 
 assisted him with her patronage, he succeeded so well that he 
 obtained money enough, not only to defray his own expenses, but to 
 contribute largely to the support of his aged parents. 
 
 Though he continued to follow this profession for about twenty-six 
 years, he seems never to have given his mind to it ; and indeed, after 
 having been two years in Edinburgh, he returned to the country with 
 a supply of drugs with the intention of practising medicine, but soon 
 found himself to be totally unqualified for his new occupation. He 
 then went to Inverness, where he remained about three months. 
 While there he drew an Astronomical Rotula, for exhibiting the 
 eclipses of the sun and moon, which he transmitted to Professor 
 Maclaurin at Edinburgh, who was highly pleased with it. He now 
 returned to Edinburgh, and the Professor had the ' Rotula' engraved, 
 and it ran through several impressions, till, by the change of the style 
 in 1753, it became useless. While at Edinburgh he made a wooden 
 orrery, and delivered a lecture on it before the mathematical class. 
 
 In 1743 he resolved to go to London, where he continued his pro- 
 fession of drawing portraits, but devoted hi3 leisure to astronomical 
 pursuits. 
 
COO FERGUSON, ROBERT. 
 
 In 1747 he published his first work, 'A Dissertation on the Phe- 
 nomena of the Harvest Moon,' having been previously introduced at 
 one of the sittings of the Royal Society by Mr. Folkes the president. 
 
 In 1748 he read lectures on the eclipse of the sun which happened 
 in that year. From this period he began, under the patronage of the 
 Prince of Wales (afterwards George III.), to deliver lectures on 
 astronomy and mechanics ; they were numerously and fashionably 
 attended, and he now relinquished his former profession altogether. 
 From this time to the end of his life he continued his lectures, and 
 wrote several works on astronomy and mechanics. 
 
 Soon after the accession of George III. a pension of 50Z. a year was 
 granted him out of the privy purse. In 1763 he was elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society, and in 1770 was chosen a member of the 
 American Philosophical Society. 
 
 He died November 16, 1776', leaving an only son, to whom he 
 bequeathed a considerable sum acquired by his lectures and his 
 writings. 
 
 Ferguson has contributed more than perhaps any other man in this 
 country to the extension of physical science among all classes of 
 society, but especially among that largest class whose circumstances 
 preclude them from a regular course of scientific instruction. Perspi- 
 cuity in the selection and arrangement of his facts, and in the display 
 of the truths deduced from them, was his characteristic both as a 
 lecturer and a writer. 
 
 The following are his principal works : — ' Astronomy explained 
 upon Sir Isaac Newton's Principles, and made easy to those who have 
 not studied Mathematics,' 4to, 1756. There have been many editions 
 of this work; one by Dr. (now Sir David) Brewster, 2 vols. 8vo, 1811, 
 containing the new discoveries since the time of Ferguson. ' Lectures 
 on Subjects in Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics, with 
 the Use of the Globes, the Art of Dialling, and the Calculation of the 
 Mean Times of New and Full Moons and Eclipses,' 8vo, 1760; 4to, 
 1764. An edition of this work by Dr. Brewster was published in 1805, 
 and another in 1806. 'An Easy Introduction to Astronomy for 
 Young Gentlemen and Ladies,' 1769. ' Introduction to Electricity,' 
 8vo, 1770. ' The Art of Drawing in Perspective made easy to those 
 who have no previous knowledge of Mathematics,' 8vo, 1775 : this was 
 his last work. Besides other works not mentioned here, he contributed 
 several papers to the ' Philosophical Transactions.' 
 
 (Life by himself, prefixed to his ' Select Mechanical Exercises ; ' 
 Nichols's Anecdotes; Craik, Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties, 
 vol. i.) 
 
 FERGUSON, or FERGUSSON, ROBERT, was born at Edinburgh 
 about 1750, and educated at the University of St. Andrews, where 
 he received some encouragement from one of the professors named 
 Wilkie, who employed him to transcribe his lectures. An anonymous 
 biographer (Life prefixed to Ferguson's Poems, edition of 1807) has 
 employed considerable research in discovering certain freaks of a kind 
 neither ludicrous nor in good taste, in which he appears to have 
 indulged during his residence at St. Andrews : one of these was near 
 being the cause of his expulsion ; but the sentence was recalled, and 
 he remained as it appears for four years, during which time he 
 subsisted on a bursary or exhibition founded by a person of his own 
 name. On leaving St. Andrew's, he paid a visit to an uncle from 
 whom he had expectations of employment, but after a few months 
 left his house under circumstances of which his anonymous biographer 
 gives a very unsatisfactory account. During the remainder of his life 
 he was employed in the office of the commissary-clerk of Edinburgh, 
 with the exception of a few months spent in that of the sheriff-clerk ; 
 and was a constant contributor to Ruddiman's 'Weekly Magazine,' 
 from which his poems were afterwards collected. The local celebrity 
 which these productions obtained for him gave him so frequent 
 opportunities of convivial and other excess, as to ruin his health, and 
 terminate his life at the early age of twenty-four years. His last days 
 were passed in a mad-house, his debauchery having ended in repent- 
 ance which took the form of melancholy, when a serious accident 
 having caused the fracture of his skull, his mental faculties became 
 wholly deranged, and he died October 16, 1774, aged only twenty-four. 
 
 Ferguson's poems are written partly in English and partly in Low- 
 land Scotch. Those in Lowland Scotch have been admired by 
 persons conversant with the idiom in which they are written ; but to 
 an English ear they want the charm which makes Burns pleasing even 
 when he is scarcely intelligible. In praise of his English verses, a 
 little more may be said ; but we suspect that the painful circumstances 
 of his life created an interest about him to which much, if not most 
 of his celebrity is owing. 
 
 * FERGUSSON, JAMES, architect, author of several valuable 
 works on architecture and collateral subjects, was born at Ayr, Scot- 
 land, in the year 1808, and received his chief education at the High 
 School at Edinburgh. Being destined for mercantile pursuits, he 
 spent two years in Holland, and a like period in a counting-house in 
 London, and in 1829 he proceeded to India. His first occupation 
 there was as an indigo planter at Jessore; and he was afterwards 
 managing partner of a large firm in Calcutta. After a residence of 
 tec years in India, he had realised sufficient to enable him to return 
 to England in 1839. During the period of his absence he had made 
 a visit to China, and travelled through the principal districts of 
 India. 
 
 FERISIITA, MOHAMMED KASIM. 0C0 
 
 On his return to Europe he devoted himself wholly to literary and 
 scientific pursuits. His first publication was a description of the 
 Rock Cut Temples of India, with which appeared a folio volume of 
 plates. A second folio volume was published in 1847-48, and entitled 
 ' Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient Architecture in Hindostan.' 
 In 1847 also appeared 'An Essay on the Ancient Topography of 
 Jerusalem,' which chiefly relates to the building known as the Mosque 
 of Omar, of which Messrs. Arundale, Bonomi, and Catherwood had 
 then recently succeeded in producing the first authentic delineations, 
 and which are engraved in the ' Essay.' Mr. Fergusson, judging from 
 the character of the architecture, and the occurrence of what appeared 
 to be a hewn sepulchre, argued that the ' Mosque ' was the church of 
 the Holy Sepulchre. The arguments however have not been generally 
 admitted. In 1849 he published the first volume of 'An Historical 
 Inquiry into the true principles of Beauty in Art, more especially with 
 reference to Architecture,' a work which exhibits high reasoning 
 powers, and the application of previous theories to the special subject 
 of architecture. The historical part contains suggestions as to struc- 
 tural and decorative arrangements in certain old examples, about 
 which difficulty had been felt by students. The work was originally 
 intended to form three volumes. The materials for the completion 
 of the work were however reserved, and incorporated in the author's 
 recently published ' Illustrated Handbook of Architecture.' Mr. 
 Fergusson also published in 1849 some 'Observations on the British 
 Museum, National Gallery, and National Record Office, with sug- 
 gestions for their Improvement,' and somewhere about the same time 
 exhibited a design for the improvement of the National Gallery. His, 
 peculiar and accurate knowledge of the Eastern styles of architecture, 
 led him at once to take great interest in the discoveries at Nineveh 
 by Mr. Layard and others ; and, whilst these were still proceeding, he 
 conceived an ideal restoration of the buildings then in progress of 
 excavation, together with those of Persepolis. These conclusions 
 were given to the world in ' The Palaces of Niueveh and Persepolis 
 restored; an essay on Ancient Assyrian and Persian architecture,' an 
 illustrated volume published in 1851 ; and are now pretty generally 
 understood from the Assyrian Court at the Crystal Palace which 
 was planned and decorated under Mr. Fei gusson's superintendence. 
 
 In the course of his researches in India, Mr. Fergusson had 
 examined some of the earthwork fortifications raised by native races ; 
 and having been led to pay much attention to fortification, he 
 broached in 1849 an entirely new system, which he described in a 
 published es3ay, and illustrated at the Exhibition of 1851 by a model ; 
 and he afterwards issued ' The Peril of Portsmouth, or French Fleets 
 and English Forts,' which has gone through three editions. His 
 theory aimed at the entire subversion of the approved systems of 
 military engineers, preferred circular forms to angles and bastions ; 
 and, in contradistinction to the theory that the chances of success in 
 the case of an invested fortification were necessarily in favour of the 
 attack, he maintained the possibility of reversing the condition of 
 affairs so as to place the advantage on the side of the defence. Doing 
 away with the old revetments as useless and even prejudicial, and 
 substituting earthwork for masonry, he showed how guns might be 
 placed on terraces, so as to allow a considerable number to be brought 
 into use at once, and, as he thought, to keep, as before stated, the 
 superiority at any menaced point with the besieged ; and, in spite of 
 the disadvantage of earthworks, that they must stand at slopes. 
 These views were stoutly combated at meetings in the United 
 Service Institution and in print, and the author's demonstrations were 
 indeed ridiculed ; but on the occasion of the long defence of Sebas- 
 topol, a town provided with the requisite large supply of cannon aud 
 materiel, and where earthworks and some contrivances which had 
 been suggested by Mr. Fergusson were skilfully applied, the subject 
 came more prominently before the public. Mr. Fergusson about the 
 same time directed attention to what he deemed the malformation 
 of some of the forts lately erected on the coast of Hants. This pro- 
 duced a further controversy, in the course of which he has lately 
 issued a sequel to ' The Peril of Portsmouth,' entitled ' Portsmouth 
 Protected,' with notes on Sebastopol and on other sieges during the 
 war, which he considered supplied evidence of the truth of his 
 theory. In 1859 he was appointed a Royal Commissioner to inquire 
 into the defences of the United Kingdom. His library and other 
 parts of the interior of his house in Langham-place, in their fittings 
 and decorations, deserve notice here as amongst the best of recent 
 efforts in their department of practical architecture. 
 
 FERISHT A, MOHAMMED KASIM, a celebrated Persian historian, 
 was born at Astrabad, on the border of the Caspian Sea, in 1570. 
 His father, whose name was Gholam Ali Hindoo Shah, and who appears 
 to have been a learned man, left his native country when Ferishta 
 was very young and travelled into India. He finally settled at 
 Ahmudnugger, in the Deccan, during the reign of Murtuza Nizam 
 Shah, and was appointed to instruct Miran Hossein, the son of 
 Murtuza, in the Persian language, but he died soon after this appoint- 
 ment. Miran Hossein however patronised his son Ferishta, and 
 through his influence the historian was advanced to high honours in 
 the court. When Murtuza was assassinated, Ferishta, who was then 
 only seventeen years of age, was captain of the royal guard. 
 
 In the troubles following the death of Murtuza, Ferishta left 
 Ahmudnugger (1589. see the preface to his history), and went to 
 
FERMAT, PIERRE DE. 
 
 Bejapore, where he was kindly received by the regent and minister, 
 Dilawur RhaD, who introduced him to Ibrahim Adil Shah II., the 
 reigning monarch. In this court he spent the remainder of his life 
 in high honour, engaged sometimes in military expeditions, as we 
 learn ^from his own history, and devoting his leisure time to the 
 composition of his great work. He died, iu all probability, soon after 
 1611, at the age of forty-one. He mentions in his history the English 
 and Portuguese factories at Surat, 1611. 
 
 The preceding account has been chiefly taken from the English 
 translation of Ferishta, by Colonel Briggs, which was published in 
 Loudon, in 1S29, 4 vols. Svo. Portions of the history had been pre- 
 viously translated. Colonel Dow published a translation of the first 
 two books in his ' History of Hindostac,' 2 vols., 4 to, London, 1768, 
 which is not considered to be very accurately done. A much better 
 translation of the third book was given by Mr. Jonathan Scott in his 
 ' History of the Deccan,' 2 vols., 4to, 1794. Mr. Stewart, in his 
 < Descriptive Catalogue of the Library of the late Tippoo Sultan of 
 Mysore,' gives an account of the contents of the history, p. 12 ; and 
 also a translation of part of the tenth book, accompanied with the 
 original Persian, pp. 259-207. 
 
 The history of Ferishta is divided into twelve books, with an 
 introduction, which gives a brief and imperfect account of Hindoo 
 history before the time of the Mohammedans, and also a short account 
 of the conquests of the Arabs in their progress from Arabia to 
 Hindustan. The first book contains an account of the kings of 
 Ghizui and Lahore, 997-1186. Here the detailed portion of his 
 history begins : 2, ' The kings of Delhi, 1205 to the death of Abker, 
 1605;' 3, 'The kings of the Deccan, 1347-1596;' 4, 'The kings of 
 Guzerat ; ' 5, ' The kings of Malwa ; ' 6, ' The kings of Kandeish ; ' 
 7, 'The kings of Bengal and Behar; ' 8, 'The kings of Multau;' 9, 
 'The rulers of Sind; ' 10, 'The kings of Cashmir;' 11, 'An Account 
 of Malabar;' 12, 'An Account of the European Settlers in Hin- 
 dostan.' At the conclusion of the work, Ferishta gives a short account 
 of the geography, climate, and other physical circumstances of Hin- 
 dustan. 
 
 Ferishta is certainly one of the most trustworthy, impartial, and 
 unprejudiced of oriental historians. He seems to have taken great 
 pains in consulting authorities. At the close of his preface he gives 
 a list of thirty-five historians to whom he refers, and Colonel Briggs 
 mentions the name3 of twenty more who are quoted in the course of 
 tti6 work* 
 
 FERMAT, PIERRE DE, born at Beaumont-de-Lomages, Aug. 1601, 
 was brought up to the profession of the law. We have but few inci- 
 dents of his private life, except that he became a counsellor of the 
 parliament of his native town, was universally respected for his talents, 
 and died in January 1665. His works were published in 1670 and 
 1679, in folio : the last volume contains his correspondence, besides 
 some original scientific papers. 
 
 Fermat restored two books of Apollonius, and published Diophan- 
 tus, with a commentary. The whole of the actual works of Fermat 
 fill an exceedingly small space ; nevertheless they contain the germs 
 of analytical principles which have since come to maturity. In fact 
 they may be regarded, generally speaking, as announcements of the 
 results to which he had arrived, without demonstrations, or any 
 indications of the processes employed. 
 
 The properties of numbers were the subject of his enthusiastic 
 researches, and no single individual has added more that is both 
 curious and useful to this branch of mathematics than Fermat : the 
 theorem now commonly called Fermat's is but a particular case of a 
 much more general one given in his works. 
 
 His method for finding Maxima and Minima has only the merit of a 
 moderate ingenuity, before the differential calculus was discovered ; the 
 analysts of that day hovered on the brink of that beautiful process of 
 analysis which has been rather ridiculously termed the greatest disco- 
 very of the human mind. A method not very remote from Fermat's 
 was practised by other analysts of his day; and in spirit also by the 
 ancient geometers; but it certainly is not the differential calculus, and 
 Laplace has no ground for his attempt to snatch from the claims of 
 the English and German nations this grand step of analysis in order 
 *o appropriate it to his own. 
 
 In Fermat's correspondence with Father Mersenne, we find him, in 
 a bungling manner, contesting with Roberval the first principles of 
 mechanics, and maintaining that the weight of bodies is least at the 
 surface of the earth, increasing both within and without, which is the 
 direct opposite to the truth ; and in one of his letters, when greeted 
 by Mersenne with the retraction of hi3 errors, he very disingenuously 
 attempts to deny them, asserting that no body has a centre of gravity, 
 with many similar trifles, which place in bold relief the immortal 
 discovery of Sir Isaac Newton of the law of universal attraction, and 
 add lustre to his predecessor Galileo, who escaped from similar para- 
 doxes, from which common sense ought to have guarded both Fermat 
 and Descartes. 
 
 The correspondence of Fermat is sufficiently replenished with 
 vanity, which was also well fed by some of his compatriots, who 
 lauded his propositions as the finest things which had ever been dis- 
 covered. But it is justly suspected that the discovery of many of his 
 properties of numbers was effected by a tentative process, he himself 
 possessing no demonstration, as no vestige remains in the works 
 
 FERNANDEZ, NAVARRETE. e02 
 
 published by his son of any peculiar analysis for arriving at them ; 
 while there are abundant proofs that he and Frenacle, a young 
 Parisian, employed the methods of tabulation and trial, to suggest 
 properties, and by further trials observe if they could generalise them. 
 In a subject less barren than the theory of numbers this talent and 
 industry would have produced more useful results; for what are the 
 theorems of Fermat to the laws of Kepler ? 
 
 Fermat conjectured that the path of light, in passing from air to 
 a denser medium, ought to be such as to describe the shortest pos- 
 sible course. This is a particular case of the principle of least action, 
 and requires some remark. First, we see that Fermat's method fo: 
 finding maxima and minima was not the differential calculus, for 
 though importuned from various quarters to try this principle he was 
 deterred, as he says himself, for two or three years, by the dread of 
 the asymetries of the process, though any tyro acquainted with tha 
 first principles of the differential calculus, with the proper data given, 
 would now do it in five minutes : when Fermat at last did this, it was 
 in a geometrical manner. Secondly, during the life of Descartes, he 
 seems to have disbelieved this law of refraction. The foundations of 
 both their reasonings iu natural philosophy were of the slenderest 
 description, if indeed we can at all use such a term as reasoning to 
 the methods of Descartes, whose followers had the greatest faith when 
 he employed the least of that useful faculty. But the law is truly 
 attributable to Suellius, and, though this is well known, many French 
 writers still ridiculously talk of the Cartesian law of refraction. 
 Thirdly, Fermat did not attribute the truth of the principle to any 
 mechanical laws, of which he seems to have known nothing, but to the 
 pseudo-physical principle that nature should take the shortest course 
 in performing its operations — for which indeed he was subjected to 
 several cases of objection, to which he has given good answers, 
 considering the position in which such an hypothesis placed him. 
 
 To give a more exact idea of the ' man,' we shall give one of hia 
 problems, entitled ' Problem by P. de Fermat. To Wallis, or any other 
 mathematician that England may contain, I propose this problem to 
 be resolved by them. 
 
 ' To find a cube number which, added to its aliquot parts, will give 
 a square number ? Example 343. 
 
 ' If Wallis and no English mathematician can solve this, nor any 
 analyst of Belgic or Celtic Gaul, then an analyst of Narbonne will 
 solve it.' 
 
 Wallis gives an account of this iu the ' Commercium Epistolicum,' 
 the correspondence having been conducted through Sir Kenelm Digby. 
 The works of Fermat contain also the tangents to some known curves, 
 and some centres of gravity. 
 
 Though thus strongly endowed with the faculty of self-esteem, and 
 of that cunning which seeks to hide the tracks of discovery, we must 
 still place Fermat among such men as Pascal, Barrow, Brouncker, 
 Wallis ; but he had none of the masculine mind of Descartes, nor a 
 particle of the penetrating spirit of the glory of his age and nation, 
 Newton. 
 
 It would be wrong to omit here the most curious of the theorems 
 of Fermat relative to numbers. To make it more generally intelli- 
 gible we may state, that a triangular number means the sum of any 
 number of terms from the first of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 &c; thus 1, 3, 0, 10, &c, are triangular numbers ; the square numbers 
 are 1, 4, 9, 16, &c, and are the sums of the progression 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. ; 
 pentagonal numbers in like manner are the sums of the numbers 
 1,4, 7, 10, &c, namely, 1, 5, 12, 22, &c. The theorem consists in this, 
 that 'every number' is the sum of 1, 2, or 3 triangular numbers ; 
 every number is the sum of 1, 2, 3, or 4 square numbers, and so on. 
 In the works of Euler, Legendre, and Barlow, the demonstration of 
 the first two cases may be found ; and though Legendre and Cauchy 
 have both laboured to prove it more generally, yet our impression is 
 that the general theorem is still without proof. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, DENIS, a Portuguese navigator, who, in 1446, 
 discovered the river Senegal and Cape Verde. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, JOAN, a Portuguese, the first European who 
 visited the interior of Africa. In 1446 he joined a Portuguese expe- 
 dition of discovery, and from an ardent desire to procure information 
 for Prince Henry, he got leave to remain among the Assenhaji, or 
 wanderers of the great African desert, in its Atlantic extremity. He 
 stayed there seven months till his countrymen returned. His 
 account has been strikingly corroborated in our days by that of 
 Mungo Park. The date of his death appears to be unknown. 
 (Kerr, Systematic Collection of Voyages and Travels, ii. p. 190.) 
 
 FERNANDEZ, FRANCISCO, born at Madrid, 1604, was, accord- 
 ing to Palomino, one of the most ingenious painters of his time. He 
 was employed by Philip IV! of Spain to execute several considerable 
 works. His chief works were an ' Obsequies of St. Francis,' a ' St. 
 Joachim,' and a 'St. Anne.' He was killed by a companion in a 
 drunken quarrel in 1646. 
 
 FERNANDEZ, NAVARRETE, surnamed El Mudo (the dumb), 
 born 1526 at Logroho, on the Ebro, became a distinguished pupil of 
 Titian, and painter to Philip II., who employed him chiefly at the 
 Escurial. His principal works are a ' Nativity of Christ ; ' a ' Martyr- 
 dom of St. James ; ' 'St. Jerome in the Desert,' and especiaUy 
 ' Abraham with the Three Angels.' He painted with great ease and 
 despatch. On account of his colouring he was called the Spanish 
 
ecs FERNANDEZ DE NAVARRETE. FESCIT, CARDINAL JOSEPH. ni 
 
 Titian. There are many of his paintings in tho Louvre. He died at 
 Segovia in 1579. 
 
 FERNANDEZ DE NAVARRETE. [Navarrete.] 
 FERRA'RI, GAUDENZIO, a celebrated Lombard painter and 
 Bculptor, of the Milanese school of Lionardo da Vinci. He was born 
 in Valdugia in 1484, was instructed by Luini, and, according to 
 Orlando, he was a scholar of Perugino, but this is very doubtful. 
 He was Raffaellesque in style, and worked under Raffaelle at Rome. 
 He is enumerated by his countryman Lomazzo among the seven 
 greatest painters of modern times, which is an absurd eulogy. He 
 was correct in design, laborious and careful in his execution, and 
 brilliant in his colouring; but his works are quite void of tone, 
 though his figures are well rounded, and he can have had no know- 
 ledge of or feeling for harmony of colour. His outline is also hard, 
 aud the accessory parts, though laboured, are very indifferently 
 executed. His colouring is extremely gay, but he used the positive or 
 primary colours beyond all natural proportion. His principal works 
 are in Milan, and are exclusively illustrative of the origin or mysteries 
 of Christianity. He died in Milan in 1550. He had numerous 
 pupils and imitators, of whom the most celebrated are Battista della 
 Cerva, and Bernardino Lauino. 
 
 FERRARI, L. [Ferrei and Ferrari.] 
 
 FERREI and FERRARi, the names of two Italian mathematicians, 
 who were nearly contemporary with each other, and who are liable to 
 be confounded. Scipio Ferrei (Cossali calls him Ferro aud Dal Ferro) 
 was a native of Bologna, and taught mathematics there from 1496 to 
 152G. He is said to have been the first who possessed a method of 
 solving any case of cubic equations. This method he communicated 
 to his pupil Antonio del Fiore, who proposed a question to Tartaglia 
 as a challenge ; and this, it is also said, was the cause of the latter 
 turning his attention to the subject. 
 
 Ludovico Ferrari was also born at Bologna, and was the pupil of 
 Cardan. At the instigation of the latter, he turned his attention to 
 biquadratic equation?, and produced, the method known by his name, 
 being the first which had been invented. The method is found in 
 the work of Cardan (from whom the account of Ferrari is taken), and 
 in all works of algebra which treat on the solution of equations. 
 
 FERREIRA, ANTONIO, the reformer of the national poetry of 
 Portugal, and surnamed the Portuguese Horace, was born at Lisbon, 
 1528. While studying law at Coimbra, he devoted his time more 
 particularly to classical and Italian literature, but, unlike the then 
 prevalent custom, determined to write only in his native tongue. 
 He wrote at this time many sonnets and his drama of ' O Bristo ' 
 (which is the name of the principal character), to which he gave sub- 
 sequently a much higher polish. He obtained a professorship at 
 Coimbra, but growing tired of a university life, he went to court, 
 where he obtained a dignified situation; and while entertaining 
 still higher expectations, he was carried off in the prime of life by 
 the plague in 1569. 
 
 Although not a first-rate poet in imagination and originality, 
 Ferreira possessed taste, correctness, and deep thought. He often 
 succeeded moreover in elevating the mind and warming the heart. 
 His sonnets, without displaying any affected imitation of Petrarca's, 
 remind us of the Italian poet and his Laura. His odes and his 
 bucolics have great merit in the expression, but the former want the 
 genuine lyric spirit, and the latter the simplicity of the idyl; 
 qualities perhaps irreconcileable with Ferreira's philosophical turn 
 of mind and didactic seriousness. Among his elegies, that on May 
 is a classic masterpiece. His epistles, written evidently when he was 
 in his maturity, are the first productions of the kind in Portuguese 
 literature. His tragedy of ' Ines de Castro,' written about the same 
 time that the Dominican Bermudez wrote the similar and superior one 
 in Spanish of ' Nise Lastimosa,' abounds with beautiful passages, but 
 is deficient in true pathos, and displays a forced imitation of the 
 Greek manner and style. As it was preceded only by Trissino's 
 ' Sophonisba,' it has been considered as the second regular tragedy 
 produced after the revival of letters in Europe. The ' Poemas Lusi- 
 tanos' of Ferreira appeared at Lisbon first in 1598, 4to; and all his 
 works were printed under the title, 'Todas las Obras de Ferreira,' 
 Lisbon, 1771, 2 vols. 8vo, which contains Ferreira's biography, a 
 valuable authority for the reader, in addition to that of Bouterwek 
 and Sismondi. 
 
 FERRE'RAS, DOCTOR DON JUAN, a most minute and accurate 
 Spanish historian, was born at Labaiieza, in the diocese of Astorga, 
 June 7, 1652. Having gone through a complete course of classical 
 and theological learning, Ferreras displayed his eloquence in the 
 pulpit, and obtained the patronage of the great by his merit, and 
 the esteem of all by his gentleness and 'modesty. Various honour- 
 able distinctions and situations were bestowed on him, but he con- 
 stantly refused all high dignities. Next to the Duke of Escalona, he 
 was at the head of the litterati who founded the academy of the 
 Lengua Espafiola in 1713, and he was a very useful member of that 
 body, especially in the compilation of its dictionary, in 6 vols, folio, 
 published in 1726-1739, to which he contributed the articles in the 
 letter G, besides a preliminary discourse on the Castilian tongue. At 
 his death, in addition to his other appointments, he held that of 
 librarian to Philip V. He died April 14, 1735. Ferreras, though not 
 60 elegant a writer as Mariana, is much more to be depended upon. 
 
 He wrote in all thirty-eight works, some of which remain unpublished ; 
 the most important is the ' Synopsis Historica y Chronologica de 
 Espana,' Madrid, 1700-27, 16 vols., 4to. It extends to the close of 
 Philip II.'s reign in 1588. Hermilli translated it into French, with 
 valuable notes, in 10 vols., 4to, Paris, 1742. 
 
 * FERREY, BENJAMIN, architect, was bora at Christchurcb, 
 Hants, April 1, 1810, and received his education at the Grammar- 
 school at Wimborne, Dorset. He had whilst very young imbibed a 
 taste for drawing, which was fostered by his admiration of the beau- 
 tiful Priory Church at Christchurch and the Minster at Wimborne, of 
 both of which at that early period he made many drawings. In 1826 
 he was articled to Augustus Pugiu, author of the ' Specimens of 
 Gothic Architecture,' and other well-known works. Amougst these 
 was the ' Gothic Ornaments,' most of the lithographs in which were 
 drawn by Mr. Ferrey and Mr. Talbot Bury, aud deserve to be 
 mentioned as executed in a superior style at a time when lithography 
 was not so well understood as at present. Pugin's pupils were occa- 
 sionally employed in the office of Nash. Mr. Ferrey and others were 
 also engaged with Pugiu during continental tours in drawing, and 
 measuriug the most remarkable buildings. Subsequently Mr. Ferrey 
 was for two years with Wilkius, the architect. 
 
 Mr. Ferrey 's principal title to a place in these pages will be con- 
 sidered as arising from his connection with the movement made 
 towards the revival of Gothic architecture, — a style in regard to 
 which his early pursuits gave him many advantages. He has of late 
 years had a large practice, chiefly in church architecture. Amongst 
 his chief works might be mentioned — St. Stephen's church, West- 
 minster, and adjacent buildings, erected for Miss Burdett Coutts ; 
 churches at Eton, Esher, Morpeth, and Taunton ; the restoration of 
 the Lady Chapel of Wells Cathedral ; additions to the Episcopal 
 Palace, Wells, and to that at Cuddesden, Oxfordshire, and many 
 others. He is architect for the Diocese of Bath and Wells, and has 
 held the office of Vice-President of the Institute of British Architects. 
 In 1834 he published a work with plates 'On the Antiquities of tho 
 Priory of Christ Church,' and 1861 ' Recollections of A. N. W. Pugin.' 
 
 FERRI, CIRO, a celebrated Roman fresco painter, born in 1634. 
 He was the most distinguished scholar of Pietro da Cortona, and 
 greatly assisted that paiuter in his extensive works in fresco, both in 
 Rome and in the Palazzo Pitti at Florence. After the death of Pietro, 
 Ferri was the first fresco painter in Rome, and the leader of the 
 so-called machinists, a great faction, opposed to the school of Sacchi, 
 at the head of which was Carlo Maratta. Ferri's works are of the 
 same character as Pietro da Cortona's; many of them have been 
 engraved. He died at Rome in 1689. 
 
 (Baldinucci, Notizie dei Professori del Di&egno, <bc; Lanzi, Storia 
 Pittorica, die.) 
 
 FERRIER, MISS, was born at Edinburgh, about 1782, the daughter 
 of a writer to the signet, and who was one of Sir W. Scott's colleagues 
 as clerk of the court of session. This association almost necessarily 
 produced an intimacy with the Scott family, and she had early access to 
 the company of the best literary society of her native city. She was 
 the author of 'Marriage,' published in 1818; 'The Inheritance,' in 
 1824; and 'Destiny, or the Chief's Daughter,' which appeared in 
 1831. They were all published an-onymously, and thence Sir Walter 
 Scott spoke of his "sister shadow," at the end of his 'Legend of 
 Montrose,' as one peculiarly fitted to excel in the depicting of Scottish 
 character, a3 proved by "the very lively work entitled 'Marriage.'" 
 In the latter part of his life, when Miss Ferrier was one of his most 
 trusted friends, her name occurs in his diary. Her novels are 
 not entirely national ; the characters are vigorously drawn, and 
 thoroughly individualised; the plots tolerably well imagined and 
 ingeniously developed ; and the dialogues are spirited and life-like, 
 sometimes humorous, and occasionally witty. The use of the Scottish 
 dialect, as it is occasionally introduced with good effect, is the dialect 
 actually spoken, and not the imitation which was occasionally heard 
 upon the stage. All her novels were successful, and havo become 
 standards ; but she seems to have written because she had accumu- 
 lated observations and materials, and not from the love of either famo 
 or profit. Sir Walter Scott, indeed, says of her, that in conversation 
 " she was the least exigeante of any author, female at least, whom I have 
 ever seen." He adds : " she was simple, full of humour, and exceed- 
 ingly ready at repartee ; and all this without the least affectation of 
 the blue-stocking." This appears to be a good representation of her 
 whole character : acute and observant, she was too kind to wish to 
 give pain, and too placid and contented to seek for applause. Though 
 her satire is sometimes sufficiently coarse and caustic upon the 
 grosser errors of human conduct, the sketches are relieved by scenes 
 of humour, which, if sometimes exaggerated, like those of Misa 
 Burney, are certainly laughable. 
 
 Miss Ferrier passed a peaceful and quiet life in her native town, 
 associated with all the more distinguished of her contemporaries, and 
 respected for her kindness and urbanity by every one who knew her. 
 She died, aged seventy-two, in November 1854. 
 
 FESCH, CARDINAL JOSEPH, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, 
 on the 3rd of January 1763 ; he was the son of a respectable citizen 
 at Bale, and half-brother of Letitia Ramolini, the mother of Napoleon I. 
 In 1776, his father sent him to the seminary of Aix, a college for pre- 
 paring youths for the priesthood, where he was educated with much 
 
FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS. 
 
 rare. During the revolution, the youug abb($ was like the rest of 
 his brethren, driven from one place of concealment to another, until 
 he at length sought refuge in the army of General Montesquieu, at 
 that time quartered in Savoy. He suffered great privations during 
 the Reign of Terror, but the sudden elevation of his nephew, General 
 Bonaparte, after the 13th Vendemiaire (October 1795), in a moment 
 changed his fortune. Bonaparte having been appointed to take the 
 command of the army in Italy, prevailed upon the Abbd Fesch to 
 withdraw from the church, and become one of the Commissioners, or 
 factors, attached to it. He continued in this office, and performed 
 all its functions, so different from those he had been used to, until 
 the 18th Brumaire 1799. Bonaparte now felt that his uncle's services 
 might be more effective in his first calling, he therefore induced him 
 to resume the ecclesiastical habit after the concordat of 1801, and in 
 April 1802 had him appointed archbishop of Lyon. The following 
 year Archbishop Fesch was sent as ambassador to the holy see, taking 
 with him as his secretary the young Viscount de Chateaubriand. 
 The assiduous court paid to the pontiff by the archbishop during his 
 sojourn at Rome, completely won the heart of the kind-hearted old 
 maD, who bestowed upon him the cardinal's hat, and consented to 
 go with him to Paris to crown Napoleon. This had been the real 
 object of his mission. 
 
 After the coronation of Napoleon I., at which he officiated, Cardinal 
 Fesch became grand aumonier in 1805, received the grand cordon of 
 the Legion of Honour, and was made a member of the senate. In 
 1809 Napoleon I. offered him the primacy, and actually announced 
 his nomination, as Archbishop of Paris ; but Cardinal Fesch, angry 
 at the harsh treatment which the pope had received at his nephew's 
 hands, rejected the offer. On the 28th November 1810, he openly 
 rebuked the all-powerful monarch before the council of Paris, of which 
 he was president, and bitterly complained of his aggression on the 
 independence of the church. For this act of insubordination the 
 cardinal was exiled from court, and ordered to return to his diocese 
 at Lyon, where he continued in disgrace until the first abdication, in 
 1814. During the next few months the cardinal resided at Rome, but 
 he hastened to Paris after the escape of Bonaparte from Elba. The 
 battle of Waterloo compelled him a second time to take refuge in 
 the pontifical court, where he spent the remainder of his life. He 
 died on the 13th of May 1839, at the age of seventy-six. He was a 
 patron of the fine arts, and had become possessed of a remarkably 
 fine collection of ancient and modern pictures. 
 
 FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPE'IUS, a celebrated Latin grammarian, 
 whose age is not clearly ascertained, though there seems reason to 
 believe that he lived in the third century of our era. He compiled 
 an epitome of the Toluminous work ' De Verborum Significations 1 of 
 Marcus Verrius Flaccus, a grammarian of the Augustan age, men- 
 tioned by Suetonius. The work of Verrius is lost, and that of Festus 
 being afterwards abridged in the ninth century by Paulus Diaconus, 
 who spoiled it, the text of the epitome became lost also for several 
 centuries, until a mutilated copy, found in Dalmatia, came into the 
 »ands of Aldo Manuzio, who published it, together with the abridg- 
 ment by Paulus Diaconus. Other fragments were found in the 
 Farnesian Library, and Antonius Augustinus, Joseph Scaliger, and 
 Fulvius Ursinus published improved editions of Festus' 'De Verborum 
 Significatione.' Lastly, A. Dacier published a new edition, 4to, Paris, 
 1681, adding to it the notes of Scaliger, Augustinus, and Ursinus. 
 Dacier's edition was reprinted at Amsterdam in 1699. In 1832 Linde- 
 mann in the second volume of his ' Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum,' 
 has made a complete separation of the texts of Festus and Paulus, and 
 carefully revised each, as well as added a body of valuable notes ; but 
 the most useful and complete edition is that of K. O. Muller, 4to, 
 Lips., 1839. Festus, in a passage of his work under the head 
 'Profanum,' refers to another vocabulary which he had written 
 explanatory of ancient Latin words which had become obsolete, 
 ' Priscorum Verborum Libri cum Exemplis,' which words he left out 
 in hia epitome of Marcus Verrius. This work, ' Priscorum Verborum,' 
 is lost. Festus gives not only the meaning, but also in most 
 instances the etymology, of words, with reference to Verrius, Cato, 
 and others of his predecessors ; and his book, though incomplete, is 
 justly classed by Scaliger amongst the most useful for understanding 
 the language of ancient Rome. 
 
 I ETI, DOME'NICO, called II Mantuano, was born at Rome in 
 1589. He was the scholar of Cigoli, but was appointed his court 
 painter by Ferdinando Gonzaga, duke of Mantua, whither he removed 
 from Rome ; whence his name of Mantuano. Feti executed several 
 works at Mantua, of which his oil pictures were the best ; many have 
 been engraved : his masterpiece is the ' Feeding of the Five Thou- 
 sand,' in the Academy of Mantua. He died at Venice in 1624, aged 
 only thirty-five. (Baglione, Vite dd Pittori, ■ &c. ; Lanzi, Storia 
 Pittorica, <tc.) 
 
 FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM, the most celebrated 
 German writer on criminal law, was born at Frankfurt-on-the-Mayn, 
 May 14th, 1775. After having studied at Jena, he gave lectures 
 there on law in 1798, and became successively professor at the uni- 
 versities of Giesen, Jena, Kiel, and Landshuth. While he was a 
 lecturer at Jena he published his ' Anti-Hobbes, or, on the Limits of 
 Civil Power, and on the compulsory Right of Subjects against their 
 Sovereigns' (' Anti-Hobbes oder iiber die grenzen der biirgerlichen 
 
 BIOCl. D1V. vol. n. 
 
 FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANN ANSELM. 906 
 
 gewalt und das zwangrecht der unterthanen gegen ihren oberherren ') ; 
 and a number of essays inserted in the ' Magazine of Criminal J uris- 
 prudence.' But the work which established his fame was his ' Review 
 of the fundamental Principles and Ideas of Penal Law,' which appeared 
 shortly afterwards. His ' Critique of tho project of a Penal Law for 
 Bavaria,' published in 1804, is another remarkable work. These 
 purely theoretical essays exercised a very considerable influence oil 
 the criminal legislation of Germany, and were soon followed by 
 practical effects. Almost immediately on the publication of the last- 
 mentioned work, and while he was professor at Landshuth, the 
 Bavarian government entrusted him with drawing up a project of a 
 criminal code for the kingdom, which, after having been submitted to 
 a commission, was adopted, with very few modifications. The prin- 
 ciples previously promulgated by Feuerbach were all incorporated in 
 this project, which is characterised by logical connection, strict defini- 
 tions, complete development of the principle of penal law, correct 
 generalisation and specification of crimes and misdemeanours, and 
 precise determination of penalties. Its consequences were immense, 
 for previously to its publication criminal jurisprudence in Germany 
 was in a deplorable state. Its excellence both in substance and form 
 was such, that it was adopted as the basis of similar attempts at a 
 reform of criminal law by other portions of Germany and Switzerland. 
 Saxony, Wurtemberg, Hanover, Oldenburg, and Weimar, aud the 
 cantons Zurich, St. Gall, Basel and the Grisons, modified their codes 
 in accordance with it. In 1808 Feuerbach was created privy coun- 
 cillor, and received a commission to adapt the Code Napoleon to the 
 wants of Bavaria ; the result of his labour however was not adopted. 
 
 That criminal law has become a science, and that this science has 
 had a great influence on legislation all over the continent, is to be 
 mainly attributed to this gifted man. Criminal law which had been 
 harsh and bloody became humane : liberty of action was substituted 
 for previous restraint, and the conditions were pointed out under 
 which the state ought to interfere by penalties with the rights of the 
 citizens. The former arbitrary power of the judges was circum- 
 scribed ; deep-rooted and vague notions gave way to the inflexible 
 but necessary bounds of law. If, on the one hand, it must be 
 admitted that Feuerbach, by his philosophical inquiries and liberal 
 conceptions, powerfully influenced the elements and principles of 
 modern criminal law, it is to be regretted, on the other hand, that by 
 his subsequent publication, ' Considerations on the Jury,' he has pro- 
 mulgated singular opinions on the spirit and efficacy of that institu- 
 tion. The leading idea of this work consists in the proposition that 
 the verdict of the jury is insufficient to establish the legal evidence of 
 crime. After having been assailed by a number of eminent writers, 
 and in particular by Grolman, Feuerbach modified his opinions on the 
 jury in 1821, during a visit to France, Belgium, and the Rhenish 
 provinces, on a mission from the Bavarian government to investigate 
 the legal institutions of those countries. On his return he published 
 the result of his inquiries in his ' Reflections on the judicial Organisa- 
 tion and Proceedings in France,' a work remarkable for the sagacity with 
 which he lays open the deficiencies and inconveniences of all the French 
 civil and penal legislation. A very able part of that work is the com- 
 parison of the French and English juries, which is entirely in favour 
 of the latter, as, according to Feuerbach's opinion, the principles of 
 that institution are completely perverted in France by the rules laid 
 down during the empire for the composition of the jury. Like 
 Berenger, Dupin, and other French writers who have exposed the 
 faults of the existing mode of criminal proceedings in France, Feuer- 
 bach has stigmatised the French jurymen by calling them the twelve 
 commissioners of 'government. Notwithstanding he had altered his 
 opinion on the jury generally, and although by his remarks on the 
 English jury in particular, he seems to have made amends for his 
 former animosity against it, he still retained some prejudices against 
 that institution, on account of its being fraught with too many demo- 
 cratic principles. This tendency of Feuerbach's opinion had a very 
 unfavourable influence on the Bavarian government when the intro- 
 duction of that institution came under consideration, and ultimately 
 it was the cause of the jury not being granted to the country. 
 
 In 1817 Feuerbach was made second president of the court of 
 appeal at Bamberg, and in 1821 he was nominated first president of 
 appeal at Anspach ; to those functions his sphere of action was latterly 
 entirely confined, with the exception of opinions given in important 
 civil and criminal cases. One of those was the notorious affair of 
 Kaspar Hauser, which produced so much sensation all through 
 Europe. With his wonted and acknowledged perspicuity he has 
 investigated this revolting case, and has recorded the results of his 
 inquiry in his last work, ' Kaspar Hauser, an instance of a psycho- 
 logical crime.' The two following passages of that book seem to 
 implioate a reigning family of the south of Germany. Those passages 
 are: — 1. "There are spheres of human society which are inaccenuible 
 to the arm of justice." 2. Those spheres are defined as "goldou 
 castles, the entrance of which is guarded by giants who do not allow 
 a ray of light to penetrate." A rumour obtained circulation that his 
 sudden death at Frankfurt, May 29, 1833, was not unconnected with 
 that mysterious affair, the veil of which appears to have been lifted 
 by him. His connection with the Bavarian government became in 
 latter years very disagreeable in consequence of his decided opposition 
 to its illiberal policy. 
 
908 
 
 Feuei-bach was a man of polite acquirements as well as of pro- 
 fessional eminence. The elegant diction of bis productions has 
 powerfully contributed to improve the stylo of recent German writers 
 on law. In this respect his ' Exposition of remarkable Criminal 
 Cases, founded upon documents,' merits particular mention. Pre- 
 viously to Feuerbach's time all similar essays were heavy and unin- 
 teresting, in consequence of all the documents being accumulated 
 "in their original uncouth form, without order or regard to the really 
 interesting features of the case, namely, the development of psycho- 
 logical considerations. It was he who first united to professional 
 soundness of exposition elegant and convincing diction. This work, 
 which is written with true poetical talent, is a remarkable specimen 
 of investigation into the human heart, rendered still more striking by 
 the most delicate and humane estimation of actions ; it may be con- 
 sidered at once a model of exhaustive inquiry and a book of morals. 
 In bold and vivid language he has promulgated the doctrine that it 
 is impossible perfectly to harmonise the inflexible universality of law 
 with individual culpability, and that it therefore is an unavoidable 
 necessity, in particular cases, to modifiy and soften the sentence of 
 the law by the prerogative of the sovereign. 
 
 FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB, was born in Upper Lusatia in 
 1762. After receiving a school education, he studied at the univer- 
 sities of Jena, Leipzig, and Wiirtemberg. He afterwards became 
 acquainted with Kant and Pestalozzi ; and in 1792 attracted general 
 attention by his ' Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung ' (' Attempt at 
 a Critique of all Revelation '), on account of which he was made pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Jena. Here he began to promulgate the 
 system of philosophy which is known under the name of ' Wisseu- 
 schaftslehre' (' Doctrine of Science'). A treatise on Faith and Provi- 
 dence which he wrote at Jena having brought upon him the suspicion 
 of irreligion, he retired to Prussia, and after living for some time at 
 Berlin, removed to Erlangen, where he was appointed professor of 
 philosophy, with leave to visit Prussia in the winter time. 
 
 The character of Fichte has always been held in high esteem. His 
 'Discourses to the German People' during the French invasion are 
 justly valued, and he is said to have died, as he always lived, for a good 
 cause. During his residence at Berlin in the year 1814, he urged his 
 wife to visit the sick in the military hospital of that city ; in conse- 
 quence of which she caught a fever, from which she recovered, but 
 communicated it to her husband. Fichte died January 28, 1814, 
 leaving a son, Immanuel Hermann, who became a professor at Bonn, 
 and acquired considerable distinction as a writer and teacher of 
 philosophy. 
 
 Fichte's ' Wissenschaftslehre' grew out of the philosophy of Kant, 
 of whom he at first considered himself a mere disciple. Kant had 
 dogmatically assumed the school logic as the foundation of his system; 
 the forms of propositions, as affirmative, negative, &c, had supplied 
 him with his table of categories, and he never thought that any one 
 would ask for the origin of these forms themselves. According to the 
 system of Kant, time and space have no existence exterior to the 
 mind, but are merely the forms in which it discerns objects, and 
 which only abide in itself. An intuition (or immediate contemplation) 
 was divided into matter or form : thus in a red surface, the mere 
 colour red was called the matter of the intuition, and the extension 
 its form. The first was held to be a manifestation of something 
 external to ourselves ; the latter as merely dwelling in our own minds. 
 This was Kant's theory of sensation (' Transcendentale yEsthetik') and 
 it is followed by an investigation of the laws of the understanding. 
 These laws he worked out from the table of categories, which, as 
 before said, was constructed from the logical form of propositions. 
 Thus, propositions are divided into universal, particular, and singular. 
 Hence the objects of propositions considered in this light, are ' all,' 
 'many/ or 'one,' or may be said to come under the categories of 
 'totality,' 'multiplicity,' and 'unity.' In the same manner, from the 
 divisions of propositions into affirmative, negative, and infinite, Kant 
 got the categories of ' reality,' 'negation,' and ' limitation,' and from 
 the division into categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive, the cate- 
 gories of 'substance and accident' — 'cause and effect' — 'action and 
 reaction.' A fourth series of categories obtained from the modal divi- 
 sion are ' necessity,' ' actuality,' ' possibility ; ' and as we cannot think 
 of objects at all except under the forms expressed by these proposi- 
 tions, it follows that all objects of thought must come under the 
 categories. From this Kant concludes, that as time and space are the 
 forms of our intuition, so are ' cause and effect,' &c, the forms of our 
 thought, having likewise no existence without our own minds ; and that 
 when we say the law of cause and effect is a law of nature, no more is 
 conveyed than that the law of cause and effect is that under which we 
 are compelled to observe nature, having nothing to do with external 
 things themselves. Kant compares his own system to that of Coper- 
 nicus, observing that the latter makes the planets move round the sun, 
 and that he in the same manner puts the mind in the centre, and makes 
 the objects adapt themselves to the forms of the mind, instead of the 
 mind following the laws of the objects. Hence, according to his view, 
 we are altogether without knowledge of things in themselves, the ex- 
 tended form in which they appear being merely in our own mind, and 
 likewise the laws by which we suppose they are regulated. We merely 
 contemplate various phenomena, which are the exponents of things 
 we cannot know anything about, and to which these very phenomena 
 
 do not bear the slightest resemblance. This is not intended as a 
 complete view of the system of Kant, but only a sketch of so much 
 of it as will serve to render the account of Fichte intelligible. 
 
 Various contemporaries had found it strange that two regions so 
 heterogeneous as those of mind and things in themselves (' dinge an 
 sich') should at the same time be so admirably adapted to each other, 
 that the latter should accommodate themselves to all the forms of the 
 former ; and at the same time, the taking of a common book of logio, 
 assuming all its dicta as self-evident axioms, seemed rather a superficial 
 proceeding. The sceptical adversaries challenged the Kantists to prove 
 that there was a necessary connection between the form and the matter 
 of knowledge. 
 
 Aroused by these attacks, Fichte, as a disciple of Kant, began to 
 inquire what was the absolute form of knowledge, and at the same 
 time what lay at the foundation of logic, the mere assumption of which, 
 as a self-evident science, did not satisfy him. He saw that all logic 
 depended on the propositions of identity and contradiction. ' A is A,' 
 and ' Nou-A is not A.' He then asked himself what is meant by ' A 
 is A ; ' does it imply that A exists ? No, because the proposition ' A 
 centaur is a tfentaur' is a true one, though the centaur does not exist 
 at all. 'A is A' means no more than 'If A is given, it is A and A 
 is not A, provided it is not given (' gezetzt,' posited). ' Given' implies 
 ' given to some conscious being; ' and hence we find that the truth even 
 of an identical proposition depends on the being of an I or Ego ('das 
 Ich'). The proposition ' A is A' is converted into 'Ego is Ego;' and 
 this is found to depend on no condition, as Ego gives itself, and its 
 very essence consists in its giving itself. From this proposition is 
 obtained the category of reality : reality is that which is given to the 
 Ego. In like manner 'Non-A is not A' is converted into ' Non-Ego is 
 not Ego ;' and from this proposition is obtained the category of nega- 
 tion. Then a question arises, ' How can Ego posit Non-Ego ? ' It is 
 assumed as an axiom that everything in Ego is posited by itself ; how 
 then can it posit a Non-Ego, which seems an act of self-destruction ? 
 It then turns out Ego posits itself, as determined by Non-Ego. An 
 undetermined being is nothing ; determination implies limitation, and 
 hence Ego, by positing itself as a determined being, at the same time 
 posits Non-Ego. The Ego is conceived at first as an unimpeded 
 activity ; it meets with a shock (' anstoss'), which causes it to perform 
 an act of reflection, and from this moment it begins to construct a 
 world without itself. It feels itself confined by certain sensations, and 
 hence imagines there must be a being external to itself supporting 
 these sensations. At the same time the very consciousness of confine- 
 ment implies a consciousness of the capability of freedom ; for no 
 being can be aware of a curb that is not striving against it. Freedom 
 manifests itself in the power of directing the attention to some objects 
 to the exclusion of others, or in the imagination of such as are absent. 
 Thus a child who sees its first object cannot divert its attention from 
 that object and think of another; it is completely curbed by the pre- 
 sent ; while a person who has seen a variety can at pleasure call forth 
 a distant object, and close his mind's eye upon those immediately before 
 him. This is a state of comparative freedom. It is impossible, in this 
 limited space, to follow the ' Wissenschaftslehre' through all its rami- 
 fications ; but what is given above will serve to convey an idea of the 
 principle. Fichte's adversaries accused him of Nihilism and Atheism, 
 and seem to have imagined that he thought he had constructed the 
 whole universe. These objections are answered by his son, in an excel- 
 lent little book, entitled ' Beytrage zur Characteristik der neuern 
 Philosophie,' in which he shows that the very being of the Ego proves 
 its own finity, and that consequently his father's doctrine necessarily 
 leads to the assumption of the ' absolute,' or God, a being that k 
 infinite. In a tract called ' Die Wissenschaftslehre in ihrem allge- 
 meinen Umrisse dargestellt' (Berlin, 1810), the elder Fichte says plainly 
 that God is the only true being, and thus banishes all suspicion of 
 Atheism. His moral doctrines involve a contempt for nature, which 
 he regards as a mere curb over which freedom should triumph ; and 
 hence he is averse to all speculative physics, considering nature as the 
 absolutely 'given' of which there can be no knowledge, and making 
 all reality proceed from the ' knower,' he denies reality to the former. 
 These opinions have led the philosophers of nature (' Natur-Philoso- 
 phen') to accuse him of one-sidedness. His son attributes this ten- 
 dency to the influence of the doctrines of Kant, which always treated 
 nature as a mere appearance ('Erscheinung'), and from which Fichte 
 never became absolutely free. 
 
 It is hardly to be expected that the ' Wissenschaftslehre ' will be 
 rendered perfectly intelligible by the above short notice, when the 
 reader might turn over the whole works of Fichte, and still find the 
 subject intensely difficult and obscure. The design of this article has 
 been to give a hint of the principle, and no more. 
 
 FICI'NO, MARSILIO, born at Florence in 1433, was the son of 
 Ficino, the physician of Cosmo de Medici, who perceiving the happy 
 dispositions of the youth, generously provided for his education. 
 Ficino studied Greek, and applied himself especially to the works of 
 Plato, which he translated into Latin. He afterwards translated 
 Plotinus, Jamblichus, Proclus, and Porphyrius, and became a great 
 admirer of the late Platonicians of the Alexandrian school. He was 
 one of the preceptors of young Lorenzo, Cosmo's grandson. Cosmo 
 appointed him president of the literary society which he assembled 
 at his house, and which was called Acadeniia Platonica, having for its 
 
FIELD, NATHANIEL. 
 
 object to explain the doctrines of the Platonists. Its meetings, which 
 were greatly encouraged by Lorenzo, were cheered by symposia, or 
 annual banquets, on the anniversary of Plato's birthday, of one of 
 which, held at the villa of Uareggi, Ficino has given an interesting 
 description. The Academicians were divided into three classes : 1, 
 the Mecenati, being the family of the Medici; 2, the teachers, who 
 consisted of the most learned men of the time, such as Pico della 
 Mirandola, Poliziano, Leon Battista Alberti, Landino, and others ; 3, 
 of pupils. (Bandini, 'Specimen Literaturse Florentinse,' vol. ii. ; 
 Brucker, ' Histor. Philos.,' torn, iv., period the third, b. 1.) 
 
 At the age of forty Ficino resolved to devote himself to the church, 
 and being ordained, his patron Lorenzo conferred upon him a 
 canonry in the cathedral of Florence. He now made an attempt to 
 amalgamate the theology of Plato with Christianity, and in so doing 
 was carried by his zeal beyond the limits of sound judgment or 
 propriety. He is said however to have been sincere and single- 
 minded, exemplary in his private conduct, mild and moderate in his 
 temper, and averse from literary feuds and polemics. But his writings 
 savour everywhere a great deal more of the heathen philosopher than 
 of the Christian divine. Being of a diminutive size, and of very 
 precarious health, he says himself that he hardly passed a day without 
 bodily pain, and yet he constantly applied to study. Much of his 
 time was spent at the various country residences of the Medici near 
 Florence, in which he composed his works. He died on the 1st of 
 October, 1499, and his countrymen raised to him a monument in 
 the cathedral of Florence, with his bust, and an epitaph written by 
 his friend Poliziano. His works were collected and published at 
 Basel, 2 vols, folio, 1491. They consist of translations from the 
 Greek philosophers, original treatises on metaphysics and ethics, his 
 ' Theologia Platonica,' and other writings. His Latin epistles, which 
 were published separately at Venice, 1495, are interesting on account 
 of the details which they contain concerning the distinguished 
 scholars collected at Florence by the fostering patronage of Lorenzo. 
 Ficino wrote also a work ' De Religione Christiana,' and a commentary 
 on the Epistles of St. Paul. (Roscoe, Lorenzo the Magnificent ; Corniani, 
 Secoli della Letteratura Italiana.) 
 
 FIELD, NATHANIEL, whose name is for several reasons interest- 
 ing in the history of the old English drama, was professionally a 
 player. As early as the year 1600 he was one of the Children of the 
 Chapel, afterwards called Children of the Revels, youths who were 
 trained to act plays before the court, and he continued in that 
 company till after 1609. He then became a member of Shakspere's 
 company, the players of the Globe and Blackfriars theatres, among 
 whom he is named in the list prefixed to the folio of Shakspere's 
 works printed in 1623. Two years later his name disappears ; and in 
 1641 he is mentioned as 'gone,' which probably means that he was 
 then dead. Besides these circumstances, the only ones known in his 
 history are such as show him to have been poor and distressed. He 
 was the writer of the famous begging-letter, addressed to Henslowe, 
 by himself, Daboone, and Philip MassiDger ; and among Henslowe's 
 papers are two other letters of the same melancholy tenor. Field 
 wrote a part, and perhaps GifFord does him less than justice in the 
 quantity he assigns to him, of the fine tragedy of ' The Fatal Dowry,' 
 printed among the works of its other poet Massinger. He is also the 
 author of two comedies, both of which were written between 1605 
 and 1611 ; 'A woman is a Weathercock,' first printed in 1612, and 
 'Amends for Ladies,' first printed in 1618, and again in 1639. Both 
 are included in a small collection, ' The Old English Drama,' 4 vols. 
 12mo, 1830; and in Collier's 'Supplement to Dodsley's Old Plays,' 
 1833. They abound in spirit, incident, and variety. 
 
 FIELDING, COPLEY VANDYKE, was born about 1787, and 
 belonged to a family several of the members of which were artists of 
 greater or less ability. Copley Fielding exhibited his first pictures 
 at the Artists' Exhibition, Spring-Gardens, in 1810. It was by his 
 water-colour landscapes that he first attracted notice, and though he 
 subsequently made many attempts to achieve success as a painter in 
 oil, it is by his paintings in water-colours that he will be remembered. 
 Mr. Fielding began the practice of the art about the time that Girtin 
 an d Turner had succeeded in raising the practice of water-colour 
 painting almost to a level with that of oil-colours, and Fielding 
 devoted himself with thorough earnestness of purpose to the new art. 
 
 From an early period in his career he became a teacher, and he 
 had in that line an unusual measure of success, as well in the progress 
 of his pupils as in their number and social position. His success as 
 a teacher of course did much to secure for him a wide circle of 
 patrons and friends, which the merits of his works effectually main- 
 tained. His course was one of steady prosperity, quite devoid of 
 adventure. His time was constantly occupied either in teaching or 
 painting, or in those sketching excursions which were to furnish him 
 with the materials for new pictures. For many years Mr. Fielding 
 held the office of President of the Society of Painters in "Water- 
 Colours, and his position was generally recognised as that of the head 
 and representative of his branch of art in England ; the more readily 
 no doubt in consequence of the estimation in which his personal as 
 well as professional qualities were universally held. He died March 3, 
 1855, in his sixty-eighth year, at Worthing, Sussex, where, or at 
 Brighton, he had for a loDg period been accustomed to spend his 
 autumns. 
 
 Copley Fielding painted perhaps a larger number of landscapes than 
 any other among his contemporaries of anything like equal standing 
 in the art. Of course this was in a great measure owing to his remark- 
 able mechanical dexterity; to which also was unquestionably due 
 much that was at first sight most striking and characteristic in his 
 works. His ' execution ' as it is technically called, was indeed very 
 noticeable. The peculiar texture of his pictures was usually as much* 
 produced by the use of sponge and cloth as by brush or pencil ; and 
 this manipulative trickery — for in the excess to which he carried it 
 such it eventually became— like every kind of clever charlatanism, 
 found a body of enthusiastic admirers, and secured for his pictures 
 eager purchasers at high prices. But it had necessarily a mischievous 
 influence on the painter, and, as far as his example extended, on art. 
 Manipulative dexterity is always easier than that careful and specific 
 imitation which is the result of continuous observation and con- 
 scientious thought : and the indulgence in any mechanical trickery 
 inevitably leads, as was the case with Fielding in his later years, to 
 the frequent repetition of certain peculiarities of effect, and to 
 mannerism. 
 
 But Copley Fielding was undoubtedly one of the very best of our 
 many admirable landscape painters in water-colours ; a body of artists 
 especially distinguished by a true and simple rendering of natural 
 scenery, and by a decidedly original and self-dependent study of it. His 
 range of subjects was not very extensive, but within it he was almost 
 unrivalled. Of our broad chalk downs, with their sunny slopes, wooded 
 hollows, and glimpses of near or remote ocean, or the soft vapoury 
 stretches of distant Kentish or Sussex weald, Copley Fielding may 
 fairly be said to be the first who felt the poetry, and who perceived 
 their exquisite adaptation to pictorial art ; and often as other artists 
 have since essayed to represent the South Downs, he remains as yet 
 their only adequate painter. In depicting our English, Welsh, and 
 Scotch mountain and lake scenery too, under certain atmospheric 
 conditions, he was equally at home, and so also in those combinations 
 of river, hills, and foliage, of which his 1 Bolton Abbey ' may be 
 regarded as the representative ; while his Btormy marine views, though 
 they became of late years more and more conventional, were always 
 deeply impressive, and sometimes extremely grand. But in all there 
 are the faults arising from insufficient study — from the excessive 
 rapidity of production allowing scarce any subject to be fairly 
 thought out and wrought into a finished and master-like picture. The 
 colour, exquisite as it often is in parts, is too often crude ; the forms 
 are unstudied, the drawing excessively loose, and the chiaroscuro con- 
 ventional. At least such, with all their brilliancy and richness of effect, 
 is too commonly the case with his more recent pictures ; many of his 
 earlier ones are, as far as they go, among the most successful and 
 satisfactory pictures of their class which have been produced by any 
 painter. 
 
 FIELDING, HENRY, born April 22, 1707, was the son of General 
 Edmund Fielding, a descendant of the earls of Denbigh. He was 
 nearly connected with the ducal family of Kingston, and thereby 
 with Lady M. W. Montagu. Being designed for the bar, he was 
 removed from Eton to the University of Leyden, where he is said to 
 have studied with application ; but owing to the limited nature of 
 his finances, he wae. compelled to return to London, where he plunged 
 into all the dissipation of the metropolis. His first resource as a 
 means of support was writing for the stage ; and between 1727 and 
 1736 he produced eighteen comedies and farce3, of which not more 
 than two or three are now known or read. 
 
 About the year 1736 Fielding married. His wife's portion and a 
 small estate, inherited, as is supposed, from his mother, enabled him 
 to retire from London ; but his habitual extravagance again brought 
 him into difficulties, and after three years he became a student at the 
 Temple, ^$ith the view of retrieving his fortune at the bar. At the 
 usual time he was called; but gout, the consequence of his early 
 dissipation, rendered it impossible for him to practise with regularity 
 sufficient to insure success. During the interval which preceded his 
 call to the bar, he supported his family by pamphlets aud essays on 
 the passing occurrences of the day ; and at this time two events 
 happened which seem to have influenced the whole of his remaining 
 career : the death of his wife, to whom he was fondly attached, and 
 the publication of Richardson's novel of ' Pamela,' which gave him 
 an opportunity to enter upon an employment which he found prefer- 
 able to the study of law. He now wrote what professed to be the 
 counterpart of ' Pamela,' the history of her brother, 'Joseph Andrews,' 
 who undergoes a variety of trials of a kind similar to those which 
 make Pamela's career so interesting. The whole book is intended as 
 a satire on ' Pamela ; ' but the author visibly warms with his subject, 
 and draws characters which perhaps none but himself could have 
 drawn in any case, and not even he, had he kept his primary object 
 distinctly in view. 
 
 The character of Parson Adams has been applauded and appre- 
 ciated so often that it would be vain to say anything in its praise ; 
 Nichols ('Literary Anecdotes,' iii., 371) informs us, that it was taken 
 from a clergyman named Young, and indeed it seems almost impos- 
 sible that so peculiar a character should havo been the work of 
 imagination, for there is perhaps scarcely anything so difficult for a 
 novelist as to draw singularity without allowing it to lapse into 
 improbability and extravagance. Sir Walter Scott relates (' Life of 
 
1.11 
 
 FIELDING, HENRY. 
 
 Fielding,' pp. 95, 96), that Richardson took mean and petty methods 
 of revenging himself upon his successful satirist, by depreciating him 
 before members of his own family, and by endeavouring to diminish 
 •his reputation as an author. Fielding however did not make reprisals, 
 but contented himself with noticing Clarissa in a favourable manner, 
 in a publication which he at that time conducted, called ' The Jacobite 
 Journal.' 
 
 After the publication of ' J oseph Andrews,' Fielding wrote another 
 play, ' The Wedding Day,' and a tract called ' The Journey from this 
 World to the next,' which were followed by 'Jonathan Wild.' The 
 Rebellion of 1745 induced Fielding to take the direction of a paper 
 called 'The Jacobite Journal,' directed against the party known by 
 that name, and in support of the Hanoverian succession. This, with 
 other publications of the same kind, at last obtained him a small 
 pension and the place of Justice of the Peace for Middlesex and 
 Westminster, which he is said to have owed to the influence of Lord 
 Lyttelton. 
 
 Horace Walpole, with his usual mixture of foppery and malice, 
 gives a very unfavourable account of Fielding's habits at this period, 
 but the account is so manifestly written for effect, and so palpable a 
 distortion of the truth, that little regard need be paid to it— if indeed 
 ft sufficient explanation cannot be given of the circumstances related 
 (see Lawrence's ' Life of Fielding.') Fielding's conduct as a magis- 
 trate proved a strong contrast to the usual iniquity of the so-called 
 trading justices, one of whom he describes so forcibly in 'Amelia' 
 under the name of ' Justice Thrasher.' 
 
 Amidst the laborious duties of a magistrate and pamphleteer, for 
 Fielding was both at once, he contrived to produce ' Tom Jones,' a 
 novel which for graphic description, originality of characters, and 
 interest of the tale, has been and ever will be held in the very highest 
 admiration. The publication of ' Tom Jones ' was followed by some 
 works on Poor Laws, in one of which he appears to have struck out 
 a scheme not very dissimilar in principle to that which is now adopted. 
 He also wrote a ' Charge to the Grand Jury of Middlesex ' and some 
 Law Tracts. 
 
 '■ Amelia ' was Fielding's last important work. It was published in 
 I7o'l, soon after which time he was attacked by dropsy, jaundice, and 
 asthma, and when all remedies had been tried in vain, the last remedy 
 of self-banishment was proposed by his physicians. He left England 
 for Lisbon on the 26th of June, 1754, and died there in October of 
 the samo year, aged forty-seven, leaving a widow and four children. 
 
 Fielding has been styled, with perfect justice, the father of the 
 English novel. Sir Walter Scott observes that Richardson by no 
 means succeeded in escaping from the trammels of the French 
 romance. His characters have a strong touch of the impossible virtue 
 and improbable heroism of that class of writing ; and the length of 
 ' Sir Charles Grandison ' bears no small resemblance to ' Le Grand 
 Cyrus.' But in Fielding's works we find the most perfect delineations 
 of individual character — Squire Western, Tom Jones himself, All- 
 worthy, and perhaps above all, Amelia and Mr. Abraham Adams, are 
 portraits which proclaim their own truth. Every reader of Fielding 
 must have been struck with the deficiency of individuality in his 
 heroines. This arose, we believe, not so much from want of power in 
 the artist, as from the low state of feeling then prevalent with respect 
 to women, which placed them, while unmarried, in the light of a play- 
 thing ; and when married, in that of an upper servant, or at most a 
 humble companion. Such our author describes Mrs. Western to have 
 been ; and while this state of manners continued, it was impossible for 
 any writer professing to give a true picture of the times, to attempt to 
 invest his heroines with such mental attractions as are possessed by 
 the female characters of modern novels. His waiting-maids and land- 
 ladies are full of life and energy, which makes it still more improbable 
 that his genius should not have been adequate to portray women of 
 higher station. 
 
 Opinions have been much divided as to the tendency of Fielding's 
 works. We have little hesitation in pronouncing it to be, on the 
 whole, moral, and decidedly more so than that of Richardson's. It is 
 true that scenes of extreme indelicacy occur, often very unnecessarily, 
 but the manners of the time admitted allusions and even expressions 
 at which we should now feel the greatest disgust. Squire Western 
 addresses his daughter in terms and on subjects which no female 
 would now endure ; and this under circumstances where no very grave 
 annoyance was intended ; but in spite of all this coarseness there runs 
 through all Fielding's works an honest appreciation of right and wrong, 
 with no attempt to palliate bad actions by specious phrases. The 
 character of Tom Jones seems to us not to have met with a fair share 
 of praise. His generosity and nobleness of nature are, it is true, par- 
 tially obscured by connections of a degrading kind into which he so 
 often falls ; but however much he may fail of perfection, he cannot 
 be called depraved. His love for Sophia is an affection of a kind which 
 no thoroughly bad heart could entertain. He has all the materials of 
 a fine character, and therefore there is no poetical injustice in marrying 
 him to Sophia, and thereby putting him in a situation to redeem him- 
 self from the folly and vice into which he has been thrown. ' Amelia,' 
 the author's last important work, bears the stamp of declining powers, 
 with an appreciation of female character perhaps more delicate than 
 we find in ' Tom Jones' or 'Joseph Andrews.' Booth and Amelia are 
 Eaid to have been portraits of Fielding and his secoud wife. 
 
 In summing up our opinion of Fielding's works, we should say that 
 the chief fault is a want of unity in the plots. A novel is not a pro- 
 fessed record of all which happens to any two people during a certain 
 number of years. To make it perfect it requires extraordinary com- 
 binations tending to a certain end — the happiness or misery of the 
 parties concerned. We do not reject these as improbable, but acknow- 
 ledge them as constituting an integral element of the work. But we 
 are not satisfied by a succession of petty annoyances and pleasures 
 which have nothing to do with the conclusion of the tale. These 
 rather disturb than interest our attention, and we would prefer being 
 without them. But this is a minor fault, and very little Been in 
 ' Tom Jones,' the author's best work ; while to counterbalance it we 
 have truth and originality of delineation, Bkill in language, considerable 
 dramatic power, and brilliancy of wit which has never been surpassed. 
 
 FIE'SOLE, FRA GIOVANNI DA, frequently called, from his 
 character, Beato Angelico, is one of the most celebrated of the early 
 Italian painters. His real name was, according to Vasari, Giovanni 
 Guido, and he was a distinguished member of the brotherhood of 
 Predicant monks at Fiesole. His name is however variously given, 
 as, for instance, Santi Tosini, and Giovanni di Pietro di Mugello. He 
 was apparently born in Mugello in 1387, and he entered the order of 
 the Predicants at Fiesole in 1407. Little or nothing further is known 
 either of his origin or his education. He early distinguished himself 
 for his miniature illuminations of religious books, of which there are 
 still some in the convent of San Marco at Florence, where he painted 
 several works for Cosmo de' Medici, of which the history of the 
 Passion of Christ in the refectory is still in comparative preservation. 
 Giovanni learnt the art of illuminating or miniature painting from an 
 elder brother, Fra Benedetto di Pietro di Mugello, or, Latinised, Bene- 
 dictus Petri de Mugello. 
 
 He painted also many admirable works in the Carthusian church, in 
 Santa Maria Novella, and iu the Nuuziata and other churches in 
 Florence; in San Domenico at Fiesole; in the cathedral of Orvieto ; 
 at Cortona ; and in the chapel of San Lorenzo iu the Vatican, and in 
 the Minerva at Rome. He was invited to Rome by Pope Niccolo V., 
 who offered him the high dignity of the archbishopric of Florence, 
 which however Giovanni was too modest to accept : he pleaded that 
 to govern or to lead was alike incompatible with his nature. The 
 appointment was given to another monk of the same order as Giovanni, 
 Fra Antonio, who was canonised by Adrian VI. 
 
 The frescoes in the chapel of Niccold V. are in great part still in a 
 good state of preservation, though they have been restored. The 
 chapel was long neglected, and public attention was first called to these 
 frescoes by Hofrath Hirt, of Berlin. The principal subjects represent 
 the leading events of the lives of Saints Stefano and Lorenzo, and 
 their martyrdoms ; on the ceiling are the four evangelists ; around, the 
 chapel also are the doctors and fathers of the church — Saints Thomas 
 Aquinas, Bonaventura, Athanasius, and John Chrysostom, Augustin, 
 Ambrose, Jerome, and Gregory — and a ' Descent from the Cross ' was 
 painted above the altar, but it has been whitewashed over. This 
 chapel is described in Platner and Bunsen's ' Description of Rome,' 
 and there are small outlines of the frescoes in D'Agincourt's ' Histoire 
 de l'Art par les Monumens,' and larger in a special work by Giangia- 
 comi, ' Le Pitture della Capella di Niccol6 V., opere del B. Giov. Ang. 
 da Fiesole,' Rome, 1810 ; also two of the principal subjects — ' The 
 Preaching of St. Stephen,' and ' St. Lawrence giving Alms' — are etched 
 in Ottley's series of plates after Florentine paintings. These works 
 of Fra Giovanni, as well as those in the convent of Saint Mark at 
 Florence, and others elsewhere, though as mere abstract designs or 
 works of art they are comparatively crude and feeble, and inferior to 
 the works of Masaccio, are with reference to their subjects perfect in 
 their sentiment, and in expression admirable, and have not been sur- 
 passed by the works of any of the great painters who followed him. 
 His works are exclusively religious or ecclesiastical ; and they breathe 
 the purest piety and humility, which are the vivid impressions of his 
 own mind and character. The genuineness of his sentiment and 
 expression was so self-evident that his works became in a great degree, 
 mediately when not immediately, the type of character for religious 
 art to his own and to subsequent generations. 
 
 Though his works have not as regards style that plastic development 
 which we find in Masaccio, the inferiority is not great, but he survived 
 Masaccio some years. Giovanni's execution is sometimes extremely 
 elaborate and even beautiful, especially in his small easel panels 
 painted in distemper. There is a small gallery of these works in the 
 Academy at Florence, of which the most remarkable piece is a ' Last 
 Judgment,' containing a great variety of figures. 
 
 Fra Giovanni was remarkably methodic in his habits. It was his 
 maxim that whoever would represent the works of Christ must be 
 always with Christ ; he accordingly never commenced any work with 
 out praying, and he always carried out the first impression, believing 
 it to be an inspiration : he never retouched or altered anything once 
 left as finished. He died at Rome in 1455. 
 
 The National Gallery contains two pictures by Giovanni, 'The Ado- 
 ration of the Magi' (No. 582), and ' Christ with the Banner of the 
 Resurrection in his Hand ' (No. 663), a composition of 266 figures," so 
 beautiful," says Vasari, " that they appear to be truly beings of Paradise." 
 
 FILANGIE'RI, GAETA'NO, was born at Naples in 1752, of a noble 
 family. In his early youth he did not exhibit any signs of oxtraordfr 
 
FILIPEPI, SANDRO. 
 
 nary talent, but after being put under the care of Monsignor de Luca, 
 bishop of Trivento, he made rapid progress in the classical languages, 
 mathematics, and philosophy. In 1774 a reform in the judicial 
 administration was determined on by the ministers of King Ferdinand, 
 by which the judges of the various courts were in future to explain 
 the grounds of their decisions by referring to some existing law appli- 
 cable to each respective case, and in default of such a law to ask the 
 king for his decision. This determination, which checked the till then 
 absolute discretion of the courts, was strongly opposed by the judges, 
 supported by most of the law practitioners, as offensive to the dignity 
 and independence of the courts, and they published a violent memorial 
 on the occasion. Filangieri took up the matter, and wrote a reply, 
 showing the absurdity and impertinence of the objection, as insulting 
 alike to the liberty of the citizen and to the authority of the crown : 
 'Riflessioni politiche sulla Legge Sovrana del 23 di Settembra, del 
 1774.' The work was favourably noticed by the government, which 
 enforced its decree regardless of the clamours of the interested party. 
 Those were times of useful reforms and enlightened administration at 
 Naples, when Genovesi, De Iorio, Galanti, Palmieri, Galiani, and other 
 learned men were encouraged in suggesting improvements which were 
 at least in part acted upon. In 1780, Filangieri, then twenty-eight 
 years of age, published the first volume of his great work, ' Scienza 
 della Legislazione,' which made him known throughout Europe : he 
 went on publishing the successive volumes in the following years. In 
 
 1787 he was appointed a member of the Supreme Council or Board of 
 Finances, a department which stood also in need of reforms. In J uly 
 
 1788 he died, when only thirty-six years of age, regretted by all 
 Naples, and leaving his work on legislation incomplete. The work 
 however has gone through many editions, and has been translated 
 into several languages ; one of the best editions of the Italian text is 
 that of the ' Classici Italiani,' 6 vols. 8vo, Milan, 1822, to which are 
 added his ' Opuscoli Scelti,' or minor works. Among the translations 
 the French one (Paris, 1822) contains a biography of Filangieri by his 
 countryman, Salfi. Benjamin Constant wrote a ' Commentaire sur 
 l'Ouvrage de Filangieri,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1822-24. 
 
 Filangieri aimed at effecting a change in legislation without a cor- 
 responding change in the forms of the government, and in his time, 
 and especially in Italy, where numerous and important reforms 
 emanated from the sovereigns themselves, this course appeared both 
 reasonable and prudent. He says, in the introduction to his work, 
 that " hia only object was to facilitate to the sovereigns of his age the 
 task of a new legislation," and his strong recommendation to them is 
 to abolish all pernicious or useless laws, and to be sparing in making 
 new ones without a real necessity. Like his contemporary, Beccaria, 
 he adopted the theory then prevailing in France, of an original social 
 contract, by which every individual had resigued for himself and his 
 descendants hia right of self-defence which he possessed in a state of 
 nature to the collective body of society, giving it thereby the right of 
 punishing any one who made attempts against the security of another 
 ('Scienza della Legislazione,' 11, 26). This- fiction has been since 
 overthrown by other writers, and in Italy especially by Romagnosi in 
 his ' Genesi del diritto Penale,' 1791, and in his ' Assunto primo della 
 Scienza del Diritto Naturale,' 1820. See also on this subject another 
 Italian, Professor Rossi, in his ' Traite" de droit Pe"nal/ Paris, 1835. 
 
 On some questions of political economy, on population, agriculture, 
 Ac, Filangieri shared the opinions prevalent in his time, which have 
 been since exploded or modified by modern economists. Notwith- 
 standing these and other blemishes, the work of Filangieri has still 
 great merit ; it suggests many useful ideas, and is throughout inspired 
 by a sincere love for mankind, and an honest sincerity of purpose. 
 The commentary of Benjamin Constant forms a very useful supple- 
 ment to it. 
 
 FILIPE'PI, SANDRO or ALESSANDRO, commonly called Botti- 
 celli, from the name of a goldsmith to whom he was apprenticed, wa3 
 born at Florence in 1447. He studied painting under Filippo Lippi, 
 and became one of the first painters of his time, though his chief 
 excellence wa3 in his invention and expression. He painted many 
 pictures for the churches of Florence, some of which are still pre- 
 served, and are now in the gallery of the Florentine Academy. He 
 painted a small picture for the church of Santa Maria Novella, repre- 
 senting the adoration of the kings, in which the kings were portraits 
 of Cosmo, Julian, and Cosmo's Bon, Giovanni Medici. This was one 
 of Sandro's masterpieces, and was, in the early part of this century, in 
 the possession of Mr. Young Ottley, the author of the ' Inquiry into 
 the early History of Painting.' 
 
 Sandro painted also for Sixtus IV., in the Capella Sistina, at Rome, 
 three pictures from the history of Moses and the Israelites — his largest 
 and best works. After the completion of these works he returned to 
 Florence, neglected painting, and gave himself up to Savonarola, and 
 to Dante's ' Inferno,' which he illustrated, and he attempted himself 
 to engrave his designs ; it is not known exactly how many he engraved, 
 but those attributed to him are miserably executed ; they are however 
 scarce, and fetch very high prices. Nineteen altogether were engraved 
 for an edition of Dante published by Nicolo di Lorenzo at Florence in 
 1481, but they were nearly all engraved by Baldini from Sandro's 
 designs. [Baldint, Baccio.] Sandro, after his connection with 
 Savonarola, neglected his worldly concerns to such a degree that he 
 Would probably have starved had it not been for the bounty of 
 
 Lorenzo de' Medici ; he survived Savonarola many years, and died at 
 Florence in 1515. Filipcpi was one of the last of the old Italian or 
 quattro-cento school of painting, which passed away at the appearance 
 of the grand works of great cinquecentisti, Da Vinci, Michel Angelo, 
 and Raffaelle. 
 
 In the National Gallery are two pictures by Botticelli, both of the 
 ' Virgin and Child/ and 'St. John with Angels' (Nos. 226 and 275). . 
 
 FILLANS, JAMES, sculptor, was bora at Wilsontown, Lanark- 
 shire, on the 27th of March, 1803. His father having become reduced 
 in circumstances, removed into Renfrewshire while James was yet a 
 child, and the boy was early set to the keeping of sheep and similar 
 employments, and consequently received scarcely any school educa- 
 tion. When old enough he was apprenticed to a weaver at Paisley ; 
 but disliking the occupation, was at the end of a year placed with a 
 stone-mason. At this business, after having served his apprenticeship, 
 he for awhile worked as a journeyman. But he had, during his spare 
 hours, even when engaged as a weaver, been teaching himself to draw 
 and to make clay models, aud by perseverance he attained sufficient 
 skill to win some local celebrity. Motherwell, the poet, was at this 
 time the editor of the ' Paisley Advertiser,' and he warmly encouraged 
 the young man's tastes, and judiciously guided his aspirations. Fillans 
 found in Paisley, at his moderate prices, patrons for small portraits 
 busts, and fancy figures ; but he determined to try the wider field of 
 Glasgow, as much in order to avail himself of the additional facilities 
 that city afforded for improvement in art, as in the expectation of 
 increased patronage. He however met with both, and after a time 
 was in a condition to visit Paris for the purpose of further study. 
 On his return in 1836 he established himself in London, where he 
 found many warm Scotch friends, among others Allan Cunningham, 
 who sat to him for his bust, and introduced him to Chantrey. 
 
 At the exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1837, Fillans had seven 
 busts, including one of Allan Cunningham, which attracted some 
 attention. He now produced a Tarn o' Shanterjug; ' The Birth of 
 Burns,' an alto-rilievo, and other designs of a similar kind, forming a 
 Burns series, which have been more than sufficiently praised ; aud he 
 received a commission for a bust of Mr. Oswald of Auchincruive, for 
 his tenantry, which led him to visit Italy, Mr. Oswald beiug then 
 resident on the continent. While still depending upon portrait busts 
 for his means of support, Mr. Fillans was not negligent of loftier sub- 
 jects. His chief work of this order was a life-sized group in marble, 
 'The Blind Teaching the Blind,' a work of real merit aud some 
 originality : it was exhibited in Glasgow, where it produced a great 
 sensation. His 'Boy and Fawn' was another admirable production. 
 But the works which established his fame were his colossal statue of 
 Sir James Shaw, for the baronet's native town of Kilmarnock, aud tin 
 bust of John Wilson — both characteristic works, that of Wilson being 
 indeed by far the most striking head of the poet which has been pro- 
 duced. In Scotland they were received with enthusiasm, and the 
 sculptor was congratulated with two or three public dinners given in 
 his honour. Still, though so far successful, he found his income insuf- 
 ficient to maintain establishments in London and Glasgow, aud he 
 resolved to quit the metropolis, his commissions having been chiefly 
 derived from his countrymen. He removed to Glasgow in 1851, but 
 his health, already impaired, became gradually worse ; and at length 
 an attack of rheumatic fever carried him off on the 12th of Sep- 
 tember 1852. He had been engaged as long as his strength permitted 
 upon a colossal statue of ' Rachel Weeping for her Children,' but left 
 it unfinished. 
 
 A life of James Fillans, by James Paterson, was published at Paisley 
 in 1854, in a handsome quarto volume. It contains engravings of his 
 principal statues, of his designs for Motherwell's tomb, the Burns 
 series, an elaborate series of designs of ' Taming the Wild Horse,' aud 
 a set of designs illustrative of a tale by a friend. It also contains 
 several pieces of poetry, in which Mr. Paterson finds much to admire, 
 but which would have been as well left in the manuscript, except as 
 evidence of the sculptor's kindheartedness. Fillans used the pencil 
 as well as the chisel, but with by no means equal success. 
 * FILLMORE, MILLARD, late President of the United States of 
 North America, was born on the 7th of January, 1800, at Summer 
 Hill, in the state of New York. His father cultivated a small farm, 
 and Millard Fillmore was apprenticed to a wool-carder, and worked 
 at the trade four years, during which he employed his hours of 
 leisure diligently in supplying the defects of his early education. In 
 the year 1819 the late Judge Wood of Cayuga County, having become 
 acquainted with Fillmore, and observed that he possessed qualities of 
 mind worthy of cultivation, received him into his office, aud offered to 
 pay the extra expenses requisite to qualify him for the profession of a 
 lawyer. Fillmore however, in order to press as lightly as possible on 
 the bounty of his patron, devoted his leisure hours to the teaching of 
 a school. In 1829 he was iu successful practice as a lawyer, aud had 
 acquired sufficient reputation to be elected a representative of the 
 county of Erie in the State-Assembly of New York. Towards the 
 end of 1832 he was elected a representative to Congress, and took his 
 seat in March 1833. From 1835 to 1837 he continued in the exercise 
 of his profession, but in the latter year he was again elected a member 
 of Congress, and wa3 successively re-elected to the two following con- 
 gresses. At the termination of the first session of the 27th Congress, 
 he resumed his practice as a lawyer in the city of Buffalo, and informed 
 
0U 
 
 Lis constituents that he should not be a candidate for re-election. In 
 1844, under the auspices of the Whig party, he stood a contested 
 election for the office of Governor of the State of New York. He was 
 unsuccessful ; but in 1847 was elected Controller of the State. In 
 1848 he was proposed as the Whig candidate for the office of Vice- 
 President of the United States, and was elected. Early in 1849 ho 
 resigned his office of Controller, in order to devote himself entirely to 
 his duties as Vice-President. When General Taylor died July 9, 
 1850, Millard Fillmore succeeded him as President of the United 
 States, according to a law of the Constitution, which provides that, 
 should a President expire while in office, he shall be immediately and 
 without election succeeded by the Vice-President for the remainder of 
 the term of office. Mr. Fillmore ceased to be President on the 3rd of 
 March 1853, when he was succeeded by Franklin Pierce. He was an 
 unsuccessful candidate for the presidency in 1857. 
 
 FINDEN, WILLIAM, line engraver, was born in 1787. He was 
 apprenticed to Mr. Mitan, an engraver of shop-bills, coats of arms, &c, 
 but by devoting his leisure to the study of the works of James Heath, 
 and others, he acquired, by his own industry and intelligence, so much 
 facility in the use of the burin, and displayed so cultivated a taste, 
 that after he began to work on his own account he soon found ample 
 employment in engraving book plates. Among his first successes in 
 this line, his engravings of Stnirke's illustrations of ' Don Quixote ' have 
 been singled out for special commendation. 
 
 Being very industrious, and always remarkable for a certain neat- 
 ness of line and smoothness of finish, he grew in course of time to be 
 one of the most popular engravers of the day ; and he was selected to 
 engrave 'the royal portrait' by Lawrence, of George IV. seated on 
 the sofa. It was a plate of large size, and for engraving it Mr. Finden 
 received the sum, unparalleled for a portrait, of 2000 guineas. Finden 
 bestowed upon it the utmost care, and it was so extremely popular 
 that proofs and prints are said to have been advertised for at a large 
 advance of price. But both the picture and the engraving were in an 
 essentially false style of art, and, the fashion having passed away, they 
 have sunk in general estimation even below their proper level. Among 
 Mr. Finden's other more celebrated large engravings, may be mentioned 
 the ' Village Festival,' from the well known picture by Wilkie, now 
 in the National Gallery, which, with something of effeminacy in the 
 handling, is much his finest engraving ; and the ' Highlander's Return,' 
 also after Wilkie. 
 
 Still his greatest success had been in small plates, especially in 
 book-plates, and the great request in which he was with publishers, 
 led him to call in the assistance of inferior hands for the completion 
 of his many engagements. To such an extent did he carry this, that 
 he had at length, in conjunction with a younger brother, Mr. Edward 
 Finden, also a skilful engraver, established a complete manufactory for 
 line engravings on steel and copper. The effect was, of course, mis- 
 chievous to art; injurious to his own reputation, as necessarily tending 
 to destroy individuality of style ; and eventually it was ruinous to his 
 fortune, by inducing him to undertake — partly no doubt to keep his 
 establishment in full employment, and partly to secure to himself a 
 share of the profits which he fancied belonged of right to the engraver 
 rather than to the publisher — the publication of various extensive 
 series of engravings. Of these, the first and most successful was the 
 popular ' Byron Gallery.' Other galleries and sets of illustrations 
 followed with less success ; and ultimately by far the best of the whole 
 ' the Gallery of British Art' — a generally well-selected, well-engraved, 
 and characteristic series of engravings from our best painters — on a 
 larger and more costly scale than any of his previous speculations, 
 was undertaken at an unfortunate time, and, being persevered in, in 
 hopes of eventually retrieving the first losses, swept away the fruits of 
 all his previous labour. 
 
 After this, Mr. Finden's only important work was a large engraving, 
 executed for the Art Union, of Hilton's ' Crucifixion ' ; but it was the 
 work of a man broken in spirit, and is a very unsatisfactory production. 
 He completed it shortly before his death, which occurred on the 20th 
 of September, 1852. 
 
 FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINIK, a distinguished German painter 
 and author, was born at Hamburg in 1748. He went to Rome in 
 1761, and was four years the pupil of Pompeo Batoni; he studied 
 also some time at Bologna, where he was elected a member of the 
 academy in 1769. In 1784 he was appointed to the professorship of 
 art in the University of Gottingen, where he died in 1821. He is the 
 author of several essays relative to the history of modern art, but 
 his great work is his history of painting, comprising the 'Geschichte 
 der Mahlerey' ('History of Painting in Italy, France, Spain, and 
 England '), in five volumes, and the ' Geschichte der Zeichnenden 
 Kiinste in Deutchland und den Vereinigten Niederlanden ' ('History 
 of the Arts of Design in Germany and the United Netherlands '), in 
 four volumes, 8vo. The whole forms a very useful compilation, espe- 
 cially as to the latter centuries of the middle ages; but he has intro- 
 duced notices of so many artists of utter historical insignificance, that 
 he has not been able to give sufficient space to the important artists, 
 and the first five volumes are a mere chronological series of short 
 biographies. The German portion is a work of great research, merit, 
 and utility, especially where he treats of early times. Fiorillo painted 
 to the last, but he did not execute many pictures : his masterpiece 
 is considered a large picture of ' The Surrender of Briseis to the j 
 
 .Heralds of Agamemnon,' from Homer. (Meusel, Miacellaneen Arlis- 
 tischen Inhalla ; Nagler, Kunstlcr-Lcxicon.) 
 
 FIRDUSI, ABUL CASIM MANSUR, a celebrated Persian poet, 
 was born at the village of Shadab, in the district of Tus, in the 
 province of Khorassan. The Persian biographers differ considerably 
 in the date of his birth, some placing it in the beginning and others 
 in the middle of the 10th century ; but as Firdusi himself mentions 
 in the last chapter of the ' Shah Nameh ' that he completed that work 
 A.n. 400 (a.d. 1009), and that he was then nearly eighty, he must 
 have been born about a.h. 319 (a.d. 931). 
 
 His father was a gardener, and is said to have had the management 
 of a beautiful estate called Firdus (that is, paradise), whence the 
 poet obtained the name of Firdusi, though, according to another 
 account, this name was given to him by Mahmud in consequence of 
 the excellence of his verses. 
 
 Firdusi appears to have spent the first fifty years of his lifo iu his 
 native village ; till attracted by the encouragement which Mahmud 
 gave to learning and the fine arts, he repaired to his court at Ghazni, 
 where his talents procured him an honourable reception. Soon after 
 his arrival, Mahmud commanded him to write a history of the kings 
 of Persia in verse, and promised to reward him with a thousand 
 pieces of gold for every thousand couplets. The poet however pre- 
 ferred waiting for his reward till he had finished the work, which 
 was completed, after a labour of thirty years, in 60,000 couplets. But 
 instead of receiving the great sum he had .anticipated, he was doomed 
 to a cruel disappointment. It appears that he had offended some 
 favourite courtiers, who prejudiced the mind of Mahmud against 
 him, and accused him of having insulted the religion of the prophet 
 by the praises which he had bestowed upon Zerdusht (Zoroaster) in 
 his great poem. Instigated by these calumnies, Mahmud only sent 
 him 60,000 silver dirhems. It is related that Firdusi was in the bath 
 when the money was brought, and that disappointed and enraged 
 at the meanness of the sultan, he distributed the whole sum among 
 the attendants of the bath and the slave who brought it, adding, 
 "The sultan shall know that I did not bestow the labour of thirty 
 years on a work to be rewarded with dirhems." In consequence of 
 this insult, he was sentenced to be trod to death by an elephant, and 
 with great difficulty obtained a revocation of the sentence. Feeling 
 that he was no longer safe at Ghazni, he left the city, after haviug 
 written a bitter satire on Mahmud, which he gave to one of the 
 courtiers, telling him that it was a panegyric on the sultan, which he 
 must not present to his master till several days had elapsed. A 
 translation of this satire is given by Sir William Jones, accompanied 
 with the original Persian, in his ' Poeseos Asiatics) Commentarii ' 
 (' Works,' 8vo, edition, vol. vi., pp. 308-313), and also without the 
 Persian in his ' Traite" sur la Pofisie Orientate,' vol. xiL, pp. 242-245. 
 
 The accounts given in the Persian biographies of Firdusi after his 
 departure from Ghazni are vague and unsatisfactory. The remainder 
 of his life was spent in wandering from one kingdom to another, 
 pursued by the emissaries of Mahmud, whose power was too much 
 dreaded by the various monarchs of the East to allow them to 
 harbour for any length of time the proscribed poet. He first took 
 refuge with the governor of Mazanderan (Hyrcania), and afterwards 
 fled to Baghdad, where he was hospitably received by the kalif, Kadir 
 Billah, who gave him the 60,000 pieces of gold which Mahmud had 
 promised. While at Baghdad he is said to have added 1000 couplets 
 to the ' Shah Nameb,' iu praise of the kalif, and also to have written a 
 panegyric on him in Arabic ; but this statement is in all probability 
 incorrect, since all trace of the latter is lost, and none of the copies 
 of the ' Shah Nameh,' collated by Mr. Turner Macan, contain the 
 former. During his residence in this city he is also said to have 
 written the poem called 'Joseph,' which consists of 9000 couplets, in 
 the same measure and style as the ' Shah Nameh,' copies of which are 
 now rarely met with even in the East. But even in the capital of 
 the Abasside kalif he was not secure from the power of Mahmud : the 
 feeble Kadir Billah dared not disobey the commands of the sultan, 
 and the unfortunate poet was obliged to seek in countries still more 
 remote a safer retreat. It is uncertain at what court he next took 
 refuge ; but it appears clear from all accounts that his friends pro- 
 cured his pardon shortly after he left Baghdad, and that he eventually 
 returned to his native town, where he died a.h. 411 (a.d. 1020), in the 
 eighty-ninth year of his age. We know little of his family : the 
 death of his son at the age of thirty-seven is pathetically alluded to 
 in the ' Shah Nameh,' and his daughter is said to have refused the 
 60,000 pieces of gold, which were offered to her by the tardy justice 
 of the sultan. 
 
 The ' Shah Nameh ' contains the history of the kings of Persia, 
 from the reign of the first king, Kaiumers, to the death of Yesdijird, 
 the last monarch of the Sassanian race, who was deprived of his king- 
 dom a.h. 21 (a.d. 641) by the invasion of the Arabs during the kalifate 
 of Omar. During this period, according to Firdusi, three dynasties sat 
 upon the Persian throne. The first, called the Pishdadian, lasted 
 2441 years. The second, the Kaianian, commenced with Kaikobad, 
 aud lasted 732 years. Alexander the Great, called Sikander by 
 Firdusi, is included in this race, and is represented to be the son of 
 Darab, king of Persia, by the daughter of Failakus (Philip of Mace- 
 don). After the death of Sikander, Persia was divided, during 200 
 years, into a number of petty monarchies called the 'confederacy of 
 
FIRDUSI, ABUL CASIM MANSUR. 
 
 the kings.' The Sassanian race of prinoe8 succeeded these, and ruled 
 over the whole of Persia for 501 years. 
 
 The poem of Firdusi is of little value as a history, though it 
 certainly contains some of the ancient Persian traditions. The whole 
 history of Kaikhosrau, as related by Firdusi, bears so great a simi- 
 larity to the account which Herodotus gives of the life of Cyrus, as to 
 put it beyond doubt that both authors present us with a faithful and 
 accurate representation of the same tradition. " It is utterly incredible," 
 says Sir William Jones ('Works,' voL iii., p. 166), "that two different 
 princes of Persia should each have been born in a foreign and hostile 
 territory ; should have been doomed to death in his infancy by his 
 maternal grandfather ; should each have been saved by the remorse 
 of his destined murderer; should each, after a similar education 
 among herdsmen as the son of a herdsman, have found means to 
 revisit his paternal dominion, and, having delivered it after a long and 
 triumphant war from a tyrant who had invaded it, should have 
 restored it to the summit of power and magnificence." The leading 
 circumstances in the life of Alexander the Great are also preserved in 
 the ' Shah Nameh.' We read of his victory over Dara (Dareius), 
 of his marriage with Roshung (Roxana), of his expedition into 
 India and defeat of Faur (Porus), and of his journey through the 
 desert to Mecca to consult two trees from which a voice proceeded, 
 which is evidently only another version of his visit to the temple of 
 Ammon in Libya. The Persian biographers all agree in asserting 
 that Mahmud placed in the hands of Firdusi the ancient chronicles 
 of the kings of Persia, from which it is supposed that he derived the 
 historical narrative extant in his great work. We have the testimony 
 of the book of Esther (x. 2) to the existence of such records, as well 
 as a strong presumption derived from the fragments of Ctesias and 
 many parts of Herodotus. But it appears very unlikely that these 
 chronicles should have been preserved for so many ages, considering 
 the various revolutions which Persia experienced. There is a romantic 
 story told in the preface to the edition of the ' Shah Nameh,' pub- 
 lished by the command of Baysinghur Khan, which, though deserving 
 of little credit, must not be omitted on account of its general currency 
 in the East. It is related that Yesdijird, the last monarch of the 
 Sassanian race, ordered all the chronicles of the kings of Persia to be 
 collected and arranged, and that this book was known by the name 
 of the ' Bastan Nameh.' On the conquest of Persia by the Arabs it 
 was found in the library of Yesdijird, and became in the division of 
 the plunder the property of the Ethiopians, by whom it was conveyed 
 to India; it was afterwards taken back again to Persia, where it 
 remained unknown till a fortunate circumstance brought it to light 
 in the reign of Mahmud. Little reliance can be placed on the exist- 
 ence of written documents in the time of Firdusi ; the only value of 
 the ' Shah Nameh,' in an historical point of view, consists in the 
 ancient Persian traditions it has preserved ; but it would require the 
 learning and acumen of a critic like Niebuhr to arrive at the historical 
 truth conveyed in the tradition, and to strip the real legend of the 
 additions and embellishments of the poet. But it is not as a history 
 that the ' Shah Nameh ' derives its reputation. Its poetry is read 
 and admired by all well-educated Persians even in the present day ; 
 and its author may be considered as the greatest of oriental poets, 
 with the exception of Valmikl and Calidasa. It is written in purer 
 Persian than any other work in the language, and contains a very 
 small number of Arabic words ; it has thus become a model of Persian 
 composition, and is a3 much distinguished in the East as the Homeric 
 poems were in the West. 
 
 The copies of the ' Shah Nameh ' now met with vary greatly in the 
 number of verses. " It would be difficult to discover," says Mr. Macan 
 in his Preface to the Shah Nameh, " two copies which agree in the 
 order of the verses or in the phraseology for 20 couplets together. 
 Whole episodes are omitted, verses rejected from every page, and it is 
 not now uncommon to find manuscripts which contain only 40,000 
 couplets, though originally the poem is said to have consisted of 
 60,000." Mr. Macan adds, that he had never seen a manuscript with 
 more than 56,685 couplets : the edition published by himself contains 
 only 55,201. There have been three attempts made to collate manu- 
 scripts of the ' Shah Nameh,' with the view of obtaining an accurate 
 text. 
 
 1. The first was made by order of Baysinghur Khan, tbe grandson 
 of Timur, a.h. 829 (a.d. 1426). The editor states in his preface that 
 Baysinghur took great delight in reading the Shah Nameh, but found 
 go many mistakes in the copies he used, that he ordered a fresh colla- 
 tion to be made in order to obtain an accurate copy for his own private 
 use. The editor does not mention the manuscripts he used ; and this 
 collation did not produce much benefit, as the copy was deposited in 
 the king" s library, to which no one was allowed access. All trace of 
 it has disappeared ; the preface alone is extant. 
 
 2. The second collation was made under the superintendence of 
 Dr. Lumsden, professor of Arabic and Persian in the College of Fort 
 William. Twenty-seven valuable manuscripts were procured for this 
 purpose ; and the first volume, containing an eighth part of the work, 
 was published at Calcutta in 1811. 
 
 3. The third collation was made by Mr. Turner Macan from seven- 
 teen complete manuscripts and four fragments containing the greater 
 part of the work ; all of which were written in Persian. The whole 
 of the • Shah Nameh ' was published by him at Calcutta, 1829, in 4 vols. 
 
 FIRENZUOLA, AQNOLO. eifi 
 
 8vo ; this edition was printed at the expense of Nuseer-oodeen-Hyder, 
 one of the native princes of Hindustan. 
 
 An epitome of the ' Shah Nameh' in Persian, made in 1657, by Shum- 
 shir Khan, is widely circulated in the East. There is also an abridg- 
 ment of it in English, in prose and verse, by Mr. James Atkinson, 
 London, 8vo, 1833 ; the same author had previously published at 
 Calcutta in 1814, the episode of Sohrab in English verse, accompanied 
 with the Persian text. The entire poem was translated into Arabic 
 prose, a.h. 675 (a.d. 1277), by Caouam-oddyn-Abul-Feteh-Isa, a native 
 of Ispahan. A small portion of it was published by Wahl in the 
 original Persian, with a German translation and many valuable notes 
 in the fifth volume of the 'Fundgruben des Orients,' Wien., 1816 
 (pp. 109-131, 233-264, 351-389) ; which was reprinted by Vullers in a 
 useful work for beginners, entitled ' Chrestomathia Schahnamiana,' 
 Bonnse, 1833. The first eight books were translated by Champion in 
 1 vol. 4to, 1784 ; and a few extracts were also translated into English 
 verse by Stephen Weston, B.D., Lond., 1815. Further particulars of 
 the life of Firdusi will be found in Silvestre de Sacy's translation of 
 his life by Daulet Shah; published in the fourth volume of 'Notices et 
 Extr. des Manuscrita' (pp. 203-238), and in the prefaces to the various 
 works quoted above. 
 
 _ FIRENZUO'LA, A'GNOLO, was born September 28, 1493, in the 
 city of Firenze (Florence). He was christened Michelaguolo Girolamo, 
 but his name was afterwards contracted to Aguolo. The family name 
 was taken from the small town of Firenzuola, in Tuscany, between 
 Florence and Bologna, in a valley among the Apennines, near tho 
 source of the Santerno. Negri, Niceron, and others who have followed 
 them, appear to have been mistaken in stating that the family name 
 was Nannini. Agnolo's father, Bastiano Giovannini da Firenzuola, and 
 his grandfather Carlo da Firenzuola, were citizens of Firenze, and both 
 of them held offices of trust in the city under the patronage of Cosmo 
 de' Medici. 
 
 Agnolo Firenzuola lived in his native city till the age of sixteen, 
 when he went to Siena, where he studied law with much labour but 
 little satisfaction to himself ; he also studied at Perugia, and practised 
 for a short time as an advocate at Rome. While yet a young man he 
 left the law for the church, assumed the habit of the monks of Val- 
 lombrosa, and in 1525 was elected abbot of the monastery of Santa 
 Maria Ermita, at Spoleto. He was afterwards appointed abbot of San 
 Salvatore, at Prato, where he chiefly resided during the rest of his 
 short life. The year of his death is not known, but it was probably 
 about 1542 or 1543, since he dates the dedication of his ' Discorsi degli 
 Animali ' on the 9th of December 1541, and Lorenzo Scala, who pub- 
 lished the work in 1548, speaks of his death as having occurred a 
 few years before 1548. Tiraboschi doubts if Firenzuola ever was an 
 abbot, but gives no reason for disputing the authority of other writers 
 as well as of documents, than that his life was not sufficiently pure 
 for the sacred office : a very insufficient reason as applied to the digni- 
 taries of the Church of Rome in those times. Scala calls him " II 
 Reverendo Abate Messer Agnolo Firenzuola : " and addressing himself 
 to Pandolfo Pucci, speaks of Agnolo as his "caro e virtuoso aruieo" 
 (his dear and virtuous friend). 
 
 His works were published in 1548, as already stated, partly by 
 Lorenzo Scala and partly by Carlo Firenzuola, Agnolo's brother: 
 they consist of ' Discorsi degli Animali ; 1 ' Ragionamenti ; ' ' Novelle ; ' 
 ' Epistola in Lode delle Donne ; ' ' Dialogo delle Bellezze delle Donne ; ' 
 ' Discacciamento delle Nuove Lettere ; ' two comedies, ' I Lucidi ' and 
 ' La Trinuzia ; ' ' Asino d'Oro d'Apulejo rifatto in Lingua Fiorentina,' 
 and 'Rime.' 
 
 Firenzuola is entitled to a high place among the early Italian 
 writers. His works have been frequently reprinted, both separately 
 and collectively, and are still much read. His two comedies, regarded 
 merely as specimens of dramatic dialogue, are not surpassed by any- 
 thing in the language. Ho has less power and originality of imagina- 
 tion than Ariosto, Machiavelli, and Divizio (Cardinal Bibbiena), who 
 immediately preceded him, and Gelli, who was his contemporary; 
 but his dialogue is always natural, spirited, appropriate to the charac- 
 ters, and in purity of idiomatic Tuscan is unsurpassed by any other 
 Italiau author. He is one of the " testi di lingua," or writers of the 
 highest authority in the language, and as such is frequently quoted 
 in the ' Vocabolario' of the Academy della Crusca. 'I Lucidi' is an 
 adaptation of the 'Menaechmi' of Plautus, but the plot of 'La 
 Trinuzia' (Triple Marriage) appears to have been invented by himself, 
 except that the character of Rovino seems to have been modelled on 
 that of Calandro, in the 'Calandria' of Cardinal Bibbiena. Firen- 
 zuola's two plays are free from the indecencies which pollute his 
 ' Novelle.' They are printed in the second edition of Biagioli's col- 
 lection of Italian classic writers, 'Tesoretto della Lingua Toscana,' 
 Paris, 8vo, 1822, with copious notes in French explanatory of the 
 difficult idioms. 
 
 The 'Novelle,' of which there are ten, are short tales in the manner 
 of Boccaccio, inferior in invention and perhaps in descriptive power, 
 but of equal elegance of narrative and dialogue; some of them 
 however are little less licentious than many of those of Boccaccio 
 himself. 
 
 Firenzuola's version of the ' Golden Ass ' of Apuleius is partly 
 adapted and partly translated. The time is changed from the 2nd 
 century to tho 15th ; the Greek towns are converted into Italian towns, 
 
FISCHER, KARL VON. 
 
 FITZHERBERT, MARIA. 
 
 920 
 
 and the Lucius of the original work becomes Agnolo in the version. 
 The leading circumstances are retained, but altered as far as is neces- 
 sary to suit the change of time- and country ; the alteration however is 
 by no means an improvement of the original narrative, though the 
 composition, as a specimen of Italian prose, is admirable. 
 
 Firenzuola's other prose works, which are mostly in the form of 
 dialogue, are delightfully written; his 'Dialogo delle Bellezze delle 
 Donne ' especially, abounds in descriptions of exceeding delicacy, con- 
 veyed in a style so graceful and flowing as to give to a series of 
 remarks all the attraction of an interesting narrative. The ' Dis- 
 cacciamento ' was written in opposition to the party who were then 
 attempting to introduce certain letters not previously in use into the 
 Florentine alphabet, such as the letter K. Firenzuola, in a sonnet, 
 addresses the literary reformers as " kandidi ingegni." 
 
 As a writer of verse Fireuzuola has considerable merit; his son- 
 nets indeed are less delicate in thought and expression than those of 
 Petrarch, but his satirical verses are of a high class, very effective, and 
 in elegance and facility hardly inferior to those of Berni. 
 
 (Vita di Agnolo Firenzuola, prefixed to his Opere, Pisa, 6 vols. 18mo, 
 1816; Ginguend, in Biographic Universelle ; Tiraboschi, Storia della 
 Letteratura Italiana.) 
 
 FISCHER, KARL VON, founder of the Munich school of archi- 
 tecture, was born at Mannheim, September 19, 1782; and at the age 
 of fourteen was placed by his father, Hofrath von Fischer, who had 
 observed in him an unusual inclination for drawing buildings, with 
 Ober-baudirector Verschaffelt, a man of great ability in his profession. 
 On Verschaffelt's removing to Vienna in consequence of being 
 employed by Prince Esterhazy, Fischer accompanied him thither, and 
 remained in that capital from 1801 to 1806 ; and besides the advan- 
 tage he derived from studying there at the Academy of Fine Arts, 
 acquired much practical experience, being intrusted by Verschaffelt 
 with the superintendence of some of the buildings he was engaged 
 upon. It was while he was at Vienna that he first projected what 
 afterwards became his greatest work, for, having made designs for an 
 opera-house, and also for another theatre, which excited much admi- 
 ration, he was commissioned to modify the plan of the latter so as to 
 adapt it for the new ' Hof Theatre ' which it was intended to erect at 
 Munich. The scheme however was dropped for a time ; and on 
 quitting Vienna, Fischer visited France first, afterwards Italy, where 
 he spent about two years, diligently studying all the most remarkable 
 examples of architecture. On his return to Germany in 1809, he 
 went to Munich, where he was made Professor of Architecture at the 
 Academy, of which office he continued up to the time of his death, 
 to discharge the duties with equal zeal and ability : it was in conse- 
 quence of his strongly urging it, that the academy began to form a 
 collection of architectural casts and models. 
 
 One of the first buildings erected by him at Munich was the mansion 
 for the minister Salabert, at the entrauce to the •' English Garden,' 
 which was afterwards occupied by Prince Karl, and then called the 
 ' Pavilion Royal.' When the Karoline-Platz and Maximilian Vorstadt 
 were first laid outin 1810, he built fourteen of the principal mansions 
 and houses in that quarter, introducing a nobler style of architecture 
 than had hitherto been employed in constructions of that class. Among 
 other private residences and hotels by him, the most remarkable are 
 those for the then Crown-Prince of Bavaria, Baron von Asbeck, Count 
 Pappenheim, and Baron von Zentner. The facade of the ' Ministerial- 
 gebaude des Innern,' or Home-office ; — the Auger-kirche and General 
 Hospital were also by him. All these however were but minor works 
 in comparison with the Hof Theatre, which is still one of the prin- 
 cipal ornaments of Munich, though no longer made use of as the 
 court theatre, a larger building adjoining it being now the principal 
 theatre of Munich. The Hof Theatre was begun in 1811, and first 
 opened October 12th, 1818, but it was nearly consumed by fire in 
 1823 ; it was however rebuilt the following year, according to the 
 original designs. Plans, sections, and other drawings, fully illustra- 
 ting this edifice, may be found in Forster's 'Bauzeitung' for 1841. 
 Fischer did not live to learn the fate of his great structure, as he died, 
 after several months' severe suffering from a pulmonary disorder, 
 February 11th, 1820. 
 
 FISCHER VON ERLACH, JOHANN BERNHARD, and his 
 son Joseph Emmanuel, both distinguished architects, designed or 
 superintended the building of all the principal public or private 
 edifices which were erected at Vienna in their time. Johann the 
 father was born either at Prague or Vienna in 1650, and studied under 
 Bernini at Rome, and all his works are in the style of that architect. 
 His first work was the palace of Schonbrunn, commenced in 1696 for 
 Joseph I., to whom, and Charles VI., he was court architect; he died 
 in 1724. 
 
 Joseph Emmanuel, Baron von Erlach, was born in 1680. He 
 finished the works which his father left incomplete, the principal of 
 which is the magnificent church of St. Karl Borromseus, finished in 
 1737. He was created Baron von Erlach by Charles VI. The year 
 of his death is not known, though it was after 1740. He was the first 
 to introduce the steam-engine into Germany. 
 
 (Austrian National Encyclopadie, 1835, ii. 147.) 
 
 FISHER, JOHN, Bishop of Rochester, was born at Beverley in 1459. 
 He was educated at the collegiate school of his native place, and after 
 some residence there removed to Michael House College, Cambridge, ! 
 
 of which he became master in 1495. The respect in which Margaret 
 countess of Richmond, Henry VII.'s mother, held his character, and 
 her high opinion of his learning, induced her to appoint him her 
 chaplain and confessor. He was named the first ' Lady Margaret's 
 Professor of Divinity ' in the University of Cambridge, and became 
 Bishop of Rochester in 1504. It was some years after this time that 
 the actions of Bishop Fisher gained him an historical notoriety. 
 When Henry VIII. (1527) was anxious to prove both to himself and 
 to others the illegality of his marriage with Catherine of Arragon, he 
 applied to the bishops for their opinions in the matter. Of all the 
 bishops Fisher alone refused to sign a declaration that the marriage 
 was unlawful. Other persons indeed affixed his signature to the 
 paper, affirming that they had his permission to do so ; but the 
 bishop resolutely denied that he had given them his consent ; for in 
 his conscience he believed the marriage to be valid. This refusal, 
 and his continued advocacy of Queen Catherine's cause, made him 
 many powerful and lasting enemies. Not only did he become hateful 
 to the king, who was desirous for the divorce, but the whole parlia- 
 ment took umbrage at his conduct. Sir Thomas Audley, then 
 speaker, and thirty members of the House of Commons, were sent 
 to complain to the king of certain derogatory words which Fisher was 
 declared to have used respecting the assembled representatives ; and 
 it was with difficulty that ho could persuade them to receive his 
 explanation. Four years after, when both the parliament and the 
 convocation were in debate upon the expediency of denying the pope's 
 supremacy (1534), Fisher again stood alone. He dissented from all 
 the other bishops, and could not, either by persuasion or argument, 
 be induced to concur with their opinion. An event was now at hand 
 which laid the foundation of his ruin. The imposture of Elizabeth 
 Barton, the nun of Kent, was exposed by the diligence of Cranmer 
 and others ; and while the principal agents were condemned to death, 
 it was very properly deemed fit that those who had been privy 
 to the deception should not escape unpunished. Among these was 
 Fisher, who, knowing this woman and her associates to be impostors, 
 disgraced himself by not exposing the imposition. He made many 
 vain excuses, but was found guilty of misprision of treason. It does 
 not appear that the king proceeded against him upon this charge till 
 he was moved by new provocations. Wheu the oath touching the 
 succession and the king's supremacy was offered to him, the Bishop 
 of Rochester, as Sir Thomas More had done, refused to swear it. The 
 kiug, now more than ever irritated against him, caused him to be 
 indicted upon the statute and committed to the Tower : " his 
 bishoprick was seized," says Burnet (' Hist. Reformation,' vol. i.), "and 
 all his goods taken from him ; only some old rags were left to cover 
 him ; and he was neither supplied well in diet nor other necessaries, 
 of which he made sad complaints." Books were also denied him lest 
 he should write against the king's marriage or supremacy. These 
 inexcusable severities met with the most bitter censure of the Roman 
 Catholic party ; while many of the Reformers, especially the Lutheran 
 preachers who had frequently been persecuted by Fisher, are said to 
 have privately rejoiced in his misfortunes. During his imprisonment 
 Pope Clement, in spite to the king, and in kindness to Fisher, sent 
 him a cardinal's hat. When the king heard of this, he desired that 
 the bishop might be examined about it ; but Fisher protested that he 
 had used no endeavours to procure it : nevertheless his new dignity 
 precipitated his ruin. His continued denial of the king's supremacy 
 was no longer passed over : on the 17th of June 1535, he was called 
 to account for this offence. The Lord Chancellor, the Duke of 
 Suffolk, and some other lords, together with the judges, were appointed 
 commissioners for his trial ; he was found guilty, and condemned to 
 die as a traitor. On the 22nd of June he was beheaded. 
 
 The character of Fisher is remarkable for firmness. In his steady 
 maintenance of the fallen cause of Queen Catherine, undaunted by the 
 anger of the vindictive king, this quality peculiarly shone forth : aud 
 Btill more with regard to the oath of supremacy, refusal to take which 
 was certain to call forth severe punishment, and in all probability death. 
 Fisher was immovable, not being convinced that he was in the wrong ; 
 his fearless firmness allowed him to maintain an open profession that 
 he was in the right. He was a learned and devout man, and hia 
 conduct fully proved his sincerity. 
 
 FITZHERBERT, MARIA, was the youngest daughter of Waller 
 Smythe, Esq., of Brambridge, Hants, second son of Sir John 
 Smythe, third, baronet, of Eshe, Durham, and Acton Burnel, Salop. 
 She was born in July 1756, and in 1775 became the wife of Edward 
 Weld, Esq., of Lulworth Castle, Dorset, who died the same year. In 
 1778 she remarried Thomas Fitzherbert, Esq., of Swinnerton, county 
 of Stafford, but was again left a widow in 1781, when she was scarcely 
 twenty-five years of age. In 1785 she first became acquainted with 
 King George IV., then Prince of Wales, to whom she was privately 
 married on December 21st of the same year, the ceremony being 
 performed at Carlton House by a Protestant clergyman, in the presence 
 of her uncle and brother. This union was invalid as to its civil 
 effects, as being contrary to the act which forbade, and still forbids a 
 union between the subject and a prince of the blood royal : while 
 further, the marriage of a royal prince with a Roman Catholic is 
 sufficient in point of law to exclude him from succession to the throne. 
 Subsequently however the prince contracted a marriage according to 
 the laws of England with the Princess Caroline of Brunswick ; but 
 
en 
 
 his attachment to that princess speedily failing, Mrs. Fitzherbert 
 returned to the prince, under the advice of the Roman see, and again 
 lived with him for several years as his wife. The irregularities of 
 the prince however eventually drove her into retirement, and she 
 spent the last years of her life at Brighton, enjoying the respect and 
 good opinion of King George II L, King William IV., and the whole 
 of the Royal family, and dispensing a large income in numerous 
 charities. She refused the offer of a peerage upon more than one 
 occasion. She died at Brighton March 29, 1837, and was buried in 
 the Roman Catholic Chapel of that town, where a monument was 
 erected to her memory by her adopted child, the orphan daughter of 
 Lady Horatia Seymour. 
 
 (Lord Holland, Memoirs of the Whig Party, 1855 ; Hon. C. Langdale, 
 Memoirs of Mrs. Fitzherbert, 1856.) 
 
 FITZJAMES. [Berwick, Duke op.] 
 
 FITZ-ROY, CAPTAIN ROBERT, R.N., was born in June 1805, 
 and is the second son of General Lord Charles Fitz-Roy, who died 
 December 20, 1829. He entered the navy October 19, 1819, and 
 obtaiued his first commission September 7, 1824. He served in the 
 Thetis frigate on the Mediterranean and South American stations. 
 The charts of the coasts of South America having been found to be 
 very imperfect, and in many instances erroneous; the French and 
 English governments undertook, for the benefit of the mercantile 
 world, to explore and survey those coasts, the French undertaking to 
 examine the shores of Brazil, and the English those of Patagonia, 
 Tierra del Fuego, Chili, and Peru. In 1825 two vessels were ordered 
 to be fitted out for this purpose, the Adventure, 330 tons, and the 
 Beade, 235 tons. Captain Philip Parker King was appointed to the 
 direction of the expedition, and the command of the Adventure; 
 Captain Pringle Stoke3 to the command of the Beagle. The expe- 
 dition sailed from England in May 1826. Captain Stokes died in 
 1823, and the Beagle was temporarily commanded by Lieutenant 
 Sky ling, but in December of that year Rear- Admiral Sir Robert Otway, 
 commander-in-chief on the Rio Janeiro station, appointed Captain 
 Fitz-Roy to the command of the Beagle, with Lieutenant Skyring as 
 his assistant-surveyor. After four years of unremitting labour the 
 Adventure and Beagle sailed together from Rio Janeiro August 6, 
 1830, on their return, and anchored in Plymouth Sound, October 14. 
 
 In the 'Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,' vol. i., p. 155, 
 4c, are 'Some Observations upon the Geography of the Southern 
 Extremity of South America, Tierra del Fuego, and the Strait of 
 Hagalhaens, made during the late Survey of those Coasts, in his 
 Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle, between the years 1826 and 
 1830 ; by Captain Philip Parker King, F.R.S., &c, and Commander 
 of the Expedition.' Read 25th April, and 9th May 1831. Captain 
 Kiug, in thi3 paper, mentions the discovery, by Captain Fitz-Roy, 
 in the Strait of Magalhaens, of a large inland sea, fifty miles long, 
 which was named the Otway Water, and which is connected by a 
 channel, called the Fitz-Roy Channel, with another large salt-water 
 lake, which was named Skyring Water. 
 
 In the year 1831 the Beagle was prepared for another surveying 
 voyage, and on the 27th of November 1831 set sail from Plymouth, 
 well manned, well appointed, and well provided, with Captain Fitz- 
 Roy for commander, and Mr. Charles Darwin as naturalist. Having 
 circumnavigated the globe, and accomplished as far as practicable all 
 the objects which the expedition had in view, the Beagle cast anchor 
 at Falmouth, October 2, 1836, having been absent four years and ten 
 months. 
 
 In the year 1839 the two following works were published : — 
 ' Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. Adventure and Beagle 
 between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their Examination of the 
 Southern Shores of South America, and the Beagle's Circumnavigation 
 of the Globe,' 2 vol3. 8vo, London, written by Captain Fitzroy, in 
 conjunction with Captain King. 'Journal of Researches into the 
 Geology and Natural History of the various Countries visited by 
 H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of Captain Fitz-Roy, from 1832 to 
 1836 ; by Charles Darwin, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Secretary to the Geolo- 
 logical Society,' 8vo, London. On this work the President of the 
 Geological Society made the following remark : " Looking at the 
 general mass of Mr. Darwin's results, I cannot help considering his 
 voyage round the world as one of the most important events for 
 geology which has occurred for many years." 
 
 Captain Robert Fitz-Roy in 1841 sat as M.P. for the city of Durham. 
 On the 21st of September 1842 he was appointed actiDg conservator 
 of the River Mersey. On the 3rd of April 1843 he became governor 
 and commander in-chief of the colony of New Zealand. In 1846 
 Mr. Grey (now Sir George Grey) succeeded him as governor of New 
 Zealand. In the same year Captain Fitz-Roy published a pamphlet 
 in justification of his government of the colony, intitled, ' Remarks 
 on New Zealand in February, 1846.' In 1850 he published 'Sailing 
 Directions for South America, by Captains Philip Parker King and 
 Robert Fitz-Roy, Royal Navy,' consisting of charts and an 8vo volume. 
 The volume is chiefly from the pen of Captain Fitz-Roy, and the 
 charts whi^h accompany it are the results of his surveys. [See 
 Supplement.] 
 
 FITZSTEPHEN, WILLIAM, author of the earliest description of 
 London extant, was of Norman extraction, but born in the metropolis. 
 He became a monk of Canterbury, and was much connected with 
 
 BIOQ. D1V. VOL. XL 
 
 Archbishop Becket; he was one of his clerks, and an inmate in his 
 family, filling different offices at different times in his train and house- 
 hold. He continued with the archbishop after his other clerks and 
 servants had deserted him, and was also an eye-witness of his murder 
 at Canterbury. Fitzstephen is supposed to have died in 1191. His 
 'Description of the City of London ' was part of another work, ' Tho 
 Life and Passion of Archbishop Becket.' The description of London 
 was probably written towards the end of the reign of Henry II. (who 
 died in 1189); but in the carefully collated text of Fitzstephen in 
 Mr. Thoms's edition of Stow, among the " illustrious and august 
 princes" which " London in modern times has produced," ' Heuricum 
 regem tertium ' is named. This of course would make the 'Descrip- 
 tion ' to be of at least some thirty years later date than is usually 
 assigned to its composition, and Fitzstephen to have been living at a 
 correspondingly later period. But it is probably the error of a copyist 
 who has inserted the name of the third in the place of the second 
 Henry. The description is one of the oldest and most remarkable 
 mediaeval notices of any European capital. It was accordingly noticed 
 by Leland and Stow, the latter of whom inserted a translation of it in 
 his 'Survey of London.' Dr. Pegge iu 1772 published Fitzstephen's 
 original text, with a more accurate translation and notes ; and Mr. 
 Thorns, in his edition of Stow's ' Survey of London,' 1843, inserted a 
 collated version of the original text with a revised translation. This 
 is the best edition. Fitzstephen, if we may judge from his quota- 
 tions, was well versed in the Latin, and had looked into some of 
 the Greek classics. There is a fine manuscript of Fitzstephen's 
 history among the Lansdowne volumes (No. 398) in the British 
 Museum — that employed by Mr. Thorns ; and a fragment of another 
 copy among the manuscripts of the late Francis Douce, Esq., in the 
 Bodleian. 
 
 FLACCUS, CAIUS VALE'RIUS, was born at Padua according to 
 some, or at Setia in Latium according to others, who ground their 
 opinion chiefly on the names of Setinus Balbus, which are found added 
 to his other names in some manuscripts of the ' Argonautiea.' Some 
 however have supposed that Setinus Balbus was merely a transcriber 
 or reviser of the poem. Flaccus lived under Vespasian, and was a 
 contemporary of Martial, who addressed to him one of his epigrams, 
 inviting him to abandon poetry for the bar, as a surer means of making 
 his fortune. He seems to have died young at Padua ; and Quiactilian 
 speaks of his death as a loss to literature. He wrote his ' Argonautiea ' 
 in imitation of Apollonius. The poem is full of digressions and epi- 
 sodes, amidst which the main action languishes, and is often lost sight 
 of. Some of the descriptions however are remarkably fine and poeti- 
 cal ; and it is observed that Flaccus is more elegant in those parts of 
 the poem which are of his own invention than in those which he has 
 borrowed or imitated from Apollonius. His style is at times obscure, 
 and he is very fond of displaying his erudition, which is often out of 
 place. We have only eight books or cantos of his ' Argonautiea,' the 
 last of which is incomplete ; the whole poem is supposed to have 
 consisted of ten or twelve cantos. This poem was first discovered 
 by Poggio Bracciolini in the convent of St. Gall. G. B. Pio pub- 
 lished in 1519 an edition of it, adding the termination of the eighth 
 canto as well as the ninth and tenth cantos of his own compo- 
 sition. It has been translated into most of the modern languages of 
 Europe. Flaccus is supposed to have died about a.d. 83. 
 
 FLAMINI'NUS, TITUS QUINTIUS, was made consul, B.C. 193, 
 before he was thirty years of age, and had the province of Macedonia 
 assigned to him, with the charge of continuing the war against Philip, 
 which had now lasted for two years without any definitive success on 
 the part of the Romans. Flamininus having landed in Epirus, opposite 
 the island of Corcyra, with a reinforcement of 8000 foot and 800 horse, 
 marched up the country, where he found Philip posted in a rugged 
 pass on the banks of the Aous, among the mountains of Eastern 
 Epirus. After some fruitless negociations with the king of Macedonia, 
 the Romans, under the guidance of an Epirote shepherd, attained by 
 a mountain path the rear of the Macedonian position, and Philip was 
 obliged to make a hurried retreat across the chain of Pindus into 
 Thessaly. He was followed by the Romans and their allies, the 
 .iEtolians and the Athamauians, who overran and ravaged the country. 
 Meantime L. Quintius Flamininus, the brother of the consul, sailed 
 with a fleet to the eastern coast of Greece, where, being joined by the 
 ships of the Rhodians and of Attalus of Pergamus, he scoured the 
 coasts of Euboea, Corinth, and other districts which were allied or 
 subject to the king of Macedonia. The consul himself marched into 
 Phocis, where he took Elatea, and having there fixed his winter- 
 quarters, he succeeded in detaching the Achreahs from the Macedonian 
 alliance. Iu the following year Flamininus, being confirmed by the 
 senate in his command as proconsul, before beginning hostilities afresh 
 held a conference with Philip on the coast of the Maliac Gulf, and 
 allowed him to send legates to Rome to negociate a peace. The 
 senate however having required the king to evacuate all the towns of 
 Greece which he had occupied, including Demetrias in Thessaly, Chalcis 
 in Eubcea, and Corinth, the negociations were broken off and Flami- 
 ninus resumed military operations. He marched from Phocis into 
 Thessaly, where Philip was stationed near Larissa with a body of 
 16,000 phalanx men, 2000 peltastas, and 5000 Thiacian and other 
 auxiliaries. After some previous demonstrations and partial attacks,, 
 the two armies met between Pherae and Larissa, in 3 country brokeu 
 
 3 O 
 
f 23 
 
 by small hills called Cynoscephake, or Dogs' Heads. The Macedonians 
 Had at first some advantage, especially on the right wing where the 
 king commanded in person, and where he had formed his phalanx on 
 a hill, but Flamininus observing the left wing moving in column with 
 1 narrow front to their assigned post, attacked it with his elephants 
 und threw them into confusion before they had time to form. In the 
 pursuit of this body a tribune of the victorious legion being led beyond 
 the flauk of the right wing, ventured to attack it on the rear, and he 
 succeeded in spreading disorder into the ranks of the close and cumber- 
 some phalanx. Panic pervaded the Macedonians; many threw down 
 their arms and fled, and Philip himself, seeing the rout becoming 
 general, left the field, and rode off towards Tempe. The Macedonians 
 lost 8000 killed and 5000 prisoners on that day. Soou afterwards the 
 king asked for a truce, which was granted by Flamininus, in order that 
 messengers might be sent to Rome to treat of peace. The senate 
 appointed ten legates, who, in concert with Flamininus, drew up the 
 conditions, which were that Philip should evacuate every Grecian 
 town and fortress beyond the limits of his paternal kingdom, that he 
 should give up all his ships of war, reduce his military establishment, 
 and pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the war. Flamininus was 
 then continued in his command for another year, B.C. 196, to see these 
 conditions executed. In that year, at the meeting of the Isthmian 
 games, where multitudes had assembled from every part of Greece, 
 Flamininus caused a crier to proclaim " that the senate and people 
 of Rome and their commander Titus Quintius, having subdued Philip 
 and the Macedonians, restored the Corinthians, Phocajans, Locrians, 
 Eubcoans, Thessalians, l'hthiotae, Magnetsc, Perrha)bi, and Achajans to 
 their freedom and independence, and to the enjoyment of their own 
 laws." Bursts of acclamation followed this proclamation, and the 
 crowd pressed forward to express their gratitude to Flamininus, whose 
 conduct throughout those memorable transactions was marked with a 
 wisdom, moderation, and liberality seldom found united in a victorious 
 Roman general. He checked by his firmness the turbulence of his 
 yEtoliau allies, who vociferated for the entire destruction of Philip, 
 while he satisfied all just claims of the rest ; and although his Mace- 
 donian expedition led ultimately to the entire subjugation of both 
 Macedonia and Greece, yet he was at the time the means of restoring 
 peace to both countries, aud of protracting the independence of the 
 Greek states for half a century longer. 
 
 In the following year, B.C. 195, Flamiuinus was entrusted with the 
 war against Nabis, tyrant of Lacedoemon, who had treacherously seized 
 the city of Ar^os. Flamininus advanced into Laconia and laid siege 
 to Sparta, but he met with a brave resistance, and at last agreed to 
 graut peace to Nabis on condition that he should give up Argos and 
 all the other places which he had usurped, aud restore the descend- 
 ants of the Messenians to their lands. His motives for granting peace 
 to Nabis were, he said, partly to prevent the destruction of one of the 
 most illustrious of the Greek cities, and partly because of the great 
 preparations which Antiochus, king of Syria, was then making on the 
 coast of Asia. Livy suggests, as another probable reason, that Flami- 
 ninus wished to terminate the war himself, and not to give time to a 
 new consul to supersede him in his command and reap the honours of 
 the victory. The senate confirmed the peace with Nabis, and in the 
 following year, B.C. 194, Flamininus having settled the affairs of Greece 
 prepared to return to Italy. Having repaired to Corinth, where depu- 
 tations from all the Grecian cities had assembled, he took a friendly 
 leave of them, signifying to them that he was going to withdraw all 
 his army and garrisons, and leave them to themselves; advising them 
 at the same time to make a temperate use of that liberty which the 
 Romans had been the means of restoring to them, and above all to 
 preserve concord in their councils, as civil factions would certainly 
 lead to the loss of their independence ; for those w ho find themselves 
 the weaker at home are apt to apply to strangers for support. He 
 accordingly delivered the citadel of Corinth to the Acheeans, withdrew 
 his garrisons from Demetrias, Chalcis, and the other towns of Eubcea, 
 and having broken up his camp at Elatea in Fhocis, he sent the soldiers 
 to embark on the coast of Epirus, whilst he repaired to Thessaly to 
 settle the internal affairs of that country, which were in a state of 
 great confusion. He organised the various towns, choosing the magis- 
 trates and senate from among the wealthier class. He then repaired 
 to Oricum, on the coast of Epirus, where he embarked for Brundisium. 
 In Italy both he and his soldiers were received with great demonstra- 
 tions of joy, and the senate decreed him a triumph of three days. 
 On the first day were displayed the arms and the statues of brass and 
 marble taken from the enemy ; on the second the silver and gold, 
 whether coined or in vases, shields, and various ornaments ; and on 
 the third the golden orowns, the gift of the liberated cities. Before 
 the car of Flamininus appeared the captives and hostages, and among 
 the latter Demetrius, son of Philip, and Armenes, son of Nabis, and 
 in the rear followed the Roman prisoners who had been sold as slaves 
 to the Greeks by Hannibal during the second Punic war, and whose 
 liberation Flamininus had obtained from the gratitude of the Greek 
 states. The Achaeans alone are said to have liberated 1200, for whom 
 they paid 100 talents as compensation money to their masters. Alto- 
 gether there never was perhaps a Roman triumph so satisfactory as 
 this to all parties, and so little offensive to the feelings of humanity. 
 In the year B.C. 183, Flamininus was sent to Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
 upon the dishonourable mission of demanding the person of Hannibal, 
 
 then, in his old age, a refugee at the court of Prusias. Hannibal how- 
 ever, by taking poison, avoided being given up. He is supposed to 
 have died in b c. 174, as in that year his son, T. Q. Flamininus, cele- 
 brated funeral game3 in his honour. 
 
 FLA.MSTEED, JOHN. The life of the first astronomer royal was 
 known to the world chieQy by the results of his labours, until the 
 year 1832, since which time his private affairs have been brought to 
 light in an unexpected manner, and have excited great interest, not 
 without creating some party feeling among those who cultivate the 
 sciences connected with astronomy. In 1832 Mr. Francis baily dis- 
 covered that a considerable collection of Flamsteed's letters waB in 
 the hands of a private individual ; which, on being examined, was 
 found to contain much that was not generally known. On search- 
 ing the observatory at Greenwich, Mr. Baily found a vast mass of 
 manuscript observations, letters, and other documents, in the hand- 
 writing of Flamsteed aud his friends, containing the curious history of 
 which wo shall give a brief .abstract. The result of this discovery was 
 a representation to the Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory, 
 who recommended the republication of the ' British Catalogue,' with 
 extracts from the papers of Flamsteed. The Lords of the Admiralty 
 having decided to print this at the public expense, Mr. Baily under- 
 took the preparation of the work, which appeared in 1835, under the 
 title of ' An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed, &c. &c, to which ia 
 added his British Catalogue of Stars, corrected and enlarged.' From 
 this work, which is certainly the most remarkable scientific biography 
 of the present century, we have given Flamsteed's view of his own 
 case. The original account is in part drawn by Mr. Baily from a 
 manuscript by Flamsteed, headed ' Self Inspections, by J. F.,' which ia 
 a very interesting autobiography. 
 
 John Flamsteed was born at Denby, near Derby, August 19, 1G46. 
 Hi father was in some business, it lias been said that of a maltster ; 
 he lost his mother when very young. At the age of fourteen he caught 
 cold while bathing, which produced a weakness in the joints, from 
 which he never recovered. He began his mathematical and astrono- 
 mical studies at a very early age, and showed talents for constructing 
 astronomical instruments. In 1665 he visited Ireland for the purpose 
 of consulting a Mr. Greatrakes, who professed to cure disorders by the 
 touch, and of whose experiments in London a curious account exists. 
 [Boyle, Robert.] No effect being produced on him by thi3 treat- 
 ment, he returned to Derby, where his father lived, and where he 
 had received his education. Here he continued his studies till 1069, 
 and with great success. In or before 1667 he discovered the real 
 causes of the equation of time, and wrote a tract on the subject, 
 which was afterwards appended by Dr. Wallis to his edition of the 
 works of Horrox, published in 1673. Iu 1669 he made an astrono- 
 mical communication to the Royal Society through Oldenburg, their 
 secretary, concealing his name under the anagram 
 
 J. Mathesin a Sole fundes, 
 
 which, being transposed, gives 
 
 Johannes Flamsteedius : 
 
 this same anagram appears in the title-page of the tables appended to the 
 doctrine of the sphere iu Sir Jonas Moore's system of mathematics, in 
 the preparation of which Flamsteed had a share. An answer from 
 Oldenburg, addressed to himself, showed him that he was discovered, 
 and from that time, or rather from the date of a visit which he very 
 shortly afterwards paid to London, he wa3 in correspondence with 
 many scientific men, but particularly with Sir Jonas Moore, who, in 
 1674, proposed to establish Flamsteed in a private observatory, which 
 he intended to build at Chelsea. In the meantime however the fact of 
 the very large errors to which astronomical tables were subject came 
 to the notice of Charles II., on the occasion of a proposal made by a 
 French gentleman for finding the longitude, and that king determined 
 to establish an observatory. Flamsteed was appointed astronomer 
 royal, or, as the warrant ran, "astronomical observator," aud carried 
 on his observations at the queen's house, in Greenwich Park, until the 
 observatory was ready, which was in July 1676. From this time Mr. 
 Baily dates the commencement of modern astronomy ; nor can such 
 chronology be disputed if we consider that we now return to Flam- 
 steed's observations as the earliest with which it is desirable to com- 
 pare those of our day, and also that Flamsteed's catalogue is the first 
 which attained a precision comparable to that of later times. Flam- 
 steed was in fact Tycho Brah<5 with a telescope : there was the same 
 c ipability of adapting instrumental means, the same sense of the 
 inadequacy of existing tables, the same long-continued perseverance 
 in actual observation. But Tycho BraW, a rich noble, found his 
 exchequer in a king's purse; while Flamsteed, a poor clergyman, 
 defrayed the expenses of his instruments himself, upon an ill-paid 
 salary of lOOi. a year. Up to the year 1684 he had imposed on liim 
 the task of instructing two boys from Christ's Hospital, as one of the 
 duties of his post; aud, besides this, he was obliged to have recourse 
 to private teaching, to meet the charges of carrying on his observa- 
 tions. At the very same time, that part of the public which cared 
 about the matter were begiuuiug to require that he should print his 
 observations. 
 
 Almost at the outset of his labours he was so well known that 
 Dr. Bernard invited bini to become a candidate for the Savilian pro- 
 
•28 
 
 FLAMSTEED, JOHN. 
 
 FLAMSTEED, JOHN. 
 
 m 
 
 fessorship of geometry at Oxford, which he declined to do. He had 
 at this time nothing but a sextant and clocks of Sir Jonas Moore's, and 
 gome instruments of his own. He borrowed some from the Royal 
 Society, and after repeatedly urging the government to provide him 
 with an instrument fixed in the meridian, he caused a mural arc to 
 be constructed at his own expense, which was erected in the year 1683, 
 but proved a failure. 
 
 In the meantime he had taken orders, in 1675, having in the pre- 
 vious year obtained the degree of Master of Arts from Cambridge. It 
 i3 not certainly known that he had been a student in that university, 
 though it is certain that he was for some months at Cambridge in 1674. 
 Perhaps he obtained his degree by the celebrity of his name, on condition 
 of a short residence. 
 
 In 1684 his father died, and he was presented to a small living by the 
 Lord-Keeper North. Both circumstances increasing his means, he 
 resolved to be at the expense of a new mural arc, upon an assurance 
 from the government (which was never fulfilled) that the outlay 
 should be repaid. Thi3 instrument was first used in September 1689, 
 and from that moment " everything which Flamsteed did, every 
 observation which he made, assumed a tangible and permanent form, 
 and was available to some useful purpose." When he died, the 
 government of the day attempted to claim these instruments as public 
 property. 
 
 The public career of Flamsteed, from this time to the end of his 
 life, is described when we say that he collected that enormous mass 
 of observations which furnished the first trustworthy catalogue of the 
 fixed stars ; that he made those lunar observations on which Newton 
 depended for the illustration aud verification of his lunar theory ; and 
 that he originated and practised methods of observing which may be 
 said to form the basis of those employed at the present time. Were 
 it not for the celebrated quarrel between him on the one side, and 
 Newton and Halley on the other, there would hardly be a life of so 
 much utility as that of Flamsteed, which would afford so little mate- 
 rials for a popular account. It is to be remembered that the follow- 
 ing is an ex parte statement ; but on the other hand, it is not one 
 formally drawn up for the public, but partly contained in the manu- 
 script autobiography which never was published by Flamsteed, and 
 partly derived from his correspondence with hi3 friends. Newton 
 had been on terms of cordial intimacy with Flamsteed, but a coolness 
 had begun to exist in 1696, for which Mr. Baily is unable to account. 
 Sir D. Brewster, in his ' Life of Sir Isaac Newton,' having had access 
 to a number of letters between Flamsteed and Newton, explains this. 
 While Newton was engaged on his Lunar theory, he required observa- 
 tions of the moon's places. For this object he visited Flamsteed at 
 the Greenwich Observatory on September 1, 1694, who gave him 
 150 places, and promised him more, on condition that he should show 
 them to no one else, aud should communicate the results, in the first 
 instance, to Flamsteed only. Letters passed — Flamsteed communicating 
 observations, and Newton returning a table of refractions, tables of 
 horizontal parallaxes, and equations for the apogee, and eccentricity, 
 but with little outbreaks of temper on both sides; Newton evidently 
 cousidering that Flamsteed was not sufficiently prompt in furnishing 
 new observations; Flamsteed deeming his materials of the utmost 
 importance, and that he " had done more for the restitution of astro- 
 nomy than had been done in some ages before ; ' till at length Newton 
 "saw so little prospect of obtaining what he wanted," as to make him 
 give up the Lunar theory "as a thing impracticable." In January 
 1696, Flamsteed offered more observations, but Newton, preparing for 
 his new duties at the Mint, does not appear to have answered the 
 letter. 
 
 In 1698, Newton having resumed his investigations into the Lunar 
 irregularities, again visited Flamsteed at Greenwich, who supplied 
 iiiui with corrections of former computations, but complains of New- 
 ton's reserve. Soon afterwards Dr. Wallis applied for Flamsteed's 
 observations on the parallax of the earth's annual orbit, which he 
 furnished, and at the same time mentioned that he had supplied 
 .Newton with materials "for the improvement of the Horroxian theory 
 of the moon." This offended Newton, who said, in a letter to Flam- 
 steed, " I do not love to be printed on every occasion, much less to be 
 dunned and teased by foreigners about mathematical things; or to be 
 thought by our own people to be trifling away my time about 
 them when I should be about the king's business." Before this time 
 he had furnished Newton with all the lunar observations which he 
 had made. 
 
 When Flamsteed had completed his catalogue (having already 
 expended 20001. more than his salary), he began to think of printing 
 his results. But Prince George of Denmark, having heard of the 
 extent of Flamsteed's labours, offered in 1704 to bear the expense of 
 printing. A committee, consisting of Newton, Sir Christopher Wren, 
 1 'r. Arbuthnot, Dr. Gregory, and Mr. Robartes, was appointed to 
 examine Flamsteed's papers, and reported in favour of printing all of 
 them. The superintendence of the printing, the choice of workmen, 
 &c was in the hands of the committee, and not in those of Flamsteed. 
 The latter gives the details of various vexations to which he was sub- 
 jected, and which ended (for the time) in a demand that Flamsteed 
 should give up a manuscript copy of the catalogue of stars, which was 
 the result of the observations, and was intended to be published at 
 the end. This was done, with remonstrance, by Flamsteed ; but the 
 
 catalogue (as much of it aa was ready) was sealed up; and Flamsteed 
 declares that he understood it was to be kept sealed up until the 
 whole of the rest was finished. It was three years before the first 
 volume was printed ; and during this time many small circumstances 
 occurred which, if Flamsteed's colouring of the more important facts 
 be correct, show a most determined intention on the part of the com- 
 mittee to give annoyance. Prince George died in 1708, before tha 
 second volume was begun; and the office of the committee was gone ; 
 but they still retained the papers in their keeping. Flamsteed, think- 
 ing nothing further about immediate publication, applied himself 
 again to his observations. In March 1710-11, he was surprised by 
 being told that the seal of his catalogue had been broken, and that it 
 was going through the press. Flamsteed immediately obtained an 
 interview with Dr. Arbuthnot, who assured him that none of it was 
 printed. This was not the fact; for in a few days Flamsteed him-elf 
 received several printed sheets, and learned that Halley had publicly 
 exhibited others in a coffee-hou^e, and boasted of the pains he had 
 taken in correcting their errors. The result was, that in 1712 appeared 
 the book known by the name of Halley, and entitled ' Historia; 
 Ccelestis libri duo,' &c. Flamsteed, exceedingly irritated by the con- 
 duct of Newton and Halley, and being not naturally of a gentle 
 temper, now kept no terms whatsoever with either. Newton had 
 recommended the appointment of a board of visitors for the Observa- 
 tory (made up of members of the Royal Society), and Flamsteed was 
 summoned to the Royal Society, October 2G, 1711, to know if his 
 instruments (his own property) were in order, &c. Here a warm 
 quarrel arose. Flamsteed declared to Newton that he had been robbed 
 of his labours, and Newton called Flamsteed various names, of which 
 'puppy' was the least. Newton reminded Flamsteed that he had 
 received 100<!. a year for thirty-six years, and Flamsteed asked Newton 
 what he had done for 500?. a year which he had received since he 
 came to London. Flamsteed charged Newton with having broken the 
 seal of his catalogue, and Newton replied that he had the queen's 
 order. After this interview, Flamsteed resolved to print all his 
 observations, &c, at his own expense, and applied to Newton for the 
 manuscript of 175 sheets of observations which were in his hands. 
 The demand was refused, aud Flamsteed commenced legal proceedings 
 for their recovery. The result of the suit is not known; but Flam- 
 steed states that Newton at last delivered all the contested manuscript 
 to Halley. The additional expense caused to Flamateed by this act 
 of Newton was about 200Z. 
 
 Queen Anne died in 1714, and the earl of Halifax, Newton's great 
 supporter at court, iu 1715. Flamsteed was now stronger with the 
 government than his opponents; and the lords of the treasury, at his 
 request, surrendered all that remained of Halley's edition (about 300 
 copies out of 400) to his mercy. These he immediately committed 
 (in part) to the flames — a sacrifice, as he calls it, to heavenly truth — ■ 
 reserving only about ninety-seven sheets of each, which had been 
 printed as he wished, aud which afterwards formed part of his first 
 volume. From this time to his death, which took place at the end of 
 December 1719, he was occupied in printing hi3 ' Historia Ccelestis,' 
 which however he did not live to finish. It was completed by his 
 widow, with the aid of Mr. Crosthwait, his assistant, and his frieud 
 the celebrated Abraham Sharp, and was published in 1725. The 
 maps, known by the name of Flamsteed's Atlas, were superintended 
 by the same persons. The ' Historia Ccelestis Britanuica ' contains a 
 complete account of the instruments and the methods employed, 
 together with a large mass of sidereal, lunar, and planetary observa- 
 tions, aud the result of the former, namely, the British Catalogue. 
 This work seems to us to occupy the same place in practical astronomy 
 which the Principia of Newton holds in the theoretical part. 
 
 This very singular story is, as we have already stated, an ex parte 
 one, resting entirely on Flamsteed's authority, supported by such 
 documents as he considered necessary to adduce. Some further 
 evidence however has been brought forward by Sir D. Brewster, 
 which throws considerable light upon the whole transaction, goes 
 some way to exonerate Newton from the heavier part of the 
 charge, aud shows Flamsteed to have been a not very scrupulous 
 adversary. 
 
 It will have been observed above, that Flamsteed is represented, in 
 March 171011, as having been surprised at learning " that the seal of 
 his catalogue had been broken, aud that it was going through the 
 press." Whereas, in a letter to Sharp (May 15, 1711), he writes that 
 he and Newton had met on March 20, 1707-8, when the second agree- 
 ment respecting the priuting was signed, " and then Sir Isaac had 
 opened the catalogue and desired me to insert the magnitude of the 
 stars in their places, for they had not always been inserted in it." 
 Again, Flamsteed, in his autobiography, ha3 given the articles of 
 agreement for the priuting of his papers which he proposed, and not 
 those which he signed. After signing the agreement, he began com- 
 plaining of the hardness of the bargain ; he also states it was above 
 two months, and in another, that "it was some months after (March 
 20, 1708) ere I could get the 125Z., and I am apt to think, had it 
 not been for Dr. Arbuthuot, I should never have received it." By the 
 agreement of March 20, the money was to be paid on the re-delivery 
 of the catalogue of stars to Sir Isaac, which was done on that day, 
 and the order of the referees exists, directing ttie Dayment, dated 
 March 26, and an order of Flamsteed himself ,dated Anril 10, to pay 
 
827 FLAXMAN, JOHN. 
 
 the money to a Mr. Hodgson, which was done on April 12. The 
 agreement which was actually signed by the parties has not been 
 discovered, but there are three drafts of it by Newton, differing 
 materially from that propounded by Flamsteed. Halley states that it 
 was agreed that the catalogue of stars should accompany the first 
 volume, which Mr. Baily denies. But Flamsteed himself says, " I 
 isigued the articles, but covenanted that the catalogue of the fixed 
 ttars mentioned to make a part of the first volume, should not be 
 printed but with the last." In opposition to this, which however 
 admits that the agreement which he signed provided for the printing 
 of the catalogue in the first volume, there is in Newton's draft a state- 
 ment of tho contents of the two volumes, in which the catalogue of 
 stars stands as the very first item of the first volume. It is also to be 
 observed, that Flamsteed made no objection for a considerable time. 
 On the signing of the second agreement, by which he was to receive a 
 payment of 125Z., he writes to Mr. Sharp, on April 19, 1708, of this 
 " change in his affairs which it will not be displeasing to him to hear." 
 The payment no doubt was very small for the immense amount of 
 labour, performed also with instruments of his own, and Flamsteed 
 had very sufficient reasons for being discontented, but he seems to 
 have vented his displeasure to a considerable degree on the wrong 
 parties; on the other hand, he was much harassed by the printing 
 committee in urging haste with his calculations, which seems to have 
 been done with as little consideration as if he had been a railway con- 
 tractor employed on an operation requiring nothing but bodily 
 labour. 
 
 We have thus endeavoured to present a view of both sides of the 
 question, so that our readers may form their own conclusions. We 
 may add, that among the matters contained in Mr. Baily 's preface is a 
 complete refutation of a story derived from a provincial history, that 
 Flamsteed, when very young, was convicted of highway robbery, and 
 that a pardon was found among his papers. On searching the records, 
 no such pardon is found entered, and various other circumstances 
 make it physically impossible that Flamsteed could have been thus 
 engaged at the time stated. 
 
 FLAXMAN, JOHN, was horn at York, July 6, 1755; yet he may 
 properly be considered a denizen of the metropolis, for he was brought 
 to London when not more than six mouths eld. At that time his 
 father, who was a mouldt-r of figures, kept a shop in New-street, 
 Covent Garden, and subsequently in the Strand; and it was in this 
 humble ftudio that the future artist received the first artistic 
 impressions. A natural weakness of constitution and delicacy of 
 health, which continued until about his tenth year, gave him a relish 
 for solitary and sedentary amusement. It was perhaps fortunate for 
 him as an artist to have thus early and constantly before his eyes 
 objects adapted to fix his feelings, and to rouse his intelligence. 
 Seated behind the counter with paper and pencil, or with books, he 
 studied more desultorily than would otherwise have been the case, 
 yet perhaps more profitably and more diligently, because less 
 compulsorily. 
 
 After the death of his mother, which occurred when he was in his 
 tenth year, his father married a second wife, who treated young Flax- 
 man and his brother with such tenderness as to win their affectiou 
 and esteem. It was somewhere about this period that having attracted 
 the notice of the Rev. Mr. Mathew, he was introduced by that gentle- 
 man to his wife, a lady of very superior acquirements, who took 
 delight in making him acquainted with the beauties of Homer and 
 Virgil, while he would attempt to embody with his pencil such poetic 
 images or parts of the narrations as most caught his fancy. By 
 those kind and judicious friends he was encouraged to study the 
 original languages; and although here also he was chiefly his own 
 tutor, he made such proficiency as enabled him to read the master 
 poets of antiquity, if not very critically, yet with sufficient readiness 
 to enter into their spirit and follow their conception?. 
 
 In his fifteenth year Flaxman became a student of the Royal 
 Academy, and in 1770 exhibited, as his first subject there, a figure" of 
 Neptune in wax. Here, while he distinguished himself by the 
 assiduity with which he prosecuted hi3 studies, he received a lesson 
 which taught him that application and enthusiasm combined are not 
 always a match for mediocrity when backed by favour, or following 
 the ordinary routine of the established authorities ; for on his 
 becoming a caudidate for the gold medal (the silver one he had 
 previously carried off), the prize was awarded to Englehearfc, a now 
 utterly forgotten name. Mortified, yet not dispirited, Flaxman 
 returned to his studies, with unabated energy, although for some 
 time compelled to devote a considerable portion of bis time to pro- 
 viding for the exigencies of the passing day, which he did by designing 
 and modelling for others, particularly for the Wedgwoods, to whom 
 his talents and his taste were eminently useful. Moderate as was the 
 remuneration, such employment put him at ease in his pecuniary 
 circumstances, because he already possessed one very important fund 
 towards pecuniary independence, namely a contented frugality and an 
 utter disrelish of all expensive habits and amusements. And here it 
 may be observed, that even in after-life, when he was in comparative 
 affluence, and when his fame would have been a passport to the most 
 brilliant circles, he continued to distinguish himself by perfect sim- 
 plicity in his habits and mode of living, equally remote from affectation 
 on the one hand and a spirit of penuriousceas on the other. 
 
 FLAXMAN, JOHN. Ml 
 
 In 1782 he removed from his paternal resilience in the Strand, and 
 established himself in a house iu Wardour-street. In the same year 
 he married Miss Ann Dentnan, a woman equally estimable for her 
 virtues and her accomplishments. He soon after gave proofs of 
 increased ability iu his profession by his monument of Collins the 
 poet, in Chichester Cathedral, and that of Mrs. Morh-y, iu Gloucester 
 Cathedral; the latter especially a work replete with that poetic 
 simplicity and pathos which hallow so many of our artist's productions 
 of that class. In 1787 he set out fur Italy, accompanied by his wife. 
 While ho was at Rome he made a series of thirty-nine subjects from 
 tho 'Iliad,' and thirty-four from the 'Odyssey,' illustrative of the 
 principal events iu those poems. Although he received a very small 
 pecuniary remuneration for these remarkable compositions, he was 
 paid iu worthier coin, for they at once stamped his reputation. They 
 also served to collect patrons around him ; among the rest the 
 Countess Spencer, for whom he composed his series of illustrations of 
 ' iEschylus,' and the eccentric Earl of Bristol and Bishop of Derry, 
 who had commissioned him to execute the group of 'Athamas.' 
 This group Flaxman engaged to execute for 600?., a sum far too small 
 to repay the costliness of the material and the labour bestowed ou 
 its execution ; but Flaxman was too honourable to retract from his 
 engagement. During his stay at Rome he executed for Mr. Thomas 
 Hope an exquisite small marble group of 'Cephalus and Aurora.' It 
 was for him too that he produced that third sublime series of poetic 
 compositions, the 'Illustrations of Dante,' amounting altogether to 
 109 subjects, namely, thirty-eight from the ' Inferno,' as many from the 
 ' Purgatorio,' and thirty-three from the 'Paradiso.' Here, being left 
 almost entirely to the resources of his own imagination, without 
 assistance from the previous ideas of other artists, he manifested still 
 greater originality of mind and intellectual vigour than in the Homeric 
 series, or that from ^Eschylus. All the three constitute an almost new 
 proviuce of art, combiuing the distinguishing qualities of picturesque 
 and sculpturesque design. 
 
 On his return from Italy, where he had spent upwards of seven 
 years, not unprofitably as regarded his pecuniary affairs, and certainly 
 most profitably as regarded both his studies and his reputation, he 
 took a house in Buckingham-street, Fitzroy-square, and in a very 
 short time distinguished himself by his noble monument to Lord 
 Mansfield. He was unanimously elected an Associate of the Royal 
 Academy in 1797. Iu that year he exhibited at the Academy hia 
 monument of Sir W. Jones, now iu the chapel of University College, 
 Oxford, aud three bas-relief sketches of subjects from the New 
 Testament, namely, ' Christ raisiug from the Dead the Daughter of 
 Jairus,' and two illustrative of the texts, ' Comfort and Help the 
 Weak-Hearted;' 'Feed the Hungry.' These may be considered as 
 the commencement of a cycle of scriptural compositions intended to 
 show that the simple truths of the Gospel were fully capable of 
 inspiring the sculptor and supplying him with appropriate subjects. 
 Of this class are the reliefs of the monument of Sir F. Baring's 
 family in Micheldean Church, Hants, which expressly figure the ideas 
 of the following sentences : ' Thy will be done ' — 'Thy kingdom come' 
 — ' Deliver us from evil.' To these may be added his beautiful 
 illustration of the text, ' Blessed are they that mourn,' in a monument 
 to Mary Lushington, of Lewisham, Kent, representing a mother 
 sorrowing for her daughter, and comforted by an angel. His groups 
 of 'Come, ye Blessed' — 'Lead us not into temptation' — 'Charity,' 
 and the monuments of Couutess Spencer and Mrs. Tighe, the poetes3, 
 not to enumerate others, are also replete with religious sentiment and 
 fervour. That he should have been pre-eminently happy in such 
 subjects needs not greatly excite our surprise, because he was at 
 home in them ; in them his head and hand spontaneously obeyed the 
 dictates of a heart tenderly alive to every sentiment of devotion. 
 Hence it was that he so successfully broke through the conventional 
 trammels of his profession, aud opened an almost entirely fresh track 
 for himself. On the contrary, when fettered down to common-place 
 ideas and subjects, he did not rise at all higher than many others 
 have done. Even his monument of Nelson, as well as others by him 
 iu St. Paul's, are cold both iu conception and execution. Whether he 
 would have succeeded very much better iu the colossal figure of 
 Britannia, which he proposed should be erected upon Greenwich Hill, 
 perhaps admits of doubt; although that he could have executed such 
 a work can hardly be questioned. A figure however of such stupendous 
 dimensions, for its height was to have been not less than 200 feet, was 
 treated as an absurdly extravagant, if not impracticable and utterly 
 visionary scheme. 
 
 In 1810 he was appointed to the then new professorship of sculpture 
 at the Royal Academy, to which circumstance the world is indebted 
 for his series of Lectures on the art, which, although of no extraordinary 
 merit as literary compositions, are full of good sense and good feeliug, 
 and may be studied with profit, not by those alone of his own pro- 
 fession, but by artists and men of taste generally. 
 
 Till the year 1820 he had enjoyed a life of serenity and tranquil 
 competence, with constaut occupation in the art he loved, aud 
 increasing fame attending it ; but he had now felt the bitterness of 
 losing his wife. He henceforth felt a blank in his existence which 
 neither the solace of friendship nor the honours of public applause 
 could fill up. Nevertheless he coutinvied to apply himself vigorously 
 to his art, and some of his latest productions are among his best. The 
 
929 FLECHIER, ESPRIT. 
 
 'Shield of AcLilles,' first modelled in 1S18, afterwards east in silver- 
 gilt for George IV., is certainly one of the most splendid achieve- 
 ments of the art in modern times. To this period belong also his 
 ' Psyche,' and group of the ' Archangel Michael and Satan ' (at 
 Petworth), both of them stamped with his genius. The interruptions 
 he experienced from illness or infirmity were but few and brief ; and 
 until three days before his death he was able to employ himself in 
 bis usual pursuits and studies without particular inconvenience. He 
 died on the 7th of December 1826, and on the 15th ho was followed 
 to the grave (in the churchyard of St. Giles-in-the-Fields) by the 
 president and council of the Royal Academy. 
 
 It is difficult to do justice to the character of Flaxman as a man 
 or as an artist without the semblance of overstrained panegyric. In 
 some of the mechanical parts of his art he did not greatly excel, 
 neither do his works display that high finishing and delicacy of 
 execution which captivate the eye and often mislead the judgment. 
 "If Flaxman," says Cicoguara, "had possessed skill in modelling and 
 execution equal to his talent in invention and composition, he would 
 certainly have had a great share in the prosperous revolution which 
 has taken place in the art. Nevertheless it is greatly indebted to 
 him, since, as far as we are acquainted with hi3 productions, we may 
 affirm that they have mainly contributed to awaken sculpture from a 
 certaiu monotonous lethargy, and to restore the golden style — the 
 severity of the antique — which he knew how to apply to his own 
 design*." This praise, if not very warm, is sufficiently discriminating 
 and just upon the whole. Flaxman helped to restore the art from 
 the inanity and soulless, though occasionally graceful, mannerism into 
 which it had fallen, and in which it appeared inclined to remain. 
 He rendered it more poetic, taught it to address itself to the heart, to 
 touch the noblest feelings of our nature, and, while it impressed, to 
 elevate them. 
 
 Flaxman, though he lived frugally, was barely able to secure a 
 decent competence during the larger part of his life, and it was 
 probably only by means of the highly-paid commissions he received 
 from government during his later years, that he was enabled to save 
 something beyond what sufficed to provide for his moderate daily 
 wants. At his death his property was sworn at under iOOOL, while 
 his far inferior contemporary Nollekeus, the portrait sculptor, died 
 worth nearly 150,000£. He left his property chiefly and all the 
 contents of his studio to his wife's younger sister, Miss Maria Denman, 
 whom he had long adopted as a daughter. The contents of his 
 studio included nearly all his working models, casts of all his chief 
 works, &c. ; Miss Denman preserved the collection entire with affection- 
 ate reverence for five-and-twenty years after the death of the great 
 sculptor; regarding herself as she declared but as a trustee for the 
 public until a fitting depository for these most valuable works should 
 be found. At length a not unsuitable museum was found — though 
 unfortunately not a national one : the Council of University College 
 having consented to have the cupola of the college adapted to their 
 reception. It was accordingly altered by Mr. Donaldson and con- 
 verted into a very good sculpture gallery, and there, in what is now 
 called Flaxman Hall, the working models and casts of about one 
 hundred and forty of the chief works of our greatest Euglish sculptor 
 we arranged. 
 
 FLE'CHIER, ESPRIT, born in 1632 at Pernes, near Carpeutras, 
 studied in the college of the ' Fathers of the Christian Doctrine,' of 
 which congregation his maternal uncle was then the superior. Being 
 ordained, he went to Paris, and became preceptor to a young gentle- 
 man. He made himself favourably known by writing penegyrieal 
 orations in honour of saints and also of deceased distinguished con- 
 temporaries, which were much liked at the time as specimens of 
 eloquence. In 1673 the Abbe" Fle'chier was named a member of the 
 French Academy; and in 1682 he was appointed by Louis XIV. 
 almoner to the Dauphiness. In 1685 he was sent at the head of a 
 mission to reclaim to Catholicism the Protestants of Poitou and 
 Brittany. On his return to Paris he was appointed by the king 
 bishop of Lavaur, but was soon after transferred to the see of Nismes. 
 The revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22nd October 1685, had been 
 followed by a species of persecution against the Protestants, or 
 Huguenots as they were called, who were very numerous at Nismes 
 and in-the neighbouring districts. Fleshier, who was naturally of a 
 mild disposition, while obeying the intolerant orders of the king 
 towards this part of the population, executed them with as much tem- 
 perance as could be expected from one in his situation. His letters 
 contain painful evidence of the oppressions and cruelties committed at 
 that epoch. When the persecuted Protestants rose in 1702-3 against 
 their oppressors, they fearfully retaliated by killing the Catholics and 
 burning their churches. This was followed by Louis XIV. sending a 
 large force under a marshal of France, and the devastation of the 
 mountainous districts of the CeVennes ensued. Fle'chier repeatedly 
 expressed his astonishment at the boldness and courage of the victims. 
 (Lettre 138, in the last volume of ' Les Uiuvres de Fldchier.') 
 Fle'chier died at Nismes February 16, 1710. His scattered works have 
 been collected and published : — ' (Euvres completes de Flechier,' 
 10 vols , Nismes, 1782. They consist of biographies, sermons, pane- 
 gyrics, and ' oraisons funfcbres,' in which last he was considered to 
 rival and almost to excel Bossuet. Cardinal Maury (' Essai sur 
 l'Eloquence de la Chaire,' vol. L) examines with a critical eye 
 
 FLETCHER, ANDREW. 
 
 Fle'ohier's oration in honour of Marshal Turonne, which was con- 
 sidered as his masterpiece, and points out its defects. Fle'chier wrote 
 a life of Cardinal Ximeues, rather too partial according to Bome 
 critics, and a life of Theodosius the Great. His correspondence above 
 mentioned furnishes some interesting materials for contemporary 
 history. 
 
 FLECKNOE, RICHARD, is said to have been an Irish Roman 
 Catholic priest. He was a minor poet and wit in the time of Dryden, 
 and would have been long since forgotten had not that writer used his 
 name as the title of a severe satire against Suadwell, and therein 
 proclaims that he 
 
 " In prose and verse wa3 own'd without dispute, 
 Through all the realms of nonsense absolute." 
 
 Of course his name was transmitted to posterity with the same 
 ignominy that has accompanied the heroes of Pope's 'Dunciad.' The 
 reader of satires should not however take too much for granted, nor 
 be too ready to admit as a fact that all objects of ridicule and invective 
 are such fools and knaves as they are represented. Party feeling and 
 private animosity may have occasioned the attacks directed by a 
 powerful opponent, rather than a cool judgment and a rational inquiry 
 into merits. In the case of the satires of Pope and Dryden, the 
 satires themselves are in the hands of every gentleman possessing a 
 moderate library, while the works of the persons satirised are utterly 
 unknown, excepting to those who take an active interest in studying 
 the literature of the period. Hence a vast number of persons are by 
 name familiar to the mass of readers, on account of their having been 
 by our great satirists denounced as the writers of unredeemed trash, 
 without any opportunity being given of examiuing the justice of the 
 sentence. Flecknoe, in particular, is a victim to these partial vie .vs. 
 There is no doubt that the mere readers of Dryden take it for granted 
 that Flecknoe was an almost unqualified idiot, yet it is a fact that 
 though he did not possess what can be called genius, and was sadly 
 defective in his versification, he still possessed much fancy, and wrote 
 some small pieces which for happy turn3 of thought would not mar 
 an eminent name. Flecknoe wrote some plays of no value : his 
 ' Damoisells,' a comedy, was printed in 1667, but not played. ' Love's 
 Dominion' (1654), 'The Marriage of Oceanus and Britannia,' and 
 'Ermiua, or the Chaste Lady,' are the titles of some of his other 
 dramatic pieces. The date of Flecknoe's birth is nowhere stated ; he 
 is believed to have died somewhere about 1678. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, CHARLES, wa3 descended from a private family 
 in Lancashire, from which several distinguished persons had sprung. 
 From a trooper in the earl of Essex's forces he rose to be colonel of 
 infantry, and was made governor of Bristol. In October 1615, he was 
 returned to Parliament for Buckinghamshire, and in 1647 was one of 
 the commissioners named to treat with the king. At the battle of 
 Worcester, Fleetwood distinguished himself so much that he gained 
 great favour both with Oliver Cromwell and the army in general : 
 indeed afterwards, when the king was executed, and the parliamentary 
 army became more powerful, he was inferior to few in the influence 
 that he possessed among the soldiery. Fleetwood had married Frances, 
 the daughter of Thomas Smith of Winston, Norfolk, by whom he had 
 three children, but this lady being dead, he was fixed upon by Crom- 
 well, from political motives, to marry Bridget, his eldest daughter, the 
 widow of Ireton. Soon after he became his son in-law the Protector 
 nominated him commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland, where he 
 was also invested with a commissionership for the civil department. 
 Cromwell however feeling that his interests were not perfectly secure 
 in the hands of Fleetwood, who was a thorough republican, and 
 strenuously opposed to the Protector being made king, sent his son 
 Henry Cromwell to watch over his conduct. Some enmity was thus 
 produced, and with the view of putting an end to it, Cromwell 
 created Fleetwood one of the new lords, and made him the chief of 
 the fourteen major-generals to whom the government of the nation 
 was arbitrarily committed and who were deputed to search for such 
 royalists as had borne arms under Charles I., or were disaffected to 
 the present government, with power to imprison them, and to deci- 
 mate their estates. When Richard Cromwell became Protector, 
 Fleetwood strove to obtain his title, and to supplant him in his 
 authority; but while he was caballing against him, the nation, wearied 
 with tumult and discord, recalled the exiled king. 
 
 At the immediate time of the Restoration it was supposed that 
 Fleetwood would be executed as a rebel : his life was with difficulty 
 saved, and he retired to Stoke Newington, where he was allowed to 
 spend the remainder of his life in obscurity. He died in 1692. In 
 character he was cunning, but irresolute, and of shallow capacity ; 
 his influence in Cromwell's army is perhaps mainly attributable to the 
 excess of his fanaticism. 
 
 FLETCHER, ANDREW, was the son of Sir Robert Fletcher, of 
 Saltoun, in East Lothian, where ho was born in 1653. Sir Robert is 
 said to have died when his son was a child. Andrew Fletcher's early 
 education was superintended by Gilbert Burnet, afterwards the 
 celebrated bishop of Salisbury, who was at this time parish minister 
 of Saltoun. To him Fletcher was probably indebted for his first bias 
 in favour of those political principles to which he adhered through his 
 life. When he grew up he spent some time in travelling on the 
 continent. On his v v turn home he obtained a seat in the Scottish 
 
 3 o" 
 
831 FLETCHER, GILES and PHINEAS. 
 
 parliament as commissioner, or member, for Lis native county ; and in 
 that capacity he soon became distiuguished as one of the foremost 
 opponents of the government. After some time however he deemed 
 it prudent to withdraw to Holland ; on which he was summoned 
 before the lords of the council, and when he did not make his 
 appearance was outlawed, and his estates confiscated. He ventured 
 to come home in 1683, but soon returned to tho continent, and there 
 remained till 1085, when he engaged in the attempt of the duke of 
 Monmouth. But he had scarcely landed in England when he shot the 
 mayor of Lyme dead in a private quarrel, and found himself obliged 
 precipitately to leave the country. He then proceeded to Spain, and 
 afterwards to Hungary, where he took part in some military opera- 
 tions against the Turks, and distinguished himself by his gallantry. 
 When the scheme of the English Revolution began to be projected, 
 he repaired to Holland to join the councils of his couutrymen there ; 
 and he came over to England with the Prince of Orango and his old 
 friend Burnet in 1688. He now recovered possession of his estate, 
 and again sat as representative for his native county, first in the 
 Scottish Convention, and afterwards in parliament. After a short time 
 however ho became nearly as determined an opponent of the govern- 
 ment of King William as he had formerly been of that of Charles II. 
 His last exertions as a public man were directed against the scheme of 
 the union of the two kingdoms. He died in London in 1716. He is 
 the author of the following tracts, all of which, we believe, were 
 originally published without his name: — 1,'A Discourse of Govern- 
 ment with relation to Militias,' Edinburgh, 1698; 2, 'Two Discourses 
 concerning the Affairs of Scotland, written in the year 1698,' 
 Edinburgh, 1698; 3, 'Discorso delle Cose di Spagna, scritto nel mese 
 di Luglio, 1698,' Napoli, 1698; 4, 'Speeches by a Member of the 
 Parliament which began at Edinburgh the 6th of May, 1703,' Edin- 
 burgh, 1703 ; 5, ' An Account of a Conversation concerning the right 
 Regulation of Governments for the Common Good of Mankind ; in a 
 Letter to the Marquis of Montrose, the Earls of Rothes, Roxburgh, 
 and Haddington, from Loudon, the 1st of December, 1703,' Edin- 
 burgh, 1704. The original editions of these publications are scarce, 
 but they were all reprinted at London in an octavo volume in 
 1737, under the title of 'The Political Works of Andrew Fletcher, 
 Esquire.' 
 
 Fletcher writes in a flowing and scholarlike style, occasionally rising 
 to considerable warmth and energy ; his compositions are interspersed 
 with many sagacious and happily expressed remarks, and they have at 
 all times the charm of earnestness and perfect conviction. But for 
 deep or extensive views in the philosophy of politics they will be 
 searched in vain. He is a stern democrat, aud violent in his denuncia- 
 tions of the arbitrariness and oppression of kings, yet he professes to 
 provide for the poor by the restoration of some such system of slavery 
 as he conceives existed among the Greeks and Romans. This singular 
 proposal is contaiued in his Two Discourses on the affairs of Scotland. 
 Among the most curious of his works is his ' Conversation on Govern- 
 ments,' which appears to be a report of a real conversation, the 
 parties beiug Fletcher himself, the Earl of Cromarty, Sir Edward 
 Seymour, and Sir Charles Musgrave. The part of the dialogue given 
 to Seymour in particular, is highly characteristic. It is in this pro- 
 duction that we find the remark so often quoted about the superior 
 influence aud importance of the national ballad-maker to the national 
 law-giver : Fletcher gives it as the observation of a friend. 
 
 FLETCHER, GILES and PHINEAS, were the sous of Dr. Giles 
 Fletcher, who was employed by Queen Elizabeth as ambassador in 
 Russia, and cousins of John Fletcher the dramatist. 
 
 Giles Fletcher, the elder, was born about 1580, was educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and died at his living of Alderton, in 
 Suffolk, in 1623. The single poem which he has left, ' Christ's Victory 
 iu Heaven, Christ's Triumph on Earth, Christ's Triumph over Death, 
 Christ's Triumph after Death,' will, as Southey observes, " preserve his 
 name while there is any praise." Its beauty is of a very peculiar cast, 
 uniting many of Spenser's characteristics with a greater regard to 
 antithesis. 
 
 The ' Wooing Song,' in the second part of the poem, is as perfect a 
 specimen of fanciful elegance as can be found ; and is the more striking 
 from being written iu octo-syllabic couplets, while the rest of the 
 poem is in a variation of the Spenserian stanza. 
 
 Phineas Fletcher, younger brother of Giles, was born about 1581, 
 and admitted scholar of King's College, Cambridge, in 1600. In 1621 
 he was presented to the living of Hilgay, in Norfolk, where he died 
 about 1650. 
 
 He wrote, in addition to his great work, some Eclogues ; a ' History 
 of the Founders and Benefactors of Cambridge University,' in Latin 
 hexameters, and a drama called ' Sicelides.' But the only work for 
 which he is now known is ' The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man,' a 
 description of the human soul and body, but especially the latter — 
 respecting which there is the most extraordinary fulness of what 
 may be called anatomical details — much in the style of ' Christ's 
 Triumph.' 
 
 The two Fletchers, with Browne, make up a kind of Spenserian 
 school, possessing considerable common resemblances, with original 
 qualities enough to procure for each a very high reputation. They 
 are the more remarkable as having tended to form the style of Milton's 
 poetry, as may be seen by any one well acquainted with both. 
 
 FLEURY, CLAUDE, ABBE. 933 
 
 FLETCHER, JOHN, was born in 1576, aud was the son of the 
 Rev. Dr. Fletcher, afterwards bishop of Bristol. He was educated at 
 Cambridge with his friend Francis Beaumont, and is said to have 
 distinguished himself as a good scholar. For an account of his principal 
 works and his literary connection with Beaumont, see Beadmont, 
 Francis. Fletcher survived his friend nearly ten years ; he was 
 carried off by a plague which happened in 1625. Between the death 
 of Beaumont aud that of Fletcher, eleven of the plays found in their 
 ' Works ' were produced, aud must be assigned wholly to Fletcher ; 
 and it appears most probable that the pastoral drama of the Faithful 
 Shepherdess is also to be attributed to him alone : but there is nothing 
 in the plays which belong wholly to Fletcher, to distinguish them from 
 such as are the joint production of the two friends. All that has been 
 said in the article above referred to of the dramas of Beaumont and 
 Fletcher, applies equally to those written by Fletcher only. In both, 
 an ever-present licentiousness of thought as well as expression is the 
 pervading characteristic, but iu both there lies beneath this the same 
 rich vein of pure poetry ; and while we repeat what we said under 
 Beaumont, as to their works being such as to render them, for all but 
 literary students, less adapted for reading in their entire state than in a 
 selection of passages, where might be found " as refined sentiment, lofty 
 aud sweet poetry, excellent sense, humour, aud pathos, as any iu the 
 language, excepting Shakespere and Chaucer," we take the oppor- 
 tunity of supplying an omission in that article, by adding that such a 
 selection has been made, with a very useful introduction and body of 
 notes, by Mr. Leigh Hunt, and that it forms a volume of Bonn's 
 Standard Library. 
 
 FLEURY', ANDRE HERCULE DE, CARDINAL, was born in 
 1653 at Lodeve in Languedoc, studied at Paris in the college of the 
 Jesuits, was afterwards made almoner to the queen-consort of 
 Louis XIV., and in 1699 bishop of Frejus, which see he resigned in 
 1715, on account of ill-health. Louis XIV. appointed him also pre- 
 ceptor to his grandson, afterwards Louis XV., who became greatly 
 attached to him. After the death of the regent in 1723, Fleury was 
 made a member of the Council of State, aud subsequently prime 
 minister, in which office he continued for seventeen jcars, till the 
 time of his death. The period of his administration was tho happiest 
 part of the reign of Louis XV. Fleury was honest, economical, dis- 
 interested, a friend to peace, and a patron of learning. He was 
 obliged, against his inclinations, by the court party and Marshal 
 Villars, to take a part in the war of the Polish succession in 1733, in 
 which France engaged chiefly in order to support Stanislaus Leczinsky, 
 father-in-law of Louis XV. Although that object was frustrated by 
 the united forces of Austria and Russia, yet the war terminated in 
 1736 in a manuer advantageous to France, which gained by it the 
 important accession of Lorraine. 
 
 In 1741 Cardinal Fleury found himself driven by court influence 
 into another war, that of the Austrian succession, of which he did 
 not live to see the end. He died in 1743, at eighty-nine years of age; 
 and from that time the government of Louis XV. fell deeper and 
 deeper into corruption aud decay. Fleury amassed no fortune, but he 
 left the reputation of a wise, benevolent, and faithful minister of 
 state. He completed the building for the royal (now imperial) 
 library, which he enriched with a number of valuable manuscripts, 1 
 especially in the oriental languages. 
 
 FLEURY, CLAUDE, ABBE, was born at Paris in 1640, and died 
 in 1723, aged eighty-three years. All the contemporary writers 
 coincide in the opinion that Fleury possessed all the virtues and 
 qualities requisite to constitute a scholar, an honest man, and a 
 Christian. Having completed in a brilliant manner his studies at the 
 college of Clermont at Paris, he embraced in 1658 the profession of 
 his father, who was a distinguished advocate, and he practised at the 
 bar for nine years. To his legal occupations he united the study of 
 literature and history, but the religious turn of his mind having 
 induced him to enter the church, he thenceforward entirely devoted 
 himself to the study of divinity, the Holy Scriptures, canon law, and 
 the Fathers. In 1674 he was appointed tutor to the princes Conti, 
 whom Louis XIV. educated with his son the Dauphin. After that 
 the king intrusted him with the education of his natural son the 
 Prince of Vermandois. Upon the death of the young prince, Louis con- 
 ferred on Fleury the abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese of Rhodez, and 
 five years later (16S9) he was created sub-preceptor of the king's 
 grandsons the Dukes of Bourgogne, Anjou (afterwards Philip V., king 
 of Spain), and Berri. Fleury thus became the associate of Fenelon. 
 In 1696 he succeeded Labruyere as member of the French Academy, 
 and when the education of the three above-mentioned princes was 
 completed (1707), the king bestowed on him the priory of Argenteuil, 
 in the diocese of Paris. This grant was very acceptable to Fleury, as 
 it afforded him a comfortable retirement for the prosecution of his 
 studies, without depriving him of those resources which are found 
 only in a capital. Being however a strict observer of the canon law, 
 which was the particular subject of his study, and which prohibits a 
 plurality of ecclesiastical benefices, he resigned the abbey of Loc- 
 Dieu. In his retirement at Argenteuil, notwithstanding he was now 
 sixty-six years old, he conceived the plan of his grand work the 
 ' Ecclesiastical History,' and began the execution of it. After the 
 death of Louis XIV. (1716), the Regent Due d'Orleans nominated 
 Fleury confessor to the young king Louis XV., a post which he held 
 
FLINDERS, MATTHEW 
 
 till 1722, when lie resigned it on account of his great age, being then 
 in his eighty-third year. He died a few months afterwards. 
 
 Fleury commenced his literary career with the ' Histoire du Droit 
 Francois,' 1674. He afterwards published successively 'Institution au 
 Droit Ecclesiastique,' ' Cate'chisnie Historique,' translated into Latin 
 by the author himself, a work which has become classical, and is con- 
 stantly reprinted ; ' Les Mceurs des Israelites,' of which au English 
 translation was made by Dr. Adam Clarke. ' Les Mceurs des Chretiens,' 
 also translated iuto English. These two last woiks are considered, 
 for elegance and precision of style, as among the best in the French 
 language. He also wrote ' Traite" du Choix et de la Me"thode des 
 Etudes.' But the most valuable of Fleury's works, and that which 
 lias established his reputation as a first-rate writer, is the ' Histoire 
 Eccle'siastique.' It comprehends a space of fourteen centuries, 
 beginning with the establishment of Christianity, and terminating at 
 the opening of the council of Constance. It was objected to the 
 author that he related too many miracles, but he excused himself on 
 the ground that such was the belief of the church to which he 
 belonged. Fleury was engaged on the 20th volume of his History at 
 the time of his death. It was continued till the year 1698 by Fobre, 
 of the Oratoire, in 16 vols, in 4to. Fleury 's 'Ecclesiastical History' 
 is translated into English. The university library of Cambray contains 
 a manuscript of a ' History of France,' which Fleury drew up for the 
 use of the French princes while he was engaged with their education, 
 but it has never been printed. We must not omit to mention, that, 
 notwithstanding his grave occupations, Fleury had leisure to compose 
 a treatise on the duties of masters and servants. This little work, 
 which has been much esteemed, is translated into English. 
 
 FLINDERS, MATTHEW, was born at Donington, in Lincolnshire, 
 about 1760. He went early to sea in the merchant service. In 1795 
 he was a midshipman in the Royal Navy, and went to New Holland 
 with the ship that conveyed Captain Hunter, the new governor, to 
 Botany Bay. On board this ship he found a congenial mind in George 
 Bass, the surgeon, who, like himself, was bold and adventurous, and 
 had a passionate desire to explore new countries. Soon after their 
 arrival at Port Jackson these enterprising young men launched a little 
 boat, which was appropriately called Tom Thumb, being only eight feet 
 long. In this boat Flinders and Bass, with no other companion than 
 a boy, ran across Botany Bay, and explored George's River 20 miles 
 beycud the point where Governor Hunter's survey had stopped. 
 They made several discoveries and encountered many dangers. Their 
 heroism was appreciated by but few persons in the colony. The 
 English had been ten years in possession, and there was an imaginary 
 line of more than 250 leagues (beginning in the vicinity of the colony) 
 set down on the charts as "unknown coast." Flinders was anxiou3 
 to remove this blot. The complete examination of Australia became 
 what he called his "darling object." It was not yet known that 
 Van Diemen's Land was a separate island ; the existence of a strait 
 dividing it from Australia was first mentioned as a probable fact by 
 Bass, who ran down the coast in a whale-boat, and who suggested 
 that the heavy swell which rolkd iu from the westward could be pro- 
 duced only from the Great Southern Ocean. Flinders was sent with 
 his old companion Bass to ascertain this fact. They embarked in the 
 Norfolk, a large decked boat built of the excellent fir of Norfolk 
 Island; and they had only six men to assist them. They went 
 through the straits, made a rapid survey, and returned to Port 
 Jackson in little more than three months. The name of Bass was 
 given to thia strait. In the following year, 1799, Flinders, now a 
 lieutenant in the Royal Navy, was sent in the same small vessel to 
 explore the coast to the north of Port Jackson, where nothing had 
 been done since the imperfect notices by Cook. He visited and 
 examined all the creeks and bays as far north as 25°, paying par- 
 ticular attention to Harvey's Bay, and returned to Port Jackson with 
 satisfactory accounts. On his return to England he wa3 promoted. 
 Bass, we may add, appears to have met with no reward whatever. 
 In 1802 he left Port Jackson as mate or master of a trading vessel, 
 and was never more heard of. In 1820 there was a vague report that 
 Bass wa3 alive and settled somewhere iu Peru ; but the more probable 
 story is that he was lost at sea. 
 
 In July 1801 Captain Flinders sailed from England in the Investi- 
 gator, a barque of 334 tons, carrying 88 men, including an astronomer, 
 a naturalist, two painters, a botanic gardener, and a miner. Englaud 
 and France were at war at the time, the preliminaries of the treaty of 
 Amiens not being signed until the 25th of October following ; but a 
 French pass, conceived in flattering terms, and speaking of the sacred 
 rights of science, was granted to Flinders, who, whether in war or. 
 peace, was to be respected by all armed ships of France, and to be 
 entertained a3 a friend in any French colony that he might make. 
 Such conditions, though not expressly laid down, had been acted upon 
 by the French in the time of Louis XVI. ; and about a year before 
 Captain Fliuders's departure the English government had regularly 
 established a precedent. M. Otto, in the name of Bonaparte, applied 
 for a similar free pass in favour of Captain Baudin, who, it was said, 
 was going with two ships on a voyage of discovery " round the 
 world ; " and the Addington administration readily and courteously 
 granted it, notwithstanding the fierce hostilities which were then raging 
 between the two nations. 
 
 In the month of December Captain Flinders made Cape Leuwen, on 
 
 FLINDERS, MATTHEW. 
 
 the south-east coast of Australia; and commencing operations, ho 
 gradually surveyed and examined the coast to the eastern extremity 
 of Bass's Straits, where, in Encounter Bay, lie met the French ships, 
 which, instead of going round the world, had made straight for Aus- 
 tralia, and devoted their whole care to the examination of Van 
 Diemen's Laud and New South Wales, evidently with a view to the 
 formation of a French colony. Capt. Baudin had had the start of Flin- 
 ders by nine months ; but he had been delayed in collecting shells and 
 catching butterflies, and at the moment of their meeting he had dono 
 little iu the way of discovery or survey ; and Flinders says that by 
 assiduity and favourable circumstances he had anticipated him iu the 
 most interesting parts of the southern coast. He says that he gave 
 Baudin an account of his discoveries. Baudin afterwards said that he 
 found Captain Flinders not very communicative, but that he obtained 
 intelligence of all that had been done on the southern coast from some 
 of his people. From Bass's Straits Flinders sailed to Port Jackson, 
 where he arrived on the 9th of May 1802. Having refitted, he set off 
 again on the 22ud of July. He then steered northerly along the east 
 coast, exploring Northumberland and Cumberland Islands, and sur- 
 veying the great Barrier Reef of coral rocks — a long and dangerous 
 tract, most necessary to lay down. In fourteen days he conducted 
 the Investigator through these perilous mazes, where he had nothing 
 to guide him but his own vigilance and skill ; then bearing still north, 
 he made Torres Straits, and surveyed the vast gulf of Carpentaria, 
 which had been very imperfectly examined by General Carpenter, its 
 first discoverer. While engaged in this duty the Investigator was 
 reported to be " quite rotten," and in such a state that she could not 
 possibly last above six months in fine weather. Three of these mouths 
 Flinders kept her in the gulf; he then stood away for the island of 
 Timor, where he refreshed his sick and over-fatigued crew. From 
 Timor he made his way with the leaky bark to Cape Leuwen. Sailing 
 again along the southern coast, he anchored in the Archipelago of the 
 Recherche ; then passing Bass's Straits a second time, he made for 
 Port Jackson, where he arrived on the 9th of June 1803, having lost 
 many of his best men, and among others Good, the botanical gardener. 
 The Investigator was immediately condemned ; she was in such a 
 leaky state that people could scarcely conceive how she had been kept 
 afloat. 
 
 Unable to continue the survey (there being no disposable vessel in 
 the colony), Captain Flinders embarked as passenger iu the Porpoise, 
 a store-ship, iu order, he says, " to lay his charts and journals before 
 the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and obtain, if such should 
 be their pleasure, another ship to complete the examination of the 
 Terra Australia." The Porpoise was accompanied by two trading 
 vessels— the Bridgewater, Captain Palmer, and the Cato of Loudon. 
 The route chosen was by Torres Straits. On the 17th of August, at 
 night, the Porpoise suddenly found herself among breakers, and the 
 very next instant " striking upon a coral-reef, she took a fearful heel 
 over her larboard beam-ends." A minute or two after, the Cato struck 
 on the same reef, about two cable-lengths off, and went over. The 
 Bridgewater, which was close by, cleared the rocks, and was perfectly 
 safe in smooth water ; but Palmer basely " bore away round all," and 
 then pursued his course without doing so much as sending a boat to 
 ascertain the fate of the two crews. As morning dawned, Flinders, 
 who acted with admirable self-possession, contrived to get the men 
 safely lauded on a sand-bank, which at all stages of the tide remained 
 a little above water-mark. They removed some portion of the stores 
 from the wrecks, and made themselves as comfortable as men could 
 be in such a situation. There is scarcely a more interesting case of 
 shipwreck upon record; and the methods adopted, and the admirable 
 order preserved, show that there was a master-mind among them. 
 On the 26th of August Flinders left the reef in a small open boat, to 
 make a voyage of 750 miles. He however got safely to Port Jackson 
 on the 6th of September, and procured a small schooner, the Cumber- 
 land, which was only twenty nine tons, and when she got to sea it was 
 found that she was very leaky. She was accompanied as far as the 
 wrecks by another schooner, and by a trading-vessel which was bound 
 for China. Flinders reached the reef on the 7th of October, and was 
 received with three cheers. In the meanwhile the poor sailors on 
 Wreck Reef Bank had planted oats, maize, and pumpkins, and the young 
 plants were up and flourishing. Captain Flinders regretted that he 
 had no cocoa-nuts with him to plant on the bank. Some of the men 
 went back to Port Jackson in the schooner, some embarked in the 
 trading-ship bound for China, the rest cheerfully remained with Flin- 
 ders, to make, in the ill-conditioned Cumberland, which was not quite 
 so large as a Gravesend sailing-boat, the circumnavigation of half the 
 globe ; for Flinders intended to reach England with this miserable craft. 
 He mentions that not a man refused to share the risk with him except 
 his clerk. Having gone through Torres Straits, and touched again at 
 Timor, Flinders stretched boldly across the Indian Ocean, and made 
 the Isle of France, which was not yet taken by the English. Though 
 the war had been renewed, he relied on his French pass, and iudeed 
 he could scarcely choose, for the little Cumberland was in a sinking 
 state when he got her into the French port. To his astonishment the 
 authorities of the Isle of France seized the vessel and all his papers, 
 and declared him and his people to be prisoners of war. The governor 
 even chose to consider Flinders as a spy, and treated him with a 
 brutal severity which, united with his uneasiness of mind, certainly 
 
93fi FLINK, GOVERT. 
 
 had tlie effect of shortening his valuable life. Flinders knew that 
 Baudin was returning to Franco, and he saw with a prophetic eye that 
 the Frenchman would claim the merit of all his discoveries on the 
 southern coast of Australia. He thought the governor De Caen too 
 illiterate to know or care much about the matter, otherwise he saya 
 that he should have been induced to suspect that he was detained a 
 prisoner in order that Baudin might have the start of him in publish- 
 ing, and make the world believe that it was to the French nation 
 alone they were indebted for the complete discovery and examination 
 of those parts. Some English writers did not hesitate to take this 
 view of the case, and what followed in France settled the question. 
 A volume and an atlas were published ; the whole of the southern 
 coast, including not only all the discoveries of Flinders and Bass, but 
 also those of Nuyts, Vancouver, Grant, and Dentrecasteaux, was laid 
 down as new land, and called ' Terre Napoleon.' Every point which 
 had been named by Fliuders and his precursors was named afresh, and 
 there were all sorts of significant names given, from Cape Marengo 
 and Cape Rivoli to Talleyrand Bay. Baudin had ma le about fifty 
 leagues of real discovery ; he claimed or seemed to claim nearly nine 
 hundred leagues. 
 
 After pining six yeara a prisoner in tho Isle of France, Flinders was 
 liberated, and he reached England at tho end of the year 1810. His 
 charts aud plans were restored to him, but one of his log-books was 
 kept or destroyed. His health was completely broken, but as long 
 as there was work to do ho kept up his energy, correcting his map3, 
 aud writing out his descriptions. After revising his last sheet for 
 press he drooped; he died in the month of July 1814, on the very 
 day his book was published. 
 
 (A Voyage to Terra Australia, iic, in the years 1801, 1802, and 
 1803, in H. M. Ship Investigator, and subsequently in the armed vessel 
 Porpoise and Cumberland schooner, 2 voU., with Atlas, London, 1811 ; 
 also Quarterly Review, vol. xii.) 
 
 FLINK, GO VERT, a very able Dutch painter, born at Cleves in 
 1616. His parents were wealthy, and designed Govert for a merchant, 
 an occupation to which he showed every disinclination ; but his 
 parents steadfastly opposed his own inclination to become a painter, 
 until they happened to hear a sermon by Lambert Jakobzen, a 
 Minorite of Leeuwarden, who was himself a paiuter. They in con- 
 sequence changed their notions as to the eligibility of Govert's choice, 
 and placed him with Jakobzen to learn to paint. He studied after- 
 wards a year under Rembrandt at Amsterdam, and completely mas- 
 tered his style of execution and colour, aud adhered to it until after the 
 death of Rembrandt, when the Italian taste prevailed, and he had seen 
 the works of Rubens and Vandyck. Flink then took as much pains to 
 get out of Rembrandt's manner as he had before taken to acquire it. 
 He was however as successful in the one as in the other. He died in 
 1660, aged only forty-four. His last picture is also his best, — 'Solomon 
 praying for Wisdom ;' it is in the Council Hall at Amsterdam. He has 
 also painted many other admirable historical pictures aud portraits : 
 he has, indeed, had few superiors a3 a portrait-painter. Flink formed 
 a good collection of prints and Italian drawing?, which was sold after 
 his death for 12,000 florins. 
 
 FLINT, TIMOTHY, an American clergyman and writer, whose 
 career is curiously illustrative of the shifting phases through which 
 professional men occasionally pass in the United States. Born in July 
 1780 at North Reading in Massachusetts, he became, after passing 
 through the theological course at Harvard University, in 1S02 pastor 
 to a congregational church at Lunenburg, Massachusetts. Here he 
 remained for twelve years, but political differences with leading 
 members of his church having rendered his position very uncomfort- 
 able, he in 1811 resigned his charge. In the following year he proffered 
 his services to a missionary society, and in September 1815 he set out 
 with his family in a two-horse waggon for the then almost unoccupied 
 western valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio. Having spent the first 
 winter in Cincinnati, he pushed forward, and during seven or eight 
 successive summers preached his way through Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, 
 Missouri, aud Arkansas. His health failing, he resigned his mission, 
 and during the nest two or three years tried farming and school-teaching 
 at New Orleans, on the borders of Lake Portchartraine, and at Alex- 
 andria on Red River, without much success in either vocation. At 
 length, finding that in the west he had utterly broken down in health 
 and pocket, he turned homeward, and reached Massachusetts in safety, 
 though as he fancied only to die in his native place. His health 
 improved however, but he now found himself at the age of five-and- 
 forty with life to begin anew, and his proper calling closed to him by 
 his confirmed ill-health. He set to work with the undaunted energy 
 so characteristic of his countrymen. He had made ample notes of the 
 countries he passed through in his missionary travels, and he now 
 composed from them ' Recollections of Ten Years' Residence and 
 Travels in the Valley of the Mississippi,' which he published at Boston 
 in 1826. The truth and picturesque force of the descriptions secured 
 for his book a favourable reception in Europe as well as in America : 
 it was reprinted in London, and translated into French. Mr. Flint 
 at once determined to make literature his profession, and somewhat 
 oddly, considering his ' antecedents,' his first venture, after forming 
 this resolution, was as a novelist in ' Francis Berrian, or the Mexican 
 Patriot,' an autobiography. But the news of the Europeau success of 
 his Mississippi 'Recollections' incited him to write a second part to 
 
 FLORliZ, ENRIQUE. 
 
 that work, or rather a more formal work on the same country, then 
 an almost uudescribed one. It was published at Cincinnati in 1827 
 under the title of ' The Geography of the Mississippi Valley,' and with 
 the ' Recollections ' formed by far the most valuable account which 
 had up to that time been published of the geography of the western 
 states, and the two works still remain perhaps the best description of 
 the scenery and physical features of tho great valley of the Mississippi. 
 
 During the next three years Mr. Flint published three more novels, 
 'Arthur Clenning,' a sort of 'Robinson Crusoe" story — the adventures 
 of the hero occurring however in Australia and Illinois ; ' George 
 Mason, or the Backwoodsman ;' and the ' Shoshonee Valley,' in whicli 
 an adventurous Baptist missionary, well skilled in 'trapping,' plays au 
 important part, aud in which there can be little doubt the author's 
 own experience furnished much of the materials. His novels hardly 
 meeting with the success he desired, Mr. Flint now recurred to his 
 early scientific pursuits. While a clergyman at Lunenburg, ho had 
 been a diligent student in natural history and chemistry; indeed his 
 fondness for the latter had involved him in some trouble. For when 
 he and his flock began to disagree, some of the more ignorant or 
 unscrupulous of the malcontents set afloat a report that his occupa- 
 tion in tho ' laboratory ' was that of making counterfeit coin ; and 
 such was the effect of the report, that Mr. Flint deemed it necessary 
 to prosecute one or more of the parties for slander. Returning to his 
 scientific studies.he now lectured on natural history, geology, chemistry, 
 the steam-engine, the application of science to the arts, &c. ; and in 
 1832 published his lectures at Boston. 
 
 He next turned his attention to periodical literature ; in the first 
 instance acting, during 1833, as editor of the ' Knickerbocker Maga- 
 zine.' On that passing into other hands he removed to Cincinnati, 
 where, for three or four years, he edited the ' Western Monthly Maga- 
 zine; ' at the same time writing numerous tales and essays for several 
 other periodicals; a 'Life of Daniel Boone, the Backwoodsman;' a 
 ' History of the Indian Wars of the West ; ' translations, &c. 
 
 At length entirely worn-out, hs returned once more to his native 
 town, and there, a few months after his wife, he died August 16th, 
 1810. Timothy Flint takes no very high rank as a writer — he wrote 
 too much and too fast to write well — but there is much descriptive 
 power aud some originality in hi3 works, and his story is odo so 
 remarkable, as an example of energy, perseverance, and honest self- 
 helpfulness, as to deserve a somewhat more ample relation than his 
 mere literary rank would claim. But when it is remembered that he 
 commenced authorship at forty-five, and that all his books were written 
 during continuous ill-health, we shall be ready to recognise the ability 
 as well as to admire the spirit of the author. 
 
 FLORENTI'NUS, a Roman jurist, whose prsenomen is unknown. 
 His period also is uncertain, but he lived after the Emperor Antoninus 
 Pius, for he cites one of his Constitutions, aud names him Divug 
 ('Dig.' 41, tit. 1, s. 16). He is not mentioned by any of the jurists who 
 are cited in the ' Digest,' a circumstance which seems to argue that he 
 belonged to a later age than any of them, or was at least ad late as any 
 of them. He wrote eleven books of ' Inatitutione3,' from which there 
 are a few excerpts in the ' Digest.' 
 
 FLOREZ, ENRIQUE, a laborious contributor to the elucidation of 
 Spanish history, was born at Valladolid on the 14th of February 
 1701, entered the order of Augustin monks in his fifteenth year, and 
 after having published a course of theology, as professor of the 
 science at Alcala, devoted himself to a series of historical labours, 
 which was only closed by his death at Madrid in 1773. His first 
 historical work was his ' Clave Historial,' a compendium of universal 
 history, published in 1743, which reached its tenth edition in 1780, 
 not much to the credit of the Spanish reading public, as its merits 
 are small and it is strongly tinctured with bigotry and prejudice. 
 Fortunately for his reputation, Florez's other works are of a kind in 
 which he was better qualified to excel. The most celebrated is the 
 ' Espaiia Sagrada,' a work, which like the ' Italia Sacra,' of Ughelli, 
 and the ' Gallia Christiana ' of Sainte Marthe, was to exhibit the 
 history of each diocese of the country, with a notice of its successive 
 occupants. Had Florez confined himself to the execution of this plan 
 on a moderate scale, he might probably, as he anticipated, have not 
 only completed the work, but followed it up with a similar compila- 
 tion relating to the Spanish dioceses in the east and west. But he 
 allowed himself to be so diffuse on collateral subjects, that at his 
 death, at the age' of seventy, the work which had advanced to its 
 twenty-seventh volume, was far from complete. It was continued 
 by two other Augustin monks, Risco and La Canal, and the last 
 volume which has appeared is the forty-seventh, issued in 1850, 
 under the editorship of Sainz de Baranda, at the expense of the 
 Spanish government, which had been memorialised by the Academy 
 of Uisburg in 1835, at the time of the dissolution of the religious 
 houses, to take the 'Espaiia Sangrada' under its patronage, as "a 
 work classical of its kind, and enjoying a European reputation." Its 
 chief value in the eyes of foreigners consists in its numerous appendices 
 in which ancient chronicles are often printed at length, which are not 
 to be fouud elsewhere. Florez was also the author of ' Memorias de 
 las Reynas Catolicas,' or 'Lives of the Queens of Spain' (2 vols., 4to, 
 1770), containing plates of the costumes of the queens, which, singu- 
 larly enough are omitted in a work on the same subject by a laly, 
 the 'Annals of the Queens of Spain,' by Anita George (New York, 
 
637 
 
 FLORIAN, JEAN-PIERRE-CLARIS DE. 
 
 FOIX, COUNT DE. 
 
 938 
 
 1850). His 'Medallas de las Colonias de Espana' (3 vols. 4to, Madrid, 
 1757-73), treats of the period of ancient history only when Spain was 
 occupied with Roman colonies. There are two portraits of the author, 
 one bearing the date of 1760, and the other of 1773, which are 
 usually inserted in the first and last volumes. 
 
 FLORIAN, JE AN-PIERKE-CL ARIS DE, was born of a noble 
 family in the Chateau-Florian, in the Cevennes, in 1755. His edu- 
 cation was superintended by his grandfather ; but, on his dying 
 deeply in debt, Florian was obliged to look around him for some 
 means of support. The Marquis de Florian, his uncle, who had mar- 
 ried a niece of Voltaire's, took young Florian to Ferney, where the 
 philosopher spoke encouragingly of his talents. In 1768 he became 
 page of the Due de Penthievre, and finding that he had a passion for 
 the army, that nobleman gave him a company of the dragoons de 
 Penthievre. He shortly afterwards retired from active service, and 
 accepted the place of gentleman in ordinary to the duke, who treated 
 him as a friend. Having now an opportunity of devoting himself to 
 literature, he produced in 1783 the romance of 'Galatea,' in imitation 
 of the novels of Cervantes. His mother being a Castilian, he was 
 perfectly familiar with the Spanish language. ' Galatee ' was followed 
 by the well-known 'Numa Pompilius,' published in 1786. The pas- 
 toral romance of ' Estelle,' which was produced two years afterwards, 
 and was reckoned by critics his best production, caused but small 
 sensation at the time. He also brought out a collection of fables and 
 a number of little comedies, in the Italian style, with Arlechino for 
 their hero, which were very successful. In 1791 he published his 
 romance ' Gonzalve de Cordoue,' which was preceded by an historical 
 notice of the Moors. In 1793 he was banished from Paris by the 
 decree published against the nobility, and retired to Sceaux, the 
 inhabitants of which received him with cordiality, as, in conjunction 
 with the Due de Penthievre, he had always been their benefactor. 
 He was afterwards arrested, and confined in the prison called Port 
 Libre, but was soon liberated. His health was so affected by anxiety, 
 that he died in 1791, having, during his incarceration, written the 
 romance of ' Guillaume Tell.' 
 
 Florian seems to have been a writer who did little else than imitate, 
 in an inferior manner, the authors who had preceded him. ' Galatee ' 
 is an imitation of Cervantes; 'Numa' of Fenelon's 'Telemaque;' 
 and the fables, of those of La Fontaine. His fables, which are well 
 spoken of by La Harpe, contain some very neat and accurate descrip- 
 tions ; indeed, as a fabulist, La Fontaine is alone his superior. The 
 translation of 'Don Quixote,' which is a posthumous work, is cen- 
 sured for its want of humour. 
 
 FLORIS, FRANS, or FRANS DE VRIEND, a celebrated 
 Flemish painter, whom Vasari terms the Flemish Raffaelle, was born 
 of a good family at Antwerp, in 1520. His father, Cornelis de Vriend, 
 was a sculptor, and Frans in his earlier years followed his father's 
 profession. He learnt painting under Lambert Lombardus at Liege, 
 and studied afterwards the works of Raffaelle, Michel Angelo, and the 
 antique, for some years at Rome. He returned with a great reputation 
 to Antwerp, and formed a numerous school there. He was the most 
 distinguished painter in the Netherlands in the time of Charles V. and 
 Philip II. ; but he injured his prospects by his notorious love of wine, 
 which he habitually took to excess ; in fact, he had the reputation of 
 being as great a drunkard as a painter. He died at Antwerp in 1570. 
 
 Van Mander and Descamps mentions several works by Floris which 
 are now lost ; but there are still some excellent works by him in the 
 -Netherlands, and there are others in the galleries of Vienna, Dresden, 
 and Berlin. One of his best works is a Nativity, in the cathedral at 
 Antwerp. It is described by Sir Joshua Reynolds as well composed, 
 well drawn, and well coloured ; Sir Joshua admired also his ' Cruci- 
 fixion,' at the Recollets. Floris etched a few plates, and some of his 
 designs were engraved and published by Jerome Cock. 
 
 (Van Mander, Leven der Schildert; Descamps, Vie des Peintres 
 Flamandt, &c.) 
 
 FLORUS, LUCIUS ANN^EUS, a native of Spain, or, according to 
 others, of Gaul, lived under Trajan and Hadrian. Some have sup- 
 posed him to be the same as Lucius Julius Florus, who lived under 
 Augustus, and to whom Horace has addressed two of his Epistles ; 
 but as, in the proemium to his history, Florus speaks of Trajan, he 
 cannot be the same person as Lucius Julius, unless we suppose the 
 passage to be interpolated. This question has been discussed by 
 Titze, 'De Epitome Rerum Romanorum,' 1804. Others have sup- 
 posed Florus the historian to be the same as Julius Florus or Floridus, 
 who lived under Hadrian, and wrote the 'Pervigilium Veneris,' a 
 pretty poem in imitation of Horace's ' Carmen Seculare ; ' but the 
 identity of the two writers is very doubtful. Lucius Annseus Florus 
 wrote a small work entitled ' Epitome de Qestis Romanorum,' in four 
 books, from the foundation of the city to the closing of the Temple of 
 Janus by Augustus. The author compiled his epitome from Livy and 
 from other historians whose works are lost. It is meagre and declama- 
 tory, and is less a history than a panegyric of the Roman people. 
 Florus is also incorrect in his chronology and geography. It must be 
 observed however that the text, as we have it, is corrupt and interpo- 
 lated. The work is of some use as a kind of substitute, however poor, 
 for thoBe books of Livy which are lost. Some manuscripts attribute 
 to Florus also the Epitomse, or heads of contents, of the books of Livy. 
 
 FO-HI, the name of the first emperor of China, is said to have been 
 BIOO. div. vol. it 
 
 born in the province of Shensy, and to have reigned B.C. 2952. 
 According to the Chinese historians, Fo-hi reclaimed the inhabitants 
 of China from barbarism, established social order, instituted marriage, 
 and taught them the use of writing. Fo-hi and his two successors 
 Shin-noong and Hoang-ti, who are usually termed the ' Three 
 Emperors,' must be considered as belonging to the fabulous part of 
 Chinese history. He is said to havo been the author of one of the 
 canonical books of the Chinese, called 'Ye king.' (Du Halde, 
 Description de V Empire de la Chine, vol. i. p. 266-269; vol. ii. p. 344- 
 353.) 
 
 FOHR, CARL PHILIPP, a landscape painter of great ability and 
 greater promise, was boru at Heidelberg in 1795. In 1816 he visited 
 Rome, and made the acquaintance of Cornelius, Veit, Overbeck, and 
 Koch the landscape painter, and he shortly painted two large pictures 
 there, which ranked him among the first painters of his class, and 
 procured him the notice, patronage, and friendship of Ludwig I., the 
 late king of Bavaria, then crown-prince. This ardent friend of German 
 artists was strongly impressed with Fohr's ability ; on taking leave of 
 him at Rome, he pressed his hand, saying, ' Wir sehen uns wieder ; 
 wir gehoren uns naher an ' (We shall see each other again, we belong 
 nearer to each other). It was not so, however ; Fohr was drowned in 
 the Tiber while bathing, on June the 29th, 1818, in the sight of three 
 friends, who could afford him no assistance. Several of his early 
 landscapes are in the museum at Darmstadt; a Life of him was 
 published at that place in 1823 : his portrait has been engraved by 
 Amsler, one of the friends who witnessed his death. 
 
 FOIX, GASTON III., COUNT DE, Viscount de Beam, was born 
 in 1331. He was the son of Gaston II., by Eleanor, daughter of 
 Bernard V., count de Cominges. From his personal beauty, or his 
 fondness for the chase, he was called Phoebus, on which account, 
 agreeably to the fashion of his day, he took the sun for a device. His 
 father died when he was twelve years old, leaving him under the 
 guardianship of his mother. In 1345 he made his first essay in arms 
 against the English in Guienne, and served afterwards in Languedoc, 
 where, and in Gascony, he subsequently became the king's lieutenant. 
 In 1349 he married Agnes, daughter of Philip III. king of Navarre. 
 In 1356, being suspected of holding criminal intelligence with his 
 brother-in-law Charles the Bad, he was arrested by order of King John, 
 and sent to the prison of the Chatelet, at Paris ; but, being released 
 soon afterwards, he went to Prussia to serve against the infidels. In 
 1358, during the revolt called the Jacquerie, he aided in the rescue of 
 the Dauphin, whom the Parisians had shut up in the market-place of 
 Meaux, and in the same year made war upon his relative the Count 
 d'Armagnac, who had set up pretensions to the viscounty of B6arn, 
 and whom he afterwards took prisoner, in 1372, at the battle of 
 Launac. Gaston, who had become discontented with his wife, upon a 
 dispute about her dower, parted from her in 1373. In 1380, the 
 government of Languedoc becoming vacant by the recall of the Duke 
 of Anjou, it was bestowed by Charles V. on the Count de Foix. He 
 held it however but a few months. Charles V. dying on September 16th 
 of that year, Charles VI. revoked the appointment, and gave it to the 
 Due de Berri. The Count de Foix appealed to arms, and finally 
 yielded up the government only on negociation. By his marriage the 
 Count de Foix had but one son. This youth, in 1382, paying a visit 
 to his mother, who had retired to the court of her brother, Charles 
 the Bad, received from that king (to whom crime was familiar) what 
 he pretended was a bag of love-powder, which that king told him to 
 conceal, at the same time informing him that the sprinkling of a small 
 quantity of it on any food his father might eat, would have the effect 
 of reconciling the count to his wife. The powder turned out to be a 
 strong poison, and Gaston ordered his son to be arrested. The young 
 prince, deceived but not guilty, refused all nourishment, and died iu 
 his prison ; the father, as Froissart relates, having hastened his death 
 when going to remonstrate with him, by accidentally striking the 
 point of a knife into his son's throat as he pushed aside the tapestry 
 which covered the entrance to his dungeon. 
 
 In 1390 Gaston received Charles VI. and his whole court at his 
 castle of Mazeres, in the diocese of Mirepoix, where he not only 
 entertained them with great magnificence, but made the king the heir 
 to his domains. He died of apoplexy in the beginning of August 
 1391, as his attendants were pouring water on his hands at his return 
 from a bear-chase. 
 
 Historians, especially Froissart, have painted Gaston as an accom« 
 plished, brave, affable, and magnificent prince : they cannot however 
 deny that he was violent to excess. His conduct towards his sou, and 
 to De Berne, the governor of the castle of Lourde, whom he wished to 
 force to deliver the place to the French, and whom, ou his refusal, he 
 struck several times with his poniard, are incontestable proofs. His 
 favourite passion was hunting. He carried it to such extreme, that if 
 we may believe Saint-Yon, he did not keep fewer than sixteen hundred 
 dogs. He also composed a work on what constituted the object of his 
 affection, entitled ' Phebus des deduitz de la Chasse des Bestes sau- 
 vaigos et des Oyseaulx de proye,' three or four editions of which are 
 known ; viz., fol. Par. by Verard, without date ; another by J. Treperel, 
 4to, by Phil, le Noir, without date; and 1515, and 1520. The book of 
 ' Phebus ' is also included in several of the early editions of the 
 Treatise on Hunting by Jaques de Fouilloux. 
 
 It was in the castle of Orthes, Gaston's principal residence, that 
 
 3 p 
 
839 FOLARD, JEAN-CHARLES DE. 
 
 Froissart, who staid there a considerable time, heard many of the best 
 stories with which his history is embellished. The portrait which he 
 has drawn of Qaston is one of the completest pictures of what a 
 chivalrous prince was iu the time of our Edward the Third. 
 
 FOLA'RD, JEAN-CHARLES DE, was born at Avignon in 1GG9. 
 He entered early into the army, and distinguished himself by the 
 attention which ho paid to the scientific part of his profession, to the 
 movements and manoeuvres of an army in the field : ho drew plans 
 and maps, and became a pretty good engineer. Having been made 
 aide-de-camp to the Duke of Vendome, he attended him in his Italian 
 campaigns, and was wounded at the battle of Cassano. He afterwards 
 served in Flanders under the Duke of Bourgogne, and was wounded 
 again at the battle of Malplaquet. His zeal, at times indiscreet, his 
 want of tact, his restless activity, and his fondness of giving advice, 
 which, although at times valuable, was not acceptable to his superiors, 
 made him many enemies. The peace of 1712 having placed him on 
 the reduced list, ho repaired to Malta to offer his services to the 
 order of St. John, which was then threatened by the Turks ; but 
 being offended at some real or supposed slight, he returned to the 
 continent, and visited Sweden, where he was well received by 
 Charles XII., who employed him on some missions, and whom he 
 accompanied in his expedition to Norway. After Charles's death in 
 the trenches of Fredericshall, Folard returned to France, and made 
 one short campaign more in the war against Spain of 1719, after which 
 he withdrew into private life, and occupied himself in writing on 
 military matters. He died at Avignon, March 23, 1752. 
 
 Folard's principal work is his ' Commentaries on Polybius,' iu 
 which he not only makes his observations on the events narrated by 
 the Greek historian, but also draws parallels between ancient and 
 modern military practices, and reasons on the occurrences of the wars 
 which ho had witnessed, exposing with the greatest freedom the 
 errors of the various commanders of his own age. Hi3 disquisitions, 
 though often prolix, are valuable. Folard's ' Commentaries ' were 
 published in 6 vols. 4 to, Paris, 1727-30, and again at Amsterdam, in 
 7 vols. 4to, the seventh volume containing some treatises and strictures 
 on Folard's system of tactics, with his own replies. 
 
 ♦FOLEY, JOHN HENRY, R.A., was born at Dublin, May 24, 
 1818. His attention being early directed towards art, by a near 
 relative who was a sculptor in the Irish metropolis, yourig Foley 
 entered the drawing and modelling schools of the Royal Dublin 
 Society, at the age of thirteen. Having gained the first prize in each 
 of the classes he attended there, he in 1834 came to London, and 
 entered as a student at the Royal Academy. He first appears as an 
 exhibitor at the Royal Academy in 1839, when he sent models of 
 ' Innocence ' and ' The Death of Abel,' both of which were much 
 admired. In the following year he contributed a model of ' Ino 
 and the infant Bacchus/ an admirable group, full of playful fancy 
 and the nicest refinement : it at once established the reputation of 
 the young sculptor. The marble group, now the property of the 
 Earl of Ellesmere, was even more admired than the clay model; and 
 a reduced copy of it has formed one of the most popular and widely 
 distributed of the favourite parian statuettes. 
 
 Mr. Foley's principal imaginative works subsequent to the ' Ino 
 and Bacchus ' have been ' Lear and Cordelia,' and ' The Death of 
 Lear,' 1841; ' Venus rescuing ^Eneas,' 1S42; 'Prospero relating his 
 Adventures to Miranda,' 1843; 'Contemplation,' 1845; 'Innocence,' 
 1848; 'The Mourner,' 1849; 'The Mother,' 1850; 'Egeria,' 1850". 
 Of late, as will have been noticed, Mr. Foley's ideal efforts have been 
 few and unambitious. In fact, as soon as ho attained celebrity, he 
 grew in request for portrait busts and monumental memorials, and 
 the ideal has been neglected as less profitable than the actual. Among 
 the more important of Mr. Foley's productions in this line may be 
 mentioned his monumental composition in Milford Church, Hants, to 
 the memory of Admiral Coruwallis and Captain Whitby; one of 
 the figures of which, ' Grief,' was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 
 1852; his Wellington memorial; monument to the Honourable 
 James Stuart at Ceylon ; the statue of John Hampden at the New 
 Palace of Westminster; and his busts of Viscount Hardinge, Miss 
 Helen Faueit, &c. Mr. Foley was elected A. R. A. in 1850, and full 
 academician in 1858. Unquestionably one of the very best of our 
 younger British sculptors, Mr. Foley may fairly be ranked among 
 those most promising to do honour to the artistic fame of this portion 
 of our history. Without being tied down by any idle adherence to 
 classic precedents he has a fine classic spirit, considerable invention a 
 refined taste, and much executive skill. His later works have been 
 chiefly monumental and portraits. 
 
 FOLKES, MARTIN, an eminent English antiquary, was the eldest 
 son of Martin Folkes, Esq., and was born in Great Queen-street, 
 Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, October 29th, 1690. He entered of Clare Hall, 
 Cambridge, in 1707, where his progress in all branches of learning, and 
 more especially in mathematics and philosophy, was such, that when 
 he was scarcely more than twenty -three years of age he was admitted a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, and two years after had so distinguished 
 himself as to be chosen one of its council. His first communication 
 to the Society was on the aurora borealis of March 30, 1717. This 
 was followed at various times by other papers in considerable numbers, 
 for which it may be sufficient to refer to the ' Philosophical Transac- 
 tions.' Ho was chosen a second time of the council of the Royal 
 
 FONBLANQUE, ALBANY W. 
 
 Society in 1718, and continued to be re-chosen every year till 1727 ; 
 Sir Isaac Newton, the president, having in 1723 appointed him one 
 of his vice-presidents. Iu February 1720 he was elected a Fellow of 
 the Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 At the first anniversary election of the Royal Society after the death 
 of Sir Isaac Newton, iu 1727, Mr. Folkes was competitor with Sir 
 Hans Sloane for tho office of president, and his interest was supported 
 by a great number of members, though the choice was determined 
 iu favour of Sir Hans. He was however agaiu chosen of the council 
 in 1729, and continued in it till he was advanced to the president's 
 chair twelve years after. In the meantime he was, in 1733, appointed 
 oue of the vice-presidents by Sir Hans Sloane. In this year he set 
 out with his whole family on a tour to Italy, and, after residing a 
 considerable time both at Rome and Florence, returned to England 
 in September 1735. Tho opportunities which he had of consulting 
 the best furnished cabinets of Italy enabled him to compose there au 
 excellent ' Dissertation on the Weights and Values of ancient Coins.' 
 This was read in the Society of Antiquaries, who requested that a 
 copy of it might be registered in their books, which he promised to 
 give after he had revised and enlarged it ; but, for some reason, this 
 was never done. In the same year however, 1736, his ' Observations 
 on the Trajan and Antonine Pillars at Rome ' were read in this 
 Society, and afterwards printed in tho first volume of their ' Archaeo- 
 logia,' which contains another paper by him on tho brass equestrian 
 Btatue of Marcus Aurelius at Rome, occasioned by a small brass 
 model of it being found near London. In April he also communicated 
 to them 'A Table of English Gold Coins from the 18th year of King 
 Edward III., when Gold was first coined in England, to the present 
 time, with their Weights and intrinsic values;' which at their desire 
 he printed the same year in 4to; and in 1745 reprinted it with 
 additions, prefixing a larger and more considerable work, entitled ' A 
 Table of English Silver Coins, from the Norman Conquest to the 
 present time, with their Weights, intrinsic Values, and some Remarks 
 on their several Pieces.' Mr. Folkes, in order to illustrate this work 
 had set about engraving, and actually did engrave, 42 copper-plates of 
 English silver coins, which were left at tho time of his death in an 
 incomplete state. These, together with the copyright of the books or 
 tables before mentioned, were purchased by the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, December 19th, 1754, lor 120J., and the whole published, 
 with great additions, both as to letter-press and plates, under the 
 care of Dr. Andrew Gifford, in 1763. 
 
 Mr. Folkes succeeded Sir Hans Sloane as president of the Royal 
 Society in 1741 ; and, in the following year, was chosen to succeed 
 Dr. Halley,as a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. In 
 1746 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of LLD., 
 and he was afterwards admitted to the same degree at Cambridge. 
 
 In February 1750 Mr. Folkes, then one of the vice-presidents, 
 succeeded the Duke of Somerset as president of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, an office in which he was continued by the charter of incorpo- 
 ration of that Society, November 2, 1751. But he was soon disabled 
 from presiding in person, either in that or the Royal Society, being 
 seized on September 26th of the same year with a palsy, which 
 deprived him of the use of his left side. He languished till a second 
 stroke put an end to his life, June 28th, 1754. 
 
 (Nichols, Anecdotes, ii. 588; and Bowyer Anecdotes, pp. 562-66; 
 Chalmers, Biog. Diet., vol. xiv. pp. 428-31.) 
 
 * FONBLANQUE, ALBANY W. Those who have been familiar 
 with the columns of the ' Examiner ' for a quarter of a century, will 
 have no doubt that the chief contributor to that journal must take 
 rank with the most able and influential writers of his time. Mr. 
 Fonblanque was born in 1797, the son of John de Grenier Fonblanque, 
 distinguished as an equity lawyer. Albany Fonblanque, being intended 
 for his father's profession, was a pupil of Mr. Chitty; but he was 
 never called to the bar. He was unwilling to add to the number of 
 those who have sung or said ' The Lawyer's Farewell to his Muse ; ' 
 and he abided by the path he had chosen of bringing the acuteness of 
 his intellect to the consideration of political questions. His earliest 
 articles were written on the break-up of the Liverpool adminis- 
 tration, and the accession of Canning to power. The 'Examiner' 
 was, from its first establishment, a journal far above the average 
 talent of weekly newspapers. The liberal politics of its proprietors 
 and editors, John and Leigh Hunt, at a time when liberal politics 
 were dangerous as well as unfashionable, gave it a circulation amongst 
 independent thinkers ; and its critical articles on literature and art, 
 when newspaper criticism was little better than careless puffery or 
 personal bitterness, ensured it a wider reputation. When this paper 
 passed out of the hands of its original conductors, it was fortunate 
 for its character that one so ably qualified as Mr. Fonblanque 
 should succeed to its proprietorship and management. Until the last 
 few years, and occasionally at the present time, the attention of the 
 political reader has been arrested, either in the 'Examiner' itself, or 
 by copious extracts in other journals, by articles so marked by strong 
 sense, and yet so playful and amusing — so unrivalled in their com- 
 mand of the most odd yet most appropriate allusions derived from 
 the minutest acquaintance with English and foreign literature— so 
 biting in their satire and so brilliant in their wit — that the gratifica- 
 tion has very often been accompanied with the regret that such rar*, 
 powers should be bostowed upon ephemeral subjects. Such regret 
 
FONTAINE, JEAN DE LA. 
 
 would be neutralised by the consideration that some of the most 
 characteristic papers of Swift— upon whom probably some of the 
 |.eculiarities of Mr. Fonblanque's style are founded — equally deal with 
 matters whose interest is now wholly passed away, except aa mani- 
 festations of the rare skill which has given them a long vitality. It 
 is always interesting to see how passing topics, which gradually grow 
 dim as they recede into the historical distance, were viewed under 
 the strong light of contemporary judgments, expounded by men of 
 remarkable talent. Those who would judge how the political circum- 
 stances of this country were viewed at a time when every great 
 improvement which distinguishes the present age was struggling with 
 the most inveterate prejudice and the most fiery opposition, should 
 read Mr. Fonblanque's * England under Seven Administrations,' pub- 
 lished in 1837. This is a selection of his articles from the * Examiner.' 
 They will thence learn also, how surely, however gradually, public 
 opinion ia formed under the constant vigilance of a free press ; and 
 how large a measure of gratitude is due to those who, possessing the 
 high responsibilities of the journalist, wield the powers of great 
 abilities and established reputations, for the advancement of real 
 improvement without wild innovation ; and for the destruction of 
 evil principles and gross abuses, without resorting to that personal 
 defamation which was the chief weapon of those who once laboured 
 to oppose all national progress. In 1852 Mr. Fonblanque was appointed 
 Director of the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade, vacant 
 by the death of Mr. Porter — an office of great public usefulness thus 
 properly bestowed upon a man of letters. In the conduct of the 
 ' Examiner' Mr. Fonblanque was for some years assisted by Mr. John 
 Forster; and under that gentleman's responsible editorship, from 
 1846, the paper continued to maintain its reputation for vigour and 
 honesty, for brilliancy of style, and soundness of judgment. 
 
 FONTAINE, JEAN DE LA, was born in 1621 at Chateau-Thierry, 
 where his father was Maitre des Eaux et des Forets. No great 
 attention was paid to his education, and it is said that he did not 
 display any sort of talent till he had attained the age of twenty-two. 
 His genius was first called forth on his hearing read an ode by 
 Malherbe, when he is reported to have exclaimed, " I also am a 
 poet I" At first he took Malherbe for his model, but afterwards 
 turned his attention to the works of Eabelais, Voiture, and Clement 
 Marot. His father, delighted with his imitations of .his favourite 
 authors, thought him a prodigy of poetic genius, and a relation 
 advised him to study the classics. A translation of Terence's ' Eunuch,' 
 published by La Fontaine in 1654, was the fruit of this advice. He 
 was much delighted with the Italian authors, especially Machiavelli, 
 whom he chiefly admired for his little novels. On the death of his 
 father, he succeeded to his office, which he filled inefficiently, and 
 took a wife, with whom he lived unhappily, and from whom he finally 
 separated. In fact, he was of too indolent and improvident a dispo- 
 sition for any of the common avocations of life ; he does not seem to 
 have had any absolute vice, but to have gone on in his own lounging 
 way without taking any interest in what was passing around him. In 
 an epitaph on himself he describes his life as having been occupied 
 with sleeping and doing nothing ; in the latter category he evidently 
 includes the writings of his poems, which he probably threw 
 off when in a happy vein without giving himself any great exer- 
 tion. Some verses of La Fontaine happening to fall in the way 
 of the exiled Duchesse do Bouillon, who was residiug at Chateau 
 Thierry, she caused the author to be introduced to her, and took 
 him with her to Paris when she returned. Here the superintendent 
 Fouquet became his Maecenas, and placed his name on a list of 
 pensions which he allowed to various persons of merit. On the 
 exile of this minister La Fontaine wrote a pathetic elegy. Though 
 many distinguished persons honoured him with their patronage, his 
 ignorance of the world and his habitual carelessness would have 
 plunged him into difficulties had not a liberal lady, Madame Sabliere, 
 taken him into her house, where he resided for twenty years in 
 perfect tranquillity. A well-known story gives a good idea of La 
 Fontaine's quiet lazy disposition. Madame Sabliere having had occa- 
 sion to part with her servants, said to a friend, " I have now got rid 
 of all my animals but three — my dog, my cat, and La Fontaine." 
 
 In 1684 he was received into the Academy as successor to Colbert, 
 not without opposition from the graver sort, on account of the 
 licentiousness of some of his works. However he triumphed over 
 Boileau, who was the rival candidate. The king, indignant at this, 
 delayed giving assent to his admission, but on the death of M. 
 Bezons, and the election of Boileau to fill his place, the king expressed 
 his approbation of the choice of La Fontaine. On the death of his 
 benefactress, La Fontaine was again reduced to difficulties, and would 
 have been forced to accept an offer of St. Evremond to take him to 
 England, had not the Duke of Burgundy assisted him. In 1692, 
 when he became seriously ill, the Abbe' Pougit paid him a visit to 
 attend to his spiritual welfare. La Fontaine submitted to the dictates 
 of the abbe, though he was somewhat restive on two points. In the 
 first place, the abb<5 demanded a public apology for his licentious 
 tales ; ia the second, a solemn promise not to give to the actors a 
 comedy which he had written. He made the required apology, but 
 he applied to the Sorbonne before he yielded to the second demand ; 
 however, receiving an unfavourable answer, he committed the comedy 
 to the flames. In 1693 La Fontaine became worse, and was even 
 
 FONTAINE, PIERRE-FRANCOIS-LEONARD. 843 
 
 reported dead ; but ho recovered, and devoted himself to a translation 
 of the hynins of the church and other religious works. He would 
 now have been almost alone in tho world, if a friend, M. D'Hervart, 
 had not kindly offered him an asylum in his own house. He died 
 April 13, 1695. 
 
 The works by which La Fontaine is known are his Tales and his 
 Fables. The former have a very equivocal set of readers, and are 
 seldom mentioned in society ; the latter belong to that small class of 
 works the reputation of which never fades, and which are almost as 
 well known at present as they were in the 17th century. Innu- 
 merable are the editions of these fables, and great is the field they 
 have offered for the ingenuity of artists in furnishing illustrations. 
 To say nothing of the various unornamented editions, they appear in 
 every variety of shape, from an 18mo with vignettes to a huge folio 
 with large and elaborate plates. It is remarkable that La Fontaine 
 never (or rarely) invented his subjects : his tales are taken from 
 Boccaccio, Machiavelli, Ariosto, and others; his fables are chiefly 
 selected from iEsop. It is not the matter of his compositions, but 
 the manner in which he tells a tale, that constitutes his merit. His 
 narrative is marked by that ease and grace which are to be perceived, 
 not described. Curiosity will cause a reader to wade through a new 
 story even when indifferently written; but a man who, by his mere 
 manner of narrating, can make a va3t number of readers peruse a 
 series of narratives, with every incident of which they are perfectly 
 acquainted — must have talents great indeed. 
 
 FONTAINE, PIERRE-FRANCOIS-LEONARD, was born at Pon- 
 toise, department of Seine-et-Oise, France, in 1762, and through a life 
 of unusual duration, was associated with many of the chief buildings of 
 his country. He has been called the father of the modern French school 
 of architects— though this may refer to his years more than to rela- 
 tion of style. He began the study of architecture under Peyre the 
 younger ; and here was formed with Charles Percier, one of his fellow 
 students, an intimate friendship, broken only by the death of the 
 latter, and au union of two artists both possessed of great though 
 diverse talent, which largely operated upon architecture, and especially 
 upon its departments, decorative and ornamental art. [Percier, 
 Charles]. 
 
 In 1785, Fontaine obtained the second grand prize for architecture ; 
 and, in consequence of the high merit of his work, was made a 
 pensioner of the academy which the French maintain at Rome. 
 There, in the course of their architectural studies, the French students 
 select models from the ruins, which they measure and draw, designing 
 the missing portions. Fontaine however undertook to present the 
 restoration of the entire city of Rome, as it was in the time of the 
 Caesars. His drawings procured him an extraordinary prize of 3000 
 francs. Soon after his return to France, the revolution commenced. 
 Fontaine, during the most terrible events of that time, passed over 
 to England, and a few years elapsed ere he and his friend Percier 
 could be called upon for any practical exemplification of their 
 talent. But during the consulate, the friends were entrusted with the 
 work of restoring the palace of Malmaison. On attaining the imperial 
 dignity, Napoleon I. conceived some vast projects : he named Fontaine 
 his architect, and required of him the restoration of all the palaces, 
 and the completion of those of the Louvre and Tuileries. He also 
 commanded the erection of the triumphal arch of the Carrousel, and 
 the preparation of plans for a large palace which he proposed to have 
 built for the king of Rome, upon the heights of Chaillot, but which 
 was not completed. Such important works occupied Fontaine and 
 Percier during the whole period of the empire. After the events of 
 1814 and 1815, Fontaine was named architect to the king, and he 
 retained that position till the events of 1848. He then declined a 
 similar position under the provisional government, by whom how- 
 ever he was made president of the Council of Civil Buildings. 
 
 Amongst his chief works during the reigns of Louis XVIII., Charles 
 X., and Louis-Philippe, may be named the grand staircase of the 
 Louvre, and the halls called after Charles X., the funereal chapel of 
 the Rue d'Anjou-Saint-Honore', and the complete restoration of the 
 Palais-Royal. For the union of the Louvre and the Tuileries, projects 
 had been prepared from 1800 by the chief French architects. The 
 arch of the Carrousel, by Percier and Fontaine, was commenced in 1806, 
 and in 1811 the plan of the same architects for the extension of the 
 Louvre having been approved of, a building 700 feet in length was 
 erected enclosing the Carrousel on the north side. In the reign of 
 Louis XVIII., from 1820 to 1823, the new wing was extended 70 
 or 80 feet ; but the reign of Louis-Philippe was occupied in other 
 works ; and the original project remained in abeyance till again taken 
 up by the aid of another architect under the present emperor. 
 
 The manner of Percier and Fontaine was founded upon the study 
 of the antique Roman architecture, of which character of art, the 
 decorative sculptures of the Arc du Carrousel present admirable 
 adaptations. Their work, published in 1812, entitled ' Recueil de 
 Decorations Interieures,' comprises designs for all kinds of furniture, 
 and fittings for interiors of houses ; and, together with their example, 
 had a wide influence upon general taste. This has been since modified 
 by more discursive study of models, especially those of the Renaissance 
 period. Amongst their other publications were— one illustrative of the 
 chief villas of Rome and its environs ; illustrations of the ceremonies 
 at tho coronation, and at the marriage of Napoleon ; plans of the palace 
 
013 FONTANA, DOMENICO. 
 
 for the king of Rome, with plans of the palaces of foreign sovereigns 
 compared ; and a history of the royal residences. Fontaine was elected 
 a member of the Institute of France in 1811, and at the time of his 
 death was the senior member. 
 
 He died on the 10th of October 1853, in the ninety-second year of 
 his age. In the later years of his life, he retired to a secluded quarter 
 of Paris near Pere-la-Chaise, where the remains of his friends Percier 
 and Bernier reposed ; here he surrounded himself with a collection of 
 works of art, preserved his faculties to the last, and thence was 
 attended to his grave by members of the Institute, by artists, and work- 
 men of all classes ; the architects of England being represented by 
 Professor Donaldson, who was amongst those who pronounced 
 eulogiums at the grave. 
 
 FONTA'NA, DOMENI'CO, a distinguished Italian architect, was 
 born at Mili, on the borders of the Lake of Como, in 1543. Having a 
 decided taste for mathematical studies, at the age of twenty he went 
 to join his elder brother Giovanni, an architect, at Rome. Hero he 
 attracted the Eotice and obtained the favour of Cardinal Montalto, who 
 confided to him the erection of the Cappella del Presepio, or Sistina, 
 in Santa Maria Maggiore, a design of great nobleness and grandeur, 
 although, according to modern taste, too overcharged in its ornaments, 
 and too much cut up by the injudicious arrangement of the gilding 
 and coloured marbles. By the same ecclesiastic he was employed to 
 build for him, in the vicinity of the above-mentioned church, the 
 palace cow known by the name of the Villa Negroni. This edifice 
 which, partly on account of its gardens, was for a long while one of 
 the most celebrated mansions in Rome, is, like most of the architect's 
 other designs of the same class, exceedingly simple in its composition, 
 and has little decoration beyond what it derives from the dressings 
 and pediments of the windows, which latter are alternately angular 
 and curved. Yet favourable as these undertakings were in themselves, 
 they were not productive of much immediate profit to the architect, 
 and were even injurious to his patron, as they afforded the pope 
 (Gregory XIII.) a pretext for suppressing the pensions of the cardinal, 
 since he was wealthy enough to indulge in such magnificence. On 
 this, out of his attachment to the cardinal and his eagerness to complete 
 the Cappella del Presepio, Fontana generously contributed a thousand 
 Boudi of his own, rather than see the scheme abandoned. To his 
 disinterestedness on this occasion he was in all probability not a little 
 indebted for his subsequent good fortune, as the cardinal was shortly 
 afterwards elected to the pontifical throne under the well-known name 
 of Sisto Quinto. The new pope had now the means of indulging his 
 taste for architecture and embellishment, and one of his projects was 
 to re-erect the various Egyptian obelisks which lay scattered and 
 neglected among the ruined fabrics of the ancient city. The first to 
 which the pope directed his attention was that which still remained 
 standing in the Vatican circus. This he was anxious to have removed 
 to the area in front of St. Peter's ; but the practicability of transporting 
 such an enormous mass (83 feet 2 inches high), and elevating it upon 
 a pedestal, was long doubtful, although the ablest mathematicians and 
 engineers were summoned to suggest the means. Upwards of five 
 hundred different projects and models were submitted to him, nor did 
 Fontana fail to come forward among the competitors, and he gave 
 satisfactory proof of his contrivance by applying it to a small obelisk 
 in the mausoleum of Augustus. Eventually the carrying it into 
 execution was intrusted to Fontana, although it had been in the first 
 instance determined that Giacomo della Porta and Ammanati should 
 take charge of the operations. A circumstantial account of all the 
 proceedings attending this very arduous enterprise was published by 
 the architect himself, under the title of 'Del modo tenuto nel 
 trasportare l'Obelisco Vaticano.' The operations commenced April 
 30th 1586, and the obelisk was removed and placed on the new 
 pedestal prepared for it on the 13th of the following June, when was 
 successfully accomplished the most stupendous trial of mechanical 
 skill that age had then witnessed, although since several times rivalled. 
 The complete success of this task gained the architect not only honours 
 and distinction, but a pension of 2000 scudi, and also gave him assur- 
 ance of an equally favourable result in all similar undertakings. To 
 these belong the three obelisks he afterwards erected in the Piazza 
 del Popolo, before St. Giovanni Laterano, and in front of Santa Maria 
 Maggiore. The second of these is still larger than the first-mentioned, 
 being 105 feet 7 inches high, independently of the pedestal, and its 
 weight calculated at about 440 tons. 
 
 In addition to tasks of this nature, Sixtus afforded him the oppor- 
 tunity of displaying his talents as an architect, giving him charge of 
 the various works at the Lateran church, to which he attached, on 
 one of its sides, a kind of portico consisting of an upper and lower 
 gallery, in five open arcades, the piers of the former ornamented with 
 a Doric and those of the other with a Corinthian order. Immediately 
 adjoining this portico he also erected the palace of the Lateran, a 
 uniform square pile of building, with two series of windows above the 
 lower floor, all of which have pediments alternately angular and 
 curved, and the whole is surmounted by a massive and rich cornice. 
 By the same pontiff he was likewise charged to construct the Vatican 
 library, and thus destroy the noble court formed by Bramante. He 
 also erected the lofty mass of building on the side towards the piazza 
 of St. Peter's, which, impressive as it is in itself, does not bespeak 
 much fertility of invention, it being little more than a repetition of 
 
 FONTANES, LOUIS DE. 8 « 
 
 his palace of the Lateran. Another papal residence, which was partly 
 erected by him, was that of the Quirinal, or Monte Cavallo, so called 
 from the two colossal figures before it, which he removed thither from 
 the Baths of Constantine. Among his other works may be mentioned 
 the restoration of the columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and the 
 fountain of Termini. He was preparing to erect a vast edifice for a 
 cloth manufactory within the Coliseum, the plan of which was to 
 have been elliptical like that of the amphitheatre, when Sixtus, with 
 whom the idea originated, died ; and thus was frustrated a scheme 
 that would irreparably have injured the sublime and majestic character 
 of that great monument of antiquity. 
 
 The death of that pope brought a change of circumstances to 
 Fontana, who was dismissed by Clement VIII. from his situation as 
 papal architect. Still his prosperous fortune did not desert him, for 
 he was immediately invited to Naples by the viceroy, the Count de 
 Miranda. In that capital, to which he repaired in 1592, he was 
 employed on a variety of works, and among others he executed the 
 fountain Medina ; but the most important of them all was the royal 
 palace, a grand and imposing, although not particularly elegant edifice. 
 He died in that city in 1607, possessed of considerable wealth, and of 
 a distinguished reputation. 
 
 FONTA'NA, PROSPERO, a celebrated painter of Bologna, where 
 he was born in 1512. He was the pupil of Innocenzio da Imola, tho 
 assistant of Del Vaga and Vasari, and the master of the Caracci ; and 
 was of great authority in Bologna until the establishment of the school 
 of his pupils. As a fresco-painter Fontana was a mere machinist, but 
 in portrait-painting he was one of the first painters of his time. There 
 are frescoes by him at Bologna, at Rome, and at Citta di Castello, 
 where in a few weeks he painted a great hall in the Palazzo Vitelli, 
 illustrating the deeds of that family. He was presented by Michel 
 Angelo as a good portrait-painter to Giulio III., who took him into 
 his service, as did also his three successors. Fontana died at Rome 
 in 1597. 
 
 Lavinia Fontana, called also Zappi, the name of her husband, was 
 the daughter of Prospero, and likewise distinguished herself for her 
 ability in painting, especially in portrait; but she executed works in 
 various departments of painting, all finished with care and delicacy. 
 Some of her portraits have passed for the works of Guido. She was a 
 great favourite with the noble ladies of Rome from the time of 
 Gregory XIII. to Paul V. : she painted Gregory's portrait. She died 
 at Rome in 1614, aged sixty-two. 
 
 FONTANES, LOUIS DE, was born at Niort, in the department 
 of Deux Sevres, March 6, 1757. His father, a Protestant, having, 
 though of noble rank, only the scanty income derived from his office of 
 inspecteur de commerce, was under the necessity of sending him to a 
 village school near Niort; but the extreme diligence of the boy en- 
 abled him to make much progress. He afterwards finished his educa- 
 tion with equal ardour, and better opportunities, at the college of his 
 native town. At the age of sixteen Fontanes had written many fugitive 
 verses, noticeable only for the purity of their language and their fluent 
 versification. 
 
 In 1777, having had the misfortune to lose his father and a brother, 
 whose tastes were akin to his own, he removed to Paris, and in the 
 following year appeared for the first time as an author with his poem 
 ' La Foret de Navarre,' which was well received, and procured him 
 several friends, particularly the tragic poet Ducis. His translation of 
 Pope's ' Essay on Man ' appeared in 1783, and though the verses were 
 not considered adequate to the subject, the preliminary discourse met 
 with general approval. There are many portraits of eminent writers 
 in this preface; those of Voltaire and Pascal have been especially 
 admired. ' Le Verger,' another poem, was published in 1788 ; and 
 ' L'Essai sur l'Astronomie' in 1789. 
 
 The revolution broke out in this year, and Fontanes feeling that the 
 time wa3 no longer suitable to poetry, became a journalist. About 
 two years after, the animosity manifested against the nobles drove 
 Fontanes from the capital. He took shelter in Lyon ; but the arrival 
 of Collotd'Herbois in that city, in 1793, compelled him to fly from it, 
 and to wander homeless and friendless from one place to another. 
 But after the 9th Thermidor (July 28, 1794), the Convention founded 
 the Institute, and Fontanes was included in the list of its members. 
 He was appointed Professor of Belles-Lettres to the Ecole Centrale 
 des Quatre Nations in 1795. He still continued to write for the 
 newspapers, and assisted La Harpe, in 1796, in writing for the 
 ' Memorial,' a literary and political paper, which took the side of the 
 Bourbon family. His connection with this paper caused him to be 
 set down in the long roll of disaffected authors, which Barras and 
 Bonaparte pressed into the conspiracy of the 18th Fructidor; his name 
 was expunged from the Institute, and he was condemned to trans- 
 portation to Cayenne. He however escaped to England, and in London 
 joined his old friend Chateaubriand. 
 
 After the 18th Brumaire (1799), Fontanes ventured to return to 
 Paris, where he lived in great seclusion, until the First Consul, requir- 
 ing a competent author to write the eloge on Washington, then 
 recently deceased, Maret, his secretary, recommended Fontanes, who 
 was commissioned to do it — his name being withdrawn from the list 
 of transports for the purpose. He had but six days allowed him for 
 this important task : it was completely successful, and became the 
 turning point in his fortune. He was reinstated in the Institute, and 
 
FONTENAY, MARQUISE DE. 
 
 made director of the ' Mercure de France.' His polished manners pro- 
 duced a favourable impression on Bonaparte, who made him a frequent 
 guest at hia table, and gave him one of the private cards, which entitled 
 the bearer to immediate access to him. Foutanes likewise became a 
 favourite with Lucien Bonaparte, and Eliza, Madame Bacciochi. 
 
 In February 1802 he was appointed a member of the Corps Legis- 
 latif, and became its president in 1804. Fontanes has been reproached 
 with his subserviency to Napoleon I., and has been charged with con- 
 stant adulation of his measures and acts. But it is well known that 
 in private he often refused to sanction with his approbation the violent 
 and arbitrary conduct of his benefactor. For two years after the 
 execution of the Due d'Enghien, the emperor urged the courtier in 
 vain to admit at least that the sacrifice was necessary ; and failing of 
 that, removed him from his presidency of the Corps Legislatif, 
 February 5, 1810, and created him a Benator. He had already been 
 installed as grand-master of the university in September 1808, and 
 created a count about the same time. On the 1st of April 1814, the 
 Count de Fontanes voted for the decheance, or forfeiture, of Napoleon I., 
 gave in his adhesion to the Provisional Government on the 6th, and 
 was confirmed in all his appointments. 
 
 During the Hundred Days, in 1815, the Count de Fontanes lived in 
 retirement ; and after the return of Louis XVIII. he was made pre- 
 sident of the electoral college of the Deux Sevres. He died of 
 apoplexy March 17, 1821, at the age of sixty-four. His name will 
 remain associated with the reign of Napoleon I., but his famous 
 addresses, annually delivered in reply to the speech from the throne, 
 so much admired at the time for their eloquence and purity of style, 
 are already passing into oblivion. 
 
 Besides the works already mentioned, M. de Fontanes was the 
 author of ' La Chartreuse de Paris,' ' Les Livres Saints,' ' Stances a 
 M. de Chateaubriand,' ' Le Retour d'un Exile,' &c. 
 
 FONTENAY, THERESE DE CABARRUS, MARQUISE DE, was 
 born in 1773 at Saragossa, in Spain. All that is known of her early 
 youth is, that she was even then admired for her wit, fascinating 
 manners, and remarkable personal beauty, for which she was dis- 
 tinguished through life. In 1789, at the age of sixteen, she married 
 M. Devin, marquis of Fontenay, a councillor of the third Chambre des 
 Enquetes, in the parliament of Paris. The great disparity between 
 her age and that of her husband, and the attentions she received, led 
 to disputes between them, and in 1793 Madame de Fontenay left 
 Paris with her only child to rejoin her father, in Spain. But on 
 reaching Bordeaux, she was arrested and thrown into prison, because, 
 although provided with a passport, she had not a 'carte de surete - ,' 
 at that time indispensable. In her distress she wrote to Tallien, who 
 wa3 then on a mission to Bordeaux with two other proconsuls, 
 Ysabeau and Baudot. Her application was successful ; she was 
 released, and a connection which lasted nine years thus originated. 
 She soon became the most influential person in that city, and though 
 little reliance can be placed on the accounts which charge her with 
 having sold her ransoms like stock, there can be no doubt she opened 
 the prisons to many captives and prevented many heads from falling. 
 In 1794 she followed Tallien to Paris, and was immediately arrested 
 and sent to prison. Here she first met with Madame Josephine de 
 Beauharnais, afterwards Madame Bonaparte. 
 
 Alarmed by the increasing draughts from her own prison during 
 the first three weeks in July, she wrote repeatedly to Tallien, upbraid- 
 ing him with his indolence and want of spirit, and conjuring him to 
 make an effort to save her. Stimulated by these letters, as well as 
 by his own sense of danger, the young Dantonist drew together the 
 various members of the Convention, who knew they were threatened, 
 and on the 9th Thermidor Robespierre was overthrown. The prisons 
 were then opened, and Madame de Fontenay, along with several 
 thousand captives, was set at liberty. 
 
 On the 26th December 1794 she married Tallien, her first husband 
 being still alive. They continued to live together until 1798, when 
 Tallien accompanied Bonaparte into Egypt. Their harmony however 
 had long been interrupted, and they were legally divorced April 2, 
 1802. On the 18th July 1805 she contracted a new marriage with the 
 Count Joseph de Caraman, who became Prince de Chimay the same 
 year. Her first and actual husband, the Marquis de Fontenay, was 
 still alive and did not die until 1815. In consequence of this singu- 
 larity, the church refused to admit the validity of her last engagement. 
 For ten years she struggled in vain with the feelings of society, con- 
 tinued in Paris, and gave dinners, balls, and entertainments. The 
 great families would not attend them, and many of the cards of 
 invitation which she had addressed to them as Princess de Chimay, 
 were returned to her as Madame de Septembre. This was in allu- 
 sion to the massacres of September, in which Tallien had taken part. 
 
 At length she gave up the useless struggle, and retiring to Chimay, 
 in 1816, she began to lead a life of modest tranquillity amidst her 
 own family. In this peaceful retreat she continued until the 
 1 5th January 1835, when she died of a disease in the liver, from which 
 she had been a severe sufferer for some years. Although in her sixty- 
 aecoud year, traces of that beauty which had once been so remarkable, 
 were still visible. 
 
 FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE, born at Rouen, 
 11th February 1657 was, by his mother's side, nephew of the great 
 Corneille. Educated at the College of the Jesuits in his native city, 
 
 FONTENELLE, BERNARD Lfi BOVIER DE. 3t« 
 
 he displayed, at a very early period, the quickness and the aptitude of 
 his talents, which ho cultivated with the greatest diligence and 
 applicatiou. At the age of thirteen Fontenelle successfully contended 
 for the prize offered for the best composition in Latin verse ; and in 
 general literature had deserved honourable mention on the records of 
 his college. From this time to his sixteenth year the law was the 
 study to which his attention was nominally directed. But his heart 
 was not with the science : poetry, philosophy, and history engrossed 
 the time which should have been devoted to the Corpus Juris. During 
 this period principally Fontenelle acquired those vast stores of varied 
 and accurate knowledge which, giving an appearance of catholic learn- 
 ing to his works, are constantly recurring in the shape of apposite and 
 almost unconscious allusions. Having completed the term of his 
 legal studies, he lost the first cause in which he was retained, and 
 thereupon abandoning for ever the distasteful profession of the law, 
 devoted himself to the more attractive and congenial pursuits of 
 literature. 
 
 In his private fortunes there is little to interest the curiosity so 
 commonly felt respecting the doings of men of genius ; the biographer 
 has consequently little to do but to follow him in his literary career, 
 which was neither without honour nor profit. For the last years of 
 his life he was in the enjoyment of a yearly income of nearly 9001., 
 and left behind him at his death a very considerable sum. From 1699 
 to 1741 he held the distinguished and responsible office of secretary 
 to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and was an honorary member of 
 that of Berlin and of the Royal Society of London. Fontenelle died 
 at Paris on the 9th January 1757, having completed his hundreth 
 year within a few weeks, and expired exclaiming " Je ne souffrde pas, 
 mes ami3 ; mais je sens une certaine difficult^ d'etre." The calmness 
 with which he met his death waa in keeping with the serenity of his 
 whole life. 
 
 In his personal character Fontenelle presents a rare instance of self- 
 command and moderation, neither confounding virtue with austerity 
 nor pleasure with excess. To the measured reserve of his character 
 there is a somewhat exaggerated allusion in his oft-repeated declara- 
 tion, that in his whole life he had never laughed nor wept. Ab he 
 held it to be the duty of the sage to cultivate all his senses, internal 
 as well as external, and to combine in the enjoyment of all nature the 
 exercise of all his faculties, the tone of his mind exhibited a happy 
 harmony with his personal character. The universality of his pursuits, 
 which embraced nearly the whole domain of literature, offered on tho 
 one hand an insuperable obstacle to unrivalled excellence in any 
 single department, but contributed on the other, by enlarging his 
 views and increasing his stores of knowledge, to render respectable 
 his attainments in all. 
 
 As a poet, in which character he made his first appearance in the 
 world of letters, he composed several tragedies and operas, most of 
 which were unfavourably received ; and if the ' Thetis et Pelde ' 
 met with some success and the praises of Voltaire, it has since fallen 
 with the rest into neglect and oblivion. His Pastorals, which were 
 recommended solely by their novelty, are full of extravagant conceits : 
 on the other hand, there is much of nature and grace in the ' Ismene,' 
 which, with the 'Apologie de 1' Amour,' is alone worthy of being pre- 
 served. His poetic pieces occasionally display much delicacy of senti- 
 ment, and extreme polish and elegance both in the thought and 
 diction ; but in all of them the poetic feeling is weak, and there is 
 little invention, and a decided want of originality and force. 
 
 The 'Dialogue des Morts,' published in 1683, first laid the founda- 
 tion of his literary fame, which was firmly established by the 
 appearance two years afterwards of the ' Entretien3 sur la Plurality 
 des Mondes,' one of the ablest of his works, and exhibiting a rare 
 combination of science and wit. The object of the latter was to 
 familiarise his countrymen with the Cartesian astronomy ; and in the 
 preface he compares himself to Cicero presenting the philosophy of 
 Greece in a form and language intelligible to the Romans. For the 
 execution of such a task Fontenelle was eminently qualified, and 
 rarely, if ever, has it been so ably accomplished. By the happiness 
 and point of his illustrations, he interests while he instructs his 
 reader : quick to discover in common things unimagined beauties, he 
 adduces and presents new truths in so obvious a light, that even when 
 most opposed to received opinion, they are at once adopted as old and 
 firmly established. In the ' Eloges,' which, as secretary of the Aca- 
 demy, he pronounced upon its deceased members, and by which he is 
 beat known to posterity, his peculiar talents are most felicitously dis- 
 played. Of a mixed character, between memoirs and criticism, they 
 combine history and encomium with such tact and delicacy, that the 
 panegyric is almost imperceptible, and the commendation the highest 
 when apparently least intended. 
 
 The ' Histoire des Oracles,' even if it has no claims to originality, 
 being taken entirely from the learned work of Van Daale, is deservedly 
 celebrated for clearness and precision in the style, which is an exact 
 and distinct image of the thought, and for the regular march of the 
 reasoning, which is so natural and so easy as to present no difficulty 
 to the understanding, and to need no divining. It scarcely deserves 
 however the high title of history. It comprises two essays, in one of 
 which the object is to show that the oracles were not given by the 
 supernatural agency of demons ; the other, that they did not cease 
 with the appearance of Christ. Lastly, the ' Geomdtrie de l'lnfini,' 
 
B17 FOOTE, SAMUEL. 
 
 the ' Apologie dea Tourbillons,' and similar works, although they 
 display a philosophical spirit, are neither vigorous nor profound. 
 
 Generally indeed we ought not perhaps to look to the works of 
 Fontenelle to discover the secret of the great influence and reputation 
 which he enjoyed in his lifetime. The solution lies rather in his 
 possession of unequalled social qualities, and of the most brilliant 
 acquirements, by which he was able to enact at once the man of 
 fashion and the man of letters. By his wonderful skill in adapting 
 himself to the capacity of others, he was able to improve and em- 
 bellish the lightest conversation with scientific and moral allusions ; 
 and by applying the languago of ordinary life to the most abstruse 
 topics and ideas, he contributed greatly to transfer the tribunal of 
 letters from the scholarly few to a large and miscellaneous class of 
 readers, and, by this revolution, to favour and advance a spirit of 
 scientific research in the 17th century. Such services may be for- 
 gotten, for the names of those who have laboured not so much to 
 discover new truth, as to preserve and transmit the old, arc too often 
 left unrecorded ; but they have not laboured in vain, for to diffuse 
 truth is as useful as to discover it. If the mission of the discoverer 
 be more dazzling in its course, and its track more permanent, that of 
 the disseminator is not less beneficial to mankind, and leaves, in a 
 more extended civilisation, a nameless but imperishable monument. 
 
 The works of Fontenelle were collected and published in 8 vols. 
 8vo, Paris, 1760. 
 
 FOOTE, SAMUEL, was born at Truro, in the county of Cornwall, 
 in 1720. His father was a joint commissioner in the Prize Office, and 
 member of parliament for Tiverton. Samuel Foote was educated at 
 "Worcester College, Oxford. On quitting the university, which he did 
 on account of some extravagance of conduct before the usual time, he 
 commenced the study of the law, but this his volatile disposition pre- 
 vented him from pursuing. About the same time it is commonly said 
 that he married a lady of good fortune, and that the marriage turned 
 out unhappily ; but the fact of the marriage has been doubted, and in 
 truth all this part of his life is involved in obscurity. It is certain 
 however that he plunged into all the vices of the town, particularly 
 gaming. His fortune being speedily exhausted, he turned player from 
 necessity, and made his first appearance in the character of Othello, 
 in which he produced no great sensation, if he did not wholly fail. 
 Though he was more successful in comedy, he did not much distin- 
 guish himself as an actor till he began to perform parts of his own 
 writing. His difficulties increasing, he was only extricated from them 
 by Sir Francis Delaval, who allowed him an annuity for a not very 
 honourable piece of service. Sir Francis was himself of ruined fortune, 
 and had looked forward to a marriage with a rich lady as the means of 
 repairing it. Foote, discovering a wealthy dame who was prepossessed 
 with fortune-tellers, got a friend to personate a conjurer and recommend 
 Sir Francis as a husband. The scheme succeeded, and Foote was 
 rewarded as above mentioned. 
 
 In 1747 he opened the little theatre in the Haymarket, and here 
 commenced his career as an author by writing for his own house first a 
 series of satirical entertainments, which never attained to the dignity 
 of print, and then the succession of short pieces by which he is so 
 well known. He did not however obtain a patent till 1766, when, 
 riding out with the Duke of York, he broke his leg by a fall from his 
 horse, and was forced to have it amputated : the patent was procured 
 by the duke as a sort of compensation for this accident. Foote did 
 not retire from the stage on account of the loss of his limb, but acted 
 with a cork leg. His death is said to have been accelerated by the 
 shock he received on a servant preferring against him a charge of the 
 worst nature : he was tried and honourably acquitted, but seems never 
 to have recovered his spirits. Feeling his health decline, he let his 
 house to Mr. Colman, still occasionally appearing as an actor. While 
 performing one of his characters he was seized with paralysis on the 
 stage. He went to Brighton for his health, and on his return to 
 London he set out for Paris, but died on his way, at Dover, on the 
 21st of October, 1777. 
 
 Complete editions of Foote's works are easily procured ; but scarcely 
 a single piece is now produced on the stage. In fact, notwithstanding 
 their great merit, they refer so much to the humours and often to the 
 persons of his own times, that they now possess rather an historical 
 than a dramatic interest ; and they will be read by few except those 
 who are desirous of having a view of the striking characters in the 
 latter part of the last century. The Methodists are lashed in ' The 
 Minor;' the passion for travelling in 'The Englishman returned from 
 Paris;' the newspapers in ' The Bankrupt ; ' the debating societies in 
 ' The Orators ; ' the bar in ' The Lame Lover ; ' and in general every 
 piece has its peculiar object of satire. In making his characters stand 
 prominently forth, Foote is not excelled ; but, like most depictors of 
 humour, he occasionally falls into the error of giving abstractions 
 rather than probable persons. The pieces which kept the stage longest 
 are ' The Mayor of Garratt' and 'The Liar,' the humour of which is 
 not so exclusively adapted to a particular time. Probably his works 
 give but a feeble notion of his colloquial wit, which was admitted by 
 his contemporaries to be almost unrivalled. His conversational 
 talents, aptness of repartee, and powers of mimicry and punning, 
 being backed by perfect self-possession and entire absence of regard 
 for the feelings of any one he fancied might be rendered ridiculous, 
 gave him in society and on the stage a degree of advantage of which 
 
 FORBES, EDWARD. 9i8 
 
 he was not slow to avail himself, and rendered him one of the most 
 dreaded as well as most amusing jesters that have appeared in tliis 
 country. The reader who may wish to see an ample and cordial appre- 
 ciation of his merits, is referred to a long and elaborate notice of him 
 by Mr. Forster in the ' Quarterly Review ' for 1854, No. cxc. 
 
 FORBES, DUNCAN, was the second son of Duncan Forbes of 
 Culloden, near Inverness, where, or at another seat of the family, 
 called Bunchrew, in the same neighbourhood, he was born 10th of 
 November 1685. Alter studying law for some years at Leyden, he 
 returned to Scotland in 1707, and was admitted an advocate 20th of 
 July 1709. At the bar he rapidly gained employment and distinction. 
 For his first public appointment however, that of sheriff of Mid-Lothian, 
 he was chiefly indebted to the friendship of the Argyll family. The 
 rebellion of 1715 gave him an opportunity of displaying his zeal and 
 activity in support of government; and to his influence and exertions, 
 and those of his elder brother, who had now succeeded to the family 
 estate, the maintenance of the public tranquillity throughout a great 
 part of the north of Scotland at this crisis is considered to have been 
 mainly owing. His services were rewarded the following year by his 
 appointment to what was then called the office of deputy lord-advocate, 
 which was similar to that of the present solicitor-general. In this 
 office he did himself as much honour by the high-minded delicacy 
 which he showed in conducting the trials of the persons charged 
 with participation in the recent treason, as by the ability and courage 
 he had displayed during the insurrection. He even set on foot a sub- 
 scription to supply his misguided countrymen, who now crowded the 
 jails of England, with the means of making a legal defence. The cry 
 indeed that he was himself a disguised Jacobite was raised by the 
 zealots of the government. In 1722 he was returned to parliamentfor 
 the Inverness burghs, for which his elder brother had previously sat. 
 In the House of Commons, of which ho continued a member for the 
 next fifteen years, he of course generally supported the minister, Sir 
 Robert Walpole, as his official situation implied. In 1725 he was 
 appointed lord-advocate, the place of secretary of state for Scotland 
 being at the same time abolished, and its duties devolved upon him. 
 In 1737 he was elevated to the dignity of lord-president of the court 
 of session, or head of the civil judicature of his native country. A 
 few years before this time the death of his brother had made him 
 proprietor of the family estate. For the last twenty years of his life, 
 Forbes was regarded as a sort of lieutenant-governor of Scotland ; 
 but besides the power which he exercised through his official connec- 
 tion, he secured to himself a still wider influence by his public spirit, 
 and his unwearied exertions in promoting the welfare of the country 
 in its trade, its manufactures, its agriculture, its fisheries, its roads, 
 and every other department in which any project of improvement i 
 suggested itself to his active and patriotic mind. The most memor- i 
 able public exertions of President Forbes however, were called forth 
 by the rebellion of 1745. In this emergency he certainly contributed 
 more than any other man to keep the rebels in check until the govern- 
 ment was enabled to meet them in the field with an adequate military 
 force. Yet not only were his services never rewarded, but he was even 
 refused any compensation for his actual losses and the expenditure of 
 his private resources in the public cause ; and his earnest pleas for a 
 compassionate treatment of the rebels after Culloden were, it is said, 
 met by Cumberland with brutal sneers. He had been attacked in his 1 
 castle of Culloden by the rebels, who probably would have taken his 
 life if he had fallen into their hands. The treatment he met with 
 from the government on this occasion is said to have shortened his 
 days. His death took place on the 10th of December 1747. He left 
 an only son, by a lady whom he married soon after his admission to 
 the bar, but whom he lost after a few years. President Forbes was 
 a man both of extensive scholarship and of elegant accomplishments. 
 Among other branches of learning he had cultivated an acquaintance 
 with the Oriental tongues. He is the author of the following pieces, 
 which were published at Edinburgh in two volumes 8vo, soon after 
 his death : — 1, ' Thoughts on Religion, Natural and Revealed ; ' 
 
 2, 'Reflections on the Sources of Incredulity in regard to Religion;' 
 
 3, ' A Letter to a Bishop concerning some important discoveries in 
 Philosophy and Religion.' To President Forbes are also attributed the 
 well-known verses beginning — 
 
 " Ah ! Chloris, could I now but sit 
 As unconcerned as when 
 Tour infant beauty could beget 
 Nor happiness nor pain," &c. 
 
 His correspondence in relation to Scottish affairs, and especially to 
 the rebellions of 1715 and 1745, was published in a quarto volume at 
 London in 1815, under the title of ' Culloden Papers, &c, from the 
 originals in the possession of Duncan George Forbes of Culloden, Esq.' 
 
 (See the Memoir prefixed to this publication ; Introduction to Cul- 
 loden Papers ; Quarterly Review, No. xxviii. p. 320, &c. (by Scott); 
 Mahon, Hist, of Eng., chaps, xxvii and xxix.) 
 
 FORBES, EDWARD, a celebrated naturalist. He was born in 
 1815 in the Isle of Man, where his father was a banker. Without 
 any one to direct his taste, he became a naturalist while yet a child. 
 Nothing delighted him so much as to pick up the products of the 
 shore of his native island, when as yet he could hardly read. By the 
 time he was seven years of age he had collected a small museum. 
 His first efforts at naming theBe objects were made through Turton'i 
 
IIS 
 
 FORBES, JAMES. 
 
 I BO 
 
 'Translation of the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus.' Whilst yet a boy 
 of twelve years old he had read Buekland's 'Reliquiae Diluviauao,' 
 Parkinson's 'Organic Remains,' and Cony beare's ' Geology of England.' 
 Such was the impression produced on his mind by the perusal of these 
 works, that he ever afterwards attributed his taste for geological 
 research to reading them. His first attempt at original work was 
 the production of a ' Manual of British Natural History,' which, 
 although it was never published, wa3 the repository of many of his 
 notes even to the close of his life. His habit of drawing the natural 
 history objects which interested him, led him to think of painting as 
 a profession, and with this object in view he studied for some time in 
 the studio of the late Mr. Sass in Charlotte-street, London. This 
 profession did not however comply with his restless desire to study 
 the facts of natural history, and in 1832 he repaired to the University 
 of Edinburgh with the object of studying medicine. Here under 
 the teaching of Professors Jameson and Graham he first became 
 acquainted with the true principles of natural science, and the views 
 and objects of its cultivation. This fired his ambition to become 
 himself an observer and add to the already accumulated stores of 
 natural history facts. It was with this feeling that he started with 
 a fellow-student on an excursion into Norway, where he made 
 numerous observations on the rocks, plants, and Mollusca of the 
 country, and afterwards published the result of his observations in a 
 paper in the ' Magazine of Natural History,' entitled ' Notes of a 
 Natural History Tour in Norway.' 
 
 At this early period of his natural history career he had recognised 
 the importance of the dredge as an instrument of his research, and 
 in his hands this simple instrument became as powerful a means of 
 research as the telescope to the astronomer. With it he swept the 
 bottom of the ocean, measured its depths by the character of its 
 inhabitants, and discovered a law for the distribution of marine 
 plants and animals in depth, as strict as the law which regulated 
 their distribution on the altitude of mountains. His early papers, 
 entitled 'Records of the Results of Dredging,' were published in 
 the eighth and ninth volumes of the 'Magazine of Natural History.' 
 Much of his student time was spent upon the sea in the neighbour- 
 hood of Edinburgh, and scarcely ever did he make a dredging 
 excursion, so new was the operation to the naturalist, without adding 
 some new form or species to his increasing collection of natural 
 objects. His attention was not at all however exclusively confined 
 to marine zoology. Plants were always favourite objects, and no 
 student enjoyed more or profited more largely by the botanical 
 excursions of the late Professor Graham. This habit of excursionising 
 he held constituted a most important element in botanical study, at 
 once invigorating the body, and giving the student a knowledge of 
 the relation of plants to other objects which they could not other- 
 wise obtain. Whilst he held the chair of botany at King's College, 
 London, he never neglected periodical excursions with his students. 
 He was mainly instrumental in 1836 in establishing the Botanical 
 Society of Edinburgh, of which he became the foreign secretary. In 
 1837 he visited Paris, attended the lectures of the professors there, 
 and worked in the museum and collections in the Jardin des Plantes. 
 In the same year he visited Algiers and the coasts of the Mediterranean. 
 In 1833 he published an account of the ' Mollusca of the Isle of Man,' 
 and in 1839 papers on the ' Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Algiers,' 
 and on the ' Distribution of the Pulmonifera of Europe.' In these 
 researches he was laying the foundation for the enlarged views, which 
 he afterwards put forth, with regard to the distribution of the genera 
 and species of animals and plants in time and space. 
 
 His papers from this time became very numerous. The materials 
 he accumulated in his various excursions were truly astonishing, 
 and he lived to publish but a comparatively small proportion of them. 
 
 In 1841 he published a ' History of British Star-Fishes,' containing 
 accounts of several new species, with charming descriptions of the 
 habits of these animals, and incidents connected with catching them, 
 whilst the tail-pieces from his own pencil were worthy a disciple 
 of Bewick. In this year he accepted the appointment of naturalist to 
 H.M. S. Beacon, commander Captain Graves, who was commissioned 
 to bring the marbles from Lycia, discovered by Sir Charles Fellows. 
 Here new fields were opened up to him. For the first time the 
 resources of a ship of war were placed at the disposal of a naturalist. 
 The result of this voyage was the discovery of the great law, that 
 among marine animals zones of depth corresponded to parallels of 
 latitude. This law was announced at the meeting of the British 
 Association held at Cork in 1843. The detailed results of this voyage 
 were never given to the world, and Forbes always looked forward to 
 the day when a little leisure would permit him to publish in detail 
 his researches. But he had to work for his daily bread, and, to the 
 disgrace of his country, no position was provided for him in which 
 the necessary leisure could be found, till it was too late. 
 
 Other results came out of his Lycian excursions. In conjunction 
 with Lieutenant, now Captain, Spratt, he published his travels in 
 Lycia, with numerous illustrations made from his own drawings, and 
 notes on the natural history of the iEgean. 
 
 It was in Lycia that he contracted the same form of remittent fever 
 which killed one of his companions, the Rev. Mr. Daniell, and from the 
 effects of which he suffered to the day of his death. 
 
 Whilst away in the ^Egean, he was appointed to the Professorship 
 
 of Botany in King's College, London, vacated by the death of Mr. 
 David Don. Although he had resolved on a visit to Egypt and a 
 dredging excursion to the Red Sea, the offer of a chair in London was 
 too much in accordance with his tastes to refuse. He now deliberately 
 gave up the medical profession, and became a naturalist for the rest of 
 his life. He gave his first lecture in May 1844, and in the same year 
 he was appointed assistant secretary to the Zoological Society. Both 
 situations contributed to the development of his genius, for whilst tho 
 professorship compelled him to arrange and systematise his knowledge, 
 and developed his power of communicating its results, the secretaryship 
 afforded him a means of extending his acquaintance with fossils, anA 
 the relations of extinct with recent forms of both animals and plants. 
 These offices however preceded one more important still, that of 
 palaeontologist to the Geological Society of Great Britain. When the 
 Museum of Economic Geology was removed to Jermyn-street, and the 
 School of Mines founded, he was appointed professor of natural 
 history. Although prevented by these appointments from publishing 
 all he had already stored up, he added here fresh stores to his stock 
 of knowledge, and numerous memoirs and papers in the Natural 
 History Journals, the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, and the 
 Transactions of the Geological Society, attest his great observing powers 
 and unwearied industry. One of the most important of these papers 
 is entitled 'On the connection between the distribution of the existing 
 Fauna and Flora of the British Isles, and the geological changes which 
 have affected their area,' This paper attempts to explain the dis- 
 tribution of the plants and animals of the British Islands, on the 
 hypothesis that they were all diffused from a common centre, and 
 that consequently they must have been disseminated when these 
 islands were continuous with those countries where the identical 
 species are found. He then brings forward geological evidence to 
 support hi3 assertions, and even goes so far as to point out the fact, 
 that at one time and that recently, dry ground existed between the 
 south-western portions of the British Islands and America. 
 
 In 1854 Professor Forbes was elected president of the Geological 
 Society. In the same year he accepted the chair of Natural History 
 in the University of Edinburgh. He was president of the geological 
 section of the British Association which met at Liverpool iu September. 
 He died on the 18th of November in the same year. The Edinburgh 
 chair was the object of his highest ambition. The increasing years of 
 Professor Jameson rendered it not improbable even when he was a 
 student that he might one day hope to fill this honourable post. Ho 
 commenced the duties of his new position with his usual ardour, laid 
 down a course of action which would have required years of develop- 
 ment, but he had barely time to deliver a preliminary summer course 
 before he was seized with a disease of the kidneys which proved fatal 
 in a few days. 
 
 Besides the works to which reference is made above, he was the 
 associate of Mr. Hanley in a great work on the ' History of British 
 Mollusca,' which was published in parts, and completed in 1853. This 
 work is one of the most complete and exhaustive on the subject of 
 our native Mollusca, and all the descriptions were written by Forbes. 
 He contributed several valuable papers and maps on the distribution 
 of animals and plants to the last edition of Johnston's ' Physical Atlas.' 
 He also indulged in general literature, and the world was somewhat 
 surprised after his decease to find that for some years he had been 
 a contributor to the review department of the ' Literary Gazette.' His 
 papers were collected together by the editor, aud published under the 
 title of 'Literary Papers by the late Edward Forbes.' The third volume 
 of the ' Bibliographia Geologia et Zoologia ' of Agassiz aud Strickland, 
 published by the Ray Society iu 1850, contains a list of eighty-nine 
 papers and works supplied by the author himself, and arranged in 
 chronological order. His contributions to natural history science were 
 perhaps more numerous during the last four years of his life than 
 during any former period of the same length. Few men have laboured 
 more assiduously in the path of natural science, or produced a greater 
 impression on the current thought of those who cultivated the same 
 branches of knowledge, as himself ; aud the time has not yet arrived 
 when a clear estimate can be made of the influence he has exerted 
 upon the time in which he lived. 
 
 FORBES, JAMES, was born in London in 1749. He went out in 
 1765 with a writer's appointment, in the service of the East India 
 Company, to Bombay ; accompanied in a civil capacity the troops sent 
 to assist Ragonath Row, peshwa of the Mahrattsis, in 1775 ; and, after 
 a short visit to England for his health, received an appointment at 
 Baroche, in Guzerat, from which he was promoted iu 1780 to be 
 collector aud chief resident of the town and district of Dhuboy in the 
 same province, then newly occupied by the company. On the cession 
 of that province to the Mahrattas in 1783, he returned to England, 
 honoured by the affection and sincere regret of the natives who had 
 been placed under his charge. Being iu France iu 1803, he was 
 among the numerous ' detenus' confined at Verdun, but was released 
 with his family in 1804 as a man of science by the mediation of the 
 French Institute, at the instance of our Royal Society. In 1806 Mr. 
 Forbes published two volumes of letters, descriptive of his tour in 
 Holland, Belgium, and France, with a more particular account of 
 Verdun, and the treatment of the British detained there. In 1813 he 
 published the work by which he is now best known, ' Oriental Memoirs, 
 selected and abridged from a series of Familiar Letters, written during 
 
051 FORBES, SIR JOHN, M.D. 
 
 Seventeen Tears' residence in India,' &c., 4 vols. 4to, 1813. This work 
 includes observations on those parts of Africa and America at which 
 the author touched in his several voyages. The beauty of its 
 decorations, more especially the coloured plates of animals and plants, 
 from drawings made by the author, which have been rarely surpassed 
 in spirit and beauty, obtained for it uncommon popularity. The text 
 also, though bulky, was calculated to interest the public at large, as 
 containing, intermixed with personal anecdote, an amusing mass of 
 miscellaneous information concerning the Company's service, the 
 history, manners, zoology, and antiquities of Hindustan, especially 
 Guzerat, and other provinces on the western coast. Mr. Forbes died 
 August 1, 1819. He was a Fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian 
 societies, and the Arcadian Society of Rome. 
 
 FORBES, SIR JOHN, M.D., was born in 1787, at Cuttlebr.ie.. 
 Banffshire, Scotland, and graduated at Edinburgh in the year 
 1 S 17. He firBt settled as a physician at Penzance, and afterwards 
 at Chichester, but subsequently came to London, where he now 
 resides. His Dame was first brought before the profession by his 
 translations of the works of Avenbrugger and Laennec on Ausculta- 
 tion and the Use of the Stethoscope. He was one of the first amongst 
 English medical men to recognise the importance and value of physical 
 diagnosis as a means of detecting diseases of the heart and lungs. 
 His translation of Laennec has gone through five editions, and is still 
 widely read. In the year 1828 he published a work entitled 'Observa- 
 tions on the Climate of Penzance and Lands End.' He was one of 
 the founders of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association, now 
 the British Medical Association. One of the objects of this association 
 was to obtain information with regard to the medical topography of 
 England. In the first and second volumes of the Transactions of this 
 association Sir John contributed an able memoir on the 'Medical 
 Topography of the Hundred of Penwith.' In this paper a large 
 amount of local information with regard to the diseases of the district 
 mentioned, and their relation to the soil and other physical conditions 
 of the country were investigated. It is to be regretted that inquiries of 
 this kind have not been more generally made, and that so good an 
 object of the British Medical Association has not been more! perfectly 
 accomplished. In conjunction with Dr. Conolly, Sir John Forbes was 
 the editor of the 'Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine.' This work 
 consisted of a series of valuable articles on diseases alphabetically 
 arranged. He contributed several of these articles himself. He was 
 also the editor of the ♦ British and Foreign Medical Review,' till its 
 union with the ' Medico-Chirurgical Review,' since when it has been 
 called the ' British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review.' In his 
 capacity of editor of this journal Sir John displayed unwearied 
 assiduity in the introduction of articles written by men of first-rate 
 ability, and also a public spirit and independence which has deservedly 
 placed him amongst the benefactors of his profession. His inde- 
 pendence however, valuable as it has been to the cultivation of habits 
 of sound thought, aDd the spread cf a spirit of searching inquiry into 
 the principles and practice of medicine, was not rewarded by pecu- 
 niary success, and he relinquished the ' British and Foreign Medical 
 Quarterly,' a loser in the noble cause of the literature and science of 
 his profession. He has not however been a loser in reputation. On 
 coming to London he was appointed Physician in Ordinary to Her 
 Majesty's household, and Physician Extraordinary to his Royal High- 
 ness Prince Albert. He was early elected a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and the University of Oxford has honoured itself by conferring 
 on him the degree of Doctor of Laws. Within the last few years he 
 has relinquished the active duties of his profession, and his love of 
 literature has displayed itself in the production of several works of a 
 lighter and more popular kind than his medical writings. In 1849 
 he published a 'Physician's Holiday, or a Month in Switzerland.' 
 This work is one of the most interesting accounts published of the 
 well-known localities of a tour in Switzerland. In 1852 he published 
 an account of a tour made in Ireland under the title 'Memoranda 
 made in Ireland in the Autumn of 1852;' and in 1856 the notice 
 of another tour under the title of ' Sight-seeing in Germany and the 
 Tyrol, in the Autumn of 1855.' Sir John has ever identified himself 
 with popular progress and the cause of education. He was an active 
 and valuable member of the Committee of the Society for the Diffu- 
 sion of Useful Knowledge. In 1853 he gave a lecture to one of the 
 literary institutions of Chichester, entitled 'Of Happinesss in its 
 relations to Work and Knowledge.' Few men could speak more 
 competently on this subject. [See Supplement.] 
 
 FORBES, JOHN, a divine and polemical writer, second son of 
 Patrick Forbes, bishop of Aberdeen, was born on the 2nd of May 
 1593. He studied at Heidelberg and Sedan, and returned to Scotland 
 in 1619. In that year he was appointed professor of divinity in King's 
 College, Aberdeen, an office in which he acquired a high character 
 for learning and ability. He lived during the period of the hottest 
 struggles for supremacy between episcopacy and Presby terianism ; 
 and possessed with the views of toleration and ecclesiastical peace that 
 appear to have distinguished his family, he published in 1629, at 
 Aberdeen, ' Irenicum Amatoribus Veritatis et Pacis in Ecclesia 
 Scotiana.' Afterwards, in 1638, when the breach between the two 
 parties, which was the commencement of the civil wars, had begun, 
 he published 'A peaceable Warning to the subjects in Scotland.' 
 He was afterwards a leader in a nolemical dispute as one of those ' 
 
 FORBIN, CLAUDE. 862 
 
 generally styled " the Aberdeen doctors," who conducted, on the side 
 of Episcopacy, a controversy with the Covenanters. Like his coad- 
 jutors, Forbes was deprived of his benefice in 1640. His case was one 
 of peculiar hardship, for he had made over part of his own private 
 property to be attached to the professorship which he held ; and he 
 lost this property on being dismissed from his office. In 1644 he 
 went to Holland, where ho married a Dutch woman named Soete 
 Roosboom, or Sweet Rosetree. He returned to Aberdeen in 1646, and 
 died on the 29th of April 1648. Besides the works already men- 
 tioned, he published others on kindred subjects, some of which passed 
 through more than one separate edition ; and the whole, along with 
 some posthumous additions, were collectively published in his ' Opera 
 Omnia,' at Amsterdam, 2 vols, folio, 1702-3. 
 
 FORBES, PATRICK, Bishop of Aberdeen, was born soon after the 
 middle of the 16th century. He was the eldest son of the pro- 
 prietor of Corse, in the county of Aberdeen, where his descendants 
 still possess estates. He studied at Stirling and Glasgow. His first 
 clerical appointment was at Keith in Morayshire. He became Bishop 
 of Aberdeen in 1618, and died in 1635. He was the author of several 
 polemical works, which were collectively published in Latin at 
 Amsterdam, in 1646. A curious collection of funeral sermons on his 
 memory, by many eminent survivors, was published soon after his 
 death. (Irving, Lives of Scottish Writers, ii. ; Funerals of Bishop 
 Forbes ; reprinted for the Spottiswoode Society.) 
 
 FORBES, WILLIAM, Bishop of Edinburgh, was born at Aberdeen 
 in 1585. He studied at Marischal College in Aberdeen, which he 
 entered when he was twelve years old. He held for some time a 
 chair of logic in Aberdeen ; and afterwards travelled in Germany 
 and Poland, studying at Helmstadt and Heidelberg. On his return 
 to Britain he was offered a professorship of Hebrew in Oxford, 
 but the state of his health induced him to return to his native 
 country. In 1618 he was made principal of Marischal College. 
 We find him in 1621 ceasing to hold this office, and soon after- 
 wards becoming one of the ministers of Edinburgh. In that 
 capacity he preached before Charles I. on his visit to Scotland in 
 1633, and the eloquence he then exhibited is said to have induced 
 the king to resolve that he should be the first bishop of Edinburgh. 
 That short-lived see was erected in the ensuing year, and Forbes was 
 appointed bishop on the 26th of January 1634. He died on the 11th 
 of April of the same year. His fame is chiefly traditional His only 
 published work is posthumous : ' Considerations modestae et pacificao 
 Controversiarum de Justificatione, Purgatorio, Invocatione Sanctorum 
 et Christo Mediatore, Eucharistia,' published in 1658. It embodied 
 a proposal for an accommodation between the Protestant Episcopal 
 churches and the Church of Rome, the only result of which could be 
 to have made episcopacy regarded with more suspicion in Scotland 
 than it was. Some other polemical works which had raised high 
 expectations were lost. Burnet, characterising his eloquence, says 
 that " he preached with a zeal and vehemence that made him forget 
 all the measures of time — two or three hours was no extraordinary 
 thing for him." 
 
 FORBIN, CLAUDE, one of the most distinguished naval officers 
 that France has ever produced, was born in Provence in 1656, and 
 died in 1734. It is unnecessary to enumerate his various exploits 
 against the English, Dutch, Venetians, and the Barbary powers, but 
 we cannot omit a remarkable circumstance in his life, of which he 
 has left an account in his memoirs. We allude to the attempt which 
 was made in the 17th century to introduce European civilisation into 
 the kingdom of Siam. It originated with an adventurer, a native of 
 the Ionian Islands, called Constance Faulcon, who came at an early 
 age to England, and entered the service of the East India Company. 
 After many vicissitudes he reached Siam, and entering the service of 
 the king of that country, he succeeded in gaining the favour not only 
 of the prime minister but even of the king himself, who on the death 
 of the minister wished to appoint Constance in his place. He had tbe 
 good sense however to decline the title, in order to avoid exciting 
 the jealousy of the natives, and contented himself with the exercise 
 of the power. The beginning of Constance's administration was 
 successful, and notwithstanding many difficulties, the country began 
 to improve under the administration of this able foreigner. He now 
 conceived the plan of introducing, with the assistance of the Jesuits, 
 the Christian religion, not only into Siam, but also into the adjacent 
 countries, and with that view he persuaded the king of Siam to send 
 three deputies to Louis XIV. The three deputies died on their way, 
 but Louis having heard of the circumstance sent the Chevalier 
 Chaumont, accompanied by Forbin, to the Siamese monarch. The 
 embassy was accompanied by some troops. It concluded a treaty of 
 commerce, secured protection to the Catholic religion in Siam, and 
 returned to France with an embassy from the king. Constanco 
 having prevailed on his master to take some French officers and 
 troops into his service, Forbin was appointed grand admiral of the 
 fleet, general-in-chief of Siam, and governor of Bangkok. The French 
 troops were stationed in several parts of the kingdom ; they occupied 
 the fortresses of Mergui and Bangkok, and the king requested 
 Louis XIV., by the Jesuit Tachard, to increase their number. Every- 
 thing seemed now favourable to the progress of European civilisation 
 in Siam, or rather perhaps of the views of Louis XIV. and his advisers, 
 whatever those views were, when jealousy between Constance and 
 
653 
 
 FORD, JOHN. 
 
 FORLT, MELOZZO DA. 
 
 8:4 
 
 the commander of the French troops destroyed all these brilliant 
 prospects. A Siamese grandee called Pitracha, taking advantage of 
 the quarrels which divided the Europeans, united all their enemies 
 and revolted against the king, took him prisoner, and declared him- 
 self regent of the kingdom. He compelled the French to quit the 
 country, and put Constance as well as many other Christians to death. 
 Forbin returned to Europe after a two years' residence in Siam, of 
 which he seems to have been heartily tired. Forbin's memoirs were 
 published, during his lifetime, in 1730, at Amsterdam, 2 vols, in 12mo. 
 They are written with great ease, and his lively descriptions as well 
 as the variety of events related, make them exceedingly interesting. 
 The last years of his life were spent in retirement and devoted to 
 religious exercises and works of charity. 
 
 FORD, JOHN, the dramatist, descended from a highly respectable 
 family in the north-west of Devonshire, was the second son of Thomas 
 Ford of Ilsington in that county. The exact date of his birth, is not 
 known, but Malone's industry has fixed his baptism at April 17, 1586, 
 as appears from the parish register of Ilsington. 
 
 His family having some connection with Popham, the chief justice, 
 Ford was designed for the bar, and entered at the Middle Temple, 
 November 16, 1602; four years after which time he produced his first 
 poem, ' Fame's Memorial,' an elegy on the death of the Earl of Devon- 
 shire, dedicated to his countess, the beautiful sister of the favourite 
 Earl of Essex. This poem adds nothing to the author's present reputa- 
 tion, and all we gather from it are some hints of a disappointment in 
 love, for the cure of which he had recourse to writing. In addition to 
 this mode of mental relief, he applied himself to a practice then common, 
 that of assisting in the composition of plays, but he did not appear 
 as an independent writer till 1629, when he published ' The Lover's 
 Melancholy,' which was followed four years afterwards by ' 'Tis Pity 
 She's a Whore,' ' The Broken Heart,' and ' Love's Sacrifice.' The next 
 year produced ' Perkin Warbeck ; ' and in 1638-39 he published two 
 serious comedies, called ' The Fancies Chaste and Noble,' and ' The 
 Lady's Trial.' Besides these, he wrote in conjunction with Decker 
 ' The Sun's Darling,' a moral mask, which was not printed till 1657 
 according to Langbaine, or 1658 according to Gifford. 
 
 Nothing more is known of Ford ; but from some obscure traditions 
 it lias been supposed that soon after 1638 he retired to his native place 
 of Ilsington, and there spent the remainder of his days. 
 
 Ford's plays contain many fine thoughts, and numerous specimens 
 of harmonious versification, apparently the result of considerable 
 labour. One fault into which he has fallen in common with others of 
 his contemporaries, that namely of killing off all his dramatis persona 
 at the end of the fifth act, appears to arise from an overstrained desire 
 of completing and perfecting the action of the play. Forgetting that 
 the end of every drama is to represent a certain crisis in the affairs 
 of one or more of the principal agents, he endeavours to make the 
 fortunes of almost all the inferiors converge to the same point, and 
 accordingly involves them in a similar ruin. Ford's great strength 
 lies in his love scenes and the passages of deep pathos ; in his comic 
 characters there is nothing of nature or even of genial humour. His 
 best work is, we think, ' Perkin Warbeck.' It has an air of repose 
 throughout which we do not see in Ford's other plays ; but if the 
 characters of Annabella and Giovanni had been more fully sustained 
 throughout, ''Tis Pity She's a Whore' would probably have been 
 Ford's most perfect tragedy. 
 
 FORD, RICHARD, descended from an ancient Sussex family, is 
 the eldest son of Sir Richard Ford, member of parliament in 1789 for 
 East Grinstead, and chief police magistrate of London. Mr. Ford's 
 mother, the representative of the Salweys of Shropshire, was the 
 heiress of her father Benjamin Booth, an eminent patron of art, and 
 especially of Richard Wilson, of whose paintings he possessed and 
 left more than sixty. Mr. Ford was born in Sloane-street in 1796, was 
 educated at Winchester, and having graduated at Trinity College, 
 Oxford, was called to the bar in Lincoln's Inn, but did not practise. 
 He travelled much on the continent, then just opened by the downfall 
 of Napoleon L, and laid the foundation of his choice library and collec- 
 tion of drawings and engravings. In 1830 he went to Spain, where a 
 long residence in the Alhambra, and a complete examination of the 
 country, fixed his future studies. On his return he settled in Devon- 
 shire, and busied himself in laying out Moorish gardens, and in contri- 
 buting regularly to the ' Quarterly Review,' chiefly selecting for subjects 
 those that bore on the manners, arts, and literature of the Peninsula. 
 He also wrote the account of Velasquez in the ' Penny Cyclopaedia.' 
 He finally embodied his Spanish experience in his ' Hand-Book for 
 Travellers in Spain and Readers at Home, describing the Country, 
 and Cities, the Natives and their Manners ; the Antiquities, Religion, 
 Legends, Fine Arts, Literature, Sports, and Gastronomy; with Notices 
 on Spanish History,' 2 vols. 12mo. The pages being continuous through 
 both volumes, the 1st is named Part I. and the 2nd Part II. Mr. Ford's 
 ' Hand-Book ' corresponds in fact with the above descriptive title-page. 
 Its value is very great, not only to the tourist in Spain, but to all at home 
 who seek information concerning that country, previously so ill-described 
 and consequently so imperfectly known. As a work of reference it is 
 very valuable, not only for what is described or related, but for the numer- 
 ous authorities to which the reader is referred for further information. 
 1 he plan throughout is excellent. Part I. is preceded by ' Preliminary 
 Remarks,' consisting of such general information as is necessary for the 
 ?J00. div. vol. u. 
 
 tourist. Besides theso remarks, each division and ancient province of 
 the country is preceded by a copious introduction describing the general 
 features. The traveller is theu conducted by a series of ' routes.' or 
 journeys, in various directions, in the course of which the district and 
 tho cities, towns, and sometimes villages, which it contains, arc care- 
 fully and fully described. The notices of works of architecture, of 
 Spanish painters and paintings, of sculptures, carvings, and other 
 works of art, are copious, generally trustworthy, and convey a large 
 amount of information previously unknown in this country. It may 
 be observed however, that the materials of the work, which must have 
 been gathered piecemeal by extensive observation and laborious 
 research, are sometimes put together somewhat confusedly, and are 
 too much mixed up with the author's peculiar opinions, generally 
 piquant enough in point of expression, but not always to be admitted 
 as true. The public demand for a work treating on a country com- 
 paratively so little visited, having arisen from its comprehensive, ex- 
 haustive, and accurate character, a new edition, almost rewritten, was 
 published in 1855. 
 
 Mr. Ford married Harriet, daughter of the late Lord Essex, and 
 of this union three children remain. By his second wife Eliza, sister 
 to Lord Craustoun, one daughter remains. His third wife was Mary, 
 sister to the late Sir William Molesworth. Mr. Ford's only brother, 
 James, a Prebendary of Exeter Cathedral, is the author of many and 
 learned theological works. [See Supplement.] 
 
 FORDUN, JOHN DE, the father of Scottish history, is believed 
 to have been a canou of Aberdeen, and to have been born in the parish 
 of Fordun, in the Mearns, in the early part of the 14th century. He 
 probably died in the year 1386, or very soon after. His history, as far 
 as completed by himself, is in five books, and comes down to the end 
 of the reign of David 1.(1153); it begins at the creation, the first 
 chapter beiDg entitled 'De Mundo sensibili, terra scilicet et suis 
 quatuor punctis principalibus, orientali, occidentali, australi, et 
 boreali,' and a great deal that immediately follows, being rather a 
 treatise on cosmogony than a chronicle or history. But, in addition 
 to the five books, he left materials for bringing down the narrative to 
 1385, which were put in order by Walter Bower, abbot of Inchcolm, 
 who, as he tells us himself, was born in that year. Bower also continued 
 the history to the death of James I. (1437), the whole work being thus 
 extended to sixteen books. Fordun states that he spent much time 
 in collecting the materials for his history, both by inquiry and by 
 travel ; and he appears to have made a diligent use of all the sources 
 of information that were accessible to him. He has undoubtedly pre- 
 served many facts which otherwise would have perished. Although 
 by no means free from the credulity which belonged to the spirit of 
 his age, he deserves to be considered as, by comparison, both an honest 
 and a sensible writer ; the mythology of the Scottish history appears 
 in a much simpler shape in his account than it assumes in the hands 
 of his successors. Tho first five books of Fordun's work were first 
 printed under the title of ' Joannis Fordun Scoti Chronicon, sive 
 Scotorum Historia,' in Gale's ' Historia) Britannicse, Saxonicre, &c, 
 Scriptores xv.' (commonly referred to as the first volume of Gale's 
 collection), fol., Oxon, 1691, pp. 563-701. The first complete edition 
 of the work was published by Hearne at Oxford, in 5 vols. 8vo, iu 
 1722, under the title of 'Joannis de Fordun, Scotichronicon.' A more 
 complete and accurate edition appeared at Edinburgh in 1759, in 2 
 vols, fol., entitled 'Joannis Fordun Scotichronicon, cum supplementis 
 et continuatione Walteri Boweri, Insulse Sancti Columb£e Abbatis, &c, 
 cura Gualteri Goodall.' Some copies of this publication are said to 
 have a different title-page, with the date 1775. Goodall's introduction 
 is a very poor performance. Many manuscripts of Forduu are extant. 
 
 FORLI, MELOZZO DA, a celebrated painter of Forli, where he was 
 born about 1438. Melozzo was the first who ventured to foreshorten 
 figures upon ceilings, to attempt the ' sotto in su,' as it is termed by 
 the Italians, and in which Correggio has obtained so great a name : 
 Melozzo however was scarcely inferior in this respect to that great 
 painter. He excelled generally in perspective : in a work published in 
 1494 by Fra Luca Paccioli, entitled ' Summa d'Aritmetica et Geometria,' 
 he is enumerated among the living painters who were "famosi e 
 supremi " in perspective. He died November 8, 1491. 
 
 Scarcely anything is known of Melozzo, though his contemporaries 
 termed him " the incomparable painter, and the splendour of all Italy." 
 (Morelli, ' Notizia d'Opere di Disegno,' &c, p. 109.) He is supposed 
 by some to have been the fellow-pupil of Mantegna with Squarcione at 
 Padua, and by others to have been the scholar of Piero della Francesca, 
 one of the earliest masters of perspective. He was early in Rome : he 
 is noticed by Vasari as the contemporary of Benozzo : he painted there 
 in 1472 for Cardinal Riario, the nephew of Sixtus IV., an 'Ascension 
 of Christ,* on the altar-vault of a chapel of the church of the apostles, 
 Santi Apostoli, which was sawed out and removed in 1711, the prin- 
 cipal part to the Quirinal Palace, and part to the Vatican, which is now 
 in the sacristy of St. Peter's. The part in the Quirinal, the ' Ascension,' 
 has the following inscription :—' Opus Melotti_ Foroliviensis, qui 
 summos fornices pingendi artem vel primus invenit vel illustravit, ex 
 abside vcteris templi SS. XII. Apostolorum hue translatum anno SaL 
 MDCCXI.' All the fragments are engraved in D'Agincourt's ' Histoire 
 de l'Art paries Monumens.' There is also a large fresco, now mounted 
 on canvass, in the gallery of the Vatican, which was formerly on a 
 wall of the old Vatican library ; it represents Sixtus IV. installing 
 
(Bartolomeo Sacchi, or) Platina in 1475 as prelect of the said library. 
 The fresco was removed from the wall and fixed to the canvass by 
 Domenico Succi of Imola, by order of Leo XII. Tho expression of 
 all the heads, mostly portraits of distinguished persons, is good and 
 individual, and the general arrangement and colouring are of great 
 merit, but in the severe style of Mantegna and other emiueut 
 quattrocentisti. 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, <Ssc, in the lift: of Benozzo (Gozzoli), and 
 the notes to Schorn's German translation ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, <bc. ; 
 Galleria di Quadri al Vaticano, Roma, 1836.) 
 
 FORMO'SUS, Bishop of Porto, was raised to the see of Rome in 
 891, after the death of Stephen V. He had acquired a reputation for 
 learning and piety, but being in opposition to John VIII. in the matter 
 of tho election of a new emperor, that pope had deposed him in 878 ; 
 but Martin II., John's successor, honourably re-instated him in his see. 
 His conduct after his exaltation to the papal see was both firm and 
 moderate, as is shown by his letters relative to the schism of Photius, 
 as well as by those which he wrote toEudes, the competitor of Charles 
 the Simple, and to the bishops of Gaul, exhorting them not to disturb 
 Charles in the possession of the crown. In one instance however he 
 has been accused of tergiversation. In February 892 he crowned 
 Lambert, sou of Guido, as colleague to his father in the kingdom of 
 Italy; but soon after, in consequence of disputes between Guido and 
 the Roman see, Formosus wrote to Aruulph, king of Germany, inviting 
 him to come to Italy and assume the crown. Aruulph came to Italy, 
 and was crowned at Rome by Formosus in the beginning of the year 
 895, after the death of Guido. The history of that period, and of the 
 various competitors to tho crown of Italy, is extremely confused. 
 Formosus died in April 896, and was succeeded by Boniface VI., who, 
 dying a few days after, was succeeded by Stephen VI., by some styled 
 the VII., who, having taken the part of Lambert against Arnulph, 
 instituted proceedings in a council against the memory of Formosus, 
 and had his body disinterred. Rouianus however, who (succeeded 
 Stephen, in a council held at Rome in 898 rescued the character of 
 Formosus from this stigma, had his body honourably buried again, 
 and declared the acts of his pontificate to be legal and valid. 
 
 FORSELL, CARL AF, a Swedish philanthropist and statistician, 
 was born at Skottorp, in the province of Skaraborg, on the 18th of 
 March 1783. His father was a colonel in the army, his mother, whose 
 name was De Bruce, was descended from a Scottish family settled in 
 Sweden. At the school of Skara where he received his first education 
 he waB frequently flogged, and was remarkably dull ; at the military 
 academy of Carlsberg, where corporal punishment was prohibited, he 
 gained a succession of prizes. In 1801 he commenced his career as 
 an officer on board the Bellona frigate, during the armed neutrality 
 of the northern powers, but he was never fond of the sea, and was 
 soou transferred to the laud-service. He was for some time engaged 
 in taking surveys of parts of Sweden for the great map by Baron 
 Hermelin, which was made at Hermelin's expense, and in 180S with 
 his brother in taking similar surveys for the projected Gotha canal, 
 which was carried into effect by Telford the engineer of the Caledonian 
 Canal, and which, like the Scottish undertaking, was far from success- 
 ful as a pecuniary speculation. In 1809 on hearing that Adlersparre, 
 the commander of a portion of the army of Finland, was on his 
 march to Stockholm to effect an alteration in the government, 
 Forsell instantly went off to the insurgents and offered his services, 
 which were accepted. General Dobeln, to whom Forsell was sent 
 with some proposals, threatened to have him shot as a rebel, but in 
 a few days the question was decided without a blow. Gustavus IV. 
 was dethroned, and his uncle Charles XIII. succeeded. Forsell was 
 appointed adjutant to the newly-elected crown-prince, Charles Augustus 
 of Augustenburg, and attended him in his expedition to Scania, where 
 the prince's sudden death put an end to the hopes of seeing the 
 three crowns of Scandinavia united on one head. Forsell was also 
 present at the most disgraceful scene in the modern history of Sweden, 
 when 'Count von Fersen, wrongfully suspected of having poisoned the 
 prince, was torn to pieces at his funeral by the mob of Stockholm. 
 The new crown-prince, Bernadotte, continued Forsell in his post, and 
 he accompanied him during all the war in Germany, having under 
 his charge the maps required for the campaign, which were not less 
 than 5000. After the peace he was raised in 1817 to the order of 
 nobles, and in 1824 became chief of the surveying department with 
 the rank of colonel. A new map of Sweden in eight sheets on a larger 
 scale than Hermelin's was constructed under his superintendence, 
 and Norway, now united to Sweden, was mapped on the same scale 
 by Norwegian officers. A series of statistical tables, originally pub- 
 lished in a quarto volume as an accompaniment to the map, was found 
 so useful that it was republished in a separate form under the title of 
 'Statistik ofver Sverige,' in 1831, was translated into Danish and 
 German, and ran through several editions, the last of which was 
 issued in 1844. It is the book most frequently referred to by writers 
 on the subject. A volume of notes, ' Anteckningar och Statistiska 
 Upplysningar ofver Sverige,' published in 1837, is a companion, and is 
 intended to correct some of the injurious notions of Sweden diffused 
 by Laing. Forsell took an active part in introducing into his native 
 country several of the improvements of modern times, both moral 
 and mechanical. In 181 9 he wrote a pamphlet and founded a company 
 for the introduction of steam-boats, and it was a subject of pride that 
 
 tho first two steamers in Sweden were built in Swedish waters, at 
 Stockholm and Hoganiis, but one was in Mr. Owen's establishment, 
 and the other at Mr. Stafford's ; and the latter was so bad that it 
 occasioned a loss to tho shareholders. In 1820 and 1821 he intro- 
 duced savings banks, in 1830 temperance societies, in 1834 a society 
 in imitation of the English Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- 
 ledge, which published a periodical entitled ' Lasniug for Folket ' 
 ('Reading for the People'). In 1834 he visited England for the 
 purpose of studying the management of infant schools. Tho visit 
 was a very unfortunate one, for it was begun when he was unwell, it 
 was continued iu ill-health, and it all but ended fatally in an attack 
 of the cholera at Manchester, where he finally rose from a sick bed 
 without money to carry him home, but was set at ease by his Quaker 
 physician, Dr. Ransome, who told him he would discharge his hotel 
 bill and wait for his own till his patient had arrived at Stockholm. 
 In 1835 he published his 'Notes on the occasion of a Tour to England 
 at the end of the Summer of 1834,' in which he gives an account of 
 his visit to Mr. Clowes'e printing-office, to his old friend Mr. Telford, 
 to his countryman Mr. Ericsson, &c., but the volume on the whole 
 bears signs of the feebleness of the author's health. He supplied an 
 account of education in Sweden to the sixth volume of the London 
 ' Journal of Education,' and a notice of the provision for the poor in \ 
 Sweden to the English Poor-Law Commissioners, which was printed 
 in their report laid before parliament. Forsell died at Stockholm on 
 the 25th of October 1848, universally respected as a zealous bene- i 
 factor of his fellow-citizens. The name is common in Sweden, and 
 the Carl Forssell who iu 1836 published a handsome volume of j 
 costumes under the title of ' Ett Ar i Sverige' ('A Year in Sweden'), 
 is not akin to the statistician. 
 
 FORSKAL PETER, a celebrated naturalist and oriental traveller, 
 was born in Sweden, in the year 1736. After studying at Giittingen, ' 
 where he published a dissertation under the title of ' Dubia de 
 Principiis Philosophise recentioris,' by which he gained some credit, 
 he returned to his native country. In 1759 he wrote his 'Pensees sur 
 la Libertd Civile,' a pamphlet which did not prove agreeable to the 
 ruling powers of Sweden. A fondness for natural history had brought 
 him acquainted with Linnaeus, then at the zenith of his fame, by whom , 
 he was favourably recommended to Frederick V., king of Denmark. 
 In 1761 he obtained the title of professor at Copenhagen, and having 
 been distinguished for his acquaintance with oriental languages, he 
 was selected to join Niebuhr and others in an expedition to investi- 
 gate Egypt and Arabia. After visiting Marseille, Malta, some of the ' 
 Greek islands, and Constantinople, he arrived at Alexandria. For 
 about a year he remained stationary iu Cairo and its vicinity ; he 
 afterwards visited Suez, and entering Arabia by Loheia, he penetrated i 
 by way of Beit-el-Fakih and Zebid as far as Mocha ; thence crossing 1 
 the mountains to TaDes and Abb, he eventually and with difficulty 
 reached Jerim, where he died on the 11th of July 1763. In the 
 course of this journey, although robbed and ill-treated by thieves near 
 Alexandria and elsewhere, suffering from constitutional timidity, and 
 often bowed down with sickness, he investigated with such extraordi- 
 nary energy and perseverance the natural productions, especially the 
 plants, of the places he visited, that although he never lived to arrange 
 his papers, the account of the vegetation of Egypt and Arabia, com- 
 piled after the return of his companions to Europe, is a model of the 
 manner in which such investigations should be conducted. From his 
 friend and companion Niebuhr, to whom the care of editing Forskal's 
 manuscripts was intrusted, we have a ' Fauna Orientalis,' under the 
 title of ' Descriptiones Animalium, Avium, Amphibiorum, Piscium, 
 Insectorum, Vermium, quae in itin. orient, observavit Petrus Forskal,' 
 1775, 4to; and in the same year and form appeared a 'Flora 
 JEgyptiaco-Arabica,' or an account of the plants found in Lower 
 Egypt and Arabia Felix. This latter work is very remarkable as an 
 illustration of the philosophical mind of Forskal, and is far in advance 
 of the works of a similar kind published by the followers of Linnaeus. 
 It is one of the first books in which the relation of vegetation to climate 
 is taken as a great object of consideration, and may in fact be quoted 
 as one of the earliest steps made in geographical botany. We here 
 find an attempt to show the existence of geographical parallels of 
 vegetation, and the remarkable assertion that, " Given the specimens 
 of plants, you may find the latitude of a country, the elevation of its 
 surface, and the zones of vegetation upon its mountains, from their 
 foot to their highest peaks." The ' Flora ^Egyptiaco-Arabica ' is to 
 this day the best account we have of the plants of those countries, 
 and it remains one of the most satisfactory views of the vegetation of 
 any extra-European region. Linnaeus fixed the name of Forskal to 
 his own Caidbeja adhaerens, a worthless Arabian weed, under the 
 title of F. teuacissima; but we are assured by a panegyrist of tho 
 great Swedish botanist, that in doing so he intended to compliment 
 rather than satirise the character of his unfortunate countryman. 
 
 FORSTER, FRANK, civil engineer, was born in the year 1800, 
 near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and at an early age was put to learn the 
 business of a colliery viewer, or miuing agent. After some years, he 
 was intrusted with the management of mining works near Swansea ; 
 and he was afterwards similarly engaged in Lancashire. Whilst 
 thus occupied, about the year 1830, he became acquainted with Mr. 
 Robert Stephenson, under whom he was ultimately employed iu the 
 superintendence of some of the most difficult works on the London 
 
9:7 
 
 FORSTER, GEORGE. 
 
 and Birmingham railway, inclusive of the Kilsby Tunnel and the 
 Blisworth Cutting, and somewhat later be was resident engineer 
 of the portion of the Chester and Holyhead railway, from near 
 Conway to Holyhead, including the masonry of the Britannia Bridge, 
 and difficult works in sea-walls and tunnels along the line. On 
 the formation of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, Mr. 
 Forster was appointed chief engineer, and was instructed to furnish 
 a general scheme of London sewerage, for which many plans had 
 been sent in to an invitation some time previously. He very soon 
 suffered from the effects of the arduous duties thrown upon him, 
 and which were rendered more difficult by numerous contending 
 opinions and interests. He himself was freely animadverted upon 
 by the press, and be was at length compelled to resign his appoint- 
 ment, and died suddenly a few weeks afterwards, on the 13th April 
 1852, in his fifty-second year. His reports and plans with reference 
 to the drainage of the north of Loudon remain, and are under- 
 stood to have formed the basis of the more comprehensive scheme 
 which is now being carried out by the Metropolitan Board of 
 Works. 
 
 FORSTER, GEORGE, a civil officer in the service of the East 
 India Company, is chiefly known by his journey in 1782 over-land 
 from India to Russia. He set off from Lucknow in December 1782, 
 and directed his route to the north by Ferahabad, Rampoor, and by 
 the pass of Lall Dong into the upper regions of the Punjab, avoiding 
 the country of Lahore, which was possessed by the Seiks or Sikhs. 
 He then proceeded by Bellaspoor and Jombo into the great alpine 
 valley of Cashmere, which had not been visited by any European 
 traveller before him, Bernier excepted. Forster's account however 
 proved much more full and satisfactory than that of Bernier. Quitting 
 Cashmere, Forster proceeded to Cabul, crossing the Indus about 
 twenty mile3 above Attock. From Cabul he followed the caravan 
 road to Candahar, and thence by Herat to the southern coast of the 
 Caspian Sea. From Oude to the Caspian he was nearly twelve months 
 on his journey, the distince being 2700 miles, amidst all sorts of 
 dangers and privations, which were much greater at that time -than 
 they would be at present. He embarked at last at Meshed Ser on the 
 Caspian, and sailed from thence to Baku and Astrakhan, from which 
 last place he travelled to Moscow and Petersburg, where he arrived 
 at the end of May 1784. On his arrival in England he published 
 some sketches of Hindoo mythology. He afterwards returned to 
 India, and published in 1790 at Calcutta the first volume of bis nar- 
 rative — 'Journey from Bengal to England through the most northern 
 parts of India, Kashmere, Afghanistan, and Persia, and into Russia 
 by the Caspian Sea.' On the commencement of hostilities with 
 Tippoo Sultan, Forster was sent as envoy to the Mahratta court of 
 Nagpore, where he died, February 15, 1792. The manuscript of the 
 sequel of his journey was sent to England, where it was published in 
 a second volume, but was edited without much care. The whole 
 work was translated into French by Langles : ' Voyage de Bengale a 
 Petersburg,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1802. Forster added to his narrative 
 two interesting notices of the Seiks and the Rohillas. 
 
 FORSTER, JOHN REINHOLD, was born in 1729, at Dirscbau in 
 Western Prussia, of which town his father was burgomaster. Having 
 studied at Halle, he was appointed in 1753 to the cure of Vassenhoff 
 near Danzig. In 1765 he accepted an offer to go to Russia to take the 
 direction of the new colony established by Catharine at Saratof ; but 
 he soon left it in disappointment, and proceeded to England in 1766, 
 where he became known to Mr. Banks and others for bis acquirements 
 in natural history. During his residence in England he employed 
 himself for some years as teacher in the Dissenters' academy at War- 
 rington in Lancashire. Through Mr. Banks's interest he was appointed 
 naturalist to the second expedition under Captain Cook, and he 
 sailed, together with his son George, on board the Resolution, in July 
 1772. A sum of 4000£. was granted by parliament for his expenses, 
 besides which it was verbally understood between him and the 
 Honourable Daines Barrington, in the name of Lord Sandwich, that 
 Forster should be employed on bis return to write the history of the 
 voyage, and receive the profits of the publication. In the course of 
 the voyage repeated disagreements took place between Forster and 
 the officers of the expedition, and Captain Cook himself appears to 
 have ceosured Forster's indiscretion and want of temper. After the 
 return of the expedition in July 1774, a controversy arose between 
 Forster and Lord Sandwich about writing the narrative of the voyage. 
 It was at last settled that Forster should writo the philosophical, and 
 Cook the nautical parts of the work. Forster's manuscripts were to 
 be subject to Barrington's correction ; but on presenting a specimen of 
 his intended work, he was told that he must not write a connected 
 narrative but only detached observations, and ultimately even these 
 wero rejected. The consequence was that Cook's journal appeared 
 alone. Meantime Forster, the son, published a separate account of the 
 voyage in 1777; a circumstance which indisposed the admiralty still 
 more towards his father, who was believed to have had the principal 
 share in the work, and who thus lost all hope that he might have 
 entertained of remuneration. Forster's account of the transactions is 
 given in the letters of his son George to Lord Sandwich, and to Mr. 
 Wales, who had written strictures on Forster's narrative. In 1778 
 Forster returned to Germany, and was well received at Berlin by 
 Frederic the Great, and was soon afterwards made professor oi 
 
 natural history and mineralogy at Halle, where he remained tilling 
 death, in December 1798. 
 
 Forster was a man of vast information both in the natural sciences 
 and in philosophy and general literature. His principal works are 
 1, 'De Bysso Antiquorum,' 1775; 2, Characteres Generum Plantarum 
 quas in insulis Maris Australis collegit J. R. Forster,' 4to, 1776 ; 3, 
 ' Observations faites dans un Voyage autour du Monde, sur la Gdo- 
 graphie physique, l'Histoire Naturelle, et la Philosophio Morale,' 4to, 
 1778. This work was translated into various languages, and forma a 
 good supplement to Cook's journal, although the tone of Forster's 
 observations is not always in accordance with sound criticism. 
 4, 'Zoologia Indica,' 1781; 5, 'Histoire des Ddcouvertes et Voyages 
 faits dans le Nord,' 1784 ; 6, ' Tableau de l'Anglcterre pour l'annde 
 1780,' a satirical work written under the influence of disappointment 
 and animosity, and consequently with little discrimination. 
 
 FORSTER, JOHN GEORGE, born in 1754, son of John R. Forster, 
 accompanied his father in the voyage with Captain Cook, and published 
 an account of the same in 1777, which involved him and his father in 
 an unpleasant controversy. This narrative does not differ materially 
 in the facts from Cook's journal. Forster however has added to his 
 work various observations, which he considered as philosophical, but 
 which are often only declamatory. His book was translated into 
 German, French, Swedish, and other languages. Forster having 
 returned to the continent, was made professor of natural history at 
 Cassel, and afterwards at Wilna, from which last place he returned to 
 Germany about 1788, and was appointed librarian to the elector of 
 Mayence. After the French took Mayence in 1792, Forster, who had 
 become enthusiastic in the cause of the revolution, was chosen by the 
 republicans of that city to proceed to Paris, as their representative, to 
 request the incorporation of Mayence with the French republic. 
 While he was at Paris on this mission, the Prussians re-took Mayence, 
 and Forster lost all his property, including his books and manuscripts. 
 This loss, and other domestic disappointments, made him resolve on 
 leaving Europe, and he planned a journey to India and Tibet, pre- 
 paratory to which he applied himself to the study of the Oriental 
 languages; but he fell ill soon after, and died January 11, 1794. He 
 left several works ; among others, ' Ansichten von Nieder Rhein, von 
 Brabant, Flanders, Holland, England, und Frankreich in 1790,' in 
 three parts, of which the last was published after his death, Berlin, 
 1794. This work was translated into French under the title of 
 ' Voyage Philosophique et Pittoiesque sur les Rives du Rhin,' &c, 
 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1795-96. The last volume contains an essay on the 
 history of the fine arts in Great Britain. Forster wrote also ' Her- 
 barium Australe,' several memoirs on natural history, and various 
 political and philosophical sketches and pamphlets. Humboldt, in 
 his ' Kosmos,' describes George Forster as of " noble, sensitive, and 
 ever-hopeful spirit," and says that "his smaller works contain the 
 germ of much which, at a later period, has been brought to maturity." 
 
 *FORSTER, JOHN, was born at Newcastle in 1812. The Univer- 
 sity of London, which was founded in 1826, has given to our country 
 many distinguished men whose early education has been built upon 
 broader foundations than that of the classical and mathematical 
 studies of the ancient universities. Mr. Forster was a student in that 
 institution, in association with several others who have since risen 
 to eminence. The first Law Class (of which Mr, Andrew Amos was the 
 teacher) was attended by him, and by Napier and Whiteside, famous 
 at the Irish bar and in the House of Commons, Mr. Craig, Q.C., the 
 late Dr. W. Cooke Taylor, and others, who have distinguished them- 
 selves. The members of this class established a ' London University 
 Magazine,' to which all contributed, and a debating society in which all 
 spoke. Out of the ' London University Magazine ' grew the ' English- 
 man's Magazine,' to which, among other things, Mr. Forster contributed 
 a series of biographical papers on the ' Early Patriots of England,' 
 the foundation of his ' Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth.' 
 A diligent law-student, and a pupil of Chitty, Mr. Forster, after 
 keeping the usual terms, was called to the bar. With an ardent 
 devotion to literature, and with habits of friendship with young 
 men then struggling into celebrity as writers, Mr. Forster became a 
 valuable contributor to periodical works ; and early in ; 1834 was con- 
 nected with the ' Examiner,' of which, from 1846 he has been the 
 sole editor. During all those two-and-twenty years he has, without 
 the intermission of a single week, largely contributed to its page3. 
 In addition, for a period of eleven mouths, after the retirement of 
 Mr. Dickens, he was editor of the ' Daily News.' Of the general 
 character of the 'Examiner' we have already spoken; and have men- 
 tioned Mr. Forster's participation in its management. [Fonblakqoe.] 
 It is difficult to overvalue the influence of a systematic writer and 
 conductor of an important journal. Writing anonymously, but 
 perfectly identified with the character of such a paper, he has con- 
 stantly to maintain the real consistency of his opinions amidst every 
 change of circumstances; and that he can only do by having broad 
 constitutional principles for his guidance, and a never-ceasing desire 
 for the just amelioration of the socio! condition of every member of 
 the community. In his vocation of journalist, Mr. Forster has long 
 worked in a wide field of usefulness. But he has done as high 
 service as a critic as in his political function. He has always exhibited 
 a generous appreciation of merit of every degree. Some who are 
 now amongst the most celebrated have received their first encourage- 
 
BS9 
 
 909 
 
 ment from his commendation ; and those who know bow flippantly 
 — to say the least of much periodical criticism — unacknowledged 
 ability is sometimes treated, will feel the value of judicious praise 
 and well-considered objection. To sneer, and to " hesitate dislike," 
 is the office of some censors. Mr. Forster is not of that number. 
 Early in his literary career he became engaged in a work of high 
 pretensions and considerable extent, ' Lives of the Statesmen of the 
 Commonwealth,' in seven volumes of the series published as 
 ' Lardner's Cyclopaedia.' Exhibiting very extensive research, accurate 
 in its facts, and lucid in its style, this is undoubtedly a remarkable 
 performance for so young a man ; and its high merits are beginning 
 to be more justly appreciated than they were popularly at the period 
 of its publication, however they were then estimated by careful readers. 
 A writer in the 'Quarterly Review' (June 1856), who dissents from 
 many of Mr. Forster's opinions in that work, acknowledges that he 
 is " peculiarly exact in Lis facts, and that his ' Lives ' contain an 
 immense amount of invaluable information which he was the first to 
 drag into day." This writer also points out "that there is no other 
 single authority to which M. Guizot refers so often " in his historical 
 works on that period. A revised edition in octavo of these lives 
 appeared in 1858 ; 'Sir John Eliot, a Biography,' in 18C4. 
 
 Mr. Forster's combination of the qualities that belong to the true 
 biographer, and the generous critic have been displayed in his ' Life 
 and Adventures of Oliver Goldsmith.' The first edition of this 
 delightful book was published in one volume in 1848. An enlarged 
 edition in two volumes appeared in 1854, the title being changed 
 to the ' Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith.' Subsequently he 
 issued an abridged edition of that of 1854, under the same title. 
 This agreeable volume is perhaps better calculated to interest the 
 general reader than the more elaborate work, however interesting 
 its large body of illustrative notes and authorities may be to the care- 
 ful student of our literary history. Mr. Forster has written some 
 striking articles in the ' Edinburgh Review,' and the ' Quarterly 
 Review,' among which are those of Defoe and Churchill in the 
 ' Edinburgh,' which have been separately republished ; and those on 
 Foote, Steele, &c., in the ' Quarterly.' In 1856 Mr. Forster was 
 appointed Secretary to the Commissioners in Lunacy — an office for 
 which his legal education especially qualified him. 
 
 FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN, Knight, an eminent lawyer, lord chief 
 justice of England in the reign of Henry VI., and afterwards chan- 
 cellor. The date of his birth is unknown, and of the place it is only 
 conjectured that it was somewhere in Devonshire, to which county 
 his family belonged. He is said by Tanner to have been educated at 
 Oxford. He was a member of Lincoln's Inn ; in 1430 became serjeant- 
 at-law ; in 1441 King's Serjeant; and in 1442 chief justice of the 
 King's Bench. He accompanied Henry VI. into Scotland, and was 
 included in the bill which attainted the king, Queen Margaret, Prince 
 Edward, and their chief adherents of high treason. In 1643 he fled 
 with Queen Margaret to the continent, and remained there in exile till 
 the return of the queen to England. He is believed to have been sub- 
 sequently permitted to live in England in retirement. The year of 
 his death is uncertain, but was probably about 1485. His great 
 work is a treatise ' De Laudibus Legum Anglioe;' a work which 
 has been several times quoted with the highest approbation from the 
 bench, illustrated by the notes of Selden, and recommended by such 
 writers as St. German and Sir Walter Raleigh, in former times, and by 
 every writer who has since given directions for the study of the law. 
 It has been several times translated into English. It is in the form of 
 a dialogue between himself and the young Prince Edward, with whose 
 education he appears to have been intrusted. The author undertakes 
 to show that the common law was the most reasonable and the most 
 ancient in Europe, and superior to the civil law and the laws of other 
 countries. He considers at length, in particular, the mode of trial by 
 jury ; and after examining some other points of difference between the 
 civil and the common law, he concludes with a short account of the 
 societies where the law of England was studied. This book, as well 
 as the other works relating to English law of an early date, is written 
 in a bold style, and displays many sentiments upon liberty and good 
 government which are very remarkable, considering the fierce and bar- 
 barous period at which they were written. "We cannot," says Chan- 
 cellor Kent, " but pause and admire a system of jurisprudence which, 
 in so uncultivated a period of society, contained euch singular and 
 invaluable provisions in favour of life, liberty, and property as those 
 to which Fortescue referred. They were unprecedented in all Greek 
 and Roman antiquity, and being preserved in some tolerable degree of 
 freshness and vigour amidst the profound ignorance and licentious 
 spirit of the feudal ages, they justly entitle the common law to a share 
 of that constant and vivid eulogy which the English lawyers have 
 always liberally bestowed upon their municipal institutions." The 
 English translation of the treatise ' De Laudibus Legum Anglise,' and 
 the original Latin text, together with some notes by Mr. Amos, were 
 published in 1825 at the expense of the University of Cambridge. 
 (Kent, Commentaries ; Reeve, History of English Law.) 
 
 FORTIGUERRA, NI'COLO, an Italian prelate, whose writings dis- 
 play little of the austerity or seriousness of a churchman, was born at 
 Pistoja, November 7, 1674. In his youth he studied jurisprudence, 
 and afterwards distinguished himself by his attainments in Greek. 
 Having published a funeral discourse in honour of Innocent XII., he 
 
 was appointed secretary to the papal nuncio in Spaiu, and on his return 
 to Rome, in consequence of his ill-health, had a situation as one of his 
 chamberlains bestowed upon him by Clement XI. in 1712, and was 
 likewise made a canon of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. By 
 another pope (Clement XII.) he expected to be raised to the dignity of 
 cardinal; but although an encourager of both poetry and poets, that 
 pontiff evaded from time to time the fulfilment of the promise which 
 he appears to have made, until Fortiguerra was lying on his death- 
 bed, when he rejected the honour then proffered him in terms the 
 reverse of courtly. Monsignor Fortiguerra's lyric poetry, in which he 
 showed himself an imitator of Petrarch, is now forgotten ; bis fame 
 rests entirely upon his ' Ricciardetto,' an heroic-comic poem in thirty 
 cantos. This production, which was first published with its author's 
 name Greciauised into Carteromaco, was begun by him without any 
 plan, merely by way of proving with what facility he could imitate 
 Ariosto, Pulci, and Bcrni, both iu regard to their style and their fertile 
 invention of incidents ; when, at the instance of those friends for 
 whom the first canto was hit off as a specimen, he was induced to 
 proceed till he completed the whole, at the rate, we are assured, of a 
 canto per day. Little therefore is it to be wondered at that the plot 
 should be so desultory and the incidents so extravagant. Yet, not- 
 withstanding the grotesqueness of the characters and events, and 
 likewise the occasional carelessness of the style, this long 'improvi- 
 satore ' poem abounds with so much comic humour, droll satire, and 
 happy burlesque, that it has long taken its place as a classical work of 
 its kind, and has gone through numerous editions. There are two 
 French translations of it ; and a German one by Gries, the translator 
 of Ariosto and Tasso, was published 1831-33. In English we have a 
 poetical version of the first canto, with an introduction and notes, by 
 the late Lord Glenbervie (1822). 'Ricciardetto' was not published 
 till after the author's death, which happened on the 17th of February 
 1735, the date of the first edition being 1738. Fortiguerra was pro- 
 bably aware that, however it might contribute to his fame as a poet, 
 it was not likely to advance him in the church, since many of the 
 descriptions are more spirited than decorous; through much of it 
 there is a seasoning of profanity ; and he has been not at all sparing 
 of his satire on the monks. 
 
 FORTIS, ABBATE, an Italian, born in 1740, died in 1803, wrote 
 many works on various branches of natural philosophy. His reputation 
 was established, and his memory has been chiefly preserved, by his 
 travels in Dalmatia, 1 Viaggio di Dalmazia.' These travels have been 
 translated into many languages, but the English translation, published 
 at London iu 1778, is not only the best, but even preferable to the 
 original, on account of the appendix, various plates, and several other 
 additions, which appeared for the first time with this translation. 
 
 FORTOUL, HIPPOLYTE, late Minister of Public Instruction in 
 France, was born in 1811. He commenced active life as a literary 
 man by contributions to the 'National/ 'L' Artiste,' and other 
 periodicals. In the earlier part of his career he professed repub- 
 licanism and St. Simonianism, and was befriended by Beranger the 
 poet, of whom, iu 1830, he published a biography. He was a contri- 
 butor to the 1 Revue de Paris,' and was an unsuccessful competitor 
 for the editorship of the ' Revue des Deux Mondes.' Meantime, by 
 laborious private study, he step by step attained to university 
 honours. He was made Professor of Literature in the university of 
 Toulouse, where he distinguished himself as a lecturer, and was after- 
 wards recompensed for his services by being appointed Dean of the 
 Faculty of Art. He was also admitted into the French Academy in 
 the section of Belles-Lettres. After the revolution of 1848 he was 
 elected a member of the French National Assembly, in which he 
 spoke frequently, and obtained the favour of the Prince President, 
 Immediately after the coup d'e'tat he was appointed, December 3, 
 1851, Ministre d'Instruction Publique et des Cultes, and was one of 
 the six ministers who signed the decree for the confiscation of the 
 estates of the house of Orleans. He made himself extremely 
 unpopular with the literary classes of Fiance by the decision and 
 energy with which he carried out the imperial system of restriction 
 of the press. He had gone to Ems for the benefit of his health, when 
 he died suddenly as he was conversing with his colleague M. Magne, 
 on the 7th of July 1856. By a decree of the emperor he was buried 
 at the public expense, with the firing of guns, processions, and other 
 honours, on the 12th of July, in the church of St. Thomas d'Acquin, 
 Paris. 
 
 FOSBROKE, REV. THOMAS DUDLEY, the only child of Mr 
 William Fosbroke, whose progenitors for several generations had been 
 clergymen, was born iu London 27th May 1770. He was educated at 
 St. Paul's School, whence he was elected in 1785, to a Teasdale scholar- 
 ship at Pembroke College, Oxford. He took his degree of M.A. in 
 1792 ; and the same year obtained the curacy of Horsley, in Glouces- 
 tershire, which he held till 1810, when he became curate at Walford 
 in Herefordshire. He was presented to the vicarage of Walford in 
 1830, and he died there on the 1st of January 1842. 
 
 Mx*. Fosbroke first made himself known as an author in 1796, by the 
 publication of a poem entitled ' The Economy of Monastic Life, as it 
 existed in England, with Philosophical and Archaeological Illustrations,' 
 4to. It is in the Spenserian stanza, but in the style, as well as in the 
 title, it was intended, it seems, as an imitation of Darwin's ' Economy 
 of Vegetation.' It is reprinted at the end of the third edition of hia 
 
FOSCARINI, MARCO. 
 
 •British Monachism.' That work, the full title of which is 'British 
 Monachism, or Manners and Customs of the Monks and Nuns of 
 England,' first appeared in 2 vols. 8vo in 1802 ; a second edition, much 
 enlarged, was published in 1 vol. 4to in 1817 ; and after the author's 
 de ith a third edition in 1 vol. 8vo, was brought out under the care of 
 his son, the Rev. Tate Fosbroke, vicar of St. Ives; London, 1843. In 
 1807 Mr. Fosbroke published by subscription two volumes 4to of 
 'Abstracts of Records and MSS. respecting the County of Gloucester,' 
 forming a contribution of raw materials for a county history. Soon 
 after his removal to Walford, in 1810, he is said, in the 'Memoir' 
 published by his family, to have illustrated the unpublished statues in 
 Mr. Hope's collection ; but what may be the precise meaning of that 
 we do not know. About this time he was much incommoded by the 
 bankruptcy of Sir Richard Phillips, the publisher, for whom he had 
 made considerable progress in compiling a work to be entitled an 
 Archaeological Dictionary. In 1814 he published 'A Key to the New 
 Testament, or Whitby's Commentary abridged ; ' in 1819, ' An Original 
 History of the City of Gloucester,' 8vo ; in 1820, ' The Wye Tour,' 
 8vo, several times reprinted; in 1821, ' Ariconensia, or Archaeological 
 Sketches of Ross and Archenfield,' 8vo; and in 1821, 'Abstracts and 
 Extracts of Smyth's (MS.) Lives of the Berkeleys.' His principal 
 work, ' The Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, and Elements of Archaeology,' 
 came out by subscription, in 2 vols. 4to in 1824 ; and a second edition, 
 in 1 voL 8 vo, appeared in 1840. It was followed by a 'Picturesque 
 and Topographical Account of Cheltenham and its Vicinity,' 8vo, 1826 ; 
 ' The Tourist's Grammar,' 12mo, the same year; and 'Foreign Topo- 
 graphy, or an Encyclopaediac Account, alphabetically arranged, of the 
 Ancient Remains in Asia, Africa, and Europe, forming a sequel to the 
 Encyclopaedia of Antiquities,' 4to, 1828. His narrow circumstances 
 were somewhat relieved by his being elected, in 1827, an honorary 
 associate of the Royal Society of Literature, which brought him an 
 allowance of lOOi. a year till the royal bounty was withdrawn from 
 the society in 1831. Besides the above works he contributed some 
 papers on English history to the volumes of the ' Transactions of the 
 Society of Literature ; ' was a regular correspondent of the ' Gentle- 
 man's Magazine ' for several years previous to the termination of the 
 original series of that work in 1834; and wrote three or four minor 
 works. 
 
 Mr. Fosbroke possessed a considerable knowledge of English anti- 
 quities, and also of general archaeology, in the study of which 
 departments of inquiry he had spent his life ; and his ' Encyclopaedia 
 of Antiquities ' and 'British Monachism' are convenient books, though 
 rather of reference than of authority. He had no accurate learning, 
 and his judgment and acuteness were about on a level with his 
 scholarship. All his books are rather popular compilations than' 
 anything higher. 
 
 Mr. Fosbroke married in 1796 Miss Howel of Horsley, by whom 
 he had four eon3 and six daughters. Seven of his ten children 
 survived him. 
 
 (Autobiographical sketch prefixed to 4to ed. of his Erie, of Antiquities, 
 1824; memoir prefixed to Brit. Monachism, ed. 1843; and Gentleman's 
 Mag., Feb. 1842.) 
 
 FOSCARI'NI, MARCO, was born in 1696, of an old patrician family 
 of Venice, which has produced many distinguished men. He studied 
 at Bologna, after which he was employed in various official situations 
 in the service of his countiy. In 1733 he was scut ambassador to the 
 Emperor Charles VI. He remained at Vienna for several years, and 
 he had the arduous task of maintaining the neutrality of Venice during 
 the war of 1733-35 between the French and the Austrians, on the 
 occasion of the Polish succession. He there wrote an interesting 
 account of the court of Vienna, its politics, and its administration, 
 especially of its Italian dominions, in which he pointed out the latent 
 causes of the sudden reverses which the Austrians experienced in that 
 campaign, and by which they lost the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. 
 This work remained inedited until 1843, when it was published by 
 J. P. Vieusseux at Florence, ' Storia Arcana ed altri Scritti inediti di 
 Marco Foscarini,' 1 vol. 8vo, forming part of a series of inedited or 
 rare Italian historical works, entitled ' Archivio Storico Italiano,' 
 published under the superintendence of a society of learned men in 
 Tuscany. One of the merits of Foscarini as an historian is his 
 conscientiousness and love of truth. 
 
 After his return from Vienna, Foscarini was sent ambassador to 
 Rome, and afterwards to Turin, where he supported the principle of 
 neutrality adopted by the Venetian senate during the war of the 
 Austrian succession. In his various embassies he compiled, according 
 to the custom of the Venetian diplomatists, well-digested ' relazioni,' 
 or reports, not only of his personal transactions with foreign statesmen, 
 but also what he had observed and learnt concerning the political 
 principles and views of the various courts of Europe. And whilst he 
 adhered, according to his instructions, to the system of strict neutrality 
 cherished by the Venetian senate, he warned his employers of the 
 necessity of being prepared for all contingencies amidst the change 
 that was taking placo in the relative position of the great powers of 
 Europe — a warning which, had it been attended to, might have saved 
 Venice half a century later. 
 
 On his return from his Turin embassy he was appointed Riformatore 
 dello Studio di Padova, or superintendent of that university, in which 
 he effected useful reforms and improvements. About this time he 
 
 FOSCOLO, UGO. oti 
 
 delivered in the Great Council of Venice an oration, in recommendation 
 of the revival of an ancient custom of sending from time to time extra- 
 ordinary inspectors into the province of Dalmatia for the purpose of 
 discovering and correcting the abuses that had crept into the adminis- 
 tration of that important but long-neglected country : and this motion 
 was carried. His oration was published long after his death at Venice 
 in 1831, with illustrations by Cicogna, 'Delia Necessita di spedin; 
 Inquisitori di Stato in Dalmazia, Orazione inedita di Marco Foscarini.' 
 In 1752 he published the first volume of his history of Venetian 
 literature, ' Delia Litteratura Veneziana libri otto, di Marco Foscarini, 
 Cavaliere e Procuratore, volume primo,' fol., Padova, 1752. This work, 
 which was considered to be a model of literary history, established the 
 reputation of Foscarini as an author. The style of the work is concise 
 and dignified, and the authorities are carefully quoted and discussed 
 in copious notes. Moschini published a sort of continuation of the 
 work in his 'Delia Litteratura Veneziana del Secolo XVIII.' 
 
 In May 1762 Foscarini was elected doge, but his tenure of that 
 dignity was short, for he died in the following March, 1763, generally 
 regretted. He was one of the last distinguished statesmen of Venice. 
 He left a rich and very select library of books and manuscripts, which 
 was sold after the fall of Venice in 1799. The Emperor of Austria 
 purchased the collection of manuscripts for 10,800 livres, and they are 
 now in the imperial library at Vienna. A catalogue of the historical 
 part of the collection, consisting of nearly 400 manuscripts, which 
 were among the materials by the aid of which Foscarini compiled his 
 history of Venetian literature, is given at the end of the • Storia 
 Arcana ' noticed above, together with two letters of Foscarini, ' On the 
 Manner of Writing History.' 
 
 Besides the works mentioned in the course of this article, several 
 minor productions of Foscarini have been printed, such as an oration 
 delivered in the Great Council in support of the institution of the 
 Council of Ten ; his report of his Turin embassy, which gives much 
 valuable information concerning the Sardinian monarchy, and which 
 was published in the first volume of the ' Mercurio Italico ' in London, 
 and was republished with comments by Cibrario in 1830; a 'Discorso 
 sulla Necessita della Storia e della Facolta del ben Dire per gli Uomini 
 di Republica,' published at Venice in 1819; and another, 'Intorno ai 
 metodi e alia forma della Veneta Republica.' A number of Foscarini's 
 writings remain inedited in the library Del Seminario at Venice, in 
 the library of St. Mark, and in his own collection now at Vienna. 
 Ludovico Arnaldi and others wrote biographical notices of Foscarini 
 at the time of his death; and Professor Sibiliato, of Padua, wrote an 
 oration, ' Intorno all' Eloquenza del Foscarini.' 
 
 (Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani Illustri del Secolo XVIII.; Preface 
 to the Storia Arcana of Foscarini.) 
 
 FOSCHI'NI, ANTONIO, born June 16, 1741, at Corfu, was the 
 son of Ferrarese parents, and always called himself a native of Ferrara, 
 because he had been brought up from his infancy in that city. His 
 first professional studies was directed by his father chiefly towards 
 engineering and hydraulics, but his own taste pointed out archi- 
 tecture as a more congenial pursuit, and to that he applied himself 
 with the utmost diligence. Appointed to the professorship of archi- 
 tecture when Clement XIV. endeavoured to restore the University of 
 Ferrara to its former Bplendour, Foschini laboured to impress upon 
 the students the importance of attending to those fundamental princi- 
 ples which had been more or less disregarded or lost sight of, through 
 aiming at superficial novelty without any freshness of invention for 
 its basis. Yet greatly as his reputation increased, it did not shield 
 him from the intrigues of enemies, who succeeded in at length dis- 
 possessing him of his office. He was afterwards nominated, in 1804, 
 to a similar professorship in the university of Pavia, but declined to 
 accept it. In like manner he refused the overtures made to him both 
 from Vienna and Rome : his attachment to Ferrara, joined to his 
 indifference for wealth, prevailing over all other considerations. He 
 remained at Ferrara till his death, December 14, 1813. 
 
 The principal building executed by him was the theatre at Ferrara, 
 reputed one of the most spacious, well-arranged, and elegant structures 
 of its kind in Italy. It should be observed however that it is said 
 to have been originally begun by Cosituo Morelli [Morelli], Foschini 
 afterwards improving upon his designs. What would have added both 
 to his own renown and that of Ferrara, was Foschini's design for com- 
 pleting the great tower of the Duomo, which, had it been executed, 
 would have rendered the tower one of the loftiest in Europe, but the 
 want of adequate fuuds caused the project to be laid aside. Unfor- 
 tunately, too, neither that nor any other of the numerous designs or 
 manuscript treatises on architecture which he left at his death, has 
 been published. The fame of the theatre of Ferrara is said to have 
 brought him commissions for designs for others from Vienna, Verona, 
 and Ancona ; the only other theatre known to have been executed 
 from his designs, is one at Lendinara. The great hospital at Com- 
 machio is another edifice by him ; and shortly before his death he 
 was engaged in preparing designs for a basilica at Bandeno, in the 
 territory of Ferrara. 
 
 FO'SCOLO, UGO, was born at Zante about the year 1777, of a 
 Venetian family settled in the Ionian Islands. When yet a boy he 
 lost his father, who was a physician and inspector of the hospitals at 
 Spalatro in Dalmatia, and he returned with his mother to Venice, 
 from whence he was sent to study at Padua. Having left that uni- 
 
SS3 FOSCOLO, UGO. 
 
 versity without having made up his mind to any particular profession, 
 lie returned to Venice and wrote a tragedy, 'II Tieste,' which was 
 performed in January 1797. In that same year the ancient aristocracy 
 of Venice fell by the bauds of Bonaparte, and Foscolo, who, like 
 others of his countrymen, had expected the establishment of a new 
 and popular republic, felt bitterly disappointed at the conqueror 
 giving up Venice to Austria. At Milan and Florence he gave vent 
 to his excited feelings in the ' Lettere di due Amanti,' afterwards pub- 
 lished under the name of 'Lettere di Ortis.' Thia work, of little 
 value as a novel, possesses a higher sort of interest from the political 
 allusions, the bursts of invective, and the picture of society in those 
 disjointed times, which it contains. The language is beautiful and the 
 tone affecting, though too querulous and desponding ; but as such it 
 was in harmony with the then prevailing feeling. The ' Lettere di 
 Ortis ' had a prodigious success in Italy ; but all the editions were 
 mutilated except a private one printed at Venice in 1802, and that of 
 1814, which Foscolo himself published at Zurich with the date of 
 London, which alone contains, among several passages left out in the 
 other editions, the letter dated 17th of March 1798, in which Foscolo 
 clearly expressed his opinion of Bonaparte's character. Foscolo 
 served as a volunteer in the Lombard Legion through the disastrous 
 campaign of 1799, and followed the French in their retreat to Genoa, 
 where he remained during the siege of that city till June 1800, when 
 the garrison capitulated, and was carried to France by the English 
 ships. Meantime the battle of Marengo took place, Lombardy was 
 reconquered, and Foscolo repaired to Milan ; peace being concluded 
 soon after, he returned to private life and to his literary pursuits. 
 
 In 1802, Bonaparte having called together at Lyon a meeting of 
 Italian deputies in order to devise anew constitution for the Cisalpine 
 republic, Foscolo was requested by some individuals then in office, 
 to write an address to the First Consul, with an exposition of the 
 state of the country, and the wishes of the people. He did write it, 
 but in a very different strain from what they expected : he drew an 
 eloquent but fearful retrospect of the oppressions, the depredations, 
 the injuries of every kind which the people of Italy had suffered at 
 the bauds of the various military and civil authorities appointed by 
 the French since 1796 ; the disgraceful persecution of the clergy and the 
 so-called aristocrats, and other abuses of party triumph. This oration 
 was, of course, never read to the First Consul, but it was published 
 some time after at Milan — 'Orazioue a Buonaparte pel Congresso di 
 Lione :' it forms an important memorial of the times, and an honour- 
 able testimonial of the unconpromising spirit of Foscolo, who seems 
 to have taken Dante and Alfieri for his models. Foscolo remained 
 for some years quietly at Milan under the mild administration of the 
 vice-president Melzi. He published an Italian version of Callimachus 
 ' De Coma Berenices,' with interesting notes and commentaries. 
 
 In 1805 we find him again serving in an Italian regiment which 
 formed part of the army assembled near the coast of the British 
 Channel for the intended invasion of England. Being stationed at 
 St. Omer he there attempted an Italian translation of Sterne's 
 ' Sentimental J ourney,' in which he was most successful. When a 
 few months after the camp of Boulogne was broken up, Foscolo went 
 back to Milan, and did not return into active service. He lived for 
 some time near Brescia, where he wrote his poem, 'Dei Sepolcri,' 
 1807, deprecating certain harsh regulations which forbade any monu- 
 ment or memorial being raised over the tombs of the dead. This 
 beautiful little poem, full of lofty thoughts and lyric power, was 
 dedicated by the author to a brother poet, Ippolito Pindemoute of 
 Verona, and it secured to Foscolo a distinguished rank among the 
 Italian poets. It was commented on, imitated, and even translated 
 into Latin hexameters. 
 
 In 1808, Foscolo being appointed professor of Italian eloquence at 
 Pavia, was privately urged by some official persons to begin his course 
 by some tribute of praise to the emperor Napoleon, according to the 
 received custom; and it was hinted to him that the decoration of the 
 Legion of Honour would be the reward of his compliance. Foscolo 
 remained unmoved : he took as the subject of his inaugural oration 
 the origin and the object of literature— ' Dell' Origine e dell' Ufficio 
 dellaLetteratura;' and descanted ou the moral and civil duties of 
 literary men ; on the nobleness of their calling when conscientiously 
 exercised ; and he exhorted the Italian youth to devote themselves to 
 literature for its own sake; "to study above all the history of their 
 country, and the lives and works of Dante, Machiavelli, Galileo, and 
 lasso; to bend over their tombs and learn from those illustrious dead 
 how they fed the sacred fire of genius through persecutions, torments, 
 and exile, in the gloom of dungeons and amidst the squalidness of 
 domestic poverty, and how they were supported in their trials by the 
 love of their country, of truth, and of fame, which enabled them to 
 leave to posterity the rich legacy of their works and the benefit of 
 their example." This address, delivered before a numerous audience, 
 produced a thrilling sensation, and was followed by bursts of applause. 
 Not a word had Foscolo said about emperor or prince, government or 
 minister. A few mouths after the chair of Italian eloquence was sup- 
 pressed in all the universities of the kingdom of Italy, and Foscolo re- 
 tired to Borgo di Vico, near Como, where he enjoyed the society of Count 
 Giovio and his family. He there wrote his tragedy of « Ajax,' which 
 was performed at Milan, and not only proved a failure, but involved 
 him in a sort of ministerial persecution, because he was suspected to 
 
 FOSSATI, DOMENICO. D | 
 
 have alluded in his play to Napoleon's ambition. At the same time 
 certain academicians whose pedantry he had ridicule! iu another 
 work, expressed their opinion in the Poligrafo, a literary journal, 
 "that whoever sneers at the labours of professors, academicians, and 
 librarians, taxes thereby with ignorance the monarch who protects 
 them, and becomes, by so doing, guilty of treason." Foscolo however . 
 had some influential friends, and he was merely banished from Milan. 
 At Florence, where he fixed his residence, he completed his translation 
 of ' Sterne : ' ' Viaggio Sentimentale di Yorick lungo la Francia, tra- I 
 duzione di Didimo Chierico; ' and wrote another tragedy entitled 
 ' Ilicciurda,' a Hymn to the Graces, and other compositions. 
 
 In 1813 he was allowed to return to Milan, and in the following 
 year, when the French abandoned the country and a provisional 
 government was formed, Foscolo was appointed major on the staff, 
 and endeavoured, though ineffectually, to save the ex-minister Prina 
 from the fury of the mob. When the Austrians took possession of 
 Milan, Foscolo drew up a protest in the name of the inhabitants of 1 
 Lombardy addressed to the allied powers. He remained however still 
 at Milan, and had the offer from some of the Austrian authorities of 
 the editorship of a new literary journal ; but having learnt that he was 
 charged by the more rigid patriots with being a turncoat, and on the 
 other hand finding that if he remained ho would have to serve in the 
 militia, he, all of a sudden, disappeared from Milan towards the end of 
 1814, and repaired to Switzerland, where he resided for almost two 
 years, chiefly at Hottingen, near Zurich. Here he published a correct 
 edition of his ' Lettere di Ortis,' and also a satire in Latin prose, 
 entitled ' Didymi Clerici Propheta? Minimi Hypercalypseos,' in which 
 he lashed his Milan enemies of the literary and courtly coteries who 
 had annoyed him about his ' Ajax.' Not finding sufficient encourage- 
 ment in Switzerland for his literary labours as a means of subsistence, 
 he came to England about the end of 1816, and was introduced into 
 some of the best society of the metropolis : he formed literary con- 
 nexions, delivered a course of lectures on Italian literature, and wrote 
 articles both for the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews. In London 
 he published his ' liicciarda/ the Essays on Petrarch and Dante, which 
 are among his best compositions, the ' Discorso Storico sul testo del 
 Dccamerone,' and the ' Discorso Storico sul testo di Dante,' which is a 
 work full of erudition. He had engaged to superintend a new edition 
 of Dante, with ample commentaries, but he did not hive to finish this 
 work. Want of order, extravagance, the unbridled indulgence in 
 licentious habits, and an immoderate love of gaming, combined with 
 the absence of all judgment in money matters, involved him in em- 
 barrassments, which, joined to his fretful and overbearing temper and 
 assiduous application, shortened his days. He died of the dropsy on 
 the 10th of October, 1827, at Turnham Green, near London, being 
 fifty years of age, and was buried in Chiswick churchyard, with a plain 
 marble slab and inscription over his tomb. Notwithstanding his evil 
 temper and many eccentricities, to use a very mild term, he secured 
 wherever he lived some warm and lasting friends, who felt his death 
 as a loss. The life of Foscolo derives a certain importance from the 
 times he lived in, and the political scenes in which he mixed. He had 
 the merit of standing aloof, one of the few, amidst the general pros- 
 tration of his countrymen before the shrine of Napoleon. " His un- 
 conquerable silence," observes a by no means partial biographer, 
 " amidst the strains of vulgar adulation, deserves to be recorded in 
 history. If amidst the Asiatic idolatry towards Napoleon, any kind 
 of opposition can be said to have existed in Italy, Foscolo must be 
 considered as the leader of it." (Pecchio, / Vita di Ugo Foscolo.') 
 When the reaction came he refused likewise to associate with those 
 who would not restore his country to national independence. His 
 sentiments, as expressed in his works, are never those of a partisan ; 
 he deals out with an impartial hand to all ; his thoughts are often 
 generous and pure, his learning is real, and he has added fresh vigour 
 to Italian prose. His dramas are the weakest of his productions. To 
 his compositions already mentioned, may be added an Italian version 
 of some cantos of the Iliad, ' Alcuni scritti e trattati inediti,' Lugano, 
 1829, including some of his lectures at Pavia, and various poetical 
 effusions. 
 
 (Opere Scelle di Ugo Foscolo, 2 vols. 8vo ; Fiesole, 1833 ; Gemelli, 
 Delia Vita <Scc., di Ugo Foscolo ; and articles on Foscolo in No. XVIIL 
 of the Foreign Quarterly Review, May, 1832. — Athenceum,Dec. 14, 1850.) 
 
 FOSSA'TI, DOME'NICO, born at Venice in 1743, was the son of 
 Giorgio Fossati, who, besides practising as an architect, was also a 
 painter and engraver. The elder Fossati may also claim to be con- 
 sidered an author, having published in 1747 an Italian translation of 
 Felibien's ' Lives of Architects,' a second edition of which appeared 
 in 1775. Gifted with a fertile imagination, and delighting in the 
 poetic effects which architecture is capable of producing, Domenico 
 chose for himself a walk of art which, although generally looked 
 upon as a secondary one, enabled him to impi'ovise at will the most 
 splendid conceptions, quite unchecked by either utilitarian or neces- 
 sitarian considerations. Having finished his studies, he commenced 
 scene-painter, and was abundantly employed not only as such, but 
 in adorning various palaces and churches with architectural and other 
 decorative painting. On the Teatro di San Benedetto in Venice being 
 burnt down in 1775, he made a model for a new edifice; yet greatly 
 as it was admired, it was not adopted, on account of being found too 
 expensive. He however painted a great deal of the scenery for the 
 
FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO. 
 
 new theatre, as he afterwards did for those of San Samuele and San 
 Luca in that city. When Venice was visited by Pius VI., and by the 
 Grand Duke and Duchess of Russia in 1782, Domenico and his father 
 had the charge of getting up the splendid preparations made in honour 
 of those high personages. Nor was Venice the only field of his 
 talents : he resided for some time at Udine, where, besides painting 
 for the theatre, he was employed iu decorating several palaces ; after 
 which he was engaged successively at Padua, Vicenza, and Verona, one 
 of his important performances being the ceiling of the church of 
 Martellago. Those labours terminated, he went to Milan, and assisted 
 Piermai ini [Piermarini] in the internal decorations of the theatre of 
 La Scala, then just erected ; after which he painted for the theatre at 
 Monza, and that at Gratz, and while at the latter place received 
 invitations from both Rome and St. Petersburg. He was however 
 induced by his friends to decline them, and to return to Venice, but 
 there a disaster awaited him which neither they nor he could foresee. 
 He had just finished painting a ceiling in the Palazzo Contarini, and 
 was standing upon the scaffold with some of his assistants, when a 
 workman incautiously removed one of the props, and all were pre- 
 cipitated to the ground. The only one who received any serious 
 iujury was Fossati, who broke his leg, and died in consequence, within 
 less than a month afterwards, August 15, 1784. 
 
 FOSSOMBRO'NI, VITTO'RIO, born in 1754, at Arezzo in Tuscany, 
 of a noble family, studied at Pisa, and applied himself especially to 
 the mathematical sciences, for which he showed a particular aptitude. 
 In 17S2 he was appointed, by the Grand-Duke Leopold I., inspector 
 of the property of the military order of San Stefano, and in 1785 he 
 was made commendatory of that order. In 1792 he was consulted 
 by the Grand-Duke Ferdinand III. on the subject of the corn-trade 
 and corn-laws, upon which he wrote a treatise, which has not been 
 published. In 1794 he was appointed hydraulic superintendent of 
 the Val di Chiana. Fossombroni had previously studied the ground 
 attentively, and had written a learned treatise on the causes which 
 had led to the encroachment of the waters over that low but fertile 
 district, and had pointed out the means of draining the country : 
 'Memorie Idraulico-storiche sopra la Val di Chiana,' 1789. He pro- 
 moted the works for that object, which having been continued through 
 a succession of years, at last restored the valley of the Chiana to 
 fertility and sulubriousness. In 1796 Fossombroni was appointed 
 Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Grand-Duke of Tuscany. When 
 the French took violent possession of the country in 1799, Fossom- 
 broni accompanied his master to Vienna, where the grand- duke gave 
 him leave to return home to attend to his own affairs. After Tuscany 
 was transformed into a kingdom, the new queen of Etruria appointed 
 Fossombroni in 1804 member of the Commission of Finance. In 
 April 1805 he was sent, jointly with the Prince Corsini, to Milan, to 
 compliment Napoleon on his assumption of the crown of Italy. 
 When Tuscany was annexed to the French empire, Napoleon made 
 Fossombroni a member of the Legion of Honour, and appointed him 
 president of the commission for the improvement of the Campagna 
 of Rome and the drainage of the Pomptine Marshes, on which he 
 wrote a report for the emperor. On the restoration of the Grand- 
 Duke Ferdinand to his paternal dominions, Fossombroni was one of 
 the first persons employed in the new ministry. He was made 
 president of the legislative commission, councillor of state, minister 
 for foreign affairs, with the presidency of the other departments of 
 the government. These offices he retained till his death, which took 
 place in 1844, when he was ninety years of age, having retained all his 
 mental faculties to the last. In 1832, when he was seventy-eight years 
 of age, he married a lady of a noble family of his native town, Arezzo. 
 
 Besides the works already mentioned, Fossombroni published the 
 following works on hydraulics: 1,'Memoria sopra la Distribuzione 
 delle Alluvioni ;' 2, ' Memoria sulla Resistenza ed Urto dei Fluidi ; ' 
 3, ' Illustrazione di un Antico Documento relativo all' originario 
 Rapporto tra le Acque dell' Arno e della Chiana,' 1826 ; 4, 'Memoria 
 sulla Relazione tra lo Acque dell' Arno e quelle della Chiana,' 1839. 
 In these last two papers he explained the remarkable change that has 
 taken place in the course of ages in the declivity of the bed of the 
 Chiana, which in ancient times afforded a water-communication 
 between the Arno and the Tiber. He also adverted to the danger to 
 which the city of Florence and the surrounding country were exposed, 
 in consequence of the alluvial deposits which are carried by the 
 Chiana and numerous other streams into the Arno, and which tend 
 to raise the bed of the Arno; 5, 'Saggio sulla Bonificazione delle 
 Paludi Pontine ; ' 6, ' Memoria sul Lago di Fuccechio,' another marshy 
 district of Tuscany, in the valley of tho Lower Arno ; 7, ' Relazione 
 sopra l'lucanalamento di un Tronco del FiumeArno;' 8, ' Memoria 
 sulle Mareuume Toscaue;' 9, ' Memoria sopra la Inclinazione Arti- 
 ficiale.' Fossombroni wrote numerous other memoirs on hydraulic 
 subjects, which are inedited ; among the rest, a memoir on the lagoons 
 of Venice, for the Emperor of Austria, which was used for the works 
 in that quarter, and another memoir for Mehemet Ali, pasha of 
 Egypt, concerning the construction of a basin at Alexandria. Fos- 
 sombroni also wrote several treatises on mathematics and mechanics, 
 among others a 'Saggio sopra il Moto degli Animali e sopra i Tras- 
 porti;' a treatise 'Sopra la Misura delle Forze Muscolari;' another, 
 'Sopra la Valutizione della Forza e degli Attriti;' and a 'Memoria 
 »opra il Principio dell; Velocita Virtuali,' published in 1796, and 
 
 FOSTRT7, .TOFIN. 
 
 which was highly praised by Lagrange, Lacroix, Laplace, and other 
 eminent mathematicians. 
 
 As a statesman, Fossombroni was enlightened and unprejudiced. 
 Jealous of tho independence of his native country, he asserted its 
 rights upon every occasion during the long and occasionally critical 
 period of his administration ; he maintained the freedom of commerce, 
 which has greatly contributed to the prosperity of the country ; he 
 advocated toleration of opinions, and he strove to render Tuscany a 
 model of a paternal but enlightened government. His system appears 
 to have been to govern without bustle and noise, to let society move 
 on with as little apparent interference as possible on the part of the 
 governing powers, a task in which he was assisted by the disposition 
 of the people, the smalluess of the state, and by hi? own tempera- 
 ment. It is generally admitted that during Fossombroni's adminis- 
 tration Tuscany was tho happiest country in Italy. 
 
 (Rivista Ligure, and other Italian journals for 1844 ; Communications 
 from Italy, and the works of Fossombroni quoted above.) 
 
 FOSTER, JOHN, architect, was born about the year 1786 or 1787, 
 and was the son of a builder of the same name, who carried on a large 
 business in Liverpool where he also acted as architect and surveyor 
 to the corporation, and as engineer to the docks. Foster junior was 
 the second of six sons. According to one account furnished to us, he 
 became a pupil of James Wyatt ; and from other information it would 
 seem that he was also employed under Jeffry Wyatt, afterwards Sir 
 Jeffry Wyattville. In 1809 he went abroad; was during sometime 
 with Mr. Cockerell at ^Egina and Phigaleia ; and was concerned in the 
 excavation of the ^Eginetan and Phigaleian marbles. The portico at 
 ^Egina— that of the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius — became a 
 favourite model with him in his later practice as an architect. He 
 did not return to England till 1816 or 1817, having in the meanwhile, 
 at Smyrna, married a Greek lady of that place. However, about the 
 time mentioned, he settled at Liverpool ; and for some years after- 
 wards carried on the building business, in partnership with a brother, 
 under the firm of John Foster and Co. — his father having withdrawn, 
 but retaining his professional appointments with the corporation and 
 dock trustees. It does not appear that the numerous buildings in 
 which Foster, senior, was concerned, were erected from hi3 own designs ; 
 Foster, junior, however had received better education in art; and for 
 some time, besides his building trade, had considerable practice as an 
 architect. St. John's Market, in Liverpool, a covered area of little 
 short of two acres, and one of the earliest works of its character, was 
 commenced in 1820, "from the designs of Mr. John Foster, the 
 corporation-surveyor of the day, and was completed and opened iu 
 1823." ('The Architectural History of Liverpool,' paper by Mr. J. A. 
 Picton, read at the Liverpool Architectural Society ; see ' The Builder,' 
 vol. xiL p. 231.) It is probable however that such architectural 
 design as there is in the work was due to the younger Foster, who 
 with his partner carried on the erection of the principal Liverpool 
 buildings. But Foster, senior, having been compelled by ill-health to 
 resign his several appointments, Foster junior was appointed in 
 February 1824 corporation architect and surveyor, receiving a salary 
 of 1000/!. per annum, conditional upon withdrawal from the building 
 business. When the Municipal Reform Bill came into operation in 
 June 1835, much of the influence of the Foster family was brought 
 to an end, and John Foster retired with a compensation of 500^. per 
 annum, and did not afterwards follow his profession. 
 
 Few architects have had opportunities similar to those of John 
 Foster. It may however be questioned whether he succeeded in 
 turning these to proper account. That he had acquired a large stock 
 of architectural knowledge cannot be doubted; but, like many of 
 his contemporaries, he missed the special beauty of art in architecture 
 in his manner of using the Greek models; and perhaps there is no 
 town which now so well affords illustrations of two different systems 
 of practice, as does Liverpool in some of the works of Foster and the 
 great work of Elmes. [Elmes, Harvey Lonsdale.] 
 
 Amongst Foster's works is the church of St. Michael, Pitt-street, 
 commenced in 1 SI 6, though not completed till 1826; it is of excep- 
 tional character, having a portico and steeple obviously adapted from 
 the church of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields in the metropolis, but is by 
 many considered his best work. The church for the School of the 
 Blind first erected in Hotham-street, and since removed and re-erected 
 in Hardmau-street, is described as originally presenting a somewhat 
 imposing effect in its Grecian Doric columns. This has been 
 impaired by alterations in the removal. The small chapel of St. 
 James's cemetery in the same style, has a better effect from its site 
 near the edge of the rock, — in that particular really adopting certain 
 good Greek principles of art. The Custom House, though a very 
 large building, is of little merit in point of art. It has a portico, as 
 it has been pointedly remarked, advanced from each of its sides except 
 that on which the sun shines. " There are no indications," says Mr. 
 Picton, " such as are stamped on every line in St. George's Hall, of 
 careful study and creative power." The screen of the Railway Station 
 iu Lime-street, built about the year 1835, is of more florid character. 
 It has attached Corinthian columns, and is not without merit. 
 
 Foster died on the 21st of August 1S46, after a long aud painful 
 illness. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society ; was undoubtedly 
 possessed of great architectural knowledge ; holds an important place 
 in the recent history of architecture, but perhaps deserves commenda. 
 
te7 FOSTER, REV. JOHN. 
 
 tion for his general good qualities, rather than for high powers as an 
 
 ar<is£-architect. 
 
 FOSTER, REV. JOHN, was the son of a small farmer residing 
 between Waiuwright and Hebden Bridge, Halifax, Yorkshire, where he 
 was born September 17, 1770. He was, as ayouth, placed with a weaver; 
 but having in his seventeenth year joined the church of the Rev. Dr. 
 Fawcett, baptist minister, of Hebden Bridge, he quickly attracted 
 the notice of that gentleman, and by his interest he was entered a 
 student of the Baptist College, Bristol, in 1791. 
 
 Having completed his studies he became a preacher, and in 1797 
 accepted the charge of a congregation at Chichester, Sussex. There 
 lie remained for about two years and a half; he then continued 
 till 1804 without any pastoral connection, his attention being much 
 occupied with literature. In 1804 he became the minister of a chapel 
 at Frome in Somersetshire, but a morbid state of the thyroid gland 
 unfitted him for preaching with energy, and he resigned his office in 
 1806. He now became regularly connected as contributor to the 
 ' Eclectic Review,' in which his first article appeared in November 
 1806, and hialast in July 1839. For eleven years he remained uncon- 
 nected with any church as minister, when his health being thoroughly 
 established, he, in 1817, accepted a charge at Downcnd, near Bristol. 
 But his preaching being unacceptable to his congregation — by no means 
 a literary one — he, after a trial of only a few months, relinquished 
 active pastoral duties, and for the last eighteen or twenty years of 
 his life resided at Stapleton, near Bristol, chiefly occupied in literary 
 occupations, and preaching only occasionally. He died at Stapleton, 
 October 15, 1843. 
 
 Foster's reputation as an author is chiefly founded on his 1 Essays,' 
 which were first published in 1805, in the form of a series of letters, 
 which, though iutended for publication, were really addressed to the 
 lady who soon afterwards became his wife. The 1 Essays ' are on the 
 following subjects : — 1, ' On a Man's Writing Memoirs of Himself ;' 
 2, ' On Decision of Character ; ' 3, 'On the Application of the epithet 
 Romantic;' 4, On some of the Causes by which Evangelical Religion 
 has been rendered Unacceptable to Persons of Cultivated Taste.' 
 The only other work which he published in a separate form was ' An 
 Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance,' which grew out of the 
 topics of a discourse delivered at a public anniversary meeting in aid 
 of the British and Foreigu School Society, and which he afterwards 
 expanded into a volume of moderate size. To the ' Eclectic Review ' 
 he contributed altogether 185 articles, of which fifty were selected 
 and published in a separate form in 1S44. Two volumes of lectures, 
 delivered at Broadmead in 1822, and edited from Foster's notes by 
 his friend Mr. J. E. Ryland, have been published since Mr. Foster's 
 death. 
 
 John Foster's writings occupy only a small space, but they are of 
 great merit. The ' Essays ' have gone through some twenty editions, 
 and their popularity has certainly not diminished. Foster's intellect 
 is of a high order, clear, comprehensive, and of strong grasp. He 
 displays an intimate knowledge of the various forms of human character, 
 draws his remarks from a wide extent of personal observation as well 
 as a large acquaintance with books, and is almost entirely free from 
 party views or sectarian feelings. His thoughts are unborrowed, his 
 morality high and pure, and his views, whether relating to public 
 government or private conduct, are independent, lofty, and liberal. 
 His composition is very elaborate, yet natural and graceful ; it has no 
 appearance of having been modelled on the style of any other writer, 
 but always seems to flow with the unrestrained current of his thoughts, 
 generally with a tendency towards expansion, yet often concise, nervous, 
 and impressive. 
 
 The ' Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance ' consists of a series 
 of arguments on the necessity of a comprehensive scheme of popular 
 education. It is very powerfully written. To some of the editions is 
 annexed his sermon in defence of Christian missions, which is much 
 admired. 
 
 Foster was eminently qualified for a reviewer as well as an essayist. 
 His strong good sense, his wide range of knowledge from books and 
 observation, his perfect independence of mind, thorough conscientious- 
 ness, power of sarcasm as well as of eulogy, pure taste, and attractive 
 style, all contributed to fit him for sitting in judgment on works of 
 general literature. 
 
 In person Foster was rather above the middle size. His counte- 
 nance was handsome and striking. His social character is described 
 as having been very attractive. His range of topics in conversation 
 was extensive, embracing not only such subjects as those treated of in 
 his writings, but including the fine arts, of which he was an enthusi- 
 astic admirer, and almost every department of ancient and modern 
 literature. 
 
 (Gentleman's Magazine, January, 1844 ; Eclectic Review, February 
 and May, 1844 ; Ryland, Life and Correspondence of John Foster.) 
 
 FOTHERGILL, JOHN, was born of a Quaker family, on the 8th 
 of March 1712, at Carr-End, near Richmond, in Yorkshire. After 
 obtaining the elements of education in the school of Sedbergh, in the 
 same county, he learned pharmacy from an apothecary named 
 Bartlett, and then proceeded to Edinburgh. Here he took his degree 
 of M.D. in 1737, the thesis which he published on this occasion being 
 on the use of emetics. (' De Emeticorum Usu in variis Morbis trac- 
 tandis.') In order to become a physician in practice as well as theory, 
 
 fouciie, JosF.rn. m 
 
 he now diligently attended St. Thomas's Hospital, in London. In 
 1740 ho travelled into Holland, France, and Germany, and then settled 
 in London. In 1748, an ulcerated or gangrenous sore throat, which 
 had prevailed epidemically, gave Fothergill an opportunity of display- 
 ing his great practical talents. This kind of sore throat is now 
 believed to be related to scarlet fever, and indeed to be the essential 
 and dangerous part of that disease, of which the eruption is merely 
 the outward and harmless indication. In Fothergill's time however 
 this malady was confounded with the ordinary or inflammatory sore 
 throat, and being treated accordingly, with bleeding and purgatives, 
 was very fatal. Fothergill, on the contrary, used emetic-?, mineral 
 acids, bitters, and a little wine, and lost but few cases. 
 
 The two most prominent points in the life of Dr. Fothergill are 
 the remarkable success with which he practised his profession and the 
 unwearied benevolence with which he distributed the fruits of his 
 labours. It is supposed that he gave away at least 200,0002. 
 
 Dr. Fothergill published several papers in the ' Philosophical Trans- 
 actions ' on the origin of ambergris, the rupture of the diaphragm, &c. ; 
 and he is also the author of essays on the plant producing Aleppo 
 scammony ; on the use of bark combined with small doses of calomel 
 in scrofula, and calomel alone in sciatica, lumbago, and worms; on the 
 use of hemlock in cancer ; on the botanical, chemical, and medical 
 history of the cortex Winteranus and catechu ; on the treatment of 
 hooping-cough by very small doses of tartar emetic combined with an 
 absorbent earth; on dropsy, and the disadvantages of putting off 
 tapping too long ; on chronic ulcers of the legs ; on phthisis, and the 
 abuse of balsams and bark in this disease; on febrile rheumatism of 
 the face; on angina pectoris; on the ulcerous sore throat; on 
 hydrocephalus internus, an essay thought by Vicq-d'Azyr to be one 
 of the most perfect descriptions to be found in medicine ; and advice 
 to women between forty and forty-five years of age, or rules to be 
 observed on the cessation of the catamenia. 
 
 Fothergill improved the art of recovering the drowned ; showed 
 the necessity of prohibiting burials in towns, and the meaus of 
 diminishing the frequency of fires. The editions of his works are 
 those of London, 1781, 8vo ; 1783, 3 vols., 8vo ; 1784, 4to. Fother- 
 gill died on the 2Gth of December 1780, in the sixty-ninth year of 
 his age. 
 
 FOUCHE, JOSEPH, Duke of Otranto, was born in 1763 at Nantes, 
 and educated in the college of the Peres de l'Oratoire. Being unable 
 on account of his delicate constitution to follow the profession of his 
 father, who was captain of a vessel, he applied himself to study, and 
 after having completed his course at Paris he lectured in diiferent 
 towns of France on various philosophical subjects, till on his marriage 
 he finally settle ! in his native town, and began to practise a3 an 
 advocate. In 1792 he was returned by the department of the Loire- 
 Infcrieure as a member of the National Convention, in which capacity 
 he voted for the death of the king, and against the appeal to the 
 nation. In 1793 he was sent with Collot d'Herbois on that mission 
 which deluged Lyon with blood, but still he had the courage to oppose 
 some measures of his infamous colleague. On his return to Paris he 
 was elected (1794) president of the Jacobin Club, but he was soon 
 expelled from it by the enmity of Robespierre. After the fall of 
 Robespierre, Fouche being considered as a dangerous terrorist was 
 arrested, but afterwards liberated under the proclamation for a general 
 amnesty, on the 26th of October 1795. He remained in private life 
 till 179S, when he was employed in Italy, and after his return to Paris 
 the Directory nominated him minister of the police of the republic. 
 It was in this capacity that he displayed his great talents, which were 
 united with an extraordinary degree of courage, firmness, and activity. 
 He had the boldness to adopt vigorous measures for the suppression 
 of popular assemblies. Having supported Bonaparte after his return 
 from Egypt, he was confirmed in his office upon the establishment of 
 the consulate. He had the address to render himself necessary to all 
 parties by tormenting Bonaparte on the one hand with rumours of 
 conspiracies, and on the other by screening from his vengeance many 
 royalists. Bonaparte however dismissed Fouche" in 1802 from his 
 office, but on his accession to the throne he restored him to his former 
 post. Fouche"s vigilance maintained the tranquillity of the empire 
 while Napoleon I. was occupied in foreign wars ; and having the duties 
 of minister of the interior added to those of his office, he greatly 
 contributed by his arrangements to prevent the success of the English 
 expedition against Holland in 1809. In the last-mentioned year he 
 was created Duke of Otranto, but he fell out of favour for having used 
 in his proclamation to the national guards the following expression— 
 " Let us prove that Napoleon's presence is not necessary in order to 
 repel our enemies." In 1810 he was nominated governor of Rome on 
 condition of delivering his correspondence to Napoleon, which having 
 refused to do, he was sent to Aix. He was again recalled, but as his 
 views did not coincide with those of the emperor, Fouche' retired into 
 the country. In 1813 Fouche" was made governor of the Illyrian 
 provinces, but the progress of the allied troops compelled him to 
 relinquish his post and to retire to Italy. 
 
 After the abdication of Napoleon I., Fouche" again retired to his 
 estates in the country, and refused to take any part in political in- 
 trigues. On Napoleon's return from Elba, he was suspected by the 
 Bourbons, and an order was given for his arrest, but he contrived to 
 make hi3 escape. Napoleon again nominated Fouch^ minister of 
 
96) 
 
 FOULIS. ROBERT and ANDREW. 
 
 FOURCROY, ANTOINE-FRANCOIS DE. 
 
 police, but he accepted the office only on the understanding that 
 Austria and England secretly connived at Napoleon's return from 
 Elba. As soon as he learned that the congress of Vienna had declared 
 against Napoleon, he tried to persuade the emperor, in case his nego- 
 ciations should prove unsuccessful, to abdicate and retire to the United 
 States of America. He strongly advocated the principles of liberty 
 during the hundred days of Napoleon's second reign, and strongly 
 urged the emperor to abdicate after the battle of Waterloo. Fouch^ 
 being put at the head of the provisional government by the cham- 
 bers, promoted the departure of Napoleon I., negociated with the 
 allied powers, and by his intrigues baffled the scheme of Carnot 
 and other patriots to defend Paris. At the beginning of the nego- 
 ciation he was not inclined to promote the second restoration of 
 Louis XVIII., but notwithstanding this he was called by the king, 
 immediately after the capitulation of Paris, and nominated minister 
 of police. This circumstance gave rise to a general belief that he had 
 deceived Napoleon I. all the time after his return from Elba, and that 
 he constantly maintained a secret correspondence with the allied 
 powers and the Bourbons. In his capacity of minister of police he 
 presented to the king two reports on the state of France, which by 
 their boldness excited the hatred of all parties. His advice to grant 
 a general amnesty was not followed ; and he signed with his own 
 hand, as minister of police, the ordonnance of Louis XVIII. of the 
 24th July 1815, by which many persons were excepted from the 
 amnesty. Being driven by the hatred of the royalists to resign his 
 office of minister of police, the king nominated him his ambassador 
 to Dresden. The law of the 12th January 1816, by which all those 
 who had voted for the death of Louis XVI. were banished from France 
 and deprived of the e3tate3 which had been granted to them, was 
 extended to Fouche also, who from that time lived in different parts 
 of Austria. He died at Trieste in 1820. ' The Memoirs of Joseph 
 Ant. Fouche - , due d'Otranto,' which appeared at Paris, 1824, were 
 declared by his sons to be a spurious production ; and their denuncia- 
 tion was maintained in a suit against the printer, who was condemned 
 in heavy damages; but it is difficult to believe that they are wholly 
 unauthentic. It is a known fact that Pouche" dictated his memoirs 
 *o his secretary Desmarteau. A curious work was published at Paris 
 in 1833, which throws great light on Fouchd's character, and on 
 the system of the imperial administration in France, ' Te"moignages 
 historiques, ou quinze Ans de haute Police sous Napole'on, par 
 Desmareta.' 
 
 FOULIS, ROBERT and ANDREW, two learned printers of Scot- 
 land, were, it is supposed, natives of Glasgow, and passed their early 
 days in obscurity. Robert is asserted to have been a barber. Inge- 
 nuity and perseverance however enabled them to establish a press, 
 from which have issued some of the finest specimens of correct and 
 elegant printing which the 18th century has produced. Even Bodoni 
 of Parma, and Barbou of Paris, have not gone beyond some of the 
 productions of the Foulis press. Robert Foulis began printing about 
 1740, and one of his first essays was a good edition of 'Demetrius 
 Pbalereus,' in 4to, published in 1743. In 1744 he brought out his 
 celebrated immaculate edition of ' Horace,' 12mo, and soon afterwards 
 was in partnership with his brother Andrew. Of this edition of 
 'Horace,' the sheets as they were printed were hung up in the college 
 at Glasgow, and a reward was offered to those who should discover 
 an inaccuracy. It has been several times reprinted at Glasgow, but 
 not probably with the same fidelity. The two brothers continued to 
 produce for thirty yeara a Eeries of correct and well-printed books, 
 particularly classics, which, whether in Greek or Latin, are as remark- 
 able for their beauty and exactness as any in the Aldine series. 
 Among them may be enumerated ' Homer,' Greek, 4 vols, fol., 1756-58 ; 
 'Thucydides,' Greek and Latin, 8 vols. 12mo, 1759; 'Herodotus,' 
 Greek and Latin, 9 vols. 12mo, 1761; 'Xenophon,' Greek and Latin, 
 12 vols. 12mo, 1762-67 ; with small editions of Cicero, Virgil, Tibullus 
 and Propertiue, Cornelius Nepos, Tacitus, Juvenal and Persius, and 
 Lucretius. To these may be added a beautiful edition of the Greek 
 Te-tament, in small 4to; Gray's 'Poems,' Pope's 'Works,' &c. 
 
 It is a melancholy reflection that the taste of these worthy men 
 for the fine arts at last brought about their ruin ; for having eugaged 
 in the establishment of an academy for the instruction of youth in 
 painting and sculpture in Scotland, the enormous expense of sending 
 pupils to Italy to study and copy the ancients, gradually brought on 
 their decline in the printing business, and they found the city of 
 Glasgow no fit soil to transplant the imitative arts to, although their 
 bucc-s in printing the Greek and Latin Classics had already pro- 
 duced them ample fortunes. Andrew Foulis died on September 15, 
 1775, and Robert in 1776 exhibited and sold at Christie's, in Pall 
 Mall, the remainder of his painting.?. The catalogue formed three 
 volumes. But the result of the sale was, that after all the expenses 
 were defrayed, the balance in his favour amounted only to the sum of 
 15*. He died the same year on his return to Scotland. A person of 
 the name of Foulis, a descendant of one of the brothers, continued to 
 print at Glasgow as late as 1806. His 'Virgil' of 1778, aud his 
 '/Eschylun,' printed in 1795, are considered beautiful productions. 
 
 (Lemoine, History of Printing ; Nichols, Lit. Anecd., vol. iii., pp. 691, 
 viii., 475; Chalmer*, Biog. Did) 
 
 FOULSTON, JOIIX. The name of this architect, who died at 
 Plymouth, January 13, 1812, aged sixty-uiuc, is especially connected 
 
 EIOO. DIV. VOL. \L 
 
 with the history of that town and its neighbourhood, where, during 
 the last thirty years of his life, he enjoyed a very extensive practice, 
 and executed nearly all the public buildings then erected at Plymouth 
 and Devonport (formerly Plymouth Dock), besides various general 
 improvements, such as streets, aud lines of uniformly-built houses, 
 distinguished by the name of ' Terraces.' Hence he came to be 
 regarded as the architect par excellence, aud has been complimented 
 by the title of the ' Wren of Plymouth,' though that of its ' Wood ' 
 [Wood] would have been compliment sufficient. That he did much 
 for the general appearance of Plymouth and the plaoes in its vicinity, 
 is not to be disputed : he introduced an improved style of building; 
 but those of his buildings which challenge notice as distinct works of 
 architecture exhibit little more than a smattering of style — those super- 
 ficial and obvious rudiments of it which at once distinguish one style 
 from another. In tho critical meaning of the term, he himself 
 possessed no style, for, applied to the works of an artist, style pre- 
 sumes both individuality and generality of expression in that par- 
 ticular language of his art which is employed by him ; whereas 
 Foulston's Greek was little more than the neutralisation of Greek, 
 followed in literal transcripts from it with respect to columniation, 
 columns, and a few details, but essentially un-Greek, or pseudo- 
 Greek, in regard to general character. His works in that stylo are 
 however characteristic of their time, aud serve to show what was 
 admired in this country as genuine aud 'pure' classical architecture 
 during the early party of the present century, when four-columned 
 Parthenons without sculpture and with sash-windows were hailed as 
 marvels worthy of Athens itself. 
 
 With the exception of Soane and Laing, Foulston was the only one 
 among his contemporaries who published designs of the buildings 
 executed by him. The collection was at first announced as intended 
 to consist of 200 plates, in 4 vols. 4to ; but it appeared, iu 1838, in a 
 single volume, with 116 plates in lithographic outline, executed in a 
 hard and formal manner. Yet, though no fewer than forty-seven 
 plates are devoted to a single edifice, comprising the Royal Hotel 
 and Theatre, there is neither section nor view to give any idea of tho 
 theatre itself, but only drawings explanatory of the carpeutry and 
 construction of the stace. However, that publication enables us to 
 do what, highly desirable as it is, is generally most difficult of accom- 
 plishment in architectural biography, to give a tolerably full and 
 accurate list of Foulston's buildings. At Plymouth : — Royal Hotel 
 and Theatre, begun 1811, Grecian Ionic; Exchange, 1813 ; Athenaeum, 
 1818-19, Grecian Doric; St. Andrew's Chapel, 1823; Public Library. 
 Devonport: — Town Hall, 1821-2, Grecian Doric; Civil and Military 
 Library, 1823, Egyptian ; Mount Zion Chapel, 1823-4, Hindoo ; Column, 
 1824, Grecian Doric. Tavistock, Old Abbey Buildings, restored, 1829. 
 Torquay, Public Ball-room, 1839. Bodmin, Cornwall County Lunatic 
 Asylum, 1818. Besides the above, which constitute his edited designs, 
 Foulston executed several other buildings, public as well as private, 
 including St. Paul's Chapel, Gothic, and Edgecumbe Place, at Stone- 
 house; St. Michael's Terrace, Stoke Damcrell; Belmont House; aud 
 various villas and cottages in the neighbourhood of Stoke, and in 
 other parts of the county. Greatly as he seems to have prided 
 himself upon the correctness aud purity of his taste in classical 
 architecture, Foulston was by no means disposed to confine himself 
 to the Grecian style, for he attempted every style iu its turn, Egyptian 
 and Hindoo not excepted, and even that of Soane included. The 
 fact is, Foulston seems to have discovered that he had exhausted all 
 his stock of ideas for Grecian designs after employing that style for 
 some of his principal works. It would not do to repeat Grecian Doric 
 and Ionic porticoes, and those mere monoprostyle ones, perpetually, 
 especially in contiguous buildings, and this, no doubt, determined him 
 not only to have recourse to other and widely different styles, but 
 occasionally to bring them together in direct contrast with each other, 
 as at Devonport, where in the Town-Hall, Column, Library, and 
 Chapel, he clustered together into one group Grecian, Egyptian, and 
 Hindoo, the two last of a very spurious kind, one of them being 
 evidently borrowed from the building in Piccadilly, while for the 
 Hindoo there seems to be no better authority than the architect's so 
 naming it. Though without more pretensions to design than many 
 other things of the kind that have been erected all over the country, 
 the Devonport Column stands with an air of very unusual dignity, 
 not merely stilted upon a pedestal borrowed from the broken stylo- 
 bates of Roman and Italian architecture, but rearing itself upon a 
 lofty substructure of masonry, the whole being on a higher level than 
 the pavement of the street. Yet wo suppose the Koyal Hotel at 
 Plymouth generally passes for Foulston's chef d'eeuvre, it being his 
 largest building— one rivalling the post-office at London in size, as 
 well as resembling it in design ; for the Plymouth structure measures 
 268 by 218 feet, the other 390 by 130 feet. 
 
 FOURCROY, ANTOINE-FRANCOIS DE, an eminent French 
 chemist, councillor of state, commander of the legion of honour, 
 member of the Institute, and of most of the academies and scientific 
 societies of Europe, professor of chemistry at the Museum of Natural 
 History, at the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, and at the Polytechnic 
 School, was born at Paris, on the 15th of June 1755, and was the son 
 of Jean-Michel de Fourcroy, and Jeanne Laugier. His family had long 
 resided in the capital, and several of his ancestors had distinguished 
 themselves at the bar. Autoine-Fraujois de Fourcroy sprung from a 
 
 8 B 
 
 I 
 
871 
 
 branch of the family that had gradually sunk into poverty ; and his 
 son, the subject of the present article, grew up in the midst of it. 
 When seven years old, he lost his mother, and his sister preserved 
 him with difficulty till he went to college ; and in consequence of the 
 ill-treatment of a master he left it at fourteen years of age, some- 
 what le*s informed than when he went to it. 
 
 "While uncertain what plan to follow, in order to obtain a livelihood, 
 the advice of Vicq-d'Ayr, who was a celebrated anatomist and a 
 friend of his father's, induced him to commence the study of medicine ; 
 and after successfully struggling against every kind of difficulty, he 
 at last obtained the necessary qualification to practise in Paris. The 
 first writings of Fourcroy did not evince any peculiar predilection 
 for any particular branch of science; he wrote upon natural history, 
 anatomy, and chemistry ; he published an ' Abridgment of the History 
 of Insects;' and a 'Description of the Bursa) Mucosa; of the Tendons;' 
 and in consequeuce of the celebrity which he acquired by the last- 
 mentioned performance, he was admitted as an Anatomist into the 
 Academy of Sciences iu 1785. 
 
 After the death of Macquer, which happened in 1784, he succeeded 
 to the chair of professor of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, and he 
 continued there till his death, which took place twenty-five years 
 afterwards. He was greatly admired for the eloquence with which he 
 delivered his lectures, and the writer of this article was a witness of 
 his great flow of language during a sitting of the Institute in 1802. 
 
 In 1795 he was elected a member of the National Convention, but 
 notwithstanding his reputation for eloquence, from prudential motives 
 lie never opened his mouth in the Convention till after the death of 
 Robespierre. After the 9th Thermidor, when the nation was wearied 
 with destruction, and efforts were making to restore institutions 
 which had been overturned, Fourcroy began to acquire influence, and 
 ho took an active part in whatever related to the establishment 
 of schools, whether of medicine, or for the purposes of general 
 instruction. Among these was the Polytechnic School, at which, as 
 already stated, he was professor of chemistry ; and both as a member 
 of the Convention and of the Council of Ancients, he was concerned 
 in the establishment of the Institute and the Museum of Natural 
 History. 
 
 The great exertions made by M. de Fourcroy, and the prodigious 
 activity which he displayed in the numerous situations which he 
 filled, gradually undermined his constitution ; he was sensible of his 
 approaching death, and announctd it to his friends as an event which 
 would speedily take place. On the 16th of December 1809, after 
 signing some despatches, he suddenly exclaimed, "Je suis mort ! " 
 and fell lifeless on the ground. 
 
 In his 'History of Chemistry,' Dr. Thomson thus concludes his 
 notice of the works of Fourcroy :— "Notwithstanding the vast quantity 
 of papers which he published, it will be admitted, without dispute, 
 that the prodigious reputation which he enjoyed during his lifetime 
 was more owing to his eloquence than to his eminence as a chemist, 
 though even as a chemist he was far above mediocrity. He must 
 have possessed an uncommon facility of -writing. Five successive 
 editions of his 'System of Chemistry ' appeared, each of them gradually 
 increasing in size and value : the first being in two volumes and the 
 last in ten. This last edition he wrote in sixteen months : it contains 
 much valuable information, and doubtless contributed considerably to 
 the general diffusion of chemical knowledge. Its style is perhaps too 
 diffuse, and the spirit of generalising from particular and often ill- 
 authenticated facts, is carried to a vicious length. Perhaps the best 
 of all his productions is his ' Philosophy of Chemistry.' It is remark- 
 able for its conciseness, its perspicuity, and the neatness of its 
 arrangement." 
 
 Besides these works, and the periodical publication entitled 'Le 
 Medeciu Eclaire,' of which he was the editor, there are above one 
 hundred and sixty papers on chemical subjects, with his name attached 
 to them, which appeared in the ' Memoirs ' of the Academy and of the 
 Institute ; in the ' Annales de Chimie,' or the ' Annale3 de Musee 
 d'Histoire Naturelle,' of which last work he was the original projector. 
 Many of these papers contained analyses, both animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral, of very considerable value. In most of them the name of 
 Vauquelin is associated with his own as the author, and the general 
 opinion is that the experiments were all made by Vauquelin, but that 
 the papers themselves were drawn up by Fourcroy. There is one 
 merit at least to which Fourcroy is certainly entitled, and it is no small 
 one : he formed and brought forward Vauquelin, and proved to him 
 ever after a most steady and indefatigable friend. 
 
 It would serve little purpose to go over this long list of papers. 
 Though they contributed essentially to the progress of chemistry, yet 
 they exhibit but few of those striking discoveries which at once alter 
 the face of the science by throwing a flood of light on everything 
 around them. We shall merely notice a few of what we consider his 
 best papers : — 
 
 1. He ascertained that the most common biliary calculi are composed 
 of a substance similar to spermaceti. During the removal of the dead 
 bodies from the burial-ground of the Innocents at Paris, he discovered 
 that the bodies were converted into a fatty matter, which he called 
 adipocire. It has since been distinguished by the name of cholestrine, 
 and has been shown to possess properties different from those of 
 adipocire and spermaceti. 
 
 2. It is to him that we are indebted for the first knowledge of the 
 fact, that the salts of magnesia and ammonia have the property of 
 uniting together and forming double salts. 
 
 3. His dissertation on the sulphate of mercury contains some good 
 observations. The same remark applies to hi3 paper on the action 
 of ammonia on the sulphate, nitrate, and muriate of mercury. He first 
 described the double salts which are formed. 
 
 4. The analyses of urine would have been valuable had not almost 
 all the facts contained in it been anticipated by a paper of Dr. Wollaston 
 published in the ' Philosophical Transactions.' It is to him that we 
 are indebted for almost all the additions to our knowledge of calculi 
 since the publication of Scheele's original paper on the subject. 
 
 5. We may mention the process of Fourcroy and Vauquelin for 
 obtaining pure barytes, by exposing nitrate of barytes to a red heat, 
 as a good one. They discovered the existence of phosphate of magnesia 
 iu the bones, of phosphorus in the brain, and in the milts of fishes, and 
 a considerable quantity of saccharine matter in the bulb of the common 
 onion, which, by undergoing a kind of spontaneous fermentation, was 
 converted into manna. 
 
 In concluding, we may remark that his friendship, free from all 
 selfishness, for Vauquelin, coupled with the well-kuown fact of his 
 having saved the lives of some men of merit, and among others of 
 Darcel, tends greatly to acquit Fourcroy of the disgraceful charge 
 which has been made against him of having contributed to the death 
 of the illustrious Lavoisier. This acquittal is rendered complete by 
 the annexed declaration of Cuvier in his ' Eloge' of Fourcroy : — " If, 
 in the rigorous researches which we have made, we had found the 
 smallest proof of an atrocity so horrible, no human power could have 
 induced us to sully our mouths with his Eloge, or to have pronounced 
 it within the walls of this temple, which ought to be no less sacred to 
 honour than to genius." 
 
 FOURIFR, CHARLES, founder of the system of communism 
 known as Fourierism, was born at Besancon, in Franche-Comtd, ou 
 the 7th of April 1772 : he died at Paris on the 10th of October 1837, 
 in his sixty-sixth year. He lived aud died a bachelor. 
 
 He was the son of Charles Fourier, a merchant and magistrate (jugo 
 consulaire) of the city of Besancon, who died when Fourier was in 
 his ninth year, leaving a widow with a family of four children, and a 
 property of about 80002. Fourier was the youngest child and the 
 only son. After completing his studies atBesan9on and Dijon, Fourier 
 was placed in a commercial house at Rouen, where he remained a short 
 time, and then removed to Lyon in the year 1790, when the French 
 revolution was commencing. It was a most eventful period. New 
 philosophies and theories were almost annually tried experimentally, 
 and found deficient, notwithstanding their plausibility. Fourier, 
 though young, was led to think of principles and causes ; social evils 
 and their remedies ; the horrors of convulsive anarchy, and all the 
 aberrations of philosophy which then distracted his unhappy country. 
 He reflected long and deeply on these subjects in the midst of his 
 commercial occupations, and experience confirmed him in the opinion 
 he early formed that something must be radically wrong to cause so 
 much injustice and antagonism in society. He made himself acquainted 
 with the principles and theories of all the leading parties. From them 
 he turned to real science in its various branches ; travelled much to 
 gain experience; and laboured constantly with various feelings of 
 alternate fear aud hope, to discover the cause of social misery, and an 
 efficient remedy. By the decree of the National Convention, August 
 23, 1793, Fourier was compelled to enter the army, and was drafted 
 into the eighth regiment of Chasseurs a Cheval, which joined the army 
 of the Rhine and Moselle, where Fourier remained about two years; 
 not without profiting by all that could be learned of scientific 
 evolutions, as his writings indicate, when treating of gymnastic exer- 
 cises and the disciplines of education. He also paid great attention to 
 the theory of music during his connection with the army; but his 
 health began to sink, and he obtained his release in January 1795. In 
 1799 he was employed in a commercial house at Marseille, and he had 
 to direct the operation of submerging a considerable quantity of corn 
 by night in order to avoid the vengeance of the people, who were 
 suffering from scarcity of bread in the surrounding country. The 
 wheat which was thus thrown into the sea at midnight had been 
 spoiled by being kept too long. The scarcity of food had been ao 
 general in the country that the poor inhabitants of many parts were 
 suffering from famine and disease when this occurred, and Fourier 
 was more impressed than ever with the awful state of social and 
 commercial and political disorder which deranged the general economy 
 of civilised society. His mind had been already fixed upon the problem 
 for about ten years, but the first discovery which he and his followers 
 regarded as one of general importance and undoubted certainty was 
 made soon after this remarkable event in 1799. 
 
 In 1 800 he passed some months iu Paris, and then returned to 
 Lyon, where he published articles in the newspapers, which were 
 noticed by the government for their acuteness and range of 
 thought. One of those articles, published in the ' Bulletin de Lyon,' 
 in 1803, and headed ' Continental Triumvirate,' attracted the 
 attention of Napoleon I., who caused inquiries to be made about the 
 author, but nothing further occurred. Fourier had to work out the 
 details of his plans, and years elapsed before they were sufficiently 
 mature for publication. Meanwhile he was employed as a commercial 
 
FOURIER, CHARLES. 
 
 agent, aud only known to the society in which he moved as a man 
 remarkable for his learning in geography and general statistics. In 
 conversation with his intimate acquaintance he had mentioned many 
 things connected with his new discovery, and they at length induced 
 him to commence publishing before he had completed all the 
 secondary combinations of detail. To satisfy their curiosity he issued 
 a Prospectus, in which his general views were broadly stated, but 
 without au attempt at demonstration. This Prospectus was a small 
 octavo volume, published in 1808, at Leipzig, according to the title- 
 page, but really as it would seem printed and published at Lyon, in 
 order to avoid the censorship of Napoleon. 
 
 This Prospectus was intended to announce the publication of his 
 new discovery in a series of eight octavo volumes, to be published by 
 subscription, and commenced as soon as a sufficient number of 
 subscribers had sent in their names. The work was entitled 
 ' Theorie des Quatre Mouvemens et des Destinies GeneVales.' It is 
 the strangest, most mystical, and most startling of all his works, 
 though merely given as a general announcement of his theory. Sur- 
 prise and wonder were the only effects which it produced on those 
 who read it and the few public writers who reviewed it. After being 
 noticed by a few persons in the neighbourhood of Lyon, it sunk into 
 oblivion, without a dozen copies being sold. 
 
 After publishing this voluminous 'Prospectus ' of his theory of the 
 cardinal movements, Fourier remained fourteen years without pub- 
 lishing the continuation of his theory. He quietly prosecuted his 
 studies in the solitude of private life, interrupted only by his mer- 
 cantile pursuits, he still continuing in his mercantile position in 
 Lyon. Little is known of his habits or his movements from 1808 to 
 1815, except a few incidents mentioned by himself. In one of his 
 unpublished manuscripts, he says, in reference to the long interval 
 which elapsed between his first and second publications, "It was well 
 that I deferred the publication of my theory, for it was not until 
 Is 14 that I discovered the principal laws of equilibrium in combined 
 associative harmony, and other branches of transcendental theory. It 
 was not until the year 1819 that I discovered the possibility of 
 organising associative unity without disturbing the present laws 
 of marriage. 
 
 " My commercial duties had always prevented me from giving that 
 undivided attention to my discovery which its infinite details required. 
 The stagnation however in which mercantile affairs were plunged by 
 the political events of 1814 and 1815 induced me to retire from 
 business and devote my time exclusively to study. In 1816 I com- 
 menced the preparation of materials for publication, but the problems 
 to be solved were so diversified and numerous— the subject so 
 immense — that I could not succeed in bringing them within the 
 limits of an ordinary book. Twelve months were lost in trying to 
 condense the matter and improve the plan of distribution. At 
 length I fixed upon a plan of partial publication, which contained 
 about one-quarter of the whole theory, but sufficient for all purposes 
 of practical association on a simple scale." 
 
 During the Hundred Days of Napoleon's reign Fourier was placed 
 at the head of the statistical department of the prefecture or pro- 
 vincial government of Lyon, by his namesake the Count Fourier, but 
 after the second restoration of the Bourbon family everythiug was 
 changed again, aud Fourier retired from Lyon to Tallissieu in the 
 autumn of that year, to pass the winter in his sister's family. From 
 Tallissieu he went to Belley to reside with his other sister, and there 
 he remained from 1815 until 1821, occupied exclusively in preparing 
 the manuscript of his future publication. 
 
 Hitherto no one had seriously thought of Fourier's ideas or his 
 studies, but in 1814 a copy of hi3 first volume fell accidentally into 
 the hands of M. Just Muiron, of Besancon, a gentleman of studious 
 habits and high standing in the provincial administration of Frauche- 
 Comtd, and also proprietor of its leading provincial newspaper, 
 ' L'Impartial de Besancon.' 
 
 The views of Fourier's theory announced in that volume made a 
 deep impression on Muiron, who wrote immediately to the author to 
 obtain more information on the subject. This led to a long corre- 
 spondence and an interview, which tended to confirm Muiron in the 
 high opinion he bad first conceived of both the author and his 
 theory. After a due consideration of the principles and an intimate 
 acquaintance with Fourier, from whom he gathered ample information 
 on all points of doctrine, Muiron became the intimate friend and the 
 first avowed disciple of Fourier. He became more anxious than 
 Fourier himself to have the theory completely published, aud under- 
 took to furnish a part of the funds for the expense of printing, as 
 soon as the manuscripts could be made ready for the press. Fourier 
 Bold a part of his little property to defray the rest of the expense of 
 printing. The correspondence between Muiron and Fourier became 
 frequent. It is an interesting history of Fourier's opinions and 
 puiHuita during the period of his studious retirement from 1816 to 
 1821. The whole of Fourier's theory was written during this period, 
 though not mor« than half of it has yet been published. The unpub- 
 lished manuscripts treat however chiefly on cosmogony, psychology, 
 analogy, and other very abstruse subjects, which aro treated in a 
 manner not at all likely to attract the general reader. 
 
 In one of his letters to Muiron he says, "I have positively failed, 
 after fourteen ycarb' repeated application, to solve the problem of 
 
 FOURIER, CHARLES. 97* 
 
 Passional Diffraction." This, in the language of Fourier, is tho 
 principle of prophetic inspiration. It is treated by him as an abstract 
 question, but as the object of this article is to explain some of the 
 opinions of Fourier from his own point of view, we may give it one 
 short paragraph of explanation. 
 
 If we compare the light of Revelation from the Spiritual Sun of 
 the universe on the eye of the mind, with the light of the natural 
 sun on the eye of the body, we shall have the exact analogy between 
 the two, in harmony with the language of Fourier. There are three 
 modes of action in the transmission of natural light : Refraction, 
 Reflection, aud Diffraction. In the sphere of Revelation, or the 
 transmission of spiritual light to the mind of man, Nature is the 
 great fact of undoubted divine origin, which reflects to the eye of the 
 inquiring mind the law of Gou, which it reveals in its stupendous 
 harmony. The mind of man itself which is of divine origin also, is 
 the power which refracts or divides the rays of mental light into their 
 magic beauty of variety and colour. Diffraction is a mixed mode of 
 action between refraction and reflection ; and prophetic inspiration ii 
 a mixed mode of mental revelation, written in words similar to human 
 verbalism, and reflecting divine wisdom just like Nature, but partici- 
 pating in the characteristic peculiarities of both ; inasmuch, as it 
 is partly reflective without explanation, like Nature; and partly 
 refractive and explanatory, like the word of man. It is that mental 
 or "passional diffraction," which Fourier could not find until ho 
 came to look for it in sacred prophecy, which he did before he 
 published his ' New Industrial World ' in 1829. 
 
 In April 1821, Fourier, having prepared his manuscript for the 
 press, went to reside at Besancon to superintend the printing of his 
 work, which was distributed in nine volumes under the following 
 heads : — 
 
 1. ' The Abstract Principles of Passional Attraction, and their 
 Partial Application to Industrial Association.' 2. ' Familiar Synthesis 
 of the Principles of Attraction, and their Equilibrium in Practice.' 
 3. ' The Analysis of Man's Physical, Moral, aud Mental Nature, indi- 
 vidually and collectively, with regard to Individual Variety and 
 Universal Unity.' 4. ' Methodical Synthesis, and Transcendental 
 Theory.' 5. ' Commercial Duplicity, and Ruinous Competition.' 
 6. ' The False Development of Human Nature, and a regular Analysis 
 and Synthesis of False Development in Universal Nature as an excep- 
 tion to Universal Harmony.' 7. ' Universal Analogy and Illustrations 
 of Cosmogony.' 8. ' The Scientific Theory of the Immortality of the 
 Soul.' 9. ' Dictionary of Contents, References, &c. &c. of the whole 
 Work.' 
 
 Each of these volumes contains between five and six hundred closely 
 printed large octavo pages. The first and second only, with a few 
 extracts from the others, were printed and published in 1822, under 
 the title of ' A Treatise on Domestic and Agricultural Association ;' 
 a second edition with another title was published in 1841; two 
 volumes more were published in 1850 under the title of ' Passions 
 of the Human Soul.' The other volumes, containing some of the more 
 transcendental speculative part of the theory, still remain in manu- 
 script. The title of the whole work, we are informed by Fourier, 
 should be ' Theory of Universal Unity.' 
 
 Fourier professes to teach, in the volumes published by himself, the 
 science of associative unity, by which the produce of social industry 
 maybe increased from three to sevenfold, and the economy of general 
 and individual expenditure improved tenfold ; so that the practical 
 advantages of association to all classes of society would be as thirty 
 to one, and more in many instances, compared with the present state 
 of things. To master his whole theory of universal science would, we 
 are told, require more time and mental application than the study of 
 all the branches of mathematics. 
 
 In November 1822, Fourier's two large volumes were completed, 
 and he went to Paris to have them advertised, reviewed, aud sold if 
 possible. Here he was disappointed. Few of the reviewers noticed 
 his work, and those who mentioned it said little more than that it was 
 a voluminous and abstruse production. After waiting twelve mouths 
 to have his book reviewed, without obtaining any notice from the press 
 beyond the mere mention of " voluminous abstruseness," Fourier pub- 
 lished a summary of some one hundred and fifty pages, in the hope 
 of obtaining a more favourable and detailed review. Here again he 
 was disappointed. He sent his work to many of the leading statesmen 
 of tho time, but those who were polite enough to acknowledge the 
 present, alleged their multifarious occupations as a reason for not 
 having time to road the book. Unable to continue the expensive 
 residence of Paris, Fourier returned to Lyon in the month of March 
 1825, where his necessities compelled him to accept the office of cashier 
 in a commercial house, at a salary of 1200f. a year. In the meantime 
 his book had been read by some inquiring minds in various parts of 
 the country, and a few influential persons became professed disciples. 
 In the summer of 1825, M. Grea, a gentleman of large property, in- 
 vited Fourier to his country residence at the chateau of Rotalier, near 
 Lons-le-Saulnier, where he was anxious that Fourier should remain 
 and write a more elementary work for general readers. Fourier com- 
 plied with the request, and commenced his compendium, but did not 
 then complete it. He returned to Lyon for a short time, and in 
 January 1826 to Paris, where he remained nearly two years. In July 
 1828 he went again to Besancon to print the compendium to his theory, 
 
878 
 
 FOURIER, CHARLES. 
 
 FOURIER, CHARLES. 
 
 970 
 
 which was published early in 1829, under the title of ' The New Indus- 
 trial World;' a large octavo volume of 600 pages, and the most 
 methodical and elementary of all his works. In this volume he has 
 devoted a long and elaborate chapter to the ' Confirmation of Asso- 
 ciative Principles from the Gospel." From 1822 he appears to have 
 studied the Sacred Scriptures with devout attention, and to have 
 altered his miud with regard to the influence of their authority in 
 corroboration of his science. 
 
 During the time of his last visit to Besancon, his native city, to 
 superintend the printing of his ' New Industrial World,' he resided 
 in the house of a lady, Madame Clarissa Vigoureux, who had recently 
 become a convert to his views, and who subsequently devoted her 
 whole fortune, as well as her talents, to the propagation of his theory : 
 her ' Paroles de Providence ' was one of the most popular works 
 published in elucidation of F ourier's theories. 
 
 In March 1829 Fourier returned to Paris, where ho continued to 
 reside permanently. His compendium was treated by the press with 
 the same indifference and sileuce as the larger work of 1822, and his 
 name remained unknown to the public until the year of the Revolu- 
 tion, 1830, when the St. Simonians in Paris began to attract general 
 attention by their eloquence and eccentricity. As this new sect pro- 
 fessed to take an interest in social industry and combinative unity, 
 Fourier sent a copy of his works to each of their leaders, offering to 
 assist them in organising practical associations, if they were willing to 
 avail themselves of his theory. He had made the same offer to the 
 English Socialists some years before, but his offer of assistance was 
 treated with polite indiffereuce by both the English and the French 
 sects of social innovators. This treatment soured Fourier's miud 
 against both parties, and lie resolved to publish a critical refutation 
 of their respective systems. In 1831 he published a pamphlet entitled 
 ' The Fallacy and Charlatanry of the St. Simonians and the Owenites.' 
 This pamphlet contains a very severe criticism of tho two systems, and 
 was probably a powerful agent iu neutralising the influence of the 
 St. Simonians in France. Most of Fourier's writings display an irrit- 
 able temper, but this pamphlet is lamentably deficient in equanimity, 
 however just the arguments may be. It produced however a great 
 sensation amongst the St. Simonians, and several of their leaders openly 
 embraced Fourier's views. 
 
 This was the beginning of Fourier's notoriety and influence in Paris. 
 Men of talent and of property began to group themselves around him 
 iu numbers, and in 1S32 they were able to afford him the means of 
 publishing a weekly journal, the first number of which appeared on 
 the 1st of June 1832, under the name of ' The Phalanstery,' a journal 
 of industrial reform. Fourier edited this journal with the aid of 
 several of his new adepts, who had left the St. Simonians. Many of 
 his articles are interesting, iuasmuch as they are les3 abstruse and 
 scientific than his books. The journal was continued for two years, 
 and laid the foundation of that ' Phalansterian Propaganda' which 
 afterwards became widely spread over all parts of the globe. 
 
 The gentlemen who enabled Fourier to commence this journal, 
 enabled him also to form a joint-stock society for the practical experi- 
 ment of his theory. Shares were taken to the amount of 20,000^., and 
 an estate of 1200 or 1300 acres of waste land was purchased at Conde"- 
 sur-Vegres, near Rambouillet. Buildings were commenced and other 
 operations, almost immediately, against Fourier's will, before a suf- 
 ficient number of shares had been sold to warrant such precipitancy : 
 it failed, as all such experiments have hitherto failed. In the first 
 iustance it was stopped short for want of sufficient capital ; then 
 passing into other hands it soon lost its distinctive character, and 
 eventually was wholly abandoned as an associative scheme. 
 
 In 1835 Fourier published another octavo volume, entitled ' False 
 Industry ; ' but it was chiefly filled with criticisms of the present state 
 of things, and contained nothing new in regard to his theory. In 1836 
 a monthly journal was commenced by his friends, under the name of 
 ' La Phalange,' which had a larger and more vigorous existence than 
 its predecessor. As tho ' Democratic Pacifique,' it eventually appeared 
 as a daily paper, but the revolution put an end to its existence, and 
 sent its editors into exile. 
 
 Fourier was a man of dignified simplicity, friendly and polite, in- 
 dulgent and sincere, but somewhat misanthropic in the latter part of 
 his life, partly from disappointment in failing to realise his theory 
 during his own lifetime. In person he was slight, and of a nervous, 
 irritable temperament : his stature about five feet seven inches. His 
 physiognomy was expressive, his hair light-brown, complexion fair ; 
 his eyes blue and of a mild expression. His nose was aquiline and 
 chin large, his lips thin and much compressed. His head was of the 
 ' Gaulois ' form, less oval than the Celtic, prominent in front, depressed 
 behind, and very full on each side, and yet rather small than large. 
 In youth his favourite study was geography ; his favourite amusements 
 were music and the cultivation of flowers. 
 
 In 1837 Fourier's health began to decline rapidly, and on the 10th 
 of October he died, leaving a second volume of his ' False Industry,' 
 partly printed, but not published. The whole of his published works 
 consist of — • The"orie des Quatres Mouvements et des Destinees Gdne"- 
 rales,' 1 vol. 8vo, 420 pages, published in 1803 ; 'Traite de 1' Associa- 
 tion Domestique Agricole,' 2 vols. 8vo, published in 1822, and a sum- 
 mary of the same, published in 1823, making altogether a work of 
 1443 closely printed pages : ' Le Nouveau Monde, Industriel et Socio- 
 
 taire,' 1 vol. 8vo, published iu 1829, with a livret d'annonce of the 
 same, published in 1830, 664 pages ; ' Pieges et Charlatauisme des 
 deux Sectes St. Simon et Owen,' an octavo pamphlet of 72 pages, 
 published in 1831 ; 'La Fausse Industrie, raorceloe, repugnante, meu- 
 song6re ; et 1' Antidote, l'Industrie naturelle, oombiude, attrayauto, 
 vcridique, donuant quadruple Produit,' 1 vol. 8vo, published in two 
 parts, the first in 1835, the second iu 1837, 840 pages; and the ' Pas- 
 sions of the Soul/ mentioned above, which has been translated into 
 English (Svo, 1851) by the Rev. J. R. Morell, with a biography and 
 general introduction by Hugh Doherty. Eight volumes of his ' CEuvres 
 Completes' were published at Paris between 1841-45. 
 
 Fourier's views have unquestionably had a very powerful influence 
 in modifying, if not in forming, those associative, communistic, or 
 socialistic doctrines which were for awhile dominant, and though 
 repressed are yet influential, and appear to have taken deep root iu 
 France ; have extended so widely throughout the European continent ; 
 and have been far from inoperative in this country and in America; 
 though, as it would seem, their prevalence is less general and their 
 influence less profound than the hopes and fears of their more ardent 
 advocates and opponents have led thern to believe. We therefore deem 
 it not uuadvisable to place before our readers a summary of the views 
 of Fourier, drawn up, as will be seen, by a member of the Phalansterian 
 school, one of Fourier's most devoted and able disciples — holding 
 ourselves of course therefore free from all responsibility for the tone of 
 acquiescence in opinions many of which we deem palpably erroneous. 
 
 Fourier's theory is based on One universal principle— that of 
 attraction and repulsion, in all spheres of life and movement. The 
 cardinal division of this One principle or law of movement pivots on, 
 or terminates in, what he terms Passional or Social harmony. When 
 stated mathematically his science resolves itself into three theorems — 
 three aspects of universality — which are these : — 
 
 Lcs attractions sont proportionnolles aux destiucos. 
 La Skene distribue les harmonies. 
 Analogic universelle. 
 
 These are accepted by the Phalansterian school as fundamenta 
 axioms of science, and susceptible of demonstration ; and all that 
 Fourier has been able to demonstrate with them is admitted. 
 
 There can be no doubt that one principle of unity governs all the 
 infinite varieties of nature, and that these varieties must therefore 
 correspond to one another iu some degree of close or of remote analogy 
 as well as to the One principle iu which they all unite ; and hence the 
 evident necessity of Universal analogy as a connecting link in nature, 
 and a ladder for the human mind to climb upon in rising to the 
 infinitely great, or in descending to the infinitely small in creation. 
 
 That order is heaven's first law, the law of universal harmony in 
 fact, there cannot be a doubt in healthy minds ; and that variety is 
 harmonised in unitary order, by the law of series or gradation, is 
 self-evident, aud hence the truth of Fourier's second theorem. The 
 application of this law however is infallible in superhuman wisdom 
 only, not in fallible humanity ; and hence it is that Fourier's school 
 accept the law of order or series, as he explaius it scientifically, but 
 reserve their free assent in cases where a special application of this law 
 is not sufficiently supported by experience or scientific demonstration. 
 
 That the general impulsions of created beings are adapted to the 
 ends for which they are created, is a theorem which cannot be denied 
 without imputing imperfection to the author of our being ; and hence 
 the first theorem of Fourier, that attractions are proportional to final 
 destinies. 
 
 From this he argues that the affections aud desires of human nature 
 for individual and social happiness, are permanent impulsions destined 
 to seek, and ultimately to find, the laws of their harmonious satisfaction. 
 He also argues that these innate aspirations are eternal, and that they 
 cannot be eradicated from the soul, but that they may be, and too 
 often are, corrupted by temptation, instead of being developed in 
 harmonious discipline. Whence he concludes that the disciplines of 
 life for every age and occupation, or the institutions of society in moral 
 and religious and industrial education, government and progress, are 
 alone within the power of man to alter and improve, as a medium of 
 due development for those impulsions which God has implanted in 
 human nature, and over which man has no control but that of disci- 
 pline, which may be good or bad, general or partial, and which may 
 influence the destiny of human souls for good or evil, though it cannot 
 alter human nature. 
 
 Fourier's whole life was devoted to this problem of social disciplines 
 iu every sphere of life, but particularly in the sphere of social industry. 
 Whether his solution of the problem be complete or not, it can hardly 
 be denied that he has thrown considerable light on many questions 
 of the highest moment to the present and the future welfare of 
 mankind. 
 
 The general tone of his mind may be gathered from his answer to 
 an allegation of scepticism made in the ' Gazette of France,' two years 
 before his death. He states that " there are two doctrines which he 
 could not deny without denying his own : the doctrine of Christ in 
 religion, that of Newton in science." Religious and political discussions 
 are carefully avoided in all Fourier's writings. He professes not to 
 meddle either with the throne or the altar. He establishes a ' School 
 of Science/ but denies that he has any wish to form a new religion. 
 
r.7 
 
 FOURIER, JOSEPH. 
 
 FOURMONT, MICHEL. 
 
 m 
 
 He proclaims himself a Christian. Theology as well as politics he 
 deems a proper subject for discussion, but not Revelation. He differs 
 froui philosophers and divines on many points of natural and scriptural 
 interpretation, but he never doubts of Revelation in the Word and in 
 the works of God. If we have understood him rightly in his views of 
 future unity in Christian faith, he believes the Roman Catholic religion 
 will be universally adopted, when its oecumenical councils have been 
 re established, and the principles of love and charity regain as much 
 ascendancy as will admit of private liberty and toleration of opinion 
 in the Church. The unity of Roman Catholic devotion will then 
 harmonise the liberty of Protestant opinion, as the solar light includes 
 the various coloured rays without destroying them in one refulgently- 
 impartial colour, White. Doctrinal variety and pure devotional unity 
 appear to be the Phalansterian view of Christian harmony. 
 
 After Fourier's death, the progress of his theory was rapid in 
 almost all parts of the civilised world, but more especially in 
 France and North America. In both countries associations were 
 formed for the purpose of carrying out Fourier's theory of domestic 
 and agricultural association, aud two men of great literary ability 
 and mental energy, M. V. Considerant and Mr. Albert Brisbane, 
 devoted themselves to the task of popularising his opinions. But 
 in France Fourierism was beaten down with all other phases of 
 socialism by the reactionary movements which followed the revo- 
 lution of 1848, and in America the doctrine appears to exhibit little 
 more vitality. In England, where Mr. Hugh Doherty has made 
 himself the representative of Phalansterianism, the name is only 
 kaown outside the small ' phalanx ' to those who take a more than 
 common interest in those mental manifestations which, in a silent 
 and unobserved way, appear to be acting upon public opinion. In 
 Germany, Italy, and Spain, and also in Belgium and Holland, the 
 Phalansterians assert that their system has numerous converts, and 
 there appear to be reasons for believing that some such form of 
 doctriue has a very large number of secret adherents in most, if 
 not all of those countries, but how far it is Fourierism, or a ruder 
 and coarser form of socialism, is by no means easy to say. 
 
 FOURIER, JOSEPH, was born at Auxerre in 1768. He was the 
 son of a tailor in that town, and there received his education at a 
 school directed by the Benedictines. Into this order he was about to 
 enter, and had passed a part of his noviciate, when the Revolution com- 
 menced. He had applied himself very early to the mathematics, and 
 had gained such reputation that in 1789 he was appointed professor in 
 the school at which he had formerly studied. He had not confined 
 himself to one branch of learning, as appears from his giving courses 
 of history, rhetoric, and philosophy. Before this time, in 1787, he had 
 sent to Paris a memoir on the theory of equations, to be presented to 
 the Academy of Sciences. This memoir contained the first steps of 
 (he theory which was afterwards published : it was lost during the 
 Revolution, but a sufficiently attested copy exists. 
 
 Fourier took some part in the civil troubles, at their commencement, 
 anl was a member of the Committee of Public Safety at Auxerre. He 
 was more than once the object of proscription, having been twice 
 either saved or delivered from prison by his fellow-townsmen of 
 Auxerre, once saved from the guillotine by the death of Robespierre, 
 and once by the interference of the professors of the Ecole Polytech- 
 nique. Having previously been a pupil of the licole Normals, he was 
 appointed a sub-professor of the Polytechnic School in 1791, and 
 remained in that post till 1798. In the latter year Monge proposed 
 to him to accompany the expedition to Egypt. His occupations in 
 that country were various : he was secretary of the Institute which 
 was formed at Cairo ; he superintended the commission which wa3 
 employed in collecting materials for the great work on Egypt, and was 
 employed in judicial and diplomatic capacities. At his return from i 
 Egypt he was appointed by the First Consul prefect of the department 
 of Isere, which place he continued to fill till 1815, his situation having 
 been preserved to him at the fall of Napoleon in 1814, by the high ! 
 estimation in which he was held, and the gratitude of those adherents i 
 of the old monarchy whom he had served. When Napoleon I. in 1815 
 passed through Grenoble (a town of Fourier's prefecture), Fourier, 
 who had hesitated much, issued a moderate Bourbonist proclamation, 
 and left the town by one gate as Napoleon entered it by another. 
 Napoleon was extremely enraged at this step, and causing Fourier to 
 be brought into his presence, reminded him in strong terms of former 
 benefits, and telling him that, after the proclamation, he could not 
 remain at Grenoble, appointed him prefect of the department of the 
 Rhone. Fourier appears to have been softened by the matter, or 
 subdued by the manner, of Napoleon's address to him, and went 
 quietly to his new post. He resigned it however on the 1st of May, 
 in consequence of his determination not to execute the orders of 
 Carnot, which required him to make numerous arrests among the 
 Bourbonites ; and he was in Paris when the news of the battle of 
 Waterloo arrived. Here he remained for some time, entirely neglected, 
 and with very moderate funds, until his former pupil, M. de Chabrol, 
 gave him the superintendence of a 'bureau de statistique.' In 1816 
 he was chosen a member of the Institute, but Louis XVIII. refused to 
 ratify the election ; and it was not till a year after that this king could 
 be induced to allow it. On the death of Delambre he was chosen 
 secretary of the Academy, and on that of Laplace president of the 
 council of the Polytechnic School. Fourier died at Paris May 16, 1830. 
 
 The character of Fourier was in every point of view respectable. 
 His appearance and manners were decidedly good, and his address, 
 united with the respect which he created, enabled him to manage the 
 prejudices and passions of others to a remarkable extent, of which 
 M. Cousin, in his notes to his eloge of Fourier, gives several instances. 
 He knew how, says M. Cousin, "prendre chacun par ou. il dtait 
 prenable;" aud his own explanation of this faculty was "je prends 
 I'ipi dans son sens, au lieu de le prendre a rebours." The influence 
 of his conversation produced in one case at least abiding and remark- 
 able effects : it was he who first gave a taste for Egyptian antiquities 
 to the Champollions. 
 
 The writiugs of Fourier consist of papers in the ' Memoirs ' of the 
 Academy of Sciences, the ' Anuales de Physique,' and the ' Recherches 
 Statistiques sur la Ville de Paris,' &c, as well as of two separate works, 
 namely, the * Theorie de la Cualeur,' Paris, 1822, and the ' Analyse dea 
 Equations determiners,' Paris, 1831. The last work is posthumous, 
 and was completed under the inspection of M. Navier. 
 
 In the first of the two works, the object of which is the deduction 
 of the mathematical laws of the propagation of heat through solids, 
 Fourier extended the solution of partial differential equations, gave 
 some remarkable views on the solution of equations with an infinite 
 number of terms, expressed the particular value of a function by 
 means of a definite integral containing its general value (which is 
 called 'Fourier's Theorem'), &c. This work is full of interesting 
 details, and is one of the highest productions of analysis of our day. 
 
 The latter of the two works contains an extension of Descartes' 
 well-known rule of signs, by means of which the number of the real 
 roots of an equation may be determined. Considered with respect to 
 results merely, the method of Fourier may perhaps be considered as 
 superseded by the remarkable theorem of M. Sturm ; but there is 
 nevertheless much in the course marked out by Fourier which it would 
 be worth while to examine. The work also contains a method of 
 solving equations by determination of the successive figures of the 
 root, analogous to that proposed by Mr. Horner and others. The 
 preface of M. Navier contains attestations as to the time at which the 
 several parts of the work were written, which it will be worth the 
 while of those to consult who think that " all which has been done by 
 Fourier was virtually done by Mr. Horner long before." 
 
 FOURMO'NT, ETIE'NNE, born at Herbelay, near Paris, in 
 1683, was the son of a surgeon: he studied in several colleges at 
 Paris, and showed an early and extraordinary facility for learning 
 languages. He made himself master of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Syriac, and Arabic, and was appointed professor of the last-men- 
 tioned language in the College Royal of Paris. In 1715 he was 
 made a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, 
 and afterwards of the royal societies of London and Berlin. A 
 young Chinese named Hoan-ji having been brought to Paris by the 
 missionaries, Fourmont was appointed to assist and direct him in 
 the compilation of a Chinese grammar and dictionary. After a 
 few years Hoan-ji died, and left to Fourmont only very scanty 
 materials for the intended work. Fourmont prosecuted the labour 
 alone, and after several years he published his ' Meditationes Sinicaj,' 
 1737, which contain a kind of introduction to the Chinese grammar. 
 Five years later he brought forth the grammar itself, which had cost 
 him twenty years of study: ' Linguae Sinarum Maudarinicoe Gram- 
 matica duplex, Latine et cum Characteribus Sinensium,' fol., 1742. 
 Fourmont availed himself of the suggestions of several Jesuits, aud 
 he is said to have borrowed from Father Varo's 'Arte de la Lengua 
 Mandarina,' printed at Canton in 1703, which was little known in 
 Europe. He also compiled a catalogue of the Chinese manuscripts 
 in the king's library at Paris. Peter the Great having forwarded to 
 the Academy of Inscriptions some fragments of a Tibetan manu- 
 script found by tho Russian soldiers, Fourmont deciphered it, and 
 his version is given in Boyer's 'Museum Sinicum.' His 'Reflexions 
 sur l'Origine, l'Histoire, et la Succession des Auciens Peuples, Chalddens 
 Hebreux, Pheniciens, Egyptiens, Grecs, &c, jusq'au terns de Cyrus,' 
 were published after his death in 2 vols., 4to, Paris, 1747, with a 
 biographical notice of the author. He wrote numerous other works, S 
 dissertations, memoirs, some of which appeared in the 'Memoirs of 
 the Academy,' others were published separately, and many he left 
 in manuscript. He published himself a catalogue of all his works in 
 1731, which then amounted to about 120, but many of them were 
 mere unfinished sketches. Fourmont was not extremely modest, and 
 was fond of speaking in praise of his own erudition, which was 
 undoubtedly very extensive. He died at Paris, December 19, 1745. 
 
 FOURMO'NT, MICHE'L, younger brother of Etienne, born in 1690, 
 exhibited also a facility for learning languages : he assisted his brother 
 in his philological labours, was made professor of Syriac in the College 
 Royal in 1720, and he gave also from his chair lectures on the Ethiopic 
 language. In 1726, being sent by the government to Greece to pur- 
 chase manuscripts aud copy inscriptions, he gathered a rich harvest of 
 both. He boasted of haviug copied more than 1000 inscriptions, 
 chiefly in Attica and the Peloponnesus, which had escaped the 
 researches of Spon and Wheeler and other travellers. These copies 
 were deposited in the Royal Library at Paris. Many of these inscrip- 
 tions are authentic, but others are forgeries, although Raoul Rochette 
 (' Lettres sur l'Authenticitd des Inscriptions de Fourmont,' Paris, 1819) 
 defends their authenticity. In his letters to Freret and Count Maurepas, 
 
979 
 
 FOWLER, CHARLES. 
 
 FOX, CHARLES JAMES. 
 
 oso 
 
 Fourmont boasts of having defaced or destroyed the remains of anti- 
 quity of several cities of Greece, and amorig others those of the temple 
 of Jupiter at Amyclce — a boast as unmanly as it is false, or at least 
 absurdly exaggerated. (Dodwell, ' Tour through Greece,' vol. ii. ch. 11.) 
 He died in 1740, having published only some detached papers in the 
 ' Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions,' of which he was a member. 
 
 Claude Louis Fourmont, his nephew, who had accompanied him 
 to Greece, returned to the Levant, and remained several years in Egypt. 
 On his return to France he published a ' Description historique et 
 geographique des Plaines d'Heliopolis et de Memphis,' 12uio, 1755. 
 It is a sensible, unpretending little work, and gives a satisfactory 
 account of the condition of Egypt at that time. Claude Fourmont died 
 in 1780. 
 
 * FOWLER, CHARLES, architect, was born at Collumpton, Devon- 
 shire, on the 17th of May 1792, and was educated at the grammar- 
 school at Taunton. In 1807 he was articled to an architect and builder 
 at Exeter, and in 1814 he came to Loudon. He entered the office of 
 the late Mr. Laing [Laino, David], where he remained four years, 
 during the building of the Custom-House. In practice for himself, one 
 of his first works was the building of the Courts of Bankruptcy in 
 Basinghall street, erected about the year 1821. He was successful in 
 several competitions, amongst the number one for the new London 
 Bridge, having tbe first premium of 250£. awarded to him for his 
 design by the three architects of the Board of Works. This was about 
 the year 1823. A design by the late Mr. Rennie was afterwards 
 carried out, mainly under the direction of the present Sir John Rennie. 
 Amongst Mr. Fowler's chief works are buildings for markets. He 
 designed and superintended the market at Gravesend, and in 1824 
 formed the scheme and prepared designs for the building of Hungerford 
 Market, and improvements connected with it. This scheme was carried 
 into effect by a company in 1835. During the period from 1826 to 
 1831 he designed and erected Covent-Garden Market for the late Duke 
 of Bedford, and in 1835 the corn-market at Tavistock. Amongst his 
 other works have been the grand conservatory at Syon House, 1827 to 
 1830; the bridge over the Dart at Totnes, 1827, where he carried out 
 the principles of construction which he had proposed for London Bridge, 
 under analogous circumstances ; the Devon Lunatic Asylum, 1843-45, 
 and works at Powderh am Castle; several churches, and the London 
 Fever Hospital, in 1848-49; and the hall of the Wax-Chandlers' 
 Company in Gresham-street in 1853. Since 1852 Mr. Fowler has 
 been compelled by ill-health to reside chiefly in the country, 
 and consequently has been only occasionally occupied in professional 
 pursuits. During the course of his practice he has made many 
 ingenious and novel appliances in construction, aud the system of 
 ten ace-roofs which he adopted in the taverns at Hungerford Market 
 has been a subject of interest to French architects. Mr. Fowler was 
 actively engaged as one of the original promoters of the Royal Institute 
 of British Architects, to which for about seven years he was one of 
 the secretaries, and afterwards twice vice-president. 
 
 FOX, CHARLES JAMES, was born on the 24th of January 1749. 
 He was the third son of the Right Hon. Henry Fox, who in 1763 was 
 created Lord Holland, and of Lady Georgiana Carolina, the eldest 
 daughter of Charles, second duke of Richmond. 
 
 Having commenced his education in a preparatory school at Wands- 
 worth, Fox was sent at the age of nine to Eton. Here his progress 
 was very rapid : and while he thus early gave unequivocal indications 
 of the powers of mind which afterwards yielded so rich a harvest, he 
 was not less distinguished among his school companions for that 
 warmth of feeling and amiability of character which through life 
 served to make men his friends and keep them so. His education was 
 interrupted before he was fifteen by a three months' trip to Paris and 
 to Spa, in which he was accompanied by his father; and the inter- 
 ruption is of more consequence than otherwise it could have been, if 
 it be true, as is represented, that to the misplaced indulgence of the 
 father during this tour is to be traced the devotion to the gaming- 
 table which ever after was the principal alloy of Fox's happiness. 
 " He had left school a boy," says Mr. Allen, in his biographical sketch 
 in the ' Encyclopa;dia Britannica ;' "he returned to it with all the 
 follies and fopperies of a young man." He continued at Eton but one 
 year longer, and in the autumn of 1764 entered at Hertford College, 
 Oxford. Here, as during the latter part of his course at Eton, learning 
 and pleasure were his pursuits in turn. He left Oxford in the autumn 
 of 1766. He then went abroad, and having passed two years chiefly 
 in Italy, returned to England in August 1768. In his absence, and 
 before he was yet of age, he had been elected member of parliament 
 for Midhurst. 
 
 Fox took his seat in parliament as a supporter of the Duke of 
 Grafton's ministry. His father, who had entered public life under 
 the auspices of Sir Robert Walpole, had in the progress of time become 
 estranged from the Whig party ; and it was from the opinions of the 
 father, at this period in favour of the court, and of an administration 
 whose strength was in the court, that the beginning of Fox's political 
 career derived its character. Fox made his first speech on the 15 th 
 of April 1769, on the subject of the famous Middlesex election, sup- 
 porting the decision in favour of Colonel Luttrel and against Mr. 
 Wilkes. In February 1770, when the Duke of Grafton was succeeded 
 by Lord North as premier, Fox was appointed a junior lord of the 
 Admiralty. He resigned this situation two years after in consequence 
 
 of some misunderstanding with Lord North, but in less than twelve 
 months he was brought back into the ministry, being appointed in 
 January 1773 one of the lords of the Treasury. In February of the 
 next year he was again dismissed from his situation, and that somewhat 
 unceremoniously. The immediato cause of the dismissal was the 
 following : — A motion had been made in the House of Commons that 
 Mr. Woodfall, the printer of the ' Public Advertiser,' be taken into the 
 custody of the serjeant-at-arms, in consequence of some remarks on 
 the Speaker which had appeared in that newspaper; when Fox, 
 thinking this punishment insufficient, without consulting Lord North 
 moved an amendment to the effect that Mr. Woodfall be committed 
 to Newgate. Lord North, being compelled, or thinking himself com- 
 pelled, to support the amendment against the original motion, was left 
 in a minority on a division. There had previously been some coolness 
 between Fox and the premier. The defeat which Lord North con- 
 sidered had been brought upon him by an act of insolent temerity on 
 the part of Fox did not of course tend to diminish it ; and a few days 
 after, as Fox was Bitting in the House of Commons on the ministerial 
 bench, he received from the hands of one of the door-keepers the 
 following laconic note: — "Sir, — His Majesty has thought proper to 
 order a new commission of the Treasury to be made out, in which I 
 do not perceive your name. North." In a very short time Fox was 
 in opposition. 
 
 Fox had not while a ministerialist by any means concurred on all 
 occasions in the opinions of his colleagues ; nor, when he differed, had 
 he abstained from expressing and acting upon his own. When be 
 retired from office in 1772, one chief reason for the step was his 
 opposition to the Royal Marriage Act, which was introduced that year 
 by the ministry. Afterwards, in 1773, when he was again in office, 
 he not only spoke, but voted against his colleagues, in favour of a 
 motion by Sir William Meredith for a committee of the whole house 
 to consider the propriety of subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles. 
 He went even so far as to be one of the tellers for the minority on this 
 occasion. It must be added, to the credit of Fox, that the question 
 of American taxation, on which, aud on the measures arising out of 
 which, he violently opposed Lord North's administration, was never 
 once brought under discussion during the time that he himself formed 
 a part of it. Again, he had formed, since the time of his entrance into 
 public life, an intimate friendship with Edmund Burke ; and if the 
 influence exercised over him by this distinguished statesman — an 
 influence to whose strength Fox frequently testified in after days, 
 when their paths were dissevered, and a cloud had settled upon tbeir 
 friendship — contributed at all to bring about the change which now took 
 place in Fox's political position, neither is this surely any ground for 
 reproach. Burke's conversation doubtless, as well as his speeches and 
 writings, assisted to open Fox's eyes to the evils of that system of 
 court intrigue and domination to which for awhile, in a subordinate 
 part, he had allowed himself to be subjected, and from which evils 
 he had now smarted in his own person ; and still more, there can be 
 little doubt as to the mischievous tendency of the ministerial measures 
 respecting the American colonies. It should be borne in mind also, 
 in considering this portion of his history, that his father, who was 
 mainly instrumental in connecting Fox with the ministry, died in the 
 summer of 1774 ; and this event would most probably have removed 
 many scruples that hitherto might have served to restrain Fox from 
 entering the ranks of opposition. 
 
 On the 23rd of March 1774, the House went into committee on 
 Lord North's Boston Port Bill, the object of which was to deprive 
 that harbour of its privileges in consequence of the opposition made 
 by the inhabitants of Boston to the tea duty. This was the first 
 occasion on which Fox opposed the minister. But from this time 
 forward he was unremitting in his opposition. He took his stand first 
 on the principle that the American colonies ought not to be taxed 
 without being represented; and secondly, on the inexpediency of 
 endeavouring to wring taxes from them by force and at the risk of 
 rebellion. Thus condemning the war in which Lord North involved 
 the nation as unjust and inexpedient, he also took many opportu> 
 nities to censure strongly the manner in which it was carried on. 
 He denounced the heavy expenditure which ministers, in prosecution 
 of a war unjust, inexpedient, and little likely to be successful, were 
 recklessly entailing upon the nation ; and when he saw no prospect 
 of their desisting from the war, he zealously sought, in conjunction 
 with his party, to effect by other means a diminution of the public 
 burdens. In the beginning of 1780 Burke brought forward his plan 
 of economical reform, which was zealously supported by Fox. After 
 having passed through its earlier stages, it was ultimately rejected. 
 But the people had now come to feel the weight of their burdens aud 
 to speak out. Petitions poured in from all parts of the kingdom for 
 a reduction of the public expenditure ; and on the 6th of April reso- 
 lutions were carried against the influence of the crown and in favour 
 of an inquiry into the expenditure of the country and of a diminution 
 thereof. A concurrence of favourable circumstances enabled the 
 minister to stand up against this vote, and to recover his once lost 
 majority. But even a dissolution of the parliament, which took place 
 shortly after, enabled him to gain only a short respite. On the 22nd 
 of February 1782, a motion of General Conway's for an address to the 
 crown against a continuance of the war was lost only by one vote; 
 and when revived under a somewhat different form five days after, 
 
95*1 
 
 was carried by a majority of 19. On the 19th of March, tho ministers 
 having shown for a short time a disposition still to cling to office, 
 resigned their situations. 
 
 It is needless to say how much Fox's exertions had contributed 
 to this result He had indeed risen by this time to be considered 
 the leading member of opposition, and to be more than any other 
 member of his party, " conspicuous in the nation's eye." At tho last 
 general election, in the autumn of 1780, he had been solicited to 
 stand for Westminster, and had been returned iu the teeth of every 
 court effort and every trick of private intrigue and intimidation. On 
 the formation of the new ministry under Lord Rockingham, Fox was 
 appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs. He immediately set 
 about negociatious for peace. For this purpose he instructed 
 Mr. Greuville, the plenipotentiary at Paris, to propose iu the outset 
 the independence of the United States of America, not making it a 
 condition of a general treaty. This he did iu pursuance of a resolu- 
 tion which, upon his recommendation, had been passed in the cabinet, 
 and to which the king's assent had been obtained. But Lord Shelburne, 
 who had been introduced by the king into the ministry, and between 
 whom and Lord Rockingham's friends there was no cordial co-opera- 
 tion, insisted that the offer of recognition of independence was a 
 conditional one ; and, after Lord Rockingham's illness had rendered 
 him unable to attend the deliberations of the cabinet, Lord Shelburne 
 succeeded in getting a majority to concur in this view. He was 
 afterwards discovered by Fox to be carrying on a communication 
 with Dr. Franklin. Fox now made up his mind to resign. Upon the 
 death of Lord Rockingham, which took place in July, but four 
 months after the formation of the ministry, Fox and his friends pro- 
 posed the Duke of Portland to the king as Lord Rockingham's 
 successor, and upon the recommendation not being acceded to, 
 resigned ; and the same course was then taken by other friends of 
 Lord Rockingham, by Lord John Cavendish, the Duke of Portland, 
 and Lord Keppel. The Rockingham ministry was fast breaking up 
 when the king completed the wreck by appointing Lord Shelburne 
 lord treasurer. 
 
 The Shelburne ministry, though, as regards its mode of formation, 
 it was but a modification of the old one, was yet essentially different 
 in character. Mr. Pitt, who had entered parliament on the occasion 
 of the general election in 1780, and who, during the short time that 
 he had had a seat, had fought by the side of Fox against the American 
 war and in favour of parliamentary reform, accepted the office of 
 chancellor of the exchequer in the new ministry. Other vacant offices 
 were filled up by old supporters of the war which Mr. Pitt had 
 opposed, men who had held subordinate places in Lord North's 
 administration. Lord North was himself excluded from the new 
 arrangements. Hence it came to pass that Fox and Lord North, who 
 for the last eight years had been violent antagonists, were found by 
 one another's side in opposition ; and that after a time, the great 
 questiau of peace or war with America, which had formerly divided 
 them having been settled, the similarity of their political positions 
 brought about a coalition. That coalition called forth at the time, 
 and has called forth since, much disapprobation. It may have been 
 ill-judged ; and the result indeed showed that the parties had not 
 formed a correct estimate of the public opinion, which was an import- 
 ant element in the problem to be solved. But there was certainly no 
 dishonesty in the transaction. The question being now no longer 
 whether there was to be peace or war with America, but in what way 
 peace was to be brought about, the two partieB in opposition united 
 to pass a vote of censure on the terms of peace proposed Dy the 
 ministers. Thi3 was in February 1783. The ministers, unable to 
 obtain the king's consent to a dissolution, resigned ; and after some 
 difficulties a ministry was formed on the 2nd of April, of which the 
 Duke of Portland was premier, and Lord North and Fox secretaries 
 of state. This again was a short-lived administration ; and, like that 
 of Lord Rockingham, it fell by the influence of court intrigue. The 
 principal measure which it attempted was that known by the name 
 of Fox's East India Bill, which went to vest the government of the 
 East Indies iu a board consisting of seven members, who were to be 
 appointed, the first time by parliament, but always afterwards by the 
 crown, for a period either of three or five years. The objections to 
 the bill were principally of two kinds, "violation of charter" (to 
 adopt Mr. Fox's own mode of putting them) " and increase of influence 
 of the crown;" but there were others again who denounced it as 
 tending to diminish the influence of the crown for the aggrandisement 
 of the ministers, and who opposed it upon this ground. Such was 
 the view adopted by George III. himself. Accordingly, when the 
 bill had passed through the Commons, and came on for the second 
 reading in the Lords, the king sent a message, tlirough Lord Temple, 
 to all noblemen to whom his personal influence extended, that he 
 Hhould consider those who voted for the bill not only not his friends, 
 hut his enemies. The ministers were consequently left in a minority. 
 The next day they were dismissed ; and the ministry which had been 
 formed in April ended its career in December of the same year. A 
 new ministry was formed almost immediately under Mr. Pitt. 
 
 The new ministers very soon found themselves in a minority in 
 the House of Commons. Two resolutions, one for preventing the 
 >ayment of any public money from the treasury, exchequer, or bank 
 )f England, in case of a prorogation or dissolution, unless the supplies 
 
 should be previously appropriated by act of parliament; and the 
 other, postponing the Mutiny Bill, were moved by Fox and carried by 
 a considerable majority. The object of these resolutions was to 
 render an immediate dissolution impracticable. Resolutions against 
 the ministers and against the mode of their appointment, together 
 with addresses to tho crown for their dismissal, followed. But the 
 majority against ministers, which at first had been formidable, fast 
 dwindled down ; and after the king had twice refused his assent to 
 their dismissal, he dissolved the parliament. The last effort of the 
 opposition had been the carrying of a representation to the crown, 
 which, written by Fox, pointed out at length the evils of an adminis- 
 tration that was at variance with a majority of the representatives of 
 the people. 
 
 Fox was again elected for Westminster ; but Sir Cecil Wray, the 
 unsuccessful candidate, having demanded a scrutiny, the high bailiff 
 took upon himself to make no return of representatives for this city. 
 Fox was in consequence compelled to appear in parliament as member 
 for a Scotch borough ; but the conduct of the high bailiff was one of 
 the first matters brought before the House ou its meeting. The 
 Westminster scrutiny was one of the chief questions agitated for some 
 time. Mr. Pitt and his friends did all that party animosity could 
 suggest to prevent, or at any rate to delay, the announcement of Fox's 
 election for Westminster ; and it was not uutil after a struggle of a 
 year's duration that the scrutiny was stopped aud the return ordered 
 to be made. In the begiuning of the subsequent year, 1786, the 
 question of Mr. Hastings's Indian Administration was first brought 
 forward by Mr. Burke; but the trial did not begin before 1788. 
 From the commencement to the close of this affair, in all the pre- 
 liminary discussions, in the preparation of the articles of charge, and 
 in the managing of the impeachment, Fox took a very active part. 
 Towards the end of the year 1788 the king's illness rendered it 
 necessary to resort to a regency. Fox now violently opposed the 
 course proposed to be taken by Mr. Pitt ; aud while the latter con- 
 tended that it was for the two houses of parliament to appoint the 
 regent, Fox maintained that the regency belonged of right to the 
 Prince of Wales. Holding this opinion, he opposed a motion made 
 iu the first instance by the minister for a committee to inquire into 
 precedents, and subsequently a bill tending to limit the powers of 
 the regent. It so happened that the king's speedy recovery rendered 
 it unnecessary to bring the regency question to a conclusion ; but it 
 is clear that the ground taken up by Fox upon this occasion was even 
 less tenable than that taken up by the minister. The case which now 
 came before parliament was a new and unforeseen case, a case unpro- 
 vided for by the constitution. There was consequently no right in 
 the matter ; there was neither a right attaching to the lords and 
 commons, as was maintained by Mr. Pitt, nor a right attaching to the 
 Prince of Wales, as was contended by Mr. Fox. The question to be 
 decided was which of two courses was the more expedient, not which 
 was the legal one. 
 
 In the session of 1789 Fox distinguished himself by the support 
 of a motion for the repeal of the Test aud Corporation Acts. A year 
 after he himself brought forward a motion for the same purpose. On 
 the dissolution of parliament in 1790 he was again returned for West- 
 minster, and at the head of the poll. On the meeting of the new 
 parliament an attempt was made to get rid of the impeachment of 
 Mr. Hastings, on the ground that it had abated by the dissolution, 
 and that the new House of Commons could not proceed with what had 
 been begun by the old one. Fox made a powerful speech iu opposi- 
 tion to this view ; he had on this occasion the support of Mr. Pitt, and 
 it was carried against the lawyers by a large majority. 
 
 The discussions arising out of the question of the French Revolu- 
 tion, replete as they are with public interest, are also important iu a 
 life of Fox, on account of their having led to a termination not merely 
 of his political alliance, but also of his friendship with Mr. Burke. The 
 difference of their opinions on that great question had been shown so 
 early as iu February 1790, during a discussion ou the army estimates. 
 At this time however, each spoke of the other in terms of kindness 
 and regard. But it was not always thus. When on the 6th of May 
 1791, the Quebec Government Bill, or Bill for regulating the govern- 
 ment of Upper and Lower Canada, came under discussion, Mr. Burke 
 rose and was proceeding to deliver a violent diatribe agaiust the 
 French Revolution, when, after he had been several times ineffectually 
 called to order, it was moved by Lord Sheffield, and seconded by Fox, 
 " that dissertations on the French constitution, aud narrations of 
 transactions in Frauce, arc not regular nor orderly on the question ; 
 that the claims of the Quebec Bill be read a second time." The remarks 
 made by Fox in seconding the motion, though wearing an appearance 
 of candour and even friendliness, were calculated to irritate his lormer 
 friend ; and when Burke rose to reply, he did so under the influence 
 of strong excitement, and complained bitterly that he had not been 
 treated by Fox as one friend should be treated by another. He 
 observed, towards the conclusion of his speech, that it certainly was 
 indiscreet at his time of life to provoke enemies, or give his friends 
 occasion to desert him ; yet if his firm and steady adherence to the 
 British constitution placed him iu such a dilemma, he would risk 
 all ; and, as public duty and public prudence taught him, with his 
 last breath exclaim, " Fly from the French constitution." Fox here 
 whispered that there was no loss of friendship. " Yes, there is," 
 
 .1 
 
983 
 
 exclaimed Burke, "I know the price of my conduct; I have done my 
 duty at the price of my friend : our friendship is at an end." At the 
 conclusion of Mr. Burke's speech, Fox rose, hut it was some minutes 
 before his tears allowed him to proceed. So soon as he could speak, 
 he pressed upon Mr. Burke the claims of a friendship of five-and- 
 twcnty years' duration, but to no purpose, and the breach was never 
 made whole. 
 
 Fox distinguished himself during the same session of 1791 by his 
 opposition to the ministerial project of an armament against Russia, 
 by his support of Mr. Wilberforce's motion for the abolition of the 
 slave-trade, and by tho introduction of a bill for the amendment of 
 the law of libel. From tho latter part of 1792 to 1797 his efforts 
 were unceasing, first to prevent a war with France, and afterwards, 
 when his warnings had been of no avail, and it had been entered into, 
 to bring it to a close. During this period many of his friends, filled 
 with alarm at the progress of events in France, and their probable 
 influence on their own countrymen, left him to swell the majorities of 
 the minister; and pitiable indeed were the minorities by which Fox's 
 motions, one after the other, were supported ; but this in no way 
 daunted him. We must mention also the support which, in 1793, 
 he gave to Mr. (afterwards Earl) Grey's famous motion for parliament- 
 ary reform, his eloquent advocacy in 1791 of the cause of Muir and 
 Palmer, the Scottish political martyrs, his indefatigable opposition to the 
 treason and sedition bills of 1795, and his attempt to procure attention 
 to tho state of Ireland and to the grievances of Irish Catholics, by a 
 motion made in 1797, as additional important incidents during that 
 period of his career, the principal object of which was opposition to 
 the first French revolutionary war. 
 
 On the 26th of May 1797 Mr. Grey made a second motion on the 
 subject of parliamentary reform. Fox took this opportunity of 
 announcing a resolution which he had formed to discontinue his 
 attendance at the house, seeing that he and his friends were destitute 
 of power to carry out their views. It is perhaps a question whether 
 such a step as this can be taken by a member of the legislature without 
 dereliction of duty, even though it may be a means of influencing the 
 public mind, and through it the legislature ; and though the consent 
 of the member's special constituents may have been procured thereto. 
 But at the same time it would be unjust to apply to the conduct of 
 individuals acting under a very defective system of representation 
 tests which spring from, and form parts of, a perfect theory. The five 
 years then, from 1797 to 1802, were pas-sed by Fox principally at 
 St. Ann's Hill, in retirement, and in the pursuits of literature. It was 
 during this period of retirement that he formed the project of his 
 • History of the Reign of James II.' A dissolution of parliament took 
 place in June 1S02, and Fox, whose popularity with his constituents 
 had not been a whit diminished by his absenting himself from the 
 house, was again returned for Westminster. Almost immediately 
 after his re-election he paid a visit to Paris, principally for the purpose 
 of collecting documents for his projected historical work. During his 
 stay in Paris it is said that he was treated with marked attention by 
 Napoleon I. 
 
 Mr. Pitt had retired from office in March 1801, on finding himself 
 unable to procure the king's assent to the measure of Catholic emanci- 
 pation ; and he had been then succeeded by Mr. Addington. The 
 new ministers had almost immediately set about negociations for 
 peace with France; and when the preliminary articles, signed at 
 London on the 1st of October 1801, had come under discussion in the 
 House of Commons, Fox had emerged from his retirement to express 
 his joy at the prospect now opened of a conclusion of the war, and to 
 give his best support to the ministry. He appeared again in his place 
 on the meeting of the new parliament, in the autumn of 1802, still 
 hoping to contribute to the bringing about of peace, but beginning by 
 this time to doubt the sincerity of the ministers. A message from 
 the crown, in May 1803, announced that the negociations were broken 
 off. The following year Mr. Addington resigned office, unable to stand 
 against an opposition which included both Fox and Pitt. It was now 
 hoped that Pitt, to whom was intrusted the making of the ministerial 
 arrangements, would be able to avail himself of the services of Fox, 
 by whose side, though not in recognised conjunction, he had been now 
 sitting for some time in opposition. But the king would not hear of 
 Fox being admitted to office Lord Grenville, Lord Spencer, Mr. 
 Windham, and others, who, like Pitt, had been latterly co-operating 
 with Fox, refused to take any part in an administration from which 
 Fox was excluded; and Pitt was thus compelled to throw himself 
 upon the scattered subordinates of the Addington ministry. Peace 
 came not from this ministry. On the 23rd of January 1806, Pitt's 
 death dissolved it; and in the new ministry which was formed under 
 Lord Grenville, Fox was appointed secretary of state for foreign 
 affairs. His life was spared but for seven months longer; but during 
 this short period he did much towards the abolition of the slave-trade, 
 which had ever been one of the objects that he most cared for, and he 
 entered zealously into negociations for peace with France, which it was 
 a heavy misfortune to his country that his death did not allow him to 
 complete. He died on the 13th of September 1806, in the fifty-eighth 
 year of his age. The complaint which caused his death was water on 
 the chest. 
 
 Such is a brief sketch of the public life of Fox. With the exception 
 of the first six years of it, in which he was either a supporter or a 
 
 member of a court administration, it was in substance consistent. 
 From the beginning to the end it was honest. There are parts of his 
 public life certainly which have led others to call his honesty intc 
 question, and to deny to him the quality of consistency; and of the.--« 
 parts, or at any rate of some of them, there are those among his friends 
 and admirers who have expressed disapprobation. Such parts are his 
 early connection with the court, his coalition with Lord North, and, 
 shortly before his death, his coalition with Lord Grenville. The 
 charge that he was actuated by private pique when, in 1774, he became 
 an opponent of Lord North's ministry, has been already met, so far as 
 it is possible to meet a charge which it is so very easy to make. But 
 in a case where no unworthy motives have operated to produce a 
 change of course, and it proceeds from change of opinion, it is for a 
 vulgar mind alono to make this a ground of attack and abuse. And 
 equally vulgar is that view of a statesman's duty which would prevent 
 him from ever entering into alliance with one to whom at a previous 
 period ho may have been opposed, even though the question or ques- 
 tions on which they differed may now have been settled, and there 
 may only remain questions upon which they are agreed. Fox was 
 assuredly not, in the full and strict sense of the term, a philosophic 
 statesman, yet he came nearer to it perhaps than most other English 
 statesmen of his time. His speeches always display in a pre-eminent 
 degree a sense of tho importance of principle. Sir James Mackintosh 
 has said of him, as an orator, that " he possessed above all moderns 
 that union of reason, simplicity, and vehemence which formed the 
 prince of orators. He was tho most Demosthenean speaker since the 
 days of Demosthenes." Fox's speeches were collected, and published 
 in six volumes with a short biographical and critical introduction by 
 Lord Erskine, in 1825. The fragment which he left of his projected 
 ' History of the reign of James II.,' a feeble and valueless production, 
 was published in 1808, with a preface by Lord Holland. Of the loDg- 
 talked-of ' Memorials of Charles James Fox,' begun by Lord Holland, 
 Lord John Russell after a long delay completed the publication in 
 1857 (in four volumes, 8vo.) ; but the work, though essential for the 
 history of the period, has been prepared in a very disjointed and 
 unsatisfactory manner. 
 
 FOX, GEORGE, founder of the sect of Quakers, an enthusiast 
 honest, zealous, illiterate, yet of no mean capacity and influence, was 
 born at Drayton, in Leicestershire, in July 1624. His origin and the 
 beginning of his preaching are thus shortly told by Neal (' History of 
 Puritans,' iv. 1) : — " His father, being a poor weaver, put him appren- 
 tice to a country shoemaker : but having a peculiar turn of mind for 
 religion, he went away from his master, and wandered up and down 
 the countries like an hermit, in a leathern doublet ; at length his 
 friends, hearing he was at London, persuaded him to return home, and ' 
 settle in some regular course of employment ; but after he had been 
 some mouths in the country, he went from his friends a second time 
 in the year 1616, and threw off all further attendance on the public 
 service in the churches. The reasons he gave for his conduct were, 
 because it was revealed to him that a learned education at the uni- 
 versity was no qualification for a minister, but that all depended on 
 the anointing of the Spirit ; and that God who made the world did not | 
 dwell in temples made with hands. In 1647 he travelled into Derby- 
 shire and Nottinghamshire, walking through divers towns and villages, i 
 which way soever his mind turned, in a solitary manner. He fasted 
 much, and walked often abroad iu retired places, with no other c m 
 panion but his Bible. He would sometimes sit in a hollow tree all 
 day, and frequently walk about the fields in the night like a man pos- 
 sessed with deep melaucholy. Towards the latter end of this year he 
 began first to set up as a teacher of others, the principal argument of 
 his discourse being, that people should receive the inward divine 
 teachings of the Lord, and take that for their rule." 
 
 From the begiuning of his teaching he discontinued the use of out- 
 ward marks of respect. He says, in his journal for 1648 — " When the 
 Lord sent me forth into the world, he forbid me to put off my bat to 
 any, high or low, and I was required to ' thee ' and ' thou ' all men and 
 womeD, without any respect to rich or poor, great or small ; and as I 
 travelled up and down, I was not to bid people 'good-morrow' or 
 ' good-evening,' neither might I bow or scrape with my leg to any one : 
 and this made the sects and professions to rage." Nothing probably 
 conduced so much to the virulent persecution of the Quakers as their 
 refusal of such tokens of respect, which persons in office interpreted 
 into wilful contempt, except their conscientious refusal to take any 
 oath, which involved them in the heavy penalties attached to the 
 refusal of the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. 
 
 We shall not enter on a detail of his religious tenets, labours, or 
 sufferings : the latter are fully recorded in his 'Journal,' and noticed 
 iu most histories. It is necessary however to refer to his doctrine 
 ('Journal,' 1649, p. 26), that "it is not the Scriptures, but the Holy 
 Spirit, by which opinions and religions are to be tried." By this test, 
 each convert might believe himself possessed of a peculiar infallible 
 internal guide ; and, in fact, it proved a warrant for any wild fancies 
 which entered the minds of his followers, and led some into extrava- 
 gances which gave a colour for the cruel treatment which all expe- 
 rienced. (Neal, iv., c. 3.) Into such extravagauces Fox himself does 
 not appear to have been often betrayed. From 1648 till within a few 
 years of his death, his life was made up of travel, disputation, and 
 imprisonment. He visited the continent of Europe several times, and 
 
FOX, JOHN. 
 
 In 1671 made a voyage to our American colonies. Wherever he went 
 "he seems to have left permanent traces of his preaching and presence. 
 Quaker meeting-houses were first established in Lancashire and the 
 parts adjacent in 1652, and in 1667 the congregations were organised 
 into one body for purposes of correspondence, charity, and the main- 
 tenance of uniform discipline. The term ' Quaker ' arose at Derby in 
 1650, on occasion of Fox being brought before one Justice Bennet, 
 
 * who was the first that called us ' Quakers,' because I bid them 
 
 * Tremble at the Word of the Lord.' " In 1677, and again in 1681, he 
 visited the Netherlands, where his tenets had taken deep root. After 
 his return from the latter journey, his constitution being broken by 
 the labours and hardships of nearly forty years, he desisted from 
 travelling, but continued to preach occasionally in London till within 
 a few days of his death, which took place January 13, 1691. 
 
 To Fox, and others among his associates [Barclay; Penn], the 
 praise of zeal, patience, self-denial, courage, are amply due ; and their 
 Bufferings under colour of law are a disgraceful evidence of the tyranny 
 of the government and the intolerance of the people. But there was 
 one point in Fox's early conduct which justly exposed him to censure 
 and punishment — his frequent interruption of divine worship as per- 
 formed by others. From this practice, in the latter part of his minis- 
 try, he seems to have abstained. His moral excellence and the 
 genuineness of his devotion are unquestioned. Fox's writings were 
 for the most part short ; they are however very numerous, and in the 
 collective edition fill three volumes folio. 
 
 (Fox's journal ; Neal, History of Puritans ; Sewell, History of 
 Quakers, &c.) 
 
 FOX, JOHN, commonly called the Martyrologist, from the work 
 by which he is principally known, was born at Boston, in Lincoln- 
 shire, in 1517, was entered at Brazenose College, Oxford, in 1531, and 
 elected a fellow of Magdalen College in 1543. Before this he had 
 been chiefly distinguished for the cultivation of Latin poetry ; but he 
 had lately applied himself with great earnestness to the study of 
 divinity, the result of which was that he became a convert to Pro- 
 testantism, and on a charge of heresy being brought against him, was 
 deprived of his fellowship in 1545. His father had left him some 
 property, but this was also now withheld from him, on the same 
 ground, by a second husband whom his mother had married, and he was 
 in consequence reduced to great distress. At last he obtained the 
 situation of tutor in the family of Sir Thomas Lucy, of Charlecot, in 
 Warwickshire, the same whose deer-park Shakspere is accused of 
 robbing. This place however he left after some time, and was again 
 subjected to many disappointments and hardships. At length he was 
 taken into the house of Mary duchess of Richmond, to instruct the 
 children of her brother the Earl of Surrey, who was then confined on 
 the charges for which he soon after suffered death. After the acces- 
 sion of Edward VI. Fox was restored to his fellowship ; but he fell 
 again into danger in the time of Mary, in consequence of which he 
 went abroad, and after wandering through different parts of Germany 
 was taken into employment as a corrector of the press by Oporinus, 
 the eminent printer at Basel. On the death of Mary he returned 
 to England, where his former pupil, the eldest sou of the unfortunate 
 Earl of Surrey, who was now duke of Norfolk, received him with 
 great kindness, and settled a pension on him for life. A prebend in 
 the church of Canterbury was also given to him by Cecil. . Although 
 however he retained this preferment till his death, Fox never would 
 sub.-cribe to the articles of religion as finally settled, and this pre- 
 vented his ever attaining any higher dignity in the church. He may 
 be considered as having belonged properly to the sect of the Puritans. 
 He died April 18, 1587. 
 
 Fox was the author of numerous works, a list of which is given in 
 the ' Biographia Britannica ; ' but the only one that is now remem- 
 bered is his ' History of the Acts and Monuments of the Church ' 
 (commonly called his ' Book of Martyrs '), which was first printed in 
 one volume folio, in 1553, but was afterwards divided into three 
 volumes, and has been repeatedly reprinted both entire, and in an 
 abridged, modernised, or otherwise mutilated form. The trust- 
 worthiness of this great record of the sufferings of the early English 
 reformers has been bitterly assailed by many Roman Catholic writers, 
 and of late years by some writers belonging to the " high church " 
 paity. But nothing beyond a few comparatively unimportant mistakes, 
 arising from some degree of credulity, and a natural though exagge- 
 rated zeal, seems to be established against it : the veracity and honesty 
 of the venerable author may be affirmed to be quite undamaged. 
 Fox's work has preserved many facts, some of greater, some of 
 leas importance, that are nowhere else to be found. It ought also to 
 be noted to the credit of the author, that he showed himself through- 
 out hia life, if not a friend to toleration in the largest view, yet a 
 decided enemy to persecution and severity in the suppression of 
 religious errors. In this sentiment he was a considerable way ahead 
 of the general, it may almost be said, the universally prevalent 
 notions of his age. His mind was certainly not a very capacious one, 
 nor had he any pretensions to great depth or accuracy of learning ; 
 but for the consistency and excellence of his moral character no man 
 of his time was held in higher regard. Fox was a frequent preacher, 
 as well as a voluminous writer. One of his early performances in 
 Latin poetry, a comedy (as it is called) entitled ' De Christo Trium- 
 phante,' has been translated into English by Richard Daye, a son of 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. IL 
 
 FOY, MAXIMILIAN SEBASTIAN. M« 
 
 John Daye, the printer, from whose press the first cditiou of the 
 ' Acts and Monuments ' proceeded, and who indeed would seem to 
 have suggested that work. Daye's epitaph on his tombstone in the 
 chancel of the church of Little Bradley-juxta-Thurlow, Suffolk, says 
 that he — 
 
 " Set a Fox to write how martyrs run 
 By death to life. Fox ventured pains and health 
 To give them light ; Daye spent in print his wealth." 
 
 (See Nichols, viii. 580 ; also C73.) 
 
 There is also a French translation of the above-mentioned comedy 
 under the title of ' Le Triomphe de J. C.,' by Jacques Bienvenu, 
 citizen of Geneva, 4to, Geneva, 1562 ; a very scarce work. 
 
 FOX, RICHARD, bishop of Winchester, an eminent statesman, 
 and minister of Henry VII. and VIII., was born of poor parents, 
 towards the middle of the 15th century, at Ropesley, near Grantham, 
 in Lincolnshire, studied at Magdalen College, Oxford, and Pembroke 
 College, Cambridge, and finally went to the University of Paris for 
 his further improvement in divinity and the canon law. There he 
 laid the foundation of his fortunes, by gaining the friendship of 
 Morton, bishop of Ely, a zealous Lancastrian, who had fled from 
 England in 1483 upon the failure of the Duke of Buckingham's insur- 
 rection against Richard III. Through Morton's introduction, Fox 
 was taken into the Earl of Richmond's service ; and having been of 
 material use in the negociations with the French court preparatory to 
 the descent upon England, continued to enjoy the earl's confidence 
 after his accession to the throne by the title of Henry VII. He was 
 successively made privy councillor, bishop of Exeter, keeper of the 
 privy seal, secretary of state, bishop of Bath and Wells, Durham, and 
 Winchester, and was frequently employed in important embassies. 
 Indeed no one stood higher in favour, or had more weight with the 
 king, who appointed him one of the executors of his will, and recom- 
 mended him strongly to the notice and confidence of Henry VIII. 
 He was aho executor to Margaret countess of Richmond [Beaufort], 
 and in that capacity had a great share in settling the foundation of 
 St. John's College, Cambridge. Henry VIII. no doubt appreciated his 
 talents and integrity, for he continued him in his offices ; but the 
 habits of the aged minister, trained to frugality under a most parsi- 
 monious master, were ill suited to retain the favour of a young, gay, 
 ostentatious monarch, and he was thrown into the back-ground by the 
 Earl of Surrey, lord treasurer. In hope of supplanting that nobleman 
 by one qualified to win Henry's regard as a companion, yet too 
 humble to aspire to the first place in the state, Fox introduced 
 Wolsey, then his chaplain, to the king's society, in 1513. The result 
 is well known. Wolsey soon engrossed the king's confidence ; and 
 in 1515 the bishop of Winchester, disappointed and disgusted, retired 
 to his diocese, and spent the rest of his life in works of munificence 
 and piety, and the discharge of the duties of his office. Corpus 
 College, Oxford, and the free-schools of Grantham and Taunton, in 
 Somersetshire, tare of his foundation. He became blind about ten 
 years before his death, which took place September 14, 1528. He 
 was buried in a chapel of his own building, on the south side of the 
 high altar of Winchester cathedral. 
 
 FOX, WILLIAM JOHNSON, M.P., is the son of a small farmer 
 near Wrentham, Suffolk, where he was born in 1786. He was edu- 
 cated for the ministry at Homerton Independent College, but adopted 
 Unitarian opinions, and exercised his ministry at the Unitarian 
 Chapel, Finsbury. At the same time he lent the aid of his pen to the 
 liberal party in politics. He afterwards became a frequent writer and 
 speaker during the agitation for repeal of the Corn Laws. In 1847 
 he was elected M.P. for Oldham, and though unsuccessful at the 
 general election in 1852, he regained his seat a few months subse- 
 quently. He is an able lecturer and political writer. He is the 
 author of a volume on ' Religious Ideas ; ' ' Lectures to the Working 
 Classes ; ' of various ' Essays ; ' and of able contributions to the 
 ' Weekly Dispatch,' and the ' Westminster Review,' with the latter 
 of which he was connected from its first foundation. [See SuP.J 
 
 FOY, MAXIMILIAN SEBASTIAN, one of the best of the political 
 orators that have appeared in France since the establishment of 
 a constitutional charter, was born in 1775, at Ham, in Picardy. His 
 father, an old military officer, died when Foy was only five years old, 
 and the education of his five children devolved on their mother, Eliza- 
 beth Wisbeck, who was a woman of English extraction, and of a 
 superior character. Foy displayed from his earliest boyhood remark- 
 able talents and great application. At fourteen he completed his course 
 of studies at the college of Soissons, after which he passed to the 
 military school of Lafere, and, at the end of 1790, entered the army 
 as a second lieutenant of artillery. He served with great credit in 
 Flanders during the beginning of the war of the Revolution. Having 
 however frankly expressed his opinions about the horrors perpetrated 
 at Paris, he was imprisoned at Cambray, but was released from his 
 confinement by the events of the 9th Thermidor. He jiow re-entered 
 the army, made two campaigns under Moreau, and rose to the rank of 
 a chef d'escadron, when the treaty of Campo Formio suspended his 
 military career. He took advantage of the short peace which followed 
 that treaty to study public law under the celebrated Professor Koch 
 at Strasbourg. In 1798 he again joined the army, and served in Italy, 
 Switzerland, and on the Rhine, till the peace of Amiens, when ha 
 returned te France with the rank of colonel. Foy was at Paris during 
 
 3s 
 
0-7 
 
 the trial of Moreau, and he expressed himself against that proceeding 
 with so much animation, that he would have been arrested if he had 
 not left the capital and joined the camp of Utrecht, where he refused 
 to sign a congratulatory address to the first consul on the occasion of 
 his escape from the conspirators' plot. Being a sincere republican, he 
 voted against the election of Bonaparte to the imperial dignity. Not- 
 withstanding that circumstance, Napoleon I. employed Foy, but left 
 him a long time without promotion. In 1807 he was commissioned 
 hy Napoleon I. to conduct 1200 French cannoniers to assist Sultan 
 Selim II. against Eussia, but the revolution which took place at Con- 
 stantinople prevented their departure. Foy himself went however to 
 Constantinople, where he assisted the Turks in making dispositions 
 for the defence of the Dardanelles. From Constantinople he went to 
 Portugal, distinguished himself in many battles, received several 
 wounds, rose to the rank of lieutenant-general, and continued to serve 
 during all the Peninsular war, till he received a severe wound at the 
 battle of Orthez. He was employed at the Restoration by the Bour- 
 bons, but joined Napoleon after his landing from Elba, and fought 
 bravely at Waterloo, where he was again wounded. From that time 
 he retired from military service, and devoted himself entirely to the 
 study of history, and political and military science, to which he had 
 previously applied all his leisure time. In 1819 Foy was chosen deputy 
 of the department of Ain, and the talents which he displayed in the 
 new career now opened to him surpassed the most sanguine expecta- 
 tions of his friends. His debut in the parliamentai'y field was an 
 eloquent defence of the rights of his old companions in arms, the 
 veterans of the imperial army, whom the orgaus of the Restoration 
 Bought to deprive of their well-earned rewards. He vigorously attacked 
 the lavish expenditure of public money for the maintenance of useless 
 establishments, and to support the instruments of an anti-national 
 party ; but he was always a steady advocate of every expenditure which 
 was requisite for the support of the power and dignity of a great 
 nation. Foy had a hard battle to fight against the retrograde party, 
 which sought to destroy the effects of the constitutional charter by 
 introducing into the electoral body the privileges which the charter 
 had abolished. Yet the efforts of Foy and of a patriotic minority 
 were unavailing against the party, which, according to an expression 
 of Foy himself, reckoned in the legislative chamber two members to 
 one, and in the nation one individual in a thousand. Counter-revolu- 
 tionary measures followed one another; the elective franchise was 
 restricted, the liberty of the press curtailed, independent writers pro- 
 secuted, and the constitutional government of Spain overturned by a 
 French expedition. Notwithstanding all these defeats of the liberal 
 party, Foy never deserted the post where he was placed by the con- 
 fidence of bis countrymen, and he castigated the unprincipled proceed- 
 ings above referred to with earnest eloquence. 
 
 In November 1825, Foy began to suffer from the symptoms of an 
 aneurism : he felt his end approaching, but remained calm and col- 
 lected under the most severe sufferings, till his death on the 28th of 
 November. His death was considered in France as a national cala- 
 mity ; hisfuneral was attended not only by his political friends, but 
 even by his opponents, who no longer refused to pay the tribute of 
 just admiration to a deceased adversary. As he left a family in rather 
 straitened circumstances, one million of francs was raised for them by 
 a national subscription. Foy left two volumes of speeches, and a 
 'History of the Peninsular War,' a work which has been warmly 
 eulogised in England as well as in France, by writers professing poli- 
 tical opinions completely opposed to those of General Foy ; which he 
 unfortunately, however, left incomplete. 
 
 FRACASTO'RO, HIERO'NYMUS, one of the most learned men of 
 his time, as well as one of the best modern Latin poets, was born at 
 Verona, in 1483, of an ancient family. From his earliest youth he 
 applied himself to the study of the sciences, particularly to medicine, 
 and he became professor of logic at the university of Padua when he 
 was only nineteen years old. Fracastoro died in 1553. He enjoyed 
 during his lifetime the esteem and friendship of many eminent men of 
 his time, and Ramusio, who owed to Fracastoro the idea as well as 
 many materials for his collection of the ' Navigazioni et Viaggi,' erected 
 a brass statue to his memory at Padua. Julius Caesar Scaliger was 
 such an admirer of Fracastoro's poetical talents that he wrote a poem 
 in his praise, entitled ' Arse Fracastorise.' The principal works of 
 Fracastoro are—' Syphilides, sive morbi Gallici, libri tres,' published 
 at Verona, 1530, in 4to ; and subsequently often reprinted elsewhere ; 
 besides being translated into French, and several times into Italian : 
 the best Italian translation is that of Vizentio Benini de Colonia, pub- 
 lished, with the complete collection of Fracastoro's works, at Padua, 
 1739, in 4to. Fracastoro's reputation rests chiefly on this work, which 
 he dedicated to Bembo, who was his particular friend, in a poetical 
 epistle, of which Roscoe has given an English translation in his life of 
 Leo X. It is remarkable that the name of the hero, Syphilis, from 
 which the title of the poem is derived, gave birth to the technical 
 appellation by which the above-mentioned disease is known. It seems 
 that in adopting such a subject for his poem Fracastoro wished to 
 display in one work his extensive knowledge in the various branches 
 of natural philosophy, his skill in medicine, and his admirable genius 
 for Latin poetry. Besides the poem of ' Syphilis,' Fracastoro pub- 
 lished the following works :— 'De Vini Temperatura,' Venice, 1534, iu 
 4 to; 'Homocentricoruni, sive de Stellis, liber unus de Causis Criti- 
 
 corum dierum, libellus,' Venice, 1535, in 4to; 1538, 8vo ; 'De Sympa- 
 thia et Antipathia, Rerum, liber unus; de Contagionibus et Conta- 
 giosis Morbis, et eorum Curatione, libri tres,' Venice, 1546, in 4to. 
 Fracastoro began a poem entitled ' Joseph,' but he was prevented by 
 death from finishing more than two cantos. He also left a volume of 
 Latin poetry on different subjects, addressed to several eminent per- 
 sonages of his time. All these poetical productions were collected and 
 published at Padua, 1728, 8vo. The complete works of Fracastoro 
 appeared for the first time at Venice, 1555, in 4to, and they have been 
 many times reprinted there and elsewhere. 
 
 FRANC ESC A, PIE'RO DELL A, called also PIERO BORGHESE, 
 from his native place, Borgo San Sepolcro, where he was born about 
 1410-15. His chief excellence was in perspective, which he was the 
 first to fully develope in practice ; in other respects his works, of 
 which few remain, are in the dry, hard, antique style of the period. 
 Piero's greatest work is the legendary history of the Cross, in San 
 Francesco, at Arezzo : it is still preserved, though much injured by 
 time and ill usage. He waslivingin 1494, but probably died soon after. 
 
 Piero's theoretical knowledge of perspective appears to have been 
 considerable, and he was, according to Vasari, one of the best geome- 
 tricians of his time : he wrote several treatises on these subjects, some 
 of which are still preserved at Borgo San Sepolcro. Some of his 
 writings, says Vasari, were dishonestly published by his pupil, Fra 
 Luca dal Borgo, or Luca Pacciolo, as his own ; but the truth of this 
 statement is doubted. Luca's works are, 'Summa Arithmetical ;' ' La 
 Divina Proporzione,' with figures by Lionardo da Vinci ; and ' Iuter- 
 pretazione di Euclide.' He did not write on perspective ; but where 
 ho notices the subject, he alludes to Piero della Francesca as " el 
 monarca de la pictura." A ' Life of Piero ' was published at Florence 
 iu 1835 by Gherardi Dragomanni. 
 
 The National Gallery possesses a large painting by Piero, ' The 
 Baptism of Christ' (No. 665), formerly the principal altar-piece of 
 the Priory of St. John the Baptist, at Borgo San Sepolcro. 
 
 FRANCIA, FRANCESCO, the name by which Francesco Raibolini 
 is known, and which he wrote upon his works, after the name of his 
 master the goldsmith. Francia is one of the most celebrated of the 
 Italian painters, and the most perfect in his style, the.' antico-moderno,' 
 or that transition style between the comparatively meagre works of 
 the most distinguished early masters and the fully-developed form and 
 character of the works of Raffaele and his great contemporaries. He 
 was born at Bologna about 1450, and he died there, according to a 
 document discovered by Calvi, on the 6th of January 1517. Vasari 
 says that he died of vexation upon seeing the St. Cecilia of Raffaele, 
 which was consigned to him in Bologna for the church of San Giovanni ; 
 but, as he was sixty-eight years of age, there appeals to be little 
 necessity for assigning any such cause for his death. Francia was by 
 education a goldsmith and a die- and niello-engraver, and he is sup- 
 posed to have taken up paintiDg at a comparatively late period : he 
 must however have had some reputation as a painter in 1490, as he 
 was then employed on extensive works in the Palazzo Bentivoglio at 
 Bologna. He was an admirable colourist, and the greatest master of 
 Bologna before the CaraccL He signed himself 'Aurifex' on his 
 paintings, and 'Pictor' on his jewellery. The two pictures by him in 
 the National Gallery are admirable specimens of his style, and perhaps 
 more perfect individual specimens than any other of the foreign 
 pictures in the collection : they originally formed an altar-piece in the 
 Buonvisi chapel, in the church of San Fridiano, Lucca, whence they 
 passed into the Duke of Lucca's collection, and were eventually 
 purchased for the nation in 1840 for 35002. 
 
 Giacomo Francia, the son and pupil of Francesco, painted in his 
 father's style, and, though far from equalling his father, was a good 
 painter : he died in 1557. 
 
 (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c. ; Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice; Lanzi, 
 Storia Pittorica ; Calvi, Memorie della Vita e delle Opere di Francesco 
 Raibolini detto il Francia.) 
 
 FRANCIA, DOCTOR JOSE GASPAR RODRIGUEZ (and he 
 himself at least appears to have written the name with the feudal 
 prefix, De Francia), Dictator of Paraguay, is said to have been born 
 near the town of Assuncion, the capital of that country, in 1757 or 
 1758. His father, a European, was a chacarero, or small proprietor 
 cultivating his own land. Francia himself, who had a passion for 
 everything French, alleged that his father came from France, but 
 others have asserted that he was a Portuguese. However that may 
 be, old Francia had gone to Brazil, and, proceeding thence to the 
 Spanish possessions in the interior, had finally settled in Paraguay, 
 where he married a Creole, and had this Jose" and other sons and 
 daughters. Josd was the eldest. 
 
 When he came to the proper age, young Francia was sent to the 
 University of Cordova, in the neighbouring province of Tucuman, to 
 be educated for the church. Here he took his doctor's degree, but it 
 is uncertain whether of divinity or of law. The latter he ultimately 
 determined to make his profession. The change was perhaps prompted 
 in part by the turn which his opinions had taken or begun to take 
 towards deism, the avowed creed of his latter years, which he had 
 imbibed from reading the works of Rousseau, Raynal, and other 
 French writers of that school. He seems to have spoken as well as 
 read the French language ; and he also brought away with him from 
 college, besides what he learned of law and theology, some knowledge 
 
US 0 
 
 FRANCIS. SAINT. 
 
 690 
 
 of mathematics and of mechanical philosophy, a taste for which 
 departments of study he preserved to tho end of his life. Establishing 
 himself iu the town of Assuncion, Fraucia spent there perhaps the 
 next thirty years of his life as an advocate or barrister. He had a 
 good practice, and a high reputation both for legal learning and for 
 integrity and independence of character. 
 
 Tcie revolution which brought about the independence of the Spanish 
 possessions in South America began in Buenos Ayres in 1810, when 
 Francia was fifty-two or fifty-three years old. Paraguay refused to 
 join the other La Plata provinces iu this movement, and was successful 
 in repelling a force sent from Buenos Ayres under General Belgrauo to 
 compel its adherence; but the next year it accomplished a revolutiou 
 of its own. Fraucia had been active in directing this course which 
 things had taken, and when the independent junta was set up, with 
 Don Fulgencio Yegros, the general who had defeated Belgrano, as 
 president, Francia was appointed secretary. Yegros and the others 
 howe»er could not get on with him — -or he with them — and he soou 
 resigned his post, retiring to a country house in the neighbourhood of 
 Assuncion. Everything went from bad to worse, and the Paraguayan 
 public mind .seems to have taken up a fixed idea that only Francia 
 could set matters right. Accordingly, a new congress which assembled 
 iu 1813 placed him and Yegros at the head of the republic under the 
 name of joint consuls. From this moment the state of public affairs 
 began to improve ; in particular the protection of the country from 
 foreign invasion, a calamity which had actually begun to come upon 
 it before from some quarters, and been threatened from others, was 
 effectually secured. It was with a view to this particular object that 
 Francia first introduced his non-intercourse system. The peculiar 
 character which had been impressed upon society in that country by 
 the Jesuits at the same time favoured and may have partly suggested 
 the policy which he thus adopted ; and the course of events, after it 
 was tried and found to answer, led by degrees to its more strict 
 enforcement. It became at last so complete that, as is well known, 
 all ingress into Paraguay or escape from it became nearly impossible, 
 nor had the country any political relations, or almost any commercial 
 communication, with any other part of the globe. 
 
 Before matters came to this however, Francia's joint consulship had 
 been converted, first in 1814, by a third congress, into a dictatorship 
 for three years, and then in 1817 into a dictatorship for life. Yegros, 
 who had been all along a mere cypher or useless incumbrance, was of 
 course got rid of. He afterwards, in 1819, it is asserted, engaged in 
 a conspiracy for the assassination of his former colleague; the detec- 
 tion and defeat of which at the same time consolidated and greatly 
 strengthened Francia's power. It appears to have been principally 
 during the existence of the critical state of affairs produced by this 
 plot, a period of two or three years, that the system of sanguinary 
 severity which has been called the reign of terror was kept up by 
 Francia. 
 
 Francia remained supreme and absolute master of Paraguay till his 
 death on the 20th of September 1840, when he was succeeded by a 
 directory, or governing junta, of three persons. 
 
 The instances of Francia's tyranny as exercised on foreigners, that 
 have had the greatest noise made about them, are those of his treat- 
 ment of M. Bonpland, Messrs. Rengger and Longchamp, and the 
 Messrs. Robertson. Bonpland, the distinguished botanist, had set up 
 an establishment for the culture of Paraguay tea in the adjoining 
 district of Entre Rios, a sort of debateable land, and was there seized 
 in 1821 by order of Francia, and carried off into Paraguay, where he 
 was detained till February 1831; but, beyond his forcible detention, 
 he was not harshly treated. [Bonpland.] Messrs. Rengger and 
 Longchamp were two Swiss surgeons who had found their way into 
 Paraguay in 1819, and were detained by the dictator, principally, it 
 would appear, for the sake of their professional services, till 1825. 
 After their return to Europe they published an account of their 
 adventures and of the country under the title of'Essai Historique 
 sur la Revolution de Paraguay, et le Gouvernement Dictatoriel du 
 Docteur Francia.' The Messrs. Robertson were not detained in the 
 country, but turned out of it. They have told their own story, though 
 rather confusedly, in their ' Letters on Paraguay,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 
 1838, and ' Francia's Reign of Terror,' 8vo, London, 1839. The most 
 distinct and graphic sketch that has been drawn, at least in English, 
 of Francia and his career, is in a very characteristic paper by Mr. 
 Carlyle, in the 62nd No. of the ' Foreign Quarterly Review ' (for July 
 1843), pp. 544 — 589. If it should be thought too much to soften some 
 of the more startling points in the dictator's character and conduct, 
 and to give him tho benefit of a favourable doubt somewhat too 
 liberally, it may be corrected by comparison with the Messrs. Robert- 
 eon's unmixed and unmeasured condemnation. Mr. Carlyle has derived 
 some of his facts from a funeral discourse delivered at the celebration 
 of the obsequies of Francia by the Rev. Manuel Antonio Perez, in 
 which hia government is lauded in the highest terms. 
 
 FRANCIS, SAINT, the founder of one of the four orders of 
 mendicant friars, called Franciscans, was born at Assisi, in Umbria, 
 in 1182. He was the sou of Peter de Bernardino, a wealthy merchant, 
 and his mother's name was Pica. His mother christened him John, 
 but hia father, who was absent at the time of his birth, changed his 
 name to Francis. Wadding, in the ' Anoalcs Minorum,' says, because 
 he learned French early, to qualify himself for his father's profession, 
 
 Jacobus de Voragine turns it into a miracle ; " Primo ratione miraculi 
 couuotaudi : linguam enitn Gallicam miraculo.so a Deo rccepisso 
 cognoscitur." ('Acta Sanctor.' Uctob., torn, ii., p. 559.) St. Francis 
 was at first a young man of dissolute manners, but in consequence of 
 a fit of sickness about the year 1206, he became so strongly affected 
 with religious zeal as to take a resolution to retire from the world. 
 He now devoted himself to solitude, and mortified himself to so great 
 a degree that the inhabitants of Assisi judged him to be distracted. 
 His father - , thinking to make him resume the habits of ordinary life, 
 threw him into prison ; but finding that this made no impression 
 upon him, he carried him before the Bishop of Assisi, in order to 
 make him renounce all title to his father's temporal possessions, 
 which he not only agreed to, but stripped off all his clothes, even to 
 his shirt. He then prevailed with a considerable number of persons 
 to devote themselves, as he had done, to the poverty which he con- 
 sidered as enjoined by the gospel, and drew up an institute, or rule, 
 for their use, which was approved by Pope Innocent III. in 1210, as 
 well as by the Council of Lateran held in 1215. In 1211 he obtained 
 from the Benedictines the church of Portiuncula, near Assisi, and 
 his Order increased so fast that when he held a chapter in 1219, near 
 5000 friars of it were present. He subsequently obtained a bull in 
 favour of his Order from Pope Honorius III. About this time he 
 went into the Holy Land, and endeavoured in vain to convert the 
 Sultan Meledin. It is said that he offered to throw himself into the 
 flames to prove his faith in what he taught. He returned soon after 
 to his native country, and died at Assisi in 1226. He was canonised 
 by Pope Gregory IX. the 6th of May 1230, when October 4th, the 
 day on which his death happened, was appointed as his festival. 
 
 The followers of St. Francis were called Franciscans, Gray or 
 Minor Friars ; the first name they had from their founder ; the 
 second from their gray clothing ; and the third from a pretended 
 humility. Their habit was a loose garment of a gray colour, reaching 
 to their ancles, with a cowl of the same, and a cloak over it when 
 they went abroad. They girded themselves with cords, and went 
 bare-footed. 
 
 This order was divided into several bodies, some of which were 
 more rigid than others. The most ample and circumstantial account 
 of it is to be found in ' Annales Minorum, seu Trium Ordinum a 
 S. Francisco Institutorum, auctore Luca Waddingo Hiberno ; ' the 
 second and best edition of which was published at Rome by Jos. 
 Maria Fonseca ab Ebora, in 19 vols., fol., 1731-44, with a supplement, 
 'Opus posthumum Fr. Jo. Hyacinth! Sbaralese,' fol., Rome, 1806. To 
 Wadding we are indebted for the ' Opuscula S. Francisci,' 4to, Antw., 
 1623 ; and the 1 Bibliotheca Ordinis Minorum,' 4to, Rome, 1650. The 
 ' Acta Sanctorum ' of the Bollandists already quoted (' Octob.,' 
 torn, ii., p. 545-1004), contains several lives of St. Francis, including 
 that by St. Bonaventure. 
 
 Davenport ('Hist. Fratr. Min.,' p. 2) says this order came into 
 England in 1219; but Stow, Dugdale, Leland, and others say the 
 Franciscans came in 1224, and that they had their first house in 
 Canterbury, and their second at London. Tanner says (' Notit. 
 Monast.,' pref. p. 13), that at the dissolution the Conventual Fran- 
 ciscans had about fifty-five houses in England; but from the last 
 edition of Dugdale's ' Monasticon,' it appears they had sixty-six. 
 Their rule, as translated by Stevens, with several charters of 
 Edward III. and one of Richard II. in favour of them, will be found 
 in that work, vol. vi., p. iii., pp. 1504-08. See also Parkinson's ' Col- 
 lectanea Anglo-Minoritica, or a Collection of the Antiquities of the 
 English Franciscans, or Friars Minors, commonly called Gray Friars,' 
 4to, London, 1726. The original of the Franciscan rule will be found 
 in Wadding's ' Annales,' vol. i., pp. 66-79. 
 
 FRANCIS I. of France was, like Louis XII., descended from Charles 
 the Wise through Louis I., duke of Orleans. This unfortunate prince 
 was assassinated by John, duke of Burgundy, and his two sons were 
 for a long period prisoners to the English. The younger of the two, 
 John, count of Angouleme, was succeeded by his son Charles. During 
 the life of Louis XI. the Count of Angouleme had some difficulty in 
 guarding against the jealousy of the king, and by his command 
 married Louisa of Savoy, who, on the 12th of September 1494, 
 became the mother of Francis I. Louis XII. took charge of the 
 infant heir of Angouleme at the death of his father, and afterwards 
 gave him his daughter Claude in marriage. Francis distinguished 
 himself in the defence of the frontiers on the side of Spain and 
 Flanders, and succeeded to the throne at the age of twenty-one, in 
 January 1515. 
 
 One of his first endeavours was to prosecute the claim on the duchy 
 of Milan, which he derived from his grandmother Valentine. Against 
 this expedition the Swiss had already combined with Pope Leo X. 
 and with the King of Spain ; but Francis having passed the Alps 
 unexpectedly, a battle took place at Mariguano, in which the Swiss 
 infantry fought with even more than their usual obstinacy and 
 courage. The combat lasted two days, and from 10,000 to 15,000 
 Swiss are said to have fallen iu it. The victorious French entered 
 Milan on the 23rd of October 1515, and a peace was shortly after 
 conclude ! with the pope. 
 
 In January 1516 the prince (afterwards Charles V.) who was destined 
 to be tho rival of Francis throughout his whole career, succeeded to 
 the kingdom of Castile notwithstanding his mother Joan was stiU 
 
ori FRANCIS I. (OF FRANCE.) 
 
 alive. The frontier states to France on the side of Flanders and of 
 the Pyrenees were thus in the hands of one and the same monarch. 
 The treaty of Noyou (1516) re-established for a short time the peace 
 of Europe ; and the King of France endeavoured to prepare himself 
 against future wars by securing the friendship of the Swiss, whom he 
 had learnt to appreciate as enemies. The Venetians and the Pope 
 also became his allies. 
 
 On the death of Maximilian, emperor of Germany (1519), Charles 
 and Francis declared themselves candidates for the imperial crown. 
 The former urged his claims as one of the house of Austria and as 
 the only prince in Europe who, by uniting the wealth of the New 
 World and the arms of the Old, could arrest the progress of the 
 Sultan Selim II. Francis put forward his greater experience in war, 
 and dwelt on the impolicy of placing the joint power of Spain, 
 Flanders, Naples, and the empire in the hands of an Austrian prince. 
 Henry VIII. of England was inclined to become a competitor himself, 
 while Leo X. would gladly have seen on the German throne some 
 prince of less importance than Charles or Francis, and one who had 
 no power or claim in Italy. It is said that the crown was offered to 
 the elector of Saxony, who declined it and secured the election of 
 Charles. Francis had an interriew with the King of England between 
 Guines and Ardres, and Charles landed at Dover on his voyage from 
 Corunna to the Netherlands (1520). 
 
 In 1521 Francis made an attempt to recover Navarre for the family 
 of Jean D'Albret; but after the capture of Pampeluna the French 
 wi re repulsed from before Logrono, and finally lost all they had pre- 
 viously gained. Another cause of quarrel arose from Robert de la 
 Murk, lord of Bouillon, declaring war against the emperor and throwing 
 himself on France. Mdzieres was defended by Bayard against the 
 imperial army, and a pretended attempt at mediation having been 
 made by Wolsey, who was intriguing for the papal crown, a league 
 was concluded against Francis by the emperor, the king of Englaud, 
 ynd the pope. Lautrec, the general of Francis, being deserted by 
 his Swiss auxiliaries, was driven from the Milanese by Prosper Colonna; 
 Parma and Placeutia were united to the ecclesiastical states; and the 
 death of Leo X. is said to have been accelerated by joy at the sue- 
 sesses of his allies (1521). The French, although reinforced by 
 10,000 Swiss, were defeated at Bicocca, and while Milan and Genoa 
 were being lost in Italy, Henry of England attacked Picardy and 
 Normandy. In 1523 the Venetians, hitherto friendly to Francis, 
 joined the pope and the emperor against him ; and his own subject, 
 the constable of Bourbon, exposed to the vengeance of slighted love 
 on the part of the king's mother, fled to his enemies. The French 
 under Bounivet however passed the Ticiuo in spite of the veteran 
 Prosper Colonna; and the failure of three attacks on the side of 
 Gascony, Burgundy, and Picardy left Francis in as good a position as 
 the strength of his adversaries could allow him to hope for. In the 
 spring of 1524 Pescara and Bourbon defeated the French on the 
 Sesia ; and in this battle fell Bayard, " the knight without fear and 
 without reproach." An attempt on the part of the imperialists to 
 maintain the war in Provence was frustrated by the king, who passed 
 the Cenis and advanced on Milan. Of that city he obtained possession ; 
 but by laying siege to Pavia, which was gallantly defended by 
 Antonio de Leyva, he gave time for the imperial generals to reorganise 
 their forces. This they did with such effect, that on the 24th of 
 February 1525, they utterly defeated the French troops, and Francis 
 himself remained a prisoner in the hands of Lannoy, vice-king of 
 Naples. He announced the result of the battle of Pavia to his mother 
 in the celebrated words, " Tout est perdu fors l'honneur ! " 
 
 Charles demanded, as the ransom of the French king, Burgundy for 
 himself, Provence and Dauphiny for Bourbon, and the renunciation of 
 all claims on the Italian states. He caused his prisoner to be conveyed 
 by sea from Genoa to Barcelona, and thence to Madrid, where he 
 detained him in rigorous confinement, until the alteration in his 
 health made the emperor fear the loss of all the advantages which he 
 had anticipated. At length the treaty of Madrid was arranged (1526). 
 Francis was to cede Burgundy, to give up all claims on Italy or on 
 the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois, to restore Bourbon to his 
 dignities and estates, to marry Eleanor, queen dowager of Portugal, 
 sister to the emperor, and finally to deliver his eldest and second sons 
 as hostages for the fulfilment of these stipulations. While he pledged 
 his oath and honour for the observance of the conditions of the treaty, 
 he caused a secret protest against the validity of his promise to be 
 prepared. He set foot in France a little more than a year after the 
 battle of Pavia, and mounting his horse, put him into a gallop, 
 exclaiming, " I am yet a king !" 
 
 It very soon became obvious that the French king did not intend to 
 adhere to the treaty of Madrid. While Charles in vain demanded the 
 fulfilment of his oath, from which the pope had absolved him, Francis 
 eutered into a league with the Venetians, Clement, and Henry of 
 England. The imperial generals, taking advantage of a delay on the 
 part of the French, reduced the castle of Milan, though obstinately 
 defended by Sforza, whom Charles had already declared to have for- 
 feited his duchy. In 1527 Bourbon advanced upon Rome; he himself 
 fell in the assault of that city, which suffered more from the army of 
 a Christian emperor, the especial patron of the Roman see, than it had 
 ever done from the most barbarous of its heathen invaders. Clement 
 iimself, shut up in the castle of St. Angelo, was at length obliged to 
 
 FRANCIS I. (OF FRANCE.) 98a 
 
 surrender, and was only released for a heavy ransom at the termination 
 
 of six months. 
 
 Notwithstanding some disposition on the part of the emperor to 
 relax the terms of the treaty of Madrid, the negociations terminated 
 in a delaration of war on the part of France and England. Charles 
 accused his rival of perjury, to which Francis replied by a challenge 
 
 to single combat. 
 
 In February 1528, the imperial army, wasted by the disease conse- 
 quent on its excesses, was with difficulty dragged off from the mise- 
 rable city on which it had preyed for ten months. Lautreo followed 
 them, and sat down before Naples ; but the French army were in 
 their turn attacked by disease, and finally reduced to a wretched 
 remnant, which surrendered to the Prince of Orange at Aversa. 
 Andrew Doria, disgusted with the conduct of the French, renounced 
 their alliance, and liberated Genoa, while Antonio de Leyva ruined 
 the French army in the Milanese as completely as the Prince of Orange 
 had ruined that which besieged Naples. The success of the Turk in 
 Hungary, and the progress of the Reformation, inclined the emperor 
 to peace, and the treaty of Cambray was concluded by the negoci- 
 ations of Margaret of Austria and Louisa of Savoy (August 5, 1529). 
 Charles agreed not to urge his claim on Burgundy, while Francis 
 renounced the sovereignty of Flanders, abandoned Italy, and bound 
 himself to pay 2,000,000 crowns as the ransom of his sons. In conse- 
 quence of a treaty between the pope and the emperor, Florence was 
 restored to the Medici, and Clement allowed himself to be guided by 
 the wishes of Charles as to the divorce of Catherine of Aragon from 
 Henry VIII. He met however with eagerness a proposal on tho part 
 of Francis for the marriage of his niece, Catherine de' Medici, to the 
 Duke of Orleans, afterwards Henri II. 
 
 The dissensions in the empire manifested by the diet of Augsburg 
 (1530) and the league of Schmalkalden, induced the French king to 
 encourage that religious party in Germany which he persecuted in hia 
 own dominions. During the absence of Charles in Africa (1535) he 
 advanced into Italy under pretext of punishing Sforza, now returned 
 to his duchy, for the execution of his ambassador, and seized the 
 territory of Savoy. It was not until the spring of 1536 that the 
 emperor was able to take active measures against him. Sforza died, 
 and the imperial troops drove the French out of Savoy and advanced 
 to the frontiers of Provence. The French had laid waste the whole 
 of Dauphiny ; and although Aries and Marseille were besieged, Mont- 
 morency, a second Fabius, kept his troops under the walls of Avignon 
 and refused to risk a battle. This policy succeeded so well, that at 
 the end of two months the imperial army was compelled to retreat in 
 a miserable state. After an attack by the French on the side of . 
 Flanders, a cessation of arms was at length agreed on through the 
 mediation of the two sisters, the queens of Hungary and France. 
 The exhausted state of his treasury, and the fear of an alliance 
 between Frauds and the Turk, induced Charles to consent to a cessation 
 of arms in Piedmont also, which was followed by a truce for ten years, 
 concluded at Nice. 
 
 Charles then embarked for Barcelona, but being detained by con- 
 trary winds on the coast of Provence, Francis proposed a personal 
 interview. The French king went on board the emperors galley, and 
 the latter returned his visit at Aigues Mortes. Thus after years of < 
 the bitterest hostility and enmity, after accusations of perjury on the 
 one hand and of murder on the other, and after a challenge to mortal 
 combat, these two princes presented the singular spectacle of apparent 
 reliance on each other's good faith and honour. The marriage of 
 James V. of Scotland with Magdalen of France, and afterwards with 
 Mary of Guise, tended greatly to estrange Henry of England from the 
 French court, while a better understanding seems to have followed 
 the interview of Charles and Francis. A proposal made by the 
 citizenB of Ghent to deliver their town into the hands of the latter, 
 was not only rejected, but the designs of the malcontents were be- 
 trayed to the emperor (1539). Charles put the sincerity of his new 
 friendship to a more severe test, by asking permission to pass through 
 France on his way from Spain to the Low Countries. Francis met 
 him at Chatellerault and received him as his guest in Paris. A pro- 
 mise was made of investing the duke of Orleans with the duchy of 
 Milan ; but all demands for its fulfilment on the part of the ambas- 
 sadors of Francis were evaded by the emperor. 
 
 While the latter was preparing his expedition to Algiers the king of 
 France sent to demand satisfaction for the murder of his ambassador 
 to the Porte, Rincon, who was assassinated, if not by the orders, at 
 least with the connivance of the Marquis del Vasto, the governor of 
 Milan. On the ground of this outrage war was again declared (1512), 
 but the king of England and the Protestant princes remained firm to 
 the emperor. The subsequent operations in Roussillon, Flanders, and 
 Piedmont, produced no events of importance until the battle of 
 Cerisoles (April 11, 1544), in which the French were completely 
 victorious. On the other hand, Charles advanced into Champagne 
 with a large and well-appointed army, and Henry VIII. besieged 
 Boulogne. On the 11th September 1544, a peace was concluded at 
 Crespi, which the emperor consented to, principally from fear of the 
 Turk and from the increasing strength of the Protestants. Francis 
 did his utmost to animate these two parties; but in 1547, on the last 
 day of March, the death of the French king relieved his opponent 
 from many of the apprehensions which he had entertained. 
 
FRANCIS II. (OF FRANCE.) 
 
 FRANCIS II. (OF GERMANY.) 
 
 m 
 
 In reviewing the position of Francis duriDg his whole struggle with 
 the emperor, we are struck with the enormous force against which he 
 had to contend. France, in his reign, sustained the same character 
 in which she appeared again in the following century. As in the 
 time of the thirty years' war, she, a Catholic power, aided the 
 Protestant cause; so in the early part of the 16th century, when 
 the danger was the more imminent, from the whole strength being 
 concentrated in the hands of Charles V., the French king was the 
 only efficient hindrance to the universal monarchy of the house of 
 Austria. It was Francis I. who favoured the revolt of Geneva from 
 tlie Duke of Savoy, and enabled that city to found an independence 
 which was afterwards to become one of the main props of the 
 reformed faith. While however he fostered religious rebellion in 
 Germany, he proved his orthodoxy in Paris by the utmost cruelty to 
 the heretics. The gallant manner in which he struggled against his 
 formidable rival, and grappled with him again and again after the 
 heaviest blows, excites our sympathy in his favour : his personal 
 courage was undoubted, and his generosity on the two occasions in 
 which Charles put himself in his power, more chivalrous than his 
 conduct with reference to the treaty of Madrid. "If it was perjury, 
 every Frenchman was his accomplice." This conduct has indeed 
 been defended by French writers ; but the hard nature of the con- 
 ditions cannot justify an open and deliberate oath, accompanied by 
 a secret protest as its antidote. Francis is said to have requested 
 knighthood from the sword of Bayard, and his usual mode of affirming 
 what he said was — "Foi de Gentilhomme." In his family Francis 
 was far from happy : by his first wife Claude of France, daughter of 
 Louis XII., he had three sons and four daughters ; his eldest, the 
 Dauphin, was said to have been poisoned by his cup-bearer, Monte- 
 cuculi : whether such was the fact is very doubtful, and there is 
 certainly no reason to suppose that the crime was instigated by 
 Charles V. The second son succeeded to the throne by the title of 
 Henry II. His second wife, Eleanor of Portugal, bore him no children. 
 His private life is not entitled to much praise. Madame de Chateau- 
 briaud, sister of Lautrec, the Duchesse d'Etampes, and la belle 
 Feroniere, were successively his mistresses : to vengeance on the part 
 of the husband of the last he is said to have owed his death. In his 
 reign ladies for the first time became constant attendants at the 
 French court, and the foundation was laid for those profligate 
 manners so fully developed in the succeeding reigns. 
 
 As the patron of art and literature, Francis I. ranks deservedly 
 high. He reigned at the moment when sounder learning and higher 
 principles of art were spreading from Italy to the rest of Europe. 
 Bud£, Lascaris, Erasmus, the Stephens, and Marot, were enabled to 
 boast of his countenance to letters : he is well known as the patron 
 of Primaticcio and Cellini ; while a greater man than either, Leonardo 
 da Vinci, is said to have died in his arms. 
 
 (Robertson, Charles V. ; Pere Daniel, Histoire de France ; Bayle, 
 Dictionnaire ; Biographie Universelle ; Leopold Ranke, Geschichte 
 der Pdpate.) 
 
 FRA.NCIS II. of France, born in 1543, was the eldest son of 
 Henri II. and of Catherine de' Medici. He married, in 1558, Mary 
 Stuart, only daughter of James V. of Scotland. On the death of his 
 father, 10th of July 1559, Francis became king, being then sixteen 
 years of age. He entrusted the government to Francis duke of Guise 
 and his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine, uncles of Mary Stuart. 
 This was the beginning of the civil and religious wars which desolated 
 France for halt' a century. Anthony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, 
 and Louis his brother, prince of Conde\ with the other princes of the 
 blood, and the great officers of the state, being indignant at seeing 
 all the power of the state in the hands of two strangers, conspired 
 against the Guises, and joined the Protestants for that purpose, as the 
 Guises were the zealous supporters of Catholicism. In March 1560, 
 the Guises having been informed of a conspiracy against them, 
 removed the king and court to the castle of Amboise ; the king 
 named the Duke of Guise lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and a 
 number of persons were arrested and executed. Soon after, the edict 
 of Romorantin was issued, which constituted the bishops judges of 
 heresy, and took the cognisance of this offence from the parliaments. 
 It was said that the chancellor De l'Hdpital consented to this edict in 
 order to avoid a greater evil, namely, the establishment of the Inqui- 
 sition in France, which was proposed by the Cardinal de Lorraine. 
 By a former edict, issued at Escouen by Henri II. in June 1559, all 
 the Lutherans were declared punishable by death. The name of 
 Huguenots, to denote the Calvinists as a distinct sect, was intro- 
 duced soon after. The Admiral de Coligni having presented to 
 the king a memorial in their favour, it was resolved, at the sug- 
 gestion of the chancellor De l'Hdpital, to leave them in peace, until 
 the general council should decide, and that if the pope did not 
 assemble a general council, a national council should be convoked in 
 France. The king assembled the states-general at Orleans, when the 
 prince of Cond6, on his arrival, was arrested on the charge of a con- 
 spiracy, and condemned to lose his head ; but he was saved by the 
 death of the king, 5th December 1560, after a reign of only seventeen 
 months. He was succeeded by his brother Charles IX., then a minor. 
 Francis II. died of an abscess in his ear; and the rumours of poison 
 which were spread at the time seem, according to De Thou and other 
 hittorians, without foundation. 
 
 FRANCIS I., emperor of Germany, born in 1708, was the son of 
 Leopold duke of Lorraine, who was the son of Charles V. of Lorraine, 
 and of Eleonora Maria, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand IIL 
 Francis's mother was the Princess of Orleans, niece of Louis XIV. 
 On the death of his father in 1729, Francis succeeded him as duke of 
 Lorraine and Bar. In consequence of the war of the Polish succession, 
 Lorraine was ceded to Stanislaus Leczinaki, father-in-law of Louis XV., 
 to revert after his death to the crown of France, and Francis received 
 Tuscany in exchange, which duchy became vacant by the extinction 
 of the house of Medici. Francis married in 1736 Maria Theresa of 
 Austria, the only daughter and heiress of the emperor Charles VI. 
 In January 1739, he weut to reside at Floreuce with his consort. In 
 1740 Charles VI. died, and Maria Theresa succeeding him in the 
 hereditary dominions of the house of Austria, she made her husband 
 coregent with herself, but gave him little share in the administration. 
 He however commanded her armies in the war which she had to 
 sustain in order to secure her inheritance. [Maria Theresa.] After 
 the death of the emperor Charles VII. in 1745, Francis was elected 
 his successor on the imperial throne. In 1748 the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle restored peace to Germany and to Europe; but in 1756 a 
 new war broke out between Prussia and Austria, known by the name 
 of the Seven Years' War, which was terminated by the peace of 
 Hubertsburg, in February 1763. The following year Joseph, the 
 eldest son of Francis, wa3 elected king of the Romans, and in 1765 
 Francis died at Innsbruck, and Joseph succeeded him as emperor of 
 Germany ; his mother retaining in her hands the sovereignty of the 
 Austrian dominions till her death. As emperor of Germany and grand- 
 duke of Tuscany, Francis left behind him the reputation of a good 
 prince, though he was involved in long wars against his inclination. 
 
 FRANCIS II., emperor of Germany, and I. of Austria, the eldest 
 son of Leopold II. and of Maria Louisa of Spain, was born at Florence 
 in February 1768. At an early age he was sent to Vienna to be 
 brought up under the eyes of his uncle, Joseph II., who gave him the 
 best preceptors in that capital. He was well instructed in the art of 
 administration, and he made himself master of all its details. He was 
 also engaged in several campaigns against the Turks, and was present 
 at the taking of Belgrade, by General Laudon, in 1789. When 
 Joseph II. died, in 1790, Francis took the direction of the government 
 till the arrival of his father from Florence. Two years afterwards 
 Leopold himself died, in 1792, and Francis, who succeeded to his vast 
 dominions, was likewise elected his successor to the imperial crown. 
 He came to the throne at a very anxious moment. The rash or pre- 
 mature, though well-meant reforms of Joseph II., had sown deep dis- 
 content in several parts of the hereditary states of Austria, which the 
 conciliatory measures of Leopold had not had time to allay : the Bel- 
 gians were in open revolt, and Francis himself was on the eve of a 
 war with France. In April 1792, Louis XVI. was obliged, by the 
 legislative assembly, to declare war against him. The Austrian armies 
 on the Rhine carried on the war for some years with varied success, 
 and without any definite result ; but the successes of Bonaparte in 
 Italy, in 1796-97, decided the fate of the war. [Bonaparte.] By the 
 treaty of Campoformio, Francis gave up Belgium and the duchy of 
 Milan, receiving in exchange Venice and Dalmatia. In 1799 a new 
 coalition took place between Austria, Russia, aud England, and the 
 allied armies were eminently successful, both in Italy and Germany ; 
 but a misunderstanding between the Austrian and Russian com- 
 manders led to the defeat of the Russians in Switzerland. In 1800, 
 Bonaparte having won the battle of Marengo and reconquered Lom- 
 bardy, nogociations of peace followed ; but Francis refused to treat 
 separately from his ally, England, and hostilities began afresh. The 
 French under Moreau having gained the battle of Hohenlinden, advanced 
 towards Vienna, when Francis proposed peace, and the treaty of Lune- 
 ville followed in 1801, by which Ferdinand, the emperor's brother, 
 was obliged to give up Tuscany, and his uncle to renounce Modena. 
 In December 1804, while Napoleon crowned himself emperor of France 
 at Paris, Francis foreseeing the approaching dissolution of the German 
 empire, declared himself hereditary emperor of Austria. In 1805, 
 feeling jealous of the new encroachments of Napoleon I. in Italy and 
 Holland, the Austrian cabinet formed a new coalition with Russia and 
 England. The campaign was unfavourable to Austria, the French, 
 entered Vienna, and the battle of Austerlitz finished the war. By the 
 following peace of Presburg, December 1805, Austria gave up the 
 Venetian states and the Tyrol. The old German empire was now 
 dissolved after a thousand years' duration : and in August 1806, Francis 
 renounced the title of emperor of Germany, and assumed that of 
 Francis I., emperor of Austria, king of Bohemia and Hungary, &c. 
 He now availed himself of some years of peace to repair the cala- 
 mities of the former wars, to make reductions, enforce a strict 
 economy, and support the credit of the state. In the war of Napo- 
 leon I. against Prussia, 1806-7, Austria maintained a strict neutrality. 
 After the peace of Tilsit and the conferences of Erfurt between 
 Napoleon I. and Alexander, the occupation of North Germany by the 
 French, and the invasion of Spain, the emperor Francis felt alarmed, 
 and prepared for a fresh struggle, which he saw must take place 
 sooner or later for the independence of his crown. Availing himself 
 of Napoleon's embarrassments in Spain, at the beginning of 1809, he 
 began alone a fourth war against France, with a force of 400,000 men. 
 The archduke Charles commanded the army of Germany, and the arch* 
 
096 FRANCIS-JOSEPH-CHARLES. 
 
 duke John that of Italy, whilst a force under General Chasteler entered 
 the Tyrol, where the people rose to a man for their former sovereign. 
 This war had a different character from the preceding, inasmuch as 
 the people of Germany began now to take part against the French : 
 corps of partisans were formed under Schill, the duke of Brunswick 
 Oels, and others who aunoyed the French, and a general spirit of 
 insurrection manifested itself against the foreign yoke. The opera- 
 tions of the war were also conducted on a different plan from the 
 former wars of Marengo, Austerlitz, and Jena, when a single battle had 
 decided the fate of the contest. The Austrians now fought detached 
 engagements with various success, and although obliged to retire, and 
 even to abandon Vienna, the archduke Charles kept his army together 
 in good order. The battle of Aspern was fought with a tremendous 
 loss on both sides, and Napoleon I. was obliged to retire across the 
 Danube. After some time the battle of Wagrain took place, and 
 although lost by the Austrians, yet the archduke retired in good order 
 towards Bohemia. He proposed an armistice, which Napoleon I. 
 accepted, and after long negociations the peace of Scuunbrunn took 
 place in October 1809. 
 
 In 1810 Napoleon I. married a daughter of the emperor Francis. 
 In 1812, during the Russian campaign, an auxiliary Austrian corps 
 under Schwartzenberg, acted in Poland against Russia, but it effected 
 little. In 1813 Austria resumed its neutrality, and offered its medi- 
 ation between Russia and France on condition that both powers should 
 evacuate Germany. On Napoleon's refusal, Austria joined the allies, 
 and its army contributed largely to the success of the great battle of 
 Leipzig, which decided that campaign. In the following year the 
 Austrian armies entered France by the way of Switzerland, and 
 occupied Burgundy and Lyon. The emperor Francis followed the 
 movements of his troops, and after the Russians and Prussians had 
 entered Paris, in April 1814, he proceeded to that capital, where he 
 remained two months. In June 1814 he returned to Vienna, where 
 the congress of the European powers opened its sittings. In 1815, 
 after Bonaparte's return from Elba, the Austrian troops advanced again 
 by the Simplon road and occupied Lyon. Meantime another Austrian 
 army had driven Murat from Naples and re established the old king 
 Ferdinand. From that epoch till his death the emperor Francis 
 remained at peace, with the exception of a short campaign against 
 the constitutional party at Naples in 1821, when his troops appeared 
 as auxiliaries to King Ferdinand. When the events of July 1830 were 
 known at Vienna, Francis and his minister, Prince Metternich, with- 
 stood the suggestions of the more violent legitimists, and determined, 
 as England had already done, not to interfere in the internal affairs 
 of France, provided that power respected the existing treaties with 
 regard to its foreign policy. Prussia followed the same course, and 
 thus Europe was saved from another general war. Francis died at 
 Vienna on the 2nd of March 1835, in his sixty-seventh year, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son Ferdinand, who, after a quiet reign of 
 twelve years, but one in which the country was bowed down under 
 the yoke of a leaden despotism, was forced by the revolutionary 
 events, as noticed below [Francis-Joseph-Charles], to abdicate on 
 the 2nd of December 1848. 
 
 In Austria and his other German states the emperor Francis was 
 popular, and personally beloved, especially by the middling and lower 
 classes. He was accessible, kind, and plain-spoken, simple and regular 
 in his habits, assiduous to business, and his moral conduct was unex- 
 ceptionable. His policy and administration were of a paternal charac- 
 ter. He was averse to every form of political innovation ; having 
 suffered much from the French revolution and its consequences, he had 
 conceived a horror of revolutions, and of every movement that partook 
 of a democratic spirit. The ruling principles of his administration 
 were love of order, minuteness of detail, economy, and strict subor- 
 dination. These principles, which agreed pretty well with the character 
 of his German subjects, clashed with the temper of the people of Italy, 
 whose activity, love of pleasure, military ambition, and national spirit, 
 had been stimulated during twenty years of French dominion. The 
 people of Lombardy, especially the educated classes, felt dissatisfied at 
 being reduced to the condition of an Austrian dependency. Con- 
 spiracies were hatched, but they all failed, and only served to render 
 the Austrian government more suspicious and severe. Of the persons 
 implicated some escaped, others were tried and condemned to death, 
 which sentence the emperor commuted to imprisonment for various 
 periods in several fortresses, but mostly in the castle of Spielberg, in 
 Moravia. Francis promoted material improvements, roads, canals, and 
 manufactures. His views of commercial policy were of the old or 
 Colbert school. He deserves praise as the promoter of popular educa- 
 tion ; he established elementary schools throughout all his dominions, 
 and superintended himself all the details and working of the system : 
 but in this, as in every other matter, his policy was directed towards 
 the prevention or the eradication of all independence of opinion. 
 
 * FRANCIS-JOSEPH-CHARLES, Emperor of Austria, was born 
 August 18, 1830, the son of the Archduke Francis-Charles-Joseph, 
 brother of the Emperor Ferdinand, and of Sophia, daughter of 
 Maximilian-Joseph, king of Bavaria. In March 1848, after the 
 expulsion of Louis-Philippe from France, a revolution followed in 
 Vienna, Prince Metternich fled, a free constitution was prepared and 
 accepted by Ferdinand, who soon afterwards withdrew from Vienna to 
 Inuspruck. Insurrections against the Austrian power broke out in 
 
 FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP. m 
 
 Hungary and Italy, and a diet for ths formation of a united German 
 empire was assembled at Frankfurt. Though Vienna had been taken 
 possession of by the imperial troops, and though Radetzky had 
 obtained advantages in Italy, it was felt that a firmer hand than 
 Ferdinand's was required to secure the Hapsburg dynasty from falling. 
 Accordingly Ferdinand abdicated on December 2, 1848, in favour of 
 his nephew, who, though little more than eighteen, was declared of 
 age. Assisted by able counsellors, the military aid of Russia, and a 
 course of policy towards Hungary that can hardly be styled less than 
 treacherous, the revolutionary movement was stayed, and what was 
 called peace — a peace maintained only by large military establish- 
 ments — secured. In the dispute between England and France with 
 Russia in 1854, the aim of the Emperor of Austria was to trim between 
 the contending powers, and he succeeded. Calling himself an ally of the 
 western allies, he protected as far as he was able the interests of Russia. 
 He thus gained permission to occupy the principalities of Moldavia and 
 Wallaohia as protector, and made himself one of the contracting parties 
 in the peace signed at Paris in 1856. The other chief events of his 
 reign have been the intrigues to maintain the superiority of Austria 
 over Prussia in the Germanic Diet, in which he has been on the whole 
 successful ; and the signing of a concordat with the pope, in the early 
 part of 1856, by which the influence of the Roman Catholic Church is 
 made all-powerful throughout the Austrian dominions, and which, it 
 is asserted, is the source of much discontent. On April 24, 1854, 
 Francis-Joseph married Elizabeth-Amelia-Eugenia, daughter of the 
 Duke of Bavaria, by whom he has had two daughters. [See Sur.] 
 
 FRANCIS, REV. DR. PHILIP, was the son of the Rev. John 
 Francis, dean of Lismore, and rector of St. Mary's, Dublin, in which 
 city Philip was born In the early part of the last century. Philip 
 was educated at the University of Dublin, and then entered the 
 church, the profession to which his progenitors for several genera- 
 tions had belonged. About the year 1750 he came over to England, 
 and set up an academy at Esher in Surrey, where Gibbon was for a 
 short time one of his pupils; but the historian in his posthumous 
 memoirs gives no favourable account of the improvement he made. 
 " Francis," he says, " preferred the pleasures of London to the 
 instruction of his pupils." While in this situation he published his 
 poetical translation of ' Horace,' which immediately brought him into 
 notice, and still continues to be reprinted. It has the advantage of 
 being the only complete modern metrical version in English of the 
 works of that poet, but has no pretensions to be considered an 
 adequate representation of the original. He also published in 1757 a 
 translation of the ' Orations of Demosthenes and Jischines,' in 2 vols. 
 4to. Before this he had published two tragedies, 'Eugenia,' 8vo, 
 1752, and ' Constantine,' 8vo, 1754. 'Eugenia' was acted at Drury 
 Lane, Garrick sustaining the principal character; but although repeated 
 for nine nights, it was very indifferently received. It is said in the 
 ' Biographia Dramatica ' to be little more than a free translation of a 
 French tragedy by Grasigni, called ' Cenie,' of which a literal version 
 was published the same year under the title of ' Cenia; or, the Sup- 
 posed Daughter.' ' Constantine ' was produced at Covent Garden. 
 " It met with very bad success," says the ' Biog. Dram.,' " although 
 not by many degrees the worst of the productions of that season." 
 These literary performances obtained for the author the acquaintance 
 of many of the most distinguished persons of the time ; but he secured 
 a connection more important to his worldly interests by some political 
 pamphlets which he is said to have written, though they seem to 
 have appeared without his name, and their titles are not given in any 
 of the biographical notices of him that we have seen. From a passage 
 in the Preface to his ' Translation of Demosthenes,' it may be inferred 
 that he took the Whig, or what is commonly called the liberal side of 
 politics. The biographer of his son in the ' Annual Obituary ' says, 
 that "he is mentioned in Wilkes's 'Letters' as being engaged in 
 some delicate negociations on the part of the Right Hon. Henry Fox, 
 afterwards Lord Holland." He was chaplain, it seems, to Lord 
 Holland, and assisted in the education of his son Charles, afterwards 
 the distinguished orator. Through Lord Holland's influence he was 
 presented to the rectory of Barrow in Suffolk; in 1764 he was also 
 appointed joint-chaplain to Chelsea College. He died March 5, 1773. 
 
 FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP, was the son of the Rev. Dr. Philip 
 Francis, and was born in Dublin on the 22nd of October 1740. When 
 his father came over to England in 1750, he was placed on the 
 foundation of St. Paul's School, London, where he remained about 
 three years. Here, it is worth observing, one of his schoolfellows 
 was Mr. Henry S. Woodfall, afterwards the printer of the 'Public 
 Advertiser,' and the publisher of the 'Letters of Junius.' In 1756 
 he was appointed to a place in the office of his father's patron, Mr. 
 Fox, then secretary of state ; and when Fox was succeeded by Pitt 
 in December of this year, young Francis had the good fortune to be 
 recommended to, and retained by, the new secretary. In 1758, 
 through the patronage of Mr. Pitt, he was appointed private secretary 
 to General Bligh, when that officer was sent in command of an expe- 
 dition against the French coast ; and while serving in this capacity 
 he was present at an action fought between the British and French 
 forces in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg. In 1760, on the same 
 recommendation, the Earl of Kinnoul, on being appointed ambassador 
 to Portugal, took Francis with him as his secretary. He returned to 
 England in 1763 ; when the Right Hon. Wellebore Ellis, afterwards 
 
097 
 
 FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP. 
 
 FRANC KLIN", THOMAS, D.D. 
 
 Lord Mendip, gave him an appointment of some consequence in the 
 War Office, over which he then presided. He retained this place till 
 March 1772, when he resigned in consequence of a quarrel with Lord 
 Barrington, who had by that time succeeded Mr. Ellis. The remainder 
 of that year he spent in travelling through Flanders, Germany, Italy, 
 and France. 
 
 In June 1773, soon after his return, he was appointed to the 
 distinguished place of one of the civil members in council for the 
 government of Bengal, with a salary of 10,000Z. He is said to have 
 owed this appointment to the influence of Lord Barrington, whose 
 hostility therefore would appear to have been now converted into 
 very substantial friendship, or who must be supposed to have had 
 private reasons for such an exercise of his patronage. He set out for 
 India in the summer of 1774, and remained in that country till 
 December 17S0, when he resigned his situation and embarked for 
 En -'land, after having had a quarrel with the governor-general Mr. 
 HastiDgs, which produced a duel, in which Mr. Francis was shot 
 through the body. He had opposed Hastings, and for some time 
 effectually, from his entrance into the council, but the sudden death 
 of two of his colleagues by whom he had been generally supported, 
 had latterly left him in a helpless minority in his contest against the 
 policy of the governor-general. 
 
 In 1784 Mr. Francis was returned to parliament for Yarmouth in 
 the Isle of Wight, and soon began to take an active part in the 
 business of the House of Commons, where, although he was not a 
 fluent speaker, the pregnancy of his remarks and the soundness and 
 extent of his information always commanded attention. He took his 
 side from the first with the W hig opposition, and to that party he 
 adhered while he lived. When it was resolved in 1786 to impeach 
 Mr. Hastings, it was proposed that Mr. Francis should be appointed 
 one of the managers of the impeachment; but all the eloquence of 
 Burke, Fox, and Windham (aided by li is own) could not overcome the 
 feeling of the House against placing in this situation a man with 
 whom the accused had had a personal quarrel. The motion was 
 twice negatived by large majorities. Nevertheless there was much 
 force in what was ur^ed iu its support, and the casuistry of the 
 question was not a little curious and perplexing. The benefit of the 
 talents and information of Mr. Francis was eventually secured to the 
 prosecution by a letter inviting his assistance, which was addressed to 
 him by the unanimous vote of the committee of managers; and his 
 business occupied his chief attention for many years. When the 
 war with France broke out, Mr. Francis adhered to the party of Fox 
 and Grey, and was one of the first and most active members of the 
 famous association of the Friends of the People. At the new election 
 in 1796 he stood candidate for Tewkesbury, but failed iu being 
 returned, and he did not sit in that parliament. In 1802 however he 
 was returned for Appleby, by Lord Thanet, and he continued to sit 
 for that borough while he remained in parliament. The question 
 of the abolition of the slave trade was that iu which he took the 
 keenest and most active part in the latter term of his parliamentary 
 career; and it is said that in advocating the abolition, he took a 
 course greatly opposed to his private interests. On the formation 
 of the Grenville administration, Mr. Francis was made a knight of the 
 Bath, 29th of October 1806; and it is believed that it was at first 
 intended to send him out to India as governor-general. That appoint- 
 ment however never took place. He retired from parliament in 
 1807; and after this, the interest which he continued to take in 
 public affairs \va9 chiefly evinced by occasional political pamphlets and 
 contributions to the newspapers. 
 
 Great attention was in 1816 drawn to Sir Philip Francis, by 
 Mr. John Taylor's ingenious publication, entitled 'Junius identified 
 with a distinguished Living Character,' the object of which was to 
 prove that Sir Philip Francis was the author of the celebrated 
 ' Letters of Junius.' The evidence adduced in this publication was 
 unquestionably very strong, and much additional confirmatory evidence 
 has since come to light. It may indeed be affirmed, that no case half 
 so strong has yet been made out in favour of any one of the many 
 other conjectures that have been started on the subject of this great 
 literary puzzle. Such well-qualified judges of historical evidence as 
 lords Brougham, Campbell, and Mahon, and Mr. Macaulay, with many 
 other high legal and literary authorities, have declared themselves 
 convinced that Sir Philip Francis wrote 'Junius ; ' aud though Francis 
 himself persisted to the last in rejecting the honour thus attempted 
 to be thrust upon him, when Btrangers referred to the subject, yet 
 with his intimates he appears in his later years to have displayed no 
 such desire; while the communications of his widow to Lord Camp- 
 bell and to Mr. Wade, the editor of Bohn's edition of 'Junius,' show 
 that Francis, while never directly a?serting himself to be Junius, 
 certainly wished his wife to believe that he was that 'great unknown;' 
 knew that she did so believe, and took extraordinary means to 
 encourage that belief. His gift to her, after their marriage, it may 
 be added, was a copy of ' Junius,' " and his posthumous present, which 
 hU son found in his bureau, was * Junius Identified,' sealed up aud 
 addressed to" his widow. In any ordinary case the evidence would 
 seem amply sufficient, but we would advise tho reader who may take 
 an interest in the question, before accepting as conclusive the evidence 
 in favour of the claim of Sir Philip Francis (a claim by him it has 
 in fact become by the publication of the statement of his widow, and 
 
 the ' New Facts' of Sir Fortunatus Dwarris), to examine carefully the 
 elaborate and singularly acute articles which appeared in the 
 'AthenDeum' in 1850, pp. 939, 969, 993, &c. ; and for the whole 
 question of the authorship of 'Junius,' the entire series of Junius 
 articles (of which the above formed only a portion) which have from 
 time to time appeared in the 'Atheuroum' since 1818. The reader 
 would also do well before accepting Francis, or any other name yet 
 suggested as that of the author of 'Junius,' to look through the 
 references under 'Junius' in the general index to the first 12 vols, 
 of that useful work ' Notes and Queries.' 
 
 The acknowledged publications of Sir Philip Francis (all of them 
 pamphlets) amount to twenty-six in number, according to a list 
 appended to the memoir of his life in the 'Annual Obituary.' One 
 of the most curious of them is the last, entitled ' Historical Questions, 
 exhibited in the Morning Chronicle in January 1818, enlarged, 
 corrected, and improved,' 8vo, 1818, which originally appeared in a 
 series of articles in the ' Morning Chronicle.' Sir Philip Francis died 
 after a long and painful illness, occasioned by disease of the prostate 
 gland, at his house in St. James's Square, 22nd of December 1818. 
 He was twice married, the second time after he had reached the age 
 of seventy, to a Miss Watkius, the daughter of a clergyman. By his 
 first wife he left a son and two daughters. 
 
 FRANCIS DE SALES. [Sales.] 
 
 FRANCIS XAVIER. [Xavier.] 
 
 FRANCKE, a celebrated German philanthropist, whose life presents 
 a striking instance of the good which an individual may effect. Francke 
 was born atLubeck in 1663. He made such rapid progress in learning 
 that at the age of fourteen he was fit to enter the university, where 
 he devoted himself with great application to the study of divinity aud 
 the ancient as well as modern languages. In 1691 he became professor 
 of oriental languages at the University of Halle, and soon afterwards 
 professor of divinity aud pastor of the parish of Glaucha, a suburb of 
 Halle. The wretched state of his parishioners, who were sunk in the 
 most abject ignorance and poverty, gave the first impulse to his 
 philanthropic exertions. He began by teaching the children, whom 
 he supported at the same time by small donations. He took a few 
 orphaus to educate; their number rapidly increased ; and as he was 
 assisted by the contributions of many charitable persons, he gradually 
 extended the sphere of his beneficial activity, and formed several 
 establishments for the education of all classes. In 1698 he laid the 
 foundation of an orphan asylum, though he had scarcely any means 
 of completing the edifice, but the necessary funds were constantly 
 supplied by charitable persons. He was fortunate in finding not only 
 persons who contributed money to promote his undertaking, but many 
 who zealously assisted him in his labours. Francke was a man of 
 mild and cheerful disposition, agreeable manners, and exceedingly 
 laborious. He punctually attended to his academical lectures, and to 
 his clerical duties at Halle as well as in Glaucha : his affairs aud 
 extensive correspondence engrossed all the day, and it was only lata 
 at night that he could occupy himself with his literary labours, the 
 earnings of which he always devoted to charitable purposes. The 
 greater part of his works were written in German, but he published 
 also some learned works on divinity in Latin. Francke died in 1727, 
 and the following establishments, all of which we believe still exist at 
 Halle, owe to him their foundation and bear his name : — 1, the Orphau 
 Asylum, in which poor orphans of both sexes are gratuitously educated; 
 2, the Pedagogium, an institution for the education of young men of 
 the higher and middle classes, founded in 1696; 3, the Latin School, 
 established for the education of children not belonging to wealthy 
 families, and divided into nine classes ; 4, German or Burgher Schools 
 for boys and girls ; 5, the East India Missionary Establishment ; and 
 C, the Cansteinian Biblical Institution. This last establishment was 
 the forerunner of Bible societies. It was founded by Baron Canstein, 
 a German nobleman, who, after having spent a part of his life in courts 
 and camps, became by his intercourse with Francke religiously disposed, 
 and by his exertions and the aid of subscriptions established the biblical 
 institution of Halle, in order to promote the reading and circulation 
 of the Scriptures among the poorer classes. The profits derived from 
 the sale of the Bibles and New Testaments which it prints aud sells 
 go to the support of Francke's institutions, which also derive a con- 
 siderable income from lands and other charitable gilts bequeathed to 
 them chiefly by persons who have been educated there, as well as from 
 a bookselling, printing, and publishing establishment, which is the 
 property of the above-mentioned institutions. 
 
 FRANCKLIN, THOMAS, D.D., was born at London in 1721. 
 Being the son of a well-known printer, Richard Francklin, who, for 
 his paper ' The Craftsman,' and other services to Walpole's enemies, 
 expected or had been promised a provision iu the church for his son, 
 he was educated at Westminster School, and thence sent to Cambridge, 
 where he became a Fellow of Trinity College. Afterwards, while an 
 usher in Westminster School, he gained some reputation by translations 
 of Phalaris's 'Epistles,' and of Cicero's 'De Natura Deorum ;' and in 
 1750, afteir a contest, he was chosen Greek professor in the University 
 of Cambridge, an appointment to which he appears to have done as 
 little credit by the regularity of his deportment as by his literary 
 exertions, ^fter having held lectureships iu London, he was presented 
 by his college in 1758 to the livings of Ware and Thundrich in Hert- 
 fordshire. Although however several sermons of bis were published 
 
MM 
 
 FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN. 
 
 during his life, and three volumes of them after his death, he was 
 always chiefly employed in London in literary labours and literary 
 quarrels. Among his disputes, that with Arthur Murphy was the 
 most noted. He died in London ou the 15th of March 1784. His 
 writings were numerous and varied, but of little value. Among his 
 original works wore a poem called 'Translation,' 1753; a periodical 
 called ' The Centinel,' intended as a continuation of ' The World,' but 
 dropped at the twenty-seventh number ; contributions to Smollett's 
 ' Critical Review ;' and one or two indifferent plays. His translations 
 were voluminous. Several were of tragedies from tho French of 
 Voltaire and La Harpe, in the presenting of which to the stage the 
 sources borrowed from were not always acknowledged. But the only 
 translations of Francklin that are now remembered by any one are 
 his 'Sophocles,' 2 vols. 4to, 1759; aud ' Luciau,' 2 vols. 4to, 1780. 
 
 FRANCO, BATTISTA, called Semolei, a painter aud engraver, 
 born at Udine, according to Vasari, about 1498 : he died at Venice in 
 1561. 
 
 Though of the Venetian state, Franco was of the Florentine school. 
 He was a great imitator of Michel Angelo, with whose style of design 
 he combiued some of the excellences of Venetian colour. He painted 
 much at Florence aud at Rome ; but he produced few easel pictures, 
 and his works are accordingly rarely seen in galleries. His engravings 
 or etchings are numerous, but nearly all after his own designs : they 
 are mannered, but executed with great power. Franco was the master 
 of Baroccio. 
 
 FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, born at Boston, iu New England, 
 January 6, 1706, Old Style, was the son of a tallow-chandler in 
 humble circumstances, but intelligent and strong-minded. As a boy 
 he had a great desire to go to sea; but he also displayed a fondness 
 for reading, which induced his father to apprentice him to another 
 son, who was a printer at Boston. His love of books, which he had 
 now more means of indulging, weaned him from the love of the sea; 
 and he practised great abstinence and self-denial, the better to improve 
 his opportunities of study. At the samo time he made himself an 
 able workman. The two brothers however did not agree : the elder 
 used an undue severity, which the younger, as he himself says, did 
 something to provoke by his impertinence. These quarrels led to a 
 step, which, with his usual candour, Franklin has plainly related, and 
 declared to have been dishonourable. His indentures had, for certain 
 reasons, been cancelled, under a private agreement that he should 
 continue to serve for the full period of apprenticeship. A new quarrel 
 arising, he took advantage of the letter of the law, and declared his 
 resolution to quit his brother's service. The printer took care so to 
 represent this matter that Beujamiu was unable to find employment 
 in Boston. He therefore went away secretly, without the consent of 
 his parents, in 1723, and after a vain trial to find work at New York, 
 engaged himself to an obscure printer in Philadelphia, named Keimer. 
 There he lived frugally and creditably for a year and a half : but 
 being induced by deceptive promises of patronage to think of setting 
 up for himself as a master printer, he sailed for England, in the 
 beginning of 1725, to purchase the necessary stock in trade. On his 
 arrival he discovered that his pretended friend had neither the power 
 nor the desire to help him ; and being destitute of money or credit, 
 he again found employment as a journeyman printer in London. His 
 own account of this portion of his life, which offers an admirable 
 example of frugality and industry, is very interesting. Having gained 
 the good-will of Mr. Denham, a merchant of Philadelphia, he returned 
 thither as that gentleman's clerk, in July 1726. He now considered 
 his prospects to be promising : but in 1727 Mr. Denham died, and 
 Franklin being unable to do better, returned to his old trade and his 
 old master, Keimer. In the course of two years he gained credit and 
 friends to enable him to set up in business on his own account ; and on 
 September 1, 1730, he married a young woman to whom, before his 
 voyage to England, he had been attached. 
 
 Franklin had early renounced Christianity, nor does it appear, 
 though he has unequivocally recorded his belief in God aud in a 
 future existence, that he ever again gave credence to revealed religion. 
 About this time however a great change took place in his views. In 
 London he had written a pamphlet to prove (we quote his words) 
 " from the attributes of God, his goodness, wisdom, and power, that 
 there could be no such thing a3 evil in the world; that vice and 
 virtue did not in reality exist, and were nothing more than vain dis- 
 tinctions." Reflection on the conduct of other free-thinkers, by whom 
 he had suffered, and on some parts of his own life, which he has 
 candidly related and condemned, brought him to a different way of 
 thinking ; and, he says, " I was at last convinced that truth, probity, 
 and sincerity in transactions between man and man were of the 
 utmost importance to the happiness of life ; and I resolved from that 
 moment, and wrote the resolution in my journal, to practise them as 
 long as I lived." This resolution he fully kept. His honesty and 
 straightforwardness have passed unquestioned, even by the numerous 
 enemies whom his religious and political opinions raised against him. 
 
 Unceasing industry, business-like habits, a large fund of disposable 
 talent, general information, and readiness in the use of his pen, 
 either for amusement or instruction, gradually secured to Franklin 
 a large circle of friends, and raised him from poverty to affluence. 
 He engaged in literature ; edited a newspaper, wrote a 'pamphlet to 
 advocate a paper currency; and iu 1732 projected 'Poor Richard's 
 
 Almanac* of which the distinguishing feature was a series of maxima 
 of prudence aud industry, in the form of proverbs. It was continued 
 for twenty-five years, and is said to have reached a circulation of 
 10,000 annually. These maxims, collected in one piece, called 'The 
 Way to Wealth,' obtained uncommon popularity, and have been 
 translated into various languages. 
 
 Franklin's turn of mind was eminently practical. He said with 
 truth, " I have always set a greater value on the character of a doer of 
 good than on any other kind of reputation." Not that he joined in 
 the vulgar prejudice of setting theory and practice iu opposition, for 
 he was bold, speculative, and inquiring in physical as well as in 
 metaphysical science. But science in his hands always bore fruit 
 directly applicable to the uses of common life ; and while ho never 
 neglected his own affairs, industry and economy of time enabled him 
 to originate, or take an active part in supporting, a variety of projects 
 for the public good. Of these the chief were the first public library, 
 incorporated in 1742 by the name of " The Library Company of 
 Philadelphia," but which he set on foot and procured subscriptions 
 for in 1732. In 1738 he established the first association for extin- 
 guishing fires ; and, at a later period, the first Fire Insurance 
 Company. In 1749 he raised subscriptions for the foundation of a 
 public academy, the schools of Pennsylvania being few and bad. This 
 was the origin of the present university of Pennsylvania. In 1752 he 
 raised subscriptions and procured an auxiliary grant from the legis- 
 lature to establish the first hospital in Philadelphia ; a scheme sug- 
 gested in the first instance by a physician of the city, who had not 
 influence enough to work it out. In 1754 he proposed a plan for a 
 union of the American provinces against invasion, in which a germ of 
 the future Uuiou may be found. It was kept alive, he used to say, 
 like all good notions, though not carried into effect at the time. It 
 was approved by a species of congress from six of the provinces, but 
 rejected both by the colonial assemblies and the British government. 
 He was also a zealous member of several societies ; among them, of the 
 Philadelphia Society for the Improvement of Prisons, and the Pennayl- 
 vanian Society for the Abolition of Slavery, both founded in 1787. 
 
 As a philosopher, his name is indissolubly linked with the history 
 of electricity, in which he was one of the most active, patient, and 
 succe.sful experimenters; and his industry was rewarded by that 
 brilliant discovery, the corner-stone of his scientific fame, of the 
 identity of the electric fluid and lightning. His attention was first 
 turned this way in 1745, the science being then in its infancy, by tho 
 transmission of an electrical apparatus to Philadelphia, for the purpose 
 of having the experiments which had attracted so much notice in 
 Europe repeated in America. In 1747 he sent a series of letters to 
 England, in which he noted the power of sharp points both to attract 
 and to give out electric matter ; and explained his theory, that 
 instead of the phenomena observed being produced by two different 
 electric fluids, they arose from the effort made to restore an equi- 
 librium when one body was overcharged, and another undercharged, 
 with electricity. A body in the former state he called positively, 
 in the latter state negatively electrified. This theory he used to 
 explain the action of the Leyden jar ; and though not universally 
 admitted, it at least furnishes a simple and satisfactory explanation of 
 the phenomena of the science. In 1749 he had conjectured the 
 identity of lightning and electricity, and suggested the idea of pro- 
 tecting houses by pointed conductors, but did not prove it till 1752. 
 He was waiting for the erection of some lofty building, upon which 
 an insulated iron rod might be placed, in hope that on the passage of 
 a thunder-cloud overhead, sparks might be taken from the rod, as 
 from a charged conductor, when it occurred to him that by flying a 
 kite, pointed with iron, during a thunder-storm, the matter of 
 lightning might, if his views were correct, be drawn down the string. 
 He tied a key to the end of the hempen string, insulated the whole 
 apparatus by adding a piece of silk to the end next the hand ; and 
 the experiment succeeded. Sparks were taken from the key, a 
 Leyden jar was charged, and the phenomena exhibited were identically 
 the same as if an electrical machine had been used instead of the kite. 
 He varied the experiment by fixing an insulated iron rod at the top 
 of his house ; and immediately proceeded to turn his discovery to 
 account by publishing a plan for defending houses from lightning by 
 the use of pointed conductors. 
 
 His character, in reference to this branch of his pursuits, has been 
 described in the following terms by Sir H. Davy : " A singular felicity 
 for induction guided all his researches, and by very small means he 
 established very grand truths. The style and manner of his publi- 
 cation (on Electricity) are almost as worthy of admiration as the 
 doctrine it contains. He has endeavoured to remove all mystery 
 and obscurity from the subject. He has written equally for the un- 
 initiated and for the philosopher; and he has rendered his details 
 amusing as well as perspicuous, elegant as well as simple." ('Life,' 
 by Dr. Davy.) 
 
 To Franklin's other scientific labours we can only allude. They 
 treat of many branches of meteorology, maritime phenomena, ship- 
 building and various subjects connected with navigation, as the Gulf 
 Stream, and the effect of oil in stilling waves ; of the proper con' 
 struction of stoves and chimneys, which, to use a common phrase, 
 seems to have been one of his hobbies ; of the art of swimming, which, 
 being himself an excellent swimmer, he was anxious to recommend as 
 
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN. 
 
 a universal branch of education : subjects consonant to his practical 
 character, and most of them directly applicable to the increase of 
 human comforts. Papers on these matters nearly fill the second 
 volume of his collected works; his electrical treatises and letters 
 occupy the first volume; and his moral, historical, and political 
 writings the third. 
 
 To return to Franklin's private history : the increasing estimation 
 in which he was held, was manifested in his successive appointments 
 to different offices. In 1736 he was made clerk to the General Assem- 
 bly of Pennsylvania; in 1737 postmaster of Philadelphia; in 1747 he 
 was elected as one of the representatives of Philadelphia in the Assem- 
 bly ; in 1753 he was appointed deputy postmaster-general for the 
 British colonies. 
 
 When he first became a member of Assembly, that body and the 
 proprietary governors, Penn's representatives, were in hot dispute, 
 chiefly with respect to the immunity from taxation claimed by the 
 latter. In this Franklin took an active part. " He was soon looked 
 up to as the head of the opposition, and to him have been attributed 
 many of the spirited replies of the Assembly to the messages of the 
 governors. His influence in that body was very great. This arose 
 not from any superior powers of eloquence ; he spoke but seldom, and 
 he never was known to make anything like an elaborate harangue. 
 His speeches often consisted of a single sentence, or of a well-told 
 Btory, the moral of which was always obviously to the point. He 
 never attempted the flowery fields of oratory. His manner was plain 
 and mild. His style in speaking was like that of his writings, simple, 
 unadorned, and remarkably concise. With this plain manner, and his 
 penetrating and solid judgment, he was able to confound the most 
 eloquent and subtle of his adversaries, to confirm the opinion of his 
 friends, and to make converts of the unprejudiced who had opposed 
 him." (' Life,' p. 115.) Having thus shown his talents, he was sent 
 to England in 1757, on the part of the Assembly, to manage the con- 
 troversy before the privy council, and was successful : it was decided 
 that the estates of the proprietaries ought to pay their fair proportion 
 of the public burdens. He remained in England after this question 
 was settled, a3 agent for Pennsylvania ; and his conduct was so highly 
 approved that Massachusetts, Maryland, and Georgia, severally appointed 
 him their agent. By this time his name was well known to European 
 philosophers. He was chosen a member of the Royal Society, and of 
 several foreign scientific bodies at a later period ; in 1772 he was made 
 a foreign associate of the Academie des Sciences, and the universities 
 of Oxford, Edinburgh, and St. Andrews, admitted him to the degree 
 of D.C.L. On his return to America, in 1762, he received the thanks 
 of the Assembly, " as well for the faithful discharge of his duty to 
 that province in particular, as for the many and important services 
 done to America in general during his residence in Great Britain." 
 
 Being re-elected a member of Assembly, Franklin was earnest in 
 endeavouring to procure a change in the government, by vesting 
 directly in the king those rights and powers, which were held 
 mediately by the proprietaries, to the injury, as he thought, of the 
 community. Party spirit ran high on this point ; and the friends 
 of the proprietaries had influence enough to prevent his election in 
 17'Jt. On the meeting of the Assembly however he was re-appointed 
 provincial agent in England. He was a warm opponent of the Stamp 
 Act : and his examination at the bar of the House of Commons in 
 1766, when the repeal of that unhappy measure was proposed, shows 
 the minuteness, variety, and readiness of his information. (See his 
 Works, vol. iii., p. 245.) In the outset of the contest he is said to have 
 been truly desirous of effecting a reconciliation between the mother 
 country and the colonies. The rough treatment which he experienced 
 in the course of his negociations is reported to have changed his 
 temper. That he should have been deprived of his postmastership, is 
 not wonderful. On one occasion, before the privy council, being 
 assailed by Wedderburne, then solicitor-general, in a torrent of 
 personal abuse, which was received with evident pleasure by the 
 council, he bore it in silence, and apparently unmoved. On changing 
 his dress however he is reported to have said, that he never again 
 would wear that suit till he had received satisfaction for that day's 
 insult. His next appearance in it was on the day when, as minister 
 of the United States, he signed the treaty by which England recog- 
 nised the independence of the colonies. 
 
 In 1775, perceiving that there was little chance of a reconciliation 
 being effected, he returned to Philadelphia, and the day after he 
 landed, was elected a delegate to the Congress then assembled in that 
 city. His character and services marked him out for the most 
 important employments during that and the following year : among 
 them he was sent on a fruitless mission to persuade the Canadians to 
 join in the insurrection ; and was appointed president of the conven- 
 tion assembled at Philadelphia, for the purpose of remodelling the 
 government of Pennsylvania. Towards the end of 1776 he was sent 
 to France, where in conjunction with his brother minister, Silas 
 Deane, he succeeded in inducing the French Government to form an 
 offensive and defensive alliance with the United States, Feb. 6, 1778. 
 Having made several journeys to the Continent in his former visits to 
 Europe, he was already known in person as well as by reputation to 
 the scientific and literary men of France, by whom he was received 
 with the highest marks of respect. Nor did his political engagements 
 prevent his bestowing some share of his attention on science. He 
 
 moa. div. vol. il 
 
 FRANKLIN, REAR-ADMIRAL SIR JOHN. iooj 
 
 bore a part in exposing the frauds practised under the name of animal 
 magnetism. In 1785 he was recalled, at his own wish, and was 
 succeeded by Jefferson. Soon after his return he was chosen member 
 of the supreme executive council for the city of Philadelphia, and in 
 a short time was elected president of the same. In 1787 he was 
 delegate for the state of Pennsylvania, in the convention appointed to 
 revise and amend the Articles of Union, and his last political act was 
 an address to his colleagues, entreatiug them to sacrifice their own 
 private views, for the sake of unanimity iu recommend iug the new 
 constitution, as determined by the majority, to their constituents. 
 
 After enjoying, through a long life, an unusual share of health, the 
 just reward of temperance and activity, Franklin was compelled in 
 1788 to quit public life, by the infirmities of age. But lie still 
 retained his philanthropy undiminished, and his intellect unclouded ; 
 and his name appears, as president of the Abolition Society, to a 
 memorial to Congress, dated February 12, 1789, praying them to exert 
 the full extent of power vested in them by the constitution in dis- 
 couraging the traffic in men. This wa3 his last public act. Still he 
 preserved his liveliness and energy, during those intervals of ease 
 which a painful disease, the stone, afforded to him. This however 
 was not the proximate cause of his death. He died, after a short illness, 
 from disease of the lungs, April 17, 1790, aged eighty-four. 
 
 Dr. Franklin's published works were collected iu three volumes, 
 with his fragment of his own life, continued by Dr. Stuber, prefixed. 
 He bequeathed his papers to his grandson, AVilliam Temple Franklin, 
 by whom, after long delay, an excellent ' Life of Franklin,' including 
 many of his miscellaneous writings, and much of his correspondence, 
 was published. The ' Biog. Universelle ' contains a long memoir of 
 him by Biot; and his character and conduct have employed the pens 
 of several of the most distinguished Americans of the present day. 
 The latest and best life of Dr. Franklin is that by Mr. Jared Sparks, 
 prefixed to an edition of the Works of Franklin, in 10 vols. 8vo. 
 
 William Franklin, the natural son of Benjamin Franklin, and his 
 only son who survived childhood, born at Philadelphia iu 1731, took, 
 at the commencement of the revolutionary struggle, the opposite side 
 to his father, and during the whole of the war of independence remained 
 a steadfast loyalist. He held early in life the office of postmaster of 
 Philadelphia; and in 1763 was made Governor of New Jersey, an 
 appointment he retained until 1776, when a new governor was elected 
 by the popular vote, and Governor Franklin was arrested and sent 
 prisoner to Connecticut. He was treated with considerable harshness, 
 but, after some two years had passed, was exchanged, and removed to 
 New York, then held by the English army. Here he became president 
 of the ' Board of Loyalist-?,' and took an extremely active part iu 
 furthering every effort made by the loyal party. When the English 
 were obliged to evacuate New York, William Franklin took refuge in 
 England, where he met with a favourable reception from the king and 
 the government, and received a handsome pension, on which he 
 resided in this country till his death, November 1813. From the 
 moment of his accepting the governorship of New Jersey his father 
 broke off all intercourse with him, and though William Franklin 
 sought a reconciliation when the cause of their original quarrel was 
 removed, there was no renewal of cordial feelings. Franklin 
 indeed promised to forget, but in his will he bequeathed but a trifling 
 sum to his son, assigning as a reason " the part he acted in the lato 
 war." 
 
 FRANKLIN, REAR-ADMIRAL SIR JOHN, was born in 1786 at 
 Spilsby in Lincolnshire. His ancestors were substantial yeomen, and 
 his father inherited an estate in that county, which though small was 
 sufficient to give him local rank as a landlord. Unhappily however 
 the property was so embarrassed that he was obliged to sell it, 
 and he became entirely dependent on his commercial profits for the 
 maintenance and education of twelve children, some of whom, besides 
 the subject of this memoir, attained considerable rank and reputa- 
 tion. One, Sir Willingham Franklin, became judge at Madras, and 
 another, Major James Franklin of the Bengal Service, was highly 
 distinguished for his scientific acquirements, which procured him the 
 Fellowship of the Royal Society. 
 
 John, the youngest son, early evinced a great predilection for a sea- 
 life. There is a story told of him which seems to rest on more than 
 mere traditionary evidence. When a school-boy at Louth iu Lincoln- 
 shire, he availed himself of a holiday to walk to the coast, a distance 
 of twelve miles, in order to see the ocean, on which he gazed with 
 wonder and delight for many hours. His father, who was extremely 
 desirous that his son should follow any other profession than that of a 
 sailor, conceived that by sending him in a small merchant-ship to 
 Lisbon, the discomforts of the voyage would effectually cure the lad of 
 his love for the sea, but it had a totally different effect ; and accord- 
 ingly perceiving that he was bent on a naval profession, he was entered 
 as midshipman on board the Polyphemus at the age of fourteen, and 
 was iu that ship in the celebrated battle of Copenhagen, from which 
 he escaped without a wound, whilst a brother midshipman was killed 
 at his side. 
 
 He next joined the Investigator, under the command of Captain 
 Flinders, his cousin by marriage, with whom he sailed on a voyage 
 of discovery to the coasts of Australia. During this expedition, 
 which combined investigations into natural history with geographical 
 discovery, young Franklin had ybundant opportunities- -which trero 
 
1C03 
 
 not neglected — of acquiring much valuable knowledge. Besidea sound 
 practical seamauship he learned the more theoretical and difficult 
 branches of nautical surveying, and was always one of the midshipmen 
 selected to attend the Captain whenever he made excursions in 
 boats, or visited the shore for scientific purposes. After some time 
 the Investigator being unfit for further service, the officers were 
 ordered home in the Porpoise. In this ship he was wrecked on a 
 coral reef off the Australian coast, and with 94 persons spent nearly 
 two months on a narrow sandbank only a few feet above the sea-level, 
 whilst Captain Flinders proceeded to Port Jackson for relief. 
 
 Having fortunately escaped the fate of his chief, who on his voyage 
 home was unjustly detaiued as a prisoner in Mauritius, Franklin pro- 
 ceeded to Canton with Captain Fowler, who had charge of the Porpoise, 
 and embarked on board the Earl Camden, commanded by Sir Nathaniel 
 Dance, for the purpose of returning to England. This ship and other 
 Indiamen were attacked by the French admiral, Linois, in the Straits 
 of Malacca, but Sir Nathaniel Dance gallantly defeated his antagonist. 
 During the engagement Franklin acted as signal midshipman, and was 
 of considerable service in other ways. 
 
 Shortly after his arrival in England he was appointed to the 
 Bellerophon, Captain Laing, and had the charge on board that ship 
 of the signals during the memorable battle of Trafalgar. It is recorded 
 that he performed this important duty with singular coolness and 
 intrepidity, although many of his brother officers were shot around 
 him. Indeed, out of forty companions, only seven, of whom he was 
 one, came out of the battle unscathed. He now served for two years 
 with the Channel fleet and Rochefort squadron, and then joined the 
 Bedford, in which ship he was present at the blockade of Flushing, — off 
 the coast of Portugal, — on the Brazil station, — and at the attack of New 
 Orleans in 1814. Here he greatly distinguished himself in a guu-boat 
 action, in the course of which he received a slight wound. For his gallant 
 conduct on this occasion he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. 
 
 Peace having been established, the attention of Government was 
 turned to Arctic discovery, which had been interrupted during the 
 long war, and in 1818 commenced the brilliant and remarkable series 
 of Arctic expeditions with which Franklin's name is so honourably 
 associated. The scientific knowledge he had acquired when serving 
 under Captain Flinders was now of great benefit to him, and Sir 
 Joseph Banks, who at that time presided over the Royal Society and 
 who took great interest in Arctic matters, recommended him to the 
 Admiralty as a proper officer to be employed in Arctic exploration. 
 Accordingly Franklin commenced his Arctic career by commanding 
 the Trent, which ship, with the Dorothea, commanded by Captain 
 Buchan, formed an expedition appointed to sail from Spitzbergen 
 across the supposed Polar Sea. 
 
 Unhappily the Dorothea in lat. 80° 34' N. became disabled, but 
 Lieutenant Franklin, with a gallant disregard of danger, earnestly 
 requested to be allowed to proceed alone in the execution of the 
 service. The nature of Captain Buchan's instructions prevented 
 this, and the ships returned to England. 
 
 Franklin's conduct and aptitude for the peculiar service of Arctic 
 enterprise brought him into prominent notice, aud he was intrusted 
 in 1819 with the command of his first overland expedition for the 
 purpose of tracing the coast-line of the North American continent, 
 at that time very imperfectly known. Descending the Coppermine 
 the party surveyed a large portion of the coast east of the mouth of 
 that river, during which they underwent frightful privations and 
 trials, the history of which, as told in Franklin's own manly and 
 unaffected language, is undoubtedly one of the noblest pictures of 
 heroic exertion and patient endurance ever presented for our admira- 
 tion. _ The results of the labours of Franklin and of his distinguished 
 associate Sir John Bichardson, in this memorable journey, deserve 
 more full and fitting recognition than can be attempted on this occa- 
 sion : the party travelled 5550 miles, mostly over ground previously 
 unknown, and large acquisitions were gained for science by the careful 
 study of the physical geography and natural productions of the 
 North American continent. 
 
 For his services on this occasion he was promoted to the rank of 
 captain, having while absent risen from lieutenant to commander. In 
 1823 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and served on 
 the council of that body. 
 
 Undeterred by the appalling sufferings he had already undergone, 
 Franklin, although lately united in marriage to the youngest daughter 
 of William Porden, Esq., again volunteered his services for Arctic 
 exploration. These were accepted, and in 1825 he left England on 
 his second land exploration. Descending the Mackenzie River, he 
 traced the North American coast from the mouth of the Coppermine 
 River to the 150th meridian. For these fresh services he received 
 the honour of knighthood, and had the degree of D.C.L. conferred on 
 him by the University of Oxford. He also received the Gold Medal 
 from the French Geographical Society, and was elected a Corresponding 
 Member of the Institute of France. 
 
 Sir John Franklin now remained at home two years, when he was 
 appointed to the Rainbow, and served in that ship in the Mediter- 
 ranean for three years. He was chiefly employed in the Greek waters, 
 and had the good fortune to be of considerable service in the delicate 
 adjustment of complicated diplomatic relations. It is worthy of 
 remark, as illustrative of the amiability of Franklin's character, that 
 
 the sailors who then served under him named the ship the ' Celestial 
 Rainbow' aud 'Franklin's Paradise.' During this period, as indeed on 
 all other occasions, he eagerly availed himself of every opportunity, 
 not only to improve his knowledge of geology, to which scieuce ho 
 was greatly attached, but also used every exertion to add to the 
 museum of the Geological Society, and to the private collections of 
 scientific men. 
 
 After a brief period of rest which followed his services in the 
 Mediterranean, he applied to Lord Glenelg for employment under the 
 Colonial department, and his lordship in a very complimentary 
 manner offered him the important post of Governor of Van Dieineu's 
 Laud, which he held for seveu years. During this time that colony 
 received convicts, New South Wales having ceased to be a penal 
 settlement. This rendered Sir John Franklin's position most onerous 
 and trying, but he acquitted himself so entirely to the satisfaction of 
 the colonists, that in grateful remembrance of his government, which 
 was marked by the establishment of a college and a philosophical 
 society, they, unsolicited, subscribed 1600i. towards tho expenses of a 
 private expedition fitted out for his rescue. 
 
 It might be supposed that, after so long a period of laborious 
 services, Sir John Franklin would have desired repose, particularly as 
 he had now attained high renown ; but his wishes still pointed 
 towards active employment, and consequently, when the Arctic expe- 
 dition was contemplated, which has cost him his life, he was willing 
 to take the command, when the Admiralty were of opinion that he 
 was the officer best fitted to act as chief. That expedition was origi- 
 nated by the late Sir John Barrow, secretary to the Admiralty, who 
 submitted a plan for tho discovery of the North-West Passage to 
 government, which, after having been referred to the couucil of the 
 Royal Society, was adopted. 
 
 The expedition, consisting of the Erebus and Terror, which had 
 recently returned from a voyage of discovery in the Antarctic sea, 
 left England in May 1845. Unhappily its history and fate are still 
 veiled in obscurity : this however we know, that everything was dona 
 to render it efficient; that the officers under Sir John Franklin were 
 men of experience and zeal, and that the last accounts received from 
 them represent their commander animated by all the ardour and spirit 
 which characterised his early Arctic exertions. 
 
 It would have been unjust to have expected less from such a man, 
 and as his instructions contained the usual discretionary power given 
 in these documents, there is too much reason to fear that he fell a 
 victim to his daring attempts to achieve success. It will ever be a 
 matter of regret, though it cannot be of surprise, that the discovery 
 of traces of the Erebus and Terror at the entrance of Wellington 
 Channel caused the search for our countrymen to be directed prin- 
 cipally to the north and west of Barrow's Straits; because, although 
 the information brought home by Dr. Rae in 1854, to the effect that 
 Esquimaux had seen the bodies of forty white men in the spring of 
 1850 on what is supposed to be Montreal Island, at the mouth of the 
 Fish River, cannot be regarded as trustworthy ; yet the relics of the 
 expedition procured by Mr. Anderson and Dr. Rae suffice to prove that 
 Franklin's ships must have been beset within an area comprised within 
 the 70th and 72nd parallels of latitude and the 97th and 100th 
 meridians. 
 
 This fact leads to the conclusion, which no biographer of Franklin 
 can overlook, that although government has rewarded Sir Robert 
 M'Clure for discovering a North- West Passage, another passage, and 
 the only navigable one, was previously discovered by Sir John Franklin. 
 This is the opinion of Sir Francis Beaufort, the late eminent hydro- 
 grapher, and of his successor, Captain Washington, and also of Frank- 
 lin's old associate in Arctic adventure, Sir John Richardson, and other 
 well-known Arctic voyagers. Thus should the efforts prove unsuccess- 
 ful, which will assuredly be made by Lady Franklin, if not by govern- 
 ment, to ascertain the precise fate of Sir John Franklin and his com- 
 panions, sufficient is known to warrant the addition to Franklin's 
 many high qualities and titles of renown on the monument which is 
 about to be erected to his memory in Lincoln — that of his having 
 been the first discoverer of a North-West Passage. [See Sup.] 
 
 FRANZEN, FRANS-MICHAEL, an eminent modern Swedish poet 
 and prosaist, was born on the 9th of February 1772 at Uleaborg, in 
 Finland, at that time a province of the Swedish crown. Finland, 
 both before and since its compulsory union with Russia, has been 
 fruitful of poets to Sweden, though possessed of a language of its 
 own of an entirely different character. Runeberg, at present the head 
 of Swedish poetical literature, is a Finn, and the first effort of 
 Franz^n that attracted attention was his poetical eulogy on Creutz, 
 also a Finn, who combined the unusual characters of a poet and a 
 diplomatist, and passed much of his life as ambassador at Paris. The 
 'Atis and Camilla' of Creutz had introduced an ease and elegance, 
 before unknown, into Swedish poetry, and the eulogy on its author by 
 Franzeh produced a commotion in the literary world of Stockholm, 
 by the originality and vigour of its tone, which was in strong contrast 
 to that of the school of Leopold, then dominant, who was an ingenious 
 imitator of French models. The eulogy obtained, in spite of its 
 originality, the great prize of the Swedish Academy. This was iD 
 1794, at which time, and for nine years previous, Franzeh had been a 
 student at the Finnish university of Abo. In the following year he 
 set out on a tour to Denmark, Germany, France and England, and 
 
FRASER, SIMON. 
 
 chanced to be a witness of the great fire of Copenhagen, which 
 destroyed a third part of the city. In Paris he ventured on a piece 
 of composition in French verse, which was printed in a French perio- 
 dical, and which he reprinted thirty years afterwards in the introduc- 
 tion to bis Swedish poem, founded on a tale of the revolution, 'Julie 
 de St. Julien.' During his absence he was elected librarian to the 
 University of Abo, and afterwards professor of literary history. After 
 the transfer of Finland to Russia by the war of 180*9, he resolved to 
 remove to Sweden, where he remained for the rest of his life. At first 
 he officiated as pastor of Kumla, in the diocese of Strengnas, a parish 
 remote from the capital, but he was afterwards minister of the church 
 of Clara at Stockholm, where the poet Choraeus had preceded him ; 
 and in 1834 he was chosen Bishop of Hernosand. While still a 
 resident in Finland, he had been chosen one of the eighteen of the 
 Swedish Academy, a distinction of the same importance for a literary 
 man in Sweden, as to be a member of the Royal Academy here for an 
 artist in England. In 1824 he became its secretary, and remained 
 so for ten years, during which it was part of his duty to write a 
 series of biographical notices, which were much admired for their 
 literary merits. He appears to have resigned the secretaryship on his 
 elevation to the bishopric, which he held till his death, Aug. 14, 1S47. 
 Laing in his travels in Sweden gives an account of his meeting with 
 Bishop Franzen on board of a steam-boat, when going on a visit to 
 his northern diocese, and speaks of the general affection and veneration 
 with which he wa3 regarded. 
 
 Archbishop Wallin, Bishop Tegndr, and Bishop Franze"n were three 
 of the most distinguished poets of Sweden in the present century. 
 They were all three associated in the new Swedish version of the 
 Psalms, to produce which a commission was appointed in 1814, and 
 respecting the excellence of which there is but one voice, it being 
 generally regarded as the best in Europe. It is singular that so little 
 reference has been made to this fact in the frequent discussions that 
 have taken place on the expediency of obtaining a new poetical version 
 of the Psalms in English. The poetical works of Franzdn were 
 collected in five volumes at Orebro in 1824 and subsequent years. 
 The most successful are decidedly the songs and shorter pieces, many 
 of the songs enjoying a high popularity both in Sweden and Finland. 
 Their prevailing character is sweetness. The longer narrative poems, 
 one of which ' Sten Sture,' extends to twenty cantos and fills an 
 octavo volume, are of a somewhat dry simplicity, both of style and 
 incident, approaching far too nearly to the level of prose. Franzen 
 was regarded by Swedish writers as belonging to neither of the two 
 rival schools of poetry in his time and country, the ' Academic ' or 
 Classical, and the ' Phosphoristic ' or Romantic, but as standing at 
 the head of a third or neutral party. His sermons, of which four 
 volumes were published, are unusually animated ; he was also the 
 author of some controversial writings against the doctrines of the 
 Rationalists, called forth by the controversy respecting Straus's ' Life 
 of Jesus.' The biographical sketches from his pen already mentioned 
 have been collected under the title of ' Minnesteckningar.' In the 
 introductory speech before the Swedish Academy prefixed to them, 
 the reader remarks a tone of courtly deference in speaking of 
 Charles XIII., and even of the Russian government, to avoid living 
 under which he left Finland, the absence of which would perhaps 
 have inspired a higher notion of the dignity of Franzdn's character. 
 
 FRASER, SIMON. [Lovat, Lord.] 
 
 FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH, a distinguished optician of Bavaria, 
 was born at Straubing iu that kingdom, in 1787, of parents in humble 
 life ; and by their death he was left an orphan when eleven years 
 of age. 
 
 He had been accustomed to labour from his childhood, and he was 
 early engaged as an apprentice to a manufacturer, who exacted from 
 him an unremitting attention to the mechanical operations connected 
 with his calling ; yet the youth found means, without the aid of an 
 instructor, to supply in a certain degree the deficiencies of his educa- 
 tion, and to make some progress in the study of mathematics. 
 
 An accident, which nearly cost him his life, was the cause that the 
 merit of Fraunhofer became known : an old house in which he lodged 
 fell down one day and buried him in the ruins ; he was extricated 
 however, and happily came out unhurt. The interest excited by the 
 daog-r which the young man had escaped drew upon him the notice 
 of several persons of rank and fortune ; and these, being struck with 
 admiration on discovering the efforts he had made in the midst of 
 many adverse circumstances to cultivate the sciences, procured for 
 him an introduction to the celebrated Reichenbach, who received him, 
 he being then about twenty years of age, into the great manufactory 
 for the construction of mathematical and philosophical instruments 
 which he had established at Benedictbaiern, near Munich. In this 
 situation Fraunhofer had ample scope for the exercise of his talents ; 
 and he distinguished himself as much by his inventive genius as by 
 his skill in executing the mechanical processes on which he was 
 employed. Enabled now to study optics as a science, he used the 
 means at his disposal to make many important experiments on light, 
 and to construct instruments of superior kinds for celestial observa- 
 tions. By hia discoveries and improvements he greatly increased the 
 reputation of the establishment to which he belonged ; and at length 
 it became hia own property. 
 
 Fraunhofer was a member of the University of Erlangen and of the 
 
 FREDERICK L (OF GERMANY). icoe 
 
 Royal Academy of Sciences at Munich ; and in 1822 this academy 
 appointed him keeper of the Museum of Physics. The king of Bavaria 
 conferred on him tho order of Civil Merit, and the king of Denmark 
 that of Danebrog. He died in 1826, in the thirty-ninth year of 
 his age. 
 
 His most remarkable discovery was that of the existence of a series 
 of dark lines iu the spectrum produced by the refraction of the sun's 
 light in a prism of glass or other transparent medium. The prisms 
 were formed of a material free from veins, and in the experiments 
 they were disposed so that the light entered and emerged at equal 
 angles with their sides, by which means each of the coloured spaces 
 in the solar spectrum on the screen were homogeneous : on examining 
 these with a telescope it was perceived that they contained many black 
 lines parallel to one another and to the breadth of the spectrum ; and 
 Fraunhofer ascertained that they amounted in number to about 354 ; 
 Sir David Brewster has since discovered many more. By means of a 
 theodolite he measured the angular distances between the most 
 strongly marked of these lines in every two of the differently coloured 
 spaces in the spectrum produced by each of the prisms employed in 
 the experiments ; and thus he was enabled to determine with great 
 accuracy the indices of refraction for the mean rays of the prismatic 
 colours in each of the media of which the prisms were formed, as well 
 a3 the dispersive powers of those media. He observed similar black 
 lines in the spectra of the moon, Mars, Venus, and some of the fixed 
 stars ; also in the spectra formed by the two polarised pencils produced 
 by a prism of Iceland spar. An account of the observations on spectra 
 was published in a pamphlet entitled ' Bestimmuug des Brechungsund 
 Farbenzer-Streuungs-Vermogens verschiedener Glasarten in Bezug auf 
 die Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernrohre,' 4to, Munich, 1815. 
 Fraunhofer also made many highly curious and interesting experi- 
 ments on the phenomena arising from the interference of light in 
 passing through small apertures of different forms, and through wire 
 gratings. An account of these experiments on the inflexion of light 
 was published in 4 to, at Munich, under the title of ' Neue Modifikation 
 des Lichtes durch gegenseitige Eiuwirkung und Beugung der Strahlen 
 und Gesetze derselben.' 
 
 Fraunhofer executed an equatorially-mounted telescope for the 
 observatory at Dorpat. The diameter of the object-glass is nearly 
 10 inches, and its focal length about 16 feet ; it consists, as usual, of a 
 convex lens of crown glass, and a concave lens of flint glass, but tho 
 materials were compounded by himself, and the performance of the 
 instrument is said to be superior to that of any which had been made 
 before. A description of the telescope is given in the ' Astrouomische 
 Nachrichten,' Nos. 74, 75, 76, with a memoir on the refractive and 
 dispersive powers of different kinds of glass. In the same work is a 
 memoir by Fraunhofer on halos, parhelia, and the like phenomena : in 
 this he ascribes the formation of the small solar and lunar halos to 
 the inflexion of light in the vapour of the atmosphere ; and that of 
 the larger kind to the refraction in hexagonal prisms of ice. 
 
 FREDERICK I., Emperor of Germany, sumamed Babbaeossa, was 
 born in 1121, and succeeded his uncle Conrad III. on the imperial 
 throne in 1152. Though Conrad was not deficient, either in warlike 
 spirit or iu talents, aa unhappy concurrence of circumstances had 
 prevented him from regulating, as might have been wished, all the 
 domestic and foreign concerns of the empire. So many important 
 affairs, both in church and state, demanded immediate attention, so 
 many difficulties were to be overcome, that it required a man of no 
 common energy to accomplish such a task ; and of this Conrad him- 
 self was so sensible, that he did not recommend to the princes of the 
 empire his young son Frederick, but his nephew Frederick, son of 
 Frederick duke of Suabia, by Judith daughter of Henry duke of 
 Bavaria, who had already given proofs of his personal courage. 
 Accordingly on the 17th day after the death of Conrad, Frederick 
 was unanimously chosen his successor by the temporal and ecclesias- 
 tical princes assembled at Frankfurt, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelk 
 five days after. In the second year of his reign, Frederick settled the 
 dispute between Canute and Sueno, competitors for the Danish crown, 
 in favour of Sueno, whom he however compelled to do him homage 
 as his vassal. But his chief attention was directed to Italy. Com- 
 plaints were made by the Apulians against Roger king of Sicily ; and 
 some citizens of Lodi also came, and represented in strong colours the 
 tyrannical conduct of the Milanese. Frederick sent an envoy with a 
 letter, enjoining the Milanese to refrain from such proceedings, but 
 they tore his letter to pieces, and his envoy saved his life by timely 
 flight. This and other important considerations called him to Italy 
 in 1155, where he held an assembly in the plain of Roncaglia, to 
 receive the homage of most of the great Italian lords and principal 
 cities. In this, his first expedition into Italy, he in some measure 
 humbled the Milanese, but not choosing to attack their city took the 
 road to Turin, received on the way the submission of many cities, and 
 in particular inflicted severe chastisement on Asti. Having taken 
 Tortona, after a two months' siege, he allowed the inhabitants to 
 retire, but gave the place up to plunder, after which it was entirely 
 burnt and destroyed. After being crowned king of Italy at Pa via, he 
 advauced rapidly towards Rome, where Adrian IV. had just suc- 
 ceeded Pope Anastasius. The city having been excited by Arnold 
 of Brescia to dispute the authority of the pope, Adrian, who was a 
 man of great lesolution, excommunicated Arnold and his partisans, 
 
1007 
 
 FREDERICK I. (OF GERMANY). 
 
 FREDERICK I. (OF GERMANY). 
 
 1009 
 
 who were in consequence expelled by the Roman senate, and Arnold 
 being subsequently taken prisoner, was by the emperor delivered up 
 to the pope, who caused him to be burnt alive. Having had 
 an interview with the pope, at which he consented to hold his 
 holincss's stirrup, and having re established his authority at Rome, 
 and received the imperial crown from his hands, Frederick set out on 
 his return to Germany. His first care was to restore the peace of the 
 empire, which was disturbed by a dispute between the Archbishop 
 of Mentz, and the Count Palatine of the Rhine; he likewise ended, 
 to the satisfaction of all parties, a most important question respecting 
 the duchy of Bavaria. He had resolved to divorce his consort 
 Adelaide, because she had no children ; but this not being a sufficient 
 ground for a divorce, the plea of consanguinity was set up, and a 
 sentence of divorce was pronounced by Cardinal Joseph Orsiui and 
 several prelates. Frederick then proposed to marry a Greek princess, 
 but this negociation failing, he married in 1156 Beatrice, heiress of 
 Burgundy, by which alliance he annexed that rich kingdom to his 
 dominions. Frederick soon afterwards compelled Boleslaus duke of 
 Poland to acknowledge himself a vassal of the empire, and in the first 
 six years of his reign restored the empire to the same power and 
 extent of dominion which it had under Henry III. 
 
 The affairs of Germany being settled, Frederick found it necessary 
 again to go to Italy, where the Milanese cruelly oppressed the towns 
 which would not submit to their orders. In 1158, Frederick with an 
 army of 100,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry laid siege to Milan, and 
 the inhabitants, notwithstanding some previous successes, were 
 reduced, after an obstinate resistance, to offer submission, which was 
 accepted. But they again rebelled, and Frederick resolved to make 
 an example of this haughty city, which was closely invested and com- 
 pelled to surrender at discretion. Frederick's decision was that 
 "Milan should be a desert; that all the inhabitants should leave the 
 city in a week, and settle in four villages, ten miles distant from each 
 other." It has been often asserted that the city was razed to the 
 ground, with the exception of the churches : but this seems to be an 
 exaggeration. The city was not plundered ; the order or permission 
 for the work of destruction extended only to the fortifications, and 
 even of these a considerable part was left standing. But the power 
 of Milan was broken. Its fall entirely discouraged the other cities. 
 Brescia and Piacenza were obliged to demolish their walls; and the 
 other cities which had joined in the insurrection were deprived of 
 their rights and privileges. 
 
 While Frederick was thus engaged, Pope Adrian, with whom he 
 was latterly on very bad terms, died, on which a schism arose ; some 
 of the cardinals choosing Victor IV., who was inclined to the imperial 
 interests, and the others Alexander III. Frederick, who considered 
 himself as protector of the Church, called a council at Pavia. 
 Alexander not recognising this council, which consisted of fifty or 
 sixty German and Italian bishops, it proclaimed Victor IV. as the true 
 pope, who was acknowledged by the emperor. Alexander excom- 
 municated the emperor and all his partisans ; but though he was 
 recognised by the kings of France and England and the estates of 
 Lombardy, Frederick's superiority obliged him to seek refuge in France. 
 When the emperor returned to Germany he found that dissensions 
 had broken out between several of the princes, which he however 
 succeeded in appeasing ; and then set out to meet Louis the Young, 
 king of France, at Lannes, near Dijon, where they had agreed that a 
 council should be held to terminate the schism in the church, by 
 deciding between the two popes, who were to appear, accompanied by 
 the two sovereigns, their protectors. This plan however failed. The 
 death of Pope Victor IV. in 1164 seemed to offer a favourable oppor- 
 tunity for reconciliation between Frederick and Alexander III., which 
 the former was inclined to embrace ; but before his orders reached 
 Rome his ambassador there had concerted with the cardinals to proceed 
 to the election, and the choice fell on Guido. bishop of Crema, who 
 took the name of Paschal III., and was acknowledged by the emperor. 
 Frederick crossing the Alps in 1165 marched direct to Rome, where 
 Paschal waB solemnly installed, and then crowned the emperor and 
 his consort Beatrice. The power of the emperor now seemed to be 
 greater than ever, and he hoped entirely to reduce the cities of 
 Lombardy, which had formed a powerful league, being roused by the 
 cruelty and boundless extortion of his officers, even in those places 
 where his authority was acknowledged. Frederick's plans were how- 
 ever defeated by a pestilential disorder, which carried off the greater 
 part of his army, and it was with no little difficulty that he returned 
 in 1168 from his third Italian campaign as a fugitive. He remained 
 six years in Germany to settle the very complicated affairs of that 
 country, where the ambition of the several princes led to continual 
 disputes and feuds, the most important of which was the conflict 
 between Henry, surnamed the Lion, and many princes, bishops, and 
 counts, who formed a confederacy against him. Henry however 
 defeated them, and soon afterwards married Matilda, daughter of 
 Henry II., king of England. In 1169 Frederick prevailed on the 
 princes of the empire to choose his son Henry, who was only five 
 years old, king of the Romans, and he was accordingly crowned 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle. Having appeased the disorders in Saxony, 
 and undertaken a successful expedition against Boleslaus, duke of 
 Poland, he prepared for the fourth time to cross the Alps. The 
 negociations in Italy had not led to any favourable results. Soon after 
 
 Frederick's return to Germany, Pope Paschal died, and the cardinals 
 in the interests of the emperor chose for his successor Calixtus III., 
 a man very inferior in talent to Alexander ; but the latter had go 
 consolidated his power, that Frederick thought he should gain more 
 by opposing an anti-pope to him than by attempting a reconciliation. 
 The cities of Lombardy, encouraged by Alexander, extended their 
 confederacy, and built a new city, which they called Alexandria, in 
 honour of him. Only Genoa and Pisa remained true to the emperor, 
 who, to prevent matters from going too far, sent Christian, archbishop 
 of Mentz, with a small army to Italy. The archbishop was equally 
 distinguished as a prelate, a statesman, and a general ; but he was not 
 able to effect much towards the establishment of peace. The emperor 
 himself having passed Mount Cenis, laid siege to Alexandria, and the 
 united Lombard army came to its relief. Negociations were however 
 opened, and a truce concluded. The emperor was so sure of the 
 result that he sent part of the army back to Germany, which he soon 
 had reason to repent. The Lombards grew bolder, and Henry the 
 Lion, notwithstanding all the entreaties of the emperor, refused to 
 proceed. A battle soon took place near Legnano, in which the 
 emperor was defeated by the Lombards with great loss, and he him- 
 self being overpowered and supposed to be killed, his troops fled. A 
 few days afterwards however, to the unspeakable joy of the army, he 
 appeared again at Pavia, where the empress had already put on 
 mourning. 
 
 This loss induced Frederick to think of peace. He treated first 
 with Alexander, whom he acknowledged as pope, and who relieved 
 him from the ban of excommunication. He then, by the mediation 
 of Alexander, concluded a treaty, or rather a truce, for six years, with 
 the cities of Lombardy, on very advantageous terms, for he in fact 
 lost nothing essential, except that he gave up the cause of Calixtus, 
 who obtained a rich abbey. On his return from Italy, where he passed 
 the winter, he went to Burgundy, called a diet at Aries, and had him- 
 self and his consort crowned king and queen of Burgundy ; whence 
 he returned to Germany much sooner and more powerful than his 
 enemies expected. The peace of the empire being established, the 
 princes and bishops who had sided with Alexander became reconciled 
 to the emperor ; but new troubles arose in Saxony. Henry the Lion 
 formed great plans to extend his power, but was in the end forced to 
 sue for peace. At Erfurt he appeared before the emperor and the 
 German princes, to whom Frederick had made a promise to decide 
 nothing respecting Henry without their approbation. The sentence 
 was that he should be relieved from the ban of the empire, retain his 
 family dominions of Brunswick and Luneburg, but for the preserva- 
 tion of peace, should go into banishment for seven years, which, at 
 the intercession of the pope and the king of England, was reduced to 
 three years. Henry accordingly went with his wife and children to 
 his father-in-law the king of England. 
 
 The truce with Lombardy now approached its last year. After 
 several occurrences in Italy, not unfavourable to Frederick, Alex- 
 ander III. died in 1181, and was succeeded by Lucius III., who was 
 much inferior to him in ability and energy. The hostile dispositions 
 of both parties had greatly abated during the wars ; and the emperor 
 having summoned a diet of the empire at Constance, a definitive peace 
 was concluded, honourable and satisfactory to all parties. A year 
 after the peace of Constance, order and tranquillity everywhere pre- 
 vailing, the emperor called a general diet at Mentz, one object of 
 which was to establish his five sons. This diet presented a scene of 
 unrivalled festivity and splendour. The Empress Beatrice, the 
 emperor's five sons, the archbishops, bishops, princes and nobles of 
 Italy and Germany, ambassadors from foreign sovereigns, 40,000 
 (some say 70,000) knights from all parts of Europe, and countless 
 multitudes of people of all classes were here assembled. Historians 
 have recorded those brilliant days, the wonders of which have been 
 handed down from generation to generation, and songs composed on 
 that occasion are still sung on the banks of the Rhine. A year after 
 this diet Frederick again went to Italy, where he was received with 
 extraordinary honours by the cities of Lombardy, and even concluded 
 an alliance with Milan. But new disputes arose with the papal see, 
 through Frederick's refusal to grant to Lucius, and afterwards to his 
 successor Urban III., the sovereignty of the territory called ' St. Peter's 
 Patrimony.' He however so increased his power in Italy by the 
 marriage of his son Henry with the daughter and heiress of William, 
 king of Sicily, that the pope did not venture to proceed to extremities. 
 In Germany Frederick had declared Lubeck and Ratisbon imperial 
 cities, and thereby had laid the foundation of a middle estate between 
 the princes and the emperor, by which the power of the latter was 
 increased, and the class of citizens elevated. The separation of 
 Bavaria from Saxony, which Henry the Lion had possessed together, 
 added indeed to the power of the emperor, but embittered the ani- 
 mosity between the party of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. 
 
 Things were iu this state when all Christendom was alarmed by the 
 news of the taking of Jerusalem by the infidels. This event led to 
 the Third Crusade. On the exhortation of the pope, Frederick took 
 the cross in 1188, with his son Frederick and a number of the prin- 
 cipal German nobles. Upon mature deliberation it was resolved that 
 the army should go by land through Germany, Hungary, and Asia 
 Minor. The army, consisting of 150,000 men, besides many thousand 
 volunteers, commenced its march in the spring of 1189. Though it 
 
1009 FREDERICK II. (OF GERMANY). 
 
 met with many difficulties, chiefly from the perfidy of the Greek 
 emperor, who had secretly made a convention with Saladin and the 
 sultan of Iconium to obstruct the passage of the Germaus, Frederick 
 penetrated into Asia, gained two victories over the Turks near Iconium, 
 which he took, and was proceeding in his victorious career to Syria, 
 when his eventful life was brought to a close in 1190, in an attempt to 
 swim on horseback across the river Calycadnus, where he was carried 
 away by the current. The statement that he was drowned in the 
 Cydnus while bathing is certainly incorrect. 
 
 Frederick was a brave and liberal prince, equally firm in prosperity 
 and adversity. These great qualities veiled the pride and ambition 
 which were unquestionably in part the motives by which ho was 
 actuated. He possessed an extraordinary memory, and a greater 
 extent of knowledge of different kinds than was common iu that age. 
 He esteemed learned men, especially historians, and wrote in Latin 
 memoirs of some part of his own life, which he left to Otho, bishop of 
 Freysingen, whom he appointed his historian. He was of noble and 
 majestic appearance, and, notwithstanding his disputes with the popes, 
 a fi iend to religion. After his death his son Frederick, duke of Suabia, 
 took the chief command, but died of a pestilential disorder at the siege 
 of Acre in 1191; and of the mighty army that Frederick led from 
 Germany only a small remnant returned. 
 
 FREDERICK II., Emperor of Germany. On the death of Frede- 
 rick I. he was succeeded by his son Henry, who reigned only eight 
 years, leaving his son Frederick, a child of four years of age, who 
 had been created king of the Romans when in his cradle. He was 
 very carefully educated by his mother, Constance of Sicily, and 
 acquired a degree of learning very extraordinary at that age. His 
 hereditary dominions consisted of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, 
 the duchy of Suabia, and other territories in Germany. In 1210, the 
 emperor Otho being excommunicated by the pope, Frederick, then 
 fourteen years of age, was declared emperor by a considerable number 
 of the German princes, but it was not till some years afterwards, on 
 the retreat and death of Otho, that he became peaceable possessor 
 of the imperial throne, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215. 
 Scarcely another prince in the middle ages, Charlemagne excepted, has 
 made so distinguished a figure ; the most remarkable period of those 
 ages is connected with his name and his long rei^n. It was the time 
 in which Innocent III., Gregory IX., and Innocent IV. carried 
 Gregory's VIJ.'s policy to an extent that had been considered as 
 impossible ; when, by the origin of the orders of knighthood, the 
 foundation of the Mendicant orders, and the InquisitioD, were formed 
 powerful supporters of the spiritual edifice; when the nations of 
 Europe were for the first time impressed by the Crusades with one 
 general idea, represented by the symbol of the Cross, and drawn closer 
 together; when, after many single voices had died away unheeded 
 or forgotten, a Protestantism of the middle ages was proclaimed by 
 the Waldenses and a kind of Manichscanism by the Albigenses; when 
 chivalry attained a more elevated position, ennobled by religion and 
 a regular organisation ; when the class of free citizens gradually rose 
 iu estimation and importance, and favoured in Germany by Frederick 
 against the aristocracy, and opposed by him in Upper Italy as 
 instruments of the popes, acquired, by means of great confederations 
 of many cities, and, by the institution of corporate bodies, respect 
 abroad and internal strength; when, in opposition to the club-law, 
 a law for ensuring public peace and security was first proclaimed in 
 the German language ; when the Secret Tribunal began to act in its 
 first, scarcely perceptible commencement; when the first universities 
 excited a spirit of inquiry and research; and when the poetry of the 
 Troubadr ura found a home in Germany and Italy, and was honoured 
 and cultivated by emperors and kings. 
 
 Fredetick, though not tall, was well made; he had a fine open 
 forehead, and a mild and pleasing expression of the eye and mouth. 
 The heir of all the best qualities of all the members of his dis- 
 tinguished race, enterprising, brave, liberal, with excellent natural 
 talent-, full of knowledge; he understood all the languages of his 
 subjects, Greek, Latin, Italian, German, French, and Arabic ; he was 
 austere, passionate, mild, and generous, as the occasion prompted, 
 cheerful, magnificent, and fond of pleasure. And as his body had 
 gained strength and elasticity by skill in all chivalrous exercises, so 
 his mind and character, early formed in the school of adversity and 
 trial, had acquired a degree of flexibility which those who are born to 
 power but seldom know, and an energy which strengthened and 
 raised him in times of difficulty. But such a body and such a mind 
 were necessary for a man who was to combat in Germany, already 
 divided into parties, a preponderating aristocracy; in Upper Italy a 
 powerful democracy ; in Central Italy an arrogant hierarchy ; and in 
 his own southern hereditary dominions, to reconcile, and unite by 
 internal ties, the hostile elements of six nations ; who, opposed by 
 temporal and spiritual arms, by rival kings, by excommunication and 
 interdict, persevered, conquering and conquered, for forty years, sur- 
 vived the rebellion of a son, the treachery and poison of his most 
 valued friend, the loss of his favourite child, and did not resign the 
 sceptre, which he had held so firmly, till the last moment of his life. 
 
 Till the year 1209, when Frederick took upon himself the govern- 
 ment of Lower Italy and Sicily, he was under the guardianship of 
 Innocent III. ; but the empress Constance, his mother, was obliged 
 to purchase the investiture of Naples and Sicily, and the coronation 
 
 FREDERICK II. (OF GERMANY). lolo 
 
 of her son, by sacrificing to the pope the most important ecclesiastical 
 rights. Tho royal crown of Germany, which was adjudged by the 
 German princes to the child when only three years of age, was taken, 
 after the deatli of his father, by the Duke of Suabia, his uncle, who 
 however wore it without advantage in opposition to Otho IV. till he 
 was murdered in 1208 by Otho von Wittelsbach ; but Otho IV. dis- 
 pleasing the pope, Innocent himself called Frederick to the throne of 
 Germany. In spite of all the efforts of the party of the Guolphs, 
 Frederick arrived in Germany in 1212, and was received with open 
 arms by the party of the House of Hohenstaufen. The possession of 
 the crowns of Germany and Sicily inspired Frederick with hopes of 
 making himself master of all Italy, subduing Lombardy, and reducing 
 the power of the spiritual monarch to the dignity of the first bishop 
 of Christendom. But he misunderstood the spirit of his age, which 
 was far less enlightened than himself, and still cherished prejudices 
 which he had overcome. If the conception of the plan was great, it 
 was equalled by his prudence in gradually preparing to carry it into 
 effect. In 1220 he caused his eldest son Henry to be chosen king of 
 the Romans, and appeased the anger of the new pope Honorius III. 
 by alleging that this measure was absolutely necessary before he could 
 proceed to the crusade which he had undertaken, and by promising 
 that he never would unite Sicily with the empire. Disregarding the 
 refusal of the Milanese to place the iron crown on his head, he pro- 
 ceeded to Rome, was crowned emperor in 1220, and as such hastened 
 to his hereditary dominions which he had left almost as a fugitive. 
 It was there that preparations were to be made for the crusade, but 
 first of all it was necessary to put an end to the internal troubles of 
 the country. By the advice of Hermann von Salza, grand master of 
 the Teutonic order, Frederick married Iolante, daughter of John of 
 Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem, and assumed his fatber-iu-law's 
 title. Meantime the pope granted him a delay for undertaking the 
 crusade ; his chancellor, Peter de Vinci, compiled a new code of laws, 
 the object of which was to settle the authority of church and state, 
 to reconcile the nobility, clergy, citizens, and peasants, and to be 
 adapted to many different nations, Romans, Greeks, Germans, Arabs, 
 Normans, Jews, and French, respecting as much as possible all existing 
 institutions. For the education of his subjects, he founded a 
 university at Naples in 1224 ; and the medical school at Salerno was 
 very flourishing. The belles-lettres were cultivated at his court, and 
 Frederick himself, some of whose juvenile poems in the Sicilian 
 dialect, at that time the most cultivated, have been preserved to our 
 times, may be considered as one of the first authors of the refined 
 Tuscan poetry. Many eminent artists, Nicola, Masaccio, and Tomasi 
 da Steffani, were patronised by Frederick ; and the collections of 
 works of art at Capua and Naples were founded. 
 
 The year 1227 being fixed for the crusade, Frederick proposed 
 before he set out to call a general diet of the empire at Cremona, to 
 satisfy himself of the sentiments of the Lombards and be crowned as 
 their king. But the Milanese refused, renewed their ancient league 
 with fifteen cities, and intercepted the communication with Germany 
 by occupying the passes of the Alps. For this they were put under 
 the ban of the empire; but Frederick hastening to the crusade, left 
 the management of the affair to the pope, who only proposed a general 
 amnesty, and enjoined the Lombards to furnish 400 horsemen at their 
 expense, for two years, to join the crusade. At this juncture Honorius 
 died, and Cardinal Hugolinus, nephew of Innocent III., was chosen 
 pope by the name of Gregory IX. Resembling, in the energy of his 
 will, Gregory VII., the new pope urged the emperor, who received the 
 cross for the second time from his hands, to fulfil his promise, and did 
 not hesitate to censure the luxurious way of life of the emperor and 
 his court. A great number of pilgrims had assembled in Italy, but 
 pestilential diseases raged among them, and the emperor himself was 
 ill when he embarked with Louis, landgrave of Thuringia. In three 
 days Frederick grew worse, and was obliged to land at Otranto, where 
 Louis Landgrave died. The fleet proceeded only to the coast of the 
 Morea, and the crusade failed. Upon this Gregory excommunicated 
 the emperor, and laid his dominions under an interdict. Frederick 
 however, notwithstanding the death of his wife Iolante in child-bed, 
 set out on a new crusade in 1228 ; but Gregory, who had not expected 
 this, and thought it improper for a prince under excommunication to 
 go to the Holy War, commanded the patriarch of Jerusalem and the 
 three orders of knights to oppose the emperor in everything, and 
 caused Frederick's hereditary estates to be occupied and laid waste 
 by his soldiers and John of Brienne. Frederick, notwithstanding all 
 this, by an agreement with Kamel, sultan of Egypt, succeeded in 
 making a ten years' truce, and acquired for himself Jerusalem, tho 
 holy places, all the country between Joppa, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and 
 Acre, and the important seaports of Tyre and Sidon. 
 
 The city of Jerusalem, where Frederick, on the 18th of May, put 
 the crown upon his own head because no priest would even read mass, 
 was laid under an interdict, and Frederick was even betrayed to the 
 sultan, who gave him the first information of it. Frederick hastened 
 back to Lower Italy, and after fruitless negociations with Gregory re- 
 conquered his hereditary e-tates and defeated all the intrigues of the 
 pope, who was at length obliged (1230) to free him from the excom- 
 munication. The Lombards alone would not hear of any terms, pre- 
 vented his son Henry from going to the diet at Ravenna, and were not 
 deceived by Gregory's exhortation to peace. While Frederick at last 
 
 3 T* 
 
ion 
 
 FREDERICK II. (OP GERMANY). 
 
 FREDERICK III. (OF GERMANY). 
 
 1013 
 
 reconciled the pope with the Romans, the latter secretly endeavoured 
 to induce Kiug Henry to rebel against his father, promising that he 
 would be received by the Lombards with open arms. Henry's party 
 in Germany too was already considerable ; but Frederick suddenly 
 appeared, and Henry, quite abashed, fell at his feet and entreated for- 
 giveness. When however the infatuated young man made a second 
 attempt, he was sent with his wife and child to imprisonment for life 
 at San Felice, in Apulia ; then to Neocastro, in Calabria ; and lastly, 
 to Martorano, where he died unreconciled, in the seventh year of his 
 imprisonment. On this event the emperor wrote to the states of 
 Sicily, " I confess that the pride of the living king could not bend me, 
 but the death of the son deeply affects me ; and I am not the first nor 
 the last who has suffered injury from disobedient sons, and yet wept 
 over their graves." It is indeed a striking contrast, that almost at the 
 same time when Frederick sent the son of his first wife to prison, and 
 caused him to be formally deposed at tho diet at Mentz (1235) he 
 celebrated with much pomp his third marriage with Isabella of 
 England. 
 
 In 1236 he made preparations at Augsburg for an expedition against 
 the Lombards, in which the friendship of Ezelino, sovereign of 
 Verona, and that of the Ghibelline cities of Upper Italy, was to double 
 the strength of his little army ; but a contest, which was soon ended, 
 against Frederick, duke of Austria, the last of the house of Baben- 
 burg, interrupted in 1237 the war which was already commenced, and 
 the election of Conrad, his second son, as king of the Romans. After 
 the recommencement of the war against the cities of Upper Italy 
 devoted to the party of the Guelphs, the victory of Corte Nuova, on 
 the Oglio, on the 26th and 27th of November 1237, broke the power 
 of tho Lombards ; all the cities, except Milan, Bologna, Piacenza, and 
 Brescia, submitted ; but Gregory became more enraged, especially 
 when the emperor made his natural son, Enzio, king of Sardinia, and 
 prepared to subdue the rest of Lombardy. On Palm-Sunday 1239, 
 Gregory again excommunicated Frederick, who continued the war, 
 but sustained much injury by the secret perfidy of Ezelino, of which 
 he had no suspicion. To put a complete end to the war, he suddenly in 
 1240 turned his arms against the pope himself, and penetrated through 
 Spoleto into the States of the Church. Rome would have proved 
 au easy prey if he could have subdued the last remnant of superstition 
 in his breast ; but here, and in his edicts against heretics, we sec the 
 ties which still bound Frederick in the fetters of his times. Nor did 
 lie know the spirit of Gregory, when he thought he could compel him 
 to make peace. He wished rather, without proceeding to the last 
 extremities, to have his cause decided in an assembly of bishops ; but 
 finding only his most determined enemies were invited to it, he 
 warned all prelates against going to Rome ; and at last, when all his 
 admonitions availed nothing, he caused the Genoese fleet to be attacked 
 and destroyed by his son Enzio, and above one hundred prelates who 
 were on board, on their way to Rome, to be taken to Naples as 
 prisoners. This blow at length laid the invincible Gregory on his 
 death-bed ou the 21st of August 1241 ; but by his death deprived the 
 emperor of almost certain victory. 
 
 While he was engaged in these enterprises, Frederick had not been 
 able to contend in person with the Mongols, who had penetrated into 
 Germany, but after their victory at Wahlstadt in 1241, and their 
 defeat at Olmutz, turned back. After the short reign of Pope 
 Celestine IV. and a long interregnum, Frederick at length obtained the 
 election of a pope ; but Simbald Fiesco, who when cardinal had been 
 his friend, became as Innocent IV. the most formidable of his 
 enemies. He continued Gregory's excommunication, and dreading 
 the vicinity of the emperor in Italy, fled in 1244 to Lyon. Frederick 
 nadnow the alternative either to appear as a criminal before the judg- 
 ment-seat of a priest, or to commence the unequal conflict with the 
 superstition of the age. The pope renewed the excommunication and 
 summoned a general council to Lyon. Thaddeus of Suessa, the 
 emperor's chancellor, defended his cause before the council with over- 
 powering eloquence and truth, and refuted the most malicious, as well 
 as the most absurd accusations. Frederick, accused of heresy, in vain 
 Buffered himself to be examined respecting his faith ; however religious 
 and pure he appeared, he was guilty, because it was resolved he should 
 be so, and the pope pronounced against him the most dreadful 
 anathema — released all his subjects from their oath, declared him to 
 be deprived of all honours and dignities, as a perjurer, peace-breaker, 
 robber of churches, a profaner of sanctuaries, and heretic ; and he also 
 declared that those who remained faithful to the emperor should be 
 included in the same sentence. Frederick showed that he was still 
 emperor : he justified himself, as became a great sovereign, before the 
 princes of Europe ; and while Innocent was labouring for the election 
 of the landgrave Henry Raspe of Thuringia, to the imperial throne, he 
 fought successfully against the Lombards, defeated a conspiracy at his 
 court, and did not lose his courage even when his son Conrad was 
 defeated by his rival Henry. Conrad in the sequel obtained the 
 victory, and Henry died in 1247. But what most deeply wounded 
 him was the conduct of Peter de Vinears, who had long wavered in 
 his fidelity, and when he found himself discovered, attempted, it was 
 averred, though the point seems doubtful, to poison Frederick. 
 Certain it is that he was cast into prison, where, in despair, he dashed 
 his head against the wall and was killed. The emperor, who had now 
 become mistrustful of his friends, lost Parma by an insurrection, and 
 
 being defeated in a camp which he had formed before it, he lost lib 
 army, his treasures, and his friend Thaddeus of Suessa. William of 
 Holland, though only twenty years of age, was at the instigation of 
 Innocent elected emperor by the three Rhenish archbishops ; Knzio, 
 his son, was made prisoner by the enraged Bolognese, and Ezelin 
 joined his enemies. His own health now declined, and he desired to 
 die in peace ; but Innocent rejected the most reasonable terms of 
 reconciliation. Frederick's spirit was again roused ; he was victorious 
 in Lombardy, and would perhaps have humbled Innocent himself, 
 had he not been surprised by death at Fiorentino, in the arms of his 
 natural son Manfred, on the 13th of December 1250, in the fifty-sixth 
 year of his age, and the forty-first of his reign. 
 
 FREDERICK III., Emperor of Germany, son of Ernest, duke of 
 Austria, was born at Innspruck, on the 21st of September 1415. He 
 was not yet of age, when, according to the fashion of those days, he 
 went on an expedition to the Holy Land. In 1435, in conjunction 
 with his brother Albert the Prodigal, he assumed the government of 
 his dominions, the revenues of which did not much exceed 16,000 
 marks. Being elevated to the throne of Germany, in 1440, on the 
 death of his cousin Albert II., he appeared destined to take a decisive 
 part in the great affairs of his age; but he was averse to everything 
 that took him out of his own narrow sphere, and was especially 
 deficient in attachment to the interests of Germany. It is true there 
 were many circumstances in the state of Germany, and in his own 
 situation, which partly excuse him. At the commencement of his 
 reign he was engaged in war with his brother Albert, who reigned in 
 Upper Austria, and was in danger of losing all his hereditary dominions. 
 In different parts of Germany troubles arose, which required a more 
 vigorous hand than his to put them down. He called several diets, 
 chiefly to put an end to tho schism in the church, which was not 
 effected till 1447, when Felix was persuaded to abdicate, and 
 Nicholas V. was acknowledged as lawful pope. In 1452 Frederick 
 went to Italy, where he received the imperial crown from the pope, 
 as well as the crown of Lombardy, along with his betrothed consort 
 Eleanora, sister of the King of Portugal. In 1453 he revived the 
 arcliducal title in his family, and busied himself with his botanical 
 pursuits, while the danger on the side of Turkey became more 
 threatening. He did not make any attempt against Milan, where, 
 after the extinction of the male line of the Visconti, the usurper 
 Sforza had established himself. How unfortunate and unstable he 
 was in his external policy appears from his transactions with Hungary 
 and Bohemia, and the manner in which, with a view to recover some 
 crown-lands of which the house of Austria had been deprived, he 
 interfered in the internal disputes of the Swiss Cantons ; but not 
 having a sufficient force of his own, and not being supported by the 
 Empire, he called in foreign troops from France under the Dauphin 
 which, having been taught a lesson by Swiss valour at St. Birs Jacob, 
 in 1444, turned their arms in part against Germany and Austria 
 itself. In Germany he was threatened with still greater danger. In 
 1449 he was entangled in a quarrel, on account of the succession to 
 the Palatinate, with Frederick, the victorious brother to the deceased 
 Louis, who demanded the electorate for himself instead of his nephew 
 Philip, and being opposed by Frederick, brought over Mentz, Treves, 
 and a number of German princes to his side, and even held out to 
 the Bohemian George Podiebrad a prospect of obtaining the imperial 
 crown. When his ward Ladislaus died, without children, in 1457, 
 Lower Austria came to Frederick, Upper Austria to Albert, and part 
 of Carinthia to Siegmund of Tyrol ; but Vienna remained to all of 
 them iu common. On his death, notwithstanding Frederick's pre- 
 tensions to Bohemia and Hungary, he had the mortification to see 
 George Podiebrad preferred to him in the former, and Matthias 
 Corvinus in the latter. Scarcely had he recovered from this cause of 
 vexation, when, in 1462, his brother Albert raised an insurrection 
 against him in his capital Vienna, and Frederick, being besieged 
 there, was delivered by his opponent Podiebrad. For many years he 
 was engaged in contentions respecting the duchy of Austria, of the 
 whole of which he obtained possession by the death of Albert in 
 1463. In 1468 he again went to Rome, and had several conferences 
 with Pope Paul II., as to the means of opposing the progress of the 
 Turks; nothing however was done, and he suffered them to penetrate 
 in 1469 to Carniola, and in 1475 nearly to Salzburg, almost without 
 opposition. His wavering policy caused the kings of Bohemia and 
 Hungary to quarrel ; but afterwards both turned their arms against 
 him, and Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, laid siege to Vienna in 
 1479, and was only prevailed on to retire by Frederick's renouncing all 
 his own pretensions to Hungary, and granting bim the investiture of 
 Bohemia, with a sum of money. It is probable that he was rendered 
 more indifferent to the fate of his hereditary dominions by the 
 success of his plan for the aggrandisement of his family, by the 
 marriage in 1477 of his son Maximilian with Maria of Burgundy, 
 the rich heiress of Charles the Bald. In 1485 he had a new quarrel 
 with Matthias, who took from him Vienna and all Lower Austria, 
 Frederick withdrew to his son Maximilian in the Netherlands. In 
 1486 Maximilian was chosen king of the Romans, but soon aftewards 
 was entangled in a war with France, and even with the Netherlands, 
 on account of the guardianship of his children. In 1488 Maximilian 
 was taken prisoner, and Frederick resolved to hasten to his assistance. 
 On the death of Matthias in 1490, Frederick recovered Austria, but 
 
FREDERICK I. (OF DENMARK). 
 
 was obliged to leave the Hungarian crown to Ladislaus of Bohemia. 
 At length, after so many defeated plans, he died on the 1 9th of August 
 1493, as some report, from a disorder contracted by a surfeit of 
 melons ; according to others, in consequence of an amputation of the 
 leg; leaving it to his son to realise the device inscribed upon his 
 books and his palaces, A, E, I, 0, U, by which he is generally 
 supposed to have meant Austria est Imperare Orbi Universo. The 
 character of Frederick, as his whole reign evinces, entitled him to his 
 Burname of ' the Pacific:' he was cautious, scrupulous about trifles, 
 Avaricious, but temperate, plain in his apparel, chaste and devout, and 
 remarkably fond of astrology, alchemy, and botany — possessed, in 
 short, of qualities which might have made him a respectable private 
 gentleman, but wholly unequal to the task of governing an empire, 
 especially in the state in which Germany, divided among 1500 
 masters, was in his age. 
 
 FREDERICK I., King of Denmark, son of Christian I., was born in 
 1473. His father had made him duke of Sleswick, Holstein, Stormar, 
 and Dithmarsh, but hi3 elder brother, King John, stripped him of half 
 his dominions. During the reign of his nephew, Christian II., he 
 behaved with great caution, but that sanguinary tyrant being deposed 
 in 1523, he was declared king in his stead. He was encouraged to lay 
 claim to the crown of Sweden, but prudently made a treaty of friend- 
 ship with that kingdom, where Gustavus Vasa was too firmly 
 established to be dispossessed without a severe struggle. Frederick 
 however succeeded in annexing the island of Gothland to his 
 dominions. In 1527 Frederick embraced the Lutheran religion, and 
 established it in his dominions. He died in 1533, at the age of sixty, 
 and is highly commended by the historians of his country for the 
 justice and moderation of his government. 
 
 FREDERICK II., King of Denmark, was born in 1534, and suc- 
 ceeded to the crown on the death of his father, Christian III., in 1558. 
 S>on after his accession he joined his brother, the Duke of Holstein, 
 in a war against the inhabitants of Dithmarsh, who had declared 
 themselves independent, but were subdued after a brave resistance. In 
 1563 hostilities commenced between him and Eric king of Sweden, 
 which tf-ere carried on with great bitterness and cruel devastation of 
 the two kingdoms, till Eric was deposed by his own subjects in 1568. 
 In 1570 a treaty advantageous to Denmark was concluded. Soon after 
 this, Frederick married the daughter of the Duke of Mecklenberg, and 
 from that time gave all his care to the preservation of peace and the 
 promotion of the welfare and happiness of his subjects. He enlarged 
 the University of Copenhagen, and patronised learned men, among 
 whom was Tycho Brahe, the celebrated astronomer. He was highly 
 respected by neighbouring princes; he received the order of the 
 Garter from Queen Elizabeth, and concluded a treaty with James VI., 
 king of Scotland (James I. of England), for the marriage of his daughter 
 lo that prince. He died in 1588, with a high character both public 
 .nd private. 
 
 FREDERICK III., King of Denmark, son of Christian IV., was 
 .lorn in 1609. He was made archbishop of Bremen, but his elder 
 jrother dying before their father, he succeeded to the crown, 1648. 
 The nobles, who had become very powerful, made him enter into an 
 agreement with them ou his accession, by which his power was very 
 much restricted. The wars of the last reign having brought the 
 kingdom to a very low condition, one of Frederick's first measures 
 was to make a treaty with the Dutch, whose friendship he gained by 
 seizing a fleet of English merchantmen, laden with naval stores, in the 
 harbour of Copenhagen. By this he obtained a subsidy, and an 
 alliance with Holland, though it embroiled him with the Common- 
 wealth of England. In 1657, at the instigation of the Dutch, he 
 declared war against Sweden, whose warlike sovereign, Charles 
 Gustavus, crossed over the ice to Zealand, and laid siege to Copen- 
 hagen, which was in a very bad state of defence ; and Frederick, not- 
 withstanding his courage and energy, was compelled to make peace on 
 disadvantageous terms, under the mediation of England and Holland. 
 This peace was of short duration ; Copenhagen was again besieged by 
 sea and land, and was saved only by the arrival of a Dutch fleet. The 
 mediating powers again interfered, but peace was not concluded till 
 after the death of Charles, 1662. 
 
 The most remarkable and important event in the reign of Frederick 
 III. was the change of the constitution, which had been limited, and 
 in some degree elective, into an hereditary and absolute monarchy. 
 This change was brought about by the commons, in conjunction with 
 the clergy, who, out of disgust at the arrogance and selfishness of the 
 nobles, surrendered to the crown the liberties of the nation. The 
 king readily accepted the offer, and the nobles, having been overawed 
 by the army, were obliged to concur. The rights and privileges of the 
 estates were solemnly surrendered, and the king and royal family 
 received the homage of the several orders. Frederick died in 1670, 
 leaving a numerous family by his queen, a daughter of George duke of 
 Brunswick Liineburg. 
 
 FREDERICK IV., King of Denmark, was born in 1671, and suc- 
 ceeded his father, Christian V., in 1699, and immediately attacked the 
 dominions of the Duke of Holstein. He laid siege to Tonningen in 
 person, but was soon obliged to return and defend Copenhagen 
 a ;ainst Charles XII. of Sweden, brother-in-law to the Duke of Holstein, 
 * hose first military exploit was this invasion of Zealand. Frederick 
 was obliged to conclude peace, engaging to indemnify the Puke of 
 
 FREDERICK L (OF PRUSSIA). ion 
 
 Holstein for all the loss he had caused him, and fully to recoguise hit 
 title to the sovereignty of his dominions. When Charles was after- 
 wards a fugitive in Turkey, Frederick joined the league against him, 
 but his troops were totally defeated in Schonen. He then invaded 
 Swedish Pomerania, in which he met with little success ; and though 
 he afterwards made himself master of the duchy of Bremen, his army 
 united with that of Saxony, was defeated by the Swedes under 
 general Steenbock, who destroyed the town of Altona. In 1714 and 
 1718 the Danes were more fortunate, and drove the Swedes from 
 Norway. Peace was concluded in 1720, under the mediation of 
 England, on favourable termi, Frederick retaining the duchy of 
 Sleswick. From this time his dominions enjoyed the blessings of 
 peace, and his whole attention was devoted to the advancement of 
 their prosperity. He died in 1730. He was an able prince, but 
 too much given to enterprises too great for the resources of his 
 dominions. 
 
 FREDERICK V, King of Denmark, born in 1723, succeeded his 
 father, Christian VI., in 1746. Continuing the judicious policy of 
 his father, he preserved his dominions in peace, increased the wealth 
 of his people and the public revenues, by encouraging manufactures 
 and commerce ; entered into commercial treaties with foreign powers, 
 established a Greenland company, laid open the trade to the American 
 colonies to all his subjects, and improved the internal prosperity of 
 the kingdom by encouraging agriculture, &c. He was equally zealous 
 in the promotion of the arts and sciences. He founded an academy 
 at Soroc, and seminaries at Droutheim and Bergen for the instruction 
 of the Laplanders. He likewise established academies of painting, 
 sculpture, and architecture, and sent a number of learned men, among 
 whom was the celebrated Niebuhr, to the East. He was in every 
 respect oiie of the wisest and best monarchs of his age, and is said to 
 have consoled himself on his death-bed with the reflection that he 
 had never injured a single individual, nor had a drop of blood to 
 answer for. He died in 1766, having been twice married, first to Louisa, 
 daughter of George II. of England, and then to Juliana, daughter of 
 the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfeubuttel. 
 
 FREDERICK I., King of Prussia after 1701, but as elector 
 of Brandenburg, Frederick III., was born in 1657, at Konigsberg, 
 and on the death of his eldest brother became heir-apparent; but 
 being deformed, and of a very weak constitution, his education was 
 neglected, and his stepmother even prevailed on the elector, his father, 
 to make a will by which he bequeathed all the acquisitions of territory 
 which he himself had made to be divided among the children of his 
 second wife. But this disposition did not take place, and Frederick 
 succeeded to the whole of his father's dominions in 1688. After the 
 death of his first wife, Elizabeth Henrietta, princess of Hesse Cassel, 
 he married, in 1684, Sophia Charlotte, princess of Hanover, sister of 
 George I., afterwards king of England. Immediately on his succession 
 he agreed with William prince of Orange to assist him with 6000 men 
 in his expedition to England. In 1689 he sent 20,000 men to join 
 the imperial army against France, whose troops laid waste the Pala- 
 tinate. In 1691 he joined the grand alliance between the emperor, 
 Spain, Holland, and Eugland, against France, and sent 15,000 men to 
 the Netherlands, of whom King William had the chief command. 
 He had an interview with that monarch, which did not prove very 
 satisfactory to either party, the characters of the two sovereigns being 
 essentially different. William, cold, simple in his manners, and solid 
 in his views ; Frederick impatient, entertaining a high opinion of his 
 own greatness, and punctual in the observance of all points of etiquette. 
 He also assisted the emperor with 6000 men against the Turks for a 
 subsidy of 150,000 dollars. At the treaty of Ryswick, the conditions 
 of the treaties of Westphalia and St. Germain, relating to Branden- 
 burg, were confirmed. By negociatious with various powers, or by 
 purchase, he obtained several additions to his dominions, and a pro- 
 spect of others. In 1703 he took possession of the town of Elbing, which 
 had been already mortgaged to the Great Elector for 400,000 dollars, 
 which sum had not been repaid. The grand object of his ambition 
 was to obtain the title of king of Prussia, that being the only part of 
 his dominions of which he had the absolute sovereignty. He did not 
 make known his design till the war of the Spanish Succession, when 
 he made it a principal condition of his assisting the emperor, that he 
 should be recognised king of Prussia, to which the emperor consented 
 in a treaty, signed in November 1700. For this he renounced the 
 arrears of the subsidy due by Austria, and engaged to maintain 10,000 
 men at his own expense in the war of the Succession ; in all the affairs 
 of the empire to vote with Austria; at the election of an emperor, 
 always to give his vote to an Axistrian prince ; and not to withdraw 
 his German states from their obligation to the empire. On the 18 th 
 January 1701, he put the crown on his own head, and also on that 
 of his consort, who was not gratified with this elevation. On this 
 occasion he founded the order of the Black Eagle. Frederick, as the 
 ally of Austria, sent 20,000 men to the Rhine and 6000 to Italy, who 
 distinguished themselves in the battles of Blenheim, Turin, &c. 
 Frederick did not live to see the end of this war, as he died on the 
 25th of February 1713, before the conclusion of the peace of Utrecht. 
 Frederick was chiefly actuated by personal vanity to assume the royal 
 dignity, and he purchased it on very humiliating conditions ; yet it 
 was this step probably which eventually raised the house of Branden- 
 burg to its independence of Austria. He was more justly to bo 
 
1015 
 
 FREDERICK II. (OF PRUSSIA). 
 
 FREDERICK II. (OF PRUSSIA). 
 
 1019 
 
 blamed for his excessive love of external pomp, and for the lavish 
 manner in which he rewarded his favourites. It should be added iu 
 his praise, that he gave great encouragement to arts and sciences. 
 He founded the University of Halle, and the Academy of Sculpture 
 and Painting at Berlin. He enlarged his capital by adding to it the 
 suburb called Friederichstadt, built the palace of Charlottenburg, in 
 honour of his second wife, and founded in 1705 the Supreme Court of 
 Appeal. 
 
 FREDERICK II., King of Prussia, distinguished by his contem- 
 poraries and posterity by the surname of the Great, was the sou of 
 Frederick William I. and of Sophia Dorothea, princess of Hanover, and 
 was born on the 24th January, 1712. He passed the first years of his 
 youth under the restraints of a rigid education, the sole object of 
 which was military exercises; but as he had received the rudiments 
 of his education from a French lady, under whose care he acquired 
 considerable knowledge of the language, and as she and his first tutor, 
 M. Duhan, had great influence over him, he imbibed a taste for polite 
 literature. These two persons, together with the queen, formed in 
 secret a kind of opposition to his father's system of education. The 
 prince was entirely attached to his mother, and there arose an 
 estrangement between the father and the son, which suggested to the 
 king the idea of leaviug the throne to his younger sou Augustus 
 William. Impatient of the tyrannical conduct of his father, Frederick 
 resolved to seek refuge in England with his maternal uncle George II. 
 Only his sister Frederica, and his friends lieutenants Katt and Keith, 
 were acquainted with the secret of his intended flight, which was to 
 take place from Wesel, whither he had accompanied hia father. But 
 some indiscreet expressions which fell from Katt betrayed the prince's 
 intention. The prince was overtaken, and sent to Custrin, where he 
 was kept in close confinement. Keith escaped, and lived iu Holland, 
 England, and Portugal, till after Frederick's accession, when he returned 
 to Berlin. Katt was taken and beheaded. It appears certain that the 
 king had resolved to take away his son's life, and that he was only 
 saved by the intercession of the emperor of Austria, Charles VI., 
 through his ambassador, Count Seckendorf. (Voltaire, ' Mdinoires,' 
 &c.) The prince, after he had been released from his strict confine- 
 ment in the castle of Custrin, was employed by his father as youngest 
 member of the Chamber of Domains, and not permitted to return to 
 court till the marriage of the princess Frederica to the hereditary prince 
 Frederick of Baireuth. In 1733 his father obliged him to marry the 
 princess Elizabeth Christina, daughter of Ferdinand Albrecht, duke 
 of Brunswick Bevern. Frederick William gave her the palace of 
 Schonhausen, and to the prince the county of Ruppiu, and in 1734 
 the town of Rheinsberg, where he appears to have lived happily, chiefly 
 devoting himself to literary pursuits and to music till his accession. 
 Among the persons about him were Bielefeld, Chuzot, Suhm, Fouquet, 
 Kuobelsdorf, Keiserling, Jordan, and other learned men; likewise the 
 composers Graun and Benda, and the painter Pesne. He had an 
 uninterrupted correspondence with foreign literati, especially with 
 Voltaire, whom he admired above all others. During his retirement 
 at Rheinsberg, he composed several works, one of which was the 
 ' Anti-Machiavel,' published at the Hague in 1740. The death of his 
 father in ] 740 placed him on the throne. Finding a full treasury and 
 a powerful army, his thirst for military glory tempted him to embrace 
 any opportunity that might offer; but there did not appear to be any 
 occasion for great enterprise till the death of the emperor Charles VI., 
 on the 20th October 1740, led the way to hi3 extraordinary and | 
 brilliant career which changed the face of Europe. Frederick took 
 this opportunity of asserting the claims of the House of Brandenburg | 
 to four principalities in Silesia, the investiture of which his prede- 
 cessors had not been able to obtain ; but he only required from queen 
 Maria Theresa, the daughter and heiress of Charles VI., the duchies 
 of Glogau and Sagan, promising on his side to support her against all 
 her enemies, to vote for her husband's elevation to the imperial 
 dignity, and to pay her 2,000,000 dollars. His proposals being 
 rejected, he took possession of Lower Silesia in December 1740, and 
 defeated the Austrian army at Mollwitz, on the 27th April 1741. 
 
 This victory, which nearly decided the fate of Silesia, raised up 
 more enemies to Austria. France and Bavaria united with Prussia, 
 and the war of the Austrian succession began. George II., king of 
 England, the only ally of Maria Theresa, advised her to make peace 
 with Prussia, because Frederick was her most active and formidable 
 enemy. Frederick having obtained a victory at Czaslau on the 17th of 
 May 1742 over Prince Charles of Lorraine, peace was concluded at 
 Berlin on the 28th of July, and the first Silesian war was ended. 
 Frederick obtained the full sovereignty of Upper and Lower Silesia, and 
 the county of Glatz, with the exception of Tropau, Jagerndorf, and 
 Teschen. Ou his side, he renounced all claims to the other Austrian 
 dominions, took upon himself a debt of 1,700,000 dollars, with which 
 Silesia was charged, and promised to respect the rights of the Roman 
 Catholics in Silesia. Saxony acceded to this peace, and it was 
 guaranteed by France and England. Frederick immediately profited 
 by it to organise his new conquests, and to render his army more 
 formidable. On the death of the last count of East Friesland in 1743 
 he took possession of that country, to which his house had asserted a 
 claim ever since the year 1644. When in the prosecution of the 
 Austrian war the emperor Charles VII. had been obliged to fly from 
 his hereditary dominions, and the Austrian arms were everywhere 
 
 victorious, Frederick feared that Silesia might be taken from him. He 
 therefore secretly entered into an alliance with France in April 1744, 
 and with the emperor, the Palatinate, and Hesse Cassel, on the 22ud 
 of May 1744, promising to support the cause of the emperor by 
 invading Bohemia, but requiring for himself the circle of Koniggratz 
 in Bohemia, On the 10th of August 1744 he unexpectedly entered 
 Bohemia, and took Prague ; but being pressed by the Austrians under 
 Prince Charles of Lorraine, and the Saxons their allies, he was obliged 
 to leave Bohemia before tho end of the year. The death of the 
 emperor Charles VII. ou the 18th of January 1745, and the defeat of 
 the Bavarians at Pfaffenhofen, induced his son the young elector, 
 Maximilian-Joseph of Bavaria, to make peace at Fussen with Maria 
 Theresa, and the Frankfurt union was dissolved ; Hesse Cassel declaring 
 itself neutral. On the other hand, England, Austria, the Netherlands, 
 and Saxony, had concluded a strict alliance at Warsaw on the 8th of 
 January 1745, and Saxony had besides entered into a special convention 
 with Austria against Prussia on tho 18th of May 1745. But Frederick 
 defeated tho Austrians and Saxons on the 4th of June at Hohenfried- 
 burg in Silesia, then entered Bohemia, and gained another victory after 
 a very obstinate combat atSorr, on the 30th of September 1745. The 
 victory of the Prussians, under Prince Leopold of Dessau, over the 
 Saxons at Kesselsdorf, on the 15th of December, led to the treaty of 
 Dresden, December 25, 1745, which was concluded on the basis of the 
 treaty of Berlin ; so that Frederick retained Silesia, acknowledged the 
 husband of Maria Theresa, Francis I., as emperor, and Saxony engaged 
 to pay to Prussia one million of dollars. Thus ended the second 
 Silesian war. 
 
 During the eleven years' peace that followed, Frederick devoted 
 himself with unremitting activity to the internal administration of his 
 dominions, the organisation of the army, and to literary pursuits. 
 Among the grand improvements which he contemplated was a reform 
 in the judicial proceedings, with a view to render them more simple 
 and uniform, in all the ditferent provinces of his dominions. Together 
 with his chancellor Cocceii, he compiled the ' Frederician Code, a 
 body of laws for the dominions of the King of Prussia, founded on 
 reason and the constitution of the country.' It is not easy to under- 
 stand what is here meant by the word ' constitution.' His father, it 
 is true, drew up with great care what he called a constitution (Verfas- 
 sungs-Urkunde), or instructions for the supreme general board of 
 finance, war, and domains, which he issued in 1722, and which is 
 printed by Dr. Fiirster in his ' Life of Frederick William I.,' but it is 
 not likely that this is here alluded to. Frederick also wrote ' Memoirs 
 of the House of Brandenburg,' a concise accouut of his house, written 
 in a good style, with a positive declaration of impartiality, which of 
 course is to be taken with some allowance. Another work, a didactic 
 poem in six books, on the 'Art of War,' is his most considerable 
 poetical production, and is greatly esteemed. These, and all his other 
 works, are in French. These recreations did not divert his attention 
 from the paramount duties of his position, which he always performed 
 with the most persevering care. Instead of indulging in the pleasures 
 of the chase, he made journeys to different parts of his dominions. 
 He endeavoured to make agriculture, manufactures, and the arts 
 flourish ; and encouraged commerce, the true principles of which 
 however he appears not to have understood. Though possessing no 
 naval force, he insisted on the right of free navigation for his subjects, 
 without molestation from the fleets of contending parties. One grand 
 object was to improve his revenues, a measure necessary for the 
 maintenance of his army, which he had increased to 160,000. He 
 expended large sums in gratifying his taste for the arts, by decorating 
 the palaces of Berlin and Potsdam, and in erecting many splendid 
 edifices in those two places, in which however there was this incon- 
 gruity, that the richest architectural decorations were often lavished 
 on the exterior of buildings which were only barracks for the troops. 
 
 When the war broke out between England and France in 1755, the 
 English government concluded a treaty with Frederick, the chief 
 object of which was to secure Hanover from invasion. This led to a 
 secret alliance between France, Austria, Saxony, and Russia, of which 
 Frederick, having been privately informed, chiefly through the 
 treachery of a clerk in the Saxon chancery, became apprehensive 
 of an attack, and of the loss of Silesia. He accordingly resolved to 
 anticipate his enemies, and commenced operations by invading 
 Saxony ou the 24th of August 1756 ; which was the beginning of the 
 third Silesian, or, as it is generally called, " The Seven Years' War." 
 This contest was the most extraordinary and important in modern 
 times, previous to those of the French revolution. Though Frederick 
 is the hero, the history of the war is, in fact, the history of conti- 
 nental Europe. Frederick, intending to invade Bohemia, required a 
 passage through Saxony, which the elector king of Poland antici- 
 pating, assembled his troops in an intrenched camp at Pirna. Frede- 
 rick invested it, and having defeated, at Lowositz, the Austrians who 
 came to its relief, it surrendered ; and he compelled all the privates 
 to enlist in his own army. In 1757, he advanced into Bohemia, and 
 gained, on the 5th of May, a great victory at Prague, over the 
 Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine and Marshal Brown. 
 The Austrians took shelter in Prague, which Frederick immediately 
 invested; but the approach of the Austrians under Marshal Dauu, 
 changed the face of the campaign. Daun formed an intrenched camp 
 at Koliu, which Frederick attacked, but was defeated with great loss 
 
FREDERICK II. (OF PRUSSIA). 
 
 on which he raised the siege of Prague, and retreated into Saxony. 
 Meanwhile the French compelled the Duke of Cumberland to abandon 
 Hanover, of which they took possession ; and about the same time 
 the Russians and Swedes invaded Prussia from the north : but though 
 Frederick's affairs were supposed by his enemies to be desperate, he 
 was not dismayed. He first attacked the united French and Austrian 
 army, twice as numerous as his own, at Rosbach, and gave them a 
 total and most disgraceful defeat. He then marched into Silesia, 
 where the Austrians had taken Breslau, gained a great victory over 
 them at Lissa, and recovered Breslau. The Russians and Swedes had 
 retreated from the Prussian territories, and the Hanoverians had 
 assembled a large force under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, to 
 co-operate with the Prussians. Thus at the close of 1757 the king's 
 affairs were so far restored, that he might have hoped for success in 
 the next campaign, if he could have kept back the Russians ; but the 
 enmity of the Empress Elizabeth was inveterate. However the admi- 
 ration which Frederick's conduct had excited in England, and confidence 
 in his ability, induced the English government to grant him a subsidy 
 of 670,000?., which became an annual grant. In the campaign of 
 1758 the principal event was the sanguinary battle at Zorndorf, 
 between the Prussians and the Russians, in which the latter were 
 defeated, but the loss on both sides was immense. In 1759 the king's 
 first object was to stop the progress of the Russians, who advanced 
 to Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. On the 12th of August was fought the 
 battle of Kunnersdorf. At the beginning of the day, the King of 
 Prussia thought himself so sure of the victory, that he despatched a 
 letter to that effect to the queen at Berlin ; but in the end, he was 
 obliged to quit the field, and wrote a second letter to the queen, 
 desiring her to send away the royal family, and to have the archives 
 removed, adding, that the city might make terms with the enemy. 
 But Berlin was saved. Frederick's skilful conduct after his defeat 
 induced the Russian general, instead of entering Brandenburg, to join 
 the Austrians in Lusatia ; but soon afterwards, General Finck, with 
 15,000 men, was taken prisoner by the Austrians, and a smaller corps 
 shared the same fate. Frederick however received reinforcements, 
 au'l Marshal Daun was contented to occupy the camp at Pirna and 
 cover Dresden. In the following spring some fruitless negociations 
 for peace took place. In this campaign the city of Dresden suffered 
 very severely from a bombardment, by which Frederick destroyed the 
 finest part of the city. On the other hand, the Russians and Austrians 
 entered Berlin, which was saved from plunder by a composition, but 
 had to pay heavy contributions. Berlin was soon evacuated, and 
 Frederick, who was hastening to its relief, turned into Saxony, where 
 he was induced, by the desperate condition of his affairs, to venture 
 to attack the Austrians, who were strongly posted at Torgau. He 
 defeated them, after an obstinate battle, which compelled them to 
 retreat. The Russians and Swedes also quitted his dominions, and 
 he was able to recover strength in winter quarters in Saxony. 
 
 At the commencement of 1761 it was evident that the king of 
 Prussia's situation was most critical. He confessed himself that, after 
 the great losses he had sustained, his army was not equal to what it 
 had formerly been. He accordingly occupied a strong camp in Silesia, 
 where he remained immoveable, watching his enemies, but was un- 
 able to prevent Marshal Laudohn from taking Schweidnitz, and the 
 Russians, Colberg. Frederick's situation was now so desperate, that 
 he appears to have seriously contemplated suicide : in this critical 
 state, the only event perhaps which could have saved him occurred. 
 This was the death of the empress Elizabeth on the 5th of January 
 1762, and the accession of Peter III., who was an enthusiastic admirer 
 of Frederick, with whom he immediately concluded a treaty of alliance. 
 Peace was also made with the Swedes, and though Peter was soon 
 deposed, yet Catharine, who succeeded him, observed a strict neutrality 
 during the remainder of the war. The king and his brother, prince 
 Henry, gained several advantages in 1762 and 1763, and peace having 
 been concluded between Great Britain and France, Austria was left 
 alone, and the empress queen obliged to conclude peace with Prussia. 
 The two powers mutually guaranteed the whole of each other's German 
 dominions, Frederick only promising to give his vote to Joseph as 
 king of the Romans. The king of Poland was restored to his dominions 
 without compensation. Thus ended the Seven Years' War, which, 
 after immense sacrifices of human life and treasure, left the political 
 balance of Europe unchanged. 
 
 The issue of this great contest, in which the geniu3 of Frederick had 
 been ao eminently distinguished, secured to him a decisive influence 
 in the affairs, not only of Germany, but of all Europe. Returning to 
 hU capital after an absence of more than six years, he seriously directed 
 hii attention to repair the evils inflicted on his dominions by the war. 
 He opened his magazines to give his subjects corn, both for food and 
 for seed. He distributed horses among the farmers, rebuilt at his own 
 expense the houses which had been burnt, founded colonies, erected 
 manufactories, and made canals for the convenience of inland trade. 
 Silesia was exempted from the payment of all taxes for six years, and 
 the New Mark and Pomerania for two years. To relieve the nobility 
 in thone three provinces, a system of credit was introduced, by which 
 the v.lu; of estates was raised, and the rate of interest reduced. In 
 1764 he founded the bank of Berlin, to which ho gave eight millions 
 of dollars as its first fund. Though he really desired to promote trade, 
 from his ignorance of true commercial principles, and his desire to 
 
 BIOO. DIV. VOL. 1L 
 
 Frederick william (of Brandenburg). iois 
 
 increase the revenue, he was induced to take measures, some of which 
 were injudicious, and others decidedly unjust : for instance, the debase- 
 ment of the current coin. Meantime he continued to maintain a very 
 large army. In March 1764 he concluded an alliance with Russia, by 
 which he supported the election of the new king of Poland, Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski, and the cause of the oppressed dissidents in Poland. In 
 1772 he agreed to the first partition of Poland, by which ho obtained 
 all Polish Prussia (which was ceded in 1406 by the Teutonic Order to 
 Poland) and a part of Great Poland, as far as to the river Netz, but 
 with the exception of Danzig and Thorn. Frederick has been accused 
 of having first suggested the partition of Poland ; but the fact is, that 
 Frederick I. had formed a plan for the partition of Poland, drawn up 
 in the year 1710. From that time the kingdom of Prussia was divided 
 into East and West Prussia. In 1778, on the death of the elector of 
 Bavaria, without children. Frederick interfered to prevent Austria from 
 partitioning that country. The war was however terminated without 
 a battle, by the treaty of Teschen, in May 1779, by which Austria 
 renounced its intentions, and consented to the union of the Fran- 
 conian principalities with Prussia. In 1785, the emperor having formed 
 a plan to obtain Bavaria in exchange for the Low Countries, Frederick 
 defeated it in conjunction with Saxony and Hanover, by concluding 
 the alliance between the German princes, called the ' Fiirstenbund,' 
 which has been considered a3 the masterpiece of his policy. In 1786 
 he concluded a treaty of amity and commerce with the United States 
 of America. Though he had long suffered from gout and asthma, 
 which terminated in confirmed dropsy, not a little aggravated by his 
 indulgence in the pleasures of the table, he continued his unremitted 
 attention to public affairs till within two days of his death, the 
 approach of which he contemplated with composure : he died on the 
 17th of August 1786, at his favourite palace of Sans Souci, in the 
 seventy-fifth year of his age, and the forty-seventh of his reign, leaving 
 to his nephew, Frederick William II., a kingdom enlarged, from 2190 
 to 3515 German square miles ; about 70,000,000 of dollars (10,000,000?. 
 sterling) in the treasury, and an army of 200,000 men. 
 
 The character of Frederick II., and his public and private life, have 
 furnished the subject for numerous publications in all the European 
 languages, which are perfectly familiar to most classes of readers. One 
 of his great merits was, that he did not contract any public debt, and 
 though he raised a very large revenue, yet a considerable part returned 
 into the pockets of his subjects through various channels. Among his 
 defects may be reckoned his contempt for religious institutions. He 
 was avowedly an unbeliever in revealed religion, and his notions 
 respecting natural religion appear to have been vague and fluctuating. 
 With respect to his temper, he seems to have been deficient in real 
 sensibility ; and though many examples of his clemency and placability 
 are recorded, he was at times harsh and even cruel. His moral con- 
 duct was guided generally by his pleasure and his interest, and in that 
 respect, as well as his religion, he was greatly influenced by his predi- 
 lection for French literature, and especially his intimacy with and 
 admiration of Voltaire. Proud as the Germans in general are of 
 Frederick, they cannot help regretting his contempt of German litera- 
 ture. It must however be owned that German literature, at the com- 
 mencement of Frederick's life, was in a very low state, and it may be 
 doubted whether the literature and language of Germany did not gain 
 rather than lose by his neglect of them. Frederick was essentially a 
 despot, and his interference with what he confessedly did not under- 
 stand, would probably have done more harm than good. His volumi- 
 nous works, all in French, would have entitled him to a certain amount 
 of distinction in the literary world, even if he had not been a king. 
 Besides the works already mentioned, he published military instruc- 
 tions, and some miscellaneous pieces in 4 vols. 8vo. His posthumous 
 works, in 15 vols., contain the history of his own times, the history of 
 the Seven Years' War, and memoirs, from the treaty of Hubertsburg, 
 1763, to the end of the partition of Poland. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM, Elector of Brandenburg, surnamed the 
 Great Elector, was the son of the Elector George William. In the. 
 distracted state of Germany during the Thirty Years' War, and the 
 necessary absence of his father with the army, the young prince saw 
 but little of the splendour and indulgences of a court, and passed the 
 first years of his life in retirement with his tutors, who were men of 
 learning and experience, and with his mother, first at the castle of 
 Litzlingen, in the forest? of the Altmark, and afterwards at Custrin. 
 The adventures and the singular fortunes of the family of his mother 
 (who was sister of Frederick, King of Bohemia, husband of the Princess 
 Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England), the cruel and barbarous 
 manner in which the war was carried on, and the dangers to which he 
 and his family were exposed, necessarily made a deep impression on 
 his mind. At the age of fifteen he was sent to the University of 
 Leyden, where he especially devoted himself to the classics and to 
 history. Of modern languages he was a proficient in the French, 
 Dutch, and Polish. He was afterwards in the camp of Frederick 
 Henry, prince of Orange, during the siege of Breda, and was much 
 noticed by the prince for his amiable manners and exemplary conduct, 
 as well as for his sound understanding. About this time a society of 
 young persons of both sexes (called Media Nocte) endeavoured to 
 draw the prince into its circle ; but his friend and tutor, the Baron 
 Schulenberg, making him aware of the immoral nature of the society, 
 the prince resolved immediately to quit the Hague. The Prince ot 
 
FREDERICK WILLIAM I. 
 
 1020 
 
 Orange was much surprised at this self-command, and when the 
 prince arrived in the camp before Breda, said to him, " Cousin, your 
 flight is a greater proof of heroism than if I took Breda ; he who so 
 early knows how to command himself will always succeed in great 
 deeds." These words, as he himself owned, made a deep impression 
 on him. 
 
 His father dying in 1640, the young prince found his dominions 
 reduced to a most deplorable condition by war and bad government. 
 The exactions of Wallenstein in the Mark alone were estimated at 
 twenty millions of gold florins : and in a memorial of the magistrate 
 of Prenzlau, it is stated that the inhabitants are reduced to such 
 dreadful extremities that they not only eat dogs, cats, and even 
 carrion, but that both in the town aud country they attack and kill 
 each other for food. He commenced his government with a degree of 
 prudence and wisdom rarely found in so young a sovereign. His first 
 care was to correct many crying abuses, and to restore order in the 
 finances. His attention was then directed to foreign affairs. In 1642 
 he received the investiture of Prussia from the King of Poland ; in 
 1043 he concluded a peace with the Swedes on condition of their 
 evacuating the greater part of his dominions. At the peace of Muuster 
 he was not able to enforce his claims to Pomcrania and Silesia, but 
 obtained Magdeburg, Wallenstadt, Minden, and part of Pomerania. It 
 is highly to his credit that it was chiefly owing to him that the prin- 
 ciple of equal lights and privileges for the two great divisions of the 
 Protestant church was admitted in that famous treaty. Charles 
 Gustavus, king of Sweden, appearing emulous of rivalling Gustavus 
 Adolphus, the elector concluded an alliance with Holland, and sought 
 the friendship of Cromwell and Louis XIV. He was however obliged 
 to make in 1655 a treaty with the Swedes, in consequence of which he 
 joined in the invasion of Poland, and greatly contributed to the 
 victory at Warsaw. Austria, Holland, and Poland vehemently pro- 
 tested against this alliance with Sweden. Cromwell however, who 
 believed the Protestant cause to be in danger from the King of Poland, 
 sent William Jepson as his ambassador - to the elector, whom in letters 
 he compliments in the highest terms for his service to the Protestant 
 religion. But Russia and Austria declaring in favour of Poland, he, 
 by the mediation of Austria, concluded a convention with Poland at 
 Wehlau, by one of the stipulations of which he obtained the entire 
 sovereignty of Prussia ; and in 1 678 completed the conquest of all 
 Pomerania by the taking of Greifswald and Stralsund. The death of 
 Charles Gustavus freed him from an adversary who would probably 
 have endeavoured to prevent the execution of this treaty, which was 
 confirmed by the treaty of Oliva. Frederick, now at peace with his 
 neighbours, directed all ids attention to promote the welfare of his 
 subjects by favouring all internal improvements ; the ruined towns 
 and villages were rebuilt, new roads made, waste lands cultivated, com- 
 merce encouraged, and many useful establishments founded. 
 
 In 1672 however, Holland being threatened by Louis XIV., he con- 
 cluded a treaty with the republic, engaging to furnish 20,000 men -for 
 its defence. He also contributed to induce the Emperor, Denmark, 
 Hesse Cassel, and several German princes to join him against France. 
 But though his advance into Westphalia induced the French to quit 
 Holland, the campaign was rendered unsuccessful by the slowness of 
 the Austrian general, and he was forced to abandon Westphalia to the 
 enemy. The Austrians leaving him, aud the Dutch neglecting to send 
 him subsidies, he was obliged to make a convention with France in 
 1673. The French were to evacuate Westphalia and pay him 800,000 
 livres, he promising to withdraw from his alliance with Holland, and 
 aot to support the enemies of France ; yet he reserved to himself the 
 right of assisting the German emperor in case of attack. This happened 
 in 1674, when he invaded Alsace with 16,000 men, and joined the 
 Imperial army; but the Austrian general, Bournonville, avoided a 
 battle, contrary to the advice of Frederick, and Turenne receiving 
 reinforcements, obliged the Germans to quit Alsace. In order to 
 free themselves from Frederick, the French instigated the Swedes to 
 invade Pomerania and the March, which they attacked in Decem- 
 ber 1674 with 16,000 men. Frederick hastened to his dominions, 
 and proceeding with great rapidity and secrecy at the head of only 
 5000 men, he totally defeated 11,000 Swedes at Fehrbellin in 1675, 
 and freed his dominions from the enemy. Following up his successes 
 he took Stettin. In January 1679 he crossed the Frische Haff aud the 
 Gulf of Courland with his army on sledge3 over the ice, and surprising 
 the Swedes in their winter quarters, compelled them to quit Prussia. 
 He did not reap any real advantage from his success, for Louis XIV. 
 insisted that he should make peace with Sweden and give up all his 
 conquests ; and on his refusal sent an army of 30,000 men to lay waste 
 the duchy of Cleves and city of Minden, so that he was forced to con- 
 clude the treaty of St. Germain, by which he restored all his conquests 
 to Sweden ; the French withdrew from his Westphalian dominions, 
 nnd paid him 300,000 crowns. After this we do not find Frederick 
 again in the field. He was indeed engaged in various negociations ; 
 was involved in disputes with France on account of its seizure of 
 Strasbourg and Luxemburg ; and in consequence of his reception of 
 20,000 French Protestants who left their country on the repeal of the 
 edict of Nantes. Frederick, who had previously obtained from his 
 ambassador, Von Spanheim, notice of the intended measure, had made 
 preparations to receive the fugitives, and sent funds to his agents at 
 Frankfurt, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, for their assistapce. In like 
 
 manner ho protected the proscribed Waldcnses. Having in vain in- 
 terceded for them iu a very affecting letter to the Duke of Savoy, he 
 offered to receive 2000 of them into his dominions. He sent 
 8000 men in 1686 to assist the emperor against the Turks; having in 
 the year preceding renewed his alliance with Holland ; and when 
 Prince William of Orange was preparing for his expedition to England, 
 Frederick assisted him with several regiments, and Marshal Voa 
 Schomberg, who became so great a favourito of William, and was 
 eventually killed at the battle of the Boyne. As another proof of 
 Frederick's enterprising spirit, it deserves to be noticed that Spain 
 neglecting to pay him the arrears of a subsidy promised him for his 
 co-operation against France, he resolved to commence a war by sea 
 against that power : he fitted out eight frigates which had been 
 employed against Sweden, and sent them in 1680 to capture Spanish 
 ships, and they actually took some rich merchantmen. 
 
 We have not space, nor is it necessary to detail the proceedings of 
 this great prince in consolidating the prosperity of his dominions and 
 the welfare of his subjects. He died in April 1688, leaving to his son 
 a much enlarged and highly cultivated territory, a well-filled treasury, 
 and an army of 30,000 excellent troops. He was twice married ; first 
 iu 1647 to Louisa Henrietta, princess of Orange, an amiable and ac- 
 complished person, author of the celebrated German Hymn 'Jesus 
 mien Zuversicht.' She died in 1667. In the following year Frederick 
 married Dorothea, duchess dowager of Brunswick Ltiueberg; but 
 though au excellent and virtuous princess, she was not liked by the 
 people, chiefly because she was on ill terms with her step-children, 
 especially the crown-prince. The character of Frederick, both in 
 public and privato life, has always been highly esteemed. He was 
 kind, generous, fond of society, and though rather quick in his 
 temper, extremely placable. As a sovereign he appears to have justly 
 merited the surname of the Great Elector. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM I, King of Prussia, son of Frederick L, 
 was born in 1688. At a very early age he manifested a predilection 
 for military exercises : at the age of five years he wa3 sent to Hanover 
 to be brought up with the electoral prince, afterwards George II. of 
 England. The court of his grandfather, where the mode of living 
 was strictly economical, simple, and without the restraints of rigid 
 etiquette, pleased the young prince much more than the formal mag- 
 nificence of his father's court. He served in the allied army against 
 the French, and distinguished himself at the siege of Meniu and the 
 battle of Malplaquet. In 1706 he married the princess Sophia 
 Dorothea of Hanover. 
 
 His character being in many respects directly the reverse of that 
 of his father, he commenced, immediately on his accession on the 25th 
 of February 1713, to retrench the luxury that had prevailed in the 
 preceding reign ; he reduced the salaries of persons in office, limited 
 their number, and endeavoured to introduce order into the finances. 
 In his own person he set an example of the utmost plainness of 
 apparel, and laid aside all the formalities of his station ; while the 
 queen and princesses were allowed to wear only dresses of the simplest 
 kind. He devoted himself to public business, examined everything, 
 was easy of access, and received and answered letters from the 
 meanest of his subjects ; but he was austere and arbitrary, and carried 
 to the utmost extent his ideas of the divine right of kings. Though 
 he repeatedly declared the republican constitution of Holland to be 
 a model for all states, and boasted that he was himself a true repub- 
 lican, he was very far from allowing any check on his own power. 
 His reforms in the finances and expenditure enabled him to gratify 
 his most ardent wish, of keeping a great military establishment, and 
 he laid the foundation of that strict discipline and regularity by 
 which the Prussian troops have been since so greatly distinguished. 
 His childish passion for tall soldiers is well known. No expense was 
 spared in order to gratify it , men of gigantic stature were picked up 
 in all the neighbouring states, and many were even kidnapped or 
 forced into his service, by which he involved himself in many serious 
 quarrels. The economy of his internal administration enabled him 
 to repeople those provinces which were desolated by the plague, by 
 means of colonies from other states, which he settled on very advan- 
 tageous terms. He was liberal in rewarding the industry and ability 
 of those who introduced any new art, and many of the richest manu- 
 factories in the Prussian dominions owe their foundation to him. 
 But he had a mortal aversion to all abstract sciences, and even to 
 poetry and literature; and he expelled the celebrated philosopher Wolf 
 for his metaphysical opinions. He erected many public buildings at 
 a considerable expense, but built little, and with great economy, for 
 himself and his court. He founded the Medico-Chirurgical College, 
 the Charity, and the Foundling Hospital at Berlin, the Berlin Cadet 
 Establishment, and the Orphan House at Potsdam; the emigrants 
 from Salzburg and the Polish dissidents met with a favourable 
 reception in his dominions. On the other hand the Berlin academy 
 and the universities narrowly escaped dissolution. The details of his 
 private life have been given at great length by his daughter, the 
 Margravine of Baireuth ; and his character is portrayed in a few happy 
 touches by Voltaire ('Me'moires, &c. Merits par lui-meme '). 
 
 The public events of the reign of Frederick William were of no 
 great importance. In the treaty of Utrecht, France and Spain recog- 
 nised his royal title, aud the sovereignty of Neufchatel and Valleugin 
 was given him. In the course of the war in the north, in which his 
 
FREDERICK WILLIAM II. 
 
 father had taken no part, the Russians and Saxous, after the capitula- 
 tion of the Swedish general, Steenbock, in Tbnuingen, resolved to 
 occupy Swedish Pomerania. The king wished to restore tranquillity 
 in the north by his mediation ; but Charles XII., who had returned 
 from Turkey to Stralsund, rejected his proposals, and required Prussia 
 to give back Stettin, but refused to repay the 400,000 dollars which 
 Frederick had advanced to indemnify the Russians and Saxons for 
 the expenses of the war. This induced Frederick William in 1715 to 
 declare war against Sweden, and to make an alliance with Russia, 
 Saxony, and Denmark. In this war the island of Riigen and Stralsund 
 were taken, but no other event of importance occurred, and after the 
 death of Charles XII. peace was restored ; Prussia retaining Hither 
 Pomerania, Stettin, and the islands of Usedom and Wollin, and paying 
 to Sweden 2,000,000 of dollars. Count Seckendorf, the Austrian 
 ambassador, induced the king to withdraw from the alliance which 
 had been concluded at Hanover, between England, Holland, and 
 Prussia, after George II. had ascended the throne of England, and to 
 agree in the treaty of Wusterhausen, in October 1726, to recognise 
 the Pragmatic Sanction, and, if necessary, to support it with 19,000 
 men. On the breaking out of the war in Poland in 1733, he caused 
 King Stanislaus, the opponent of Augustus II., to be honourably 
 received at Kbnigsberg, when he fled from Poland, by which conduct 
 he displeased the courts of Vienna and St. Petersburg, the allies of 
 Saxony. However, when France declared war against Austria, he 
 assisted Austria with a corps of 10,000 men upon the Rhine. The 
 king and the crown-prince were for some time with this corps; but 
 nothing of importance was effected, and peace was concluded at 
 Vienna in 1735. About this time Frederick William fell into a weak 
 state of health, which increased the natural violence of his dispo- 
 sition. He was for a time supposed to be in great danger, but 
 recovered and lived for some years, on the whole upon pretty good 
 terms with his son, in whose arms he expired on the 31st of May 
 1740. He left to his successor 9,000,000 of dollars in his treasury, 
 a disciplined army of 70,000 men, and a kingdom of the extent of 2190 
 German square miles, with a population of 2,240,000 inhabitants. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM II., King of Prussia, was born in 1744. 
 His father was Augustus William, second son of Frederick William I., 
 upon whose death in 1758, his uncle, Srederick the Great, declared 
 him Crown Prince of Prussia. The young prince soon indulged in a 
 mode of life which was highly displeasing to his uncle, and alienated 
 them from each other for many years. Frederick II. however expressed 
 his satisfaction to the crown-prince, on his giving proofs of personal 
 bravery in the war of the Bavarian succession, 1778. Frederick 
 William's first wife was Elizabeth Christina Ulrica, princess of 
 Brunswick, from whom he was separated in 1769. He afterwards 
 married the Princess Louisa of Hesse Darmstadt. His accession in 
 1786 was under favourable circumstances. Prussia was engaged in no 
 contest with foreign enemies, and the policy of Frederick II. had made 
 him, in the latter part of his life, in some measure an arbitrator in the 
 affairs of Europe. Political errors soon lessened Frederick William's 
 credit with foreign cabinets, and the treasure left by his uncle was 
 wasted in useless wars, and by the extravagance of his favourites. His 
 first interference in foreign affairs was in, 1787, when he sent an army, 
 under Duke Charles William Ferdinand of Brunswick, to Holland, 
 where the patriots refused to recognise the right of the stadtholder, 
 and insulted his wife, Frederick William's sister, on her way to tho 
 Hague, for which however satisfaction had been given. The Prussians 
 advanced without opposition to Amsterdam, and the old order of 
 things was soon restored, upon which a defensive alliance between 
 England, Prussia, and Holland was concluded at the Hague in April 
 1788. In the war between Sweden and Russia in the same year, 
 Frederick William, in conjunction with England, prevented any 
 further attack upon Sweden by Denmark. Being jealous of the 
 Buccess of Russia and Austria in the Turkish war, he concluded an 
 alliance with the Porte in 1790, and guaranteed its possessions. This 
 measure having given offence to Austria, a Prussian army was 
 assembled in Silesia, on the Bohemian frontier, and an Austrian army 
 in Bohemia. The Emperor Leopold II. did not wish for war with 
 Prussia, and in the convention concluded at Reichenbach on the 27th 
 July, 1790, between Austria and Prussia, with the mediation of 
 England and Holland, he promised to restore to the Turks all his 
 conquests, except the district of Aluta, on which conditions peace was 
 made between Austria and the Porte at Szistowe. Some differences 
 respecting this convention were arranged by Leopold II. and Frederick 
 William at their meeting at Pillnitz, in August, 1794, when they 
 entered into a closer union with respect to the affairs of France. 
 
 A part of the Polish nation, with king Stanislaus Poniatowsky at 
 it* head, proposed to establish a aew constitution for the kingdom, 
 and to make the royal dignity hereditary in the house of Saxony. In 
 order to secure foreign aid, an alliance was concluded between Poland 
 and Prussia, by which the latter recognised the integrity of Poland, 
 and promised to assist it with 40,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry, in case 
 any foreign power should interfere in its internal affairs. After making 
 peace with the Porte, Catharine II., who, without taking any share in 
 the war then carrying on by Prussia and Austria against France, had 
 calculated on their efforts, contrived to reduce Frederick William to 
 the alternative either of defending Poland against Russia by virtue of 
 bis alliance with that state, or of making a second partition of it, in 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM III. mi 
 
 conjunction with Russia. Frederick William chose the latter, and 
 in January 1793 sent troops under General Mollendorf into Great 
 Poland, which occupied a tract of country of the extent of 1100 
 German square miles, with a population, including Danzig and Thorn, 
 of 1,200,000 inhabitants. Though the diet at Grodno was obliged to 
 agree to this accession, as well as to a similar cession of territory to 
 Russia, the Poles rose in 1794, under Kosciuszko and Madalinsky, to 
 recover their independence, in which insurrection the Russians and 
 Prussians were several times defeated, till Kosciuszko was taken 
 prisoner on the 10th October, by the Russian General Fersen, and 
 Praga was stormed by Suwaroff on the 4th November. Hereupon tho 
 third partition of Poland followed. All that remained, after the 
 preceding partitions, was divided between Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia, by which the latter acquired a large addition of territory, and 
 the independence of Poland was annihilated. 
 
 In the war against France, Prussia sent 50,000 men to the Rhine in 
 1792, under the Duke of Brunswick, and the king soon followed, 
 accompanied by the princes. The Duke of Brunswick failed in his 
 plan of marching to Paris, and was obliged to retreat. On the 5th 
 April 1795, Prussia made peace with the Republic, and left all its 
 territories beyond the Rhine in the possession of the French. To 
 preserve the neutrality of the north of Germany, a convention was 
 made between Prussia and several princes, whose territories were 
 included in what was called the line of demarcation. During this 
 reign the margrave of Anspach and Baireuth, who was the last prince 
 of that line of the house of Brandenburg, ceded those principalities, 
 for an annuity of 500,000 florins, to Frederick William, who on that 
 occasion revived the order of the Red Eagle. In the internal adminis- 
 tration, the system of indirect taxes introduced by Frederick II. was 
 abolished. Many judicious arrangements were introduced, and a new 
 code of laws for the whole kingdom published ; but the toleration 
 promoted by Frederick II. was much restricted by means of the 
 religious edict of 1788 and other measures. Frederick William died 
 on the 16th of November 1797, and was succeeded by his eldest son, 
 Frederick William III. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM III., King of Prussia, was the eldest son 
 of King Frederick William II., by his second wife, Friederike Louise, 
 princess of Hesse-Darmstadt : he was born on the 3rd of August 1770. 
 Frederick William was the grand-nephew of King Frederick II., or the 
 Great, under whose superintendence he was prepared for the important 
 functions which he was destined to discharge on the throne of Prussia. 
 The chief tutor of Prince Frederick William was Betrish, one of the 
 king's privy councillors ; General von Backhoff instructed him in the 
 military sciences : both are said to have been honest men, but unfit 
 for training the mind of a youth ; and well-informed writers of that 
 period assert that the education of the prince was bad. Frederick 
 William was sixteen when, through the death of Frederick II. in 1786, 
 he became Crown-Prince, his father, Frederick William II., having 
 succeeded King Frederick. During the reign of Frederick William II. 
 Prussia lost much in general opinion. 
 
 Frederick William III. succeeded his father on the 16th of November 
 1797. He had already distinguished himself at Landau and Pirmasens 
 against the French as commander of part of the Prussian avant-garde, 
 and he had married in 1794 the accomplished Louise Auguste 
 Wilhelmine Amalie, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. At that time 
 the Prussian monarchy contained about 124,000 English square miles, 
 with a population of above ten millions — an area and a population 
 three times greater than those which constituted the kingdom when 
 the great Frederick came to the throne. But one-third of this country 
 was formed of the provinces acquired by Prussia in the partitions of 
 Poland, and the Polish capital, Warsaw, was then a provincial town of 
 Prussia; from this portion of the monarchy the king derived more 
 nominal than actual strength, and among its inhabitants there was not 
 one in ten thousand whom he could call a loyal subject. The treasures 
 left by the great Frederick had been squandered away by Frederick 
 William II. in his campaigns in Holland, France, and Poland ; and a 
 considerable debt, contracted by the same king, now added to the 
 difficulties in which tho state was placed through his unwise policy. 
 Under these circumstances, Frederick William III. turned hi3 attention 
 to the re-orgauisation of the financial department, and the introduction 
 of a better system of administration. The changes which he effected 
 were however far from being radical, nor were they calculated to 
 extricate Prussia from the daugers of her political position. From the 
 moment that King Frederick William II. had signed the peace of Basel, 
 Prussia was caught in a net ; and the favourable moment to disentangle 
 herself by again joining Austria in her struggle against France had 
 been neglected. Frederick William III. directed all his efforts towards 
 upholding his neutrality in the great European struggle, and the 
 French press was active in persuading him of the advantages of his 
 policy. The first consequence of this policy was distrust on the part 
 of Austria, Russia, and Great Britain towards Prussia, and still more 
 on the part of the petty German princes, who hitherto had looked 
 upon Prussia as their protector against the ambition of the house of 
 Austria. But it soon became manifest that the king intended, with 
 the aid of France, to aggrandise his dominions at their expense. He 
 made his first acquisition by the peace of Luneville, when he received 
 the bishoprics of Hildesheim, Paderborn, part of that of Minister, 
 and some other territories, with au area of about 5130 English square 
 
1023 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM IIL 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM IIL 
 
 mile3 and 000,000 inhabitants, as an indemnity for some districts on 
 the left bank of the Kliiue, which had been ceded to France by the 
 peace of Basel, and which had an area of only 900 English square 
 miles, with 170,000 inhabitants. These territories were seized long 
 before the decree, of the diet of Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1803, through 
 which the partition of Germany was legally settled, and which he thus 
 anticipated, being sure of the support of Russia and France ; for as 
 early as 1801 Frederick William adhered to the plan of the Emperor 
 Paul of Russia to resist the English supremacy on the sea, and a 
 Prussian ship having been carried by an English cruiser to the port 
 of Cuxhaven, the king sent troops to that place and seized her, 
 although Cuxhaven was within the territory of Hamburg. England 
 was then far from wishing to have Prussia as an enemy, and, anxious 
 to prevent a rupture with her, George III. sent his son Adolphus, 
 afterwards Duke of Cambridge, to Berlin, to settle the affair in an 
 amicable mauner. In spite of these friendly overtures Frederick 
 William gave way to the dangerous advice of some of his ministers, 
 and secretly prepared for taking military possession of the electorate 
 of Hanover and the whole German coast between Denmark and Holland. 
 This gave rise to fresh distrust, and Prussia would perhaps as early as 
 1801 have felt the consequences of .her dishonourable and self-seeking 
 policy, but for the assassination of the Emperor Paul of Russia, and 
 the friendly dispositions of his son and successor Alexander towards 
 Great Britain, in consequence of which the convention of the 17th of 
 June 1801 was signed, and peace restored between Russia and England. 
 Nelson's attack on Copenhagen in April 1801 had already forced 
 Denmark to withdraw from the Northern Coalition, and thus Prussia 
 also was compelled to abandon her hostile designs towards England. 
 Yet there was no real friendship between Prussia and either England 
 or Russia, and the conduct of Frederick William towards Austria was 
 so equivocal, that he was not only considered at Vienna as an intriguer, 
 but as a secret enemy. 
 
 During this time the friendship between Prussia and France was 
 s-trengthened, and the intercourse between the two governments and 
 between the king and the first consul Napoleon Bonaparte was very 
 intimate. It was however evident that when Prussia claimed any- 
 thing from France, she seldom got it; but when France was the 
 claimant, Prussia always yielded. No sooner had Bonaparte declared 
 that the residence of so many French emigrants in the Prussian 
 dominions seemed to be dangerous to him, than Frederick William 
 ordered them to leave his kingdom immediately, and this order was 
 likewise extended to Louis XVIII., who was residing quietly at 
 Warsaw, but was now compelled to take refuge in Russia. The 
 legitimists in Europe now treated Frederick William as a traitor to the 
 holy cause of kings. Their astonishment was still greater when, after 
 Napoleon had crowned himself Emperor of France, in 1 804, the King 
 of Prussia was the first of the potentates of Europe to recognise him, 
 and to accept and bear the Grand Cross of the recently founded order 
 of the Legion of Honour, in acknowledgment of which the king sent 
 Napoleon the Grand Cross of the order of the Black Eagle. It seemed 
 to be settled that the Kiug of Prussia was to receive all northern 
 Germany as the price of his neutrality and friendship, a3 soon as it 
 could be occupied with safety. Napoleon used to speak of King 
 Frederick William in terms of the highest esteem, but events soon 
 .showed that he despised him. 
 
 In 1805 Napoleon's designs against England were frustrated 
 through a new coalition headed by Great Britain, Austria, and Russia. 
 From Boulogne, where the French army had been concentrated for 
 the intended invasion of England, it advanced by rapid marches to the 
 frontiers of Austria. Berlin was the centre of the most important 
 negotiations; for the king's aid seemed to promise victory to the side 
 to which he should incline ; and a large party in Prussia, tired of the 
 king's indecisive policy, declared that Prussia had been treated with 
 contempt by Napoleon, and that it was now time to fight against the 
 usurper. Frederick William however still professed friendship for 
 Napoleon ; he assembled a strong army on the frontiers of Austria, 
 but whom that army was to oppose was known only to a few. The 
 Emperor Alexander now demanded a free passage through Silesia for 
 a Russian army, which was either to join the Austrians in Bohemia, or 
 more probably to occupy Hanover, and having met with a refusal, he 
 repeated his demand in an imperious tone. The King of Prussia 
 answered that his generals had received orders to treat any Russian 
 who should set his foot on the Prussian soil as an enemy. There was 
 little doubt that in this struggle also Frederick William would remain 
 either neuter, or wait till one of the belligerent parties should have 
 been weakened by defeats, and then join the victor and have his share 
 in the spoliation of Austria and France. No sooner had the war 
 broken out than the violation of the Prussian dominions in Franconia, 
 by Marshal Bernadotte, showed how little Napoleon cared for the 
 Prussian king— or rather, how well he knew that Frederick William 
 was a man of indecisive character, who would not avenge an insult 
 unless he could do it with impunity and profit. However, that 
 insolent violation roused the war-party in Prussia; and Frederick 
 William, always influenced by circumstances, now followed the advice 
 of his minister the Baron von Hardenberg, and consented to an inter- 
 view with the Emperor Alexander, which led to the Convention of the 
 3rd of November If; 05 ; in consequence of which a Russian army was 
 allowed to pass through Silesia, while, by a secret article of that 
 
 Convention, Frederick William promised to join the coalition against 
 Napoleon unless he withdrew from Germany before the 15th of 
 December. Napoleon's wrath at this unexpected news was inde- 
 scribable ; but being then in the heart of Austria and on the eve of a 
 battle, he concealed his vexation. Through his intrigues however 
 he induced Frederick William to dismiss Von Hardenberg, and to 
 appoint in his stead Count Haugwitz, who at once hastened to the 
 head-quarters of Napoleon in Moravia. A battle between the hostile 
 armies was unavoidable ; and the general opinion in Prussia was that 
 Haugwitz was to present his master's ultimatum to Napoleon, and 
 either to compel him to make peace with Austria as the status quo, or 
 to have a new enemy in Prussia. One hundred and fifty thousand 
 Prussians were on the Moravian frontier, ready, as it seemed, to join 
 the Auatro-Russians, from whom they were separated only by a few 
 days' march. No ultimatum was .tendered to Napoleon. Haugwitz 
 waited till the Austro-Russian army was annihilated by Napoleon iu 
 the battle of Austerlitz (2nd of December, 1805), and the day after 
 the battle impudently congratulated Napoleon in the words " Dicu 
 merci, nous avons vaincu ! " " If I had lost," said Napoleon to his 
 ministers, after Haugwitz had left him, " he would have said the same 
 to the Emperors of Austria and Russia." 
 
 Only thirteen days after the battle of Austerlitz (15th of December 
 1805) a treaty was concluded at Vienna, through Haugwitz, between 
 France and Prussia, which astonished all Europe, caused deep indig- 
 nation in England, and filled all Prussian patriots with shame and 
 despair. Prussia ceded to France her dominions iu Franconia, the 
 violation of which had caused so much indignation in Germany, and 
 received as the reward of her duplicity the electorate of Hanover, 
 though only dc facto, and till a general peace to which Great Britain 
 should be a party should be made. Hanover had been occupied by the 
 French in 1803, against the law of nations. In that year George III. 
 renewed the war against France aa King of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 but not as Elector of Hanover; and in order to establish that distinc- 
 tion, he sent a circular to the courts of Europe informing them that 
 Hanover was out of the question, and waa consequently a neutral 
 territory. In this case however, as in so many others, Napoleon 
 disregarded international law ; and the cousequence was, that Hanover 
 was first occupied by the French, and afterwai-ds by the Prussians. 
 According to the condition on which Prussia was put in possession of 
 Hanover, she could only hold it as a trustee for the Elector Kiug 
 George IIL; but a second convention, concluded at Paris on the 15th 
 of February 1806, showed that Frederick William intended to annex 
 Hanover to his dominions, which he actually effected, declaring that 
 he had received Hanover as a lawful conquest of Napoleon. 
 
 Prussia soon received the due punishment for the duplicity of her 
 government. The first consequence of the treaty of Paris was a 
 declaration of war by Great Britain ; in a few months several hundred 
 Prussian ships were seized by the English cruisers; and England's 
 ally, King Gustavus Adolphus IV. of Sweden, occupied the duchy of 
 Lauenburg, an appendage to the electorate of Hanover, for George III., 
 and threatened to invade Prussia. However, as neither Great Britain 
 nor Sweden was able to injure Prussia much by land, King Frederick 
 William hoped to settle his differences with those powers and to enjoy 
 the profits of his neutrality, but he was roused from his dreams by 
 the insolent conduct of Napoleon, and at last brought to see clearly 
 his dangerous position. The history of those times shows plainly 
 that in such a contest as was occasioned by the French revolution, 
 there was no lasting neutrality for any power which was in direct 
 contact with French influence, and that there was no chance left but 
 to fight for or against France. The king and statesmen of Prussia had 
 ill understood the French revolution, and they now suffered for it. 
 
 As to the personal character of Frederick William, he was regarded 
 as a man of plain understanding, more admired by his subject? for the 
 qualities of his heart than those of his head, and little disposed to 
 admire others for their talents or genius. There is no doubt Napoleon 
 expressed his real opinion when he spoke of him with contempt, and 
 his contempt changed into animosity in proportion as the Prussian 
 cabinet deranged his plans without exactly thwarting them. On 
 ceding Hanover to Prussia, Napoleon could boast of having caught 
 Frederick William in a trap from which he could not escape without 
 becoming either his vassal or his enemy ; and matters being once in 
 this condition, the French emperor boldly proceeded towards pushiug 
 him to extremities. The foundation of the Rhenish confederation, 
 which, as Napoleon openly said, would be aa useful to him against 
 Prussia as against Austria, was only notified by Napoleon to the 
 Prussian cabinet after it was completely established, though it would 
 seem that such an union of most of the members of the German 
 empire would not have been proposed to any of them without pre- 
 viously consulting Prussia, if Frederick AVilliam had been regarded by 
 Napoleon with the respect and deference which he owed to the head 
 of one of the great European kingdoms. Another provocation was 
 the occupation by the new Grand-Duke of Berg, Murat, who was the 
 brother-in-law of Napoleon, of the territories of the Prince of Nassau- 
 Dietz-Orange, the brother-in-law of the King of Prussia ; and perhaps 
 a direct order of Napoleon only could induce Murat to take possession 
 of the three abbotshipa in Westphalia which had belonged to Prussia 
 since 1803. In order to soothe Frederick William's anger at the esta- 
 blishment of the Rhenish Confederation, Napoleon, with apparent 
 
FREDERICK WILLIAM III. 
 
 friendship, proposed to him to form a similar union in Northern 
 Germany; but, with still more manifest disrespect towards him, ho 
 ordered the Hause-Towns not to adhere to the contemplated confe- 
 deration, because he would take them uuder his immediate protection, 
 and he secretly enjoined several princes in northern Germany to 
 refuse any closer alliance with Prussia. At tho same time Von 
 Hardenberg, the successor of Count Haugwitz as prime minister of 
 Prussia, was attacked in the French official newspapers ; nor was 
 there lack of articles in which Frederick William was ridiculed, or the 
 pride of his queen provoked. The majority of the Prussian nation, 
 headed by their queen Louisa, called loudly for war; but the king 
 was now accustomed to neutrality, and time was required to prepare 
 him for acting with decision. A fresh insult from France at last 
 roused him from his state of indecision ; he learned, either through 
 his ambassador in Paris, or indirectly through the British ministers, 
 tbat in the secret negociations which were then carried on between 
 Great Britain and France, Napoleon had promised to restore King 
 George III. to the possession of Hauover. His language against 
 France became now bolder, and he listened to the proposal of the 
 Emperor Alexander, who promised to assist him with a powerful army if 
 he would wage war with France. Under such circumstances hostilities 
 between Prussia and Great Britain were suspended, and Frederick 
 William sent his ultimatum to Napoleon, demanding that the French 
 armies should immediately evacuate Germany and retire beyond the 
 Rhine ; that no German prince not belonging to the Rhenish confe- 
 deration should be prevented from adhering to the contemplated 
 Northern Confederation ; and that the Prussian territories occupied 
 by the Grand Duke of Berg should be restored to Prussia. This ulti- 
 matum was rejected by Napoleon, who stood with his main army on 
 the frontiers of Franconia and Thuringia. The Prussian main army 
 was in Thuringia; it was composed of troops who, down to the 
 meanest drummer, thought themselves equal to those warriors with 
 whom Frederick II. had resisted Europe, and it was increased by the 
 numerous and well-disciplined contingents of the Elector and Dukes of 
 Saxony, the Elector of Hesse Cassel, the Duke of Brunswick, and 
 several other princes, who had concluded an offensive and defensive 
 alliance with the King of Prussia. If King Frederick William had 
 pos=essed a little sagacity, he would have discovered that his hopes 
 rested on a rotten foundation, and that he was going to fight against 
 the best general and the best troops in Europe, with an army whose 
 natural courage and excellent discipline were led to the field by vanity 
 and overbearing insolence. 
 
 The war broke out on the 1st of October 1806 : a fortnight after- 
 wards the glory of the Prussian name wa3 prostrated on the field of 
 Jena. The king behaved gallantly in this unfortunate battle ; he had 
 two horses killed under him, and his cloak was pierced by bullets. 
 Another fortnight, and Napoleon I. entered Berlin. The Prussian 
 army was annihilated : corps of 20,000 or 30,000 men, commanded by 
 heroes of the Seven Years' War, laid down their arms to small detach- 
 ments of the French. Spandau, Stettin, Custrin, Hameln, Glogau, 
 opened their gates, before their walls had been touched by a cannon- 
 shot ; Magdeburg surrendered without resistance, though occupied by 
 a garrison of 20,000 veterans, who were to defend there the great 
 magazines of the army. " In the Seven Years' War," wrote Frederick 
 William to his queen, " Prussia stood alone against Europe, and was 
 often in a more dangerous position than now : we are not alone now, 
 we have Russia." This is another instance that the fact of Prussia 
 having been victorious in the Seven Years' War was still considered as 
 a proof that sho would always remain so : but there is a difference 
 between talking of great things aud doing thern. The assistance of 
 Russia only delayed the ruin of Prussia. In the battle of Eylau (Sth 
 of February 1807) both the French and the Russians claimed the 
 victory; but on the 14th of June, the anniversary of the battle of 
 Marengo, the fate of Prussia was decided in the field of Friedland. A 
 few days afterwards Napoleon entered Konigsberg, his troops pushed 
 still farther on towards the Russian frontier, and before the month of 
 July the whole of the Prussian kingdom was in the hands of the 
 French, with the exception of a few fortified places, and Memel, an 
 open town in the extreme eastern corner of Prussia Proper. 
 
 Both Alexander and Frederick William now sued for peace : separate 
 conventions of peace had already been made between Napoleon aud 
 the German allies of Prussia, namely, Saxony and some smaller states. 
 The town of Tilsit was chosen as the place for the ensuing negocia- 
 tions. The three sovereigns were to meet on a raft constructed on the 
 river Niemen, which formed the boundary between Prussia and Russia. 
 The first interview took place between Napoleon and Alexander 
 alone, on the 25th of June 1807. On the following day Alexauder 
 presented Frederick William to his victor. Napoleon was haughty, 
 sometimes bitter ; Frederick William, worn out by care, showed him- 
 self cold and reserved, speaking little, yet betraying his personal hostile 
 feeling towards Napoleon. Some days afterwards Queen Louisa arrived, 
 and it was expected that she would succeed, through her amiable 
 character and ability, in bringing Napoleon down from his condi- 
 tions ; for it was already kuown that he did not intend to give back 
 many of his conquests. But so far was she from making the slightest 
 alteration in Napoleon's intentions, that he treated her several times 
 rather rudely, giving her to understand that he guessed very well the 
 motive of her presence at Tilsit. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM III. 102* 
 
 Peace was concluded at Tilsit on the 7th of July 1807. Tho first 
 article of this peace, referring to Prussia, is a proof that Napoleon 
 not only despised Frederick William as a man, but wished to make 
 him feel it, for tho article begins with these words: "Moved by esteem 
 for the Emperor of Russia, and iu order to give a proof of his earnest 
 desire to unite the Russian and French nations through the bonds of 
 friendship and unalterable confidence, the Emperor Napoleon consents 
 to give back to the King of Prussia part of his conquered kingdom." 
 Upon this follows the description of those territories which Napoleon 
 gave back, but not of those which the vanquished party ceded, as is 
 generally the case in transactions of the kind ; and this circumstance 
 is another instance of Napoleon's desire to humbla his unfortunate 
 enemy. By this peace Frederick William lost the greater part of his 
 realm ; all the territories west of the Elba, and nearly the whole of 
 his Polish dominions — altogether about 70,000 English square miles, 
 with a population of 6,000,000. The Polish dominions were given to 
 the elector of Saxony, who had assumed the title of King of Saxony, 
 as the grand-duchy of Warsaw, except the district of Bialistok, which 
 Russia received; aud thus the Emperor Alexander was rewarded at 
 the expense of his unfortunate ally. Out of the German dominions 
 was created the new kingdom of Westphalia, and some parts were given 
 to Saxony and the grand-duke of Berg. The king was further required 
 not to prevent any German prince from adhering to the Rhenish Con- 
 federation ; to promise to become a member of this confederation at 
 some future time; to reduce his army to 40,000 men, and to pay 
 146,000,000 of francs (nearly 6,000,000?. sterling) to France. Till this 
 money was paid French troops were to occupy Berlin and the principal 
 fortresses of Prussia. 
 
 Thus, one terrible blow prostrated Prussia, and reduced one of the 
 great monarchies of Europe to the rank of a third-rate power. The 
 remaining part of Prussia was completely exhausted. Upwards of 
 7,000,000?. sterliug had been paid to France during the war uuder the 
 title of contribution or fine, according to the circumstances ; as much 
 iu money or in value had been taken by the French soldiery ; and 
 wherever the French had been quartered — and they had been quartered 
 in all parts of the kingdom — the houses were burnt, the fields destroyed, 
 the cattle killed, and the horses taken away. Under these calamities 
 the king betrayed no symptom of despair. The re-organisation of his 
 kingdom occupied all his thoughts. Such a sudden downfall of his 
 power and glory at last taught him that he had laboured under a most 
 fatal mistake, that his glory was that of his ancestors, and his power 
 a phantom. Still at the mercy of Napoleon, he nevertheless conceived 
 the plan of removing the causes of so much evil, and of introducing 
 radical reforms into all the branches of administration ; and he carried 
 his plan out with a patience, a resignation, a perseverance, for which 
 he deserved more praise than he deserved blame for his insolent 
 conduct in the time of his prosperity. No sooner was the peace 
 concluded than he proceeded to St. Petersburg ; he afterwards lived 
 at Memel and Konigsberg till the French troops evacuated Berlin, 
 when he returned to his capital in December 1809, after an absence of 
 three years. Most of his ministers and many high functionaries were 
 dismissed, and the Baron von Stein appointed prime minister. Those 
 among the generals who had behaved like cowards in the field, or 
 shamefully surrendered the strongest fortresses, were tried and 
 punished ; others who had behaved well were promoted, and among 
 these were the generals Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, the regenerators 
 of the Prussian army, and the brave Blucher, who alono saved the 
 Prussian name from eternal disgrace, till he also was compelled to 
 surrender to the superior forces of Bernadotte after the battle of 
 Liibeck in November 1S06. Stein having displeased Napoleon, the 
 king was obliged to dismiss him ; he appointed Von Hardenberg in 
 his stead, who however acted iu the same spirit as his predecessor. 
 Many important reforms were effected in the iuterual government ; 
 among others — the last remnants of the bondage of the peasantry were 
 abolished; the exclusive privileges of the lower nobility were taken 
 away; government offices were thrown open, talent, learning, and 
 merit being declared to be the only qualifications required; trade and 
 the exercise of all mechanical arts were made free, and the existing 
 corporations, with their exclusive privileges, were abolished ; the 
 municipal corporations in the towns received (in 180S) privileges of 
 self-government of a nearly democratical character ; the military 
 system was radically reformed : every subject able to carry arms wa3 
 declared under obligation to fight in case of necessity, and to serve in 
 the army three years ; so that, although the army was apparently only 
 40,000 men strong, it was really much stronger. The greatest diffi- 
 culties in the reformation of tho kingdom arose from the state of its 
 finances; a system of economy was therefore introduced of which 
 history offers few parallels. Frederick William set a noble example by 
 selling his plate and jewellery, for which he received several millions 
 of thalers from Hamburg merchants, and also many of the crown- 
 Lmds of which he was the owner; and he sent his brother William to 
 Paris for the purpose of obtaining better conditions for the payment 
 of the sums due to France. On the 8th of September 1S08 this prince 
 made an agreement with Napoleon's minister De Champigny, according 
 to which Frederick William was relieved from his obligation to enter 
 the Rhenish Confederation, and the French troops were to evacuate 
 Prussia, on condition of 73,000,000 of francs being paid within twenty 
 davs, and twelve bills given for 72,000,000 francs, each of 6,000,000 of 
 
1027 
 
 1028 
 
 francs, payable monthly. Prussia being still unable to raise so much 
 money in so short a time, another convention was made by which the 
 debt was diminished by 20,000,000 francs, on condition that the rest 
 should be paid in thirty-six monthly instalments. Even this obligation 
 Prussia would not have fulfilled if the king had not declared that ho 
 could pay one half of it, feeling himself bound to do so as possessor 
 of the crown-lands. Struggling with all these difficulties, the king 
 approved of the plan of establishing a university at Berlin ; and he 
 showed much zeal in its foundation, which took place in 1810. He 
 also invited distinguished men from other parts of Germany to assist 
 him in his difficult task of regenerating Prussia : the historian Niebuhr, 
 who deserves so much praise for his laudable conduct iu this period, 
 had entered the Prussian service as early as 1806. 
 
 During the five years that followed the peace of Tilsit, Frederick 
 William was the mere vassal of Napoleon, who seized every oppor- 
 tunity of humbling and weakening him still more. The means which 
 he employed had however sometimes the contrary effect, and iu one 
 instance he showed his anger at being disappointed in very strong 
 terms. Napoleon had no sooner taken possession of Berlin than he 
 issued his famous decree, by which the continent of Europe was shut 
 against all intercourse with Great Britain, and which ordered the 
 seizure of English goods wherever they might be found. By the 
 treaty of Tilsit, Frederick William was compelled to givo effect to 
 that monstrous decree in his remaining dominions, although England 
 was nearly the only country in which the Prussians could sell their 
 corn, hemp, and timber, and Napoleon expected that as Prussia had 
 already suffered so much during the short war with England in 1806, 
 she would now soon lose the last chance of raising money, and thus 
 give him a pretext to put the whole country under his administration 
 till she should have paid her debt. Just at the time when Prussia 
 was reduced to such a state that tho royal family had no better dinner 
 than the humblest mechanic, and the kiug's plate and jewels were at 
 Hamburg to be sold, an immense quantity of English goods was 
 discovered at Stettin, and in some other sea-ports. Tho Prussian 
 officers speedily and secretly sold them, their purchasers being mostly 
 Frenchmen, and the money thus raised — 1,000,000£. sterling as some 
 say, or 700,000^. according to others — was employed in diminishing 
 the French debt. When Napoleon was informed of the fact, he was 
 greatly excited, but it was then too late to seize the goods and put 
 the money in his own purse. 
 
 In 1812 Napoleon set out on his campaign against Russia, and 
 Frederick William was under the necessity of joining his oppressor 
 and sending a body of 20,000 men to act against the Emperor Alex- 
 ander. At Dresden Napoleon was received by a host of potentates. 
 Among them was Frederick William, but though he was obliged to 
 bow, he did it as stiffly as possible, spoke very little, and by his 
 reserved behaviour increased the ill-feelings of Napoleon against him. 
 
 If Napoleon had been victorious in Russia, Prussia would have 
 disappeared from among the kingdoms of Europe ; and both Napo- 
 leon and Frederick William well knew that. The Prussian contingent 
 fought under Marshal Macdonald, on the extreme left of the French, 
 which was operating against Riga in the direction of St. Petersburg, 
 and the Prussians behaved so well as to deserve the praise of their 
 French commander. In consequence of Napoleon's retreat from 
 Moscow, the left wing of his army retreated also, but slowly. Closely 
 pressed by the Russians, the Prussian general York, the descendant 
 of an English family settled in Prussia, suddenly made a truce with 
 his Russian opponent, General Diebitsch. A few days afterwards, 
 30th of December, they concluded the famous convention of Posarum, 
 in consequence of which the Prussian army retreated into Prussia, 
 and all hostilities between the corps of York and Diebitsch ceased. 
 Napoleon's wrath at this unexpected event was indescribable, and he 
 sent a threatening letter to Frederick William, demanding that York 
 should be deprived of his command, and be tried by a court-martial 
 for high treason. Frederick William was then in Berlin, surrounded 
 by French troops : he consequently declared the convention of Posarum 
 null and void, and ordered York to be arrested. A sort of mock 
 investigation of the case took place, but it was soon dropped, and 
 subsequent events showed that, although perhaps without direct 
 orders, York had acted according to the secret wishes of his royal 
 master : it had indeed been sufficiently obvious for some time that 
 the Prussian king was only acting with Napoleon as long as it suited 
 his own purpose. 
 
 Frederick William hastened to Breslau, where he had an interview 
 with the Emperor Alexander. On the 2Sth of February 1813, he 
 signed a treaty of peace and alliance with Alexander at Kalisch, 
 in Poland, but as yet no war was declared against France, 
 and the remnants of the French army, which retreated through 
 Prussia, were hospitably received by the inhabitants, although they 
 brought unspeakable misery over the country. At last, on the 17th 
 of March 1813, Frederick William, perceiving that he could do so 
 with apparently little risk, declared war against France, and issued 
 the famous proclamation to his subjects which roused the whole 
 nation as one man, in arms against the foreign usurper. 
 
 In two pitched battles at Liitzen, on the 2nd of May, and at Bautzen, 
 on the 20th and 21st of May, Napoleon was victorious over the com- 
 bined Prussians and Russians ; but neither of these victories had any 
 important consequences for him, and so far were the allies from being 
 
 downcast, that they retreated only a short distance, and immediately 
 reassumed a threatening attitude. Where Napoleon did not command 
 in person, and especially in the little war, the French were regularly 
 beaten ; and he accordingly listened to the proposition of Frederick 
 William and Alexander to settle their differences peacefully. They 
 made a truce at Poischwitz on the 4th of June to last till the 17th of 
 August, and a congress was assembled at Prague under the mediation 
 of Austria, which until then had kept a strict neutrality. Both of 
 the belligerent parties endeavoured to draw Austria into their intereat, 
 and both of them wanted time to increase their armies in case of a 
 new outbreak of hostilities. Napoleon having peremptorily rejected 
 the main condition of definitive peace, namely, to give up all his 
 conquests in Germany and to withdraw with his armies beyond tho 
 Rhiue, Sweden, and Austria declared for the allies; and as Napoleon 
 had gradually augmented his forces by new levies in France, and by 
 withdrawing 50,000 veteran troops from Spain to Germany, ho broke 
 off the negociations, and the war commenced again on the 17th of 
 August. The patriotic enthusiasm which first animated Prussia wag 
 then spreading over all Germany, and principally Northern Germany, 
 whence the French had been driven out by the inhabitants imme- 
 diately after Prussia's declaration of war against France ; but although 
 Marshal Davoust and General Vandamme soon brought the people 
 again to obedience, the allies knew that they could reckon upon a 
 general rising at the first opportunity. The forces of the allies in 
 August have been estimated at 500,000 men, of which about 200,000 
 were Prussians; but this estimate is rather below than above the real 
 number. The army of Napoleon was considerably less : but in the 
 north Denmark had declared for him and damaged the operation of 
 the allies on that side. On the 27th of August Napoleon gained 
 another victory at Dresden ; but having advanced upon Bohemia, part 
 of his army was entirely routed at Kulm by the Russians, and at 
 Nolleudorf by the Prussian general Kleist. Upon this the hopes of 
 Napoleon were blighted by one defeat after another, and in the battles 
 of Grossbeeren, Dennewitz, Katzbach, Gorde, and many others, the 
 Prussians and their brave commander Bliicher restored the honour of 
 their arms, and reduced Napoleon to a most critical position in the 
 neighbourhood of Leipzig. In the battle of Leipzig the French 
 power was broken, or rather in three successive battles on the 16th, 
 18th, and 19th of October, and there again Bliicher and the Prussians 
 obtained the greater share of glory. It was on the 18th, in the 
 evening, when Frederick William and the Emperors of Austria and 
 Russia met on a hill near Probstheida, where the centre of the 
 French position had been, and descending from their horses, em- 
 braced each other in the presence of their soldiers, and kneeling 
 down, remained long in silent prayer. From Leipzig the remuants of 
 the French army fled to the Rhine. The passage of the Rhine wag 
 effected by Napoleon on the 2nd of November. Frederick William, 
 urged by Bliicher, advised the allies to invade France, but there wag 
 a contrary opinion at head-quarters, and two mouths were spent in 
 inactivity before at last the Russo-Prussians crossed the Rhine on the 
 1st of January 1814. The beginning of the campaign in France was 
 signalised by the battles of Brienne and La Rothiere, where Bliicher 
 once more obtained an advantage over Napoleon. Frederick William 
 and Alexander were witnesses of the battle at Brienne. During the 
 subsequent negociations at Chatillon Frederick William appeared to 
 be satisfied with moderate conditions, but Napoleon was victorious in 
 several battles that were fought during the negociations, and the 
 French plenipotentiaries withdrew from Chatillon. 
 
 The allies now agreed by the convention of Chaumont that they 
 would make no peace till France was reduced within her former 
 limits; that Austria, Russia, and Prussia should employ all their 
 forces to that effect, and keep each, for the period of twenty years 
 after the peace, an army of 150,000 men ready to enforce the condi- 
 tions of such a peace, and that Great Britain should pay 5,000,000i. 
 sterling. There was still a doubt at the head-quarters of the allies 
 whether they should march upon Paris or not, the operations of 
 Napoleon in their rear seeming to render such movement very 
 dangerous, but Frederick William, at the instigation of Bliicher, 
 constantly urged the necessity of finishing the war at Paris, and so at 
 last the great task was undertaken. On the 9th and 10th of March 
 Bliicher defeated Napoleon at Laon, Prince Schwarzenberg was vic- 
 torious at Arcis-sur-Aube, and their united armie3 gained another 
 battle at La Fere C'hampeuoise. A few days afterwards they stormed 
 the fortifications round Paris, and gained the battle of Mont-Martre, 
 and on the following day, the 31st of March, Frederick William and 
 Alexander made their triumphal entry into Paris. On the 2nd of 
 April Napoleon was deposed by the Senate. 
 
 Alter the restoration of the Bourbons, Frederick William in com- 
 pany with the Emperor Alexander, several members of the Royal 
 Prussian family, and the old field-marshal Bliicher, paid a visit to 
 England, where they were most enthusiastically received. After a 
 short stay iu England he returned to Prussia, and made his triumphal 
 entry into Berlin, and thence proceeded to the congress at Vienna, to 
 take his seat among the distributors of the provinces ceded by France 
 at the peace of Paris. There he claimed his former possessions, 
 except the greater part of his share in the division of Poland, which 
 he consented to leave to Russia, but with his usual unscrupulous 
 selfishness, he demanded, as an indemnity, the whole kingdom of 
 
FREDERICK WILLIAM III. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM III. 
 
 1030 
 
 Saxony. The king of Saxony, Frederick Augustus, was then Frederick 
 William's prisoner of war. Frederick William was supported in his 
 views by the Emperor Alexander. Both of them took so menacing an 
 attitude in this affair, and met with so firm a resistance from the king 
 of Saxony, as well as other potentates, that serious fear3 were enter- 
 tained of a rupture between Prussia and Russia oc one side, and 
 Austria, Great Britain, and France, on the other, but the return of 
 Napoleon from the island of Elba produced a salutary effect among 
 the members of the congress, and Frederick William was obliged to 
 be satisfied with the larger and northern half of the kingdom of 
 Saxony. Besides this acquisition he received back the most western 
 part of Poland, under the name of the grand-duchy of Posen, nearly 
 all his former possessions in Germany, and several other parts of that 
 country, namely, a large tract on both sides of the Rhine aud the 
 greater part of Westphalia. He also acquired Swedish Pomerauia by 
 exchange for Lauenburg, but left several small districts in the hands 
 of some of the minor German princes. Comparatively speaking, how- 
 ever, Prussia acquired less than the other great northern powers, 
 since the area of the kingdom as fixed by the treaty of Vienna was less 
 than previous to the peace of Tilsit, and besides this the Prussian 
 dominions were now divided into two large portions separated from 
 each other by a small narrow tract belonging to Hanover and Hesse- 
 Cassel. 
 
 Bliicher at the head of a powerful Prussian army was ready to resist 
 Napoleon, after his return to Paris in 1815, in the Netherlands. 
 Against him Napoleon aimed his first blow at Ligny, on the lGth of 
 June, and Bliicher lost the day, but the spirit of the Prussian army 
 was so excellent, that Bliicher retreated iu good order upon Wavre, 
 kept his word to aid the Duke of Wellington at the battle of Waterloo, 
 and had his glorious share in that great victory, by which the power 
 of Napoleon was broken. Frederick William followed hi3 army to 
 Paris, and there signed with the other powers the second peace of 
 Paris. To the proposition of the Emperor Alexander of forming that 
 union called the Holy Alliance, Frederick William adhered with 
 eagerness. 
 
 After his return, Frederick William undertook the difficult task of 
 organising a kingdom composed of incongruous parts, and exhausted 
 by oppression, rapine, war, and its great exertions. His intellectual 
 capacities were very limited, but he had plain sense, loved and knew 
 how to create order, and, guided by long and bitter experience, dis- 
 played considerable ability in selecting his measures, and in choosing 
 his servants among men whose principles promised a quiet and peace- 
 able development of that state of things which he had in view. Iu a 
 few years the finances were brought to a flourishing condition; 
 trade, mechanical arts, agriculture, were promoted by liberal laws, 
 and where laws were not sufficient the king would help with money 
 from his own purse, lending or giving large sums to the great land- 
 owners in Eastern Prussia, when the high rate of the corn duties 
 in England produced a stagnation of the corn trade in that pro- 
 vince, and momentarily deprived the owners of immense estates of 
 the means of paying taxes or their creditors, or even living decently. 
 Nor was he less active in reforming the administration of law aud 
 the post-office, in constructing roads, and in founding universities, 
 colleges, aud schools. The people however looked to him for civil 
 and political freedom as well as for material improvements. Their 
 claims were the more just as they were not only founded upon 
 their social wants, but upon rights also ; their rights being derived 
 not merely from the eighteenth article of the Confederative Act, but 
 still more directly from Frederick William's edict of the 22nd of 
 May, issued after the return of Napoleon from Elba, and before 
 the battle of Waterloo had removed all fear of France, wherein he 
 promised to establish a general representative constitution for the 
 whole kingdom. But whatever were his intentions when he issued 
 that edict, he never fulfilled the smallest portion of it. The 
 reasons why Frederick William III. broke his solemn promise must 
 be found in his character. A real representative constitution which 
 should give the nation a participation in the legislation, was a thing 
 utterly detested by Frederick William. He was a king brought up 
 in the old German doctrines of absolutism. He would be the father 
 of his nation, the master in his house, and he expected from his 
 subjects that sort of obedience which boys owe to their father and 
 servants to their master. Like a good father he gave his children 
 a good education, allowing them all sorts of amusements and liberty, 
 aud paying even their little debts occasionally; but he wanted all 
 their actions to be confined within the limits prescribed by himself, 
 and any claim to go beyond he would punish with angry words or 
 the paternal cane, according to the case. When Frederick William 
 promised a constitution he did not perhaps precisely know what it 
 was ; at least this is the excuse which has been offered for him : 
 yet it would seem to be the most obvious duty of a sovereign to 
 ascertain what he really meant before pledging his royal word to 
 give his people a representative constituiton. 
 
 The first to remind Frederick William of his promise were the 
 inhabitants of the Rhenish provinces. Early in 1818 the inhabitants 
 of Coblenz presented an address to the king in which they humbly 
 established the justice of their demand on the ground of the 18th 
 Article of the Confederative Act, and the edict of the 22nd of May 
 1815. The king professed to be "justly indignant " at their temerity. 
 
 He told them that — " He who reminds the king, who has voluntarily 
 promised a constitution, of his word, manifests criminal doubts of 
 the inviolability of his word, and anticipates his decision on the 
 right time of its introduction; a decision which ought to be as 
 free as was his first promise; " and with this wretched quibbling the 
 pious monarch contrived to satisfy his conscience. Of course " the 
 right time" never came, and though the king lived for five-and twenty 
 years, aud the country wa3 peaceful aud flourishing, he never made 
 an effort to fulfil the promise made with every character of solemnity 
 to the people, who had done so much for him aud had suffered so 
 much from his vacillating, feeble, and time-serving policy. 
 
 While Frederick William thus evaded his promise to grant con- 
 stitutional liberties to his subjects, he did what he could to check th« 
 spirit of liberalism iu other parts of Germany ; and he was especially 
 active iu restraining the liberty of the press, and putting down the 
 secret societies among the students in the universities, especially the 
 society called ' Burschenschaft,' the object of which was the gradual 
 regeneration of Germany, and the political independence of the whulc 
 nation under one government. In 1820, and iu the following years, 
 the continental kings held successively the congresses of Troppau, 
 Laibach, and Verona, where measures were taken against the political 
 movements in Italy and Spain, and here again Frederick William 
 showed that he hated representative constitutions iu those countries 
 no less than in his own. Prussia was astonished and indignant at 
 this conduct iu a king who owed his crown and his glory, nay his 
 very honour, to promises of political liberty. Between the reactionary 
 and the liberal party the king was wavering for some time, with 
 his accustomed want of decision in complicated matters, till he fell in 
 with the Protestant pietists. From this time the spirit of the Prussian 
 government became what it is now still more, a sort of Jesuitical 
 despotism, dressed in the smooth garb of piety aud philosophy. He 
 adopted despotic measures of a most revolting character. One of the 
 most glaring instances of the spirit in which his government was 
 carried on was the forced union of the Lutheran and Reformed 
 churches, or the introduction of the new ' agenda,' as it was gently 
 called, a violation of the liberty of conscience which in another age 
 would have led to a religious war. The persecutions by which 
 Frederick William's government attained their object were number- 
 less, but there is no space here to dwell longer upon the subject. 
 Contemporary with this ecclesiastical reform was the establishment 
 of the ' Landstande,' or provincial estates, a sort of middle-age repre- 
 sentation of the people in each province, but not a general representa- 
 tion of the whole nation. 
 
 Small as the political liberties of Prussia were, aud vexatious as the 
 military system was which reigned throughout the whole administra- 
 tion, a period of fifteen years was sufficient for Frederick William aud 
 his councillors to raise Prussia again to "the rank which she occupied 
 among the powers of Europe previous to the battle of Jena. In her 
 exterior relations Prussia behaved with prudence and generally with 
 dignity. The object of Frederick William was to make Prussia power- 
 ful, and he succeeded. Peace was the great object he had constantly 
 at heart, and he maintained peace even through the dangers occasioned 
 by the French revolution in 1830. Though averse to the principles of 
 the French Revolution, he contented himself with keeping the French 
 within Fr^jce, by declaring that he would make common cause with 
 Austria and Russia against her from the moment the French made 
 their cause a European one by continuing to revolutionise Europe 
 through her emissaries. He had to experience the dangers of the 
 French Propaganda iu a riot at Aix-la-Chapelle, which was the first 
 and also last outbreak of a plot to revolutionise the Rhenish pro- 
 vinces. But while adopting towards France a passive policy, he was 
 ready enough to assist Russia in crushing revolutionary principles in 
 Poland. During the last Polish revolution he not only supplied the 
 Russian army with provisions and military stores, but allowed the 
 Russian generalissimo, Field-Marshal Paskiewicz, to cross the Vistula 
 on the Prussian territory, which enabled him thus to attack Warsaw 
 and to put down the insurrection. A great number of Polish subjects 
 of Frederick William, having joined the army of their brethren in 
 Russia, were severely punished when they returned to Prussia after 
 the fall of Warsaw. 
 
 Towards the end of his reign Frederick William committed an act 
 which created a great sensation in Europe, by arresting aud imprisoning 
 the archbishops of Cologne and Gnesen, for instructing the Roman 
 Catholic priests to withhold their sanction from marriages of Roman 
 Catholic women to Protestant husbands, in violation of the concordat 
 of 1820 between Pope Pius VII. and Frederick William III., by the 
 terms of which the issue of mixed marriages was to follow the religion 
 of the father, unless the parents agreed otherwise. The affair was only 
 settled at last between the pope and the present king in such a way 
 as to leave no doubt that Frederick William had acted imprudently as 
 well as unjustly in this matter. His policy iu promoting the material 
 welfare of his subjects was wiser, and never were the trade, manu- 
 factures, agriculture, and navigation of Prussia in so flourishing 
 a condition as towards the close of his reign. He attained his object 
 in a great measure by concluding the great commercial league with 
 most of the other German states, the plan of which jwas originally 
 conceived by the minister of finances, Mr. Von Maassen, and which is 
 known under the name of the ' Zollverein.' 
 
1CS1 
 
 Broken down by the infirmities of age, Frederick William III. died 
 after a short illness on the 7th of June 1840. He was twice married. 
 By his first wife, Louisa of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, he had four sons, the 
 eldest of whom is the present King Frederick William IV., and three 
 daughters. His second wife was Auguste, countess von Harrach, 
 created Princess of Liegnitz, with whom he was united in 1824 in 
 morganatic marriage, and by whom he had no issue. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM IV., King of Prussia, was born October 
 15, 1795, and succeeded his father on June 7, 1840. He married 
 Elizabeth Louisa, daughter of the late Maximilian Joseph, king of 
 Bavaria, on November 29, 1823, but has no children. Frederick 
 AVilliam received a careful education under the historian Niebuhr, 
 and other of the most eminent men of Germany, and has always 
 encouraged literature aud the arts. After his father's death he made 
 himself popular to a certain extent by conceding some minor reforms 
 and talking of others. On the breaking out of the revolutionary mania 
 in March 1848 however he took a new course. On the 22nd of that 
 month, after some severe fighting between the troops aud the citizens 
 at Beilin, the king issued a proclamation in the Gazette, recommend- 
 ing the cordial union of German princes aud people under one guiding 
 hand, offering himself to be that' guide; the fusing and dissolving the 
 name of Prussia into that of Germany ; and abolishing the censorship 
 of the press, placing its offences under the ordiuary tribunals. The 
 populace assembled in delight; an accidental quarrel arose with the 
 soldiery, more blood was shed, but the king had the prisoners 
 released, nominated a popular ministry, and proclaimed a general 
 amnesty, and again all was tranquil. He next undertook the protection 
 of Schleswig aud Holstein against the Danes, in the name of the 
 Provisional Government of Germauy. But after the Coustituent 
 German National Assembly at Frankfurt elected the Archduke John 
 lieutenant-general of Germany, Frederick William's ardour cooled. 
 He refused to give or consent to a constitution fur his own people, 
 saying with a mock sentimentality that he would not have " a piece 
 of paper come between him and his people ; " and the chief events in 
 his course since have been the intrigues in the German Diet to oppose 
 the superiority of Austria, aud the refusal to take any active part in 
 the late contest against Russia, though early in the controversy he 
 had declared Russia in the wrong for her attack on Turkey. 
 
 His nephew, Frederick William, visited England in 1856, as the 
 suitor, and in 1858 married, the Princess Royal. [See Supplement.] 
 
 FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I., King of Saxony, eldest son of the 
 Elector Frederick Christian, born at Dresden on the 23rd of December 
 1750, succeeded his father on the 17th of December 1763, under the 
 guardianship of bis uncle Prince Xavier, till he assumed the govern- 
 ment in 1768. In 1769 he married the Princess Maria Amelia of 
 Deuxponts. He began his reign with a firm resolution, to which he 
 remained faithful under all circumstances and at all times, to do every- 
 thing in his power to promote the happiness of his people. In the 
 whule of his long reign there was no act of despotism, or violation of 
 the rights of others. Averse from innovation, he undertook nothing 
 through ostentation or mere imitation, but new institutions arose 
 only when he had become convinced of their utility. He gradually 
 diminished the debts of the country ; and the strict integrity of his 
 administration caused the Saxon funds, though the interest was low, 
 to be several per cent, above par. He often prevented the country 
 from contracting debts by personal sacrifices, endeavoured to decrease 
 rather than to raise the taxes, and never suffered his interest and that 
 of his treasury to be opposed to the interests of his subjects. During 
 the dreadful dearth in 1772, 1804, and 1805, and the inundations in 
 1784, 1799, and 1804, the king gave particular proofs of his paternal 
 care for his people. Agriculture, the improvement of the breed of 
 cattle, especially of the sheep, made considerable progress, and were 
 encouraged by premiums. The mines, the salt-works, and the forests 
 were improved by careful superintendence and wise laws. Manufac- 
 tures were encouraged ; commerce, which had suffered severely during 
 the Seven Years' War and by the duties imposed during his minority 
 upon foreign goods, became flourishing to a degree hitherto unknown. 
 The army was placed upon a better footing, excellent institutions 
 were established for the education of officers, and a military penal 
 code was compiled. Extensive support was given to the universities 
 of Wittenberg and Leipzig, the schools of Pforta-Meissen and Grimma 
 were reorganised, the seminaries at Dresden and Weissenfels, the 
 institutions for the sons of soldiers at Annaberg, and the elementary 
 mining-schools in the Erzgebirge were founded, and the mining-academy 
 at Freiberg better organised. In his legislation Frederick's government 
 appears in a very favourable light. Torture was abolished in 1770 ; 
 the number of oaths in courts of justice was diminished ; the punish- 
 ment of death restricted and made less cruel. Important changes 
 were also made with respect to several public boards ; salutary police 
 laws and a general ordinance on guardianship were issued ; orphan- 
 houses, workhouses, dispensaries, &c. were founded. The spirit of 
 integrity, order, temperance, and fidelity so generally prevailed, that 
 Saxony was eminently distinguished for the morality of its inhabitants. 
 Notwithstanding his love of peace, he was more than once obliged to 
 take part in the wars of other powers. Thus, in 1778, the claims of 
 his mother on the succession of her brother the Elector of Bavaria, 
 made him join Frederick the Great against Austria. The welfare of 
 hia country and its geographical position required him to be united 
 
 with Prussia, on which account he joined the Fiirstenbunu. Similar 
 considerations induced him to refuse the crown of Poland, which tho 
 Poles offered to him aud his successors in 1791. He took no part iu 
 the war against France further than furnishing his contingent as a 
 prince of the empire; and in 1796 he acceded to the armistice and 
 treaty of Neufchatel with France, aud stationed a cordon of troop3 on 
 the line of demarcation, on his southern frontier. He took no part iu 
 the new war between Austria and France in 1805 ; but when the 
 German empire was dissolved, on the 6th of August 1806, he was 
 obliged to furnish Prussia with 22,000 men against Frauce. After the 
 battle of Jena, Saxony was abandoned to the French. Napoleon, 
 besides various requisitions, levied a contribution of 25,000,000 of 
 francs, aud established a provisional administration of the sequestrated 
 revenues, but allowed the country to rcmaiu neutral ; and its fate 
 would doubtless have been very different but for the respect with 
 which the private and public virtues of the king inspired even his 
 enemies. Frederick assisted his distressed subjects from his private 
 property, concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon at Bonn in 
 December 1806, assumed the title of king, joined the Rhenish Con- 
 federation, and furnished 20,000 men as his contingent. By the treaty 
 of Tilsit iu 1807 he obtained a large portion of Prussian Poland, by 
 the Dame of the grand-duchy of Warsaw. He was bound to take part 
 with France in its wars, but sent no troops to Spain ; and iu the war 
 with Austria iu 1809 bo furnished only his contingent. In 1813 hia 
 dominions became the theatre of war. On the entrance of the allies 
 into Saxony he retired to Plauen, thence to Ratisbon, aud thence to 
 Prague ; but the menaces of Napoleon compelled him to return to 
 Dresden ; he afterwards followed Napoleon to Leipzig. That town 
 being taken by the allies after the defeat of the French on the 18th 
 and 19th of October, Alexander intimated to him that he considered 
 him as a prisoner. The act of spoliation which followed is well kuown. 
 In spite of his remonstrances and representations, and of the high 
 estimation iu which his character was held, he was deprived of a large 
 portion of his kingdom, which was given to Prussia under the title of 
 the grand-duchy of Saxony. He returned to his capital on the 7th of 
 June 1815, founded, in commemoration of that event, the order of 
 Civil Merit, and devoted all his attention to repair the injuries caused 
 by the war. In September 1818 he celebrated the fiftieth anniversary 
 of his assuming the government, and in January 1819 that of hia 
 marriage. He died on the 5th of May 1827, in the seventy-sdventh 
 year of his age and the sixty-fourth of his reign. 
 
 FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. OF POLAND. [Augustus II.] 
 FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. OF POLAND. [Augustus III.] 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM, Duke of Brunswick, the fourth and 
 youngest son of Charles William Ferdinand, was born October 9, 1771, 
 aud educated for the military profession. In 1786 the king of Prussia 
 named him successor of hi3 uncle Frederick Augustus, duke of Oels 
 and Bernstadt, who died in 1805. He went to Lausanne, spent two 
 years in Switzerland, and on his return was made captain in a Prussian 
 regiment of infantry. In 1792 he was with the Prussian army in 
 France, and was twice wounded. After the peace of Basel he obtained 
 a regiment, and in 1804 married the princess Mary of Baden, by whom 
 he had two sons, Charles and William. After 1806 he took part in the 
 war against France, with all the ardour which the oppression of Ger- 
 many aud his father's unhappy fate inspired. He wa3 taken prisoner 
 with Blucher at Lubeck. His eldest brother the hereditary duke 
 dying without children in September 1806, and his two other unmarried 
 brothers having been declared incapable of reiguing on account of 
 incurablo blindness, he would have succeeded to the government of 
 Brunswick on the death of his father; but the peace of Tilsit and the 
 will of Napoleon decided otherwise. From that time he lived at 
 Bruchsal, where he lost his consort in April 1808. At the beginning 
 of the war between France and Austria, in 1809, he raised a free corps 
 in Bohemia. After the total defeat of the Austrians, the duke resolved 
 to leave Germany, and with a corps of 700 cavalry and 800 infantry, 
 commenced in July that memorable and masterly retreat which gained 
 him such deserved reputation. After some skirmishes he reached 
 Brunswick on the 31st of July, but did not enter the city. There was 
 no time for rest; three bodies of troops, each much more numerous 
 than his own, were advancing against him. On the 1st of August the 
 Westphalian general Reubel met the duke at the village of Oelper, near 
 Brunswick, and a battle ensued, in which Reubel's 4000 men not only 
 yielded to the 1500 Brunswickers, but lefc the only way open by which 
 they could escape. 
 
 By a series of skilful manoeuvres the duke deceived his pursuers, 
 crossed the Weser, broke down the bridge behind him, and having 
 completely baffled his enemies, reached Elsfleth on the 6th of August, 
 where he took possession of a sufficient number of vessels in which 
 he embarked his troops during the night, and on the 7th iu the 
 morning, hoisting English colours, sailed for Heligoland, where he 
 arrived on the 8th, and on the 10th proceeded with his corps to 
 England. He was received in England with the greatest joy ; hia 
 troops were taken into the English service and employed in the 
 Peninsula, where they distinguished themselves. The duke had a 
 pension of 60002. a-year granted by the parliament till he returned to 
 his own dominions in Becember 1813, where he was received with 
 extraordinary enthusiasm, and with expectations which he was 
 unhappily unable to fulfil. He was one of the most liberal and noble- 
 
1033 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM CHARLES. 
 
 FKKILIGRATH, FERDINAND. 
 
 minded princes of Lis age. He was sincerely desirous of promoting 
 the welfare of bis subjects; but, wanting to accomplish it at once, he 
 overlooked the ordinary forms : finding nothing to support him in 
 the constitution of the country, which had been completely changed, 
 and being surrounded by interested or prejudiced counsellors, nume- 
 rous mistakes were committed. His military establishment was too 
 great for the dilapidated state of the finances, and indifference, if 
 uot aversion, took the place of the affection of his people. The rest 
 is known. With his famous Black Hussars he joined the Duke of 
 Wellington in 1815, and fell gloriously at QuatreBras on the 16th of 
 June 1815. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM CHARLES, King of Wiirtemberg, was 
 born at Treptow, in Pomerania, November 6, 1754 ; succeeded his 
 father, Frederick Eugene, as Duke of Wiirtemberg in 1797 ; became 
 elector in 1803; and assumed the royal title on the 1st of January 
 1806. In 1780 he married Augusta Caroline Frederica Louisa, princess 
 of Brunswick Wolfenbiittel, by whom he had two sons, William, the 
 present king, and Paul, and a daughter Catherine, who was married to 
 Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia. As his father was personally 
 engaged in the Seven Years' War in the armies of Prussia, his early 
 education was very carefully directed by his mother, Sophia Dorothea, 
 daughter of the Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt, a highly-accom- 
 plished and excellent princess. After the peace in 1763 his father was 
 at leisure to attend to the education of his son, who possessed great 
 Datural abilities. He was however brought up in many respects on 
 the French model, to which his four years' residence at Lausanne 
 contributed. His natural eloquence was aided by an extraordinary 
 memory ; he was well versed in mathematics, natural philosophy, 
 history, and geography, and cultivated his taste for the fine arts, 
 especially in his journey to Italy in 1782 ; but with too much vivacity 
 for calm examination, he often hastily adopted a false view, and was 
 thus led in his subsequent life into many errors. In many points he 
 took Frederick the Great for his model. As well as his seven brothers 
 he entered the Prussian service, and in the war of the Bavarian 
 succession attained the rank of major-general. After his return from 
 Italy, whither he accompanied his sister and her husband the Grand 
 Duke Paul of Russia, he was made lieutenant-general, and governor- 
 general of Russian Finland. He renounced this connection in 1787, 
 and lived first at Monrepos, near Lausanne, and then at Bodenheim, 
 near Mentz. He witnessed at Versailles the first proceedings of the 
 National Assembly. When his father, after the death of two brothers 
 without male descendants, became Duke of Wurtemberg in 1795, 
 Frederick, as crown-prince, opposed in 1796 the entrance of the French 
 into Franconia, but was defeated. After this event he lived for a 
 time at Anspach, then at Vienna and London, where in 1797 he 
 married Charlotte Augusta Matilda, princess-royal of England, with 
 whom he returned to Stuttgardt in June the same year. 
 
 When he succeeded to the government in December 1797, his 
 duchy, which had already suffered severely in the war with France, 
 was 153 German (about 3000 English) square miles in extent, with 
 600,000 inhabitants. Frederick, by his interest at the courts of Vienna 
 and St. Petersburg, obtained by the decision of the German diet of 
 the 23rd of February 1803, besides the electoral dignity, an ample 
 indemoity for his loss of territory on the left bank of the Rhine. The 
 chief object of his policy was to preserve and extend his dominions. 
 On the 2nd of October 1805 Napoleon arrived at Ludwigslust, and on 
 the following day issued the declaration of war against Austria. 
 Frederick was compelled to join France, and furnished 8000 men. 
 By steadily adhering, to the system of Napoleon he acquired in and 
 after the peace of Presburg the possession of an independent kingdom 
 of the extent of 368 German (nearly 7400 English) square miles, with 
 1,400,000 inhabitants. After he had assumed the title of king, on 
 New Year's Day 1806, he published the organisation of hi8 greatly- 
 enlarged dominions, by which a uniform system of administration was 
 introduced into the old and new provinces. Desirable as this might 
 be (and he is highly commended for it by some writers), it certainly 
 did not give satisfaction to his subjects. Accustomed, and indeed 
 compelled, to act with energy in his foreign affairs, he sought to make 
 everything in his internal government bend to his will, without regard 
 to Jong-cherished prejudices or even to long-established rights. He 
 joined the Rhenish Confederation, was at the meeting of Napoleon 
 and Alexander at Erfurt in October 1808, and in the campaign of 
 1812 furnished his contingent as member of the confederation. After 
 the battle of Leipzig he formally renounced, in November 1813, the 
 Rhenish Confederation, and joined the allied powers against France. 
 He went in person to the congress at Vienna, where he was received 
 with great respect by the assembled sovereigns. In the thirteenth 
 article of the Act of Congress it was enacted that representative 
 assemblies should be introduced into all the states of Germany — a 
 benefit for which Germany is in great measure indebted to the Prince- 
 Regent of England. The king of Wiiitemberg (though he did not 
 accede to the German Confederation till the 1st of September 1815) 
 drew up a constitution, which he presented as an ordinance to the 
 states which he had convoked ; but it was unanimously rejected : the 
 deputies required the ancient constitution, and speedy relief for the 
 miseries of the people. Accustomed to implicit obedience, and not a 
 little aNtonished at this behaviour, he still redressed many grievances, 
 •nd after dissolving the assembly in August 1816, he called another 
 
 bioa. civ. vol. u. 
 
 iu October, and unexpectedly prescribed fourteen propositions as the 
 basis of a constitution, which were favourably received by the people. 
 A new constitution was drawn up ; but before it could be discussed 
 he died, on the 30th of October 1816, in tho sixty-second year of his 
 age and the nineteenth of his reign. His character was essentially 
 despotic, but he had too much good sense and too enlightened an 
 understanding to be systematically a tyrant. He desired the good of 
 his people, though of the means of promoting that he conceived 
 himself to be the best judge. It must be said to his praise that his 
 edict of the 15th of October 1806, secured to all his Christian subjects 
 equal security for their rights and the free exercise of their religious 
 worship. He introduced neither French laws nor French forms of 
 administration ; everything in Wurtemberg remained German ; and 
 Wurtemberg was happily preserved from the degradation of becoming 
 a French province. 
 
 FREDRO, MAXIMILIAN, palatine of Podolia, a celebrated Polish 
 author, who died in 1676. He spent his life in serving his country, 
 iu the camp as well as in the council, and occupied many important 
 posts. His active life gave him excellent opportunities for making 
 observations on many subjects connected with war and politics ; 
 which he has transmitted to posterity in his works, which are chiefly 
 in Latin. His writings are full of interesting details, his observations 
 are shrewd, and his opinions on various subjects are remarkably 
 sound; whilst the vigour and conciseness of his style procured for 
 him the name of the Polish Tacitus. His principal works are — 1, 
 ' Vir Consilii monitis ethicorum, nec non prudentise civilis discendum 
 instructus ; ' 2, ' Monita politico-moralia et icon ingeniorum ; ' 3, 
 'Militarium seu axiomatum belli ad harmoniam togas accomniodatorum 
 libri;' 4, ' Fragmenta Scriptorum togse et belli;' 5, 'Considerations 
 on the Military service,' in Polish ; 6, ' Proverbs and Advice, moral, 
 political, and military,' in Polish. This last work, which is very 
 popular in Poland, has mainly contributed to establish the reputation 
 of Fredro, who has here displayed an extraordinary knowledge of the 
 world, and an intimate acquaintance with the habits and character of 
 all ranks of society. 
 
 * FREILIGRATH, FERDINAND, a distinguished German poet, 
 was born June 17, 1810, at Detmold, in the German principality of 
 Lippe. His father was a teacher, and gave him his first instruction. 
 He afterwards studied in the gymnasium of his native town. In 1825 
 he was placed in the counting-house of a merchant at Soest, iu West- 
 phalia. From 1831 to 1836 he was employed in a banking-house at 
 Amsterdam, and from 1837 to 1839 in a merchant's house at Barmen, 
 in the Prussian Rheiu-Provinz. His earliest poems were published in 
 the journals of Westphalia, and in the ' Musen-Almauaeh ' for 1S35. 
 The first collected edition of his poems was published at Stuttgardt in 
 1838, and the earliest poems included in it have the date of 1826. 
 Freiligrath's ' Gedichte ' consist of about two-thirds of original lyrical 
 poems, and one-third of translations. The original poems are dis- 
 tributed by the poet into Day-Book-Leaves (' Tagebuchbliitter '), Ballads 
 and Romances, Terzines, Alexandrines, Mixed Poems, and Occasional 
 Poems ; the translations are from the French and English, the largest 
 number of the latter being from Scott and Moore. The reception of 
 his poems was so favourable that he resolved to relinquish his com- 
 mercial employments, and devote himself to poetical literature. He 
 then lived mostly near the Rhine, and at Unkel became acquainted 
 with his present wife, a native of Weimar, and then a governess with 
 an English family. He married in 1841, aud after his marriago 
 removed to Darmstadt. In the year 1842 the King of Prussia 
 granted him a yearly pension of 300 thalers (about HI.), after which 
 he returned with his family to the Rhine, and lived about two years 
 at St. Goar. 
 
 There had existed for some years in Germany, especially in the 
 Prussian Rhine-Provinces, a large party very decidedly opposed to the 
 government on account of the censorship of the press and other 
 restrictive and arbitrary measures. Freiligrath had become attached 
 to this party, and had written and shown to his associates several 
 poems expressive of his political opinions and feelings. In opposition 
 to the advice of some of the more prudent of his friends, he resolved 
 to make a public profession of his political belief by the publication 
 of these poems ; and as he would thus place himself in direct oppo- 
 sition to the government of the King of Prussia, he considered that 
 he had no longer any claim on the royal bounty, aud resigned his 
 pension. In 1844 he published his volume of political poems under 
 the title of ' Ein Glaubensbekeuntniss ; Zeitgedichte,' &c. (' A Con- 
 fession of Faith; Poems of the Times,' &c.) The impression made by 
 these poems was sudden and extensive; within a few days the book 
 was in circulation throughout the whole of Germany, and excited 
 among the liberal party the greatest enthusiasm. As might have 
 been expected, the censorship ordered the book to be suppressed, and 
 the government commenced a prosecution against the author. He 
 therefore took the prudent course, and left Germany in the autumn 
 of 1844 ; he resided in Belgium, iu Switzerland, and lastly in Loudon, 
 where he resumed his original occupation of a cleik in a banking- 
 house. In 1845 he published a translation into German of the 
 Lyrical Poems of Victor Hugo, and in 1846 a volume of poems 
 translated from x-eceut English writers, ' Euglische Gedichte aus 
 Neuerer Zeit, nach Felicia Hemans, L. E. Laudou, Robert Southey, 
 Alfred Tennyson, Henry W. Longfellow, uud AuJern,' Svo. Stutt.ardt 
 
 S x 
 
1036 
 
 FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES. 
 
 and Tubingen. The preface is dated Zurich, in the spring of 1840. 
 In this year he also published the first of six political poems, to 
 which he gave the French revolutionary title of ' £a Ira.' In the 
 early part of 1848, on the invitation of Mr. Longfellow, he had 
 arranged to go to the United States ; but the revolutionary struggle 
 of that year, which his political poems had doubtless contributed to 
 produce, induced him to return to Germany. He stationed himself 
 at Diisseldorf, became an active member of a political club there, and 
 in consequence of the reactionary measures of the government after 
 the revolution had terminated, published a poem entitled ' Die Todten 
 an die Liebeuden' ('The Dead to the Living'), the dead being the 
 insurrectionary leaders slain at the barricades in Berlin iu March 
 1848. For the publication of this poem an action was brought 
 against him by the government : he was tried at the assize-court 
 in Diisseldorf, by a jury of twelve sworn men, and was acquitted 
 October 3, 1848. 
 
 After his acquittal Freiligrath removed to Cologne, and assisted in 
 the editorship of the ' Neue Ilheinischo Zeitung,' contributing also to 
 the literary department of the paper. While thus engaged he pub- 
 lished a small collection of poems under the title of ' Between the 
 Sheaves (' Zwischen den Garben '), a Gleaning of Poems of a former 
 Date,' 1849, and a translation of Shakspere's 'Venus and Adonis,' 
 1850. The periodical on which he was eDgaged was discontinued 
 about this time, and he then returned to Diisseldorf. He had issued 
 in 1848 the first number of ' New Political and Social Poems,' and in 
 1851 produced a second number, but had no sooner done bo than he 
 was threatened with another government prosecution. The liberal 
 party in Germany had now become weak, and under the circum- 
 stances he deemed it prudent to withdraw from the continent. He 
 again came to London, where, we believe, he still resides with his wife 
 and children, plying the pen of a banker's clerk as his chief means of 
 subsistence, but not entirely relinquishing his literary occupations. 
 
 Freiligrath's 'Gedichte,' first published in 1838, had reached the 
 16th edition in 1855. These poems are strikingly original, bearing 
 little or no resemblance to those of any previous German poet. They 
 are founded sometimes on? scenes and objects which had fallen under 
 his own observation, sometimes on the descriptions of travellers, and 
 sometimes they are pictures furnished by his imagination ; they 
 have no reference to himself, his own circumstances, or his own 
 feelings, but present animated images of the scenes, objects, and 
 beings, not only of Germany and Holland, but of Africa and America. 
 His conceptions are always distinct, and his expression glows with 
 the warmth naturally produced by a vivid imagination. There is 
 occasionally something of wildness, but no weakness, and now and 
 then the images are coarse and even unpleasing, but they are always 
 founded on the realities of actual existence. When Freiligrath 
 assumed the character of a political poet he appears to have done so 
 from an earnest sense of duty; and his poems of this class are the 
 outpourings of a generous and enthusiastic spirit, vigorous and often 
 vehement, but even when satirical, without spleen, or bitterness, or 
 unfair exaggeration. His translations from the English are numerous, 
 and not only give the sense correctly, but exhibit the spirit, and 
 imitate the rhythm. 
 
 A collected edition of his works, ' Sammtliche Werke : Vollstiindige 
 Originalausgabe,' was published at New York, in 6 vols. 8vo, 1858-9. 
 
 FREINSHEIM, JOHN, was born at Ulm in 1608, and studied at 
 Strasbourg, where he became librarian to Matthias Bernegger, a 
 wealthy philologist, who gave him his daughter in marriage. He was 
 afterwards appointed professor of eloquence in the University of 
 Upeal, where he remained five years, after which he was made libra- 
 rian to Queen Christina, with a handsome salary. But his health acd 
 the rigour of the climate of Sweden obliged him to return to 
 Germany in 1655, when the elector palatine appointed him honorary 
 professor in the University of Heidelberg, and his councillor at the 
 same time. He died at Heidelberg in 1660. Freinsheim wrote a 
 supplement to Livy, with the intention of replacing the lost books of 
 that historian. The first part of this work was published at Stras- 
 bourg in 1654, and the remainder appeared in Doujas's edition of 
 1 Livy ad usum Delphini.' Freinsheim endeavours to imitate Livy's 
 style, and he regularly quotes the authors from which he derived the 
 materials for his narrative. He also wrote a ' Supplement to Quintus 
 Curtius,' besides a ' Commentary ' on the same writer, as well as on 
 Florus and Tacitus. Freinsheim wrote also: 'De calido potu 
 Dissertatio,' ' De Praecedentia Electorum et Cardinalium,' and other 
 learned works. 
 
 * FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES, was born on the 21st of January 
 1813, in the city of Savannah, in the state of Georgia, North America. 
 His father was a Frenchman, his mother a native of the state of 
 Virginia. His father died while Fremont was very young, but his 
 mother, though poor, managed to procure him a good education in 
 the city of Charleston, South Carolina, where she had taken up her 
 residence. He entered the junior class of Charleston College in 1828. 
 For some years after he left the college he supported himself and 
 assisted his mother by teaching mathematics, and was so occupied 
 in 1833 on board the Natchez sloop of war. He was afterwards 
 employed as a surveyor and railroad engineer, under Captain Williams 
 of the Topographical Engineers. From 1833 to 1838 M. Nicolet, a 
 scientific tourist, had occupied himself in exploriDe; an extensive 
 
 portion of country west of the upper branches of the Mississippi, and 
 at the termination of his amateur travels the government of the United 
 Sl ates engaged him to extend his journeys into a more distant part 
 of the territory. Fremont was then associated with him to assist 
 him in his surveys, and he was thus employed during the years 1838 
 and 1839. After his return Fremont became acquainted in the city 
 of Washington with Mr. T. H. Benton, who was for many years one oi 
 the two senators sent to Congress from the state of Missouri, and in 
 1841 married one of Mr. Benton's daughters. 
 
 Fremont while absent with M. Nicolet was appointed a second lieu- 
 tenant in the corps of Topographical Engineers, and was soon after- 
 wards directed by Colonel Abert, the chief of that corps, to explore 
 and report upon the country between the frontier of the state of 
 Missouri and the South Pass in the Rocky Mountains. The expedition 
 left the city of St. Louis on the Mississippi at the end of May 1842, 
 and proceeded by steamboat up the Missouri to the mouth of the 
 Kansas, which they left on the 10th of June. Passing up the Kansas 
 about 100 miles, and then by its tributaries, they arrived at the Great 
 Platte 200 miles from its junction with the Missouri. They then 
 followed the north fork of the Platte, and reached the mouth of the 
 Sweet- Water River, one of the head waters of the Platte. The Sweet- 
 Water runs along a sandy plain, generally about five miles wide 
 and bounded by granitic mountains. This plain, 120 miles long, con- 
 ducts by a very gradual ascent to the summit of the South Pass, 
 7490 feet above the sea, whence the waters flow westward to the 
 Pacific Ocean, and eastward to the Atlantic, and through which the 
 great currents of emigration flow between the eastern and western 
 States. Lieutenant Fremont and his party encamped on the summit 
 on the 5th of August, and on the 8th entered among the Wind-River 
 Mountains, on the western side of the Pass, where they spent eight 
 days, and Fremont, with four of his men, ascended to the summit 
 of the loftiest peak, now named Fremont's Peak, which he found by 
 barometer to be 13,750 feet above the sea. The South Pass is about 
 960 miles, travelling distance, from the junction of the Kansas with 
 the Missouri. The expedition left the Wind-River Mountains on 
 the 18th of August, and recrossing the Pass returned by nearly the 
 the same route as that by which they came. They reached the mouth 
 of the Kansas on the 10th of October 1842, having been absent four 
 months. 
 
 Lieutenant Fremont was now raised to the rank of brevet-captain of 
 the corps of Topographical Engineers, and was directed by Colonel 
 Abert to connect his survey of 1842 with the surveys of Commander 
 Wilkes on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, so as to give an uninterrupted 
 view of the route from the frontiers of Missouri to the west coast 
 of the American continent. Having engaged 39 men, and made the 
 necessary preparations, Captain Fremont's party reached the little 
 town of Kansas, near the junction of the Kansas with the Missouri, 
 May 17, 1843, whence they started on the 29th of May. The first 
 expedition had been mostly up the Great Platte and the valley of the 
 Sweet- Water. The route of the second expedition was more southern, 
 up the valley of the Kansas to the head waters of the Arkansas, and 
 thence to the South Pass, which was crossed some miles farther south 
 than where it was crossed in 1842. Fremont and his party then pro- 
 ceeded iu a south-western direction down the valley of the Green River, 
 on the bank of which they encamped August 15th, 69 miles from the 
 South Pass. They then entered the valley of the Bear River, the prin- 
 cipal tributary of the Great Salt Lake, which, on the 6th of September, 
 Captain Fremont beheld from a lofty hill, with feelings of intense 
 delight, it having been for some time the principal object of his search. 
 Having examined the northern end of the lake, he passed through an 
 exceedingly barren region, where the natives exist with great difficulty 
 on roots, insects, and worms. He then entered among the upper 
 tributaries of the Snake River, which is the chief southern branch 
 of the Columbia, or Oregon River, along the valleys of which he 
 descended till he reached Fort Vancouver, not far from the mouth of 
 the Oregon. He left that place in November, and in March 1844 
 reached the valley of the Rio Sacramento near the junction of the 
 Rio de los Americanos. Travelling thence through Upper California 
 he returned by the Utah Lake, which is the southern end of the 
 Great Salt Lake. From the time when he left the northern end of 
 the lake in September 1843, till he reached the southern end in May 
 1844 he had completed a circuit of 12 degrees in diameter, north and 
 south, and 10 degrees east and west, and had been occupied eight 
 months in travelling 3500 miles. The expedition afterwards returned 
 by the South Pass, and reached the town of Kansas on the 31st of 
 July 1844, having been travelling fourteen months. From the Great 
 South Pass to the mouth of the Oregon, by the common travelling 
 route, is about 1400 miles. 
 
 Captain Fremont's Report of his second expedition had not been 
 published when in the spring of 1845 he started on a third expedition, 
 which was carried out with an energy and perseverance not surpassed 
 by anything on record, and its results well entitled him to the gold 
 Victoria medal of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain, 
 which was awarded to him. In this third survey Captain Fremont, 
 having advanced westward to the Pass of the Cascades, where the 
 Columbia traverses the mountains which form the northern extremity 
 of the Sierra Nevada, he boldly explored that chain southward in the 
 depth of winter. With extreme difficulty and after extraordinary 
 
103? 
 
 FRERET, NICHOLAS. 
 
 FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN. 
 
 1038 
 
 exertions the party at length passed over the last culminating ridge of 
 the Sierra Nevada, and descended into the low country watered by the 
 Rio Sacramento, and in the spring of 1846 arrived at Monterey, then 
 the capital of Upper California. Here, in the previous year, an insur- 
 rection had broken out, and Upper California had been declared an 
 independent republic In 1846 war was declared by the United States 
 against Mexico, and Captain Fremont immediately entered into commu- 
 nication with the American commanders on the coast. In conjunction 
 with Commodore Stockton he retained possession of California, and 
 assumed the military command till General Kearney arrived from New 
 Mexico with his dragoons, and the Americans were enabled, after some 
 hard fighting, to obtain complete possession of the country. Meantime 
 a commission arrived, appointing Fremont a lieutenant-colonel, and 
 as there had been from the first a dispute between Stockton and 
 Kearney as to which of them was entitled to the command in chief, 
 Fremont continued to obey the orders of Stockton. Kearney was 
 di-sacisfied, but did nothing in the matter till they both reached Fort 
 Leavenworth on their return home, when he arrested Fremont, and 
 brought him to trial before a court-martial for disobedience of his 
 orders. The court-martial found Lieutenant-Colonel Fremont guilty, 
 and deprived him of his commission. President Polk signed the 
 sentence, but offered Fremont a new commission of the same rank as 
 that of which he had been deprived. This offer Fremont refused, and 
 bee ime thenceforth a private citizen. 
 
 Fremont's last and most disastrous expedition occurred at the end 
 of 1848 and begiuning of 1849. He had resolved to settle as a 
 farmer in California, and made the necessary arraugements for having 
 his wife and family transferred there by the usual route. He then 
 collected a strong exploring party of about 30 men and 130 mules, 
 with the intention of crossing the Rocky Mountains by the head- 
 waters of the Rio Grande del Norte. He left the Missouri on the 
 21st of October, reached the Upper Pueblo near the head of the 
 Arkansas, and there unluckily engaged a trapper as a guide who had 
 entirely forgotten the region through which they were to pass, or else 
 had never known it. After much delay and with extreme difficulty 
 they crossed the dividing ridge of the Sierra San Juan, among deep 
 snow, exposed to violent winds, and suffering excessively from intense 
 cold. Fremont then discovered that it was impossible to go forward ; 
 he therefore resolved to return, and endeavour to reach New Mexico. 
 They had scarcely recrossed the summit before all the mules were 
 dead, and all the men began to droop, and one or two died. After a 
 series of struggles, exhibiting unconquerable energy and perseverance, 
 Fremont reached Taos in New Mexico, where he obtained relief, and 
 collected those of his party who remained alive. Ten had died, and 
 of those who were living some were so much exhausted as to be 
 unable to walk. He left the Upper Pueblo on the 25th of November 
 
 1848, and reached Taos on the 28th of January 1849, so that the 
 party had been for more than two months engaged in this terrible 
 struggle with the elements. From Taos he and hi3 party were 
 transported to Santa Fd, which they reached on the 17th of February. 
 The chief scene of their sufferings was probably about 38° 30' N. lat., 
 107° W. long. The party reached California without any further 
 difficulty. 
 
 California became one of the United States of America in December 
 
 1849, and on the 10th of September 1850 Mr. Fremont took his seat 
 in Congress as one of the two senators elected by the State. In the 
 same year, at the suggestion of Humboldt, he received the great gold 
 medal of the Prussian government for " his efforts in the advance- 
 ment of science," and was elected an honorary member of the Geo- 
 graphical Society of Berlin. 
 
 Mr. Fremont, having become a landed proprietor in the state of 
 California, found himself subject to claims for sums due for supplies 
 which had been furnished on his private credit to the American army 
 during the campaign in California. The government of the United 
 States, after much delay, relieved him from these liabilities by paying 
 the sums due. In maintaining his right to the Mariposa estate, which 
 he liad purchased, he was in a similar manner subjected to much 
 annoyance by the government, which resisted his claim, and it was 
 not till he had obtained more than one decision in his favour by 
 the Supreme Court of the United States that he obtained a final 
 triumph. 
 
 A strong party had been in the course of 1856 organised among 
 the Republican Northern States for the election of Fremont as the 
 next President, in opposition to Buchanan, but that gentleman was 
 elected. In 1863 he was again nominated as a candidate, but his 
 name was eventually withdrawn. 
 
 The Reports of Captain Fremont's first two expeditions were 
 published by the American government, and were republished together 
 in England in one volume, entitled ' Narratives of the Exploring 
 Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the year 1842, and to the 
 Oregon and North California in the years 1843-44, by Brevet-Captain 
 J. C. Fremont, of the Topographical Engineers,' 8vo, London, 1856. 
 
 FRERET, NICHOLAS, born at Paris in 1688, was the son of a 
 solicitor. He studied the law to please his family, but devoted his 
 attention chiefly to the study of history and chronology. His first 
 publication, ' Origine des Francais et dc leur Establissement dans les 
 Gaules,' is written with a boldness and candour unusual at that time ; 
 but it caused his confinement in the Bastille for a short time by order 
 
 of the Regent d'Orldans. He was made a member of the Academy of 
 the Inscriptions, and wrote numerous memoirs, chiefly upon difficult 
 questions of ancient history and chronology. His principal works are 
 — ' Recherches Historiques sur les auciens Peuples da l'Asie ; ' ' Obser- 
 vations sur la Gdnealogie de Py thagore ; ' ' Observations sur la Cyropd- 
 die de Xdnophon 'Ddfense de la Chronologie fondde sur les Monu- 
 mens de l'Histoire ancienne, contre le Systeme chronologique de 
 Newton.' This last work was edited after Freret's death by Bougain- 
 ville, who added to it a biographical notice of the author. Freret, 
 while discarding the enormous antiquity attributed by some to 
 Egyptian and Chinese history, and showing the accordance of the 
 authentic records of those nations with the Mosaic chronology, throws 
 back the dawn of the historical times of Greece several centuries fur- 
 ther than Newton. He wrote also on the religion and geography of 
 the aucients. Freret was a man of very extensive erudition and of 
 indefatigable application, and he rendered considerable service to 
 history. He died at Paris in 1749. His scattered works have been 
 published together : ' (Euvres completes de Freret,' 20 vols. 12mo, 
 Paris, 1796. Long after Freret's death, two or three works of an 
 anti-Christian tendency were published under his name by Naigeon, 
 a disciple of Diderot, and others of the same school ; but these works 
 are so different in their style and spirit from all those that are known 
 to be his, and their authenticity has been so little proved, that they 
 are now generally regarded as apocryphal. 
 
 FRERON, ELIE CATHERINE, was born in 1719, and educated 
 by the Jesuits. He made himself conspicuous by his literary journal, 
 which he began to edit in 1746, under the title of ' Lettres a Madame 
 la Comtesse.' Being suppressed on account of some bitter attacks on 
 several writers, Freron changed its title, in 1749, into that of ' Lettres 
 dcrites sur quelques sujets de ce Temps.' In 1754 he a?;ain changed 
 the name of his journal to that of ' Annde Littdraire,' which he con- 
 tinued till his death in 1776. Freron directed his attacks against the 
 philosophers of the 18th century, and particularly against Voltaire. 
 His bitter invectives were more than retaliated by his adversaries, who 
 succeeded in making Frerou's name synonymous with that of a scur- 
 rilous reviewer. Freron's son (Louis Stanislas), who continued the 
 'Annde Littdraire' till 1790, became notorious during the French 
 revolution as a violent Jacobin. He died in 1802 at St. Domingo, where 
 he accompanied General Leclerc, being nominated sous-prdfet of that 
 island. 
 
 FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO, a most distinguished composer for 
 and performer on the organ, was a native of Ferrara, and at the age 
 of twenty-three became organist of St. Peter's at Rome. He may be 
 considered as the father of the true organ style, and his writings have 
 been more or less imitated by every orthodox composer of the kind of 
 music in which he so much excelled. " His first work," says Dr. 
 Burney, entitled 'Ricercari e Canzoni Francese, fatte sopra diversi 
 oblighi in Partitura,' contains the first compositions we have seen 
 printed in score, and with bars. They are likewise the first regular 
 fugues that we have found upon one subject, or of two subjects 
 carried on at the same time, from the beginning of a movement to 
 the end." Frescobaldi was born near the close of the 16th century, 
 but the precise date of neither his birth nor death appears to be known. 
 However, in 1641, according to Delia Valle, Frescobaldi was living : 
 Gerber states that his first work was published in 1628. 
 
 FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN, a very distinguished French mathe- 
 matician and natural philosopher, was born in 1788, at Broglie near 
 Bernay : his father, who was an architect, endeavoured early to com- 
 municate to him the rudiments of education; but considerable dif- 
 ficulty was experienced in effecting this desirable object, partly from 
 the delicate state of the pupil's health, and partly, it is supposed, from 
 a distaste in the latter for the acquisition of that kind of knowledge 
 which depends chiefly on the exercise of the memory ; hence the youth 
 made small progress in the study of languages, and he was eight years 
 of age before he could write in a legible manner. An inquiring faculty 
 was however manifest in him even at that time by the experiments 
 which he made to determine the best materials and the best construc- 
 tions for the small machines used in the sports of children. 
 
 At the age of sixteen years and a half he was admitted a pupil in 
 the Eeole Polytechnique, where he soon made great progress in the 
 study of the sciences, and where he attracted the notice of Legendre 
 by his solution of a problem which had been proposed by that mathe- 
 matician as a trial of the abilities of the students. On leaving that 
 institution he was appointed engineer in the department of the Ponts- 
 et-Chaussdes. 
 
 It is remarkable however that it was not till the year 1814 that 
 Fresnel began to study the branch of science in whioh he afterwards 
 became so much distinguished. In that year he requested a friend, 
 by letter, to inquire of his uncle what was meant by ' polarisation of 
 light ; ' and it is to be presumed that he obtained the information ha 
 sought, for in eight months from that time he appears to have made 
 himself fully acquainted with the subject. In 1823 he was made a 
 member of the Acaddmie des Sciences at Paris ; in 1825 he was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and two years later this 
 learned body awarded him the Rumford medal for his optical dis- 
 coveries. At the time of his death, which happened in 1827, he held 
 the post of secretary to the Commission for the Lighthouses of Frauce, 
 and he was succeeded in this post by his brother, M, Ldonor FreaueL 
 
1CJ9 
 
 FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN. 
 
 FRISI, PAOLO. 
 
 1010 
 
 The phenomena of the colours exhibited by crystallised plates when 
 exposed to polarised light, and the rings which appear to surround 
 their axes, were attentively examined by Fresnel, and, in conjunction 
 with his friend Arago, he succeeded in reducing the interferences of 
 polarised light to a few simple laws, which were duly verified by 
 experimental analysis. This subject, which has also been investigated 
 by Sir David Brewster, M. Biot, and subsequently by M. Mitscherlich, 
 is treated by Fresnel in a Memoire which was read to the Institute of 
 France in 1816. He gave a formula for the intensity of a previously 
 polarised ray when reflected from a surface under any angle of inci- 
 dence in a plane inclined to the plane of primitive polarisation ; and 
 this, with a general account of the deviations which the plane of 
 polarisation undergoes in consequence of the reflexion, is contained in 
 two Mdmoires which were presented to the Academie des Sciences in 
 1817 and 1818. 
 
 In 1819 he gained the prize which in the preceding year had been 
 proposed by the Institute for the best memoir on the diffraction of 
 light. In his Memoire he showed that rays passing at a sensible 
 distance from a reflecting body deviate from their primitive direc- 
 tion and interfere with the direct rays; and, on the principles of 
 the undulatory theory, he ascribed the effect to a number of small 
 waves which originate with each portion of the surface of the primitive 
 wave when it arrives at the reflecting surface. In his ' Memoire sur la 
 Diffraction de la Lumiere,' 4to, Paris, Fresnel has given a complete 
 explanation, on the undulatory hypothesis, of the coloured fringes 
 iroduced by an opaque object wheu exposed to a luminous point : he 
 Las also given a table of the several maxima and minima of the 
 intensity of light beyond the limits of the geometrical shadow, and he 
 determined that, within those limits, the light gradually diminishes 
 till total darkness takes place. In order to examine the effects pro- 
 duced by the diffraction of light when it is made to pass through a 
 small aperture, he caused the image of the sun at the focus of a glass 
 lens to fall precisely at the spot where a small circular orifice was 
 made in a plate of metal ; and, placing before his eye another glass 
 lens, he suffered the cone of light from the orifice to fall on the lens, 
 when the image of the orifice appeared as a bright spot, surrounded by 
 rings of light of different colours. With a micrometer Fresnel 
 measured the diameters of these rings, and he has given an explana- 
 tion of the variations produced in the intensity of the light of the 
 cential spot when the distance of the eye-glass from the orifice is 
 varied. He observed also the succession of bright and dark bands 
 which are produced when light from a radiant point is reflected from 
 two plane mirrors inclined to one another at an angle nearly equal to 
 180 degrees. 
 
 In a paper entitled 'Considerations thdoriques sur la Polaii-ation 
 de la Lumiere,' which is printed in the ' Bulletin de la Socidte Philo- 
 mathique,' 1824, Fresnel assumes that the eye is affected only by those 
 vibratory motions of the particles of ether which take place trans- 
 versely, or in planes perpendicular to the direction of the motion of 
 the wave. Unpolarised light he conceived to consist of a rapid suc- 
 cession of waves in which the vibrations are performed in every 
 direction perpendicularly to that of the ray ; and common polarised 
 light to consist in the transverse vibrations being parallel to one 
 plane passing through the direction of the ray. By combining the 
 hypothesis of transverse vibrations with the theory of undulations, 
 Fresnel obtained formulae for the intensity of reflected light at any 
 angle of incidence. 
 
 He conceived that the phenomena of double refraction in crystals 
 with one axis depend upon a modification of the actions of the ether 
 by the action of the mohcules of the crystal; the elasticity of the 
 latter molecules in a direction perpendicular to the axis being sup- 
 posed to be different from the elasticity in a direction parallel to the 
 axis. In the year 1821 Fresnel presented to the Acade"mie des 
 Sciences a Memoire in which the properties of double refraction and 
 polarisation in biaxal crystals were contemplated ; and he investigated 
 what he called the " surface of elasticity; " a superficies conceived to 
 be such that the force of elasticity by which the vibrations of a mole- 
 cule in the direction of the radius of such surface are regulated is 
 proportional to the square of that radius. He also gave, for doubly 
 refracting crystals with two axes, an indication of the general equation 
 to a wave surface, which has since been investigated by Ampere and 
 Maccullagh. 
 
 Fresnel' s inquiries were also directed to the subject of rotatory 
 polarisation; and he found by experiments that the phenomena might 
 be explained by conceiving the molecules of ether, which give rise to 
 the rays in the direction of the axis of the quartz, or of the fluids in 
 which the like phenomena are exhibited, to revolve uniformly in 
 circles, with different velocities, some from right to left, and others 
 In a contrary direction. The colours produced by such media he 
 conceived to be owing to the interferences of two rays or pencils in 
 which the molecules revolve in opposite directions. 
 
 Fresuel also proved that light was circularly polarised by two total 
 reflections from glass at an angle equal to about 54° 37'; and 
 placing a crystallised plate between two rhomboids of glass, each of 
 which polarised the light circularly, and had their planes of reflection 
 at right angles to one another, he observed that the light transmitted 
 through the system exhibited phenomena similar to those which are 
 seen along the axis of quartz. He succeeded in exhibiting before the 
 
 Academy, in 1822, a division of the pencils, so that a lino appeared 
 double, by making the light pass through prisms of glass which were 
 subject to strong pressure by means of screws ; and he was tho first 
 who observed the change produced by heat on the tints of sulphate of 
 lime, a subject which has since been more completely investigated bj 
 M. Mitscherlich. 
 
 Apparently unacquainted with what had been previously proposed 
 by Brewster for a like purpose, this philosopher and engineer devised 
 several constructions of great lenses for lighthouses ; one of thess 
 constructions consisted of five concentric spherical zones (piano 
 convex) of glass disposed about a central lens, the whole being con- 
 tained in a square frame. Eight of these, in vertical positions, 
 constituted an octagonal case or lantern, which revolved about a 
 vertical axis, and had in its centre a powerful lamp. Another con- 
 struction consisted of two great lanterns, as they may be caUed, one 
 within the other ; the convex surface of each was formed of thiu 
 cylindrical refractors, and both revolved about a lamp in their common 
 axis : the cylinders were so disposed as to produce, by the revolution, 
 incessant flashes of light. 
 
 Fresnel made some experiments for the purpose of decomposing 
 water by means of a magnet; and the method which he pursued con- 
 sisted in producing a current in an electro-magnetic helix inclosing a 
 bar-magnet covered with silk ; on plunging the ends of the wire ia 
 water, he obtained some remarkable effects ; but, being unable to 
 account for certain anomalies which he observed, he abandoned the 
 project. 
 
 (Dnlerui, Notice tur Fresnel; Biographie Universelle.) 
 FKESNOY, DU. [Dufresnoy.] 
 
 FRtiY, J AOUB, one of the most ablo engravers of the 18th century, 
 was born at Luceru in 1081. After learning the first rudiments of 
 engraving of a cousin in his native place, he went to Rome, where he 
 obtained employment from and was instructed by Westerhout, who 
 also introduced him to the notice of Carlo Maratta, with whom he 
 perfected himself as a draughtsman. Frey made an engraving for 
 Maratta of a drawing of 'Hercules and the Serpent,' after Anuibal 
 Caracci, which excited that painter's admiration and astonishment. 
 Frey had used the needle more than was customary at that time with 
 engravers — a practice which Maratta recommended him strongly to 
 pursue. 
 
 Frey soon obtained the reputation of the greatest engraver at Rome 
 and of his time. He engraved in all eighty pieces, including many of 
 the finest works of Italian art. Among the principal are — ' St. Jerome,' 
 and 'Martyrdom of St. Sebastian,' after Domenichino; ' St. Romualdo,' 
 after Sacchi ; a copy of a ' Holy Family,' by Edelinck, after Raffaelle ; 
 the ' Aurora,' after Guido ; and several admirable plates after Maratta, 
 Cignaoi, Annibal Caracci, and others. The 'Aurora,' after Guido, was 
 one of Frey'a favourite pieces ; it is beautifully drawn, and the 'Hours' 
 have a surprising degree of buoyancy and motion : though less careful 
 in the detail of the accessaries, Frey's is a very superior print to that 
 made by Kaffaelle Morghen of the same subject, especially in the 
 extremities and general treatment of the ' Hours ' and ' Aurora,' which 
 are the essential portion of the composition. He died at Rome in 
 1752. There is a notice of him and a list of his works in J. C. Fuessli's 
 ' Geschichte der besten Kiinstler in der Schweitz ;' there is also an 
 account of him in Gandellini's ' Notizie Istoriche degli IntagliatorL' 
 
 FRISCHLIN, NICODEMUS, born in 1547, was the son of a 
 Protestant clergyman in the duchy of Wurtemberg. He showed at 
 an early age a great aptitude for the study of languages, became an 
 accomplished scholar, and was made professor in the University of 
 Tubingen, where he wrote his Paraphrases of Virgil's Bueolic-i and 
 Georgics, and of Persius, as well as a great quantity of original poetry, 
 and several dramas, for one of which, entitled 'Rebecca,' he wn 
 crowned with a gold laurel crown by the Emperor Rudolf II. at ths 
 Diet of Ratisbon, with the title of poet-laureate. But his satirical 
 humour made him enemies, and, being charged with adultery, he was 
 obliged to leave Tubingen. After visiting several towns of Germany, 
 he at last settled at Majence, where he published some of hi3 works. 
 In consequence, it would seem, of fresh satirical effusions from Lis 
 pen, the Duke of Wurtemberg caused him to be arrested at Mayence, 
 and shut up in a tower, whence he attempted to escape, but fell in so 
 doing from a great height, and died of the fall November 29, 1590, 
 being forty-three years of age. He wrote a great number of works, 
 the principal of which are : — 1, 'De Astrouomicae Artis cum Doctrina 
 Coelesti et Naturali Philosophia convenientia;' 2, ' Institutions 
 Oratorise ;' 3, several Orations ; 4, a work on education entitled ' De 
 Ratione instituendi Puerum ab anno setatis sexto vel septimo ad 
 annum usque sextumdecimum ;' 5, 'Dialogus Logicus contra P. Rami 
 Sophisticam pro Aristotle,' and other treatises against the schoolmeu ; 
 6, ' Facetia; Selectiores,' many of them licentious ; 7, ' Quaestionum 
 Grammaticarum, libri octo ;' 8, ' In Tryphiodori -Egyptii Grammatici 
 libru m de Ilii excidio, interpretatio duplex et notse ad textum Graecum ;' 
 9, ' Notes on Callimachus ;' 10, ' Aristophanes repurgatus a mendis et 
 interpretatus;' 11, 'In ebrietatem Carmina ;' and a quantity of verses, 
 elegies, satires, epigrams, besides the dramas and the paraphrases of 
 classic authors above mentioned. 
 
 FRISI, PAOLO, a distinguished Italian mathematician, was born 
 at Milan, April 13, 1728, of a family which came originally from 
 Strasbourg; and at fifteen years of age he was placed in a monaster/ 
 
1041 
 
 FRIST, PAOLO. 
 
 FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL, RA. 
 
 of the Barnabites, of whose order he became a member. At this time 
 apparently the cultivation of the sciences formed no part of the dis- 
 cipline of the institution ; Frisi acquired however some notion of 
 geography from a number of old maps which lined the walls of the 
 corridors, and he made considerable progress in the study of mathe- 
 matics, with almost no other aid than that of a few books of which he 
 obtained possession. 
 
 From Milan he was sent to the University of Pavia, where he studied 
 theoiogy; and at intervals of leisure he greatly extended his knowledge 
 of mathematics. He was afterwards appointed to give instruction in 
 philosophy at Lodi ; and while at this place he composed a treatise 
 entitled 'Disquisitio Mathematica iu Caussam Physicam Figura et 
 JIagnitudinis Telluria nostra,' which his friend Donato Silva, at his 
 own expense, caused to be published at Milan in 1751. In this work 
 proof is given, agreeably to the Newtonian system, that the earth has 
 the form of an oblate spheroid ; and its merit procured for the author 
 an invitation from the king of Sardinia to deliver lectures in philosophy 
 at Ca-al. Frisi accepted the invitation ; but the Acad^mie des Sciences 
 of Paris having in 1753 nominated him one of its foreign correspondents, 
 the honour thus conferred upon him seems to have induced the prin- 
 cipals of his order at Milan to give him the appointment of professor 
 of philosophy in the college of St. Alexander in that city. His 
 dissertation on the figure of the earth was about that time criticised 
 by an ill-informed person, a Jesuit, who asserted that the arguments 
 were inconclusive, and who reproached the author with attempting to 
 obscure the glory of Italian science by the adoption of English ideas. 
 Such an adversary was easily silenced, but the attack produced in the 
 mind of Frisi a rooted dislike to the Jesuits in general. In answer 
 e objections made to some of the propositions he wrote a work 
 called ' Estratto del Capo Quarto del Quinto Volume della Storia 
 Literaria d' Italia,' &c, which was published at Milan in 1755. 
 
 In the same year he published at Lugano a tract entitled 'Saggio 
 della Morale Filosofia,' &c. ; and, at MilaD, his work ' De Existentia 
 et Motu -dEtheris, seu de Theoria Electricitatis,' &c. About the same 
 time lie took occasion to oppose in public the belief in witchcraft 
 and magic, which then existed in Italy ; and this boldness, together 
 with a certain freedom in hi3 manner of living, appears to have raised 
 up against him many enemies : fearing their machinations, he wished 
 to withdraw from Milan, and he gladly accepted an appointment in 
 the Univer sity of Pisa, which was conferred upon him in 1756 by the 
 grand-duke Leopold. While holding this post he published, in Latin 
 (Lucca, 1757), select dissertations on the subject of electricity, which 
 two years before had been written by Euler, Resaud, and himself, for 
 the prize proposed by tue Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg; and 
 a tract entitled ' De Motu Diurno Terra' (Pisa, 1758), which had 
 obtaiued the prize proposed by the Royal Academy of Berlin. He also 
 puolished ' Dissertationes Variae' in two volumes; of which the first 
 (Lucca, 1760) contains a tract entitled ' De Atmosphaera Ccelestium 
 Corporum,' and the second (Lucca, 1761) two others, entitled ' De 
 Inaequalitatibus Motus Planetarum omnium in Orbitis Circularibus 
 atque Ellipticis' (in two books), and ' De Methodo Fluxionum 
 Qeometricarum.' 
 
 In 1760 Frisi made a journey to Rome and Naples in consequence 
 of a commission which he received from the pope, Clement XIII., to 
 examine and report upon a subject in dispute between the people of 
 Ferrara and Bologna respecting tho navigation of certain rivers : he 
 also assisted with his advice the commissioners appointed by the 
 Venetians to repair the damages caused by the overflowing of the 
 Brenta ; and for these services, though he appears to have excited the 
 jealousy of the engineers of the country, and to have made enemies of 
 many persons whose estates were affected by the measures which were 
 taken in consequence of his reports, he was liberally remunerated 
 both by the pope and the Venetians. In 1761 he published, at Lucca, 
 a tract entitled ' Piano de' Lavori da farsi per liberare e assicurare 
 dalle Acque le Provincie di Bologna, di Ferrara, di Ravenna,' &c. ; and, 
 in the following year, one in three books, entitled ' Del Modo di rego- 
 lare i Fiumi e Torrenti principalmente delBolognese e della Romagna.' 
 Of this there have been four editions. He returned to Milan in 1764, 
 having been appointed professor of mathematics in that city, and, 
 except occasional absences, he continued to reside there till his death. 
 In the year 1766 he made a visit to France, and thence he came 
 to London, where, as well as in Paris, he received great attentions from 
 the learned : the Portuguese ambassador in the latter city proposed to 
 him an appointment in Lisbon, but this he declined, being unwilling 
 entirely to leave his country. Two years afterwards he went to Vienna, 
 where also he was well received, and where he was consulted on the 
 subject of the disputes between the pope and the emperor. 
 
 boon after his return, the pope (Pius VI.) gave him a dispensation 
 from his monastic engagements, and he lived subsequently as a secular 
 priest. In 1778 he made a journey to Switzerland, where he con- 
 ceived the idea of writing a traot on subterranean rivers ; and this, 
 with dissertations on the meteorological influence of the moon, on 
 conductors of electricity, and on the heat of the earth, he published 
 ftt Milan, in 1781, under the title of ' Opuscoli FilosoficL' 
 
 In the yeir 1776, having previously enjoyed excellent health, he 
 first felt the nymptoms of a painful disease ; the=e gradually increased 
 in violence, and eight years afterwards, iu the hope of obtaining relief, 
 he underwent an operation : a mortification however ensued, aud 
 
 terminated his life at Milan, November 22, 1784, in his sixty-seventh 
 year. He was buried in the church of St. Alexander in that city, 
 aud the Barnabites honoured his tomb with an epitaph in Latin. 
 
 In 1757 Frisi was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London ; 
 he was also a member of tho Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, 
 of the Academies of Berlin, Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Berne, and 
 of the Institute of Bologna. He received a golden medal in 1759 from 
 the archduke Joseph, afterwards emperor; and the empress Matia 
 Theresa granted him a pension for life. 
 
 Besides the works which have been mentioned Frisi published 
 many others; and of these the following are the principal: — 'Pre- 
 lectio habita Mediolaui,' viii. idus Maii, (1764 ;) ' Saggio supra l'Archi- 
 tettura Qotica ' (Leghorn, 1766) ; ' De Gravitate Universali libri ties ' 
 (Milan, 1768), a work much praised by D'Alembert and John Bernoulli ; 
 'Delia Maniera di preservare gli Edifizi dal Fulmiue' (Milan, 1768); 
 'Danielis Melandri et Pauli Frisii alteriusad alterum de Theoria Lunaa 
 Commentarii' (Parma, 1769); ' Cosmographiae Physicae et Mathe- 
 matics,' 2 torn. 4to. (Milan, 1774, 1775) — this is considered his prin- 
 cipal work; 'Del' Architettura, Statica, e Idraulica' (Milan, 1777); 
 ' Pauli Frisii Operum :' torn. I, Algebram et Geometriam Analyticam 
 continens (Milan, 1782) ; torn. 2, Mechanicam Universam et Mechauicae 
 Applicationem ad Aquarum Fluentium Theoriam (ibid, 1783). The 
 third volume, which treats of Cosmography, was published by two of 
 his brothers after his death. He published, at various times, notices 
 of the lives of Galileo Galilei and Bonaventura Cavalieri, of Sir Isaac 
 Newton, Donato Silva, and Titus Pomponiu3 Atticus : he wrote a 
 notice of the empress Maria Theresa, which was published at Pisa in 
 1783, without his name ; and one of D'Alembert, which was published 
 after his death. He also left several works in manuscript. 
 
 * FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL, R.A., a native of Yorkshire, was 
 born in 1819. Having shown a decided predilection for art, he was 
 about 1835 placed in Sass's school, Charlotte-street, Bloomsbury, and 
 thence proceeded to the schools of the Royal Academy. After a trial 
 with an unimportant picture at the British Institution in 1839, he 
 the following year sent to the exhibition of the Royal Academy a very 
 promising painting of ' Malvolio before the Countess Olivia.' In suc- 
 ceeding years he contributed pictures of the same order from Shakspere, 
 Scott, Sterne, Goldsmith, and Moliere, making his way steadily as a 
 clever and careful artist, remarkable however more for skill and tasto 
 in execution than for originality of conception or intellectual power. 
 In 1844 he made indeed a somewhat more ambitious effort than he 
 had previously essayed, in an ' Interview between John Knox and 
 Mary Queen of Scots, respecting her Marriage with D.trnley ;' but it 
 was not very successful, and he returned to his more homely range oi 
 subjects in the ' Village Pastor,' from Goldsmith, which appeared at 
 the exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1845, and obtained his election 
 as an associate of that institution. The next year he furnished one of 
 his best pictures, ' Madame Jourdain discovering her Husband at the 
 Dinner which he gave to the Belle Marquise and the Count Dorante,' 
 in which Mr. Frith has perhaps made as near an approach to humour 
 as in any picture he has yet painted. The next year however, 
 stimulated by his newly-acquired honours, he put forth his powers in 
 a larger and more elaborate work, ' An English Merry-Making a 
 Hundred Years ago,' which attracted general attention, aud, though 
 it was a year of great pictures, Mr. Friths not only kept its place, but 
 proved indeed one of the most popular pictures of the year. The next 
 season saw from his pencil three pictures of a somewhat different 
 character — ' An Old Woman, accused of having Bewitched a Peasant, 
 brought before a Country Justice,' in which the mingling of mirth 
 and sentiment was not very happy ; ' A Stage-Coach Adventure in 
 1750;' and a 'Scene from the Bourgeois Gentilhomme.' In 1S49 
 appeared his ' Coming of Age,' so well known from Mr. Holl's engraving. 
 It is only necessary to mention the most marked of his subsequent 
 pictures. In the exhibition of 1851 he had a very clever work, 
 'Hogarth brought before the Governor of Calais as a Spy.' 'Pope 
 miking love to Lady Mary Wortley Montague' (1852), though a 
 pretentious was an unpleasant rendering of a subject essentially 
 unadapted for anything better than a coarse wood-cut. A far better 
 picture was ' Life at the Sea-Side ' (1853), a view of Ramsgate beach 
 in the height of the ' season,' depicted with much quaint grace and 
 some humour — like a sketch of Leech's worked up into a well-painted 
 picture. This picture caught the general fancy more perhaps than 
 any other of Mr. Friths works, and had the honour of being purchased 
 by her Majesty. His principal subsequent works are the ' Derby Day ' 
 (1858), now in the National Gallery ; 'The Railway Station;' and 
 the ' Marriage of the Prince of Wales.' Most of these pictures have 
 been engraved. Mr. Frith was elected R.A. iu 1853. 
 
 Mr. Frith is on the whole one of the most equal of our established 
 painters. His failures are chiefly such as arise from mischoice of 
 subject; the technical part is always carefully executed, and seldom 
 exhibits any very palpable mistake or shortcoming. But if there is 
 never any great failure there is never any distinguished success. His 
 pictures are literally level to every capacity. His ladies are always 
 plump and pretty aud well-dressed. Whatever their part, they carry 
 all the dainty drawing-room gracefulnesses aud proprieties into it. They 
 are evidently playing their part with a full consciousness that they are 
 being looked at and admired while playing it. The men are equally 
 plump, smooth-faced, and well-dressed, and even more artificial. The 
 
SUOBEN, JOHN. 
 
 FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN. 
 
 children, alike in their looks and clothes and behaviour, are all that 
 an affectionate mamma could wish her darlings to be. Mr. Frith's 
 pictures consequently are the delight of the ladies, and find special 
 favour with well-conditioned citizens. Hia technical merits are just 
 such as confirm and secure the kind of admiration which the range of 
 his subjects and the character of his personages excite. His colour is 
 always bright and fresh and gay. His drawing is good, without parade 
 or affectation. His touch is light and neat, yet sufficiently varied ; 
 and he finishes every part with scrupulous care. 
 
 FROBEN, or FROBE'NIUS, JOHN, born 1460, at Hammelburg, 
 iu Franconia, where he received his earliest education. He afterwards 
 went to the university of Basel, and there acquired the reputation of 
 being an eminent scholar. With the view of promoting useful 
 learning, he applied himself to the art of printing; and becoming 
 master of it, opened a shop in Basel, probably about 1491. He was 
 the first of the German printers who brought the art to perfection ; 
 and one of the first who introduced into Germany the use of the 
 Roman character. Being a man of probity and piety as well as skill, 
 he would never suffer libels, or anything that might hurt the reputa- 
 tion of another, to go through his press for the sake of profit. 
 Froben's great reputation was the principal motive which led 
 Erasmus to fix his residence at Basel, in order to have his own books 
 printed by him. The connection between them grew close and 
 intimate, and was one of the sincerest cordiality. Erasmus loved the 
 good qualities of Froben, as much as Froben admired the great ones 
 of Erasmus. 
 
 There ia an epistle of Erasmus extant, which contains so full an 
 account of this printer, that it forms a very curious memoir for his 
 life. It was written in 1527, on the occasion of Froben's death, 
 which happened that year ; and which, Erasmus tells us, he bore so 
 extremely ill, that he really began to be ashamed of his grief, since 
 what he felt upon the death of his own brother was not to be com- 
 pared to it. He says, that he lamented the loss of Froben, not so 
 much because he had a strong affection for him, but because he 
 seemed raised up by Providence for the promoting of liberal studies. 
 Then he proceeds to describe his good qualities, which were indeed 
 very great and numerous ; and concludes with a particular account of 
 his death, which was somewhat remarkable. Erasmu3 wrote his 
 epitaph in Greek and Latin. Both these epitaphs are at the end of 
 his epistle. 
 
 A large number of valuable authors were printed by Froben, with 
 great care and accuracy ; among which may be enumerated, the works 
 of St Jerome, 5 vols, folio, 1516, reprinted in 1520 and 1524; those 
 of St. Cyprian, fol. 1521 ; Tertullian, foL 1521, reprinted in 1525; the 
 works of Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, fol. 1523, reprinted in 1526 ; 
 St. Ambrose, 4 vols, folio, 1527. All of these were edited by Erasmus. 
 Froben formed a design to print the Greek Fathers, which had not 
 then been done ; but death prevented him. That work however was 
 carried on by his son Jerome Frobenius, and his son-in-law Nicholas 
 Bischof or Episcopius, who, joining in partnership, carried on the 
 business with the same reputation, and gave very correct editions of 
 those fathers. 
 
 FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN, an enterprising English navigator, 
 who, as Stow informs us, was born at Doncaster, in Yorkshire, of 
 parents in humble life, but it is not known in what year. Being 
 brought up to the sea, he very early displayed the talents of a great 
 navigator, and was the first Englishman who attempted to find out a 
 north-west passage to China. He made offers for this purpose to 
 different English merchants for fifteen years, without effect; but 
 being at last patronised by Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick, and 
 other persons of rank and fortune, he engaged a sufficient number of 
 adventurers, and collected such sums of money as enabled him to fit 
 himself out for his voyage. He provided only three ships, two barks 
 of about twenty-five tons each, called the Gabriel and the Michael, 
 and a pinnace of ten tons. With these he sailed from Deptford, 
 June 8th 1576; and the court being then at Greenwich, the queen 
 beheld them as they passed by, " commended them, and bade them 
 farewell, with shaking her hand at them out of the window." Bending 
 their course northward, they came on the 24th within sight of Fara, 
 one of the islands of Shetland; and on the 11th of July discovered 
 Freeseland, bearing W. N. W., which stood high, and was covered with 
 snow. They could not land by reason of the ice, and great depth of 
 water near the shore. The east point of this island Captain Frobisher 
 named " Queen Elizabeth's Foreland." On the 28th they had sight 
 of Meta Incognita, being part of New Greenland, on which also they 
 could not land, for the reasons just mentioned. August 10th 
 Frobisher went on a desert island, three miles from the continent, 
 but staid there only a few hours. The next day he entered into a 
 strait which he called Frobisher's Strait, a name which it still retains. 
 On the 12th, sailing to Gabriel's island, they came to a sound, which 
 they named Prior's Sound, and anchored in a sandy bay there. On 
 the 15th they sailed to Prior's Bay ; on the 17th to Thomas William's 
 island, and on the 18th came to anchor under Butcher's island. Here 
 they went on shore, and had some communication with the natives, 
 by whose treachery they lost a boat and five of their men. Frobisher 
 having endeavoured in vain to recover his men, set sail again for 
 England on the 26th of August; came again within sight of Freese- 
 land on the 1st of September; and notwiths'auding a terrible storm 
 
 on the 7th of the same month, he arrived at Harwich on the 2nd of 
 
 October. 
 
 Frobisher took possession of the country ho had landed upon in 
 Queen Elizabeth's name, and, in token of such possession, ordered his 
 men to bring to him whatever they could first find. One among the 
 rest brought a piece of black stone, in appearance like sea-coal, but 
 very heavy. Having at his return distributed fragments of it among 
 his friends, the wife of one of the adventurers threw a fragment into 
 the fire, which being taken out again and quenched in vinegar, glittered 
 like gold ; and being tried by some refiners in London, was found to 
 contain a portion of that rich metal. This circumstance raising pro- 
 digious expectations of gold, great numbers of persons earnestly pressed 
 and soon fitted out Captain Frobisher for a second voyage, to be 
 undertaken in the following spring. The queen lent him a ship of the 
 royal navy of 200 tons, with which, and two small barks of about 30 
 tons each, he fell down to Gravesend, May 26th 1577, where the 
 minister of the parish came aboard the greater ship, the Aid, and 
 administered the sacrament to the company. Two days after they 
 reached Harwich, whence they sailed on the 31st of May. 
 
 The whole complement of gentlemen, soldiers, sailors, merchants, 
 miners, &c, who accompanied the expedition, was 140, furnished 
 with victuals and all other necessaries for seven mouths. They arrived 
 in St. Magnus Sound, at the Orkney islands, upon the 7th of June, 
 whence they kept their course for the space of twenty-six days without 
 seeing land. They met however with great drifts of wood, and whole 
 bodies of trees, which they imagined to come from the coast of 
 Newfoundland. On the 4th of July they discovered Freeseland, along 
 the coasts of which they found vast islands of ice, some being seventy 
 or eighty fathoms under water, and more than half a mile in circuit. 
 Not having been able safely to land in this place, they proceeded to 
 Frobisher's Strait ; and on the 1 7th of the same month made the north 
 foreland in it, otherwise called Hall's Island, as also a smaller i-land 
 of the same name, where they had in their previous voyage found the 
 ore, but could not now get a piece as large as a walnut. They met 
 with some of it however in adjacent islands. On the 19th they went 
 upon Hall's greater island to discover the country, and the nature of 
 the inhabitants, with some of whom they trafficked, and took one of 
 them, neither in a very just nor handsome manner; and upon a hill 
 here they erected a column of stones, which they called Mount 
 Warwick. They now sailed about, to make what discoveries they 
 could, and gave names to different bays and islands; as Jackman's 
 Sound, Smith's Island, Beare's Sound, Leicester's Isle, York's Sound, 
 Ann countess of Warwick's Sound and Island, &c. 
 
 Frobisher's instructions for this voyage were principally to search 
 for ore in this neighbourhood ; he was directed to leave the further 
 discovery of the north-west passage till another time. Having there- 
 fore in the Countess of Warwick's Island found a good quantity, he 
 took a lading of it. He set sail the 23rd of August, and arrived in 
 England about the end of September. He was mostgraciouely received 
 by the queen, and her majesty appointed commissioners to make trial 
 of the ore, and examine thoroughly into the probability of a north- 
 west passage to China. The commissioners did so, and reported the 
 great value of the undertaking, and the expediency of farther carrying 
 on the discovery of the north-west passage. Upon this, suitable pre- 
 parations were made with all possible despatch ; and because the 
 mines newly found out were sufficient to defray the adventurers' 
 charges, it was thought necessary to send a select number of soldiers 
 to secure the places already discovered, to make farther discoveries 
 into the inland parts, and to search again for the passage to China, 
 Besides three ships, as before, twelve others were fitted out for this 
 voyage, which were to return at the end of the following summer 
 with a lading of gold-ore. They assembled at Harwich on the 27th 
 of May 1578, and sailing thence on the 31st, they came within sight 
 of Freeseland on the 20th of June, when Frobisher, who was now 
 called lieutenant-general, took possession of the country in the queen 
 of England's name, and called it West England, giving the name of 
 Charing Cross to one of the high cliffs. On July 4th they came within 
 the mouth of Frobisher's Strait, but being obstructed by the ice, which 
 sank one of their barks, and driven out to sea by a storm, they were 
 so unfortunate as not to hit the entrance of it again. Instead of which, 
 being deceived by a current from the north-east, and remaining twenty 
 days in a continual fog, they ran sixty leagues into other unknown 
 straits before they discovered their mistake. Frobisher however, 
 coming back again, made for the strait which bore his name ; and on 
 the 23rd of July, at a place within it called Hatton's Headland, found 
 seven ships of his fleet. On the 31st of the same month he recovered 
 his long-desired port, and came to anchor in the Countess of Warwick's 
 Sound ; but the season of the year being too advanced to undertake 
 discoveries, after getting as much ore as he oould, he sailed with his 
 fleet for England, where, after a stormy and dangerous voyage, he 
 arrived in the beginning of October. 
 
 We have no account how Frobisher employed himself from tlna 
 time to 1585, when he commauded the Aid, in Sir Francis Drake's 
 expedition to the West Indies. In 1588 he commanded the Triumph, 
 and exerted himself very bravely against the Spanish Armada on July 
 the 26th, in which year he received the honour of knighthood, on 
 board his own ship, from the lord high admiral, for his valour. In 
 1590 he commanded one of two squadrons upon the Spanish coast, 
 
1015 
 
 FROISSAKT, JEAN. 
 
 FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS. 
 
 me, 
 
 In 1594 he was sent with four men-of-war to tho assistance of 
 Henry IV. of France, against a body of the leaguers and Spaniards, 
 then in possession of part of Brittany, who had fortified themselves 
 very strongly at Croyzon, near Brest. Here in an assault upon that 
 fort, on November 7th, he was wounded by a ball in the hip, of which 
 he died soon after he had brought the fleet safely back to Plymouth, 
 and was buried in that town. (Hakluyt's 'Collection of Voyages,' 
 voLiii., pp. 29, 32, 39; Stow's 'Annale3,' edit. 1631, p. 109 ; ' Biogr. 
 Brit.,' vol. iii., p. 2044.) There is a good portrait of Sir Martin Frobisher 
 in the picture-gallery at Oxford ; and many of his letters and papers, 
 with others relating to him, are preserved in the Cottonian and Harleian 
 collections of manuscripts in the British Museum. The instructions 
 given to him for the voyage of 1577 are printed in the ' Archaeologia,' 
 vol. xviii., p. 287, from one of Sir Hans Sloane's manuscripts. His last 
 letter, reporting the taking of the fort of Croyzon, dated November 8th 
 1594, is preserved in the Cottonian Manuscript, Calig. E. ix. fol. 211. 
 A Latin translation of the account of his voyage of 1577, under the 
 title of ' Historia Navigationis Martini Forbisseri,' by Joh. Tho. Freigius, 
 was published at Hamburg in 4to, 1675. 
 
 FROISSART, JEAN, was born at Valenciennes about 1337. He 
 was the son, as is conjectured from a passage in his poems, of Thomas 
 Froissart, a herald-painter, no inconsiderable profession in the days 
 of chivalry. The youth of Froissart, from twelve years upwards, as 
 he himself informs us, was spent in every species of elegant indulgence. 
 In the midst of his dissipation however, he early discovered the ardent 
 and inquisitive spirit to which we owe so much ; and even at the 
 age of twenty, at the command of his " dear lord and master, Sir 
 Robert of Namur, lord of Beaufort," he began to write the history of 
 the French wars. The period from 1326 to 1356 was chiefly filled up 
 from the chronicles of Jean le Bel, canon of Liege, a confidant of John 
 of Hainault, and celebrated by Froissart for his diligence and accu- 
 racy. It is reasonable to believe that this work was interrupted 
 during a journey to England in the train of Philippa of Hainault, 
 the heroic wife of Edward HI., and mother of the Black Prince. 
 Froissart was for three or four years secretary, or clerk of her chamber, 
 a situation which he would probably have retained but for a deep- 
 rooted passion for a lady of Flander3, which induced him to return to 
 chat country ; a circumstance equally favourable to the history of 
 the Continent, and unfortunate for that of Britain. During his 
 residence in England he visited the Scottish mountains, which he 
 traversed on a palfrey, carrying his own portmanteau, and attended 
 only by a greyhound. His character of historian and poet introduced 
 him to the court of David II., and to the hardly less honourable 
 distinction of fifteen days abode at the castle of Dalkeith with William, 
 earl of Douglas, where he learned personally to know the race of 
 heroes whose deeds he has repeatedly celebrated. 
 
 Froissart was in France at Melun-sur-Seine in April 1366 ; perhaps 
 private reasons might have induced him to take that road to Bordeaux, 
 where he was on All Saints' day of that year, when the Princess of 
 Wales was brought to bed of a son, who was afterwards Richard II. 
 The Prince of Wales setting out a few days afterwards for the war in 
 Spain against Henry the Bastard, Froissart accompanied him to Dax, 
 where the prince resided some time. He had expected to attend him 
 during the continuance of this great expedition, but the prince would 
 not permit him to go farther ; and shortly after his arrival sent him 
 back to the queen his mother. Froissart could not have made any 
 long stay in England, since in the following year, 1368, he was at 
 different Italian courts. It was this same year that Lionel, duke of 
 Clarence, son of the king of England, espoused Joland, daughter of 
 Galeae II., duke of Milan. Froissart, who probably was in his suite, 
 was present at the magnificent reception which Amadeus, count of 
 Savoy, surnamcd the Count Verd, gave him on his return : he describes 
 the feasts on this occasion, and does not forget to tell us that they 
 danced a virelay of his composition. From the court of Savoy he 
 returned to Milan, where the same Count Amadeus gave him a good 
 coturdie, a sort of coat, with twenty florins of gold ; thence he 
 went to Bologna and Ferrara, where he received forty ducats from 
 the King of Cyprus, and thence to Rome. Instead of the modest 
 equipage he travelled with into Scotland, he was now like a man of 
 importance, travelling on a handsome horse, attended by a hackney. 
 It was about this time that Froissart experienced a loss which nothing 
 could recompense— the death of Queen Philippa, which took place in 
 1369. He composed a lay on this melancholy event, of which how- 
 ever he was not a witness ; for he says, in another place, that in 1395 
 it was twenty-seven years since he had seen Eugland. According to 
 Voseius and Bullart, he wrote the life of Queen Philippa ; but this 
 assertion is not founded on any proofs. 
 
 Independently of the employment of clerk of the chamber to the 
 Queen.of England, which Froissart had held, he had been also of the 
 household of Edward III., and even of that of John, king of France. 
 Having however lost his patroness, he did not return to England, but 
 went into bin own country, where he obtained the living of Lestines. 
 Of all that he performed during the time he exercised this ministry, 
 he tells ua nothing more than that the tavern-keepers of Lestines had 
 500 francs of hia money in the short space of time he was their 
 rector. It in mentioned in a manuscript journal of the Bishop of 
 Chartres, chancellor to the Duke of Anjou, that, according to letters 
 sealed December 12, 1381, this prince caused to be seized fifty-six 
 
 quires of the ' Chronicle ' of Froissart, rector of the parish ol 
 Lestines, which the historian had sent to be illuminated, and then to 
 be forwarded to the King of England, the enemy of France. Frois- 
 sart attached himself afterwards to Wenceslaus of Luxembourg, duke 
 of Brabant, perhaps iu quality of secretary. This priuce, who had a 
 taste for poetry, commissioned Froissart to make a collection of his 
 songs, rondeaus, and virelays; and Froissart, adding some of his own 
 pieces to those of the prince, formed a sort of romance, under tho 
 title of 'Meliador; or, the Knight of the Sun;' but the duke did 
 not live to see the completion of the work, for he died in 1384. 
 
 Immediately after this event, Froissart found another patron in Guy 
 count de Blois, who made him clerk of his chapel, for which Froissart 
 testified his gratitude by a pastoral and epithalamium ou a marriage 
 in the family. He passed the years 1385, 1386, and 1387 sometimes 
 in the Blaisois, sometimes in Touraine ; but the Count de Blois having 
 engaged him to continue his history, which he had left unfinished, he 
 determined in 1388 to take advantage of the peace which was just con- 
 cluded to visit the court of Gaston Phoebus count de Foix, in order to 
 gain full information of whatever related to foreign countries and the 
 more distant provinces of the kingdom. His journey to Ortez, the 
 chief residence of the Count de Foix, in company with Sir Espaing 
 du Lyon, is one of the most interesting parts of Froissart's ' Chronicle.' 
 The Couut de Foix received and admitted him as a member of his 
 household. Here Froissart used to entertain Gaston after supper by 
 reading to him the romance of ' Meliador,' which he had brought with 
 him. After a long sojourn at the court of Ortez he returned to 
 Flanders by the route of Avignon. We learn from a poem referred 
 to by M. de St. Palaye, that on this occasion the historian, always in 
 quest of adventures, met a personal one with which he could have 
 dispensed, being robbed of all the ready money which his travels had 
 left him. After a series of journeys into different countries for the 
 sake of obtaining information, we find him in 1390 in his own country, 
 solely occupied in the completion of his history, until 1393, when he 
 was again at Paris. About 1378 he obtained from Pope Clement VII. 
 the reversion of a canonry at Lille, and in the collection of his poetry, 
 which was completed in 1393, and elsewhere, he calls himself canon 
 of Lille ; but Pope Clement dying in 1394, he gave up his expectations 
 of the reversion, and began to qualify himself as canon and treasurer 
 of the collegiate church of Chimay, which he probably owed to tho 
 friendship of the Count de Blois. 
 
 In 1395 Froissart revisited England, where he was received with 
 marks of high favour and affection by Richard II. and the royal 
 family. Here he went on collecting for his history, and had the 
 honour to present his ' Meliador ' to the king, who was much delighted 
 with it, " for he could speak and read French very well." After a 
 residence of three months Froissart left Eugland, and at his departure 
 received from the king a silver goblet containing a hundred nobles. 
 He finally settled at his benefice of Chimay, and employed as usual 
 the hours of his leisure in arranging and detailing the information 
 collected in his travels. The melancholy fate of his benefactor, 
 Richard II., in 1399, became the subject of his latest labours. It is 
 uncertain how long Froissart survived the death of Richard and the 
 conclusion of his 'Chronicle;' he was then above sixty years old, and 
 died shortly after at Chimay, according to an entry in the obituary 
 of the chapter. 
 
 The period of history embraced in Froissart's ' Chronicle ' is from 
 1326 to 1400. The best of the old editions of the original is that of 
 Lyon, in 4 vols, folio, 1559. One of the most valuable of the recent 
 editions is that in the ' Collection des Clironiques Nationales Fran- 
 chises, avec Notes et Eclaircissements, par J. A. Buchon,' in 15 vols. 
 8vo, Paris, 1824-26. Froissart's 'Chronicle' seems to have been first 
 printed at Paris by Ant. Verard, without date, 4 vols, folio, and was 
 reprinted by GuilL Eustace, Paris, 1514. There are two English 
 translations; one by Bourchier lord Berners, made 'at the high com- 
 mandment' of king Henry VIII., fol., Lond., Pinson, 1525-26; re- 
 printed in 2 vols. 4to, Lond., 1812, under the editorial care of E. V. 
 Utterson, Esq. ; the other, ' with additions from many celebrated 
 MSS„' translated by Thomas Johnes, Esq., appeared 'from the Hafod 
 press,' in 4 vols. 4to, 1803-5. 
 
 The priucipal particulars of Froissart's life have been here condensed 
 from that by St. Palaye, translated and edited by Mr. Johnes, 8vo, 
 Lond., 1801, and revised and republished in 4to, Hafod, 1810. 
 
 There are several splendidly illuminated manuscripts of Froissart's 
 'Chronicle,' quite or nearly contemporary, preserved in the British 
 Museum : one a complete copy, belonging to the old royal library of thb 
 kings of England, 14 D. ii.-vi. ; another consisting of the second and 
 fourth books in the same collection, 18 E. i. and ii. ; a third in the 
 Harleian Library, MSS. 4379 and 4380, containing the fourth book only ; 
 a fourth, an imperfect copy, is in the Arundel collection, No. 97. 
 
 FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, born of a patrician family, was 
 preetor of Rome a.d. 70, and about five years later was sent by Ves- 
 pasian to Britain, where he seems to have remained three years, during 
 which he conquered the Silures. (Tacitus, 'Agricola,' 17.) About 
 a.d. 78 he was succeeded by Agricola in the command of the troops 
 in Britain. On his return to Rome he wrote, under the reign of 
 Domitiau, his work, ' Strategematica,' in four books, in which he gives 
 short anecdotes of numerous Greek and Roman generals, illustrative 
 of the practice and resources of war. Nerva entrusted him with the 
 
1G47 
 
 FRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS. 
 
 FRY, MRS. ELIZABETH. 
 
 superintendence of the supply of water to Rome, and while filling this 
 office, which he retained under Trajan, he wrote his work on the 
 aqueducts, which has been printed in the earlier editions under the 
 title of ' De Aquis qure in Urbein influunt,' but is now generally known 
 by the title ' De Aquajductibus.' It contains much valuable informa- 
 tion on the mode in which ancient Rome was supplied with water, and 
 on everything that concerned this important part of the economy of 
 that city. Frontinus died under Trajan, about a.D. 106. Several 
 other works have been attributed to him, such as ' De Coloniis,' ' De 
 Liinitibus,' 'De Qualitate Agrorum,' but seemingly without foundation. 
 See the Bipontine edition of his works, with a life of Frontinus, 8vo, 
 1788. 'The Stratagems, Sleightes, and Policies of Warre,' of Fron- 
 tinus were translated into English by Richard Morysine, and published 
 in London in 1539, and another verson appeared in 1686, and it has 
 been translated into German, Italian, French, Spanish, &c. His work 
 'De Aquajductibus' was translated into French, and illustrated by 
 engravings, 4 to, Paris, 1830. 
 
 FRO N TO, MARCUS CORNELIUS, born at Cirta, in Africa, of an 
 Italian family, after studying in his own country came to Rome in the 
 reign of Hadrian, and acquired great reputation as a rhetorician and 
 grammarian. Antoninus Pius appointed him preceptor to his two 
 adopted sons, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, whose confidence 
 and affection he gained. After being consul, Frouto was appointed to 
 a government in Asia, which his bad health prevented him from filling. 
 His learning and his instructive conversation are mentioned with praise 
 by Aulus bellius, the historian Appian, and others of his contempo- 
 raries. He died in the reign of Marcus Auielius, at an advanced age. 
 Until of late years we had nothing of his works, except fragments of 
 his treatise ' De Differentia Verborum,' being a vocabulary of the 
 so-called synonyms; but in 1815 Augelo Mai, having discovered in 
 the Ambrosian Library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript on which 
 hail been originally written some letters of Fronto to his two pupils, 
 deciphered the text wherever the writing was not entirely obliterated, 
 and published it with notes. It happened by singular good fortune 
 that Mai, being some years after appointed librarian of the Vatican, 
 discovered in another palimpsest volume another part of Fronto's 
 letters, with the answers of Marcus Aurelius aud Verus. Both the 
 volumes came originally from the convent of St. Columbanus, at 
 liobbio, the monks having written them over with the Acts of the first 
 council of Chalcedon. It happened that one of the volumes was trans- 
 ferred to Milan, and the other to Rome. Mai published the whole in 
 a new edition : ' M. Cornelii Frontonis et M. Aurelii imperatoris 
 epistula : L. Veri et Antouini Pii et Appiani epistularum reliquiae : 
 Fraguienta Frontonis et scripta grammatica,' 8vo, Rome, 1823. These 
 letters are very valuable, as throwing additional light on the age of 
 the Autonines, confirming what we know of the excellent character of 
 Marcus Aurelius, and also showing his colleague Verus in a more 
 favourable liglit than he had been viewed in before. The affectionate 
 manner in which both emperors continue to address their former 
 preceptor is very touching. Two or three short epistles of Antoninus 
 Pius are also interesting. There are besides many letters of Fronto to 
 various friends, a few of which are in Gre< k. The work was translated 
 into French, aud published with the text and note?, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1830. 
 
 * FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD, A.R.A., was born at Wandsworth, 
 Surrey, in September 1810. His artistic training, like that of a large 
 number of our eminent painters, was commenced (about 1825) at 
 Sass's academy in Bloomsbury, and completed at the Royal Academy, 
 where he entered as a student in 1829. As a student he distinguished 
 himself both by diligence and success : in each of the schools of the 
 Royal Academy, except that of the antique, where Maclise was the 
 successful competitor, he won the first prize ; and he completed his 
 course as a scholar by carrying off the gold medal in 1839 by his 
 picture of ' Prometheus bound by Force aud Strength.' While 
 attending the academy, and until his .original pictures secured him 
 patrons, Mr. Frost painted portraits, which no doubt served, besides 
 their temporary purpose, to train his eye to observation of character 
 and individual expression. 
 
 Mr. Frost first attracted notice by a cartoon of ' Una alarmed by the 
 Fauns and Satyrs,' which he sent to the cartoon competition of 1843 
 at Westminster Hall, where it obtained one of the premiums of 100£ 
 His gold-medal picture had been exhibited at the Royal Academy in 
 1840, but his name does not occur again in the catalogue till 1843, 
 when a painting by him of 'Christ crowned with Thorns ' appeared, 
 and with his cartoon attracted so much notice, that Mr. Frost at once 
 resolved to abandon portrait-painting. When Mr. Frost first thought 
 of adopting painting as a profession he had been introduced to Mr. 
 Etty, who kindly assisted him in his early studies, and continued sub- 
 sequently to favour him with valuable advice. Whether this may 
 have had anything to do with the direction of the young artist's efforts 
 we know not, but eventually it was to the same line of subjects as that 
 by which Etty had acquired so much fame that Mr. Frost devoted 
 himself. His first important works of this class were a ' Bacchanalian 
 Dance' exhibited at the British Institution in 1844, and 'Nymphs 
 Dancing,' exhibited the same year at the Royal Academy. They were 
 quickly sold, aud brought substantial commissions. In 1845 followed 
 ' Sabrina ;' in 1846 ' Diana surprised by Actoeon,' which won for itself 
 ft place in Lord Northwick's fine collection and for the j aiuter the 
 
 dignity of A.R.A. The fallowing year Mr. Frost contributed to the 
 Academy exhibition a stiii more ambitious work, ' Una and the Wood- 
 Nymphs,' which was purchased by the Queen, who as well as Prince 
 Albert has since continued to patronise the painter. His subsequent 
 pictures are — ' Euphrosyue,' 1848 ; the ' Syrens,' 1849 ; the ' Disarming 
 of Cupid,' painted for Prince Albert, and ' Andromeda,' 1850 ; 'Wood- 
 Nymphs' aud ' Hylas,' 1851 ; 'Nymph and Cupid 'and ' May Morning,' 
 1852; 'Chastity,' 1854 ; ' Bacchante and Yonm: Fawn Dancing,' 1855 • 
 aud the 'Grace-?,' 1856, besides various minor pieces. 
 
 Although Mr. Frost has followed Etty in his style of subjects, and 
 perhaps caught something from him in composition and colour, nothing 
 can be less like the dash and daring, or the joyous abandon of Etty, thau 
 the chastely correct, and almost coldly academic, undraped uymphs of 
 Frost's painting. His works are, from the nature of their subjects,, 
 necessarily conventional ; and they appeal essentially to a highly- 
 artificial, perhaps we ought to say highly-cultivated, taste. They find 
 however, as they abundantly deserve, warm admirers in the class to 
 which they are addressed. Their technical merits are very high. The 
 drawing is excellent, the colour sufficiently pleasing, and the execution 
 sometimes almost miniature-like in its elaborate finish ; while, if 
 deficient in free living spontaneity and unconsciousness, they always 
 display great refinement and almost courtly grace. 
 
 FRY, MRS. ELIZABETH, was the third daughter of John Gurney, 
 Esq., of Earlham Hall, near Norwich, an opulent merchant aud banker, 
 aud a member of the Society of Friends. Elizabeth Gurney was born 
 May 21, 1780, at Bramerton, four miles from Norwich, where her 
 parents had then a summer residence; in winter they occupied a 
 large aud commodious house in Norwich. They were not ' plain 
 Friends,' that is, they did not wear the plain dress of the Quakers, 
 nor use ' thou ' and ' thee ' in place of the ordinary ' you,' nor abstain 
 from the usual amusements of social life. They of course attended 
 the Friends' meeting-house at Norwich, and the monthly and quarterly 
 and yearly meetings; but in other respects there was little distinction 
 between them and the gentry who belonged to the Church of England. 
 Mrs. Gurney died when Elizabeth was only twelve years of age, leaving 
 seven daughters and four sons. Mr. Gurney's business-pursuits led 
 him into intercourse with persons of all denominations ; and a warm 
 heart, social disposition, and courteous manners, introduced him to 
 many acquaintances without as well as within the pale of the Society 
 of Friends. The daughters, as they advanced in years, especially the 
 three eldest, dressed gaily, and sang and danced — sometimes attending 
 concerts and balls at Norwich, and sometimes pursuing their favourite 
 amusements at Earlham Hall, which had then become their father's 
 country residence. 
 
 Elizabeth Gurney, from the age of fourteen to seventeen, was, as 
 she herself states in her ' Diary,' somewhat sceptical, and her doubU 
 greatly distressed her. While she was in this fluctuating state of 
 mind, William Savery, an American Quaker, paid a religious vi^it to 
 England, and, on the 4th of February 1798, preached in the Friends' 
 meeting-house at Norwich. His discourse produced a very strong 
 effect upon her feelings, and turned the balance of her judgment in 
 favour of religion — a change which subsequent discourses aud conver- 
 sations tended strongly to confirm. She had made great progress 
 towards becoming a 'plain Friend,' and instructed about seventy poor 
 children in her father's house at Norwich, when Joseph Fry, who, with 
 his brother, carried on an extensive business in London, paid a visit 
 to Mr. Gurney at Earlham Hall. While there he made an off r of 
 marriage to Elizabeth Gurney; and on the 19th of August 1800 they 
 were married in the Friends' meeting-house in Norwich. Joseph Fry 
 and his family belonged to the strict section of the Quakers, and 
 Elizabeth Fry was now prepared to adopt their usages. She resided 
 with her husband in his house of business, Mildred's-Court, in the 
 City of London, till the spring of 1809, when, on the death of her 
 husband's father, she removed to Plashet House, Essex. In 1810 she 
 became a preacher among the Friends, and ever afterwards continued 
 to perform with great zeal the duties of her sacred office. 
 
 In the month of February 1813 she visited the prisou of Newgate 
 in London, and saw about 300 women, tried and untried, with numer- 
 ous children, crowded together, without classification or employment, 
 in rags and dirt, with no bedding, and nothing but the floor to sleep 
 on. The season was inclement, and she supplied them with some 
 necessary covering. After several other visits, and making much im- 
 provement in their manners as well as their condition^ she in 1817 
 succeeded in establishing a Ladies' Committee for the reformation of 
 the female prisoners in Newgate — the sheriffs of London and the 
 governor of the prison granting their permission, but affording no 
 assistance. A school and a manufactory were established in the 
 prison; and riot, intoxication, and filth, were succeeded by order, 
 sobriety, and neatness. The improvements which she had been the 
 means of introducing into Newgate were gradually extended to other 
 prisons. She had interviews with the most influential of the ministers, 
 was examined before the House of Commons, obtained the assistance 
 of clergymen, and visited different parts of the kiugdom, including 
 Scotland and Ireland, for the purpose of carrying out her benevolent 
 plans. She next turned her attention to the female convicts sentenced 
 to transportation, and introduced many improvements, tending not 
 only to Ameliorate their condition but to reform their characters. 
 From 1833 to 1830 she paid visits to Jersey and Guernsey; and auout 
 
1049 
 
 FRYXELL, ANDERS. 
 
 FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES. lcto 
 
 the same time procured the introduction of libraries in the coast- 
 guard stations and the government packets. From 1837 to 1842 she 
 visited the principal towns in France, Belgium, Germany, and Holland, 
 chiefly for the purpose of extending her improvements in prison-dis- 
 cipline. She died on the 12th of October 1845 at Ramsgate, and was 
 buried in the Friends' burying-ground at Barking in Essex. She bore 
 ten children, most of whom were living at the time of her death. 
 
 (Memoir of Elizabeth Fry, with Extracts from her Journals; edited 
 ly Two of her Daughters, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1847.) 
 
 * FRYXELL, ANDERS, one of the most eminent living historians 
 of Sweden, was born on the 7th of February 1795, at the parsonage 
 of Hesselskog in Dalsland, where his father was minister. Anders 
 was the eldest of six children, and though he made his way to the 
 University of Upsal, was obliged to abandon his studies for a time 
 by want of means. In 1820 he was admitted to holy orders ; and 
 about the same time began to be known to the public as a writer in 
 the annuals, and as the author of an opera, 'Wermelands Flickan' 
 (' The Lass of Wermeland '), which was acted with much success at 
 Upsal and Carlstad. In 1823 his career as an historian commenced 
 with the first volumes of ' Beriittelser ur Svenska Historien,' or ' Nar- 
 ratives from Swedish History,' a work originally on much the same 
 plan as Sir Walter Scott's ' Tales of a Grandfather,' as being intended 
 to contain only the more entertaining portions of history for the 
 perusal of youth. Fryxell's lucid and easy style made the work so 
 popular that he was induced, perhaps without due consideration, to 
 enlarge the plan, and that to such an extent, that while the whole 
 of the heathen times in Sweden are despatched in the first volume, 
 and of the Catholic times in the second, the single reign of Charles XL, 
 by no means one of the most distinguished kings of Sweden, occupies 
 no less than eight volumes, from vol. xiii. to xx., which is the last we 
 believe that has yet appeared. 
 
 In 1844 two volumes of an English translation of this work, by a 
 lady named Schoultz, containing the first three of the original, were 
 published under the editorship of Mary Howitt, but the work was not 
 continued, probably from want of encouragement. The latter portion 
 of Fryxell's work is now generally regarded as an appropriate supple- 
 ment to Geijer's history of the earlier times of Sweden ; but the 
 opinions of the two historians are far from coinciding— a controversy 
 having in fact been carried on between them respecting the estimate 
 to be formed of the part which the aristocracy plays in Swedish 
 history, Fryxell undertaking its defence against the heavy censure 
 of Geijer. Some of the best and most straightforward writing which 
 ha3 flowed from Fryxell's pen is to be found in his pamphlets on this 
 controversy. The reputation acquired by his history led to his being 
 named to some honourable positions, as rector of schools at Stock- 
 holm ; and in 1833 he was promoted to the dignity of professor. In 
 the following year he applied for a government grant to prosecute 
 his researches by a journey abroad; and failing in obtaining it, raised 
 a private subscription for the same purpose, to which the king and the 
 crown-prince contributed, and he was thus enabled to collect the mate- 
 rials for his 'Documents relating to Swedish History' (' Handlingar 
 rorande Sverges Historia '), 4 vols. 8vo, 183C-43. This is a very valuable 
 collection, and the account which is prefixed of the researches which 
 produced it from the libraries of Denmark, Germany, Poland, and 
 Holland, contains passages of singular spirit and interest. A long list 
 of Fryxell's works is given in Palmblad's ' Biographisht Lexicon ; ' 
 but the only one of importance that remains to be added is his 
 Swedish grammar, a popular school-book, of which the first edition 
 was published in 1824, and the tenth in 1852 ; and to which a brief 
 history of the Swedish language and literature is appended. Fryxell 
 is one of the Eighteen of the Swedish Academy, a member of many 
 other learned societies, and clergyman of the parish of Sunne, in the 
 diocese of Carlstad. 
 
 FUGER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH, a distinguished German painter, 
 was born at Heilbron in Wiirtemberg, in 1751. He studied first in the 
 academy at Dresden, whence he went in 1774 to that of Vienna, where 
 he obtained the privilege of being sent as imperial pensioner to Rome. 
 He remained about eight years in Rome, and in 1782 visited Naples, 
 where he wa3 employed to paint a serieB of frescoes in the library of 
 Queen Caroline at Caserta, which he satisfactorily accomplished. In 
 1784 Fiiger was recalled to Vienna, and was appointed professor in and 
 vice-director of the academy, and subsequently director. He died at 
 Vienna in 1818. Fiiger distinguished himself in fresco, oil, and 
 miniature painting, and likewise etched several plate3 with skill. His 
 style of design was however too academic; he was a venerator of 
 Mengs and imitated his style, and therefore, as with his model, the 
 attainment of an imaginary ideal form engrossed his attention and 
 became the chief object in his works, at the expense of character and 
 other great qualities. Fiiger painted several pictures from Roman 
 history ; some from mythology and Homer ; a few from early Bible 
 history ; and a series of twenty illustrations of the ' Messiah ' of 
 Klopstock. Many of his works have been engraved ; the series from 
 Klopstock, by J. F. Leybold and others. His last picture was a large 
 allegory of the ' Restoration of Peace,' painted in 1815, to the glory 
 of Francis I. ; it represents the gratitude of the people on the banks 
 of the Danube, but the composition is very poor : it was engraved by 
 G. V. Kinninger in 1821. Some of his best works have been engraved 
 by J. P. Pichler. (Nagler, Allgemeincs Kiinstler- Lexicon.) 
 
 LIOO. div. vol. u. 
 
 FUGGER, a German family, originally of Augsburg, that amassed 
 great wealth in the 15th and 16th centuries by commerce, and espe- 
 cially by the monopoly of the spices, which they drew from Venice, 
 and with which they supplied Germany and other parts of the con- 
 tinent. The Fuggers were created counts by Charles V. in 1530, to 
 whom they had lent large sums of money ; and a story is told of their 
 lighting a fire of cinnamon-wood with his bond or bonds for the 
 amount, in the presence of Charles, who happened to be a visitor at 
 their house in passing through Augsburg. They also supplied 
 Philip II. with money, and two of their family contracted with the 
 Spanish government for the mines of Almaden. The family became 
 divided into several branches, one of which obtained the rauk of princes 
 of the German empire, under the title of Fuggor Babenhausen, near 
 Ulm. The family continue to this day, and their domains are partly 
 in Bavaria and partly in Wiirtemberg. The Fugger family, in the 16th 
 century, made a liberal use of their wealth, in founding charitable 
 institutions, such as the one still called Fuggerei ; in promoting learn- 
 ing, collecting manuscripts, and forming valuable libraries. Several 
 members of the family were themselves men of learning ; among 
 others Ulrich Fugger, born about 1520, was for a time a confidential 
 attendant of Pope Paul III., but afterwards returned to Germany, and 
 printed at his own expense several valuable manuscripts of classic 
 authors which he had collected. He engaged as his printer Henri Es- 
 tienne, with a handsome salary. His family being dissatisfied with his 
 expenditure, obtained an order from the civil courts taking away from 
 Ulrich the administration of his property under the pretence of inca- 
 pacity ; but the order was ultimately rescinded, and he was restored 
 to his rights. He died in 1584 at Heidelberg, leaving his fine library 
 to the Elector Palatine and several legacies to poor students. Another 
 Fugger wrote a history of Austria, published at Nurnberg in 1668. 
 Philip Edward Fugger, born in 1546, added greatly to the library and 
 cabinet of antiquities begun by his ancestors at Augsburg, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his munificence. Otho Henry Fugger, count of 
 Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, born in 1592, served with the Spanish 
 army in Italy, and afterwards raised troops in Germany for the emperor 
 Ferdinand II. during the Thirty Years' War. (Imhoff, Notitia Imperii; 
 Moreri, Dictionary, art. 'Fugger ; ' Almanack de Gotha.) 
 
 FULGE'NTIUS, FABIUS CLAUDIUS GORDIANUS, Bishop of 
 Ruspina, a town on the coast of Africa, was born about a.d. 464. His 
 father Gordianus, who was a senator of Carthage, was obliged to 
 leave his native city during the persecutions of the Vandals, and 
 retired to Telepte, in the province of Byzacium, where Fulgentius 
 passed the early years of his life. He is said to have made great 
 progress in his studies, and to have acquired an accurate knowledge 
 of the Greek and Latin languages. In consequence of his attain- 
 ments, he was appointed at an early age to receive the public revenues 
 of the province; but he resigned his office soon after his appoint- 
 ment, and retired to a monastery in the neighbourhood. After 
 enduring many persecutions on account of his opposition to the Arian 
 doctrines, he resolved to go into Egypt to visit the celebrated monks 
 of that country. From this design he wa3 dissuaded by Eualius, 
 bishop of Syracuse, on the ground that the monks of the East had 
 withdrawn from the Catholic communion, and accordingly he pro- 
 ceeded to Rome in 500. On his return to his native country, the 
 Catholic clergy elected him bishop of Ruspina; but he did not enjoy 
 his dignity long, being exiled to Sardinia, together with the other 
 Catholic bishops of that part of Africa, by Thrasimond, king of the 
 Vandals. His learning, his austere manner of living, and his frequent 
 controversies with the Arians, procured him the universal respect of 
 the Catholic clergy, who considered him the greatest ornament of the 
 African church in that age. Curiosity led Thrasimond to recal him 
 to Carthage, where he held disputes with the king on the debated 
 points of the Arian controversy ; but as he was unable to convince 
 the monarch, he was obliged to return to Sardinia, where he remained 
 till 522, when the death of Thrasimond and the succession of 
 Hildericus to the throne occasioned the recal of the Catholic bishops. 
 Fulgentius returned to Ruspina, and resided there till the time of his 
 death, which happened either in 529 or 533. 
 
 His works were printed at Paris, in a 4to volume, in 1684. His 
 principal works are : — 1, ' Three Books to Thrasimond, king of the 
 Vandals, on the Arian Controversy ; ' 2, ' Three Books to Monimus.' 
 The first supports the opinions of Augustin on the doctrine of pre- 
 destination ; the second explains the sacrifice of Christ and the 
 passage in 1 Cor. vi. 6, " But I speak this by permission, and not of 
 commandment ; " the third contains remarks on the Arian interpre- 
 tation of John i. 1, "The word was with God.'' 3, ' Two Books to 
 Euthymius, on the Remission of Sins,' to show that God will pardon 
 sins only in this life ; 4, ' A Book to Donatus, on the Trinity ; ' 5, 
 ' Three Books on Predestination, to John, a priest, and Venerius, a 
 deacon ; ' 6, 'A Book on Faith ; ' 7, ' Letters on various religious 
 Subjects,' written principally during his exile. 
 
 (Dupin, Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique, vol. v., p. 13-21, Eng. Trans.; 
 Acta Sanctorum, vol. i., Januar. p. 32.) 
 
 FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES, is said to have been a 
 bishop of Carthage, and to have lived in the 6th. century. He wrote 
 a work on ' Mythology,' in three books, addressed to a priest of the 
 name of Catus, which was printed for the first time at Milan in 1487. 
 There is another work of Fulgentius, entitled ' Expositio Sermonuui 
 
 3 ¥ 
 
lOSi FULGENTIUS FERRANDUS. 
 
 Antiquorum ad Chalcidicum Grammaticum,' which is usually printed 
 with the works of Nonius Marcellus. (Fabricii, Bibliotheca Latina, 
 lib. ii., c. 2.) 
 
 FULQENTIUS FERRANDUS, who is frequently confounded with 
 Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspina, lived in the beginning of the 6th 
 century. He was a disciple of the Bishop of Ruspina, whose life he 
 wrote. He was also the author of an ' Abridgment of the Canons,' 
 and finished a treatise addressed to Reginus, on which his master was 
 engaged at the time of his death. 
 
 FULLER, REV. ANDREW, born February 6, 1754, was the son 
 of a small farmer at Wickeu, in Cambridgeshire ; but received his 
 very limited education chiefly at Soham, whither bis father, who was 
 of dissenting principles, removed while he was yet young. In 1770 
 he became a member of the Baptist church at Soham, where, in the 
 absence of a regular minister, he began to preach occasionally at a 
 very early age. Early in 1775, his ministrations having proved very 
 acceptable, he was regularly ordained pastor of the church of which 
 he had for some time taken the charge at the request of his fellow- 
 members; and in 1782 he accepted an invitation to remove to a 
 Baptist church at Kettering, in Northamptonshire, over which ho 
 presided until his death, which occurred on the 7th of May 1815. 
 
 Fuller took an active part in the formation, in 1792, of the Baptist 
 Missionary Society, of which he was secretary until his death ; and 
 he travelled extensively in England, Scotland, and Ireland to preach 
 in behalf of this institution, the interests of which he promoted with 
 untiring zeal. His theological works are numerous and highly prized 
 by the nonconformists ; though many of them are small, and relate to 
 controversial subjects, often of temporary interest. His first appear- 
 ance in print was in 1784, when he published a Bermon on ' The 
 Nature and Importance of Walking by Faith,' shortly after which he 
 printed a treatise, which was written in 1781, entitled 'The Gospel 
 worthy of all acceptation ; or the duty of all sinners to believe in 
 Jesus Christ,' a work which, from its alleged tendency to Arminian- 
 ism, involved him in a warm controversy with the ultra-Calvinists. 
 This work has been, like several of his other moro important writings, 
 repeatedly reprinted. Another important controversy was raised by 
 the publication, in 1793, of the first edition of his 'Calviuistic and 
 Socinian systems examined and compared, as to their moral tendency.' 
 The anti-Socinian views promulgated in this work were attacked by 
 Dr. Joshua Toulmin in ' The Practical Efficacy of the Unitarian 
 Doctrine considered,' and by Mr. Kentish, to whom he replied in 
 1797 in his ' Socinianism Indefensible, on the ground of its moral 
 tendency.' Fuller engaged in the Deistical controversy by the pub- 
 lication, in 1800, of ' The Gospel its own Witness ; or the holy and 
 divine harmony of the Christian Religion, contrasted with the 
 immorality and absurdity of Deism.' In 1802 he collected into a 
 small volume a series of ' Letters to Mr. Vidler, on the doctrine of 
 Universal Salvation,' which had originally appeared in the ' Evangelical 
 Magazine,' and in 1810 ho entered upon another theological con- 
 troversy by publishing his ' Strictures on Sandemanianism.' About 
 1808 he wrote, in answer to numerous attacks by the enemies of 
 Christian missions, his ' Apology for the late Christian Missions in 
 India.' Among the less controversial works of Fuller were many 
 single sermoDS and religious tracts, some of which are yet in high 
 esteem, and the following larger works: — 'Memoirs of the Rev. 
 Samuel Pearce, of Birmingham,' 1800; 'The Backslider; or an 
 inquiry into the nature, symptoms, and effects of Religious Declension, 
 with the means of recovery,' 1801 ; ' Expository Discourses on the 
 Book of Genesis,' 2 vols., 1806; 'Dialogues, Letters, and Essays on 
 various subjects,' 1806 ; a volume of ' Sermons on various subjects,' 
 1814; and 'Expository Discourses on the Apocalypse,' 1815, the 
 latter being prepared for publication just before, but not issued till 
 after his death. 
 
 Fuller's works have been repeatedly reprinted in America as well 
 as in this country, and the college of New Jersey, about the year 
 1798, conferred upon him the degree of D.D., which however he 
 declined to use. His ' Complete Works' were collected and published 
 in several volumes in 1831, and reprinted in one very thick volume, 
 with a new memoir by his son, Andrew Gunton Fuller, in 1845. 
 
 (Memoirs of the Rev. Andrew Fuller, by J. Ryland, D.D., 1816 ; Rev 
 J. W. Morris, 1826; and A. G. Fuller, 1845.) 
 
 FULLER, SARAH MARGARET, MARCHIONESS OSSOLI, was 
 born at Cambridge-Port, Massachusetts, United States of North America, 
 May 23, 1810. Her father, a solicitor and a member of the Congress, 
 perceiving her early aptitude, had her so highly educated that he 
 was accustomed to speak of her while quite a child as "knowing 
 more Greek and Latin than half the professors," while she herself 
 says that she had nearly forgotten her native tongue from constantly 
 reading other languages. The consequence was that when she grew 
 to womanhood she had an overwrought nervous system, was a 
 somnambulist, very near-sighted, and withal what is called a strong- 
 minded, loud-voiced, excessively dogmatic, and unquestionably clever, 
 as well as cultivated person. The sudden death of her father in 
 September 1835, threw upon her domestic duties and obligations to 
 which she resolutely and without affectation addressed herself. She 
 became a teacher at Boston of Latin, French, German, and Italian, 
 then ' Lady Superior ' of a school at Providence, Rhode Island, after- 
 ward.f united herself for awhile to that singular social or Fourieristic 
 
 FULLER, SARAH MARGARET. 
 
 Society the ' Brook Farm Community,' and eventually took up her 
 pen as a means of support. She had already become well-known as 
 a writer in the periodicals when she in 1839 published a transla- 
 tion of ' Eckermann's Conversations with Goethe.' Having acquired 
 great celebrity in the literary circles of Boston, especially among 
 the transcendentalists of that learned city, for her conversational 
 talents as well as her critical acumen, it was proposed to turn 
 her powers that way to account, by forming under her guidance 
 ' conversational classes ' of the ladies of Boston. The scheme, odd aa 
 it may seem, met with acceptance. Fiveand-twenty " of the most 
 agreeable and intelligent women to be found in Boston aud in its 
 neighbourhood " met at stated seasons to converse — the ' conversa- 
 tion' being of course mainly on the side of the learned president — 
 on such subjects as " the genealogy of heaven and earth ; the will 
 (Jupiter) ; the celestial inspiration of genius, perception, and trans- 
 mission of divine law (Apollo)," and such other recondite themes as 
 might be conveyed under the symbols of Venus, Bacchus, Cupid 
 and Psyche, and so forth ; with poetry, music, the pictorial arts, the 
 " thought that lies at the bottom of the different dances," and other 
 more sublunary topics. 
 
 When Mr. Emerson started his 'Dial' in 1840, Miss Fuller was one 
 of the most prominent of his band of philosophical contributors; 
 and Bhe wrote for it many very clever articles on the 'Fine Arts,' &c, 
 some of which wero subsequently republished in her volume of 
 ' Papers.' She also published at Boston in 1844, under the title of 
 ' Summer on the Lakes,' an account of a summer tour. On the dis- 
 continuance of the ' Dial ' she removed to New York, and was 
 installed directress of the literary department of the ' New York 
 Tribune.' Here she let her studies turn more directly on political 
 and social philosophy ; aud she gave utterance to hsr impressions of 
 the wrongs of her sex in ' Woman in the Nineteenth Century,' a work 
 which excited some attention in England as well as in America. She 
 also published here the collection of her ' Papers on Literature and 
 Art,' already referred to : both of these works wero we believe 
 reprinted in London. 
 
 In the spring of 1846 she put in execution a cherished scheme of 
 a prolonged European tour. She first visited England, where she stayed 
 some time, and obtained introductions to many of the literary nota- 
 bilities, whom she describes and criticises in her letters with a most 
 amusing air of superiority. In Paris she also remained for some time 
 and formed the acquaintance of Madame Dudevant, &c. But Italy 
 was the place she had most desired to visit, and thither she next 
 proceeded — little dreaming to what a strange conclusion all her 
 theories of woman's rights and claims and missions would there be 
 brought. For a brief space she revelled in the enjoyment of tho \ 
 scenery, the climate, and the boundless treasures of art in that sunny 
 region; and it must be added that a portion of her time was occupied 
 in rendering herself conspicuous by her open and resolute, though 
 somewhat imprudent avowal of extreme democratic opinions, aud 
 intercourse with persons obnoxious to the authorities on account of 
 their suspected liberalism. But at length she became involved in an 
 affair of a very different though not less exciting nature. She met . 
 by accident at vespers, in St. Peter's, Rome, while separated from 
 her friends by the crowd, a young Italian gentleman ; he behave ! 
 with a courtesy that charmed her ; an intimacy ensued, and, though ', 
 he was many years her junior, so utterly uneducated that he hail 
 scarce ever looked into a book, and without any kind of intellectual 
 pretensions, the strong-minded worshipper of intellect with a very 
 little wooing gave him her hand. But the young Marquis Ossoli, 
 though of a noble family, had a very small patrimony, and that was 
 in the hands of trustees. Moreover his family were devoted Romau 
 Catholics, and his elder brothers held high appointments under the 
 papal government ; they would of course be bitterly incensed at hia 
 marrying a lady not of that faith, and especially one who was an 
 avowed liberal. He therefore urged that the marriage should be 
 strictly concealed : and to this she submitted. They were married in 
 December 1847, and Madame Ossoli remained in Rome, ostensibly 
 living alone as plain Margaret Fuller; indeed it was not till more 
 than a year after the birth of a son that even her own mother was 
 informed of the marriage. The sudden ascendancy of liberalism in 
 Rome however altered matters. Miss Fuller had in London met 
 Mazzini, and undertaken, as it would seem, to bear communications 
 from him to various Italian liberals; and she had converted her 
 husband to her own political creed. When the revolution broke out 
 her husband threw himself heartily into the movement; and she 
 shrank from none of the duties which her position and her opinions 
 seemed to have devolved upon her. During the siege of Rome she 
 was occupied as a nurse, having charge of one of the hospitals opened 
 by the Roman Commission for the succour of the wounded, and 
 acted with a noble disregard of toil or danger, and with much judg- 
 ment as well as the greatest kindness in her self-imposed task. The 
 fall of the republic compelled her to leave Rome ; and with her 
 husband and her child she, after staying the winter at Florence, 
 embarked at Leghorn in May 1850, on board the Elizabeth, for 
 America. From the first the voyage was unpropitious ; the captain 
 died soon after the ship sailed ; the weather was throughout stormy ; 
 and though the vessel reached the American coast, it was only to bj 
 wrecked there, having struck on Fire Island Beach, Long Island, 
 
FULLER, THOMAS. 
 
 FULLER, THOMAS. 
 
 July 16, 1850. A few of the passengers and crew were saved, but 
 Margaret Fuller, her husband, and child were among the drowned. 
 The body of her child came ashore, but her own tomb was the ocean. 
 
 The writings of Margaret Fuller will have no permanent value in 
 themselves, either for their literary merits, their social opinions, or 
 their estimates of character, of art, or of literature. But they will 
 retain a certain value, in connection with the history of their author, 
 as illustrative of a peculiar phase of society in America during the 
 second quarter of the 19th century. Margaret Fuller herself was 
 undoubtedly a woman of great ability as well as of considerable 
 attainments, but she had thoroughly studied not a single subject, and 
 her writings are all disfigured by dogmatism, assumption, and self- 
 reference. In them you often come upon a striking and apparently 
 original thought, but if the thought be dwelt on for a moment, it is 
 recognised as owing its uncommonness mainly to peculiarity of 
 expression : and sometimes these peculiarities degenerate into gro- 
 tesqueness. Had her life been spared however there can be little 
 doubt that what was strange, and almost repulsive in her earlier 
 works, would have disappeared, and the better and lovelier part of 
 her character and intellect have revealed itself. The severe mental 
 discipline she had undergone in Rome had, as she said in one or more 
 of her letters, subdued her pride ; and with humility came in all the 
 gentler virtues and intellectual graces. Nothing could be more noble 
 and beautiful than her conduct as a woman, a wife, and a mother 
 under her marriage trials, and during and after the siege of Rome ; 
 and the letters which she wrote then are more graceful and eloquent 
 than perhaps anything else which has fallen from her pen. She 
 wrote an account of the Roman revolution, the progress and sup- 
 pression of which she had watched so eagerly, but the manuscript 
 perished with her. 
 
 (Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli, compiled by her friends J. F. 
 Clarke, R. W. Emerson, and W. H. Channing, 2 vols. 8vo, Boston, 
 1852, and 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1852.) 
 
 FULLER, THOMAS, was the son of the Rev. Thomas Fuller, 
 rector of St. Peter's Aldwinckle, in Northamptonshire, where he was 
 born in June 1608. He was educated under his father, and was sent 
 in his thirteenth year to Queen's College, Cambridge, of which his 
 uncle Davenent bishop of Salisbury was president. He became B.A. 
 in 1625, and M.A. in 1628, but afterwards removed to Sidney Sussex 
 College, where he obtained a fellowship in 1631, and nearly at the 
 same time the prebend of Netherby, in the church of Salisbury, and 
 the living of St. Benet's, Cambridge. In this year also he issued his first 
 publication, a quaint poem, now little known, entitled ' David's Hainous 
 Sin, Heartie Repentance, Heavie Punishment,' in 12mo. He was 
 soon after presented by his uncle to the rectory of Broad Windsor, in 
 Dorsetshire, where he remained about seven years ; when he removed 
 to London, and distinguished himself so much in the pulpits there, 
 that he was invited by the master and brethren of the Savoy to be 
 their lecturer. In 1639 he published his 'History of the Holy War :' 
 it was printed at Cambridge, in folio, and by his striking origiuality 
 became so popular that a third edition appeared in 1647. On April 
 13, 1640, a parliament was called, and a convocation also began at 
 Westminster, in Henry Vllth's chapel, having licence granted to make 
 new canons for the better government of the church : of this convoca- 
 tion he was a member, and has detailed its proceedings in his ' Church 
 History.' During the commencement of the Rebellion, and when the 
 king left London, in 1641, to raise an army, Fuller continued at the 
 Savoy, to the great satisfaction of his congregation and the neighbouring 
 nobility and gentry, labouring all the while in private and in public to 
 soften the angry feelings existing between the two great parties into 
 which society was rapidly dividing. On the anniversary of the accession 
 of Charles, March 27, 1643, Fuller preached at Westminster Abbey on 
 this text, 2 Sam. xix. 30, " Yea, let him take all, so that my lord the 
 king return in peace," in which he earnestly urged the duty of mutual 
 concession with a view to peace. But as he had taken occasion in his 
 discourse to laud the piety and personal character of the king, and to 
 expatiate on the liberality of the royal offers, his sermon on which 
 being printed, gave great offence to those who were engaged in the 
 opposition, and exposed the preacher to a good deal of danger. This 
 offence was increased by a sermon he preached on the Fast day, 
 July 27 ; and soon after refusing to take an oath to the parliament, 
 unless with such reserves as they would not admit, Fuller with- 
 drew from London in the autumn of 1653, and joined the king at 
 Oxford. Charles, having heard of his extraordinary abilities in the 
 pulpit, was desirous of knowing them personally, and accordingly 
 Fuller preached before him at St. Mary's church. But his entreaties 
 to moderation as a means to a reconciliation were as little acceptable 
 in Oxford as they had been in London. In London he had been cen- 
 sured as too hot a royalist; and now, at Oxford, he was pronounced 
 little better than a puritan. During his stay here, his residence was 
 in Lincoln College, but he was not long after sequestered, and lost 
 all his books and manuscripts. This loss, the heaviest he could 
 sustain, was made up partly by Henry Lord Beauchamp, and partly 
 by Lionel Cranfield, earl of Middlesex, who gave him the remains of 
 his father's library. Fuller found matters at Oxford so little to his 
 liking, that he left it within about four months from entering it ; but 
 in order that he might not lie under the suspicion of want of zeal or 
 courage in the royal cause, he determined to jo'o the army, and there- 
 
 fore, being well recommended, was received by Sir Ralph Hopton in 
 the quality of chaplain. For this employment he was at liberty, 
 being deprived of all other preferment. Though he attended the 
 army from place to place, and constantly exercised his duty as 
 chaplain , he yet found proper intervals for his favourite studies, 
 which he employed chiefly in making historical collections, and espe- 
 cially in gathering materials for his ' Worthies of England,' which he 
 did, not only by an extensive correspondence, but by personal 
 inquiries in every place which the army had occasion to pass through. 
 
 After the battle at Cheriton Down, March 29, 1614, Lord Hopton 
 drew on his army to Basing House, and Fuller, being left there by 
 him, animated the garrison to so vigorous a defence of that place, 
 that Sir William Waller was obliged to raise the siege with consider- 
 able loss. But the war coming to an end, and part of the king's 
 army being driven into Cornwall under Lord Hopton, Fuller, with 
 the permission of that nobleman, took refuge at Exeter, where ho 
 resumed his studies, and preached constantly to the citizens. During 
 his residence at Exeter he was appointed chaplain to the infant 
 princess, Henrietta Maria, who was born at Exeter in June 1643. He 
 continued his attendance on the princess till the surrender of Exeter 
 to the parliament, in April 1646. He is said to have written or 
 finished his ' Good Thoughts in Bad Times ' at Exeter, where the 
 book was published in 1645, 16mo : and also, 'Good Thoughts in 
 Worse Times,' published in 1647. On the garrison being forced to 
 surrender, he, being " weak in health and dejected in spirits," retired 
 for awhile to the residence of the Countess of Rutland, at Boughton, 
 near Northampton ; where, by way of medicine for his mental weak- 
 ness, he wrote his ' Cause and Cure of a Wounded Conscience.' At 
 the end of a few months he returned to London, where, though he 
 found his lectureship at the Savoy filled by another, he preached 
 wherever his services were permitted. After a time he appears to 
 have delivered regularly a week-day lecture at St. Clement's, near 
 Lombard-street, and at St. Bride's, Fleet-street. In 1647 he pub- 
 lished, in 4to, ' a Sermon of Assurance, fourteen years ago preached 
 at Cambridge, since in other places, now by the importunity of hi3 
 friends exposed to public view.' He dedicated it to Sir John Danvers, 
 who had been a royalist, was then an Oliverian, and next year one of 
 the king's judges ; aud in the dedication he says, that "it had been 
 the pleasure of the present authority to make him mute, forbidding 
 him, till further order, the exercise of his public preaching." Not- 
 withstanding his being thus silenced, he was, about 1648, presented to 
 the rectory of Waltham Abbey, in Essex, by the Earl of Carlisle, and 
 there, after having undergone the customary ordeal of the ' Triers,' 
 he was permitted to preach undisturbed. In 1648 he published his 
 ' Holy State,' folio, Cambr. His ' Pisgah-sight of Palestine and the 
 Confines thereof, with the History of the Old and New Testament, 
 acted thereon,' was published, fol. Lond. 1650, and reprinted in 1662. 
 At this period he was still employed upon his ' Worthies.' In 1651 
 he published his ' Abel Redivivus, or the Dead yet Speaking ; the 
 Lives and Deaths of the Modern Divines,' Lond. 4to. In the two or 
 three following years he printed several sermons and tracts upon 
 religious subjects : 'The Infant's Advocate,' 8vo, Lond. 1653 ; 'Per- 
 fection and Peace, a Sermon,' 4 to, Lond. 1653; 'A Comment on 
 Ruth, with two Sermons,' 8vo, Lond. 1654 ; 'A Triple Recon- 
 ciler,' 8vo, Lond. 1654. About this last year he took as a second 
 wife a sister of the Viscount Baltinglasse. In 1655, notwithstanding 
 Cromwell's prohibition of all persons from preaching or teaching 
 school who had been adherents to the late king, he continued preach- 
 ing and exerting his charitable disposition towards those ministers 
 who were ejected, as well as towards others. In 1655 he published 
 in folio ' The Church History of Britain, from the birth of Jesus 
 Christ until the year mdcxlviii.,' to which he subjoined 'The History 
 of the University of Cambridge since the Conquest,' and ' The 
 History of Waltham Abbey, in Essex, founded by King Harold.' 
 The Church History was animadverted upon by Dr. Peter Heylyn in 
 his ' Examen Historicum,' to which Fuller replied in his 'Appeal of 
 Injured Innocence,' fol. Lond. 1659. It is said that Lord Berkeley, in 
 1653 or 1659, took him over to the Hague, and introduced him to 
 Charles II. It is certain however that a short time before the Resto- 
 ration he was re-admitted to his lecture in the Savoy, and on that 
 event restored to his prebend of Salisbury. He was chosen chaplain 
 extraordinary to the king; aud created D.D., at Cambridge, by a 
 mandamus dated August 2, 1660. Upon his return from Salisbury, 
 in August 1661, he was attacked by a severe fever, then very pre- 
 valent, and known as " the new disease," of which he died on the 
 16th of that month. His funeral was attended by at least two 
 hundred of his brethren of the ministry. , He was buried in his church 
 of Cranford, on the north wall of the chancel of which his monument 
 is still remaining. His ' History of the Worthies of England,' was not 
 published till after his death, fol. Lond. 1662 : it has been more than 
 once reprinted ; the best modern edition is that issued from the 
 Oxford University press in 6 vols. 8vo, 1845, under the editorial care 
 of the Rev. J. S. Brewer. 
 
 Besides the works already mentioned, Fuller was the author of 
 several others of a smaller kind. 'Joseph's Parti-coloured Coat,' a 
 comment on Chap. xi. of the First Epistle of St. Paul to the 
 Corinthians, with eight sermons, 4to, Lond. 1640. 'Andronicus, or 
 the Unfortunate Politician,' 12mo, Loud. 1616. * A Comment on the 
 
1055 
 
 FULTON, ROBERT. 
 
 eleven first verses of the fourth chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel, con- 
 cerning Christ's Temptations,' Lond. 1652; 'Ephemeris Parliamen- 
 tarian fol. 1654, and re-issued with new titles in 1658 and 1660. 
 ' Mixt Contemplations in Better Times,' 12mo, Lond. 1660. ' Ornitho- 
 logie : or the Speech of Birds ; also the speech of Flowers, partly 
 moral, partly mystical,' 12mo, 1660 ; besides a ' Collection of Sermons,' 
 1657; and various single sermons, a'Panegyrick to His Majesty on 
 his Happy Return,' 4 to, 1660, &c. In 1651 he published Dr. Holds- 
 worth's ' Valley of Vision,' with a preface. A specimen of his Latin 
 composition, in what is called 'An Eccho,' occurs in the first book of 
 ' Ayres and Dialogues, for one, two, and three Voyces,' by Henry 
 Lawes, fol. Lond. 1653. Fuller was a man of great originality; of wit 
 so exuberant as to colour every page of his writings, and yet 
 thoroughly genial, gentle, and natural ; and with a lively imagination 
 he always displays great shrewdness, discrimination, comprehensive- 
 ness of thought, clearness of vision, and freedom from prejudice. His 
 oersonal character appears to have been in every respect admirable. 
 
 (Life of Br. Thomas Fuller, 12mo, Lond. 1661 ; Biogr. Britan., 
 vol. iii. 2049-69; Russell, Memorials of Thomas Fuller; and Life of 
 Thomas Fuller in Knight's Cabinet Portrait Gallery, vol. vii.) 
 
 FULTON, ROBERT, distinguished as having been the first to 
 establish steam-navigation on the American seas and livers, was horn 
 in 1765 in Little Britain, Pennsylvania. His parents were emigrants 
 from Ireland. He received a common English education at a village 
 school. Besides a fondness for mechanical pursuits, he early displayed 
 a taste for drawing, and in his eighteenth year went to Philadelphia, 
 and began to paint portraits and landscapes as a means of subsistence, 
 in November 1786 he embarked for England, and on his arrival in 
 London was received as an inmate in the house of West, the historical 
 painter, with whom ho continued to reside for some years, and who 
 also gave him instructions in his profession. 
 
 After leaving West, painting was for some time his chief employ- 
 ment ; but with Fulton the fine arts were destined to give place to 
 the mechanical. He spent about two years in Devonshire, where he 
 became acquainted with the Duke of Bridgewater, and projects for 
 the improvement of canals then begau to occupy the chief share of his 
 attention. In 1794 he took out a patent for an inclined plane, which 
 was intended to set aside the use of locks ; he invented a machine to 
 facilitate excavation, and wrote a work on canals, in which he first 
 styled himself a civil enginter. He also invented a mill for sawing 
 marble, and took out patents for spinning flax and making ropes. 
 
 Fulton seems however to have had little success ; and at the latter 
 end of 1796 went to Paris, on the invitation of Joel Barlow, then 
 resident minister from the United States, in whose house he resided 
 during seven years. While at Paris two projects appear to have 
 occupied a large portion of his time and attention : one, a carcass or 
 box filled with combustibles, which was to be propelled under water, 
 and made to explode beneath the bottom of a vessel ; the other, a 
 submarine boat, to be used for a similar destructive purpose. The 
 first was a failure; but of his submarine boat he made many trials and 
 e xhibitions, some of them at the expense of the French government, 
 with occasional failures and partial success, on the Seine, at Havre, 
 and at Rouen. But for all practical purposes this was as much a 
 failure as the other. He appears however to have clung to it with 
 great perseverance, and not long before his death exhibited the power 
 of his ' torpedo,' as he called it, by blowing up an old vessel in the 
 neighbourhood of New York. 
 
 But while at Paris Fulton had other and better pursuits. He made 
 himself acquainted with the higher branches of science, and with the 
 modern European languages ; he projected the first panorama exhibited 
 at Paris, and in conjunction with Mr. R. Livingston, the American 
 ambassador, began to make experiments on the Seine with small steam- 
 boats : a larger one was built, which broke asunder, but a second, 
 completed in 1803, was successful. 
 
 Soon after this time he was invited to England by the English 
 ministry, at the suggestion of Earl Stanhope, with whom Fulton had 
 become acquainted about the time of his introduction to the Duke of 
 Bridgewater. The object of the English ministry appears to have 
 been to employ him in the construction of his submarine implements 
 of war. After some trials on the Thames the negociation failed, and 
 Fulton resolved to embark for America. 
 
 In 1806 Fulton arrived at New York, and soon after, with funds 
 supplied by Mr. Livingston, commenced the construction of a steam- 
 vessel of considerable size, which began to navigate the Hudson in 
 1807. He afterwards built others of large dimensions, one of them a 
 steam war-frigate, which bore his name. His reputation became 
 established, and his fortune was rapidly increasing, when his patent 
 for steam-vessels, which he had taken out in conjunction with Mr. 
 Livingston, was disputed, and his opponents were in a considerable 
 degree successful. His constitution had been impaired by his numerous 
 labours, and a severe cold which he caught by incautious exposure in 
 giving directions to his workmen, together with the anxiety and fret- 
 fulness occasioned by the lawsuits about his patent rights, brought his 
 life to a premature termination on the 24th of February 1815, in his 
 forty-ninth year. His death occasioned extraordinary demonstrations 
 of national mourning in the United States. 
 
 FU'SELI, HENRY, was the second son of John Caspar Fuessli, a 
 portrait and laudscape painter, and author of ' Lives of the Helvetic 
 
 Painters.' Ho was born at Zurich in Switzerland, 7th February, 1741, 
 The elder Fuessli gave his son a classical education, and brought him 
 up for the church. He accordingly entered the Caroline College at 
 Zurich, and having taken his degree of Master of Arts, entered into 
 holy orders in 1761 ; but having written a pamphlet, in conjunction 
 with Lavater, in which the misconduct of a magistrate was exposed, 
 the friends of the two young men deemed it prudent that they should 
 travel for awhile. After travelling in Germany he came to England, 
 partly it appears as an agent for the purpose of establishing some 
 regular plan of literary communication between that country and his 
 native place. Sir Andrew Mitchell, the British minister at the court 
 of Prussia, furnished him with introductions ; and he supported 
 himself for some time by translating from German, French, and Italian 
 into English, and from English into German. The ' Letters 1 of Lady 
 M. W. Montagu were among the works he translated into German. 
 In 1765 he published a translation of Winckcltnann's 'Reflections on 
 the Painting and Sculpture of the Ancients.' In the following year 
 he set out as travelling tutor to Lord Chewton, the eldest son of Earl 
 Waldegrave ; but he soon threw up his charge in displeasure. About 
 this time he became acquainted with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom 
 he showed some of his drawings. Reynolds recommended him to 
 devote himself entirely to pointing, and he followed the advice. 
 
 In 1770 he went to Italy, at which time he altered his name to 
 Fuseli, to suit the Italian pronunciation, and this form he retained 
 after his return to England. In 1778 he visited Zurich on his way 
 back to England. On his return he was engaged by Alderman Boydell, 
 with other artists, to paint pictures for the alderman's Shakspere 
 Gallery. About the same period he edited the English edition of 
 Lavater's work on physiognomy, and assisted Cowper in his trans- 
 lation of Homer, with remarks and corrections. In 1788 he married 
 Miss Sophia Rawlins of Bath Eaton, and subsequently was elected an 
 Associate of the Royal Academy. In 1790 he was elected Royal 
 Academician. In 1799 he completed a number of pictures, designed 
 from the works of Milton, to form a Milton Gallery, the idea of which 
 was suggested by the Shakspere Gallery; but he realised nothing 
 by their exhibition. In the same year he was elected professor of 
 painting to the Royal Academy, and in 1803 keeper. His edition of 
 Pilkington's ' Lives of the Painters ' was brought out in 1805. Canova, 
 upon his visit to England, was much struck with Fuseli's works; and 
 on the sculptor's return to Rome, at his recommendation Fuseli was 
 elected a member of the first class in the Academy of St. Luke's. 
 Fuseli died April 16, 1825, and was buried in the crypt of St. Paul's 
 cathedral. 
 
 Fuseli had great facility in learning languages. He said that he 
 could think and write with equal ease in French, Italian, and English, 
 but with most power in German. His English writings are in a style 
 not purely idiomatic, but they are full of nerve and originality of 
 expression. His lectures contain (if we except some of his remarks 
 upon contemporaries, which were sometimes all but unavoidably 
 modified by personal feelings) some of the best criticism on the fine 
 arts which had then appeared in the language. Though singularly 
 abrupt and irritable in temper, he made and retained many friendships 
 which were only broken by death. Lavater, Bonnycastle, and J ohnson 
 (the publisher), were among the oldest of his friends, and he survived 
 them all. Many curious anecdotes are told of the freedom and quaint- 
 ness with which he passed his strictures on all persons in matters of 
 art, literature, or manners. 
 
 Fuseli made the works of Michel Angelo his chief study. He also 
 moulded his style much upon the model of the colossal statues on 
 Monte Cavallo at Rome. His colouring is low in tone, and overspread 
 with a sickly, greenish, leaden, or yellowish hue ; his hand was hasty, 
 and not skilful. He would sometimes work with his colours dry in 
 the powder, rubbing them up with his brush. Probably from a 
 deficiency in his early study, his drawing wa3 not so correct a3 his 
 ambition was daring. His anatomy sometimes resembles the mecha- 
 nical and coarse ostentation of an artificial myotomical model rather 
 than the free, varying, and blended forms of nature. The proportions 
 are frequently exaggerated, and the action violent and intemperate. 
 In his desire to display the naked figure he often sacrifices his better 
 knowledge, and violates all rules of costume ; and there is sometimes 
 much that is extravagant and fantastical in his design. His figures 
 set about the commonest occupations, straining every feature, finger, 
 and toe, with superfluous energy. On the other hand, there is always 
 life and action in his figures, some event going forward in the design. 
 In dreamy or terrible subjects he is often grand and impressive. Fuseli 
 loved his art with a genuine affection, and the bold and original 
 thoughts of his vigorous if not exalted mind were impressed upon the 
 canvass without misgiving. He only wanted a better training of hia 
 hand, and a more temperate habit of thinking, to have made a great 
 painter. As it is, he has helped to vindicate the supremacy of design 
 (including invention) and expression over the inferior parts of the art, 
 and has done much to advance a better taste in this country. 
 
 (Knoyi\eB,Life of Fuseli, prefixed to Fuseli's works, 3 vols. 8vo, 1831.) 
 
 FUST, or FAUST, JOHN, an opulent citizen of Mainz, a gold- 
 smith by trade, whose name appears as one of the inventors of the 
 art of printing, in the manner in which that art is effected by move- 
 able metal types. Gutenberg and Schoffer were the two others. 
 Gutenberg appears to have been the inventor of separate cast types. 
 
FUST, JOHN". 
 
 FUST, JOHN. 
 
 105? 
 
 [Gutenberg.] Schbffer, by inventing the punch, is supposed to 
 have given completion to the discovery. Fust, like all the goldsmiths 
 of his time, was no doubt an engraver also ; and might in that capacity 
 have been of use in forwarding the invention. It is not certain how- 
 ever that Fust did more than supply money to Gutenberg, who had 
 been making experiments with types at Strasbourg, before he removed 
 to Mainz in 1444-45. In 1450 the partnership commenced between 
 Fust and Gutenberg; it lasted only till 1455, when Fust sued 
 Gutenberg for money lent. The sum really advanced appears to 
 have been 1600 florins, swollen by charges for interest and expenses 
 to 2020 florins. The judges decided that a certain sum was due from 
 Gutenberg [Gutenberg], and in consequence the whole of Gutenberg's 
 printing apparatus fell into Fust's hands, who ultimately, with the 
 assistance of Peter Schbffer, made the invention useful to the world. 
 The earliest production of the press of Gutenberg and Fust is sup- 
 posed to be an indulgence of Pope Nicolas V. to Paulin Zappe, the 
 ambassador of John, king of Cyprus, issued August 12, 1451, of 
 which four copies are known, printed on vellum, and dated 1454, 
 though in all the copies but one the date has been altered with a pen; 
 a second was 'Eyn manung der Cristenheit widder die durken' ('An 
 Appeal to Christendom against the Turks '), of which the date is 
 plausibly supposed to be 1454. The 'Latin Bible,' in folio, commonly 
 called the 'Mazarine Bible,' was published in 1456, and as the disso- 
 lution of partnership did not take place till November 1455, a great 
 part of it must have been printed before that event. 
 
 The books with dates which bear the joint names of Fust aud 
 Schbffer are: — 1, 'The Latin Psalter' of 1457, in large folio; the 
 type of the size used in the great service books of the Romish Church. 
 At the end is this subscription — 
 
 " Ad inuentione artificiosa impvimendi ac caracterizandi 
 absque calami ulla exaratione sic cffigiatus. Et ad eusc- 
 biam dei industrie est consummatus per Johannem Fust 
 Ciuem Maguntinum. Et Petrum Schoffer de Gernszheim. 
 Anno dni Millesimo CCCC.LYII. In Vigilia As- 
 
 sumptionis." 
 
 2, ' The Psalter' of 1459 ; with some variations from the preceding, 
 but in the same size and letter. 3, ' The Rationale divinorum 
 Officiorum' of Durand, 1459, fol. maj. ; the first specimen of the 
 Emaller type of Fust and Schoffer. 4, ' The Clementine Constitu- 
 
 tions,' 1460, fol. maj. 5, 'The Latin Vulgate Bible,' 2 vols., 1402, 
 fol. maj. Copies of this Bible are oftoner found printed upon vellum 
 than on paper, but both are rare. 6, ' The German Bible,' fol. maj. 
 [Known to have been printed in 1462, or thereabout.] Reprinted in 
 
 1465. 7, 'Bulla Papas Pii II.,' Germ., 1463, fol. maj. 8, 'Liber 
 sextus Decietalium Bouifacii VIII.,' Pont. Max., 1465, fol. maj. : a 
 second, or at least a varying impression of this work appeared in the 
 same year. 9, ' Cicero's Offices and 1'aradoxa,' 1465, sin. fol.: the 
 first edition of Cicero with a date. 10, ' Cicero's Offices aud Paradoxa,' 
 
 1466, sm. fol. Copies of this edition are more common upon vellum 
 than on paper: that of 1465 is very rare upon vellum. 11, ' Gram- 
 matica rhythmica,' 1166, fol. min. It consists of eleven leaves in the 
 smallest fount of type of these printers, and is of extreme rarity ; 
 two or three copies only are known. 
 
 The following works without date, from the close resemblance of 
 their typography, are assigned without scruple by our best biblio- 
 graphers to the press of Fust and Schbffer :— 1, 'Bulla Cruciata 
 sanctissimi Domini nostri Papas contra Turcos,' fol., in six printed 
 leaves. It has no place or name. The type is like the Durand. 2, 
 ' Laus Virginis,' folio, nine leaves. Tho device of the shields in red, 
 at the end, seen in so many of these printers' works, decidedly justifies 
 its being placed as the production of Fust and Schbffer's press. 3, 
 ' S. Aurelii Augustiui de Arte prsedicandi Tractatus,' folio : supposed 
 to have been printed about 1466. It consists of twenty-two leaves. 
 4, '^Elius Donatus de Octo partibus Or.itionis,' 4to ; the type of the 
 smaller size, resembling the Latin Bible of 1462 aud the Cicero of 
 
 1465. The conclusions however drawn from a similarity of type 
 must be very doubtful, as, when punches were invented and types 
 cast, the appearance might be the same, whatever the date and whoever 
 the printer. 
 
 With an exception or two, the whole of Fust and Schbffer's 
 productions are in the collection at the British Museum. 
 
 Fust, whose name appears with Schbffer's for the last time in 
 
 1466, is supposed to have died in that, or at latest in the next year, 
 of the plague, at Paris. Schbffer continued to print in his own name 
 for a long time. 
 
 (Panzer, Annal. Typogr., vol. ii., p. 111-17; Biblioth. Spenceriana, 
 passioi. ; Biogr. Universelle, torn, xvi., p. 205 ; Peignot, Varietes, 
 Notices, et Barctvs Bibliographiques, 8vo, Par., 1822, p. 78.) 
 
 END OF VOLUME II. 
 
 BRAEBinY, AC.NEW, & CO., PE11JTEE8, WHITEFE1A) 
 
The following is a list of the names of persons who have died since the publication of the ' Penny Cyclopedia,' and of " those 
 living names " which, in accordance with the announcement in the Prospectus, are included in the second volume of the Biographical 
 
 Division of the ' English Cyclopaedia.' The asterisk is prefixed to living names :— 
 
 "Caballero, Fermiu 
 
 Cabct, Etionno 
 •Cabrera, Don llamo 
 
 Cahen, Samuel 
 •Cailliaud, Frederic 
 
 Calhoun, John Caldwell 
 
 Calomardc, Francisco Tadco 
 
 Campbell, John, Lord 
 
 Campbell, Sir Colin 
 
 Camuccitii, Viconzo 
 •Candlish, B. 8., D.D. 
 
 Canga, Arguelles Jose 
 •Canrobert, Frantois-Ccrtain do 
 •Cantu, Ccsare 
 •Capefigue, Baptisto Honore" 
 
 Capellen, Baron Van der 
 "Carle'n, Emilic 
 
 Carlos, Don 
 *Carlyle, Thomas 
 •Carpenter, W. B., M.D. 
 
 Carrel, Armaml-Kicolas 
 ♦Cass, General Lewis 
 
 Castafios, Francisco Xavicr 
 •Castiglioni, Carlo Ottavio 
 •Castilho, Antonio Feliciano do 
 
 Castren, Matthias Alexander 
 •Cattermole, George 
 
 Cauchy, Augustiu-Louis 
 
 Cavaignac, General Louis-Eugene 
 •Cayley, Arthur 
 
 Celakowsky, Frantisek Ladislay 
 •Chadwick, Edwin 
 
 Chalmers, Rev. Dr. Thomas 
 •Chambers, William and Robert 
 
 Chambray, George, Marquis do 
 •Champollion, Jean-Jacques 
 "Changarnier, Nicolas-Anuc'-The'odule 
 •Cliasles, Michel 
 
 Chassd, David Henry, Baron 
 
 Chateaubriand, Francois-Rend, 
 Viscount de 
 
 Chaveau-Lagarde, Claude-Francois 
 "Chesney, Colonel Francis Rawdon 
 •Chevreul, Michel-Eugene 
 
 Children, John George 
 •Chisholm, Mrs. Caroline 
 •Chodzko, Alexander 
 •Chodzko, Jakob Leonard 
 •Christina, Maria, of Spain 
 
 Clare, John 
 
 "Clarendon, George W. F. V., Earl of 
 •Clark, Sir James, Bart., M.D. 
 
 Clark, Wm. Tieruey 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas 
 
 Clausel, Bertrand, Count 
 
 Clay, Henry 
 
 Clemencin, Diego 
 
 Clinton, Henry Fynes 
 
 Cobden, Richard 
 
 Cockburn, Henry Thomas, Lord 
 
 Cockburn, Admiral Sir George, G.C.B. 
 
 Cockerell, C. R., R.A. 
 
 Codrington, Admiral Sir Edward 
 •Codrington, General Sir William John 
 
 Colby. Major-Gcneral 
 'Cole, Henry 
 
 Coleridge, Hartley 
 •Coleridge, Rev. Derweut 
 
 Coleridgo, Sara 
 "Collier, J. Payne 
 
 Collins, William, R A. 
 •Collins, William Wilkio 
 "Collins, Charles Allston 
 
 Combe, Dr. Andrew 
 
 Combo, George 
 
 Combermere, Staplcton Cctton, 
 Viscount 
 
 Comtc, Augusto 
 
 Conde, Josij Antonio 
 
 Conder, Josiah 
 
 Congrcve, Sir William, Bart. 
 
 Constant dc Rebccque, H. Benjamin 
 •Constantino, Nikolacvich 
 
 Conslantiuc, Paulovich 
 
 Conybearc, Very Reverend William 
 Daniel 
 
 Cooper, James Fcnimore 
 "Cooper, Thomas Sidney, A. R.A. 
 •Cope, Charles West, R.A. 
 
 Coplcston, Edward, Bishop of Llandaff 
 "Cormenin, Louis-Marie, Vicomte do 
 •Cornelius, Peter Von 
 
 Cottle, Joseph 
 "Cousin, Victor 
 
 •Cowley, Henry Richard Wcllesley, Lord 
 
 Cowper, Edward 
 
 Cox, David 
 
 Craik, George Lillio 
 "Creswick, Thomas, R.A. 
 
 Croker, Right Honourable J. Wilson 
 
 Croker, Thomas Croftou 
 
 Croly, Rev. George, LL.D. 
 
 Crotch, William 
 
 Crozier, Captain F. R. M. 
 •Cruikshank, George 
 
 Cruseustolpe, Magnus Jakob 
 
 Csoma de KorOs, Alexander 
 
 Cubitt, Thomas 
 
 Cubitt, Sir William 
 •dimming, John, D.D. 
 "Cunningham, Peter 
 
 Cuvier, Frederic 
 
 Czartoryski, Prince Adam George 
 
 Czartoryski, Prince Constantine 
 •Czuczor, Gergely or Gregory 
 
 Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mandd 
 •Dahl, Johann Christian 
 
 Dalhousie, Marquis of 
 
 Dallaway, Rev. James 
 
 Dairy mple, John 
 •Dana, Richard Henry 
 •Dana, Richard Henry, Jun. 
 
 Dauby, Francis, A. R.A. 
 •Dantan, Jean-Pierre 
 •Daremberg, Charles Victor 
 •Dargau, William 
 
 Daru, Pierre, Count 
 •Darwin, Charles, F.R.S. 
 
 Dashkov, Ekateriua Romanova 
 •Daubeny, C. G. B., M.D., F.R.S. 
 •D'Aubigne, Jean-Henri-Merle 
 •David, Felicien 
 •Davis, Sir John Francis, Bart. 
 *Davy, John, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 Dc la Beche, Sir Henry Thomas 
 
 Delacroix, Ferdinand-Victor-Eugcne 
 
 Dclaroche, Paul 
 
 Dclavigno, Jean-Francois-Caaimir 
 
 Domidov, or Demidoff, Anatol 
 *Dc Morgan, Augustus 
 
 Denman, Lord 
 
 Depping, George Bernard 
 
 De Quincey, Thomas 
 •Derby, Edward Geoffrey, Earl of 
 
 Desnoyera, Augustc-Gaspard, Baron 
 •D'Hillicis, Marshal Baraguay 
 
 Dibdin, Rev. Thomas Frognall 
 
 Dick, Thomas, LL.D. 
 •Dickens, Charles 
 •Didron, Adolphe-Napolcon 
 
 Diebitsch-Sabalkanski, Count von 
 Dicbit-sch and Nardcn 
 
 Dilkc, C. Wentworth 
 •Dilke, C. Wentworth, jun. 
 •Dindorf, Wilhclm 
 
 Disraeli, Isaac 
 •Disraeli, Right Hon. Benjamin 
 •Dixon, William Hepworth 
 
 DObrentci, Gabor or Gabriel 
 
 Dobrowsky, Joseph 
 •Donaldson, Thomas Leverton 
 
 Donizetti, Gaetano 
 
 Donoso Cortes, Juan 
 •Doo, George T., F.R.S. 
 
 Doubleday, Edward 
 
 Douglas, General Sir Howard, Bart. 
 "Doyle, Richard 
 
 Drouet d'Erlon, Jcan-Baptisto 
 "Drouyn de Lhuys, Edward 
 
 Droz, Fraucois-Xavier-Joscph 
 •Dudevant, Madame-Amantinc-Auroro 
 •Duff, Alexander, D.D., LL.D. 
 •Dumas, Alexandre 
 •Dumas, Alexandre, jun. 
 •Dumas, Jcan-Baptiste 
 
 Dundonald, Thomas Cochrane, Earl of 
 
 Duperre', Victor-Guy 
 •Duperrey, Louis-Isidore 
 
 Dupin, Andre'-Marie-Jean-Jacqucs 
 "Dupin, Charles. Baron 
 
 Dupout de l'Eure, Jacques-Charles 
 •Dupont, Pierre 
 
 Duran, Don Augustin 
 
 Du Sommerard, Alexandre 
 
 Dutens, Joseph-Michel 
 
 Dutrochet, Rene-Joachim-Henri 
 
 Duvernoy, Georges-Louis 
 •Dyce, Rev. Alexander 
 
 Dyce, William, R.A. 
 
 Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, P.R.A. 
 
 Ebelmen, Jacques-Joseph 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria 
 
 •Edwardes, Major Herbert Benjamin 
 
 Egg, Augustus, A. R.A. 
 •Ehrenberg, Christian Godfrey 
 
 Eichhorn, Charles Frederic 
 •Eichwald, Edward 
 
 Elgin, Thomas, Earl of 
 
 Elgin, James, Earl of 
 •Ellenborough, Edward, Earl of 
 
 Ellesmere, Francis, Earl of 
 •Elliotson, Dr. John 
 
 Elliott, Ebcnezer 
 •Ellis, Sir Henry 
 
 •Ellis, Rev. William 
 •Ellis William 
 
 Elmes, James 
 
 Elmes, Harvey Lonsdalo 
 •Elmore, Alfred A R.A. 
 "Bmersou, Ralph Waldo 
 
 Encke, Johann Franz 
 •Eotviis, Jozsef 
 
 Ericsson, John 
 
 Ersch, Johann Samuel 
 "Espartero, Joaquin Baldomcrc 
 
 Espronceda, Jos£ de 
 
 Etty, William, R.A. 
 "Evans, Lieut.-Gen. Sir De Lacy 
 
 Everett, Alexander Hamilton 
 
 Everett, Edward, D.C.L. 
 •Ewart, William, M.P. 
 
 Excelmans, Marshal Remi-Josoph- 
 Isidore 
 
 Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount 
 
 Faber, Kev. George Stanley 
 •Fairbairn, William 
 
 Falconer, William, M.D. 
 
 Falconer, Rev. Thomas 
 •Falconer, Thomas 
 •Faraday, Michael 
 
 Farey, John 
 
 Faucher, Leon 
 
 Feith, Rhynvis 
 
 Fejer, Gyorgy 
 
 Fellows, Sir Charles 
 •Ferguss >n, James 
 •Ferrey, Benjamin 
 
 Fcrrier, Miss 
 
 Fcsch, Cardinal Joseph 
 
 Fielding, Copley Vandyke 
 
 Fillans, James 
 •Fillmore, Millard 
 
 Finden, William 
 
 Fitzherbert, Maria 
 
 Fitz-Roy, Captain Robert, R.N. 
 
 Flint, Timothy 
 •Foley, John Henry, R.A. 
 •Fonblanque, Albany W. 
 
 Fontaine, Pierre-Francois-Leonard ' 
 
 Fontenay, Therese, Marquise de 
 
 Forbes, Edward 
 
 Forbes, Sir John 
 
 Ford, Richard 
 
 Forsell, Carl af 
 
 Forster, Frank 
 •Forster, John 
 
 Fortoul, Hippolyte 
 
 Foster, John 
 •Fowler, Charles 
 
 Fox, William Johnson, M.P. 
 •Francis-Joseph-Charles, Emperor of 
 Austria 
 
 Franklin, Rear-Admiral Sir John 
 
 Frauzen, Frans-Michael 
 
 Frederick William IV., King of Prussia 
 •Freiligrath, Ferdinand 
 •Frith, William Powell, R.A. 
 •Frost, William Edward, A. R.A. 
 
 Fry, Mrs. Elizabeth 
 •Fryxell, Anders 
 
 Fuller, Sarah Margaret, Marchioness 
 
 Ossoli 
 
BIOGRAPHY 
 
 SUPPLEMENT: PART I. 
 
 The abbreviations E.C. and E.C.S. signify the English Cyclopcedia and the English Cyclopedia Supplement. 
 The asterisk * prefixed to the name indicates that the subject of the memoir is still living. 
 
 1 AA, CHRISTIAAN KAREL HENDRIK VAN DER. 
 
 ABBADIE, JAMES, D.D. 
 
 A 
 
 A A, CHRISTIAAN KAREL HENDRIK VAN DER, an 
 -ti eminent divine of the Lutheran Church at Haarlem, was 
 born on the 25th August, 1718, at Zwolle, of which town his 
 father was an assistant minister. He studied theology succes- 
 sively at Leyden and Jena ; in 1739, was called to the pastorate 
 of the Lutheran Church at Alkmaar, and three years after to 
 that of Haarlem. Here he remained until his death, which 
 took place in the night between the 22nd and 23rd September, 
 1793. In the previous year, 1792, he had celebrated the jubilee 
 or fiftieth anniversary of his ministry at Haarlem, in com- 
 memoration of which festival a silver medal was struck by 
 J. G. Holtzhey, an artist of reputation. His portrait, engraved 
 by Vrijdag, is given in Chalmot's ' Biographisch Woordenboek 
 der Nederlanden.' His motto, " God is Love," was the constant 
 rule of his pastoral conduct, and the motive of a system of 
 divinity which had the characteristic of liberality. As a preacher 
 he had a distinguished reputation. His chief claims to general 
 consideration rest, however, on his connection with the Scientific 
 Society, ' Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen,' which 
 he largely contributed to establish at Haarlem, in 1752. He 
 continued, to the time of his death, one of the most zealous and 
 enlightened secretaries of this Society, to the Transactions of 
 which he contributed several articles in Natural History ; and in 
 which he was mainly instrumental in instituting, in 1778, a 
 separate branch (Ueconomischen talc) for the furtherance of 
 Economical Science. 
 
 AA, HILDEBRAND VAN DER, a Dutch engraver who 
 flourished in the early part of the 18th century. He was the 
 brother of Pieter Van der Aa, the celebrated bookseller of 
 Leyden, noticed below, for whose publications he engraved 
 numerous plates. Many of these are unsigned, and are coarsely 
 executed— business rather than artistic works. Among the best 
 known plates to which he put his name are the set of twelve 
 portraits of members of the Visconti family ; the portrait of 
 Archbishop Otho in the ' Illustrium Virorum Imagines,' and 
 Adrian Pars' frontispiece to the ' Index Batavicus,' 1701. 
 
 AA, PIETER VAN DER, a celebrated jurist, known also 
 under the Latinized form of Petrus Vanderanus, was born at 
 Lou vain about the year 1530, and died at Luxembourg in 1594. 
 His parentage is unknown ; but it has been claimed for him that 
 he was of an ancient family of Brabant, several of whose mem- 
 bers had been variously distinguished for their position and 
 patriotism. His first work, published when the author " had 
 scarcely ceased to be a learner," was called ' Prochiron sive 
 Enchiridion Judiciarium, libris quatuor ; cum ampla et utilis- 
 sima Prcefatione de Online Judiciario apud Veteres usitato,' 
 Lovanii: typis Steph. Valerii, 1558, 8vo. Van der Aa took his 
 degree as Utriusque Juris Doctor on the 3rd of October, 1559 ; 
 and the next year published his small but suggestive and influ- 
 ISIOG. DIV.— SUi\ 
 
 ential treatise, entitled, 1 De Privilegus Creditorum Commcn- 
 tarium,' Antwerpiaj ; apud Johannem Bellerum, 1560, 8vo. The. 
 principal topics discussed in this work are, — The Origin and 
 general Doctrine of Privileges ; what Creditors are privileged ; 
 Forms of Procedure, by which Creditors can claim their Rights ; 
 what Heirs are liable to the Creditors of a Person deceased. 
 In the year 1562, Van der Aa succeeded John Ramus as Profes- 
 sor of the Institutes in the University of Louvain. He was ap- 
 pointed assessor to the Supreme Court of Brabant at Mechlin, in 
 1565 ; and in 1574 was promoted to an office which he held till 
 his death twenty years after, the Presidency of the High Court 
 of Justice in Luxembourg. He does not appear to have interested 
 himself greatly in the politics of his age and country. His life 
 was rather practical and professional ; and, with the exception 
 of the three years during which he lectured on the Institutes 
 at Louvain, he was occupied in the discharge of his judicial 
 functions. 
 
 AA, PIETER VAN DER, was a distinguished geographer 
 and bookseller of Leyden, where he commenced business about 
 the year 1682. Of his death nothing is known more precisely 
 than that it took place some time between the years 1729 and 
 1735. It is probable that he was the grandfather of the 
 Lutheran pastor and savant, dir. K. H. Van der Aa, noticed 
 above. Among the works published by Pieter Van der Aa are 
 the great collection of Gronovius ou Greek Antiquities, ' The- 
 saurus Antiquitatum Graecarum,' (Lugd. Bat. 1697,) in thirteen 
 volumes ; that of Grsevius on Roman Antiquities, ' Thesaurus 
 Antiquitatum Romanorum,' (Traj. ad Rhen. 1694,) in twelve 
 volumes ; that by Gravius and Burmann on the Antiquities and 
 History of Italy, ' Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historiarum Italiae,' 
 (Ludg. Bat. 1704-23), which consists of nine parts in thirty 
 volumes. He also published a similar work, with a similar title, 
 by the same editors, on Sicily, in fifteen volumes (Lugd. Bat. 
 1723-5) ; and Leclerc's edition of the works of Erasmus, in eleven 
 volumes (Lugd. Bat. 1703-6). All these works comprise eighty- 
 six volumes in folio, of standard books, a number which no pub- 
 lisher before or since has equalled. Towards the close of his 
 life he published, under the title of the ' Pleasant GaUery of the 
 World,' ' La Galerie Agreable du Monde,' (Leide), a work in 
 sixty-six thin folio volumes, often bound in thirty-three or 
 twenty-two, consisting almost entirely of copper plates, and made 
 up in a very inartificial manner from reprints oi the embellish- 
 ments scattered through many of his previous publications. He 
 was, moreover, the publisher of several works in Dutch, devoted 
 to an illustration of modern geographical enterprise and travels 
 in various parts of the world. The works of Van der Aa are 
 now rather remarkable for their voluminousness, than trusted 
 for their accuracy. 
 
 ABBADIE, JAMES, D.D., Dean of Killaloe, was a native of 
 
3 
 
 ABBOT, LEMUEL FRANCIS. 
 
 ABBOT, ROBERT. 
 
 4 
 
 Fiance, having been born at Nay, in the Basses-Pyren6es, in 1658. 
 His parents being very poor, some of the wealthier members of 
 the Protestant community at Beam, whose attention had been 
 drawn to the boy's talent, raised a fund for his support at school 
 and college. He studied at Saumur, Paris, and Sedan, where he 
 took the degree of doctor of divinity. The times being un- 
 favourable to his settlement in France, he, about 1681, accepted 
 an invitation to become the minister of a French Protestant 
 church at Berlin, founded by the Elector of Brandenburg, 
 Frederick William I. Here he wrote his 'Traite - de la Verite de 
 la Religion Chretiennc' (Rotterdam, 1684), which on the Con- 
 tinent quickly acquired a great reputation as well among Roman 
 Catholics as Protestants. On the death of the Elector, in 1688, 
 Abbadie accompanied Count Schomherg to Holland, and thence, 
 in the suite of the Prince of Orange, to England. In the follow- 
 ing year he went to Ireland with Schomberg, an important 
 section of whose army, it will be remembered, consisted ot 
 French refugees. Returning to London after the battle of the 
 Boyne, Abbadie was made minister of the French church in the 
 Savoy. But London did not agree with Lis health, and William, 
 whose favour he had won by a spirited vindication of the re- 
 volution of 1688, ' Defense de la nation Britannique,' written in 
 answer to Bayle's ' Avis important aux Refugies,' and who 
 esteemed him as the friend of Schomberg, gave him the deanery 
 of Killaloe, his ignorance of the English language being con- 
 sidered a bar to his holding the richer deanery of St. Patrick's, 
 and no doubt to preferment in the English Church. The rest of 
 his days were spent in writing, preaching, and the performance 
 of the ordinary duties of his office, varied by frequent visits to 
 England and Holland, where most of his books were printed. 
 On one of these visits he was taken ill and died in London, 
 September 25, 1727. His principal writings are — the treatise 
 on the truth of Christianity, mentioned above ; 1 Traitti de la 
 Divinite de Jesus Christ,' 1695, which he -wrote as the con- 
 clusion of that work, and which met with nearly equal success, 
 and 'L'Art de se connoitre Soi-meme,' 1692, translated in 1694 
 under the title of ' The Art of Knowing Oneself.' These books 
 had a prodigious circulation and were long regarded as standard 
 authorities. He also wrote ' La Verite de la Religion Reformee,' 
 which was translated by Dr. Lambert, Bishop of Dromore, for 
 circulation among Roman Catholics, and some other vindications of 
 Protestantism, sermons, &c. ; besides ' L'Histoire de la Conspira- 
 tion derniere d'Angleterre ' (London, 1696), and ' Panegyriques' 
 on the Elector Frederick William (1684) and on Mary II. of 
 England (1694), which are charged with extreme adulation. The 
 history of the Conspiracy of 1696 was written at the request of 
 William III., by whose direction the Earl of Portland and 
 Secretary Trumball supplied the author with materials : it is 
 extremely scarce. 
 
 ABBOT, LEMUEL FRANCIS, a distinguished portrait 
 painter, was born in Leicestershire in 1762. He was the son of 
 a clergyman, and at a very early age was placed as a pupil with 
 Francis Hayman, R.A. But he could have learned little from 
 Hayman, who died in 1776, and he seems to have had no other 
 master. On Hayman's death he is said to have returned into the 
 country, but he was early established in London as a portrait 
 painter and met with much success. The chief attraction in his 
 portraits was their fidelity. He never attempted anything but 
 portraits and seldom ventured beyond the bust. In artistic 
 power and the expression of the subtler and finer phases of 
 intellect, Abbot was far inferior to Reynolds, Gainsborough, and 
 Romney, and perhaps to some other of his contemporaries, but 
 in catching the ordinary everyday aspect he was almost un- 
 equalled : and to secure this faithfulness of resemblance he 
 spared no labour. His heads of Nelson, of Cowper, and of 
 Northcote (the last in the National Portrait Gallery) are the 
 most faithful likenesses we possess of those remarkable men ; 
 though the nervous exalted expression of the poet, verging on 
 insanity, is rendered with inimitable force in Romney's head of 
 Cowper. Abbot painted Cowper in 1792, and the poet writes to 
 Lady Hesketh that the artist came from London for the purpose, 
 and that he has " been sitting these ten days," the result being 
 that " the likeness is the closest imaginable." With female heads 
 Abbot was less successful. But he had a large practice, and 
 the anxiety produced by his inability to execute his numerous 
 commissions (and lie would not employ an assistant), combined 
 with family troubles, preyed on his mind and he became insane. 
 He died in 1803. 
 
 ABBOT, ROBERT, Bishop of Salisbury, celebrated amongst 
 the first controversialists of his age, was the eldest brother of 
 Archbishop Abbot, and the son of a cloth-worker at Guildford, 
 
 in Surrey, where he was born in the year 1560. He received 
 his first education at the Grammar School of his native town, 
 whence, in 1575, he was sent to Balliol College, Oxford. In 
 1582, he took his M.A. degree, and, entering into orders, pre- 
 sently acquired considerable reputation as a preacher. Fuller 
 compares the style of the two brothers : — " George was the more 
 plausible preacher, Robert the greater scholar ; George the abler 
 statesman, Robert the deeper divine ; gravity did frown in George, 
 and smile in Robert." Although comparatively late in arriving 
 at his ultimate dignity, he appears in the earlier part of his career 
 to have taken preferment by storm. A single sermon preached 
 at Worcester procured for him the lectureship of that city, and 
 afterwards the rectory of All Saints' there. Another, preached 
 at Paul's Cross, brought him, through favour of John Stanhope, 
 Esq., one of his auditors, and the patron of the living, the rich 
 benefice of Bingham, in Nottinghamshire. During the time of 
 his retirement in this parish, he laid the foundation of his fame 
 as a polemic, by publishing, with a dedication to Archbishop 
 Whitgift, his 'Mirror of Popish Subtilties,' 4to, London, 1594. 
 In 1597, Abbot was admitted to the degree of D.D., and, in 1601, 
 published ' The Exaltation of the Kingdom and Priesthood ot 
 Christ, in certain Sermons on the 110th Psalm;' 4to, London. 
 On the accession of King James I. he was appointed Chaplain in 
 Ordinary to his Majesty, who was so much delighted with Abbot's 
 'Antichristi Demonstratio ; contra fabulas Pontificias, et R. Bel- 
 larmini de Antichristo Disputationem :' 4to, London, 1603, that 
 he was graciously pleased to command his own royal and 
 " savoury " Meditations on the Apocalypse to be incorporated 
 with the second edition, 8vo, 1608. Dr. Abbot's masterpiece in 
 the way of controversy was his 'Defence of the Reformed Catho- 
 lic of Mr. W. Perkins, against the Bastard Counter-Catholic of 
 Dr. Bishop, Seminary Priest ;' Three Parts ; 4to, London, 1606, 
 1607, and 1609; a work which was followed up, in 1611, by a 
 further reply to Bishop, entitled, ' The True Ancient Roman 
 Catholic ; being an Apology against Dr. Bishop's Reproof of the 
 Defence of the Reformed Catholic : ' 4to, London. 
 
 Through the influence of Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 and Chancellor of the University of Oxford, Abbot was elected 
 to the Mastership of Balliol CoUege, March 5, 1610 ; two months 
 after was appointed one of the fellows of the College of Chelsea, 
 then newly founded as a school of controversial divinity ; and 
 later in the same year (November 27) was admitted a pre- 
 bendary of Normanton in the collegiate church of St. Mary, 
 Southwell. As Master of Balliol he dignified liis position by the 
 success with which he combined suavity with discipline, and 
 furthered amongst the students at once the practice of study, 
 piety, peace, and self-restraint. On the death of Dr. Holland, 
 the merits of Dr. Abbot, fortified by the influence which his 
 brother, the Archbishop, enjoyed with the king, procured for 
 him, March 25, 1612, the Regius Professorship of Divinity in 
 his university. In this office he acquired great reputation for 
 the learning and ability displayed in his lectures, which are 
 characterised by Wood as more moderately Calvinistic than 
 those that had for some time previous been heard from the 
 divinity chair. Yet he appears to have opposed him self to Laud 
 and his opinions with quite as much thoroughness as his brother; 
 and the records of one notable instance of this opposition are 
 preserved in a letter of complaint from Laud to his friend, Dr. 
 Richard Niel, or Neale, at that time (1614) Bishop of Lincoln. 
 
 In the year 1615, Dr. Abbot was appointed to his ultimate 
 preferment, the Bishopric of Salisbury, to which see he was con- 
 secrated at Lambeth on the 3rd of December, by his brother, the 
 Primate. The king was moved to bestow this promotion upon 
 Dr. Abbot partly by the perusal of his treatise against Garnet, 
 the Jesuit, which was dedicated to his majesty, and entitled, 
 'Antilogia adversus apologiani Andreae Eudasmon-Joannis, pro 
 H. Gameto, Jesuita:' 4to, London, 1613; and partly by the 
 fame of a course of lectures on the Royal Supremacy, delivered 
 by Abbot as Regius Professor, and published after his death, 
 with the title of ' De Suprema Potestate Regia contra R. Bellar- 
 minum et Fr. Suarez ;' 4to, London, 1619. Amongst the first 
 cares of Abbot's episcopate was the repair of his cathedral, which 
 had been suffered to fall into decay through the cupidity of the 
 Chapter. Nor was he more careful for the dead walls than for 
 the living members of the Church, visiting his entire diocese in 
 person, and preaching every Sunday so long as the state of his 
 health permitted. His humility was proverbial, and his hos- 
 pitality was as large as it was discriminating ; so that his chief 
 pleasure in this kind was to provide entertainment for such poor 
 as had no chance of tasting meat but at his table. His incum- 
 bency of the diocese of Salisbury was, however, of little more 
 
5 
 
 ABDU-L-AZIZ. 
 
 ABDU-L-AZIZ. 
 
 6 
 
 tb&n two years' duration, being abridged by bis unsparing studies 
 and his Various activities. His sufferings from stone, the 
 ■scholar's disease," were great; but he met his death, which 
 occurred March 2, 1618, with calm dignity and assurance. 
 On the very day of his decease, he is said to have completed his 
 posthumously published treatise against the semi-Pelagian doc- 
 trines of Richard Thomson, ' In Ricardi Thomsoni Angli-Belgici 
 Diatribam, de Amissionc et Intercisione Justificationis et Gratia?, 
 Animadversio Brevis ;' 4to, London, 1618. 
 
 Bishop Abbot left many works behind him beside those enu- 
 merated above. Of these some have been published, whilst 
 others have been allowed to remain in MS. ; and of all a full 
 and classified list is given by Dr. Featley, his chaplain and his 
 biographer in Fuller's 'Abel Redivivus.' The most important 
 of his inedited works is " his most accurate ' Commentary in Latin 
 upon the Epistle to the Romans,' of which he run through all, 
 not with brief notes as others, but large sermons upon every 
 verse ; in which he handled, as his text gave him occasion, all 
 the controverted points of religion at this clay, and he enclosed 
 the whole magazine of his learning ; and great pity it is that the 
 Church should be deprived of such a treasure." This work, in 
 four folio volumes, was presented by Dr. Corbet to the Bodleian 
 Library. 
 
 *ABDU-L-AZIZ, 32nd and reigning sultan of Turkey, the 
 gecond son of Mahmud II. [E. C. vol. iv. col. 48], was born 
 February 9, 1830. As next brother of the late sultan he 
 succeeded to the throne on the death of Abdu-l-Mejid, June 25, 
 1861. His infancy and boyhood, as was customary with the 
 royal princes of Turkey, were passed in strict seclusion within 
 the walls of the harem ; but he appears to have been more for- 
 tunate in his European teachers than his elder brother, since he 
 learned to speak English and French, and obtained some fami- 
 liarity with the condition of western civilization and politics. 
 Even when arrived at manhood he was not permitted to play 
 any part in public affairs ; but he formed a model farm at 
 Scutari, the first established by a native, in which he was seen 
 to take much interest ; was fond of yachting and shooting ; and 
 rumour attributed to him the qualities of economy, temperance, 
 activity, and firmness,— qualities in which his brother was 
 lamentably deficient ; and he was supposed to be strictly at- 
 tached to the older forms of Mohammedanism, which had long 
 been neglected by the court. He had thus come to be regarded 
 with hope, not only by the people at large, but also by the old 
 or orthodox party, — the party which, insisting on the literal in- 
 terpretation of the Koran, steadily opposes, as a dangerous 
 novelty, everything not mentioned there ; — and his accession 
 was hailed with general favour, the only exception being the 
 native Christians, who feared, from his reputation for orthodoxy, 
 a return to the former intolerance. 
 
 His earliest measures displayed vigour, firmness, and intelli- 
 gence. The finances were in utter disorder. Abdu-l-Aziz di- 
 rected a strict inquiry to be made into the public expenditure, 
 and the minister of finance to be arrested and tried for embezzle- 
 ment ; reduced the civil list to a fifth of the amount at which it 
 stood during the last years of his brother's reign ; recalled the 
 depreciated notes, and substituted for them a metallic currency ; 
 and ordered the surplus property of religious and charitable cor- 
 porations to be sold. At the same time lie confirmed the hatti- 
 sheriff promulgated by his brother at Gulhane, in November, 
 1839 [E. C. vol. i. col. 13], and announced bis full resolve to 
 maintain the equality of all races and creeds in the eye of the 
 law. Abdu-l-Aziz had himself but one wife and a son, and, 
 whilst he placed his family arrangements on a moderate footing, 
 he pensioned off all the members of his brother's harem, except 
 the sultanas or mothers of the princes; and instead of keep- 
 ing his nephews in confinement, as was the custom, he allowed 
 tkem entire liberty, naming the eldest of them Pasha, and placing 
 the others in the military school of Constantinople. 
 
 His good intentions were only partially successful ; and his 
 yireonal expenditure has become as lavish as it was at first 
 moderate. The officials were corrupt and demoralized, and 
 beyond Constantinople reforms were disregarded. With educa- 
 tion wholly neglected ; a country almost without roads ; with 
 no manufacturing industry, and agriculture backward and un- 
 productive ; overburdened with debt, and with a revenue appa- 
 rently incapable of adequate extension, permanent improvement 
 might well appear chimerical, and futile attempts at ameliora- 
 tion be followed by misgiving and apathy. The reorganization 
 of the army, and the creation of a new naval force, became the 
 object? on which the Sultan seemed, alter a time, to have con- 
 centrated his purpose ; and though other subjects have of late 
 
 loots and JLuropean teacners, but the weak point of his m... 
 and military service will long be his officers. The strain 
 which this enormous military organization has produced on the 
 finances has been hard to meet, and its infliction is not to bo 
 justified ; but the Sultan's object in it, as in several other recent 
 acts of questionable propriety, has evidently been to raise Turkey 
 in the scale of nations. By the Crimean Treaty, Turkey was 
 recognised as a member of the European system ; but Abdu-l- 
 Aziz was conscious that her admission was little more than 
 nominal, and that under the mismanagement of the last years 
 of his brother's reign the country had come to be regarded as 
 utterly worn out, neighbouring powers watching the moment of 
 approaching dissolution that they might possess themselves of 
 their share of the reversion. His purpose was, therefore, to 
 prove that there was yet vitality and vigour. He must have an 
 army strong enough to hold his own against any opponent. He 
 put forward his title to a place in the European system by for- 
 mally acknowledging the kingdom of Italy, without waiting an 
 invitation or following the lead of other European powers. He 
 would visit the mightiest sovereigns of Europe in their own 
 dominions, or receive them in his, as an equal meeting equals. 
 Having proved that he could move freely among bis brother 
 potentates, he would show the world that he was not to be en- 
 thralled by oriental tradition and etiquette. It would be a lesson 
 to his own subjects, if it failed to impress foreigners. 
 
 The first rude shock given to the etiquette of the palace was by 
 the visit he made, in defiance of all precedent, to Ismail Pasha ot 
 Egypt, in 1863. Ismail had received investiture at Constanti- 
 nople in the February of that year, and Abdu-l-Aziz announced 
 that he came to Egypt, not to exercise authority, but as a visitor 
 to his friend ; but he took care to let it be seen that he was 
 master in Egypt as well as in Turkey, by the issue of several 
 edicts and the reversal of some important measures of the Vice- 
 roy, one being the grant of a large tract of land to the Suez 
 Canal Company, and another the permission to employ forced 
 labour in the construction of the canal, both of which he peremp- 
 torily forbad. The same policy with reference to the Viceroy of 
 Egypt has been repeated by Abdu-l-Aziz quite recently, evidently 
 in order to prevent any assumption of the appearance of inde- 
 pendence by the Viceroy, on occasion of the opening of the Suez 
 Canal. [Ismail Pasha, in E. C. S.] The difference between 
 the Sultan and the Viceroy has been arranged by the submission 
 of the latter. Tliis determination to force a quarrel with his 
 most powerful and almost independent subject, might appear to 
 be an error in policy on the part of Abdu-l-Aziz ; but it must be 
 remembered that the Sultan is not merely the sovereign of Tur- 
 key, but the head of the Mohammedan Church, and Commander 
 of the Faithful; and that while what seemed like the assumption 
 of equality on the part of the Viceroy might, if allowed to pass' 
 unrebuked, really lower the Sultan in the eyes of good Mussul- 
 mans, he would be sure to be sustained by them in resenting it. 
 Whether it is an equally safe policy to impose such harsh terms 
 as he is understood to have done, upon the Viceroy's submission, 
 must be left to time to determine. 
 
 In visiting Egypt the Sultan had sorely tried Turkish preju- 
 dices ; but he set them entirely at defiance by visiting Europe 
 in 1867. The plea was the International Exhibition which was 
 held that year in Paris. He entered Paris July 1, and was mag- 
 nificently received ; had the Palace of the Elysce placed at his 
 service ; was sumptuously entertained by the Emperor ; and wit- 
 nessed with seeming interest the various spectacles provided for 
 him in that splendid capital. He afterwards came to London, 
 July 12 ; was received by the Queen ; lodged in Buckingham 
 Palace ; enjoyed the hospitality of the Lord Mayor and other 
 public authorities ; and was present at a grand naval review at 
 Spithead, ami decorated by the Queen with the Order of the 
 Garter. The Sultan was deeply gratified by his reception, and 
 on his arrival at Constantinople his subjects testified in the 
 liveliest manner; their delight at the honour which had been 
 paid him, and their joy at his safe return. In the spring of 
 
 B 2 
 
 engaged much of his attention, he has never lost sight of this as 
 his main object, The result is that he has formed a fleet which 
 includes several powerful iron-clads fitted with the latest and 
 best armaments and warlike appliances, while bis army has 
 been entirely remodelled according to European plans, the men 
 armed with breech-loaders, and the artillery furnished with rifled 
 cannon, including some powerful Armstrong guns. It is said 
 that Abdu-l-Aziz could, at short notice, place in the field an 
 army of 800,000 efficients ; but this may well be doubted ; and 
 it is certain that neither arms nor army materials could be pro- 
 vided, nor competent officers found for them. He has military 
 
7 ABDU-L-MEJID. 
 
 1869 the Sultan had the further pleasure of receiving the Prince 
 and Princess of Wales at Constantinople, and we need hardly 
 recall the manner in which lie played the part ofhost, the scenes 
 rivalling the wildest tales of oriental romance he provided for 
 their entertainment, and the more than royal provision he made 
 for their comfort. On this occasion he again broke through the 
 formalities of Eastern etiquette, by presiding at a banquet in 
 their honour, and by being present at a grand ball, — both events 
 without precedent in the routine of Turkish sovereignty. A few 
 months later, in connection with the completion of the Suez 
 Canal, he entertained with equal magnificence the Empress of 
 the French, the Emperor of Austria, the Crown Prince of Prussia, 
 and other royal and puissant personages. 
 
 His visits to Europe, his observation of the countries he 
 ] lassed through, and his familiar intercourse with sovereigns 
 and statesmen, seem to have deeply impressed him with the 
 conviction of the backward state of his own country, and the 
 urgent need of great changes and improvements, and, if health and 
 mental energy be continued to him, may have important results. 
 The most promising has appeased in the form of an Edict on 
 Public Instruction, issued in 1869. This important document, 
 which contains 198 articles, provides that for the whole 
 empire there shall be five classes of Public Schools : primary, 
 upper, and preparatory schools ; lyceums and special schools. 
 Each quarter in a city and every village must maintain a 
 primary school if the population be Mussulman, but if the 
 population be mixed, a school for Mussulmans and one for 
 non-Mussulmans. Children are to receive instruction in the 
 religious book of their persuasion, attendance being compulsory, 
 except in specified instances, during four years, from the age of 
 six to ten for girls, or to eleven for boys. A superior primary 
 school, or two if necessitated by religious differences, is to be 
 instituted, at the charge of the vilayet, in every town of 500 
 houses. The course in these will likewise extend over four 
 years, and will include Turkish, Persian, and Arabic grammar, 
 arithmetic, book-keeping, geography, history, geometry, and one 
 local language. Preparatory schools are to be opes to Moham- 
 medans and others alike. The course of three years will include 
 French, political economy, and natural history. Those Ottoman 
 subjects who have passed an examination in the preparatory 
 schools will be admitted for three 3'ears as boarders to the 
 lyceum of each chief town of a vilayet. The highest class of 
 educational establishments includes a normal school ; the 
 upper schools of arts and sciences ; and the University of 
 Constantinople. The normal school, destined to supply 
 teachers, who must be all Ottoman subjects, will receive 100 
 students at a time, with certificates from the lower establish- 
 ments. A corresponding institution will provide female in- 
 structors. The University is to contain three faculties — for 
 letters, law, and physical science. There will be instituted at 
 the capital a Council of Education, and an Academic Council in 
 each chief city of a vilayet. The new law likewise contains 
 provisions for the control of private educational establishments 
 throughout the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 Should this programme be carried out with any approach to 
 completeness, its effect upon the future of Turkey cannot but be 
 of surpassing importance. The difficulty, however, — beyond the 
 primary, anil, as it -would seem, almost insuperable one, of over- 
 coming the inertia of officials, and providing a sufficient body 
 of competent teachers, — is the ever-recurring one of finding 
 pecuniary means. The finances of Turkey have been getting 
 from bad to worse, and now the only means of paying interest 
 on the successive loans which press on the Government, is 
 by incurring new loans, which are obtained with increased 
 clilliculty, and of course on always harder terms. 
 
 But the Government of the Sultan has unquestionably gained 
 greatly in influence and power. The relations of Turkey with 
 its dependent states, with the exception perhaps of Egypt, have 
 been in a great degree disentangled. The insurrection in Crete, 
 which threatened to become chronic, or to end only with its 
 severance from the parent country, has been finally suppressed. 
 Even the quarrelsome little kingdom of Greece seems to have 
 become at last convinced that its safest policy is to be, or 
 profess its desire to be, on terms of amity with its more power- 
 ful neighbour. Abdu-l-Aziz has yet a difficult and tedious task 
 before him, but he grasps his sceptre with a firmer hand than 
 his predecessors ; his country possesses an immense field of 
 undeveloped resources ; and the people are beginning to feel 
 renewed confidence in themselves and their ruler. 
 
 ABDU-L-MEJID, 31st Sultan of Turkey [E. C. vol. i. 
 cols. 13 — 15]. The memoir of Abdu-l-Mejid was brought 
 
 ABDU-L-MEJID. 8 
 
 down to nearly the close of the war in the Crimea. A 
 General Treaty of Peace was signed by the representatives 
 of the several powers at Paris on the 30th of March, 18. r j(;, 
 and the ratifications were exchanged there on the 27th of 
 the following month. By this treaty (Art. iii.) Russia under- 
 took to restore all parts of the Turkish territory of which it 
 then held possession ; and the contracting powers then engaged 
 (Art. vii.) severally to respect the independence and territorial 
 integrity of the Ottoman Empire, and to guarantee in common 
 the strict observance of that engagement; and further to con- 
 sider any act tending to its violation as a question of general 
 concern. In anticipation of the convention the Sultan had 
 issued (Feb. 18, 1856,) a hatti-sheriff, or firman, which placed 
 the Christian and non-Mussulman portion of his subjects in a 
 much more secure position than they had ever before held in 
 Turkey, allowing them the free exercise of their religious 
 worship, and putting all classes and sects on an equality in the 
 eye of the law. This important firman, the terms of which were 
 understood to have been suggested by the British Ambassador, 
 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, was referred to, and " its high 
 value recognised," in a distinct article (ix.) of the Treaty of 
 Peace, and it was declared to be " clearly understood that it 
 cannot, in any case, give to the said powers the right to interfere, 
 either collectively or separately, in the relations of his Majesty 
 the Sultan with his subjects, nor in the internal administration 
 of his empire." The effect of the war had thus been to admit 
 Turkey into the general European system, to guarantee its in- 
 tegrity, and, by seeming it from external interference, to afford it 
 free scope for social and political improvement. Both were much 
 needed. The country was almost disorganised ; the finances 
 were in utter disorder ; and dissatisfaction was spreading every- 1 
 where. The Sultan made decided promises of reform and • 
 retrenchment. But, always feeble and inert, lie seemed to have 
 lost the little vigour he ever possessed. Though pressed on all 
 sides by financial difficulties, nc gave himself up more and more i 
 to indolence and self-indulgence. At length a formidable con- • 
 spiracy was organised among the partizans of the old or orthodox 
 Mohammedans and many prominent politicians, with a view to 
 seize the Sultan, compel him to abdicate, and place his brother 
 on the throne. The plot was to have been carried out on 
 September 17, 1859, but two or three days earlier the secret was 
 betrayed ; the leading conspirators were arrested, and, after a 
 regular trial, several of them were condemned to death or long 
 terms of imprisonment. But the Sultan remitted the sentence 
 of death in every case, commuted most of the punishments, and 
 only banished the leaders. At the same time he promised 
 afresh to initiate a system of administrative reform and strict 
 financial retrenchment. 
 
 Soon after this the attention of Europe was drawn to the 
 outbreak of hostilities between the Druses and Marionites in 1 
 Syria, in which the Turkish troops sent to quell the dis- 
 turbances openly or covertly aided the fanatical Druses in 
 their outrages. The Great Powers protested, but the Sultan 
 was unwilling or unable to act with the necessary decision, 
 and, having acknowledged his inability to restore tranquillity, 
 a conference was held in Paris, and a convention signed by the 
 representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and 
 Turkey, by which it was agreed that a force of 12,000 men, half 
 to be furnished by France, should be sent to Syria, under the 
 command of a French general, Beaufort D'Hautpont, to suppress 
 the insurrection, Turkey undertaking on her part to punish the 
 guilty leaders, as well as the governor of the province and the 
 military commanders by whose connivance the atrocities had 
 been perpetrated. The character of the country, the tactics of 
 the Druses, who, too crafty to meet the thoroughly disciplined 
 European troops in the open country, took to the mountains, 
 where it was impracticable to bring them to an action, and 
 where pursuit was almost useless, and to a certain extent the 
 want of efficient support from the authorities, rendered the cam- 
 paign nruch more tedious and unsatisfactory than was anticipated. 
 Open hostilities, however, were brougfit to an end, and Uie 
 European soldiers were withdrawn. The success was but 
 partial, and the security of the Christians was but ill-assured ; 
 but the Great Powers were able to enforce the grant of a new 
 constitution for Lebanon, and the appointment of a Christian go- 
 vernor, who was to be assisted by a Consultation Council chosen 
 from each of the religious communities. The measure was 
 perhaps necessary, but the Turks felt that their country had 
 been humiliated. The erection of the united provinces of 
 Moldavia and Wallachia into what was virtually an indepen- 
 dent principality, with a single ruler, though nominally under 
 
9 
 
 A'BECKETT, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 ABILDCAARD, NIKOLAY ABRAHAM. 10 
 
 the suzerainty of the Porte, had been forced upon Turkey by 
 the Great Powers in 1858, and now the same powers had 
 extorted the quasi-independence of another section of the king- 
 dom. Insurrections broke out in the Herzegovina and else- 
 where, in which the Turkish troops met with several reverses. 
 The financial difficulties increased, official corruption and in- 
 capacity became daily more apparent, whilst the reckless extrava- 
 gance of the court seemed to be constantly augmenting. The 
 discontent was general and profound, and matters appeared to be 
 hastening to a crisis, when Abdu-l-Mejid died, June 25, 1861. 
 He left six sons, but, according to the law of Turkey, he was 
 succeeded by his brother, Abdu-l-Aziz, the subject of the 
 preceding article. 
 
 A'BECKETT, SIR WILLIAM, brother of Gilbert A'Beckett, 
 [E. C. vol. vi. col. 965,] and eldest son of Mr. W. A'Beckett, 
 solicitor, of Golden Square, London, where he was born in 1806. 
 He was educated at Westminster School ; studied law, and was 
 called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1829. His professional 
 avocations leaving him considerable leisure he wrote a good deal 
 for newspapers and literary journals ; was one of the authors of 
 ' The Georgian Era,' of which he wrote the larger part ; and 
 edited a L T niversal Biography, in 3 vols. 8vo. In 1829 he went 
 to Australia, having been nominated Solicitor-General of New 
 South Wales, and afterwards Attorney-General. Later he was 
 appointed to a judgeship at Port Phillip, and in 1S52 he Avas 
 promoted to be Chief Justice and Judge of the Admiralty Court, 
 Victoria, and received the honour of knighthood. In 1863 he 
 returned to England. He died at his residence, Upper Norwood, 
 on the 27th of June, 1869. 
 
 * ABEL, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, F.R.S., a chemist who 
 has devoted special attention to the application of chemistry to 
 warlike purposes, was born in 1828. He was one of the original 
 students at the Royal College of Chemistry, under Professor 
 Hofinann. Having received the appointment of junior assistant 
 at that college in 1846, he was promoted to the post of senior 
 assistant, which he held a few years. In 1849 he commenced 
 the instruction of military olficers and cadets in chemistry at 
 Woolwich. In 1851 he was appointed demonstrator of practical 
 chemistry at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Mr. Abel succeeded 
 Professor Faraday as lecturer on chemistry at the Royal Military 
 Academy, Woolwich, in 1852. In 1854 he was appointed 
 ordnance chemist, on the first creation of that office ; member of 
 the Ordnance Select Committee in 1855 ; chemist of the war 
 department (on the abolition of the old ordnance office) in 1856 ; 
 and examiner in experimental sciences to the Council of Military 
 Education in 1859. 
 
 ■ Connected with the study of chemical science on the one 
 hand, and with the military departments of the Government on 
 the other, Mr. Abel has been intimately concerned in researches 
 hearing on the subject of military pyrotechny. He has served 
 as a member of Government committees on gunpowder, on gun- 
 cotton, on floating obstructions, on torpedoes, and other subjects. 
 He elaborated and improved the application of tension-electricity 
 to the explosion of mines. He invented electrical fuzes for use 
 in the military and naval services. He effected various improve- 
 ments in connection with war materiel ; one of which was a 
 Hystem of manufacturing gun-cotton by pulping and compression. 
 Mr. Abel has made various researches in organic, inorganic, and 
 metallurgic chemistry, the results of which have been published 
 in the Journal of the Chemical Society ; and has written papers, 
 reports, and lectures on the application of electricity to the 
 explosion of land and submarine mines, and on the application 
 of chemistry to the improvement of warlike appliances. Nume- 
 rous distinct scientific reports were written by him and sent in to 
 the Government. The ' Philosophical Transactions' of the Royal 
 Society also contains memoirs and papers by Mr. Abel on cotton, 
 and on the history of explosive agents. One of the important 
 investigations in which Mr. Abel has been concerned was carried 
 on at Portsmouth in November, 1869. Some of the fortified lines 
 at that place being under process of demolition, it was deter- 
 mined to expedite the work by electro-blasting; and it was at 
 the same time seen that the operations would afford the means of 
 terting the comparative action of gunpowder and gun-cotton 
 under both equal and unequal conditions of locality and amount 
 of work, the relative advantages of discs and cylinders of gun- 
 cotton, the advantages and disadvantages of combining gun- 
 cotton with gunpowder in the same explosion, and the relative 
 merits of the Bickford fuze and the Abel fuze, under varying 
 circumstances. 
 
 Mr. Abel was appointed Bakerian lecturer to the Royal Society 
 in 1867 ; and has served on the council of the same society. He 
 
 has also filled the offices of vice-president, treasurer, and foreign 
 secretary of the Chemical Society. 
 
 ABEL DE PUJOL, ALEXANDRE-DENIS, French painter, 
 was bom January 30, 1785, at Valenciennes, and received his early 
 instruction in art at the School of Design in that city. Afterwards 
 he went to Paris, where he studied undi-r David, upun whose manner 
 he formed his own. He obtained the second prize in painting in 
 1810. and the grand prize in 1811. From Pome he sent to the 
 Salon in 1814 a picture, 'The Death of Britannicus,' which at- 
 tracted much attention, and was purchased for the Dijon Mu- 
 seum. In 1817 he produced his 'St. Stephen Preaching,' for the 
 church of St. Etienne-du-Mont. It was crowned, and thence- 
 forward his time was pretty much occupied by government com- 
 missions. Among his more important works in this class were 
 the representation of the Renaissance of the Arts on the ceiling 
 of the grand staircase of the Louvre, demolished in 1856, but 
 repeated in 1857 on the ceiling of the library * ' Egypt saved by 
 Joseph,' on the ceiling of the Musee de Charles X., in the same 
 palace ; a series of frescoes in the chapel of St. Roch ; the decora- 
 tions en grisailles on the ceiling of the Bourse ; the Danaides for 
 the Gallery at Fontainebleau ; a vast allegory for his native city, 
 ' Valenciennes encouraging the Arts,' in which he has introduced 
 his own portrait; 'Benevolence,' another immense allegory for 
 the Hospice Boulard at Saint Maude, besides a host of religious 
 pictures for churches, and classical and historical subjects for 
 public galleries, such as ' Caesar proceeding to the Senate on the 
 Ides of March,' for the Palais Royal ; ' Acliille de Harlay on the 
 day of the Barricades,' for the gallery at Versailles. His easel 
 pictures were less numerous, but were similar in character. Abel 
 de Pujol enjoyed a great reputation, but there is little genuine 
 inspiration or imagination in his works. They are pompous and 
 academic after the David type ; clever, but thoroughly artificial 
 in composition ; displaying great facility of drawing, and skill of 
 execution, but without power to interest the feeling or to delight 
 the eye by striking combinations, or by brilliancy of colour. 
 Abel de Pujol succeeded Baron Gros as member of the Academy 
 in 1835 ; and in the same year was made officer of the Legion of 
 Honour. He died at Paris, September 28, 1861. 
 
 ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, fourth 
 Earl of, [E. C. vol. i. col. 21]. From his resignation as pre- 
 mier in February 1855, the Earl of Aberdeen ceased to take 
 an active or prominent part in public affairs. In recognition 
 of his services the Order of the Garter was conferred upon 
 him on his retirement, and he had previously received the ap- 
 pointment of Ranger of Greenwich Park. He died December 13, 
 1860. He was succeeded as fifth Earl by his only son George 
 John James, Lord Haddo, born 1816, who died March 21, 1864. 
 The fifth Earl of Aberdeen was a man of fervid religious feelings 
 and benevolent purpose, and his early death caused much regret: 
 a Memoir of him by the Rev. E. B. Elliott was printed for private 
 circulation in 1866, but afterwards (1867) published and passed 
 through three or four editions ; and in 1869 appeared a new 
 memoir of him and of his second son, a young man of promise, 
 who was killed by the accidental discharge of his rifle at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, where he was a student, 1868 — under the 
 title : 1 The True Nobilitj'. Sketches of the Life and Character of 
 Lord Haddo, fifth Earl of Aberdeen ; and of his son, the Hon. 
 J. H. Gordon.' By Alexander Duff, D.D., L.L.D., &c, 8vo. 
 The present (sixth) Earl, George Hamilton Gordon, eldest son of 
 George, fifth Earl, was born in 1841. 
 
 ABILDGAARD, NIKOLAY ABRAHAM, a celebrated Da- 
 nish painter, born at Copenhagen in 1744, was the son of Soren 
 Abildgaard, also an artist of note in his day. On leaving the 
 Academy of Copenhagen in 1772, Nikolay went to Italy, where 
 he remained five years closely occupied in studying the works 
 of the great masters. He chiefly employed his pencil on histo- 
 rical subjects; acquired the reputation of being the best and 
 most learned painter Denmark had produced, and was commonly 
 spoken of as the Ratfaelle of the North. He was appointed 
 painter to the king, and in that capacity executed a series of 
 great works, the chief being four large pictures personifying 
 Europe at its four chief historical epochs, for the palace of 
 Chriatianburg. But these works perished in the fire which 
 destroyed that palace in 1794, and the loss so affected Abildgaard 
 that he scarcely touched his pencil afterwards. His other more 
 important works were 'Orpheus;' 'the Mother of Messalina 
 mourning over her Daughter; ' 'Philoctetes wounded,' and other 
 classical subjects, with several from Ossian. In his day he was 
 regarded as a great colourist, but his colour is deficient in bril- 
 liancy and transparency, and his manner is academic. For 
 several years he wi*s professor of painting in the Acrdemy of 
 
11 ABOUT, EDMUND-FRANC/HS-VALENTIN. 
 
 ABRAHAM A SANTA CLARA. 
 
 12 
 
 Copenhagen, and for two years its director, and several of the 
 best of the succeeding generation of Danish artists, including 
 Thorwaldsen, ascribed their success to his instruction. He died 
 at Copenhagen June 4, 1809. 
 
 *ABOUT, EDMUND-FRANCOIS-VALENTIN, popular 
 French author, was born February 14, 1828, at Dieuze, depart- 
 ment of Meurthe. At the Lyceum Charlemagne he gained the 
 prize in philosophy ; proceeded thence to the Ecole Normale, and 
 in 1851 went to complete his studies at the French Academy, 
 Athens. Whilst in Greece he wrote a monograph, ' l'lle d'- 
 Egine,' which appeared in 1854, shortly after his return. But the 
 work by which he became known was one of a more popular 
 character, 'la Grece con temporaine,' 1S55, which met with re- 
 markable success, due as much to the unsparing manner in 
 which he dealt with the modern Greeks, as to the lightness and 
 brilliancy of the style. Almost at the same moment his facile 
 pen threw off without apparent effort, in successive numbers "I' 
 the ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' the romance of 'Tolla,'a work 
 that was none the less popular for meeting with sharp strictures 
 from the critics. The same year he published a small volume of 
 art-criticism, ' Voyage a travers l'Exposition des Beaux-Arts,' 
 the first of several series of notices of contemporary art written 
 with the easy assurance of a light-hearted man of the world who 
 had evidently never given a serious thought to the subject, but 
 was familiar with the talk of the ateliers ; shallow and flippant, 
 but amusing from their light, mocking tone, ami having a 
 certain value as rellecting the current gossip of the Parisian art- 
 circles. In 185C, his first play, an unsuccessful comedy in three 
 acts, ' rEUi-onte,' altered subsequently to ' Guillery,' was pro- 
 duced at the Theatre Francaise. He now became a regular con- 
 tributor to 'Figaro 'and the ' Moniteur,' in the latter of which 
 appeared the series of short stories, afterwards published under 
 the title of ' Les Manages de Paris.' In the ' Moniteur' also ap- 
 peared, as the result of a residence in Rome, part at least of ' la 
 Question Romaine,' the first of several keen attacks upon the 
 papacy, which culminated in the ' Rome Contemporaine ' (8vo, 
 Paris, 1860). From this time he has always been a welcome 
 and effective contributor to the journals, and most perhaps of 
 his contributions have been afterwards published separately. Of 
 this class the volume of ' Causeries,' Paris, 1865 (originally pub- 
 lished in the ' Opinion Nationale '), is a good example of his 
 light writings, as 'la Nouvelle Carte d'Europe,' and 'la 
 Prusse,' in 1859, are of his more serious compositions. His 
 romances and novels have been very numerous, of course veiy 
 various in value, but always readable and almost always 
 amusing. Of the skill with which he can sustain the interest in 
 a series of trifling yet improbable events, and of his singularly 
 easy half-mocking style of narrative, one of his latest novelets, 
 ' Etienne,' first published in the ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' is a 
 favourable example, while ' Le Roi des Montagues,' as a prime 
 favourite, has been published in an edition illustrated with many 
 vignettes by Gustave Dore, and is now being modelled as a 
 libretto by the author himself. But busy as he has been as a 
 journalist and a romance writer, he has been almost as busy as a 
 dramatist, hardly a year having passed without the production 
 of a comedy or farce by him — though in this line he has been by 
 no means invariably successful. During 1869 he has published 
 two romances, ' Les Mariages de Province,' and ' Le Fellah,' in 
 the latter story aiming, as would seem, to do for Egypt what he 
 had previously done for Greece and Rome, but with more appa- 
 rent artifice and less vigour. M. About has as yet only written 
 trifles, and the writers of trifles are very numerous in Paris, but 
 he is the first of his class, and in his way inimitable. His style 
 is clear, rapid, and pungent, yet adroit ; and though perhaps 
 superficial, he is a shrewd observer. His writing is always 
 that of a scholar and a man accustomed to the best society 
 of the French capital. 
 
 ABRABANEL, DON ISAAC, the most famous of the 
 Spanish Rabbis, was born at Lisbon in 1437. Of a family that 
 had been ennobled in Spain, Abrabanel was yet prouder of his 
 Hebrew descent, being as he boasts in the Preface to his ' Com- 
 mentary on the Later Prophets,' of the blood royal of the House 
 of David. His education was the best that could be obtained, 
 and he studied with such success that at the age of twenty, he 
 was allowed to expound the Book of Deuteronomy in the 
 synagogue. But along with his biblical studies he practised 
 business, and acquired so much reputation as to be employed in 
 financial matters by the king, Alphonso V. On his death, how- 
 ever, in 1481, Abrabanel was, with the other ministers, banished 
 from Portugal, and his property confiscated. He fled to Spain, 
 and again engaging in mercantile transactions, acquired a large 
 
 fortune. In 1484 he is said to have been consulted by Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella, and to have been held in high regard by 
 them ; but he was not exempted from the decree of 1492, by 
 which the Jews were driven from Spain, and their property se- 
 questrated. Abrabanel took refuge with his family in Naples, 
 where be was received into the royal favour, but was once more 
 compelled to fly on the capture of Naples by the French in 1494. 
 After various wanderings, he settled in Venice, where he died in 
 1508. A life like this, when at rest deeply engaged in business, 
 or assisting the councils and providing for the monetary wants 
 of the sovereigns under whom he lived, but for a large part of 
 his time an exile and a wanderer, would hardly seem the best 
 adapted for the production of voluminous and learned theological 
 dissertations. Yet Abrabanel is esteemed one of the most pro- 
 found as well as brilliant of rabbinical expositors. In truth he 
 wrote everywhere, and he had a fluent pen. His works are a 
 ' Commentary on the Pentateuch,' written in 1495, but first pub* 
 lished at Venice, folio, 1579 ; ' A Commentary on the Earlier 
 Prophets ; ' ' A Commentary on the Later Prophets ; ' ' Maajene I 
 Hajeshuah,' a commentary on Daniel; 'The Preacher of 
 Salvation,' a defence of Hebraism against Christianity; J 
 ' Jeshuoth Meshicho,' an exposition of the Talmudic doc- | 
 trine of the Messiah ; ' Rosh Amana,' the principles of the | 
 Jewish Religion; 'the Sacrifice of the Passover;' 'the Inhe- | 
 ritance of the Fathers,' a treatise on Jewish antiquities; j 
 and several others. His works are written in Hebrew, but Bux- ' 
 torf, Mayer, and others, have translated many of them, wholly or j 
 in part, into Latin. 
 
 (Mai, Dissert, hist. phil. de orig. Vita ct Scriptis Isaaci Abra- { 
 banielis, Alt. 1708 ; Bartoloccius, Bib. Mag. liabb., iii. 874, 
 &c. ; Biog. Diet, of Soc. for Dijf. of Useful Knowledge, where is 
 given a full list and partial analysis of Abrabanel's writings.) 
 
 ABRAHAM A SANTA CLARA, the most famous German 
 preacher of the 17th century, whose real name was Ulrich 
 Megerle, was born July 4th, 1642, at Mosskirch in Suabia, and 
 educated at the grammar schools of Mosskirch, lngolstadt, and 
 Salzburg. In 1660 he entered the order of Augustins at Maria- ; 
 brunn in Austria ; went thence to study theology and philo- 
 sophy in the convent of his order at Vienna, and in 1662 was 
 ordained and made doctor of theology. For some time he offi- 
 ciated as priest and preacher in the Maria monastery at Taxa in 
 Bavaria, and then returned to Vienna, where his eloquence 
 attracted the attention of the Emperor Leopold I., who nomi- 
 nated him court-preacher, an office he filled for 20 years. , 
 During this long period he was the most popular preacher in 
 the city. His sermons, full of vigour, earnestness, and religious 
 zeal, expressed in the clearest vernacular, and seasoned with the 
 most outspoken directness of appeal and with frequent proverbs 
 and stories of a humorous and occasionally burlesque descrip- 
 tion, somewhat after the fashion of our own Latimer's, found 
 equal acceptance with all classes. Succeeding generations 
 fancied their language inelegant and the allusions and illustra- 
 tions coarse, and they fell into neglect ; but of late years their 
 popularity has revived, and they have been extensively read by 
 Protestants as well as Catholics. 
 
 During his residence at Vienna, Abraham a Santa Clara rose 
 step by step through the different grades of his order till he 
 became prior provincialis and definitor of his province, exhi- 
 biting in every office the greatest diligence and probity. In 
 1689 he went as prior provincialis to the general chapter of his 
 order at Rome, where he preached several times with great effect, 
 and was presented by the Pope, Innocent XL, with a conse- 
 crated cross. He died at Vienna on the 1st of December, 1709. 
 
 The writings of Abraham a Santa Clara are full of striking 
 and powerfully expressed thoughts, and display great originality, 
 imagination, and knowledge of character, as well as considerable 
 learning. They consist of treatises on points of practical mora- 
 lity and divinity as well as popular sermons. The collections 
 published by himself are : — ( 1 .) ' Judas der Erzschelm,fiir ehrliche 
 Lent, oder eigentlicher Entwurf und Lebensbeschreibung des 
 Ischariotischen Bosewichts,' 4 vols. Salzburg, 1688 — 95 ; 7 vols. 
 Passau, 1834—36 ; and 7 vols. Lindau, 1856. (2.) ' Reim dich 
 oder ich liss dich,' 4to, Salzburg, 1687. But many of his pro- 
 ductions are in neither of these collections. The character of 
 his mind may be guessed from the titles of some of his dis- 
 courses — ' Huy und Pfuy der Welt' (On and shame the world) ; 
 'Heilsames Gemisch-Gemasch,' (a wholesome mess,orMish-mash); 
 'Sterben und Erben' (To die and to inherit). A collected 
 edition of Abraham a Santa Clara's works ' Sammtliche Werke,' 
 was published in 21 vols. Passau, 1835 — 54. Several selections 
 have appeared at different times ; the best are perhaps 'Quint- 
 
ABSALON. 
 
 esscnz aus Abraham's a Santa Clara Werken,' Berlin, 1822—3 ; 
 and ' Abraham a Santa Clara : Das Gediegenste aus semen 
 Werkeu,' 7 vols. Heilbrunn, 1840—44. 
 
 ABSALON, or AXEL, Archbishop of Lund, the most remark- 
 able man produced by Denmark in the 12th century, was born 
 in 1 1 2S at Finnestoe in Zealand, and was a descendant of Slagus, 
 who founded the town of Slagelse. He received his early edu- 
 cation with his relative Prince "Waldemar, and completed his 
 studies at Paris. Having entered the Church, he was in 1158 
 made Bishop of Roeskild, and in 1178, much against his will, 
 Archbishop of Lund. But though he is said to have laboured 
 to improve the condition of the religious institutions of Den- 
 mark, he was more distinguished as a statesman and a warrior 
 than as an ecclesiastic. He was the chief adviser of Waldemar I. 
 and Ins successor, Knud, or Canute VI., surnamed the Great, and 
 it was to his wise counsels and energy that Denmark owed her 
 independence and the consolidation of the kingdom. He not 
 only repressed the encroachments of the great vassals, but en- 
 tirely subjugated the Wendish and other Slave tribes who had 
 hitherto only admitted a nominal dependence on Denmark, 
 and now made a desperate effort to throw off the yoke entirely. 
 Bishop Absalon commanded the army and fleet, which in 1169 
 reduced the island of Kiigen. Having taken Arcona, the 
 Wendish capital, Absalon destroyed the pagan idols, and com- 
 pelled the inhabitants to adopt Christianity. He also in a great 
 sea-fight defeated Bugislav and his fleet of 500 vessels ; and in 
 1170 took Julin, the northern entrepot of a great trade with 
 Persia, Asia Minor, and India. From this time the title of King 
 of the Wendes has been borne by the kings of Denmark. The 
 code of Waldemar was drawn up at the suggestion of Bishop 
 Absalon, and partly by himself. The famous Annals of Denmark 
 were written by Saxo Grammaticus at his command, and in 
 founding the monastery of Soroe he made it one of the rules that 
 these annals should be continued by the learned members of the 
 house. About 1168 Absalon built himself a palace, Axelhuus, 
 on the eastern coast of Zealand, by a little fishing village, but 
 which has since grown to be the capital of the kingdom. He is 
 thus regarded as the founder of Copenhagen, though the first 
 mention of the town is nearly a century later. Archbishop 
 Absalon died in 1201, and was buried in the church of Soroe. 
 A skull in the Copenhagen Museum used to be shown as that of 
 the archbishop, but on his grave being opened by command of 
 the king in 1827, the skeleton was found to be intact. His 
 sword, crosier, and some relics found in the grave, are preserved 
 in the museum. Estrup's ' Life of Absalon : Hero, Statesman, 
 and Bishop' (Soroe, 1826) was translated into German, with 
 additions by Mohnike. 
 
 (Illgen's Zeitschrift fur Hist. Theol. b. i. p. 1, 1832). 
 vABSCHATZ, HANS ASSMANN, BARON VON, German 
 poet, was born at Wiirbitz, in Silesia, February 4, 1646. From 
 the public school of Liegnitz he went to Strasbourg and Leyden, 
 where he studied jurisprudence. He afterwards travelled in 
 Holland, France, and Italy ; was appointed Governor of the 
 principality of Liegnitz ; and deputy to the diet of Breslau. As a 
 statesman he obtained some distinction, and also as Silesian 
 ambassador to the emperor at Vienna. His last years were 
 spent in retirement. He died, April 22, 1699. Abscliatz was 
 one of the most esteemed poets of his time, and his works were 
 collected after his death under the title of ' Poetische Ueber- 
 setzungea und Gedichte,' 2 vols. 8vo. Leipzig and Breslau, 1704. 
 After a long interval of neglect, the poems of Abscliatz have of 
 late gained some notice ; but though there is much feeling and 
 power in many of them, they are for the most part disfigured by 
 the faults and affectation of the time, and are not likely to 
 retain any hold of the public mind, except in selections. Some 
 of his hymns have a place in the church-service books. Among 
 his works is a translation of Guarini's ' 11 Pastor Fido,' which 
 was at one time verv popular. 
 
 ABU-ABDALLAII, MOHAMMED [Almohades, E. C. vol.i. 
 col. 165]. 
 
 A( C1AJUOLI, DONATO, a distinguished Italian statesman 
 and scholar, born at Florence in 1428, was descended from the 
 same family as the seneschal Niccolo Acciajuoli. He was the 
 friend of Piero and Lorenzo de' Medici ; was gonfaloniere of the 
 republic, and employed in several important missions. In one 
 d these, whilst on his way to Paris as ambassador from the 
 Florentines to Louis XL, he was seized with illness, and died at 
 Milan, 1478. The news of his death caused general grief ; he 
 was decreed a public funeral ; his family were declared exempt 
 from taxes, and his daughters were apportioned from the public 
 treasury. Donato was celebrated as an orator and a writer as well 
 
 as a politician. He translated and remodelled Leonardo Bruni's 
 'History of Florence' (Venice, foL 1476) ; some of ' Plutarch's 
 Lives' (Florence, fol. 1478); and wrote commentaries on the 
 ethics and politics of Aristotle. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, NICCOLO, a distinguished Italian states- 
 man, was born at Florence, September 12, 1310, of a good, 
 though not noble family. He was sent by his father to Naples, 
 where he had extensive business transactions, but Niccolo 
 resolved to push his fortune at court, where he ingratiated him- 
 self with the Princess of Taranto, and was entrusted with the 
 education of her three sons. After the death of King Kobert, 
 1343, he secured the favour of Queen Joan, whose confidence 
 he retained till his death. On the murder of her husband, 
 Andreas of Hungary, it was Acciajuoli who procured her mar- 
 riage with his old pupil, Prince Louis of Taranto ; baffled the 
 vengeance of King Louis of Hungary, the brother of Andreas ; 
 and obtained the sanction of the Pope to the coronation of Joan 
 and Louis in 1352. Acciajuoli was now created grand seneschal, 
 and became the virtual ruler of the kingdom. King Loins 
 having died in 1362, the seneschal procured the marriage of 
 Joan in the following year with James, Prince of Minorca. 
 Acciajuoli died in 1366, and was interred by order of Joan in 
 the Church of the Certosa, near Florence, of which he was the 
 founder, and where a splendid monument to his memory was 
 erected from the designs of Orcagna, with sculpture in low relief 
 by Donatello. Acciajuoli was a sagacious and vigorous states- 
 man, and thoroughly devoted to Joan. He was wealthy, osten- 
 tatious, and haughty, but he appears to have been generous, and 
 wished to be esteemed a patron of men of learning and genius. 
 Petrarch felt flattered by his condescension ; Zanobi di Strada 
 received substantial favours at his hands ; and Boccaccio was 
 invited by him to Naples, but soon retired in disgust. 
 
 (Palmieri, Vita di Nic Acciaiuoli, Florence, 1588 ; Pignotti, 
 Storia della Toscana, vol. iv.) 
 
 ACCOLTI, BENEDETTO, Italian lawyer and historian, born 
 at Arezzo in 1415, studied law at Florence and Bologna ; was 
 made professor of law at Florence ; on the death of Poggio in 
 1459 was elected Chancellor of the republic, and died in 1466. 
 He was regarded as one of the ablest jurisconsults of his time, 
 and as an accomplished writer. His chief work was a history of 
 the crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon, in four books. Written 
 in Latin, and inscribed to Piero de' Medici, it afforded to Tasso 
 the materials for his ' Jerusalem Delivered.' It was first printed 
 at Venice, 4to, 1532, and reprinted at Basel, 8vo, 1544. The 
 last edition was Groningen, 8vo, 1731. It has been translated 
 into Greek, Italian, and French. He also wrote a dialogue in 
 Latin, ' De praostantia virorum sui sevi,' printed for the first time 
 at Parma, 8vo, 1689, and 12mo, 1692 ; at Augsburg, 8vo, 1691. 
 
 Cardinal Benedetto Accolti, grandson of the above, has 
 been by more than one writer mistaken for the author of both 
 the history and the dialogue. He was born at Florence in 1497 ; 
 studied at Pisa and Florence ; was made successively Bishop of 
 Cadiz and of Cremona, and Archbishop of Ravenna ; was secre- 
 tary to Pope Clement VII., who created him cardinal in 1527 ; 
 played a leading part in ecclesiastical politics ; was imprisoned 
 in 1532 by Paul III. for an unknown offence, but released on 
 payment of a heavy fine ; retired from Rome, and died at 
 Florence in 1549. Cardinal Accolti wrote some much-praised 
 Latin verse, and was the patron of learned men. 
 
 ACCOLTI, BERNARDO, named l'Unico, from the grace of 
 his versification and his skill in improvising verses to a musical 
 accompaniment, was the son of the historian, Benedetto Accolti. 
 Neither the year of his birth nor death is known ; he was still 
 livmg in 1534, though he is supposed to have died shortly after. 
 As a young man he was attached to the Court of Urbino ; later 
 he gained the favour of Leo X., who made him one of his apos- 
 tolic secretaries. At Rome, according to the testimony of his 
 contemporaries, Cardinal Bembo, P. Cortese, and Aretino, he 
 accpiired unbounded popularity. Aretino says that " when it was 
 known in Rome that the celestial Bernardo Accolti intended to 
 recite his verses, people shut up their shops, and all hastened to 
 participate in the pleasure. On these occasions he was sur- 
 rounded by the bishops and principal persons of the city, and 
 attended by a numerous body of the Swiss guard." Even the 
 Pope was carried away by the general enthusiasm, and addressed 
 him as the incomparable (I' Unico, the only). But his verses by no 
 means sustain the admiration of his contemporaries. Roscoe 
 wrote that " one circumstance only is wanting to his glory — that 
 his works should have perished along with him ; " and the pas- 
 sage is quoted with approbation by Sismondi, who says that 
 " his style is hard and poor, his images are affected, and liis taste 
 
ACCOLTI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 ACHENBACH, ANDREAS. 
 
 perverted by affectation." But Tiraboschi had longbefore described 
 him as a mediocre poet. It was the fascination of his manner 
 and the effect of fashion that wrought the charm. His poems 
 were printed for the first time at Florence in 8vo, 1513 — 'Vir- 
 ginia Comedia, Capitoli c Strambotti;' and 'Opera Nuova,' 
 Venice, 1510 ; and they have been many times reprinted. The 
 comedy of Virginia, founded on one of the novels of Boccaccio, 
 written in ottavo and terzo lima, was one of the earliest Italian 
 dramas. 
 
 ACCOLTI, FRANCESCO, called, like others of his family, 
 Aretinus, one of the most famous jurists of the fifteenth century, 
 was the younger brother of Benedetto Accolti, the historian, and 
 was born about 1418. He studied literature under Francesco 
 Filelf'o (Philelphus), and, according to Mazzuchelli, jurisprudence, 
 under Antonio da Pratovecchio and LodovicoPontano, while others 
 say he learnt law from Mincuccius. Accolti was appointed 
 professor of law in the university of Bologna in 1440 ; and in 
 1445 professor of civil law at Ferrara. In 1455 he went to 
 Siena, but returned to Ferrara. in 1457 as professor of the civil 
 and canonical law. In 1461 he was induced to enter the service 
 of Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, as secretary — an office he 
 held for about five years. By Sforza he was sent on an embai v 
 to Rome to compliment the new Pope, Paul II., and the oration 
 he delivered on this occasion was afterwards printed. In 146(5 
 he was elected to the chair of jurisprudence at Siena, which he 
 retained till 1479. Whilst here he pronounced strongly in 
 favour of Florence and Lorenzo de' Medici in opposition to the 
 claims of the Pope, in consequence of which the Duke of Cala- 
 bria, as papal general, made a formal demand of the magistracy 
 of Siena for his surrender, but was refused. In 14"s he was 
 made senior professor of law at the university of Pisa. Accord- 
 ing to Fabbrucci and Manni, as cited by Tiraboschi, Accolti 
 died in 1483 at the baths of Siena, whither he had gone in hope 
 of relief from calculus, with which he was afllicted ; but other 
 authorities say that on account of his increasing infirmities he 
 was allowed to retire from his professorship in 14s4, retaining 
 his salary, and that he died at Siena about the end of 1485. 
 Francesco Accolti had the reputation of being the greatest and 
 most erudite jurist, one of the ablest orators, and the most suc- 
 cessful advocate of his time. But he is said to have been avari- 
 cious, and he died enormously rich. He intended to leave his 
 wealth for the foundation of a college, but, dying intestate and 
 unmarried, it passed to his natural heirs, among others, Cardinal 
 Accolti, the subject of the following article. The only legal 
 works he published were his ' Commentaria super Lib. II. 
 Deeretalium,' Bol. 1481 (reprinted at Pavia in 1496 and at 
 Venice in 1581) ; ' Consilia sen Responsia,' Pisa, 1481 ; and 
 ' Repetitiones aliique Libelli.' But subsequently appeared — 
 printed, it is said, from notes taken at his lectures — his ' Lectura 
 in Codicem,' Pavia, 1502 ; ' Lectura in Digestum Vetus,' 1514 ; 
 'Lectura in Digestum Novum,' 1514; and ' Lectura in Infor- 
 tiatum,' 1514. He also translated the letters of Philaris from the 
 original Greek into Latin. Erasmus refers disparagingly to a 
 translation he had read by Accolti of Chrysostom's Homilies on 
 the First Epistle to the Corinthians ; some sonnets by him are 
 printed by Crescimbeni in ' LTstoria della volgar Poesia,' while 
 others are said to exist in manuscript in the libraries of Strozzi 
 and Chigi ; and a manuscript translation of the 'Iliad' in the 
 library of the Vatican is ascribed to Accolti and L. Valla jointly. 
 He also wrote or edited a treatise on the Baths of Puzzuoli, 
 Naples, 4to, 1475. 
 
 ACCOLTI, PIETRO, known as Cardinal of Aticona, son of 
 the historian Benedetto and nephew of the famous jurist Fran- 
 cesco Accolti, was born at Florence, March 15, 1453. His father 
 died when Pietro was only eleven years old, but he was carefully 
 brought up by his mother, received a good education, and studied 
 law at the University of Pisa. He then practised for awhile as 
 an advocate ; was appointed professor of law at Pisa ; afterwards 
 settled at Rome and was appointed auditor of the rota by 
 Alexander VI. Having taken ecclesiastical orders, his wealth, con- 
 nections, and ability rendered his path smooth, tie was elected 
 Bishop of Ancona in 1505, and on his resigning the bishopric 
 in favour of his nephew, in 1511, he was made Cardinal and at 
 the same time Bishop of Cadiz, but on the opposition of the King 
 of Spain he was transferred to the French bishopric of Maillezais. 
 Later he was made Bishop of Arras ; in 1524 Archbishop of 
 Ravenna, but exchanged it with his nephew Benedetto for the 
 bishopric of Cremona, and some months later became succes- 
 sively Cardinal Bishop of Albano, of Palestrina, and of Sabina. 
 He filled at various times the offices of cardinal legate, secretary 
 of the papal briefs, and cardinal vicar of Rome, and had im- 
 
 mense influence in the papal councils : according to Pallavicino 
 the Bull against Luther, dated June 15, 1520, was drawn up by 
 Cardinal Accolti. He died at Florence in 1549. A treat] 6 
 against the heresy of Luther is ascribed to him, but does not 
 appear to have been printed. He also wrote on the papal rights, 
 and one or two legal essays. 
 
 ACCORSO, BUONO, or Buonaccorso Pisano, as his name is 
 frequently written, a celebrated Italian scholar, born at Pisa 
 about the middle of the 15th century. He was for a time pro- 
 fessor of elocution at Ferrara, and afterwards founded a school of 
 rhetoric at Milan. He acquired great celebrity by the publica- 
 tion of a series of commentaries on Greek and Latin authors, 
 commencing with Cajsar, Ferrara, 1474, and closing with the 
 Familiar Epistles of Cicero, Milan, fol. 1485. He also pub- 
 lished a Greek and Latin Lexicon ; but his name will probably 
 be longest preserved as having been the first to give to the world 
 the printed text of a Greek author. This was Planudes' collec- 
 tion of /Esop's Fables, which Accorso accompanied with a Latin 
 translation. It is without date, but was published at Milan, 
 about 1478, and bears the colophon Accursius impressit, the only 
 one of his books so marked. 
 
 ACHARIUS, ERIK, a Swedish physician and botanist, was 
 born at Gene, October 18, 1757. Alter studying in his native 
 town, and then under Linnaeus at Upsal, he was employed by 
 the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm to prepare drawings on 
 Natural History subjects, to be engraved for their Transactions. 
 He received a degree in Medicine m 1782; was appointed phy- 
 sician to the town of Landscrona in 1785 ; physician to the pro- 
 vince of East Gothland in 1789; and professor of Botany at the 
 Wadstena Academy in 1801. He was an active and successful 
 physician, but ischiefly remembered for his researches on cry ptoga- 
 mic botany, especially the family of lichens. In 1798 he published 
 ' Lichenographia3 Suecica; Prodromus,' which, with two other 
 works in 1803, paved the way for his chief publication, ' Licheno- 
 graphia Universalis,' Gottingen, 4to, 1810. In this he traced the 
 physiology, structure, and relations of all lichens then known, 
 classifying them into 41 genera and more than 1300 species; his 
 system was founded on the structure of their reproductive organs. 
 In 1814 he published ' Synopsis Methodica Lichenum,' a sort of 
 epitome of his great work. He had also numerous papers on 
 lichens and other natural-history subjects in the Transactions of 
 the Stockholm Academy. Acharius died October 13, 1819, at 
 Wadstena, in East Gothland. 
 
 ACHEN, HANS VAN, German painter, was born in 1552 
 at Cologne, where he learned painting under Jerrigh. He after- 
 wards went to Italy, where, under Renis, he acquired the secrets 
 of Venetian colouring, and then completed his studies at Flo- 
 rence and Rome. A ' Nativity' which he painted for the Church 
 of the Jesuits at Rome was greatly admired, and Achen was 
 invited by the Elector of Bavaria to visit Munich. Here he 
 remained several years and painted some of his best works, 
 notably a ' Crucifixion' for the Kreuz Kapelle. He accepted an 
 invitation from the emperor Rudolph II. to go to Prague, where, 
 with the exception of visits to Augsburg and Munich, he re- 
 mained the rest of his life, and died in 1615. Sixteen of his 
 pictures are in the Vienna Gallery, one of the most celebrated is 
 a ' Bathsheba, Bathing.' Achen acquired great temporary fame 
 from having been one of the first of the German painters to 
 break away entirely from the hard manner of the media;val 
 artists, but his works are tasteless and affected. Several of his 
 classical and religious subjects and some portraits, have been 
 engraved by the best German engravers. 
 
 ""ACHENBACH, ANDREAS, German painter, was born at 
 Cassel, September 29, 1815. He studied painting under Schadow, 
 but from the commencement of his independent practice devoted 
 himself to landscape, and soon took a foremost place among the 
 landscape painters of Germany. His pictures are however 
 seldom mere views of places. Incidents of some kind are almost 
 invariably introduced, and generally very effectively. At one time 
 he painted coast scenery most frequently, and his representations 
 of the sea have more truth and feeling than those of most of his 
 countrymen. He also depicts architecture very skilfully. In 
 woodland scenery he appears less at home. His range of sub- 
 jects is shown by the titles of a few of his more successful 
 works ; — ' Coast of Sicily — fair weather ;' ' A Stormy Sea on the 
 Coast of Sicily ;' ' Ostend Quay at High-water ;' ' A Village 
 Festival by Moonlight ;' ' Dutch Festival .' . Herr Achenbach is 
 a member of the Royal Academy of Berlin; honorary member 
 of the Academies of Antwerp, Amsterdam, and Philadelphia ; 
 and a knight of the French Legion of Honour. His brother, 
 *0swald Achenbach, born at Diisseldorf in 1827, is also dis- 
 
17 
 
 ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED. 
 
 ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH. 
 
 18 
 
 languished as a landscape painter. He was educated in the 
 Diisseldorf Academy, and formed Lis style on that of his brother, 
 Imt gradually adopted a more independent manner. Among his 
 works are ' Pilgrims approaching Rome'; ' A Mass in the Oam- 
 
 n;v, and the like ; hut they are more often merely ' an Italian 
 [scape ', a ' View near Naples ', or other views of places. 
 ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED, termed the founder of the 
 science of statistics, was bom at Elbing, Prussia, October 20, 
 1719; studied in the universities of Jena and Leipzig, 1738-43; 
 and then resided for three years at Dresden as tutor to the sons 
 of Baron von Gersdorf. In 1746 he was admitted as extra pro- 
 fessor (privatdocent) at Marburg university, where he lectured 
 on history, international law, and social science, giving in out- 
 line the views which he afterwards elaborated into a system. 
 His teaching having attracted the notice of Munchhausen, the 
 Hanoverian minister, he was offered and accepted a chair in the 
 new University of Gottingen, where he remained from 1748 till 
 his death, which occurred on the 1st of May, 1772. He was 
 nominated professor of philosophy in 1753, of law in 1761. 
 From the commencement of his teaching at Gottingen he made 
 statistics, or as it was then called states-science (JVissenschafb der 
 Staaten), the subject of his principal course, and in 1749 pub- 
 lished his 1 Abriss der neuesten Staatswissenschaft der vornehm- 
 Sten europaischen Reiche und Republiken,' (Outline of recent 
 Statistics of the principal European Kingdoms and Republics). 
 His views were more fully developed in his constitution and 
 condition of the European kingdoms (' Staatsverfassungen der 
 europ. Reiche im Grundrisse,' Gott., 1752), of which he pub- 
 lished revised editions in 1762 and 1768. To collect materials 
 for these later editions he made journeys in successive years in 
 England, Holland, France, and Switzerland, and the last edition 
 may be taken as the complete expression of his idea. Achenwall 
 was not the first to teach statistics, still less was he the originator 
 of the science ; but he was the first to give it a distinct form, to 
 define its purpose, to develope its capabilities, to impart to it 
 deamess of purpose and precision of method. With him statistics 
 (the title was invented by him, scientia statistica,) was not applied 
 mi-rely to the collection of facts and figures, but made to embrace 
 the entire social condition, political organisation, and economical 
 resources of a state. As it has been neatly put, Achenwall 
 "defines politics as the theory of what a state ought to be, 
 statistics the account of what it really is, and civil history as the 
 account of how it has become what it is." On all these subjects 
 Achenwall sought to obtain sound knowledge and clear views, 
 and he made all of them the subject of his teaching. Great as 
 was the influence of his writings, that of his oral instruction was 
 probably even greater. His other published works include a 
 Theory of Law (' Elementa Juris Naturae,' Gott., 1758) ; Theory 
 of Politics, 1761; and others on European state-rights, politics, 
 and diplomacy. His wife, Sophie Eleonore Walther, a woman 
 of unusual learning and ability, wrote poetry and essays : and her 
 collected works were published in five volumes, Gottingen, 1751. 
 
 ACHERLEY, ROGER, a political writer of some notoriety 
 during the first half of the 18th century. Of his life 
 little is known. Born probably near the close of the 17th 
 century, he was a barrister, and describes himself as " of 
 the Middle Temple, Esquire." The work by which he be- 
 came known was entitled ' The Britannic Constitution, or the 
 Fundamental Form of Government in Britain, demonstrating 
 the Original Contract entered into by King and People ; 
 wherein is proved that the placing on the throne King 
 William III. was the natural fruit and effect of the Consti- 
 tution ; ' fol. London, 1727. The hypothesis of an original 
 contract was not of course new, but Aclierley regarded it as 
 a positive historical fact, the result of a convention held for the 
 purpose by the inhabitants of Britain not long after the Flood, 
 rhe work is that of an enthusiast, and, apart from the history, 
 is consistent throughout. It was written against, laughed, at, 
 and defended, but probably convinced nobody. Aclierley was a 
 devoted supporter of William and the Revolution of 1688 ; and 
 in the reign of Anne he showed equal devotion to the House of 
 Hanover, at the same time that he stoutly upheld the rights of 
 the legislature, in a work entitled ' Free Parliaments ; or an 
 Argument on their Constitution ; proving some of their powers 
 to be independent : to which is added an Appendix of Original 
 Letters and Papers which passed between the Court of Hanover 
 and a Gentleman at London, touching the right of the Duke of 
 Cambridge [afterwards George I.] to reside in England and sit 
 in Parliament :' 8vo, London, 1731. He is also the author of 
 the tract entitled ' Jurisdiction of the Chancery as a Court of 
 Equity re-searched,' of which a third edition appeared in 1736 ; 
 
 bioo. div. — sup. 
 
 and ' Reasons for Uniformity,' 1741. A second edition of his 
 'Britannic Constitution ' was published in 1759. Aclierley is 
 believed to have died some time previously. 
 
 (Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge.) 
 
 ACHERY, DOM JEAN LUC D', a learned Benedictine, 
 was born in 1609, at St. Quentin, in Picardy ; professed at 
 the Benedictine monastery in that town, but quitted it in 1632 
 to enter the abbey of La Ste Trinite at Vendome, belonging to 
 the congregation of St. Maur, where the rule was more strict. 
 In 1637 his health rendered a residence near Paris desirable, and 
 he removed to the abbey of St. Germain des Pres, where he spent 
 the remainder of his days. He was the librarian of the abbey, and 
 he re-arranged, greatly increased, and catalogued the books. The 
 Popes Alexander VII. and Clement X. held him in high esteem, 
 but the feebleness of his health, and the laborious nature of his 
 studies, confined him close to his abbey, and made him regard- 
 less of honours. His piety, his learning, and his gentleness 
 caused him to be much consulted in religious and literary 
 difficulties. His studies were mainly directed to the early 
 history of the Church, in which his researches were of great 
 value. He published editions of the Catholic Epistles of St. 
 Barnabas in Greek and Latin, with the notes of P. Menard, 4to, 
 1645 ; the works of Lanfranc, with a life and appendix, Paris, 
 fol. 1648 ; the Life and Works of St. Guibert, Paris, fol. 
 1651; the early ascetic writings, ' Asceticorum vulgo Spiri- 
 tualium, Opusculorum, qua) inter Patrum Opera reperiuntur, 
 Indiculus,' &c, Paris, 4to, 1648 ; and several other learned 
 works, but his great works are the two following : ' Veterum 
 aliquot Scriptorum, qui in Galliae Bibliothecis, maxime Bene- 
 dictinorum, latuerant Spicilegium,' Paris, 13 vols. 4to, 1655 — 77, 
 an immense collection of documents, memoirs, and papers of all 
 kinds, illustrating the history, theology, and literature of the 
 middle ages, drawn from many of the monastic libraries, put 
 together without any attempt at classification, but witli a 
 preface to each volume explaining its contents. The 2nd 
 edition by La Barre, Paris, 3 vols, folio, 1723, is more con- 
 venient for reference ; but the prefaces, in which are much of 
 D'Achery's peculiar erudition, have been cruelly abridged. 
 Even this great work was outdone by the ' Acta Sanctorum 
 ordinis S. Benedicti in Sseculorutn Classes distributa,' Paris, 
 fol. 1668, &c. Seven volumes of this vast work were published 
 during D'Achery's life. Of these the materials were for the 
 most part collected and arranged by D Achery, but the notes, 
 observations, and tables, as well as the learned prefaces, were by 
 Mabillon, who had also assisted D'Achery in the compilation of 
 his ' Spicilegium,' [Mabillon, E. C. vol. iv. col. lj. D'Achery 
 died at St. Germain des Pres, April 29, 16S5. 
 
 ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH, printseller and publisher, was 
 born at Stolberg, in the Saxon Harz, April 20, 1764, the son 
 of a coach-builder and harness maker, who removed his manu- 
 factory in 1775 to Schneeberg, in the public school of which 
 town Rudolph received his education. At the age of 15 he 
 entered his father's workshop, but after a little time gave his 
 chief attention to drawing, and became an expert draftsman and 
 designer. On the completion of his apprenticeship he visited 
 several German towns, and then stayed for awhile at Paris as 
 pupil and assistant to Carrossi, then the leading designer for 
 coach-buihlers. From Paris he came to London, where he found 
 ample employment at a time when a carriage was regarded as a 
 work of art : among his designs were the state carriage of the 
 Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1790, and that of the Lord-mayor of 
 Dublin, 1791. Having saved some money and married an 
 English wife, he, in 1795, took a house in the Strand, No. 96, 
 and commenced the business with which his name is chiefly 
 associated, of a print-seller and fine-arts publisher. The follow- 
 ing year he removed to larger premises, No. 101, Strand, and, 
 along with his proper business, reopened the rooms known as 
 Shipley's Drawing School, as a school of art, which he continued 
 with success till 1806. Later he commenced holding in his 
 large room weekly evening gatherings, for social intercourse, of 
 artists, literary men, and persons of taste, at which the new 
 prints, pictures, and artistic nick-nackerie3 were exhibited, and 
 which are described as having contributed greatly to the pro- 
 motion of a love of art and acquaintanceship with artists. But 
 it was as a publisher of illustrated works that he was best 
 known, and had most influence on the public taste. Although 
 many of his publications were almost necessarily addressed to 
 the passing modes of thought, many were at once costly and of 
 permanent value. Chief among these were the various series 
 illustrating the universities and grammar schools, public build- 
 
 c 
 
19 
 
 ACONTIUS, JACOBUS. 
 
 ACONTIUS, JACOBUS. 
 
 20 
 
 ings, and picturesque localities. Such were the ' University of 
 Oxford, portraits of the founders, and costume,' in all 133 
 plates by Pugin, Mackenzie, and U\vins ; a companion volume 
 of Cambridge University, with 111 plates after the same artists ; 
 the colleges and schools of Eton, Harrow, Winchester, West- 
 minster, &c. ; Westminster Abbey, 84 plates after Pugin and 
 Mackenzie, 1813 ; ' Palace of Brighton,' by Nash, 1826 ; and 
 ' Picturesque Tours,' — of the English lake3, with plates after 
 Fielding and Walton ; of the Thames with plates after 
 Westall and Owen ; of the Seine with plates after Pugin 
 and Gendall ; of the Rhine, after Von Gerning ; and other 
 series of South America, India, &c. Another important class of 
 illustrated books was that to which belonged ' The Microcosm of 
 London,' 3 vols. 1809-10, with 104 plates after Pugin and 
 Eowlandson, a very different work from Pyne's 'Microcosm,' 
 120 plates, 1822 ; ' Select Views of London,' 7G plates, 1810-15 ; 
 'Views of Country Seats of the Royal Family, Nobility, and 
 Gentry;' 'Views of Cottages and Farm Houses of England,' 
 52 plates, after Chalon, Prout, Cristall, Varley, &c, 1816. Books 
 like Blake's designs to Blair's Grave (engraved by SchiavoneUi), 
 1818; 'Albeit Durer's Prayer Book,' 45 plates, 1817; and 
 ' Subjects from the Works of T. Stothard, RA.,' 61 plates, 1830 
 — were among those published by him. He also published, and 
 for the most part suggested, those books which owed their 
 extraordinary popularity to the exuberant pencil of Rowlandson 
 rather than to the pen of his literary colleague, Combe, and of 
 which the Tours of Dr. Syntax and Johnny Newcome, may be 
 cited as the representatives. Several of his more expensive 
 illustrated works were published in parts, but besides these Mr. 
 Ackermann initiated the publication of an illustrated art perio- 
 dical, in ' the Repositary of Arts, Literature, Fashions,' &c, which 
 he continued for about 20 years, 1809 — 28. 'The Poetical 
 Magazine' was another periodical started by him, but it did not 
 last long. Another, ' The World in Miniature,' was continued 
 through 43 volumes. The elegant but flimsy Christmas or New- 
 Years Annuals which for some years enjoyed so extraordinary 
 an amount of public favour, owed their origin to Mr. Ackermann, 
 who in 1822 brought out his ' Forget-Me-Not,' and was quickly 
 followed by numerous imitators. We have named these as cha- 
 racteristic examples of Aekermann's illustrated publications, 
 but they are only a very few out of many ; a tolerably full list 
 may be seen in 'Notes and Queries/ 4th series, vol. iv. pp. Ill, 
 129, &c Mr. Ackermann was the first to render lithography 
 practically available in England. Struck by its capabilities he 
 set up presses, and opened an establishment for carrying out the 
 various processes of the art ; translated Senefelder's ' Manual,' 
 and induced Prout and some other skilful artists to turn their 
 attention to its practice ; and when mechanical and other diffi- 
 culties proved serious obstacles to its success, he went to Ger- 
 many to discuss them with Senefelder, and in 1822 gave to 
 artists the benefit of his investigations in a ' Complete Course of 
 Lithography.' He also spent much time and money in endea- 
 vouring to improve the process of aquatinta, a process by which 
 the plates of many of his publications were executed. Nor was 
 his interest confined to inventions connected with art. His was 
 one of the first houses in London lit with gas, he having had works 
 for its manufacture erected on his premises, and liberally assisting 
 the inventor in his experiments. In 1815 he published 'Accum's 
 Treatise on Gas Lighting.' He also laid before Government a 
 scheme for applying balloons in time of war. Waterproofing of 
 w r oollen-stuft's, leather, &c, was another project at which lie 
 laboured, having waterproofing works for some time in success- 
 ful operation at Chelsea. By his countrymen he was, however, 
 most esteemed for his philanthropy, he having been the pro- 
 moter and secretary of the subscription (1813) for the sufferers 
 by the war in Germany, which raised a sum of ,£100,000, 
 besides the vote of a similar sum by Parliament. He was like- 
 wise earnest and successful in assisting the distressed French 
 and Spanish exiles, and in procuring them opportunities for 
 turning their talents to account. He continued actively engaged 
 in business till 1830, when he was disabled by an attack of pa- 
 ralysis. He removed to Finchley, where he died March 30, 1 834. 
 
 ACONTIUS, JACOBUS (Aconzio, Giacomo), distinguished 
 as a philosopher, jurist, theologian, and engineer, was born at 
 Trent, early in the 16th century. The year 1566 is ordinarily, 
 and it would seem with propriety, assigned as that of his death ; 
 and this statement is greatly fortified by the testimony of Gras- 
 serus, who in an edition of the ' Stratagemata Satance,' of Acon- 
 tius (1610), says that the author died soon after its first publi- 
 cation in 1565. It is probable, therefore, that Francis Cheynell 
 was mistaken in his assertion (' The Divine Triunity,' London, 
 
 1650, p. 443) that Acontius " was living in the year 1613." He 
 himself states that he was educated for the profession of the 
 Law ; and it is further said, on evidence less conclusive, that he 
 subsequently spent several years in a Court. Literary activity 
 was the adoption of a later period. In 1557, he abandoned 
 the communion of the Church of Rome ; and became, with 
 others, an exile from his native country, for the sake of enjoying 
 a wider liberty of theological speculation. At first he took 
 refuge in Switzerland ; afterwards at Strasbourg ; and finally, 
 about 1558, came over to England, where he spent the remainder 
 of his life. His abilities as an engineer recommended him to the 
 favour and patronage of Queen Elizabeth, from whom he en- 
 joyed a pension. An interesting record of his activity in this 
 capacity is preserved at varying length in the ' Statutes at 
 Large,' in Dujjdale's ' History of Imbanking,' and in Hasted's 
 ' History of Kent.' It was represented to Parliament, in the 
 fifth year of Queen Elizabeth (1563), that two thousand acres of 
 land in the parishes of Erith, Plumstead, and Lesnes, which in 
 former times were good pasture grounds and meadows, had lain 
 waste during thirty years owing to the breaches in the river 
 walls, and the consequent inundation of the Thames. It was 
 further represented that "one Jacobus Acontyus, an Italian, and 
 servant to the Queen, had undertaken at his own charges their 
 recovery, in consideration of a moiety of them for his charges." 
 An Act of Parliament was necessary for the undertaking, on 
 account of the opposition of many of the proprietors whose inte- 
 rests seemed to be threatened by the project ; and it was accord- 
 ingly enacted that " the said Jacobus and his assigns, and their 
 servants, &c, should at his cost and charges, after the 10th of 
 March, 1563, during the term of four years next following, inne, 
 fence, and win the said grounds, or any parcel of them," the. 
 recompense to be as already stated. A commission, issued in 
 the seventh year of Queen Elizabeth, gave in a report on the 
 last day of the following January, to the effect that six hundred 
 acres had been won and ' inned,' and walls, banks, and other 
 defences thrown up to protect them from the water and flood of 
 the river Thames, according to the tenour of the Act. From 
 another act of the eighth year of Queen Elizabeth, it appears 
 that Acontius fanned out his privilege to John Baptista Castilion 
 and others whose names are repeated in the powers granted or 
 confirmed to them in a further act of the twenty-third of Eliza- 
 beth ; and assigned to them the part — the East Marsh — which 
 had been allotted to himself. It is fair to infer that failing health 
 alone could have induced a man of the energy and ingenuity of 
 Acontius to relegate to other hands the continuance of such a 
 task ; and thus we are again brought to the probable conclusion 
 that ins death happened, according to Grasserus and the gene- 
 rally received account, in the year 1566. 
 
 Acontius expresses his obligations to the Queen in a dedication 
 to her Majesty of his work on the Devices of the Devil, ' Strata- 
 gemata Satanae, Libri Octo,' 12mo, Basilia?, 1565 ; of which 
 three other editions were published at Basel, 1582, 1610, and 
 1620, and one at Amsterdam, 1624. An octavo edition issued 
 from Oxford in 1631, with a letter addressed by the author to 
 J. Wolfius. An English translation of the first four books ap- 
 peared in 1648, under the title of ' Satan's Stratagems ; or, tni 
 Devil's Cabinet-Council Discovered,' 4to, London ; and another, 
 in 1651, entitled, ' Darkness Discovered ; or, the Devil's Secret 
 Stratagems laid open ; whereby he labours to make havock ol 
 the people of God by his wicked and damnable designs foi 
 destroying the kingdom of Christ. Wherein is contained an 
 exquisite method of disputation about religion, and putting an end 
 to all controversies in matters of conscience. Written by Jacobu: 
 Acontius.' Editions of this work appeared, with more or less 
 promptness after its first publication, in the leading languages ol 
 Europe. The ' Stratagemata Satanae' w T as the occasion of rnuul 
 controversy, and Peltius speaks of its author as " clandestine 
 Socinianorum assecla ; " whilst Cheynell says that " he gives tlx 
 right hand of brotherly fellowship to the Socinians." On tin 
 other hand, Arminius calls him " divinum prudentia; etmodera 
 tionis lumen ; " and it has been more recently affirmed that sonn 
 of the finest passages of Milton's ' Areopagitica ' may be tracec 
 to Acontius. It is, at least, conceded on all hands, as well bj 
 orthodox as by heterodox readers, that the author of this bool 
 was an Antitrinitarian. 
 
 Acontius was a member of the Dutch Church in Austii 
 Friars ; and as, in the words of Strype (' Life and Acts of Arch 
 bishop Grindal'), a suspicion arose that he was "touched witl 
 Anabaptistical and Arian principles," proceedings were insti 
 tuted against him, in 1560, before Grindal, then Bishop of Lon 
 don, and ex officio " superintendent of the Foreigners' churches ii 
 
21 
 
 AC UNA, CHRISTOVAL DE. 
 
 22 
 
 London." Dr. Grindal gave judgment against Acontius ; and 
 Strype says that the latter was " withheld by the hishop's sen- 
 tence from receiving the holy sacrament, forbidding botli the 
 Dutch or any other Church to admit him ; for which he wrote a 
 lon^ expostulatory letter to the said Dutch Church, which is 
 extant [1710] in the library of the said Church of St. Augustin's." 
 The principal works of Acontius, besides the one already men- 
 tioned, are a treatise on method, ' De Methodo ; hoc est, de recta 
 investigandarum tradendarumque Artium ac Scientiarum ratione 
 Libellus,' 12mo, Basiliae, 1558; 8vo, Genevce, 1582 ; 18mo, Lugd. 
 Bat. 1617; and another on fortification, 'Ars Muniendorum 
 Oppidorum,' Geneva;, 1585. 
 
 ACUNA, CHRISTOVAL DE, Spanish Jesuit, was born at 
 Bruges in 1597 ; entered the order of Jesuits in 1612, and was 
 sent as a missionary to the Indians in South America. After 
 several years thus employed, he was made rector of the college 
 of Cuenca. In 1639, it being decided to send Pedro Teixeira, 
 the Portuguese traveller, to make a new and more thorough 
 exploration of the Amazon river, Acuiia and another Spanish 
 Jesuit, Andres de Arteida, professor of Theology at Quito, 
 were directed, to accompany him, in order to draw up a 
 report to send to Spain. The expedition, which consisted, of 45 
 canoes, with 70 soldiers and 1200 native rowers and slaves, 
 embarked at Archidona, February 16, 1639, and reached Para 
 in ten months, but several months were spent in attacks on the 
 Indians, whom the Portuguese treated with great cruelty. 
 Having to remain there some months while waiting for a ship 
 for Spain, Acuiia availed himself of his enforced idleness to 
 write an account of the voyage and observations on the country. 
 The book was published at Madrid in 1641 under the title 
 'Nuevo Descrubimiento del gran Rio de las Amazonas.' Acuiia 
 writes in the third person, briefly, and well. He estimates the 
 length of the river from what he supposed to be its source at 
 1356 Castilian leagues ; states the number of tribes inhabiting its 
 banks to be about 150, each speaking a different tongue ; and 
 gives ample particulars about the race of Amazons, respecting 
 whom he made very particular inquiries, and of whose exist- 
 ence he fully convinced himself. Acufia strongly urges the 
 King of Spain to take possession of the country, with a view 
 particularly to the conversion of the natives, volunteering him- 
 self and his order for the undertaking. But the times were 
 unpropitious, and nothing was done ; the king it is said even 
 sought to suppress the book, with a view to preventing the 
 Portuguese from availing themselves of the information afforded 
 by it respecting the country. Certain it is, the book became 
 excessively rare, though it was translated into French by Gom- 
 toerville (' Relation de la Riviere des Amazones,' 4 vols. 12mo) in 
 1662, and from the French into English, one vol. folio, in 1698. 
 Southey has given a summary of Acuna's account in his ' History 
 of Brazil' (vol. i. chap. xviiL). Failing in his hopes of exciting 
 the royal sympathy, Acuiia proceeded to Rome as procurator of 
 the Jesuits ; served some time in Spain as censor of the Inquisi- 
 tion, and eventually returned to South America. He was living 
 in Lima in 1675, and died there probably shortly after. 
 
 (Bibliotheca Scriptorum Soc. Jesu Opus inchoatum, Rome, 
 1677 ; Rodriguez, El Marahon y Amazonas, Madrid, 1684 ; 
 Southey ; Denis, in Nouv. Bioy. Generale; T. Watts, Biog. Diet, 
 of U. K. ,<?.) 
 
 ACUNA, HERNANDO DE, an eminent Spanish poet, M-as 
 born near the beginning of the 16th century. His family, 
 of Portuguese origin, was of noble rank, and Hernando himself 
 entered the army, in which he rose to a good position, distin- 
 guishing himself particularly in the expedition of Charles V. 
 against Turin, in 1535. By some Spanish critics Acuna's verse 
 is preferred to that of Garcilaso de la Vaga, especially in his 
 translations ; he is, however, seldom read now. His first work 
 was a poetic translation, made at the request of Charles V., of 
 Olivier de la Marche's ' Chevalier delibere,' but much altered ; 
 it was published at Antwerp in 1553, 4to, with 20 engravings on 
 wood, and several times reprinted. None of his other writings 
 were published during his life. He died in 1580 at Granada, 
 whither he had gone to prosecute his title to the countship of 
 Buendia. His widow published his remaining works at Madrid, 
 in 1591, under the title of ' Varias Poesias,' in which are in- 
 cluded an original poem of 92 stanzas in octave verse on the 
 story of Narcissus, numerous sonnets and short pieces, and 
 several translations from Ovid. 
 
 ACU'NA, DON PEDRO BRAVO DE, governor of the Philip- 
 pines, born towards the middle of the 16th century, was of 
 the family of the Counts of Buendia, and, according to the 
 custom of Castile, assumed his mother's name (Acuiia) in addition 
 
 to that of his father (Bravo). Adopting the profession of arms, 
 he distinguished himself in the campaign of Lepanto against the 
 Turks, 1572 ; in the wars of Naples and Portugal, and in resist- 
 ing the attack of Drake upon Cadiz in 1587. In 1593 he was ap- 
 pointed Captain-General of the province of Carthagena and Tierra 
 Firme, and in 1602 Governor of the Philippines. Here he was 
 for some time occupied in repelling the aggressions of certain 
 English and Dutch buccaneers, and then in quelling an insur- 
 rection of the Chinese who had settled in the suburbs of Manilla. 
 This last he put down with merciless severity, having slaugh- 
 tered at least 23,000. This was the number given in the official 
 report, but it is said to have been understated, in order that it 
 might not appear that a larger number of Chinese had been 
 allowed to settle there than the royal orders directed. From 
 the first Acufia had determined to dispossess the Dutch of the 
 Moluccas, and he was now able to direct all his energies to this 
 purpose. In January, 1606, he sailed at the head of a large 
 force, and on the 1st of April attacked and took Ternate, after a 
 desperate resistance. Having captured the King of Ternate, 
 Acuiia compelled him to swear homage to the King of Spain, 
 and grant a monopoly of the spice trade to the Spaniards. 
 Taking the King of Ternate with him, Acuiia returned to 
 Manilla, which he reached on the 9th of June. He was received 
 with unbounded joy by his partizans, but a small though power- 
 ful section who had predicted the failure of the expedition, con- 
 tinued their enmity, and his death, which occurred on the 1st of 
 July, was attributed to them. No evidence of this has, however, 
 been brought forward, and the charge of poisoning was in those 
 days as often made without as with cause. 
 
 ADAM, ADOLPHE CHARLES, a prolific French musical 
 composer, was the son of Jean Louis Adam, a composer of piano- 
 forte music. He was born at Paris on the 24th of July, 1803 ; 
 studied solfeggio and the pianoforte under his father ; and in 
 1817 entered the organ class at the Conservatoire de Musique. 
 He now studied composition and counterpoint under Reicha; 
 and pursued further musical studies under Boieldieu, whose 
 style greatly influenced him in after years. He became known 
 to the public as the composer of songs for vaudevilles, many 
 of which were very popular. His engagement as pianoforte 
 accompanyist at the Theatre Gymnase facilitated his introduc- 
 tion to singers and players. About this time Adam composed 
 a number of fantasias and variations on airs in popular operas 
 by Auber, Rossini, Boieldieu, &c. After composing the music 
 for several trilling operettas, for the Gymnase, Vaudeville, and 
 Nouveaute theatres at Paris, he advanced to regular comic 
 opera, in which his first production was 'Pierre et Catherine' 
 (1829). To this rapidly succeeded ' Danilowa' (1830) ; three in 
 1831, viz., ' Trois jours en une heure,' 'Le Morceau d'Ensemble,' 
 and ' Le Grand Prix' ; ' His First Campaign,' for Covent Garden 
 Theatre, London (1832) ; ' Le Proscrit,' and ' Une Bonne Fortune,' 
 (1833); 'Le Chalet' (1834). In ' Le Proscrit' he first clearly 
 showed Boieldieu to be his favourite master, and this was further 
 shown in ' Le Chalet.' Adam continued to compose comic operas 
 until the number exceeded forty. The best known, in addition 
 to those above-named, are ' Le Postilion de Longjumeau,' ' Le 
 fidele Berger,' ' La Reine d'un Jour,' ' Le Brasseur de Preston,' 
 'Le Roi d'Yvetot,' 'La Bouquetiere,' 'Richard en Palestine,' 
 and ' Giralda.' He also composed the music for many of the 
 grand ballets so popular in Paris — including ' Faust,' ' La Jolie 
 Fille de Gand,' ' La Fille du Danube,' ' Giselle,' ' Le Diable a 
 Quatre,' ' La Filleule des Fees,' and ' Le Corsaire.' Two masses, 
 composed by him in 1847 and 1850, have been much played at 
 the Paris churches. Adam invested his accumulated means in 
 building a new opera house, the Theatre National, at Paris ; 
 but it occasioned him a direct loss of 80,000 francs, and lia- 
 bilities for 60,000 more. He afterwards wrote musical criti- 
 cisms in the ' Constitutionnel ' and ' L'Assemblee Nationale.' 
 Adam (who was one of the members of the Academie des Beaux 
 Arts and Professor of Composition at the Conservatoire) used to 
 admit to friends that, in composing for a living, he composed 
 too rapidly for fame. He was found dead in his bed on May 3rd, 
 1856. A posthumous work by him, ' Souvenirs d'un Musicien,' 
 was published in 1857. 
 
 ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT, eminent French sculptor, 
 was born at Nancy in 1700. From his father Jacob Sigisbert 
 Adam (born at Nancy in 1670 and died there 1747), a sculptor 
 of more than local celebrity, he acquired the elements of his art ; 
 at the age of 18 went to Metz, where he was employed some 
 months; and then proceeded to Paris, 1719, and entered the 
 schools of the Academy. Having won the grand prize by a 
 bas-relief of Joachim, he was sent in 1723 as royal pensioner to 
 
 c 2 
 
2g 
 
 ADAM, MELCHIOR. 
 
 ADAMNAN, SAINT. 
 
 Rome. Here he remained ten years, and executed, among other 
 things, a Mars and Venus for the King, Louis XV.; and a design 
 for the fountain of Trevi, which was selected from its com- 
 petitors by Pope Clement XII., hut was not executed, owing, as 
 is affirmed, to the intrigues of the Italian sculptors. Adam's 
 chief employment whilst at Rome appears to have been what is 
 called restoring antique sculpture found in Rome and its vicinity. 
 For Cardinal de Polignac he added missing members to a large 
 number of statues, and he purchased many more statues to 
 carry back with him to Paris. This restored collection was 
 purchased, in 1742, by Frederick II. of Prussia for Sans-Souci, 
 but unhappily the works mischievously renovated by Adam are 
 not confined to that gallery. Adam was elected a member of 
 the Academy of St. Luke, Rome, in 17313, and the following year 
 of that of St. Clement, Bologna, He returned to Paris in 1733, 
 and was at once employed upon a colossal group in stone, of the 
 'Junction of the Seine and the Marne,' under the figures of a 
 river-god and a nymph, which was placed above the cascade at 
 St. Cloud. Louis XV. admired the work and engaged Adam to 
 execute other groups for the gardens of Choissy ; the ' Triumph of 
 Neptune and Amphitrite' for Versailles, and several other works. 
 A group emblematic of Fishing was presented by Louis XV. to 
 Frederick the Great for the gardens of Sans-Souci. Among the 
 more admired of Adam's works was a statue of St. Jerome, 
 executed for the Invalides, and a bust of Louis XV. as Apollo. 
 Adam was a clever sculptor in the manner of Bernini, but his 
 style was affected and meretricious. He was elected into the 
 French Academy in 1737, and professor in 1744. In 1754 
 he published a ' Recueil de Sculptures Antiques, Grecqucs et 
 Romaines,' folio, engraved alter his own drawings. He died in 
 1759. Two of his brothers also excelled as sculptors. 
 
 Francois-Gaspard Adam, born at Nancy, 1710, worked with 
 his brothers at Rome, acquired some reputation, and obtained the 
 appointment of court-sculptor to Frederick II. of Prussia. He 
 died at Paris in 1759. 
 
 Nicolas-Sebastien Adam, born in 1705, was instructed like 
 his brothers by his father; worked at Paris and Montpelier; 
 afterwards proceeded to Rome, assisted his brother Lambert 
 during several years ; but executed a ' Prometheus,' the mauso- 
 leum of the Queen of Poland, and other important works on his 
 own account ; was elected member of the Academy and professor 
 of sculpture ; and died in 1778. 
 
 ADAM, MELCHIOR, a German biographer, who, as Bayle 
 remarks, for the indefatigable diligence with which he selected, 
 arranged, and published the lives of a very great number of 
 learned men, deserves that a like service should be rendered 
 to him, was born in the latter part of the 16th century at 
 Grotkau in Silesia ; studied for many years at the gymnasium 
 of Brieg, where he became thoroughly imbued with Protestant 
 ideas ; in 1598 proceeded to Heidelberg, where in 1601 he was 
 made magister philosophia: and laureate ; and was soon after 
 appointed teacher in the Heidelberg gymnasium. In 1606 he 
 was made conrector of the gymnasium, and subsequently re- 
 ceived other promotion, but of what nature is not clear. He 
 died in 1622. Melchior Adam published ' Dissertatio de 
 Virtute Morali,' 4to, Heidelberg, 1602; 'Apographium Monu- 
 mentorum Heidclbergiensium,' 4to, Heid. 1612 ; ' Parodiaj et 
 Metaphrases Horatiance,' 8vo, Frankfurt, 1616 ; and one or two 
 other things, but the great work of his life was his ' Vitaj 
 Germanorum Philosophorum,' &c, which appeared in four 
 series, 8vo, Frankfurt, 1615 — 20, devoted respectively to 
 eminent philosophers, divines, physicians, and jurists, a fifth 
 decade being assigned to memoirs of twenty divines Avho were 
 not Germans. All the persons commemorated are Germans or 
 Flemings, and all the theologians Protestants. The series 
 were several times reprinted separately, and in 1705 published 
 together in one folio volume, which has, however, the reputation 
 of being very inaccurate. Adam's biographies were charged by 
 the Roman Catholics with unfairness, by the Lutherans with 
 partiality. To readers of the present day they seem sufficiently 
 free from intentional unfairness. Adam spent every spare hour 
 in collecting and digesting the materials for bis biographies, 
 but like too many industrious students, found himself unable to 
 work up more than a comparatively small portion of what he 
 had so laboriously accumulated. All subsequent investigators 
 have found his Lives an ample treasury. 
 
 ADAMI, ADAMO, Bishop of Hierapolis, was born in 1610 
 at Muhlheim on the Rhine. In his eighteenth year he became 
 a member of the order of St. Benedict in the abbey of 
 Brauweiler, near Cologne. In 1633 he received the priestly 
 ordination, and in the following year was appointed rector of 
 
 the College of the Benedictines at Cologne. He now took the 
 degree of D.D., and in 1637 was elected Prior of the Benedictine 
 Convent of St. James, near Mainz. Thence he was transferred, 
 in the same capacity, to the abbey of Murhart in Suabia, in 
 order that he might there support, by his writings and personal 
 influence, the intentions of the Emperor Ferdinand III., who 
 wished to recover from the conquered Protestants the property 
 they had formerly taken from the Catholics. The negotiations 
 which in 1643 took place successively at Osnahriick and Minister, 
 and which preceded the Treaty of Wesphalia, by which the 
 Thirty Years' War was brought to a conclusion, opened up for 
 Adami a field of still more brilliant activity; for he acted at 
 these negotiations as the representative of the abbots and 
 administrators of the monasteries of the Duchy of Wirtemberg, 
 and greatly facilitated the business of the commissioners by the 
 fulness and variety of his information, and the prudence of his 
 advice. His conduct, indeed, so won the admiration and esteem 
 of Cardinal Chigi, that when, two years after he was sent to 
 Rome to bring back with him the pallium for the Archbishop of 
 Cologne, the Pope, Innocent X., acting on the cardinal's repre- 
 sentations, appointed Adami Bishop of Hierapolis. Under this 
 title it was, that for nearly ten years he administered the diocese 
 of Hildesheim, giving proofs of his virtue and his zeal for the. 
 good discipline of the Church. He died March 1, 1663, leaving 
 behind him the reputation of having fulfilled his various office* 
 with honesty, boldness, tact, and ability. His literary produc- 
 tions are all but confined to a ' History of the Congress of 
 Westphalia,' a work which he had composed in the first instance 
 for his own use and that of his friends, and which, although 
 printed in 1698, was not published till 1707, 4to, Frankfurt-oa- 
 the Main. Another edition, under the care of J. G. de Meiern, 
 appeared in 1737, with the title of ' Adami Episcopi Hiera- 
 politani relatio Historica de Pacificatione Osnaburgo-Monaste- 
 riensi,' 4to, Lipsia;. Another task, which Adami had under- 
 taken, ' Histoire de la Congregation de Bursfeld,' was left in- 
 complete by the pressure of affairs, secular and ecclesiastical, 
 and by the prematurity of his death. 
 
 ADAMNAN, or ADOMNAN, SAINT, an Irish abbot of 
 Iona, was descended from Nial, King of Ireland, and was born 
 at Rathboth, now Raphoe, in Donegal County, about 624. 1 [e 
 was probably educated in the monastery founded by nil 
 kinsman, St. Columba, at Iona (Hii), as he assumed the religious 
 habit there, and on the death of Failbh in 679, was elected 
 abbot. His time was spent in study, instruction, and the 
 governance of the monastery. About 697 he went over to 
 Ireland, where he collected materials for his life of St. 
 Columba. About the end of the century he was sent by his 
 countrymen to Ailfrid, King of Northumberland, on a mission 
 apparently of importance, though its purpose is not clear, as he 
 stayed some time in the country. During his sojourn in 
 Northumberland he became a convert to the Roman rule for the 
 celebration of Easter — then a question of primary importance 
 among the ecclesiastics of Britain. He preached the new rule 
 in Ireland, and on his return to Iona in 702 or 703, endeavoured 
 to persuade his monks to adopt it, but failing therein, died of 
 chagrin, before the next celebration of Easter (704), says Bede, 
 on the 23rd of September, 703, according to the Irish annalists. 
 Adamnan's 'Life of St. Columba' is a tedious and inaccurate 
 work, full of the most improbable marvels, hut curious, and of 
 considerable biographical and historical value. It was first printed 
 by Canisius in ' Antiquaj Lectiones/ vol. v., and has been 
 several times reprinted : all previous editions, however, are 
 rendered superfluous by that of Dr. Reeves from the exquisite 
 Schaffhausen MS., published by the Irish Archaeological and 
 Celtic Society, 1857. Adamnan also wrote a very curious 
 account of the Holy Land, which he says he derived from 
 Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from Palestine, 
 was shipwrecked on the west coast of Britain, and after much 
 wandering found hospitable shelter in the monastery of Iona, 
 where he related to Adamnan his travels, and described the 
 wonders of the Holy country. Adamnan presented his book to 
 King Ailfrid, who, being greatly delighted with it, caused 
 several corbies to be made for the instruction of his subjects. 
 Bede, a contemporary of Adamnan, wrote an abstract of it, 
 and makes it the subject of two chapters of his 'Ecclesiastical 
 History' (Book V. chapters xvi. and xvii.). It appears to 
 have become very popular, and no doubt did much to stimulate 
 the interest felt in this country respecting the Holy places. 
 Adamnan's ' De Situ Terne Sanctis' was first published by the 
 Jesuit Jacob Gretser at Ingolstadt in 1619, and afterwards in- 
 cluded in vol. iv. of Gretser's collected works, 17 vols., fob, Ratisbon, 
 
'25 
 
 ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS. 
 
 ADAMSON, PATRICK. 
 
 20 
 
 1734 — 41. It was also printed in tome 1, par. 2 of Mabillon's 
 ' Acta Sanctorum.' 
 
 •ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS, an American politician 
 and diplomatist, is grandson of John Adams, second President 
 of the United States [E. C. vol. i. col. 33], and son of John 
 Quincy Adams [E. C. vol. i. col. 36]. Charles Francis Adams 
 was born at Boston, Massachusetts, August 18, 1S07 ; received 
 much of his education while residing with his father at St. 
 Petersburg and London, and graduated at Harvard University 
 in 1825. In 1828 he was elected a member of the legislature of 
 Massachusetts. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Vice- 
 Presidentship of the Republic in 1848, on what were known as 
 "Free Soil" principles, tie became member of Congress, and 
 Chairman of the Committee of Manufactures in 1860. In 1861 
 Mr. Adams came to England as Ambassador from the United 
 States — therein following in the footsteps of his grandfather 
 and father. His occupancy of this post from 1861 till 1868 was 
 an arduous one, owing to circumstances connected with the 
 civil war in his own country. In 1861 the ' Trent' affair nearly 
 plunged England and America into war. Soon after this, 
 Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, built a fast and strong steamer, 
 which evaded the watchfulness of the authorities, escaped to sea, 
 took in a crew and an armament, and, as the ' Alabama,' cruised 
 about under the flag of the Confederate States, inflicting a vast 
 amount of injury on the Federal shipping. This was regarded 
 by the United States Government as a violation of neutrality; 
 and Mr. Adams was engaged almost continuously from that time 
 until 1868 in diplomatic correspondence concerning this affair. 
 Mr. Adams resigned his post in February, and left England in 
 September, 1868, on the arrival of his successor, Mr. Reverdy 
 Johnson. In the 'Alabama' question Mr. Adams of course 
 maintained the views of his Government : but the tact, courtesy, 
 and discretion with which he conducted the discussion, as well 
 as the fairness and judgment displayed by him on all occasions, 
 did much to preserve good feeling between the two countries in 
 trying times, and secured for himself very general esteem. 
 
 ADAMSON, PATRICK, a distinguished Scottish prelate, an 
 estimate of whose true character and position it is difficult to 
 disentangle from the conflicting accounts of partizans, was born 
 in March, 1536, at Perth, where his family had been established 
 for about 150 years. He was the eldest of the three sons of 
 Patrick Constan, Constantine, or Adamson, who appears to have 
 been a baker, and who was a magistrate of Perth in the year 
 1541. His classical education was commenced at the Grammar 
 School of his native city, whence he proceeded to St. Mary's 
 College, St. Andrews. After taking his Master's degree, which 
 he did in 1558, as Patricius Constyne, he appears to have acted 
 as a tutor in the university. In 1560 he passed the examinations 
 of the General Assembly, and soon after was appointed minister 
 of the parish of Ceres in Fife. His first publication was a poeti- 
 cal attack on the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic 
 Church, which he addressed to the Papists of Aberdeen, " Ad 
 Papistas Abirdonenses," with the title, ' De Papistarum Super- 
 ttitiosis Ineptiis, Patricia Adamsoni, alias Constantini, Carmen,' 
 Edinburgh, 1564. 
 
 Having been refused, in June of the same year, the Assembly's 
 permission to travel on the Continent, he presently threw up his 
 charge, and set out for France in the capacity of tutor to the 
 eldest son of Sir James Macgill, of Rankeilour, in Fife, his 
 friend and patron, and one of the senators of the College of 
 Justice. Adamson remained about two years in Paris, at the 
 end of which time he contrived to excite the jealousy of the 
 French Government by the impulsive loyalty with which he 
 rushed to celebrate the birth of the son of Mary Queen of Scots 
 (afterwards James VI.), in a Latin poem of about 300 hexa- 
 meters, and by the extraordinary terms of the title, in which he 
 styled the infant, Prince of Scotland, England, France, and 
 Ireland. The title further sets forth that the work was sent to 
 press on the 25th June (" typis commissum, 25 Junii, sexto a 
 partu die, 1566") six days after the birth of the Prince. This 
 jubilant but unfortunate poem bore as a title, ' Serenissimi ac 
 Nobilissimi Scotiae, Angliae, Franciae, et Hyberniae, Principis, 
 Henrici Stuardi Illustnssimi Herois, ac MariDe Reginae am- 
 plissimas tilii Genethliacum.' It required all the interest 
 of the Scottish, queen with the French Court to procure the 
 limitation of Adamson's punishment for his too loyal escapade 
 to a six months' imprisonment. After his enlargement he 
 proceeded successively to Poitou and Padua, where he and his 
 pupil together commenced the study of the civil and canon laws, 
 a pursuit which, after brief sojourns at Geneva and Paris, they 
 continued during a seven months' stay at Bourges, probably in 
 
 1567 or 1568. Whilst Adamson continued in this city — he 
 " sepulchre," as he himself called it, from the concealment hi 
 was obliged to practise, and the daily fear in which he as a 
 Protestant was kept for the safety of his life— he wrote \tii 
 translation of the Book of Job in Latin hexameters— ' Jobus, 
 sive de Constantia' — as well as a Latin tragedy on the death of 
 Herod. The date of Adamson's return to his native country 
 has been much debated ; for if he were in Paris, as his partizans 
 allege, during or about the time of the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew, August, 1572, it is all but proved that he could not have 
 preached at St. Andrews on the 8th of February in the same 
 year, a sermon, imputed to him by Calderwood and others of 
 his opponents, the purport of which was to attack and to ridicule 
 the order of bishops. The date of the dedication (February 18, 
 1572) of his Catechism to King James, however, goes to establish 
 the fact that Adamson was at St. Andrews very close upon the 
 time when the sermon was preached ; and, on the whole, it 
 seems fair to conclude that he had returned to Scotland as early 
 as the year 1570. The Catechism referred to was written in 
 Latin hexameters, and was prepared for the use of the young 
 king, to whom, as we have said, it was dedicated. It bore as a 
 title, ' Catechismus Latino Carmine redditus, et in Libros 
 quatuor digestus.' Of this work a second edition appeared in 
 1581. In 1572, Adamson's Latin translation of the Scottish 
 Confession of Faith was published at St. Andrews, under the 
 title of ' Confessio Fidei, et Doctrinae, per Ecclesiam Reformatam 
 Regni Scotiae receptae.' 
 
 On his first return to Scotland, Adamson had married Eliza- 
 beth, the daughter of William Arthor of Kernis, and had begun 
 to practise at the bar. He yielded, however, to the request of 
 the Assembly that he should resume his original profession, and 
 was thereupon appointed to be minister of Paisley. In 1575 he 
 was one of a deputation selected by the General Assembly to 
 confer "upon the jurisdiction and policy of the Kirk," with 
 commissioners nominated by the regent Morton, by whom in the 
 following year he was advanced to the primacy, then vacant by 
 the death of Archbishop Douglas. He refused to " submit him- 
 self to the trial and examination of the Assembly (October, 1576), 
 and receive the office of a bishop according to the injunctions 
 and conditions registered in their books ;" and from that time 
 forward his life was an unintermitted struggle with the extreme 
 Presbyterian party, now becoming every day more powerful in 
 the Church, even whilst the system still continued to be mainly 
 episcopalian in its forms. Between the years 1577 and 1580 it 
 would appear that the primate had made two or three several 
 submissions to the Assembly, to whom he had, either by his 
 assumption or his imprudence, given occasion of complaint and 
 censure. New cause of offence arose in 1582, from the fact of 
 the Archbishop voting in Parliament, and collating to benefices. 
 The Assembly, which met in October of that year, relegated him 
 to be dealt with on these charges by the Presbytery of Glasgow ; 
 from whose animosity he was saved for a time by an attack of 
 illness, to which he gave the name of a " fcedity," and which 
 confined him to " his castle, like a tod [fox] in a hole," as 
 Calderwood expresses it. He owed his cure to medicines pre- 
 scribed for him by a poor woman, named Alison Pearson, who, 
 four years after, in 1588, expiated her skill in leechcraft by 
 being burned as a witch. The Archbishop, of course, thereafter 
 lay under the imputation of having sought healing from the 
 agents of the devil. From whatever cause, his recovery was 
 coincident with the arrival of the king at St. Andrews, in June, 
 1583, before whom he preached with an unction and eloquence 
 he had never previously manifested. One effect of his zeal was 
 that in December of the same year he was commissioned by 
 James as his ambassador to the Court of Elizabeth, for the pur- 
 pose of facilitating in Scotland the establishment of such a form 
 of episcopacy as should further the union of the two countries 
 when James should become king of both. Adamson had but 
 one audience of the Queen ; and both at this and at other times 
 scandal was busy with his name and character in England as 
 well as in Scotland, where, indeed, he laboured under a sentence 
 of suspension by the General Assembly. His preaching, on the 
 other hand, is said to have been very attractive to the English 
 people ; so much so, in fact, as to rouse the jealousy of the 
 queen, lest the eloquence of the ambassador should stir up too 
 great an enthusiasm on behalf of his master. Adamson returned 
 to Scotland early in May, 1584, and sat in the Parliament which 
 met at Edinburgh in that month, by which Presbytery "was 
 altogether thrown down, almost within the space of twenty-four 
 hours." The Archbishop now stood high in the graces of King 
 James, o,nd was the constant preacher before the Court. But 
 
27 
 
 ADLER, GEORG CHRISTIAN. 
 
 ADRIAN, ABBOT. 
 
 28 
 
 the royal favour served only to increase Ms unpopularity, of 
 which many particulars, betraying so much rancour as to forbid 
 their being received as entirely credible, are still extant. 
 
 Whilst his enemies were busy with the circulation of libels, 
 the eloquent pen of the Archbishop was occupied in drawing up 
 a paper which was published in the beginning of the following 
 year, and which in 1587 was printed in Thynne's continuation 
 of Holinshed's ' Chronicle,' under the title of a ' Declaration of 
 the King's Majesty's Intention in the late Acts of Parliament.' 
 The return of Andrew Melville, the great champion of the Kirk, 
 in company with the noblemen who had fled to England after 
 the raid of Ruthven, however, brought about the downfall of 
 the Earl of Arran's administration and the re-establishment of 
 the Presbyterian party. The result was Adamson's ruin. 
 Spurred on by the fierce invective of James Melville, the 
 nephew of Andrew, the Synod of Fife, which met at St. An- 
 drews in April, 1586, passed a formal sentence of excommunica- 
 tion upon the Archbishop, who two days after made a forceless 
 attempt at retaliation by a counter-excommunication of the 
 Melvilles and some of their associates. Through the influence of 
 the Court, however, and at the price of a very humble submis- 
 sion, his peace was made with the Church at the next General 
 Assembly. But he soon became involved in further troubles, 
 and charges of various kinds were brought against him before 
 the Assemblies of 1587 and August, 1588. As he did not appear 
 on citation, his case was remitted to the Presbytery of Edin- 
 burgh, who in the following June found him guilty of falsehood, 
 double dealing, erroneous doctrine, opposition to the discipline 
 of the Church, &c, and thereupon deposed him from all his 
 functions in the ministry till he should make satisfaction for his 
 delinquencies. At this crisis the unhappy Archbishop expe- 
 rienced the folly of putting confidence in princes. In 1590 he 
 published, with a dedication to King James, a version in Latin 
 elegiacs of the Lamentations of Jeremiah, ' Threnorum, sive 
 Lamentationum Ieremice Prophetoc, F. Elciae Libellus, Latino 
 carmine redditus ;' and another, in hexameters, on the Book of 
 Revelation, 'Apocalypsis S. Joannis Theologi, Latino carmine 
 reddita.' James, however, was not to be moved either by ad- 
 miration or compassion ; and was, indeed, so scandalized at the 
 charges against the Archbishop as to alienate from him the 
 revenues of his see, in favour of the Duke of Lennox. Adamson, 
 thus left in poverty and sickness, sought peace and relief at the 
 hands of his old opponent, Melville, who taking compassion on 
 him, prevailed on the Presbytery of St. Andrews to absolve him 
 from the excommunication on condition of his making a full 
 acknowledgment of his errors of life and doctrine. A full and 
 complete ' recantation ' was accordingly made in three several 
 instalments, bearing the dates of the 8th of April, 12th of May, 
 and 10th of June, 1591. The documents thus obtained from 
 the miserable prelate were probably published immediately, 
 although the oldest printed edition extant bears the date of 
 1598, and has for its title, 'The Recantation of Maister Patrik 
 Adamson, sometime Archbishop of Saint-Androwes in Scotlande,' 
 the address of " the Printer to the Reader " being headed with 
 the portentous word, " Pseudoepiscopomastix." Archbishop 
 Adamson died at St. Andrews on the 19th of February, 1592, 
 and for fifteen years afterwards his see remained without an 
 incumbent. 
 
 A collected edition of the Archbishop's works was published 
 by Thomas Wilson (Latine, Volusenus) , his son-in-law, an advocate, 
 who dedicated it to James I. This work bore as its title, ' Reve- 
 rendissimi in Christo Patris, Patricii Adamsoni, Sancti- Andrea?, 
 in Scotia Archiepiscopi Dignissimi ac doctissimi, Poemata Sacra, 
 cum aliis Opusculis, Studio ac industria Tho. Voluseni I. C. 
 Expolita et Recognita. Londini, apud Joannem Billium, anno 
 M.DC.XIX.' Wilson also published two or three separate tracts 
 of the Archbishop's, and some of the more elaborate works of 
 the latter, to which he alludes in his " Recantation," have never 
 seen the light. 
 
 ADELARD of Bath [Athelard in E. C. S.J 
 
 ADLER, GEORG CHRISTIAN, German teacher and theo- 
 logian, a descendant of the celebrated divine, Kaspar Adler, best 
 known by his Latinised name of Aquila [Aquila in E. C. S.], 
 was born Nov. 1, 1674, at Wohlbacht, in Silesia, and studied 
 theology in the universities of Leipzig and Halle. After acting 
 for a time as teacher in a noble family, he, about 1700, estab- 
 lished a high class private school at Konigsburg, which met with 
 such success as to attract the notice of the king, who granted it 
 the title of royal school. It afterwards became the Gymnasium 
 of Konigsburg, and is now the Collegium Fridericianum. In 
 1706 Adler was appointed teacher of the Peedagogium, Halle; 
 
 and in 1706 rector of the school of Alstadt-Brandenburg. Here 
 he continued till his death, August 30, 1741, having however 
 been elected diaconus of St. Gotthard's Church in 1708, and 
 archidiaconus in 1714. Adler was not only a highly successful 
 schoolmaster, but an esteemed author. His best known pub- 
 lications are ' De Liberalium Artium in Ecclesia Utilitate, si rite 
 tractentur,' Stargard, 8vo, 1702 ; ' De Morte eruditorum Philoso- 
 phica,' Berlin, 8vo, 1707. 
 
 ADLER, GEORG CHRISTIAN, son of the preceding, was 
 born at Alstadt-Brandenburg, May 6, 1734; studied at Halle ; 
 was appointed preacher at Amis in 1755, pastor at Sarau in 1758, 
 and rose eventually to be royal Danish provost of Pinneburg ami 
 Altona, and chief pastor to the Lutheran Church at Altona. He 
 died Nov. 2, 1804. Adler was a conscientious pastor and a 
 learned theologian, but is now best known as an erudite archaeo- 
 logist. Besides a learned description of Ancient Rome (Altona, 
 1781), which has been superseded by later publications, he wrote 
 ' Nachrieht von den Pontinischen Sumpfen, Hamburg, 8vo, 1784, 
 and edited Frontinus ' De Aquscductibus Urbis Roma;,' Leipzig, 
 8vo, 1792. 
 
 ADLER, JACOB GEORG CHRISTIAN, a distinguished 
 Oriental scholar, son of the second Georg Christian Adler, was 
 born at Amis in December, 1755. He went early to Rome, where 
 he diligently studied the Eastern languages. On his return to his 
 own country he was nominated professor of Syriac at the uni- 
 versity of Copenhagen, and in 1788, professor of theology. He 
 died in 1805. His chief works are ' Codicis sacri recto scribendi 
 leges, ad recte aestimandos codices manuscriptos antiquos,' 4to, 
 
 1779 ; ' Descriptio codicum quorundam cuticorum in 
 
 bibliothecaregiaHafniensiservatorum/1780; 'Musscum cuficum 
 Borgianum,' 2 voLs. 4to, 1782 — 92 ; ' Bibliotheca biblica Wur- 
 tcmburgici duels, olim Lorchiana,' 4to, 1787 ; ' Novi Testamenti 
 versiones Syriacoe . . . illustratae,' Copenhagen, 1789; 'Reise- 
 bemerkungen auf eine Reise nach Rom/ 8vo, 1784. 
 
 ADLER, KASPAR [Aquila, C, E. C. S.]. 
 
 ADLER, PHILIP, German engraver, called by a mistake of 
 Florent le Comte, Paticina, was born at Niirnberg in 1484 ; 
 the year of his death is not known. Adler was among the first 
 to adopt the art of etching, and he carried it at once to great per- 
 fection. His plates are highly valued, especially those he exe- 
 cuted after Albert Diirer. His best print, or that most sought 
 for by collectors, is a representation of the Virgin crowned, under 
 an arch, on which is inscribed, ' Hoc opus fecit Philippus Adler 
 Patricius. MDXVIIL' It was this inscription which by some 
 strange confusion Le Comte read paticina instead of patrician, 
 which led to the supposition that there was an engraver named 
 Paticina. 
 
 ADRIAN, ABBOT, a learned divine of the latter part of the 
 seventh century, was, according to Bede (who calls him Hadrian, 
 1 Hist. Ecc.' b. iv. cap. 1), an African by birth, and, at the time 
 he first mentions him, abbot of a monastery near Naples. On 
 the death of Deusdedit, sixth Archbishop of Canterbury, July 
 14, 665, Egbert, King of Kent, desired to have the priest 
 Weghard, of the English race, to succeed him, and accordingly 
 sent him to Rome with a request that the pope would confirm 
 the appointment, and ordain him bishop. The pope, Vitalian, 
 however, preferred an archbishop of his own selection, and fixed 
 on Abbot Adrian as a man well skilled in all divine and secular 
 knowledge. But Adrian shrunk from the charge, and eventually, 
 on his recommendation, Theodore, a learned Greek, was ap- 
 pointed, with the condition, however, that Adrian, as being 
 acquainted with the way and the people, should accompany him 
 and prevent him from intruding any of the customs of the Greek 
 Church, or other innovations. The two set out from Rome on 
 the 27th of May, 668, but being detained some time in France, 
 owing to suspicions entertained of their purpose, Theodore did 
 not reach England till towards the end of 669, and Adrian some 
 months later. Theodore appointed Adrian Abbot of St. Peter's 
 afterwards St. Augustine's, Canterbury, and the archbishop and 
 abbot soon after visited together all parts of the island, Theodore 
 being, according to Bede, the first archbishop whom the whole of 
 the English obeyed. Their first object was to enforce conformity 
 to Rome in rituals and the keeping of Easter, but beyond that 
 they sought to raise the standard of learning among the cL 
 founded numerous schools, and made the monastery of St. Peter's 
 a great seat of learning ; so that, as Bede writes, both the arch- 
 bishop and abbot being instructed alike in sacred and secular 
 literature, they collected together a crowd of scholars, and daily 
 there flowed from them rivers of knowledge to water the hearts 
 of their hearers. By the early writers Adrian is indeed con- 
 sidered as the first to introduce among the English the arts and 
 
29 
 
 ADRIAN DE CASTELLO. 
 
 AERTSZEN, PlETER. 
 
 3d 
 
 sciences, including sacred music, astronomy, arithmetic, and the 
 Greek and Latin tongues, as well as sacred literature. Bede 
 relates as a proof of Adrian's learning that his scholar and suc- 
 cessor Albinus (from whom Bede derived much assistance in the 
 compilation of his ' Ecclesiastical History ') was thoroughly in- 
 structed in the study of the Scriptures, knew the Greek tongue 
 well, and the Latin as perfectly as his native English. Abbot 
 Adrian presided over his monasteiy for 39 years, dying in the year 
 709. A life of Adrian was compiled by Goscelin, chiefly from 
 Bede's ' Ecclesiastical History,' with the addition of numerous 
 miracles, and also an account of the translation of his relics. 
 
 (Bede ; Capgrave, Nova Legenda; William of Malmesbury, I)e 
 gestis Pontif. Angl. ; Acta Sanctorum, vol. i. p. 595.) 
 
 ADRIAN DE CASTELLO, Italian cardinal, and predecessor 
 of Cardinal Wolsey as Bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at 
 Corneto in Tuscany about 1450. Distinguished as an accom- 
 plished scholar, and well skilled in civil affairs, Adrian was sent 
 to England by Pope Innocent VIII. in 1488 to endeavour to bring 
 about a reconciliation between James III. of Scotland and his 
 subjects. When, however, Adrian arrived in London he received 
 intelligence of the death of James; and he stayed in England, 
 being warmly recommended by Cardinal Morton to the king, 
 Henry VII., who, in the words of the old English version of 
 Bacon's Life of Henry, "much phantasied and more favoured 
 this Legate Adrian, insomuch as he was his orator and solicited 
 his cause, both to Innocent and also to Alexander VI., bishops 
 of Rome. And after this for his diligent service, he so loved 
 and favoured him that he made him Bishop of Hereford (1502), 
 and shortly after (1503), that resigned and given over, he pro- 
 moted him to the bishopric of Bath and Wells." Adrian in his 
 visits to Rome had received many marks of the pontifical favour; 
 he was made papal collector in England ; prothonotary, secre- 
 tary, and treasurer to Pope Alexander VI. ; and now, to crown 
 his English honours, he was made cardinal. Yet it is of Cardinal 
 di Corneto, as he is henceforth usually called, that the story is 
 told of his being invited to a banquet at the Vatican, when the 
 vessel, by means of which the pope intended to poison the 
 cardinal, was, by the negligence of a servant or the contrivance 
 of Adrian, who suspected the design, taken by the pope himself, 
 and caused his death, Aug. 18, 1503. The story is probably 
 untrue, but it is illustrative of the character of the times, the 
 place, and the men, that it could be generally repeated and 
 believed. Under Pius III. and Julius II. Adrian lived in good 
 repute, was known as an accomplished orator, and, himself an 
 elegant writer, as the patron of learned men. By Pope Leo X. 
 he was regarded with disfavour and suspicion. On the discovery 
 of the alleged conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci, June, 1517, 
 Adrian was one of three cardinals whom the pope charged with 
 complicity. Petrucci fled, but being induced to return to Rome 
 under a safe conduct, solemnly confirmed by the verbal assurance 
 of the pope, was seized, consigned to prison, and there strangled. 
 Adrian and his associates were persuaded to confess their guilt, 
 and were pardoned, on condition of paying a fine of 25,000 
 ducats. They paid that sum ; but were then told that the fine 
 was to be paid not jointly, but by each. Adrian resolved to 
 escape from Rome. He succeeded, it was said, in doing so ; but 
 what became of him afterwards was never known. A report 
 appears to have been circulated that he was murdered by his 
 servant for the sake of the gold he had taken with him to assist 
 his flight. The pope, through Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, a few 
 months later, formally announced to Cardinal Wolsey the vacancy 
 of the bishopric ; and Henry VIII. at once conferred it upon 
 Wolsey. Adrian, himself an excellent Latinist, was one of the 
 first and most successful advocates of the adoption of a purer and 
 more classical Latin style. He wrote ' De Vera Philosophia ex 
 quatuor doctoribus Ecclesiao,' Bologna, 1507 ; ' De Sermone latino 
 et modo latine loquendi,' Basel, 1513, and several times reprinted ; 
 ' De Venatione, et Julii III. iter;' and some Latin verses printed 
 in the ' Carm. Illustr. Poet. Ital.,' to.me v. 
 
 ADUARTE, DIEGO, a Spanish friar, missionary, and his- 
 torian, was born at Saragossa in 1569. Having joined an order 
 of preaching friars, he went to the Philippines in 1594; and 
 from that year till 1603 he went through a series of adventures 
 which called forth indomitable firmness and perseverance. He 
 learned the Chinese language so well as to be able to preach and 
 catechise in it. He then accompanied Alonzo Ximenes, father 
 provincial of his order, to Cambodia, with a large staff of assistant 
 teachers ; but a revolution in the country placed the Spaniards 
 in great peril, and with difficulty they escaped to Cochin China. 
 From thence they were speedily expelled ; and Aduarte, while es- 
 caping, was wounded in a contest with a pirate. After recovering 
 
 from his wound at Malacca, he went to Manilla ; but the ship took 
 fire on the way. During a second expedition to Cambodia, he was 
 wrecked on Babuan Island; and during a mission to Canton lie 
 was imprisoned and tortured. In later years he was made pro- 
 curator of his order, prior of Manilla, and bishop of New 
 Segovia. Aduarte published in 1632 an ' Account of the Martyr- 
 dom of Converts in Japan ;' and in 1633 a history of the mis- 
 sionary labours of his order. After his death was published his 
 'Historiade la Provincia del Sancto Rosario de la Orden de 
 Predicadores,' folio, Manilla, 1640, the first volume of which con- 
 tains an account of his travels and labours in Cambodia, Cochin 
 China, and Canton. Aduarte died in 1637. 
 
 AELST, EVERT VAN, Dutch painter, was born at Delft in 
 1602. He painted with great success what is technically termed 
 still-life, especially dead birds, hares, and game generally, and 
 sporting and warlike implements. A good colourist and finish- 
 ing with great care, his works have always been attractive and 
 still command high prices. He died in 1658. 
 
 AELST, NICOLAS VAN, engraver and printseller, was born 
 at Brussels in 1526. In 1550 he was established as a publisher 
 of prints at Rome, and he continued so employed till 1600 : he is 
 supposed to have died shortly after. N. Van Aelst engraved 
 the ' Virgin and Child ' of Giulio Romano in the Dresden Gal- 
 lery, a ' Venus and Adonis ' after Ghigi, and some other works, 
 but the larger part of the prints which bear his name, and all 
 those which have formis added, were either merely published by 
 him or engraved by pupils and journeymen under his direction, 
 as is the custom now-a-days with wood engravers. This kind of 
 art-manufacture was extensively practised in the latter part of 
 the 16th century, and N. Van Aelst was one of its most suc- 
 cessful practitioners. 
 
 AELST, WILLEM VAN, Dutch painter, born at Delft in 
 1620, was the nephew and pupil of Evert Van Aelst, whom he 
 followed in the class of his subjects, but excelled as a painter of 
 fruit and flowers. He visited Italy, where he was known as 
 Guglielmo d' Odlanda, and painted several pictures for the 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany, which are still preserved in the Pitti 
 Palace, Florence. On his return he stayed some time in Paris, 
 but ultimately settled in Amsterdam, where his works were in 
 great request. He died in that city in 1679. The pictures of 
 Willem Van Aelst are more frequently met with in public 
 galleries than those of his uncle : they are superior in arrange- 
 ment, richer in subject, and more attractive. 
 
 AERTSZ, RYKAERT, Dutch historical painter, was the son 
 of a fisherman at Wyck in North Holland, where he was born 
 in 14S2. While yet a boy his leg was burned so severely that it 
 was found necessary to amputate it, and hence he was afterwards 
 known as Wooden-legged Dick (Ryk met de Stelt). To while 
 away the time during his tedious convalescence, Ryk used to 
 draw with charcoal the various objects about him, until he 
 became so expert that his father was persuaded to place him 
 with a painter. He was accordingly sent on his recovery to Jan 
 Mostaert in Haarlem, under whom he worked for a considerable 
 time, chiefly painting friezes and other decorations in private 
 houses. From Haarlem he went to Antwerp, where he settled ; 
 acquired reputation ; was elected a member of the Academy in 
 1520 ; and died at the ripe age of 95 in 1577. His principal, 
 work was a diptych, or rather the wings of an altar-piece, tor 
 the principal church at Haarlem, representing incidents in the 
 life of Joseph. 
 
 AERTSZEN, PIETER, called from his stature Long Peter, 
 by the Italians Pietro Lungo, a celebrated Dutch historical 
 painter, was the son of a stocking weaver at Amsterdam, where 
 he was born in 1520. He was a pupil of Allard Claessen, and at 
 the age of 18 had made himself known as a painter of homely- 
 interiors. But he abandoned this line and was employed by the 
 civic authorities to paint a large altar-piece of the Death of the 
 Virgin in the church of Our Lady at Amsterdam ; another in 
 four compartments representing the Annunciation, the Nativity, 
 the Adoration of the Kings, and the Circumcision, for the new 
 church in that city; an Adoration of the Magi for the new 
 church at Delft, and one or two more, all of which were de- 
 stroyed during the religious disturbances a few years later. He 
 afterwards settled at Antwerp, where he was admitted a full 
 member of the Academy of St. Luke, his name being entered in 
 the books of the Academy as Langhe Peter, schilder. He was 
 admitted burgher of Antwerp in 1552 ; married an aunt of his 
 pupil, J. Buckelaer, and died at Amsterdam, June 2, 1573. One 
 of the best of his small easel pictures, a Crucifixion, clearly 
 painted and full of incident, is in the Antwerp Museum (No. 159). 
 Three of his sons, Pieter (born 1540, died 1602) ; Allard 
 
81 AFFO, iftENEO. 
 
 (bom about 1545, died 1G04) ; and Dirk (born about 1550, killed 
 at Fontainebleau in 1620), followed their father's profession and 
 acquired some celebrity. 
 
 AFFO, IRENEO, a distinguished critic, philologist, and his- 
 torian, was born at Busseto, a small city which had once been 
 the capital of the ancient Stato Pallavicino, on the 10th of 
 December, 1741. His baptismal name was Davide, which he 
 changed for Ireneo when, after prosecuting his studies at Bologna, 
 and fulfilling a twelvemonth's novitiate at Busseto, he entered 
 the Franciscan order, having just completed his twentieth year. 
 In the beginning of May, 17G7, lie was appointed to the chair 
 of philosophy of his order — the Minori Osservanti — at Ferrara ; 
 and about the middle of the same year was transferred in the 
 same capacity to their convent at Parma. In 1768 the Duke of 
 Parma promoted him to the chair of philosophy in the public 
 school of Guastalla; the ecclesiastical and civil history of which 
 he illustrated severally in his works, 'Antichita e pregj della 
 Chiesa Guastallcse,' 1744, and ' Memorie Istoriche di Guastalla 
 dell' Origine sua lino al 1539,' in six books, 1775. The fame 
 of these works, enhanced by that of his Poetical Dictionary, 
 ' Dizionario precettivo, critico, e istorico, della Poesia volgare,' 
 8vo, Parma, 1777, procured for Affo, April 7, 1778, the ap- 
 pointment of sub-librarian of the Ducal library at Parma, which 
 had been created in great measure by his friend Paciaudi, 
 the principal librarian ; to whose office, upon his death in 
 February, 1785, Affo succeeded. The same year he commenced 
 the publication of his enlarged history of Guastalla, in four 
 volumes, entitled 'Istoria della citta e ducato di Guastalla,' 4to, 
 Guastalla, 1785-87; and in 1789 put forth the first volume of 
 his biographical work of the writers and learned men of Parma, 
 ' Memorie degli Scrittori et Letterati Parmigiani, Raccolte dal 
 Padre Ireneo Affo, Minor Osservante, Bibliotecario di S.A. R., 
 Profess, onor. di Storia nella R. Universita e Socio della R. Accad. 
 delle Belle Arti in Parma,' 4to, Parma, 1789 ; of which four more 
 volumes appeared before his death. The work has been since 
 continued by Angelo Pezzana, one of Affo's successors in the 
 office of librarian of the Parma library, who has devoted the 
 whole of the sixth volume (Parma, 1825) to an elaborate bio- 
 graphy of Affo, and a catalogue raisonne of his works, printed 
 and not printed, to the number of more than a hundred. In 
 1791, Affo published ' Saggio di Memorie sulla Tipografia Par- 
 mense del Secolo XV.'; in 1792, the first volume of his history 
 of Parma, ' Storia della Citta di Parma,' of which three more 
 volumes were subsequently published ; and in 1794, a Biography 
 of Cardinal Pallavicino, the historian of the Council of Trent, 
 ' Memorie della Vita e degli Studj del Card. Sforza Pallavicino.' 
 Afro's death occurred May 14, 1797, of typhus fever, which 
 attacked him whilst at his native town of Busseto, whither he 
 had repaired for the sake of visiting a convent of his order ; and 
 the event was the occasion of a deep and a lively regret not in 
 Parma alone, but in the whole of Italy, and indeed throughout 
 the world of letters generally. He left behind him many 
 memoirs, dissertations, and minor productions, some of which 
 have been published since his death. The most remarkable of 
 his works of posthumous issue, and one the publication of which 
 was for a long time interdicted by the government of Parma, 
 is his Life of Pier Luigi, which, completed in 1778, first saw the 
 light under the care of Count P. Litta, in 1821, ' Vita di Pier 
 Luigi Farnese, primo Duca di Parma,' Milan. Affo was a true 
 lover of literature, warm-hearted, honest, and indefatigable ; and 
 he has done more than any other writer to illustrate the history 
 of his native duchy of Parma in all its branches. It should 
 perhaps be mentioned, to complete his distinctions, that in his 
 youth he had cultivated Italian poetry, and especially that he 
 was the author of some satirical sonnets, which he published 
 under an assumed name, ' Sonetti pedanteschi di Don Polipodio 
 Calabro Pedagogo.' 
 
 AFZELIUS, ADAM, an eminent Swedish botanist, was born 
 at Larg, in West Gothland, October 18, 1750. He studied under 
 Linnteus at Upsal for several years ; took his degree of magister 
 philosophise in 1776 ; was appointed reader in Oriental litera- 
 ture in 1777, and demonstrator in botany in 1785 — all at Upsal. 
 In the last-named year he published, conjointly with Waldstrom, a 
 treatise 'DeVegetabilibusSuecanisObservationes et Experimenta.' 
 In 1789 he visited England and Scotland. After declining an 
 invitation to join Lord Macartney's embassy to China, he went, 
 in 1798, to Guinea and Sierra Leone, as botanist to the Sierra 
 Leone Company. He made botanical collections in Africa, and 
 wrote two reports to the Company on the natural productions of 
 Sierra Leone. After his return he was made Secretary to the 
 Swedish Embassy in 1797 ; received the diploma of M.D. from 
 
 AGARDH, KARL ADOLF. 32 
 
 Upsal University in the same year, and was elected foreign 
 member of the Royal Society in 1798. Returning to Sweden 
 in 1799, he remained there till his death, January 30, 1836. For 
 a part of the time he was professor of materia medica and 
 dietetics in the University of Upsal. Afzelius contributed 
 many botanical papers to the Linnaean Society of London and 
 the Royal Academy of Stockholm. Besides his strictly 
 scientific papers, he wrote a notice of the Life of Linnaeus, 
 with extracts from his Diary ; ' Egenhandiga Anteckningar af 
 Carl Linnaeus om sig sjelf med Anmarkningar och Tillagg,' 
 Upsal, 4to, 1823 ; of which a German translation by K. Lappe 
 was published at Berlin in 1826. Two of his brothers distin- 
 guished themselves — Johan, born 1753, died May 20, 1837, as 
 professor of chemistry in Upsal University; and Pehr, born 
 1700, died Dec. 2, 1839, professor of medicine at Upsal, and 
 physician to the King at Stockholm, by whom he was ennobled. 
 
 AGARDE, ARTHUR, styled by Camden Antiquarius in- 
 signia, was born about 1540 at Foston in Derbyshire. He was 
 brought up to the law, but accepted a clerkship in the Exche- 
 quer Office, and in 1570 was made Deputy-Chamberlain of the 
 Exchequer, a post he retained for 45 years. Having the charge 
 of a large number of the national records, he now devoted him- 
 self to their study, and came to be regarded as one of the most 
 accomplished antiquaries of the age, ranking in the estimation 
 of his fellow-labourers .along with his friend Sir Robert Cotton 
 and Camden. Agarde was one of the original members of the 
 Society of Antiquaries founded in 1572. Of the ' Collection of 
 Curious Discourses, written by eminent Antiquaries,' published by 
 Hearne, six are by Agarde — 1. ' Opinion touching the Antiquity, 
 Power, Order, State, Manner, Persons, and Proceedings of the 
 High Court of Parliament in England;' 2. 'On the Question, 
 Of what Antiquity Shires were in England V 3. 'On the 
 Dimensions of the Lands of England ; ' 4. ' The Authority, 
 Office, and Privileges of Heraults in England ; ' 5. ' Of the 
 Antiquity and Privileges of the Houses or Inns of Court, and of : 
 Chancery;' 6. 'On the Diversity of Names of this Island.' He 
 also wrote a treatise on the meaning of the terms in Domes- 
 day Book (Cottonian Lib., Vit. C. ix.), but it is not of much 
 value ; and a catalogue of the records under his charge, which 
 was printed by the Record Commissioners, ' the Ancient Kalen- 
 dars and Inventories of the Treasury of His Majesty's Exchequer, 
 1836. Agarde died August 22, 1615, and was interred in the clois- 
 ters of Westminster Abbey, by the door of the Chapter House. 
 He is said to have left 20 volumes of his MS. collections to his 
 friend Sir Robert Cotton, but they are not mentioned in the cata- 
 logue of the Cotton MSS. 
 
 AGARDH, KARL ADOLF, a celebrated Swedish botanist, 
 was born at Biistad, on the Gulf of Laholm, January 22, 1785, 
 and completed his education in the University of Lund. From 
 an early period he pursued the study of botany with great zeal, 
 devoting his particular attention to the cryptogamia, in which 
 he came to be regarded as the leading authority. In 1812 he 
 was nominated professor of botany and rural economy in Lund 
 University, but he also lectured on general economics. His 
 thoughts having received a theological bent, he was ordained 
 priest in 1816, and appointed to pastoral duty. At the same 
 time he took an active part in politics, was elected deputy of his 
 diocese in 1817 and 1823 ; and from his appointment in 1834 to 
 the bishopric of Karlstad was a foremost Liberal in the Diet. 
 But it is as a botanist, and chiefly by his writings on the Algae, that 
 he acquired European celebrity. On this branch of the science 
 he contributed a large number of papers to the Natural History 
 societies, but he also published several distinct works. Of these 
 the most important were his ' Species Algarum,' Lund, 3 vols., 
 8vo, 1820—28 ; ' Icones Algarum,' Lund, 1828—35 ; and ' Sys- 
 tema Algarum,' Lund, 1820 ; in which he not only embodied all 
 that had been previously published on the subject, but added 
 an immense body of original matter and developed a systematic 
 arrangement, which, with some modifications, has since been 
 very generally adopted. Another important work was his 
 'Larobok i Botanik' (Handbook of Botany), 2 vols., Mahno, 
 1829 — 32 ; of which the first volume was translated into German 
 by Mayer, and the second by Creplin. He also published a 
 ' Memoir of Linnaeus,' and some treatises on economics and 
 theology. He died January 28, 1859. His son 
 
 * Jakob Georg Agardh, horn at Lund in 1813, has suc- 
 cessfully pursued his father's special study; succeeded him as 
 professor of botany at Lund University in 1854, and has greatly 
 increased his vast collection. His chief works are — ' Synopsis 
 Generis Lupini,' Lund, 1835 ; 'Recensio Generis Pteredis', Lund, 
 1839 ; 1 Algae Maris Mediterranei et Adriatic!,' Paris, 1842 ; ' Ifl 
 
33 
 
 AGAS, RADULPH. 
 
 AGRICOLA, QEORG. 
 
 Svstemata Algarum hodierna adversaria,' Lund, 1845 ; ' Theoria 
 systematis plantaram,' Lund, 1858 ; and ' Oin Bank-vasendet och 
 pennige-theorien,' edited by J. G. Agardh, 8vo, Stockholm, 
 18C5. 
 
 AGAS, RADULPH, or AGGAS, RALPH, the designer of 
 the earliest published map of London, flourished in the last 
 half of the 16th century. Agas is included by Walpole 
 in his Catalogue of Engravers, but there is no evidence that 
 he practised engraving, and the probability is that he did not. 
 The actual engraver of the maps he published appears to have 
 been Augustine Ryther. Agas was a land-surveyor, and resided 
 at Stoke, near Nayland, Suffolk, but made occasional or periodi- 
 cal visits to London, and probably to Oxford and Cambridge, to 
 receive commissions. By way of advertising his qualifications, 
 he issued hand-bills, of one of which a copy is in the British 
 Museum ; and apparently with the same object he published a 
 quarto pamphlet entitled ' A Preparative to platting of Landes 
 and Tenements for Surueigh,' London, 1596. He had at this 
 time "practised in survey more than forty years." A letter 
 dated 1597, preserved among the Burghley Papers (Lansdowne 
 MSS. vol. lxxxiv. No. 32), shows that he was then engaged in 
 operations for improving the Fens. In 1593 he had addressed a 
 memorial to Lord Burghley (preserved among the Lansd. MSS., 
 vol. lxxiii. No. 29), which gives a curious and minute account of 
 the improved method of land-surveying practised by him, and 
 to the superiority of which he desires to call his lordship's 
 attention. 
 
 Agas's Map of London is rather a bird's-eye view of the 
 city than a map or plan of it. It measures 6 feet 3 inches 
 long, by 2 feet 4 inches wide, and was engraved upon eight 
 blocks of wood. The first edition of the map is sometimes 
 positively stated to have been issued in 1560, and a copy with 
 that date is said to be in the possession of Mr. J. Crace of 
 London. But the inscription in the later edition, Civitas 
 Londinum circitu Ano. Dai. M.D.LX., does not necessarily 
 imply that it was originally issued in that year. Certain it is 
 that in the verses printed on his map or plan of Oxford, 
 'Celeberrimte Oxoniensis Academioe Autarum et Collegiorum, 
 . . . 1578,' but not published till 1588, Agas distinctly states that 
 for " near ten years past " he has been in doubt whether he should 
 not lay aside his Oxford map "until he first had London 
 platted out," 
 
 " Which still he craves, although he be denied 
 He thinks the Cities now in hiest pride, 
 And would make shewe bow it was best beseen, 
 The thirtieth yeare of our most noble Queene." 
 
 The 30th year of Elizabeth's reign began Nov. 17th, 1587, 
 mi it is quite clear that Agas had not published, and was not 
 ready to publish, his map of London then. The copy in the 
 Library of the City of London, Guildhall, appears to have been 
 me of a new issue made in or about the first j r ear of James I., 
 1603-4, the arms of James drawn with a pen being pasted over 
 those of Elizabeth. Subsequent issues, with slight alterations 
 ind additions to the buildings, appear to have been made pretty 
 frequently; and in the reign of William a copy, the size of the 
 original, was engraved, apparently by one of the Dutch engravers 
 :hen in England, on eight plates of pewter. This was published 
 by Vertue in 1737, with his name attached, ' Vertue, Soc. 
 Antiq. Lond. excudit,' from which Walpole concludes that he 
 'e-engraved it. Besides the maps of London and Oxford, Agas 
 lesigned one of Cambridge ; and Vertue mentions that he 
 lad seen a plan made by Agas in March, 1589, on a large sheet 
 jf vellum, of the town of Dunwich, in Suffolk, with the adjacent 
 .•illages. . The year of Agas's death is unknown, but, as we have 
 ;een above, he was living in 1597. 
 
 AGELET, JOSEPH LE PAUTE D', French astronomer, 
 .vas born at Thone-le-Long, near Montmedy, November 25, 
 1751, and studied astronomy under Lalande. In 1773 he joined 
 •verguelin's expedition to the Antarctic Seas, and on his return 
 he following year, presented to the Academy of Sciences at 
 i'aris a journal of 1600 observations on planets and stars. In 
 
 777 he was made professor of mathematics at the Ecole 
 Uilitaire, and in 1785 was elected Member of the Academy 
 >f Sciences. In 1783 he presented Memoirs on the aphelion 
 listance of Venus, and the length of the year. In 1785 he 
 ailed with La Perouse on his ill-fated expedition. The last 
 etter received from him was dated from Botany Bay, March 1, 
 
 788. His observations were lost with him, La Perouse having 
 orbidden the communication of any during the voyage. 
 AGOSTINI, LIONARDO, a distinguished Italian antiquary, 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 was born at Siena near the end of the 16th centuiy. At the 
 beginning of the pontificate of Urban VII., 1623, Agostini was 
 at Rome, in the service oi Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the 
 pope's nephew, engaged in collecting works of art for the 
 Barberini palace. By Pope Alexander VII. he was appointed 
 pontifical antiquary and commissary or examiner of antiquities 
 in Rome and Latium. Whilst thus employed he gave to the 
 world the works by which he is now remembered : ' La 
 Sicilia di Filippo Paruta, con la Giunta di Lionardo Agostini,' 
 fol. Rome, 16-19. Paruta's work appeared originally in 1612 ; 
 Agostini figured 400 additional medals, but gave no descrip- 
 tions ; these were afterwards added by Meier in his edition of 
 1697, but are of no value. The best edition of the work is that 
 of Sigebert Havercamp, 3 vols. fol. Leyden, 1723. Agostini's 
 other work was 'Le Gemme Antiche Figurate di L. A., con le 
 annotazioni del. Sig. Gio. Pietro Bellori,' 4to, Rome, 2 parts, 
 1657 and 1670 ; the first part is said to have been originally 
 published in 1636, though a copy does not appear to have been 
 traced in any of the great libraries. The two parts were 
 reprinted together at Rome, 1086, with a preface by Marinella. 
 From the preface we learn that Agostini had been some years 
 dead : he appears not to have long survived the publication of 
 the edition of 1670, when he speaks of himself as already 
 very advanced in years. The 'Gemme Antiche' is chiefly 
 valuable for the engravings by Galestruzzi, and the edition of 
 1670 is much the most prized, the plates having been retouched 
 for the edition of 1686, and again for the augmented edition, by 
 De Rossi and Maffei, of 1707. A Latin version by Gronovius 
 appeared at Amsterdam in 2 vols. 4to, 1685. 
 
 AGOSTINO DI MUSI, or, as he is usually but incorrectly 
 termed, AGOSTINO VENEZIANO, a celebrated early Italian 
 engraver, was born towards the close of the 15th century. 
 His earliest signed plates are after Campagnolo and Albert 
 Diirer, the latter bearing the date of 1514. In 1515 he was in 
 Florence, where he engraved several of the designs of Baccio 
 Bandinelli and A. del Sarto. Agostino now repaired to Rome, 
 where he remained till the death of Raffaelle in 1520, engaged 
 with Marco di Ravenna, assisting Marcantonio Raimondi in en- 
 graving the well-known plates after the great painter. Under 
 Marcantonio, Agostino greatly improved his manner, but he never 
 acquired the largeness and brilliancy of his master. Perhaps his 
 best work of this period is the ' Christ bearing his Cross,' after 
 Raffaelle. After the sack of Rome, 1527, Agostino fled to 
 Mantua, where he engraved some of Giulio Romano's designs, 
 under that master's supervision. Returning to Rome about 
 1530, he continued busily employed with his burin, but during 
 the latter years of his life (1534 — 36) he seems to have been 
 exclusively occupied upon portraits, and among these are some 
 of his best works, such as Pope Paul III., 1534 ; Barbarossa ; 
 Francis I. of France ; Charles V. ; and Ferdinand I. Agostino's 
 plates are very numerous, but good impressions are scarce, and 
 highly prized. Heinecken and Bartsch have published full cata- 
 logues of them. Passavant (' Peintre-Graveur,' vol. vi. pp. 
 51 — 66,) gives a list of 188, arranged under Scriptural subjects; 
 virgins and saints ; historical subjects ; mythological and alle- 
 gorical subjects ; fantasy and genre subjects ; portraits ; archi- 
 tecture, vases and ornaments. The British Museum possesses 
 many fine impressions of his works. Agostino's engravings have 
 the immense advantage of being from the greatest painters and 
 designers that Italy has produced, and executed under their 
 immediate direction ; but they are inferior as engravings to 
 those of Marcantonio and the other chief masters of the art. 
 Agostino drew but indifferently, and his original designs are 
 decidedly poor. 
 
 AGRICOLA, GEORG, an eminent mineralogist, was born at 
 Glaucha, near Meissen in Saxony, March 24, 1490. Having studied 
 medicine at Leipzig and in Italy, he commenced practice as a phy- 
 sician at Joachimsthal, in Bohemia, in 1529. Geology and mine- 
 ralogy being his favourite studies, he removed in 1531 to the 
 mining district of Chemnitz, in Saxony, where he was appointed 
 professor of chemistry. The Duke of Saxony gave him a pension 
 to enable him to devote most of his time to researches on the 
 geology and mineral resources of that country. In the year 1546 
 he published three works—' De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum ;' 
 ' De Natura eorum quae effluunt e Terra ;' and ' De Natura Fos- 
 silium.' These works, written in elegant Latin, treated of mine- 
 rals, lavas, bitumens, springs, &c, and discussed various theories 
 concerning their formation. Not only was Agricola the first 
 mineralogist of his day, but he raised mineralogy to a science. 
 His other more important works were — on fossils, ' De Animanti- 
 bus Subterraneis/ 8vo, Basel, 1549 ; and on metallurgy, ' De Re 
 
 D 
 
35 
 
 AGRICOLA, MICHAEL. 
 
 Metallica,* published with a new edition of the former, folio, 
 Basel, 1556, and copiously illustrated with woodcuts on mining 
 and metallurgy. These works have been several times reprinted ; 
 an edition of his mineralogical works in German, l>y E. Leh- 
 mann, was published in 3 vols. 8vo, Freyberg, 1806-10. Agri- 
 cola also wrote on classical subjects and on some passing matters 
 of controversy, but only his mineralogical writings are. now of 
 any interest or value. Agricola died at Chemnitz, November 
 
 21, 1555. Owing to religious bigotry his remains could not be 
 interred at Chemnitz ; they were buried at Zeitz. 
 
 AGRICOLA, JOHANN, a Saxon divine, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished German writers of the Kith century, and the 
 reputed founder of Antinomianism, was born on the 20th of 
 April, 1492, at Eisleben, the native place of Martin Luther. 
 His real name was Johann Schlatter, Schneider, or Sneider, 
 which, according to the fashion of the age, he Latinized as Agri- 
 cola ; whilst, from his birthplace, he sometimes called himself 
 " Magister Eisleben," or " Magister Islebius." At the university 
 of Wittenberg, where he studied theology and philosophy, he 
 was the pupil and friend of Luther, whose opinions he enthu- 
 siastically embraced, and whom, in 1519, he accompanied to 
 Leipzig, to the great meeting of German divines which is known 
 by the name of the " Leipziger Religionsgespriich." To this 
 assembly Agricola acted as secretary, and received, along with 
 Melanchthon, who was also present, the degree of baccalaureus 
 from the university of Leipzig. For several years he worked in 
 perfect harmony with Luther, by whom he was deputed, in 1525, 
 to settle the ecclesiastical affairs of Frankfurt-on-the-Main. 
 After a month's stay at this place, he visited his native town of 
 Eisleben, where he was appointed preacher of the Nicolai 
 Kirche, and soon after was made court preacher to John, Elector 
 of Saxony, in which capacity he was present, in 152(5, at the 
 Diet of Spire, and took a part in the presentation of the Augs- 
 burg Confession in 1530. In the year last named he became 
 court preacher to Count Albert of Mansfeld. The name of 
 Agricola occurs immediately after that of Melanchthon amongst 
 the signitaries of the Schmalkalden Articles of Faith, a.d. 1537 ; 
 in which year he again went to Wittenberg. It was now that 
 he began to carry out the great Lutheran doctrine of justification 
 by faith, to the extreme of asserting the indifference of the law, 
 and its inapplicability to the Christian as an authoritative rule 
 of life and conduct. He held that nothing was required for 
 salvation but faith in Christ, and repudiated the obligation even 
 of the Ten Commandments. Obedience was not due to the law, 
 but only to the gospel. This cardinal doctrine, on which other 
 subordinate ones depended, received the adhesion of many of 
 the Protestant divines, who, on account of their tenets, were 
 called Antinomians. The disputes which followed, and the 
 bitter animosity of Luther against the too logical Agricola, had 
 the effect of compelling the latter, in 1542, to flee for protection 
 to Berlin, where Joachim II., Elector of Brandenburg, conferred 
 upon him the offices of court preacher and superintendent- 
 general (archdeacon), which he held till his death, September 
 
 22, 1566. The Elector of Brandenburg endeavoured to bring 
 about a reconciliation between Agricola and his former friends ; 
 but was unable to effect anything more favourable to his protege 
 than that Agricola should alternatively return to await the 
 decision of judges appointed by the Elector of Saxony, or deliver 
 in writing a recantation of his errors and of the injurious asper- 
 sions he had cast upon Luther. It was with the second condition 
 that Agricola elected to comply, and he accordingly published at 
 Berlin a volume in which he asked pardon of those whom he 
 had offended, and especially of Luther, whom he designated as 
 " that man of God." But Luther was little moved by protesta- 
 tions to which he did not attach the credit of sincerity, and 
 Agricola remained at Berlin for the rest of his life. The versa- 
 tility, fickleness, and ambition of Agricola had the result of in- 
 ducing harsh judgments upon his character. His heresy was 
 exaggerated and misrepresented ; the heartiness of his recanta- 
 tion was denied by his opponents ; and the part which he took, 
 conjointly with Julius Phlug and Michael Heldingus in drawing 
 up the famous ' Interim ' of Augsburg (1548) — which was con- 
 ceived in a spirit of accommodation that satisfied neither Catho- 
 lics nor Protestants — laid him open to unwarranted suspicions, 
 and even to accusations of a desire to return to the Church of 
 Rome. 
 
 Besides his numerous writings in exegetical and controversial 
 theology — some of which are in Latin, but the greater part in 
 German— Agricola has left behind him several works which 
 have tended, in a degree second only to those of Luther himself, 
 to elevate and fix the German language, and to consolidate 
 
 German nationality. He was the first to make a collection of 
 German proverbs, which, to the number of 750, he published 
 with a concise, lively, and ingenious commentary. These pro- 
 verbs appeared in two different collections. The first was pub- 
 lished in Low German, and a few months after, in High German 
 also. The Low German edition, which is extremely scarce, has 
 the title, ' Dre hundert gemeiner Sprekwiirde, der wy Diidschen 
 uns gebruken, nnde dock nicht wetten wohar se kamen, dorch 
 D. Johann Agricolam von Lslewe,' Magdeburg, 1528, 8vo. The 
 High German edition appeared at Eisleben, 1528, 8vo. The 
 second collection, which contains 450 proverbs, appeared without 
 the name of the place of publication in the year 1529, 8vo, under 
 the following title : ' Das ander Teyl gemeiner deutscher Sprich- 
 worter mit yhrer Auslegung, hat funffthalbhundert newer 
 Worter.' These two collections were afterwards frequently 
 printed together, as at Hagenau, in 1537 and 1584 ; at 
 Eisleben, 1548 ; at Wittenberg, 1582. The most correct edition 
 is that of Wittenberg, in 1592, under the title, ' Siebenhundert 
 und Funfftzig deutscher Spruchworter, ernewert und gebessert 
 durch Johann Agricola, Mit vielen schonen lustigen und nut/ 
 lichen Historien und Exempeln erkleret und ausgelegt.' 
 
 AGRICOLA, MARTIN, a German musical writer and com- 
 poser, was born at Sorau, in Silesia, about 1486. He settled at 
 Magdeburg in 1510 as a teacher of music and languages. In 1524 
 he was appointed professor of music and cantor at the college. 
 During a long residence in Magdeburg he wrote largely on musical 
 subjects. In musical composition he substituted notes for the 
 tablature previously in use, to mark degrees in pitch and in 
 duration. One of the most curious of his works was 'Musica 
 Instrumentalis,' 1529, an account of all the instruments then in 
 use, with woodcuts representing most of them. They comprised 
 the flute, shawm, cornet, reed-pipe, bag-pipe, bomhart, trumpet, 
 trombone, thiirmcr-horn (sounded by watchmen from church- 
 towers), fixed and portable organs, legal, clavichord, clavicem- 
 balo, virginal, lyre, lute, quintern, four sizes of violin, viola, 
 violoncello, dulcimer, harp, psaltery, drum, keyed violin, ami 
 keyed zittern or cithern. The book, a thin duodecimo (of which 
 there is a copy in the British Museum), is curious and instruc- 
 tive, showing in what particulars and in what degree the best 
 known musical instruments have undergone changes of form and 
 appearance during three centuries and a half. Other works by 
 Agricola, all written in Latin, were — 'Musica Choralis,' 1532; 
 'Musica Figuralis,' 1532; '.Melodise Scholastics;,' 1512; 'De 
 Proportionibus Musicis ;' ' Rudimenta Musices,' 1539 ; 'Scholia 
 in Musicam,' 1540 ; ' Quaestiones Vulgariores in Musicam,' 1543 ; 
 'Cantiones cum Melodiis,' 1553 — the work which entitles him 
 to rank among the earliest German composers of church music. 
 He died June 10, 1556. Five years after his death appeared his 
 ' Duo Libri Musices, continentes Compendium Artis et illustria 
 Exempla,' 1561, edited by his friend, Georg Rhaw, the learned 
 printer of all his works, and himself an excellent musician and 
 critic. 
 
 AGRICOLA, MICHAEL, one of the early Swedish reformers, 
 and celebrated as the translator of the New Testaiuent into 
 Finnish, was born at the village of Torsby, in the parish of 
 Perna, in Nyland, about the beginning of the 16th century. 
 He was one of the eight students whose education at some 
 foreign university, and especially at Wittenberg, was imposed by 
 Gustavus Vasa as a tax upon the revenues of the just constituted 
 Protestant see of Abo. When, in 1539, Agricola returned from 
 the University of Wittenberg, where he had studied theology 
 and medicine, he was the bearer of a letter from Luther, in which 
 he was recommended to the King of Sweden as a youth of 
 excellent learning, manners, and capacity, who was likely to be 
 of service. His first appointment, conferred upon him in the 
 same year, was the rectorship of the school at Abo ; and conflict- 
 ing assertion makes it probable, but less than certain, that shortly 
 afterwards he was sent by Gustavus as missionary to Lapland. 
 In 1548 he was appointed assistant to Martin Skytte, the first 
 bishop of Abo, on whose death, in 1554, he was advanced to the 
 superintendence of the diocese, less the diocese of Wiborg, which, 
 previously a part of that of Abo, was now conferred upon 
 Justen, the successor of Agricola in the rectorship of the school 
 at Abo. Two years after, Agricola accompanied the Archbishop 
 of Upsal, Laurentius Petri, to negotiate with Ivan Vassilevicb, 
 Grand Duke of Muscovy, who was at war with Sweden, and to 
 hold conferences with the Russian clergy. A peace was con- 
 cluded, but on his way home Agricola sickened and died, in the 
 village of Kyroniem, in the parish of Vikyrkio, on the 7th of 
 April, 1557. 
 
 The greatest monument of the zeal and learning of Michael 
 
AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMANUEL. 8S 
 
 Agricola is Ii is Finnish translation of the New Testament, the 
 publication of which assisted considerahly in the dissemination 
 of the principles of the Reformation. The work was printed at 
 Stockholm, in quarto, in the year 1548. A Finnish translation 
 of the Book of Psalms, and other portions of the Old Testament, 
 and the production of a Finnish Prayer Book, are also referred 
 to him. He translated, into Swedish, the ' Sea-Laws,' or mari- 
 time code, of Wisby ; a work which was not published till 1689, 
 when it appeared at Stockholm under the editorial care of John 
 Had 01 ph. 
 
 AIKIN, LUCY, daughter of John Aikin, M.D., the author of 
 ' Evenings at Home,' and sister of Arthur Aikin [E. C. vol. i. 
 roL 70], was bom at Warrington, November 6, 1781. When she 
 was three years old her father removed to Yarmouth, where he 
 practised as a physician till 1792, when he settled in London. 
 In 1797, on account of his failing health, he gave up his profes- 
 sion and retired to Stoke Newington, where he continued, till 
 his death in 1822, busily occupied in the various literary works 
 noticed in the article above referred to, and in which Miss Aikin 
 rendered him valuable assistance. She had received a careful 
 training, and, though in infancy called " the little dunce," soon 
 exhibited unusual intelligence, obtained a wide acquaintance 
 with historical literature, and was familiar with the best Italian 
 and French authors. Her first publication was a translation 
 of ' The Adventures of Rolando,' which was long a popular book 
 with young people. In 1814 she published ' Lorimer ; a Tale.' 
 She also wrote ' Poetical Epistles to Women/ and various occa- 
 sional verses, as well as numerous articles in the 'Annual Re- 
 gister' and other publications edited by her father. These, 
 however, were only preparatory to the series of works on which 
 her claim to remembrance rests : — ' Memoirs of the Court of 
 Queen Elizabeth,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1818 ; 'Memoirs of the Court of 
 King James the First,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1822 ; and ' Memoirs of the 
 Court of King Charles the First, 2 vols. 8vo, 1833 ; all of which, 
 but particularly the first two, are works of real value, though of 
 course suffering from the deficiency in the curious private and 
 personal matter since brought to light in the Calendars and 
 other publications of the Rolls Office, and also perhaps from the 
 author not having seen the importance of the illustrations to be 
 obtained from the ephemeral literature of the several reigns, and 
 which Macaulay has turned to such excellent account in his 
 history. But the works are carefully and well written, tolerably 
 free from prejudice, and very interesting. Her latest work, ' The 
 Life of Joseph Addison,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1843, was less successful, 
 and had the misfortune to be severely criticised by Macaulay. 
 In 1824 she had published the literary remains and a pleasing 
 biography of her father, 'Memoirs of John Aikin, M.D., with a 
 Selection of his Miscellaneous Pieces, Biographical, Moral, and 
 Critical,' 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Shortly after her father's death, Miss Aikin removed to Hamp- 
 fciead, and there, with a brief interval, she spent the last forty 
 years of her useful and blameless life, the centre of a circle of 
 attached friends, and there died on the 29th of January, 1864. 
 Her grave, in the old churchyard of Hampstead, is next to that 
 of Joanna Baillie, for many years her beloved friend and neigh- 
 bour. In 1864 was published a volume of ' Memoirs, Miscellanies, 
 and Letters of Lucy Aikin,' — the letters chiefly to Dr. Channing, 
 and extending over a period of sixteen years, — with a brief me- 
 moir of Miss Aikin by Mr. P. H. Le Breton, from which most of 
 the above facts have been taken. 
 
 AIKMAN, W1LLTAM, a celebrated Scotch portrait-painter, 
 was bom in 1682 at Cairney in Aberdeenshire. He was intended 
 for the law, but, preferring painting, became a pupil of Sir John 
 Medina, then the leading painter in Scotland. In 1707 he sold 
 an estate he had inherited at Arbroath, and went to Rome, where 
 he stayed three years studying the works of the great masters, 
 lb- then visited Turkey, and returned by way of Italy and Lon- 
 don to Scotland, 1712, where he found a warm patron in the 
 Duke of Argyll. Eventually, about 1723, he settled in London, 
 and soon obtained a good share of patronage. But his health 
 gave way and, after a lingering illness, he died in June, 1731, 
 at his house in Leicester Fields (afterwards Leicester Square), 
 leaving unfinished a large painting of the royal family. Aikman 
 Was a man of literary tastes and social habits, and numbered 
 among his friends Sir Codfrey Kneller, Swift, Pope, Allan Ram- 
 say, and James Thomson. In the Second Exhibition of National 
 Portraits, 1867, were paintings by him of himself, William Car- 
 Maim, and Fletcher of Saltoun, all characteristic, and evidently 
 faithful though somewhat coarse likenesses. His portrait of the 
 poet Gay was esteemed one of his most successful works. This 
 was in the same exhibition, but by an, odd blunder was ascribed 
 
 to Ferdinand Bol, who died some years before Gay was bom. A 
 portrait of the poet Thomson in this exhibition was said to be 
 "by William Aikman," but was really the portrait of the portly 
 bard by Peyton, which Lord Chatham described as "beastly 
 like." Aikman's portrait of Thomson is a very different one. 
 His own portrait belongs to the National Gallery of Scotland ; 
 another is in the Gallery of Painters' Portraits at Florence. 
 
 AILRED, or ALURED, of RIEVAULX, English abbot, 
 saint, and historian, was born about 1109, at Hexham, North- 
 umberland, and was brought up at the court of David, king of 
 Scotland, with whose son he is said to have been educated. 
 Capgrave states that he became a favourite of the king, who 
 offered him a Scotch bishopric, which he refused, and entered 
 as a monk the recently-founded Cistercian Abbey of Rievaulx in 
 the North Riding of Yorkshire, where, on account of his studious 
 habits and piety, he was entrusted with the superintendence of 
 the novices. Some of his early biographers state that he left 
 Rievaulx to become abbot of Revesby in Lincolnshire ; but this 
 appears to be an error arising from the similarity of the names. 
 At any rate he was elected Abbot of Rievaulx in 1 146, and did 
 not again leave it, except to attend a meeting of the chapter of 
 his order at Citeaux ; to visit Westminster in order to assist at 
 the translation of the relics of Edward the Confessor ; to make 
 a missionary journey, in 1164, to the wild Pictish population of 
 Galloway in the south-west of Scotland ; or on some like pious 
 duty. During the last ten years of his hie he was sorely afflicted 
 with stone and gout. He died January the 12th, 1166, at Rie- 
 vaulx, where he was interred. When Leland wrote, his tomb 
 was richly adorned with gold and silver ornaments, but no trace 
 is left of it now. Abbot Ailred enjoyed a high reputation for 
 learning, piety, self-denial, and the austerity with which he 
 governed his monastery. During his abbacy, Rievaulx increased 
 greatly in numbers, wealth, and character :"at his death it con- 
 tained 150 monks and 50 lay brethren. Ailred was canonised 
 in 1191. 
 
 As a writer of history, Ailred does not hold a foremost place. 
 He is addicted to legend, fond of trivial matters, and has little 
 critical discernment. Yet his works are not without a positive 
 value, while incidentally they afford much insight into the life 
 and modes of thought of the latter half of the 12th century. 
 The chief of his historical compositions are — ' De Sanctis Eccle- 
 site Hagustaldensis et eorum Miraculis liber,' an interesting ac- 
 count of Hexham Church and of Sts. Acca and Alcmund, bishops 
 of Hexham, printed in Mabillon, 'Acta Sanctorum,' vol. iii. i. 
 p. 204, ed Venet. ; ' Vita Niniani, Pictorum Australium Apostoli,' 
 an account of Ninian and his conversion of the Picts, full of 
 alleged miracles, printed in Capgrave's ' NovaLegenda Anglia? :' 
 ' Vita et Miracula Confessoris Christi Edwardi Regis Anglorum,' 
 written on occasion of the translation of the Confessor's relics, 
 printed in Gibbon's ' Opera Divi Aelridi Rhievallensis,' Douay, 
 1616-31, and reprinted in the 'Magna Bibl. Veterum Patrum,' 
 Cologne, 1618; in the 'Acta Sanctorum,' Jan. 1, 292 ; and in 
 Migne's ' Patrologia.' The metrical ' Vita S. Edwardi Confes- 
 soris, Regis Anglia?,' in six books, is also attributed to Ailred, 
 but seemingly without sufficient authority : on both these Lives 
 the reader should consult Mr. Luard's Preface to the ' Lives of 
 Edward the Confessor,' published among the 1 Chronicles and 
 Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland.' ' Eulogium Davidis, 
 Regis Scotia? ;' printed in Twysden's ' Decern Scriptores,' and in 
 Pinkerton's ' Vita? Sanctorum Scotia?,' and by Fordun, but with 
 some omissions by each : ' De Genealogia Regum Anglorum,' of 
 little if any historical value, but a curious work ; partly printed 
 in Twysden's ' Decern Scriptores : ' ' Vita S. Margarita? Regina? 
 Scotia? :' ' Chronicon ab Adam ad Henricum I. :' and several more 
 of which only the titles are known. Ailred also wrote a ' Com- 
 
 Eendium Speculi Charitatis ;' ' De Vinculo Perfectionis ;' ' De 
 icctione Evangelica ;' ' De Natura Annua? ;' 'De Amicitia, sive 
 Dialogus inter Hominem et Rationem,' a Book of Homilies ; and 
 several other theological treatises. A complete collection of his 
 previously printed works is given in vol. excv. of the Abbe 
 Migne's ' Patrologia? Cursus completus.' For special information 
 respecting any of Ailred's historical writings, the reader should 
 consult Mr. T. Duffus Hardy's 'Descriptive Catalogue of Mate- 
 rials relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland,' vol. i. 
 p. 638 ; vol. ii. pp. 247 and 293, and the references there given. 
 
 *AINMULLE ft, MAXIMILIAN EM AN UEL,a distinguished 
 painter on glass, was bom at Munich, February 14, 1S07. He 
 was intended for a learned career, but by the advice of Gartner, 
 the architect, who had detected his peculiar talent, he was in- 
 duced to make decorative ait, and particularly that of the 
 medieval German artists, his study j and later, at the instigation 
 
89 
 
 ALABASTER, WILLIAM. 
 
 40 
 
 of Hesa, he directed his attention specifically to the investigation 
 of early glass painting, Loth in its technical ard artn L ic aspects. 
 In this he was so successful that, in 1828, Kh g Ludwig of Ba- 
 varia made him inspector of his newly estahlisl ed Royal Painted 
 Glass Manufactory, Munich ; and from that time he has laboured 
 continuously to improve the materials and the processt s of the 
 art. The painted glass prepared under Ainmuller in the Royal 
 Munich works has long secured a European reputation, and is 
 in its way unrivalled. Much of it has even been placed in 
 British churches, hut it is very different in kind to English 
 painted glass, and its admission depends upon a dilferent 
 principle to that which has long ruled in this country. Here 
 the main object has been to form the design by setting up, in a 
 leaden frame work, comparatively small pieces of differently 
 coloured glass, so that, by a sort of mosaic, the glass itself, with 
 little aid from the pencil, makes the picture ; and hence this, 
 which is the method of the glass-Avorkers of the Middle Ages, is 
 sometimes termed the Mosaic method. The method adopted by 
 Ainmidler in the Royal Munich works is to employ larger sheets 
 of glass, upon which the design is actually painted or enamelled, 
 the painting as it advances being submitted to repeated " firings" 
 in a furnace of an equable and carefully regulated temperature. 
 In this, which is a modification of the method of the glass- 
 workers of the Renaissance, and known as the Enamel method, 
 the window is a transparent painting. Under Ainmuller 
 have been painted the windows added, since 1828, to the cathe- 
 drals of Regensburg, Augsburg, Basel, and Cologne ; many 
 churches in Bavaria ; St. Nicholas, Hamburg ; the Wilhelniina 
 Schloss, Stuttgart ; the church of St. Peter and St. Paul at 
 Rome ; and many other continental churches, whilst here wc 
 may note Kilndown Church, Kent ; St. Peter's College, Cam- 
 bridge ; St. Paul's Cathedral, London ; Glasgow Cathedral ; and 
 one or two churches in Ireland. Heir Ainmuller is not merely 
 an able and learned director of artistic work, but is himself a 
 good designer and executant. Much of the architectural ornament 
 and framing, a rather prominent feature in the Munich windows, 
 has been designed by Ainmuller. He also paints oil pictures of 
 architectural subjects with much skill and taste. German critics 
 especially praise his views of Westminster Abbey, and the In- 
 terior of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, painted from sketches 
 made during a visit to England in 1849. Views of St. Mark's, 
 Venice; the Cathedral of St. Stephen, Vienna; [Jim Cathedral ; 
 and the like, have appeared at the Munich exhibitions, and many 
 of his works are to be seen in German galleries. 
 
 AINS WORTH, HENRY, an eminent Nonconformist divine 
 and commentator, first mentioned in 1590, when he joined the 
 followers of Robert Brown, then called Brownists but afterwards 
 Independents [Robert Brown, E. C. vol. i. col. 952]. With 
 many of his fellow separatists Ainsworth lied from persecution 
 at home to Holland, where he joined a Brownist congregation, 
 of which Francis Johnson was the minister, and in which 
 Ainsworth was a recognised teacher. Ainsworth was a scholar, 
 a man of wide theological learning, a keen controversialist, and 
 had a fluent pen ; and with a view to moderate the opposition of 
 the Dutch clergy, especially that of Arminius, then the leading 
 minister at Amsterdam, Ainsworth drew up, in conjunction with 
 Johnson, 'The Confession of Faith of certain English People 
 living in the Low Countries exiled,' 1596. It was reprinted in 
 1598 with some alterations and a dedication " To the reverend 
 and learned men, students of Holy Scripture in the Christian 
 universities of Leyden in Holland, of St. Andrews in Scotland, 
 of Heidelberg, Geneva, and other the like famous schools of 
 learning in the Low Countries, Scotland, Germany, and France," 
 and again republished in 1602 and 1604. But differences both 
 as to doctrine and discipline broke out in the Brownist church 
 and. led to considerable secessions, and much unseemly recrimi- 
 nation, which Heylin, after his manner, has greatly exaggerated. 
 AVith a view to allay the strife Ainsworth seems to have with- 
 drawn for awhile to Ireland. After his return to Amsterdam 
 old controversies were revived, and eventually Ainsworth and 
 Johnson took opposite sides on the epiestions of baptism and 
 church government. As neither could convince the other, and 
 neither would remain silent, Ainsworth and his followers with- 
 drew in 1610, and founded another church at Amsterdam, of 
 which Ainsworth became pastor, the two congregations being 
 known as Johnsonians and Ainsworthians, and each party is 
 said to have excommunicated the other. Johnson, who seems 
 to have been the more impetuous, shortly after withdrew with 
 his adherents to Embden, where he died, and his church was 
 broken up. Three or four strongly worded tracts were published 
 by Ainsworth in. connection with these deputes, but amidst 
 
 them all he was more iisefully employed in the preparation of a 
 work which has been found of service by divines of nil denomi- 
 nations, and which has been highly praised by many w ho differed 
 most widely from Ainsworth's peculiar views : ' Annotations on 
 the Five Books of Moses, the Psalms, and the Song of Songs.' 
 It comprises a literal translation of the books named as well ae 
 a commentary, and was published in separate parts in 1612 and 
 following years, and reprinted in London in a single volume in 
 1627 and 1639, and several times since. The last edition, we 
 believe, was in parts, Glasgow, 1842-43. A Dutch translation of 
 the whole work was published at Leuwarden in 1690, and a 
 German translation of the commentary on Solomon's Song at 
 Frankfurt in 1692. The work is that of a good Hebrew scholar 
 and a learned and able divine. Besides his occasional contro- 
 versial publications, Ainsworth wrote one of more lasting value, 
 and which may still be referred to with advantage, against the 
 Church of Rome — 'An Arrow against Idolatry taken out of the 
 Quiver of the Lord of Hosts ;' he also wrote some valuable non- 
 controversial works, as a ' Treatise of the Communion of Saints,' 
 ' The Book of Psalms, Englished both in Prose and Metre,' and 
 ' The Orthodox Foundation of Religion,' a posthumous work 
 published in 1641, with a preface by the editor, Mr. Samuel 
 White. Ainsworth died at Amsterdam suddenly in 1623. Neal 
 relates a strange story of his having been poisoned by a Jew, but 
 as it is quite unconfirmed, and inherently improbable, it is not 
 worth while to repeat it. 
 
 AIT ON, WILLIAM, gardener and botanist, was born in the 
 neighbourhood of Hamilton, Scotland, in 1731. In 1754 he 
 was engaged as assistant to Mr. Miller, author of the ' Gardener's 
 Dictionary,' and curator of the Physic Garden at Chelsea. 
 Here his assiduity and ability gained him friends, and he was 
 appointed by George III. in 1759 to form the Botanic Garden 
 at Kew. This he accomplished successfully, and during the 
 34 years the Gardens were under his direction he raised them to 
 an miexpectedly high rank. Their excellence is well shown in his 
 work ' Hortus Kewensis, or a Catalogue of the Plants cultivated 
 in the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew,' 3 vols. 8vo. 1789, which 
 also proves him to have been for the time a tolerable botanist, as 
 well as a first-rate gardener. A second edition of the work, edited 
 by his son and successor at Kew, William Townsend Aiton, but 
 having the advantage of the revision of Robert Brown, was pub- 
 lished in 5 vols. 1810-13. William Aiton died Feb. 1, 1793, and 
 was buried in Kew churchyard, near the graves of his friends 
 Zoffany and Gainsborough, the celebrated painters. 
 
 AKEN, JEROME VAN, called BOSCH, from his birthplace 
 Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc), a distinguished early Dutch artist, 
 was born about 1450, though Immerzeel says 1470. Of his 
 life nothing authentic is known. Van Aken painted in the neat 
 sharp manner of the Van Eycks and their followers, but the 
 treatment of his subjects was essentially different. He was the 
 originator of that fantastic style of which Breughel is considered 
 the chief exemplar. Temptations, scenes with demons and 
 strange animals, towns on fire, and grotesque medleys seemed to 
 have an irresistible attraction for him. In the Berlin Museum 
 is a curious ' Last Judgment' from his pencil. Another charac- 
 teristic work, ' The Temptation of St. Antony,' is in the Antwerp 
 Museum (No. 41). Of this there is a well-known engraving on 
 wood, which (on the authority of Immerzeel) is generally attri- 
 buted to the painter ; but it bears the date 1522, when he had 
 been dead for four years, and it is improbable that he ever en- 
 graved on wood (Passavant, ' Peintre-Graveur,' tome li. 285). 
 He executed, however, several good engravings from his own 
 designs (Passavant has identified 15), including ' The Sufferings 
 of Job,' ' Christ between the Madonna and St. John,' ' Christ 
 delivering the Patriarchs from Hades,' a battle, and two or thren 
 grotesques. The date of Van Aken's death is ascertained from 
 an entry of it under 1518 in the register of the brotherhood of 
 Bois-le-Duc (Broedershap te iHi-rtogcnbosch), of which he was a 
 member, " Hieronymus Agnen, alias Bosch, insignia Pictor." 
 Kugler, Passavant, and some other recent writers have, since the 
 discovery of this entry, written his name Van Agnen, but there 
 is no doubt that Van Aken is the correct spelling. (Sec M. 
 A. Pinchart in the Bulletins de V Academic royale de Beljique, 
 tome iv.) 
 
 ^ ALABASTER, WILLIAM, was born in 1567, at Hadleigh in 
 Suffolk, " and by marriage," says Fuller, " was nephew to Dr. 
 John Still, Bishop of Bath and Wells. He was bred a fellow 
 in Trinity College, in Cambridge," and took his degree of M.A. 
 at that university, being afterwards, July 11, 1592, admitted ad 
 cundem at Oxford. In June, 1596, he accompanied the expedi- 
 tion sent against Cadiz, as chaplain to the Earl of Essex, the 
 
41 
 
 ALAIN OF LILLE. 
 
 ALASCO, OK A LASCO, JOHN. 
 
 ■12 
 
 commander-in-chief of the land forces. While in Spain he went 
 over to the Church of Rome. He published a vindication of the 
 step thus taken ; and his pamphlet, or pamphlets, gave rise to 
 a controversy which had not terminated in the year 1604. 
 Alabaster appears to have remained abroad till 1610, in which 
 year he either first, or at least permanently, returned to his 
 native country, and became reconciled to the Church of England. 
 About four years after his adoption of the Romish faith, he ad- 
 dicted himself to what is termed Cabalistic divinity, or the Secret 
 theology (arcana theologia) as he calls it, which consists in the 
 combination of particular words, letters, and numbers, by which 
 it is pretended that a clear insight into the sense of Scripture 
 may be obtained. Of this kind of learning he gave evidence in 
 a quarto volume, which he published at Antwerp in 1607, with 
 the title of 'Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Christi.' This 
 treatise was so ungratefully received by the ecclesiastical autho- 
 rities at Rome, as to be put into the ' index Librorum Prohibi- 
 torum' in the beginning of the year 1610; a circumstance 
 which, conjoined with the persecution and danger which he had 
 to encounter in consequence, at Rome and elsewhere, operated 
 Tery powerfully upon his mind in the direction of re-conversion 
 to Protestantism. Upon his return to England, and his rehabi- 
 litation as a member of the Anglican communion, he took his 
 degree of D.D., and improved the occasion by delivering himself 
 of a discourse which was saturated with Cabalistic learning. 
 This " Clerum " was founded on the text, " Adam, Seth, Enos," 
 the three opening words of the first Book of Chronicles, in which, 
 according to Fuller, whose admiration of such a style of exposi- 
 tion is greater than his confidence, "he mined for a mystical 
 meaning, Man is put or placed for pain or trouble.'' It was not 
 long before Alabaster was made a " prebendary of St. Paul's, and 
 rector of the rich parsonage of Therfield, in Hertfordshire." He 
 died in the beginning of April, 1640. 
 
 Alabaster was the author of various theological treatises, of 
 which maybe mentioned his work entitled ' Ecce Sponsus Venit ; 
 Tuba Pulchritudinis,' &c. 4to, London, 1633 ; in which he seeks 
 to determine the date assigned to the existence of the world, and 
 also that of the Church of Rome, his former love for which had 
 now turned to bitterness. It is in reference to this work that 
 Herrick, in his ' Hesperides,' addresses a poem, which is not 
 without suspicion of satire, " To Doctor Alablaster," a recognised 
 variety of the name of Alabaster, as may be further seen by its 
 use in Mr. Collier's ' History of Dramatic Poetry,' where some 
 ' Divine Meditations, by Mr. Alablaster,' find a place. Another 
 work of Alabaster's is a dictionary or vocabulary in five lan- 
 guages, entitled 'Lexicon Pentaglotton, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, 
 Syriacum, Talmudico-Rabbinicum, et Arabicum,' folio, London, 
 1637. In addition to his prose works, Alabaster enjoyed in his 
 own day a high reputation for his poetic genius, which was 
 principally, though not exclusively, based upon his Latin tragedy 
 of ' Roxana,' for which, however, it has been discovered that he 
 was indebted, without thinking it necessary to avow his obliga- 
 tion, to the Italian tragedy of ' La Dalida,' written by Luigi 
 Groto, commonly called the Blind Man of Hadria. Spenser 
 speaks of Alabaster's poetry in terms of unmeasured admiration ; 
 and Fuller, referring expressly to ' Roxana,' describes its author 
 as " a most rare poet as any our age or nation hath produced." 
 ' Roxana ' was acted in Trinity College Hall, Cambridge, pro- 
 bably in or before the year 1592 ; but was never fully or correctly 
 published till its author rescued it from pirates and plagiarists 
 try bringing out an exact edition in 1632. 
 
 ALAIN OF LILLE, in Flanders (Latinized Alanus de 
 Insulis), who is frequently confounded with another Alain of 
 Lille, a slightly elder contemporary, whom it is difficult at all 
 times to discriminate with precision, was bom about the year 
 1114; a date the probability of which is fortified by his own 
 assertion — supposing him, as is most reasonable, to have been 
 the author of the Commentary on the Prophecies of Merlin — 
 that he was ' a little boy ' (puerulus) in the year 1128. He was 
 so famous as a theologian and philosopher as to have received 
 the title of ' the universal doctor ' (doctor universalis) ; and it is 
 natural, that, in default of authentic biography, of which we 
 have scarcely a trace, a thousand fables should group themselves 
 about a man who had any pretensions in his age to be distin- 
 guished by such a designation. An assertion of Henry of 
 Ghent (Henricus Candavensis), whose deatli occurred less than 
 a century after that of Alain, makes it probable that Alain was 
 rector of the ecclesiastical school at Paris ; but the circumstance 
 is not mentioned by other writers of, or near, his own time. 
 Alain died about the year 1202, in the Abbey of Citeaux, 
 whither he had retired, according to the most natural explana- 
 
 tion, in order to exchange the literary bustle and rivalry of the 
 schools for the religious seclusion of the convent ; but, according 
 to the traditions which are so free with his name, in a spirit of 
 remorse for his presumption in having undertaken to explain the 
 mystery of the Trinity. The most noteworthy of the numerous 
 writings of Alain are (1.) the ' Anticlaudianus,' or Encyclopae- 
 dia, a moral allegory in Latin hexameters, in nine hooks. It 
 has been published several times. The poem is an imitation of 
 Claudian's poem against Ruiinus, whence its title of Anticlau- 
 dianus. (2.) ' Doctrinale Minus [sometimes called ' Doctrinale 
 altum,' a title which properly belongs to another work of the 
 same writer] seu Liber Parabolarum ;' a collection of proverbs 
 and maxims in elegiac verse. The maxims relate sometimes to 
 morals, sometimes to natural philosophy, and are often weighty 
 and well expressed. A translation in French verse was pub- 
 lished at Paris, a.d. 1492, in quarto. (3.) A treatise against 
 Heretics and Unbelievers, in four books. The first two books 
 were printed by Jean Masson, 8vo, Paris, 1612 ; and, again, 
 with the beginning of the third, in the collection of Alain's works 
 by De Visch. The authors of the ' Histoire Litteraire de la 
 France ' vindicate Alain's claim to the authorship of the Com- 
 mentary on Merlin's Prophecies, in opposition to several writers 
 of good reputation, who ascribe it to Alain, bishop of Auxerre. 
 The work, from internal evidence, was written by a member of 
 one of the monastic orders, and between the years 1167 and 
 1183. It shows considerable acquaintance with English history. 
 Alain's poetical works are his best. His controversial pieces are 
 also considered good, but his other theological works have little 
 in them that deserves notice. 
 
 ALASCO, or A LASCO, JOHN, whose real name was John 
 Lascki, was born in the year 1499, in Poland, and belonged to 
 a family of so high a rank that he is stated by Fox the Martyro- 
 logist, his contemporary, to have been uncle to King Sigismur.d 
 the First. By way of complement to the education he had 
 received at home, he visited the most celebrated universities 
 on the continent of Europe, especially those of Italy, France, 
 and the Netherlands. At Zurich he became acquainted with 
 Zwingli, and imbibed the doctrines of the Swiss reformers, which 
 he afterwards advocated at large in his various writings. In 
 1525 he spent some time at Basel, where he contracted an inti- 
 mate friendship with Gicolampadius and Pellicanus, but espe- 
 cially with Erasmus, of whose library, after the death of that 
 eminent scholar, he became the possessor. On his return to 
 Poland in 1526, he was appointed provost of Gnesen, and after- 
 wards of Lenczicz also. \V r hen, ten years later, two bishoprics 
 were offered to him at once, the religious opinions which he had 
 long been cherishing and developing forbade him to accept 
 either of these high offices ; and he received permission from 
 King Sigismund to resume his travels in foreign countries. 
 This permission had been sought by Alasco from a twofold 
 desire of extending his knowledge and of practically carrying out 
 his religious views with greater freedom than was tolerated in 
 his own country. In 1537 he stayed for some time at Mainz, 
 after which he spent two years at Louvain, where he married. In 
 the course of these two years he also visited Wittenberg, and 
 made the acquaintance of Melanchthon. Soon after 1540 he went 
 to Emden, in East Friesland, where he enjoyed the confi- 
 dence of Count Enno, and after his death, of the Countess 
 Anna ; and where he found the ecclesiastical atmosphere so con- 
 genial that, after a short visit to his native country in 1542, he 
 returned to Friesland. He acceded to a request that he should 
 undertake the office of preacher to the Protestant community at 
 Emden, and the superintendence of all the newly-established 
 Protestant communities in the country. In the face of con- 
 siderable difficulties and obstacles he achieved the completion 
 and final settlement of the Reformation in this part of Holland. 
 He wrote a Manual of the reformed doctrines, in which he 
 followed the views of the Swiss reformers, his adhesion to which, 
 especially those in reference to the Lord's Supper, stood in the 
 way of his acceptance of a brilliant offer made to him by Albert, 
 Duke of Prussia, who wished him to settle in his dominions. 
 The publication of the Augsburg ' Interim' (1548) embarrassed his 
 operations in Friesland, so that he was glad to comply with an 
 invitation given him by Archbishop Cranmer, at the request of 
 King Edward VI., to come over to England. Here he added to 
 the duties of chief preacher to the congregation of foreign Pro- 
 testants, then sojourning in London in large numbers as refugees 
 from the intolerance of their several countries, the superintend- 
 ence of all their churches and schools. For this congregation, 
 which in the year 1554 consisted of more than 3000 members, 
 Alasco drew up an admirable constitution, 'Forma ac Ratio 
 
43 ALBER, ERASMUS. 
 
 totius Ecclesiastiei Ministerii Eduardi VI., in Peregrinorum, 
 maxime Germanorum, EcclesLa,' London, 1550. In connection 
 with this work it may be mentioned that he subsequently pub- 
 lished at Emden, ' Simplex et fidelis Narratio de Ecclesia Pere- 
 grinoruin in Anglia,' Emd;e, 1553 ; a work which was preceded 
 by an admonitory letter to Christian, King of Denmark. The 
 accession of Queen Mary, in 1553, necessitated the departure of 
 Alasco, and the breaking up of the congregation, more than 300 
 of whom accompanied him to Denmark, where he trusted to 
 find a place of refuge for them. But in t he winter of the same 
 year, Alasco was obliged to quit Denmark, in consequence of his 
 declared disapproval of the ritual adopted in that country, and 
 especially of the manner in which the Lord's Supper was ad- 
 ministered. The Danish king, however, tempered the severity 
 of dismissal from his territories by various acts of kindness to 
 Alasco and his friends. Alasco repaired first to Emden, and 
 afterwards to Frankfurt-on-t he-Main, where he attempted to or- 
 ganize the body of foreign Protestants who had taken up their 
 abode there, and many of whom had been members of the eccle- 
 siastical corporation which had been established in London. In 
 1556 he finally retired to his native country, where he became 
 one of the first and most active reformers in Poland, lb- was 
 one of the eighteen divines who co-operated in the Polish trans- 
 lation of the Bible, which was published in 1563. Alasco, how- 
 ever, was denied the gratification of witnessing the completion 
 of the work, as his death took place on the 13th of January, 1 560. 
 
 It may be surmised that his literary, as well as his practical, 
 controversies, were principally concerning the Lord's Supper. 
 The most remarkable of his works, which are all in Latin, are, 
 besides those already named, his ' Defensio veiSB Doctrinse de 
 Christi Domini Incarnatione adversus Mennonem Simonis,' 
 1545 ; ' Brevis et dilucida de Sacramentis Tractatio,' 8vo, 
 London, 1552; ' Epistola continens Summam Controversial de 
 Coona,' and 'Con fessio de nostra cum Christo Domino Commu- 
 nione, et Corporis item sui in Ccena Exhibitione,' London, 1552 ; 
 'Catechismus Major,' London, 1551; 'De recta Ecclesiaxum 
 instituendarum Ratione Epistohe III.' 1556 ; and ' Purgatio 
 Ministrorum in Ecclesia Peregrinorum Francofurti adversus 
 corum Calunmias,' Basel, 1556, 8vo. His other writings, which 
 consist chiefly of letters of a controversial nature, are scattered 
 in various works. 
 
 ALBER, ERASMUS) Latinized Alberus),a German theologian, 
 born about 1500, though the precise year is uncertain, and whose 
 native place is variously stated to have been the Wetterau, and 
 Sprendlingen, near Frankfurt, was a contemporary and zealous 
 friend and partisan of Luther. He was educated at Nidda and 
 Mainz ; and in 1520 was a student of theology under Luther, at 
 Wittenberg. After the completion of his studies, he introduced 
 the doctrines of the Reformation into various parts of Germany, 
 having been successively teacher or preacher at St. Ursel, Gdt- 
 zenhain, Sprendlingen, Neubrandenburg in the Mittelinark, 
 Staden, Babenhausen, and Magdeburg. He was a constant 
 martyr to the unsparing faithfulness of his ministry ; and his 
 inclination to satire and his resolute opposition to what he con- 
 ceived to be abuses in church or state, involved him in continual 
 change of scene and pastoral duty. His dismissals inveterately 
 followed almost immediately upon his appointments. During 
 1552, and the commencement of the following year, he lived as 
 a private person at Hamburg ; from which seclusion he was ap- 
 pointed to be superintendent-general at Neubrandenburg in 
 Mecklenburg. He had scarcely assumed the duties of his office 
 when he died, May 5th, 1553. 
 
 Alber's character exhibits qualities which are almost antithe- 
 tical. He was one of the most learned and witty men of his 
 age, zealous and indefatigable as the champion of the Reforma- 
 tion, the interest of which he advanced by controversial and 
 broadly satirical writings. As a fabulist he achieved consider- 
 able success ; and as a hymnographer, is considered to be inferior 
 to Luther alone of all the sacred singers of his time, whilst by 
 some he is even reckoned as equal to Luther. Most of Alber's 
 works are in High German, but a few are written in Low 
 German. One of the most remarkable is his abridgment of the 
 ' Conformationes S. Francisci ' of Bartholomseus Albicius of 
 Pisa, in which the resemblance of S. Franciscus to Christ is set 
 forth and supported by various miraculous occurrences of his 
 life. Alber added to these stories numerous satirical and sar- 
 castic notes, which made the work so popular that it was trans- 
 lated into Latin, French, and Dutch. It was first published, 
 without date or place, in a duodecimo volume, entitled ' Der 
 Barfusser Munche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran, mit einer schonen 
 Vorrede Martin Luther's. It was reprinted at AVittenberg, 
 
 ALBERT, PRINCE CONSORT. U 
 
 1542, 4to, and without place in 1573, 8vo. Another edition ap- 
 peared at Halle, 1615, 4to. The fact of the preface having bi 
 written by Luther, led Conrad Badius, who translated it into 
 French, into the mistake of attributing the entire work to the 
 reformer. Alber's other productions are his News from Rome, 
 ' Neue Zeitung von Rom,' &c, 4to, 1541, a bitter satire upon the 
 Pope ; a satirical dialogue on the Augsburg ' Interim,' 4to, 1548 ; 
 two satirical attacks upon George Wizelius, whom, on account 
 of his return to the Church of Rome, after having embraced Lu- 
 theranism, Alber compares to Judas Iscariot ; a kind of Epic 
 Poem in honour of Luther ; a book on Marriage ; several 
 Hymns; and a collection of forty-nine Fables in verse, which 
 bore the title of the Book of Wisdom and Virtue, ' Das Buch 
 von der Tugent und Weisheit, nemlich xlix Fabeln, der meh- 
 rere Theil aus Esopo gezogen und mit guten Rheimen verkleret,' 
 4to, Frankfurt, 1550 ; reprinted at Frankfurt, 1579. 
 
 ALBERT, PRINCE CONSORT. The memoir of the Prince 
 Consort, in the Biographical Division of the E. C, vol. i., col. 
 86, was brought down to the year 1856. Beyond that period 
 there is little of a public nature to record. The Prince's sym- 
 pathy with all benevolent objects; his interest in the jirogress 
 of the fine and industrial arts, and generally in whatever might 
 tend to promote the well-being of the people at large, have been 
 there sufficiently noticed. But about this time it seemed as 
 though the events of the past years had led him to take a more 
 decided part in the great social movements of the day. The im- 
 pression appeared to have been deepening in the mind of the 
 Prince that what most urgently demanded public consideration, 
 or that which it lay most within his own line of duty and capa- 
 city to direct attention to, was the necessity for extending and im- 
 proving primary instruction. He longed to see what he termed 
 "the right of knowledge" recognised as the patrimony of all: 
 and by endeavouring to render its possession attainable he 
 believed that he should best assist in bringing about what he 
 regarded as, in the actual state of society, the object which every 
 one should desire, a more genuine feeling of mutual sympathy 
 and good-will between the different classes in the country. 
 Hence we find him present alike at the opening of the day- 
 schools in the wretched district of Golden-lane, Barbican, in 
 March, 1857 ; at the inauguration of the Art Treasures Exhi- 
 bition, Manchester, in the following May ; and in June pre- 
 siding at the Educational Conference, London. In his address 
 at the opening of the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition, 
 whilst expressing his warm admiration of "the building and the 
 wonderful treasures of art which it displays," as well as of "the 
 wealth and spirit of enterprise of this country " of which it is a 
 sign, it is with its educational purpose he feels most sympathy, 
 and especially "that generous feeling of mutual confidence and 
 good-will between the different classes of society within it, of 
 which it affords so gratifying a proof." At the opening of the 
 Golden-lane schools, while recognizing the difficulties and hin- 
 drances in the way of the very poor sending their children to 
 school, he exhorted those who had influence with them to urge 
 the immense benefits of education to their children upon "the 
 minds and hearts of parents, and to place before them the irrepa- 
 rable mischief which they indict " by withholding it. With even 
 greater earnestness were his sentiments expressed at the meeting 
 of the Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring 
 Classes : " Depend upon it, the interests of classes too often 
 contrasted are identical, and it is only ignorance which prevents 
 their uniting for each other's advantage. To dispel that igno- 
 rance, to show how man can help man notwithstanding t lie com- 
 plicated state of civilized society, ought to be the aim of every 
 philanthropic person ; but it is more particularly the duty ul 
 those who, under the blessing of Divine Providence, enjoy 
 station, wealth, and education." It was in this spirit, and 
 deeply impressed with the sense of this duty, that the few re- 
 maining years of the Prince's life were spent. How much he 
 might have accomplished, as his disinterested earnestness ol 
 purpose came to be more .and more clearly understood and ap- 
 preciated, in furtherance of the mental and physical improve- 
 ment of the ignorant and suffering, and in promoting a better 
 feeling among all, it is now, of course, impossible to say, and 
 would be idle to speculate. But it is necessary to recognise this 
 as the governing principle of the Prince's later years in older to 
 appreciate properly his public acts. 
 
 It was in June, 1857, that the title of Prince Consort XBS 
 formally conferred on Prince Albert. In January. 1858, his 
 eldest child, the Princess Royal, was married to the Crown 
 Prince of Prussia — a union which had long been an object of 
 warm interest to him. He did not live to witness the marriage 
 
45 
 
 ALBERT, PRINCE CONSORT. 
 
 ALBIN, ELEAZAR. 
 
 40 
 
 of another of his children, hut the formal announcement was 
 made to Parliament in May, 1861, of that between the Princess 
 Alice and Prince Louis of Hesse. In August, 1858, the Queen 
 and Prince ( !onsort visited the Emperor Napoleon at Cherbourg, 
 on occasion of the opening of the Napoleon Docks. 
 
 We have in the former notice spoken of the share which the 
 Prince had in promoting the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the 
 interest which lie felt in exhibitions of objects of industrial art, 
 and especially those of an international character. During the 
 autumn of 18(31 his time and thought were much occupied by the 
 International Exhibition, which had been fixed to be held at South 
 Kensington in May, 1862, and which, profiting by the experience 
 gained in 1851 and by the French Exhibition of 1857, he was 
 anxious should surpass all previous efforts. This exhibition was 
 (he last matter of public interest on which he was engaged. Im- 
 mediately after attending a meeting in November for making 
 the general arrangements, he was seized with the illness which 
 terminated in death on the 14th of December, 1861. His body 
 was placed temporarily in the vaults of St. George's Chapel, 
 Windsor, but it has since been removed to a magnificent mauso- 
 leum, erected by the Queen for its reception, at Frogmore. At 
 the same time, what was known as the Wolsey Chapel, Windsor, 
 has been restored and fitted in a very costly manner by the 
 royal children, as a memorial of their father. 
 
 The unexpected death of the Prince at the early age of 43, in 
 the lull en joyment of an unusual measure of domestic happiness, 
 in the midst of his projects for promoting the well-being of the 
 people with whom his lot had been cast, and just at the time 
 when his character had come to be clearly understood and his 
 single-heartedness appreciated by all ranks and parties, caused 
 profound and universal sorrow for the public loss, and the 
 deepest sympathy with the bereaved Queen. Public testimony 
 to the general feeling was given by providing a fund, partly by 
 a parliamentary vote, partly by a public subscription, for the 
 erection of a memorial, on the site of the first Great Exhibition 
 of 1851, of a richer and more costly description than any public 
 monument previously erected in England. And near it, as an 
 additional memorial, and in order partly to carry into effect the 
 Prince's frequently expressed wishes and views, a vast amphi- 
 theatre is being erected, to be called the Royal Albert Hall of 
 Arts and Sciences. Memorials taking the form of statues, 
 crosses, painted windows, schools of design, day-schools, local 
 museums, mechanics' institutes, new wings to hospitals, or some 
 other object of ornament or utility have been erected, not only 
 in almost every great town in the kingdom, but in very many 
 of the smaller towns, in testimony of the general respect with 
 which the Prince's memory is cherished. 
 
 The public estimate, indeed, was not excessive. The Prince 
 had devoted himself to the service of the country as no one in 
 his position had previously done. We mentioned in the pre- 
 vious notice that one of the earliest acts after his marriage was 
 to go through (1840-41) a regular course of reading on the con- 
 stitution of England with Mr. Selwyn, an able nisi-prius barrister 
 and a sound and learned constitutional lawyer, with a special 
 view to fitting himself to fill rightly his place by the throne. 
 And during the years he occupied that place his interest in all 
 public affairs was unceasing, and his influence decided ; but, 
 always careful to observe strictly his true position as the partner 
 of a constitutional sovereign, his influence was never obtruded, 
 and by many hardly suspected. Statesmen of all parties, and, 
 indeed, men of every calling and rank who were brought into 
 association with the Prince for what we may call business pur- 
 poses, have borne willing and ample testimony to the Prince's 
 clearness of apprehension, soundness of judgment, and readiness 
 of resource, and equally so to the earnestness with which he 
 gave time and labour to the furtherance of the matter in hand, 
 and the attention and courtesy with which he listened to every 
 suggestion. Of his private character and domestic habits it is 
 unnecessary and would hardly be becoming to speak, but some- 
 thing has been shown vis of both by the Queen herself in 
 • Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 
 1848 to 1861.' To Her Majesty, also, we are indebted for full 
 and authentic materials for ascertaining the Prince's matured 
 views on many social and some political matters, and for an 
 ample and carefully-written biography. The former we find in 
 the 'Speeches and Addresses delivered on different Public Occa- 
 sions by the Prince Consort,' 8vo, 1863 ; the biography in ' The 
 Early Years of H.R.H. the Prince Consort, compiled under the 
 direction of Her Majesty the Queen, by Lieut.-General the Hon. 
 C. Grey/ 8vo, 1867. This latter volume, written originally "for 
 the use and atndy of his children," and at first printed only for 
 
 private circulation among the royal family and a few personal 
 friends, consists, as stated in the Introductory Remarks (p. xxiv.), 
 of "a compilation of letters and memoranda, the greater pari 
 by " the Prince himself and the Queen/ 1 and traces "the whole 
 career of the illustrious Prince — his progress from boyhood to 
 manhood," down to the end of the first year of his married life. 
 The continuation, which will cany on the narrative "from 
 manhood to the grave," has been entrusted to Mr. Theodore 
 Martin, who, for its "prosecution will have the same advantages 
 as to information from authentic sources that have been enjoyed 
 in the preparation of the present volume " (Preface, p. xiii.). 
 
 ALBERTINI, GIORGIO FRANCESCO, by his monastic 
 name, Giorgio Maria, an Italian theologian, was born on the 
 29th of February, 1732, at Parenzo, in Venetian Istria. In his 
 thirteenth year he entered the order of St. Dominic ; and after the 
 completion of his studies at Venice, speedily acquired great 
 reputation as a preacher throughout the whole of Italy. In 
 1787 he was summoned to Rome, by the Cardinal Antonelli, and 
 commissioned by Pope Pius VI. to investigate a difficult ques- 
 tion in ecclesiastical order ; an answer to which he delivered in 
 a long and erudite dissertation in two volumes, which drew on 
 him many enemies, and for the publication of which he was 
 chagrined to find he could not procure the necessary sanction. 
 He was, however, appointed by the Pope to the chair of dog- 
 matic theology in the college of the Propaganda at Rome ; and 
 about three years afterwards, to the principal chair of theology 
 in the university of Padua, then vacant by the death of Father 
 Antonio Valsecchi, who had recommended Albertini as his suc- 
 cessor. He discharged the duties of this chair, till its sup- 
 pression by the new government of Italy in 1807 ; when he 
 retired to his native town of Parenzo, and continued teaching 
 theology in the seminary there till his death on the 29th of 
 April, 1810, at the age of 78. 
 
 The works of Albertini are numerous, and amongst them may 
 be distinguished his ' Osservazioni,' &c, Ferrara, 1781 ; some 
 observations, published anonymously, in opposition to an irre- 
 ligious French publication, ' Le Philosophe Militaire,' and to an 
 answer to it, by Count Francesco Riccati, entitled ' L'Antifilosofo,' 
 which was, in Albertini's opinion, hardly more orthodox than 
 the work it professed to refute. His ' Dissertazione dell' Indis- 
 solubility del Matrimonio' was published at Venice in 1792 ; to 
 which, in reply to the attacks of Pellegrini, one of the disap- 
 pointed competitors for the chair of Padua, he afterwards added 
 an Epistle and Dissertation on the Marriage Question, ' Epistola 
 e Dissertazione/ &c, Padua, 1804. The most important work of 
 Albertini, however, and the one which was the immediate cause 
 of the vehement assault of Pellegrini, was his ' Acroasi ossia la 
 Somma di Lezioni teologiche,' Padua, 1798, Venice, 1800-2 ; 
 a summary of his theological lectures, in five volumes, to which 
 he afterwards added a sixth, entitled, ' Scholia/ Venice, 1808. 
 The sermons, upon which the reputation of Albertini was 
 originally founded, were, in spite of the remonstrances of his 
 friends, committed to the flames by their author, some time 
 before his death ; but he left behind him several unpublished 
 works. 
 
 ALBIN, ELEAZAR, an excellent draftsman of natural his- 
 tory, was born towards the end of the 17th century, but the 
 years of his birth and death are alike uncertain. He was estab- 
 lished in London as a teacher of drawing, when, having been 
 employed to make some drawings of insects, he was led to a 
 close study of objects of natural history, and in 1720 published an 
 expensive quarto volume entitled ' A Natural History of English 
 Insects, Illustrated with a hundred copperplates, curiously en- 
 graven from the life, and exactly coloured by the author.' Some 
 of the plates are dated as early as 1713. A second edition was 
 published in 1724, and a third in 1749. It also appeared with a 
 Latin title and text, ' Insectorum Anglioe Naturaiis Historia/ 
 4to, 1731. Other works by him are, ' A Natural History of 
 Spiders and other curious Insects/ 4to, London, 1736, containing 
 53 coloured plates, and a portrait of Albin on horseback, by J. 
 Scotin : of this an extended edition, "revised, enlarged, and 
 designed anew by T. Martyn," appeared in 1794; 'A Natural 
 History of Birds/ 3 vols. 4to, 1731-38, illustrated with 306 
 copperplates " engraven from the life and exactly coloured by the 
 Author ; to which are added Notes and Observations by W. 
 Derham ;" 'A Natural History of English Song Birds, and such 
 of the Foreign as are usually brought over and esteemed for their 
 singin" : to which are added figures of the Cock, Hen, and Egg 
 of each species, exactly copied from Nature by E. A./ 12mo, 
 London, 1737 : of this work the author published a second 
 edition in 1747, and a third in 1759, which is the last known of 
 
47 
 
 48 
 
 him, and he probably died not long after. A new edition of the 
 ' Song Birds Was issued in 1779, and in 1794 appeared a folio 
 volume entitled ' The History of Esculent Fish, with 15 coloured 
 plates drawn and engraved by Eleazar Albin : with an Essay on 
 the Breeding of Fish and the Construction of Fish PqikIs by 
 Roger North.' Albin. s drawings are admirable; his written 
 descriptions are loose and valueless. 
 
 ALBINUS, BERNARD, a celebrated German anatomist and 
 physician, was born at Dessau, January 7th, 1C53. After studying 
 at Bremen and Leyden, and obtaining a medical degree at Leyden 
 University, he travelled in France and in Flanders, and was then 
 appointed Professor of Medicine at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. He 
 acquired a high reputation as a practitioner, and was invited to 
 Potsdam as physician to the great elector, Frederick William. 
 Returning to Leyden in 1702, he held the Professorship of 
 Medicine in that University for nineteen years, the medical 
 school attaining great distinction under his direction. He died 
 Sept. 7, 1721. His elor/e was pronounced by the celebrated 
 Boerhaave. Albinus published above fifty memoirs and dis- 
 sertations, among the chief of which were 'De Oorpusculis in 
 Sanguine Contentis ;' ' De Tarantula Mira ' De Sacro Freyend- 
 waldensium Fontc;' ' De Melancholia;' 'De Epilepsia.' His 
 lectures were published in 1792-95, under the title 'Causae et 
 Signa Morborum.' 
 
 ALBINUS, BERNARD SIEGFRIED, son of the preceding, 
 was an anatomist of much greater fame. Born at Frankfurt-on- 
 the-Oder, February 24, 1697, he studied medicine at Leyden 
 under his father, but paid especial attention to anatomy, in 
 which the university professors were of unrivalled eminence, 
 and which continued to be his favourite study during the re- 
 mainder of his life. Among his instructors were Boerhaave, 
 Rau, Ruysch, and Senac. At the early age of twenty-two, in 
 1719, he succeeded Rau in the chair of anatomy at Leyden. He 
 became almost equally eminent as a teacher and as an original 
 investigator, during his professional career of more than fifty years. 
 Some of his engraved plates of bones and muscles were regarded 
 as of high value ; and as publishers feared the expense, he bore 
 much of the cost of publication himself. Besides editing the 
 works of Harvey, and the anatomical works of Vesalius, Fabri- 
 cius, and Eustachius, he published ' De Ossibus Corporis Humani' 
 (1726); ' Historia Musculorum Hominis' (1734); ' Annotationes 
 Academiea;,' in eight books, 1754-68; Treatises on the Vascular 
 System of the Intestines, and on the Bones of the Foetus ; and 
 numerous other works. He died at Leyden, September 9, 1770. 
 
 ALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN GEORG, musical com- 
 poser and writer, was born February 3, 1 736, at Klosterneuberg, 
 near Vienna. He entered young as a choir boy in the church 
 of St. Martin in that town, where the organ on which he learned 
 is still preserved as a valued relic. After studying accompani- 
 ment and counterpoint under Mann, chief organist at Molk, he 
 was employed as organist at Raab, Maria-Taferl, and Molk. In 
 1768 he married Rosalie "Weiss, daughter of Bernard Weiss, a 
 sculptor. Four years afterwards he obtained the post of organist 
 to the Court of Vienna, and in 1792 that of kapellmeister at St. 
 Stephen's Cathedral in the same city. During more than twenty 
 years' residence in Vienna he was the centre of a large and 
 influential musical circle ; his compositions were greatly admired ; 
 he was regarded as the chief of contrapuntists ; Haydn formed a 
 high estimate of his powers ; and he was one of the very first of 
 teachers, numbering among his pupils Beethoven, Hummel, 
 Seyfried, Moscheles, Eybler, and Weigh He was a volmninous 
 writer of music. His published works include eleven fugues for 
 the organ, three preludes for the same instrument, four fugues 
 for the pianoforte, eighteen string quartettes, several sonatas and 
 quintettes, &c. ; but Fetis gives a much longer list of music still 
 in MS., and belonging to Prince Esterhazy, comprising masses, 
 graduals, vespers, litanies, psalms, Te Deums, motetts, allelujahs, 
 oratorios, canticles, and other sacred pieces. Albrechtsberger 
 is better known at present, however, for his treatises on ' Har- 
 mony, Thorough Bass, and Composition,' and the ' Theory of 
 Music,' which superseded earlier works by Fucks and Marpurg, 
 and have become standard authorities. His treatise on Harmony 
 was first published in 1790 ; but his pupil Seyfried, kapellmeister 
 and opera director at Vienna, afterwards edited a collection of 
 this and his other works. There is an English translation, but 
 from a French edition. Albrechtsberger, who had a numerous 
 family of nine sons and six daughters, died at Vienna, March 7, 
 1809. 
 
 ALCOCK, JOHN (Alcok, Alkok), son of William Alcock, 
 sometime burgess of Kingston-on-Hull, was born at Beverley, in 
 Yorkshire, where he received his elementary education. Thence 
 
 he repaired to the University of Cambridge, where he achieved 
 great distinction, particularly for his knowledge of the civil and 
 canon law. He commenced LL.D. in or before 1461, in which 
 year he was called to the rectory of St. Margaret's, New Fish 
 Street, London ; and was advanced, on the 29th of April, 1462, 
 to the deanery of the Chapel Royal, St. Stephen's, Westminster. 
 In 1468 he obtained a prebend in the cathedral church of 
 Salisbury, and another in that of St. Paul, London ; ami there is 
 reason to believe that about the same period he was suffragan to 
 the Bishop of Norwich. His civil advancement, according to 
 the fashion of the time, fully kept pace with his ecclesiastical 
 preferment. In 1470 he was named a Privy Councillor, and in 
 March of that year, a few months before the short return of 
 Henry VI. to regal power, was employed by Edward IV. on an 
 embassy to John II., King of Castile. On the 29th of April, 
 1471, immediately after the battle of Barnet, which replaced 
 Edward IV. upon the throne, Alcock was appointed to the 
 Mastership of the Rolls ; and on the 26th of August, in the same 
 year, was at the head of the English commissioners empowered 
 to treat with the Scottish ambassadors for a perpetual peace 
 between the two kingdoms. When Thomas Rotheram was 
 translated to the see of Lincoln, Alcock was preferred to succeed 
 him in the diocese of Rochester, March 17th, 1472, having on 
 the previous day resigned the Mastership of the Rolls to John 
 Morton ; and when Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells, and 
 Lord Chancellor, gave up the duties of the latter office on 
 account of a temporary illness, the Great Seal was placed, Sep- 
 tember 20th, 1472, in the hands of Bishop Alcock, who, as keeper 
 thereof, opened the parliament which assembled on the 6th of 
 October following. This parliament was prorogued by Lord 
 Chancellor Stillington, who had by this time recovered his 
 health, on the 5th of April, 1473. In July of the last-named 
 year Alcock resigned the vicarage of Caster St. Trinity, in Nor- 
 folk, and was instituted, May 28th, 1474, to the rectory of Wren- 
 shani, in Suffolk. In this year the Bishop of Rochester was 
 created by patent tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards 
 Edward V., and president of his council, an office of which he 
 actively performed the duties when he was sent by the king to 
 reside with the prince and Earl Rivers (gubernator principis) in 
 the Marches of Wales. Similar duties were for several years of 
 occasional recurrence to Alcock, who is known as the first holder 
 of the dignity of Lord President of the Council of the Marches 
 of Wales, or, more popularly, Lord President of Wales. " A 
 curious instance of the royal favour occurred in the year 1475, 
 when both Alcock and Rotheram held the title of Lord Chan- 
 cellor for several months together, affording a solitary instance 
 in the history of this kingdom of two chancellors acting at the 
 same time. The fact is incontestably proved by the evidence of 
 numerous Privy Seal bills addressed to both by the same title, 
 from April 27th to September 28th, 1475. This extraordinary 
 circumstance may be thus explained : — When the king planned 
 his invasion of France he intended to be accompanied by his 
 Lord Chancellor, Bishop Rotheram, and, feeling it necessary to 
 provide for the business of the chancery in England, he nomi- 
 nated Bishop Alcock to take the duty during the chancellor's 
 absence. Instead, however, of pursuing the customary practice 
 of making him merely Keeper of the Seal, he, as a mark of 
 special favour, invested him with the title of Chancellor, intend- 
 ing that the regular Chancellor should be with him during the 
 whole period of his absence in France. It happened, however, 
 that from some cause or other the armament was delayed from 
 April to July, so that during these months Privy Seal bills were 
 addressed to both officers in England, frequently on the same day, 
 and from the same place. The last writ of Privy Seal addressed 
 to Bishop Alcock is dated on September 28th, after which Bishop 
 Rotheram, having returned from France, resumed his functions 
 as sole Chancellor." The foregoing quotation is made from 
 Mr. Foss's ' Judges of England,' because that gentleman is the 
 first at once to state and to explain an unparalleled circumstance. 
 In 'Athense Cantabrigiensis,' the fact of the joint occupancy is 
 barely mentioned as one " of which no similar example is known ;' 
 whilst Lord Campbell (' Lives of the ChanceUors ') is at a loss to 
 understand what he conceives to be the arbitrary deposition and 
 the arbitrary reinstatement of Rotheram, whose performance of 
 the business of the chancery had been more than commendable. 
 The fact, as now laid open, is that neither deposition nor re- 
 instatement took place at aU. 
 
 In 1476 Bishop Alcock was translated to the see of Worcester, 
 the temporalities of which were restored to him on the 25th of 
 September. Over this diocese he presided for the rest of the 
 reign, during which he enlarged the church of Westbury, and 
 
ALCOCK, JOHN. 
 
 founded a school at Kingston-on-Hull, where he built a chapel 
 over the remains of his parents at the south of the church, endow- 
 ill" a chantry there also. In 1478 he is found actively engaged 
 in the performance of his duties as Lord President of Wales ; 
 and he was a trier of petitions in the last parliament of Edward 
 IV. On the death of that monarch in 1483, he was removed 
 from the preceptorship of his infant successor by the protector, 
 Richard, Duke of Gloucester, by whom, however, he was ex- 
 empted from imprisonment, and treated altogether with more 
 kindness and consideration than mostly fell to the lot of the 
 young king's faithful servants. On the return of Henry VII. as 
 conqueror and king from Bosworth field, August 22, 1485, Bishop 
 Alcock, for the second time, was appointed Lord Chancellor. 
 The date of the delivery of the Great Seal to him is not recorded ; 
 but he was present, as " Cancellarius Magnus Angliae " at the 
 coronation, October 30th, and on the 7th of November assisted 
 at the opening of the first Parliament of Henry VII. ; in which 
 he skilfully and efficiently superintended the difficult questions 
 it had to decide. The most important of these turned upon the 
 effect of the attainder, by a parliament of Richard, of a great 
 number of the temporal peers now summoned, and even of the 
 sovereign himself, as Earl of Richmond. The chancellor and the 
 judges decided with unanimous loyalty, " that the descent of the 
 crown of itself takes away all defects and stops in blood by 
 reason of attainder," which has ever since been received as a 
 maxim of constitutional law ; and " no doubt," says Lord Camp- 
 bell, "was relied upon by the Jacobites, who attempted to restore 
 the princes of the House of Stuart, attainted under King Wil- 
 liam, Queen Anne, and George I." The services of Lord Chan- 
 cellor Alcock were rewarded by his being translated by a bulla 
 provisionis, dated October 6th, 1486, to the Bishopric of Ely. He 
 obtained the royal assent and the temporalities on the 7th of 
 December following, and was enthroned on the 17th of the same 
 month. There seems, however, to have been little serious inten- 
 tion to employ Bishop Alcock after the government of Henry 
 VII. was fairly started ; and the king reserved his more intimate 
 confidence for John Morton, who had been in exile with him, 
 who had been attainted for adhering to him, who had mainly 
 contributed to his elevation, and whose advancement to the 
 primacy it was which had left the see of Ely vacant for Alcock. 
 Morton succeeded Alcock as Lord Chancellor, but the exact date 
 of the transfer of the Great Seal to the former is not known, as 
 it is not recorded in the Close Roll. It is supposed, however, to 
 have taken place in August, 1487 ; and was certainly before 
 November in that year, when there were bills addressed to him 
 as chancellor, which are still extant. Whilst holding the incum- 
 bency of the diocese of Ely, Alcock performed the baptismal 
 ceremony on the Princess Margaret, afterwards Queen of Scot- 
 land ; as it had fallen to him, whilst Bishop of Worcester, to 
 baptize Prince Arthur, of whose Council of the Marches of Wales 
 he is found acting as president, January 31st, 1494. 
 
 His political career was now drawing to a close, for on the 
 27th of April, of the same year, Bishop William Smyth was 
 Lord President of Wales. Alcock's name occurs, however, so 
 late as the twelfth year of Henry VII. (1496-7), as one of the 
 triers of petitions. The remaining years of his life were occupied 
 with the affairs of his diocese ; and he died at his castle at Wis- 
 beach, October 1st, 1500, leaving behind him a great reputation 
 for learning, tact, and ability, and greater still for virtue and 
 sanctity. He was esteemed and respected by his contem- 
 poraries, and was named by Judge Lyttelton as the supervisor of 
 his will. Coke, in relating this fact, calls him " a man of singu- 
 lar piety, devotion, chastity, temperance, and holiness of life." 
 Bishop Alcock was buried under a tomb bearing his effigy in the 
 beautiful chapel — lately restored at the cost of Jesus College — 
 which he had erected for himself at the north-east end of Ely 
 Cathedral. He had great skill in architecture, which, along with 
 the revenues of his various preferments, he lavished upon the 
 erection, repair, and adornment of ecclesiastical edifices in various 
 , parts of the country from Malvern to Hull and Beverley. He 
 was a benefactor to Peterhouse ; but his most memorable act of 
 munificence was the foundation, in 1497, of Jesus College, Cam- 
 bridge, on the site of the ancient but reduced nunnery of St. 
 Rhadegund, which had been founded by Malcolm, King of Scots. 
 
 Besides ' Homilies/ ' Meditations,' and 'A Poetical Paraphrase 
 of the Seven Penitential Psalms,' Bishop Alcock wrote several 
 mud] works, as the 'Spousage of a Virgin to Christ,' 4to, 1486 ; 
 1 Oalli Oantus ad Confratres suos Curatos in Synodo apud Bem- 
 well,' printed in 4to, London, 1498, by Pynson, and Wynkyn 
 Worde ; 'Mons Perfectionis ad Carthusian os,' 4to, London, 1501; 
 and 'Abbatia Spiritus Sancti/ an 'Abbey of Seint Sperite 
 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 ALDHELM. 6„ 
 
 that is founded in a Place that ys clepyd Conscience.' This was 
 published in Latin at London, 1531, in 4to, and again in English 
 at Westmestre by Wynkyn Worde, in 4to. There are three 
 MS. copies of it in the library of the University of Cambridge, 
 and one in the Haiieian collection, Codex, 2046, art. 41. In the 
 Abbey of the Holy Spirit, which this work describes, Charity is 
 the abbess, Wisdom the prioress, and Meekness sub-prioress. 
 
 ALCOCK, JOHN, organist and musical composer, was born in 
 London, April 11, 1715. In 1722 he entered as a choir-boy at 
 St. Paul's Cathedral, and in 1729 was placed under the tuition 
 of Stanley, organist of the Temple Church and of St. Andrew's 
 Holborn. Alcock was appointed organist at St. Andrew's Ply- 
 mouth, in 1737; at Reading in 1742; and at Lichfield, in 1749. 
 He passed the remainder of his long life as organist and choir- 
 master of Lichfield Cathedral, receiving the degree of Mus. Bach. 
 Oxon. in 1755, and Mus. Doc. in 1785. He composed and pub- 
 lished a large number of hymns, psalms, motetts, services, Te 
 Deums, Jubilates, &c. His chief collected works are : — ' Har- 
 monia Festi,' consisting of canons, airs, &c. ; and ' Harmony 
 of Sion,' an arrangement for four voices of about a hundred 
 psalms. Alcock died in 1806, in his ninety-first year. 
 
 ALDHELM, Anglo-Saxon scholar, bishop and saint, was born 
 in Wessex, about 650 or 656, the son of Kenter, a kinsman of 
 King Ina. There is some difficulty as to whether the celebrated 
 Adrian who came over to Kent with Theodore [Adrian, E. C. S.] 
 was his first teacher in Greek and Latin, or Meildulf, an Irish 
 monk who settled as a hermit in what was then the Forest of 
 Wiltshire, and, finding teachers few, gathered about 1dm a 
 number of youths from the nearest villages, whom he in- 
 structed in Latin and rhetoric. Be that as it may, Aldhelm was 
 one of Adrian's earliest scholars, and under him made so rapid a 
 progress as to astonish alike his teachers and his schoolfellows. 
 
 On his return to Wessex, Aldhelm, finding that Meildulf's 
 scholars, the master being dead, had continued the hermitage as 
 a seminary, joined them, assumed the religious habit, and alter a 
 brief visit to his old master, Adrian, settled down to diligent 
 study and teaching. His superior attainments, prudence, and 
 piety, led the brethren to elect him as their head, and un ier his 
 guidance the school acquired so high a reputation that scholars 
 resorted to it not only from the neighbourhood, but even from 
 Ireland and France. Aldhelm himself, according to his first 
 biographer, Faiicius, was so well skilled in the Greek language 
 that he could both write aud speak it like a native ; was the 
 ablest Latin scholar since the days of Virgil ; read the Psalms of 
 David, the Books of Solomon, and the Laws of Moses in the 
 original Hebrew ; played excellently on all the musical instru- 
 ments then in use ; and was a persuasive orator. The establish- 
 ment was now formed into a regular monastery, and Aldhelm 
 was ordained, and appointed abbot by Eleutherius, bishop of Win- 
 chester. His rule was strict, and the abbey so flourished that 
 Meildulfesbyrig, as the houses which bad gathered about the 
 original seminary were called by the people, grew into a town, 
 the name being gradually softened down into Malmesbury. 
 
 In 687 Aldhelm was invited to Rome by Pope Sergius I. ; 
 stayed there some time, and obtained from the pope the exemp- 
 tion of his monastery from episcopal jurisdiction. On his return 
 he built a church at Malmesbury ; founded dependent religious 
 houses at Frome-Selwood : made many converts by preach- 
 ing in the open air, and several times journeyed to Canterbury at 
 the request of the archbishop. At the Synod called by King 
 Ina, about 698, with a view to induce the Britons to adopt the 
 Roman reckoning for the celebration of Easter, Aldhelm was 
 appointed to write a letter to the King of Cornwall on the sub- 
 ject, and the reading of this letter, Bede, writing but a few years 
 later, assures us, persuaded many of the Britons who were subject 
 to the West Saxons to adopt the Roman rule. (' Hist. Eccl.' B. 
 V. cap. 18.) In 705 Aldhelm was appointed first bishop oi 
 Sherborne. He died whilst on an episcopal visitation at Doulting, 
 in Somersetshire, May 25, 709, and his body was carried to 
 Malmesbury for interment. The date of his canonisation is not 
 clear. His relics were translated by Abbot Warm in 1080. 
 
 Aldhelm has been called the father of Anglo- Latin poetry, 
 and King Alfred placed him in the first rank of Anglo-Saxon 
 poets. His Latin, however highly esteemed in his own day, was 
 regarded as corrupt when William of Malmesbury wrote, though 
 some of his pieces were still popular. His most celebrated Latin 
 poems are a celebration of the saints and martyrs who had 
 devoted themselves to a life of chastity (' De Laude S.S. Patrum 
 et Virginum,' or ' De Virginum') on which subject he also wrote 
 a prose treatise ; and a collection of riddles entitled ' iEnigmata,' 
 both of which are in hexameter verse : these and other verses 
 
 E 
 
51 
 
 ALDRED. 
 
 ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO. 
 
 52 
 
 attributed to him have been often printed, and are given both in 
 the ' Maxima' and the 'Magna Bibliotheca Vit. Patrum.' None 
 of his vernacular poems have come down to us, unless, as is not 
 improbable, the version of the Psalms, printed by Mr. Thorpe, is 
 by him. ; or, it may be, modified from the translation he is said 
 to have made. His principal prose work is the treatise ' De 
 Virginitate ' already referred to, but several 1 Epistles ' have been 
 printed in the collections just mentioned, as well as elsewhere. 
 All his writings which have been preserved are given in ' S. 
 Aldhelmi Opera,' 8vo, 1842. forming the first volume of ' Patres 
 Ecclesia; Anglicanse,' edited by Dr. Giles. 
 
 The earliest life of Aldhelm was written by Faricius, a native 
 of Arezzo in Tuscany, by profession a physician, who came over 
 to England, was admitted a monk of Malmesbury, and there 
 wrote the life of Aldhelm. He subsequently was made Abbot 
 of Abingdon, gained the favour of Henry I. who wished to make 
 him Archbishop of Canterbury, and died in 1117. The life is 
 full of wild stories of miracles wrought by Aldhelm during his 
 life, and by his remains subsequently, but it is the chief source 
 of our information respecting him, A second life, by William 
 of Malmesbury, compiled in 1125, partly as he states from the 
 former life by Faricius, but with additions from his own local 
 knowledge and the information of certain old monks of Malmes- 
 bury. The narrative is less overlaid with marvels than that of 
 Faricius, and brings the history of the abbey of Malmesbury 
 down to the time of the writer. Roth lives have been several 
 times reprinted ; as has likewise an abridgment of William of 
 Malmesbury 's ' Vita S. Aldhelmi.' There is also a metrical 
 ' Life of Aldhelm the Confessor' in old English verse attributed 
 to Robert of Gloucester, of which there are three copies among the 
 MSS. of the Brit ish Museum, and as many in the Bodleian Library. 
 
 (Lives by Faricius and William of Malmesbury; 8. Aldhelmi 
 Opera; Bede, Hist. Eccl., B. v. cap. 18; Bioej. Die. of Soc. for 
 the Dif. of Useful Knowlcilqe ; Wright, Bim/. Brit. Lit., vol. i. ; 
 Hardy, Desc. Cat. of MSS.. vol. i. p. 389, &c.) 
 
 ALDRED, or EALDRED, known also as Aldredus, Alredus, 
 and Ealredus, who was Archbishop of York in the 11th cen- 
 tury, was originally a monk of Winchester, and afterwards 
 abbot of Tavistock. He stood high in the favour of Edward the 
 Confessor, by whom he was preferred, in 1046, to the diocese of 
 Worcester. He was the first English bishop who made, 1050, 
 a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, which he accomplished by way of 
 Hungary. Upon his return he was charged by King Edward 
 with a mission to the Emperor Henry II., requesting him to 
 obtain the return from Hungary of Edward Atheling, the son of 
 Edmund Ironsides, and spent nearly a year in Germany. He 
 administered the see of Wilton for three years during the 
 absence of Bishop Herman, and the see of Hereford for four 
 years from 1056. On the 25th of December, 1060, Aldred was 
 raised to the Archbishopric of York, and permitted by the King 
 to retain the see of Worcester in commendam, as, it is affirmed, 
 some of his predecessors had done. Upon his going to Rome for 
 his pallium, 1061, Pope Nicholas II. not only refused it, but 
 deprived him of his former dignities on the alleged ground of 
 fimony. Thus disappointed, he took leave of Rome, but in 
 crossing the Alps he and his party were plundered, so that they 
 were obliged to return to Rome for succour. With much im- 
 portunity he succeeded in obtaining his confirmation in the 
 archiepiscopal see at the hands of the Pope, who, however, 
 yielded to him only on condition that he should relinquish the 
 bishopric of Worcester. With this condition he formally com- 
 plied, although by the King's consent he retained twelve manors 
 or towns belonging to the see. Aldred's acts of ecclesiastical 
 munificence and discipline include the restoration of St. Peter's, 
 Gloucester, in 1058 ; the building of refectories for the canons at 
 York and at Southwell ; the finishing of the one at Beverley, 
 and the introduction of a uniform habit for the clergy of his pro- 
 vince. Aldred strongly favoured the claims of Harold to the 
 English throne, and officiated at his coronation. On hearing of 
 the death of that prince on the field of Senlac, Aldred, with 
 archbishop Stigand, assembled the citizens of London, and in a 
 hurried folkmote proclaimed Edgar the Atheling king. But he 
 soon saw the hopelessness of resistance, and with Edgar and the 
 leading citizens of London repaired to Berkhamsted and sub- 
 mitted and gave hostages to William the Conqueror, whom, in 
 default of the willingness or eligibility of Stigand, archbishop 
 of Canterbury, to perform that office, he afterwards crowned. 
 He appears to have kept William in a more than wholesome 
 dread of the powers of the Church, and of his own in particular. 
 On one occasion it is said that the King, overwhelmed by the 
 vehement expostulation of the indignant archbishop, knelt at 
 
 his feet till he was appeased. After a year, however, Aldred 
 fled into Scotland with Edgar, and thus broke his allegiance to 
 William. His death took place on the 10th of September, 1069, 
 and he was buried in York Cathedral ; being succeeded in his 
 province by Thomas, a canon of Bayeux. The death of Aldred 
 is variously stated to have been caused by his disgust at the 
 exactions of the Conqueror, and by vexation and grief at the 
 insurrection of the inhabitants of his province, who, supported 
 by an invading party of Danes, under Sueno, had declared for 
 Edgar Atheling, whose cause there is every reason to believe 
 the archbishop himself favoured in his heart. Aldred is said 
 to have written a treatise entitled ' Pro Edgaro Rege contra 
 Tyrannidem Normanorum,' in which the whole matter of the 
 English succession is examined. 
 
 ALDKK'Il, KOllFJJT, whose name varies as Aldridge and 
 Aldryge, in Latin Aldrisius, or Aldrigus, was born at Burnham 
 in Buckinghamshire, towards the close of the 15th century. 
 He was educated at Eton, and became scholar and fellow of 
 King's College, Cambridge. About the time of his proceed- 
 ing to his M.A. degree he attracted the regard of Erasmus, who 
 speaks of him as " blandsc eloquential juvenis," and whom he 
 accompanied as friend and interpreter, on the occasion of the 
 pilgrimage made by the great scholar to our Lady of Walsing- 
 ham. In 1523 Aldrich was one of the preachers sent forth from 
 the University, to preach in different parts of the kingdom, as 
 there was at that time a great scarcity of persons qualified for 
 such an office. From the frequency of similar commissions to 
 men of eloquence, arose the appointment, in many colleges, of 
 College Preachers, who were allowed to hold livings with their 
 fellowships, as an encouragement for them to do their duty in 
 the circuits which they used to make throughout the nation. The 
 elegance and purity of Aldrich's Latin style were so remarkable 
 that we find him, according to an entry in the Proctor's Book, 
 for 1527, employed by the University to write three letters to 
 the King, " Magistro Aldryg pro tribus Uteris missis ad Domi- 
 num Regem, 10«." On the 18th of July, 1528, he was appointed 
 to a staU, " centum solidorum," in the cathedral church of 
 Lincoln ; which in the following January he quitted for the 
 more substantial prebend of " decern librarum." Aldrich pro- 
 ceeded to his D.D. degree in April, 1530; and on the 30th 
 December, 1531, was preferred by the king to the archdeaconry 
 of Colchester. He was appointed a canon of Windsor, by patent 
 dated May 3, 1534, and was installed four days after; and in the 
 same year was made registrar of the Order of the Garter. In 
 1537 he became chaplain and almoner to Queen Jane Seymour; 
 provost of Eton, of which he had been successively a pupil, a 
 master, and a fellow ; and finally, on the 24th August in the 
 same year, received the temporalities of the see of Carlisle, to 
 which he had been nominated by the king in the preceding 
 month of July. It says much for the versatility and the powers 
 of accommodation of Bishop Aldrich, that he was able, in spite of 
 the changes in church and state incident to twenty years of 
 unsettlement, to retain the incumbency of his diocese until his 
 death, on the 5th of March, 1556. This event took place in a 
 manor-house belonging to the bishops of Carlisle, at Homcastle 
 in Lincolnshire; and here Aldrich was buried. He was the 
 author of several small productions in literature and theology. 
 His first writings were chiefly against Robert Whittington, a 
 grammarian of the time. As registrar of the Order of the Garter, 
 he devoted himself to the illustration of its antiquities ; and 
 translated into Latin and abridged the ' Registrum Chartaceum,' 
 which his predecessors had written in French. As Bishop of 
 Carlisle, hia replies to ' Queries put concerning some Abuses of 
 the Mass,' are printed in Burnet's ' History of the Reformation,' 
 part ii., book 1, Collection of Records, No. 25. And Wood, in 
 his ' Athena) Oxonienses,' refers to Aldrich certain Resolutions 
 concerning the Sacraments, and concerning bishops, priests, and 
 other matters relating to the Reformation. 
 
 ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO (Aleander, Jerome) was the 
 son of a physician at Motta, in Friuli, where he was born, 
 on the "13th of February, 1480. At the age of 13 he applied 
 himself to the study of belles lettres at Venice, 'where, in the 
 year 1500, he gave public lectures on the ' Tusculan Questions' 
 of Cicero. His reputation won for him the admiration and 
 esteem of Aldus Manutius, who, in 1504, dedicated to him, as to 
 a perfect master, not only of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, but 
 also of the Chaldee and Arabic languages, a mathematician, a 
 musician, and a poet, his celebrated Greek edition of Homer. 
 So high was Aleandro's character, that Pope Alexander VI. 
 invited him to Rome, and intended to make him secretary to hia 
 son, Ccesar Borgia — a questionable promotion, which Alcandru 
 
ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO. 
 
 escaped by a timely illness, during a mission as the pope's envoy 
 to Hungary. During his stay in Venice he had been admitted 
 to the intimacy of Erasmus, with whom he resided at the house 
 of Andrea Asolano, the father-in-law of Aldus. In 1508 he 
 visited Fiance, at the invitation of Louis XII., who conferred 
 upon him the professorship of belles lettres and the Greek 
 language, and afterwards the rectorship of the University of 
 Pans. He remained in France till the year 1514, when he was 
 made chancellor to Everard de la March, Bishop of Liege, by 
 whom he was subsequently sent to Rome, to negotiate with the 
 Pope for his promotion to the dignity of cardinal . This mission 
 was successfully performed by Aleandro, who so well conciliated 
 the good opinion of the pontiff, Leo X., that he was detained at 
 the Papal court, and at length appointed librarian of the Vatican, 
 in succession to Zenobio Acciajuoli, in 1519. 
 
 At the commencement of the following year he was sent by 
 the Pope to oppose the spread of the doctrines of Luther in 
 Germany, and was appointed to officiate as papal nuncio at the 
 Diet of Worms. The excitement in favour of Luther in that 
 portion of Germany through which Aleandro had to pass was so 
 great as to expose him to neglect, insult, and discomfort, so that 
 he approached Worms with feelings of exasperation and animosity 
 against the Reformers. To the influence of Aleandro at the Diet 
 of Worms the shameful treatment of Luther, the proscription of 
 his person, and the burning of his books, are generally ascribed. 
 The edict against the reformer, which was finally adopted by the 
 emperor and the diet, was drawn up by Aleandro, who designated 
 the Lutherans as " a motley rabble of insolent grammarians, 
 licentious priests, disorderly monks, ignorant advocates, degraded 
 nobles, misled and perverted plebeians.'"' Such language was not 
 likely to be lost on a man like Luther, who retaliated with 
 invectives the most bitter against Aleandro, whom he declared 
 to be a Jew, who did not believe in the Resurrection, and whom 
 he accused of covetousness, lust, arrogance, pride, and vanity. 
 It is certain that the zeal of Aleandro was fiery and impetuous, 
 and that he was given to luxury and ostentation ; yet it should 
 not be forgotten that, if Protestant historians speak of his 
 " Epicurean morals," Romish authors, on the other hand, applaud 
 his "blameless life." 
 
 The violent conduct of Aleandro disgusted the more moderate 
 of his own party, and especially Erasmus, from whom he was 
 now completely estranged ; but he did not forfeit the pontifical 
 favour and confidence, for in 1523 Clement VII. made him 
 Ai chbishop of Brindisi and of Oria, and despatched him as nuncio 
 to the French court. In this capacity he was present with 
 Francis I. at the battle of Pavia, in 1525, and shared the captivity 
 of that monarch. A considerable outlay of money procured the 
 enlargement of Aleandro in 1526, when he returned to Rome, from 
 which city, however, he was glad to retire in 1527, on account of the 
 outrages and the enmity of the Oolonna faction. He sought safety 
 in his diocese of Brindisi, and remained there until 1531, when 
 the Pope recalled him to Rome, and sent him again to Germany 
 to the Diet of Spire, which subsecpiently met at Ratisbon in the 
 spring of the following year. The violence of his former pro- 
 ceedings frustrated his strenuous exertions to prevent the emperor 
 concluding a truce with the Protestant princes of Germany, and 
 he went as nuncio to Venice, where he remained until 1535, 
 when the then Pope, Paul III., desirous of rewarding his devotion 
 to the church, recalled him to Rome for the purpose of creating 
 him cardinal. But this dignity was, on political grounds, with- 
 held till 1538, in which year Aleandro went into Germany, for 
 the third time, as legate from the Pope. He returned in 1539 to 
 Home, where he continued to reside until his death, on the 31st 
 of January, 1542. 
 
 His principal works in print are ' Lexicon Grajco-Latinum,' 
 folio, Paris, 1512, now very scarce ; ' Tabula? sane utiles Groccarum 
 Mn. -arum Adyta Compendia ingredi volentibus,' 4to, 1515, an 
 abridgment of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras ; and a piece 
 in Latin verse, entitled ' Ad Julium et Nea)ram,' and inserted 
 in the collection of Matli.Toscanus, 'Carmina Illustrinm Poetarum 
 Italorum.' Aleandro's verses manifest considerable poetical 
 aptitude. At the time of his death, the earliness of which pre- 
 vented him from filling the presidency of the Council of Trent, 
 for which he was designed, Aleandro was engaged upon a treatise 
 ' De Concilio Habendo,' of which he left only four books, but 
 which, incomplete, as it was, was often consulted for the regula- 
 tion of the proceedings of the Council of Trent. But of all the 
 works which Aleandro has left, that which Mazzuchelli, his 
 biographer, in the ' Scrittori d'ltalia,' considers as most import- 
 ant, is a MS. volume, which contains the letters and other 
 documents relating to his legations against the heresies of Luther, 
 
 ALEOTTI, GIAMBATTfSTA. r>\ 
 
 which are preserved in the library of the Vatican, and from which 
 Pallavicino has largely drawn for the early part of his ' History 
 of the Council of Trent.' 
 
 ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO, commonly called the younger, 
 bom at Motta, in Friuli, July 29, 1574, was distinguished, like 
 his great-uncle, the cardinal, by remarkable precocity, as an 
 instance of which, it is stated that at the age of 16' he composed 
 paraphrases of the Seven Penitential Psalms in the form of odes, 
 which were greatly admired, and in 1593 published, under the 
 title of 'La Lagrime di Penitenza.' At the age of 26 he published 
 his commentary on the Institutes of Caius, which obtained for 
 him the offer of the chair of jurisprudence in several Italian 
 universities. For 20 years he served as secretary to Cardinal 
 Ottavio Bandini, and only resigned, in 1624, to take the same 
 office under Pope Urban VIII. In 1625 he accompanied 
 Cardinal Barberini as councillor to France, where the unac- 
 customed good living brought on an ill state of health, which 
 caused him to return to Rome, instead of proceeding with the 
 cardinal to Spain. Aleandro died at Rome, March 9, 1629, and 
 was interred with great splendour at the cost of Cardinal 
 Barberini. He was regarded as one of the most learned Italians 
 of his time, and Rossi greatly praises the purity and elegance of 
 his style. Besides the Commentaries and Penitential Psalms, he 
 wrote some Latin and Italian poems, and several treatises on 
 antiqixities and other subjects. A list of his writings is given in 
 Mazzuchelli's ' Scrittori d'ltalia.' 
 
 ALEKS.EEV, or ALEXEJEV, FEODOR YACOVLEVICH, 
 a. distinguished Russian artist, was born in 1755 ; studied in the 
 Academy of the Fine Arts, St. Petersburg, where he carried off 
 several prizes, and then went to Italy. Here, devoting himself 
 particularly to the representation of architecture, he fixed his 
 residence for some time at Venice, and acquired, from the class 
 of subjects and style of his paintings, the title of the Russian 
 Canaletti. On his return to St. Petersburg, 1779, he was 
 appointed scene painter at the Imperial Theatre. This office he 
 retained till 1787, from which time he occupied himself with 
 painting small architectural pieces in oil. In 1801 he was com- 
 manded by the Emperor Paul to visit the chief cities of the 
 empire, and take views of the public buildings, &c. He returned 
 laden with drawings and sketches, from which he executed a 
 series of paintings, now in the gallery of the Hermitage, and 
 which are of great interest, not only as works of art, but as 
 affording a tolerably complete and faithful idea of the appearance 
 of the cities of Russia half a century ago. The views of Moscow 
 afford almost the only trustworthy representation of its architec- 
 ture prior to the conflagration of 1812. Aleksaeev was elected 
 member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1794, and professor of 
 perspective in 1803. He died November 23. 1821. His works 
 are neatly and carefully drawn, well composed, and cleverly 
 executed. The pictures painted during the last five years of his 
 life are, however, much feebler than his earlier works. 
 
 ALEMAND, LOUIS AUGUSTIN, French writer, was born 
 at Grenoble in 1653, and brought up as a Protestant, but abjured 
 that faith in 1676. He was educated for the bar, and practised 
 with success at his native place, but changed his career, studied 
 medicine, and in 1693 was admitted to the faculty at Aix. Not 
 meeting with success as a physician, he after a time went to Paris 
 and devoted himself to literature ; but towards the end of his 
 life returned to Grenoble and to the practice of his first pro- 
 fession. He died there in 1728. Alemand is a good and useful 
 writer, though his works are now probably never read, and 
 seldom referred to. They comprise — ' Nouvelles Obligations, ou 
 guerre civile des Francais sur la langue,' 12mo, Paris, 1618 : a 
 series of critical remarks on the history of separate words. 
 Alemand promised six more volumes, but its continuation is said 
 to have been prevented by the "interference of the French 
 Academy. Goujot, in his ' fiibliotheque Franchise,' praised the 
 work very highly. ' Nouvelles Remarqucs de M. de Vaugelas 
 sur la langue Francaise, ouvrage postlmme, avec des observations 
 
 de M Avocat an Parlement,' 12mo, Paris, 1690 ; ' His- 
 
 toire Monastique d'Irlande,' 12mo, Paris, 1690. This work was 
 dedicated to the exiled James II., his wife and son, is carefully 
 and fairly written, and formed the foundation of the more pre- 
 tentious work of Captain Stevens, ' Monasticon Hibernicum,' 
 London, 1722. ' Journal Historique,' 8vo, Pari-, 1694. This was 
 to have been an annual volume, something like our Annual 
 Register, but only one was published. Alemand announced his 
 intention to publish abridgments of Dugdale's 'Monasticon 
 Angiicanum,' and 'Baronage/ hut they never appeared. 
 
 ALEOTTI, GIAMBAT'iTSTA, Italian architect and engineer, 
 was born at Argenta, in Ferrara, in 1546. Of humble origin, he 
 
55 
 
 ALES, ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., OF RUSSIA. 
 
 56 
 
 worked first as a mason, Imt by diligence and study, particularly 
 of mathematics, he gradually raised himself, and in 1571 was 
 taken into the service of Duke Alfonso II. of Ferrara as his 
 engineer. After the death of Alfonso, in 1597, Ferrara being 
 annexed to the Papal States, Aleotti was directed by Pope 
 Clement VIII. to erect the citadel. He was subsequently em- 
 ployed by several of the princes and nobles of this part of Italy, 
 Mantua, Modena, Parma, and elsewhere. His chief work was 
 the great theatre at Parma, erected for Ranuccio I., and opened 
 in 1619, which excited gn at admiration as one of the first 
 designed in what was called the modern style : a full account of 
 it was published by Donati, ' Gran Teatro Farnesino di Parma,' 
 1817. Aleotti was the founder of the Academy degli Intrepidi, 
 at Ferrara, in 1600. He wrote ' Considerazioni d'Architettura di 
 Oeometria e d'Idrologia ;' took part in the engineering discussions 
 caused by the serious inundations in Ferrara, Romagna, and 
 Bologna ; and edited Hero of Alexandria's treatise on Pneu- 
 matics. He died in 1636. His daughter, Vittoria Aleotti, 
 attained some eminence as a musical composer. She studied at 
 first under Pasquino, but afterwards in the musical school of the 
 convent of St. Viti at Ferrara, where she passed the rest of her 
 days. She published a ' CJhirlanda de' Madi igali,' Venice, 1593. 
 
 ALES, ALEXANDER (or Aless, Alesse, Alane, Alesius), 
 an eminent theologian of the 16th century, was born at Edin- 
 burgh, on the 23rd of April, 1500. He was educated at the 
 University of St. Andrews, and obtained a canonry in the colle- 
 giate church there. At an early age he entered into controversy 
 as an opponent of Luther, and also withstood the doctrines 
 which had been imported from Marburg by Patrick Hamilton. 
 His zeal for the Roman Catholic religion was staggered by the 
 discourses of Hamilton, who was a young man of high rank, 
 and of excellent parts and attainments, and the constancy and 
 meekness with which he encountered martyrdom at the stake, 
 February 28th, 1528. A too frank avowal of sympathy with 
 the opinions of the Reformers, and a vigorous attack, in a sermon 
 before the Synod of St. Andrews, on the corrupt lives of the 
 clergy, brought Ales into peril for heresy; so that, after having 
 been three times imprisoned, and as often liberated by his 
 brother canons, he fled, in 1534, first to England, and afterwards 
 to Germany. In 1535 he again visited England, where he be- 
 came acquainted with Thomas Cromwell, and through him with 
 Henry VIII., and many of the English Reformers, including 
 Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. The king regarded Ales 
 with so much favour, as to speak of him as ""his scholar." Upon 
 the fall of Cromwell, he was obliged once more to seek refuge 
 in Germany; and was appointed, in 1540, professor of theology 
 at Frankfurt on the Oder, by the Elector of Brandenburg, 
 who deputed him, with two others, to the Conference of Worms, 
 1541, in the discussions of which, however, he was forbidden by 
 Cardinal Granville, who presided for the Emperor Charles V., 
 to take a part. The next year, in a public disputation at Frank- 
 furt, Ales maintained the power and the obligation of the civil 
 magistrate to punish fornication ; a proposition which was so 
 distasteful to the laity generally, and so particularly obnoxious 
 to the court of Brandenburg, that the too bold champion of 
 purity was glad to retire, 1543, to Leipzig, where he was chosen 
 professor of divinity, and held the office till his death on the 
 17th of March, 1565. On the 29th of November, 1560, in a 
 public disputation held in the University of Leipzig, Ales 
 maintained the necessity and merit of good works, thus espous- 
 ing and affirming the doctrine of G. Major, who had raised the 
 question. The works of Alexander Ales are numerous and 
 miscellaneous, although for the most part they arrange them- 
 selves very naturally into three groups or divisions — (1) Com- 
 mentaries on various Books of the Old and New Testament ; 
 (2) Works in favour of reading the Scriptures in the vernacular 
 tongue, and against the bishops and others who are unwilling to 
 concede the privilege ; and (3) Works of Controversy on ques- 
 tions agitated between the Roman Catholics and the Protes- 
 tants. 
 
 ALESSANDRI, ALESSANDRO (Alexander ad Alex- 
 andro). was born at Naples, about the year 1461. He was early 
 destined for the legal profession, and, by way of preparation for 
 his technical education, seems to have enjoyed a careful classical 
 training. At Naples, he is said to have studied under Guiniaio 
 Maio, a scholarly person, who is at present chiefly known for his 
 devotion to the study of oneirocritics. Between the years 1475 and 
 1481, it would appear that Alessandri was prosecuting his 
 studies at Rome ; alter the completion of which he began to 
 practise both at Rome and Naples, and in the latter city he is said 
 to have held the oflicc of royal prothonetary in 1400. The iniquity 
 
 of the bench, to quote his own testimony, at length compelled 
 the abandonment of his profession ; and the latter years of his 
 life, which were spent at Rome, were made tolerable through 
 the kindness of the Pope, who conferred upon him some sinecure 
 appointments, of which the emoluments just reached the limits 
 of comfort. Alessandri died at Rome, on the 2nd of October, 
 1523, in the 62nd year of his age. 
 
 He published, in what year is unknown, four Dissertations on 
 Dreams, Spectres, &c, the substance of which is embodied in 
 four chapters of his' Dies Geniales.' fob Rome, 1522 ; a work in 
 six books, each of which comprises from 26 to 32 chapters. A b • - - 
 sandri's stories of prophetic dreams, terrible spectres, mer- 
 maids, &c, would imply great credulity, if there were not good 
 reason to question his veracity. His style is easy, the matter 
 sometimes interesting, and sometimes frivolous. Great part of 
 the book is occupied with desultory discussions on Rom. mi 
 antiquities ; occasional legal difficulties are started, but even in 
 discussing them, the philologist preponderates ; they read like 
 extracts from the note-book of one who had opportunities of 
 hearing the conversation of good scholars. 
 
 ♦ALEXANDER II., NICOLAIEVICH, Emperor of Russia 
 (stvled Tzar, and Autocrat of all the Russias), was born the 
 29th (O.S. 17th) of April, 1818. The eldest son of the Em- 
 peror Nicholas, he was educated with a special view to his suc- 
 cession to the throne, the general supervision of his studies 
 being assigned to General Morder and B. Schukovski, but the 
 Emperor is said to have himself directed his military training, 
 and carefully watched against the intrusion of any anti-Russian 
 ideas. The stern discipline to which he was subjected is sup- 
 posed to have fostered, if it did not induce, the silent and almost 
 morose disposition which distinguished him even when a young 
 man. At the age of 16 he was declared of age, promoted to 
 high office in the army, and made aide-de-camp to the Emperor. 
 The state of his health causing disquietude, he was sent to visit 
 the German courts ; and in 1841 he married the Princess Wil- 
 helmine Auguste Sophie Maria, daughter of the late Ludwig II., 
 Grand-Duke of Hesse, who, before her marriage adopted the 
 Greek faith, and received the name of Maria-Alexandrowna. 
 The prince was now sent as Governor to Finland, where he 
 carried out as far as practicable his father's directions for the 
 " Russification " of the province. In 1850 he made a tour of 
 inspection through Mid-Russia, the Crimea, Circassia, and other 
 Russian provinces, and on his return was decorated with the 
 order of St. George. Between the Archduke Alexander and 
 his brother Constantine there had long been ill-feeling, which 
 had on more than one occasion found vent in acts of open hos- 
 tility; but before his death their father commanded them in his 
 presence to promise friendship and mutual support when Alex- 
 ander should be sovereign, and outwardly at least there has 
 been no subsequent breach, though Alexander is accused of 
 placing his brother in situations which may interfere with his 
 popularity, or tend to lower him in the eyes of his country- 
 men. 
 
 The Emperor Nicholas died on the 2nd of March, 1855, and 
 Alexander was without opposition proclaimed Emperor. In a 
 manifesto addressed to the country, he declared his intention to 
 continue in the line of policy inaugurated by his father, and to 
 act in all things with a view to the furtherance of the strength 
 and glory of the empire. Before long, however, he dismissed 
 his father's most trusted ministers, and showed a strong desire to 
 bring to a close the war with Turkey and the Western Powers, 
 which had proved so disastrous for Russia, and to which he is 
 said to have been always privately opposed. 
 
 The treaty of peace was signed at Paris in March, 1856, and 
 the Emperor was now free to carry out the policy of internal 
 improvement which he had declared to be his primary purpose. 
 Among the improvements contemplated the most important 
 were the reform of the system of administration ; an amelioration 
 of the criminal laws and improvement of the judicature ; a 
 better organisation of the army; an extensive development of 
 the resources of the country ; construction of railways and 
 improvement in the means of communication generally; ex- 
 tension of education, and enlargement of the liberty of 
 the press. These intentions, it is needless to say, have only 
 been in part effected. Yet the improvement has been real. 
 Administrative reform has proved a nullity, as all acquainted 
 with the almost universal malversation of the government 
 officials throughout the empire expected it would. The con- 
 scription has been rendered easier, and the condition of the 
 soldier raised. Education extends but slowly, but something 
 has been effected for its improvement and e\t' nsi'vi rlik- in the 
 
57 
 
 ALEXANDER II., OF RUSSIA. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., OF RUSSIA. 
 
 58 
 
 universities and the schools of a lower grade. The primary 
 schools now number nearly 1000, with a return of about 1,000,000 
 scholars on the books. Something has also been done for the 
 culture of self-reliant habits by the grant of representative 
 institutions for local government, imperfect in themselves and 
 fenced about with formidable restrictions, but containing perhaps 
 the germ of a wider freedom. They consist of departmental 
 and general councils, which, by a Ukase of January 1, 1864, 
 came into operation in 1865. The members are elected for 
 three veal's ; persons of all classes are elegible for the office, 
 and they deal, within certain limits, with the economic and 
 administrative questions relating to the district. By another 
 Ukase promulgated in April, 1865, the press was relieved to 
 a certain extent from the previous rigid censorship exercised 
 over it. It is still surrounded with stiict police regulations, 
 but it exercises considerable freedom of political and almost 
 unlimited licence in social discussions. The consideration of 
 the broader, and, so to speak, abstract subjects of political and 
 social science, in the periodicals is practically unrestrained. 
 Scientific studies are of course not interfered with, aud the 
 Emperor has evinced a strong disposition to support those 
 brandies of science which bear on the physical condition of the 
 country, and to assist scientific travel : in statistical inquiries, 
 however, Russia is suffered to remain sadly in arrear. Efforts 
 have been made at the Emperor's instigation to reorganise the 
 financial department of the government, and also to improve 
 the banking and monetary system of the country. The revenue 
 has greatly increased, but the expenditure has more than kept 
 pace with the increase ; the deficiency has consequently had to be 
 met by loans, which have added considerably to the national debt. 
 Trade and commerce have largely augmented, and are evidently 
 capable of an immensely greater development, as is shown by 
 the continuous annual growth of both the exports and imports. 
 The most striking advance, however, is in the railways and 
 telegraphs, to which the Emperor lends all the aid in his power: 
 at the present time there are above 3000 miles of railway com- 
 pleted, or approaching completion, and 25,000 miles of tele- 
 graph. These have been for the most part laid out primarily 
 with a view to military and departmental service, but they 
 cannot fail to assist enormously in the development of the 
 national resources. 
 
 But the grand reform which will render the reign of Alexan- 
 der II. an epoch in the history of Russia is the emancipation of 
 the serfs. A Ukase of March the 3rd, 1861, declared the serfs 
 of both classes — those who as peasants held a certain portion of 
 land, for which they gave in return a fixed amount of labour ; 
 and those who, having no land, were virtually the property of 
 the nobles and landowners — to be personally and civilly free. 
 Both classes of serf's, in number about 23,000,000, were entirely 
 subject to their lords, without whose permission they could not 
 quit their homes or enter upon any new occupation, and by 
 whom they could be punished, and even flogged, if disobedient. 
 By the new decree they were removed from the j urisdiction of the 
 proprietor, and admitted to the same rights, and made amenable 
 to the same laws, as their fellow-subjects. Regulations were 
 laid down for the grants of land to the emancipated serfs, and their 
 payment by labour, or under certain conditions by means of a 
 Government loan, and a period of transition was allowed to 
 proprietors and serfs till 1870, when there will be entire freedom. 
 The measure has, with some necessary qualifications, been per- 
 sistently carried out. Opinions as to the consequences that have 
 resulted from it to the present time differ considerably among even 
 qualified and seemingly impartial observers. Of its ultimate bene- 
 fits to all classes we cannot permit ourselves to doubt. Thus far 
 the proprietors have unquestionably suffered greatly. But the 
 benefit to the serfs themselves has been far from unalloyed. 
 Morally the condition of the first or tenant class of serfs has 
 improved, but materially they are said to be generally worse off. 
 The second or dvorori class have changed little in their outward 
 circumstances, but their social position has been greatly altered, 
 and their chances of bettering their condition vastly improved. 
 
 The adoption and resolute accomplishment of so complete a 
 scheme in the face of all opposition and difficulty afford perhaps 
 the strongest proof of the Emperor's force of will and persistency 
 of purpose. From the first it was opposed by the whole body of 
 the nobles, by the old Russian party, and family and govern- 
 mental traditions. But the Emperor refused to postpone, and 
 was hardly brought to modify, his original decree. The nobles 
 believed that it was put forth with the view to subvert their 
 power, and for a time it seemed as though there would be a 
 gpive conflict. At an assembly of the nobles, held in January, 
 
 1862, it was formally moved to take into consideration a resolu- 
 tion calling upon the Emperor to abdicate in favour of his eldest 
 son, and the motion was only lost by a majority of 18, the votes 
 being 165 for, and 183 against it. This was a symptom of dis- 
 affection not to be overlooked. Stringent measures were adopted 
 for the security of the Emperor's person and the safety of the 
 seat of government, and military precautions were taken against 
 any outbreak. But it was understood that the vote was in- 
 tended rather as an intimation of dissatisfaction with the par- 
 ticular measure than of any purpose of revolt; and it was 
 resolved to make some concessions. These somewhat hampered 
 the working of the emancipation scheme, but did not materially 
 alter it. Time was, however, gained, and the Emperor was 
 able to use the emancipated peasantry as a check upon any 
 hostile movement of the proprietors. The nobles have on the 
 whole been compelled to acquiescence ; any subsequent attempt 
 at hostile action has met with a stern rebuke, and tlu-ir power of 
 deliberation and control by means of their territorial assemblies 
 seriously abridged. Thus, the nobles of Moscow having met in 
 full assembly, June, 1865, to claim guarantees which were 
 refused, passed a resolution asserting the necessity for public 
 representation, the provincial assembly of the nobles having 
 been rendered nugatory by the institution of the provincial par- 
 liaments, whilst the political rights formerly possessed by the 
 assemblies of nobles were only partially transferred to the popular 
 parliaments. To this the Emperor replied by a letter addressed 
 to the Minister of the Interior, in which, after referring to the 
 reforms already accomplished by him, he declares that " the 
 right of initiative in the various parts of the work of gradually 
 perfecting those reforms belongs alone to me, and is indissolubly 
 allied to the autocratic power confided to me by God. No class 
 has legally a right to speak in the name of any other class, nor 
 is any individual entitled to intercede with me in favour of the 
 general interests, or with regard to what they consider necessi- 
 ties of state." Further, he wished them to understand for the 
 future that any such deviations from the regulated order would 
 only serve to retard the development of his plans. 
 
 Shortly after he ascended the throne the Emperor visited 
 Warsaw. The nobles and merchants presented an address, and 
 implored his favour. The reply contained the usual phrases of 
 goodwill and benevolent intentions, but with them was the 
 significant warning, "the order established here by my father 
 must be maintained : no dreams!" Year after year the Poles 
 found the iron hand pressing harder upon them. They were to 
 be awakened from their fond dream of a national existence in 
 any sense. The people were disarmed, the few constitutional 
 safeguards were declared inapplicable to them. Any person oi 
 position whogave public expression to his dissatisfaction, and many 
 who were only supposed to Vie dissatisfied, were arrested, and 
 mostly exiled to Siberia. At length a harsh edict of conscription, 
 which would have forced into the Russian army pretty nearly the 
 whole manhood of Warsaw, brought matters to a crisis. Insurrec- 
 tion spread rapidly, and though for the most part with only impro- 
 vised arms, the Poles maintained through 1863 a long and des- 
 perate struggle. They were of course beaten. The British, 
 French, and Austrian Governments had proposed mediation, 
 and even ventured to remonstrate against the Russian measures, 
 but their interference was haughtily repulsed — " The insurgents 
 must throw down their arms, and submit themselves to the 
 clemency of the Emperor." When that hour of necessity came, 
 the clemency was such as the character of the Emperor entitled 
 them to expect. It is possible that the cruelties said to have 
 been perpetrated may have been exaggerated ; but the Emperor 
 had fixed his mind on the Russification of Poland, on its abso- 
 lute absorption into the empire, and lie, autocrat and pope, had 
 been defied, and his edicts disregarded. He had probably little 
 thought of vengeance ; but his decrees must be enforced, and his 
 impassive temperament was utterly regardless of the suffering 
 occasioned or endured. His task he believed to be to get rid of 
 Poland and Poles as a distinct existence, and he has done his 
 best to accomplish it. Tartar insurrections, Circassian revolts, 
 he has treated in the same way. All such tribal or sectional 
 efforts after a national existence must be suppressed ; the cost in 
 human life and suffering is a matter of pitiless indifference. 
 
 On the 16th of April, 1866, as the Emperor was about to enter 
 his carriage at the gate of the Summer Garden, St. Petersburg, 
 he was fired at by a man named Karakosoff, but the assassin's 
 arm was seized by a bystander, who, diverting the pistol up- 
 wards, caused it to discharge harmlessly in the air. Karakosoff 
 was a Russian of noble family ; Kommisarolf, who saved the 
 Emperor's life, was a journeyman hatter, but was ennobled on 
 
ALFARO Y GAMEZ, JUAN DE. 
 
 60 
 
 the spot for his conduct. Great numbers of suspected persons, 
 students, Poles, and the like, were arrested, but there was only 
 questional ile evidence of the crime being part of a conspiracy. 
 A year later a similar attempt was made in Paris, where the 
 Emperor was on a visit to the Emperor of the French. As the 
 two Emperors were in a carriage in the Bois de Boulogne, a Pole 
 named Berezowski took aim at the Tzar and fired, but Napo- 
 leon's equerry, M. Rainbeaux, observing his movement, rode 
 forward, and his horse received the shot, the life of Alexander II. 
 being thus a second time saved from the assassin. Berezowski 
 was condemned to imprisonment with hard labour for life : 
 Alexander had requested that his life might be spared. 
 
 Looking at the state of Russia during the 17 years of the 
 reign of Alexander II., we see that it has been eminently a 
 period of transition, and that to the personal character of the 
 sovereign its special phase may lie in an unusual degree as- 
 signed. Plis main purpose has been the unification, as it is 
 called, of the empire, and in this he has been in a great measure 
 successful. With ceaseless progression Poland, Courland, Li- 
 vonia, and Esthonia have been " Russified" — the national laws, 
 administration of justice, education, language having had to 
 make way for those of Russia. He has also succeeded to a cer- 
 tain degree in improving the trade and developing the resources 
 of the country. Like his predecessors, he lias never lost sight of 
 the extension of his territories. Convinced that the time was 
 inopportune for actual aggression on Turkey, he has yet con- 
 stantly sought to weaken her by encouraging disaffection in the 
 Christian provinces, and making use of the ambitious tendencies 
 of the Greeks. But, compelled to abstain from direct aggression 
 in this quarter, he has found employment for his army by un- 
 ceasing encroachment in Asia until he has brought the Russian 
 power, if not actual Russian territory, into immediate contact 
 with Bokhara, Afghanistan, China, and Japan, ami as some 
 fancy, into inconvenient proximity with British India. Whether 
 the ultimate purpose or tendency of this vast extension shall 
 prove hostile or pacific, whether it shall lead to the subjugation 
 of ancient Asiatic kingdoms, and a struggle for ascendancy with 
 European powers, or more happily to the opening of new and 
 profitable channels of trade and friendly intercourse, only time 
 can determine. But the fact cannot be without immense in- 
 fluence on the future of Russia, second, it may be, but only 
 second to that resulting from what will undoubtedly remain the 
 grand achievement of the reign of Alexander II., the emancipa- 
 tion of the serfs. 
 
 By his wife, the Empress Maria Alexandrowna, the Emperor 
 has had six sons and a daughter. The eldest son, Nicolas, born 
 September 20, 1843, died at Nice, April, 1865. The present 
 heir to the throne, the Grand-Duke Alexander, was born March 
 10, 1845, and married the Princess Dagmar of Denmark, Nov. 9, 
 1866. The other children of Alexander II. are — Vladimar, born 
 April 22, 1847 ; Alexis, born January 14, 1850 ; Maria, born 
 October 7, 1853 ; Sergius, bom May 11, 1857 ; and Paul, born 
 October 3, I860. 
 
 * ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY, D.D., an eminent 
 Congregational divine, was born at Leith, on the 24th of August, 
 1808. He was educated at first under Dr. Jamieson, at East 
 Linton, and afterwards at the universities of Edinburgh and St. 
 Andrews. He was distinguished for his essays on subjects in 
 moral philosophy, and very soon began to attain a reputation as 
 an author. After finishing his university course he was ap- 
 pointed classical tutor in the Independent College, Blackburn, 
 and continued during four years to discharge the duties of his 
 office. He then became the minister successively of Newington 
 Chapel, Liverpool, and of Argyle Chapel, Edinburgh. This 
 important pastorate, on which he entered in 1835, he still carries 
 on, but in a larger and more beautiful building, erected in 1861, 
 and named the Augustine Church. Since the death of Dr. 
 Ralph Wardlaw, in 1853, Dr. Alexander has held, in addition to 
 his pastorate, the professorship of theology and Church history 
 in the Theological Hall of the Congregational churches of Scot- 
 land. He is a man of various and extensive learning, and is 
 favourably known as a sacred poet and as a contributor of 
 articles to the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' as well as to ' Kitto's 
 Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature,' 1847, of which work he 
 lately edited a new and improved edition. He was also 
 at one time editor of the 'Scottish Congregational Magazine.' 
 Dr. Alexander eirpys a high reputation as a philologist and as 
 an adept in Biblical literature, and is one of the most volumi- 
 nous and scholarly of living writers. The following are among 
 his principal works : — ' The Connection and Harmony of the 
 Old and New Testaments,' being his 'Congregational Lecture,' 
 
 1841 and 1853; 'Lectures to Young Men,' 1842; 'Anglo- 
 Catholicism,' &c, in reply to 'Tracts for the Times,' 1843; 
 'Switzerland and the Swiss Churches,' 1846; 'The Ancient 
 British Church,' 1852 ; Christ and Christianity,' 1854 ; 'Memoir 
 of Life and Writings of Dr. Wardlaw,' 1856 ; and ' St. Paul at 
 Athens,' 1865. 
 
 ALEYN, CHARLES, a poetical writer of considerable repu- 
 tation in his day, though now almost forgotten, was born near 
 the end of the 16th century. On the completion of his education 
 at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, he came to London, and 
 was engaged as assistant in the celebrated grammar-school kept 
 by Thomas Farnaby, at Goldsmith's Rents, Cripplegate. He was 
 afterwards tutor in the family of Edward Sherburne, Esq., Clerk 
 to the Ordnance, and his pupil, afterwards Sir Edward Sher- 
 burne, attained considerable eminence as a scholar, and testified 
 to the gratitude anil friendship he felt for his teacher in some 
 verses he addressed to him in 1638. Aleyn first appeared as a 
 poet in 1631 in a volume of 138 pages, entitled ' The Battles of 
 Crescey and Poictiers, under the Fortunes and Valour of Edward 
 the Third of that Name, and his Son, Edward Prince of Wales, 
 named the Black.' The two poems are in stanzas of six lines, 
 consisting of a quatrain with alternating rhymes, closed by a 
 couplet in the heroic measure, and though the metre becomes 
 monotonous when protracted through a long poem, it is not 
 unskilfully handled, and the story is tersely and vigorously told. 
 A third poem of similar construction appeared in 1638, under 
 the title of 'The Historic of that wise and fortunate Prince 
 Henrie, of that name the Seventh, King of England ; with that 
 famed Battaile fought between the said King Henrie ami Richard 
 III., named Crook-back, upon Redmore, near Bosworth.' Several 
 sets of commendatory verses prefixed to this* poem show the 
 admiration which the previous volume had excited. In 1639 
 Aleyn published ' Eurialus and Lucretia,' freely rendered, ac- 
 cording to Oldys, from a story found among the epistles of 
 iEneas Sylvius. He died in 1640, or, as some accounts say, in 
 1643, and was buried in St. Andrew's, Holborn. 
 
 ALFARABIUS, the Latinized surname of a learned Arabian 
 philosopher, who was born in Transoxiana in the 10th century. 
 He went to Bagdad to study Arab philosophy, and also Greek 
 philosophy through the medium of Arabian writers. After 
 visiting Egypt (a.d. 941-2), he settled at Damascus, where he 
 resided till his death in 950. He was a man of great learning in 
 languages and the sciences, and wrote sixty different works on 
 philosophy, dialectics, physics, metaphysics, optics, astronomy, 
 &c. He was highly esteemed by Jews as well as Arabs, who 
 translated many of his works into Hebrew and Latin. One of 
 his writings on the elements of music gave an account of the 
 Arab musical notes, and figures of the instruments. Some autho- 
 rities credit him with the introduction of the method of sol-fa- 
 ing, or syllable-singing. The two works which gained for him 
 his great celebrity were the ' Ihssa-l-olum', or Review of the 
 Sciences ; and a parallel between the philosophical systems of 
 Aristotle and Plato. Alfarabius was in high favour with the 
 Sultan Seyfu-d-daulah. 
 
 ALFARO Y GAMEZ, JUAN DE, celebrated Spanish painter, 
 was born at Cordova in 1640; received a good general education ; 
 studied painting in his native city under Antonio del Castillo, 
 and then entered the school of Velasquez at Madrid, by whose 
 advice he copied the works of Titian, Rubens, and Vandyck, in 
 the Royal Gallery, and thus acquired the brilliant style of co- 
 louring to which he owed his subsequent success. His first com- 
 mission on returning to Cordova was to paint a series of subjects 
 from the life of St. Francis for the cloister of the convent named 
 after that saint. In the designs he was said to have borrowed a 
 good deal from engravings, but he placed Alfaro pinxit conspi- 
 cuously under each picture. To abate his pride, his old master, 
 Castillo, obtained permission to fill one of the unfinished com- 
 partments, and put under his picture Alfaro non pinxit. Alfaro 
 painted many religious and historical pictures, both in Cordova 
 and Madrid, but his works in this line are not of much worth. 
 He had studied little, drew indifferently, and designed without 
 originality or power. His strength lay in portraiture. He seized 
 the distinctive character, produced a pleasing likeness, and co- 
 loured well. For his patrons, the Regidor Don Pedro de Arce, 
 and the Admiral of Castile, he jwinted portraits of many of the 
 most distinguished personages of the day : that of Cakleron was 
 suspended over the great dramatist's tomb in the church of San 
 Salvador. Alfaro, who seems to have been a light-hearted and 
 somewhat frivolous, but accomplished man, wrote verses, and 
 made biographical notes on the painters with whom he had asso- 
 ciated, which were arranged after his death by his brother, Henri 
 
ALFEZ, RABBI ISAAC BERABBI JACOB. 
 
 ALLEGRINI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 6i 
 
 de Alfaro, a physician, and proved of much service to Palomino 
 in the compilation of his 'El Parnaso Espanol Pintoresco lauredo.' 
 Alfaro died in 1680. 
 
 ALFEZ, RABBI ISAAC BERABBI JACOB, one of the 
 most celehrated of the Jewish Taluiudists, was born in 1013, at 
 B village mar Fez, in Africa, whence his designation, Alfez or 
 the Fezite. He had spent a long life in his native place, teaching 
 the principles of the Talmud, not only to his countrymen but to 
 foreign Jews who flocked to him from all parts, when, at the age 
 of 75, he was compelled to cpiit Africa through the intrigues of 
 an opponent. Alfez took refuge in Cordova, then the flourishing 
 capital of the Moorish kingdom, and the principal seat of He- 
 brew learning. He was received with great honour by the 
 chief rabbi, and remained there for seven years lecturing on 
 the sacred books and laws ; but eventually withdrew to the 
 quieter town of Alusina (probably the present Lucena), where 
 he continued his studies and teaching until his death, in 1103, 
 at the age of 90. 
 
 Alfez has always been regarded by Jewish writers and theo- 
 ins with the utmost reverence, and his writings are only 
 placed below the Talmud in point of authority. The most im- 
 portant, sometimes called ' The Lesser,' or ' The Little Talmud,' 
 'The Institutions of Rabbi Alfez' (Hilcuth Bab Alfez), and some- 
 times simply ' Alfezi,' is a sort of abstract of the Talmud, or of 
 so much of that work as appeared to Alfez to be applicable to his 
 time. It was first printed at Constantinople, in folio, 1509 ; 
 the second edition appeared at Venice, 3 large volumes folio, 
 1521-22, and has been often reprinted. The best edition is that 
 published at Sabionetta, in Italy, 1534. Many commentaries on 
 the Little Talmud have also been published. 
 
 (Bartolocci, Bib. Mag. Rahb. vol. iii. ; Wolfius, Bibl. Heb. ; 
 Buxtorf, Bib. Bab., art. Alphesi; Biog. Diet, of U. K. S., and 
 the authorities there cited.) 
 
 * ALFORD, HENRY, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, was born 
 in London, in the year 1810 ; was educated first at Ilminster 
 Grammar School, Somerset, and afterwards at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. He was a wrangler, and Bell's university 
 scholar ; and took his degrees of B.A., M.A., and B.D., respec- 
 tively in 1832, 1835, and 1849. His first literary production 
 was entitled 'Poems and Poetical Fragments,' Cambridge, 1831 ; 
 followed, in 1835, by 'The School of the Heart, and other Poems,' 
 in two volumes, a work of which several editions have been 
 published both in this country and in America. In 1834, Mr. 
 Alford became a fellow of his college of Trinity ; and was vicar 
 of Wymeswold, Leicestershire, from 1835 to 1853. He pub- 
 lished his 'Chapters on the Poets of Greece,' in 1841 ; and in 
 1841 — 42 delivered the Hulsean lectures in the University of 
 Cambridge, which he published in 1842, under the title of 'The 
 Divine Revelation of Redemption.' From 1S41 to 1857 he acted 
 as Examiner in Logic and Moral Philosophy in the University 
 of London ; and from 1853 to 1857 was known as the eloquent 
 minister of Quebec Street Chapel, London. In 1854 — 5 he pub- 
 lished two volumes of 'Quebec Chapel Sermons.' On the death 
 of Dr. Lyall, in 1857, Dr. Alford was appointed by Lord Palmer- 
 Rton to the deanery of Canterbury. His greatest work is that 
 entitled 'The Greek Testament, with Notes,' the first instalment 
 of which appeared in 1849, and the whole of which was com- 
 pleted in 1801. The different volumes of which it consists have 
 gone through several editions; and notwithstanding the draw- 
 back to the worth of the whole work, arising from some modifi- 
 cations on the part of the author during its progress, its value as 
 a scholarly production is generally recognised. Dean Alford is 
 also the author of several magazine articles on ' The Queen's 
 English/ 'Journeys in Italy,' 'The Right Use of the Gospels,' 
 &c, some of which have since been published separately ; and 
 he is the editor of 'The Contemporary Review.' He published, 
 in addition, ' The Year of Prayer,' and ' The Year of Praise,' 
 (1867), the latter of which is a hymnal, containing 326 hymns, 
 of which 55 are his own. A fourth edition of his poetical works 
 appeared in 1865, containing many pieces then for the first time 
 collected. As a poet, he is pleasing, devout, and various ; and 
 of his sonnets especially may be regarded as very felicitous. 
 Tin- last result of his poetical activity is found in the publica- 
 tion of 'The Lord's Prayer,' illustrated artistically by Mr. F. R. 
 PkkersgiJl, R.A., and by Dean Alford, by means of a lyrical 
 drama, with appropriate chorus, metrical dissertations, and 
 descriptions. 
 
 ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD, Bart. [E. C. vol. i. col. 152.] 
 'The History of Europe, from the Fall of Napoleon, in 1815, to 
 the Accession of Louis Napoleon, in 1852,' was completed in 
 eight volumes in 1859, but there was nothing in the later vo- 
 
 lumes to modify the unfavourable opinion expressed of the 
 work in the memoir above cited. Of the original 'History of 
 Europe ... to the Restoration of the Bourbons in 1815,' a tenth 
 edition, in 14 vols. 8vo. was published in 1860. The only sub- 
 sequent publication of any consequence given to the world by 
 Sir Archibald was, the 'Lives of Lord ( 'astlereagh and Sir C. 
 Stewart, the second and third Marquesses of Londonderry,' 8vo. 
 Edinb. and Lond. 1861. Sir Archibald Alison died May 23rd, 
 1867, aged 74. 
 
 ALLAMAND, JEAN NICOLAS SEBASTIAN, was born at 
 Lausanne in 1713. Here he studied theology, and on being 
 admitted to the ministry, accepted an appointment at Leyden. 
 He had now an opportunity of gratifying his taste for science ; 
 and so successful was he, that the celebrated Professor S'Grave- 
 sande made him tutor to his children, and afterwards his literary 
 executor. On the death of S'Gravesande he was about to quit 
 Leyden to fill a scientific post, when the university authorities 
 persuaded him to remain, and obtained for him the chair of 
 philosophy. His first lecture, 30th March, 1749, was an elo/je on 
 his patron and friend, S'Gravesande. Some years later he was 
 also called to the chair of natural history, which, with that of 
 philosophy, he occupied until his death, 2nd of March, 1787. 
 He often received specimens from various parts of the world, 
 with which, together with his private collection, he enriched the 
 botanic garden and museum of the university. His name is 
 associated with that of Muschenbroek as being the first in Hol- 
 land to repeat the experiment of the electric shock, discovered 
 by Cuneus. Priestley (' Hist. Electricity ') refers to him as one 
 who " makes approaches to the discovery of negative electricity." 
 There is also a letter by Allamand in No. 477 of the Transac- 
 tions of the Royal Society of London (1745) on the pheno- 
 mena of the Bologna phial, containing an account of some experi- 
 ments by an Italian philosopher, which he repeats and extends. 
 Allamand's scientific papers display no powers of original re- 
 search. Most of his time was occupied in translating or editing 
 the works of others, not only in natural science, but also in 
 theology, for which task he seems to have been well fitted by 
 his modesty (he always omitted, or endeavoured to omit, his own 
 name), integrity, and industry. His translation of Billion's great 
 work, which extended to 38 vols. 4to, was published at Amster- 
 dam between 1766 and 1779. 
 
 ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, an Italian musical composer, was 
 born at Rome about 1580. Having composed several motetts and 
 sacred vocal pieces, he entered the service of Pope Urban VIII. 
 in 1629, in the choir of the Sistine Chapel. Here he remained 
 till his death, February 18, 1652. He was a voluminous composer 
 of masses, motetts, hymns, psalms, and other kinds of ecclesias- 
 tical music ; but his fame rests chiefly on a Miserere for a double 
 choir, sung in the Sistine Chapel in the Holy Week. It was so 
 highly esteemed by the papal court that the printing and even 
 the copying were prohibited; but Mozart secretly wrote it out 
 while listening to it, and Dr. Burney contrived to obtain a copy 
 of it for printing in 1771. The Miserere, though not remarkable 
 either for melody or harmony, has an intensity of mournfulness 
 about it which has never been adequately rendered, except in the 
 chapel for which it was composed, or rather perhaps we should 
 say, is never so deeply felt elsewhere, — much of the impression 
 being no doubt due to the perfect manner in which it is per- 
 formed and to the solemnity of the surrounding circumstances. 
 
 ALLEGRINI, FRANCESCO, a celebrated Italian painter, 
 was born at Gubbio in 1587. A scholar of Cesari d'Arpeni, he 
 painted at first in the vitiated manner of his master, his chief 
 works at this time being the frescoes of the Sacrament in the 
 cupola of the Duomo, and others in the church of the Madonna 
 de' Bianchi at Gubbio. He afterwards painted numerous works 
 in the cathedral and palaces at Savona, in the Durazzo Palace at 
 Genoa, and finally settled at Rome. By this time his powers 
 were matured and his style greatly improved. He executed a 
 large number of frescoes in the churches of San Marco, San 
 Pietro in Montorio, Delle Virgini, and SS. Cosimo and Damiano. 
 Both Ratti and Baldinucci highly commend several of his 
 works; but at best he. is only a painter of the second order. 
 Though properly a fresco painter, he executed some oil pictures, 
 and he occasionally painted the figures in the landscapes of 
 Claude Lorraine. He died at Rome in 1662. His son Flaminio, 
 and his daughter Angelica Allegrini, were his pupils, and 
 painted in his manner. Flaminio assisted his father, but some 
 works painted in the Vatican on his own account are commended 
 by Italian critics. 
 
 Francesco Allegrini, a designer and engraver, born at 
 Florence 1729, died at Rome about 1785, must not be confounded 
 
63 
 
 ALLEINE, JOSEPH. 
 
 ALLEN, WILLIAM. 
 
 01 
 
 with the painter. The later Allegrini, in conjunction with his 
 brother, Giusetpe Ai.legrini, also an engraver, brought out a 
 new edition of the ' Regies Families Mediceorum Etrurku Piin- 
 cipum Effigies,' with many additional portraits; a series of 
 ' Portraits of Illust rious Persons of Tuscan v,' and separate portraits 
 of illustrious Italians, from Cimahue, Giotto, and Dante, to 
 Michelangelo, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. Giuseppe engraved 
 subject pieces and architecture as well as portraits. 
 
 ALLEINE, JOSEPH, an eminent nonconformist divine, was 
 born at Devizes, Wiltshire, in 1638; was educated at Lincoln 
 and Corpus Christi colleges, Oxford ; and in 1655 became curate 
 to Mr. Newton of Taunton, with whom he was ejected for non- 
 conformity in 1662. Alleine continued, however, to preach with 
 greater frequency and fervency than ever, until lie was com- 
 mitted to II ehester jail, May 26, 1663. He was tried the follow- 
 ing August on the charge of causing by his preaching a riotous 
 and seditious assembly, and though the evidence only proved 
 that when he exhorted his family in his own house other persons 
 were present, he was condemned and sentenced to a fine of 100 
 marks, and in default of payment was imprisoned for a year, all 
 but three days. On his release he resumed his former practice, 
 but was again committed to prison, July 10, 10(i5. "From the 
 jail to which he was consigned by the victorious Cavaliers he 
 addressed to his loving friends at Taunton many epistles breath- 
 ing the spirit of a truly heroic piety. His frame soon sank under 
 the effects of study, toil, and persecution : but his memory was 
 long cherished with exceeding love and reverence by those whom 
 he had exhorted and catechised" (Macaulay, 'History of England,' 
 vol. ii. p. 165). He died in November, 1668, at the early age of 
 35. 
 
 To the precepts and example of Alleine, Macaulay attributes 
 the maintenance at its height of the puritanical spirit for which 
 the people of Taunton were long remarkable. But Alleine'fl 
 writings and example had probably considerable influence in 
 keeping up the same spirit throughout the country. His life, 
 written by Richard Baxter, had a large circulation, while his 
 famous work, ' An Alarm to the Unconverted, or the Sure Guide 
 to Heaven' (not a tract, as Macaulay styles it, but a book of 
 some bulk), Avas long one of the most popular of religious 
 manuals, and still continues to be reprinted. Alleine's ' Familiar 
 Explication of the Assembly's Shorter Catechism' was also much 
 used in religious instruction. His other works are 'A Call to 
 Archippus, being an Earnest Motive to the Ejected Ministers 
 to continue in the Ministry;' 'Divers Cases satisfactorily re- 
 solved;' and a posthumous volume of 'Sacramental Addresses, 
 Letters, &c.' 
 
 {Life by Baxter ; Newton, Sermon at the Funeral of Mr. Joseph 
 Alleine; Palmer, Nonconformist Memorial.) 
 
 ALLEN, ETHAN, who achieved a composite reputation as a 
 soldier and a Deistical writer, was born at Lichfield, in Connecti- 
 cut, North America. He emigrated when young, with four of his 
 brothers, to the tract known as the New Hampshire Grants, 
 which now forms the State of Vermont ; and about 1770 headed 
 the "Green Mountain Boys" in the opposition they made to the 
 claim put in by the authorities of New York to the territory they 
 had occupied. The dispute was still pending, when, a few days 
 after the battle of Lexington, at the recpiest of the legislature of 
 Connecticut, Allen collected a body of 230 Green Mountain 
 Boys, and marched to surprise the forts of Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point. After being joined by a body of troops under 
 Colonel Arnold, they arrived in the night of the 9th of May, 
 1775, on the banks of Lake Champlain, opposite to Ticonderoga. 
 With some difficulty boats were obtained sufficient for the trans- 
 portation of the troops ; and both Allen and Arnold embarked 
 with the first body, consisting of 83 men, who effected their 
 landing without being discovered. Day now dawned, and no 
 more men could follow. It was thus necessary either to abandon 
 the attack or to prosecute it witli so small a number. All volun- 
 teered to follow Allen, and they immediately marched against 
 the fort, which was completely surprised, and surrendered with- 
 out firing a single gun. Crown Point was taken immediately 
 after, by Colonel Seth Warren, without opposition. These suc- 
 cesses of the Congress had a great effect both in America and 
 England, and the name of Ethan Allen, as the captor of Ticon- 
 deroga, became well known. His vanity and presumption, how- 
 ever, led to disaster; for in the autumn of the same year, 1775, 
 whilst employed on an expedition to Canada, and marching to 
 attack Montreal, he fell in with the British troops, and was 
 taken prisoner. He remained a prisoner upwards of two years 
 and a half, a short time of which he spent in England, in con- 
 finement in Pendennis Castle, near Falmouth. He made great 
 
 complaints of the severity of his treatment as a prisoner, and 
 published 'A Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity,' 
 Philadelphia, 1779. On his release, by exchange, on the 6th of 
 May, 1778, Allen was received with great respect by Washington, 
 and his arrival among the Green Mountain Boys was celebrated 
 with the firing of guns and every demonstration of joy. He 
 found that during his absence Vermont had become a State, 
 although its independence was still disallowed by the State of 
 New York. As a mark of gratitude for his services, Allen was 
 appointed general of the State militia, a7id chosen a representative 
 to the assembly of the State. The Congress of the United States 
 also gave him the commission of colonel. When peace was con- 
 cluded he retired to his agricultural pursuits, and died suddenly 
 of apoplexy at Burlington, in Vermont, on the 13th of February, 
 1789. He was the author of four works, of which one has been 
 already mentioned. The others are : — 'A Narrative of the Pro- 
 ceedings of the Governor of New York,' in the affair of the Green 
 Mountain Boys, Hartford, 1774; 'A Vindication of the Oppo L- 
 tion of the Inhabitants of Vermont to the Government of New 
 York, and of their Right to form an Independent State,' 1779 ; 
 and 'Beason the only Oracle of Man, or a Complete System of 
 Natural Religion,' Bennington, 1784. This work is remarkable 
 as being the first published in America in direct opposition to 
 Christianity. It abounds with absurdities, but affords no coun- 
 tenance to the assertion, often made, that Allen was a believer in 
 the Pythagorean doctrine of the Metempsychosis. His system is 
 that of a pure Deism. 
 
 ALLEN, WILLIAM, whose name is also written Alan and 
 Alh-yn, and who is generally known by the name of Cardinal 
 Allen, was bom in 1532, at Rossall, in Lancashire, whither his 
 grandfather, a member of an old and respectable family in Staf- 
 fordshire, had migrated. In the fifteenth year of his age he was 
 entered of Oriel College, Oxford, and profited so much by his 
 own parts and industry, and the tuition of Morgan Philips, that 
 in 1550 he was unanimously elected fellow of that society. In' 
 1551 Allen seems to have suffered on account of his religion ; 
 but during the reign of Mary, when the Roman Catholic faith 
 was in the ascendant, he became, about the year 1556, principal 
 of St. Mary's Hall. In 1558 he was appointed a canon of the 
 cathedral church of York. Upon the accession of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, Allen retired to Louvain, in the Spanish Netherlands, 
 where he was entrusted with the education of some English 
 youths of his own communion. His health giving way, how- 
 ever, he was recommended to try the restorative effects of his 
 native air, and he accordingly came over to England, where he 
 spent about three years, at the end of which time the notoriety 
 of his efforts to make proselytes forced him again to leave the 
 country. Returning in 1565 to the Spanish Netherlands, he 
 selected a monastery at Mechlin for his place of retirement. 
 Here, being yet only in deacon's orders, he prepared himself for 
 the priesthood, and published his first work, which was an 
 answer to one by Bishop Jewell, and was entitled ' A Defence of 
 the Doctrine of Catholics concerning Purgatory and Prayers for 
 the Dead,' 1565. Towards the end of the year 1567 Allen went 
 to Rome, in company with Morgan Philips, his old tutor, and 
 Dr. Vendeville, king's professor in the newly-established univer- 
 sity of Douay, and afterwards Bishop of Tournay. 
 
 " An accidental discourse they had upon the road," says the 
 Roman Catholic historian of the English Church, "was the first 
 rise of the English College at Douay, and, by degrees, of all the 
 other colleges and communities which have since furnished 
 England with missioners." When they returned together next 
 year, Vendeville invited Allen to come with him to Douay, and 
 there finish his academical degrees. He accepted the invitation, 
 and in the very year, 1568, of their return from Rome, Allen, 
 zealously supported by Vendeville, opened an English Roman 
 Catholic college at Doitay. The college in a short time, 
 under Allen as president, prospered greatly, and, having begun 
 with six members, soon numbered 150, "whereof," says Dodd, 
 "eight or nine were eminent doctors of divinity." Allen took 
 the degree of bachelor of divinity, January 31st, 1570, and that 
 of D.D. July 16th, 1571, in the. University of Douay. In 1570 
 he was appointed a royal professor of the university, and a canon 
 of the church of Cambray ; and in 1575 made a very successful 
 pilgrimage to Rome on behalf of his college. But papal favour 
 could not frustrate the effects of popular jealous}-, and the college 
 at Douay was broken up by a proclamation of the magistrates 
 dated March 21st, 1578. Thereupon the college migrated to 
 Rheims, where, in numbers and efficiency, it flourished not less 
 than it had flourished at Douay. In 1580 Allen was summoned 
 I to Rome, to give the benefit of his experience for the government 
 
ALLEN, WILLIAM. 
 
 of a college similar to that at Rheims, which Gregory XIII. had en- 
 dowed in 1579 for the education of English Roman Catholic priests. 
 
 Whilst at Rome, Allen had interest enough to procure the 
 despatch ol a small Jesuit mission to England ; and this mission, 
 and the labours of Allen's seminarists, together provoked Queen 
 Elizabeth to the issue of a proclamation which forbade her sub- 
 jects in any way to encourage or to countenance the English 
 seminaries abroad, or to harbour or relieve any Jesuit or 
 seminarist in this country. It was in answer to this proclama- 
 tion that Allen, in 1581, after his return from Rome, wrote and 
 published his ' Apology for the English Seminaries,' the language 
 and tone of which are remarkable for their loyalty and respect 
 towards the Queen. The subsequent publication of the defence 
 of the executions of Roman Catholics, which bore the significant 
 title of 'The Execution of Justice/ and was written by Lord 
 Burleigh himself, called forth a reply from Allen, who published 
 in 1584 'A True, Sincere, and Modest Defence of the English 
 Catholics that suffer for their Faith, both at home and abroad, 
 against a slanderous Libel entitled " The Execution of Justice in 
 England." ' This work of Allen's excited a great sensation, and 
 was replied to by Mr. Stubbs, of Lincoln's Inn, under the im- 
 mediate direction of Lord Burleigh. One Alfield was indicted 
 on the 3rd of July, 1585, for high treason, for bringing the book 
 into England, was found guilty, and executed. 
 
 On the 7th of August, 1587, Allen was raised to the Cardi- 
 nalate, with the title of St. Martin in Montibus ; a promotion 
 accorded by Pope Sixtus V. to the request of Philip II. of 
 Spain, who, on the eve of despatching the Invincible Armada 
 to England, wished to have a prince of the church ready, on the 
 success of the expedition, to proceed to England, superintend the 
 affairs of religion, and invest the conqueror with the English 
 crown. As the preparations for the Spanish invasion of this 
 country drew nearer to completion, Allen, by command of the 
 Pope, prepared an address to the Roman Catholics in England, 
 calling on them for assistance. He wrote, or caused to be 
 written, accepting all the responsibilities of authorship, the 
 ' Admonition to the Nobility and People of England,' in which 
 Elizabeth is charged with being a usurper and "an incestuous 
 bastard," a heretic, a tyrant, and steeped in lust, and which calls 
 on all persons to rise in favour of the King of Spain's liberating 
 army, and free themselves from the disgrace of having " suffered 
 such a creature, almost thirtie yeares together, to raigne both 
 over their bodies and soules, to the extinguishinge not only of 
 religion but of all chaste livinge and honesty." A large impres- 
 sion of this work was printed at Antwerp, and was afterwards 
 put on board the Armada to be earned to England. An abridg- 
 ment also was prepared, which bore the title, ' A Declaration of 
 the Sentence of the Deposition of Elizabeth the Usurper and 
 pretended Queen of England.' When the invincible Armada 
 was defeated, all the copies both of the ' Admonition ' and the 
 'Declaration ' that had been designed for distribution in England 
 were destroyed. 
 
 The Pope kept Allen at Rome with him after he was created 
 Cardinal, and even refused to allow him to leave for his arehi- 
 episcopal see of Mechlin, to which in 1589 the King of Spain 
 appointed Allen, with the hope that he would reside within its 
 limits. Allen spent at Rome the remainder of his days, living 
 in wealth and splendour, having unbounded influence over 
 Sixtus V. and his next two successors ; the chief agent of the 
 King of Spain for the management of his interests, and distribu- 
 tion of his bounties, among the English Roman Catholic exiles 
 in the Spanish Netherlands and at Rome, and the recognised 
 head of that party among the English Roman Catholics which 
 was known as the Spanish party, and which desired to place the 
 English crown after Elizabeth on the head of the daughter of 
 the King of Spain. Cardinal Allen died of strangury, on the 
 Gth of October, 1594, and was buried with great pomp in the 
 chapel of the English College at Rome. History would be at 
 a loss to furnish an instance of a man more thoroughly de- 
 nationalising himself than did Allen, for the sake of his faith ; 
 and it is very difficult to believe that, irreproachable in his 
 private life, he followed in his public course the dictates of his 
 conscience, and that, in leaguing himself with England's foreign 
 foes, he did so, thinking the tie of religion above that of country, 
 and the Roman Catholic faith indispensable to the happiness and 
 prosperity of England. 
 
 Allen's literary productions are, ' Brief Reasons concerning 
 the Catholic Faith ' ; 'A Defence of the Doctrine of Catholics 
 concerning Purgatory and Prayers for the Dead,' Antwerp, 15G5 ; 
 'Treatise made in Defence of the lawful Power and Authority 
 of the Priesthood to remit Sins. The People's Duty for Confes- 
 eioo. div. — SUP. 
 
 sion of their Sins to God's Ministers. The Church's Meaning 
 concerning Indulgences, commonly called Pope's Pardons,' 
 Louvain, 1567; 'Of the Worship due to Saints and their 
 Relicks '; ' Dc Sacramentis in genere, de Sacramento Eucharista?, 
 et de Missre Sacrificio,' Antwerp, 1576"; 'Apology and True 
 Declaration of the Institution and Endeavours of the two English 
 Colleges, the one in Rome, the other now resident in Rheimes, 
 against certain sinister Informations given up against the same,' 
 Mons in Hainault, 1581 ; 'A true, sincere, and modest Defence 
 of the English Catholics that suffer for their Faith, both at home 
 and abroad, against a slanderous Lilxd entitled " The Execution 
 of Justice in England,'" 1584 ; ' Epistola de Daventriaj Reddi- 
 tione,' Cracow, 1588 ; 'An Admonition to the Nobility and 
 People of England concerning the present Warres made for the 
 execution of His Holiness's Sentence by the high and mighty 
 King of Spain,' 1588. 
 
 Besides these works, Allen had a principal share in the execu- 
 tion of the Roman Catholic translation of the Bible, which goes 
 by the name of the Douay Bible, of which the New Testament 
 was published at Rheims in 1582, whilst he was there as presi- 
 dent of the English Roman Catholic College, and the Old Testa- 
 ment at Douay some years after his death, in 1609. 
 
 ALLESTREE, or ALLESTRY, RICHARD, whose personal 
 adventures were of a more striking character than commonly 
 diversified the lives of scholars and divines, even of the turbulent 
 17th century, was born at Uppington, in Shropshire, in the year 
 1619 (according to Wood, 1621). His father, Robert Allestree, 
 was a member of an ancient family formerly settled at Alveston, 
 in the county of Derby. After receiving the first rudiments of 
 education in a seminary in the neighbourhood of Uppington, 
 Richard was sent to the Grammar School at Coventry, of which 
 Philemon Holland, known as the "Translator-general of his 
 age," was at that time master. In the Lent term of 1636, he 
 became a commoner of Christ Church, where he had the ad- 
 vantage of being under the tuition of the famous Richard Busby, 
 and of which society, about six months after his admission, Dr. 
 Samuel Fell, the dean, made him a student ; " which title," says 
 Bishop Fell, son of the dean, who afterwards acted as Allestree's 
 biographer and literary executor, " he really answered by great 
 and happy application to study, wherein he made remarkable 
 progress ; as a testimony and encouragement of which, so soon 
 as he had taken the degree of Bachelor of Arts [October 24th, 
 1640], he was chosen Moderator in Philosophy, and had the em- 
 ployment renewed year by year, till the disturbances of the 
 kingdom interrupted the studies and repose of the university." 
 In 1642 Allestree was amongst the foremost of the Oxford 
 students who appeared in arms for the king, placing himself 
 under the command of Sir John (afterwards Lord) Biron. He 
 then joined Prince Rupert in the West ; and, after the relief of 
 Worcester, returned to Oxford, where, in accordance with its 
 then twofold character of university and garrison, he alternated, 
 and even combined, the prosecution of his studies with the 
 duties of a soldier. Frequently, we are told, might he be seen 
 "holding his musket in one hand and his book in the other, and 
 making the watchings of a soldier the lucubrations of a student." 
 It was Allestree's good fortune, whilst in charge of his college, 
 in the absence of the dean and his family, to preserve by a clever 
 ruse the contents of the Christ Church treasury from the rapacity 
 of the Parliamentary troops imder Lord Say ; for which success 
 he was happy enough to suffer the penalty of only a very short 
 detention. In June, 1643, he proceeded Master of Arts ; and in 
 the same year his life was endangered, and his activities, whether 
 academical or military, suspended by an attack of a pestilential 
 disorder, which then raged within the garrison of Oxford, and 
 which had been bred by the crowded state of the city. Imme- 
 diately on his recovery, though now a fellow of his college, he 
 joined the regiment of students which had lately been embodied 
 for the king's service ; and in this employment continued till the 
 unhappy contest resulted in the triumph of the Parliament. 
 Then "betaking himself to that warfare to which his education 
 had designed him, he entered orders at a time when there was 
 no prospect of temporal advantage, and when his being in the 
 service of God threatened no less danger than being in the 
 service of the prince." 
 
 In the parliamentary visitation for the reform of the Uni- 
 versity, Allestree shared the disabilities at that time incident to 
 loyalty, being (July, 1648) deprived of his preferment and ejected 
 from the University ; " so that being put to his shifts," as Wood 
 expresses it, he retired to his native county, where he was enter- 
 tained as chaplain in the family of the Honourable Francis 
 Newport, afterwards Lord Newport, of High Ercall. Here ha 
 
 F 
 
67 ALLESTRY, JACOB. 
 
 remained, with the exception of a journey to France in the 
 interests of his patron, till the defeat and retirement of Charles 
 the Second; when his reputation for tact, discretion, and diplo- 
 macy recommended him as a fitting channel of communication 
 between the exiled prince and his adherents in this country. 
 Among other transactions, the negotiations respecting the means 
 of preserving the episcopal succession in the Church of England 
 were entrusted to his management. He had succeeded in safely 
 performing several journeys, when, on returning from Brussels, 
 in the winter of 165!), he was seized at Dover, conveyed in 
 custody to London, and imprisoned in Lambeth Palace by a 
 committee of the Council of Safety. The dawn of the Restora- 
 tion was, however, already discernible, and a period of six or 
 eight weeks was the measure of his imprisonment. Whilst 
 carrying on these negotiations, Allestree had his head-quarters 
 for several years at the house of Sir Anthony < 'ope, of Hanwell, 
 near Banbury, a royalist of quality and fortune, who gladly con- 
 ceded to him the liberty of going and coming as the royal 
 occasions demanded. 
 
 Shortly after the restoration of Charles the Second, in 1GG0, 
 Allestree was made canon of the eighth stall of Christ Church ; 
 on the 3rd of October in the same year, took the degree of D.D. ; 
 and was almost concurrently appointed one of the king's chap- 
 lains in ordinary. In September, 1663, he was elected Regius 
 Professor of Divinity; and?, two years after, achieved his ultimate 
 preferment, the provostship of Eton, which was conferred upon 
 him by the personal favour of the king, August 10, 1665. 
 Throughout his exercise of the functions of this office, it is 
 recorded to Allestree's honour, that Eton College — to which, in 
 various ways, he was an important benefactor — presented but one 
 united family. There, accordingly, he determined to end his 
 days, although so strongly solicited to fill a higher dignity, as 
 fully to justify that clause of his epitaph which declares, " Epis- 
 copates infulas eadem industria evitavit, qua alii ambiunt" — he 
 shunned the episcopal dignity as anxiously as other men seek 
 it. Perceiving his sight and health begin to fail, Dr. Allestree 
 resigned his chair at Oxford in the year 1679 ; and when further 
 symptoms of decay culminated in dropsy, he repaired, for the 
 sake of commanding the best medical assistance, to London, 
 where he died, January 28, 1681. He was buried in the chapel 
 of Eton College, on the north side of the communion-table, 
 where his monument still remains. " He was," says Wood, " a 
 good and most affectionate preacher; and for many years by his 
 prudent presiding in the professor's chair, he did discover per- 
 haps as much learning as any, and much more moderation, as to 
 controverted points, than most of his predecessors. He wa3 also 
 a person richly furnished with all variety of choice solid learn- 
 ing, requisite to recommend him with the greatest advantage, to 
 the more intelligent world for one of the most eminent divines 
 of his age." The chief productions of Dr. Allestree are his Dis- 
 courses, which are distinguished by their vigour and vivacity, 
 scriptural insight and felicity of diction. These discourses, which 
 had for the most part been preached, on various occasions, before 
 the king, and many of which had been published singly in the 
 life-time of the author, were after his death collected and edited 
 by Dr. John Fell, Bishop of Oxford, with the title of ' Forty 
 Sermons, whereof twenty-one are now first published, the 
 greatest Part preached before the King, and on solemn occa- 
 sions,' 2 vols. fol. Oxford, 1684. Wood attributes to Allestree 
 the authorship of a pamphlet entitled 'The Privileges of the 
 University of Oxford in Point of Visitation, in a Letter to an 
 honourable Personage,' 4to, 1647. This little work, which was 
 the occasion of a controversy, has been variously referred to 
 Dr. John Fell, and to Philip Fell, his brother, and a fellow of 
 Eton. Further, and finally, a Judgment by Allestree on a case 
 of divorce, is printed in Bishop Barlow's ' Miscellaneous and 
 weighty Cases of Conscience,' 8vo, London, 1692. 
 
 ALLESTRY, JACOB, English poet and scholar, born in 1653, 
 was the son of James Allestry, a London bookseller, whose 
 property was destroyed in the great fire of 1666. Jacob Allestry 
 received his early education at Westminster School ; in 1671 
 was entered at Christ Church, Oxford ; took the degree of B. A. 
 with credit; in due time proceeded M.A. ; was made music 
 reader in 1679; and terra) Alius in 1682. In the University he 
 won great credit alike for his knowledge of languages and skill 
 in poetry, his poetic powers being largely empdoyed in pre- 
 paring the verses and pastorals spoken before the Duke and 
 Duchess of York on occasion of their visit to Oxford, May 21, 
 1681. He died October 15, 1686, his end being hastened by 
 excesses, if we may believe Anthony a Wood, who in his solemn, 
 purblind, blundering way, says, " being exceedingly given to the 
 
 ALLIX, PIERRE. 
 
 vices of poets, his body was emaciated and worn away by bis 
 juvenile extravagances." Allestry 's poems were much admired 
 and sought after; some were printed in the 'Examen I'oeticum,' 
 others in 'Miscellany Poems,' 1727 ; but they do not soc-m to 
 have been collected for separate publication. They are evidently 
 the productions of a scholar, and there is in them much grace 
 and refinement ; often considerable elevation of thought. 
 
 *ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM, the son of a manager of the Pro- 
 vincial Bank at Ballyshannon, was born in that town about the 
 year 1828, and was educated at a school in Ireland. Early in 
 life he began to contribute to periodical literature; and in 185(1, 
 published his first volume of ' Poems,' with a dedication to Leigh 
 Hunt, who encouraged his literary attempts, and afterwards he- 
 friended him in matters of more importance. In 1854, Mr. 
 Allingham published his 'Day and Night Songs,' which he in- 
 scribed " to my friends, known and unknown" ; and of which an 
 enlarged edition, illustrated by Millais and other artists, an- 
 peared in the following year. In 1854, he also published ' Peace 
 and War : an Ode.' ' Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland ; or the New- 
 Landlord,' a poem in twelve chapters, which first appeared in 
 'Eraser's Magazine,' was published in 1864. Of this work a 
 cheaper issue, with a preface of some length, was put forth in laG!). 
 In 1864, the year in which Mr. Allingham obtained a literary 
 pension, he edited ' The Ballad Book ; a Selection of the choicest 
 British Ballads.' In 1865 he published 'Fifty Modern Poems,' 
 six of which had already appeared in one of his earlier volunut 
 The dedication of this volume to his friend A. F. offers a modest 
 self-estimate of the author's poetical position and pretensions. 
 " My ' Works,' " he says, " for so far (trivial enough works !) are 
 now in three volumes, counting one hundred and thirteen poems, 
 long and short. These claim to be genuine in their way, and beyond 
 this the writer thinks or cares very little about them." Mr. Alling- 
 ham holds an appointment in the Customs, in England. 
 
 ALLIX, PIERRE, was born at Alencon, in 1641. At an 
 early age he became minister of the Reformed Church at Rouen ; 
 quitting it, with a great reputation for eloquence, for the pastor- 
 ship of the church of Charenton, near Paris, the members of 
 which were amongst the most distinguished of the professors of 
 the Reformed faith in France. The fame he had acquired as a 
 preacher preceded him, when, on the Revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes, in 1685, he took refuge in England. Here he was most 
 warmly received. The University of Cambridge conferred upon 
 him the degree of Doctor of Divinity ; and, in 1690, he was 
 appointed treasurer of the cathedral church of Salisbury. Not- 
 withstanding that his great application presently acquired for 
 him a competent mastery over the English language, Allix does 
 not appear to have exercised his gifts of preaching in this coun- 
 try, although with his pen he was, to almost the end of a pro- 
 tracted life, the untiring apologist and champion of the Protestant 
 cause. He died in London, on the 21st of February, 1717, leaving 
 several children, the eldest of whom was a clergyman of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 The controversial writings of Allix, directed against the Church 
 of Rome, on the one hand, and, on the other, against the Arian 
 heresy, were held in great estimation by his contemporaries ; but 
 his claims to present consideration and esteem are founded rather 
 on his more general works on the evidences of Christianity, and 
 others relating to the history of the early Protestant churches on 
 the Continent. Long lists of his works occur in Niceron, and in 
 the Biographia Britannica ; the most important are the follow- 
 ing : — ' Ratramne, ou Bertrand, Pretre, du Corp3 et du Sang du 
 Seigneur,' Rouen, 1672, 8vo ; ' Dissertatio de Sanguine Christi,' 
 Paris, 1680, 8vo, in the same volume with two other small trea- 
 tises ; ' Anastasii Sinaitoe anagogicarum contemplationum Lib. 
 xii.,' in Greek and Latin ; ' Douze Sermons sur divers Textes,' 
 second edition, Rotterdam, 1685, 12mo ; 'Reflexions upon the 
 Books of theHoly Scripture, to establish the truth of the Christ ian 
 Religion,' 2 vols. London, 1688, a French edition of which had ap- 
 peared at Rotterdam in 1 687, making it probable that the work was 
 originallycomposedintheauthor'snative tongue ; 'Determinate i V. 
 JoannisParisiensisdeModo existendi Corpus Christiin Sacramento 
 Altaris,' London, 1686, 8vo ; ' Some Remarks on the Ecclesiasti- 
 cal History of theancientChurchesof Piedmont/London, 1690,4t0; 
 'Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the ancient Churches 
 of the Albigenses,' London, 1692, 4to ; 'The Judgment of the An- 
 cient Jewish Church against the Unitarians, in the Controversy 
 upon the Holy Trinity,' London, 1689, 4to ; and 'De Messia) 
 duplici Adventu Dissertationes duae adversus Judaws,' London, 
 1701, 8vo, in wdiich the author fixed the date of the Second 
 Coming of our Lord as 1736, at the latest. In addition to the 
 above, Allix published several works of practical piety, including 
 
10 
 
 ALMON, JOHN. 
 
 ALOISI, BALDASSARE. 
 
 70 
 
 v 'Preparation for the Lord's Supper' ; several occasional Sermons ; 
 md a number of temporary pamphlets. He is also understood 
 to have composed an elaborate ' History of the Councils/ on the 
 invitation of a body of English ministers ; hut it was never 
 printed, for want of a sufficient number of subscribers. 
 
 ALMON, JOHN, a celebrated political writer and publisher, 
 was born at Liverpool, about 1738; educated at Warrington ; and 
 tppn nticed to a bookseller in his native place. Growing tired 
 A the drudgery and confinement of the shop, he went to sea 
 ibout 1756, and remained abroad till 1758, when he returned, 
 and soon after established himself in London. Here he formed 
 the acquaintance of Goldsmith and "Wilkes, and commenced the 
 career of a political writer with a pamphlet entitled ' The Con- 
 duct of a late noble Commander [Lord George Sackville at the 
 Battle of Minden] Examined,' 8vo, 1759, which passed into a 
 second edition. This was followed by the ' Military Dictionary,' 
 a compendious history of famous battles and sieges from the time 
 of Charlemagne to the )'ear of publication, 1760. It was a folio, 
 issued in sixpenny weekly numbers ; and, with a certain liveli- 
 ness, was laudably free from research or good writing. He was 
 now engaged as a writer of letters (corresponding to our leaders) 
 for the ' Gazetteer' daily newspaper, the circulation of which was 
 threatened by the ' Public Ledger,' started in 1760, to which 
 Goldsmith was a contributor. Almon's contributions to the 
 tjttelteer were published separately, under the title of 'A 
 Collection of Interesting Letters from the Public Papers,' in four 
 vols. 12mo, and reprinted in two vols. 8vo. His fertile pen also 
 produced ' A Review of the Reign of His late Majesty,' George II. 
 3vo, 1761, which passed through two editions. On the resigna- 
 ;ion of Lord Chatham, October, 1761, he published a volume 
 entitled 'A Review of Mr. Pitt's Administration,' which reached 
 i fourth edition, and secured for Almon the substantial friend- 
 ship of Lord Temple, to whom it was dedicated. His connec- 
 tion with Lord Temple led him, when that nobleman quarrelled 
 with his brother, George Grenville, to write, under his old Ga- 
 Mpeer signature of "An Independent Whig," 'A Letter to the 
 Right Hon. George Grenville,' which was answered by Mr. Gren- 
 (Br's private secretary, Charles Lloyd, both the pamphlets 
 obtaining a large circulation. 
 
 Almon having accidentally called on Wilkes a few minutes 
 ifter his arrest on a general warrant for publishing No. 45 of the 
 North Briton, Wilkes in a low tone informed him of the cir- 
 cumstances, and begged him to apprize Lord Temple. Almon 
 not being known, was permitted to leave the house, for which, 
 is he states, the officers "were afterwards severely reprimanded." 
 rhe issue of the affair is well known. Almon gave full parti- 
 culars of it in his ' Memoirs of John Wilkes,' and wrote a pam- 
 phlet or two on the subject. He also wrote, about this time, 
 A Review of Lord Bute's Administration,' and ' An Impartial 
 History of the Late War, from 1749 to 1763.' 
 
 But he was now to extend his sphere of activity. Pamphlets 
 were the chief instruments for bringing public opinion to bear 
 upon the government, but so personal were they commonly, and 
 tften so virulent, that, in face of the law of libel as then ad- 
 ministered, it was difficult to find publishers willing to incur the 
 risk of issuing them. Almon had become personally known to 
 most of the leaders of the opposition ; he was a man of irrepres- 
 sible activity, fond of notoriety, of tried courage and audacity ; 
 ind he had the double advantage of being a ready writer, and of 
 having been brought up as a bookseller. He was easily per- 
 maded to enter into the business ; he was assured of the support 
 jf the party, and of immunity from personal loss. He accord- 
 nglv, in 1763, opened a shop in Piccadilly, opposite Burlington 
 Honse, for the sale and publication of political pamphlets, which 
 WB became and long continued the resort of the members of 
 he opposition, and rendered Almon himself a political oracle in 
 i small way. The political pamphlets published by him during 
 he following years are far too many for enumeration ; the for- 
 tune of his shop was made by the earliest of them, the well- 
 <nown Candor pamphlets, which almost rivalled 'The Letters of 
 'nniu<' in popularity, and have been by some supposed to be 
 roni the pen of Junius himself. Of the famous Junius Letters, 
 Mmon published an edition without the consent of the author. 
 Mf Almon did not confine himself to publishing, or even 
 •vriting pamphlets. In 1765 he published in an octavo volume 
 
 1 Hi torj- of the Minority, during the years 1762 — 1765 : exhi- 
 •iting the Conduct, Principles, and Views of that Party.' This 
 vork was issued anonymously, but was soon known to be Al- 
 O0t) s, and to be a sort of manifesto of the party he represented, 
 nd above 10,000 copies of it were sold within six months. He 
 low started a monthly ' Political Register,' which was continued 
 
 for two years. 'The New Foundling Hospital for Wit,' begun 
 in 1768, was another successful venture. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that Almon was looked upon by the 
 government with much tenderness; but the occasion selected for 
 punishing him was not a little remarkable. The Letters of 
 Junius were at the height of their popularity, and the ' Letter 
 to the King,' one of the most violent, and, consequently, most 
 read of the series, was reprinted in a magazine called ' The 
 London Museum.' For selling a copy of this in his shop, Almon 
 (who was not the publisher, and had no connection with the 
 magazine,) was tried in the Court of King's Bench ; and, being 
 convicted, was sentenced by Lord Mansfield to pay a fine of ten 
 marks, and to give security for his good behaviour for two years, 
 himself in 400L, his sureties in 2001. each. Such a judgment 
 did little hurt to Almon ; but the charge of the Chief Justice 
 called forth ' A Letter to Lord Mansfield,' which was one of the 
 most bitter of the Junius series. Almon of course published 
 ' The Trial of John Almon,' in which he reprinted all the offen- 
 sive matter, but he was not further disturbed. 
 
 In 1774 Almon commenced the publication of 'The Parlia- 
 mentary Register,' in which the debates in parliament were very 
 fairly reported, and which met with a large measure of success ; 
 he also published a continuation of the debates from the con- 
 clusion of Chandler's reports, in 1742, to the commencement of 
 the ' Parliamentary Register.' Other serials issued by him were 
 ' The Remembrancer,' a monthly collection of letters relating to 
 the American war, which extended to 20 volumes ; and an 
 'Asylum for Fugitive Pieces,' a sort of continuation of his 'New 
 Foundling Hospital for Wit,' several times reprinted in 4 volumes. 
 His larger works include ' A Collection of all the Treaties of 
 Peace, Alliance, and Commerce between Great Britain and other 
 Powers, from the Revolution in 1688 to 1771,' 2 vols. 1772, re- 
 printed with considerable additions in 1781, and again in 1785 : 
 this was a work on which he a good deal prided himself, and it 
 has some value ; ' Protests of the House of Lords,' Svo, 1772 ; 
 ' A Letter to the Earl of Bute,' 1773 ; ' Free Parliaments ; or, a 
 Vindication of the Parliamentary Constitution of England,' 8vo, 
 1783. 
 
 About this time Almon, having secured a competence, retired 
 from business to a pleasant residence at Boxmoor, in Hertford- 
 shire, where, however, he continued to employ his pen. But he 
 yearned for the old activity, and having married the widow of 
 Mr. Parker, printer of the ' General Advertiser,' he became the 
 proprietor of that publication, and determined to undertake its 
 management. In this, however, he was unsuccessful. He became 
 insolvent, was imprisoned for a libel, and was outlawed. Even- 
 tually he was enabled to return to Boxmoor, and again resumed 
 his pen with all his old diligence. Besides political and occasional 
 pamphlets, he wrote 'Anecdotes of the Life of the Right Honour- 
 able William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, and of the Principal Events 
 of his Time, with his Speeches in Parliament, from the year 
 1736 to 1778,' 2 vols. 4to, 1792. In the preparation of this work 
 Almon was assisted by Lord Temple and other political friends. 
 Like most of Almon's productions, though put together with 
 little skill, it was suited to the requirement of the hour, and sold 
 largely, a sixth edition (in 3 vols. 8vo) being necessary to meet 
 the demand. ' Biographical, Literary, and Political Anecdotes 
 of several of the most Eminent Persons in the present age,' 
 3 vols. 1797, is a one-sided and not very trustworthy book, but 
 it is amusing, and contains a good deal of information respecting 
 the prominent personages of the time. Almon's last work was 
 'The Correspondence of the late John Wilkes with his Friends, 
 printed from the original Manuscripts, in which are introduced 
 Memoirs of his Life,' 5 vols. Svo, 1805 — of all Almon's writings 
 the crudest, and perhaps the least successful. It is, in fact, a 
 mere heap of materials brought together without order, and left 
 incomplete. Almon did not long survive its publication, dying 
 at Boxmoor on the 12th of December, 1805. Few will now turn 
 to Almon's books for amusement, and any who may will be dis- 
 appointed ; but the student of the history of the last half of the 
 18th century will find in them a vast amount of suggestive 
 matter — to be used, of course, with discrimination. 
 
 ALOISI, BALDASSARE, called It Galanino, Italian 
 painter and engraver, was born at Bologna in 1578, and educated 
 there in the school of the Carracci, to whom he was related, and 
 of whom he was one of the ablest scholars. He painted a Virgin 
 and Child, with St. Francis and St. John, for the Osservanza, 
 and a Visitation for the Carita, Bologna, which were greatly 
 admired ; and after he settled in Rome he executed several altar- 
 pieces for the churches of that city and the neighbourhood, but 
 he was most successful in his portraits of illustrious men, of 
 
 F 2 
 
71 ALPHEN, DANIEL VAN. 
 
 which he painted a large number, and which obtained for him 
 the cognomen of the Italian Vandyck. His portrait of himself, 
 in the Painters' Gallery, Florence, is a good example of his skill 
 in that way. He also etched 50 plates, ' Historia del vecchio 
 Testamento,' from the loggie of Raffaclle, and a few others after 
 the Carracci, Guido, &c. ; but good impressions of these are now 
 rare. Aloisi died at Rome in 1638. 
 
 ALPHEN, DANIEL VAN, Dutch jurist, was born Nov. 7, 
 1713 ; was educated at Leyden University ; in 1735 was made 
 professor of jurisprudence in the university, and in 174!) griffier, 
 or city clerk. From this ollice he retired in 1778, devoting the re- 
 mainder of his days to literature. Besides a valuable work on the 
 'Rights of the Magistracy with reference to the Church,' 8vo, 
 1755, of which a second edition was required in the following year, 
 he wrote the latter half of the history and description of the city 
 of Leyden (' Besehryving derStad Leyden,' folio, vol. ii. 1770, and 
 vol. iii. 1784), of which the first volume had been completed by 
 his friend Mieris in 1702. Van Alphen collected materials for a 
 fourth volume, but died before putting them in order, and it 
 remains unpublished. The work is the standard history of the 
 city of Leyden, and is illustrated with admirable engravings. 
 Daniel Van Alphen died on the lGth of July, 1797. 
 
 ALPHEN, HIERONYM US, Dutch theologian, son of Hiero- 
 nymus Simons van Alphen, professor of theology at Utrecht, 
 noticed below, was born May 9, 1700, and was successively 
 minister at Nieuw Loosdrecht, at Leeuwarden, and at Amster- 
 dam, in which last city he died, April 20, 1758. His principal 
 writings are (1) a dissertation on Zechariah, chap. 9, v. 1 ; ' De 
 Terra Chadrach et Damasco ejus quiete,' 12mo, Utrecht, 1723, 
 reprinted in vol. vii. of Ugolini's ' Thesaurus Antiquitatum 
 sacrarum,' a work showing an extensive acquaintance with the 
 Arabic and Syriac languages as well as the Hebrew ; and (2) a 
 commentary on the 24th and 25th chapters of St. Matthew, 
 ' Verklaring over Malth. xxiv. en. xxv.,' 2 vols. 8vo, Leeuwarden, 
 1734. 
 
 ALPHEN, HIERONYMUS VAN, a celebrated Dutch poet, 
 grandson of the famous Utrecht professor noticed below, was born 
 August 8, 174(5, at Gouda, of which town his father was syndic ; 
 studied at the universities of Utrecht and Leyden, at the latter 
 of which, on taking the degree of master of laws, in 1768, he 
 -published a thesis on the Roman jurisconsult Javolenus Priscus. 
 His acquirements, ability, and high moral character secured for 
 him general confidence, and he held successively the important 
 posts of procurator-general of the co.urt of Utrecht, pensionary of 
 the city of Leyden, and treasurer-general of the Union. These 
 functions he resigned when the French invaded Holland, in 1795, 
 and retired to the Hague, where he died, April 2, 1803. 
 
 The leisure he could snatch from his public employments 
 Van Alphen gave to the cultivation of poetry and the literature 
 of art, and he was among the first of his countrymen to study 
 and appreciate the new development ot German poetry and 
 aesthetics. His first poetic publications were ' Proeve van Stig- 
 telijke Mengelpoezij ' (Specimens of Miscellaneous Moral 
 Poetry), in two series, 8vo, Utrecht, 1771-72, written in con- 
 junction with P. L. van de Kasteele, and his countrymen find it 
 difficult to assign to either his respective share. Subsequent 
 poems, of which he alone was the author, were — ' Gedigten en 
 Overdenkingen ' (Poems and Meditations), 1777 ; ' Nederlandsche 
 Gezangen' (Dutch Songs), 1779, many of which are of exceeding 
 beauty; 'Kleine Gedigten voor Kinderen' (Short Poems for 
 Children), 1781, a work often reprinted, universally popular in 
 Dutch households, and by general consent one 'of the most 
 charming volumes of children's poetry extant ; ' Digtkundige 
 Verhandelingen ' (Poetical Dissertations), 1782 ; ' Mengelingen in 
 Poezij ' (Poetic Miscellanies), 1783 : and ' Proeven van Liederen 
 en Gezangen voor den Oppenbaren Godsdienst ' (Specimens of 
 Hymns and Songs for Divine Service), 1801-2, winch contains 
 some of his purest and noblest efforts ; one piece in particular, ' De 
 Starrenhemel ' (The Starry Heavens), says a competent critic, Mr. 
 Thomas Watt s, " is a poem which will probably last as long as the 
 language in which it is written." But while it was as a poet that 
 he shone brightest and will be longest remembered, his pen was 
 not confined to poetry. In 1778-80 he published a translation 
 from the German of Riedel's ' Theory of the Fine Arts and Polite 
 Literature,' which, with some observations in the Introduction he 
 prefixed to it, led to a controversy with De Perponcher, pub- 
 lished in 1783. Van Alphen also wrote several religious essays 
 in prose, the most important perhaps being 'The Christian 
 Spectator,' 'Some Doctrines of the Protestant Religion defended 
 against Eberhard,' and a treatise on ' The Superiority of the 
 Legislation of Moses to that of Solon and Lyeurgus.' which was 
 
 ALPHERY, REV. NICEPHORUS. 72 
 
 awarded the gold medal of the Teylerian Society of Haarlem, 
 and is printed in vol. ix. of their Transactions. Van Alphen's 
 posthumous papers were published at Utrecht in 1813, under the 
 title of ' Nagelatene Schriften, van Van Alphen, gevonden in 
 Deszelf's Papieren.' A collected edition of his poetical works, 
 with a memoir, appeared at Utrecht, in 3 vols. 8vo, 1838-:',!). 
 
 ALPHEN, HIERONYMUS SIMONS VAN, one ot the 
 most distinguished of the Dutch Protestant theologians, was 
 born May 23, 1665, at Neuhanau, in Hesse Cassel, the son of a 
 merchant in that town, driven from Holland by the religious 
 persecutions. After studying Greek and Latin at the schools of 
 Hanau, and Hebrew at home under a learned Jew, the young 
 Van Alphen went in 1681 to Leyden, where he pursued his 
 studies for five years under Gronovius, Schaaf, and F. Spanheini, 
 thence proceeded to Francker, where he was for two years 
 under Vitringa, and was then about to remove to Groningen, 
 intending to complete his course at Heidelberg ; but his abilities 
 had already attracted notice, and he was chosen pastor of a 
 church at Warmond, near Leyden. Here he remained four 
 years ; was then two years pastor at Zutphen, and alter wards 
 20 years at Amsterdam. His reputation constantly increasing, 
 he was now (1715) chosen professor of theology at the University 
 of Utrecht. This ollice he held for 27 years, ranking as the first 
 theological teacher in Holland, and attracting large numbers of 
 students to the university. H. S. Van Alphen was the embodi- 
 ment of the great old scholars of Holland. Every hour of his 
 long life was devoted to his work, and all his actions were regu- 
 lated with reference to it. He was thrice married ; his first wife he 
 took " to manage his household affairs, the second to look after 
 the children, and the third to take care of himself." He survived 
 the last, dying on the 7th of November, 1742. His son and 
 grandson, both distinguished men, are noticed above. 
 
 H. S. Van Alphen's principal Latin works comprise, ' Speci- 
 mina Analytica in Epistolas Pauli quin que ratione ordinis 
 temporis quo scriptue sunt priores,' an analysis of the first five 
 Epistles of' St. Paul in the order of time, namely, those to the 
 Thessalonians, the Galatians, and the Corinthians, in 2 huge 4to 
 volumes, Utrecht, 1742 ; a similar commentary on St. Paul's 
 epistle to the Ephesians, ' Specimen Analyticuni in Epistolam 
 Pauli ad Ephesios,' 4to, Utrecht, 1742 ; ' CEconomia Catechcsis 
 Palatinse,' an elaborate explanation of the Heidelberg Catechism ; 
 and a short grammatical treatise, ' De Usu Accentuum.' His 
 writings in Dutch are numerous ; the following are perhaps the 
 most important — ' On the ninth Chapter of Daniel,' 4to, Amster- 
 dam, 1716 ; 'On the Epistle of Peter,' 2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 
 1734 ; ' On Psalm cxi.,' 4to, Amsterdam, 1735 ; ' On Psalms xxL, 
 xli., xlvii., and cxii., and the Song of Moses,' 4to, Amsterdam;' 
 ' On the two Epistles of Paul to the Corinthians,' 2 vols., Utrecht ; 
 and ' On the First Epistle to the Thessalonians,' 4to, Utrecht, 
 1741. He also published a volume of religious poems, ' Gezan- 
 gen,' of which a second edition appeared at Amsterdam in 1748. 
 
 (Chalmot, Biographisch Woordenhoek der Nederlanden; Geys- 
 beek, Biog. Woord. der Nederduitsche Dichters ; Kok, Vaderhmcuteh 
 Woordenboek ; T. Watts, in Biographical Dictionary of Soc. for 
 Diff. of Useful Knowledge, and the authorities there cited for all 
 the Van Alphens here noticed. Between 50 and 60 more, of 
 greater or less celebrity, are given in the Woordenboeks.) 
 
 ALPHERY, REV. NICEPHORUS, a clergyman of tin 
 Church of England in the 17th century, was descended from a 
 branch of the imperial family of Russia, but in consequence of 
 the disturbances incident to the contests for the crown was in 
 the beginning of the 17th century, probably in 1605, sent over 
 to England in the care of Mr. Bidell, a Russia-merchant, and 
 entered as a student at Oxford University. Having completed 
 his terms he took orders in the English Church, and in 1618 was 
 presented to the living of Wooley in Huntingdonshire. It is 
 said that he was more than once invited back to Russia to take 
 upon him the government of that country, but preferred his 
 quiet cure. Here he remained till 1643, when he was forcibly 
 ejected by a file of parliamentary soldiers, who dragged him 
 from his pulpit one Sunday morning, and turned his wife and 
 children, with his household goods, out of the parsonage. For a 
 week they were forced to live in a sort of booth he constructed 
 under the trees opposite the parsonage, but he afterwards ob- 
 tained a small house in which he dwelt for several years in great 
 poverty. Eventually he went to reside with his son at Ham- 
 mersmith, but after the Restoration went back to his living, 
 where, however, he remained only a short time, returning to his 
 son's house, where he died at an advanced age, though in what 
 year is not mentioned. One of his descendants was living in 
 1764, the wife of a Mr. Johnson, a cutler in Huntingdon, and 
 
73 
 
 ALPINUS, PROSPER. 
 
 was treated with marked respect by her neighbours on account 
 of her descent. 
 
 (Walker's Sufferings of the Clergy in the Grand Rebellion, pt. ii. 
 p. 183; Biographia Britannica; Biog. Diet, of U. K. Soc.; Lysons' 
 £n<: of London, vol. iv. p. 264.) 
 
 ALPINUS, PROSPER (Prospero Alpini), the most eminent 
 botanist of his age, was born November 23, 1553, at Marostica 
 in Venice. On (putting school he enrolled himself in the army 
 lit' Milan and served some time, but quitted it in obedience to 
 the wishes of his father, a physician of some note, and entered 
 the University of Padua as a student of medicine. Here his 
 progress was rapid ; he was chosen as syndic of the university 
 and deputy rector. In 1578 he was admitted doctor of medicine, 
 and commenced practice at Campo San Pietro, a small town in 
 Padua. Whilst here he diligently carried on his botanical pur- 
 suits, but with the few books and imperfect knowledge then 
 existing of the science, he felt that his only hope of obtaining 
 the information he desired was by travel. For this an oppor- 
 tunity was afforded by an offer of accompanying G. Emo, the 
 newly-appointed Venetian consul, as his physician to Cairo. 
 Alpinus left Venice in September, 1580, and remained abroad 
 about six years. During his stay in Egypt he carefully inves- 
 tigated the botany and natural history of the country, but he 
 complains bitterly of the difficulty he found in obtaining assist- 
 ance in his researches or even accurate information. He was 
 resident almost three years in Cairo, made journeys up the Nile, 
 visited Alexandria, and travelled in Candia and other islands of 
 the Grecian archipelago. On his return to Venice in 1586 he 
 accepted the appointment of physician to Andrea Doria, Prince 
 of Melfi, and resided some time with him at Genoa. His celebrity 
 as a physician and man of science was greatly extended by his 
 work on Egyptian medicine, the first work in which he gave 
 some of the results of his Egyptian studies — ' De Medicina 
 JSgyptiornm, libri iv.' 4to, Venice, 1591 — in which he described 
 their manner of bleeding, cupping, scarifications, and various 
 processes and medicines not then in use in Italy, witli notes of the 
 climate of the country, and the food, dress, and habits of the 
 people as far as they influenced their health. The following 
 year appeared another elaborate work, in the form of a dialogue, 
 on the balsams, under which name he included the numerous 
 gummy exudations from trees then much in vogue for medicinal 
 purposes : 1 De Balsamo, dialogos ; in quo verissima balsami 
 plaiitac, opobalsami, carpobalsami, et xylobalsami cognitio pleris- 
 que antiipiorum atque juniorum medicorum occulta, nunc elu- 
 eescit,' 4to, Venice, 1591 ; 2nd ed. 4to, Padua, 1639; and trans- 
 lated into French by A. Colin, 8vo, Lyon, 1619. A more important 
 work, and that by which he mainly acquired his fame as a 
 botanist, was ' De Plantis JSgypti Liber, in quo iron pauci, qui 
 circa herbarum materiam irrepserunt, errores deprehenduntur, 
 quorum causa hactenus multa medicamenta ail risum medicinae 
 admodum expetenda, plerisque medicorum, non sine artis jactura 
 occulta atque obsoleta jacuerunt'; 4to, Venice, 1592. In this 
 treatise on the plants of Egypt with reference to their use in 
 medicine, Alpinus described and figured (in very clear woodcuts) 
 above 50 plants, of which 23 were previously undescribed : 
 among these is the coffee-plant, with the method of preparing 
 the now familiar infusion. This work was afterwards remodelled 
 ami combined with the author's other writings on the natural 
 history of Egypt, but remained in MS. till 1735, when it was 
 published at Leyden in 4to with a good commentary by Vesling, 
 the successor of Alpinus at Padua, under the title of ' Historias 
 Naturalis iEgypti libri quatuor, opus posthumum, nunc primum 
 ex auctoris autographo diligentissime recognito.' It is illus- 
 trated with numerous engravings of the animals, plants, and 
 other natural productions of Egypt, and includes the earliest 
 published figures and descriptions of the Egyptian lotus and the 
 laserpituni. 
 
 The publication of these works led the Venetian government 
 to offer Alpinus in 1593 the chair of botany at Padua, with a 
 salary of 200 florins, which was afterwards, as his celebrity 
 extended, increased to 750. He held the chair for 20 years with 
 a constantly increasing European renown, but during his latter 
 years he suffered from feeble health, deafness, and gout. He 
 died on the 5th of February, 1617, leaving four sons, who each 
 attained some eminence — Marcantonio (died in 1631), as a 
 jurist; Alpino (died 1637), professor of botany at Padua, who 
 edited his father's work on exotic plants referred to below ; 
 Maurice (died 1634), a learned theologian ; and Paolo, who 
 distinguished himself as a soldier. 
 
 Besides the works above named Alpinus published ' De Prae- 
 lagienda Vita et Morte segrotantium, libri vii. ; in quibus ars 
 
 tota Hypocratica praedicendi in aegrotis varios morboruin eventus, 
 cum ex veterum medicorum dogmatis, turn ex longa accurataque 
 observatione nova methodo elueescit,' 4to, Venice, 1601. This 
 work was long considered as the best guide for the student of 
 medicine, and as such was recommended to be used as the 
 physician's text-book in the Leipsig Acta Eruditorum. It was 
 reprinted at Pavia the same year in 4to, at Frankfurt in 8vo in 
 1621, under the title ' Medicinaliuni Observationum Historico- 
 criticarum ' ; at Leyden, with a preface by Boerhaave, 4to, 1700 ; 
 at Hamburg, 1734; and at Venice, 1735. Another work, 'De 
 Medicina Methodica, libri xiii.' folio, Venice, 1611, was an 
 attempt to determine the views of the ancient sect of the 
 Methodists. A posthumous work, ' De Plantis Exoticis, libri 
 duo,' edited by his son, contains descriptions of rare exotic plants 
 cultivated in the Botanic Garden of Padua, of which Alpinus 
 was the founder. Linnaeus dedicated to the memory of the 
 great Venetian botanist, the genus Alpinia of the order of the 
 Zingiberaceoo. 
 
 ALS, PEDER, a celebrated Danish painter, was born at 
 Copenhagen in 1725. He studied in the Academy of Copen- 
 hagen, where in 1755 he carried off the first great prize given 
 for painting, and then proceeded as pensioner to Rome, where 
 he entered the school of Mengs. Here he made many copies 
 from the pictures of Raflaelle, and on his return to Copenhagen 
 painted several historical pictures, in which the influence of 
 Mengs was very perceptible. He was more successful as a por- 
 trait painter, especially of men, and examines of his portraits are 
 numerous in the public and private galleries of his native 
 country : but his best works are over-elaborate and tame. He 
 died in 1775. 
 
 ALSTED, JACOB HEINRICH (or Alstedius), a German 
 theologian and historian, was born in 1588, at Ballersbach, near 
 Herborn, Nassau ; received a learned education ; in 1610 was 
 made extraordinary and in 1615 ordinary professor of philosophy 
 at the pedagogium of Herborn ; and in 1629 accepted the chair 
 of philosophy and theology in the newly-founded university of 
 Weissenberg in Transylvania, which he retained till his death, 
 November 8, 1638. Alsted is now only remembered as a most 
 laborious compiler ; his industry procured for him, whilst yet 
 living, the anagram of SeduUtas, but his erudition and judgment 
 were then alike honoured. His principal works are — ' Theatrum 
 Scholasticum,' 8vo, Herborn, 1610, 2nd ed. 1620 ; ' Lexicon 
 Theologicum,' 8vo, Hanover, 1612, and many times reprinted ; 
 'Artificium perorandi,' Frankfurt, 1612; 'Theologia Naturalis,' 
 4to, Frankfurt, 1615, 2nd ed. 1622 ; ' Thesaurus Chronologite,' 
 8vo, Herborn, 1624; reprinted 1628, 1637, and 1650. But his 
 great work was his 'Encyclopaedia Philosophica,' of which the 
 first edition in 2 vols, folio appeared at Herborn in 1620, and a 
 second in 1630; it being again reprinted at Lyon in 1649. 
 With the somewhat doubtful exception of that of Acquaviva, of 
 which nothing but the title is known, this was the first encyclo- 
 paedia written, and was a work of prodigious labour, the whole 
 of it, and the work extended to 2444 closely-printed folio pages, 
 double columns, being written by Alsted himself. Though an 
 encyclopaedia, it is not arranged in alphabetical order, the author 
 aiming at making it a methodical abridgment or compendium of 
 all the sciences, to be read continuously, the only assistance to 
 the reader being the divisions and subdivisions, which, however, 
 in their extent and minuteness, have proved, according to 
 Niceron, rather bewildering than helpful. The Work, though 
 esteemed as a vast repository of knowledge, was probably never 
 much read, and has of course been long obsolete, but it has 
 secured to Alsted the honour of having produced the first known 
 and complete encyclopaedia. In 1626 Alsted published a 'Com- 
 pendium Lexici Philosophici,' but in his dictionary he is nearly 
 as regardless of alphabetical order as in his encyclopaedia. 
 
 ALTENSTEIN, BARON VON. [Stein, Baron Von, E. C. 
 Biog. Div. vol. v. col. 680.] 
 
 ALVENSLEBEN, PHILIPP KARL VON, a distinguished 
 Prussian minister of state, was born December 16, 1745, at 
 Hanover, where his father was Minister of War to the Elector, 
 King George II. of England, and his grandfather had been 
 minister. Tims marked out by birth for official life, he was 
 educated, with the crown prince, afterwards King Frederick 
 William II. of Prussia, and his brother, at Magdeburg, and 
 afterwards studied jurisprudence at Halle. He was then, 1770, 
 appointed refcrenderius in the chief court of justice at Berlin, 
 and afterwards advanced to a judgeship. In 1773 he was sent 
 with the grand chancellor to introduce the Prussian system of 
 administration into the ceded province of Poland, now called 
 West Prussia, In 1774 he was appointed chamberlain to Prhrca 
 
T5 
 
 AMAT, FELIX. 
 
 AMELOTTE, DENYS. 
 
 70 
 
 Ferdinand, and the next year was nominated ambassador to the 
 court of Saxony. Here he remained busily occupied in further- 
 ing the Prussian interest with the German courts till 1787, when 
 he was sent to Paris to negotiate with France for the pacification 
 of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. In 1788 lie went as 
 ambassador extraordinary to Holland, and in the same year was 
 promoted to the like post in London, where he remained till 
 1790. On his return to Prussia, he was made Minister of War ; 
 in 1792, received the unusual distinction of the order of the 
 black eagle ; and in 1801 was created count. Alvenslehen 
 >ossessed the entire confidence of the king, and exerted an 
 mportant influence on the policy of Prussia. He died at Berlin 
 October 21, 1802. He published, but without his name, a 
 chronological account of military events from the peace of 
 Minister to that of Hubertsburg, ' Versuch eines tabellarischen 
 Verzeiehnisses der Kriogsbegebenheiten vom Miinsterschcn bis 
 Eum Hubertsburgischen Friedcn,' 8vo, Berlin, 1792. 
 
 AMAT, FELIX, abbot of St. Ildefonso and archbishop of 
 Palmyra, -was born August 10, 1750, at Sabadell, in the diocese 
 of Barcelona, of a family rather noble than wealthy. At the age 
 of eleven he was sent to the episcopal seminary at Barcelona, 
 where he distinguished himself for his proficiency in poetry, 
 rhetoric, and mathematics. Resolving to enter the church, he 
 received, in 1707, his first tonsure from Climent, Bishop of 
 Barcelona, who had conceived a great admiration for his talents 
 and industry. Amat's stature at this time was prodigious ; at 
 the age of seventeen he had attained the height of ten palms 
 'jid three inches Spanish, or seven feet two inches English. In 
 1770 he took his doctor's degree at Granada, and returning to 
 Barcelona, was named by his patron, Bishop Climent, professor 
 of philosophy at the episcopal seminary, and by the king, at 
 Oliment's recommendation, librarian of the episcopal library. In 
 the latter office he distinguished himself for his activity, intel- 
 ligence, and powers of classification and arrangement, the fruits 
 of which abide to this day. He occupied himself, also, at the 
 suggestion of Climent, in writing ' Institutes of Philosophy ; ' and 
 was engaged by Yalladares, who succeeded to the bishopric of 
 Barcelona on the resignation of Climent in 1775, to draw up a 
 series of new regulations for the episcopal seminary, and to write 
 a little book for the guidance of the institution, which was pub- 
 lished under the title of 'El Seminarista.' Amat likewise ac- 
 cepted from the bishop the post of director of this establishment ; 
 but escaped from the too great mental and bodily fatigue incident 
 to the office, when he became a successful candidate for the chief 
 canonry of Tarragona. This preferment at once introduced him 
 to the friendship of Don Francisco Armaria, Archbishop of 
 Tarragona, with whom he co-operated in forming at Tarragona a 
 society of " Amigos del Pais," or " Friends of the Country," a 
 title which has rather a social and economical than a political 
 significance. Of this society Amat drew up the regulations, 
 and contributed numerous articles to its Transactions. In 1790, 
 with the assistance of his brother, Don Antonio, who was per- 
 fectly acquainted with the English language, he prepared a com- 
 pendium of Burke's ' Reflections on the French Revolution/ 
 which was published without the name of the translator, or the 
 date or place of printing. When the war with France broke 
 out in 1794, the patriotism of Amat procured for him to be 
 named one of the general junta for the rising in arms of Cata- 
 lonia, but he found time in the midst of his warlike occupations 
 to write a letter to Veyan, Bishop of Vich, on the method of 
 teaching theology by the ' Sum of Theology ' of St. Thomas 
 Aquinas. In the next year, which restored peace to Spain, 
 Amat was engaged in a controversy with Jovellanos on the 
 ' Notice of the Royal Institute of Asturias ; ' and about the same 
 time was freely contributing materials to his friend Don Josef 
 Esteve for the Catalan dictionary, published in the year 1800. 
 Amat was appointed, in 1801, royal visitor of the priory and 
 college of Roncesvalles, and discharged his delicate duties with 
 so much tact and success that he was named in 1803 by Charles 
 IV. abbot of St. Ildefonso, the royal residence; in 1805, visitor 
 of the royal monastery of the Escurial ; and in 1806, confessor 
 to the king. In 1803 he had been made, by the Pope, archbishop 
 of Palmyra in 2wrtibus. On accepting the office of royal con- 
 fessor, he stipulated that he should not be required to interfere 
 in political affairs ; but he entered with energy into the discus- 
 sions on a plan for the general reform of the universities, and 
 actively promoted the design of a new Spanish translation of the 
 Bible, which was suggested by the king, and finally executed by 
 Don Felix Torres Amat, the nephew of the confessor. 
 
 But the events of the years 1807 and 1808, were such as to 
 force Amat from his position of political neutrality^ which he 
 
 abandoned in such a way as to taint his hitherto unimpeached 
 patriotism with the suspicion of sympathy with the French 
 invaders of Spain. He was set down by his fellow countrymen 
 as an " Afrancesado ;" and was judged, not only by the Spaniards, 
 but by the French themselves, as favourable to the cause of the 
 latter. King Joseph Bonaparte appointed him to the bishopric 
 of Osma, which Amat neither accepted nor declined, merely 
 putting off taking possession till the arrival of the necessary 
 bulls from Rome. At this time he wrote his work, ' Deberes 
 del Cristiano hdcia la Potestad Publica;' Duties of a Christian 
 towards the Public Authority, or Principles of Guidance for 
 Good Men in the Revolutions that agitate Empires. On the 
 entry of Lord Wellington into Madrid, 12th August, 1812, and 
 the restoration of the national government, Amat judged it 
 prudent to retire from the capital ; to which lie returned, how- 
 ever, on its re-occupation by the French troops, when he endea- 
 voured to play the part of a mediator with so much success as to 
 leave it doubtful on which side were his sympathies. On the 
 arrival of King Ferdinand VII., who, from having been a 
 prisoner, showed every sign of developing into a despot, Amat 
 was unsuccessful in his attempt to convince the sovereign of the 
 rectitude of his political conduct during the French domination ; 
 and being, along with others, who had held certain ollices under 
 King Joseph, banished by royal decree from Madrid, retired 
 July 13th, 1814, to Catalonia. In 1816 he obtained permission 
 to resign the Abbey of St. Ildefonso ; and in 1817 had the 
 mortification of seeing his 'Ecclesiastical History' arbitrarily 
 prohibited by the Inquisition, which had been re-established by 
 King Ferdinand. Amat foresaw the agitations that impended 
 over his native country, and in 1820, when commotions had 
 broken out at Cadiz and elsewhere, published ' Observaciones 
 pacificas sobre la Potestad Ecclesiastica,' or Pacific Observations 
 on Ecclesiastical Power, which satisfied neither party. The 
 infirmities of advanced age, combining with the sorrow and 
 apprehension with which Amat regarded the existing disasters 
 and future prospects of Spain, put an end to his life on the 28th 
 of September, 1824, at the age of seventy-four, at a convent of 
 Franciscans near Salient, where he had resided for several years. 
 
 Four principal works of Amat may be selected for mention 
 out of the long list of his productions. His great work is his 
 ' Tratado de la Iglesia de Jesu Cristo ' (Treatise on the Church 
 of Jesus Christ), generally known as his ' Ecclesiastical History,' 
 which is the name given to it in the leaf before the title-page. 
 It occupies twelve small Spanish quartos, which were published 
 at intervals, the first four at Madrid in 1793, the fifth and sixth 
 in the same city in 1798 and 1799 ; the seventh and eighth in 
 1799, at Barcelona ; the ninth and tenth also at Barcelona in 
 1800 and 1S02 respectively ; and the two last in the same city 
 in 1803. A second edition, in thirteen volumes, appeared at 
 Madrid, in 1807. It is singular that this work, which in the 
 warmest terms defends the Inquisition, should have been, at its 
 first appearance, denounced to that tribunal, and several years 
 after prohibited by it. Amat's next important works are his ' Ob- 
 servaciones sobre la Potestad Ecclesiastica' (Observations on 
 Ecclesiastical Power), Barcelona, 1817-23, 3 vols. 4to ; and his 
 ' Seis Cartas a Irenico ' (Six Letters to Irenicus), Barcelona, 
 1817. Both these works were published under the assumed 
 name of Don Macario Padua Melato, Macario being the Greek 
 equivalent of his Christian name of Felix, and Padua Melato an 
 anagram of his appellation Amat de Palou. In the ' Letters to 
 Irenicus' the author enunciates distinct ideas of the rights of 
 man and of civil society, and that contract is refuted which is 
 pretended to be the origin and necessary foundation of sove- 
 reignty, and makes it dependent on the consent of subjects. 
 The mention of the principal works of Amat is completed with 
 the ' Deberes del Cristiano en Tiempo de Revolucion,' Madrid, 
 1813, 8vo ; but besides these, he left several small treatises in 
 philosophy ; occasional sermons; pastoral letters ; and an 
 unfinished reply to Volney's ' Ruins of Palmyra,' with which, as 
 archbishop of Palmyra, Amat thought himself particularly 
 concerned. {Biorj. Diet, of Soc. for Biff, of U. Knowledge.) 
 
 AMELOTTE, DENYS, a French ecclesiastic of the 17th 
 century, was born at Saintes, in Saintonge, in 1606. He was 
 ordained priest in 1632, and some time after took the degree of 
 doctor of divinity. He formed an intimacy with the priests of 
 the Congregation of the Oratory, and subsequently — probably 
 several years before, but certainly not later than, 1650 — be- 
 came a member of that body. In his ' Vie de Charles de 
 Condren, second Superieur General de la Congregation de 
 I'Oratoire de Jesus,' 4to, Paris, 1643, Amelotte, who had been a 
 pupil of Condren, made some remarks on Du Verger de 
 
77 
 
 AMICI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA. 
 
 AMORETTI, CARLO. 
 
 Bjmianne, abbot of St. Cyran, which gave great offence to the 
 Mends of that ecclesiastic, and to the Jansenists generally. 
 Some rears later Amelotte published the first part of a work on 
 the Jansenist controversy — which should have been followed, 
 but was not, by two other parts — with the title of ' Defense des 
 Constitutions d Innocent X., et d' Alexandre VII., et des Decrets 
 de l'Assemblee du Clerge contre la Doctrine de Jansenius,'&c.,4to, 
 Paris, 1C60. This work drew upon its author the attack of the 
 members of the Society of Port Royal, in a work written by 
 Nicole and remarkable for its personalities, of which the title 
 was ' Idee Generale de l'Esprit et du livre du Pere Amelotte,' 
 4to, Paris, 1661. Amelotte retaliated in the dedication of his 
 translation of the New Testament, addressed to Perefixe, Arch- 
 bishop of Paris, in which he described the Jansenists as "blind 
 rebels," and charged them with "rage, imposture, and calumny." 
 Further, Amelotte exerted his influence to procure the prohibi- 
 tion of the version of the New Testament, then in preparation 
 by the members of Port Royal, of which they asserted Amelotte 
 had surreptitiously obtained a copy, and availed himself of it in 
 making or correcting his own version. The Port Royalists, 
 being thus prevented, through the influence of Amelotte, from 
 obtaining a licence to publish their version at Paris, brought it 
 out at Mons, in Flanders. It is known as De Sacy's version. 
 
 Amelotte was Superior of the house of the Congregation of 
 the Oratory, Rue St. Honore, Paris, and assistant to the Supe- 
 rior General of the Congregation. He was the theological 
 adviser of the Chancellor Seguier, whom he had prevailed on to 
 withhold his licence from the Port Royal New Testament. But 
 in the latter part of his life, he complained of the neglect of the 
 great, whom he had obliged, and through whose influence he vainly 
 expected a bishopric. Le Long, in a note to his ' Bibliotheque 
 Historicme de la France,' places the death of Amelotte in 1675 ; 
 but the balance of probabilities is appreciably, if slightly, in 
 favour of Niceron, who states (' Memoires,' &c.) that he died at 
 Paris, 7th October, 1678, at the age of 72. 
 
 Amelotte's version of the New Testament is from the Cle- 
 mentine edition of the Vulgate, and bore as its title ' Le 
 Nouveau Testament, traduit en Francois, avec des Notes sur les 
 principales Difficultes,'&c.,3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1666, 1667, and 1670. 
 It was republished twice, if not three times, in the author's life- 
 time, but without the notes. It has been reprinted many times 
 since. A second edition, with the notes, and with a new 
 dedication to Harlay, successor of Perefixe in the archbishopric 
 of Paris, was published in two volumes, 4to, 1688. The other 
 works of Amelotte are religious, and comprehend two Lives of 
 Jesus Christ, one in Latin and one in French, harmonised from 
 the four Gospels in the Latin version, and in his own French 
 version. ' Le petit Office du Saint Enfant Jesus,' enumerated 
 m Niceron amongst the works of Amelotte, appears to have 
 been written by Marguerite du Saint Sucrement, whose Life 
 Amelotte wrote, and was merely edited by him. 
 
 AMICI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, a distinguished Italian 
 astronomer and optician, was born at Modena, in 1784. While 
 studying mathematics at Bologna, he evinced a taste for the 
 pursuits which afterwards brought him into note. He studied 
 the principles of various optical instruments ; introduced a new 
 brilliant hard white alloy for the specula of telescopes ; made 
 large specula with his own hands ; invented ellipsoid specula, 
 to get rid of spherical aberration ; greatly improved tiie achro- 
 matic microscope, with which he made valuable observations on 
 infusoria, on the circulation of the sap in plants, and on vegetable 
 functions ; and contrived six kinds of camera lucida, lor the 
 Use of designers and to facilitate microscopic observations. 
 These labours were spread over the first forty years of the 
 present century. After making telescope specula 11 inches in 
 diameter, and one of larger size for Milan Observatory, he under- 
 took to make a magnificent five-feet speculum, to be cast in the 
 ducal gun-foundry at Pavia ; but various circumstances led to 
 the abandonment of the design. He contrived new forms of 
 reflecting microscope, polariscope, and micrometer. Amici, who 
 had been professor of mathematics in early life at the Lyceum 
 of Panaro, was in 1831 appointed Inspector General of Studies 
 in the Duchy of Modena ; and he afterwards succeeded Pons as 
 director of the Florence Observatory. Besides papers on micro- 
 scopic physiology, in the 'Memorie della Societa Italiana,' he 
 communicated to various scientific bodies articles on Double 
 Stars, Jupiter's Satellites, the Angular Diameter of the Sun, 
 &c. Amici died April 23rd, 1863. 
 
 AMIGONI, or AM ICON J, G1ACOMO, a celebrated Italian 
 painter, was born at Venice in 1675. Alter studying in the 
 schooLj of his native city, he went to Flanders, attracted by the 
 
 reputation of the Flemish painters, and from his study of their 
 masterpieces, is said to have discovered the system of colour lie 
 had Jong sought in vain in Venice. He painted historical subjects 
 and the then popular conversation pieces, adopting the small size 
 of the Flemish cabinet painters as well as their mode of colour in 
 preference to those of his countrymen. Having been appointed 
 painter to the Elector of Bavaria, he stayed some time at 
 Munich, painted the ceilings of the palace at Schleissheim ; 
 some altar-pieces for churches, and several cabinet pictures for 
 private collections. From Munich he came in 1729 to England, 
 where his manner was a novelty, and where, consequently, he 
 was for some few years very popular. One of his first commis- 
 sions was to paint a staircase at Lord Tankerville's in St. 
 James's Square (already destroyed when Walpole wrote), and 
 for which, on his declining to charge beyond the cost of the 
 scaffolding, &c, Lord Tankerville gave him 200Z. He was then 
 employed to paint the staircase of Powis House, Great Ormond- 
 street, with the story of Holofernes— the personages of which 
 he clad in Roman dress. Other decorative works engaged his 
 pencil, and among them was a 'Shakspere and the Muses' over 
 the proscenium of the new Theatre in Covent Garden ; but the 
 demand for this kind of decoration was slackening ; his manner 
 had lost its novelty; patrons would not buy his history or con- 
 versation pieces, and so he was driven to portraiture, on which 
 he flourished for the next few years, contriving, besides living 
 handsomely, to put by 50002. Walpole records that for a whole 
 length he was paid 60 guineas. Among the portraits he painted 
 whilst here were Caroline, Queen of George II., and the three eldest 
 princesses ; Prince Frederick, eldest son of George II., the Poor 
 Fed of the satirists, who is represented by the courtly painter as 
 seated, with a volume of Homer in his hand, whilst a couple of Loves 
 are hovering over him ; the portrait is now in Windsor Castle. 
 Amigoni left London in 1739 for Venice, where he painted se- 
 veral works, the most admired being a ' Visitation ' for the monas- 
 tery of S. Filippo. In 1747 he went to Spain, was made court 
 painter to Ferdinand VI., and painted for him several pictures 
 which met with much applause. He died at Madrid in 1773. 
 
 Amigoni was sufficiently praised in his own day and imme- 
 diately after. Lanzi speaks of his fertile and animated genius, 
 and grandeur and beauty of style ; and Zanetti eulogises the 
 clearness and charm of his colour but in truth he was wholly 
 wanting in genius, and in manner feeble and conventional. The 
 only interest he now retains for us arises from his connection 
 with English art during the early years of the reign of 
 George II. He etched a few plates, but they are of little value. 
 Heinecken enumerates 127 engravings executed from his pic- 
 tures, among them being many from his English portraits, some 
 of which are prized by collectors. 
 
 AMLING, CARL GUSTAV, an eminent German engraver 
 and designer, was born at Nurnberg in 1651. Having learnt to 
 draw and engrave at home, he went to Munich, where he at- 
 tracted the notice of the Elector. Maximilian II. of Bavaria, 
 who sent him to Paris to complete his studies under F. de 
 Poilly, one of the ablest engravers of the time. On his return 
 to Munich he was made court engraver, and continued to reside 
 in that city till his death in 1701. Amling enjoyed the reputa- 
 tion of being the best line-engraver in Germany. His style is, how- 
 ever, deficient in purity and vigour, and the drawing is frecpiently 
 incorrect. The most important, and perhaps the best, of his histori- 
 cal prints, are 13 of the series of 22 from the tapestries designed by 
 P. Gandido, in the palace at Munich. But his historical plates are 
 inferior to his portraits, some of which are highly prized : the best 
 are those of the Electors ; several are from drawings made from the 
 life by himself. Heinecken, who gives a full list of his engravings, 
 says that he was a painter as well as an engraver. 
 
 AMORETTI, CARLO, a learned Italian, was born at Oneglia, 
 in Genoa, March 13, 1741. The son of a merchant, he was in- 
 tended for the priesthood, and at the age of 16 entered the order 
 of St. Augustine. His progress in study was so satisfactory that 
 while still young he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical law 
 at the University of Parma ; but a growing dislike to the clerical 
 profession led him to petition the Pope for secularisation, which 
 was granted in 1772, and having resigned his professorship, he 
 was left free to apply himself to his favourite studies. At this 
 time his bent was towards physical and natural science ; he was 
 united in close intimacy with Fortis, Soave, and Vanini, workers 
 in the same field ; and the post of tutor in the Cusani family at 
 Milan enabled him to pursue his investigations under favourable 
 circumstances. In 1775 Amoretti began, in conjunction with 
 Padre Soave, a work that was intended to keep his countrymen 
 acquainted with the progress of knowledge throughout the civi- 
 
70 
 
 AMPERE, JEAN-JACQUES-ANTOINE. 
 
 AMSDORF, NICOLAUS VON. 
 
 80 
 
 lized world by means of translations of memoirs and essays, 
 either published or in MS., by distinguished writers, selected 
 from the transactions of the chief learned societies. Of the 
 'Seelta di Opuscoli interessanti,' as it was called, 36 volumes 
 were published in three years, when, fearing the accumulation of 
 small volumes would be found inconvenient, the editors deter- 
 mined to change the form ; and in its larger size, and under the 
 title of ' Opusculi Scelti sulle Seienze e sulle Arti,' it was con- 
 tinued from 1778 to 1803, making 22 quarto vols. The work 
 was of great value at the time of its publication, and may still 
 be referred to with advantage. 
 
 Amoretti's first independent work was a translation, made at 
 the suggestion of Fnmagalli, of Winekelmaim's History of Art, 
 ' Storia delle Arti del Disegno presso gli Antichi,' 2 vols. 4to, 
 1779. It was received with great favour, and the credit he 
 gained from it led Amoretti to write a life of Lionardo da Vinci, 
 in the preparation of which he was able to make use of the MSS. of 
 Lionardo preserved in the Ambrosian Library: " Memorie storiche 
 Bulla Vita gli Studi, ele Operedi Lionardo da Vinci,' 8vo, Milan, 
 1784, and several times reprinted. In 1783 Amoretti was made 
 secretary to the Societa Patriotica of Milan, for the promotion of 
 arts and agriculture, and he retained this office till the dissolution 
 of the society in 1798. Before this happened, 1797, he was 
 elected one of the " Dottori del Collegio AmbrOsiano," or con- 
 servators of the Ambrosian Library, a position which greatly 
 facilitated his researches. His attention had for some time been 
 directed towards geography and the connected sciences, and in 
 1794 he published what has been generally considered the most 
 valuable of his works, ' Viaggio di Milano ai tre Laghi.' The 
 three lakes are of course Lago Maggiore, Lugano, and Oomo, and 
 the book is an invaluable repository of information respecting 
 the physical features of the district in which they are situated, 
 as well as of the political and social condition of Milan. The 
 work was several times reprinted, and Amoretti published in his 
 ' Opusculi Scelti ' some appendices to it, the results of subsequent 
 journeys and investigations. In 1800 he published another im- 
 portant contribution to comparative geography, being an account 
 of the first voyage round the world made by the fleet under the 
 command of Magalhaens, from Pigafetta's MS. in the Ambrosian 
 Library, 1 Primo Viaggio intorno al Globo Terracqueo ; ossia 
 Ragguaglio della Navigazione alle Indie Orientale per la Via 
 d'Occidente, fatta dal Cavaliere Antonio Pigafetta, Patricio 
 Vicentino, sulla S quadra del Capitano Magaglianos negli Anni 
 1519-22 ; ora publicato per la prima Volta, tratto da un Codice MS. 
 della Biblioteca Ambrosiana di Milano,' &c, 4to, Milan, 1800; 
 with it was included an essay on navigation from a MS. bound 
 up with Pigafetta's, and presumed by Amoretti to have been 
 written by him. A French translation of the Primo Viaggio, 
 by Amoretti, appeared the same year as the original. Amoretti 
 also published both in Italian and French the voyage of Maldo- 
 nado, the truth of which he stoutly maintained, but though con- 
 vinced himself, he has convinced few besides. Two other works 
 may be mentioned, ' Le Guide des Etrangers dans Milan, et aux 
 Environs,' 2 vols. l2mo, Milan, 1805, a well arranged and useful 
 guide, written by Amoretti in French ; and a reprint of several 
 papers on the use of the divining rod in searching for water and 
 minerals, 'Delia Rabdomanzia ossia elettrometria animale ricerche 
 fisiche e storiche,' 8vo, Milan, 1808. He also published later 
 various papers on coal, lignite, animal electricity, &c, and took 
 some part in a periodical commenced in 1808, under the title of 
 the ' Giornale della Societa dTncoraggiamento delle Seienze e 
 dell' Arti stabilita in Milano.' Amoretti was created a Knight 
 of the Iron Crown in 1805 ; he was subsequently a member of 
 the Council of Mines, and was elected member of the Institute of 
 Italy. Beyond barren honours, his various and most useful 
 labours met, however, with but little recompense, and he died, 
 as he had lived, in comparative poverty, March 25, 1810. 
 
 AMPERE, JEAN-JACQUES-ANTOINE, a distinguished 
 French writer, the son of the eminent mathematician and physi- 
 cist, Andre-Marie Ampere [E. O. Biog. Div. vol. i. col. 195], 
 was born at Lyon, August 12, 1800. He was educated at Paris 
 under the supervision of his father ; studied philosophy' under 
 Cousin; read diligently English and German literature, and 
 evinced a decided inclination for a literary life, which his father 
 fosteied. The young Ampere ranged himself along Avitk the 
 brilliant band of literary men who united liberalism in politics 
 with freedom in the forms of philosophy, poetry, and romance. 
 He was one of the recognised circle at Madame Recamier's; was 
 one of the staff of the ' Globe ' under Guizot's editorshij), and a 
 welcome contributor to other liberal and literary journals. In 
 the early part of 1830 he was invited to lecture on literature at 
 
 the Athenee of Marseille, and he published the introductory 
 discourse tinder the title of ' L'Histoire dc la Poesic,' 8vo, Mar- 
 seille, 1830. The course itself laid the foundation of a work 
 published three years later, 'Dc la Litterature francaise dans ses 
 rapports avec les litteralures dtrangeres au Moyen Age,' 8vo 
 Paris, 1833; but M. Ampere was recalled from Marseille to Paris 
 by the events which followed the revolution, and acted at the 
 Sorbonne as substitute for M. Villemain and M. Fauriel. In 
 1833 he was appointed professor of literature in the College of 
 France, and his lectures were among the more attractive in 
 that brilliant period of the Parisian professorships. The sub- 
 stance of the courses appeared in ' L'Histoire litteraire de la j 
 France avant le douzieme siccle,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1839-40; and ' Sur 
 la Formation de la Langue francaise,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1841. 
 
 But while filling the chair at the college, M. Ampere con- 
 tinued to be a frequent contributor to newspapers and periodicals. 
 He also made several long journeys, of some of which he gave an ] 
 account in the ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' republished in 2 vols. 
 8vo, 1834, under the title ' Litt6rature et Voyages (en Allemagne, 
 en Scandinavie, &c.),'3rd ed. 1863. Later M. Ampere published j 
 notes of his visits to Italy, Egypt, Nubia, &c. Among other 
 fruits of these journeys and literary researches made whilst pur- 
 suing them, may be mentioned ' la Grece, Rome et Dante, Etudes 
 litteraires d'aprfes Nature,' 12mo, Paris, 1848; the 'Promenade 
 en Amerique, of which a 3rd edition in 2 vols. 8vo appeared in 
 1868; and the most important of all his works, 'L'Histoire 
 Romaine a Pome,' of which the greater part was first published 
 in tin: ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' but which as a separate publi- 
 cation forms 4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64, the last two volumes being 
 posthumous. This work, on which M. Ampere's fame will per- 
 haps ultimately rest, exhibits extensive and varied erudition, 
 keenness of perception and observation, much richness of illus- 
 tration, and an attractive style; but there is a want of grasp and 
 concentration which renders the book unsatisfactory and weary- 
 ing as a whole, however charming and often brilliant may be I 
 separate parts. Much of this may, however, be attributed pro- 
 bably to the piecemeal way in which it was prepared for publica- 
 tion in the pages of the ' Revue des Deux Mondes.' Other pub- 
 lications of M. Ampere were his ' Heures de Poesies,' and 
 ' Cesar, Scenes historiques,' 8vo, 1859. 
 
 M. J. J. Ampere was elected member of the Acaddmie des In- 
 scriptions in 1842; succeeded M. A. Guiraud at the Academie : 
 Francaise in 1847 ; and was made officer of the Legion of Honour 
 in 1846. He died on the 27th of March, 1864. His successor at 
 the Institute was M. Prevost-Paradol. 
 
 AMSDORF, NICOLAUS VON, the son of noble parents, 
 was born on the 3rd of December, 1483, at Zschepe, a village 
 near Wurzen, in Saxony. He entered the University of Witten- 
 berg in 1502 — the year of its foundation by Frederic, Elector of 
 Saxony — as a student of divinity, and was appointed professor in 
 that faculty in 1511. He became a warm friend and partizan of' 
 Luther, whom he accompanied to the disputation of Leipzig in 
 1519, and in 1521 to the celebrated diet of Worms, on his return 
 from which Luther was carried off with friendly violence to the 
 castle of Wartburg. On the recommendation of Luther, who 
 had reappeared at Wittenberg in the spring of 1522, Amsdorf 
 was appointed in 1524 superintendent and minister at St. Ulrich, 
 in Magdeburg, where he devoted himself with his usual zeal to 
 the propagation of the Reformation. In 1531 he was employed 
 in quelling the religious troubles that had broken out in the 
 imperial town of Goslar ; in 1534 he introduced the new religious 
 doctrines into the principality of Calenberg ; and in 1537 was one 
 of theframers and signatories of the "Articles of Schmalkalden." 
 On the 20th of January, 1542, Amsdorf was consecrated Bishop 
 of Naumburg by Luther, in presence of the Elector and his 
 brother, John Ernst, Duke of Saxony. This appointment was 
 made on the condition that the sovereignty and temporal rights 
 over Naumburg, which had hitherto belonged to the bishops, 
 should be exercised by the Elector ; whilst Amsdorf was to con- 
 tent himself with the discharge of the spiritual functions of the 
 office. Such an arrangement was regarded by the Emperor and 
 the Roman Catholic party as a breach of the constitution of the 
 Empire ; yet Amsdorf was maintained in his see by the Pro- 
 testants till 1547, when the defeat and capture of the Elector, 
 John Frederic, on the field of Muhlberg, compelled him to retire 
 to Magdeburg. Here he continued his activity in the interests 
 of the Reformation, and was frequently involved in controversy 
 with other theologians. Against Matthias Flacius he maintained 
 that original sin was nothing substantial, but only a strong acci- 
 dent ; and, in a dispute with George Major, he went so far as to 
 maintain that good works, far from being necessary, were pre- 
 
81 AMYRAUT, MOYSE. 
 
 judicial to salvation. In 1552 Amsclorf was appointed super- 
 intendent and ecclesiastical counsellor at Erfurt, the residence of 
 the sons of the Elector, John Frederic, who was still in captivity, 
 and who was not restored to liberty till 1554, in which year he 
 died, his last moments being soothed by the consolations of 
 Amsdorf. Although he never recovered the see of Naumlrurg, 
 Amsdorf continued to receive from his friends the title of bishop; 
 and after having greatly contributed to the foundation of the 
 University of Jena, which was solemnly established on the 2nd 
 of February, 1558, he died at Eisenach on the 14th of May, 
 1565, in the 82nd year of his age. Amsdorf is the author of 
 numerous theological pamphlets, which are now very rare. In 
 some of these he treats of the doctrines of Christianity, and in 
 others of matters of merely ephemeral interest and significance. 
 The greater part of his productions have a controversial cha- 
 lacter. He took an active part in Luther's translation of the 
 Bible, and was the editor of the second edition of Luther's 
 works, to which he furnished a preface. The only work which, 
 in addition, it is necessary to particularise as having been written 
 by Amsdorf, is one of considerable historical interest, entitled 
 ' Ein Kurzer Auszug aus der Chronica Naucleri, wie untreulich 
 die Papste mit den Romischen Kaisern gehandelt,' Magdeburg, 
 1534, 4to ( £ A Short Extract from the Chronicle of Nauclerus, 
 to show how unfairly the Popes have acted towards the Roman 
 Emperors '). 
 
 AMYRAUT, MOYSE (Latinized, Amyraldus, Moses,) was a 
 member of an ancient family, and born at Bourgueil in Tou- 
 raine, in September, 1596. His father designed him for the 
 legal profession ; and reluctantly consented that he should enter 
 upon a course of theological studies at Saumur. These being 
 completed, Amyraut was settled as minister successively at St. 
 Aignan and at Saumur, in the university of which city, soon 
 after his settlement there, he was, in 1633, appointed professor 
 of divinity. Having been deputed, in 1631, to represent the 
 synod of Charenton in laying before the king their remon- 
 strances against certain infractions of the edicts of pacification 
 made in favour of the Protestants, Amyraut, by his firmness and 
 tact, succeeded in placing the Protestant clergy on the same 
 footing with the Roman Catholics, so far as permission to stand 
 in the royal presence was concerned. Previously, the Protestants 
 had been required to approach the king on their knees ; and the 
 address which Amyraut displayed in forcing the establishment 
 of a better precedent, won for him the high consideration and 
 permanent regard of Cardinal Richelieu. But Amyraut was the 
 occasion of a protracted and virulent controversy amongst the 
 Protestants themselves. In a work conceived and produced in 
 the interests of peace, he endeavoured to reconcile the predestina- 
 rianism of Calvin with the doctrine of universal grace. To Du 
 Moulin and other Calvinistic divines, the work seemed to im- 
 pugn the decrees of the council of Dort, and to promulgate the 
 heresy of Arminius; so that the question of the writer's deposi- 
 tion was agitated before the synod of Alenoon. After an aide 
 defence Amyraut was honourably acquitted ; but he was en- 
 joined for the future to be silent on the matter in controversy. 
 With this condition his sense of the justice of his cause did not 
 allow him to comply ; and when his contumacy was brought to 
 the notice of the national synod of Charenton, that body pro- 
 cured an amicable compromise, or "holy amnesty," which left 
 Amyraut at liberty to defend his position against the attacks of 
 foreign adversaries. The first use he made of this concession 
 was to publish an answer to the attack of Spanhcim, in his 
 work, in three volumes, on universal grace. On the same side 
 had enlisted also Rivet, Des Marets, and other writers, whilst 
 Amyraut was supported by the talents of Daille, Mestrezat, 
 Hondel, and Claude. In the long run the opinions advanced 
 by Amyraut gained the ascendency, and were so generally 
 adopted in France as to be publicly received by the universities 
 of the Huguenots, witli whose dispersion, after the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, they rapidly spread through Holland and 
 other countries of Protestant refuge. Amyraut forfeited nothing 
 of personal respect by the part which he took in this controversy. 
 His Protestant opponents esteemed and venerated the intrepid 
 advocate of a creed they repudiated ; whilst from the highest 
 dignitaries of the Roman Catholic church, including Richelieu 
 ■DU Mazarin, he received substantial marks of friendship and 
 confidence. The favour of the latter may have been due in 
 great part to the emphasis with whien Amyraut publicly main- 
 tained the doctrine of implicit obedience to the sovereign autho- 
 rity. To these views he gave prominence in his ' Apology for 
 the Protestants,' published in 1647; and in 1650, in a work on 
 the sovereignty of kings, occasioned by the execution of Charles I. 
 fiioo. div. — sup. 
 
 ANDERSON, ROBERT. 8a 
 
 of England, as well as in the preface to his Latin version of 
 the Psalms, dedicated to Charles the Second. Yet upon occa- 
 sions when conscience compelled him to opposition, Amyraut 
 could boldly and successfully withstand the orders of the govern- 
 ment. He died in July, 1664, leaving behind him an enviable 
 reputation for learning, judgment, amiability, candour, and con- 
 ciliation; and for a charity which found expression in constant 
 and liberal benefactions to the poor, without distinction of creed. 
 He was a voluminous author ; and wrote with equal facility in 
 Latin and French. The principal of his writings not already 
 mentioned are the following :—' A Treatise on Religion,' 1631; 
 ' On the Nature, Extent, &c, of the Gospel,' 1636 ; ' The Exalta- 
 tion of Truth and the Abasement of Reason,' 1641 ; 'On Sepa- 
 ration from the Church of Rome ' (Latin), 1647 ; ' Irenicon, 
 designed to promote the Re-union of the Calvinists and Luther- 
 ans,' 1648 ; ' Christian Morality,' 6 vols. 8vo, a work of singular 
 merit, composed with great care ; ' A Treatise on the Millen- 
 nium' ; ' A Treatise on Dreams ' (' Discours sur les Songes divins, 
 dont il est parle dans l'Escriture,' Saumur, 1659); and a Poem 
 entitled ' Apology of St. Stephen for his Judges.' 
 
 ANCHIETA, JOSEPH DE, Jesuit missionary, called the 
 Apostle of Brazil, was born at LagunainTeneriffe,inl533. Having 
 studied at the University of Coimbra, he entered the Society of 
 Jesus at the age of seventeen. In 1553 he went witli six other 
 Jesuits to Brazil, where he acted as schoolmaster in a small 
 mission colony called San Paolo. They suffered many hard- 
 ships, but succeeded in converting many of the natives. Anchieta 
 studied the language of those around him, and wrote a grammar 
 and vocabulary of the Tupinamban tongue. Having no books, 
 he wrote out all the lessons for his pupils ; converted popular 
 songs and ballads into hymns ; prepared forms for confession 
 and catechism ; and at the same time acted as physician and 
 general adviser. In 1562 he succeeded in establishing a mission, 
 and strengthening the Portuguese authority, at Espiritu Santo. 
 On returning to San Paolo, in 1564, he wrote a poem to the 
 Virgin, consisting of 5000 Latin verses. He was appointed pro- 
 vincial in 1578, was unceasing in his labours for the conversion 
 of the natives, among whom he continued to reside till his 
 death, which occurred on June the 9th, 1597, at the village of 
 Reritibia, near Espiritu Santo. Anchieta left behind him a 
 reputation among the natives and converts for powers little less 
 than miraculous. Out of ten works attributed to Anchieta, only 
 two have been published separately, — a grammar of the Tupi 
 language ; and the poem on the Virgin. A Latin memoir by 
 him on the natural products of Brazil has been printed by tho 
 Academy of Sciences. 
 
 ANDERSON, REV. JOHN, was born in 1671, and educated 
 at St. Andrews, where he took the degree of M.A. This is 
 nearly all that is known of his early life, for twenty-five years of 
 which he states, in one of his works, he had resided in Edin- 
 burgh. He was preceptor to John Campbell, second duke of 
 Argyll ; and, from a satirical expression of " Curat Calder," one 
 of his literary opponents, who calls him " an old pedantic 
 dominie," it is probable that he had been at one time a school- 
 master. In 1704, he was appointed minister of Dumbarton; 
 and about the commencement of the year 1717, received an 
 invitation from the people of Glasgow to become one of their 
 ministers. But the ministers of Glasgow, upon whom he had 
 reflected in a letter addressed to Walter Stewart of Pardovan, 
 withstood his appointment, which, after being canvassed in the 
 synod, was at length carried into effect in 1720, by his trans- 
 lation to the North-west or Ram's Horn Church, in Glasgow. 
 Almost immediately after the confirmation of his appointment, 
 he died, leaving a reputation, to use the words inscribed on the 
 monument erected by his grandson, of " a pious minister and 
 an eloquent preacher, a defender of civil and religious liberty, 
 and a man of wit and learning," who " lived in the reigns of 
 Charles IL, James II., William III., Anne, and George I." His 
 literary activity was almost entirely controversial, and he appeai-s 
 as the advocate of Presbytery against Episcopacy, and labours to 
 establish the Genevan, and not the English, origin of the liturgy 
 which was used in Scotland for some years after the establish- 
 ment of the Presbyterian disci])line. The principal work of 
 Anderson, and that by which he is at present chiefly known, is 
 'A Defence of the Church Government, Faith, Worship, and 
 Spirit of the Presbyterians, in answer to a Book entitled " An 
 Apology for Mr. Thomas Rhind," ' 4to, 1714. 
 
 ANDERSON, LARS. [Andrew, Laurentius, E. C. S.] 
 
 ANDERSON, ROBERT, a provincial poet of considerable 
 celebrity, was born at Carlisle, February 1, 1770. Of poor 
 parents and the youngest of nine children, he was educated in 
 
 Q 
 
ANDRADA, JACINTO FREIRE DE. 
 
 ANDREW, GIOVANNI. 
 
 84 
 
 a charity school till, at ten years of age, he was set to work with 
 his brother a calico-printer. Having shown some talent for 
 drawing he was apprenticed to a pattern drawer, but seems to 
 have been harshly treated, especially during the last years of hi-; 
 term, which were spent in Louden. It was whilst here that he 
 wrote his first verses, some ballads, which wen; purchased by 
 the proprietors of Vauxhall Gardens. In 1796 he returned to 
 Carlisle and shortly after published a volume of poems, which, 
 however, attracted no notice. His first teal success was with a 
 ballad in the Cumberland dialect called ' Betty Brown,' which 
 became very popular, and was followed by others of a similar 
 description, until enough had accumulated to form a volume, 
 'Ballads in the Cumberland Dialect, by Robert Anderson, with 
 Notes and a Glossary by Thomas Sanderson,' Svo, 1805, The 
 work passed through several editions, but from this Anderson, 
 having sold the copyright, derived no advantage. He now took 
 a situation at Belfast, where he remained several years. Return- 
 ing to Carlisle he was persuaded to collect and publish his scat- 
 tered verses, which accordingly appeared in 1820, in two volumes, 
 accompanied by an autobiography of the poet, and an ' Essay on 
 the Characters and Manners of the Peasantry of Cumberland,' 
 by the author's friend Mr. T. Sanderson. During his last years the 
 friends and admirers of the humble poet raised a subscription 
 by means of which a monthly payment was made him sufficient 
 for his support. He died at Carlisle, September 27, 1833, and 
 was buried in the cathedral cemetery. The ballads and poem- <A' 
 Anderson afford clever, humorous descriptions of local manners 
 and customs, told in the purest and raciest local idiom, and 
 have consequently maintained their local popularity ; but they 
 have little originality, depth of feeling, or inherent power, and 
 are not calculated to win renown on a wider stage. 
 
 ANURADA, JACINTO FREIRE DE, a Portuguese writer, 
 was born at Beja in Alemtejo in 1597. While abbot of the 
 monastery of Santa Maria de Chaus, he aided in establishing 
 John of Braganza as King of Portugal in 1040, and was a man 
 of much social and political influence until his death, which took 
 place at Lisbon, May 13, 1657. Andrada was a polished and 
 witty writer of verses, in which he ridiculed the stilted style of 
 the Portuguese poets of those times. His best work is a life of 
 Horn Joao de Castro, viceroy of Portuguese India, 'Vida de 
 Dom Joao de Castro, Quarto Visorey da India,' fol. Lisbon, l(i"i I . 
 This was the best biographical work in the language at the 
 time it was written, and is still regarded as a model in Portu- 
 guese composition. It was translated into English by Sir Peter 
 Wyche, folio, London, 1664. 
 
 ANDRADA E SILVA, JOSE BONIFACIO, a Brazilian 
 politician, was born at Santos in Brazil in 1762. Having taken 
 degrees in jurisprudence and natural philosophy at Coimbra 
 University, he was sent at the government expense in 1790 to 
 travel in Europe, in order to extend his knowledge in chemistry, 
 mineralogy, and metallurgy. He was away ten years, during 
 whichtime he visited France, Holland, Scandinavia,Germany, and 
 Italy, and became acquainted with Fourcroy, Duhamel, Jussieu, 
 Brongniart, and Werner. On his return to Portugal he was ap- 
 pointed general superintendent of mines, professor at Coimbra, 
 and secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Lisbon. Returning 
 to Brazil in 1819 he exchanged science for politics, and with his 
 two younger brothers, Antonio Carlos and Martin Francisco, 
 became mixed up in the proceedings connected with the estab- 
 lishment of Brazil as an empire independent of Portugal. As 
 the principal author of the measures which led to this result, 
 Jose was entrusted by the Emperor Pedro with the general 
 direction of affairs ; but the Andrada ministry did not long retain 
 popularity or power. His ministry was dissolved in July, 1823, 
 but in a few months the brother's were again restored. This 
 time their measures led to a collision with the assembly. The 
 military were called out, but the emperor intervened ; the An- 
 dradas were all three arrested, placed on board a vessel of war, 
 and carried to France, where they remained about five years. 
 They returned to Brazil, were arrested on landing, but allowed 
 to retire to their estates. A reconciliation soon, however, took 
 place with the emperor, and Don Pedro, before his abdication in 
 1831, nominated Jose Andrada guardian of his children, includ- 
 ing his infant son and successor. He remained regent till Sep- 
 tember, 1834, when, in deference to the popular demands, he 
 resigned and retired into private life. He died at Rio, April 6, 
 1838. Jose Andrada wrote a few papers, in French and Portu- 
 guese, on the mines and mineralogy of Brazil, and some on 
 economical subjects printed in the 'Annales de Chimie/ and 
 'Transactions of the Lisbon Academy,' as well as one or two 
 WAl-^ical pamphlets. 
 
 *ANDRAL, GABRIEL, an eminent French physician, was 
 born at Paris on the 6th of November, 1797. His father, 
 Guillaume Andral, was a member of the Academic de Medecine, 
 and had seen much active service as a surgeon in the French 
 army. Gabriel Andral, being thus early accustomed to medical 
 studies, became a doctor of medicine in 1821, and at the age of 
 25 was elected member of the Aeademie de Medecine, as well as 
 assistant professor to the Faculte de Paris. Before the age of 30 
 he succeeded Bertin as professor of hygiene ; an office which he 
 exchanged in 1830 for that of professor of internal pathology. 
 In 1839 he succeeded Broussais in the chair of general thera- 
 peutics and pathology. He was elected a member of the Institute 
 in 1843 ; ami in 1^58 was made Commander of the Legion of 
 Honour. Besides his acknowledged skill as a teacher of the 
 medical sciences, Dr. Andral has written many professional works 
 of great value. One is ' Clinique Medicale,' Paris, 1823-26; of 
 which the fourth edition, in 5 vols. 8vo, appeared in 1840. Others 
 are ' Precis d' Anatomic Pathologique,' Paris and Montpellier, 3 
 vols. Svo, 1829 ; ' Cours de Pathologie interne, profess6 h la Faculte 
 de Medecine, recueilli et redige par M. Amedee Latour,' Paris, 
 3 vols. 8vo, 1836 ; of which a second edition appeared in 1848. 
 He has also published a valuable work, written in conjunction 
 with Meriadec Laennec, ' Notes et Additions au Traite de 1' Aus- 
 cultation mediate de Laennec,' Paris, 8vo, 1837, and many me- 
 moirs in the medical journals, including an important series of 
 investigations ' Sur les modifications de proportions de quelques 
 principes du Sang.' 
 
 ANDREA PISANO. [Pisano, E. C. vol. iv. col. 843.] 
 
 ANDREiE, ABRAHAM, an ecclesiastic who took an active 
 part in the introduction of the Reformation into Sweden, was 
 born in Angerniannland, and after some foreign travel was ap- 
 pointed in 1576 rector of the School at Stockholm. Having reso- 
 lutely opposed the attempt of King John, son of Gustavus Vasa, 
 to re-introduce Roman Catholicism, Andrese, who had married 
 the daughter of the first Protestant archbishop of Upsal, was 
 dismissed from his rectorship. Andrete retired to the island of 
 Aland, where he wrote and published a pamphlet exhorting the 
 clergy to remain firm in the Protestant faith. The king ordered 
 his arrest upon a charge of sedition ; but he escaped into Ger- 
 many, where he was supported for thirteen years by Swedish 
 Protestants. In 1593 King John was succeeded by Sigismund, 
 an avowed Romanist. The clergy of Sweden assembled at Upsal 
 and took the bold step of unanimously electing Andrea; to 
 be their archbishop ; and so strong was the national feeling 
 that Sigismund was compelled to confirm the election. On 
 the 19th of February, 1594, Andrete was consecrated as arch- 
 bishop, and then he crowned the king. Later the regent, Duke 
 Charles, having conceived an enmity towards Andrea), accused 
 him in ] 599, before the States, of complicity in seditious schemes ; i 
 the archbishop was sentenced to deprivation, subject to recon- 
 ciliation on the part of the duke, who however caused him to . 
 be imprisoned in the castle of Gripsholm, where he remained 
 till his death in 1607. Archbishop Andrea) published four 
 works in Latin, on theological and controversial subjects ; of 
 which the one relating most closely to the events of his own 
 life was 'Apologia pro Fuga ex Regno Suecisc,' Hamburg, 8vo, 
 1588. He also published a translation of a commentary on 
 Daniel by Draconitis, and various Latin and Swedish writings of 
 his father-in-law, Archbishop Laurentius Petri of Nereke. 
 
 ANDREIE, GIOVANNI, a learned Italian canonist, was born 
 at Mugello, near Florence, about the year 1272. After receiving 
 rudimentary instruction at Bologna under his father, who kept 
 a grammar school there, he studied canon law under ^Egidius 
 and Blaisio ; and then Roman law under Syllimani and Ma- 
 lumbra. He was professor of the decretals at Bologna in 1302, 
 and at Padua in 1307. Throughout the long period from 1309 
 to 1348, he occupied the post of professor of canon law at 
 Bologna, where he was greatly resjieeted, and his judgment 
 much rebed on. In 1326 he was arbiter in some internal 
 national disputes ; in 1328, and again in 1331, he went on an 
 embassy to the Pope at Avignon ; in 1334 he accompanied the 
 papal legate to Florence ; in 1337 he was" sent on special em- 
 bassies to Padua and Venice ; and in 1340 he assisted Bologna 
 with his advice in a time of distress. He was much valued by 
 the authorities at Rome ; for he tried to establish the papal 
 temporal power in Bologna, and interceded with the magistrates 
 to permit a Carthusian monastery to be established. Re died 
 in 1348. Of a family of four sons and four daughters, the 
 youngest daughter, Novella, occasionally officiated for her father 
 in lecturing when he was ill ; and on these occasions a curtain 
 is said to have been drawn before her, lest her beauty should 
 
u 
 
 ANDREW, QUDMUND. 
 
 ANDREOLI, GIORGIO. 
 
 86 
 
 distract the attention of the students. Andrese lived almost an 
 ascetic life, but was liberal to the church and to the poor. 
 
 Andreoe was the greatest authority of the age on the subject 
 of the decretals. He wrote several works, which are still valued 
 for their learning, but more for the notices they contain of his 
 legal contemporaries and predecessors. Among them were (1) 
 ' Glossa in Sextum,' 2nd ed. Strasburg, 1742 ; a commentary on 
 the sixth book of the decretals. (2) ' Novella in Decretales,' a 
 commentary on the first five books of the decretals, folio, Rome, 
 1476 ; Venice, 1489 ; Pavia, 1504 and 1505 ; and Venice, 1581, &c. 
 (3) 'Novella in Sextum,' Venice, folio, 1499, 1581, &c. (4) 'Ques- 
 tiones Mercuriales,' Venice, folio, 1499, 1581, &c. (5) ' Additiones 
 ad Durantis Speculum,' a work valuable on account of the bio- 
 graphical notices of canonists and writers on forms of court, 
 contained in the Procemium. It was written about 1346. His 
 minor writings are verv numerous. 
 
 ANDREW, or ANDRESSON, GUDMUND, an Icelandic 
 pastor and w-riter, was born about 1630 in the district of Midliord. 
 After keeping a school at Holum, lie became deacon of Reines- 
 tad ; and it was while holding this post that he wrote a book 
 which greatly influenced his life. It was a defence of polygamy 
 and concubinage — censuring laws which had been passed against 
 those usages in 1564, called the ' Stora Dom' (Great Doom of 
 Judgment). MS. copies of the book were distributed, and it 
 became very popular. Expelled from his deaconship by the 
 Bishop of Holum, he returned home, and fell into great poverty. 
 Here he wrote a work w r ith the Greek title ' rv&dt aeavrov ' 
 (Know thyself). In 1649 Bielke, the newly-appointed governor, 
 arrived in Iceland from Denmark. At the instigation of the 
 bishop, the governor caused Andreae's case to be investigated 
 by the Althing, or General National Assembly. Puzzled how to 
 decide, the Althing remitted the matter to Copenhagen, whither 
 the accused was taken. While under imprisonment, Andrea;, 
 
 , who had been allowed a certain freedom of movement, acci- 
 dentally fell out of a window, and, being unable to find the 
 prison door, wandered into the royal nursery, which was close 
 at hand. Speaking no Danish, and the domestics no Icelandic, 
 he was unable to make himself understood, but was eventually 
 conveyed back to prison. The king, hearing of Andreao's case 
 through this singular adventure, appointed an ecclesiastical 
 commission to report on the offending book. For this purpose 
 it had to be translated from Icelandic into Latin ; and it has 
 been conjectured that the translation softened down some of the 
 
 I more offensive passages. At any rate, the report was so far 
 moderate that, on admission of his fault and pleading penitence, 
 he was pardoned on condition of never returning to Iceland. 
 
 , He accordingly remained in Copenhagen, was the next year 
 
 ' (1650) admitted into the University of Copenhagen as royal 
 
 i bursar, and rose into favour at court. He died at Copenhagen 
 of the plague in 1654. Andrea; wrote many works, of 
 which the chief is 'Philosophia Antiquissima Norvego-Danica 
 dicta Voluspa, alias Edda Scemundi,' a Latin translation of por- 
 tions of the Voluspa, or the Edda of Saemund, published under 
 the care of P. J. Resenius, 4to, 1673. Resenius also published 
 an Icelandic-Latin Dictionary, left in MS. by Andrea;, Copen- 
 hagen, 4to, 1683, a work never of much value, and long super- 
 
 i eeded by better dictionaries. 
 
 ANDRE/E, JAKOB, an eminent Protestant theologian, was 
 born at Waiblingen, Wiirtemberg, on the 25th of March, 1528. 
 He was apprenticed to a carpenter; but manifesting superior 
 iulcllectual qualities, he was sent to study theology at Tubingen 
 under Snepffius. In 1546 he was ordained deacon at Stuttgart. 
 Almost the whole remainder of his life was spent in theological 
 controversy, either going to various places to take part in elis- 
 ions between Catholics and Protestants, and Lutherans and 
 Qalvinists, or in writing on the points in dispute. Some of these 
 proceedings lost him his deaconship at Stuttgart. He died at 
 Tubingen on the 7th January, 1590. Andrea;'s chief work was 
 in aiding other theologians to write the ' Liber,' or ' Formula 
 ( ' o.icordia:,' a summary of articles of faith for the Lutheran 
 Church. He travelled thousands of miles to procure the assent 
 of influential persons— princes, prelates, clergy, nobles, and cor- 
 porate bodies — to this summary. This work effected a permanent 
 breach between the Lutherans and Calvinists. Andreaj's writings, 
 both in Latin and German, are now seldom consulted. The list 
 in Ileindreich ('Pandecta; Brandenburgicce,' pp. 172-176) fills 
 six folio columns. Jakob Andreaj's grandson, Johann Valentus 
 Andrea;, published a life of him, in Latin hexameters, Liine- 
 
 [ burg, 1649, 18mo. 
 
 ANDRE/E, LAURENTIUS, or Lars Anderson, a Swedish 
 theologian, who aided largely in the introduction of the Reforma- 
 
 tion into Sweden, was born in the latter part of the fifteenth 
 century, according to some authorities in 1480. He studied at 
 Rome, was ordained priest, and in 1522 was archdeacon of 
 Strengniis, when he was converted" from Catholicism to Protes- 
 tantism by Olof Petri and Laurentius Phase, two Swedes who 
 had visited Luther. His advocacy of the new doctrine attracting 
 general attention, he was in 1623 sent for by the king, Gustavus 
 Vasa, whose favour he secured, and who made him his chan- 
 cellor. From this time he became the king's chief adviser as to 
 the best mode of introducing the Reformation into Sweden. In 
 conjunction with Olof Petri, Andrea; published the first Swedish 
 translation of the New Testament in 1526; the Roman Catholics 
 also published a translation ; and each party inveighed bitterly 
 against the errors in the work of the other. Gustavus Vasa 
 having decided in favour of the Protestant version, a fierce 
 struggle ensued between the contending theologians ; but the 
 peasantry at length sided with the king and the Reformation. In 
 1529, Andrea; took the post of president of an assembly of 
 the clergy at Orebro, convened to settle a new code of doctrine 
 by compromise. In 1531 he was a candidate for the first Pro- 
 testant Archbishopric of Upsal; but Laurentius Petri was elected. 
 Some years after this, Andrea; fell into disgrace for concealing 
 his knowledge of a plot designed for assassinating the king : his 
 reticence being due to the sacrednessof the confessional. His life 
 was spared, but his property was confiscated, and he lived twelve 
 years in poverty and obscurity. He died at Strengniis in 1552. 
 Besides bis share in the translation of the New Testament, 
 Andrea; wrote ' En kort Underviisnig ora Troona och godha Ger. 
 ningar;' Stockholm, 8vo, 1528 (A Short Instruction respecting 
 Faith and Good "Works), chiefly a compilation from the writings 
 of Luther. 
 
 ANDREANI ANDREA, called Mantoano, a celebrated 
 Italian engraver, was born at Mantua about 1540. He engraved 
 on copper, but his celebrity depends on his wood engravings in 
 chiaroscuro in the manner of Ugo da Carpi. His finest work is 
 the series of nine prints after the cartoons of the Triumph of 
 Julius Coesar by Andrea Mantegna, now at Hampton Court, with 
 a tenth containing the portrait of Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of 
 Mantua. The drawings were made on the wood by Bernardo 
 Malpizzi ; and the work is a masterpiece in its kind, but a fine and 
 uniform set is very rare. Another great work is ' The Triumph 
 of Christianity,' in eight plates after Titian. His other more 
 important prints include ' The Pavement of the Cathedral of 
 Siena,' designed by Beccafumi, in eight plates (also extremely 
 rare in a perfect state and highly prized) ; ' The Deluge,' and 
 •' Pharaoh overthrown in the Red Sea,' both after Titi m, and 
 both large prints in four sheets each; 'Christ before Pilate,' 
 in two large plates, from a bas-relief by Giovanni de Bologna ; 
 and ' The Adoration of the Magi,' after Parmigiano, &c. Besides a 
 block for the outline and deep shadows* Andreani used two or 
 three for the middle tints and lights, and thus produced at times 
 a wonderfully rich as well as powerful and painter-like effect. 
 He has been charged by many writers with effacing the signa- 
 tures on blocks by other engravers and substituting his own ; 
 but though Bartsch and others have pointed out blocks which 
 have been so treated, no evidence has been adduced to prove 
 that Andreani was the culprit. As Mr. Wornum has observed, 
 "it is quite as possible that the imposition is the work of 
 some printseller, as of Andreani." Indeed the prints being in- 
 ferior, it is more likely that an unscrupulous dealer would seek 
 to profit by the popularity of Andreani's name, than that he 
 should imperil alike his fame as an artist and his credit as a man. 
 Andreani died at Rome in 1623. 
 
 ANDREOLI, GIORGIO, called Giorgio da Gubbio, or 
 Maestro Giorgio, was by profession a sculptor, but is now 
 chiefly famous as the maker of that variety of Majolica earthen- 
 ware known as Gubbio ware. Andreoli was a native of Pavia ; 
 attained a good position as a sculptor; executed several rotables, 
 or carved altar-pieces, for churches and chapels in Pavia and its 
 neighbourhood ; modelled some figures in the manner of Delia 
 Robbia ; and painted some earthenware of the then popular 
 kind now familiar as Majolica. In 1519 he settled in Gubbio, 
 and established there a manufactory for artistic earthenware, in 
 the preparation of which he was assisted by his brothers Salim- 
 bene and Giovanni. Andreoli's ware must have found appre- 
 ciative purchasers. Every public collection in Europe contains 
 examples, and the specimens in private hands appear to be inex- 
 haustible. Andreoli himself was a prosperous man. He was 
 placed in the first rank of citizens, and was made gonfalonier. 
 The date of his death is unknown : he was alive in 1552. Com- 
 monly the manufactory is stated to have been carried on by 
 
87 ANDRES, JUAN. 
 
 Maestro GioTgio, from 1519 to 1537 ; but specimens of Gubbio 
 ware are extant with his mark and the date 1541. If we may 
 judge by the dated specimens, there must have been great fluc- 
 tuations in the production, those of particular years being very 
 numerous, while for other years they are just as scarce, and for 
 some years not a specimen is known. Giorgio's pottery diUers 
 from the ordinary majolica in possessing a brilliant iridescent 
 lustre, produced by the use of a stanniferous glaze, which, if not 
 exclusively his, was of a better kind, and used with a happier effect 
 than by any other maker. The articles are similar to those of 
 the ordinary majolica, alike in shape and in the subjects painted 
 on them. Andreoli's ware is, however, as a rule, better in form 
 than the average, and the painting is generally good of its kind, 
 and characteristic. Some of the female heads, portraits executed 
 for admirers, as love gifts or bridal presents, arc executed with 
 rare spirit. Very fine specimens obtain extremely high prices, from 
 100 to 150 guineas having been given for a plate, and 20 to 25 
 guineas being an ordinary price. But the Gubbio ware has met 
 the fate of ordinary majolica. Ingenious Italian fabricators copy 
 the old ware with such accuracy, and imitate the marks of age 
 Mid accident, with so much skill, that even experienced dealers, 
 and experts have been frequently deceived by their productions, 
 and credulous collectors have been victimised wholesale. The 
 South Kensington Museum possesses a good many specimens 
 with Maestro Giorgio's mark. Andreoli had a son, Vincenzio, 
 who followed his lather's calling : he is sometimes referred to as 
 Maestro Cencio, but little is known respecting him. 
 
 ANDRES, JUAN, a learned Spanish Jesuit, was born at 
 Planes, in Valencia, February 15, 1740, the eldest of eleven 
 sons, of a noble family. After studying at the College of Valen- 
 cia, he entered the Society of Jesuits as a novitiate, at Tarragona, 
 in 1754 ; and prosecuted his further studies in philosophy under 
 the Jesuit Jose Bosch at Gerona ; and in theology, Greek, He- 
 brew, Italian, and French, at the Theological College of Valencia. 
 He became professor of rhetoric and poetry in the University of 
 Gandia, Valencia. Thus passed the first twenty-seven years of 
 his life. In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain ; they 
 took refuge in Corsica, where they underwent many privations. 
 Andres opened an academy at St. Bonifazio ; and in 1768 re- 
 moved to Ferrara, where for some years he taught philosophy in 
 an academy. In 1773 appeared his first treatise : 'Prospectus 
 Philosophise universal Disputationi propositae in Templo Ferrar- 
 iensi,' which was highly valued for its arrangement, perspicuity, 
 and variety of theses. After acting as tutor to the son of the 
 Marquis Bianchi, at Mantua, he learned English, German, and 
 Arabic, and visited the principal libraries of Italy and Germany 
 to collect materials for his great work, a history of science and 
 literature. In 1786 the first volume appeared, and brought him 
 not only fame, but four pensions from sovereigns and princes. 
 Being obliged to withdraw from Mantua during the siege, in 
 1796, he resided successively at Colorno, Pavia, Parma, and 
 Naples. Between that date and his death, at Naples, on 12th 
 January, 1817, he filled at different times the posts of director of 
 studies at the University of Pavia, superintendent of education 
 at Parma, preacher and teacher at the re-established College of 
 Jesuits at Naples, prefect of the Royal Neapolitan Library, head 
 of the educational establishments of that kingdom, and perpetual 
 secretary of the Academia Ercolanese de Archeologia. 
 
 Juan Andres published numerous works of more or less im- 
 portance ; chief among them was ' Dell' Origine, de' Progressi, e 
 dcllo Stato attuale d'ogni Letteratura,' 9 vols. 4to., Parma, 1782, 
 &c., an examination into the history of all branches of human 
 knowledge. Of this work, on which he bestowed a vast amount 
 of erudite labour, there have been seven Italian editions, one 
 Spanish, one German, and one (first volume only) French. Sis- 
 mondi gives it credit rather for a vast amount of accumulated 
 knowledge than for critical acumen ; and it involved the author 
 in a controversy with Tiraboschi. Among other works by 
 Andres were : — 'An Essay on Galileo's Philosophy' ; 'A Defence 
 of Galileo's demonstration of the descent of falling bodies'; and 
 oilier essays on the causes of the slow progress of science at the 
 time in which he wrote ; on the Music of the Arabs ; on the 
 origin and changes in the Art of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb to 
 Speak ; and on the state of Spanish Literature. Nearly twenty 
 other works by Andres are known to exist, though unpublished : 
 many of them pointing out the value of ancient MSS. with 
 which he was acquainted. 
 
 ANDRES DE UZTARROZ, JUAN FRANCISCO, a 
 voluminous Spanish writer of the 17th century, was born at 
 Saragossa about 1606. Very little is known of the personal 
 sventB of his life. After studying in the university of his native 
 
 ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, JACQUES. 
 
 city, he in 1638 took the degree of doctor of laws, and in 1647 
 was appointed chronicler of the kingdom of Aragon. He was 
 employed until his death at Madrid, 18th August, 1653, in ar- 
 ranging, classifying, and indexing the national archives. This 
 official duty, however, left him sufficient time to write nearly a 
 hundred works, mostly relating to historical and antiquarian 
 subjects. Only a minority of these were published. The most 
 important were : — -'Annales de la Corona y Reyno de Aragon,' 
 and ' Progresos de la Historia en el Reyno de Aragon.' At his 
 suggestion, a collection was formed of writers in Aragone.se his- 
 tory ; to aid which he visited all the libraries and collections in 
 the kingdom, adding books to the royal collection, and obtaining 
 extracts from others. Andres was distinguished as an historian, 
 antiquary, philosopher, jurist, and poet, but chiefly in the first 
 two capacities. 
 
 ANDROS, SIR EDMUND, governor of New England, was j 
 born in London, 6th December, 1637 ; his father being marshal 
 of the ceremonies to Charles I. Young Andros shared the exile 
 of the royal family; fought under Prince Henry of Nassau in 
 Holland, and held many courtly and military appointments be- 
 tween 1(560 ami 1674. In this last named year he was appointed 
 governor of New York, recently acquired from the Dutch. His 
 administration was active and vigorous. He got into disputes 
 with the leading merchants, and was summoned to England ; 
 but his policy was approved, and he received the honour of 
 knighthood. He was successful in defending the colony from 
 the attacks of Indians. In 1686 he was appointed by James 1 1. 
 governor of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, New Ply- , 
 mouth, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, under the collective 
 name of New England. He gradually became unpopular by his i 
 haughty and arbitrary manner ; by levying taxes in the king's 
 name alone ; enforcing church of England ceremonies and ser- || 
 vices ; and discountenancing charters previously given to the i 
 colonies. On the reception of the news of the abdication of [ I 
 James II., and the landing of William of Orange, Andros was 
 seized and imprisoned by the Boston men. After being kept 
 for some time under arrest, he was sent to England in February, 
 1690 ; but the charges made against him were allowed to drop. 
 In 1691 he published a vindication of his conduct. Between 
 1692 and 1698 he was governor of Virginia, where he effected 
 much benefit by encouraging the cultivation of cotton, and pro- 
 moting manufactures. In 1704 he was made lieutenant-governoti I 
 and bailiff of Guernsey. He died at Westminster, 24th February, 
 1713. 
 
 (W. H. Whitmore, Memoir of Sir Edmund Andros, Knt, Go- 
 vernor of Nciv England, New York, and Virginia. Prefixed to 
 the Andros Tracts of the Prince Society of Boston, N.E., 4to, 
 1868. Allen ; Beverley ; Bancroft, &c.) 
 
 ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, JACQUES, an eminent' 
 French architect, and the author of several important works on I 
 architecture, flourished during the second half of the 16th cen-' 
 tury ; but the year of his birth, and that of his death, are alike 
 unknown. A recent biographical dictionary that boasts much 
 and blunders often in its dates, gives 1592 as the year of An- 
 drouet's death, but he was alive in 1596. He is believed to have 
 been born at Orleans, though La Croix du Maine says he was a 
 Parisian. D'Argenville says he was one of those French archi- 
 tects who by the favour of Cardinal D'Armagnac were enabled to 
 visit Italy in order to complete their education by the study of 
 the beautiful remains of antiquity ; that he was most impressed 
 by the vestiges of the triumphal arch at Pola, in Istria, and that 
 the coupled columns on each side of the arch served him as mo- 
 dels alike in his designs, his writings, and his buildings. Coupled 
 Corinthian columns on each side of a large arched opening recur 
 frequently in Androuet's designs, as they do in those of many 
 other architects of that and later periods, but it is too fanciful to 
 speak of this as his fundamental principle of design, or to sup- 
 pose that of all the works of antiquity which he saw and studied 
 in Italy, this alone produced any fruitful impression. 
 
 We can find few dates to assist us in following Androuet du 
 Cerceau's career as an architect : as an author, the materials are 
 somewhat fuller. He appears to have found many excellent 
 patrons, his books pnobably contributing to extend his credit as 
 a learned architect, as well as an accomplished designer, at a time 
 when a thorough acquaintance with the works of ancient Rome 
 was regarded as the first essential in an architect. For private 
 patrons Androuet erected the Hotel des Fermes; the Hotel de 
 Sully; the Hotel deBretonvilliers; the Hotel de Mayenne; and a 
 part of that of Carnavalet. Appointed architect to the king, he 
 commenced in May, 1578, by order of Henry III., the Pont Neuf, 
 a work of great richness and importance ; but the civil wap 
 
ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, JACQUES. 
 
 ANGELIS, PIERRE. 
 
 90 
 
 lined its discontinuance, and it was not finished till 1604, under 
 the direction of Guillaume Marcliand. By Henry IV. he was 
 
 harmed with the enlargement of the Louvre ; and he designed 
 iiul commenced, if he did not complete, the two grand pavilions 
 of a single order. In 1596 he made the designs for the gallery 
 of the Louvre, and its erection was confided to him. But reli- 
 gious troubles now intervened, as civil troubles had when he was 
 at w ork on the Pont Neuf. Androuet was a Protestant : he would 
 not abandon his creed ; and he was obliged to quit France. He 
 died in a foreign country ; but where, and when, are now un- 
 known. 
 
 Androuet du Cerceau was one of the leaders in that style of 
 classic renaissance which has become so thoroughly the dominant 
 style in Paris as to be generally considered the representative 
 style of French architecture. Many of his buildings have been 
 destroyed ; others altered ; but enough by his hand remains to 
 show that — without commanding genius — he was an excellent 
 architect, and that he knew how to impart to a palace a grandiose 
 and palatial aspect. 
 
 The first of his numerous publications appears to have been 
 that entered in the catalogue of Callet as ' Premieres Etudes de 
 Temples/ 8vo, with 50 plates, and without date, but published 
 at Orleans before 1549. This was followed by ' Exemplaria 
 Templorum Antique- more constructorum,' folio, 40 plates, Or- 
 leans, 1549. ' Quinque et Viginti exempla arcuum partim ab 
 Androvet du Cerceau inventa, partim ex veterum sumpta monu- 
 weiitis,' small folio, Orleans, 1549. ' Duodecim fragmenta struc- 
 turx veteris,' 4to, 13 plates, Orleans, 1550. ' Liber de eo pictiuxe 
 genere quod Grottesche vocant Itali,' sin. folio, Orleans, 1550 ; 
 tlii- work met with great success ; an augmented edition was 
 published in two series, the first of 60 plates, in 1562, the other 
 of 36 large plates, at Paris, in 1566, under the title ' Livre de 
 (ir. tcsques.' Yivenel says that at least five series are known of 
 the small grotesques designed by Androuet ; one series of 30 
 plates was engraved by Hans Sielunacher of Niirnberg, possibly 
 after Androuet quitted France. ' Vetttstissima? Optices quam per- 
 tivant nominant, xx. figurae,' &c, sm. folio, Orleans, 1551. 
 ' Livre d' Architecture contenant les Plans et Dessaings de 
 cinquante Bastiments tons differens : pour instruire ceux qui de- 
 sirL-nt bastir, soient de petit, moyen, ou grand estat,' folio, 50 
 riates, Paris, 1559 : another issue appeared the same year, with 
 the title, &c. in Latin ; and, in 1611, an augmented edition, with 
 69 plates. 'Second Livre d' Architecture, contenant plusieurs et 
 diverses ordonnances de cheminees, lucarnes, portes, fontaines, 
 puis, et pavilions, pour enricher taut le dedans que lc dehors de 
 tous edifices,' folio, 68 plates, Paris, 15G1 : a Latin issue being 
 published the same year. These volumes, of considerable value 
 when they appeared, and now of interest in connection with the 
 history of French renaissance architecture, were followed several 
 years later by a third ' Livre d'Architecture, auquel sont con- 
 tinues diverses ordonnances de plans et elevations de Bastiments 
 pour seigneurs, gentilshommes et austres qui voudront bastir aux 
 champs ; mesme en aucuns d'iceux sont desseigncz les basse- 
 courts, avec leurs commoditcz particulieres, aussi les jardinages et 
 vergiers,' folio, 68 plates, (many copies, however, contain only 
 88 plates), Paris, 1582. In 1576 appeared the most important 
 of all Androuet's publications, ' Des Plus Excellens Bastiments 
 de France, auquel sont designez les plans de quinze [this in the 
 first volume, as many more in the second] Bastiments et de leur 
 contenu, ensemble les elevations et singularitez d'un chascun,' 2 
 vols, folio, with 130 plates, Paris, 1576—79. This work is now 
 very rarely met with in good condition, with the plates perfect ; 
 and when so found commands a high price, as much as 650 francs 
 having been paid for it at a sale. A second edition was published 
 at Paris in 1607, but in this the plates are greatly worn, and some 
 are mutilated ; a third edition, dated Paris, 1648, is in all respects 
 worse. The work is one that cannot be overlooked in an his- 
 torical examination of French architecture, but the plates are 
 poor in drawing, and the information sadly meagre and un satis- 
 factory. ' Lemons de Perspective positive,' folio, Paris, 1576 : like 
 the greater work just described, dedicated to " La tres vertuettse 
 Princesse," Catherine de Medicis. ' Petit Traite des Cinq Ordrcs 
 de Colonnes,' sm. folio, 12 plates, Paris, 1583. 
 
 The plates in Androuet du Cerceau's various architectural 
 publications were usually engraved as well as drawn by himself. 
 But it has not until lately been noticed that he designed and 
 engraved many other pririt.s which were published by him, cither 
 separately or in series, and also engraved many from the designs 
 of other urtist3. Of those drawn by himself, the first place may 
 be assigned to a collection of ' Vases,' wliich appeared at Turin 
 in 1587, and of which Vivenel enumerates 68 plates. About the 
 
 same time also appeared at Turin a series of ' Mettljles' (buffets, 
 tables, bedsteads, &c), in 43 undated prints. From other de- 
 signers, he engraved ' Les Divinitcs,' after Oaraglio, in 20 plates, 
 and the 1 Histoire de Psyche,' after RaiTaelle, in 32 plates, &c. 
 In all, M. Le Blanc attributes 485 plates to him. M. Callet 
 made a collection of prints by him in 16 vols, folio, which at his 
 sale was secured for the Bibliotheque Imperiale at the price of 
 3700 francs (148Z.). 
 
 (D'Argenville, Vies da Fameux Archilectes ; Callet, Notice 
 Historique sur la Via Artistique et ouvrages de quelques Architectes 
 Frungais du XVI. siede ; Vivenel, Catalogues des Livres, &c. ; 
 Brunet, Manuel du Libraire.) 
 
 ANEURIN, a Welsh poet of the sixth century, sometimes 
 termed " the Monarch of the Bards," is believed to have been 
 born about 510, and to have been a son of Caw ab Geraint, a 
 chieftain of the northern Britons of that part of Strath Clyde now 
 called Cumberland. It has been suggested that Aneurin and 
 Gildas the historian were the same person ; but the opinion has 
 now no adherent. Who Aneurin was is, however, very dilficult 
 to determine. According to the semi-mythological narrative, he 
 was one of four Gododin chieftains who, at the defeat of the 
 Britons by the Saxons at Cattraeth, escaped with life, all the other 
 chiefs, 360 in number, being slain, with their leader and the 
 bulk of the army. Aneurin was made prisoner, but released after 
 a time by the son of a brother bard, Llywarch Hen, and took 
 refuge at the court of King Arthur, in South Wales. Afterwards 
 he joined the college of Cadog, formed a friendship with Taliesin 
 the Bard, wrote his poems, and died about 560 or 570, as would 
 seem, from a blow on the head by Eidyn. The poems ascribed to 
 Aneurin were first printed in the ' Myvyrian Archaiology.' 
 Their authenticity was impugned by Pinkerton, and defended 
 by Sharon Turner. Later authors have written on each side, 
 without having settled the question. Many, perhaps most, of 
 the poems attributed to Aneurin are now admitted to be spurious ; 
 but that entitled ' Gododin ' appears to be authentic. (Seethe 
 article Welsh Language and Literature, E. C, Akts and 
 Sci. Div.j vol. viii., col. 855, &c, where the question is treated at 
 length.) The earliest copy of Aneurin's poems occurs in the 
 MS. called the ' Black Book of Carmarthen,' which is considered 
 to have been written in the 12th century, whilst the diction is 
 certainly of an earlier period. ' Gododin ' is generally underst ood 
 to be a lament over the defeat of the Britons at Cattraeth, and 
 the chieftains slain there, but some Welsh writers conceive it to 
 refer to an altogether different affair, one well-known author, the 
 Rev. Edward Davies, even insisting that it relates to the 
 massacre of the Welsh chieftains by Hengist at Stonehenge. 
 Gray's translation of a portion of ' Gododin,' ' The Death of 
 Hotd,' is well known. A translation of the whole was published 
 by the Rev. E. Davies in his 'Mythology and Rites of the British 
 Druids ; ' another version was published in 1820 by Mr. Probert ; 
 and neither of these being satisfactory, a third was issued in 
 1858 by the Rev. John Williams ap Ithel. 
 
 ANFOSSI, PASQUALE, an Italian dramatic composer, was 
 born at Naples in 1729 ; but Fetis gives the date 1736. Having 
 entered the Conservatorio at Naples, he first studied the violin, 
 and then composition, under Sacchini and Piccini. His first 
 opera, ' Cajo Mario,' was produced at Venice in 1769 ; his 
 second, 'I Visionari,' at Rome in 1771 ; but he had no success 
 until his opera, ' L'lncognita Perseguitata,' was produced in 1773. 
 This work, besides possessing a certain degree of merit, was 
 benefited in its succe s by the musical war then raging between 
 the Gluckists and the Piccinists. The Gluckists hailed Anfossi 
 as a rival to Piccini, and Anfossi himself appears to have behaved 
 somewhat ungenerously to his old master. From this time he pro- 
 duced in rapid succession, at various Italian theatres, 'Olimpiade,' 
 ' La Finta Giardiniera,' ' II Geloso in Cimento,' and other operas. 
 He conducted operas in Paris in 1781, and in London in 17S2, 
 but unsuccessfully. He produced his ' II Trionfo d'Ariauna ' and 
 ' II Cavaliere per Amore"in Germany in 1783. Operas con- 
 tinued to pour from his pen, until the number reached nearly 
 50, all now forgotten. Being appointed Maestro di Capella at 
 St. John Lateran, he composed many masses and motetts, of 
 which the best known are ' Laudato Pueri ' and ' Laudate 
 Jerusalem,' for a full orchestra. He also composed an oratorio, 
 ' L'Assalone.' Anfossi died in 1797. 
 
 ANGELIS, PIERRE, French landscape painter, was born at 
 Dunkerque in 1685 ; studied in Flanders, and afterwards at 
 Dtisseldorf, where was then the famous gallery of pictures, since 
 removed to Munich. He came to England in 1712, and soon 
 became a favourite. In 1728 he went to Rome, where he re- 
 mained three years. He then left for England, but taking Renneg 
 
91 ANGHIERA, PIETJIO MARTI RE DE. 
 
 in his way, was so well received that he decided to stay there ; 
 and there he died, in 1734. Angelas painted conversation pic- 
 tures and landscapes with small figures. Walpole describes his 
 manner as "a mixture of Teniers and Watteau, with more grace 
 than the former, more nature than the latter ; " and the descrip- 
 tion is true of his earlier works ; his later productions were more 
 ambitious and less pleasing. He copied many of Rubens' 
 paintings, and aimed at reproducing his colour. He is now 
 chiefly interesting from his residence in this country at a time 
 when almost the only painters were foreigners, who were, how- 
 ever, preparing the way for a native school, and doubtless to a 
 certain extent influenced its early character. 
 
 ANGHIERA, PIETRO MARTIRE DE, Italian writer, was 
 born in 1455, at Arona, on Lago Maggiore. He went to Rome 
 in 1477, where he lived ten years, under some sort of patronage 
 from Cardinal Antonio Sforza and the Archbishop of Milan, but 
 without tilling any definite post. Removing to Spain in 1488, 
 he lectured at Salamanca on Juvenal. Having gained favour at 
 court, he in 1492 took orders, and was appointed instructor to 
 the royal pages, and so continued for nine years. In 1501 he 
 was sent on missions to Venice and to Cairo, on the return from 
 which he wrote an account of Lower Egypt, ' Legationis 
 Babylonicsc, libri tres,' printed with the Decade noticed below. 
 Between 1502 and 1505 he was appointed member of the 
 Council of India, apostolic protonotary for the pope, and prior 
 of the cathedral church at Granada. He died at Granada in 
 1526. Anghiera is chiefly known for two works — (1) a collec- 
 tion of letters, extending from 1488 to 1525, published four 
 years after his death ; the letters are valuable for their personal 
 details concerning eminent men of the period. (2) ' De Rebus 
 Oceanicis et Orbe novo Decades' (folio, Alcala, 1530) — Decades 
 of the Ocean, a history of the progress of American discovery 
 from the first voyage of Columbus to 1525, a work that has been 
 translated into French, German, and English. Anghiera's con- 
 ned inn with the Spanish Court enabled him to treat this subject 
 with effect and value. 
 
 ANGUIER, FRANCOIS, a distinguished French sculptor, 
 was born in 1C04, at Eu, in Normandy. The son of a joiner, he 
 early showed so much skill in carving in wood, that he was sent 
 to Paris, and received into the atelier of the sculptor, Simon 
 Guillain. He afterwards came to England, where he earned 
 sufficient to enable him to proceed to Rome. There he studied 
 a couple of years, and formed a close friendship with Du Frcsnoy, 
 Poussin, and Mignard. On his return to France he acquired the 
 favour of the King, Louis XIII., who gave him apartments in 
 the Louvre, and made him keeper of his cabinet of antiquities. 
 He found ample employment, being regarded as one of the first 
 sculptors of the day. Many of his works have been destroyed, 
 but those which remain, though marked by the conceits of the 
 time, justify the opinion of his contemporaries. His most cele- 
 brated work was the costly monument of Henri, last Due de 
 Montmorency, beheaded at Toulouse in 1632. It was erected in 
 1658, at the cost of the widow of Montmorency, in the Church 
 of the Religieuses de Ste. Marie, at Moulin?, of which it is still 
 the most cherished ornament. It comprises a recumbent statue 
 of the duke, armed ; the duchess in mourning habiliments at his 
 feet, seated statues of Valour and Liberality, while four columns 
 support a semi-classical shrine, on which are a central cinerary urn, 
 statues of Nobility and Piety, angels, &c. Other important works 
 were the marble monument of the Cardinal de Berule, in the 
 Oratoire, Rue St. Honore ; those of Henry Chabot, Due de 
 Rohan, and of the Due de Longueville, in the Church of the 
 Celestines, at Paris ; the statues of J. A. de Thou and his wife, 
 at St. Anclre-des-Arcs ; and the tomb of Jacques Souvrd, Grand 
 Prieur de France, at St. Jean-de-Latran. A marble statue of the 
 Virgin, executed for the high-altar of the last-named church, was 
 also greatly admired. Francois Anguier died at Paris, August 
 the 8th, 1669. 
 
 ANGUIER, MICHEL, younger brother of the preceding, 
 born at Eu in 1012, like him learnt to carve in wood at home, 
 and studied sculpture under Guillain at Paris. He followed his 
 brother to Rome in 1641, trusting to his industry for a main- 
 tenance. He found employment under Algardi, then in the 
 height of his renown, and filled all his spare time in the study 
 of the masterpieces of ancient art. In 1651 he returned to Paris, 
 to assist his brother in the execution of the Montmorency 
 monument and other works. The first independent production 
 of Michel Anguier which secured attention was the model for a 
 statue of Louis XIII., heroic size, winch he was commissioned 
 to e i t in bronze for the city i f Narbonne. Somewhat later he 
 hud the gdocl fortune to be patronised by the Queen, Anne of 
 
 ANSELME, OF LAON. 92 
 
 Austria, whose apartments in the Louvre were superbly decorated 
 by him with statues, rilievi, garlands, carved framing for 
 paintings, &c. He also executed for her, among other things, a 
 Nativity, for the altar of the Church of Val-de-Grace, one of his 
 finest works ; a Pieta ; the Attributes of the Virgin, &c. A. 
 marble crucifix for the Church of the Sorbonne, and ' Our Lord 
 appearing to St. Denis and his companions,' the altar-piece for 
 St. Denis-de-la-Chatrc, are by some regarded as the best of his 
 religious, and the sculptures on the Porte St. Denis (commenced 
 in 1674) the most successful of his secular, designs. 
 
 Michel Anguier was elected member of the Academy in 1668, 
 and at the same time appointed assistant professor ; somewhat 
 later professor, and in 1671 rector of the Academy. He died on 
 the 11th of July, 1686, and was interred by his brother in the 
 ( hurch of St. Roch. 
 
 ANSALDI, INNOCENZIO, Italian painter and writer on | 
 art, was born in 1734, at Pescia, in Tuscany, and received an 
 excellent education at the College of Florence. He had been 
 intended for a learned profession, but his inclination for painting 
 was so decided, that his parents yielded, and sent him to Rome, > 
 w here he studied for some years. Returning to Florence, he 
 executed many pictures for the churches of that city and else- 1 
 where, and numerous easel pictures, some of which have found a 
 place in the public collections. But though a graceful and 
 accomplished artist, his works display little original power, and 
 are now not much valued. His principal literary productions 
 are — ! Descrizione dellc Pitture, Sculture, ed Architetture delle 
 Citta e Snbborghidi Pescia nella Toscano,' 8vo, Bologna, 1772 ; 
 ' Cataloga delle migliori Pitture, &c, della Valdinicvole,' printed 
 in the, ' Istoria di Pescia ;' a translation inverse of Du Fresnoy's 
 Art of Painting, ' II Pittore Instruito,' published, with a memoir 
 of Ansaldi by Canon Moreri, Bologna, 1820. He died in 1816, i 
 
 ANSALDO, ANDREA, an eminent Italian painter, was bora 
 in 1584, at Voltri, in the Genoese territory. He was a scholar 
 of Orazio Cambiaso, of Genoa, but by frequent copying of the 
 works of Paolo Veronese, of whom he was a devoteci admirer, lie 
 soon surpassed not only his master, but most of the other painters 
 in Genoa. On leaving Cambiaso he returned to Voltri, and 
 painted the Decollation of St. John the Baptist for the church of 
 San Rocco, and two others for the Church of SS. Niccolu ed 
 Erasmo, which were greatly admired, and produced numerous 
 commissions. He painted both in fresco and oil, and is especially 
 commended by Lanzi for " his great talent in the decoration of 
 the vaultings of churches, which may be regarded as the highest 
 grade of the art of painting :" Ansaldo, he adds, "is one of the 
 few masters who have painted both much and well." His most 
 celebrated works in this class are — ' San Carlo Boromeo Staying 
 the Plague at Milan,' in the church of SS. Niccolo ed Erasmo ; 
 ' St. Ambrose Absolving the Emperor Theodosius,' for the oratory 
 of S. Ambrogio ; ' The Martyrdom of S. Sebastian,' an altar- 
 piece for the cathedral of Cadiz ; ' The Last Supper,' for the 
 oratory of S. Antonio Abate, at Genoa, which was regarded as 
 uniting the splendour of Venetian colour with the detail and 
 finish of the Dutch masters. His frescoes of ' The Assumption of 
 the Virgin,' in the cupola of the Nunziata, were also greatly 
 esteemed, but having become injured by damp, they were 
 repainted in 1700 by Gregorio de' Ferrari. His best works in a 
 different class are some frescoes in the Spinola Palace, represent- 
 ing the exploits of the Marquis Federigo Spinola in Flanders. 
 Ansaldo's success excited the jealousy of rival artists. He was 
 wounded by Giulio Benso, previously the leading artist of the 
 school, who had painted some frescoes in the choir of the Nun/.i- 
 ata, which those painted by Ansaldo in the adjoining cupola were 
 supposed to have eclipsed ; but the rivals became afterwards fast 
 friends. Some time later Ansaldo received a more serious wound, 
 from an unknowli hand. During his confinement from tlu\ 
 wound he wrote a comedy. He died at Genoa in 1638. 
 
 ANSELME, or ANSEL, of LAON (Latinized, Anselmus Lau- 
 dunensis), and generally known as Scholasticus, was born before 
 the middle of the 11th century, at Laon, a town of France, 
 which was then the capital of the Pays Laonnais. His parents 
 were agricultural labourers. He is supposed to have been sent 
 to the abbey of Bee to studj r under St. Anselm, who was then 
 prior of that abbey. About the year 1076 Anselme began to teach 
 publicly in Paris; and to him has been attributed the revival of 
 literature and of the study of theology which now began to dis- 
 tinguish that capital. He may therefore be considered one of 
 the founders of the University of Paris, for he was the earliest 
 teacher of the "school of Paris," from which sprang the univer- 
 sity. Before the commencement of the 12th century, Anselme 
 returned to his native town of Laon, to superintend the schools 
 
ANSELME DE SAINTE-MARIE. 
 
 91 
 
 connected with the cathedral church there, of which he had 
 been elected chancellor, or scholasticus, and which, under his 
 'direction, presently became the most celebrated in Europe.. The 
 teaching of Anselme was aimed first and especially at the heart ; 
 and his theology consisted of a simple exposition of the Holy 
 Scriptures, supported by the authority of the Fathers, whom he 
 stalled all his life. His brothel Raoul, or Radulphe, who taught 
 the Litene Humaniores and Dialectic, seconded him in his 
 ■m of teaching. Students thronged to Laon from Italy, 
 Spain, Germany, England, and the extremities of the north. 
 Mm already advanced in years, and who had long been teachers, 
 — as professors or bishops — were fain to repair to Laon and 
 ' i re to become pupils of the illustrious brothers. " The school 
 of Laon was almost as celebrated in its age under Anselme, as the 
 school of Alexandria, under Origen." 
 
 Anselme died on the 15th of July, 1117, and was buried in 
 the abbey of St. Vincent ; and an epitaph was placed on his 
 tomb, which lias been erroneously supposed by some to be an 
 epitaph upon Anselm of Canterbury. The works of Anselme 
 have all been attributed to various authors, particularly to 
 Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury ; but the authority of 
 manuscripts, which date up to the time of Anselme of Laon, 
 proves that he was the author of the following works : — An 
 interlinear gloss upon all the Old and New Testament, in which 
 the text of Scripture is explained by short notes, drawn chiefly 
 from the Fathers, a work which furnished abundant material to 
 subsequent expositors of scripture ; A Commentary on the Song 
 of Songs, and on the Apocalypse ; Commentaries on St. Mat- 
 thew ; on the Psalms ; and on St. John. 
 
 ANSELME DE SAINTE-MARIE, commonly called Le 
 PijRE Anselme, a learned writer on geneaology, was bom at 
 Paris in 1625. His original name was Pierre de Guibours, but 
 he adopted the name by which he is known on entering the 
 arder of Barefooted Augustines, in 1644. His life was the most 
 uneventful possible. It was spent in his convent, and he con- 
 formed to all the observances and austerities of his order, but he 
 was relieved from monastic duties in order that he might pass 
 lis days in the undisturbed pursuit of his researches. He died 
 it Paris, January 17, 1694. His great work is the 'Histoire 
 jfaealogique et chronologique de la Maison royale de France, 
 :t des grand officiers de la couronne,' Paris, 2 vols. 4to, 1674. 
 Father Anselme for the remainder of his life laboured at the 
 .■vision of the history, and after his death his friend Du Fourny, 
 ind later the Augustine Fathers, Ange de Ste. Rosalie and Sim- 
 ilicien (Raffard and P. Lucas), and after the death of Simplicien, 
 he Father Alexis (Pierre Caquet) continued the task. The re- 
 : ult of their labours was the publication of a greatly enlarged 
 ind improved edition, in 9 vols, folio, Paris, 1726-33. This is 
 he best edition ; other editions appeared in Paris (2 vols, folio, 
 712) and at Amsterdam (folio, 1713), but they are very inf- 
 erior. The value of the work was shown by the great use made 
 )f it by Moreri and Bayle. It is in truth difficult, as the last 
 ditor observes, to estimate the toil and drudgery this good 
 ather must have voluntarily undergone in collecting and veri- 
 ying so many names, marriages, births, and dates of all kinds as 
 le has here brought together. It is not exempt from faults, but 
 hen, as that capital compiler Dom Chaudon naively asks, what 
 :ompilation is ? Every student of French history has need to 
 ie grateful to the humble Augustine. The purpose of Pere 
 \.nselme's other works is sufficiently explained by their titles — 
 Le Palais d'Honneur, contenant le3 genealogies historiques des 
 llustres Maisons de Lorraine et de Savoye, et de plusieurs nobles 
 amides de France, ensemble l'origine et l'explication des armes, 
 levise3 et tournois, l'institutions des ordres militaires, les cere- 
 nonies des sacres des Roys et Reynes de France, leurs entr6es 
 olennelles, baptemes,' Paris, 2 vols. 4to, 1663-64. The second 
 'olume, which forms in effect a distinct work, has for its title — 
 Le Palais de la Gloire, contenant les genealogies historiques 
 les illustres Maisons de France, et de plusieurs nobles families 
 le l'Europe.' Like the preceding, this is a work of immense 
 •esearch ; but, unlike it, has not been benefited by revision and 
 rtensrion after the first publication. ' Le Science Heraldique,' 
 <l<>, 1675, is but little esteemed. 
 
 ANSLAY, or ANNESLEY, BRIAN, of whom all that is 
 :riown is that he is the author of a curious volume called ' The 
 Stie of Dames,' printed, in 1521, by Henry Pepwell, who in 
 ome rhymes prefixed states that— 
 
 " Of late came into my custody 
 This forscydc book, by Brian Anslay, 
 Yeoman of the seller with the eight King Henry." 
 
 The book appears to be a translation of the 'Tresor de la Cite" 
 des Dames,' of Christine de Pisatt. "Warton, 'Hist, of Eng. 
 Poetry,' vol. iii. p. 79 (Park's ed.), says that Anslay "translated 
 a popular French poem into English rhymes, at the exhortation 
 of the gentle earl of Kent." But the book is in prose, not rhyme. 
 It is printed throughout in black letter, and ornamented with 
 curious woodcuts. Its value is mainly bibliographical. 
 
 ANSTER, PROF. JOHN, LL.D., was born in 1793 at Charle- 
 ville, co. Cork, Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin, where lie obtained a scholarship in 1814, and in 1825 
 took the degree of LL.D. In 1825 he was called to the Irish 
 bar; for several years went the Munster circuit; in 1837 was 
 appointed registrar of the Admiralty Court, Ireland, and in 1849 
 was nominated Regius Professor of Civil Law in Dublin Uni- 
 versity. He died June 9, 1867. Without attaining high rank, 
 Dr. Anster was favourably known as a writer. In 1819 he 
 obtained the prize offered by Trinity College for a poem on 
 the deatli of the Princess Charlotte, and he published it with 
 other poems in the same year. In 1820 he published trans- 
 lations of portions of Gothe's ' Faust,' and fifteen years later a 
 complete translation of the First Part, to which in 1864 he 
 added a version of the Second Part. Though never popular 
 here, it has been much admired and lias been two or three times 
 reprinted in Germany. ' Xeniola,' published in 1837, comprises 
 translations from Schiller and others. Dr. Anster was a frequent 
 contributor to ' Blackwood's Magazine,' the ' Dublin University 
 Magazine,' the ' North British Review,' and other periodicals"; 
 and in 1849 published his ' Introductory Lecture on the Study 
 of Civil Law.' 
 
 ANSTIS, JOHN, a learned herald and antiquary, was bora 
 at St. Neot's, Cornwall, September 28, 1669 ; was educated 
 at Exeter College, Oxford ; entered of the Middle Temple in 
 1688 ; and elected member of parliament for St. Germain's in 
 1702. In 1703 he was appointed deputy-general to the auditors 
 of the imprest, and the following year one of the chief commis- 
 sioners of prizes. In 1711 he was elected M.P. for St. Maw's, and 
 in 1714 for Launceston. But while thus seemingly fully occu- 
 pied with departmental and parliamentary life, his real devotion 
 was for heraldry and genealogy, and his acquirements in that 
 line having been brought under the notice of Queen Anne (and 
 along with them no doubt his constant support of the govern- 
 ment), she, in April, 1714, granted him a reversionary patent 
 for the office of garter-king-at-arms. But Anne died, and Anstis, 
 who was a thorough-going Tory, fell under suspicion of being a 
 partizan of the Pretender, and, on the death in 1715 of Sir 
 Henry St. George, garter-king-at-arms, though Anstis claimed his 
 office in virtue of his patent, the appointment was given to 
 Vanbrugh, the dramatist-architect, who had for some time served 
 as clarencieux. Anstis prosecuted his claim in the law-courts, 
 where ultimately judgment was given in his favour, and he was 
 instituted garter-king-at-arms in April, 1718. From the first he 
 applied himself with the greatest zeal to the duties of the office, 
 and, as he had the good fortune to wear down the prejudice of 
 the court, he, June 8, 1727, obtained a fresh patent, not merely 
 securing to him the post of garter-king for life, but the reversion 
 to his eldest son. Anstis died at his residence, Mortlake, on the 
 4th of March, 1744. An enthusiast in his special departments, 
 and a good general antiquary, having access to a great body of 
 inedited archives, and of unwearying industry, Anstis was able 
 to prepare several works, which, from their learning and accuracy, 
 are of great value to the historical student. His chief work is 
 ' The Register of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, from its 
 Cover in Black Velvet usually called the Black Book ; with 
 Notes placed at the Bottom of the Pages, and an Introduction 
 prefixed by the Editor,' London, 2 vols. fol. 1724. ' The Form 
 of the Installation of the Garter' appeared in 4to in 1720. 
 'Observations Introductory to an Historical Essay on the Knight- 
 hood of the Bath,' London, 4to, 1725 : in itself little more than 
 a compilation of authorities, by bringing together in conjunction 
 and methodical order all that could be collected on the subject, 
 it supplies the materials for a complete history of the order. 
 ' Letters to a Peer concerning the Honour of Earl Marshal,' 8vo, 
 1706, contains only the first letter of the intended series. 'Curia 
 Militaris ; or, a Treatise of the Court of Chivalry ; in three 
 books,' is said to have been printed, but it was never published, 
 and only a few sheets are now known to exist. He also wrote a 
 great many treatises on detached subjects, which were printed 
 in various publications of the time, and left several MSS. either 
 complete or nearly so, on heraldic and genealogical matters, and 
 one or two on Cornish parochial antiquities. Among his collec- 
 tions were several folio volumes on the history of heralds, which 
 
05 
 
 ANTHON, CHARLES, LL.D. 
 
 ANTONELLI, GIAOOMO. 
 
 M 
 
 passed into Uie possession of Sir George Nayler, garter-king-at- 
 arins, and were made use of by Noble in preparing his ' History 
 of the College of Arms.' A pretty full account of his unpub- 
 lished MSS., as well as of his printed works, is given in the 
 Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge, article, Anstis. 
 
 * ANTHON, CHARLES, LL.D., was horn in the city of 
 New York, in the year 1797. He was the fourth of six sons ; 
 and after receiving a good preparatory education, entered in 
 1811 as a student of Columbia College, New York, where he 
 graduated in 1815. He now entered t he law office of his brother, 
 Mr. John Anthon, who is favourably known in America for his 
 , American Precedents,' 'Nisi Frius,' 'The Law Student/ and 
 other works belonging to his profession. In 1819, Charles 
 Anthon was admitted to the bar of the Supreme Court of the 
 State of New York. Whilst a student of law, he had applied 
 himself assiduously to the study of classical authors, and espe- 
 cially of the Greek; his proficiency in which procured for him, 
 in 1820, the appointment of Adjunct Professor of Languages in 
 Columbia College. This otlice he held till the year 18:55, when, 
 upon the resignation of Professor Moore, Anthon was elected to 
 the vacant chair. In 1830 he had been appointed Rector of the 
 College Grammar School ; and in 1831 had received from his 
 Alma Mater the degree of LL.D. The publications of Dr. 
 Anthon are numerous. Soon after his appointment to the 
 adjunct professorship, he compiled a new edition of 'Lemprii re's 
 Classical Dictionary,' which was very favourably received, and 
 immediately republished in England. In 1830, he brought out 
 his larger edition of Horace, with various readings and a copious 
 Commentary ; a smaller edition of which appeared in 1833. In 
 1835, Professor Anthon, whose life-long effort has been to pro- 
 mote the improvement of the character of classical scholarship in 
 America, projected, in conjunction with the publishing house of 
 Messrs. Harper, a classical series which should comprise as well 
 the text-books used in academies and schools preparatory to 
 college, as those usually read in colleges and universities. This 
 series includes some of the most important Greek and Latin 
 authors — Homer, Xenophon, Caesar, Virgil, Horace, Juvenal, &c. 
 Dr. Anthon's classical series has proved one of the most success- 
 ful enterprises of the kind in America, and has met with a wide 
 reception and approval in this country. He has also published 
 important works in Ancient Geography ; Greek and Roman 
 Antiquities, in connection with which it may be mentioned that 
 the first American edition of Potter's ' Archaxdogia Gixeca,' or 
 the Antiquities of Greece, appeared at New York, 1825, 8vo, 
 " with additions and corrections by Charles Anthon." He has 
 further largely illustrated the classical mythology and literature 
 generally, so that his various works amount in the aggregate to 
 about fifty volumes. 
 
 ANTIQUUS, JOHANNES, a distinguished Dutch painter, 
 was born at Groningen, October 11, 1702 ; learned glass paint- 
 ing under Gerard Vander Veen ; afterwards studied history and 
 portrait painting under Benheimen and Wassenberg ; in 1725 
 went to Amsterdam, and thence to France and Italy. At 
 Florence he entered the service of the Grand Duke, acquired 
 some reputation by his paintings, and was elected a member of 
 the Academy, to which body he presented the sketch for his 
 large picture of the ' Fall of the Giants.' He stayed in all six 
 years in Florence ; visited Rome, where he was much noticed 
 by Pope Benedict XII. ; Venice, where he found a patron in 
 General Schulembourg ; and Naples, where he made the acquaint- 
 ance of Solimena. On the death of the Grand Duke he returned 
 to Holland with a great reputation as an artist. At the invita- 
 tion of the Prince of Orange, he settled in 1741 at Breda as court 
 painter, and died there in 1750. His most celebrated pictures 
 are ' Mars disarmed by the Graces,' and some other classical 
 pieces in the palace at Loo. Antiquus designed learnedly and 
 correctly, and painted with much refinement, but in an artificial 
 manner. His portraits are much praised. 
 
 ANTOINE, JACQUES-DENYS, an eminent French archi- 
 tect, was born at Paris the Gth of August, 1733. The son of a 
 cabinet maker, and himself a working mason, he owed his great 
 success entirely to his own energy and ability. By some autho- 
 rities he is said to have lived for some years in Switzerland, and 
 to have erected several buildings there. In Paris he appears 
 to have established himself in the first instance as a builder and 
 contractor. He made himself known by the skilful construction 
 of the galleries over the Salle des Pas Perdus of the Palais de 
 Justice. In the Hospice de Charite, he introduced a Grecian 
 Doric order of unusual purity, and adapted the body of the 
 building to it with marked propriety. But the structure that 
 
 secured his fame was the Hotel des Monnaies, Paris, an edifice 
 of large size and imposing dignify, begun in 1768, and completed 
 in 1775. In this the central feature is an open vestibule, with 
 six Ionic columns and an attic. It is said that Antoine was 
 compelled greatly to retrench his original design in consequence 
 of a portion of the sum allotted for the building having been 
 diverted by the minister D'Angivilliers to the erection of an 
 hotel for himself. Antoine designed the Salle des Archives 
 Nationales, and several other buildings at Paris, at Nancy, at 
 Berne, and at Madrid. He died of apoplexy, August 24, 1801. 
 
 ANTOL1NI, IL CAVA LI ERE GIOVANNI, professor of 
 architecture at Milan, was born in 1755. He was lor over ten 
 years, 1780-90, in Rome, closely engaged in studying its ancient 
 architectural remains. Little more is known of his life, and he 
 does not appear to have had the opportunity of applying prac- 
 tically his extensive knowledge. For Napoleon I. lie prepared 
 the designs for a Forum, which the emperor proposed to erect 
 at Milan, but which the march of events left unaccomplished. 
 Antolini published his designs in 25 large folio plates, with the 
 title, 'Opera d'Architettura, ossia Progetto del Foro chc doveva 
 eseguirsi in Milano,' 1814. From this it appears that the Foro 
 Bonaparte, as it was to have been named, would have comprised 
 a vast amphitheatre 1,771 feet in diameter, surrounded with a 
 complete series of public buildings, united by Grecian Doric 
 colonnades, and having a grand central edifice about 200 feet 
 square. Judging from the plates, however, the Foro would have 
 been more remarkable for magnitude than beauty. Antolini 
 published several works, some of them of value : ' II Tempio di 
 Minerva in Assisi, confrontato colle Tavole di Palladio,' Milan, 
 folio, 1803 ; ' Idee Elementari d'Architettura civile per le Scuole 
 del Disegno,' Bologna, folio, 24 plates, 1813 ; ' Le Rovine di 
 Vileia, misurate e clisegnate da G. A.,' Milan, large folio, 1819-22, 
 a careful exposition of the remains of the ancient city of Villejaj 
 ' II Tempio di Ercole in Corsi, e quello di Minerva in Assisi,' 
 Milan, folio, 1828. He also edited, with notes and original 
 observations, Milizia's 'Principles of Civil Architecture,' Milan, 
 1832. He died at Milan in December, 1841. 
 
 * ANTONELLI, GIACOMO, cardinal-deacon of S. Agata alia 
 Suburra, was born on the 2nd of April, 1806, at Sonnino, a 
 village near Terracina, which enjoys a double reputation for the 
 brigandage of its men, and the picturesque costume of its women. 
 His father, who is stated to have belonged to an ancient and 
 respectable family, but personally to have been a woodcutter, 
 sent him to be educated at the Grand Seminary of Rome ; to be 
 a student of which, in a state where the clergy were almost the 
 only high functionaries, was a necessary step to every aspirant 
 for political employment. Of this institution he became known 
 as one of the most remarkable pupils. He succeeded in gaining 
 the favour of Pope Gregory XVI., who named him a prelato, 
 appointed him an assessor of the superior criminal tribunal, and 
 delegated him successively to Orvieto, Viterbo, and Macerata. 
 In 1841 Antonelli became Under-Secretary of State to the Ministry 
 of the Interior ; in 1844, Second Treasurer ; and in the year 
 following, Grand Treasurer of the two Apostolic Chambers 
 (finance minister), in the place of Tosti. He was raised to the 
 dignity of a cardinal-deacon on the 12th of June, 1847, by 
 Pius IX., to whose liberal disposition he recommended himself 
 by something like enthusiasm in the same direction. In March, 
 1848, Cardinal Antonelli was President and Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs, in a liberal cabinet composed of nine members, only 
 three of whom were ecclesiastics. To this cabinet it was that 
 the Roman people owed the framing of the famous " Statuto," 
 or Constitution, which had been almost wrung from the Pope, 
 and which was proclaimed on the 14th of March, 1848, but of 
 which the principal articles were very soon violated or eluded. 
 For a moment Antonelli was extremely popular ; but the libe- 
 ralism of the national party was too advanced and rapid to keep 
 pace with the measured step of a prince of the Church ; and on 
 the 1st of May he resigned the presidency of the cabinet into 
 the hands of Count Mamiani. Nevertheless, Cardinal Antonelli 
 continued to control the Pope, to whom he acted as confidential 
 adviser in all questions of home and foreign politics. Through 
 his influence Mamiani was superseded by an able but unpopular 
 minister, Pellegrino Rossi, who had formerly been a peer of 
 France, and French ambassador to Rome. Count Rossi was 
 assassinated November 15, 1848 ; and on the 24th of the same 
 month the Pope, whose palace of the Quirinal had been assaulted 
 by the populace, retired to Gaeta, in the Neapolitan territory. 
 II is flight hither was advised and directed by Cardinal Antonelli, 
 who, presently rejoining him there, protested in his own name 
 and that of his sovereign against the Provisional Government of 
 
P7 
 
 ANTONIDES VAN DER GOES. 
 
 D'APRES DE MANNEVILLETTE. 
 
 Rome, and appointed a commission for the administration of the 
 Papal States. He was afterwards named secretary of state or 
 the court of Gaeta. On the IStli of February, 1849, he addressed 
 . collectively to the representatives of Austria, Fx mce, Spain, and 
 Naples, a circular in which he appealed to all Christendom to 
 effect the re-establishment of his spiritual sovereign on the 
 throne of St. Peter. Meanwhile he continued to profess his 
 respect for the "Statuto" of the 14th of March, 1848. On the 
 9th of April, 1849, when already the French troops had landed 
 at Civita Vecchia, he was named president of a special commis- 
 sion charged with the reforms of the church. After the capitula- 
 tion of Rome, Antonelli counselled the Pope to use a great 
 reserve with the French, and not to precipitate his return to 
 Rome. When Pius IX. consented to re-enter Rome, April 12th, 
 1850, he named his faithful servant secretary of state for foreign 
 affairs, an office which he still continues to hold, conjoined with 
 the presidency of the council of ministers, and the prefecture of 
 the Sacred Apostolic Palaces. 
 
 The measures of Cardinal Antonelli were now recognised as 
 repressive and reactionary; and were such as occasionally to 
 call forth the opposition of members of the Sacred College, and 
 the remonstrances of foreign governments. During the last war 
 in Italy, and since its termination, the report of the resignation 
 of Cardinal Antonelli has been frequently spread ; but the Pope 
 has honoured him with renewed marks of confidence. Several 
 
 i circulars of Antonelli have attracted attention ; especially those 
 relative to the coldness which arose between the Court of Rome 
 and the Cabinet of the Tuileries, and to the difficulties and 
 conflicts resulting from the presence of French troops in the 
 midst of the Roman people. It was Cardinal Antonelli who 
 
 | answered the interpellations of the Russian Ambassador on the 
 subject of the allocution of the Pope in favour of Poland (1864). 
 
 | Antonelli, indeed, is a master of the art of palliation; and no one 
 understands better than he how to apologise for pontifical politics. 
 His language on the subject of the Encyclical of 1864 was full of a 
 spirit of moderation which it was somewhat difficult to conciliate 
 with the text of that famous document. In the Oecumenical Council, 
 which began its sittings in December, 1869, Cardinal Antonelli 
 has already found a worthy field for his tact and ability in 
 rescuing the more impulsive pontiff from the effects of his zeal 
 and impetuosity. 
 
 ANTONIDES VAN DER GOES, JOHANNES, an eminent 
 Dutch poet, was born on the 3rd of May, 1647, at Goes, in 
 Zealand, but taken by his parents when four years old to 
 Amsterdam, where he learned Greek and Latin under Cocceius. 
 His poetic exercises at school being much praised, he essayed 
 translations of the Latin poets, which were so greatly admired 
 by Vondel, that he was induced to undertake a long and elabo- 
 rate poem in his native tongue on the river Y. When the 
 'Ijstrom,'as it is entitled, was published in 1671, it met with 
 an enthusiastic reception ; and, though its descriptions now 
 appear overwrought and conventional, it is still regarded as one 
 of the great national poems. Antonides began another long 
 poem, an epic on the subject of St. Paul; but his circumstances 
 were narrow, he was depressed in spirit, and of feeble health, 
 and he did not live to complete it, dying from the breaking of a 
 blood-vessel, on the 18th of September, 1684, at the early age of 
 37. A collected edition of his works was published by his father 
 in 1685 ; and several later editions have appeared: that of 1714 
 has an excellent portrait, engraved by P. Van Gunst from the 
 original by Bakhuizen. 
 
 ANTONINUS, SAINT, Archbishop of Florence, was the 
 son of a Florentine notary, whose name varies with different 
 authorities as Niccolo di Pierozzo and Niccolo di Forciglioni. 
 He was born at Florence in 1389. His Christian name was 
 Antonio, for which the diminutive Antonius, or, in Latin, 
 Antoninus, was substituted on account of the smallness of his 
 stature. In early youth he became a Dominican friar, and 
 entered the convent of Fiesole, which had just been founded. 
 His learning was various, and, considering the age in which he 
 lived, profound. He was well versed in casuistry, in canon law, 
 and in ecclesiastical history; and occupied himself also with 
 public affairs with singular tact and vigour of understanding. 
 His choice of a political party was a prudent one ; he attached 
 himself zealously to Cosmo de' Medici, of whom Machiavelli has 
 spoken (' History of Florence') in terms of such rare panegyric. 
 Antoninus became successively prior of more than one convent, 
 auditor of the Roman rota, and vicar-general of his order for 
 Tuscany, and afterwards for Naples. In 1445 he was nominated to 
 | the then vacant archbishopric of Florence by Pope Eugenius IV. ; 
 but did not overcome until the following year the reluctance he 
 moo. div. — sup. 
 
 felt to enter upon that high office. He held the see for about 14 
 years, during which he distinguished himself, as he had done in 
 all his previous offices, by his zeal in practical reform, and in 
 asserting for the clergy, whom it was his object to elevate in 
 character and influence, their claims to jurisdiction and immuni- 
 ties. More than once he acted as ambassador of the Floren- 
 tines to the Court of Rome. He died in the year 1459, and was 
 buried in the church of St. Mark, the principal Florentine con- 
 vent of his order ; in which may still be seen a splendid chapel 
 dedicated to his memory, erected in 1588 from a design by Gian 
 Bologna, and containing a bronze statue of him by that artist. 
 He was canonised m 1523 by Pope Adrian VI. : the day assigned 
 to him in the Roman calendar is the 10th of May. 
 
 The principal works of Antoninus that have been printed are 
 the three following: — 'Defecerunt' [the first word of the book], 
 'sive Summa Confessionalis,' first printed at Rome in 1472, 
 4to, and reprinted about twenty times, in Italy and elsewhere, 
 before the end of the 16th century. There is also an Italian 
 translation of it, ' Istruzione de' Sacerdoti, ovvero Somma Anto- 
 nina composta volgarmente,' Bologna, 4to, 1472, and in several 
 subsequent editions. 'Summa Summarum, sive Summa Theo- 
 logica, in Quatuor Partes distributa,' Niirnberg, 1478, 4 vols, fob, 
 black-letter. This work, which had been previously printed, in 
 successive volumes, at Venice, was afterwards reprinted about 
 twenty times, the latest and best edition being that of Verona, 
 
 1740, 4 vols, folio. Many of the treatises of which this work is 
 composed have had a frequent separate publication ; and the 
 whole is intended as a systematic summary of Roman Catholic 
 morality, and is generally acknowledged to have been the earliest 
 work in which an attempt was made to carry the treatment of 
 such topics beyond the scholastic limits. As a digest of doctrines 
 and authorities, the 1 Summa ' long held a venerated place 
 amongst the standards of the Roman Catholic Church. One other 
 published work of St. Antoninus remains to be mentioned — 
 ' Summa Historialis, sive Chronica, Tribus Partibus distincta, ab 
 Orbe condito ad Annum 1459.' Mazzuchelli names an edition of 
 1480, Venice, 3 vols, fob, the existence of which recent bibliogra- 
 phers pronounce doubtful. The oldest certain edition is that of 
 Niirnberg, 1484, 3 vols, fob, black-letter. Other editions (all in 
 folio) are those of Basel, 1491; Strasburg, 1496; Paris, 1512; Lyon, 
 1517, 1525, 1543, 1585; and one or two later ones, which are said to 
 contain interpolations. In the plan of this Chronicle there are two 
 features particularly deserving of notice. The one is its comprehen- 
 siveness : it aims at delivering a history of intellect as well as of 
 politics and religion. The other is its steady attempt at philoso- 
 phical exactnessof sub-division: each department of human thought 
 or action is treated in a separate section. A revised edition con- 
 taining all the works of St. Antoninus, under the title ' Antonini 
 Archiepiscopi Florentini Opera omnia, ad Autographorum Fideni 
 nunc primum exacta, Vita Auctoris variisque Dissertation ibus et 
 Annotationibus aucta, Cura et Studio Th. Mar. Mamachi et Dion. 
 Remedelli,' was to have been published in 8 vols, folio, Florence, 
 
 1741, &c, but only two volumes (each divided into two parts), and 
 containing the Summa, were issued, sufficient subscribers not hav- 
 ing been found for the complete collection. 
 
 ANTONIO VENEZIANO [Veneziano, Antonio, E. C. 
 vol. vi. col. 314]. 
 
 APRES DE MANNEVILLETTE, JEAN BAPTISTE 
 NICOLAS DENIS D', a distinguished French hydrographer, was 
 born at Havre, 11th February, 1707. His father, in the service 
 of the French East India Company, educated him for the 
 maritime profession, and took him out on a voyage to India in 
 1719 — 21. Appointed fourth officer to a vessel, he was wrecked 
 on a voyage to Senegal in 1727. The experience gained on this 
 voyage of the imperfection of the existing charts of the Atlantic 
 had much influence on his later exertions. In 1730 he went as 
 second officer to India. In 1732 he married Marie Madeleine 
 Jacquette de Binard. While engaged on various voyages be- 
 tween 1733 and 1742, he was the first to use Halley's Sextant in 
 determining longitudes by lunar distances ; he also made a vast 
 number of soundings in the seas which he traversed. His 
 'Neptune Oriental,' published in 1743 at the expense of the 
 Company, after approval by the Academie des Sciences, gave 
 correct charts and sailing directions for various parts of the India 
 and China Seas. He then obtained leave to make hydrogra- 
 phical explorations, as a means of adding to the value of his 
 charts, &c. In 1750 he set out in the ' Glorieux,' and visited 
 Rio Janeiro, the Cape of Good Hope, the Isle of Bourbon, the 
 Isle of France, and Madagascar, collecting materials for new and 
 valuable charts. In 1762 the Company appointed him Inspector 
 of Charts, &c, at the depot at Brest. By the year 1766 ha 
 
 H 
 
APROSIO, LUIGI. 
 
 100 
 
 prepared complete sailing directions from France to India, for 
 which he was decorated by the King. A second edition of the 
 'Neptune Oriental' (1775) was greatly improved by the as- 
 sistance of D'Anville and La Caille. D'Apivs died on the 1st 
 of March, 1780, while preparing a supplement to this work. 
 The King purchased all his charts, plans, and drawings, and 
 placed them in the Depot de la Marine. 
 
 APROSIO, LUIGI, on entering the order of St. Augustine, 
 ANGELICO, hut commonly known in his own day as ' II 
 Padre Vintimiglia,' a learned Italian writer and bibliographer, 
 was born on the 19th of October, 1610, at Vintimiglia, in 
 Liguria. At the age of 15 he was received into the order of 
 the Eremitani di S. Agostino della Oongregazione di Genova ; 
 passed in succession through the convents of Genoa, Siena, 
 Monte S. Savino, Pisa, Trevigi, Feltre, Losina, Venice, Murano, 
 and Rapalla ; settling ultimately in that of Vintimiglia, when 
 he was appointed Vicar-General of the Congregation of S. Maria 
 della Consolazione. Aprosio mixed much in society ; was 
 intimate with the men of learning and celebrity in all the cities 
 in which he had resided ; and was a member of a great many 
 of the academies for which Italy was then renowned. From 
 childhood he had a. passion for hooks, which in manhood he took 
 every opportunity of gratifying, and he had the reputation of 
 being the best bibliographer of his time. When established in 
 his native city, he resolved to found there a good library. He 
 commenced it in 1C48, and in 1(578, writing to J. Fiorelli, he 
 states that he had then collected upwards of 7000 volumes. 
 This library, which became celebrated as the Biblioteca 
 Aprosiana, still exists, but has lost most of its rare books 
 and choice MSS., and contains now, it is said, less than 5000 
 volumes. Aprosio wrote a catalogue raisonne, which was 
 published to the end of the letter C, under the title 'La 
 Biblioteca Aprosiana, Passatempo autunnale di Cornelio Aspasio 
 Antivigilmi,' Bologna, 12mo. 1673, pp. 666. In this curious 
 volume Aprosio gives many particulars of his own life, and 
 accounts of the friends from whom he received the volumes he 
 describes. Sixty years after it was printed, J. C. Wolff pub- 
 lished a Latin translation of it (Hamburg, 8vo, 1734). Brunet 
 states that the continuation of the 'Biblioteca,' in 4 vols. 4to, 
 entirely in the handwriting of the author, is preserved at Genoa. 
 Aprosio died February 23rd, 1681. He wrote and printed a 
 great number of short pieces both in prose and verse, but all 
 under fictitious names. Thus under the pseudonym Oalistom 
 he wrote some criticisms — ' II Vaglio ' (the Sieve), ' II Buratto, 
 (the Boulter), &c. — on Stigliani's poem ' II Mondo Nuovo,' and 
 in defence of the 'Adone' of his friend Marini, which Stigliani 
 had somewhat rudely assailed ; and retorted on Stigliani's reply, 
 ' L'Occhiale ' (the Spy-glass), by ' L'Occhiale Stritolato' (the 
 Spy-glass broken), under the assumed name of Scipio Glareano. 
 Aprosio's other publications include ' La Visiera Alzata,' Parma, 
 12mo, 1689, now extremely rare, and prized for its information 
 on literary and bibliographical matters ; ' Le Vigilie del Capri- 
 corno,' Venice, 12mo, 1667 and 1678 ; and several more, gene- 
 rally trifling, and not always clerical in character. His verses, both 
 Latin and Italian, are given more or less fully in the collections. 
 
 APTHORP, EAST, D.D., was born in 1733 at Boston, in 
 New England. His father, a merchant, sent him to England 
 to complete his education at Jesus College, Cambridge. In 
 1755 he won the Chancellor's Medal, and in the following year 
 the Members' Latin prize ; graduated in 1757, and in 1758 took 
 his M.A. degree, and was elected fellow of his college. In 1761 
 he was sent by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
 Foreign Parts as missionary to Cambridge in Massachusetts ; 
 but having become involved in controversy with the Congrega- 
 tionalists of Boston, he returned to England about 1764. He 
 was now employed by Archbishop Seeker to defend the sending 
 of bishops to America, and in reward was presented by the arch- 
 bishop with the vicarage of Croydon. About this time he issued 
 a prospectus of an edition of the Latin historians, but the scheme 
 was abandoned. In 1778 he published the work by which he 
 stands the best chance of being remembered : ' Letters on the 
 Prevalence of Christianity before its civil Establishment ; with 
 Observations on a late [Gibbon's] History of the Decline of the 
 Roman Empire.' It was received with great favour, and Gibbon 
 himself praised it in his semi-sarcastic way. "If I am not 
 mistaken," he writes (' Vindication of some Passages in Chapters 
 of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' p. 92), " Mr. 
 Apthorp was the first who announced to the public his intention 
 of examining the interesting subject which I had treated in the 
 two last chapters of my History. The multitude of collateral 
 and accessory ideas which presented themselves to the author, 
 
 insensibly swelled the bulk of his papers to the size of a large 
 volume in octavo When Mr. Apthorp's Letters ap- 
 peared, I was surprised to find that I had scarcely any interest or 
 concern in their contents. They are filled with general observa- 
 tions on the study of history, with a large and useful catalogue of 
 historians, and with a variety of reflections, moral and religious, 
 all preparatory to the direct and formal consideration of my two 
 last chapters, which Mr. Apthorp seems to reserve for the subject 
 of a second volume. I sincerely respect the learning, the piety, 
 and the candour of this gentleman, and must consider it as a 
 mark of his esteem, that he has thought proper to begin his 
 approaches at so great a distance from the fortifications which he 
 designed to attack." The second volume never appeared, and 
 Gibbon's Chapters remained uncorrected as far as Mr. Apthorp 
 was concerned. But the book brought its author copious re- 
 ward. The Archbishop of Canterbury (Cornwallis) bestowal 
 on him the lucrative rectory of St. Mary-le-Bow, and the 
 annexed rectories of St. Pancras, Soper-lane, and All-Hallows, 
 Honey-lane (all in the city of London) ; appointed him to preach 
 the Warburton Lecture, and conferred on him the degree of 
 D.D. For these preferments Gibbon laughingly claims the 
 credit. " I enjoyed the pleasure," he says (' Memoirs of my 
 Life and Writings,' p. 29) " of giving a royal pension to Mr. 
 Davis, and of collating Dr. Apthorp to an archiepiscopal living." 
 Dr. Apthorp published his Lectures in 1786 in 2 vols. 8vo, under 
 the title of 'Discoveries on Prophecy; read in the Chapel of 
 Lincoln's Inn, at the Lecture founded by Wm. Warburton, 
 late Lord Bishop of Gloucester;' but though marked by learning 
 and moderation, they possess no distinctive value. In 1790 Dr. 
 Apthorp was made a prebend of St. Paul's, and shortly alter 
 offered the bishopric of Killaloe, but this he declined on the ground 
 of failing health. He soon after became blind, but he probably 
 found some compensation in the good will of his old Croydon 
 parishioners, who, in testimony of their esteem and sympathy, 
 made him a present of nearly 2000/. In 1793, Dr. Porteus, 
 Bishop of London, collated him to the rich prebend of Finsbury, 
 but to retain it he was compelled by the archbishop to resign his 
 other preferments. He now retired to Cambridge, where he 
 died in 1816. Besides the works already noticed, Dr. Apthorp 
 published several Sermons, a volume of 'Select Devotions for 
 Families,' and three or four pamphlets. 
 
 AQUILA, CASPAR (German Kaspar Adler), one of the 
 most distinguished Protestant divines of the Reformation period, 
 was born on the 7th of August, 1488, at Augsburg, of which place 
 his father, Leonard Adler, was syndicus. On leaving the Academy 
 of Augsburg, he went to Ulm and thence to Bologna to complete 
 his education. In 1514 he was appointed preacher in Bern, but 
 after a brief sojourn left for the University of Leipzig, whence, 
 in 1515, he joined Franz von Sickingen, who appointed him his 
 field preacher, or military chaplain. The following year he was, 
 chosen preacher at Jengen, near Augsburg. Here he devoted 
 himself to a closer study of theology, and soon adopted the 
 views of Luther, which he set forth in his sermons. For this 
 he was arrested by order of Christoph von Stadion, Bishop of 
 Augsburg, and confined in an unwholesome dungeon at Dil- 
 lingen during the winter of 1519 — 20, and then only released 
 through the intervention of Queen Isabella of Denmark, sister 
 of the Emperor Charles V. He now joined Luther at Witten- 
 berg, and thence proceeded to the Castle of Ebernburg to teach 
 the children of Franz von Sickingen. Whilst here he narrowly 
 escaped a strange death. The soldiers of the castle wished him 
 to baptize a cannon, and on his refusal, forced him into the 
 mouth of a huge mortar with the intention of blowing him from 
 the castle wall. Their efforts to ignite the powder failed, how- 
 ever, and at length an officer succeeded in rescuing him. From 
 1524 he resided at Wittenberg as preacher and teacher of 
 Hebrew, at the same time rendering Luther valuable assistance 
 in translating the Bible and in advancing the doctrines of the 
 Reformation. By Luther's recommendation he, in 1527, was 
 appointed to the office of pastor at Saalfeld, where in the fol- 
 lowing year he was made ecclesiastical superintendent. When 
 the Interim was put forth, Aquila vehemently opposed it both 
 by his personal influence and in two publications, ' Christlich 
 Bedenken auf das Interim' (1548, reprinted in 1549), and 'Das 
 Interim illuminirt' (Augsburg, 1548). His opposition so in- 
 censed the Emperor Charles V., that he declared Aquila an 
 outlaw, and offered a reward of 5000 florins for his head. Aquila 
 was obliged to fly from Saalfeld, taking with him only a Hebrewi 
 psalter. But the Countess of Schwarzburg gave him an asylumi 
 in her castle of Rudolfstadt, where he remained till the excite- 
 ment about the Interim had calmed down, when she obtained 
 
101 
 
 AQUILANO, SERAFINO. 
 
 ARBBISSBL, ROBERT D'. 
 
 for him (1550) the deanery of Schmalkalden. In 1552, after the 
 Treaty of Passau, he was restored to his office at Saalfeld, and 
 there he quietly pursued his religious duties till his death on the 
 12th of November, 1560. Besides the works above cited, and 
 several sermons, Aquila published 'Christliche Erklarung des 
 Kleinen Katechismus,' Augsburg, 1538; and 'Fragstiicke der 
 Ganzen christlichen Lehre,' Augsburg, 1547. 
 
 (J. G. Hillinger, Lebensbeschrcibung Casparis Aquilm, Jena, 8vo, 
 1731; C. Schlegel, Bericht vom Leben und ToJe C. A.,' Leipzig, 4to, 
 1737; J. Avenarius, Kurze Lebensbeschrcibung. C. A.,' Meiningen, 
 4to, 1718.) 
 
 AQUILAJSTO, or DELL' AQUILA, SERAFINO, one of the 
 most popular Italian poets of the 15th century, was born in 1460 
 at Aquila, in the Abruzzo, whence the name by which he is 
 known — his family name is conjectured by Mazzuchelli to have 
 been Cimino. "While very young he was placed in the court of 
 the Count of Potenza, where he learned music under G. Flamand. 
 He is said to have next spent three years iu the study of Dante 
 and Petrarch, after which he went to Rome in the suite of 
 Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, with whom he stayed for about six 
 years. He had now acquired great skill in improvisation and in 
 accompanying his verses on the lute, and his performances in 
 this way were eagerly sought after. In 1491 he was invited to 
 the court of the Duke of Calabria, afterwards Ferdinand II. of 
 Naples, with whom he stayed three years ; then visited in suc- 
 cession the courts of Guidabaldo, Duke of Urbino, Francisco 
 Gonzago, Marquis of Mantua, and Lodovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, 
 from which last he was driven by the occupation of the territory 
 of Milan by the French. At Rome he M as cordially received by 
 the Cardinal Borgia, and afterwards by Cesare Borgia, Duke 
 Valentino, who obtained for him, in 1499, the appointment of 
 Knight of Jerusalem, and the post of commander wit h a handsome 
 income. He did not, however, long enjoy his good fortune, dying 
 of fever on the 10th of August, 1500, in his 34th year. 
 
 A reader of Aquilano's poetry would find it difficult to account 
 for the extraordinary popularity it enjoyed, unless he was 
 acquainted with the circumstances under which it was produced. 
 The language was still but imperfectly formed, and Aquilano was 
 the first since Petrarch to mould it with perfect ease and 
 harmony. His poetry was always animated, full of fancy, not 
 altogether devoid of imagination and feeling : it was exactly in 
 accord with the tone of sentiment of the best society of the day, 
 and it was recited in turn at tlie chief courts of Italy by the 
 author himself, with all the charm of an accomplished actor and 
 musician. The number of editions of his collected poems was 
 remarkable. The first appears to have been that of Francisco 
 Flavis — ' Opera del facuudissimo Seraphino Aquilano,' Rome, 4to, 
 November 29, 1502, of which an 8vo edition was issued on 
 December 24, 1502, and which was reprinted at Bologna, in Svo, 
 1503. ' Opera dello elegante poeta S. A., finite et emendate, con 
 la loro Apologia (di Angelo Colocci a Silvio Piccolomini) e la 
 vita de esso poeta/ (di Vincenzio Calmeta), Rome, 4to, 1503. 
 Other editions appeared at Fano, 8vo, 1505; Venice, 1505 ; Milan, 
 1516; Florence, Svo, 1516, by F. di Giunta, esteemed the best of 
 the old editions ; Florence, 8vo, 1517, by B. Zuchetta ; Venice, 
 4to, 1519, reprinted 1526 ; Milan, small 8vo, 1523 ; Venice, 
 1529 — 1530, corrected edition by Marco Guazzo ; an edition, 
 ' Opere dello elegatissimo Poeta S. A. co molte cose aggionte 
 di nouo,' Venice, 8vo, 1538, contains on the title page the 
 announcement that the poems arc divided into 1C5 sonetti, 3 
 egloghe, 7 epistole, 20 capitoli, 3 disperate, 27 strambotti, and 19 
 barzelette. Several other editions are given by Mazzuchelli and 
 Brunet ; the latest is that of A. de Bendoni, 1550 ; there are also 
 separate editions of his strambotti. 
 
 ARAGONA, TULLIA D', a celebrated Italian poetess, born 
 in the early part of the 16th century. She was the illegitimate 
 daughter of Tagliavia, Archbishop of Palermo, and afterwards 
 Cardinal, who gave her so good an education that while yet a 
 child she was proficient in Latin, and became the most accom- 
 plished woman in Italy in music and singing. Very beautiful, 
 and possessed of a liberal income, her house became the fa- 
 vourite resort of the most eminent wits and scholars, with whom 
 she used to exchange sonnets, and who were unbounded in their 
 admiration of her loveliness and genius. Arrighi declares that 
 her beauty is overpowering as that of the sun ; Nardi that she 
 is fitly named Tullia, as inheriting the eloquence of Cicero 
 (Tidlius). Unfortunately she was not so preeminent in other 
 virtues ; but she married, and after the death of her husband, 
 retired to Florence, where she died about 1560. Her works are : 
 (1) 'Rimedella Signora Tullia di Aragone e di diversi a lei,' 
 Venice, 12mo, 1547 (reprinted 1549 and 1560), in which are 
 
 printed tlie sonnets addressed to her by Cardinal Ippolitode' Medici, 
 Francesco Molza, Ercole Bentivoglio, Filippo Strozzi, Benedetto 
 Varolii, Pietro Manelli, Lattanzio Benucci, and the most ardent 
 of all her admirers, Girolamo Muzio, with tlie lady's answers. 
 
 (2) 'Dialogs della Infinita di Amore,' Venice, 12mo, 1547 ; the 
 lady in this again sustaining one part only of the performance, 
 and her praises being the main subject of the other two speakers. 
 
 (3) 'II Meschino,' Venice, 4to, 1560 and 1594, a sort of epic in 36 
 cantos of ottava rima. Tullia professes to have taken the story 
 from a Spanish romance, but it is really a versification of tlie 
 popular Italian romance of Guerino Meschino. Tullia's poem 
 was greatly admired at the time of publication, and Crescimbeni 
 compares it to the Odyssey; but no one since his time has 
 probably found resolution enough to read half way through it. 
 
 ARBRISSEL, or ARBRISSELLES, ROBERT D', derived 
 his name from the place of his birth, Arbrissel, now called 
 Arbresec, a village near La Guerche, in the diocese of Rennes. 
 His parents were of the middle class ; and from the time of his 
 birth, about 1047, gave him such an education as their neigh- 
 bourhood afforded. In 1074 Robert went to Paris, and was 
 soon after admitted to priests' orders. From 1085 to 1089 he 
 acted as arch-presbyter and vicar-general to Silvestre de la 
 Guerche, Bishop of Rennes, a man of no learning himself, but a 
 patron of the learned. For four years Arbrissel carried on a 
 crusade against the crying abuses of the time, whether amongst 
 the clergy or the laity, and made himself so obnoxious by the 
 opposition he had given to prevalent vices, that when he lost 
 the support of the bishop, by the death of the latter in 1089, he 
 found it necessary to quit the diocese of Rennes. He repaired 
 to Angers, and taught theology there for the space of two years ; 
 when, conceiving a despair of the world, and of himself as dwell- 
 ing in the world, he went with one companion and buried him- 
 self in the forest of Craon, which was towards the confines of 
 Anjou and Bretagne. Here he soon acquired a reputation for 
 his extreme mortification, and at length found himself at the 
 head of a small community. In 1096 Arbrissel was invited by 
 Urban II. to preach the sermon at the dedication of the church 
 of St. Nicolas at Angers, and acquitted himself so much to the 
 satisfaction of the Pope, who assisted in person at the dedication, 
 as to be named by him " apostolic preacher," with a commission 
 to exercise his priestly office throughout the whole world. And 
 on the day after the sermon, Reginald, the lord of Craon, made 
 over to him a portion of the forest of Craon, that he might found 
 an abbey in it. Such is the origin of the abbey of La Roe (de 
 Rota). After discharging the duties of prior of La Roe for two 
 years, Robert, conceiving that his commission from the Pope not 
 only permitted but necessitated his itinerancy, set out upon an 
 evangelistic tour in company with two other preachers, and their 
 joint labours resulted in the conversion of numbers of men and 
 women of all shades of immorality. Robert founded several 
 monasteries for his converts, of which the most celebrated was 
 the abbey of Fontevrault, iu the diocese of Poitiers, on the con- 
 fines of Touraine and Anjou. Tlie site of this abbey was a 
 valley covered with thorns and brambles, which was called 
 Fontevraud, or Fontevaux. The natives called it Frontevaux, 
 and its correct Latin title is Fons Ebraldi. Here Robert at first 
 constructed some huts, but in a short time the abbey contained 
 within one enclosure monasteries for men and women. They 
 were, however, separate buildings ; and the three monasteries 
 for females were devoted respectively to virgins, widows, and 
 reformed magdalens. The order of Fontevrault adopted the rule 
 of St. •Benedict; but Robert introduced a novelty, the wisdom of 
 which has been much questioned, the government, namely, of 
 all the monasteries, male and female, by one abbess. He vindi- 
 cated the subjection of men to women, a point on which he 
 strictly and solemnly insisted, by the example of Christ, who 
 recommended St. John to the Virgin Mary, and ordered that 
 beloved disciple to be obedient unto her as to his own mother. 
 The date of the foundation of the abbey of Fontevrault is 
 probably the year 1101. The institution was confirmed by a 
 bull of Pascal II., dated March 26th, 1106 ; and again by a bull 
 of Pope Callistus II., dated September 15th, 1119. Not long 
 after the death of Robert the number of the religious of both 
 sexes amounted to nearly 5000. Fontevrault became at last the 
 most magnificent of all the female monasteries of France. The 
 order was suppressed at the French Rev olution. 
 
 In 1104 Robert resigned the direction of the monastery into 
 the hands of a noble widow named Hersinde or Hersende de 
 Champagne, or de Clairvaux. The title of abbess, however, was 
 given first to Petronille, who succeeded Hersiude on the 28th of 
 October, 1115. Having thus provided for the administration of 
 
 H 2 
 
103 
 
 101 
 
 the abbey, Robert resumed bis missionary activity, preaching 
 against the vices of the day, and from time to time visiting 
 Fontevrault, where it is remarkable that lie claimed a peculiar 
 exemption from the authority of the superioress. He died at 
 Orsan, a monastery of his order in Herri, on the L 2f>th of February, 
 1117. Here his heart was left, the rest, of his body being trans- 
 ported, according to his request, to Fontevrault, In 1633, Louise 
 de Bourbon, abbess of Fontevrault, placed his remains in a 
 magnificent marble tomb, on which whs inscribed the epitaph 
 which Hildebert, Bishop of Mans, wrote in honour of Hubert. 
 
 ARBUCKLK, JAMES, was born in Glasgow, about 1700. 
 Nothing certain is known of his life. In 1719 he published a 
 mock-heroic poem, entitled ' Snuff,' which, though of little 
 value, was of greater promise as a juvenile poem than his sub- 
 sequent works fulfilled. It was followed by an occasional poem 
 on the Death of Addison, and in 1721 by ' Glotta,' an extravagant 
 description of the Clyde. Some miscellaneous verses appeared at 
 intervals, but he does not appear to have ventured on any 
 further sustained flight. The last work ascribed to him is ' The 
 Letters of Hibernicus, published in the. Dublin Journal,' London, 
 1729. He died in 1734. 
 
 ARCHDALL, REV. MERVYN, learned Irish antiquary, was 
 born at Dublin in 1723. Having gone through the usual course 
 of study and taken orders, he was appointed domestic chaplain 
 to Pococke, Bishop of Meath and Ossory. Devoting his attention 
 to antiquarian subjects, he had to regret the want of a work for 
 Ireland corresjxmding to Dugdale's ' Monasticon Anglicanum,' 
 and, encouraged by Bishop Pococke, set himself to supply the 
 deticiene)\ The collection and preparation of the materials cost 
 him several years of close application, but in 1786 appeared in a 
 4to volume of 840 pages, the 'Monasticon Hibernicum ; or an 
 History of the Abbies, Priories, and other Religious Houses in 
 Ireland.' The necessity for confining it to a single volume com- 
 pelled Mr. Archdall, sorely against his inclination, to abridge or 
 epitomise the original documents, but he has done this with 
 scrupulous good faith, and the arrangement of the whole is very 
 convenient. Mr. Archdall's only other separate work is a 
 revised edition of Lodge's ' Peerage of Ireland,' 7 vols. 8vo, 1789. 
 He died rector of Slane, August the 6th, 1791. 
 
 ARCHDEKIN, JOSEPH (or as it is sometimes printed in 
 bis titlepages, Arsedekin), a learned Irish Jesuit, was born at 
 Kilkenny, about 1619. In 1642 he entered the society of Jesuits 
 at Mechlin, and in 1662 was made professor of moral and scrip- 
 tural theology at Louvain. His first publication was a treatise, 
 ' Of Miracles, and the New Miracles done by the Relicks of St. 
 Francis Xavier, in the Jesuits' College at Mechlin,' Louvain, 
 8vo, 1667. It is printed in English and Irish, being as is 
 believed the first book printed in the two languages, and is now 
 extremely scarce. But a work that excited much more attention 
 was his ' Praecipuae Controversial Fidei ad facilem methodum 
 redacta,' Louvain, 8vo, 1671. With it is usually bound up, 
 though sometimes it is met with separately, a life of St. Patrick, 
 ' Vitse et Miraculorum Sancti Patricii, Hibernios Apostoli 
 Epitome : cumbrevi Notitia Hibernias, et Prophetia S. Malachiae,' 
 also printed at Louvain in 1671. The success of the ' Contro- 
 versial Fidei,' which is a summary of the doctiines of the Church, 
 was wonderful. New editions were rapidly required ; it was 
 reprinted without the knowledge of the author, and manuscript 
 copies were made for the use of the students at the University of 
 Prague. The editions issued by the author were corrected and 
 extended till what in the original was a modest 8vo volume of 
 500 pages, in the eighth edition, Antwerp, 1686, had swelled to 
 three bulky quartos, while the title was changed to ' Theologia 
 Tripartita Universa.' This enlarged edition was dedicated to 
 James II., and contains much additional matter respecting Irish 
 Church history, and memoirs of Peter Talbot, Roman Catholic 
 Archbishop of Dublin, who died in prison in Dublin in 1680, 
 and of Oliver Plunket, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh, 
 executed in London in 1681. But though so popular with his 
 co-religionists, the book failed to give satisfaction at Rome, and 
 in 1700 it was prohibited till corrections should be made in it 
 by the Congregation of the Index. An edition with these cor- 
 rections, the 13th of the work, was published at Antwerp in 
 1718, and none has since appeared. Arehdekin was made pro- 
 fessor of classics at Antwerp in 1670, and of philosophy in 1671. 
 He died at Antwerp, August the 3rd, 1693. 
 
 ARCHER, THOMAS, an English architect of the first half 
 of the 18th century, who is chiefly remarkable for the extreme 
 alternations in the criticisms bestowed upon him. Of his life 
 little is told. Where he learnt architecture, or whether he ever 
 had any regular instruction in it, is as uncertain as in the case 
 
 of Vanbrugb. That Archer was a follower, if he was not a 
 scholar of Vanbrugh, we, however, know. Vanbrugh has indeed 
 been credited, perhaps untruly, with assisting him in his designs. 
 Like Vanbrugh, he seems to have bad something besides archi- 
 tecture to depend upon. Walpole, writing of Vanbrugh 's imme- 
 diate successors, says, " There was a Mr. Archer, the groom-porter, 
 who built Hethrop, and a temple at Wrest." When and bow 
 long Archer was groom-porter is not stated. In a note Walpole 
 is even more contemptuous : — " St. Philip's Church at Birming- 
 ham, Cliefden House, and a house at Roehampton (which as a 
 specimen of his wretched taste may be seen in the ' Vitruvius 
 Britannicus ') were other works of the same person ; but the 
 chef d'ecuvre of his absurdity was the Church of St. John, with 
 four belfries, in Westminster." — ('Anecdotes,' vol. iv. p. 85.) 
 Vanbrugh was the butt of two or three generations of wits, and 
 the chef d'ecuvre of his most successful disciple, which they said 
 was so preposterous that it must have been designed by the 
 master and borrowed or stolen by the scholar, was not likely to 
 be left unassailed. Its unusual form, "with four belfries at 
 the angles, afforded a ready topic for ridicule. By some it was 
 likened to a parlour-table with the legs uppermost ; by others to 
 an elephant sprawling on its back with its legs in the air. The 
 scoffers prevailed, and for long St. John's, Westminster, was never 
 referred to, except in mockery. At last came the reaction ; Van- 
 brugh and his Italian were accepted as at once poetical and pic- 
 turesque, and even St. John's found not only defenders, but 
 admirers. Probably it would have found admirers still, but 
 that the mediaeval current set in, and in ecclesiastical architecture 
 bore all before it. Yet apart from preconceptions, it is hard not 
 to feel that there is something of character and individuality in 
 the exterior of St. John's Church, though some central or pre- 
 dominant feature is sorely needed, and objections occur at every 
 turn to the details. St. Philip's, Birmingham, the earlier of the 
 two churches, is likewise the more conformable to the approved 
 type ; but it has a tower, surmounted by a cupola of somewhat 
 original and decidedly effective outline. Like St. John's, it is 
 placed in the midst of a square — the Birmingham square, how- 
 ever, having much the larger area — and it consequently fairly 
 shows itself on all sides. The Birmingham interior is far the 
 better of the two, St. John's being very poor. St. Philip's 
 Church was commenced in 1711, consecrated in 1715, and com- 
 pleted in 1719. St. John's was beguu in 1721, and consecrated 
 in 1728, but not finished till some years later. It is only fair 
 to add that many alterations were made in St. John's during the 
 progress of the works, and in opposition to the wish of the 
 architect : Archer's original design will be found in the Crowle 
 Pennant in the Print Boom of the British Museum. Archer's 
 contemporaries had sufficient confidence in bis ability. He had 
 numerous commissions, and when he died, April 23, 1743, he 
 left a fortune of over 100,000?. " to his youngest nephew, H. 
 Archer, Esq., member for Warwick." 
 
 ARCKENHOLTZ, JOHANN, celebrated Swedish writer, 
 was born in Finland in 1695. In 1730 he accompanied a 
 Swedish nobleman named Hildebrand in a tour through Europe, 
 and whilst in Paris he wrote some remarks on the connection 
 between France and Sweden, in the course of which he reflected 
 somewhat severely on Cardinal Fleury, then prime minister of 
 France. Though the cause of much trouble, this served to bring 
 Arckenholtz conspicuously into notice. Eight years after his 
 return to Sweden, Arckenholtz's MS., through the indiscretion 
 of a friend, fell into the hands of Count Gyllenborg, the leader 
 of the French party, who transmitted it through the French 
 ambassador to Cardinal Fleury. The cardinal demanded satis- 
 faction of the Swedish government, and the king, after vainly 
 attempting to remove his anger, was reluctantly forced to dismiss 
 Arckenholtz (1738) from the post he held in the Swiss chancery. 
 Arckenholtz found it convenient to travel abroad. King Fre- 
 derick, as elector of Hesse-Cassel, gave him, 1746, the post of court 
 librarian at Cassel, which he held for 20 years, when he was 
 recalled to Stockholm (1766), and appointed historiographer, the 
 States granting him a pension of 1200 dollars on condition ot 
 his writing the life of his patron, King Frederick, a duty he 
 never fulfilled. His last years seem to have been mostly taken 
 up with speculations and visions of the spirit world, after the 
 example of Emmanuel Swedenborg. He died on the 14th of 
 July, 1777. 
 
 Cardinal Fleury's excessive anger at Arckenholtz's remarks 
 gained him credit for extraordinary literary skill, but bis writings 
 by no means satisfied the expectations which had been raised. His 
 most important work was ' Memoires concernant Christine, Reine 
 de Suede/ four large volumes 4to, Amsterdam, 1751-60. The bo ik 
 
1C5 
 
 ARESON, JON. 
 
 ARETUSI, CESARE. 
 
 105 
 
 when it appeared excited prodigious interest, but it was soon 
 ruthlessly attacked by d'Alembert and Voltaire, and with less 
 wit but equal vigour by the Danish historian, Baron Holberg. 
 At the end of a century it retains its character as an invaluable 
 collection of materials, but French critics are as much disturbed 
 as ever by its harsh and lumbering style. Arckenholtz replied 
 to his assailants in a ' Reponse a la Lettre de M. le Baron de 
 Holberg,' 8vo, 1753, and a ' Lettre a M. G [esner] a l'occasion des 
 Reflexions sur Christine par M. d'Alembert,' 8vo, 1754 ; and in 
 some respects he had the better of the fight. But in a literary 
 sense the attack was so damaging that he (or his publisher) 
 deemed it prudent to place the materials he had collected for a 
 companion work, the ' Life of Gustavus Adolphus,' in the hands 
 of Mauvillon, who wrought them into his ' Histoire de Gustave- 
 Adolphe.' Arckenholtz afterwards published, ' Recueil des 
 Sentimens et des ProposdeGustave-Adolphe,' Stockholm, 12mo, 
 1769 ; ' Lettres sur les Lapons et les Finnois,' Frankfurt, 8vo, 
 1756 ; ' Memoires de Rusdorf,' Frankfurt, 1762 ; an historical 
 sketch of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel ; an attempt at a Prag- 
 matical History of Conventions and Treaties of a Free State with 
 Neighbouring Powers ; and one or two other essays, all of them 
 written in French. 
 
 ARESON, JON, the last Roman Catholic bishop of Iceland, 
 was born at Grita, Eyatiord, in 1484. Although poor, and scantily 
 educated, he had high notions of genealogy, and he (or his 
 friends for him) claimed to be eighty-fifth in direct descent from 
 Adam. He entered the church at the age of twenty, as priest of 
 Helgastad. Under instructions from Bishop Gottskalk of Holum, 
 he undertook two missions to Norway, which brought him much 
 reputation. After filling the posts of Dispensator and Officialis, he 
 was appointed Bishojj of Holum in 1522 ; but Ogmuncl, Bishop 
 of Skalholt, claiming the right of nomination, sent an armeel 
 force against Areson, and drove him out of Iceland. An appeal 
 to Archbishop Olaus at Drontheim resulted in Areson's rein- 
 statement and consecration in 1524. After the lapse of many 
 years, circumstances made Areson as violent in his conduct as 
 Ogmund had been. Frederick III. of Denmark, having accepted 
 the Reformation, sent orders in 1540 to prepare for it in Iceland. 
 Nearly all the clergy yielded assent except Areson, who not only 
 defied the king and the Althing, or annual assembly of Iceland, for 
 years together, but began in 1549 a bitter persecution of the 
 Protestant Bishop of Skalholt. Areson had taken a mistress 
 while a priest, and had sons by her, who intermarried with the 
 best families in Iceland ; and when he was outlawed by the 
 king for contumacy in 1549, two of his sons joined him in a 
 tierce war against the Protestants. All three were captured, and 
 beheaded, November 7th, 1550. The Reformation was quietly 
 completed after this tragic episode. 
 
 Areson was the best Icelandic poet of his time. He introduced 
 printing into Iceland in 1530 with the aid of John Matthiae from 
 Sweden. His published works are ' Manuale Pastorum ;' ' Pin- 
 slargratr,' or a Lamentation for the Passion ; a Paraphrase on 
 the 51st Psalm, and Miscellaneous Poems. 
 
 ARETINO, D'AREZZO, orDE ARRETINUS, is an addition 
 of frequent occurrence to the Christian names of distinguished 
 Italians. It implies that they are citizens of Arezzo in Tuscany, 
 or connected with the place by birth or residence. Pietro 
 Aretino [E. C. voL i. col. 300], and Spinello Aretino [ib. col. 
 302j are examples. The following may be noticed in this 
 Supplement. 
 
 ARETINO, ANGELO, a distinguished jurist of the 15th 
 century, was of a family named Gambiglioni, and took his 
 doctor's degree at Bologna in 1422 ; was assessor at Perugia, and 
 afterwards held judicial offices in Rome, Citta di Castello, and 
 Nescia, where he was imprisoned for a year on an unjust charge 
 of misconduct. On his release he was appointed to lecture on 
 the Institutes at Ferrara ; afterwards, 1 438, at Bologna ; and 
 then again, 1445, at Ferrara, where he continued with the highest 
 reputation till his death, which probably occurred shortly alter 
 1450. He wrote several works which were long regarded as 
 authorities, and one ' Tractatus de Maleficiis,' fol. 1472, and 
 many times reprinted, which is still found in good law libraries. 
 
 ARETINO, BONAGUIDA, a celebrated jurist and glossator 
 of the 13th century, was born at Arezzo, taught the canon law in 
 that town, and practised as an advocate during the pontificate of 
 Innocent IV. (1243-54). His writings refer to forms of process 
 as well as to the principles of canon law. Savigny gives a full 
 account of his writings as well as those of Angelo Aretino. 
 
 ARETINO, CARLO, one of the most distinguished scholars 
 of the court of Cosmo de' Medici, was the son of Gregorio Mar- 
 suppini, at one time governor of Genoa, and was born at Arezzo 
 
 about 1399. He learnt Latin under John of Ravenna, Greek 
 under Manuel Chrysoloras ; early secured the favour of Cosmo 
 de' Medici ; for some time lectured in Florence on the classic 
 writers ; in 1441 was appointed to the honorary office of apostolic 
 secretary ; and in 1444 to the important post of chancellor to the 
 republic, which he filled with so much credit that on his death 
 in April, 1453, he was decreed a splendid public funeral in the 
 nave of Santa Croce. Carlo Aretino was regarded as one of the 
 greatest Greek and Latin scholars and orators of his age, though 
 few specimens of his literary ability have been printed. A selec- 
 tion of his Latin poems is given in vol. vi. of the ' Carmina Illus- 
 trium Poetarum ltalorum,' Florence, 1720 ; and a translation of 
 the ' Batrachomyomachia ' into Latin hexameters was published 
 at Parma, 4to, 1492, and reprinted with the original and an Italian 
 version by the Abbe Lavagnoli, Venice, 4to, 1744. 
 
 ARETINO, FRANCESCO. [Accolti, Francesco, E. C. S. 
 col. 15.] 
 
 ARETINO, LEONARDO. [Brunt, Leonardo, E. C. vol. i. 
 col. 978.] 
 
 ARETIUS, BENEDICT, learned Swiss botanist and divine, 
 was born at Bern about 1505 ; studied in his native city ; was in 
 1548 appointed professor of logic at Marburg, but in the follow- 
 ing year returned to Bern as principal of the gymnasium ; was 
 nominated professor of languages in 1563, and later professor of 
 theology ; and died April 22nd, 1574. Aretius was a laborious 
 scholar, and in theology a devoted, or as he has been styled, 
 fanatical disciple of Calvin, going the length of writing a treatise 
 in defence of the execution of Valentinus Gentilis for holding 
 Arian views — a treatise that was translated into English. His 
 sj)are time was given to botanising in the country around Bern, 
 carrying out his investigations at home, or in correspondence with 
 men of science and learning. Conrad Gessner makes frequent 
 reference to Aretius in his works, and gave his name to an Alpine 
 plant which he was the first to describe (Aretia helvetica). The 
 reputation of Aretius as a botanist rests on a description of the 
 flora of the Niesen and Stockhorn mountains, ' Descriptio Stocc- 
 horni et Nessi montium in Bernatium Helveticorum ditione et 
 nascentium in eis stirpium,' printed in a folio edition of the 
 works of Valerius Cordus and in Gessner's ' Hortus Germanise.' 
 Sprengel states that about 40 plants were for the first time 
 described in it. Aretius also published a work on the history 
 and nature of comets, ' Brevis Cometarum Explication 4to, Bern, 
 1556; and edited an old medical treatise 'Opus Physicum et 
 Medicum de gradibus et compositionibus medicamentorum,' 8vo, 
 Zurich, 1572. Of his numerous theological publications the 
 following are perhaps the most important : — ' Censura Con- 
 clusionum quod Baptismus non successerit circumcisioni contra 
 Paxlo-baptistas,' Geneva, 1567 ; ' Examen Theologicum, brevi et 
 perspicua methodo conscriptum,' 1572 ; ' Problemata Theologica, 
 folio, Lausanne, in three parts, of which the first and second' 
 appeared in 1574, and the third (posthumous) in 1576. His 
 lectures on the Lord's Supper, ' Lectiones vii. de Ccena Domini,' 
 Lausanne, 1578, passed through several editions, as did also his 
 (posthumous) commentary on the New Testament, ' Commentarii 
 in Libros Novi Testamenti,' fol. 1580; 'Commentarii Breves in 
 Mosis Pentateuchum,' Bern, 8vo, 1602. To these should be 
 added his commentaries on Pindar, ' Commentarii absolutissimi 
 in PyndarijOlympia, Pythia, Nemea, Isthmia,' Geneva, 4to, 15&9. 
 
 ARETUSI, CESARE, called also CESARE MODENESE, 
 was born at Modena about the middle of the 16th century ; 
 studied the works of Raminghi and Correggio ; acquired reputa- 
 tion as a portrait painter ; and was admitted a citizen of Bologna, 
 but on the invitation of Duke Ranuccio he removed to Parma, 
 where he died in 1612. Aretusi belonged to a stage in ItaHan 
 art when facility of execution and skill in imitating the manner 
 of the masters of the preceding period were sufficient to secure 
 fanie. Both these faculties he possessed, and he was far above 
 the average as a colourist. He was accordingly employed to 
 make a copy for the cathedral of San Giovanni, at Parma, of 
 Correggio's famous picture of the Notte now at Dresden, and he 
 executed his commission with so much ability that probably 
 Menga was not singular in believing that the possession of the 
 copy would compensate the loss of the original. At any rate the 
 authorities were so well satisfied, that having decided to erect a 
 new tribune to the cathedral, they directed Aretusi to make 
 copies from the frescoes by Correggio which adorned the old 
 tribune, and these being made, the old pictures were destroyed 
 with the walls on which they had been painted. Aretusi's dex- 
 terity in assimilating Correggio's manner seems to have been 
 exercised on easel as well as mural paintings ; and as it was evi- 
 dently appreciated by his contemporaries, it is not unlikely that 
 
107 
 
 many 'duplicates' and some 'originals' ascribed to the fireal 
 painter are due to the pencil of his copyist. Arctusi had little 
 inventive or original power. Some of his best so-called original 
 works were produced in conjunction with Gio. Battista Fiorini, 
 an artist of whom little is known beyond his co-partnership with 
 Aretusi. 
 
 ARGENTRE, BERTRAND 1")', a learned French jurist and 
 historian, was born at Vitro, in Brittany, in 1519. He at first 
 applied himself to the study of history and general literature, 
 and wrote a Latin history of Brittany ; but it was never printed, 
 and the MS. is in the Bibliotheque Imperiale. D'Argentre, in 
 1547, succeeded his father as Senechal of Rennes. He had 
 deeply studied jurisprudence, and became the acknowledged lead- 
 ing authority on the customary law of Brittany. He was in 1579 
 appointed one of the commissioners for the reformation of that 
 law. In the performance of this task he took high ground in 
 maintaining the feudal and seignorial privileges, and would 
 have strengthened the position of the lord as against the vassal 
 had he not been checked by the more liberal views of his coad- 
 jutors. On the completion of the commission, the States of 
 Brittany invited D'Argentre to write a history of that province, 
 which, by the aid of some memoirs prepared by his great-um le, 
 Pierre le Baud, he completed in three years. The work was 
 published at Rennes, in 1582, but proved to be little more than 
 a dry detail of facts. By the Parliament of Paris it was, how- 
 ever suppressed, on account of the freedom with which he had 
 spoken of the ancient rights and independence of Brittany. 
 D'Argentre revised, modified, and republished his history in 
 1588. It became his duty to act against the League in 1589 ; 
 and this duty occasioned him so much pain, harass, and vexation, 
 that he died 13th February, 1590. D'Argentre wrote a great 
 number of works on the customary law of Breton, and on the 
 feudal rights, privileges, and prescriptions. Several of these 
 works were printed in his lifetime, and all were collected and 
 published by his son in 1608 under the title, ' Commentarii in 
 Patriae Britonum Leges, in luceni editi cura et studio Caroli 
 d'Argentre.' A life of D'Argentre, by Mionec de Kirdanet, was 
 published at Rennes in 1820. 
 
 ARGENTRE, CHARLES DU PLESSIS D', Bishop of 
 Tulle, was born at Du Plessis, near Vitre, the 16th of May, 
 1673. After studying philosopthy at the college of Beauvais, 
 and theology at the Sorbonne, he joined the order of Friars 
 Minors ; was admitted into the Society of the Sorbonne in 
 1698, and received a doctor's degree in 1700. In the same year 
 he was nominated to the Augustine abbey of Sainte-Croix de 
 Guingamp. In 1702 he obtained the deanery of Laval. He 
 was elected, in 1705, one of the deputies of the second order to 
 represent Tours at the General Assembly of the Clergy of 
 France. In 1707 he became vicar-general to the Bishop of 
 Treguier ; in 1709, almoner to the King ; and in 1725, Bishop 
 of Tulle. For some years alter this he was one of the deputies 
 of the first order representing the province of Bourges at the 
 General Assembly of the Clergy. He continued diligently in 
 the discharge of his diocesan duties until his death, which took 
 place October 27th, 1740. D'Argentre published fourteen works 
 between 1698 and 1734 on theological subjects. Many were 
 controversial, directed against the writings of Jurieu, Fenelon, 
 and Hold en. His principal works were 'Analyse de la Foi, 
 avec mi traite de l'essence et des marques qui distinguent la 
 veritable Eglise de Jesus-Christ,' two vols. 12mo, Lyon, 1698 ; 
 'Elementa Theologica,' &c, 4to, Paris, 1702; 'Lexicon Philo- 
 sophicum,' La Haye, 4to, 1706; 'De Supernaturalitate,' &c, 
 Paris, 4to. He also published a large number of sermons, 
 funeral orations, pastoral letters, &c. 
 
 ARINGHI, PAOLO, an Italian antiquary of the 17th cen- 
 tury, was born at Rome, entered at an early age the Congrega- 
 tion of the Oratory, and remained in it till his death in 1676. 
 As an investigator of the ancient remains of his native city, he did 
 good service to the study of Christian antiquities by his ' Roma 
 Subterranea,' two vols, folio, Rome, 1651 ; Cologne, 1659 ; Paris, 
 1659. Substantially a Latin version of Ant. Bosio's 'Roma 
 Sotteranea,' though much extended and improved, Aringhi's 
 book is practically superseded by the later and more elaborate 
 works of Bottari, Louis Perret, and Rossi, but no original 
 investigator can afford to leave Aringhi unreferred to. His 
 other works are ' Monumenta Infelicitas, sive Mortes Peccatorum 
 pessimae,' 2 vols, fob, Rome, 1664 ; ' Triumphus Pcenitentia,' fob, 
 Rome, 1670. 
 
 ARLER, PETER VON, German mediaeval architect, was 
 bom about 1333 at Bologna, where his father, Heinrich von 
 Gemund, in - uaT>ia, had recently settled. Peter von Aider was, 
 
 in 1356, already in Germany, and though so young, must have 
 acquired some reputation, since in that year was entrusted to 
 him the completion of the cathedral of St. Vitus, in the 
 Hradschin, or royal quarter, Prague. This magniticent struc- 
 ture, in many respects one of the finest examples of German 
 Gothic architecture extant, was commenced by Mathieu d' Arras 
 in 1343 ; Von Arler continued the works for thirty years, till 
 they were interrupted by his death in 1386, and unhappily they 
 were left incomplete, only the choir and one of the towers having 
 been erected. The tower, the highest in Europe, being 506 feet 
 high, was reduced after a great lire in 1541 to its present height 
 of 314 feet. The original design, still preserved in the Sehatz- 
 kammer (treasury) of the cathedral, was probably by d'Arras, 
 but its present aspect, and particularly the exceeding richness of 
 the decoration, is no doubt due to Von Arler. The Allerhelighi 
 Kirche, in the same city, was also erected by Von Arler, and the 
 famous bridge over the Mohlau, between the Alstadt and the 
 Kleinseite, with its fifty-six statues of saints, was commenced 
 by him, though not completed till a century and a quarter alter 
 his death. The only other work of importance attributed to 
 Von Arler is the church of Kolin on the Elbe. 
 
 ARLINCO URT, CHARLES VICTOR PREVOT, 
 VICOMTE D', French writer, was born at the chateau de 
 Merantrais, near Versailles, September 28, 1789. His father, of 
 an old family of Artois, was one of the royalist victims of 1793, 
 and the boy. was taken by his mother into Picardie, where he 
 was educated under an abbe. At ten years of age he is said to 
 have written a poem of many thousand lines on the elfect of the 
 passions, but happily it was consigned to the flames. The young 
 count was noticed hy Napoleon I., who appointed him succes- 
 sively to posts in the establishment of Madame Mere ; in the 
 diplomatic service in Spain ; and as auditor of the council of 
 state. On the fall of Napoleon I., M. d'Arlincourt transferred 
 his services to Louis XV1IL, who made him maitre des 
 requetes ; but he was dazzled by the reappearance of the Em- 
 peror, and after the Hundred Days he was superseded by Louis ; 
 nor, though his Bourbonism went on increasing in fervour, did 
 he succeed in regaining the confidence of the family till after 
 the events of 1830. His first literary venture was in a fragment 
 of an epic poem, published in 1810, under the title of ' Une 
 Matinee de Charlemagne,' in which some incense was skilfully 
 administered to the living Charlemagne ; but when the com- 
 pleted epic was published in 1818 as 'Le Caroleide,' Charle- 
 magne had fallen, and the tone was sensibly modified. How- 
 ever, it had a certain amount of popularity, and a third edition 
 was published in 1824. But though he continued occasionally 
 to write verse, it was to his prose romances that he owed his 
 exceptional celebrity. Of these the most popular was ' Le 
 Solitaire ' (1825), which passed through numerous editions, was 
 transferred to the stage in most European capitals, and was 
 made the subject of a successful opera-comique. ' L'Etrangere,' 
 ' Le Renegat,' and ' LTpsiboe,' were very similar in character 
 and conduct, all glancing at current events, and satirizing 
 present manners under old names and times. The ejection of 
 Charles X. from the throne of France turned his pen to political 
 satire, and from this time he poured forth a stream of romances 
 which, under historic pseudonyms, are filled with extravagant 
 laudation of the Bourbons, and denunciations of their successors, 
 and of all who fail to appreciate their high qualities : the titles 
 of a few will serve as examples, ' Les Rebelles sous Charles V.' 
 (1832); ' Bannisement et retour de Charles VII.' 'LeBrasseur 
 Roi'(1833); ' Les Trois Chateaux ' ; ' Les Pelerins ' ; 'Les Trois 
 Royaumes ' (1845) ; ' La Tache de Sang,' and so forth. The 
 revolution of 1848 strongly excited him, and he issued a violent 
 political pamphlet, ' Dieu le veut ! ' (1848), which led to a 
 prosecution, and of which a 60th edition appeared in 1849. 
 This was followed by a second brochure, ' LTtalie Rouge,' which 
 went through seven editions. The enemies of M. d'Arlincourt, 
 who, as may be supposed, were pretty numerous, attributed the 
 apparent success of his numerous works to the means he took to 
 ensure their circulation, but much of it may be accounted for by 
 his position, his trenchant language, and thorough-going parti- 
 zanship. None of his productions are likely to live. He made a 
 couple of dramatic attempts ; first with a tragedy, ' Le Siege de 
 Paris' (1826), then with a less regular play, ' La Peste Noir,' in 
 1845 ; but both were unsuccessful. M. d'Arlincourt died 
 January 22, 1856. 
 
 ARMANI, or ARMANNI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, one 
 of the most distinguished of the modern extemporaneous poets 
 of Italy, was born at Venice 14th March, 1768. After serving 
 for two years as a military cadet with the Venetian expedition 
 
109 ARMATI, SAL VINO. 
 
 to Africa, and studying for a time at the University of Pavia, 
 he began, at the age of twenty, to support himself by travelling 
 about Italy as an improvisatore. When the stirring times of 
 the Napoleonic wars began, Armani was appointed in 1797 Vice 
 Secretary of the Committee of Public Safety at Venice. For 
 eighteen years after this appointment his fortunes fluctuated 
 with the changing political events in Italy. He died June 15th, 
 1815, while filling the post of Chancellor of Taxes, at Adria. 
 Many of Armani's extemporaneous effusions were collected and 
 published by the Abate Segalini in 1814, under the title 
 'Squarcio di Versi estemporanei di G. B. Armani.' His verses 
 are curious rather than admirable ; often rhymes to fit certain 
 endings presented to him of eight lines. One, on the Death 
 of a Cricket, had to bring in three lines from Petrarch. 
 Another, a sonnet, had not only the endings to fit to prescribed 
 rhymes, but the fourteen lines to begin with the letters of 
 'Amorvince tutto.' Two dramas by him, ' Mehamet III.' and 
 ' Sofia,' were acted without success. Several translations from 
 his pen were printed, but are forgotten. He also made col- 
 lections for a History of Extemporaneous Poetry in Italy, but 
 the work was never written, and the materials are lost. 
 
 ARMATI, SALVINO, the reputed inventor of spectacles, was 
 born at Florence in the latter half of the 13th century, and died 
 in 1317. The credit awarded to him is based on several slight 
 facts. Roger Bacon in 1292, Vanni del Busca in 1299, and G. del 
 Rivolto in 1305, all allude to spectacles in a way that points to 
 the probable invention about 1280 or 1290. Other testimony 
 supports the claim of Armati rather than that of Alessandro 
 Spina, of Pisa, who has also been credited as the inventor. 
 
 ARMENGAUD, JEAN GERMAIN DESIRE, French writer 
 on art, was born at Castres, department of Tarn, in 1797, and 
 educated at Lavaur and Toulouse. Against his will he was 
 placed in a commercial establishment, but he was after a time 
 enabled to devote himself to the more congenial pursuit of art. 
 After spending some time in the museums of France, he visited 
 the principal galleries of Europe, and thus prepared, commenced 
 the publication of a work of importance, the 1 Histoire des 
 Peintres du toutes les Ecoles depuis la Renaissance jusqu'a nos 
 Jours,' 4to, with engravings, 1849; the completion of the book 
 was, however, left for M. Ch. Blanc. M. Armengaud's next 
 publication was even more ambitious in character than his 
 first— 'Les Galeries Publiques de l'Europe,' of which the first 
 volume, large 4to, devoted to Rome, appeared in 1856, and was 
 reprinted in small folio in 1859. This, in its wood engravings, 
 paper, and printing, is one of the handsomest and best got up 
 volumes which have ever issued from the Parisian press ; it 
 was patronised by the Pope, who, as a mark of his appreciation, 
 bestowed on M. Armengaud the Order of St. Gregory the 
 Great ; and it was largely subscribed for ; but the text was not 
 satisfactory, and several years elapsed before another volume 
 was issued, and with that the series seems to have come to an 
 end. M. Armengaud's other works are — ' Chefs-d'oeuvre de 
 l'Art Chretien,' Imp. 8vo, 1858; 'Les Tresorsde l'Art,' 1859, with 
 47 engravings on steel ; ' Les Chefs-d'oeuvre de Rubens a la 
 Cathedrale d'Anvers,' 1859; and ' Le Parthenon de 1' Histoire,' 
 1863 — 64, — like some of the preceding, more remarkable for the 
 brilliancy of the illustrations than for the value of the text. M. 
 Armengaud died in March, 1869. His brother, Jules Edouard 
 Armexgaud, is an able designer, and, partly in conjunction with 
 a still younger brother, Charles, has published several important 
 works on the mechanical and industrial arts, including ' Publica- 
 tion industrielle des Machines, Outils et Appareils les plus perfec- 
 tionnes etles plus recents, employes dans les differentes branches 
 de l'Indu3trie Francaise et Etrangere,' 1 1 vols. 8vo, witli folio 
 plates, 1840 — 58; ' Nouveau Cours raisonne de Dessin industriel 
 applique,' 8vo, with folio plates, 1848 — 50; 'Cours elementaires de 
 Dessin industriel a l'usage des Ecoles primaires,' 4to, with plates, 
 1850; 'Le Genie Industriel,' 4to, 1851—56, &c. 
 
 *ARMITAGE, EDWARD, A.R.A., was born in London, May 
 the 20th, 1817. His artistic education was acquired in Paris, 
 where during 1836 — 38 he studied in the atelier of Delaroche, 
 obtaining that precision of drawing and firmness of handling 
 which have ever since characterised his productions, and which 
 induced the great French painter to select him as his assistant in 
 executing the Hemicycle in the Ecolc des Beaux-arts. Mr. 
 Armitage, we believe, exhibited his first picture, 'Prometheus,' 
 at the Salon in 1842. In 1843 he obtained by his ' Landing of 
 Julius Caesar in Britain' one of the first-class prizes at the 
 cartoon competition in Westminster Hall ; in 1845 he won a 
 200i. prize for his ' Spirit of Religion,' and in 1847 a 500^. prize 
 for the ' Battle of Meanee,' the last of which he received a com- 
 
 ARMSTRONG, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE. 110 
 
 mission to paint in oil for the Queen. Mr. Armitage now spent 
 two or three years in Italy, with great benefit, especially in 
 colour, in which he had previously been somewhat deficient. 
 This was apparent in his ' Mother of Thomas a Becket seeking 
 Gilbert,' exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1849, but still more 
 in his 'Aholibah,' 1850, aiid 'Samson,' 1851, the first of the 
 scriptural pictures in which he gave evidence of distinctive style 
 combined with careful study. From this time Mr. Armitage 
 has continued to paint subjects of an elevated class, and always 
 in a serious and conscientious spirit. Of those contributed to 
 the annual exhibitions of the Royal Academy the following may 
 be specified :— ' Hagar,' 1852 ; ' The City of Refuge,' 1853 ; 
 ' The Lotos Eaters,' 1854 ; ' The Mother of Moses hiding after 
 having exposed her Child on the river's brink,' 1860 ; ' Pharaoh's 
 Daughter,' 1861; 'The Burial of a Christian Martyr in the 
 time of Nero,' 1863 ; ' Ahab and Jezebel,' 1864 ; ' Esther's 
 Banquet,' 1865 ; ' The Remorse of Judas,' and ' The Parents of 
 Christ seeking Him/ 1866 ; ' Christ Healing the Sick,' 1867 ; 
 ' Herod's Birthday Feast,' a very fine work, 1868 ; 'Hero lighting 
 the beacon to guide Leander across the Hellespont,' a production 
 of rare grace and beauty; and 'Christ calling James and John, 
 the sons of Zebedee,' 1869. With the multitude of visitors 
 these have not perhaps been popular pictures, but it may be 
 doubted if any have during these years done more to sustain the 
 credit of the English school of painting. We are not called upon 
 here to enter upon their merits, but we are bound to record the 
 earnestness of purpose and thorough study on the part of the 
 artist which each in succession has displayed. Besides these, 
 Mr. Armitage has painted some frescoes in the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment ; a life-size series in the Roman Catholic church of St. 
 John, Duncan -terrace, Islington, and a large commemorative 
 picture of ' Henry Crabb Robinson surrounded by his Friends,' 
 on the wall of University Hall, Gordon-squai'e, London. In 
 1855 Mr. Armitage visited the Crimea, and afterwards painted 
 some of the incidents of the war there ; and in 1867 he was 
 elected Associate of the Royal Academy. 
 
 *ARMSTRONG, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE, a distinguished 
 civil and mechanical engineer, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne 
 in 1810. His father was a merchant, and, in one year, mayor of 
 that town ; his mother was a daughter of Mr. Potter, of Wal- 
 bottle Hall, Northumberland. From a child he evinced a liking 
 for mechanical pursuits. When not more than six years old, lie 
 planned a method of setting a number of old spinning-wheels 
 in motion by means of weights descending on strings from top to 
 bottom of his father's house ; and the wheels, thus set spinning, 
 were made to act upon imitative water-pumps, corn-mills, &c. 
 Young Armstrong, at a proper age, was articled to Mr. Donkin, a 
 solicitor at Newcastle ; and he afterwards studied special pleading 
 in London with his brother-in-law, Mr. (the late Baron) Watson, 
 with a view to the adoption of the legal profession. His in- 
 terest in mechanical and scientific pursuits continued, however, to 
 be the leading feature in his character. This bias became more 
 decided in 1835, when his attention was riveted by observing 
 the great waste of power in some of the Yorkshire cascades and 
 rapids. He felt that something better might be done than merely 
 work a few water-wheels with the descensive force, by bringing 
 down the water in a closed instead of an open channel, and thus 
 preventing the waste of nineteen-twentieths of the power. This 
 was the germ of important works in later years. In 1840 he 
 made another observation fruitful in results. He found that 
 steam, escaping through cement round the safety-valve of a 
 boiler, was in an electric state. This suggested a course of 
 experiments which led to the construction of his hydro-electric 
 machine, the most powerful apparatus known for producing 
 frictional electricity. This invention, induced by a discovery, 
 led to Mr. Armstrong's election as a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 It was not, however, until 1847 that lie abandoned the law as a 
 profession. Shortly before this date he had acted as chief promoter 
 of, and solicitor to, a scheme for providing Newcastle with 
 water; and then, when an act was obtained for the purpose, 
 he brought his love for hydraulic science into immediate useful- 
 ness. His plan was adopted of applying water-pressure, by 
 descent through the pipes of the Whittle Dean Waterworks, to 
 various mechanical purposes in the town, especially that of 
 working hydraulic cranes on the quay. The success was so 
 complete, that Mr. Armstrong resolved to establish himself as a 
 mechanical engineer. He and a small circle of friends founded the 
 Elswick Engine W orks near Newcastle. About the same time he 
 was elected a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and 
 was warmly encouraged by the late Mr. Rendel. Mr. Hartley, 
 Engineer of the Liverpool Docks, introduced the hydraulic 
 
ARNIIEIM, GEORG BARON VON. 112 
 
 cranes there ; and ever since that time the Elswick Works have 
 been busy in the construction of similar machines. Mr. 
 Armstrong's ' Accumulator' has greatly increased the efficiency of 
 his hydraulic machinery. Where a head of water cannot be 
 obtained by mere altitude, water is forced up by steam-power into 
 an artificial head, or accumnlator, which is constantly available as 
 a moving power for biting weights, opening and closing ponderous 
 dock-gates, working swing-bridges, pumping water, shipping 
 coal, hauling and lifting waggons, docking ships, crushing ore, 
 working lifts at hotels and lofty buildings, working capstans and 
 turntables, and numerous other purposes. The Armstrong 
 hydraulic machinery has become very extensively employed in 
 these several ways in or on railways, canals, mines, docks, and 
 other engineering works. 
 
 Mr. Armstrong's inventions relating to artillery commenced 
 in 1854. Meditating on the difficulty with which guns had 
 been brought into position at the battle of Inkermann, he 
 conceived that ordnance of equal effect might be made of 
 much smaller weight. He received encouragement from the 
 Duke of Newcastle (Secretary for War) to make an experimental 
 gun, which was completed in April, 18.05; but he made a very long 
 course of experiments before submitting it for final approval 
 Adopting wrought iron instead of cast, and a rifled instead of a 
 smooth-bore, he had nevertheless many other points to deter- 
 mine, — such as the mode of building up the gun of coiled slabs 
 or bars of iron, the number of rifle-grooves, their sharpness of 
 twist, the kind of shell and shot to employ, the best kind of fuze, 
 and the relative advantages of breech-loading and muzzle-loading. 
 After numberless experiments, Armstrong submitted a 3-pounder 
 gun to the War Office in 1856, then a 5-pounder, and then an 18- 
 pounder in 1857. In 1858, when General Peel was Secretary 
 for War, a contract was made for a large number of the new guns. 
 Mr. Armstrong ceded all his patents in ordnance matters to the 
 Government; the guns were to be made by the Elswick Com- 
 pany, under certain stringent conditions, in a distinct establish- 
 ment, to be called the Elswick Ordnance Works. Mr. Armstrong 
 was knighted and made a C.B., and was appointed Engineer of 
 Rifled Ordnance, with a salary of 2000/. a year. The guns first 
 made under this contract were breech-loaders, mostly 12, 20, and 
 40-pounders, but guns of much larger calibre were afterwards 
 made as muzzle-loaders for naval use as well as for land service. 
 Between the years 1858 and 1870 the Armstrong gun and the 
 position of Sir W. G. Armstrong in reference to the Government 
 underwent many changes ; but the leading feature of the gun, 
 whether rifled or smooth, muzzle-loading or breech-loading, is in 
 the coiling of one wrought-iron tube over another until a suffi- 
 cient thickness is built up. His ordnance, of various kinds, has 
 ranged from a 1 -pounder up to a 600-pounder (the latter familiarly 
 named in 1863 "Big Will"). The Armstrong gun has been 
 largely adopted by the Austrian, Italian, Turkish, Spanish, 
 Danish, Dutch, Norwegian, Greek, Egyptian, Chilian, and Peru- 
 vian Governments. 
 
 Sir W. G. Armstrong, when president of the British Associa- 
 tion in 1863, drew attention to the gradual lessening of our 
 supply of coal, and the probability of actual exhaustion at some 
 future time. The discussion suggested by this important address 
 led to the appointment of a Royal Commission to inquire into all 
 the circumstances connected with our national coal supply, and 
 he was nominated a member of this commission. Sir William 
 strongly opposes the patent laws in their present form ; his 
 opinions thereon are embodied in evidence given before a Royal 
 Commission, which has been published in the parliamentary 
 papers. _ Sir W. G. Armstrong is president of the Institution of 
 Mechanical Engineers, and also of the Newcastle Literary and 
 Philosophical Society. The University of Cambridge has con- 
 ferred upon him the degree of LL.D. 
 
 ARNALDUS, or ARNOLDUS, DE VILLA NOVA is said to 
 have been born at Villeneuve, in Provence, about 1240, and to 
 have beeneducated at Barcelona under John Casamila, a celebrated 
 professor of medicine. He had to quit the place suddenly, in con- 
 sequence of having predicted the death of Peter of Aragon. After 
 travelling through Italy, he visited Paris, and became a teacher 
 in the University of Montpellier. He became famous as a physi- 
 cian, and as such, was sent for by several sovereigns, and even by 
 the Pope. He was skilled in the science of his time, and also in 
 the Hebrew, Greek, and Arabic languages. As an astrologer he 
 calculated the age of the world, and predicted that it would 
 come to an end in 1335. (Brande, ' Hist. Chim.,' says 1376.) 
 Eor this, and several other of his opinions, he was condemned as 
 a heretic, but he was protected by the Pope, although compelled 
 to leave France. He died in 1313, while proceeding to visit 
 
 Pope Clement V., who was ill, at Avignon ; some say he was 
 shipwrecked on the coast of Genoa. His works, 21 in number, 
 were published in a folio volume at Venice in 1505. There 
 were seven later editions, the last of which was published at 
 Strasburg in 1613. His Rosarium (' Rosarius Philosophorum ') 
 is a compendium of alchemy in theory and practice ; the latter 
 part, subdivided into 32 chapters, contains minute directions for 
 making the philosopher's stone. Dr. Thomson (' Hist. Chim.') 
 read it carefully, but found it in many parts quite unintel- 
 ligible. 
 
 Arnold, in common with other alchemists, regarded mercury 
 as a constituent of the metals. He admits some reservations in 
 his account of the philosopher's stone. His favourite medicines 
 were gold and gold-water, but he also used mercury and bismuth 
 (naming the latter marcasite). He distilled oil of turpentine, oil 
 of rosemary, and spirit of rosemary, which afterwards became 
 famous as Hungary vxiter. 
 
 Arnold is one of the worthies included in the once celebrated 
 apology of Mundaeus, a learned Frenchman of the 17th century, 
 entitled, ' An Apology for all the Wise Men who have been 
 unjustly reputed Magicians from the Creation to the Present 
 Age.' Arnold did not fail to suffer from the tendency of the 
 middle ages to denounce superior knowledge as magic, and 
 magic as a criminal pursuit. 
 
 ARNAUD DE MA RVEIL, a Provencal troubadour, was born 
 at Marvelh, in Perigord. The dates of his birth and death are not 
 known, but both were in the 12th century. He entered the ser- 
 vice of Roger II. Viscount of Beziers, to whose wife, in accordance 
 with the fashion of the troubadours in those days, but under 
 various fanciful names, he addressed passionate songs of praise 
 and love. He appears to have received handsome gifts in return 
 for these effusions. Alfonso, King of Castile, also an admirer of 
 the countess, brought about the removal of Arnaud, who had to 
 find an asylum with the lord of Montpellier. There is a great 
 variety of metres in his love songs, some of which have been 
 printed in various collections. One poem by him, in 400 verses, 
 breathes a tone of disappointment at the morals and conduct of 
 the world. Raynouard, Sismondi (who gives several specimens of 
 his verse), and other recent writers on the poetry of the trouba- 
 dours, place Arnaud de Marveil at the head of the amorous poets 
 of his age and country; but Petrarch, who styles him " the lesser 
 Arnaud," is much less favourable in his estimate. 
 
 (Millot, Hist. Lit. des Troubadours, vol. L pp. 69 — 84.) 
 
 ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ [E. C. vol. i. col. 350J. Not- 
 withstanding his great age, Herr Arndt continued active in 
 mind and body ; writing or translating poetry, taking pleasure 
 in the cultivation of his garden, in walking, visiting his friends, 
 still more in receiving those who came with feelings akin to 
 reverence to pay their respects to the venerable patriot. Mr. 
 Crabb Robinson, who saw him at Bonn in 1856, notes that he 
 found him "the same as ever. . . . His flow of talk or 
 declamation was in quantity equalled only by Coleridge; the tone 
 different — -Arndt having a sharp, loud, laughing voice ; his topics 
 always recurring — the difference of race and the science of 
 ethnology." So the old man lived on, over his 91st birthday, 
 which was celebrated as a festival, till he passed away on the 
 29th of January, 1860. A fine bronze statue of him, by Affinger, 
 was erected by the subscription of " the German people." 
 
 ARNGRIMSSON, EYSTEIN, the author of the most famous 
 religious poem in the Icelandic language, was a monk of the 14th 
 century, who having for repeated acts of insubordination been ex- 
 communicated in 1358 by Bishop Girder, of Skalholt, in proof of 
 his penitence composed a poem in honour of the Virgin Mary. 
 The bishop was so much debghted with the poem that he not 
 only removed the ban, but received the author into his friend- 
 ship, and made him his official. Arngrimsson died in 1361, 
 shortly after his arrival at Drontheim from a voyage in which 
 he had been shipwrecked. ' The Lily,' the poem above referred 
 to, is the only composition of Arngrimsson's which has come 
 down to us. It comprises a hundred stanzas of eight lines each, 
 and is written in a strain of elevated devotion to the Virgin. 
 When the country became Protestant 1 The Lily' ceased to be a 
 household poem, but it has never ceased to be reckoned the 
 finest specimen of Icelandic verse. It has been often printed, 
 the first time, in Icelandic only, being at the press of Holum in 
 1612, but somewhat altered in its religious tone by its editor, 
 Arngrim Jonsson (Jona?) : perhaps the best edition is that of 
 Finn Magnusson, 1818, who has accompanied it with a Danish 
 translation. 
 
 ARNHEIM, or ARNIM, GEORG BARON VON, a distin- 
 guished soldier and statesman of the time of the Thirty Years' 
 
113 
 
 ARNIM, LUDWIG ACHIM VON. 
 
 ARNOLD, MATTHEW. 
 
 II i 
 
 War, was bom about 1586 at Boitzenburg, in Brandenburg. 
 Although belonging to a noble family, he presented a charac- 
 teristic example of the soldier of fortune, one who takes up arms 
 as a profession without much regard to patriotism or interna- 
 tional politics. He entered early the Swedish army, in the 
 • service of Gustavus Adolphus ; but Wallenstein induced him to 
 change masters, and join the Imperial forces. In the command 
 of a regiment Arnheim shared in the victories of the Impe- 
 rialists at Domitz, &c, in 1626. Wallenstein then employed 
 him on a mission to Gustavus Adolphus, to induce the latter to 
 join in an attack on Christian IV. : Sweden to have Norway, 
 and the emperor Denmark, as a partition of the spoil. Instead 
 of succeeding in this mission, Arnheim discovered that Gustavus 
 had a scheme for appropriating all the provinces on the south 
 shore of the Baltic, assuming to himself the title of " Protector 
 of the Protestant Faith in Germany." Wallenstein changed his 
 plan accordingly, with a view to frustrate intrigue by counter- 
 intrigue. In his projects he estimated very highly the aid of 
 Arnheim, who by astute negotiations gained over Mecklenburg 
 and Pomerania to the Imperial side. Arnheim conducted the 
 siege of Stralsund in 1628, and then went to aid Sigismund of 
 Poland against the Swedes. When, in 1630, Wallenstein was 
 dismissed by the Emperor, Arnheim quitted the Imperial ser- 
 vice. He next became field-marshal and commander-in-chief of 
 the Elector of Saxony's forces, which he led against the Swedes. 
 Wallenstein, restored to favour in 1632, marched against his old 
 friend and supporter, Arnheim, with (it is believed) some kind of 
 secret understanding between them. New intrigues arose after 
 the death of Wallenstein in 1634, which led to Arnheim fighting 
 once more against the Imperialists, whom he defeated at 
 Liegnitz. After the signing of the peace of Prague in 1635, 
 Arnheim retired to his castle of Boitzenburg ; here he was sur- 
 prised and seized by the Swedish general Wrangell, and taken 
 to Stockholm in 1637. He escaped, and, while planning a scheme 
 of revenge, died suddenly, June 29, 1641. Cardinal Richelieu 
 characterised Arnheim as the ablest Protestant whom the Pope 
 could have trusted and honoured. 
 
 ARNIM, LUDWIG ACHIM VON, an eminent Prussian 
 poet, was born at Berlin, January 26, 1781. After studying 
 medicine and the natural sciences at Gottingen, he took the degree 
 of M.D., though he never practised as a physician. He wrote 
 several works, some poetical and some scientific, and then went 
 to travel in Germany, the romantic scenery of which strength- 
 ened his natural love for the primitive simplicity of popular 
 legends and poems. In conjunction with Clemens Brentano, he 
 published at Heidelberg, in 1803, a collection of popular songs, 
 under the title ' Das Knaben Wunderhom.' After marrying 
 Brentano's sister, (Goethe's correspondent Bettina, see the next 
 article), he resided quietly in and near Berlin until his death, 
 which took place January 21, 1831. Arnim's writings were only 
 appreciated gradually : his romantic, imaginative, gentle tone 
 seeming to have little to do with the actual world around him. 
 His most popular work is the collection above-mentioned. His 
 best original work is the novel, 'Armuth, Reichthum, Schuld 
 und Busse der Grafin Dolores' (1810), in which all his pecu- 
 liarities are distinctly marked. He also published ' Halle und 
 Jerusalem, Studentsjfiel und Pilgerabenteuer,' and ten or a dozen 
 other poems and novels, besides many pieces in verse and prose 
 contributed to periodicals, all of which have been published in 
 a collected form, ' Sammtlichen Werke/ 19 vols. Berlin, 
 1839—46. 
 
 ARNIM, ELIZABETH VON, better known as Bettina, wife 
 of Ludwig Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens 
 Brentano, was born April 4, 1785, at Frankfurt, and educated 
 partly in a convent, partly under the direction of her aunt, the 
 celebrated Sophie Laroche. She was early known in a wide 
 circle for her talents, her fondness for poetry, and her wayward 
 manners, but she made her name and peculiarities familiar 
 throughout Germany, and soon throughout Europe, by the 
 publication of Goethe's Briefwechsel rait einem Kinde,' 2 vols., 
 Berlin, 1835, which she translated into English under the title 
 of ' Goethe's Correspondence with a Child.' The first volume is 
 devoted to the correspondence of the poet, the second to that of 
 his mother, and the third (Tagebuch) to the diary of the Child. 
 Its publication was perhaps indiscreet, but it preserved many 
 fine passages from the aged poet's pen — when the correspondence 
 commenced he was over 60, and ' the child ' Bettina already on 
 the wrong side of 20 — many pleasant passages in his life and 
 character, and many amusing ones in her own. It was followed 
 by ' Die Giinderode/ 2 vols. Grunberg and Berlin, 1840, a sen- 
 timental sketch, with the correspondence, of Mademoiselle 
 BIOG. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 Giinderode, who had acquired notoriety from having committed 
 suicide, in consequence of an unrequited attachment for Creiizet, 
 the distinguished scholar. Bettina now turned to social politics, 
 took an active part in efforts that were making to ameliorate the 
 condition of the working classes of Berlin, and wrote on the 
 subject and dedicated to the King a work, 'Dies Buch gehort 
 dem Konige' (This Book appertains to the King), 2 vols. 
 Berlin, 1843, that would perhaps have called forth a severe; 
 rebuke if it had come from any other than one now recognised 
 as a sort of petted, wilful, clever woman. A few years later she 
 published ' Ilius Pamphilius und die Ambrosia,' 2 vols. Berlin, 
 1848, the substance of a correspondence on industrial and philan- 
 thropic subjects with the manufacturer Nathusius. Her latest 
 works were ' Gesprache mit Damonen,' and a sketch of her 
 brother Clemens Brentano, with passages from his inedited 
 poems. She died at Berlin on the 20th of January, 1859. 
 
 * ARNOLD, MATTHEW, eldest son of Dr. Thomas Arnold, 
 of Rugby [E. C. vol. i. col. 354], was born at Lalehara, Middle- 
 sex, December 24, 1822. He was educated at Winchester ; under 
 his father at Rugby ; and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he 
 was elected scholar in 1840. At Oxford he won the Newdigate 
 Prize in 1843 by his poem ' Cromwell ;' graduated second class 
 in Literis Humanioribus, Michaelmas, 1844 ; was elected fellow 
 of Oriel the following year, and in due course proceeded M.A. 
 In 1847 Mr. Arnold was appointed secretary to the Marquis of 
 Lansdowne, an office he retained till his appointment in 1S51 to 
 a government inspectorship of schools. This post he has re- 
 tained (advancing in grade) till the present time, having while 
 holding it acted as commissioner to visit the schools of France 
 and Germany, his reports on which have been printed and much 
 valued. To bring his opinions on education more distinctly 
 before the public, Mr. Arnold published the essay he prefixed to 
 his first report under the title of ' The Popular Education of 
 France, with Notices of that of Holland and Switzerland,' 8vo, 
 1861 : the leading idea, which he enforces at much length, 
 being the benefit of the direct control of the state in all educa- 
 tional matters ; that alone, as he seems to think, being sufficient 
 " to prevent the English people from becoming with the growth 
 of democracy Americanized." This view he further developed, 
 but at the same time somewhat modified, in a second work, ' A 
 French Eton ; or, Middle-Class Education and the State/ 8vo, 
 1864, in which, while admitting that K our actual middle class" 
 is " traversed by a strong intellectual ferment," and has " real 
 
 mental ardour, real curiosity, is the great reader," he 
 
 denies that it has " the fine culture or the living intelligence 
 which quickened great bodies of men" in better times, and pro- 
 poses as the only remedy the establishment for their especial 
 behoof of public schools by the State and under State control : 
 the. model of such schools being the French Lyceum. In a 
 further report, published in 1868, under the title of ' Schools 
 and Universities of the Continent/ Mr. Arnold gives a sketch of 
 the Prussian and Italian as well as the French and Swiss 
 systems of education, employing it still further to enforce his 
 favourite idea of the necessity of bringing all middle-class 
 schools under direct " State action and State control," which he 
 would extend to the books used, as well as to the systems of 
 instruction adopted in the schools. 
 
 But though he has written so much and so earnestly on edu- 
 cation, it is as a poet and essayist that Mr. Arnold is chiefly 
 known to the public. A slight volume of original verse, ' The 
 Strayed Reveller, and other Poems, by A./ appeared from his 
 pen in 1848, and though it did not attract general attention, was 
 regarded as a work of promise. ' Empedocles on Etna, and 
 other Poems/ appeared in 1853. The following year he pub- 
 lished a volume of ' Poems/ the first volume to which his name 
 was attached, and containing a selection from the poems pre- 
 viously published with several new pieces, together with a 
 preface, in which he enunciated his preference for a finished and 
 classic style over a freer manner, and for a narrower but culti- 
 vated audience, rather than a wide public and popular sympathy. 
 In 1867 Mr. Arnold published a volume of 'New Poems,' in- 
 cluding ' Thyrsis/ a number of sonnets and short pieces, and the 
 ' Empedocles,' which he had withdrawn, but now reproduced at 
 the suggestion or request of Mr. Browning. In 1869 he col- 
 lected as many of his verses as he wished to be preserved, with 
 some new ones, classifying them as (1) 'Narrative and Elegiac 
 Poems/ and (2) ' Dramatic and Lyric Poems,' in 2 vols., bearing 
 the general title of ' Poems, by Matthew Arnold.' This may be 
 regarded as his definite utterance in poetry, and affords a suffi- 
 cient gauge of his rank as a poet. His verse is elegant, elaborate 
 in construction, highly finished, but deficient in breadth and 
 
 I 
 
J15 
 
 ARNOLD, RICHARD. 
 
 ASHPITEL, ARTHUR. 
 
 116 
 
 spontaneity, and that passionate element which Milton regards 
 as a constituent of all genuine poetry. The best of his longer 
 poems, and that which shows the truest fancy, perhaps, is 
 ' Tristram and Isault.' In 1857 Mr. Arnold was appointed 
 Regius Professor of Poetry in Oxford University, and as 5 he 
 broke away from the customary practice of reading his lectures 
 in Latin, he had a favourable opportunity of setting forth his 
 views on poetry and poetic criticism, whilst the issue of 
 'Merope, a Tragedy,' served as a practical illustration of his 
 theory. Mr. Arnold's lectures were well attended, excited much 
 interest, -and his principles had warm admirers within the 
 university. Outside he met with many opponents when his 
 teaching found its way into print. The ' Three Lectures on 
 Translating Homer,' 18G1, gave rise to a rather personal contro- 
 versy with Professor Newman, whose version he criticised, and 
 who in turn dealt roughly with the hexameters which Mr. 
 Arnold printed as illustrations of the way in which he thought 
 Homer should be translated. 
 
 As an essayist, besides occasional papers in magazines, many of 
 which, however, have been reprinted in his volumes, Mr. Arnold 
 has published ' Essays on Criticism,' 8vo, 1865, 2nd edition, 1869 ; 
 'On the Study of Celtic Literature,' 8vo, 18G7 ; and 'Culture 
 and Anarchy, an Essay in Political and Social Criticism,' 8vo, 
 1869. In all these, whatever be the subject, the burden is the 
 deadly evil of ' Philistinism :' of the middle-class predilection for 
 what is practical, the absence of culture, of "sweetness and 
 light ;" and the superiority of a regulated propriety over un- 
 licensed liberty of speech. Graceful and agreeable in expression 
 and subtle in thought as the essays almost always are, the reader 
 misses in them, as in the author's poems, the breadth of view, 
 firmness of grasp, and straightforward manliness of style, which 
 he would expect to be the natural heritage of the son of Thomas 
 Arnold. 
 
 ARNOLD, or ARNOLDE, RICHARD, London chronicler, 
 appears to have been born near the middle of the 15th century. 
 He was a London merchant ; a member of the Company of 
 Haberdashers ; lived in the parish of St. Magnus, London Bridge, 
 and traded to Flanders, at least occasionally. On one occasion 
 he was imprisoned in the Castle of Sluys, in Flanders, on sus- 
 picion of being a spy, but speedily liberated ; on'another, as we 
 learn from his chronicle, he was suspected of treasonable prac- 
 tices by his own Government. Nothing further is known of 
 him, except the publication of what is commonly but inaccu- 
 rately called ' The Chronicle of London,' or ' Arnold's Chronicle.' 
 This work was first printed at Antwerp, by John Doesborowe, 
 about the year 1502, but without place, date, or printer's name, 
 under the title, ' The Names of the Balyfs, Custos, Mayres, and 
 Sherefs of ye Cite of London, from the Tyme of Kynge Richard 
 the First, called Cure cle Lyon, which was crowned ye iii day of 
 Septebre y e yere of our Lorde God xi c lxxxix.' A second 
 edition, also without date, place, or printer's name, was issued in 
 folio from the press of Peter Treveris, London, about 1521. 
 Somewhat later another black-letter edition (described at length 
 in Herbert's Ames, vol. iii. 1746 — 51) was published; and it 
 was not again reprinted till 1811, when Francis Douce edited 
 an edition in 4to, under the title of ' The Customs of London, 
 otherwise called Arnold's Chronicle,' &c. The book is a strange 
 farrago, seemingly the common-place book of a citizen of an 
 antiquarian turn, with a particular curiosity about the rights, 
 customs, and dignitaries of the city, and all a Londoner's inte- 
 rest in the preparation of viands. All sorts of information on 
 these several matters is mingled with the lists of mayors, sheriffs, 
 &c, mentioned in the title-page, and as Warton long ago re- 
 marked, " between an estimate of some subsidies paid into the 
 Exchequer and directions for buying goods in Flanders," is 
 smuggled in a copy of the fine old English ballad of the ' Nut- 
 Brown Maid.' 
 
 ARNOLFO DI LAPO [Lapo, Arnolfo di, E.C. vol. iii. 
 col. 805.] 
 
 ARRAS, MATHIEU D', French mediajval architect, was 
 born near the close of the 13th century. Nothing appears to be 
 known of his early years. The inscription on his tomb in the 
 cathedral of St. Vitus, at Prague, states that he was a native of 
 Arras ; that he was the master builder or architect of this 
 church, which was commenced by order of the Emperor Charles 
 IV. in 1344, and that he carried on the works from its foun- 
 dation until his death in 1352. The continuance of the works 
 and the character of the building are noticed in the memoir of 
 his successor, Arler, Peter Von, E. C. S. The designs of 
 Mathieu d'Arras were not carried out in their integrity, but the 
 connection of French ideas with German Gothic architecture of 
 
 this time is worth noting. Mathieu d'Arras also began fca 
 Charles IV., in 1348, the royal castle of Karlstein, the richest 
 and most remarkable feudal castle in Bohemia, now only pre- 
 served with difficulty from ruin. 
 
 ARREBOE, ANDERS, a distinguished Danish writer, was 
 bom in 1587, at iErroe's Kiobing, in the island of ^EiToe. He 
 studied at the university of Copenhagen, took the degree of 
 M.A. in 1610, and was appointed preacher in the royal palace. 
 In 1G18 he was elected Bishop of Drontheim ; but three years 
 later he was deposed from his bishopric for several acts of levity 
 and licentiousness, and, in particular, for having sung improper 
 songs and danced improper dances. He lived in misery and 
 poverty for five years. The King then pardoned him, in con- 
 sideration of his penitence and his having written some ex- 
 cellent psalms, and made him pastor of Vordingborg, which post 
 he held till his death in 1G37. Arreboe is ranked by his coun- 
 trymen as the most distinguished of the early Danish poets ; 
 but his writings, though full of poetic imagery and feeling, are 
 expressed in language which has now become almost unreadable 
 by Danes. Among his works were (1) ' Complimentary Poem 
 on a Victory gained by the King of Denmark over the Swedes,' 
 Copenhagen, 1611 ; (2) 'Poem on the Death of the Queen, Anna 
 Catharina,' Copenhagen, 1612, 4to ; (3) ' Hexsemeron,' Copen- 
 hagen, 1641, a paraphrase of the French work under the same 
 name, written by Du Bartas. This, which is regarded as Arreboe's- 
 masterpiece, opens with a fine invocation to the Deity. The 
 Hexccmeron celebrates the work of the first six days of the first 
 week. Besides numerous psalms Arreboe published a series of 
 fifteen sermons on Christ's Passion, and a similar series on the 
 Vision of the Prophet Ezekiel. 
 
 ARRHENIUS, CLAUS or CLAUDIUS, a celebrated 
 Swedish historian, was born at Linkoping in 1627. After 
 studying at Upsal University, he was engaged, in 1657, as 
 tutor to Count Gabriel Oxenstierna. On returning from his 
 travels with that nobleman, he was appointed Professor of Logic 
 and Metaphysics at Upsal, in 1667 ; Professor of History ia 
 1668 ; and Assessor of the Swedish Collection of Antiquities, in 
 the following year. In 1678 he received the appointment of 
 royal historiographer; and in 1684 was ennobled. His later 
 appointments were — librarian to the University in 1687 (after 
 resigning his professorship), censor of books in 1689, and one of 
 the royal secretaries in 1693. He died at Stockholm in 1695. 
 Arrhenius wrote many historical works ; but his fame rests on 
 his ' Historias Svecorum Gothorumque Ecclesiasticae, Libri IV. 
 priores,' Stockholm, 4to, 1689. This work was to have been 
 extended to greater length, but he only completed four books or 
 parts, bringing down the ecclesiastical history of Sweden to the 
 end of the 12th century. Arrhenius contributed some of the 
 text to Dahlberg's splendidly illustrated work, ' Svecia Antiqua 
 et Hodierna.' He also prepared a collection, in eleven volumes, 
 of all the papal bulls and letters relating to Sweden. 
 
 ARWIDSSON, ADOLF IVAR, Swedish writer, was born . 
 August 7, 1791, at Padasjoki, in Finland, where his father 0 was 
 provost. Having completed his studies at the university of Abo, 
 he was in 1817 admitted lecturer on history. In 1821 he ! 
 founded, with some friends, a literary and political periodi- . 
 cal, the 'Abo Morgonblad,' which met with a good share of I 
 success, but the freedom of its political articles being objected . I 
 to by the Russian Government, its publication was stopped. | 
 He continued, however, to write in the ' Mnemosyne,' but again 1 
 gave offence, and in September, 1822, was dismissed from the 
 university, and ordered to quit Finland. He now settled in I 
 Sweden, and was employed in arranging the books of the Royal 
 Library, Stockholm, of which, after a while, he was appointed 
 librarian. From this time, abandoning politics, he devoted 
 himself to the duties of his office, and to the study of early 
 Swedish literature. His first publication was an edition of i 
 Calonius, ' Opera Omnia,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1830 — 33. His next was I 
 a valuable collection of old Swedish ballads with their proper 
 tunes — ' Svenska Fornsanger,' 3 vols. 8vo, Stockholm, 1834 — 42, 
 a sort of supplement to the work of Azelius and Geijar. Besides 
 some occasional papers, he published an edition of the Frithiof- 
 saga', Stockholm, 1841; a 'Catalogue of MSS. in the Royal 
 Library, Stockholm;' and as secretary of the Stockholm Typo- 
 graphical Society, he contributed to their Repertory many inter- 
 esting bibliographical and biographical notices. He died when 
 on a visit to his native place, at Wiborg, on the 21st of June, 
 1858. 
 
 ASHPITEL, ARTHUR, F.S.A., architect, was born De- 
 cember 15, 1806, at Clapton, near London; received a good 
 general education under Dr. Burnett; and learnt architecture 
 
ASSHETON, JOHN. 
 
 US 
 
 in the office of his father, who was in partnership with Mr. 
 Savage. While at school, at about the age of 12, he had a 
 severe fall by which his hip-joint was injured, lie was rendered 
 a cripple for life, and his constitution was enfeebled ; but, thus cut 
 off from out-door sports and occupations requiring the exercise of 
 phvsical activity, he was led to the adoption of studious habits, 
 and to a wider range of literary culture than is perhaps usual 
 among architects. Having served several years in his father's 
 office, he in 1842 commenced practice on his own account in 
 Crown-court, Old Broad-street. The earliest building of a 
 public character erected by him was the church of St. Barnabas, 
 Homerton, 1845, since much enlarged in size and somewhat 
 modified in character. Other works were the extension of the 
 London Orphan Asylum, Clapton ; the Hutchison Markets ; 
 the AVellington Memorial, London Bridge, since removed ; and 
 several large private houses and offices. In 1850 he entered into 
 partnership with Mr. J. Whichcord, of Maidstone, and removed 
 to Carlton Chambers, Regent-street. Here, retaining his city 
 connection, he by means of his partner's Kentish ties, greatly 
 extended his general practice, and though the execution of no 
 great public work fell to his lot, he had a busy and prosperous 
 professional career. Among the works erected by him as joint 
 architect were churches at Blackheath (St. John's), Piatt, Post- 
 Bng, Godmersham, and three or four other places in Kent; 
 schools at Bexley, Milton, Bainham, &c, and the Kent Ophthalmic 
 Hospital ; the Kentish Chronic Lunatic Asylum ; the Kent 
 Infirmary; the Cranbrook Union Workhouse; baths and wash- 
 houses at Maidstone, Lambeth, Bilston, Kidderminster, and 
 Tynemouth; and several mansions and villas. When at Poets' 
 Corner, Westminster, he again worked alone, he erected a new 
 church among the ruins of St. DogmaeTs Abbey, near Cardigan; 
 others at Vernham Dean, Hampshire; at Bipple, near Deal, Kent 
 (a somewhat heavy Norman structure): at Aldborough Hatch, 
 Essex (a smaller but graceful and well-finished early First 
 Pointed building); restored the churches of Suttun, Kent, Great 
 Ilfurd, Essex, and some others; built schools, model dwellings 
 for artisans, some London offices, and several villas. But during 
 his later years Mr. Ashpitel was perhaps better known by his 
 personal influence, both in the profession and in general society, 
 than by his buildings. He was vice-president and a leading 
 member of the council of the Institute of British Architects, 
 one of the examiners at its voluntary architectural examina- 
 tions, 1863 — 66, and a valued contributor to its Sessional 
 Papers and Architectural Dictionary. He was one of the most 
 zealous supporters of the Architectural Exhibition, and during 
 many years was its treasurer and guarantee for its continuance. 
 He was also a member of the Society of Antiquaries, and of 
 the Koyal Asiatic Society, in the proceedings of both of which 
 he occasionally took part ; he prepared for the Annual Congresses 
 of the Archaeological Association architectural and antiquarian 
 discourses on the cathedral, or the principal church or monastery 
 in the town or locality in which the meeting was held; he wrote 
 several architectural articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and 
 one or two in the Fine Arts Quarterly Review; was, under the 
 well-known signature A. A., a frequent correspondent of ' Notes 
 and Queries;' wrote occasional verses and translations from the 
 Greek anthology, in the 'Owl' and other periodicals, and alto- 
 gether had come to be regarded as the literary representative of 
 the English school of architecture, much as Professor Donaldson 
 is regarded as representing its learning. About 1854, having 
 teen advised to visit Italy for the benefit of his health, he made 
 a prolonged tour in company with Mr. D. Roberts, R.A., and 
 stayed some time in Rome. As one of the results of his residence in 
 this city he in 1858 exhibited at the Royal Academy ' A Restora- 
 tion of Ancient Rome,' a large and elaborate drawing, which at- 
 tracted much attention, and was followed next year by a companion 
 drawing, ' Rome as it is.' The two drawings were subsequently 
 reproduced under his direction in chromo-lithography, and he 
 wrote in 1866 a descriptive pamphlet to accompany the prints. 
 On his way home from Italy he was attacked with intermittent 
 fever at Airolo, in Piedmont, and never wholly regained his 
 former vigour. He died at his residence, Poets' Comer, on the 
 18th of January, 1869. The drawings of Ancient and Modern 
 Rome, mentioned above, he bequeathed to the South Kensington 
 Museum; his more valuable books and collection of Etruscan vases 
 to the Society of Antiquaries, and a sum of money to the Institute 
 of British Architects in order to found a prize. 
 
 (Memoir by Mr. Wyatt Papworth in the Architect; Bv.Ud.cr; 
 Register; Notes and Queries, Jan. 1860.) 
 
 ASIOLI, BONIFAZIO, an Italian musical composer, was 
 horn at Correggio, 30th April, 1769. He was one of those pre- 
 
 cocious children so frequently met with in connection with 
 music. Before he was eight years old lie had composed three 
 masses and twenty other church compositions ; besides pieces 
 for the violin and harpsichord. At twelve years of age he dis- 
 played some remarkable extempore fugue playing at Venice. 
 While still a boy he officiated as Maestro di Capella at Correggio. 
 By the age of eighteen there had llowed from his pen five 
 masses, an oratorio, twenty-four other church compositions, 
 several overtures, choruses, cantatas, and instrumental pieces, 
 and three operas, viz., 'La Volubile,' 'La Contadina,' and 'La 
 Discordia Teatrale.' In 1787 he went to Turin, where he pro- 
 duced an opera and two lyrical dramas. After a visit to Venice 
 in 1796, he received the appointments of Maestro di Capella and 
 Director of the Conservatorio at Milan. In 1813 he returned to 
 his native town of Correggio, where he remained till his death, 
 which occurred May 26th, 1832. Asioli's best music is in the 
 form of cantatas, notturnos, and airs and duets with pianoforte 
 accompaniments. His larger compositions are very little known. 
 
 ASSELYN, JAN, a distinguished Dutch landscape painter, 
 was born in 1610 at Diepen, near Amsterdam. He was a pupil 
 of Esais Vandevelde and Jan Miel. In 1630 he went to France 
 and thence to Italy, where he remained several years. He 
 visited Venice, Florence, and other cities ; but made Rome his 
 principal place of abode and there formed a close acquaintance 
 with Pieter Laer, and modified his style by the study of the 
 works of Claude Lorraine. Here he was admitted a member of 
 the Netherlands brotherhood of painters, the Roomsche Bent, 
 and received the cognomen of the Crab (Krabbetje) from the 
 fingers of one of his hands. being crooked. On leaving Rome he 
 stayed some time at Lyon, where he married in 1645 the daughter 
 of Houwaart Koonman, a merchant of Antweip, and soon after 
 returned to Amsterdam, where he lived in good reputation till 
 his death, in 1660. The works of Jan Asselyn were much 
 admired and eagerly purchased during his lifetime, but have 
 since scarcely sustained their celebrity. Our own National 
 Gallery possesses no work from his pencil, but four land- 
 scapes by him in the Louvre show that he was a very aide 
 artist. Struck by the charm of Claude's pictures Asselyn sought 
 to adapt his manner to Dutch landscape. In the attempt he lost 
 much of the distinctive freshness and simplicity of the earlier 
 native painters, but his pictures display true poetic feeling, clear 
 transparent colour, and a light and spirited touch. His figures 
 of shepherds, peasants, and animals are skilfully introduced, but 
 have a somewhat artificial air. Many of his pictures have been 
 engraved. In 1654 Asselyn published an account of the 
 Roomsche Schelder-Bent under the title ' De Broederschaft de 
 Schilderkonst.' His portrait has been etched by Rembrandt 
 and by J. Houbraken. 
 
 (Houbraken, de Groote Schouhurgh der Nederlantsche Konst- 
 schilders, vol. iii. p. 64 &c, D'Argenville, Waagen, &c.) 
 
 ASSHETON, JOHN, a priest of the 16th century, is remark- 
 able as having been probably the first Englishman to be called 
 to account by the ecclesiastical authorities of his country, for 
 incidcating Unitarian opinions. In the course of his preaching, 
 he denied the Trinity, and the deity of the Holy Spirit ; asserted 
 the simple and proper humanity of Jesus Christ, and taught 
 that the only benefit which men receive through Christ consists 
 in their being brought to the true knowledge of God. 
 
 On the 28th December, 1548, Assheton was summoned to 
 Lambeth, to appear there, as Strype informs us (' Memorials of 
 Archbishop Cranmer,' book ii. ch. 8), before Archbishop Cran- 
 mer, "where John Whitwell, the Archbishop's almoner, and 
 Thomas Langley, both priests, and his Grace's chaplains, ex- 
 hibited a schedule of divers heresies and damned opinions against 
 the said Assheton ; which are recited in the abjuration which 
 he made, the tenor whereof is as followeth : — ' In the name of 
 God, Amen. Before you, most learned father in God, Thomas, 
 Archbishop, Primate, and Metropolitan of all England, Commis- 
 sary of our most dread lord and excellent prince, Edward VI., 
 by the grace of God, &c. I, John Assheton, priest, of my pure 
 heart, free will, voluntary and sincere knowledge, confess and 
 openly recognise, that in times past, I thought, believed, said, 
 heard, and affirmed these errors, heresies, and damnable opinions 
 following ; that is to say, (1) That the Trinity of Persons was 
 established by the confession of Athanasius. declared by a psalm, 
 Quicunque vult. &c, and that the Holy Ghost is not God, but 
 only a certain power of the Father. (2) That Jesus Christ, that 
 was conceived of the Virgin Mary, was a holy prophet, and 
 especially beloved of God the Father ; but that he was not the 
 true and living God ; forasmuch as he was seen, and lived, 
 hungered, and thirsted. (3) That this duly is the fruit of 
 
119 ASSHETON, WILLIAM. 
 
 Jesus Christ's passion ; that whereas we were strangers from 
 God, and had no knowledge of his Testament, it pleased God by 
 Christ to bring us to the acknowledging of his holy power by 
 the Testament. Wherefore I, the said John Assheton, detesting 
 and abhorring all and every my said errors, heresies, and 
 damned opinions, willingly, and with all my power, affecting 
 hereafter firmly to believe in the true and perlect faith of Christ 
 and his holy Church, purposing to follow the true and sincere 
 doctrine of Holy Church with a pure and free heart, voluntarily 
 mind, will, and intend utterly to forsake, relinquish, renounce, 
 and despise the said detestable errors, heresies, and abominable 
 opinions: granting and confessing now,'" &c. Assheton then 
 goes on in his abjuration to confess in detail the orthodox anti- 
 theses of the heresies just enumerated ; which when he had 
 done, he " subscribed his hand to this confession before the 
 Archbishop, exhibiting it for his act ; and lifting up his hand, 
 beseeched liis Grace to deal mercifully and graciously to him ; 
 and touching the Gospel, gave his faith that he would faithfully 
 and humbly obey the commands of the Holy Mother-Church, 
 and whatsoever penance the said most reverend Father should 
 lay upon him." The sympathisers with the opinions of Assheton 
 express doubts of the sincerity of his recantation ; and inveigh, 
 not unreasonably, against the persecution which forced men into 
 violating their consciences in order to preserve the security of 
 their persons. 
 
 ASSHETON, WILLIAM, remarkable as the deviser of a 
 peculiar annuity scheme, was a clergyman of the 17th century. 
 Born at Middleton in Lancashire, in 1641, he entered Brasenose 
 College, Oxford, in 1G58, and having taken his B.A. degree, 
 was elected a fellow of his college in 1663, and went into orders. 
 He was made chaplain to the Duke of Ormond, Chancellor of 
 Oxford University, in 167.3, U.D., and prebend of Knaresborough. 
 After this he obtained the living of St. Antholin, Watling Street, 
 and in 1676 was presented to the rectory of Beckenham, in Kent. 
 He was more than once proctor for the diocese of Rochester. Dr. 
 Assheton died at Beckenham in September, 1711. This divine, 
 so fortunate in his preferments, was the author of many polemical 
 and devotional works. He wrote honestly but bitterly against 
 Roman Catholics, Dissenters, Anabaptists, Socinians, and all 
 who differed from the Church of England : indeed he inveighed 
 against any toleration either in religion or politics. Of the 
 twenty-five works which he published between 1662 and 1710, 
 most were of this controversial character. William and Mary 
 caused to be published at two pence each, for extensive diffusion, 
 three tracts written by Assheton against Blasphemy, Drunken- 
 ness, and Swearing. In 1706 he published a work in a dif- 
 ferent strain of thought, ' The Possibility of Apparitions.' 
 But Dr. Assheton is best known by his singular annuity scheme, 
 a scheme that failed because devised by a man of sanguine 
 temperament upon insufficient data. It was a plan for pro- 
 viding for the widows of clergymen and others. As it was 
 necessary to have some substantial body to give guarantees of 
 security, he succeeded after some difficulty in making an arrange- 
 ment with the Mercers' Company. The company and the trustees 
 signed an agreement 4th October, 1699, which was enrolled in 
 Chancery ; and in the same year was published ' A full Account 
 of the Bise, Progress, and Advantages of Dr. Assheton's Proposal 
 (as improved and managed by the Company of Mercers) for the 
 benefit of Widows of Clergymen and others, by Settled Jointures 
 and Annuities at the rate of 30 per cent.' The agreement set 
 forth " That the company would take in subscriptions at any 
 time till the sum of 100,000/. should be subscribed, but not 
 more. That all married men at the age of 30 years or under 
 might subscribe any sum not exceeding 1000/. That all men not 
 exceeding 40 years might subscribe any sum not exceeding 500/. 
 That all married men not exceeding the age of 60 years might 
 subscribe any sum not exceeding 300/. That their widows 
 should receive the benefit of 30/. per cent, according to the pro- 
 posal. That no seafaring man should subscribe." The last- 
 named clause was probably suggested by the greater precarious- 
 ness of seafaring life. It is now well known that so high an 
 annuity as 30 per cent., especially with but little regard to the 
 age of the annuitant, must necessarily fail. The company gra- 
 dually reduced the rate for neAV applicants to 18 per cent., but 
 nevertheless lost so heavily as to be obliged to apply to parlia- 
 ment for permission to establish a lottery in 1764, as a means of 
 extricating it from its difficulties. It was not till 1801 that the 
 company was clear of the final engagement. 
 
 ASTARLOA Y AGUIRRE, DON PABLO PEDRO DE, a 
 learned Spanish philologist, was born at Durango, June 29, 
 1752, He studied uhilosophy and theology in the seminary of 
 
 ASTLEY, JOHN. 120 
 
 Larrasoro, and was appointed to a benefice in his native town. 
 His uneventful life was spent in the study of languages, of which 
 he is said to have mastered 60 ; but he also acquired a consider- 
 able store of general learning, and he possessed a warm imagina- 
 tion as well as originality and breadth of view. His one great 
 work — the first, as William Humboldt remarked, in which the 
 Basque language was examined in a really searching spirit, — is 
 entitled, ' Apologia de la lengua Bascongada, 6 ensayo critico- 
 lilosofico de su perfeccion sobre todas las que se conocen : en 
 respuesta a los reparos propueston en diccionario geografico- 
 historico de Espana ; tonio segundo, palabra Nabarra,' Madrid, 
 1803. As the title indicates, it was written in order to refute 
 an article in the Dictionary of the Academy of Madrid, by Don 
 Joaquim de Tragia, in which that writer, with a great show of 
 learning, controverts the antiquity usually assigned to the Basque 
 tongue. Astarloa, on the other hand, with equal erudition and 
 greater acumen, establishes the essential identity of the modem 
 Basque with the ancient Iberian language, and proves as a con- 
 sequence the direct descent of the Basque people from the ancient 
 Iheri The most learned of the subsequent investigators in the 
 same field of inquiry have acknowledged the value of his re- 
 searches, and accepted his main deduction, though they have not 
 gone so far in enthusiastic admiration of the language itself, 
 and have very generally rejected his etymologies. The book is 
 written with a warmth and charm of style very uncommon in a 
 philological dissertation. Astarloa died at Madrid on the 3rd of 
 June, 1806. He left a grammar of the Basque language and 
 various MS. collections in the hands of his friend Don Juan B. 
 de Erro y Aspiroz, who is believed to have made use of them in 
 preparing his own publications. 
 
 ASTLEY, JOHN, a portrait painter of some notoriety, was 
 born in the early part of the 18th century at Wem, in Shrop- 
 shire, and was a scholar of Hudson, whose manner lie adopted. 
 Reynolds was his fellow pupil, and after leaving Hudson both, 
 as artists were then expected to do, visited Rome. Reynolds 
 gave his time to the study of the great masters ; Astley spent 
 most of his in dissipation. He enjoyed, however, the pa- 
 tronage of Sir Horace Mann, the English minister, and found 
 in consequence some employment in painting portraits and in 
 making copies for tourists. As may be supposed, he was often 
 in difficulties. Northcote relates (' Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds,' 
 vol. i. p. 44) that one summer afternoon the English painters 
 having met for a little holiday excursion outside Rome, " the 
 season being particularly hot, the whole company threw olf their 
 coats as being an incumbrance to them, except poor Astley, who 
 alone showed great reluctance to follow this general example ; 
 this seemed very unaccountable to his companions, when some 
 jokes made on his singularity at last obliged him to take his 
 coat off also. The mystery was then immediately explained, for 
 it appeared that the hinder part of his waistcoat was made, by 
 way of thriftiness, out of one of his own pictures, and thus dis- 
 played a tremendous waterfall on his back, to the great diver- 
 sion of the spectators." Reynolds described him as so illiterate 
 a man that " he would rather run three miles to deliver his 
 message by word of mouth than venture to write a note." On 
 his return from Italy, Astley removed to Dublin, where for 
 three years he practised with much success, when he resolved to 
 push his fortune in London. On his w T ay he stayed for a while 
 in his native place. Here he made a considerable figure ; kepjt 
 his coach, and lived in style. He was tall, well-formed, and of 
 dashing manners, and he caught the eye of the wealthy widow 
 of Sir Thomas Duckenfield Daniell, of Duckenfield. The lady 
 requested him to paint her portrait, and in the course of exe- 
 cuting his commission he was emboldened to sue for her hand. 
 She lived but a short time after their marriage, but left him all 
 her property, with the reversion at her daughter's death (which 
 happened a few years later) of the Duckenfield estate, worth 
 5000/. a year. Astley now gave himself up to a life of pleasure. 
 He altered and enlarged Duckenfield Lodge, Cheshire ; had a 
 villa at Barnes, Surrey, which he fitted up in a most fantastic 
 manner, and purchasetl the Duke of Schoniberg's house in Pall 
 Mall, which, says Pennant, " he divided into three, and most 
 whimsically fitted up the centre for his own use :" it was after- 
 wards the residence of Gainsborough. He died at his seat, 
 Duckenfield Lodge, on the 14th of November, 1787. He is said 
 to have wasted not less than 150,000/. of the fortune he received 
 from Lady Daniell, and yet to have left a large property to his 
 family by a second marriage. Astley's portraits are occasionally 
 met with in private collections. To us they seem an improve- 
 ment on Hudson's, though they will not bear comparison with 
 those of Reynolds or Gainsborough. He had evidently con- 
 
121 ATHELARD, of BATH. 
 
 siderable skill in seizing a likeness, and possessed some power of 
 characterization, but drew carelessly, and was a poor colourist. 
 
 ATHELARD, or ADELARD, of BATH, distinguished as 
 " Philosophus Anglorum," one of the earliest and most eminent 
 cultivators of natural philosophy in England, was born probably 
 in the latter part of the 11th century. From the addition 
 " Bathoniensis " to his name in most MSS., it has been supposed 
 that he was a native of Bath, but it is as likely to have signified 
 his place of residence as of birth. Of his personal history little 
 is known beyond what is gathered from his writings. He 
 studied at Tours and Lyon, and at the latter place lectured, one 
 of his scholars being a nephew who is a colloquist in one of his 
 dialogues. Dissatisfied with the state of learning in France, 
 Athelard crossed the Alps to Salerno, and thence went in quest of 
 knowledge to Germany, Spain, Egypt, and Arabia, though some 
 writers think the references to his Arabic studies do not of 
 I • necessity imply that he visited the country, but rather that he 
 acquired his knowledge of Arabian philosophy in Spain. Before 
 returning to England he seems to have taught Arabian science 
 in Normandy. Altogether he was seven years absent from Eng- 
 land. When he came back, Henry I., he writes, occupied the 
 throne. Mr. Wright (' Biog. Brit. Lit.' vol. ii. p. 95) concludes 
 from one of his earliest books written after his arrival being 
 dedicated to William, Bishop of Syracuse, that he must have 
 returned to England before 1116, the date of that prelate's 
 death. Mr. Hunter, in his edition of the Pipe Roll of Henry L, 
 pointed out under the 31st year of that monarch's reign, a gift 
 of 4s. 6d. to Adelard de Bada from the profits of the county of 
 Wilts, and if he is right in supposing that the donation was 
 made to Athelard, the philosopher, by the King in his known 
 character as a patron of learning, it is a proof that Athelard 
 was alive in 1130. Beyond this nothing is known. The time 
 of his death has escaped record. His original writings com- 
 prise a treatise or allegory, in the form of a dialogue, on the 
 pursuit of philosophy, ' De eodem et diverso,' in which he de- 
 fends the Arabic philosophy which Athelard wfts the first to 
 introduce into England, and which he complains was almost 
 unknown to the scholars of Western Europe. This subject he 
 pursues at greater length in his more popular work, the ' Quscs- 
 tior.es Naturales,' in which he developes the system of natural 
 philosophy he is endeavouring to introduce. Other works, some 
 of them mere tracts, are — 'Regula? Abaci;' a treatise on the 
 Astrolabe, of which there is a MS. in the British Museum, and 
 others on the seven liberal arts, on the compotus, &c, which 
 are named by Tanner and others, but appear to be lost. The 
 Life of St. Dunstan, which Tanner attributed to him, is known 
 not to be his. Another class of writings is of at least equal 
 importance with his original works. These are his translations 
 from the Arabic, but especially his translation of the Fifteen 
 Books of Euclid, by which, indeed, Euclid was first made 
 known in Western Europe, and which there is every reason to 
 believe was the Euclid of the middle ages, and the text of the 
 Latin edition of Campanus (Venice, 1482) the first edition of 
 Euclid printed. His other translations included the Kharismian 
 Tables ; the ' Prsestigia Astronomica Thebidis ; ' the ' Isagoge 
 minor Japharis mathematici in Astronomiam,' &c. Very few of 
 Athelard's works have been printed. His ' Quaestioncs Na- 
 turales,' about 1474, was the earliest, and was several times 
 reprinted ; portions of ' De eodem et diverso ' are given in 
 Jourdain's ' Recherches Critiques sur l'age et l'origine dcs tra- 
 ductions Latines d'Aristote,' 1819. The influence of Athelard 
 was very great upon his contemporaries and immediate suc- 
 cessors, and during the next century he was regarded with 
 reverence as the most eminent of English philosophers. He was 
 the forerunner of Roger Bacon, and in some respects little 
 inferior to him. 
 
 'ATTAR FERID-UD-DIN, a Persian poet of great celebrity, 
 but chiefly admired for his profound knowledge of the Sufi doc- 
 trines, with which his writings abound, and according to which 
 this world and its affairs are nothing, and spirituality everything. 
 He was born about the year 1119, at the village of Karkan, or 
 Karakdan, one of the suburbs of Nishapur, in Khorasan. His 
 father, Ibrahim 'Attar Karkani, seems to have made a consider- 
 able fortune in the city of Nishapur as a dealer in perfumes, in 
 which occupation he was assisted, and ultimately succeeded, by 
 the poet. About 1148 the father and son removed to Shadyakh, 
 one of the most select suburbs of the city, where the governor 
 and the most distinguished families resided. During his father's 
 life 'Attdr seems to have been left to pursue his mystic studies at 
 his own leisure. He was known to, and in correspondence with, 
 numerous learned men and illustrious sheikhs of that period. 
 
 AUDIGUIER, VITAL D'. 122 
 
 He had also collected a library, consisting of 114 volumes, the 
 works of the most distinguished masters on spiritual matters. 
 After his father's death 'Attar succeeded to his fortune, and for 
 some time carried on his business, whilst the style of his living 
 and establishment was rather that of a prince than a merchant. 
 The remonstrances of one of his Sufi friends, who had assumed 
 the garb of a darwesh mendicant, aroused 'Attar to the hollow- 
 ness of all mundane glory and prosperity. The mirror of his 
 mind became illumined with the rays of spiritual light. He 
 renounced the world, and abandoned his possessions to be appro- 
 priated by any one who felt the inclination. After a few years 
 spent in seclusion, divine contemplation, and the severest morti- 
 fication, in the monastery of the distinguished Shaikh Rukn-ud- 
 din Asaf, 'Attar, when about the age of 40, made the pilgrimage 
 to Mecca ; in the course of which he became acquainted with a 
 great number of men illustrious for their learning and sanctity. 
 On his return to Nishapur, he devoted the remainder of his long 
 life to the practice of piety, and the composition of his numerous 
 works in prose and verse. Of the former kind is his ' Tazkirat- 
 ul-awlia,' or Lives of the Saints — that is, those of his own sect. 
 His writings in verse are numerous and extensive, amounting in 
 all to upwards of a hundred thousand couplets, forming forty 
 different pieces or works, of which the following twelve were 
 favourites in the time of Daulatshah, the biographer of 'Attar : — 
 (1) ' The Asrar-nama ;' (2) ' The Ilahi-namaV (3) 'The Masibat- 
 nama ; (4) ' The Ushtur-nama ;' (5) ' The Wasiyat-i Mukhtar- 
 nama;' (G) ' Jawahir-ul-lazzat;' (7) 'Mantik ul-tair ;' (8) 'Bulbul- 
 nama;' (9) ' Gul o Hormuz ;' (10) ' Pand-nama ;' (11) 'Haidar- 
 nama ;' (12) ' Siyah-nama.' 
 
 'Attar was murdered in the year 1221, in the hundred and 
 second year of his age, by one of the ruthless horde of barbarians 
 who, under Chingiz Khan, desolated the city of Nishapur, at that 
 time the capital of Khorasan. The city was levelled with the 
 ground, in such a manner that horses might run over it without 
 stumbling, and a few years afterwards its very ruins were oblite- 
 rated by an earthquake. Its name and shadow only remain. 
 
 ATTERBOM, PETER DANIEL AMADEUS, a Swedish 
 poet and historian, was born at Asbo in East Gothland, 19th 
 January, 1790. Having studied at the gymnasium of Linkoping, 
 he went in 1805 to Upsal, where he paid great attention to 
 German literature. In 1807, in conjunction with several friends, 
 he established a poetico-critical society, the Aurora Union, 
 with the main object of purifying Swedish literature, especially 
 poetry, by freeing it from French and other disfigurements. Be- 
 tween 1810 and 1813 they published a journal, ' Phosphorus,' 
 which acquired for them the appellation of ' Phosphorists,' and 
 which contained much bitter and cutting writing. Between 1812 
 and 1822 Atterbom edited the ' Poetiskkalender ; ' wrote a 
 drama, ' Rimmerbandet ; ' and a fragment of a dramatised 
 version of Marchen. After two years' travel in Germany and 
 Italy, he became in 1819 tutor in the German language and 
 literature to the Crown Prince Oscar. In 1821 he became 
 docent of history at Stockholm, in 1822 adjunct professor of 
 philosophy at Upsal, and in 1828 professor of logic and meta- 
 physics at the same university. The last-named professorship 
 lie exchanged in 1835 for that of aesthetics. In 1S39 lie was 
 admitted to the Academy of Stockholm, a step which healed a 
 bitter feud which had existed between the Phosphorists and the 
 Academicians. He died 21st July, 1855, at Upsal. Among other 
 works by Atterbom were ' Lycksalighetens 0' (' The fortunate 
 Island'), 1824; ' Skrifter,' 1835; ' Samlade Dikter,' 1841; 
 ' Svenska siare och Skalder,' 6 vols. 8vo., Stockholm, 1841 — 55 (a 
 literary-historical work of great value). As a poet, Atterbom 
 was reflective in tone and polished in language. As a philo- 
 sopher, he was a theosophist, combining Christianity with much 
 mystical speculation. 
 
 AUDIGUIER, VITAL D', Sieur de la Menor, a celebrated 
 French writer, was born of a noble but poor family near Ville- 
 franche, Guienne, about the year 1569. After a somewhat wild 
 and quarrelsome youth, he made some progress in the study of 
 jurisprudence at college ; in 1590 succeeded his father as a 
 magistrate ; resigned in the following year ; joined the army of 
 Henri IV., and gained much credit during the wars of the 
 League. After the peace he went to Paris, led a dissipated life, 
 and was addicted to gambling. Nevertheless he was a very active 
 writer ; for between 1604 and 1624 he produced poems, novels, 
 translations, and misceUaneous essays in rapid succession, and is 
 ranked among those who assisted in refining and polisliing the 
 French language. His writings are mostly of a trivial character, 
 but they are full of life and spirit: in 1638 the French Academy 
 placed all his prose writings among the celebrated works in the 
 
123 
 
 AUDOUTN, PIERRE. 
 
 AURIFABER, JOHANN. 
 
 Hi 
 
 language. Several of his prose essays, &c, are included in La 
 Serre's ' Bouquet des plus belles Flours.' DAudiguier was 
 killed in a duel in a Paris gambling-house in 1G24. 
 
 AUDOUIN, PIERRE, a distinguished French line engraver, 
 was Lorn at Paris in 1708, and learnt engraving under Beauvar- 
 let. He engraved in a clear, firm, and intelligent manner, but 
 without the lino feeling of the greatest masters of the burin. 
 His fame rests on the engravings he made from paintings in the 
 Louvre for the celebrated 'Musec' of Laurent, such as 'La 
 Belle Jardiniere/ after Rall'aelle; the 'Portraits of two Men,' 
 called ' Rall'aelle and his Fencing Master' (No. 386 according to 
 the present arrangements of the Louvre); 'Jupiter and Antiope,' 
 after Correggio; ' The Entombment,' after Caravaggio; ' Chanty/ 
 after Andrea del Sarto; three or four after Terburg, and others 
 alter Le Sueur and Mieris. He also engraved the portrait of 
 Louis XVIII. alter Le Gros, and various other single plates. 
 Audouin held the appointment of engraver in ordinary to the 
 king ; and in 1819 received the medal for engraving. He died at 
 Paris in 1822. 
 
 * AUERBACH, BERTH OLD, popular German author, was 
 born of Jewish parents, February the 28th, 1812, at Nordstetten, 
 in the Wiirtciiiburg Black Forest ; studied Jewish theology at 
 Heckingcn and Karlsruhe; and then the classics, philosophy, 
 and literature in the gymnasium of Stuttgart and in the univer- 
 sities of Tubingen, Munich, and Heidelberg, completing his 
 academical course in 1835. His independent study was directed 
 in the first instance to the literature of his race, and he pub- 
 lished in 1836 a treatise on its recent character and direction, 
 ' Das Judenthem und die neueste Literatur;' this was followed 
 by ' Das Ghetto/ and at a short interval by ' Spinoza,' (2 vols. 
 Stuttgart, 1837; 2nd edition, 1854); and this by 'Dichter und 
 Kautinann/ 2 vols. Stuttgart, 1839. His study of Spinoza led 
 him to publish a translation of the entire works of the great 
 Jewish philosopher, together with a critical memoir of his life 
 and writings, ' Spinoza's siimmtlichcn Werken,' 5 vols. 8vo, 
 Stuttgart, 1841. His next work, on the education of the middle 
 classes, was of a kind that addressed itself to a wider audience, 
 and attracted much notice, ' Dor gebildete Burger, Biich fur den 
 denkenden Mittelstand/ (Karlsruhe, 1842). He continued to 
 take an earnest interest in education and all questions of social 
 politics, but his next important publication was in a different 
 field, being a series of sketches or novelets depicting village life 
 in the Black Forest — ' Schwarzwiilder Dorfgeschichten/ (2 vols. 
 Mannheim, 1843). In some respects this work may be compared 
 with Miss Mitford's ' Our Village/ presenting the same bright 
 clear pictures of villages and villagers and of rustic scenery, life, 
 and wants, but with wider knowledge and deeper insight, though 
 without the indescribable charm of manner and freshness and 
 simplicity of style of the English authoress. It was very 
 successful, was translated into English (under the title of ' Tales 
 from the Black Forest'), Dutch, Swedish, and part into French, 
 and several times reprinted in German. Other series have since 
 appeared, and the whole were republished together in 4 vols, in 
 1853 — 54, and, under the title of ' Volkausgabe/ in 6 vols. 
 Stuttgart, 1861—62. During 1845—48 Herr Auerbach edited 
 an almanac ' Der Gevattersmann/ in which he sought to popu- 
 larize and apply his views on social matters and popular litera- 
 ture, views which he set forth more systematically in ' Schrilt 
 und Volk : Grundziige der Volksthumliclien Literatur, ange- 
 schlossen an eine Charakteristik J. P. Hebel's/ Leipzig, 1846 
 (The Press and the People: Sketch of a National Literature in 
 reference to a characteristic of J. P. Hebel'). The events of 
 
 1848, in which he was deeply interested, led to the publication 
 in 1849 of his ' Tagebuch aus Wien von Latour bis auf Win- 
 dischgratz '(Vienna Diary from Latour to WindischgTatz),Breslau, 
 
 1849. Since then, though his social and educational views have 
 more or less coloured all his writings, he has for the most part 
 avoided politics. His later writings have been ' Hofer,' a tragedy, 
 1850; a series of old German tales, 'Deutsche Abende,' (Mann- 
 heim, 1850; 2nd edition, 1853); 'Dorfgeschichten' (a village 
 story), and a popular drama, 'Der Wahrsprueh' (Leipzic, 1856); 
 'Joseph in Schnee' (Stuttgart, 1860); ' Edelsweiss ;' and a 
 pleasantly written essay, ' Goethe unci die Erzahlungkunst ' 
 (Giiethe and Narrative Art), Stuttgart, 1861. His collected 
 works were published in 20 vols. Stuttgart, 1857 — 59, and in 22 
 vol-;. 1NH3 and following years. Since then his most important 
 publication has been ' Das Landhaus am Rhein, (the Villa on the 
 Rhine), in 3 vols., 18'J9, which appears to be less popular than his 
 shorter tales, but is a work of much power, displaying alike keen- 
 ness of observation and depth of reflection. Taken altogether, 
 Auerbach must be regarded as the greatest living novelist of 
 
 Germany. Auerbach's frequent change of abode may be pretty 
 well traced in the places of publication of his successive works 
 given above. For some years past he has resided at Stuttgart, 
 
 previous to which he was for awhile at Berlin. 
 
 AUGUST/IN, JEAN-BAPTISTE-JACQUES, a celebrated 
 French miniature painter, was born at Saint-Die, department of 
 Vosges, on the 15th of August, 1759. Poor and without friends, 
 he acquired the knowledge and practice of his art by his own un- 
 assisted efforts ; yet when he established himself in Paris, in 
 1781, the novelty, vigour, and truth of his works produced, as 
 has been said, an entire revolution in the public taste. In truth 
 the elegance of the ' style Pompadour/ as it was called, had been 
 imitated till it had sunk into mere feeble affectation, and the 
 world of fashion, to which the miniaturist primarily addresses 
 himself, is always ready to run from one excess to another. For 
 over a quarter of a century Augustin was supreme in his de- 
 partment, and sovereigns, nobles, and the most distinguished 
 men and loveliest women sought to convey their features to pos- 
 terity by the aid of his pencil. Napoleon, Josephine, Hortense, 
 Louis XVIII., and Louis Philippe, the Queen of Naples, and the 
 Duehesse d'Angoulome, Lord William Bentinck, and M. Denon, 
 are some among his celebrated portraits. But Augustin lived to ex- ' 
 perience the ebb of the tide, and in his latter days was without a 
 sitter. He died of cholera at Paris on the 13th of April, 1832. 
 
 AURIA, VICENZO, a learned and industrious Sicilian anti- 
 quary, was born at Palermo, August 5, 1625. His father, 
 Federigd Auria, who held a high judicial office and was known 
 as the author of some esteemed works on jurisprudence, died 
 while Vicenzo was yet an infant ; but his brother, also a judicial 
 functionary of rank and a man of learning and ability, undertook 
 to direct the education of his nephew. Vicenzo's progress as a 
 boy, and afterwards at the Jesuit's College, Palermo, was of 
 uncommon promise, and it was decided that he should adopt the 
 law as a profession. He accordingly applied himself diligently 
 to the study of the civil and canon law; took the degree of 
 doctor of laws* in the University of Catania ; and commenced the 
 practice of his profession with unusual prospects of success. But 
 along with the jurists and casuists he had been studying the 
 Italian poets and historians with at least equal zeal. He had 
 written Italian and Latin verse, which had already procured for 
 him the appellation of the Sicilian Petrarch ; his ' Canzone Sici- 
 liane ' had found a place in the ' Muse Siciliane/ and he had 
 been elected a member of the Accademia de' Raccensi. His 
 literary pursuits became more and more absorbing, and after 
 a comparatively brief struggle he decided to abandon his pro- 
 spects at the bar and to devote his life to the elucidation of the 
 history of his native place, with the certainty of never rising 
 above comparative poverty. This resolution he steadily carried 
 out, and the long series of works he wrote, if not very brilliant in 
 character or of any wide interest, are of great value as the founda- 
 tion of a clear knowledge of Sicilian history and antiquities, and 
 at the same time furnishing much that is of value to the student 
 of general history. Auria was appointed by the viceroy keeper 
 of the national archives in 1679, and in the following year com- 
 missioned by him to write a biographical history of his predeces- 
 sors from the year 1409. On the foundation of the Sicilian 
 Academy, Auria was made a member, and appointed superin- 
 tendent of the department of precious stones. He died after a 
 long illness, and very poor, Dec. the 6th, 1710. The senate of 
 i Palermo decreed him the funeral honours due only to the most 
 illustrious citizens. Auria's published works are very numerous, 
 but referring almost exclusively to Sicilian history, antiquities, 
 poetry, and hagiography, it is unnecessary to give their titles. 
 The following, as among the more important, will be sufficient: — 
 ' Dell' origine ed antichita di Cefalii/ Palermo, 1656, of which 
 Havercamp published a Latin translation in vol. xiv. of the 
 ' Thesaurus Sicilian ;' ' La Giostra, discorso sopra l'origine della 
 Giostra, in varie parte dell' Europa/ 1690 ; 'Historia cronologica 
 dell Signori Vicere di Sicilia, dalF anno 1409 al 1697/ fol. 
 Palermo, 1697; 'La Sicilia Inventrice, overo le invenzioni 
 lodevoli nate in Sicilia,' Palermo, 4to, 1704. Mongitore gives a 
 complete list of Auria's published and unpublished works (which 
 last are rather numerous) in his ' Bibliotheca Sicula/ vol. ii. 
 p. 274; and in Crescimbeni's ' Vite d' Arcadi Illustri/ part iii. 
 pp. 109-28, is an ample memoir of Auria by Mongitore. 
 
 AURIFABER, JOHANN, whose vernacular name was Gold- 
 schmid, was born in the year 1519, in the county of Mansfeld. 
 He became a student of divinity at Wittenberg, and was succes- 
 sively tutor of the sons of the Count of Mansfeld, and field- 
 preacher in the French war in 1544. In 1545 he returned to 
 Wittenberg for the purpose of teaching divinity, and it is said 
 
126 AURIGNY, GILLES D'. 
 
 that Lutlier employed him as his " familiar " or private secre- 
 . and that he was present at Luther's death, at Eisleben, in 
 1546. In 1547 he remained for six months a partner in the 
 eaptivity of the Elector, John Frederick of Saxony, to which 
 that prince was condemned after being beaten by the Emperor 
 Charles V. at the battle of Muhlberg. In 1551, Aurifaber was 
 appointed Court preacher at Weimar, but was dismissed from 
 his office in the following year. Through the liberality of the 
 Count of Mansfeld, he was enabled to devote four years exclu- 
 sively to the preparation of a collection of such of Luther's works 
 as were not contained in the Jena edition, in the publication of 
 which he had likewise been active. Besides the Eisleben collec- 
 tion of some of Luther's works and the Jena edition, of which, 
 as just stated, he was co-editor, Aurifaber edited ' Letters of 
 Luther,' in two volumes, and his ' Tischreden,' or Table-Talk, 
 folio, Eisleben, 1566. The ' Tischreden' was reprinted twice in 
 15G7, and a fourth time in 1568. The last reprint is prefaced 
 by some pages from the pen of the editor, who complains of one 
 Dr. Kugling as having, in a rival edition, made material altera- 
 tions of the text. This rival edition, however, would appear 
 never to have got beyond the manuscript form ; at all events, it 
 is unknown to bibliographers. The four editions already spe- 
 cified are exact reproductions, the one of the other, infinite 
 typographical blunders included. In 1569 appeared a new 
 edition (Frankfurt, folio), with an appendix " of prophecies 
 which the venerable man of God, just before his holy death, 
 delivered unto divers learned theologians and ecclesiastics, with 
 many consolatory letters, opinions, narratives, replies, &c, never 
 before made public." The dedication, "to the Council of 
 Eauschemberg," dated March 24, 1568, intimates that the 
 editor, Johann Fink, had derived his new materials from various 
 books and writings of Martin Luther. The Prophecies, it is 
 added, were due to the research of George Walther, preacher at 
 Halle. Fabricius (' Centifolium Lutheranum,' p. 301) mentions 
 two other editions in folio, Eisleben, 1569 and 1577, but no 
 copies of these editions are at present known. Since that period 
 the editors of the ' Tischreden ' have been many, and the forms 
 of its issue have been various. The contents of the work were 
 originally gathered from the mouth of Luther by his friends 
 and disciples, and chiefly by Antony Lauterbach, and Johann 
 Aurifaber, who were very much with the great reformer towards 
 the close of his life. They consist of notes of his discourses, of 
 his opinions, his cursory observations, in the freedom of private 
 friendship, in his walks, during the performance of his clerical 
 duties, and at table. 
 
 In 1566, Aurifaber was appointed minister of the principal 
 Lutheran church at Erfurt, became senior preacher in 1572, and 
 died there on the 18th of November, 1575. The latter part of 
 his life was embittered by quarrels with his colleagues, which 
 were probably of the same description as those that prevailed 
 among the different editors of the works of Luther, and led to 
 many fanatical charges of heresy and Crypto-Calvinism. 
 Adelung mentions 17 letters of Aurifaber to King Christian III. 
 of Denmark, which were first published by Andreas Schumacher, 
 in ' Briefe gelehrter Manner an die Kbnige von Dannemark,' 8vo, 
 Copenhagen, 1758. 
 
 AURIGNY, GILLES D', a French jurist and poet, was born 
 at Beauvais towards the end of the 15th century, and died in 
 1553. Very little is known of his life, except that after studying 
 law in his native city, he removed to Paris, where he practised 
 as an advocate. The following are his principal works : — (1) 
 'Les Constitutions et Ordonnances faites pour le bien et utilitd 
 des Agricoles de France par Charles VII., Louis XL, Charles 
 VIII., Louis XII., Francois I., &c.' Paris, 1527, 8vo ; (2) ' Le 
 cinquante-deuxieme Arret d'Amour, avec les Ordonnances sur 
 le i'aict des masques,' Paris, 1528, 8vo ; (3) ' Le Livre de la Police 
 Humainc, extiait des grands et aniples volumes de Francois 
 Patrice, par M. Gilles d'Aurigny, et traduit en Francois par Jehan 
 Leblond,' Paris, 1544, 8vo ; (4) ' La Peinture de Cupidon,' 
 Poitiers, 1545 ; (5) ' La Genealogie des Dieux poetiques, nou- 
 vellement composde,' Poitiers, 1545, 16mo ; (6) ' Le Tuteur 
 d'Amour, auquel est comprise la fortune de l'lnnocent en Amour,' 
 Paris, 1546, 8vo, reprinted with additions seven years later ; 
 (7) ' Contemplation sur la Mort de Jesus Christ,' Paris, 1547, 
 8vo ; (8) ' Psalmes de David.' D'Aurigny's ' Tuteur d'Amour,' 
 imaginative in subject and elegant in language, but not original 
 in matter or thought, is regarded by some critics as the best 
 French poem of the 16th century. 
 
 AURISPA, GIOVANNI, one of the restorers of learning in 
 Italy, was born at Noto in Sicily about the year 1369. Visiting 
 Constantinople about 1418, he brought home from thence many 
 
 AUSTIN, JOHN. 126 
 
 valuable Greek MSS. Being very poor, he was obliged to 
 pledge these MSS. for bread, but Lorenzo de' Medici redeemed 
 them. Aurispa for a time taught Greek at Bologna and at 
 Florence. Removing to Fcrrara, he obtained for several years 
 the patronage of the Este family. He taught the classics,' took 
 orders, and tilled some ecclesiastical offices. In 1438 he became 
 personally known to the Pope, Eugenius IV., which led to his 
 appointment as apostolic secretary in 1441. Nicolas V. gave 
 him two abbacies. He returned to Ferrara in 1450, and re- 
 mained there till his death in 1459. Some of Aurispa's epistles 
 and translations from Greek into Latin have been published ; 
 but his best services to literature were as a collector of ancient 
 MSS. He brought to Italy MSS. of the poets Pindar, Calli- 
 machus, Oppian, and the Orphic verses ; the historians Dion 
 Cassius, Diodorus Siculus, and Arrian ; and the philosophers 
 Plato, Xenophon, Plotinus, and Proclus ; many of the works 
 having been until then unknown in Europe. He also collected 
 many MSS. of the Greek fathers. 
 
 AUSTIN, JOHN, was born on the 3rd of March, 1790, 
 and was the eldest of a family remarkable for intellectual 
 powers of a peculiar order. At the age of 16 he entered the 
 army, and served in it for five years, several months of which 
 he passed with his regiment, which formed part of Lord William 
 Bentinck's corps, in Sicily. Acting upon the advice of appre- 
 ciative friends, he quitted the army, and, becoming a member of 
 the Inner Temple, was called to the bar in 1814. His fellow- 
 students, and the eminent lawyers under whom he studied, had 
 marked the force and clearness of his mind, his retentive 
 memory, and the vigour and precision of his language; and 
 they confidently foretold for him a high place in the profession. 
 In 1819, after an attachment of five years, he married Miss 
 Sarah Taylor, of Norwich, a member of a distinguished family 
 [Austin, Sarah]. The prospects of professional success were, 
 however, clouded by the failure of his health, and the delicacy 
 and sensitiveness of his mental constitution. He was intolerant 
 of imperfection in his work; and such a temper could not 
 readily accommodate itself to the demands of business. After 
 a vain struggle, in which his health and spirits suffered severely, 
 he gave up practice in the year 1825. Fortunately, the founda- 
 tion of the London University, in 1826, occasioned the opening 
 of a school of jurisprudence, of which Mr. Austin was chosen to 
 be the professor ; and he resolved to spend the interval between 
 his appointment and the commencement of his lectures in 
 Germany, where the study of the science could be pursued with 
 advantage in the society of the most eminent Roman jurists. 
 In the autumn of 1827, after visiting Heidelberg, he established 
 himself, with his wife and only daughter, at Bonn, which was 
 then the residence of Niebuhr, Branclis, Schlegel, Arndt, 
 Welcker, Mackeldey, Heffter, and other eminent men, from 
 whose society he received equal pleasure and instruction. He 
 left Bonn after a stay of about six months, in the spring of 182S, 
 master of the German language and of a number of the greatest 
 works which it contains. His lectures opened With a class 
 which exceeded his expectations ; and which included several 
 of the men afterwards eminent in law, politics, or philosophy, 
 among whom may be mentioned Lord Romilly, Master of the 
 Rolls,' Lord Clarendon, Mr. C. F. Villiers, Sir G. C. Lewis, and 
 Lord Belper. He now appeared to have attained to a position 
 above all others the best suited to him. His peculiar tastes and 
 talents fitted him for the business of a teacher ; and he felt 
 with a sort of awe the responsibility attaching to his office. His 
 power of methodising and expounding is said to have been 
 matchless ; and he had a natural and powerful eloquence (when 
 he allowed himself to give way to it), which was calculated to 
 rivet the attention and to fix itself on the memory. But in 
 spite of the brilliant commencement of his career as a professor, 
 it soon became evident that this country would not afford such a 
 succession of students of jurisprudence as would suffice to main- 
 tain a chair, which, under the circumstances, its holder found 
 himself compelled to resign. This resignation was the real 
 calamity of his life, the blow for which there was no remedy, 
 and from which he never recovered. His failure at the bar was 
 nothing, for that was not his vocation ; but there was no one to 
 do the work he could have done as an expounder of the philo- 
 sophy ot law. In June, 1832, he gave his last lecture ; and in the 
 same year published a volume entitled ' The Province of Juris- 
 prudence Determined,' having in the previous year published 'An 
 Outline of a Course of Lectures on General Jurisprudence, or the 
 Philosophy of Positive Law.' The reception given to the work was 
 not at first encouraging, and it was left gradually to make its way 
 by its own merits, which, by slow degrees, began to be appreciated. 
 
127 
 
 AUSTIN, JOHN. 
 
 AUVERGNE, GUILLAUME D'. 128 
 
 It is now, to use the words of Marvin's 'Legal Bibliography,' 
 Philadelphia, 1847, "acknowledged to he one of the most 
 Valuable contributions to the philosophy of law and legislation 
 that lias been produced in modern times, and entitles the author 
 to rank with Hooker and Montesquieu." In the year 1833, Mr. 
 Austin was appointed by Lord Brougham, at that time Lord 
 Chancellor, a member of the Criminal Law Commission. But 
 it appeared to his colleagues that his views were too abstract and 
 too thorough to be reduced to practice ; and Mr. Austin, rinding 
 himself unable to discharge the duties of his oilice, according to 
 his own estimate of them, resigned his place. In 1834 he was 
 engaged to deliver a course of Lectures on Jurisprudence at the 
 Inner Temple, a study which Mr. Bickersteth, afterwards Lord 
 Langdale, and others, thought it advisable to foster. But here, 
 as before at University College, it was found that the demand 
 for anything like scientific legal education had to he created; 
 and the lecturer soon saw the inutility of struggling against such 
 obstacles as he had to oppose. He resolved, therefore, to abandon 
 a conflict in which he had met with nothing but defeat, and to 
 seek an obscure but tranquil retreat on the Continent, where he 
 might live upon the very small means at his disposal. Accord- 
 ingly he retired to Boulogne, where he had been settled about a 
 year and a half, when a proposal was made to Mm, in 1837, by 
 the Colonial Office, through his friend Sir James Stephen, to go 
 to Malta as Royal Commissioner, to inquire into the nature 
 and extent of the grievances of which the natives of that island 
 complained. Aided by Mr. (afterwards Sir) George Cornewall 
 Lewis, he rendered services to the island which are still 
 remembered there with affectionate gratitude ; and he had the 
 satisfaction of seeing every measure he recommended adopted 
 by the Colonial Office. After his return from Malta, in 1838, 
 he was so much worse in health than usual, that in 1840 his 
 medical friends exhorted him to try the waters of Carlsbad, 
 from which he derived much benefit, and to which he returned 
 in the summers of 1841 — 43. The intervening winters were spent 
 at Dresden and Berlin; at the former of which cities it was that 
 he wrote for the 'Edinburgh Review' his answer to Dr. List's 
 violent attack on the doctrine of free trade. In 1844 lie re- 
 moved to Paris, and was, shortly after, elected by the Institute a 
 corresponding member of the moral and political class. In the 
 same year an appeal was made to him to publish a second 
 edition of 'The Province of Jurisprudence;' but his fastidious 
 taste and scrupulous conscience shrank from the idea of a mere 
 reprint ; and his response to the appeal was the drawing up of 
 a prospectus of a work on ' The Principles and Relations of 
 Jurisprudence and Ethics,' in which, as he wrote to his friend 
 Sir William Erie, it was his intention to "show the relations of 
 positive morality and law (mos and jus), and of both to their 
 common standard or test ; to show that there are principles and 
 distinctions common to all systems of law (or that law is the 
 subject of an abstract science); to show the possibility and con- 
 ditions of codification; to exhibit a short scheme of a body of 
 law arranged in a natural order ; and to show that the English 
 law, in spite of its great peculiarities, might be made to conform 
 to that order much more closely than is imagined." Mr. Austin 
 had finally established himself in Paris, when the Revolution of 
 1848 " once more uprooted him." He remained, however, in 
 Paris for some months, watching the course of events; and the 
 result of his observations was to confirm him in his opinion of 
 the difficulty, if not the impossibility, of reconstructing a society 
 which has once been completely shattered. This opinion, 
 together with his ardent patriotism, found utterance in a 
 pamphlet which he published in 1859, under the title of 'A 
 Plea for the Constitution,' and which was originally intended for 
 a quarterly journal, as a review of Lord Grey's work on Reform. 
 Mr. Austin returned to England in the autumn of 1848. He spent 
 the last ten years of his lifeatWeybridge, in Surrey,andthisdecade 
 was the " happiest period of his life." He alternated his studies 
 and literary avocations with a glad and contented communing 
 with nature, and a close scrutiny of the course of political 
 events. He died in December, 1859 ; at which time only one 
 part of his Lectures had been published. No one seemed so 
 well fitted as Mrs. Austin to prepare such portions of her hus- 
 band's writings as were left by him in a finished or nearly 
 finished state ; and the result of her labours was seen in 1861 
 in her editing of a new issue of ' The Province of Jurisprudence 
 Determined,' which was followed in 1 863 by two other volumes 
 of her husband's ' Lectures on Jurisprudence, or the Philosophy 
 of Positive Law.' A third edition of the whole, revised and 
 edited by Mr. Robert Campbell, appeared in 1869, 2 vols. 8vo, 
 London. The pursuit of truth was ever Mr. Austin's first 
 
 object ; the diffusion of a knowledge of it, his second. He was 
 frequently reckoned a disciple of Bentham, for whom, indeed, 
 he had a profound admiration, but whom he did not blindly 
 worship or follow slavishly.- On certain points he differed from 
 him, and especially on the supposed fitness of the people for 
 the exercise of political power. He always thought that 
 Bentham's secluded habits, and his acute sense of the mis- 
 government occasioned by what he called sinister interests, 
 blinded him to the no less dangerous evils arising from 
 ignorance. 
 
 AUSTIN, SARAH, descended from the Taylors of Norwich, 
 a family which in several generations produced men and women 
 distinguished by literary and scientific ability, was bom in 1793, 
 and received in her father's house an education of unusual range 
 and solidity. On her marriage, in 1820, with Mr. Austin, then 
 a barrister on the Norfolk circuit, she came to reside next door 
 to Mr. Jeremy Bentham and Mr. James Mill, in Queen-square, 
 Westminster. Here her house soon collected within its walls 
 the deepest thinkers and most refined men of letters of the 
 time — Bentham ; James and John Stuart Mill ; the Grotes ; 
 the rising lawyers of that day, Bickersteth, Erie, Roniilly, and 
 .Senior ; Charles Buller, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, and Lord 
 Lansdowne. Much of Mrs. Austin's life wa3 spent abroad. 
 She accompanied her husband during his residences severally at 
 Heidelberg, Bonn, Boulogne, Malta, Carlsbad, Berlin, Dresden, 
 and Paris. In the last-named city her small salon had an intel- 
 lectual stamp and charm not inferior to that of her London circle. 
 During her stay abroad at different periods she contributed 
 valuable "travelling letters" to the ' Athenamm,' and both then, 
 and after her return to England, in 1848, frequently supplied 
 critical and obituary notices to that journal ; and in addition, 
 contributed more extended articles to the Reviews. Mr. Austin 
 died in December, 1859, and his widow, whose own death took 
 place on the bth of August, 1867, occupied half that interval in 
 the responsible duty of arranging for publication those 'Lectures 
 on Jurisprudence,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1861 — 63, which form the noblest 
 monument that could be raised to the memory of her husband. 
 
 Mrs. Austin did not often aspire to original literary composi- 
 tion ; and she is chiefly known for singularly able translations 
 of several of the choicest specimens of German literature. Her 
 principal works of this kind were ' The Travels of a German 
 Prince,' London, 1832 ; ' Characteristics of Goethe, with notes 
 original and translated,' 3 vols. 12mo, 1833, from the German 
 work of J. D. Falk, ' Goethe aus naherm personlicken Ungange 
 dargestellt ;' ' History of the Reformation in Germany,' and the 
 ' History of the Popes,' from the German of Leopold Ranke, to 
 the latter of which the late Dean Milman contributed a preface ; 
 ' Collection of Fragments from the German Prose Writers, trans- 
 lated with Notes,' 12mo, 1841 ; and the ' Story without an End,' 
 wiiich has gone through so many and so varied editions, from 
 the German of F. W. Carove, ' Das Mahrchein olme Ende.' 
 Mrs. Austin translated, from the French of Victor Cousin,' his 
 1 Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia ;' and 
 from Guizot, a Discourse designed , as an introduction to the 
 History of the Reign of Charles the First, ' On the Causes of the 
 Success of the English Revolution of 1640 — 1688.' We owe, 
 further, to her pen a work entitled ' Germany, from 1760 to 
 1814 ; or Sketches of German Life,' &c. ; another ' On National 
 Education,' 8vo, 1839 ; and ' Two Letters on Girls' Schools, and 
 on the Training of Working Women,' of which the second 
 edition, " with additions," was published in 1857, 8vo. Finally, 
 it should be stated that Mrs. Austin edited Lady Holland's 
 ' Memoir of the Rev. Sydney Smith,' with a Selection from 
 his Letters,' 4th edition, 1855, 8vo ; and also the charming work 
 of her (Mrs. Austin's) daughter, the late Lady Duff Gordon, 
 entitled ' Letters from Egypt, 1863 — 65.' 
 
 AUVERGNE, GUILLAUME D', or GULIELMUS AL- 
 VERNUS or ARVERNUS, bishop of Paris, was born at Aurillac 
 in the second half of the 12th century. After studying at 
 Paris theology, philosophy, and mathematics, he became doctor 
 and professor of theology at the Sorbonne. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Paris in 1228. In 1225 he established the Maison des 
 Filles de Dieu for reclaimed women ; in 1229 he founded the 
 priory of St. Catherine, and in 1234 a baptismal church at 
 Crime. But holding strong views on ecclesiastical rights, he 
 was brought into collision with the University of Paris, and 
 excommunicated some of the masters and scholars. In 1230 
 he was employed in counteracting the treasonable designs of the 
 Duke of Brittany, and succeeded in reclaiming the Bretons back 
 to their loyalty to the king. Next he undertook to suppress the 
 plurality of benefices. He presided over the religious ceremonies 
 
129 AUVERGNE, MARTIAL D\ 
 
 connected with the recovery of the Holy Crown of thorns (123S); 
 baptized the eldest son of Louis IX. in 1244 ; attended the king 
 in his interview with Pope Innocent IV. in 1245 ; and sub- 
 scribed to a solemn condemnation of the Talmud in 1248. He 
 died on the 30th of March, 1249. Bishop DAuvergne was a 
 good classical scholar, but made that and every other kind of 
 learning subservient to the interests of the church. He opposed 
 all kinds of heresy. As a writer, he was less dry and dill use 
 than most controversialists of that age. His writings, which were 
 very numerous, were for the most part collected and published 
 at Orleans in 1674, 2 vols. 4to. They comprise controversial, 
 devotional and philosophical treatises. A less perfect edition was 
 published in folio at Venice in 1591. His ' Rhetorica Divina,' 
 Ghent, 1483, 4to, was the first book known to have been produced 
 in that town with a date, and was the first of his works printed. 
 He wrote an immense number of discourses, but his most im- 
 portant work was ' De TJniverso,' a treatise on the authority, 
 origin, nature, and duration of the universe, and of good and 
 evil spirits. It is a work of considerable originality and power, and 
 is of importance in the history of philosophy in the middle ages. 
 
 AUVERGNE, MARTIAL D', a distinguished French lawyer, 
 wit, and poet, was born at Paris in 1440. Nearly all that is 
 known of his personal history is told in two epitaphs, one in 
 Latin prose and one in French verse, given in the additions by 
 Joly to Loiseau's ' Offices de France.' These epitaphs represent 
 him to have been beloved for his virtues, a good Christian, a 
 learned lawyer who was fifty years in the profession, and was the 
 friend and adviser of the poor. According to a narrative in 
 Denis Godefroy's edition of the ' Chronique de Louis XL/ 
 Martial dAuvergne, in the month of June, 1466, threw himself 
 from his chamber into the street, in a fit of frenzy, whereby he 
 broke his thigh and bruised his body all over. He died on the 
 13th of May, 1508. Martial dAuvergne was one of the best 
 writers of his time, manifesting both wit and judgment in his 
 several works. His chief work was ' Les Arrests d'Amour,' an 
 account of fifty (supposititious) decisions pronounced at the 
 Courts of Love by judicial tribunals of ladies, to whom were 
 referred all points of dispute relating to love and gallantry. The 
 arrets or decisions given in the book are satirical, but fair imita- 
 tions of the questions usually discussed in the Courts dAmour. 
 They are in prose, with a poetical introduction and conclusion. 
 After two or three undated editions, the first dated edition of 
 this work was published in Paris, 1525, 4to. Numerous later 
 editions have appeared, of which that of 1541 bore the curious 
 title, 'Droitz nouveaulx et Arrestz d' Amours, publiez par 
 Messieurs les Senateurs du Parlement de Cupido, sur l'estat et 
 police d'Amour, pour avoir entendu le different de plusieurs 
 amoureux et amoureuses.' A second work by him was ' 1/ Am ant 
 rendu Cordelier a l'Observation dAmour,' a love-poem of 234 
 strophes, each containing eight verses. It was first published at 
 Paris, 1490, 4to. A third work was 'Devotes Louanges a la 
 Vierge Marie,' Paris, 1482, 8vo. But Martial d'Auvergne's 
 reputation chiefly rests on his ' Vigilles de la Mort du feu roy 
 Charles VII.,' Paris, 1492, 4to ; this consists of between six and 
 seven thousand verses, giving a chronological and very circum- 
 stantial account of the misfortunes and exploits of Charles VII., 
 with the principal events of his reign. 
 
 AVAUX, CLAUDE DE MESMES, COMTE D', an eminent 
 French diplomatist, son of J. J. de Mesmes, first Comte d'Avaux, 
 was born in 1595. In comparatively early life he obtained 
 responsible appointments : he was successively master of requests 
 and superintendent of finances. In 1623 he became a councillor 
 of state. In 1627 he was nominated ambassador at the court of 
 Venice, and afterwards at the courts of Rome, Mantua, Florence, 
 and Turin. Richelieu, by whom he was highly valued, en- 
 trusted him to represent Fiance in the negotiations at the end of 
 the Thirty Years' War ; and in this capacity he aided to bring 
 about the peace of Westphalia in 1648. But the envious machi- 
 nations of his colleague, Servien, led to the recall of d'Avaux by 
 Mazarin (Richelieu's successor) just before the end of the nego- 
 tiations. He retired to his estates in disgrace, but was re- 
 appointed by Mazarin to diplomatic duties, and died at Paris 
 19th November, 1650. D'Avaux was a generous and enlightened 
 friend to literary men. The following works by him are of 
 value to the historical student : — 1. ' Exemplum Literarum ad 
 Daniae Regem scriptarum,' Paris, fol. 1642. 2. 'Lettres de 
 D'Avaux et de Servien,' 8vo, 1650. 3. ' Memoires touchant les 
 Negotiations du Traite de Paix fait ;\ Minister en 1648,' Cologne, 
 12mo, 1674 ; Grenoble, 1674. 
 
 AVELLONI, FRANCESCO, a voluminous Italian dramatist, 
 Bon of Casimiro Avelloni, was born at Venice in 1756, and studied 
 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 AVERANL ISO 
 
 at the Jesuit College in that city until its suppression in 1773. 
 He then removed to Naples, where, left destitute by the death 
 of his father, and disappointed in hopes of assistance from rela- 
 tives, he carved out a career for himself. After some vicissitudes, 
 he found a Iriend in Bianchi, manager of a theatre, and wrote in 
 little more than a fortnight a five-act play for him. When on 
 the road from Venice to Naples, Avelloni had been waylaid and 
 robbed by brigands, and the events which he saw and heard during 
 a temporary captivity among them suggested to him a plot for 
 his play, which he called 'Giulio Assassino.' It had great 
 success, being performed twenty successive evenings to crowded 
 audiences. Avelloni at once decided to adopt play-writing 
 as a means of living. He wrote forty dramas on stories or plots 
 suggested by the Prince of Sangro, who brought them out under 
 his own name ; the prince received whatever honour accrued, 
 while Avelloni received a sum equal to about thirty shillings, 
 together with a ham, for each drama. Having married an 
 actress, Avelloni tried his fortune both as a manager and as an 
 actor, but unsuccessfully, and at last took to private teaching. 
 He wrote the enormous number of six hundred plays, some in 
 verse and others in prose. Most of them have passed into oblivion, 
 but many are still acted, and the collections of dramas usually 
 contain a few of them. They were generally sentimental in style, 
 somewhat after the fashion of Goethe's ' Werter,' and Kotzebue's 
 ' Stranger,' easy in dialogue, but strained and improbable in 
 incident. He had some success in the writing of allegorical 
 dramas, of which the best were ' Lucerna di Epitteto,' ' Le 
 Vertigini del Secolo,' and ' II Sogno d'Aristo.' Avelloni, who, 
 on account of his diminutive stature, was known among his 
 friends as II Poetino, died at Rome in 1837. 
 
 AVERANI, the surname of three brothers distinguished 
 among Italian writers for their learning. 
 
 Benedetto Averani, the eldest brother, was born at Florence 
 July 19, 1645. After greatly distinguishing himself in his early 
 studies, he obtained in 1676 the professorship of Greek at the 
 University of Pisa. This he subsequently exchanged for the 
 chair of humanity, which he held till his death, December 28, 
 1707. He was buried in the Campo Santo of Pisa. Averani 
 passed his life in study and teaching, to which he was strongly 
 attached. He was eminent as a teacher of the Greek and Latin 
 languages and antiquities ; he was the leading professor at 
 Pisa ; his lectures at the university being extempore and lively, 
 were very attractive ; and by them and by his writings he con- 
 tributed to the revival of the study of the Greek language and 
 literature. His printed lectures comprise 86 on the Greek 
 anthology, 58 on Thucydides, 26 on Euripides, 31 on Livy, 45 
 on Virgil, and 98 on Cicero. They were much studied in his 
 day, and their merit is still recognised. Some of his Latin 
 works were published by him in 1688, and some by his brother 
 Giuseppe in 1709 ; but the whole were collected and edited 
 some years later by his brothers Giuseppe and Niccolo, under the 
 title ' Benedicti Averani FLorentini Dissertationes habita> in 
 Pisana Academic, &c. Accesserunt ejusdein Orationes et Car- 
 mina, omnia iterum edita ; necnon Epistolaj, qua? nunc primum 
 in lucem prodeunt,' 3 vols, folio, Florence, 1716 — 17. 
 
 Giuseppe Averani, the youngest and most distinguished of 
 the brothers, was born at Florence in 1662. In 1684 he became 
 professor of law in the University of Pisa. He acquired great 
 lame as a lecturer, first on the Institutions of Justinian, and 
 then on the Pandects. While advancing in reputation as a 
 jurist and lecturer, he was also prosecuting science. He made 
 experiments on burning-glasses, on light, on electricity, on 
 odours, and on the propagation of souud. The Royal Society of 
 London elected him as one of its fellows. Refusing good offers 
 from Bologna, Turin, and Florence, Averani remained at Pisa 
 till his death, on August 24, 1738, after 14 years of abstinence 
 from lecturing on account of feeble health. Besides jurisprudence 
 and science, he had studied theology, archa;ology, and the 
 language of his native country ; his learning on the last-named 
 subject caused his services as censor of the academy Delia Crusca 
 to be greatly valued. Of 12 works written by him the most 
 valued are :— (1) ' Interpretationum Juris Libri Duo,' published 
 at Leyden by Van der Aa in 1716, and ' Interprefationum Juris 
 Libri Tres posteriores,' Leyden, 1746 ; (2) 'LezioniToscane,'3vols. 
 Florence, 1744 — 46 — 61 ; containing lectures on philosophy, an- 
 tiquities, and theology, and papers describing his scientific ex- 
 periments ;(3) 'MoiuuiientaLatinaPosthunia J. A.,'Florence, 1768. 
 
 Niccolo Averani, the second brother, was born about the 
 middle of the 17th century. He was an advocate by profession, 
 but a mathematician by inclination, and dwelt at Florence till his 
 death, August 4, 1727. The works by which he is remembered, 
 
 K p 
 
131 
 
 besides the edition of Ma brother's Latin lectures (mentioned 
 above), were his edition of the works of Gassendi, 6 vols, folio, 
 Florence, 1726 ; and ' De Mensibus JEgypliornm, nunc primuni 
 edita, Dissertatio,' published ten years alter his death by Gori 
 and Cardinal Noris. 
 
 AVI LA, GIL GONZALES DE, or DAV1LA (De Avila being 
 printed on his earlier, Davila on his later title-pages), a 
 Spanish biographer and antiquary, Was burn at Avila about 
 1577. His boyhood and youth were spent in Rome, where he 
 received his early education in the household of Cardinal Deza. 
 When about 20 he returned to Spain, and was made deacon and 
 minor canon in t'.ie cathedral of Salamanca, He sunn after 
 commenced author by the publication of an attempt to explain 
 the purpose of the so-called Hull of Salamanca, a stone effigy 
 which then stood in the 'medio fwmte, a sort of shrine in the 
 centre of the old bridge of that city, and of similar effigies in other 
 parts of Castile — ' Declaraeion del Toro de Piedra de Sala- 
 manca, y de otros que se hallen en otros partes de Castilla,' 
 Salamanca, 4to, 1597. More important, however, was his next 
 work, 'Historia de las Anlaguedadea de la Ciudad de Sala- 
 manca, Vides de sus Obispos, y cosas sucedidas en su tiempo' 
 (History of the Antiquities of the Oily of Salamanca, with the 
 Lives of her Bishops, and the events which happened in their 
 time), Salamanca, 4to, 1606. In this work Avila displayed his 
 predilection for biography, the city and its antiquities occupying 
 less than a twelfth of the volume, the rest being given to the 
 lives of the bishops. A life of Alfonso, Bishop of Avila, ' Vida 
 y Hechos del M. Don Alfonso Tostado de Madrigal, Obispo de 
 Avila/ appeared in a quarto volume in 1011. The following 
 year he was called to Madrid to fill the ollice of Historiographer 
 Royal to the Two Castiles. In the fulfilment of the duties of 
 this office, in research among the national archives, patient 
 biographical and bibliographical study, and the writing and 
 publication of his books, his days passed quietly till he had 
 numbered his three score years and ten, when his faculties 
 gradually decayed, and his last days were passed in second 
 childishness. He died at Avila, May 1, 1658. Besides the 
 works already named, and some of merely local and tem- 
 porary interest, he wrote the following: — 'Historia del 
 Origen del Santo Christo de las Batallas' (History of the 
 Origin of the Most Holy Christ of Battles), 4to, 1615. 'Teatro 
 Ecclesiastico de las Ciudades y Iglesias Catedrales de Espana, ' 
 vol. i. 1618, was to have been continued, but he subsequently 
 revised his plan, and recast his materials ; the matured work 
 appearing eventually under the title of ' Teatro Ecclesiastico de 
 las Iglesias Metropolitanas y Catedrales de los Reynos de las dos 
 Castillas, Vidas de sus Arzobispos y Obispos y cosas memorables 
 de sus Sedes,' in which, as in his former work, the lives of the 
 archbishops and bishops occupy a far larger space than the ac- 
 counts of their churches. Of this work the first volume was 
 published in 1645, the second in 1647, the third in 1650, and 
 the fourth before 1655 ; a fifth was to have been added, but does 
 not appear to have been prepared. It is a work of much value 
 for the mass of historical and biographical materials it contains. 
 A brief general account of Madrid, with full biographies of its 
 illustrious natives, appeared at Madrid in 1623 in a handsome 
 folio volume, under the title, ' Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid, 
 corte de los Reyes Catolicos de Espana.' In 1638 he published 
 a life of Henry III. of Castile, and biographies of the founders 
 of the two fraternities of the Holy Trinity, ' Historia de la Vida 
 y Hechos del Rey Don Henrique III. de Castilla,' fob Madrid ; 
 and ' Compendio de las Vidas de los gloriosos San Juan de Mata 
 y Felix de Valois,' 4to, Madrid. On the death of Tomayo in 
 1641, Avila was appointed to succeed him as Historiographer of 
 the Indies, in which capacity he published his ' Teatro Ecclesias- 
 tico de la primitiva Iglesia de las Indias Occidentales,' 2 vols. 
 Madrid, 1649 — 55, in which the churches and ecclesiastics of 
 North and South America are treated in a manner correspond- 
 ing to that of his great Teatro of the churches and bishops of 
 Castile, to which this was intended as a supplement. He left 
 in MS. a life of Philip III., written by command of Philip IV., 
 which does not appear to have been printed. 
 
 AVILA Y ZUNIGA, DON LUIS DE, Spanish historian, 
 born towards the end of the 15th century, is believed to have 
 been a native of Placentia. He appears to have been of humble 
 origin, but he acquired wealth and station by marriage with an 
 heiress of the Zuniga family, whose name he added to his own. 
 He won the favour of the Emperor Charles V., who appointed 
 him grand-commander of the order of Alcantara, and sent him 
 during the papacies of Paul IV. and Pius IV. as ambassador to 
 Rome, where he contributed to the resumption of the Council of 
 
 Trent. He accompanied Charles V. in his German campai-n, 
 and commanded the cavalry at the siege of Metz in 1552. After 
 the abdication of Charles, Avila retired to his mansion at Pla- 
 centia, and amused his leisure by tilling his house with rarities, 
 and by directing the decoration of the walls with paintingsof the 
 
 campaign in Germany. He was a frequent, and always welco 
 
 visitor of the ex-emperor at Yuste, and was present at his funeral 
 in 1558. This is the last that is recorded of Avila, the date of 
 whose decease is not known. Avila is the author of a history of 
 the war in which he took part, ' Comentarios d« la Guerra de 
 Alemana, hecha de Carlos V. en el ano de MDXLVI. y 
 MDXLVII.,' Venice, 1548, and reprinted at Granada and at 
 Antwerp the following year, and at Antwerp and Saragossa in 
 1550. In 1560 an English translation, by John Wilkinson, was 
 published with the following noteworthy title, 'The Comentaiies 
 of Don Lewes de Auela and Suniga, great master of Acanter, 
 which treateth of the great wars in Germany, made by Charles 
 the fifth Maximo, Empcrourc of Home, King of Spain, against 
 John Fredericke, Duke of Saxon, and Philip the Lantgraue of 
 Hesson, with other gret princes and cities of the Lutherans, 
 wherin you may see how god hath preserved this worthy 
 and victorious Emperour in al his affayres against his enemyes, 
 tradatcd out of Spanish into English, An. Do. 1555, Londini, in 
 sedibus Richardi Totteli.' An Italian translation was published 
 at Venice in 1548, probably in connection with the issue of the 
 original ; a Latin version by William Mallinccus appeared at 
 Antwerp in 1550 ; one in Dutch, the same year and place ; and 
 three in French, by Mathieu Vaulcher, Antwerp, 1550 ; by 
 Gilles Boilleau de Buillon, Paris, 1551 ; and an anonymous 
 version, 1672. Avila's is a valuable and well-written hook, but 
 its originalitv no less than its fairness has been questioned. 
 
 AV'lLER,"AUGUSTIN CHARLES D', French architect and 
 author, was born at Paris in 1653. His taste for architecture 
 was developed early, and at the age of 20 he gained the first 
 prize for architecture given by the French Academy, which 
 entitled the winner to a royal pension, in order that he miejit 
 pursue his studies at Rome. Aviler embarked at Marseille 
 along with Desgodets, the architect, and Vaillant, the antiquary, 
 but the felucca was taken by an Algerian pirate, and Aviler and 
 his friends carried to Tunis. Notwithstanding his captivity, 
 Aviler prosecuted his studies, and he was employed to erect a 
 superb mosque in the chief street of the city, the success of 
 which, as much as the representations of Louis XIV., procured 
 him his liberty in 1676. He repaired at once to Rome, where 
 he remained five years occupied in studying the construction 
 and ornamental principles and details of the ancient buildings. 
 On his return to Paris he was employed as assistant to Mansard, 
 then busy on his great works in the capital. Tiring, however, 
 of a subordinate position, he determined to try bis fortune in the 
 provinces. He was engaged to erect the triumphal arch in 
 honour of Louis XIV. at Montpellier, known as La Porte de 
 Peron. This excited so much admiration that he received a 
 commission to erect a palace for the archbishop at Toulouse, and 
 several fine buildings at Carcassonne, Nimes, and Beziers, his 
 satisfactory completion of which obtained for him from the Etats 
 de Languedoc the appointment, in 1693, of architect of Provence. 
 He now settled in Montpellier, married, and was fairly launched 
 on a prosperous career ; but he fell into a bad state of health, 
 and he died in 1700, at the early age of 47. Notwithstanding 
 his close occupation as an architect, Aviler found time to write 
 several works of great value in their day. These are (1) ' Cours 
 d'Architecture,' 2 vols. 4to, 1691, which was held in much 
 esteem, but is mainly a commentary on Vignola ; it was more 
 than once reprinted ; the best editions are those by Mariette, 
 with additional designs and a life of the author, 1750 and 1755. 
 (2) ' Dictionnaire de tous les termes de lArchitecture Civile et 
 Hydraulique,' an exceedingly useful book at the time of its 
 publication, and one which has served as the basis of subse- 
 quent dictionaries, Aviler's definitions having been in the main 
 adopted by his successors. Avila is also the author of a trans- 
 lation of Scamozzi's treatise on Architecture with original notes, 
 published at Paris, folio, 1685, and reprinted at Leyden in 1713. 
 
 AVRIGNY, HYAC1NTHE ROBILLARD D', a learned 
 French Jesuit, was born at Caen in 1675. He entered a Jesuit 
 seminary at the age of 16, and gradually rose to the position of 
 professor of humanities in one of the colleges of the order. But 
 being in feeble health, he changed his office for that of procu- 
 rator. DAvrigny's favourite subjects of study were ecclesias- 
 tical and civil history. He wrote — (1) ' Memoires Chronolo- 
 giques et Dogmatiques, pour servir a 1'Histoire Ecclesiastique 
 depuis 1600jusqu'en 1716,' 4 vols. 12mo, 1720; (2) 'Memoires 
 
133 
 
 134 
 
 pour servir a l'Histoire universelle de I'Europe, depuis 1600 
 jusqu'en 1716,' 4 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1725 and 1731, reprinted in 
 1757 ir. 5 vols, with additions by le Pere Griffet. Tliese works, 
 especially the first, brought him into trouble. He was too fearless 
 in investigation and too independent in judgment to suit his 
 superiors ; and the mortification produced by the reproof ad- 
 ministered by them, and the retrenchment exercised before 
 they permitted the volumes to be published, is said by Dom 
 Chaudon to have hastened D'Avrigny's death, which occurred 
 April 24, 1719. Both works are useful, even in the mutilated 
 form which they presented when published after his death. 
 
 AYLESBURY, or AILESBURY, SIR THOMAS, bom in 
 London in 1576, was educated at Westminster School, and 
 entered as a student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1598. Here he 
 distinguished himself as a mathematician ; took the degrees of 
 B.A. in 1602, and 51. A. in 1605. On leaving Oxford he received 
 the appointment of secretary to the Earl of Nottingham, Lord 
 High Admiral, and then served the Duke of Buckingham in a 
 similar capacity. His next offices were as one of the Masters of 
 Requests and 5Iaster of the 51int. In 1627 he was created a 
 baronet. On the breaking out of the civil war, he was deprived 
 of his appointments. In 1649, after the execution of Charles I., 
 Aylesbury went to the Netherlands, and lived in a quiet and 
 frugal way at Breda until his death in 1657. His daughter 
 Frances became Countess of Clarendon, mother to the queen of 
 James II., and grandmother to Queens 5Iary and Anne. Sir 
 Thomas Aylesbury was an excellent scholar, a good mathema- 
 tician, and an enlightened man, liberal and generous to men of 
 genius and letters. 
 
 AYLESBURY, WILLIA5I, son of Sir Thomas, was bom at 
 Westminster about 1612 ; entered Christ Church, Oxford, as a 
 gentleman-commoner in 1628 ; and became B.A. in 1631. On 
 leaving college he was appointed by Charles I. tutor and 
 guardian to the orphan sons of the first Villiers, Duke of Buck- 
 ingham. While travelling with them on the Continent he was 
 shot in the thigh by a brigand. On his return to England he 
 was commanded by the King to translate DAvila's ' History of 
 the Civil Wars of France ' — a work, however, in which the chief 
 part of the translation was, according to Ant. Wood, done by 
 Aylesbury's coadjutor, Sir Charles Cotterel. Like his father, 
 Sir William Aylesbury was straitened in his circumstances by 
 the events which followed the execution of Charles I. : but, 
 unlike his father, he took office under the Protector, and went 
 out as secretary to the Governor of Jamaica, in -which colony he 
 died in 1657. 
 
 AYLETT, or AYLET, ROBERT, was born about 1583 ; 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; took his 5I.A. degree ; 
 in 1608 was incorporated of Oxford University ; obtained in 
 1614 the degree of LL.D. at Cambridge, and, according to Wood, 
 succeeded Sir Charles Cxsar as master of the faculties, on the 
 death of Sir Charles in December 1642. But long before this he 
 had become known as a candidate for the poet's bays. In 1622 
 was published an 8vo. volume by him, comprising four poems: 
 — ' Peace, with her foure Garders : Thrift's Equipage : Susanna : 
 Joseph, or Pharaoh's Favorite.' One at least of these pieces, 
 ' Susanna,' is met w r ith separately, but of the same date, and 
 it was perhaps issued first in order to test the reception the 
 volume would be likely to meet with. No other work appears 
 to have been pubhshed by Dr. Aylett until he put forth a 
 rhyming argument of 26 pages for and against marriage, 'A 
 Wife not ready made but bespoken, by Dicus the Batchelor, 
 and made up for him by his fellow-shepheard Tityrus : in four 
 pastoral eclogues. The second edition, wherein are some things 
 added, but nothing amended,' Lond. 1653 : the first edition has 
 escaped notice. The following years appeared his ' Divine and 
 5Ioral Speculations, in 5Ietrical Numbers, upon various sub- 
 jects,' in which the ' Wife not ready made ' and the ' Susanna' 
 mentioned above, are included. Another rhyming pamphlet of 
 15 pages, consisting of a series of brief devotional exercises, 
 issued in 1654, with a portrait by T. Cross, and entitled ' De- 
 votions : viz. 1. A Good Woman's Prayer. 2. The Humble 
 Man's Prayer,' concludes, as far as we know, the list of Dr. Ay- 
 lett's poetic publications. They are in request among biblio- 
 graphers, but are forgotten by every one else, and are not worth 
 resuscitating. The year of his death is not mentioned. 
 
 AYliES, JOHN, celebrated for his skill as a penman in the 
 latter pait of the 17th anil the beginning of the 18th centuries, 
 was of humble birth, having served for some time as footman to 
 Sir William Ashurst, a merchant of London. Whilst in this 
 capacity his master taught him writing and arithmetic, and he 
 then opened a school in St. Paul's Churchyard, which seems to 
 
 have been a successful enterprise. In 1683 (the first date clearly 
 recorded concerning him), he published 'The Accomplished 
 Clerk,' a book illustrated with engraved specimens of penman? 
 ship, which was republished with his portrait in 170<>. In 1696 
 appeared ' A Tutor to Penmanship, or the Writing 5Iaster,' com- 
 prising a brief history of the art of writing, with 48 folio plates 
 of examples, engraved like the former by John Sturt, who, in an 
 address to the purchaser, refers to several other works executed by 
 him conjointly with Ayres. About the same time was published 
 ' Arithmetic made Easy, for the use of Tradesmen.' The year 
 of Ayres's birth is not known ; his death is supposed to have 
 occurred suddenly about 1705. 
 
 AYRES, PHILIP, a miscellaneous writer of the second half 
 of the 17th century, of whose personal history nothing ap- 
 pears to be known. His works comprise — 1. ' The Fortunate 
 Fool : written in Spanish by Don Alonzo Geronimo de Salas 
 Barbadillo of Madrid,' 12mo. London, 1670. 2. ' The Count of 
 ( tabalis ; or the Extravagant Mysteries of the Cabalists, exposed 
 in five pleasant discourses on the Secret Sciences,' 16mo. 1680, 
 a translation (with some original 'animadversions' at the end) 
 from the French of the Abbe Pierre Villiers. 3. 'Emblems oi 
 Love, in four Languages [Latin, English, Italian, and French]. 
 Dedicated to the Ladies,' 8vo. 1683. This is a very curious 
 work ; it comprises a series of 44 poetical emblems, each adorned 
 with a pictorial design, the whole being engraved upon copper 
 plates. 4. ' Lyric Poems, made in imitation of the Italians. 
 Of which many are Translations from other Languages,' 8vo. 
 London, 1687. 5. ' Pax Redux, or the Christian Reconciler. 
 A Project for Reuniting all Christians into One Sole Com- 
 munity, Translated from the French,' sm. 4to. 1688— but said 
 in the preface to have been first published 15 years before. 6. 
 ' Three Centuries of yEsopian Fables,' 8vo. 1689. 
 
 AYRTON, EDMUND, a composer of church music, was born 
 in 1734 at Ripon, in the grammar-school of which town he was 
 educated. By his father he was intended for the church ; but 
 evincing a preference for music, he was placed under the tuition 
 of Dr. Nares, organist of York Cathedral. At a comparatively 
 early age he became organist, auditor, and chorus master of the 
 collegiate church of Southwell, Nottinghamshire. Here he re- 
 mained many years, marrying into a good famity, and bringing 
 up a large number of sons and daughters. In 1764 he was 
 appointed one of the gentlemen of the Chapel Royal, and soon 
 afterwards vicar-choral of St. Paul's, and one of the lay clerks of 
 Westminster Abbey. In 1780 he became ' 5Iaster of the Children 
 of his 5Iajesty's Chapels ;' and in 1784 was created 5Ius. Doc. 
 of Cambridge. When the general thanksgiving was held at St. 
 Paul's on the 29th of July, 1784, for "the termination of the 
 American war," a grand anthem by Ayrton was performed, 
 ' Begin unto my God with timbrels,' with full orchestral accom- 
 paniments. This composition was much admired. In the same 
 year he became assistant director of the Festival for the com- 
 memoration of Handel at Westminster Abbey ; he filled the 
 same post at the similar festivals which were continued annually 
 until the breaking out of the French Revolution, when the minds 
 of men were untuned for music. Dr. Ay r rton died in 1808, and 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey. Among his musical com- 
 positions were a complete morning and evening service in C ; 
 another (shorter) in E flat ; two verse anthems, ' I will Sing a 
 New Song,' and ' The King thy Judgments ;' two full anthems 
 with verses, ' Thy Righteousness, Oh God, is very high,' and 
 ' Bow clown thine ear, Oh Lord ;' also several fugues. All his 
 music presents good examples of the English church style, 
 learned in treatment, and yet simple. 
 
 AYRTON, WILLIA51, youngest son of Dr. Ayrton, and an 
 eminent musical editor and critic, was born 22nd February, 
 1777. He married the daughter of Dr. Samuel Arnold, the 
 composer, in 1803. Deriving from his father a general and 
 accurate acquaintance with musical subjects, he became musical 
 and literary critic to the 'Morning Chronicle' when under Mr. 
 Perry. This position he held from 1813 to 1826. In 1817 
 Mr. Waters, becoming proprietor of the King's Theatre or 
 Opera House, entrusted the management to 5Ir. Ayrton, who 
 entered upon the task with a determination to raise the standard 
 of public taste in regard to opera, by introducing to the English 
 boards high-class German music. He engaged as his chief 
 singers 51esdames Pasta, Camporese, and Fodor, with Signori 
 Crivelli, Ambrogetti, and Naldi. To Mr. Ayrton belongs the 
 credit of introducing to the English public 5Iozart's chef d'eeuvre, 
 'II Don Giovanni,' an opera which had brilliant success. This 
 encouraged him to introduce in succession the same composer's 
 ' Figaro ' and ' Clemenza di Tito,' Cimarosa's ' Penelope,' Paer's 
 
 K 2 
 
135 
 
 AYSCOUGH, REV. FRANCIS. 
 
 AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONSTONE. 
 
 136 
 
 ' Agnese ' and ' Griselda,' and Paesiello's ' Molinara.' But he was 
 thwarted by a cabal of singers and dancers, who opposed his plans, 
 and led ham to give up the management at the end of the one 
 single season in disgust. Among the ' Letters of Charles Lamb' 
 is a droll rhymed epistle of his to Mr. Ayrton, asking for gallery 
 orders of admission to see ' II Don Giovanni ;' and Talfouril, in 
 his ' Final Memorials of Charles Lamb,' speaks of Ayrton being 
 "mildly radiant at the continued triumph" of that opera, when 
 assembling With other choice friends at Lamb's ' Wednesday 
 Nights.' In 1821, Mr. Ebers having taken the Opera House, 
 sought the aid of Mr. Ayrton as manager. Again was the 
 manager baffled, this time by a committee of subscribers, who 
 insisted on that which Ayrton would not yield — the right of 
 apportioning the operatic characters among the performers. He 
 abandoned the enterprise in a few months. Prom 1823 to 1833 
 Mr. Ayrton edited the ' Hannonicon,' in which his literary and 
 critical articles were of a far higher character than had up to 
 that time been customary in musical periodicals. Between 1833 
 and 1844 he contributed musical articles and biographies to the 
 'Penny Cyclopaedia;' and in 1834 — 36, he edited 'Sacred 
 Minstrelsy' and the 'Musical Library, 1 the earliest works in 
 which high-class music was published collectively at a cheap 
 price. He also wrote musical notices for Mr. Knight's ' Pictorial 
 JShakspere.' Mr. Ayrton was elected F.R.S. and F.S.A., and 
 was one of the original members of the Royal Institution. At 
 the time of his death, which took place 8th May, 1858, he had 
 accumulated a large amount of materials for a ' Philosophical 
 History of Music ' and a ' Dictionary of Music' 
 
 AYSCOUGH, REV. FRANCIS, the records of whose early 
 life are nearly entirely' sunnned up in a statement in the 'London 
 Magazine' for October, 1766, that he might with propriety have 
 been called the child of good fortune, was admitted of Corpus 
 Chiisti College, Oxford, on the 28th of March, 1717. In 1723 
 he took his M.A. degree, and was subsequently admitted first to 
 deacon's and then to priest's orders; and on the Kith of January, 
 1727, became a scholar or probationary fellow of his college. On 
 the expiration of his second year of probation, he became a can- 
 didate for an actual fellowship. On the day for considering the 
 claim, January 15, 1730, the president and a majority of the 
 fellows voted against his admission, but without assigning any 
 reason. Ayscough hereupon appealed to the Bishop of "Win- 
 chester, the visitor of the college, who, after a hearing and con- 
 sideration of the case, decided in favour of Ayscough, and sent 
 an injunction commanding the college to admit him, and re- 
 quiring those fellows who had excluded him to defray the costs 
 of both parties. Ayscough was admitted accordingly, and he 
 took the degree of D.D. in 1735. From the titles of Sermons 
 which he published, Ayscough is known to have been chaplain 
 to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales in 1736, and to have 
 become, in or before the year 1752, rector of North Church, 
 Hertfordshire. He also held the office of preceptor to George III. 
 before his accession to the throne, and to his brother Edward, 
 Duke of York ; and it was probably owing to his connection 
 with the royal family, and to the influence of George, Lord 
 Lyttelton, whose sister he had married, that he at length re- 
 ceived the appointment of Dean of Bristol. He died in 1766. 
 
 AYSCOUGH, GEORGE EDWARD, the only son of the 
 Rev. Francis Ayscough, D.D., by Anne, one of the sisters of 
 George, Lord Lyttelton, was a lieutenant in the 1st Regiment of 
 Foot Guards. The time of his birth and the particulars of his 
 early history are unknown, excepting that he was honoured by 
 having George III. and his brother, the Duke of York, for his 
 godfathers. In 1774 he edited, with a dedication to his cousin, 
 the second Lord Lyttelton, ' The Works of George, Lord Lyttel- 
 ton, formerly printed separately, and now first collected together; 
 with some other pieces never before printed.' This work went 
 through several editions, of which the third, enlarged consider- 
 ably from its first issue, was published in three volumes, octavo, 
 in 1776. In the last-named year Ayscough published ' Semi- 
 ramis, a Tragedy; as it is acted at the Theatre Royal in Drury 
 Lane,' 8vo. This play has an epilogue by Richard Brinsley 
 Sheridan. In the following year Ayscough sought to recover 
 on the Continej t the health he had forfeited by dissipation at 
 home, and on his return in 1778, produced, as the literary 
 results of his journey, 'Letters from an Officer in the Guards to 
 his Friend in England, containing some Accounts of France and 
 Italy .' His sojourn abroad appears to have produced no lasting 
 benelit to his ruined health, for he died, after a lingering illness, 
 on the 14th (or, according to the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' the 
 19th) of October, 1779; leaving behind him the character of an 
 abandoned man, and of a soldier " who gave up his commission to 
 
 avoid doing his duty when called upon by his sovereign to fight 
 in America." (Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the ISlh century.) 
 
 AYSCOUGH, SAMUEL, the son of George Ayscough, 
 and grandson of William Ay r seough, both eminent printers at 
 Nottingham, was born in that town in 1745, where he was 
 educated under Mr. Richard Johnson, the author of ' Noctes 
 Nottinghamise.' Injudicious speculations on the part of his 
 father brought Samuel to the necessity of working as a labouring 
 miller, from which employment he was rescued by the care of 
 a gentleman who had been his school-fellow, and who now 3ent 
 for him to London and procured for him the situation of over- 
 looker to some street-paviours. Presently, however, he obtained 
 employment successively in the shop of Mr. Rivington, the book- 
 seller in St. Paul's Churchyard, and at the British Museum as an 
 assistant under the principal librarian. The salary which his 
 skill commanded at this institution, augmented by sums received 
 for occasional employment in the libraries of private gentlemen, 
 was shared by his father, whom he had, with some assistance 
 from his early friend, sent for to London, and whom he 
 maintained in comfort until his death on the 18th of November, 
 1783. 
 
 After having been employed in a subordinate capacity in the 
 British Museum for 15 years, Ayscough was, about 1785, ap- 
 pointed assistant-librarian upon the establishment. In or before 
 the year 1782 he was ordained to the curacy of Normanton- 
 upon-the-Soar, in Nottinghamshire; and he also became assistant- 
 curate of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, London. In 1790 he was chosen 
 to preach the annual Fairchild lecture, at Shoreditch Church, 
 before the Royal Society; which he continued to do until the 
 completion of his series of 15 discourses on Whit-Tuesday, 
 1804. About a year before his death he was presented, by the 
 Lord Chancellor Eldon, to the living of Cudhani, in Kent, about 
 17 miles from London, where he regularly performed duty, 
 though he continued to reside at the British Museum, where he 
 died, of dropsy on the chest, on the 30th of October, 1804, in 
 his 60th year. He was buried in the cemetery of St. George's, 
 Bloomsbury, behind the Foundling Hospital. 
 
 Ayscough's labours, especially in connection with the library 
 of the British Museum, were of exceeding value, but commonly 
 of a kind in which it would be difficult to distinguish what is his 
 from that which is by his colleagues. The following works, how- 
 ever, appear to have been wholly by him, and most of them 
 were published with his name: — (1) 'A Catalogue of the Manu- 
 scripts preserved in the British Museum, hitherto undescribed, 
 consisting of five thousand volumes ; including the collections 
 of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart., the Rev. Thomas Birch, D.D., and 
 about five hundred volumes bequeathed, presented, or purchased 
 at various tiniES,' 2 vols. 4to, 1782. (2) ' Remarks on the Letters 
 of an American Farmer; or, a Detection of the Errors of Mr. 
 J. Hector St. John, pointing out the pernicious tendency of those 
 Letters to Great Britain,' 8vo, 1783. (3) 'A General Index to 
 the Annual Register,' from 1758 to 1780, both inclusive. (4) 'A 
 General Index to the Monthly Review, from its commencement 
 to the end of the seventieth volume,' 2 vols, 8vo, 1786. A 
 ' Continuation ' of this Index, embracing from the seventy-first 
 to the eighty-first volume of the Review, and also compiled by 
 Ayscough, was published in one volume in 1796. (5) ' A 
 General Index to the first fifty-six volumes of the Gentleman's 
 Magazine, from its commencement in the year 1731 to the end 
 of 1786,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1789. (6) 'An Index to the remarkable 
 Passages and Words made use of by Shakspeare, calculated to 
 point out the different meanings to which the words are applied,' 
 8vo, 1790. (7) ' A General Index to the first twenty volumes of 
 the British Critic,' 8vo, 1804; a continuation of which Index 
 was subsequently compiled by Dr. Blagdon. And in addition 
 Ayscough either compiled, or assisted largely in compiling; 
 various Museum catalogues, the principal of which, the cata- 
 logue of printed books, 'Librorum Impressorum qui in Musec 
 Britannico adservantur Catalogus,' 2 vols. fol. 1787, was com- 
 piled in about equal proportions, by Ayscough, Dr. Maty, and 
 Mr. Harper. 
 
 AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONSTONE [E. G. vol. vi. 
 col. 967]. In 1858 Professor Aytoun edited the 'Ballads of 
 Scotland.' 2 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh and London ; and in the 
 following year published, conjointly with Air. Theodore Martin, 
 a Translation of some of the Poems and Ballads of Goethe. In 
 1861 he made a not very successful attempt after fame as a 
 novelist, by publishing 'Norman Sinclair,' 3 vols.; and in 1863 
 gave utterance to his loyalty in a ' Nuptial Ode on the Marriage 
 of the Prince of Wales.' Professor Aytoun was son-in-law to 
 Professor Wilson (Christopher North), and was proud of his 
 
137 
 
 AZEGLIO, MASSIMO, MARQUIS D'. 
 
 AZEGLIO, MASSIMO, MARQUIS D\ 
 
 138 
 
 - wife as her father's (laughter. He died August 4th, 1865, in 
 Morayshire, at his country residence of Blackills, near Elgin. 
 AZEGLIO, MASSIMO, MARQUIS D', an eminent Italian 
 
 , statesman, artist, and author, and one of the chief agents in 
 bringing about Italian union and freedom. He was the youngest 
 son of Cesare Taparelli, Marquis D'AzEfiLio (b. February 
 10, 1763, d. Nov. 29, 1831), the representative of an ancient 
 Piedmontese family, who served with credit against the French, 
 
 ; was made prisoner in 1705, and kept in captivity till the peace 
 of 1796 ; removed to Florence when the French annexed Pied- 
 mont ; was sent in 1814 as minister from King Charles to con- 
 gratulate the Pope on his return to Rome ; then, with the rank 
 of general, quietly returned to the management of his private 
 
 j affairs and to literary studies, during his last years being the 
 
 I director of a widely circulated journal, ' l'Amico d'ltalia.' 
 
 Massimo dAzeglio was born at Turin on the 24th of October 
 1798. His early education was directed hy his father, a devout 
 Catholic, and a strict, almost stern, disciplinarian. In due time 
 he proceeded to college, but at the age of 16 entered the Urban 
 
 ! Guard, when his regular academic instruction ceased. In 1814 
 he accompanied his father to Rome as a member of the diplo- 
 matic staff, and availed himself of the opportunity to take 
 lessons in music and drawing. On his return to Turin he was 
 appointed to a cornetcy in tbe royal guard, which he ex- 
 changed after a time for a higher rank in an infantry regi- 
 ment. Becoming tired and ashamed of the idle and dissolute 
 life he was now leading, he made a resolution (1817) to give up 
 his wild associates, and set about learning to paint in oil, but 
 after " six months of furiously hard work " he fell ill. On his 
 recovery he was allowed to revisit Rome. Here he continued 
 to study painting, selecting as his instructor one Marten Ver- 
 Btappen, of Antwerp, a clever but boorish left-handed landscape 
 painter, under whoin he learnt to paint directly from nature. 
 But along with painting he read and even wrote poetry, among 
 his compositions being a tragedy, the early scenes of a comedy, 
 and some " frantic odes and sonnets about Italy." Miss Cornelia 
 Knight, then resident at Rome, taught him English, and intro- 
 duced him to other English families. It was a pleasant life, 
 hut Azeglio felt that it was an unsatisfactory one. He was 
 dependent on his father, whose property had been wasted whilst 
 his country had been held by the foreigner. His drawings had 
 been admired, and he believed he could sujmort himself by his 
 pencil. That he might remove the objections which he knew 
 his parents would feel to such a scheme, he went to Turin. His 
 proposal was a serious blow to their notions of the obligations of 
 nobility, and was especially repugnant to his father's family 
 pride. But he prevailed, and with a trifling allowance (about 
 70/. a year) he returned to Rome, free to follow his inclinations, 
 and to support himself by his own exertions. 
 
 He at once renounced all his fashionable acquaintances, 
 dropped his title, and set hard to work. Socially, as he re- 
 marks, "it was a very perceptible fall. From having two or 
 three horses and a servant, 1 was about to find myself minus 
 horses and lodging — everything changed for the worse." But 
 he never regretted the change : he was convinced, as he wrote 
 just before his d.eath, that " if every young man started in life 
 with only 150 francs a month, the world would be more worthily 
 peopled than it is." But though painting was now the business 
 of his life, he did not limit his thoughts to the study of art. 
 One of his first engagements was to rise two hours before dawn 
 to take lessons in history of a professor named Garello. So he 
 worked on, making steady progress till he was able to submit 
 his pictures to public exhibition. One, ' Leonidas at Thermo- 
 pylai,' was sent to Turin, and his father offered it to King 
 Charles Felix, who sent the artist a diamond snuff-box, which 
 he, "as is the custom, hastened to sell for the sake of his 
 memory." In 1825 he ventured on a more ambitious subject, 
 'The Death of Montmorency,' which he painted on a large scale, 
 and which proved a decided success when exhibited at Rome, 
 whilst " at Turin it was looked upon as quite a marvel." He 
 was satisfied now that he had mastered his tools, and that it was 
 time to quit Rome. He had stayed six years, sketched all the 
 Burroiinding country, and visited Naples, Venice, Florence, and 
 Switzerland, travelling over much of the ground "with his traps 
 at his back," and he now determined to settle as a piainter in 
 Milan. The death of his father made some increase in his 
 means, but he continued to work steadily at his profession, and 
 during the fourteen years he remained at Milan (1831 — 45) he 
 took a high position as an artist, and painted several pictures 
 which hold honourable rank among the best productions of 
 jpcent Italian art. The first pictures he exhibited at the Brera 
 
 (the Milanese Academy), 'The Challenge of Barletta,' 'The 
 Interior of a Birch-wood,' and 'The Battle of Legnano,' took 
 the Milan art-public by surprise — the thoroughly Italian sub- 
 ject* and the novelty and beauty of their execution contributing 
 equally to the pleasure of the spectators— and they were at once 
 purchased, 'The Birch-wood' by the Viceroy, the others by 
 Italian noblemen. Nor did his paintings ever after lack pur- 
 chasers, they mostly, indeed, when not commissioned, being 
 bought whilst in his studio : " in one winter," he writes, " I 
 painted twenty-four pictures, nearly every one of which was 
 commissioned beforehand." The titles of a few of the pictures 
 (there were 61 in all, about a-third being landscapes) exhibited 
 by him at the Brera from 1833 to 1843, will sufficiently indicate 
 their general character : ' Encounter between Diego Garcia de 
 Paredes and a number of Frenchmen on the bridge of boats 
 over the Garigliano ; ' ' Revenge,' (given to the church of San 
 Fidele) ; ' The Ghost of Argalia ; ' ' Bradamante fighting the 
 magician Atlante, to deliver Ruggero from the enchanted Castle ;' 
 ' Funeral of Duke Amadeo VI. of Savoy ; ' ' Ippalca, the mes- 
 senger of Bradamante to Ruggero ; ' ' Defence of Nice against 
 Barbarossa and the French ' (commissioned by Kin" Carlo 
 Alberto) ; ' The Battle of Turin ; ' ' The Battle of Col d'As- 
 sietta ; ' ' Giacumuzzo Atteudolo Sforza throwing his axe at a 
 tree, to decide whether or not to turn soldier.' 
 
 But now commenced a new and most important phase in his 
 career, and one of no small influence in the recent history of 
 Italy. While at Rome, as now at Milan, he had not only reso- 
 lutely avoided " dissipation and idleness, the curse of the young 
 Italian gentry," but as resolutely held himself aloof from the 
 Giovine Italia and secret societies generally, then rife through- 
 out the country, yet as earnestly as the most enthusiastic he 
 longed for the advent of a United Italy, while he believed that 
 it was only by the cultivation of the national character, and thus 
 forming a national mind, that Italy could be made one nation. 
 In the hope of thus " acting on the public spirit by means of 
 a national literature," he devised the plan of a novel ' Ettore 
 Fieramosca,' but wrote only a small portion of it. At Milan 
 he formed a close friendship with Manzoni, and married his 
 daughter. The connexion stimulated his patriotic feelings. He 
 finished his novel and submitted it to Manzoni and Grossi, who 
 gave their hearty approval ; the book was printed ; by a little 
 dexterous management secured the licence of the Austrian censor 
 (who however was dismissed from his office for his want of per- 
 ception); published (1833), and quickly ran all over Italy — "it 
 passed from the masculine to the feminine half of society ; found 
 its way to the studios and the stage ; became the vade-mecum of 
 every prima-donna and tenor, and the hidden treat of the school- 
 girl ; and even penetrated between the pillow and the mattress 
 of college boys, and of the military cadet." The purpose of the 
 book, to rouse Italians against the foreigner, was clear, and its 
 acceptance determined Azeglio to follow up the impression by 
 another historical novel, ' Niccolo de' Lappi/ on which however 
 he devoted a great deal more attention and study with a view 
 to historical accuracy. Thus written amid the intervals of his 
 professional labours its progress was necessarily slow, but it was 
 at length finished, passed safely the ordeal of the censorship, and 
 was published in April, 1841, with as prosperous an issue as its 
 predecessor. 
 
 Azeglio's residence at Turin and professional career were 
 brought to an unexpected close. He had made a journey to 
 Rome at the instance of a friend, and whilst staying there he 
 had become intimate with several of the leading Roman liberals. 
 One of these told Azeglio one day that it was indispensable he 
 should have a serious conversation with him. At their meeting 
 he explained to Azeglio that the Romagna M r as in an excited 
 state, and that in case of the anticipated death of Pope Gregory 
 an outbreak was inevitable, that affairs amongst the nationalists 
 themselves, owing to the measures of the Mazzinists, &c, were 
 complicated and every movement hazardous, and that, in order 
 to be prepared against evils that would inevitably arise, many 
 of the most influential patriots considered it to be advisable to 
 have a new man, one who had not been mixed up in the pro- 
 ceedings of the societies, and could inspire confidence, to assume 
 the direction of the liberal party, and that they had decided that 
 Azeglio was that man, and now called upon him to accept the 
 dangerous responsibility. After brief consideration he under- 
 took the charge on the understanding that he should be free to 
 advise the relinquishing of secret societies, the abandonment of 
 any premature outbreak, and the acceptance of Charles Albert 
 as the head of the union. With this understanding he made a 
 tour of propagandising under the guise of an artistic journey, 
 
139 
 
 AZEGLIO, MASSIMO, MARQUIS D\ 
 
 through a great part of Italy, town by town, and with few ex- 
 ceptions secured the assent of the leading patriots to his views. 
 Having thus satisfied himself of the general good-will, lie pro- 
 ceeded to Turin and was admitted to an audience with Charles 
 Albert, to whom he related the whole of his proceedings, and 
 asked whether lie approved of them or not. The king heard his 
 statement in silence, and then replied — " Tell those gentlemen 
 to remain quiet and avoid a rising, as nothing can he. done at 
 present; hut let them he certain that when the time comes, niy 
 life, the lives of my sons, my sword, my exchequer, my army, 
 shall all he expended for the Italian cause." It was the definite 
 moment that led to the liberation of Italy, thougli not imme- 
 diately. Azeglio could not quite shake off the distrust which 
 the previous conduct of the king had implanted. The more 
 impetuous entirely disbelieved the man and rejected his advice. 
 But the king was true to his promise, and though he perilled 
 his all on the cast and lost, the freedom of Italy was assured. 
 
 Azeglio, though successful in deferring a general rising, could 
 not prevent a partial and necessarily disastrous outbreak. But 
 he had now resolved on a policy of what he termed conspiracy 
 in broad daylight: to make no attempt at revolution, but to pre- 
 pare for the battle on the field of opinion and publicity. Balbo, 
 with whom he was now in the closest connection, agreed witli 
 him that for this it was first of all necessary to write a book. 
 The affair at Rimini afforded a topic, and in a month Azeglio 
 had ready his ' Gli ultimi Cacti di Romagna.' Permission to 
 publish it was refused at Turin, but he was successful at Leg- 
 horn ; and in a few days after its appearance in the beginning 
 of 1846, it had been conveyed by hand from one end of Italy to 
 the other. Its. effect was decisive. It stimulated the Italian 
 people, but it brought them to understand that the true policy 
 was to wait the course of events. Azeglio was banished from 
 Tuscany and forbidden to enter the Austrian dominions in 
 Italy. 
 
 The election of Pope Pius IX. followed by his promulgation 
 of a general amnesty, the adoption of liberal measures, and the 
 expression of warm sympathy with the Italian cause, roused 
 throughout the peninsula a wild passionate enthusiasm for the 
 new pontiff, and Azeglio shared in the general illusion. He 
 repaired to Rome and supported by r his voice and influence the 
 popular excitement, his belief, like that of Gioberti and Balbo, 
 being that the Pope was the true leader of the Italian people, 
 and that the right course for liberated Italy would be to assume 
 the shape of " a confederation of free states with its centre at 
 Rome, and the Pope for its president : " a fearful mistake, as he 
 lived to feel, and, being adopted by Napoleon III., the source of 
 endless complication and trouble. Azeglio's views were set forth 
 in a series of pamphlets called the ' Progranmia per le Forrna- 
 zione di mi' Opinione nazionale.' 
 
 Azeglio was now at Rome watching the course of events. He 
 saw that the eruption was at hand, and as a call to readiness he 
 published ' I Lutti di Lombardia,' a passionate narration of the 
 Austrian tyranny in Lombardyand Venice, and one of the most 
 effective of his writings. The Parisian outbreak of February, 
 1848, was immediately followed by the rising of Milan against 
 the Austrians, and by the march of Charles Albert into Lom- 
 bardy at the head of his army. Azeglio called on the people of 
 Rome to join their countrymen; a small but enthusiastic army 
 was, with the Pope's active support, quickly organised, and 
 Azeglio accompanied it into Venetia as staff-adjutant to the 
 commander, General Durando. Attacked by Radetski with an 
 overwhelming force, the pontifical army was defeated (June, 
 1848) after a desperate resistance, and Azeglio fell dangerously 
 wounded in the thickest of the fight. The armistice which 
 Charles Albert was driven to conclude with the Austrians, closed 
 for a time the prospect of Italian freedom. But Azeglio did not 
 despair. He removed to Piedmont, and busied himself in coun- 
 teracting the machinations of the extreme republican parly. 
 
 Victor Emanuel, on his accession to the throne of Sardinia, 
 turned at once to Azeglio to guide him in relieving the country 
 from the state of depression and anarchy into which it had sunk. 
 As minister, Azeglio imperilled not merely his popularity in 
 Sardinia, but his influence with the Italian people, by entering 
 into negotiations for a peace with the Austrian government, and 
 notwithstanding the most violent clamour and reproaches, he 
 persisted till he brought it to an honourable conclusion. Twice 
 he dissolved the parliament on the question of its acceptance, 
 but the same deputies were returned; when he issued a royal 
 proclamation, signed by the king and countersigned by himself, 
 setting forth the absolute necessity for peace in order to save the 
 monarchy and the country. The proclamation of Moncalieri 
 
 produced its effect, and, as before, time was gained for Italy to 
 repair her losses and watch for her opportunity. As Sardinian 
 minister Azeglio directed his attention in the first instance to 
 the financial and administrative reorganisation of the kingdom, 
 amounting in many departments to a complete reconstruction, 
 and with the most beneficial results. Another important mea- 
 sure was the abolition of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in civil mat- 
 ters, which led to collision with the papal government, though 
 he still clung to his trust in Pius personally. He introduced 
 Cavour into his ministry, but the men were too differently con- 
 stituted to work well together, and the younger and stronger 
 man prevailed. Azeglio resigned in May, 1852, but was induced 
 by the king to resume ollice, Cavour being excluded from the 
 new administration. But the difficulty of the position was not 
 removed, and in October of the same year he resigned defini- 
 tively. When, however, Cavour, by proffering the adhesion of 
 Sardinia to the alliance against Russia, and proposing to send a 
 contingent to the Crimea, placed Piedmont alongside the great 
 European powers, Azeglio saw its immense value to Italy and 
 announced his warm support of his rival's policy. On the con- 
 clusion of the Crimean war, Azeglio along with Cavour accom- 
 panied Victor Emanuel to Paris and London ; and he drew up, 
 at Cavour's request, the memorandum of Italian grievances 
 which was laid before the Congress of 1856. In 1859 he heartily 
 supported Cavour in every step that led to the war with Austria, 
 and though in feeble health proceeded as envoy to Rome and to 
 London, and, after the war had broken out, to Bologna. At the 
 close of the campaign he became governor of Milan, but resigned 
 the post on Cavour's avowal of complicity with Garibaldi's ex- 
 pedition into Sicily — a measure that revolted Azeglio's more 
 fastidious sense of honesty and fair dealing. 
 
 He now withdrew wholly into private life. He had accepted 
 the appointment of Director of the Royal Picture Gallery, Turin, 
 and the time not required for the discharge of its duties, he 
 spent mostly in the country. Still suffering from the effects of 
 his wound, lie was precluded from active physical exertion, but 
 he painted, wrote, or received the visits of friends. In the hope 
 of strengthening the Emperor Napoleon in the policy of non- 
 intervention, DAzeglio wrote in French and published ' La 
 Politique et le Droit chretien au point de vue de la question 
 Italienne.' Somewhat later he published his ' Question! Ur- 
 genti,' in which he again and with much earnestness urged the 
 advantages of confederation as the solution of the Italian ques- 
 tion, anil implored his countrymen to abandon their passionals! 
 cry for Rome as the Italian capital. He also during these last 
 years wrote the valuable and very interesting Recollections 
 of his life, which were published the year after his death by 
 his only daughter the Marchioness Ricci, and translated into 
 English by Count Maffei (2 vols. 8vo);.and which have supplied 
 most of the materials for this memoir. But, though he con- 
 tinued writing till attacked by his fatal illness, he only lived to 
 bring the work down to the publication of ' I Casi di Romagna.' 
 The struggle, the defeat, and the ultimate triumph, were left for 
 other pens to record. In December, 1865, while at his favourite 
 villa on the Lago Maggiore, he was attacked by fever ; the acute 
 malady was overcome, but the chronic affection of the lungs 
 under which he had long suffered assumed dangerous propor- 
 tions, and he died on the evening of the 15th of January, 1866. 
 Massimo clAzeglio, taken altogether, was one of the most re-' 
 markable men that Italy has of late years produced. Not the 
 greatest perhaps, but amongst the noblest and worthiest ; one 
 who has done most to make Italy what she is ; one whose 
 memory all true-hearted Italians will cherish ; and one whose 
 example her youth would do well before all to set before them 
 as their model. 
 
 AZO, also named AZZO or AZOLINUS, one of the greatest 
 jurists of the middle ages, was born at Bologna about the middle 
 of the 13th century. His name is sometimes found, but in 
 no good authority, with the prefix of Doniinicus ; sometimes 
 with the surname of Ramenghis, or with that of Porcus or 
 Porcius, which has several old testimonies in its favour ; at other 
 times, according to the custom of the age, it is coupled with that 
 of his father Soldanus. He professed jurisprudence in the Uni- 
 versity of Bologna, and in no other ; although it is sometimes 
 wrongly stated that he taught at Modena or Montpellier. Azo 
 was a pupil of Johannes Bassianus, but he far surpassed his 
 master's fame and success ; and in his time the University of 
 Bologna numbered 10,000 students. He was frequently em- 
 ployed in state affairs by the city of Bologna ; and his character 
 was remarkable for a certain independence, which was apt to 
 assume the form of harshness towards his adversaries. He is 
 
141 
 
 AZPILCUETA, MARTIN. 
 
 AZPILCUETA, MARTIN. 
 
 142 
 
 too critically said to have known little of the liberal arts and 
 of the canon law ; and is even asserted by some authors to 
 have become a canonist in his latter years, and to have entered 
 holy orders. This last statement, however, results from con- 
 founding him with two later canonists, Azo Lamberlaccius and 
 Azo de Ramenghis. The year and manner of his deatli are alike 
 uncertain. As to the first, authorities range between a.d. 1200 
 and 1230 ; and they who favour the latter elate, appear to be the 
 Better informed. A frequent version of the manner of his death 
 is, that having in a fit ot passion killed one of his colleagues, he 
 in - publicly beheaded. But the idea of an ignominious death 
 is scarcely reconcileable with the honours which were paid to 
 his memi iry. Yet the mistake is probably founded on some real 
 event, such as that of the execution of his son, in 1243 ; or 
 perhaps that, of another jurist, Azo Porchus, in 1247. Odofredus, 
 the nearest of all authorities in point of time, mentions that 
 Azo's devotion to his duties was so unremitted that he never felt 
 ill except in vacation time, and actually died in the Autumn 
 vacation ; and that as a mark of respect to his memory, the 
 beginning of the scholastic year, which had till then opened on 
 St. Luke's Day, was deferred to that of All Saints. Azo had 
 five sons, and his posterity can be traced at Bologna down to the 
 close of the 14th century ; but they never attained to eminence. 
 
 The works of Azo are six. (1). His 'Glosses,' manuscript, 
 remarkable as being the earliest which have often sufficient 
 Bequency to form a continuous commentary. (2.) His ' Readings 
 on the Code/ known under the title of ' Azonis ad Singulas L.L. 
 xii. Rbr. Cod. Just. Commentarius et magnus Apparatus.' The 
 last three books of the Code, which Savigny reckons as the most 
 valuable of all the works of the Glossators, as best exhibiting 
 their method of teaching, were not by Azo, but by Hugolinus. 
 The whole were coUected by one of Azo's scholars, Alexander a 
 S. Egidio, otherwise unknown, and were twice published, the 
 first time by Contius, Paris, 1577, and again, with new title-pages, 
 in 1581 and 1611 ; the second time at Lyon,4to. 1596. (3.) The 
 'Summa Codicis,' and (4) ' Summa Insiitutionum,' the ground- 
 works of his fame. These Sums of Azo, which, it should be 
 remembered, had been preceded by the less esteemed Sums 
 of Rogerius, Placentinus, and Johannes Bassianus, received sub- 
 sequent additions from Hugolinus and Odofredus ; and there 
 gradually arose a collection of Sums, or Commentaries, on the 
 whole Corpus Juris, usually included in one volume, and com- 
 prising those of the Code and Institutes by Azo ; that of the 
 three Digests, attributed to Johannes, but in reality by Hugo- 
 linus ; that of the Tres Libri, begun by Placentinus, continued 
 by Pillius and never completed ; and lastly, that of the Novels, 
 bv Pillius. The whole collection was frequently attributed to 
 Azo, and hence the inextricable confusion in which Diplovataccio 
 and other later authors have involved their accounts of the 
 lives and writings of Azo, Johannes, Placentinus, and Pillius. 
 The editions of the Sums are thirty in number, from that of 
 'Spire, fol. 1482, to that of Venice, fol. 1610, which may be 
 distributed as follows, according to the places of publication : 
 one at Spire, one at Milan, one at Geneva, two at Pavia, two at 
 Basel, six at Venice, and no less than seventeen at Lyon, all 
 either in fol. or 4to. (5.) The ' Brocarda,' consisting of short 
 maxims of law, for which authorities are quoted, and to which 
 a jurist of the name of Cacciavillano made some additions. The 
 'Brocarda' were published with the Sums in the editions of 1566 
 and 1581, Venice, fol. ; Lyon, fol. 1593 ; and Venice, fol. 1610 ; 
 and also separately at Basel, 8vo. 1567. (6.) The last extant 
 work of Azo is the ' Qua;stiones Sabbathina;,' in manuscript. 
 His ' Definitiones ' and ' Distinctions ' are lost. Various other 
 works have been attributed to Azo ; some by a confusion of 
 name between him and Azo Lambertaceius and Azo de Ra- 
 men'his. The reputation which Azo's Sums acquired and long 
 retained was almost unbounded. Gravina speaks of the work as 
 indispensable to every jurist. Azo was called the "fountain of 
 law, the "trump of truth" (veritatis tuba), and even in his 
 epitaph "the god of jurists " (jureconsultorum numini.) 
 
 AZPILCUETA, MARTIN, a famous doctor of the canon law, 
 born in 1491 or 1493, at Varasoayn, a town near Pampeluna, in 
 the then independent state of Navarre, from which circumstance 
 he is often called " the Navarrese." He became, when young, a 
 canon regular of Roncesvalles, and commenced his studies at the 
 University of Alcala. In 1512, when Jean d'Albret, the King 
 of Navarre, retired to France from the invasion of Ferdinand the 
 Catholic, King of Aragon, he was followed by Fiancisco Na- 
 varro, one of the principal Church dignitaries, and it is sup- 
 posed that Martin, who was patronise d by Fiancisco, and who 
 went to France about the same time, went in his company, and 
 
 from the same motives. Azpilcueta remained 14 years in 
 France, and taught canon law at Toulouse ami Cahors ; after 
 which he returned to Spain, and taught at the University of 
 Salamanca. He lectured first on the Decretals, and then on 
 canon law in general ; the study of which he revived with such 
 effect as to achieve a reputation throughout Europe. He taught 
 at Salamanca for 14 years, at the end of which time he ac- 
 cepted, by permission of the Emperor Charles V., the brilliant 
 proposals made to him by John III. of Portugal, to teach in the 
 University of Coimbra. Here he continued for 16 years ; and 
 then, retiring on a pension, repaired to the Court of Spain, 
 where for 12 years he acted as confessor to some of the prin- 
 cesses of the royal family. In his 80th year he was called upon 
 by the affection which he bore to his friend Bartholonn: de Car- 
 ranza, Archbishop of Toledo, to support the latter against the 
 charge of heresy, first before the tribunal of the Inquisition at 
 Valladolid, and then within the Pope's own jurisdiction at Rome. 
 The investigation lasted some years, during which nothing could 
 be proved against Carranza, who was finally ordered to dissolve 
 all suspicion of heresy by a public abjuration of obnoxious doc- 
 trines, soon after which he died at Rome, in the monastery of 
 Santa Maria sopra Minerva, on the 2nd of May, 1576. His 
 advocate was treated with such distinguished honour, that lie 
 appears to have lost all wish to return home. Pius V. named 
 him assessor to Cardinal Francesco Alciati, the vice-penitentiary; 
 and Gregory XIII., the successor of Pius, manifested an extra- 
 ordinary regard for him. Throughout Rome his name became 
 so famous, that every one who excelled in an art or profession 
 was called its "Navarro." His disposition was liberal and 
 beneficent ; and it is related that the mule on which he rode 
 through Rome always stopped, when he came to a beggar, and 
 did not move on till his master had bestowed the customary 
 donation. He had practised charity from an early age ; when a 
 professor at Toulouse and Salamanca he was frequently seen in 
 the morning delivering his lectures on the law, and in the after- 
 noon acting as a servant in the hospital. Though of a weak con- 
 stitution, he never, at the most advanced age, omitted the pre- 
 scribed fasts, and lie was always ready to give gratuitous legal 
 advice to all who applied, till within five days of his death, which 
 took place on the 21st of June, 1586. He was at this time, ac- 
 cording to the date of his birth favoured by Niceron, 95 years 
 of age, 93 according to Antonio ; and according to an erroneous 
 statement in his funeral oration by Correa, upwards of a 
 century. 
 
 There are, according to Clement, four editions of Azpilcueta's 
 Works: — (1) 'Opera Omnia,' Rome, 1590, 3 vols, folio; (2) 
 Lyon, 1595 — 97, 3 vols, folio, the title of which, according to the 
 Bodleian Catalogue, is ' Pleraque Opera ;' (3) At Venice, 1602, 
 6 vols. 4to, the first four of which contain all, and more than all, 
 that is given in the two preceding editions, while the last two 
 are occupied by ' Consilia et Responsa ;' (4) At Cologne, 1616, 
 2 vols, folio. An abridgment of the whole of his works was 
 published by Castellanus, in 1 vol. 4to, at Venice, in 1598. The 
 separate works, and the editions of them, are so numerous, that 
 for a list of the whole we must refer to the second volume of 
 Nicolas Antonio, or the fifth of Niceron. The most remarkable 
 are : — (1) ' Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Peni- 
 tentium,' a manual for confessors and penitents, into which, as 
 Azpilcueta told Roscius Hortinus, one of his biographers, he 
 had introduced all he knew ; (2) ' De reditibus Ecclesiasticis,' a 
 treatise on benefices, translated by Azpilcueta himself from a 
 S punish treatise of his own, ' Tratado de las rentas de los bene- 
 licios eclesiasticos para saber en que se han de gastar,' Valladolid, 
 1566. In this treatise Azpilcueta maintains that the holders of 
 ecclesiastical benefices are bound to expend on their own wants 
 no more than is strictly necessary, and to distribute all the 
 remainder to the poor — a doctrine which met with some oppo- 
 sition. His remaining works are : — ' On the Canonical Hours ;' 
 'On Silence during Divine Service;' ' On the Year of Jubilee, 
 and on Indulgences in general;' 'On the Ends of Human 
 Actions,' &c. To the last is appended an ' Apologetic Letter to 
 the Duke of Albuquerque,' in which, whilst refuting a report 
 which was prevalent at Rome, that he had fallen into disgrace 
 with Philip II., who with his ministers had been against Bar-, 
 tholome de Carranza, Azpilcueta is led to give some particulars 
 of his own life, from which subsequent biographers have drawn 
 most of their information. There is also a biography of him by 
 Simon Magnus Ramlotrcus, prefixed to his edition of the 
 ' Manuale,' at Rome, in 1575, and consequently published 
 (hiring Azpilcueta's lifetime— a proceeding at which he openly 
 testified his displeasure. (Biog. Bid. of U. K. Soc.) 
 
143 
 
 BAAN, JAN DE 
 
 B 
 
 BAAN, JAN DE, an eminent Dutch portrait painter, was 
 Lorn at Haarlem, February 20,103:!; learnt the rudiments of 
 art from an uncle named Piemans, and was then placed under 
 J. de Bakker of Amsterdam, but formed his style on an atten- 
 tive study of the works of Vandyck. He settled at the Hague, 
 but came to England by invitation of Charles II., and painted 
 the Icing and queen and several of the nobility, but he was dis- 
 satisfied with his treatment here and returned to the Hague. 
 In 1072 he was invited to visit France in order to paint the 
 portrait of Louis XIV., but he refused to paint a monarch who 
 was at war with his country, and his answer was not resented. 
 Besides princes and nobles, De Baan painted many of the more 
 remarkable men of his time and country. Among them were 
 the unfortunate Count Horn, and the still more unfortunate De 
 "Witts. When the populace had murdered the brothers, they 
 insisted on De Baan giving up the portraits he had painted of 
 them, but he had previously taken the precaution to remove 
 them from his house. At Dordrecht, however, the crowd tore 
 down and destroyed the portrait of J. De Witt, which was hung 
 in the Town Hall, — a very elaborate composition, and held to 
 be De Baan's masterpiece. Houbraken and others relate some 
 remarkable escapes from the violence of those who envied li is 
 success, but some of the stories have rather a legendary cha- 
 racter. He died at the Hague in 1702. His son, Jakobus de 
 Baan, born in 1673, studied under his father ; at the age of 18 
 was regarded as a good portrait painter ; came to England, was 
 patronized by William III., and painted a portrait of the Duke of 
 Gloucester, which was much praised ; went to Florence, where 
 he was honoured with the notice of the Grand Duke, then pro- 
 ceeded to Rome in order to study the works of the great masters 
 there ; and on his return died at Vienna, in 1700, at the early 
 age of 27. Some conversation pieces by him are much admired. 
 
 BABBARD, RALPH, an English mechanician, or mechanical 
 inventor, who lived in the latter half of the lGth century, 
 but nothing is known of his personal history. Mr. Halliwell, 
 in his ' Rara Mathematical has drawn attention to a manuscript 
 in the Lansdowne Collection (MSS. Lansd. No. 125), con- 
 taining " a speciall breife remembrance of some pleasante 
 serviceable and rare inventions as I have by longe studie and 
 chargeable practice found out," addressed by Babbard to Queen 
 Elizabeth. One of the inventions was " the rarest Engyne that 
 ever was invented for sea service ;" and it is described as being 
 " a vessell in manner of a Tally or Talliote [probably galley or 
 galliot] to passe upon the seas and ryvers without oars or sayle 
 against wynde and tyde, swifter than any that ever hath bynne 
 seene, of wonderful effect bothe for intelligence, and many other 
 Exploytes almost beyonde the expectation of man." Some 
 persons have imagined that this was a foreshadowing of the 
 steamboat ; but probably Babbard, like the Marquis of Wor- 
 cester in his ' Century of Inventions,' formed crude schemes 
 which he never tested even by a model, or delineated in a diagram. 
 
 * BABINET, JACQUES, a French physicist, was born at 
 Lusignan, March 5, 1794. He was destined for the bar ; but 
 a course of studies in the Lycee Napoleon at Paris, and the 
 Ecole d' Application at Metz, gave him a strong love for science. 
 He was for some time attached to the 5th Regiment of Artillery, 
 which he quitted to become professor of physics at the College 
 of St. Louis. Between 1825 and 1828 he gave courses of lectures 
 on meteorology at the Athenee ; in 1838 succeeded Savary at the 
 College of France ; and in 1840 succeeded Dulong in the section 
 of general physics at the Academie des Sciences. In 1854 he 
 became assistant astronomer at the Paris Observatory for Me- 
 teorology. He frequently lectured at the public meetings of the 
 Institute, and before the Societe Philotechnique. Babinet has 
 written largely on scientific subjects. Among bis works are the 
 following : — ' Resume complet de la physique des corps impon- 
 derables, contenant, outre l'acoustique, un essaisur leur nature, la 
 theorie de leurs vibrations, leurs applications b. tous les pheno- 
 menes de l'electricite et du magnetisme, de la lumiere et de la 
 chaleur/ Paris, 1825, 32mo ; and a companion work, in the same 
 year, on ponderable bodies. ' Experiences pour verifier celles de 
 M. Trevelyan sur la vibration des metaux chauffes,' Paris, 1835. 
 Papers in the ' Memoires de la Societe Philomathiques' on the 
 measure of chemical forces ; on the mass of the planet Mercury ; 
 
 on the determination of terrestrial magnetism ; on the retardation 
 of light in refractive media, &c. Besides numerous memoirs in 
 the ' Comptes Rendus' and in the ' Annates de Physique,' M. 
 Babinet has written papers in the 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' 
 on the plurality of worlds ; on precious stones ; on the condition 
 of_ the earth before geological epochs ; and on earthquakes. 
 ' Etudes et Lectures sur les Sciences d'Observation, et sur A 
 leurs applications pratiques,' 1855 — 63, 7 vols. 16mo. ' Calcula (j 
 appliques aux Sciences d'Observation ' (in conjunction with M. I 
 Housed), 1857, 8vo. ' Notice sur FEclipse de Soleil de 15 Mars,' I 
 1858, 8vo. ' Sur la Secheresse, les irrigations, et les reboise- I 
 ments,' 1858, 4to. ' Nouvelle Cours de Geographic physique 1 
 et politique,' 1859, 12ino. 'De la Telegraphie Electrique,' 1861, j 
 8vo. 'Notes sur quelques actualites scientifiques,' 1861, 4to. I 
 ' La Periode Glaciere,' 1867, 8vo. He also wrote introductions j 
 to Nadar's work on aerostation, and to Liais's ' Espece Celeste 
 et la Nature tropicale.' Babinet contrived an aeronautic machine, 
 which he called & helix, and introduced a new projection for maps ' 
 known as the homolographique projection. 
 
 * BABINGTON, CHARLES CARDALE, was born in 1800 
 at Ludlow, in Shropshire; and received his early education in I 
 and near Bath, with which place he was closely connected for 
 many years. His later education was carried on at St. John's 
 College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1830, and 
 his M.A. degree in 1833. He has written many papers (more 
 than one hundred in number), chiefly relating to the entomology 
 and botany of the British Isles. His first original work was the 
 ' Flora of Bath;' but he is best known by his ' Manual of British 
 Botany,' which has passed through several editions. This Manual 
 manifests a quality which is prominent in many other of Professor 
 Babington's writings, viz., a strong analytical tendency. He ill 
 remarkably quick m detecting the differential points of plants, 
 and the result is that he recognises a far larger number of species 
 in a group than do most of his contemporaries. This is well J 
 shown in his treatment of the genus Bubus, or Brambles. He 
 succeeded Henslow as professor of botany in the university of 
 Cambridge in. 1861. He is a Fellow of the Royal and other 
 learned Societies ; and an editor of the ' Annals of Natural 
 History.' 
 
 BABINGTON, GERVASE, an English scholar and prelate, 
 was born about 1550, according to Fuller ('Abel Redivivus'), in i 
 the county of Nottingham, but according to Prince (' Worthies 
 of Devon'), in Devonshire; in either case being a member of , 
 the same ancient Nottinghamshire family as Anthony Babington, 
 the conspirator. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,. ; 
 at a time when Dr. Whitgift was the master, and became a fellow 
 of that society. In 1578 he was admitted M.A. of the University 
 of Oxford by incorporation. Having devoted himself to the 
 study of divinity, he presently became celebrated as a preacher 
 in the university. Upon taking his doctor's degree, he was 
 appointed chaplain to Henry, Earl of Pembroke, who married 
 " Sidney's sister," through whose favour he obtained in 1588 
 the prebend of Wellington in the cathedral church of Hereford, 
 a stall which he held until his promotion to Worcester in 15979 
 He was coUated to the office of treasurer of the diocese of 
 Llandaff, January 28, 1590, to the episcopal oversight of which 
 he was consecrated at Croydon, on the 29th of August, 1591. In 
 1595 he was translated "for his singular piety and learning" to 
 the see of Exeter, and was enthroned there on the -2nd of March. 
 He is charged with having inflicted irreparable injury on the re- 
 venues of this diocese, by alienating from it the rich manor of 
 Crediton. In 1597 he was translated to Worcester, the tempo- i 
 ralities of w hich were restored to him on the 15th of October. 
 He was incumbent of the diocese of Worcester for about 13 
 years, and was one of the Queen's Council for the Marches of 
 Wales. He died May 17, 1610, of a hectic fever, and was 
 buried in his cathedral with great sorrow and solemnity. Fuller 
 says of Babington that " in the midst of all his preferments he 
 was neither tainted with idleness, nor pride, nor covetousness, 
 but was not only diligent in preaching, but in writing books, for 
 the understanding of God's word." Most of the books thus 
 alluded to were published separately — some of them in more 
 than one edition — between the years 1583 and 1604; and in 1615 
 they appeared collectively under the editorial care of Thomas 
 
145 
 
 BACCIARELLI, MARCELLINO. 
 
 146 
 
 Chard, and with a dedication to the Earls of Pembroke and 
 ' Montgomerie, in a large folio volume, entitled ' The Workes of 
 the Right Reverend Father in God, Gervase Babington, late 
 Bishop of Worcester. Containing comfortable notes upon the 
 five Books of Moses, viz., Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, 
 and Deuterononrie (the last two not before published); and also 
 an Exposition upon the Creed (not before published), the Com- 
 mandments, the Lord's Prayer, with a Conference betwixt Man's 
 Frailtie and Faith; and Three Sermons. With Alphabetical! 
 Tables of the principall matters to each severall Worke.' 
 
 BACCIARELLI, MARCELLINO, Italian painter, born at 
 Rome, February 16, 1731, was a pupil of Benefial. In 1753 
 he was taken to Dresden by Augustus III., Elector of Saxony 
 and King of Poland, to make drawings for the engravings from 
 the Dresden Gallery, and in ] 756 he accompanied the King to 
 Warsaw, where, with, the exception of a visit to Vienna in 1761, 
 to paint the portraits of the imperial family of Austria, he re- 
 mained the rest of his life. Bacciarelli retained the favour of 
 Augustus III. till the death of that monarch in 1763, and he 
 was equally fortunate with his successor, Stanislaus- Augustus, 
 who employed him in decorating the royal palaces, ami made 
 him director of the fine arts and of the crown buildings, his 
 studio being converted into a sort of academy. On the founda- 
 tion of the Warsaw University he was nominated dean of the 
 faculty of the fine arts. He was held in the highest respect, and 
 if the affairs of Poland had been in a less miserable condition, he 
 would probably have founded a national school of painting. As 
 it was, his labours died with him. He was a facile painter, with 
 more elegance than vigour of style, and from the absence of 
 healthy rivalry his manner deteriorated. His chief works were 
 the series of six large paintings of events in Polish history, and 
 jiortraita of the Kings of Poland from Bolislas to Stanislaus- 
 Augustus, for the palace at Warsaw. He painted numerous 
 other large historical pieces for the royal family and nobility of 
 Poland, and several scriptural subjects for the churches of War- 
 saw and other towns, besides a large number of portraits of the 
 chief personages of the country. He died at Warsaw on the 5th 
 of January, 1818, and was interred in the cathedral, where a 
 handsome monument was erected to his memory. Bacciarelli 
 was a member of the Academy of St. Luke at Rome, and of the 
 academies of Bologna, Venice, Berlin, Dresden, &c. 
 
 BACCIO DA MONTE LUPO, whose real name was Bar- 
 tolommeo Lupi, a distinguished Florentine architect and sculp- 
 tor, was born about 1445. After a youth spent in idleness, he 
 applied himself diligently to study, and executed an escutcheon 
 of Pope Leo X. for the garden of the Pucci family at Florence, 
 which was greatly admired, and brought him numerous com- 
 missions. The finest productions of his chisel were a statue of 
 Hercules, executed for Francesco de' Medici, and a bronze statue 
 of St. John the Evangelist for the Guild of Porta Santa Maria, 
 which still occupies its original site at the corner of San Michele 
 in Orto. He also executed a large number of crucifixes, the 
 figures life size, of which Vasari enumerates several, and others, 
 he says, may be found in various parts of Italy. As an architect, 
 Baccio's most famous work was the finely proportioned church of 
 San Paolino at Lucca, erected by him in 1522. It consists of a 
 nave, choir, and transepts, being in the form of a Latin cross, 
 and has columns of the Doric order. Baccio died at Lucca about 
 1534, and was interred with due honour in his church of San 
 Paolino. He left several children, one of whom, Raffaelle da 
 Monte Lcpo, who died in 1588, attained to considerable repu- 
 tation as a sculptor. According to his contemporary Vasari, 
 Raffaelle far surpassed his father Baccio, but this opinion was 
 doubtless arrived at owing to his imitating the manner of 
 Michelangelo, whom Vasari worshipped. He carved a Prophet 
 and a Sibyl on the tomb of Julius II. from the models of 
 Michelangelo ; the angel on the Castle of St. Angelo ; and the 
 statue of Leo X. on his tomb in the church of the Minerva, 
 as well as several other works in Rome, and a great many in 
 other towns. In his later years lie held the post of inspector 
 and architect of the cathedral of Santa Maria in Orvieto. 
 
 BACHAUMONT. LOUIS PETIT DE, French memoir 
 writer, was born about the close of the 17th century at 
 Paris, where he died on the 28th of April, 1771. Bachau- 
 mont wrote 'Lettres Critiques sur le Louvre, l'Opera, la Place 
 Louis XV., et les Salles des Spectacle,' 8vo., 1752; an ' Essai 
 sur la Peinture, la Sculpture, et l'Architeeture,' 8vo., 1752, and 
 some other things; but he is only remembered now for his 
 ' Memoires Secrets,' which were published after his death in 
 6 volumes, 8vo., 1777, and afterwards augmented by a series of 
 30 additional volumes, collected by Pidansat de Mairobert, and 
 bioo. div. — SUP. 
 
 others. Bachaumont's memoirs, which extend from the 1st of 
 January, 1767, to his death, relate to current events, social 
 doings, gossij) and scandal, and contain a sufficient store of 
 piquant anecdotes respecting the notable people of the time, 
 picked up for the most part, as was reported, in the salon of 
 Madame Doublet, but some say, writes Dom Chaudon, " that 
 his valet de chambre supplied him with many of them : so it is 
 that historical collections are compiled." Several abridgments 
 of the ' Memoires ' have been published : but the student of the 
 manners and history of the 18th century should consult the 
 original ; and it should be added that Bachaumont's ' Menioires ' 
 are of far greater value than the continuation. 
 
 BACHE, ALEXANDER DALLAS, an eminent geodetist 
 and nautical surveyor, who for many years occupied a con- 
 spicuous place amongst American scientilic men. Born July 
 19, 1806, in Philadelphia, he was educated at the Military 
 Academy at West Point, where he graduated in 1825, and 
 immediately afterwards was appointed assistant-professor of 
 engineering in the Academy, a post which he held for some 
 months. In 1827 he accepted the professorship of natural 
 philosophy and chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 In 1836 he was made president of the Girard College, and as 
 such he made elaborate inquiries into the state and method of 
 education in Eurojje, the result of which inquiry was issued in 
 an instructive octavo volume. In 1843 he succeeded Professor 
 Hassler as Superintendent of the United States Survey, and 
 retained the situation till his death, February the 17th, 1867. 
 In conducting the survey, which is probably the most gigantic 
 that has ever been achieved under the direction of any one 
 individual, he displayed remarkable foresight, practical wisdom, 
 and administrative talent. The survey reports, which were 
 published annually, were either written or supervised by him, 
 and won for him a European reputation, and one of the medals 
 of the Royal Geographical Society of London. These reports 
 are ranked by the best authorities amongst the most accurate 
 and exhaustive works in the whole range of geodetical literature. 
 Bache was an active member of the American Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, to which body he contributed several 
 valuable memoirs. He also contributed papers to the ' American 
 Journal of Science and Art,' and other scientific publications. 
 A list of his writings for periodicals is given in the 'Royal 
 Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers,' and comprises 75 items. 
 He was elected the first President of the National Academy of 
 Science on its establishment in 1863, his tenure of which was 
 to have been for six years. 
 
 (American Journal of Science, Second Series, vol. xliv. p. 282.) 
 _ BACONTHORP, BACONTHORPE, BACONDORP, or 
 simply BACON, JOHN, was born in the latter part of the 13th 
 century, at Baconthorp, a village in Norfolk. He was " bred a 
 Carmelite in the convent of Blakeney," and afterwards studied 
 successively at Oxford and Paris. Here he acquired great re- 
 putation for learning, and was esteemed the head of the followers 
 of Averroes, the "Interpreter" or "Commentator" of Aristotle. 
 Fuller says that Baconthorp was remarkable especially for three 
 things: — "(1) For the dwarfishness of his stature; (2) for his 
 high spirits in his low body; (3) for his high title, 'Resolute 
 Doctor.' " This high title was conferred upon him on account of 
 the facility and soundness of his answers to the questions pro- 
 posed to him. Upon his return to England, he was chosen the 
 twelfth provincial of the English Carmelites, in a general 
 assembly of that order, held in London in 1320. The disciples 
 of Averroes, equally with their master, would have much diffi- 
 culty in making their philosophical opinions harmonize with 
 any system of theology that was considered orthodox by the 
 average Jew, Mohammedan, or Christian; and it has been said of 
 Baconthorp that " he grasped after more light than he saw, saw- 
 more than lie durst speak of, spoke of more than he was thanked 
 for by those of his superstitious order, amongst whom (saith 
 Bale) neither before, nor after, arose the like for learning and 
 religion." The year of Baconthorp's death is ascertained to have 
 been 1346, but accounts differ as to his place of burial, which is 
 variously said to have been Blakeney, Norwich, and London. 
 Leland, Bale, and Pitts have given a catalogue of Baconthorp's 
 writings, of which the principal ones that have been published 
 are 'Commentaria seu Quxstiones par quatuor Libros Senten- 
 tiarum,' Milan, 1510, and five other editions; and 'Compendium 
 Legis Christi, et quodlibeta,' Venice, 1527. 
 
 BADCOCK, SAMUEL, a critic and theologian, was born at 
 South Molton, in Devonshire, in the year 1747, and was educated 
 for the dissenting ministry, the functions of which he exercised 
 successively at Bere Regis, Dorsetshire, at Barnstaple, and at his 
 
 L 
 
147 BADIUS, JODOCUS. 
 
 native town of South Molton. In 1778 lie commenced his career 
 as a man of letters ; and in 1781 produced a poem called ' The 
 Hermitage.' He was, however, chiefly distinguished as a critic 
 and reviewer ; and in this capacity gained great credit for his 
 review of Martin Madan's ' Thelyphthora, or a Treatise on 
 Female Ruin, in its Causes, Effects, Consequences, Prevention, 
 and Remedy, considered on the basis of the Divine Law,' 3 vols. 
 1780-81. In this work the author, whose perception of the evils 
 he wished to combat was quickened by his oliicial employment 
 as chaplain of the Lock 1 lospital, Westminster, justified poly- 
 gamy, on the notion that the first cohabitation with a woman is 
 a virtual marriage. His purpose was to remove the causes of 
 seduction, but his opinions were overruled. Badcock's review of 
 Madan's work: was an elaborate vindication of our present mar- 
 riage economy. 
 
 Early in his career Badcock had been a friend and admirer of 
 Dr. Priestley, with whose opinions he manifested considerable 
 sympathy. But a deeper study of ecclesiastical history convinced 
 him that Unitarianism was not of the early origin which Priestley 
 claimed for it ; and he attacked, in a manner which Priestley 
 himself felt to be formidable, the latter's ' History of Early 
 Opinions concerning Jesus Christ ; compiled from original 
 "Writers, proving that the Christian Church was at first Uni- 
 tarian,' 4 vols. 8vo, 178G. Dr. Priestley wrote an immediate 
 Defence, alter which both History and Defence were attacked 
 by Badcock. In 1784 Dr. Joseph White, Laudian Professor of 
 Arabic, and afterwards Regius Professor of Divinity, delivered 
 his celebrated Bampton Lectures at Oxford, in which he was so 
 much assisted by Buleoek that the latter is accounted by many 
 the real author of the volume. Dr. John Johnstone, the bio- 
 grapher of Dr. Parr, remarks that <: whether the plan of the 
 Bampton Lectures was solely White's may be doubted. Much 
 of the execution lay between him and Badcock ; but the whole 
 was superintended and revised by Parr." Soon after, Badcock 
 conformed ; and in 1787, having about twelve months previously, 
 September, 1786, resigned his function as a dissenting minister, 
 was ordained to the curacy of Broad Clyst, by John Boss, Bishop 
 of Exeter, who is said to have admitted him, without examina- 
 tion, to deacon's and priest's orders on two consecutive Sundays. 
 Badcock did not live to give proof of his ministry in the estab- 
 lished church, but died on the 19th of May, 1788, in London, at 
 the early age of 41. 
 
 BADiUS, JODOCUS, or JOSSE, a celebrated scholar and 
 printer, was born in 1462 at Asche, or Aasche, a town in the 
 province of Brabant, six miles north-east of Brussels, from which 
 circumstance he is sometimes surnamed Ascensius. He studied 
 successively at Ghent in Flanders, and at Ferrara in Italy. He 
 afterwards settled at Lyon as a professor of the Greek and Latin 
 languages, and became corrector of the press to John Trechsel, a 
 printer of Lyon, whose daughter Thelif he married in or before 
 the year 1499. It was to Badius that Robert Gaguin, the 20th 
 General of the Order of the Trinitarians, entrusted the produc- 
 tion of his work ' De Origine et Gestis Francorum,' fol. 1497 ; 
 and the result of this commission was that Badius repaired in 
 1499 to Paris, where he established himself as a teacher of Greek, 
 and as a restorer of the art of printing. His press acquired 
 great reputation under the name of Prselum Ascensianum, and 
 from it he issued, with his own notes and commentaries, editions 
 of many of the classics, especially of Horace, Virgil, Lucan, 
 Juvenal, SaHust, Quintilian, Valerius Maximus, &c. He bestowed 
 the same pains on some modern authors, as Petrarch, Politian, 
 Laurentius Valla, and Baptista Mantuanus. Badius had a 
 numerous family, and the care of their maintenance pressed him 
 into voluminous authorship, so that he was at once famous as 
 " the father of many children, and the writer of many books," 
 and it was pleasantly said of him in an epitaph composed upon 
 him by his grandson, but which does not seem ever to have 
 adorned his tomb, that " his books were more numerous than his 
 children, because he commenced author very early, father very 
 late." He died in 1535, at the age of 73, and was buried in the 
 Collegiate Church of St. Benedict at Paris. 
 
 In the list of the works of which Badius was the author 
 occur his ' Psalterium Beatae Mariae Virginis ;' ' Epigrammata ;' 
 ' De Grammatica ;' ' De Conscribendis Epistolis ;' ' Vita Thomaj 
 k Kempis ;' and ' Navicula Stultarum Mulierum,' a satire on the 
 follies of women, in which he imitated the style of Sebastian 
 Brandt, of whose work, ' The Ship of Fools,' he had written a 
 Latin Paraphrase, with annotations, under the title of 'Navis 
 \ Stultifera) a Domino Sebastiano Brant primum editicata, et lepi- 
 dissimis Teutunicre Linguae Rithmis decorata, deinde ab Jacobo 
 Lochero Philomuso Latin itate donata, et demuni ab Jodoco Badio 
 
 BAER, KARL ERNST VON. 148 
 
 Ascensio vario Carminum Genere, non sine eorundem familiari 
 
 explanationc illustrata.' 
 
 * BAEHR, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FELIX, an eminent 
 German scholar, was born at Darmstadt on the 13th of June, 
 1798. He became a student of the University of Heidelberg, in 
 which, in the year 1826, he attained the position of professor of 
 classical literature. In 1833 he was appointed chief librarian of 
 the library of Heidelberg, which owes important additions and 
 improvements to his activity and intelligence. He became 
 director of the Lyceum in 1839, and in 1845 director of the 
 philological seminary. The Grand Duke of Baden made him a 
 member of his privy council, and conferred upon him tint order 
 of the Lion of Zahringen. 
 
 Baehr is the editor of annotated editions of several of the 
 ' Lives ' of Plutarch, as for instance of the ' Life of Alcibiades,' 
 1822. and the 'Lives of Philopoemen, Flauiinius, and Pyrrhus, 
 1826 ; and in the last-named year he produced Fragments of 
 Ctesias, selected and annotated. In 1828 appeared the first edi- 
 tion of his celebrated 'History of Roman Literature,' 'Geschichte 
 der Romischen Literatur,' 8vo, Carlsruhe, of which the second 
 edition was issued in 1832, and the third, in two volumes, in 
 1844-5. An Abridgment of this work, ' Abriss der,' &c, was 
 published at Heidelberg in 1833, and was translated into French 
 by Roulez (Louvain, 1838). To the ' Geschichte der Romischen 
 Literatur' three supplementary volumes were added between the 
 years 1836 and 1840, all of which were published at Carlsruhe. 
 They were — (1) ' Die Christlichen Dichter und Geschichtsschrei- 
 ber Roms,' 1836 ; (2) ' Die Christlich-Romische Theologie,' 1837; 
 ' Geschichte der Romischen Literatur im Karolingischen Zeit- 
 alter,' 1840. A fourth Supplement is expected to treat of the 
 History of the Roman Literature from the Carlovingian epoch to 
 the 13th century. The most laborious and profound of all 
 Baehr's editorial engagements is his valuable edition of Herodotus 
 in 4 volumes, with notes, maps, and illustrations ; and he has in 
 addition contributed other works in archaeology and philology, 
 besides articles to various encyclopa;dias, and to the ' Annals of 
 Heidelberg,' of which since 1847 he has been the sole editor. 
 
 * BAER, KARL ERNST VON, an eminent biologist, was 
 born Feb. 28, 1792 (new style), on the family estate of Piep in 
 Esthonia. He spent his infancy at the house of an uncle situ- 
 ated in another part of the same Russian government, but re- 
 turned to his native place in 1799 in order to attend the school 
 there. In his autobiography he mentions several events of his 
 early childhood which indicate the tendency of his thoughts to 
 natural history subjects. This tendency was fostered by his 
 uncle. In his fifteenth year he had already acquired a consider- 
 able acquaintance with the plants of his native district, as is 
 evidenced by the following circumstance : — In 1807 his father 
 was visited by Baron von Ungern-Sternberg, a botanist, to whom 
 young Baer was able to show several indigenous plants which 
 had not previously been seen by the baron. In the same year 
 he was transferred to the cathedral school of Revel, where he 
 pursued his studies for three years. The following four years 
 were spent at the University of Dorpat, and in 1814 he acquired 
 the degree of doctor of medicine. His knowledge of medicine, 
 however, was slight, and for the purpose of better qualifying 
 himself he visited the principal German universities. First he 
 proceeded to Vienna, and passed through a medical course under 
 the instructions of Professors Hildenbrandt, Kern, and Boer. 
 In 1815 he went to Wurzburg in order to study comparative 
 anatomy under Professor Dollinger. He introduced himself to 
 the professor by delivering him a small package of mosses which 
 Dr. Martius had given him for the purpose, knowing how much 
 Dollinger would prize them. Baer explained the purport of his 
 visit, but was rather taken aback on being curtly informed that 
 no lectures on comparative anatomy were to be given in the 
 session about to commence. When Dollinger had opened his 
 parcel and examined its contents, he gazed at Baer for a time, 
 and then told him " to bring some animal and dissect it here ; 
 and then another one." The next morning Baer appeared at the 
 professor's house with a leech, which he dissected under super- 
 intendence. This was Baer's first step in a long and honourable 
 anatomical career. In 1815 Dollinger was desirous of investi- 
 gating the development of chickens, but not feeling disposed to 
 undertake it himself, he determined to engage some one who 
 could not only dissect but also draw and engrave on copper- 
 plates. These latter requirements prevented Baer's acceptance 
 of the post, which was occupied first by Pander, and subsequently 
 by d'Alton. This research led to the discovery of many im- 
 portant facts connected with the structure and developmental 
 changes of the egg. Baer was fully cognisant of all the steps 
 
149 
 
 BAGNACAVALLO. 
 
 of the inquiry, which had a great influence on his own subse- 
 quent career. In September, 1816, he left Wurzburg for Berlin, 
 where he stayed for a few months. In 1817 he took a position 
 as prosector at Konigsburg. While holding this post he seized 
 every opportunity of acquainting himself with the structure of 
 animals. The museum belonging to the college supplied him 
 with a species of Holothuria from India, portions of the skeleton 
 of the Aurochs, a specimen of Delphinus phocaina, &c. The 
 results of his investigation were communicated to a meeting of 
 anatomists at Konigsburg in a paper entitled " Bemerkungen aus 
 meinem zootomischen Tagebuche.' Shortly after his comparison 
 of the skulls of the aurochs and common ox was incorporated in 
 Professor Hagen's memoir on Bos urus. This led to his drawing 
 up a report on the individuals of Bos urus still existing in the 
 forests of Lithuania. His first production was the thesis on the 
 diseases endemic among the Esthonians, written prior to his re- 
 ceiving his doctor's degree. In 1819 he married Auguste von 
 Medem. and in the same year he was appointed an extraordinary 
 professor of zoology at Konigsburg. In lS34he became librarian 
 to the Academy of Science at St. Petersburg ; and in 18G4 the 
 fiftieth year of his doctorate was celebrated by the Esthonian 
 nobility, at whose expense a splendidly printed and bound 
 volume was issued containing Baer's autobiography. 
 
 The writings of Baer are very numerous, a full list of his 
 books, pamphlets, articles, and short notices comprising upwards 
 of 300 items. His most important work is that entitled ' Ueber 
 Entwicklungsgesehichte der Thiere,' of which the first volume 
 was published in 1828 and the second in 1837. His researches 
 into the embryology of animals, a branch of science of which he 
 was the founder, led him to his greatest scientific achievement, 
 namely, the discovery that all animals arise from eggs, and that 
 all eggs are at first morphologically identical. Another grand 
 principle which he established is that the development of animals 
 proceeds upon four distinct plans, which was an important ad- 
 vance upon Cuvier's discovery that all animals are formed upon 
 one or other of four general plans or types of structure, as indi- 
 cated in his classification of the animal world into Radiates, 
 Mollusks, Articulates, and Vertebrates. Baer had himself 
 arrived by independent research at the same classificatory 
 result, and his proposed method of classification appeared in 
 the same year as Cuvier's. His groups were essentially the same 
 as those adopted by C'uvier, but he employed different names. 
 In his later years Baer has spent much time in travelling over 
 most parts of Europe, but especially northern Russia, and has 
 given much attention to craniology and anthropology. 
 
 The reader who wishes for full information respecting Baer's 
 life and writings is referred to his autobiography above men- 
 i tioned. It is entitled, ' Nachrichten iiber Lebens und Schriften 
 I des Herrn Geheimrathes Dr. Karl Ernst von Baer, mitgetheilt 
 ' von ihm selbst, 1865.' It is a large quarto volume of 674 pages, 
 and was printed for private circulation only. 
 
 BAGNACAVALLO [Ramexghi, Bartolomeo, E. C. vol. v. 
 col. 21]. 
 
 BAHRDT, KARL FRIEDRICH, was born on the 25th of 
 August, 1741, at Bischofswerda, a town of Saxony, about 20 
 miles N.E. from Dresden, where his father, Johann Friedrich 
 Bahrdt, who subsequently became professor of theology and 
 superintendent at Leipzig, was at that time placed as a deacon. 
 He was educated successively at the Nicholaisschule, the 
 Schulpforte, and the University, Leipzig. In 1762 he became 
 a catechist, and soon afterwards was appointed as Adjunct to 
 his father, and professor extraordinary of sacred philology. In 
 1763 he made nis first essay in literature by the publication of 
 a work on the ' True Christian in Solitude.' Bahrdt was a man 
 of much talent and critical judgment, but infirm of purpose, 
 bitter in controversy, and unstable in morals ; so that in 1768 
 he was obliged to vacate the appointments he held at Leipzig. 
 He migrated to Erfurt, where he was made professor of philo- 
 sophy and biblical antiquities, but where his academical and 
 doctrinal irregularities acquired for him the odium of his col- 
 leagues. He manied in 1770, and in the same year published 
 a system of moral theology, ' System der Moraltheologie,' 
 founded on an earlier work by his father. He next undertook 
 an edition of the Old Testament on the plan of Dr. Kennicott, 
 employing those manuscripts which had been neglected by 
 former editors ; and further proposed to organise a society of 
 theologians, who, taking his own published System, should 
 write their several judgments upon it, and these remarks were 
 to be printed in a collected form. This plan produced the 
 Letters on Systematic Theology. ' Briefe iiber die Systematisehe 
 Tbeologie,' 2 vols. Eisenach, 1770-1772. In 1771, at the re- 
 
 commendation of his friend Sender, Bahr.lt left Erfurt, and 
 became preacher and professor at Giessen. Here his pen was 
 unusually productive, and, it may be added, unusually severe ; 
 so that by his numerous discussions in controversial matters he 
 made many enemies, and brought upon himself the rebuke of 
 the ecclesiastical authorities. Hereupon he tendered his re- 
 signation, which, somewhat to his chagrin, was accepted. From 
 Giessen he proceeded, in 1775, to undertake the directorship .of 
 the educational institution of Von Salis, called the Philan- 
 thropic at Marschlins, in Graubiindten, or the Grisons, where 
 his impracticability clave to him so closely that he anticipated a 
 probably imminent dismissal by accepting, with a feigned reluc- 
 tance, the post of minister of Durkheim on the Hardt, and super- 
 intendent-general. Here for a time he showed so much 
 moderation, and a conduct so opposite to his former course of 
 life, that he became an especial favourite both with the people 
 and his patron, the Count of Leiningen-Dachsburg. His genius 
 for quarrelling, however, did not long slumber ; and he found it 
 expedient to take a journey to Holland and England in search 
 of pupils for a school which he had founded at Heidesheim, on 
 the model of the Philanthropin. He returned in 1779 with 13 
 pupils to find that in his absence an imperial decree had been 
 obtained against him, by which he was suspended from all eccle- 
 siastical functions, until he should publicly retract his errors. 
 He preferred to retire to Halle, in Prussia, where he opened a 
 school, the doctrines of which were subversive of nearly all 
 existing belief. Here he supported himself by his writings and 
 his lectures, Until he was guilty of the indecency of opening a 
 tavern at the gate of the city, over which a female servant pre- 
 sided who unwarrantably assumed all the honours of a wife. 
 This tavern, which he kept for ten years, was thronged with 
 students and others, who were attracted by the easy doctrines of 
 Bahrdt and the faithful reproduction of them in the practice of 
 his life. Having ridiculed some ordinances of the King of 
 Prussia in a comedy called the ' Religious Edict,' ' Das Religions- 
 edict,' and having become suspected of initiating and advocating 
 a secret and dangerous society called ' Die Deutsche Union,' he 
 was condemned to two years' imprisonment — a sentence which 
 was commuted by the King to one year's imprisonment in the 
 fortress of Magdeburg. This time he employed in writing 
 Morality for the Citizens, and a History of his own Life, 
 ' Geschichte seines Lebens, seiner Meinungen und seiner Schiek- 
 sale,' 4 vols. Berlin, 1790, in which he deals as recklessly with 
 the good name of others as with his own. After his enlargement 
 he formally separated from his wife, and pursued the same 
 indecent course of life as before. He died at Halle, after a 
 severe and lingering illness, on the 23rd of April, 1792. A list 
 of the numerous works of Bahrdt is given in Wilhelm Hein- 
 sius's 'AUgemeines Bucher-Lexikon.' The three which are at 
 once the most learned and of the greatest present interest and 
 importance are — ' Hexaplorum Origenis qua; supersUnt,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, Lubeck, 1769 — 70; ' Observationes Critica;, circa Lec- 
 tionem Codicum MSS. Hebraicorum,' Lipsias, 8vo, 1770 ; and 
 ' Apparatus Criticus ad formandum Interpretem Veteris Testa- 
 menti congestus,' Lipsise, 8vo, 1775. 
 
 BAIF, JEAN ANTOINE DE, a French poet, a natural son 
 of the Abbe de Grenetiere, was born in 1532, at Venice, where 
 his father was residing as French Ambassador. He studied 
 under Daurat, and had for a fellow-pupil the youthful Ronsard, 
 with whom he formed a friendship which influenced his subse- 
 quent writings. At the age of 25 De Baif published a volume 
 of poems, addressed to two beauties (real or imaginary) whom 
 he called Meline and Francine. From that time he became a 
 poet by profession, celebrating events and persons of divers 
 kinds in verse. He was generally poor, for his poems brought 
 him more fame than wealth. By French critics he is considered 
 to have impaired rather than enriched the French language, 
 by his bizarre mode of writing. He indulged in a stilted kind 
 of measure, intended to imitate the Latin and Greek poets, 
 which he called after his own name Baif as. He printed his 
 verse with an alphabet consisting of 10 vowels, 19 consonants, 
 11 diphthongs, and 3 triphthongs of his own contrivance, by 
 which he hoped to express by the spelling the exact sound of the 
 words: some idea of it may be gained from the titles of the 
 books given below, but the novel diphthongs are not in mo- 
 dern printers' founts. In 1570 he obtained a patent from 
 Charles IX. empowering him to establish an academy of poetry 
 and music; but this enterprise, the first of the kind in France, 
 had little success. He died in comparative poverty at Paris, 
 September 19, 1589. The published works of De Baif are 
 numerous, the following being the most important : — ' (Euvres 
 
 L 2 
 
151 
 
 BAILLET, ADRIEN. 
 
 BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE. 
 
 152 
 
 de J. Ant. de Bait, Secretaire de la Chambre du roi, contenant 
 9 livres de poemes, 7 livres des Amours, 5 livres de Jeux, 5 
 livres de passe-temps,' Paris, 1571 — 73, 2 vols. 8vo ; ' Etrenes 
 de poezic Fransoeze an vers mezurds: au ro§, &c. Les bezones 
 e j«rs d'Eziode, les Vers dores de Pitagoras, ansenemans de 
 Faukilides: ansenemans de Naumace aux files amarier ; par Jean 
 Antoenede Baif, Segretere de le^'ambre du Roe,, Paris, 1574, 4to. 
 Some of the copies were printed on vellum. Brunet describes a 
 copy, the vellum binding of w hich bears the arms oi'De Thou, as 
 containing an additional sheet with an ode, whose title is worth 
 quoting as a sample of Bait's phonetic spelling — 'A tres Eureus 
 Prinse Hariri de Franse ro$de Ptilone sui son voeiaje 6 son antree 
 en son roeiame;' ' Les Mimes, Enseignemens et Proverbes; en 2 
 livres,' Paris, 1576, 12mo; 1597, 8vo; 1(119, 8vo; 'Tombeau de la 
 royne de Navarre Marguerite on Traduction de cent distiques 
 Latins des trois scours, Anne, Marguerite, and Jeanne de Sey- 
 mour, BUT la trepas de la royne de Navarre, par Bait, du Bellay, 
 et Denisot,' Paris, 8vo, 1551 ; 'Antigone, Tragedie en vers de 
 cinq pieds, traduit du Grec. de Sophocle,' Paris, 1573, 8vo ; 
 ' Le Brave, ou le Taille-l'ra?,' a comedy in 5 acts, imitated from 
 Plautus, in four-feet verse, Paris, 1567. Besides these and other 
 poems, De Baif published some musical works, viz., ' Instruction 
 pour toute Musique des liuit divers tons, en tahlature de lath;' 
 ' Instruction pour Appendre la tahlature de guiterne;' ' Douze 
 chansons spiriluellcs, paroles et musique ;' ' Premier et deuxicmc 
 livres de chansons a quatre parties.' 
 
 BAILLET, ADR1KN, a learned bibliographer, was horn at 
 Ncuville near Beauvais, June 13, 1049. He studied at the con- 
 vent of the Cordeliers, and afterwards at the college of Beauvais; 
 took orders, and became vicar of Lardicres in 1676, and minister 
 of Beaumont church in 1679. He next occupied the post of 
 librarian to M. Lamoignon, and fur 26 years lived almost entirely 
 among books, never going out more than one day in the week. 
 He compiled and wrote out a most elaborate catalogue of the 
 library, in 35 folio volumes; it was a catalogue of subject- 
 matters, indicating not merely the authors of distinct works, 
 but also those who had given slight or passing notices. His 
 habits were eccentric; he slept only five hours a day, often 
 sleeping in his clothes; took only one meal a day; drank no 
 wine, and seldom had a fire. He thought only of hooks, the 
 close attention to which weakened his naturally feeble health. 
 He died January 21, 1706. Baillet's writings are very nu- 
 merous, comprising a Life of Descaites; a History of Holland; 
 an Essay on the Worship of the Virgin; Lives of the Saints (4 
 vols, folio; 10 vols. 4to; 17 vols. 8vo); the Maxims of St. Etienne 
 de Grammont, &c. But the works which brought him into note 
 were: — (1) ' Jugemens des Savans sur les principaux ouvrages 
 des Auteurs,' 1685 — S6, 9 vols. 8vo; the commencement of a 
 vast work which he never finished, and the pungent criticisms 
 in which brought him into many controversies. (2) ' Des 
 Enfants devenus celebres par leurs etudes et par leurs ecrits,' 
 12mo. 1688. (3) ' Des Satires personnelles, traite historique et 
 critique de celles qui portent le titre d'Anti,' 2 vols. 12mo, 1689 — 
 a sharp satire on satirists, and especially Menage, who had 
 criticised Baillet's 'Jugemens.' (4) ' Auteurs deguises sous des 
 noms etrangers, empruntes, supposes, faits a plaisir, chiffres, 
 renverses, retournes, ou changes d'une langue en une autre/ 12mo. 
 1690. This was the commencement of a large work, which he 
 abandoned on finding that it would give offence to his con- 
 temporaries. 
 
 DAILY, EDWARD HODGES, R.A. [E. C. vol. i. col. 486]. 
 Even before his acceptance of the position of Honorary Retired 
 Academician in 1862, Mr. Baily had withdrawn from actual 
 professional practice, and as his physical infirmities increased, 
 he was more and more confined to his dwelling. He died May 
 the 22nd, 1867, aged 78. 
 
 * BAIN, ALEXANDER, Professor of Logic in the University 
 of Aberdeen, was born in that city in 1818. He matriculated 
 at Marischal College, in 1836, and took his M.A. degree in 1840 ; 
 and in the same year commenced his literary activity by con- 
 tributing an article to the ' Westminster Review,' to which he 
 has since furnished several others at various times. From 1841 
 to 1844 he acted as deputy-professor of Moral Philosophy in 
 Marischal College ; in 1844-5 he was deputy of the Professor of 
 Natural Philosophy ; and in 1845 was appointed to the Pro- 
 fessorship of Natural Philosophy in the Andersonian University, 
 Glasgow. In 1847 he was named assistant secretary to the 
 Metropolitan Sanitary Commissioners ; and in the following 
 year was appointed assistant secretary to the General Board of 
 Health, but resigned his office in 1850. During the years 1847 
 and 1848, lie wrote various text-books in Natural Science for 
 
 Messrs. Chambers's school series, and contributed the articles on 
 Language, Logic, the Human Mind, and Rhetoric, to their ' Infor- 
 mation for tlie People.' In 1852 Mr. Bain published 'The 
 Moral Philosophy of Paley ; with additional dissertations and 
 notes.' ' The Senses and the Intellect' appeared in 1855, and a 
 second and third edition respectively in 1864 and 1868 ; and the 
 work was followed, in order to complete a systematic exposition 
 of the human mind, by 'The Emotions and the Will,' in 1859, 
 which attained a second edition in 1865. From 1857 to 1862 he i 
 acted as examiner in logic and moral philosophy in the University ! 
 of London ; and was re-elected to this office, 1864 — 68. Mr. Bain j 
 has been a frequent examiner in moral science at the examina- 
 tion for the Indian Civil Service ; and in 1860 he was appointed 
 by the crown to the chair of logic at Aberdeen. Since that ' 
 time his principal works have been, 'On the Study of Character, 
 including an Estimate of Phrenology,' 1861 ; ' An English 
 Grammar,' 1863; ' Manual of English Composition and Rhetoric,' 
 1866; and 'Mental and Moral Science: A Compendium of 
 Psychology and Ethics,' 1868, which reached a second edition I 
 the same vear. 
 
 BAINES, RIGHT HON. MATTHEW TALBOT [E. C. | 
 
 vol. vi. col. 9691. The correct date of Mr. Baines' birth was 
 the 17th of February, 1799. He resigned office with the other I 
 members of Lord Palmerston's ministry in February, 1858. J 
 His health permitted him to take little part in public matters 
 subsequently, and he died at his residence, Queen's-square, 
 Westminster, on the 22nd of February, 1860. 
 
 * BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE, one of the successful 
 recent explorers of Central Africa, was born at Thorngrove in 
 Worcestershire, in June, 1801. His education included a consi- 
 derable range of civil engineering ; but his love of adventure gave 
 another bent to his life. A residence of several years in Ceylon 
 gave origin to two of his books, ' The Rifle and the Hound in 
 Ceylon,' 8vo, London, 1854 (2nd ed. 1857) ; and ' Eight Years' J 
 Wandering in Ceylon,' 8vo, London, 1855. As an engineer, he 
 planned and carried out the railway in Bulgaria, across the ' 
 I lobrudscha from Rassova to Kustendje: an important work for 
 travellers to the Black Sea, avoiding the tedious navigation of J 
 the lower part of the Danube. In 1861 he commenced his re- 
 searches as an African traveller. Accompanied by his wife (a : 
 Hungarian lady, to whom he had been married in the preceding ( 
 year), he started from Cairo for the Upper Nile. While tracing , 
 the course of the Atbara and the Blue Nile, two of the chief 
 aflluents of the great river, he was fortunate enough to see the ; 
 commencement of the annual inundation ; in a few hours a nearly 
 dried-up stream was converted into a rapid river twenty feet 
 deep, by the pouring down of water from the Abyssinian moun- 1 
 tains. Mr. and Mrs. Baker reached Khartoum in June, 1862 ; I 
 compared the Blue Nile with the White Nile at and near the point j 
 of junction; brought together a large number of men, beasts of j 
 burden, and boats ; and proceeded up the Nile to Gondokoro, ' 
 a trading centre for many of the African tribes. Here they met 
 Captains Grant and Speke, who had reached the same spot from | 
 the south, had discovered Lake Victoria Nyanza, and had heard 
 of another large lake which they believed to be a very remote 
 source of the Nile. Mr. and Mrs. Baker, amid almost innumerable 
 difficulties and privations, succeeded in discovering this lake, on 
 the 14th of March, 1864, and Mr. Baker named it the Albert 
 Nyanza. [E. C. S., Geog. Div. col. 1038—41.] These dis- • 
 coveries gained for him the patron's medal of the Geographical 
 Society, and the honour of knighthood. In 1866 he published 
 ' The Albert N'Yanza, Great Basin of the Nile, and Explorations 
 of the Nile Sources,' 2 vols. 8vo ; and in 1867 'The Nile Tribu- 
 taries of Abyssinia, and the Sword Hunters of the Hamrani 
 Arabs,' 8vo, — works which give a lively description of the country 
 through which he and his wife struggled. When attending the 
 Prince and Princess of Wales in their visit to Egypt at the end 
 of 1868 and the early part of 1869, Sir S. Baker was consulted 
 by the Khedive or Viceroy of that country concerning the possi- 
 bility of suppressing the slave trade, and encouraging agriculture 
 and legitimate commerce, near the upper waters of the Nile, far 
 into the interior of Africa. An expedition was organised on a 
 large scale, comprising troops, Nile boats, and stores in vast 
 quantity, with various appliances for scientific exploration and 
 industrial development. Sir Samuel Baker was placed in com- 
 mand of the whole, and invested with great powers. Sir Samuel, 
 having first received from the Viceroy the order of the Medjidie, 
 left Cairo with his party on the 2nd of December, 1869, Lady 
 Baker, as in his former journeys, accompanying him. On the 
 8th of January, 1870, Sir Samuel Baker wrote from Khartoum 
 that so far all had proceeded well, and that he expected to pro- 
 
153 BALARD, ANTOINE JEROME. 
 
 BALDOCK, RALPH DE. 
 
 154 
 
 ceed within a week, with 1,000 soldiers. A later letter announces 
 his having left Khartoum, and his expectation of reaching Gon- 
 dokoro before the setting in of the rainy season in April. 
 
 * BALARD, ANTOINE JEROME, was born at Montpcllier, 
 September 30, 1802. He was educated as a pharmaceutical 
 chemist, and held several appointments in connection therewith, 
 in his native town. In 1826 he was so fortunate as to discover 
 in the mother-liquor of the salt marshes of Montpellier, and 
 afterwards in the mother-lirpior of sea-water, after the less soluble 
 salts had been removed by crystallisation, the non-metallic ele- 
 ment bromine. France, who never forgets to reward her scientific 
 men in ways most gratifying to their intellect, promoted him to 
 the chair of chemistry, left vacant by the. death of Thenard j 
 gave him in 1844 a place in the Academy ; made him officer of 
 the Legion of Honour ; and in 1851 raised him to the chair of 
 chemistry in the College of France, previously occupied by 
 Pelouze. He has written numerous papers bearing on indus- 
 trial chemistry, among which may be mentioned the method of 
 extracting sodic sulphate directly from sea-water. 
 
 BALDERIC, or BAUDRY, an early French chronicler, was 
 bom at Meun-sur-Loire about the middle of the 11th century; 
 studied at Angers, and, adopting the monastic life, became 
 Abbot of Bourgueil in 1079. His fondness for poetry and light 
 literature led to a neglect of his abbey, and a relaxing of dis- 
 cipline and morals. He secured the good mil of Queen Bertrade, 
 and disbursed much money in bribes to obtain the bishopric of 
 Orleans in 1097, but unsuccessfully. He however obtained the 
 bishopric of Dol in 1 107. He became more severe and religious 
 in his habits of life, and often visited the better conducted 
 monasteries of England and Normandy. He spent the later 
 years of his life in instructing the peasantry, and died at an 
 advanced age in 1129 or 1130. During his career he assisted 
 at many councils held at Rome. His chief writings were 
 (1) ' Historice Hierosolymitana; Libra quatuor.' This was a his- 
 tory of the first crusade, extending from 1093 to 1099, based on 
 the earlier history by Theudebode ; it is printed in Duchesne's 
 ' Historiens de France,' with a learned preface by Besly ; (2) 1 Gesta 
 Pontificum Dolensium,' now known only by extracts printed in 
 Lebaud's ' Histoire de Bretagne ;' (3) ' Vita beati Roberti de 
 Arbrissello, first printed in 1641, in Latin and in 1647 in French, 
 being translated by the Jesuit P. Chevalier. There have also 
 been attributed to Balderic — ' Acta S. Valeriani,' printed in 
 du Bouquet's ' Histoire Eccltsiastique de_ France ; ' ' Vita S. 
 Hugonis Rotomagensis,' printed in Moustier s ' Neustria pia ; ' a 
 poem, ' De Conquistu Anglian,' a fragment existing in MS. in 
 the Imperial Library ; a ' Lettre Curieuse aux moines de Fecamp, 
 sur les moeurs des Bas-Bretons, et sur l'etat des monasteres 
 d'Angieterre et de Normandie,' (the French title given to it in 
 du Bouquet's 'Historiens de France') ; and an historical poem 
 on the chief events in the reign of Philippe I. 
 
 Balderic le Rouge, sometimes confounded with the above, 
 was, like him, a chronicler of the 11th century. He was bishop 
 of Noyon and Tournay. and died in 1097. He wrote a chronicle 
 of Cambray and Anas, extending from the time of Clovis to 
 1090 ; it was published in Latin in 1615 and 1834. and in 
 French in 1836. There is also attributed to him a chronicle of 
 Morinie, of which nothing is now known. 
 
 BALDI, LAZZARO, an eminent painter of the Tuscan 
 school, was born at Pistoia, on the 19th of April, 1623 (though 
 some authorities say 1624). He was the scholar of Pietro da 
 Cortona, and after his death was regarded as the chief of the 
 school. The greater part of his life was spent at Rome, where 
 he died in 1703. His first patron was Cardinal Rospigliosi, 
 afterwards Clement IX. A great number of his pictures, both 
 in oil and fresco, may still be seen in the churches in and around 
 Rome, and show him to have been a man of considerable fertility 
 of invention, a good colourist, and a skilful painter, but too 
 prone to imitate the manner of his master. His oil paintings 
 are considered to be superior to his frescoes. Among his chief 
 works are a 'David and Goliath,' in the Quirinal, painted for 
 Pope Alexander VII. ; ' The Martyrdom of San Lazzaro,' in the 
 Academy of St. Luke ; ' The Virgin Mary and St. Catherine,' 
 at Santa Maria della Pace, Rome ; ' St. Peter receiving the Pon- 
 tifical Power,' at St. Camerino ; a 'Repose in Egypt,' in the 
 church of the Madonna della Umilta, at Pistoia ; and ' St. Peter 
 of Alcantara and St. Theresa,' in the church of the Ognissanti at 
 Florence. 
 
 BALDINUCCI, FILIPPO, Italian writer on art, was born 
 at Florence about 1624. His studies having made him conver- 
 sant with art and artists, he conceived the design of writing a 
 complete biographical history of painting in Italy, from Cimabue 
 
 downwards, and the liberality of Cardinal Leopold de' Medici 
 and the Grand Duke Cosmo III., who took great interest in his 
 project, enabled him to devote himself to the undertaking. In 
 1681 he published the first volume under the title ' Notizie de' 
 Professori del Disegno, da Cimabue in qua (dal 1260 sino al 
 1670),' 4to. Florence, bringing the lives down to 1300. A second 
 volume, continuing the series down to 1400, appeared in 1686, 
 and he had prepared a third volume, to 1540, but it was not 
 published till after his death, which occurred on the 1st of 
 January, 1696. The remainder of the work, compiled by his 
 son from the notes of Filippo, was published in 3 volumes, 
 1702 — 28. The original edition is now seldom met with in a 
 complete form, but it has been many times reprinted, and some- 
 times with notes and additions : perhaps the most convenient 
 edition is that of Florence, edited by F. Ranalli, 5 volumes, 8vo. 
 1845 — 47. Baldinucci's work would, by itself, give at the pre- 
 sent day but an imperfect view of the lives of the Italian painters 
 or the condition of art in Italy during the period to which it 
 relates, but it is invaluable to the student of the art-history of 
 the period. He understood what he was writing about ; knew 
 the men and their methods of procedure ; was painstaking and 
 conscientious, and had access to sources of information closed to 
 later compilers ; and he wrote in a pleasing and unaffected style. 
 Another valuable work from his pen is a companion account of 
 Italian engraving and engravers — ' Comminciamento e progresso 
 delP arte di Intagliare in Rame, con le Vite de' niolti piu ecce- 
 lenti maestri della stessa proi'essione,' 4to. Florence, 1686 ; re- 
 printed at Florence, 4to. 1767, with notes by Manni. Baldinucci 
 also published a dictionary of the arts of design, ' Vocabolario 
 toscano dell' Arte del Disegno,' 4to. Florence, 1681; and a lecture 
 delivered at the Della Crusca Academy, of which he was an 
 active member, ' Lezzione detta nel Accademia della Crusca,' 4to. 
 Florence, 1692. Two posthumous works from his pen have 
 appeared separately, ' "Vita di Filippo di ser Brunellesco,' edited 
 by Moreri, 8vo. Florence, 1812; and 'Lettera intorno al modo 
 di dar proporzione alle figure in pittura, scultura, &c.,' edited 
 by Poggiala, 8vo. Leghorn, 1802. The entire works of' Baldi- 
 nucci were published in 14 volumes, Milan, 1808-12, as a part 
 of the ' Classici Italiani.' 
 
 BALDOCK, or BAUDAKE, RALPH DE, bishop of Lon- 
 don and Lord Chancellor in the early part of the 14th century, 
 is currently said to have been educated at Merton College, Ox- 
 ford. But as that college was founded by Walter de Merton, 
 bishop of Rocli ester, in 1273, scarcely three years before Baldock 
 was made archdeacon of Middlesex, Mr. Foss (' Judges of Eng- 
 land ') conjectures that the place of his education was rather the 
 convent of Merton, in Surrey. He became a prebendary of St. 
 Paul's, and held the stalls of Holborn, Isledon or Islington, and 
 Newin^ton. In 1276 he was collated to the archdeaconry of 
 Middlesex; from which office he was promoted on the 18th of 
 October, 1294, to be dean of St. Paul's, and was summoned by 
 this title to the parliament which met on the 13th of October, 
 1300. On the deatli of Richard de Gravesend, bishop of London, 
 December 9, 1303, Baldock was chosen, February 24, 1304, by the 
 unanimous voice of the chapter, to the vacant see ; an election 
 which obtained the royal assent on the 22nd of March, and the 
 archbishop's confirmation on the 10th of May. The temporali- 
 ties were restored on the 1st of June. The election, however, 
 was controverted by three canons, who, having been lately de- 
 prived of their prebends by the archbishop, were excluded "from 
 the election, and who now, in an appeal to the Pope, called its 
 validity into question. Baldock found it expedient, therefore, 
 to repair to Rome, where his mission was so successful, that, by 
 command of Pope Clement V., he at length, January 30, 1306, 
 received consecration at Lyon, at the hands of Petrus Hispanus, 
 cardinal of Alba. On his return to England, he made profession 
 of canonical obedience to the archbishop in Canterbury Cathe- 
 dral, March 29, 1306 ; and on the 17th of July following, was 
 enthroned in St. Paul's. In the same year he was appointed by 
 the Pope to be one of the commissioners for examining the articles 
 alleged against the Knights Templars. As bishop of London he 
 gained great fame by the splendid repair of St. Paul's Cathedral 
 at his cost, and it was on this occasion that the large collection 
 of ox skulls was dug up, which was considered to fortify the 
 tradition that here had stood a great temple to Diana. On the 
 21st of April, 1307, the day after the deatli of William de 
 Hamilton, the Lord Chancellor, then in attendance on the king 
 near the Scottish border, the Great Seal was conferred upon 
 Ralph de Baldock, and its formal delivery to him took place on 
 the vigil of the Ascension next following. The new chancellor 
 did not repair to the king, but devoted himself to his official 
 
155 
 
 BALDUCCI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 BALLANCHE, PIERRE SIMON. 
 
 156 
 
 duties, till the news of Edward's death readied London. This 
 event took place at Burgh.-on.-the- Sands, on the 7th of July, 
 1307; and there is a curious entry on the Fine Roll, Bhowing 
 that Ralph do Baldock, being then in London and ignorant of 
 the demise of the king, continued to send writs of course till the 
 25th of J uly. On the following Saturday he received the com- 
 mands of Edward II. to send him the Great Seal, which was 
 accordingly delivered to him at Carlisle on the 2nd of August. 
 Being freed from the cares of otlice, Baldock spent the remainder 
 of his days in the pursuit of literature, and the services of reli- 
 gion; only varying these by acting as one of the ordinaries for 
 the management of the affairs of government and the king's 
 household. He died at Stepney, July 24, 1313; and was buried 
 under a flat marble in the Lady ( 'Impel, on the east-side of his 
 cathedral, to which both in his life and at his death, he was a 
 munificent benefactor. 
 
 Baldock was an amiable and accomplished man, and reputed 
 a master of all the learning of his time. He wrote in Latin a 
 'History or Chronicle of British Affairs' down to his own time, 
 which, although now lost, was much valued by the author's 
 contemporaries, and was known in the days of Belaud, who saw 
 it in London ; he also compiled a ' Collection of the Statutes and 
 Constitutions of the Church of St. Paul,' which was extant in 
 the library of that church in 1559. 
 
 BALDUCCI, FRANCESCO, a celebrated Italian poet, was 
 born at Palermo towards the end of the Kith century. An 
 irregularly spent youth having brought him into pecuniary 
 straits, he enlisted in the army sent by rope ( 'lenient VIII. into 
 Germany; and on bis return, finding dependence on the great 
 unsatisfactory and precarious, he took ecclesiastical orders, and 
 was appointed chaplain of the hospital of San Sisto. Having 
 acquired celebrity by his verses, he was invited to take up his 
 residence in the house of Prince Gallicano. Here he was 
 attacked by a fever, and at his own request was carried to the 
 hospital of San Giovanni Laterano, where, after lingering about 
 three weeks, he died in a state of delirium, 1642. Balducci's 
 most celebrated poems are his ' Rime Siciliane,' 12nio. Rome, 
 1645 and 1(547; reprinted at Venice, 12mo. 1663. The ' Rime' 
 are praised by critics acquainted with the Sicilian dialect, for 
 their purity of language, simplicity, and truth. His light 
 anacreontic poems are also greatly admired for their airiness of 
 manner, which ranks them among the best Italian verse of their 
 class. Crescimbeni accords to Balducci the credit of having 
 invented cantatas, or sacred poems for music, comprising recita- 
 tivo and aria. 
 
 BALDUCCI, GIOVANNI, a distinguished early Italian sculp- 
 tor and architect, was a native of Pisa, and flourished during the 
 second quarter of the 14th century. His great patrons were Cas- 
 truceio, lord of Lucca, and Azzone Visconti, duke of Milan. His 
 masterpiece as a sculptor was the much-admired monument of 
 San Pietro Martire in the church of S. Eustorgio, one of the best 
 works of the period. As an architect bis fame rests on the 
 facade of the church of Bera, also in Milan, erected by him in 
 1347, as is inscribed over the entrance. 
 
 BALDUCCI, GIOVANNI, called COSCI, an eminent Italian 
 painter of the latter part of the 16th century, was a native of 
 Florence, where he was brought up> by an uncle named Cosci, 
 whence his designation. He was a pupil, and for some years 
 an assistant, to Battista Naldini, whose mannerism he was 
 charged with imitating, though himself an artist of more ima- 
 gination and ability than his master. For some time he painted 
 at Florence, then went to Rome with his patron, Cardinal 
 Alessandro de' Medici (afterwards Pope Leo XL), and spent his 
 last years at Naples, where he died in or about 1600. Balducci's 
 most celebrated works at Florence are the 'Last Supper' in 
 the cathedral ; a series of subjects from the New Testament, 
 and another from the legend of St. Antonino, Bishop of 
 Florence, in the cloister of Santa Maria Novella; and the entire 
 decoration of the church of Gesii pellegrino, including frescoes of 
 the Twelve Apostles, the 'Calling of the Sons of Zebedee,' and a 
 Christ in Majesty. The cathedral of Volterra he ornamented 
 with three subjects from the New Testament, and several figures 
 of saints. At Sta. Prasscde, Rome, he painted ' Christ Praying 
 in the Garden,' and eight figures of angels, with the ' Resurrec- 
 tion of Lazarus,' in the Cloisters. At Naples his best work is a 
 ' Holy Family' in the church of San Giovanello. 
 
 BALES, PETER, famed as a caligraphist, was bom in 1547. 
 His skill in writing in excessively small characters was ac- 
 counted little short of marvellous. Holinshed describes his 
 masterpiece, " a rare piece of work, and almost incredible" as 
 containing "within the compass of a penny, in Latin, the Lord's 
 
 Prayer, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, a prayer to God, a 
 prayer for the Queen, his poesy, his name, the day of the month, 
 the year of Our Lord, and the reign of. the Queen." He finished it 
 on the 5th of August. 1575, and a week later presented it to Queen 
 Elizabeth, at Hampton Court, "set in the head of a ring of 
 gold covered with crystal." With it he presented "an excellent 
 spectacle (lens) by him devised for the easier reading thereof, 
 wherewith her majesty read all that was written therein with 
 great admiration, and commended the same to the Lords of the 
 Council and the ambassadors; and did wear the same many 
 times upon her finger." But 1 Sales is also memorable for a book 
 on bis art entitled ' The Writing Schoolmaster,' 4to, London, 
 1590. He divides his work into three parts— 1, "Brachygra- 
 phie, that is, to write as fast as a man speaketh,treatably, writing 
 but one letter for a word;" 2, Orthography; and 3, Caligraphy. 
 On the strength of this hook Bales is often spoken of as the first 
 to introduce short-hand writing into England; but he was 
 anticipated by two years by Dr. Timothy Bright, who in 1588 
 published a system of stenography, with a dedication to the 
 Queen, under the title of ' Oharaeterie, or the Art of Short, 
 Swift, and Secret Writing.' Both systems consist of arbitrary 
 characters, each standing for a word, instead of a combination of 
 elementary signs as in the systems now in use. Bales' caligraphic 
 and brach ygiaphie powers are said to have been called into re- 
 quisition by Walsingham for diplomatic purposes. He died in 
 1610. 
 
 BA LLANCHE, PIERRE SIMON, a philosopher and man 
 of letters, was born at Lyon, in 1776. He is known for his 
 efforts after the reconstruction of society, and for his enthusiastic 
 anticipations of the same. He held and proclaimed that his 
 epoch was one of transition to a new order of things; and 
 generalising from the idea developed by Charles Bonnet, the 
 " Brahmin of Natural History," of the palingenesis of the indi- 
 vidual man, Ballanche conceived a palingenesis of the human 
 race, and of all its relations, national, social, and political. Thus 
 he was for a time one of the oracles of the professional recon- 
 structors of society. His first work, "fait au sortir de l'enfance," 
 was one which was never published, and which no longer exists 
 even in manuscript. In it, he tells us in the " Preface Gencrale " 
 to his ' Giuvres,' 4 vols. 8vo, Paris and Geneva, 1830, he sought 
 to reproduce in a kind of epic narrative the terrors of the Revo- 
 lution, in the midst of which he had passed his youth, and 
 especially all the disastrous circumstances which attended or 
 followed the Lyonnaise insurrection of 1793. He imagined a 
 traveller from the continent of America, himself by that time 
 the representative of a decaying civilisation, visiting about the 
 year 3300, the ruins, and deserts, and sheep-walks which will 
 then stand for the busiest centres of the life of to-day. The 
 first published work of Ballanche was one entitled 'Du Senti- 
 ment considere dans la literature et dans les arts,' 1801. After 
 having constructed in the feigned future the history of the pre- 
 sent age, he proceeded to reconstruct the past in his ' Antigone,' 
 a prose poem in six books, of which the last was finished at . 
 Rome in 1813, the entire work being ready for publication in 
 1814. The ' Antigone ' was the result of many years of leisurely 
 composition ; and it reached a second edition in 1819, in which 
 year appeared a small volume consisting of nine ' Fragments.' 
 In 1818 Ballanche published bis ' Essai sur les Institutions 
 Sociales dans leur Rapport avec les Idees Nouvelles,' intended 
 primarily as the Preface to the "epopee cychque" which, com- 
 posed chiefly of the 'Orphee,' 'Ville des Expiations,' and 'Elegie,' 
 was to be known under the collective title of ' Palingenesie 
 Sociale.' Of this work all that have been brought before the 
 world in the ' Giuvres' of Ballanche are the ' Prolegomenes ' in 
 three parts, and the 'Orphee,' which refers to the state of pre- 
 historic man, and is divided into nine books named after the 
 Muses. It was intended to publish nine volumes of the 
 ' OEuvres,' but the plan has not been prosecuted beyond the 
 fourth. An edition, covering the same ground, was published 
 in 6 vols. 18mo, in 1833. In 1819 appeared the first edition of 
 ' Le Vieillard et le Jeune Homme,' a series of seven conversa- 
 tions, in which the ideas of the ' Institutions Sociales ' are 
 further elaborated. An edition of a hundred copies of ' L'Homme 
 sans nom' was produced in 1820, and a second edition in 1828. 
 ' L'Homme sans nom' is a regicide who is stricken by remorse, 
 and who makes a life-long expiation, the end of which is soothed 
 and elevated by religious consolation. The latest of the works 
 of M. Ballanche is his ' Vision d'Hcbal, chef d'un clan ecossais,' 
 the hero of which takes advantage of his gift of second sight to 
 review the entire fortunes of the human race. The ' Vision 
 d'Hebal ' is at once a panorama of universal history, and a kind 
 
157 
 
 BALSAMON, THEODOROS. 
 
 BALTARD, VICTOR. 
 
 158 
 
 of summary of the social philosophy of the author. It is tinged 
 with a mystic colour through which its meaning is frequently 
 hard to be defined, but Chateaubriand, a friend of M. Ballanche, 
 regarded it as the most sublime and profound of his productions. 
 Ballanche closed his life in repose and retirement on the 12th of 
 June, 1847. 
 
 BALSAMON, THEODOROS, a Greek prelate, renowned as 
 the ablest canonist of the Eastern Church, was born about the 
 middle of the 12th century, at Constantinople, where he became 
 chancellor and librarian of the cathedral church of St. Sophia. 
 In 1186 he was nominated to the patriarchate of Antioch. He 
 was flattered by the Emperor Isaac Comnenus with the hope of 
 being made patriarch of Constantinople, but he never obtained 
 that jurisdiction. His learning, which was rather technical than 
 profound, exhibited itself in works that relate chiefly to canonical 
 matters, and that are full of animosity against the Latin com- 
 munion. He died in the year 1204. His commentary on the 
 Canons of the Apostles and the Seven Oecumenical Councils, 
 ' Commentarius in Canones SS. Apostolorum Conciliorum 
 Pat ri urn Epistolas Canonicas,' was published in Greek and 
 Latin, at Paris, in 1620 ; but the best edition is that of William 
 Beveridge, afterwards Bishop of St. Asaph, in his Pandects of 
 Canons, ' 2w6$ikov, siva Panel ectae Canonum,' &c, folio, Oxford, 
 1672. The other works of Balsamon are ' Commentarius in Photii 
 Nomocanonem/ 4to., Paris, 1615 ; ' Collectio Ecclesiasticarum 
 Constitutionum,' printed in Justelli ' Bibliotheca Juris Canon.' 
 Vol. ii. Lat. cum notis Leunclavii. Franc. 8vo, 1 593 ; ' Res- 
 ponsa ad varias Questiones Jus Canonicum Spectantes ' ; and 
 other tracts wdiieh have been published in different collections. 
 " BALSHAM, HUGH DE, or DE BEDESALE, or BELE- 
 SALE, was most probably born at Balsham, a village in Cam- 
 bridgeshire, about the beginning of the 13th century. He was 
 bred a monk ; and became sub-prior of the Benedictine monas- 
 tery at Ely. When the bishopric of Ely was left vacant by the 
 decease of William de Kilkenny, who died. September 21, 1256, 
 whilst absent on an embassy in Spain, King Henry III. issued 
 a mandate to the prior and convent of Ely that they should 
 elect Henry de Wingham, chancellor of England, to the vacant 
 office. Notwithstanding the king's recommendation, they made 
 choice, in a chapter held on the 13th of November following, 
 of their sub-prior, Hugh de Balsham. The king had wished 
 to entrust to a man skilled in public affairs, and not to one whose 
 administration had been limited to a monastery, a place so poli- 
 tically important : and, incensed at the thwarting of his desires, 
 he commissioned John Waleran, the keeper of the temporals of 
 the see, to cut clown the woods, to spoil the fish-ponds, to lay 
 waste the manors, and to "make havoc of all tilings." The 
 king had the case brought before Boniface, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, who, though he could discover no valid objection against 
 Balsham, yet in order to gratify the king, declared the election 
 of Balsham void, May 10, 1257. The latter now undertook 
 a journey to Rome for the sake of making a personal appeal to 
 the Pope ; whilst the archbishop, in order to frustrate his suit, 
 wrote letters to the Papal court, recommending Adam de 
 Marisco, a celebrated theologian of the time, to the disputed 
 see. Adam de Marisco was a man of great learning, but ad- 
 vanced in years, and incapable, on account of his vows as a 
 Minorite friar, of accepting such preferment. He was content, 
 however, to evade his vows, for the purpose of gratifying his 
 ambition. Henry de Wingham wished to retire from a contest 
 into which his name had been imported without his knowledge 
 through the partiality of the king, confessing that either of the 
 other candidates was better qualified than himself. At length, 
 October 6, 1257, the Pope gave a decision in favour of Balsham, 
 who was consecrated at Rome on the 14th of the same month. 
 The king was induced to restore the temporalities to him on the 
 15th of January, 1258 ; and avenged himself by promoting in 
 1259 his nominee Wingham to the diocese of London. Being 
 fully established in his see, Balsham set himself to accomplish 
 those charitable purposes which he had initiated before his eleva- 
 tion, and especially his plan for the foundation of St. Peter's 
 College, or Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he completed in 
 1284, for the maintenance of one master, fourteen fellows, two 
 bible clerks, and eight poor scholars, whose number was to be 
 increased according to the improvement of their revenue. 
 Balsham died at Doddington on the 16th of June, 1286, and 
 •was buried on the 24th of the same month before the high altar 
 of his cathedral church of Ely. 
 
 BALTARD, LOUIS PIERRE, French architect and archi- 
 tectural engraver, was born at Paris on the 9th of July, 1765. 
 He began Ids career as a landscape painter, but during an 
 
 artistic tour through Italy, the study of the remains of ancient 
 Rome diverted his thoughts to architecture, and encouraged and 
 guided by Peyre, the architect of the Odeon, he became an 
 architect by profession. Diligent, energetic, with a good deal of 
 taste and a fair knowledge of construction, he found clients, and 
 became a tolerably prosperous man, though he lias no title to 
 rank in the first line of the profession. He was appointed 
 architect of the Pantheon, and of the prisons of Paris, in which 
 latter capacity he erected the chapels of the Houses of Detention 
 at St. Lazare and, at Ste.Pclagie. In 1818 he was nominated 
 professor in the Ecole des Beaux-arts, and subsequently member 
 of the council of civil buildings, and of that of public works. 
 His principal building was the Palais de Justice, Lyon, a large 
 and stately edifice. Though seemingly amply employed in his 
 strictly professional labours, M. Baltard, who drew with exceed- 
 ing taste and picturesque skill, found time to make a vast num- 
 ber of architectural drawings and engravings. Of these the 
 following series were published : ' Paris et ses Monuments, avec 
 des notes hist, et crit. par Amaury-Duval,' large folio, Paris, An. 
 XII. (1803, &c). This is a finely executed work, but was never 
 completed. The portion published consists of 100 plates, which 
 include the Louvre, and complete the first volume ; and the 
 chateaux of St. Cloud, Ecouen, and Fontainebleau, forming as 
 much as was issued of the second volume : the descriptions were 
 written by the Abbe Halma. ' Voyage Pittoresque dans les 
 Alpes suivi d' un recueil de Vues des Monuments antiques de 
 Rome,' Paris, 1806, oblong 4to, with 48 plates in aqua-tinta, 
 preceded by descriptive letters addressed to Percier. ' La 
 Colonne de la Place Vendome, contenant les details des bas- 
 reliefs qui decorent cette colonne,' largest folio, with 145 plates 
 engraved by Baltard, and printed at the ' Calcographie du 
 Musee,' 1810. This splendid work had a curious fate. At first 
 it was issued from the Musee to only a favoured few. On the 
 Restoration, when it was the policy of the authorities to keep 
 the deeds of the grande armee as much as possible in the shade, 
 Baltard's book was strictly sequestrated. But after 1830, the 
 entire edition was found, with the plates, safely packed away in 
 the Musee, and it was published by the government of Louis 
 Philippe as vol. lxvi. of the 'Calcographie.' 'Athenaeum,' ait- 
 journal, edited and plates engraved by M. Baltard. ' Essai Metho- 
 dique sur le Decoration des Edifices et des Monuments, ou collec- 
 tion et choix des plus beaux morceaux de sculpture et peinture 
 ancienne et moderne, en 120 planches ou dessins lithographies, 
 suivis d' un Discours,' folio, Paris, 1817. ' Architectonographie 
 des Prisons, ou parallele des divers systemes de distribution 
 dont les prisons sont susceptibles, selon le nombre et la nature 
 de leur population, l'etendue et la forme des terrains,' with 40 
 plates, folio, Par. 1830. M. Baltard also engraved the plates to 
 M. Denon's ' Egypt,' folio, 1802 ; Cailliaud's ' Voyage a l'Oasis 
 de Thebes,' folio, 1822 : Cte. de La Borde's < Voyage en 
 Espagne,' 2 vols, folio ; Gau's ' Antiquites de la Nubie,' folio, 
 1821 — 27 ; and continued alone the series entitled ' Grand Prix 
 d'Architecture : projets couronnes par l'Academie,' which was 
 commenced by Vaudoyer and Baltard conjointly, and which 
 since his death has been continued by his son, the subject of the 
 following article. Besides all this, M. Baltard engraved some 
 historical subjects, after Poussin and Le Brun, and portraits of 
 Napoleon I., Poussin, and others. He died on the 22nd of 
 January, 1846. 
 
 * BALTARD, VICTOR, an eminent French architect, son of 
 L. P. Baltard, the subject of the preceding article, was born at 
 Paris in 1805, and educated as an architect in the establishment 
 of his father. Having won the grand prize of architecture in 
 1833 by a design for a military school, he went to Italy, where 
 he devoted himself to close study of the ancient remains. The 
 fruit of his researches was seen in a restoration of the Theatre of 
 Pompeii, sent home in 1837. On his return to France he was 
 nominated architect to the government and to the city of Paris, 
 and in his official character he has executed several very im- 
 portant works. The most colossal is the vast Halles Centrales, 
 Victor Calliat being in the first instance appointed joint archi- 
 tect. Other important works are the completion of the Hotel du 
 Timbre, begun by M. P. Lelong, and the elaborate and costly 
 restorations of the churches of Saint Germain-des-Pres, Saint 
 Severin, and Saint-Euslache. Like his father, M. Victor 
 Baltard has devoted a good deal of time to high-class book 
 illustrations, though we believe lie has not himself engraved 
 any plates. As mentioned above, he lias continued the publica- 
 tion of the ' Grand Prix d'Architecture,' initiated by his 
 father. He has also edited the text and designed the plates of 
 a superb monograph on the ' Villa Medicis,' i'ol. 1847 — 48 ; and 
 
BALUZE, ETIENNE. 
 
 BANDELLONt, LUIGI. 
 
 he made the numerous designs from nature of the costly 
 ' Recherehes sur les Monuments de l'Histoire des Normands' 
 of M. Huillard-Breholles, published at the expense of the Due 
 de Luynes. Among the works a little outside his usual course 
 may be mentioned the cradle of the Prince Imperial, which he 
 designed as architect to the city of Paris. M. Victor Baltard 
 was elected a member of the Academic des Beaux-arts (section 
 d'architecture) in 1863. M. Prosper Baltard, elder brother 
 of Victor (b. 179G), has also pursued a prosperous though quiet 
 career as an architect : he has for some time held the post of 
 inspector of the buildings of the Louvre. A younger brother, 
 M. Jules Baltard (b. 1807), holds a high position as a portrait 
 painter. 
 
 BALUZE, ETIENNE, a distinguished French scholar of 
 the 17th century, was born on the 24lh of December, 1630, at 
 Tulle, in the province of Guienne, where he received his early 
 education. At the age of 1G he was removed to the College of 
 St. Mart ial at Toulouse, and afterwards attended the law schools; 
 but his taste for ecclesiastical history, and a critique which he 
 published in 1G52 on the 'Gallia Purpurata' of Eri/on, procured 
 him the friendship first of Charles de Montchal, Archbishop of 
 Toulouse, and then of his successor de Marca, who in 1656 
 conducted Baluze to Paris, lodged him in his palace, and at his 
 death, June 20, 16G2, bequeathed to him all his manuscripts. 
 This mark of confidence exposed Baluze to attack and con- 
 troversy. Through successive situations of honour and respon- 
 sibility, Beluze became, in 1667, librarian to Colbert; and after 
 the death of that minister, was appointed by Louis XIV., in 
 1670, to the professorship of canon law in the College Royal, a 
 post which was created expressly for him. In 1707 he succeeded 
 the Abbe Gallois in the directorship of the college, and was also 
 admitted to a pension, both of which advantages he forfeited in 
 the year following through a political inadvertence in his 
 History of the House of Auvergne, 'Histoire Genealo^ique de 
 la Maisoa d' Auvergne, justifiee par des Chartes, litres, Histoires 
 Anciennes, et autres preuves autentiques,' 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1708. 
 This work brought upon its author the wrath of the king; and 
 he was exiled successively to Rouen, Blois, Tours, and Orleans. 
 He obtained his recall upon the peace of Utrecht, in 1713; but 
 he was never re-instated in his pension or his appointments. He 
 retired, therefore, to a small house near Paris, where he devoted 
 himself to the prosecution of his favourite studies, and died on the 
 28th of July, 1718. He was buried in the church of St, Sulpice. 
 
 Baluze was a man of great learning, and had immense power 
 of patient and intelligent research, especially in ecclesiastical 
 and profane history, and ancient and modem canon law. The 
 publications of which he was either author or editor, amount to 
 no less than forty-five, many of which consist of several volumes. 
 His principal works are ' Regum Francorum Capitularia,' 2 vols, 
 fol. Paris, 1677; ' Epistohe Innocentii Papa? III.' 2 vols. fol. 
 Utrecht, 1682; 'Conciliorum Nova Collectio; cum Notis,' folio, 
 Utrecht, 1683; a work intended as a supplement to the ' Sacro- 
 sancta Concilia' of Labbeus, but of which only one volume, out 
 of a contemplated series, was published ; ' Vies des Papes 
 d' Avignon,' 2 vols. 4to, 1693; 'Historia Tutelensis Libri tres,' 
 2 vols. 4to; and 'Miscellanea; hoc est, Collectio veterum 
 Monumentorum, qua) hactenus latuerant, in variis Codicibus ac 
 Bibliothecis,' 7 vols. 8vo, Paris. Of this curious and valuable 
 work the different volumes appeared severally in the years 1678, 
 1679, 1680, 1683, 1700, 1713, and 1715; and a new and largeredition 
 in 7 vols, folio, was published by Father Mansi, at Lucca, in 1761. 
 
 BANCHIERI, ADRIEN/ Italian poet and musical com- 
 poser, was born at Bologna in 1567. After studying under 
 Guanii, organist of Lucca Cathedral, he was appointed organist 
 at Imola and afterwards at Bologna, and became a monk of the 
 order of the Mount of Olives. He continued to play the organ 
 and to compose various kinds of musical pieces, almost to the 
 time of his death, which took place in 1634. Walther (' Musi- 
 kalisches Lexicon '), and Ma'zzuchelli ( ' Gli Scrittori d'ltalia ' ) 
 give the names of a large number of his compositions. Among 
 them are pieces for the organ, madrigals for three and five 
 voices, part songs for eight voices, canzonets for four voices, 
 masses and psalms, motetts and anthems, church sinfonias, pieces 
 for four voices with an organ accompaniment, and compositions 
 for two voices with string accompaniments. Besides these he 
 published ' La Pazzia Senile/ Venice, 1598, 4to., a kind of 
 musical comedy for three singers, in madrigal style ; ' L'Organo 
 Suonarino,' Venice, 1605, folio ; containing among other things 
 directions for a continued base in organ-playing ; ' La Pru- 
 denza Giovinale,' 1G07, a counteipart to 'La Pazzia Senile;' 
 ' Cartella Musicale,' Venice, 1610, 4to., consisting of essays and 
 
 compositions to illustrate the theory of harmony, plain chant 
 and counterpoint, a comparison of ancient and modern forms in 
 music, duets in canon to illustrate solfeggio, and a suggested 
 addition to Guido d'Arezzo's syllables in solmisation ; 'Diret- 
 torio Monastico,' for the music of the Monastic church to which 
 he belonged ; Bologna, 4to., 1614 ; ' La Fida Fanciulla,' a musi- I 
 cal comedy in prose ; Bologna, 8vo., 1628. Banchieri also pub- I 
 lished many poetical pieces under his academical name of 1 
 Camillo Scaligeri della Fratta. 
 
 BANDARUA, GONCALO ANNES, a poet and thaumatur- I 
 gist, known as the " Portuguese Nostradamus," was born about II 
 the beginning of the 16th century, at Villa de Trancoso, I 
 where lu; fulfilled the humble vocation of a cobbler. Although fl 
 so entirely without education that lie could neither write nor I 
 read, he achieved a wonderful reputation as a popular poet and M 
 prophet; and his ' Trovas Redondilhas' were in full possession! 
 of the lips and hearts of the vulgar. As a patriot, Bandarra I 
 took a gloomy view of the affairs of Portugal upon the dis- I 
 appearance of Don Sebastiao, whose return, and the future pros- I 
 perity of whose kingdom, however, he glowingly anticipated. But 1 
 this, and other aspirations of the cobbler, made him obnoxious, I 
 about 1510, to the Inquisition, which was the more insolent from I 
 the circumstance of its having just been restored to power after I 
 a suspension of its functions. It has sometimes been said that 
 Bandarra was charged before the Holy office with the crime of 
 being a Jew ; but his real accusation was that of being a false 
 prophet. He suffered imprisonment, and took part as one of 
 the penitents, in the auto-da-fe M'hich was celebrated on the 
 23rd of October, 1541, in the Place de la Ribeira, at Lisbon. 
 After his enlargement he returned to his poetry and his trade 
 in his native village. He is said by Barbosa to have received the 
 honour of burial in the church of Trancosa, where a monument 
 was erected to him, by D. Alvaro de Abranches. His death took 
 place about 1556. Many years after his death Bandarra began to • 
 be called 0 Sapateiro Santo, the holy cobbler. His Avorks circu- 
 lated for a long time in manuscript, but in 1581 they were pro- ' 
 hibited, possibly upon the occasion of the printing of a small . 
 edition. An edition of Bandarra more certainly appeared in j 
 1603, ' Paraphras e concordancia de algunas prophecias de Ban- 
 darra, sapateiro de Trancoso.' The prosecution of the living bard ( 
 by the Inquisition, did not prevent the posthumous respect of the I 
 Jesuits, by one of whom was published, in 1659, a folio volume ; 
 entitled ' Esperanca de Portugal, quinto imperio do mundo, 
 primeira e secunda vida del rey D. Joao IV., escriptas por Gon- ; 
 salianez Bandarra, e dada a luz pelo padre Antonio Vieyra, da . 
 Companhia de Jesus.' The works of Bandarra have been edited i 
 more than once within the present century. 
 
 *BANDEL, JOSEPH ERNST VON, a celebrated German! 
 sculptor, was born at Ansbach, on the 17th of May, 1800 ; J 
 studied first at Niirnberg, and then at the Kunstakademie, I 
 Munich. His earliest work, a ' Mars Reposing,' 1820, gave i 
 promise of original power. After brief visits to Niirnberg and '« 
 Rome, he settled in Munich till 1834, when he removed to 1 
 Berlin ; of late he has resided chiefly at Hanover. Whilst at 
 Munich he executed several busts that were greatly admired, 
 alike for their originality of style and characteristic expression : 
 among the. most noted were those of the King, Maximilian 
 Joseph, and the artists Hess, Gartner, Stieler, and Quaglio. 
 But his principal work was a statue of Charity, on which he 
 spent several years, and which has been classed among the 
 finest productions of modern German sculpture. At Berlin, his 
 most celebrated works were the colossal statue of Arminius 
 (Hermann), in copper, and a life-sized statue of Christ. Among 
 the works executed for Hanover are the statues of Shakspere 
 and Goldoni, for the theatre, and a large rilievo for the Military 
 Hospital. Besides these, he has executed a statue of King 
 William IV., for Gottingen ; several classical figures, and nume- 
 rous portrait busts. 
 
 * BANDELLONI, LUIGI, an Italian poet and musical com- 
 poser, was born at Rome in the early part of the present cen- 
 tury. After studying counterpoint under a monk, named Padre I 
 Teofolo, and taking Zingarelli as his model in composition, he 
 set to music some of the sonnets of Petrarch, the octaves of I 
 Tasso, and short pieces from Dante, with accompaniments for 
 the pianoforte and other instruments. Among his other compo- 
 sitions are — a 'Preghiera a Dio,' for three voices; a 'Tantum 
 Ergo ; ' a hymn to St. Agnes ; masses and motetts ; and psalms 
 harmonized for a choir and orchestra. He composed many 
 cantatas, under the collective name of ' Azioni Teatrali,' for 
 several voices, chorus, and orchestral accompaniment. Among 
 them were cantatas on the subjects of Alceste, Pyramus and 
 
161 
 
 BANIEE, L'ABBE ANTOINE. 
 
 BABBIEB, ANTOINE ALEXANDRE. 102 
 
 Thisbe, Cupid and Psyche, Clytemnestra and jEgisthus, Cassan- 
 ' dra and Agamemnon. He also wrote a satirical poem on the 
 Roman composers of the da v — 'Sulla Musica Odierna.' 
 BANIER, LABBE ANTOINE, a learned French writer, 
 ! was born at Pont-du-Chateau, a little village in Auvergne, on 
 . the 2nd of November, 1673. Having completed his studies at 
 the College of Clermont, he went to Paris, where he found 
 employment as tutor of the sons of M. Nicolai, president of the 
 Chamber of Accounts. The rest of his life was absorbed in 
 literary labour. He was admitted associate of the Academic 
 des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres in 1716, and pensionary in 
 : 1728. He died at Paris on the 19th of November, 1741, at the 
 age of 68. His chief works are : — (1) ' L'Explication Historique 
 1 des Fables,' 2 vols. Itimo, 1711 ; a work which was well received, 
 and of which an enlarged edition was published a few years later. 
 But the Abbe Banier became dissatisfied with it as it stood, and 
 he developed his views in a much more voluminous work under 
 the title of (2) ' La My thologie et les Fables expliquees par PHis- 
 toire,' 3 vols. 4to and 8 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1738; a work display- 
 ing great learning, research, and ingenuity, but the author's 
 explanations are more hazardous and ingenious than sound, and 
 the book is now pretty generally regarded as obsolete. (3) ' Tra- 
 duction des Metamorphoses d'Ovide,' 3 vols. 12mo and folio, 
 with the designs of Picart, 1732: to this translation Banier 
 added a great body of learned notes, and indulged largely in his 
 propensity for elucidating the fables: a second and more splendid 
 edition appeared in 1767 in 4 vols. 4to. (4) A new edition of 
 the ' Melanges d'Histoire et de Litterature' of Dom B. Dargonne 
 (better known as the 'Melanges' of Vigneul-Marville), which 
 he augmented by a third volume containing anecdotes, criticisms, 
 and a great deal of out-of-the-way reading. (5) ' L'Histoire 
 Generate des Ceremonies et Coutumes religieuses de tous les 
 Peuples du Monde/ 7 vols, folio, 1741. This was a new 
 edition of the great Dutch work of J. F. Bernard, 1735 — 7, 
 undertaken conjointly with the Abbe Mascrier, with the ob- 
 ject of purging the book from the statements and opinions of 
 the original edition, which were held to be adverse to the 
 Roman Catholic Church. Banier contributed to it a large 
 amount of curious learning, but the taint of tampering with the 
 text adhered to the book ; and although in many respects superior, 
 it has never been as much valued as the original edition. The 
 Abbe Banier also wrote many dissertations in the Transactions 
 of the Academie des Inscriptions ; and edited the Voyages of C. 
 Lebruyn, 1725, and of Paul Lucas, to both of which he added 
 numerous learned notes. 
 
 BANIM, JOHN, a vivid delineator of Irish life and charac- 
 ter, was born near Kilkenny, in 1800. He was a poet and 
 painter by nature ; but after writing poetry when a mere boy, 
 and commencing to study as a painter, he took to literature as a 
 means of support. At the early age of seventeen he became 
 Editor of the ' Leinster Journal.' In the next following year he 
 wrote (in conjunction with Richard Lalor Sheil) a five act 
 drama on the subject of ' Damon and Pythias,' which had a tem- 
 porary success at Drury Lane Theatre. In 1820 he married and 
 settled in London, where for a time he edited the ' Literary 
 Register.' In 1821 he published 'The Celt's Paradise.' His 
 'Tales of the O'Hara Family,' of which the first series was pub- 
 lished in 1825, and the second in 1826, brought him prominently 
 forward. Almost disregarding the light and joyous elements of 
 the Irish character, he treated the more tragic, criminal, passion- 
 ate, and revengeful features, in which he excelled all his pre- 
 decessors. The true Irish peasant may be best understood by 
 combining the brighter pictures painted by Crofton Croker and 
 Miss Edgeworth with the deeper shades by Banim. There after- 
 Wards proceeded from his pen ' The Anglo-Irish of the Nineteenth 
 Century,' 1828 ; ' The Croppy, a tale of 1798,' same year ; 'The 
 Denounced,' 1830 ; ' The Smuggler, a tale,' 1831 ; ' The Ghost 
 Hunter and his Family,' 1833 ; and several smaller sketches. 
 Many of the O'Hara Tales have been frequently republished 
 separately ; and some of them have been translated into 
 German by Lindau. Mr. Banim's health began to give way 
 about 1832 ; he went to Boulogne, fell into poverty, and ob- 
 tained monetary aid to enable him to return to Kilkenny, in 
 1835. Incapacitated from further literary labour, the Govern- 
 ment granted him a pension of £150 per annum in 1837, with 
 £40 additional for the education of his daughter. But continued 
 illness kept him always impoverished, until his death, which 
 occurred at Windgap Cottage, near Kilkenny, August 1st, 1842. 
 
 BANISTER, JOHN, though distinguished as a botanist, 
 (his name being applied to one of the genera of the order Mal- 
 PIGHIAce^), honourably mentioned by Ray, and contributor of 
 Bioo. Div. — SUP. 
 
 four papers to the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 
 yet scarcely anything is known respecting him. In a manuscript 
 note attached to a short notice of him in Sir Joseph Banks's 
 copy of ' Pulteney's Historical and Biographical Sketches of 
 Botany' (in the Library of the British Museum), 17.90, vol. ii. 
 p. 55, it is stated that he was a Missionary of the Church of 
 England, and was some time in the East Indies. After some 
 years he proceeded to Virginia, where he carefully examined ttie 
 plants, described them, and drew figures of rare species. He 
 also described the insects, and contemplated writing a natural 
 history of Virginia. In 1680 he sent a catalogue of the plants 
 of Virginia to Ray, and several letters and memoirs to Lister 
 and Petiver, and also to the Royal Society. He met with an 
 untimely end, 1689, in attending to climb a rock in order to 
 secure possession of a plant. In memory of this event we have 
 the genus Banisteria : and Linnaeus, in order still further to 
 honour him, applied to one of the species the word scundens, or 
 " climbing," because it loves to climb rocks. His herbal passed 
 into the collection of Sir Hans Sloane. He was not a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society, but three of his papers are in No. 198, and 
 the fourth is in No. 247 of the Transactions. 
 
 BARAGUAY D'HILLIERS, MARSHAL. [D'Hilliers, 
 Baraguay, Marshal, E. C. vol. ii. col. 57.9.] 
 
 BARANTE, AMABLE-GUILLAUME-PROSPER, BARON 
 DE BRUGIERE, E. C. vol. i. col. 521. , The ' Vie Politique de 
 M. Royer Collard, ses Discours et ses Ecrits,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1861, 
 2nd ed. 2 vols. 18mo, 1863, was the last work M. de Barante 
 lived to write. He died at his country seat, the Chateau de 
 Barante, in Auvergne, on the 22nd of November, 1866, in the 
 85th year of his age. 
 
 BARATYNSKI, JEWGENIJ ABRAMOV1TCH, an emi- 
 nent Russian poet, was born in 1792. Of a wealthy Smolensk 
 family, he was educated in the royal school at St. Petersburg. 
 Having entered the army, he was promoted and sent with a 
 command to Finland. Here he wiled away his enforced solitude 
 by the composition of a poem entitled ' Eva,' in which the local 
 colouring of the country and its inhabitants is preserved with 
 great fidelity and elegance. The climate and occupation, how- 
 ever, ill suited him, and through the friendly intervention of 
 Jookowski the Emperor Nicolas at length granted him per- 
 mission to return. He removed to the neighbourhood of 
 Moscow, and devoted all his leisure to poetry. The result was 
 the production of his 1 Tsigani' (The Gipsies), a poem similar in 
 title to Pushkin's, but wholly dissimilar in character, and by 
 many native critics considered to be superior : by some, indeed, 
 it is regarded as the most beautiful poem of its class in the 
 language. Baratynski contributed a few pieces subsequently to 
 periodicals, but wrote no long poem. Indeed, during his latter 
 years, his health was too much shattered to permit him to 
 undertake any serious labour. With great difficulty he obtained 
 permission to try a milder climate, and he repaired to Italy, 
 where he died in 1844. Baratynski's collected 'Poems' were 
 published in two volumes, 1835. 
 
 BARBADILLO, ALFONSO HIERONIMO DE SALIS, an 
 eminent Spanish author, was born at Madrid, about 1580. 
 Though attached to the court, and an indefatigable writer, he 
 was always poor, but he lived on terms of intimacy with men 
 whose acquaintance was honourable. With Cervantes he formed 
 a close friendship, and though both wrote novelets, there was no 
 literary jealousy between them. Barbadillo's novelets have 
 been placed on a level with those of Cervantes, and in mere 
 grace and finish of style they may sustain the comparison ; but 
 they are feebler, and more superficial ; whilst Barbadillo has 
 nothing that can be in any way compared with Cervantes' great 
 romance. Besides his tales, Barbadillo wrote poems, verselets, 
 and comedies, which are light, sparkling, and cheerful. One of 
 the most popular of his stories was ' El CabaUero puntual,' 
 Madrid, 1614, of which a second part was published in 1619; 
 another was 'Da Ingeniosa Helena, Hija de Celestina,' 1612, 
 which was several times reprinted. His ' Don Diego,' 1623, the 
 story of a Spanish cavalier, divided into nine nights, is sprightly 
 and amusing. Barbadillo's poems include ' Rimas Castellinas,' 
 12mo, Madrid, 1618, mostly sonnets, epigrams, and occasional 
 pieces ; ' Los Triumphos de la beata soror Juana de la Cruz,' 
 1621, a poem in heroic verse ; and ' Coronas del Parnasa y 
 Platos de las Musas,' 1635, an allegorical poem, with which are 
 printed the comedies of ' Victoria de Espafia Francia,' arid ' El 
 Galan Tramposo y Pobre.' The ' Fortunate Fool' of Barbadillo 
 was translated into English by Philip Ayres, in 1670. Bar- 
 badillo died in 1630. 
 
 BARRIER, ANTOINE ALEXANDRE, a distinguished 
 
 H 
 
163 
 
 BARBOSA MACHADO, DIOGO. 
 
 BARERE DE VIEUZAC, BERTRAND. 164 
 
 French bibliographer, was bom at Coulommiers (Seine-et- 
 Mame), on the 11th January, 1765. On leaving the college of 
 Meaux in 1782, he was made successively vicaire of Arcy and 
 of Dammartin. In 171)1 he received the appointment of cure of 
 Ferte-sous-Jouarre. He now began collecting materials for com- 
 pleting certain works by other hands, already published; viz., 
 the ' Bibliotheque d'un Homme de Gout,' the ' Dietionnaixe 
 Historique' of Ladvocat, and also that by Chaudon. He re- 
 nounced the priesthood in 1793, married, and gave himself 
 wholly to letters. In 1794 he was appointed member of the 
 temporary Commission of Arts, to whom was entrusted the 
 duty of selecting the valuable books and MSS. from the sup- 
 pressed monasteries and other establishments, and depositing 
 them in the national libraries. Having formed a library Eoi the 
 Executive Directory, he was appointed librarian of it in 1798. 
 While filling the office of Librarian to the Council of State (to 
 which body the library of the Directory was transferred in the 
 time of the Consulate), he published a ' Catalogue de la Biblio- 
 theque du Conseil d'Etat,' 2 vols, folio, which brought him into 
 repute among literary men. He became Librarian to the First 
 Consul, which post he continued to hold when Bonaparte as- 
 sumed the title of Emperor Napoleon. In 1806 appeared the 
 first two volumes of the ' Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et 
 Pseudonymes,' which was completed by two more volumes, 8vo, 
 1808. The lirst edition of this work contained 12,403 articles ; 
 the second edition, published in 1822-27, was augmented to 23,647 
 articles. It is a work of great research, and generally compiled 
 with judgment. It is now being re-issued, incorporated with 
 Quurard's ' iSupereheries Litteraires Devoilees' (which title is 
 given to the combined work), 6 vols. 8vo, 1869 — 70 ; but the 
 revision appears to have been imperfectly performed, and the 
 new matter is often inaccurate. The ' Nouvelle Bibliotheque d'un 
 Homme de Gout' appeared in 1808-10, in 5 volumes, 8vo. Bar- 
 bier retained the good graces of the Emperor, who constantly con- 
 sulted him on matters relating to books and history. He founded 
 for Napoleon the Imperial Libraries at the Louvre, Fontaine- 
 bleau, Oompiegne, and St. Cloud, and prepared good catalogues 
 of the books. In 1812 he published ' Dissertation sur soixante 
 traductions franchises de limitation de Jesus-Christ, suivi 
 de Considerations sur l'auteurs de l'Imitation,' 12mo. When 
 the ' Biographie Universelle' was commenced, about the same 
 time, a proposal was made that Barbier should join in the 
 management ; hut the arrangement was not fulfilled. In 1820 
 appeared his ' Examen Critique et Complement des Dietionnaires 
 historiques les plus repandus, depuis le Dictionnaire de Moreri 
 jusqu'a la Biographie Universelle inclusivement,' 8vo. This 
 work was not continued after the letter J. Some strictures 
 on the Biographie Universelle brought him into controversy 
 with the editors. Barbier was continued in the office of adminis- 
 trator of the royal libraries, until 1822. He died at Paris on 
 the 5th December, 1825. 
 
 BARBOSA MACHADO, DIOGO, a celebrated Portuguese 
 biographer and historian, was born at Lisbon on the 31st of 
 March, 1682 ; and received his education at the University of 
 Coimbra. He was admitted into holy orders, and became Abbade 
 of Santo Adriao de Sever, a modest preferment which he enjoyed 
 for many years. His career was long, and undistinguished by 
 any events of importance, apart from the publication of the 
 results of his literary and historical labours. He died in 1770. 
 Barbosa is the author of a great historical work upon the 
 reign of Dom Sebastian, which is not frequently consulted, and 
 which bears as a title, ' Memorias para a historia de Portugal, 
 que comprehendem o governo del rey D. Sebastiao, unico em o 
 nome, e decimo sexto entre os monarchas Portuguezes. Dedi- 
 cadas a el Rey D. Joao V., nosso Senhor : approvadas pela 
 Academia real da Historia Portugueza : escritas pelo Academico 
 Diogo Barbosa Machado, Ulyssipponense Abbade da Igreja de 
 Santo Adriao de Sever, do Bispado do Porto,' 4 vols, large 4to. 
 Lisboa Occidental ; 1736, 1737, 1747, and 1751. But the most 
 important of the productions of Barbosa is a work in which for 
 the first time there was an attempt to introduce exact biblio- 
 graphic researches and precise dates into the sphere of Por- 
 tuguese literature. The work was entitled, ' Bibliotheca Lusi- 
 tana, Historica, Critica, e Cronologica. Na qual se comprehende 
 a Noticia dos Authores Portuguezes, e das ohras, que com- 
 puserao desde o tempo da promulgacao da Ley da Gragia ate o 
 tempo prezente. Offercida a Augusta Magestade de D. Joao V. 
 nosso Senhor, por Diogo Barbosa Machado, Ulyssiponense, 
 Ahbade da Parochial Igreja de Santo Adriao de Sever, e Aca- 
 demico do numero da Academia Real/ 4 vols, fob, Lisboa 
 Occidental, 1741, 1747, 1752, and 1759. This work is remark- 
 
 able for its diligence and breadth and patience of research, with 
 which, however, the good judgment of the author did not keep 
 pace. Materials for Portuguese history and biography are given 
 without being subjected to the influence of a sufficiently- 
 informed faculty of criticism. The names of foreign books are 
 frequently outraged ; and there are some considerable omissions. , 
 Yet it remains that this work, with all its imperfections, is the 
 most valuable contribution to Portuguese biography that has ever 
 appeared. It was to a great extent modelled upon the ' Biblio- I 
 theca Hispana Nova,' of Nicolas Antonio, which was published 
 in 1672. Nearly seventy years before the publication of the I 
 first edition of the work bust-mentioned, Dr. J. Soarez de Brito, 
 of the University of Coimbra, had completed a dictionary of less j • 
 extent, but with the same general purpose as that of Barbosa. I 
 This was in Latin, and bore as its title, ' Theatrum Lusitanias I 
 literariuin, autore Joanne Suarez de Brito,' &c. Owing to some i 
 cause or other, at present unknown, the ' Theatrum' was never I 
 published ; and the original manuscript is deposited in the H 
 Bibliotheque Imporiale of Paris. Barbosa confesses his obliga- I 
 lions to this production for many useful hints, which served as li 
 a guide to that indefatigable collector, who had undertaken an I 
 enterprise from which the members of the Academy of History, I 
 in 1735, shrank in alarm at its magnitude. For the purpose of | 
 rendering the ' Bibliotheca Lusitana' as complete as possible, I 
 Barbosa exercised the liberty of access which he enjoyed to the || 
 royal, public, and ecclesiastical libraries of Lisbon, to which the 1 
 earthquake of 1755 was so disastrous in its operations. The J 
 earthquake, however, in spite of the fatality it seemed to carry I 
 to the archives of the capital, did not arrest the labours of I 
 Barbosa, who, four years after, in 1759, published the fourth I 
 volume of his work, containing the supplements and necessary I 
 corrections, and a useful index of names. Barbosa likewise I 
 translated a work from the ItaUan of Mucio Dandini ; and col- I 
 lected his fugitive contributions to the Academy under the title .1 
 of ' Contas de seus estudos Academicos.' 
 
 BARDON, MICHEL-FRAN COIS-D'ANDRFj,French painter, ■ 
 and writer on art, was born at Aix, in Provence, on the 22nd of .1 
 May, 1700. He was hrought up to the law, was admitted avocat J 
 at Paris, and returned to practise in Provence, but growing I 
 disgusted with the profession he abandoned it, and took lessons ,1 
 in painting from Vanloo and De Troy. He commenced the J 
 practice of painting in his native place, but after a while went to J 
 Paris, where he painted historical, religious, and mythical sub- I 
 jects, and met with much success. He was elected to succeed 1 
 Lepicier as professor of painting in the Ecole de Peinture. 
 Later he was appointed director of the Academy of Marseille. ' 
 He devoted himself with great zeal to the instruction of the I 
 pupils, gradually abandoning the practice of his art in order to it 
 develope more thoroughly what he conceived to be its true il 
 principles. The views thus taught in the first instance from il 
 the chair, he afterwards published in a long series of works. Of 'I 
 these the principal are, ' Conferences sur l'utilite' que les , 
 Artistes peuvent retirer d'un Cours d'Histoire universelle,' J 
 1751 ; ' Livres des Principes a dessiner,' 4to, 1754, reprinted i 
 1764 ; ' Traite de Peinture, suivi d'un Essai sur la Sculpture, 
 et d'un Catalogue raisonne des plus fameux peintres, sculp- 
 teurs et graveurs de l'Ecole Fran§aise, pour servir d' introduc- 
 tion a l'histoire universelle relative a ces beaux-arts,' 2 vols. 
 12mo, Paris, 1765 ; ' Histoire Universelle, traiter relativement 
 aux arts de peindre et de sculpter,' 3 vols. 12mo, 1760. M.' 
 Bardon also wrote ' Vie de Carle Vanloo,' 12mo, Par. 1765 ; 
 'Anecdotes sur la Mort de Bouchardon,' 1764; ' Monument de 
 la Ville de Rheims,' 12mo, 1765, and several poems, the titles 
 of which it is not necessary to give. For M. Cochin's series of 
 360 plates of 'Costumes des Anciens Peuples,' 4to, Paris, 1760, 
 2nd ed. 1772 ; 3rd, 4 vols, large folio, 1784, M. Bardon wrote 
 the historical descriptions. Some of Bardon's paintings have 
 been engraved by Balechou, and Heinecken mentions several of 
 his own engraving. M. Bardon died at Marseille on the 14th 
 of April. 1783. 
 
 BARERE DE VIEUZAC, BERTRAND, whose surname is 
 frequently, hut erroneously, spelled BARRERE, was one of the 
 few prominent actors in the great French Revolution who sur- 
 vived to old age. He was horn September 10th, 1755, at Tarbes, 
 where his father was a small landed proprietor. After practising 
 with distinction as an advocate at Toulouse, and filling a judicial 
 function at Tarhes, Barere was elected to the States General as 
 representative of Bigorre in 1789. From that time he became 
 deeply engaged in all the agitating scenes of the Revolution. 
 He first joined the Orleans party, and edited a moderate journal 
 called 'Le Point du Jour;' but soon took a more democratic 
 
165 
 
 BARFOD, PAUL FREDERIK. 
 
 ^ 
 
 BARK HAM, JOHN. 166 
 
 line, pronouncing against the king and the clergy, and such of 
 the provincial parliaments as showed royalist leanings. Early 
 in 1790 he carried a motion for placing all the Crown property 
 at the absolute disposal of the National Assembly, with the 
 exception of such palaces and domains as the king might reserve. 
 About the same time he was elected Secretary of the Assembly; 
 and published a pamphlet, 'Les Etrennesau Peuple, ou Declara- 
 tion des droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, precedee d'une Epitre 
 aux Nations.' During the remaining period of the existence of 
 the Assembly, Barere took an active part in its proceedings, 
 becoming gradually more and more revolutionary. He either 
 proposed or supported decrees giving the rights of man and of 
 citizenship to persons of colour; forbidding any of the Royal 
 family from leaving France; confiscating the property of emigres; 
 refusing to the King's ministers the right of speaking in the 
 Assembly, except to give explanations when required ; and 
 inveighing with increasing severity against the hapless King, 
 He transferred his membership from the moderate Club des Feuil- 
 lants to that of the Jacobins; and associated himself with 
 Robespierre, Danton, and Collot D'Herbois. This course of 
 action lasted during the continuance of the National Assembly 
 (June, 1789, to September, 1791), and of the Legislative 
 Assembly (October, 1791, to August, 1792). When the 
 National Convention was chosen (September. 1792), Barere was 
 elected representative for the Hautes Pyrenees; and he was soon 
 chosen president. He shared fully in the audacious proceedings 
 of that body: in one of his speeches pronouncing the words which 
 did so much towards inciting a thirst for the blood of the 
 deposed king (" L'arbre de la liberte croit lorsqu'il est arrose 
 du sang de toute espece de tyrans "). The J acobins gradually 
 overpowered the Girondists in the Convention; Robespierre was 
 the leading spirit of the Jacobins ; and Barere's conduct was 
 much influenced by fear of that terrible man. As a member 
 of the Committee of Public Safety, he drew up most of the 
 decrees of accusation against "the enemies of the republic;" 
 and obtained the sobriquet of the " Anacreon of the Guillotine." 
 He was one of the principal originators of the Reign of Terror, 
 and was the deputy who spoke of Queen Marie Antoinette as 
 " cette femme scelerate." After having joined Robespierre and 
 Danton to crush the Girondists, and Robespierre to crush the 
 Dantonists and Hebertists, he turned against Robespierre himself, 
 when the hour of the latter was come. Under the Directory 
 (which succeeded the Convention in 1795) Barere lived much in 
 concealment, and wrote voluminously. One of his works was 
 'De la pensee du Gouvernement;' another, ' Montesquieu peint 
 par ses Ouvrages;' and a third, ' La liberte des Mers, ou le Gou- 
 vernement anglais devoile.' When Napoleon assumed power 
 as First Consul and then as Emperor, Barere was constantly em- 
 ployed in drawing up decrees and reports; but without being 
 really trusted or respected. On the restoration of the Bourbons 
 Barere was banished from France as a regicide. He took refuge 
 in Belgium, where he augmented his moderate income by literary 
 labours, producing several works, but none of permanent value. 
 After the Revolution he was permitted to return to France, and 
 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies as representative for 
 the Hautes Pyrenees. In 1834 he published his 'Memoires,' 
 with a preface by M. Carnot fils, 2 vols. 8vo, a work of question- 
 able authority. Barere — one of the least sincere and most selfish 
 of the Revolutionists — died January 15, 1841, at the age of 85. 
 He published nearly 30 pamphlets and volumes, besides those 
 above named, mostly on theoretical politics. 
 
 * BARFOD, PAUL FREDERIK, a Danish historian and 
 poet, was born in 1811, in the neighbourhood of Grenoe, in 
 Jutland. He early gained a reputation by his talent for verse, 
 and by the merits of his historical writings. After the death of 
 Frederik VI., whose friendly regards he enjoyed, and by whose 
 favourable notice his aspirations had been kept in check, Barfod 
 developed a political system of an extremely liberal and demo- 
 cratic kind, in which the "Scandinavian Idea" of unity and 
 independence was a prominent object. This idea has regard to 
 the fusion of Sweden, Norway, wA Denmark into one single 
 people and a single state; and in order to popularize it Barfod 
 established in 1839 a quarterly review, entitled ' Brage-og-Idun,' 
 the practical achievements of which have not up to this time 
 been considerable. Barfod's principal historical works are a 
 History of Denmark and Norway under the rule of Frederik 
 III.; a Biography of the Rantzau family; and a Dissertation on 
 the state of the Jews in Denmark. 
 
 * BARGES, JEAN JOSEPH LEANDRE, an eminent French 
 Oriental scholar, was born at Auriol, Bouches-du- Rhone, on the 
 27th of February, 1810, and pursued his classical studies at 
 
 Marseille. Whilst scarcely 15 years of age, it happened that a 
 commentary on the Scriptures, in which occurred many Hebrew 
 quotations, fell into his hands — a circumstance which determined 
 htm to a study of that language. After finishing his course of 
 theology, which he completed before the canonical age for admis- 
 sion to holy orders, he devoted himself enthusiastically to the 
 study of Hebrew and Arabic. Early in the year 1834 he was ad- 
 mitted to the priesthood, and placed as curate in one of the parishes 
 of Marseille; but quitted parochial duty, after about six months' 
 experience, in order to pursue with greater liberty his Oriental 
 studies. In 1837 he became acting professor of Arabic at Mar- 
 seille; and in 1842 was summoned to Paris, to take the place of 
 the Abbe Glaixe as professor of the Oriental languages in the 
 faculty of theology. In 1850 Barges was appointed by the 
 Archbishop of Paris an honorary canon of Notre Dame, and he 
 has also received the decoration of the Legion of Honour. He 
 has twice visited Algeria ; once in 1839, and the second time in 
 1846, when he particularly investigated the history of the 
 western province and the ancient city of Tlemcen, to the 
 archaeology of which he had been for a long time devoting 
 himself. From each of these excursions he returned with rare 
 and valuable manuscripts ; and their literary results will be 
 recognised in the titles of works written or edited by M. Barges, 
 whose principal productions, apart from a considerable number 
 of memoirs and notices inserted in the ' Journal Asiatique' and 
 the 'Revue de l'Orient,'are as follow: — 'Rabbi Yapheth ben Heli, 
 Bassorensis Karaitae, in librum Psalmorum Commentarii Arabici 
 e duplice codice manuscripto Bibliothecce regiaj Parisiensis, 
 edidit Specimen et in Latinum convertit L. Barges, Professor 
 linguae Hebraeae _ et Chaldaicse,' &c, 8 vo, Paris, 1846; 'Apercu 
 Historique sur l'Eglise d'Afrique en general et en particulier sur 
 l'Eglise Episcopale de Tlemcen,' 8vo, Paris, 1848; 'Temple de 
 Baal a Marseille, ou grande Inscription phenicienne decouverte 
 dans cette ville dans le courant de l'annee 1845, expliquee et 
 accompagnee d'observations critiques et historiques,' 8vo, Paris, 
 1848; ' Memoire sur deux Inscriptions puniques decouvertes 
 dans l'lle du Port-Cothan a Carthage,' 4to, Paris, 1849; ' His- 
 toire des Beni-Zeiyan, rois de Tlemcen, par l'Imam Cidi-Abou- 
 Abd' Allah Mohammed ibn Abd'-el-Dielyl et Tenessy, ouvrage 
 traduit de l'Arabe,' 8vo, Paris, 1852; 'Memoire sur trente-neuf 
 nouvelles inscriptions puniques expliquees et commentees,' 4to, 
 Paris, 1852; ' Le Livre de Ruth, explique par deux traductions 
 franchises,' 8vo, 1854; ' Les Samaritains de Naplouse. Episode 
 d'un pelerinage dans les lieux saints,' 8vo, Paris, 1855; ' Memoire 
 sur le Sarcophage et l'lnscription funeraire d'Eschmounazar, roi 
 de Sidon,' 4to, Paris, 1856; 'Nouvelle Interpretation de l'lnscrip- 
 tion phenicienne decouverte par M. Mariette dans le Serapheum 
 de Memphis. Examen critique de l'Interpretation donnee par 
 M. le Due de Luynes,' 8vo, Paris, 1856 ; 'Inscription phenicienne 
 de Marseille: Nouvelle Interpretation,' 4to, 1858, of which only 
 a hundred copies were printed ; ' Notice sur un Autel chretien 
 antique; avec deux planches,' 4to, Paris, 1861; and 'Papyrus 
 Egypto-Arameen appartenant au Musee Egyptien du Louvre 
 explique et analyse pour la premiere fois,' 4to, Paris, 1862. 
 
 BARKHAM, or BARCHAM, JOHN, a divine and antiquary, 
 the second son of Laurence Barkham, a member of a re- 
 putable Dorset family, was born about 1572, in the parish of St. 
 Mary the More, Exeter. At the age of fifteen he was entered a 
 sojourner of Exeter College, Oxford, in Michaelmas Term, 1587 ; 
 was admitted a scholar of Corpus Christi College, in the 
 same University, on the 24th of August, 1588 ; and elected a 
 probationary-fellow on the 21st of June, 1596, at which time he 
 was M.A., and in holy orders. In 1603 he took his B.D. degree, 
 and proceeded D.D. in due course. He was appointed chaplain 
 to Archbishop Bancroft, and was continued in the same capacity 
 by Dr. George Abbot, who succeeded Bancroft in the primacy, 
 March 4th, 1611. He became rector of Finchley, Paglesham, 
 and Lackingdon ; and on the 31st of October, 1610, was pre- 
 ferred to the prebend of Brownswood, in the cathedral church 
 of St. Paul.' Finally, in 1616, he became rector and dean of 
 Booking, when he appears to have resigned his other parochial 
 preferments. He died, at Booking on the 25th March, 1642, and 
 was buried in the chancel of the church of that parish. Dr. 
 Barkham enjoys the reputation of a good linguist, critic, anti- 
 quary, and numismatologist ; an exact historian, an able and 
 sound divine, and an accomplished herald. His personal cha- 
 racter was in all respects estimable. He was a man of consider- 
 able literary distinction ; but there is nothing extant of which 
 the professed authorship belongs to him. He contributed to 
 Speed's ' Chronicle' the 'History or Life of John, King of Eng- 
 land,' which is reckoned the most judicious of all the lives in 
 
167 
 
 BARLOW, PETER. 
 
 BARLOW, THOMAS. 
 
 168 
 
 that history ; and was chiefly, if not exclusively, concerned in 
 the production, for the same work, of the 'History or Life of 
 Henry II., King of England,' which was conceived and executed 
 with the idea of modifying the tendency to an extravagant 'ex- 
 altation of Thomas a Becket. Barkham was a great lover of 
 coins, and he once possessed the finest private collection in Great 
 Britain. This collection he presented to Archhishop Laud, who 
 much desired it ; and from whose hands it found its way, as a 
 gift, to the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Barkham wrote a 'Book 
 concerning Coins,' which never attained a stage beyond that of 
 manuscript, and the whereabouts of which has been for a long 
 time unknown. The authorship of 'A Display of Heraldry,' 
 folio, London, 1610, is also claimed, it would seem without 
 challenge, for Dr. Barkham, although the work is currently 
 known as the production of John Guillim, Rouge-Croix, Pur- 
 suivant at Arms. The only difference of opinion as to the 
 authorship of the volume on Heraldry, refers to the proportion 
 in which it may be considered a joint production of Barkham 
 with Guillim, or of Barkham exclusively. Wood (' Athente 
 Oxonienses') thus states the case : — "This book, being mostly 
 composed in Barkham's younger years, he deemed it too light a 
 subject for him to own, being then (when published) a grave 
 divine, chaplain to an archbishop, and not unlikely a dean. 
 Therefore, being well acquainted with John Guillim, an officer of 
 arms, he gave him the copy, who adding some trivial things to it, 
 published it, with leave of the author, under his own name, and 
 it goeth to this day under the name of Guillim's Heraldry." The 
 ' Display of Heraldry ' has gone through many editions. To the 
 fifth, which was published in 1679, was added a ' Treatise of 
 Honour, Military and Civil, according to the Laws and Customs 
 of England,' by Captain John Logan. Another edition, enlarged 
 in several respects, was published in 1724. Guillim, it may be 
 said, was born about 1565 ; was educated at Oxford and became 
 Rouge Croix, Pursuivant at Arms. Barkham is known further, 
 as the editor of Dr. Richard Crakanthorpe's ' Defensio Eeclesia> 
 Anglicana? contra M. Antonii de Dominis, Archiepiscopi Spala- 
 tensis Injurias,' 4to, London, 1625. 
 
 BARLOW, PETER [E.G. vol i. col. 537.] Mr. Barlow died 
 at the age of 86, on the first of March, 1862. 
 
 * BARLOAV, PETER WILLIAM, civil engineer, and son of 
 Mr. Peter Barlow, mathematical professor at Woolwich, was born 
 in the year 1800. After the usual school education, he was 
 placed with Mr. Henry C. Palmer, under whom he studied 
 engineering. Mr. Barlow has been largely engaged in railway 
 construction, during a period extending over thirty years. As 
 resident engineer, with Sir William Cubitt as principal, he 
 executed the greater part of the London and Dover Railway, 
 since called the South Eastern ; principally between the years 
 1836 and 1840, including the remarkable blasting operations 
 connected with the removal of Round-down Cliff. As principal 
 engineer, he planned and executed the Tonbridge and Hastings 
 railway, and the Reading and Reigate, between the years 1841 
 and 1846. His next works were the North Kent and the Ash- 
 ford and Hastings lines, both belonging to the same company as 
 the former, between the years 1847 and 1850. Mr. Barlow de- 
 signed and executed the Lambeth Suspension Bridge, . from 
 Horseferry Road to Lambeth Church. This bridge (finished in 
 1862) was planned on a system of economy, to give it a fair 
 chance of being remunerative. It is in three spans of about 
 280 feet each, having two piers to support the cable. It was the 
 first suspension bridge constructed in England with wire cables 
 of charcoal-iron instead of chain cables, rigid lattice diagonal 
 oars in lieu of small vertical rods to suspend the platform, and 
 a platform made of wrought-iron boiler plate, strengthened longi- 
 tudinally and transversely by wrought-iron beams. Mr. Barlow 
 went to America, to study the Niagara suspension bridge, as a 
 preliminary to the formation of his plan for the Lambeth bridge. 
 His latest work is the Tower Subway, planned by himself, but 
 carried out by his son, Mr. P. W. Barlow, junior. This tunnel 
 (opened in February, 1870) is by far the most inexpensive work 
 of the kind ever executed in this country, and is worked 
 upon a plan calculated to pay a fair dividend even with a 
 small amount of traffic. The tnnnel is lined with iron, and 
 contains a narrow-gauge railway for one large carriage, which 
 is propelled by stationary power. Mr. Barlow was elected 
 Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1826, member 
 in 1845, and F.R.S. in 1845. * William Henry Barlow, also 
 eminent as a civil engineer, is another son of the late Mr. 
 Peter Barlow. He was bom in 1812, and, like his brother, 
 Mr. P. W. Barlow, had a professional training as an engi- 
 neer. He was joint engineer with Mr. Hawkshaw in the 
 
 completion of the Clifton Suspension Bridge, near Bristol 
 Many years ago a bridge was planned to span the Avon below 
 the city, with a stretch of nearly 900 feet, and a great elevation 
 above the water ; but after an expenditure of .£40,000, chiefly 
 in the construction of massive abutments and towers, the failure 
 of funds led to an abandonment of the undertaking. More 
 recently, a new company took the matter in hand ; and a sus- 
 pension bridge was finished and opened in 1865, to connect 
 the ordinary road traffic between Gloucester and Somerset. 
 Mr. Barlow's engineering works, however, have chiefly borne 
 relation to the Midland Railway, with which he has been 
 associated from 1842 to 1870. He has constructed numerous 
 branches and extensions of the Midland System, including the 
 Buxton and Manchester, and most of the lines in Derbyshire 
 and Warwickshire. But his greatest work has been the Midland 
 Extension, from Bedford to London, including at St. Pancras a 
 terminal station in some respects the finest in England. Tea 
 acres of ground were cleared, by the removal of several whole 
 streets, to form a site. Underneath the site a curved tunnel 
 railway has been constructed, to connect the main line near 
 Camden Square with the Metropolitan line at King's Cross. 
 On or about the level of the natural surface of the ground 
 has been set up a forest of iron columns, several hundred 
 in number. On the tops of these columns is the main floor 
 of the station, formed of plates of buckled wrought-iron, fixed 
 between longitudinal and transverse wrought-iron girders. 
 Above this floor rises the largest roof in the world unsup-' 
 ported by pillars : it being 700 feet long, 240 feet span, and 105 
 feet high from the level of the rails to the apex of the roof. The 
 form is peculiar, the arch being struck on radii of four centres. 
 The timber scaffolding used in constructing the roof, travelling 
 on from end to end as the work advanced, was the largest and 
 finest ever employed. Underneath the floor of the station, 
 the spaces between the iron columns afford a vast area of ware- 
 house room. Mr. Scott's architectural work, combined with the 
 structural work planned and executed by Mr. Barlow, impart 
 many remarkable characteristics to this magnificent station. Mr. 
 Barlow is a Fellow of the Royal Society ; also a member of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, and a member of its Council. 
 In another walk of life, he is Colonel of the Railway and 
 Engineers Volunteer Staff Corps. 
 
 BARLOW, THOMAS, an eminent divine and prelate of the 
 17th century, the son of Richard Barlow, a member of an 
 ancient Lancashire family, was born in 1607 at Lang-hill, in 
 the parish of Orton, in Westmoreland. He received his early 
 education at the free school of Appleby, which he left in 1624, 
 to enter of Queen's College, Oxford, where he was, says Wood, 
 " successively a poor serving child, tabarder, then M. of A., and 
 fellow an. 1633." Two years later he was appointed reader in 
 metaphysics, and the lectures he delivered in that capacity were 
 published in 1637, and a second edition in 1658, with the title, 
 ' Exercitationes aliquot Metaphysicse de Deo : quod sit ob- 
 jectum Mataphysicae, quod sit naturaliter cognoscibilis, quousque 
 et quibus mediis. Quod sit seternus, et immensus (contra 
 Vorstium) et quomodo,' etc., 4to, Oxford. Barlow contrived 
 to keep his fellowship during the parliamentary visitation of 
 the University in 1648 ; and in 1652 was elected head keeper 
 of the Bodleian Library, and, about the same time, lecturer of 
 Church-hill, near Burford, in Oxfordshire. On the 15th of 
 February, 1657, he was chosen provost of his college, in suc- 
 cession to Dr. Langbaine, who had died five days before. After 
 the Restoration of Charles II., Barlow procured himself to be 
 appointed one of the commissioners for restoring the mend >erd 
 of the University who had been ejected in 1648 ; and was not 
 only created D.D. among the royalists in August, 1660, but on 
 the 1st of September, in the same year, was elected Lady Mar- 
 garet Professor of Divinity, being the very day on which he was 
 installed in the sixth stall of the cathedral church of Worcester. 
 On the 13th of June, 1664, he was preferred to be archdeacon of 
 Oxford. His final preferment was tardily attained. When 
 nearly seventy years of age, lie was promoted to the see of 
 Lincoln, and was consecrated on the 27th of June, 1675, having 
 kissed hands for his appointment to the same on the 22nd of 
 April previous, the very day of the death of his predecessor, 
 Dr. Fuller. Wood (' Athenaa Oxonienses') avers that " all the 
 while he was a Bishop, he never was at Lincoln, or visited any 
 part of his diocese in his own person;" but he manifested sufficient 
 interest in it to subscribe to the cathedral, 50^. to the city, 
 and an additional 201. towards the expense of renewing the 
 city charter. Through all changes of government Barlow con- 
 trived to prosper, accommodating himself to all, until his death 
 
169 
 
 BARNAVE, ANTOINE PIERRE. 
 
 at his manor of Buckden, in Huntingdonshire, on the 8th of 
 October, 1691, when he was 85 years of age. He was buried in 
 the chancel of the parish church of Buckden. 
 
 Barlow's published writings are numerous. They are chiefly 
 in theology, and are especially conversant about controversy, or 
 casuistry, m which latter department he had the credit of con- 
 siderable excellence and experience. A list of his works may be 
 found in Wood's ' Athence Oxonienses,' and in the ' Biographia 
 Britannica.' 
 
 BARN AVE, ANTOINE PIERRE JOSEPH MARIE,^one of 
 the most prominent actors in the early scenes of the great French 
 Revolution, was born at Grenoble, October 22, 1761. His family 
 was Protestant; his father an advocate, and his mother a lady 
 of high connections. Like many others of the revolutionists, 
 Bamave was a lawyer. At the age of 21 he became an advocate 
 in his native town. A pamphlet against the feudal laws and 
 customs, ' L'Esprit des Edits enregistres,' brought him into 
 notoriety as a reformer; and he was elected as a deputy to the 
 Tiers Etat for the province of Dauphiny, in 1789. He at once 
 bid for the leadership of the popular party by the boldness of 
 his speeches and the wide sweep of his suggestions; and when it 
 became known that he was distasteful to the Court, his power 
 with the people increased. He supported almost every attack on 
 the monarchy; proposed many others in his own name; laid 
 down a declaration of the Rights of Man, to be used as a sort 
 of National Catechism ; denounced all the claims of the clergy 
 to Church property; declared such property to belong absolutely 
 to the nation; and moved for the suppression of the provincial 
 parliaments, for disobedience to the National Assembly. He 
 went far beyond Mirabeau, with whom he had many struggles 
 forpower. He demanded the suppression of all religious orders. 
 In colonial matters he claimed freedom for the coloured races. 
 Barnave proposed that the power of declaring peace and war 
 should rest in the National Assembly, instead of in the King; 
 Mirabeau proposed a middle course; the Assembly adopted the 
 proposition of Barnave, and he at once superseded Mirabeau in 
 the popular esteem. When raised to the Presidency of the 
 Assembly, he moved that all emigres or refugees who did not 
 return to France should forfeit their estates; and that no member 
 of the Royal family should quit the kingdom at all. Early in 
 1791 he began to see that the Revolution was proceeding more 
 wildly than he intended or wished ; and he proposed measures 
 somewhat cautious in character, thereby setting Robespierre, 
 Sieyes, and Petion against him. When, in June, the hapless 
 Royal family failed in their scheme of escape from France, 
 Barnave was one of the three commissioners sent to bring them 
 back to Paris; and he was so touched by the sorrows of the 
 queen, princesses, and dauphin, that he more than ever deplored 
 the course which events had taken. In the Assembly he pro- 
 nounced strongly for the personal inviolability of the king, and 
 against the power of the Assembly to remove the king's ministers. 
 Barnave had now all the more daring members of the Assembly 
 against him, and his popularity out of doors soon ceased. On 
 the dissolution of the National Assembly, towards the close of 
 1791, he returned to Grenoble, of which town he was made 
 maire. In the spring of 1792 Gaudet brought a charge of treason 
 against him, in reference to the affairs of St. Domingo ; this he 
 was able to refute; but in August a correspondence was dis- 
 covered which he had kept up with the Royal family. This 
 discovery led to a 15 months' imprisonment, first at Grenoble, 
 then in l'Abbaye at Paris, then in the Conciergerie. At length 
 he was tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal, found guilty, 
 condemned to death, and guillotined on the 29th of November, 
 1793, having barely completed his 32nd year. Next to Mirabeau, 
 Barnave was the greatest orator in the Assembly. His 'Intro- 
 duction a la Revolution' and 'Reflexions Politiques' exhibit 
 many of the qualities of a powerful thinker and brilliant writer, 
 but, like his speeches, are deficient in sobriety and breadth of 
 view. His literary productions were collected by M. Berenger 
 (de la Drome), in 4 vols. 8vo, 1834; and his life has been written 
 by M. Salvandy. 
 
 * BARNES, WILLIAM, a poet and philologist, was born 
 about 1810, at Rushhay, Bagbere, a hamlet of Sturminster 
 Newton, in the vale of Blackmore, in Dorsetshire; and became 
 a member of St. John's College, Cambridge, where he took his 
 degree of Bachelor in Divinity. For some years he kept a school 
 at Dorchester; and in 1847 was admitted to deacon's orders, 
 and appointed to the curacy of Whitcombe, in Dorsetshire. He 
 became a priest in 1848; and in 1862 was instituted to the rectory 
 of Wiriterbounie-Came with Winterbourne-Farringdon, in the 
 diocese of Salisbury. 
 
 Mr. Barnes has published ' An Arithmetical and Commercial 
 Dictionary,' 18mo, London and Dorchester,' 1840; 'An Investiga- 
 tion of the Laws of Case in Language, exhibited in a system of 
 natural cases, with some observations on prepositions, tense 
 and voice, &c.,' 12mo, London and Dorchester, 1840; 'The Ele- 
 ments of Linear Perspective and the Projection of Shadows,' 
 12mo, London and Dorchester, 1842; 'The Elements of English 
 Grammar, with a set of Questions and Exercises,' 18mo, London 
 and Dorchester, 1842; ' Se Gefylsta (the Helper): an Anglo- 
 Saxon Delectus, serving as a first class-book of the Language/ 
 12mo, London, 1849; 'A Philological Grammar, grounded upon 
 English, aud formed from a comparison of more than sixty 
 languages. Being an Introduction to the Science of Grammar, 
 and a help to the Grammars of all Languages, especially English, 
 Latin, and Greek,' 8vo, London, 1854 ; ' Notes on Ancient 
 Britain and the Britons,' 8vo, London and Greenwich, 1858; 
 'The Song of Solomon, in the Dorset Dialect,' 16mo, 1859; 
 'Views of Labour and Gold,' 8vo, London and Greenwich, 1859; 
 'Tiw; or a View of the Roots and Stems of the English as a 
 Teutonic Tongue,' 8vo, London, 1862; 'Early England and the 
 Saxon English, with some notes on the Father-stock of the 
 Saxon English, the Frisians,' 8vo, London, 1869. . The most 
 distinctive and characteristic of Mr. Barnes's productions, how- 
 ever, are his ' Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect, with a 
 Dissertation and Glossary,' 12mo, London, 1844 and 1848, and 8vo, 
 1862; 'Hwomely Rhymes; a Second Collection of Poems in the 
 Dorset Dialect,' 12mo, London, 1859, and8vo, 1863; 'Poems of Rural 
 Life in the Dorset Dialect ; Third Collection,' 8vo, London, 1862; 
 and ' Poems of Rural Life in Common English,' 8vo, London, 1868. 
 
 BARO, PETER (BARON, PIERRE), a distinguished 
 Protestant theologian of the 16th century, was born about 
 1534 at E tarn pes, in France, from which circumstance it is 
 probable he derived his frequent surname of Stampanus. For 
 several years he was a student of the civil law, and proceeded 
 bachelor in that faculty at Bourges on the 9th of April, 1556. 
 On the following day he was made licentiate of laws; and in 
 1557 was sworn an advocate in the court of parliament of 
 Paris. But his inclination led him to the study of theology, 
 and he repaired, in December, 1560, to Geneva, where he gave 
 himself up to theological pursuits, and was at length ordained 
 at the hands of Calvin himself. After his return to his native 
 country, Baro married, at Gien, Cuillemette, daughter of Stephen 
 Bourgain. In 1572 or 1573, in consequence of the religious 
 troubles in France, he repaired to England, where he was kindly 
 received into the family of Lord Treasurer Burghley; and after 
 a time he settled at Cambridge, becoming a member of Trinity 
 College. In 1574, upon the recommendation of Lord Burghley, 
 Chancellor of the University, and with the assistance of Dr. 
 Andrew Perne, master of Peterhouse, he was chosen Lady 
 Margaret Professor of Divinity. On the 3rd of February, 1576, 
 he was incorporated at Cambridge in the degrees of bachelor and 
 licentiate of the civil law, which he had taken at Bourges; and 
 about the same time was created D.D. at Cambridge, in which 
 degree he was incorporated at Oxford on the 11th of July following. 
 
 In 15S1, Dr. Whitaker, regius professor of divinity, who had 
 become master of St. John's College in 1580, and the majority 
 of the heads of houses, and the older members of the university, 
 who held with the greatest rigidity the doctrine of absolute pre- 
 destination and all the most characteristic tenets of Calvinism, 
 took offence at certain doctrines upheld and preached by Dr. 
 Baro. Hereupon a controversy ensued, which came to an end 
 without practical result. Some years afterwards a second 
 controversy arose between Dr. Baro and Dr. Some respecting 
 the indefectibility of faith; but this dispute was after a short 
 time composed. Dr. Baro was thus able to maintain his ground 
 till the 12th of January, 1596, when, in a sermon which he 
 preached " ad clerum," at St. Mary's, he failed to convince his 
 hearers of the simplicity and heartiness of his adherence to the 
 famous "Lambeth Articles," and a dispute was commenced, 
 which, though it had no legal result— notwithstanding the op- 
 position of Archbishop Whitgift to Baro— in depriving the pro- 
 fessor of his chair, was the occasion of calling forth so much ill- 
 will, and of causing so much discomfort and annoyance, that in 
 1596 he resigned the professorship, in which he was succeeded 
 by Thomas Playfere. Hereupon Dr. Baro repaired to London, 
 where he lived and died in a house near St. Olave's church, in 
 which he was buried in the ground under the communion table, 
 on the 17th of April, 1599. 
 
 The principal works of Dr. Baro are 'Four Sermons on 
 Psalm CXXI1I.,' &c, 8vo, London, 1560; 'In Jonam Prophetam 
 Prtelectiones XXXIX ; Theses publics in Scholis perorata3 et 
 
171 
 
 BARRAL, JEAN AUGUSTIN. 
 
 BARRY, SIR CHARLES. 
 
 172 
 
 disputatse; ConeioBea tres ad Clerum Cantabrigiensem, habitae in 
 templo B. M arise; Precationes quibus usus est Author in BUia 
 l'nelectionibus inchoandis et finiendis,' folio, London, 1579 ; 
 and 'De Fide, ej usque ortu et natura, plana ac dilucida Expli- 
 catio. Adjecta sunt alia quacdam ejusdem Authoria de eodcm 
 Argumento,' ICino, London, 1580, printed by Richard Day. 
 
 * BARRAL, JEAN AUGUSTIN, was born at Metz (Moselle) 
 in 1819, and at the age of 18 entered the Polytechnic School. 
 After two years he became attached to the scientific staff of the 
 Royal Tobacco Factory. In 1842, and again in 1845, he published 
 in the Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences the results of 
 some researches on tobacco and its active principle nicotine. 
 He became professor of physics at the College of St. Barbe in 
 1841, and also Demonstrator at the Polytechnic School. In 
 1850, in conjunction with M. Bixio, he made some balloon 
 ascents in the interests of meteorology, the results of which are 
 given in the Comptes Rendus (vol. xxxi.) He is perhaps best 
 known as the editor of Arago's works, in 16 vols. 8vo. He 
 was Belected for that honourable task by Arago himself, some 
 time before bis death. 
 
 BARRE, JEAN JACQUES, eminent French medallist, was 
 born at Paris, August 3, 1793. At the age of 17 lie entered 
 the atelier of M. Tiolier, engraver of the government medals, 
 where he made marked progress. He was, in 1842, appointed 
 chief engraver to the mint, a post he retained till his death, 
 which occurred on the 16th of June, 1855. Besides coins, 
 M. Barre engraved the dies for a large number of medals struck 
 on public and ceremonial occasions, and others having more or 
 less of an historical character, and generally their execution is 
 of a very refined and superior order. Among the more im- 
 portant are those celebrating the ' Victories and Conquests of the 
 French from 1792 to 1815 ;' ' The Coronation of Charles X. ;' 
 The Inauguration of the statues of Louis XIV. at Montpellier, 
 and of Louis XVI. at Bordeaux; 'The bringing back to 
 France of the remains of Napoleon I. ;' ' The Medaille des 
 Chemins de Fer' (1840), one of the largest yet struck ; ' The 
 Statue of the Due d'Orleans ;' and portrait medals of Leopold, 
 King of the Belgians, the Prince President, &c. He also en- 
 graved the notes of the Bank of France ; and so much improved 
 the processes of the Mint as to render it extremely difficult, if not 
 impossible, to counterfeit the coins issued from it. M. Barre is 
 the author of an elaborate and valuable paper, ' Sur les procedes 
 anciens du Monnayage en France,' read, in 1851, before the 
 ' Comite des Arts et Monuments historiques,' of which he was 
 a member. He was succeeded in his post of chief engraver to 
 the Hotel des Monnaies by his youngest son, Dissire- Albert 
 Barre (born May 6, 1818), who studied design under Paul 
 Delaroche, and medal engraving under his father, and whose 
 coins and medals are much admired. J ean Auguste Barre, 
 eldest son of Jean-Jacques (born September 25, 1811), studied 
 under Cortot, and has attained considerable reputation as a 
 sculptor. Among his more noteworthy imaginative works are 
 ' David about to sling the stone at Goliath,' and ' Ulysses 
 recognised by his Dog.' An ivory statue of Rachel (1851), was 
 greatly praised, as was also a marble bust of Alexander Duval. 
 Plis bust of Napoleon III. was chosen as the model for the coins 
 of the empire. (Nouv. Bioy. Generale; Vapereau, Diet. Univ. 
 des Contemporains.) 
 
 BARRY, SIR CHARLES, R.A. [E. C. vol. i. col. 555]. The 
 publication of ' The Life of Sir Charles Barry ' by his son, 
 Dr. Alfred Barry (8vo, 1867) enables us to add more precise 
 dates and some facts to the memoir published before his death 
 in the E. C. He was the son of a stationer in Bridge-street, 
 Westminster, where he was born on the 23rd of May, 1795, " in a 
 house which (until 1 866) lay nnder the shadow of the Clock Tower 
 of the New Palace of Westminster." His education was carried 
 on at the ordinary private schools, and was very imperfect, but 
 sedulously improved by himself in after years. On leaving 
 school, at the age of 15, he was articled to Messrs. Middleton 
 and Bailey, architects and surveyors, of Paradise Row, Lam- 
 beth ; but whose business was mainly that of surveying, and in 
 whose office he received aU the regular professional training 
 which he ever enjoyed. But though he was probably taught 
 little of the theory or artistic principles of architecture, he 
 learnt surveying; obtained a thorough knowledge of materials 
 and processes, although not a very profound or scientific view of 
 construction ; gained facility in architectural drawing, and, 
 what was of perhaps even greater advantage to him in after 
 life, he acquired gocd business habits and the practice of 
 regular steady application. That he paid much attention to 
 architectural drawing, and was learning to look at buildings with 
 
 the eye- of an artist, we know from the fact of his having, 
 during the last three years of his apprenticeship, contributed to 
 the exhibitions of the Royal Academy, his first contribution, in 
 1813, being a drawing of the ' Interior of Westminster Hall;' 
 the others were designs for a church; a ' Museum and Library,' 
 and a 'Nobleman's Mansion.' 
 
 Hia pupilage ceased in 1816. His father's death had placed a 
 small sum of money at his disposal, and he determined to 
 expend the greater part of it on a professional tour of wider 
 range than was at all customary with English architects. The 
 years 1817 — 20 were accordingly occupied in travelling through 
 France and Italy, Greece and Constantinople, Egypt to 1 
 Thebes, and homeward by Cairo, Palestine, Sicily, and Italy, j 
 everywhere making sketches, measuring architectural remains, J. 
 and working out those principles which were to guide him in I 
 his future career. Soon after his return in August, 1820, he I 
 commenced his professional life in a small house in Ely Place, ( 
 Holborn. His progress was at first slow, and for a while he I 
 felt so much in doubt as to his future prospects as to have r 
 seriously meditated emigrating. But business came in ; he i 
 found himself in a position to marry with a due regard to j 
 prudence (December, 1822), and a few years later (1827) to' j 
 remove to a better house at the West End (No. 27, Foley Place, I 
 Cavendish Square); and henceforward his life was that of a j 
 busy and prosperous man. 
 
 The memoir to which this is supplementary will supply as I 
 much further information as is required, and generally sufficient I 
 details respecting his buildings ; but it may be convenient, j 
 following Dr. Barry, to give a catalogue of his principal works, 
 arranged under churches and secular Gothic buildings, Italian 
 buildings, and alterations in existing edifices, leaving the New 
 Palace of Westminster to stand as the culminant result of his j 
 genius in a class by itself. His first works of any consequence 
 were churches; and therefore, though he never acquired fame ■ 
 as a church-builder, his churches have at least a chronological 
 claim to the first place. Prestwich and Campfield churches, '1 
 Manchester, designed in 1822 ; St. Martin's, Outwich; Ringley -J 
 chapel; and Oldham church, 1823; St. Peter's, Brighton, the j| 
 largest and, on the whole, best of his churches, 1824 — 26; three 
 churches in Islington parish, 1826: St. John's, Holloway, erected / 
 at a cost of 11,890/., Cloudesley-square, and Ball's Pond; a new ( 
 spire, and restoration of Petworth church, Sussex, 1827 ; ; 
 Brunswick chapel, Brighton, 1828 ; Manchester Unitarian 
 chapel, 1836; and Hurstpierpoint church, Sussex, a pleasing | 
 First Pointed edifice, 1843. The Birmingham Grammar-school, 
 Tudor collegiate in style, 1835; and a new wing to University 
 College, Oxford (facing the High-street), 1843, were the most 
 important secular Gothic buildings erected by him prior to the ' 
 Houses of Parliament ; and both were for the time eminently j 
 successful. 
 
 His real power and individuality as an architect, refinement ', 
 of taste, and sound judgment were, however, first fully shown I 
 in his astylar palatial Italian edifices. Of these the earliest, and i 
 of all perhaps the most elegant, was the Travellers' Club, Pall 
 Mall, completed in 1831. Alongside of this he erected in 1837 
 and following years the larger and more magnificent Reform 
 Club, the principal front of which was modelled upon that of the 
 Farnese Palace, Rome. About the same time he built a simpler, 
 but not less pleasing structure, the Athenaeum, Manchester. * 
 More ornate in character was the last of his great Italian 
 buildings in London, Bridgewater House, commenced in 1847, 
 for the Earl of Ellesmere. The Town Hall, Halifax, the last 
 Italian building designed by him, was still more enriched in 
 character ; he having in this altogether abandoned his old prin- 
 ciple of severe symmetry in plan and elevation, and aimed at 
 producing the utmost possible picturesqueness of effect by placing 
 a massive tower and florid spire at one angle of the building, 
 introducing a double order of attached columns with broken 
 entablatures, and enriching the entire surface with sculptural 
 ornamentation of a decidedly Renaissance character. The foun- 
 dations alone, however, were completed before Barry's death, 
 and some architectural changes, including tall Mansard roofs, 
 were introduced by his son, Mr. E. M. Barry, to whom its 
 completion was entrusted by the corporation. 
 
 Another class of designs, that of alterations of existing build- 
 ings, requires brief notice, as it includes some of his most 
 elaborate and finished works. One of the first of these was the Col- 
 lege of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields (1833, &c), a work of severe 
 simplicity, the leading features of the exterior (originally a 
 couple of plain brick houses) being a massive cornice and a 
 hexastyle Ionic portico. Walton House, on th,e Thames by 
 
173 
 
 BARRY, SIR CHARLES. 
 
 BARRY, SIR CHARLES. 
 
 174 
 
 Walton Bridge, 1837, was his next important work in this 
 
 ' class, and in it he altered an irregular straggling brick house 
 into a stately Italian villa, with a degree of success that 
 entirely turned the current of taste as regards the style of 
 country residences. The same year he commenced the conver- 
 sion, for the Earl of Carnarvon, on a far grander scale, of Highclere 
 House, Hampshire, from a bare semi-classic into a richly ele- 
 ct. rated Anglo-Italian mansion. In 1844 he remodelled Soane's 
 sombre edifice, the Board of Trade, Whitehall, into the now 
 familiar Treasury. Trentham Hall, Staffordshire, the spacious 
 seat of the Duke of Sutherland, occupied many years in its 
 transformation, the extensive gardens being laid out in lines of 
 omate Italian terraces, so as to lead up to and combine with 
 the altered building, one large wing of which was entirely new. 
 Buncombe Park, Helmsley, the seat of Lord Feversham; and 
 Harewood House, near Leeds, underwent a similar metamor- 
 phosis. On a smaller scale, but no less sweeping, were the 
 changes wrought in Shrubland Park, Suffolk, where Sir Charles 
 was suffered to give full play to his fancy, and where accordingly 
 he looked on his work with more entire satisfaction than almost 
 anywhere else. The rebuilding of Cliefden House, on the Thames 
 above Maidenhead Bridge, for the Duke of Sutherland, after its 
 
 I destruction by fire in 1849, was the last, as it was one of his 
 
 j most important, works in this class that need be referred to. 
 
 1 The house was rebuilt (1851— 52) on the old foundations, but the 
 new building was far more splendid than its predecessor. Other 
 works carried out whilst these were in progress, as the alterations 
 at Canford Manor, Dorsetshire; Gawthorpe Hall, Lancashire; 
 Dunrobin Castle, Scotland, &c, might be mentioned, but it will 
 have sufficed to notice the principal. 
 
 His greatest work of all, the New Palace of Westminster, the 
 most important commission that had fallen to the lot of an 
 
 I English architect since the days of Wren, he lived to see 
 
 ! virtually completed, though he was less happy than Wren, 
 
 i who lived not only to lay the last stone on his masterwork, 
 but to contemplate year after year the finished fabric in all 
 
 I its splendour. The duty of superintending the actual com- 
 pletion of the New Palace of Westminster devolved on Sir 
 Charles Barry's son, Mr. E. M. Barry, but along with it 
 the less pleasing task of making material internal alterations. 
 The building was noticed at perhaps sufficient length in 
 the E. C. ; and we see no reason to modify the commendation 
 
 I there bestowed upon it. It is the greatest architectural work of 
 our time, and as a whole worthily sustains the reputation of 
 
 | the architect and of the age. It has grave shortcomings; but 
 the gravest of all, the insufficient size and accommodation of 
 the House of Commons, and which, according to the official 
 report of the architect's son, will necessitate the construction 
 
 j of a new legislative chamber, was, it should be borne in mind, 
 
 [ forced upon the architect, who received from the authorities 
 the precise dimensions to which he was obliged to conform. At 
 the time of Sir Charles Barry's death the expenditure upon the 
 building amounted to within a few pounds of two millions 
 sterling(l,997,246£.) ; it has now of course exceeded that sum. The 
 cost has not unnaturally been considered excessive, but it must 
 be remembered that it is the largest and most richly decorated 
 structure erected in England for centuries. It may be well to 
 add the authentic statement of its dimensions and capacity, as 
 these are often given inaccurately. " The whole building 
 occupies an irregular site of about eight acres. Its longest 
 front (the river front) is 940 feet in length, each wing having a 
 frontage of 120 feet, and the terrace occupying the remaining 
 700 feet. Its greatest width (exclusive of Westminster Hall) is 
 
 . about 300 feet. It contains above 500 rooms, and includes 
 residences for 18 different officers of the two Houses, of whom 
 
 | the principal are the Speaker of the House of. Commons, the 
 Serjeant-at-Arms, the Usher of the Black Rod, and the Libra- 
 rians of the Houses of Lords and Commons. It thus provides 
 for a resident population of about 200. This large mass of 
 building receives light and air, not only from its external fronts, 
 but from eleven internal quadrangles, many of considerable 
 area." The chamber appropriated to the House of Peers is 90 
 feet in length, 45 in width, and 45 in height, and is decorated with 
 lavish magnificence. The House of Commons, far less richly 
 ornamented, is 75 feet long, 45 wide, and 41 feet high to the 
 central line of the ceiling; but, as was said, these dimensions are 
 
 1 Bo inadequate that before long it will probably have to give place 
 
 1 to one of ampler size. 
 
 The publication of Dr. Barry's Life of Sir Charles Barry gave 
 
 1 occasion to a controversy which it is necessary to refer to in this 
 connection. The son of the late Mr. A. Welby Pugin [E. C. 
 
 vol. iv. col. 1008] claimed for his father a much larger share 
 in designing the New Palace of Westminster than was 
 allowed him in the work of Dr. Barry; that though nominally 
 only Barry's assistant, he was in fact his prime adviser in 
 regard to the main design of the building, as well as of its 
 ornamentation, and as such ought to be considered as vir- 
 tually the joint architect. This claim was certainly not 
 made good. In the erection of the Houses of Parliament, 
 Mr. Pugin was from the first Barry's principal assistant, but he 
 had himself expressly stated in a letter addressed to a public 
 journal (' Builder,' Sept. 6, 1845) that " his occupation is simply 
 to assist in carrying out practically Mr. Barry's own designs and 
 views in all respects." The exuberant ornament is undoubtedly 
 due to Pugin; there can be little doubt that the details through- 
 out are, in the main, his ; and he may have suggested (or pro- 
 posed modifications in) some of the more important features. 
 But the work in its entirety is Barry's. It is stamped through- 
 out with the impress of his mind, and to him belongs the 
 honour, and on his name alone must rest the responsibility of 
 the merits and the deficiencies of the edifice. 
 
 Sir Charles died somewhat suddenly on the night of the 12th 
 of May, 1860. He was interred in Westminster Abbey witli 
 great solemnity, and in the presence of a large assembly of 
 distinguished men, including the leading members of his own 
 profession, members of the Houses of Lords and Commons, 
 divines, and representatives of art, science, and literature. A 
 plain memorial brass marks his resting-place in the nave ; but 
 a fine marble statue, by Mr. Foley, has been erected by sub- 
 scription in the Witness Hall of his great building. 
 
 Sir Charles Barry left five sons, two of whom have distin- 
 guished themselves in the profession of their father. * Charles 
 Barry, the eldest, born in 1823, was trained in his father's 
 office, and commenced his professional practice in partnership 
 with Mr. Banks. The firm of Banks and. Barry have executed 
 numerous extensive works, including large ranges of offices and 
 business premises, like the Westminster Chambers, the West- 
 minster Palace Hotel, the City Hotel, Norwich, and the impor- 
 tant buildings erected for the Piazza Statute at Turin ; Bilsdale 
 Church, Yorkshire, Holy Trinity Church, Plaistow, and some 
 other churches, as well as several costly mansions ; but the 
 merit of the designs cannot, of course, be assigned to either 
 partner alone. Of late, however, Mr. Barry has worked apart, 
 and the singularly beautiful Dulwich Collegiate School, built in 
 1869, the most ornate structure of the kind yet erected — and 
 especially remarkable for the successful employment of terra- 
 cotta decoration — is wholly by him; as are also the designs for 
 some unusually graceful railway bridges, on the Dulwich 
 College estate, and the pretty Church of St. Stephen, in the 
 vicinity of the College. A younger brother, * Edward Middle- 
 ton Barry, R.A., born in 1830, was also brought up in his 
 father's office, but was for a while pupil to Mr. T. H. Wyatt. 
 For some time he acted as his father's chief assistant, but 
 afterwards commenced practice on his own account, and has 
 secured a place in the foremost rank of the profession. Among 
 the more important buildings erected by him may be mentioned 
 —St. Saviour's Church, Haverstock Hill, London, 1856 ; the 
 Midland Institute, Birmingham, 1857 ; the Royal Italian Opera 
 House and Floral Hall, Covent Garden, 1858-9 ; the Leeds 
 Grammar School, 1859 ; the National Schools, St. Giles's, a very 
 superior building of its class, 1861 ; Charing Cross Hotel (with 
 the restoration of the old Cross of Charing, in front of it), and 
 the Cannon Street Terminus Hotel, at the City and West- 
 end stations of the South-Eastern Railway ; and Crewe Hall, 
 Cheshire, rebuilt in 1868. Mr. E. M. Barry succeeded his father 
 as architect of the New Palace of Westminster, and, as already 
 mentioned, has carried that building to its present state of com- 
 pleteness; is now engaged in various alterations within it, and 
 lias made designs for more; and has restored in a superb style 
 the ancient Chapel of St. Stephen. In the competition for a 
 new National Gallery, 1868, the first premium was awarded to 
 the designs of Mr. Barry, and he was appointed architect of the 
 new building, but its erection remains for the present in 
 abeyance. Mr. E. M. Barry was elected associate of the Royal 
 Academy in 1861, and full Academician in June, 1869. An- 
 other son, *the Rev. Alfred Barry, D.D., born in 1826, has 
 distinguished himself in an entirely different line. Educated at 
 King's College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he 
 graduated first class in mathematics and classics in 1848 ; was 
 elected fellow of his College, and was ordained in 1850. About 
 1854 he was elected Head Master of the Leeds Grammar School, 
 which he greatly raised in reputation. In 1862 he was ap- 
 
175 
 
 EARTH, HEINRICH. 
 
 EAR YE, ANTOINE LOUIS. 
 
 176 
 
 pointed Principal of Cheltenham College, which, under his 
 management, became one of the most prosperous institutions of 
 its class. On the resignation of Dr. Jelf, in 1808, Dr. Barry 
 was appointed to succeed him as Principal of King's College, 
 London. Besides the Life of his father, spoken of above, Dr. 
 Barry has published an ' Introduction to the Old Testament,' 
 and some other theological works. 
 
 BARTH, HEINEICH, a celebrated geographical explorer, was 
 born at Hamburgh, on the 16th of February, 1821. He early 
 imbibed a strong desire to investigate the geography of 
 Africa — a desire which was stimulated by his perusal 01 the 
 works of Mungo Park, Lander, and other African travel Ins. 
 Soon after he had taken the degree of Doctor in the Berlin 
 University, he started off to examine the African shores 
 of the Mediterranean, which occupied him for about two years, 
 or from 1845 to 1847. In 1850 he commenced his more exten- 
 sive explorations in North Africa, in conjunction with Messrs. 
 Richardson and Overweg, of which details will be found under 
 Africa, Geog. Div. E. C. vol. i. cols. 115-117; and Africa, 
 Geog. Div. E. C. S. cols. 14-18. Dr. Earth's own account is em- 
 bodied in his ' Travels in North and Central Africa,' published 
 in 5 volumes, in 1857. For this work he was awarded the 
 Patron's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. 
 After his return from Africa, Dr. Earth became one of the most 
 active members and president of the Geographical Society of 
 Berlin, for which body he drew up accounts of everything that 
 was being done by travellers in Africa. In 1803 he was ap- 
 pointed professor of geography in the University of Berlin. He 
 died in that city on the 25th of November, 1805. Besides the 
 work above named, he published a vocabulary of the tribes of 
 Central Africa, ' Sammlung und Verarbeitung Centralafi ik. Vo- 
 calnilarien,' Gotha, 1802-04; and ' Reise durch das Innere der 
 europ. Turkei,' Berlin, 1804. 
 
 BARTHOLIN, GASPARD, a celebrated Danish writer, born 
 12th February, 1585, at Malmo, in Scandinavia. He was pre- 
 cocious as a child, could read in his third year, and at thirteen 
 composed Greek and Latin orations, which, after the fashion of 
 the time, he pronounced in public. All this, which would have 
 ruined a weaker head, stimulated Gaspar to fresh exertions. He 
 became a student in the University of Copenhagen, and removed 
 in 10O3 to Rostock, and afterwards to Wirtemberg, where during 
 three years, he devoted himself to the study of philosophy and 
 divinity. He took his Master's degree in 1007, after which he 
 commenced his travels in Germany, France, England and Italy, 
 and became acquainted with most of the learned men of those 
 countries. Some idea of the estimation in which he was held 
 may be gathered from the fact that the Chair of Anatomy was 
 offered to him at Naples, and that of Greek at Sedan in France, 
 both of which he refused. He studied anatomy some time at 
 Padua, and received his Doctor's degree at Basel, in 1610. On 
 returning to Copenhagen he became Professor of Latin in the 
 University, but after six months, preferred the Chair of Medi- 
 cine, which he occupied during eleven years. During an illness 
 which promised to terminate fatally, he made a vow that if 
 health were granted to him, he would thenceforth study and 
 teach divinity only. He recovered and kept his promise, and 
 was appointed Professor of Divinity, March 12, 1624. The King 
 conferred on him the Canonry of Roskild. He died of cholic on 
 the 13th July, 1620, leaving six sons, five of whom became dis- 
 tinguished. He published 49 works in Latin, on Medicine, 
 Physiology, Physics, Rhetoric, and Theology. His 'Anatomicte 
 Institutiones,' published in 1011, has often been reprinted, and a 
 translation in French was published at Paris in 1647. 
 
 BARTOLINI, LORENZO, a distinguished modern Italian 
 sculptor, was born at Florence, about 1778. Having learned the 
 rudiments of design under Desmarets, a French painter estab- 
 lished in Florence, he went to Paris and entered the studio of 
 the sculptor Lemot. Here he made rapid progress, and his 
 career was watched with much interest. He carried off the 
 prize for sculpture at the Academy in 1803, by a bas-relief of 
 Cleobis and Biton, which, when exhibited, attracted much atten- 
 tion, and was declared to possess the antique Greek feeling 
 beyond any of the works by which it was surrounded. Bartolini 
 now found ample patronage. He executed numerous busts, 
 among others those of Mehul and Cherubini, which were greatly 
 admired ; and he received commissions for a colossal bust and a 
 statue of the Emperor Napoleon I. The bust is now placed 
 over the doorway of the Museum of the Louvre ; but the 
 statue, unfinished at the fall of the Empire, was left on the 
 sculptor's hands, and ultimately went to America. The events 
 of 1815 decided Bartolini to return to his native place. He 
 
 established his studio in Florence, and there pursued a steady 
 career of prosperity, the acknowledged head of his profession, 
 the friend of many of the more eminent among his contem- 
 poraries, and his studio the favourite resort of the most distin- 
 guished tourists. With our countrymen he was an especial 
 favourite, and produced for them endless busts, statues, and 
 monuments, and, it must be confessed, not a few copies of 
 antique and modem works. He died at Florence on the 20th 
 of January, 1850. The Pitti Palace, Florence, possesses a Venus, 
 a line group entitled ' Charity,' and some other of his favourite 
 works. The monument of Lady Stratford Canning in the 
 Cathedral of Lausanne is one of the finest of his productions 
 in that line. His busts are very numerous, generally very good, 
 and, those at least of his eminent compatriots, will probably do 
 more for the permanence of his reputation than his more am- 
 bitious gods and goddesses and other semi-classical nudities. 
 
 BARTOLO, or BARTOLI, TADDEO DI, an eminent early 
 Italian painter, was born, about 1363, at Siena, where his lather, 
 Bartolo di Fredi, was a painter of reputation. In one of his 
 earliest works, a ' Crucifixion,' painted in 1388, in the Church of 
 S. Agostino, Taddeo was held to have far excelled his father, 
 and he was soon recognized as one of the ablest painters of the 
 time. His pictures, both mural and easel, are distinguished by 
 purity, refinement, and the expression of that deep religious 
 feeling, approaching asceticism, which is indeed characteristic of 
 the ecclesiastical art of the period, but in Bartolo attains more 
 of exaltation without losing simplicity, than is usual with his 
 contemporaries. Rio, and some other writers on Christian Art, 
 dwell . pecially on the grace and sweetness he imparts to the 
 face and form of the Madonna, and Rio points in illustration to 
 the series of scenes from the ' Life of the Virgin,' which Taddeo 
 painted in 1407, on the walls of the chapel of the Palace of the 
 Siegnory at Siena, and to an ' Annunciation ' in the Academy of 
 the same city. An adjoining hall painted by him, in 1414, with 
 mythological subjects, is pronounced to be very inferior. But 
 whilst he painted in strict conformity with the tradition of the 
 church, Bartolo was able to give play to individual feeling in 
 composition and colour, and his works, with much archaic 
 rigidity, exhibit the dawn of a freer style. Perugino has imi- 
 tated Bartolo in the expression and disposition of his figures. 
 Besides the pictures executed in Siena and its vicinity, Bartolo 
 painted a 'Coronation of the Virgin' in the Chapel of the 
 Campo Santo, at Pisa ; others in the sacristy of S. Antonio, and 
 in the Church of San Francesco at Volterra ; at Padua, and 
 elsewhere. The Academy at Perugia still possesses two or three 
 easel pictures by him ; the Louvre has a triptich with the Holy 
 Family and two pictures of Saints attributed to Bartolo ; but 
 our National Gallery does not possess a specimen of his pencil. 
 Taddeo di Bartolo died at Siena in 1422. His nephew and 
 pupil, Domenico di Bartolo (flourished 1436-45) also attained 
 a high reputation as a painter, but his works are coarser in 
 execution and less refined in thought than those of the uncle. 
 His most celebrated productions are the six frescoes in the great 
 hall of the Hospital della Scala at Siena, illustrating the ' Acts 
 of Mercy.' A large ' Assumption ' in the Museum at Berlin is 
 attributed to him by Waagen, who praises " a certain antique 
 grandeur of arrangement in the colossal, solemn form of the 
 virgin," but adds that " the frequently ordinary and un-ideal cha- 
 racter of the heads, and the heavy, fantastic arrangement of the 
 drapery of the numerous angels, are unmistakable evidences of 
 the 15th century." It is, however, by no means certain, that 
 this picture is rightly ascribed to Domenico Bartolo. 
 
 BARTOLOCCI (BARTOLOCCIUS) GIULIO, a learned 
 Italian priest, was born at Celano, in Naples, in 1613. He was 
 a member of the order of St. Eernard, at Citeaux ; was ap- 
 pointed professor of Hebrew and Rabbinical learning at the 
 College of the Sapienza at Rome, and died in that city on the 
 1st of November, 16S7. Bartolocci compiled a vast compendium 
 of Rabbinical lore in 4 folio volumes, Rome, 1675-93, to which 
 his pupil, Fra Imbonato, who edited the fourth volume, added 
 a fifth of his own, in 1694. It was entitled, 'D. Julii Barto- 
 loccii de Celano, Congregat. Sancti Bernardi Ref. Ord. Cister- 
 ciensis, Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica, de scriptoribus et scriptis 
 Hebraicis, ordine alphabetico Hebraice et Latine digestis,' and is 
 still highly esteemed as a storehouse of Rabbinical learning ; 
 but Bartolocci's judgment is inferior to his erudition, and he has 
 little critical skill. Imbonato's supplementary volume is inferior 
 to the others. 
 
 * BARYE, ANTOIN E LOUIS, a celebrated French sculptor, 
 was born at Paris on the 24th of September, 1795. At the age 
 of 13 he was apprenticed to an engraver of matrices for military 
 
177 BASEDOW, JOHANN BERN HARD. 
 
 ornaments, and the like. Here he worked till called away by 
 the conscription in 1812, when he served a couple of years in 
 the army, still, however, modelling in his spare hours. When 
 free to follow his own inclinations, he entered the atelier of 
 Bosio, and afterwards that of Gros. He tried for the grand prize 
 of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts by a relief of ' Milo of Crotona 
 devoured by a Lion,' but obtained only honourable mention ; 
 nor, though he gained two or three second prizes, did he ever 
 succeed in carrying off the first. He was now employed for 
 some time in modelling and chasing for Fauconnier, a leading 
 goldsmith of the day ; an occupation there can be little doubt 
 that prepared the way for the remarkable success he has 
 attained in what is by most regarded as his specialty — the 
 modelling, casting, and chasing bronze statuettes of animals. 
 However, his first appearance at the Salon was with busts ; and 
 in 1831 he received the medal for a life-sized figure of St. 
 Sebastian. But the work that first arrested the public attention 
 was a ' Tiger devouring a Crocodile,' so original in form, so full 
 of energy, and at the same time so true in drawing and so well 
 wrought, as to satisfy alike the connoisseurs and the multitude. 
 It was long, however, before he could satisfy the authorities. 
 His productions could hardly be classed under any recognized 
 style. His works were ill-placed at the Salon, and one year 
 were excluded. From 1836 to 1850 he accordingly refused to 
 send anything, and, shut out from the national exhibition, he 
 was obliged to seek for private purchasers. It was during this 
 time that he produced the immense quantity of small bronzes 
 of animals in action, fighting, in repose ; groups of men and 
 animals, equestrian figures, and the like, which have carried his 
 name all over Europe, they having found purchasers not in 
 Paris only, but even more readily in the other great European 
 capitals. And it is on these bronzes, and not on his larger and 
 more ambitious works, that his chance of remembrance depends. 
 In these, alike in design, execution, material, M. Barye is 
 without a rival. In his larger works he is one of many, and 
 not the first. Even his lions, admirably as he models the lion, 
 whether enraged or reposing, in his small bronzes, seem inferior 
 creatures when in the gardens of the Louvre or in those of the 
 Luxembourg. From 1848 to 1851 M. Barye was engaged at the 
 Louvre ; he then gave a course on design in natural history, at 
 Versailles, and since 1854 he has given similar courses at the 
 Museum. For the new pavilions of the Louvre he has executed 
 large groups symbolizing Peace, War, Power protecting Labour, 
 Order curbing Disorder, and very characteristically behind each 
 group he has traced various symbolic animals. M. Barye has 
 also, like every French sculptor, executed a large number of 
 classical subjects, graces, gods, and goddesses, which are not 
 likely to be immortal ; and various religious designs, which will 
 probably not excite many to devotion. He has likewise been 
 officially commanded to immortalize Napoleon III. in a bas- 
 relief, but is not considered to have succeeded. If in anything 
 he equals his small stags, leopards, and lions, it is in his centaurs 
 and minotaurs : the group of the Centaur and Lapitha? being 
 indeed generally considered his masterpiece. 
 
 BASEDOW, JOHANN BERNHARD, more properly 
 JOHANN BEREND BASSEDAU, known also by his fre- 
 quently used pseudonym of BERNHARD VON NORDAL- 
 BINGEN, was bom on the 11th of September, 1723, at 
 Hamburg, where his father followed the calling of a hairdresser. 
 He became a student at the Johanneum of his native city, 
 where he had for his teacher Samuel Reimarus, a distinguished 
 advocate of the religion of nature, and the supposed author of 
 the ' Wolfenhiittel Fragments,' by whom he was much esteemed. 
 Thence he removed to the University of Leipzig, where he 
 studied philosophy and theology. He read all the polemical 
 works of his time ; and the result of his reading and thinking 
 was a system of opinion which no party in the Christian church 
 would consider orthodox. At the close of his university career 
 he accepted a tutorship in a Holstein family, and it was there 
 that his natural, undeniable talent for instructing first displayed 
 itself in the great success with which he made his teaching com- 
 prehensible, and converted the process of learning almost into 
 an amusement. He linked his instruction to nearly everything 
 around him, in the school-room, in the house, in the garden, in 
 the field and in the workshop. His talents soon attracted much 
 notice, and his theory was received with such favour that in 
 1753 he entered upon a wider sphere as professor of Moral 
 Philosophy and Belles Lettres in the Ritterakademie of Soroe, 
 in Denmark. As a public teacher, and as a writer on education, 
 he soon won applause. Laying great stress on a sound under- 
 standing, and considering the attainment of a practical philo- 
 n'oo. div. — sur. 
 
 BASEDOW, JOHANN BERNHARD. 178 
 
 sophy of life one of the most valuable objects of human acquisi- 
 tion, he became a passionate antagonist of the old theology. 
 This hostility, combined with a certain impracticability and 
 haughtiness of disposition, procured, in 17G1, his transfer in the 
 same capacity to the Gymnasium of Altona, where he led an 
 active life for some time as a partizan of the new school of 
 critical theology. Here the adjudged heresy of the works which 
 he published on Religion and Reason again made him popularly 
 obnoxious, so that lie was forbidden to lecture, was excommuni- 
 cated, and brought into danger of being stoned. His next step 
 was to enter with all his powers upon the work of reforming the 
 existing system of education, not only in Germany, but through- 
 out the whole of Europe. Up to this time the school had stood 
 under the sceptre of the church. The religious education of 
 youth had been narrowed down to the mere committal of the 
 catechism to memory, and the crowding of the mind with 
 biblical and theological details. There was no real science of 
 education ; and what hitherto had been left to nature, to habit, 
 and to traditional prejudices, had to be corrected and raised to 
 the place of an art. Its good elements had to be reduced to 
 law ; its bad elements had to be cast away. Man must be re- 
 garded as a whole, as truly man ; his education must be a 
 gradual development and cultivation of body, mind, and soul. 
 The old doctrine, based on the old theology, insisted on educa- 
 tion as a process from without, inward ; the new ideas regarded 
 human nature as a germinating seed, in which a good and noble 
 impulse dwells, and requires only fostering care, whilst the 
 educational process goes on from within, outward. Religion was 
 not only to be carried into the soul of the child, but was also to 
 be evolved from the soul, and only so much was to be carried in 
 as was adapted to its immature grasp, and to the necessity of 
 adequate inward stimulus. The old educational system had 
 borrowed much from the Church ; to promote the interests of 
 the Church was its great end. A large proportion of all the 
 studies of the Gymnasium and the University looked towards 
 theology and the clerical profession ; and hence the value 
 attached to the ancient languages. The modernized scheme of 
 education aimed at equipping men for the world and for prac- 
 tical life. The utility of the ancient languages and of ancient 
 history was, therefore, questioned ; and so education was trans- 
 ferred from a narrow ecclesiastical field to broad cosmopolitan 
 ground— from a positive Christian basis, to a so-called philan- 
 thropic one. Rousseau gave a great impulse to this movement by 
 the publication of his 1 Emile ; ' stimulated by which, Basedow, 
 who was the author's interpreter and advocate in Germany, 
 published several preliminary works, and at length issued a 
 prospectus for his great work on Elementary Instruction, which 
 was subsidized by the pirinees and people of Germany to the 
 extent of 15,000 thalers, ' Elemental-- Werk,' 3 vols. 4to, Altona, 
 1774. This production, which had been magnificently an- 
 nounced, was yet fortunate enough to satisfy the public expec- 
 tation ; and it has been many times reprinted. It was a kind of 
 Orbus Pictus, made up of a hundred engravings by Chodowiecki, 
 and accompanied by an explanatory text, in German, French, 
 and Latin. Its object was to offer to youth, by way of amuse- 
 ment, the knowledge of a mass of things belonging to the 
 real world of life and objects, in the interests of cosmopolitanism 
 as opposed to nationality. The feature which gave this work its 
 special success was its calculated and carefully maintained in- 
 difference witli regard to dogmatic religion. In its view, 
 Catholics and Protestants, J ews and Christians, must be treated 
 alike ; the mental powers must be awakened, the habit of obser- 
 vation sharpened, and a general system of morality taught 
 which should not interfere formally with any system of positive 
 religious faith. The book met with very wide acceptance ; and 
 its author, through the favour of Prince Leopold Friedrich 
 Franz, of Anhalt-Dessau, had an opportunity of establishing at 
 Dessau a normal school, in which to test the practical value of 
 his ideas. Here, accordingly, he opened, in 1774, a school, to 
 which he gave the name of Philanthropin, or Philanthropic In- 
 stitute ; in which it was his prime object to exclude all positive 
 religious instruction, and to build chiefly upon the conception of 
 the dignity of the human soul. Basedow was not long without 
 eager followers ; similar institutions sprang up elsewhere, and the 
 principles enunciated by him were grafted upon the domestic 
 training of children. Notwithstanding this success, Basedow, 
 whose impracticable and fitful temper unfitted him for friendly 
 contact with the eminent men whom he had been able to asso- 
 ciate with himself in the conduct of his enterprise, was forced to 
 retire from the curatorship of the Dessau Philanthropin in 1778. 
 Yet his zeal for his doctrine did not abate ; and he continued to 
 
 N 
 
179 
 
 BASILI, FRANCESCO. 
 
 BATEMAN, JOHN FREDERICK. 
 
 180 
 
 ilevelopein various works bis views on theology and on education. 
 He went the round of the principal cities of Germany, for the 
 purpose of propagating his system ; and finally invented anew 
 method of learning to read, which he published at Hamburg in 
 1785, and opened a school at Magdeburg, where he put it into 
 practice. Basedow died al Magdeburg on the 25th of July, 
 1790 ; and his friends and disciples erected a monument to him 
 in the Church of the Holy Spirit. Over and above the works 
 which have been mentioned, Basedow published a considerable 
 number, a list of which may be found in Heinsius' 'Allgemeines 
 Bueher-Lexikon,' Leipzig, 1812 ; or in Kayser's 1 Vollstandiges 
 Bucher-Lexikon,' Leipzig, 1834. The moral influence of Base- 
 dow has been very considerable, aiid the primary education of 
 Germany received at his hands a valuable impulse ; but his 
 personal career was on the whole unhappy, on account of that 
 turbulence and haughtiness of spirit to which he was indebted 
 for missing the respect otherwise due to his talents and his labours. 
 
 BASILI or EASILY, FRANCESCO, a prolific composer, 
 chiefly of church music, was born in February, 1700, at Loretto, 
 where his father, Andrea Basili, was maestro di capella. While 
 still young, Francesco filled a musical post at Foligno ; and 
 soon afterwards began to compose music for the theatre as well 
 as for the church. About 1801) he became maestro di capella at 
 Macerata, and many years afterwards at Loretto. In 1827 he 
 Avas appointed Censor of the Imperial Conservatory of Music at 
 Milan ; and in 1837 director of the music at the Papal chapel of 
 the Vatican. This last-named post he held till his death, which 
 took place on the 25th of March, 1850. Among the numerous 
 published compositions of Basili are cantatas, operas, musical 
 dramas, pianoforte fugues and sonatas, sinfonias, and solfeggios; 
 also a dramatic oratorio (' II Sansone,' 1824), a Requiem Mass, an 
 Ave Maria, Kyries, Motetts, Psalms with orchestral accompani- 
 ments, Offertories, Misereres, Magnificats, &c. Basili left an 
 immense quantity of unpublished music, mostly of an ecclesias- 
 tical character, for monasteries and convents, as well as for 
 churches and cathedrals. 
 
 BASIRE, JAMES, an English engraver of some reputation, 
 was born in London on the Cth of October, 1730. Very little 
 is known of his life. He excelled in portraits, but his most 
 interesting plate is one engraved for the Society of Antiquaries, 
 1774, 'The Field of the Cloth of Gold, or the Interview between 
 Henry VIII. and Francis I.' after the picture now at Hampton 
 Court : this print, 47 inches long by 24 inches high, was the 
 largest that had then been engraved on a single plate. Basire, 
 the elder, also engraved Lord Camden, after Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds ; ' Lady Stanhope in the character of the Fair Penitent,' 
 after Wilson, 1772 ; Captain Cook, after Hodges, 1777, and 
 Pylades and Orestes, after Benjamin West. He died September 
 6, 1802. His son, James Basire, bom in 1769, learned en- 
 graving of his father, and was a good draftsman as well as a 
 skilful engraver. For many years he executed the plates and 
 made a large number of the drawings for the ' Arehrcologia,' 
 ' Vetusta Monumenta,' and other publications of the Society of 
 Antiquaries ; and many for the Roval Society. He died May 
 13, 1822. 
 
 BASTWICK, JOHN, celebrated on account of his connexion 
 with the political and ecclesisatical history of the seventeenth 
 century, was born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593. He was entered 
 a member of Emanuel College, Cambridge, on the 19th of May, 
 1614 ; but leaving the university without a degree, he went 
 abroad for nine years, where he spent his time " between the 
 schools and the camp ;" and took the degree of M.D. at Padua, 
 then celebrated as one of the best medical schools in Europe. 
 The ardour of his Protestantism dictated the publication in 
 Holland of a Confutation of Popery, entitled, ' Elenchus Re- 
 ligionis Papistica?, in quo prohatur neque Apostolicam neque 
 Catholicam, imo neque Romanam esse/ 24mo, Lcyden, 1624 ; 
 8vo, London, 1637 ; and 8vo, Amsterdam, 1638. He afterwards 
 published in England his Scourge for the Pope and Latin 
 Bishops, ' Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latialium,' 
 12mo, London, 1635 ; 8vo, London, 1641, in which he main- 
 tained the parity or equality between bishops and presbyters. 
 The English prelates thought their dignity assailed ; and Bast- 
 wick was summoned before the High Commission Court, whose 
 sentence was that the writer should be fined 1000/., should be 
 excommunicated, and prohibited from the practice of his pro- 
 fession of medicine, that he should pay the costs of the suit, 
 that his books should be burned, and that he should be im- 
 prisoned until such time as he should make a recantation. He 
 was accordingly committed to the Gate House, where he lay for 
 two years, during which time he produced his Apology, ' Apolo- 
 
 geticus ad Procsules Anglicanos Criminum Ecclesiasticorum in 
 Curia Celscc Commissionis,' 8vo, London, 1636; and ' The New 
 Litany,' 4to, London, 1637, by which he still more exasperated 
 the prelates of the time. An information was in consequence 
 exhibited against him, together with Henry Burton, B.D., and 
 William Prynne, Barrister-at-Law, in the Star Chamber, " for 
 writing and publishing seditious, schismatical, and libellous 
 books, against the Hierarchy of the Church;" the issue of which 
 was that the accused were censured as scandalous, seditious, and 
 infamous persons, sentenced to a fine of 5000/. each, to stand in 
 the pillory in New Palace Yard, and there to lose their ears, 
 and to undergo perpetual imprisonment in three several remote 
 places of the kingdom. Dr. Bastwick was accordingly sent first 
 to Launceston Castle, and afterwards to the castle in St. Mary's, 
 one of the Scilly Islands, where he remained till 1640, when an 
 order for the release of the whole three was made by the House 
 of Commons, and they were brought back to London amidst the 
 acclamations of the populace. The House also voted the pro- 
 ceedings against them unjust, and contrary to the law and the 
 liberty of the subject ; reversed their sentence ; remitted their 
 fine ; and ordered 5000/. to be paid to each out of the estates of 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury, the High Commissioners, and those 
 Lords who had voted against them in the Star Chamber. But 
 the confusion of the times prevented the payment of the money. 
 In 1644, Bastwick's wife, liowever, had an allowance ordered 
 for her own and her husband's maintenance ; and on the 24th 
 of October, 164m, there was a debate in the House of Commons, 
 about the ordinances for him to have reparation for the illegal 
 sentence against him in the Star Chamber. The subsequent 
 history of Dr. Bastwick is unknown ; although it has been 
 thought very probable that he died in the parish of St. Botolph, 
 Colchester, where he had settled for the practice of medicine, 
 upon his first return from the continent. 
 
 The literary activity of Bastwick's later years was directed 
 against a foe the exact opposite to Episcopacy ; and he pub- 
 lished, inter alia, 1 Independency not God's ordinance ; or a 
 Treatise concerning Church Government, occasioned by the Dis- 
 tractions of these times, wherein is evidently proved, that the 
 Presbyterian Government dependent is God's ordinance, and 
 not the Presbyterian Government independent,' 4to, London, 
 May 21, 1645 ; which in less than three weeks was followed by 
 ' The Second Part of the Book called Independency not God's 
 ordinance ; or the Postscript, discovering the uncharitable 
 dealing of the Independents towards their Christian brethren,' 
 4to, London, June 10, 1645 ; ' Defence of himself against 
 Lilburn,' 4to, London, 1645 ; ' The Utter Routing of the whole 
 Army of all the Independents and Sectaries, with the total 
 overthrow of their Monarchy,' 4to, 1646 ; and ' The Church of 
 England the True Church,' 4to, London, August 23, 1645. 
 
 * BATEMAN, JOHN FREDERICK, civil engineer, was 
 born in 1810, at Wyke in Yorkshire. His father belonged to an 
 old Yorkshire family ; and his mother was descended from the 
 La Trobes, who Avere expelled from France by the revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantes. After receiving a professional training 
 under Mr. Dunn, at Oldham, Mr. Bateman established himself 
 as a civil engineer in 1833, taking up especially the branch of 
 hydraulic engineering. Many of his plans and works have 
 had relation to canal and river navigation. He became engineer 
 of various inland canals, and consulting engineer to the Mersey 
 and Irwell and the Forth and Clyde Canal Companies, and also 
 to the trustees of the Clyde Navigation. Since 1863 he has 
 constructed extensive navigation canals in Spain, and has re- 
 claimed and drained large tracts of marsh land near the mouth 
 of the Ebro and in the island of Majorca. 
 
 But it is in the supply' of water to cities and towns that Mr. 
 Bateman's engineering works have chielly consisted. In 1835 
 he designed the Bann reservoirs, in County Down, Ireland, 
 which he subsecpiently constructed. In 1836 and following years 
 he laid out the reservoirs at Saddleworth, Glossop, and Kendal. 
 Since 1840 he has constructed water-works at St. Helen's, 
 Macclesfield, Bolton, Manchester, Glasgow, Chester, Gloucester, 
 Halifax, Blackburn, Stockport, Wolverhampton, Neweastle-on- 
 Tyne, Birkenhead, &c. Taken collectively, the water-works 
 which he has either wholly constructed, or remodelled and ex- 
 tended, supply water to upwards of 2,000,000 persons. These 
 works are the result in part of much research into the fall of 
 rain and the flow of water in different districts. Two of the 
 above-named undertakings are the largest of the kind in the 
 kingdom, viz., the water-works of Manchester and of Glasgow. 
 In the Manchester works the reservoirs are of vast size ; and the 
 details are so managed that in each affluent, or feeding stream, 
 
1€1 
 
 BATHE, WILLIAM. 
 
 182 
 
 the pure water is separated from the turbid : the former being 
 utilized, and the latter allowed to flow into the rivers. The 
 works were commenced in 1848, and have been continued till 
 1870: enlargements having been necessary from time to time 
 to meet the growing wants of a city and neighbourhood now 
 containing 600,000 inhabitants. The works, with the buying- 
 out of a water company, have cost no less a sum than .£'1,780,000. 
 The Glasgow water-works are of a still more remarkable char- 
 acter, seeing that the water is brought to the city along a 
 distance of 35 miles from a series of mountain lakes. These 
 are Loch Katrine, Loch Venechar, and Loch Drunkifi, which 
 together have a water surface of 4,000 acres, and contain, within 
 the limits to which the surface may be raised or lowered, more 
 than 1,500,000,000 cubic feet of water. Masonry and sluice- 
 gates accommodate the outflow to the varying level in summer 
 and winter. The aqueduct from Loch Katrine to Glasgow con- 
 sists principally of tunnels eight feet in diameter, and cast iron 
 pipes 4 feet in diameter. One of the tunnels is 1|- miles long, 
 and has shafts 500 feet deep. The aqueduct and the reservoirs 
 are adequate to the supply of 50,000,000 gallons of water per day. 
 The works themselves cost ,£700,000 ; but a further sum of nearly 
 £1,000,000 has been expended by the Corporation of Glasgow 
 in the buying up of two water companies and other expenses. 
 This extensive system of water-supply was commenced in 1855, 
 and was opened by Queen Victoria in October, 1859. A public 
 banquet was soon afterwards given to Mr. Bateman, by the Lord 
 Provost and Corporation of Glasgow, in celebration of the 
 completion of a work so important to a large and constantly 
 increasing city. 
 
 In 1854 Mr. Bateman was appointed one of the Royal Com- 
 missioners for enquiring into the outbreak of cholera at New- 
 castle, Gateshead, and Tynemouth. In 1865 he projected a 
 scheme for supplying the Metropolis with water from the 
 sources of the river Severn, in North Wales ; the scheme was 
 one of those which were investigated by a Royal Commission in 
 1867 and 1868, and discussed at length in a report published 
 among the parliamentary papers in 1869. In 1869, in con- 
 junction with his assistant, Mr. Revy, he devised a scheme for 
 a Channel Railway between England and France, by means of 
 -t-iron tube to be laid on the sea-bottom, large enough to 
 , admit trains worked by atmospheric pressure. In the same 
 year, on the invitation of the Viceroy of Egypt, and on the 
 representation of the Royal Society, he was present at the 
 opening of the Suez Canal, on the subject of which he read a paper 
 before the Royal Society in 1870. Scientific and engineering 
 papers by him have also been read before the Institution of 
 Civil Engineers, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the 
 British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Social 
 Science Association, and the Literary and Philosophical Society 
 of Manchester. Mr. Bateman (who, in 1841, married a daughter 
 I of Mr., afterwards Sir William Fairbairn, the eminent engineer 
 . of Manchester) is a Fellow of the Royal, the Geological, and 
 the Royal Geographical Societies ; and Justice of the Peace and 
 Deputy Lieutenant for Surrey, for which county he was High 
 Sheriff in 1866. 
 
 BATHE, WILLIAM, an Irish divine, who was also a musical 
 writer, was bom at Dublin, about 1564. He changed his religion 
 from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism, and about 1596 went 
 to Flanders, where he became a Jesuit. He next journeyed to 
 
 , Italy and to Spain ; in which last-named country he was ap- 
 pointed director of the Irish Seminary at Salamanca. He died 
 at Madrid on the 17th of June, 1614. Bathe's first work was in 
 English, written in his youth : ' A briefe introduction to the 
 true art of musicke, wherein are set doune exact and easie rules 
 for such as seeke but to know the trueth ; with arguments and 
 
 i their solutions, for such as seeke also to know the reason of the 
 trueth ; which rules be meanes whereby any by his ownc In- 
 dustrie may shortly, easilic, and regularly attaine to all such 
 things as to his arte doe belong;' 4to, London, 1584. His 
 
 | other works were ' Janua linguarum, sen modus maxime accom- 
 modatus, quo patefit aditus ad omnes linguas intelligentas ; ' 
 
 ' Salamanca, 1611, 4to— a curious attempt to make the study' 
 of the Latin language easy ; ' Methodical Institution of the prin- 
 
 ■ cipal Mysteries of the Christian faith,' published anonymously 
 in English and in Latin. And a ' Preparation for the Sacrifice 
 of Penitence,' published at Milan under an assumed name. 
 
 BATHURST, RALPH, M.D., Dean of Wells, was born at 
 Hawthorpe, Northamptonshire, in 1620. He studied theology 
 
 I at Trinity College, Oxford, with a view to taking orders, but the 
 condition of the Church of England rendering that unadvisable, 
 he directed his attention to medicine. Having taken his dogree, 
 
 he was one of the medical men appointed to take charge of the 
 sick and wounded seamen, and obtained some notice as a scientific 
 physician. A curious pamphlet of this period is attributed to 
 him, entitled ' News from the Dead, or a true and exact narrative 
 of the miraculous Deliverance of Anne Greene, who being execu- 
 ted at Oxford December 14, 1650, afterwards revived, and, by the 
 care of certain Physicians there, is now perfectly recovered ; 
 together with the manner of her sufferings and the particular 
 means used for her recovery. Whereunto are prefixed certain 
 poems, casually printed upon that subject,' 4to, Oxford, 1651 ; 
 2nd ed. with additions, same year. The poems, which are in Latin, 
 French, and English, were written by members of the universitv, 
 Christopher Wren and Bathurst being among the authors. It 
 was not, as has been said, Bathurst who effected the recovery, 
 but Sir William Petty, who, like Bathurst had taken the degree of 
 M.D., and was during these unsettled times acting as a physician : 
 according to Evelyn (' Diary,' 22nd March, 1675), the young 
 woman lived 15 years after her recovery, married, and had 
 several children. In his capacity as a physician, Bathurst pub- 
 lished a learned treatise on the voluntary nature of respiration, 
 1 Prselectiones tres derespiratione,' Oxford, 1654. Dr. Batlmrst's 
 fame as a man of science stood so high that at the meeting for 
 the foundation of the Royal Society, November 28, 1660, his 
 was one of the names in the list drawn up by the founders of 
 such as are deemed "fit to joyne with them in their designe;" 
 and though not one of the original, he was one of the early, 
 members : it is, however, a mistake to state that he was 
 president. 
 
 The restoration of Charles II. restored the Church of England, 
 and Bathurst returned to his studies in divinity, took orders, and 
 was appointed chaplain to the King. In September, 1664, he 
 was elected President of Trinity College, Oxford, and in 1673 
 and 1674 he was vice-chancellor of the university, in the govern- 
 ment of which he long took a leading part. He was installed 
 Dean of Wells, June 28, 1670, and in April, 1691, was nominated 
 Bishop of Bristol, but declined the honour, preferring not to 
 leave his college, to which he was much attached, and of which 
 he was a considerable benefactor, having built at his own cost 
 the entrance tower and the chapel — the latter remarkable for its 
 admirable proportions and the exquisite carvings by Grinling 
 Gibbon. Dean Bathurst died on the 14th of June, 1704, and was 
 interred in his own chapel under a tomb erected by himself. 
 Evelyn, who often mentions him in his Diary, and always with 
 marked respect, says in noticing his decease, " he was 86 years 
 of age, stark blind, deafe, and memory lost, after having been a 
 person of admirable parts and learning." Besides the works quoted, 
 Bathurst wrote various Latin poems printed in the ' Musarum 
 Anglic. Annalecta.' Thomas AVarton published the 1 Life and 
 Literary Remains of Ralph Bathurst, M.D .,' &c, 8vo, London, 
 1761. 
 
 BATMAN, or BATEMAN, STEPHEN, a writer of the 
 Kith century whose books are in great request with bibliogra- 
 phers, was born at Bruton, in Somersetshire, about 1537. Little 
 is told of hi.s life. He was a divine, and domestic chaplain to 
 Archbishop Parker, by whom he was employed in augmenting 
 his library, for which Batman is said to have collected upwards 
 of a thousand MSS., and which now form part of the choicest 
 treasures of the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 
 Batman's works are chiefly theological, but all are quaint and 
 curious in character, have much incidental matter that is valu- 
 able as illustrating the age in which they were written, and 
 mostly contain curious wood-cut illustrations. The following 
 are the principal:— 1. 'Travayled Pilgreme, bringing Newesfroni 
 all Parts of the Worlde, such like scarce harde before,' an alle- 
 gorical poem on the life of man, 4to, printed by John Denham, 
 1560, black letter, with 20 wood-cuts. 2. 'Christil Glasse for 
 Christian Reformation,' a treatise on the seven deadly sins, 4to, 
 printed by John Day, 1569, black letter, with numerous curious 
 wood-cuts. 3. ' Of the Arrivall of the Three Graces in Anglia, 
 lamenting the abuses of the Present Age,' 4to, printed by W. 
 Norton, black letter, n. d. 4. ' Joyfull Newes out of Helvetia 
 from Theoph. Paracelsum, declaring the ruinate Fall of the 
 Papall Dignitie: also a Treatise against Vsurie,' Svo, London, 
 15J75. 5. ' Golden Booke of the Leaden Goddes, wherein is 
 described the vayne imaginations of Heatho Pagans and Coun- 
 terfaict Christians: with a Description of their seueral Tables, 
 what ech of their Pictures signified,' 4to, London, 1577. This 
 is a very curious book. Wart on speaks of it as the first 
 systematic account of the heathen mythology in the language, 
 though written rather " with a view of exposing the heathen 
 superstitions, am 1 yf showing their conformity to the p.ipistic, 
 
183 BAUDE, HENRI. 
 
 than of illustrating the religious fables of antiquity." (' Hist, of 
 Eng. Poetry,' vol. iii. § 70). The little volume, which only 
 contains 72 pages, is dedicated to Lord Hunsdon, and is believed 
 to have been used by Shakspere. Batman's most famous work 
 is, however (6), 'Doom warning all Men to Judgement: in 
 manner of a gcnerall Chronicle,' 4to, black letter, 1581, im- 
 printed by R. Nubery, a work of 437 pages, with many curious 
 engravings of monsters, prodigies, &e. Batman also made a 
 translation of ' Bartholonnous de Proprietatibus Rcruni.' 
 
 BAUDE, HENRI, a French poet and prose author, was 
 bom at Moulins, about 1430. He was fortunate enough, whilst 
 still a youth, to recommend himself to the favour of Charles VII., 
 by whom he was entrusted with a responsible revenue appoint- 
 ment in the province of Limousin. Baude performed the functions 
 of his office by deputy, as was then usual, and passed most of his 
 time at Paris, where, in the latter part of his life, he habitually 
 resided. By a caprice of fortune Baude and his works have been 
 much overlooked in the literary history of his country, so that 
 his memory labours at the present day under a kind of pro- 
 scription. His verse is lively, plain, and realistic ; and he in 
 great part owes his present oblivion to the ephemeral nature of 
 his topics and allusions. At the commencement of the reign of 
 Charles VIII., Baude produced a ' Molality,' the representation 
 of which, although it was countenanced by the court of parlia- 
 ment, gave so great offence to the personages introduced in it, 
 that the author was condemned to an imprisonment which 
 lasted only three months, but which might have been inde- 
 finitely prolonged but for the charitable intervention of the 
 parliament, at the solicitation of the municipal body. The 
 text of this ' Morality' has not been preserved; but its ipiality 
 may be inferred from a second one which is extant, under the 
 title ' Pragmatitpie entre Gens de Court et la Salle du Palais.' 
 The works of Baude consist for the most part of slight produc- 
 tions having relation to the politics and manners of the time, 
 of epigrams, rondeaux, and ballads. About the time when 
 Charles VIII. began really to govern, about 1492, Baude ad- 
 dressed to the King a ' Diet Moral sur le maintien de J usticc,' 
 in which he offered up prayers for the prosperity of his reign, 
 and counselled him, in order that it might be happy, to an exact 
 observance of the laws and of the rights of all men. He pro- 
 posed as a model for the young prince, his grandfather, 
 Charles VII., of whose panegyric, inserted at the beginning of 
 Godefroy's Historians of Charles Vll. (folio, Paris, Imprimerie 
 Royale, 1661), and entitled ' Eloge du Roi Charles VII. tire 
 d'un Manuscript anonyme,' Baude is now on good grounds 
 concluded to have been the author. And there is a strong 
 presumption from internal evidence that Baude was also the 
 author of an anonymous manuscript poem in the ' Bibliotherpie 
 Imperialc,' which has for its title ' Regrets et Complaintes de la 
 Mort de Charles VII., dernier trepasse.' This piece mentions 
 Queen Marie of Anjou as still living, and its date ranges, therefore, 
 between 1461 and 1463. Baude died about the year 1495. 
 
 BAUDIER, MICHEL, historiographer of France under 
 Louis XIII,, was born in Languedoc about the year 1589. He 
 was a fertile and laborious author, but his works have failed to 
 interest biographers in the events of his life, so that few particu- 
 lars concerning him are on record. He is known, however, to 
 have been Gentilhomme de la Maison du Roi, and historiogra- 
 pher of France. At a comparatively early age he seems to have 
 understood the advantages of private life ; and he retired to his 
 books and to the solace of the arts, and to endless writing. He 
 employed a great part of his modest fortune in the collecting of 
 books, MSS., and coins. The style of Baudier is heavy and 
 diffuse; and one secret of his non-success is his deficiency in the 
 critical faculty. His principal works are ' Histoire des Guerres 
 de Flandre, depuis 1559 jusqu'en 1609, traduite de lTtalien de 
 Francesco Lanario,' 8vo, Paris, 1618; which was supplemented 
 by an original work of some interest, ' Histoire Succincte de la 
 Flandre;' 'Inventaire general de l'Histoire des Turcs,' 4to, 
 Paris, 1619, a work which, considering the time of its production, 
 is one of much learning, and which has been of great service to 
 historians; ' Histoire generale de la Religion des Turcs, avec la 
 vie de leur prophete Mahomet et des quatre premiers Califes; 
 plus, le Livre et la Theologie de Mahomet, traduit de 1'arabe,' ©f 
 which the first three editions were published severally in 1626, 
 1632, and 1636, Paris, 8vo; 'Histoire generale du Serail et de la 
 Cour du Grand Seigneur,' 4to, Paris, 1626, 8vo, Rouen, 1638; 
 reprinted with the 'Histoire de la Cour du Roy de la Chine,' 8vo, 
 Paris, 1642 ; 'Histoire de lAdministration du Cardinal d'Amboise, 
 grand ministre d'Etat en France, oil se lisent les effects de la 
 sagesse politique; ensemble les felicites de la France sous on bon 
 
 BAUER, ANTON. 181 
 
 Gouvcrnement,' 4to, Paris, 1634 ; ' Histoire de l'incomparable 
 Administration de Romieu, grand ministre d'Etat de Raymon 
 Beranger, Comte de Provence, dans le 13 c siecle,' 8vo, Paris, 
 1635; a work curious for the simplicity with which the author 
 has woven fables and romances into his narrative; 'Histoire de 
 lAdministration du Cardinal de Ximenes,' 4to, Paris, 1635; the 
 most considerable of Baudier's productions, and exhibiting the 
 greatest diligence and research; ' Le Soldat Piemontais revenant 
 (lu camp de Turin ; ou, Histoire de la Campagne d'ltalie de 
 l'annee 1640,' 8vo, Paris, 1644 ; ' Histoire du Marcchal de 
 Toiras, ensemble une bonne partie du rcgne de Louis XIII. et 
 la genealogie,' folio, Paris, 1644, and 2 vols. 12mo, 1666; 'His- 
 toire de TAdministration de l'Abbe Suger,' 4to, Paris, 1645 ; 
 and a MS. ' Histoire de Marguerite d' Anjou, femme du Roi 
 d'Angleterre, Henri VI.,' which is preserved in the Bibliotheque 
 Imperiale. The precise time of Baudier's death is unknown; 
 but it has been happily conjectured that so inveterate a writer 
 must have died very soon alter the publication of his last work, 
 about the year 1645. 
 
 BAU DRILL ART, JACQUES JOSEPH, a learned French 
 writer on forestry and forest law, was born at Givron, in 
 Ardennes, on the 20th of May, 1774. After studying at the 
 College of Rethel, and making great advances in mathematics, 
 physics, and chemistry, he entered the Garde Nationalc of 
 Uharleville in 1791, and the regular army in 1792. He was at 
 first quartermaster of the battalion of Ardennes, but afterwards 
 joined the army administration, and was engaged in succession 
 with the Corps d'Armee of the Sambre and Meuse, Mayence, 
 the Danube, and the Rhine. Quitting the army in 1801, and 
 losing the little money he had saved, he turned to forestry, of 
 which he had gained some knowledge while in Germany. He 
 obtained a post in the administration of forests, in which he 
 gradually rose to the rank of chief of division ; this office he 
 filled from 1819 to 1831. A change was then made in the 
 organization of the office, which led to his being placed in a 
 lower post ; this occasioned him so much chagrin as to hasten 
 his death, which took place at Paris on the 24th of March, 
 1832. The writings of Baudrillart are numerous, chiefly on 
 subjects connected with forestry. The following are the prin- 
 cipal works: (1), in conjunction with Doniol, 'Collection 
 Chronologique et raisonnee des Arrets de la Cour de Cassation, 
 en matiere d'eaux .et forets, depuis et compris 1798 jusqu'en 
 1808,' 8vo, Paris, 1808 ; (2), in conjunction with Doniol and 
 Chanlaire, ' Annales forestieres,' Paris, 1808-14, 7 vols. 8vo ; 
 
 (3) , ' Annuaire forestier,' 3 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1811-13; 
 
 (4) , ' Memoire sur la pesanteur specifique des bois, &c.,' 8vo, 
 Paris, 1815 ; (5), ' Code forestier,' with a commentary, &c, 
 2 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1827 ; (6), ' Traite Gen6ral des Eaux et 
 Forets, chasses et peches,' 6 vols. 4to, and Atlas, Paris, 1821-28 ; 
 (7), 'Code de la peche fluviale,' 2 vols. 12mo, and Atlas, 
 Paris, 1829 ; comprising, besides the code of laws and ordon- 
 nances, a commentary, a natural history of fishes, and a glossary 
 of terms in river fishing and river navigation. He also trans- 
 lated into French some German works on forestry, by Hartig 
 and Burgsdorff. In conjunction with Bosc, he compiled, in 
 1821. a volume of the ' Encyclopedic Methodique,' viz., the 
 ' Dictionnaire de la Culture des Arbres, et de l'amenagement des 
 bois.' Baudrillart's great work, the ' Traite General des Eaux et 
 Forets,' is one of much value and reputation. It comprises 
 a collection of the laws and ordonnances relating to forests, 
 rivers, hunting, and fishing, from 1219 to 1824 ; instructions for 
 procedure ; methods of plantation and culture ; separate diction- 
 aries of the technical terms used in all the four branches of the 
 subject ; the scientific principles embodied in forestry ; natural 
 history and implements of hunting and fishing ; and a biblio- 
 graphical notice of authors. Baudrillart was a Chevalier of the 
 Legion of Honour, Member of the Royal Society of Agriculture 
 of France, and member of other societies at home and abroad. 
 
 BAUER, ANTON, a German jurist, who was especially 
 skilled in the principles of criminal law, was born at Gottin 
 on the 16th of August, 1772. He became a student and 
 graduate of the University of Marburg, where he was made 
 lecturer and professor respectively, in 1793 and 1797. In 1813 
 he was transferred in the latter capacity to Gottingen, where he 
 became at first councillor in ordinary, and afterwards, in 1840, 
 councillor extraordinary of justice. He died at Gottingen on 
 the first of June, 1843. He is the author of a treatise on the 
 principles of evidence in criminal cases, ' Grundsiitze des 
 Criminalprocesses,' Nurnberg, 1805, afterwards published under 
 the title of ' Lehrbuch des Strafprocesses,' Gottingen, 1835, and 
 1848 ; A Manual of Natural Law, ' Lehrbuch des Naturrechts,' 
 
185 
 
 BAUER, BRUNO. 
 
 Marburg, 1808, 3rd edition, Gottingen, 1825, a work on the 
 philosophy of criminal law, which subject he further treated in 
 his ' Griuidziigen des Philosophischen Strafrechts,' Gottingen, 
 1825 ; A Manual of Criminal Law, ' Lehrbucli des Strafrechts,' 
 Gottingen, 1827, 2nd edition, 1833 ; Theory of Preventive 
 Legislation, with an Exposition and Examination of all the 
 Theories of Criminal Lav,-, 'Die Warnungstheorie, nebst 
 einer Darstellung und Beurtheilung aller Strafrechtstheorien,' 
 Gottingen, 1830 ; Introduction to the Practice of Criminal 
 Law, ' Anleitung zur Criminalpraxis,' Gottingen, 1837 ; Collec- 
 tion of Cases in Criminal Law, ' Sammlung von Strafrechts- 
 fallen,' 4 vols., Gottingen, 1835-39 ; Dissertations on Criminal 
 Law and Criminal Procedure, ' Abhandlungen aus dem Straf- 
 recht und Strafprocesse,' 3 vols., Gottingen, 1S40-43 ; and 
 other works upon the criminal law of France anil Hanover. 
 
 * BAUER, BRUNO, a celebrated philosopher and biblical 
 critic, was born on the 6th of September, 1809, at Eisenberg, in 
 the Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, and received his education in 
 the schools and University of Berlin. In 1834 he became 
 Doctor in Theology ; and took a lively part in the religious 
 quarrels and speculations of his time. In 1839 he acted as a 
 tutor at Bonn ; but in 1842, on account of the hardihood of his 
 opinions, the permission to lecture on theology was withdrawn. 
 Hereupon he returned to Berlin, where he devoted himself en- 
 thusiastically to those critical and historical works which 
 have placed him amongst the most learned men, and the fore- 
 most writers of Germany. At first Bauer sought to conciliate 
 philosophy with theology, and in this spirit wrote, in 1835, a 
 Review of the ' Leben Jesu,' of Dr. Strauss, and produced his 
 Journal of Speculative Theology, ' Zeitschrift fur Speculative 
 Theologie,' Berlin, 1836-38, and his Critical Exposition of the 
 Old Testament, ' Kritische Darstellung der Religion des Alten 
 Testaments,' 2 vols., Berlin, 1838. His tendency to deflect 
 more and more from orthodoxy was marked by the Epistle he 
 addressed to Dr. Hengstenberg, Berlin, 1839 ; and his work on 
 the Evangelical Established Church of Prussia and Science, 
 ' Die Evangebsche Landeskirche Preussens und die Wissenschaft,' 
 Leipzig, 1840. He advanced rapidly to the boldest position of 
 the young Hegelians, and published a series of writings, in 
 which the prevailing mode of regarding Christianity was sub- 
 jected to an unsparing criticism. Thus, in his Critique of the 
 Evangelical History of St. John, ' Kritik der Evangelischen 
 Gescliichte des Johannes,' Bremen, 1840, and in his Critique of 
 the Synoptical Gospels, ' Kritik der Evangelischen Synop- 
 tiker,' 2 vols., Leipzig, 1840 and 1841, lie argues that the Gospel 
 histories are a result perfectly natural to human self-conscious- 
 ness, and a free product of literary individuality. It was after 
 the publication of these views that Bauer was forbidden to 
 lecture at Bonn, and he produced an apologetic treatise ' Die 
 Sache der Freiheit und meine eigene Angelegenheit,' Zurich, 
 ]s43. The next of his works, Christianity Displayed, 'Das 
 entdeckte Christenthum,' was destroyed before publication, at 
 Zurich, in 1843. In a treatise on the Jewish Question, 'Die 
 Judenfrage,' Brunswick, 1843, Bauer attacked the vagueness of 
 the pretensions of liberalism ; and further developed his 
 opinions in the Universal Literary Journal, ' Allgemeine 
 Literaturzeitung,' Charlottenberg, 1843-44, in which he analyses 
 the German radicalism of 1842, and its consequent socialistic 
 theories. Besides a large and important series of works devoted 
 to a consideration of political questions, Bauer produced in his 
 old field of criticism on the earliest writings of Christianity, a 
 Critique of the Gospels, and History of their origin, ' Kritik 
 der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres Ursprungs,' 2 vols., 
 Berlin, 1850 and 1851 ; The History of the Apostles, ' Die 
 Apostelgeschichte,' Berlin, 1850 ; and a Critique of the Epistles 
 ol St. Paul, 'Kritik der Paulinische Briefe,' Berlin, 1850, in 
 which he attempts to shew that the four leading Epistles, which 
 had 1 een previously unquestioned, were not written by the 
 Apostle Paul, but are the production of the second century. 
 
 BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN, the founder and head 
 of the "Tubingen School" of theology, was born on the 21st of 
 June, 1792, at Schmiden, near Cannstadt, where his father, 
 from whom he received his early education, was settled as 
 pastor. He became a pupil of the seminaries successively of 
 Rkubeuren and Maulbronn. From the year 1809 to 1814 he 
 was a student of theology at Tubingen ; after which lie exer- 
 cised his ministry for short periods at divers places, until in 
 1817 he became professor in the Seminary at Blaubeuren. Here 
 he wrote his work on Symbolism and Mythology ; or the 
 Natural Religion of the Ancient World, ' Symbolik und My- 
 thologie ; oder die Natui religion des Alterthums,' 3 vols., 
 
 Stuttgart, 1824-5. In 1826 he became titular professor of 
 evangelical theology in the University of Tubingen, where he 
 pursued his labours until his death on the 2nd of December, 18o'0. 
 
 The " Tubingen School" is a periphrasis for Baur ; and the 
 expression is vaguely intended to embrace the writers in the 
 Tubingen Theological Journal, ' Zeitschrift fiir Theologie,' such 
 as Zeller, Schweglcr, Kostlin, Volkmar, and Hilgenfeld, all 
 younger men than Baur, ami chiefly his disciples, whose 
 business it was to work out in detail the fertile principles of 
 criticism which their master originated. It was the task of the 
 Tubingen School to subject the Christian writings to the same 
 process of dispassionate investigation as that which had been 
 brought to bear upon heathen records and systems of religion. 
 The edifice which these constructive rationalists set themselves 
 to rear, was to be founded on purely historical criticism, from 
 which all a priori dogmatical or philosophical hypotheses were 
 to be excluded. The problem of Biblical criticism, they averred, 
 could be completely solved only by a rigorous examination of each 
 of the books of the New Testament, as well as the history which 
 they contain. It was necessary not only to prove that the New 
 Testament history was untrustworthy and ideal, but to con- 
 struct, from such materials as might be available, a real and 
 credible history of the beginnings of Christianity. The essential 
 characteristic of the Tubingen, as of every modern, substitute 
 for the life of Jesus given us in the four Gospels, is that it is a 
 life of Jesus without the supernatural. " A conviction of nature's 
 constancy and order," says Mr. Mackay, the interpreter and 
 apologist of the Tubingen School, " was the necessary pre- 
 liminary to a scientific treatment of history ; for history ends 
 where miracles begin. History would exhibit events in an 
 intelligible order of connection and succession ; whereas miracle, 
 denying any natural connection, consigns them to unintelligible 
 chaos." It follows, of course, that if a miracle be impossible, the 
 Bible, as a whole, must be incredible. Such was the spirit in 
 which the claims of the canonical books of the New Testament 
 were to be severally scrutinized. One great feature of the 
 Tubingen criticism is the stress which is laid on the disputes 
 recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, and alluded to in the 
 Epistles, as evidencing an early and extreme variance of the 
 Christian world as divided into the Petrine or Judaical school 
 on the one hand, and the Pauline on the other. Although all 
 readers of the New Testament are cognizant of a certain running 
 strife between these parties, it is startling to observe the dimen- 
 sions which the difference is made to attain, and how much of it is 
 affirmed to have been in fierce action in the identical age of the 
 Apostles, and in the very books of the New Testament. The 
 prevailing tone, when St. Paul appeared on the scene, was 
 Jewish ; much importance was attached to meats and Sabbaths, 
 days and months, times and seasons, and there was a tendency 
 to an obstinate fanaticism and an illiberal asceticism. In the 
 view taken by the Tubingen School, it was St. Paul who 
 enabled the nascent religion to surmount the local peculiarities 
 and prejudices by wlrich it was hampered. The clash between the 
 universalism promoted by St. Paul, and the Judaism of the 
 older Apostles, forms the turning point of the next fifty or sixty 
 years of Christian history. The hostility passes through various 
 phases ; and is first observable in the personal antagonism of 
 Paul and the Twelve, as, for example, on the subject of circum- 
 cision. With the fall of Jerusalem, and the destruction of the 
 temple, the importance of a minute ceremonial seemed to di- 
 minish. The old forms of parties gave place to new ; and by 
 the middle of the second century, there appeared, in place of the 
 Pauline and Petrine antithesis, the antagonism between specu- 
 lative thought and the new episcopal organization. The coali- 
 tion of these forces produced the church catholic, which began 
 before the middle of the second century to stand out as the 
 legitimate and all-embracing organ of Christian opinion and 
 feeling, in contradistinction to the minor sects and heresies, 
 which each embraced some peculiar and external tenet of its 
 own. The object of the examination of each book of the New 
 Testament is to decide to what epoch of this evolution of doc- 
 trines it belongs, and what particular tenets it was intended to 
 recommend. Here a grave objection is raised against the 
 Tiibihgen School of criticism on account of the assumption im- 
 puted to it, of the dishonesty of the writers of the New Testa- 
 ment history, who are hereby reduced to the condition of 
 forgers, who were, and who knew they were, untruthful. They 
 intended to deceive ; the object which they had in view must 
 have been to misrepresent the early age of Christianity and 
 the teaching of Jesus Christ and His Apostles. They believed 
 that the second century, to which most of them are affirmed by 
 
187 BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN. 
 
 BAXTER, ANDREW. 
 
 188 
 
 the Tubingen School to have belonged, differed from the first 
 century, both in the relation of Church parties, in doctrine, and 
 in ecclesiastical organization. In these particulars they consider 
 the second century greatly in advance of the first ; they believed 
 it to be a great advantage that early schisms had been healed, 
 that the Christian creed had been brought into a far more 
 correct and rigid form, and that the Christian communities were 
 under the government of a well-defined hierarchy. They 
 were sure that Jesus Christ was not what the Christendom of 
 the second century believed him to be. They were sure that 
 the teaching both of Christ and the Apostles was widely dif- 
 ferent from that which the second century was in the habit of 
 attributing to them. But, inasmuch as the second century did 
 reflect its own beliefs and organizations upon the first age, the 
 writers of the New Testament perceived how extremely useful 
 this delusion might be made. They wanted to strengthen the 
 foundations of the doctrinal and ecclesiastical edifice of their 
 own time ; and to accomplish this they invented a life of Jesus 
 Christ, and a book of the Acts of the Apostles, which they knew 
 to be falsely originated by themselves. In the same spirit they 
 wrote letters which they attributed to one or other of Christ's 
 disciples, which were meant to be untrue both to the letter and 
 the spirit of the Apostolic teaching. Upon this assumption, it 
 is said, that every jot and tittle of the Tubingen criticism 
 depends. On the other hand, it is urged that to father upon 
 honoured names the authorship of treatises which were not 
 really so related to them, would not be in ancient times the 
 literary fraud which the present age would account it. The 
 prophet, or the sibyl, was not an author ; and hence it was 
 lawful to edit the words of each as if authentically spoken. No 
 fraud was intended. The atlixed names were not pseudonymous, 
 but eponymous. The custom was transmitted to the Christian 
 church. The great object of parties and opinions in the second 
 century was to prove themselves apostolic ; and it is a mistake 
 to suppose that a literature created with such an object can 
 fairly be taxed with the intention to deceive. The alternative 
 is not the acceptance of the document as authentic, or its 
 rejection as useless and fraudulent. The document so origi- 
 nated is not only what the compilers believed to be true, 
 but it is further what they believed to be the true expression 
 of the Apostle whose name was affixed to it. Each compiler 
 felt himself privileged to carry out in the best May he could 
 his purpose of inculcating Christian truth, and forwarding 
 Catholic interests. Of the five historical books of the New 
 Testament, the Acts of the Apostles is that in which the 
 ecclesiastical purpose is most unmistakable. Its object is to 
 throw a veil over the dissensions of early Christianity, and 
 to promote Catholic tendencies by representing Paul as acting 
 in entire accord with the Twelve, and especially with Peter. 
 The first Petrine epistle has a kindred object to the Acts, and on 
 the whole is written in the spirit of the Roman Paulo-Petrine 
 syncretism of the early part of the second century. 
 
 The results of the Tubingen criticism are that the claims to 
 canonicity of the Gospel of St. John are disallowed, and its 
 production is referred to an age in which Gnosticism was 
 triumphant ; and it may be said, in short, that out of thirteen 
 Epistles commonly received by antiquity as the genuine 
 writings of St. Paul, four only are admitted as such by Baur 
 — that to the Galatians, to the Romans, and the two to the 
 Corinthians. These four Epistles are in fact the basis of the 
 whole critical inquiry ; each of them has its own specific 
 character, and exhibits a special phase of Christian develop- 
 ment. Of what Baur calls the Deutero-Pauline letters — those to 
 the Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians — it is said that they 
 have a certain likeness to each other ; and that the monotonous 
 iteration, the vagueness of the Catholic teaching, the general 
 recommendation of practical duty, and, above all, the absence 
 of specific purpose, mark them as later writings. They share 
 the irenic tendency of the writings of the second century ; 
 giving to Faith and Christ an altered meaning, reducing the 
 former to adhesion to a creed, and changing the latter from 
 the regenerating power within the soul to a transcendental 
 supermundane essence. The Pastoral letters, those, namely, to 
 Timothy and Titus, have, it is affirmed, the general air of the 
 second century. Heresy is denounced ; ecclesiastical power is 
 invoked to check it ; there is a perpetual recurrence of the 
 neutral formula combining faith and works ; and by faith is 
 meant not the inward condition of the soul, but allegiance to 
 i creed. The lesson inculcated is peace ; to shun speculation, 
 now considered dangerous ; and to follow practical righteousness. 
 
 The works in which Baur wrought out the 4et^i J <? of the 
 
 criticism of which the principles are exhibited above, are chiefly 
 the Christian Gnosis, ' Die Christliche Gnosis ; oder dei 
 Christliche Religions-Philosophic,' Tubingen, 1835 ; the Chris- 
 tian Doctrine of the Atonement, ' Die Christliche Lehre von 
 dei Versohnung,' Tubingen, 18:38 ; the Christian Doctrine of 
 the Trinity, and of the Incarnation of God, 'Die Christliche 
 Lehre von der Dreieinegkeit und Menschwerdang Gottes,' :3 
 vols., Tubingen, 1841 — 43 ; the Difference between Catho- 
 licism and Protestantism, ' Der Gegensatz des Katholicismus 
 und Protestant isnius,' Tubingen, 2nd ed., 1830, a work in which 
 the author attacks the famous ' Symbolik ' of the Catholic 
 theologian Johann Adam Mohler, who replied with his New 
 Researches upon the Differences between Catholicism and 
 Protestantism, ' Neue Untersuchungen der Lehrgagensiitze 
 zwischen den Katholiken und Protestanten,' to which Baur 
 rejoined with his ' Erwiderung gegen Holder's neueste Po- 
 lemik.' Baui's works in the domain of New Testament criti- 
 cism comprise a Treatise on the History of Christian Dogma, 
 'Lehrbuch der Christlichen Dogmcngeschichte,' Stuttgart, 
 1847, 2nd ed., Tubingen, 1858 ; The Christ-Party in the 
 Corinthian Church, ' Die Christuspartei in der Corinth. Ge- 
 meinde, der Gegensatz des paulinischen und petrinischen 
 Christenthuins ;' The So-called Pastoral Letters of the Apostle 
 Paul, ' Die Sogenannten Pastoralbriefe des Apostels Paulus/ 
 Stuttgart, 1835, in which their apochryphal character is 
 asserted ; St. Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ, his life and 
 works, his Epistles and Doctrine, ' Paulus, der Apostel Jesu 
 Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre,' 
 Stuttgart, 1845, a critical and historical survey of primitive 
 Christianity, which offers an epitome of the author's ideas as 
 expressed in former works, with new researches on the apocry- 
 phal original of the Secondary Epistles ; Critical Researches 
 on the Canonical Gospels, their inter-relations, origin, and 
 character, ' Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die kanonischen 
 Evangelien, ihr Verlialtniss zucinander, ihren Ursprung und 
 Charakter,' Tubingen, 1847, in which the author seeks especially 
 to disprove the historical character of the Gospel of St. John, 
 and to refer it to an epoch later than the Apostolic ; St. Mark's 
 Gospel, its Origin and Character, ' Das Markusevangelium nach 
 seinen Ursprung und Charakter,' Tubingen, 1851 ; The Chris- 
 tianity and the Christian Church of the first three centuries, 
 ' Das Christenthum und die Christliche Kirche der drei ersten 
 Jahrhnnderte,' Tubingen, 1853, 2nd ed., 1800, a work which 
 comprises the results of all the critical researches relative to 
 the origin of Christianity. Two works were published post- 
 humously under the joint editorial care of the author's son, 
 Ferd. Friedr. Baur, and Zeller, the titles of which were ' Die 
 Christliche Kirche des Mittelalters,' Tubingen, 1801 ; and ' Die 
 Kirchengeschichte der neuern Zeit, von tier Reformation bis 
 zum ende des 18 Jahrhundert,' Tiibingen, 1803. 
 
 BAXTER, ANDREW, an ingenious metaphysician and 
 natural philosopher, was the son of a merchant in Old Aber- 
 deen, where he was born, in the year 1080 or 1087. He received 
 his education at King's College, in his native city ; and occupied 
 the greater part of his life as a private tutor, having amongst 
 his pupils Lord Gray, Lord Blantyre, and Mr. Hay of Drum- 
 melzier. In 1723. whilst resident at Dunse Castle, as preceptor to 
 the last-mentioned gentleman, he is ascertained, by letters which 
 passed between him and Henry Home, afterwards Lord Karnes, 
 to have been deeply engaged in both physical and metaphysical 
 disquisitions. A few years after, possibly in 1730, he published 
 his great work entitled, ' An Inquiry into the nature of the 
 Human Soul, wherein its Immateriality is evinced from the 
 Principles of Reason and Philosophy,' London, 4to ; second 
 edition, 2 vols., 8vo, 1737 ; third edition, 2 vols., 8vo, 1745. The 
 object of this work, which won the singular commendation of 
 Bishop Warburton, is to prove the immaterality, and consequently 
 the immortality, of the soul, from the acknowleged principle of 
 the vis inertia) of matter. In 1741, Baxter went abroad with his 
 pupil, Mr. Hay, and resided for several years at Utrecht. In the 
 course of various excursions which he made through Holland, 
 France, and Germany he was generally well received by the 
 literati ; and, whilst abroad, he formed an intimate friendship 
 with the well-known John Wilkes, to whom he dedicated his 
 ' Appendix to the first part of the Inquiry into the Nature of the 
 Human Soul ; wherein the Principles laid down are cleared from 
 some Objections started against the notions of the Vis Inertia) of 
 Matter, by Maclaurin,' &c, 8vo, London, 1750. This work was 
 edited by the Rev. Dr. John Duncan, of South Warnborough, who 
 afterwards published ' The Evidence of Reason, in proof of the 
 Immortality of the Soul, independent on the more abstruse 
 
BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER. 
 
 Enquiry into the Nature of Matter and Spirit. Collected from 
 tlic MSS. of Mr. Baxter. To which is prefixed a letter from 
 tin- Editor to Dr. Priestley,' 8vo, London, 177!). This was, of 
 course, a posthumous publication ; for Baxter, who returned 
 from the continent in 1747, died on the 23rd of April, 1750, 
 at Wittingham in East Lothian, a seat belonging to Mr. Hay, 
 where Baxter constantly resided during the last three years of 
 his life. The only important work of Baxter remaining to be 
 mentioned, is one entitled ' Matho : Sive Cosmotheoria Puerilis 
 Dialogus. In quo prima Elementa de Mundi ordine et ornatu 
 proponuntur,' &c, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1740 ; a production 
 which, designed for the use of the author's pupils and his son, 
 was published in English, with the title of ' Matho : or the 
 Cosmotheoria Puerilis, in ten Dialogues ; wherein from the 
 Phenomena of the Material World, briefly explained, the 
 Principles of Natural Religion are deduced and demonstrated,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1745; third edition, "corrected and 
 enlarged," 2 vols. 12mo, 1765. Another, " accommodated to 
 the capacities and instructions of the youth of both sexes," by 
 Samuel Whyte, 2 vols. 12mo, Dublin, 1776. 
 
 * BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER, Professor of Logic ami 
 Rhetoric in the University of St. Andrews, was a pupil of the 
 late Sir William Hamilton, Professor of Logic and Metaphysics 
 in the University of Edinburgh, whose notice he attracted by 
 his abilities and zeal in logical research in the commence- 
 ment of Session 1846-47. The favourable regard developed 
 into a friendly intimacy, and Mr. Baynes, in due course, became 
 assistant to Sir William, who, in consequence of an attack of 
 paralysis, had been, since 1844, incompetent to the unaided 
 management and business of his class. Mr. Baynes has for 
 some years filled with great ability the chair of logic and 
 rhetoric in the University of St. Andrews. He has published 
 ' An Essay on the new Analytic of Logical Forms. With an 
 Historical Appendix,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1850 ; ' The Port Royal 
 Logic, translated from the French, with Introduction, Notes, 
 and Appendix,' 12mo, 1851 ; ' The Song of Solomon in the 
 Somersetshire Dialect,' 16mo, 1860; and 'The Somersetshire 
 Dialect : Its Pronunciation. Two papers reprinted from the 
 "Taunton Courier,"' 8vo, London, 1861. This last work was 
 privately printed, and its issue limited to two hundred copies. 
 
 * BAZALGETTE, JOSEPH WILLIAM, engineer-in-chief 
 to the Metropolitan Board of Works, was born in 1819. His 
 family was of French origin ; his father was a Commander in 
 the Royal Navy. After the usual course of school education, 
 he studied civil engineering under Sir John MacNeiU. Mr. 
 Bazalgette commenced practice on his own account in 1842, and 
 soon afterwards executed some drainage works in the north of 
 Ireland. In 1848 he succeeded Mr. Frank Forster as engineer 
 to the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers. His duties brought 
 him actively into the long and elaborate investigation which 
 had been entrusted to the Commission, concerning the drainage 
 and water supply of London : an investigation which showed 
 interminable varieties of opinion between the Commissioners, the 
 Board of Health, and civil engineers generally. Mr. Bazalgette 
 planned and executed three hundred miles of sewers in the 
 Metropolis while holding the above-named office. In 1855, by 
 the passing of the 'Metropolis Management Act' (18 & 19 Vict, 
 c. 120), the powers of the Commissioners were transferred to a 
 new body — the Metropolitan Board of Works, entrusted also 
 with many additional powers. Mr. Bazalgette was appointed 
 engineer-in-chief to the Board. It devolved upon him to plan 
 and carry out the vast system of main drainage for the Metro- 
 polis, which has since been nearly completed, with the excep- 
 tion of one particular line called the Low Level Sewer. The 
 plan does not at present comprise any arrangement for the 
 utilization of the sewage ; which is allowed, under certain re- 
 gulations as to tide, to flow into the Thames, near Barking and 
 near Crossness. Mr Bazalgette was the first to introduce sub- 
 ways under new streets made in the Metropolis, for carrying 
 gas-pipes, water-pipes, and telegraph wires, and thereby lessen- 
 ing the necessity for breaking up the roadways when repairs 
 have to be executed in the underground works. Another great 
 work planned by him for the Board is the embanking of the 
 Thames. The northern embankment, from Westminster Bridge 
 to Blackfriars Bridge is (1870) far advanced towards completion. 
 This important work has the effect of improving the navigation 
 of the Thames, and at the same time of obtaining reclaimed 
 ground for foot pavements, carriage road, a railway, the low 
 level sewer, and possibly some buildings and gardens. The 
 southern embankment, from Westminster Bridge nearly to Vaux- 
 lia.ll Bridge, though on a less grand scale, renders the same kind 
 
 BEALE, LIONEL SMITH, 190 
 
 of service to the Surrey side of the Metropolis. Mr. Bazalgette, 
 in virtue of his office, has to watch over the public interests 
 with regard to all engineering works constructed within the 
 Metropolitan area (with some exceptions within the City of 
 London) ; and a code which he has laid down, for regulating 
 the construction of bridges and the alteration of streets, is 
 observed in all Railway Acts affecting the Metropolis. As a 
 consulting engineer, Mr. Bazalgette has issued reports on plans 
 for the improved drainage of Oxford, Cambridge, St. Leonards, 
 Folkestone, Norwich, Cheltenham, Weston-super-Mare, Glasgow, 
 Dublin, Belfast, Brussels, Port Louis in Mauritius, and other places. 
 
 * BEALE, LIONEL SMITH, an eminent microscopist and 
 physiologist, was born in 1828. He is a Fellow of the Royal 
 and several other Societies. He now holds the post of Physician 
 to King's College Hospital, and has held the professorship of 
 Physiology in King's College for several years, but resigned it a 
 short time back. In 1852 a long paper by him, on the character 
 of the urine in persons affected with pneumonia, was published 
 in the ' Transactions of the Medical and Chirurgical Society;' 
 since which date he has been a constant contributor to scientific 
 literature. The paper above noticed was followed by others on 
 urine and on the structure of the kidneys, which appeared in 
 the ' British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review,' the 
 'Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' and in the 
 'Archives of Medicine.' The substance of these was incor- 
 porated in a book, of which the third edition was issued in 1869, 
 under the title of ' Kidney Diseases, urinary deposits, ami 
 calculous disorders : their Nature and Treatment.' It is a volume 
 of 472 pages, containing many figures. It shows, what is appa- 
 rent in all Dr. Beale's works, great skill in methodical arrange- 
 ment and much painstaking care. As an instance, we may 
 notice that a large proportion of the figures were drawn by him- 
 self on the wood from nature; that most of the cuts have scales 
 of measurement attached to them, and that the dates of publica- 
 tion of the plates are usually given. This work is a standard 
 reference-book on the subject to which it is devoted. He has 
 given much attention to the construction and practical applica- 
 tion of the microscope to anatomy. The results of his inquiry 
 are found in various papers, but are all brought together in his 
 book, entitled 'How to work with the Microscrope,' of which the 
 first edition appeared in 1857-59, and the fourth in 1868. It 
 is a thoroughly practical guide to microscopists, and towards the 
 end contains a summary of the principal new physiological views 
 which the author has originated. This work is also illustrated 
 with many plates of figures, to which the same remarks apply as 
 to those in his ' Kidney Diseases, &c.' One feature in it is cha- 
 racteristic. The page where the descriptive text referring to 
 each cut occurs is appended to the figures; and the reader is 
 recommended to examine the cuts and then read the text, if he 
 wishes to gain information readily and accurately. The new 
 views are such as could only have been arrived at by a long 
 course of patient microscopical observation. It was mainly Dr. 
 Beale's efforts that induced the optician to make microscopic 
 object glasses of very high power, such as the Mh inch by Messrs. 
 Powell and Lealand, the use of which led him to ojjpose the 
 widely accepted view that nerves end peripherally. He found 
 that what were called the ends were the points at which the 
 nerves suddenly attenuated and ramified into a sort of mesh-work, 
 some of the fibres of which were not more than the j^—th of 
 an inch in diameter. These so called ends are observable near 
 the proxinal extremity of voluntary muscles, while the inter- 
 lacement of minute nerve fibres is visible over the whole body 
 of the muscle, as well as on the under side of the sarcolemma; 
 and the further continuation of the fibres is lost amidst the 
 substance which fills up the spaces between the muscular tissue. 
 This intermuscular tissue is usually designated connective ; but 
 Dr. Beale is convinced that in some places, especially beneath 
 sensitive surfaces, the tissue so called is really in great part, if 
 not wholly, composed of agglomerated nerve fibres. He believes 
 also that the nerve never ends, but is reflected back to nerve 
 centres, and generally to the same centre from which it 
 originated. Impressed with these ideas, he advocates the notion 
 that the nervous apparatus is a collection of continuous circuits 
 analogous to electrical circuits in metallic wires. In accordance 
 with this, he maintains that all nerve centres or ganglions are bi- 
 or multi-polar, never uni-polar or apolar. His papers bearing 
 on this subject arc contained in the ' Proceedings of the Royal 
 Society,' ' Philosophical Transactions/ ' Archives of Medicine,' 
 and ' Transactions of the Microscopical Society.' Another im- 
 poitant generalization made by Dr. Beale is that every tissue 
 consists of two parts, one of which is coloured when prepared in a 
 
191 
 
 BEAUFORT, SIR FRANCIS. 
 
 BECCOLD, JOHANN. 
 
 192 
 
 certain way with glycerine ; while the other is colourless. The 
 coloured portion is said to he living or germinal matter, and has 
 the properly of altering its form, of growing, of multiplying, 
 and, as we gather, vitalizing inorganic substances. It corre- 
 sponds to what is usually called cell-contents, protoplasm, &c, 
 and is distinguished by Beale as forming, growing, or active 
 matter. The colourless portion is the elfete germinal matter, 
 and forms the parts known as intercellular substance, cell-wall, 
 membrane, &c. Beale designates it as formed matter. Accord- 
 ing to him the protoplasm, or forming matter has the same 
 properties in every organ and in every organism; but the formed 
 matter varies whenever the conditions which governed its ap- 
 pearance varied. He considers that the protoplasm, or forming 
 matter, is the only portion of the organism which is living 
 or possesses vitality ; and that it is the essential element of 
 organic structure. From this it follows, almost consequently, 
 that he opposes the school that maintains the cell to be the 
 prime clement of all tissues; and declares that there are many 
 portions of the body which are not cells, such as the blood 
 globules. His views on this subject are fully explained in his 
 ' Lectures on the Structure and Growth of the Tissues of the 
 Human Body,' published in the second and third volumes of the 
 'Archives of Medicine;' but his fullest and latest expositions 
 will be found in a small book on 'Protoplasm,' of which the 
 second edition has just been issued. Dr. Beale is the editor 
 of the last edition of Todd and Bowman's ' Physiological Ana- 
 tomy and Physiology of Man,' and he has edited the 'Archives 
 of Medicine' from their commencement in 1857. For this last 
 work he has written a number of articles, which are embodied in 
 his books on the microscope, kidney diseases, &c. 
 
 BEAUFORT, REAR-ADMIRAL, SIR FRANCIS, K.C.B., 
 F.R.S., &c. [E. C. vol. vi. cols. 970-71.] Sir Francis Beaufort lived 
 but a few weeks after the publication of the volume of the E. C. 
 which contained our brief notice of him. Full of years and 
 honours lie died on the 3rd of December, 1857, aged 84 years. 
 
 BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN, son of Francis Beaumont, one 
 of the judges of the Court of Common Pleas, and elder brother 
 of Francis Beaumont the dramatist [E. 0. vol. i. col. 596'], was 
 born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in the year 1582. He was 
 admitted as a gentleman-commoner at Broadgate's Hall, Oxford, 
 in 1596 ; and after spending three years at the University, 
 came to London and commenced the study of the law, but 
 tiring of it after brief trial, he returned to Leicestershire, 
 married and lived the life of a country gentleman, amusing his 
 leisure hours by writing verse. He was made a baronet in 
 1626, died in 1628, and was interred in the chapel at Grace- 
 Dieu. His poetry is his title to remembrance. Ben Jonson 
 began the verses which he prefixed to Sir John Beaumont's 
 poems, "This book will live; it hath a Genius ;" yet it may 
 now be questioned whether book or name would have lived but 
 for the additional vitality imparted by the relationship of the 
 greater Francis. Sir John Beaumont's poetry is, however, often 
 pleasing and suggestive. His poems were published in 1629, in 
 a small Svo vol. of 208 pages (pp. 181 and 182 being missing in 
 all known copies), under the title of ' Bosworth Field, with a 
 variety of other poems;' reprinted in 1710, and in ChalmePs 
 ' British Poets.' A new edition was issued (but only to sub- 
 scribers), as a volume of the ' Fuller Worthies' Library,' by the 
 Rev. A. Grosart, 1869, under the title of ' The Poems of Sir 
 John Beaumont, Bart., for the first time collected and edited.' 
 Besides 'Bosworth Field,' Beaumont's poems comprise, 'The 
 Metamorphosis of Tobacca,' a ' Poetical Epistle to his late 
 Majesty (James I.) concerning the true forme of Englishe 
 Poetry ; ' religious, complimentary, and elegiac verses, and 
 translations from the Latin poets, including Virgil's 4th 
 eclogue ; Horace's 6th satire and 29th ode of the 3rd book ; 
 Juvenal's 10th satire, &c. He also wrote a poem called the 
 ' Crown of Thorns,' which appears to be lost. 
 
 BECCHER, or BECHER, JOHN JOACHIM, born at Spires 
 in 1625, son of a learned Lutheran preacher. His father died when 
 he was still young, and his family was reduced to poverty during 
 the Thirty Years' War. He managed to educate himself, and to 
 travel through German)', Italy, Sweden and Holland. In 1666 
 he became professor of medicine in the University of Mainz, and 
 soon after chief physician to the Elector. He now resided at 
 Munich, where the Elector furnished for him a good laboratory ; 
 but falling into difficulties he went to Vienna, where his know- 
 ledge of finance procured for him the appointment of chamber- 
 lain to Count Zmzendorf, and afterwards he became a member 
 of the newly erected College of Commerce. But falling again 
 into difficulties, he proceeded with his wife and children to 
 
 Holland, and settled at Haarlem in 1678. But influence from 
 Vienna compelled him to leave Holland. In 1680 he visited 
 Great Britain, and examined the Scottish lead mines and smelt- 
 ing works, and in 1681-2 he studied the mines and smelting 
 works of Cornwall and suggested various improvements. His 
 friend Count Zinzendorf procured for him an appointment 
 under the Duke of Mecklenbuvg-Schwerin at Giistrow, but while 
 preparing to accept it lie died (it is said) in London, 1682. His 
 writings are numerous, the most important being his ' Pliysica ' 
 Subterranea,'an edition of which was published at Leipzig in 1703, 
 with a long introduction by Stahl. He had the great merit of 
 contriving a chemical theory in which all the known facts were j 
 connected and deduced from one general principle. This was i 
 afterwards adopted and amplified by Stahl. A short account of J 
 Beccher's writings is given in Thomson's ' History of Chemis- I 
 try,' i. 248. Thomson remarks that " Beccher had much more 1 
 correct notions of the real objects of chemistry than any of his I 
 contemporaries." One of his works, called ' The Chemical I 
 Luck Pot,' contains a collection of fifteen hundred chemical pro- J 
 cesses. He writes in a pleasant, chatty style, saying a good deal j 
 about himself — in whom he had unbounded confidence, and a I 
 corresponding degree of contempt for other chemists. Referring J 
 to the hard life of the man of science, " who lives amidst 
 smoke and vapour, soot and flame, poisons and poverty," he says, j 
 "yet among all these evils, I seem to myself to live so sweetly, 
 that may I die if I would change places with the Persian I 
 king." His enthusiasm was grounded on a love of science. 
 He says, " My kingdom is not of this world ; I trust that I I 
 have got hold of my pitcher by the right handle — the true 
 method of treating this study. For the pseudo chemists seek gold ; 
 but the true philosophers, science, which is more precious than 
 any gold." Beccher was the discoverer of boracic acid. 
 
 BECCOLD, JOHANN, whose name varies as BOCKHOLD, 
 BOCKOLD, BOCKOLT, BOCKELSOHN, (JAN BOCKELS- ■ 
 ZOON), and who is more commonly known as JOHN of 
 LEYDEN (JAN van LEYDEN), was born at the Hague in 1509 ' 
 or 1510. He is chiefly distinguished for the part he took in the i 
 commotions excited at Minister, in 1535, by the Dutch Anabap- j 
 tists. To the harmless principle which prescribed the limitation of 
 baptism to such persons as were grown up to years of under- i 
 standing, and to immersion as its mode of administration, the Ana- ( 
 baptists added tenets of a more enthusiastic, as weU as dangerous > 
 nature. They maintained that among Christians who have the pre- 
 cepts of the gospel to direct, and the Spirit of God to guide them, ! 
 the office of magistrate is unnecessary, and an encroachment on 
 spiritual liberty ; that all distinctions of birth or rank ought to be 
 abolished ; that a community of goods should be established, 
 and that every man may lawfully marry as many wives as he ' 
 thinks proper. Beccold was brought up to the trade of a tailor, ' 
 at Leyden, and after having visited various countries of Europe, j 
 including England, Flanders, and Portugal, he settled at i 
 Leyden, where in his leisure hours he cultivated his natural 
 talent for literature and the drama. Adopting the opinions of ! 
 the Anabaptists, he became one of their itinerating prophets, 
 and in pursuance of his commission from John Mathiesen, or 
 Matthys, visited Miinster in 1533, where by his amazing fluency 
 and command of Scripture, he achieved a great reputation, and 
 prepared a party against the coining of Matthys himself, who on 
 one occasion suddeidy appeared amongst his disciples, blowing 
 on them, and bidding them "Receive the Holy Ghost." The 
 Anabaptist movement now spread, for the zeal of its adherents 
 was increased by the belief that they had received the gift of 
 inspiration. Its leaders refused a conference proffered by the 
 magistrates ; and Ruthus, one of the chief of their preachers, 
 pretending or supposing himself to be inspired, ran through the 
 city, in December, 1533, crying out, " Repent, and be baptized 
 again, or else the wrath of God will fall upon you, for the day 
 of the Lord is at hand." This preaching was attended with 
 wonderful success, and the re-baptized assumed the title of 
 saints, into whose hands the government of the city at length 
 fell, by the flight of the magistrates and principal inhabitants. 
 Matthys held the chief authority, Beccold was his lieutenant ; 
 and the faithful were caUed to arms to defend the common- 
 wealth against the forces of the Bishop, whose attempts to 
 regain possession of Miinster, at the close of 1534, were 
 aided by the Duke of Treves and the Elector of Cologne. The 
 besieged were so numerous as to command success, but they 
 sustained a loss in the death of their leader Matthys, during a 
 foolhardy sortie from the walls. This loss, however, was insuf- 
 ficient to damp their courage, for Beccold was forthwith raised 
 to the vacant place, and by his powerful elocpience, soon had 
 
103 
 
 BECK, DAVID. 
 
 BECKINGTON, THOMAS. 
 
 194 
 
 them under his control. He was, indeed, regarded as a prophet, 
 to whom was vouchsafed a series of divine revelations, in 
 nccordance with which he determined on a change in the form 
 of government, and appointed twelve magistrates, " ancients or 
 elders of the new Israel," in place of the former senate. A fresh 
 revelation, at first not quite heartily acquiesced in by the people, 
 who had been, taught to believe that all the members of the 
 Kingdom of Grace were equal, provided that the new Israel 
 must henceforth be ruled by a king, and affirmed that as the 
 Lord had raised up Saul, so had He raised up John of Leyden 
 to rule His chosen people. King John now exemplified fully 
 the principle of polygamy ; objections against which were 
 silenced by the execution of complainants. The dominion 
 of the saints was a dominion of lust and blood. Nor were 
 the externals of majesty forgotten. Arrayed in splendid robes, 
 with a crown on his head, and a sceptre in his hand, the 
 quondam tailor of Leyden sat on the judgment seat, protected by- 
 troops, and surrounded by counsellors clad in purple. The 
 siege of Minister was now, however, prosecuted with vigour by 
 the Bishop and his allies, and although the defence was success- 
 fully maintained for six months, the Bishop's troops were ad- 
 mitted by a traitor on the 24th of June, 1535, when most of the 
 people perished, and the city was given up to an eight days' 
 pillage. On the 22nd of January, 1536, John of Leyden and 
 two of his companions were publicly tortured with red-hot 
 pincers, stabbed and mutilated, and their bodies suspended in 
 iron cages from the top of a lofty tower. 
 
 BECK, or BEEK, DAVID, an eminent Dutch portrait painter, 
 was born at Aarnhem in Gelderland on the 25th of May, 1621. 
 First pupil and afterwards assistant to Vandyck, lie assimilated 
 his own manner entirely to that of his master, whose ablest as 
 well as most fortunate scholar he was generally reckoned. He 
 painted under Vandyck in England, and was employed by 
 Charles I. to teach design to his sons, the Prince of "Wales 
 (Charles II.), and the Dukes of York (James II.) and Gloucester. 
 The King greatly delighted to watch him paint, and while 
 admiring his remarkable dexterity and rapidity, is reported to 
 have said to him, "Faith, Beck, I believe you could paint riding 
 post." He painted many portraits here, but his name is scarcely 
 ever found in the collections or attached to family portraits, 
 and there can be little doubt that portraits ascribed to Vandyck 
 are often the work of David Beck. On leaving England lie 
 painted for the King of France, and was then employed by 
 Queen Christina of Sweden, who made him gentleman of her 
 chamber, and commissioned him to paint the portraits of the 
 principal sovereigns of Europe. In order to execute this com- 
 mission he visited Denmark, France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. 
 From several of the monarchs whose likenesses he painted, and 
 to whom he presented portraits of Queen Christina, he received 
 gold medals and chains, and the painters of Rome, as Houbraken 
 is careful to tell, designated him the Golden Sceptre. It is 
 related that whilst in Germany he had a severe fit of sickness, 
 passed into a state of coma, and was actually laid out as dead. 
 His two servants while watching the body cheered themselves 
 with a bottle of wine, when one said, " Poor fellow, he loved a 
 glass whilst he lived ; let us give him one more before he is 
 buried," and put the glass to his lips. A few drops were retained 
 in his mouth ; the man, vowing that his master tasted it, per- 
 sisted : some was swallowed, and presently Beck sat up ; revived 
 to complete his commission ; returned to the Hague, and there 
 for some years pursued his profession. He died on the 20th of 
 December, 1656, as some have said from poison. David Beck 
 was undoubtedly an able portrait painter, but his individuality 
 was sunk in the imitation of Vandyck. 
 
 BECKET, ISAAC, one of the best of the early English engravers 
 in mezzotint, was born in Kent in 1653. His story, as collected 
 by Walpole from Vertue, is to the effect that he was apprenticed 
 to a calico-printer, but visiting Lutterel, who was then working 
 at the new .art of mezzotint engraving, without, however, having 
 been able to penetrate the secret, Becket's ambition was tired. 
 Having heard that Loyd, who kept a print shop in Salisbury- 
 street, in the Strand, had bought the secret of a Dutchman 
 named Blois, but being unable to engrave, and having quarrelled 
 with Lutterel, was unable to use it, Becket offered his service to 
 Loyd, and was employed by him. Meantime Lutterel had 
 learned the true method from Vansomer, and Becket was fain to 
 return to him for instruction. Becket's happy style of treating 
 beads procured him ample employment, and, marrying a woman 
 of fortune, he was enabled to secure the services of Lutterel to 
 prepare the plates, leaving only the finishing for himself. He 
 engraved several subject-pieces, as a 'Holy Family;' a 'Land- 
 woo, div.— sup. 
 
 scape with Shepherd and Shepherdess ; 'a 'Dutch Sch >olmastcr, 
 after Heemskerk and others; but his portraits, which ore rather 
 numerous, are more valued. Among the best are Charles 1 1, 
 and the Duke of York (James II.), after Kneller ; Kneller by 
 himself; Lc Piper, the painter, much prized; a full length of 
 Lady Williams; Beau Fielding, capitally executed ; Cartwright, 
 Bishop of Chester, somewhat rare ; the Duke and the Duchess 
 of Grafton ; Prince George of Denmark ; and Sir Peter Lely. 
 The year of his death is uncertain. 
 
 BECKINGTON, BEKYNGTON, or DE BEK1NTON, 
 THOMAS, was born in the parish of Beckington, about three 
 miles from Frome, in Somersetshire, about the year 1385 ; and 
 it is probable that he received his early education at Winchester. 
 In 1403 he entered New College, Oxford, of which society he 
 became a fellow in 1408. He held his fellowship for twelve 
 years, and took the degree of LL.D. "Within this period it is 
 most probable that he was presented to the rectory of St. 
 Leonard's, near Hastings, in Sussex, and to the vicarage of 
 Sutton-Courtney, in Berkshire. He was collated to the prebend 
 of Bilton, in the cathedral church of York, on the 19th of April, 
 1423; to the prebend of Longden, in Lichfield cathedral, on the 
 30th of August, 1436 ; and to that of Hoiborn, in St. Paul's, on 
 the 10th of November, 1438. In October, 1424, he was appointed 
 Archdeacon of Buckingham ; and became, in addition, master of 
 St. Katherine's Hospital, near the Tower of London. Becking- 
 ton attained some reputation as an advocate in Doctors' Commons; 
 and in 1429 he was Dean of the Court of Arches, in which capacity 
 he was employed, jointly with William Linwood, an official of 
 the court, and Thomas Brown, Vicar-General to the Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, to draw up a form of law, by which to regulate 
 the proceedings against the followers of AVycliffe. He was tutor 
 to Henry VI., and enjoyed that monarch's favour, which was 
 increased by the production of a book, in which, in opposition to 
 the Salique law, Beckington vindicated the claims of his sove- 
 reign to the crown of France. In 1432 or 1433 he was named 
 one of the ambassadors who were commissioned to treat of peace 
 with France ; and he assisted at the congress of Arras, which 
 terminated in the treaty of the 22nd of September, 1435. In 
 1439 he was charged with fresh negociations ; and interested 
 himself specially for the release of Charles, Duke of Orleans, 
 known to this day as an accomplished poet, who had been a 
 prisoner in England from the time of the battle of Agincourt. 
 About this time Beckington was preferred to be Secretary of State ; 
 and on the 20th of May, 1442, was joined in a commission with 
 Sir Robert Roos and Edward Hull, Esq., to negociate a marriage 
 between Henry VI. and one of the daughters of John IV., Comte 
 d'Armagnac, on which occasion an attendant, probably one of 
 his chaplains, wrote a journal, which supplies us with many 
 interesting particulars respecting his conduct in that affair, ami 
 throws some light upon his character. Beckington returned to 
 England in February, 1443, and in July following he was 
 appointed Keeper of the Privy Seal, with an allowance of 20.*. a 
 day, but he seems to have resigned that office in the ensuing 
 February. He was made Bishop of Bath and Wells, by the 
 Pope's bulls of provision, dated the 13th of May, 1443 ; and the 
 king restored to him the temporalities of the see on the 24th of 
 September following. The archbishop delivered up the spiritu- 
 alities on the 5th of October, and the consecration of the new pre- 
 late took place on the 13th of the same month, in the yet unfinished 
 chapel of Eton College, which was on that day " hallowed," and 
 the first Mass said in it by Beckington himself. The Bishop of 
 Bath and Wells now withdrew himself almost entirely from 
 public life ; but there is reason to believe that he was present as 
 a trier of petitions in the parliaments of 1444, 1447, 1449, 1450, 
 and 1453. He died on the 14th of January, 1465, and was 
 buried in Wells Cathedral, where a handsome monument was 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 Beckington is said to have been the most elegant man of his 
 time, and lie was so famous for his scholarly attainments and the 
 favour with which he regarded all learned and ingenious men, 
 that he was called the Maecenas of the age. He contributed 
 generously to various charities, and especially to the enlargement 
 and embellishment of his cathedral ; and he was so munificent 
 a benefactor to several of the colleges of Oxford, that Fuller says 
 he was " little less than a second founder." Beckington's work 
 against the Salique law has never been published ; but it is pre- 
 served in MS. in the Cottonian Library, Tiberius B., xii. Some 
 other pieces by Beckington are in the same library, and a large 
 collection of his Letters, chiefly, though not exclusively, on 
 public and ecclesiastical affairs, is in the archbishop's library at 
 Lambeth. A volume of sermons, and a few slighter productions 
 
 o 
 
IDS 
 
 BECON, THOMAS. 
 
 BEGAS, KARL. 
 
 196 
 
 have also been ascribed to him. In 1828 Mr., afterwards Sir, 
 Nicholas Harris Nicolas published ' A Journal by one of the suite 
 of Thomas BecMngton, afterwards Bishop of Bath and Wells, 
 during an Embassy to negociate a Marriage between Henry VI. 
 and a daughter of the Count of Armagnac. A.D. MCCCCXLIL' 
 
 BECON, THOMAS, a divine and reformer of the 10'th cen- 
 tury, is variously said to have been a native of Kent, Suffolk, 
 and Norfolk. It is probable, however, that he was limn in the 
 last-named county, about 1511. At an early age he was sent to 
 St. John's College, Cambridge, and proceeded B.A. in 1530—31. 
 During his residence at the University he was a diligent hearer 
 of Hugh Latimer and George Stafford, and became a decided 
 supporter of Protestant opinions. It has been asumed that this 
 partisanship had the effect of retarding his ordination, which 
 took place in 1538. About 1540 he was convened before the 
 Privy Council on a charge of advocating heretical opinions in his 
 exposition of the Ten Commandments. He obtained his release 
 from confinement in the Lollards' Tower, to which he had been 
 condemned, by a recantation and a confession that he had 
 " preached and taughte evyll and false doctrine, against the con- 
 tinency of priests, prayers for the dead, and the sacrament of the 
 altar, and the sacraments of confirmation and extreme unction." 
 Then he assumed layman's apparel, and repaired to Kent, where, 
 "changing the form of teachinge the people from preachinge 
 into wrylynge," he produced various books, all advocating the 
 principles of the Reformation, under the assumed name of 
 Theodore Basille. His first preferment was the vicarage of 
 Brenzet, in Kent. In 1543, having again fallen under suspicion, 
 he was compelled to abjure his opinions at St. Paul's Cross; and 
 in his recantation he not only recapitulated that which he had 
 formerly made, but confessed the unsoundness of certain positions 
 he had promulgated in his several books, entitled ' Newes out of 
 Heaven, both pleasaunt and joyful,' 8vo, London, 1541 ; ' The 
 Right Pathwaye unto Prayer,' 12mo, London, 1542 ; ' Potacion, 
 or Drinkynge for this Holy Tyme of Lent,' 12mo, London, 1542; 
 ' The Christmas Banket,' 8vo, 1542; 'The Catechisme;' ' David's 
 Harpe,' 8vo, London, 1542 ; ' Invective against Swearyng,' 8vo, 
 London, 1543; 'The Golden Boke of Christen Matrimonye,' 8vo, 
 London, 1542 ; ' The Nosegaye ;' and ' A New Yeare's Gift,' 8vo, 
 London, 1543. All these books he publicly cut in pieces ; and 
 accompanied the act of their destruction with the most con- 
 temptuous expressions about himself, his pride, vanity, and want 
 of learning. After this recantation, Becon retired to the Peak of 
 Derbyshire, whence he proceeded successively to Staffordshire, 
 Warwickshire, and Leicestershire, either gaining a livelihood by 
 tuition, or being hospitably entertained by the friends and well- 
 wishers of the Reformation. Whilst he was in the midland 
 counties he published various works which became popular, and 
 which are amongst those prohibited by a proclamation issued on 
 the 8th of July, 1546. On the 24th of March, 1548, he was 
 instituted to the rectory of St. Stephen, Walbrook, London, and 
 about the same time became chaplain to Archbishop Cranmer, 
 and one of the six preachers of Canterbury Cathedral. He was 
 also chaplain to the Lord-Protector Somerset, with ■whom he 
 resided for some time at Sheen. He appears, but at what 
 period is unknown, to have commenced D.D. at Oxford. On 
 the accession of Queen Mary, Becon was deprived of his living 
 as a married priest, and was further committed to the Tower as 
 a seditious preacher. He remained in custody from the 16th of 
 August, 1553, till the 22nd of March following. His means of 
 escape are unknown, but his release is said to have been occa- 
 sioned by a mistake of Bishop Gardiner. He went abroad, and 
 resided at Strasburg and Marburg. Whilst abroad he produced 
 several works, of which one was entitled ' A comfortable Epistle 
 too Goddes faythful People in Englande,' 8vo, Strasburg, 1554 ; 
 and another in Latin, upon the Mass, which he addressed to 
 Popish priests, with the title, ' Cccnoe Dominicre et Missae 
 Papisticse Comparatio,' 8vo, Basil, 1559. After the accession of 
 Elizabeth, Becon returned to England, and was reinstated in his 
 London benefice, and collated, in 1559, to the fourth prebend in 
 the cathedral church of Canterbury. He was now in high 
 esteem, and in great request as a preacher. On the 21st of 
 October, 1560, he was presented to the rectory of Buckland, in 
 Hertfordshire ; to the vicarage of Christ Church, Newgate-street, 
 on the presentation of the Lord Mayor and commonalty of the 
 city of London; and on the 10th of August, 1563, was admitted 
 to the rectory of St. DionisBackchurch, London, on the presenta- 
 tion of the Dean and Chapter of Canterbury. His death occurred 
 at some unascertained date before the 2nd of July, 1567. 
 
 Becon was the author of tracts almost innumerable in favour 
 of the Reformation, and many of them were collected in a 
 
 volume which did not quite answer to its title of ' The Worckes 
 of Thomas Becon, diligently perused, corrected, and amended,' 
 folio, London, 1563 — 4, by John Day, who also reprinted several 
 publications separately. A collection of Becon's works was 
 piinted for the Parker Society under the editorship of the Rev. 
 John Ayre, M.A., of Caius College, 3 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 
 1843 — 44. Selections from his writings have been published by 
 the Religious Tract Society, and by the Society for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge. Amongst the minor characteristics of 
 Becon may be mentioned the quaintness of some of the titles 
 chosen for his works, as, for example, ' The Jewel of Joy,' 
 ' The Castel of Comfort,' ' The Sycke Man's Salve,' and ' The 
 Pomaunder of Prayer.' 
 
 BEECIIER, LYMAN, D.D., an American divine and philan- 
 thropist, was born on the 12th of October, 1775, at New Haven, 
 Connecticut. After receiving his preliminary education succes- 
 sively at North Guilford and New Haven, he entered Yale 
 College in 1793, where, after graduating in 1797, he entered the 
 divinity school under the president, Dr. Timothy Dwight, favour- 
 ably known for his important work on Systematic Theology. 
 In the latter part of 1798 Mr. Beecher was licensed to the 
 pastorate of a church at East Hampton, Long Island, to which 
 he was ordained by the presbytery of Middleton, on the 5th of 
 September, 1799. After spending several years at East Hampton, 
 during which he acquired considerable reputation for his elo- 
 quence as a preacher, he became, in 1810, pastor of the First 
 Church of Litchfield, Connecticut. On the 3rd of September, 1817, 
 he preached at Boston, upon the occasion of the ordination of the 
 Rev. Sereno E. Dwight as pastor of Park Street Church, a sermon 
 in which he combated, with great applause, the system of the Uni- 
 tarians ; and the reputation then acquired was consolidated by 
 further ministrations in Eastern Massachusetts, in 1819 and 1823. 
 In 1826, Dr. Beecher, upon whom the degree of D.D. had been 
 conferred in 1818, accepted a call to undertake the charge of the 
 then newly-established church in Hanover-street, Boston ; and 
 took part with great ardour and ability in the controversy against 
 Dr. Channing and others which then agitated many of the New 
 England churches on the subject of Unitarianism. On the 26th 
 of December, 1832, Dr. Beecher became President and Professor 
 of Theology in the Lane Theological Seminary at Cincinnati ; 
 and, after the spring of 1833, combined with these offices the 
 pastorate of the second Presbyterian church of that city. His 
 learning, decided views, and stirring eloquence had a powerful 
 effect on the population of the West ; for he was thoroughly in 
 earnest, and known to take an active pait in the promotion of 
 temperance and every great philanthnmic movement of the day. 
 In the year 1842 he retired from fixed professional employment 
 and lived for some years at Boston, and in 1856-7 removed to 
 Brooklyn, Long Island, where, in the enjoyment of physical 
 vigour greater than belonged to his advanced age, he was a 
 constant attendant upon the ministry of his son, the Rev. Henry 
 Ward Beecher, at Plymouth Church. Dr. Beecher died in 
 January, 1863, having been the father of nine children, who 
 have all distinguished themselves in literature or by their 
 exertions in the cause of abolition. The best known amongst 
 them are the Rev. Charles Beecher, the pastor of a church iu 
 Newark, New Jersey, and the editor of ' Autobiography, Cor- 
 respondence, &c, of Lyman Beecher, D.D. ;' the Rev. Edward 
 Beecher, D.D., known as an author, preacher, and professor ; the 
 Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, just referred to, the celebrated 
 preacher of Plymouth Church ; and Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, 
 the author of ' Uncle Tom's Cabin.' The principal works of 
 Dr. Lyman Beecher are his 'Plea for the West,' 12ruo, New 
 York ; ' Sermons on Various Occasions,' 8vo, New York, 1842 ; 
 ' Views in Theology,' 12mo ; ' Skepticism,' 12mo ; ' Political 
 Atheism,' &c. His collected works were published, under his 
 own supervision, at Boston, in 3 vols. 12mo. 
 
 BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM [E. C.vol. i. col. 614]. 
 Rear Admiral Beechey (not Beechy, as by an unfortunate 
 printer's alteration the heading of the memoir was printed in 
 some copies of the revised issue of the E. C.) was born on the 
 17th of February, 1796, and died on the 29th of November, 
 1856. 
 
 BEGAS, KARL, an eminent German historical painter, was 
 born at Heinsberg, September 30, 1794. His father, a retired 
 judge, wished his son to adopt the legal profession, and sent him 
 to study at Bonn with that view. But his passion for painting 
 was so decided that his father gave way, and placed kiin under 
 Philippart, who set him to copy Ratfaelle. In 1810 he went to 
 Paris, where for 18 months he was in the atelier of Gros. A 
 copy of the Madonna della Sedia, then in the Louvre, gained 
 
197 
 
 BEGER, LORENZ. 
 
 BEHR, WILHELM JOSEPH. 
 
 198 
 
 for him the patronage of the King of Prussia, for whom, after 
 his return to Berlin, he executed several works. From this time 
 he worked on steadily, producing a great number of religious and 
 historical paintings and many portraits, and winning his way 
 in professional rank tiU he was generally regarded as the ablest 
 and most accomplished painter of the Prussian school. He was 
 painter in ordinary to the King of Prussia ; professor and mem- 
 ber of the council of the Berlin Academy ; member of the 
 Academy, Dresden ; and Knight of the Bed Eagle. By his 
 countrymen he is thought a great colourist, and altogether per- 
 haps a great artist. But his actual rank is that of a learned and 
 able painter. He lacked the vivifying spark of genius. His 
 pictures comprise such lofty subjects as ' Christ on the Mount of 
 Olives,' painted for the garrison church, Berlin ; the ' Descent of 
 the Holy Spirit,' for Berlin Cathedral : the Transfiguration, the 
 Ascension, &c, as well as more manageable religious subjects, 
 like the Baptism of Christ, and the Finding of Moses. His 
 historical and poetical pictures are numerous, and include 
 Henry IV. at Canossa, the Lorelei, painted for the King of 
 Hanover, and 'Maidens under the Oak-tree.' His portraits 
 comprise among others Alexander Humboldt, Leopold Bach, 
 Schelling, Thorwaldsen, Cornelius, Schadow, Ranch, and Meyer- 
 beer. Begas died on the 24th of November, 1854. He left three 
 sons, who have attained honourable rank in different branches of 
 art. Oskar Begas, the eldest, born 1828, was educated as a 
 painter, won the gold medal of the Berlin Academy, and com- 
 pleted his studies in Rome. He has painted an ' Expulsion from 
 Paradise,' and other religious and historical pictures. Reinhold 
 Begas, the second son, born 1831, won the first prize at the Berlin 
 Academy, went to Rome, and has executed a Group of Fauns, a 
 Psyche and other groups, statues, and portrait busts, which have 
 been much admired. Adalbert Begas, also completed his 
 studies at Rome, and has acquired reputation as an engraver. 
 
 BEGER, LORENZ (BEGERUS, LAURENTIUS), an emi- 
 nent German numismatist, was the son of a tanner at Heidelberg, 
 •where he was born on the 19th of April, 1653. His attainments 
 secured for him the post of librarian to Frederick William, 
 Elector of Brandenburg, and the friendship of many of his 
 learned compatriots. He was a member of the Academy of 
 Berlin, in which city he died on the 21st of April, 1705. His 
 pi incipal works, which are all in Latin, are — 1. 'Thesaurus ex 
 Thesauro Palatino selectus, seu Gemma?,' fob, Heidelberg, 1685 ; 
 
 2. ' Observationes in Nunasmata quaxlam Antiqua,' 4to, 1691 ; 
 
 3. 'Spicilegium Antiquitatis,' fol. Cologne, 1692, 2nd ed. 
 1694 ; 4. ' Thesaurus Brandenburgicus Selectus,' 3 vols. fol. Col. 
 1696 — 1701 ; 5. ' Contemplatio Gemmarum quarumdam,' &c. 4to, 
 
 ■ 1697 ; 6. 'Bellum et Excidium Trojanum, ex antiquitatum 
 reliquiis, tabula quam Raph. Fabrettus edidit Iliaca, delineatum 
 et comment, illustratum,' 4to, Berlin and Leipzig, 1699 ; 7. 
 'Regum et Imperatorum Romanorum Numismata, a Romulo 
 usque ad Justinianum,' folio, Cologne, 1700 ; 8. ' De Nummis 
 Cretensium Serpentiferis,' fol. 1702 ; 9. ' Lucerna; veterum 
 Scpulchrales diconicoe, J. P. Bellorii,' fol. 1702 ; 10. ' Numis- 
 mata Pontificum Romanorum,' fol. 1703 ; 11. ' Hercules Ethni- 
 corum ex variis antiquitatum reliquiis delineatus,' fol. Cologne, 
 
 | 1700. The titles of his other works will be found in Ebert's 
 ' Allgenieines Bibliographisehes Lexikon.' Beger is charged 
 
 : with having written under an assumed name in defence of re- 
 marriage during the life of a first wife, at the instance of the 
 Elector Karl Ludwig, who wished to marry his mistress, his 
 wife being alive ; and it is added that alter the death of the 
 Elector, Beger wrote a refutation of his own book, but no such 
 
 ■ work is known to have been printed. 
 
 j, BEHLEN, STEPHAN, an able German writer on forestry 
 and forest laws, was bom at Fritzlar in Hesse-Cassel, on the 5th 
 of August, 1784. On leaving the gymnasium of Aschaffenburg he 
 1 Btudied jurisprudence, economics, and forest law and manage- 
 ment in the University of Mainz ; after which he learnt in the 
 Spessart Forest district the practical application of the knowledge 
 he had acquired. In 1803 he was appointed land commissary, 
 and he rose step by step till he obtained in 1819 the supervision 
 of the Spessart district. On a re-arrangement of the forest courts 
 in 1821 he was appointed professor of natural history at Aschaf- 
 fenburg, and shortly after wrote an excellent account of the wild 
 • district in which he had spent the better part of his life — ' Der 
 j Spessart. Versuch einer Topographic dieser Waldgegend,' 3 vols, 
 i Leipzig, 1823 — 27. He was pensioned in 1832, and died at 
 1 Aschaffenburg, February 7, 1847. Besides the work just named, 
 Herr Behlen is the author of several volumes of permanent 
 I value on the history, laws, wild sports, and administration of 
 , forests, with an ample technical lexicon — ' Lehrbuch der Forst- 
 
 und Jagdthicrgeschichte,' Leipzig, 1826 ; ' Lehrbuch der Jagdwis- 
 senschaft,' Frankf. 1839 ; ' Real- und Verballexikon der Forst- 
 und Jagdkunde,' 7 vols. Frankf. 1840 — 45. In conjunction with 
 Laurop he edited the ' Systematischen Sammlung der Forst- und 
 Jagdgesetze der deutschen Bundesstaaten,' 5 vols. 1827 — 33, a 
 book which he continued alone in the ' Archiv der Forst- und 
 Jagdgesetzgebung der deutschen Bundesstaaten,' 29 vols. Frei- 
 burg, 1834 — 47 ; and he assisted in the establishment of the 
 ' Allgemeinen Forst- und Jagdzeitung,' 1823. 
 
 BEHNES, WILLIAM [E. C. vol. vi. col. 971]. Owing to 
 pecuniary and other troubles Mr. Behnes' last years were pro- 
 fessionally almost unproductive. He died in the Middlesex 
 Hospital on the 3rd of Januar}', 1864. 
 
 * BEHR, JOHANN HEINRICH AUGUST VON, a Saxon 
 minister of State, was born on the 13th of November, 1793, at 
 Freiberg, where his father was pastor. He studied at the gym- 
 nasium of his native place, and in 1811 entered the University 
 of Leipzig as a student of theology, which in 1813 he changed 
 for the study of law. Having completed his studies the year 
 before, he became, in May, 1816, an actuary in the bailiwick of 
 Schwarzenberg, and in December of the same year was made 
 justiciary successively of the courts of Purschenstein, Olbernhau, 
 and Rothenthal. In 1833, being appointed Aulic counsellor, ho 
 was called to Dresden by the duties of his office, which he per- 
 formed with zeal and ability till 1838, when he accepted office 
 in the department of finance. On the 1st of April of that year 
 he entered the Home-office with the rank of Privy Councillor. 
 On the occasion of the insurrection which broke out at Dresden, 
 on the 30th of April, 1849, in consequence of the persistent 
 refusal of the king to recognise the Frankfurt constitution, the 
 means which Behr advocated for the suppression of the popular 
 disturbances seemed too impracticable to allow of his being 
 placed at the head of the ministry, otherwise a probable appoint- 
 ment ; and he was consequently called upon, May 14th, to accept 
 the post of Finance Minister. In this capacity he adopted the 
 principle that the increase of existing taxes is preferable to the 
 imposition of new ones. One of his first tasks was to restore the 
 credit of the country ; and externally his policy may be described 
 as one of conciliation, which at first approved the ' Project of a 
 Constitution for the German Empire,' drawn up at Berlin by the 
 plenipotentiaries of Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony ; but after- 
 wards leaned towards Austria. Behr was accustomed, for inter- 
 vals of varying length, to perform the duties of Minister of 
 Justice, for Zschinsky, and upon the death of the latter, in 1859, 
 succeeded to the office. Here he sought to carry out the reforms 
 initiated by his predecessor, for the making of justice easily and 
 popularly accessible. In 1862 he was promoted by the king to 
 be provost of the cathedral chapter at Meissner. The indepen- 
 dence of the country and of the official life of Saxony have for 
 the present been absorbed in that North German dominion which 
 is the creation of Count Bismarck. 
 
 BEHR, WILHELM JOSEPH, a distinguished German pub- 
 licist, was born at Sultzheim on the 26th of August, 1775. He 
 studied the science of law at Wurzburg and Gotlingen, and the 
 practice of it in the courts of justice at Vienna and Wetzlar. In 
 1799 he became professor of state-law in the University of Wurz- 
 burg, an appointment which he held till 1821. During all this 
 period he laboured, both in his lectures and his published works, to 
 diffuse enlightened constitutional views throughout Germany. In 
 1819 he was elected a member of the Bavarian Chamber of Depu- 
 ties, as the representative of his university, and took his place in 
 the ranks of the opposition. He was likewise raised by the inhabi- 
 tants of Wurzburg to the office of burgomaster, and performed 
 the duties devolving on him in that capacity with great energy. 
 On the occasion of his election to be again a member of the 
 Chamber, the royal assent to the appointment was refused. On 
 the 27th of May, 1832, he publicly delivered himself of senti- 
 ments so distasteful to the government that an investigation was 
 made into his conduct, the result of which was his deprivation 
 of the office of burgomaster. He was arrested on the 24th of 
 January, 1833, and imprisoned at Wurzburg, and after a trial, 
 protracted for several years, on the charge of complicity with 
 revolutionary intrigues, he was sentenced in 1836 to apologise 
 before the likeness of the king, and to be incarcerated during the 
 royal pleasure. He was accordingly removed to the fortress of 
 Oberliaus, near Passau ; but in August, 1839, was permitted to 
 live in a private house in Passau. In February, 1842, he was 
 allowed to reside at Regensburg, under police surveillance ; and 
 finally he was not only restored to complete freedom by the 
 political amnesty of the 6th of March, 1848, but received an 
 indemnification of 10,000 florins. In the same vear he was 
 
 o 2 
 
1°9 BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE. 
 
 chosen by the electoral district of Kronach to be its representative 
 in the German National Assembly. After the date of his 
 enlargement, Behr resided at Bamberg, where he died on the 1st 
 of August, 1851. 
 
 His principal works are his Examination of Feudal Rights 
 and Feudal Powers, 'Versuch liber die Lehnherrlichkeit und 
 Lehnhoheit,' Wurzburg, 1799 ; .System of public justice, ' System 
 der Staatslehre,' 3 vols. Frankfurt, 1810; Constitution and Ad- 
 ministration of the State, ' Verfassung und Verwaltung des 
 Staats,' 2 vols. Niirnberg, 1811 — 12; Exposition of the wishes and 
 hopes of the German people, ' Darstellung der Wiinschc und 
 Hoffnungen deutecher Nation,' Aschaffenberg, 181G ; Science of 
 Political Economy, ' Lchre von der Wirthsehaft des Staats,' 
 Leipzig, 1822 ; On the proper limits of the Influence of the 
 (Jennan Confederation on the Government, Legislation, and 
 Administration of the Confederate States, ' Von den rechtlichen 
 Grenzen der Einwirkung des deutschen Bundes auf die Verfas- 
 sung, Gesetzgebung und Rechtspftege seiner Gliederetaaten,' 2nd 
 edition, Stuttgart, 1820; Claims and demands of the Bavarian 
 Diet, and an impartial criticism of its transactions, ' Anforder- 
 ungen an Baierns Landtag im Jahre 1*27, und unparteiische 
 vi'issenschaftliehe Beurtheilung seiner Verliandlungen,' 3 vols. 
 Wurzburg, 1827 — 28 ; and Wants and Wishes of the Bavarians, 
 ' Bedurfnisse und Wiinschc der Baieni,' Stuttgart, 1830. 
 
 * BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE, a distinguished writer on 
 African geography and exploration, was born in London on the 
 10th of October, 1800. He belongs to a family long settled at 
 Bekcsbourne in Kent. Although at one time he studied law at 
 Lincoln's Inn, he became a merchant, t rading in London, Saxony, 
 and the Mauritius ;and from 1836" to 1838 was acting British Consul 
 in Saxony. For nearly forty years he has paid great attention to 
 historical and geographical subjects, especially in connection with 
 Africa. He made a journey- to Abyssinia, and explored much of 
 the region about Shoa and Godjam, at that time almost unknown 
 to Europeans ; but his writings have been mostly as a commen- 
 tator. The chief among them were published in the following 
 order : — ' Origines BibliciB, or Researches in Primaeval History^,' 
 1834, London— an attempt to construct a science of history on a 
 new basis ; 'Abyssinia, a statement of facts,' &c, 1845, relating 
 to the British political mission to Shoa, in which he was aided 
 by private subscriptions, after failing to obtain government sup- 
 port ; 'An Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries,' 1847; 'An 
 Essay on the Sources of the Nile in the Mountains of the 
 Moon,' 1848; 'On the Geographical Distribution of the Lan- 
 guages of Abyssinia, and on the means requisite for their deter- 
 mination,' 1849 ; ' On the Sources of the Nile,' being an attempt 
 to assign the limits of the basin of that river, 1849 ; ' An Enquiry 
 into M. A. D'Abbadie's Journey to Kaffa in the years 1843 and 
 1844, to Discover the Sources of the Nile,' 1850 ; ' A Summary 
 of the recent Nilotic Discoveries,' 1851 ; 'The Sources of the 
 Nile, a general survey of the head stream, and of the steps by 
 which discoveries in that region have been made,' 1860 ; ' On the 
 Mountains forming the Eastern Side of the Basin of the Nile, 
 and on the Origin of the designation Mountains of the Moon, 
 applied to them,' 1861 ; 'A Few Words with Bishop Colenso on 
 the subject of the Exodus of the Israelites, and the position of 
 Mount Sinai,' 18G2 ; ' Who Discovered the Sources of the Nile 1 ' 
 two letters, 1863 ; ' The British Captives in Abyssinia,' 1865 ; 
 ' King Theodore and Mr. Rassam,' a letter to the editor of the 
 ' Quarterly Review,' 1869. Dr. Beke has also written largely in 
 the publications of the Hakluyt Society, the ' Archaeologia,' the 
 ' British Magazine,' the ' Edinburgh New Philosophical J oumal,' 
 the ' St. James's Chronicle,' the ' Journal of the Royal Geogra- 
 phical Society,' the ' Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic,' the 
 ' Collections Topographiques et Genealogiques,' the ' London and 
 Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine,' the ' Transactions of the 
 Royal Society of Literature,' the ' Transactions of the British 
 Association for the Advancement of Science,' the ' Athenaeum,' 
 &c. Dr. Beke's ' Origines Biblicae ' brought him the diploma of 
 Doctor in Philosophy' from the University of Tubingen ; and he 
 has since been elected Fellow of the Geographical Society and 
 of the Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 BEKKER, BALTHASAR, a Dutch preacher and theologian, 
 was born on the 20th of March, 1634, at Metselawier in Fries- 
 land, where his father, Hendrik Bekker, was pastor. After 
 studying at Groningen and Franeker, he became preacher at 
 Oosterlittens on the 13th of April, 1657 ; and subsequently 
 officiated in the same capacity at Loenen and other places in 
 Holland. He died at Amsterdam on the 11th of July, 1698. 
 
 Bekker was a follower of Descartes, and an interpreter of his 
 system in its possible harmony with orthodox theology, in a 
 
 BELCHER, SIR EDWARD. 200 
 
 small work entitled 'De Philosophia Cartesiana Admonitio 
 Candida et Sincera,' 12mo, Wesel, 1668, and 12mo, Amsterdam, 
 1693. He composed a Short Catechism for Children, with the 
 title of Cut Bread, ' Gesneden Brood,' 1668 ; and one for persons 
 of a more advanced age, entitled Lenten Fare, ' Vaste Spyze,' 
 1670, which obtained for him in some quarters the reputation of 
 Socinianism. He is also the author of an Exposition of the 
 Prophet Daniel, ' Uitlegginge van der Propheet Daniel,' 4to, 
 Amsterdam, 1688. But the literary efforts by which Bekker is 
 at present remembered are those in which he opposed the pre- 
 vailing superstitions of his age. One of these was a small 
 volume entitled An Enquiry concerning Comets, ' Onderzoek 
 van de betokening der Kometen,' 8vo, Leeuwarden, 1683, which 
 was occasioned by the appearance of a comet in 1680 and 1681, 
 and the object of which was to protest .against the current opinion 
 that comets are presages or forerunners of evil. The great work 
 of Bekker in this kind, however, is his World Bewitched ; or, an 
 Examination of the Common Opinions concerning Spirits, 'De 
 Betoverde Waereld, zynde een grondig Onderzoek van't gemene 
 gevoelen aangaande de Geesten derzelver aart vermogen bewind 
 en bedryf, als ook het geen de Menschen door derzelver Kragt 
 of gemeenschap doen,' which, appearing first in 1691, has since 
 gone through various editions, and been translated into several 
 European languages. In consequence of the boldness with which 
 the writer attacked the opinions of his time, he was suspended 
 for two years from his clerical functions, and became the object 
 of attack to many champions of the older ways of thought. 
 
 BEL, or BEHL (BELIUS), MATTHIAS, an eminent Hun- ' 
 garian historian, was born in 1684 at Orsova, and completed his 
 education at the University of Halle. On returning to Hungary 
 he was appointed in 1714 minister to the evangelical church at 
 Neusohl, and in 1719 rector of the Lyceum at Presburg, where 
 he resided till his death in 1749. He held for some years the 
 honorary post of historiographer to the Emperor Charles VI. 
 His works, which are of much value both for their materials 
 and treatment, especially of early Hungarian history, are — ■ , 
 1. ' De Vetere Literatura Hunno-Scy thica exercitatio,' 4to, Leip- • 
 zig, 1718 ; 2. ' Hungarian antiquaj et nova; prodromus,' folio, ; 
 Niirnberg, 1723 ; 3. ' Adparatus ad Historiam Hungarian, sive ' 
 Collectio Miscella Monumentorum,' Presburg, 1735 — 46 ; 4. 
 ' Notitia Hungar'iEe nova; historico-geographica, in IV. partes 1 
 divisa,' 4 vols, folio, Vienna, 1735 — 42, a work of great erudi- 
 tion, but unfortunately left unfinished at the author's death, 
 the portion of the 2nd part completed (only 71 pages) was pub- . 
 lished, but is now rarely met with : an abridgment of the work ; 
 has been several times reprinted ; a 4th ed. in 8vo appeared 
 at Posen in 1792 ; 5. 'Scriptores rerum Hungaricarum veteres i 
 ac gemini cum Prefatione M. Belii, ex recens. J. G. Schwandt- j 
 neri,' 3 vols. fol. 1746 — 48. To him is also attributed 'Der Ungar. j 
 Sprachmeister,' Presburg, 1728. 
 
 * BELCHER, SIR EDWARD, who belongs to an old English > 
 family, is best known as an intrepid Arctic voyager and as an ! 
 eminent hydrographer. He was born in 1799. In 1812 he entered , 
 the navy, and in the four succeeding years saw active service 
 on the coasts of France and Spain, at Gaeta, and off Algiers. On 
 August 27, 1816, he shared in the battle off the last-mentioned 
 place, which was probably one of the sharpest actions ever fought 
 by the British navy 7 . In 1818 he was promoted to a lieutenancy, 
 and from 1825 to 1828 he accompanied Beechey, who was then 
 commander of the 'Blossom,' as assistant surveyor. Soon after 
 his return home he himself was made a commander, and as such 
 he carried on some survey work on the coast of Africa in the 
 'Etna.' In 1833 he married a Miss Jolliffe, just before which 
 event, however, he had carried out some special service on the 
 liver Douro. In the y r ear of his marriage he was appointed to 
 the command of an Arctic expedition, well known from the two 
 ships which formed the squadron, the 'Terror' and 'Erebus.' 
 In 1836 he took the command of the ' Sulphur,' in which he 
 sailed round the world, and materially aided in the successes of 
 the British force in China by his surveying operations. This 
 voyage occupied him about six years, and a full account of it is 
 given by himself in his 'Narrative,' published in 1843. His 
 services in China were rewarded by his promotion to a captaincy 
 in 1841, and by knighthood in 1843. In the last-mentioned 
 year he was transferred to the ' Samarang,' which was stationed 
 in the East Indies for surveying purposes from 1843 to 1846. 
 He published an account of this voyage in his ' Narrative/ issued 
 in 1848, and records his struggle with the pirates of Borneo, in the 
 course of which he was severely wounded. From 1852 to 1854 
 he was engaged in prosecuting the search for Sir John Franklin, 
 the results of which expedition will be found in his book. 
 
201 
 
 BELGRADO, GIACOMO. 
 
 BELLAY, GUILLAUME DU. 
 
 202 
 
 entitled ' The last of the Arctic Voyages : being a Narrative of 
 H.M.S. Assistance, in search of Sir John Franklin during 
 1852 — 54. With Notes on the Natural History by Sir John 
 Richardson, Professor Owen, T. Bell, J. W. Salter, and Lovell 
 Reeve,' 2 vols. 1855. In 1861 he became rear-admiral, and in 
 1866 a vice-admiral, since which last date he has been on the 
 retired list of officers. He is a fellow of the Royal Geographical 
 and other Societies. In 1867 he was made a K.C.B. During 
 his lifetime he has had intimate communication with the natives 
 of Arctic North America, and has thoroughly informed him- 
 self of their ways of life and modes of thought. The observations 
 made by him to the Ethnological Society, to the British Asso- 
 ciation, and other scientific bodies, did much towards explaining 
 the use of those pre-historic implements of Western Europe, 
 about which so much interest is now taken. 
 
 BELGRADO, GIACOMO, a distinguished Italian mathema- 
 tician, was born at Udine on the 16th of November, 1704. He 
 was a Jesuit, and was for several years professor of mathematics 
 at Parma, and also director of the observatory there. On the 
 suppression of the Order of the Jesuits he retired to Bologna, 
 where he was nominated rector of the College of Sta. Lucia. 
 He was a member of the Institute of Bologna, and a correspond- 
 ing member of the French Institute. He died on the 17th of 
 April, 1789. Belgrado had the reputation of being one of the 
 best mathematicians of his time and country. He wrote much 
 on his proper science ; but he also wrote on archaeology ; some 
 verses ; and on theology, one of his themes being a demonstra- 
 tion of the existence of God by the theorems of geometry. His 
 writings are chiefly in Latin ; the following are among the more 
 important : — "Ad disciplinam mechanicam, nauticam et geo- 
 graphicam,' 4to, Parana, 1741 ; ' De lignorum equihbrio Acroasis,' 
 4to, 1742 ; ' De gravitatis legibus,' 4to, Parma, 1744 ; 'De Cor- 
 poribus eiasticis disquisitis,' 4to, 1747 ; 'De Analyseos vulgaris 
 usu in re physica,' 2 vols. 4to, Parma, 1761; 'Theoria coehlaj 
 Archimedis,' 4to, 1767. 
 
 BELIN, JEAN ALBERT, Bishop of Bellay, celebrated as a 
 popular preacher and writer, was born about 1610, at Besancon. 
 He was received into the Order of Benedictines in 1630 ; was 
 attached first to the Abbey of Cluny ; afterwards to the Priory 
 of la Charite-sur-Loire ; and then to various houses in Paris and 
 elsewhere, in every place attracting great numbers to his sermons. 
 From time to time he put forth one and another religious publica- 
 tion, some being of a semi-mystical turn, others exhibiting a singu- 
 lar admixture of science and philosophy with the popular theology, 
 others trusting to an attractive title. By these, and, as is said, 
 some personal services, he gained the friendship of Colbert, who 
 in 1666 made him Bishop of Bellay. He died in 1677. The cha- 
 racter of his writings is tolerably indicated by their titles : — 
 ' Les Emblemes Eucharistiques,' 8vo, Paris, 1647 ; ' Les Fideles 
 Pensees de l'Ame pour la porter a son devoir,' 8vo, 1647 ; 12mo, 
 1660; 'Les Solides Pens6es de l'Ame,' 12mo, 1648; 'Pierre 
 Philosophale,' 1653; 'Aventures du Philosophe inconnu a- la 
 recherche et invention de la Pierre Philosophale, clivisees en 
 quatre livres, au dernier desquels il est parle si claircment de la 
 nianicre de la faire, que jamais on n'en a parle avec taut tie 
 candour,' 12mo, 1664; 1674; 'Preuves convaincantes des verites 
 du Christian isme,' 4to, 1666 ; ' Traite des Talismans, on Figures 
 Astralcs, dans lequel est montre que leurs effets et vertus ad- 
 mirables sont naturelles ; ensemble la maniere de les faire et de 
 8'en servir avec profit,' 12mo, Paris, 1671, and several times 
 reprinted. 
 
 BELL, ROBERT, a prolific writer, was born at Cork in 1800, 
 and completed his education at Trinity College, Dublin. At 
 Dublin he wTote for magazines and newspapers, composed a 
 couple of plays, and assisted in founding the Dublin Historical 
 Society. Removing to London, he met with ready employment 
 as a journalist, having a fluent pen, and a genial manner. For 
 some years he edited the 'Atlas' newspaper, and on one occa- 
 sion successfully defended in person an action for libel brought 
 against the proprietors of the journal by the Lord Chancellor 
 Lyndhur.it. For more than thirty years Mr. Bell continued to 
 lead the life of a busy literary man, contributing to various 
 periodicals, sometimes editing one, and diversifying his journal- 
 istic labours by writing a history or a biography, a play or a 
 novel. Commissioned by publishers, and written for the day, 
 none of his writings are likely to have more than an ephemeral 
 existence, but they are favourable specimens of their class, and 
 creditable to their author. Among the best, perhaps, are those 
 written for ' Lardner's Cyclopaedia,' the ' Lives of British Poets,' 
 1 vol.; 'Lives of British Admirals' (written to complete the 
 series commenced by Southey), and 'History of Russia/ 3 vols. 
 
 Mr. Bell also wrote a ' Life of George Canning ;' and edited 
 ' Memorials of the Civil War,' a selection from ' The Fairfax 
 Correspondence.' 'Wayside Pictures in France, Belgium, and 
 Germany;' the novels entitled 'The Ladder of Gold,' and 
 'Hearts and Altars ;' and the five-act comedies of 'Marriage,' 
 'Mothers and Daughters,' and 'Temper' sufficiently illustrate 
 his industry and versatility. But the work by which he will 
 be longest remembered is probably his ' Annotated Edition of 
 the English Poets,' of which 29 volumes were published in 1854 
 and following years. Mr. Bell was a Fellow of the Society of 
 Antiquaries and of the Royal Society of Literature, and a member 
 of the committee of the Literary Fund. Of a frank, obliging, 
 and social disposition, he was generally and deservedly esteemed. 
 He died on the 12th of April, 1867, in his 68th year. 
 
 *BELLANGE, JOSEPH-LOUIS-HIPPOLYTE, a distin- 
 guished French historical painter, was born at Paris on the 17th 
 of January, 1800. At an early age he gave strong indications of 
 a love for art ; his taste was carefully cultivated, and his artistic 
 education was completed in the atelier of Gros, on whose stylo 
 his own was formed. From the first he has pursued with 
 almost undeviating consistency a line of art very popular in 
 France, though little practised in this country, that dealing with 
 the scenes and circumstances of war. He has painted a large 
 number of the battles of the republic and the empire, always 
 doing ample honour to his countrymen. But besides battles 
 proper — such as ' The Battle of Wagram,' ' The Battle of 
 Fleurus,' ' Corogne,' ' Ocagno ' (which are in the Museum of 
 Versailles), 'Alma,' 'Magenta,' and the like — he has painted 
 various incidents of war, as an 'Episode de la Retraite de 
 Russie,' ' Le Lendemain de la Bataille de J emmapes,' with 
 occasionally such subjects A as 'Le Retour de File d'Elbe,' and 
 ' Episode du Retour de l'lle d'Elbe.' Two thoroughly charac- 
 teristic examples of his pencil were exhibited at the Interna- 
 tional Exhibition of 1862 — ' Un carre d'infanterie republicaine 
 repoussant une charge de dragons autrichiens (Campagne du 
 Rhin, 1795);' and ' Les deux Amis (Sebastopol, 1855).' The 
 latter, a painful but powerful picture, attracted very general 
 attention. M. Bellange obtained second-class medals (genre 
 historique) in 1824 and 1855 ; was made knight of the Legion 
 of Honour in 1834, and officer in 1861. 
 
 BELLAY, GUILLAUME DU, known also by his territorial 
 designation of Lord of Langey, and celebrated as a soldier and 
 diplomatist, was born in 1491 at the Chateau de Glatigny, near 
 Montmirad. He was the eldest son of Louis du Bellay, who was 
 of an ancient and noble family, originally of Anjou. Embracing 
 a military career, he became celebrated at once for his skill and 
 his courage, being esteemed by some the greatest captain of 
 his age. He was especially noted for his adroitness in acquiring 
 information, whether for purposes of state or warfare. He 
 penetrated into an enemy's designs with rare address, and paid 
 liberally for the intelligence he received of the most secret 
 councils of Charles V. and his generals. He has the credit of 
 having procured from some of the universities of France a judg- 
 ment in favour of the divorce of Henry VIII. from Catherine of 
 Aragon. In order to cement an alliance between Francis and 
 Henry against Charles V., Du Bellay was sent upon several 
 embassies into Germany, England, and Italy, where his services 
 were as useful as they had been on the field of battle ; and in 
 acknowledgment of them he received the knighthood of St. 
 Michael, was made lieutenant-general of the armies of Italy, 
 and viceroy of Piedmont, a.d. 1537, where he took several towns 
 from the Imperialists. He discovered in 1541 the web which 
 had been woven to take the agents whom Francis I. sent to 
 Venice and Constantinople ; and it was in spite of the warnings 
 which he furnished that they rushed upon the fate prepared for 
 them. At the end of the year 1542, being in Piedmont, and 
 having some important intelligence which he was desirous of 
 communicating to the king in person, Du Bellay set out from 
 Turin, and, in consequence of his extremely infirm state of 
 health, had a litter prepared for his journey. The exertion of 
 travel increased his indisposition, so that he was obliged to stop 
 at St. Saphorin, or St. Symphorien de Lay, a small town about 
 24 miles north-west of Lyon, where he died on the 9th of Janu- 
 ary, 1543. He was buried in the cathedral church of St. Julien, 
 in the ancient city of Mans, where his brothers, Jean and Martin, 
 erected to his memory a noble monument, bearing the following 
 inscription : — ■ 
 
 Cy git Langey, dont la plume et l'epee 
 Out surmonte Ciceron et rompee. 
 
 Although wielding more than a courtier's influence, Du Bellay 
 
203 BELLAY, JOACHIM DU. 
 
 did not conform to the general type of courtier, for his manners 
 were remarkable for their plainness and brusquerie. Yet lie was 
 a scholar, and gave evidence of his abilities and genius as a 
 Writer. Charles V. used to say of him "that Langey's pen had 
 fought more against him than all the lances of France." In his 
 ' Memoires,' published jointly with those of his brother Martin 
 in 1569, Du Bellay is betrayed by his loyalty into disparaging 
 Charles V. in comparison with his own sovereign, Francis 1. 
 He was the author of an ' Epitome de Pantiquite des Gaules et 
 <le France,' 4to, Paris, 1556, a work which was reprinted in 1587. 
 Another work has been ascribed to Guillauinu du Bellay, which 
 has gone through many editions, and which was first published 
 under the title of ' Instructions sur le faict de la Guerre, extraictes 
 des livres de Poly be, Frontin,' &c, fol. Paris, 1548 ; and of which 
 an English version, translated by " P. Ive, Gent.," appeared with 
 the title of 'Instructions for the Warres, describing the method 
 of military discipline,' &c, 4to, London, 1589. But this work is 
 more properly referred to Raymond de Pavie, Baron de Four- 
 quevaux, a Gascon gentleman, and a gendarme in the company 
 of the Sieur de Negrepellisse in 1528, who, perhaps, mighl have 
 served under Du Bellay in his Italian wars. 
 
 BELLAY, JOACHIM DU, a celebrated poet, known as "the 
 French Ovid," was born about 1524, at the Chateau de Lire in 
 Anjou. He was the son of Jean du Bellay, Sieur de Gonor, and 
 the nephew of Cardinal du Bellay, and Guillaumc du Bellay, 
 Lord of Langey. His education was neglected by an elder 
 brother to whom it was committed, and he had scarcely reached 
 manhood when it became his own turn to undertake the guardian- 
 ship of a nephew. The affairs of this relative were deeply em- 
 barrassed, and the lawsuits with other vexations that preyed 
 upon Joachim du Bellay, brought on an illness of two years' 
 continuance. To beguile time and pain, he read the Greek, 
 Latin, and French poets, and produced some compositions of his 
 own, which procured him access to Francis I., Henry II., and 
 Marguerite of Navarre. Although an ecclesiastic, Du Bellay con- 
 formed to the fashions of the gay world, and published ' Cantiques,' 
 which he had produced in honour of a lady whose name, Viole, 
 he rendered under the anagram of Olive. Upon the invitation 
 of Cardinal du Bellay, Joachim repaired in 1549 to Rome, where 
 he passed three pleasant years, at the end of which he returned 
 to France on family business. Ill-natured reports alienated the 
 Cardinal, and brought on Joachim a return of his old malady ; 
 and in pity of his suffering condition his cousin-german, Eustace 
 du Bellay, Bishop of Paris, appointed him to a canonry in the 
 church of Notre Dame, a.d. 1555. He died at Paris of apoplexy 
 on the 1st of January, 1560, at the moment when Cardinal du 
 Bellay was on the point of preferring him to the see of Toulouse. 
 His principal works are a series of sonnets on the ' Antiquites de 
 Rome, contenant une gencrale description de ses monuments et 
 comme une defloration de sa ruine,' 4to, Paris, 1558, to which he 
 added 183 Sonnets with the title of 1 Regrets ;' Poems in French 
 and in Latin ; and a 'Defense et Illustration de la Langue 
 Franchise,' which is the only work the author wrote in prose, and 
 is regarded as one of the most remarkable books in the language. 
 A recent edition of it was published by Ackermann in 1849. 
 
 BELLEAU, REMY, one of the seven versifyers, Ronsard 
 being the principal, who were known in the 16th century as the 
 ' Pleiade Franchise,' was born in 1528 at Nogent-le-Retrou 
 (Eure-et-Loire). He lived in the family of the Marquis d'Eibeuf, 
 who entrusted to him the education of his son. He died at 
 Paris on the 6th of March, 1577. Ronsard styled him Nature's 
 Painter, and there is less of fantastic glitter in his poetry than in 
 that of the other pleiades. His ' Bergeries ' were most admired 
 by Ronsard, and they are very pretty pastorals in the French 
 taste, whilst his Anacreontics are not at all in the Greek. There 
 are besides an 'Epithalame sur le mariage de M. le Due de 
 Lorraine et de Madame Claude, fille du Roy,' 4to, Paris, 1559 ; 
 ' Larrnes sur le Trepas de Rene de Lorraine et de Louise de 
 Rieux, marquis et marquise d'Eibeuf, ensemble le Tombeau de 
 Francois de Lorraine, Due de Guyse,' 4to, 1566, and other occa- 
 sional pieces ; also ' L'Innocence prisonniere, lTnnocence triom- 
 phante, la Verite fugitive,' 8vo, 1561 ; ' Les Amours et nouveaus 
 echanges de Pierres precieuses, discours de la vanite pris de 
 l'ecclesiaste, eglogues sacrees prises du Cantique, &c.,' am. 4to ; 
 1576; 'La Reconnue,' a comedy, 8vo, 1577, several times re- 
 printed ; and ' Dictamen metrificum de bello Huguenotico et 
 reistrorum pigliamine ad sodales,' a macaronic rhyme regarded 
 as among the most successful of its class. The poetic works of 
 Remy Belleau were published in 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1578 ; 
 12mo, 1585, and 2 vols. 12mo, Lyon, 1592. 
 
 BELLEFOREST, FRANCOIS DE, French poet and mis- 
 
 BELLICARD, JEROME-CHARLES. 204 
 
 cellaneous writer, was born in November, 1530, at Sarzan, near 
 Samatan, in Guicnne. Having lost his father early, he was 
 taken under the protection of Marguerite, Queen of Navarre, and 
 at the proper age sent to study for the bar under the best profes- 
 sors at Bordeaux and Toulouse. But tiring of the arid details 
 of institutes and pleadings, he abandoned the law and took to the 
 easier profession of verse-making. Sonnet in hand, he wan- 
 dered from chateau to chateau, always well received and liberally 
 feasted, and paying in complimentary rhymes for the hospitality 
 vouchsafed to him. Thus he idled away pleasantly enough some t 
 seven or eight years in the province of Toulouse, when, finding 
 that he was as poor as ever in purse and little richer in fame, he 
 determined to try his fortune in Paris. There he was welcomed I 
 as a brother singer by Ronsard, Bellay, Bail', and Vigenere, I 
 and in good time admitted into the constellation of the Pleiade.. 1 
 At Paris, as in Toulouse, making verses " pour plaire aux Dames I 
 et Damoiselles," he was, says his friend Du Verdier. " caressed I 
 by princes, admired by nobles, and sought after by all the best I 
 people in the realm." But here again he found that, however I 
 courted and feasted, he obtained little wealth, and so he was con- 1 
 strained, though much against his inclination, to leave the salons 
 of the princes, nobles, and other great people, and turn to the 
 booksellers, who, though they proved hard task-masters, paid so 
 handsomely for the •work they ordered that Belleforest was not 
 only able to live well and put money in his pocket, but might, 
 had he been so minded, have maintained a very pretty establish- 
 ment. Belleforest seems to have been rarely endowed with the 
 qualities of a successful 16th (or for the matter of that 19th) 
 century bookseller's author. He knew no subject thoroughly, 
 but he knew something of a good many, and was ready to write 
 at a moment's notice on any one, or half-a-dozen, as required. 
 And as nothing came amiss to him, he always finished off his 
 task at a heat. It used to be said, as Bayle tells us, that he had 
 a lot of moulds in which he cast his new books. Poems, romances, ,1 
 dissertations, sacred, profane, serious, and amusing matter flowed, 
 with equal facility from his pen. But as Chaudon writes some- ,' 
 what sourly, "an historian without discernment and without 
 taste, he defaced whatever he touched ; a poet of the hindmost ] 
 rank, he crawled at the base rather than climbed the heights of 
 Parnassus ;" he wrote because he was incapable of doing anything . 
 else, and sent forth a flood of new books without anything new j 
 in them. But if Belleforest added nothing permanent to the litera- , 
 ture of France, he is the most characteristic illustration of a special 
 phase of French literature in the 16th century, and the student 
 of French literary history would make a grave mistake who 
 overlooked him. Belleforest was appointed historiographer of 
 France, but was dismissed for having performed its functions ' 
 with too little regard to exactitude. He died poor on the 1st of ! 
 January, 1583. Croix du Maine and Du Verdier Vau-Privas 
 give long lists of Belleforest's writings. The following may serve J 
 as specimens : — ' Chant Pastoral sur les Noces de Philippe 
 d'Autriche roy des Espagnes et Madame Elizabeth, fille ainee 
 du roy tres Christien Henri II. et d'Emmanuel Philibert due 
 de Savoye, avec Madame Marguerite fille et sceur des roy3 
 Francois I. et Henri II.,' 4to, Paris, 1559 ; ' La Chasse 
 d'Amour, avec les fables de Narcisse et de Cerbere,' sm. 8vo, 
 Par. 1561 ; ' La Pastorale Amoureuse, contenant plusieurs 
 discours no moins proufitables que recreatifs, avec des descrip- 
 tions de paisages,' 8vo, 1569 ; ' Arraisonnement fort gentil et 
 profitable sur l'infe]icite qui suyt ordinairement le bonheur des 
 Grans : avec un beau discour sur l'excellence des Princes du I 
 sang de France, qui gouvernent l'estat du Royaume/ 8vo, 1569, 
 reprinted, with altered titles, 1572 and 1585 ; 'Discours des 
 Presages et Miracles advenuz en la pcrsonne du Roy, et parmy 
 la France, des le commencement de son regne,'8vo, 1568, reprinted 
 according to Brunet with somewhat diilerent titles in 1572 and 
 1576 ; 'Histoire des Neuf Rois de France qui out eu le nom de 
 Charles,' folio, Paris, 1568, a sort of forecast of the Strickland 
 series, but it is somewhat curious that none of our Belleforests 
 have thought of the ' Four Williams ' or ' Eight Henries ' as the 
 subject of an attractive history ; ' Les Grand Annales et Histoires 
 generales de France des la venue des Francs en Gaule jusques 
 au regne du roi Henry III.,' 2 vols, folio, Paris, 1579. This, 
 which is Belleforest's most important contribution to history, 
 was published, with a continuation to 1591 by Gabriel Chappuis, 
 in 1600, and again with a continuation to 1620 : as an authority 
 it is not of the smallest value. Besides these, there is a crowd 
 of compilations, translations, and verselets to which Belleforest's 
 name is attached. 
 
 BELLICARD, JEROME-CHARLES, French architect, 
 draftsman, and engraver, was born at Paris, on the 21st of 
 
206 
 
 February, 1726. Having gained the grand prize in architecture, 
 1747, he went to Eome, where, in addition to the usual architec- 
 tural studies, he gave much time to engraving, in which he became 
 a proficient, and published, about 1750, many views of Rome 
 and its vicinity. He also published the first full description 
 of the discoveries made at Herculaneum, then newly exhumed, 
 'Observations sur les Antiquites de la Ville d'Hercuknum, 
 avec quelques reflexions sur la Peinture et la Sculpture des 
 Anciens et une courte description des Environs de Naples/ 8vo, 
 with engravings, 1754, 2nd edition, 1757 : an English transla- 
 tion followed almost immediately upon the publication of the 
 original. On his return to Paris he was nominated member and 
 professor at the Royal Academy of Architecture, and appointed 
 comptroller of the royal buildings. He made numerous drawings 
 and engravings, and published, among other things, the ' Loge 
 des Changes de Lyon,' and various of his own designs. But he 
 erected no building of consequence, and his last years were 
 embittered by poverty, the result of his addiction to gaming. 
 He died on the 27th of February, 1786, leaving unfinished a 
 
 i work on which he had been employed for over ten years — 
 ' Architectographie, ou Cours Complet dArchitecture.' 
 
 BELLORI, GIOVANNI PIETRO, an eminent Italian ar- 
 chaeologist, was born at Rome in 1615. From his youth Bellori 
 
 ,' devoted himself to the study of art and antiquity, in which he 
 was encouraged, and at the outset greatly assisted, by his uncle, 
 Francesco Angeloni, secretary to Cardinal Aldobrandini, himself 
 
 i a good antiquary, and author of an account of the coins of the 
 Roman Emperors, and of the ' Historia di Terni.' Bellori wrote 
 many works of great use in their day, and which are still often 
 referred to with advantage. He was nominated Antiquario di 
 Roma by the Pope, Clement X., and Queen Christina of Sweden, 
 then resident at Rome, appointed him her librarian and keeper 
 
 : of her cabinet of antiquities. He died at Rome in 1696. Most 
 of his works are in Latin, but the two now most valued are in 
 Italian — ' Vite de' Pittori, Scultori, ed Architetti Moderni,' 
 part i, with 12 portraits engraved by Bloemart, 4to, Rome, 
 1672 — 75 ; this is a valuable and pleasantly written book, but 
 remained unfinished at the author's death : an augmented edition 
 appeared at Rome in 1728, and another, in 3 vols. 8vo, at Pisa 
 
 ! in 1821 ; ' Descrizioni delle Immagini dipinte da Raffaello 
 
 ; d'Urbino nel Vaticano,' &c, small folio, with a portrait of 
 Raffaelle and vignettes of his designs, Rome, 1695 : of this 
 
 I work, which has always been a favourite with artists, an 
 augmented edition was published at Rome in 1750. and another, 
 still further enlarged, in 1821. Among the more noteworthy of 
 Bellori's other works are — ' Icones et segmenta illustrium e mar- 
 
 | more tabularum que Roma3 extant,' large folio, Rome, 1645 ; ' Le 
 Gemme Antiche figurate di Leonardi Agostini, con l'annotazioni 
 di G. P. Bellori,' 4to, Rome, part i. 1657, part ii. 1670 ; ' Notae 
 
 ■ in Numisinata turn Ephesiae, turn aliarum urbium apibus 
 insignita,' 4to, Rome, 1658 ; ' Columna Antoniniana a retro 
 Sante Bartolo delineata et incisa, cum notis excerptis ex declarat. 
 
 I J. P. Bellorii,' oblong fol. with 80 plates, on which Bellori's 
 explanations are engraved ; ' Fragmenta vestigii veteris Romas 
 
 1 ex lapidibus famesianis, nunc primum in lucem edita, cum notis 
 Bellorii,' with 20 engravings, fol. Rome, 1673 ; reprinted in the 
 4th vol. of Gronovius' 'Thesaurum Ant. Rom.;' ' Scelta di 
 
 1 Medaglioni piii rari nella Bibliotheca del CarJinale Gasparo 
 Carpegna,' 4to, Rome, 1679; ' Admiranda Romanarum Antiqui- 
 tatum ac veteris sculpturae vestigia, a P. Sante Bartolo del. et 
 incisa, notis J. P. Bellorii illustrata,' with 81 plates, oblong folio, 
 Rome, n. d., 2nd ed., witli 84 plates, 1693 ; ' Le Pitture antiche 
 del Sepolcro de' Nasoni, designate da P. Sante Bartoli,' with 35 
 plates, folio, Rome, 1680, a splendid work, the plates being 
 regarded as Bartoli's finest productions ; ' Historia Augusta da 
 Giulio Cesare a Constantino il Magno, illustrata da Francesco 
 Angeloni et J. P. B.,' &c, fol. Rome, 1685 ; ' Veterum Il- 
 lustrium Philosophorum, Poetarum, Rhetorum et Oratorum 
 imagines, vetustis minimis, gemmis, hermis, marmoribus aliisque 
 antiquis monumentis desumptae,' with 90 plates, Rome, 1685 ; 
 ' Expositio Symbolici Deao Cypriae simulacri,' fol. Rome, 1688; 
 ' Veteres Arcus Augustorum triumphis insignes,' &c, with 52 line 
 plates by Bartoli, large folio, Rome, 1690, one of Bellori's most 
 important works. The same plates were employed in the 
 ' Admiranda Romanarum,' noticed above. Several of Bellori's 
 works were posthumous; among them may be noticed — 'Le 
 Antiche Lucerne Sepolcrali, figurate, raccolte dalle cave sotte- 
 ranee e grotte di Roma, disegnate ed intagliate da P. Santi 
 Bartoli, con l'osservationi di G. P. Bellori,' 3 parts, in 1 fol. vol. 
 with 116 (some copies 12 more) plates, Rome, 1691, 2nd ed., 
 1729, Latin version, by L. Beger, 1702 ; 'J. P. Bellorii Adnota- 
 
 tiones, nunc primum evulgatao in duodecim prioruni Cx'sarum 
 numisinata, ab Enea Vico olim edita, noviter additis eorundem 
 Caesarum imaginibus,' with 84 plates, folio, Rome, 1730 : this 
 was edited by B. Amidei. G. Bottari published an imaginary 
 conversation on the arts of design between Bellori and Carlo 
 Maratti — ' Dialoghi sopra le tre Arti del Disegno,' 8vo. Lucca, 
 1754. 
 
 BELOE, WILLIAM, the son of "an eminent china-man " of 
 Norwich, and both of whose parents were estimable for their 
 virtue and ability, was born in 1756. After receiving the rudi- 
 ments of education at a good school at Norwich, he was placed 
 under the care successively of the Rev. Matthew Raine, of 
 Hartforth, near Richmond, Yorkshire, and of the celebrated Dr. 
 Parr, then residing at Stanmore, in Middlesex. He became 
 a member of Bene't, or Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where 
 he obtained the Declamation Prize, and took the degree of B.A. 
 in 1779. Upon the invitation of Dr. Parr, who in 1778 had 
 become head-master of the grammar-school at Norwich, Mr. 
 Beloe accepted the post of under-master in that institution, and 
 held this situation for about three years. In this interval he 
 married the daughter of William Rix, Esq., town-clerk of London. 
 Whilst in Norfolk he acted as curate of Earlham, near Norwich, 
 and was afterwards preferred to the living. But finding the 
 emoluments of his vicarage insufficient, he removed to London, 
 where he entered upon the pursuit of literature with great zeal 
 and industry. He was elected master of Emanuel Hospital, 
 Westminster, and continued so for upwards of 20 years In 
 1792 he was made F.S.A., and in 1796 was presented by Lord 
 Chancellor Loughborough, afterwards Earl of Rosslyn, to the 
 rectory of Allhallows, London Wall. On the 24th of September, 
 1800, he was collated by Bishop Pretyman to the prebend of 
 Milton Manor, in the cathedral church of Lincoln ; and on the 
 8th of June, 1804, Beilby Porteus, Bishop of London, collated 
 him to the stall of St. Pancras in St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1804, 
 on the recommendation of the Honourable Shute Barrington, 
 Bishop of Durham, to whom he afterwards dedicated the first 
 two volumes of his ' Anecdotes,' Beloe was appointed under- 
 librarian in the British Museum ; which situation he lost by an 
 act of treachery and fraud on the part of a plausible person who 
 purloined valuable literary property which was under Beloe's 
 charge, so that it " was thought that the good government of the 
 institution demanded his dismissal." Thus, further to quote 
 substantially his own words, " all his literary and domestic plans 
 were, in one unexpected moment, overthrown, and he exchanged 
 peace, competence, and a situation most congenial to his feelings 
 and pursuits, for loss, anxiety, uncertainty, and, above all, dread 
 of unmerited obloquy." The obloquy, however, he was glad to 
 confess, was spared him ; and he passed through the ordeal 
 without the sacrifice of reputation. Yet the disappointment was 
 acutely and disastrously felt ; and " a constitution of body, 
 delicate and irritable to an unusual degree, proved unable to 
 sustain the repeated shocks of grief and vexation, which sound 
 religion had disciplined the mind to bear ; and in his latter years 
 physical disease of a painful and incurable kind was added to his 
 other sufferings." His intellect, however, remained unclouded, 
 and his literary activity almost unslackened. In the latter part 
 of March, 1817, he was seized with an attack which terminated 
 in his death on the 11th of April, when he "had very recently 
 entered into his 60th year. He was buried in his own church of 
 Allhallows, London Wall, attended only by his sons, and three 
 or four select friends." 
 
 Beloe's works are very numerous, and embrace his ' Ode to 
 Miss Boscawen,' 4to, 1783 ; 'The Rape of Helen, from the Greek 
 of Coluthus, with Notes,' 4to, London, 1786 ; ' Poems and Trans- 
 lations,' 8vo, London, 1788 ; ' Alciphron's Epistles, translated 
 from the Greek,' 8vo, London, 1791, produced jointly by Mr. 
 Beloe and Mr. Monro ; ' The History of Herodotus, translated 
 from the Greek, with Notes,' 4 vols. 8vo, London, 1791, a work 
 which had a very favourable reception, and which has gone 
 through several editions, but of which the laurels are at present 
 somewhat faded ; ' The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, translated 
 into English,' 8vo, 1795, to which Dr. Parr contributed a learned 
 preface ; ' Miscellanies, consisting of Poems, Classical Extracts, 
 and Oriental Apologues,' 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1795 ; ' Transla- 
 tion of the Arabian Nights' Entertainments, from the French,' 
 4 vols. 12mo. ; 'Joseph, translated from the French of M. 
 Bitaube,' 2 vols. 12mo ; ' A Sermon preached on Wednesday, 
 October 19th, 1803. Being the day appointed for a general fast,' 
 8vo, London, 1803 ; ' Anecdotes of Literature and Scarce Books,' 
 6 vols. 8vo, London, 1807 — 12, a valuable work, indicative at once 
 of great research and of the fact that its author was a disappointed 
 
107 BELTRAFFlO, GIOVANNI ANTONIO. 
 
 valetudinarian ; and ' The Sexagenarian, or Memoirs of a Lite- 
 rary Life/ London, 1818, which was a work of posthumous 
 publication, and edited by a friend. Mr. Beloe was nls<> a 
 frequent contrilmtor to the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' and was from 
 May, 1793, to December, 1813, joint conductor with Archdeacon 
 N ares of the ' British Critic,' of which they, with the publishing 
 house of Rivington, were also the proprietors. Another of Belne's 
 joint labours was upon a ' Biographical Dictionary,' in 15 volumes, 
 8vo, which he undertook in conjunction with the Rev. W. Tooke, 
 Mr. Morrison, and the Rev. R. Nares. 
 
 BELTRAFFIO, GIOVANNI ANTONIO, a celebrated 
 Italian painter, was born at Milan in 14b"7. He was a pupil 
 of Leonardo da Vinci, whose manner he imitated. His 
 pictures are characterised by exceeding gentleness of expression 
 and refinement of execution, bordering often on tameness. 
 Like his master, he was fastidious and painted little, and his 
 works are consequently rare. Tint Nat ional Gallery, London, 
 possesses a very fine ' Madonna and Child ' (No. 728) by him. 
 The figures are. life-size and very beautiful, but hardly divine. 
 There is also in the Louvre a good 'Madonna and Child' 
 (No. 71), somewhat larger than that in the National Gallery, 
 and known as 'The Casio Virgin.' Beltraffio died at Milan on 
 the 15th of June, 1516, aged 49. 
 
 * BENDEMANN, EDUARD, German historical painter, 
 chief of the Diisseldorf School, was born at Berlin, on the 3rd 
 of December, 1811. The son of a banker he received a good 
 general education, and evincing a strong passion for painting he 
 was placed as a pupil with W. Schadow. His progress was 
 great, and in 1832 he made his debut at the Berlin Exhibition 
 with a large picture, ' The Mourning of the Jews by the Rivers 
 of Babylon,' which excited much attention, was awarded a prize 
 of the highest class, was purchased by the king for the museum 
 at Cologne, was engraved by Ruscheweyh, and lithographed by 
 Weiss and Schreiner. ' Girls at the Fountain. ' followed, and 
 then another large and elaborate work, ' Jeremiah lamenting 
 over the Ruins of Jerusalem,' which gained a medal of the first 
 class at the Paris Salon in 1837, was lithographed by Weiss, and 
 purchased for his private collection by the king of Prussia. 
 Bendemann now turned aside for awhile from high art to works 
 of a lighter character, like 'Harvest,' 'Shepherd and Shepherdess/ 
 for Count Raezynski, and the 'Daughter of a Servian Prince,' in 
 illustration of poems by Uhland and Herder. In 1838 he was ap- 
 pointed professor and member of the council of the Academy of 
 Arts at Dresden. He now recurred to the more ambitious subjects 
 of his earlier days, his style however having gained in strength, 
 and his technical knowledge being enlarged by a visit to Italy. 
 The great pictorial undertaking of his residence in Dresden was 
 the decoration of the royal palace with a series of large paintings 
 in fresco. On the walls of the throne room he filled four large 
 compartments with the leading events in the life of the Emperor 
 Henry, the founder of the city, and four other compartments 
 with symbolical subjects, adding elsewhere a series of portraits of 
 distinguished men of all ages, and a frieze symbolising the life 
 of man. The decoration of this room was treated in the spirit 
 of the German middle-ages. The great ball-room, on the other 
 hand, he filled with subjects from the heathen mythology chiefly 
 of a festal character. The Hall of Alliance he decorated with 
 religious subjects. His other paintings of this period include a 
 fresco of ' Poetry and the Arts/ a portrait of the Emperor 
 Lothar II., for the Romer, or old Palace of Frankfurt, and 
 ' Ulyses and Penelope ' for the Cassel Museum. He also designed 
 the monument of Sebastian Bach, erected at Sandstein, under 
 the superintendence of Knauer. In 1859 he was appointed 
 director of the Diisseldorf Academy, a dignity to which he 
 seemed naturally entitled on the retirement of his father-in-law 
 Schadow. He has since painted several works which have fully 
 sustained his previously high reputation : notably ' The Death 
 of Abel/ for Naumberg and a frieze for the Realschule of 
 Diisseldorf. He has also painted some portraits which have 
 been greatly admired, as the Countess von Hohenzollern-Sig- 
 inaringen ; his wife, Schadow's daughter, whom he married in 
 1838 ; and Wilhelm von Schadow for the Antwerp Academy. 
 Bendemann is remarkable for breadth of treatment, power com- 
 bined with sweetness of expression, and freedom from the ex- 
 cessive academical frigidity of some eminent contemporary 
 German historical painters. 
 
 * BENEDEK, LUDWIG VON, a celebrated commander in 
 the Austrian service, and son of a medical professor, was born at 
 Oedenburg, in Hungary, in the year 1804. He received his 
 education at the Imperial Military Academy of Neustadt, which 
 he quitted at 18 to join the army as a cadet. He received his 
 
 BENEDEK, LUDWIG VON. 208 
 
 first commission in 1831, was promoted to be second lieutenant, 
 placed on the staff, and sent to Italy. In 1835 he was a captain, 
 live years later he was advanced to the rank of adjutant-major, 
 and left Italy for Poland, where he manifested great tact and 
 clemency. In 1843 he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. 
 The breaking out of the insurrection in Galicia in February, 
 1846, gave him the opportunity of displaying his courage anil 
 conduct as a commander ; and, entering the western district with 
 a commission from the governor of the province, the Archduke j 
 Ferdinand d'Este, whose adjutant he was, his operations in and 
 around Wieliczka enabled General Collin to act on the offensive 
 and to take Podgorze by assault. This capture involved the 
 general pacification of Galicia, and for his important services 
 Benedek was rewarded with the insignia of the Order of Leopold. 
 In August, 1847, he obtained the full rank of colonel, and 
 received the command of the regiment of Gyulai Lancers, at the 
 head of which he next year joined the army of Italy. Here he 
 took part in the memorable? campaign under Radetzky, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his conduct of the retreat from Milan to 
 Verona, at Osone, and especially at the battle of Curtatone, 
 where, being in command of a brigade, his prudence and courage 
 procured for him an honourable mention by Marshal Radetzky, 
 and, later, the Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa. He won 
 fresh honours in the campaign of 1849 by his brilliant occupation 
 of Mortara on the 21st of March, and his important share in gain- 
 ing the decisive battle of Novara on the 24th. On the 3rd of 
 April, 1849, he was promoted to the rank of major-general in the 
 1 ley nan brigade, and being transferred to the army of the Danube, 
 took an active part in the military events of Hungary. He led 
 the vanguard at Raab and Oszony, and was slightly wounded at 
 Uj-Szegedin, and more seriously by the fragment of a shell at 
 Ozs-Ivany. Both in Hungary and in Poland, Benedek's name, 
 from the necessity of his duty, became connected with many pro- 
 ceedings little in accordance with his real nature. But though I 
 he was most exact in obeying orders once received, his voice in 
 the council-chamber was always heard in favour of conciliation 
 and mercy. At the conclusion of the Hungarian war he was 
 appointed to be chief of the quartermaster-general's staff of the J 
 second army of Italy under the veteran Radetzky. In 1853 
 Benedek became Lieutenant- Field- Marshal, and received, in view J 
 of the possibility of Austria taking part in the Russian war, the J 
 command of the fourth army corps in Lemberg. In 1859, at the ,1 
 outbreak of the war of Italian independence, he was appointed to 
 the command of the eighth army corps ; and, though for a time 
 his energy was spent in unimportant skirmishes, he distinguished 
 himself at Solferino, where the right wing of the Austrians, 
 which was under his command, had for an instant the advantage 
 over the left wing of the allies. He unwillingly obeyed the 'I 
 emperor's command to retreat behind the left bank of the i 
 Mincio, and the peace of Villal'ranca filled him with vexation. < : | 
 Though the war of 1859 ended disastrously for Austria, Benedek J 
 made himself both known and dreaded by the French and Italian . 
 troops; and at the cessation of hostilities he remained in Venetia I 
 at the head of the Austrian forces. For a few months in 1860 he 
 acted as master of the ordnance and governor-general of Hun- 
 gary, which he vacated upon his appointment to the chief com- 
 mand of the Austrian army in Italy. In the late German war 
 Benedek was summoned by the Emperor to be commander-in- 
 chief of the Austrian army, and fixed his head-quarters succes- 
 sively at Pardubitz and Ohmitz, from the latter of which he 
 issued an order of the day full of confidence in the successful 
 termination of the struggle. But, impeded from the first by 
 both actual and diplomatic clogs upon his movements, and by 
 the fact of his previous war-training having been chiefly in the 
 plains of Lombardy ; failing to appreciate the improved tactics of 
 the Prussians, and the increased power of their weapons ; and 
 over-estimating the capabilities of his own army, Benedek 
 sustained on the 3rd of July, 1866, the crushing defeat of Sa- 
 dowa, and was soon afterwards superseded by the Archduke 
 Albeit. 
 
 In person General Benedek is of the middle height, spare, 
 wiry, and exceedingly active ; of upright and military bearing, 
 with finely sharp-cut features, and a high aquiline nose, and, 
 like most of the continental officers, much shorn and shaven, 
 with the exception of a pair of thick moustaches. He lias quick, 
 penetrating eyes, and his manner is distinguished by the courtesy 
 and attractive mixture of gentleness, high courage, and gaiety, 
 which used to be the mark of the old school. He boasts of being 
 every inch a Hungarian, and in his staff appointments he was 
 accustomed to show a marked preference for Poles and Hun- 
 garians over Germane. Whether in success or adversity, in his 
 
209 
 
 BENEDEN, PIERRE JOSEPH VAN. 
 
 BENEDICT, BISCOr. 
 
 210 
 
 private or his public character, the reputation of General Benedek 
 For scrupulous honour remains unshaken. 
 
 * BENEDEN, PIERRE JOSEPH VAN, an eminent Belgian 
 zoologist, but about whom we can find very few easily accessible 
 biographical facts. In one of his early papers he alludes to 
 M. Stoffels, a chemist at Malines as his master and guide. In 1835 
 he was the keeper of the natural history museum at Louvain, 
 but how long before he had filled this post we are not aware. 
 In this j r ear or in the following he was appointed professor of 
 zoology at the Catholic University of Louvain. It was also in 
 1835 that his earliest paper was published. The subject was 
 Dreisstna, a genus of mussel-like shells which he was the first to 
 establish. The paper indicates a full and comprehensive mode 
 of treatment, which characterizes most of his later productions. 
 In it he urges the importance of drawing generic characters from 
 the soft as well as the hard parts, as he was convinced these last 
 alone could not be exclusively relied on. This idea was more 
 fully developed in 1S36 in his paper on Helix algira. He notices 
 the great increase in the number of species of Helix during the 
 few previous years, and remarks that the characters of the 1200 
 rr more species then known were based upon the shell. He 
 compared Helix algira with H. pomatia for the purpose of dis- 
 covering what was the value of the characters afforded by the 
 soft parts. He came to no noteworthy conclusion, recognising 
 the necessity of examining a far larger number of species : but 
 he pointed out that the lingual band promised to yield good clas- 
 sificatory points, an observation which has been confirmed by the 
 subsequent researches of Troschel and others. About this time 
 Alcide D'Orbigny, who was on the eve of departure for South 
 America, requested Beneden to co-operate with him in investi- 
 gating the Pteropoda, and he agreed to do so. The first result of 
 the agreement was his memoir on Pneumodermon violaceum, in 
 which he discovered a sympathetic or stomato-gastric system of 
 nerves, the occurrence of which had not been observed before in 
 the Mollusca. In 1836 he was elected a corresponding member 
 of the Royal Academy of Belgium, and in 1842 a full member 
 thereof. He ha3 written very few separately-published works, 
 but has contributed largely to the 'Bulletins' and ' Memoires' of 
 the Royal Academy of Belgium. The list of his communications 
 in the Royal Society's catalogue of scientific papers comprises 
 122 items, to which must be added about half-a-dozen more 
 which have appeared since the catalogue was issued. Looking 
 at these papers as a whole, they may be described as the mate- 
 rials for an excellent anatomical, developmental, and synoptical 
 account of the Belgian fauna. The most important are, 'Md- 
 moire sur les Campanulaires de la cote d'Ostende, &c. ; ' ' Sur 
 l'Embryogenie des Tubulaires ; ' ' Recherches sur l'Anatomie, le 
 Physioiogie, et le developpement des Bryozoaires qui habitent la 
 cote d'Ostende ; ' a similar memoir on the Ascidians ; ' Les Vers 
 cestoides considered sous le rapport physiologique, embryogenique, 
 et zooclassique; ' ' Recherches sur quelques Crustaces inferieurs,' 
 which is a monograph on the Lernceidas ; ' Histoire Naturelle du 
 genre Capitella de Blainville, &c.,' in which he added much to 
 the knowledge already acquired by Oersted and Leuckart ; and 
 a series of papers which began in 1861, entitled 1 Recherches sur 
 la Faune littorale de Belgique.' Much of our present knowledge 
 respecting the curious changes of form undergone by the Hydro- 
 Koa and Entozoa or Scolecida is due to his research. In con- 
 junction with M. Gervais he has recently written a magnificent 
 work on whales, ' Ost6ographie des Cetaces vivants et fossiles. 
 
 BENEDETTO DA MAIANO [Maiano, Benedetto da, 
 E. C. vol. iv. col. 56.1 
 
 BENEDICT, BISCOP, an ecclesiastic of the 7th century, famous 
 as the teacher of Bede, and still more for the influence he exerted 
 on Anglo-Saxon or Early English arts and civilization, was born 
 about 629, of a noble family in Northumbria, and brought up at 
 the court of King Oswy. At the age of 25 he went by command 
 of the king to Rome, having for companion a young man named 
 "Wilfrid, afterwards the celebrated Bishop of York. Benedict 
 remained at Rome nearly ten years, seemingly engaged in study, 
 returning to England soon after the synod of Whitby. He 
 found King Alfred of Northumberland preparing to visit Rome ; 
 but he was persuaded to abandon his intention and send Benedict 
 as his messenger. During this second visit to the Holy City 
 Benedict arrived at the determination to become a monk. He 
 was accordingly admitted into the abbey of Lerins in Provence, 
 received the tonsure, and passed through the usual course of 
 monastic training. After a short visit to Rome, 668, lie set out 
 on his return to England in company with Bishop Theodore and 
 Abbot Adrian [E. C. S. col. 28] ; and at Theodore's request 
 served as abbot of St. Peter's, Canterbury, until the arrival of 
 bioo. div. — sur. 
 
 Adrian, who had been detained on the Continent, and did not 
 reach England till some months after his companions. Benedict 
 now made a third journey to Rome, with what specific objec t is 
 not known, but it was probably in connection with some religious 
 establishment, as it was on this occasion that he first appears in 
 the character by which he is still remembered, that of a collector 
 of pictures, works of ecclesiastical art, and books. With his col- 
 lected stores he went into Northumberland, where the king, 
 JEgfrid, gave him a piece of land near the mouth of the Wear on 
 which to found a monastery, and the erection of which Benedict 
 pressed forward with so much vigour that the building was com- 
 pleted within a year of its commencement. This was the after- 
 wards famous Abbey of Wearmoutli, and according to Bede 
 (Vita Abb. Weremouth) was the first in England which was 
 " built of stone in the Roman manner." For its erection Benedict 
 had brought masons from Rome, and when it was drawing 
 towards completion he sent messengers to Gaul to bring over 
 workers in glass, " who were at this time unknown in Britain, 
 that they might glaze the windows of his church as well as 
 those of the cloisters and dining-rooms. This was done, and 
 they came, and not only finished the work required, but taught 
 the English nation their art, which was well adapted for enclosing 
 the lanterns of the church, and for the vessels required for various 
 uses." Bede, when he wrote this, it must be remembered, was 
 not only the contemporary of Benedict, but himself an inmate ot 
 the monastery whose erection he describes. Wearmouth Abbey 
 church was not, as is sometimes stated, the first church built in Eng- 
 land of stone, but the first stone church built in the Roman manner, 
 and of which the windows were glazed. Four years later, 678, 
 Benedict made another voyage to Rome, and this time, as we are 
 told, expressly in order to collect books, pictures, and relics, and 
 to obtain from the pope special privileges and exemptions for 
 his monastery. He succeeded in all these objects, bringing back 
 with him a large number of ecclesiastical ornaments for his 
 monastery, and also J ohn, the archicantor of St. Peter's at Rome, 
 to introduce the Roman choral service into England, ot which, 
 as well as of other Roman rites and dogmas, Benedict was an 
 ardent advocate. About this time King iEgfrid gave Benedict 
 land at J arrow for another monastery, the new house, which he 
 dedicated to St. Peter, being made dependent upon that of 
 Wearmouth, and placed under the same abbot. 
 
 Having finished his new monastery, Benedict transferred the 
 abbacy to one of his monks named Eosterwin, and again set out, 
 685, for Rome. From this his fifth, and, as it proved, his last, 
 journey, he returned in 687, as usual laden with books and works 
 of art. Besides rich vestments, including " two palls of matchless 
 workmanship " for the service of his monasteries, he brought a 
 series of paintings from the Old and New Testament in type and 
 antitype, which he placed in the church at Jarrow, and another 
 series of events in the life of Christ, which he set up in the 
 church at Wearmouth. Shortly after his return he was seized 
 with paralysis. For three years he endured grievous bodily 
 suffering, but he never ceased to exhort his monks to continue 
 the good work he had begun ; and whilst he related the history 
 and pointed out the value of the literary and pictorial treasures 
 he had collected, he exhorted his monks to read and carefully 
 preserve the books. He died on the 12th of January, 690, and 
 was buried in his own church at Wearmouth ; but in the tenth 
 century, Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, transferred his relics 
 to Thorney. His library was destroyed by the Danes in one of 
 their predatory excursions.' 
 
 Benedict was, for his age, a man of great learning as well as 
 refined taste. Several books, chiefly on the monastic rule, are 
 attributed to him, but none have come down to us ; and he 
 left several distinguished scholars, the most eminent being the 
 Venerable Bede. But his great merit is that he was the first 
 to introduce or cultivate a knowledge of art among the English 
 people, and he divides with Adrian the honour of stimulating a 
 taste for literature. In the sermon which he delivered in the 
 church at Wearmouth on the day of Benedict's commemoration, 
 Bede very clearly and distinctly set forth this phase of Bene- 
 dict's character and the purpose he had in view — a purpose 
 it is necessary to keep in mind in considering the history and 
 character of early ecclesiastical art : — " He never returned from 
 abroad empty-handed, always bringing with him a large supply; 
 at one time of holy books, at another relics of the blessed 
 Martyrs of Christ ; introducing, on one occasion, architects for 
 the building of the church ; on another, glass manufacturers, for 
 the ornament and security of its windows ; on a third, instructors 
 for teaching singing and the services of the church ; at one time, 
 too, he imported paintings of the holy histories, which should 
 
 P 
 
£11 
 
 BENEFIELD, SEBASTIAN. 
 
 212 
 
 serve not only for the decoration of the church, but for the 
 instruction of beholders ; so that those persons who could not 
 learn from books what had been done by the Saviour, might be 
 thus far instructed by the representations placed around them." 
 
 (Bede, Homily on Benedict Biscop, printed in Bede's Minor 
 Works, 1841, p. 335; Vita S. Benedicti Abbatis; Vit. Abbot. 
 Ifririuouth, and Hint. Ecc. ; Malmesbury, De Gestis Begum, B. i. 
 c. 3 ; Capgrave, Nova Legenda ; Warton, Hist, of Brit. Poetry, 
 vol. i. Diss. ii. p. xcvii. ; Wright, Biog. Britt. Bit. vol. i. pp. 185 — 
 192 ; Hardy, Desc. Cat. of Materials, relating to the History of 
 Great Britain, vol. i. pp. 306 — C8.) 
 
 BENEFIELD, SEBASTIAN, a learned English divine of the 
 early part of the 17th century, was born at Prestbury, Gloucester- 
 shire, Aug. 12, 1559; was admitted scholar of Corpus Christi 
 College, Oxford, in 1580 ; and elected fellow in 1590; proceeded 
 M.A. and took holy orders; and in 1599 was appointed reader 
 in rhetoric in his college. In 1008 he took the degree of D.D., 
 and in 1013 was appointed Margaret Professor of Divinity in the 
 University. This office he filled with great reputation for 14 
 years, when he resigned it, and returned to his rectory of Meysey 
 Hampton, near Fairford in Gloucestershire, where the rest of his 
 life was spent in study, writing, and the diligent discharge of his 
 parochial duties, and where he died on the 24th of August, 1030. 
 Benefield was a man of earnest piety, of great learning, and an 
 excellent teacher. In doctrine he was a decided, or, as he was 
 termed, a "downright and doctrinal" Calvinist. He wrote 
 many books, in their time much read, but now probably seldom 
 if ever looked into. The following are the principal : — 1. ' Doc- 
 trines Christiana) sex capita totidem prrclcctionibus in schola 
 Theolog. Oxon. pro forma habitis discussa et desceptata,' 4to, 
 Oxford, 1010; 2. 'A Commentary or Exposition upon the First 
 Chapter of Amos, delivered in 21 sermons, in the parish church 
 of Meysey Hampton, in the diocese of Gloucester,' 4to, Oxford, 
 1013 ; 3. ' Commentary or Exposition upon the Second Chapter 
 of Amos, delivered in 21 sermons in the parish church of Meysey 
 Hampton,' 4to, London, 1020; 4. ' Commentary or Exposition 
 on the Third Chapter of Amos,' &c, 4to, London, 1629 ; 5. 'Eight 
 Sermons publicly preached in the University of Oxford, the 
 second at St. Peter's in the East, the rest at St. Marv's Church,' 
 4to, Oxford, 1014; 6. 'The Sin against the Holy Ghost, and 
 other Christian Doctrines, delivered in 12 sermons, upon part of 
 the Tenth Chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews,' 4to, Oxford, 
 1615 ; 7. ' Prselectiones dc perseverantia sanctorum/ 8vo, Frank- 
 furt, 1618. 
 
 BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDWARD, a German philosopher, 
 was born at Berlin on the 17th of February, 1798. After having 
 taken part, as a volunteer, in the war for the independence of his 
 country in 1815, he entered in 1816 the University' of Halle, 
 where he studied theology. In 1817 he removed to Berlin, 
 where he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, in which 
 faculty he commenced in 1820 a course of lectures which were 
 interrupted by the prohibition of the minister von Altenstein, on 
 account of their opposition to the doctrines of Hegel. Hereupon 
 he removed to Gottingen, where he held private lectures, until, 
 being recalled by family circumstances to Berlin, he received 
 }>ermission to resume his lectures at the university of that city, 
 of which, after the death of Hegel in 1832, he was named extra- 
 ordinary professor of philosophy, and successfully laboured in 
 that capacity until the year 1853. After suffering from a severe 
 physical affliction, Beneke was missing for a period of twelve 
 months from the 1st of March, 1854, when he was found a corpse 
 in the water. 
 
 The central point of Beneke's system is to be found in his 
 conviction that the true principle of philosophy is a free and 
 determined attachment to the phenomena of our own self-con- 
 sciousness, a studying of our own sensations and emotions ; and 
 his psychology is therefore to be characterized as empirical and 
 inductive. The following are the most important of the works 
 of Beneke : — Experimental Psychology as the principle of all 
 Science, expounded in its leading Features, ' Erfahrungsseelen- 
 lehrc, als Grundlage alles Wissens, in ihren Hauptziigen 
 dargestellt,' Berlin, 1820; Doctrine of Perception, &c, 'Erkennt- 
 nisslehre nach dem Bewusstsein der reinen Vernunft, in ihren 
 Grundziigen dargelegt,' Jena, 1820 ; Psychological Sketches, 
 ' Psychologische Skizzen/ 2 vols. Gottingen, 1825 — 27 ; Con- 
 cerning the Relation of Soul and Body, ' (Jeber das Verhaltniss 
 von Seele und Leib,' Gottingen, 1826 ; and a Handbook of 
 Psychology, considered as a Physical Science, 'Lehrbuch der 
 Psychologie als Naturwissenschaft,' Berlin, 1833, 2nd edition, 
 1845. To these works were added a series of amplificatory or 
 explanatory treatises — The New Psychology, ' Die neue Psycho- 
 
 logie ;' Science of Education and Instruction, ' Erziehungs- und 
 Unterrichtslehre,' 2 vols. Berlin, 1835—30, 2nd ed. 1842 ; Out- 
 lines of the Natural System of Practical Philosophy, 'Grund- 
 linien des Naturlichen Systems der Praktischen Philosophic,' 
 3 vols. Berlin, 1837 — 41 ; System of Metaphysics, and of the 
 Philosophy of Religion, &c, ' System der Metaphysik und der 
 Religionsphilosophie aus den Naturlichen Grundverhiiltnissen 
 des Menschlichen Geistes abgeleitet,' Berlin, 1840 ; System of 
 Logic, &c, ' System der Logik als Kunstlchre des Denkens,' 
 2 vols. Berlin, 1842 ; and Pragmatic Psychology, or the Doctrine 
 of the Soul in its application to Life, ' Pragmatische Psychologie, 
 oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auf das Leben,' 2 vols. 
 Berlin, 1850. For the further exposition of the subject treated 
 of in the last-mentioned work its author instituted the publica- 
 tion of a quarterly journal, entitled Records of Pragmatical 
 Psychology, ' Archiv fur die Pragmatische Psychologie,' &c. 
 
 * BEN FEY, THEODOR, a distinguished German Oriental 
 scholar, was born January 28, 1809, at Norten, near Gottingen. 
 After completing his course at the Gottingen Gymnasium, in 
 1824, he entered the university, where he studied philology 
 under Karl Otto Midler and Dissen. In 1827 he proceeded to 
 Munich, and thence to Frankfurt and Heidelberg universities, 
 returning in 1834 to Gottingen, where he was named professor 
 in the faculty of philosophy, and has long held the chair of 
 Sanskrit and Comparative Grammar. The Oriental languages 
 have since mainly engaged his attention, and without having 
 attained to the same elevation, either as discoverer or scholar, as 
 one or two of his countrymen, he is generally regarded as in the 
 very foremost rank of living systematic orientalists. In 1 801 he 
 was elected corresponding member of the French Academie des 
 Inscriptions. Of his numerous works the following are among 
 the most valuable : — ' Ueber die Monatsnamen einiger alten 
 Volker' (On the Names of the Months among the ancient 
 peoples), Berlin, 1836; ' Griechisches Wurzellexikon ' (Creek 
 roots Lexicon), 2 vols. Berlin, 1839— 42; ' Ueber das Verhaltniss 
 der agyptischen Sprache zum Semitschen Sprachstamm,' an essay 
 on the connection of the Egyptian with the Semitic language, 
 Leipzig, 1844; ' Der Hymnen des Samaveda' (the text of the 
 hymns of the Samaveda, with a glossary and translation), Leipzig, 
 1848; ' Beit rage zur Erklarung des Zend (contribution towards 
 an explanation of the Zend), Gottingen, 1853; ' Vollstandige 
 Grammatik der Sanskritsprache ' (Complete Grammar of the San- 
 skrit Language), Leipzig, 1855, which was followed by a shorter 
 grammar in 1855, and by a modified English version, 'A Practical 
 Grammar of the Sansluit Language,' 8vo, 1863 ; and ' A Sanskrit- 
 English Dictionary,' 1865 ; ' Pantschatantra,' 2 vols. Leipzig, 
 1859. He has also contributed largely to ' Orient und Occident,' 
 Gottingen, 1863, &c. ; and he is the author of the elaborate article 
 ' Indies, 1 in Ersch and Gruber's ' Encyddopadie.' 
 
 BENOIT DE SAINTE MAUR, a Norman trouvere of the 
 12th century, was probably a native of Sainte Maur in Provence, 
 and a monk of the convent of Marmontier. Little or nothing is 
 known of his personal history. From his chief work, the metri- 
 cal chronicle of the Dukes of Normandy, we learn that he wrote 
 that poem by desire of "le bon Henri Secund, flors des prince3 
 de tut le mond" (our Henry II. of England), after Robert Wace 
 had ended his chronicle, and consequently after the year 1170. 
 The chronicle extends from the creation to the reign of Henry II., 
 and contains about 30,000 lines. He is very laudatory of the 
 Norman dukes generally, but particularly so of Henry II., to 
 whose liberality Benoit makes frequent reference. The descrip- 
 tive passages are not without elegance, and there is something of 
 simplicity and directness in the narrative, but as a whole it is 
 insufferably tedious ; and whilst it has a certain value for the 
 student of the literature of the period, and will probably con- 
 tinue to be referred to by the historian, it has in itself little 
 historical value, the greater part being translated from the earlier 
 Latin chroniclers and memoir writers. Benoit's other great work 
 is a metrical History of Troy, written before his Dukes of Nor- 
 mandy ; indeed it was in consequence of the popularity of the 
 History r of Troy that Benoit was asked by Henry II. to write the 
 Norman chronicle. The History or Romance of Troy is almost 
 as long as the Dukes of Normandy, and to readers of the j>resent 
 day very much duller and more wearisome, since it wants even 
 the interest which the Chronicle possesses in the fact of the poet 
 being contemporary with at least some of the persons and events 
 he treats of. ' The Roman de Troye ' has only been printed in 
 parts : by M. Michel in the work cited below, by Keller in his 
 ' Romvart,' and a few brief extracts by Wright in his ' Biographia 
 Britannica Literaria,' vol. ii. ; but a fine MS. of it is in the 
 British Museum, Harl. Coll., No. 4482. Portions of the Chronicle 
 
214 
 
 of the Dukes of Normandy were printed by M. Michel at the end 
 of ' L'Histoire de Normaudie de Th. Licquet,' Rouen, 1835, and 
 in his ' Chroniques Anglo-Normandes,' Rouen, 183G ; and it was 
 printed at length in the ' Collection de Documents inedits sur 
 F'Histoire de France,' under the special title of ' Chroniques des 
 Dues de Normaudie, par Benoit, trouvere Anglo-Norman du 
 XII e sicclc, publiees pour la premiere fois d'apres nn manuscrit 
 du Musee britannique, par Francisque Michel,' 3 vols. 4to. 
 Paris, 1837 — 44. Some writers have attempted to show that 
 Benoit the author of the ' Chronique des Dues de Normandie ' 
 was a different person from the Benoit who wrote the ' Roman 
 de Troye,' and at first M. Francisque Michel was of that opinion ; 
 but a second MS. of the Chronicle, discovered in the Public 
 Library of Tours, is considered by M. Michel to leave no doubt 
 that both peems were written by Benoit de Sainte Maur. 
 
 A metrical life of Thomas a Becket, ' La Vie Seint Thomas, le 
 glorius Martir de Canterberie, par Benoit le Moine,' of which 
 several MSS. are extant, and which is printed by M. Michel at 
 the end of his edition of the ' Chroniques des Dues de Nor- 
 mandie,' has also been attributed to Benoit de Sainte Maur ; but 
 the author calls himself "Benet a black monk," and he probably 
 belonged to St. Alban's Abbey, as he speaks of " Saint Auban 
 nostre patron." 
 
 * BENT HAM, GEORGE, an eminent botanist, who is so 
 generally ignored in the principal text-books on biography, that 
 we are unable to say when or where he was born. In 1833 he 
 was appointed secretary to the Royal Horticultural Society, and 
 as such drew up several reports on the plants collected for the 
 society by the travelling botanists, Douglas and Hartweg. In 
 this capacity also he took an active share in the general manage- 
 ment of the Society's affairs until the cessation of his secretary- 
 ship in 1841. During this period he contributed several important 
 papers on systematic botany to the scientific journals, the most 
 noteworthy of which is his enumeration of the plants collected 
 in British Guiana by Schomburgk, extending over more than 
 two hundred pages of Hooker's 'Journal of Botany.' Enjoying 
 as he did the personal friendship of Sir W. J. Hooker, he had 
 free opportunities of consulting and examining that gentleman's 
 library and herbarium as also the extensive collection at Kew; 
 and from 1841 onwards many papers issued from his pen, 
 descriptive of plants sent from all parts of the world by Hinds, 
 Barclay, Schomburgk, Hostmann, Leprieur, Champion, Hohen- 
 acker, and others. Not only did he consult the collections at 
 home, but for some forty years or more he has spent much 
 time in visiting all the principal herbaria on the continent, and 
 has personally examined many parts of Europe for the purpose 
 of studying the living plants. Constantly engaged in describing 
 plants, and accustomed to check the observations made on dry 
 specimens by others drawn from the growing organisms, he has 
 acquired an almost unrivalled skill in framing the diagnoses of 
 genera. It is his later works which more especially give him a 
 claim to be regarded as the most eminent systematic botanist of 
 his day. The first of these was his ' Manual of the British Flora,' 
 in which he evinces so great an aversion to the founding of 
 species upon characters of trivial importance, that his estimates 
 of the British species falls far short of the estimates of most other 
 authorities. Thus he considers that there are 1285 phanero- 
 gamous plants in the British Isles, while Hooker and Arnott 
 give 1571, and Babington 1708, as the number. Another special 
 feature of this book is the analytical key which it contains, and 
 which is intended to help the unlearned student to determine 
 the name of any plant he may have found from its character by 
 a process of exhaustive analysis. This key, although it necessi- 
 tates a somewhat artificial grouping of the plants, is an excellent 
 example of its kind. In 18151 appeared his ' Flora Hong- 
 kongensis,' which does for the neighbourhood of Hong Kong 
 what the above-noticed Manual does for our own islands. In 
 1863 the first volume of his ' Flora Australiensis ' was published, 
 and was succeeded soon after by three others. This work was 
 entrusted to Mr. Bentham in preference to Dr. Ferd. Mueller 
 (who was specially fitted for the task by his local knowledge) in 
 consequence of his intimate acquaintance with the Australian 
 herbaria in Europe. Another of his works which requires 
 mention is the ' Genera Plantarum,' which is being drawn up 
 by him in conjunction with Dr. J. D. Hooker. The first 
 volume, in three parts, was published at intervals from 1862 to 
 1867. It promises to be the most important work on systematic 
 botany published during the last quarter of a century, and will 
 be invaluable to the botanical student. In addition to the 
 papers and books mentioned, Mr. Bentham has published many 
 others. He has been President of the Linntean Society since 1861. 
 
 BENTKOWSKI, FELIX, a learned Polish writer, was bom 
 in 1781. From the foundation of the University of Warsaw in 
 1817 to its suppression in 1831, Bentkowski was professor of 
 history and bibliography, dean of the faculty of letters, and 
 principal librarian of the university ; he was also professor of 
 history at the Warsaw lyceum, and keeper of the archives of the 
 kingdom of Poland. He died at Warsaw in 1852. Bentkowski's 
 most valuable literary production is his History of Polish Lite- 
 rature ('Historya Literatury Polskiey'), in two large 8vo 
 volumes, Warsaw, 1814. It displays little critical power, but it 
 is comprehensive ; the bibliographical details are full and 
 accurate ; and on the whole it affords a useful general survey of 
 the subject. Bentkowski wrote an ' Introduction to General 
 History,' 8vo, Warsaw, 1812, and translated Guizof s 'History of 
 Civilization in Europe' into Polish. He likewise contributed 
 several biographical notices of members and various antiquarian 
 and philological papers to the Royal Society of Warsaw. 
 
 * BENTLEY, ROBERT, a botanist who has given much 
 attention to the pharmaceutical aspects of the science he culti- 
 vates. He is the son of William Bentley, a solicitor at Hitchin, 
 Herts, and was born March 25, 1823. His medical education 
 was carried on at King's College, London, with which institution 
 his own subsequent career has been intimately connected. In 
 1847 he qualified himself as a member of the College of Surgeons, 
 and in the following year was elected lecturer on botany at the 
 London Hospital. In 1S49 he became a medical associate of 
 King's College, lecturer on botany at the Middlesex Hospital, 
 and professor of botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great 
 Britain. In 1851 this last appointment was conjoined with the 
 professorship of materia medica, Avhich had been held by Dr. 
 Pereira. In 1854 Avhen Forbes was transferred to the chair of 
 botany at Edinburgh, he had not delivered more than half-a- 
 dozen lectures out of his full course of forty at King's College. 
 In this emergency Professor Bentley undertook to complete 
 them. The next year a successor to Forbes was sought for, and 
 Professor Bentley appeared as a candidate, but Dr. Henfrey 
 obtained the appointment. Upon this a testimonial was given 
 to him by the students, in which they thanked him for his 
 urbanity and instructive lectures ; and regretted he was not to 
 be their professor. In 1859, however, the chair again became 
 vacant in consequence of Dr. Henfrey's death, and Professor 
 Bentley was appointed to be his successor. Just before this he 
 became lecturer on botany at St. Mary's Hospital, but this and 
 his other botanical lectureships were given up on his joining the 
 staff at King's College. In 1862 he became professor of botany 
 to the London Institution ; and in 1863 Dean of the Medical 
 Faculty of King's College, as also a honorary fellow thereof. He 
 is a fellow of several learned societies, and was President of the 
 British Pharmaceutical Congress in 1866 and 1867. He has 
 been long an energetic worker on the Council and Garden Com- 
 mittee of the Royal Botanical Society. His principal separate 
 work is his ' Manual of Botany,' of which a second edition will 
 be shortly published. He was associated with Dr. Farre and 
 Mr. Warrington in editing Pereira's ' Manual of Materia Medica 
 and Therapeutics,' of which also a second edition is nearly ready 
 for publication. This work is an amended abridgment of Dr. 
 Pereira's ' Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics,' and 
 Professor Bentley's share in it chiefly relates to the description 
 of organic substances and of the beings from which they were 
 obtained. He has published a work of somewhat similar scope, 
 comprising lectures on the organic materia medica of the ' British 
 Pharmacopoeia.' He has also contributed numerous articles to 
 the 'Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society,' mostly upon the 
 plants and plant substances used in pharmacy, and of which a 
 list is given in the Royal Society's 'Catalogue of Scientific 
 Papers.' 
 
 BENVENUTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, an eminent 
 Italian painter, commonly called L'Ortolano (the Gardener) 
 from the occupation of his father, was a native of Ferrara. 
 The years of his birth and death are alike unknown ; the former 
 must, however, have occurred towards the close of the 15th 
 century ; the latter probably soon after 1525, in which year he 
 is known to have been painting. Between 1507 and 1513 he 
 was at Bologna, studying the works of Raffaelle and Bagnacavallo. 
 According to Lanzi he was compelled to leave Bologna on account 
 of an act of homicide. His manner of painting most resembles 
 that of Garofalo, with whom indeed he is often confounded, as 
 well from the similarity of their names (Garofalo's being Ben- 
 venuto Tisio) as of their styles. Several of Benvenuti's altar- 
 pieces have been removed to Rome ; others arc still in the 
 churches of Ferrara. Lanzi makes particular mention of one 
 
 P 2 
 
215 
 
 BERANGER, JEAN PIERRE DE. 
 
 BERGENROTH, GUSTAVE ADOLPH. 216 
 
 which, when he wrote, was in the church of Bondino, near 
 Ferrara, in which are represented the saints Sebastian and Rocco, 
 with Demetrius in military costume, leaning on his sword 
 absorbed in thought. This fine work, which is also eulogised by 
 Scannelli, is now in our National Gallery (No. 669), having 
 been brought from the church of Bondino in 1844. 
 
 BERANGER, JEAN PIERRE DE [E. C. vol. i. col. 659]. 
 M. Beranger died at Paris on the 16th of July, 1857. The 
 announcement of his deatli called forth a universal expression of 
 sorrow from Ins countrymen, and the government of the emperor, 
 in recognition of the general feeling, directed that the interment 
 Should be of the most solemn and stately kintl, and at the public 
 cost. Shortly after his death appeared the autobiography which 
 it had been lung known he was preparing, and to which reference 
 w as made in the article above cited (col. 660). It was printed 
 in a single volume entitled ' Ma Biographic,' with an appendix 
 by Paul Boiteau, 8vo, 1858. A posthumous volume of poetry, 
 ' Dernieres Chansons de Beranger, de 1834 k 1851, avec une 
 lettre et une preface de l'auteur,' appeared about the same time 
 in one large 8vo volume ; it contained 74 new pieces, some of 
 them possessing all the old charm if not quite all the old fresh- 
 ness. The two works were republished under the title of 
 'CEuyres PosthumeB de Beranger,' in two large 8vo vols, with 23 
 engravings, Paris, 1860. Beranger had completed a revised 
 edition of his works shortly before his decease, ' (Euvres Com- 
 pletes de Beranger, nouv. 6d. revue par l'auteur/ 2 vols. 8vo, 
 with 53 engravings, Paris, 1856 — 57. The ' Correspondance de 
 Beranger, recueillie par Paul Boiteau,' appeared in 4 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris,' 1860. M. Paul Boiteau had already published (1858) a 
 volume on the ' Philosophic et Politique de Beranger.' 
 
 BEBCHETT, PIERRE, French painter, was horn in 1659 ; 
 studied under Charles de la Fosse, and was employed at Marly. 
 In 1681 he came to England in order to assist another French 
 painter, M. Rambour, then much occupied in decorating the 
 houses of the nobility. He only stayed a year in England ; but 
 afterwards came over again, and was engaged for iii'teen months 
 in painting the palace of William III. at Loo. On his third 
 visit he decided on settling in England. His paintings which at 
 this time drew most attention were the staircase of the Duke of 
 Schomberg's mansion in Pall Mall, and the ceiling of the chapel 
 of Trinity College, Oxford. The former has been long destroyed, 
 but the latter, a representation of the Ascension, is still brilliant, 
 and divides the admiration of visitor's with the exquisite carvings 
 with which Grinling Gibbons adorned the chapel. His health 
 failing, Berchett gave up mural pointing, retired to the then 
 rural district of Marylebone, and tilled his time with executing 
 small mythological and bacchanalian pieces. He died at Mary- 
 lebone inJanuary, 1720. 
 
 * BEREDNIKOFF, JAKOFF IVANOVICH, an eminent 
 Russian archaeologist, was born in 1802. Having completed the 
 usual studies, and shown a talent for antiquarian pursuits, he 
 was in 1830 entrusted with the arrangement of the materials col- 
 lected by M. Strojeff during an archaeological journey in Western 
 Russia'. The success with which he executed this task caused 
 him to be commissioned to accompany M. Strojeff in a visit of 
 inquiry through Eastern Russia. From this journey he returned 
 laden with a rich treasure of historical documents, of which four 
 volumes, 4to, have been since published under his superintend- 
 ence as part of a complete collection of the Russian Chronicles. 
 In 1840 he edited and annotated a curious account of the 
 empire written by a priest in the 16th century, under the title 
 of • Russia under the Czar Alexei Michailowitz.' Berednikoff con- 
 tributed largely to the great Slavonic Dictionary of the Peters- 
 burg Academy, published in 4 vols. 4to, 1847, &c. 
 
 BERGENROTH, GUSTAVE ADOLPH, a German archi- 
 vist and writer, was born on February 26th, 1813, at Oletzko, or 
 Marggrabowa, a small town on the Russian boundary of East 
 Prussia, of which his father was chief magistrate. His school 
 education was completed at the University of Konigsberg, where 
 he distinguished himself less by progress in studies than as a 
 leader in the sports, and the most accomplished duellist of the 
 university. In 1836 he was appointed auscultator to the 
 Konigsberg tribunal ; in 1839 refendary in Koslin, in Pome- 
 rania ; and in 1843 assessor to the court at Cologne. Here 
 he remained till 1845, when he obtained leave to travel, and 
 having made a journey through Italy, returned to Berlin, to fill 
 the post of assessor to the high court. He now busied himself 
 in examining and registering a collection of treaties at the 
 Foreign Office, apparently without any very definite purpose ; 
 wrote papers on statistics and commercial economics ; and made 
 y rather prolonged stay in France, where he had gone to make 
 
 inquiries for the Berlin Board of Statistics. He was, however, 
 in an unsettled state of mind, and on the breaking out of the 
 insurrection in Berlin in March, 1848, he joined the insurgents. 
 On its suppression, he escaped to France, but in March, 1849, 
 was informed that he might return, he having been transferred 
 as assessor from Berlin to the lower court at Wittstock. Refus- 
 ing to submit to this degradation, he threw up his office ; wrote 
 a democratic pamphlet, and became more than ever an object of 
 suspicion to the authorities. Finding that it would be unsafe to 
 remain in Prussia, Bergenroth agreed to proceed to California as 
 agent for a body of his countrymen, to inquire into the practica- 
 bility of establishing a democratic colony there. He reached 
 San PYmcisco in September, 1850, knocked about the country 
 in very vagrant fashion for several months, and got back to 
 Bonn towards the end of 1851 only to find that the enthusiasts of 
 the previous year had grown faint-hearted, and that the projected 
 democratic colony was already regarded as a vision. Bergenroth 
 quitted Germany in disgust. For four or five years he wandered 
 about Europe, how employed and how maintained is not very 
 clear, though for a part of the time at least he seems to have 
 acted as tutor in a German family. But recognising the necessity 
 for a fixed occupation, he determined to settle for a while in 
 England with a view to the composition of a history of the 
 Tudor period, as a preliminary to which he sought to make a 
 thorough investigation of the English records. From 1857 to 
 I860 he accordingly resided in London, steadily prosecuting his 
 inquiries, and occasionally writing a paper in an English or a 
 German periodical. Having, however, by this time, convinced 
 himself that his labours would be incomplete without a like 
 examination of the Spanish records, he in the summer of 1860 
 proceeded to Spain, armed with the proper introductions, and 
 with some difficulty obtained permission to search the national 
 archives deposited in the Castle of Simancas, "for historical 
 documents concerning the history of England during the reigns 
 of the kings and queens of the House of Tudor." Of the extent of 
 the collections, the difficulty of deciphering the more important 
 despatches, and the obstacles interposed by the ignorance and 
 jealousy of the officials in charge, Mr. Bergenroth gave an 
 interesting account in a series of letters published from time to 
 time in the ' Athenaeum,' and which have been reprinted in Mr. 
 Cartwright's Memoir. These letters attracted the notice of the 
 Master of the Rolls, who had already been in quest of a person 
 qualified to compose a Calendar of State Papers in Simancas, 
 relating to English history and, having satisfied himself that 
 Bergenroth possessed the necessary qualifications, he offered 
 him the commission, which Bergenroth gladly accepted. From 
 March, 1861, to the close of his life he laboured incessantly at 
 the accomplishment of what proved to be a task beyond the 
 strength of a single man. Except rapid visits to Madrid, 
 Barcelona, Paris, and London — all connected with his under- 
 taking — the whole of his time was spent in examining and 
 copying the records at Simancas, in deciphering them in his 
 comfortless lodgings, and in calendaring them for publication, 
 and there can be little doubt that the excessive labour in that 
 unhealthy locality undermined his naturally strong constitution, 
 and prepared the way for his premature death. In the autumn 
 of 1868 malignant fever prevailed at Simancas. Bergenroth 
 was taken ill in December, as he thought merely from a cold, 
 but growing worse, he resolved to try the effect of a journey to 
 Madrid. The fatigue increased the malady, which proved to be 
 gastric fever, and he died at Madrid on the 13th of February, 
 1869. 
 
 The results of Mr. Bergenroth's assiduity appeared in three 
 volumes, published under the direction of the Master of the 
 Rolls, entitled 'Calendar of Letters, Despatches, and State 
 Papers, relating to the Negotiations between England and 
 Spain, preserved in the Archives of Simancas, and else- 
 where,' 8vo, 1862 — 68. The first volume contains the Spanish 
 papers of the reign of Henry VII. (from 1485 to 1509) ; the 
 second volume those of the first sixteen years of the reign of 
 Henry VIII. (1509 — 25) ; whilst a supplementary volume 
 includes a mass of information collected from the Simancas and 
 Madrid Archives, relating to the private life of Queen KatharineL 
 the first wife of Henry VIII., and to the projected marriage oc 
 Henry VII. with Queen Juaua, widow of Philip of Castile, andj 
 mother of the Emperor Charles V. Of the immense value off 
 these documents in the hands of a competent and well dis-j 
 ciplined historical student there can be no question, and Mr.) 
 Bergenroth deserves all honour for the zeal and industry with/, 
 which he rendered them available. But, as was not unnatural' 
 in a discoverer, he overrated their value, or rather perhaps took: 
 
 ( 
 
217 BERGERAC, SAVINIEN CYRANO DE. 
 
 BERNARD, CLAUDE. 
 
 218 
 
 an undue estimate of their quality. Naturally of an impetuous 
 temperament, and unaccustomed to a judicial consideration of 
 evidence and the bearings of great historical questions, he 
 seemed to have almost persuaded himself that all modern 
 history ought to he re-written by the light of secret despatches. 
 Alike in reference to the course of public occurrences, and to 
 the conduct and character of individuals, he appeared to be 
 willing to throw aside as worthless the broad accepted verdict of 
 historians and the general voice of contemporaries and country- 
 men, in order to adopt the statements and opinions of men 
 ignorant for the most part alike of the people, the language, and 
 the customs of the country respecting which they wrote ; men 
 who dwelt in an atmosphere of deceit, receiving their information 
 from dissatisfied persons who played on their credulity ; from 
 rumour and gossip they or their servants picked up in conversation 
 and commonly misunderstood ; often either directly, or through 
 agents, from astute ministers who knew what they were seeking 
 after, and took care to furnish that which would most effectually 
 mislead them : whilst the writers of the despatches, there can 
 be little doubt, were more anxious to send what should satisfy 
 their employers, or further their own purposes, than to state the 
 simple truth. In the documents themselves Bergenroth has 
 given simply what he found, though in some instances, from the 
 paste with which he worked, or from an imperfect acquaintance 
 with the subject, he may possibly have misunderstood and unin- 
 tentionally misrendered. It is in the Introductions to the several 
 volumes that he has enunciated his peculiar views. The more 
 novel and startling of these — especially those relating to the 
 private character of Queen Katharine ; the denial of the reputed 
 insanity of Queen Juana and the account of the cruelties 
 inflicted on her at the instance of her father and her son ; and 
 the judicial murder of Don Carlos by his father — haA'e been 
 vigorously opposed by foreign as well as English scholars, and 
 will be accepted by no one probably without further inquiry ; 
 but respecting less prominent personages and events the novel 
 views set forth in these volumes may possibly for a while 
 somewhat colour the statements of historians and biographers. 
 But though Bergenroth put forth his views with unusual 
 emphasis, he was always ready to retract them when satisfied 
 that they were erroneous. The supplementary volume was 
 published to refute the opinions he had published in the two 
 previous volumes, and as new documents came to light new 
 supplements would have been required to correct or to contradict 
 what now seemed to him irrefragable. We cannot profess to 
 regret that Mr. Bergenroth did not write either of the histories 
 he contemplated. The discoveries he made at Simancas early 
 caused him to dismiss his purpose of writing a history of the 
 Tudors as too narrow, and to resolve to write instead " that of 
 Charles V., as a subject of truly comprehensive range, embracing 
 naturally a cosmopolitan survey of the politics of Europe." But 
 like its predecessor, it was never written, perhaps never really 
 commenced. His literary monument is the Calendar, and, after 
 all abatements are made, it is a worthy one. 
 
 (Cartwright, Gustave Berr/enroth : a Memorial Sketch.) 
 
 BERGERAC, SAVINIEN CYRANO DE, a witty French 
 writer of the 17th century, was born about the year 1020, at the 
 Chateau de Bergerac, Perigord. After an irregular course of 
 6tudy, under a poor country priest, he went to Paris, and entered 
 as cadet in the regiment of Guards. He acquired a reputation 
 for reckless bravery, fought many duels, acted as second in 
 many more, and challenged any one who watched too closely a 
 deformity which affected his nose. He received two severe 
 wounds in war, and retired from the army. Deciding upon the 
 cultivation of letters, he entered the service of the Due d'Arpajon, 
 after declining that of the Marechal de Gassion. In a tragedy 
 written by him, called ' Agrippina,' he placed in the mouth of 
 one of the characters, Sejan, sentiments which brought upon the 
 author a suspicion of atheism — one being to the effect that men 
 arc not made by gods, but gods by men, from the blood of burnt 
 offerings. He wrote a comedy in prose, ' Le Pedant Joue,' in 
 which a peasant speaks in his own jargon or country patois : 
 Moliere is believed to have derived some of his ideas from this 
 work. Two other works by Bergerac, ' Voyage dans la Lime,' 
 and 'l'Histoire Comique des Etats et Empires du Soleil,' in like 
 manner furnished hints to later writers — Fontenelle, in the 
 ' Plurality des Mondes,' Voltaire in ' Micromegas,' and Swift in 
 'Gulliver's Travels.' Boileau also expressed a kind of relish for 
 Bergerac's burlesque audacities. Amid the extravagance of 
 these two works, Bergerac nevertheless exhibited a pretty good 
 acquaintance with the philosophy of Descartes. He died in 
 1805. His works were published in Paris, 1C77 ; Amsterdam, 
 
 Paris, and Trevoux, 1099, 2 vols. 12mo ; and Paris, 1741, 3 vols. 
 12ino. 
 
 * BERKELEY, REV. MILES JOSEPH, a botanist who 
 has acquired a considerable reputation for his knowledge of the 
 lower forms of plant life, more especially the mosses, mush- 
 rooms, and other cryptogams. He was born at Oundle in 
 1803, and after going through the ordinary course of education 
 at Rugby and at Christ's College, Cambridge, which terminated 
 in his graduation in 1825, he became a curate at Margate. In 
 1833 he was appointed incumbent of two small parishes near 
 Wansford, Northamptonshire, and also a rural dean. He is a 
 fellow of the Linmean Society, and a member of several foreign 
 scientific bodies. Judging from his works, he seems to have 
 discharged his clerical duties most assiduously, and to have 
 occupied his leisure time in studying those subjects which could 
 be pursued without staying much from his home. His earliest 
 papers, for instance, which were published from 1828 to 1834, re- 
 late to various annelids and mollusks which were found at or near 
 Margate ; while his work entitled ' Gleanings of British Alga;,' 
 1833, was to a certain extent the consequence of his seaside resi- 
 dence, and at the same time the forerunner of a series of works in 
 the same branch of natural history. There is, however, one paper 
 of this period which is an exception to the above remarks, viz., 
 that entitled ' Observations upon the Dentalium subulatum of 
 Deshayes,' published in the 'Zoological Journal,' vol. v. ; in 
 which he indicated that the species lived both off Ireland and 
 near Madeira, and really belonged to the annelidan genus 
 Ditrupa, not to the molluscan genus Dentalium [Ditrupa, E. C, 
 Nat. Hist. Div., vol. ii. col. 304]. In 1830 he announced the 
 discovery of Dreissena polymorpha in Northamptonshire ; but 
 after this date all his papers relate to cryptogams ; and are for 
 the most part descriptive of those of his district, of those which 
 were sent to him from other parts of the British Isles and of 
 the world, and of those which he could examine in the 
 Hookerian, British Museum, and other herbaria. These were 
 published in Jardine's 'Magazine of Zoology and Botany,' 
 ' Annals of Natural History ; ' Hooker's ' Journal of Botany ; ' 
 Hooker's ' London Journal of Botany ; ' ' Transactions of the 
 Linnean Society;' 'Journal of the Horticultural Society;' 
 ' Gardener's Chronicle ; ' and ' Intellectual Observer.' He has 
 given attention to the fungoid growths which occur in various 
 diseased culinary vegetables, such as the potato, onion, cabbage, 
 as also in the pear, vine, and hop. He has written several 
 separate publications, the most noteworthy of which are his 
 ' Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany,' which is a standard 
 work ; the ' Outlines of' British Fungology,' and the ' Handbook 
 of British Mosses.' He also contributed most of the articles on 
 cryptogams in Lindley and Moore's ' Treasury of Botany,' 1866. 
 
 BERLIOZ, HECTOR, [E. C. vol. i. col. 608]. After the 
 publication of the memoir of M. Berlioz, in the E. C, he pro- 
 duced two operas, 'Beatrice et Benedick,' 1802, and ' LesTroyens 
 a Carthage,' 1804, which failed at Paris, but was successful at 
 Moscow. He also published some more of his musical criti- 
 cisms, under the title of ' Les Grotesques de la Musique,' 1859, 
 and ' A Travers Chant,' 1802. He died on the 11th of March, 
 1809. 
 
 * BERNARD, CLAUDE, an eminent French physiologist, was 
 born July 12th, 1813, at St. Julien, near Villafranche, Rhone 
 Department. His early medical education was received in the 
 Parisian hospitals, and in the course of it he became Magendie's 
 assistant or prosector in 1841, doctor of medicine in 1843, and 
 doctor of science in 1853. In 1847, he was appointed assistant 
 professor to Magendie ; in 1854, he was called to the chair of 
 general physiology, which was then founded by the Faculty of 
 Science of Paris, and, also in this year, he was elected to succeed 
 Roux in the Academy of Science. In 1855, he succeeded 
 Magendie as professor of experimental physiology in the College 
 of France. In 1801, he was elected a member of the Academy 
 of Medicine, and in 1802, an officer of the Legion of Honour. 
 
 Associated with Magendie for upwards of ten years, he has 
 been thoroughly imbued with the same principles of action and 
 method of working, and may be considered to be carrying on 
 the work which his master left unfinished. In his opening 
 address, in 1854, he insists upon the necessity of the experi- 
 mental method of inquiry in collecting physiological facts, and 
 of testing the value of every statement and conclusion, which 
 has been arrived at by pure reasoning, by a direct appeal to 
 nature. The experimental method did not originate with 
 Magendie and Bernard, but before their time it was rarely re- 
 sorted to by physiologists, while mainly in consequence of their 
 exertions, it has become generally employed. The advantage of 
 
219 
 
 BERNARD, CLAUDE. 
 
 220 
 
 the method is abundantly manifested in the works of Bernard, 
 which contain many original views and discoveries, but al- 
 though these are of the highest importance, perhaps the benefits 
 he has conferred upon physiology have arisen, not so much from 
 his enunciation of them, as from the impetus he has given to the 
 science by showing the best way of collecting and testing facts. 
 
 He has been a diligent writer, as will be seen from the list 
 of his papers in the Royal Society's 'Catalogue of Scientific 
 Papers,' which numbers sixty-five items, the first being dated 
 1843, and the last 18C2 ; so that on the average he writes about 
 three papers every year. In addition he has written several 
 Separate works, and as these embody most of the facts he has 
 published in the scientific journals, we shall refer mainly to 
 them in the following summary of his principal discoveries. 
 His first important separate work is a ' Precis iconographique 
 de Medecine operatoire et d' Anatomic chirurgicale,' which was 
 written in conjunction with M. Huette. The publication com- 
 menced in 184(5, and spread over several subsequent years. 
 American and German editions of this work have also appeared. 
 In 1855 was published the first volume of his ' Lemons de Physio- 
 logic experimentale applique' a la M6decine.' It contains the 
 course of lectures he had delivered in 1854, and is the first of a 
 long series of volumes which comprise the lectures of subsequent 
 courses. It is a most elaborate treatise on sugar considered in 
 its physiological asjicct. At one time it was believed that starch 
 ana sugar were found in plants only, but Dr. Schmidt demon- 
 strated the presence of the former in some animals ; and in 
 1848, Bernard ascertained that sugar is found in animals ; in 
 1850 lie demonstrated that it was generated in the liver, not 
 derived from the plant tissue ; and in papers published in sub- 
 sequent years, he lias thrown new light on the subject. Sugar 
 is found in animals belonging to all the orders, and is about 
 equally abundant in those which feed on vegetables as in those 
 whose diet is exclusively flesh. Experiment showed that its 
 formation persisted in man and herbivores even when food con- 
 taining no sugar or starch was resorted to ; that it is formed 
 most abundantly just after ingestion, gradually decreasing for 
 some hours, when the bile flows in full stream, the secretion of 
 the two substances alternating with each other ; that in the 
 period of diminished action the blood flowing to the liver is 
 wholly devoid of sugar, while that which flows from it contains 
 it in considerable quantities ; that the proportion gradually 
 diminishes in the passage of the blood towards the lungs where 
 it entirely disappears. When, however, the formation of sugar 
 is going on most rapidly, and more especially when the maxi- 
 mum rate is abnormally great, the sugar passes through the 
 lungs into various other tissues, and into the urine, forming one 
 of the symptoms of a diabetic constitution. In diabetes the 
 lungs and skin are nearly always out of order, and hence the 
 lungs cannot consume the sugar so rapidly as formed, while the 
 extra activity of the circulation of certain liquids carries the 
 sugar more rapidly through the body. Connected with this 
 subject may be mentioned Bernard's discovery of glycogen or 
 animal starch, although this did not occur until about 1858. 
 Having experimentally ascertained that when a liver had been 
 thoroughly cleansed with water, and was again filled by injec- 
 tion, a fresh supply of sugar was obtained, this fact indicated 
 that the sugar was capable of being formed independently of 
 life, and that it was probably formed from the metamorphosis of 
 some substance pre-existing in the tissue. On searching he 
 found (almost simultaneously with Hensen and Pavy,) glycogen, 
 a substance having the same chemical composition as starch, 
 but differing from it in its physical properties. This sub- 
 stance is constantly present in the liver in considerable quanti- 
 ties, and according to Bernard and others, is transformed into 
 sugar. In the development of animals the formation of glycogen 
 precedes that of sugar. Thus, in very young foetuses glycogen 
 is abundant, while sugar first appears at a more advanced stage 
 of intra-uterine life ; in the case of the calf, not before the 
 fourth month. The transformation is effected, or at any rate 
 influenced, through the agency of certain nerves ; for Bernard 
 brought about so abundant a generation of sugar as to induce a 
 temporary attack of artificial diabetes by pricking the floor of 
 the fourth A^entricle ; and he suddenly checked its production 
 by dividing the spinal cord just below the origin of the phrenic 
 nerves. In 1859 he detected the presence of glycogen in the 
 placenta. 
 
 In the second volume of the work above cited he treats of the 
 salivary glands and of the pancreas. His investigations on the 
 salivary glands is an admirable example of how experimental 
 physiology supplements physiological anatomy. These glands 
 
 present two types of structure in animals ; but in the same 
 individual all are structurally identical. Experiment shows 
 that there are three quite distinct salivary organs, one for gusta- 
 tion, one for mastication, and one for deglutition, and that the 
 saliva from each has its own special characters. Hence it seems 
 that identity of structure does not necessarily imply identity 
 of function. His principal discovery in connection with the 
 pancreas is, that it is the essential, though not sole, organ for 
 digesting fatty bodies, and that it aids in the conversion of albu- 
 men into peptone like bodies. His ' Memoire sur le Pancreas, 
 etc.,' 185(5, excited much attention at the time, and established 
 his reputation as a sound physiologist more than anything he 
 had previously written. In the same year his ' Memoire sur 
 la Cnaleur Animale ' was published. 
 
 In 1857 appeared his 'Lemons sur les Effets des Substances 
 Toxiques,' in which he treats of oxygen, carbonic oxide, and 
 other poisonous gases ; as also of curare, the poison of the viper, 
 strychnia, and nicotine. His 'Lemons sur la Physiologie et la 
 Pathologic du Systenic Nerveux,' 2 vols., 1858, is an excellent 
 work of its kind, but does not call for special comment here. In 
 the following year we have, ' Lemons sur les Proprietes Physio- 
 logiqnes et les Alterations Pathologiques de Liquidesde l'Organ- 
 isme,' in two volumes. The first volume, comprising upwards of 
 500 pages, is devoted entirely to the blood, of which it is an 
 almost exhaustive monograph. The second volume is devoted 
 to the urine, sweat, bile, saliva, as well as to the pancreatic and 
 gastric juices. In 18(55 was published the ' Introduction a 
 1' Etude de la Medecine Experimentale,' in which he gives a full 
 account of the method of experimental inquiry, more especially 
 as it concerns animal functions. He points out that the con- 
 ditions prevailing in a living animal modify or mask the effects 
 produced by substances on each other when in atmospheric air ; 
 and that this is so not on account of any vital principle, but 
 because the conditions (essentially physical in nature) arc not 
 the same. For instance, when he injected the yellow prussiate 
 of potash and an iron salt by separate veins so as to insure their 
 meeting in the blood, and out of contact with air, no Prussian 
 blue is formed ; but as soon as the substances find their way into 
 the bladder or the stomach, the combination takes place. This 
 was followed by the ' Principes de Medecine Experimentale,' 2 
 vols. 8vo, 1866. 
 
 BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, the originator of a large number 
 of philanthropic institutions, was born at Lincoln, on the 27th 
 of April, 1750. He received a collegiate education at Harvard 
 University, his father being, at the time, governor of one of the 
 New England settlements ; and during the later portion of his 
 stay in America, he acted as private secretary to bis father. 
 Returning to England in 1769, the father was made a baronet as 
 Sir Francis Bernard, in recognition of his services. After some 
 years' study of the law r , Mr. Thomas Bernard became, in 1780, 
 one of the benchers of the Middle Temple. Practising as a 
 conveyancer, he realised a competency in about fifteen yearsj 
 and devoted the remaining twenty-three years of his life to 
 benevolent pursuits. In 1795, when treasurer of the Foundling 
 Hospital, he introduced Count Rumford's plan of warming and 
 ventilating, by which he lessened the expenses and increased 
 the comfort and healthiness of that establishment. He was next 
 instrumental in causing similar improvements to be introduced 
 into Marylebone Workhouse. In 1796, he published the out- 
 lines of a plan for a ' Society for bettering the condition and 
 increasing the comforts of the Poor.' Adopting the golden 
 maxim, that " If the manner in which relief is given is not a 
 spur to industry, it becomes in effect a premium to sloth and 
 profligacy," he drew up the scheme accordingly. The objects 
 were — to collect information concerning the poor ; to circulate 
 printed reports on this subject throughout the kingdom ; to 
 facilitate the admission of children into useful occupations ; and 
 to apply new inventions and discoveries -to the benefit of the 
 poor, in regard to dwellings, gardens, fuel, cooking, furniture, 
 &c. These tracts, or reports, which began to be issued in 1797, 
 wrought many good effects. As chairman of Petty Sessions, at 
 Stoke, in Bucks, Mr. Bernard wrote and published concise 
 useful instructions for the guidance of overseers and poor law 
 officials, and improved in many ways the workhouse at Iver. 
 About the same time he introduced the Rumford system of 
 warming at Christ's Hospital ; and published a tract on the 
 frugal use of garden allotments. In 1798, he encouraged great 
 improvements in the Foundling Hospital at Dublin ; established 
 temporary soup-houses in various places during a time of scarcity ; 
 and aided the founding of various provincial societies for better 
 ing the condition of the poor. Iu 1799, he was instrumental ir 
 
, 221 BERNARDES, DIOGO. 
 
 forming the Royal Institution ; in 1800, the School for the 
 Indigent Blind, a society for the protection of climbing hoys or 
 chimney sweepers, and a free church in the purlieus of Seven 
 
 ' Dials ; in 1802, city missions and district visiting societies ; soon 
 tfter this, the Cancer Institution, the Fever Institution, and the 
 
 ; Jennerian or Small Pox Institution ; and the passing of an Act 
 for the protection of children in cotton and woollen mills. In 
 1805, he took part in the founding of the British Institution, 
 the Naval and Military Bible Society, the Patriotic Fund, and 
 the African Institution. Among other useful projects of his, 
 
 I was the establishing of the Alfred Club in 1809, distinct alike 
 from the drinking clubs, gambling clubs, and party clubs ; the 
 furtherance of Dr. Bell's national system of education ; the relief 
 
 | of the poor in the manufacturing districts, in 1812 ; the increased 
 supply of fish to busy towns, in 1813 ; and the lessening of the 
 
 ! salt duties, in 1816. Mr. Bernard (who became Sir Thomas 
 
 j Bernard on the death of his father in 1810) closed his honourable 
 and useful life on the 1st of July, 1819. Sir Thomas Bernard 
 
 I was the author of ' The Comforts of Old Age,' a work which ran 
 through several editions, and of a valuable work on salt duties. 
 His labours in getting up evidence and arguments to lay before 
 a committee of the House of Commons, appointed to consider 
 these duties, with a view to their repeal, is said to have brought 
 on the illness which proved fatal. He also edited ' The Political 
 Life of William Wildman, Viscount Barrington,' for his friend 
 Shute Barrington, Bishop of Durham, whose name it bears. A 
 memoir of him, by the Rev. James Baker, was published iu 1819. 
 
 BERNARDES, DIOGO, an eminent Portuguese poet, called 
 by his countrymen " the prince of pastoral poets," was born at 
 Ponte de Barca, in the second quarter of the 16th century. He 
 was the friend of the poet Caminha, the disciple of Ferreira, the 
 Horace of Portugal, and an imitator, as some affirmed, a plagia- 
 rist, of Camoens. He w T as secretary to Pedro de Alcacova 
 Carneiro, in his embassy to the court of Spain. Afterwards he 
 accompanied King Sebastian in his Quixotic expedition into 
 Africa, and was made prisoner at the battle of Alcacer, at which 
 Sebastian was killed. Bernardes, after a time, recovered his 
 liberty, and returned to Lisbon, where, in the enjoyment of a 
 pension granted him at the instance of Cardinal Albert of 
 Austria, he continued to reside till his death, in 1596. Ber- 
 cardes' poems have the collective title of ' O Lymas/ from the 
 river which he celebrated, and by which most of them were 
 composed. They are mainly pastoral ; very melodious in versi- 
 fication, but full of conceits, beyond the toleration of a more 
 northern taste. By his countrymen he is, however, still held in 
 high esteem. The foUowing are the principal editions of his 
 works. 'Varias rimas ao bom Jesus e' a Yirgem gloriosa, sua 
 Mai, ea Santos particulares,' 4to, Lisbon, 1594 ; ' O Lyma ; em o 
 qual se contem as suas Egiogas, e Cartas.' 4to, Lisbon, 1596 ; 
 and 'Florcs do Lvma,' 8vo, Lisbon, 1597. 
 
 BERND, CHRISTIAN SAMUEL THEODOR, a learned 
 German writer on heraldry, was born at Meseritz, April 12th, 
 1775 ; passed from the Gotha Gymnasium to the University of 
 Jena ; became tutor in a family, but pursued his philological 
 studies, and produced, with Campe , a ' Wbrterbuch der Deut- 
 schen Sprache ; ' went to Brunswick in 1811 as assistant in the 
 library ; in 1813, was appointed teacher in the Gymnasium at 
 Posen ; in 1818, was nominated secretary to the newly founded 
 University of Bonn ; and in 1822, professor of diplomatics, 
 sphragitics, and heraldry. He died on the 14th of September, 
 1854. Besides a large number of papers in reviews and journals, 
 Bemd wrote several philological works, including an essay on 
 the Posen dialect of the German language, 'Die deutsche 
 Sprache im Grossherzogthum Posen,' Bonn, 1820 ; on the 
 aHinitie3 of the Slavonic and German languages, ' Der Verwand- 
 Rchaf't der slavischen und germanischen Sprachen,' Bonn, 1822 ; 
 a work that was followed some time afterwards by an essay on 
 the double forms of German verbs, ' Die doppelf'orniigen Zeit- 
 worter der deutschen Sprache,' Aachen, 1837. • His first publica- 
 tion on the subject with which his name is now chiefly asso- 
 ciated, was one on the general knowledge of inscriptions in 
 heraldry, ' Allgemeine Schrii'tenkunde der gesammten Wappen- 
 wissenschaft,' 3 vols. Bonn, 1830—35 ; with supplement, 1841 ; 
 the heraldry of the Prussian Rhine province, " Wappenbuch 
 der preussischen Rheinprovinz,' 2 vols. 1835 ; with a supple- 
 ment, 1842 ; the chief points of the science of heraldry, ' Die 
 Haupstiicke der Wappenwissenschaft,' the most generally valu- 
 able of all Bernd's writings, 2 vols. Bonn, 1841 — 49 ; and a 
 handbook of heraldry, 'Handbuch der Wappenwissenschaft,' 
 also a very useful work, Leipzig, 1856. 
 BERNOULLI, CHRISTOPH, belonging to the remarkable 
 
 BERRY, MARY AND AGNES. 222 
 
 family of that name [E. C. vol. vi. col. 972], and himself a dis- 
 tinguished authority on economical and technical science, was 
 bom at Basel on the 15th of May, 1782. After studying under 
 his father, Daniel Bernoulli, who was professor of elocution in 
 that city, he went to the French college at NeufcMtel to finish 
 his education. He soon afterwards filled a municipal office at 
 Lucerne in 1799, and then one at Basel. After prosecuting a 
 course of study in the natural sciences in 1801, he became in 
 1802 titular professor at the primary school of Halle. He 
 travelled in Prussia and in France ; and on his return opened a 
 school at Basel in 1806, which he maintained for eleven years. 
 In 1817 he accepted the appointment with which his services are 
 chiefly associated — that of professor of natural history in the 
 university of Basel. As a writer he raised technology to the 
 rank of a science by improved methods of treatment. The fol- 
 lowing are the principal ..works from his pen :_ An essay on 
 the light of the sea, ' Uber das Leuchten des Meers,' Got- 
 tingen, 1802 ; ' Physische Anthropologic,' 2 vols. Halle, 1804 ; 
 introductions to physics and mineralogy, ' Leitfaden fur Physik;' 
 and ' Leitfaden fur Mineralogie,' Halle, ..1811 ; on the injurious 
 influence of trade guilds on industry, ' Uber den nachtheiligen 
 Einfluss der Zunftverfassung auf die Industrie,' Basel, 1822 ; 
 first principles in the theory of the steam-engine, ' Anfangs- 
 griinde der Dampfrnaschinenlehre,' 1824 ; observations on the 
 cotton manufacture, ' Betrachtungen fiber die Baumwollen 
 Fabrikation,' 1825 ; ' Handbuch der Technologie,' 2 vols. 1833 
 — 34, 2nd edition, 1840 ; 'Handbuch der Dampfmachinenlehre,' 
 Stuttgart, 1833, 2nd edition 1847 ; ' Handbuch der industrellen 
 Physik, Mechanik, und Hydraulik,' 2 vols. Stuttgart, 1834—35 ; 
 a history of the English cotton manufacture (based on Baines), 
 ' Geschichte des britannische Baumwollen Fabrikation,' Stutt. 
 1836 ; ' Handbuch des Populationistik,' Ulm, 1840 ; ' Techno- 
 logische Handencyclopadie,' Stutt. 1850. Bernoulli, who also 
 edited several volumes of Swiss official statistics, died at Basel 
 on the 6th of February, 1863, having resigned his professorship 
 two years before. 
 
 BERNSTEIN, GEORG HEINRICH, a distinguished German 
 Orientalist, was born at Kospeda, near Jena, on the 12th of 
 January, 1783. The son of a Protestant clergyman, he was 
 educated at the Orphan House, Halle, and studied theology and 
 the Oriental languages at the University, Jena, where he was 
 admitted professor in 1810. He afterwards went to Gottingen 
 and Leipzig Universities, where he read courses of lectures on 
 language, and then became adjunct professor at Berlin. For a 
 couple of years, 1813—14, his studies were interrupted by the 
 war, during which he served in the volunteer cavalry. Peace 
 proclaimed, he taught for a time at Jena ; then proceeded, aided 
 by the Prussian Government, to Leyden, Oxford, Cambridge, and 
 London, to make collections for a Syriac Lexicon, and whilst in 
 London he entered upon the study of Sanskrit. On his return 
 to Berlin iu 1819 he was appointed professor of the oriental 
 languages, and the duties of his office, the investigation of his 
 special department of philology, the preparation of a great Syriac 
 lexicon, which, however, he did not live to complete, the writing 
 of occasional papers, diversified only by journeys to explore the 
 libraries of Italy, and by a second visit to Oxford, amply occupied 
 the remainder of his life. He died on the 7th of April, 1860. 
 His principal works are ' De Initiis et Originibus Religionum in 
 Oriente dispersarum,' 8vo, Berlin, 1817 ; ' Arabische Grammatik 
 und Chrestomathie,' Gottingen, 1817 ; a dissertation on some 
 recent translations of the New Testament ; editions of the 
 ' Hitopadassa' in Sanskrit ; of some Arab texts ; the Syriac voca- 
 bularies 'Bar-BahleeF (1842); ' Gregorii Bar-Hebrcei Chronici 
 Syriaci' (1846) ; and numerous papers in journals, or contri- 
 buted to the learned societies of Germany. A work on which 
 he expended much labour was G. W. Kirsch's ' Chrcstomathia 
 Syriaca cum Lexico,' 2 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1832 — 41, the lexicon 
 being mainly Bernstein's work ; his own great Syriac lexicon, as 
 we have said, he did not live to finish. 
 
 BERRY, CAROLINE-FERDINAND-LOUIS, DUCHESSE 
 DE [E. C. vol. i. col. 675]. The Duchesse de Berry died of 
 paralysis of the brain on Sunday, the 17th of April, 1870, at her 
 residence in Upper Styria, where she had lived in privacy since 
 the death of her husband in 1864. 
 
 BERRY, MARY and AGNES, known from their long and 
 close friendship with Horace Walpole, were born at Kirkbridge, 
 Yorkshire, Mary on the 16th of March, 1763, Agnes on the 29th 
 of May, 1794. Their father, a member of a wealthy Scotch 
 family, was disappointed in the inheritance he expected, and 
 being of an indolent, unsettled disposition, was for some time 
 in straitened circumstances, but a younger brother to whom the 
 
223 
 
 BERRY, MARY AND AGNES. 
 
 BERTH AULT, LOUIS; 
 
 S&4 
 
 bulk of the property was bequeathed settled on him an annuity 
 of 1000Z., and lie was enabled to give his daughters an elegant 
 education and carry them into society, where, being accomplished 
 and of attractive manners, they were much noticed. From May, 
 1783, to June, 1785, they travelled about Holland, Germany, 
 Italy, and France, and the Diary of Miss Berry gives evidence of 
 an unusually observant, intelligent, and appreciative spirit. In 
 the autumn of 1788 they first made the acquaintance of Horace 
 Walpole. No longer young, he was yet fascinated by the elder 
 sister almost at first. He bad heard of their cleverness, and the 
 first night he met them he would not venture near, as lie "con- 
 cluded they would he all pretension." But, he writes, " the 
 second time, in a very small company, I sat next to Mary, and 
 found her an angel, both inside and out." In the same letter (of 
 Oct. 11, 1788, apparently only a few days after the meeting) lie 
 says, " They are the Lest informed and the most perfect creatures 
 I ever saw at their age. They are exceedingly sensible, entirely 
 natural and unaffected, frank, and being qualified to talk on any 
 subject, nothing is so easy and agreeable as their conversation, 
 nor more apposite than their answers and observations. The 
 eldest, I discovered by chance, understands Latin, and is a 
 perfect Frenchwoman in her language. The younger draws 
 charmingly. . . . They are of pleasing figures," and so forth. 
 The acquaintance thus happily commenced soon ripened into 
 friendship. The father took a cottage at Kew, and henceforth 
 they were never long separated. The old wit after a time became 
 almost wholly dependent upon them for his happiness. When 
 they were absent from him, as frequently happened, on the Con- 
 tinent, visiting friends in the country, or when by his removal 
 into London, they were separated though but for a few days, he 
 kept up a constant stream of letters, tilled with news, gossip, 
 anecdotes, criticism, which coming at a time when the cor- 
 respondence with his older friends had slackened, are not only 
 full of interest and charm for the matter and style, but will be 
 invaluable for the historian and student of the period. It was 
 for the amusement of the Miss Berrys, too, that Walpole first 
 narrated and afterwards wrote his caustic ' Reminiscences of the 
 Courts of George the First and Second.' In 1791 Walpole was 
 able to offer his friends Little Strawberry Hill (or as he called it 
 Cliveden, it having been Mrs. Catherine Clive's dwelling), and 
 thus secure their residence near him. When by the death of his 
 nephew he became Lord Orford, he is understood to have made 
 her the more important offer of his hand, but feeling the pos- 
 sibility of misconstruction of her motives if she accepted it, she 
 gave a firm refusal, and he acquiesced in the propriety of her 
 decision. Their friendship and intimacy continued unabated 
 till his death, when he left the sisters his unpublished MSS. and 
 made them a modest provision. Both the Miss Berrys survived 
 to an unusual age. During their latter years their house in 
 Curzon-street was the favourite resort of all shades of distin- 
 guished persons who had acquired the right of entree, happy in 
 the opportunity of conversing with ladies who to unvarying 
 cheerfulness and good nature added a singular charm of manners ; 
 one of whom, " born in the third year after the accession of 
 George III. lived to be privately presented to Queen Victoria," 
 and who had both "lived constantly in society both at home and 
 abroad ; had seen Marie Antoinette in all her pride and beauty, 
 and lived to regret the fall of Louis Philippe, for whose prudence 
 and ability Miss Berry had for many years conceived a high 
 respect, and with whom she was personally acquainted," and wdio, 
 in consequence of their great age and unusual opportunities, were 
 the possessors of an unfailing store of anecdotes and reminis- 
 cences. Agnes Berry died on the 29th of January, 1852 ; Mary 
 followed her on the 20th of September in the same year : they 
 were interred in the same grave in Petersham church-yard. 
 
 Mary Berry was the real editor of the MSS. bequeathed by 
 Horace Walpole to Mr. Berry and his daughters, and published, 
 ostensibly under the editorship of Mr. Berry, in 5 vols. 4to, 
 1798. In 1802 a comedy in five acts, written by her, was 
 brought out at Drury Lane Theatre, but it was only performed 
 three nights : it was afterwards published in her works, with 
 her own explanation of the cause of its failure on the stage. In 
 1810 she edited the 'Letters of Madame du DefTand' (4 vols. 
 12mo), bequeathed to Walpole, and prefixed to them a re- 
 markably well written preface. Her next publication was the 
 ' Letters of Lady Rachel Russell,' selected from the originals in 
 the possession of the Duke of Devonshire, to which she added a 
 brief but excellent memoir of Lady Russell. Her most elaborate 
 original work appeared under the title of ' A Comparative View 
 of the Social Life of England and France, from* the Restoration 
 of Charles II. to the Present Time/ in 2 vols. 8vo, 1828—31, a 
 
 book more praised than read, but which will still repay the 
 perusal. Walpole's 'Letters, addressed to the Misses Berry,' 
 were first published in Bentley's ' Collected Edition of the 
 Letters of Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford,' with a preface by 
 Miss Berry, which is a spirited defence of Walpole against the 
 severe criticism of Macaulay contained in his famous article in 
 the ' Edinburgh Review ' on Walpole's 'Letters to Sir Horace 
 Mann,' and reprinted in his ' Works.' A complete edition of 
 Miss Berry's printed works appeared in 1844 ; but she will be 
 longest remembered by Walpole's letters to her and by ' Extracts 
 of the Journals and Correspondence of Miss Berry from the 
 year 1783 to 1852,' in 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1865, 2nd cd., 1866, 
 a work of exceeding interest and value, very gracefully edited 
 by Lady Theresa Lewis. 
 
 BERRYER, PIERRE-ANTOINE [E. C. vol. i. col. 676]. 
 For a dozen years after the coup d'etat of December, 1851, 
 M. Benyer refrained from taking any ostensible part in 
 political affairs. He was known to have lent his best services 
 in endeavouring to bring about a formal reconciliation and 
 arrangement between the two branches of the House of 
 Bourbon ; but the first public announcement of his willingness 
 again to share in political discussions was the offering himself 
 as a candidate along with M. Thiers for the representation of 
 Bouches-du-Rhone in the Corps Legislatif at the election of 
 1863. From this time he was constant in his attendance in 
 the Legislative Chamber, and rendered important aid to the 
 opposition. He was no longer physically capable of those 
 remarkable displays which had secured for him the reputation 
 of being the greatest living orator of France ; but his breadth 
 of view and clearness of expression, vigour, brilliancy, and 
 occasional withering sarcasm, were always effective. His last 
 great legal orations, that in defence of M. de Montalembeit 
 in 1858, and those in the action of M. Patterson against the 
 ex-King Jerome Bonaparte, 1860 — 61, were amongst the most 
 eloquent and effective he ever delivered. In the autumn 01 
 1865 M. Berryer paid a visit to England, where he received the 
 almost unexampled compliment of an invitation to a dinner 
 given in his honour, in the name of the English bar, by the 
 Benchers of the Temple and of Lincoln's Inn. A like honour 
 awaited him from the bars of Besancon .and Bordeaux on his 
 return to France. Three or four days before his death, M. 
 Berryer, feeling that his end was approaching, begged to be 
 carried to his villa of Argenville, as he was unwilling to die in 
 Paris. His request was complied with, and, surrounded by his 
 familv, he died at Argenville, on the morning of the 29th of 
 November, 1868. 
 
 BERTANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian painter and 
 architect, was born about 1568, at Mantua ; and was a scholar 
 of Giulio Romano, whom he accompanied to Rome. On the 
 death of Giulio, Bertani was made head of the Academy at 
 Mantua, and became a marked favourite with the Duke Vincenzio, 
 who employed him in painting several of the apartments of his 
 palace, and in other ways. In executing these commissions, 
 Bertani trusted much to scholars and assistants, at the head of 
 whom was his brother Domenico : Giovanni made the designs, 
 but seldom touched the pencils. Besides the palace, Bertani 
 painted in this way a Martyrdom of St. Agatha, and many other 
 pieces for churches in Mantua. He also found employment as 
 an architect. The church of St. Barbara, the Carmelite convent, 
 his own house, and other buildings, remain in attestation of his 
 skill. Bertani wrote 'Gli oscuri e difficili parti dell' opera 
 Ionica di Vitruvio, di latino in volgari tradotti,' fol. Mantua, 
 1558. 
 
 BERTHAULT, LOUIS, French architect and landscape 
 gardener, was born at Paris about 1771, and learnt his profession 
 under an uncle. He was well employed as an architect, but his 
 celebrity is due to his having been the most successful designer 
 of what was called " les jardins Anglais," and the founder of the 
 present style of French garden arrangement. For the Empress 
 Josephine, he laid out the gardens at Malmaison, which were 
 exceedingly admired. Napoleon I. made him architect of Com- 
 piegne, 'where he restored the palace with much elegance. The 
 Emperor also commissioned him to design a large and costly 
 palace and grounds at Rome, as a royal residence for his son, but 
 the design remained unaccomplished. The embellishments made 
 around some of the ancient monuments, by order of Pius VII., 
 were the only works carried out at Rome from Ids designs. 
 Many of the finest gardens in France were designed or re- 
 modelled by Berthault, among others those of Pontchartain, 
 Chateau-Margaux, Saint-Leu, Arminvilliers, Raincy, Baville, 
 Conde, &c. M. Berthault died in August, 1823. 
 
BERTHIER, JEAN FERDINAND. 
 
 BERTON. 
 
 22B 
 
 * BERTHIER, JEAN FERDINAND, one among the few 
 deaf and dumb persons who have acquired distinction as teachers, 
 and who have written excellent hooks for the benefit of their 
 fellow-sufferers, was born about the year 1805, and for several 
 years has been professor in the Institution des Sourds-Muets, at 
 Paris. M. Berthier has especially endeavoured to elucidate and 
 extend the methods of teaching deaf-mutes devised by the Abb6 
 de l'Epee and the Abbe Sicard. In 1823, in the names of him- 
 self and other inmates of the institution, he produced ' Adieux 
 gesticules,' on the tomb of Sicard. In 1839 appeared his ' Notice 
 9UT la vie et les Ouvrages d'Augnste Bebian, Censeur des 
 Etudes a l'Institut des Sourds-Muets.' His treatise ' Les Sourds- 
 Muets avant et depuis l'Abbe de l'Epee,' Paris, 1840, obtained 
 for him the gold medal of the Society of Moral Sciences of Seine- 
 et-Oise. Berthier's next work was ' L'Abbe de l'Epee, sa vie, 
 son apostolat, ses travaux, sa lutte, et ses proces, avec l'historique 
 des Monuments eleves a sa Memoire,' 8vo, Paris, 1840. Some 
 years later he addressed to the Academy of Medicine, and to 
 that of the Moral and Political Sciences, a refutation of certain 
 opinions expressed by the late Dr. Itard, ' Sur l'Opinion de feu 
 le Docteur Itard, relative aux facu>'c ; s intellectuelles et aux 
 qualites morales des Sourds-Muets,' *V»o, Paris, 1852. In 1S53 he 
 published ' Observations sur la Mimique consideree dans les 
 rapports avec l'enseignement des Sourds-Muets.' M. Berthier 
 received the decoration of the Legion of Honour in 1849. 
 
 BERTHIER, PIERRE, mineralogist and metallurgist, was 
 born on July 3, 1782, at Nemours, in the department of Seine-et- 
 Marne. His early education was received at the Ecole Poly- 
 technique and was completed in the Corps des Mines, which 
 he joined in 1801. In 1816 he was appointed professor of assay- 
 ing in the School of Mines, at Paris, winch post, as also an inspec- 
 tor-generalship of mines, he retained till 1845. He was elected 
 member of the Academy in 1827, and died in August, 1861. 
 His best known work is his ' Traite des Essais par la voie seche 
 ou des proprietes de la composition et l'essai des substances 
 metalliques et des combustibles,' 2 vols, 1833. He has also 
 written upwards of one hundred papers in scientific journals, prin- 
 cipally in the 'Journal de Mines,' and its continuation the ' An- 
 nates des Mines ;' and the ' Annales deChemie.' A full list of them 
 will be found in the Royal Society's ' Catalogue of Scientific 
 Papers.' 
 
 BERTHOLD, ARNOLD ADOLF, zoologist and physio- 
 logist, was born Feb. 26, 1803, at Soest, in Westphalia, and was con- 
 nected for the greater portion of his life witli the university of 
 Gottingen. It was there he passed through his course of medical 
 study, and from it he received his degree of doctor when only 
 twenty-one years of age. A few months were then spent in 
 extending his knowledge hy visiting the medical educational 
 institutions at Berlin and Paris. In 1825 he settled down at 
 Gottingen, where he was occupied for several years in prac- 
 tising his profession. From the last-mentioned date onwards 
 he was also engaged in lecturing on zoology, physiology, and 
 comparative anatomy ; first as an occasional substitute for the 
 ordinary professor ; then as assistant ; and after 1836 as pro- 
 fessor. He died on January 3, 1861. His writings com- 
 prise about fifty papers contributed to Oken's ' Isis,' 1 Nova 
 Acta Acad. Caes. Leopold. Nat. Cur. ; ' ' Midler's Archiv ; ' the 
 ' Abhandlungen ' of the Royal Scientific Society of Gottingen ; 
 the ' Nachrichten' issued hy this society in conjunction with the 
 university ; and one or two other periodicals. These in their 
 various ways added to the current stock of knowledge, but none 
 possesses any special mark of merit. The more important are 
 those on the anatomy of rabbits and hares (' Einleitung in die 
 Zergliederung des Hasen und des Caninchens,' Isis for 1825 ; 
 on Qordviu nquaticus in vol. i. of the Gottingen ' Abhandlungen ;' 
 on new or little known reptiles in vols. i. and iii. of the same 
 work ; and on the duration of pregnancy in various animals, but 
 chiefly the human species, in vol. ii. The other subjects on 
 which he has written are the anatomy of Picks viridis ; the 
 skull of the otter ; the structure and growth of eggs ; the 
 anatomy of Apus cancriformis ; the nerves of Mollusca ; hy- 
 bernation ; on the occurrence of living reptiles in the human 
 body ; on the dentition of the narwhal ; and several more. He 
 is best known by his ' Lehrbuch der Zoologie,' 1st edition, 1829 ; 
 2nd edition, 1837 ; and his 'Lehrbuch der Physiologie des 
 Menschen und tier TJiiere,' 1845, which were at one time much 
 used as class-books in some parts of Germany. 
 
 BERTHOLD VON REGENSBURG, one of the greatest 
 preachers of the middle ages, who exercised on the 13th century 
 the same kind of influence as St. Bernard had exercised on the 
 12th, was horn at Regensburg, or Ratisbon, in Bavaria, in some 
 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 unascertained year between 1210 and 1220. He became a minor 
 friar of the order of St. Francis, and entered upon his career as 
 a preacher in 1250. He itinerated in various parts of Austria, 
 Moravia, Thuringia, and Bohemia, preaching in the open air, in 
 the fields, and in the woods, to congregations which are said to 
 have frequently ranged from 60,000 to 100,000 in number. He 
 died on the 13th of December, 1272, and was buried in a 
 church attached to a house of his order at his native place ol 
 Regensburg. 
 
 There is extant in the library of Heidelberg, a manuscript 
 copy of some of the sermons of Berthold, which was executed in 
 1370, by command of the Princess Elizabeth ; whilst in other 
 libraries of Germany there exist his 'Sermones de Tempore et 
 de Sanctis,' and 'Sermones Rusticani.' One of the groups of 
 Seasonable Sermons, ' Predigt am Michaelisfeste,' occurs in R. 
 Nesselmann's ' Buch der Predigten, oder 100 Predigten und 
 Reden aus den verschiedenen Zeiten, Landern und Confessionen,' 
 &c, 8vo, Elbing, 1858. Other sermons of Berthold have been 
 published, without date, at Paris, by Jean Gourniont, with the 
 title of ' Fratris Bertholdi Teutonis Horologium devotionis circa 
 Vitam Christi;' and an octavo collection of German Sermons 
 of Berthold the Franciscan, &c, with a preface by Neander, 
 was published at Berlin, in 1824, by Christian Friedrich Kling, 
 with the title of ' Berthold des Franciskaners deutsche Pre- 
 digten, aus der Zweiten Halfte des dreizehuten Jahrhunderts, 
 theils vollstandig, theils in Ausziigen. Herausgegeben von C. F. 
 Kling. Mit einem Vorwort von Dr. A. Neander.' The Ber- 
 thold literature may be completed with the mention of F. 
 Pfeifl'er's 'Berthold von Regensburg, vollstandige Ausgabe seiner 
 Predigten mit Anmerkungen und Worterbuch,' 8vo, Vienna, 
 1862,"&c. 
 
 BERTON, the name of three generations of French musi- 
 cians, composers, and musical writers, who acquired considerable 
 distinction. 
 
 Pierre-Moutan Berton, was born at Paris in 1727. When 
 only twelve years old, he composed motetts which were sung at 
 the cathedral of Senlis ; and in 1744, when about seventeen, he 
 became chorister in a church, and a singer in operas. His first 
 regular appointments were those of church organist and orches- 
 tral director at Marseille. Between 1755 and 1780, he was 
 successively chef d'orchestre at the Paris opera, director of 
 spectacles, director of the opera, and chef d'orchestre at the 
 Chapelle du Roi. Berton composed many operas, and the music 
 for a still larger number of ballets and spectacles ; but his chief 
 services were as a director and conductor, in which capacities he 
 raised orchestral performances to a degree of excellence which 
 they had not before attained in France. It was under his 
 direction that the operas of Gliick and Piccini were chiefly 
 produced. He died May 7th, 1780. Henri-Moutan Berton, 
 son of Pierre-Moutan, was born at Paris, 17th September, 1767. 
 In his fifteenth year he played the violin at the Paris opera. Then 
 he studied composition under Sacchini. In 1786, a sacred cantata 
 by him was played at Paris, and in 1787 appeared his first opera, 
 ' Promesses de Mariage.' After many other compositions, the 
 first which gained him notoriety was the opera ' Les Rigueurs du 
 Cloitre,' marked by new characteristics of style. In 1795, he was 
 appointed professor of harmony at the Conservatoire de Musi que ; 
 and in 1807, director of music at the Opera Italien. In 1815, he 
 was chosen one of the six members of the musical section at the 
 Institute of France ; and in 1816, professor of composition at the 
 Conservatoire. He filled several other musical posts during the 
 remaining twenty-eight years of his life. Henri-Moutan Berton 
 composed five oratorios and sacred cantatas, nearly fifty operas 
 and musical pieces for the stage, and many canons, romances, 
 and smaller compositions. His best works were the operas ' Les 
 Rigueurs du Cloitre,' ' Montano et Stephanie,' ' Le Delire,' and 
 'Aline, Reine de Golconde.' His literary works comprised a 
 voluminous 'Systeme Generale d'Harmonie ' (1815, 4 vols. 4to), 
 many musical articles in journals and cyclopaedias, and essay-; 
 read before societies and institutions. He died 22nd of April, 
 1844. A notice of his life and works was published in the same 
 year, by Raoul-Rochette. Francois Berton, natural son of 
 Henri-Moutan, was born at Paris, on the 3rd of May, 1784. 
 After studying, from 1796 to 1804, at the Conservatoire de 
 Musique, he became, for a time, teacher of singing, and composed 
 several minor pieces for the voice and pianoforte. Next appeared 
 his operas 'Monsieur Desbosquets ' (1810), 'Jeune et Vieille' 
 (181 1), 'Ninette a la Cour' (same year), and 'Les Caquets' (1821). 
 In 1821, he was appointed professor of vocalisation at the Con- 
 servatoire. In 1827, he brought out an opera, 1 Une heure 
 d' Absence.' Francois Berton died of cholera in July, 1832. A 
 
 Q 
 
227 
 
 BERTRAM DE BORN. 
 
 BERULLE, PIERRE DE. 
 
 228 
 
 notice of his life and works was published by Raoul-Rochelte 
 soon afterwards. 
 
 BERTRAM, or BEETRAND DE BORN, Comte de Haute- 
 ford, a renowned French troubadour, was horn at the Chateau 
 de Hauteford, in Perigord, about tUe middle of the 12th century. 
 The earliest mention of him is in the year 1185. The sons of 
 Henry II. were referring their claim to the sovereignty of Aqui- 
 taine to the decision of the sword, when Bertram, taking sides 
 with the younger brother, Prince Henry, addressed a fervid 
 sirvente (or martial song) to the feudal lords of Aquitaine, 
 calling upon them to form a league against the Comte de Puitou 
 (Richard, afterwards Cceur-de-Lion). The energy of Richard 
 was, however, too much for the confederates, who, finding 
 matters proceeding adversely, broke up the league and left Ber- 
 tram to his fate. Richard laid siege in the Castle of Hauteford, 
 which, after a brief defence, capitulated. Bertram, however, full 
 of resources, was not dismayed. In an interview he easily suc- 
 ceeded in reconciling himself to the conqueror. His castle and 
 lands were restored to him, and he expressed his gratitude, and 
 vowed service and fidelity, pure as refined silver, to his new 
 lord, in a fresh sirvente, full of adroit flattery of Richard, and 
 bitter denunciation of the faithless allies who had sworn to 
 combat to the end, hut on the first emergency had left him to 
 carry on the struggle single-handed. Win n the brothers shortly 
 after joined their arms in rebellion against their father, Bertram 
 Avas foremost in inciting them forward, and played a prominent 
 part in the unnatural strife. The death of Prince Henry threw 
 the rebellious forces into disorder, and Bertram was again a 
 prisoner. But once more his good fortune prevailed. Sum- 
 moned before the king, Henry expressed surprise that a man 
 who so vaunted himself on his intelligence, should have acted as 
 he had done. " I might have thus boasted once,'' was Bertram's 
 answer, " but in losing your son, Sire, 1 have lost all the intelli- 
 gence and ability I ever possessed." The king had dearly loved 
 his eldest hoy, and his resentment at his untilial conduct had 
 been softened by the message sent by the penitent prince from 
 his death-bed. The broken-hearted man could not refraim from 
 tears : " I know that you loved my son," he said, " and was 
 loved by him. Go : I restore you your castle and territories," 
 and, knowing that he had been impoverished by the war, he 
 ordered 500 marks to be given him to defray his expenses. 
 Bertram wrote a sirvente on the death of Prince Henry, which 
 is considered to be the most touching and beautiful of all his 
 compositions. 
 
 Henry II. died shortly after, July, 6th, 1189, and Richard 
 ascended the throne. The next year he set out, with Philip of 
 France, on the third great crusade. According to all feudal 
 obligations, Bertram should have accompanied them. He pre- 
 ferred to stay at home ; but he published another vigorous sir- 
 vente, inciting others to the enterprise he declined, and mocking, 
 by name, the prudent warriors who followed his own example. 
 When Richard returned, unsuccessful and weakened, Bertram, 
 faithful to his old tactics, wrote sirvente after sirvente, in order 
 to arouse the lords of Aquitaine to form a new league against 
 the English king, and to incite the King of France to break the 
 treaty he had concluded with him ; and when war was decided 
 on, Bertram wrote a jubilant address to Philip, urging him to 
 begin the war with fire and with sword, and not to cling to 
 peace like a monk. Bertram was now in his proper element, 
 but the unexpected death of Richard put an early end to the 
 strife. Of Bertram we hear little more. His occupation gone, 
 and finding age creeping on him, he retired to the monastery of 
 Citeaux, and, it is said, became a monk, and ended his days in 
 penitent austerity. The year of his death is uncertain : it is 
 supposed to have occurred before 1212, as in that year the sons 
 of Bertram did homage to the King of France for the lordship 
 of Hauteford ; though this might well have happened if the 
 father had been living, and a monk of Citeaux. 
 
 Bertram de Born is regarded by most recent critics, as the 
 ablest and most characteristic of the warlike troubadours of his 
 time. His poems are full of life and energy, and passages of 
 great beauty as well as power occur in them. The malevolence, 
 however, predominates greatly over the tenderness ; and seem- 
 ingly he was as ready to carry on fratricidal strife in person, as 
 to urge it upon the young princes. In one of his sirventes, he 
 savagely warns his brother, who had urged him to cede him a 
 portion of his territory, to beware how he meddles with him, for 
 lie would tear out the eyes of any one who should seek to take 
 anything from him. " Peace I abhor, war only delights me." 
 His conduct and sentiments have been defended, or palliated, as 
 1 icing in accordance with the spirit of the age. But this does 
 
 not agree with early opinion. Dante, emphatic in condemna- 
 tion, has placed Bertram in the lowest regions of hell ; wander- 
 ing—thing he might fear to tell of, but that conscience makes 
 him strong — a headless trunk, and bearing pendant by the hair, 
 as though it were a lantern, the severed member. This "grievous 
 torment," explains the unhappy sufferer (who asks "can any 
 other be terrible as this,") is inilicted on him because on earth 
 he "set father and son at mutual war ;" so " for parting those 
 thus closely knit, my brain I carry parted fiom its source that 
 in this trunk inhabits. Thus in me the law of retribution 
 fiercely works." (Inferno, canto xxviii.) Raynouard has printed 
 the best of the sirventes of Bertram de Born, in the fifth volume 
 of his ' Choix des Poesies des Troubadours.' 
 
 BERTRAND DE DOUE, JACQUES MATIIIEU, was 
 bom Oct. 23, 1770, at Le Puy CantaL His life was principally 
 occupied in commercial pursuits, and in fulfilling the duties of 
 many public offices in his native town. He is best known to 
 science by his 'Description geognostique du Puy en Velay,' which 
 was published in 182:3, and of which the author was preparing a 
 second edition at the time of his death. A ' Notice prelim> 
 noire' to this edition was inserted in the ' Annales de la Societe 
 
 Agriculture, etc. du Puy,' xxiv. p. 275 — 340, 1861. He contri- 
 buted several other papers to the same society, mostly relating 
 to the meteorology of his district, of which he was a diligent 
 observer. He noticed a constant relation between the direction 
 of the lower and upper currents of the atmosphere, which he 
 announced as the " law of interversion." At one time he was 
 president of the Society of Agriculture, Sciences, Arts, and 
 Commerce of Puy. He died in 1802, when eighty-six years of 
 a a e. 
 
 ° BERULLE, PIERRE DE, a cardinal, and founder of the 
 French Congregation of the Oratory, was born on the 4th of 
 February, 1575, at the Chateau de Serilly, near Troyes, in 
 Champagne. His father, Claude de Berulle, was the descendant 
 of a noble family of Champagne, and a counsellor or judge in 
 the parliament of Paris. Pierre received his education succes- 
 sively amongst the Jesuits, and at the University of Paris. He 
 was early distinguished for his piety, learning, and sweetness of 
 temper and disposition. At the age of eighteen, he is said to 
 have written an excellent book on self-denial. In 1509, after 
 forty days spent in assiduous prayer, and great austerities, in a 
 convent of Capuchins, he was admitted to holy orders ; and the 
 next year distinguished himself at the conference of Fontaine- 
 blcau, held by order of Henri IV., in which Cardinal du Perron 
 combated the views of Du Plessis-Momay. Berulle, who had 
 been appointed almoner to Henri IV., was, in 1003, sent by that 
 prince to Spain, for the purpose of inducing some of the Teresian 
 or Carmelite nuns to settle at Paris ; and witli considerable diffi- 
 culty, and after encountering much opposition, succeeded in 
 establishing that order in France. But he is chiefly remarkable 
 for his completion of a task at once of greater difficulty and of 
 greater interest, to which he was incited by the strong persua- 
 sions of St. Francis de Sales, Cesar de Bus, and F. Coton, and by 
 the repeated commands of Cardinal de Retz, his diocesan. This 
 undertaking, in which he had to encounter the most lively and 
 jealous opposition of the Jesuits, was the foundation of a French 
 Congregation of Priests of the Oratory, a society of seculars 
 which owed its establishment in Italy to St. Philip Neri, in 
 1504. The French Oratorians, whose differences from their 
 Italian brethren are great enough to justify them in being con- 
 sidered as an independent congregation, are a society of priests 
 who hive in voluntary poverty and obedience, without the obli- 
 gation or sanction of a vow. The connection of individuals with 
 the congregation, which was confirmed by a bull of Paul V., 
 in 1013, is therefore terminable at their own discretion. 
 
 Berulle was frequently called upon to take part in public affairs, 
 and amongst other useful and honourable services, he effected the 
 first reconciliation of Louis XIII. with his mother, Mary de 
 Medicis. Shortly after this difficult and delicate service, he was 
 sent as ambassador to Spain, where he negociated a peace favour- 
 able to his own country. When the marriage of the Princess 
 Henrietta Maria with the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles 
 I., was concluded, Louis XIII., who had unbounded confidence 
 in Berulle, sent him to Rome, in 1624, to procure a dispensation 
 on account of the difference of religion. In this mission, the 
 difficulties of which were much increased by the intrigues of 
 the Spanish ambassador, he was finally successful ; and when he 
 conducted the princess to England, he gained, during his short 
 stay in this country, great commendation for his discretion and 
 amiability. 
 
 In eaiiy life, Berulle had made a vow not to accept any 
 
229 BESCHERELLE, LOUIS-NICOLAS. 
 
 BEUGNOT, ARTIIUR-AUGUSTE, COMTE. 230 
 
 ecclesiastical dignity, and lie refused, therefore, the offered 
 bishoprics of Laon and Nantes, and other appointments pressed 
 upon him by Henri IV. and Louis XIII. When the latter 
 monarch threatened to apply to the Pope to compel Berulle to 
 break his vow, he replied that "if the king continued to press 
 him, he should be obliged to quit the kingdom." Notwith- 
 standing this, when Pope Urban VIII., who, alter various con- 
 versations with M. Berulle, said of him that he was " not a man, 
 but an angel," sent him, in 1627, a cardinal's hat, with an express 
 command to accept it, he reluctantly did so, along with two 
 abbacies, which were forced upon him to enable him to sustain 
 the dignity of the cardinalate. His elevation to this high rank 
 excited the jealousy of the French bishops, as his promotion to 
 be minister of state gave umbrage to Richelieu, whom some 
 authors have not scrupled to charge with having occasioned 
 Berulle's death by poison. Certainly the latter was smitten 
 suddenly with apoplexy, whilst engaged in saying mass, on the 
 2nd of October, 1629, and expired on the same day. He was 
 buried in the church of the Oratorians, in the Rue St. Honorc, 
 Paris ; and a marble statue, representing him on his knees at 
 prayer before the altar, was placed in the chapel of St. Mary 
 Magdalene, in the church of the Carmelite nuns, of which 
 society he was superior-general in France. Cardinal Berulle 
 added to Lis other claims to distinction, that of being throughout 
 his life the friend and patron of men of letters ; ami especially 
 he encouraged Lcjay in the enterprise of his ' Bible Polyglotte,' 
 and smoothed the obstacles, which arose at Rome, to its being 
 printed, and was one of the first to favour and appreciate 
 Descartes and his philosophy. He found time to compose 
 various works of piety and religion ; and in particular to pro- 
 duce treatises on the points in controversy between the Catholics 
 and Protestants. Some of these he published himself ; and 
 they achieved considerable popularity. His ' Controversial and 
 Spiritual Works' were published after his death, under the care 
 i f Fathers Bourgoing and Gibieuf, in 2 vols, folio, 1G4G. His 
 ' Life ' has been frequently written, by Bourgoing, Doni d'Attichy, 
 Hubert de Cerisy, Oaraccioli, and others. 
 
 * BESCHERELLE, LOUIS-NICOLAS, French grammarian 
 and lexicographer, was born at Paris on the 10th of June, 1802. 
 His education was completed at the College Bourbon ;,in 1825 
 he was appointed to a post at the Archives du Conseil d'Etat, and 
 three years later nominated librarian of the Louvre. Besides a 
 great number of articles in ' Le France Litteraire,' and the ' Revue 
 Bncyclopedique,' and several excellent elementary books for the 
 young, M. Beseherelle has written some valuable dissertations on 
 the French language, and is the joint author with M. Lamotte of 
 ' La Grammaire de 1'Academie ;' with MM. Braconnier and C. 
 Martin of a ' Cours pratique dc Cosmographie et de Geographic, 
 applique surtout a l'etude de la France ;' and with M. Devars of 
 a 'Grand Dictionnaire de Geographie Universelle,' 4 vols. 4to, 
 1856 — 58. His principal independent works are the ' Grammaire 
 Nationale,' 2 vols, large 8vo, Paris, 1834 — 38; 'Dictionnaire 
 grammatical et usuel des Participes Frangais,' 2 vols. 8vo, double 
 columns, 1842 — 43 ; and ' Dictionnaire National, ou Grand Dic- 
 tionnaire Critique de la Langue Francaise,' 2 vols, large 4to, 
 treble cols. Paris, 1843 — 46. This last is by far the most valu- 
 able of M. Bescherelle's works. It does not pretend to be 
 exhaustive, like M. Little's great dictionary, but it is sufficient 
 for all ordinary purposes, is well arranged, clear and precise in 
 definition, and ample in illustration : altogether one of the best 
 dictionaries of a modern language extant. 
 
 * BESSEMER, HENRY, inventor of a new process for the 
 manufacture of steel, was born in Hertfordshire, in 1813. 
 Associating himself chiefly with mechanical engineering, he 
 invented or improved various machines ; but his more important 
 labours relate to metallurgy. In October, 1855, he took out a 
 patent for improvements in the manufacture of steel ; by "forcing 
 currents of air or of steam into and among the particles of 
 molten crude iron, or of re-melted pig or refined iron, until the 
 metal so treated is thereby rendered malleable, and has acquired 
 other properties common to cast steel, and still retaining the 
 fluid state of such metal, and pouring and removing the same 
 into suitable moulds." Two months later he obtained another 
 patent, for " the refinement of pig or cast iron by a single pro- 
 cess, and casting the same into ingots suitable for rolling at once 
 into bars or rods." In February, 1856, a third patent related to 
 the conversion of crude iron into steel, or into malleable iron, 
 without the use of fuel for reheating ; the conversion being 
 effected by forcing into the molten mas; currents of air, which 
 give up their oxygen to support the combustion of the carbon 
 contained in the iron. A fourth patent was taken out in March, 
 
 1856 ; and others have been obtained since. The title of a paper 
 read by Mr. Bessemer, at the Cheltenham Meeting of the Britiah 
 Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1856, 'On the 
 Manufacture of Iron and Steel without Fuel,' led to a miscon- 
 ception of his meaning, and a distrust of his method by steel 
 manufacturers. Alter a long course of further experiments and 
 improvements, works weTe established at Sheffield by Mr. 
 Bessemer, lor the manufacture of iron and steel on his new 
 plan ; and from that time the success of the scheme was ensured. 
 The metallurgists of the continent viewed the Bessemer process 
 more favourably than those of Great Britain ; and at the pres< at 
 time there are more Bessemer steel works abroad than at home. 
 The estimate in 1869 was 52 converters (large egg-shaped vessels, 
 in which the conversion of crude iron into steel takes place) in 
 Great Britain, 12 in France, 24 in Prussia, 14 in Austria, 15 in 
 Sweden, 2 in Belgium, 2 in Russia, and 2 in Italy. In these 
 converters, and in some in the United States, it is roughly esti- 
 mated that 200,000 tons of Bessemer iron and steel were made 
 in the year 1869. The expiration of the original patents, how- 
 ever, appears likely to stimulate the application of the Bessemer 
 process very considerably in this country. Irres])ective of 
 advantages in regard to price, the new process has this pecu- 
 liarity — that by checking the extent of conversion, any inter- 
 mediate quality of metal may be obtained, from mere iron, 
 through all the intermediate stages, up to absolute steel. Papers 
 by Mr. Bessemer, relating to this invention, have been re; id 
 before the Institution of Civil Engineers, and other scientific 
 bodies. The Bessemer process has been described at length by 
 many continental metallurgists — Vicaire, Kohn, Bonian, Tunncr, 
 Griiner, Hingenau, Freimy, Wedding, Kerl, Chenol, &c. The 
 description is full and complete in the ' Metallurgy ' of Crookes 
 and Rohrig, London, 1869. 
 
 BETTINA [Abnim, Elizabeth vox, E. C. S. col. 113]. 
 
 BEUGNOT, ARTHUR-AUGUSTE, COMTE, an eminent 
 French writer and publicist, was the eldest son of Jacques- 
 Claude, Comte Beugnot (b. 1761, d. 1835), minister of state under 
 Napoleon I. and Louis XVIII. He was horn on the 25th of 
 March, 1797, at Bar-sur-Aube ; completed his school training at 
 the Lycee Bonaparte ; and was called to the bar in 1819, but 
 soon definitely abandoned law for literature. He first acquired 
 notice by a work for. which he divided with M. Mignct the prize 
 of the Institute, ' L'Etat duGouverncment et.de la Legislation en 
 France a l'epoque de l'avenement de Saint Louis et des Institu- 
 tions de ce Prince.' M. Beugnot seemed to have a faculty for 
 these academic prize essays, he having carried off successively 
 those of Paris, Strasburg, and Ghent, by his works on ' Les 
 Juifs d'Occident, ou Recherches sur l'Etat Civil, le Commerce, 
 et la Litterature des Juifs en France, en Espagne et en Italic, 
 pendant la duree du Moven Age,' 8vo, Paris, 1824 ; 'Conquetes 
 de Philippe Auguste,' 8vo, 1824; ' Des Moyens de Civiliser les 
 Populations Israelites de l'Alsace,' 8vo, 1825; 'Des Banques 
 Publiques, des prets sur gages, et de leurs inconvenients,' 8vo, 
 1829; and ' Histoire de la Destruction du Paganisme en Occi- 
 dent,' 2 vols. Svo, 1835 — a work of more research and ability 
 than some of its predecessors, but which, though the author was 
 a good Catholic, fell under the censure at Rome for the freedom 
 of some of its remarks on the state of the early pontificate. 
 M. Beugnot now occupied himself for some time in searching 
 the archives bearing on the proceedings of the early parliaments, 
 the ancient jurisprudence, the guilds and the municipal govern- 
 ments of France, drew up some Reports for presentation to the 
 chambers, and began an elaborate historical survey, which, how- 
 ever, was, we believe, never completed. Partly in consequence 
 of these investigations he was requested by the Minister of Public 
 Instruction, M. Cousin, to edit the 'Olim, ou Registres des Arrets 
 rendus par le Cour du Roi, sous les regnes de Saint Louis j usqu' a 
 Philippe le Long,' 4 vols. 4to, 1840—48, forming part of the 
 ' Collections des Documents Incdits sur l'Histoire de France.' 
 M. Beugnot also prepared an account of the ' Continues du Beau- 
 voisis,' preceded by a notice of Philippe de Beaumanoir, 2 vols. 
 Svo, 1842 ; and an edition of ' Assizes de Jerusalem, ou Recueil 
 des Ouvrages de Jurisprudence composoe pendant ia Trezieme 
 Siecle dans les royaumes de Jerusalem et de Chypre,' 2 vols, 
 folio, 1841—49. 
 
 In 1832 M. Beugnot was elected to succeed M. Thurot as 
 member of the Institute. On the 25th of December, 1S41, he 
 was named peer of France. In the upper chamber he united 
 himself with M. de Montalenibert in demanding in the interest 
 of the clergy what was called the liberty of teaching ; and later 
 he argued with warmth against the proposal for the expulsion ot 
 the Jesuits. Returned after the revolution of 1848 to the Legis- 
 
 Q 2 
 
231 
 
 BEULE, CHAKLES-ERNEST. 
 
 BEYERLINCK, LAURENT. 
 
 232 
 
 lative Assembly as representative for Haute-Marne, lie dis- 
 tinguished himself as the advocate and reporter of the Loi sur 
 l'lnstruction Publiquc of March 15, 1849, by which, under the 
 pretext of allowing liberty of teaching, public instruction was 
 handed over to the almost exclusive control of the priesthood. 
 The coup-d'6tat of the 2nd of December relegated Beugnot to 
 private life and to literature ; hut he published nothing more of 
 any value, and died March, 1805. 
 
 * BEULE, CHARLES-ERNEST, a distinguished French 
 archaeologist and author, was bom at Saumur on the 29th of 
 June, 182G; completed his educational course at the Ecole Nor- 
 male, 1845 — 48; and somewhat later was nominated professor of 
 rhetoric at Moulins. Sent to the Ecole Franchise at Athens, he 
 engaged actively in the exhumations at the Acropolis and in 
 various investigations in Hellenic archaeology, his proceedings 
 tending considerably to raise the character of the school. He 
 returned to France in 1853, and the following year published his 
 first work of any consequence, his previous publications having 
 been academical dissertations and articles in journals : ' L'Acro- 
 pole d'Athenes,' 2 vols. 8vo, 2nd ed. 1863. This was followed by 
 'Etudes sur le Peloponese,' 8vo, 1855, published, like the pre- 
 ceding, by direction of the Minister of Public Instruction. ( Ither 
 works on Greek antiquity were ' Les Temples dc Syracuse,' 8vo, 
 1856 ; and ' Les Monnaies d'Athenes,' 4to, 1858. The ' Histoire 
 de la Sculpture avant Phidias,' 8vo, 1864, though archaeological 
 in subject, was treated rather from an artistic point of view. 
 M. Beule has al r so written an eloge of Horace Vernet, 1863 ; one of 
 Hippolytc Flaifulrin, 1864; ' Meyerbeer,' 1865 ; ' Coins d'Archeo- 
 logie,' 1860 ; 'Oauseries surPArt,'1867 ; 'Tibereet l'Hcritage d'Au- 
 guste,' 1868 ; ' Le Sang de Ccrmanicus,' 1809 ; and numerous re- 
 views and essays for the Revue des Deux Mondcs, the Gazette des 
 Beaux- Arts, and other journals. ' Phidias, drame antique, 'appeared 
 in 1863. About 1860 M. Beule directed extensive exhumations 
 at Carthage, and obtained some interesting results, which he 
 communicated to the public in various papers. M. Beule re- 
 ceived the doctorate, succeeded M. Raoul-Kochette as professor 
 of archeology at the Bibliotheque Iniperiale, and was decorated 
 with the order of the Legion of Honour, in 1854. In 1860 he was 
 elected member of the Academic des Inscriptions, in succession 
 to M. Charles de Lenormant ; and in April, 1862, he was chosen 
 permanent secretary of the Academic des Beaux-Arts. 
 
 * BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND, FREIHERR 
 VON, a German statesman, was born at Dresden on the 13th of 
 January, 1809. His education was conducted privately until his 
 13th year; after which, he was for some time (1822 — 1826) a 
 pupil of the Kreuzschule of his native city. Subsequently he 
 studied at the universities of Gottingen and Leipzig, at the latter 
 of which he graduated, whilst at both he developed an inclination 
 for a political and diplomatic career. Returning to Dresden in 
 1831, he received an appointment in the Foreign Office ; and 
 after having held the post of assessor of land-survey (lands- 
 direction) in 1832, devoted two or three years to travelling in 
 Switzerland, France, and England. In 1836 he became secretary 
 of the Saxon legation at Berlin, and in 1838 was appointed to 
 lill the same position at Paris. He quitted the latter city in 
 1841, in order to proceed as charge d'affaires to Munich, where 
 he married the daughter of Lieutenant-General von Jordan. In 
 1846 he was diplomatically resident in London, and was ap- 
 pointed ambassador to the court of Berlin in 1848. He accepted 
 office in the Held cabinet on the 24th of February, 1849, as 
 Minister for Foreign Affairs; with which, in the following May, 
 as a member of the anti-constitutional cabinet of Zchinsky, he 
 conjoined the duties of Minister of Agriculture. He took a 
 prominent part in the discussions preceding the treaty of 1852, 
 ami in 1853 became Minister of the Interior. On the breaking 
 out of the Danish war in 1863 Baron von Beust distinguished 
 himself by his loyalty to federal interests, and by a rebuke he 
 administered to Lord John Russell, in answer to a despatch from 
 the latter. He represented the Germanic Diet at the London 
 Conference of 1864, during the continuance of which he twice 
 visited Paris to confer with the Emperor Napoleon, whose guest 
 he afterwards was at Fontainebleau. After the conclusion of the 
 struggle between Austria and Prussia, Baron von Beust was 
 appointed, October 30th, 1866, to be Minister of Foreign Affairs 
 of the Austrian monarchy; Minister of the Household, November 
 14th, 1866 ; and on the 4th of February, 1867, on the retirement 
 of Count Belcredi, President of the Council of Ministers. On 
 the 1st of July following, he was invested, by a decree of the 
 emperor, with the title of Reichskanzler, or Chancellor of the 
 Empire. As an Austrian minister, the guiding policy of Count 
 yop Beust; has been that of conciliation towards Hungary, to 
 
 which country the emperor, acting upon his advice, has made 
 considerable and graceful concessions. The later career of Count 
 von Beust is the principal theme of a recent volume entitled 
 
 'The Austro- Hungarian Empire and the Policy of Count, |;« 
 8vo, London, 1870, a political sketch of men and events from 
 1866 to 1870, which, divided into 3 parts, treats of "(1) The New 
 Constitution ; (2) Foreign Policy ; and (3) Question of the 
 Nationalities ; Electoral Reform ; the late Ministerial Crisis." 
 The author adopts the cryptonym of "an Englishman." 
 
 * BEUST, FRIEDRICH KoNSTANTIN, BARON VON, 
 elder brother of the Austrian minister, was born at Dresden, 
 April 13, 1806. He studied mathematics and the natural 
 sciences at Freiburg, and law at Leipzig and Gottingen. He 
 then devoted himself to the mining industry, and ultimately 
 rose to he the general-superintendent (Oberberghauptmann) of 
 the Freiberg mining district. He has written several papers 
 and pamphlets relating to the minerals : some of these bear upon 
 the distribution and mode of occurrence of various ores, while 
 others deal with several schemes for making the mineral deposits 
 contribute to the finances of the State, and for developing new 
 lines of railway. In one of his pamphlets he criticises Werners 
 theory of mineral veins. ('Kritische Bcleuchtung du Werner's- 
 chen gangtheorie aus den gegenwartiger Standpunktc des Geog- 
 nosie,' 1840.) Another pamphlet relates to the masses of por- 
 phyry near Freiburg, and is entitled ' Geognostische Skizze der 
 wichtigsten Porphyrgebilde zwischen Freiberg, Frauenstein, 
 Tharand und Nossen,' 1835. The 'Berg-und huttenmannisehea 
 Zeitung ' for 1859 and subsequent years, contains several papers 
 by him on rocks, minerals, and mineral veins. 
 
 BEVERLAND, ADRIAN, a learned but licentious Dutch 
 writer, was born about 1653 at Middelburg in Zeeland. He was 
 a pupil of Vossius; is said by Wood to have been at Oxford 
 University in 1672 ; studied law, obtained the doctorate, and 
 practised as an advocate at the Hague. But his addiction to 
 erotic literature interfered with his legal pursuits ; and he was 
 brought into trouble with the authorities by the publication of 
 his treatise on Original Sin, 'Peccatum Originale, /for' i^oxh" sic 
 nuncupatum, philologice^po^ATjjuaTiKcDs elucubratum a Themidis 
 alumno,' sm. 8vo, having at the end " Eleutheropoli in horto 
 Hesperidum typis Adami Evas filii," 1678 ; 2nd ed. Leyden, 1679. 
 A free translation into French, by J. Bernard, appeared at Paris 
 in 1714, and numerous editions, altered and added to, down to 
 1740. For publishing this book Beverland was imprisoned and 
 his book burned by the public executioner, but he was released 
 on the payment of a fine, and promising that he would not write 
 again on any such subject. He deemed it, however, prudent to 
 leave the city, and he withdrew to Utrecht, where his dissolute 
 conduct and freedom of speech are said to have caused so much 
 scandal that the magistrates privately ordered hini to remove 
 elsewhere. At Leyden, where he went next, he was equally 
 unlucky, for he soon brought himself into difficulties by publish- 
 ing an obscene work, ' De Stolate Virginitatis jure Lucubratio 
 Academica,' sm. 8vo, Leyden, 1680, and circulating in MS. a 
 libel on the magistrates, entitled ' Vox Clamautis in Descrto,' of 
 which an edition without date is stiU extant, though very rare. 
 Driven from Leyden, he took refuge in England, where Isaac 
 Vossius, moved by the poverty to which he was reduced, and 
 admiring his undoubted erudition and ability, procured him a 
 small pension. Even this he is said to have wasted by buying 
 books and medals of all kinds which illustrated the class of sub- 
 jects in which his perverted intellect delighted to revel ; but he 
 at any rate professed regret for the pain he had caused to purer 
 minds by his libidinous writings and conversation, and as a proof 
 of the reality of his penitence and the rectitude of his intentions, 
 issued a work, ' De Fornicatio Cavenda admonitio, sive adhortio 
 ad Pudicitiam et castitatem,' sm. 8vo, London, 1698 ; another 
 edition of which, with a German imprint, followed in the same 
 year. But the honesty of his recantation was generally doubted, 
 and the book itself was regarded as anything but a chaste 
 exhortation to purity of conduct. The decease of Vossius de- 
 prived Beverland of a portion of his resources, and he fell into a 
 state of great misery. He had probably from opening manhood 
 been in a condition of incipient insanity, and at length his mind 
 entirely gave way. The la-tthat is known of him is that he was 
 wandering about the country destitute, and haunted by the belief 
 that he was pursued by a band of two hundred men who had 
 entered into a league to assassinate him. He is believed to have 
 died in 1712. 
 
 BEYERLINCK, LAURENT, a Flemish divine and writer, 
 was the son of an apothecary at Antwerp, where he was born in 
 April, 1578. He studied in the college of the Jesuits at Louvain ; 
 
233 BEYLE, MARIE HEN It L 
 
 >j became professor of rhetoric and poetry at Ghent ; and was 
 
 \! afterwards director of the seminary, librarian, and canon of the 
 cathedral of his native city. He died at Antwerp on the 7th (or 
 
 I according to some authorities on the 22nd) of June, 1G27. A 
 man of considerable learning and a most industrious compiler, he 
 published a surprising number of volumes, considering their bulk 
 and range of their contents and his comparatively short life and 
 various occupations. His great work is the ' Magnum Theatrum 
 Vitae Humanse: hoc est Rerum Divinarum Humanarumque 
 Svntagma Catholicum, Philosophicum, Historicum, Dogmaticum, 
 
 A Aiphabetica serie Polyanthea? Universalis instar,' a vast cyclo- 
 pajdia of information on every variety of subject, as the title 
 implies, arranged alphabetically, in 7 large folio volu mes, Antwerp, 
 1631 ; reprinted in 8 fol. volumes, Ant. 1678, and Venice, 1707. 
 
 f Of little positive value now for the information it gives on any 
 particular branch of knowledge, it is still useful as a convenient 
 took of reference for the views held on any matter by intelligent 
 
 1 and well-informed persons in the early part of the 17th century. 
 The book, it should be stated, is not wholly Beyerlinck's, but an 
 extension and recasting of a work compiled by C. Wolffhart 
 (Lycosthenes) and his son-in-law, Th. Zwrager. Another heavy 
 work of Beyerlinck's is his ' Biblia Sacra variarum translationum,' 
 3 vols. fol. Antwerp, 1618: others are ' Apophthegmata Chris- 
 tianorum,' 8vo, 1608 ; ' Opus Chronologicum ab anno 1570 usque 
 ad an. 1612,' fol. 1612 ; ' Promptuarium Morale super Evangelia 
 Festorum anni totius,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1613, and more than once re- 
 printed ; ' Martyrologium Sanctarum Virginum,' &c, fol., with 
 plates by T. de Leu, 1615. Beyerlinck also published some 
 theological tracts ; several funeral orations ; lives, in Flemish, of 
 ' the three Apostles of Antwerp,' &c. 
 
 BEYLE, MARIE HENRI, a popular French writer, better 
 known by the name of STENDAHL, was born at Paris on the 
 23rd of January, 1783. His habit of adopting various pseu- 
 donyms led, not merely to the popular use of the name Stendahl, 
 but* to a curious diversity in the Christian name or names by 
 which he was known. Thus, Querard (' La France Litteraire ') 
 called him Louis Alexandre Cesar; Colomb des Battua ('Cata- 
 logue des Dauphinois dignes de Memoire '), Arthur Louis Alex- 
 andre C'ssar ; Querard, in a later work ('La Litterature Con- 
 temporaiue '), Henri; and ' La Nouvelle Biographic Generale,' 
 Marie Henri. Fetis, to whom he was personally known, gave 
 him (' Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ') the same name as 
 Querard's first version ; but in a later edition followed the 
 authority of the ' Nouvelle Biographie.' Throughout the greater 
 part of his life, Beyle was constantly shifting from one profes- 
 sion or avocation to another. After receiving his early educa- 
 tion in the Central School at Grenoble, he went to Paris when 
 sixteen years old, and studied first the military sciences at l'Ecole 
 Polytechnique, then the law under one of his own relations, and 
 then painting under Regnault. Serving for a time in a regiment of 
 French cavalry in Italy, lie returned to Grenoble in 1802. With the 
 hope of giving him a tuste for some definite pursuit, his friends 
 in 1805 placed him in the counting-house of M. Raybaud, a mer- 
 chant at Marseille. Wearying of this in a few months, he went 
 in 1806 to Germany with a member of the family, M. Dam, and 
 was appointed intendant of the domains of the Emperor in 
 Brunswick. In 1S07 he joined the Commissariat. In 1810 
 there fell to him the ollice of auditor to the Council of State, 
 and financial inspector of crown lands and buildings. His next 
 move was to join as an amateur the Grand Army in the inva- 
 sion of Russia in 1812. In 1815, while filling some civil post 
 at Grenoble, he gave umbrage to the Allies who entered Paris, 
 and found it prudent to live at Milan until 1821. He resided 
 
 , at Paris from this last-named year till 1830, with occasional 
 journeys to Germany, England, and Italy. He then turned to 
 diplomacy, and idled for a time the post of French Consul at 
 Civita Vecchia, after being objected to in the same post at 
 Trieste by Prince Mettemieh. He died at Paris, 23rd of March, 
 1842. Beyle wrote a prodigious number of books and essays. 
 The following may be mentioned as among the more im- 
 portant : — ' Lettres ecrites de Vienne en Autriche sur Haydn ; 
 euivies dune vie de Mozart, et de Considerations sur Metastase,' 
 hvo, Paris, 1814 (little more than an unacknowledged trans- 
 lation from the Italian) ; ' Ilistoire de la Peinture en Italic,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1817 ; reprinted with some change of title, in 
 1824 and 1831 ; 'Pome, Naples, et Florence en 1817,' 8vo, 
 1817; 'De 1'Amour/ 2 vols, 12mo, 1822; 'Vie de Rossini,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1824 ; ' Racine et Shakspeare,' 1823 — 25, 8vo ; 
 ' Promenade dans Rome,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1829 ; ' La Rouge et 
 Je Noir, chronique de dix-neuvieme siecle,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1831 ; 
 'Mvmoires d'un Touriste,' 2 vols. 8vo. 1838; ' Le Chartreuse 
 
 BIANCIII-GIOVINI, ANGELO AURELIO. 231 
 
 de Panne,' 2 vols. 8vo, 183!) ; besides numerous articles in 
 the 'Journal de Paris,' the 'Courrier Franeais,' the 'Tempi,' 
 the ' National,' the ' Globe/ the ' Revue de Paris,' and the 
 ' Revue des Deux Mondes.' 
 
 BIANCHI-GIOVINI, ANGELO AURELIO, an eminent 
 Italian author and publicist, was born at Como on the 25th oi 
 November, 1799. Of poor parentage, he had received but an 
 imperfect education, when at the age of nine he was placed in a 
 commercial establishment at Milan. His employment led him 
 to travel, and he devoted all his leisure to study, so that in early 
 manhood he was unusually well-informed and enterprising. 
 Taking the earliest opportunity which olfered to enter upun a 
 more congenial pursuit than that in which he had been occupied, 
 he, in 1830, accepted an engagement in a publishing house at 
 Capolazo, in Ticino, of which after a time he became the 
 manager. Whilst here he for some months in 1835 edited a 
 journal, ' L'Ancora,' and translated Darn's ' Histoire de Venise.' 
 In 1835 he removed to Lugano, where he conducted ' II Repub- 
 licano della Svizzera Italiana,' but, differing in policy with the 
 extreme liberals, of whom it was the organ, at the end of a 
 couple of years he resigned the editorship. In 1836 appeared 
 his 'Biografia di Fra Paolo Sarpi,' Zurich, 2 vols. 8vo, of which 
 a French translation was published at Brussels in 1863. This 
 work, though too uniformly eulogistic, is the best biography 
 extant of the famous friar. Compelled to leave Ticino on account 
 of his political opinions, Bianchi took refuge in Zurich, where he 
 published some pamphlets on the condition of Ticino, which 
 attracted considerable notice. Permitted by the amnesty granted 
 by the Emperor Ferdinand I. of Austria on his coronation to 
 return to Milan, he remained there from 1840 to 1847, diligently 
 occupied in historical studies, but taking part as occasion offered 
 in Italian national politics. During these years he published 
 his History of the Hebrews, ' Storia degli Ebrei e delle loro sette 
 e dottrine religiose durante il secondo tempo,'' 1 vol. 8vo, Milan, 
 1844, which fell under the censure of Rome, but was translated 
 into German ; a Topographical Dictionary of Lombard y, ' Dizion- 
 ario Corografico della Lombardia,' 1 vol. large 8vo, Milan, 1844, 
 which passed into a second edition, but to which the Austrian 
 authorities would not allow the author to affix his name ; a 
 Dictionary of the Bible, ' Dizionario Storico-filologico della 
 Biblia,' 4 vols. 8vo, Milan, 1845, &c. ; an essay on the fable 
 of Pope Joan, ' Esame Critico degli Atti e Documenti relativi 
 alia Favola della Papessa Giovanna,' Milan, 1845, a work that 
 had a great success; Thoughts on the Decline of the Roman Em- 
 pire in the West, ' Idee sulla Decadenza dell' Impero Romano in 
 Occidento,' 3 vols. 8vo, Milan, 1846. These works were produced 
 far too rapidly to allow of such important subjects being ade- 
 quately treated, but it should be remarked that several of them 
 were more or less closely connected wit h the History of the Popes, 
 for which he had been already some years collecting and digesting 
 the materials. In January, 1848, Bianchi was called to Turin 
 to enter upon a new occupation. Italy was seething with im- 
 patient expectation of the moment when the blow -was to be 
 struck for the expulsion of the foreigner, and General Durando, 
 about to join the Army of Independence, desired to entrust to 
 Bianchi the direction of his journal, ' L'Opinione,' that was 
 intended to lead and inform the public mind. Under Bianchi 's 
 editorship 'L'Opinione' advocated frankly the fusion of Italy 
 under the leadership of Carlo- Alberto, the expulsion of the 
 Austrians, and the limitation of the papal power. The Italians 
 were defeated in their first great struggle, and Austria in grant- 
 ing peace stipulated for the expulsion of Bianchi, who again 
 retired to Switzerland. But his exile was not of long duration. 
 Cavour, on becoming minister, insisted on the recall of Bianchi, 
 who resumed the direction of ' L'Opinione.' The journal had, 
 however, passed into the hands of fresh proprietors, who were 
 opposed to the government, and Bianchi withdrew from it and 
 started a new journal, 'L'Unione,' in which he laboured un- 
 ceasingly to keep alive the animosity of his countrymen against 
 Austrian rule in Italy, to protest against the doctrines of Mazzini, 
 and to urge resistance to the encroachments of Rome. He con- 
 tinued his journal almost till his death, which occurred on the 
 16th of May, 1862. But during all these last years he had been 
 working with equal earnestness on his ' Storia dei Papi,' of which 
 the first volume appeared at Capolazo in 1852, and of which in 
 all ten volumes have been published, the later volumes at Turin. 
 Besides the works already mentioned, Bianchi wrote a popular 
 summary of his Hebrew History under the title of ' Storia 
 Biblica,' 1 vol. Turin, 1851 ; ' Critica degli Evangeli,' Turin, 
 1853; and ' L'Austria in Italia,' 2 vols. 8vo, Turin, 1S53, trans- 
 lated into French by Madame Camille Lebrun, Paris, 1854 ; as 
 
235 BIDDER, GEORGE PARKER. 
 
 well as several pamphlets and occasional pieces. lie also com- 
 menced a History of the Longobards, of which only one volume 
 was published, ' Storia del Longobordi/ 8vo, 1848. On the 
 decease of Bianehi the government of Victor Emmanuel granted 
 his family a pension of about 80?. a year in recognition of his 
 services to Italy. 
 
 * BIDDER, GEORGE PARKER, civil engineer, was bom 
 June 14, 1800, at Moreton Hampstead, in Devonshire, where 
 his father was a mason. At an early age lie developed so 
 remarkable a talent for mental calculation as to attract much 
 attention from mathematicians, by whom he was known as the 
 "calculating boy." The solution of very intricate questions 
 was with him an affair of a few minutes, often only a few 
 seconds : the result being announced by him long before able 
 mathematicians could work it out on paper. His name was 
 associated with thenamasof Jedediah Buxton and Zerah Colburn, 
 as the possessor of powers not easily comprehended by other 
 persons. In this case, however, the boy- calculator lived to give 
 m later years a subtle analysis. of the powers in question, which 
 will be found in the 15th volume of the 'Minutes of Proceedings 
 of the Institut ion of Civil Engineers.' The kindness of a friend 
 enabled young Bidder to acquire a solid education at the 
 University of Edinburgh, wdiere he formed an acquaintance 
 with the late Robert Stephenson, which influenced the whole of 
 his subsequent career. Alter a short engagement at an insurance 
 office, distasteful to himself, he was employed for a time upon 
 the Ordnance Survey. The experience w hich he acquired here 
 enabled him to fill the post of assistant engineer to Mr. H. R. 
 Palmer, who was engaged in the construction of the Eastern 
 Dock at the London Docks. Mr. Bidder's next engagement was 
 with Messrs. "Walker and Burgess, in superintending the con- 
 struction of the Brunswick Wharf at Blackwall — noteworthy for 
 the first use of cast-iron piles in river-walls. When Robert 
 Stephenson", about 1S31, planned the London and Birmingham 
 Railway (now forming part of the London and North- "Western 
 system), Mr. Bidder joined him as assistant ; and during a long 
 scries of years he took part in many works on which the two 
 Stcphensons were engaged — including the earlier portions of the 
 South-Eastern Railway, the North Kent, the London and Black- 
 wall, the Norwich and Yarmouth, the Northampton and Peter- 
 borough, the Trent Valley, the North Staffordshire, and numerous 
 other lines. He took an active part in the obstinate parliamentary 
 contests concerning atmospheric railways and the 'battle of the 
 gauges.' Mr. Bidder was afterwards sole engineer of the Norwegian 
 Trunk Railway, and with Mr. George Robert Stephenson, was en- 
 gineer of the Royal Danish Railway. He has long been consulting 
 engineer for the system of railways in the North-west of India, 
 including the Delhi, the Punjab, and the Scinde lines, as well 
 as the Indus Steam Flotilla. Mr. Bidder constructed Lowestoft 
 Harbour. As engineer of the Victoria (London) Docks, he 
 introduced many novel features of construction. In connection 
 with Mr. Jennings, he enlarged the Surrey Canal Docks. At an 
 early period in the introduction of the electric telegraph system 
 Mr. Bidder recognised its importance in connection with railways, 
 especially in working single lines ; and he introduced it on the 
 Blackwall and the Norwich and Yarmouth lines. He was one 
 of the founders of the original Electric Telegraph Company, 
 and has been a constant adviser to the board down to the recent 
 (1870) transfer of the company's wires and rights to the Govern- 
 ment — a transfer which he assisted in completing. Mr. Bidder 
 became member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1825, 
 and is now one of the oldest of the body in that capacity. He 
 was for many years a member of the council, and was president 
 in 1860 and 1861. The paper already adverted to, relating to 
 his calculating powers, was the result of two oral lectures given 
 by Mr. Bidder at the Institution, under the presidency of Mr. 
 Robert Stephenson. Mr. Bidder was president of the section 
 on Engineering and Mechanics at the Norwich meeting of the 
 British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1868 ; 
 and president at the meeting of the "Western Association at 
 Dartmouth in 1869. He is lieutenant-colonel commanding of 
 the Engineer and Railway Volunteer Stall Corps. It may be 
 well to mention here as the corps is very little known to the 
 general public, that its officers are chiefly civil engineers, railway 
 managers, and great contractors, and that it corresponds directly, 
 and in a confidential way, with the War Office. The corps has 
 been constituted for the purpose of directing the application 
 of skilled labour, and of railway-transport, to the puiposes of 
 national defence ; and for preparing, in time of peace, the system 
 on which such duties shall be conducted. 
 
 BILLAULT, AUGUSTE ADOLPIIE MARIE, a French 
 
 BILLINGTON, ELIZABETH. 23« 
 
 lawyer and statesman, was bom at Vannes, on the 12th of 
 November, 1805. He studied law at Rcnnes, where he was 
 admitted as an advocate in 1H25. In November of the same 
 year, he went to Nantes for the exercise of his profession, and 
 became presently one of the most distinguished and busy mem- 
 bers of the lxar of that city. After the Revolution of July, 1830, 
 he began to take a prominent part in public affairs, being 
 named a member of the Municipal Council of Nantes, and in 
 1S33, a member of the council-general of the department of the 
 Loire-Inferieme. He wrote upon various important questions 
 of the day ; and especially published a pamphlet entitled ' De 
 l'Education en France, et de ce qu'elle devrait etre pour satis- 
 faire aux besoins du pays,' 8vo, Nantes, 1835. In 1837 M. 
 Billault was returned to the Chamber of Deputies by three elec- 
 toral colleges of the department — Nantes, Paimbccuf, and 
 Ancenis, the last being the constituency he chose to represent. 
 In the chamber he joined the party of the left centre, of which 
 M. Thiers was chief ; and when Thiers became president of the 
 council, Billault was made under-.-ecivlary of state for agricul- 
 ture and commerce, March 3rd, 1S40. He vacated office on the 
 fall of the Thiers ministry, October 29th, 1840 ; and during his 
 short experience of public business, effectively co-operated in 
 bringing about a treaty of commerce witli Holland, so as to gain 
 the order of the Lion of the Netherlands, and the decoration ot 
 the Legion of Honour. In the last he became commandcur, 
 grand oflicier, and grand'eroix, respectively on the 8th of Decem- 
 ber, 1852, 30th of December, 1855, and 15th of August, 1857. 
 Relieved from the pressure of public functions, M. Billault was 
 admitted, in 1841, an advocate of the Cour Royale of Paris ; and 
 his fame, both as a forensic and a parliamentary orator, increased 
 from day to day. At the elections of 1846, M. Billault was re- 
 turned for the third arrondissement of Paris ; but he preferred 
 to remain faithful to his old constituency of Ancenis, which had 
 re-elected him. At the approach of the Revolution of 1848, 
 although he had loudly denounced in the chamber " the corrupt 
 tion, which, covering the whole of France, threatened to swallow 
 up representative institutions," he took no part in the organiza- 
 tion of the Reform banquets. After the Revolution of Febru- 
 ary, M. Billault was elected as representative to the Constituante, 
 and joined the ranks of the moderate democratic party, voting 
 on all occasions with the right, except when he recorded his 
 vote, with the left, for the banishment of the Orleans family. 
 Gradually, however, he leaned to the left, especially upon ques- 
 tions of foreign policy ; and his attitude in this respect gave so 
 little satisfaction, that he failed of re-election to the Legislative 
 Assembly. Once more the bar engrossed the energies of 
 M. Billault, who, remaining faithful to his democratic prin- 
 ciples, particularly opposed himself to the law of the 31st of 
 May, 1850. After the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December, 
 1851, he was named deputy of Saint Girons (Ariege), and was 
 chosen as the first president of the new Corps Legislatif, which 
 position he held until the re-establishnient of the Empire. On 
 the 23rd of July, 1854, M. Billault succeeded M. de Persigny as 
 Minister of the Interior, and was called to the Senate on the 4th 
 of December. On the 8lh of February, 1858, he was re- 
 quired to yield his portfolio to General Espinasse ; but was re- 
 called to oliice on the 1st of November, 1859, in the place of the 
 Due de Padoue. By a decree of the 23rd of June, 1863, M. 
 Billault was placed in the ministry of state, in succession to 
 M. "Walewski ; a few months after which he died, October 13th, 
 1863, at his chateau de la Goulaine, near Nantes, and was hon- 
 oured with a magnificent funeral at Paiis, at the public expense. 
 M. Billault, in addition to the honours already mentioned, en- 
 joyed the membership of the Academic Society of Nantes, and 
 of the Industrial Society of Angers. He is, inter alia, the author 
 of pamphlets on the ' Question Italienne ; Discours prononce au 
 Seiiat dans la Seance du 3rd Mars, 1862,' 8vo, Paris, 1862 ; and 
 ' La Question Polonaise ; Discours,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1863. 
 
 BILLINGTON, ELIZABETH, a very celebrated English 
 singer, was bom in London, in 1769. The daughter of a clever 
 violinist named "Weichsel, the remarkable taste for music she 
 displayed was carefully fostered, and under the instruction of 
 her father, and of another German musician named Schrbter, she 
 made such astonishing progress, as, when only seven years old, 
 to play a concerto on the pianoforte at the Haymarket Theatre, 
 with great applause. Singing she probably learned of her 
 mother, who had been the favourite pupil of J. Ch. Bach, and 
 who was at this time the leading vocalist at Vauxhall. When 
 eleven years old, she wrote and published some musical com- 
 positions, but they were said to have been rather freely bor- 
 rowed. In her fifteenth year she made a clandestine match with 
 
237 
 
 BILSON, THOMAS. 
 
 BINET, CLAUDE. 
 
 238 
 
 Mr. James Billington, a member of the orchestra at Drury Lane 
 I Theatre, who had been one of her musical instructors. Billington 
 [carried her off to Dublin, where she obtained an engagement to 
 I sing at the theatre. The exquisite beauty and freshness of her 
 | voice, and the ease and charm of her style, entranced the audience, 
 and her success was unbounded. She returned to England at 
 [the end of 1785, and was at once engaged at Covent Garden 
 Theatre, at a salary of 1000Z. for the remainder of the season, a 
 i sum unprccedentedly large for a debutant. In London her recep- 
 tion was no less enthusiastic than in Dublin. Her performance 
 of Bosina, in ' Love in a Village,' was the topic of the season. 
 Michael Kelly, who witnessed it, " thought her an angel in 
 beauty and the Saint Cecilia of song." (Reminiscences, i. 297.) 
 But friends counselled further training, and at the end of the 
 ! season she went to Paris and placed herself under the tuition of 
 ■ Sacchini, nor did she return to London till his death, in October, 
 [ 1786. In 1793 — 4, she made a tour through the principal towns 
 of France and Italy, accompanied by her husband, and by her 
 brother, a distinguished violinist, and everywhere she carried 
 away her audience by storm. At Naples she was introduced 
 by Sir "William and Lady Hamilton, to the King and Queen of 
 Naples, and greatly feted. But the tour was not throughout 
 so favourable. Her free and careless manner already gave 
 occasion to the voice of scandal ; her husband died suddenly at 
 Naples, in May, 1794 ; and finally, a sum of 20,000 sequins, a 
 large part of the profits of her tour, which she had deposited in 
 the Bank of Venice, was seized by the French. Alter many 
 vain efforts to recover her money, she married a M. Fulessent, a 
 commissary of the French army, who had assisted her applica- 
 tions, and retired with him to a villa she purchased with a portion 
 of her savings, in the neighbourhood of Venice. After slaying 
 here for a couple of years, she returned alone to England, and 
 reappeared at Covent Garden Theatre, October 3rd, 1801, in Dr. 
 Ame's opera of ' Artaxerxes.' She was received, as Michael 
 Kelly records, " with rapturous applause, and on each night 
 drew crowded houses." So great was the desire to hear her, 
 that the lessees of the two theatres came to an agreement that 
 she should sing the part on different nights at Covent Garden 
 and Drury Lane, her income for the season exceeding 10,000Z., a 
 sum then unparalleled as the payment for an English singer. 
 Henceforth, for sixteen years, she reigned undisputed queen of 
 English song. She continued to receive a very large income, 
 lived in great style at Hammersmith, the most distinguished 
 personages resorting to her fetes and parties, yet, though exceed- 
 ingly liberal to all who had any claim upon her, she acquired 
 considerable wealth. In 1817, the repeal of the Alien Act per- 
 mitted M. Felessent to come to England ; his wife returned with 
 him to the continent, and she died at St. Artien, her Venice 
 villa, on the 25th of August, 1818. Mrs. Billington is, by general 
 consent, considered as the first of English singers. She was an 
 excellent musician, and her voice, of unusual range, brilliancy, 
 and power, was remarkable also for its richness of tone, sweet- 
 ness, and the fascination it exercised over the listener. Her 
 morals were, unhappily, less pure than her voice and taste, but 
 a book that is sometimes met with, purporting to be 'Memoirs 
 of Mrs. Billington, from her birth,' &c. (8vo, London, 1792), is 
 an obscene libel, compiled, as is frankly avowed in the " Ad- 
 vertisement " and " Prefatory Address," for the purpose of 
 extorting money. 
 
 BILSON, THOMAS, an Anglican prelate and divine, was 
 born in 1536, at Winchester ; and, after being fitted for the 
 University at William of Wykeham's school in that city, became 
 a member and perpetual fellow of New College, Oxford, where he 
 graduated in aits, entered holy orders, and acquired a reputation 
 for the solidity and consistency of his preaching. He became a 
 master in Winchester College, of which he was subsequently ap- 
 pointed warden. On the 12th of January, 1576, he was installed in 
 the eighth stall of Winchester Cathedral ; and, having completed 
 his degrees in divinity, was elected Bishop of Worcester on the 
 20th of April, 1596, to which he was confirmed on the 11th of 
 June, consecrated at Lambeth on the 13th, the temporalities 
 being restored to him on the 27th of July. He was translated 
 to Winchester, April 29th, 1597, his confirmation to this see 
 taking place on the 13th of May following. About this time 
 Bishop Bilson gave great offence to the Puritans, by opposing, 
 in sermons delivered at St. Paul's Cross, the Calvinistic doctrine 
 of particular election, and by asserting that the descent into hell 
 of the Creed was to be understood as an actual descent into the 
 place of torment. An account of the controversy in which the 
 ■peaches became involved in consequence may be found in 
 Strype's 'Life of Archbishop Whitgift.' its literary results, so far 
 
 as Bilson was concerned, being chiefly represented by a work 
 entitled, ' The Effect of certain Sermons, touching the full 
 Redemption of Mankind by the Death and Blood of Christ 
 Jesus ; wherein besides the Merit of Christ's Sufferings, the 
 Manner of his Offering, the Power of his Death, the Comfort of 
 his Cross, the Glory of his Resurrection, are handled/ &c, 
 London, 1599 ; ' The clearing of certain objections made against 
 the aforesaid Doctrine ;' and 'A Survey of Christ's Sufferings 
 and Descent into Hell,' folio, London, 1604. In this work the 
 author maintained that Christ descended into hell, not to suffer, 
 not to preach, and not to liberate any, but to take possession 
 and to triumph. Bishop Bilson preached the coronation sermon 
 on the accession of King James I., and it was published as a 
 ' Sermon at Westminster before the King and Queen at their 
 Coronation, on St. James's Day, 28th July, 1603.' He was 
 called upon next year to be one of the managers of the con- 
 ference at Hampton Court ; and took part especially in the 
 discussions on lay baptism, to deny the validity of which, he 
 held, would be to cross all antiquity; and on the Apocrypha, in 
 the course of which he insisted upon the distinction of St. 
 Jerome : — " Canonici sunt ad informandos mores, non ad con- 
 firmandam fidem." It was to Bishop Bilson, conjointly with 
 Dr. Smith, Bishop of Gloucester, that King James committed 
 the final revision of that translation of the Bible known as the 
 authorized version. Bilson died on the 18th of June, 1616, and 
 was buried, say some, on the south side of Westminster Abbey, 
 near the monument of King Richard II., or, according to the 
 register, near the entrance into St. Edmund's Chapel. 
 
 Bilson left several volumes in MS., containing ' Orationes,' 
 ' Carmina Varia,' ' Vulgaria,' &c. ; in addition to which his 
 principal published works still remaining to be noticed are : — 
 'Of the True Difference between Christian Subjection and 
 Unchristian Rebellion, wherein the Prince's lawful Power to 
 command and bear the sword are defended against the Pope's 
 censure, and Jesuits' Sophisms in their Apology and Defence of 
 English Catholics. Also a Demonstration that the things 
 reformed in the Church of England by the Laws of this Realm 
 are truly Catholic, against the late Rhemish Testament,' 4to, 
 Oxford, 1585. This work, which owed its inspiration to Queen 
 Elizabeth, was intended on the one hand to confute the Romish 
 party who were plotting against her throne ; and on the other to 
 defend her interference to save the Protestants of the Low 
 Countries from sinking under the power of their old master, the 
 King of Spain. It is still valuable as representing the via media 
 of 16th century Anglicanism ; but its results, although it served 
 the present turn of Elizabeth, were disastrous to her successor, 
 Charles L, inasmuch as no book was so constantly quoted by that 
 unfortunate monarch's opponents when they wished to justify 
 their antagonism to his power. Besides the ' Young Man's 
 Help,' &c, which in 1704 had been printed five times, Bilson 
 produced his great work, which enjoys the reputation of being 
 one of the most able and complete treatises ever written in 
 defence of the apostolic succession and the doctrine of epis- 
 copacy. Its full title will sufficiently describe its method and 
 its contents : — ' Of the Perpetual Government of Christ, his 
 Church; wherein. are handled the fatherly superiority which 
 God first established in the Patriarchs for the Guiding of His 
 Church, and after continued in the tribe of Levi and the Pro- 
 phets ; and. lastlie confirmed in the New Testament to the 
 Apostles and their successors. As also the Points in Question at 
 this day, touching the Jewish Synedrion ; the true Kingdome of 
 Christ ; the Apostles' Commission ; the Laie Presbiterie ; the 
 distinction of Bishops from Presbyters ; and their succession 
 from the Apostles' Times and Hands ; the calling and mode- 
 rating of Provinciall Synodes by Primates and Metropolitanes ; 
 the alloting of Dioceses, and the popular electing of such as must 
 feed and watch the Flocke ; and divers other points concerning 
 the Pastorall Regiment of the House of God,' London, 1593; 
 4to, London, 1010; in Latin, 4to, London, 1611. An edition 
 of this work was published at the Oxford University Press in 
 1842. 
 
 BINET, CLAUDE, a French poet, who flourished in the last 
 half of the 16th century. He was a native of Beauvais ; was an 
 advocate, and held an official appointment. He wrote and pub- 
 lished eclogues, court pastorals, and occasional pieces, but his 
 poems, so far from preserving his memory, would themselves 
 hardly have been remembered, but for his connection with 
 Ronsard, who charged him with the posthumous publication of 
 his complete works, and of whose life he has preserved some 
 interesting particulars. These are contained in what he called a 
 'Discours de la Vie de P. de Ronsard, Prince des Poises Fra^-i 
 
23£) 
 
 BINNEY, AMOS. 
 
 BIRCH, SAMUEL. 
 
 cois ; avec une Eclogue representee en see obsequies, par Claude 
 Binet. Plus les vers composez par le diet Ronsard pen avant 
 sa mort : ensemble son toinbeau recucilli de plusicurs cxccllens 
 personages,' 4to, Paris, 1586. The funeral obsequies lu re referred 
 to were performed three months after the death of Ronsard, 
 when, after a sermon preached in honour of the deceased poet 
 by Duperron, bishop of Evrenx, and afterwards cardinal, the 
 ceremony was terminated by the recitation of Binet's allegorical 
 eclogue. Binet's 'Vie de P. de Ronsard,' is printed in the 
 'Archives Curieuses de l'Histoire de France/ lere eerie, toni. 10, 
 8vo, 1834 Binet's verses include an " Ode sur la Naissance et 
 BUT le Baptdme de Marie Elisabeth de Valois, fille unique de 
 France,' 1572 ; ' Adieu de la Fiance an Roi de Pologne, et 1 Adieu 
 du Roi de Pologne a la France,' 1573 ; 'Rencontre merveilleuse 
 sur les noms tonriu's du Roi et de la Royne,' 1574 ; ' Les Daul- 
 phins, on le Retour du Roi, avec le chant des sereines, qui est 
 nne Kpithalame surlemariage du Roi, Henri III.,' 1575; 'Adonis, 
 ou le Trepas du Roi Charles IX., eclogue ;' ' Les Plaisiis do la 
 Vie Rustique et Solitaire,' 1583. Several of his poems were 
 published by Binet, at the end of the '(Envies de Jean J!. 
 Laperuse. Besides his original poems, Binet published a 
 metrical translation of Jean Dorat's Latin version of the Oracles 
 of the Twelve Sibyls; and a discourse ' Ad Deum Opt. Max. 
 Oratio pestilentia tempore,' 4to 1581. 
 
 BINNEY, AMOS, an American conchologist, who carried on 
 the line of pursuit which had been commenced by Say, viz., the 
 investigation of the terrestrial and fluviatile gasteropods of 
 North America. Possessed of ample means, he devoted much 
 leisure time and money to the acquisition of shells and concho- 
 logical works ; and gradually collected a library which at the 
 time of his death was probably the best of its kind in the United 
 States. He wrote several papers for the 'Proceedings' and 
 'Journal' of the Boston Society of Natural History, of which 
 society he was one of the founders and presidents. His prin- 
 cipal paper is 'A Monograph of the Helices inhabiting the United 
 States,' which extends over upwards of 100 pages in vols. i. and iii. 
 of the above-mentioned 'Journal.' This was one result of the more 
 extended inquiries which he pursued for many of the later years 
 of his life, and which culminated in the magnificent work which 
 will always be associated with bis name as one of the pioneer 
 conchologists of his country, viz., his ' Terrestrial Mollusks of 
 the United States.' He himself did not live to complete it, but 
 in his will he provided for its continuation and publication. 
 This task devolved upon Dr. A. A. Gould, who issued the first 
 two volumes in 1851, and the third in 1859, at a cost of 2500/. 
 The work is very rare, as only 400 copies were printed. His son, 
 
 William G. Binney has also attained eminence as a con- 
 chologist. He has followed the same branch of the study as 
 his father, and has contributed a supplement to the 'Terrestial 
 Mollusks,' forming vol. iv. of that work. He has written several 
 papers for the ' Proceedings of the Academy of Nat. Science ' at 
 Philadelphia from 1S57 onwards ; but his principal work has 
 been done in connection with the Smithsonian Institution, for 
 which he has drawn up check lists and descriptions of the 
 terrestrial and fluviatile gasteropods of the United States ; and 
 ' Bibliography of North American Conchology previous to the 
 year I860,' Pt. I. 1864, which is a most valuable work of refe- 
 rence on the subject it pertains to. 
 
 * BINNEY, THOMAS, an eminent Congregational divine, was 
 born at Newcastle-on Tyne about the year 1798. His parents 
 were in rather humble circumstances, and for a period of seven 
 years he was engaged in a bookseller's shop. Whilst so occupied 
 he nevertheless found it possible, by a strict economy of his spare 
 moments, to acquire a considerable acquaintance with Latin and 
 Greek, and a great facility in English composition. He received 
 his professional education at Wymondley College ; and after 
 presiding over a congregation at Bedford, removed to Newport in 
 the Isle of Wight, where he was ordained to the ministry. In 
 1829 he migrated to London, in order to undertake the pastorate 
 of the " King's Weigh-House Chapel," at that time situated in 
 Eastcheap. The new King's Weigh-House Chapel, Fish-street Hill, 
 was commenced in 1834 ; and on the occasion of the laying of the 
 first stone of this building, December 12th, Mr. Binney delivered 
 an address which attracted much attention and gave rise to con- 
 siderable discussion. He soon afterwards published a sermon 
 preached at the Poultry Chapel, London, entitled ' Dissent not 
 Schism,' in which, as well as in other vigorous productions, he 
 explained and vindicated the position of Congregational dis- 
 senters. One of the best known of these is his ' Conscientious 
 Clerical Nonconformity,' 1839, of which a fifth edition was issued 
 in 1860. Mr. Binney's life has been diversified by two important 
 
 journeys. In 1845 he travelled in America and the Canadas ; 
 
 and in 1857 he set out on a tour through the Australian colonii 
 to which he was attracted in part by the settlement of his sons 
 there. Here he continued for about two years, preaching and 
 lecturing to large audiences. As an instance of the favour with 
 which he was received, it may be mentioned that the clergy of 
 the Episcopal Church wished to welcome him to their pulpits. 
 This led to an important correspondence between Mr. Binney 
 and the Bishop of Adelaide, which excited much attention w hin 
 it appeared in the English and Australian journals. During hii 
 stay in Australia, Mr. Binney published a work on 'The Bishop 
 of Adelaide's Idea of the Church of the Future,' which was after- 
 wards published, with additions, in London, with the title 
 ' Lights and Shadows of Church Life in Australia, including 
 Thoughts on some Things at Home,' 1860. On his return to 
 England Mr. Binney resumed his pastorate at the King's Weigh- 
 House Chapel, with which he still continues in close relation, 
 though he lias retired from the pastorate. He prefers to use an 
 untitled name, although he has received from the University of 
 Aberdeen the degree of LL.D., and that of D.D. from a university 
 in the United States of America. Especially eminent as a 
 powerful and eloquent preacher, Mr. Binney is scarcely less 
 eminent as a writer. Without seeking to be an author, and 
 without adequate time for authorship in his busy life, he has 
 yet, almost in spite of himself, become an extensive book-pro- 
 ducer. His Lectures and Sermons have been asked for in print, 
 and have sometimes on revision grown into books. Notably was 
 this the case with two of his 'Lectures to Young Men,' which 
 grew under his hand into two small volumes — one on Sir Thomas 
 Fowell Buxton, and the other entitled 'Is it Possible to make 
 the Best of Both Worlds?' Others of Mr. Binney's numerous 
 productions are : — ' Life of the Rev. Stephen Morrell,' 1826 ; a 
 discourse on the ' Ultimate Design of the Christian Ministry,' 
 1827 ; pamphlets discussing religious questions, and signed 
 'Fiat Justitia,' about 1830; 'The Practical Power of Faith,' 
 1830, a series of discourses on the eleventh chapter of Hebrews, 
 regarded by its author as one of his principal works, and 
 which has reached a third edition ; the ' Service of Song in the 
 House of the Lord,' 1848; and the 'Closet and the Church,' 
 1849. Mr. Binney's later works include ' Money : a Popular Ex- 
 position in Rough Notes,' 1864, which reached a fourth edition 
 in 1866 ; ' St. Paul, his Life and Ministry,' second edition, 1866 ; 
 a work on Ritualism, entitled ' Micah, the Priestmaker,' 1867, 
 which immediately went into a second edition ; and ' From 
 Seventeen to Thirty, the Town Life of a Youth from the 
 Country : Lessons from the History of Joseph,' 1868. A few 
 hymns of considerable merit vindicate Mr. Binney's claim to 
 the title of being a sacred poet. 
 
 B10T, JEAN BAPTISTE. [E. C. vol. i. col. 699—701.] 
 M. Biot died on the 2nd of February, 1862, within two months 
 of completing his 88th year. Four years before his decease, 
 he had collected and published his less strictly scientific writings, 
 under the title of ' Melanges Scientifiques et Litteraires,' 3 vol-. 
 8vo, Paris, 1858. 
 
 * BIRCH, SAMUEL, a distinguished Egyptologist and anti- 
 quary, keeper of the department of Oriental and British antiqui- 
 ties in the British Museum, was born in London, November the 
 3rd, 1813. The son of the Rev. Samuel Birch, D.D., rector of St. 
 Mary Woolnoth, London, and vicar of Little Marlow, Bucking- 
 hamshire, he was educated in private schools under his father's 
 eye, till he was transferred to Merchant Taylors' School, where 
 he completed his academic training. After occupying a post 
 under the Record Commissioners, Mr. Birch was in 1836 ap- 
 pointed an assistant in the department of antiquities in the 
 British Museum. In this department he has ever since con- 
 tinued, rising step by step, till at the rearrangement of offices in 
 1861 he was placed at the head of the section of Oriental, 
 MediaBval, and British Antiquities and of the Ethnographical 
 Collections, with the title of keeper. In this important and 
 responsible office Mr. Birch has of course had to perform a vast 
 amount of merely routine labour, but beyond that the selection, 
 purchase, and rearrangement of the great collections have en- 
 tailed immense toil. Yet withal Mr. Birch has found time to 
 pursue original investigation in Egyptian archaeology, philology, 
 numismatics, the ceramic arts, and general antiquities, and to 
 enrich our literature with one or two works of standard value, 
 besides contributing a very large number of papers to learned 
 societies, and to antiquarian and scientific journals. 
 
 Egyptian antiquities in the broadest sense of the term formed 
 almost from his youth Mr. Birch's leading subject of study. As 
 early as 1838 he published a ' Sketch of a Hieroglyphical Die- 
 
241 
 
 BIRKENHEAD, SIR JOHN. 
 
 BIRNBAUM, JOHANN MICHAEL FRANZ. 242 
 
 frionary,' 4to, and from that time his dissertations on special 
 subjects have been very numerous. From among them a few 
 may be cited by way of illustration : — 'On an Egyptian Tomb in 
 (he British Museum, ' ' Upon an Historical Tablet of Rameses II. 
 of the 19th dynasty, relating to the Gold Mines of ^Ethiopia,' 
 and several others in the ' Archaeologia ;' 'Observations upon the 
 Hieratical Canon of Egyptian Kings at Turin,' ' Upon the newly- 
 discovered fragment of the Statistical Tablet of Karnak,' 1862, 
 and several others in the ' Transactions of the Royal Society of 
 Literature;' ' Lettres a M. Letronne' in the ' Revue Archeolo- 
 gique,' Paris, 1847 — 48—' Sur l'Expression Hieroglyphique du 
 mot Egyptien Calasiris ; ' ' Sur la Famille de Psammetichus dans 
 la 26 e Dynastie ;' 'Sur le Cartouche Egyptien, trouve par M. 
 Lavard dans les ruines de Nimroud ;' ' Sur l'Expression Hiero- 
 glyphique de deux noms propres Egyptiens ; ' ' Sur quelques 
 Groupes Hieroglyphiques a propos d'un ouvrage de l'Abbe Lanci ; ' 
 and ' Sur un Papyrus Magique du Musee Britannique,' 1859 ; 
 ' Observations on an Egyptian Calendar of the reign of Philip 
 Aridaeus,' ' Notes upon a Mummy of the age of the 26th Egyp- 
 tian dynasty,' ' On a remarkable object of the reign of Anieno- 
 phis III.,' ' On Gold Jewelled Ornaments found near Thebes in 
 1859,' and several others in the ' Archaeological Journal ;' ' Re- 
 searches relative to the Connection of the Deities represented upon 
 the Coins of Egyptian Nomes with the Egyptian Pantheon,' and 
 several others in the 'Numismatic Chronicle;' 'Notes upon 
 Obelisks,' in the 2nd vol. of the ' Museum of Classical Antiquities,' 
 and various papers elsewhere. Some of his most elaborate 
 descriptions are those of an official or semi-official character, as 
 ' Descriptions of the Papyrus of Nas-Khem, Priest of Amen-Ra, 
 discovered in an excavation made by direction of H.R.H. the 
 Prince of Wales ... in a tomb near Gournal, at Thebes,' 
 4to, 1863; ' Fac-similes of the Egyptian Relics discovered at 
 Thebes in the Tomb of Queen Aah-Hotep (circa B.C. 1800), 
 exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862,' obi. 4to, 1863; 
 ' Fac-similes of two Papyri found in a Tomb at Thebes. With a 
 Translation by S. B.,' obi. fol. 1863; ' Inscriptions in the Hieratic 
 and Demotic Character, from the Collections in the British 
 Museum,' folio, 1868. On subjects of a somewhat similar class 
 we have ' Inscriptions in the Himyaritic Character, discovered 
 chiefly in Southern Arabia, and now in the British Museum,' 
 4to, 1863; some translations from the Chinese in the 'Asiatic 
 J ournal,' and papers in the ' Archaologische Zeitung.' Mr. Birch's 
 Egyptian studies brought him into close intimacy with the late 
 Baron Bunsen, whose laborious investigations in early history he 
 for many years greatly assisted, and by Bunsen's particular 
 request the revision of his great work, ' Egypt's Place in Uni- 
 versal History,' was undertaken by Mr. Birch, who made im- 
 portant additions to the fifth and concluding volume, and 
 revised and enlarged the new edition of the first volume. In 
 numismatics, and particularly in reference to Greek and Oriental 
 coins, Mr. Birch has largely augmented our information by 
 descriptions of particular coins and catalogues of inedited speci- 
 mens published in the ' Numismatic Chronicle ' from 1839 to 
 nearly the present time. His chief substantive work, however, 
 is his ' History of Ancient Pottery,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1858, by far the 
 most complete, and generally accepted as the standard, work on 
 the subject. The ' Catalogue of Greek and Etruscan Vases in 
 the British Museum ' was written by Mr. Birch in conjunction 
 with Mr. Newton. He also wrote the descriptive and historical 
 notices in ' The Gallery of Antiquities, selected from the British 
 Museum, by F. Arundale and J. Bonomi, 4to, 1842 ; 'Views on 
 the Nile, by Owen Jones and Jules Goury,' folio, 1843; also the 
 ' Introduction to the Study of Egyptian Hieroglyphics ' prefixed 
 to Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Crystal Palace hand-book, ' Egypt in 
 the time of the Pharaohs.' To the Arts and Sciences division of 
 the English Cyclopaedia Mr. Birch contributed, among others, 
 the articles Hieroglyphics, Mummy, Pyramid, Serapeum, Papy- 
 rus, Seal, Numismatics, Pottery, and Vases. The honorary 
 degree of LL.D. was conferred upon Mr. Birch by the University 
 of St. Andrews in 1839, and he is a member and director of the 
 Archaeological Institute of Rome, a member of the Academie cles 
 Inscriptions and of the Oriental Society of France (1861), of the 
 Berlin Academy, of the Ethnological Society of America, and of 
 other foreign learned societies, a fellow of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, and an honorary member of the Royal Society of 
 Literature. 
 
 BIRKENHEAD, BERKENHEADE, or BIRKENHOUT, 
 SIR JOHN, a noted Royalist writer, was born at Rudheath, 
 Cheshire, about 1615 ; and in 1632, was entered as a servitor at 
 Oriel College, Oxford. On leaving college he was, on the 
 recommendation of his tutor, Humphrey Lloyd, afterwards 
 biog. div. — SUP. 
 
 Bishop of Bangor, appointed Secretary to Archbishop Laud, 
 who in 1639 created him master of arts, by diploma, and secured 
 his election in 1640, as Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 
 where he went into residence. When Charles I. was at Oxford, 
 Birkenhead was recommended as well qualified to write the 
 broadsheet which it was proposed to set up in support of the 
 court. Birkenhead accordingly brought out his ' Mercurius 
 Aulicus,' and carried it on regularly and with abundant vigour 
 and scurrility from 1642 till towards the end of 1645, after 
 which its appearance was only occasional. The 'Mercurius 
 Aulicus ' was the favourite newspaper of the Royalists, and was 
 long held up as a model of wit and satire. Its satire, at least 
 its invective, was sufficiently keen and trenchant, but its wit 
 would now be thought very coarse buffoonery, and it probably 
 did more harm than good to the royal cause. The king did not 
 think so, however, and when about to leave Oxford he showed his 
 sense of Birkenhead's service by procuring his election as reader 
 in moral philosophy. This office Birkenhead retained till 1648, 
 when he was expelled by the parliamentary visitors. Removing 
 to London, he studied civil law, and employed his pen in com- 
 posing various satires, Hudibrastic ballads, and political lam- 
 poons, which were freely circulated in MS. It was about this 
 time that he wrote his once famous ' Assembly Man,' though it 
 was first printed in 1662 : it was reprinted in 1682, 1704, and in 
 the ' Harleian Miscellany.' ' Paul's Church Yard,' in two parts, 
 or centuries, also belongs to this time ; the first editions are 
 quartos of eight pages each, without dates ; the reprint entitled 
 'Two Centuries of Paul's Church Yard,' was a thin 12mo volume, 
 having at the end Birkenhead's ' Bibliotheca Parliamenti '— all 
 are unsparing satires on republicans and parliament men. 
 ' News from Pembroke and Montgomery ; or Oxford Manches- 
 tered,' 1649, is another satirical pamphlet, in the form of* a 
 pretended speech, delivered by Philip Earl of Pembroke and 
 Montgomery, on being sent by the Parliament to new-model the 
 University of Oxford, as the Earl of Manchester, the Parliamen- 
 tary chancellor, had remodelled Cambridge. Birkenhead's 
 loyalty caused him to be suspected, and brought him more than 
 once within the walls of a prison : but he escaped without 
 material hurt, and at the Restoration received his reward. In 
 pursuance of the royal letters he was created D.C.L. at Oxford, 
 on the 6th of April, 1661 ; was elected the same year M.P. for 
 Wilton ; was knighted November 14, 1662, and appointed 
 Master of the Faculty Office and of the Court of Requests. 
 He continued a favourite at court, though his prosperity excited 
 some envy and enmity. He died on the 4th of December, 
 1679, and was buried in the church of St. Martin 's-in-the-Fields. 
 Sir John Birkenhead was one of the early Fellows of the Royal 
 Society. 
 
 * BIRNBAUM, JOHANN MICHAEL FRANZ, an eminent 
 German jurist, was born at Bamberg, in Bavaria, on the 19th 
 of September, 1792 ; studied successively at Erlangen, at 
 Landshutt, and at Wurzburg, where he was admitted B?G.h. in 
 1815. For two years he dwelt at Frankfurt as tutor to the sons 
 of the Count von Westphalen, filling his leisure with the com- 
 position of a trilogy called ' Adalbert von Babenburg,' and a 
 drama entitled ' Alberade,' both of which were produced on the 
 stage with a certain measure of success. But he soon satisfied 
 himself of the incompatibility of poetry with law, and deter- 
 mined to concentrate his energies on the latter pursuit. In 1817 
 he obtained the appointment of professor of law in the newly- 
 restored University of Louvain. His learning, lucidity of exposi- 
 tion, and the depth and breadth of his teaching gave" his chair a 
 great reputation, which steadily increased till the Revolution 
 of 1830, when Birnbaum and the other foreign professors were 
 discharged from their posts by a vote of the Provisional 
 Government of Belgium. Birnbaum retired to Bonn, where he 
 gave lectures. Removing to Freiburg, he was named Councillor 
 of the Court and Professor of Civil and Criminal Law. In 
 1833 he went as professor to Utrecht, but removed by invitation, 
 in 1840, to Giessen, where, in addition to his professorship, he 
 was in 1847 nominated Chancellor of the University. Whilst 
 at Louvain, he founded the ' Biblotheque du Jurisconsulte,' to 
 which he contributed some valuable papers : it was afterwards 
 merged in the Parisian ' Themis.' His separate works are — 1. 
 ' Deduction der Rechte des Herzogs von Loos-Corswarem auf 
 das Fiirstenthum Rheina-Wolbeck,' Aix-la-Chapelle, 1830, a 
 work which though dealing primarily with local rights, was so 
 treated as to be of more than local value. 2. ' Die Rechtliche 
 Natur der Zehnten,' Bonn, 1831, a work on the Legal Character of 
 Tithes, considered by German lawyers the ablest that had been 
 produced on the subject. 3. ' Commentatio de Hugonis Grotii 
 
 B 
 
243 BISCHOF, CARL GUSTAV CHRISTOPH. 
 
 BISCHOFP, THEODOR LUDWIG W1LHELM. 241 
 
 in clefinienclo jure naturali vera mente,' Bonn, 1835, also an 
 important and standard work. The great treatise on the princi- 
 ples of criminal law which had for many years been looked for 
 from Herr Birnbaum he appears never to have found leisure to 
 complete. 
 
 * BISCHOF, CARL GUSTAV CHRISTOPH, an eminent 
 German chemist and physical geologist, was born January 18, 
 171)2, at Nvirnherg, Bavaria, and received his education at the 
 University of Eilangen, where he first gave attention to mathe- 
 matics and astronomy ; but afterwards abandoned these for chem- 
 istry, upon, which subject Hiklebrandt was then the lecturer. 
 From 18,19 onward he frequently assisted the professor of chemistry 
 and technology at Bonn ; and he himself took the chair in 1822, 
 since which time he has performed the duties connected there- 
 with uninterruptedly at the university of Bonn. He has 
 written numerous papers (106 being cited in the Royal Society's 
 ' Catalogue of Scientific Papers') ; they relate to chemistry 
 and physics more especially as applied to natural phenomena. 
 One paper, mostly by him, is apparently omitted in the above- 
 mentioned Catalogue. It gives the details of an inquiry upon 
 the phosphorescent qualities of subterranean rhizomorph plants, 
 which he undertook in co-operation with Nees von Esenbeck 
 and others. It is, however, entered under Bischoff, G. W. 
 He has also written several works, of which the most im- 
 portant are ' Die vulkanischen Mineralquellen Deutschlands 
 und Frankreichs,' 8vo, 1820 ; ' Die Wiirmlehre des Innern 
 unseres Erdkorpers,' 8vo, 1837 ; and 'Lehrbuch den chemischen 
 und physikaliseheii Geologic,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1847 — 1854, of which 
 a second edition appeared in 1863—64. His reputation and 
 fame mainly rest upon the last-mentioned work, which is well 
 known to English geologists in the translated, rearranged, and 
 condensed form issued by the Cavendish Society. This work is 
 a storehouse of valuable facts : but its main purpose is to show 
 that a large number of eminent geologists had assigned to heat a 
 share in the formation and alteration of minerals and rocks far 
 greater than observable facts warrant. This he does by demon- 
 strating what laws of combination prevail amongst minerals ; 
 the conditions under which pseudoniorphoses and metamor- 
 phoses occur ; and by describing the composition, distribution, and 
 alterative action of waters and native gases. He has done excellent 
 service to geology by his experiments and reasonings indicating 
 what water can do, or has done. His enthusiasm for his own 
 views seems, however, to have led him, in many instances, to 
 depreciate the true influence which heat has had in altering 
 rocks, and to misconceive the precise views held by plutonists. 
 On the whole, then, his conclusions, though not entirely safe or 
 satisfactory, seem to be more right than wrong. 
 
 BISCHOFF, GOTTLIEB 'W ILHELM, botanist, was born at 
 Durekheim, in 1797. In his early manhood he acquired con- 
 siderable skill in painting and drawing, the result of his 
 attendance at the Academy of Art at Munich. In 1821 he went 
 to Eilangen, and there he zealously devoted himself to the 
 study of botany under the instructions of Koch and Martius. 
 These studies were prosecuted for nearly three years. It was 
 during this period that he produced what seems to be his 
 earliest botanical work. It is entitled, ' Die botanische Kunst- 
 sprache,' 1822, which is a dictionary of the technical terms used in 
 botany, illustrated by upwards of 500 lithographed figures, all 
 of which are drawn by himself. To this period also belongs his 
 article in ' Flora,' vol. vi., on a ' Botanische Alpenreise durch 
 Salzburg und einen Theil von Kiirnthen und Tyrol, im Juni 
 und Juli, 1822.' In the autumn of the following year he returned 
 to his native town, and stayed with his father for a few months, 
 after which he proceeded to Erlangen, and in 1824 commenced 
 his career as a teacher of botany. In the following year his 
 ' De plantarum prresertim cryptogamicarum transitu et analogia ' 
 was published, which led to his undertaking a more elaborate 
 work on the same subject. Of this the first part was issued in 1828, 
 under the title of ' Die Kryptogamische Gewachse,' and soon 
 after a second part appeared ; but the work does not seem to 
 have been completed. The first part comprises the Characece and 
 Equisetacece ; and the second the Jihizocarpece and Lycopodiacece. 
 They give an excellent and well-arranged epitome of all that 
 was then known respecting the groups named. There are 
 thirteen plates, the figures on which are drawn from nature by 
 the author. The work promised to be, when finished, his most 
 important production. In 1831 he published his ' Grundriss 
 der Medicinischen Botanik,' which is a general outline of 
 botany for the use of medical students, and was the forerunner 
 of his ' Medicinisehe-pharmaeeutisehe Botanik,' which covers the 
 game ground ; but the matter is handled in a better way and on 
 
 a different plan. From 1830 to 1844 his time was, however, 
 mostly occupied in compiling the work with which his name 
 is usually associated, viz., the 'Handbuch der botanischen 
 Terminologie und Systemkunde,' forming three thick quarto 
 volumes, and which is intended as a substitute for a second edition 
 of his earlier work of 1822. The terms are arranged according to 
 a method ; but the search for any particular word is rendered 
 easy by an elaborate alphabetical index, which extends over 350 
 pages. In his earlier works the full merit of his original draw- 
 ings is not perceived as rendered by the lithographer ; but in 
 the present his skill and taste, as well as his accuracy, are 
 exceedingly well rendered by Prestele and Schach. There are 
 3911 cuts, all, or at any rate nearly all, of which are drawn from 
 nature, and it is upon these that his reputation as a skilful 
 draughtsman has been based. While engaged on this work he 
 was appointed, first, in 1833, extraordinary, and next, in 1839, 
 ordinary professor of botany, which latter post he retained till 
 he was carried olf by a fit of apoplexy on September 1, 1854. 
 In addition to the above-mentioned works, he wrote several papers 
 for the scientific journals, most of them relating to cryptogams. 
 The most important of them is ' Bemerkungen iiber die Leber- 
 moose, vorziiglich aus der Gruppen der Marchantieen und 
 Riccieen, nebst Beschreibung mehreren theils kritischer, theils 
 neuer Arten,' in the 'Nova Acta phys. med. Acad. Coes. Leop. 
 Carol. Nat. Curiosorum,' xvii. p. 909 — 1088 (1835), which may be 
 regarded as a third instalment of his work on cryptogams. It is 
 accompanied by five plates of cuts drawn by himself, which are 
 equal to the best in his ' Handbuch.' 
 
 * BISCHOFF, THEODOR LUDWIG WILHELM, physiolo- 
 gist and anatomist, was born on October 28, 1807, at Hanover. 
 His father, Christophe Heinrich Bischoff, was a professor in the 
 university of Bonn, and superintended the studies of his son at 
 Dusscldorf, Bonn, and Heidelberg, who, after gaining the 
 doctorates of philosophy in 1829, and of medicine in 1832, was 
 appointed an assistant physician at the lying-in hospital con- 
 nected with the university of Berlin. Here he became ac- 
 quainted with Midler and Ehrenberg, and commenced the line 
 of study to which a large portion of his subsequent life has 
 been devoted. Thus in 1833 the treatise he wrote as a proof of 
 his qualifications to be a teacher was entitled ' Beitrage zur 
 Lehre von der Eihullen den Menschlichen Fotus,' but it was not 
 published till the following year. In 1834 he first gave his at- 
 tention to the development of the egg in the rabbit, which 
 inquiry hung on his hands for several years. In 1835 he com- 
 menced, at Heidelberg, a course of lectures on comparative 
 pathological anatomy ; in the following year he was appointed 
 extraordinary professor of anatomy, and in 1843 ordinary pro- 
 fessor. From the time when he first attained professorial rank 
 his studies, so far as original research are concerned, have been 
 almost exclusively devoted to the development of the egg, and 
 of the embryo, more especially in the Mammalia. In 1840, the 
 Prussian Royal Academy of Science proposed a prize for the 
 best memoir on the embryology of some mammal, and this 
 stimulated him to prosecute his researches on rabbits with 
 greater vigour ; and his memoir, ' Entwickelungsgeschichte des 
 Kaninchen Eies,' won the first prize, and was published in 
 1840. Thus encouraged, he pursued his work, and issued 
 similar treatises on the eggs and embryos of the dog (in 1845), the 
 guinea-pig (in 1852), and of the roe-buck (in 1854). These are 
 also illustrated by numerous plates, and have taken rank amongst 
 the best w'orks of this class, and obtained for him a high re- 
 putation. While thus occupied, however, various personal 
 events had occurred. Thus in 1843 he moved to Giessen, having 
 been appointed to the chair of physiology there, and in the ten 
 following years he founded and established a physiological insti- 
 tute and an anatomical hall. In 1844 he contributed the seventh 
 volume to the new edition of Sommerring's work on the 
 Anatomy of Man. It is entitled ' Entwickelungsgeschichte der 
 Saugethiere und der Menschen,' and is a complete digest of what 
 was known at the time respecting the growth and changes of 
 structure undergone by the egg and embryo in the mammalian 
 class. This work exemplifies his power of reading and digesting 
 large masses of literature, and his skill as a reporter is further 
 shown by the series of reports, which he drew up for Midler's 
 'Archiv,' on the progress of physiology, during the years 
 1839 to 1846, both inclusive. In 1850 he was a witness in the 
 celebrated Gorlitz law case, in which eminent physiologists took 
 up positions both for and against the possibility of death arising 
 from spontaneous combustion of the body. Siebold was a pro- 
 minent defender, and Bischoff a conspicuous opponent, of the 
 hypothesis of spontaneous combustion. His fame, by this time 
 
245 
 
 had so spread that many universities had asked him to join 
 their professorial staff, but he declined all such offers until 
 in 1854 he was induced to accept the chair of human anatomy 
 and physiology at Munich. Many papers and separate publica- 
 tions have been written by him in addition to those already 
 noticed ; a full list of the papers up to 1863 will be found in 
 the Eoyal Society's ' Catalogue of Scientific Papers ; ' and we 
 add here his principal productions since that date. In the 
 1 Sitzungsberichte ' of the Bavarian Academy of Science for 
 1865 occur — ' Ueber das Vorkommen eines eigenthiimlichen 
 Blut und Hsematoidin enthalten den Beutels an der Placenta 
 der Fischotter (Lutra vulgaris) ;' and 'Ueber die Ei-und Placenta- 
 Bildung des Stein-und Edel-marders, Mustela foina und martcs, 
 und des Wiesels, Mustela vulgaris.' In 1867 appeared a work 
 on the influence of recruiting in modifying the development and 
 stature of peoples, and his memoir, ' Ueber die Verscheidenheit 
 in der Schiidel-bildung des Gorilla, Chimpanse und Orang- 
 outang, vorziiglich nach Geschlecht und Alter, nebst einer 
 Bemerkung ueber die Darwinische Theorie,' which is an im- 
 portant work on the skulls of the apes mentioned. It is fully 
 illustrated and contains a chapter on the Darwinian theory, 
 in which he comes to conclusions opposed to the hypothesis 
 of the descent of man from any of them. In 1868 it was 
 followed by another memoir, which may be regarded as the 
 complement to that of 1867 ; it is entitled ' Die Grosshirn 
 Windungen des Menschen mit Beriicksichtigung ihrer Entwicke- 
 lung bei den Foetus und ihrer Anordnung bei dem Affen.' In 
 this year he also published some new observations on the deve- 
 lopment of the Guinea-pig. 
 
 As regards our knowledge of the mammalian egg, Bischoff 
 takes a prominent place among those who established and more 
 fully developed the general facts which had been announced by 
 the pioneers in this line of discovery, viz., Purkinje, Wagner, 
 Baer, Coste, Wharton Jones, and a few others. 
 
 BISHOP, GEORGE, F.R.S., a munificent encourager of 
 astronomical science, was bom in 1784. His occupation was 
 that of a manufacturer of sweets, or British wines, but his 
 favourite subject of study was astronomy. When, in 1836, he took 
 up his abode at South Bank, Regent's Park, he built a well- 
 designed observatory, and stocked it with the best instruments. 
 This observatory acquired a European rejmtation, on account of 
 the important discoveries made there. The first regular ob- 
 server was the Rev. W. R. Dawes, who took charge of the instru- 
 ments in 1839. To him succeeded Mr. Hind, in 1844. In the 
 hands of this accomplished observer, no fewer than ten plane- 
 toids, or minor planets, were discovered by the great telescope 
 at Mr. Bishop's observatory ; the first being Isis, discovered 
 on the 13th of August, 1847. Mr. Marth, at the same place, 
 | discovered an eleventh planetoid, Amphitrite, on the 1st of 
 March, 1855. Three comets were also discovered there. Not 
 only were the instruments of high character, but the system of 
 exploring adopted was very complete. Mr. Bishop was succes- 
 sively secretary, treasurer, and president of the Astronomical 
 Society, in the management of which lie took an active part for 
 twenty-five years. He was also a member of the council of Uni- 
 versity College, and a fellow of the Royal Society. Mr. Bishop 
 published a splendid volume, containing Mr. Dawes's valuable 
 catalogue of measures of double stars ; and at his expense was 
 also prepared a series of charts of telescopic stars situated near 
 the Ecliptic, which were guides to the discovery of the planetoids 
 Iris, Flora, Victoria, Irene, Melpomene, Fortuna, Calliope, 
 Thalia, Euterpe, Urania, and Amphitrite, by Mr. Hind and Mr. 
 Marth. Mr. Bishop died on the 14th of June, 1861. Since his 
 
 I death, the instruments have been removed to Meadow Bank, 
 Twickenham, where Mr. Bishop, jun., has built a larger observatory 
 for them. The Equatorial, by Dollond, is 7 inches aperture, 
 10| feet focal length ; the altitude and azimuth instrument is by 
 Troughton. 
 
 * BISMARCK-SCHONH AUSEN, OTTO EDWARD LEO- 
 POLD, GRAF VON, Minister- President of Prussia, and Chan- 
 cellor of the North German Confederation, was born on the 1st 
 of April, 1815, at Schonhausen, the ancestral estate of his family, 
 in the Alt Mark. But the scene of his earliest years was Kniephof, 
 in Pomerania, a knightly estate, to which, with two others, his 
 parents succeeded on the death of a cousin in 1816. About 
 Easter, 1821, he entered the school of Professor Plamann, 
 at Berlin, where he remained till 1827, when he left it to pursue 
 his more classical studies at the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium. 
 He migrated in 1830 to the Graue Kloster Gymnasium, for the 
 advantage of being an inmate of the house of Professor Prevost, 
 from whom, after a year, he passed to Dr. Bonnell. With the 
 
 last-named he continued until, at Easter, 1832, he quitted the 
 Kloster, after his examination, to study law, to which he devoted 
 himself with irregular assiduity, at the universities, first of Gbt- 
 tingen, and afterwards, in the autumn of 1833, of Berlin. 
 About Easter, 1835, he was sworn in as Auscultator, or Examiner, 
 in a magistrate's court at Berlin ; but, in 1836, left the depart- 
 ment of Justice for that of Administration, in which, as a future 
 diplomatist, it was necessary for him to serve. He accordingly 
 went to Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to the Crown Court, from 
 which, in the autumn of 1837, he found it expedient to be 
 transferred to the Crown-office at Potsdam. In 1838 he entered 
 the Jager Guard, to fulfil his military duties ; and, in the same 
 year, exchanged into the second battalion of Jagers, at Greifs- 
 wald, hoping to attend the lectures of the Agricultural Academy 
 of Eldena. In the summer of 1839 he entered, jointly with his 
 elder brother Bernhard, on the management of the paternal 
 estates in Pomerania, which were in a very critical condition, 
 and which were granted to them by their father, as the only 
 way in which they could be preserved. In 1841 a division 
 of the estates took place in such a manner that Bernhard von 
 Bismarck retained Kiilz, whilst Otto received Kniephof and 
 Jarchelin. The latter now succeeded his brother as Landrath of 
 the circle of Naugard, and was chosen representative in the Pro- 
 vincial Pomeranian Diet, the unimportant functions of which, 
 however, he impatiently resigned. His life at Kniephof oscil- 
 lated between political discussions, studies in history, philo- 
 sophy, and theology, and eccentricity and dissipation of such a 
 nature as to win for him from the sedater society of Pomerania 
 the sobriquet of "Mad Bismarck." About this time he visited 
 France and England, of the languages of which he had a com- 
 petent knowledge ; and upon his return resumed the position of 
 Referendarius under the Crown at Potsdam. After the death 
 of the elder Bismarck, in November, 1845, the sons so divided 
 the property that the elder retained Kiilz and received Jar- 
 chelin, whilst the younger retained Kniephof and added to it 
 Schonhausen. Thereupon, Otto von Bismarck fixed his resi- 
 dence at Schonhausen, became Dyke Captain there, and after- 
 wards Knights' Deputy in the circle of Jerichow in the Saxon 
 Provincial Diet at Merseburg. In that capacity he attended the 
 first meeting of the United Diets in 1847, on which occasion he 
 first attracted the notice of the public to himself in more 
 extended circles. But before his life becomes more exclusively 
 political, it may be mentioned that, on the 28th of July, 1847, 
 he married Johanna, only daughter of Herr von Putkammer, of 
 Kartlum, and the Lady Luitgarde, born Von Glasenapp of Ren- 
 feld. On his wedding tour, Bismarck accidentally met his king, 
 Friedrich Wilhelm IV., at Venice, a circumstance which laid 
 the foundation for the favour with which he was always re- 
 garded by that monarch. His marriage has been blessed with 
 three children, a daughter and two sons, born respectively in 
 
 1848, at Schonhausen ; in 1849, at Berlin ; and in 1852, at 
 Frankfurt-on-the-Main. At the first United Diet, which met, 
 in 1847, in the White Saloon of the Royal Palace at Colln-on- 
 the-Spree, Bismarck was impressed with the idea that liberalism 
 might endanger the throne of his feudal lord, the Margrave of 
 Brandenburg, the King of Prussia ; and he indulged in bold 
 and unpopular speeches in favour of the royal prerogatives. It 
 is imputed to him that he expressed an opinion that all great 
 cities should be levelled with the ground, as being centres of 
 democracy and constitutionalism. When the first news arrived 
 of the Revolution of February in Paris, Bismarck knew that the 
 signal for a struggle with the Prussian monarchy had there been 
 given ; but he neither modified the theories to which he had 
 given utterance, nor abated his preparations for resistance. 
 Against the democratic precipitation of the Second United Diet, 
 which held its first session on the 2nd of April, 1848, he found 
 himself powerless for the moment to do much more than protest. 
 Yet he went on in such a course of action as he found practicable, 
 holding conferences, instituting clubs and patriotic societies, and 
 founding or furthering such journals as the 'New Prussian 
 Gazette ' and the ' New Prussian Sunday News.' During that 
 summer, so fraught with weighty events, Bismarck was often 
 called to Sans Souci, and the king took his advice in many 
 affairs of importance. After the publication of the December 
 constitution of 1848, he was, in the same month, elected in 
 Brandenburg the representative of West-Havidland, as a mem- 
 ber of the Second Chamber ; and was among the first members 
 to repair to the opening of the Diet, on the 26th of February, 
 
 1849. In 1849 —51 Bismarck occupied a position in the Diet as 
 one of the chief leaders of the conservative party against the de- 
 mocratic ; and he entered into the strife with ardour, defending 
 
 Jl 2 
 
247 BISMARCK-SCHONHAUSEN, OTTO E. L. 
 
 BISMARCK-SCHONHAUSEN, OTTO E. L. 218 
 
 at every point of attack, whether at Berlin or at Erfurt, the 
 threatened sovereignty of Prussia. 
 
 " Our watchword," he wrote, in an album of Dr. Stahl's, at 
 Erfurt, 24th April, 1850, " our watchword, therefore, is not 'a 
 united state at any price/ but ' the independence of the Prussian 
 crown at every price.' " In May, 1851, Bismarck wasappointed to 
 the post of First Secretary of the embassy to the Diet of Frank- 
 furt, with the title of privy councillor ; and on the 18th of 
 August following, received the rank of ambassador. The duties 
 of this position were, at this time, exceptionally difficult, as the 
 circumstances of Prussia were exceptionally critical. Bismarck 
 expressed the conviction that Austria would strive to retain 
 Prussia in such a state of humiliation as would end in the final 
 destruction of Germany ; and in spite of his traditionary incli- 
 nation to the Austrian alliance, lie resolved upon opposition. Not- 
 withstanding the antagonism which arose from his claims to 
 achieve for Prussia an equality with Austria at the Diet, Bis- 
 marck lived on terms of greater or less friendship and intimacy 
 with a series of three Austrian ambassadors who were his con- 
 temporaries at Frankfurt, a circumstance in great part owing to 
 the fact that in his federal policy he went hand in hand with 
 them. In May, 1852, he was intrusted with an important 
 mission to Vienna, on which occasion he followed the imperial 
 court into Hungary ; and in the summer of the following year, 
 fulfilled other missions in various parts of Europe. During fche 
 summer of 1855, he visited the Exhibition at Paris, and was intro- 
 duced to the Emperor of the French, with whom, on a subsequent 
 visit to Paris in 1857, he had his first special political conference. 
 He was recalled from his Frankfurt mission in 1859, and sent as 
 Prussian ambassador to the court of St. Petersburg, to which he 
 was accredited on the 1st of April. Here, amongst his other 
 duties, he endeavoured to further the plans he had conceived at 
 Frankfurt, of an alliance between Russia, France, and Prussia, 
 for the purpose of securing to Prussia supremacy in Germany, in 
 the interests of German unity. His residence at St. Petersburg, 
 varied by several absences to different parts of Russia and Ger- 
 many, extended to 1S62, by which time he had gained the 
 esteem and confidence of the Czar, who conferred on him the 
 order of St. Alexander Newski. On the 23rd of May of this 
 year, he was appointed ambassador to Paris, and delivered his 
 credentials to the Emperor, on the 1st of June ; at the end of 
 which month he took a short trip to the Exhibition in London, 
 returning to Paris on the 5th of July. His mission to France 
 commenced with the best of omens, but it was of short con- 
 tinuance ; for, whilst enjoying an excursion to the Pyrenees, he 
 was summoned by telegraph to Berlin, where he arrived, in 
 September, 1S62, to undertake, in extremely critical circum- 
 stances, the Premiership and the Ministry of Foreign affairs. 
 It was to be his task to uphold the kingdom of Prussia against 
 the parliamentary spirit, and to accomplish the new organization 
 of the army, on which the future of Prussia and of Germany 
 depended. But he could not overcome the resistance of the 
 Chamber of Deputies to the re-organization of the army, which 
 they opposed as tending to weaken the landwehr, and to 
 strengthen the army, the representative of reaction. On the 
 29th of September, 1862, he announced the withdrawal of the 
 budget for 1863, " because the government considered it their 
 duty not to allow the obstacles towards a settlement to increase 
 in volume." He then announced his purpose and his aims, as 
 clearly as he dared, and concluded with the expression that 
 " Prussia must hold her power together for the favourable oppor- 
 tunity, which had already been sometimes neglected ; the fron- 
 tiers of Prussia were not favourable to a good state constitution. 
 The great questions of the day were not to be decided by 
 speeches and majorities, — this had been the error of 1848 and 
 1849— but by iron and blood ! " The Chamber responded by 
 arriving at a resolution on the 7th of October, by which all 
 expenditure was declared unconstitutional if declined by the 
 national representatives ; and having thus proved itself hope- 
 lessly impracticable for Bismarck's purposes, the session of the 
 Diet was closed, on the 13th of October, by a royal message. Im- 
 mediately after assuming the Ministry, in December, 1862, Bis- 
 marck opened negociations with Austria, with whom he was 
 prepared to enter into coalition, if she could decide upon the 
 dismissal of that enemy of Prussian policy, Schwarzenberg, and 
 give Prussia her proper position in Germany. He expressed his 
 convictions to Count Karolyi, that the relations of Prussia to 
 Austria " must unavoidably change for the better or the worse ; " 
 and repeated that it would be for the advantage of Austria her- 
 self, to allow to Prussia such a position in the Germanic Con- 
 federation, as would render it consonant with the interest of 
 
 Prussia to throw all her strength into the common cause. But 
 the overtures of Bismarck, as recapitulated in his famous circular 
 despatch of the 24th of January, 1863, were of little or no avail. 
 To this period belongs the conclusion of the Prusso-Russian 
 treaty, on the common measures to be pursued for the suppres- 
 sion of the Polish insurrection. This convention, by which the 
 friendly relations of Prussia and Russia were confirmed, has, 
 according to the complaints of Bismarck's apologists, been 
 frequently misinterpreted ; and it excited so much indignation i 
 in London and Paris, that it was at least formally abandoned. 
 
 At a moment when war seemed imminent between Prussia 
 and Austria, the world was startled at seeing them ally them- 
 selves for the purpose of an aggressive war against Denmark, 
 for the recovery to Germany of Schleswig and Holstein ; and 
 the victorious standard of Prussia was planted on the walls of 
 Diippel in April, 1864. On the occasion of a visit which Bis- 
 marck now paid to Vienna, he was received with great distinc- 
 tion by the Emperor Franz Joseph, from whom he received the 
 Order of St. Stephen ; whilst by his own sovereign he was 
 invested with the Order of the Black Eagle. In the summer of 
 1865, when it has been assumed that Bismarck already believed 
 that the hour of the great conflict between Prussia and Austria 
 had arrived, the treaty of Gastein was concluded, August 14th, 
 which divided the co-domination of Prussia and Austria in Hol- 
 stein and Schleswig. On the 13th of September, 1865, Bis- 
 marck was raised to the rank of a Prussian Count ; and before 
 the year was at an end, had become firmly convinced that 
 Austria had returned to the central state policy, the advocate of 
 which was the Freiherr von Beust. On the 7th of May, 1866, 
 Count Bismarck, who was abroad for the first time after a severe 
 illness, escaped from a determined attempt at assassination, 
 made in open day (five o'clock p.m.), in the centre allee of the 
 Unter den Linden, at Berlin. The preparations for war were 
 complete, and aided by an alliance with Italy, the Prussian 
 columns set out for that sharp, short struggle, which is still in 
 the memory of Europe and the world. On the 18th of June, P 
 Prussia formally declared war against Austria ; on the 29th 
 the first news of victory arrived at Berlin; on the 30th, , 
 Bismarck left the capital, in the suite of the king, for the seat of 
 war ; and on the 3rd of July, the Austrians sustained the J 
 decisive defeat of Sadowa. In the final clays of July, the ( 
 preliminaries were settled at Count Mensdorlf's castle of Ni- I 
 colsburg, resulting in the peace of Prague, which was pro- 
 bably facilitated by the attitude assumed by the Emperor 
 Napoleon, who, in his sj^eech to the French Chambers, declared 
 that lie had arrested the conqueror at the gates of Vienna. On 
 the 4th of August, Bismarck returned with the king to Berlin ; 
 and on the next day came the solemn opening of the Diet, j 
 Peace treaties with individual states now occupied the Minister- 
 President, together with the consolidation of the conquered <| 
 provinces, and the formation of that North German Confedera- 
 tion, of which he was appointed Chancellor, on the 14th of July, 
 1867. In this year, one of the principal things which drew j| 
 attention to Bismarck, was the question of Luxembourg, and 
 war with France was avoided by a declaration of its neutrality. 
 Since that time, Count Bismarck has been occupied in develop- 
 ing the Prussian system, retiring occasionally for rest and health 
 to his estates in Pomerania. He is tall and athletic, given to 
 field sports, and fully accepting, at intervals, the duties and 
 position of a country gentleman. His countenance is animated, 
 his head large, his forehead capacious, his mouth firm and reso- 
 lute, and his bearing and conversation those of a soldier. He is 
 fair and somewhat bald, and his brilliant and singularly restless 
 eyes rather take from the otherwise thoroughly German character 
 of his features. " Count Bismarck," says Herr L. Bamberger, 
 author of a work entitled ' Monsieur de Bismarck,' Paris, 1868 ; 
 ' Graf von Bismarck,' Breslau ; ' Count Bismarck,' London, 1869; 
 " Count Bismarck is certainly no orator in the usual sense of the 
 word. In the year 1866, one of his admirers, who had attended 
 a sitting of the reichstag, drew his portrait in the following 
 terms : ' No oratorical ornamentation, no choice of words, 
 nothing which carries the audience away. His voice, although 
 clear and audible, is dry and unsympathetic, the tone monoto- 
 nous ; he interrupts himself and stops frequently ; sometimes 
 even he stutters, as if his recalcitrant tongue refused obedience, 
 and as if he had difficulty in finding words in which to express 
 his thoughts. His uneasy movements, somewhat lolling and 
 negligent, in no wise aid the effect of his delivery. Still, the 
 longer he speaks, the more he overcomes these defects ; he 
 attains more precision of expression, and often ends with a well- 
 delivereclj vigorous— spmqtimesj ^ s every que is aware, tQQ 
 
?49 BISSEN, HERMANN WILHELM. 
 
 vigorous — peroration.' " Interesting particulars of his manners, 
 appearance, and conversation, have also been given by M. Ville- 
 bort, in a recent work entitled 'L'CEuvre de M. Bismarck, 1863 
 — 1866,' and in a longer life by Herr J. G. L. Hesekiel, ' Das 
 Buch des Grafen Bismarck,' translated, with an introduction, 
 explanatory notes, and appendices, by Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie, 
 with the title of ' The Life of Count Bismarck, Private and 
 Political, with descriptive notes of his Ancestry,' 8vo, London, 
 1870. Count Bismarck received the Grand Cross of the Legion 
 of Honour, in 1862, and, in 1S66, was appointed by his own 
 sovereign Major-General and Chief of the Seventh Heavy Land- 
 wehr Regiment of Horse. 
 
 BISSEN, HERMANN WILHELM, a distinguished Danish 
 sculptor, was born in the neighbourhood of Schleswig, on the 
 13th of October, 1798. Having studied art in the academy at 
 Copenhagen, he went in 1815 to Rome, where he remained ten 
 years, working under the direction of Thorwaldsen. Returning 
 to Denmark, he received a commission to carve four statues of 
 angels for the Chapel Royal at Christiansborg ; was much em- 
 ployed on portrait- busts, that of Oersted being regarded as the most 
 successful, and he also executed some classicalstatues, among others 
 a ' Cephalus with a hound/ and an ' Atalanta,' which were much 
 admired. In 1840 he was appointed professor in the Copenhagen 
 Academy, and the next year proceeded to Rome to prepare the 
 designs of a series of 18 colossal statues, from the Greek and 
 Norse mythologies, for the decoration of the royal palace. 
 Whilst at Rome he occupied himself also in executing some statues 
 of Venus, Cupid, and other classical divinities. On his return 
 to Copenhagen, Bissen executed for the palace an immense frieze 
 representing the classical version of the Creation, and statues of 
 Apollo and Minerva for the great hall of the University. His 
 later works include a colossal statue of a Danish soldier, for the 
 national monument commemorating the success at Flensburg ; a 
 statue of Tycho Brahe for the University Observatory ; 
 classical statues of Achilles, Orestes, Flora, &c, and many 
 busts, among them one of Garibaldi. At his death Thorwaldsen 
 bequeathed to Bissen the duty of completing his unfinished 
 works. Bissen was elected President of the Copenhagen 
 Academy in 1850, and received the appointment of Director of 
 the Museum. He died at Copenhagen on the 10th of March, 
 1868. By his countrymen he is ranked as their next greatest 
 sculptor to Thorwaldsen, but he had less natural genius, whilst 
 he suffered from the same pseudo-classical propensity. 
 
 BISSOLO, PIER FRANCESCO, a celebrated "Venetian 
 painter, was a scholar of Giovanni Bellini, whose manner he 
 imitated. Nothing certain is known of his life. He painted 
 between 1500 and 1530. Lanzi refers to his altar-pieces at 
 Murano and in the cathedral of Trevigi as among his distinctive 
 works. The former, perhaps his finest production, is now in 
 the Academy of Venice — 'Christ exchanging St. Catherine of 
 Siena's Crown of Thorns for a Crown of Gold.' His easel- 
 pictures, which are rarely met with, are usually small, and 
 remarkable for their fine colour, delicacy of expression, and 
 refinement of execution, rather than for original power. In the 
 National Gallery is a very sweetly painted ' Portrait of a Lady ' 
 (No. 631) by him. 
 
 * BIXIO, JACQUES-ALEXANDRE, French politician, 
 man of science, and writer, was born at Chiavari, department of 
 the Apennines, on the 20th of November, 1808. On completing 
 his collegiate course at Sainte Barbe in 1830, he commenced 
 the study of medicine, and in due course received the degree of 
 M.D. Since then his life may be divided into three periods of 
 very different length, but in each of which he has effected some- 
 thing of service to his country. In the years preceding the 
 revolution of 1848 M. Bixio was known chiefly by his connection 
 with literature. With M. Buloz he assisted in founding the 
 ' Revue des Deux-Mondes ; ' in 1837 he founded the ' Journal 
 d'Agriculture pratique/ and continued to direct it till 1848 ; 
 aided by M. Ysabeau, he published in 1844 ' La Maison Rustique 
 du dix-neuvieme siecle/ still regarded throughout Fiance as one 
 of the safest manuals of agriculture and horticulture ; and in 
 1844 and following years he established the ' Annuaire de l'hor- 
 ticulteur/ ' Ahnanach du Jardinier, and ' Almanach du Cultiva- 
 tes et du Vigneron.' 
 
 Though taking as yet no prominent public part in political 
 matters, M. Bixio was among those who were watching with 
 intense interest the development of events. A strong democrat, 
 one of the editors of the ' National/ and intimately connected 
 with the leading journalists, M. Bixio came to the front when 
 the opposition to Louis Philippe assumed the character of a 
 revolution. He was president of the committee of the electors 
 
 of the 10th arrondissement ; declared at first for a regency, 
 and at the meeting of the 24th of February urgently opposed the 
 publication of the decree which proclaimed the republic. But 
 the republic being proclaimed, M. Bixio cast in his lot with it, 
 and accepted the post of chief of the cabinet under the Provi- 
 sional Government. Shortly after he was selected to represent 
 France at the court of Turin. Elected representative of the 
 dupartement du Doubs,he resigned his diplomatic functions, but 
 only reached Paris in time to witness the disorders in the capital 
 which culminated in the terrible scenes of the 24th of June. On 
 the evening ol that day, when General Bedeau fell wounded in 
 the Rue St. Jacques, Bixio, who was by him, charged with a 
 message from the Assembly, attempted to rally the soldiers, but 
 was shot in the chest. On his recovery M. Bixio was received 
 with enthusiasm by his legislative colleagues, and immediately 
 elected Vice-president of the Assembly— an election several 
 times renewed. When Prince Louis Napoleon was chosen Pre- 
 sident of the Republic, he appointed M. Bixio Minister of Agri- 
 culture and Commerce in his first cabinet (December 20, 1848), 
 but eight days later Bixio resigned. In the discussions of the 
 Legislative Assembly he, however, continued to take an active 
 share. A moderate Liberal, the freedom with which he criticized 
 their speeches and manners offended both parties, and some re- 
 marks which were construed as personal led to a duel with 
 Thiers. On the evening of the coup d'etat M. Bixio was 
 arrested, but after a month's captivity he was set at liberty. 
 
 He now retired into private life and to his scientific pursuits. 
 With M. Barral he has made some remarkable aeronautic ascents, 
 ample accounts of which have been published. He is proprietor 
 and conductor of important agricultural publications, and direc- 
 tor of various railway and other industrial enterprises. Separated 
 from politics, his position is one of much influence, and person- 
 ally he is very generally esteemed. 
 
 * BJORNSON, BJORNSTJERNE, a popular Norwegian 
 poet and novelist, was born on the 8th of December, 1832, at 
 Kvikne, a lonely parish in the heart of Norway, of which his 
 father was pastor. He was educated at Romsclal, to which 
 district his father had been removed, and in 1852 proceeded to 
 the University of Christiania. A visit to the theatre incited 
 him to write a play, though he had never read one. It was 
 offered at the theatre and accepted, but never acted. After 
 wasting some time and raising some enmity, by writing a series 
 of sharp theatrical and literary criticisms, for which he was as yet 
 wholly unqualified, he went to Copenhagen, and there printed 
 the first of his Norwegian tales. They were well received in 
 Copenhagen, and soon became popular throughout Denmark, 
 but his countrymen were slow to admit their merit. Bjornson, 
 however, kept on his way. For two years he was manager of a 
 theatre at Bergen ; then he founded a semi-political journal in 
 Christiania ; visited Rome, where he wrote his drama of Sigurd, 
 and dreamed of regenerating the Norwegian stage, and founding 
 a national drama. Later he was at Hamburg, and then returned 
 to Copenhagen. 
 
 Bjornson's writings are eminently individual, yet thoroughly 
 imbued with Norwegian character and spirit. His poems, mostly 
 short lyrical pieces, are few in number, simple in texture, but 
 singularly sweet, strange, and powerful. With the exception of 
 a few short religious and patriotic pieces, they are mostly based 
 on some Norse legend or old Norwegian ballad or tradition ; 
 wild, weird, mystical, dreamy, sombre, often melancholy, but 
 always musical. His most recent poem is ' The Song of the 
 Wiking.' His stories are generally little idylls of ordinary Nor- 
 wegian peasant life, whence he has been called the Norwegian 
 Auerbach. The chief are ' Arne/ the hero of which is a solitary 
 youthful mountaineer, grave of manner, a dreamer, and uncon- 
 sciously to himself a poet; ' The Fisherman's Daughter;' ' The 
 Cheerful Companion ;' and ' Synnove Solbakken/ by many 
 esteemed the happiest picture yet sketched of Norwegian country 
 life and manners. A German translation of these was published 
 at Berlin, in 3 vols. 8vo, 1861 — 62, under the title of 'Aus 
 Norwegens Hochlanden,' from the Norwegian Highlands. 
 Bjornson's dramas, all intensely national in character, and 
 founded on Norwegian sagas, are: — ' Halte Hulda,' 1858 ; ' Kong 
 Sverre/ and ' Sigurd Slembe/ 1S63. 
 
 BJORNSTERNA, MAGNUS FRIEDRICH FERDINAND, 
 COUNT, a distinguished Swedish statesman and writer, was 
 born on the 10th of October, 1770, at Dresden, where his father 
 was secretary of the Swedisli legation. Till the age of 14 he 
 remained in Germany; he was then taken to Sw r eden, entered 
 the army, served in the war in Finland, when he attained the 
 rank of major ; and in 1809 was charged with a mission to 
 
251 
 
 BLACKWELL, GEORGE. 
 
 252 
 
 Napoleon immediately before the battle of Eehmiihl. In 1812 
 be negotiated in London the sale of Guadeloupe ; the next year 
 served with the Swedish army in Germany ; was wounded at 
 Dessau, but fought at Leipzig ; concluded with Lallemand the 
 surrender of Lubcck and of Mastricht ; was with the Swedish 
 army in Norway, and settled with Prince < 'hri-liuu Frederick of 
 Denmark the Convention of Moss, which terminated the war 
 between Sweden and Norway. He had now secured the confi- 
 dence of his sovereign, who had formed a high estimate of his 
 tact and ability. He was treated adjutant-general in 1820 and 
 count in 182(i, and in 182>> he was sent a> minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to the court of Great Britain. This post he held with 
 great credit to himself and his country till 1846, when he 
 returned to Stockholm, where he died on the 6th of October, 
 1847. Count Bjornsterna wrote several works, the general 
 tendency of which was to ameliorate the political institutions 
 and improve the financial policy of his country, as well as others 
 of more general interest. Among the more important of the 
 latter class were — 'Hindu Theology, Philosophy, and Cosmogony,' 
 published both in Swedish and German, Stockholm, 1843 ; and 
 ' Anteckningar,' 2 vols., Stockholm, 1851, a work of historical 
 value as containing his notes and observations on the Napoleonic 
 war. 
 
 * BLACK IE, JOHN STUART, Professor of Greek in the 
 University of Edinburgh, and the son of Alexander Blackie, Esq., 
 a banker in Aberdeen, was born at Glasgow in July, 1809, anil 
 educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He afterwards had the 
 advantage of a two years' sojourn abroad, in the course of which 
 he resided successively at Gottingen, Berlin, and Rome, and de- 
 voted himself to the study of Cerman, Italian, and classical 
 philology. In 1834 he became a member of the Scottish bar ; 
 and in the course of the same year published Goethe's ' Faust : 
 a Tragedy. Translated into English verse, with notes, and pre- 
 liminary remarks.' In 1841 he was appointed to the chair of 
 the Latin Language and Literature in Marischal College, Aber- 
 deen, and fulfilled the duties of this office for eleven years, 
 during which his activity was great and varied. In 1843 he 
 published a treatise ' On Subscription to Articles of Faith : a 
 plea for the liberties of the Scottish Universities ; ' and was 
 otherwise closely connected with the movement which resulted 
 in the abolition of the Test Act, which required the professors 
 of the Scottish Universities to be members of the Established 
 Church. He likewise took up a very decided position, both 
 with tongue and pen, in the agitation for university reform in 
 Scotland, which led, in 1858, to the appointment of a Parlia- 
 mentary Commission, by which some important changes were 
 effected in the higher branches of education in that country. 
 Professor Blackie declared himself as a defender of Scottish 
 nationality ; and was a frequent contributor of articles, chieliy 
 in German and classical literature, to various Encyclopaedias, 
 reviews, and magazines. In 1850 he published ' The Lyrical 
 Dramas of iEschylus ; translated into English verse,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, London ; in 1S52 produced a Philological Inquiry into 
 'The Pronunciation of Greek: Accent and Quantity;' and 
 in the course of the same year was appointed Professor of 
 Greek in the University of Edinburgh. In 1853 he travelled 
 in Greece, and on his return home warmly advocated the study 
 of modern Greek. Professor Blackie continues to vary the 
 discharge of his professorial functions by authorship, and by 
 lectures and discussions on questions in politics, philology, and 
 education. His principal works, in addition to those already 
 enumerated, are ' A Discourse on Beauty : with an Exposition 
 of the Theory of Beauty according to Plato appended,' 8vo, 
 1858 ; ' Lays and Legends of Ancient Greece, with other 
 Poems,' 8vo, 1857 ; 'Lyrical Poems,' 8vo, 1860 ; and a work in 
 four volumes on ' Homer and the Iliad,' 1866, of which the first 
 two are occupied with a translation of the Iliad in ballad measure; 
 a third with Critical Dissertations, and a fourth with notes Philo- 
 logical and Archaeological. The work is the result of twelve years 
 of Homeric study, and is a valuable contribution to Homeric 
 litci'tit/iirc. 
 
 BLACKWELL, GEORGE, an English divine of the Romish 
 Church, was born in 1545, in Middlesex, and on the 27th of 
 May, 1562, was entered a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, of 
 which, in 1565, when B.A., he became a probationer. The next 
 year he became an actual fellow ; and on the 21st of April, 
 1567, was admitted to the M.A. degree. He was, however, 
 already becoming inclined to the Church of Rome, and vacating 
 his fellowship, he retired for a time, first to Gloucester Hall, 
 now Worcester College — a house which was under suspicion of 
 sympathy with the old religion, and several of whose sojourners 
 
 privately belonged to that communion — and afterwards, in 1574, 
 to Douay. In 1575 he received priest's orders ; and resided for 
 some time at Rome, where by his learning and good conduct 
 he conciliated the friendship of Cardinal Bellarmine, Father 
 Parsons, and other eminent persons. In 1576 lie returned to 
 England as a missioner, and from this time his history becomes 
 blended with the general history of the country. 
 
 Shortly after the accession of Queen Elizabeth, ten of the dioceses 
 had become vacant by death, so that there were only sixteen 
 bishops remaining in the Church. Of these, Kitchin of Llandaff 
 was the only one who acknowledged the Queen's supremacy ; the 
 other fifteen refused to take the oath, and were deprived. All 
 quietly submitted to the sentence passed upon them, and took 
 no steps to continue their succession, which therefore ended, so 
 far as they were concerned, with Watson, the deprived Bishop 
 of Lincoln, who died in Wisbeach Castle, in September, 1584. 
 Even with Watson's death, the want of a Romish Episcopacy 
 was not greatly felt. William Allen, or Allan, made. Cardinal 
 in 1587, was considered as the Cardinal of England ; and being 
 resident in the Low Countries, where he had founded the 
 famous College or Seminary of Douay, he was sufficiently 
 within reach of any appeal from his native country. But after 
 his death, October 6th, 1594, the English Romanists found 
 themselves entirely without a leader ; and their secular clergy 
 unanimously resolved to present a supplication to Pope 
 Clement VIII., praying him for a restoration of an ecclesiastical 
 hierarchy in the government of bishops, " which bishops should 
 be elected by the common consent of the clergy, and appointed 
 by them to different districts." This took place about the year 
 1597. Meanwhile before the supplication could be presented, 
 Father Parsons, the Jesuit, fearing a loss to the influence of his 
 order, whose constitutions exclude its members from the mitre, 
 if an Episcopal jurisdiction were set up in England, intrigued 
 so successfully as to obtain the papal nomination of Blackwell 
 to the otlice of Archpriest and Superior of the Clergy in 
 England. Cardinal Cajetan, " Anglioe Protector," " Protector of 
 the English nation at Rome,'' accordingly sent letters to Black- 
 well, dated March 7th, 1598, investing him with this office and 
 authority ; privately forbidding him, however, with the twelve 
 a>sistants*who were allowed him, from determining any matter 
 of importance without advising with Garnet, the Superior of 
 the Jesuits, and some others of the order. When the new 
 Archpriest entered upon his functions, a violent spirit of resis- 
 tance to him arose amongst the secular priests, who looked upon 
 him as a mere creature of the Jesuits, and who objected to his 
 credentials, as bearing the authority of an individual Cardinal 
 only, and as having been procured by misrepresentation. The 
 malcontent clergy, quickened into opposition by the intem- 
 perance of Blackwell's proceedings, determined upon an appeal 
 to the Pope, and two of their body, Dr. Bishop and Mr. 
 Charnock, delegated by the rest, arrived at Rome about the 
 beginning of 1599. Here they were offensively received by 
 Cardinals Cajetan and Borghese, and, after several examinations, 
 were committed to prison, where they remained until a fortnight 
 after the issue of a brief, dated April 6th, 1599, in which the 
 Pope had confirmed whatever Cardinal Cajetan had enacted, 
 and sanctioned the appointment and the conduct of the Arch- 
 priest. This brief restored tranquillity for a season ; but the 
 clergy would not endure to have their concerns subjected to the 
 Jesuits, nor could they thus submit to the harsh conduct of the 
 Archpriest, who was wont to exert a power beyond the limits of 
 his commission. The result was another appeal to the Pope 
 against the oppression and maladministration of their Superior, 
 November 17th, 1600 ; which produced a brief, dated August 
 17th, 1601, and addressed to Blackwell and the Catholic clergy 
 and laity of England, containing forcible exhortations to peace 
 and charity. The clergy, however, found it necessary to make 
 a third appeal to Rome ; and this time with such success as to 
 procure the issue of a brief, October 5th, 1602, in which the 
 Archpriest was admonished to use his power discreetly, and not 
 exceed his commission. He was forbidden, also, in transacting 
 the duties of his charge, to communicate or treat with the 
 Provincial of the Jesuits, or any member of that society ; and 
 thus the instructions of the late Cardinal Protector about that 
 matter were cancelled. The brief proceeded to condemn all 
 books written against the Society, or against any persons of 
 either party, and closed with a suitable exhortation to brotherly 
 charity and unity. Thus was the contention terminated ; and 
 all the clergy were unanimous in their obedience to the Arch- 
 priest and Prothonotary Apostolical, so long as that economy 
 continued. 
 
253 
 
 BLACKWOOD, ADAM. 
 
 But Blackwell was afterwards more seriously embroiled with 
 the Holy See. In order to give the Eoman Catholics an 
 opportunity of displaying their loyalty after the Gunpowder 
 Plot, November 5th, 1605, an Oath of Allegiance was framed in 
 the following year, to which it was thought every Romanist 
 would cheerfully submit who did not believe that the Bishop of 
 Rome had power to depose kings and to give away their king- 
 doms. This oath was accordingly taken by many, both clergy 
 and laity, " and a ray of returning happiness gleamed around 
 them. But," says Mr. Barrington, " a cloud soon gathered on 
 the Seven Hills ; for it could not be that a test, the main 
 object of which was the rejection of the deposing power, 
 should not raise vapours there." The Pope at that time was 
 Paul V., the late Cardinal Borghese, to whom the Oath was 
 presented by Father Parsons. After deliberation the Pope 
 condemned the Oath in a brief addressed to the English 
 Romanists, " as containing many things obviously adverse to 
 faith and salvation." Blackwell had already argued in favour 
 of the Oath ; and even after a second papal brief re-asserting 
 its unlawfulness, he persisted in maintaining and defending the 
 opinion he had taken up. Blackwell was apprehended, not- 
 withstanding, on the 24th of June, 1607, apparently for corre- 
 sponding with Cardinal Bellarmine, without permission from 
 the Government. He was detained in close custody for twelve 
 days, during eight of which he underwent very rigorous ex- 
 aminations at Lambeth, before a board of commissioners. They 
 examined him at great length, and elicited from him a series of 
 judgments adverse to the political pretensions of Rome. The 
 particulars of this examination were immediately published, 
 under the following title : — ' The large Examination taken at 
 Lambeth, according to His Majesty's direction, point by point, 
 of Mr. George Blackwell, made Archpriest of England by 
 Clement VIII., upon occasion of an answer of his, without the 
 privity of the State, to a Letter lately sent to him by Cardinal 
 Bellarmine, blaming him for taking the Oath of Allegiance, 
 together with the Cardinal's Letter, and Mr. Blackwell's Letter 
 to the Catholics in England, as well ecclesiastical as lay. 
 Imprinted at London, by Robert Barker, printer to the King's 
 Most Excellent Majesty, 1607.' Not only did Blackwell take 
 the oath himself, but several of the clergy and laity of his 
 communion followed his example. Such conduct hi the Arch- 
 priest gave great umbrage at Rome ; and in 1608 Blackwell 
 was "eased of his dignity," in which he was succeeded by 
 George Birket, a clergyman of more pliant conscience and 
 conciliatory manners. Blackwell died suddenly on the 13th of 
 January, 1613. 
 
 His works comprise 'A Letter to Cardinal Cajetan, in favour 
 of the English Jesuits,' 1596 ; ' Answers at Sundry Examina- 
 tions while he was a Prisoner,' 4to, London, 1607 ; 'Letters 
 to the English Clergy, touching the Oath of Allegiance,' London, 
 1607 ; ' Epistolte ad Anglos Pontificios,' 4to, London, 1609 ; 
 ' Epistola; ad Cardinalem Bellarminum ; ' f Several Letters 
 concerning the Appealing Clergy,' 1600 ; ' An Answer to the 
 Censure of the Paris Divines, concerning his Jurisdiction,' 
 1600 ; and a ' Treatise against Lying and Dissimulation,' a 
 manuscript in the Bodleian Library, more truly ascribed to 
 Francis Tresham. Many works were published against Black- 
 well, chiefly by Dr. Bishop, Mr. Colleton, Mr. Watson, Dr. 
 Champney, and others of the clergy ; besides ' Quaestio bipartita 
 de Jurejurando contra Blackwellum,' 4to, London, 1609 ; ' Ex- 
 amination of George Blackwell,' 4to, London, 1607 ; and ' Hope 
 of Peace. A Treatise against Blackwell,' 4to, Franco!'., 1601, 
 by J. B. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, ADAM, a Scottish theologian and historian, 
 was born at Dunfermline in 1539. His education was conducted 
 at the Universities of Paris and Toulouse, at the latter of which 
 he especially applied himself to the study of civil law. Through 
 the influence ot Ids patron, James Beaton, the expatriated Arch- 
 bishop of Glasgow, with Queen Mary and her husband, the 
 Dauphin, Blackwood was chosen a member of the parliament of 
 Poitiers, and afterwards appointed to be professor of civil law at 
 that court. Poitiers was henceforth his constant residence, and 
 the scene of all his literary exertions, which took persistently 
 the direction of partisanship in favour of Queen Mary. He 
 died in 1623 ; and was splendidly interred in the church of St. 
 Porcharius, at Poitiers, where a marble monument was erected 
 to his memory, charged with a lung panegyrical epitaph. Black- 
 wood's works are ' Caroli IX., Pompa funebris Versibus Ex- 
 pressa,' Paris, 1574; 'De Vinculo sen Conjunctione Religionis et 
 Imperii, et de Conjuratorum Insidiis Religionis Fuco aduinbra- 
 tis, Libriduo,' 8vo, Paris, 1575; to which a third book was added 
 
 in 1612. The object of this work is to show the necessity under 
 which rulers are laid of preserving the true, that is, the Catholic, 
 religion, from the innovations of heretics, as all rebellions arise 
 from that source. His next work developed in a more perfect 
 manner the extreme monarchical and Romish principles of the 
 author. It was entitled ' Adversus Georgii Buchanani Dialogum 
 "de Jure Regni apud Scotos," pro Regibus Apologia,' 4to, 
 Poitiers, 1581, of which a second edition, " per auctorem recog- 
 nita, aucta, et emendata," appeared in 8vo, Paris, 1588. He next 
 published, in French, a work in which he calls upon all the 
 princes of Europe to avenge the death of his benefactress, 
 Queen Mary: — ' Martyre de Marie Stuart, Reine d'Ecosse, douariere 
 de France,' &c, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1587, and 8vo, Antwerp, 1588. 
 Blackwood's other works comprise his ' Sanctarum Precationum 
 prcemia, seu mavis Ejaculationes animse ad orandum,' &c, 8vo ; 
 Augustoritum Pictonum (Limoges), 1598, and 12mo, 1608; 
 'Jacobi I. M. Britannia?, seu Scot-Anglia? et Hibemiao Regis 
 Inauguratio,' 4to, Paris, 1606, &c; 'In Psalmum Davidis Quin- 
 quagesimum Meditatio,' 12mo, Aug. Pict. 1608. Blackwood's 
 works were published in a collected form under the following 
 title : — ' Adami Blackvodoei, in Curia Pictonum Presidis et 
 Consiliarii Regii, Opera Omnia,' 4to, Paris, 1644, edited, with a 
 life and eulogium of the author, by Gabriel Naude ; and his 
 ' History of Mary, Queen of Scots, a Fragment,' &c, 4to, 
 Glasgow, 1834, was published by the Maitland Club. 
 
 BLAIR, PATRICK, M.D., anatomist and botanist, practised 
 at Dundee. In 1706 an elephant that was exhibited in the place 
 died, and Blair took advantage of the circumstance to acquaint 
 himself with the anatomy of an animal at that time rare in Great 
 Britain. He sent his account to the Royal Society, and it was 
 published in the 27th and 30th vols, of the ' Transactions.' Blair 
 was a nonjuror, and a warm partisan of the Stuarts, which got 
 him into some trouble. He came to London, read several papers 
 before the Royal Society, and became a Fellow in 1712. His 
 paper on the ' Sexes of Plants,' read before the society, was pub- 
 lished in an enlarged form in 1720, under the title of 1 Botanic 
 Essay.' This work, at the date of its publication, was a valuable 
 contribution to science, "and contains much knowledge, which, 
 even at this time, may appear respectable." Biair settled as a 
 physician at Boston, in Lincolnshire, where he commenced his 
 ' Pharmaco-botanologia ; or, an Alphabetical and Classical Dis- 
 sertation on all the British indigenous and garden Plants of the 
 New Dispensatory.' This was published in 4to, in London, be- 
 tween 1723 and 1728. It was issued in partis, of which only seven, 
 as far as the letter H, appeared. He continued to send papers 
 on botany and anatomy to the Royal Society, several of which 
 will be found in the 30th and 31st vols, of the ' Transactions.' 
 
 * BLANC, AUGUSTE - ALEXANDRE - PHILIPPE- 
 CHARLES, French writer on art, is the brother of M. Louis 
 Blanc [E. C. vol. i. col. 717], and was born at Paris on the 15th 
 of November, 1815. Educated as an engraver he early ex- 
 changed the burin for the pen ; wrote the notices of the ' Salon ' 
 and other art-exhibitions for various journals ; and in 1841 
 became editor of the ' Propagateur de l'Aube.' When the re- 
 volution of February, 1818, gave his brother a share in the 
 provisional government, M. Charles Blanc was appointed to the 
 important post of director of the fine arts, an office which he 
 retained till 1852. The name of M. Charles Blanc is associated 
 with several valuable works either as author or editor. In 1845 
 he edited the first volume of a ' Histoire des Peintres Frangais ; ' 
 and he was editor and part author, of the more pretentious 
 'Histoire des Peintres de toutes les Ecoles,' large 4to, 1849, &c. 
 His most original and valuable . work is ' L'tEuvre complet 
 de Rembrandt,' 2 vols, large 8vo, with numerous engravings, 
 Paris, 1859, &c. He has also published a ' Grammaire des 
 Arts du Dessin,' various biographical notices and occasional 
 pieces, and was the founder and from its origin has been editor 
 of the ' Gazette des Beaux Arts.' 
 
 * BLANCHARD, AUG USTE-THOM AS-MARIE, an emi- 
 nent French engraver, was bom at Paris, May the 18th, 1819, 
 and learnt engraving of his father. He is one of the ablest 
 living engravers in line, a rapidly decreasing class, and he has 
 executed many excellent plates, mostly from the works of con- 
 temporary painters. But his style is remarkable rather for 
 clearness, neatness, and a species of brilliancy, than for largeness 
 and grandeur. Among his most noteworthy prints are the 
 ' Repose in Egypt,' after Bouchet, 1843 ; ' Head of the Saviour,' 
 after Paul Delaroche ; ' Le Christ Remunerateur,' 1850, and 
 ' Faust .and Marguerite,' 1853, after Ary Scheffer ; 'The 
 Smokers ' and ' The Chess Players,' after Meissonier ; and the 
 Portrait of the Emperor Napoleon 111.,' after Ed. Dubufe. 
 
235 
 
 BLANCHARD, EMILE. 
 
 The largest and one of the most carefully finished of M. Blan- 
 chard's plates is ' The Derby Day,' after Frith, with which every 
 one is more or less familiar. One of the few of his engravings 
 from the old masters is the 'Jupiter and Antiope' after Cor- 
 reggio, 1857. M. Blanchard was awarded a medal of the 3rd 
 class (gravure) in 1843 ; of the 2nd class in 1847, and of the 1st 
 in 1857 ; and he was decorated with the cross of the Legion of 
 Honour in 1861. 
 
 * BLANCHARD, EMILE, a zoologist whose sphere of obser- 
 vation has been mainly amongst the invertebrated animals. He 
 was born March 6, 1819, at Paris. His father was Emile 
 Theophile Blanchard, a surgeon and painter, who directed his 
 son's attention to the study of articulated animals. Thus 
 guided and aided, the subject of our notice imbibed a love for 
 biological knowledge, and that too at a very early age, for in 
 1835 a paper of hie, descriptive of Mantis chloraplurn , appeared 
 in the ' Magasin do Zoologie,' and since that time papers and 
 books have issued steadily from his pen. In 1833 he was 
 employed in the Museum d'Histoire Naturellc, and in 1840 was 
 appointed assistant naturalist, soon after which he was several 
 times entrusted with the delivery of lectures forming part < 1 .M i he- 
 Edwards' course on entomology. From 1844 to 1857 he took part 
 in several scientific missions to Italy and Sicily. He is a mem- 
 ber of many learned societies, was decorated with the cross of the 
 Legion of Honour in 1800, and was elected to the Academy of 
 Science in the place of Isidore Geolfroy St. Hilaire in 1862. 
 His papers are too numerous for mention here ; but amongst the 
 most important are ' Recherches sur ['Organization des Vers,' 
 1837 ;' Histoire naturelle des insects, orthopteres, necropteres, 
 hymenopteres, hemipteres, lepidopteres, et dipteres ' 1837 — 
 1840, — illustrated with 72 plates; the 'Histoire des Insectes,' 
 forming vols. 8 and 9 of Comte's ' Traite complet d'Hist. Nat.,' 
 1844; ' L'Organization du Regno Animale,' 1859, &c. ; and 
 'Metamorphoses, Mceurs, et Instincts des Insectes,' 1868. Most 
 of his works are especially noticeable on account of their 
 illustrations, which are usually profuse, and frequently coloured. 
 As early as 1827 he wrote the 'Nouvelle Manuel complet du 
 Coloriste' for the Roret series of manuals, and in 1834 he 
 assisted in a similar work, entitled ' Die Illuminir Kunst.' In 
 addition to the work he has performed in elucidating the charac- 
 ters and physiology of the Scolecida, insects, spiders, and mol- 
 luscs, he has written several papers on the osteology of birds, of 
 which that entitled ' Recherches sur les caracteres osteologiques 
 des Oiseaux appliquees a la classification naturelle de ces 
 animaux,' in the' An. des Sci. Nat.' (Zool.) xi. p. 10—145 (1859) 
 is an exceedingly valuable contribution. 
 
 BLARRU (or, less correctly, BLARU,) PIERRE DE, an 
 historical poet of the 15th century, was born on the 6th of 
 April, 1437, at or near Pairis, an abbey of the order of St. 
 Citeaux, situated in the valley of Orbay, between Alsace and 
 Lorraine ; and died canon of St. Diez, in Lorraine, in November 
 or December, 1505. He was blind during several of the latter 
 years of his life, on which sole account a parallel has been 
 instituted between him and Homer. He is the author of a 
 Latin poem, in six books, of posthumous publication, and the 
 work of his life-time, which was published in a small folio 
 volume in 1518, under the care of his friend and brother-canon 
 of St. Diez, Jean Batin de Sandaucourt. This production, 
 though of no great poetical merit, is valuable on account of the 
 historical details with which it abounds ; and is prized at 
 present for its great rarity, the beauty of its typography, 
 and of the wood-engravings with which it is illustrated. It 
 has for its title ' Petri de Blarrorivo Parhisiani insigne 
 Nanceidos opus de Bello Nanceiano. Hac primum, exaratura 
 elimatissime nuperrime in lucem emissum.' The immediate 
 subject of this poem is the siege of Nancy by Charles the 
 Rash, Duke of Burgundy, who was killed under the walls of 
 that town in 1476. The first two books of the poem, of which 
 a MS. had found its way into the library of St. Germain-des- 
 Pres, were translated into French by Claude Romain, a doctor 
 of civil law, Provost of Pont-a-Mousson. The latest editor and 
 translator of De Blarru is F. Schutz, who published the Latin 
 text with a French translation under the title of ' La Nanceide, 
 on la Guerre de Nancy, Poeme Latin de P. de Blarru, avec la 
 traduction francaise,' &c, 2 vols. 8vo, Nancy, 1840. Blarru 
 exercised his talents in French verse, but without much success, 
 it' his attempts are to be judged by an epitaph composed by 
 himself, and which was copied by Dom Calmet from his monu- 
 ment in the collegiate church of St. Diez. He is alscfc reputed 
 to be the author of a poem in Latin verse on 'La Chasse a la 
 jjipoe,' a sport which he is said to have much affected. 
 
 BLAZE, the surname of a family of French writers, mostly 
 
 musical. 
 
 Henri Sebastien Blaze was born at Cavaillon, in 170:3. 
 A notary by profession, his inclination led him towards musical 
 pursuits. At different times he composed masses with organ 
 accompaniment, masses with full orchestral accompaniment, an 
 opera called ' L' Heritage,' another opera, ' Semiramis,' sonatas for 
 the pianoforte, duets for the pianoforte and harp, and other 
 pieces. He was an intimate acquaintance of Gretry and Mehul, 
 and was elected a member of the Institute. He died May the 
 11th, 1833. 
 
 Francois Henri Joseph Blaze, known in the literary 
 world as Castil-Blaze, was a son of Henri Sebastien. He was 
 born at Cavaillon, December 1st, 1784. Like his father, his pro- 
 fession was the law ; but after some years' practice, he aban- 
 doned the law definitely, and devoted his attention wholly to 
 musical writing. He published a work entitled 'L' Opera en 
 France,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1820, in which he was severely critical 
 on the condition of the French opera stage, and made many sug- 
 gestions for improvements in management and in the cultivation of 
 taste. In 1*22 he became redacteur of the musical department 
 in the 'Journal des Debats,' in which he gave a higher tone to 
 musical criticism. About the same time appeared his ' Diction- 
 naire de Musique Modern e,' 2 vols. 8vo, of which a new edition 
 was published in 1825, and a Brussels edition in 1825 (incorpo- 
 rated in a larger work by Mees). In 1832 he quitted the 'Journal 
 des Debats,' and began to write in the ' Constitutionnel.' Other 
 periodicals in which he took the musical department were the 
 ' Revue de Paris,' the 'Menestrel.' the 'Revue et Gazette Musicale 
 de Paris,' and the 'France Musicale.' Some of his essays in these 
 periodicals were collected in several small volumes, published occa- 
 sionally between 1832 and 1856. He translated and arranged for 
 the French stage the principal operatic works of Mozart, Rossini, 
 Weber, and Beethoven, which were brought out at the Theatre 
 de l'Odeon on a scale of great completeness. His original com- 
 positions comprised quartettes, trios, many minor pieces, and 
 two comic Operas ; but he was more distinguished in connection 
 with the literature of music. He died on the 11th of December, 
 1857. 
 
 Ange Henri Blaze, known as Blaze de Bury, son of 
 Francois Henri Joseph, was born at Avignon in 1813. In 1833 
 — 34 he became connected with the ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' 
 and the ' Revue de Paris.' After acting as attache to a foreign 
 embassy, by which he gained the title of Baron, he returned to 
 Paris, and published a considerable number of works ; the chief 
 of which were 'Etudes litteraires sur Beethoven,' ' Musique des 
 Drames de Shakspeare,' ' Poetes et Musiciens de l'Allemagne,' 
 ' De la Musique des Femmes,' ' Lettres sur les Musiciens Fran- 
 gais,' ' Vie de Rossini,' and ' Musiciens Contemporains ' — mostly 
 as series of articles in periodical publications. He. took the affix of 
 Bury from his mother, the Baroness Blaze de Bury, an English- 
 woman, herself the authoress of ' Racine and the French Classi- 
 cal Drama,' 12mo, 1845, and ' Moliere,' 12mo, 1846, whichformed 
 parts of Knight's ' Monthly Volume ;' ' Germania, its Courts, 
 Camps, and People,' London, 1850 ; and a ' Voyage en Autriche,' 
 12nio, Paris, 1851. 
 
 BLES, HENRI DE, a celebrated painter, was born at 
 Bou vines, near Dinant, in 1480. Though a Frenchman by 
 birth, he belongs as a painter to the early Flemish school, he 
 having been the pupil of Patinir, to whose manner he adhen '1, 
 and a resident the larger part of his life in Flanders. His 
 pictures, like those of his master, are mostly landscapes with 
 figures which represent some scriptural or legendary event. 
 From his habit of introducing an owl in some corner of his 
 landscape the Italians named him Civetta (the Owl) ; by his 
 Dutch compatriots he was called Henrik met De Bles, or 
 Henry with the Forelock. He lived at Mechlin in 1521, and he 
 is believed to have died in Liege in 1550. Authentic examples 
 of his works are somewhat rare. The National Gallery possesses 
 two specimens, presented by the Queen in 1863 — 'Mount 
 Calvary — Christ on the Cross,' No. 718, an excellent work; and 
 'The Magdalen,' No. 719. 
 
 BLETTERIE, JEAN-PHILIPPE-RENE DE LA, an emi- 
 nent French historian, was born at Rennes, on the 25th of 
 February, 1096. He was a member of the Oratory, where he 
 was professor successively of rhetoric and ecclesiastical history; 
 but he withdrew on the promulgation of the rule against 
 wearing perruques. Still he always retained his affection for 
 the order he had quitted, and in an age when scepticism was 
 general preserved and avowed his religious belief, for which he had 
 to bear the sarcasm of Condorcet and Voltaire. On leaving the 
 
257 
 
 BLICHER, STEEN STEENSEN. 
 
 BLONDEL, FRANCOIS. 
 
 258 
 
 Oratory, the abbe went to Paris, where he was appointed professor 
 of eloquence at the College Royal. In 1742 he was elected member 
 of the Acad6mie des Inscriptions, and the Academie Francais 
 nominated him to a fauteuil, but the king refused to sanction the 
 election on the ground of his having exhibited Jansenist tenden- 
 cies in a brochure entitled ' Lettres a un Ami, au sujet de la Re- 
 lation du Quietisme de M. Phelypeaux,' 1733. His exclusion 
 was greatly regretted by the academicians, who were exceedingly 
 anxious to have him among them. But he was generally much 
 esteemed, and Gibbon was proud of being able to number 
 him among his friends. He died on the 2nd of June, 
 1772. His chief works are 1 — 'Histoire de l'Empereur Julian 
 l'Apostat,' 12mo, Paris, 1735 ; 2nd edition, revised and enlarged, 
 12mo, 1746. A learned, fair, and succinct work ; Voltaire and 
 the Encyclopedists attacked it with much acrimony : on the 
 other hand, Gibbon found " merit both in the hero and the his- 
 torian." 2. ' Histoire de 1'Empereur Jovien, et traduction des 
 quelques ouvrages de l'Empereur Julien,' 2 vols., 12mo, 1748 ; 
 3nd edition, 1776. Of this work Gibbon writes in the Journal 
 of his reading (February 25, 1764) : — "The History of Jovian, 
 and the translation of some works of Julian, by the Abbe de la 
 Bletterie : admirable, in point of erudition, taste, elegance, and I 
 will add, moderation. Julian was a pagan, but the abbe hates 
 only the Jesuits." In his History, however, Gibbon cannot 
 refrain from one of his ironical touches. "The Abbe de la 
 Bletterie has composed an elaborate history of Jovian's short 
 reign ; a work remarkably distinguished by elegance of style, 
 critical disquisition, and religious prejudice." (D. & F. vol. iv. 
 p. 206, n. 103.) 3. ' CEuvres de Tacite, traduits en Francois,' 6 
 vols., 12mo, Paris, 1755 — 68. The translation has the credit of 
 fidelity, but the style was much critised at the time it appeared, 
 and Voltaire launched keen epigrams against it. The abbe's 
 other works were of merely passing interest. 
 
 BLICHER, STEEN STEENSEN, a Danish poet and 
 novelist, was born on the 11th of October, 1782, at Vium, a 
 village in the county of Viborg, and province of Jutland. The 
 extreme delicacy of his health retarded his education, and his 
 university course at Copenhagen was so interrupted that he did 
 not pass his examination till 1809. In 1819 he settled as pastor 
 at Thorning, which he exchanged in 1825 for the more lucrative 
 cure of Spentrup, where he died on the 26th of March, 1848. 
 His marriage was not a congenial one, and his family was large, 
 so that, in spite of his great literary productiveness and popu- 
 larity, his circumstances were narrow and frequently embar- 
 rassed. When the idea of the Scandinavian union was 
 launched, he adopted it with enthusiasm, and travelled much 
 in Denmark and Sweden for the purpose of advocating it. For 
 the dramatic force and skill with which he depicted the past life 
 and characters of Scandinavia, Blicher has been called by the 
 honourable title of the " Danish Walter Scott," which, however, 
 does him rather more than justice. His first literary effort was a 
 translation of the poems of Ossian, ' Oisian's Digte,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Copenhagen, 1807 — 1809. His other principal translation is 
 a Danish version of the Vicar of Wakefield, ' Praesten i Wake- 
 field,' 16mo, Copenhagen, 1837. His works comprise ' Sneek- 
 lokken,' 1826, a kind of Almanac of the Muses ; contributions 
 to a monthly publication called the Aurora Borealis, ' Nord- 
 lysel,' 1827 — 1829, in which first appeared his Tales and Poems 
 in the dialect of Jutland, of which, in a collected form, a third 
 edition was issued with the title of ' E Bindstouw, Fortadlinger 
 og Digte i jydske Mundarter,' 8vo, Randers, 1853 ; ' Johanna 
 Gray. Tragoedie i 5 Acter,' 8vo, Copenhagen, 1825 ; a volume 
 entitled My Times, 'Min Tidsalder,' 8vo, Copenhagen, 1843 ; 
 Winter Doings in 1844 and 1845, ' Min Vinterbestilling i 1844 
 og 1845/ 12mo, Copenhagen, 1845; Collected Poems, 'Digte,' 2 
 vols. 8vo, Copenhagen, 1847 ; and a collection of his novels, old 
 and new, 'Gamle ognye Noveller,' 7 vols. 8vo, Copenhagen, 1846 
 — 1847. Specimens of Blicher's manner have been offered to the 
 English reader in the first and third volumes of Mrs. A. S. 
 Bushby's work, entitled 'The Danes sketched by themselves,' &c, 
 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1864. 
 
 BLOCH, MORITZ (in his own vernacular, BALLAGI MOR), 
 a distinguished philologer, was born of Jewish parents on the 
 17th of April, 1816, at Tarnoka, in the county of Zemplin, in 
 the North-east of Hungary. He studied the Oriental languages 
 successively at the universities of Pesth and Paris. In 1840 he 
 published a work in favour of the emancipation of. the Jews, 
 which he entitled ' A'Zsid6kr61,' Pesth, 1840 ; and the same 
 year began to issue a Magyar translation, annotated, of the 
 Books of Mose3 and Joshua, Pesth, 1840—1843. In 1844 he 
 was appointed professor in the lyceum at Szarvas, which he 
 BIOS. DIV.— SUP. 
 
 quitted at the revolution of 1848, in order to undertake the duties 
 of secretary to the Minister of War. He returned in 1851 to his 
 former position at Szarvas, which lie left once more for Kecskemet, 
 and finally for an appointment in the Evangelical Reformed Theo- 
 logical Institution at Pesth. His principal works, besides those 
 already mentioned, are a Complete Magyar Grammar, in German, 
 ' Ausfiirliche theoretisch-praktisch Grammatik der ungarischen 
 Sprache,' 8vo,Pesth, 1841, 3rd edition, 1850, 5th edition, 1861; a 
 Magyar Anthology, which serves as a complement to theGiammar, 
 'A'Magyar nyels 'szepsegei,' 8vo, Pesth, 1847; a Complete Dic- 
 tionary of the Hungarian and German Languages, ' Neues 
 vollstandiges Taschenworterbuch der ungarischen und deutschen 
 Sprache,' 2 vols. 8vo, Pesth, 1843—1844, 2nd edition, 1847— 
 1848 ; 3rd edition, 1862 — 1863; a Collection of Magyar Proverbs, 
 'Magyar peldabeszedek,Ko^mondasokesSzojai'asokgyiijtemenge,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Pesth, 1850. In ecclesiastical controversy Blocli has 
 produced ' A Protestantismus harca az Ultramontanismus ellen,' 
 8vo, Pesth and Kecskemet, 1867; and a work on M. Renan's 'Vie 
 de Jesus,' entitled ' Renaniana. Irta Ballagi M.,' 8vo, Pesth, 1864. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES, Bishop of London [E. C. 
 vol. i. col. 724]. Increasing infirmity at length convinced Bishop 
 Blomfield that he could no longer adequately fulfil the duties of 
 his office. There were found to be many legal and ecclesiastical 
 difficulties in the way of an episcopal resignation, but these were 
 eventually removed, and in July, 1856, a short Act was passed 
 (19 and 20 Vict. cap. 115), providing for the acceptance of the 
 resignation of Charles James Bishop of London, and that he 
 should retain for life the episcopal palace at Fulliam, with a 
 pension of 6000?. a year. His remaining days were spent in the 
 pleasant retirement of Fulliam, where he died on the 5th of 
 August, 1857. 'A Memoir of Charles James Blomfield, D.D., 
 Bishop of London, with Selections from his Correspondence, 
 edited by his son, Alfred Blomfield, M.A.,' was published in 
 1863, in 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 BLONDEATJ, JEAN BAPTISTE ANTOINE HYA- 
 CINTHE, professor of Roman Law in the University of Paris, was 
 born at Namur on the 20th of August, 1784. He studied philo- 
 sophy and law successively at Brussels, Antwerp, and Paris; and six 
 months after maintaining his thesis, he was named assistant-pro- 
 fessor in the School of Strasbourg, from which he was transferred in 
 1808 to that of Paris. At each of these schools he encountered oppo- 
 sition on account of the slight degree of respect which he showed 
 for juridical opinions based on mere precedent and tradition. In 
 1819 he was appointed to the chair of civil law, through the in- 
 fluence of M. Royer-Collard, then president of the commission 
 of public instruction ; and in his new capacity Blondeau justified 
 and increased the reputation he had previously acquired. He 
 is an honorary member of the Academy of Moral and Political 
 Sciences, and correspondent of the Academies of Brussels and 
 Turin. His works comprise ' Tableaux Synoptiques du droit 
 romain, suivant la legislation de Justinien,' 4to, Paris, 1811, 2nd 
 edition, 1812, which was followed by a supplementary work 
 entitled 'Tableaux Synoptiques du droit prive, offrant l'essai 
 d'une classification et d'une nomenclature nouvelle des droits 
 prives,' 4to, Paris, 1818; 'Esquisse d'un Traite sur les obliga- 
 tions solidaires,' &c, 4to, Paris, 1819 ; ' Institutes de l'Empereur 
 Justinien, traduites en francais, avec les textes juridiques re- 
 latifs a l'Histoire externe du droit romain et du droit prive ante- 
 Justinien,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1839, which, so far as the translation 
 only is concerned is the work of M. Bonjean ; ' Chrestomathie, 
 ou Choix des textes pour un cours elementaire du droit prive 
 des Romains, precede d'une introduction a- l'etude du droit,' 
 Paris, 1830 — 1833 ; ' Traite de la separation des patrimonies, 
 consideree speeialement k l'egard des immeubles,' 8vo, Paris, 
 1840 ; ' Memoire sur l'organisation de l'enseignement du droit 
 en Hollande,' 8vo, Paris, 1846 ; ' Essais de legislation et de juris- 
 prudence,' 8vo, Paris, 1850, which is a collection of articles con- 
 tributed to the ' Magasin Encyclopedique : la Decade Philoso- 
 phique,' the 'Bibliotheque du Barreau,' &c. M. Blondeau was 
 also one of the contributors to the ' Annales du Barreau francais ' ; 
 and one of the founders, and the principal editor of ' Themis, 
 ou Bibliotheque du Jurisconsulte,' 10 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1S20 — 1S30. 
 
 BLONDEL, FRANCOIS, Sieur des Croisettes, in his day 
 famous as an architect and engineer, was born in 1617 at 
 Ribemont, in Picardie, where his father was professor of ma- 
 thematics. His ability and attainments as a young man led to 
 his being appointed preceptor of the Comte de Brienue, son of 
 De Lomenie, Secretary of State, and he accompanied him, July, 
 1652, as governor in a tour of three years through Germany and 
 Italy : a narrative of the journey, in Latin, was published 
 in 1663. The tact and judgment displayed in this service 
 
 s 
 
200 
 
 suggested to the Secretary the idea of employing him to con- 
 duct some delicate state negociations, and m 1669 he was sent 
 as Envoy Extraordinary to Constantinople respecting the de- 
 tention of the French ambassador. On this occasion he made a 
 visit to Egypt. His success was rewarded with the title of 
 Councillor of State ; he was selected to instruct the young 
 Dauphin, son of Louis XIV., in mathematics and polite literature ; 
 and he was nominated professor of mathematics at the College 
 Royal. Bloildel commenced his career as engineer and architect 
 in 16(55. The bridge over the ( 'harente, which unites the city of 
 Saintes with the faubourg des Dames, was, owing to the nature 
 of the site and the character of the river, found to be very 
 difficult to construct and more difficult to maintain, and at that 
 time the only communication was by a ferry. The king, to 
 whom the case was presented, thought a mathematician might 
 resolve the problem, and sent Blondel. Blondel built a bridge 
 of massive but novel construction, and across the approach to 
 it from the city erected a triumphal arch, with- Corinthian 
 columns, and thus established at a blow his double? professional 
 title. Louis XIV., abundantly satisfied, gave Blondel other 
 commissions, and ordained by letters patent that all public works 
 henceforth erected in Paris should be done in accordance with a 
 plan drawn up by Blondel, and deposited by him at the Hotel 
 de Ville. The proceedings of Louis and his architect at this 
 time were probably in the mind of Wren when he laid his plans 
 lor the re-edification of London before Charles II. after the fire 
 of 1666. Blondel's works were after all not very numerous, and 
 of those he executed not many remain. He enlarged and 
 remodelled the gate of St. Antoine, and designed and erected 
 that of St. Bernard. Both these have been destroyed, but his 
 chief work of this class, the well-known. Porte St. Denis, 
 survives to serve as evidence of his architectural skill. The 
 extensive rope-houses and forges of the arsenal at Rochefort 
 were among his principal constructive successes. He also 
 designed various fortifications after a system devised by himself, 
 which he described in a treatise entitled 'Une Nouvelle maniere 
 de Fortifier les Places,'" but which the king would not permit to 
 be published for the information of his enemy ; he rewarded 
 Blondel, however, 1675, with the rank of Marechal de Camp. 
 His architectural labours Louis had already recognised by 
 appointing him director and professor of his Academy of 
 Architecture, founded in 1671 ; and the lectures which Blondel 
 delivered in this capacity he afterwards remodelled and pub- 
 lished under the title of 'Cours d'Architecture, enseigne dans 
 TAcad6mie Royale,' enriched with numerous good engravings, 
 folio, Paris, 1675, 2nd edition, revised and augmented, 1698. 
 Blondel had previously written ' Resolution des quatre prin- 
 cipaux problemes d'Architecture,' large folio, 1673; reprinted 
 in the ' Recueil de plusieurs Traites de Mathematiques de 
 l'Academie des Sciences,' folio, 1676. Blondel le Grand, as he 
 was called in his later years, died at Paris on the 1st of 
 February, 1686. Besides the works above cited, he wrote a 
 1 Comparaison de Pindaire et d'Horace,' 12mo, Paris, 1673, 
 Latin translation, 8vo. 1704, which, if of no other value, is note- 
 worthy as an illustration of his remarkable versatility ; ' L'Art 
 de Jeter les Bombes,' 4to, Paris, 1683; 1 Cours de Mathematiques 
 contenant divers traitez, composez et enseignez a Monseigneur le 
 Dauphin, on sont l'arithmetique speculative et rarithmetique 
 pratique,' 2 vols., 4to, Paris, 1683. 
 
 BLONDEL, JACQUES-FRANCOIS, nephew and pupil of 
 Francois Blondel, of Rouen (b. 1683, d. 1756), acquired reputation 
 as an architect, but was more esteemed as a writer on architecture. 
 He was born at Rouen on the 7th of January, 1705, and, after prac- 
 tising some time in the provinces, settled in Paris, in 1739, his 
 chief object being to open a school of architecture in which the 
 theoretical principles as well as the practical details should be 
 taught. The school was so successful that, after watching the ex- 
 periment for several years, the Academie d'Architecture, in 1755, 
 invited Blondel to join their body, and to continue his system as 
 their professor. In this new position Blondel displayed the 
 greatest zeal, and, as the result of his public and private teaching, 
 French architecture, according to D'Argenville, experienced a 
 happy revolution. But Blondel laboured as zealously with his 
 pen as from the professorial chair for the revolution of architec- 
 tural taste. For the general public he wrote the whole of the 
 articles relating to architecture in the ' Encyclope'die Metho- 
 dique,' and ' De la distribution des Maisons de Plaisance, et de la 
 decoration des edifices ' (often referred to by its second title), 
 ' Traite d'Architecture dans le gout Moderne,' 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 
 1737. Addressed more particularly to architectural students 
 were his ' Discours sur la Maniere d'etudier l'Architecture,' 4to, 
 
 1767; and his great works, 'Architecture Francaise,' 4 vols, 
 folio, Paris, 1752 — 56, a work very valuable for the details 
 it gives of buildings of historical celebrity now destroyed or 
 transformed ; and ' Cours d'Architecture Civile,' 6 vols, of text 
 and 3 of plates. This last work is in three parts, the first, 
 published in 3 vols. 8vo, in 1771, relates to the artistic character 
 of the exterior of buildings, considered not merely as elevations, 
 but also in connection with their sites and artificial as well as 
 natural surroundings. The second part, also in 3 vols., pub- 
 lished in 1773, treats of the ground-plan, distribution of the 
 apartments, and the general internal arrangements of palaces, 
 mansions, and hotels. The third part, left unfinished by Blondel, 
 but completed and published by M. P. Patte in 1777, refers to 
 the construction of buildings. The preparation of these works, 
 and particularly the last, exhausted Blondel's pecuniary re- 
 sources. His last years were passed in comparative poverty 
 and acute disease, but he never ceased from liis labours, and 
 when he found his end approaching he begged that he might be 
 carried to the Louvre and allowed to die in the school where he 
 had for so many years delivered his lessons (D'Aryenville, p. 472). 
 He died there on the 9th of January, 1774. Besides the works 
 named above, M. Blondel published ' Discours sur la uecessite 
 de l'etude d'Architecture,' 4to, 1754 ; 'De l'Utilite de joindre a. 
 l'etude de 1'Architecture celle des sciences et des arts qui lui sont 
 relatifs,' 8vo, 1771 ; and one or two treatises of no great value 
 appeared posthumously. Many of the plates in his works were 
 engraved as well as designed by Blondel. The buildings erected 
 by him were chiefly provincial. Among them were the episcopal 
 palace, the entrance to the cathedral, the hotel-de-ville, bar- 
 racks, &c, at Metz, and by order of the king he drew up a 
 general plan for the improvement of the city by widening and 
 straightening the old streets and forming new streets and 
 places. He also made designs for the improvement of Stras- 
 bourg, and for the erection of a new senate-house and hotel-de- 
 ville ; and he erected an episcopal palace at Cambrai, and some 
 buildings at Chalons. 
 
 BLOOTELING, or BLOTELING, ABRAHAM, an eminent 
 Dutch engraver, was born at Amsterdam, in 1634, and was a 
 pupil of Visscher, whose manner he followed. When the 
 French invaded Holland, 1672 — 3, Blooteling came to England, 
 and was fully employed during the short time he stayed here. 
 Vertue notes that " he received 30 guineas for etching a portrait 
 of the Duke of Norfolk." He engraved many other English 
 portraits in the same manner, and several in mezzotinto. 
 Among those executed with the point may be mentioned — 
 James Duke of Monmouth, Prince Rupert, the Earl of Sand- 
 wich, the Earl of Montague, and some others, after Sir Peter 
 Lely; and Sir Thomas More, the Earl of Shaftesbury, Dr. 
 Stillingfleet, Bishop Wilkins, &c. ; with the scraper — The 
 Prince of Orange, the Duchess of York, Nell Gwynne, the 
 Earl of Arlington, the Earl of Derby, Titus Oates, and several 
 more : all of them much in request with collectors. His 
 portraits engraved in Holland with the point include Admirals 
 De Wit, Van Tromp, De Fries, Kortenaer, and Ruyter ; 
 Ferdinand, Bishop of Paderborn, the Marquis de Mirabelle, &c. ; 
 his mezzotints — Erasmus, after Holbein, John De Wit, Cor- 
 nelius de Wit, the Emperor Leopold, and numerous others. 
 He also engraved some Studies of Lions, and Heads of Children, 
 after Rubens ; Six Views of the Environs of Amsterdam, after 
 Ruysdael ; and other figure-pieces and landscapes ; and etched and 
 published, 1685, Leonardo Augustino's Gems, while several ot 
 Blooteling's designs were engraved by other hands. There is 
 some uncertainty about the year of Blooteling's death, but 1685 
 appears to be the best supported. 
 
 BLOUNT, CHARLES, a deistical and political writer of some 
 notoriety in the 17th century, was the second son of Sir Henry 
 Pope Blount (b. 1602, d. 1682, whom Evelyn always mentions 
 as the "famous traveller," and the author of ' A Voyage into the 
 Levant,' 1636, which went through 8 editions). Charles Blount 
 was born at the house of his grandfather in Upper Holloway, 
 near London, on the 27th of April, 1654 ; was educated under 
 the eye of his father, and as a young man was regarded as 
 unusually accomplished and of promising parts. He was not 
 long in bringing his capacity to the proof. He had already 
 made himself conspicuous as a politician, and he had gained the 
 favour of Dryden by a pamphlet written in delence of his 
 Conquest of Granada, when, in 1679, he published his ' Anima 
 Mundi ; or an Historical Narration of the Opinions of the 
 Ancients concerning Man's Soul, according to unenlightened 
 Nature.' This work, which gave great offence to religious 
 people, called forth several replies, and was formally censured 
 
2C1 
 
 202 
 
 by Compton, Bishop of London. It was followed in 1680 by a 
 still more offensive publication, ' The Two first books of Philos- 
 tratus, containing the Life of Apollonius Tyaneus, written 
 originally in Greek, with philological Notes upon each chapter,' 
 the notes being remarkable, as Macaulay observes, for the 
 " flippant profaneness" with which they attacked the most sacred 
 subjects. Bayle says that these notes were taken for the most 
 part from the manuscripts of the famous Lord Herbert, and 
 Blount, as we shall see, was quite capable of such an appropria- 
 tion : as Bayle, himself a sceptic, adds, instead of the grave and 
 serious reasoning which such matters require, they are marked 
 " almost always by profane railleries and by trifling subtleties." 
 As might be expected, the book was answered, anathematized, and 
 formally condemned. But Blount seemed to enjoy the annoyance 
 his heresies excited, and continued his irreverent polemics in 
 ' Great is Diana of the Ephesians ; or the Original of Idolatry,' 
 1680 ; ' Beligio Laici,' 1683 ; and other brochures, which were 
 collected after his death by his disciple Gildon, under the title 
 of ' Oracles of Reason.' His polemics were not, however, con- 
 fined to religion. He was a Wliig, and his pen was as active 
 and virulent as that of the most scurrilous of the opposite party. 
 In a pamphlet on the Popish plot, published under the signature 
 of Junius Brutus, and entitled ' An Appeal from the Country to 
 the City for the Preservation of His Majesty's Person, Liberty, 
 Property, and the Protestant Religion,' he "magnified the 
 virtues and public services of Titus Oates, and exhorted the 
 Protestants to take signal vengeance on the Papists for the 
 Fire of London and for the murder of Godfrey." But 
 even Macaulay, who handles Blount in his severest manner, 
 admits that as a political writer he rendered one important 
 service : " little as either the intellectual or moral character 
 of Blount may seem to deserve respect, it is in a great measure 
 to him that we must attribute the emancipation of the English 
 press." (Hist, of Eng. vol. vi. p. 365). The reference is to a 
 pamphlet entitled ' A Just Vindication of Learning and of the 
 Liberty of the Press : by Philopatris,' which was published 
 without licence, and attracted, as indeed it deserved, very 
 general attention, but what is most remarkable about it is that it 
 " consists chiefly of garbled extracts from the Areopagitica of 
 Milton," which noble work was then so little read that neither 
 partizan nor opponent detected the plagiarism. It was fol- 
 lowed by a second tract, 1 Reasons for the Liberty of Unlicensed 
 Printing,' which was concocted from the second part of the 
 'Areopagitica,' as the 'Just Vindication' had been from the 
 first. To this second tract was appended a postscript entitled 
 ' A Just and True Character of Edmund Bohun,' the licenser of 
 printing, written with the utmost bitterness. This second tract 
 is not reprinted among Blount's acknowledged works, but 
 Macaulay " unhesitatingly attributes " it to him, and seemingly 
 with good reason. Bohun had deeply offended him by muti- 
 lating some of his pieces before licensing them. Blount's 
 revenge was not satisfied with the ' Just Character.' He wrote 
 a pamphlet with the portentous title ' King William and Queen 
 Mary Conquerors : or a Discourse endeavouring to prove that 
 their Majesties have on their side, against the late King, the 
 principal reasons that make Conquest a Good Title ; showing 
 also how this is consistent with that Declaration of Parliament, 
 " King James abdicated the Government, &c. ; " written with a 
 special regard to such as have hitherto refused the oath, and yet 
 allow of the title of conquest, when consequent to a just war.' 
 Bohun was a Tory, a High Churchman, and an advocate of passive 
 obedience, yet he had taken the oath and obtained his present 
 place. In the pamphlet he had not only a justification of his 
 own conduct, but an argument which he thought would cer- 
 tainly remove the doubts of his friends the non-jurors, and 
 without a moment's hesitation he authorized its publication. 
 The commotion caused by its appearance was extraordinary. 
 Within a week of its publication, January, 1693, the book and 
 the doctrine it set forth were condemned by a vote of both 
 Houses of Parliament ; and, as the author was unknown, the 
 licenser was taken into the custody of the Sergeant-at-Arms, 
 examined at the bar of the House of Commons, and remanded 
 to prison, it being at the same time voted that the king be 
 requested to remove him from the office of licenser. It was the 
 feeling aroused by this book of Blount's that led to Bishop 
 Burnet's famous Pastoral Letter, issued in 1690, being laid 
 before the House of Commons as containing a similar doctrine, 
 and to its being condemned, like the 'King William and Queen 
 Mary Conquerors,' to be burned by the common hangman. 
 Macaulay thinks that, " his own opinions being diametrically 
 opposed to those which, on this occasion, he put forward in the 
 
 most offensive way. . . . it is therefore impossible to doubt 
 that his object was to ensnare and to ruin Bohun," and probably 
 most who now look into the pamphlet will be of the same 
 opinion. But this was not the opinion of his contemporaries. 
 By none of them does it appear to have been regarded as 
 ironical. Blount's admirers believed that he had been earned 
 too far by the warmth of his regard for King William ; Burnet 
 thought that he "had set the doctrine forth with great modesty 
 and judgment ;" and Bohun never suspected its sincerity. 
 Blount's end was tragical. After the death of his wife, he 
 wished to marry her sister, a lady of great wit and beauty. 
 Her objection being on the score of affinity, he drew up an 
 elaborate defence ot the lawfulness of such marriages and 
 the case was submitted to the Archbishop of Canterbury. ' The 
 decision was of course adverse, and the lady regarding this as 
 final, Blount, in a state of phrenzy, shot himself. He lingered 
 a few days, and died, August, 1693, aged 39. This at least is 
 the received, and doubtless the correct, account, though Macau- 
 lay says he languished long, adopting the statement of Pope 
 ("who had the very best opportunities of obtaining accurate 
 information ") that Blount " being in love with a near kins- 
 woman of his, and rejected, gave himself a stab in the ami, as 
 pretending to kill himself; of the consequence of which he 
 really died." But the contemporary statements are agreed as 
 above given ; Pope was only five years old when Blount died, 
 and the Blounts with whom he much later in life became 
 intimate were of a different and not associated branch of the 
 family ; and Pope, always careless in such statements, had in 
 this note to a random line (" If Blount despatched himself he 
 played the man ") nothing to induce him to unusual precision. 
 Blount's writings were published by Gildon under the title of 
 ' The Miscellaneous Works of Charles Blount, Esq.,' 12mo. 1695, 
 with a meagre Life of the Author prefixed. 
 
 BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE, the elder brother of 
 Charles Blount, and like him, a prolific writer, was born at 
 Upper Holloway on the 12th of September, 1649. He received 
 a careful education ; was created a baronet in his father's life- 
 time, 1679 ; was elected the same year member of parliament for 
 St. Alban's, and was afterwards returned during three sessions 
 member for Hertfordshire ; and in 1694 was appointed by the 
 House of Commons commissioner of accounts. He was a Whig 
 in politics, but free from his brother's errors in religion. His 
 writings, much admired in their day, comprise : ' Centura cele- 
 briorum Authorum,' &c, folio, London, 1690, reprinted at Geneva 
 in 1694, and again in 1710 and 1718; ' Natural History ; con- 
 taining many not common Observations, extracted out of the 
 best modern Writers,' 8vo, London, 1693; ' De Re Poetica : or 
 Remarks upon Poetry : with Characters and Censures of the 
 Most Considerable Poets, whether ancient or modern, extracted 
 out of the best and choicest critics,' 4to, 1794 — like the preceding, 
 a book of extracts and opinions threaded together in consecutive 
 order; ' Essays,' 8vo, 1697. Chalmers asserts that "these essays 
 are in no way inferior to those of the celebrated Montaigne." 
 This is absurd ; they are in every way inferior. They have 
 neither the wit nor the wisdom, the shrewd insight into cha- 
 racter, the knowledge of the world, nor the inimitable humour. 
 Their only point of resemblance is in the extent of the quota- 
 tions ; but then the quotations are applied differently. Sir 
 Thomas died at his seat, Tittenhanger, on the 30th of June, 
 1697, and was interred with his brother in the family vault at 
 the neighbouring church of Ridge, in Hertfordshire. 
 
 BLOUNT, THOMAS, a learned writer of the 17th century, 
 was born in 1618 at Bordesley, in Worcestershire. Of a Roman 
 Catholic family, liis education was private, but excellent, and he 
 acquired a considerable store of erudition. He was a barrister 
 and a member of the Inner Temple, and seems to have been both 
 prosperous and respected ; but the breaking out of the Popish 
 Plot in the beginning of 1679 caused him, as a Roman Catholic, 
 so much alarm and anxiety as to bring on a palsy, and he died 
 on the 26th (his friend Dugdale says the 16th) of December 
 of that year, at his residence, Orleton, in Herefordshire. The 
 following are his principal works : — 1. ' The English Academie 
 of Eloquence,' 12mo, London, 1654. 2. ' Glossographia, or a 
 Dictionary interpreting such hard words, whether Hebrew, Greek, 
 Latin, Italian, &c, that are now used in our refined English 
 tongue,' 8vo, London, 1656, and many times reprinted. This is 
 an able and still useful work, but it involved the author in an 
 angry controversy with Edward Phillips, his rival dictionary- 
 maker, whose book he attacked in a pamphlet entitled ' A World 
 of Errors discovered in the New World of Words,' &c, published 
 in folio (1673) so that it might be boiuid with his rival's book, 
 
263 
 
 BLUHME, FRIEDR1CH. 
 
 BOCHOLT, FRANZ VON. 
 
 261 
 
 3. ' The Lamps of the Law and the Light of the Gospel : or the 
 Titles of some late spiritual, polemical, and metaphysical new 
 hooks,' 8vo, 1G58; 4. ' Boscobel, or the compleat History of his 
 sacred Majesties most miraculous Preservation after llic Battle of 
 Worcester, September the third, 1651,' 8vo, 1660, .'3rd ed. 1680 ; 
 5. ' A Law Dictionary, interpreting such difficult and obscure 
 words and terms as are found either in our common or statute, 
 ancient or modem laws,' folio, London, 1671, 3rd ed. with addi- 
 tions, 1717; 6. 'Journey to Jerusalem in 1669,' 12mo, 1672 ; 
 7. ' Fragmenta Antiquitatis : or Ancient Tenures of Land, and 
 Jocular Customs of some manors,' 8vo, 1670, and many times 
 reprinted, the last edition being "with considerable additions" 
 by EL M. Beckwith, 4to, London, 1815. 
 
 ' • BLUHME, or BLUME, FRIEDRICH, a German jurist 
 and professor of law, was born at Hamburg on the 29th of June, 
 1797. He studied law at the universities of GOttingen, Berlin, 
 and Jena, and took his doctor's degree in 1820, with a thesis 
 entitled 'De geminatis et similibus, qua) in digestis inveniuntur, 
 capitibus,' Jena, 1821. He afterwards contributed to the 'Zeit- 
 schrift fur geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft,' an article on the 
 Order of the Fragments in the titles of the Pandects, 'Die 
 Ordnung der Fragmente in dem Pandektentiteln.' In 1821, in 
 the interests of his science, Bluhme undertook a journey to 
 Italy, where he explored a great number of libraries. The re- 
 sults of his researches Avere seen in the notes which he furnished, 
 after a revision of the palimpsest, for a second edition of the 
 ' Institutes ' of Gains ; for the ' Monumenta Germanise His- 
 torica ; ' for Schrader's edition of the ' Corpus J uris Civilis ;' for 
 Savigny's History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages, ' Ge- 
 schichte des Romischen Rechts im Mittelalter ; and for the 
 Archives of German History, 'Archivfiir altere deutsche Ge- 
 schichts-Kunde.' Besides these he published, as the fruits of his 
 Italian tour, his works entitled ' Iter Italicum,' 4 vols. 8vo, Ber- 
 lin and Halle, 1824—1836 ; and ' Bibliotheca Librorum Manu- 
 scriptornm ItaHca,' 8vo, Gdttingen, 1834. The reputation 
 attending the learned activity of Bluhme, has procured for him 
 various p>osts of honour and emolument. His academical pro- 
 gress was rapid, and he was advanced to the professorship of law 
 at the university of Halle, which he exchanged in 1831 for a 
 similar appointment at Gottingen. In 1833 he was named a 
 Counsellor of the High Court of Appeal of the Free Cities at 
 Lubeck ; and in 1843 succeeded Rule as professor of law in the 
 university of Bonn. Besides the works already named, Bluhme 
 is the author of Elements of the Ecclesiastical Law of Jews 
 and Christians, ' Grtvndriss des Kirchenrechts der Juden und 
 Christen besondersin Deutsohland,' 8vo, Halle, 1826, 2nd edition, 
 1851 ; Outlines of the Pandects, ' Grundriss des Pandekten- 
 rechts,' 8vo, Halle, 1829, 2nd edition, 1843 ; and Encyclopaedia 
 and System of the Laws in force in Germany, ' Encyclopadie 
 . mid System der in Deutschland geltenden Rechte,' 3 vols. Bonn, 
 1847 — 1858. Bluhme has also edited works on Jurisprudence, 
 and contributed to the ' Rheinisches Museum fur Jurisprudenz.' 
 
 * BLUM, JOHANN REIN HARD, an eminent German 
 mineralogist, was born at Hanover, on the 28th of October, 
 1802. After attending one of the elementary schools in his 
 native town, where he manifested his natural history tenden- 
 cies, he proceeded to the university of Heidelberg in 1821, 
 where he formed the acquaintanceship of Leonhard, which 
 determined his resolve to study mineralogy. In 1826 he 
 was appointed to take charge of a mineralogical shop at Heidel- 
 berg ; in 1828 he qualified himself as teacher, from which 
 year he has been constantly lecturing on his special branch 
 of knowledge ; and in 1838 he became extraordinary pro- 
 fessor of mineralogy. He has written several papers and 
 separate publications, but his name is best known in connection 
 with 'Die Pseudomorphosen der Mineral-reiches,' 1843, with con- 
 tinuations published in 1847 and 1852 ; a work which is indispens- 
 able to the investigator of pseudomorphism amongst minerals. 
 
 BOCCHI, ACHILLE (ACHILLES BOCCHIUS), a scholar 
 and man of letters, was born in 1488, at Bologna, where he died 
 on the 6th of November, 1562. When scarcely twenty years 
 old, lie published his ' Apologia in Plautum, cui accedit vita 
 Ciceronis, authore Plutarcho,' 4to, Bologna, 1508. He attached 
 himself to the celebrated Albert Pio, count of Carpi ; and be- 
 came imperial orator at the court of Rome, obtaining the titles 
 of chevalier and count Palatine. At Bologna he was professor 
 ol Greek and Latin, rhetoric and poetry, and in 1522 was chosen 
 one of the Anziani, or elders of the city. He founded in 1546 
 the Academia Bocchiana, which frequently went by tlic name 
 ol Ermetana, from its device, exhibiting the union of Hermes and 
 Athene. He also established a printing-office in his palace, and 
 
 employed himself, with his academicians, in correcting the many 
 beautiful editions which they printed. He was named historio- 
 grapher to the city of Bologna, of which he wrote a Latin his- 
 tory, which runs through seventeen books, and which, although 
 never printed, is still preserved in the library of the Bologna 
 Institute. There is likewise in the Laurentian library at Flo- 
 rence, a MS. collection of poems, with the title of 'Achillis 
 Philerotis Bocchii Lusuum Libellus ad Leonem X,' where the 
 name of Phileros is supposed to refer to the friendship that ex- 
 isted between himself and Lilius Gyraldus. Other of Bocchi's 
 works are his ' Carmina in Laudem Joannis Baptistsc Pii,' 4to, 
 Bologna, 1509; ' Symbolicarum quawtionum de universo genere, 
 quas serio ludebat, Libri V. ; Bononiac, in rodibus nova) Acade- 
 mia) Bocchianse,' 4to, 1555, reprinted in 1574, a work which is 
 valued on account of the emblems, which are almost all the in- 
 vention of Bocchi, and were engraved for the first edition by Giulio 
 Bonasoni, and retouched for the second by Agostino Carracci. 
 
 BOCCHI, FRANCISCO, one of the most voluminous writers 
 of Florence, was bom in that city in 1548, and died there in 
 1618. He left many works in Latin and Italian, which are to 
 a great extent of merely local interest. They comprise ' Discorso 
 a chi de' maggiori guerrieri, che insino a questo tempo sono stati, 
 si deve la maggioranza attribuire/ 4to, Florence, 1573 ami 
 1579 ; • Discorso sopra la lite delle armi e delle lettere, e a cui 
 si deve il primo luogo di nobilta attribuire,' 8vo, 1579, 1580 ; 
 ' Discorso sopra la Musica, non secondo Parte di quella, ma 
 secondo la regione alia politica pertinente,' 8vo, Florence, 1581 ; 
 ' Discorso sopra il pregio dell 'umano valore,' 8vo, Florence, 
 1587 ; 'Le Belleze della citta di Firenze, dove a pieno di pittura, 
 di scultura, di sacri tempii di palazzi, i piii notabili aitifizii e 
 piu preziosi si contengono,' 8vo, Florence, 1591, 1592, and 1595 ; 
 a new edition, enlarged by Cinelli, 1677; ' Elogia Virorum, 
 Florentinorum,' 4to, 1604 and 1607 ; ' Della Grandezza di 
 Roma,' 8vo, Florence, 1598; 'Oratio de Laudibus Henri ci IV. 
 Regis Gallia),' 4to, Florence, 1610 ; and other biographical, his- 
 torical, and literary productions. 
 
 BOCH, or BOCHIUS, JAN, a Flemish poet, who on account 
 of his skill in Latin verse was called the "Belgic Virgil," was 
 born at Brussels on the 27th of July, 1555. After a course of 
 study he attached himself to Cardinal Radzivil, whom he accom- 
 panied to Rome, where he studied theology under Bellarmine, 
 afterwards the celebrated cardinal. Leaving Rome after a time, 
 he prosecuted his travels into other parts of Italy, and visited 
 Poland, Livonia, Russia, and other countries. On his way to 
 Moscow, his feet were frozen to such an extent as to make some 
 of his friends advise their amputation. The Czar's physician, 
 however, recommended him to defer the operation. Meanwhile 
 the place in which he was staying was surprised by the attack of 
 an enemy, and the poet found in his own fear a better cure for 
 his disease than the skill of the surgeons. He fled so fast and 
 so far as to secure his own safety, and to re-establish for the rest 
 of his life, the strength and soundness of his feet. On his re- 
 turn home he devoted himself to his literary pursuits, especially 
 to poetry ; and on account of a panegyric which he addressed to 
 the Duke of Parma on the taking of Antwerp, he was appointed 
 by the conqueror to be town-secretary. He died on the 23rd of 
 January, 1609. 
 
 The principal literary remains of Bochius are 'De Belgii 
 Principatu ; ' ' Historica Narratio profectionis et inaugurationis 
 Alberti et Isabellas,' folio, Antwerp, 1602;' ' Psalniorum Davidis 
 Parodia heroica. Ejusclem varia) in Psalmos Observationes 
 physica), ethicce, politica?, et historica),' 8vo, Antwerp, 1608. His 
 ' Poemata,' consisting of epigrams, elegies, &c, were collected 
 and printed at Cologne, 1615, with the addition of some poems 
 by his son, Jan Aseanius Bochius, a promising youth, who died 
 in Calabria. It is, lastly, to Bochius that we owe the verses 
 which occur underneath the engravings in Verstegan's extrava- 
 gant book against Queen Elizabeth, entitled ' Theatrum Crude- 
 litatum Hereticorum nostri temporis,' a work which has been 
 defined as a sort of Popish martyrology. 
 
 BOCHOLT, FRANZ VON, one of the earliest German en- 
 gravers, was a native of Bocholt,in Westphalia, and lived in the 
 last half of the fifteenth century. Nothing authentic is known 
 of his personal history, and the archives of Bocholt have been 
 searched in vain for any reference to him. His engravings are 
 signed FVB. His style shows the influence of the Van Eycks, but 
 he displays both originality and invention in his designs and great 
 freedom and mastery over the burin, his handling of which Passa- 
 vant thinks resembles that of a goldsmith. He has been spoken 
 of as the earliest German engraver, but he was preceded by 
 Martin Schongauer, whose engraving of the ' Temptation of St. 
 
265 
 
 BOCKHORST, JAN VAN. 
 
 BODE, JOHANN JOACHIM CHRISTOPH. 266 
 
 Anthony' he copied, and he preceded Israel van Menecken, who 
 erased Bocholt's mark from some of his plates and substituted his 
 own. Bocholt's works are necessarily rare, but 55 are described 
 by Bartsch and Passavant ; good impressions of several are in the 
 British Museum. A ' Veronica' is regarded as one of his first 
 works ; a ' Nativity,' an 'Annunciation,' a ' Christ on the Cross', 
 the series of 'Christ and the Apostles,' and the 'Judgment of 
 Solomon,' are among the finest. 
 
 BOCKHORST, JAN VAN, an eminent painter of the 
 Flemish school, was born at Minister, in Westphalia, in or about 
 1610. He learned painting of Jordaens ; was admitted free- 
 master by the corporation of St. Luke, Antwerp, in 1633, and 
 carried on his profession in that city till his death, which oc- 
 curred on the 21st of April, 1668. Bockhorst practised both 
 historical and portrait painting, and made designs for the Antwerp 
 tapestry weavers. Some of Iris best pictures were painted for 
 the Augustinian convent at Antwerp, but dispersed on its sup- 
 pression by Joseph II. His best work now in that city is in the 
 Church of the Beguinage, a triptych having a representation of 
 the Resurrection in the centre, the Annunciation on the right 
 wing and the Ascension on the left. Another noteworthy pic- 
 ture is ' The Empress Helena holding the true Cross,' in the old 
 church of the Augustines. The Antwerp Museum contains a 
 ' Coronation of the Virgin.' 
 
 BOCTHOR, ELLIOUS, an oriental philologer, was bom on 
 the 12th of April, 1784, at Siut, in Upper Egypt, the see of a 
 Coptic Bishop, and supposed to be the ancient Lycopolis. He 
 was brought up in the Coptic communion, and became attached, 
 in the quality of an interpreter, to the French army in Egypt. 
 He accompanied this army on its return to France ; and in 1819 
 he succeeded the Syrian priest Raphael as professor of Arabic at 
 the King's Library. He held this position for two years, and 
 died of disease of the liver on the 26th of September, 1821. His 
 works include ' l'Explication de 1'inscription arabe qu' on lit sur 
 une cassette conservee dans la cathedrale de Bayeux,' which was 
 inserted in the ' Revue Encyclopedique ; ' ' Diseours prononce a 
 l'ouverture d'un cours d'arabe vulgaire de 1'Ecole royale des 
 Langues orientales vivantes, le 8 Decembre, 1819,' Paris, 1820 ; 
 'Alphabet arabe, accompagnd d'exemples,' Paris, 1820 ; ' Abrege 
 des conjugaisons arabes, corrige et augmente,' Paris, 1820 ; and a 
 Dictionary which was posthumously published by M. Caussin 
 de Perceval, with the title of 'Dictionnaire Francais-Arabe, revu 
 et augmente,' &c, 2 vols, 4to. Paris, 1827 — 1829, reprinted, with 
 additions and corrections, in 1848, in a single large octavo volume. 
 
 BODE, JOHANN ELERT, a distinguished German astro- 
 nomer, was born at Hamburg, on the 19th of January, 1747. 
 He received his early education from his father, who kept a 
 commercial school in that city ; and having shown a decided taste 
 for the mathematical sciences, received special instruction 
 from Johann Georg Busch. While assisting his father in the 
 school, young Bode constructed a telescope and other astrono- 
 mical instruments for his own use, and began to watch the stars 
 sedulously. At the age of 18 he made accurate calculations 
 concerning lunar eclipses and planetary movements ; and soon 
 afterwards published a small work relating to the solar eclipse 
 of the 5th of August, 1766, 'Berechnung und Entwerf der 
 Sonnenfinsterniss,' Berlin, 1766. The favourable reception of tliis 
 work led to the publication of a book which has had great success, 
 his Introduction to the study of the starry heavens, ' Anleitung 
 zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels,' Berlin, 1768. More than 
 twenty editions of this useful popular work have appeared in 
 Germany. Oltmanns published a Supplement to it in 1833. In 
 1769 Bode put forth instructions for viewing the transit of 
 Venus ; and in the same year discovered a comet in the constel- 
 lation Taurus. In 1770 he commenced a series of monthly 
 notices of the positions and movements of the moon and planets, 
 which he continued for seven years. In 1772 he received the 
 appointment of Astronomer to the Beriin Academy of Sciences. 
 In the following year he assisted in founding the Society of 
 Naturahsts at Berlin, whose archives were enriched with many 
 memoirs from his pen. In 1776 he commenced his valuable 
 'Astronomische Jahrbiicher oder Ephemeriden,' of which he 
 lived to prepare 54 annual volumes, and which was continued 
 after his death by Encke under the title of the 'Berliner 
 Astronomische Jahrbuch.' In 1778 he published a useful guide to 
 the stars, ' Erlauterung der Stemkunde.' This was followed, in 
 1782, by a work in French, ' Representation des Astres,' consist- 
 ing of thirty-four small maps, on which were represented all the 
 stars visible to the naked eye, and the chief telescopic stars 
 visible in the latitude of Berlin, with a catalogue, and a de- 
 scription of the constellations. In the same year Bode was 
 
 elected fellow of the Berlin Academy, and soon afterwards 
 director of the Berlin Observatory. His observations on Uranus, 
 while still regarded as a star, assisted the elder Herschel in 
 determining the planetary nature of that body. In 1793 ap- 
 peared his sketch of astronomical science, 'Entwurf der Astro- 
 nomischen Wissenschaften,' Berlin, 2nd ed. in 1825 ; and in 1801, 
 'Allgemeine Betrachtungen uber das Weltgebaiide,' Berlin, 3rd 
 ed. in 1834. A larger and more important work was published 
 in Latin, ' Uranographiasive Astrorum descriptio,' Berlin, 1801 ; 
 this work contained, on twenty maps, 17,240 stars and nebulae, 
 being 12,000 more than those contained in any preceding atlas. 
 This production gained admission for Bode into the chief learned 
 societies of Europe, and honours and decorations from sovereigns. 
 A jubilee, or 50th anniversary, of Bode's oflieial connection as 
 astronomer with the Berlin Academy, was held in 1822, and M as 
 attended with very flattering honours to him. Failing health 
 gradually compelled him to resign his active offices ; but he still 
 continued to make the calculations for his Astronomical Ephemeris 
 until his death, which took place on the 23rd of November, 1826. 
 An autobiography of Bode, brought down to his 59th year, was 
 published in Lowe's ' Biographie des Savans,' 1806. 'Bode's 
 Law,' as it is called by astronomers, is an empirical formula 
 relating to planetary distances from the sun. Kepler had 
 observed some numerical peculiarities in those distances; and 
 Bode so far tabulated them as to render apparent a great gap 
 between Mars and Jupiter; and he boldly predicted the probable 
 discovery of some planet that would fill up this gap, at a dis- 
 tance from the sun which he approximately estimated. There 
 have been discovered, between 1801 and 1870, not indeed one 
 large planet, but more than a hundred planetoids, or asteroids 
 which collectively pretty well fulfil Bode's conditions. His law 
 appears, however, to fail in regard to Neptune. 
 
 BODE, JOHANN JOACHIM CHRISTOPH, a remarkable 
 writer, composer, musician, diplomatist, and translator, was born 
 at Brunswick, on the 16th of January, 1730. His father, an old 
 soldier, on quitting the army, worked as a journeyman at a tile- 
 work, m a village between Helmstadt and Brunswick ; and in 
 the village school the boy learned to read and write. After 
 acting as shepherd on the farm of a relation, young Bode at the 
 age of 15, was placed by his uncle with Kroll, the musician • 
 and though his position was little removed from servitude he 
 eagerly availed himself of all opportunities to learn music' in 
 winch he acquired such proficiency as to be able to play on nearly 
 all kinds of instruments. He married early, and had to strusale 
 against much poverty. In 1749 he removed to Helmstadt and 
 placed himself under Stolze, an eminent bassoon-player' In 
 1750 he served as oboist in a Brunswick regiment. A friend 
 Schlabeck, taught him the French and Italian languages ; Stock- 
 hausen taught him English, while he taught himself Latin • 
 acquirements which were of great value to him in later years' 
 He returned to Brunswick, but being disappointed in the hope of 
 engagement at the Court Chapel, he removed to Hanover in 
 1752, where he obtained the post of court oboist at Celle at 
 the same time studying musical composition. He published 
 two lyrical collections, ' Scherz-und-Emsthafte Oden und Lieder ' 
 On the death of his wife, in 1757, Bode removed to Hamburg 
 where he established himself as a teacher of music and lamr U acret' 
 and translated many tales and dramas from the Emdish and 
 French. In 1762-3 he edited the ' Hamburger Correspondent™ ' 
 m which his musical criticisms attracted much attention 
 Having about this period become a freemason, he entered with 
 much zeal into the interests of the craft, and travelled exten- 
 sively about Germany to acquire information, gradually collectin" 
 a library of 800 volumes on the subject. When Weisshaupt 
 founded the singular ' Ulumiiiatenorden,' or Society of Illumi- 
 nati, Bode became one of the members, and remained so until 
 the suppression of the order. Meanwhile he supported himself 
 by directing concerts, conducting orchestras, and giving music 
 lessons. Having, by a second marriage, acquired some pro- 
 perty, he bore the expense of printing Lessing's ' Dramaturgic ; ' 
 and being again made a widower, he married the widow°of 'a 
 bookseller named Bohn. Lessuig and he joined in establishing 
 a printing and publishing business for high-class books ; but 
 neither of them being versed in the ways of trade, the under- 
 taking failed. His translations attracted great notice by their 
 excellence. Among them were Sterne's ' Sentimental Journey,' 
 hi' 1768 ; Smollett's 'Tristram Shandy,' in 1774; Goldsmith's 
 'Vicar of Wakefield,' in 1776; and Fielding's 'Tom Jones,' in 
 1786 ; together with Smollett's ' Humphrey Clinker,' Mar- 
 montel's ' Incas,' Montaigne's ' Essays,' Clavigo's ' Pensador,' &c 
 In 1778 he went to Weimar, and accepted the post of geschafts- 
 
267 
 
 BOGDANOVICH, HIPPOLYTE. 
 
 268 
 
 fuhrer, or man of business, to the Countess of Bernstorf ; this 
 brought him several diplomatic honours from the petty courts of 
 Germany. In 1787 he visited Paris, deputed by the freemasons 
 of Germany to become acquainted with the Society Philalethes, 
 and to investigate the origin and history of the masonic order. 
 On his return to Saxony he published a pamphlet, 'Mehr Noten 
 als Text,' against a specious plan of public education which had 
 been submitted to him at Weimar. When about to commence a 
 translation of Rabelais, he died, on the 13th of December, 1793, 
 at Weimar. As a composer, Bode left behind him several solos, 
 concertos, and symphonies ; but he is chiefly remembered for his 
 excellent translations, which are highly esteemed in Germany. 
 A memoir of him by Btittigcr, ' Bode's literarisches Leben,' was 
 published at Berlin in 1796. 
 
 BODEMER, JAKOB, a distinguished German enameller, was 
 bom in 1777, at Nottingen, near Carlsruhe, learned the ai t of 
 enamelling at ( leneva, and went to Vienna, where he completed his 
 studies under Fiiger and other professors in the Academy. His 
 enamels, which are in great request with collectors, are remark- 
 able for technical excellence as well as artistic taste. Many of 
 them are reductions of celebrated works by the great painters, 
 but he also executed portraits. He died at Vienna in 1824. 
 
 BODIN, JEAN, a French political writer, was born at Angers 
 about 1530. After having studied law at Toulouse, he endea- 
 voured to establish himself as an advocate at Paris; but, dis- 
 satisfied with the slowness of his professional advancement, he 
 abandoned law for literature. In 1555 he published a Latin 
 verse translation of Oppian's ' Cynegctica,' with a commentary, a 
 work in which it has been charged that he made an unfair use of the 
 then recently published edition of Turnebus. Bodin en joyed for 
 a short time the favour of Henri III., and when this declined, 
 secured that of the Duke of Alencon, witli whom he visited both 
 England and Flanders. In 1576 he retired to Laon, where he 
 married ; and in the same year was deputed by the tiers etat of 
 Vermandois to the States-General. He fulfilled the duties of his 
 office with much independence, and declared for liberty of con- 
 science with such vigour as to alienate the king, who refused to 
 complete his appointment to a place actually promised to him. 
 He continued accordingly to reside at Laon, and by his personal 
 influence caused that town to declare successively for the League 
 and for Henri IV. Bodin died at Laon, of the plague, in the 
 year 1596. 
 
 His works comprise ' Methodus ad facilem Historiarum Cogni- 
 tionem,' 4to, Paris, 1566, 8vo, Lyon, 1583 and 1595, 8vo, Basel, 
 1679, &c, a book with small claims to either method or judg- 
 ment ; ' De la Demonomanie, ou, Traite ties Sorciers,' 4to, Paris, 
 1580 and 1586, translated into Latin, almost immediately after 
 its publication, by Francis Junius, and into Italian by the 
 Cavalier Hercole Cato, 4to, Venice, 1587 and 1592, a Avork which 
 favours and fosters popular superstitions ; and ' Universal Naturae 
 Theatrum, in quo Rerum omnium Effectrices, Causae, et Fines, 
 contemplantur,' 8vo, Lyon, 1596, 8vo, Frankfurt, 1597, &c, a 
 work of posthumous publication, which has been considered by 
 some as a specimen of disguised Pantheism ; and ' Heptaplomeres 
 de abditis rerum sublimium Arcanis,' which, long suffered to 
 remain in manuscript, was at length published for the first time 
 by G. E. Guhrauer, 8vo, Berlin, 1841. But the most important 
 of Bodin's productions, and that by which he is most favourably 
 known, is that entitled 'Six Livres de la Republique/ folio, 
 Paris, 1576, folio, Lyon, 1580, 8vo, Lyon, 1593, &c, in which the 
 author has based his principles upon examples drawn from uni- 
 versal history, and of which he owes many of the most striking 
 ideas, without thinking it necessary to acknowledge the obliga- 
 tion, to the ' Politics ' of Aristotle. A Latin translation of this 
 work was done by the author himself, and went through several 
 editions, folio, Lyon, 1586, 8vo, Frankfurt, 1591 and 1594, &c. 
 Italian and Spanish versions appeared respectively at Geneva, 
 folio, 1588, and Turin, folio, 1590. An English translation by 
 Richard Knolles was entitled ' The Six Bookes of a Conunon- 
 Weale, out of the French and Latin copies,' folio, London, 1606. 
 Amongst the works which have recently been published illus- 
 trative of Bodin and his times may be mentioned Colombel's 
 'Jean Bodin, suite des etudes sur le 16me Siecle,' Nantes, 1845; 
 and ' Jean Bodin et son temps. Tableau des Theories politiques 
 et des Idees economiques au seizieme Siecle,' 8vo, Paris, 1853, by 
 M. Henri Baudrillart. 
 
 * BODMER, GEORG, a skilful Swiss mechanician, was born 
 at Zurich in December, 1786. At the age of 16 he was placed 
 under a millwright at Hauptweil in Thurgau. In 1803 he in- 
 vented an improvement in wheel-gearing, and in 1805 several 
 improvements in cotton-spinning machinery. Soon after this 
 
 he established a machine factory at Kussnacht, in the canton 
 Zurich. Here, in 1808, he constructed a 1-pounder breech- 
 loading cannon, which discharged shells provided with some 
 kind of percussion fuse. He next settled at St. Blasien in Baden, 
 where he conducted an extensive manufacture of cannon and 
 machinery for Baden, Switzerland, and France. In 1816 he was 
 appointed captain of artillery, and was also much employed bv 
 the government of Baden till 1822. Returning to Switzerland, 
 and remaining a short time there, he then came to England, 
 where he established a factory for machines and machine-tools at 
 Manchester. He made great improvements in cotton-spinning 
 machines, which he grouped under the collective name of 
 ' bandvereinigungs-system,' and for which he obtained patents 
 in England, France, Austria, the Netherlands, and the United 
 States of America. He also took out many patents for improve- 
 ments in machine-tools, made locomotives, as well as land and 
 marine steam-engines, and constructed a water-wheel at Bolton 
 61 feet in diameter. After remaining in England about a quarter 
 of a century, Bodmer went in 1847 to Austria, where he was 
 concerned in the construction of the government railways, es- 
 pecially the SbmmerLng incline over the Alps. 
 
 BtECKH, AUGUST [E. C. vol. i. col. 737]. This distinguished 
 scholar and archaeologist died at Berlin on the 3rd of August, 
 1867, in his 82nd year. 
 
 BOETTCHER or BOETTGER. [Bottgeh, E.C.S.] 
 
 BOFFRAND, GERMAIN, a celebrated French architect, 
 was born at Nantes, May the 7th, 1667. The son of a sculptor, 
 he was at a suitable age sent to Paris to study design with a 
 view to following the profession of his father, but his own in- 
 clination was much stronger for architecture, and by the kind- 
 ness of Mansard he was enabled to take his own course. Under 
 Mansard he made rapid progress and was entrusted to supervise 
 the erection of several of his great works. He began practice 
 for himself with good prospects of success, and they were amply 
 fulfilled. He erected many important buildings in Germany as 
 well as in France, and executed some considerable engineering 
 works. Of the chief of these he has given plans and elevations 
 in his ' Livre d'Architecture contenant les piincipes generaux de 
 cet art, et les plans, elevations et profils de rpielques-uns des 
 batiments faits en France et dans le pays etrangers,' folio, Paris, 
 1745. His architectural principles are founded, seemingly, on 
 Horace's principles of poetiy ; his professional admiration is 
 however wholly given to Palladio, in whose style most of his 
 buildings are avowedly designed : but his Palladian is very 
 French. Boffrand lived at a time when French taste was rapidly 
 decaying. He protested against the corruptions which were 
 gaining ground in architectural design, but he did not escape 
 their influence. In Paris he built the hotels Guerchy, de Dirras, 
 de Tingri, and de Voyer, the houses of Le Brun, the painter, of 
 M. de Montaran and the vast structure for the Enfans-Trouve, 
 in the me Notre-Dame ; and added to or embellished several 
 others, particularly the interior of the Hotel Soubise. Other 
 works of his are the Palace of Nancy, the Hotel de Craon, at 
 Nancy, the Chateau de Harroue in Lorraine, the Chateau de 
 Luneville erected as a summer residence for Leopold I. Duke 
 of Lorraine ; the famous Puits de Bicetre ; the gates of the 
 Hotel de Villars and the Petit Luxembourg ; and the bridges of 
 Sens and of Montereau. He also directed the construction of 
 several canals and hydraulic works, and of various buildings in 
 Germany and Flanders. He was elected member of the Academy 
 in 1709. At his death, which occurred in Paris, on the 18th of 
 March, 1754, he was dean of the Academy of Architecture, pen- 
 sionnaire of the royal buildings, and chief engineer of the 
 bridges and highways of France. Besides the ' Livre d'Archi- 
 tecture' mentioned above, M. Boffrand pubUshed a treatise 
 written, like his larger work, in Latin and French, entitled 
 ' Description de ce qui a ete pratique pour fondre en bronze 
 d'un seul jet la figure equestre de Louis XIV., elevee par la ville 
 de Paris dans la place de Louis-le-grand en 1699,' with 19 plates, 
 folio, Paris, 1699, a work now rare, the plates having been des- 
 troyed when 200 impressions were taken. M. Boffrand, who 
 was of a lively disposition, also wrote some comedies which were 
 acted in the Theatre of the Comediens Italiens, and printed in 
 the ' Theatre ' of Gherardi, but though enjoyed at the time they 
 have long been obsolete. 
 
 BOGDANOVICH, HIPPOLYTE, an eminent Russian 
 author, was born at Perevoltchna, in Little Russia, December 28, 
 1743 ; and was in 1754 sent to Moscow to complete his educa- 
 tion, with a view to the military service. By the time he had 
 entered on his 15th year he had, however, imbibed so strong a 
 taste for the stage, that he applied to Kheraskoff, then superin- 
 
263 . BOHTLINGK, OTTO. 
 
 tendent of the theatre, for employment as an actor. Kheraskoff 
 as wisely as kindly dissuaded him from his design, took him 
 into his house, induced him to continue his attendance at the 
 university, and undertook to guide his studies in poetry and 
 general literature. He now made rapid progress ; in 1761 was 
 appointed class inspector in the university, and in 1765 translator 
 in the office of foreign affairs. The following year he went, as 
 secretary of legation, to Dresden ; where he commenced the 
 poem which made him famous. He returned to St. Petersburg 
 in 1768, and, whilst continuing in the civil service, edited a 
 journal called ' Innocent Amusement,' and contributed to other 
 periodicals. In 1780 he was nominated member, and in 1788 
 president, of the commission of the imperial archives. He was 
 allowed to retire in 1795, when he returned to Little Russia, 
 settling finally at Koursk, where he died, on the 6th of January, 
 1803. 'Dooshinka,' the Little Soul, the poem by which his 
 fame was established, was founded partly on the fable of 
 Apuleius, but mainly on the Psyche of La Fontaine ; but much 
 of it is original, and it displays considerable imagination and 
 poetic feeling. Many critics assign it a higher place than the 
 pieces from which it originated, and it is still one of the most 
 esteemed and popular of the older Russian poems. Bogdano- 
 vich composed several dramatic pieces for the Empress Catharine, 
 wrote various minor poems, and translated Voltaire's ' Ode on 
 the Destruction of Lisbon ; ' but his fame rests on his ' Doosh- 
 inka.' His prose works comprise a ' Description of Russia,' 
 1777 ; a 'Selection of Russian Proverbs/ 1 785 ; and a transla- 
 tion of Vertot's ' Histoire des Revolutions de la Republique 
 Romaine/ 1771. His collected works were published in 6 vols. 
 Moscow, 1809 — 10 ; 2nd ed. in 4 vols. 1818. Specimens of his 
 poetry are given in Sir John Bowring's ' Russian Anthology.' 
 
 * BOHTLINGK, OTTO, a distinguished Russian Orientalist, 
 was born on the 30th of May, 1815, at St. Petersburg, and was 
 descended from a German family of Liibeck. He was educated 
 successively at St. Petersburg and at Dorpat ; and in 1835 
 repaired to Germany in order to avail himself of the teaching of 
 the learned Oriental scholars of Berlin and Bonn. After a stay 
 of seven years in Germany he returned to Russia, where he pre- 
 sently obtained a chair in the Academy of Sciences of St. Peters- 
 burg, and the titular dignity of Councillor of State. 
 
 Bohtlingk has applied himself especially to the grammar of 
 the Sanscrit language, and has published in connection there- 
 with an edition of Panini's ' Eight Books of Grammatical Rules/ 
 2 vols. Bonn, 1840; Remarks on the Second Edition of Franz 
 Bopp's Critical Grammar of the Sanscrit Language, ' Bemerkungen 
 zur zweiten Ausgabe von Fr. Bopp's Kritischer Grammatik der 
 Sanskritsprache in Kurzerer Fassung. Erster Artikel/ 8vo, St. 
 Petersburg, 1845; Sanscrit Declension, 'Die Declination im 
 Sanskrit/ 4to, St. Petersburg, 1844; A first Essay upon the 
 Accent in Sanscrit, 'Ein erster Versuch fiber den Accent im 
 Sanskrit/ 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1843; an edition of the Sanscrit 
 text, with a German translation and commentary, of Sakuntala, 
 'Kalidasa's Ring-^akuntala/ 8vo, Bonn, 1842; ' Sanskrit-Chres- 
 tomathie/ 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1845; ' Hermakandra's Abhi- 
 danakintamani/ 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1847, a systematic Lexicon of 
 Synonyms, edited, translated, and annotated jointly by Bohtlingk 
 and C. Rieu. Dr. Bohtlingk has likewise contributed to the ' Me- 
 moiresde l'Acaduinie Imperiale desSciences de Saint-Petersbourg/ 
 and especially a work which afterwards enjoyed a separate 
 publication, ' Die Unadi-Affixe ;' and a dissertation, afterwards 
 separately published in 1851, on the Language of the Jakutes, 
 ' Ueber die Sprache der Jakuten. Grammatik, Text und Wor- 
 terbuch/ to Alexander von Middendorff's Journey to Siberia, 
 ' Reise in den iiussersten Norden und Osten Sibiriens/ 4to, St. 
 Petersburg, 1847, &c. Jointly with Rodolph Roth, Dr. Bohtlingk 
 has compiled a Dictionary of the Sanscrit Language, 'Sanskrit- 
 Worterbuch/ 4to, St. Petersburg, 1853. His last contribution 
 to Oriental science has taken the form of a work, in 3 parts, on 
 Indian Aphorisms, 'Indische Spruche. Sanskrit und Deutseh/ 
 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1863, 1864, and 1865. 
 
 BOHUN, EDMUND, a political writer of some notoriety in 
 the latter part of the 17th century, was born on the 12th of 
 March, 1645, at Ringsfield, near Beccles, Suffolk, of a family long 
 settled at Westhall Hall, in that county. In 1663 he was admitted 
 fellow-commoner of Queen's College, Cambridge, but left on 
 account of the plague in 1666. He was sworn justice of the 
 peace for Suffolk in 1675, and for some years led the life of a 
 country gentleman, his leisure hours being given to literature ; 
 but monetary difficulties forced him to London, and no more 
 profitable employment offering, he turned to literature as a 
 regular pursuit. His writings were much read, admired, and 
 
 BOICEAU, JEAN. 270 
 
 censured when they appeared, bat they have no intrinsic value, 
 and would have passed into oblivion long ago but for their con- 
 nection with a singular phase of religious and political opinion. 
 Bohun was one of the last and strongest supporters of the theory 
 of passive obedience in Church and State, and he reprinted Sir 
 Robert Filmer's ' Patriarcha/ and defended Filmer's position ; 
 but when James II. had abdicated his throne and quitted the 
 kingdom, Bohun held that as a good citizen he was bound to 
 transfer his allegiance to William and Mary, who were by right 
 of conquest, as well as by the acceptance of the legislature, 
 de facto king and queen. The writings he issued to this purpose 
 did not convince his high-church friends, who had previously 
 held him in much esteem, but procured for him, 1692, the office 
 of licenser of the press in succession to Fraser. He held it, how- 
 ever, only five months, and the office ceased with his tenure of 
 it. The circumstances which led to his dismissal are narrated 
 under Blount, Charles [E. C. S. col. 261]. Blount's treatise 
 ' William and Mary Conqueror ' was brought to Bohun on the 
 9th of January, 1693, by Bentley, the bookseller, who did not 
 know the name of the author. " I read it over that day and the 
 next with incredible satisfaction," wrote Bohun in his ' Auto- 
 biography/ " finding it well written, close argument, modest, full 
 of reason ; and which I believed could not faile to satisfy great 
 numbers of the non-swearers, for whose sake only it was written." 
 He gave his licence, and the book was published. Unluckily 
 for Bohun, instead of satisfying anybody it raised a storm in 
 which he was wrecked. On the 20th of January the notice of 
 the House of Commons was called to the publication, and as the 
 work was anonymous, the licenser was ordered into custody ; 
 the next day he was examined at the bar of the House ; on the 
 23rd the Commons and on the 24th the Lords condemned the 
 book and ordered it to be burned by the common hangman, and 
 sent up an address to the Throne for the removal of the licenser 
 from his office ; and on the 28th the Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 having signified to the Houses that his Majesty had given orders 
 for his dismissal from his employment, Bohun was " upon his 
 knees before the House " reprimanded by the Speaker and dis- 
 charged out of custody. He had now nothing but his pen to 
 depend upon, for his country property was deeply involved, but 
 in 1698 he was, through what interest is unknown, made Chief 
 Justice of South Carolina, with the munificent salary of 60/. 
 a year. It would seem, however, that there were fees as well as 
 salary, for not long after his installation he was officially warned 
 not to take more than his dues. But he enjoyed neither long. 
 An epidemic of small-pox and fever visited Charleston, and 
 Bohun was one of its victims. He died on the 5th of October, 
 1699. Bohun's most noteworthy writings are : — ' An Address to 
 the Freemen and Freeholders of the Nation/ 1682 ; ' The Justice 
 of the Peace and his Calling/ 1684, 2nd ed. 1693 ; ' A Defence of 
 Sir Robert Filmer against Algernon Sidney's Paper delivered to 
 the Sheriffs upon the Scaffold/ 8vo, 1684; Preface to Filmer's 
 'Patriarcha/ 1685; 'Life of Bishop Jewel/ prefixed to his 
 'Apology/ 1685 ; translation of Le Clerc's Bibliotheque (Jan. — 
 March, 1687) ; ' Geographical Dictionary/ 1688, 2nd ed. 1691 ; 
 translations of Sleidan's ' General History of the Reformation/ 
 and of Puffendorf's 'De Statu Germanici Imperii/ 1690; 'The 
 character of the Queen Elizabeth and of her principal Ministers of 
 State/ 1693 ; 'Historical, Geographical, and Political Dictionary/ 
 folio, 1694 ; and various tracts. After Iris death appeared an edi- 
 tion largely augmented and continued by Bohun of Heylin's 
 ' Cosmogony/ folio, 1703 ; and in 1705 his 'Doctrine of Passive 
 Obedience.' 1 The Diary and Autobiography of Edmund Bohun, 
 Esq.,' was published for the first time in 1853, with an Intro- 
 ductory Memoir, Notes, and Illustrations by S. W. Rix, which 
 has supplied many of the dates and facts in this notice. 
 
 BOICEAU, JEAN, a French jurist, was born at the beginning 
 of the 16th century at Poitiers, and died in the same city on the 
 14th of April, 1589. He practised as an advocate in the Pre- 
 sidial, a court which had the power of final judgment, without 
 appeal, in civil causes involving no more than a specified sum of 
 money. He acquired considerable reputation by the publication 
 of a commentary on the ordinance of Moulins, which was passed 
 in 1566, and had the effect of limiting to 100 livres the amount 
 over which the Presidial courts had jurisdiction, with the title 
 ' Ad Legem regiam Molinseis habitant de abrogatu testium, a 
 libra centena Probatione Commentarius/ 8vo, Poitiers, 1582. 
 This work is remarkable for the clearness and excellence of its 
 method, and the additions which have been made to it in various 
 issues have scarcely touched its general plan or its principles. 
 The ' Commentarius ' of Boiceau was translated into French by 
 Gabriel Michel, and printed at the end of the ' Paraphrase de 
 
271 
 
 Gilles Bourdin but l'ordonnance de l'an 1539, traduite par Antoine 
 Fontenon,' 8vo, Paris, 1600, 1606, and 1615. The best edition of 
 Boiceau is that of Danty, which gave both the Latin and French 
 texts, and was published, with observations and additions, in 
 4to, Paris, 1696; and which was seven times reprinted in the 
 course of the 18th century. 
 
 Boiceau had the misfortune to lose his sight, a deprivation 
 which did not put a stop either to his consultations or his forensic 
 practice. He sought to amuse himself by the composition of 
 verses in Latin and French, but as a poet he never achieved a 
 great reputation. His productions in this kind are an ' Eglogue 
 pastorale sur le vol de l'Aigle en France, par le moyen de la 
 Pais,' 16mo, Lyon, 1539 ; and ' Le Monologue de Robin qui a 
 perdu son proces,' Poitiers, 1555. The last is a satire upon the 
 litigious tendencies of the Poitevins, in whose dialect it was 
 written. 
 
 * BOIS-DUVAL, JEAN ALPHONSE, French entomologist, 
 was born June 17, 1801, at Ticheville, a small village in the de- 
 partment of Ome, and was educated first at Vimoutier, next at 
 Rouen, and finally at Paris. In 1824 he won the prizes awarded 
 at the Ecole de Pharmacie for proficiency in botany and natural 
 history, and in 1828 he was made a doctor of medicine. His first 
 publication was a ' Notice sur cinq especes nouvelles de Lepi- 
 dopteres d'Europe,' which appeared in the Memoirs of the 
 Linnean Society of Paris for 1827, and was indicative of his 
 future line of study. From this time he seems to have been 
 actively engaged in researches on butterflies, for in 1829 no fewer 
 than three lepidopterological works in which he had a hand issued 
 from the press. One was entirely by himself, viz., an ' Essai sur 
 une Monographic des Zygenides sum du tableau nu'thodique des 
 Lepidopteres d'Europe ; ' another was executed in conjunction 
 with Count Dejean, and was a work giving figures of the European 
 beetles ; and the third was the 'Histoire generale et Icono- 
 graphie des Lepidopteres et des Chenilles de l'Amerique septen- 
 trionale,' in which his co-worker was J. Leconte, and the issuing 
 of which in parts commenced in the above-mentioned year. 
 His attention, however, was not confined to butterflies and 
 beetles, for in 1828 there appeared a 1 Flora franchise,' in 3 vols., 
 18mo, forming portion of the Roret encyclopaedic series of 
 manuals. In 1830 was commenced the publication of Iris 
 ' Faune entomologique de l'ocean pacifique,' one of the series of 
 works illustrative of Dumont D'Urville's scientific voyage in the 
 Astrolabe. The second volume appeared in 1834, and in 1835 
 he received the Cross of the Legion of Honour for his services 
 in connection with the Astrolabe, and for his efforts in repelling 
 cholera. This work was only one of several which he was 
 carrying on at the same time. Thus in 1832 appeared the first 
 part of a large illustrated work on the caterpillars of Europe, 
 in which he was aided by Rambur and Graslin ; and which was 
 finished in 1843. In 1832 also he commenced the publication 
 of his 'Icones historique des Lepidopteres nouveaux ou peu 
 connu, Collection des papillons d'Europe nouvellementdecouverte, 
 ouvrages formant le complement de tous les auteurs iconographes,' 
 of which the 42nd part was issued in 1834, and we believe it 
 then stopped. In 1833 appeared his 'Faune entomologique de 
 Madagascar, Bourbon, et Maurice Lepidopteres.' In 1836 we 
 have his ' Histoire generale des Insectes. Especes gen6rales des 
 Lepidopteres,' forming portion of the ' Suites a Button.' After 
 this his literary efforts seem to have slackened, for little has 
 issued from his pen, except occasional short papers in the 'An- 
 nales de la Societ6 Entomologique de France' (his contributions 
 to which extend from 1832 to 1868) ; a note or two inGoumain- 
 Cornille's 'La Savoie,' of which the first edition appeared in 1 864, 
 and the third in 1866 ; a new edition of the ' Nouveau Manuel 
 complet des destructeurs des animaux nuisibles,' 1847 ; and an 
 ' Essai sur l'Entomologie horticole comprenant l'histoire des Insectes 
 nuisibles a l'Horticulture,' &c, 1867 ; which is a thick octavo 
 volume, containing a popular account of the gardener's insect 
 foes and friends, and the best way of getting rid of the former. 
 
 BOISGELIN, JEAN DE DIEU RAYMOND DE OUCE 
 DE, a French theologian and cardinal, a member of an ancient 
 family of Bretagne, was born at Rennes on the 27th of February, 
 1732. He abandoned the birthright which fell to him by the 
 death of his elder brother in order to devote himself unreservedly 
 to the church. He was appointed successively to be grand-vicar 
 of Pontoise, Bishop of Lavaur in 1765, and in 1770 Archbishop 
 of Aix. The last-named city owes much to his skill and bene- 
 volence ; and as deputy of the clergy of his province, in 1789, he 
 had many opportunities, in his place in the States-General, of 
 exhibiting his prudence and moderation. At the Session of the 
 Constituent Assembly a constitutional archbishop was named to 
 
 the province of Aix, and M. de Boisgelin retired to England, 
 from which he did not return to France until after the signature 
 of the concordat. In 1802 he was raised to the archbishopric of 
 Tours, and shortly after, 1803, was promoted to the cardinalate. 
 He died on the 22nd of August, 1804. To his prelatic and 
 administrative ability, M. de Boisgelin added the culture of a 
 man of letters. In 1776 he was appointed a member of the 
 French Academy, in the place of the Abbe de Voisenon. In 
 1765 he delivered the funeral oration over the Dauphin, son of 
 Louis XV.; in 1766 another on Stanislaus Leczinski, King of 
 Poland; and a third on the Dauphine in 1769. His greatest 
 oratorical effort, however, was the sermon he delivered at the 
 coronation of Louis XVI., at Reims, when the popular applause 
 broke through the rules of decorum. The works of Cardinal de 
 Boisgelin comprise 'Art de juger par l'analyse des idees,' 8vo, 
 Paris, 1789; 'Considerations sur la paix publique, adressees au 
 chefs de la Revolution,' 8vo, Paris, 1791 ; ' Discours a, la Cere- 
 monicde la Prestation du Serment des Archeveques et Eveques,' 
 4to, Paris, 1802; ^Exposition des principes sur la constitution 
 du elerge, par les Eveques deputes a l'Assemblee Nationale de 
 France,' 8vo, Paris, 1791 ; an anonymous French translation, in 
 verse, of the ' Heroides d'Ovide,' 8vo, Paris, 1786; ' Memoires 
 pour le Clergd de France, au sujet de la prestation de foi et 
 d'hommage ; avec la reponse de l'inspecteur du domaine,' 8vo, 
 1785 ; ' Precis des conferences des commissaires du elerge" avec 
 les commissaires du conseil,' 4to, and 8vo, Paris, 1786 ; ' Le 
 Psalmiste : Traduction des Psaumes, en vers, precedde d'un dis- 
 cours sur la poesie sacree des Hebreux,' 8vo, London, 1799; 
 besides various poems. His Works were published by M. de 
 Bausset, with the title of ' (Euvres du Cardinal de^ Boisgelin, 
 precedees d'une Notice historique sur la Vie'et les Ecrits de ce 
 Prelat,' 8vo, Paris, 1818; and his 'OZuvres oratoires completes' 
 find a place in the Abbe Migne's ' Collection Integrale et Uni- 
 verselle des Orateurs Sacres,' 4to, Paris, 1844, &c. 
 
 BOISGELIN, LOUIS BRUNO, COMTE DE, a French 
 diplomatist, and brother of the cardinal, through whose self- 
 abnegation he became head of his house, was born at Rennes in 
 1733. He embraced the profession of aims, and through suc- 
 cessive grades became in 1762 colonel of the Lorraine Guards, 
 and brigadier and field-marshal in 1780. He was also " Maitre 
 de la garde-robe" and "Chevalier du Saint-Esprit;" and was sent 
 as minister plenipotentiary to the court of Parma. He was 
 " baron des etats de Bretagne," and in this position made himself 
 remarkable for the energy he displayed in the assembly held 
 under his presidency in 1789. He persistently refused a seat in 
 the States-General, and during the revolution sought conceal- 
 ment and security. But in this object he was unsuccessful, for 
 he was arrested, imprisoned in the Luxembourg, condemned, and 
 executed on the 7th of July, 1794. 
 
 BOISSEREE, SULPIZ, [E. C. vol. i. coL 751] died on the 
 2nd of May, 1854. His brother, Melchior Boisseree, noticed 
 in the above biography as having shared in all the labours of his 
 brother, was born on the 23rd of April, 1786, and died on the 
 14th of May, 1851. His specialty was glass-painting, and to his 
 example and influence the royal glass-painting establishment at 
 Munich is largely indebted for its present high character. Their 
 friend and coadjutor, Jean Baptiste Bertram (born in 1776) 
 died at Munich in 1841. 
 
 * BOISSIER, EDMOND, Swiss botanist. He was born at 
 Geneva in 1810, and in 1837 commenced a series of tours through 
 various parts of Europe for the purpose of studying and collect- 
 ing plants, more especially those of which little had previously 
 been known. The results obtained were embodied in papers con- 
 tributed from time to time to the ' Annales des Sciences Naturelles 
 (Bot.),' and in the separate works entitled 'Voyage botanique 
 dans le Midi de l'Espagne pendant l'annee 1837/2 vols. 1839 — 
 1845; 'Elenchusplantarum novarum minusque cognitarum quasi 
 in itinere Hispanico legit E. B.,' 1840; and ' Diagnoses plantarum 
 Orientalium,' 1st series, 2 vols. 1842 — 1854; 2nd series, 1853, &c. 
 
 BOISSONADE, JEAN FRANCOIS. [E. C. vol. i. col. 751.] 
 M. Boissonade died on the 12th of September, 1857, at the ripe 
 age of 83. Since 1840 he had held the rank of officer of the 
 Legion of Honour. In 1863 was published a selection from his 
 early contributions to the ' Journal des Debats, in two volumes, 
 8vo, under the title ' Critique Litteraire sous le premier Empire,' 
 with an historical introduction by M. Naudet. 
 
 BOISSY" D'ANGLAS, COMTE FRANCOIS- ANTOINE 
 DE, one of the most active participants in the great French 
 Revolution, was born of a Protestant family at St. Jean-Chambre, 
 department of Ardeche, on the 8th of December, 1756. After 
 studying at Annonay, he was admitted to the faculty of advo- 
 
273 
 
 BOIVIN, RENE. 
 
 BOLZANO, BERN HARD. 
 
 27J 
 
 cates at Paris, tut did not practise at the bar. Fer a time he 
 ' was maitre d 'hotel to Monsieur, afterwards Louis X VIII., and was 
 on terms of intimacy with Malesherbes and with the two Mont- 
 golfiers. Alter publishing an 'Adresse au Peuple Langue- 
 docien' in 1789, he was elected to the States-General as deputy 
 for Annonay. In 1790 he published 'Adresse a mes Concitoyens,' 
 expressing hopes for a peaceful issue of liberal reforms, speaking 
 well of the king, and deprecating violence. In 1791 appeared his 
 • Observations sur l'ouvrage de M. de Calonne, intitule de l'etat 
 de la France present et a venir, et, a- son occasion, sur les prin- 
 cipalis actes de l'Assemblee Nationale, avec un postscrit sur les 
 derniers ecrits de MM. Mounier et Lally.' In the same year he 
 was elected Secretary of the National Assembly. Next, during a 
 temporary absence from the Legislature, he acted as procureur- 
 syndic of Ardeche, in which office he displayed firmness and 
 judgment. In 1792, after publishing a pamphlet, ' Boissy 
 d'Anglas k Thomas Raynal,' refuting certain accusations, he 
 manifested an increasing tendency towards revolutionary views, 
 in an essay, 'Quelques idees sur la liberie, la revolution, le 
 gouvernement republicain, et la constitution Frangaise.' In the 
 same year he was elected member of the National Convention 
 for Ardeche. When on the war committee he wrote ' Rapport 
 sur l'arrestation de Bidermann,' and several other papers on 
 the army organisation of the period. In 1793 he voted for the 
 safe keeping of the hapless king, but against his execution ; 
 nevertheless he soon afterwards published ' De Notre Situation 
 presente et future,' a sort of apology for having differed from the 
 majority. He voted with the Girondists against the Jacobins ; and 
 wrote ' Lettre au Citoyen Dumont ' against the violence of the 
 extreme party. During the Reign of Terror he remained nearly 
 silent. In February, 1794, as member of the Committee of Public 
 Instruction, he addressed to the Convention ' Quelques idees sur 
 les Arts, sur la necessite de les encourager, sur les institutions qui 
 peuvent en assurer le perfectionnement, et sur divers etablisse- 
 lnents necessaires a l'enseignement public ; ' this, with other 
 addresses and reports, were ordered by the Convention to be 
 printed. In October of the same year he became Secretary to 
 the Convention ; and in December a member of the Committee 
 of Public Safety. In the last-named office one of his duties was 
 to attend to the victualling of Paris during the dearth of the winter 
 1794 — 5, in which he displayed much energy and tact. He con- 
 tinued to publish numerous reports and letters. The influence of 
 Boissy d'Anglas was much increased by the line of policy which 
 he followed in 1795, bringing about the downfall of Robespierre 
 and the Jacobins, and reinstituting more moderate measures. 
 The Executive Directory, then founded, made him Secretary of 
 the Council of Five Hundred, of which body he became president 
 in 1796, writing and speaking very frequently on various public 
 topics. He fell into disfavour with the Directory, however, in 
 1797, and did not take part again in public affairs till 1800, 
 when the influence of Napoleon gave a new turn to his writings 
 and speeches. He was made president of the tribunat in 1803, 
 senator in 1804 (with the title of count), grand cordon of the 
 Legion of Honour in 1811, and commissary extraordinary in pro- 
 viding for the defence of the south-west of France against the 
 English in 1814. He kept in favour with the ruling powers during 
 the changes of 1814 — 15, was made a peer, and was admitted 
 into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1816. During all changes 
 the writings of Boissy d'Anglas on public questions were 
 numerous. His death took place on the 20th of October, 1826. 
 He published many of his miscellaneous writings under the title 
 ' Etudes litteraires et poetiques, d'un vieillard, ou Recueil de 
 divers ecrits en vers et en prose,' 6 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1825. 
 
 BOIVIN, or BOYV1N, RENE, known also as RENATUS, 
 a celebrated early French engraver, was born at Angers in 1530. 
 Having acquired an elementary knowledge of design, he went to 
 Rome, where he appears to have resided for the greater part of 
 his life ; but he visited Germany and executed portraits of the 
 more celebrated Reformers, and eventually returned to France, 
 where he is believed to have died in 1598. The dates of his 
 engravings extend, according to Passavant, between 1558 and 
 1580. His works are unequal, but the best of them have great 
 spirit. Among the most prized are his prints after Primaticcio ; 
 4 Francis I. approaching the Temple of Immortality,' after 
 Rossi ; the portrait of Henry II. ; the engravings to the 'Toison 
 d'Or' of Prince Jason of Thessaly ; 12 plates of the Ancient 
 Philosophers and Poets ; portrait of Clement Marot ; Agar and 
 Ishmael ; and the Dutch Breakfast, after Metzu. 
 
 * BOLCKOW, HENRY WILLIAM FERDINAND, closely 
 connected with the development of the iron manufacture of the 
 Cleveland district in Yorkshire, was born in Mecklenburg- 
 bioo. div. — sur. 
 
 Schwerin in 1804. He arrived in England in 1827, and after 
 some years became senior partner in the now eminent firm of 
 Bolckow and Vaughan, who established iron-works at Middles- 
 borough in 1841. They took a keen interest in the discovery of 
 good iron ore in the neighbouring Cleveland hills. Iron smelting 
 is known to have been carried on in that district in early times ; 
 but early in the present century all records had been lost con- 
 cerning the exact locality whence the ore had been obtained. 
 At various times between 1800 and 1850 beds had been dis- 
 covered, but not of such quality as to induce smelters to use 
 the ironstone to any great extent. At length, in the last-named 
 year, Mr. Vaughan discovered a bed 16 feet thick, exceedingly 
 rich in protoxide of iron, close to the present busy town of Eston, 
 near Middlesborough ; and between 1850 and 1870 the whole 
 district has grown in wealth and population at a rate scarcely 
 equalled in any other part of England. The chief firm, Messrs. 
 Bolckow and Vaughan (whose partnership has recently been con- 
 verted into a limited liability company), are the owners of 
 smelting-works on a vast scale, together with collieries, lime- 
 stone quarries, machine-works, gas-works, and brick-works. Mr. 
 Bolckow, who became a naturalised British subject in 1841, has 
 been closely connected with the rising prosperity of Middles- 
 borough. When the town received its charter of incorporation 
 in 1853, he became its first mayor ; when it received the par- 
 liamentary franchise in 1868, he became its first member of 
 parliament. He is a magistrate of Middlesborough, a county 
 magistrate for Durham and the North Riding of Yorkshire, and. 
 deputy-lieutenant of the Riding. He has laid out 20,000^. in 
 forming the Albert public park at Middlesborough. This park 
 was opened with great ceremonial on the 11th of August, 1868, 
 by H.R.H. Prince Arthur, who slept at Marton Hall, the resi- 
 dence of Mr. Bolckow, on the preceding night. On the next day 
 an iron rail, stamped in the rolling-mill with the inscription 
 " His Royal Highness Prince Arthur. 1868," was made in his 
 presence in the Bolckow mills, of iron obtained from the Bolckow 
 mines, and smelted at the Bolckow furnaces. 
 
 * BOLINTINEANO, DEMETRIUS, a Roumanian poet, was 
 born in 1826 at Bolintina, near Bucharest, in which city he 
 studied at the college of St. Sava. He entered the service of 
 the State, but his poems, several of which had appeared in 
 the public journals, having attracted the interest of wealthy 
 friends, he was sent in 1847 to complete his studies at Paris. 
 The revolutionary movements of the following year recalled him 
 to Bucharest, where for some months he edited the ' Populul 
 Suverano,' a journal published in the interests of the national 
 democratic party. The success of the reactionary party forced 
 him to flight, and he sought refuge successively in France and 
 in Turkey. Under Prince Couza, he was summoned, in May, 
 1861, to undertake the duties of Minister of Foreign Affairs in 
 the Galesco cabinet. He is the author of volumes of Poems and 
 Ballads, entitled respectively ' Cantece si Plangeri,' 'Cantarea 
 romaniei;' ' Melodii romane ; ' ' Legende si basne nationale;' 
 and ' Poesie vechi si nove.' A French version of his Roumanian 
 Poems has been published with the title of ' Brises d'Orient ; 
 Poesies Roumaines, traduites par l'auteur lui-meme, precedes 
 d'une Preface deM. P. Chasles,' 8vo, Paris, 1866. Bolintineano 
 has likewise attracted attention by a philosophical romance 
 entitled ' Manila/ in which he exposes the corruption of the 
 Boyards ; and by his brochure entitled ' Les Principautes Rou- 
 maines,' 8vo, Paris, 1854. 
 
 BOLZANO, BERN HARD, a German philosopher and theo- 
 logian, was born at Prague on the 5th of October, 1781. His 
 studies at first were chielly mathematical, but he soon adopted 
 those by which he afterwards acquired his reputation. He became 
 in 1805 doctor of philosophy, took orders, and was appointed 
 professor in the theological faculty of the High School at Prague. 
 In this position he became obnoxious to the clerical party by the 
 freedom of his speculations, and he was accused of adhering to 
 the principles of Schelling. Nevertheless, finding a supporter 
 in the Prince- Archbishop Salm Salm, he was enabled to continue 
 for 15 years in the full enjoyment of his academic privdeges. 
 But in 1820 his enemies prevailed, and he was not only ejected 
 from his chair, but was even subjected to annoyance in his 
 domestic and personal relations. At this juncture the family 
 of Count Leo von Thun afforded him an asylum, and in 
 the refuge thus opened to him he continued the production 
 or the revision ol his works till his death on the 18th of 
 December, 1848. His writings comprise a treatise on Scientific 
 Instruction, &c, ' Wissenschaftslehre, oder Versuch einer neuen 
 Darstellung der Logik,' 4 vols. Sulzbach, 1837 ; on ^Esthetics, 
 ' Abhandlungon zur ^Esthetik,' 2 vols. Prague, 1843—49 ; What 
 
 T 
 
275 
 
 BONALD, LOUIS G. A. DE. 
 
 BOND, WILLIAM CRANCH. 
 
 276 
 
 is Philosophy ? ' Was ist Philosophic V Vienna, 1849 ; Paradoxes 
 of the Infinite, ' Paradoxien des Unendlichen,' Leipzig, 1851 ; 
 Proofs of the Immortality of the Soul, 'Athanasia, Oder Grande 
 i'iir die Unsterbliehkeit der Seele,' 2nd edition, 8vo, Sulzbach, 
 1838 ; Manual of Theology, ' Lehrbuch der Religionswissenschaft,' 
 4 vols. Sulzbach, 1834 ; and a Succinct Manual of < iatholic ( 'hris- 
 tianity, ' Kurzgefasstes Lehrbuch der Katholischen Christ lichen 
 Religion als der wahren gottlichen offenbarung,' Bautzen, 1840. 
 
 BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE, 
 a philosopher and statesman, was horn at Monna, near Milhau, 
 in Rouergue, on the 2nd of October, 1754. He was educated at 
 the college of Juilly, and afterwards entered the King's Mus- 
 keteers (mousquetaires de la maison du roi). Upon the abolition 
 of this corps in 177(5, he quitted the service, married, and was 
 appointed to the mayoralty of his nativ e place. In 1790 he was 
 named president of the first departmental administration of 
 Aveyron ; but, dissatisfied with its proceedings with refer- 
 ence to the clergy, he resigned his otfice, and retired to his 
 estate. In 1791 he quitted France and joined the " Armce 
 des Princes," under the command of Louis Joseph de Bour- 
 bon, Prince de Cond6. When this army was disbanded, De 
 Bonald retired with his family to Heidelberg, where he wrote 
 his 'Theorie du pouvoir politique et religieux dans la Societe 
 civile, d6montree par le raisonnement et l'histoire,' 3 vols. 8vo, 
 Constance, 1796", reprinted in 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1843, and in 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1854, in which he prophesied, but without affixing a 
 date, the return of the Bourbons to the throne of France. This 
 work was proscribed by the Directory, and few copies in France 
 escaped the vigilance of its agents ; and when the author repaired 
 to Paris in 1797 he found it expedient, in older to preserve his 
 own personal liberty, to accept a modest retreat offered to him 
 by an adherent of his political and ecclesiastical opinions. He 
 now composed his ' Essai analytique sur les Lois naturelles de 
 l'ordre social ; ou, Du Pouvoir du Ministre et du Sujet dans la 
 Societe,' 8vo, Paris, 1800; 'Legislation primitive, considered 
 dans les derniers temps, par les seules iumieres de la raison, 
 suivie de plusieurs trait6s et discours politiques,' 3 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1802, 2nd edition, 1821, a development, in another form, 
 of the preceding work ; and 'Du Divorce considere au xix e 
 siecle relativement a l'etat domestique et politique de la 
 Soci6t6,' 8vo, of which a second edition, revised, corrected, and 
 enlarged by the author, was published in 8vo, Turin, 1824. 
 Underthe Consulate, De Bonald was allowed to return to his estate 
 at Monna, where he devoted himself to the production of various 
 articles which, contributed in the first instance to the journals 
 of the time, were afterwards collected in two 8vo volumes with the 
 title of ' Melanges litteraires, politiques, et philosophiques.' In 
 1806 he became associated with MM. de Chateaubriand and Fiev6e 
 in the editorship of the ' Mercure de France.' In 1S08 he was 
 named councillor of the Imperial University, an institution 
 which had frequently been the obj-eet of his attacks, and with 
 which he allowed himself to be connected only after the repeated 
 entreaties, extending over two years, of various friends, and 
 especially of M. De Fontanes, the principal of the university. 
 Although it has been sharply said that De Bonald, with a salary 
 of 12,000 francs, patiently awaited in the Imperial salons the 
 predicted return of the Bourbons, he refused to accept any other 
 office under Napoleon, and even declined the charge, offered to 
 him in an autograph letter by Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, 
 of educating his son, the present Emperor of the French. Upon 
 the return of Louis XVIII. to France, he appointed De Bonald 
 a member of the Royal Council of Public Instruction, established 
 by an ordinance of the 17th of June, 1814, under the presidency 
 of M. (afterwards Cardinal) De Bausset. De Bonald also received 
 from the king the Cross of St. Louis; and about the same time 
 ublished a brochure entitled 'Reflexions sur Finteret general de 
 Europe,' 8vo, Paris, 1814, 2nd edition, 8vo, Paris, 1815, in which 
 he claimed the extension of the frontiers of France to the Rhine. 
 In 1815 he was elected deputy for the department of Aveyron, 
 and took his seat in the chamber called introuvabk, where he 
 spoke often, and chiefly in the ecclesiastical interest. In March, 
 1816, he was chosen a member of the French Academy, and 
 closed his career as a deputy, to which office he had been elected 
 in 1820 and 1823, by being named, at the end of the latter year, 
 peer of France. He forfeited this dignity in 1830 by his refusal 
 to take the oath, after the revolution of July. Some months 
 before this event, which marks the termination of his political 
 life, he had published his ' Demonstration philosophique du 
 principe constitutif de la Soci6t6,' 8vo, Paris, 1830 ; and after it 
 he retired to Monna, where he died somewhat suddenly on the 
 23rd of November, 1840. The ' OZuvres' of M. de Bonald were 
 
 published collectively in his lifetime, 12 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1817—19, &c; and they have been re-issued with the title of 
 ' Uiuvres Completes de M. de Bonald, precedes d'une Notice 
 
 sur sa Vie et ses OZuvres,' &c, 3 vols, 8vo, Paris, 1859. 
 
 * BONALD, LOUIS JACQUES MAURICE DE, cardinal, 
 primate of the French, and Archbishop of Lyon, third son of the 
 Vicomte de Bonald, was born at Milhau on the 30th of October, 
 1787. He was placed successively at a school at Lyon for the 
 pursuance of his classical studies, and at the Seminary of Saint 
 Sulpice. Having entered holy orders, he was called upon to 
 accompany Monseigneur de Pressigny, Archbishop of Besanc,on, 
 tii Rome, as secretary, when that prelate went thither charged 
 by Louis XVIII. with the conclusion of the concordat. In 1817 
 De Bonald was appointed grand vicar and archdeacon to the 
 Bishop of Chartres, and acquired a reputation for his Lent 
 lectures in the cathedral church of that city in 1822. In 1823 
 he was preferred to the bishopric of Puy, then recently restored 
 by an ordinance of the king, and enjoyed this incumbency for 
 more than 16 years, at the end of which time he was appointed, 
 by a royal ordinance of the 4th of December, 1839, to the arch- 
 bishopric of Lyon. He was created cardinal on the 1st of March, 
 1841, and received the hat at the hands of the pope on the 22nd 
 of May, 1843, with the title of Santissima Trinitaal Monte Pincio. 
 Monseigneur de Bonald distinguished himself by his zeal in 
 upholding the dignity and privileges of the clergy, and occasioned 
 a controversy of some magnitude and importance by his denun- 
 ciation of a new edition of the ' Manuel de Droit Ecclesiastique,' 
 by M. Dupin, procureur general of the Cour de Cassation: — 
 ' Mandement de Monseigneur le Cardinal de Bonald portant 
 condarnnation d'une livre intitule "Manuel du Droit Public 
 Ecclesiastique " par Dupin, et d'un ecrit du meme auteur intitule 
 " Refutation des assertions de M. le Comte de Montalembert 
 dans son Manifeste Catholique," ' 8vo, Paris, 1845. 
 
 The Archbishop of Lyon was one of the first to hail the revo- 
 lution of 1848, of which the watchwords " Liberte, Egalite, Fra- 
 ternite," seemed favourable to the interests of the church. " Le 
 Drapeau de la Republique," he said, in a circular addressed to 
 his clergy, February 27th, 1848, " sera toujours pour la religion 
 un drapeau protecteur ;" and on the 2nd of March following lie 
 prescribed a solemn service for the victims of February. Sub- 
 sequent events did not, however, fulfil his expectations as based 
 upon a presumed republican piety. After the coup d'etat of the 
 2nd of December, 1851, Cardinal de Bonald became a member of 
 the Imperial Senate in virtue of his ecclesiastical dignity. His 
 works are almost exclusively professional, and include ' Observa- 
 tions sur le projet de loi sur l'instruction secondaire, addressees 
 a la Chambre des Pairs,' 4to, Lyon, 1844; 'Lettre Pastorale a 
 l'occasion du Careme de 1844, sur l'education ehretienue,' 4to, 
 Lyon, 1844 ; ' Instruction Pastorale a l'occasion du Careine de 
 1846, sur la Liberte de l'eglise,' 12mo, Paris, 1846 ; ' Lettre 
 Pastorale de son Eminence le Cardinal de Bonald, a l'occasion du 
 Careine de 1857, sur la Necessite et les Avantages de l'instruc- 
 tion religieuse,' 4to, Lyon, 1857 ; and 'Mandement portant Con- 
 damnation du livre intitule " La Vie de Jesus," par M. E. Renan,' 
 4to, Lyon, 1863. 
 
 * BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON III. [E. C. vol. i. col. 805 : 
 see Napoleon III., E. C. S.] 
 
 BONAPARTE, FAMILY of. Jerome Bonaparte [E. C. 
 vol. i. col. 814.] The Prince Jerome died on the 24th of June, 
 1860. The ' Journal des Operations Militaires du Roi Jerome 
 en Silesie,' followed by his inedited correspondence with Napo- 
 leon I., appeared in 2 vols. 8vo, in 1854, and is a valuable addition 
 to the historical materials of the time to which it refers. 
 
 Charles Lucien Jdles Lawrence Bonaparte, Prince of 
 Canixo [E. C. vol. i. col. 815J. The death of this eminent 
 ornithologist occurred shortly after the former article was 
 finished. For the last few years of his life he resided at Paris, 
 suffering much from swellings and ulcerations in his legs. 
 Notwithstanding this he frequently visited this country in order 
 to attend the meetings of the British Association, in which he 
 always took a hearty interest. No amount of illness or pain 
 seemed to make him flag in his scientific zeal, or in his capacity 
 for work, indeed the worse he became the harder he studied. 
 His great ambition was to produce a complete classification of 
 birds, and up to the A'ery last hour he was labouring hard 
 upon a large monograph of pigeons. The affection in his legs 
 extended to his chest, and he was carried off by dropsy on July 
 29, 1857, in the 55th vear of his age. 
 
 BOND, WILLIAM CRANCH, a distinguished American 
 ast ronomer, was born at Portland, State of Maine, in September, 
 1789. He learned the trade of watch-making ; but while living 
 
277 
 
 278 
 
 at Dorchester, Massachusetts, he provided himself with astrono- 
 mical instruments, and directed his attention to an eclipse which 
 occurred in 1806. In 1811 his sedulous observations enabled him 
 to he one of the earliest in America to see the comet of that year. 
 After a long course of individual observations in astronomy, he 
 was commissioned by the United States Navy Department in 
 1838 to prosecute a series of observations, preparatory to the 
 fitting out of an exploratory expedition to the South Seas under 
 Captain Wilkes. In 1840 he was appointed astronomical ob- 
 server to Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and 
 director of the observatory at that place. With the great 
 Fraunhofer equatorial Mr. Bond, assisted by his son, Mr. George 
 Phillips Bond, made valuable astronomical observations. His 
 knowledge of watchmaking, combined with his skill in astronomy, 
 enabled him to construct an ingenious instrument for marking 
 small fractions of a second of time : one part of a train of clock- 
 work is regulated by a pendulum having a dead-beat escapement ; 
 another part, recording its own motion through the means of an 
 elastic axis, is made to run uniformly by a balance or fly-wheel ; 
 while the whole is guided by a spring-governor. Mr. Bond was 
 one of the first to perceive the possibility and the importance of 
 celestial photography, and of the use of electric clocks in astro- 
 nomical observations. He and his son, working sometimes 
 together and sometimes separately, made observations embracing 
 a wide range of phenomena — comets, occupations, eclipses, the 
 planets Neptune and Saturn, nebulae, asteroids, moon-culmina- 
 tions, missing stars, solar parallax, photometry of the sun and 
 moon, celestial photography, &c. These observations are de- 
 scribed in a large number of papers, mostly printed originally in 
 ' Silliman's Journal,' the ' Proceedings of the American Society 
 of Arts and Sciences,' ' Gould's Astronomical Journal,' and the 
 ' Cambridge (Massachusetts) Mathematical Monthly:' but after- 
 wards reprinted in various European scientific journals. Professor 
 Bond's ' History and Description of the Astronomical Observatory 
 of Harvard College,' 4to, Cambridge (Mass.), 1856, is in the 1st 
 vol. of the ' Annals ' of that observatory ; which Annals also 
 contain the results of many of his scientific labours. He dis- 
 covered the eighth satellite of Saturn on the 19th of September, 
 1848, — the same day and almost the same hour that marked the 
 discovery of the same satellite in England by the Rev. W. R. 
 Dawes and Mr. Lassell. Mr. G. P. Bond, at the same observa- 
 tory, and with the same telescope, discovered an inner ring of 
 Saturn, not before observed, on the 1 1th of November, 1850. 
 Mr. G. P. Bond, in 1859, succeeded his father as director of the 
 observatory and Phillips Professor of Astronomy at Harvard ; 
 and died in February, 1865. 
 
 BONIFAZIO, or BONIFACCIO, a distinguished Italian 
 painter, was a native of Verona, and was born about 1491. 
 Most of the biographies, following Vasari, say that he was born 
 in Venice, but this is a mistake, as Morelli (' Notizia,' p. 196, &c.) 
 has shown. He was a scholar of Palma, but studied closely the 
 works of Titian, of whose style he was a close copyist. His 
 works are distinguished rather by refinement than originality or 
 vigour, and he is a good, though not grand, colourist. The most 
 celebrated of his works are at Venice, in the Ducal Palace, in 
 which is his great picture of the ' Expulsion of the Money- 
 dealers from the Temple,' and the Academy, in which are 14 
 paintings collected from various churches and convents. The 
 Louvre, Paris, possesses three pictures by him — The Resurrection 
 of Lazarus, and two Holy Families. Bonifazio of Verona died 
 in 1553. With him must not be confounded an earlier painter, 
 Bonifazio of Cremona, who flourished about 1460, nor a later 
 one, Bonifazio of Viterbo (born 1637), a clever pupil and 
 imitator of Pietro da Cortona. 
 
 ♦BONNECHOSE, FRANCOIS-PAUL-EMILE BOISNOR- 
 MAND DE, French histori an, was born August 18, 1801, at 
 Lyderdorp in North Holland, where his father, a French emigre, 
 was then resident. M. Bonnechose was serving in the army 
 when the revolution of 1830 afforded him a welcome opportunity 
 of exchanging the sword for the pen. He obtained the post of 
 librarian of St. Cloud, which he retained during the reign of 
 Louis Philippe. He has since held similar appointments at 
 Versailles and elsewhere. His early works include a tragedy, 
 ' Rosemonde,' and a poem, ' La Morte de Bailly,' which obtained 
 the prize of the French Academy ; but his popularity was 
 secured by his 'Histoire de France,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1834, of which 
 ten or twelve editions have been published. M. Bonnechose lias 
 since produced several other historical publications, including 
 a 'Histoire Sacree,' 1838; a 'Histoire des quatre Conquetes 
 de l'Angleterre,' which wa3 crowned by the Academy ; and a 
 'Histoire d'Angleterre' (4 vols. 8vo, 1858 — 59), which has been 
 
 translated into English ; but the only one of any real value 
 is ' Les Reformateurs avant la Reforme du XVeme Siecle,' &c, 
 2 vols. 8vo, 1844. He has, besides, written a kind of novel, 
 ' Christophe Sauval, ou la Societe Francaise sous la Reformation,' 
 and contributed articles to periodical?. 
 
 BONNEVILLE, NICOLAS DE, a French political and 
 socialistic writer, was born March 13th, 1760, at Evreux, and 
 studied in the college of his native place and afterwards at Paris. 
 Having paid particular attention to the modern languages, he 
 began his literary career by translating dramatic pieces from the 
 German, for Friedel, by which he obtained favourable notice 
 from the Queen ; and he assisted Tourneur in rendering Shakspere 
 into French. In 1786 Bonneville paid a visit to England, where 
 he formed a plan of translating Russell's ' History of Modern 
 Europe,' then recently published ; but finally determined to 
 write an original history instead. Returning to" Paris full of the 
 revolutionary and perfectibility fervour then so rife in France, 
 he founded the Cercle Social, a society which published a journal 
 called ' La Bouche de Fer, ou les Tribunes du Peuple,' and later 
 ' Le Chronique du jour' and 'La Bien-Informe,' and printed a 
 number of patriotic and semi-philosophic publications, many of 
 which were written by Bonneville himself. But as in his writings 
 he advocated comparatively moderate measures, he failed to 
 obtain much favour with the extreme revolutionists ; and 
 although he rendered useful service in a municipal office at 
 Paris, he was baffled in an attempt to enter the legislature. He 
 wrote boldly as a journalist during the terrible period of Jacobin 
 power. As a Girondist he was arrested in 1793, and only libe- 
 rated on the death of Robespierre. During the Empire, Bonneville 
 was out of favour ; among other causes of offence he had drawn 
 an unwelcome comparison between Bonaparte and Cromwell. 
 Once or twice he was arrested, and for a long time he was placed 
 under the surveillance of the police. His last years were spent 
 in poverty. He opened a second-hand book-shop in the Quartier 
 Latin, where he was known to the learned men of that neighbour- 
 hood, and where he died November the 9th, 1828. Bonneville's 
 chief works were the following : — (1) ' Le Nouveau Theatre 
 Allemand,' 12 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1782, of which the last 10 were 
 translated by him ; (2) ' Choix de petits romans imites de l'Alle- 
 mand ; suivis de quelques Essais de poesies lyriques,' 12mo, Paris, 
 1786 ; this work contains the best of his? lyrical pieces ; (3) ' Les 
 Jesuites chasses de la Maconnerie, et leurs poignards brises par 
 les Macons,' 8vo, 1788, relating to the introduction of freemasonry 
 into England ; (4) ' Histoire de l'Europe Moderne, depuis l'irrup- 
 tion des peuples du Nord daus l'Empire Romain jusqu'a la paix 
 de 1783,' Geneva and Paris, 1789^92, 3 vols. 8vo, only the first 
 part of what was intended to be a very comprehensive work, and 
 of little value \_ (5) ' Le Tribunal du Peuple, ou Recueil de lettres 
 de quelques Electeurs de Paris avant la Revolution,' 8vo, 1789 ; 
 (6) ' De 1'Esprit des Religions, ouvrage promis et necessaire a la 
 confederation universelle des Amis de la Verite,' 8vo, 1791, 
 a dreamy scheme for a new social compact, in which freemasonry 
 was to be combined with a theology not wholly unlike that 
 which Auguste Conite afterwards propounded ; (7) ' Le Nouveau 
 Code conjugal, etabli sur les bases de la Constitution,' 8vo, 1792, 
 a volume still wilder ; (8) ' Poesies,' 8vo, 1793. To Bonneville 
 is attributed the proposal to form the Garde Bourgeoise, after- 
 wards famous as the Garde National. 
 
 BONO FERRARESE, or BONO OF FERRARA, an excel- 
 lent Italian painter of the 15th century, of whom nothing is 
 really known, except that he was a pupil of Pisano (called 
 Vittore Pisanello), of Verona, and that he was employed on 
 pictures in the cathedral of Siena in 1461. He was, for his 
 time, an admirable colourist ; and his execution, though hard 
 and somewhat dry, is precise and careful. The National Gallery 
 possesses a very fine signed example of his pencil — No. 771, 
 ' St. Jerome in the Desert.' It is painted in tempera, on panel. 
 
 (Wornum, Catalogue, of the National Gallery ; Laderchi, La 
 Pittura Ferrarese.) 
 
 BONONE, CARLO, an eminent Italian painter, was born at 
 Ferrara, in 1569. He was a pupil of Bastaruolo ; but on leaving 
 him studied first at Rome, and afterwards at Bologna, where he 
 modelled his style on that of the Carracci, whose bold contrasts 
 of form, chiaroscuro, and colour he successfully imitated. Subse- 
 quent visits to Venice led him somewhat to modify his manner, 
 but it is essentially that of the Carracci. His pictures were long 
 greatly admired by the Italian connoisseurs, but the current of 
 taste outside of Italy has of late set in a different direction. 
 Bonone painted many large pictures of festive scenes, intro- 
 ducing numerous splendidly dressed figures, furniture, and deco- 
 rative work, with architectural backgrounds, similar to th» 
 
 T 2 
 
2:9 BONPLAND, AIME. 
 
 compositions of Paolo Veronese, by which, indeed, they were no 
 doubt suggested. Such are ' The Marriage at Oana,' in the Re- 
 fectory of the Carthusians ; and 'The Feast of Herod' in San 
 Benedetto in Ferrara ; 'The Feast of Ahasuerus' in the Re- 
 fectory of San Giovanni at Ravenna ; and many more. Bonone 
 died at Ferrara in 1(532, and was interred in the church of Santa 
 Maria del Vado, the walls and vaults of which are decorated with 
 a large number of his best works, and which, it is said, Guercino 
 used to spend hours at a time in contemplating. His easel 
 pictures were less esteemed by his contemporaries than his 
 mural paintings. 
 
 BONPLAND, AIME. [E. C. vol. i. col. 825.] There is little 
 to be added respecting this eminent traveller. For the hist, few 
 years of his life he resided at Santa Anna, ready to receive and 
 help any scientific man who visited him, and died at that place 
 on May 4, 1858, having nearly completed his 85th year. 
 
 BONSIGNORI, FRANCESCO, an eminent Italian painter 
 of the 15th century, erroneously called Monsignori by Vasariand 
 Lanzi, and consequently entered under that heading in most 
 biographical dictionaries, was bom at Verona in 1455. He 
 learned painting under Andrea Mantegna at Mantua, and 
 worked there with so much success as to attract the notice of 
 Francesco, Marquis of Mantua, who employed him to decorate 
 his palaces of San Sebast iano and Marmitolo and the Castello di 
 Gonzago, as well as to take the portraits of various members of 
 his family and court. The palatial decorations have been 
 destroyed, and the portraits are dispersed and probably lost, but 
 many of his larger works still remain in the churches of Mantua, 
 and easel pictures and portraits are often met with in the public 
 galleries. Bonsignori was famous both as an historical and a 
 portrait painter. Vasari dwells on his skill in painting animals, 
 and in confirmation relates anecdotes of living animals being de- 
 ceived by his representations of them ; whence it is said he was 
 called ' the Modern Xeuxis.' Bonsignori passed the chief part 
 of his life at the court of Mantua, where he continued in great 
 esteem, but falling ill, he went to drink the waters at Caldiero, 
 near Verona, and there died on the 2nd of July, 1519. His 
 most famous extant works are SS. Ludovico and Bernardino, now 
 in the Brera, Milan, a Madonna and Saints at Verona, and a St. 
 Sebastian at Santa Maria delle Grazie, Mantua. In the National 
 Gallery is a well painted ' Portrait of a Venetian Senator' (No. 
 736) by him. It is signed, like most of his works, Franciscus 
 Bonsignorius Veronensis P. 1487. 
 
 BONVICINO, ALESSANDRO [Moretto, E. C. S.]. 
 
 BOOLE, GEORGE, an eminent mathematician, was born at 
 Lincohi, on the 4th of November, 1815. His father, a tradesman 
 in that city, was unable to give him more than an ordinary 
 school education ; but imparted to him some of his own know- 
 ledge of mathematics and optical instruments. A neighbouring 
 bookseller, Mr. Brooke, aided young Boole in studying the Latin 
 language, to which he himself afterwards added a study of 
 Greek. At the early age of 12, George Boole produced a 
 metrical version of one of the odes of Horace, which excited 
 much surprise among classical scholars in the county. At the 
 age of 17 he commenced, unaided, the study of mathematics ; 
 and with the assistance of the Rev. G. S. Dickson, incum- 
 bent of St. Swithin's, Lincoln, he pursued that study to a high 
 degree of development. After acting as assistant in a school 
 at Doncaster, he opened a school on his own account at Lincoln, 
 which had much success. He took great interest in the 
 Mechanics' Institution of his native city, to which he delivered 
 two addresses, afterwards printed, 'On the Genius and Dis- 
 coveries of Sir Isaac Newton,' 1835 ; and 'On the Right Use 
 of Leisure,' 1847. He became gradually known to mathe- 
 maticians by his high-class papers on that science. He con- 
 tributed to the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal, in 
 1847, a ' Mathematical Analysis of Logic, being an Essay to- 
 wards a Calculus of Deductive Reasoning.' This and other 
 articles led to his appointment (although he had not received a 
 university education) as Professor of Mathematics at Queen's 
 College, Cork, in 1849 ; a post which he tilled during the 
 remaining fifteen years of his life. The University of Dublin 
 conferred on him the degree of LL.D. ; the University of 
 Oxford that of D.C.L. ; the Royal Society elected him one of 
 its Fellow s ; and he was a member or fellow of other learned 
 bodies. Besides his labours as a professor, Dr. Boole wrote a 
 large number of mathematical papers — 11 of which were pub- 
 lished in the ' Cambridge Mathematical Journal,' between 1841 
 and 1845 ; 10 in the ' Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical 
 Journal,' between 1846 and 1852; others in the 'Transactions' 
 of the Royal Society, the Edinburgh Royal Society, and the 
 
 BOONE, DANIEL. 2 80 
 
 Royal Irish Academy ; and others in the ' Philosophical Ma- 
 gazine,' and in the ' Proceedings of the British Association for 
 the Advancement of Science.' These papers were nearly 50 in 
 number, and took a wide range of subjects, including the 
 Analytical Transformation of Functions, the Calculus of Varia- 
 tions, Quaternions, Definite Integrals, the Theory of Probabili- 
 ties, the Mathematics of Logic, &c. His ' Treatise on Differen- 
 tial Equations,' 1859, 2nd edition 1865, has become a class-book 
 at Cambridge University. Dr. Boole's chief work was his 
 ' Investigation into the Laws of Thought,' Dublin, 1854 ; it is an 
 attempt to express the processes of reasoning by mathematical 
 formulas ; and contains also a special application of his method 
 to the Theory of Probabilities. Dr. Boole married, in 1855, a 
 niece of Colonel Everest, the able conductor of the Trigonome- 
 trical Survey of India ; this lady rendered her husband great 
 assistance in his scientific labours. Working too hard for his 
 bodily strength, he died of congestion of the lungs, on the 9th 
 of December, 1864, at Ballinteinple, near Cork. His acquire- 
 ments took a very extensive range, including classics, modern 
 languages, poetry, and mental philosophy; many of which 
 studies contributed to the development of some of his more 
 special mathematical researches. At a meeting of the Cork 
 Cuverian Society, in 1865, the President, adverting to the death 
 of Dr. Boole, said : — " Probably in few individuals could a 
 greater diversity of taste and talent be found combined than in 
 him. No subject was ever brought under our notice that he 
 was not only familiar with, but he illustrated it with the results 
 of his own great experience, or the practical application of his 
 reasoning mind." 
 
 BOONE, DANIEL, known in America as the "Pioneer of 
 Kentucky," was born in February, 1735, in Bucks County, 
 Pennsylvania, to which settlement his father, a native of Devon- 
 shire, had emigrated. Living near what was at that time the 
 frontier between the settlers and the Indians, young Daniel's 
 early days were passed amid a good deal of hunting, shooting, 
 and backwood life. The family removed to North Carolina in 
 1753 ; and young Boone, after maiTying, settled down as a farmer. 
 Being, however, more prone to an adventurous life than to steady 
 industry, he made one of a party of six in 1769 to explore and 
 hunt in the wilds of Kentucky; and two more joined them in 
 the following year, with a store of powder and shot. After many 
 vicissitudes, the separation of the party, and the killing and 
 scalping of some of them by the Indians, Boone and his brother 
 found themselves alone, forced to trap animals, and collect peltry 
 for a subsistence. They returned home in 1771 ; but not deterred 
 by their experience of hardships, the two brothers converted their 
 little property into stores for the backwoods, and removed witli 
 their families to Kentucky in 1773. The wives and daughters 
 were the first white women ever seen on the Kentucky river. 
 Boone passed his time in hunting, fighting, and exploring, and 
 sometimes in surveying for the government. A stockade or 
 frontier fort was entrusted to him for defence. In 1778 he was 
 captured by a party of Shawnee Indians, carried off to Chillicothe, 
 and exposed to much suffering ; but by shrewdness and activity 
 he effected his escape, walking 160 miles in 5 days with only one 
 regular meal. Boonesborough, the name which he gave to his 
 settlement, became a government post. During the American 
 war of independence he was made successively captain, major, 
 and colonel, for his services against the Indians who were in 
 aUiance with the British. Most of his brothers and sons were 
 killed in the course of the fighting in which they were engaged. 
 After the war was ended Boone settled down once more as a 
 farmer and hunter. 
 
 When Kentucky was admitted as a State into the Union 
 in 1792, he was pronounced to have no legal title to the laud 
 he had reclaimed and settled. In disgust, he went further west 
 into the wilds, settling with a few followers on the Little 
 Osage. In 1800 Boone and his associates explored the head 
 waters of the Arkansas river. In 1804 he crossed the Missis- 
 sippi, and lived at Femme Osage, 45 miles west of St. Louis. 
 His title to the land he had acquired here being questioned, 
 Boone, fearing that litigation would be of little service to him, 
 sent in a memorial to the legislature of Kentucky, setting forth 
 the straits to which he was reduced, and asking for a confirma- 
 tion of the grant made to him by the governor of Louisiana prior 
 to the territory having been ceded to the United States. A title to 
 2000 acres was voted to him by the Assembly, and the old man was 
 thus saved from the necessity of seeking for a new home. It was 
 thoroughly characteristic of the old pioneer and trapper that when 
 Chester Harding, an artist, went to take a portrait of him in 1820, 
 he found Daniel Boone, then 85 years old, reclining on a bunk in 
 
281 
 
 BOPP, FRANZ. 
 
 BORGHINI, VINCENZIO. 
 
 282 
 
 his cabin cooking a venison-steak on a ramrod. He died on the 
 26th of September, 1820, surrounded by five generations of 
 descendants. The annals of America do not present a better 
 type than Daniel Boone of the class of character depicted by 
 Fenimore Cooper in his Leatherstocking. 
 
 BOPP, FRANZ [E. C. vol. i. col. 826]. Notwithstanding his 
 advanced age, and suffering severely from asthma, Bopp's last 
 years were neither inactive nor unproductive. Between 1856 
 and 1861 he brought out an entirely re-written and greatly 
 augmented edition of the noble work which won for him the 
 title of the founder of the science of Comparative Philology, 
 ' Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, 
 Lateinischen, Litauischen, Altslawischen. Gothischen und 
 Deutschen,' in 3 stout volumes, the Armenian being now included 
 for the first time ; and this he followed by a third and revised edi- 
 tion of his ' Kritische Grammatik der Sanskritsprache/ Berlin, 
 1861 — 63. He also contributed papers to academies and journals, 
 and continued till within six months of his decease to perform 
 his professorial duties. He died on the 23rd of October, 1867, 
 having completed his 76th year on the 14th of the previous 
 month. 
 
 BOR, PIETER (CHRISTIAENSZOON), a Dutch historian, 
 was born in 1559 at Utrecht, where his father, Christiaen Bor, 
 who descended from an ancient and reputable family, practised 
 as an apothecary. From an early age he devoted himself to the 
 study of history, especially to that of his native country, for the 
 illustration of which he presently began to collect materials. 
 The States of Holland and West Friesland appointed him their 
 historiographer in 1615, with a yearly salary of 600 florins. 
 He died at Haarlem, on the 16th of May, 1635. He wrote a 
 History of the Origin and Progress of the Wars in the Low 
 Countries in the 16th Century, which first appeared in an 
 incomplete form as 'Oorspronck, Begin ende Aenvang der Neder- 
 lantscher Oorlogen,' folio, Utrecht, 1595, of which he wrote an 
 epitome in verse, with the title of ' Den Oorspronck, Begin ende 
 Aenvanck der Nederlandtseher Oorlogen, geduyrende de Re- 
 geringe vande Hertoginne van Parma, de Heitoge van Alba, 
 ende eensdeels vanden Groot Convmandeur,' 4to, Leyden, 1617. 
 The History, in a fuller and more complete form, was published 
 by instalments, in 5 massive volumes, with the title of ' Oor- 
 spronck, Begin ende Vervolgh,' &c, folio, Leyden and Amster- 
 dam, 1621 — 1630 ; and again, in the most prized edition, at 
 Amsterdam, in 4 vols, folio, which were issued respectively in 
 1679, 1680, 1681, and 1684. Another less valued work of Bor's 
 is his History of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc), ' Gelegentheyt 
 van's Hertogen-Bosch, Vierde Hooft-Stadt van Brabant,' 4to, the 
 Hague, 1630. His principal remaining works are a Contiimation 
 of the Chronicle of Carion, beginning in 1576, and ending on 
 the 20th of March, 1619, folio, Amsterdam, 1619 ; and two 
 Tragedies — Apollonius, Prince of Tyre, and Apollonius and his 
 Daughter Tarsia, 'Apollonius, Prins van Tyro, and 'Apollonius 
 en zyne dogter Tarsia,' 4to, the Hague, 1617. 
 
 BORDE, ANDREW, who, punning upon his name, called him- 
 self Andreas Perforatus, was bom about 1500 in Sussex, probably 
 at Borde Hill, near Cuckfield, and was educated successively at 
 Winchester and Oxford. Before he had taken a degree he entered 
 himself a brother of the Carthusian order, in a religious house in 
 London or its neighbourhood. He left the society, however, in 
 order to resume his studies at Oxford, where he especially devoted 
 himself to the pursuit of medicine. Soon after he indulged his 
 inclination for travel by wandering through most parts of Europe 
 and a portion of Africa. Upon his return he settled at Win- 
 chester, where he acquired a reputation for his success in the 
 practice of his profession. In 1541 and 1542 he was living at 
 Montpellier, in France, where he seems to have taken his degree 
 of M.D., in which he was soon afterwards incorporated at Oxford. 
 He now resided successively at Pevensey and Winchester, where, 
 as in other places, he practised the austerities of the Carthusians. 
 He always professed celibacy, and wrote zealously against those 
 of the clergy who had broken their vows by marriage at the dis- 
 solution of their respective houses under Henry VIII. This 
 gave occasion to Bishop Poynet, himself a married man, to charge 
 Borde witli having, about the year 1547, kept three women of 
 improper character in his chambers at Winchester, as well for his 
 own convenience as for the comfort of the brethren of the order 
 to which he had belonged ; the more charitable explanation, and 
 that offered by the friends of Borde against this posthumous 
 libel, being that the three women were patients who occasionally 
 resorted to him for medical advice. " At length," says Wood, 
 " after many rambles to and fro in this world, he was made 
 prisoner in the close wards of the Fleet in London, the reason 
 
 why, I cannot justly say ; where he died in the month of April, 
 in 1549 ... I cannot otherwise but say that our author 
 Borde was esteemed a noted poet, a witty and ingenious person, 
 and an excellent physician of his time." Further, Wood mentions 
 as a report, what Fuller affirms confidently, that Borde was 
 physician to King Henry VIII., and a member of the College of 
 Physicians in London, to whom he dedicated his 'Breviary of 
 Healthe ; wherein are Remedies for all manner of Sicknesses and 
 Diseases, the which may be in Man or Woman : expressing the 
 obscure Termes of Greek, Araby, Latyn, and Barbary, in Englishe, 
 concerning Phisicke and Chirurgerie,' 4to, London, 1547, 1552, 
 1557, 1575, 1587, and 1598. The second part of this work, under 
 the title of ' Extravagantes/ was printed in the edition of 1575. 
 Considering his creed, it was probably policy if not principle that 
 inclined Borde so much to vagabondage and to a course of conduct 
 which it is impossible to reconcile with the conventional gravity 
 of his profession. It is from him that the designation of " Merry 
 Andrew " is said to be derived ; and Hearne says that " Dr. Borde 
 was an ingenious man, and knew how to humour and please his 
 patients, readers, and auditors. In his travels and visits he often 
 appeared and spoke in public, and would often frequent markets 
 and fairs, where a conflux of people used to get together, to whom 
 he prescribed ; and to induce them to flock thither the more 
 readily he would make humourous speeches, couched in such 
 language as caused mirth, and wonderfully propagated his fame, 
 and it was for the same end that he made use of such expressions 
 in his books as would otherwise, the circumstances not con- 
 sidered, be very justly pronounced bombast." The principal 
 works of Dr. Borde, besides the 1 Breviary of Healthe,' are ' The 
 Princyples of Astronomye, the whiche diligently perscrutyd is in 
 a maner a Prognosticacyon to the Worlde's End,' 8vo, London, 
 1540; 'A Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge, the which 
 doth teach a man to speak part of all manner of Languages, and 
 to know the usage and fashion of all manner of Countries, and 
 for to know the most part of all manner of Coins of Money,' 4to, 
 London, 1542, dedicated, in an epistle dated from Montpellier, 
 May 3rd, to the Princess (afterwards Queen) Mary: a reprint (of 
 only 100 copies) was made in 1814 under the editorship of Mr. 
 W. Upton ; another, with fac-similes of all the curious wood-cuts, 
 is about to be made (1870) by the Early English Text Society, 
 under the editorial care of Mr. Furnivall ; ' Compendyouse 
 Regimente or Dietary of Healthe, made in Mounte Pyllor,' 12mo, 
 London, 1542, 8vo, 1567, 8vo, 1576. 'The Merry Tales of the 
 Mad Men of Gotham,' 8vo, London, " printed," says Wood, " in 
 the time of King Henry VIII., in whose reign and after it was 
 accounted a book full of wit and mirth by scholars and gentle- 
 men," is also ascribed to Borde ; and he is by some supposed, but 
 with little reason, to be the author of 'A right pleasant and 
 merry History of the Mylner of Abington, with his Wife and his 
 fair Daughter, and of two poor Scholars of Cambridge,' 4to, 
 London ; and of a collection of the ' Jests' of John Scogan. 
 
 BORGHESI, COMTE BARTOLOMMEO [E. C. vol. i. col. 
 829]. M. Borghesi died at San Marino on the 16th of April, 1860, 
 without having obtained the aid which would have enabled him. 
 to carry out his long-cherished purpose of publishing in a 
 ' Corpus universale ' his unrivalled collections. After his death, 
 however, the French government appointed a commission to put 
 in order for publication the whole or more important parts of 
 his published writings and inedited documents. Under the 
 general title of 'U5uvres Completes' several volumes, including 
 his numismatic and epigraphic compositions, have already been 
 issued from the Imperial press, and it is intended to comprise 
 also his extensive archaeological correspondence. 
 
 BORGHINI, VINCENZIO, a learned Italian ecclesiastic 
 and antiquary of the 16th century, was born at Florence, 
 October 29, 1515; entered the order of Benedictines in 1532 ; 
 in 1552 was made prior of his monastery ; was placed by the 
 Grand Duke Cosmo at the head of the Hospital of Santa Maria ; 
 served as suffragan to Alexander de' Medicis, Archbishop of 
 Florence, during his absence at Rome ; declined the arch- 
 bishopric of Pisa, and died, universally esteemed, on the 15th of 
 August, 1580. Borghini was a great authority in all literary and 
 artistic matters. He was one of the committee appointed to 
 correct the Decameron of Boccaccio according to the require- 
 ments of the Council of Trent, and to him are attributed 
 the ' Annotazioni e Discorsi,' published by them. By the 
 Grand Duke Cosmo I. he was nominated vice-president of 
 the Florence Academy of Art. His great work is entitled 
 ' Discorsi di Monsignore V. B., parte prima, reearti a luce da' 
 deputati per suo testamento,' 4to, Florence, 1584 ; seconda 
 parte, 1585, reprinted, with notes, by D. M. Manni, 2 vols. 4to, 
 
283 
 
 BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO. 
 
 Florence, 1755. The more important of the treatises are those 
 on the origin and early history of the city of Florence, of the 
 bishops, nobles, chief families, arms, antiquities, money, &c ; of 
 Fiesole and other Tuscan cities ; the Latin colonies and munici- 
 palities, &c. Of the same family was Raffaello Borghini, who 
 lived in the latter part of the 16th century, wrote three or four 
 comedies (one ' Diana Pietosa,' being a pastoral in verse), and a 
 much esteemed and often reprinted work on the fine arts, ' II 
 Riposo, in cui della Pittura e della Scultura si favella,' 8vo, 
 Florence, 1584. Some of R. Borghini's inedited verses were 
 published at Florence in 1822. 
 
 BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO, called also Ambrogio da 
 Fossano, an eminent Italian painter, was born at Fossano, in 
 Piedmont, about 1455. Me is said to have been a scholar of 
 Vincenzio Fop pa, but all the particulars related of him are un- 
 certain. He attained distinction as an architect as well as a 
 painter, and was engaged early in life on the facade of the 
 Certosa, near Pavia : it is, however, only as a painter that he is 
 remembered. His style is archaic, the forms are meagre ; but 
 there is always great refinement visible, and often a gentleness of 
 expression verging on pathos. Some critics think they perceive 
 traces of the influence of Da Vinci and Luini in his style. Bor- 
 gognone appears to have been much occupied in painting at 
 Pavia between 1475 and 1493 ; his famous picture of the ' As- 
 sumption,' in the Brera at Milan, is dated 1522 ; he probably 
 died about 1535. His chief works are at Milan and Pavia. The 
 National Gallery possesses some characteristic examples of his 
 pencil — No. 298, ' The Marriage of St. Catherine of Alexandria,' 
 a large altar piece, executed in tempera on wood, brought from 
 the chapel of Rehecchino, near Pavia, in 1857 ; and Nos. 778 — 79, 
 two groups of family portraits (9 men and 11 women), painted 
 on silk, and originally portions of a processional standard. 
 
 BORRI, JOSEPH-FRANCOIS, born at Milan, 4th May, 
 1627. He was educated at Rome in the Jesuits' seminary, 
 and devoted himself to the study of medicine and chemistry. 
 He became attached to the pontifical court, but his life was so 
 irregular, that in order to avoid the pursuit of justice, he sought 
 refuge in a church. This was in 1654. From this time he 
 changed his mode of life, pretended to be inspired, and founded 
 a new sect vowed to poverty, the wealth of the new devotees 
 being given up to the master. The new sect fell under the censure 
 of the Church, and in order to escape from the Inquisition, Borri 
 went to Milan. He was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the 
 3rd of January, 1661. He sought refuge in Strasbourg, and after- 
 wards in Holland, where, setting up as a physician and alchemist, 
 he led away much people. His true character becoming known, 
 he went to Hamburg, and placed himself under the protection 
 of Queen Christina of Sweden, who advanced large sums of 
 money to enable him to carry on his researches for the discovery 
 of the philosopher's stone. He also persuaded Frederic III. of 
 Denmark to patronise his alchemical pursuits, but on the death 
 of this prince he had to leave Denmark, and proceeded towards 
 Turkey. He was, however, arrested and given up to the 
 papal authorities by the Emperor on condition that his life 
 should be spared. He was sentenced to perpetual imprison- 
 ment in the dungeons of the Inquisition at Rome ; but after 
 some years, being consulted respecting the dangerous illness of 
 the French ambassador at Rome, he cured him, and through his 
 intercession his prison was rendered less irksome. He died at 
 Rome on the 10th of August, 1695. 
 
 Bayle has a long and curious article on Borri, which is the 
 source of the numerous biographical sketches of this quack, 
 whose influence passed away with the belief in alchemy. 
 Several works are attributed to Borri, the chief of which is 
 ' La Chiave del Gabinetto,' ' The Key to the Cabinet,' a mixture 
 of medical, chemical, and political secrets, together with spiritual 
 details. 
 
 BORRON, ROBIERS (ROBERT) and HELIE, whose sur- 
 name varies as Boiron, Bouron, Bosron, and Buron, writers of 
 the 12th century, are commemorated as contributors to the cycle 
 of poems and romances which gathered about the Arthurian 
 Round Table and the Holy Graal. The two Borrons were either 
 brothers or near relations. It is probable that Robert Borron 
 was born about the year 1144, and that the birth of his relative, 
 Helie, took place within a very few years after. That Robert 
 was of the condition of a gentleman, is certain ; and, even in his 
 self-deprecatory preface, he promises to let his name, and life, 
 and ancestry, " and birth-place, and a great part of his lineage," 
 be known hereafter. In the prologue he speaks of himself as a 
 monk, or rather as a hermit ; but this has been ingeniously be- 
 lieved to have been a figure adopted as affording a more appro- 
 
 priate vehicle for the exhibition of his vision of heaven. Traces 
 of the influence of the scenery and physical aspects of Notting- 
 hamshire are to be detected in his work. 
 
 The two Borrons are reputed to have been employed by King 
 Henry II., to put into prose the Romances of the Round Table, 
 or to continue the translations of those different romances, of 
 which a series has been published under the titles of 'Joseph 
 d'Arimathie' and ' Saint-Graal,' Paris, 1516 and 1523; the 
 ' Histoire de Merlin' having been printed at Paris in 1498. 
 Helie de Borron published, separately, the Palamede of the 
 Round Table ; in the other works he was associated with 
 Robert. 
 
 It may be interesting to give in this place the order of the 
 Arthurian Romances, which, as given by Sir F. Madden in his 
 preface to ' Sir Gawayne,' (Abbotsford Club, 1839), is as fol- 
 lows : — (1) 'The Roman du Saint Graal,' sometimes entitled the 
 ' Roman de Joseph d'Arimathie, ' composed by Robertde Borron. 
 In the printed editions this is called the First Part of the Saint 
 Graal. (2) The ' Roman de Merlin,' by the same. (3) The 
 ' Roman de Launcelot du Lac,' composed by Walter Map. (4) 
 The ' Roman du Quete du Saint Graal,' by the same. In the 
 printed editions this forms the Second Part. (5) The ' Roman 
 de la Mort Artus,' by the same, and originally distinct, but in 
 the printed editions united to the Launcelot. (6) The first por- 
 tion of the ' Roman de Tristam,' by Luces, Seigneur de Gast. 
 (7) The conclusion of ' Tristam,' by Helie de Borron. (8) The 
 ' Roman de Gyron le Courtois,' by the same. Of these the first 
 six were written in the latter half of the 12th century, and the 
 remainder in the first half of the 13th. To these must be added 
 the metrical romances composed by Chrestean de Troyes, between 
 the years 1170 and 1195 ; as also the later prose compilations of 
 Rusticien de Pise and his followers, in the 13th and 14th 
 centuries. Of these works editions have been published at 
 various times, and in the principal capitals and languages of 
 Europe. One of the most elaborate issues of any work of the 
 series, is that which was undertaken by Mr. Furnivall, for the 
 Roxburghe Club, and which was illustrated by several learned 
 dissertations on matters calculated to throw light on the poems 
 or their subjects. The title of Mr. Furnivall's volume, which 
 was edited from MSS. in the libraries of Corpus Christi College, 
 Cambridge, and the British Museum, is as follows : — ' The His- 
 tory of the Holy Graal, Seynt Graal, or the Sank Ryal. The 
 History of the Holy Graal, partly in English verse, by Henry 
 Lonelich Skynner (Temp. Hen. VI. a.d. 1422 — 1461) ; and 
 wholly in French prose, by Sires Robiers de Borron (about 
 a.d. 1180—1200 ; MS. about 1320). From the Original Latin, 
 written by Jesus Christ with his own hand (vol. i. p. 357). 
 Being the only writing made by God since his uprising,' 2 vols. 
 4to, London, 1863. 
 
 The Holy Graal, as a symbol of Christian salvation to the 
 romantic poets of the Middle Ages, was, like King Arthur and 
 the Sorcerer Merlin, for nearly five centuries the central point of 
 an extensive cycle of poems, wherein the knights of old found 
 edification, and in writing on which the poets believed they 
 should obtain final bliss. The Graal cycle is distinguished from 
 the Arthurian and others by not owing its birth to recorded 
 facts. A pious thought was the fruitful germ which, from poet 
 to poet, from land to land, and from century to century r , trans- 
 planted and carefully nursed, finally acquired an outward form 
 and being, which the poets endeavoured to transmit to posterity 
 as the developed history of a holy vessel. At the same time, it 
 is difficult to discover the first traces of the formation of the 
 legend of the Holy Graal, and of its cultus, and to give any 
 certain foundation to the first history of its development ; but it 
 is fairly concluded that the idea of the Graal was originally dis- 
 tinct from the Histories of Percival and of the other Arthurian 
 knights, and that it was first woven into them by North French 
 poets — namely, in the second half of the 12th century. 
 
 BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GU1LLAUME, a celebrated 
 French naturalist, was born at Paris on January 29th, 1759. 
 He studied at Dijon, and was allowed to attend the lectures on 
 botany by Durande, which imbued him with a passion for the 
 study of plants. He then proceeded to Paris, where he attended 
 various courses of lectures, more especially those delivered at 
 the ' Jardin des Plantes.' At eighteen he entered a government 
 office, rose to be one of the chiefs of the posting department, 
 and was subsequently entrusted with the charge of the prisons. 
 In 1793 he was proscribed, but making his escape, he wandered, 
 homeless, about the country, suffering from hunger, and barely 
 subsisting upon snails, the roots of the common Arum, and an 
 occasional loaf of bread. Soon a fter he went to America, and spent 
 
285 
 
 BOSQUET, MAltSIIAL. 
 
 286 
 
 two years in collecting the objects and facts which he liberally 
 contributed to the works of Lacepede, Latreille, Daudin, 
 Fabricius, and others. Under the Directory he was restored to 
 his inspectorship of prisons, but the coup d'etat of November, 
 1799, again left him destitute. This compelled him to have 
 recourse to his literary abilities for the means of subsistence, and 
 he set to work with astonishing vigour, contributing to the 
 ' Supplement au Dictionnaire de Rozeau/ the ' Nouveau Dic- 
 tionnaire d'histoire naturelle,' the ' Dictionnaire raisonne et 
 uuiversel d'agriculture,' a new edition of the '(Jours complet 
 d'agriculture theorique et pratique,' the ' Encyclopedic metho- 
 dique ;' editing the ' Annates de ^agriculture frangaise ;' writing 
 memoirs and reports for various societies ; attending scientific 
 missions to the provinces and to Italy ; and superintending the 
 nursery Gardens at Versailles, as also those which were under the 
 control of the Minister of the Interior. The later years of his 
 life were mainly occupied in producing an immense work on the 
 vine, for which purpose he visited almost every part of France, 
 and described upwards of 450 different forms, but his labours 
 were not completed when he died, on July 10th, 1828. His 
 notes are said to be still in existence, and to be an immense mass 
 of undigested material, the arrangement of which had only just 
 been begun by him. 
 
 BOSCH, or BOSSCHE, BALTHASAR VAN DEN, an emi- 
 nent Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp, January 6, 1681. 
 He was a pupil of Gerard Thomas, and was admitted master by 
 the guild of St. Luke in 1696 ; he then spent three years in 
 France ; returned home, painted small portraits, interiors of 
 apothecaries' shops, laboratories, painters' studios, and subject 
 pieces, for which he obtained very hi^h prices ; and died on the 
 8th of September, 1715, from an abscess, the consequence of 
 what seemed at the time a slight blow. His masterpiece is 
 in the Antwerp Museum (No. 448), 'Reception of the Burgo- 
 master of Antwerp, J. B. del Campo, by the junior guild of Cross- 
 bow men,' a large and sumptuous interior with forty portraits, 
 signed and dated 1711. Bosch often obtained the assistance of 
 other artists in parts of his pictures which were in their par- 
 ticular line ; thus in the picture just noticed the architecture was 
 painted by Verstraeten, and the glimpse of landscape by C. 
 Huysmans ; whilst in his celebrated portrait of the Duke of 
 Marlborough on horseback, the horse was painted by P. van 
 Bloemen. 
 
 BOSCH, GENERAL JAN VAN DEN, a distinguished Dutch 
 soldier and statesman, was born February 2nd, 1780, at 
 Herwignen, where his father was a physician. He joined the 
 Corps of Engineers as lieutenant in 1797. He went to the 
 Dutch East Indies in 1801, and so distinguished himself in 
 various ways as to be promoted to the rank of captain and 
 adjutant soon after his arrival, major in 1804, lieutenant- 
 colonel and adjutant-general in 1807, and colonel in 1808. 
 After an interval of cessation from military duties, he resumed 
 active service in 1813, and was on the General Staff of General 
 Constant de Villars at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. In 1816 
 he became major-general, and in 1823 Administrator of Militia. 
 During this period his knowledge acquired in the East led him 
 to write a work on the Dutch colonies generally — ' Neder- 
 landsche bezittingen in Azie, Amerika, en Afrika, in derzelver 
 toestand en aangelegenheid voor dat Rijk, Wijsgeerig, Staat- 
 kundig, en Geographisch beschouwd ; met bijvoeging der 
 Noodige tabellen, en eenen Atlas nieuwe Kaarten ; ' Hague 
 and Amsterdam, 1818 — a work valued alike for the interest 
 of its subject and the elegance and vivacity of its style. In 
 1828 he was appointed Commissioner for the West Indies, and 
 a few years afterwards Governor-General of the Dutch East 
 Indies. He was made Grand Cross of the Order of the Lion 
 of the Netherlands in 1831, Member of the Society of Literature 
 of Leyden in 1833, and Fellow of the Royal Netherlands 
 Institute in 1838. He died at his estate of Boschlust, 28th of 
 January, 1844. General Van Den Bosch was virtually the 
 founder of the remarkable ' Agricultural Pauper Colonies of 
 Holland.' When residing in Holland as a major-general, he 
 noticed the severe distress which was occasioned to the poor 
 by the famine or dearth in 1816 and 1817, and conceived the 
 idea of applying some of the waste lands of North Holland for 
 their benefit. He wrote an essay to show the practicability of 
 establishing a system of poor-relief on a self-paying basis, by 
 means of agricultural pauper colonies — ' Verhandeling over de 
 mogelijkheid, de beste wijze van invoering en de belangrijke 
 voordeelen eener al^emeene armeninrigting in het rijk der 
 Nederlanden, door het veltigen eener landbouwende Kolonie in 
 deszelfs Noordelijk gedeelte,' Hague and Amsterdam, 1818. 
 
 This essay led to a suggestion from Van Den Bosch to Prince 
 Frederick, second son of the king, who set on foot a Society of 
 Beneficence, the ' Maatschappi j van Weldadigheid.' A colony 
 was formed near the eastern shore of the Zuider Zee, consisting 
 of two villages, named after the king's sons, Frederi/csoord and 
 IVillemsoord. Land was taken, houses built, instruments and 
 stores of all kinds provided. The funds were supplied in part 
 by subscriptions from shareholders, and in part by communes or 
 parishes ; the former believing that an adequate return would 
 be obtained for the money, and the latter deeming it an econo- 
 mical mode of averting pauperism. Each village formed a 
 complete community, growing crops, rearing live stock, spinning 
 and weaving woollen cloth. As Van Den Bosch was not 
 officially connected with the scheme after its initiation, we need 
 not trace its history further here, except to say that the self- 
 paying element languished from the first, as generally happens 
 when commerce and charity are joined in the same project. 
 
 BOSCH, JEROME VAN. [Aken, Jerome van, E. C. S. 
 eoL 40.] 
 
 BOSCHINI, MARCO, a celebrated Italian painter and writer, 
 was born at Venice in 1613, and was a pupil of Palma, whose style 
 he endeavoured to combine with that of Tintoretto. A Last 
 Supper in the sacristy of San Girolamo, at Venice, is his most 
 celebrated work, but others remain in the churches and palaces 
 of Venice and Padua. He practised engraving equally with 
 painting, and executed many plates from the designs of Tinelli, 
 Liberi, and others. He was also distinguished as a writer on 
 art. His various merits seem to have met with suitable recog- 
 nition. It is related that in one year, 1661, he received chains 
 of gold from the Emperor Leopold I., the Archduke of Austria, 
 and the Duke of Modena ; but it is added that he was fond of 
 gaming, and dissipated his gains. He died in 1678. Boschini's 
 most famous publication is The Chart of Pictorial Navigation, 
 a dialogue on painting between a Venetian senator and a 
 painter, ' La Carta del Navigar Pittoresco : Dialogo tra un 
 Senator Venetian deletante e un Professor de Pitura soto nome 
 d'Ecelenza e de Compare, Comparti in oto venti. Con i quali la 
 Nave Venetiana vien conduta in l'alto mar de la Pitura, come 
 assoluta dominante de quelo a confusion de chi non intende 
 el bossolo de la calainita,' 4to, Venice, 1660. This Carta is a 
 poem in the homely Venetian dialect, in quatrains, as quaint, 
 though not so verbose, as the title ; eulogistic throughout of the 
 Venetian school of painting, and particularly of Titian, whom 
 he declares to be the greatest of all painters, but containing 
 many interesting notices of pictures, biographical details, and 
 curious anecdotes, related chiefly from his own experience. It 
 is Boschiui who records that Velasquez, when at Rome, being 
 asked by Salvator Rosa his opinion of Raffaelle, replied that 
 Titian was the greatest painter and Venice the best school ; 
 Rubens and Vandyck, he says, always expressed the same 
 opinion ; Guido placed Veronese at the summit of art, whilst 
 Pietro da Cortona was disposed to give the highest place to 
 Tintoretto. The original edition contains 25 plates, engraved by 
 Boschini, and his own portrait. Other works by him are ' 11 
 Regno tutto di Candia, delineato e parte a parte intagliato,' 
 foL Venice, 1645 ; ' L'Arcipelago con tutte le isole,' &c, 1658'; 
 ' Le Ricche Minere della Pittura Veneziana,' &c, Venice, 1663, 
 and several times reprinted ; 'Giojelli Pittoreschi, cioe indice 
 delle pubbliche pitture della citta di Vicenza,' Venice, 1676. 
 
 BOS10, ANTONIO, a learned Roman antiquary of the 
 early part of the 17th century, was the nephew of Giacomo 
 Bosio (author of the History of the Order of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, and that of the Holy Cross), and succeeded his uncle 
 as agent to the Knights of Malta at Rome. Bosio was deeply 
 interested in the paintings and other vestiges of early Christian 
 art brought to light in the newly opened catacombs, and during 
 five-and-thirty years he patiently explored the subterranean 
 tombs and alleys, and examined and annotated the various 
 articles they contained ; but he did not live to give to the 
 world the result of his prolonged labours. He died in 1629, 
 and it was not till 1632 that the goodly folio on which he hail 
 been working appeared under the title of ' Roma Sotteranea, 
 opera postuma, compita e disposta da Giov. Severani da S. 
 Severino, nulla quale si tratta de' Sacri Cimiterii di Roma, del 
 sito, forma, et uso antico di essi,' &c. This work, or Arindii's 
 enlarged Latin version of it [Aringhi, in E. C. S., col. io7J 
 first made known to the learned world the marvels of Subter- 
 ranean Rome, and was the precursor of the vast range of, 
 elaborate and costly works by which it has been illustrated. 
 
 BOSQUET, MARSHAL. [E. 0. vol. i. col. 839.J Pierre 
 Francois Joseph Bosquet was born at Mont-de-Marsan, depart- 
 
238 
 
 tnent of Landes, November 8, 1810. The principal events in his 
 career are noticed in the above article, down to his promotion to 
 the rank of marshal, in 1856. About the same time he was 
 created Senator of France ; and, shortly before, Queen Victoria 
 had nominated him grand-cross of the ord< t of the Bath, in re- 
 cognition of the timely aid he rendered to the English troops at 
 Inkennann. When hostilities were imminent with Austria, 
 Marshal Bosquet was appointed to the command of the army of 
 the south-west, but illness prevented him from taking part in 
 the Italian campaign ; and he died on the 3rd of February, 
 1861. 
 
 BOTTEE DE TOULMON, AUGUSTS, a French writer on 
 music, was born at Paris on the 15th of May, 1797. His original 
 profession was the law, but his inclination was for music, and 
 abandoning the bar, he studied harmony under Desvignes, 
 Cherubini, and Reioha. Having paid much attention to the 
 literature of music, he obtained the post of librarian to the 
 Conservatoire in 18151 , and made many journeys to Germany and 
 other countries to collect MSS. of old music for the library. He 
 was a member of the Society of Antiquities of France, and of the 
 Historical Committee instituted by the Minister of the Interior, 
 and wrote a considerable number of works relating to music. 
 His own compositions, including an oratorio on the Passion and 
 several Masses, did not make much impression ; but he was more 
 successful in commenting on the compositions of others. His 
 principal works were the billowing : — ' Discours sur l'histoire de 
 fart Musical depuis l'ere Chretienne jusqu'a nos jours,' 1835 ; 
 'De la Chanson en France au moyen age,' 1836; 'Notice bio- 
 graphique sur les travaux de Guido dAivzzo,' 1*37 ; ' Dos puys 
 de Palinodes au moyen age,' 1838 ; ' Ues Instruments de Musique 
 en usage au moyen age,' 1838 (expanded to a larger work in 
 1814); 'Sur la restauration des anciens jeux d'Oigue,' 1839; 
 ' Observations sur les moyens de restaurer la Musique religieuse 
 dans les Eglises de Paris,' 1841; 'Notice des Manuacrits auto- 
 graphes de la Musique composee par Cherubini,' 1843. He 
 collected many materials for a ' Recueil de documents inedits de 
 l'Art Musical, depuis le treizieme jusqu' au dix-septieme Siecle,' 
 but did not live to produce the work. Bottee de Toulmon died 
 at Paris on the 22nd of March, 1850. A notice of his life and 
 works was published in 1851 by M. Vincent, member of the 
 Institute of France. 
 
 * BOTTGER (BCETTCHER), ADOLF, a German poet and 
 translator, was born at Leipzig, on the 21st of May, 1815; and 
 was educated successively at the Thomasschule and the univer- 
 sity of his native city. He applied himself with great assiduity 
 to the acquisition of modern languages ; aad he has achieved a 
 reputation by his translations into German of several English 
 masterpieces. Thus he has published the Complete Works of 
 Byron, ' Byrons Sammtliehe Werke,' Leipzig, 1840, 12 volumes, 
 1841, 3rd edition, 1845, diamond edition, 12 vols., 1850, 
 standard edition, 8 vols., 1856 : Goldsmith's Poems, 'Gedichte,' 
 Leipzig, 1843 ; Milton's Poetical Works, ' Poetische Werke,' 
 Leipzig, 1846; Pope's Poetical Works, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1842; 
 and ' Ossian,' Leipzig, 1847 ; Shakespere's Plays, As You Like 
 It, Midsummer Night's Dream, Much ado about Nothing, 
 ' Was ike Wollt,' ' Sommernachtstraum,' ' Viel Larmen um 
 nichts ; ' Longfellow's ' Hiawatha,' Leipzig, 1856 ; Racine's 
 ' Phadra,' Leipzig, 1853 ; and Ponsard's ' Odyssey,' Leipzig, 
 1853. As an original poet, Bottger occupies a place of his own 
 in German literature. His talent is eminently descriptive, and 
 his narrative varies as heroic and adventurous, and as imagina- 
 tive and fanciful. Of the romantic kind of poem, which may be 
 less or more referred to a Byronic model, he has produced Evil 
 Stars, 'Diistere Sterne,' Leipzig, 1852; a lyrico-epic poem 
 entitled ' Habana. Lyrisch-Episehe Dichtung,' l6mo, Leipzig, 
 1853 ; the Fall of Babylon, ' Fall von Babylon,' Leipzig, 1855 ; 
 and Cameos, 'Cameen,' Leipzig, 1856. The school of legend 
 and fancy is represented by a Tale of Spring, ' Ein Friihlings- 
 marchen,' Leipzig, 1849, 3rd edition, 1850 ; and the Pilgrimage 
 of the Flower-Spirits, ' Die Pilgerfahrt der Blumengeister,' 
 Leipzig, 1851, 3rd edition, 1857. His mastery over the art of ver- 
 sification, and his poetical powers generally, are evidenced by his 
 Tragedy, in five acts, entitled ' Agnes Bernauer,' 8vo, Leipzig, 
 1845, 2nd edition, 1847, and 3rd edition, 1850 ; Poems, ' Gedichte,' 
 2nd edition, 8vo, Leipzig, 1846, 7th edition, 1850; Poems on the 
 Wartburg, ' Auf der Wartburg Dichtungen,' Kimo, Leipzig, 1847 ; 
 a Mock Heroic Poem entitled ' Till Eulenspiegel,' Leipzig, 1850 ; 
 the Book of the Saxons, &c, ' Das Buch der Sachsen. Origi- 
 naldichtungen aus der Sachsischen Geschichte,' 4to, Leipzig, 
 1858 ; Love Stories, ' Historien der Liebe,' 16mo, Leipzig, I860; 
 Goethe's Youthful Love, ' Goethe's Jugendliebe,' 8vo, Leipzig, 
 
 1862 ; a small volume entitled Holy Days, 'Heilige Tage,' 16mo, 
 Vienna, 1865. Bottger's Collected Works have been published 
 under the title of ' Ge.sammelte Werke,' 6 vols., 16mo, Leipzig, 
 
 1865—66. 
 
 BOTTOER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, was born at Schleiz, 
 in Voigtland, on the 4th of February, 1682. The name being of 
 difficult pronunciation in the mouth of a foreigner, has pro- 
 bably led to the various ways in which it is written, such as 
 Bottcher, Bottheher, and Biittiger, with a view to catch the 
 sound. In the documents drawn up by the Saxon Government 
 he is invariably referred to as Bottger, and in this way, indeed, 
 he wrote his own name. His father was master of the mint at 
 Magdeburg, and was engaged, after the fashion of the time, in 
 searching for the philosopher's stone, the secret of which Bottger 
 is said to have thus acquired. He attached a superstitious im- 
 portance to the day of his birth, Sunday, as enabling him to 
 look into the future. The father died early, and the mother 
 married again and settled in Berlin, where Bottger was appren- 
 ticed to an apothecary. He soon made known his pretensions 
 to hermetic philosophy, and was laughed at ; but his master 
 having contributed 15 double groschen, Bottger undertook, in 
 the presence of an adept, Von Haugwitz, and some members of 
 the court, to convert them into gold. He is said to have been 
 so successful that the king, Frederick William I., wished to 
 secure him; but liiittger, probably mistrusting his own powers, 
 stole away to Wittenberg, where he was welcomed l>y the 
 metallurgist, Kirchmeier, who had a good laboratory and 
 powerful wind furnaces. He was followed by an officer of the 
 court, who had authority to arrest him on the ground of fraud; 
 but Bottger, probably with perfect sincerity, declared he would 
 rather be hanged than give up the secret. To avoid being 
 taken back to Berlin, he appealed to Frederick Augustus I., 
 King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, for protection, which was 
 granted, and he was conveyed to Dresden under a military 
 escort. There he was splendidly lodged, constantly watched, 
 and encouraged to make experiments, and those about him were 
 under oath not to reveal any secrets they might learn from him. 
 After amusing his host (who was no other than the Elector 
 himself) during four years, and getting tired of his captivity, he 
 secretly escaped, but was overtaken at Ems, and brought back 
 with so much violence that in the confusion he declared he had 
 lost a tincture that had cost him years of labour to prepare, and 
 which was worth millions of gold. He was now earnestly 
 pressed to reveal his secret, which he consented to do under 
 thirty-six conditions, one of which was that he should be set at 
 liberty as soon as he had written out his Arcana. This was 
 agreed to, and in the autumn of 1705 he described in writing his 
 process for making gold. It is a long, tedious, mystical com- 
 position, still to be seen at Dresden. The Elector thought fit to 
 have the Arcana tested before setting the writer at liberty. 
 
 But in the meantime the minister, Tschirnhauss, obtained 
 Bottger's assistance in the solution of another problem of a less 
 hopeless character, namely, how to produce from native materials 
 the true hard porcelain of China and Japan, which it had been 
 the fashion to admire during two centuries. In Bottger's first 
 attempts, instead of a hard, white, transparent ware, he produced 
 an opaque red one. At length a singular accident occurred, 
 which Bottger was acute enough to take advantage of, and this 
 is the grand service rendered by him to the world. An iron- 
 master named Schnorr, in riding over his estate, noticed that at 
 a particular spot his horse struck his hoofs in mud of a whitish 
 character. On taking some of this home it dried into a white 
 powder, and the idea occurred to Schnorr that this powder would 
 serve as well as that prepared from corn flour for powdering wigs. 
 Accordingly large quantities were sold for the purpose, and 
 Bottger remarking that his wig was unusually heavy, examined 
 it and found it to be true China clay or kaolin, with which the 
 first true porcelain of Europe was manufactured. This was 
 about 1710. 
 
 During the years that Bottger and his three or four skilled 
 companions (two of them being potters by profession, and one a 
 mineralogist) worked together they were sometimes in Dresden, 
 and while Charles XII. of Sweden was in Saxony, for better 
 security, in the fortress of Konigstein on the Elbe above Dresden, 
 and lastly at the castle of Albrechtsburg at Meissen below Dresden. 
 The Elector took such interest in their work that he was some- 
 times present at the drawing of the kiln. Bottger is described 
 as a witty, jovial companion, the delight of his fellow- workers. 
 But when the porcelain factory was fully established and his 
 services were no longer needed, they began to find faidt with his 
 administration as director. They accused him of getting drunk 
 
289 
 
 BOTTICELLI. 
 
 BOUCHER DE CREVECXEUR DE PERTHES. 200 
 
 with brandy three times a day, and also of negociating with 
 foreign courts for the sale of the porcelain secret. They would 
 probably have succeeded in getting him discredited in the eyes 
 of the Elector had not a stronger hand interposed and laid him 
 quietlv in the grave, March the 13th, 1719. 
 BOTTICELLI. [Filipepi, Sandbo, E. C. vol. ii. col. 913.] 
 BOTTIGER, CARL AUGUST, an eminent German archae- 
 ologist, was born on the 8th of June, 17(i0, at Reichanbach, in 
 Saxony, and finished his education at Leipzig University. After 
 acting for some time in Dresden as a private teacher, he was, in 
 17>4. appointed rector of the academy at Guben ; in 1790 removed 
 to a like post at Bautzen ; and in 1791, on the recommendation of 
 Herder, was made director of the gymnasium at Weimar. Here 
 he was brought into close connection with Goethe, Schiller, and 
 Wieland ; and through their influence, and association with the 
 artists who formed a characteristic section of the remarkable 
 society then collected in that little capital, his attention was 
 strongly directed to the literature of ait, which became more 
 and more an absorbing pursuit. For some years, however, much 
 of his spare time was taken up with the management of journals 
 like the ' Journal des Luxus/ the ' Deutschen Mercur.' and 
 ' London und Paris ; ' and he long continued to contribute 
 critical and biographical papers to the ' Allgenieine Zeitung.' 
 In 1S04 he was invited to Dresden as director of studies at the 
 court academy, and afterwards was appointed superintendent of 
 the Museum of Antiquities. Here he remained occupied with his 
 official duties, delivering courses of lectures on art and archae- 
 ology, and preparing his various works for the press, till his 
 death, which occurred on the 17th of November, 1835. Heir 
 Bottiger's earliest work, ' Sabina oder Morgenscenen einer 
 reichen Rbmerin,' Leipzig, 1803, 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1806, was a 
 pleasingdescription of the habits and toilette of a Roman lady in 
 the first century of the Christian era. His later publications were 
 all on the archaeology of art. Of these the chief were — ' Ideen 
 zur Archaologie der Malerei,' and ' Kuhstmythologie,' Dresden, 
 1811; 'Yorlesungen und Aufsatze sur Alterthuniskunde,' 
 Leipzig, 1817; ' Anialthea/ 3 vols. 1821—25; and 'Ideen zur 
 Kunstmythologie,' 2 vols. Dresden, 182b' — 36. His academic dis- 
 sertations and Latin poems were published in a collected form, 
 by Julius Sillig, in 1837, under the title of 1 Bbttiger Opuscula et 
 Carmina Latina,' Dresden, 1837 ; and his chief essays and anti- 
 quarian articles by the same editor, as ' Kleine Schrif'tcn archiio- 
 logischen und antiquarischen Inhalts,' 3 vols. Dresden, 1837 — 38. 
 Various inedited papers were printed under the title of ' Litera- 
 rische Zustiinde und Zeitgenossen/ 2 vols. Leipzig, 1838, by his 
 son, C. AV. Bottiger, who also printed a biographical sketch of 
 his father, ' Carl Aug. B., erne biographische Skizze,' Leipzig, 
 1857. 
 
 BOUCHARD (or BOUCHART), ALAIN, a Breton historian, 
 was born in the 15th century, most probably at the manor of 
 Kerbouchart, near Croisic. He was an advocate of the parliament 
 of Bretagne, and councillor and master extraordinary of requests 
 under the Duke Francis II. Encouraged by Queen Anne, who 
 facilitated his researches amongst the archives of Bretagne, 
 Bouchard compiled his 'Grandes Croniques,' which were completed 
 and on the point of being presented to that princess, when she 
 died in January, 1514. Bouchard published the same year the 
 first edition of his great work, the imputed faults of which are 
 his plagiarism from antecedent chroniclers and his indiserimi- 
 nating perpetuation of their fables. His local information is, 
 however, valuable, .and his style is picturesque. The title of the 
 first edition is as follows : — ' Les grandes croniques de Bretaigne 
 nouvellement imprimees a Paris : tant de la grande Bretaigne 
 clepuis le roy Brutus qui la conquist et la appella Bretaigne 
 jusques au temps de Cadualadrus dernier roy breton dicellc 
 grande Bretaigne ensemble tons les aultres bretons y estans lors 
 furent contrains de habandonner le pays pour les pestilences de 
 maladie qui y sourvindrent que lors les angloys de Saxonie y 
 vindrent habiter et la nommerent angleterre, que aussi de nostre 
 bretaigne de present depuis la conqueste du roy Conan meriadec 
 breton qui lors estoit appelle le royauline darmoriqtie jusques au 
 temps et trespas de Franc/jys II. de ce nom due de Bretaigne 
 dernier trespasse pere de la feue royn'e de france nagueres decedec 
 a qui dieu pardoint, esquelles cronicques est mencion faicte 
 daucuns notables faiz advenuz es royaulmes de France Dangle- 
 terre Despaigne Descosse Darragon et de Navarre es AUemaign.es 
 es Itales en Lombardie en Tartaric en Jhierusolem : & aillieurs 
 en plusieurs aultres pays & contrees durant le regne dun chascun 
 roy & prince desd. deux bretaignes,' folio, Paris, 1514, second 
 edition, folio, Caen, 1518, third edition, folio, Paris, 1531, fourth 
 edition, folio, Caen, 1532, fifth edition, folio, Caen, 1541. All 
 BIOO. DIV. — SOP. 
 
 the editions of Caen, as compared with those of Paris, present 
 various readings and interpolations. 
 
 BOUCHER, FR ANCOIS, a celebrated French painter of the 
 Pompadour period, was born at Paris the 29th of September, 
 1703. He studied painting under Le Moine, but about 1720 
 entered into an engagement with M. Cars, the engraver, to reside 
 in his house, learn engraving, and make designs for various pub- 
 lications. Whilst here he made twenty-six 'designs fur Daniel's 
 ' Histoire de France,' which were engraved by Baquoy, and he 
 himself engraved various plates after Watteau. In 1723 he won 
 the first prize for painting at the Academy, and two years later 
 went to Rome. The great works of Italy had no influence on 
 his style, and if he learned anything from any of the Italian 
 masters it was from Albani, whose Dianas and Cupids he adopted 
 as themes for his pencil, and whose gay colour and polished 
 manner his contemporaries thought he rivalled. On his return 
 to Paris, Boucher became exceedingly popular. He was of a 
 light, cheerful disposition, very fond of society, and he was 
 admitted into the best circles ; and he caught and reflected 
 exactly the elegant but frivolous and flimsy taste of the day. 
 The Painter of the Graces, as he was named, he drew his inspira- 
 tion from the reigning mode of the court of Louis XV., and 
 helped to give it a definite form. With Madame Pompadour he 
 was an especial favourite ; the loveliest portrait of her is from 
 his pencil; and not only did she employ him to make for her 
 numerous pictures and drawings, but she herself etched a large 
 number of his designs — Ledas, Loves, Nymphs, the Youthful 
 Bacchus, 'Offrande au dieu Terme,' 'L'Amour sacrifiant a 
 1' Amide ' (that is, the Pompadour offering her heart to Love), 
 and the like ; and it was noticed that though she etched some of 
 Vien's and Vanloo's designs, she always succeeded best with 
 Boucher's, and that her own designs were altogether in his 
 manner. Boucher was in 1733 admitted into the Academy, of 
 which he was afterwards director ; and on the death of Vanloo 
 in 1765 he was nominated principal painter to the king. He 
 died at Paris on the 30th of May, 1770. Boucher designed and 
 painted with amazing facility, and produced an enormous number 
 of pictures and drawings. Sir Joshua Reynolds gives an in- 
 structive illustration of his manner of working (Discourse XII.) : 
 "When I visited him some years since in France I found him at 
 work on a very large picture, without drawings or models of any 
 kind. On my remarking this particular circumstance, he said 
 when he was young, studying his art, he found it necessary to 
 use models ; but he had left them off for many years." Boucher 
 is the representative painter of the style Pompadour, of mincing 
 grace and modish elegance displayed alike in classic and pastoral 
 prettinesses, very refined and well-bred, and with a certain naive 
 yet courtly charm, but essentially false and meretricious. The 
 influence of this style is still strong in French decorative art, 
 though long banished from its higher branches. The Louvre 
 has seven characteristic paintings by Boucher — ' Diana ami one 
 of her Nymphs coming out of the Bath,' ' Venus (attended by 
 Cupid and the Graces) ordering from Vulcan arms for ./Eneas,' 
 'Reynold and Armida' (the latter contemplating herself in a 
 mirror which Cupid holds up to her), and four 'Pastoral 
 Scenes,' with shepherds and shepherdesses of the true Parisian 
 
 ^BOUCHER DE CREVECfEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES, 
 was bom at Rethel, September 10, 1788. He was descended 
 from a family which had been established in France for a long 
 time, some of his ancestors having been men of note prior even 
 to the crusades of the middle ages. In early life he received an 
 official appointment, but he soon resigned it in order to devote 
 himself entirely to literary and scientific pursuits. Possessed of 
 an ample fortune, endowed with most exemplary industry, and 
 gifted with an amount of enthusiasm and imagination which falls 
 to the lot of few men, he poured forth work after work from his 
 prolific pen, dealing with an immense range of subjects in a 
 style peculiarly his own. A complete set of his works comprises 
 upwards of thirty volumes. His literary activity does not seem 
 to have commenced until he was more than thirty years of age, 
 for the earliest work known to us is a play entitled ' La Marquise 
 de Montalle,' 1820, which was followed by several tragedies, 
 comedies, and dramatic compositions, of which three were 
 received at the Odeon, the most noteworthy, perhaps, being a 
 comedy, the ' Grande homme chez lui.' In 1830 he wrote 
 ' Romances, Legends et Ballades,' of which a second edition was 
 issued in 1849. His first work of any importance was the 
 ' Opinion de M. Christophe sur les prohibition et la liberte de 
 commerce,' 1831 — 34, in wdiich he was one of the first persons to 
 advocate free trade for France, and to demand a universal exhi- 
 
 U 
 
BOUCHER DE CREVECCEUR DE PERTHES. 
 
 BOUDIN, JEAN CHRISTIAN M. F. J. 
 
 292 
 
 bition at Paris, which last idea he urged again in 1833. Another 
 work of his, ' De la Creation,' 1841, 5 vols., is a curious meta- 
 physical and imaginative disquisition upon organisms. Amidst 
 much mysticism, verbiage, and speculation, there are here and 
 there a few bright Sparks of thought. Towards the end of the 
 work he has several chapters on the progression of life, in which 
 he advocates to their utmost extent the evolutionary ideas now 
 in vogue, and which Professor Huxley announces will be the 
 accepted theory of the future geologist. He maintains the 
 indestructibility of matter and force, and the gradual passage 
 from one state to another, commencing in simplicity and passing 
 onto complexity. The simple cell becomes the complex man, an 
 observation which he deems equally true whether applied to the 
 short period of life allotted to the individual or to the far longer 
 duration of organisms in general. In one place he says that 
 great fire, the sun, began with a spark, and it will go out with a 
 spark ; an idea which is in harmony with the most recent dis- 
 coveries. In another place he says an animal is an imperfect 
 man, man is an imperfect angel, and an angel is one degree 
 below some higher and wiser creature. But the principal work 
 with which Perthes's name will be associated is the 'Antiquites 
 Celtiques et Antediluviennes.' This was one of the many results 
 of his untiring efforts to promote the study of the antiquity of 
 man. The first nucleus of the work was a short paper read to 
 the Societe Royale d'Emulation at Abbeville in 183b', to which 
 society other papers on the same subject were contributed from 
 time to time. The first volume was printed in ]N42, and pre- 
 sented to the Institute in 1844, but it was not published till 
 1846, when it appeared under the title of ' De l'Industrie primi- 
 tive et des Arts a leur Origine.' This title did not attract 
 attention, and in the following year it was re-issued under the 
 title given above, which has been since retained. The work 
 is a valuable contribution to the archaeology of his native pro- 
 vince of Picardy, and so far as his statements concern the Celts, 
 they have been generally accepted, but his conclusion as to the 
 existence of antediluvian men met with much opposition, which, 
 however, only induced him to renew his efforts to collect 
 evidence. He spent his money and time freely in examining 
 every available section that was made under his directions or 
 in executing various engineering and building operations. He did 
 not, however, confine himself to his own country, but searched all 
 over Europe, and thus collected a magnificent museum of ancient 
 implements, utensils, and rudimentary artistic fabrics, which at 
 a later period he presented to the nation. Wherever he went he 
 was received with hearty greetings, and assurances of help in his 
 researches reached him from all quarters. His observations on 
 these journeys are detailed in his ' Voyage a Constantinople,' 
 1855 ; 'Voyage en Danemarck, en Suede, en Norwege,' 1858; 
 'Voyage en Espagne et en Alger ie,' 1859; ' Voyage en Russie,' 
 1859 ; while those which more particularly appertain to archaeo- 
 logy were embodied in vol. ii. of his 'Antiquites Celtiques. 1 
 In 1864 appeared the third and concluding volume, in which he 
 gives a full account of the finding of the famous human jaw 
 of Moulin Quignon, which excited much discussion, as this 
 fragment was supposed to be the oldest human relic discovered 
 up to that time. Its, authenticity has, however, been disputed, 
 the evidence tending to show that the bone was not deposited 
 along with the gravel in which it was found. Finding that his 
 discovery was not generally accepted, Boucher de Perthes effected 
 a series of new excavations and searches, which led to the dis- 
 covery of many more human bones, some of which were at the 
 very base of the gravel and resting on the chalk itself. The evi- 
 dence connected with these would have convinced most anthro- 
 pologists had they not been discovered after the first Moulin 
 Quignon jaw bone, which there is strong reason to suspect was 
 placed in the gravel fraudulently. It should be borne in mind 
 that Boucher de Perthes had been in the habit of offering 
 rewards for many years for objects connected with the antiquity 
 of man, that he himself had frequently rejected spurious articles 
 which had been offered him, and that he was fully aware of the 
 possibility of deception. He lived long enough to see the 
 position accepted which he had battled for so long and so 
 arduously, viz., that men existed contemporaneously with various 
 extinct mammals, and long before the so-called Celts, who were 
 considered to be the earliest inhabitants of France. In addition 
 to the above-mentioned works he wrote many others, amongst 
 which we can only mention the ' Petit Glossaire,' 1835 ; 
 'Homines et Choses,' 1851; ' Les Masques, biographies sans 
 noms/ 1861 — 64, 5 vols. ; and 'Sous dix Rois, souvenirs de 
 1791 a I860,' 1864, 6 vols. His latest work was 'Des Idees 
 innees de la Mcmoire et de l'lnstinct,' 1867. He died August 3, 
 
 1868, after having been for more than thirty years the president 
 of the Emulation Society of Abbeville. 
 
 BOUCHET, JEAN, a voluminous French writer, was born 
 at Poitiers on the 30th of January, 1476. Failing, by the death 
 of King Charles VIII. at Amboise, on the 7th of April, 1498, ot 
 the appointment which that monarch had promised in recogni- 
 tion of his already declared talent, Bouchet adopted at his native 
 city his paternal profession of procureur du roi, which does not 
 appear to have ever completely won his affection. He was 
 obliged frequently to withdraw into the country, where he could 
 devote himself without distraction to study, by the ravages of the 
 plague at Poitiers. Beyond this circumstance, and the incidental 
 information that he had eight children, little is known of the 
 events of his life. He died in some unascertained year between 
 1550 and 1555. 
 
 His works comprise ' L'Amoureux transi sans espoir,' 4to, 
 Lyon, 1507, a collection of those juvenile poems by which he 
 had won the regard of Charles VIII., and the production of the 
 last of which dates from not later than 1500 ; ' Livret des 
 Angoisses et des remedes el'amour du traverseur, en son ado- 
 lescence,' 4to, Poitiers, 1537 ; a serious volume, in which he 
 sought to make the amende for the frivolities of the preceding 
 one, which lie regretted, ' Les Cantiques de la sainte et devote 
 ame, amoureuse et epouse de Notre-Seigneur Jesus-Christ,' &c, 
 16mo, Lyon, 1540. The productions, however, for which Bouchet 
 is alone regarded at present are of a memorial or historic kind, 
 the chief of which are ' Le Panegyrique du Chevallier sans 
 reproche, ou, La Vie et les Gestes de Louis cle la Tremouille/ 
 4to, Poitiers, 1527 ; ' Les anciennes et modernes genealogies des 
 Roys de France, et mesmement du Roy Pharamond, avec leurs 
 epitaphes et effigies,' 4to, Poitiers, 1527, 1531, and 1535, 16mo, 
 Paris, 1536, and 8vo, 1537; 'L'histoire et Cronicque de Clotaire 
 premier de ce nom. vij. roy des Frangoys, et Monarque des 
 Gaulles. Et de sa tres illustre espouse, Madame Saincte 
 Radegonde,' 4to, Poitiers, 1527 ; ' Les Annales d'Aquitaine, 
 faits et gestes des rois de France et d'Angleterre, pays de Naples 
 et de Milan,' &c, folio, Poitiers, 1524, 1535, 1557, 1644, &c. In 
 addition to the foregoing, it may be mentioned that Bouchet is 
 the author of a curious and very interesting volume of ' Epistres 
 Morales et Familieres,' &c, folio, Poitiers, 1545. 
 
 Another Jean Bouchet, or du Bouchet, who was born in 
 1599 and died in 1684, is the author of several genealogical 
 works of considerable local value and interest. They are 
 ' Veritable Origine de la seconde et troisieme lignees de la 
 maison de France,' folio, Paris, 1646 and 1661 ; 'Histoire genea- 
 logique de la maison de Courtenay,' folio, Paris, 1661 ; ' Preuves 
 de l'histoire genealogique de la maison de Coligny,' folio, Pari}*, 
 1662 ; ' Table genealogique des comtes d'Auvergne,' folio, 1665 ; 
 ' Table genealogique des anciens vicomtes de la Marche,' folio, 
 Paris, 1682 ; and an edition, with notes and additions, of 
 Coustureau's ' Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, premier due de 
 Montpensier,' 4to, Rouen, 1642. 
 
 BOUDIN, JEAN CHRISTIAN MARC FRANCOIS 
 JOSEPH, anthropologist and hygienist, was born at Metz, in 
 the department of Moselle, April 27, 1806. His father was- a 
 private soldier who had gradually worked his way up to official 
 rank, and was during the first few years of his son's irfe in com- 
 mand of Mayence, at which place the subject of the present 
 notice received his early education, and soon evinced an extra- 
 ordinary ardour in the collection of facts and figures, a passion 
 for music, and a strong faculty of acquiring languages. In 1824 
 he entered the hospital at Metz as a pupil ; in 1826 he accom- 
 panied the military expedition to Spain ; and in 1828 his 
 services were transferred to the Morea. In 1830 he received 
 the diploma of doctor, and in 1831 was appointed a regimental 
 surgeon. In 1832 he was placed on the medical staff of the 
 hospital at Marseille, and in this capacity he showed uncommon 
 energy and skill in battling against the cholera epidemic which 
 ravaged the town in 1835. About this time he established the 
 'Gazette Medicale de Marseille,' for which he wrote several 
 papers, and in ojie of them he strongly urged the necessity of 
 reform in sanitary regulations, and the abolition of quarantine 
 imposed on travellers from' Algeria. In 1837 he was entrusted 
 with the medical direction of the second French expedition to 
 Algeria. This army suffered much from cholera, and he himself 
 was one of the persons seized by it. He ordered a horse, caused 
 himself to be fixed to it, and rushed off on board a vessel to seek 
 that change of air which he considered essential to his safety ; 
 the result was that he soon recovered his health. From 1838 to 
 1840 he resided at Algiers, and diligently studied the morbific 
 influence of the marshy tract near that town ; and in 1842 
 
293 
 
 BOUE, AMI. 
 
 BOUQUET, DOM MARTIN. 
 
 231 
 
 appeared his ' Traite des fievres intermittentes, remittentes et 
 continues des pays chauds et des contrees marecageuses,' which 
 contains some original ideas as to the influence of miasms, and in 
 which he advocated the use of arsenical preparations in certain 
 fevers. This work led to much angry discussion, hut the author's 
 thoughts were thus turned to the subject of medical geography, 
 on which he is one of the principal authorities. In 1842 he 
 was appointed chief physician of the military hospital at 
 Marseille, and to the Royal Society of that town he read a 
 paper entitled ' Traite de geographie et dc statistique medicales,' 
 published in the 'Bulletins' of the Society in 1842, and sepa- 
 rately in 1843, and which was subsequently expanded into a 
 two volume work published in 1857. This last is his principal 
 literary claim to notice, and embodies the fruit of some fifteen 
 or more years of close observation and study, the results of 
 which were announced from time to time in various scattered 
 papers. It is an encyclopaedic work on all that relates to the 
 distribution of diseases, and the influence which climate, local 
 peculiarities of physical geography, racial characters, &c, have 
 in regulating such distribution. From 1843 onward he passed 
 through various posts, such as chief physician to the hospitals 
 at Roule, Vincennes, and St. Martin ; to the Alpine army 
 (1848 — 1849) ; and to the Italian army (1859), in succession to 
 Larrey. In 1859 the French Anthropological Society was founded, 
 and he at once joined its ranks as an active worker, and in 1862 
 he was elected its president. Amongst the papers which he 
 contributed to this society may be mentioned, ' De non-cosmo- 
 politisme des races humaines' ; ' Du croissement des families, des 
 races, et des especes ; ' and papers on food, water, cretinism, 
 human hybridity, serpent worship, etc. Many of his literary 
 productions, more especially those of a statistical nature, are 
 illustrated with coloured or shaded maps and diagrams, which 
 enable one to perceive at a glance the general state of the 
 evidence. His aptitude for this kind of work is well displayed 
 in his 'Carte physique et meteorologique du globe terrestre,' 
 showing the distribution of temperature, winds, rain, and snow, 
 which, we believe, was the only French work of its kind at the 
 time of its publication. He was long engaged upon a ' Carte 
 ethuographique du globe,' but it was left unfinished, a circum- 
 stance the more to he regretted as it promised to he an 
 exceedingly valuable addition to scientific chartography. Be- 
 sides all this, he wrote many papers for the 'Annales d'hy- 
 giene,' and the 'Recueil de Memoires de Medicine Militaire,' 
 which he assisted in editing for more than twenty years, as also 
 for various other journals ; but a full list of these will he found 
 in the under-cited article by Perier. He has also left a large 
 collection of inedited materials bearing on the investigations to 
 which he had applied himself. His death occurred at Paris, 
 after a long illness, on March 9, 1867. 
 
 (Perier, Notice historique et bibliographique sur le Dr. Boudin, 
 in Mem. Hoc. d 'Anthropologic de Paris, III. pp. 29 — 69, 1868.) 
 
 * BOUE, AMI, was born 16 March, 1794, at Hamburg, of 
 a thriving commercial family descended from French refugees. 
 His education was chiefly private, the Avar preventing his 
 residence at Gottingen, as had been intended. In 1812 he 
 commenced his travels in various parts of Europe, and acquired 
 a taste for geological studies. After passing four summers in 
 Scotland he took his doctor's degree in medicine at Edinburgh 
 in 1817, and between this and 1839 he passed much of his time 
 in travelling over Europe, including Turkey, which was new 
 to the geologist. In 1820 he published at Paris a 'Geological 
 Essay on Scotland ; ' in 1829, ' Geognostic Pictures of Ger- 
 many in 1835, at Paris, ' Guide to the Geological Traveller ; ' 
 in 1840, 'Turkey in Europe ;' in 1850, 'An Itinerary of 
 Turkey in Europe.' He has also published many papers on 
 geological science, and was the first secretary, then vice-pre- 
 sident, and afterwards president of the Geological Society of 
 Paris. He has since resided at Vienna. 
 
 BOUILLET, JEAN, was born at Scrvien, near Beziers, 6th 
 March (or, as some say, 14th May), 1690. His father was a 
 fanner. He received a good education at Montpellier, and 
 practised as a physician at Beziers from 1715 up to the time of 
 his death, 13tn August, 1777. About this time there was 
 considerable activity among the provincial scientific academies. 
 Those of Montpellier and Bordeaux were accustomed to offer 
 prizes for the best essays on certain subjects, and in 1719 
 Bouillet gained the prize for an essay on Fermentation, and in 
 1720 for one on Gravitation, or 'The Cause of Weight,' as it 
 was called. He was a corresponding member of the Academy 
 of Sciences at Paris, and, in conjunction with Von Mairan, 
 Secretary tq the Academy of Sciences and Belles Lettres at 
 
 Beziers, he took part in the celebrated discussion on Evapora- 
 tion, which ended in the adoption of Le Roi's theory of solution 
 of water in air, which retained its place in science until the time 
 of Dalton, although in 1742 Bouillet approached the true theory 
 by placing the particles of water in the interstices of those of 
 air. Bouillet published several works on medicine, mineral 
 waters, &c, and, in conjunction with his son, Jean Henri 
 Nicolas (physician of Montpellier, born 1729), a number of 
 articles in the Cyclopaedia edited by D'Alembert and Diderot. 
 At that time it was not difficult to attain distinction in a variety 
 of sciences, so that we need not be surprised at Bouillet's wide 
 range. He is even now sometimes quoted in astronomy, as 
 having made a good observation in 1772 on the immersion of 
 Saturn. 
 
 BOUILLET, MARIE-NICOLAS, a learned and industrious 
 French compiler, was born at Paris, May 5, 1798. Having 
 completed his educational course at the Ecole Normale, under 
 Cousin and Jouftroy, he was employed for some time as substi- 
 tute professor of philosophy at Rouen and Paris ; afterwards as 
 teacher of philosophy in the colleges Charlemagne and Henri 
 IV. (subsequently the Lycee Napoleon) ; and hi 1840 he was 
 made principal of the College Bourbon. The revolution of 1848 
 caused his retirement from the public employment, but he was 
 nominated in 1851 inspector of the Academy of Paris, and in 
 1861 inspector general of public instruction. He died on the 
 28th of December, 1864. M. Bouillet was an excellent teacher, 
 and he published some useful works in his own line of instruc- 
 tion ; but he was more generally known as perhaps the most 
 successful dictionary-maker of a time and country unusually 
 abundant in that class of compilers. His first work of the kind 
 was a classical dictionary designed to supersede Lempriere, 
 which in a great measure it succeeded in doing : ' Dictionnaire 
 Classique des Noms propres de l'antiquite, sacree et profane,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1826, 4th ed. 1841 ; and of which he pub- 
 lished an abridgment in 1827, which has also passed through 
 several editions. The success of a still larger work, the ' Dic- 
 tionnaire Universel d'Histoire et de Geographie,' 2 vols, large 
 8vo, double columns, 1842, was for a while in peril, for some 
 passages in it called down the papal censure ; but M. Bouillet, 
 after a journey to Rome, cancelled all that was objected to, and 
 his pliancy was rewarded not merely by the removal of his 
 book from the Index, hut by being permitted to prefix to it the 
 approbation of the pope, as well as the imprimatur of the 
 French prelates. As a consequence it met with an amount of 
 success unparalleled in works of a like class, the 20th edition 
 having been reached in 1864. His other great dictionary, 
 ' Dictionnaire Universel des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Arts,' 
 2 vols, large 8vo, 1854, reached a 7th edition in 1864, and has, 
 we believe, been reprinted more than once since. M. Bouillet 
 also contributed numerous articles to the ' Dictionnaire de la 
 Conversation,' the ' Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques,' 
 the ' Biographic Universelle,' the ' Encyclopedic Moderne,' and 
 to various periodicals. His philosophical works include the 
 editing a French translation of Bacon's works ; annotated 
 editions of the philosophical works of Cicero and Seneca ; and a 
 translation of the 'Enneads of Plotinus,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1857, &c. 
 
 BOUQUET, DOM MARTIN, a learned French Benedictine, 
 was born at Amiens, August 6, 1685. Received at an early age 
 into the order, he made his profession at the Abbey of St. Faron, 
 Meaux, in 1706. Owing to his studious habits and unusual 
 attainments, he was made librarian of the abbey of Saint- 
 Germain-des-Pres, and called to assist Montfaucon in the prepa- 
 ration of his ' Antiquite expliquee,' and other laborious compila- 
 tions. But Dom Bouquet's great work was the Collection of the 
 Chronicles of France, an enterprise projected by Colbert in 
 1676, but delayed, mainly from the difficulty of finding a 
 competent and willing editor, until Bouquet undertook the duty, 
 in 1721, on the recommendation of Denis de Sainte-Marthe, 
 superior of the congregation of Saint-Maur. Some delay was 
 caused by his removal to the abbey of St.-Jean-de-Laon, but 
 he was recalled to Paris at the instance of the chancellor 
 D'Aguesseau, and by 1728 had completed the first two volumes, 
 which appeared in folio in Latin and French, with the title 
 ' Rerum Gallicarum et Francicarum Scriptores ; ou Recueil des 
 Historiens des Gaules et de la France.' To the continuance of 
 this work Bouquet devoted every hour not demanded by his 
 religious duties, and he had the happiness to witness the publi- 
 cation of the 8th volume in 1752. He was engaged on the 9th 
 volume till his death, which occurred on the 6th of April, 1754. 
 The work was continued by the Benedictines J.-B., and C. 
 Haudiquier, Housseau, Precieux, Poirier, Clement, and Brial, the 
 
205 
 
 BOURGEOIS, LOUIS. 
 
 BOUVART, ALEXIS. 
 
 19th volume being published in 1832. Its completion M T as then 
 transferred to the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, 
 and, under the editorship of MM. Daunou and Naudet, three 
 more volumes have been issued, the 22nd in 1805. Of the value 
 of this work to the student, not merely of French history, hut of 
 the history of Europe in the middle ages, it would he superfluous 
 to speak. Dom Bouquet did not possess the higher qualities of 
 a critic or commentator, but he was honest of purpose and 
 unwearied in labour, and his progress forms a remarkable 
 contrast to that of his successors. 
 
 BOURGEOIS, LOUIS, or LOYS, a French musical writer, 
 the dates of whose birth and death are not known, but who com- 
 posed between 1541 and 1561. Having embraced the principles 
 of the Reformation under the teaching of Calvin, he accompanied 
 the reformer to Geneva in 1541, and was chosen by the Con- 
 sistory as cantor at that place ; but, being frustrated m a plan of 
 introducing harmonized psalms in many parts, he returned to 
 Paris after some years. He was one of the first to propose the 
 teaching of singing by sobnisation, as an improvement on the 
 method of Guido d'Arezzo, by a better mode of regulating the 
 syllables sol, fa, re, mi, &c. The French Protestants adopted 
 Bourgeois's plan, from whence it gradually spread to all the 
 French schools of music. One of his works was ' Pseaubnes 
 (Jinquanle de David Boy et Prophete, traduictz en vers Francais, 
 par Clement Maret, et mis en musique par Loys Bourgeois a 
 quatre parties, a voixde contrepoint egal consonnante au verbe,' 
 oblong 4to, Lyons, 1547. Another was ' Le droict chemin de 
 Musique, compose par Loys Bourgeois, avec la Maniere de 
 chanter les Pseaubnes par usage ou ruse,' 8vo, Geneva, 1550. 
 
 BOURN ON, JACQUES LOUIS, known as Count de 
 Bournon, was born at Metz, January 21, 1751. He displayed 
 early a decided taste for the study of natural objects, and after 
 devoting some time to botany and other branches of natural 
 history, selected mineralogy as the subject likely best to repay 
 his toil. He was the more tempted to this choice by the line 
 collection of minerals which his father had made in his chateau 
 at Fabert. He made frequent excursions in Dauphigny and 
 elsewhere, in company with friends of similar tastes, and he 
 cultivated the society of mineralogists of repute, and also 
 corresponded with them. On the breaking out of the revolution 
 he emigrated with his family, and ranged himself under the Bag 
 of Conde. When this army was disbanded, he sought refuge 
 in England, where his mineralogical knowledge was highly 
 esteemed, especially as the science was then immature. He was 
 employed by Lord Granville, and also by Sir A. Hume and Sir 
 J. Saint-Aubin, to arrange their mineralogical cabinets. In 1802 
 he was elected into the Royal Society. He had commenced 
 some years before a general treatise on mineralogy, which he 
 illustrated chiefly with reference to the carbonates of lime ; and 
 he found these so numerous that he had to content himself with 
 a special instead of a general treatise. He described G16 varieties 
 of forms, perfectly distinct, and belonging to 59 different modi- 
 fications. Hence it will be seen what a length of time and 
 how many observers were required to exhaust the subject of 
 derived forms of which Hiiuy had opened up the knowledge. 
 A single group belonging to any one of these varieties might 
 form a cabinet, and yet, as the Count remarks, many might be 
 wanting. 
 
 This fine work being sufficiently advanced for publication, 
 including 72 quarto pages of figures, the poor refugee looked for 
 some time in vain for a publisher ; but, on talking the matter 
 over with Dr. Babington and Mr. Allen of the Royal Institution, 
 he was introduced to Messrs. W. & R. Phillips, the printers, 
 when it was proposed to form a committee of scientific men to 
 raise a guarantee fund for defraying the expenses of publication, 
 and securing some profit to the author. This led to the publi- 
 cation of this celebrated treatise, under the title of 1 Traite com- 
 plet de la Chaux Carbonatee et de l'Arragonite, Londres, Chez 
 W. Phillips, George Yard, Lombard Street, 1808.' The letter- 
 press is in 2 vols. 4to, with a third volume of plates. The pre- 
 liminary discourse contains a variety of personal details respecting 
 the author and his scientific friends, and is written with that 
 charming grace of style which distinguishes the savans of France. 
 In a report to the Emperor Napoleon I., Cuvier, with his usual 
 manliness of character, mentions Bournon by name, and states 
 the value of his services to mineralogy. On the restoration of 
 the Bourbons the Count returned to France, and was appointed 
 mineralogist to the king, Louis XVIII. He published, 1815 — 18, 
 a catalogue of his majesty's collection. He is also the author of 
 a few other short treatises, the last of which, in 1824, is a de- 
 scription of a goniometer ; and of a large number of papers, 
 
 between 1796 and 1815, in the ' Journal des Mines.' He died at 
 
 Versailles, 24 August, 1825. 
 
 * BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEU- 
 DONNE, was born at Paris, Feb. 2, 1802, and educated at the 
 mining school of St. Etienne. He entered upon his public life 
 as the superintendent of an English company, whose object was 
 to reopen and work some old mines in Soutb America. This 
 gave him the opportunity of making many observations on the 
 phenomena presented by the tropical regions of the New World; 
 and that he availed himself of it is clear, since his remarks soon 
 attracted the attention of Humboldt, who was at the time work- 
 ing in the same field of observation. By-and-by the insurrec- 
 tion in the Spanish colonies broke out, the mining enterprise 
 was ruined, and Boussingault, joining the ranks of Bolivar, 
 traversed nearly the whole of the country forming the basins of 
 the Orinoco and Magdalene rivers (rendered classic ground by 
 Humboldt), nominally as a soldier, but practically as a scientific 
 observer. On returning to France he became successively pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at Lyon, dean of the faculty at the same 
 place, member of the Academy (1839), and professor of agri- 
 culture at the ' Conservatoire des Arts et des Metiers ' in Paris. 
 In 1848 he was elected to represent the department of Bas 
 Rhin in the Constituent Assembly, but finding political life was 
 not suited to his tastes, he resigned his seat after holding it for a 
 few months only, and returned to the pursuits which were more 
 congenial to him, such as the application of chemistry to agri- 
 culture, the breeding of animals, the qualities and value 
 of manures, the properties of food given to domestic animals, 
 etc. His principal works are ' Agronomie, chimie agricole 
 et physiologie/ of which the second edition, in three 
 volumes, was issued in 1860 — 1864 ; and ' Economie rurale 
 consideree dans ses rapports avec le chimie, la physique et la 
 meteorologie,' 2 vols., of which the second edition appeared in 
 1851, and of which English and German translations have been 
 prepared. He has also written a great number of papers, mostly 
 for the ' Annales de Chimie ' and ' Comptes Rendus :' nearly 1 50 
 are mentioned in the Royal Society's 'Catalogue of Scientific 
 Papers.' That catalogue, however, does not come later than 
 1863, since which time he has been as active as ever ; and at the 
 present time he is engaged in studying the influence of various 
 metalloids upon the properties of steel. One of his papers on this 
 subject is contained in the ' Comptes Rendus ' for March, 1870. 
 In 1857 he was made a commander of the Legion of Honour. 
 BOUTS, DIERICK. [Stuerbodt, D., E. C] 
 BOUVART, ALEXIS, a distinguished mathematician and 
 astronomer, was born of poor parents in a small village in the 
 Valley of Chamouni, on the 27th of June, 1767. He went to 
 Paris in 1785, and attended gratuitous lectures at the College of 
 France. Hesitating for a time between mathematical and 
 medical studies, he at length chose the former, and made rapid 
 progress. After bearing poverty with tranquillity, he obtained 
 a post, with a small salary, at the Paris Observatory in 1793 ; 
 and became one of the regular astronomical observers there in 
 1795. From his first visit to the observatory to the end of his 
 days he manifested intense love of this study, and devoted 
 himself zealously to the observation of phenomena. On one 
 occasion, when watching for a comet from the top of the 
 observatory, on an inclement night, he fell asleep, and became 
 enveloped in snow ; during a severe illness, which resulted from 
 this imprudence, he amused himself with calculating logarithms. 
 Bouvart assisted Laplace in making the calculations for the 
 ' Mecanique Celeste/ and won the favour of that illustrious 
 astronomer. He was appointed joint director of the Bureau des 
 Longitudes in 1804. His appetite for work was enormous. 
 The theory of the moon, and the tables of Jupiter, Saturn, and 
 Uranus, involved calculations which were a positive pleasure to 
 him in their variety and complexity. During many years he 
 spent almost every clear night by the side of the great telescope 
 at the observatory. He died on the 7th of June, 1843, calculat- 
 ing almost to the last hour. Bouvart discovered the comets of 
 1797, 1798, 1801, and 1805. He receiyed from the Academie 
 des Sciences, of which he was a member, a prize for his elaborate 
 tables of 4000 lunar observations. Besides the tables and calcu- 
 lations regularly made at the observatory, and published at the 
 expense of the French Government, Bouvart contributed about 
 20 papers to various scientific journals, including the ' Memoires 
 de l'lnstitut,' Bode's ' Astronomisches Jahrbuch,' Zach's ' Monat- 
 liche Correspondenz,' ' Astronomische Nachrichten,' ' Connai- 
 sances des Temps,' Schweigger's ' Journal,' Quetelet's ' Corre- 
 spondance Mathematique et Physique,' the Bulletin of the 
 Societe Geographique, Poggendorf's vAnnalen,' and the Memoirs 
 
2D7 
 
 BOUVET, JOACHIM. 
 
 BOXALL, WILLIAM. 
 
 203 
 
 of the Academy of Dijon. These papers related to the tables 
 of Jupiter and Saturn, comets, the moon, longitude, meteoro- 
 logy, the diurnal variations of the barometer, the influence of 
 the* moon on atmospheric pressure, the capillarity of the 
 mercury in the barometer, and atmospheric waves. He also 
 wrote three papers, in conjunction with Nicollet, on the moon 
 and on comets. Bouvart, like many other mathematicians, was 
 attracted by the curious problem of the knight's move in chess; 
 concerning which he wrote a paper — ' Marche du Cavalier des 
 Echecs pour parcourir de 128 manieres difterentes les 64 cases 
 6ans jamais passer deux fois par la meme case, et revenir a la case 
 de depart,' Dijon, Acad. Mem., 1830. 
 
 BOUVET, JOACHIM, a scientific and indefatigable French 
 Jcsuist missionary, was born at Mans, about 1662. Colbert, the 
 French minister, formed a scheme for establishing agents of 
 the government in China, commissioned to send home informa- 
 tion, from time to time, concerning the arts, sciences, products, 
 and learning of the Chinese. Colbert's death interfered with 
 the full development of the plan ; but it was partially carried 
 out by his successor Louvois. Six learned Jesuits — Bouvet, 
 Fontanay, Tachard, Gerbillon, Lecomte, and Visdelou, — were 
 sent out in 1685, with special recommendations from 
 Louis XIV. to the Emperor of China. Being shipwrecked on 
 the way, they did not reach their destination until 1687. 
 They were well received ; the Emperor entered into their 
 plans, facilitated their researches, and availed himself of their 
 services in various scientific matters. They were allowed to 
 build a church and a residence, and to establish a Christian 
 mission at Pekin. The Emperor sent Bouvet home to France in 
 1697, to bring out more Jesuits, and to present to Louis XIV., 
 a collection of 49 works in the Chinese language. Bouvet re- 
 turned to China in 1699, taking with him the Jesuits Premare 
 and Regis, and being the bearer from the king to the Emperor 
 of a magnificently bound collection of engravings. Bouvet and 
 his companions prepared a chart of the Chinese Empire. 
 During a useful and honorable career of nearly half a century 
 in China, he collected materials for several publications. He 
 published four narratives of journeys which he had made in the 
 course of his mission. During his temporary visit to France he 
 issued from the press ' Etat present de la Chine, en figures 
 gravees par P. Giffart, sur les dessins apportes au Roi,' with 43 
 coloured plates, folio, Paris, 1697. He also published several 
 letters ; of which one was to Leibnitz, pointing out a similarity 
 between the Kona, or the symbolic figures which constitute the 
 base of the Chinese system of arithmetic, and the binary 
 arithmetic proposed by Leibnitz. Bouvet died at Pekin, 
 June 28th, 1732. The library at Mans contains several un- 
 published manuscripts of his, comprising treatises and letters 
 on the state of China, and a Dictionary of the Chinese 
 Language. 
 
 BOWER, ARCHIBALD, the younger son of a respectable 
 Catholic family which had for several centuries possessed an 
 estate in Forfarshire, was born at or near Dundee, on the 17th 
 of January, 1686. At the age of 16 he was sent to the Scots 
 College at Douay, where he remained four years, after which, 
 removing to Rome, he was there admitted to the noviciate of the 
 Society of Jesus, on the 9th . of December, 1706. After his 
 noviciate he taught classical literature and philosophy for two 
 years at Fano, and subsequently spent three years at Fermo. 
 In 1717 he was recalled to Rome, to study divinity in the Roman 
 College, where he remained until 1721, when he became reader 
 of philosophy and consultor to the rector of the College of 
 Arezzo. In 1723 he was sent for a short time to Florence ; and 
 in the same year was transferred to Macerata, where he became 
 professor of rhetoric and secretary to the Court of Inquisition. 
 In these offices he continued till 1726, having in the year 1722 
 or 1723 made his last vows alternatively at Arezzo or Florence. 
 At Macerata, according to his own account, he became so dis- 
 gusted with the scenes of torture which he was compelled to 
 witness, that he determined upon effecting his escape. It is 
 alleged, on the other hand, that he sought safety in flight from 
 the consequences of an intrigue with a nun of the noble family 
 of Buonacorsi, an inmate of the convent of St. Catherine at 
 Macerata, to which he had been appointed confessor. He 
 accordingly obtained leave from the Inquisitor to visit the 
 Virgin at Loretto, about thirteen miles distant, when, finding a 
 convenient opportunity, he diverged from the high road near 
 Recenati, and succeeded, after various dangers and adventures, 
 the particulars of which he himself relates in a manner that has 
 never placed his narrative above suspicion, in reaching England, 
 where he arrived about July, 1726. Coming to London, he 
 
 introduced himself to Dr. Aspinwall, who gave him a favourable 
 reception, and who, like Bower, had formerly belonged to the 
 Society of Jesus. Bower's conferences with Dr. Aspinwall, and 
 with the more celebrated Dr. Clarke, and Dr. Berkeley, Bishop 
 of Cloyne, at that time Dean of Londonderry, produced, or 
 appeared to produce, such a change in his religious sentiments that 
 he soon after, in November, 1726, abjured the Roman Catholic 
 faith, quitted his order, and took leave of his provincial. For 
 six years he continued a Protestant, but without joining any 
 Protestant communion, until he at length adopted that of the 
 Church of England. Meanwhile he was introduced to Lord 
 Aylmer, who required a person to assist him in reading the 
 classics, and through whom he made the acquaintance of Lord 
 Lyttelton, who remained to the last his firm friend. In 1730 he 
 instituted a monthly review or magazine under the title of 
 ' Historia Literaria,' which was finished in eight volumes in 1734. 
 After its conclusion he was engaged by the publishers of the 
 ' Ancient Universal History,' to which he contributed for a 
 space of nine years, and especially wrote the article on Roman 
 History. He is said to have become reconciled to the Jesuits in 
 1744 or 1745, and to have separated from them a second time; 
 and he fell into great disrepute when his correspondence with 
 Father Shirburn, the provincial of the order in England, was 
 published in 1756 by Dr. John Douglas, afterwards Bishop of 
 Salisbury, along with a commentary in proof of its authenticity. 
 A desperate attack was opened from all quarters upon Bower, 
 who was described as a sensualist and a hypocrite ; the truth of 
 a narrative which he had published of his escape from Macerata 
 was impugned ; and everything was done to effect the ruin of his 
 literary and private reputation. Yet no tangible accusation was 
 brought against him ; and if his replies did not carry with them 
 general conviction, at least they were ingenious and spirited. 
 In 1748 he published the first volume of his ' History of the 
 Popes, from the foundation of the See of Rome to the Present 
 Time,' 4to, London, the second, third, fourth, and fifth volumes 
 being issued severally in 1751, 1753, 1757, and 1761. The 
 seventh and last was published in 1766. The production of 
 this work at its various stages invited attack, and involved 
 the author in controversy. The most important of his opponents 
 were the Rev. Alban Butler and Dr. Douglas, the former of whom 
 published ' Letters on the first two volumes of the History of the 
 Popes,' 1754 ; and the latter, at whose hands Bower's personal 
 reputation had received its first shock in 1756, published 'Bower 
 and Tillemont compared,' 1757, the object of which was to show 
 that a great part of the ' History of the Popes' was nothing more 
 than a translation from the French historian, following up the 
 attack in 1758 by the publication of ' A full Confutation of 
 Bower's Three Defences,' and ' The Complete and Final Detec- 
 tion of Bower.' The apologetic and defensive side of the con- 
 troversy was represented from first to last by Bower's ' Faithful 
 Account of his Motives for leaving his Office of Secretary to the 
 Court of Inquisition,' 8vo, London, 1750; his 'Affidavit, in 
 Answer to the False Accusations brought against him by the 
 Papists,' 8vo, London, 1756; his 'Answer to a scurrilous 
 Pamphlet, entitled "Six Letters,"' &c, 2 parts, 8vo, London, 
 1757; his ' Answer to anew Charge brought against him in a 
 Libel entitled " Bower and Tillemont compared," ' 8vo, London, 
 1757; and his ' Reply to a scurrilous Libel, entitled "A Full 
 Confutation,"' &c, 8vo, London, 1757. To these may be added 
 the author's ' One very remarkable Fact more, relating to the 
 conduct of the Jesuits,' 8vo, London, 1758; 'Summary View of 
 the Controversy between the Papists and the Author,' 4to, 1761 ; 
 and ' A Brief Refutation of the Principal Charges brought 
 against Mr. Bower by his Enemies, extracted from the Summary 
 View.' 
 
 In the year in which the first volume of the ' History of the 
 Popes' was published, Bower was appointed librarian to Queen 
 Caroline ; and on the 4th of August, 1749, he married a niece of 
 Bishop Nicholson. In April, 1754, Lord Lyttelton, who was 
 Bower's staunchest friend, appointed him clerk of the buck 
 warrants. In 1761 Bower published an octavo volume, entitled 
 ' Authentic Memoirs concerning the Portuguese Inquisition, in a 
 Series of Letters to a Friend;' and on the 3rd of September, 
 1766, the long and chequered life of the author came to an end 
 at his house in Bond Street. He was buried in Marylebom 
 churchyard. His wife, some time after his decease, attested to his. 
 dying in the Protestant faith, a point much disputed at the time. 
 
 BOXALL, WILLIAM, R.A., was born at Oxford in 1801, 
 and entered as a student at the Royal Academy in 1S19. One 
 of his earliest exhibited pictures was 'Milton's reconciliation 
 with his wife,' 1819, and for several years he continued to paint 
 
£99 BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON. 
 
 BRADWARDINE, THOMAS. 
 
 303 
 
 subject-pieces of a poetical character, as 'Cordelia/ ' Geraldine/ 
 'Hope,' 'the Repose in Egypt/ &c, which appeared in the suc- 
 cessive exhibitions ot die Royal Academy. But by degrees Mr. 
 Boxall's pencil became almost exclusively employed in por- 
 traiture. Wordsworth, Gibson, Walter Landor, and many more 
 of our most eminent poets, artists, and men of science, as well as 
 persons distinguished by rank and position have been painted by 
 him. In 1851 Mr. Boxall was elected associate, in 1863, member 
 of the Royal Academy. On the death of Sir Charles Eastlake, 
 in December, 1865, Mr. Boxall was appointed to succeed him as 
 Director of the National Gallery. Without departing materially 
 from the course marked out by his predecessor, Mr. Boxall has 
 displayed activity and intelligence in his new olfice and en- 
 riched the gallery with many admirable works : but his pencil 
 has necessarily been comparatively idle. 
 
 * BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON, a Scottish 
 essayist and divine, was born in November, 1825, at Auchinleck, 
 in Ayrshire, of which parish his father was minister. He was 
 educated at the University of Glasgow, and obtained the liivjn- I 
 academic honours in philosophy and theology. He was likewise 
 known as the author of several prize essays. In 1851 he received 
 ordination, and became incumbent successively of the parishes of 
 Newton-on-Ayr, and Kirkpatrick-Irongray, in Galloway, of St. 
 Bernard's, Edinburgh, and St. Andrew's, to the last of which he 
 was presented by the crown. The University of Edinburgh con- 
 ferred upon him the degree of D.D. in 1864. 
 
 Dr. Boyd first achieved general reputation by papers which he 
 contributed as A. K. H. B. to ' Fraser's Magazine, the most im- 
 portant of which were reprinted in a substantive shape. His 
 works comprise ' The Recreations of a Country Parson. Re- 
 printed from " Fraser's Magazine," ' first series, 8vo, London, 
 1859, 2nd edition, 8vo, London, 1866; a Second Series, which 
 was published in 8vo, London, 1861, and a popular edition, 8vo, 
 London and Edinburgh, 1863 ; ' Leisure Hours in Town, being 
 Essays, Consolatory, /Esthetical, Moral, Social, and Domestic, 
 8vo, London, 1862 ; ' The Commonplace Philosopher in Town 
 and Country/ 8vo., London, 1862 ; ' Counsel and Comfort spoken 
 from a City Pulpit/ 8vo, London, 1863 ; ' The Graver Thoughts of 
 a Country Parson/ 8vo, London, 1863; ' The Autumn Holidays 
 of a Country Parson/ 8vo, London, 1864 ; ' The Critical Essaj 
 of a Country Parson/ 8vo, London, 1865; ' Sunday Afternoons 
 at the Parish Church of a University City/ 8vo, London, 1866 ; 
 ' Lessons of Middle Age ; with some account of various Cities 
 and Men/ 8vo, London, 1868; ' Changed Aspects of unchanged 
 Truths. Memorials of St. Andrew's Sundays/ 8vo, London and 
 Edinburgh, 1869. 
 
 BOYER, ABEL, was bom at Castres, in 1664. Compelled to 
 leave France in consequence of the persecution following the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he removed to Geneva, thence 
 to Holland, and a few years later to England. He became, in 
 1692, tutor to Sir Benjamin Bathurst's son (afterwards Alan, 
 Earl of Bathurst) and for some time was engaged in tuition. 
 His French and English Dictionary, 4to, 1699, &c, the abridg- 
 ment of which was long in nearly exclusive use in English 
 schools, was originally drawn up for the use of the Duke of 
 Gloucester. His French and Engbsh Grammar was almost 
 equally popular ; and bis French and English Companion had 
 down to our own time a large sale. Boyer was a voluminous 
 and indefatigable writer, but his writings have little permanent 
 value, with the exception perhaps of the ' Political State of Great 
 Britain/ 60 vols., 1711—40, which was a monthly publication 
 giving not merely as the title implies a narrative of political 
 events, but a review of the party literature, and is therefore con- 
 venient as a summary of facts. His other works include a 
 'History of the reign of Queen Anne digested into Annals/ 
 11 vols. 8vo, 1703—13, and folio, 1722, 1735 ; ' History of the 
 reign of William III./ 3 vols, 8vo, 1702, (which the 'Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale ' renders "Histoire de Guillaume le Con- 
 querant ; ") ' Life of Sir William Temple/ 8vo, 1714. For 
 several years he was editor of the ' Postboy.' A translation by 
 him of Racine's ' Iphigenia ' was performed under the title of 
 'Achilles in Aulis.' He died on the 16th of November, 1729, 
 in a house he had built for himself in the Five Fields, Chelsea. 
 
 BOZE, CLAUDE GROS DE, an eminent French antiquary 
 and numismatist, was born at Lyon, January 28, 1680. He Avas 
 educated for the bar, but he early gave much attention to the 
 study of ancient coins ; some papers he wrote on coins procured 
 him admission into the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles- 
 lettres, and on being elected its permanent secretary in 1706, he 
 finally abandoned the law. In 1715 he was made member 
 of the Academie Francaise, and in 1719 keeper of the royal 
 
 cabinet of antiques. On the removal of the collection in 1741 
 from Versailles to Paris he resigned the secretaryship of the 
 Academy in order to devote himself exclusively to the re- 
 arrangement of the royal collection. He was elected F.R.S. of 
 London, in 1749, and died September 10, 1753. Besides nu- 
 merous papers on separate coins and medals full of erudition 
 and discrimination, and in which he frequently took occasion to 
 make the medal the text for a broader enquiry, — as to one of 
 Hygieia he appends a ' dissertation on the cultus rendered by the 
 ancients to the goddess of health/ — M. Boze published the edi- 
 tion of the first 4 vols, of ' Memotres de l'Acad6mie des Inscrip- 
 tions et Belles-lettres/ 8vo, Paris, 1740 ; ' Traitd Historiques 
 but le Jubile des Jnifs/ 12mo, Paris, 1702 ; ' Mddailles du regne 
 de Louis XIV./ 2nd ed., fol. 1723 ; ' Le Livrc Jaune, contenant 
 quelques conversations BUT Jes logomachies/ 1748, and a ' Cata- 
 logue des livres du Cabinet de M. de Boze/ 1745. 
 
 BRACONNOT, HENRI, was bom 28th of May, 1781, at 
 Commercy (Meuse). He studied medicine and chemistry at Paris, 
 and obtained a prize in botany, which seems to have determined 
 his taste for researches in vegetable chemistry. His numerous 
 papers are printed in the ' Annalcs de Chimie et de Physique,' 
 ' Le Bulletin de Pharmacie/ ' Le Journal de Chimie Mcdicale/ 
 &c. He was pharmaceutical chemist at the military hospital, 
 at Strasburg. He afterwards practised at Nancy, and in 1807 
 became professor of natural history and director of the Jardin 
 des Plan tea. He retired in 1840, and died 23rd January, 1855. 
 It is needless to add that he belonged to many scientific societies, 
 and, except for the date, that he was decorated in 1828. 
 
 BRADWARDINE, or BUADWARDIN, THOMAS, one of 
 the most illustrious of English schoolmen, was descended from 
 an ancient family, who originally derived their surname from 
 Bradwardine, in Herefordshire, but had been settled in Sussex 
 for three generations. He was bom at Hartfield, near East 
 Grinstead, in Sussex, in the latter half of the reign of King 
 Edward I., probably between the years 1290 and 1300. He was 
 educated at Merton College, Oxford, of which society he became 
 a fellow. In 1325 he acted as proctor of the university, in 
 which he was renowned not only for his great scholastic and 
 theological learning, but also as " a most exquisite mathemati- 
 cian.''' He was perhaps the first Englishman who applied a 
 regular connected series of reasoning from principles or conclu- 
 sions already established to theological subjects, and from this 
 circumstance arose the honourable title by which he was com- 
 monly known of the Profound Doctor — " Doctor Profundus." 
 He had the privilege of being at one time chaplain to Richard 
 de Bury, Bishop of Durham, whose manner it was, according to 
 Godwin, "at dinner and supper- time to have some good book 
 read unto him, wdiereof he would discourse with his chaplains 
 a great part of the next day, if business did not interrupt 
 his course." Bradwardine was distinguished as much for strict- 
 ness of life and conversation as for his erudition, and hence 
 Archbishop Stratford recommended him for the direction of 
 the king's conscience. In the capacity of chaplain and con- 
 fessor to Edward III., he attended that monarch during his 
 wars in France. Some writers of his day did not hesitate to 
 ascribe the king's victories to the virtue and holiness of the 
 chaplain, rather than to the courage and tactics of the sovereign. 
 It is certain that Bradwardine discharged the difficult duties 
 of his oflice with integrity, discretion, and loyalty. He exerted 
 himself to bring his master under the influence of religion, 
 compelling him to moderate his anger when provoked, and 
 restrain his ambition when flushed with victory. Whilst he 
 counselled his prince, he was laborious in preaching to the 
 troops and restraining their excesses. So far was he from being 
 ambitious of ecclesiastical promotion, that it was with difficulty 
 that, being already Chancellor of St. Paul's, he could be brought 
 to accept a prebend in Lincoln cathedral. On the death of 
 Stratford, Archbishop of Canterbury, which took place on the 
 23rd of August, 1348, the chapter elected Bradwardine to the 
 primacy ; but the election did not meet with the royal approba- 
 tion, and Bradwardine was as willing to decline the primacy as 
 the king was unwilling to part with his confessor. But it was a 
 question of conscience with Bradwardine whether he ought to 
 decline so responsible an office when imposed upon him. The 
 king in consequence wrote to Pope Clement VI., requesting him 
 to take no notice of the election of Bradwardine, but to bestow 
 the archbishopric upon John de U fiord, or Offord, son of the Earl 
 of Sulfolk, and Dean of Lincoln and Chancellor of England. 
 The Pope was too ready to comply, and declared Ufford arch- 
 bishop, making him at the same time au unusual grant of 
 favour and privilege. But theunague was at this time raging 
 
301 BRAIDWOOD, JAMES. 
 
 in England, and Ufford fell a victim to it before he had received 
 either pall or consecration. Again the choice of the chapter fell 
 upon Bradwardine, and this time the king interposed no 
 difficulty ; whilst the Pope, unaware of his second election, 
 had spontaneously appointed him by a bull of provision, of 
 date June 19th, 1349. Bradwardine was accordingly conse- 
 crated at Avignon early in July, and the temporalities were 
 restored to him on the 22nd of August ; on the 26th of which 
 month, before he had been enthroned, he died at Lambeth, and 
 was buried in the chapel of St. Anselm, in his own cathedral. 
 Bradwardine's best known work is his ' De Causa Dei, contra 
 Pelagium,' &c, folio, London, 1618, edited by Sir Henry 
 Savile, from a MS. in Merton College Library ; in addition 
 to which may be mentioned his ' Geometria speculativa, cum 
 Arithmetica speculativa,' folio, Paris, 1495 and 1504. The 
 Arithmetic was printed separately in 1502, and other editions 
 of both appeared in 1512 and 1530; 'De Proportionibus,' folio, 
 Paris, 1495, folio, Venice, 1505 ; 'De Quadratura Circuli,' folio, 
 Paris, 1495. Bradwardine also left some Astronomical Tables, 
 which appear never to have been printed. 
 
 BRAIDWOOD, JAMES, originator of the London Fire 
 Establishment, was born in 1800 at Edinburgh, where he 
 was brought up as a cabinetmaker by his father. Acquiring 
 a considerable knowledge of mechanism, he was appointed 
 by the Edinburgh police to improve and systematize the mode 
 of extinguishing fires. Before he had perfected the arrange- 
 ments, there occurred, in 1824, the most devastating fire 
 which ever took place in that city, destroying the greater part 
 of the High Street and the steeple of the Tron Church. His 
 determination, daring, and skilful management on that occasion 
 brought him into repute, which was increased by his manage- 
 ment of the Engine Corps. A book published by him in 1830, 
 ' On the Construction of Fire Engines and Apparatus, the 
 training of Firemen, and the method of proceeding in Case of 
 Fire,' attracted the attention of many municipal bodies, and led 
 to his settlement in the metropolis. Down to the year 1833, 
 the various London fire insurance companies had their own 
 engines, but failed to work together on any good system. Mr. 
 Braidwood undertook to organise the London Fire Brigade in 
 1833, with the support of the several companies. He succeeded 
 in drilling the men into admirable efficiency. He made many 
 improvements in fire-engines and fire-escapes, introduced float- 
 ing fire-engines on the Thames, and at length, in I860, induced 
 the various companies to adopt powerful steam fire-engines ; the 
 last-named improvement was, however, not ready until just 
 after his death. On all matters affecting the security of the 
 several government and other public buildings he was consulted 
 as an authority ; and he acted as superintendent of the royal 
 palaces in reference to accidents from fire. On June 22nd, 1861, 
 there occurred in Tooley-street one of the largest fires which 
 had happened in the metropolis for many years, destroying 
 buildings and merchandise to the value of nearly 2,000,000?. 
 On this occasion the falling of a wall killed Mr. Braidwood. 
 His interment at Abney Park Cemetery, on June 29th, assumed 
 nearly the character of a public funeral. Throughout his 
 career he was distinguished for his care of the men under him, 
 his courage in time of danger, and his fertility of resources. On 
 one occasion he brought out two barrels of gunpowder in suc- 
 cession through a burning shop into the street. In 1866 the essay 
 already noticed, and various papers read before the Institution 
 of Civil Engineers and the Society of Arts, were published in a 
 volume called 'Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction,' 8vo. 
 When the London Fire Brigade was transferred to the manage- 
 ment of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1866, Mr. 
 Braidwood's system of organization was retained in its main 
 features. 
 
 BRAINERD, DAVID, a zealous and successful preacher and 
 missionary to the North American Indians, was born in 1718, at 
 Haddam, in Connecticut. At the age of nine years he lost his 
 father, who was an assistant of the colony, or a member of the 
 council. In 1739 he entered Yale College, from which he was 
 expelled for expressions reflecting on one of the professors, early 
 in 1742 ; in the spring of which year he repaired to Ripton, in 
 order to prosecute his theological studies under the direction of 
 Mr. Mills. Shortly after, at the end of July, he received licence 
 to preach the gospel from the association of ministers which met 
 at Banbury. Being impelled by a desire to exercise his ministry 
 amongst the heathen, he repaired to New York, where, after 
 having passed an examination by the correspondents of the 
 Scottish Society for the Propagation of Christian Know- 
 ledge, he was appointed a missionary to the Indians. On the 
 
 ll RAMAN '1TNO. sc2 
 
 1st of April, 1743, he settled at a place called Kannameek, be- 
 tween Stockbridge, in the State of Massachusetts, and Album , 
 in the province of New York. Here he endured extreme hard- 
 ships and privations ; but he was at the same time cheered by 
 observing the marked eil'ects of his teaching. After he had 
 laboured among the Indians about twelve months, lie advised 
 them to remove to Stockbridge, about twenty miles distant, and 
 to place themselves under the care of Mr. Sergeant. As most of 
 them complied with this advice, Brainerd was free to proceed to 
 the Forks of the Delaware, in Pennsylvania, where he set up his 
 head-quarters, from which he made several excursions amongst 
 the various tribes in the neighbourhood, and especially paid two 
 visits to the Indians on the river Susquehannah. On his return 
 from the latter of these tours, during which he had encountered 
 uncommon hardships and fatigue, he was so depressed in mind 
 and body as to meditate the abandonment of his labours ; but 
 was presently incited to new efforts by the encouraging intelli- 
 gence which he received concerning a number of Indians at 
 Crossweeksung, in New Jersey, whom he resolved to visit. 
 After spending about a fortnight with them, with the most 
 promising results, Mr. Brainerd returned home ; and from this 
 time Crossweeksung and the Forks of the Delaware were the 
 principal scenes of his labours. In the summer of 1746, he again 
 visited the Indians on the Susquehannah ; and the progress ot 
 the disorder with which he had long contended was accelerated 
 by the toils and privations he underwent on this occasion. The 
 most alarming symptoms appeared, and he was no longer equal 
 to the exertions to which his zeal impelled him ; so that in the 
 spring of 1747, being advised to proceed to New England, he 
 went as far as Boston, from which he returned, in July, to 
 Northampton, where, in the family of Jonathan Edwards, he 
 passed the remainder of his days. He gradually declined until 
 his death, on the 9th of October, 1747. He was quick of discern- 
 ment, and tenacious in memory ; of sound judgment, of great 
 amiability, and power of attracting confidence and affection. 
 His preaching was clear, forcible, tender, and pathetic, and charm- 
 ing for the warmth and temper of his natural eloquence. His 
 theological attainments were great, and his friend President 
 Edwards declared that he " never knew his equal, of his age and 
 standing, for clear, accurate notions of the nature and essence 
 of true religion, and its distinctions from its various false 
 appearances." 
 
 Mr. Brainerd wrote a Narrative of his Labours at Kannameek, 
 which, with his ' Journal, or an Account of the Rise and Progress 
 of a remarkable Work of Grace amongst a number of Indians in 
 New Jersey and Pennsylvania, with some General Remarks,' 
 was published in 1746, by the commissioners of his society in 
 Scotland. President Edwards published 'An Account of the 
 Life of David Brainerd, chiefly taken from his own Diary, and 
 other private writings, written for his own use.' To which is 
 annexed, (1) Mr. B.'s Journal while among the Indians ; (2) Mr. 
 Pemberton's Sermon at his ordination. With an appendix relative 
 to the Indian affairs, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1765. A new edition of his 
 Memoirs was published, in 1822, by Sereno Edwards Dwight, 
 including his Journal. Mr. Edwards had omitted the already 
 printed Journals, which had been published in two parts— the 
 first from the 19th of June to the 4th of November, 1745,entitled 
 ' Mirabilia Dei inter Indicos ; ' the second from the 24th of 
 November, 1745, to the 19th of June, 1746, under the title of 
 ' Divine Grace Displayed,' &c. Mr. Dwight has incorporated 
 these J ournals in a regular chronological series with the rest of the 
 Diary as given by Edwards. It may be added that the work which 
 David Brainerd died in performing was taken up by his younger 
 brother, John Brainerd, under whose care religion, civilisation, 
 and education advanced, until, in 1759, he settled his congrega- 
 tion upon a tract of land purchased on their account by the 
 Government of New Jersey, and comprising about 4000 acres, 
 well adapted for the purposes of general cultivation. Towards 
 the close of the American war, Mr. John Brainerd died ; and, in 
 1783, was succeeded in the charge of his congregation by an 
 Indian named Daniel Simon, who had received ordination. To 
 this man, who was presently suspended from his office for 
 irregularity, no successor was appointed ; but the congregation 
 was occasionally visited and supplied by the neighbouring 
 ministers. 
 
 JiUAMANTINO. Bartolommeo Suardi, called Braman- 
 tino after his master Bramante, the famous architect and 
 painter, was the son of Alberto Suardi, an opulent citizen of Milan. 
 The year of his birth is unknown. It is usually stated that he 
 accompanied Bramante to Rome in 1495, and was employed by 
 Julius II. to paint a series of portraits in the Vatican, which 
 
§03 BRAMBILLA, FRANCESCO. 
 
 were afterwards removed to make way for the paintings of 
 Raffaelle ; on the other hand, Vasari says that they were painted 
 by order of Nicholas V. But Julius was not elected Pope till 
 November, 1503, while Nicolas died in 1455 ; neither, therefore, 
 will suit the chronology. They were, perhaps, painted for Pope 
 Alexander VI. (1492 — 1503). We know that they were destroyed 
 hy command of Julius II.. after Kaffaelle had caused copies of them 
 to he made, which were subsequently dej>osited in the museum 
 of Paul Jovius at Como. Bramantino in 1525 painted a Pieta 
 for the sacristy at Clairvaux, which was greatly admired. He 
 also executed numerous works at Milan, anil notably an Entomb- 
 ment over the door of the church of 8. Sepolero, which was 
 regarded as a marvel of art for the foreshortening of the body of 
 Christ (the feet heing towards the spectator), and was the parent 
 of numerous imitations ; it is still in existence, but has been so 
 enclosed as to he hidden from distinct inspection. The linest of 
 his extant works are considered to he the frescoes on the vaulted 
 ceiling of the St. Bruno Chapel in the Carthusian convent at 
 Padua, and a Madonna Enthroned, in the Brera, Milan. Bra- 
 mantino was employed as an engineer by Duke Prancesco II. in 
 repairing the fortifications of Milan, 1525 ; and Vasari states that 
 the church of St. Ercolino was constructed, and that of St. 
 Amhrogio, Milan, rebuilt from his designs, but this is at least 
 doubtful. His death occurred between 152!) and 1530. As a 
 painter he was especially celebrated for his skill in foreshortening 
 and his knowledge of perspective ; and Lomazzo has inserted his 
 'Rules' in his great work. But he was also admirable for the 
 modelling of his figures and his clearness and truth of colour. 
 Vasari, in his quaint way, relates that at Porta Vercellina was a 
 picture by him (then destroyed), in which one of the horses was 
 represented in so lively a manner that a living horse mistook it 
 for reality, and kicked it repeatedly. Genuine pictures by 
 Bramantino are rarely met with in the great collections ; one is 
 in our National Gallery, a large and fine example, No. 729, ' The 
 Adoration of the Kings,' on wood, 7 ft. 10 in. high and 6 ft. 11 in. 
 wide. 
 
 BRAMBILLA, PRANCESCO. an eminent Italian sculptor, 
 was a native of Milan, and flourished in the second half of the 
 16th century. Vasari, a contemporary, mentions several of his 
 works in marble, hut he was most famous for those executed in 
 hronze. The gates of the Certosa at Pavia are among his 
 most admired productions, hut his chief labour was on the 
 Cathedral of Milan, upon which forty years of his life were 
 spent. The grand figures of the four Evangelists and the four 
 Fathers of the Church which support the great pulpit hear his 
 name and the date 1570. He also designed the. series of bassi- 
 rilievi in the choir representing the history of the Virgin, and 
 the metal Tabernacle of the Sacrament. He was interred in the 
 cathedral which he had done so much to adorn. 
 
 BRAND, JOHN, an eminent antiquary, was born at New- 
 castle-on-Tyne about 1743 ; completed his education at Lincoln 
 College, Oxford ; and, hefore he took orders, was for a time a 
 master in the grammar-school of his native town. His first 
 publication was ' Illicit Love : a poem written among the ruins 
 of Godstow Nunnery,' 4to, 1775 ; hut he became known hy a 
 more congenial labour, ' Observations on Popular Anticpiities : 
 including Bourne's Antiquates Vulgares, with copious Additions,' 
 8vo, Newcastle, 1777. He now removed to London ; was elected 
 in 1777 fellow, and in 1784 secretary, of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, to whose ' Archreologia ' he was a frequent contributor. 
 He was librarian to the Duke of Northumberland, who, in 1784, 
 presented him to the rectory of St. Mary-at-Hill, London. In 
 1789 he published 'The History and Antiquities of the Town 
 and County of Newcastle-upon-Tyne : embellished with engraved 
 views of the Puhlick Buildings, &c.,' 2 vols. 4to, London. He 
 died on the 10th of September, 1806. Mr. Brand's fame rests on 
 his Popular Antiquities. Up to the time of his death he had 
 been collecting materials and making preparations for a greatly 
 enlarged edition, in which he proposed " to dissolve amicably the 
 literary partnership under the firm of Bourne and Brand, and to 
 adopt a very different plan." But he left his MS. in so chaotic 
 a condition that entire revision was required; a task finally 
 undertaken hy Mr. (afterwards Sir) Henry Ellis. The remodelled 
 work appeared in 1813 under the title ' Observations on Popular 
 Antiquities : chiefly illustrating the origin of our vulgar customs, 
 ceremonies, and superstitions. By J. B. : arranged and revised 
 with additions hy H. E.,' 2 vols. 4to, London. A new edition, 
 with further additions by Sir Henry Ellis, was published in 
 3 vols. sq. 8vo, 1841 ; and another issue with additions, forming 
 3 vols, of B( Jin's 'Antiquarian Library,' in 1848. An edition hy 
 Mr. W. C. Hazlitt, also in 3 vols., appeared in 1869, hut in this 
 
 BRANDOLINI, AURELIO. 304 
 
 the text has heen so altered that the hook cannot he fairly 
 
 quoted as ' Brand's Antiquities.' 
 
 BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS [E. C. vol. vi. col. 980]. 
 Mr. Brande, who was born in or about 1786, died at Tunbrid^'u 
 Wells on the 11th of February, 1806. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and in 1853 received the honorary degree of 
 D*C.L. from the. University of Oxford. 
 
 BRAN DER, GUSTAVUS, a native of Sweden, engaged in 
 commercial pursuits in the City of London, and yet finding time 
 to devote himself to the study of natural history. He was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1754, and contributed three 
 short papers to the Transactions. He had the merit of pointing 
 out that the fossil shells of the south coast of England were 
 either of unknown species, or of such as lived in distant lati- 
 tudes. After publishing descriptions of them he presented 
 the originals to the Museum, or "Repository," as it was called, 
 of the Royal Society. When the Society removed to Somerset 
 House the Repository was presented to the British Museum, in 
 1781. Some of the specimens, however, found their way to the 
 Museum of the College of Surgeons. It is said to be impossible 
 now to recognise Brander's specimens among the crowds of fossils 
 that enrich the British Museum — a fact much to be regretted. 
 Brander died 21 January, 1787. 
 
 Brander's papers in the Ph. Tr. are in vol. xliii. on Belemnites, 
 and in vol. xlix. a few lines on a Remarkable Echinus, and also 
 ' An Account of the Effects of Lightning in the Danish Church 
 in Wellclose Square, Ratcliff Highway.' His 'Fossilia Hanto- 
 niensia — Hampshire Fossils ' was published in 4to., London, 1766. 
 The Royal Society's copy is marked " December, 1765." The 
 Preface is in parallel columns, Latin and English, from which it 
 appears that the specimens figured " were collected out of the 
 cliffs by the sea-coast between Christchurch and Lymington, but 
 more especially about the cliffs by the village of Hordwell." The 
 specimens are charmingly and artistically engraved, and the scien- 
 tific descriptions in Latin are by Dr. Solander. The originals are 
 said to be in the Branderian collection of the British Museum, 
 " but very few are known to he natives of our own, or, indeed, 
 any of the European shores ; hut the far greater part of them 
 upon a comparison with the recent are wholly unknown to us." 
 
 BRAND IS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST, a German philosopher, 
 a Prussian privy councillor, and professor of philosophy at Bonn, 
 the son of Joachim Dietrich Brandis, an able physician and 
 medical writer, was born at Hildesheim on the 13th of February, 
 1790. He studied philology and philosophy at the universities 
 of Kiel and Gottingen, and took his degree of Ph.D. at Copen- 
 hagen in 1812, when he produced a thesis entitled ' Commenta- 
 tiones Eleaticse,' 8vo, Altona, 1813, of which only the first part 
 was published. The works of Professor Brandis comprise an 
 edition of the Metaphysics of Aristotle, 8vo, Berlin, 1823 ; 
 ' Scholia in Aristotelem,' 4to, Berlin, 1836; and ' Scholia Grajca 
 in Aristotelis Metaphysicam,' 4to and 8vo, Berlin, 1837. From 
 1827 to 1830 Brandis was joint editor of the Rhine Museum of 
 Philology, &c, ' Rheinisches Museum f'iir Philologie, Geschichte 
 und Greichische Philosophic.' In 1837 he was called to Greece 
 to kecome a member of the council of King Otho ; and as the 
 result of several years' sojourn in that country he published his 
 Communications on Greece, ' Mittheilungen uber Greichenland,' 
 3 vols. 12mo, Leipzig, 1842. His more strictly academical 
 works are his Manual of the History of Grajco-Roman Philo- 
 sophy. ' Handbuch dcr Geschichte der Greichisch-Romischen 
 Philosophic,' vols. 1 — 3, Berlin, 1835—1860; and a History of 
 the Development of Greek Philosophy, and its Influence upon 
 the Roman Empire, ' Geschichte der Entwickelungen der Grei- 
 chischen Philosophie, und ihrer Nachwirkungen im Rbmischen 
 Reiche,' 2 vols. 8vo, Berlin, 1862—64. He died July 24, 1867. 
 
 BRANDOLINI, AURELIO, called Lippo on account of his 
 infirmity of sight when a child : while yet young he became 
 quite blind. He was horn of a noble family at Florence about 
 1440. His fame was so great as an orator and philosopher that 
 when Mathias Corvino, King of Hungary, founded the University 
 of Buda in 1484, he was summoned by that sovereign to under- 
 take the professorship of rhetoric. On the death of King 
 Mathias in 1490, Brandolini returned to Florence, and entered the 
 congregation of the Eremitani Brothers of St. Augustine, in the 
 convent of Santa Maria. The achievements of his eloquence as a 
 preacher, as related hy various contemporary writers, are almost 
 incredible. He was equally remarkable as an improvvisatore. 
 He died of the plague at Rome in 1497 or 1498. Considering 
 his blindness, the acquirements and the productions of Brandolini 
 are equally surprising. His works comprise ' Lihri duo Para- 
 doxorum Christianorum,' Basel, 1498 and 1543, Rome 1531, and 
 
805 BRANDOLINI, RAFFAELLE. 
 
 Cologne, 1573; 'Dialogus de Humana? Vitrc Conditione et 
 toleranda Corporis iEgritudine/ Basel, 1498 and 1543, Vienna, 
 1541; and ' De Ilatione Scribendi Epistolas/ Baselj 1498 and 
 1549, and Cologne, 1573. 
 
 BRAN DOLINI, RAFFAELLE, a younger brother of Aurelio, 
 and who, from the same cause of blindness, was also surnamed 
 Lippo, was born at Florence about the year 1465. He was cele- 
 brated as an orator, a scholar, and antiquary, and was especially 
 famous for his remarkable powers of improvisation. Being at 
 Naples when Charles VIII. of France made himself master of 
 that kingdom, he surprised the victorious monarch by an extern- 
 panegyric, which he afterwards turned into Latin verse. 
 About two years after, the retirement of the French from Naples, 
 or the death of his brother at Rome, called Rafl'aelle Brandolini 
 to the latter city, where he taught literature and eloquence. He 
 was patronised by Leo X., who assigned him apartments in the 
 Vatican, and called him Oculus l J ontificis. This favour was 
 either earned or recognised by Brandolini in a Latin dialogue 
 entitled ' Leo/ written in praise of his patron and other distin- 
 guished members of the house of Medici. Two or three other 
 Discourses, in the shape of Panegyrics or Funeral Orations, are 
 extant by Brandolini, who died in some unascertained year after 
 1514. a date which appears in some of his letters. 
 
 * BRANDT, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, an eminent biologist, 
 and, for many years, the director of the zoological museum be- 
 longing to the Imperial Academy of Science at St. Petersburg. 
 His writings are very numerous, but mostly contained in the 
 publications of the Academy with which he is connected. They 
 range over a wide field, from infusorians, annelids, and insects, 
 to birds and mammals. Their general tendency is towards the 
 anatomical and physiological branches of zoological inquiry, 
 although there aTe not a few papers entirely devoted to diagnoses 
 and classification. His papers are upwards of 150 in number, 
 some of them being of considerable bulk ; and to the more 
 important of them we propose devoting a few lines. One of his 
 earliest efforts in literature was a ' Prodromus descriptions 
 animalium ab H. Mertensio observatorum,' 1825, which deals 
 with the hydrozoan forms collected by Mertens, and which was, 
 in 1838, expanded into an elaborate memoir on the jelly-fishes or 
 acalephan stages of this class of animals. (Mem. Acad. Sci. St. 
 Petersburg, 6th series, iv. pp. 237 — 412.) It is, in fact, a full 
 report on the state of knowledge respecting these animals at that 
 time, and is illustrated with 31 plates of coloured figures drawn 
 from nature by Mertens. A group allied to these, the Hijalo- 
 chatidce, has been similarly treated by him in ' De Nova 
 Polyporum classis familia Hyalochaetidum nomine designanda,' 
 and ' Symbobe ad polypus hyalochartides/ At an early period 
 of his life he had drawn up a full account of the anatomy and 
 physiology of the common medicinal leech, which is given in 
 the ' Medicinische Zoologie,' 2 vols., 1829 — 1833, a work written 
 by him, in conjunction with M. Ratzeburg. He discovered the 
 presence of a stomato-gastric, or sympathetic, system of nerves, 
 and several other features connected with this annelid. Some- 
 what later appeared his ' Bemerkungen iiber die Mundmagen 
 oder Eingeweiden nerven,' in Mem. Acad. Sci. St. Peters., 
 iii., pp. 561 — 612, 1835, in which he brings together all the 
 information previously acquired respecting these nerves in the 
 invertebrate sub-kingdom, and adds much fresh matter on the 
 subject. Other papers touch upon various points — physiological, 
 anatomical, and diagnostic — connected with crustaceans, myria- 
 pods, the cochineal insects, the genus MJloe, (' Monographia 
 generis Meloes,' in 'Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Nat. Cur.,' 
 xvi., pp. 101 — 142, written in conjunction with Erichson), and 
 spiders. His contributions to the literature bearing upon verte- 
 brates are both more numerous and more important. As regards 
 fishes, he has published remarks on the classification of the class, 
 and an abstract of a paper on the development of ganoids ; this 
 latter, we believe, was intended to have formed a portion of a 
 monograph of the sturgeons of Russia, which the author was 
 engaged on in 1865, but, so far as we know, the monograph has 
 not been issued yet. Birds have occupied a considerable share 
 of his attention, as is witnessed by his ' Beitriige zur Kenntniss 
 der Naturgeschichte der Vcigel mit besonderer Beziehung auf 
 Skeletbau und vergleichende Zoologie,' in ' Mem. Acad. Sci. 
 St. Petersburg,' v. pp. 81—238 (1840), which, together with 
 numerous minor papers in the ' Bulletins ' of the same society, 
 form valuable additions to our knowledge of the order Nata- 
 tores. His specialty, however, is in the mammalian class. Thus 
 we have a paper, ' De Solenodonte,' 1833, describing and esta- 
 blishing a remarkable genus of shrew-like animals ; a number 
 ©f papera on Rhytina oorealis, of which the most noteworthy 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP, 
 
 B11ATHWA1TE, RICHARD. 300 
 
 is 'Symbolic Sirenologiea;/ in 'Mom. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg,' 
 6th Series, vii. pp. 1 — 160 (1849) ; papers on the tichorhine 
 rhinoceros, of which we may specially mention ' De Rhinocerotis 
 Antiquitatis/ in 'Mem. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg,' 6th Series, 
 vii., pp. 161 — 419, as being the fullest account known of that 
 extraordinary extinct pachyderm, and as containing details re- 
 specting some of the soft parts ; papers on the mammoth, 
 amongst which will be found a coloured partially ideal figure 
 of this beast ; and a group of communications upon other mam- 
 malia, amongst which we may refer to the ' Mammal iuin 
 Rodentium exoticorum,' in ' Mem. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg/ 
 0th Series, iii., pp. 357— 442 ; and the 'Beitriige zur nahera 
 Kenntniss der Saugethiere Russland's/ in ' Mem. Acad. Sci. 
 St. Petersburg/ 6th Series, ix., pp. 2—365 (1855), as being an 
 excellent account of the rodents, but more especially of the 
 beaver. The last two papers are fully illustrated with figures. 
 
 BRANDT, or BRANT, SEBASTIAN, a lawyer and satiric 
 poet, was born at Strasburg, about the year 1458. He prose- 
 cuted his legal and classical studies at Basel, where in 1484 he 
 obtained licence to teach, and in 1489 took his doctor's degree. 
 The administrative ability which he exhibited attracted general 
 attention, and jirocured for him the appointment, in 1501, to the 
 Syndicate, and two years after to the chancellorship, of his 
 native city. He likewise received from the Emperor Maximilian 
 the honour of being a councillor and Count Palatine. He died 
 at Strasburg on the 10th of May, 1521. 
 
 Notwithstanding his able discharge of various public offices 
 he is chiefly known as the author of a work entitled the Sh^p of 
 Fools, ' Narrenschiff, oder das Schiff von Narragonia/ 4tqj 
 Basel, about 1494, a German poem in iambic verse, in which he 
 lashed the prevailing vices and follies of his time jn a series of 
 over a hundred chapters, each of which was devoted to the 
 jiortrayal of a group of representative fools, The author de- 
 scribes a vessel laden with all sorts of absurd persons, though, it 
 has been said, he seems to have no end in view but to bring 
 them into one place, so that they might be described, as the 
 beasts were marshalled before Adam in order to be named. The 
 ' Narrenschiff ' was neither brilliant in its poetic genius, nor 
 scathing in its satire ; yet as a book of sound morality and 
 knowledge of human nature, it achieved an immense popularity, 
 not only in its original German, but in the languages of France, 
 Holland, and England. The English version, entitled the ' Ship 
 of Fooles/ which was published in folio, London, 1508 and 1570, 
 was executed by the Rev. Alexander Barclay, who professedly 
 translated it from the Latin version of James Locher, ' Navis 
 Stultifera Mortalium, e vernaculo ac vulgari sermone in 
 Latinum conversa/ 4to, Basel, 1488, a date which would be more 
 correctly read as 1498. Before the end of the fifteenth century, 
 the book was current in all the dialects of Germany ; and Geiler 
 von Kaiserberg, a friend of the author, made the 'Narrenschiff' 
 the text or basis of a series of ' Sermons,' 4to, 1511. Among the 
 most recent editions of the ' Narrenschiff' is that published, with 
 a life of the author, by Strobel, 8vo, Quedlinhurg and Leipzig, 
 1839, and that which is esteemed the best of all, 8vo, Leipzig, 
 1854. In addition to his great work, Brandt is more restrictedly 
 known as the translator and editor of some of the classics ; and 
 as the author of various works in theology and devotion, in law, 
 and m Latin verse. 
 
 BRASSAVOLA, ANTONIO MUSA, a physician, born in 
 1500 at Ferrara, then a celebrated school of science. Antonio 
 studied under masters of repute, and became celebrated in public 
 disputations at Ferrara, Padua, and Bologna. At the age of 25 
 he was appointed first physician to Hercules II., hereditary 
 prince and afterwards duke of Ferrara. After visiting France 
 and other countries in the service of the prince, he became pro- 
 fessor of dialectics and natural philosophy in the university of 
 his native town. He also studied botany with success, and 
 established the first botanic garden of modern times. His 
 ' Examen omnium Simplicium Medicamentorum,' published in 
 1536 (written in the Platonic form of dialogue), though based on 
 the study of nature, has, according to Cuvier, the character of a 
 commentary on the ancients. Brassavola was consulted by 
 several sovereigns, and received permission from Francis I. of 
 France to add the lilies to his arms. He died July 6, 1555. 
 
 BRATHYVAITE, RICHARD, whose surname varies as 
 Brathwait, Braithwaite, and Braithwayte, a pastoral poet of 
 the reign of James I., was born in 158S, the second son of 
 Thomas Brathwaite, of Warcop, near Appleby, the representa- 
 tive of a respectable landed family in "Westmoreland. In 1604 
 he was entered a commoner of Oriel College, Oxford, and, 
 according to Wood, " while he continued in that house, which 
 
 X 
 
307 BRATHWAlTE, RICHARD. 
 
 was at least three years, lie avoided, as much as he could, the 
 rough paths of logic and philosophy, and traced those smooth 
 ones of poetry and Roman history, in which at length he did 
 excel. Afterwards he removed to Cambridge, as it seems, 
 where also he spent some time for the sake of dead and living 
 authors, and then receding to the north parts of England, his 
 father bestowed on him [the estate of] Barnside, where living 
 many years, he became captain of a foot-company in the 
 trained bands, a deputy-lieutenant in the county of Westmore- 
 land, a justice of peace, and a noted wit and poet. ... In 
 his latter days he removed, upon an employment, or rather a 
 second marriage, to Appleton, near Richmond, in Yorkshire, 
 where dying on the 4th day of May, 1673, was buried in the 
 parish church of Catherick, near that place ; leaving then 
 behind him the character of a well-bred gentleman and a good 
 neighbour." Brathwuite was an exceedingly prolific writer. 
 His works comprise ' The Golden Fleece, whereunto bee 
 annexed two Elegies, entitled Narcissus' Change and iEson's 
 Dotage,' 8vo, London, 1611 ; 'The Poet's Willow, or the 
 Passionate Shepheard : witli sundry delightful and no less 
 Passionate Sonnets, describing the Passions of a discontented 
 and perplexed Lover,' 8vo, London, 1614, written in lyric and 
 Anacreontic measures; 'The Prodigal's Tears, or his Farewell 
 to Vanity : a Treatise of Sovereign Cordials to the Disconsolate 
 Soul,' &c, 8vo, London, 1614; 'The Scholar's Medley, or an 
 intermixt Discourse upon historical and poetical relations,' 4to, 
 London, 1614; 'A Strappado for the Devil; Epigrams and 
 Satires alluding to the Time, with divers measures of no less 
 delight/ 8vo, London, 1615, the second part of which is entitled 
 ' Love's Labyrinth, or the True Lovers' Knot, including the 
 disastrous Falls of two Star-crost Lovers, Pyramus and Thisbe. 
 A subject heretofore handled, but now with much more Pro- 
 priety of Passion, and variety of Invention ; ' ' Solemn Jovial 
 Disputation, theoreticke and practicke, briefly shadowing the 
 Law of Drinking, &c, &c, Oenozythopolis, at the Sign of Rcd- 
 Eyes,' 1617, and ' The Smoking Age, or the Man in the Mist, 
 with the Life and Deatli of Tobacco, &c. Oenozythopolis, at 
 the Sign of Tear-nose,' 8vo, 1617, one of the scarcest books in 
 England, the plates of which are the earliest production of 
 Marshall, the engraver ; ' The Good Wife, or a rare one amongst 
 Women. Whereto is annexed an Exquisite Discourse of 
 Epitaphs, including the Choicest thereof, Ancient or Modern,' 
 8vo, London, 1618, and in the same volume, with a fresh title- 
 page, ' Remains after Death, including by way of Introduction 
 divers memorable Observances occasioned upon Discourse of 
 Epitaphs and Epycedes, then - Distinction and Definition 
 seconded by approved Authors,' a volume which, taken altoge- 
 ther, Dr. Bliss thinks " one of the most curious as well as one 
 of the scarcest books of the period to which it belongs ; " ' A 
 New Spring shadowed in sundry Pithy Poems,' 4to, London, 
 1619; 'Essays upon the Five Senses, with a Pithy one upon 
 Detraction,' 8vo, London, 1620, and 12mo, 1635 ; ' Shepherds' 
 Tales,' 8vo, London, 1621, a continuation of which was printed 
 with ' Nature's Embassy, or the Wild Man's Measures, danced 
 naked by twelve Satyrs,' 8vo, London, 1621, with which were 
 also incorporated ' Divine and Moral Essays,' ' Omphale, or the 
 Inconstant Shepherdess,' and ' Odes, or Philomel's Tears ; ' 
 ' Time's Curtain Drawn, or the Anatomy of Vanity : with other 
 choice Poems, entituled Health from Helicon,' London, 8vo, 
 1621 ; ' The English Gentleman : containing sundry excellent 
 Rules or exquisite Observations, tending to Direction of every 
 Gentleman of selector Rank and Quality, how to demean, or 
 accommodate himself in the Management of public or private 
 Affairs,' 4to, London, 1630, 1633, a third edition in 1641, en- 
 titled ' The English Gentleman and Gentlewoman, with a Lady's 
 Love-lecture, and a Supplement lately annexed, and entituled 
 The Turtle's Triumph,' and a fourth edition which, with a new 
 title-page and a few additions, was published under the title of 
 'Time's Treasury, or Academy for Gentry,' folio, London, 
 1652 ; 'The English Gentlewoman, drawn out to the full 
 Body, expressing what Habiliments do best attire her, what 
 Ornaments do best adorn her, what Complements do best 
 accomplish her,' 4to, London, 1631 and 1633, and a third 
 edition, incorporated, as already stated, with the 'English 
 Gentlewoman,' folio, London, 1641 ; ' Whimzies, or a new 
 Cast of Characters,' 12mo, London, 1631 ; ' Mercurius Britanni- 
 cus, or the English Intelligencer,' 4to, and 2nd edition 4to, 
 1641, a political " tragic comedy," on the subject of ship- 
 money ; ' Anniversaries upon his Panarete ' (Mrs. Frances 
 Brathwaite), 8vo, London, 1634, of which a continuation 
 appeared the following year ; ' The Arcadian Princess, or the 
 
 BRAUN, ALEXANDER, 303 
 
 Triumph of Justice,' 18mo, London, 1635, which is a translation 
 from Mariano Silesio, a Florentine, interspersed with various 
 Poesies ; ' Lives of all the Roman Emperors,' being exactly 
 collected, from Julius Cajsar unto the now reigning Ferdinand 
 the Second,' 12mo, London, 1636; 'A Spiritual Spicery, con- 
 taining sundry sweet Tractates of Devotion and Piety,' 12mo, 
 London, 1638, a rendering of a work by Jacobus Gruythrodius, a 
 German, with which was published ' A Christian Dial,' written 
 by Joh. Justus Lanspergius, a Carthusian ; ' Psalms of David, 
 the King and Prophet, and of other holy Prophets, paraphrased 
 in English,' 12mo, London, 1638; 'Art asleep, Husband? a 
 Bolster Lecture,' &c, 12mo, London, 1640, by " Philogenes Pane- 
 donius" ; ' Muster Roll of the Evil Angels embattled against S. 
 Michael,' 24nio, London, 1655, and in 1659, with a new title- 
 page, ' Capital Hereticks,' &c. ; ' Lignum Vital. Libellus in 
 quatuor partes distinctus,' &c, 12mo, London, 1658 ; ' Honest 
 Ghost, or a Voice from the Vault; an Age for Apes,' 12mo, 
 London, 1658 ; 1 Congratulatory Poem to his Majesty upon his 
 happy Arrival in our late discomposed Albion,' 4to, London, 
 1660 ; and various others. But what is at present of the greatest 
 interest with regard to Brathwaite's literary activity, is the fact 
 that we are at length enabled to identify him as the author of 
 ' Barnabee's Journal, and Bessy Bell, both In Latin and English, 
 by Corymbams,' London, about 1648 or 1650. A second 
 edition, to which an index and some introductory matter were 
 added, repeated in the numerous subsequent ones, was published 
 as ' Drunken Bamaby's four Journeys to the North of England, 
 in Latin and EngUsh verse, &c, to which is added Bessy Bell,' 
 8vo, London, 1716, third edition, 8vo, London, 1723, 8vo, 
 Dublin, 1762, fourth edition, 8vo, London, 1776, fifth edition, 
 8vo, London, 1805, with seven new vignettes and tail-pieces, and 
 having an advertisement prefixed relative to the then supposed 
 author, Barnaby Harrington, and his Journal, sixth edition, 8vo, 
 London, 1808, and seventh, 1818. A new edition with four 
 lithographic prints appeared in 12mo, London, 1822. But the 
 final touch to the Barnaby bibliography was given by the 
 publication of an excellently edited reprint, of which only 125 
 copies were printed, entitled ' Barnabas Itinerarium, or Bar- 
 nabee's Journal, with a Life of the Author, a Bibliographical 
 Introduction to the Itinerary, and a Catalogue of his Works. 
 Edited from the first edition, by Joseph Haslewood,' 2 vols. 
 12mo, London, 1820. It is to Mr. Haslewood that we are 
 indebted for the fact of having traced ' Barnaby's Journal' to its 
 proper author. 
 
 *BRAUN, ALEXANDER, a celebrated German botanist, 
 who has been long engaged in teaching his favourite science at 
 the High Schools of Freiburg and Giessen, and as professor of 
 botany at Berlin. His papers, which are seventy-two or more 
 in number, and his separate works, are chiefly devoted to the 
 cryptogams, to organogeny, or to philosophical observations on 
 plants in general. One of the lines of study which he has done 
 much to develop is the law which regulates the position of 
 leaves on the branches, or phyllotaxis. The first great step was 
 made by Schimper in 1829, and his observations directed Braun's 
 attention more particularly to the subject, and led to his several 
 papers on it, the most important being the ' Vergleichende 
 Untersuchung iiber die Ordnung der Schuppen an den Tannen- 
 zapfen, als Einleitung zur Untersuchung der Blattstellung 
 uberhaupt,' in 'Nova Acta Acad. Ca?s. Leop.' xv. pp. 199 — 401 
 (1831), and 33 plates ; and ' Beschreibung der Symphytum 
 Zeyheri,' in ' Geiger's Magazine,' xxviii. He has given special 
 attention to the Cliaracece, no fewer than eleven of his papers 
 being devoted to this group alone. He took an active share in 
 the discussion as to the possibility or rather actual occurrence 
 of parthenogenesis in plants. Several examples have been 
 adduced of the fertilisation of female flowers without the aid of 
 pollen, but all, with the exception of those relating to Owhhoyijne 
 ilesifolia, have been disproved or reasonably doubted. In the 
 case of the plant just named, three plants, all female, were sent 
 from Australia to Kew Gardens, where they flowered and ripened 
 their seeds, although they were the only specimens known to exist 
 in this country. This led to the case being thoroughly examined 
 by Braun, Schenck, Regel, Baillon, and other eminent continental 
 botanists. Braun's principal contribution to the subject is 
 'Ueber Polyembryoni'e unci Keimung von Ccelebogyne,' in the 
 ' Abhandlungen der Kdniglichen Akad. Wissen. Berlin,' p. 
 109 — 263 (1859), in which he made the important observation 
 that a pollen grain was found on the stigma. His experiments 
 were conducted with the scrupulous care and rigorous method 
 which he is known to bring to all his inquiries, and these experi- 
 ments, although not absolutely conclusive, still, so far as they 
 
309 
 
 BRAUN, AUGUST EMIL. 
 
 310 
 
 went, supported the view that parthenogenesis is possible in 
 plants. Later, however, Karsten discovered that hermaphrodite 
 flowers are developed during the early summer months, and as 
 his observation seems to be trustworthy, it is almost certain that 
 Ccelebogyne can only be fertilised by pollen, as is the case with 
 all other flowers. The work by which Braun is best known in this 
 country is the ' Betrachtungen iiber die Erscheinung der Ver- 
 jungen in die Natur,' 1851, of which an English translation was 
 issued by the Bay Society for the year 1853, and which Professor 
 Henfrey pronounces to be one of the most important contribu- 
 tions to the philosophy of botany. It consists chiefly of a clear 
 outline of the morphology of plants, more especially as regards 
 leaves : and of one of the best accounts we possess of the pheno- 
 mena of cell structure and cell growth. 
 
 BRAUN, AUGUST EMIL, German archaeologist, was born 
 April 19, 1809, and studied successively at the gymnasium of 
 his native place, at Gbttingen, and at Munich. His attention 
 having been directed strongly to art and assthetics, after 
 staying some time at Dresden, where he had the benefit of 
 Rumohr's guidance, he went to Berlin, and thence in 1833 
 to Rome. Here he was appointed librarian of the Archaeologi- 
 cal Institute ; later succeeded Gerhard as secretary ; in 1834 
 became editor of its ' Bulletino,' and in 1837 of its 'Annali.' 
 Constantly engaged in investigating the antiquities of the city, 
 he came, from his wide range of knowledge and connection 
 with the Institute, to be regarded as the leading authority on 
 everything connected with the topography and archaeology of 
 ancient Rome. He did not, however, confine his attention to 
 the past. He was greatly interested in the novel applications 
 of scientific processes to artistic purposes, and was the founder 
 of a galvanoplastic establishment, which had for its object the 
 reproduction of works of classic times, and which, as is said, 
 mainly through Braun's persevering efforts, succeeded in pro- 
 ducing metal statues (like that of Hahnemann, erected at 
 Leipzic in 1851) of heroic size. In addition to many mono- 
 graphs in Italian and German, illustrative of particular works 
 of Greek and Roman antiquity, he wrote 'Antike Marmor- 
 werke,' with 24 plates, fol. Leipzig, 1843 ; 'La Passione de Gesu 
 Christo nella Cattedrale di Siena dipintura di Duccio di Bino 
 della Buoninsegna/ &c, with 27 plates, oblong folio, Rome, 
 1847, with German text, Leipzig, 1850 ; ' Die Apotheose des 
 Homer in Galvanoplastischer Nachbildung,' 4to, Leipzig, 1848 ; 
 ' Specimens of Ornamental Art, selected from the best models of 
 the classical epochs, 80 coloured plates by L. Gruner,' large 
 folio, London, 1850; 'Die Ruinen,' &c, 'The Ruins and 
 Museums of Rome : a Guide-book for travellers, artists, and 
 lovers of antiquity,' German and English versions, 8vo, 
 Brunswick, 1854, London, 1855, the best book of the kind that 
 had then been published ; ' Vorschulc der Kunst Mythologie,' 
 with 100 plates, 4to, Gotha, 1854 ; ' Introduction to the Study 
 of Art Mythology,' an English translation, by J. Grant, Gotha, 
 1856. Dr. Braun died at Rome, September 12, 1856. 
 
 BRAY, THOMAS, celebrated for his labours in the propaga- 
 tion of the gospel, was born in 1656 at Marton in Shropshire, 
 the residence of his parents, who were persons of good reputation, 
 but of no considerable means. He was early sent to Oswestry 
 school, whence, after completing his preparation for the uni- 
 versity, he removed to Hart Hall, Oxford. Here he attained 
 considerable proficiency in languages and divinity; and soon 
 after taking his B.A. degree, was admitted into holy orders. He 
 became successively curate of a parish near Bridgenorth and 
 chaplain in the family of Sir Thomas Price, of Park Hall, War- 
 wickshire, who gave him the donative of Lea Marston. Soon 
 after he waa presented by Lord Digby to the vicarage of Over- 
 Whitacre; and in 1690, by the same patron, to the rectory of 
 Sheldon, which last preferment he held until three months 
 before his death, when his advanced age and infirmities induced 
 him to resign. He took his M.A. degree on the 12th of Decem- 
 ber, 1693. Whilst at Sheldon he produced the first volume of 
 his ' Course of Lectures on the Church Catechism,' folio, Oxford, 
 1696. The publication of these lectures, and the reputation he 
 thereby acquired, recommended him to Dr. Compton, Bishop of 
 London, as a proper person to be entrusted, as Commissary of 
 Maryland, with the modelling and establishment of the church 
 in that colony. Mr. Bray, yielding to the attractions of an 
 arduous field of usefulness, postponed the fulfilment of a natural 
 wish to complete the publication of his catechetical lectures, and 
 threw all his energies into the duties of the office with which he 
 charged himself, as a useful preliminary to which he proceeded 
 to his degrees of B.D. and D.D. together by accumulation, De- 
 cember 17th, 1696. In conformity with his idea of forming 
 
 libraries, and of giving directions to missionaries for the prosecu- 
 tion of their theological studies, he published ' Bibliotheca 
 Parochialis ; or, a Scheme of such theological Heads, as arc more 
 peculiarly requisite to be well studied by every pastor of a 
 parish. With a Catalogue of Books, which may be profitably 
 read on each of those points,' part i. 4to, London, 1697 ; second 
 edition, 8vo, London, 1707. He published also a sermon entitled 
 ' Apostolic Charity, its Nature and Excellency considered, in a 
 Discourse upon Daniel xii. 3 ; preached at St. Paul's, December 
 19th, 1697, at the Ordination of some Protestant Missionaries to 
 be sent to the Plantations. To which is prefixed, A General 
 View of the English Colonies in America, in order to show what 
 23rovision is wanting for the Propagation of Christianity in those 
 parts ; together with proposals for promoting the same, to induce 
 such of the Clergy of this Kingdom as are persons of sobriety 
 and abilities to accept of a Mission,' 4to, London, 1699. Other 
 publications of Dr Bray's, about the time of his delivery of this 
 sermon, were his ' Short Discourse on the Doctrine of our Bap- 
 tismal Covenant,' 8vo, London, 1697 ; and ' An Essay towards pro- 
 moting all necessary useful Knowledge, both divine and human,' 
 4to, London, 1697. After the acceptance of office as Commissary 
 of Maryland, Dr. Bray waited for some time in the expectation 
 of procuring a public fund for the propagation of the Gospel in 
 foreign parts ; failing of which lie succeeded in forming a voluntary 
 society, " both to carry on the service already begun for the 
 Plantations, and to propagate Christian knowledge, at home and 
 abroad." The first labours of this society were to send libraries 
 abroad, to distribute books to soldiers and sailors, and to further 
 the cause of education. Dr. Bray was also instrumental in 
 founding lending libraries for the parochial clergy, in the 
 various rural deaneries throughout the kingdom. About this 
 time he refused two offers of preferment — as sub-almoner, and as 
 incumbent of the donative of Aldgate, in the city, feeling 
 reluctant to accept any office that was inconsistent with his 
 going to Maryland, as soon as circumstances should render his 
 visit expedient. The time at length came ; and having already 
 provided Maryland and many other colonies with a competent 
 number of ministers, and furnished them with good libraries, he 
 set sail from the Downs on the 20th of December, 1699, and, 
 after a tedious and dangerous voyage, arrived in Maryland on 
 the 12th of March, 1700. Before leaving this country he com- 
 menced his plan of instituting clerical libraries at our sea-ports, 
 by establishing or reviving sea-port libraries for the use of mis- 
 sionaries, sea-chaplains, and others, at Gravesend, Deal, and 
 Plymouth. 
 
 Arrived in Maryland, he addressed himself to the question of 
 the settlement and maintenance of the parochial clergy, and 
 preached sermons in various parts, calculated to incline the 
 country to the establishment of the church and clergy ; which, 
 indeed, was voted by the colonial Assembly. Dr. Bray opened 
 his first general visitation as commissary on the 22nd of May, 
 1700, at Annapolis: at the close of which it was judged expe- 
 dient that he should proceed to England in order to procure the 
 sanction of the Home Government for the Acts passed by the 
 provincial Assembly in favour of an ecclesiastical establishment, 
 as against "the expected opposition of Quakers and Papists." 
 This opposition was not without effect, although the final action 
 of the Home Government was in favour of the establishment 
 and maintenance of the church in Maryland. Dr. Bray's literary 
 activity about this time was represented by the 'Acts of his 
 Visitation held at Annapolis, in Maryland, May 23rd, 24th, and 
 25th, anno 1700,' folio, London, 1700; ' Memorial of the Present 
 State of Religion in North America,' folio, London, 1700; and 
 ' Several Circular Letters to the Clergy of Maryland, subsequent 
 to their late Visitation/ folio, London, 1701. On the 9th of 
 June, 1701, Dr. Bray had the satisfaction, in answer to a petition 
 presented in the preceding month to King William III., of laying 
 before the members of his voluntary propagation society the 
 royal letters patent by which they were incorporated as " The 
 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts." 
 The honour of the foundation of this useful and venerable society 
 belongs, therefore, to Dr. Bray, whose agitation for the kindred 
 object of supplying the literary wants of the parochial clergy re- 
 ceived legislative sanction in an Act passed in the 7th year of 
 Queen Anne " for the better preservation of parochial libraries in 
 the part of Great Britain called England." Dr. Bray had the repu- 
 tation of being well skilled in the Romish controversy; and in 
 1712 he published, in folio, his ' Martyrology, or Papal Usurpa- 
 tion,' a compilation of scarce treatises of various celebrated 
 authors. He was prevented in his design of publishing a second 
 volume, and at his death left his collection of ' Martvrological 
 
 x 2 
 
811 BRAYLEY, EDWARD WILLIAM. 
 
 Memoirs,' Loth printed and in manuscript, to Sion College. He 
 devoted much time and property to the furtherance of a scheme 
 for the evangelisation of the negroes, and assembled in his 
 church of St. Botolph without Aldgate — the presentation to 
 which he had accepted in 170G — the young divines who had 
 offered themselves as missionaries, in order to give them advice 
 and to put them through a special catechetical exercise. His 
 own opinion was, that in missionary effort, civilisation should 
 precede conversion. In 1726 Dr. Bray published his 'Dircc- 
 torium Missionarium,' and his 'Primordia Bibliothecaria,' in 
 which are several schemes of parochial libraries, and some other 
 tracts of a like kind. He also reprinted the ' Ecclesiastes ' of 
 Erasmus, a work on the pastoral office, which Dr. Bray valued 
 very highly. In 1727 he began to busy himself for the secular 
 and t he spiritual advantage of persons confined in various prisons 
 of the metropolis ; but, feeling the infirmities of advancing age, 
 was anxious to share the burden of his multiform beneficence 
 with a company of men of like mind with himself. These 
 persons, who constituted a society by the name of the Associates 
 of Dr. Bra) r , have given forth at intervals many Reports of their 
 proceedings, of which the last that has come under our notice 
 bears the date 1853, and is for the year 1851 — 52. Dr. Bray's 
 universal philanthropy led him to take part in establishing the 
 Society for Reformation of Manners, and the Society for the 
 Belief of poor Proselytes. He also instituted several charity 
 schools ; and indeed most of the religious Societies in London in 
 the 18th century owed grateful acknowledgments to his memory, 
 and were in a large measure formed on the plans he projected. 
 To his great objects he contributed the whole of his slender 
 fortune, and closed a course of usefulness rarely equalled, on the 
 15th of February, 1730, in his 73rd year. 
 
 BRAYLEY, EDWARD WILLIAM, F.R.S. [E.G. vol. vi. 
 col. 952]. This laborious investigator of physical phenomena, 
 died of disease of the heart on the 1st of February, 1870. To 
 the Biographical Division of the English Cyclopaedia Mr. Bray ley 
 contributed the lives of several men of science ; and to the Arts 
 and Sciences Division the articles Meteors, Correllation of 
 Physical Forces, Refrigeration of the Globe, Seismology, Waves 
 and Tides, Winds, and others on cognate branches of physics. 
 He also wrote the elaborate papers on the ' Physical Constitution 
 and Functions of the Sun' in the Companion to the Almanac 
 for the years 1864, 1865, and 1866, and that on ' the Periodical 
 Meteors of November' in the volume for 1868. 
 
 BREGUET, ABRAHAM LOUIS, French horologist and 
 philosophical instrument maker, was born at Neuehatel, on the 
 10th of January, 1747. After the death of his father, in 1757, 
 Breguet's mother married a clockmaker, to whom the boy was 
 soon afterwards apprenticed, but not much to his own satisfac- 
 tion. He went to Paris in 1762, placed himself under a clock- 
 maker at Versailles, and made a rapid advance at his trade, be- 
 coming widely known for his skill, and winning the good 
 opinion and friendship of his employer. Devoting a portion of 
 his time to the study of mathematics under the Abbe Marie, he 
 soon commenced business on his own account, and then prose- 
 cuted an uninterrupted series of successful labours for the rest of 
 his life. In 1780 he completed a so-called 'perpetual clock,' in- 
 tended to wind itself up and keep perpetually going — an achieve- 
 ment now admitted to be impossible, but to 'which he applied 
 mechanism more beautiful than had before been adopted for 
 such attempts. He made watches to mark seconds, some of 
 them so perfect that they did not require to be opened for 
 cleaning or adjustment for eight years. It is related that the 
 Due d'Orleans on one occasion, when in London, showed one of 
 Breguet's watches to Arnold j the latter was so struck with 
 admiration at its excellence, that he went to Paris to see 
 Breguet ; the two eminent horologists became friends, and 
 Breguet consigned his son to Arnold for instruction. Driven 
 into exile by the Revolution, Breguet afterwards returned to 
 Paris, and became the most noted of French horologists. He 
 was appointed clockmaker to the Marine Department, member 
 of the Bureau de Longitude, and member of the Academy of 
 Sciences. Besides watches and clocks, he made exquisite instru- 
 ments for navigation, astronomy, and the physical sciences. 
 Repeating-watches, before his time, had openings left in the 
 cases to render the sound audible, whereby dust speedily entered 
 and disarranged the works ; but he rendered the tone clear and 
 sonorous within a perfectly close case. This led to an extensive 
 and profitable manufacture, not only of repeating watches, but 
 of musical snuff-boxes, &c. He made great improvements in 
 the manufacture of chronometers and marine clocks ; invented 
 g new escapement ; devised wholly new and beautiful tools for 
 
 BREITHAUPT, JOIIANN AUGUST FRIEDRICH. 012 
 
 watch-making ; introduced a highly curious sympathetic pendu- 
 lum for regulating watches ; invented a ' comptoir militaue ' for 
 regulating the march or step of troops ; contrived a ' comptoir 
 astronomique,' which, introduced in the tube of a telescope, 
 rendered one-hundredth part of a second of time appreciable and 
 measurable ; made double-cased ladies' watches only one-eighth 
 of an inch in thickness, with the time-indications tangible on the 
 edge as well as visible on the surface ; invented metallic ther- 
 mometers more sensitive to changes of temperature than the 
 instruments before in use ; constructed the mechanism for 
 Chappe's government semaphores (now superseded by the electric 
 telegraph) ; and greatly improved the jewelling of watches, by 
 extending the use of rubies in pivot-holes. Breguet, who was 
 an estimable and much-respected man, died on the 17th of 
 September, 1823. 
 
 BREHM, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, German ornithologist, 
 was bom Jan. 24, 1787, at Schonau near Gotha. He studied 
 theology at Jena, and in 1813 became the minister of the small 
 village of Renthendorf on the river Orla in Saxe-Weimar, 
 where he remained till his death, which happened on the 23rd 
 of June, 1864. The leisure time that was spared to him from 
 his pastoral duties was devoted to the study of natural history, 
 but more especially of the birds of Europe, and to the produc- 
 tion of numerous books and papers. A full list of the latter is 
 given in the Royal Society's ' Catalogue of Scientific Papers,' 
 comprising 125 items. His principal separate works are— 
 ' Die Lehrbuch der naturgeschichte aller europaische Vogel,' 
 1823, 1824 ; ' Handbuch der naturgeschichte aller Vogel 
 Deutschlands, etc' 1831, in which upwards of 900 species are 
 noticed ; ' Beitriige zur Vogelkunde in vollstandigen Beschrei- 
 bungen .... seltener .... deutschen Vogel,' 
 1820 — 1822, which is perhaps his best work, containing a large 
 amount of information as to the plumage of birds at different 
 seasons and ages, derived from personal observation ; it is in 
 three volumes, and he had the assistance of W. Schelling, whose 
 name, however, appears in the third volume only. Another 
 group of his works is devoted to the description, treatment, and 
 capture of domesticated and semi-domesticated birds. Amongst 
 them may be cited the ' Handbuch fiir die Liebhaber der 
 Stuben-Haus-und aller der Zahnung-w r erthen Vogel,' 1832, which 
 is mainly based upon the experience of Count Gourcy Droitau- 
 mont, who kept 80 species of cage and domestic birds in the course 
 of 18 years; ' Die Kunst, Vogel als Balge zubereiten, aufzustop- 
 fen, auf/.ustellen, aufzubewahren, nebst einer kurzen Anleitung 
 Schmetterlinge und Kafer zu fangen, zu prapariren,' 1842, a 
 guide to bird preserving ; ' Der vollstandige Vogelfang,' 1855, an 
 amplified and remodelled form of a treatise he wrote in 1836 : 
 it is a synopsis of all the European birds, with indications as to 
 how they may be caught — there are also notes on some new 
 species obtained by his sons from Africa, and on the bird-catching 
 contrivances of the Africans ; and ' Die AVartung, Pfiege, und 
 Fortpflanzung der Canarien-vogel, Sprosser, Nachtigallen,' etc., 
 1855, which is a guide to the treatment of cage birds, and the 
 modern substitute for Bechstein's well-known work. He was 
 the editor of ' Omis,' a periodical for facts connected with birds, 
 but it ceased after a few parts only had been published. He 
 alscj edited a ' Monographie der Papageien,' 1842 — 1855, which 
 was discontinued after 34 species had been treated : if it had 
 been carried to completion the work would have been bulky and 
 costly, but not superior to Levaillant's monograph, with its con- 
 tinuations ; the species noticed have 60 pages of press and 75 
 large coloured plates devoted to them ; while in 1855 nearly 300 
 species were known. In conjunction with some other naturalists, 
 he formed one of the best collections of German birds yet 
 brought together. His brother, Alfred Edmund Brehm, has 
 written largely on natural history, and many of his works are of 
 a popular character. His sons, Oscar and Reinhold, have also 
 published a few ornithological memoirs. 
 
 * BREITHAUPT, JOHANN AUGUST FRIEDRICH, a 
 German mineralogist, was born May 16, 1791, at Probstzella, 
 near Saalfeld. His education was completed at Freiburg, in the 
 mining academy of which town he became an assistant pro- 
 fessor and inspector of precious stones, and in 1827 professor of 
 oryctognosy in the same institution. He has written many papers 
 for scientific periodicals, and several separate works. Amongst 
 the latter the most important are his ' Vollstandigen Handbuch 
 der Mineralogie,' 1836 — 1847, 3 vols. ; and "Vollstandige Charak- 
 teristik der Mineral Systems,' which reached a third edition in 
 1832. He was the first describer of many species of minerals, 
 and he has in various other ways contributed to the advance- 
 ment of mineralogical science. 
 
313 BREITKOPF, JOHANN GOTTLOB IMMANUEL. 
 
 BREITKOPF, J OH ANN GOTTLOB IMMANUEL, an 
 eminent printer and type-founder, and writer on these arts, was 
 born at Leipzig, November 23, 1719. He was the son of 
 Bemhard Christian Breitkopf, who had established a large print- 
 ing office in that city. After studying languages, history, and 
 philosophy, the young Johann became acquainted with Albert 
 Durer's attempts to improve the shapes of printing-type, and this 
 led him to pursue a similar course with great ardour. He made 
 many improvements, both in the forms of the letters and in the 
 composition of the alloy. In 1755 he re-introduced, with many 
 improvements in detail, the use of moveable metal types for 
 music, in which the notes were cast in separate types, with 
 ledger-lines attached to them. About 1720 those early forms 
 of type had been superseded by engraved plates, printed at 
 a copper-plate press ; and afterwards by a kind of stereotype 
 plate of notes cast in sand. Breitkopf revived the old plan, but 
 with the ledger-lines cast by themselves in separate types. 
 Reinhard afterwards devised a mode of combining Breitkopf's 
 cast types with engraved plates of the ledger-lines. It may be 
 added that both systems (plates printed at the copper-plate 
 press, and types printed at the common press) are adopted at the 
 present day. Breitkopf next made an attempt to introduce 
 moveable types for printing geographical maps, and others for 
 printing in the Chinese language ; but these were not com- 
 mercially successful. In 1774 appeared his Essay on the 
 History of the Invention of Printing, ' Uber die Geschichte der 
 Erfindnng der Buchdruckerkunst,' Leipzig. Several years later 
 he wrote a work on the origin of playing cards, the introduction 
 of linen-rag paper, and the adoption of wood engraving, ' Ver- 
 such den Ursprung der Spielkarten, die Einfiihrung des Leinen- 
 papiers, unci den Anfang der Holzschneidekunst in Europa zu 
 erforschen,' Leipzig, 4to, 1784 — 1801. The first part of this work 
 was published during the lifetime of Breitkopf ; but the second 
 part was posthumous. He commenced, but did not finish, a 
 larger ' Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst.' He established and 
 carried on, in 1780 — 82, a 'Magazin fur Kiinst-und-Buchhandel.' 
 Two other works of his were 'Exemplum typographiaj Sinicae 
 figuris characterum et typis mobilibus compositum,' Leipzig, 
 1789, 4to ; and ' Uber die Bibliographie und Bibliophilie,' 
 1793. Breitkopf, who became the most noted type-founder in 
 Germany, and who was much respected both in his trade and 
 among literary men, died on the 28th of January, 1794. 
 
 BREMER, FREDERIKA [E. C. vol. i. col. 914]. From the 
 period at which the above brief biography had arrived, Miss 
 Bremer continued actively engaged in the promotion of the 
 various benevolent schemes on which she had fixed her thoughts, 
 especially on those which had for their object the improvement 
 of domestic life, and the social, moral, and intellectual elevation 
 of her sex. She continued to write, and produced in succession 
 ' Hertha,' in 1856, in which she made the story subservient to 
 her philanthropic purpose ; and 'Fathers and Daughters,' 1859, 
 in which a similar intention was visible. She also travelled, 
 and mostly alone, in Switzerland, Greece, and Palestine, and 
 gave the results of her observations to the public in 'Two Years 
 in Switzerland,' 1860 ; 'Travels in the Holy Land,' 1862 ; and 
 ' Greece and the Greeks,' 1863, all of which have been translated 
 into English. At length, wearied in body and depressed in 
 spirjt, she resolved to retire in the summer of 1865 to the quiet 
 of Arsta, and there seemed to gain strength and cheerfulness, 
 when she took cold in going to church on Christmas Day, and 
 died on the 31st of December, 1865, having shortly before com- 
 pleted her 64th year. Her ' Life, Letters, and Posthumous 
 Works,' including a brief autobiography and some short poems, 
 mostly pathetic in tone, have been published by her sister, 
 Charlotte Bremer, and translated into English (8vo, 1868), the 
 prose by Frederick Milow, the verse by Emily Nonnen. 
 
 BRENTANO, CLEMENT, a German author of considerable 
 versatility, was born at Frankfurt-on-the-Main in 1777, and was 
 the brother of the celebrated Elizabeth (Bettina) von Arnim, 
 the friend of Goethe. After completing his studies at Jena he 
 resided successively at that city, at Frankfurt, Heidelberg, 
 Vienna, and Berlin. Later in life he embraced Catholicism, and 
 withdrew for purposes of seclusion to the abbey of Dulmen, in 
 Minister. He died on the 28th of June, 1842. He is the 
 author of romances, novels, satires, comedies, dramas, and 
 miscellaneous poems, in the course of which he manifested 
 talents and characteristics of such an order as to claim for him 
 a prominent place amongst the writers of the romantic school. 
 His principal works are satires and poetical diversions, ' Satiren 
 und poetische Spiele,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1800, published under the 
 p^udonym of Maiia, a name which he also adopted in connec- 
 
 tion with his Godwi, &c, 'Godwi, oder das Stcinerne Bild del 
 Mutter,' 8vo, Bremen, 1801 — 2 ; an opera called the Jolly 
 Musicians, 'Die Lustigen Musikanten,' 1803 ; 'Ponce de Leon,' 
 a comedy, Gottingen, 1804 ; a humorous drama in two parts 
 and in verse, entitled 'Viktoria und ihre Geachwister, mit 
 fliegenden Fahnen und brennender Lunte,' 8vo, Berlin, 1817 ; 
 'Geschichte vora braven Kaspar und dem schonen Annerl,' 
 which was translated into English by T. W. Appell, with the 
 title of ' Honor ; or the Story of the brave Caspar and the fair 
 Annerl. With an Introduction and a biographical notice of the 
 Author,' 16mo, London, 1847. The works of Clement Brentano 
 were edited by Christian Brentano, with the title of ' Gesain- 
 melte Schriften,' 8vo, Frankfurt, 1852, &c. ; and a volume of 
 poems appeared two years later, ' Gedichte. In neuer Auswahl,' 
 16mo, Frankfurt, 1854. Portions of the correspondence of 
 Clement Brentano with Elizabeth von Arnim were likewise 
 published in 8vo, Charlottenburg, 1844. 
 
 BRENZ, JOHANN, a German reformer, whose name varies 
 as Brentius, Brentz, and Brentzen, was born at Weil, in Suabia, 
 on the 30th of June, or the 24th of July, 1499. He was educated 
 at the school and university of Heidelberg, and took his doctor'3 
 degree in 1518. Being admitted to orders a short time after, he 
 became popular as a preacher, and in his parish of Hall, in 
 Suabia, and in various other places, endeavoured to further the 
 progress of the reformation. In 1530 he assisted at the peace 
 conferences at Augsburg, and marrying soon after, was invitee 1 
 by Ulric, Duke of Wirtemburg, to undertake the joint direction 
 of the University of Tubingen. He made himself obnoxious to 
 the imperial displeasure by his refusal to subscribe the famous 
 Interim ; and when the Spanish troops were at Hall, in 1547, he 
 was compelled to seek safety first in concealment and afterwards 
 in flight. After many wanderings he found an asylum, in 1552, 
 at Stuttgard, in the castle of Duke Christopher, the son and 
 successor of Ulric, by whom he was charged to draw up the 
 Confession of Wirtemburg, for presentation at the Council of 
 Trent ; and shortly after was appointed to the vacant pastorate 
 of Stuttgard, which he held for the remainder of his life. He 
 was one of the principal actors in the ecclesiastical events of his 
 time. In 1557 he attended the conferences at Worms, and died 
 at Stuttgard on the 11th of September, 1570. His opinions 
 coincided in general with those of Luther ; but on the subject of 
 the Eucharist he held the doctrine of the absolute omnipresence, 
 ubiquitas absoluta, of the body of Christ, on which account he 
 and his followers were called Ubiquitarians. The works of 
 Brenz, ' Brentii Opera,' most of which had been published sepa- 
 rately during his life, and several of which had been translated 
 into English, were published collectively in 8 vols, folio, Tu- 
 bingen, 1576 — 1590, and Amsterdam, 1666. Recent publications 
 conversant about Brenz are : — Johann Brenz. From printed and 
 imprinted sources, ' Johann Brenz. Nach gedruckten und unged- 
 ruckten Quellen,' 2 vols. 8vo, Hamburg, 1840 — 42 ; Johann 
 Brenz : his Life and Select Writings, ' Leben und ausgewahlte 
 Schriften,' Elberfeld, 1862 ; and Anecdotes of Brenz, &c, 
 ' Anecdota Brentiana. Ungedruckte Briefe und Bedenken von 
 J. Brenz,' 8vo, Tubingen, 1868. 
 
 BREQUIGNY, LOUIS-GEORGES OUDARD-FEUDRIX 
 DE, a French historian and antiquary, was born at Granville, in 
 1716. His first literary production was an interesting memoir 
 which he prepared for the Academie des Inscriptions, upon the 
 ' Etablissement de l'Empire et de la Keligion de Mahomet,' 
 which was some time after followed by other contributions to 
 Arab history and chronology, and by dissertations which found 
 a place in the ' Memoires de 1' Academie des Inscriptions,' to the 
 membership of which he was admitted in 1759, whilst in 1772 
 he became a member of the Academie Francaise. At the peace 
 of 1763, Brequigny was commissioned by his Government to pro- 
 ceed to England for the purpose of investigating such records in 
 the Tower of London and in other places as were conversant about 
 the history and institutions of France. He spent about three 
 years in this labour, the result of which was seen in his publica- 
 tion, jointly with F. J. G. de La Porte du Theil, of ' Dipjlomata, 
 Chartce, Epistola:, et alia Monumenta ad Res Franciscas spec- 
 tantia, ex diversis regiis archivis eruta,' 3 vols, folio, Paris, 1791, 
 &c. Between the years 1769 and 1783, Brequigny published 
 three volumes of a work which he had prepared, jointly with 
 G. J. Mouchet, and which he designed as a supplement to the 
 Bibliotheque of P. Lelong, entitled ' Tables chronologiques des 
 Diplomes, Chartrcs, Titres, et Actes iniprimes, concernant 
 l'Histoire de France,' folio, Paris. He was next commissioned, 
 jointly with 11. Mouchet, to continue the ' Memoires concernant 
 l'Histoire, les Sciences, les Arts, les Mceurs et les Usages des 
 
315 
 
 BREWSTER, SIR DAVID. 
 
 BRIGHT, RIGHT HON. JOHN. 
 
 316 
 
 Chinoja,' 15 vol?. 4to, Paris, 1776 — 91, which had heen com- 
 menced by the missionaries to Pekin, MM. Amyot, Bourgeois, &c. 
 Brc<[iiigny, who died on the 3rd of July, 1795, is the author of 
 several works of minor interest and importance, amongst which 
 may he mentioned his ' llistoire des Revolutions de Genes,' 
 3 vols. 12mo, 1750 ; ' Vies des anciens Orateurs grecs,' &c, 
 2 vols. 12mo, 1752, which proceeded no further, and emhraccd 
 only the lives of Isocrates and Dio Chrysostom ; 'St rain mis 
 Rerum Gcographicarum, Libri XVII.,' of winch only one volume 
 appeared, 4to, Paris, 1763 ; and ' Catalogus Manuscriptorura 
 Codicuni Collcgii Claromontani,' 8vo, 1768. 
 
 BREWSTER, SIR DAVID [E. ('. vol. i. col. 915]. In the 
 obituary notice contributed by Dr. J. H. Gladstone to the Pro : 
 ceedings of, the Royal Society, it is stated that Sir David mad' a 
 telescope when he was only ten years of age, entered Oil his 
 university course at twelve, " devoted one of the longest of lives 
 to discoveries in optics, and at last, laden with academic and 
 scientific honours, sank peacefully to rest on the 10th of 
 February, 1868." 
 
 The notice in the E. C. gives a list of these honours, and 
 also the titles of the separate works issued by Sir David ; but 
 few persons were aware, until after his death, how largely he 
 contributed to scipntilic and periodical literature. The 'Cata- 
 logue of Scientilic Papers ' now in course of publication by the 
 Royal Society records the titles of 299 papers by him, besides 
 5 in which his name is conjoined with the names of other 
 inquirers. He has 30 papers in the Phil. Trans. He contributed 
 28 articles to the ' Edinburgh Review,' 5 to the ' Quarterly,' 2 
 each to ' Meliora ' and the ' Foreign Review,' and no iess than 76 
 to the first thirty-nine parts of the ' North British Review.' The 
 subjects of tins vast collection of papers are not always strictly 
 scientific, for the author aspired to literary as well as scientilic 
 fame. Indeed, it has been remarked that Sir David felt a desire 
 to write a review of every book that he read. 
 
 It may reasonably be supposed that so prolific a writer was 
 neither very profound nor original. Dr. Gladstone's estimate of 
 his scientific character is just. "It was as a laborious observer 
 and ingenious experimenter that he excelled ; he cared rather to 
 collect a multitude of facts than to deduce from them general 
 laws. Wonderful proofs of perseverance are his Tables of Re- 
 fractive Indices, of dispersive powers, and of the polarizing angles 
 of various reflecting bodies ; and he seems to have submitted to 
 optical examination every mineral that came in his way." 
 
 To this estimate we must add some further remarks. Sir 
 David's name has been connected with all the great optical dis- 
 coveries of the present century, and as he has often been the 
 historian of his own fame, his share in those discoveries has not 
 been underrated. During many years Sir David had a kind of 
 monopoly in the scientific optics of this country. He contributed 
 most of the optics to the ' Edinburgh Cyclopaedia,' of which he 
 was editor during the twenty-two years occupied in its publica- 
 tion ; he performed the same service for the new editions of the 
 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica,' for ' Lardner's Cyclopaedia,' and for 
 the ' Library of Useful Knowledge,' to say nothing of the large 
 number of essays and reviews on optical subjects contributed to 
 various periodicals, to three of which, ' The Journal of Science,' 
 ' The Edinburgh Journal of Science,' and the ' Philosophical 
 Magazine,' he was wholly or partly editor. When, however, 
 Whewell published his ' History of the Inductive Sciences,' the 
 great optical discoveries of this century were given not to Brewster 
 alone, but to Malus, Fresnel, Biot, and others. In reviewing 
 W he well's work in the ' Edinburgh/ Brewster entered some ener- 
 getic protests against what he termed this " Lethean method of 
 writing history ;" and in his communications to the Royal Society 
 he accused Biot of plagiarism. Biot was a contributor to the 
 ' Edinburgh Cyclopaedia,' and Brewster, in writing to Biot on the 
 subject of his articles, was, he says, in the habit of jotting down 
 in a postscript any scientific results he had obtained in the course 
 of his current researches. The hints thus given were, it is 
 charged, improved upon by Biot, and published by him as original 
 discoveries. The communications to the Royal Society became 
 so controversial, that, instead of marking the progress of science, 
 they referred too much to personal disputes ; and the Societa- 
 l-ejecting one of these papers, the author withdrew in 1841, and 
 did not again communicate with the Royal Society except on one 
 occasion, and that was in company with Dr. Gladstone on the 
 lines of the solar spectrum. 
 
 It is not intended by these remarks to undervalue the great 
 and important services rendered by Sir David to science during 
 nearly tlirec-quarters of a century. It is difficult to estimate 
 a man's work with rigid justice, and if we incline to the opinion 
 
 that Sir David as a scientific optician has been somewhat over- 
 estimated, his great influence on the science, education, and 
 intellectual progress of the century will not soon pass away. In 
 1821 he founded the Scottish Society of Arts ; from 1838 to 
 1859 lie was principal of the United Colleges of St. Salvador and 
 St. Leonards at the University of St. Andrews ; and during the 
 last eight years of his life he was Principal of the University of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Sir David was twice married : first to the daughter of James 
 Macpherson, M.P., of Belleville, the so-called translator of 
 'Ossian;' the second time, late in life, to Jane Kirk, second 
 daughter of the late Thomas Purnell, Esq., of Scarborough. To 
 this lady, upon the death of Sir David, a pension of 200£. per 
 annum was granted from the civil list fund, "in recognition of 
 her late husband's eminent services to science." Sir David 
 Brewster had himself for some years enjoyed a pension of 
 3(1(1/. per annum. 
 
 ♦BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON, civil and telegraphic 
 engineer, was born in 1832. After professional study he became 
 engineer to the English and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company, 
 ami was employed in laying down the first cables which con- 
 nected Great Britain with Ireland. In 1856 he was one of the 
 original projectors of the Atlantic Telegraph, and was appointed 
 electrical engineer to the company soon afterwards formed-. 
 The temporary success of the cable of 1858 led to the conferring 
 of the honour of knighthood on Mr. Bright. Since that 
 time Sir Charles Bright has been actively engaged in the con- 
 struction or laying of many electric cables in various seas. 
 When the Red Sea Cable failed in 1859—60, Sir Charles and 
 Mr. Latimer Clark were called in as advisers concerning the 
 best mode of laying another cable in that reef-beset sea. These 
 two engineers, in 1864, superintended for the government of 
 India the construction and laying of the Persian Gulf cable, 
 from Bushire to the Indian Ocean, and thence to Kurrachee, at 
 the westernmost mouth of the Indus. Sir C. Bright has since 
 been engaged in laying other important telegraphic lines, and is 
 at present (June, 1870) directing the submersion of the West 
 Indian and South American (Panama) telegraph cable. Most 
 submarine cables have the gutta percha sheathing laid on in 
 three or four coatings, alternating with layers of a glutinous 
 composition; one such composition is Bright and Clark's Com- 
 pound, so named from the inventors. Among other professional 
 papers, Sir Charles Bright has written ' On the Measurement of 
 Electrical Insulation and Resistance,' published in the ' Elec- 
 trician' in 1862; and 'Report of the Committee on Standards 
 of Electrical Resistance,' published in the ' Proceedings of the 
 British Association for the Advancement of Science' in 1863. 
 He was member of parliament for Greenwich from 1865 to 1868. 
 
 * BRIGHT, RT. HON. JOHN [E. C. vol. i. col. 921]. Mr. 
 Bright's persistent opposition to the policy which led to the war 
 with Russia, and to the continuance of that war, lost him his 
 seat for Manchester at the general election in April, 1857 ; but 
 he was returned to the House of Commons as member for 
 Birmingham in the following August, and he has sat for Bir- 
 mingham ever since. During the life of Mr. Cobden, Mr. 
 Bright was his closest and most steadfast associate and supporter, 
 alike in parliament and on the platform, and perhaps his inde- 
 pendent power was hardly adequately Tecognised by the general 
 public. But his range of view was wider and his grasp of 
 thought more comprehensive and statesmanlike than Mr. 
 Cobden's, and year hy year he was steadily making his way in 
 the House, and beyond any other member he came to be sus- 
 tained by the adherence of all grades of the more advanced 
 Liberals throughout the country. The Earl of Derby hardly 
 overrated his position when in the Electoral Reform debates he 
 spoke of Mr. Bright as "the real leader of the Opposition." 
 Within the House he never assumed that position, but his will 
 governed the movement of the Opposition, and out of the House 
 it was supreme. His early speeches, as was almost inevitable 
 from the circumstances of his election, were very much directed 
 to the cmestions of free-trade, finance, and peace ; but as time 
 wore on, their range widened so as to include nearly the entire 
 field of national policy. Of electoral reform, the redistribution 
 of seats, and the ballot, Mr. Bright was one of the most constant 
 and strenuous advocates, and the Reform Bill by which Lord 
 Derby "dished the Whigs," in 1867, was in the main adopted 
 from Mr. Bright, though he would have accepted probably a less 
 sweeping measure. Administrative reform ; financial reform ; 
 the question of the distribution of land and its occupancy, have 
 also been among the great matters of home politics on which he 
 has dwelt often and earnestly in his speeches in Parliament and 
 
317 BRIGHT, RICHARD, M.l). 
 
 in his public addresses ; and in connection with the land question 
 ' and that of the condition of the agricultural labourer, he has 
 j given a prominent place to the character and effects of game 
 ' preservation and the game laws. The abolition of church rates, 
 the admission of Jews to parliament, and generally all those 
 measures which had for their avowed object the removal of all 
 liabilities and disabilities on account of creed or religious dis- 
 tinctions, were earnestly supported by him, whilst in reference 
 to education his reiterated demand has been that the State 
 should not interfere with voluntary exertions, unless prepared 
 | " to offer this great boon to all classes of the people without 
 favour or distinction." Colonial questions generally, but par- 
 ticularly matters connected with Canada and its relations with 
 the mother country and the United States, have likewise occu- 
 pied much of his attention ; and some of his most elaborate and 
 highly wrought disquisitions have related to our Indian empire 
 and Indian policy. The other great matter which he seems to have 
 most deeply considered, and one to which he has returned again 
 and again in the House of Commons, is that of the condition of 
 Ireland. He had often addressed the House on the subject and 
 put forth propositions conducive, as he thought, to its pacifica- 
 tion, and he was consequently prepared to give his warmest sup- 
 port to Mr. Gladstone when, in the session of 1SG8, he brought 
 forward his resolution for dis-establishing the Irish Church. 
 When Mr. Gladstone was called upon, December 4, 1868, to 
 form an administration, it was generally felt that Mr. Blight's 
 presence in it was essential to its stability. Mr. Gladstone fully 
 recognised the necessity, and the proposition met with the 
 cordial acquiescence of the Queen. Mr. Bright was offered the 
 position of Secretary of State for India. But his health had 
 suffered grievously from the exertions of previous years. For 
 two years he had been " cut off from public labours ; " the duties 
 of the Indian department if properly performed he knew to be 
 exceedingly heavy, and he felt, as he stated, that he " was not 
 justified in accepting it unless there were some great probability 
 of some useful result which could not be accomplished under 
 any other chief of that office." He felt, moreover, that it 
 "would be unseemly in him, w r ith the views which he had 
 held from his youth upwards, to connect himself distinctly with 
 the conduct of the military departments of the great Indian 
 government." But " when the private and personal, came to be 
 weighed against the apparent public reasons, then the private 
 and personal yielded to the public," and whilst he " felt it his 
 duty to decline the particular proposition," he added that " if 
 he were to accept any seat in the Government he would prefer 
 to take the office of President of the Board of Trade." This 
 was of course agreed to ; he became a member of the Cabinet, 
 was sworn in of the Privy Council ; and was able to render 
 powerful service in the passing of the Irish Church Bill — in the 
 discussions on which he gained the admiration of opponents as 
 well as friends by the moderation and generous spirit, as 
 well as earnestness and evident sincerity of his advocacy. To- 
 wards the end of the session his health again gave way, and he 
 has since been entirely precluded from official and public labour. 
 In these circumstances Mr. Bright wished to resign his post, but 
 was induced to retain it in the hope that a season of rest may 
 restore him to activity. 
 
 Mr. Bright's ' Speeches on Questions of Public Policy,' re- 
 vised by himself, were published under the editorship of Prof. 
 J. E. Tliorold Rogers, in 2 vols. 8vo, 1868, and are, apart 
 altogether from their political opinions, remarkable as com- 
 positions for clear and compact argument and purity and force 
 of style. Conjointly with Prof. Rogers Mr. Bright undertook to 
 edit 'Speeches on Questions of Public Policy, by Richard 
 Cobden, 2 vols. 8vo, 1870, but after he had " revised the speeches 
 in the first volume . . . and given the same assistance to 
 a few sheets in the second, he was unhappily seized witli illness, 
 and was unable to give his further supervision to the work." 
 (Preface, vol. i. p. xv.) 
 
 BRIGHT, RICHARD, M.D., was born at Bristol in 1789 ; 
 entered as a student at Edinburgh University in 1808, and in 
 1812 graduated in medicine. He then resided for some time at 
 Cambridge ; visited the Continent, and after the battle of 
 Waterloo, hurried to the assistance of the overtasked military 
 staff in the hope of at once alleviating suffering and being able 
 to study the effects of the surgical treatment of wounds. Re- 
 turning to England, he commenced practice as a physician in 
 London ; was in 1820 elected assistant physician to Guy's 
 Hospital ; acquired marked distinction as a teacher in the 
 medical school there, and rapidly secured the confidence of the 
 profession. Thenceforward his career was that of a successful 
 
 BRINKLEY, JOHN. 318 
 
 London physician ; he came to be regarded as the leading 
 authority in renal diseases, dropsy and the like ; was appointed* 
 physician extraordinary to the Queen ; was elected Fellow of 
 the Royal Society in 1821, and later member of various learned 
 societies on the Continent as well as in England, He died 
 December 16, 1858. Dr. Bright's claim to permanent remem- 
 brance is derived from his ' Original Researches into the Patho- 
 logy of Diseases of the Kidney,' one of the most valuable 
 contributions to medical science of the age. A formidable 
 series of these diseases, characterised by uniformity of structural 
 change and the presence of albumen in the urine, and hence 
 designated Albuminuria, or granular disease of the kidney, was 
 first distinctly pointed out by him and its diagnosis and treat- 
 ment indicated ; and his memory is somewhat dubiously 
 honoured by the appellation " Bright's Disease," now universally 
 given to it. [E. C, Arts and Sciences Div. vol. v. col. 53.] 
 
 BRILLAT-SAVARIN, ANTHELME, the Corypheus of 
 gourmandism, was born at Bellay, on the 1st of April, 1755. He 
 filled various secondary and departmental offices prior to 1793, 
 when he quitted France on account of the revolutionary excesses, 
 and travelled first in Switzerland and afterwards in America. In 
 1796 he returned to his native place, re-entered the court of 
 cassation, obtained promotion, and thenceforth, laying aside all 
 concern for politics, divided his days between the discharge of 
 his magisterial functions, the gratifications of his tastes, and the 
 preparation of his book — the true labour of his life. The 
 ' Physiologie du Gout ' was published in two small 8vo volumes, 
 in 1825 ; and the author, his work accomplished, died on the 
 2nd of the folloAving February. Brillat-Savarin was eminently 
 the author of one book. He wrote, indeed, ' Vues et Projets 
 d'Economie Politique/ 8vo, Paris, 1802 ; an ' Essai historique et 
 critique sur le Duel,' 8vo, 1819 ; a dissertation, 1 Sur l'Arche- 
 ologie du departement de l'Ain,' 1820, and one or two other 
 trifles ; but his one work remains the 1 Physiologie du Gout,' a 
 work that has rendered his name grateful to every cultivated 
 lover of good living, and immortal in France. The book itself 
 deserves its celebrity. It is charmingly written, accomplishes all 
 that it professes, exactly meets the tastes and satisfies the capa- 
 bilities of the wide circle to which it is addressed : is lively, 
 genial, racy, and just sufficiently seasoned with well-told and 
 timely anecdotes. 
 
 BRINKLEY, JOHN, Bishop of Cloyne, a distinguished 
 mathematician and astronomer, was bom at Woodbridge, in 
 Suffolk, in 1763. After receiving a preparatory education at 
 the grammar school of his native town, he entered Cains College, 
 Cambridge, where, in 1788, he became senior wrangler and 
 senior Smith's prizeman. He received the degree of M.A. in 
 1791. In 1792 he was appointed Andrews Professor of Astro- 
 nomy at Trinity College, Dublin, and was placed at the head of 
 a well-appointed observatory at Dunsink, near Dublin. In this 
 office, which he held for twenty-four years, he made numerous 
 astronomical observations, and meanwhile published many 
 mathematical and astronomical papers. In 1806 the degree of 
 D.D. was conferred upon him. Calculations which he made 
 concerning the parallax of the fixed stars became the subject of 
 controversy between him and Mr. Pond, the Astronomer Royal, 
 in 1813 — 14, and conduced towards the completion of more 
 rigorous determinations by later astronomers. In 1813 appeared 
 his ' Elements of Astronomy,' 8vo, Dublin ; a useful outline of 
 the science, consisting of a summary of the lectures given by 
 him at Trinity College. In 1826 Dr. Brinkley was appointed 
 Bishop of Cloyne, not for any ecclesiastical or theological services 
 which he had rendered, but on account of the high estimation in 
 which he was held. This appointment was a loss to science ; 
 the bishop resigned his professorship, ceased to make observa- 
 tions and to write papers, and attended wholly to the duties of 
 his diocese. He died on the 14th of September, 1835. His 
 funeral was attended by the principal members of Dublin Uni- 
 versity and of the Royal Irish Academy. Bishop Brinkley was 
 a fellow of many learned societies in the United Kingdom, and 
 a corresponding member of the Institute of France. His chief 
 mathematical papers, published in the ' Memoirs of the Royal 
 Irish Academy,' and in the ' Philosophical Transactions,' are the 
 following :— ' General Demonstration of the Theorem of Cotes, 
 deduced simply from the Properties of the Circle,' 1797 ; ' Gene- 
 ral Demonstration of the Theorems for the Sines and Cosines of 
 Multiple Circular Arcs,' 1797; 'On the Expression of Variable 
 Quantities,' 1798 ; ' On Orbital Revolutions,' 1801 ; ' On Spherical 
 Superficies,' 1801 ; 'On Kepler's Problem,' 1802; 'On Oblique 
 Cylindrical Superficies,' 1802; 'On Newton's Solution of the 
 Relation between Resistance and Gravity,' 1807 ; ' On Finite 
 
319 
 
 BROCA, PAUL. 
 
 320 
 
 Differences,' 1807 ; ' On Arbitrary Constants,' 1817. His astro- 
 nomical papers were more numerous ; they were published, 
 between 1808 and 1828, in the 'Memoirs of the Royal Irish 
 Academy,' the 'Philosophical Transactions,' the 'Quarterly 
 Journal of Science,' the ' Memoirs of the Astronomical Society,' 
 and the ' Astron. Naehtrichten.' They relate to the Apparent 
 Distance of the Sun and Moon; the Parallax of a Lyras; the 
 North Polar Distances of 47 Fixed Stars; the Parallax of Fixed 
 Stars; Astronomical Refractions; the Mean Motion of the Lunar 
 Perigee; the Elements of Conietary Orbits; the Obliquity of the 
 Ecliptic; the Aberration of Light; Lunar Nutation; the Modes of 
 Finding Latitudes ; Solar Nutation; the Paramatta Observations ; 
 Kntcr's Floating Collimator ; Luni-Solar Precession; Culmina- 
 tions observed at Dublin ; and the Precession of the Equinoxes. 
 
 BRINVILLIERS, MARIE MARGUERITE, MARQUISE 
 DE, who obtained infamy as a poisoner in the time of 
 Louis XIV., was the daughter of Dreux d'Aubrai, a lieutenant 
 civil, or judge hav ing a certain limited jurisdiction, at whose 
 hands she received a careful education. In 1651, whilst still 
 very young, she became the wife of the Marquis de Brinvilliers, 
 with whom she resided at her father's house, in Paris. Her 
 husband, who was colonel of the Regiment de Normandie, 
 entertained at his house a young otlicer of cavalry of the 
 Regiment de Tracy, named Gaudin de Sainte-Croix, a native of 
 Montauban, and the illegitimate member of an illustrious 
 family. He was unprincipled enough to encourage the unlaw- 
 ful passion which the marchioness conceived for him ; and her 
 lather, in consequence, procured in 1663 a lettre de cachet against 
 Sainte-Croix, who underwent a year's incarceration in the 
 Bastille. During his confinement lie learned from a fellow- 
 prisoner, an Italian named Exili, the art of preparing subtle 
 poisons ; a secret which, upon his enlargement, lie communi- 
 cated to his mistress, who determined to poison her father and 
 the other members of her family. Having first wantonly 
 essayed her art upon the patients of the Hotel-Dieu, she 
 proceeded, with the aid of a servant named Jean Amelia, 
 or La Chaussee, to take the lives of her father, her two brothers, 
 and her sister. This feat she accomplished gradually between 
 the years 166G and 1070. More than once she poisoned her 
 husband ; but Sainte-Croix, whose prudence shrank from the 
 obligation of marrying the terrible widow, each time preserved 
 the life of the Marquis by the administration of an antidote. 
 Sainte-Croix died suddenly in July, 1G72, in the act, it is said, of 
 compounding a subtle poison, against the effects of which he 
 was left unprotected by the accidental fracture of a glass mask 
 which he wore as a defence against the fumes of his deadly 
 drugs. As no relative came forward to claim his property, it 
 was taken possession of by the public authorities, who, instead 
 of complying with the written instructions of Sainte-Croix, 
 dated May 25th, 1G72, that a particular casket should lie 
 delivered to Madame de Brinvilliers, examined it, together with 
 above thirty letters which he had received from her. There 
 was also found a promise on her part to pay Sainte-Croix a sum 
 of 30,000 livres, bearing the date of June 20th, 1670, eight days 
 after the poisoning of the " lieutenant civil," her father. The 
 casket proved to be full of packets of various poisons, to each 
 of which was allixed a label indicating the peculiar effects it was 
 calculated to produce. The Marchioness, fatally compromised 
 by these and other circumstances, sought safety in flight, repair- 
 ing first to England, then to Germany, and finally to Liege, 
 where she was apprehended. Being taken to Paris, she denied 
 her guilt ; but after her condemnation made a confession, in 
 which, and in a kind of autobiography, she charged herself 
 with more and greater horrors than had seemed possible to 
 rumour or suspicion. She was executed at seven o'clock on the 
 evening of the 16th of July, 1676, being first beheaded and 
 afterwards burnt. As her application and use of poison, which 
 went by the name of poudre de succession, seemed to be growing 
 prevalent, Louis XIV. instituted a special court for the investi- 
 gation and punishment of this species of crime. 
 
 The exploits of Madame de Brinvilliers have attracted a 
 literature of their own; as, for instance, the 'Memoire du 
 procez extraordinaire contre la Dame de Brinvilliers, prisonniere 
 en la Conciergerie du Palais, accusee,' &c, 4to, Paris, 1676, an 
 English translation of which was published in 4to, London, 
 1G76 ; the ' Factum pour Dame de Brinvilliers : avec le 
 memoire du procez extraordinaire contre la dite Dame de B.; 
 et l'arrest de la cour de Parlement, contre la elite,' &c, by 
 M. Nivelle, which finds a place in the ' Archives curieuses 
 de I'Histoire de France, depuis Louis XL jusqu' a Louis XVIII.,' 
 &c; a manuscript of 150 pages folio, by Edme Pirot, entitled 
 
 ' Les Vingt-quatre dernieres heures de la Marquise de Brin- 
 villiers, ou, la Relation de sa Mort ; ' and the story, by the lute 
 Albert Smith, which he describes as a " Romance of Old Paris," 
 and entitles ' The Marchioness of Brinvilliers, the Poisoner of 
 
 the Seventeenth Century.' 
 
 * BRISTOW, HENRY WILLIAM, geologist and mineralo- 
 gist, was born in 1817, and educated at King's College, London, 
 of w hich institution he was appointed a Fellow in 1863. In 1812 
 he. joined the Geological Survey of Great Britain as assistant 
 geologist, and was subsequently raised to the rank of geologist. 
 He became an F.G.S. in 1843, and an F.R.S. in 1862. In connec- 
 tion with the geological survey he has had a hand in the pre* 
 paration of various maps, sections, and memoirs; amongst the 
 latter the most important is ' The Geology of the Isle of Wight/ 
 &c, 18G2. He assisted largely in drawing up ' A Descriptive 
 Catalogue of the Rock Specimens in the Museum of Practical 
 Geology,' of which a third edition appeared in 1862. He 
 arranged and described most of the specimens illustrating the 
 secondary and tertiary strata, as also most of the volcanic and 
 plutonic rocks. He contributed mineralogical and lithological 
 articles to Ure's ' Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,' 
 3rd edition ; and to Brandt's ' Dictionary of Literature, Science, 
 and Art,' 4th edition. In 1861 he published 'A Glossary of 
 Mineralogy,' which is in common use as a ready reference book; 
 and in 186!) he translated Simonin's ' La Vie Souterraine.' 
 
 BRITTON, JOHN [E. C. vol. i. col. 928]. This industrious 
 compiler and antiquary died on the 1st of January, 1857, in his 
 86th year. 
 
 * BROCA, PAUL, an eminent surgical operator, anatomist, 
 and anthropologist, was born in 1824. He commenced his pro- 
 fessional career as a student in the hospitals in 1843, and rapidly 
 attained promotion from one post to another. In 184!) he ob- 
 tained his degree of doctor of medicine, in 1861 he was appointed 
 surgeon to the hospital of Bicetre, and in 1863 surgeon to the 
 hospital of the Salpetriere. He is a member of various societies 
 both French and foreign. In 1857 he became secretary to the 
 Societe de Chirurgie, general secretary in 1858, and honorary 
 general secretary in 1863. From 1859 to 1863 he was also 
 secretary to the Societe d'Anthropologie, and from 1863 up to 
 the present time he has been general secretary to the same 
 society. He has contributed largely to scientific literature, but 
 the greater proportion of his writings consists of papers in various 
 journals and periodicals. Up to 1863 the items amounted to 
 more than 170 in number. We will allude to a few of these, 
 in order to indicate the range and character of his works. We 
 are indebted to him for some valuable observations on the 
 diseases of arteries. In ' Des anevrismes et de leur traitement,' 
 1856, pp. 930, he gives an account of the phenomena presented 
 by aneurisms, and describes all the methods which have been 
 employed to remove them. In his ' Recherches thennome- 
 triques applicables ou diagnostic des obliterations artcrielles,' 
 published in the ' Bulletins de la Soc. de Chirurgie,' 2nd series, 
 vols. ii. and iii., he shows how the seat of the injury as well a3 
 its extent may be determined by observations on the tempera- 
 ture of the surrounding parts ; and in another paper published 
 in vol. ii. of the same ' Bulletins ' he indicates how Marey's 
 sphygmograph may be employed for the same purpose. Another 
 subject which has much engaged his attention, and on which he 
 has thrown much light, is cancer. His ' Memoire sur l'anatomie 
 pathologique du cancer,' which appeared in ' Mem. de l'Acad. de 
 Medecine,' vol. xvi. pp. 453 — 820, 1852, won for him the Portal 
 prize, awarded by that academy in 1850. In this memoir he 
 follows out in great detail all the phases which cancer goes 
 through, and demonstrates that all of them may be discri- 
 minated by the unassisted eye ; he also shows that the classifi- 
 cation which is based upon visual observation harmonizes with 
 that which is founded upon the microscopical examination of 
 the tissues. The same subject was treated in a large work — 
 ' Traite des tumeurs,' 2 vols. 1863, et seq. In his ' Recherches 
 sur la pathologie des cartilages articulaires,' which appeared in 
 the 'Bulletins de la Soc. Anat.' for the years 1848 — 1851, he 
 opposes the notion, which had previously prevailed, that those 
 cartilages and tissues which were not permeated by vessels were 
 without vitality, and establishes the fact that, while vascularity 
 is essential to the nutrition of the more complicated tissues, 
 those of the simplest character receive the nutritive materials 
 necessary for their maintenance by imbibition only. Another 
 group of papers treats of rachitis. In the most important of 
 these a ' Memoire sur l'anatomie pathologique du rachitisme,' 
 published in the ' Bulletins de la Soc. Anat.' for 1852, he 
 demonstrates that the affection is not due to any special morbific 
 
321 BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN. 
 
 influence, but results from imperfect ossification. Amongst his 
 anthropological papers the more noteworthy are ' Recherches sur 
 l'Ethnologie de la France,' in ' Mem. de la Soc. d' Anthropologic,' 
 vol. i. ; ' Memoire sur l'hybridite et sur distinction des especes 
 animales,' in ' Journ. de Physiologie,' vols. i. and ii. ; ' Memoire 
 sur les phenomenes d'hybridite dans le genre humain,' in 
 1 Journ. de Physiologie,' vols. ii. and iii., both of which are in- 
 corporated in a separate volume entitled ' Recherches sur 
 l'hybridite* animale en general et sur l'hybridite burnable en 
 pfirticulier,' 1860 ; ' Sur des cranes, provenant d'un cimitiere 
 de la cite anterienr au xiii e siecle,' in ' Bull, de la Soc. d'Anthro- 
 pologie,' vol. ii. p. 501 ; ' Sur la capacite des cranes parisiens des 
 diverses epoques,' in the 3rd volume of the last-mentioned ' Bul- 
 /etins;' this volume also contains his paper ' Sur les caracteres 
 du crane des Basques,' and the fourth volume contains a second 
 paper on the same subject. These ' Bulletins' also contain many 
 remarks made by him in the course of discussion, his reports on 
 the progress of anthropological science in France, and his instruc- 
 tions on general anthropology. His latest work is ' L'Ordre des 
 Primates. Parallele anatomique de l'Homme et des Singes,' 1870. 
 
 (Expose des Titres et Travaux Scientifiques de M. Paul Bruca, 
 1863.) 
 
 BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN [E. C. vol. i. col. 932], was 
 born Nov. 21, 1789, and was stimulated to natural history 
 pursuits in his earbest years by his familiarity with the con- 
 chological collection which his father had formed. Although in 
 after life his avocations prevented his spending much time in 
 the country, yet his papers indicate that one of the prominent 
 features in his character was an intense interest in the habits of 
 animals ; and the few opportunities which were afforded him of 
 indulging his taste in this respect indicate how well he could 
 observe, and how graphically he could describe what he saw. 
 His 'Account of the Manners of a Tame Beaver,' published in 
 'The Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society,' vol. i. 
 p. 167, is an illustration of his powers ; and his frequent visits 
 to the house of his friend Professor Owen, in Richmond Park, 
 for the purpose of observing the habits of the tenants of the 
 neighbouring rookery, or of some newly-arrived migrant, mani- 
 fest his enthusiasm. His coadjutor in conducting the secretarial 
 labours of the Geological Society from 1826 to 1830 was Sir 
 Roderick Impey Murchison. He died February 27, 1859. 
 
 BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, BART. [E. C. vol. i. 
 col. 932]. In 1858 Sir Benjamin Brodie was elected President of 
 the Royal Society in succession to Lord Wrottesley, and this 
 honourable position he retained with the general esteem of the 
 fellows till failing health compelled him to resign it shortly 
 before his death, which occurred at his seat, Brome Park, Betch- 
 worth, Surrey, October 21, 1862. The ' Autobiography of Sir 
 Benjamin C. Brodie, Bart.,' a very interesting little volume, with 
 the memoir continued to his death, was published in 1865. His 
 eldest son, 
 
 ♦Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, Bart., was elected Fellow 
 of the Royal Society in 1849 inconsequence of his investigations 
 as to the nature of wax, which he first satisfactorily explained 
 (' Phil. Trans.,' 1848 — 9). He has also published many papers 
 on chemistry, such as on the peroxides of the radicals of the 
 organic acids, on the theory of the organic peroxides ; and he 
 has recently undertaken the herculean task of reforming chemical 
 nomenclature and notation in an elaborate paper entitled ' The 
 Calculus of Chemical Operations ; ' being a method for the 
 investigation, by means of symbols, of the laws of the distribu- 
 tion of weight in chemical change ; Part I., on the construction 
 of chemical symbols, ' Phil. Trans.' part ii., 1866. Sir B. C. 
 Brodie was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Oxford Uni- 
 versity in 1865. 
 
 BROECK, CRISPIN VAN DEN, a distinguished Flemish 
 painter, was the son of Jean Van Den Broeck, an artist at 
 Malines, where he was born about 1530. Many contrary dates 
 are given for the leading occurrences of his life ; those really 
 ascertained are, that having served his apprenticeship with the 
 elder Floris, he was in 1555 admitted master, and in 1575 full 
 member of the Guild of St. Luke, Antwerp; in 155*" burgess 
 of Antwerp ; and he is known to have been engaged in his 
 profession in 1593. He died in or about 1601. Broeck 
 painted scriptural, devotional, and historical subjects. His 
 pictures were gTeatly admired, and many of them were en- 
 graved by the best engravers of the time. His finest 
 remaining work, 'The Last Judgment,' now in the Museum, 
 Antwerp (No. 213), was engraved by his daughter Barbe (bom 
 1560), who acquired considerable reputation as an engraver of 
 her father's works. C. Van Den Broeck engraved several series 
 BIOO. div. — SUP. 
 
 BRONN, HElNRlCH GEORGE. 8*2 
 
 of plates from his own designs. He is said to have been an 
 architect also, but we know none of his buildings. 
 
 BROFFERIO, ANGELO, a celebrated Italian lawyer, poli- 
 tician, and author, was bom at Castelnuovo d' Asti, in North 
 Italy, December 6, 1802. At Turin, where lie had been sent to 
 complete his literary education and to study law, he was attracted 
 by the theatre, and wrote a five-act tragedy, 1 Eudoxia,' and other 
 plays, some of which are still acted. After travelling awhile about 
 Italy and France, he returned to Piedmont, was called to the 
 bar, and commenced with success his career as an advocate. 
 But like most Italians of his age, he had by this time become 
 an ardent politician, and wrote and spoke with a freedom that 
 drew upon him prosecution and an imprisonment of several 
 months (1830), during which he occupied his enforced leisure 
 in composing a volume of patriotic songs in the Piedmontese 
 dialect, ' Canzone Piedmontero,' which had great popularity, a 
 fifth edition having been reached in 1858. The accession of 
 Carlo Alberto brought his release, and he started a journal 
 advocating the entire enfranchisement of Italy. The king 
 would have secured his services, but his views went beyond those 
 which Carlo Alberto could venture to adopt, and he preferred to 
 hold an independent position. His demand was for a constitu- 
 tion, freedom of the press, education, the suppression of the 
 Jesuits : his ardent desire was to see Italy united and free. 
 When, in 1848, a part of his programme was worked out, 
 Brofi'erio was elected deputy to the Piedmontese Assembly, 
 and at once took his place as the leader of the democratic 
 constitutional party ; and he rapidly attained the reputation 
 he held to the end of his life, of being the most powerful and 
 brilliant orator on his side of the house, if not the best parlia- 
 mentary speaker in Italy. A strenuous Liberal, he yet steadily 
 opposed the measures of Cavour, and this for a time lost him 
 his popularity. When Italy obtained a parliament of her own, 
 he became, as he had been in the parliament of Turin, the 
 recognised leader of the Left, a position he occupied till his 
 death in May, 18G6. Brofferio had for some time before his 
 death ceased to conduct a journal, but he had continued his literary 
 labours, and throughout his career he had maintained his practice 
 as an advocate, and conducted with success many important 
 political and criminal cases. His principal literary works are 
 his History of Piedmont from 1814 to the present time, in 5 
 volumes, 8vo, 1849 — 52 ; and a series of contemporary memoirs, 
 ' I Miei Tempi,' 20 vols. 1857 — 61, in which he was assisted by 
 various literary friends. He also wrote ' Tradizioni Italiani,' in 
 7 vols., and ' Antica e nuova Grecia,' a richly illustrated work 
 in 2 vols. 4to, Turin, 1844 — 46. Not long before his death he 
 composed a national battle song, ' Viva il Re,' which as set to 
 a stirring air by Brizzi, became immediately popular throughout 
 Italy, under the name of Brofferio's Hymn. 
 
 BRONN, HEINRICH GEORGE, paleontologist, was born 
 at Ziegelhausen, near Heidelberg, March 3, 1800. He was edu- 
 cated at the university of Heidelberg, and from it he obtained 
 the doctorate of medicine in recognition of an excellent work on 
 botany, ' De formis plantarum leguminosarum primitivis et 
 derivatis,' which he published when only 22 years of age. In 
 1822 he became a teacher, and was connected with the mineral 
 office at Heidelberg. In 1828 he was appointed extraordinary 
 professor, and in 1835 ordinary professor, of zoology and applied 
 natural history in the Heidelberg University. Before, however, 
 he had attained full titular rank he had published several works of 
 acknowledged merit, such as those entitled ' Ergebnisse der 
 meiner naturhistorisch cekonomischen Reisen,' 1826 — 31 ; ' Sys- 
 tem der vorweltlichen Konchylien durch diagnosen/ 1824; and 
 ' System der vorweltlichen Pflanzen,' &c, 1825. In 1835 his 
 first great work, ' Lethaea Geognostica,' began to appear. It was 
 written in conjunction with Ferd. Roemer, and had a marked 
 influence in advancing geological science. This work attained a 
 third edition in 1851—56. Encouraged by the reputation which 
 the ' Letha;a ' obtained for him, Bronn prepared for a greater 
 effort, which resulted in the ' Geschichte der Natur,' a work 
 manifesting the immense scope of his knowledge, an indefatigable 
 industry in searching through books, and remarkable skill in 
 arranging in a systematic order the facts so obtained. In this 
 work he was assisted by H. von Meyer and Goppert, but hy far 
 the greater portion was executed by himself. In it he supported 
 the view that species were specially created, and that the muta- 
 tions they have undergone have only sufficed to originate races, 
 varieties, and sub-species. The work is not without its defects, 
 which are most noticeable in the numerical estimates of species. 
 In 1858 he published a fuller development of his views on 
 organic life in ' Untersuchungen tiber die Entwicklungs-gesetze 
 
 Y 
 
BROOKE, SIR JAMES. 
 
 824 
 
 der organischen Welt wah rend der Bildungs-zeit unserer Erdo- 
 berf ache,' si memoir which obtained for him the prize awarded 
 by the Academy of France. The general purport of the paper 
 v. ill lie found under Palaeontology, E. C. S. Nat. Hist. Div. 
 cols. 693 — 700 ; but here we may state that he describes the 
 general sequence of events in the organic and inorganic worlds, 
 ami attempts to prove how the increasing complexity of physical 
 
 conditions on the earth's surface has proceeded har nously and 
 
 in connection with the increasing complexity of organic structure. 
 His views as to the amount of variation in species differ some- 
 what from those he had previously maintained, since in this 
 later work he admits that it may have been so great as to 
 amount to a generic difference. His last work, ' Die Klassen 
 und Ordnungen der Thier-reicbs,' 18.0!), et seq., was another 
 grand conception, and, although unfinished, is an excellent 
 example of the highest oompilatcry skill. His part of the work 
 embraces the lirst and second volumes, together with upwards of 
 800 pages of the third volume, the remaining Ton pages of which 
 were executed by W. Keferstein. This brings the work in the 
 ascending order to the end of the Mollusca. The Articulata and 
 the Vcrtebrata have been undertaken by Drs. Keferstein, Ger- 
 stacker, Steindachner, and others. His death occurred suddenly, 
 July 5, 18G2. He was a member of numerous scientific societies, 
 and was co-editor with K. C. von Leonhard of the 'Jahrbuch fur 
 Mineralogie,' &c, 1830 — 32 ; and of the ' Neues Jahrbuch,' &c, 
 1833 — 62. He has also written several books and many papers, 
 which we are unable to notice here. 
 
 BROOKE, SIR JAMES [E. C. vol. i. col. 937]. After 
 having passed through the ordeal of adverse criticism, and 
 rebutted the charges upon which it was sought to censure 
 his conduct towards the Dyaks, he returned to Sarawak in 
 1853, and established the bishopric of Labuan. In 1857 his 
 life and the peace of the settlement were endangered by an 
 insurrection of the Chinese, who were offended at his efforts to 
 suppress the smuggling of opium into Sarawak. His library 
 was destroyed, his house ransacked, and he himself compelled 
 to escape from Kuching, where be resided. He collected a 
 small native force, retook the town, drove the Chinese out, l>ut 
 killing most of them in the process, and expelled them from the 
 neighbouring villages. In 1858 he returned to England, but 
 was soon after incapacitated by a stroke of paralysis. Public 
 interest was excited in his favour, subscriptions were collected, 
 and with the proceeds an estate was purchased for him at 
 Bimator, in Devonshire. In 1861 he again went to Sarawak, 
 suppressed a rebellion which had broken out on the north-west 
 coast of Borneo, and returned to England. Soon after he was 
 again called upon to quell some disturbance affecting his 
 government, which he succeeded in doing. He obtained the 
 recognition of his sovereignty by the British Government, and 
 retired to his Devonshire estate, where he died June 11, 1868. 
 He was succeeded as Rajah by his nephew, Charles Brooke. 
 The general condition of the country is given under Sarawak, 
 Geog. Div. E. C. S. cols. 1190—1195. 
 
 BROOME, WILLIAM, a poet and clergyman, the son of 
 Randle Broome, a farmer at Haslington, in the parish of 
 Barthomley, Cheshire, was baptized at Haslington chapel on 
 the 3rd of May, 16S9. He was sent to Eton, where he was 
 educated upon the foundation ; but after being captain of the 
 school for a whole year, during which period it happened, most 
 unusually, that no vacancy occurred by which he might have 
 obtained a scholarship at King's College, Cambridge, he was 
 superannuated, and at the age of 19 was sent to St. John's, 
 in the same university, by the contributions of his friends. 
 He was entered as a sub-sizar on the 3rd of July, 1708 ; 
 matriculated as sizar on the 10th of the same month ; 
 took his B.A. degree in January, 1712, and his M.A. in 
 1716. He received the degree of LL.D. in 1728, on the 
 occasion of the king's visit to the university, when a large 
 number of complimentary degrees were conferred. While at 
 Cambridge he was for some time a chamber-fellow of the well- 
 known Ford, who spoke of him as being at that time a 
 " contracted scholar and a mere versifier, unacquainted with life 
 and unskilled in conversation." Subsequent intercourse with 
 the world, however, cleared him, even in Ford's judgment, from 
 great part of his scholastic rust. Having received holy orders, 
 he became rector of Sturston, in Suffolk, where, on the 22nd of 
 July, 1716, he married Mrs. Elizabeth Clarke, " a wealthy 
 widow," by whom he had two sons and two daughters, all of 
 whom were born at Sturston, and, with one exception, buried 
 there. In 1728, Dr. Broome was presented by the crown to the 
 rectory of Pulham, which, contrary to the erroneous informa- 
 
 tion of Dr. Johnson, he continued to hold until his death. It 
 is in this rectory that he is said to have written the Notes to 
 Pope's Homer ; and from it addressed to Viscount Townshend 
 the dedication of the second edition, " with large alterations 
 and additions," of his ' Poems on Several Occasions,' 8vo, 
 London, 1739. Broome was chaplain to Lord Cornwallis, 
 Baron of Eye, by whom he was successively presented to 
 the livings of Oakley Magna and Eye, both in Suffolk. He 
 died " of an asthma" at Bath on the 16th of November, 1745, 
 and his remains are deposited in the Abbey church of that city, 
 but without a monument to mark the spot where he lies. As a 
 divine, Broome is the author of a sermon preached on the 20th 
 of October, 1722, being the anniversary of the king's coronation, 
 which he published with the title of ' The Duty of Publick In- 
 tercession and Thanksgiving for Princes,' 8vo, London, 1723; and 
 of a 'Sermon preached at the Assizes in Norwich,' 4to, Norwich, 
 1737. Dr. Johnson says of Broome that " he appeared early in 
 the world as a translator of the Iliad into prose, in conjunction 
 with Ozell and Oldisworth. How their several parts were dis- 
 tributed is not known. This is the translation of which Ozell 
 boasted as superior, in Toland's opinion, to that of Pope : it has 
 long since vanished, and is now in no danger from the critics. 
 . . . Whe n the success of the Iliad gave encouragement to a 
 version of the Odyssey, Pope" — to whom Broome had been 
 formerly introduced, whilst the former was on a visit to Sir 
 John Cotton, at Madingley, near Cambridge— " weary of the 
 toil, called Fenton and Broome to his assistance ; and, taking 
 only half the work upon himself, divided the other half between 
 his partners, giving four books to Fenton and eight to Broome. 
 To the lot of Broome fell the 2nd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 12th, Kith, 
 18th, and 23rd, together with the burthen of writing all the 
 notes. . . . The price at which Pope purchased this assis- 
 tance was, '3001. paid to Fenton, and 500/. to Broome, with as 
 many copies as he wanted for his friends, which amounted to 
 100/. more. The payment made to Fenton I know not but by 
 hearsay ; Broome's is very distinctly told by Pope, in the notes 
 to the Dunciad." Broome did not approve of this dispropor- 
 tionate scale of remuneration, and he charged his employer with 
 avarice ; which Pope avenged by abusing Broome in the 
 'Dunciad,' and by quoting him as a proficient in the 'Art of 
 Sinking.' It would seem that a formal reconciliation, the 
 heartiness of which was open to suspicion, afterwards took 
 place. Broome took his leave of poetry by the translation in 
 English verse of several of the Odes of Anacreon, which 
 appeared in the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' where the first instal- 
 ment occurs in the number for November, 1739. These Odes 
 were professedly translated by " Charles Chester, M.D." What- 
 ever is written above in supply of the omissions, or in correction 
 of the mistakes, of previous biographers, is due to the minute 
 researches of T. Worthington Barlow, F.L.S., &c, the author 
 of a ' Memoir of William Broome, LL.D. : the Associate of 
 Pope in the Translation of Homer's Odyssey, with Selections 
 from his Works,' 8vo, Manchester and London, 1855. 
 
 BROSSARD, SEBASTIEN DE, a French musical writer, 
 was born in 1660. He is supposed to have received his musical 
 education at Paris, from whence he went in 1689 to Strasbourg, 
 where he filled in succession the offices of prebend, deputy 
 choir-master, and chapel-master, at the cathedral. In 1700 
 he went to Meaux, where he was ap]x>inted grand chaplain and 
 maitre de musique. He remained in this last-named city till his 
 death, which took place August 10th, 1730. His most notable 
 work was his ' Dictionnaire cle Musique,' folio, Paris, 1703. An 
 octavo edition appeared in 1705 ; and afterwards another at 
 Amsterdam. The work gives explanations of all the musical 
 terms in Greek, Latin, Italian, and French ; treats of the history 
 and theory of music, composition, playing, and vocalisation ; and 
 contains a list of 900 writers on music. It has been superseded by 
 better dictionaries, but it was the first dictionary of music pub- 
 lished in France, and was a work of learning and research. He 
 also wrote a dissertation on the new manner of writing plain- 
 chant ; and collected extensive materials for a Bibliography of 
 Music aad a Biography of Musicians, which were deposited 
 unfinished in the Imperial (then Royal) Library at Paris, where 
 they now are. Some of his own compositions are included in 
 his ' Prodromus Musicalis,' folio, Paris. 1702. 
 
 BROUGHAM, HENRY, LORD, [E. C. vol. i. col. 940]. 
 When the memoir just cited was published Lord Brougham had 
 already completed his 78th year, but his intellectual and physi- 
 cal activity was yet far from being exhausted. He collected 
 and published his 'Essays contributed to the Edinburgh 
 Review,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1857 ; and his ' Critical, Historical, 
 
BROWN, JOHN, D.D. 
 
 BRUGSCH, HEINRICH KARL. 
 
 325 
 
 arfl Miscellaneous Works,' 10 vols. 8vo, 1855 — 58. In 
 185S (May 17 and 31) he read before the Academy of Paris a 
 lorn* and "elaborate paper in French on the Construction of the 
 Cells of Bees, ' Recherches analytiques et experinientales sur les 
 Alveoles des Abeilles,' which was published in vol. xlvi. of the 
 ' Coniptes Rendus ; ' somewhat later he delivered an ample 
 discourse on occasion of uncovering the statue of Sir Isaac 
 Newton at Grantham, and in 1859 one of a more academical 
 character on his election to the chancellorship of Edinburgh 
 University ; and in the course of the year, by a rearrangement 
 of the old, and the addition of some new, chapters of his 
 'Political Philosophy,' he transformed it into 'The British 
 Constitution : its History, Structure, and Working.' In 1860 
 he presided at the first congress of the Association for the 
 Promotion of Social Science, and he not only gave a long 
 opening address, but took a share in the proceedings ; and 
 he was re-elected president, and spoke at several of the suc- 
 ceeding annual sessions. He also, though with increasing rarity 
 and brevity, attended and spoke in his place in the House of 
 Lords. For several years his winters were spent at Cannes, and 
 of late he mostly resided there, in a villa near the town, 
 where he died on the 7th of May, 1868, in the 90th year of his 
 age. A plain massive granite cross marks his grave in the 
 cemetery of Cannes. Lord Brougham was Undoubtedly one of 
 the most remarkable men of an age rife in remarkable men : 
 but his career is as much a warning as an example. No regular 
 1 icgraphy of him has been published or announced. Lord 
 Campbell's posthumous life (in 'Lives of Lord Lyndhurst and 
 Lord Brougham, Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great 
 Seal of England,' 8vo, 1869,) is a laboured effort to lower the 
 moral and intellectual reputation of his former rival : reckless 
 i:i statement and base in spirit, the book is in eveiy way 
 dishonourable to the writer. 
 
 BROWN, JOHN, D.D. [E. 0. vol. i. col. 949]. Dr. Brown 
 Survived a little over two years the celebration of the 50th 
 anniversary of his ministry; he died on the 13th of October, 1858. 
 
 BROWN, ROBERT [E. C. vol. i. col. 951], was born Dec. 21, 
 1773, and died June 10, 1858. A general sketch of his works 
 has already been given. Fully to appreciate his influence in 
 advancing our knowledge of plants would necessitate the writing 
 tlie history of many botanical problems. Most of the eminent 
 botanists of the present century have acknowledged how deeply 
 they have been indebted to his observations and conclusions. 
 It was observed of his works in the obituary notice of him in the 
 presidential address delivered to the Royal Society in 1858 — 
 " In perusing them we are struck with the evident completeness 
 of the investigation, and next with the wonderful sagacity with 
 which the ascertained facts are brought to bear upon the question 
 at issue. And these distinguishing qualities are equally obvious 
 throughout the wide range of objects treated of, whether in the 
 anatomy, the physiology, the classification, the description, the 
 distribution, or the affinities of plants, and in the examination 
 both of recent and fossil structures. Among the most important 
 anatomical and physiological subjects of which they treat, par- 
 ticular mention is due to the discovery of tne nucleus of the 
 vegetable cell, and of the circumscribed circulation in the walls 
 of particular cells ; the development of the stamina, together with 
 the mode of fecundation in Asclepiadem and Orchidcm ; the deve- 
 lopment of the pollen and of the ovulum in phamogamous plants, 
 with the peculiarities of the latter in Coniferce and Cycadece, and 
 the bearing of these facts upon the general subject of impregna- 
 tion ; the origin and development of the spore of mosses ; and 
 the discovery of the peculiar motions which take place in the 
 'active molecules' of matter when seen suspended in a fluid 
 under the microscope. Of structural investigations, the most 
 important are those which establish the relation of a flower to the 
 axis from which it is derived, and of the parts of a flower to each 
 other, as regards both position and number ; the analogy between 
 stamina and pistilla; the neuration of the corolla of Composites, 
 their aestivation and inflorescence ; and the structure of the 
 stems of Cycadece both recent and fossil." 
 
 A complete edition of his works has been recently published 
 by the Ray Society. 
 
 BROWN-SEACARD, CHARLES EDOUARD [SiIquard, 
 C. E. Brown, E. C. S.b 
 
 BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT [E. C. vol. i. col. 
 960]. In the autumn of 1856 Mrs. Browning published her 
 longest and most ambitious poem, ' Aurora Leigh,'— startling in 
 its passion, power, and originality, full of noble feeling and 
 earnestness ; but wayward, unequal, incomplete as a design, 
 imperfect in execution. ' Poems before Congress,' 1860, seemed 
 
 to be a wild wail wrung from her by long brooding over the 
 wrongs and hopes of Italy. Her sympathy with Italy, her 
 yearnings for Italian freedom, appeared indeed to increase in 
 fervour and intensity, as her feeble frame yielded slowly to the 
 ceaseless growth of her fatal malady. She died on the 29th 
 of June, 1861, at the Casa Guidi, Florence, where, owing to the 
 state of her health, she had lived for some years in comparative 
 seclusion. A marble tablet on the front of the house records 
 that in it wrote and died Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who by 
 her song created a golden link between Italy and England, and 
 that in gratitude Florence has erected this memorial. Her 
 ' Last Poems,' 1862, include much noble verse both on English 
 and Italian themes. 
 
 BRUCE, JOHN, F.S.A., was born in London in 1802, and 
 completed his education at the Grammar School, Aberdeen. He 
 was brought up to the law, but retired from practice about 1838, 
 in order to give his undivided attention to historical and anti- 
 quarian inquiries. Mr. Bruce was one of the most active 
 members, and for some years director, of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, and contributed many valuable papers to the 'Archceo- 
 logia.' One of the founders, the original treasurer, and for the 
 last 19 years of his life the director of the Camden Society, it 
 was in a great measure to his exertions that the society owed 
 and maintained its high position. Besides numerous contri- 
 butions to its ' Miscellany,' Mr. Bruce edited for the society 
 no fewer than 13 volumes, including such works as 'The 
 Annals of Elizabeth,' ' The Leycester Correspondence,' ' Letters 
 of Elizabeth and James VI.,' and ' Verney's Notes on the Long 
 Parliament,' and he enriched each of them with a valuable 
 preface and notes. Mr. Bruce was also an active member of the 
 Archaeological Institute, and contributor to its journals. For 
 the Parker Society he edited the ' Correspondence of Archbishop 
 Parker,' and the ' Works of Roger Hutchinson ; ' ' Archbishop 
 Laud's Benefactions to Berkshire ' for the Ashmolean Society; 
 and he was for some time editor of the ' Gentleman's Magazine.' 
 His great work, however, was the ' Calendar of State Papers, 
 Domestic Series, of the Reign of Charles I. ; preserved in Her 
 Majesty's Public Record Office,' of which he edited 12 vols. 8vo, 
 1858 — 69, and of which the 13th vol., bringing down the series 
 to 1638, was passing through the press at the time of Mr. Brace's 
 death. The great value of the work is not more generally 
 recognised by historical students, than is the assistance rendered 
 by the editor's comprehensive introductions and notes, the work, 
 as all feel, not merely of a man of unusual learning and re- 
 search, but of scrupulous accuracy. Mr. Bruce, whilst walking 
 in Montague Square, October 28, 1869, fell as though in a fit, 
 and was found to be dead when carried to St. Mary's Hospital. 
 A ' Life of Prynne,' on which he had been for some time 
 engaged, remained unfinished. 
 
 * BRUGSCH, HEINRICH KARL, a distinguished Egypto- 
 logist, was born on the 18th of February, 1827, at Berlin, 
 where he received his early education. Whilst still a student 
 he published as the first result of his studies of the ancient 
 Egyptian monuments, an essay entitled ' Scriptura iEgyptioram, 
 Demotica,' 4to, Berlin, 184S ; which was soon followed by 
 ' Numerorum apud veteres Egyptos Demoticorum Doctrina,' 
 folio, Berlin, 1849 ; ' Sammlung Demotischer Urkunden,' 4to, 
 Berlin, 1850 ; and others which attracted the attention of the 
 learned world, and particularly of Alexander von Humboldt 
 and King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prussia. In 1853 he 
 undertook, at the expense of the latter, a scientific journey 
 to Egypt, whence he returned in 1854, and was appointed 
 Conservator of the Egyptian Museum. In 1857 — 8 he made 
 a second journey to the Nile ; and the literary and archaeological 
 results of the two appeared in an Account of a Journey to 
 Egypt, ' Reiseberichte aus JSgypten,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1855 ; 'Monu- 
 ments de l'Egypte,' Berlin, 1857; ' Recueil de Monuments 
 dgyptiens,' 4to, Leipzig, 1862, &c. In 1860 he went to Persia 
 with the Prussian Embassy, under Baron von Minutoli, upon 
 whose death Brugsch assumed the direction of affairs. Return- 
 ing home in June, 1861, he published his Journal of the 
 Prussian Embassy to Persia, ' Reise der koniglichen preussischen 
 Gesandtschaft nach Persien,' 2 vols., Leipzig', 1862—63. In 1863 
 he established a journal in the interests of Egyptian philology 
 and archaeology, 'Zeitschrift fiir agyptische Sprach und Alter- 
 thumskunde,' 4to, Leipzig, the editing of which was transferred 
 to Lepsius, upon the appointment of Brugsch in the autumn of 
 1864, to be Prussian Consul at Cairo. Amongst other unmen- 
 tioned works, Brugsch has published a translation of the ' Liber 
 Metempsychosis veterum Egyptiorum,' 4to, Berlin, 1851 ; 
 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la division de l'Annee chez les 
 
 y 2 
 
S27 
 
 BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM. 
 
 BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS. 
 
 3-3 
 
 anciens Egyptiens,' 8vo, Berlin and Tal is, 1856 ; ' Grammaire 
 demotique, contenant les principes generaux de la Languc et de 
 l'Ecriture populaires des anciens Egyptiens,' 4to, Berlin, 1855; 
 Geographical Inscriptions of the ancient Egyptian Monuments, 
 ' Geographisehe Inschril'ten altiigyptisclyr Denkinaler,' 3 vols. 
 4to, Leipzig, 1857 — CO ; ' Histoire de l'Egypte, des les premiers 
 temps de son existence jusqu'a nos jours/ 4to, Leipzig and 
 Berlin, 1859, &c. ; ' Materiaux pour servir a la reconstruction 
 du Oalendrier des anciens Egyptiens,' 8vo, Leipzig and Berlin, 
 1864, &c. ; 'Aus dem Orient,' 2 vols. 8vo, Berlin, 1864; 
 ' Wanderung nach den Turkis-Minen und der Sinai-HalbinaeL 
 Mit drei Tafeln sinaitischer Inschril'ten,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1866 ; 
 and ' Dictionnaire Hi6roglyphique et Demotique,' &c, 4 vols. 
 Leipzig, 4to, 1867—8. 
 
 BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM [E. C. vol. i. col. 976]. 
 Mr. Brunei lived to complete the Great Eastern steamship men- 
 tioned in the original memoir as then in progress ; hut the 
 exposure to inclement weather during the prolonged ineffectual 
 attempts to launch it, and the great anxiety consequent on the 
 various operations, brought on an illness from which he never 
 recovered. He died on the 15th of September, 1859. Like 
 other of Mr. Brunei's great engineering achievements, this vast 
 vessel was perhaps conceived on too colossal a scale for com- 
 mercial profit ; hut the manner in which it has behaved under 
 the extraordinary trials to which it has been subjected has 
 sufficiently justified Brunei's prescience and daring. The bridge 
 over the Tamar, also mentioned in the memoir, the last groat 
 work he lived to finish, and one of the most remarkable, has 
 proved to be in all respects successful. 
 
 * BRUNLEES, JAMES, civil engineer, was born in 1816 at 
 Kelso, Roxburghshire. He studied engineering under Mr. Adie, 
 of Edinburgh, and then assisted him in the engineering of the 
 Bolton and Preston Railway. He afterwards served in a similar 
 capacity under Messrs. Locke & Errington, in laving down the 
 Caledonian Railway ; and then for six years under Mr. Ilawk- 
 shaw, for whom he was Acting Engineer of the Lancashire and 
 Yorkshire Railway. Commencing as civil engineer on his own 
 account in 1850, Mr. Brunlees constructed the Bangor and 
 Carnarvon Railway, and half of the Londonderry and Cole- 
 raine line. In 1852 he undertook the Lancaster and Ulver- 
 stone Railway, a difficult work, seeing that the line had to cross 
 a wide expanse of shifting sands under tidal influence, by a 
 series of viaducts and sea embankments ; this was finished in 
 1857. The Londonderry and Coleraine line had required some 
 such management, in the construction of four miles in the tidal 
 waters of Lough Poyle. Two of the works executed by Mr. 
 Brunlees have involved the ascent of very steep gradients. One 
 is the San Paolo Railway in Brazil, 86 miles long ; comprising a 
 special series of inclines to overcome a very abrupt ascent of 
 2600 feet — the difference between the sea-level and that of the 
 general interior of the province. The viaducts are numerous, 
 one having a height of 185 feet. Some of the inclines, up to 
 Jundiahi, are as steep as 1 in 10. A centre-rail for a clip break 
 was adopted, to prevent the too rapid descent of trains. These 
 works were constructed between 1860 and 1866. A second rail- 
 way for mountain use was the Mont Cenis Summit Railway, from 
 Lanslebourg in Savoy to Susa in Piedmont. The centre-rail is 
 here in like manner adopted ; but the works generally are light, 
 the line being carried up and down nearly on the surface of the 
 mountain ; the rails at the highest point are 6700 feet above the 
 sea-level. A railway similar in some of its features to the 
 Lancaster and Ulverstone and the Londonderry and Coleraine, 
 though of less magnitude, has lately been constructed by Mr. 
 Brunlees across the Soiway Frith. Other railways constructed 
 by him are the Spalding and Bourne, the Lynn and Sutton 
 (across the tidal waters of the Nene and Ouse), and the Cleve- 
 land (including a viaduct 170 feet high). As government 
 engineer, he is constructing the Honduras Interoceanic Railway, 
 to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The engineering 
 works by Mr. Brunlees also comprise the Alexandra Dock at 
 King's Lynn, 6| acres, opened in 1869 ; the Avonmouth Dock 
 near Bristol, 14 acres (not yet finished) ; a pier and landing- 
 stage in the Severn at Avonmouth ; a pier on the sands at 
 Southport, nearly a mile long, and lately made available for 
 steam-boat traffic ; piers and landing-stages in the Mersey at 
 New Ferry and New Brighton ; and a system of sewerage and 
 water supply at Kelso. Mr. Brunlees was elected Member of 
 the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1852, and was Member of 
 the Council in 1856. He has contributed several scientific and 
 engineering papers to the Transactions of the Institution. 
 BUCHANAN, JAMES, fifteenth President of the United 
 
 States, was born at Stony Batter, Pennsylvania, in April, 1791. 
 His father, who had emigrated from Ireland in 1783, had him 
 educated at Dickinson College, where he graduated in 1809. 
 After studying the law, young Buchanan was admitted to the 
 bar in 1812 ; and. being successful as an advocate, acquired a 
 fortune which enabled him to retire from the profession in com- 
 paratively early life. In 1812 he joined a volunteer corps, and 
 made speeches against the English, with whom the States were 
 at that time at war. In 1814 he was elected to the Pennsyl- 
 vania legislature, and in 1820 to Congress, where he took a 
 prominent part in the leading discussions, as later he did in 
 calling for the acquisition of Cuba. When General Jackson 
 became President, in 1828, Mr. Buchanan was chosen to succeed 
 Daniel Webster as head of the Judiciary Committee of 
 Congress. In 1831 he went as ambassador to St. Petersburg, 
 where he negociated the first commercial treaty between 
 America and Russia. On his return, in 1834, he was elected to 
 the Senate, and engaged eagerly in the slavery debates, taking 
 the side of the South. From 1845 till 1849, under Polk's 
 Presidency, Mr. Buchanan was Secretary of State, and was 
 much engaged in the annexation of Texas, the war with 
 Mexico, the annexation of California, and the endeavour to 
 settle boundary disputes with England. Contending unsuccess- 
 fully with Pierce iftr the presidentship in 1852, he was in 1853 
 appointed Ambassador to England, where he rendered himself 
 somewhat unpopular by the part he took in the " Ostend 
 Congress," a secret scheme for obtaining Cuba from Spain 
 without the approval of England and France. In 1856 he 
 became President, defeating Fremont. His four years term of 
 office was marked by boundary disputes with England, and by 
 the troubles in Kansas. His participation in the slavery 
 question, in all its aspects, hastened the re-action which placed 
 Abraham Lincoln in the presidential chair in 1860, and which 
 led to the civil war. From his quitting the White House, Mr. 
 Buchanan lived in retirement till his death, which occurred on 
 the 1st of June, 1868. 
 
 BUCKLAND. THE YERY REV. WILLIAM [E. C. vol. i. 
 col. 997]. This eminent geologist died August 14, 1856. His 
 eldest son, 
 
 * Francis Trevelvan Buckland, bom in 1826, has attained 
 distinction as a naturalist. Educated at Winchester College and 
 at Christ College, Oxford, he adopted the medical profession, 
 and served as house surgeon to St. George's Hospital, and as 
 assistant surgeon to the 2nd Life Guards, from 1854 to 1863, 
 when he retired from practice. For several years he has devoted 
 himself to various natural history pursuits, and more particu- 
 larly to the artificial cultivation of fishes. He is editor of 
 ' Land and Water,' the author of ' Curiosities of Natural His- 
 tory,' and of ' Fish Hatching,' the founder and maintainer of the 
 Museum of Economic Fish Culture in the gardens of the Royal 
 Horticultural Society at South Kensington, and an inspector of 
 the salmon fisheries of this country. 
 
 BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS, known as the historian of 
 civilization, the son of a wealthy merchant in Mark Lane, 
 London, was born at Lee, in Kent, on the 24th of November, 
 1822. For a short lime he attended Dr. Hollo way's school, Gordon 
 House, Kentish Town, but his health being delicate, he expe- 
 rienced neither the restraints nor the advantages of a regular 
 education. In fact, from the age of 14, he was, at his own 
 request, left to educate himself. Being an indefatigable reader, 
 he stored up an immense mass of various information. By the 
 death of his father, which took place in Mecklenburg Square, on 
 the 24th of January, 1840, he was set free from the commercial 
 career to which he seemed destined, and being in possession of an 
 ample fortune, he was enabled to devote himself exclusively to 
 literature. His great recreation was the game of chess, in which 
 he became so skilful as to overcome, amongst others, the cele- 
 brated chess-player Lowenthal. He enjoyed the friendship of 
 Hallam and Bunsen, who recognised his extraordinary talents, 
 and exerted a great influence upon his mental development. 
 About the age of 18 his multifarious studies began to converge 
 towards one focus — to wit, the intellectual progress and civiliza- 
 tion of mankind. As soon as the idea of such a work presented 
 itself distinctly to him, its fulfilment became the object of his 
 life. Twenty years of labour, at the stated rate of ten hours a day, 
 with scarcely an interval of rest, were devoted to it ; and at the 
 end of this period he published the first volume of his ' History 
 of Civilization in England,' 8vo, London, 1857 : s c >nd edition, 
 1858 ; third, 1861 ; fourth, 1864, &c, of which a German 
 translation was produced by Dr. Arnold Ruge, 'Gesuhichte der 
 Civilisation in England,' 2 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, ls'oo— 62, The 
 
BULL, DR. JOHN. 
 
 BUNNING, JAMES BUNSTONE. 
 
 330 
 
 volume, which was in fact but a part of the preface or intro- 
 duction to his work, the completion of which was contemplated 
 in fourteen volumes, was received at first with indifference ; hut 
 it speedily aroused curiosity, and next no small degree of indig- 
 nation and alarm. In 1861 was published the second volume, 
 in which the religious habits and the ecclesiastical history of 
 Scotland were unreservedly attacked. Considerable bitterness 
 was the result ; and the storm had scarcely subsided when the 
 effects of the unflagging toil of a sedentary kind to which Mr. 
 Buckle had subjected himself, combined with the grief he felt at 
 the painful illness and the deatli of his mother — to whom he 
 dedicated his first volume, and to whose memory he inscribed the 
 second — forced him abroad for the recovery of his shattered 
 health. Accordingly, in October, 1861, he left England, and 
 spent the winter in Egypt. Here he became so much better 
 tliat in the beginning of March he left Cairo for Sinai and Petra ; 
 and in the course of a six weeks' journey in the Desert, his 
 health seemed to himself to be perfectly re-established. He 
 caught cold, however,_whilst exploring the ruins of Palmyra, and 
 died of typhus fever at Damascus, on the 29th of May, 1862, 
 and was buried on the same day. 
 
 Mr. Buckle left great parts of the special ' History of Civiliza- 
 tion in England ' in manuscript, in a fit state for publication, as 
 well as outlines of essays on the ' Ultimate Causes of the Interest 
 of Money ; ' ' On Bacon,' chiefly on Method ; ' On Shakspere ;' 
 and ' On the Influence of Northern Palestine on the Origin of 
 Christianity.' These essays, if he had lived to complete them, 
 wi re intended by the author to be collectively published with 
 the papers he had contributed to ' Eraser's Magazine,' one of 
 which had appeared in April, 1858, after having been delivered 
 a-; a lecture on the 19th of March previous, at the Royal 
 Institution, on the ' Influence of Women on the Progress of 
 Knowledge ; ' and the second of which had appeared in May, 
 1S59, as a review of Mr. Mill's essay ' On Liberty.' Whatever 
 the faults and shortcomings of the published instalments of the 
 work which Mr. Buckle contemplated, it is allowed that they 
 compose into a great and noble book ; and it is possible that in 
 the historical sequel, an experience more mature and a larger 
 insight might have supplied or corrected much that in the 
 Prolegomena is crude or rash, inaccurate or incomplete. There 
 is no lack of dogmatism and bold inference, and from his exces- i 
 sive generalisation, the author labours under the charge of being 
 a one-sided doctrinaire, who knew books rather than men ; who 
 forgot the humanity and good-citizenship of the clergy in his 
 hatred of their professional anathemas ; and who in his strictures 
 on national character employs an intellectual standard only, 
 ignoring or overlooking the moral compensations for imperfect 
 knowledge. The three principal theses of Mr. Buckle's book 
 were summed up as follows in a letter in the ' Times ' of June 
 18th, 1862, wiitten by his friend and fellow-traveller, Mr. J. 
 S. Stuart Glennie : — (1) Political economy — the science of wealth 
 — is the deductive science through which the investigation of 
 natural is connected with that of social phenomena, and thus 
 the way prepared for one universal science. (2) The laws of 
 society are different from those of the individual ; and the 
 method of averages, witli which has to be compared the mathe- 
 matical theory of probabilities, is that by which the former is to 
 be investigated. (3) In social phenomena the intellectual, in 
 individual the moral, laws are chiefly or alone to be considered ; all 
 moral social changes are thus preceded by intellectual changes. 
 
 BULL, JOHN, DR., a musical composer of the Elizabethan 
 times, was born in Somersetshire in 1563. When about eleven 
 years old he began to study music ; and afterwards Blitheman, 
 organist of the Chapel Royal, taught him composition and 
 organ-playing. He received the degree of bachelor of music, 
 Oxford, in 1586, and that of doctor in 1592. He succeeded 
 Blitheman as organist of the Chapel Royal in 1591. In 1597, 
 when appointed professor of music at Gresham College, he 
 published a Discourse entitled, ' Oration of Maister John Bull, 
 Doctor of Musicke, and one of the Gentlemen of Her Majestie's 
 Royal Chappell,' &c. ; it was in praise of music, coupled with 
 a panegyric of Sir Thomas Gresham. In 1602, his health being 
 bad, he went on a tour to Germany, Erance, and Spain, and 
 was received with much distinction, having many musical posts 
 offered him. Returning to England, he was appointed special 
 organist to James I. in 1607. He went to the Netherlands in 
 1613, and spent the rest of his days there ; succeeding Waelrant 
 as organist of Antwerp Cathedral in 1617. He died at Antwerp 
 on the 12th of March, 1628. 
 
 Dr. Bull was a voluminous composer. In Ward's 'Lives of 
 the Gresham Professors' is given a list of no less than 120 com- 
 
 positions by him for the organ and virginal. Burney regarded 
 him as inferior to Tallis and Bird; Hawkins took a highe ' 
 estimate of his merit. A prolonged controversy has been carried 
 on as to the part which Dr. Bull took in the composition of 
 the National Anthem, ' God Save the King (Queen).' The 
 tune was attributed to Purcell, Handel, and many other com- 
 posers of note ; when, towards the close of the last century, a 
 claim was put in for Henry Carey, great-grandfather of Edmund 
 Kean. Mr. Chappell ('Music in the Olden Time '), Dr. Fink 
 (' Leipsic Musical Gazette '), and many writers in ' Notes and 
 Queries/ have examined the subject closely in recent years ; 
 they have arrived at a conclusion that the tune grew up 
 gradually. Mr. Clark, who published a pamphlet concerning 
 the origin of the National Anthem early in the present century" 
 offers reasons for the belief that Bull composed the music ; but 
 Mr. Chappell and other recent writers are not satisfied witli the 
 evidence, nor witli the evidence in support of a theory that 
 " the National Anthem is a mere transcript of a Scottish 
 anthem preserved in a collection printed in 1682." Dr. Arne 
 and Dr. Burney both believed that the tune was composed in 
 the time of James II. The general conclusion now is, that 
 the germ of the tune existed two, if not three centuries ago, and 
 that Henry Carey gave it its modern form in 1740 ; but that no 
 direct connection of Dr. John Bull with the composition can be 
 tmcccl 
 
 BULLINGER, HEINRICH, a Swiss reformer, a friend and 
 disciple of Zwingli, was born at Bremgarten, a village near 
 Zurich, on the 18th of July, 1504. He was educated at the 
 school of Emmerich, in the duchy of Cleves, and at Cologne, 
 where he studied logic, and commenced B.A. at 16 years of ace. 
 He took his M.A. degree in 1522, and returning to his father's 
 house, remained there for a year, pursuing his studies privately. 
 Being called by the Abbot of Kappel, a Cistercian abbey near 
 Zurich, to teach in that place, he did so with great reputation 
 for four years. Many persons resorted to his lectures, and to 
 them he read the New Testament, portions of Erasmus, and 
 Melanchthon's Common-places. In 1527 he was sent by his 
 abbot to Zurich, where he attended for five months the preaching 
 and lectures of Zwingli, while he prosecuted the study of Greek 
 and Hebrew. On his return to Kappel he prevailed with the 
 abbot and his monks to adopt the reformation of Zwingli, to 
 which they had been before inclined. In 1528 he accompanied 
 Zwingli to the religious conference at Berne, which resulted in 
 the reformation of that canton. In the year following he was 
 made pastor of the reformed church at his native place of Brem- 
 garten ; and married Anna Adlischwyler, who had been a nun, 
 by whom lie had a family of six sons and five daughters, and who 
 died in 1564. Bullinger met with great opposition from the 
 Papists and Anabaptists in his parish, but disputed publicly, and 
 wrote several books against them. The victory of the Catholic 
 party at the battle of Kappel forced him in 1531 to take refuge 
 at Zurich, where in 1532 the great council chose him to be 
 minister of the cathedral. In the disputes on the Lord's Supper 
 with Luther he was remarkable for his fairness and moderation; 
 and he hospitably received the German divines who took refuge 
 in Switzerland from the ell'ects of the Interim. He died on the 
 17th of September, 1575. His printed works are very numerous, 
 doctrinal, practical, and controversial, and many of them were in 
 his own time extremely popular in England, especially a volume 
 entitled ' Fiftie Godlie bermons, divided into five Decades, con- 
 teyning the chiefe Pointes of Christian Religion. Translated 
 out of Latine,' &c, 4to, London, 1577, which was held in such 
 high estimation in this country that in 1586 Archbishop Whit- 
 gift, in full convocation, procured an order to be made that 
 every clergyman of a certain standing should obtain a copj' of it, 
 read one of the sermons contained in it every week, and make 
 notes of the principal matters. 
 
 BUNNING, JAMES BUNSTONE, City architect, was born 
 in London, October 6, 1802. He was articled to Mr. George 
 Smith, and learnt from him the mechanical part of his profes- 
 sion. By his private connections he obtained an excellent busi- 
 ness, being appointed successively surveyor to the Foundling 
 Hospital, the Haberdashers' Company, the London and County 
 Bank, the Chelsea Waterworks, the Thames Tunnel Company, 
 and other corporate and commercial bodies ; but he was first 
 brought into public notice by his success in the competition for 
 the City of London School. This building, which was com- 
 pleted early in 1837, was regarded as a wonderful example of 
 Gothic architecture, and secured his fortune in the City. He 
 had, however, some five or six years to wait before obtaining his 
 civic appointment, during which time he built for the London 
 
331 BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS, EARON. 
 
 332 
 
 and County company several country banks, carried out exten- 
 sive alterations and improvements on the New Cross and 
 Hatebam estates of the 1 lalii'i'iladiers' Company, and civet ed 
 many semi-public and private buildings. 
 
 In 1843 he was elected Clerk of the City's "Works, an ancient 
 title exchanged in 1847 for that of City Architect. Holding 
 this otlice for just upon twenty years, it fell to his lot to design 
 and carry out many important metropolitan improvements, and 
 though exception must be taken to their artistic character 
 generally, it will be admitted by all who study them that they 
 are for the most part well planned, and always executed in a 
 thoroughly workman-like manner. One of his first great works 
 was the formation of New Cannon-street, from King William- 
 street, London-bridge, to St. Paul's-churchyard — a broad and 
 handsome street, but so contrived as just to miss having St. 
 Paul's as the western and the Monument as the eastern termina- 
 tion of the vista. Victoria-street, now called Farringdon-road, 
 the broad street leading from Farringdon-street to Clerkenwell ; 
 the widening of Gresham-street ; the opening of Bank-buildings, 
 and several similar but minor improvements were carried out 
 under his direction. A few of the principal buildings and mar- 
 kets designed by him for the City of London may be particu- 
 larly noticed. The Coal Exchange, Lower Thames-street, 
 Completed in 1849, is a curiously decorated Italian edifice, the 
 exterior feature being a semi-circular portico of the Roman 
 Doric order, above which rises a tall tower, with Ionic columns 
 and entablature, crowned with a conical roof and gilt ball ; of 
 the interior, a rotunda, 60 feet in diameter, having three tiers of 
 projecting galleries, and covered by a gla/.ed dome, the apex of 
 which is 74 feet from the pavement. This building is of Port- 
 land stone. Billingsgate Market, opposite to it, completed in 
 1853, Mr. Bunning constructed chiefly of red brick. Like the 
 Coal Exchange, the architect described the style as Italian, but 
 it was even more anomalous and equally inappropriate : both 
 buildings were, however, noteworthy lor the ingenuity shown in 
 economising space, and in the adaptation of subsidiary ap- 
 pliances. The City Prison, Holloway, completed in 1853, is 
 an immense structure of what Mr. Punning termed Castellated 
 Cut hie, chiefly remarkable externally for its extravagant and 
 curiously misplaced ana)' of mediaeval military arrangements, 
 which would have been useless in any past or possible system of 
 military attack, whilst they have no picturesque value or archi- 
 tectural propriety. Still, though artistically absurd, the build- 
 ing is said to be conveniently arranged. The City Lunatic 
 Asylum, Stone, near Dartford, Kent, another enormous struc- 
 ture, was left incomplete at his death, and "was, we believe, 
 somewhat materially altered from his designs. His most suc- 
 cessful City work was the Metropolitan Cattle Market, Penton- 
 villc, opened in 1853, of which the central architectural feature 
 is an Italian clock-tower, or campanile, 100 feet high. In the 
 Cattle Market more effect might perhaps have, been obtained by 
 a designer gifted with an artistic eye and hand ; but the primary 
 point was convenience, suitableness, and in this Mr. Bunning is 
 allowed to have succeeded. It is the largest and costliest cattle 
 market in the kingdom, but at the time of its construction it 
 was also by far the most complete in its arrangements, and the 
 best adapted to its purpose. Besides erecting new, Mr. Bunning 
 had to alter several old buildings. Thus he entirely rebuilt the 
 Courts of Law, Guildhall ; remodelled the interior of Newgate ; 
 altered the state-rooms of the Mansion House, &c. ; he had also 
 to design the temporary structures and fittings required for 
 extraordinary civic festivities or ceremonials. Although mainly 
 engrossed during his later years by his official engagements, Mr. 
 Bunning found time to erect a few other works of a partly 
 public character, such as the Freemasons' Orphan Schools and 
 Rogers' Almshouses, Brixton, and several private buildings. He 
 died November 2, 1SG3. 
 
 BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS, BARON. [E.G. 
 vol. i. col. 1008.] Baron Bunsen survived, in very feeble health, 
 his retirement to Germany, only till the 28th of November, 
 1SG0. The English version of his great work, ' Egypt's Place in 
 Universal History,' 5 vols. Svo, has been completed since the 
 author's death by Mr. H. Cottrell, under the supervision of 
 S. Birch, LL.D., who has largely added to the concluding 
 volume. His other great work, \ God in History,' 3 vols. Svo, 
 has also appeared in an English version by Miss S. Winkworth, 
 lbbf. — G9. In 18G8 was published ' A Memoir of Baron 
 Bunsen .... drawn chiefly from Family Papers. By 
 his Widow, Frances Baroness Bunsen,' 2 vols. Svo. A German 
 translation, with some additional documents, by Prof. Friedrich 
 Nippold, of Heidelberg, was issued a few months later. The 
 
 Baroness Bunsen, whose beautifully-written biography is the 
 noblest memorial of her husband, was married, as Miss France! 
 Waddington, to Bunsen in 1817. Their second son, Finest De 
 Bunsen, born 1819, took orders in the English Church, and is 
 the author of ' The Hidden Wisdom of Christ and the Key of 
 Knowledge ; or, the History of the Apocrypha,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 18G4 ; and 'The Keys of St. Peter; or the House of liechab, 
 connected with the History of Symbolism and Idolatry,' 8vo, 
 18G7. 
 
 BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM, was born March 31, 
 1811, at Gdttingen, where his father was professor of Oriental 
 literature. He studied zoology, chemistry, and physics at the 
 University of his native town, and also in Pans, Berlin, and 
 Vienna. In 183G he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at 
 the Polytechnic Institute at Caasel, and in 1838 became Pro- 
 fessor at the University of Marburg and iu 1841, Director of 
 the Chemical Institute of that town. In 1851 he became pro- 
 fessor at Breslau, and next year at Heidelberg. He has pub» 
 lished a large number of papers in various departments of 
 physics, chemistry, and geology, but is popularly known for his 
 association with Kircholf in researches on spectrum analysis, and 
 also for his discovery of an antidote to arsenic in the hydrated 
 oxide of iron. 
 
 BUONTALENTI, BERNARDO, distinguished as a painter, 
 
 sculptor, architect, and engineer, was born at Florence in 153& 
 His father lived on the banks of the Arno, in a house which, 
 in 1547, was destroyed in a sudden rising of the river, when 
 all the family were drowned, except Bernardo. The Grand 
 Duke, Cosmo L, adopted the child thus saved as by a miracle, 
 and, as he showed a lively imagination and a liking for art, luuf 
 him taught painting by Salviati and Bronzino, miniature by 
 Clovio, sculpture by Michelangelo, and architectural design by 
 Vosari ; and the pupil of many masters succeeded so well as to 
 become the favourite of princes and sovereigns, and win the 
 reputation of being a universal genius. Of his skill in painting 
 the best known examples are his own portrait in the famous 
 Gallery of Painters at Florence, and a miniat ure, ' The Holy 
 Family,' in the Royal Gallery. A marble crucifix at Borgo-San- 
 Friano, and some other works, are cited as illustrations of hi* 
 ability as a sculptor; but it is as an architect he is perhaps best 
 known. Among his works at Florence were the Casino, behind 
 St. Mark's, a very handsome and well-planned structure ; the 
 Aceiajuoli palace, and the fronts of the Strozzi, Martelli, and 
 Ricc&rdi palaces ; the Villa Bratonilo, which he erected for the 
 Grand Duke Francis I. ; a new front to the hospital of Sta. 
 Maria Nuova, and alterations of the interior of the church of 
 Santa Maria Maggiore. At Pisa he erected the Arsenate 
 Mediceo, the Logge di Banchi, and the facade of the church of 
 S. Stefano ; at Pistoja the Sozzifanti ; and at Siena the grand- 
 ducal palace. Having been nominated engineer in chief of 
 Tuscany, he constructed the celebrated fortress of the Belvedere 
 at Florence ; the new citadel at Livorno (Leghorn), the enceinte 
 of Pistoja, and various other works. So celebrated did he become 
 in this line, that he was called to design important works at 
 Porto Ferrajo, in the Isle of Elba, and elsewhere. He also 
 erected several bridges, constructed various extensive hydraulic 
 works, and is said to have greatly improved military engineering, 
 and to have been one of the first to suggest the use of bombs in 
 warfare. His skill and tact in devising the arrangements, 
 scenery, and theatrical machinery for the triumphal processions 
 and other public fetes then so much in vogue, obtained for him. 
 the cognomen Delle Girandole. He died, according to Bottari, 
 in 1G0S ; but some authorities say, in 1606. 
 
 BURCHELL, WILLIAM JOHN, traveller, was born about 
 1781 at Fulham, where his father pursued the occupation of a 
 nurseryman. In 1810 he went to the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 for the next four years prosecuted those explorations with whicli 
 his name is associated, and of which a partial account has been 
 given in his ' Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa,' 2 vols. 
 1822 — 24. He traversed more than 4500 miles, and collected 
 upwards of 63,000 natural history objects. This work indicates 
 a very observant and intelligent mind, anxious to record every 
 noteworthy fact that passed within its ken. He. kept a constant 
 record of the temperature and other climatal phenomena, and 
 records a great many observations on the natural history of the 
 district. In his anxiety to be as accurate as possible lie made 
 his own sketches on the wood, and constructed his own map, 
 for which latter purpose he made numerous astronomical obser- 
 vations. From 1825 to 1830 he made a similar exploration of 
 Brazil, and formed an immense collection of objects belonging to 
 almost every branch of natural history. A short account of this 
 
333 
 
 BUREN, MARTIN VAN. 
 
 BURKITT, WILLIAM. 
 
 331 
 
 journey appeared in volume ii. of Hooker's ' Botanical Mis- 
 cellany,' in which he says he had gathered 15,000 species of 
 plants. He died at Fvdham, March 23, 1863. 
 
 BUREN, MARTIN VAN, 8th President of the United 
 States, was horn at Kinderhook, in the State of New York, 
 December 5th, 1782. The son of a farmer, he received a plain 
 education in his native village, began in 1796 to study the law, 
 and was admitted to the American bar in 1803. In 1808 he 
 filled the office of Governor Surrogate in Colombia County, New 
 York State. In 1812 he was elected representative to the Senate 
 in the New York State legislature ; and in 1815 Attorney- 
 General of that State. His political career may be dated from 
 1818, when he commenced a new organisation of the party 
 known at that time as the Democrats of New York State. He 
 entered the Senate of the United States in 1821, a position he 
 resigned in 1827, when elected to the Governorship of New 
 York. He was appointed Secretary of State in 1829 by Presi- 
 dent Jackson ; in 1831 he exchanged this post for that of 
 American ambassador at the Court of St. James's ; but, owing 
 to an excited state of feeling at the time concerning Anglo- 
 American disputes, the appointment was disallowed by the 
 Senate of the United States, and annulled. In the following 
 year he was elected Vice-President of the Republic, and, as a 
 consequence, President of the Senate. On the termination of 
 the presidency of General Jackson in 1836, Mr. Van Buren was 
 elected tosucceedhim,defeating Harrison and Daniel Webster. His 
 term of office was, however, a troubled one ; it was a period of 
 great financial difficulty, and the measures which he took to 
 maintain the credit and improve the position of the country 
 brought him into disfavour with a large body of his former sup- 
 porters. Consequently, when he again competed for the pre- 
 sidency, in 1840, he was defeated by Mr. Harrison. Mr. Van 
 Buren then retired for a time to his estate at Kinderhook. In 
 1844 he made one more attempt to regain his high office ; but 
 the Democratic National Convention of Baltimore, with whom the 
 nomination on his side in party politics rested, selected Mr. Polk 
 as their candidate. In 1848, when an attempt was made by the 
 Southern interest to introduce slavery into the territories won 
 from Mexico during the war, Mr. Van Buren refused to aid the 
 democratic party in the manoeuvre, and assisted to bring in 
 Taylor instead of Cass as President. In 1853 — 55 Mr. Van 
 Buren made a prolonged tour in Europe, and then settled down 
 permanently into private life. He died at Kinderhook, July 24, 
 1862, in the midst of the Civil War between North and South. 
 
 BURETTE, PIERRE JEAN, who combined in a remark- 
 able degree the knowledge of a physician with a large amount 
 of learning on musical subjects, was born at Paris on the 21st of 
 November, 1665. He commenced life as a teacher of music ; 
 but out of the money thereby acquired he purchased books and 
 paid for instruction in Latin, Greek, philosophy, and medicine, 
 and he received the degree of doctor of medicine at the age of 
 twenty-five. He was nominated physician to the Charite des 
 Hommes in 1692 ; professor of materia medica in 1698 ; Latin 
 professor of surgery in 1701 ; member of the Academie des In- 
 scriptions in 1705 ; and professor of medicine at the College 
 Royal in 1710. For about a third of a century, from 1706 to 
 1739, he was one of the editors of the ' Journal des Savans,' in 
 which he wrote largely. His medical papers, on various matters 
 relating to the treatment of disease, were mostly published in 
 this work ; but those relating to the ancient literature of music, 
 and allied subjects, appeared in the ' Memoires de l'Academie 
 des Inscriptions.' Among them were thirteen papers on the 
 Gymnastics of the Greeks, in relation to art and to amusement, 
 as well as to health. Other papers by him, in the Memoires, 
 were on ' La Symphonie des Anciens ; ' ' Le Rhythme des 
 Anciens ; ' 'La Melop6e de l'Ancienne Musique ; ' and ' Les 
 Ouvrages Modernes touchant 1'ancienne Musique.' He wrote a 
 series of seven critical papers on Plutarch's Dialogue on Music ; 
 and others on the relative characteristics of ancient and modern 
 music — all of which display much erudition. Burette died on 
 the 19th of May, 1747. 
 
 BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA, who lost his life during an 
 exploring journey in Australia, was born at St. Clerans, in 
 Ireland, in 1812. He was educated partly in Belgium, and 
 obtained a captaincy in the Radetzky regiment in the Austrian 
 service, which he relinquished in 1848. For some time he had 
 a command in the Irish mounted constabulary, which he resigned 
 in 1853, and emigrated to Australia, where he became acting 
 inspector of police at Melbourne and other places. In 1860, a 
 donation of 1000/. was anonymously offered, through the 
 Melbourne Argus newspaper — to be made up to 3000/. from 
 
 other sources— for defraying the expenses of an exploratory 
 journey into the interior of Australia, to complete the researches 
 commenced by Leichardt, Sturt, Eyre, Mitchell, and Oxley. 
 The money being promptly subscribed, the expedition was 
 placed under the command'of Mr. Burke, who took with him 
 Mr. Wills and about a dozen other persons. Well provided with 
 camels, horses, stores, and instruments, the expedition started 
 from Melbourne on the 20th of August, 1860. A difference of 
 opinion led to the early return of all the men except Burke, 
 Wills, King, and Grey, who, with six camels, a horse, and three 
 months' provisions, recommenced the journey northward. Dis- 
 appointment in meeting with supply parties, the death of the 
 camels through exhaustion, and the loss of provisions, placed the 
 party in great peril ; nevertheless, they succeeded in reaching 
 the Gulf of Carpentaria, on the north coast of Australia, and 
 three of them found their way back to Cooper's Creek on April 
 21, 1861— Grey having died on the way. For months these 
 men were entirely dependent on friendly natives for scanty 
 supplies of food, having neither animals nor bodily strength 
 sufficient to travel far from the Creek. At length Burke died 
 through hunger, illness, and exhaustion, and Wills a few days 
 afterwards, but King had no exact record of the dates. An 
 exploring party, headed by Mr. A. W. Howitt (son of William 
 and. Mary Howitt) met with King on the 15th of September, 
 living with some friendly natives. After burying the bodies of 
 Burke and Wills, the party returned south, taking King with 
 them. From the field-books of Burke and Wills, recovered by 
 Mr. Howitt's party, it appears that they really crossed Australia 
 from south to north, from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria, 
 but that their scanty resources and weakened condition rendered 
 them unable to make many scientific observations. 
 
 BURKITT, WILLIAM, who has a considerable reputation 
 as a popular commentator on the New Testament, was born on 
 the 25th of July, 1650, at Hitcham, in Suffolk. His father was 
 the Rev. Miles Burkitt, of Edmund Hall, Oxford, who at that 
 time held the living of Hitcham, of which he was deprived at 
 the Restoration in favour of the former incumbent. He was 
 ejected for nonconformity from the united benefices of Netisheard 
 and Irstead, to which Bishop Reynolds subsequently presented 
 him, and afterwards lived privately at Monks Ely, upon an 
 estate which he had purchased there. His son William received 
 his earliest education with Mr. Gosse, of Bilston ; afterwards 
 successively at schools at Stow-Market and Cambridge, and was 
 admitted, at 14 years of age, at Pembroke Hall. Having taken 
 his degree, and received ordination from Dr. Edward Reynolds, 
 Bishop of Norwich, he became domestic chaplain at Bilston 
 Hall, and so continued for several years. With the duties of 
 this piosition, it would seem that he at first combined those of a 
 schoolmaster and curate of Milden, and that he subsequently 
 held the living. He interested himself greatly for the relief of 
 the French Protestants in Suffolk and Essex, and in the six 
 years, 1687 — 1692, collected between two and three hundred 
 pounds in their behalf. In December, 1692, Burkitt was 
 appointed to be vicar and lecturer of Dedham, in Essex, where 
 he continued until his death on Sunday, the 24th of October, 
 1703. Burkitt's conduct seems to have been in every respect 
 estimable. His works comprise a Funeral Sermon on the 
 death of the Rev William Gurnall, entitled, ' The People's Zeal 
 provoked to an holy emulation by the pious and instructive 
 example of their dead Minister,' 4to, 1680 ; ' An Argumentative 
 and Practical Discourse of Infant Baptism : in which (1) the 
 Lawfulness of Infant Baptism is demonstrated ; (2) the Objec- 
 tions against it are answered ; (3) the usefulness of the Ordinance 
 is asserted ; (4) the sinfulness of Re-baptizing manifested ; (5) 
 the non-necessity of Dipping evidenced ; (6) the Practical Use 
 of Infant Baptism urged and enforced,' 8vo, London, 1695, 3rd 
 edition, 1703 ; ' The Poor Man's Help, and the Young Man's 
 Guide,' a small but pious and useful book, which serves as a 
 guide and incentive to godliness ; ' Family Instruction ; or, 
 the Principles of Religion necessary to be known by family 
 governors,' &c. ; and last, and most important of all, his 
 ' Expository Notes, with Practical Observations on the New 
 Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ ; wherein the 
 Sacred Text is at large recited, the sense explained, and the 
 instructive example of the Blessed Jesus and his holy Apostles 
 to our imitation recommended. The whole designed to encourage 
 the Reading of the Scriptures in Private Families, and to render 
 the daily perusal of them profitable and delightful.' The nature 
 of this Avork, which has gone through many editions, is suffi- 
 ciently indicated in the title ; it is popular, perspicuous, and of 
 great practical utility, but it is not critical, scholarly, or learned. 
 
BURNOUF, EUGENE. 
 
 *BURMEISTER, HERMANN, zoologist, was born at Stral- 
 Bund in 1807, and is the son of a tax-collector. He was educated 
 at Stralsund, Griefswalde, and Halle. At the last-mentioned 
 town he became acquainted with Nitzsch, who stimulated him 
 to the study of zoology. In 1829 he was made a doctor of 
 m i. in r, and in 1830 published his first work, a ' Lehrbuch der 
 Naturgeschichte.' He then made a short stay at Hamburg, 
 and proceeded to Berlin, where he gave lectures up to 1842, in 
 which year lie succeeded Nitzsch as professor of zoology at 
 Halle. In 1848 he took a part in the political proceedings of 
 the day, but his health failing, he travelled for two years in 
 Brazil, and then resumed his post at Halle. In a subsequent 
 visit to South America he gave his attention more particularly 
 to the Argentine Confederation. These two journeys have given 
 rise to many of his most important papers and works. Amongst 
 the latter may be mentioned, 'Reise nach Brasilien,' 1853; 
 'Reise durch die La Plata Staaten/ 1861, and 1 Erlauterungen 
 zur Fauna Brasilien,' &c., 1856. His writings are numerous, 
 and refer to all classes of the animal kingdom. Among the most 
 prominent may be mentioned — ' Die Organization derTrilobiten,' 
 1843, which was translated for the Ray Society ; a ' Hmdbuch 
 der Entomologie,' 1832, &c. ; 'Grundriss der Naturgeschichte,' of 
 which an 8th edition appealed in 1852. The list of his articles 
 in the Royal Society's ' Catalogue of Scientific Papers ' is 71. 
 
 BURNELL, GEORGE ROWDEN, born in 1814, was edu- 
 cated as a civil engineer. He was for some years employed in 
 various branches of his profession in America, Belgium, and 
 Holland, in the latter countries studying closely the great works 
 connected with river engineering, sea defences, and the reclama- 
 tion of land, in which the genius of the engineers of the Nether- 
 lands has been so conspicuous, and in which he attained an extent 
 and accuracy of information possessed by few English engineers. 
 Later he spent six or seven years in France, occupied as assistant 
 engineer on the Paris and Rouen Railway, and as superintending 
 engineer in the construction of the Havre Docks. Returning to 
 England in 1848, and not finding readily an opening for active 
 professional practice, he was led to turn his attention to the litera- 
 ture of his profession, to which he made in the course of the follow- 
 ing years many valuable contributions, mainly, however, in the 
 form of essays in the journals. One of his first independent 
 works was ' The Rudiments of Hydraulic Engineering,' 8vo, 
 London, 1852. For ' Weale's Rudimentary Series,' he wrote 
 Treatises on 1 Acoustics : the Elements, Practice, and Distribu- 
 tion of Sound in Public and Private Buildings ; ' 'On "Well- 
 sinking, Boring, and Pump-work ;' ' On Hydraulic engineering;' 
 ' On River Engineering ;' ' On Fluids ; ' and ' On Limes, Mortars, 
 Concrete, &c.' Having been called in as consulting engineer by 
 some of the great gas-companies, he was led to pay particular at- 
 tention to the manufacture of gas, and was for several years closely 
 connected with the ' Journal of Gas-lighting,' which contains 
 many valuable papers by him. He also contributed to the 
 'Builder,' and edited for several years the ' Engineer and Archi- 
 tect's Pocket Book,' and the ' Builder's and Contractor's Price 
 Book.' As an active member of the Institute of British Archi- 
 tects, he contributed to its proceedings numerous sessional 
 papers, some of a practical kind, as those on ' Building Materials 
 employed at Paris and the Valley of the Lower Seine' (1852), 
 on the ' Influence of some External Agents on the Durability of 
 Materials' (1S54) ; 'Observations on Pile Driving' (1855), &c. ; 
 and some of a more general order as ' Notes of an Excursion in 
 the South- West of Galicia, Spain' (1852) ; ' Sixty Years Since, 
 nr Improvements in Building Materials and Construction during 
 the Present Century' (I860) ; 'Operations lately carried on at 
 Bayeux and Chichester Cathedrals' (1861) ; and ' Present Ten- 
 dencies of Architecture and Architectural Education in France' 
 (1865) ; as well as some articles to the 'Architectural Dic- 
 tionary ' of the Institute. To the Arts and Sciences Division 
 of the English Cyclopaedia he was a valued contributor. The 
 elaborate articles on constructive architecture, on canals, river 
 engineering and sea defences, tidal harbours, coffer-dams, the 
 strength of materials, roads, drainage, sewers, reservoirs, water- 
 supply, tunnels, gas-engineering, and the like, were written by 
 him, and are admirable examples of special knowledge, con- 
 scientious accuracy, and terseness of expression. Of late his 
 professional practice had been drawing more and more towards 
 architecture, and he constructed several buildings of more or less 
 importance. Perhaps the most noteworthy was the Equity and 
 Law Life Office, on the north side of Lincoln's-inn-lields — a 
 good English Renaissance edifice, remarkable for its structural 
 character and the rare knowledge shown in the selection of 
 material*. This knowledge led to Mr. Burnell's appointment as 
 
 a member of the Royal Commission of inquiry into the beat 
 means of preserving the stone of the Houses of Parliament 
 The earnest labour of so many years seemed to be bringing jt s 
 reward, when his overtasked brain yielded, and he died on the 
 23rd of July, 1868, in his 54th year. 
 
 BURNET, JOHN [E. C. vol. i. col. 1042]. In his 75th year, 
 being in feeble health and reduced circumstances, the services 
 rendered to art by this eminent engraver and writer were 
 rewarded by the Government of Lord Palmerston by a pensi n 
 of 75i. from the Civil List. He lived to enjoy it just seven 
 vears, dying on the 29th of April, 1868. 
 
 ♦BURNOUF, EMILE LOUIS, was born at Valognes on the 
 25th of August,, 1821. He studied successively at the Lycee St. 
 Louis and the Ecole Normale ; became docteur-es-lettres in 1850, 
 and was afterwards appointed professor of Ancient Literature to 
 the faculty of Nancy. He is the author of theses entitled ' Des 
 Principes de l'Art d'apres la Methode et les Doctrines de Platon,' 
 and ' De Neptuno, ejusqiu' cultu, pnesertiin in L'eloponneso,' 
 8vo, Paris, 1850; ' Extraits du Novum Organum,' 12mo, Paris, 
 1850 ; ' Methode pour etudier la langue sanscrite, sur le plan dea 
 Methodes de J. L. Burnout',' 8vo, Paris and Nancy, 1859, the 
 joint production of MM. Emile Burnouf and L. Leupol; ' De la 
 Necessite des Etudes Orientales,' 8vo, Nancy, 1861 ; a translation 
 of the ' Bhagavad-Gita,' 8vo, Paris and Nancy, 1861 ; ' Essai sur 
 le Veda, ou etudes sur les Religions, la Litterature, et la Consti- 
 tution Sociale de l'Inde,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1863; and a work in 
 which he was also assisted by M. Leupol, ' Dictionnaire Classique 
 Sanscrit-Francois,' 8vo, Paris and Nancy, 1863 — 64. He has 
 contributed some excellent papers to the ' Revue des Deux- 
 Mondes' and other important journals. 
 
 BURNOUF, JEAN LOUIS, a celebrated French philologer, 
 was born at Urville, in the department De la Manche, on the 
 14th of September, 1775. He was for a short time a pupil at the 
 College d'Harcourt, which he left to enter a house of business, 
 first at Dieppe and afterwards at Paris. In his leisure hours he 
 studied Greek and Latin, with so much success that he was 
 appointed in 1803 an assistant-professor at the Lycee Char- 
 lemagne. This institution he soon afterwards quitted in order 
 to fill the chair of rhetoric at the Lycee Imperial, which he 
 vacated in 1826 on being appointed inspector of the Academy of 
 Paris. He acted as president of the Ecole Normale from 1811 
 to 1822, and was named professor of Latin Eloquence at the 
 College de France in 1817. One of the results of his labours in 
 comparative philology is his 'Methode pour etudier la langue 
 grecque,' 8vo, Paris, 1814, which tended all over France to facili- 
 tate and to popularise the study of Greek, and which has by this 
 time gone through more than fifty editions. M. Burnouf passed 
 the last years of his life in attempting to do for Latin what he 
 had already done for Greek ; and during his various avocations 
 found time to edit and to translate several classical authors, 
 especially Sallu.st, portions of Cicero, and, between 1828 and 
 1833, the whole works of Tacitus. In 1830 he was appointed 
 inspector-general of studies; and on his resignation of this post 
 in 1836, was made librarian to the university. He died suddenly 
 on the 8th of May, 1844. 
 
 BURNOUF, EUGENE, son of the above, was born at Paris 
 on the 12th of August, 1801. He was at first devoted to the 
 study of law, and upon taking his degree in 1824, produced a 
 remarkable thesis, entitled 'De Re Judicata.' Soon, however, 
 he began to give undivided attention to the Oriental languages, 
 which he studied under MM. de Chezy and Abel Remusat, and 
 in which he achieved distinction almost from the first. In 1826 
 he published an ' Essai sur le Pali, ou Langue Sacree de la 
 presqu' ile an dela du Gauge,' 8vo, Paris, 1826 ; and in the 
 following year ' Observations grammaticales sur quelques pas- 
 sages de l'Essai sur le Pali,' 8vo, Paris, 1827. His researches in 
 Sanskrit, carried on at the same time, resulted in numerous con- 
 tributions to the ' Journal Asiatique ' and the ' Journal des 
 Savans.' His greatest distinction is his recovery of the know- 
 ledge of the Zend language, which he effected by means of the 
 MS. which Anquetil-Duperron had brought from the east and 
 deposited in the Bibliotheque-Royale. He caused one of the 
 books of Zoroaster, the ' Vendidad-Sade,' with a Sanskrit com- 
 mentary, to be faithfully lithographed, and published in folio, 
 Paris, 1829— 1S43. On the "death of M. Champollion the 
 younger, in 1832, he was elected to his place as a member of the 
 Academie des Inscriptions et Belle-lettres, and in the same year 
 he succeeded M. de Chezy in the chair of Sanskrit in the College 
 de France. The principal works contributed by M. Burnout' 
 to the various departments of Oriental learning are, besides 
 those already mentioned, ' Commentaires sur le Yacna, l'un des 
 
BUSBY, THOMAS. 
 
 333 
 
 Livres liturgiques des Perse?/ 4to, Paris, 1833 — 35 ; a Sanskrit 
 text, with a French translation of the ' Bhagavata Parana, ou 
 Histoire Poetiqiie de Krichna/ 3 vols, folio, Paris, 1840—47 ; 
 ' Introduction a. l'Histoire du Bouddhisnie Indien,' 2 vols. 4to, 
 Paris, 1844, &c, a work explaining the dogmas and the origin of 
 Buddhism, and which was followed by a translation from the 
 Sanskrit of 'Le Lotus de la bonne Loi,' 4to, Paris, 1852, one of 
 the most important of the canonical books of the Buddhists of 
 India, which the translator accompanied with a ' Conimentaire 
 et vingt et un Me'moires relatifs au Bouddhisnie.' Whilst this 
 volume was in the press, its author was prematurely cut off on 
 the 2^th of May, 1S52, and it was brought out by M. Theodore 
 Pavie at the end of the year. During his short and fatal illness 
 M. Burnouf was elected, fourteen days before his death, by the 
 Academie des Inscriptions to be their perpetual secretary. 
 
 * BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT, one of the generals 
 engaged in the American civil war, was born at Liberty, State of 
 Indiana, May 23rd, 1824. He entered as a cadet at West Point 
 Military Academy when about eighteen. After being second 
 lieutenant in the 2nd Artillery, he filled the same post in the 3rd, 
 with which he served in Mexico in Paterson's column. He 
 was next engaged as first lieutenant in Captain Bragg's battery 
 on frontier service in New Mexico. Quitting the service in 1853, 
 he attended to the manufacture of a breech-loading rifle invented 
 by himself; but the enterprise proving unsuccessful, he entered 
 the service of the Illinois Central Railway Company, in which 
 lie remained till the breaking out of the civil war. When 
 President Lincoln called for volunteers in April, 1861, Buniside 
 was placed in command of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment. 
 This was one of the first volunteer regiments to reach Washing- 
 ton. An army of North-Eastern Virginia being quickly organised 
 under General McDowell, Buniside, with the rank of colonel, was 
 appointed to the command of one of the brigades. This post was 
 soon afterwards exchanged for that of brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers. General McClellan selected him to command the expe- 
 dition to Pamlico Sound, known as the Burnside Expedition ; 
 he defeated the Confederates at Beaufort and Fort Macon ; and 
 his success won for him the rank of major-general of volunteers, 
 and the presentation of a sword from the State of Rhode Island. 
 He next commanded the 9th Army Corps in the army of the 
 Potomac ; then joined the forces near Washington ; afterwards 
 served in Maryland, where he distinguished himself at the battle 
 of Antietam ; and then commanded one half of McClellan's army 
 in Virginia. In November, 1862, Burnside succeeded McClellan 
 in command of the army of the Potomac, and made a forced 
 march upon Fredericksburg. A crushing defeat in an attempt 
 to take that place by storm in the following month led him to 
 resign his post. In 1863 he was mostly engaged with the army 
 under Rosencranz, and farther to the west ; and in 1864 he 
 commanded a corps of reserve under General Grant. He had a 
 large number of negro troops under him; and a failure in some 
 of the operations which he conducted led to his being superseded 
 in the command. General Burnside was appointed Governor of 
 Rhode Island in 1865. 
 
 ♦BURTON, RICHARD FRANCIS, a distinguished explorer 
 and geographer, the son of Colonel Joseph Netterville Burton, was 
 born in 1820 at Tuam, in Gahvay, Ireland. Entering the service 
 of the East India Company, he obtained a lieutenancy in a native 
 regiment, in the Bombay Presidency. In 1843 he served in 
 Sindh, under Sir Charles Napier ; and was employed in that 
 country for some years in the survey conducted by Colonel 
 Walter Scott, of the Bombay Engineers. Gifted with a remark- 
 able facility for acquiring languages and accommodating himself 
 to the manners of various countries, he took advantage of his 
 stay in this province to study its geography and populations, and 
 published his observations in three works — 'Sindh, or the 
 Unhappy Valley,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1850; 'Falconry in the 
 Valley of the Indus,' 8vo, London, 1850; and 'Sindh and the 
 Races that inhabit the Valley of the Indus,' 8vo, London, 1851. 
 He published also ' Goa and the Blue Mountains ; or Six Months 
 of Sick Leave/ 8vo, London, 1851 ; but before this he had con- 
 tributed to comparative philology his ' Grammar of the Mooltanee 
 Language/ and ' Critical remarks on Dr. Dorn's Chrestomathy of 
 the Pushtoo, or Affghan Dialect.' His minute and colloquial 
 knowledge of Arabic now suggested to him the possibility of 
 visiting Medina and Mecca, where no European had penetrated 
 since Burckhardt. With this view he visited England in the 
 latter end of 1851, in order to receive the instructions of the 
 Geographical Society, under whose auspices he proposed to make 
 the tourney. He embarked at Southampton in April, 1853, and 
 having, after his arrival at Suez, adopted the habits of an Affghan 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 pilgrim, succeeded in penetrating to the two holy cities and in 
 accomplishing a safe return to Cairo. The particulars of this expe- 
 dition are recorded in a ' Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El 
 Medinah and Meccah/3 vols. 8vo, London, 1855—57. Lieutenant 
 Burton's next adventure was the expedition to the Somanli 
 country, the first attempt to penetrate Eastern Africa in that 
 quarter, which led the way indirectly to the Nile expeditions 
 which lasted from 1856 to 1859. In this exploration, which it 
 was impossible to prosecute beyond Harar, he was accompanied 
 by Lieutenants Stroyan, Speke, and Hern, the first of whom was 
 killed, whilst Burton himself was severely wounded. The 
 account of this expedition was published under the title of 
 ' First Footsteps in East Africa ; or, an Exploration of Harar/ 
 8vo, London, 1856, a volume which contained a grammar of the 
 language of Harar. At the end of 1856 Lieutenants Burton and 
 Speke set out on a mission to verify the existence of an inland 
 sea announced by the Arabs and the missionaries of the coast of 
 Zanzibar. The result was the discovery of the vast lake of 
 Tanganyika, of which an account is given in a work entitled 
 ' The Lake Regions of Central Africa,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1860. 
 Speke penetrated to the Lake Nyanza. Burton returned to 
 England in May, 1859, and was immediately promoted to the 
 rank of captain. Finding his health impaired by the African 
 climate, he embarked for the United States, which he traversed 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific, but especially devoted himself 
 to an investigation of the phenomena of Mormon life and cha- 
 racter, which he defended with an eccentric and paradoxical 
 vivacity in a volume entitled ' The City of the Saints, and 
 across the Rocky Mountains to California/ 8vo, London, 1861. 
 In 1861 Captain Burton was appointed British Consul for Fer- 
 nando Po and the Bight of Biafra, and volunteered to visit 
 Agbome ; but as the measure did not seem at that time advisable, 
 his journey thither was deferred till the latter part of 1863, when 
 he received instructions to proceed as commissioner to Dahomy. 
 From his residence at Fernando Pj as a base, Captain Burton 
 conducted several explorations, as is indicated by the titles of the 
 following works which belong to this period of his life : — 
 ' Abeokuta and the Camaroons Mountains/ 2 vols. 8vo, London, 
 1863; 'A Mission to Gelele, King of Dahome. With notices of 
 the so-called " Amazons," the Grand Customs, the Yearly Cus- 
 toms, the Human Sacrifices, the present State of the Slave 
 Trade, and the Negro's Place in Nature/ 2 vols. 8vo, London, 
 1864 ; and ' Wit and Wisdom from West Africa ; or a Book of 
 Proverbial Philosophy, Idioms, Enigmas, and Laconisms/ 8vo, 
 London, 1865. On the 4th of April, 1865, Captain Burton was 
 entertained, previous to his departure for the duties of the 
 consulate in Brazil, at a farewell dinner given by the Anthro- 
 pological Society, London, of which he was senior vice-president. 
 Lord Stanley presided at this banquet ; and it was to this noble- 
 man, as an anthropologist and Secretary of State for Foreign 
 Affairs, that Captain Burton dedicated from Santos, Sao Paulo, 
 July 23, 1868, his ' Explorations of the Highlands of the Brazil,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1869. To see this book through the press 
 was one of the principal reasons which induced Mrs. Burton, 
 who had resided with her husband for three years in Brazil, to 
 pay a visit to England. After a residence of three years and a 
 half in Brazil, Captain Burton has been lately transferred to the 
 consulate of Damascus. His last work, the result of his Bra- 
 zilian experience, is entitled ' Letters from the Battle-Fields of 
 Paraguay/ 8vo, London, 1870. Captain Burton is a gold 
 medallist of the Geographical Societies of London and Paris, 
 and a member of various learned and scientific corporations. 
 
 BURY, RICHARD DE. [Richard de Bury, E. C. vol. v. 
 col. 90.] 
 
 BUSBY, THOMAS, a voluminous writer on music, was 
 born in Westminster, in December, 1755. After studying five 
 years under Jonathan Battishill, he was appointed organist to 
 St. Mary's, Newington, in 1780. In 1800 he was admitted Doctor 
 of Music at Cambridge ; and, in the same year, received the 
 appointment of organist to St. Mary's, Woolnoth. Works relating 
 to music proceeded rapidly from his pen. In 1786, he contri- 
 buted the historical portion to Arnold's ' Musical Dictionary.' 
 In 1788 he began the publication of the 'Divine Harmonist/ a 
 collection of sacred music. In 1790 appeared his ' Melodia Bri- 
 tannica, or the Beauties of British Sacred Song.' In 1792, he 
 commenced the ' Monthly Musical Journal.' In 1800, was pub- 
 lished his ' Musical Dictionary/ 1 vol. 12mo (a work distinct, 
 from that which he wrote in conjunction with Dr. Arnold). Iu 
 1809, appeared the 'Musical Grammar/ 8vo ; and, in 1820, a 
 second work on the same subject, the ' Grammar of Music/ 12mo. 
 In 1819, appeared a ' General History of Music/ 2 vols., 8vo, 
 
 z 
 
BUSNOIS, ANTOINE DE. 
 
 BUTLER. WILLIAM ARCHER. 
 
 340 
 
 mostly condensed from the larger works by Burney and Hawkins ; 
 this was translated and published in German, in 1820. In 1828 
 he added to his other works, a ' Musical Manual,' 12mo. There 
 also appeared from his pen a ' Life of Mozart,' and numerous 
 musical papers in the ' Monthly Magazine,' of which he was for 
 some time musical editor. Dr. Busby's original compositions 
 were not of much note. They comprised (1) ' The Prophecy,' 
 an oratorio, 1799; (2) 'Comala,' an opera founded on Ossian, 
 1800 ; (3) 'Joanna,' another opera, in the same year ; (4) ' Bri- 
 tannia,' an oratorio, 1801 ; (5) ' The Tale of Mystery,' a musical 
 melodrama, 1802; (6) the 'Fugitive Fairies,' an opera, 1803; 
 (7) 'Rugantino,' a musical melodrama, 180") ; besides a musical 
 setting of ' Gray's Ode to Poesy,' and ' Pope's Ode for St. Cecilia's 
 Day.' Dr. Busby died at Islington on the 28th of May, 1838. 
 
 BUSNOIS,BUSNOYS, or BUSNE, ANTOINE DE, a French 
 or Belgian musical composer in the 15th century, whose year 
 of birth is not known, entered the service of Charles the Bold, 
 Duke of Burgundy, as a singer, in 14G7. In 1470, he became 
 demi-chaplain at the ducal palace, and soon afterwards chaplain. 
 He often accompanied the Duke on his travels ; and when the 
 Duchess Mary succeeded Charles as the ruler of Burgundy, 
 Busnois retained his post at court. He filled various appoint- 
 ments of trust at Maastricht and Mons, and died in the last- 
 named town either in 1480 or 1481. There are extant, many 
 ' Chansons Francaisea a quatre parties,' and ' Motetts a trois voix,' 
 by Busnois, interesting to composers as denoting the state of 
 musical composition in France and Belgium four centuries ago. 
 Some of them are contained in a collection by Fossanibrone ; and 
 others, translated into modern notation, in a collection by 
 Kiesewetter. It is believed that one or more foreign libraries 
 contain MS. music by Busnois, at present unknown ; as well as 
 a ' Treatise on Music for the Use of his Pupils.' The Biblio- 
 theque Royale at Brussels contains a great quantity of MS. 
 ecclesiastical music by him, characteristic of the rules of harmony 
 and composition known in his day. 
 
 BUTLER, ALBAN, a learned hagiographer, second son of 
 Simon Butler, Esq., of Appletree, in Northamptonshire, was born 
 in 1710. When about eight years of age, he lost his father and 
 mother, and was sent to the English college at Douay, where, 
 after he had completed the usual course, he was admitted an 
 alumnus of the college, and appointed successively professor of 
 philosophy and of divinity. His goodness was eminent, and his 
 practical charity exhibited itself especially in the solicitude he 
 displayed for the English soldiers who were brought wounded 
 and maimed to Douay, to be quartered there as prisoners, after 
 the battle of Fontenoy, April 30, 1745. In this year he accom- 
 panied the Earl of Shrewsbury and his brothers, on their travels 
 in various parts of the continent, of which he wrote an interest- 
 ing account, published posthumously, under the editorial care of 
 Charles Butler, his nephew and biographer, with the title of 
 ' Travels through France and Italy, and part of Austrian, French, 
 and Dutch Netherlands, during the years 1745 and 1746/ 8vo, 
 Edinburgh and London, 1803. He now commenced the publica- 
 tion of his great work, ' The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and 
 other principal Saints, compiled from original Monuments and 
 other authentic Records, illustrated with the Remarks of judicious 
 modern Critics and Historians,' 5 vols. 8vo, London, 1745, &c. 
 The first edition was published without the notes by which sub- 
 sequent ones were enriched, on the advice of Mr. Challoner, the 
 vicar-apostolic of the London district, who counselled their 
 omission on the ground of greater economy and usefulness. The 
 work has been extremely popular ; and edition has followed 
 edition, both in English and French, that published in 12 vols. 
 8vo, London, 1847, being considered the best and most complete. 
 On his return from his travels, Mr. Butler was appointed a mis- 
 oioner in Staffordshire. He did not, however, long continue 
 there, being invited to become chaplain to the Duke of Norfolk, 
 and to superintend the education of Mr. Edward Howard, his 
 nephew and presumptive heir, whom he accompanied to Paris, 
 and it was during his stay in this city, that the ' Lives of the 
 Saints,' a work on which the author had been engaged for thirty 
 years, was completed. It is known as a curious storehouse of 
 pious meditation and exhortation, and of ecclesiastical and secular 
 learning ; and even Gibbon allows it to he "a work of merit : — 
 the sense and learning belong to the author ; the prejudices are 
 those of his profession." 
 
 Some time after Mr. Butler's return to England, he was chosen 
 president of the English college at St. Omer, an oflice which, 
 ajftel some hesitation, he accepted, and the duties of which he 
 accordingly assumed and discharged until his death, on the 17th 
 el .'I iy, 1773, combining with them the functions of vicar-general 
 
 to the Bishops of Arras, St. Omer, Ypres, and Boulogne, and 
 probably those of vice-president and professor of divinity in the 
 English college at Douay. Butler's other works are, ' Remarks 
 on the two first volumes of the late " Lives of the Popes" [by 
 Archibald Bower], in Letters from a Gentleman to a Friend in 
 the Country,' 8vo, Douay, 1754. This small production is most 
 unaccountably said, by Mr. Charles Butler, to have been the first 
 result of his uncle's literary activity ; and in this assertion he 
 has been followed by every biographer who has noticed the 
 Letters on Bower's ' History of the Popes' at all. The absurdity 
 is to be understood from the fact that the ' Lives of the Saints,' 
 began to be published in 1745, whilst Bower's work, in 7 vols., 
 began to be issued iii 1748, and was completed in 1766, and could 
 have been animadverted on by Butler only after, at least, partial 
 publication. A volume on ' The Moveable Feasts, Fasts, and 
 other Annual Observances of the Catholic Church,' which was 
 left unfinished by the author, was published 'with a Continua- 
 tion by a Catholic Priest ;' and an edition was printed at Dublin, 
 in 8vo, 1839. Mr. Charles Butler superintended the issue of his 
 deceased uncle's ' Life of Sir Tobie Matthews,' 8vo, London, 1795 ; 
 as the Rev. Mr. Jones did his ' Meditations and Discourses on 
 the Sublime Truths and Important Duties of Christianity,' 3 
 vols. 8vo, London, 1791, 1792, and 1793. Of this last work, a 
 new edition was brought out at Dublin, 1840, by Dr. Lanigan. 
 Alban Butler made collections for the ' Lives of Bishop Fisher 
 and Sir Thomas More ;' and he aided Cardinal Quirini in his 
 edition of ' Cardinal Pole's Letters.' 
 
 BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER, the first Professor of Moral 
 Philosophy in the University of Dublin, was born in or about the 
 year 1814, at Annerville, near Clonmel, in Tipperary, of an ancient 
 family, and was brought up in the religion of his mother, who 
 was a Roman Catholic. At nine years of age he was sent to the 
 endowed school of Clonmel, where he soon attracted the atten- 
 tion of the principal, the Rev. Dr. Bell, for the sprightliness and 
 amiability of his temper and the force of his genius. Although 
 not a hard student in the ordinary course, he was a constant and 
 discursive reader ; and he applied himself to poetry and music 
 with uncommon ardour and success. His studies in philosophy, 
 principally that of Lord Bacon and of the Scottish school, were 
 close and spontaneous. It was during. his pupilage at Clonmel, 
 that, after an examination of the questions at issue between 
 Papists and Protestants, he elected to abide by the faith of 
 the latter ; and two years afterwards, entered Trinity College, 
 Dublin, where he presently achieved a reputation as a wit and 
 a versatile and accomplished scholar. Whilst still an under- 
 graduate, he distinguished himself by his contributions to the 
 ' Dublin University Magazine,' in poetry, speculation, and cri- 
 ticism. Butler was celebrated, also, for his rhetorical ability as 
 a speaker at the College Historical Society, of which he was 
 President in the year 1835 ; having in November, 1834, been 
 the first to win, at his degree examination, the prize of the 
 Ethical Moderatorship, then just instituted by Dr. Lloyd, the 
 Provost of Trinity. For two years sxrbsequent to his bacalau- 
 reate, Butler continued in residence as a scholar, when his con- 
 nexion with the LTniversity — which reserved its fellowships as 
 the rewards of excellence in the mathematical and physical 
 sciences — must have determined, but for the intervention of 
 Dr. Lloyd, through whose exertions a Professorship of Moral 
 Philosophy was founded in 1837 ; and to this arduous post 
 Butler was appointed on the expiration of his scholarship. The 
 youthful Professor was now upon a field worthy of his endow- 
 ments, and his lectures were as remarkable for their eloquence 
 as for their solidity. Simultaneously with his academical ap- 
 pointment, Mr. Butler was presented by the Board of Trinity 
 College to the prebend of Clondehorky, in the diocese of Raphoe, 
 and county of Donegal, and held it along with his Professorship 
 till 1842, when he was re-elected to the chair of Moral Philo- 
 sophy, and promoted by the Board of Trinity College to the 
 rectory of Raymochy, in the diocese of Raphoe. In the summer 
 of 1844, he visited Westmoreland as the guest of his friend, the 
 Rev. Robert Perceval Graves, curate of Windermere, where he 
 made the acquaintance of Mr. Wordsworth, Archdeacon Hare, 
 and Sir William R. Hamilton. 
 
 During the year 1845, the Roman Catholic controversy seems 
 to have much engaged the attention of Professor Butler ; and 
 he filled several manuscript volumes with collections on the 
 subject. In December of that year he published in the ' Irish 
 Ecclesiastical Journal,' to which he was a constant contributor, 
 the first of his valuable series of ' Letters on Mr. Newman's 
 Theory of Development,' collected and published under the 
 editorial care of Mr. Woodward, with the title of ' Letters on the 
 
341 
 
 BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM. 
 
 BZOVIUS, ABRAHAM. 
 
 312 
 
 Development of Christian Doctrine ; a reply to John Henry New- 
 man, D.D., 8vo, Dublin, 1850 j 8vo, 1854 ; 8vo, 1856. During 
 the famine of 1846-47, which raged with appalling intensity in 
 the neighbourhood of Professor Butler's parish, his exertions 
 were ceaseless ; and for a time the duties of a relieving officer 
 prevented his habitual devotion to literature, philosophy, and 
 divinity. In the latter part of 1847, and for the first half of 
 1848, Professor Butler was mainly occupied with the prepara- 
 tion of a work on Faith ; and in illustration of his subject had 
 collected a vast mass of materials from the Fathers, the School- 
 men, the Continental Reformers, and the Anglican divines. 
 Death came in suddenly in bar of his project, and no indica- 
 tion is left of the method to which the intended work would 
 have been conformed. On Trinity Sunday, 1848, Butler assisted 
 and preached the sermon at an ordination held in the church 
 of Dunboe by the Bishop of Deny ; and on the Friday after, 
 whilst on his return to his home, which was only a few 
 miles distant, he was stricken with a sickness which resulted in 
 his death on Wednesday, the 5th of July. 
 
 Butler's most important works were of posthumous publica- 
 tion. The Rev. Thomas Woodward, who was appointed in 1856 
 to the Deanery of Down, edited a first series of ' Sermons, Doc- 
 trinal and Practical,' 8vo, Dublin, 1849 ; 3rd edition, 8vo, 
 London, 1855 ; Philadelphia, 12mo, 1856. A second series 
 appeared under the. editorial care of Dr. Jeremie, Subdean 
 and Canon of Lincoln, and Regius Professor of Divinity at 
 Cambridge, 8vo, Cambridge, 1855 ; 8vo, Philadelphia, 1857. 
 Finally, Butler's ' Lectures on the History of Ancient Phi- 
 losophy,' 2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1856 ; 2 vols. 8vo, Phila- 
 delphia, 1857, were edited from the author's MS., with Notes by 
 the Rev. William Hepworth Thompson, M.A., Fellow of Trinity 
 College, and Regius Professor of Greek in the University of 
 Cambridge. 
 
 * BUTTERFIELD, WILLIAM, Gothic architect, was born 
 in 1814. Having gone through the usual professional training, 
 Mr. Butterfield made himself known from the commencement 
 of his practice as an architect, by his decided mediaevalism. 
 Without being a follower of Pugin he seemed to have accepted 
 Pugin's principles, and he has carried them out with remarkable 
 consistency. In the active practice of over twenty years, he 
 has necessarily designed and erected a variety of buildings, 
 but those which are distinctive are his churches and collegiate 
 buildings, and in both the employment by preference of brick 
 instead of stone as the material. Of his churches, the best 
 known are All Saints, Margaret Street, and St. Alban's, Bald- 
 win's Gardens, London. Each of these comprises a group of 
 ecclesiastical buildings, of which the church is the centre, but 
 priests' houses, in the former schools, and other accessories, 
 form an essential part of the composition. Yet in both the 
 exterior, of ordinary stock bricks with stone dressings sparingly 
 employed, is comparatively plain, the decoration being reserved 
 for the interior of the church, which in each instance was more 
 costly and richer in character than was then usual — fresco 
 paintings forming in both the conspicuous decoration of the 
 chancel, along with, especially in St. Alban's, coloured marbles 
 and alabaster. St. Alban's church was further noteworthy as 
 an attempt to produce a city church in which a large congre- 
 gation might see as well as hear the service unobstructed by 
 massive piers, the building at the same time being in accordance 
 with the strictest ecclesiological principles. Among Mr. Butter- 
 field's other churches are those of Baldersby, near Ripon, York- 
 shire, 1859 ; St. John the Evangelist, Hammersmith, I860 ; St. 
 John the Baptist, Bamford, Derbyshire ; Newbury, Berkshire ; 
 Emery Down, Hampshire, 1864 ; the Holy Saviour, Hitchin, 
 Hertfordshire, 1865 ; the fine cruciform church of Penarth, 
 Glamorganshire, 1867 ; St. Mary the Virgin, Strathfieldsaye ; 
 and All Saints, Babbicombe, Devonshire, resplendent with the 
 various marbles of the district. All these are more or less what 
 is called ritualistic in character, and studiously symbolical in 
 the arrangements and details, and all are, or are intended to be, 
 splendid in the internal decorations and fittings. But we ought 
 not to pass from his churches without mentioning that he has 
 also erected a number of village and district churches of an 
 inexpensive kind, in which he has sought to show how much 
 effect can be imparted to such structures at little additional cost, 
 by the employment of artistic taste and ingenuity : St. Ann's, 
 Littleworth Common, Dropmore, a picturesque little building 
 of timber, Hint, and brick, may be cited as a type of the class. 
 It was, however, not as a church-architect that Mr. Butterfield 
 made his mark. The work by which he first became known 
 was the Missionary College of St. Augustine, Canterbury, 
 
 erected and endowed by the munificence of Mr. A. J. Beresford 
 Hope, in 1848. Mr. Butterfield took the desecrated remain of 
 St. Augustine's Abbe}' as his model, but lie executed the work 
 with a thoroughness then rare in Gothic work, and not since 
 surpassed. He has since erected at Oxford the new chapel of 
 Balliol College, and the New Buildings of Merton, 1864, and 
 his latest great work, Keble's College, opened in 1870. In this 
 last, and the rarest of all opportunities which full to the lot of 
 an architect is that of building a new college in one of our 
 University towns, Mr. Butterfield has entirely disregarded the 
 traditions of the place. The building is of parti-coloured bricks, 
 while all the old colleges are of stone, and the style is a Gothic 
 quite unlike the Gothic of any other building in Oxford. 
 Whether he has been as successful as he has been venturesome 
 it is not for us to decide. 
 
 BYRON, LADY. Anne Isabelle Noel, Baroness Wentworth, 
 born May the 17th, 17.92, was the daughter and heiress of Sir 
 Ralph Milbanke, Bart, and Lady Judith Noel, sister and co-heir 
 of Thomas Noel, Viscount Wentworth. She married Lord 
 Byron on the 2nd of January, 1815 ; a daughter, Augusta Ada, 
 was born to them on the 12th of the following December, and 
 six weeks later, January, 1816, they parted never again to meet. 
 Lady Byron (she became Baroness Wentworth in 1856, but con- 
 tinued to be addressed by the more familiar title) survived the 
 separation forty-four, and the death of her husband thirty-six, 
 years, dying at her residence, St. George's Terrace, Regent's 
 Park, on the 16th of May, 1860, the eve of the completion of 
 her 68th year. The earlier years of her widowhood were de- 
 voted to the education of her daughter ; the rest of her life 
 was passed in the active promotion of various benevolent pur- 
 poses, especially such as were of an educational character. She 
 founded in 1834 an industrial school for boys at Ealing, on the 
 system of Fellenberg, and another at Leicester, a reformatory 
 for girls, and some village schools. During her later years she 
 was much concerned in the promulgation of her peculiar theolo- 
 gical and spiritualistic views. 
 
 Here the record ought properly to cease. But though it is 
 said by her friends, that her love for her husband endured to the 
 end, and that ever before her during those last years was the 
 image of her husband purified and ennobled, she has been made 
 the means of inflicting a darker stain on his memory than his 
 worst enemy could have imagined or desired. The hideous 
 story can now, unhappily, hardly be left without distinct refe- 
 rence in a biographical cyclopaedia, but it may be most fitly 
 noticed, as far as notice is requisite, in connection with the lady 
 who first made it known, who has since set forth the revolting 
 details in all their amjditude, and with whose name it must 
 henceforth be indelibly associated. [Stowe, Harriet Eliza- 
 beth Beecher, E. C. S.] 
 
 BYSTROM, JOHANN NIKOLAUS, an eminent Swedish 
 sculptor, was born at Philippsted in the province of Wermland, 
 December 18, 1783 ; studied sculpture under Sergell at Stock- 
 holm ; in 1809 gained the prize of the Stockholm Academy, 
 and in the following year went to Rome, where he remained 
 till 1815. A marble figure of an Inebriated Bacchante, and 
 a colossal statue of the Prince Royal were much admired, and 
 secured him the patronage of the Swedish court. He was 
 nominated professor, and received commissions for colossal 
 marble statues of the Kings Charles X., XL, XII., XIII., and 
 XIV. From this time he continued to produce portrait-statues, 
 busts, and imaginative pieces, chiefly classical in subject as well 
 as style, and all found ready purchasers when they had not 
 been previously commissioned. Bystrom's tastes were for the 
 old classical subjects and the old manner of executing them, 
 and he had a strong predilection for Rome, where the prevalent 
 taste was so entirely in accordance with his own. Though 
 esteemed and honoured at home, he constantly turned to 
 Rome, removed there finally in 1844, and there died on the 
 13th of March, 1848. Bystrom is regarded as one of the greatest 
 sculptors of Sweden, but his works are cosmopolitan rather than 
 national. Besides those already named, he executed statues of 
 Linnreus, and one or two other of his eminent countrymen, and 
 many busts, but his chief works are representations of Juno, 
 Apollo, Hercules, Loves, Nymphs, Bacchantes, and the like. 
 
 BZOVIUS, or BZOWSKY, ABRAHAM, was born at Pro- 
 sovitz, in Poland, in 1567. He studied at Cracow, and became 
 a Dominican, and the principal of a college of that order. He 
 founded a fraternity of the Rosaria ; consecrated a chapel to 
 the image of St. Mary the Great, which he brought from Rome 
 to Cracow ; added a large number of books to the library of 
 the Dominicans ; pacified Poland ; caused the Church of St. 
 
 - z 2 
 
3o3 
 
 CABANEL, ALEXANDRE. 
 
 CiESALPINUS, ANDREAS. 
 
 341 
 
 Hyacinthtis to be built in Warsaw, and rendered other services 
 to his country, but especially to the Dominican order, to the 
 interests of which he was attached with such exclusive devotion 
 as to call up against him the bitter opposition of the Franciscans 
 and the Jesuits. Bzovius is known as a singularly fertile writer ; 
 so that it has been seriously maintained that he composed more 
 books than others have read. His chief work is his continua- 
 tion of the 'Annals' of Baronius ; a work extending to !) folio 
 volumes, of which the first right appeared at Cologne, between 
 1616 and 1635. These brought down the history of the church 
 from the end of the pontificate of Celestinc III., when Baronius 
 
 concluded, to the year 1564. Another volume appeared in 1672, 
 several years after the author's death, which continue:! the his- 
 tory to 1572. In his history, which is that of the Dominicans 
 rather than that of the church, Bzovius is remarkable for his 
 servile attachment to the court of Rome ; so that when he 
 visited Rome, he was received with distinction by the Pope, 
 and lodged in the Vatican. A short time before his death, 
 which took place in 16.57, he retired from his resilience in the 
 Vatican to the convent of Minerva at Rome, having been terrified 
 by the murder of one of his servants, and mortified by the lo.s 
 of a large sum of money which the murderer carried off. 
 
 C 
 
 * pABANEL, ALEXANDRE, a distinguished French painter, 
 vJ was born at Montpellier, September 28, 1823 ; strain d in 
 the atelier of M. Picot, and won the grand prize of Rome in 
 1845. A large picture of the ' Death of Moses, a ' St. John,' and 
 'Velleda,' exhibited on his return to Paris in 1850, attracted 
 much notice, and secured him numerous commissions. Among 
 other works, he executed a series of twelve medallions of the 
 Months at the Hotel de Ville. other commissions and purchases 
 for the State followed ; M. Cabanel was honoured with the espe- 
 cial patronage of the Emperor, and rose steadily in popularity 
 till, by common consent, lie took rank among the foremost 
 painters of France. The range of his art is shown by the titles 
 of the pictures already quoted, and such others as his 'Christian 
 Martyr,' one of his most celebrated works ; the 1 Soir d'Automne,' 
 'Aglae,' 'Othello Racontant ses Batailles,' and ' Michaelangelo.' 
 But M. Cabanel has also painted many portraits, generally of 
 persons of high social position, and he has succeeded in giving 
 them an air of ease and distinction the mere portrait-painter 
 seldom attains. 
 
 The International Exhibition of 1862 contained two large and 
 very famous paintings by M. Cabanel, which admirably illus- 
 trated his style, the ' Glorification de St. Louis,' the property of 
 the State, a vast pompous theatrical composition ; and a ' Nymphe 
 enlevee par un Faune,' the property of the Emperor, a life-size 
 naked woman struggling in the arms of a brawny satyr, painted 
 with surprising force and mastery, but meretricious to the verge 
 of voluptuousness in design and treatment, and utterly unreal, 
 though brilliant in colour ; a picture bearing in it all the marks 
 of a corrupt and declining school. To the Salon of 1870, M. 
 Cabanel contributed another very large and very powerful picture, 
 hut equally unhealthy in subject and treatment, ' Mort de Fran- 
 cesca de Rimini ct de Paolo Malatesta.' M. Cabanel received a 
 medal of the 2nd class in 1852, and of the 1st in 1855. He was de- 
 corated in 1S55, and made oiiicer of the Legion of Honour in 1864. 
 In 1863 he was elected member of the Academy in succession to 
 Horace Vernet, and appointed professor at the Ecole des Beaux- 
 
 CABET, ETIENNE [E. C. vol. ii. col. 2.] M. Cabet returned 
 to Paris about the end of 1850, and seemed to he in a fair way 
 of regaining his popularity with the working population, but the 
 Coup d'Etat put an end to his hopes, and he rejoined his friends 
 in Nauvoo. There he was for awhile again placed at the head 
 of his partisans, but eventually his opponents gained the mastery, 
 and he was forced to take refuge in St. Louis, Missouri, where he 
 died on the 9th of December, 1856. 
 
 CzESALPINUS, ANDREAS, was born in 1519 at Arezzo. 
 Unfavourable accounts are given of the early years of this dis- 
 tinguished scientific reformer, owing to his great distaste for 
 methodical study. His original and independent mind led 
 him to put embarrassing questions to the Professors whose 
 lectures he attended. He studied medicine and took his degree, 
 and then, free from the trammels of the schools, he entered upon 
 a career of philosophical observation which he continued to the 
 age of 84. Taking the philosophical doctrines of Aristotle 
 according to their true sense, he freed them from the pedantry 
 of the schools, made science attractive by directly appealing to 
 nature, and marked by his labours the first great epoch in 
 botanical science. While treating the peripatetic with respect, 
 he was constantly looking onwards towards a better philosophy. 
 His ' Quccstiones Feripatetica}/ published at Florence in 4to, 1569, 
 
 produced a great sensation, raising up for him a host of friends 
 and some enemies, the latter, in the true spirit of intolerance, 
 seeking the aid of the Holy Inquisition in quenching the new 
 light. Happily they did not succeed in putting down a man 
 who was superior to the leading ideas of his time. In his 
 ' Damionum Investigatio Peripatetica,' Florence, 1580, 4to, he 
 fights against the follies of magic and sorcery. His friends also 
 claim for him the discovery of the circulation of the blood, and 
 the proofs of this anticipation of Harvey are, according to the 
 friendly criticism of Bayle, quite clear, reference being made to 
 the 1 Qmestiones Peripatetica?,' lib. v. ch. 4, fol. 125; 'Qiues- 
 tioiies Medicaj,' lib. ii. ch. 17, fol. 234. See also, 'De Plantis,' 
 lib. i. ch. 2. 
 
 The last named work is his " magnum opus" ; it was published 
 at Florence in 1583, and contains 16 books, 47 sections, and 940 
 chapters. After referring to the splendid multiplicity of the 
 productions of nature, and the confusion hitherto prevailing 
 among writers on the growing treasures of the botanical world, •! 
 he says : " In this immense multitude of plants, I see that want 
 which is most felt in any other unordered crowd. If such an 
 assemblage be not arranged into brigades, like an army, all must 
 be tumult and fluctuation, and this accordingly happens in the 
 treatment of plants ; for the mind is overwhelmed by the con- 
 fused accumulation of things, and thus we have endless mistake 
 and angry altercation." He then states his general view, which 
 was adopted by his successors. " Since all science consists in I 
 the collection of similar and the distinction of dissimilar things, 
 and since the consequence of this is a distribution into genera and 
 species, which are to be natural classes governed by real differ- 
 ences, I have attempted to execute this task in the whole range 
 of plants." He then goes on to mark the kind of plants by 
 essential circumstances in the fructification. In the constitution 
 of organs three things are insisted on ; the number, the position, 
 and the figure : for example — " some have under one flower oni 
 seed, as Amygdala ; or one seed-receptacle, as Rosa ; or two seeds, 
 as Ferularia ; or two seed-receptacles, as Nasturtium ; or ft rea, 
 as the Tithymalum kind have three seeds ; the Bulbacese, three 
 receptacles ; or four, as Murrubium, four seeds, Siler, four 
 receptacles : or more, as Cicoracea? and Acanaceae have more seeds, 
 Pinus, more receptacles." 
 
 " It will be observed," says Dr. Whewell (Hist, of the Induc- 
 tive Sciences, 3rd edition, 1857, iii. 239), "that we have here ten 
 classes made out by means of number alone, added to the con- 
 sideration of whether the seed is alone in its covering, as in a 
 cherry, or contained in a receptacle with several others, as in a 
 berry, pod, or capsule. Several of these divisions are, however, 
 further subdivided according to other circumstances, and espe- 
 cially according as the vital part of the seed, which he called the 
 heart (cor), is situated in the upper or lower part of the seed." 
 
 Cajsalpinus was not a writer only, but a laborious collector of 
 plants. His herbal is still preserved with veneration at Florence. 
 It contains 768 dried species, to which are attached the names 
 given by the collector, and also the names common to several 
 parts of Italy. " During many years," he says, " I have been 
 pursuing my researches in various regions, habitually visiting the 
 places in which grew the various kinds of herbs, shrubs, and 
 trees. I have been assisted by the labours of many friends, and 
 by gardens established for the public benefit, and containing 
 foreign plants collected from the most remote regions." He here 
 refers to the Botanic Garden of Pisa, established in 1543, by order 
 
3J5 
 
 CESAR, SIR JULIUS. 
 
 CAILLE, RENE. 
 
 346 
 
 I of the Grand Duke, Cosmo I., the management of which was 
 confided first to Lucas Ghini, and afterwards to Oaesalpinus. 
 
 Many botanists, especially Morison, took advantage of the 
 labours of Caesalpinus without acknowledgment, but so much 
 was this great man in advance of his time, that before his method 
 was generally adopted, there occurred a stationary interval, an 
 interesting account of which is given by Whewell (loc. cit. 243). 
 
 What Caesalpinus did for plants he also attempted for metals, 
 lmt not with such happy effect. In his work, ' De Metallicis,' 
 published at Rome, 1596 (and again at Nurnberg, in 1602), he 
 was led by some of his general views to disbelieve in the fixity of 
 the form of crystals. He says : " To ascribe to inanimate bodies 
 a definite form, does not appear reasonable ; for it is the office of 
 organisation to produce a definite form ;" " an opinion," says Dr. 
 Whewell, "very natural in one who had been immersed in the 
 general analogies of the forms of plants." Still, however, there 
 are some striking views in this work. He defines metals as 
 vapours condensed by cold, and distinguishes them from vege- 
 tables in not putrifying, and supplying no aliment for the deve- 
 lopment of animal structure. He accounts for the existence of 
 fossil shells in rocks, by supposing that the sea formerly occupied 
 the land, and in retiring, left traces of its presence. He even 
 anticipated the discovery of oxygen, by noticing that the film 
 which covers molten lead, by exposure to air, is due to an aerial 
 body which increases the weight of the metal. He terms lead a 
 soap which cleanses silver and gold by cupellation, and he also 
 describes graphite. 
 
 Bayle remarks that the works of Csesalpinus are not free from 
 heresy, and expresses surprise that he escaped the censures of 
 the Church ; but possibly his office of first physician to Pope 
 Clement VIII. proved his safeguard, although, according to 
 Bayle, his principles scarcely differ from those of Spinosa. 
 
 Teissier, in his ' Eloge,' places Caesalpinus among the greatest 
 men of genius that have ever lived. He is said to have passed 
 a sober active life, free from illness, and to have died at Rome, 
 February 23rd, 1603. 
 
 CAESAR, SIR JULIUS, was the eldest son of Dr. Caesar 
 Adelmare, a member of a noble family of Treviso, a city near 
 Venice, who, having studied medicine at Padua, came over to 
 England, where he received letters of naturalization, August 
 28th, 1558, and became physician successively to Queens Mary 
 and Elizabeth. Julius was born at Tottenham, near London, in 
 1557, and enjoyed royal patronage from his infancy, Queen 
 Mary being one of his sponsors. At his baptism he received the 
 names of Julius Caesar, the latter of which he seems very early, 
 though not rpiite uniformly, to have substituted for that of his 
 ancestors. He entered at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and took his 
 B.A. and M.A. degrees respectively in 1575 and 1578. He 
 became a member of the Inner Temple in October, 1580 ; and, 
 proceeding to Paris, graduated as doctor in both laws in 1581, 
 in which degree he was incorporated at Oxford in 1583. He 
 was appointed in October, 1581, to be "Justice of the peace in 
 all cases of piracy," and Chancellor of the Master of St. Kathe- 
 rine's near the Tower. In 1583 he became counsellor to the 
 city of London, and commissary of Essex, Herts, and Middlesex ; 
 and on the last day of April, 1584, was made Judge of the 
 Admiralty Court. Thus preferred at an early age, he was still 
 discontented ; and the petitions he presented to the Queen for 
 advancement and emolument were partially answered by his 
 admission in October, 1588, to be one of the Masters in Chan- 
 cery. On the 10th of January, 1591, he was appointed a Master 
 Extraordinary, and on the 17th of August, 1595, one of the 
 ordinary Masters of the Court of Requests. In 1593, without 
 having passed through the grade of Reader, he was elected 
 Treasurer of the Inner Temple ; on the 8th of December in the 
 game year, governor of the mine and battery works throughout 
 England and Wales ; and on the 17th of June, 1596, lie suc- 
 ceeded to the Mastership of St. Katherine's, the reversion of 
 which he had already secured by a bribe. In September, 1598, 
 Queen Elizabeth paid him the expensive honour of a visit to 
 his house at Mitcham ; and on the 20tli of May, 1603, he 
 received knighthood from James L, who in the same year 
 reappointed him Master of the Court of Requests, and Master j 
 of St. Katherine's. On the 11th of April, 1606, the important 
 office of Chancellor and Under-Treasurer of the Exchequer was 
 conferred upon him ; and in the year following, he was sworn 
 of the Privy Council. He became Master of the Rolls in 1614 ; 
 a place which he continued to hold until his death on the 18th 
 of April, 1636. The name of Sir Julius Caesar is of very 
 frequent occurrence in contemporary memoirs and historical 
 documents, but he is now rather remarkable as a pluralist and 
 
 placeholder, than eminent on account of his legal or judicial 
 
 superiority. 
 
 CAGNIARD DE LATOUR, CHARLES, BARON, physicist, 
 was born at Paris, March 31, 1777. In 1794, he entered the 
 Polytechnic Schooi, and on leaving this two years afterwards, he 
 joined the corps of Hydrographic Engineers, but soon left it 
 again, in order that he might devote himself exclusively to scien- 
 tific investigations. His labours relate to subjects connected 
 with general physics and chemistry, but he is best known for his 
 researches on sound. In 1809 he constructed a simple method 
 of conveying gases beneath liquids. The machine became known 
 as the Cagmardelle, and is nothing more than an Archimedean 
 screw, in which the direction of revolution is from right to left. 
 In 1818 he gave much attention to gas illumination, and mate- 
 rially assisted in bringing about its introduction into Erance. In 
 the following year he invented the Syren, which is an instrument 
 for propelling waves of air through holes in a disc, revolving at 
 an ascertainable speed. A series of wheels and some dials indi- 
 cate the number of vibrations corresponding to any given sound. 
 By its means he discovered that peculiar quality of a note known 
 as timbre, which causes the difference in notes of the same inten- 
 sity and pitch, when produced by different instruments. He 
 also made some lengthy investigations into the mechanism of the 
 human voice, and, amongst other things, determined the pressure 
 of the air during phonation, by experiments on a man with a 
 tracheal fistula. As an engineer, his chief work is the Aqueduct 
 of Crouzal, erected in 1826, which has a span of 650 feet between 
 the points of suspension. He was the first to establish that fer- 
 mentation is not a purely chemical phenomenon, but is mainly 
 due to the influence of certain confervoid plants. A list of his 
 papers is given in the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific 
 Papers. His death occurred July 15, 1859. 
 
 CAHEN, SAMUEL [E. C. vol. ii. col. 23]. M. Cahen died 
 on the 8th_of January, 1862. 
 
 CAILLE, RENE, French traveller, was born Sept. 19, 1799, 
 at Mauze, in the department cf Deux Sevres. His education 
 was of the simplest character, and when a mere youth, the perusal 
 of 'The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe,' roused in him a strong 
 desire to explore Africa. Accordingly, he started for Senegal 
 when in his seventeenth year, and with only a few pounds in 
 his pocket. Soon after his arrival, an expedition, under Major 
 Gray, proceeded to explore the centre of Africa, but met with 
 difficulties, owing to the exhaustion of the stock of merchan- 
 dise. M. Partarrieu was then sent back to Senegal to obtain 
 further supplies, and Caille offered to join him unconditionally. 
 The offer was accepted, but before long the hard marching during 
 the rainy season caused him to contract a severe fever, which 
 compelled him to leave the expedition. In 1824 he returned to 
 Senegal, and obtained a sufficient quantity of goods from the 
 Governor of Senegal, to enable him to live with the Arabs, 
 acquire their tongue, and prepare himself for his future work. 
 Eight months were spent among the Braknahs, and he then 
 endeavoured to obtain the means of making a voyage to Tim- 
 buetoo ; but wherever he applied his requests were refused. His 
 enthusiasm, however, was increased rather than diminished by 
 the obstacles he met with, and in order to raise the funds required, 
 he worked on an indigo plantation until he had saved about £80. 
 With this sum lie bought goods, and made the necessary 
 preparations for his journey. In order to avert the suspicions of 
 the natives, as well as to secure his own safety as far as possible, 
 he assumed the dress of an Arab, and pretended that he was a 
 young Egyptian about to return to his native country. He 
 started from Kakundy on the 29th of April, 1827, and pro- 
 ceeded, first in an easterly direction, by Cambaya, Kankan, 
 Timi, and Tangrera, and afterwards in a north-easterly direction, 
 by Donasso to Galia, where he struck upon Park's tracks, through 
 a country which had never ]:>reviously been visited by Europeans, 
 From Galia he passed over the same country as Mungo Park to 
 Timbuctoo, which town was entered by him, April 20, 1828. 
 During this part of his travels he had suffered great hardship 
 from sore feet and fever ; and when he left Timbuctoo, it was as 
 a despised, ill-treated mendicant. He returned from Timbuctoo 
 across the Sahara desert to Fez, and arrived in Toulon, September 
 27, 1828. He became for a while the lion of the day, and was 
 especially noticed by the Geographical Society of Paris, who 
 awarded him the special prize of ,£400 to the first traveller who 
 could obtain exact information of Timbuctoo, in confirmation of 
 Park's observations. He was further decorated with the Legion 
 of Honour ; his work, ' Journal d'un Voyage a Tembouktou et 
 Jenne dans L'Afrique centrale, etc.,' 3 vols. 1830, was published at 
 the public expense ; aud he himself was rewarded with a state 
 
347 
 
 CAIRD, REV. JOHN. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM. 
 
 34S 
 
 pension. He did not, however, live long to enjoy this, for he 
 died on May 17, 1838, while still comparatively young. 
 
 * CAIRD, REV. JOHN, a minister of the Established Church 
 of Scotland, celebrated for his pulpit eloquence, was born at 
 Greenock in 1823, and educated at the University of Glasgow. 
 In 1844, having taken his M.A. degree, and completed his theo- 
 logical studies, he received licence to preach, the canonical age 
 being anticipated on account of the number of ministers who had 
 left the Establishment in 1843, as adherents of the Free Church. 
 At the end of his year of probation, he was ordained minister of 
 the parish of Newton or Newtown-upon-Ayr, separated from the 
 town of Ayr only by the river of that name. In the same year, 
 1845, he was transferred to Lady Yester's Church, in Edinburgh ; 
 and in 1850, in order to avail himself of the comparative seclu- 
 sion of a country charge, he became minister of Errol, in the 
 county of Perth. It was whilst holding this living that he was 
 called upon to preach before the Queeto and Prince Consort, at 
 the parish church of Crathie, upon which occasion he acquitted 
 himself with so much ability, that the sermon was immediately 
 published by royal command, witli the title of ' Religion in 
 Common Life,' 8vo, Edinburgh and London, 1855 ; reprinted at 
 Hbbart Town, 12mo, 185G ; and translated into Gaelic, 8vo, 
 Edinburgh, 1856. Besides a few minor literary labours, he has 
 produced a volume of 'Sermons,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1858 ; in 
 which year he removed to Glasgow, to undertake the charge of 
 West Park, where a handsome church was erected for him. In 
 1860 he received the degree of D.D., and was appointed Professor 
 of Divinity in the University of Glasgow in 1862, soon after 
 which he resigned his pastoral charge of West Park church. 
 
 * CAIRNS, HUGH MAC CALMONT, BARON, a lawyer 
 and statesman, second son of the late William Cairns, Esq., of 
 Cultra, co. Down, Ireland, was born in 1819, and educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, where he was first class in classics, and 
 obtained other honours. He became a member of the Middle 
 Temple, and was called to the bar by that Society in 1844. He 
 rose to considerable practice in the Court of Chancery, and was 
 early regarded as a promising candidate for the higher honours of 
 his profession. In 1852 he was returned for Belfast in the Con- 
 servative interest. He continued to represent this constituency 
 until he became a judge, in 1866. In 1856, he was made a 
 Queen's Counsel, and elected a bencher of Lincoln's Inn; and 
 in March, 1858, on the return of Lord Derby to power, became 
 Solicitor-general, receiving at the same time the honour of 
 knighthood. When next the formation of a ministry fell to 
 Lord Derby, in 1866, Sir Hugh Cairns was appointed Attorney- 
 general ; and on the 18th of October in the same year, was 
 promoted to be one of the Lords Justices of Appeal. It was on 
 the occasion of this preferment that his 14 years' connection 
 with the electors of Belfast terminated. His elevation to the 
 peerage as Baron Cairns of Garmoyle, in co. Antrim, appeared 
 in the ' London Gazette' of the 23rd of February, 1867 ; and in 
 the following year he achieved the highest professional honour 
 of being made Lord Chancellor, a post which he vacated on 
 the downfall of his party, and the accession of Mr. Gladstone 
 to the Premiership. Lord Cairns is now an active member of 
 the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. His university 
 distinctions embrace the honorary degrees of LL.D. of the 
 University of Cambridge, in 1862 ; D.C.L. of Oxford, 1863 ; and 
 the Chancellorship of the University of Dubbin, 1867. His 
 judgments, and his speeches, in Parliament and elsewhere, have 
 been characterised by a masterly eloquence, and are largely con- 
 versant with ecclesiastical questions. His advocacy is under- 
 stood to have been of so great an advantage to his party, that 
 it was probably nothing but a state of health unequal to the 
 position, which prevented him from retaining the leadership of 
 the Conservative party in the House of Peers, which he held 
 temporarily upon the demise of the late Lord Derby. 
 
 * CALDERON, PHILIP, R.A., was born at Poitiers in 1833, 
 the son of the Rev. Juan Calderon, and studied painting in the 
 atelier of Picot, at Paris. A picture of ' The Jailor's Daughter,' 
 exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1858, attracted notice by its 
 force and freshness of style, and technical skill. He continued 
 to send to each successive exhibition one or two such paintings, 
 as ' Man goeth forth to his Labour,' 1859 ; 1 Liberating Prisoners 
 on the young Heir's Birthday ;' 'Queen Katherine of Aragon and 
 her Women at Work,' 1861 ; ' The British Embassy at Paris on 
 the Day of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew,' 1863 ; and 'The 
 Burial of Hampden,' 1864 ; and the evidence they afforded of 
 originality of thought and sustained artistic power was recognised 
 in the latter year by his election as A.R.A. ' Her most High, 
 Noble, and Puissant Grace/ and ' Home after the Victory,' were 
 
 his chief contributions to the Exhibitions of 1866-67. In 1868 he 
 was elected R.A. In that year he exhibited ' Uinone,' and ' The 
 Young Lord Hamlet ; ' in 1869, ' The Duchesse de Montpensier 
 urging Jacques Clement to assassinate Henri III. ;' and in 1870, 
 ' The Orphans,' and ' Spring driving away Winter.' 
 
 CALV1SIUS, SETHUS, a German writer on music and 
 chronology, adopted this as the Latin form of his German name, 
 Seth Kallwitz. He was born at Groschleben, in Thuringia, on 
 the 20th of February, 1556. Being the son of a peasant, he had but 
 little early school education : nevertheless, he studied music for 
 three years at Frankfurt, and was then admitted gratuitously to 
 the public school at Magdeburg. Earning a little money as 
 a music-teacher, he continued to support himself while studying 
 ancient languages and the arts at Helmstadt and Leipzig. In 
 1582, he filled the post of cantor in the school at Pforte ; and in 
 1592, he was appointed to a similar office at Leipzig, where he 
 was nominated professor of music in 1594. He died at Leipzig ; 
 but there is a discordance of opinion as to the date of his death. 
 Mattheson places it on the 23rd of November, 1615 ; Gittinger 
 on the 24th instead of the 23rd ; while Walther and Forkel give 
 the 23rd of November, 1617. The chief musical works written 
 by Calvisius were the following : — (1) ' Melopoeia seu Melodise 
 condendae ratio, quam vulgo musicam poeticam vocant, ex veria 
 fundamentis extracta et explicata,' Erfurt, 8vo, 1582 ; this is a 
 treatise on Counterpoint and Harmony, good for the period in 
 which it was written ; (2) ' Compendium Musicae Practicae,' 
 Leipzig, 8vo, 1594 ; (3) ' Exercitationes Musicao Dure,' Leipzig, 
 8vo, 1600 ; the first part didactic, the second an abridged history 
 of music ; (4) ' Exercitatio Musica Tertia,' Leipzig, 8vo, 1611 ; 
 a third portion of the same work, relating to solmisation ; (5) 
 ' Musica) Artis Praccepta nova et facillima,' &c, Jena, 8vo, 1816; 
 a work in which he recommends the syllables bo, ce, di, ga, lo, 
 ■ma, ni, in solmisation, instead of ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si. The 
 musical compositions by Calvisius comprise harmonised versions 
 of old German hymns for four voices ; sacred songs for three 
 voices, to German words, mostly taken from the Psalms of David, 
 with instrumental accompaniments ; an arrangement of the 150th 
 Psalm, for twelve voices, in three choirs ; and a musical arrange- 
 ment of the Psalter for four voices. Calvisius also paid some 
 attention to the study of chronology and the Calendar, on which 
 subjects he wrote the following and other works : — ' Opus Chrono- 
 logicum,' Leipzig, 4to, 1605, the best work on Chronology that 
 bad up to that time appeared ; 'Elenchus Calendarii Gregoriani,' 
 ibid.. 1612 ; and ' Formula Calendarii Novi,' ibid., 1613, written 
 to urge and assist in the reformation of the Calendar; ' Enodatio 
 duorum qusestionum circa annum nativitatis et tempus minis- 
 terii Christi,' Erfurt, 4to, 1610. 
 
 CAMBINI, GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE, musical composer, 
 was born at Leghorn, February 13th, 1740. He early acquired 
 great proficiency in violin playing, especially in quartettes and 
 other kinds of chamber music. In 1763 he went to Bologna, 
 where he studied counterpoint under Martini. In 1766, Avhile on 
 a voyage to Naples, he was captured by corsairs, and underwent 
 much insult and misery before he could be liberated by ransom. 
 Settling at Paris in 1770, he gave lessons in music, and wrote 
 symphonies, motetts, oratorios, and other musical works, far too 
 rapidly for the attainment of excellence ; but being intemperate 
 and improvident, he wrote literally for his bread, without be- 
 stowing time and thought enough upon his compositions. He 
 sank into an old age of penury, and is supposed to have died a 
 pauper in the Bicetre about 1825 ; but this is uncertain. Be- 
 tween the years 1776 and 1793, Cambini produced ' Les Romans,' 
 a ballet ; ' Rose cV Amour,' a second ballet ; various operas and 
 ballets, under the names of ' La Croisee,' ' Cora, pretresse du 
 Soleil,' 'Les DeuxFreres,' 'Adele et Edina,' 'Nantilde et Dago- 
 bert,' ' Trois Gascons,' 'Alcniaeon,' ' Alcide,' ' Amide,' ' Fetes 
 Venitiennes,' &c, besides two oratorios, ' Joab,' and the ' Sacrifice 
 of Abraham.' His best compositions were his violin quartettes. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM, botanist, was born at Niirn- 
 berg, November 5, 1534. After receiving instructions from the 
 best professors of the time in Germany and Italy, he acquired a 
 doctorate in 1562, and soon formed a more or less intimate 
 acquaintance with Fallopius, Aldrovandus, and many other 
 eminent cultivators of science. In the practice of medicine he 
 was so successful, that several royal personages offered him great 
 inducements to join their court, but he declined all offers of the 
 kind. He was the principal promoter of the Academy of Medi- 
 cine, which was founded at Nvirnberg in 1592, .and lie established 
 an excellent botanical garden, in maintaining which he was as- 
 sisted by Prosper Alpin, Clusius, and others. His principal works 
 are ' Hortus Mcdicus,' 1588, which is a catalogue of the plants 
 
349 
 
 CAMERARIUS, RODOLF JACOB. 
 
 CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON. 
 
 350 
 
 in his garden, with descriptions of the more interesting species ; 
 ' Bymbolorum et Emblematum ex Herbis et Animalibus centuriae 
 iii., &c.,' 1590-1597, which is a collection of anecdotes relating to 
 all branches of natural history ; ' Plantarum turn indigenarum 
 quam exoticarum icones/ 1591. He has also written many other 
 works, and in some of them he made considerable use of the 
 engravings which Gesner had prepared for a ' History of Plants,' 
 and which he had intended should form a sequel to his ' History 
 of Animals.' These drawings, about 1500 in number, together 
 with Gesner's botanical library, were purchased by Camerarius 
 after Gesner's death. He died at Niirnberg, October 11, 1598. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, RODOLF JACOB, botanist, was born at 
 Tubingen, February 17, 1655. His education was carried out 
 in his native town, and was completed by a tour through Europe, 
 in the course of which he visited all the most celebrated pro- 
 fessors of the time. In 1687 he graduated as doctor of medicine, 
 and in the following year was appointed an assistant professor 
 and inspector at the botanical garden at Tubingen. Shortly 
 afterwards he became professor of medicine. He died, September 
 11, 1721, of pulmonary phthisis. His principal works are, ' De 
 Sexu Plantarum Epistola/ 4to, 1694 ; a work in which some 
 writers find the germ of the Linneau system of classification ; and 
 ' De Convenientia Plantarum in fructificatione et vicibus,' 8vo, 
 Tubingen, 1699. 
 
 CAMPBELL, LORD. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 54.] On the forma- 
 tion of the ministry of Lord Palmerston, June, 1859, Lord Camp- 
 bell was made Lord Chancellor, with a seat in the Cabinet, thus 
 attaining the crowning dignity for which he had all his life been 
 struggling. He held the office till his death, which occurred on 
 the 23rd of June, 1861 ; but it had not been expected that he 
 would confer any new lustre on the title, either in the Court or 
 the Parliament, and the anticipations were not exceeded. More 
 than seven years after his death, appeared a work on which he 
 was known to have been occupied during the dull years preced- 
 ing his elevation to the Chancellorship, and the publication of 
 which had been looked for with some curiosity, ' Lives of Lord 
 Lyndhurst and Lord Brougham, Lord Chancellors and Keepers 
 of the Great Seal of England,' 8vo, London, 1869. As a bio- 
 graphy, the work is no more trustworthy than the ' Lives of the 
 Lord Chancellors,' of which it is a continuation, though as a 
 contribution to contemporary history it may have its use. In 
 it is recorded whatever enmity had invented and gossip collected 
 or whispered, to the detriment of the two distinguished men 
 whose lives it professes to narrate. But the aspersion is not con- 
 fined to Lords Lyndhurst and Brougham. The object of the 
 author seemed to be to show that all, or almost all, his immediate 
 predecessors in the office, however superior in learning, eloquence, 
 and fame, were as intrinsically mean, unscrupulous, and malig- 
 nant as himself. Happily the misstatements in the book met 
 with speedv exposure, and its tenor with general condemnation. 
 
 CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN. [Clyde, Lord, E. C. S.] 
 
 CAMPBELL, JOHN, D.D., a journalist and Nonconformist 
 divine, the son of Alexander Campbell, a surgeon, of Kirriemuir, 
 in Forfarshire, was born on the 5th of October, 1795. From 
 October, 1817, he was a student in the faculty of arts successively 
 at the universities of St. Andrews and Glasgow ; and prosecuted 
 his theological studies in the latter city at the Divinity Hall of 
 the Independent denomination, then under the presidency of Dr. 
 Wardlaw and the Rev. Greville Ewing. He became minister of 
 an Independent church in Kilmarnock, in 1827 ; and in the fol- 
 lowing year, accepted an invitation to undertake the pastorate of 
 the congregation assembling in the Tabernacle, Moorficlds, which 
 had been erected by Whitefield. Here, with constant popularity, 
 he laboured for twenty years, until the failure of his health warned 
 him to a change of employment ; and he accordingly undertook 
 the editorial management of a popular religious newspaper, 
 called the 'British Banner,' which met with a surprising success. 
 When he had conducted this journal for a period of nine years, 
 he relinquished it, and established, on his own account, the 
 ' British Standard,' to which, two years afterwards, he added the 
 'British Ensign.' In 1844, in compliance with a vote of the 
 Assembly of the Congregational Union of England and Wales, 
 he undertook the editorship of a popular religious magazine, 
 called the ' Christian Witness,' which circulated so successfully — 
 30,(K)() a month — that, after two years, he added the ' Christian's 
 Penny Magazine/ which attained a monthly circulation of 
 100,000. Dr. Campbell entered largely into the ecclesiastical 
 and theological controversies of the day — not always without 
 acrimony. His death took place at his residence, Manor House, 
 >St. John's Wood Park, on the 26th of March, 1807 ; and he was 
 interred at Abney Park Cemetery, on the 2nd of April following. 
 
 Dr. Campbell was a voluminous author, and among his more 
 important productions may be mentioned his 'Maritime Dis- 
 covery and Christian Missions, considered in their Mutual J Ma- 
 rions,' 8vo, London, 1840; 'Jethro,' an essay which obtained a 
 prize of 100 guineas, on the employment of lay agency in the 
 propagation of religion ; ' The Martyr of Erromango : or the 
 Philosophy of Missions, illustrated from the Labours, Death, and 
 Character of the late Rev. John Williams,' 8vo, London, 1842 ; 
 'Memoirs of David Nasmith [the Founder of City Missions]; 
 his Labours and Travels in Great Britain, France, the United 
 States, and Canada,' 8vo, London, 1844 ; 1 Popery and Puseyism 
 illustrated: a Series of Essays,' 12mo, London, 1851 ; 'John 
 Angell James, a Review of his History, Character, Eloquence, 
 and Literary Labours ; with Dissertations on the Pulpit and the 
 Press, Academic Preaching, College Reform,' &c, 8vo, London, 
 1860 ; ' Popery, Ancient and Modern : its Spirit, Principles, 
 Character, &c, with Warnings and Counsels to the People of 
 England,' 8vo, London, 1865. In his later years, we are informed 
 by his somewhat diffuse biographers, Drs. Ferguson and Morton 
 Brown, he meditated a Life of Whitefield, his great predecessor 
 at the Moorfields Tabernacle. 
 
 CAMPIAN, EDMUND, was born in London on the 25th of 
 January, 1540, the year in which the Society of Jesus, of which 
 he afterwards became a member, was established. He was 
 educated, first at Christ's Hospital ; whence he was received on 
 the foundation of St. John's College, Oxford, then recently 
 founded by Sir Thomas AVhite, over whose remains, when they 
 were brought, in February, 1566, to the College Chapel for 
 interment, Campian was selected to pronounce a Latin funeral 
 oration before the members of the University. His appearance 
 on two or three occasions before Queen Elizabeth, was so scholarly 
 and successful, that Sir William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burleigh, 
 is said to have pronounced him one of the " diamonds " of Eng- 
 land. Unsatisfied with his ecclesiastical position as a member 
 of the Anglican Church, Campian yet complied with the prayers 
 of his friends so far as to be ordained deacon by Dr. Richard 
 Cheyney, Bishop of Gloucester. This step seems to have imme- 
 diately added remorse to his former mental disquiet ; he pro- 
 ceeded to throw up his fellowship, and on the 1st of August, 
 1569, to quit the University, and to betake himself to Dublin. 
 Abjuring Protestantism, he repaired to the English seminary at 
 Douay, which he quitted for Rome, where he was admitted a 
 Jesuit in 1573. After his noviciate, he passed some time at 
 Vienna and Prague ; and on his return to Rome, was sent by 
 Pope Gregory XIII., with other Jesuits, as "missioners" to 
 England, where they arrived in 1580. Campion's zeal and 
 activity attracted the notice of the government of Queen Eliza- 
 beth ; he was arrested at Lyford, in Berkshire, and committed, 
 with some others, to the Tower of London, on the charge of con- 
 spiracy and exciting the people to rebellion. They were put to 
 the rack, but though they asserted their loyalty to the queen, 
 they refused to renounce the pope's deposing powers ; they were, 
 consequently, condemned to death ; and, in accordance with their 
 sentence, were executed at Tyburn, on the 28th of November, 
 1581. The literary works of Campian are chiefly polemical, 
 the most celebrated being his ' Decern Rationes,' addressed to the 
 Privy Council, in 1581. One of his works is a 'Chronologia 
 Universalis ;' another is a history in Latin of 'The Divorce of 
 Henry VIII. and Queen Catherine.' His ' History of Ireland,' 
 was published by Sir James Ware, in 1633, from a MS. in the 
 Cotton Library. 
 
 CAMPION, THOMAS, a poet and musician, lived and wrote 
 in the 17th century ; but nothing is recorded of his personal 
 history. He wrote 'A New Way of Making Fowre Parts in 
 Counterpoint, by a most familiar and infallible rule,' of which 
 the first edition is without date, but the second edition, with the 
 title, ' The Art of Setting or Composing Music in Parts,' appeared 
 in 1660. Another work is ' The Art of Discant, with annota- 
 tions, by Christopher Sympson/ London, 8vo, 1672 ; this is in- 
 corporated in Playford's ' Introduction to the Knowledge of 
 Music/ London, 8vo, 1079. These works are ascribed to a Thomas 
 Campion who lived much earlier in the century, and was the 
 author of 'Observations in the Art of English Poesie/ 12mo, 
 1602 ; Words adapted to Airs, by Ferabosco, London, 1609 ; 
 verses on the Death of Prince Henry, set to music by Cooper, 
 or Coperario, 1619 ; descriptions of three or four Masques, 
 published between 1607 and 1614 ; and ' Epigrammatum Libri 
 ii. Umbra,' 12mo, 1619. There is, however, reason to believe that 
 there were two persons named Thomas Campion, connected with 
 Oxford University, at different periods in the 17th century. 
 
 CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON, one of the active partici- 
 
851 
 
 CANINA, CAV. LUIGI. 
 
 CANNING, SIR SAMUEL. 
 
 352 
 
 patora in the great "French Revolution, was horn at Paris, April 
 2nd, 1740. Having directed his studies towards ecclesiastical 
 law, he became advocate for the clergy of France ; the Elector 
 of Treves and the Prince of Salm-Salm also employed him as 
 their counsellor. The publication of Bullbn's ' Histoire Natu- 
 relle,' led Camus to translate Aristotle's ' History of Animals.' 
 This, however, did not turn the general current of his studies ; 
 he continued to he an ecclesiastical lawyer. When the revolu- 
 tionary times arrived, Camus was chosen one of the deputies 
 for Paris to the States-General. He denounced the ' Red Book,' 
 in which the pensions made out of the National Treasury were 
 inscribed ; maintained the civil constitution of the clergy ; and 
 rendered much service while filling the post of archivist, in pre- 
 venting the destruction of the hooks and papers that had belonged 
 to the various suppressed corporations. When the National 
 Convention was formed in 1792, Camus entered it as deputy for 
 Haute-Loire. He was sent on a political mission to Flanders, 
 and on his return was chosen a member of the Committee of 
 Public Safety. He was then thrown out of the current of French 
 2>olities, during the worst period of the Reign of Terror, by an 
 unexpected occurrence. Having been appointed in 1703 com- 
 missioner to accompany the army of Dumouriez, the latter, who 
 did not relish the espionage, arrested him, and delivered him 
 over to the enemy, by whom he was imprisoned successively 
 at Maastricht, Coblentz, Koniggratz, and Olmiitz. Camus 
 occupied a portion of his enforced leisure in translating from 
 Epictetus, and in writing a Journal ; the latter has not been pub- 
 lished, but Toulongeon made citations from it in his ' Eloge His- 
 torique' on Camus, Paris, 1806. On regaining his liberty, 
 Camus entered the Council of Five Hundred, of which body lie 
 was afterwards elected president. In 171)7, he abandoned sena- 
 torial and political functions, and employed the remaining seven 
 years of his life in collecting MSS. relating to the history of 
 France, for which purpose he made numerous exploratory jour- 
 neys. He was one of the first members of the Institute, to whose 
 Memoirs he contributed many papers. Camus died of apoplexy 
 on the 2nd November, 1804, leaving behind him the reputation 
 of a pious and honest man, but vain and obstinate. His chief 
 literary works were: — (1) 'Code Matrimoniel,' Paris, 4to, 1770 ; 
 1 Lettre sur la profession d'Avocat, et Bibliotheque choisie des 
 livres de droit,' Paris, 12mo, 1772 ; of which the third and best 
 edition is dated 1805 ; (3) ' Histoire des Animaux,' Paris, 2 vols. 
 4to, 1783 ; this is the translation from Aristotle ; (4) ' Manuel 
 d'Epictete et Tableau de Cebes,' 18mo, Paris, 1796 ; (5) Me- 
 moires sur la collection des grands et petits Voyages,' 4to, Paris, 
 1802; (6) 'Histoire et Procedes de Polvtvpage, et de Stereo- 
 typage,' 8vo, Paris, 1802 ; a useful contribution to the history of 
 printing ; (7) 'Voyage dans les Departements,' 8vo, Paris, 1803 ; 
 interesting for its bibliographical and literary history. 
 
 CANINA, CAV. LUIGI, an eminent Italian archaeologist, 
 was born at Casale in Piedmont, October 23rd, 1795, and after 
 completing his literary course, studied architecture. He resided 
 many years in Rome, directed various excavations of ancient 
 edifices, &c, and there produced the works which established 
 his fame. Some of these were brought out at the cost of his 
 patroness, the Queen of Sardinia, and are sumptuous in paper, 
 printing, and embellishments. His works secured him admis- 
 sion into the Institute of France and many other learned societies, 
 as well foreign as Italian, and the post of professor of architec- 
 ture in Turin Academy. He died whilst on a visit to Florence, 
 October 17, 1856. The following are his more important pub- 
 lications : ' L'Architettura Romana,' 2 vols. fob Rome, 1830; 
 ' LArchitettura Grteca,' fob, Rome, 1833 ; ' Descrizione stoiica 
 del Foro Romano e sua adjacente,' 8vo, Rome, 1834 ; ' L' Archi- 
 tettura antica descritta e dirnostrata coi Monumenti, &c. Opera 
 divisa in tie sezioni resguardanti la Storia, la Teorica, e le 
 Pratiche dell' Architettura Egiziana, Greca, Romana,' 6 vols. fol. 
 Rome, 1830-44 ; 2nd edition, text, 9 vols. 8vo, plates, 3 vols. fol. 
 Rome, 1839-46 ; ' Descrizione dell' Antico Tusculo,' 43 plates, 
 fol. (privately printed), Rome, 1841 ; ' Esposizione Topografica 
 di Roma antica,' fol. Rome, 1842, 8vo, 1855 ; ' Indicazione Topo- 
 grafica di Roma antica in correspondenza dell' Epoca Imperiale,' 
 4th edition, 8vo, Rome, 1850 ; ' Pianta Topografica di Roma 
 antica, con i principali Monumenti, ideati nel loro primitivo 
 stato, sccondo le ultime scoperte, e con i Frammenti della Mar- 
 niorea pianta Capitolina disposti nel suo d' intorno,' 8vo, 1850 ; 
 ' Gli Edifizj di Roma Antica, cogniti per alcune reliqiiie,' 6 vols. 
 312 plates, fol. 1848-56 ; ' La Prima Parte della Via Appia dalla 
 Porta Capena a Boville,' 2 vols. 52 plates, 4to, 1853 ; ' L' Antica 
 Citta di Veii,' 44 plates, fol. (privately printed), Rome, 1847 ; 
 'Ricerche sull' Architettura piii propria dei tempj Cristiani,' 
 
 plates, fol. 1843 ; second edition, plates, fol. 1846 ; ' Antica 
 Etruria Marittima, conipresa nella dizione Ponteficia,' 2 vols, 
 plates, fol. 1846-51 ; ' Particolare genere di Architettura domes- 
 tica,' 40 plates, fol. Rome, 1852 ; ' Illustrations Architectural 
 and Pictorial of the genius of M. A. Buonarroti. With descrip- 
 tions of the plates by the Commendatore < lanina, < II. Cockerell 
 R.A., and J. S. Harford,' with 15 plates, fol. London, 1857. 
 Cav. Canina also wrote a great number of short monographs. 
 
 CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, VISCOUNT, f E. C. vol. 
 vi. col. 985. J Lord Canning commenced his course as Governor- 
 General of India, with the resolution to maintain a policy of 
 peace with the native princes, and to devote his attention and 
 influence mainly to the amelioration of the social condition of the 
 people, the extension of roads, railways, and canals, and the 
 general improvement of the country. His plans were rudely 
 thrust aside by the outbreak of the Sepoy insurrection, May, 
 1857. But Lord Canning proved himself equal to the altered 
 requirements of his position. His measures were prompt, 
 decided, and made with a clear appreciation of the gravity of the 
 crisis, and of his own means of meeting it. The European popu- 
 lation, especially in Calcutta, in their passionate excitement 
 against tin' native population, regarded his calmness and modera- 
 tion as signs of feebleness and apathy, and he was for a time 
 extremely unpopular. Something of the same feeling influenced 
 partisans in this country. Whilst Oude was in open rebellion, 
 Lord Canning placed in the hands of the Chief Commissioner in 
 Oude, a proclamation, not necessarily for issue, but to be used in 
 his discretion, and only so far as might seem advisable, addressed 
 to the inhabitants of Lucknow, in which, whilst rewards were 
 promised to those who remained faithful, it declared that the 
 proprietary right in the soil of the province had been forfeited 
 by the revolt and contumacy of the bulk of the landowners. At 
 home the consideration of the proclamation, undoubtedly unusual 
 in its terms, fell to the lot of a ministry selected from a different 
 party to that which made Viscount Canning Governor-General of 
 India. The Earl of Derby was premier, the Earl of Ellenborough 
 had the control of Indian affairs. Lord Ellenborough addressed 
 a " secret despatch" to Viscount Canning, but at the moment of 
 sending it, published the tenor of its contents in England, in 
 which, asserting that the hostilities in Oude had rather the 
 character of legitimate war than rebellion, he condemned in the 
 most unqualified and arrogant terms, Lord Canning's conduct 
 and policy. When the text of the despatch was published, the 
 feeling of its impolicy, as well as discourtesy, was so strong and 
 general, that Lord Ellenborough was constrained to an immediate 
 resignation. The reply of Viscount Canning did not reach 
 England till some months later, but then produced a deep 
 impression by its calm and statesmanlike explanation and vindi- 
 cation of his policy, and the dignified reference to the ungene- 
 rous treatment he had received. After the complete suppression 
 of the rebellion, Lord Canning was as distinguished by the mode- 
 ration and consideration with which he dealt with the native 
 population as he had previously been by his energy. Peace 
 restored, he addressed himself to the task of reviving the trade, 
 and developing the agricultural and industrial resources of the 
 country. But climate, anxiety, and toil had broken his strength. 
 It was' hoped that rest in England might restore it, but the 
 experiment was made too late. He reached London in April, 
 1862, and died there on the 17th of the following June. 
 
 * CANNING, SIR SAMUEL, civil and electrical engineer, 
 was born at Ogbourne St. Andrew, Wilts, on the 21st of July, 
 1823. His attention had been particularly directed to telegraphic 
 engineering, and in 1852 he was engaged in superintending the 
 laying down of submarine electric cables. This requires such a 
 delicate handling of the mechanism on ship-board for uncoiling, 
 gripping, paying out, and registering the movements of the 
 cable, and especially for finding and raising a sunken cable when 
 snapped, that it is becoming a distinctly recognised branch of 
 engineering. Mr. Canning mainly conducted the extensive series 
 of experiments, instituted by the Atlantic Telegraph Company, 
 to determine the form and arrangement for the cables of 1857 
 and 1858 ; and the experience thus acquired has led to his being 
 employed in the construction and laying of a larger number of 
 important submarine cables than any other engineer. The 
 embarrassing and apparently hopeless work of groping for the end 
 of a cable at a depth of 12,000 feet in the ocean, was rendered 
 possible by him and Mr. Clifford through the invention of new 
 paying out and grappling machinery. Mr. Canning has been long 
 associated in these matters with Messrs. Glass and Elliott, the 
 manufacturers of the wire-work of electric cables, and with the 
 Gutta Percha Company in regard to the gutta percha insulators, 
 
353 
 
 CAPELLA, MART1ANUS M. F. 
 
 CARAMUEL LOBKOWITZ, JUAN. 354 
 
 both before and since the coalescence of the two establishments 
 in the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company. The 
 success which attended the submersion of the Atlantic cable 
 of 1866, and the recovery of that which had been broken and 
 sunk in 1865, led to the conferring of two baronetcies and four 
 knighthoods on those who had been concerned in the enterprise ; 
 Mr. Canning was one of the four who were knighted. In 1867 he 
 was awarded the gold medal of the American Chamber of Com- 
 merce at Liverpool. In 1869 Sir Samuel Canning conducted the 
 laying of the French Atlantic Cable, from a point on the French 
 coast near Brest, to the French Isle of St. Pierre, near Newfound- 
 land ; the whole cable, except a short shore-end, being carried 
 by the 'Great Eastern.' In 1870 he superintended the laying 
 of the Suez, Aden, and Bombay, and the Falmouth, Gibraltar, 
 and Malta submarine cables, thus affording better telegraphic 
 communication with India than had before existed. 
 
 CAPELLA, MARTIAN US MINEUS FELIX, was a learned 
 writer in the second half of the 5th century, concerning whose 
 personal history nothing is known, except that he was probably 
 born at Medaura, in Africa, went to Carthage in the service of a 
 Roman pro-consul, and afterwards went to Rome. About 470, 
 A.D., he wrote, in rather debased Latin, in mingled prose and 
 verse, a work called ' Sativicon,' a sort of encyclopaedia of the 
 learning of the time, which was much read and studied in the 
 middle ages. It consists of nine books. The first two are devoted 
 to ' De Nuptiis Philologise et Mercurii,' a sort of mystical alle- 
 gory. The other seven boc ks relate to the seven liberal arts — 
 grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, 
 and music, treated mythologically. Copernicus is believed to 
 have derived from Capella's Astronomy, the first idea of the 
 sun, instead of the earth, being the centre of our system. The 
 first edition of the Satiricon was published at Vicenza, folio, 
 1499 ; there have been many since, of which the best is by Kopp, 
 Frankfurt, 1836. A translation by Notker into old high German, 
 was published at Berlin in 1837. There have also been many 
 commentaries on the Satiricon. 
 
 CAPELLI, ANGELO, Italian astronomer, lived in the first 
 half of the 18th century. Little more is known of his personal 
 history, than that he was a canon and a professor of astronomy 
 at Parma. ~\Veidler('Bibliographia Astronomica,' and ' Historia 
 Astronomic,') speaks favourably of two works by Capelli ; (1) 
 'Astrosopkia Numerica, sive Astronomica Supputandi Ratio,' 
 2 vols. 4to, Venice, 1733-46 : this work is in four parts, treating 
 severally of the longitudes and latitudes of the celestial bodies ; 
 the calculation of eclipses, astronomical problems, and the con- 
 struction of ephemerides ; (2) 'NovissimaR Novissimartun Sa- 
 turni, Jovis, Martis, Veneris, et Mercurii Tabulae,' 4to, Venice, 
 1733. 
 
 CAPGRAVE, JOHN, an old English historian, was bom at 
 Bishop's Lynn (now King's Lynn), Norfolk, April 21, 1393 ; 
 entered early the Augustinian convent in his native town; •was 
 distinguished by his devotion to study; sent to Cambridge to com- 
 plete his education, and afterwards to Oxford, where he took the 
 degree of doctor of divinity, and in 1427, entered the priesthood, 
 lie speaks of himself as having been in London, " studying there 
 in the fourth and filth year alter being raised to the priesthood ;" 
 he then spent some time, engaged in literary composition, in the 
 Austin Friary, Lynn ; was in 1445 elected provincial of his 
 order in England ; appears to have assisted at the formal founda- 
 tion of the College, Eton, and King's College, Cambridge ; and 
 died at Lynn on the 12th of August, 1464. Capgrave had the 
 reputation of being one of the most learned men of his order then 
 living in England. He was a very voluminous writer. The 
 titles are known of thirty-seven distinct works written by him, 
 but of these only eight are extant. His lost writings include 
 commentaries on nearly all the books of Scripture, a Manual of 
 Christian Doctrine, Sermons, and other strictly theological works, 
 Lives of St. Augustine, of certain of the illustrious men of the 
 Order of St. Augustine, of St. Gilbert, and of Humphrey Duke of 
 Gloucester. The MSS. are extant of a ' Commentary on the Book 
 of Genesis ;' ' On the Acts of the Apostles ;' ' On the Creeds ;' 
 ' The Life of St. Katherine ;' ' The Nova Legenda Angliae ;' 'A 
 Chronicle of England ;' and ' Liber de Illustribus Henricis.' The 
 two last were published under the direction of the Master of the 
 Rolls, in 1858. 'The Chronicle of England,' extends from the 
 Creation to the year 1417. It is not a work of much historical 
 importance, but it has considerable value as an example of the 
 Norfolk dialect of the middle of the 15th century. A translation 
 of the 'Liber de Illustribus Henricis,' by the Rev. F. C. Hin- 
 ee-ton, the editor of the Rolls editions of that book, .and the 
 Chronicle, was published simultaneously witli the original text. 
 BIOG. djv. — SUP. 
 
 The book was dedicated to Henry VI., greatest of all the Henries. 
 The first part contains Lives of the Henries, Emperors of Ger- 
 many ; the second part, of the Henries, Kings of England ; the 
 t hird, of sovereigns of that name in various parts of Europe. The 
 author has read much, but is sadly deficient in judgment. He 
 approves the derivation of the name of England "from En, 
 which is ' in,' and cleos, which is ' glory/ as though she were all 
 glorious within." 
 
 CAPOCCT DE BELMONTE, ERNESTO, Italian astronomer, 
 was born at Picinisco, in the kingdom of Naples, 28th of March, 
 1798. He was placed early as a pupil at the Ohservati try of Capo 
 di Monte, under his uncle, Zuccari, who was the director. While 
 yet in his 18th year, he wrote on astronomical subjects in the 
 ' Giornale Encielopedico di Napoli.' He became assistant astro- 
 nomer at Capo di Monte, under various directors, and eventually 
 himself director. During a long series of years he made valu- 
 able observations on the orbits of newly-discovered comets, the 
 spots on the sun, the periodicity of meteors, the variations in the 
 sea-level, &c. ; the results of which appeared in 'Zach's Corres- 
 pondenz,' and other scientific journals. In 1839, the Berlin 
 Academy, engaged in the preparation of the elaborate star-map 
 which has since so greatly aided in the discovery of new planets, 
 &c, invited Capocci to undertake the section known as hora 18 ; 
 it was a work of great labour, on account of the large portion of 
 the Milky Way comprised within the area, and occupied him 
 three years. Capocci, after suffering by the revolutionary changes 
 in Italy, was, on the erection of the kingdom of Italy, placed at 
 the head of the Observatory of Naples. He died in 1864. 
 
 CAPPELLER, MAURIZIO ANTONIO, was born at Lucerne 
 in 1685. He studied medicine at Milan and elsewhere, and in 
 1707, was attached as surgeon to the Imperial Army in the 
 invasion of the kingdom of N aples. He afterwards became cap- 
 tain of engineers in the province of Abruzzo. He again served 
 in 1712, after which he followed his profession at Lucerne, 
 whence, in 1739, he removed to Freiburg, and afterwards, in 
 1744, to Soleure. In 1747, he returned to Lucerne, where, in 
 addition to the practice of medicine, he gave lessons in geometry 
 and mathemat ics as applied to military engineering. In 1754, he 
 went to reside with his son, who was a pastor near Lucerne, and 
 continued to practise medicine until his death, 16th September, 
 1769. 
 
 Cappeller was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1725, 
 and the services rendered by him to science, which procured him 
 this honour, related to crystallography. His ' Prodromus Crys- 
 tallographne,' appeared at Lucerne in 1723, the design of which 
 was to carry out the idea started by Dominic Gulielinini, in 1707, 
 that in crystals " nature does not employ all figures, but only 
 certain ones of those which are possible ; and of these the deter- 
 mination is not to be fetched from the brain, or proved a priori, 
 but obtained by experiments and observations. Nevertheless, 
 since there is here a principle of crystallisation, the inclination 
 of the planes and of the angles is always constant." 
 
 Cappeller left behind him a complete MSS. treatise on crys- 
 tallography in the German language, the figures for which were 
 engraved in 1788 ; but the publication of the letterpress was 
 interrupted. A Natural History of Lucerne, sometimes said to 
 have been first published after his death by his friend, Felix 
 Balthazar, really appeared in 1757, 4to, Basel, under the title, 
 ' Pilati Montis Historia.' 
 
 CARAFA DE COLOBRANO, MICHELE ENRICO FRAN- 
 CESCO VINCENZO PAOLO, musical composer, was born at 
 Naples, 17th of November, 1787, or (according to Fetis) 28th of 
 November, 1785. He commenced the study of music at an early 
 age, learning harmony, accompaniment, counterpoint, and fugue 
 successively under Fazzi, Ruggi, Fenaroli, and Cherubim. He was 
 for some years, however, before being known as a composer, in 
 the army of Murat, where he served as a cavalry officer, termi- 
 nating his military career in the Russian campaign of 1812. In 
 1814, his opera, 'II Vascello 1' Occidente,' was produced at 
 Naples ; and for more than twenty years similar productions 
 flowed from his pen, brought out at Naples, Milan, Venice, 
 Rome, and Paris, in which last-named city he settled perma- 
 nently in 1827. In 1837 he succeeded Lesueur as member of 
 the Academic des Beaux Arts, and was director of the Gymnase 
 Musical Militaire. At the Conservatoire, he was member of the 
 Committee of Musical Studies, and professor of composition, 
 counterpoint, and fugue. Carafa's best opera, out of about thirty, 
 is'Abufar,' which came out with the support of Donzelli and 
 Lablache ; but the most successful is ' Le Solitaire,' which has 
 been several times revived. 
 
 CARAMUEL LOBKOWITZ, JUAN, a Spanish divine and 
 
 A A 
 
CAREY, WILLIAM, D.D. 
 
 CARLISLE, GEO. W. F., EARL OF. aC6 
 
 man of science, was born at Madrid on the 23rd of May, 1606. 
 It has been said of him that lie. was endowed with genius to the 
 eighth degree, with eloquence to the fifth, and with judgment to 
 t lie second. He became a member of the Cistercian order, and 
 was for some time professor of divinity in the University of 
 Alcala. He afterwards made a great reputation as a preacher in 
 the Low Countries, and graduated at Louvain, as doctor in 
 theology, on the 22nd of September, 1638. His winning address, 
 his great learning, and his eloquence, both in the pulpit and in 
 conversation, everywhere cmimiaiided preferment. He was made 
 Abbot of Melrose, and Vicar-general of his order in Great 
 Britain, without being called upon to visit these islands. When 
 political events forced him from his residence as Abbot of Dis- 
 eenburg, the Emperor Ferdinand III., to whose court lie was 
 accredited as agent of the King of Spain, conferred two abbeys 
 upon him, one at Vienna and the other at Prague. He bravely 
 assisted, at the head of a body of churchmen, in the defence of 
 the latter city, when it was besieged by the Swedes in 1648. In 
 1655 he was invited to Rome by Pope Alexander VII., who gave 
 him the united bishoprics of Campagna and Satriano, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, which he resigned in 167:!, on his nomina- 
 tion by the King of Spain to the See of Vigevano. Here he 
 died on the 8th of September, 1682, and was buried in his 
 cathedral church. 
 
 Caramuel was a very voluminous author, and a complete list 
 of his works, canonical, theological, political, and scientific, is to 
 be found in ' Niceron's Mcmoires des Homines Illustres.' The 
 following may be mentioned as illustrating the various directions 
 of his literary and learned activity : — ' Thanatosophia,' 4to, 
 Brussels, 1637 ; ' Theologia Regularis Sanctorum Benedkti, 
 Augustini, Francisci Regulas Coninientariis dilucidans,' folio, 
 Bruges, 1638, and Lyon, 1665 : 4to, Frankfurt, 1644, and Venice, 
 1651 ; ' Theologia Moralis ad prima caque clarissiina Principia 
 reducta,' folio, Louvain, 1643 ; ' Philippus Prudens, Lusitaniae, 
 Algarvia?, India?, Brasilia?, &c, legitimus Rex demonstratus,' 
 folio, Antwerp, 1638 ; ' Declaracion Mystica de las Annas de 
 Espatia,' folio, Brussels, 1639; ' Cadestes Metamorphoses, sive 
 circulates Planetarum Theories; in alias formas transliguratae,' 
 8vo, Brussels, 1639 ; 'Mathesis Audax : rationalem, naturalem, 
 supernaturalem, divinamque sapientiam Arithmeticis, Geo- 
 metricis, Catoptricis, Slaticis, Dioptricis, Astrononiicis, Musicis, 
 Chronicis, et Architectonicis fundamentis substruens expon- 
 ensque,'4to, Louvain, 1642 and 1644 ; ' DeNovcm Sideribus circa 
 Jovem visis,' 12mo, Louvain, 1643 ; and 'Severa Argumentandi 
 Methodus,' folio, Louvain, 1644. 
 
 CAREY, WILLIAM, D.D. [E. C. vol. vi. col. 985.] 
 
 CARISSIMI, GIOVANNI GIACOMO, Italian composer, is 
 known more by his works than by his life. Venice and Padua 
 have been named by different authorities as the place of his 
 birth, and 1582 as the year; but Pitoni, in his 'Historical 
 Sketch of the Roman Masters of Music,' has more recently stated 
 that Carissimi was born at Marino, near Rome, in 1604. After 
 tilling the post of maestro di capella at Assisi, when only twenty 
 years of age, he went to Rome in 1628, and for the remainder of 
 his life occupied a similar position in the Church of St. Apol- 
 linario, belonging to the Germanic college. As a composer, he 
 greatly improved recitative, introduced the style of cantata com- 
 bination of voices and instruments, substituted grace and variety 
 for monotony in bass accompaniments, and introduced orchestral 
 instruments in church music. His masses, oratorios, cantatas, 
 motetts, &c, are very numerous, but only a few of them have 
 been published. A large quantity of his MS. music was sold as 
 waste paper, when the Jesuit Colleges were suppressed. He 
 founded a newschool of music, which was further developed by his 
 pupils, Bassani, Cesti, Bononcini, and Scarlatti. His short treatise 
 on singing, the ' Ars Cantandi,' has appeared in several editions 
 in Germany. A comic piece by him is preserved, harmonising 
 the declination of the Latin pronoun, ' Hie, hac, hoc,' for four 
 voices. Carissimi died in 1674. 
 
 CARLETOISI, WILLIAM, a popular novelist and delineator 
 of Irish life and character, was born at Prillisk, Antrim, in 1798. 
 His father was poor, but well versed in the traditions of Ireland, 
 and William Carleton, while suffering many of the privations of a 
 peasant's lot, grew up with a strong sympathy with the feelings 
 and superstitions of his native country. He learned under a 
 hedge-schoolmaster ; served as tutor to a school at Glasslough, 
 and then started for Dublin to seek his fortune. He wrote in the 
 ' Christian Examiner ;' next, in 1S30, appeared his 1 Traits and 
 Stories of the Irish Peasantry/ a work which attracted much 
 attention by its freshness of style and graphic touches. In 1832 
 he published a second series of the same work ; in 1839, 'Far- 
 
 dorougha the Miser ;' in 1841, a series of tales, including '.Mis- 
 fortunes of Barney Branagan ;' in 1845, ' Valentine M'Clutchy ; ' 
 in 1846, ' Rody the Rover ; ' in 1847, the 'Black Prophet ; ; in 
 1849, 'The Tithe Proctor;' in 1855, ' Willy Reilly ;' in 1860, 
 ' The Evil Eye,' all remarkable as pictures of Irish character and 
 sentiment. Many of these works appeared in the 'Dublin 
 University Magazine.' Mr. Carleton, who for some years had a 
 pension of £200 from the Crown, died January 30, 1869. 
 
 CARLINI, FRANCESCO, Italian astronomer, born 1785, 
 produced, during more than half a century, a series of valuable 
 papers on the science to which his attention was mainly directed, 
 mostly relating to observations and researches conducted by him- 
 self. These papers, upwards of seventy in number, appeared at 
 various dales between 1807 and 1863, in the Milan ' Effemeridi 
 Astronomiche,' Zach's ' Monat. Corresp.,' Brugnatelli's ' Giornale,' 
 Lindenau's ' Zeitschriften,' the ' Memoirs of the Italian Society of 
 Modena,' the 'Biblio. Ital.,' the 'Nuovo Cincento,' &c. They 
 take a wide range in astronomical phenomena ; including refrac- 
 tion, the asteroids, solar tables, zenith observations, lunar in- 
 equalities, lunar parallax, Kepler's problem, the pole star, solar 
 eclipses, comets, astronomical clocks, hourly variations of the 
 barometer, solstitial observations, lunar perturbations, the zo- 
 diacal light, the distribution of heat, the constants of the baro- 
 meter, &c. Carlini made many valuable contributions in 
 1823-4-5, towards the measurement of an arc of the meridian in 
 Italy, by determining the longitudes of several Italian towns, and 
 by ascertaining the length of the seconds' pendulum at various 
 elevations in the Alps. He also wrote on the barometrical deter- 
 mination of the relative levels of the Black and Caspian Seas. 
 One of his earlier papers was published separately, 'Esposizione 
 di un Nuovo Metodo di Costruire le Tavole Astronomiche appli- 
 cato alle Tavole del Sole,' Milan, 8vo, 1810. He died August 29, 
 1862, aged 77. 
 
 CARLISLE, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK HOW- 
 ARD, EARL OF, a statesman and man of letters, the eldest son 
 of George, sixth Earl of Carlisle, by Lady Georgiana Dorothy 
 Cavendish, eldest daughter of William, fifth Duke of Devonshire, 
 was born in Hill-street, Berkeley-square, on the 18th of April, 
 1802. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, 
 where, and until the death of his father in 1848, he was known 
 as Lord Morpeth. At Oxford he distinguished himself especially 
 as a writer of verse, both English and Latin. In 1821 he won 
 the Chancellor's prize for a Latin poem, 'Eleusis,' and the New- 
 degate prize for English verse, ' Paestum ; a Prize Poem,' &c, 
 8vo, Oxford, 1821. He graduated first class in classics in 1823 ; 
 and two years after, accompanied his uncle, the Duke of 
 Devonshire, to assist at the coronation of the Emperor Nicolas 
 of Russia, whom, in his place in the House of Commons, as mem- 
 ber for Morpeth, he defended, in one of his earliest speeches, 
 against the attacks which were made upon the imperial policy 
 on the suppression of the Polish insurrection of 1830. After a 
 short Parliamentary connection with the borough of Morpeth, 
 the passing of the Reform Act found him member for Yorkshire, 
 the West Riding of which he subsequently represented from 1833 
 to 1841, when he lost his election. He retook his seat for this 
 constituency, however, in 1846, and held it until his call to the 
 House of Peers in 1848. 
 
 He turned to account the leisure he enjoyed as the rejected of 
 the West Riding, by paying a lengthened visit to the United 
 States of America ; and he made this tour the subject of a Lec- 
 ture, which he delivered before the members of the Leed.s 
 Mechanics' Institution, in December, 1850. He also lectured 
 before the same body on the ' Life and Writings of Pope,' and 
 the Lectures he here delivered, and repeated at various places 
 about the same time, were severally published in 8vo, London, 
 1851. His lordship was Chief Secretary of State for Ireland 
 from 1835 to 1841 ; was appointed Lord-lieutenant of the East 
 Riding of Yorkshire in 1847 ; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lan- 
 caster from 1849 to 1851 ; Lord Rector of Marischal College and 
 University, Aberdeen, in 1853 ; and in 1863 was admitted to the 
 freedom of the City of Derry. The great public event of Lord 
 Carlisle's life, however, was his appointment, in 1855, to be Lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland, an office which, with the exception of a 
 short interval upon the second accession of Lord Derby to power 
 in 1858, he continued to fill, with great popularity, until his 
 failing health compelled his resignation in August, 1864. He 
 died at Castle Howard on the 5th of the following December. 
 
 The Earl of Carlisle was a man of great kindliness, amiability, 
 and beneficence of disposition, of high moral character, and of 
 large and graceful literary culture. His works comprise a tragedy 
 in five acts, and in verse, entitled ' The Last of the Greeks ; or 
 
357 CARNE, JOSEPH. 
 
 the Fall of Constantinople,' 8vo, London, 1828 ; 'Lines on York- 
 shire,' privately printed, which, written in 1832, were edited 
 hy Lady Caroline Georgiana Lascelles, 4to, London, 1S66 ; a 
 Speech on 'Sanitary Reform,' 8vo, London, 1847, delivered in 
 the House of Commons on the 30th of March, in that year ; a 
 'Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters,' 8vo, London, 1854; 8vo, 
 Boston, U.S., 1855, the careful and impartial result of travels in 
 the East, commenced in June, 1853. Two other volumes have 
 been published posthumously, ' The Viceregal Speeches of the 
 late Earl of Carlisle, K.G.,' 8vo, Dublin, 1866, collected and 
 edited by J. J. Gaskin ; and ' Poems, by George Howard, Earl 
 of Carlisle, selected by his Sisters.,' 8vo, London, 1869. 
 
 CARNE, JOSEPH, the son of a banker, and a representative 
 of a family which has been established in Cornwall for three 
 centuries, and in Glamorganshire for a still longer period, was 
 born in 1776. From an early period in his life he devoted his 
 attention to the mineral resources of Cornwall. He succeeded 
 to his father's business as banker, and in that capacity took 
 a considerable share in promoting the principal fiscal opera- 
 tions connected with Cornish mines. As a scientific man, he 
 wrote several excellent papers on the rocks and minerals of his 
 native county, nearly all of which were contributed to the 
 Geological Society of Cornwall, in whose ' Transactions' they 
 may be found. The more important are : 'On the relative age 
 of the Veins of Cornwall,' vol. ii. pp. 119 — 128 ; ' On the Mineral 
 Productions and the Geology of the parish of St. Just,' vol. ii. 
 pp. 290—358 ; vi. pp. 47—50 ; ' On the Granite of the Western 
 part of Cornwall,' vol. iii. pp. 208 — 246 ; and ' An account of the 
 discovery of some varieties of Tin Ore in a vein, which have 
 been considered peculiar to streams, with remarks on Diluvial 
 Tin in general,' vol. iv. pp. 95 — 112. He was for several years 
 justice of the peace for Cornwall, and was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society and other learned institutions. He died Oct. 12, 1858. 
 
 CARNOVALE, FRA, known also as Bartolojieo Corradini, 
 an Italian painter, in his day the chief of the LTmbrian school, and 
 the reputed master of Bramante, was about 1460-1488 a Dominican 
 friar, and curate of San Cassiano, near Urbino. Nothing further 
 is known about him. A picture attributed to him is in the Na- 
 tional Gallery, No. 769, 1 St. Michael and the Dragon,' the figures 
 nearly life-size and, lor the period, well painted. In the Brera, 
 Milan, is a ' Virgin and Child, with Saints,' by him. Pungileoni 
 supposes that Giovanni Santi, the father of Raffaelle, learnt 
 painting of Fra Carnovale. 
 
 CARO, ANNIBALE, an Italian poet of the 16th century, was 
 born at Citta Nuova in 1507. He commenced life as tutor in 
 the family of a rich Florentine, named Ludovico Gaddi, to whose 
 brother, Giovanni, he afterwards became secretary. With this 
 patron he visited Rome, where, in conjunction with the brothers 
 Molza, he established the " Accademia della Virtu." After 
 Gaddi's death, in 1543, Caro entered the service of Pietro Ludo- 
 vico Farnese, a natural son of Pope Paul HI., and first Duke of 
 Parma and Piacenza, who employed him in various important 
 negociations. After the assassination of the duke, the favour he 
 had shown to Caro was continued by his three sons ; and through 
 the ease and competency which the kindness of such powerful 
 friends secured him, he was enabled to amass a valuable collec- 
 tion of antiquities, and especially of medals, as well as to devote 
 himself to the study of the Tuscan language, of which his various 
 works offer so pure and forcible an example. In his old age he 
 fixed his residence at Rome, occupying, in the summer months, 
 a country house at Frascati. He died at Rome in the year 1566. 
 Card's principal work, which he had scarcely finished at the time 
 of his death, is his excellent translation of the ' yEneid ' of Virgil, 
 which was posthumously published, in 4to, Venice, 1581, 2 vols., 
 Paris, 1760. Besides translations of the ' Rhetoric' of Aristotle, 
 and of two ' Orations ' of Gregory Nazianzcn, and various 
 humorous writings, Caro is the author of ' Le Reine,' 4to, Venice, 
 1569, a volume of elegant poems which have been frequently 
 reprinted; and 'Le Lettere,' 2 vols., Venice, 1573-1574, &c. 
 New editions of his works were published in 6 vols., Venice, 
 1757, and in 8 vols., Milan, 1806. 
 
 CAROLAN, TURLOUGH 0', the most genuine modern 
 representative of the ancient Irish bards, was born in the county 
 of Westmeath in 1670. Being poor, and having lost his sight by 
 small-pox in early youth, he was thrown upon his own resources 
 for a livelihood. His musical genius was the leading feature of 
 his character. Not only could he repeat an elaborate composi- 
 tion after once hearing it, but his facility for composing new 
 tunes was very great. On one occasion he composed a lengthened 
 piece for the harp impromptu, since known as ' Oarolan's Concerto.' 
 He combined something of the German and Italian styles of 
 
 CARUS, JULIUS VICTOR. 358 
 
 music with that of the native Irish. He travelled about Ireland, 
 composing as he went, and was always welcome as a bard at the 
 hospitable houses of the gentry. Writing the words of his songs, 
 as well as composing the tunes, he indulged in rather exaggerated 
 flattery of the beauty and virtues of those who befriended him. 
 Carolan died in 1738, leaving six daughters and one son. The 
 son, a harpist, published a collection of his father's music in 
 1747, with a very laudatory preface. 
 
 CARPOCGT, VITTORE, called Scarpuccia by Vasari, an 
 eminent Venetian painter, was born about 1450. He is believed 
 to have been a scholar of Luigi Vivarini ; was one of the first of 
 the Venetians who painted in oil ; was one of the three artists 
 called in to report on the works of Giorgione in the Fondaco dei 
 Tedeschi, Venice, in 1508, and was still living in 1522. Carpocei 
 was among the best painters of his day. His drawing was bold, 
 firm, and correct ; his colouring rich, harmonious, and true ; he 
 designed well, and worked with great freedom and facility. His 
 most celebrated extant work is the series of eight pictures in the 
 Gallery of the Academy, Venice, illustrating the legend of St. 
 Ursula. In the National Gallery is a fine painting by him, No. 
 750, ' The Madonna and Child enthroned : the Doge Giovanni 
 Moncenigo in adoration,' it was purchased at Venice in 1805, from 
 Count Moncenigo, the Doge's descendant, for 3,400?. 
 
 CARRADORI, GIACOMO, was born at Prato, 7th June, 
 1758, and died November, 1818. He practised medicine, and 
 studied physics and chemistry, in connection with which he has 
 published a number of works which were of interest at the time. 
 His fame rests on his papers on the superficial attraction of 
 liquids ('Sull' Attrazion di Superficie '), embodied in two 
 memoirs in the Memor. di Matem. e di Fisica della Soc. Ital. 
 delle Scienze (vols. xi. and xii.), and the discussions consequent 
 thereon, inserted in the French ' Annales de Chimie,' for 1800, 
 1803, and in the ' Giornale di Fisica di Brugnatelli' from 1807 
 to 1816, and which have supplied a large amount of material in 
 support of the theory of the surface tension of liquids, which is 
 now occupying the attention of the scientific world. 
 
 CARTIER, JACQUES, the discoverer of the river St. Law- 
 rence, was born at St. Malo, December 31, 1494. Brought up 
 as a sailor, and excited by the discoveries of Columbus and Vasco 
 de Gama, he made an offer to Philippe de Chabot, Admiral of 
 France, to explore the coast of America, and extend the dis- 
 coveries recently made in that region. His offer being accepted, 
 he was placed in command of an expedition by Francis I., and 
 started from St. Malo, 20th April, 1534. Until then, Newfound- 
 land was believed to be part of the mainland or continent, but 
 Cartier found it to be an island, and discovered the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence behind it. Returning to France in September, his 
 report excited interest, and he was placed in command of another 
 expedition, larger and better equipped, which set sail from St. 
 Malo, 19th May, 1535. On this occasion he not only discovered 
 the great river St. Lawrence, by following the coasts of the Gulf 
 westward, but penetrated as far as what is now called Montreal. 
 His crew suffered, however, severely from scurvy, and returned 
 in a very shattered condition to St. Malo, which he reached 16th 
 July, 1536. He made a third voyage in 1540-42, extending his 
 discoveries in that region, the narrative of which is included 
 in Hakluyt's Collection. Charges of malversation were brought 
 against him, and an inquiry was instituted, when he was not 
 merely acquitted, but declared to have appropriated a portion of 
 his own property to defray the expenses of the expedition. 
 Francis conferred on him letters of nobility, and he retired to an 
 estate he owned at Limoilin. The year of his death is not known. 
 He was living in 1552. 
 
 * CARUS, JULIUS VICTOR, the son of Ernst August Cams, 
 professor of surgery at Dorpat, was born August 25, 1823, at 
 Leipzig. After having passed through the University of his 
 native town, he became an assistant medical attendant at the 
 George Hospital. In 1849 he commenced a sort of educational 
 tour, making stays of varying duration at Wurzburg. Freiburg, 
 and at Oxford, where he was the custodian of the Museum of Com- 
 parative Anatomy, and finally settled down at Leipzig, in 1851, 
 as professor of comparative anatomy and director of the anatomi- 
 cal museum in the University. His principal works are : ' Zur 
 naheren Kenntniss des Generations-wechsels,' 1849 ; ' System der 
 thierischen Morphologie,' 1853 ; and 'Ueberdie Leptocephaliden,' 
 1861. He was the editor of ' Icones Zootomica3,' 1857, &c; and 
 in conjunction with Engelmann he produced the 'Bibliotheca 
 Zoologica; 1862, an admirable work, the execution of which de- 
 manded immense labour and research. This last work added 
 considerably to his reputation, and we believe he is now engaged 
 in drawing up the classified index to scientific papers published 
 
S19 CARUS, KARL GUSTAV. 
 
 from about 1800 to 1863, which the Royal Society propose 
 issuing. In connection with Gerstacker, he is bringing out a 
 'Handbuch der Zoologie.'of which the vertebrates has 1 >een under- 
 taken by Cams. The first half of the lirst volume appeared in 18G8. 
 The second volume is devoted to the invertebrates, and appeared 
 in 1863 ; about a third of this volume, or that part whirh relates 
 to the annelids, echinoderms, coelenterates, and protozoans, was 
 done by Carus. When completed, the work will form perhaps 
 the most complete guide to systematic zoology yet published. 
 
 CARUS, KARL GUSTAV, an eminent biologist, was born 
 January 3, 1789, at Leipzig, in which town hi father carried on 
 the business of a dyer. His education was received at Leipzig. 
 In 1804 he commenced his studies at the University, and at, first 
 devoted himself more especially to chemistry, in order to be able 
 to assist in his father's works, but lie soon abandoned this idea, 
 and determined upon giving his attention mainly to anatomy, 
 and upon qualifying himself for the medical profession. In 
 1812 he graduated as M.D., and soon after commenced his career 
 as teacher, by delivering the first special course of lectures given 
 at Leipzig on comparative anatomy. He then became an enthu- 
 siastic student of midwifery and of painting. In the war of 
 1813, he was entrusted with the direction of the French hospital 
 at Pfaffendorf, and in 1814 he removed to Dresden, where he had 
 accepted the posts of professor of midwifery and director of the 
 lying-in hospital in connection with the newly established 
 Medieo-chirurgical Academy. In 1827 he added to his reputa- 
 tion by a course of lectures on anthropology, which was succeeded 
 by a course on psychology in 1829. In 1827 he was appointed 
 physician to Prince Frederick August, afterwards King of 
 Saxony, and in 1828 he accompanied him on a tour through 
 Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. In 1862 he was elected presi- 
 dent of the Imperial Leopold ( 'aroli Academy of Natural Marvels. 
 His writings are exceedingly numerous, and are remarkable for 
 the immense extent of their range, their methodical arrangement, 
 and lucidity of exposition. Many of them have taken their place 
 as standard works of reference or as text books. They relate to 
 anatomy, physiology, psychology, geography, and painting. As 
 an artist he is best known for his landscapes. The following are 
 a few of his more important works, but in addition, he has 
 written numerous papers, a list of which is given in the Royal 
 Society's ' Catalogue of Scientific Papers.' ' Yersuch einer Dars- 
 tellung des Nervensystems und insbesondere der Gehirns,' 1814 ; 
 ' Lehrbuch der Zootomie,' 1818, 2nd edition, 1834 ; ' Lehrbuch 
 der Gynakologie,' 3rd edition, 1838; ' Erlauterungstafeln zur 
 vergleichenden Anatomie,' 1826-1855 ; ' Entdeckung einer ein- 
 faehen vom Herzen aus beschleunigten Blutkreislaufes in den 
 Larvennetzfliigliehenlnsecten,' 1827; 'Grundziige der vergleichen- 
 den Anatomie und Physiologie,' 1828. ' Briefe uber Landschafts- 
 Malerei,' 2nd edition, 1S35 ; ' England und Schottland im Jahr. 
 1844, 1845,' of which an English version appeared in 1846 ; 
 ' Grundziige einer neuen und wissenschaftlich begriindeten 
 Cranioscopie (Schadel-lehre),' 1841 ; ' Die Proportions-lehre der 
 menschlichen Gestalt,' 1854; 'Symbolik der menschlichen 
 Gestalt,' 1853 ; ' Ueber die typisch gewordener Abbildungen 
 menschlichen Kopfformen, etc.,' 1863 ; ' Lebenserinnerungen und 
 Denkwurdigkeiten,' 1865 ; and ' Vergleichende Psychologie,' 
 1866. He died in June, 1870. 
 
 * CASELLI, GIOVANNI, one of the improvers of the electric 
 telegraph, was born at Sienna, 25th of May, 1815. He studied 
 the physical sciences under Nobili, of whom he published a 
 Memoir in 1837. He took holy orders in 1836, and attended to 
 ecclesiastical duties for several years ; but having been driven 
 into exile from Tuscany, during the troubles of 1849, he was 
 induced to adopt science as an occupation after his return. In 
 1854 he started a scientific journal, ' La Recreazione, Giornale de' 
 Scienze Fisiche e di Arte.' About 1856 he introduced his system 
 of pantelegraphy, or auto-telegraphy, by which a telegram preserves 
 its original character or alphabetic form when re-produced for 
 the receiver. The message is written on a slip of metallized 
 paper, or foil, coiled on a barrel rotated by clockwork ; and it is 
 received on a strip of chemically prepared paper, also coiled on 
 a rotating barrel ; the one writing is a counterpart of the other, 
 in size, shape, and character. After years of experiments and im- 
 provements, Oaselli succeeded in having his plan taken up by 
 the French and Russian Governments in 1865, for use on certain 
 railways. He has also invented an electro-motive machine. 
 
 CASENTINO, JACOPO DI, an eminent Italian painter, 
 whose real name was Jacopo Landini, was born about 1310, at 
 Prato Vecchio, in the Casentino. He was a scholar of Taddeo 
 Gaddi, whose manner is very evident in his earlier works. He 
 settled in Florence, assisted in the foundation of the Florentine 
 
 CAUCIIY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS. 
 
 Academy, 1350, and was admitted to the Guild of Painters in 
 1351. He is said to have been an architect as well as a painter. 
 He died at Prato Vecchio about 1390. Casentino was especially 
 distinguished as a painter in fresco. His works are now very 
 rare. Portions of his frescoes remain in the Church of Or San 
 Michele, Florence, and in the Cathedral of Arezzo. The Na- 
 tional Gallery possesses a large altar-piece by him, No. 580, 
 brought from the church of San Giovanni, Prato Vecchio. It is 
 painted in tempera on wood, and consists of a central picture 
 representing ' St. John the Evangelist lifted up into Heaven,' 
 among patriarchs, evangelists, and fathers of the Church ; and 
 on the other principal panels, 'The Ascension of Christ;' the 
 ' Casting down of the Gates of Hell ;' the ' Donor with ins family 
 and patron saints.' Over these are the ' Archangels Michael 
 and Tobias.' The three upper panels represent the Trinity, the 
 Virgin, and the Angel of the Annunciation ; while in the pre- 
 della below, are St. John baptizing catechumens, distributing 
 alms, in the Isle of Patmos, and liberated from the boiling 
 cauldron. 
 
 CASLON, WILLIAM, eminent for his skill in type-founding, 
 was born at Halesowen, Worcestershire, in 1692. After serving an 
 apprenticeship to an engraver of gun-locks and barrels, he esta- 
 blished himself in business on his own account. The delicacy of 
 his workmanship led him also to be employed in engraving or 
 cutting stamps and punches for ornamental bookbinding. In the 
 early part of the 18th century, the types for book-printing being 
 coarse and ill-shaped, Mr. Bowyer, and other printers, invited 
 Caslon to turn his attention to that subject ; and, by the aid of 
 capital supplied by them, he entirely changed the art of type- 
 founding in England. Arabic types for the Christian Knowledge 
 Society's use, Coptic types for a new edition of the Pentateuch, 
 beautiful new types for standard Phiglish works, and especially, 
 a new fount of the type called Roman pica, raised his name to 
 great eminence. Caslon, after acquiring a handsome fortune, 
 died 23rd of January, 1766. The typefoundry of Messrs. Caslon 
 is >till kept up. 
 
 ( 'A^S, ( JENERAL LEWIS. [E. O. vol. ii. col. 104.] Under 
 President Buchanan, General Cass was made Secretary of State 
 in 1857, and he held this jiosition until the breaking out of the 
 Civil War, when he retired into private life. He died at Detroit, 
 Michigan, on the 17th of June, 1866. 
 
 * CASSIN, JOHN, American ornithologist, was born near 
 Chester, in Pennsylvania, September 6, 1813. Since 1834 he 
 has resided at Philadelphia, engaged in studying birds, and in 
 publishing memoirs relating to them, chiefly of a diagnos- 
 tical character. Up to 1863 these numbered fifty-six, to which 
 about a dozen have since been added ; most of them have ap- 
 peared in the ' Proceedings ' and 'Journal' of the Academy of 
 Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. He lias also written ' Birds 
 of California and Texas;' 'Synopsis of the Birds of North 
 America ;' ' Ornithology of the United States Exploring Expedi- 
 tion ; ' the ornithological portion of Gilliss's ' Astronomical Expe- 
 dition to Chili,' and some of the chapters on birds in the ' Pacific 
 Railroad Explorations and Surveys.' 
 
 CATALANI. ANGELICA, a celebrated singer, was born at 
 Sinigaglia, Papal States, in October, 1779. Having, when in 
 a convent in early life, attracted much attention by the range 
 and beauty of her voice she began to study for public singing in 
 1794, and made her first appearance at Naples, in opera, in 1795. 
 After going the round of the chief Italian cities between that 
 year and 1803, she went in 1804 to Lisbon, where she married 
 M. Valabregue, an officer attached to the French embassy. After 
 a brief engagement at Paris, she came in 1806 to London, where 
 her success eclipsed everything until then known. In four 
 months she received 10,000/. for singing in operas and concerts 
 in London, and afterwards reaped an enormous harvest in the 
 provinces. Her public performances were mostly in England 
 until 1814. An opera management speculation in Paris in 
 1816-17 failed; after which she sang in most of the chief cities 
 of Europe for some years. Her last public appearance was in 
 1827, but she survived until June 13th, 1849. Catalani's voice 
 had a wonderful range and power, reaching up to the note called 
 in French contre sol ; but she had never been really well trained 
 as a vocalist, and her dramatic powers as an actress in opera were 
 but small. 
 
 CATTERMOLE, GEORGE. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 123.] This 
 
 very clever painter died at his residence, Cedars-road, Clapham 
 Common, on the 24th of July. 1868, in his 68th year. 
 
 CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 125.] 
 Baron Cauchy died on the 23rd of May, 1857, at his country- 
 seat, Sceaux, after a short illness. 
 
361 
 
 CAUMONT, ARCISSE DE. 
 
 * CAUMONT, ARCISSE DE, an eminent French archaeolo- 
 gist, was horn at Bayeux, in Calvados, August 28, 1802. Having 
 completed the ordinary educational course, and possessing a suf- 
 ficient fortune, he studied geology with M. Lamouroux ; founded 
 with him the Societe Linneene de Norinandie, and published 
 memoirs, accompanied with geological maps, on the geology of 
 the Arrondissement de Bayeux, 1824 ; the Departement de la 
 Manche, 1825 ; and the Departement du Calvados, 1828. But 
 his attention had been strongly directed to the archaeology of his 
 native district, and gradually this became his absorbing pursuit. 
 He had delivered in 1825-30, courses of lectures at Caen, on 
 archaeology, which formed the basis of his first important publi- 
 cation in this line, 'Cours d'Antiquites Monumentales,' 10 vols. 
 8vo, with 100 plates, 1830-39. The volume on mediaeval archi- 
 tecture exciting much attention, he afterwards remodelled and 
 published it separately, under the title ' Histoire sommaire de 
 l'Architecture religieuse, militaire, et civile,' 8vo, with atlas of 
 plates, 4to, Caen, 1837. This work, in which the author gave a 
 careful chronological arrangement of French Gothic architecture, 
 met with great success, and has done more than any in the lan- 
 guage to popularise the study of the mediaeval architecture of 
 France. Under the title of ' Abecedaire ou Rudiment d'Arche- 
 ologie (Architecture religieuse, civile, militaire),' 3 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris and Caen, 1853, &c, the work, in a more compact and 
 convenient form, and illustrated with an abundance of vigorous 
 and characteristic woodcuts, has passed through several editions, 
 has been adopted as a text-book in the colleges and upper 
 schools of France, and forms by far the clearest and most instruc- 
 tive hand-book of mediaeval architecture yet published. The fifth 
 edition of the ' Architecture religieuse,' 1867, was enlarged to 
 2 vols. 8vo. His ' Histoire de l'Art dans l'ouest de la France, 
 depuis les temps les plus recules jusqu'au xvii e . siecle,' 6 vols. 
 8vo, 1831-40, secured his nomination as corresponding member 
 of the Academie des Inscriptions. His investigation of the 
 antiquities of Normandy brought him into connection with a 
 great number of persons of similar tastes, and in the hope of 
 inducing them to co-operate in studying and preserving the 
 remaining monuments, he founded the Societe des Antiquaires 
 ile Normandie, and later, the Congres Scientifiques de la France, 
 and the Societe Franchise pour la Conservation et la Description 
 des Monuments historiques. This last society, of which M. De 
 Caumont is director, has, under his management, well fulfilled 
 both parts of its title. Its ' Bulletin Monumental,' 30 vols. 8vo, 
 Caen, 1834, &c, edited from the first by M. De Caumont, contains 
 a large number of monographs by him, some on subjects of his- 
 torical interest, like the Bayeux tapestry (vol. viii.), of consider- 
 able length, and largely illustrated. M. De Caumont has also 
 contributed many papers to the ' Annuaires de Normandie,' and 
 to the ' Journal de lTnstitut des Provinces,' of which institute he 
 is director. He has likewise edited the ' Statistique Monu- 
 mentale du Calvados,' 3 vols. 8vo, Caen, 1847-58, for the most 
 part republished from the ' Bulletin Monumental.' 
 
 CAUS, SOLOMON DE. The idea of employing steam as a 
 mechanical agent for the purpose of raising water, heavy weights, 
 &c, is given to the Marquis of Worcester, and the subsequent 
 improvements are assigned exclusively to Englishmen. It was 
 therefore witli some surprise that in 1829, and again with more 
 force in 1857, a statement was received from the powerful pen 
 of M. Arago to the effect that the steam engine is not an 
 English, but a French invention. Arago's paper appeared in 
 the Annuaire of the Bureau des Longitudes for 1837, from 
 which it appears that in the Annuaire for 1829, at the request 
 of the students of the Ecole Polytechnique, he had endeavoured 
 to trace in a chronological series the improvements which the 
 steam engine had been subjected to, from its origin to the time 
 of the inquiry. And he expressed his belief that he should 
 have to refer to English mechanicians only ; but on a closer 
 examination he was led to the conclusion that Solomon De Caus 
 (Cauls or Caux) preceded the Marquis of Worcester by forty- 
 eight years. In order to transfer the glory from Britain to 
 France it was necessary to prove De Caus to be a Frenchman. 
 Montucla, in his ' History of Mathematics,' refers to him only 
 as the author of a treatise on Perspective. Later works on 
 biography state that he began and ended his life in Normandy. 
 What little is known of him is derived from the prefaces to his 
 works, and the confusion respecting his country seems to have 
 arisen from the fact, that being of the reformed religion, he 
 entered the service of several Protestant princes as engineer. 
 In 1612 he was in the service of the Prince of Wales, after- 
 wards Charles I. In his work entitled ' Les Eaisons des Forces 
 mouvaiitcs,' published at Frankfurt in 1615, he styles himself 
 
 "Ingenieur et Architecte de S. Altesse Palatine Electorale." 
 From this it has been supposed that Caus was a German, hut a* 
 Arago remarks, it is not probable that a German would write in 
 French in his own country. Moreover, in the dedication to the 
 Most Christian King (Louis XIII.), these words precede the 
 signature :— " de Votre Majeste le tres obeissant Subject;" and 
 lastly, in the licence, the word subject is again used. " Nostre 
 bien aime Solomon de Caus, maistre ingenieur, cstant de present 
 an service de nostre cher et bien aime" cousin le prince Electeur 
 Palatin, nous a fait dir, &c, d&sirant gratifier le diet de Caus, 
 comme estant Nostre subject," &c. 
 
 In this work Caus gives a theorem that water will ascend, by 
 the assistance of fire, higher than its level. The apparatus by 
 which this is proved consists of a copper ball, with a vent pipe 
 attached to the side, by which water is introduced, and the tube 
 is then closed. There is also another pipe, passing nearly to the 
 bottom of the ball and rising to some height above it. When 
 the ball is placed on the fire, the elasticity of the steam acting 
 on the surface of the water forces it up the tube and out in the 
 form of a jet. 
 
 Arago was somewhat feebly replied to by Mr. Ainger in two 
 lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, and published in its 
 Journal. M. Arago's reply to tlris criticism will be found in 
 the Annuaire for 1837, p. 310. 
 
 The discussion as to whether Caus or the Marquis of Worcester 
 invented a machine of little or no practical value, even though 
 worked by steam, is of small consequence, and does not affect 
 the fact that the steam engine and the locomotive have emerged 
 at the hands of Englishmen from rudimentary forms to their 
 present power and usefulness. 
 
 De Caus had correct notions as to the important principle of 
 the lever, known as the principle of virtual velocities ; the effects 
 of toothed wheels and of the screw being determined by its aid. 
 
 Among his other works may be mentioned ' Institution har- 
 monique,' Frankfurt, 1615. ' Hortus Palatinus,' 1620, folio, 
 giving an account of the Garden at Heidelberg, which was laid 
 out under the direction of Caus, and finished in six months. 
 ' La Pratique et Demonstration des Horloges solaires,' Paris, 
 1624, folio, dedicated to the Cardinal de Richelieu. In this year 
 also appeared a second edition of the ' Raisons des Forces 
 mouvantes,' Paris, in which the author styles himself engineer 
 and architect to the King. After this he is lost sight of, but he 
 is supposed to have died in 1635. 
 
 CAVAIGNAC, GENERAL LOUIS EUGENE. [E. C. vol. 
 ii. col. 126.] General Cavaignac remained quietly in retirement 
 at his villa, near Mans, till 1857, when he was elected member 
 of the Corps Legislatif for the fourth arrondisement of Paris. A 
 few weeks later he was seized with a sudden illness, and died on 
 the 28th October, 1857. 
 
 CAVOUR, CAMILLO BENSO, CONTE DI, a statesman 
 celebrated as the first Premier of the new kingdom of Italy, was 
 born at Turin on the 10th of August, 1810. He was the younger 
 son of the Marchese Michele di Oavour, the representative of a 
 noble Piedmontese family, which had been long settled in the 
 neighbouring town of Chieri, and which is said to have accom- 
 panied the Emperor Barbarossa from Germany. His godmother 
 was the Princess Borghese, sister of the Emperor Napoleon I. 
 When ten years old he became a pupil in the Accademia Mili- 
 tare of Turin, where he distinguished himself so much in mathe- 
 matics as to be made at the age of 16 an officer of engineers, in 
 which capacity he assisted in the construction of various fortifi- 
 cations. In 1831, partly from an impatience of garrison life, 
 and partly from the disfavour with which certain liberal expres- 
 sions were received by the King, he resigned his commission, 
 and for the next four or five years devoted himself to the 
 improvement of his father's estates by the application to their 
 culture of modern scientific methods. He took, however, the 
 greatest interest in the political events of the time, and advo- 
 cated a peaceable reform in society and government, to the 
 exclusion of violence and revolution. He paid repeated visits to 
 Switzerland ; and in 1835 and during the following years made 
 himself personally acquainted with the agricultural, industrial, 
 social, and political institutions of France, and especially of 
 England. Returning to his native country in 1842, lie endea- 
 voured to establish useful and benevolent corporations there, 
 but was to a great extent baffled through the influence of the 
 priests with the Government. Yet he joined with other able 
 men in founding the Agricultural Society, an association which 
 soon became powerful for good upon the prosperity of the 
 country. For the next five years there is little trace of the 
 direction of his activity, except in a few literary productions. 
 
CENNINI, CENNINO. 
 
 364 
 
 Soon after his return from Great Britain he published his ' Con- 
 siderations on the Present State and Future Prospects of Ire- 
 land ' in the ' Bibliothcque Universelle ' of Geneva, which were 
 subsequently translated into English ; and it is known that he 
 wrote an article on Piedmontese railways in a French periodical. 
 In the year 1847 he established a first-class political daily news- 
 paper, ' II Risorgimento,' in partnership with his friend, Count 
 Cesare Balbo, and with Count Santa Rosa, the Chevalier Carlo 
 Buoncompagni, and one of the d'Azeglios as associates. This 
 journal became one of the most influential organs of the middle 
 classes ; and there are to be found in it the germs of the 
 " Cavourian Ideas," the theories of political and administrative 
 reform, the sober aspirations after Italian unity, or " unifica- 
 tion," as it was then called, the belief, at that time strong, in the 
 possibility of combining Naples, Rome, and Piedmont in a 
 Liberal crusade, and the bold views respecting the temporalities 
 of the Church which have since become identified with the name 
 of Cavour. 
 
 During the stormy period which followed the cession of the 
 constitution by Carlo Alberto, Count Cavour redoubled his 
 exertions. But the turning-point of his life was the fatal cam- 
 paign that ended with Novara, after which lie appeared as the 
 expounder of a policy of compromise, as the occupant of a place 
 between the " moderates " and the party of action, reconciling 
 the practical aims of the one with the comprehensive patriotism 
 of the other. His success in forming a party which stood be- 
 tween reaction and revolution was what first gave him real 
 position as a statesman. In 1849 he entered the Chamber of 
 Deputies as member for the first electoral college of Turin ; and 
 in the following year succeeded Santa Rosa as Minister of Com- 
 merce and Agriculture, and was also, in 1851, entrusted with 
 the. Ministry of Finance. The principal measures which charac- 
 terised his home rjolicy were the inauguration of free-trade, the 
 promotion of education, the appropriation of monastic property 
 to State purposes, the development of the material resources of 
 the country by means of railways, the improvement of postal 
 communication, the reform of finances, and the entire reorganisa- 
 tion of the army and national fortifications. During the parlia- 
 mentary recess of 1852 he took the opportunity of once more 
 visiting England, where he remained until recalled by the King 
 in November, on the occurrence of a ministerial crisis, which 
 left Cavour, as the successor of M. d'Azeglio, in the position of 
 President of the Council. From this period the " unification " 
 of Italy and the consolidation of her liberty were the professed 
 objects of all Cavour's exertions ; and everything that followed, 
 including the futile attempt to obtain a liberal Concordat from 
 Rome, and even the part taken by Piedmont in the Crimean 
 war, seemed but the legitimate development of these precon- 
 ceived ideas. The alliance formed with England and France 
 against Russia, and the despatch to the Crimea of a contingent, 
 which reflected credit on itself and on the military abilities of 
 its leader, General della .Marmora, was a great step towards the 
 admission of Sardinia, as if by anticipation of an Italian 
 monarchy, into the councils of Europe as a sixth great Power. 
 At the peace, Cavour accompanied King Victor Emmanuel to 
 London and Paris, and took an active part in the congress of 
 the latter city, where he officially called the attention of the 
 representatives of the Great Powers of Europe to the cause of 
 Italy. In 1858 he was the guest of the Emperor of the French 
 at the baths of Plombieres, and the result of this visit, co- 
 operating with the assumed and understood community of in- 
 terests and antipathies, was recognised in the Franco-Sardinian 
 alliance, which had for its object the deliverance of the Penin- 
 sula from the domination of Austria. On the 29th of January, 
 1859, the 'Moniteur' of Paris announced that "the mutual 
 interests of France and Sardinia had influenced the two sovereigns 
 to draw more closely the bonds between them by a family 
 alliance ; " and on the 30th of the same month the marriage of 
 Prince Napoleon with the Princess Clotilde of Savoy was 
 solemnized at Turin. On the 25th of March, Count Cavour, at 
 the invitation of the French Emperor, paid a visit to Paris, 
 where he omitted nothing that might be necessary to secure the 
 interests of his country, whether the decision of Napoleon III. 
 should be for peace or war with Austria. The voting of large sums 
 in the Sardinian Chamber on the 12th of April for the fortifica- 
 tions of Alessandria was regarded by Austria as a menace, and 
 eleven clays afterwards Count Buol's ultimatum was presented at 
 Turin. Fortunately for Count Cavour, this ultimatum was 
 insulting enough to rally round him the whole country, and in 
 rejecting it, which he did on the 26th of April, he seemed to 
 throw upon Austria all the responsibility of the war. The 
 
 passage of the Ticino by the Austrians on the 29th initiated a 
 campaign of 70 days, during which were fought the sanguinary 
 battles of Magenta and Solferino. At the end of July, in con- 
 sequence of the disappointment of his hopes by the strange and 
 sudden peace of Villafranca, Cavour retired from office ; to 
 which, however, on the breaking down of the Ratazzi ministry, 
 he was recalled, nominally by the King, but really by the 
 people, on the 21st of January, 1800. He now contrived, by 
 the treaty of Zurich, to put a new reading on Villafranca. 
 'Lombard y, surrendered by Austria to France, was transferred to 
 Sardinia; the duchies and the legations were "annexed ;" and 
 Savoy and Nice were "re-annexed to France" as the avowed 
 price of the Emperor Napoleon's support in the formation of 
 the Italian kingdom, or at least his armed neutrality. At the 
 same time the success of General Garibaldi seemed to prepare 
 the way for the application of Count Cavour's principles to the 
 whole of Italy: Garibaldi landed in Sicily, and soon drove out the 
 Bourbons. His expedition was fitted out in the Sardinian ports, 
 but all knowledge of it was officially denied. When, however, 
 it succeeded almost beyond expectation, and King Francis was 
 obliged to leave Naples, Cavour accepted the situation, and 
 came forward to appropriate the spoil ; and Victor Emmanuel 
 made his entry into Naples on the 7th of November, 1860. The 
 reduction of Gaeta by the Sardinian forces, and the defeat of the 
 Papal troops under De la Moriciere, caused Victor Emmanuel to 
 be received as King, de facto, at least, of all Italy, except Venice 
 and a remnant of the Papal States. These exceptions were 
 enough to mar the absolute completeness of the design, so far as 
 Count Cavour himself was concerned, and he died at Turin on 
 the 6th of June, 1861, leaving the full accomplishment of his 
 purpose to the efforts of his successors. 
 
 He was of a full habit of body, and so neglectful of health 
 that he made one inordinate and luxurious meal serve for the 
 whole day, quietly assuring his physician that he " could not 
 spare time for more." When he at last fell ill, he was treated 
 according to the Sangrado method, still prevalent in Italy, 
 though abandoned in most other civilised countries, and was, it 
 is said, literally bled to death. Within the short period of five 
 days his physicians attempted to cure him of four or more dif- 
 ferent complaints— congestion of the brain, typhus fever, inter- 
 mittent pernicious fever, brain fever, dropsy, and, lastly gout ; 
 and for all these diseases they could exhibit but one sovereign 
 remedy, the lancet. Count Cavour suffered and died, to the 
 intense grief and despair of Turin and of Italy ; personally, he 
 had the power of attracting love, but it is not known that any 
 one could boast of having enjoyed his friendship. " He stood," 
 said the 'Times' of June 10th, 1861, "alone in his greatness 
 . . . . For him politics was no more than agriculture, 
 trade, or industry. It was a sphere of activity he looked for — 
 work for his restless spirit, for his colossal faculties, for his 
 undaunted energies. In early youth he Avas an ardent student ; 
 in his prime of manhood a deep speculator ; in mature age an 
 earnest, eager statesman. By turns he stored his mind, he 
 enriched his family, he made his country. Foresight and steadi- 
 ness chained fortune to his chariot ; he met with no failure. 
 He loved politics for exertion's sake. Power had become a 
 necessity for him ; he pined and fretted at Chieri in 1859, 
 during those few months of comparative inaction ; he would 
 have died of weariness if, upon the Roman and Venetian ques- 
 tion being solved, prudence had suggested a retirement under 
 the shade of his laurels." 
 
 CENNINI, CENNINO, a Florentine painter and writer on 
 art, was born probably about 1360 at Colle di Valdelsa. He 
 was a pupil of Agnolo Gaddi, and practised chiefly in fresco, but 
 never attained much distinction as a painter. A series of frescoes 
 by him, representing the history of the Cross, are still extant in 
 the Croce di Gionio Chapel in the church of the Franciscan 
 convent, Volterra. His title to remembrance is, however, his 
 ' Treatise on Painting,' which is of exceeding value, as giving a 
 clear and tolerably minute account of the processes of the best 
 artists of the 14th century in fresco, distemper, and oil painting, the 
 j>ainting of miniatures in MSS., and mosaic. In this treatise Cen- 
 nmi mentions that he was for twelve years the pupil of Agnolo 
 Gaddi (who died about 1387) ; now Agnolo was the son and pupil 
 of Taddeo Gaddi, the godson, and for twenty-four years the pupil 
 and assistant of Giotto : we have thus through few hands the 
 traditions of the fathers of modern painting, and from Cennini's 
 evident care and conscientiousness, we may be certain that we 
 have in his work an accurate account of the materials and prac- 
 tice of the chief painters of the 14th century ; whilst Vasari, the 
 scholar of Michelangelo and the companion of most of the painters 
 
865 CHABERT, J. B., MARQUIS DE. 
 
 of the grandest period of the art in Italy, in his life of Agnolo 
 Gaddi has noticed Cennini's treatise, and pointed out what addi- 
 tional pigments were in use in his day. The treatise was pub- 
 lished for the first time from a MS. in the Vatican, under the 
 title, ' Trattato della Pittura, messo in luce con annotazione del 
 Cav. G. Tamhroni,' 8vo, Rome, 1821. From the statement at 
 the end of this MS. that it was written in 1437, " ex Stincarum" 
 i.e., in the prison for debtors at Florence called " Le Stinche," it 
 was rather hastily concluded that Cennini was confined there in 
 his old age, and beguiled the tediousness of his imprisonment by 
 writing his treatise. But no reference is made by Vasari or any 
 other early authority to such an event ; the records of the prison 
 have been searched, and show no entry of his name, whilst it 
 if) known that the prisoners in Le Stinche were in those days 
 permitted to earn money by copying MSS. ; and, finally, other 
 and better MSS. in the Laurenzian and Riccardian Libraries 
 (which contain the description of mosaic, and much besides, 
 omitted in the Vatican MS.) have no such date or statement. 
 It seems, indeed, probable that the work was composed not later 
 than the end of the 14th century, and the usual statement that 
 " Cennini was living in 1437," must be regarded as unautho- 
 rised. Another edition of the treatise, enlarged and corrected 
 from the Florentine MSS., was published under the care of 
 G. de C. Milanesi, 8vo, Florence, 1859. The portion referring 
 to oil-painting was given, with a translation, in Sir C. L. East- 
 lake's ' Memorials for a History of Oil-Painting/ vol. i. pp 65 — 73; 
 and a translation of the entire work, by Mrs. M. P. Merrifield, 
 appeared in 1844, with the title, 'A Treatise on Painting, by 
 Cennino Cennini in the year 1437, and first published in Italian 
 in 1821, with an Introduction and Notes by Signor Tambroni,' 
 &c. A French translation, by M. V. Mottez, was published 
 in 1858. 
 
 CHABERT, JOSEPH BERNARD, MARQUIS DE, a dis- 
 tinguished hydrographer, wa*bom at Toulon, 28th of February, 
 1724. He entered the naval service of France in 1741, and 
 gradually rose through the various ranks to that of admiral, and 
 was also' ennobled as a peer. His services were especially in 
 sun-eying coasts and ports, to assist in the production of more 
 correct charts than those previously in existence. His first 
 paper on this subject was read before the Academy of Sciences 
 in 1748, and his first volume published in 1753, ' Voyage fait par 
 ordre du Roi en 1750 et 1751, dans l'Amerique Septentrionale, 
 pour rectifier les Cartes de l'Acadie, de File Royale, et de Tile de 
 Terre Neuve, et pour en fixer les principaux points par des 
 Observations Astronorniques.' After making similar researches 
 in the Mediterranean, he was appointed to the Chart Depart- 
 ment at Versailles to arrange the materials he had collected. 
 During several voyages to the Levant between 1762 and 1776, he 
 added greatly to his accumulated facts, and was appointed, in 
 1773, inspector of marine charts and plans. During the American 
 revolution he served in the war against England ; and during 
 the French revolution he was an exile in England, sheltered and 
 succoured by Maskelyne, the Astronomer Royal. Returning to 
 France in 1802, he was well received by the First Consul. 
 Although he had lost his sight in 1800 by too close application, 
 he continued to labour steadily at hydrography till his death, 
 which took place on the 1st of December, 1805. The Marquis 
 de Chabert was greatly influential in completing and perfecting 
 the naval museums at the Louvre and at Brest. 
 
 * CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI DU,an explorer of Western 
 Africa, was born in New York about 1820. His father carried 
 on trading operations with the natives in the neighbourhood of 
 the Gaboon river, and during his early years he himself had 
 numerous opportunities of becoming acquainted with the natives 
 and natural productions in the vicinity. In 1855 he was sent out 
 by the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia to explore 
 Western Africa and to obtain information as to its natural 
 history. His journeys extended from 1856 to 1859, and re- 
 sulted in numerous discoveries, of which a brief account will be 
 found under Africa, Geog. Div., E. C. S.,and a full account in 
 his ' Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa,' 1861. 
 In 1863 he resumed his researches in the same district, mainly 
 with the view of confirming those of his observations which had 
 been impugned or doubted. His account of this journey is 
 given in 'A Journey to Ashango Land, &c.,' 1867, and the 
 numerous astronomical observations which he made so added to 
 our accurate knowledge of the geography of districts hitherto 
 scarcely known that a testimonial was awarded to him in 1866 
 by the Royal Geographical Society of London. 
 
 CHALON, ALFRED EDWARD, R.A., was born at Geneva 
 in 1781. He was brought early to England by his father (who 
 
 CITAMBERLAYNE, EDWARD. 300 
 
 obtained the post of French professor in the Military College, 
 Sandhurst) ; entered the Royal Academy as a student in 1797; 
 was elected A.R.A. in 1812 ; R.A. in 1816, and died October 
 the 3rd, 1860. Mr. A. Chalou painted a few subject pieces in 
 oil, but his specialty was the painting of female portraits in 
 water-colours, the heads highly finished, the dresses in a light 
 sketchy style, but with extreme attention to mode and orna- 
 ment. In this style he was without a rival, at least in popu- 
 larity. For a long series of years he was the painter of ladies of 
 rank and fashion ; indeed, it was almost a mark of distinction 
 to be painted by him. He was portrait painter to the Queen, 
 and shortly after her accession he made the full-length portrait 
 of her so well known by the large engraving. 
 
 CHALON, JOHN JAMES, R.A., elder brother of Alfred E. 
 Chalon, R.A., was born in 1780 ; and became a student of the 
 Royal Academy in 1816. He was professedly a landscape painter, 
 but he also painted marine subjects, figures, and animals. His 
 representations of Swiss scenery were most admired, but he was 
 never popular, and though he was elected A.R.A. in 1827 and 
 R.A. in 1841, even this slow measure of academical success was 
 probably due rather to his brother's position ami his own 
 social qualities than to his standing as a painter. He had, how- 
 ever, some warm admirers. Like his brother, he was one of the 
 original members of the Sketching Club ; and on his death, 
 which occurred November 14, 1854, the friends of the brothers 
 organised an exhibition of their works at the Society of Arts in 
 the spring of 1855. Mr. J. J. Chalon published in 1820 a series 
 of humorous sketches of Parisian life. 
 
 * CHAM, a celebrated French caricaturist, the pseudonym of 
 Amedee de Noe, son of Comte de Noe (" Cham etait le second 
 fils de Noe." — ' Fr. Diet.'). He was bom at Paris, January 29, 
 1819 ; passed through the usual courses at the Ecole Polytech- 
 nique ; studied painting in the atelier of Paul Delaroche, and 
 afterwards in that of Charlet. But his passion lor caricature 
 developed rapidly ; his early published efforts had an unex- 
 pected success ; he became identified with the ' Charivari,' and 
 he and the journal have together enjoyed a long course of 
 prosperity. Many of his designs have been collected and repub- 
 lished in the form of albums, and had a wide circulation. Among 
 these are the ' Impressions de Voyage de M. Boniface ; ' ' P. J. 
 Proudhon en Voyage ; ' ' Melanges Comiques ; ' 1 Croquis en 
 Noir ; ' 'Croquis de Printemps:' 'Croquis d'Automne,' and' 
 many more. Cham's caricatures are the purest Parisian. He 
 has something light and airy in his manner, even when at his 
 coarsest. His satire has sufficient malice to impart sharpness 
 and pungency, and you feel that it is done, as well as enjoyed, 
 with a relish. The style and treatment are alwavs artistical. 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE, EDWARD, a political and general 
 writer, descended from the Counts of Tanquerville, in Nor- 
 mandy, was born on the 13th of December, 1616, at Oddington, 
 near Stow-on-the-Wold, in Gloucestershire, lie received his 
 early education at Gloucester, and was admitted a commoner of 
 St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, in Michaelmas term, 1634. He took 
 his B.A. and M.A. degrees respectively in 1638 and 1641 ; and 
 for a portion of the latter year and the year following was 
 rhetoric reader of the university. During the civil war he 
 travelled in France, Spain, Italy, Hungary, Bohemia, German\ T , 
 the Low Countries, Denmark, and Sweden. In 1668 he became 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1669 was appointed secretary 
 to Charles, Earl of Carlisle, whom he accompanied on his mission 
 to Stockholm as bearer of the Order of the Garter to the King of 
 Sweden. In 1670, by the King's mandate, dated February 6th, 
 he received from the University of Cambridge the degree of 
 doctor of laws, and was, on the 22nd of June, 1672, incorporated 
 of the same standing at his own university. About 1679 he 
 became tutor to Henry, Duke of Grafton, one of the natural sons 
 of King Charles II., and was afterwards chosen instructor in 
 English to Prince George of Denmark. He spent the latter part 
 of his life at Chelsea ; and, dying there in May, 1703, was 
 buried in a vault in the church-yard of that parish, where a 
 monument was erected to his memory, with a Latin inscription 
 which declares that he " was so very desirous of doing good to 
 all, and even to posterity, that he ordered some of the books of 
 which he was the author to be covered over with wax and 
 buried with him, in the hope that they might be of service to 
 future ages." His works comprise a small treatise, entitled, 
 ' The Late Warre Parallel'd, or a Brief Relation of the five 
 years' Civil Warres of Henry the Third, King of England, with 
 the Event and Issue and unnatural Warre, and by what Course 
 the Kingdom was then Settled again,' 4to, London, 1660 ; a 
 reprint, with a modified title, of a work which had first aj>- 
 
;67 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE, JOHN. 
 
 CHAPONE, HESTER. 
 
 308 
 
 pcared in 1G47 ; ' England's Wants, or Several Proposals pro- 
 bably beneficial for England, offered to the consideration of 
 both Houses 'of Parliament,' 4to, London, 1667 ; with con- 
 siderable additions, 4to, London, 1668 ; and with further addi- 
 tions, 4to, London, Ki85 and 1689 ; ' The Converted Presby- 
 terian, or the Church of England justified in some Practices,' 
 &c, London, 1668 ; 'Anglise Notitia, or the Present State of 
 England, together with Divers Reflections upon the Ancient 
 State thereof',' 12mo, London, 1668, 1669, &c, of which the Second 
 Part Mas published in 1G71. This work, which gradually 
 received many additions and amendments, went through 
 numerous editions, the 18th of which, 8vo, London, 1694, incor- 
 porated a Third Part, and of which all up to and including the 
 20th, 8vo, London, 1702, were published by Dr. Edward Cham- 
 berlayne. The 21st edition, 8vo, London, 1704, was announced 
 as being continued by his son, John Chamberlayne, F.R.S., who 
 in the 22nd edition, with which the statistics of Scotland were 
 for the first time incorporated, enlarged the title to ' Migme 
 Britannia? Notitia,' &c, under which it reached its 38th edition 
 in the year 1755. The work, of which a Latin epitome was 
 published by Thomas Wood, with the title of ' Anglisu Notitia ; 
 sive Prajsens Status Anglia; succincte Enucleatus,' 12mo, Oxford, 
 1686, was also circulated in the languages of France, Germany, 
 and Spain. Dr. Chamberlayne Mas in addition the author of 
 some translations, and of several productions in political and 
 polemical literature. 
 
 CHAMBERLAYNE, JOHN, the son of Dr. Edward Cham- 
 berlayne, received his education at Trinity College, Oxford, and 
 was of considerable reputation as a linguist, being, as was said, 
 a master of ten languages. He translated various treatises into 
 English from the Dutch, French, Spanish, and Italian ; but is 
 chiefly remarkable at present for his continuation of his father's 
 ' Anglia) Notitia,' the particulars of which are given in the pre- 
 ceding article. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 
 1702, and contributed to its ' Philosophical Transactions.' He 
 died in November, 1723. 
 
 CHAMFORT, or CHAMPFORT, SEBASTIAN ROCH 
 NICOLAS, was born near Clermont, Auvergne, in 1741. He 
 studied for awhile at the College ties Grassins, but was expelled 
 for irregularities. After serving some time as a private tutor, be 
 went to Paris, and became connected with the ' Revue Encyclo- 
 pedique.' In 1764 appealed his first comedy, 'Le Jeune In- 
 dienne,' at the Come'die Francaise. He attracted the notice of 
 the French Academy by his ' Epitre d'un pere a son fils sur la 
 naissance de son petit fils,' 1764; 'Homme de Lettres,' 1766; 
 ' Combien le genie des grands hommes influe sur l'esprit de leur 
 siecle,' 1768 ; ' Eloge de Molicre,' 1769 ; and ' Eloge de La Fon- 
 taine,' 1774. Two dramas by him, the 1 Marchand de Smyrne,' 
 1770, and ' Mustapha et Zcangir,' 1776, brought him into favour 
 at Court ; and he served for some time as secretary, first to the 
 Prince de Conde, and then to Madame Elizabeth. He entered 
 warmly at first into the French Revolution, and was appointed 
 jointly with Carra, keeper of the Bibliotheque Nationale. To 
 Chamfort is attributed the cry of ' Guerre aux chateaux, paix 
 aux Chaumieres ; ' but he became alarmed at the violence which 
 ensued, and greatly exasperated the Jacobins by bis sarcastic 
 and biting epigrams. He died 13th April, 1794, after having 
 attempted to commit suicide as a means of avoiding imprison- 
 ment. His collected works were published in a more or less 
 complete form by Guinguene, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1795; by 
 Colnet, 5 vols. 8vo, 1808, and several times reprinted ; by 
 Collin de Plancy, 2 vols. 32m o, 1825 ; by Auguis, 5 vols. 8vo, 
 1824-5 ; and by A. Houssaye, large 18mo, 1857. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE, was born at Brouage, in 
 the second half of the 16th century. After having served 
 Henry IV. in the wars of the League, he travelled for two or 
 three years in the East Indies, and then joined an expedition 
 under M. Pont Grave, fitted out to extend the exploration of 
 Canada, which had been commenced by Cartier. They reached 
 the St. Lawrence in the early summer of 1603, pushed far up 
 into the interior, and collected such information as enabled 
 Champlain to prepare a rough map of portions of the country. 
 During the next thirty years he made frequent voyages to 
 Canada, at first under other commanders, but afterwards holding 
 the chief command. He founded the city of Quebec, travelled 
 so far west as to discover Lakes Huron and Ontario, and 
 ascended the river Ottawa under a mistaken idea that it might 
 possibly solve the problem of a north-west passage to China. 
 In 1629 he was forced to surrender Quebec to the English ; but 
 it uas restored two or three years afterwards. At his death, in 
 December, 1635, he was Governor of Canada. His valuable 
 
 explorations in that country were described in ' Des Sauvages, ou 
 Voyage de S. Champlain,' 1603 ; and in two later works, the 
 volumes of which were published at various dates between 1619 
 and 1631. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JEAN- JACQUES. [E. C.vol.ii. 
 col. 159.] In 1861 appeared the first part of a splendidly illus- 
 trated work in folio, intended to embrace a description of the 
 older imperial palaces of France, the text written by, or under 
 the direction of, M. Ohampollion-Figeac, as Imperial Librarian, 
 entitled ' < 'bateaux de la Renaissance. Monographic du Palace db 
 Fontainebleau, dessinee et gravee par R. Pfnor, accompagnee 
 d'une texte historique et descriptif par M. C.-F.,' but the full 
 plan appeals to have been abandoned or deterred, and the ac- 
 count oi Fontainebleau was issued as a complete work, with the 
 title ' Le Palais de Fontainebleau, ses origines, son histoire artis- 
 tique et politique, son etat actuel. Public d'apres les ordres de 
 l'Empereur,' 2 vols, folio, with atlas of plates, Paris, 1866. M. 
 Ohampollion-Figeac died at Fontainebleau, May 9, 1867. His 
 son, Aimk Chami'ollion, principal of the secretariat of the 
 departmental archives of the minister of the interior, has pub- 
 lished some good editions of historical works, including the 
 'Memoires du Cardinal de Retz,' 8vo, 1837 ; 'Poesies du Due 
 d'Orleans,' 8vo, 1842 ; Poesies du Roi Francois I", de Louis de 
 Savoie et Marguerite reines de Navarres, suivies de la Correspond- 
 ance intime du Roi avec Diane de Poitiers,' 4to, 1847. He has 
 also written ' Louis et Charles d'Orleans, leur influence sur les 
 Arts, la Littcrature et l'Esprit de leur Siecle,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1844 ; 
 and ' Droits et Usages concernant les travaux de construction, 
 publics ou prives, sous la troisieme race des Rois de Fiance, 
 palais, chateaux, cathcdrales, eglises, fortresses, hospices, prisons, 
 halles, &.c. . . . de Pan 987 h Pan 1830. D'apres les chartes 
 et autres documents origi naux,' 8vo, Paris, 1860. 
 
 * CHANDLESS, "WILLIAM, one of the explorers of the 
 Amazon basin, was born in November, 1829. His first extensive 
 journey was a trip across the United States to the Mormons at 
 Utah, amongst whom he resided for a time. The results of his ex- 
 perience are given in a ' Visit to the Salt Lake,' published in 1857. 
 In 1860 he made a hasty canoe voyage f rom the diamond district 
 of Matto G rosso to the Amazon down the river Tapajoz ; but he 
 managed to fix the positions of several places by means of 
 astronomical observations. In 1864 and 1865 be ascended the 
 Purus, one of the tributaries of the Amazon, but of which 
 very little was known in this country. Several expeditions, 
 organised by the Brazilian Government, had attempted the 
 ascent, but not one succeeded in travelling more than 800 miles 
 up, and no arrangements were made for ascertaining the course 
 either by compass or by observations for latitude and longitude. 
 Mr. Chandless, relying solely on his own resources, traced the 
 whole course of the liver up to within a few miles of its source 
 (or about 1640 miles), and projected a map of it executed with 
 great minuteness of detail. For this survey the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society awarded him the patron's medal in 1866. In 
 1865 he followed up the Aquiry, the principal tributary of the 
 Punts, and surveyed it as carefully as he had done the main 
 stream. These explorations added much to our knowledge of a 
 vast tract of country hitherto unexplored by Europeans, and 
 necessitated great alterations in the maps of this part of South 
 America. One of the points which he settled was that the 
 Madre de Dios, which rises in the Caravayan Andes, is not the 
 upper portion of the Purus, as was generally supposed. The 
 question had, however, been previously solved by Don Faustino 
 Maldonado, who embarked on the Madre de Dios in 1861 with 
 a crew which reached Manaos on the Amazon, he himself having 
 been drowned in passing a rapid. This journey showed that the 
 Madre de Dios is one of the head waters of the Madera. Further 
 details are given under America, Geog. Div. E. C. S. In 1867 
 Mr. Chandless explored and mapped the Jurua for nearly 1000 
 miles, and found that its course is given wrongly on most maps, 
 the general direction of the upper portion of the stream being 
 west, not south. 
 
 CHAPONE, HESTER, daughter of Thomas Mulso, Esq., 
 ■was born at Twywell, in Northamptonshire, on the 27th of 
 October, 1727. Her literary taste exhibited itself at an early 
 age ; and she cultivated the study of French, Italian, and, to a 
 less degree, of Latin, with a strong tendency to ethics and phi- 
 losophy. She passed much of her time in London, and about 
 1748 made the acquaintance of Miss Elizabeth Carter, who was 
 a few years her senior, with whom she contracted a friendship 
 which continued for fifty years. At the house of her friend 
 Richardson, the novelist, she met Mr. Chapone, a solicitor, ot 
 Clement's Inn, to whom she was united in 1760, but was left a 
 
369 
 
 CHARRON, PIERRE. 
 
 CIIATIN, ADOLPHE. 
 
 870 
 
 widow in less than ten months after her marriage. Mrs. 
 Chapone, at that time Mis^ Mulso, contributed four billets to 
 the 10th number of the 'Rambler' (1750—52) ; and in 1753 
 her story of ' Fidelia,' written with the intention of exposing 
 the sophistry of scepticism, appeared in three successive numbers 
 (77, 78, and 79) of the ' Adventurer.' Amongst her earlier 
 productions were an 'Ode to Peace,' and an 'Ode' prefixed to 
 Mi-s Carter's translation of Epictetus. In 1766, Mrs. Chapone 
 staid for some months at the parsonage of her second brother, 
 at Thornhill, near Wakefield, where she contracted that affec- 
 tionate partiality for his eldest daughter which resulted in the 
 writing, and finally, in the publication of the well-known ' Letters 
 on the Improvement of the Mind, addressed to a Young Lady,' 
 2 vols. 12mo, London, 1773, and many times reprinted. These 
 were followed by 'Miscellanies, in Prose and Verse,' 12mo, 
 London, 1775 ; and a ' Letter to a newly-married Lady,' 12mo, 
 London, 1777. Mrs. Chapone varied her habitual residence in 
 London by frequent visits to friends in the country ; but after 
 severe family bereavements, which she experienced about 1790, 
 her mind became affected, and she w T as removed to Hadley, 
 by Bamet, where she expired on Christmas Day, 1801, being then 
 in her 75th. year. Her works were posthumously published, 
 with a memoir, &c, by her nephew, Mr. Mulso, under the title 
 of ' The Works of Mrs. Chapone : now first collected. Contain- 
 ing (I.) Letters on the Improvement of the Mind ; (II.) Mis- 
 cellanies ; (TIL) Correspondence with Mr. Richardson ; (IV.) 
 Letters to Miss Carter ; (V.) Fugitive Pieces. To which is 
 prefixed an Account of her Life and Character, drawn up by her 
 own Family,' 4 vols. 8vo, London, 1807, &c. 
 
 CHARRON, PIERRE, French ethical writer, was born at 
 Paris in 1541. After having practised as an advocate for six 
 years, he took a dislike to the law, entered the church, and 
 became eminent as a missionary preacher. During his temporary 
 sojourn in various parts of France he made the acquaintance of 
 Montaigne at Bordeaux, and formed with him a lasting friend- 
 ship. For some time he was preacher in ordinary to Queen 
 Marguerite. In 1588 he wished to take monastic vows, and 
 to devote his leisure to philosophical speculation ; but he was 
 refused admission by the Chartreux and the Celestins of 
 Paris on account of age. He resumed his occupation as a 
 preacher, and continued it till his death, which took place 
 November 16th, 1603. Charron's essay, 'De trois Verites,' 
 1594, is a confutation of Atheists, Idolaters (including Jews and 
 Mohammedans), and Schismatics or Protestants, as three classes 
 of offenders against the truth. Soon after his appointment as 
 secretary to the Assembly of the Clergy, in 1595, he produced 
 his ' Traite de la Sagesse,' 1595, a broader and deeper work, 
 sound in morality, though dry and inelegant in style. It was 
 too free in tone, however, for his orthodox contemporaries, and 
 brought him into some discredit, which was not (as he had 
 hoped) wholly removed by the publication of a third work, 
 • Refutation des Heretiques,' 1600. The 'Traite de la Sagesse' 
 has been many times reprinted; perhaps the most prized is the 
 little Elzevir ed. 12mo, Leyden, n. d., but after 1656. There 
 are two English versions, one by Sampson Lennard, 4to, 1658 ; 
 the other by George Stanhope, D.D., 3 vols. 8vo, 1697, 2nd ed. 
 1707. Charron's works were published in a collected form, 
 '(Euvres Diverses,' 4to, Paris, 1635. 
 
 CHARTIER, ALAIN, a celebrated French poet, was born at 
 Bayeux between the years 1380 and 1390. After studying at the 
 University of Paris, he obtained various ecclesiastical appoint- 
 ments, and rose into favour at court. He was at different times 
 secretary to Charles VI. and Charles VII. (1420), and was sent 
 on embassies to Scotland and to Bohemia ; but few dates are 
 recorded in reference to him. The date of his death is variously 
 stated at 1449, 1457, and 1458. Chartier wrote many essays and 
 short poems, intensely national in spirit, and which being circu- 
 lated at court and from hand to hand, rendered the author 
 extremely popular. Few of them were, however, given to the 
 public till after his death. The names of some of them are 
 'Sur la Sortie de Paris par le Dauphin;' 'Harangue aux 
 Hussites;' ' Sur les Maux de la Guerre;' ' Le Livre des Quatre 
 Dames;' ' Le Quadrilogue Invectif ;' ' L'Esp6rance, ou Consola- 
 tion des trois Virtues ;' 'Le Curial ;' ' Le Paix de Pays;' 'La 
 Ballade de Fougieres.' He was an elegant writer for the period 
 in which he lived, and he contributed, by his ' Quadrilogue 
 Invectif and other occasional pieces, to maintain a patriotic 
 spirit among his countrymen at a time when the English suc- 
 cesses in France had produced some despondency. ' Joan of Arc ' 
 was the heroine of one of his minor pieces. The first edition of 
 his " dictes et ballades" appears to be that of Paris, 1 vol. folio, 
 biocj. div. — sur. 
 
 1489, but some think an edition in two thin folio volumes is the 
 earlier : both have for title ' Les Faiz Maistro Alain Chartier.' 
 Many subsequent editions were published; that most esteemed 
 by collectors is by Galliot du Pre, ' Les OZuvres feu Maistrc 
 A. C.,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1529. 
 
 CHASTELAIN, GEORGES, French chronicler and essayist, 
 was born at Alost, in Flanders, 1403. When a young man be 
 followed the profession of arms, and afterwards travelled in 
 various parts of France and England. In 1443 he entered the 
 service of Charles the Good, Duke of Burgundy, to whom he 
 acted as chronicler and secretary, and to some extent as director 
 of Court pageants. Under the patronage of the next duke, 
 Charles the Bold, he settled permanently at Valenciennes, ami 
 devoted most of his time to writing till his death, which took 
 place 20th March, 1475. Chastelain's chief work is ' La Grande 
 Chronique, ou livre de tous les hautz et grands faits de la 
 Chretiente, souverainement de ce noble royaulme de France, et 
 de ces dependances,(lepuis l'an vingt (1420) jusques a niaintenant,' 
 (1474). It was a valuable and much prized history at the time 
 of its production. Only the first and third portions, from 1419 
 to 1422, and from 1461 to 1474 appear to be now extant. They 
 were edited by M. Buchon in the collection of ' Chroniques Na- 
 tionales,' 8vo, 1827 ; and in the 'Pantheon Litteraire,' 1837. He 
 wrote other but less important histories, and several essays, 
 among which were 'Les Epitaphs de Hector et d'Achille;' 
 ' Louanges de la tres glorieuse Yierge ; ' ' Les douze dames do 
 Rhetoric' 
 
 CHATELAIN, JOHN, a clever designer and engraver, was 
 born in England of French parents about 1710. He designed 
 and etched landscapes with rare ability, but his habits were 
 irregular, and his application fitful. He died about 1770. The 
 engravings by him most prized by collectors, are three grand 
 landscapes after N. Poussin, F. Bolognese, and P. Da Cortona, 
 and those executed for Boydell's collection of landscapes after 
 the great masters, including nine after Gaspar Poussin, whose 
 manner he rendered very happily. He also engraved eight Views 
 in the Lake District, after Bellers ; several after M. Ricci ; and 
 ' Fifty Views of Churches, Buildings, Villages, and Rural Scenes 
 adjacent to London,' 8vo, 1750, as well as other landscapes from 
 his own designs. 
 
 CHATELET, GABRIELLE EMILIE LE TONNELIER 
 DE BRETEUIL, MARQUISE DU, was born at Paris, Decem- 
 ber 17, 1706. The daughter of the Baron de Breteuil, her educa- 
 tion was carefully attended to ; her early studies embraced a 
 wide range, including Latin and the modern languages, classics, 
 poetry, and science ; and after her marriage with the Marquis 
 du Chatelet, she combined in a singular way a taste for abstruse 
 scientific research, with an indulgence in the frivolity and moral 
 laxity of the French court. In 1733 she formed an acquaintance 
 with Voltaire, arising out of her admiration for his poetry ; and 
 the relations which she maintained with him at Paris, Cirey, and 
 Luneville, were such as to furnish ample scope for the chroniclers 
 of scandal. Madame Du Deffand and Madame Delaunay spoke 
 of her in disparaging terms ; but men greatly marvelled at the 
 mingled depth and frivolity of her character. Voltaire himself 
 said of her : — 
 
 " Son esprit est tres pkilosophe, 
 Mais son cocur aime les poupons." 
 
 She died on the 10th of August, 1749, a few days after giving 
 birth to a daughter, under circumstances which afforded as much 
 occasion for scandal and epigram as any previous event in her 
 career. Her published writings are chiefly the following : (1) ' In- 
 stitutions de Physique,' 8vo, Paris, 1740 ; (2) ' Reponse alalettre de 
 Mairan . . . sur la question des forces vives,' 8vo, Brussels, 1741 ; 
 (3) ' Dissertation sur la Nature de feu,' 8vo, Paris, 1744 ; this 
 was an essay which she had sent to the Academy of Sciences in 
 1738, in competition for a prize ; it did not gain the prize, but 
 was afterwards published separately. Other works from her pen 
 were published posthumously ; (4) ' Principes Mathematiques 
 de la Philosophic Naturelle, traduit de Newton,' 8vo, Paris, 
 1792 ; (5) ' Doutes sur les religions revelees adresses a Voltaire,' 
 8vo, Paris, 1792 ; (6) ' Lettres inedites de la Marquise du Cha- 
 telet a M. le Comte d'Argental,' 8vo, Paris, 1806. 
 
 * CHATIN, ADOLPHE, a French botanist and physician, 
 was born at Tullins, in the Isere department. His special studies 
 were pursued at Paris, in which city he became a hospital boarding 
 student in 1835, and shortly after carried off prizes for efficiency in 
 several branches of natural history science. In 1837 he wrote a 
 paper, in which he showed that the law of symmetry and equili- 
 brium discovered by Serres and Geoffroy St. Hilaire in animals 
 was also applicable to plants. In 1842, and several subsequent 
 
 B B 
 
371 CHAUDON, DOM LOUIS MAYEUL. 
 
 years, lie acted as substitute for Professors Guiart and Clarion, 
 who were conducting botanical classes in the Ecole de Phar- 
 macie, and when their chairs were amalgamated in 1848, he was 
 appointed their successor as professor of botany. Prior to this 
 appointment he had delivered several courses of lectures in other 
 branches of natural history. Thus from 1845 to 1847 he lec- 
 tured on comparative anatomy, anthropology, and general zoology; 
 and in 1848 he gave a course on physical geography, geology, and 
 metallurgy. His contributions to literature have been numerous, 
 his papers in scientific journals exceeding one hundred in num- 
 ber ; but we can here allude to a few only of his lines of research. 
 One group of his papers relates to the presence of arsenic, copper, 
 and iodine in water, air, and organisms. His attention has been 
 mainly given to iodine, which, he says, exists in all plants, and 
 is to be found in greater or less quantity in the soil, rivers, 
 and air of most localities. The proportion present varies accord- 
 ing to circumstances, being greater when the temperature is 
 highest, and vice versa ; and more abundant in rain water than in 
 l iver water, according to the amount which has been intercepted 
 by the soil. It varies from one locality to another ; and from 
 his researches it would seem that there is some connection be- 
 tween the distribution of cretinism and goitre, and of iodine. 
 The diseases prevail where the water, soil, and food are least 
 impregnated with iodine, while they are rare or absent where this 
 element is most abundant, His researches on plants have led to 
 important conclusions, relating mainly to their physiology and 
 anatomical structure, the development of their organs, and their 
 classification. An account of his investigations was first pub- 
 lished in papers contributed to the ' Comptes Rendus/ the ' Bul- 
 letin ' of the Botanical Society of Paris, and one or two other 
 publications ; but most of the results are brought together in his 
 most important work, entitled 'Anatomie comparee des Vegetaux/ 
 etc., which commenced issuing in parts in 1856, and is still being 
 published. It is embellished with hundreds of well executed 
 plates. 
 
 CHAUDON, DOM LOUIS MAYEUL, French biographer, 
 was born at Valensoles in the Basses- Alpes, May 20, 1737. On 
 the completion of his educational course in the colleges of Mar- 
 seille and Avignon, he resolved to become an ecclesiastic, and 
 was admitted to the order of St. Benedict at Cluny. Here his 
 literary tastes received ample encouragement, and he had the use 
 of a noble library. His earliest essays were poetical, but after 
 the publication of an ' Ode sur la Calomnie,' (1756), and another 
 addressed to the 'Echevins de Marseille ' (1757), he perceived 
 that his forte lay in history and biography. He published in 
 1766 a biographical dictionary in 4 vols. 8vo, with the imprint of 
 Amsterdam, and professing to be the production of a " societe de 
 gens de lettres," but which, in fact, proceeded exclusively from 
 the pen of Chaudon, and was published at Paris. The reason 
 for the adoption of this pseudonymous character is said to have 
 been the doubt felt by the author how far the impartiality with 
 which all classes of men, even those under ban of the church, 
 were spoken of, would be acceptable to his superiors. However 
 that may be, the value of the book was recognised by the public, 
 and as edition after edition was called for, the author addressed 
 himself to the duty of rendering it more worthy of the favour 
 with which it was received. The ' Nouveau Dictionnaire His- 
 torique,' in the form it ultimately assumed, was by far the best 
 biographical dictionary produced in France down to the close of 
 the last century, and it has formed the basis of most of those 
 produced there since._ The lives are brief, but the essential facts 
 and distinctive opinions are usually noted. The remarks are 
 judicious, spirited, occasionally witty, and almost always impar- 
 tial. It has its faults of course ; is necessarily imperfect ; con- 
 tains many errors in dates and facts, and has been in a great 
 measure superseded by later compilations, but is still a handy 
 book of reference. The best edition is the 8th, in 13 vols. 8vo, 
 Lyon, An xii. (1804), in which Chaudon, who had been for some 
 time blind, was assisted by F. A. Delandine, who wrote the lives 
 of the revolutionists, the two names being associated on the title 
 page. In this edition, the 13th volume consists of a series of 
 carefully compiled chronological tables of ancient and modern 
 history. The 9th and last edition, by Prudhomme, 20 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1810-12, is lull of errors, and comparatively worthless. 
 Dom Chaudon is also the author of a pseudonymous ' Diction- 
 naire Historique des Auteurs Ecclesiastiques, avec le catalogue 
 de leurs ouvrages,' 4 vols. 12mo, Lyon, 1767 ; a work directed 
 against the Encyclopedists ; ' Dictionnaire anti-philosophique,' 2 
 vols. 8vo, 1767-G9, of which a second edition appeared in 1783, 
 under the title of ' Anti-Dictionnaire Philosophise ' Chrono- 
 logiste Manuel/ 12mo, 1766, &c. ; ' Logons d'Histoire et de 
 
 CHENU, JEAN CHARLES. 372 
 
 Chronologie,' 2 vols. 12mo, Caen, 1785 ; ' Nouveau Manuel 
 Epistolaire,' Caen, 1785, 2 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1786 ; ' Memoires 
 pour servir a la Histoire de Voltaire,' 2 vols. 12mo, Amsterdam 
 (Paris), 1785. These were his latest literary labours. Already 
 there were symptoms of the coming revolution. The congrega- 
 tion of Cluny was suppressed in 1787. Chaudon took refuge in 
 the little village of Me/in. Old age was drawing on ; his sight 
 was failing, his health was feeble, but he secured the esteem of 
 his new neighbours, who begged permission to place his portrait 
 in the hall of the mairie. He lived at Mezin through all the 
 revolutionary changes, for the last ten or twelve years blind and 
 in much suffering, till the 28th of May, 1817. 
 
 * CHAUVEAU, ALEXANDRE PIERRE, French anatomist 
 and physiologist, who holds the position of principal anatomical 
 demonstrator at the Imperial Veterinary School at Lyon. In 
 1834 he published his thesis, entitled 'Considerations generales 
 sur la folie partielle, ou Monomania'; in 1857 appeared his 'Traite 
 d'Anatomie comparee des Animaux domestiques,' an octavo 
 volume of 828 pages, comprising a concise and methodical resume 1 
 of the subject it relates to ; and in 1860 a^small pamphlet entitled 
 ' Theorie des Effets physiologique de l'Electricite,' in which he 
 condenses his views on this matter, which had been pre- 
 viously scattered through a series of papers published in Brown 
 Sequard's ' Journal de la Physiologie, etc.,' and in the ' Compter 
 Rendus.' He has made original investigations into the forma- 
 tion of sugar in the animal economy, the various sounds produced 
 by the heart, on the rate of flow of the blood in the arteries, and 
 on the properties of the spinal chord. 
 
 * CHELMSFORD, FREDERICK THESIGER, LORD. [E. 
 C. vol. v. col. 1018.] On the formation of the second administra- 
 tion of the Earl of Derby in 1858, Sir Frederick Thesiger was 
 appointed Lord Chancellor, with, of course, a seat in the Cabinet, 
 and raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Chelmsford. 
 He retained the chancellorship on this occasion but a very short 
 time, resigning with the rest of the ministry in 1859. On Lord 
 Derby's return to office in July 1866, Lord Chelmsford was reap- 
 pointed Lord Chancellor, and he continued to hold the seals 
 till 18C8, when, under the premiership of Mr. Disraeli, they were 
 transferred to Lord Cairns. 
 
 * CHENU, JEAN CHARLES, naturalist and surgeon, was 
 born at Metz, August 30, 1808. After passing through a course 
 of medical study at Paris, he joined the army as military sur- 
 geon, and was stationed for some year3 at Carcassonne. On one 
 occasion he was called upon to give his professional assistance to 
 Gabriel Delessert, the prefet of the department of Aude. This 
 led to his becoming acquainted with the Delessert family, and to 
 his being entrusted w r ith the care of the fine collection of plants 
 and shells formed by Benjamin Delessert. His works may be 
 classified in four groups, according as they relate to medical 
 matters, general natural history, shells, and mineral springs. 
 His experience as a medical man in the south of France, and in 
 the Crimea, where he served as one of the principal physicians, 
 led to his writing a ' Rapport sur le Cholera Morbus,' in 1835 ; a 
 ' Rapport ' to the Army Council for Health, on some of the 
 medical aspects of the Crimean war in 1854-1856 ; a paper on a 
 similar subject, entitled ' Recrutement de l'Arm6e et population 
 de la France,' 1867 ; 'Statistique medico-chirurgicale de la cam- 
 pagne d'ltalie en 1859,' 1869, for which the Academy of Sciences 
 awarded him the Monthyon statistical prize in 1870; and a 
 general summary of the last mentioned works, entitled ' De la 
 Mortalite dans 1'Armee et des moyens d'economiser la vie hu- 
 rnaine,' 1870. In these he discusses several important points, 
 and amongst others, the immense waste of life and wealth in- 
 curred by France by the enlistment of young men, before they 
 have acquired sufficient stamina to bear up against the wear and 
 tear of military service. He attempts to show by statistics that 
 the expenditure in life and money, especially during war, is 
 chiefly due to the invaliding of young soldiers, while the loss 
 from the ordinary contingencies of war, such as wounds, &c, 
 forms a small proportion only of the total expense. In general 
 natural history, he has written ' Lemons elumentaires d'Histoire 
 Naturelle,' 1846 ; ' La Fauconnerie Ancienne et Moderne/ 1862, 
 in conjunction w T ith Des Murs ; and has edited ' Les Trois Regnes 
 de la Nature/ 1864 ; and an 'Encyclopedic d'Histoire Naturelle/ 
 1850-1860. His contributions to the literature of shells include 
 ' Illustrations Conchyliologiques/ 1842-1850, an unfinished 
 work, which was to have given a figure of every species ; a 
 1 Manuel de Conchyliologie et de Paleontologie Conchyliolo- 
 gique,' 1860-1862, which is his most popular work ; and a' Notice 
 sur le Mus6e Conchyliologique de M. le Baron B. Delessert/ 
 1844. He has also written an 'Essai sur les eaux Minerales/ 
 
ITS CHETWOOD, WILLIAM RUFUS. 
 
 1840 ; and one or two other works on mineral springs. He 
 retired from the service in 1868, but rejoined in 1870. 
 
 CHETWOOD, WILLIAM RUFUS, a dramatic author and 
 historian, born towards the end of the 17th century, was for 
 some time a bookseller and publisher in Covent Garden, and for 
 twenty years, probably from 1720 to 1740, acted as prompter at 
 Drury Lane Theatre. At the time of his benefit at Covent 
 Garden, January 12, 1741, he was a prisoner in the King's 
 Bench ; and about twelve months after went to Ireland, which 
 he had first visited in 1715, having been engaged by Duval as 
 prompter to the theatre in Orange-street {vvlgajriter, Smock 
 Alley), Dublin. To the advice and experience of Chetwood the 
 Irish stage owed many improvements, especially of a mechanical 
 kind ; and although no actor himself, his knowledge of the stage 
 and of the various manners of different eminent performers, made 
 him a valuable theatrical instructor. Barry and Mrs. Gregory 
 are said to have received the first rudiments of acting from him ; 
 and in a note to the prologue spoken on the occasion of a benefit 
 which he took in 1760, it was asserted that his old pupil, Barry, 
 had, in his greatest distress — at the time of this benefit, as of the 
 one already mentioned, Chetwood was a prisoner for debt — 
 refused him any assistance. He died on the 3rd of March, 1766. 
 
 Chetwood wrote, inter alia, two farces, designed not so much for 
 the stage as in ridicule of the South Sea Scheme, entitled respec- 
 tively, ' The Stock-jobbers ; or the Humours of Exchange Alley,' 
 and ' South Sea ; or the Biters Bit, a tragi-comi-pastoral Farce,' 
 8vo, London, 1720 ; ' The Lover's Opera,' 8vo, London, 1729, third 
 edition, with alterations, 8vo, London, 1730, and 8vo, London, 
 1781; 'The Voyages, dangerous Adventures, and imminent 
 pes of Captain Richard Falconer,' 12mo, London, 1724, a 
 fictitious narrative purporting to be written by Falconer himself ; 
 ' The Generous Freemason ; or the Constant Lady. With the 
 Humours of Squire Noodle and his man Doodle, a tragi-comi- 
 farckal ballad Opera, in three acts,' 8vo, London, 1731 ; ' Me- 
 moirs of the Life and Writings of B. Jonson, Poet Laureat to 
 James the First and Charles the First, &c.,' 12mo, Dublin, 1756. 
 Chetwood's most important work, however, and one which enjoys 
 a certain reputation as containing " some good anecdotes and 
 some useful information," and which he dedicated to the several 
 managers under whom he had served, Garrick, Lacey, Rich, and 
 Sheridan, is that entitled ' A General History of the Stage, from 
 its origin in Greece down to the present Time. With the Me- 
 moirs of most of the principal Performers that have appeared on 
 the English and Irish Stage for the last fifty years,' 8vo, London, 
 1749, and with a modification of title to adapt or to recommend 
 it to Irish readers, 8vo, Dublin, 1749. This work was supple- 
 mented by ' The British Theatre ; containing the Lives of the 
 English Dramatic Poets, with an Account of all their Plays,' &c, 
 8vo, Dublin, 1750, a production not famous for its accuracy, in 
 the preface of which Chetwood is spoken of as being at that 
 time in prison for debt, with " the melancholy prospect of ending 
 the residue of life within the walls of a prison." 
 
 * CHEVALIER, MICHEL, a French political economist, was 
 born at Limoges, on the 13th of January, 1806. His father, 
 who was a ^shopkeeper, procured his admission at 18 years of 
 age to the Ecole Polytechnique, which he left, after two years, 
 for the Ecole des Mines. The revolution of 1830 found him 
 attached as engineer to the Departement du Nord. He had 
 adopted the principles of Saint-Simon, and became their advo- 
 cate in the ' Globe/ a journal of which he not loiig after assumed 
 the management. As the director of a paper in which articles 
 had appeared that were condemned as outrages on public morals, 
 M. Chevalier was sentenced, in July, 1832, to a year's imprison- 
 ment. Having upon his enlargement, which took place when a 
 moiety of his term of confinement had expired, repudiated the 
 doctrines of which he had formerly been the apostle, M. 
 Chevalier was sent by M. Thiers on an extraordinary mission to 
 the United States of America, in order to study the river, lake, 
 and general water communications, together with the railway 
 system of the country. His letters, recording the results of his 
 observations, not only in these, but in industrial affairs gene- 
 rally, were published from time to time in the 'Journal des 
 Debats,' in a series of letters which were afterwards collected 
 under the title of ' Lettres sur l'Amerique du Nord,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1836 ; fourth edition, 1842. This work, which attracted 
 lively attention, was translated by T. G. Bradford, from the third 
 edition, and published under the title of 'Society, Manners, and 
 Politics in the United States ; being a Series of Letters on 
 North America,' 8vo, Boston, U.S., 1839. In 1836 he was 
 commissioned to England to watch the progress and effects of 
 the commercial crisis from which this country was then suffer- 
 
 CHEZY, ANTOINE LEONARD DE. 371 
 
 ing ; but shortly after his arrival received such injuries from a 
 carriage accident, that he was obliged to repair to the Pyrenees 
 before his health was completely re-established. In 1838 he 
 published a work entitled ' Des Intorcts MaterieLs en France; 
 Travaux publics, Routes, Canaux, Chemins de Fer, &c.,' 8vo, 
 Paris ; seventh edition, 1843 ; a programme of industrial pro- 
 gress to be followed by his country, which was translated into 
 German by Lindner, 8vo, Stuttgart, 1838. The reputation 
 acquired by these works caused M. Chevalier to be named a 
 member extraordinary of the Council of State in 1838, and of 
 the Upper Council of Agriculture and Commerce. In 1840 he 
 succeeded M. Rossi in the chair of political economy in the 
 College de France, and next year he was appointed Ingenieur en 
 chef des Mines. In 1836 he had been named Chevalier de la 
 Legion d'Honneur, in which he finally attained the rank of 
 grand officier on the 4th of Januaiy, 1861. In 1845 he was 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the department of 
 Aveyron ; and, while generally confining his speeches to his 
 special subjects, advocated his various commercial and industrial 
 projects in the 'Journal des Debats,' in the conduct of which he 
 had taken part since the close of the year 1835. This advocacy 
 was, however, unpleasing to his constituents, and in the election 
 of 1846 he found himself superseded. Before this he had 
 analysed very completely and methodically the various indus- 
 tries, means of communication, and capabilities of America, in 
 his ' Histoire et Description des Voies de Communication des 
 Etats-Unis, et des Travaux d'Art qui en dependent,' 2 vols. 4to, 
 Paris, 1840-1, to which was afterwards added an atlas in folio, 
 and a ' Table Analytique et Alphabetique des Matieres.' The 
 lectures delivered by M. Chevalier as a professor, which were 
 enthusiastically received by numerous students, were issued 
 wider the title of ' Coups d'Economie Politique fait au College de 
 France,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris — the first volume being published in 
 1842, the second in 1844, and the third, which bears 'La 
 Monnaie ' as a sub-title, in 1850. The first volume of a second 
 edition, improved and enlarged, was commenced in 8vo, Paris, 
 1855. Freed from his duties as a deputy, M. Chevalier threw 
 himself enthusiastically into the advocacy of free trade, and endea- 
 voured, although in vain, in co-operation with M. Frederic Bastiat, 
 to organisein France a leaguesimilar to the then triumphant Anti- 
 Corn Law League of England. After the revolution of February, 
 1848, he boldly combated the socialistic theories of M. Louis 
 Blanc, in articles first published severally in the 'Revue des 
 Deux Mondes ' and the ' Journal des Debats,' and afterwards 
 issued with the titles of ' Question des Travailleurs,' &c, 16mo, 
 Paris, 1848, and " Lettres sur l'Organisation du Travail,' &c, 
 12mo, Paris, 1848. On the 7th of April the Provisional Govern- 
 ment deprived him of his chair in the College de France ; but he 
 was subsequently re-appointed. In 1851 he became a member 
 of the Institute (Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques), 
 and in 1852 was named " Conseiller d'Etat en service extraordi- 
 naire." He was one of the commissioners for organising the 
 Exposition Universelle of 1855, and one of the foremost pro- 
 moters of the Treaty of Commerce between England and France 
 in 1860. On the 14th of March of this year He became a senator ; 
 and in 1862 was elected president of the international jury for 
 awarding the prizes at the second great Exhibition of London. 
 The works of M. Chevalier, besides those which have been 
 already mentioned, comprise 'LTsthme de Panama, &c, suivi 
 d'un apercu _ sur l'Isthme de Suez,' 8vo, Paris, 1844 ; ' La 
 Liberie aux Etats-Unis,' 8vo, Paris, 1849; 'Examendu Systeme 
 Commercial connu sous le nom de Systeme Protecteur,'8vo, Paris, 
 1852 ; 'De la Baisse probable de l'Or,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1859, of 
 which an English translation, with notes, was published by the 
 author's friend, Richard Cobden, ' On the probable Fall of the 
 Value of Gold,' 8vo, Manchester, 1859 ; ' L'Expeuition du 
 Mexique,' 8vo, Paris, 1862, a pamphlet ; ' Le Mexique ancien et 
 moderne,' 12mo, Paris, 1863; 'L'Industrie et l'Octroi de Paris,' 8vo, 
 1867, a series of letters collected from the ' Journal des De'bats.' 
 Many of M. Chevalier's works have been translated into English 
 or German, or into both languages ; and he has contributed 
 extensively to various serials and periodicals — the ' Revue des 
 DeuxMondes' and the 'Journal des Debats,' as already men- 
 tioned ; the ' Dictionnaire de l'Economie Politique,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, Paris, 1852-53, and the 'Journal de la Societe de Statis- 
 tique de Paris,' 8vo, Paris, 1860, &c. 
 
 CHEVALIER, SULPICE PAUL. (Gavarni, E. C. voL iii. 
 col. 42, and E. C. S.] 
 
 CHEZY, ANTOINE LEONARD DE, a distinguished French 
 Orientalist, was born at Neuilly, on the 15th of January, 1753. 
 His father, Antoine de Chezy, an engineer of repute, who was 
 
 b b 2 
 
375 CHEZY, HELMINA. 
 
 born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1718, and died in 1798, and who 
 is remembered as the joint constructor of the bridge at Neuilly, 
 and the sole architect of those at Meaux and Treport, designed 
 his son for his own profession. The genius of the younger 
 Chezy, however, determined him to literature, and especially to 
 the study of oriental languages. He acquired with great rapidity 
 a knowledge of Arabic and Persian, to which he added a more 
 than ordinary acquaintance with the classical and modern Euro- 
 pean languages. He cultivated also botany and natural philo- 
 sophy. The year 1798 found him in the employment of the 
 Ministry for Foreign Affairs, and he was one of the band of 
 scholars selected to accompany the expedition of Napoleon to 
 Egypt. But his progress was arrested by malignant fever at 
 Toulon, and he did not proceed farther. In 1799 he was keeper 
 of the oriental manuscripts in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and 
 was incited to undertake the study of Sanskrit, at that time so 
 much a novelty in France that he had to pursue his investiga- 
 tions without the aid of grammar or dictionary. His enthusiasm 
 was rewarded by the King, Louis XVIII., who in 181.") created 
 two chairs, of Chinese and Sanskrit respectively, in the College 
 dc France, of which the former was filled by M. Abel Remusat, 
 and the latter by M. de Chezy. The two scholars were also 
 named knights of the Legion of Honour, and elected members 
 of the Institute. M. Chezy's domestic- life was not one of con- 
 tentment ; but he continued to solace himself for family afilic- 
 tions, as well as for disappointments of a more public nature, by 
 continuous devotion to his studies. He died of cholera, at Paris, 
 on the 31st of August, 1832. He is known, amongst other 
 works, by his ' Extrait du Livre des Merveilles de la Nature, 
 par Mohammed,' 8vo, Paris, 1805; 'Medjouin et Leila,' trans- 
 lated from the Persian of Djani, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1807 ; 
 'Yadjnadatta badha,' &c, an episode from the 'Ramayana,' a 
 Sanskrit epic by Valmiki, 8vo, Paris, 1814, of which a new 
 edition appeared with additions and a modified title as 
 ' Yadjnadattabada ; on, la Mort d'Yadjnadatta, Episode Extrait 
 du Ramayana, poeme ejiique Sanscrit, donne avec le texte 
 grave, une analyse grammaticale tivs-detaillce, une traduction 
 franchise, et des Notes par A. L. Chezy, et suivi par forme 
 d'appendice d'une traduction latine litterale par J. L. Bumouf,' 
 with fifteen engravings, 4to, Paris, 1827 ; ' Theorie du Sloka, ou 
 metre heroique Sanscrit,' 8vo, Paris, 1827 ; ' La Reconnaissance 
 de Sacountala, Drame sanserif et pracritde Calidasa, publie pour 
 la premiere fois, en original, sur un manuscrit unique de la 
 Bibliotheque du Roi, accompagne d'une traduction franchise, de 
 notes philosophiques, critiques, et litteraires, et suivi d'une 
 appendice,' 4to, Paris, 1830. Besides the foregoing, M. de Chez}' 
 published, under the pseudonym of A. L. Apudy, a translation 
 of the 'Anthologie erotique d'Amarou,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1831 ; 
 and at his death left several philological works in manuscript. 
 He was likewise known as a contributor to the 'Journal 
 Asiatique,' 8vo, Paris, 1832, &c; the ' Annales de la Litterature 
 et des Arts,' 8vo, Paris, 1820, &c, and others. 
 
 CHEZY, HELMINA, or WILHELMINE CHRISTIANE 
 VON, wife of M. A. L. de Chezy, was born at Berlin on the 26th 
 of January, 1783, and was the grand-daughter of Anna Luise 
 Karsch, known in German poetic literature by the name of 
 Karschin. At the age of 16 she became the wife of Herr von 
 Hastfer, from whom she separated in the following year. In 
 1802 she availed herself of the proffered protection of Madame 
 de Genlis, at Paris, and in 1805 became the wife of M. de Chezy, 
 whose acquaintance she had made at the house of Friedrich von 
 Schlegel, and from whom she finally separated in 1810. She 
 now repaired with her two sons to Germany, where she devoted 
 herself to literary pursuits, enjoying the patronage of Prince von 
 Dalberg, and residing in turn at Heidelberg, Berlin, Dresden, 
 Vienna, and Munich. She died in the last-named city on the 
 28th of January, 1856. The poems of Madame de Chezy are 
 regarded as favourable specimens of the romantic school ; and 
 amongst others she published a collection, entitled 'Gedichte,' 2 
 vols. 8vo, Aschaffenburg, 1812 ; Heart-Tones of a Pilgrim, 
 ' Hertzenstone auf Pilgerwegen,' 12mo, Sulzbach, 1833, contain- 
 ing a revised edition of the Three White Roses, ' Die drei Weissen 
 Rosen,' which had first appeared in the 'Urania' for 1821. 
 Amongst her novels may be mentioned the Newly Selected 
 Writings of the grand-daughter of Karschin, ' Neue auserlesene 
 Schriften der Enkelin der Karschin,' 2 parts, 8vo, Heidelberg, 
 1817 : Stories and Novels, ' Erzahlungen und Novellen,' 2 parts, 
 8vo, Leipzig, 1822 ; Hour- Flowers, ' Stundenblumen,' 4 vols. 
 12mo, Vienna, 1824-27; and Emma's Trials, 'E mma's Prii- 
 fungen,' Heidelberg, 1827. Besides the production of some 
 books of social and topographical interest, Madame de Chezy 
 
 CIILADNI, ERNEST FLORENCE FREDERICK. 376 
 
 is known as the writer of the libretto to Weber's opera of 
 ' Euryanthe,' Vienna, 1824, German and English, and third 
 edition, 1843. Two years after her death an autobiographical 
 memoir of the remarkable circumstances of her life was edited 
 by Bertha Borntriiger, with the title of ' Unvergessenes. Denk- 
 wiirdigkeiten aus dem Leben von Helmina von Chezy. Von 
 ihr selbst erziihlt,' 2 parts, 8vo, Leipzig, 1858. 
 
 * CHEZY, WILHELM VON, elder son of the above, was 
 born on the 21st of March, 1806 ; and, following the movements 
 of his mother, was educated at various cities in Germany. In 
 1829 he studied law at Munich, but, yielding to the greater 
 attraction of literature, soon gave evidence of considerable power 
 and versatility. He acted as a journalist, novelist, and drama- 
 tist, fixing himself in 1850 for the discharge of his duties in the 
 first capacity at Vienna. The works by which he has achieved 
 reputation as a delineator of the manners of chivalric and of 
 modern times comprise the Wandering Scholar, ' Der fahrende 
 Scluiler,' 3 vols. Zurich, 1835; The Pious Jew, 'Der fromme 
 Jude,' &c, 4 parts, 8vo, Stuttgart, 1844-45 ; the Last of the 
 Janizaries, 1 Der Letzte Janitschar,' &c, 8vo, Vienna, 1855 ; and 
 Recollections of his Life, ' Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Schaffhausen, 1863, &c. 
 
 Max von Chezy, the younger brother of Wilhelm, was a 
 painter, who died at Heidelberg, in the year 1846. 
 
 CHIARAMONTI, SCTPIONE (Lat. Scipio Claramontius), 
 Italian astronomer, was born at Cxsena, in Romagna, June 22nd, 
 1565. After studying philosophy and mathematics at Perugia 
 and Ferrara, he removed to Pisa, where during the greater part 
 of his life he was a teacher of science. Upon the death of his 
 wife he took ecclesiastical vows, and entered the Congregation of 
 the Oratory. He died the 6th of October, 1652. Chiaramonti, who 
 wrote in Latin, controverted one of the theorems laid down by 
 Tycho, concerning comets ; ' Anti-Tycho, in quo contra Tychonem 
 Brahe, et nonnullos alios rationibus eorum ex opticis et geo- 
 metricis principiis solutis, demonstratur cometas esse sublunares, 
 non ccelestes,' 4to, Venice, 1621 ; Kepler and Galileo supported 
 Tycho's views against those of Chiaramonti. Another astrono- 
 mical controversy was raised by him in ' Anti-Philolaus, in quo 
 Philolaus redivivus de terras motu et solis ac fixarum quiete 
 impugnatur, necnon positio eadein de re Copemici confutatur, et 
 Galilaei defensiones rejiciuntur,' 4to, Caesena, 1643 ; this attempt 
 to overturn the Copernican hypothesis was, of course, a failure. 
 In another work he criticised Aristotle's views on certain astro- 
 nomical phenomena : ' Commentaria in Aristotelem de iride, de 
 corona, de parheliis, et virgis,' 4to, Caesena, 1654. Two other 
 works from his pen were, ' De conjectandis cujusque moribus et 
 latitantibus animi afl'ectibus,' 4to, Venice, 1625 ; and ' Cresenae 
 historia, libri xvi., ab initio civitatis ad hsec tempora, in qua 
 totius interdum Italiae status describitur,' 4to, Coesena, 1641. 
 His ' Opuscula varia Mathematical appeared in a now exceedingly 
 scarce quarto volume, Bologna, 1653. 
 
 CHLADNI, ERNEST FLORENCE FREDERICK, was 
 born at Wittenberg, 30th of November, 1756, of a family of Hun- 
 garian origin. His father wished him to follow his own pro- 
 fession, that of the law, for which purpose he was trained first 
 at home, and then at the provincial school of Grimma. Re- 
 ferring to this period he says : — " My education left me so little 
 leisure, that while othei-3 regard their youth as the happiest 
 period of their life, I cannot say as much for mine. This con- 
 tinual restraint, which was not at all necessary, since I was not 
 of a disposition to abuse my liberty, produced an effect quite 
 contrary to that intended, for it gave me an almost irresistible 
 longing to choose my own occupations, to travel, and to contend 
 against opposing circumstances." At length he obtained his 
 degree of Doctor in Philosophy and Law, and returned to 
 Wittenberg to practise his profession. But after the death of 
 his father he gave up law in disgust, and devoted himself to the 
 study of nature, to which he had previously applied some of 
 his scanty leisure. He had already remarked while taking 
 lessons in music, at the age of 19, that the theory of Sound 
 had been more neglected than that of other branches of physics. 
 He felt a strong desire to supply this defect, and to make dis- 
 coveries of his own. He says, " In 1785 I made some imperfect 
 experiments, and observed that a plate of glass or of metal gave 
 different tones when it was pressed and struck in different 
 places. The journals about this time noticed a musical instru- 
 ment constructed in Italy by the Abbe Mazzocchi, consisting of 
 bells made to vibrate by means of fiddle bows ; this suggested 
 to me the idea of making use of a fiddle bow to examine the 
 vibrations of sonorous bodies. When I applied the bow to 
 a disc of copper fixed in the centre, it gave different notes 
 
CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS. 
 
 which, compared among themselves, were equal to the squares 
 of 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. But the nature of the motions to which these 
 sounds corresponded, and the means of producing any one of 
 them at will, were as yet unknown to me. Calling to mind 
 Lichtenberg's electrical figures, I fancied that the different 
 vibratory motions of a sonoroxis disk would present different 
 figures if a little sand or similar matter were dusted over the 
 surface. In adopting this device the first figure that struck my 
 eyes on the round disk, resembled a star of ten or twelve radii, 
 and the sharp sound produced corresponded to the square of the 
 number of diametrical lines. One may judge my astonishment 
 in regarding this phenomenon which no one had ever before 
 seen. After having reflected on the nature of these motions, it 
 was not difficult for me to vary and multiply the experiments, 
 the results of which succeeded each other with tolerable 
 rapidity. My first memoir, which contained researches on the 
 vibrations of a circular plate, a square plate, a ring, a bell, &c, 
 appeared at Leipsig in 1787." 
 
 Chladni also invented two musical instruments, the Euphonia 
 and the Clavicylinder, which cost him more time, labour, and 
 expense than his experiments on vibration. He says : — " After 
 having worked in vain for a long time, one must sometimes 
 destroy all one's work, and begin again, but the least success 
 makes one forget all these trials of patience." The Euphonia, 
 invented in 1789 and finished in 1790, consisted of small 
 cvlinders of glass which were rubbed longitudinally with the 
 moistened fingers. The Clavicylinder, finished in 1800, con- 
 sisted of a cylinder of glass made to revolve and produce 
 notes by its friction on some interior mechanism, while by 
 means of a key-board notes could be produced at will with 
 the various shades of crescendo and diminuendo, the in- 
 strument never getting out of tune. It was favourably reported 
 on by the Institute of France, and by the Conservatoire de 
 Musique. 
 
 In order to make these instruments known, Chladni set out 
 in 1802 on a journey throughout Germany, Holland, France, 
 Italy, Russia, and Denmark. His instrument and his lectures 
 on Acoustics were favourably received. In the same year he 
 published a Treatise on Acoustics, a French translation of which 
 appeared, under his own superintendence, at Paris in 1809. 
 The following is the dedication. " Napoleon le Grand a daigne 
 agreer la dSdicace de cet ouvrage, apres en avoir vu les expe- 
 riences fondamentales." 
 
 The Emperor was so struck with these experiments that lie 
 proposed a prize of 3000 francs for the best essay on the 
 question, " To give the mathematical theory of the vibrations 
 of elastic surfaces, and to compare it with experiment." In the 
 programme issued by the Institut de France we get some idea 
 of the language of adulation which scientific men condescended 
 to use at this period. " Cette nouvelle conception du genie 
 bienfaisant qui anime et dirige les vues grandes et profoudes de 
 Sa Majesty pour le progres, et la propagation des lumieres, sera 
 rec,ue avec reconnaissance par tous les peuples qui honorent et 
 cultivent les sciences." Only one memoir was sent in as a can- 
 didate for the prize, and this was not crowned, though honour- 
 able mention was made of it. 
 
 Chladni is best known by his acoustical figures, which are 
 made out by the symmetrical arrangement of nodal lines. In 
 his published works he attempts to reduce the vast number of 
 figures produced to something like method. Thus he traces the 
 vibrations of square plates to those forms of vibration in which 
 the nodal lines are parallel to one side of the square, and to 
 those in which they are parallel to another side. His notation 
 indicates the modes of vibration. Thus 5 — 2 is a form in which 
 there are 5 nodal lines parallel to one side and 2 to another, 
 or a form can be traced to a disfigurement of such a type as this. 
 The subject has been largely enriched by contemporary and later 
 physicists. 
 
 Chladni published his ' Neue Beitrage zur Akustic' in 1807, 
 a ' Treatise on the Art of Constructing Musical Instruments' 
 in 1822, while the second German edition of his 'Treatise on 
 Sound' appeared in 1830. 
 
 Chladni also took great interest in the subject of Meteors. 
 " It was Lichtenberg," he says, " who for the second time gave 
 an impulse to the course of my ideas." Being at Gottingen in 
 1792 he asked his opinion as to the nature of igneous meteors, 
 or bolides, and was so much struck with the opinion that they 
 came from beyond our atmosphere, that he set to work to com- 
 pile a list of recorded cases of the fall of meteoric iron, &c. 
 This appeared at Leipzig in 1794. He also published in the 
 ' Bulletin de la Soeieto Philomatique' for April, 1809, a Catalogue 
 
 of Meteors. Another paper on Fiery Meteors was published at 
 Vienna in 1819. 
 
 Chladni died at Breslau, April 4th, 1827. Professor Tyndall, 
 in his published lectures on Sound, gives a portrait of Chladni, 
 with his autograph, as a frontispiece, and quotes a letter which 
 he received from Professor Weber, in which he says : — " I knew 
 Chladni personally. From my youth up, he was my leader and 
 model as a man of science, and I cannot too thankfully acknow- 
 ledge the influence which his stimulating encouragement during 
 the last years of his life, had upon my own scientific labours." 
 
 The short autobiographical sketch from which we have 
 quoted, is prefixed by Chladni to the Paris edition of his ' Trea- 
 tise on Acoustics' (1809). He says: — "People have often 
 asked by what chance I succeeded in making discoveries. 
 Chance has never favoured me ; hard work has. Following the 
 examples of many distinguished persons, I proceed to give some 
 account of the history of my discoveries. These being the result 
 of individual circumstances, I may thus be able to interest some 
 of my readers." 
 
 CHOISY, FRANCOIS TIMOLEON DE, Prior of Saint L6, 
 Grand Doyen of the Cathedral of Bayeux, and a member of the 
 Academie Franchise, was born at Paris on the 16th of August, 
 1644. His youth and early manhood were a series of irregularities, 
 and for some years he dressed and lived as a woman. He was 
 appointed " coadjuteur d'ambassade " to the Chevalier de Chau- 
 mont, who was sent by the French monarch to the King of Siam, 
 who, it is said, wished to become a Christian. The envoys em- 
 barked at Brest on the 3rd of March, 1685 ; and during the 
 voyage M. de Choisy was admitted to priest's orders by the Vicar 
 Apostolic of the Indies, so that he performed his first mass on the 
 open sea. The mission arrived at Brest on their return, on the 
 18th of June, 1686, having effected little further than to lay the 
 basis of a superficial and untrustworthy volume which the Abbe 
 de Choisy published the following year, with the title of 
 'Journal du Voyage de Siam fait en 1685 et 1686,' 4to, Paris, 
 1687 ; 12mo, Amsterdam, 1688, &c. In 1687 the Abbe 
 was elected a member of the Academie ; and some years after 
 published his French version of the ' Imitation de Jesus-Christ,' 
 which was reprinted in 12mo, 1735, and of which the first 
 edition was dedicated to Madame de Maintenon, with the advice 
 curiously applied from the 44th Psalm, " Audi, filia, et vide, et 
 inclina aurem tuam, et concupiscet rex decorem tuum." Such 
 was the man who, at the request of Bossuet, undertook to write 
 an 'Histoire de l'Eglise,' 11 vols. 4to, Paris, 1706-23, in which 
 the author discusses rather too gaily the gallantries of kings and 
 the pleasant sins of the world. The versatile abbe died at an 
 advanced age on the 2nd of October, 1724. He was a volumi- 
 nous author, and A left, inter alia, 'Quatre Dialogues: (1) Sur 
 lTmmortalite de l'Ame, (2) Sur l'Existence de Dieu, (3) Sur la 
 Providence, (4) Sur la Religion,' 12mo, 1684 ; reprinted in 12mo, 
 Paris, 1768, the joint production of M. de Choisy and the Abbe 
 de Dangeau ; ' Histoire de la Vie de David,' 4to, about 1687, 
 and 12nio, Amsterdam, 1692 ; ' La Vie de Salomon,' 12mo, 1687; 
 ' Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire de Louis XIV.,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, and another edition in 3 vols. 8vo, Utrecht, 1727 ; and 
 Histories of several of the Kings of France, which hav- 
 ing been already published by instalments at different times, 
 were collected and issued with the title of ' Histoire de France 
 sous les Regnes de Saint Louis, de Philijipe de Valois, du Roi 
 Jean, de Charles V., et de Charles VI.,' 4 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1750. 
 Particulars of a life and character which have caused some 
 debate have been supplied by M. P. J. T. d'Olivet, in a work 
 entitled ' Vie de M. l'Abbe de Choisy,' 8vo, Lausanne and 
 Geneva, 1742. 
 
 CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS, musical composer and 
 pianist, was born of French parents settled near Warsaw, 8th 
 February, 1810. He acquired bis musical education chiefly 
 through the liberality of Prince Radzivil, at Warsaw, aud then 
 studied composition under Eisner. After travelling in France, 
 Germany, and Italy, he made his first public appearance as a 
 pianist at Vienna in 1829. During the remaining twenty years 
 of his life he attracted much public attention, as a brilliant 
 pianist, a composer of numerous pieces for that instrument, and 
 a teacher. He resided at Paris from 1831 to 1837, then went to 
 Majorca for the benefit of his health, visited London in 1848, and 
 died at Paris, 17th October, 1849. As a pianist, Chopin held a 
 high rank for delicacy of touch and originality of style ; though 
 many other artists (with whom, generally, he was not a favourite) 
 took exception to his method. As a composer he was chiefly suc- 
 cessful in polaccas, polonaises, mazurkas, nocturnos, preludes, 
 tarantellas, and other light pieces. As a teacher, he was in high 
 
CHRESTIEN DE TROYES. 
 
 380 
 
 favour with ladies of rank at Paris, especially the Polish nobility 
 living in exile ; his refined manners and fastidious taste con- 
 ducing to his welcome in such circles. 
 
 CHRESTIEN, or CHRESTIENS, DE TROYES, one of the 
 most illustrious of the early French poets who devoted their 
 talents to the glory of King Arthur and the history of the Holy 
 Graal, was burn at Troyes, in Champagne, during the reign of 
 Louis VII., and probably between the years 1140 and 1150. He 
 was thus a contemporary of Robiers and Helie Borron. He was 
 emphatically the poet of the nobles, pure in style, delicate, for 
 his age, in thought, fertile in imagination, and an accomplished 
 student of men and manners. He enjoyed the patronage of 
 Philippe d' Alsace, Comte deFlandre, to whom In- dedicated most 
 of his works, and to whose court it has been supposed he was 
 attached. There is some reason, also, for thinking that he was 
 in holy orders. He died near the close of the 12th century, or 
 in one of the earliest years of the 13th. 
 
 The romances of Chrestien began to appear about the year 
 1170, and according to the order in which he enumerates them 
 in his opening of the romance of ' Cligds,' or 'Clig6t,' that of 
 ' Erec et Enide,' which extends to about 6600 verses, and the 
 characteristic circumstances of which have been lately retold in 
 Mr. Tennyson's 'Idylls of the King,' was the first produced. 
 Fragments of 'Erec et Enide' have appeared in various modern 
 works ; ami the whole poem was published from the ( 'ango MS., 
 by Immanuel Bekker, in Haupt's ' Zeitschrift fur Deutsehes 
 Alterthum,' vol. x. 8vo, Leipzig, 1855. Chresticn's next romance, 
 sometimes called 'Tristram,' but which he himself mentions as 
 ' Le Roi Mare et Ysent La blonde,' and which is believed to have 
 been written previous to 1173, is lost as a whole, and even such 
 fragments as profess to belong to it cannot be identified. A 
 third romance, that of ' Chgda/ has not been edited ; but quota- 
 tions from it appear in the works of Ginguene and Dr. W. L. 
 Holland, and various MSS. of it are preserved at Paris and 
 elsewhere. The hero, who goes through at least an average 
 round of knightly adventures, is the grandson of Alexander, Em- 
 peror of Constantinople, and son of Alexander, who, having been 
 admitted by King Arthur as a Knight of the Round Table, wins 
 the love and the hand of Sore (Scour) d'Amors, who becomes the 
 mother of Sir Cliges. The author professes to have adapted the 
 story from a MS. which he discovered at Beauvais. 
 
 The adventures of a knight who by an opportune act of kind- 
 ness subdued a lion to devotion and obedience, which form the 
 subject of a fourth romance, have been more than once edited of 
 late years. They are told hy Chrestien in nearly 7000 verses, 
 which are given complete in the third volume of Lady Charlotte 
 Guest's ' Mabinogion,' 8vo, London, 1838, and in Dr. Holland's 
 ' Li Romans dou Chevalier au Lyon,' 8vo, Hanover, 1862. Of a 
 fifth romance, Launcelot du Lac is the true hero, ' Li Romans 
 del Chevalier de la Charrette,' a poem of nearly 7000 verses, 
 which, written for the most part by Chrestien, was continued by 
 Godefroid de Laigny (Godefroiz de Leigni), and which was pub- 
 lished by M. Tarbe as ' Le Roman du Chevalier a la Charrette, 
 par Chrestien de Troyes et Godefroid de Laigny,' 8vo, Reims, 
 1.S49. The History of William the Conqueror, which, differing 
 somewhat from the foregoing works, is still not entirely without 
 the realm of the imagination, occupies a poem of 3300 lines, ' II 
 Contes del Roi Guillaume d'Engleterre,' which has recently been 
 translated into German by H. A. von Keller, and into French by 
 Leon Paulet, and which occurs in the original in a work edited 
 hy Dr. Giles for the Caxton Society, ' Scriptores Rerum Gestarum 
 Willelmi Conquestoris,' 8vo, London, 1845, where the version is 
 followed of M. Francisque Michel's ' Chroniques Anglo-Nor- 
 mandes,' 3 vols. 8vo, Rouen, 1840. One other of the larger works 
 of Chrestien remains to be mentioned, and it has been reserved 
 for this place because it offers one of the earliest — perhaps the 
 earliest — examples of the interweaving of the legends of the 
 Holy Graal with those of the Round Table. It is called ' Le 
 Roman de Perceval le Gallois ; ou, le Conte du Grail (li Contes 
 del Graal),' of which, in spite of the existence of many MSS., and 
 the interest of many students of Troubadour literature, no com- 
 plete modern version has been printed, although a large portion 
 appeared in a volume by M. Ch. Potvin, entitled ' Bibliographie 
 de Chrestien de Troyes. Comparison des Manuscrits de Perceval 
 le Gallois,' 8vo, Bruxelles, Leipzig, &c, 1863. Fragments and 
 passages of it have been given in various works for purposes of 
 illustration ; and translations or imitations of the whole poem 
 have appeared in German, French, Flemish, Spanish, and 
 Icelandic. An old English version, 'The Romance of Sir 
 Perceval of Galles,' scarcely one-tenth of the length of the ori- 
 ginal, is given in ' The Thornton Romances,' 8vo, London, 1844, 
 
 a volume edited by Mr. Halliwell for the Camden Society. The 
 original poem, which is over 20,000 lines in length, was written 
 by Chrestien de Troyes, and continued by Gautier de Denet and 
 
 Manessier. 
 
 Of minor productions, the authorship of six Songs can be 
 accurately referred to Chrestien ; and he claims several imita- 
 tions of Ovid, ' Les Comendemens (Hemedia Amorum),' ' L'Art 
 d'aimer,' and others, winch remain to this day in manuscript. 
 Amongst the many scholarly books of recent issue which are 
 conversant about Chrestien de Troyes, the work of Dr. AVilhelm 
 Ludwig Holland, for its truth and completeness, deserves especial 
 mention, ' Crestien de Troies. Eine Literaturgeschichtlichc 
 Untersuchung,' 8vo, Tubingen, 1854. 
 
 CHRISTIE, SAMUEL HUNTER, was born in London 22nd 
 March, 1784. He displayed at an early age a taste for mathe- 
 matics. In 1801 he was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 and in his third year obtained a scholarship. In 1805 he took 
 his degree of Bachelor of Arts as second wrangler, after a severe 
 struggle with Turton (afterwards Bishop of Ely) for the "blue 
 riband" of the University, and being bracketed with him as 
 Smith's prizeman. In 1806 Christie became third mathematical 
 master at the Royal Academy, Woolwich, and devoted himself 
 to the improvement of the mathematical studies of the College. 
 In 1812 he estahlished a system of competitive examinations, but 
 was not able fully to develope his views until 1838, when he 
 became professor of mathematics. It was not until 1854, after 
 forty-eight years' service in the same institution, that he vacated 
 his chair, and went to reside at Lausanne. After some time he 
 returned to England, and took up his abode at Twickenham, 
 where he died, 24th January, 1865, having nearly completed his 
 81st year. 
 
 Christie was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in January, 
 1826. He has contributed a number of papers to the ' Transac- 
 tions,' on magnetism and subjects related thereto. He delivered 
 the Bakerian lecture for 1833, on the magneto-electric conduction 
 of various metals. He served on the " Compass Committee" of 
 the Admiralty, and drew up that part of the British Association 
 Report for 1833 which refers to the magnetism of the earth. He 
 also, in conjunction with Mr. Airey, reported on Humboldt's 
 suggestion for the establishment of permanent magnetic observa- 
 tions. In 1837 he succeeded Mr. Children as one of the secre- 
 taries of the Royal Society, and retained that office until 1854. 
 He also published an 'Elementary Course of Mathematics' for 
 the use of the Royal Military Academy. 
 
 * CHRISTISON, ROBERT, a Scotch physician and toxico- 
 logist, was born in 1798, and was educated partly in London and 
 partly in some of the continental universities, more especially 
 that of Paris. In 1 819 he took his doctor's degree at Edinburgh 
 in 1822 he succeeded to Dr. Alison, as professor of medical juris- 
 prudence in the University of Edinburgh, and in 1832 he suc- 
 ceeded to Dr. Duncan as professor of materia medica in the same 
 institution, which last post he still retains. He has been twice 
 elected president of the College of Physicians in Edinburgh ; 
 is one of the vice-presidents of the Royal Society of that town, 
 and also one of the physicians in ordinary in the Queen's house- 
 hold. His best known work is a ' Treatise on Poisons,' of which 
 the first edition appeared in 1829, and the fourth in 1844. He 
 has written a ' Dispensary or Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias,' 
 and has edited the ' Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.' He has also 
 written numerous papers, mostly relating to poisons, amongst 
 which may be cited, ' On the Detection of minute quantities of 
 Arsenic in mixed fluids,' in the ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical 
 Journal,' xxii. p. 60 (1824); 'On the Poisonous Properties of 
 Hemlock and its alkaloid, Conia,' in the ' Transactions of the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh,' xiii. p. 383 (1836) ; 'On the Pro- 
 perties of the Ordeal Bean of Old Calabar, Western Africa,' in 
 the ' Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science,' xx. p. 193 
 (1855) ; and 'An Experimental Inquiry on Poisoning by Oxalic 
 Acid,' written in conjunction with M. Coindet, and published in the 
 'Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,'xix. pp. 163,323 (1823). 
 
 CHRISTY, HENRY, was born July 26, 1810. His early life 
 was spent in business as a member of the firm of Christy & Co., 
 in Gracechurch-street, and as a director of the London Joint 
 Stock Bank. He soon acquired a taste for antiquarian research, 
 and in 1850 he gratified it by travelling in the East, and collect- 
 ing objects illustrative of the manners and customs of the people 
 he visited. In 1852 he travelled through Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Norway, and it was during these travels that he formed the idea 
 of investigating the similarity in the mode of thought and living 
 and in the state of the arts amongst the modem barbaric tribes, 
 and the earliest races of which evidence has been obtained. 
 
3S1 
 
 CIALDINI, ENRICO. 
 
 CI VITAL!, MATTEO. 
 
 382 
 
 With this view he collected an immense number of implements, 
 fashioned out of flint, obsidian, and other stones, bone, horn, &c, 
 ns well as relics from the caves at Dordogne, the lake dwellings of 
 Switzerland, and other storehouses of antiquarian objects. In 
 1853 he traversed Germany. In 1856 he made a long tour 
 through North America, and accompanied Mr. Tylor to Mexico. 
 In 1863 he visited Algeria and North Africa. Besides this, 
 he explored many other countries, with a view to collecting 
 evidence as to the condition and resources of primitive peoples. 
 Soon after the caves of Dordogne began to occupy the thoughts of 
 French geologists and palaeontologist?, Mr. Christy entered upon 
 this field of research with his accustomed enthusiasm. In con- 
 junction with M. Lartct, he systematically examined the caves 
 along the banks of the Vezere, from which he collected an im- 
 mense mass of valuable material. In 1865 his attention was 
 attracted by the caves on the Meuse, near Dinant, in Belgium. 
 While exploring a cave there he caught a cold, but he persisted 
 in his travels, and journeyed on to La Pelisse, Allier, where he 
 was attacked by inflammation of the lungs, and died on May 4. 
 Before his death he had made considerable preparation for a 
 large work on Aquitanian antiquities ; and since his death several 
 parts have been issued under the title of ' Reliquio3 Aquitanicrc,' 
 1 iy Edouard Lartet and Henry Christy, edited by Professor T. 
 Rupert Jones. He bequeathed his museum to the nation, and it 
 now forms the Christy Ethnological Collection attached to the 
 British Museum. 
 
 * CIALDINI, ENRICO, an Italian general, was bom on the 
 10th of August, 1813, at his father's villa of Lombardina, near 
 Castelvetro, in Modena. Some time afterwards his father, 
 Giuseppe Cialdini, removed to Reggio, where he fulfilled the 
 duties of Ingegnere nell' Uffizio di acque e strade. Here the 
 education of the young Enrico was committed to the Jesuits, 
 who for a time were led to hope that he might become a member 
 of their order. The failure of their expectations is said to have 
 changed their favour into hatred and opposition, and to have led 
 to his expulsion from their seminary. He now repaired to the 
 University of Parma, where he studied philosophy and medicine, 
 and also cultivated painting with some assiduity. On the breaking 
 out of the insurrection in February, 1831, he enrolled himself at 
 Reggio as a volunteer in a regiment of the Milizie Nazionali, 
 which marched to Bologna to place itself under the orders of 
 General Zucchi. Upon the termination of this insurrection, and 
 the surrender of Ancona, where he had taken refuge, Cialdini 
 embarked for Marseille, and proceeding from that town to Paris, 
 devoted himself in the latter place to the pursuit of scientific, and 
 especially of medical and chemical studies. But he gave up his 
 prospects of civil distinction for the sake of taking part in the 
 Spanish war of Succession. He landed at Oporto, in March, 
 1833, and made the campaign of Portugal so successfully, that at 
 its close he had arrived, by rapid but regular promotions, at the 
 rank of sub-lieutenant, having whilst a sergeant so distinguished 
 himself for his valour as to have been created a knight of the 
 order of the Tower and Sword. On the 22nd of October, 1835, 
 he was appointed to a lieutenancy in the Cacciatori di Oporto, a 
 force composed chiefly of Portuguese soldiers and officered by 
 Italians. Proceeding to Spain, Cialdini became aide-de-camp to 
 Borso, who had the command in Catalonia ; and at the battle 
 of Cherta, 29th of June, 1836, won by his conduct and courage 
 the Cross of St. Ferdinand, a distinction which was soon followed 
 by his promotion to a company. At the conclusion of the war, 
 which, after continuing for seven years, ended in the establish- 
 ment of the throne of Queen Isabella II., Cialdini applied for 
 admission into the regular Spanish army, in which he was 
 appointed sub-lieutenant in 1839, and captain in the following 
 year. The- suspicion into which he fell in October, 1841, of 
 complicity with Diego Leon, Concha, and Borso di Carminati, 
 in their cittempts to replace the regency in the hands of the 
 Queen Mother instead of those of Espartero, entailed upon him 
 an inactivity of two years, during which he retired to Valencia, 
 where he married. In 1843 he accepted somewhat reluctantly 
 the post of aide-de-camp to Narvaez ; and was appointed in 
 1844 to a command in the then recently instituted Civil Guard, 
 in which he became lieutenant-colonel in 1847. The movements 
 of 1848 attracted Cialdini to Italy, where he served as a colonel 
 in the army of General Durando. He was severely wounded at 
 the battle of Vicenza, being at first reported dead ; and it 
 required many months to effect his restoration to health. He 
 was then employed in the organisation of a regiment of volun- 
 teers in the Piedmontese service, consisting of about 3000 men, 
 for the most part belonging to the Italian duchies, at whose head 
 he fought gallantly, but unsuccessfully, against the superior 
 
 forces of the Austrians, under Radetzky, at the disastrous battle 
 of Novara, March 23rd, 1849. When Piedmont resolved to 
 take part in the war against Russia, a select force of 15,000 men 
 was despatched to the Crimea under the command of General 
 Alfonso La Marmora. This force was divided into five brigades ; 
 and the third was placed under the command of Cialdini, who 
 played a distinguished part at the battle of the Tchernaya 
 on the 6th of September, 1855. Returning to Italy, Cialdini 
 was confirmed in his rank of major-general, and was appointed 
 aide-de-camp to the King, an event of the greater interest 
 because such an office had hitherto been the monopoly of the 
 nobles. He was also made Ispettore dei Bersaglieri, a force 
 which had owed its formation to General Alessandro La 
 Marmora. 
 
 Placed at the head of the 4th division from the commencement 
 of the war of 1859, Cialdini fought at Palestro, and distinguished 
 himself generally in the campaign which was brought to an end 
 by the treaty of Villafranca, 11th of July, 1859. In the move- 
 ments of the following year, which had for their aim the 
 "unification" of Italy, General Cialdini occupied an important 
 position. He led his division into the Marches in September, 
 1860 ; took Pessaro, Fano, and Urbino ; defeated General 
 Lamoriciere at Caste! fidardo ; and on the 29th of September, 
 14 days after crossing the Papal frontier, entered Ancona 
 as a conqueror, from which, 19 years before, he had embarked as 
 an exile. In 1861 he took Gaeta, after a siege of 17 days, and 
 shortly after captured the citadel of Messina. He was now 
 promoted to the rank of Generale d'Armata, equivalent to that 
 of field marshal. In April of the same year he sat in the 
 Italian parliament as deputy of the Electoral College of Reggio ; 
 and being offended by some imprudent words of Garibaldi, wrote 
 to the latter such a letter as involved a rupture. But through 
 the good offices of the Marchese Pallavicino, their common friend, 
 the two generals were reconciled. From the 9th of July to the 
 1st of November, General Cialdini presided in Naples as Lieute- 
 nant-General in the southern provinces, from which office, at his 
 own request, he was relieved by La Marmora. In the following 
 year, when Garibaldi endeavoured to provoke in Sicily a move- 
 ment for the immediate achievement of Italian independence, 
 Cialdini was sent thither with full powers both civil and 
 military ; and after this mission was terminated by the victory 
 of Colonel Pallavicini at Aspromonte, he returned to Turin. 
 'One of the great military commands was shortly afterwards 
 assigned to him, with Bologna for a residence. In March, 1864, 
 he was named a senator ; and in 1866 took a prominent part in 
 the campaign against the Austrians. General Cialdini has 
 received the decorations of various orders, both of his own 
 and other countries. Throughout his career he has shown him- 
 self a soldier of courage and resources, of originality of plan, of 
 resolution, and of firm and decisive will. 
 
 CIGNA, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO, was born at Mondovi, 
 2nd July, 1734. He was nephew to the celebrated electrician, 
 Beccaria, whose lectures he attended, and from whom he derived 
 a strong taste for electrical science. He is mentioned a number 
 of times in Priestley's History of Electricity : his greatest merit 
 as an electrician consists in supplying the main defect of Dufay's 
 theory, by showing that the two opposite electricities are pro- 
 duced simultaneously. In 1770 he was called to the chair of 
 anatomy in the University of Turin. He early became secretary 
 to a society of savans, which gave birth to the Royal Academy 
 of Sciences at Turin. Cigna edited four volumes of its memoirs, 
 and wrote the Latin preface. He also contributed a number of 
 papers thereto. He died at Turin in 1790. 
 
 CIMA DA CONEGLIANO. [Conegliano, G. B. Da, E. C. S.J 
 
 CIVITALI, MATTEO, an eminent Italian sculptor, was born, 
 about 1435, at Lucca, of which city he has been called the glory. 
 Vasari says h e was a scholar of Jacopo della Quercia, but this 
 is inconsistent, not only with the date usually given of his birth, 
 but with the known date of some of his works. The story that 
 he followed the calling of a barber till he was over thirty years 
 old, and then discovered his talent for sculpture almost by acci- 
 dent, appears to be equally mythical. Matteo was probably 
 regarded as a disciple of Jacopo della Quercia from the evident 
 influence of that artist on his style. Matteo's chief productions 
 are in Lucca Cathedral. His statue of San Sebastian, one of the 
 first nude figures of a man executed after the revival of art, is 
 one of the most admired. Another great work is the monument 
 of Pietro de Noccto, secretary to Nicholas V. The grand figure 
 of Abraham, one of six large marble statues executed by him for 
 the Cathedral of Genoa, ranks among the noblest works of the 
 age. Matteo Civitali died in 1501. He appears to have occa- 
 
853 CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS R. AN. EDOUARD 
 
 sionally acted as architect. His chief work in this line was the 
 Bemardini palace at Lucca. 
 
 * CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS RENE ANTOINE ED- 
 OUARD, the son of Jean Louis Claparede, an evangelical 
 pastor, was born April 24, 1832. He was educated first at the 
 classical school, and afterwards at the university of Geneva, 
 from which latter institution he received his M.A. degree in 
 1852. He then went to the university at Berlin where he 
 all ended lectures by Professors Miiller, Alexander Braun, Ehren- 
 berg, Dove, H. Rose, and other eminent cultivators of natural 
 history science. In 1857 he maintained a thesis, ' Cyclostomatis 
 elegantis anatome,' which was published in that year, and others 
 on various subjects in natural history. In that year also he 
 became a member of the Physical Society of Geneva. In 1859 
 lie visited Scotland ; in 1863 he stayed some months in the 
 Bay of Biscay ; and now he is professor of comparative anatomy 
 at the university of Geneva. His papers relate mainly to inver- 
 tebrate animals ; and he has given especial attention to the 
 development and fecundation of ova. He has also written on 
 binocular vision ; and during his visits to Scotland, the Bay of 
 Biscay, and other places he investigated the annelidan fauna, 
 the results of which investigation have been some highly valuable 
 contributions to our knowledge of the Annelida. He is, perhaps, 
 best known for his researches on the Infusoria, on which lie has 
 published an excellent monograph in conjunction with C. F. J. 
 Lachmann, entitled, ' Memoire sur les Iniusoires et les Rhizo- 
 podes,' 4to, 1861. It had previously appeared in vols. v. vi. and 
 vii. of the ' Memoires de l'lnstitut National Genevois.' Amongst 
 his other more important papers we cite the following : — ' Sur la 
 theorie de la fecondation de l'ceuf,' in the ' Supplement, a la 
 Bibliotheque Universelle,' vol. xxix. p. 284-330 (1855) ; ' De la 
 formation et de la fecondation des oeufs chez les vers nematodes,' 
 in the ' Memoires ' of the Physical and Natural History Society 
 of Geneva, vol. xv. pp. 1 — 97 (1860) ; ' Anatomie und Entwick- 
 lungsgeschichte der Neritina fiuviatilis,' in 'Midler's Archiv 
 fur Anatomie,' for 1857, pp. 109 — 248 ; ' Etudes Anatomiques sur 
 les Annedides, Turbellaires, Opalines, et Gregarines, observes 
 dans les Hebrides,' in the ' Memoires' of the Physical Society of 
 Geneva, vol. xvi. pp. 15 — 165 (1862); ' Recherches Anato- 
 miques sur les Oligoehetes,' in the volume last mentioned, 
 pp. 217 — 291 ; ' Glanures Zootomiques parmi les Annelides de 
 Port Vendres,' in ' Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve,' vol. xvii. pp. 463— 
 600 (1864) ; and ' Les Annelides Ohetopodes du Golfe de Naples,' 
 in ' Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve,' vols. xix. and xx., -which is also re- 
 printed as a distinct quarto volume of 500 pages. 
 
 CLARAC, CHARLES OTHON FREDERIC JEAN-BAP- 
 TlbTE, COMTE DE, French archa?ologist, was bom at Paris, of 
 a noble Gascon family, June 16, 1777. His father having been 
 driven from France by the revolution, young Clarac completed 
 his education in Germany ; travelled through Europe, and ac- 
 quired a familiarity with modern languages, which was of great 
 service in his future pursuits. By the wish of his father he 
 entered the army of Prince Conde, and afterwards the service of 
 the Emperor of Russia ; but when, by the amnesty offered by 
 the First Consul, he was enabled to return to France, he aban- 
 doned the military profession and resumed his studies. Having 
 accepted an offer to proceed to Naples as governor of the children 
 of Murat, Clarac found time to conduct various excavations at 
 Pompeii, of which he published an account under the title of 
 ' Fouilles faites a Pompei,' with 16 plates designed by the author, 
 8vo, Naples, 1813. The restoration opened a career to M. Clarac. 
 He went in the suite of the Due de Luxembourg, ambassador to 
 Brazil, and made some journeys in South America, and sketched 
 some of its more remarkable scenery, prior to his return by way 
 of the Antilles to France. On his return Louis XVIII. appointed 
 him to succeed Visconti as conservator of the Museum of Anti- 
 quities at the Louvre. From this time M. de Clarac made the 
 study of art, and especially ancient art, his chief pursuit. His 
 knowledge was to the last but superficial, but as the head of a 
 great national museum he had access to sources of information 
 beyond the reach of an ordinary student, and was brought into 
 communication with the leading professors and collectors of the 
 day. He was able to assist artists and writers on art, and he 
 added something to its literature, though the text of his contri- 
 butions is of less value than the accompanying engravings. The 
 Comte de Clarac was of course a member of many learned 
 societies. He was elected into the Institute in 1838, and in the 
 following years nearly all the academies of Europe enrolled his 
 name among their associates. He died suddenly on the 20th of 
 January, 1847. M. de Clarac's chief work is the ' Musee de 
 Sculpture antique et moderne, ou description de ce que le Louvre, 
 
 CLARK, EDWIN. 384 
 
 le Mus(5e Royal des Antiques et les Tuileriesrenferment en statues, 
 bustes, bas-reliefs, inscriptions ; accompagnee d'une Iconographie 
 Grecque et Romaine, et de plus de 1200 statues antiques, tirees 
 des principaux musees et de diverses collections de l'Europe,' 6 
 vols, text, 8vo, and 6 vols, of plates, oblong 4to, Paris, 1826-53. 
 The work contains 1336 plates, not always correct in drawing 
 nor in the purest style of engraving, and is invaluable as afford- 
 ing a compendious view of the principal extant works in sculp- 
 ture : it was completed after the death of M. de Clarac by M. 
 Alfred Maury. The first part of the text was published sepa- 
 rately, under the title ' Melange d'Antiquites Grecques et 
 Romanies,' 8vo, Paris, 1830 ; and again, as ' Manuel de l'Histoire 
 d'Art, chez les Anciens,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1847-49. His other works 
 include a monograph on the Venus of Milo, 1821, and an Alpha- 
 betical Table of the Artists of Antiquity, 1829. 
 
 CLARE, JOHN [E. C. vol. ii. col. 257J. The last days of the 
 Northamptonshire peasant poet were rendered as comfortable as 
 his condition allowed. He was kept as far as possible free from 
 personal restraint, and was for a time permitted to wander about 
 the lanes and fields in the neighbourhood of the asylum, but 
 subsequently his walks were limited to the grounds. Occasion- 
 ally during the last years of his life he resumed the use of the 
 pen, and composed a few short poems much in his old manner, 
 but devoid of consecutive thought, and imperfect in the versifi- 
 cation. These intervals of comparative lucidity were, however, 
 infrequent ; there was no permanent improvement in his mental 
 condition, and he died an inmate of the Northampton General 
 Lunatic Asylum on the 19th of May, 1864. By the kindness of 
 a few friends he was buried, as he had desired, in the church-yard 
 of his native village, Helpstone. A ' Life of John Clare,' by 
 Frederic Martin, appeared in 1865. 
 
 CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VIL- 
 L1ERS, EARL OF [E. C. vol. ii. col. 258]. Lord Clarendon 
 resigned with the other members of Lord Palmerston's Cabinet 
 in 1858. On the formation of Lord Palmerston's third ministry, 
 Lord Clarendon remained out of office, but rejoined his colleagues 
 in 1864, having accepted the post of Chancellor of the Duchy of 
 Lancaster. On Lord Palmerston's death, October, 1865, Lord 
 Clarendon became again Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 
 under Lord Russell ; but the ministry lasted only till the fol- 
 lowing June. The Conservatives remained in power till Decem- 
 ber, 1868, when Mr. Gladstone was called to form an adminis- 
 tration, in w hich Lord Clarendon resumed his old position of 
 Foreign Secretary, and retained the office till his death, which 
 occurred at his house in Grosvenor-crescent, after an illness of 
 only four days, on the 27th of June, 1870. He was interred in 
 a family vault of recent construction in Watford Cemetery. His 
 title and estates devolve on his eldest surviving son, Edward, 
 Lord Hyde, late M.P. for Brecknock, born 1846. 
 
 The services and character of Lord Clarendon are sufficiently 
 indicated in the memoir above cited. Nearly the whole of his 
 life from early manhood had been spent in the public service, 
 and never probably had the public a more laborious or devoted 
 servant. His industry was indeed untiring, and it was as active 
 in the last months of his life, though over 70 years of age, as in 
 the prime of his days. One of the latest matters of a prominent 
 kind in which he was engaged as Minister of Foreign Affairs 
 was that of the murder of English travellers by Greek brigands, 
 and his promptness of action, energy, and keenness, won general 
 admiration. Even on his death-bed he read despatches, and 
 dictated answers. As Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lord Claren- 
 don had long enjoj^ed the full confidence of the country, men of 
 all parties feeling satisfied that whilst the national honour was 
 safe in his hands he would leave nothing undone which sound 
 judgment, tact, courtesy, forbearance, and clearness of vision 
 could supply to preserve peace, soften dissension, and maintain 
 good feeling. And these characteristics and this assured position 
 were more or less generaUy recognised in other countries alike 
 by rulers and people, and hence the general confidence with 
 which he was regarded, and the regret everywhere expressed for 
 his loss. In private life he was a universal favourite — accom- 
 plished, genial, witty, courteous after the best models of the 
 past school, and free from even the shadow of arrogance. 
 
 * CLARK, EDWIN, civil and telegraphic engineer, was born 
 at Great Marlow, January 7th, 1814. After completing his 
 training as a civil engineer, he superintended, under Robert 
 Stephenson, the preliminary exj)eriments relating to the Britan- 
 nia Tubular Bridge over the Menai Strait, and was closely 
 associated with the construction of the bridge itself between 
 1846 and 1850. The history of this important undertaking 
 is given in ' The Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges, 
 
385 
 
 CLARK, SIR JAMES, BART. 
 
 CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN. 
 
 38G 
 
 with general inquiries on Beams, and on the properties of 
 materials used in construction,' by Edwin Clark, published 
 under the superintendence of R. Stephenson, 2 vols, 8vo. 
 with a folio Atlas of Plates, London, 1850. Mr. Clark has 
 designed a great number of iron bridges, including the 
 large caisson swing bridge at Arnheim, and the trellis 
 bridges on the Victor Emmanuel Railway in Italy. He perfected, 
 and was part patentee of, the system of construction known as 
 the "Warren Iron Girder. He has been engineer of the Smyrna 
 and Aidin Railway, and of many other lines at home and 
 abroad. When the Electric Telegraph Company began to lay 
 down their lines of wire on railways, Mr. Clark introduced the 
 system known as " block signalling," which, when steadily 
 adopted, tends to lessen considerably the liability to accident. 
 In the construction of the Crystal* Palace at Sydenham, Mr. 
 Clark acted as engineer. He patented the Hydraulic Lift 
 Graving Dock, the most efficient apparatus yet devised for 
 raising ships out of the water for repairs, and a very striking 
 application of hydraulic power. In 1856 lie laid out a general 
 plan of railways for Russia. Mr. Clark has written papers on 
 the ' Hydraulic Lift,' on ' Engineering Philosophy,' on the 
 ' Durability of Materials,' &c, read before the Institution of 
 Civil Engineers, of which he is a member. He has been 
 awarded a medal by the Institution for his Hydraulic Lift, and 
 also the Telford medal ; a gold medal from the jurors of the 
 Paris International Exhibition of 1855, for his work on the 
 Britannia Tubular Bridge ; a medal from the International 
 Exhibition of 1862, for his Hydraulic Graving Dock ; a medal 
 from the Paris Exhibition of 1867, for improvements in Hy- 
 draulic Engineering ; and a gold medal from the Emperor of 
 Russia, for his services in laying out a general system of Russian 
 railways. 
 
 CLARK, SIR JAMES, BART. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 260]. At 
 the date which our memoir reached, Sir James Clark had retired 
 from general practice, though he continued as long as his health 
 permitted to attend her Majesty and the younger members of the 
 Royal Family in the capacity of consulting physician. During 
 his' last years he lived chiefly at Bagshot Park, which had been 
 assigned' to him by the Queen as a residence, and here he died on 
 the 30th of June, 1870. Scarcely a year before his death he pub- 
 lished 'A Memoir of John Conol'ly, M.D., D.C.L.; comprising a 
 Sketch of the Treatment of the Insane in Europe and America,' 
 8vo, London, 1869. The greater part of the work is taken up 
 with the Sketch, and it is treated in a discursive and un- 
 methodical manner ; but is interesting, not only for the large 
 amount of information it embodies, but also as testifying to the 
 zeal with wluch to the last Sir James continued to watch the 
 progress of medical improvement. 
 
 * CLARK, LATIMER, telegraphic and civil engineer, was 
 born at Great Marlow, in March, 1822. He commenced life as 
 an analytical and manufacturing chemist, but turned his atten- 
 tion to civil engineering at the time when railway enterprise 
 was becoming active and important, in 1846. In 1848 he (like 
 his brother, Mr. Edwin Clark) was employed hy Robert Stephen- 
 son in the engineering superintendence of the Britannia 
 Tubular Bridge, and remained on that work until its com- 
 pletion in 1851. In this year he became assistant engineer, 
 and afterwards engineer-in-chief, to the Electric Telegraph 
 Company ; his connection with that company, under the ex- 
 tended form of the Electric and International Telegraph Com- 
 pany continued until 1870, when the telegraphs were taken by 
 the Government. In 1853 Mr. Clark invented and patented the 
 pneumatic despatch, that is, a system of pneumatic transmission 
 of letters, parcels, and telegrams through tubes. The tubes at 
 first employed were about 30 inches in diameter ; but in 1856 
 and following years he laid down a tube of four feet and a 
 half diameter from Euston Station to the General Post Office. 
 The system is not yet, however (1870), completely developed. 
 Mr. Clark has superintended the erection of an extensive mileage 
 of land telegraphs, and is the inventor of the double inverted 
 hell insulator. Between 1858 and 1870 he assisted in laying 
 submarine telegraphic cables for the Indian Government, the 
 Atlantic Telegraph Company, and various other companies in 
 the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Persian 
 Gulf, and the Indian Ocean. One invention by him, a 
 method of protecting submarine cables by asphalte and silica, 
 has come into extensive use. Mr. Clark has published ' A De- 
 scription of the Britannia Tubular Bridge' (a pamphlet), 1850 ; 
 an ' Experimental Investigation of the Laws which govern the 
 Propagation of the Electric Current in long Submarine Cables/ 
 8vo, London, 1861 ; an ' Elementary Treatise on Electrical 
 BIOO. div. — SUP. 
 
 Measurement,' 1868 ; and 'Electrical Tables and Formula? for 
 the Use of Electricians and Telegraph Operators,' 1870. 
 
 CLARK, THOMAS, was born in Ayr, 31st March, 1801, and 
 educated at the Ayr Academy. In 1816 he entere:l the count- 
 ing-house of C. Macintosh & Co., at Glasgow ; he was not an 
 apt accountant, and his employers, seeing the true bent of his 
 mind, recommended him to the post of chemist in Tennant's 
 Chemical Works at St. Rollox. In 1826 he became lecturer on 
 chemistry to the Glasgow Mechanics' Institution. Some idea 
 may be formed of his advanced views on the atomic theory from 
 the fact, that in the programme of his first course of lectures, he 
 gives 16 as the atomic weight of oxygen, and 12 as that of carbon, 
 hydrogen being 1. He also paid great attention to the theory of 
 the constitution of salts, as consisting of a metal or hydrogen 
 united to a radical, simple or compound. His discovery of the 
 pyrophosphate of soda was memorable from the support it gave 
 to the doctrine of isomerism, then in its birth throes ; a support 
 gracefully acknowledged by Sir John Herschel, in his Prelimi- 
 nary Discourse in Lardner's Cyclopa3dia (1830, p. 170), though 
 Mitscherlich, who first announced the law, was less grateful, 
 while he took no notice of Clark's letter to him in 1836, 'On a 
 difficulty in Isomorphism and on the received constitution of the 
 oxygen salts.' 
 
 "With a view to the teaching of chemistry in a medical school, 
 Clark entered the University of Glasgow in 1827, as a medical 
 student. In 1829 he became apothecary to the Glasgow In- 
 firmary, and published in the Glasgow Medical Journal three 
 papers on pharmacy : (1) ' On the precipitated Carbonate of 
 Iron ;' (2) ' On Singleton's Golden Ointment ; ' (3) ' On Medicinal 
 Prussic Acid.' In 1831 he took his Doctor's degree. In 1832 he 
 contributed to the Westminster Review an elaborate inquiry into 
 the existing system of weights and measures, and collected 
 materials for a second article ' On the lost History of English 
 "Weights and Measures,' but this was not completed. In 1833 
 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in Marischal College, 
 Aberdeen. He was a good lecturer, taking nothing upon trust, 
 and never seeking to make his teaching popular by omitting 
 difficulties. Instead of an exhaustive classification of the ele- 
 ments, he selected important and typical bodies for representing 
 general classes and doctrines. 
 
 Clark paid much attention tohydrometry, the instrument con- 
 structed by him giving, by its own readings, the true specific 
 gravity. He introduced improved methods of detecting arsenic ; 
 he gave the true explanation of the value of the hot-blast in the 
 iron manufacture ; but he is best known to the public for his 
 water tests, and his process of softening hard water, patented 
 in 1841. 
 
 In the session of 1843 — 44 he exerted himself greatly on the 
 question of the abolition of the University Tests, when an illness 
 came on which lasted some years,-and suspended his work. He 
 was afflicted with such severe headaches as to confine him to his 
 bed for days in succession. After four years of this suffering he 
 was induced to try a course of hydropathic treatment, which 
 restored him to health. In 1849 he married, and although he did 
 not resume the direct teaching of his class, he was very useful in 
 the. contest which ended in the union of the Aberdeen universi- 
 ties in 1860. Clark was an ardent politician of the liberal 
 school, sagacious, accurate, and practical in all his work. He 
 died somewhat suddenly on the 27th November, 1867, his latter 
 years having been clouded by the death of the only child of his 
 marriage. 
 
 CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN, an eminent 
 photographer, was born at Lyons in 1797. After receiving a good 
 education, he went into the office of his uncle, M. Roux, the 
 banker, who, after a few years, placed him at the glass-works of 
 Choisy-le-Roi, as director, in conjunction with M. Bontemps. 
 He afterwards visited London in order to introduce the produc- 
 tions of the Choisy glasshouse. In 1833 he invented the machine 
 now in use for cutting cylindrical glass, for which in 1853 he 
 received the medal of the Society of Arts. "When Daguerre's 
 process was first published to the world in August, 1839, Claudet 
 saw an opening for the exercise of his scientific tastes, and becom- 
 ing possessed of a share in a patent which Daguerre had taken 
 out in this country, Claudet commenced in 1840, the practice of 
 portraiture in the Adelaide Gallery. He improved the process, 
 and in June, 1841, laid before the Royal Society his paper on 
 the increased sensitiveness of chloride of iodine over iodine 
 itself. From this time to his death in December 1867, he was 
 one of the most successful practitioners of photography in London, 
 and his improvements in the art were numerous as they were 
 | valuable. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, 
 
 c c 
 
3<7 CLENNELL, LUKE. 
 
 a nd a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1865. A Memoir of 
 him, published in the ' Scientific Review/ was reprinted for dis- 
 tribution at the meeting of the British Association at Norwich 
 in August, 1808, and contains in an appendix, a list ol* forty 
 papers communicated by him between 1841 and 18G7, to the 
 Royal and other societies. 
 
 CLENNELL, LUKE, was the son of a farmer near Morpeth, 
 Northumberland, where he was born in 1781. He was appren- 
 ticed to a tanner, but his passion for art proving incurable, lie. 
 was removed, and articled to Bewick, the celebrated wood- 
 engraver. His progress was remarkable, and when, on leaving 
 Bewick, he established himself in London, he speedily took rank 
 with the leading men in his profession. Among the happiest 
 elforts of his graver are the charming vignettes, reproductions of 
 Stothard's pen drawings, which adorn the 12mo edition of 
 Rogers's poems, 1816. But Clennell was not content with 
 merely reproducing other men's drawings. He designed with 
 facility, and he was ambitious of fame as a painter. His pictures 
 of ' The Day after the Fair,' and 'The Arrival of the Mackerel Boat,' 
 weremuch admired ; and in 1816 his finished 1 Sketch ofthe Over- 
 throw of the French Army at the Battle of Waterloo,' was awarded 
 a prize of 150 guineas at the British Institution. This led to his 
 receiving a commission from the Earl i.f Bridgewater !•> paint a 
 picture of the banquet given by the City of London to the allied 
 sovereigns, but the obstacles and vexations which he met with in 
 executing the work preyed on a too sensitive nervous system, 
 and his mind gave way. He was removed to a lunatic asylum ; 
 and his wife, a daughter of Charles Warren, the engraver, dying 
 shortly after, a committee was formed tor the purpose of having 
 the Waterloo sketch engraved for the benefit of the bereaved 
 children. The print under the title of ' The Decisive Charge of 
 the Life Guards at the Battle of Waterloo' was very popular, 
 and fully served its purpose. Clennell, who never recovered his 
 reason, was maintained by the aid of that excellent society, the 
 Artist's Annuity Fund, till his death, which occurred at New- 
 castle-on-Tyne, February 9, 1840. 
 
 CLERY, or O'CLERY, MICHAEL, an Irish antiquary, and 
 the principal author of the 'Annals of the Four Masters/ was 
 a native of Donegal, and born about the year 1580. His family 
 were hereditary historians to the O'Donnells, princes of Tyr- 
 connel, now the county of Donegal, and from them held exten- 
 sive grants of land, on which they resided at their castle of 
 Kilbarron, the ruins of which still remain in the neighbourhood 
 of Ballyshannon. Early in life Michael, who up to this time 
 had been known by his secular name of Tadhg-ant-sleihhe, or 
 Tiege of the Mountain, became a member of the order of St. 
 Francis, and retired to the Irish Franciscan Monastery at 
 Louvain, where his countryman, Hugh Ward, at that time a 
 lecturer at Louvain and guardian of its monastery, encouraged 
 him to rescue from oblivion the annals and antiquities of Ireland. 
 Eagerly embracing the proposal, O'Clery returned to his native 
 country, and for 15 years occupied himself in going from place 
 to place, and from library to library, in order to collect together 
 all the ancient records, civil and ecclesiastical, that could be 
 obtained. He afterwards spent many years in arranging his 
 mass of materials for publication. In the compilation of the 
 ' Annals of the Four Masters ' Michael O'Clery bore a chief part, 
 but he was assisted, besides others in a less degree, by Cucogry, 
 or Peregrine O'Clery, and Conary O'Clery, together with Pere- 
 grine O'Duigenan ; and it was from this combination of labour 
 that the work received its name, while, from the fact of its 
 having been composed in the Franciscan Convent of Donegal, it is 
 sometimes called the 'Annals of Donegal.' Amongst the col- 
 lections enumerated as used in the compilation ofthe 'Annals' 
 are the Annals of Clonmacnois ; the Annals of Innisfallen ; the 
 Book of the Three Bruadins ; the Annals of Ulster ; the Book 
 of the O'Duigenans of Kilronan, in Roscommon ; the Book of 
 the Island of All Saints, in Loughrea, and others. Michael 
 O'Clery died at the Monastery of Donegal, in the year 1643. 
 The ' Annals of the Four Masters,' which O'Clery declared to 
 have been undertaken on the 22nd of January, 1632, in the 
 convent of Donegal, and finished there on the 10th of August, 
 1636, commence at the earliest period of Irish history, and are 
 carried down to 1616. Part of these, in the original Irish, ac- 
 companied by a Latin translation, were published in 1824 by 
 Dr. Charles O'Conor in his great work, ' Rerum Hibernicarum 
 Scriptores Veteres,' bringing clown the Annals to the time of 
 the English invasion in 1172. More than 20 years later appeared 
 the ' Annals of Ireland, translated from the original Irish of the 
 Four Masters,' 4to, Dublin, 1846, by Owen Connellan, and 
 annotated by the translator and Dr. Philip MacDermott, which 
 
 CLIVE, CATHARINE. 35s 
 
 comprised the 'Annals' from 1171 to their termination in 1616, 
 and contained an ample account of the English invasion. The 
 most elaborate and complete edition of the work, however, is 
 that by Dr. John O'Donovan, who gives the Irish text, and an 
 English translation, with copious notes, from MSS. in the 
 library of the Royal Irish Academy, and of Trinity College, 
 Dublin, 'Annals,' &c, 7 vols. 4to, Dublin, 1851. Dr. O'Donovan, 
 who was a barrister, and professor of Celtic literature in the 
 Queen's College, Belfast, also translated from the original Irish 
 another work of Michael O'Clery's, ' The Martyrology of Donegal: 
 a Calendar of the Saints of Ireland,' 8vo, Dublin, 1864, which 
 was published by the Irish Archaeological and Celtic Society, 
 under the editorial care of James Henthorn Todd, D.D., and 
 William Reeves, D.D. 
 
 CLIVE, CATHARINE, an actress who has left an unrivalled 
 reputation for the variety and excellence of l«er comic powers, 
 was born in the year 1711. Her father was William Raftor, 
 who, from having been a man of considerable landed property in 
 Kilkenny, was ruined by the forfeiture of his estate on account 
 of his adherence to the cause of James II., whom, after the 
 battle of the Boyne, he followed to France. Here he ob- 
 tained a commission, and afterwards a company, in the service 
 of Louis XVI. ; but at length returned to England, where he 
 received a pardon, and married the daughter of a substantial 
 citizen on Fish Street Hill, London. It was whilst residing 
 here that Catharine, of whose early years no details are known, 
 gave the first indications of her genius for the stage, to indulge 
 which she obtained, in 1728, an introduction to Colley Cibber, 
 then one of the managers of Drury Lane Theatre, who engaged 
 her at a small salary to take the part of Ismenes, the page of 
 Ziphores, in Nathaniel Lee's play of 'Mithridates, King of 
 Pontus.' Her duty as a debutante was to appear in boy's 
 clothes and to sing a song, but this she performed so as to please 
 the public, who upon the occasion shortly after of the introduc- 
 tion of Gibber's ' Love is a Riddle,' a pastoral in imitation of the 
 ' Beggar's Opera,' would, owing to party feeling, vouchsafe a 
 hearing to none of the actors except Catharine Raftor, who 
 played the part of Phiilida. But her first emphatic triumph 
 dated from the introduction of a ballad farce written chiefly by 
 Coffey, to which, however, several authors had contributed, and 
 which was originally entitled ' The Devil to Pay,' and afterwards, 
 when condensed or curtailed into one act, ' The Wives Meta- 
 morphosed.' Miss Raftor's impersonation of Nell in this little 
 operatic piece fixed at once its popularity and her own position 
 as the greatest performer of her time in that species of character. 
 In 1732 she became the wife of George Clive, brother of Mr. 
 Baron Clive, from whom, for some unascertained reason, but 
 without scandal or reproach, she soon and finally separated. For 
 nearly forty years after this event Mrs. Clive — or Kitty Clive, 
 as she was affectionately designated — continued the delight of 
 the stage. She was not beautiful; her features were plain, but 
 flexible, and her figure good. Her eyes were shrewd and mirth- 
 ful, and her forehead line and intellectual. Her talents were 
 varied, and her walk in comedy extensive. In the " sprightliness 
 of her humour," Dr. Johnson pronounced her unrivalled. " What 
 Clive did best," he said, "she did better than Garrick ; but could 
 not do half so many things well. She was a better romp than 
 any I ever saw." As the chambermaid, she was perfect ; but she 
 could soar to the high-bred Lady Fanciful or descend to the 
 vulgar Mrs. Heidelberg. She could personate the country girl, 
 the virago, the superannuated beauty, the dowdy old maid. 
 With the charms of her voice she carried away all her hearers; 
 and nature, in giving her that, had done much in her behalf. 
 But it was the native joyousness of her character, her good 
 humour, her freedom from all art, that constituted, on the stage 
 as in private life, her attraction. No one could be grave when 
 Catharine Clive was gay ; and it was gaiety without malice or 
 impropriety. On the 24th of April, 1769, while still in the 
 height of her power and popularity, Mrs. Clive took her leave of 
 the stage ; on which occasion the epilogue she spoke was written 
 for her by her neighbour', Horace Walpole, who bestowed iqjon 
 the home at Twickenham, at which she already resided, and to 
 which she now retired, the name of Cliveden. Here she passed 
 the rest of her life in modest ease and independence, respected 
 by the world, and beloved by her friends, amongst the clearest of 
 whom she reckoned David Garrick, who addressed her as the 
 " Pivy," and with whom she had a retrospect of long professional 
 and social connection. The close of her life, except for the 
 glimpses we gain of it in the ' Letters ' of Horace Walpole, is 
 almost as unknown in its details as her earliest years. She died, 
 after a short illness, on the 6th of December, 1785. 
 
3S9 
 
 CLOSTERMANN, JOHANN. 
 
 Mrs. Clive is not widely known as a dramatic author ; but at 
 different benefits of hers she introduced five several slight pieces 
 on the stage, which are not devoid of merit. They are (1) ' The 
 Rehearsal : or Bays in Petticoats. A Comedy in Two Acts. The 
 music composed by Dr. Boyce,' 8vo, London, 1753 ; (2) ' Every 
 Woman in her Humour,' 17G0; (3) 'Sketch of a Fine Lady's 
 Return from a Rout,' 17(53; (4) 'The Faithful Irishwoman,' 
 1765; and (5) ' The Island of Slaves,' 1761. Of these only the 
 first was published, whilst the last is rather a translation made 
 for her than bv her of Marivaux' ' Isle des Esclaves.' 
 
 CLOSTERMANN, JOHANN, German portrait painter, was 
 born at Osnaburg in 1656, and learnt the rudiments of art from 
 his father, a painter in that city. In 1679 he went to Paris, 
 where he worked with De Troye. Two years later he came to 
 London, and was engaged by Riley as drapery -painter, but later 
 he assisted him in the heads, and at Riley's death Clostermann 
 completed several of his unfinished pictures. He now attracted 
 the notice of the Duke of Somerset, who was for a while a warm 
 patron, but offended by Clostermann's conduct in the purchase 
 of a picture by Guercino, he broke off the connection, and trans- 
 ferred his patronage to Dahl. Clostermann painted the great 
 Duke and Duchess of Marlborough, Queen Anne, Dryden, 
 Purcell, Blackmore, and other distinguished persons; but as 
 works of art the best of his portraits are dull, heavy, and common- 
 place. His last years were spent in comparative indigence. He 
 died in Covent Garden probably in 1713. 
 
 CLOUET, or CLOET, FRANCOIS, called Jehannet or 
 Janet, an eminent French portrait painter, was born, probably 
 at Tours, about 1510. Of a family of painters, he learned his 
 art from his father, whom he succeeded in 1541 in the double 
 office of painter and valet de chambre to the king, Charles IX. 
 He painted many of the distinguished personages of his time, and 
 his works are highly esteemed for their truth, character, and 
 beauty of execution. The Louvre possesses fine portraits of 
 Charles IX. and his wife, Elizabeth of Austria, by Francois 
 Clouet, and several that are with less certainty attributed to him. 
 Our National Gallery has 'A Man's Portrait in the costume of 
 the 16th century,' of small size (No. 662). F. Clouet died 
 between 1571 and 1574 ; probably in 1572. 
 
 CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH, was the son of a cotton 
 merchant at Liverpool, where he was born January 1st, 1819. 
 When Arthur was about four years old his father migrated to 
 Charleston, U.S. There he remained with his family till 1828, 
 when they returned to England. Arthur was now sent to 
 school at Chester, but in 1829 removed to Rugby. Here, under 
 Dr. Arnold, he made great progress ; became head of the school, 
 and in November, 1836, won the Balliol scholarship, and went 
 up to Oxford, his schoolfellows and masters anticipating for him 
 a brilliant career there. But his mind had been overstimulated 
 at Rugby. He had accepted too seriously the responsibility of 
 his position as head scholar, he had laboured hard to establish 
 the ' Rugby Magazine,' and still harder to maintain its reputa- 
 tion. He went to Oxford too at a trying time, when the whole 
 atmosphere was redolent of Tractarianism. Without neglecting 
 his academical studies, Clough entered eagerly into the preva- 
 lent theological disputes. For awhile he was carried away by 
 the new opinions, but though he recoiled, as was inevitable with 
 a mind constituted like his, when he at length saw their neces- 
 sary consequence, it was only, in the words of his biographer, to 
 find " when the torrent had subsided, that not only had it swept 
 away the new views which had been presented to him by the 
 leaders of the Romanizing party, but also that it had shaken 
 the whole foundatiuns of his early faith." He did not become 
 an unbeliever, but his opinions were unsettled, and he was 
 never again able to rid himself of scepticism. Still the reputa- 
 tion he had brought from Rugby, and his work at Balliol, kept 
 expectation alive, and it was a great disappointment to his 
 friends, and among others to Dr. Arnold, when at the university 
 examination he only obtained a second class, instead of the double 
 first, on which his friends had confidently reckoned. In the 
 following autumn (1841) he tried for a fellowship at Balliol 
 without success ; but in the spring of 1842 he was elected 
 fellow, and in 1843 tutor, of Oriel. He now settled clown to 
 hard work as a college tutor, usually spending the long vacation 
 among the Welsh mountains, the Cumberland lakes, or the 
 Scotch Highlands, witli a reading party, such as is commemo- 
 rated in ' The Bothie of Tober-na- Vuolich,' reading the Greek 
 poets, doing Latin prose, and finding matter for many of the 
 verses printed in his works. 
 
 But the feeling of religious doubt was not to be got rid 
 of or permanently laid aside ; he could not use language 
 
 and hold convictions entirely at variance, and thus he found 
 his position at Oxford becoming every day more intolerable. In 
 the early part of 1848 he resigned his tutorship, and in the 
 following October gave up his fellowship also. He had formed 
 a close intimacy with Emerson, who was at this time in 
 England, and with him he went over to Paris, where he " spent 
 a month in seeing the sights of the Revolution." Now, too, he 
 wrote his principal poem, 'The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich.' 
 An offer was about this time made to him to become principal 
 of University Hall, London, and after a visit to Rome (where 
 he witnessed the siege of the city by the French), he entered 
 upon his duties in October, 1849. He retained the headship of 
 University Hall about two years. He then resolved to try 
 America, and about the end of 1852 settled at Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts. Here he took private pupils, wrote some articles 
 for periodicals, and began the revision of 1 North's Translation 
 of Plutarch's Lives.' But though he met with excellent friends, 
 it was evident that there was no suitable opening for him there, 
 and he returned to England (July, 1853) on receiving the offer 
 of an exaniinership in the Education Office. Henceforth his 
 time was pretty much occupied by the duties of his office, and 
 the completion of his Plutarch. He had married, and house- 
 hold affections and cares turned aside the current of his 
 thoughts from overmuch introspection. The writing of an 
 occasional poem served as a vent for deeper thoughts, suscepti- 
 bilities, and perplexities. He was busy and content, but in the 
 midst of his happiness he was seized with illness. Six months 
 leave of absence being granted him, he went in the autumn of 
 1860 to Malvern ; to Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight ; and 
 then, as the winter came on, to Greece and Constantinople. 
 Alter returning home for a few weeks in June, he again set out 
 for Auvergne and the Pyrenees, and went on by way of Switzer- 
 land to Florence, whence he was to have gone to Rome ; but at 
 Florence he had an attack of fever, and his already enfeebled 
 frame succumbed. He died on the 13th of November, 1861, 
 and was buried in the little Protestant cemetery, just outside 
 the walls of Florence. During this journey he wrote his ' Mare 
 Magno ; ' as his ' Drpsychus' was written during a hasty visit 
 to Vienna in 1850, and the ' Amours de Voyage' whilst at Rome 
 in 1849. 
 
 Clough was greatly beloved, and the personal regard felt for 
 the man has perhaps influenced the criticisms on his poems. 
 He wrote gracefully, sweetly, often with deep feeling and earnest- 
 ness. But he is deficient in vigour and concentration. He 
 seldom fairly grasps his subject, and where he deals, as he is 
 fond of doing, with the graver problems of life, he plunges into 
 unfathomable depths, or loses himself in a vague and dreamy 
 scepticism. To some extent the vagueness of thought was 
 wearing off with advancing years, and as he came to have 
 a settled purpose : but with the mellowness came some loss of 
 freshness. There were more clear, bright, distinct pictures, but 
 they did not reveal a new nature. 
 
 (Poems and Prose Remains of Arthur Hugh Clough, with a 
 selection from his Letters, and a Memoir, edited by his Wife, 
 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1869.) 
 
 CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON [E. C. vol. ii. col. 55]. 
 Sir Colin Campbell was decidedly the popular hero of the latter 
 stages of the Crimean war. On his return to England he was 
 made aG.C.B. ; and his countrymen presented him with a sword 
 of honour at Glasgow. AVhen the news of the serious nature of 
 the Indian revolt reached England in June, 1857, the general 
 voice pointed to Sir Colin Campbell as the officer most fitted to 
 meet the emergency ; and on reception of the intelligence 
 (July 11) of the death of General Anson, commander-in-chief in 
 India, a Cabinet Council was at once called, and Sir Colin Campbell 
 was sent for and offered the command on condition that he could 
 depart immediately. Sir Colin was ready, and actually started 
 for India the next day. He reached Calcutta, August the 14th. 
 The vast labour of organising a sufficient force to take the field 
 with effect occupied his best energies till the 27th of October, 
 when he left Calcutta chief of a small but well-appointed army, 
 impatient to relieve their countrymen still pent up in Lucknow, 
 and to punish the treacherous Sepoys. The events which fol- 
 lowed till Sir Colin was able to announce the complete accom- 
 plishment of the duty confided to him are narrated at length in 
 the Geographical Supplement of the E. C. cols. 703 — 706. 
 Here, therefore, it will suffice to say that he reached Cawnpore 
 on the 3rd of November ; attacked and took the Secundar Bagh 
 after a desperate conflict, on the 16th, and the next day, after 
 more hard lighting, relieved Generals Outrani and Havelock, 
 who with their troops and the sick and wounded of the old 
 
391 COBBOLD, THOMAS SPENCER. 
 
 COCKERILL, JOHN. 
 
 392 
 
 garrison were shut up in the Residency. Having accomplished 
 this, Sir Colin decided on sending the women and children, the 
 sick and the wounded, to Cawnpore. It was a difficult thing to 
 effect, they being in all 2000 in number, in the lace of an enemy 
 far more numerous than his ow n little army ; but he carried it 
 out with entire success, while he left a sufficient garrison under 
 General Outrain to maintain tlie Alum Bagh. After defeating 
 the Gwalior Contingent, Sir Colin spent the winter in collecting 
 men and stores, and making preparations for the final attack. 
 His army w hen on the march in the spring of 1858 consisted' of 
 about 18,000 of all arms, but owing to Indian habits it was 
 necessary to have in attendance no fewer than 00,000 non- 
 combatants, and with 6000 camels and twice as many oxen, it 
 formed a very unwieldy mass. However, by the beginning of 
 March, Lucknow was reached, with hardly a misadventure ; on 
 the 8th Sir Colin commenced the attack, and, proceeding with 
 deliberate unhasting resolution, by the l!)th of March the entire 
 city was in his possession. The rebellion was now effectually 
 crushed. Detached and dispirited bands had still to be scat- 
 tered, a few strongholds to be taken, partial risings to be sup- 
 pressed, but the war was at an end. Sir Colin remained in 
 India to complete the work he had undertaken, to assist in the 
 reorganisation of the Indian army, and to suggest plans for 
 future military arrangements. But he had accomplished the 
 task entrusted to him, and was now to receive Ins reward. 
 Thanks were voted to him by both Houses of Parliament. In 
 August, 1858, he was created Baron Clyde of Clydesdale. He 
 returned to England in July, 1860, and was received with every 
 demonstration of respect and admiration. In November, 1862, 
 he was made field marshal. His arduous labours had, however, 
 undermined his constitution, and he died at Chatham on the 
 14th of August, 1863. It was felt that England had never lost 
 a truer hero or a nobler soldier, or a commander more faithful 
 to his duty, less heedful of himself, more careful of his soldiers. 
 A statue by Marochetti was in 1867 erected to his memory near 
 the York monument, and not far from the Crimean Memorial, 
 Waterloo Place, Pall Mall : the statue chiefly modelled from Sir 
 F. Grant's portrait is a good and characteristic likeness of him in 
 his ordinary Indian campaigning costume. A tine statue, by 
 Foley, was erected in Glasgow, in 1868, close by Flaxnian's 
 statue of Sir John Moore. 
 
 * COBBOLD, THOMAS SPENCER, zoologist, was educated 
 at Edinburgh, and is lecturer on botany, zoology, and compara- 
 tive anatomy at the Medical College, Middlesex Hospital. He 
 has written on various branches of natural history, but his 
 specialty is the subject of Entozoa. Most of his papers in scien- 
 tific and medical journals relate to these internal parasites, as 
 also his principal separate work, 'Entozoa,' published in 1864, 
 to which a supplement was added in 1869. The complete work 
 is a valuable book of reference on our present knowledge of these 
 creatures. He also drew up the bibliographical account of the 
 Entozoa, or Scolecida, for vol. i. of the ' Record of Zoological 
 Literature.' He has edited new editions of the ' Museum of 
 Natural History ' and of ' Maunders' Treasury of Natural His- 
 tory.' He has written several papers on the anatomy of the 
 giraffe, and is the author of the article 'Ruminantia' in Todd 
 and Bowman's ' Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology.' He 
 is an M.D. and a Fellow of the Royal and other learned 
 societies. 
 
 COBDEN, RICHARD [E. C. vol. ii. col. 298]. Mr. Cobden's 
 persistent opposition to the Crimean war, and to the foreign 
 policy of Lord Palmerston in general, cost him his seat for the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire at the general election of 1857, and he 
 contested in vain the boroughs of Salford and Huddersfield. 
 Thus shut out from the House of Commons, Mr. Cobden with- 
 drew to his seat at Dunsford, in the hope by country air and rest 
 to restore his enfeebled health. By way of diversion he trans- 
 lated his friend Michel Chevalier's essay, ' De la Basse probable 
 de l'Or,' which he published, with an original preface and notes, 
 under *he title ' On the probable Fall of the Value of Gold,' 8vo, 
 1859. About this time he made a visit to America, and during 
 his absence there was elected member for Rochdale at the general 
 election, May, 1859. On his return to England he re-entered 
 eagerly upon his old course of politics, but his attention was 
 soon diverted for a time to a narrower field, he having been 
 selected by Lord Palmerston to negociate a treaty of commerce 
 with the Emperor of the French. This delicate and difficult 
 undertaking he carried through to the satisfaction of the govern- 
 ment, and the treaty was signed in February, 1860. A good deal 
 of feeling was aroused when its terms were published, but after 
 some discussion the treaty was approved as a whole by both 
 
 Houses of Parliament, and met with very general favour in the 
 centres of commerce and manufacturing industry. In recognition 
 of his services, Mr. Cobden received the freedom of the City of 
 London at a splendid entertainment given at the Mansion House 
 in celebration of the French Treaty. The treaty was not 
 altogether in accordance with the principles of political science 
 of which Cobden declared himself the disciple and advocate, but 
 he rejoiced over it, and was proud of the share he had in effecting 
 it, because he believed that not only would it tend to increase 
 the national prosperity, but also that in proportion as nations 
 were handed together hy commercial and t railing interest s would 
 peace be rendered more secure, and that as these bonds multi- : 
 plied it would become more and more difficult for rulers to fling 
 nations into war at their will — a delusion, perhaps, and it may 
 be not altogether a safe one for a nation to adopt, but still pos- 
 sessing a basis of truth. 
 
 In the House of Commons Mr. Cobden spoke on various occa- 
 sions on maritime law and the rights and duties of neutrals and 
 belligerents, on the affairs of Denmark and Prussia, electoral 
 reform, administrative economy, the supply of cotton, navy 
 estimates, and other important questions of public and inter- 
 national policy; but the great struggle between the Northern 
 and Southern States of America broke out, and soon had for him 
 an overwhelming and absorbing interest. From the first he wa8 
 the avowed and thorough partisan of the North, and for the rest 
 of his days it was his chief thought how he could arouse or 
 deepen the sympathy of his countrymen for her, he from lirst to 
 last refusing to see in the conduct of the South anything but a 
 wilful and unprovoked rebellion which must be crushed at any 
 cost. The last speech he made in public, delivered at Rochdale, 
 November 23, 1864, was one avowedly on Our Foreign Policy, 
 but was throughout a fervid eulogium on American institutions 
 and the people of the Northern States. He did not live to see 
 the triumph of the cause he had so much at heait. After a short 
 illness, he died at his London residence on the 2nd of April, 
 1865. The House of Commons was not unmindful of the loss 
 of one of its most distinguished members. On the morrow of his 
 death, before proceeding to the regular business of the day, 
 speeches marked by clear appreciation of his merits as a politician 
 and his worth as a man were delivered by the Prime Minister, 
 Lord Palmerston ; by Mr. Disraeli, as leader of the opposition ; 
 and by Mr. Bright. Memorials to his memory have been 
 erected in Manchester, Peel's Park, Salford, and several other 
 places, and a marble bust by Woolner has been placed in the 
 north transept of Westminster Abbey. A memorial of a different 
 but not less interesting kind is the work edited by Professor 
 J. E. Thorold Rogers and Mr. John Bright, entitled ' Speeches on 
 Questions of Public Policy, by Richard Cobden,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 1870. The Cobden Club, an association of his political friends 
 and followers, has been formed on the suggestion of Mr. Bright 
 to commemorate his name and carry out his principles, those 
 especially of freedom of trade and the preservation of peace. 
 
 COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT, R.A. [E. 0. vol. ii. 
 col. 301]. Mr. Cockerell resigned the professorship of architec- 
 ture in the Royal Academy in 1856, and withdrew about this 
 time from active professional practice. His merits as an archi- 
 tect received the highest testimony of professional approbation 
 by his election in 1860 as President of the Institute of British 
 Architects. In 1862 he resigned his position as R.A., and became 
 one of the first of the " honorary retired academicians." He died 
 on the 17th of September, 1863, in his 76th year. 
 
 COCKERILL, JOHN, founder of the great machine-works at 
 Seraing, was born at Haslingden, Lancashire, August 3rd, 1790. 
 His father, a machine-maker, went to Belgium in 1797; and 
 three sons, William, James, and John, followed him in later 
 years. James and John set up in business at Liege in 1807 ; and 
 the latter commenced business alone at Seraing, near Liege, in 
 1816. Purchasing the summer palace of the Prince Bishop of 
 Liege, he made it the nucleus of an engineering establishment 
 which grew to be one of the largest in the world . John 
 Cockerill owned coal-mines and iron-mines, made iron and steel, 
 and converted those metals into all kinds of engines and machines. 
 The revolution in the Netherlands in 1830, which led to the 
 separation of Belgium from Holland, compelled the king to get 
 rid of a share in the property at Seraing, which he had held ; 
 Cockerill bought it, and became sole owner. He travelled into 
 various countries, established commercial and manufacturing 
 arrangements with them, and brought home experienced men 
 whom he placed in responsible positions as heads of departments. 
 His prosperity was suddenly checked by the failure of the Bank 
 of Belgium in 1838; this led to his own failure, for nearly a 
 
393 
 
 CCEUR, JACQUES. 
 
 COLENSO, BISHOP. 
 
 394 
 
 million sterling, in 1839. After this he set out for Russia to 
 establish iron-works there, hut died on his way in 1840. The 
 wonderful organising power of John Cockerill, however, was not 
 lost to Seraing; the great establishment was purchased by a 
 joint-stock company, and, being conducted on the principles in- 
 troduced by him, became more complete than ever. The works 
 at Seraing now cover 181 acres, of which 22 acres are occupied 
 by buildings. Coal and ironstone are raised, iron and Bessemer 
 steel made, stationary and marine steam-engines, locomotives, 
 iron steam-boats, iron bridges, armour-plates, railway wheels and 
 axles, are manufactured. When a party of English iron-masters 
 and machine-makers visited Seraing in 1870, they found that 
 there were 7000 persons employed, representing with their 
 families 23,000 souls ; that 156 steam-engines supplied 2840 
 horse power; that the establishment produced in one year 50 
 locomotives, 70 steam-engines, 1500 machines for various pur- 
 poses, 2680 tons of iron bridge work, and 5000 tons of iron steam- 
 boats. The company trade under the name of John Cockerill 
 & Co. 
 
 CCEUB, JACQUES, a French merchant and financier, was 
 born just before the close of the 14th century, at Bourges, where, 
 after receiving but slight education, he was early introduced by 
 his father to the practice of commerce, for which he developed 
 such a genius that he became the greatest merchant and the 
 richest subject of his time. About the year 1429 he entered into 
 partnership with the brothers Pierre and Barthomie Godart, for 
 carrying on a trade in every kind of merchandise. This associa- 
 tion continued until the death of the brothers Godart in 1439, 
 and its object was to divert from the Venetians and the Genoese 
 the trade of the Levant. The better to secure this end, Coeur 
 paid a visit to Egypt and Syria in the course of the year 1432, 
 and upon his return to France founded factories at Montpellier, 
 which enjoyed special privileges in the way of trading with the 
 infidels. His enterprise was so instantaneously and so magni- 
 ficently successful that he seemed to some of his contemporaries 
 to have discovered the philosopher's stone, a supposition which 
 he appears not entirely to have disfavoured. He had 300 factors 
 in his employ in the different ports of Italy and the Levant, and 
 in the principal inland cities. His prosperity attracted royal 
 countenance and regard; and in 1435 Cceur was made master of 
 the mint at Bourges, the coinage of which he had formerly 
 debased, when from 1427 to 1429 he farmed it from Ravau le 
 Danois. He was next appointed argentier, or treasurer of the 
 household, to King Charles VII., in which capacity he created 
 those resources which made it possible for his master to throw 
 off the yoke of England. In April, 1440, he received a patent 
 of nobility for himself, his wife, and their descendants ; in 1444 
 he was commissioned, along with the Archbishop of Toulouse, to 
 organise the new parliament of Languedoc ; and in September of 
 .the same year was one of the royal commissioners for presiding 
 over the States General of that province. In 1446 and 1447 he 
 was sent successively upon important missions to Geneva and to 
 Borne; and in both acquitted himself with great ability. He 
 lent 200,000 gold crowns to the king, and by so doing ensured 
 the recovery of Normandy from the English ; and M-hen 
 Charles VII. entered Rouen on the 20th of November, 1449, 
 Jacques Cocur, the noble ( and merchant, had a place of honour in 
 the procession. His prosperity and enterprise were now at their 
 height. He was the proprietor of a paper manufactory, of silver, 
 lead, and copper mines in Lyonnais and Bourbonnais, of more 
 than thirty chatellenies and seigneuries, and of splendid houses 
 at Paris, Tours, Lyon, Beaucaire, Beziers, St. Pourcain, &c. But 
 his good fortune was his ruin. He became the object of odium 
 at once to the nobles and the traders, the former of whom 
 resented his intrusion into their order and his absorption of the 
 estates of so many of its improvident members, whilst the latter 
 repined at the unprecedented exaltation of one of their own 
 class. Upon the death of Agnes Sorel, the beautiful mistress of 
 Charles VII., which happened in 1450, the envy against Cceur 
 took the form of an accusation that he had poisoned her, and he 
 was arrested on the 31st of July, 1451. The charge fell to the 
 ground by its own weight ; but being at length brought to trial 
 on some minor indictments, he was iniquitously condemned at 
 Poitiers to be imprisoned, to make the amende, honourable, to pay 
 a fine of 400,000 crowns, and to have the rest of his estate con- 
 fiscated to the king. He made the amende, kneeling on a scaffold 
 at Poitiers on the 5th of June, 1453 ; and in January, 1455, was 
 taken to the convent of the Cordeliers of Beaucaire, from which 
 he effected his escape, and fled to Rome, where he was honour- 
 ably entertained by Pope Nicolas V. He passed most of the year 
 1455 <*t Rome; and in 1456 was commissioned by Calixtus III., 
 
 the successor of Nicolas, to command a fleet — with the title of 
 Captain-General of the Church against the Infidels — equipped for 
 the defence of the Greek islands against the Turks. On his 
 arrival at the Isle of Chio, Cceur fell sick, and died on the 25th 
 of November, 1456. In compliance with a dying request which 
 he wrote to Charles VII., that monarch, by letters patent dated. 
 5th August, 1457, restored a small portion of their father's pro- 
 perty to Ravau and Geoffrey Coeur, the latter of whom sub- 
 sequently obtained from Louis XL, to whom he acted as maitre- 
 d'-hotel, a more complete restitution, and the rehabilitation of his 
 father's memory. But this concession did not take full effect till 
 the reign of Charles VIII., and after the death of Geoffrey Cceur, 
 with whose son, Jacques Coeur, named after his grandfather, 
 the direct line of the illustrious and unfortunate financier ter- 
 minated. 
 
 Amongst the works conversant about Jacques Coeur may be 
 mentioned the ' Proces de Jacques Cceur, argentier du roi 
 Charles VII.' 8vo, Paris, 1867, byM. Gabriel Joret-Desclosieres; 
 ' Jacques Cceur, the French Argonaut, and his Times,' 8vo, Lon- 
 don, 1847, by Louisa Stuart Costello; M. Pierre Clement's 
 'Jacques Cceur et Charles VII., ou la France au xv e Siecle. 
 Etude Historique,' &c, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1853, new edition, 
 revised and corrected, 8vo, Paris, 1866 ; ' Les Grand Ministres 
 Francais,' 8vo, Rouen, 1859, a work by M. Jean Louis T. Bachelet, 
 in which Cceur is associated with Suger, Sully, Richelieu, Maza- 
 rin, and Colbert; and finally M. Auguste Vallet de Viriville's 
 'Jacques Cceur. (Extrait de la " Revue des Provinces.") Etude 
 Historique sur le xv e siecle,' 8vo, Paris, 1864. 
 
 * COLENSO, RIGHT REVEREND JOHN WILLIAM, 
 D.D., first Bishop of Natal, the son of John William Colenso, 
 Esq., of Lostwithiel, who was for many years an officer of the 
 Duchy of Cornwall, was born at St. Austell, on the 24th of 
 January, 1814. He was educated successively at the Devonport 
 Proprietary School and at St. John's College, Cambridge ; and. 
 took his B.A. degree in 1836, when he was second Wrangler and 
 Smith's prizeman, which distinctions were naturally rewarded 
 with a fellowship. He graduated as M.A. in 1839, and in 1853, 
 upon his appointment to the bishopric of Natal, took the degrees 
 of B.D. and D.D. by accumulation. In 1838 he accepted the 
 mathematical mastership at Harrow, and continued to hold it for 
 some years ; after which, in 1842, he returned to Cambridge, 
 where he was very successful as a private tutor. In 1846 he 
 became rector of Forncett St. Mary in Norfolk, and held this pre- 
 ferment until after his promotion to the episcopate. During this 
 period of his life he was chiefly known for his admirable series 
 of elementary mathematical works, the sale of which has been so 
 extensive that each page of the copyrights has been said to be as 
 valuable as a bank-note. They may be indicated or represented 
 rather than exhausted. They comprise ' Elements of Algebra/ 
 12mo, Cambridge, 2nd edition, 1841, 6th edition, 12mo, London 
 and Cambridge, 1849, &c. ; ' Elements of Algebra, adapted for 
 Teachers and Students in the University,' 8vo, London, 1849; 
 ' The Elements of Algebra, adapted for the use of National and. 
 Adult Schools,' 18mo, London, 1852, new edition, 12mo, London, 
 1864; ' Miscellaneous Examples in Algebra,' &c, 12mo, London 
 and Cambridge, 1848; 'Arithmetic, designed for the use of 
 Schools,' 12mo, London, 1843, new edition, stereotyped, 12mo, 
 London and Cambridge, 1848, new edition, thoroughly revised, 
 "with the addition of Notes and Examination Papers," 12mo, 
 London, 1864; 'A Text Book of Elementary Arithmetic,' 16mo, 
 London, 1853, and ' Progressive Examples in Arithmetic,' 16mo, 
 London, 1853, both " designed for the use of National, Adult, 
 and Commercial Schools;" 'Plane Trigonometry,' 12mo, Lon- 
 don, second edition, 1851; 'Geometrical Problems, as given in 
 the editions of Euclid's Elements,' 24mo, London, 1846 ; many 
 of which were followed by ' Keys,' ' Solutions,' and 1 Appendices,' 
 by himself and others. Of another order, but belonging to the 
 time of his residence in England, are his 'Cottage Family 
 Prayers,' 12mo, Cambridge, 1846; 'Village Sermons,' 1853, 
 second edition, 16mo, Cambridge and Norwich, 1854, against 
 which the 'Record,' in a review of the book, protested on 
 account of its detect 'on of a tendency to those theological and 
 exegetical positions for which the name of Colenso has since been 
 conspicuous. Against the judgment of the ' Record ' the author 
 of the volume appealed in ' A Letter to his Grace the Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, in reply to a Review of " Village Sermons," in 
 the " Record" newspaper of November 10th, 1853. [With the 
 text of the Review],' 8vo, London, 1853. Amongst his other 
 activities, Mr. Colenso for some time held the post of organising 
 secretary to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and 
 edited their serial, ' The Church in the Colonies,' 16mo, London, 
 
S95 
 
 COLENSO, BISHOP. 
 
 COLENSO, BISHOP. 
 
 396 
 
 1844 — 51, as well as the ' Monthly Record of Church Missions, 
 in connection with the Society for the Propagation of the Gospei 
 in Foreign Parts,' 8vo, London, 1852, &c. 
 
 During the year 1847 the attention of the Church of England 
 was attracted hy the spiritual wauls of South Africa; the 
 bishopric of Cape Town was established, and Dr. Gray was 
 appointed to preside over the diocese, which included the Cape 
 Colony, British Kaffraria, Kaffirland, Natal, the sovereignty 
 beyond the Orange River, and the Island of St. Helena. In 
 1853 Bishop Gray succeeded in convincing the government and 
 two of the religious societies of the claims of his enormous 
 diocese to subdivision, and two new sees were constituted out of 
 it. On the 30th of November, in the same year, Dr. Armstrong 
 and Dr. Colenso were consecrated at St. Mary's Lambeth, res- 
 pectively to the sees of Graham's Town and Natal. A very con- 
 siderable opposition was offered to the appointment of Dr. 
 Colenso. The 'Record' engaged in one of the longest and 
 bitterest of its warfares, founding its antagonism on the ' Village 
 Sermons' just mentioned, and Dr. Colenso's endorsement of the I 
 principles of Mr. Maurice. Dr. Colenso's first visit to the colony ] 
 lasted only ten weeks, and of this he has written an account in a 
 volume entitled ' Ten Weeks in Natal. A Journal of a First 
 Tour of Visitation among the Colonists and Zulu Kaffirs of 
 Natal,' 8vo, London and Cambridge, 1855. Dr. Colenso com- 
 menced his missionary work with ardour; and his fervour and 
 charm of manner and address made him one of the most con- 
 spicuous ornaments of colonial society. Gradually, however, the 
 divergence of views between Dr. Colenso and Dr. Gray became 
 more evident, and the latter listened to and enforced complaints 
 of the manner in which Dr. Colenso discharged the duties of his 
 bishopric. This brought a reply from Dr. Colenso in the shape 
 of ' Remarks upon the recent Proceedings and Charge of Robert, 
 Bishop of Cape Town, at his primary Metropolitan Visitation of 
 the Diocese of Natal,' &c, 8vo, London, first and second editions, 
 1864. On the other hand, the Rev. Lewis Grout, an American 
 missionary, with fifteen years' knowledge of South Africa, who 
 published a work called 'Zulu Land; or, Life among the Zulu 
 Kaffirs of Natal.' praises the " resolution, zeal, and perseverance" 
 of Dr. Colenso's devotion to missionary work in 1858, notwith- 
 standing that the latter had not only not realised, but not even 
 begun, much that his more sanguine inexperience had at first 
 suggested. Mr. Grout found the native schools in good order, 
 . and Mrs. Colenso an active coad jutor in some branches of in- 
 struction ; whilst Dr. Colenso's labours, " aside from a general 
 superintendence of the stations, seem to be mainly directed to 
 the preparation of Zulu books — a department in which he has 
 done much, and done it well, and in which there is also much to 
 be done." These words may serve as an introduction to the 
 following works, published by Dr. Colenso, which are con- 
 cerned with Zulu life and philology : — ' First Steps in Zulu- 
 Kafir; an Abridgment of the Elementary Grammar of the Zulu- 
 Kafir Language,' 12mo, Ekukanyeni (Anglice, In the Light), 
 1859 ; ' Three Native Accounts of the Visit of the Bishop of 
 Natal to Umpunde, King of the Zulus ; edited, with explanatory 
 Notes, and a literal Translation, and a Glossary,' 12mo, Maritzburg, 
 1860; and a ' Zulu-English Dictionary,' 12mo, Pietermaritzburg, 
 1861. The question of native polygamy was one in which Dr. 
 Colenso took a decided part ; and in his first visit to Natal he 
 formed the opinion that a convert with a plurality of wives was 
 not required to put any of them away. On this subject he pub- 
 lished a 'Letter to the Archbishop of Canterbury upon the 
 question of the proper Treatment of Cases of Polygamy, as 
 found already existing in Converts from Heathenism/ 8vo, Cam- 
 bridge, 1862. 
 
 The Journals and Letters of the Bishop of Natal have to a 
 large extent been published, and from these, and from the pub- 
 lications of the S. P. G., a more favourable idea of his character 
 and labours is impressed on the mind than is left by the narra- 
 tive of Dr. Gray, and the statements of various other persons. 
 From the Report of the Propagation Society for 1860 it appears 
 that Dr. Colenso was " seriously contemplating a noble and most 
 disinterested scheme for the evangelisation of the country. That 
 scheme is, to resign his present diocese, and to go forth as a mis- 
 sionary bishop, accompanied by his fellow-labourers, to plant the 
 Gospel in the heart of the heathen land." He proposed to take 
 only 500Z. a year himself, and 1000L a year for his band of mis- 
 sionaries, and this the bociety l'or the Propagation of the Gospel 
 was prepared to grant. The Report for the ensuing year is, 
 however, silent on the subject ; and it appears that the Bishop 
 was then engaged with a new scheme — the formation of a 
 distinct settlement for the Christian converts, that they might at 
 
 once engage in labour, and obtain such a position as would 
 
 ensure self-respect and self-dependence. 
 
 The " philosophising theories" of the Bishop were now destined 
 to bring about perhaps the most important theological contro- 
 versy of the generation, in which his theological positions were 
 attacked, and his calculations impugned, by dozens of champions 
 — Jews, Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Baptists, Wesleyans, &c— 
 for the veracity and integrity of the Pentateuch, which his criti- 
 cism seemed to have endangered. This was by the publication 
 of the ' Pentateuch and Book of Joshua critically examined. 
 Part I. The Pentateuch examined as an Historical Narrative/ 
 8vo, London, 1862, fifth edition, revised, 1863, &c. The next 
 three parts were each published in 8vo, London, 1863, and were 
 entitled respectively ' The Age and Authorship of the Pentateuch 
 considered ;' ' The Book of Deuteronomy ;' and ' The First Eleven 
 Chapters of Genesis ;' whilst the fifth part appeared as ' The Look 
 of Genesis analysed and separated, and the Ages of its Writers de- 
 termined/ 8vo, London, 1865. Many editions of the Pentateuch, 
 &c, have been issued, of which maybe specially mentioned a 
 'People's Edition/ in five parts, the first of which was published 
 in 8vo, London, 1864, and the remaining four in 1865. During 
 the whole time of the publication of this work and its preparation 
 for the press, which was completed by the issue of ' The Preface 
 and Concluding Remarks of Part V. of the Pentateuch/ &c, 8vo, 
 London, 1865, and "printed separately by request," Dr. Colenso 
 was in England. Towards the end of the year 1863 proceedings 
 were at the instance of Bishop Gray taken against the author of 
 this work upon a charge of heresy contained in it and in a former 
 publication. The trial came oil' in St. George's Cathedral, Cape 
 Town, on the 17th of November. Bishop Gray, of Cape Town, 
 who claimed that the diocese of Natal was within his metropoli- 
 tical jurisdiction, Bishop Cotterill, the successor of Dr. Arm- 
 strong in the see of Graham's Town, and Bishop Twells, of 
 Orange Free State, sat as judges. The accusing clergy were Dean 
 Douglas and two provincial archdeacons. So far as Dr. Colenso 
 could be said to be represented, he was represented by Dr. Bleek. 
 The result of these proceedings, which are recorded in the ' Trial 
 of the Bishop of Natal for Erroneous Teaching/ &c, 8vo, Cape 
 Town and London, 1863, and against which Dr. Colenso on the 
 16th December protested as being illegal, was a decree of deposi- 
 tion from his see, which was to take effect, unless in case of 
 retractation, on the 16th of April, 1864. When Dr. Bleek, on 
 behalf of Bishop Colenso, gave notice of appeal, the Bishop of 
 Cape Town expressed his inability to "recognise any appeal 
 except to his Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury." The effect 
 of this decision was a lively discussion on the subject of the 
 judicial functions of metropolitans, and a challenge to Convoca- 
 tion to express its condemnation of the book which had occasioned 
 it, and the two Houses of Convocation of the Province of Canter- 
 bury did in 1864 condemn it accordingly. Meanwhile the Bishop 
 of Cape Town and his assessors had issued a ' Letter to the Clergy 
 and Faithful Laity of the Diocese of Natal,' to which Dr. Colenso 
 replied by an appeal to the laity, ' A Letter to the Laity of the 
 Diocese of Natal/ &c, 8vo, London, second edition, 1864. A 
 subscription, opened in February, 1864, in aid of the defence of 
 Dr. Colenso was furthered by many persons of culture in England, 
 including several clergymen who gave their names and livings, 
 the occurrence of which on the list was not understood as 
 pledging them to any of the Bishop's opinions, but only as 
 affording a protest in favour of free discussion and inquiry. A 
 petition which Dr. Colenso presented to the Privy Council was 
 referred to the Lords of the Judicial Committee, by her Majesty's 
 order in Council of the 10th of June, 1864; and on the 20th of 
 March, 1865, judgment was delivered to the effect that the Bishop 
 of Cape Town had no jurisdiction. "There was no power," it 
 was decided, "to confer any jurisdiction on the respondent as 
 metropolitan. The attempt to give appellate jurisdiction to the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury is equally invalid. This important 
 question can be decided only by the Sovereign as head of the 
 Established Church, and depository of the ultimate appellate 
 jurisdiction. . . . Their lordships, therefore, will humbly 
 report to her Majesty their judgment and opinion that the pro- 
 ceedings taken by the Bishop of Cape Town, and the judgment 
 and sentence pronounced by him against the Bishop of Natal, 
 are null and void in law." The ecclesiastical position of Dr. 
 Colenso as thus defined, has been discussed in ' Reports/ ' Ob- 
 servations,' &c. ; his own view of it, as given in the ' Preface ' to 
 Part V. of the ' Pentateuch/ &c, dated June 13th, 1865, may be 
 quoted : — " As Bishop of Natal, I am now at full liberty to con- 
 tinue and complete the laborious work in which I have been 
 engaged, and to publish the result of my inquiries, — relieved 
 
397 
 
 COLES, CAPTAIN COWPER PHIPPS. 
 
 COLLIER, ARTHUR. 
 
 303 
 
 from the intolerable yoke of absolute church authority, hut 
 subject always to that of her Majesty the Queen, from whom I 
 
 I received my appointment, and from whom [ may at any time, for 
 
 I just cause shown, receive my dismissal." Soon after the decisr-'iu 
 thus given in his favour, and the complete publication of his 
 
 I 'Pentateuch,' &c, Dr. Colenso returned to his diocese of Natal ; 
 whilst Dr. Gray gave effect to his theories of spiritual or eeclesi- 
 
 ! astical supremacy by the consecration of the Rev. W. K. Macrorie 
 to the rival diocese of Pietermaritzburg. 
 
 A few of the works of Dr. Colenso remain to be mentioned. 
 They include ' The Communion-Service from the Books of 
 Common Prayer, with select Readings from the Writings of the 
 
 ; Rev. F. D. Maurice,' 16mo, Cambridge, 1855 ; ' The Epistle of 
 St. Paul to the Romans, newly translated, and explained from a 
 
 j Missionary Point of View,' 8vo, London, 1861 ; ' The Worship of 
 Baalim in Israel. Based upon the Work of R. Dozy, " The 
 
 : Israelites at Mecca." Translated from the Dutch, and enlarged 
 with Notes and Appendices,' 8vo, London, 1865 ; ' The Penta- 
 teuch and the Book of Joshua critically examined. Translated 
 
 I from the Dutch of Abraham Kuenen, and edited with Notes,' 
 8vo, London, 1865; 'An Ordination and three Missionary Ser- 
 mons,' 12mo, Cambridge, 1855 ; ' Abraham's Sacrifice : a Sermon 
 on Genesis xxii. 1, 2, for Claybrooke Sunday School,' &c, 12mo, 
 
 , London, 1864 ; ' Sermons on 1 Cor. iv. 5 ; Heb. ii. 10 — 13 ; Rom. 
 xv. 4 — 7/ separately published in 8vo, Maritzburg, 1865 ; ' Two 
 Sermons (on Phil. i. 9, 10, and Isa. xxxiii. 14) preached in St. 
 Paul's, Durham, November 12th, 1865, and in the Cathedral 
 Church of St. Peter's, Maritzburg, November 19th, 1865,' 4to, 
 
 i London, 1866 ; and ' Natal Sermons. A Series of Discourses 
 preached in the Cathedral Church of St. Peter's, Maritzburg,' 
 2nd series, 8vo, London and Bungav, 1866 — 68. 
 
 * COLES, CAPTAIN COWPER PHIPPS, was born at 
 Ditcham House, near Petersfield, Hants, in 1819. Entering the 
 navy in 1831, he gradually worked his way up in the service : was 
 appointed mate of the Ganges, 84, in 1838 ; mate of Sir William 
 Parker's flag-ship, the Hibernia, in 1846; and lieutenant soon 
 afterwards. In 1853, as flag-lieutenant to Admiral Lyons, in 
 the Agamemnon, he was in a position to take a busy part in the 
 naval operations connected with the Russian war, which broke 
 out soon afterwards. He was engaged successively in the bom- 
 bardment of Odessa, the reduction of the forts on the Circassian 
 coast, the attacks on the sea defences of Sebastopol, the opera- 
 tions in the Sea of Azof, and the attack on Taganrog. For these 
 services he was made commander in 1854, second captain in 
 1855, and senior captain in 1856, and was decorated with various 
 honours. Since the last-named year he has been on half-pay. 
 Captain Coles invented tripod iron masts of peculiar construc- 
 tion. He is, however, best known as the chief inventor of the 
 now celebrated turret principle of ship-buihling, in which a few 
 very heavy guns are placed in revolving turrets on deck, instead 
 of numerous smaller guns being arranged in broadside. Having 
 patented his invention in England, he sought to bring it into 
 practical use. After long-continued discussion with the Admi- 
 ralty, Captain Coles was permitted to finish the Royal Sovereign 
 as a turret ship, it having been commenced as a wooden three- 
 decker. Notwithstanding the disadvantage attendant on this 
 change of structure, the Royal Sovereign gave many evidences 
 of great power and adaptability, and led, in 1866, to the adoption 
 of the turret principle in the Scorpion and the Wyvern. The 
 Earl of Derby's government, in the year just named, ordered the 
 construction of powerful iron-clad turret ships. Two turret 
 cruising frigates have been launched in 1870, to test the relative 
 merits of two modes of construction — the Captain, by Captain 
 Coles ; and the Monarch, by Mr. Reed. The Captain has two 
 turrets, each in effect a revolving fortress, containing two enor- 
 mous guns of 25 tons weight eacli ; the turrets, as well as other 
 parts of the ship, being protected by very thick armour-plates : 
 m a carefully-conducted trial, May, 1870, the ship proved re- 
 markably successful. Captain Coles has, however, had much 
 difficulty in inducing the Admiralty to adopt his plans ; and it 
 is still doubtful how far they will be carried out. The Devasta- 
 tion and the Thunderer, supposed to be the most powerful ships 
 in the world, are now (1870) being built on the turret principle, 
 but rather on Mr. Reed's than Captain Coles's plan. 
 
 COLLAS, ACHILLE, an ingenious inventor of engraving- 
 machines, was born at Paris, on the 25th of February, 1795. After 
 learning the trade of a watch-tool maker, and turning his hand 
 to many modes of employment, he invented in 1822 a machine 
 for making clasps and lockets ; in 1825 a machine for engraving 
 the ground or neutral tints on copper-plates ; in 1826 a machine 
 for engraving iridescent buttons ; in 1826 a machine for engraving 
 
 wave-lines on cylinders for calico-printing; and (about 1830) a 
 machine for producing copper and steel-plate engravings of coins 
 and medallions. This last-named invention was brought into 
 practical use for a beautifully illustrated work, Lenormant's 
 ' Tresor de Numismatique et do Glyptique, ou Recueil General 
 de Medails, &c. . . . grave par les procedes de Achille 
 Collas,' fol. Paris, 1834. An English work illustrated in a simi- 
 lar way was Chorley's 'Authors of England, a series of Medallion 
 Portraits . . . engraved by Achille Collas,' 4to, London, 
 1838. In 1836 Collas invented a mode of applying the panta- 
 graph to copying sculptures and other works of statuary on 
 a reduced scale. The first antique statue reproduced in this way 
 was the Venus of Milo, in 1839. The method was not wholly 
 new, something like it having before been used in England and 
 in Germany, but Collas brought it to a higher degree of com- 
 pleteness. Between 1840 and 1844 he devoted his attention to 
 new modes of moulding clay into ornaments, hollow bricks, and 
 draining tiles. Collas died at Paris on the 6th of June, 1859. 
 The sculpturing machine, which was rewarded with medals by 
 the juries of the International Exhibitions in 1851 and 1855, has 
 been largely used by M. Barbedienne of Paris in the reproduc- 
 tion of works of art. 
 
 COLLIER, ARTHUR, a divine and metaphysician, was 
 born at the rectory of Langford Magna, or Steeple Langford, in 
 Wiltshire, on the 12th of October, 1680. His great-grandfather, 
 Egidius Collier, a clothier of Bristol, who held the advowson, 
 presented his grandfather, the Rev. Joseph Collier, to the living 
 of Langford in 160S; and Arthur Collier was the fourth of the 
 family who enjoyed that benefice. It is probable that after a 
 preliminary education at home he was sent to the Grammar 
 School of Salisbury, and certain that he was entered at Pembroke 
 College, Oxford, in July, 1697; whence, on the 22nd of October, 
 1698, he migrated to Balliol College in the same university. 
 Having graduated and been admitted into holy orders, he was 
 instituted in 1704 to the family living of Langford, on the pre- 
 sentation of his mother, who had been left a widow in 1697. He 
 held this preferment until his death, the precise day of which is 
 unknown. His burial, however, took place on the 9th of Sep- 
 tember, 1732, in Langford Church. His eldest son is described 
 in Coote's ' Lives of the Civilians ' as an advocate at the Commons, 
 and as an ingenious but eccentric person. His daughter, Jane 
 Collier, was the author of ' An Essay on the Art of Ingeniously 
 Tormenting ; ' and the other daughter, Mary, accompanied 
 Fielding the novelist in his voyage to Lisbon. No descendants 
 of Arthur Collier are supposed to be now alive. 
 
 The early determination of Collier's genius was to philosophi- 
 cal speculation ; and at the age of 23 he came to the conclusion 
 that there is no such thing as an external world, to which pro- 
 position he adhered with great pertinacity throughout the 
 remainder of his life. Among his MSS., under the date of 
 January, 1708, there remains the outline of an essay, in three 
 chapters, on the question of the visible world being without us 
 or not. In 1712 he wrote two Essays, still in manuscript, one 
 of which was on ' Substance and Accident,' and the other entitled 
 ' Clavis Philosophical At length, as the result of wdiat he de- 
 clares to have been " a ten years' pause and deliberatior," he 
 pubbshed the work on which his reputation as a philosopher 
 depends, ' Clavis Universalis : or, a New Inquiry after Truth ; 
 being a Demonstration of the Non-existence or Impossibility of 
 an External World,' 8vo, London, 1713. This work, which had 
 grown extremely scarce, was privately printed and edited, with 
 an introductory notice and appendix of letters, by Mr. Thomas 
 Maitland, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1836. The impression, which was 
 intended chiefly for presentation, was limited to forty copies. 
 The ' Clavis Universalis,' as well as the ' Specimen of True 
 Philosophy ; in a Discourse on Genesis, the first chapter and the 
 first verse,' 8vo, London, 1730, was made more readily accessible 
 by being incorporated in Dr. Samuel Parr's ' Metaphysical Tracts 
 of English Philosophers of the 18th Century,' 8vo, London, 1837, 
 a collection of posthumous publication, but which Dr. Parr had 
 left in a state of preparation for the press. The ' Clavis Uni- 
 versalis,' which enjoyed the commendation of Reid, Dugald 
 Stewart, and others, was made known in Germany by Professor ;. 
 Eschenbach's translation in 1756; and its author claimed com- 
 plete independence of the reasoning of Bishop Berkeley, although 
 the hitter's ' Principles of Human Knowledge,' and ' Theory of 
 Vision,' had been published respectively three and four years 
 before the appearance of the ' Clavis.' CoUier's theological 
 opinions were closely connected with his metaphysics, and his 
 views of the Second Person of the Trinity, as stated in his own 
 words, were nearly identical with those of Apollinaris, Bishop of 
 
399 
 
 COLLOMB, EDOUARD. 
 
 COMBE, WILLIAM. 
 
 400 
 
 Laodicea towards the latter end of the fourth century. He held 
 "that the pre-existent Word, or Son of God, was not united to a 
 created human soul or spirit, hut was himself the man called 
 Jesus, or the Christ." This position, which he deemed essential 
 to the doctrine of the atonement, he embodied, as one of the last 
 acts of his life, in a volume entitled ' Lo-olouy : or, a Treatise 
 on the Logos or Word of God, in seven Sermons on the 1st, 2nd, 
 3rd, and 14th verses of the First Chapter of St. John's Gospel,' a 
 work of extreme rarity, of which an analysis is given in Dr. 
 Parr's 'Metaphysical Tracts.' Collier published a small treatise 
 ' Of Justification by Faith, as in opposition to Justification by 
 Works: in a Sermon upon Romans 1, v. 17, preached at the 
 Cathedral Church of Sarum, July 8, 1716,' 8vo, London, 1716; 
 and wrote on various controversial subjects, particularly those of 
 Occasional Conformity, and the Sacheverell and Bangorian con- 
 troversies. He left also in manuscript a ' Commentary on the 
 Septuagint Version of the Bible,' which, except a few sheets, was 
 employed for fire-lighting by an ignorant housemaid, who had 
 access to it in the lumber-room of a house in the Close at 
 Salisbury, where fifty sermons and other productions, principally 
 correspondence, were likewise found by the late Robert Benson, 
 M.A., Recorder of Salisbury, the author of ' Memoirs of the Life 
 and Writings of the Rev. Arthur Collier, M.A., Rector of Lang- 
 ford Magna, in the County of Wilts, from a.d. 1704 to a.d. 1732 ; 
 with some Account of his Family,' 8vo, London, 1837. 
 
 * COLLOMB, EDOUARD, geologist, has been for many years 
 one of the officers of the Geological Society of France, first as a 
 councillor and a secretary, and latterly as the treasurer, which last- 
 mentioned office we believe he still holds. He is best known for 
 his original observations on glaciers, more especially those of the 
 Vosges Mountains, and for his researches into the geological 
 structure of Spain, undertaken in conjunction with Verneuil, 
 with whom he travelled in that country in 1851 and 1852, and 
 on more than one occasion since that period. In 1853 he explored 
 most parts of the Italian peninsula and adjacent islands. His 
 principal writings are ' Preuves de l'existence d'anciens glaciers 
 dans les vallees des Vosges,' 1847; 'Memoire sur les glaciers 
 actuels' in ' Annales des Mines,' xi. pp. 177 — 216, (1857) ; ' Essai 
 sur l'ancien glacier de la vallee d'Argeles,' 1868, written in con- 
 junction with M. Martins. In connection with M. Verneuil he 
 has written 'Coup d'eeil sur la constitution geologique des 
 quelques provinces de l'Espagne,' in ' Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr.,' 2nd 
 series, x. pp. 61 — 147 (1853) ; ' Observations geologiques et 
 barometriques faites en Espagne en 1855,' in vol. xiii. pp. 674 — 
 728, of the same series ; and ' Note sur une partie du Pays 
 Basque espagnole, accompagnee par une carte,' in vol. xvii. pp. 
 333 — 372 (I860). He has written many other papers for these 
 ' Bulletins,' as also for the ' Supplement a la Bibliotheque Uni- 
 verseUe et Revue Suisses,' ' Comptes Rendus,' and one or two 
 other serials. 
 
 COLT, SAMUEL, whose name is associated with the revolv- 
 ing pistol, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, July 19th, 1814. 
 When a young man, assuming the name of Dr. Coult, he 
 lectured on chemistry in various towns of the United States, 
 and thereby obtained money sufficient to enable him to make 
 experiments on a revolving pistol, which he had designed and 
 modelled in wood at the age of 15, while at sea as a sailor-boy. 
 In 1835 he secured patents for his invention in America, Eng- 
 land, and France. New York capitalists subscribed 300,000 
 dollars, and established the Patent Arms Company at Paterson, 
 New Jersey. In 1837 some of Colonel Harney's troops used 
 Colt's revolvers in the Florida war, and the beautifully con- 
 structed weapon excited much admiration ; but the slackness of 
 the demand during peace led to the suspension of the manufac- 
 ture. In 1843 Mr. Colt introduced one of the first submarine 
 electric cables, for local use, in the waters near New York ; the 
 copper wire was wrapped round with cotton yarn, saturated with 
 asphaltum and beeswax, and enclosed in a leaden pipe. When 
 the Mexican war began in 1847, Colt recommenced operations as 
 pistol manufacturer, at the same time introducing many im- 
 provements in construction. The migration consequent on the 
 discovery of gold in California gave a great impetus to the 
 demand for revolvers ; and Colt thereupon built a factory on a 
 vast scale just outside Hartford. At this place, stocked with fine 
 machinery, 1000 revolving pistols could be made per clay. 
 While in England in 1851, Mr. Colt read a paper before the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, minutely explaining the points of 
 difference between th.. various kinds of revolvers known up to 
 that time. The rush of emigrants to Australia in 1852 — 53, the 
 Russian war in 1854 — 56, and the Indian mutiny in 1857 — 58, 
 all tended to increase the demand for the arms made at Hartford. 
 
 An important part of the work carried on by Mr. Colt was the 
 fabrication of the machines for making revolvers ; he furnished 
 many sets of such machines to the English, Russian, and other 
 governments. The factory supplied balls, cartridges, bullet- 
 Ji'oulds, powder-flasks, and lubricators, to be used with the 
 aiins. Mr. Colt, who held the militia rank of Colonel, died on 
 the 10th of January, 1862. 
 
 COMBE, GEORGE [E. C. vol. ii. cols. 340, 341], the cele- 
 brated Scotch phrenologist, died at Moor Park, Surrey, Aug. 14, 
 1858, wanting just two months to the completion of his 70th 
 year. 
 
 COMBE, WILLIAM, a prolific writer, was born at Bristol in 
 1741. His birth, like his life, is veiled in obscurity; by some 
 he is said to have been the illegitimate son of Alderman Alex- 
 ander, by others the legitimate son of a merchant named Combe, 
 of that city. By one or other of these he was sent to Eton, and 
 thence, about 1761, proceeded to Oxford University, but left 
 abruptly after residing there a year or two. At the age of 24 he 
 came into possession of a legacy of 2000£. (not 16,000£. or 20,000i. 
 as is commonly said), bequeathed to him by Alderman Alexander, 
 who calls him his godson, and spells his name Combes. As- 
 suming the habits and extravagances of a man of extreme 
 fashion (and gaining thereby the sobriquet of Count Combe), 
 he soon managed to dissipate his legacy, and then settled in 
 London, professedly to stud}' law, but trusting to authorship for 
 a livelihood. He had already published a few essays under the 
 title of ' The Philosopher in Bristol,' 1775; his first venture in 
 London was a satire, which owed its success to its personality, 
 ' The Diaboliad,' 1776. From this time for forty years he con- 
 tinued to write on all sorts of subjects, and in the most various 
 classes of literature. Much that he wrote was for magazines and 
 newspapers, his separate works being all booksellers' jobs, and all 
 published anonymously. Their number, considering the strange 
 life he led, was surprising. He appears to have been always in 
 debt, often in the debtor's prison, and his last years were spent 
 within the rules of the King's Bench. His conduct during a 
 large part of his life appears to have been profligate, but towards 
 the end became more regular ; and he went much into society, 
 where he was greatly admired for his gentlemanly manners, 
 animation, and conversational skill. Yet he was distrusted by 
 every one, and even his personal honesty has been impeached. 
 The most popular of his works is the well-known 1 Three Tours 
 of Doctor Syntax' — First Tour, 1812 (originally published in the 
 'Poetical Magazine,' 1809—11); Second, 1820; Third, 1821. 
 This work had an amazing run, but its popularity was doubtless 
 at least as much due to Rowlandson's clever designs as to 
 Combe's text. In the same vein, and illustrated like Dr. Syntax 
 by Rowlandson, followed 'The Military Adventures of Johnny 
 Newcome,' 1815; 'The English Dance of Death,' 1815—16; 
 'The Dance of Life,' 1816—17; and the 'History and Life of 
 Johnny Quoe Genus, the Little Foundling,' 1822. All these were 
 published by Ackermann, who appears to have been Combe's chief 
 employer. He also wrote for Ackermann the text accompanying 
 his splendidly illustrated Histories of the Universities of Oxford 
 and Cambridge, and the great Grammar Schools, Harrow, Rugby, 
 Westminster, the Charter House, Christ's Hospital, St. Paul's, 
 &c. ; his Picturesque Tours along the Rhine, the English Lakes, 
 the Thames, the Ganges and Jumna, and many more of the same 
 kind, as well as the ' History of Madeira,' Cave's ' Antiquities of 
 York,' and many miscellaneous works. He also furnished the 
 text for Boydell's magnificent ' History of the River Thames ' 
 (one of the finest specimens of Buhner's press), 2 vols, folio, 
 1794 — 96, and wrote the descriptions to Tumei-'s 'Southern 
 Coast,' vol. i. 1817. He claims further to be the author of 
 ' Lord Lyttleton's Letters,' to which some importance was 
 attached as long as they were assumed to be genuine; the 
 Letters supposed to have passed between Sterne and Eliza ; audit 
 is pretty certain that these are not the only letters by many 
 which he forged. The satire, ' All the Talents,' 8vo, 1807, 
 which ran through some twenty editions, is probably correctly 
 attributed to him, as are also ' The Devil upon Two Sticks in 
 London,' and ' The First of April ;' but the Hudibrastic jingle 
 called the ' Life of Napoleon Bonaparte,' the ' Heroic Epistle to 
 Sir William Chambers,' and various other productions, have 
 been given to him on very insufficient grounds. Those who 
 wish to know what he really wrote may be content with 
 the list drawn up by himself, and printed in the 'Gentleman's 
 Magazine ' for May, 1852. Combe died at his residence, South 
 Lambeth, on the 19th of June, 1823. Shortly after his death 
 appeared what purported to be his ' Letters to Marianne,' the 
 perusal of which will probably satisfy any one of the writer's 
 
401 
 
 COMBERMERE, VISCOUNT. 
 
 CONINGTON, JOHN. 
 
 4 02 
 
 thorough want of principle. A new edition of ' The Three Tours 
 of Doctor Syntax in Search of the Picturesque, Consolation, and 
 a Wife,' with ' The Life and Adventures of the Author,' hy J. C. 
 Hotten, and " 80 illustrations drawn and coloured after the 
 originals by T. Rowlandson," was published in 1868, but the life 
 is inaccurate and the adventures legendary, while the illustra- 
 tions libel the originals. A good deal about Combe appeared in 
 ' Notes and Queries' for 1869, and his name frequently occurs in 
 the ' Diary of H. Crabb Robinson,' 8vo, 1869. 
 
 COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON, VISCOUNT 
 [E. C. vol. ii. col. 341]. Notwithstanding his advanced age, 
 Lord Combermere continued to take part in his old employments 
 and in the occupations of the society in which he moved ; and in 
 the summer of 1864 the gallant old general, then turned of 91, 
 rode over to Chester along with Baron Marochetti to select a site 
 for the statue which the people of Cheshire proposed to erect in 
 his honour. He lived but a few months longer, dying at Clifton 
 on the 21st of February, 1865. He was born in 1773. The 
 statue, which has been erected just outside the castle gates, 
 Chester, is of bronze, 12 feet high, on a granite pedestal of the 
 same height. It represents Lord Combermere on horseback, in 
 his field-marshal's uniform, and is a good unaffected likeness. 
 The artist was Baron Marochetti. 
 
 COMTE, ACHILLE JOSEPH, biologist, was born at 
 Grenoble, Sept. 29, 1802. Imbued from a very early age with a 
 desire for the study of natural history, he retained this liking 
 throughout his career as a medical student at Paris. Soon after 
 his education was completed he obtained the post of professor of 
 natural history at the Charlemagne College, and then that of 
 principal clerk to the minister of public instruction; but in the 
 stormy period of 1848 he was obliged to seek other occupation. 
 He subsequently became director of a preparatory school, where 
 he himself taught the natural history. He was a member of 
 several societies, amongst others that of the ' Gens de Lettres,' of 
 which he was first vice-president and then president. He died 
 in 1866. His works are numerous, but those which are best 
 known are the books he wrote for the use of students. The fol- 
 lowing may be mentioned : — ' Regne Animale de Cuvier, dispose 
 en tableaux methodique,' 1832 — 41 ; ' Physiologie pour les 
 colleges et les gens du monde,' &c, 1834, 4th edition, 1841 ; 
 ' Traite complet d'histoire naturelle,' 1844 — 48. He helped M. 
 Milne-Edwards in drawing up the ' Cahiers d'histoire naturelle 
 a l'usage des colleges,' &c, 1836 — 45 ; edited an edition of Buffon's 
 works, and contributed to Bouillet's ' Dictionnaire Universel des 
 Sciences,' &c. His wife also obtained some reputation as a writer 
 of educational works, and of comedies. 
 
 COMTE, AUGUSTE, [E. C. vol. ii. col. 344]. The author of 
 the positive philosophy (whose full name was Isidore Auguste 
 Marie Franchise Xavier Comte), died at Paris on the 5th of 
 September, 1857. A ' Notice sur l'Giuvre et sur la Vie d' Auguste 
 Comte,' by M. E. Robinet, Paris, I860 ; ' A General View of 
 Positivism, Translated from the French of Auguste Comte, by 
 J. H. Bridges, M.D.,' 8vo, London, 1865 ; Mr. John Stuart Mill's 
 'Auguste Comte and Positivism,' 8vo, 1865; and M. Littre's 
 'Comte et la Philosophic Positive,' 8vo, Paris, 1863, may be 
 usefully added to the list of works on Comte and his philosophy 
 given in the original article. 
 
 CONDAMIXE, CHARLES MARIE LA [La Condamine, 
 C M., E. C. vol. iii. col. 763]. 
 
 COXECTE, THOMAS, a Carmelite monk, who acquired 
 great popularity as a preacher in the early part of the 15th 
 century, and whose death has invested his name with a painful 
 interest. He was by birth a Breton, and is first mentioned as a 
 monk in the Carmelite convent at Rennes. distinguished by holi- 
 ness of life, austerity of manners, and fervid eloquence. " He 
 was the most persuasive preacher of his age," says a writer of the 
 time, and incredible numbers flocked to his sermons. In 1428 
 he set out on a missionary crusade against the dissolute manners 
 and extravagant fashions then prevalent. He travelled through 
 Amiens, Artois, and Flanders, denouncing everywhere the popu- 
 lar vices. Wherever he went he was followed by multitudes of 
 all classes ; " by the common people he was received as if he had 
 been an apostle of our Lord Jesus Christ sent down from heaven," 
 writes Monstrelet; "the mule on which he rode was led by 
 knights or persons of high rank ;" when he entered a town, the 
 churches not being large enough to contain the thousands who 
 came to listen to him, platforms were erected for him to preach 
 from. These the chief burghers hung with costly tapestries, and 
 a band of priests attended to perforin mass. Crowds of 15,000 
 or 16,000, says Argentre, ordinarily assembled at his sermons, 
 and Conecte caused them to be separated by a cord, the women 
 BIOG. DIV. — SOP. 
 
 on one side, the men on the other. Bonfire-i used to be made 
 within sight of the platform, into which the women cast their 
 obnoxious ornaments and gaudy apparel, the men their dice and 
 cards. His remonstrances were not, however, confined to the 
 vices of the vulgar and the luxury of the rich; he condemned in 
 the strongest language the licentiousness of the clergy, and 
 deplored the unhappy condition of the church. Later (1432) he 
 made a journey into Italy, where he preached with almost equal 
 success. At Mantua lie reformed the order of the Carmelites. 
 At Venice he was received with great respect and distinction, 
 and he accompanied the Venetian ambassadors to Rome. Shortly 
 after his arrival, the Pope, Eugenius IV., sent for him, " desiring 
 to hear him preach." But Conecte hesitated ; he had denounced 
 the evil lives of the clergy, had condemned the immorality of 
 the papal court, and questioned the authority of a papal excom- 
 munication ; he knew the perfidy of the Pope, and he shrank 
 from trusting himself in his hands. His prudence was too late. 
 The Pope caused him to be seized and handed over to the In- 
 quisition. He was thrown into prison, condemned as a heretic, 
 and burned alive, 1434. 
 
 CONEGLIANO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, called Cima, an 
 eminent Venetian painter, was born at Castello di Conegliano, 
 near Treviso, about 1460. He is said to have been a pupil and 
 afterwards the rival of Giovanni Bellini, whom he surpassed in 
 technical skill, but hardly equalled as a colourist, and to whom 
 he was decidly inferior in poetical feeling and elevation of style. 
 His works are numerous in Venice, but good examples are com- 
 paratively scarce elsewhere. The National Gallery possesses two 
 of his pictures, both signed — No. 300, 'The Infant Christ standing 
 on the knees of the Virgin,' and No. 634, also ' A Madonna with 
 the Infant Christ standing on her knees,' but smaller in size. 
 The time of Conegliano's death is uncertain. The latest date on 
 a painting by him is 1517. 
 
 CONINGTON, JOHN, professor of Latin literature in the 
 University of Oxford, was born on the 10th of August, 1825, at 
 Boston, Lincolnshire, where his father, the Rev. Richard Coning- 
 ton, held the incumbency of the chapel-of-ease. He was educated 
 at Rugby, from which he passed in July, 1843, to Oxford, where 
 he was demy of Magdalen College. In March, 1846, and May, 
 1847, respectively, he became scholar and fellow of University 
 College ; and, having been first class in Literis Humanioribus in 
 the B.A. examination in Michaelmas Term, 1846, took his 
 bachelor's degree in 1847, and graduated as M.A. in due course. 
 He was Ireland and Hertford scholar in 1844, prizeman for 
 Latin verse in 1847, for the English essay in 1848, for the Latin 
 essay in 1849, in which year he was also Eldon scholar. This 
 last distinction indicates some taste for the law, and Mr. Coning- 
 ton did actually become a student of Lincoln's Inn in June, 
 1849, although he was never called to the bar. In 1854 the 
 professorship of Latin literature at Oxford was instituted by the 
 president and fellows of Corpus Christi College, in accordance 
 with the intention of their founder, Bishop Fox, and endowed 
 from the revenues of the college. To this ollice Mr. Conington. 
 was elected, and ipso facto became an honorary fellow of the 
 college from which he derived his title of " Corpus " Professor. 
 In the fulfilment of his duties his encouragement and friendship 
 were open to every youth of promise ; and when he died, 
 suddenly and prematurely, at his mother's house at Boston, 
 on the 30th of October, 1869, it was felt not only that the 
 university had lost a scholar, but that every student had lost a 
 friend. 
 
 In 1850 Mr. Conington edited Dr. Maginn's ' Homeric Ballads,' 
 to which he contributed a preface and annotations ; but before 
 this he had published a spirited version of the ' Agamemnon,' 
 with the title of 'The Agamemnon of iEschylus; the Greek 
 Text, with a Translation into English Verse, and Notes critical 
 and explanatory,' 8vo, London, 1848. In 1852 he addressed Dr. 
 Gaisford on the subject of certain Fragments of Greek Plays, in 
 a pamphlet entitled ' Epistola Critica de quibusdam iEschyli, 
 Sophoclis, et Euripidis Fragmentis,' the Latinity of which seemed 
 to revive the times when scholars corresponded only in the dead 
 languages. In 1855 Professor Conington published his inaugural 
 lecture 'On the Academical Study of Latin;' two years after 
 which he brought out what has been regarded as his completest 
 contribution to classical literature, ' The Choephoroe of ^Eschylus: 
 with Notes, critical and explanatory,' 8vo, London, 1857 ; and 
 furnished to the ' Oxford Essays,' 8vo, London, 1858, an article 
 on the ' Poetry of Pope,' an interesting contribution to the study 
 of English literature, in which the author compares Pope with 
 various ancient and modern poets, and analyses his characteris- 
 tics as they appear in the more important of his works. The 
 
 D D 
 
403 CONNELL, ARTHUR. 
 
 next work of Professor Conington was the production, for Messrs. 
 Long and Maeleane's ' Bibliotheea Classica,' of the first volume 
 of ' P. Vergili Maronis Opera. The Works of Virgil, with a 
 Commentary/ 8vo, London, 1858. In the preparation of this 
 volume the editor was much assisted by Mr. Goldwin Smith, at 
 that time professor of Modern History at Oxford. The first 
 volume contained the Eclogues and Georgics, and the second, 
 8vo, London, 1863, comprised the first six Books of the yEneid ; 
 whilst the third, in completion of the work, was in the press at 
 the time of the editor's death. The text of Professor Conington's 
 Virgil was published with the title of ' Publi Vergili Maronis 
 Opera,' as one of the ' Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts,' 8vo, 
 Cambridge and London, 1859. He next published 'The Odes 
 and Carmen Seculare of Horace, translated into English Verse,' 
 8vo, London, 1863, fourth ed., 1870; which he followed up with 
 the most generally known of all his works, ' The /Eneid of 
 Virgil, translated into English Verse,' 8vo, London, 1866, third 
 edition, 1870. He completed his Horatian translations with 
 ' The Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry of Horace, translated 
 into English Verse,' 8vo, London, 1870, which, in spite of the 
 date, was published shortly before his death. It may, in addition, 
 be mentioned that Professor Conington contributed in 1863 a 
 very moderate pamphlet with reference to the controversy about 
 the Greek professorship, in which he insisted on the moral 
 obligation ot the university to the Crown, and on the circum- 
 stance that the published opinions of Professor Jowett were not 
 a sulficient ground for withholding an augmentation of his 
 stipend; and that on the 9th of March, 1867, he delivered a 
 lecture, afterwards published, on ' The Style of Lucretius and 
 Catullus as compared with that of the Augustan Poets,' 8vo, 
 Oxford and London. He was further a contributor to the 
 'Edinburgh Review,' the ' Rheinisches Museum,' the 'Athe- 
 naeum/ in which he reviewed Lord Derby's translation of the 
 Iliad, and the 'Academy,' to the first number of which — the 
 second number, November 13th, 1869, contained an obituary 
 notice of him — he contributed a short review of Dr. A. Weidner's 
 Commentary on Virgil's TEneid, ' Commentar zu Vergil's yEneis, 
 Buch i. und ii.,' Leipzig, 1869. 
 
 CONNELL, ARTHUR, born at Edinburgh, 30th November, 
 1794, died 31st October, 1863. He was educated at the High 
 School, and entered the university in 1808. He also became a 
 student at the University of Glasgow, and having obtained a 
 Snell exhibition, went to Balliol College, Oxford, in 1812. In 
 1817 he passed advocate at the Scotch bar, but never practised, 
 preferring to study chemistry. In 1840 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of that science in the University of St. Andrew's, and 
 continued to teach until 1856. He became Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh in 1829, in whose 'Transactions ' and in the 
 ' Edinburgh Philosophical Journal ' many of his papers appeared. 
 He became Fellow of the Royal Society in 1855. He had great 
 skill in mineral analysis. He determined the constitution of 
 greenockite from a single grain of that mineral. He established 
 several new mineral species, and showed that in certain minerals 
 baryta exists in combination with silicic acid. 
 
 CONOLLY, JOHN, M.D., was born in 1794 at Market Rasen, 
 Lincolnshire; served awhile as an officer of militia; in 1817 
 entered on the study of medicine at Edinburgh University, and 
 in 1821 graduated M.D. He commenced practice as a physician 
 at Chichester; removed after awhile to Stratford-upon-Avon, 
 and finally settled in London in 1827 on his appointment to the 
 professorship of medicine in the London University (now Uni- 
 versity College). Resigning this post in 1833, he returned to 
 private practice till 1839, when he was elected resident physician 
 to the Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum, Hanwell. Here the 
 great work of his life was accomplished. Before his time much 
 had been done to improve the treatment of the insane, but, 
 generally speaking, their treatment was still harsh and often 
 cruel. One of Conolly's first measures upon assuming the 
 control of Hanwell Asylum was to remove all instruments of 
 mechanical restraint, " amounting to about 600, half of them 
 being handcuffs and leg-locks," and to abolish restraint entirely. 
 The non-restraint system had already been tried under Dr. 
 Charlesworth and Dr. Gardner Hill, at Lincoln Asylum ; but 
 that was a small institution, whereas HanweU contained 800 
 inmates. And he carried his reform throughout the entire 
 establishment in a much more thorough and systematic manner 
 than his predecessors, combining with the freedom from restraint 
 on the part of the patients, ample occupation, amusement, and 
 absence of seclusion ; with constant kindness of manner and 
 sleepless vigilance on the part of the attendants, and unceasing 
 watchfulness by the superiors. And this course he pursued with 
 
 CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK. 404 
 
 unfailing success during the many years he resided in the 
 hospital, and afterwards urged by counsel and remonstrance 
 when, having resigned the superintendence, he acted as con- 
 sulting physician to the asylum. The wonderful success of the 
 system at Hanwell brought to it visitors from all parts of the 
 world, and, with Dr. Conolly's Reports, which were everywhere 
 read by professional men and the public at large with great 
 interest, contributed to the general adoption of the system in a 
 more or less complete form. The effect of Dr. Conolly's labours 
 on behalf of the insane it is impossible to overrate, but looking 
 at recent cases of death from violence (whether accidental or 
 otherwise) in our own overgrown establishments, and the 
 accounts given of asylums abroad, it is to be feared that there 
 has, in the last few years, been a marked deterioration, partly 
 from insufficient superintendence, but perhaps still more from 
 the neglect to make provision for a succession of properly edu- 
 cated attendants. 
 
 Dr. Conolly died at his residence, the Lawn, Hanwell, on the 
 5th of March, 1866. Besides his numerous Reports, and various 
 contributions to the ' British and Foreign Medical Review,' the 
 ' Lancet,' &c, he wrote an essay on ' The Construction of Lunatic 
 Asylums ; ' 1 An Inquiry concerning the Indications of Insanity ;' 1 
 and a ' Study of Hamlet ' (1863), the result of his retirement, in 1 
 which he sought to prove that Hamlet's madness was not 
 simulated, and that Ophelia became insane from sympathy. 
 Dr. Conolly took an active share in founding the Earlswood 
 Asylum for Idiots, of which he acted as honorary physician. 
 
 (A Memoir of John Conolly, M.D., D.C.L. ; comprising a Sketch 
 of the Treatment of the Insane in Europe and in America. By Sir 
 James Clark, Bart, K.C.B., M.D., F.R.S., 8vo, London, 1869). 
 
 * CONRAD, TIMOTHY ABBOTT, an American geologist 
 and conchologist, was born in the State of New Jersey in 1803. i 
 At first he gave his attention to geology with the intention of 1 
 making a life-long study of it, but he afterwards directed his 
 researches to shells also, more especially the extinct forms. In 
 the early days of the geological survey of the State of New York 
 he was attached to it as palaeontologist, and as such he con- I 
 tributed the paloeontological portion of the Annual Reports on the 
 Survey of that State, prior to Hall's appointment in 1843. He • 
 also contributed to the pakeontological portion of Gilliss's Report 
 of his expedition to the Southern Hemisphere ; to Blake's Reports i 
 on the Geology of California ; and to the ' Report on the U. o. 1 
 and Mexican Boundary Territory,' 1857. He has also written 
 
 ' New Fresh-water Shells of the United States,' 1834 ; ' Ameri- \ 
 can Marine Conchology,' 1831 ; and a Monograph of the Uni- 1 
 onidaj, 1835 — 38. In addition he has contributed numerous 
 papers to the ' Proceedings ' and ' Journal ' of the Academy of | 
 Science at Philadelphia, mostly relating to shells and the 
 tertiary strata of the United States ; and latterly he has fur- 
 nished several papers to the ' American Journal of Conchology.' j 
 
 * CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK, a distinguished novelist, and 
 the reviver of modem Flemish literature, is the son of a ship- 
 broker of French origin, and was born at Antwerp on the 3rd of 
 December, 1812. Being left very much to himself in the conduct 
 of his education, he indulged his passion for reading in the most 
 desultory manner. In 1830, at the time of the Belgian revolu- 
 tion, he gave up the calling of a teacher, which he had adopted ' 
 in 1829, in order that he might volunteer for military service. \ 
 He soon became the poet of the soldiers ; and his stirring songs 
 achieved a great popularity in the army, which he quitted in 1 
 1836 with the rank of serjeant-major. The unhappy temper and 
 disposition of his step-mother estranged him from his family, and 
 forced him to unassisted efforts to gain a livelihood. Through I 
 various employments, at first very humble, but gradually rising 
 in importance, he received in 1845 the appointment of assistant 
 professor, and in 1847 that of professor, in the University of 
 Ghent, and became the instructor of the children of King 
 Leopold in the Flemish language and literature, to the revival 
 of which, as an assertion of independence against the French, he 
 now devoted himself with enthusiasm. He was subsequently 
 appointed commissary of the administrative arrondissement of 
 Court rai. 
 
 As a writer of fiction, Conscience is remarkable for the quiet 
 humour which underlies the most homely and trivial of his 
 incidents, and for the faithfulness and photographic reality of 
 his descriptions— qualities which, by a happy gift of nature, do 
 not exclude breadth of treatment, movement, vigour, tenderness, 
 gentleness, and simplicity. His works, wdiich are exceedingly 
 numerous, include the Year of Wonders, a series of dramatic 
 pictures of the Spanish period of Flemish history, e In't Won- 
 derjaer [1566]. Historische Tafereelen uit de xvi c Eeuw,' Svoy 
 
405 CONYBEARE, REV. W. DANIEL. 
 
 COOKE, THOMAS. 
 
 406 
 
 Antwerp, 1837 ; 'Phantazy,' 8vo, Antwerp, 1837, a collection of 
 Legends and Flemish Poetry ; a Romance entitled ' De Leeuw 
 van Vlaenderen ; of de Slag der Gulden Sporen,' 1838, third 
 edition, 3 vols. 12mo, Antwerp, 1848, of which an English 
 translation was published as the ' Lion of Flanders ; or the 
 Battle of the Golden Spurs,' 8vo, London, 1855 ; the History of 
 Count Hugo van Craenhove and his Friend Abulfaragus, 
 4 Geschiedenis van Graef Hugo van Craenhove en van zynen 
 vriend Abulfaragus,' 4to, Antwerp, 1845, English translations, 
 8vo, London, 1855, and 12mo, Baltimore and Philadelphia, U.S., 
 1867 ; History of Belgium, ' Geschiedenis van Belgie,' 8vo, 
 Antwerp and Brussels, 1845 ; a Page out of the Book of Nature, 
 'Eenige Bladzyden uit het Boek der Natuer,' 8vo, Antwerp, 
 
 1846 ; ' Jacob van Artevelde,' 1849, second edition, 2 vols, 8vo, 
 Antwerp, 1857 ; Historical Picture, &c, entitled ' De Boerenkryg 
 [1798]. Historisch Tafereel uit de xviii e Eeuw,' 1853, second 
 edition, 2 vols. 8vo, Antwerp, 1857 ; Historical Pictures of the 
 5th century entitled ' Hlodwig en Clothildis,' &c, 1854, second 
 edition, 2 vols. 8vo, Antwerp, 1857 ; Historical Picture of the 
 17th century, entitled 'Batavia,' &c, 3 vols. 8vo, Antwerp, 1858. 
 Among his more familiar novels and stories of modern life may 
 be mentioned his ' Lambrecht Hensmans,' 2 vols. 16mo, Antwerp, 
 
 1847 ; ' Siska van Roosemael,' 8vo, Antwerp, fourth edition, 
 1857 ; The Conscript, ' De Loteling,' 1850, fourth edition, 8vo, 
 Antwerp, 1857, English translations, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1854, 
 12mo, Baltimore, &c, 1856 and 1867 ; ' Baes Gansendonck,' 
 1850, second edition, 8vo, Antwerp, 1857, English translation, 
 with the title of ' The Village Innkeeper,' 12mo. Baltimore, &c, 
 1867; Wooden Clara, 'Houten Clara,' 8vo, Antwerp, 1850, 
 English translations, 8vo, London, 1855, and 12mo, Baltimore, 
 &c, 1867 ; ' Blinde Rosa,' 8vo, Antwerp, 1851, second edition, 
 1853, English translations, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1854, and 12mo, 
 Baltimore, &c, 1867, Spanish translation, as ' Rosa la Ciega' in 
 the second volume of a South American periodical, ' Seniana 
 Literaria de " El Porvenir," ' 8vo, Bogota, 1858 ; The Poor Noble- 
 man, ' De Arnie Edelman,' 1851, second edition, 8vo, Antwerp, 
 1*57, English translations, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1854, and 12mo, 
 Baltimore, &c, 1867 ; The Curse of the Village, ' De Plaeg der 
 Dorpen,' and The Happiness of being Rich, ' Het Geluk van 
 Ryk te zyn,' 8vo, Antwerp, 1855, English translations, 8vo, 
 London, 1855, and, of the latter, 12mo, Baltimore, &c, 1867 ; 
 Mother Job, ' Moeder Job,' 8vo, Antwerp, 1856; 'De Jonge 
 Doctor,' 2 vols. 4to, Antwerp, 1860, and ' De Geldduivel,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, Antwerp, 1856, both of them described as Pictures of our 
 own Time, " Tal'ereelen uit onzen Tyd," and of the latter of 
 which an English translation was published as ' The Demon of 
 Gold,' 8vo, London, 1857 ; ' De Gierigaerd,' and ' Rikke-Tikke- 
 Tak.' 8vo, Antwerp, second edition, 1857, English translations, 
 entitled respectively ' The Miser,' and ' Ricketicketack,' 8vo, 
 London, 1855, and 12mo, Baltimore, &c, 1867 ; The Progress 
 of a Painter, ' Hoe Men Schilder wordt,' 8vo, Antwerp, sixth 
 edition, 1861, English translation, 12mo, New York, 1852 ; The 
 Land of Gold, ' Het Goudland,' 2 vols. 8vo, Antwerp, 1862, being 
 the adventures of three Flemings in California ; ' Veva,' &c, or 
 the War of the Flemish Peasants against the French in 1793, of 
 which an English translation was published in 8vo, London, 
 1855, and reprinted in 12mo, Baltimore, &c, 1856 ; Pictures of 
 our own Time, entitled ' Moederliefde,' 2 vols. 8vo, Antwerp, 
 1862; The Merchant of Antwerp, &c, 'De Koopman van 
 Antwerpen. Eene Geschiedenis onzer Dagen,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Antwerp, 1863 ; Human Blood, &c, ' Menschenbloed ; Zede- 
 tafereel onzes Tyds,' 8vo, Antwerp, 1864 ; a Story of our own 
 Days, entitled ' Valentijn,' 2 vols. 8vo, Antwerp, 1865 ; Story of 
 two Labouring Children, 'Baro en Lieveken,' 8vo, Antwerp, 
 1865; The Imaginary Sickness, 'De Ziekte der Verbeelding,' 
 8vo, Antwerp, 1865 ; and a novel called ' Levenslust,' 3 vols. 
 12mo, Antwerp, 1868. Almost all the works of Hendrik Con- 
 science have been promptly translated into German ; and many 
 are to be found in Danish, and, as has been shown, in English, 
 and a few in Italian. In France two volumes of his works have 
 been translated and published by M. Leon Wocquier, as instal- 
 ments of what was intended should be the ' CEuvres Completes 
 de Henri Conscience,' 8vo, Paris, 1854 and 1855. 
 
 CONYBEARE, VERY REV. WILLIAM DANIEL, Dean 
 of Llandatf [E. C. vol. ii. col. 369J. This distinguished geolo- 
 gist and excellent man died on the 12th of August, 1857. 
 
 ♦COOKE, EDWARD WILLIAM, R.A., F.R.S., was born 
 in London in 1811. His father, Mr. George Cooke, was a good 
 engraver of landscapes and buildings, and he himself commenced 
 his career as an engraver with every promise of success. At this 
 time he made numerous sketches, drawings, and etchings in a 
 
 style of distinctive originality and spirit. It was not till about 
 1831 or '32 that he began to paint in oil. From the first he has 
 chielly painted views of mingled land and sea— our low sea- 
 banks and river mouths, the Dutch coast, the lagunes of Venice, 
 the sandydunes of France, peopled each with its own barges, boats, 
 and luggers, all unhnpeachably drawn, and hitting on tin; waters 
 like a gull or puffin. With the coasts and craft of Holland he 
 is as familiar as a Dutch boatman, and seems to love them as 
 well. Of late he has toyed much with Venice ashore as well as 
 afloat, but neither the craft nor the climate seems exactly to suit 
 him. Mr. Cooke was elected A.R.A. in 1851, and R.A. in 1863. 
 In this latter year he was also chosen F.R.S., and about the same 
 time became member of the Linnean, Geological, and several 
 other learned societies. Whether his scientific studies have 
 given something too much of precision to his thoughts, or his 
 scientific honours have weighed heavily on his hand, or his 
 theory of painting has become somewhat more severe, it is 
 certain that the character of his pictures has of late years 
 greatly changed. The old firmness and accuracy of drawing 
 and clearness of style are there, but the play of touch and 
 freedom and spontaneity of manner are missing. All is hard 
 and sharp and precise, as though modelled for a demonstration ; 
 the waves are in curves that would satisfy a mathematician ; the 
 rocks along the shore are studies for a geologist ; and, without 
 referring to his book, the botanist would determine the species 
 and genera of every plant growing upon them. Several of Mr. 
 Cooke's earlier pictures are in the Vernon and Sheepshanks 
 collections. 
 
 COOKE, HENRY, English historical painter, was born in 
 1642, and studied painting in Italy under Salvator Rosa. "On 
 his return," writes Walpole, " neither rich nor known, he lived 
 obscurely in Knave's Acre, in partnership with a house-painter." 
 Cooke and his partner were not what are now called house- 
 painters ; they decorated walls and ceilings of halls and stair- 
 cases with pictorial designs in the manner then fashionable of 
 Verrio and Laguerre. Thus in the sentence following that just 
 quoted, Walpole remarks that Cooke was paid 150Z. for painting 
 the house of Sir Godfrey Copley. He seems to have been 
 engaged in copying and assisting other painters. Walpole says 
 that having killed a man in a quarrel, he fled to Italy, stayed 
 there some years, and returning, lived privately till the affair 
 was forgotten. In his later years he was much employed. He 
 made a copy in tempera of Raffaelle's Cartoons at Hampton 
 Court, and was employed by King William to repair the 
 originals — and he deserves our gratitude for not having irre- 
 parably injured them. He painted the staircases at Ranelagh, 
 at Lord Carlisle's house, and elsewhere ; but his great work in 
 this way was the choir of New College chapel, Oxford, a very 
 elaborate composition with a representation of the Salutation in 
 the centre : it was all, however, cleared away for Wyatt's resto- 
 rations in 1789. Cooke sometimes painted portraits, but he 
 must not be confounded with the Henry Cooke who in 1640 
 painted several of the portraits still in the Hall of the Iron- 
 mongers' Company, London, as well as others that have disap- 
 peared. The subject of this notice died November 18, 1700. 
 
 COOKE, THOMAS, telescope and scientific instrument 
 maker, was born at Allerthorpe, Yorkshire, on the 8th of 
 March, 1807. His father, a shoemaker, could only give him 
 two years' education at a National-school, and then took him to 
 work at the lapstone. The boy, disliking the trade, managed to 
 pick up a little further instruction, and in 1824 opened a village 
 school, educating himself in spare hours. From 1829 to 1836, 
 while an usher and a private teacher at York, he studied mathe- 
 matics and optics, made a reflecting telescope, and then a refrac- 
 tor, with an object-glass ground out of the thick bottom of a 
 tumbler. Encouraged by Professor Phillips, he set up in York 
 as an optician. His first important work was a 4i-inch equato- 
 rial telescope. At that period, owing partly to the influence of 
 the glass duty in discouraging improvements in manufacture, 4^ 
 inches were regarded as rather a large diameter for an English 
 made lens. Mr. Cooke gradually became famous for his large 
 telescopes. In 1851 he made an equatorial of 7-inch aperture 
 for Mr. Pattinson, of Newcastle ; this was the instrument with 
 which Professor Piazzi Smyth made his astronomical observations 
 at Teneriffe. In 1855 Mr. Cooke established the Buckingham 
 Optical Works at Bishopshill, near York, which grew to consi- 
 derable magnitude. Within a few years he made nine equato- 
 rial, of 8 to 10 inches diameter each, and 12 others of 5 to 8 
 inches. In 1863 he commenced, for Mr. Newall, of Gateshead, 
 the largest equatorial refractor ever made. Up to that period 
 the greatest diameter of leii3 known in an actually mounted 
 
 D r> 2 
 
407 COOKE, SIR WILLIAM FOTHERGILL. 
 
 COOPER, EDWARD JOSHUA. 408 
 
 equatorial was 15 inches, in a telescope at Paris ; Mr. Newall's 
 was to be 25 inches. This gigantic instrument, for which Mr. 
 Cooke had to invent new tools, machines, and processes, occu- 
 pied him till his death, and was finished by his son. Mr. Cooke 
 invented a new form of graduated dividing engine for his own 
 use ; constructed surveying instruments for the Ordnance Survey 
 of India ; made several astronomical clocks, some with siderial 
 time and solar time shown on the same dial; invented a niaehine. 
 for engraving figures on graduated instruments ; and made, for 
 the Ordnance Survey of India, the largest portable transit instru- 
 ment ever constructed, with aluminium bronze axes. He died 
 October 19th, 1868. 
 
 * COOKE, SIR WILLIAM FOTHERGILL, was born at 
 Ealing, near London, in 18U6 ; was educated at Durham School 
 and Edinburgh University ; entered the army of the East India 
 Company in 1826, and tilled various stall appointments till 
 1831. Returning to Europe, he studied anatomy and physiology 
 at Paris and Heidelberg. In 1836 a circumstance occurred 
 which determined his future course of life. Being at Heidelberg 
 preparing wax anatomical models for the use, of his father (who 
 was professor of anatomy at Durham), Mr. Cooke attended a 
 lecture given by Professor Miincke, during which was explained 
 the action ot an electro-magnetic telegraph, which had been 
 invented some years previously by Baron Schelling. Struck 
 with the possible applicability of the system to railways, which 
 were then becoming important, Mr. Cooke devoted himself closely 
 to the subject, constructed a pair of three-needle telegraphs, with 
 key and reciprocal systems, invented a telegraph alarum and de- 
 tector, made live clock-work telegraphs and alarums, and drew up 
 a scheme for an organisation of railway telegraphs. In November, 
 Faraday saw the instruments, and expressed a favourable opinion 
 concerning them. Early in 1837, Mr. Cooke introduced the subject 
 to the London and Birmingham (London and North-Western) 
 Railway Company, and elucidated his plan by means of a 
 pamphlet and instruments. The pamphlet, published at the end 
 of 1830, sketches a comprehensive scheme : — " Plans for esta- 
 blishing on the most extensive scale, and at a trifling expense, a 
 rapid telegraphic communication for political, commercial, and 
 private purposes, especially in connection with the extended lines 
 of railroad now in progress between the principal cities of the 
 kingdom, through the means of electro-magnetism." In the 
 spring of 1837 Mr. Cooke was introduced by Dr. Roget to Pro- 
 fessor Wheatstone [Wheatstone, Charles, E. C. vol. vi. col. 
 1030], who had made many important discoveries and inventions 
 connected with electric currents and their application to useful 
 purposes. A patent was taken out in the joint-names of both 
 inventors in May, 1837. In November, in accordance with 
 terms settled by Sir Benjamin Hawes as arbitrator, a deed of 
 partnership was executed. Circumstances, three years after- 
 wards, rendered desirable a settlement of the question as to 
 whom the honour was due of being the originator of practical 
 electro-telegraphy. Sir M. I. Brunei and Professor Daniell were 
 appointed arbitrators ; all necessary documents and testimony 
 were jdaced in their hands ; and they gave their award April 
 27th, 1841, as quoted under Wheatstone, E. C. vol. vi. col. 
 1031. In 1843 the patents were by agreement made over wholly 
 to Mr. Cooke, Professor Wheatstone to receive a royalty on 
 the mileage of telegraph constructed. Lines were laid down on 
 Cooke and Wheatstone's system from Paddington to West 
 Drayton in 1838 — 9, from the Minories to Blackwall in 1840, 
 from the terminus to Cowlairs station at Glasgow in 1841, and 
 from West Drayton to Slough in 1842. In this year Mr. Cooke 
 published a pamphlet entitled 'Telegraphic Railways; or the 
 Single Way recommended by Safety, Economy and Efficiency, 
 under the safeguard and control of the Electric Telegraph.' The 
 system was extended by two or three short English and Irish 
 lines in 1843, and from London to Southampton in 1844. In 
 1846 Mr. Cooke assisted in forming the Electro-Telegraph 
 Company ; Professor Wheatstone received payment for the 
 reversion of his royalties, Mr. Cooke's remuneration depending 
 rather on the actual profits of the company. In 1854 an article 
 in the ' Quarterly Review,' on the electric telegraph, assigned 
 the honours of invention in a marked way to Professor Wheat- 
 stone, ignoring the claims of Mr. Cooke. This led to the 
 publication by Mr. Cooke of *' The Electric Telegraph : was 
 it invented by Professor Wheatstone'/' 1854; 'A Reply to 
 Professor Wheatstone,' 1856 ; and ' Arbitration Papers and 
 Drawings,' 1857. In 1866, when the success of the Atlantic 
 Cable drew all men's attention, hints were thrown out in some 
 of the public journals that such honours as the Crown could 
 legitimately bestow were due to Professor Wheatstone, as the 
 
 organiser of practical telegraphy. This brought forward a 
 renewed protest from Mr. Cooke, who appealed to the award 
 of 1841 as defining clearly the relative degree of credit due 
 to the two inventors. A volume of documents, in support 
 of this claim, was published in 1868 by Mr. Cooke's brother, 
 the Rev. T. F. Cooke, 'Authorship of the Electric Telegraph of 
 Great Britain.' In 1867 the Society of Arts awarded the Albert 
 Gold Medal to each of the two inventors, on equal terms. Mr. 
 Cooke received the honour of knighthood November 11th, 1869, 
 as had Mr. Wheatstone previously ; and both names will go down 
 to posterity in connection with one of the greatest inventions ever 
 known. 
 
 COOPER, ABRAHAM, R.A., was born September, 1787, in 
 Red Lion-street, Holborn. At this time his father was a to- 
 bacconist in a small way; he afterwards kept a public-house in 
 Ilolloway, but being unsuccessful, Abraham was sent out a 
 mere boy to earn his own living. He at first obtained employ- 
 ment at Astley's Amphitheatre, and afterwards, it is said, as 
 groom to Mr. Meux, the brewer. Being very fond of horses, he 
 had Ions; drawn them in a rude way, but he was now ambitious 
 of painting a favourite horse of his master's, and knowing nothing 
 of the mode of procedure, he bought a shilling book on Oil 
 Painting (Laurie's Introduction), and taught himself to paint. 
 The picture pleased Mr. Meux, who advised him to devote 
 himself to art, and procured him many commissions for the 
 portraits of horses. In this line he soon found ample employ- 
 ment, and especially for portraits of celebrated race-horses and 
 hunters, in which he greatly excelled. He did not, however, 
 venture to offer a picture for exhibition till 1812, when he sent 
 a ' Horse and Goats ' to the British Institution. From this time 
 he was a pretty regular contributor both to the Royal Academy 
 and British Institution, sending mostly battle pieces and 
 skirmishes, and especially scenes from the wars of the Cava- 
 liers and Roundheads, of whom he came to regard himself as 
 in a special manner the painter. In 1816 he was awarded a 
 premium of 150 guineas by the Directors of the British 
 Institution for his 'Finished Sketch of the Battle of Ligny.' 
 In 1817 he was elected Associate of the Royal Academy, and 
 full member in 1820, the year following his exhibition ol 'The 
 Battle of Marston Moor.' The rest of his life was spent in 
 the quiet pursuit of his profession. He was one of the first to 
 avail himself of the new law by which an academician could 
 withdraw from the list of active members and become an 
 Honorary Retired Academician. This he did in the beginning of 
 1867. He died at his residence, Woodlands, East Greenwich, on 
 the 24th of December, 1868. Mr. Cooper displayed to the last 
 his imperfect technical training, but he was an excellent painter 
 of horses; a diligent and conscientious artist, and a kind-hearted 
 and worthy man. Among his best known pictures are — 'The 
 Battle of the Standard ; ' ' The Battle of Marston Moor ; ' ' The 
 Battle of Naseby ; ' ' The Death of Harold ; ' ' The Battle of 
 Waterloo ;' and 'Hawking in the Olden Time ;' all of which, 
 with several others, have been engraved. He also painted, but 
 without much success, various Oriental subjects, 
 
 COOPER, EDWARD JOSHUA, a distinguished amateur 
 astronomer, while receiving his early education at the endowed 
 school of Armagh, imbibed a taste for astronomy by frequent 
 visits to the observatory of that city. After studying at Eton and 
 at Christchurch, Oxford, he commenced a series of travels which 
 continued through many years. He visited Italy, Egypt, Persia, 
 Turkey, Germany, Scandinavia, and the North Cape, taking with 
 him a telescope, sextant, and chronometer. During these journeys 
 he made a large number of accurate determinations of the lati- 
 tudes and longitudes of places. On his return to Ireland he 
 built a fine observatory near his mansion at Markree, which he 
 stocked with instruments of high- excellence. In 1831 he pur- 
 chased from Cauchoix of Paris an excellent object-glass of 13} 
 inches diameter, which Mr. Grubb fitted to an equatorial 
 telescope 25 feet long, this being the first large telescope made of 
 cast-iron. Another instrument of great value was a meridian 
 circle by Ertel. The discoveries made by Mr. Cooper with these 
 instruments were recorded in the Memoirs of the Royal Irish 
 Academy and the Royal Astronomical Society', of which bodies, as 
 well as of the Royal Society, he was a fellow : he was assisted in 
 his researches by Mr. A. Graham. One of the discoveries made 
 by them, or rather by Mr. Graham alone, was that of the 
 asteroid Metis, on the 25th of April, 1848. Mr. Cooper's great 
 work was an examination of the ecliptic stars, with a view to the 
 tabulation of all those down to the 12th magnitude. The results 
 were published by the aid of a government grant to the Royal 
 Society; — 'Catalogue of Stars near the Ecliptic, observed during 
 
CORDIER, PIERRE LOUIS ANTOINE. 410 
 
 the years 1848, 1849, and 1850,' 8vo, Dublin, 1856, &c. Mr. 
 Cooper, who was awarded the Cunningham medal by the Royal 
 Irish Academy for his star-tables, died on the 23rd of April, 
 18C3. 
 
 COQUEREL, ATHANASE LAURENT CHARLES, for 
 above thirty years pastor of the Reformed Church, and president 
 of the Presbyterian Council of Paris, was bom at Paris, August 
 27, 1795. He received his early education from his aunt, Helen 
 Maria Williams, and completed it at the Protestant Institute, 
 Montauban. In 1816 he was ordained minister, and the follow- 
 ing year was invited to take charge of the Episcopal Chapel, 
 Jersey, but was unable to sign the Thirty-Nine Articles. He 
 Bettled in Holland, where for twelve years he preached with 
 great success in the cities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Amsterdam. 
 At the suggestion of Cuvier, he was in 1830 invited to Paris, and 
 in 1833 entered the Consistory. From the first he acquired a 
 high reputation as a preacher, which was greatly increased by 
 his writings and personal character. In the general ferment 
 caused by the Revolution of 1848, the Pasteur Coquerel thought 
 himself called to take part in the settlement of public affairs, 
 and offered himself, " a moderate Republican," as a candidate for 
 the National Assembly. He was elected for the department of 
 the Seine by 109,934 votes, two of his colleagues for the same 
 department being the famous Roman Catholic divines Lacor- 
 daire and Lamennais. In the Assembly he distinguished himself 
 by the moderation of his views, but his eloquence proved less 
 successful than in the pulpit ; he was, however, nominated a 
 member of the Constitutional Commission. The coup d'etat of 
 the 2nd of December relegated M. Coquerel to his pastoral 
 duties, and he did not again interfere with jrolitics. In early life M. 
 Coquerel was a Calvinist, but as he advanced in years, and espe- 
 cially after settling in Paris, he receded far from the doctrines of 
 the great doctor of Geneva. Late in life his teaching assumed 
 the character of a " spiritualistic philosophy," and he was even 
 suspected of a tendency to rationalism. He retained, however, 
 his popularity and influence to the end, continuing to be re- 
 garded as the greatest master of pulpit oratory in the Reformed 
 Church of France. He died on the 10th of January, 1868. 
 Besides eight volumes of sermons, his principal works are : — 
 ' Biographic Sacree, ou Dictionnaire Historique, critique et moral, 
 de tous les personnages de FAncien et du Nouveau Testament,' 
 8vo, Paris, 1837 ; ' Histoire Sainte et analyse de la Bible, avec 
 une critique et un ordre de lecture,' 12mo, Paris, 1839 ; ' Reponse 
 au livre du Dr. Strauss : la Vie ale Jesus' 8vo, 1841 ; ' Ortho- 
 doxie Moderne,' 12mo, 1842 ; ' Le Christianisme experimental,' 
 12mo, 1847 ; ' Christologie ; ou Essai sur la Personne et l'CEuvre 
 de Jesus-Christ,' 2 vols. 1858. Several of these works have been 
 translated into English, Dutch, or German. He also established 
 and edited the periodicals entitled ' Le Protestant,' 1831, which 
 lasted only six months; ' Le Libre Examen,' 1834 — 36 ; and 
 'Le Lien,' 1841, afterwards edited by his son, — 
 
 * Athanase Coquerel, bom about 1819, who, like his 
 father, acknowledged his obligations for his early training to his 
 aged relation, Helen Maria Williams, and like him became a 
 pasteur of the French Reformed Church. Without attaining 
 celebrity equal to his father as an orator, his sermons have been 
 greatly admired for their vigour, and depth of thought, and 
 beauty of expression. In doctrine he advanced beyond his 
 father as a " liberal Protestant," and the offence his teaching 
 gave to the orthodox culminated on his publishing an examina- 
 tion of Renan's Life of Jesus. In May, 1864, he was solemnly 
 suspended from his ministerial functions by the Consistory of 
 Paris, M. Guizot being one of his most earnest opponents. Out- 
 side the orthodox communion he has, however, continued his 
 pastoral duties with eminent success. In addition to numerous 
 sermons, pamphlets, and elementary works, he has published 
 'Jean Calas et sa Famille : Etude historique d'apres, les docu- 
 ments originaux,' 12mo, Paris, 1858; 'Precis de l'Eglise Re- 
 formee de Paris, d'apres les documents en grande partie imklits,' 
 8vo, 1862 ; ' Le Catholicisme et le Protestantisme consideres 
 dans leur Origine et leur Developpement,' 8vo, 1864, &c. In 
 1858 he printed a remarkable series of letters in ' Le Lien,' on 
 the influence of Catholicism on Italian art, which he afterwards 
 remodelled and published separately, and which were trans- 
 lated into English under the title of ' The Fine Arts in Italy 
 in their religious Aspect,' by Edward and Emily Higginson, 
 with an English preface by the author, 8vo. 1859. 
 
 COQUES, GONZALES. The recent researches of M. Th. Van 
 Lerius have proved that the real name of this eminent Flemish 
 painter was Coc or Cocx ; that he was born at Antwerp in 
 December, 1614 ^he was baptised December 8) ; and that the 
 
 date 1618, hitherto assigned to his birlh on the faith of an in- 
 scription on a portrait painted by Coques himself is erroneous.— 
 (Supplement au Cat. du Musee D'Anvers, p. 71.) The archives of 
 the confraternity of St. Luke show that Gonzales was in 1627 
 apprenticed to Peter Breughel, and in 1640 admitted master. 
 At this time he signed his name Cocx ; three years later, on his 
 marriage with a daughter of David Ryckaert, the painter (whose 
 pupil lie is supposed to have been), he wrote it Coques. — (Van 
 Lerius.) Gonzales acquired fame chiefly as a portrait painter. 
 Some contemporary Flemish verses compare him with Apelles, 
 say that kings eagerly sought after his works, and that though 
 England may boast of Holbein, and the Netherlands, Vandyck, 
 in great works, in small none can equal Gonzales. His small 
 whole-length portraits are, indeed, of exceeding beauty ; full of 
 life and character, excellent in composition and colour, and 
 painted with singular delicacy, brightness, and vigour. He 
 especially excelled in small full-length groups. One of his 
 best, ' the Family of M. Verhelst,' is in the Royal Collection, 
 and the Marquis of Hertford has another, admirably painted, 
 called the ' Music Lesson.' Generally his works are rare both 
 on the Continent and in this country. The National Gallery is 
 without a specimen ; the Museum of Antwerp, his native city, 
 has only one. Gonzales died on the 18th of April, 1684, and 
 was buried in the church of St. George, alongside his first wile ; 
 his second wife, who only survived him till November, was 
 buried in the Cathedral, Antwerp. 
 
 CORDIER, PIERRE LOUIS ANTOINE, French geologist, 
 was born March 31, 1777, at Abbeville. His earlier education 
 was received in his native town, and his plater, commencing from 
 1794, in Paris. In 1795 he entered the Ecole des Mines, and in 
 1797 he was appointed a supernumerary mining engineer, in 
 which capacity he accompanied his master, Dolomieu, in his 
 Alpine explorations. Dolomieu had so great a liking for young 
 Cordier, that he calls him his adopted son, and states that 
 although a young man, he is one of the best mineralogists of his 
 day. He accompanied the French army in Egypt along with 
 Dolomieu, and when the latter proposed to return to Europe on 
 account of ill health, Cordier again associated himself with him. 
 On their voyage, however, the vessel was driven on to the 
 Neapolitan coast, and both were thrown into prison by the 
 Neapolitan officials. Cordier was liberated at the end of three 
 months, and used his freedom in endeavouring to procure the 
 release of his friend, but without avail. Dolomieu's case was 
 taken up by the scientific world generally, but his imprisonment 
 lasted two years. Cordier returned to France, and devoted him- 
 self to his studies. A favourite method of acquiring know- 
 ledge was by excursions of greater or less duration which he 
 undertook almost every year ; and in executing these he 
 visited almost every spot of geological interest in Europe. These 
 excursions were conducted with extraordinary care and fore- 
 sight, the object to be pursued, the country to be examined, the 
 persons to be consulted, being all arranged beforehand ; and in 
 order to secure liberty of action and the utmost economy of 
 time, he seldom allowed any one to accompany him. He was a 
 strong, active man, and did an immense deal of good work in 
 this way. In 1819 he was appointed professor of geology of the 
 Museum of Natural History at Paris, in succession to Faujas 
 St. Fond ; and one of the principal tasks he set himself was to 
 form a useful geological museum. When he first became pro- 
 fessor there were only 1500 specimens of very little value, 
 without any arrangement, and without any indication as to 
 what they were, or the circumstances under which they were 
 found. He communicated with scientific men of all countries, 
 with a view to obtaining well characterised objects, and at the 
 time of his death he had brought together about 200,000 
 specimens, so well arranged, ticketed, catalogued, and de- 
 scribed as to constitute the collection one of the finest of its 
 kind in existence. Some of the catalogues, which were drawn 
 up by himself, are valuable works of reference. The method 
 of classification employed was the result of many years of 
 thought, but he never published a full account of it. He has 
 some notice of it in his ' Traite des Roches,' but the fullest 
 record will be found in the ' Description des Roches cornposant 
 l'Ecorce Terrestre, et des terrains cristallins constituant le sol 
 primitif,' 1868, which was drawn up by his pupil, Ch. D'Or- 
 bigny, partly from Cordier's notes. 
 
 In 1822 M. Cordier was elected a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, in place of Hatty, and he took an active part in all its 
 proceedings, but chiefly in drawing up instructions for geological 
 observations in almost every quarter of the globe. In 1832 he 
 became inspector-general of mines, having already passed 
 
411 
 
 CORDUS, VALERIUS. 
 
 CORT, HENRY. 
 
 412 
 
 through the subordinate grades. For many years he held 
 several Court offices, amongst others that of State counsellor. 
 In 1859 he was nominated grand officer of the Legion of Honour. 
 Endowed with remarkable vigour of constitution, lie retained 
 his activity of mind and body up to the very last ; and even 
 shortly before his death he seemed to expect his decease w as 
 then far off, since he had scarcely ever known a day's illness, 
 and was still fully equal to his numerous official duties. When 
 approaching his 85th year he was full of an excursion to Scot- 
 land, which lie was planning for the ensuing autumn, but he 
 was soon after attacked by some stomach complaint, which 
 brought him to his end on March 30, 1861. His scientific 
 writings are very numerous, comprising 130 items, .and extend 
 over a wide range of subjects. They are almost entirely made 
 up of papers, reports, and occasional notices; and it has been 
 regretted that he did not write some large work on geology. 
 He has described a great number of minerals, and in one of 
 them, named Cordieritchy Haiiy, but usually known axdicluoitc, 
 he discovered the optical phenomenon known as dhhroism. 
 This property consists in the mineral appearing to be of dif- 
 ferent colours when looked through in different directions. In 
 the examination of rocks and minerals he contrived new methods 
 of analysing, whereby he was able to obtain a precision of de- 
 scription unknown before his time. In determining rocks he 
 was probably unrivalled ; and although his classification has its 
 defects, it is regarded by some as the most complete and logical 
 yet proposed. One of his finest memoirs is that entitled ' Essai 
 BUI la temperature de l'interieur de la terre,' in ' Annales des 
 Mines,' vol. ii. pp. 53 — 138 (1827). But his great work, as we 
 have already said, is the museum which he formed, and it is 
 there only that one can appreciate the immense extent and 
 accuracy of his knowledge. 
 
 (Notices of the Life of P. Cordier have been publislwd by Charles 
 Read, Comte Jaubert, and Victor Ilaulin, the last mentioned 
 being, in the Actes Hoc. Linn. Bordeaux, vol. xxii.) 
 
 CORDUS, VALERIUS, a German botanist, was born Febru- 
 ary 18, 1515. His father, who was himself something of a botanist, 
 superintended his early education. He afterwards went to the 
 then recently established University of Marburg, and he was the 
 first person invested by it with the degree of bachelor. He sub- 
 sequently attended the lectures of Melanchthon at Wittenberg, 
 and became intimately acquainted with Conrad Gesner. He 
 then went to Leipzig, where he conceived the idea of reforming 
 pharmacy, and with that object he spent several years in ex- 
 ploring Europe on foot, and surveying its botanical, zoological, 
 and mineralogical productions. Wherever he went he was 
 admired for his modesty and for the immense scope of his know- 
 ledge. While journeying in Italy he was seized with a fever, 
 which terminated his existence at Rome, September 25, 1544. 
 His career promised to be so fruitful that the learned men 
 of the day considered his early death to be a public cala- 
 mity. His writings include the following works : — ' Dispensa- 
 torium pharmacoruru omnium quae in usu potissimum sunt ; ex 
 optimis auctoribus tarn recentibus quam veteribus collectum, ac 
 scholiis utilibus illustratum,' 8vo, Niirnberg, 1535, 8vo, Leyden, 
 1626, and translated into French, 12mo, Lyon, 1575 ; 'Annota- 
 tiones in Pediani Dioscoridis, De Materia Medica,' 1549 ; and 
 a few small works in which he described many new plants, and 
 announced that the ferns were reproduced by means of spore 
 cases on the backs of the fronds. An edition of his works 
 was edited by Gesner, folio, Strasburg, 1562. 
 
 CORMENIN, LOUIS MARIE DE LA HAIE, VICOMTE 
 DE [E. C. vol. ii. col. 388]. The Vicomte De Cormenin was made 
 a member of the Council of State when that body was reconsti- 
 tuted by Napoleon III., and an ordonnance of the Emperor in 
 1855 opened to him the doors of the Institute. But he had lost 
 his old influence with the reading public, and his ' Droit de 
 tonnage en Algerie ' attracted little notice. His last years were 
 remarkable for his efforts in promoting various benevolent 
 objects. He died in Paris, May 7, 1868, in the 81st year of 
 his age. 
 
 CORNELIS VAN HAARLEM, an eminent Dutch painter, 
 was born at Haarlem in 1562. studied painting under Pieter le 
 Long, and afterwards in the .atelier of-O. Coignet, at Antwerp. 
 He early made himself known by some portraits and other pic- 
 tures of large size. He painted many scriptural subjects, but 
 preferred such as admitted the introduction of nude figures, and 
 he treated them in a coarse realistic manner. His ' Bathsheba 
 Bathing,' in the Dresden Gallery, is a good example of his style. 
 He also painted Venuses, Dianas, and other mythological per- 
 sonages and themes, but with little classical feeling. He died at 
 
 Haarlem in 1638. He must not be confused with the subject of 
 
 the following article. 
 
 CORNELISSEN, or CORNELISZ, JACOB, a native of Eaaj 
 Zaandam, in North Holland, was born about 1480. Little is 
 known of his life. He lived in Amsterdam, painted religious 
 pieces and occasionally portraits, and practised engraving oa 
 wood. C. Van Mander says that he enjoyed a great reputation ; 
 was employed to paint several altar pieces ; was the second 
 master of Jan Schoorel, and that his son Dirk was also a good 
 painter, especially of portraits. The known works of Jacob 
 Cornelissen, which are in the manner of Lucas Van Leyden, are 
 rare, but some doubtless pass under more familiar names. In 
 the gallery of Cassel is a ' Triumph of Religion,' dated 1523, 
 formerly attributed to Mabuse ; and the Museum at Amsterdam 
 has an ' Herodias,' dated 1524. Our own National Gallery pos- 
 sesses two small panels by him, (No. 657), ' Portraits of a Dutch 
 Gentleman and Lady,' who are represented kneeling with their 
 patron saints, Peter and Paul, standing behind them. Bartseh, 
 Brulliot, and Passavant enumerate 127 woodcuts of his en- 
 graving. The most noteworthy are a series of 12, representing 
 the 'Passion of Our Lord,' dated 1511 — 14. Cornelissen was 
 still painting in 1553. He is believed to have died between that 
 year and 1560. 
 
 CORNELIUS, PETER VON [E. C. vol. ii. col. 391]. The 
 
 most famous of modern German painters lived to see the great 
 school he had formed, and which he had hoped was to regene- 
 rate the art of the Fatherland, fast losing its hold on the public 
 sympathy, and the new generation of painters ignoring the 
 principles he held so dear. He died at Berlin on the 7th March, 
 1867, in the 80th year of his age. His great work, the cartoons 
 for which are described in col. 393 of the memoir above cited, 
 remains, and is likely to remain, unpainted, the Royal Mauso- 
 leum which it was intended to adorn not having been built. 
 
 *COROT, JEAN BAPTISTE CAMILLE, a leading French 
 landscape painter, was born at Paris in July, 1796, and was 
 brought up to a commercial life, but in 1822, being able to follow 
 his own inclination, entered the atelier of Michallon, and on his 
 death removed to that of Victor Bertin. He afterwards stayed 
 for several years in Italy, where, among the works of the great ! 
 masters, and still more in solitary converse with Nature, he 
 formed his style, and laid the germs of that peculiar theory of 1 
 art of which his works are the illustration. Though avowedly a '■ 
 landscape painter, and commencing his career with views inltaly 
 and the like, almost all the pictures of his mature and later years 
 are of a poetical or subjective character, with such titles as ' A 
 Landscape,' ' A Dance of Nymphs,' ' Souvenir de Marcoussy ' (a 
 celebrated picture purchased by the Emperor), ' An Idyll,' ' Sun- 
 set,' Sunrise, ' L'lncendie de Sodoine,' ' Le Christ au Jardin 
 des Oliviers,' ' Dante et Virgile,' ' Macbeth,' and so forth, the 
 personages in these last being entirely subservient to some effect 
 of light and shadow or atmosphere. M. Corot, wrote a smart * 
 French critic, "imitates nothing, not even Nature, and is him- j 
 self inimitable ; " which, in its way, is true. As direct imita- 
 tions of Nature his landscapes would be absurd, and the colour 
 — sometimes mere misty monochrome — is often detestable ; but 
 over all is shed a tender poetic feeling — of which his imitators 
 make sad havoc. M. Corot received a medal of the 2nd class 
 (paysage) in 1833, of the 1st in 1848 and 1855 ; and the Cross of 
 the Legion of Honour in 1846. 
 
 CORT, HENRY, to whom the greatness of the iron manu- 
 facture in this country is mainly due, was born at Lancaster in 
 1740. Little is known of him till 1765, when he was settled in 
 London as a navy agent. He became cognisant of the fact, that 
 on account of the bad quality of English iron, the Government 
 refused to employ it at the dockyards, preferring to give 35/. per 
 ton for iron from Sweden and Russia. He commenced experi- 
 ments on new modes of manufacturing iron ; and the success 
 attained induced him to establish a small factory at Fontley, 
 near Fareham, Hants. He entered into partnership with Samuel 
 Jellicoe, son of the Deputy Paymaster of Seamen. In 1783-84 
 the firm took out two patents, for inventions due to Cort. . 
 Numerous minor improvements were specified ; but the two 
 processes which chiefly engaged attention were puddling and 
 rolling. To drive off the carbon from crude iron, Cort devised 
 the puddling furnace, in which the heat of flame is reverberated 
 down on the molten mass, which mass is stirred about until the 
 carbon is driven off, the slag separated, and the iron brought into 
 a pasty state. In the rolling, Cort passed red-hot iron between 
 grooved rollers, instead of hammering it, to make it into bats, 
 plates, &c. Neither process was absolutely new ; but they were 
 never of much importance until Cort took up the matter. In 
 
413 CORTAMBERT, PIERRE FRANCOIS E. 
 
 1787 the Government caused experiments to be made on Cort's 
 iron ; and finding it both better and cheaper than Swedish, they 
 adopted it. The ironmasters from other districts came to Fontley to 
 Bee the processes, and agreed to pay 10s. per ton royalty for the use 
 of the patents : Crawshay of Cyfarthfa, Homfray of Pen-y-darran, 
 and Reynolds of Coalbrookdale, were among those who 60 
 acted. New ironworks were established by the partners at Gos- 
 port, where profits and royalties brought in large returns. But 
 the whole enterprise suddenly collapsed. Adam Jellicoe, the 
 paymaster, had advanced large sums to the firm ; it was not 
 known till his death, in 1789, that he had obtained this money 
 by defrauding the Government. The whole of the property — 
 works, patents, and royalties — was seized by the law officers of 
 the Crown ; the affair was, however, so badly managed that Cort 
 was ruined, the Government realised scarcely anything, and the 
 ironmasters all over England used Cort's process without paying 
 any more royalties to any one. Cort failed in all his attempts to 
 obtain a renewal or restitution of the patent, although he would 
 have received 55,000/. in royalties alone in 1789—91, had not 
 the break-up occurred. The Government granted him a pension 
 of 200Z. a-year in 1794, in consideration of his family of twelve 
 children ; but he died a broken man in 1800. The equitable 
 claims of his family have since frequently been advocated, but 
 with very slender results. His widow obtained a pension of 
 125/. in 1800 ; the ironmasters subscribed 900/. for the family 
 in 1811 ; an annuity of 60/. was granted to his last surviving 
 son in 1856 ; and a sum of 200/. was given in 1858 (out of the 
 royal bounty) to his three surviving daughters. Meantime, the 
 iron manufacture in Great Britain has risen from 90,000 tons to 
 5,000,000 tons annually, in great part owing to the introduction 
 of Cort's puddling furnaces and grooved rollers. 
 
 * CORTAMBERT, PIERRE FRANCOIS EUGENE, a 
 French geographer, was born at Toulouse, Oct. 12, 1805. He 
 has taught geography at several of the colleges of Paris, espe- 
 cially the Charlemagne Lyceum, and is principally known for 
 his numerous excellent school books on geography, some of 
 wttich have gone through several editions, Amongst others we 
 may cite 'Cours de Geographie/ 1st ed., 1829 ; 5th ed., 1864 ; 
 'Elements de Cosmographie,' 8vo, 1859 ; 'Traite elementaire 
 de geographie physique et politique,' 2 vols. 1852 ; and a series 
 of small atlases in 8vo and 12mo, published in 1861. Amongst 
 works of a more erudite character may be mentioned his ' Ta- 
 bleau generale de 1'AmSrique. Rapport sur le progres de l'ethno- 
 graphie et de la geographie en Amerique pendant les Annees 
 1858 et 1859/ 8vo, 1860 ; and a similar work on Cochin China, 
 8vo, published in 1862. He is also the author of many of the 
 geographical articles in the ' Annuaire Encyclopedique.' His 
 son, Richard Cortambert, born at Paris in 1836, is the secretary 
 of the Geographical Society of Paris, and is connected with the 
 geographical department of the imperial library. He has pub- 
 lished several light books on geography. 
 
 CORTOT, JEAN PIERRE, an eminent French sculptor, was 
 born at Paris, April 20, 1787. He was a pupil of Bridan, and 
 having carried off the grand prize of the Institute, was sent to 
 complete his studies at Rome, where he stayed several years. 
 He early acquired great celebrity, was decorated in 1824, and in 
 1825 was elected member of the Academie des Beaux-Arts, and 
 one of the professors in the Eeole Royale. He died on the 12th of 
 August, 1843. M. Cortot produced a vast number of works, 
 which comprised the usual range of classical, mythological, and 
 allegorical subjects, of the kind in his day so much in favour 
 with Frenchmen ; religious compositions, monumental pieces, 
 and portrait busts and statues. He was much employed in the 
 execution of public works, his chief productions being Govern- 
 ment commissions. Among these may be mentioned, as illus- 
 trating his range of subjects, the grand bas-relief in the pedi- 
 ment of the Chamber of Deputies ; the figures of Brest and 
 Rouen on the monument in the Place de la Concord ; a Soldier 
 of Marathon in the garden of the Tuileries ; a statue of Justice 
 for the Palais de la Bourse ; a Daphnis and Chloe in the Museum 
 of the Luxembourg ; the large bas-relief of the Resurrection in 
 the church of Calvary ; a statue of Corneille at Rouen ; one of 
 Marshal Lannes at Lectoure ; and many other similar figures, 
 groups, and bas-reliefs. 
 
 COSIN, COSINS, COSYNS, or COZENS, JOHN, a learned 
 Bishop of Durham in the 17th century, was born on the 30th of 
 November, 1594, at Norwich, in the Free Grammar School of 
 which city he was educated till the age of fourteen. In 1610 
 he was entered of Caius College, Cambridge, of which he be- 
 came successively scholar and fellow ; and where he regularly 
 took his degrees in arts. When about 20 years of age he was 
 
 COSIN, BISHOP. 4l4 
 
 appointed first librarian, and afterwards secretary, to Dr. Over- 
 all, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, who encouraged him to 
 the study of divinity. Being left without a patron by the death 
 of Dr. Overall in May, 1619, who at that time had been not 
 quite a year Bishop of Norwich, Mr. Cosin, who had been ad- 
 mitted to holy orders, was soon after appointed domestic chaplain 
 to Dr. Richard Neile, Bishop of Durham, afterwards Archbishop 
 of York. He was collated to the tenth stall in the Cathedral 
 church of Durham, on the 4th of December, 1624 ; and in 
 September, 1625, to the archdeaconry of the East Riding of the 
 county of York. On the 20th of July, 1626, he was further 
 collated by Bishop Neile to the rich rectory of Brandspeth in 
 the diocese of Durham ; and in the same year took the degree of 
 Bachelor, and in 1628 that of Doctor of Divinity. He was 
 employed by Charles I. to draw up a manual of devotion for the 
 maids of honour who attended the Queen Henrietta Maria, a 
 task which he fulfilled by the production of ' A Collection of 
 Private Devotions : in the Practice of the Ancient Church, 
 called the Houres of Prayer. As they were much after this 
 manner published by Authoritie of Q. Eliz. 1560. Taken out 
 of the Holy Scriptures, the Ancient Fathers, and the Divine 
 Service of ourowne Church,' 12mo, London, 1627, ninth edition, 
 12mo, London, 1693, and since frequently reprinted. This book 
 was very obnoxious to the Puritans, and was severely animad- 
 verted upon by Henry Burton in his ' Examination of Private 
 Devotions ; or the Hours of Prayer/ &c, 4to, London, 1628 ; 
 and by William Prynne, in his ' Brief Survey and Censure of 
 Mr. Cozens, his couzening Devotions/ 4to, London, 1628. His 
 intercourse wdth Laud, then Bishop of Bath and Wells, and 
 with other reputed high churchmen, together with the exactness 
 of ritual upon which he insisted at Durham, also added to the 
 suspicion of Popish tendencies with which Cosin was regarded 
 by the Puritans. In 1628 he was concerned, with other members 
 of the chapter of Durham, in prosecuting Peter Smart, one of 
 the Prebendaries, for preaching a seditious sermon in the 
 cathedral, directed against those bishops and divines who were 
 thought to favour Papacy, from the text, Ps. xxxi. 7, " I hate 
 them that hold of superstitious vanities." Refusing to recant, 
 Smart was degraded, and by sentence at common law deprived 
 of his prebend and livings. On the 8th of February, 1635, Dr. 
 Cosin was admitted to the Mastership of Peter-House, Cam- 
 bridge ; and served as Vice-Chancellor of the University in 
 1639. On the 31st of October, 1640, he was nominated to the 
 Deanery of Peterborough, and was installed on the 7th of 
 November following. Three days after, Peter Smart, the dis- 
 possessed prebendary, who seems erroneously to have regarded 
 Dr. Cosin as his prosecutor-in-chief, retaliated by presenting a 
 petition to the House of Commons, in which he complained of 
 the Doctor's superstition and innovations in the church of Dur- 
 ham, and of his own severe prosecution in the High-Commission 
 Court. A majority of the House of Commons received Smart's 
 petition with favour, and by a vote of the whole House, on the 
 22nd of January, 1641, sequestered Dr. Cosin from his eccle- 
 siastical benefices. On the 21st of March, they sent up to the 
 House of Lords twenty-one articles of impeachment against 
 him, for the introduction of various supposed Popish observances 
 in Durham Cathedral, which he afterwards either denied to exist, 
 or averred that he did not originate. He was dismissed by the 
 Lords upon his putting in bail for his appearance ; but he was 
 not summoned to appear again. Some time after, having exaspe- 
 rated the Puritans by being concerned with others in sending 
 the plate of the University to the king at York, he was ejected 
 from his mastership, by a warrant from the Earl of Manchester, 
 dated March 13th, 1643 ; and being thus deprived of the last of 
 his preferments, he left the kingdom and proceeded to Paris, 
 where he formed a congregation, and held several discussions 
 with the Jesuits and Romish priests. He officiated as chaplain 
 to the Protestant members of Queen Henrietta Maria's family ; 
 and is said to have rendered essential service to Charles II., and 
 to the Church of England, when both were in danger from the 
 machinations of the Papists. At the Restoration, in 1660, Dr. 
 Cosin returned to England, and took possession of all his prefer- 
 ments, the Mastership of Peter-House being restored to him on 
 the 3rd of August ; but before the year was out he was raised to 
 the See of Durham, to which he was consecrated on the 2nd of De- 
 cember. As a bishop, Dr. Cosin was remarkable for his munifi- 
 cence, and it is computed that during all the incumbency of his see, 
 he spent 2000/. a-year upon ecclesiastical, educational, charitable, 
 and other benevolent objects. He died at his house in Pall-Mail, 
 London, on the 15th of January, 1672, after having, for the last 
 two years of his life, suffered grievously from the stone. For 
 
415 
 
 COSMAS. 
 
 COTTA, BERN HARD. 
 
 416 
 
 some time his remains were deposited in a vault in London ; 
 Lut on the 29th of April, 1672, they were finally interred at 
 Bishop's Auckland, Durham, in the chapel belonging to the 
 palace. The particulars of his life have been preserved by Dr. 
 Isaac Basire, Archdeacon of Northumberland, in a small volume 
 entitled ' The Dead Man's Real Speech. A Funeral Sermon 
 preached on Hebr. xi. 4, upon the 29th day of April, 1072. 
 Together with a Brief of the Life, Dignities, Benefactions, 
 Principal Actions, and Sufferings ; and of the Death of the 
 late Lord Bishop of Durham,' 12mo, London, 1673, and in Dr. 
 Thomas Smith's ' Vita reverendissimi et eruditissimi viri Joannis 
 Cosini Episcopi Dunelmensis,' which is inserted in that writer's 
 'Vita; quorunulam eruditissimorum virorum,' 4to, London, 1707. 
 The 'Works of Bishop Cosin,' which are at present chiefly of 
 historical interest, and which are conversant about devotion, 
 theology, church order, and controversy, were for the first time 
 collected and published as part of the 'Library of Anglo- 
 Catholie Theology,' in five volumes, 8vo, Oxford, 1843 — 1855 ; of 
 which vol. i. (1843) contained ' Sermons ;' vol. ii. (1845), 'Mis- 
 cellaneous Works' ; vol. iii. (1849), ' A Scholastic History of the 
 Canon of Holy Scripture'; vol. iv. (1851), 'Miscellaneous 
 Works' ; and vol. v. (1855), ' Notes and Collections on the Book 
 of Common Prayer.' The ' Life of Bishop Cosin,' published in 
 the first volume of this collection, is merely a transcript of that 
 which occurs in the 'Biographia Britannica.' 
 
 COSMAS, an Alexandrian monk, who lived in the 6th 
 century of the Christian era. In early life a merchant, he 
 travelled far, and, being of observant habits, acquired so 
 much geographical knowledge during his travels through North 
 Africa and India, as to be commonly known as Indicopleustes 
 (the Indian voyager). He wrote a description of the world 
 as known in his time ; but the work has been lost. His con- 
 temporaries treated the accounts given in it of the burning 
 sands of Africa as fables, and this led to his writing a second 
 work, ' Tonoypacpla xpnriavtxv,' which still exists. This latter 
 work is of great interest, on account of the information which 
 it gives us as to the state of geographical knowledge in his day. 
 He contended against the sphericity of the earth, which he 
 maintained was of a long rectangular shape, surrounded by 
 high walls, and that towards the north pole were high moun- 
 tains, around which the solar and sidereal systems revolved. The 
 chief value of the book lies, however, in his narrative of what 
 he himself saw in his travels. He refers at greater or less 
 length to Abyssinia, Zanguebar, Arabia, India, and Ceylon ; and 
 he has a notice of China. His description of the natural produc- 
 tions of these various countries are said to be generally accurate. 
 His account of Abyssinia seems to indicate an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with that country. The whole work was first published by 
 B. de Montfaucon in vol. ii. (pp. 113-346) of his 'Collectio 
 Nova Patrum et Scriptorum Grajcorum,' fob, Paris, 1706; 
 and again by Gallandi, in vol. ix. of the ' Bib. Vet. Patrum,' 
 Venice, 1765. 
 
 * COSSON, ERNEST ST. CHARLES, French botanist, 
 born at Paris, July 22, 1819. The persons who had most influ- 
 ence on him during his educational career were the celebrated 
 botanists, Jussieu, Richard and Brongniart. In 1847 he gained 
 his degree of M.D., and in 1851 joined the Algerian scientific 
 commission, and from 1852 to 1858 he was chiefly occupied in 
 exploring Algeria. He has been secretary and vice-president of 
 the Botanical Society of France, and librarian of the Acclimati- 
 sation Society. His writings chiefly relate to the flora of Algeria, 
 and of the neighbourhood of Paris ; and have mostly been 
 drawn up in conjunction with other botanists. Amongst the 
 writings which came from his own pen may be mentioned 
 numerous articles in the 'Bulletins' of the Botanical Society of 
 France ; 'Considerations generates sur le Sahara Algerien, etses 
 cultures,' 8vo, Paris, 1859 ; and ' Rapport sur un voyage bo- 
 tanique en Algerie, de Philippville a Biskra et dans leS Monts 
 Aures, entrepris en 1853,' 1856. In conjunction with M. de St. 
 Pierre, he has drawn up ' Flore descriptive et analytique des 
 environs de Paris/ 12mo, 1845 ; 2nd ed. 1859, and two or three 
 other works referring to the same subject. In union with 
 M. Durieu de la Maissonneuve he commenced a 'Flore de 
 l'Algeiie,' 4to, in 1854, but which is not yet finished. 
 
 COSTA, LORENZO, an able Italian painter, was bom at 
 Ferrara in 1460 ; was the scholar of Francesco Cossa, and a 
 fellow student with Benozzo Gozzoli ; settled in Bologna and 
 became the assistant of Francia ; removed to Mantua, where he 
 was patronised by Francesco Gonzaga, and where he died, 
 March 5, 1535. Costa's style is formed on that of Francia, but is 
 less earnest and animated. He had, however, great technical 
 
 skill, and his teaching exerted considerable influence on the 
 schools of Mantua and Bologna. The National Gallery has a 
 large and unusually line painting by Lorenzo Costa (No. 629), 
 ' The Madonna and Child Enthroned with Angels.' It is in live 
 compartments, and has on the right and left figures of Saints 
 John the Evangelist and PhiUjj, John the Baptist and Peter. 
 It was formerly the altar-piece of the Oratorio delle Grazie, at 
 Faenza. 
 
 * COSTA, SIR MICHAEL [E. C. vol. vi. col. 988]. 
 *COSTE, JEAN JACQUES MARIE CYPRIEN VICTOtf, 
 
 was born at Castries, in Herault, May 10, 1807. Stimulated by 
 the attention which the Germans were giving to the develop- j 
 ment of the egg and embryo, be devoted himself to the same 
 line of study, and in 1834 produced his ' Recherches sur la 
 Generation des Mammifercs et la Formation des Embryons,' 
 which at once established his reputation, and in recognition of | 
 the merits of the work the Academy of Sciences awarded him a i 
 gold medal. Shortly after he was requested to give lectures on i 
 the subject at the Museum of Natural History, and these were 
 so successful that a special chair was created for him in the i 
 College of France. These lectures were published under the 
 title of ' Cours d'embryogenie comparee,' 8vo, 1837, accompanied 
 by an atlas in 4to. At a latter date he brought out a more 
 elaborate work, entitled ' Histoire Generate et particuliere du 
 developpement des corps organises,' 2 vols. 4to, with an atlas in 
 folio, 1847— 60, under the auspices of the Minister of Public 
 Instruction. In addition to these he has written several papers 
 on subjects connected with embryology. From about 1849 his 
 attention began to be directed to the preservation of fishes and 
 other marine animals, with a view to ensuring their rapid multi- 
 plication and observing their habits. In company with Milne- 
 Edwards he visited the piscicultural establishments of MM. 
 Gehiu and Remy in the Vosges, and induced the French Govern- 
 ment to establish something similar at Huningues, but on a 
 much larger scale. The management was entrusted to Coste, 
 and in the course of a short period he introduced upwards of , 
 half a million salmon and trout into the Rhone ; and restocked 
 some of the lakes and rivers of France with these and other fish. 
 He also took an active part in promoting the rearing of edible 
 crustaceans and oysters. In 1853 he published 'Instructions 
 Pratiques sur la Pisciculture, suivies de Memoires et de Rapports 
 sur le meme sujet,' 12mo, of which more than one edition has 
 since appeared. In 1855 he issued ' Voyage d'Exploration sur 
 le littoral de la France et d'ltalie,' 4to, of which a second edition 
 appeared in 1861. It relates mainly to the efforts made to 
 cultivate fish. In 1862 he was appointed inspector-general of 
 fisheries. In 1869 he published ' De l'Observation et de l'Expe- 
 rience en Physiologic' 
 
 * COTTA, BERNHARD, German geologist, was born at 
 Kleinen Zillbach, Oct. 24, 1808. His father, Henri, belonged to 
 an old Thuringian family, and was well known as an authority 
 and a teacher in all matters connected with forestry. He him- 
 self taught his son the natural sciences, more especially mine- 
 ralogy and geology, and in due course sent him to the School of 
 Mines at Freiberg, and then in 1832 to Heidelberg. On leaving 
 Heidelberg Cotta went to Tharand, near Dresden, where his father 
 was director of an academy, the principal object of which was 
 to teach forestry, and in 1841 became the secretary of the 
 academy. From 1832 to 1842 he was engaged along with 
 Nanmann in executing a fine geological map of Saxony ; and 
 this finished, he undertook a similar map for Thuringia, which 
 occupied him four years. In 1842 he succeeded Naumann as 
 professor of geognosy at the School of Mines at Freiburg. His 
 writings are numerous, and extend over a wide range of subjects. 
 His earliest scientific paper was ' Beitrag zur Untersuchung 
 iiber die Entstehung des Kammerbuhls bei Eger,' in Oken's 
 'Isis' for 1827. In 1832 he published a 'Monographic des 
 Dendrolithes,' Dresden, which attracted some attention. Amongst 
 his other works may be mentioned ' Anleitung zum Studium der 
 Geognosie und Geologie/ 1839, of which a third edition appeared 
 in 1849 ; ' Gangstudien,' 1847 ; ' Briefe fiber Alex. v. Humboldt's 
 Kosmos,' Leipzig, 1848 — 51, of which he wrote the first part 
 only ; ' Ueber den innern Bau der Gebirges,' 8yo, Freiberg, 1851 ; 
 ' Die Gesteinlehre,' 8vo, Freiburg, 1855, which has passed 
 through two or three editions in its German form, and was 
 translated into English by P. H. Lawrence, and puhhshed in 
 1866 under the title of ' Rocks Classified and Described.' He 
 was one of the writers of the ' Gaavon Sachsen,' 1843. He has 
 also contributed numerous papers on rocks, fossils, and geology 
 to the ' Annales des Mines,' Leonhard v. Broun's ' Neue Jahrbuch 
 fur Mineralogie,' &c. From 1842 to 1847 he edited the 1 Forst- 
 
COUCH, JONATHAN. 
 
 418 
 
 und Landwirthschaftsliches Jahrbuch der Academie zu Tharand.' 
 He wrote a book called ' Gedanken iiber Phrenologie,' which 
 was published in 1845 ; and has contributed a great many 
 ■ articles to various periodicals with the object of popularising his 
 i views on palaeontology and geology. These views are, in the 
 main, that the earth and its inhabitants have developed pro- 
 gressively according to certain natural laws ; the earth has been 
 gradually cooling from an original molten condition, and the 
 creatures have been gradually evolved from a simple to a more 
 I and more highly complex structure culminating in man. 
 
 COUCH, JONATHAN, a well-known zoologist, was born 
 March 15, 1788, at Polperro, in Cornwall, with which county he 
 was connected all his life. By profession he was a surgeon, 
 but all his leisure time was spent in investigating the natural 
 history of Cornwall. No branch of zoology escaped his atten- 
 tion, but he gave most time to fishes. One of his earliest papers 
 was entitled ' Some Particulars of the Natural History of Fishes 
 found in Cornwall,' in the ' Linnean Transactions,' xiv. pp. 
 69 — 92, 1825 ; and his earliest, or one of his earliest, books was 
 a ' History of the Fishes of Cornwall.' Yarrell repeatedly refers 
 to him as one of his most valued correspondents on fish lore, and 
 much of the information thus obtained was incorporated in 
 Yarrell's ' History of British Fishes,' 1836. For many years he 
 himself collected materials for a similar ' History,' which was at 
 . length published in four volumes under the title of ' The 
 History of the Fishes of the British Islands,' 8vo, London, 
 1862 — 65. The work contains an immense mass of information 
 i on the habits of British fishes, and is illustrated with nearly 250 
 1 coloured plates. He wrote a few other works of minor im- 
 portance, and contributed more than sixty papers to the various 
 scientific periodicals, such as the ' Transactions of the Polytechnic 
 Society of Cornwall,' ' Transactions of the Geological Society of 
 Cornwall ' (of both which bodies he was a distinguished member), 
 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' &c. He was a fel- 
 low of the Linnean and Zoological Societies of London. He 
 died at Polperro, April 13, 1870. 
 
 * COURBET, GUSTAVE, celebrated Frencb landscape 
 painter, was born at Ornans, Department of Doubs, on the 10th 
 ef June, 1819. He was educated for the bar, but when at 
 liberty to pursue his own course, commenced the study of paint- 
 ing. He took lessons of MM. Steuben and Hesse, but formed 
 his style and method of painting by close study of the works of 
 the old Venetian and Flemish masters, and working directly 
 from nature. His first picture was sent to the Salon in 1844, 
 but it was only by degrees that M. Courbet evolved the art- 
 theories and practice which have given him so conspicuous a 
 place in the artistic world of Paris. M. Courbet was making his 
 way as a promising painter at the outbreak of the Revolution of 
 1848. He embraced with ardour the cause which promised to 
 free the minds as well as the bodies of men from the yoke of 
 law and precedent. He proclaimed that new times required new 
 principles. The artist should not adopt the practice of a school 
 or copy the manner of a master, but, apart from system or pre- 
 cedent, follow the promptings of his own individuality. He 
 became the acknowledged leader of the " realistic " school of 
 landscape painting. M. Courbet exhibited a number of large 
 paintings as illustrations of his principles, and for some time 
 those who cared for such things were amused by the fiery 
 assaults of the critics, and the energy with which they were replied 
 to by M. Courbet and his friends. In its way, though pursued 
 with greater ardour, it resembled the strife over Pre-Raphaelism 
 in our own country ; and in Paris, as here, the artistic inno- 
 vators had on their side the majority of the younger journalists. 
 M. Courbet was charged, like the Pre-Raphaelites, with being a 
 Worshipper of ugliness, but he insisted that he had no such de- 
 votion ; his principle was that of representing what he saw, and 
 all that he saw, in the way in which he saw it, and rigorously 
 abstaining from selection. "The basis of realism," he wrote, " is 
 the negation of the ideal, and of all that follows from it." 
 Unhappily, at least in his figures, he was so far unfor- 
 tunate in his models that in avoiding the conventionally 
 graceful he too often stumbled upon deformity, and laid him- 
 self open to the sarcasm of his critics. His real power is 
 best seen in his landscapes. He paints solidlyand firmly, but his 
 handling is peculiar and wayward, and the colouring far from 
 agreeable, whilst from his habit of rendering everything with 
 equal emphasis, his paintings are, as has been often said, rather 
 studies than pictures. His landscapes are numerous, frequently 
 of large size, and embrace such subjects as a ' Paysage des Bord3 
 'de la Lone,' ' Vue et Ruines du Chateau de Scey,' 'L'Enterre- 
 mer.t d'Ornans,' ' Les Communaux de Chassagne,' an effect of 
 bioo. div. — SUP. 
 
 sunset, &c. A large proportion of his works, however, belong to 
 the class of genre, such as ' Baigneuses,' one of his most defiant 
 productions; ' Les Cribleuses de Bid,' ' Les Demoiselles de Vil- 
 lage,' 'Lea Demoiselles des Bonis de la Seine,' another wilful 
 departure from Parisian conventional art ; ' Combat de Cerfe/ 
 and a wide range besides. He has also painted many portraits, 
 chiefly of notable friends, both male and female, whose counte- 
 nances he has seldom rendered more amiable. 
 
 M. Courbet obtained a medal of the second class (genre et 
 paysage) in 1849, in 1859, and in 1861 ; and in June, 1870, was 
 awarded the Cross of the Legion of Honour. This, however, to 
 the astonishment of the Parisian public, he peremptorily refused 
 to accept, alleging, in a letter he published, that as a republican 
 he could receive no honour from the Government of the Kin- 
 peror, and that as an artist he looked for his only reward from 
 the public. As a consequence, M. Courbet was for nine days 
 the best abused and most talked-of man in Paris. But, the 
 incident forgotten, he has returned to his pencils, from which he 
 is not likely to be again diverted by a similar offer. 
 
 COUSIN, VICTOR [E. C. vol. ii. col. 407]. The principal 
 works published by M. Cousin after the date of the above 
 memoir were ' La Societe Francaise au XVII e Siecle, d'apres le 
 Grand Gyrus de Mile, de Scudery,' 2 vols, 8vo, 1858 ; a recasting 
 of his ' Cours de l'Histoire de la Philosophic,' under the title of 
 ' Histoire Generale de la Philosophic depuis les temps les plus 
 recules qusqu'au XVIIP Siecle,' 8vo, 1863 ; 'La Jeunesse de 
 Madame de Longueville,' 12mo, 1864 ; and ' La Jeunesse de 
 Mazarin,' 8vo, 1865. For several years the state of M. Cousin's 
 health had caused him to spend his winters at Caen, and it was 
 there he died, on the 14th of January, 1867. 
 
 * COUSINS, SAMUEL, R.A., an eminent engraver in 
 mezzotint, was born at Exeter, May 9, 1801. As a boy be 
 attracted notice by the skill with which he copied engravings 
 with the lead pencil, and in 1813 and 1814 the Society 
 of Arts awai'ded him a silver medal and a silver palette 
 for them. This led to his being apprenticed in the latter 
 year to the celebrated mezzotint engraver, S. W. Reynolds, 
 with whom, upon the expiration of his apprenticeship, he 
 remained four years as an assistant. Working on his own 
 account, he rose steadily to the head of his branch of the pro- 
 fession. In 1835 he was elected A.R.A. ; in 1854 he became 
 Associate Engraver, and on the admission of engravers to full 
 membership, he was the first to receive that distinction, being 
 elected Academician Engraver in 1855. Of Mr. Cousins' nu- 
 merous engravings it will be enough to mention his ' Bolton 
 Abbey in the Olden Time,' ' Saved,' ' The Return from Hawk- 
 ing,' ' A Midsummer Night's Dream,' and ' The Maid and the 
 Magpie,' after Landseer ; ' Christ Weeping over Jerusalem,' 
 after Eastlake ; ' The Mitherless Bairn,' after Faed ; ' The Order 
 of Release,' after Millais; 'The Heroine of Saragossa,' after 
 Wilkie ; ' The Infant Samuel,' after Sant ; portraits of Pope 
 Pius VII., Metternich, the Duke of Wellington, Sir Robert 
 Peel, Miss Eliza Peel, the Countess Gower and Child, and several 
 others after Sir Thomas Lawrence ; Sir Thomas Watson, after 
 Richmond ; and the series of royal portraits, the Queen, the 
 Prince Consort, and Royal Family, the Princess Royal, the 
 Sailor Prince, and others, after AVinterhalter. All Mr. Cousin-' 
 plates are not, of course, of equal excellence, but all are well 
 drawn and carefully and beautifully executed, and the best of 
 them, and notably those after Landseer, Lawrence, and Eastlake, 
 have that combination of painter-like breadth and brilliancy of 
 chiaroscuro, with richness and softness of effect, which mezzo- 
 tint alone seems capable of producing, and which in that is only 
 seen in the choicest sampdes. 
 
 COX, DAVID [E. C. vol. ii. col. 413]. This admirable artist died 
 on the 7th of June, 1859. In the year of his death an exhibition 
 of his pictures, sketches, and water-colour drawings was held in 
 London, and the 200 works there collected bore out to the fullest 
 extent all that was said in the above memoir of his rare powers. 
 
 CRAIK, GEORGE LILL1E [E. C. vol. ii. col. 420]. Whilst 
 lecturing to his class, February 23, 1866, Professor Craik was 
 suddenly seized with paralysis. He recovered partially, but 
 lived only four months, dying at his residence, Belfast, on the 
 25th of the following June. Shortly after, pensions of .£30 a 
 year each were granted from the Civil List to his two daughters, 
 Mary and Georgiana (the authoress of some very pleasing novels), 
 " in consideration of the services of their father as Professor of 
 History and English Literature in the Queen's College, Belfast ;" 
 something more might well have been added in consideration of 
 his services to English literature in general. 
 
 CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST, born at Mannheim, Feb- 
 
 £ R 
 
419 
 
 CRAWFORD, THOMAS. 
 
 •J 20 
 
 raary 24th, 1771, was the son of Wilhelm, and the grandson of 
 Joachim Cramer, German musicians of note. Wilhelni came to 
 England in 1772, bringing with him his three sons, Johann Bap- 
 tist, Carl, and Franz. The young Johann studied the pianoforte 
 under Benser, Schoter, and Clementi, and also made himself 
 familiar with the harpsichord compositions of Bach and Handel. 
 At the early age of thirteen he began to play in public, and 
 attracted much notice by his mastery of the pianoforte. In 1785 
 he went through a course of study in composition under Abel. 
 From 1788 to 1791 he made a musical tour through the chief 
 cities of Europe. From 1791 to 1832 lie resided mostly in Lon- 
 don, where he arrived at great distinction as a teacher, player, 
 and composer ; from thence till 1845 his residence was chiefly 
 at Paris. In the latter year he returned to England, where he 
 remained till his death, which occurred April 16,1858. As a 
 pianist, Cramer was remarkable for the delicacy of his touch, the 
 production of various qualities of tone by exquisite gradation of 
 pressure in fingering; he had little taste for brilliant difliculties, 
 mere tours de force. As a composer he was very prolific. There 
 came from his pen 105 pianoforte sonatas, 7 orchestral con- 
 certos, 7 duets for four hands, and a great number of quartettes, 
 quintettes, trios, notturnos, rondos, inarches, waltzes, airs with 
 variations, fantasias, studies, morceaux, &c. His 84 ' Etudes' 
 are among the classics of pianoforte writing; they were the 
 foundation of a school, which has included many distinguished 
 players and composers. His ' Methode ' for the piano was first 
 published in 1846. 
 
 CRAWFORD, THOMAS [E. C. vol. vi. col. 398]. 
 
 CRAWFURD, JOHN, was born in the island of Islay, 
 August 13, 1783, and, after attending the medical curriculum at 
 Edinburgh, proceeded to India in 1803, as an assistant-surgeon 
 in the East India Company's service. He was soon engaged in 
 the warfare against Holkar, and in 1805 was in Rampoora when 
 it was beseiged. In or about 1808 he went to Penang, and there 
 occupied himself in learning the Malay language, and studying 
 the Malay people. In 1811 he went to Java, along with Lord 
 Minto, and remained there as the British representative for 
 about six years. In 1817 he returned to England, but in 1821 
 he was again on his way to India, having been entrusted with a 
 diplomatic mission to Siam and Cochin China. In 1823 he suc- 
 ceeded Sir Stamford Raffles as Governor of Singapore. After 
 holding this post a few years, he returned to England, and occu- 
 pied himself mostly with political affairs, taking an active part 
 in promoting trade, in endeavouring to destroy the commercial 
 monopoly of the East India Company, and in making efforts to 
 be elected a member of Parliament. In this last object he 
 could not succeed, and this seems to have induced him to devote 
 himself almost entirely to his favourite studies in philosophy, 
 ethnology, geography, and statistics. In 1861 he became President 
 of the Ethnological Society, and till his death was one of its 
 hardest working and most influential members. He was also an 
 active Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. His principal 
 works are ' Histoiy of tlie Indian Archipelago,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 
 1820 ; and ' Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and the 
 Adjacent Countries,' 8vo, 1856, These two works embody an 
 immense mass of information respecting the districts they treat 
 of. We also have from him, ' Malay Grammar and Dictionary,' 
 the high merits of which were recognised by William von Hum- 
 boldt. His mission to Ava and Siam resulted in his writing two 
 works, entitled, ' Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava, in 
 1827,' 4to, 1829 ; and ' Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of 
 Siam and Cochin China, exhibiting a View of the actual state 
 of those Kingdoms,' 2 vols, 8vo, 1830. His connection with the 
 Ethnological Society led to his writing an immense number of 
 papers, embodying the knowledge he had accumulated in his 
 earlier life, and remarkable as indicating his exceedingly active 
 mental powers, even in his last years. From his 78th year, up 
 to his death, he contributed thirty-eight papers to the journal of 
 the Ethnological Society, and he is said to have left sixteen 
 others in manuscript His contributions to the ' Examiner' and 
 other papers are said to have been very numerous. His death 
 occurred on May 11, 1868, brought on by a sudden attack of 
 inflammation of the lungs. 
 
 CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO IGNAZIO GIRO- 
 LAMO XAVIER GIUSEPPE ANTONIO, an Italian poet, 
 critic, and historian, who dropped the last five of his Christian 
 names as practically worse than redundant, was bom on the 9th 
 of October, 1663, at Macerata, near Ancona. After being for 
 some time under the tuition of a French ecclesiastic at Rome, he 
 returned in 1675 to his native place, where he became a pupil of 
 the Jesuits, under whose instruction he made his first literary 
 
 effort in a tragedy upon the Fall of Darius ; in acknowledgment 
 of which, and of his translation into Italian verse of two books 
 of Lucan's ' Pharsalia,' he was admitted at 15 years of age a 
 member of the Accademia de' Disposti, which was established at 
 the small city of Jesi. On the 3rd of October, 1679, he was 
 admitted doctor of laws, and about a year after repaired again to 
 Rome, where he pursued his studies in jurisprudence and in 
 belles-lettres. As a tribute to his practical talent he was named 
 in 1685 a member of the Accademia degli Infecondi; and in 
 1690 was the principal founder of the Accademia degli Arcadi, a 
 society instituted for the revival of learning and for the reforma- 
 tion of public taste, over which Crescimbeni presided as Custode 
 Generate under the assumed name of Alfesibeo Cario. He 
 subsequently took orders, and through the patronage of Pope 
 Clement XL, who presented him in 1705 to a canonry in the 
 church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, of which, in 1715, he became 
 arciprete, or senior priest, was enabled to devote himself almost 
 exclusively to science and literature. He died on the 8th of 
 March, 1728. His principal works are a valuable History of 
 Italian Poetry, 'L'lstoria della Volgar Poesia,' 4to, Rome, 1698, 
 and 1714; Commentaries on the above, ' Commentarj di Giov. 
 Mariode Crescimbeni intorno alia sua Istoria della Volgar Poesia,' 
 5 vols. Rome, 1702 — 11, both of which, the 'Istoria' and the 
 ' Commentarj,' were published together in 6 vols. 4to, Venice, 
 1730 — 31; 'La Bellezza della Volgar Poesia, spiegata in otto 
 Dialoghi, &c, con varie Notizie, e col Catalogo degli Arcadi,' 4to, 
 Rome, 1700, and 1712; 'Notizie Istoriche di diversi Capitani 
 illustri,' 4to, Rome, 1704 ; a Translation of the Homilies of Pope 
 Clement XL, 'Le Omilie ed Orazioni di Papa Clemente XI. 
 volgarizzate,' folio, Florence, 1704, 8vo, Venice, 1708 ; 'Storiadell' 
 Aecademiadegli Arcadi,' Rome, 1712 ; a biographical work, written 
 by himself and other authors, but edited by Crescimbeni, 
 entitled ' Le Vite Degli Arcadi illustri,' 2 vols. 4to, Rome, 1708 
 and 1710, which was at length supplemented by 'Notizie degli 
 Arcadi Morti,' 3 vols. 8vo, Rome, 1720—21. 
 
 CRESWICK, THOMAS, R.A. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 433.] The 
 last years of this excellent artist were passed under the pressure 
 of almost continuous ill-health, yet he retained his old sim- 
 plicity, and much of his old cheerfulness of habit, and con- 
 tinued to paint as long as he could hold a pencil. He died at 
 his house, The Limes, Linden Grove, Bayswater, on the 28th 
 of December, 1869, aged 58. The Royal Academy Exhibition 
 of 1870 contained his last and hardly finished works — 'Mill 
 near Whitby,' and ' Afternoon.' 
 
 CREUZEK, GEORG FRIEDRICH, a German philologer 
 and antiquary, was born on the 10th of March, 1771, at Mar- 
 burg, and was educated successively at that town and at the 
 University of Jena. In 1798 he was engaged as a private tutor 
 at Leipzig; became in 1802 professor at Marburg; and in 1804 
 was appointed to the chair of philology and ancient history at 
 Heidelberg, where in 1807 he established a nourishing philo- 
 logical seminary. In 1825 he became a foreign member of the 
 Paris Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres ; in 1826 was 
 appointed a privy councillor of the Grand Duchy of Baden ; and 
 was also made Commander of the Order of the Zahringen Lion. 
 Through a long series of years he devoted himself without inter- 
 mission to his literary pursuits, and to the discharge of his 
 academical duties until his resignation in 1845. He died at 
 Heidelberg on the 16th of February, 1858. Of his numerous 
 works the most important is that entitled Symbolism and 
 Mythology of the Nations of Antiquity, especially of the Greeks, 
 ' Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der 
 Griechen,' 6 vols. 8vo, Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1810 — 23, another 
 edition, of which the fifth and sixth volumes were contributed 
 by F. G. Mone, 6 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, &c, 1819—23, the first 
 volume of a third edition, 8vo, Leipzig, &c, 1837, French trans- 
 lation by J. D. Guigniaut, assisted by A. Maury and E. Vinet, 
 4 vol«. 8vo, Paris, 1825 — 51. In this work the author taught 
 the existence of a very ancient school of Greek poetry and philo- 
 sophy, in which Homer and Hesiod were but scholars, and 
 which in a far distant antiquity had been derived from the 
 East. His opinions gave rise to some controversy, and were 
 combated by J. G. J. Hermann, the philologer, whose views 
 are stated in Letters on Homer and Hesiod, &c, ' Briefe fiber 
 Homer und Hesiodus vorzuglich fiber die Theogonie,' 8vo, Hei- 
 delberg, 1818, and by J. H. Voss in his ' Antisynibolik,' 2 parts, 
 8vo, Stuttgart, 1824—26. Other scholars, of whom K. 0. Mitllcr 
 may be mentioned, likewise took part in the discussion. Amongst 
 the numerous other works of Creuzer occur his Origin anil De- 
 velopment of the Historic Art of the Greeks, ' Die historische 
 Kunst der Griechen in ihrer Enstehung und Fortbildung,' 8vo, 
 
421 CRIVELLI, CAVALIERE CARLO. 
 
 CROMPTON, SAMUEL. 
 
 422 
 
 Leipzig, 1803; ' Historicorum Gra-corum antiquissimorum Frag- 
 menta coilegit, emendavit, explieuit, ac de cujusque Scriptoria 
 set&te ingenio tide commentatus est,' &c, 8vo, Heidelberg, 1806 ; 
 ' Dionysus, sive Commentationes acadeinicoe de rcrum Bacchi- 
 carum Orphicarumque originibus et causis/ 4to, Heidelberg, 
 1809, of which the first volume only was published ; Epitome of 
 Roman Antiquities, &c, 'Abriss der Romischen Antiquitaten 
 zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen,' 8vo, Leipzig and Darmstadt, 
 1824, second edition, 182.9 ; an Essay on the History of Roman 
 Civilisation on the Upper Rhine and the Neckar, ' Zur Ges- 
 chichte altromischer Kultur am Oberrhein und Neckar,' 8vo, 
 Darmstadt, 1833 ; a Treatise on Precious Stones, ' ZurGemmen- 
 kunde,' &c, 8vo, Darmstadt, 1834 ; and on the History of 
 Classical Philology, ' Zur Gesehichte der classischen Philologie,' 
 Svo, Frankfurt, 1854. Creuzer also distinguished himself by 
 learned editions of Greek authors, and- by other works in philo- 
 logical and philosophical criticism, in connection with which his 
 labours in the field of Neo-Platonism ought especially to he 
 mentioned, as exhibited in the ' Plotini omnia Opera,' &c, 3 vols. 
 4to, Oxford, 1835, of which the ' Plotini Enneades,' &c, under- 
 went publication in 8vo, Paris, 1855, as part of a series entitled 
 ' Scriptorum Grsecorum Bibliotheca.' The collected German 
 works of Creuzer, including all of any importance which had 
 been produced up to that date, were published with the title of 
 1 Deutsche Schriften,' 9 vols, 8vo, Leipzig and Darmstadt, 
 1836 — 48, the last volume of which contained an Autobiography 
 with the title of 'Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors,' the 
 omissions in which were supplied by a supplementary volume 
 entitled ' Paralipomena der Lebenskizze eines alten Professors/ 
 8vo, Frankfurt, 1858. Professor Creuzer was a frequent con- 
 tributor to various serials and periodicals. He supplied the 
 ' Mythologie,' to the ' Real-Encyclopiidie der classischen Alter- 
 thumswissenschaft,' 8vo, Stuttgart, 1839 — 52 ; and for several 
 years subsequent to 1820 edited the Heidelberg Yearbook of Lite- 
 rature, 'Heidelbergische Jahrbucherder Literatur,' 8vo, 1808, &c. 
 
 CRIVELLI, CAVALIERE CARLO, an eminent early Italian 
 painter, was born at Venice about 1420 — 30, and is said to have 
 been the scholar of Jacobello del Fiore. He settled at Ascoli ; 
 painted religious subjects, and a few portraits ; and was knighted 
 in 1490 by Ferdinand II. of Naples. The year of his death, as 
 of his birth, is unknown : his dated pictures range between 1468 
 and 1495. He painted exclusively in tempera. His manner 
 somewhat resembles that of his contemporary, Bartolommeo 
 Vivarini, but is more severe, and the drawing firmer. For his 
 time he was a good colourist. Generally, however, his pictures 
 have an archaic air. Works by him occur at Ascoli ; in the 
 Vatican, Rome ; the Brera, Milan ; and the Berlin Museum. 
 The Louvre is without a specimen. Our own National Gallery 
 is exceptionally rich in his works, and all the examples are 
 signed and some dated. They are — No. 602, ' A Pieta,' two 
 infant angels, seated on the edge of the tomb, supporting the 
 dead body of Christ ; No. 668, ' The Beato Ferretti,' a large 
 composition of several figures, with a village street in the back 
 ground, and, what he was fond of introducing in his works, a 
 festoon of fruit in the upper part of the picture ; No. 724, ' The 
 Madonna and Child Enthroned, with St. Jerome and St. Sebas- 
 tian,' known as ' The Madonna della Rondine,' from the swallow 
 he has introduced somewhat conspicuously : it is in the original 
 frame, and in a predella below are representations of St. Cathe- 
 rine, St. Jerome in the Wilderness surrounded by animals, the 
 Nativity of our Lord, the Martyrdom of St. Sebastian, and St. 
 George and the Dragon ; No. 739, ' The Annunciation,' a charac- 
 teristic and interesting picture, dated 1486, presented to the 
 nation by Lord Taunton in 1864 ; No. 788, ' The Madonna and 
 Child Enthroned, surrounded by Saints.' This last is the most 
 remarkable of the series. It is of considerable size (16 feet high 
 by 10 feet 6 inches wide), is ©n wood, and was painted in 1476, 
 when the artist was in the maturity of his powers. It. consists 
 of thirteen compartments in three stages, the lower stage con- 
 taining five pictures (the Madonna with the Infant occupying 
 the centre), the second and third stages each four pictures. The 
 more important parts formed the altar-piece of the old church of 
 San Domenico, Ascoli. It was put together as it now appears, 
 and the costly frame made, when it was set up in 1852 as the 
 altar-piece in the private chapel of Prince Anatole de Deinidov 
 at Sau Donato near Florence. It was purchased for the 
 National Gallery in 1868 at a cost of 3360L In this picture 
 Crivelli's realism, and indeed most of his characteristics, are well 
 shown, though parts have been materially repainted. All the 
 heads are on gold grounds ; gems and pearls have adorned the 
 Virgin's crown and the robes of the saints, and some of them are 
 
 still in their places ; and in some instances extraordinary expe- 
 dients have been adopted to give an appearance of reality, as in 
 the case of St. Peter, whose keys are so solidly painted as to 
 stand out from the panel like actual keys, and they are suspended 
 from a piece of real cord. 
 
 CHOKER, THE RIGHT HON. JOHN WILSON [E. 
 vol. ii. col. 436]. Alter long illness, Mr. Croker died at his 
 residence, Molesey Grove, on the 10th of August, 1857, and was 
 interred in the neighbouring churchyard of West Molesey. The 
 edition of Pope's Works mentioned in the above memoir as m 
 preparation by him, was transferred to the Rev. W. Elwin, his 
 coadjutor in the ' Quarterly Review,' and is announced as now 
 (1870) " just ready" for publication. 
 
 CROL'Y, REV. GEORGE, LL.D. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 4381. 
 Dr. Croly died suddenly, whilst walking in Holborn, on the 24th 
 of November, 1860. By special permission of the Home Secre- 
 tary his remains were interred in his own church of St. 
 Stephen's, Walbrook. A brief expository work by him has 
 since appeared, '■The Book of Job. With a Biographical Sketch 
 of the Author by his Son [Frederic W. Croly],' Svo, Edinburgh 
 and London, 1863. 
 
 CROME, JOHN, known among picture collectors as Old 
 Crome, to distinguish him from other members of the family 
 who painted in Iris manner, was the son of an innkeeper at 
 Norwich, in which city he was born on the 21st of December, 
 1769. He was apprenticed to a coach-painter, when coach- 
 painting was still an artistic occupation. From this occupation, 
 however, he turned, probably because the change of fashion left 
 little employment for the painter of coach-panels, and set up as 
 a drawing master in his native city. He continued to teach, but 
 preferred to paint, and his landscapes soon acquired great local 
 pojDularity. He contributed many years to the exhibitions of the 
 Royal Academy, but his works never attracted sufficient atten- 
 tion to secure for him academic distinction, or to induce him to 
 establish himself in London. Yet he was in truth in his par- 
 ticular line one of the best landscape-painters we possessed at a 
 time when the English school of landscape-painting was at its 
 highest. His pictures are usually transcripts of the scenery 
 around Norwich ; but they are something more and better than 
 mere topographical views. They exhibit almost always a selection 
 of what is essential, and convey a poetical conception of the 
 scene or leading object. In execution they are unequal, some 
 being too evidently painted hurriedly to be sold at insufficient 
 prices. But the best are of rare excellence. Crome died at 
 Norwich in 1821. At the International Exhibition of 1862 two 
 of his pictures were shown, and the greater part of those who 
 saw them learnt for the first time how great an artist we 
 possessed in one who was supposed to be only a provincial 
 celebrity. One of these pictures, ' Mousehold Heath,' was 
 secured for the National Gallery, and is one of the most 
 attractive representations of a broad open heath scene we pos- 
 sess, and rivalled by few for its truth, exquisite atmospheric 
 effect, and beauty of treatments The other, a close woodland 
 scene, was equally true and equally effective. Several of his 
 pictures have since come into the London market, but the 
 greater part of them are probably still in Norfolk. 
 
 CROMPTON, SAMUEL, inventor of the spinning-mule, was 
 born at Fir wood, near Bolton-le-Moors, December 3, 1753. 
 After the death of his father, the family removed to Hall-in-the 
 Wood, about a mile from Bolton, where cotton-spinning, in a 
 domestic way, was carried on as a means of support. Young 
 Cromjjton went on with his spinning and his schooling at the 
 same time. About 1774 he began a series of attempts to improve 
 the spinning-machine, making experiments and constructing 
 models in the intervals of work, and far into the night ; and 
 eking out his scanty means by occasionally playing as a violinist 
 in the Bolton Theatre at eighteen-pence a night. The state of 
 cotton-spinning at that time was such as to make some new con- 
 trivance very desirable. Until 1738 all cotton was spun in 
 single threads by hand. In that year Louis Paul patented a 
 method of spinning by passing previously-prepared slivers 
 between pairs of rollers— sound in principle, but failing in 
 detail. Highs, in 1767, obtained the aid of Kay, a clockmaker, 
 in constructing spinning-rollers, somewhat on the method of 
 Paul ; in the same year Hargreaves modified the one-handed 
 wheel in such a way as to spin sixteen threads at one time, " by 
 a turn of one hand and a draw of the other ;" and in the same 
 year Arkwright commenced the experiments which led to his 
 important water-twist or throttle-yarn spinning. Ten years 
 later, Arkwright's machine supplied hard yarn for warp, while 
 that of Hargreaves supplied soft yarn for weft ; but no machine 
 
 E E 2 
 
424 
 
 existed for spinning fine yarn for muslin and other delicate 
 goods. Crompton filled up this gap by the inventions which 
 he perfected between 1774 and 1779. He introduced two pairs 
 of rollers, one rotating faster than the other ; but the great 
 feature of the machine was his spindle-carriage, This, with the 
 spindles upon it, could, by the movement of the hand and knee, 
 recede just at the moment when the rollers gave out the 
 elongated thread ; the thread being in a soft state, so as to allow 
 of a considerable stretching before it had to encounter the stress 
 of winding on the spindle. His first successful machine had 
 about thirty spindles, and the difference of velocities between 
 the two pairs of rollers was such as to give a stretch of one in 
 three or four. The machine was first called the Hall-i'-the- 
 Wood Wheel, then the Muslin Wheel, but it is now known as 
 the Mule, a cross between, or a combination of, the spindle and 
 the roller. Crompton having married, he and his young wife 
 began to work the machine in 178d. Weavers willingly bought 
 his beautiful yarn ; but he was much annoyed by rival spinners, 
 who tried to obtain a sight of his wonderful machine, that they 
 might imitate it. He could not keep his secret ; he could not 
 afford to obtain a patent ; and, in his poverty, he sold the secret 
 of his machine to certain manufacturers before the year was 
 out for a subscribed remuneration, which barely reached QOl. 
 Crompton removed to another house near Bolton, about 1784, 
 where he farmed a small patch of land, and spun beautiful yarn 
 by a mule in which lie was frequently making improvements. 
 By the year 178C one of the mules at Bolton had 108 spindles, 
 and the machine was coming rapidly into use throughout the 
 district. In 1791 he removed to Bolton, where he and his 
 family worked upon two mules, and where he also made many 
 improvements in the machines for preparing cotton for the mule 
 process. In 1801, with 5(H)/. subscribed by a friend, he set up a 
 small factory, in which one of the mules had as many as 360 
 spindles. Generally in difficulties, and always harassed by the 
 prying curiosity and envious malice of rival spinners, he applied 
 about 1807 to the Royal Society and the Society of Arts for 
 some recognition of his services, but without success. In 1811 
 he caused statistics to be obtained, showing the extent to which 
 mule-spinning had been adopted, to the enrichment of those who 
 had made no invention in the matter. It was found that there 
 were 4,000,000 mule spindles in the United Kingdom, in 360 
 mills ; that two-thirds of all the steam-power used in the cotton 
 manufacture was employed in mule-spinning ; that 7000 persons 
 were engaged in spinning with the mule ; and that 150,000 were 
 Weaving with mule-spun yarn. In 1812 he obtained a grant of 
 5000/. from parliament. There is evidence to show a probability 
 that the grant would have been 20,000/. but for the untimely 
 death of Mr. Spencer Percival. Crompton, in his later years, 
 combined cotton-bleaching and muslin- weaving at works which 
 he established at Over Darwin in 1813; but, with all his 
 ingenuity as an inventor, he was not fitted to cope with the 
 rivalries and commercial difficulties of his position. Some of 
 his friends tried without success to obtain another parliamentary 
 grant for him in 1826. He died June 26th, 1827. He was of a 
 gentle, retiring, pious disposition ; his taste for music was con- 
 siderable, and he composed several hymn tunes. 
 
 (Life of Samuel Crompton, by Gilbert J. French, 8vo, London, 
 second edition, 1860.) 
 
 CRONSTEDT, AXEL FRIEDRICH DE, was born in 1722 
 in Sudermania (Sodermanland). His name is attached to the dis- 
 covery of one of the elementary bodies in chemistry, namely, 
 nickel. The commonest ore of this metal is called " Kupfer- 
 nickel," or "false copper," and this is a compound of arsenic and 
 nickel found abundantly in the mines of Saxony and Germany, 
 and elsewhere. Cronstedt's researches on kupfernickel between 
 1751 and 1754 led to the discovery of nickel. Science is also 
 indebted to Cronstedt for his ' Essay towards a System of 
 Mineralogy/ published in Swedish in 1758, wbich had the most 
 marked influence on the science. He rejected the trivial dis- 
 tinctions between earths and stones, vitrescent and nonvitrescent 
 bodies, &c, and classed the earths as calcareous, siliceous, argil- 
 laceous, and so on. So also calcareous earth is pure (calcspar), 
 or united with acid of vitriol (gypsum), or with muriatic acid, 
 and so on, which is in fact the general principle of classification 
 of minerals that has been continued to our own clay. This essay 
 was translated into several languages. The author also con- 
 tributed a number of papers to the Memoirs of the Academy of 
 Stockholm. He died the 19th of August, 1765. 
 
 CROSSE, ANDREW [E. C.vol. vi. col. 9891. 
 
 CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE, a Swiss philosopher and 
 divine, was born on the 13th of April, 1663, at Lausanne, and 
 
 was educated at Geneva, after which he spent some time at 
 Ley den and Paris. On his return home in 1684, he was called 
 to the pastorate of his native city, in the college of which he 
 became in 1699 professor of Greek and philosophy, and in 1706 
 professor of divinity. In 1724 he was elected to the chair of 
 mathematics and philosophy in the University of Groningen ; 
 and was appointed two years afterwards to superintend the 
 education of Prince Frederick of Hesse-Cassel. He returned in 
 1737 to the professorship of philosophy at Lausanne, and died 
 on the 22nd of March, 1748. He left a great number of works 
 in science, theology, and philosophy, but not many of them are 
 reckoned to-day as of much more than historical interest. They 
 are nearly all in French, and include ' Logique, ou,Systemede Re- 
 flexions qui peuvent contribuer a la Netteto et al'Ltendue de nos 
 Connoissances,' 2 vols. 8vo, Amsterdam, 1712, which was several 
 times reprinted, and of which an English translation was pub- 
 lished as 'A New Treatise of the Art of Thinking, or a complete 
 System of Reflexions concerning the Conduct and Improvement 
 of the Mind,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1724 ; 'Traite du Beau,' &c, 
 2 vols. 12mo, Amsterdam, 1715, 2nd edition, 1724 ; 'Reflexions, 
 sur l'Utilite des Mathematiques et sur la Maniere de les Etudier,' 
 &c, 12ino, Amsterdam, 1715; ' Geometrie des Lignes et des 
 Surfaces rectilignes et circulaires,' 2 vols. 8vo, Amsterdam, 
 1718 ; 'Examendu Traite de la Liberie de Penser,' Brussels, 
 1715, and 8vo, Amsterdam, 1718, a work directed against An- 
 thony Collins; 'Traite de l'Education des Enfants,' 2 vols. 
 12mo, the Hague, 1722, of which an English translation by G. 
 J. Tacheron was published as 'New Maxims concerning the 
 Education of Youth,' &c, 2 parts, 8vo, London, 1740 ; ' De 
 Physicae Utilitate Dissertatio Philosophica,' 8vo, Groningen, 
 1725 ; ' De Monte humana, Substantia a Corpore distincta et 
 inimortali. Dissertatio philosophico-theologica,' 12mo, Groningen, 
 1726, which developed into a later work, entitled, 'De l'Esprit 
 humain : Substance differente du Corps, active, libre, immortelle,' 
 4to, Basel, 1741, which is conceived in opposition to the opinion 
 of Leibnitz, Wolf, Bilfinger, and others on the doctrine of pre- 
 established harmony, on the ground that such a doctrine de- 
 stroyed the liberty of man, and made God the author of moral 
 evil ; a work against the scepticism of Bayle, entitled ' Examen 
 du Pyrrhonisme ancien et moderne,' folio, the Hague, 1733 ; 
 'Examen de l'Essay de Monsieur Pope sur l'Homme,' 12mo, 
 Lausanne, 1737, of which English translations, the former by 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Carter, appeared, entitled respectively ' An 
 Examination,' &c, 12mo, London, 1739, and 'A Commentary,' 
 &c, 12mo, London, 1740. The ' Examen,' and a further attack 
 by M. Crousaz on the English poet, in a ' Commentaire sur la 
 Traduction en Vers de M. l'Abbe Du Resnel, de l'Essai de M. 
 Pope sur l'Homme,' 12mo, Geneva, 1738, was followed by a 
 defence, entitled ' A View of the Necessitarian or best Scheme : 
 freed from the objections of M. Crousaz in his Examination of 
 Pope's Essay on Man,' 8vo, London, 1739, and by Bishop War- 
 burton's ' Vindication of Mr. Pope's Essay on Man from the 
 Misrepresentations of Mr. de Crousaz,' 12mo, London, 1740. 
 
 CROWLEY, CROLE, or CROLEUS, ROBERT, a poet and 
 divine of the 16th century, was bom in Gloucestershire, or, 
 according to Fuller (' Worthies of England '), in Northampton- 
 shire, about the year 1517. He was entered a student of the 
 University of Oxford about 1534, and was soon after made demy 
 of Magdalen College, of which society he became, under the 
 name of Robert Crole, a probationary fellow in 1542, having 
 taken his B.A. degree as Robert Crowley on the 19th of January, 
 1540. Wood conjectures that he left the university, probably 
 without proceeding to his Master's degree, " when King Henry 
 VIII. began to settle a mongrel religion in the nation." At the 
 beginning of the reign of Edward VI. Crowley was settled as a 
 printer and bookseller in Ely-rents, Holborn, exercising his gift 
 of preaching in London and elsewhere as leisure and opportunity 
 served. He was admitted to deacon's orders on the 29th of 
 September, 1551, by Nicholas Ridley, then Bishop of London, 
 in whose register Strype tells us he is " styled stationer of the 
 parish of St. Andrew, Holborn." When Queen Marj T came to 
 the throne Crowley fled to the Continent, and fixed himself at 
 Frankfurt, where he remained until after the accession of Eliza- 
 beth in November, 1558. Returning now to • England, he 
 resumed the exercise of his profession, in wdiich he received 
 substantial preferment. He was collated on the 24th of March, 
 1559, to the Archdeaconry of Hereford, which, however, he re- 
 signed in 1567 ; on the 9th of July, 1560, he was collated to 
 the staU of Pratum Majus in the Cathedral Church of Hereford ; 
 and on the 1st of September, 1563, to the prebend of Mora, or 
 More extra London, in St. Paul's Cathedral, of which for some 
 
425 
 
 CRUDEN, ALEXANDER. 
 
 CULPEPPER, NICHOLAS. 
 
 426 
 
 reason at present unknown he was deprived in September, 15'>5. 
 In or before the year 15ii(l he was presented to the vicarage of 
 St. Giles, Cripplegate ; and on the 5th of May, 1576, received from 
 the Bishop of London, to whom the presentation had lapsed, 
 the vicarage of St. Lawrence, Jewry, which he held for about 
 two years, and resigned in 1578. He died on the 18th of June, 
 1588, and was buiied in the chancel of the church of St. Giles. 
 
 Crowley's zeal and activity were uncompromisingly directed 
 against the Church of Rome, and nearly all his works give more 
 or less evidence of his animosity. They comprise — ' The Con- 
 futation of Thirteen Articles, whereunto Nicholas Shaxton, late 
 Byshop of Salisburye, subscribed and caused to be set forth in 
 Print the Yere of Lord M.D.XLVI.. when he recanted in Smith- 
 helde at London, at the Burning of Mestres Anne Askue,' 8vo, 
 London, 1548 ; ' The Confutation of the mishapen Aunswer to 
 the misnamed wicked Ballade, called the Abuse of ye blessed 
 Sacrament of the An It are, wherein thou haste (geniele Reader) 
 the ryghte Understandynge of al the Places of Scripture that 
 Miles Hoggard (wyth his learned Counsail) hath wrested to 
 make for the Transubstanciacion of the Bread and Wyne,' 8vo, 
 London, 1548 ; ' An Information and Petition agaynst the 
 Oppressours of the Poor Commons of thys Realme,' 8vo, Lon- 
 don, which was rendered by John Heron in Latin, with the 
 title of ' Explicatio Petitoria (ad Parliamentum) adversus expi- 
 latores egene plebecule hujus Regni,' 8vo, 1548 ; ' The Psalter 
 of David newely translated into Englyshe metre in such sort that 
 it maye the more decently, and wyth more delyte of the mynde, 
 be reade and songe of al men,' &c, 4to, London, 1549, which 
 was printed, by the author, and sold by him at Ely-rents ; ' A 
 New Yere's Gvfte, wherein is taught the Knowledge of ourself 
 and the Fear of God,' &c, 16mo, London, 1549 ; ' The Voyce of 
 the laste Trumpet, blowen by the Seventh Angel (as is men- 
 tioned in the Eleventh of the Apocalrps), callynge al the Estates 
 of Men to the ryght Path of theyr Vocation,' &c, 16mo, London, 
 
 1549, a metrical work, which contains twelve lessons addressed 
 severally to beggars, servants, yeomen, lewd priests, scholars, 
 learned men, physicians, lawyers, merchants, gentlemen, magis- 
 trates, and women ; ' The Way to Wealth, wherein is plainly 
 taught a most present Remedy for Sedicion,' 8vo, London, 1550 ; 
 ' One-and- Thirty Epigrams, wherein are briefly touched so many 
 Abuses that may and ought to be put away,' folio, London, 
 
 1550, which, although twice or thrice reprinted, are now un- 
 known, with the exception of fifteen preserved by Strype in his 
 ' Ecclesiastical Memorials,' abounding in local information, and 
 exhibiting a curious picture of the manners and customs of the 
 time ; 'The Fable of Philargyria [or Avarice], the great Gigant 
 of Great Britain : what Houses were builded and Lands ap- 
 pointed for his Provisions, and how al the same is wasted to 
 contente his greedy Gut wythall, and yet he rageth for Honger,' 
 fevo and 4to, 1551 ; a kind of metrical sermon, entitled ' Pleasure 
 and Payne, Heaven and Hell : remember these foure, and all 
 shall be well,' 8vo, London, 1551 ; ' An Apologie or Defence of 
 those Englishe Writers and Preachers, which Cerberus, the 
 three-headed Dog of Hell, chargeth with false Doctrine, under 
 the name of Predestination,' 4to, London, 1566; 'Abriefe Dis- 
 course against the outwarde Apparell and ministring Garmentes 
 of the Popishe Church,' 16mo, 1566 and 1579 ; ' Dialogue 
 between Lent and Liberty, wherein is declared that Lent is a 
 meer Invention of Man,' 8vo, London, a treatise remarkable for 
 the boldness and novelty of its personification of Lent. Crowley 
 published many other works of a polemical nature, and a sermon 
 or two preached on remarkable occasions. A few other works 
 have been too hastily referred to him, amongst which are ' The 
 School of Virtue and Book of Good Nature,' the authorship of 
 which is with more probability given to Francis Seager ; and 
 the ' Supper of the Lord after the true Meaning of the VI. of 
 John,' &c, 8vo, London, 1533, which was most likely written by 
 Tyndale, and attributed incorrectly to Crowley, because the 
 latter had furnished a preface to the edition of 1551. Amongst 
 the circumstances which tend, however, to his most abiding 
 credit will be remembered the fact that Crowley printed and 
 published, with a preface which shows that he brought forth the 
 volume in the interests of controversy rather than of archaeology, 
 the first edition of the ' Visions of Pierce Plowman,' 4to, London. 
 1st and 2nd editions, 1550 ; new edition, 4to, 1561, and fre- 
 quently reprinted and re-edited. 
 
 CRUDEN, ALEXANDER [E. C. vol. vi. col. 990]. 
 
 CRUM, WALTER, was born at Glasgow in 1796, and died 
 5th May, 1867. He was educated in his native city, and attended 
 the chemical course of Dr. Thomas Thomson. He is best known 
 for his successful efforts to place the arts of dyeing and calico 
 
 printing on a scientific basis. He showed that a large class of 
 colouring matters are fixed in cotton by the passage of their 
 constituents whilst in the. soluble state into the cavity of the 
 fibre, and their subsequent precipitation therein as a solid pig- 
 ment, as in the case of dyeing with acetate of lead and chromate 
 of potash. Crum also pointed out an isomeric variety of 
 alumina, which is incapable of combining with colouring matter; 
 also a new oxide of copper analogous in composition to peroxide 
 of iron. As early as 1823 his paper on Indigo and on certain 
 substances produced from it by the action of sulphuric acid pro- 
 cured him much credit. He was the first to give the true 
 formula for gun cotton. 
 
 Crum was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1844. 
 During many years, as president of Anderson's University, he 
 exerted himself to promote the education and general welfare of 
 the people, and to bring scientific knowledge within reach of the 
 artisan. 
 
 CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB [E. C. vol. ii. col. 
 449]. This favourite Swedish writer and politician died on the 
 18th of January, 1865. 
 
 * CRUVEILHIER, JEAN, a French physician, was born at 
 Limoges, Feb. 9, 1791, and was educated for the medical profes- 
 sion at Paris. In 1816 he wrote a thesis, entitled ' Essai sur 
 l'Anatomie pathologique ' on receiving his degree of doctor in 
 medicine. After stopping for various periods at Limoges, Paris, 
 and Montpellier, engaged partly in teaching, and partly in 
 pursuing his medical practice, he ultimately settled in Paris in 
 1825, where he succeeded Beclard as professor of anatomy in the 
 university. Here he devoted himself enthusiastically to his 
 favourite study, reviving the old anatomical society, and pub- 
 lishing his professional course of lectures. He was also engaged 
 as physician to several of the medical hospitals. In 1835 he 
 was appointed to the new chair of pathological anatomy founded 
 by M. Dupuytren. On Aug. 14, 1863, he was promoted a com- 
 mander of the Legion of Honour. His principal works are 
 important memoirs in the ' Bulletins ' of the Academy of Medi- 
 cine ; ' Anatomie pathologique clu corps humain,' 2 vols, folio, 
 1829 — 1842, which is a magnificent work, illustrated by upwards 
 of 200 plates; 'Anatomie du System e Nerveux de 1'homme,' 
 folio, 1845 ; 'Traits d' Anatomie descriptive,' 1851,4th edition, 
 which commenced in 1863, but is not finished ; and 'Traite 
 d'Anatomie pathologique generale,' 5 vols. 8vo, 1849 — 1864. 
 
 * CUBITT, JOSEPH, civil engineer, son of Sir William 
 Cubitt, was born at Horning, in Norfolk, in November, 1811. 
 After studying engineering under his father, he commenced on 
 his own account, taking up railway engineering as the chief 
 object of his attention. The Ashford and Margate Extension of 
 the South-Eastern Railway was planned and carried out by him. 
 The Rhymney Railway in Monmouthshire, and the Great 
 Northern, among those of magnitude, were constructed under his 
 plans and directions ; as were likewise the chief works on the 
 London. Chatham, and Dover Railway, including the line from 
 Beckenham to Farringdon-street, and the line from Herne-hill 
 to Victoria, each involving the construction of a bridge over the 
 Thames. Mr. Cubitt constructed the piers at Porth Cawl 
 Harbour and at Weymouth, and lengthened that at Yarmouth. 
 His latest work of importance has been the new Blackfriars 
 Bridge, opened by Queen Victoria in November, 1869. This 
 structure is noteworthy for the difficulties which had to be 
 surmounted in its construction. In clearing away the old bridge 
 (which had been condemned in 1864), the stumps of the decayed 
 foundations of the piers had to be removed before a single stone 
 of the new structure could be placed. The work was done by 
 divers, who dragged them up piecemeal, and who were a whole 
 year thus employed. So loose and soft was the bed of the river 
 near the Middlesex shore, that the caisson for the first pier had 
 to be sunk to a depth of no less than 52 feet below the 
 bed of the river. The arches of the bridge, five in number, 
 are formed each of nine parallel ribs of wrought and ri vetted 
 iron, braced together with latticed girders. The junctions of 
 these iron arches on the piers are concealed by immense columns 
 of polished red granite, the largest ever used in bridge building. 
 Mr. Cubitt also constructed the remarkable temporary double 
 timber bridge, having a footway over the carriage-way, used 
 from 1864 to 1869, during the construction of the permanent 
 bridge, 
 
 CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM [E. C. vol. ii. col. 454]. This dis- 
 tinguished engineer died on the 13th of October, 1861. He was 
 elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1830. 
 
 CULPEPPER, NICHOLAS, born in London in 1616, called 
 himself student in physic and astrology. He practised both arts, 
 
4L7 CUMING, HUGH. 
 
 and wrote a great many books on medicine, once greatly in 
 request, but all of them long since forgotten, save that known as 
 ' Culpepper's Herbal,' which was until recently familiar in many 
 a household. The real title of this book was 'The English 
 Physician,' 4to, London, 1653, 1656, 1683, and 1684, &c; editions 
 in 8vo being published in 1661, 1695, 1698, and more or less 
 imperfect reprints being frequently issued till within the last 
 few years. The book gained its popular title from its being an 
 account of the medicinal qualities of plants — these, according to 
 the author, being determined by the planets under which they 
 blossom or are gathered. Culpepper died in Spitalfields, 
 January 10, 1654. 
 
 CUMING, HUGH, a distinguished travelling conchologist, 
 was born, Feb. 14, 1791, at West Alvington, Devonshire. As a 
 child he was passionately fond of flowers and shells ; and this 
 led to his being noticed and encouraged by Colonel Montague, 
 the well-known author of ' Testacea Britannica.' He was ap- 
 prenticed to a sail-maker, and in 1819 he settled at Valparaiso, 
 pursuing business on his own account. While here he indulged 
 his passion for collecting shells, which was stimulated by the 
 encouragements of several scientific English naval officers. In 
 
 1826 he relinquished business, built a yacht expressly adapted 
 for collecting, and explored the South Pacific Ocean for more 
 than a year. He returned to Valparaiso, and, after due prepa- 
 ration, undertook an exploring expedition along the western 
 coast of America ; and in the prosecution of it he received special 
 privileges and letters of introduction to all the principal autho- 
 rities, from the Government of Chili. Two years were spent in 
 thoroughly examining the whole shore line from the island of 
 Chiloe in 44° S. lat. to the Gulf of Conchagua in 13° N. lat. 
 Having accumulated an immense collection of shells, he re- 
 turned to England, and from 1831 until now it has been a store- 
 house for describers of new species. The value of the collection 
 was much enhanced by his having preserved the soft parts and 
 the particulars relating to the capture of most of the species. In 
 1835 he made an exploring expedition to the Philippine Islands, 
 his proceedings being facilitated by his knowledge of the Spanish 
 language, and letters of recommendation from the authorities at 
 Madrid. He examined both the sea-shores .and a large portion 
 of the interior of most of the islands ; and wherever he went he 
 lodged with the priest of the locality, who aided him in every 
 possible way, sometimes by the use of equipages, and sometimes 
 by organising parties of school-children to scour the district for 
 snails and plants. Many of his rarest and finest specimens 
 were obtained by the aid of school-children. In this way he 
 spent four years, and returned home with large collections of 
 plants, the dried specimens of which alone numbered 130,000, 
 birds, reptiles, insects, and quadrupeds. These were distributed 
 to various museums. His principal collection, viz., that of 
 mollusks, he reserved to himself. His collection was now exceed- 
 ingly large, and he spent most of the rest of his life in arranging 
 it, exchanging duplicates for those which he did not possess, 
 adding to it from time to time by purchases, and arranging with 
 conchologists for the description of new species. His death 
 occurred at his residence in Gower-street, Aug. 10, 1865 ; and 
 his collection was left to the British Museum, where it is now 
 open to public inspection. His writings were few, and not of 
 much importance. 
 
 CUMMING, JAMES, was born 24th October, 1777. He 
 became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1800, and 
 fellow in 1803, having graduated as B.A. in 1801, obtaining 
 honours in mathematics as tenth wrangler, after which he pro- 
 ceeded to M.A. While an undergraduate, he devoted much 
 time to the study of natural philosophy, and afterwards assisted 
 Wollaston, the physical professor in the university, in his lec- 
 tures and experiments. In 1815, on the death of Smithson 
 Tennant, he succeeded to the chair of chemistry, and in 1819 
 was presented to the rectory of North Runcton, near Lynn, 
 formerly held by the Astronomer Royal, Maskelyne. He re- 
 tained both preferments up to the time of his death, frequently 
 residing in Cambridge, and lecturing every year until I860, 
 when his course was interrupted by illness. He died, 10th 
 November, 1861, at the age of 84. He was F.R.S., and an early 
 promoter of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, of which he 
 was once president He contributed some papers to the ' Tran- 
 sactions ' of this society on his favourite sciences, heat and elec- 
 tricity, his most remarkable paper, published in, 18.23, being on 
 a new branch of science (started by Professor Seebeck, of Berlin, 
 the year before), in which it was shown that electricity is deve- 
 loped by the unequal heating of all kinds of conductors. In 
 
 1 827 he published a manual of electro-dynamics. He was among 
 
 CUNiEUS, PETRUS. 423 
 
 the first to appreciate the value of O-rsted's famous experiment) 
 and so early as 1820 pointed it out as the basis of the electric 
 telegraph. His professorship not being provided with apparatus, 
 he showed his skill in manipulation by supplying many of his 
 illustrations from his own workshop. 
 
 CUMMING, REV. JOSEPH G, geologist, was born Feb. 15, 
 1812, at Matlock, Derbyshire, was educated at Oakham Grammar 
 School, and at Cambridge, and, having attained high honours, 
 was ordained in 1835. After serving as curate to his uncle, the 
 Rev. James Cumming, rector of North Runcton, Norfolk, for a 
 few years, he became, in 1841, vice-principal of King William's 
 College, Isle of Man, and resided in that island for fifteen years. 
 He was then engaged in teaching at Lichfield and Birmingham 
 up to 1862, when he was presented to the rectory of Mellis 
 Suffolk, which he exchanged for the vicarage of St. John's, 
 Bethnal-green, in 1867. He died, Sept. 21, 1868. He was a 
 fellow of the Geological Society, for whose 'Journal' he wrote 
 several papers, most ly relating to the Isle of Man. He is best 
 known for his work, entitled ' Isle of Man : its History, Physical, 
 Ecclesiastical, Civil, and Legendary,' 8vo, 1848. 
 
 CUNJSUS, PETRUS, in the vernacular, Van der Cun, a 
 learned lawyer and antiquary, and son of a merchant of Flush- 
 ing, in Zealand, was born there in the year 1586. After re- 
 ceiving careful instruction at Middleburg and Haarlem, he was 
 sent at 14 years of age to Leyden, where he studied Greek and 
 Hebrew under his relative, Ambrosius Regemorter, with whom 
 in 1603 he paid a visit to England. Returning to Leyden with- 
 out Regemorter, who remained in London as Pastor of the Re- 
 formed Dutch Church, Cunaeus applied himself to theology and 
 jurisprudence, in addition to his studies in the Belles-Lettres, 
 and attracted the attention of the curators of the University by 
 the ability of a course of lectures which he delivered on Horace. 
 Wishing to increase the depth and the range of his learning, he 
 repaired to the University of Franeker, in Friesland, where the 
 celebrated Johan Druys, or Drusius, Professor of Hebrew, in- 
 structed him in that language, as well as in Chaldee and Syriac, 
 and in Rabbinical learning and Jewish antiquities generally. In 
 the beginning of the year 1612, Cunaeus was appointed by the 
 curators of the University of Leyden to be Professor Extraordi- 
 nary of the Latin language, and not long after was further 
 commissioned to give instructions in political economy. In 
 1613 he was enrolled as one of the ordinary professors, and two 
 years after, took his degree of Doitor in the Faculty of Law ; 
 when he received permission to spend some time at the Hague, 
 for the purpose of becoming acquainted with the practice of the 
 courts of justice. Upon his return to Leyden he was appointed, 
 in 1615, to the Professorship of Jurisprudence, the duties of 
 which he performed till his death, on the 2nd of December, 1638. 
 He was interred in the Church of St. Peter, at Leyden. Towards 
 the end of his career, the States of Holland often consulted him 
 on delicate questions of commercial and maritime law ; and he 
 held for some time, in succession to Jacobus Eyndius (Jacob von 
 den Eynde) the office of Historiographer to the State of Zealand. 
 His works include ' Notse et Animadversiones in Nonni Pano- 
 politae Dyonysiaca,' 8vo, Leyden, 1610; ' Juliani Imperatoris 
 Cassares, sive Satyrae in Principes Romanos,' 16ino, Leyden, 
 1612, with which was incorporated ' Sardi Venales, Satyra 
 Menippea in hujus Saecub homines plerosque in esse eruditos,' 
 16mo, Leyden, 1612, in which the author ridicules the savans 
 who play upon the ignorance and credulity of the people, and 
 which was several times reprinted in Dutch, as 'Gekken te hoop,' 
 12mo, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, &c, and in French, with the 
 title of ' La Reforme dans la Republique des Lettres.' His most 
 important work is his ' De Republica Hebraeorum, Libri III.,' 
 8vo, Leyden, 1617, which became a text- book in the University 
 of Leyden, and was several times reprinted, amongst others, with 
 various annotations by Johan Nicolai, in 4to, Leyden, 1703. An 
 English translation, by C[lement] B[arksdale], appeared as 
 ' Petrus Cunaeus of the Commonwealth of the Hebrews,' 12mo, 
 London, 1653 ; a Dutch translation, by Willem Goeree, was 
 entitled ' De Republyk der Hebreen,. of gemeenebest der Jooden, 
 in drie Boeken door Petrus Cunaeus, in 't Latijn beschreven, en 
 nu nit 't Latijn vertaald en met printverbeeldingen en nodige 
 inlassingen verrijkt,' 4 parts, 12mo, Leyden, 16&2 — 1702 ; and 
 a French version bore the title of ' Republique des Hebreux,' 
 8vo, Amsterdam, 1705. The 'Hebrew Republic' does not pre- 
 sent the sequence and completeness of a history, but rather 
 exhibits the epochs of the ju'incipal revolutions in the Jewish 
 commonwealth, with detached commentaries on the more im- 
 portant of its laws and ceremonies. Another of the works of 
 Cunaeus may be mentioned, ' Exercitationum Oratoriarum In- 
 
423 
 
 430 
 
 auguratio,' 4to, Leyden, 1621 ; and a further one, of posthumous 
 publication, in which several of his already published works 
 were collected, witli the title of ' Orationes Varii Argumenti, 
 &c, editae cura M. Z. Boxhornii,' 8vo, Leyden, 1640, 8 vo, Wit- 
 tenburg, 1643, 8vo, Leipzig, 1693, and 8vo, Leipzig, 1735. 
 Peter Burman, Professor of Rhetoric at Leyden, collected and 
 edited for the first time various letters which had been written 
 or received by Cunoeus, with the title of ' Petri Ounsei, Elo- 
 quentise et Juris Romani quondam Academia Batava Professoris, 
 et doctorum Virornm ad Eundem Epistola?,' 8vo, Leyden, 1725. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, PETER [E. C. vol. ii. col. 462]. From 
 the time of his retirement from the Audit Office in 1800, Mr. 
 Cunningham was incapacitated by the state of his health from 
 any continuous literary labour. He resided at St. Albans, where 
 he'died, on the 18th of May, 1869, aged 53. 
 
 CURETON, "WILLIAM, an eminent Orientalist, was born in 
 1808, at Westbury, in Shropshire, and, after receiving his earlier 
 education at the Free Grammar School of Newport, in that county, 
 proceeded with a Careswell Exhibition to Christ Church, Oxford, 
 which he entered in 1826. He took the degrees of B.A. in 1830, 
 M.A. in 1833, and B.D. and D.D. by accumulation in 1858, at 
 which time he was already an honorary D.D. of the University 
 of Halle. He was made deacon in 1831, and admitted to priest's 
 orders in 1832. Dr. Gaisford, Dean of Christ Church, appointed 
 him chaplain of his college, and in 1834 recommended him to 
 the office of sub-librarian of the Bodleian, the duties of which he 
 fulfilled until his appointment, in 1837, to succeed Sir Frederick 
 Madden as assistant-keeper of the MSS. in the British Museum. 
 Here his knowledge of Arabic, to which he had devoted himself 
 from the time of his first graduation in 1830, found exercise 
 in arranging, cataloguing, and minutely describing in Latin 
 the Arabic books and manuscripts. He was an active pro- 
 moter, if not the founder, of the Society for the Publication of 
 Oriental Texts, for which he edited, "from the collation of 
 several MSS.," Muhammad al Sharastani's ' Book of Religious 
 and Philosophical Sects,' 2 parts, 8vo, London, 1842 — 1846, and 
 En-NeseiTs ' Pillar of the Creed of the Sunnites/ 8vo., London, 
 1 843 ; having previously brought out in the same year Rabbi 
 Tanchum's Commentary on the Book of Lamentations, ' Tan- 
 chumi Hierosolymitani Commentarius Arabicus in Lamenta- 
 tiones, e Codice unico Bodleiano,' &c, 8vo, London, 1843. The 
 first fruits, however, of Dr. Cureton's Oriental studies were an 
 Arabic tract, which he appears to have printed just before he left 
 the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and to the text of which Dr. 
 Wright, under whose care the work was finally published, after 
 the editor's death, says that he evidently intended to add an 
 English translation and notes. This little work is part of a 
 larger one by Abu Nasr Yahya ibn Harir, a Jacobite Christian 
 of Tekrft, and is called the ' Thirty-first Chapter of the Book 
 entitled The Lamp that guides to Salvation,' 8vo, London, 1865. 
 
 Dr. Cureton's attention was considerably diverted from his 
 Arabic studies by the arrival, in 1841, and again in 1843, of a 
 collection of Syriac MSS., which had been obtained through the 
 agency of Dr. Tattam, from the Monastery of St. Mary Deipara, 
 in the Desert of Nitria or Scete, not far from Cairo; to the 
 study, arrangement, cataloguing, and description of which he 
 proceeded with enthusiastic ardour. The first result of his re- 
 searches in this new field was the publication of ' The Ancient 
 Syriac Version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius to St. Polycarp, 
 the Ephesians, and the Romans ; together with extracts from his 
 Epistles collected from the Writings of Seyerus of Antioch, 
 Timotheus of Alexandria, and others. Edited, with an English 
 Translation and Notes ; also the Greek Text of these three 
 Epistles, corrected according to the authority of the Syriae 
 Version ;' 8vo, London, 1845 ; in reviewing which work in De- 
 cember of that year, the ' Quarterly Review ' gave an account of 
 the way in which the manuscripts were procured, and a rough 
 sketch of their contents. The Epistles ascribed to Ignatius had 
 already given rise to more controversy than any other documents 
 connected with the Primitive Church, and the publication of 
 Dr. Cureton's work opened it afresh. He argued that the 
 Epistles presented by him exhibited more accurately than any 
 formerly published what Ignatius had actually written, affirm- 
 ing that we have here the genuine Epistles of St. Ignatius in 
 their original form ; that the previously known recensions of 
 these three Epistles are much altered and interpolated ; and that 
 all others ascribed to that Father are supposititious. Whilst 
 some accepted the views of Cureton, as the Chevalier Bunsen 
 and Dr. F. C. Baur, of Tubingen, others very strenuously op- 
 posed them, as Dr. Wordsworth, in the 'English Review,' July, 
 1845, Dr. Hilgenfeld, Dr. Denzinger, and Dr. Hefele, in his 
 
 third edition of the 'Apostolic Fathers.' Cureton himself took 
 the field against Wordsworth in his ' Vindiciffl [gnatianSB ; or, 
 the Genuine Writings of St. Ignatius, as exhibited in the ancient 
 Syriac Version, vindicated from the charge of Heresy,' 8vo, Lon- 
 don, 1846, which Dr. Wright characterises as a calm but crushing 
 refutation of his opponent's allegation that the Syriac version was 
 "a miserable epitome by anEutychian heretic." The next publi- 
 cation affecting this question was Cureton's ' Corpus Ignatianum : 
 a complete Collection of the Ignatian Epistles, genuine, interpo- 
 lated, attd spurious ; together with numerous extracts from them, 
 as quoted by Ecclesiastical Writers down to the Tenth Centurv, 
 in Syriac, Greek, and Latin ; an English Translation of the 
 Syriac Text, copious Notes, and Introduction,' 8vo, London, 
 1849, in which the editor expresses his belief in the prevalence 
 of the views he had put forth. But the controversy was not 
 yet settled, and champions on one side and the other have since 
 appeared. Cureton, however, remained stedfast to the position 
 he had assumed in the ' Corpus Ignatianum,' and intended, but 
 for his premature death, to have once again stepped forward to 
 sum up and conclude the controversy. Whilst this was at its 
 height, he edited the text of a portion of the Syriac version of 
 the long-lost ' Festal Letters of St. Athanasius,' 8vo, London, 
 1848, of which a German translation appeared in 1852, and an 
 English one, 8vo, Oxford and London, 1854, by Dr. Henry 
 Burgess, formed one of the volumes of the ' Library of Fathers 
 of the Holy Catholic Church.' Other labours of Dr. Cureton in 
 the field of Syriac literature were the editing— for the Trustees 
 of the British Museum — of ' Fragments of the Iliad of Homer ; 
 from a Syriac Palimpsest,' 4 to, London, 1851 ; 'The Third Part 
 of the Ecclesiastical History of John, Bishop of Ephesus,' 4to, 
 Oxford, 1853, of which the Rev. R. Payne Smith published a 
 translation in 1860, and a German translation of which appeared 
 in 1862 ; ' Spicilegium Syriacum : containing remains of 
 Bardesan, Meliton, Ambrose, and Mara Bar Serapion. Now 
 first edited, with an English Translation and Notes,' &c, 8vo, 
 London, 1855 ; 'Remains of a very Ancient Recension of the 
 Four Gospels in Syriac, hitherto unknown in Europe. Dis- 
 covered, edited, and translated,' &c, 4to, London, 1858 ; the 
 ' History of the Martyrs in Palestine,' 4to, London, 1861, by 
 Eusebius of Caasarea, which was the last ol Dr. Cureton's works 
 that he lived to finish. 
 
 Resuming the thread of his personal and professional career, 
 it may be recorded that Cureton was in 1840 appointed one of 
 the select preachers of his University ; became in 1847 Chaplain 
 in Ordinary to the Queen ; and was appointed by the Crown, in 
 December, 1849, to the Rectory of St. Margaret's, Westminster, 
 to which was attached a canonry in the Abbey. Soon after this 
 promotion he resigned his Assistant-Keepership in the British 
 Museum. On the 29th of May, 1863, he received a severe shock 
 from a railway accident, whilst on his return with his family 
 from Eastbourne, from the effects of which he never recovered. 
 He died at his native place of Westbury, on the 17th of June, 
 1864, leaving the Orientalists of Europe to deplore a loss which 
 seemed irreparable. The honours which his scholarly reputa- 
 tion attracted, both in this country and abroad, were numerous. 
 He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1838 ; in 184«, 
 Deputy-Chairman, and in 1863 Chairman of the Committee 
 of the Oriental Translation Fund ; in 1855, a Corresponding 
 Member, and in 1860 a Foreign Associate of the Institute of 
 France ; in 1859 was appointed a Trustee of the British Museum 
 on the part of the Crown ; and received the Membership of the 
 French Asiatic Society, the Honorary Membership of the His- 
 torico-Theological Society of Leipzig, and the Corresponding 
 Membership of the German Oriental Society, besides other dis- 
 tinctions. His contributions to popular theology are ' Three 
 Sermons preached at the Chapel Royal, St. James,' 8vo, London 
 and Oxford, 1848 ; a Sermon preached at the request of the 
 Prince Consort before the Corporation of Trinity House, 
 and printed for private circulation, with tlxe title of ' The 
 Doctrine of the Trinity not Speculative but Practical,' 4to, 
 London, 1858 ; and a discourse delivered in Westminster Abbey 
 on Sunday evening, April 10, 1859, and published in ' West- 
 minster Abbey Sermons,' with the title of ' God's Promises and 
 Man's Promises contrasted.' Amongst the plans which Dr. 
 Cureton left unfulfilled was the publication of a work which was 
 edited after his death, and entitled ' Ancient Syriac Documents 
 relative to the earliest Establishment oi Christianity in Edessa 
 and the neighbouring Countries, from the Year of our Lord's 
 Ascension to the beginning of the Fourth Century ; 'discovered, 
 edited, translated, and annotated by the late W. Cureton, &c, 
 with a Preface by W. Wright, Ph.D., LL.D., Assistant in the 
 
431 
 
 432 
 
 Department of Manuscripts, British Museum,' 4to, London and 
 Edinburgh, 1864. Dr. Wright has since carried out another un- 
 accomplished design of Dr. Oureton, by his publication of the 
 ' Homilies of Farliad, or Aphraates, the Persian Sage,' 4to, Lon- 
 don, 1869. 
 
 CTJRLL, EDMUND, was born in the West of England, in 
 the latter part of the 17th century. He appears to have com- 
 menced business by keeping a bookseller's stall in Covent Gar- 
 den. In 1708 he was established as a publisher at Middle 
 Temple Gate; thence lie removed to "the Dial and BiLle, 
 against St. Dunstan's Church, in Fleet-street ;" about 1719 — 20 
 to Paternoster Row ; in 1723 returned westward, and, though he 
 several times shifted his ahode, continued thenceforward in or 
 about the Strand or Covent Garden. He has obtained an un- 
 enviable place in the literary history of the 18th century as the 
 publisher of obscene books and the opponent of Pope, who has 
 branded "dauntless Curll," "the miscreant," in some of the 
 coarsest and most offensive lines in the Dunciad. Curll was 
 rapacious, unprincipled, and unscrupulous, and many of his 
 books deserved all the reprobation they received ; but all his 
 books were not of a disreputable character. He was the pub- 
 lisher of ' Bishop Bull's Vindication of the Church of Eng- 
 land/ ' The Devout Companion,' South's ' Remains,' Aubrey's 
 'Antiquities of Surrey,' Ashmole's 'Berkshire,' and 'Order of 
 the Garter,' Parkers ' History of his Own Time,' Whitelocke's 
 1 Memorials,' Erdeswicke's ' Survey of Staffordshire,' and other 
 theological, historical, and antiquarian works, as well as Young's 
 ' Last Day,' and Philips' Poems. His quarrel with Pope com- 
 menced in 1715, on his publishing the 'Court Poems ' (a main 
 cause, also, of Pope's Quarrel with Lady Mary Wortley Mon- 
 tague). Curll met Pope and Lintott at the Swan Ta\ em, Fleet- 
 street, to discuss the publication. They did not quarrel then, 
 but Curll afterwards charged the poet with having put "an 
 emetic potion " into his wine, and Pope shortly after published 
 ' A Full and True Account of a horrid and barbarous revenge 
 by Poison, on the body of Mr. Edmund Curll, bookseller, with a 
 faithful copy of his last Will and Testament. By an Eye Wit- 
 ness.' This, which is more bestial than even the verses in the 
 Dunciad, was reprinted in Pope and Swift's Miscellanies, and the 
 poet returns to the story both in the text and notes of the Dun- 
 ciad. The same year, 1716, Curll having offended the West- 
 minster Scholars by printing, without permission, " with false 
 Latin in't," the Oration delivered by the Captain of the King's 
 Scholars on the death of Robert South, was enticed within the 
 school precincts, tossed in a blanket, and beaten: the story, of 
 course, being quickly spread abroad in prose and verse. About 
 this time (May, 1716) Curll was summoned before the House of 
 Lords for breach of privilege in publishing ' An Account of the 
 Trial of the Earl of Winton,' received, on his knees, a reprimand 
 from the Lord Chancellor, and was discharged on payment of 
 the fees. A few years later he was again called before the House 
 of Lords, this time for publishing the will of a peer: wills and 
 testaments of persons recently deceased being a class of goods in 
 which the Dauntless carried on a considerable trade. In No- 
 vember, 1725, Curll was tried before the Court of King's Bench 
 for publishing obscene and immoral books, namely, a translation 
 from the Latin, ' De Usu Flagrorum in re Venerea,,' and, ' Venus 
 in the Cloister, or the Nun in her Smock,' from the French. He 
 was found guilty, and, it is generally added, was sentenced to be 
 set in the pillory, and lose his ears. But this is an error. Curll 
 moved an arrest of judgment, on the ground that the offence was 
 not a libel, and, if punishable at all, was an offence contra bonos 
 mores, and only punishable in a spiritual court. The Court 
 ordered the point to be argued, and took time to consider its 
 judgment. Curll, meanwhile, was remanded to the King's 
 Bench Prison, where he was kept in close confinement for five 
 months. There he formed an acquaintance with a fellow pri- 
 soner, John Ker, of Kersland, and undertook to publish his 
 ' Memoirs and Secret Negotiations at the Courts of Great 
 Britain, Vienna, Hanover, &c.' Proceedings were at once insti- 
 tuted against Ker and his publisher for a misdemeanour in 
 printing a scandalous and seditious libel. Ker died before the 
 trial, but Curll was found guilty, and he was then (February 
 12th, 1728,) called up for judgment on the two convictions, the 
 judges having decided against him on the first. He was sen- 
 tenced, on the indictments for the obscene books, to pay a fine 
 of 25 marks for each, and to enter into recognizances for his good 
 behaviour : and for publishing Ker's Memoirs, to pay a fine of 
 25 marks, to stand in the pillory for the space of an hour, and to 
 enter into his own recognizance for his good behaviour for 
 another year. He accordingly stood in the pillory on February 
 
 28th, but telling the mob that it was for vindicating the memory 
 of Queen Anne, he not only escaped pelting, but at the end of 
 the hour was carried off in triumph to a neighbouring tavern. 
 Nothing is said in the sentence about his ears, and of course they 
 were not cropped, yet Amory, who boasts of his intimate friend- 
 ship, says, like most who have spoken of him, "he lost his ears 
 for the ' Nun in her Smock/ and another thing." Curll had, in 
 1727, published Pope's Letters to his friend Cromwell, having 
 bought them of Mrs. Thomas, and this was one of the grounds, if 
 Pope's anger* Inl.735he announced an edition of 'Jar. Pope's 
 I a I i-i ary Correspondence for Thirty Years, from 1704 to 1734.' 
 How he obtained the letters has never been fully explained, 
 though it is now generally believed that Pope caused them to be 
 conveyed to him ready printed. Be that as it may, the poet ex- 
 pressed great indignation, and, as Curll had in his advertisement 
 mentioned the name of certain peers, managed to have attention 
 called tn it in the I louse of Lords as a breach of privilege. The 
 printed sheets were seized, and Curll summoned to the bar, but 
 no such " abuse of Lord Burlington," as was asserted, being 
 found in them, he was dismissed, and the books returned to 
 him. Pope's purpose was served in general attention being di- 
 rected to the Letters, and he brought out his own edition. But 
 Curll was not disposed to forego his advantage, and he continued 
 to publish Pope's Letters, incorporating in his those first issued 
 in Pope's edition, till, with the help of a great deal of utterly 
 irrelevant matter, his series reached in all six volumes. This 
 filled the measure of Pope's wrath, and Curll 's place in the Dunciad 
 was the consequence. Into the details of the strife it is not neces- 
 sary to go farther, and we advise the reader who is not concerned 
 in the subject to avoid touching the pollution. Curll died in 1747, 
 " as great a penitent," according to Amory, "as ever expired." 
 An interesting account of Curll will be found in Mr. Charles 
 Knight's ' Shadows of the Old Booksellers/ and a great deal of 
 information, some of it original, concerning him is collected 
 in ' Notes and Queries/ S. 2, vols. ii. — x. For the story of the 
 Letters, consult ' Carruther's Life of Pope,' and the 'Athenaeum' 
 for 1854; some additional information may be looked for in 
 Elwin's forthcoming edition of Pope's Works. 
 
 CURRAN, JOHN PH1LPOT [E. C. voL vi. col. 991]. 
 
 CURTIS, JOHN, entomologist, was born at Norwich, Dec. 
 3, 1791. He attended a school at Norwich, where he showed 
 an interest in insects, and became acquainted with Sir James E. 
 Smith and the father of Sir W. J. Hooker. In his 16th year 
 he was articled to a solicitor, but he had not been long engaged in 
 legal matters before he made the acquaintance of Mr. Simon 
 Wilkin, a young man of wealth, who, on attaining his majority, 
 invited Curtis to live with him at his residence, Coney Hall, 
 near Norwich. An entomological society was got up, and several 
 eminent men, such as the Rev. W. Kirby, John Lindley, and 
 others joined its ranks. He formed a resolution to describe and 
 delineate all the genera of insects, and with that view he learned 
 how to etch and engrave, dissected all the specimens he could 
 obtain, and made copies of the published figures of such as were 
 beyond his reach. In 1819 he went to London, and was intro- 
 duced to Sir Joseph Banks, Dr. Leach, and others, having tastes 
 congenial with his own. In 1825 he made an entomological tour 
 through Scotland, and in 1829 explored a portion of France. 
 In 1843, 1850, and 1851, he made tours in Italy. His death 
 occurred Oct. 6, 1862. His literary works were very extensive. 
 Thus, in addition to numerous scientific papers, he wrote some 
 entomological works of unusual scope. In 1824 he commenced 
 his great work on British entomology, and he issued it in monthly 
 parts until its completion in December, 1839. The work forms 
 16 volumes, illustrated with 700 plates of admirable figures. 
 From 1841 to 1847 he was the entomological editor of the ' Gar- 
 dener's Magazine.' Shortly before his death he lost his sight, 
 owing, it is supposed, to having overstrained his eyes, and re- 
 ceived for a short period a Government annuity of 150Z. He was 
 a member of numerous societies, English and foreign. 
 
 * CURTIUS, ERNST, a German antiquary and philologer, 
 was born on the 2nd of September, 1814, at Lubeck, where his 
 father held the office of syndic. He received his earlier educa- 
 tion at the Catharine Gymnasium of his native city, after which 
 he prosecuted his classical studies successively at the universities 
 of Bonn, Gottingen, and Berlin. In 1837 he accompanied Pro- 
 fessor Brandis fo Athens for the purpose of examining the monu- 
 ments and remains of classical antiquity in Greece. Whilst 
 residing in that country he produced, jointly with his friend 
 Emanuel Geibel, a small work, entitled Classical Studies, ' Clas- 
 sischen Studien,' 12mo, Bonn, 1840 ; and in the same year made 
 an excursion into Peloponnesus in company with Professor Karl 
 
483 CZARTORYSKI, PRINCE ADAM GEORGE. 
 
 DAIILGREN, ADMIUA L 
 
 Ottfried Muller. After the death of the latter at Athens, Curtius 
 returned leisurely to Germany, spending some time by the way 
 in Italy, and arriving at Halle in December, 1841, with the 
 manuscript of his ' De Portubus Athenarum Commentatio,' 8vo, 
 Halle, 1842. He now settled as a teacher at Berlin, and in 1844 
 was appointed professor extraordinary in the university there ; 
 ■ mi' 1 about the same time published his ' Anecdota Delphica,' 4to, 
 Berlin, 1843 ; ' Inscriptiones Attieae nuper repertae duodecim,' 
 Bvo, Berlin, 1843 ; and 'Die Akropolis von Athen,' 8vo, Berlin, 
 1.^44, which on the 10th of February of that year had been 
 delivered as a discourse before the Berlin Scientific Society. In 
 the following October he was appointed tutor to Friedrich 
 Wilhelm, the present Crown Prince of Prussia, whom, in 1849, 
 he accompanied to the university. He returned to Berlin in 
 the spring of 1850, and devoted himself afresh to his academic 
 duties, until in 1856 he removed to Gottingen as professor of 
 classical philology and archaeology, and joint director of classical 
 seminaries. Curtius became in 1 853 a member of the Academy 
 of Science at Berlin, and of the Scientific Society of Gottingen 
 in 1856. His two principal works are an historico-geographical 
 description of the Peloponnesus, entitled ' Peloponnesos. Eine 
 historisch-geographische Beschreibung der Halbinsel,' 2 vols., 
 8vo, Gotha, 1851 — 2; and a history of Greece, ' Griechische 
 Geschichte,' 8vo, Berlin, vol. i., 1857 — vol. ii. to the end of the 
 Peloponnesian War, 1861 — English translation by A. W. Ward, 
 M.A., 2 vols., 8vo, London, 1868 — 69. The remaining works of 
 Professor Curtius include one on Greek art, ' Die Kunst der 
 Hellenen,' 8vo, Berlin, 1853; the Ionians before the Ionian 
 Emigration, ' Die Ionier vor der ionischen Wanderung,' 8vo, 
 Berlin, 1855 ; a treatise upon ancient Greek wells, &c, and their 
 inscriptions, ' Abhandlung iiber griechische Quell-und Brunn- 
 eninschriften,' 4to, Gottingen, 1859 ; Attic studies, ' Attische 
 Studien,' 4to, Gottingen, 1862, &c. ; besides contributions to j 
 
 various classical or antiquarian periodicals, amongst which should 
 be specially named 'Gerrhard's Arch;iologische Zeitung.' 
 
 CZARTORYSKI [E. C. vol. ii. col. 473J. Pbikoe Adam 
 George CZARTORYSKI died at Monti'ermeuil, near Paris, on the 
 15th of July, 1861, aged 91. His brother, PRINCE Constant!. \i<; 
 Adam CZARTORYSKI, died at Vienna, on the 23rd of April, 1860, 
 in his 87th year. 
 
 CZERNY, CARL, pianist and musical composer, was born at 
 Vienna, February 21st, 1791. He was early taught music by 
 his father, a professor of the pianoforte, but studied composition 
 from the works of Kirnberger and Albrechtsberger. In 1804, at 
 the early age of 13, he began to teach the pianoforte ; and was 
 actively engaged in teaching during the remainder of his life. 
 Among his pupils were Liszt, Dohler, and Madame Oury. In 
 1820 he published his first works, variations and rondos ; and 
 during the next 36 years he produced the vast number of 850 
 compositions for the pianoforte, besides masses, requiems, mo- 
 tetts, concertos, symphonies, &c, and 400 pieces were left by 
 him in manuscript. He died on the 15th of July, 1857. As in 
 other cases of the kind, he did not give himself time to develope 
 the higher characteristics of music. Besides a translation of 
 Reicha's treatise on harmony, a treatise on composition, and a 
 ' Method ' for the pianoforte, he wrote ' Umriss der ganzen 
 Musikgeschichte, dargestellt in einem Verzeichniss der bedeu- 
 tenderen Tonklinstler aller Zeiten, chxonologisck geordnet,' 4to, 
 Mainz, 1S51 &c. 
 
 OZUCZOR, GERGELY, or GREGORY [E. C. vol. ii. col. 
 474]. This distinguished Hungarian poet and philologist died 
 at Pesth of cholera, on the 9th of September, 1866. He is 
 understood to have nearly completed his great dictionary of the 
 Hungarian language, ' A Magyar Nyelv Sz6tara,' but the last 
 part we have seen (8vo, Pesth, 1867) only comes down <"id 
 of the letter 0. 
 
 D 
 
 DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN [E. C. vol. ii. col. 447], died 
 at Dresden on the 14th of October, 1857. 
 * DAHL, VLADIMIR IVANOVICH, a Russian philologer, 
 novelist, and antiquary, was born at St. Petersburg in 1802, and 
 after receiving the education of a naval cadet in his native city, 
 joined the Black Sea fleet in 1819, and for several years took 
 part in the operations in which it was engaged. He performed 
 military service in the army which made the Polish campaign of 
 1831; and accompanied an expedition directed against Khiva, 
 In Turkestan, in which he distinguished himself for his courage 
 and address, and on which he animadverted in a volume of 
 Observations, &c, published in German as ' Bemerkungen zu 
 Zimmermann's Entwurf des Kriegstheaters Russlands gegen 
 Khiwa,' Orenburg, 1840. As a variety in his career, Dahl went 
 through a course of medical instruction in the University of 
 Dorpat, and practised in the military hospital of St. Petersburg; 
 and also accepted an appointment as a chinovnik, or official in 
 the civil service. Finally his devotion to literary pursuits 
 became exclusive ; and he produced a number of stories and 
 romances which have been much commended for the cleverness 
 of their plots, their vivacity, force, and naturalness of style, and 
 singular purity of diction. They were published chiefly under 
 the pseudonym of Kasak Lugansky, or the Cossack Lugansky, 
 and comprise a story entitled ' Chmcel,' or Drunkenness ; ' Son 
 n Jaw,' or the Dream and the Awaking ; ' Wakeh sidorof 
 tschaikin njebulwalo s bulom,' or What has never been, and 
 what has been ; ' Skazka o Mishdae, o Stschastii, o Prawda,' or 
 a Tale of Misery, Good Fortune, and of Truth ; ' Dwarnik,' or 
 the Servant ; ' Denschtschik,' or the Officer's Valet ; the Cossack 
 of the Ural, which was published in German as ' Der Kasak vom 
 Ural,' in the second volume of Robert Lippert's " Nordisches 
 Novellenbuch,' 3 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1846 — 47 ; and Sailors' 
 Pastimes, 'Matrosskie Dosugi,' 8vo, 1853. 
 
 Dahl traversed nearly all the provinces of the Russian 
 Empire for the purpose of making himself acquainted, imme- 
 diately and at first hand, with the folk-lore of the Russian 
 people. To the exercise of his industry, and his almost intuitive 
 perception of what was distinct and characteristic, are due the 
 
 EIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 very valuable contributions he has made to the ethnography of 
 the most remote and unknown districts of Russia. He has col- 
 lected, and reduced to writing, but up to the present time with- 
 out publication, several thousands of popular legends, Skazlci, 
 which, being perpetuated by oral tradition, throw light upon the 
 habits, the ideas, the dialectic peculiarities, and the antiquities 
 generally of the various Russian provinces ; and has published a 
 large collection containing about 30,000 Proverbs of the Russian 
 Nation, with the title of ' Poslovitsui Russkago Naroda.' A col- 
 lective edition of Dahl's works appeared in 8 vols. St. Petersburg, 
 1860 — 61. His most valuable and important achievement is his 
 Explanatory Dictionary of the living Great-Russian Language, 
 ' Tolkovy Slovar jivago Veliko Russkago yazuika,' the publica- 
 tion of which, in four huge volumes, was completed in 1868. 
 In this immense work, which, it should be stated, is designed 
 only for Russians or for those who have a knowledge of their 
 language, Dahl has explained the great number of Russian words 
 which do not occur in books ; and has also inserted in it, for the 
 sake of their idiomatic and philological value, the 'Proverbs' 
 which he had already published in a separate form. 
 
 DAHLGREN, JOHN A., Rear-Admiral in the United 
 States service, was born in Pennsylvania in 1810. Having 
 entered the navy as a midshipman in 1826, he worked his way 
 up slowly in rank, becoming a lieutenant in 1837, and a com- 
 mander in 1855. He saw little service afloat after 1847, except 
 a cruise in the Plymouth sloop of war, to make certain gun- 
 nery experiments, and for a short time in the Civil War. His 
 chief employment was at the Navy Yard, Washington, in the 
 departments of ordnance and hydrography, superintending the 
 construction of new guns. Dahlgren advocated the substitution 
 of shell guns for the solid shot guns previously in use. His 
 8-inch shell gun did not differ much in length, range, or weight 
 from the old 32-pounder, while it was much more powerful in 
 action. Many of the researches which led to this change are 
 treated in an American blue-book, ' Reports of Exjieriments on 
 the Strength and other properties of Metals for Cannon, with a 
 Description of the Machines for Testing Guns, of the Classifica- 
 tion common in Service. By Officers of the Ordnance Depart- 
 
 F P 
 
435 
 
 DALE, REV. THOMAS. 
 
 DALLERT, THOMAS CHARLES AUGUSTE. 436 
 
 merit,' 1856. Dahlgren also introduced an improved armament 
 for boats : light bronze 24-pounder and 12-pounder howitzers, 
 adapted alike for ordinary shells, shrapnel shells, and canister 
 shot. He contrived light iron field carriages for similar guns, to 
 be used as field howitzers. What is known as a Dahlgren gun, 
 in the American service, is distinguished by having relatively 
 less metal in front of the trunnions, and more behind, than 
 ordinary guns : a proportion suggested by the long series of 
 experiments which he had conducted. His services in the Civil 
 War, 1861 — 65, won for him the rank of captain and of rear- 
 admiral. He published many professional works, some sepa- 
 rately, but mostly in government blue-books, viz., 'Report of 
 the 32-pounders of 32 cwt.,' 1850 : ' System of Boat Armament 
 in the United States Navy,' 1852, second edition, 1856, of which 
 a French translation appeared in 1855 ; ' Ordnance Memoranda : 
 Naval Percussion Locks and Primers,' 1852; 'Shells and Shell 
 Guns,' 1856. Admiral Dahlgren died at Washington, of heart 
 disease, July 13th, 1870. 
 
 DALE, REV, THOMAS, Dean of Rochester, was bom at 
 Pentonville, London, Aug. 22, 1797 ; was educated at Christ's 
 Hospital, and at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge ; and having 
 graduated B.A., was ordained, and took priest's orders in 1823. 
 Whilst at college he published 'The Widow of Nain, and other 
 Poems,' which passed through several editions, and made him 
 widely known in religious circles. The ' Outlaw of Taurus,' 
 and other poems which followed were hardly so popular. After 
 some years of successful practice as private tutor, publishing a 
 ' Translation of the Plays of Sophocles into English Verse,' and 
 serving as curate, lecturer, and assistant preacher at St. Michael's, 
 Cornhill, St. Bride's, and other city churches, he was, in 1830, 
 elected to the incumbency of St. Matthew's Chapel, Denmark 
 Hill, and there attained great distinction as a preacher. In 
 theology he belonged to the ' Evangelical ' section of the church ; 
 but was free from sectarian narrowness. His teaching met 
 with wide acceptance, and in 1835 he was presented by Sir 
 Robert Peel to the vicarage of St. Bride's, Fleet Street, which 
 he held till his nomination in 1847 to that of St. Pancras. 
 During this time his celebrity as a preacher and a writer had 
 been extending, and on the foundation of the London University 
 (now University College), Mr. Dale was elected Professor of the 
 English Language and Literature. He also taught there a class 
 for the study of theology and the Greek Testament, and his 
 Introductory Lectures to both courses were published. He dis- 
 continued his connection with the London University in 1830, 
 but in 1836 accepted the professorship of the English language 
 and literature at King's College, which he held till 1840. As vicar 
 of St. Pancras, Mr. Dale, whilst assiduous in parochial work and 
 maintaining his position as an effective and popular preacher, dis- 
 tinguished himself by his efforts for church extension and for the 
 breaking up of the huge rmrish into several district parishes, in 
 both of which objects he was remarkably successful. Mr. Dale was 
 in 1843 made prebend of St. Paul's, and a few months later canon 
 residentiary. Advancing age led Mr. Dale to desire to exchange 
 St. Pancras for some smaller living, and in 1860 he accepted that 
 of Therfield, Hertfordshire. In the spring of 1870 he was 
 appointed Dean of Rochester, but died within a month of his 
 installation, on the 14th of May, 1870. Besides the works 
 already named, Mr. Dale published a large number of sermons 
 preached on public occasions, pastoral addresses, and various 
 works of a devotional character. He also published a ' Domestic 
 Liturgy,' a ' Companion for the Altar,' and a ' Young Pastor's 
 Guide,' and wrote a Biographical and Critical Introduction to 
 an edition of Cowper's Poetical Works. 
 
 DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN, tenth Earl 
 and first Marquis of [E. C. vol. ii. col. 481], died on the 19th of 
 December, 1860, and was succeeded in the earldom by his 
 cousin, the Right Hon. Fox Maule, Lord Panmuxe, Secretary of 
 War in Lord Palmerston's Ministry. 
 
 DALIBARD, THOMAS FRANCOIS, was born at Cranaes 
 in 1703, and died at Paris in 1779. His studies were directed 
 by Button, and he was the first to introduce into France the 
 principles of Linnaeus. He published papers on botany and 
 physics which are now forgotten ; but his name is associated 
 with the famous experiment, devised by Franklin, for deter- 
 mining the identity between lightning and electricity. Frank- 
 lin's claim to what was long known as " the Philadelphian 
 experiment" has_been disputed, as usual, by the French, and 
 M. Arago, in hisEloge of Volta, has assigned the credit of having 
 established the identity in question to the Abbe Nollet and to 
 Dalibard. It is true that in 1748 Nollet pointed out a number 
 of resemblances between lightning and electricity, but Dr. Wall 
 
 referred to the resemblances in 1708, and Grey with more par- 
 ticularity in 1735. Nollet suggested no means for testing the 
 identity, but Franklin in 1749 did, and minutely described two 
 methods of conducting the experiment, and sent his instructions 
 to Europe in order that others, who had better local opportuni- 
 ties than he possessed, might try one of them. Dalibard admits 
 that he followed Franklin's printed directions in erecting his 
 apparatus at Marly-la- Ville, and placed it under the care of an old 
 soldier named Coiffier. The first storm occurred while Dalibard 
 was at Paris. Coiffier presented a piece of metal to the rod and 
 drew a number of sparks. He then ran for the curd, who 
 repeated the experiment, and wrote an account of it to Dalibard. 
 This was on the 10th of May, 1752. In writing an account of 
 it, Dalibard says : — "En suivant la route que M. Franklin nous 
 a tracee, j'ai obtenu une satisfaction complete." Franklin's cele- 
 brated kite experiment was performed in June, 1752. 
 
 DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN, an American lawyer, states- 
 man, and diplomatist, was born at Philadelphia, July 10th, 1792. 
 His father had been much engaged in the political organisation 
 of the republic. Young Dallas, alter graduating at Princeton 
 College in 1810, studied the law under his father, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1813. When Mr. Gallatin went, in that 
 year, as ambassador to St. Petersburg, Mr. Dallas accompanied 
 him as private secretary, and took a journey to London to aid in 
 the negociations which brought about a treaty of peace between 
 England and the United States in 1814. After serving for about 
 a year in the Treasury department, he established himself as a 
 lawyer, became solicitor to the United States bank, and deputy 
 attorney-general for Philadelphia County. In 1828 he was 
 elected mayor of Philadelphia city ; in 1829 United States dis- 
 trict attorney; in 1831 a senator of the United States; and in 
 1833 attorney-general of Pennsylvania. From 1837 to 1839 he 
 was ambassador from the United States to Russia. Returning to 
 America, he declined the proffered post of United States attorney- 
 general, preferring to resume his professional avocations. During 
 the presidency of Mr. Polk, 1844 to 1848, Mr. Dallas was vice-presi- 
 dent, and took an active part in the discussions relating to the 
 annexation of Texas. The adoption of a free-trade policy, by 
 imposing customs duties for revenue only, and not for protection, 
 was settled by the casting vote of Dallas as president ol the 
 senate. Once again he returned to private practice, after his 
 term of vice -presidentship had expired. In 1856 he succeeded 
 Mr. Buchanan as ambassador to England, and during his five 
 years' occupancy of this post he was engaged in many negociations 
 and discussions with the government concerning boundary dis- 
 putes. In 1861 he was succeeded by Mr. C. F. Adams. In the 
 Civil War which broke out in that year he was not an active 
 participator, but gave his sympathies to the Federal or Union 
 party. Mr. Dallas died in January, 1865. His character has 
 been better painted by himself than it could be by any other 
 person, in 4 A Series of Letters from London, written during the 
 years 1856 — 60, by George Mifflin Dallas, then Minister of the 
 United States at the British Court. Edited by his daughter 
 Julia,' Phil. 1869. The letters were written chiefly to Mr. 
 Marcy and Mr. Cass, in succession secretaries of state, or foreign 
 secretaries, of the American government. They speak very un- 
 reservedly of the individualities, manners, homes, and society of 
 the distinguished persons whom he as a diplomatist met in 
 England ; and, even supposing it right to pen such letters to the 
 members of his government, it is hardly excusable to publish 
 them while so many of the persons named are still living. Mr. 
 Dallas's letters display considerable self-complacency, with an 
 unbounded faith in the grand destiny of the American Republic. 
 
 DALLERY, THOMAS CHARLES AUGUSTE, organ 
 builder and mechanician, was born at Amiens, Sept. 4th, 1754. 
 His father, Charles Dallery, an organ-builder in that town, had 
 gained fame by his organs at St Nicolas aux Bois, the Abbey of 
 (Jlairmarais, and the Abbey of Anchin ; the last of the three 
 (with five keyboards and sixty-four stops) was afterwards trans- 
 ferred to St. Peter's, Douai The son, after showing his inge- 
 nuity in mechanism by constructing a time-piece when twelve 
 years old, learned his father's trade. During his career Dallery 
 introduced many improvements in the construction of musical 
 instruments. Until that time the semi-tones on the harp had 
 been produced by means of pedal mechanism which frayed the 
 strings and injured the quality of the tone ; he introduced an 
 arrangement far superior, but not now adopted, simply because 
 Erard has since ecbpsed all his predecessors in this line. Dallery 
 invented an instrument called the Clavecin Organised At one 
 time he turned his attention to steam navigation and screw pro- 
 pulsion, constructing models to embody his ideas, and trying 
 
433 
 
 them at Bercy on the Seine in 1803. He took out a patent, but 
 meeting with no encouragement from the government, and having 
 exhausted his means, he abandoned this project in disgust. 
 Dallery died on the 1st of June, 1835. Nine years after his 
 death the Acadeinie des Sciences issued a report awarding 
 priority of invention to Dallery in regard to steam navigation 
 and screw propulsion ; but the correctness of the report is 
 admitted neither in England nor in America, except in reference 
 to the rival claims of Frenchmen one against another. 
 
 The family of the Dallerys have been organ-builders for a 
 hundred and forty years, represented in succession by Charles, 
 Pierre, Thomas Charles Auguste (the subject of this memoir), 
 Pierre Francois, and Louis Paul. 
 
 DALMASIO, LIPPO, an early Bolognese painter, was a 
 pupil of Vitale, and acquired such repute as a painter of Ma- 
 donnas that, according to Malvasia, a family was not considered 
 to be wealthy in Bologna which did not possess one of his paint- 
 ings. His pictures have much sweetness and grace, but little 
 
 ?ower. Out of Bologna they are seldom met with. The 
 National Gallery possesses a good signed example, No. 752, 
 ' Madonna and Child, in a circular glory ; angels hovering 
 above, a flowery meadow below.' The dates of his birth and 
 death are unknown ; he painted between the years 1376 and 
 1410. 
 
 DAMER, THE HON. ANN SEYMOUR, famous in her day 
 as an amateur sculptor, was the daughter of Marshal Conway, 
 and was born in 1748. She married, in 1767, the Hon. John 
 Darner, brother of the Earl of Dorchester, who became con- 
 spicuous among the dissipated young men of fashion, wasted his 
 fortune, and finally shot himself in a tavern in 1776. Mrs. 
 Darner sought diversion in art. Attaching herself strongly to 
 sculpture, she took lessons of Ceracchi, who used to. call her the 
 Muse of Sculpture, and afterwards of Bacon, and excited the 
 unbounded admiration of Horace Walpole. Her works are only 
 those of an amateur, and of all the arts sculpture is that in 
 which an amateur is least likely to excel. But they are far 
 above the average of their class, and exhibit considerable sculp- 
 turesque feeling. A bust of Nelson by her is in the Guildhall, 
 London ; and the head of the Thames, on the Bridge, Henley- 
 on-Thames, so greatly praised by Walpole, is from her chisel. 
 Walpole, the friend of her father, retained through life his regard 
 for her ; her name is of frequent occurrence in bis Correspond- 
 ence, and at his death he bequeathed to her the use for life of 
 Strawberry Hill. She died on the 28th of May, 1828. A 
 statue of her, by Ceracchi, is in the British Museum, where also 
 is the diamond snuff-box (containing his miniature) presented to 
 her in 1815 by the Emperor Napoleon. 
 
 * DANA, JAMES DWIGHT, an American geologist and 
 naturalist, was born February 12, 1813, at Utica, New York, and 
 educated at Yale College, Newhaven. On leaving the college he 
 was appointed a professor of mathematics, and as such accom- 
 panied a scientific expedition to the Mediterranean. In 1838 he 
 accompanied Wilkes in his voyage round the world, as geologist 
 and naturalist. He married a daughter of his master, B. Silli- 
 man, and has since been intimately connected with the Sillimans 
 in many of their literary undertakings. In conjunction first with 
 the elder Silliman, and afterwards with the younger, he has long 
 been one of the editors of the ' American Journal of Science and 
 Arts.' His works have a high character, and are remarkable, some 
 for their numerous broad generalisations, and others for their copi- 
 ousness of detail. In connection with Wilkes's expedition he wrote 
 reports on geology, zoophytes, and Crustacea. In 1837 he pub- 
 lished a ' System of Mineralogy,' which has passed through five 
 editions — the last issued in 1868 — and has become a standard 
 work of reference. In 1862 appeared his ' Manual of Geology,' 
 of which a second edition was published in 1866. It is expressly 
 adapted for American students. In addition to these and a few 
 other separate works, he has written nearly 150 papers for various 
 scientific journals. He is at present the Silliman professor of 
 geology and mineralogy in Yale College. 
 
 DANBY, FRANCIS, A.R.A. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 492.] Mr. 
 Danby continued to paint his poetic landscapes, and to send 
 them to the Academy Exhibitions ; but he obtained no higher 
 academic distinction. For several years he had resided at Ex- 
 mouth, Devonshire, and he died there on the 10th of February, 
 1861. In the National Gallery, British School, is a small pic- 
 ture by him, No. 437, 1 The Fisherman's Home, Sunrise ; ' the 
 Sheepshanks' Collection, South Kensington, possesses a more 
 important specimen, 'Calypso's Island,' painted in 1821. 
 
 DANGEAU, LOUIS COURCILLON, ABBE DE, younger, 
 brother of the Marquis de Dangeau, the subject of the following 
 
 article, was born in Paris in 1643 ; was designated for the 
 church ; in due time ordained, and received many benefices ; 
 travelled, and made himself master of several modern language ; 
 was nominated lecteur du roi, and mingled much with the gay 
 world ; was converted by Bossuet to a course of life more becom- 
 ing a richly-beneficed ecclesiastic ; was elected a member of the 
 Institute, and wrote many books on geography, history, heraldry, 
 grammar, and theology, and died at Paris on the 1st of January, 
 1723. His ' Dialogues sur lTmmortalite de 1'Ame,' 12mo, Paris, 
 1684, was esteemed his masterpiece, but he most prided himself 
 on his conjugations of the French verbs. The name of the 
 Abbe Dangeau is of frequent occurrence in the literature of the 
 time ; but, though he figured largely then, he has dwindled to 
 utter insignificance now. 
 
 DANGEAU, PHILIPPE DE COURCILLON, MARQUIS 
 DE, was born on the 21st of September, 1638. He served in 
 Flanders as a captain of cavalry under Turenne, in 1658, and 
 after the Peace of the Pyrenees entered the Spanish service. 
 Returning presently to France, he obtained the command of the 
 King's Regiment, and made with it the campaign of Flanders in 
 1667, leaving it to act as aide-de-camp to Louis XIV. He was 
 elected, in 1668, to be a member of the Academie Franchise, a 
 distinction which he owed to his patronage of men of letters ; 
 and he was also chosen an honorary member of the Academie 
 des Sciences. In the years 1673 and 1674 he was employed on 
 various diplomatic negotiations, having already been concerned 
 in bringing about the marriage between the Duke of York, after- 
 wards King James II., and the Princess of Modena. He filled 
 a series of offices at the Court of Louis XIV., where he was a 
 favourite, and became at length grand master of the royal and 
 military orders of Notre Dame du Mont Carmel, and of Saint 
 Lazare of Jerusalem. He died at Paris on the 9th of September, 
 1720. 
 
 The Marquis de Dangeau was famous as a linguist, and as a 
 writer of vers de societe ; but the work by which he is chiefly 
 remembered at present is a chronicle, known as the ' Journal de 
 Dangeau,' of the events which occurred day by day at the Court of 
 Louis XIV., and in the royal family, from the year 1684 to 1720. 
 It is valuable for the faithfulness of its portraits and its details, 
 which Voltaire affected to consider so frivolous that he charac- 
 terised the diary as that, not of the Marquis de Dangeau, but of 
 an imbecile old valet de chambre — a sentence probably delivered 
 by way of retaliation for a passage in it which had transpired, 
 in which the. author sneered at " les imprudences et les essais 
 satiriques du petit Arouet." The 'Journal de Dangeau ' lay for 
 many years in manuscript, until it was partially edited by 
 Madame de Genlis, with the title of ' Memoires du Marquis de 
 Dangeau, ecrits par lui-meme, contenant beaucoup de particu- 
 lar! tes et d'anecdotes sur Louis XIV., sa Cour, &c. ; avec des 
 Notes, et un Abrege de l'Histoire de la Regence ;' 3 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris and London, 1817 ; 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1817 ; and 2 vols. 
 8vo, London, 1825. It was for the first time published in its 
 entirety, and in a form which incorporated the annotations of 
 the Due de Saint Simon, as the ' J ournal du Marquis de Dan- 
 geau, public en entier pour la premiere ibis par MM. Soulie, 
 Dussieux, de Chennevieres, Mantz, de Montaiglon ; avec les 
 additions inedites du Due de Saint Simon, publiees par M. 
 Feuillet de Conches,' 19 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1854—60. 
 
 DANTAN, JEAN PIERRE [E. C. vol. ii, col. 500], died in 
 September, 1869. 
 
 DANTE, ALIGHIERI [E. C, vol. ii. col. 501]. Since the 
 publication of the memoir of Dante, numerous editions and 
 translations of his works, or parts of them, have been published, 
 and festivals have been celebrated in his honour on occasion of 
 his sixth centenary in 1866. Of the Italian editions of the 
 ' Divina Commedia,' the most important, from a critical and 
 bibliographical point of view, is a reprint, verbatim et literatim., 
 of the first four editions, of Foljgno, folio, 1472 ; of Jesi, 4to, 
 1472 ; of Mantua, folio, 1472 ; and of Naples, folio, 1475 — 6. 
 The reprint is a large and elaborate volume, published at the 
 expense of Lord Vernon, well known as an " ardente Dantofilo," 
 and a member of the Accademia della Crusca, to his colleagues 
 in which society he dedicates the work. Sir Antonio, then Mr., 
 Panizzi, who was practically the editor of the volume, supplied a 
 preface of great critical and bibliographical interest. The title 
 of Lord Vernon's edition was ' Prime Quattro Edizioni della Divina 
 Commedia, letteralmente ristampate, per cura di G. G. Warren, 
 Lord Vernon,' 4to, London, 1858. Another critical issue, from 
 a German editor, J. H. C. Witte, was entitled ' La Divina Com- 
 media. Ricorretta sopra quattro dei piii autorevoli testi a 
 penna da Carlo Witte,' 4to, Berlin, 1862, whose text was fol- 
 
439 DANTE, ALIGHIERI. 
 
 lowed by the ' Divina Commedia,' &c, which occupied the 41st, 
 42nd, and 43rd volumes of Daelli's ' Bihlioteca Rara,' 8vo, 
 Milan, 1864. Amongst the translations of the 'Divina Corn- 
 media' recently issued in various languages, may he mentioned 
 J. A. de Mongis' French version, ' La Divine Comodie, &c. ; 
 Enfer, Purgatoire, Paradis ; traduite en vers francais,' 8vo, 
 Paris, 1857 ; the English one of Mrs. Ramsay, ' Dante's Divina 
 Commedia. Translated into English in the Metre and triple 
 Rhyme of the Original. With Notes,' 3 vols. 8vo, London, 
 18(J2 — 63; the German one of L. G. Blanc, 'Die giitliche 
 Komodie des Dante Alighieri ; Ubersetzt und erlautert,' &c, 
 8vo, Halle, 1864 ; the Rev. John Dayman's ' Divine Comedy of 
 Dante Alighieri,' 8vo, London, 186."), a translation in Terza 
 Rima, with which the Italian text was also given, and of which 
 the 'Inferno' had been separately published in 1843 ; and ' The 
 Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, Translated by Henry Wads- 
 worth Longfellow,' 3 vols. 4to, Boston, U. S., 1867, and 3 vols. 
 8vo, London, 1867. Several versions of the ' Inferno ' have also 
 appeared, and amongst others, that of William Michael Rossetti, 
 in blank verse, 8vo, London, 1865, of which the translator says 
 that his aim " may be summed up in one word — literality " ; 
 and a few separate ones of the ' Purgatorio,' none of which call 
 for special remark. Translations of the ' Vita Nuova ' have also 
 been freely issued ; anil biographies and memoirs appertaining 
 to the family and personal history of Dante, as weU as studies, 
 lectures, and essays upon his genius, language, times, and poli- 
 tics, have appeared in most of the leading languages of Europe. 
 The whole subject of Dantesque bibliography, between the years 
 1845 and 1865, is treated all but exhaustively in a work of which 
 the full title may advantageously be given : 'Delia Letteratura 
 Dantesca degli ultimi vcnti Anni, dal 1845 a tutto il 1865, 
 pubblicata per Cura del D. C. F. Carpellini. In Continuazione 
 della Bibliografia Dantesca del Sig. Visconte Colomb de Batincs. 
 Contenente i Cataloghi (telle Edizione della Divina Commedia e 
 delle Opere Minori. — Delle Traduzioni delle Opere di Dante 
 nelle Lingue d'Europa. — Delle Vite di Dante. — Degli Studi 
 Storici, Filosofici, Polemici, ec.,sopra Dante. — E gl'Indici Gene- 
 rali dei Cataloghi,' 8vo, Turin and Florence, 1866. The latest 
 publication in the way of the bibliography of Dante, is a very 
 useful little volume by Signor Alberto Mario, entitled ' Dante 
 e i Codici Danteschi,' Mantua, 1870. 
 
 In the year 1860 a commission was formed at Florence with 
 reference to a project for the celebration there of a grand 
 festival in honour of the sixth centenary of the birth of Dante, 
 but its various proposals had small results. To it succeeded a 
 municipal commission ; and at a meeting of the Florentine 
 Council in November, 1863, it was unanimously resolved that in 
 May, 1865, the centenary of Dante Alighieri should be solemnly 
 celebrated at Florence. A ' Giornale del Centenario di Dante 
 Alighieri' was started to record the proceedings of the com- 
 mittee until the final consummation of the festival. As the 
 time for its celebration approached, Florence became the centre 
 to which Italian life determined. The excitement grew intense ; 
 and whatever was said, or done, or sold, had a reference to 
 Dante. The king arrived on the 12th of May, 1865, and next 
 day at noon inaugurated the Mostra Dantesca in the Praetorian 
 Palace, on which occasion he was presented with a magnificent 
 sword of wrought iron, bearing the inscription, " Dante al primo 
 Re d' Italia." On the following day, May 14th, when 100,000 
 visitors were present in Florence, the inauguration of the 
 national monument to Dante took place in the Piazza of Santa 
 Croce, which was richly adorned with festoons of laurel and 
 flowers interwoven in trophies, with pictorial decorations of 38 
 subjects from the life of Dante, and with epigraphs relating to 
 them. The festival was intended to be a Pan-Italic one ; and on 
 its great day the 59 provinces of the kingdom for the first time 
 met as a unity, A vast cortege, representing all classes of 
 society, civil and military, marched from the Piazza of Santo 
 Spirito to the Piazza of Santa Croce, where the king arrived at 
 1 1 o'clock, a.m., in a general's uniform. After an address by the 
 Gonfaloniere, to which the king shortly replied, the majestic 
 figure of Dante was unveiled amid a grand flourish from the 
 orchestra, and shouts of "Onorate Taltissimo Poeta." The 
 statue produced so vivid and profound an emotion, that his 
 Majesty, by a spontaneous act, created the sculptor, Enrico Pazzi 
 of Ravenna, a cavalier. Padre Giuliani addressed the king in 
 an animated strain ; and after the latter had made a suitable 
 reply, the vast concourse began to disperse amidst the crash of 
 vocal and instrumental music, to join in more desultory recrea- 
 tions. In the evening the whole city was brilliantly illuminated. 
 The 15th of May was remarkable, amongst amusements of less 
 
 D'ARCHIAC, ETIENNE, VICOMTE. 4!0 
 
 cultivated interest, for the opening of the Dante Exhibition in 
 the palace of the Podesta, in which were displayed the portraits 
 of the poet and his friends and heroes, and the Codici, to the 
 number of 180 ; including 29 fragments of the ' Divina Corn- 
 media.' Of these Codici, Florence alone had contributed 108 
 from her libraries. The Exhibition was also furnished with a 
 very complete collection of printed editions of Dante's great 
 work, as well as with 30 editions of translations, either of the 
 entire poem, or of part of it. Four of these were in Latin ; one 
 was in the Milanese dialect ; fourteen in French ; seven in 
 English, including Longfellow's American translation ; three in 
 German, and one in Spanish. On the 17th of May, a grand 
 banquet was given to the strangers who visited Florence on the 
 occasion, at which Count Terenzio Mamiani presided ; and on 
 the morning of the 18th, the Gonfaloniere, with a commission of 
 the Priori, presented to the King a commemorative medal of 
 gold, modelled by the sculptor Pazzi, and engraven by Raffaele 
 Sanesi, which bore a head of Dante, and on the reverse, within a 
 laurel wreath, the inscription, "Al Divino Poeta 1'Italia, nel 
 Maggio MDCCCLXV.' Municipio Fiorentino." 
 
 The city of Ravenna celebrated the centenary in June follow- 
 ing, in a way which in one particular was mere significant than 
 that of Florence. Besides the illuminations, processions, &c, 
 common to both, which extended in Ravenna from June 24th to 
 June 26th inclusive, the citizens and visitors beheld with piety 
 and awe the recently discovered remains of Dante exposed to 
 public view. They had been removed from their sepulchre in 
 the 17th century, and concealed in order to prevent their being 
 burnt as those of a heretic. The place in which they were 
 deposited was forgotten, and their opportune discovery occurred 
 in a somewhat singular manner. On the 27th of May, 1865, 
 some excavations were being made near the poet's tomb pre- 
 paratory to the festival, when the workmen broke into an old 
 wall behind the chapel of the Braccioforte, and there found a 
 wooden box with inscriptions both outside and in, to the effect 
 that the bones within it were those of Dante, placed there by 
 Fra Antonio Santi in 1677. The original sarcophagus was 
 opened and found empty, and ample evidence of their genuine- 
 ness being adduced by a Commission appointed by the Italian 
 Government to verify the fact of the discovery the remains, 
 after being exhibited, as just mentioned, within a richly-orna- 
 mented glass enclosure, were, on the 26th of June, with great 
 solemnity of circumstance, restored to their original resting- 
 place. Dr. Barlow, who was for several years a promoter of the 
 Dante centenary, has written, under the name of " A Repre- 
 sentative," a. narrative of ' The Sixth Centenary Festivals of 
 Dante Alighieri in Florence and at Ravenna,' 8vo, London, 
 Edinburgh, Florence, and Turin, 1866. Other memorials of the 
 same event are a work entitled ' Per il Sesto Centenario di 
 Dante (MDCCCLXV). Ricordo al Popolo,' 18mo, Florence, 
 1865 ; and a Collection of Essays illustrative of Dante, by 
 various Italian Writers, published on the occasion of his Sixth 
 Centenary, under the editorship of G. Ghirizzani, with the title 
 of ' Dante e il suo Secolo,' 2 vols. 4to, Florence, 1865 — 66. 
 
 DARBY, ABRAHAM, one of the improvers of the iron 
 manufacture, was born in the latter part of the 17th century ; 
 he was the son of a farmer, near Dudley. Removing to Bristol 
 in 1700, he set up in business as a malt-kiln manufacturer, in 
 partnership with three other persons, who were (like himself) 
 Quakers. They added brass-founding and iron-founding to 
 their other trade. Down to that time, hollow-ware (cast-iron 
 vessels, &c.) had been cast in England in clay moulds ; but in 
 1708 Darby took out a patent for a method of casting in sand 
 moulds, with a result so superior as to lead to a very extensive 
 manufacture. Darby, quitting the other partners in 1709, esta- 
 blished a large iron-work for himself at Coalbrook Dale. He 
 was among the first to adopt coked coal instead of wood charcoal 
 for his furnaces. He died at Madeley in 1717. His son and 
 grandson, both named Abraham Darby, greatly extended the 
 works at Coalbrook Dale ; and the latter constructed the first 
 iron bridge in England (giving name to the present manu- 
 facturing village of Ironbridge), over the Severn at Coalbrook 
 Dale, in 1779. 
 
 D'ARC, JEAN. [Arc, Joan of. E. C. vol. i. col. 286.] 
 D'ARCHIAC, ETIENNE JULES ADOLPHE DESMIER 
 DE ST. SIMON, VICOMTE, geologist, was born at Reims, 
 Sept. 24, 1802. He was educated at the military school of St. 
 Cyr, joined the army in 1821, but quitted it when the revolution 
 of 1830 broke out. In 1835 his first geological memoir appeared, 
 entitled ' Sur une partie des terrains tertiaires inferieurs du 
 departement de l'Aisne,' in ' Bull. Soc. Geol.' VI. pp. 240—247. 
 
441 DARCY, PATRICK. 
 
 It was the forerunner of others on the tertiary and cretaceous 
 herls of France, Belgium, and England. One of them, ' Observa- 
 tions sur le groupe moyen de le formation crijtacee,' in 'Mem. 
 Soc. Geol. Fr.' III. pp. 261—312 (1838), did much to raise 
 his reputation, and is considered a model of its kind as to the 
 way in which the subject ought to be treated. The conclusions 
 he arrived at were important, and the most noteworthy was that 
 which asserted that the greater the number of stages into which 
 a formation is divisible, the more distinct are the faunas of the 
 different stages, and vice versd. Another paper of a similar cha- 
 racter is that written by him and M. de Verneuil, ' On the 
 Fossils of the Older Deposits in the Rhenish Provinces,' in 
 ' Trans. Geol. Soc' VI. pp. 303—410 (1842) ; in which they 
 arrived, independently, at conclusions similar to those which 
 Prof. Phillips had previously obtained. The most important, 
 stated shortly, was that species of restricted vertical range occu- 
 pied a limited horizontal area ; while those which occur in 
 many and widely-separated localities have great stratigraphical 
 ranges. Numerous other articles have proceeded from his pen, 
 mostly on tertiary and secondary strata and their fossil contents. 
 He also wrote several sejwate works. The most important is 
 the ' Histoire desprogres de la Geologie de 1834 a 1845,' of which 
 the first volume appeared in 1853, and the 8th, or last published, 
 in 1860. The intention of the author was to treat of all the 
 geological strata, beginning with the newest ; and he has worked 
 his way back as far as the Triassic formation. This work mani- 
 fests extraordinary diligence. It is drawn up with great skill, 
 and contains much original thought. He also wrote a large 
 portion of the ' Description des Animaux fossiles du Groupe 
 Nummulitique de lTnde, precedee d'un resume geologique et 
 d'une Monographie des Nummulites, par le Vicomte d'Archiac et 
 Jules Haim6,' 4to, Paris, 1853. In 1861 he succeeded Alcide 
 d'Orbigny as professor of geology in the Museum of Natural 
 History, Paris, and the substance of his lectures was published 
 in ' Cours de Paleontologie stratigraphique,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1862 — 
 1864 ; and 'Geologie et Paleontologie,' 8vo, 1866. In 1868 he 
 published ' Paleontologie de la France,' 8vo, being a report to 
 the Government on the progress of paleontological science. 
 Towards the end of 1868 he suddenly left his home, wrote 
 farewells to all his friends, and has not been heard of since. 
 
 DARCY, PATRICK, was born at Galway, 27th Sept., 1725. 
 He studied mathematics at Paris, and in 1746 served in the 
 French army, and became aid-de-camp to Count Fitzjames, 
 commander of some French troops sent to support Charles 
 Edward. He fell into the hands of the English, and narrowly 
 escaped being shot for bearing arms against his country. In 
 1749 he became an Academician, and distinguished himself by 
 his writings on the celebrated principle of the conservation of 
 areas, in which he shared the honour with Euler and D. Ber- 
 noulli, and which led to the principle of the immobility of the 
 plane of maximum areas by La Place. Darcy also wrote some good 
 papers on artillery, on the force of gunpowder, &c. In 1757 he 
 resumed arms, and was present at the battle of Rosbach. When 
 peace was established, in 1763, he returned to his scientific labours, 
 and wrote on the theory of the moon, on the duration of the 
 sensations, &c. He died at Paris, 18 Oct., 1779. 
 
 DARGAN, WILLIAM [E. C. vol. ii. col. 508]. Mr. Dargan's 
 splendid services in the construction of roads, railways, and 
 canals, in the erection of the Irish Exhibition buildings, and gene- 
 rally in the cause of Irish improvement, were, as was noticed in 
 the above memoir, recognised by the Queen with the offer of 
 knighthood. His countrymen, when he declined that honour, 
 wishing that there should be some permanent memorial of 
 national gratitude, subscribed for a bronze statue of him, which 
 was erected in front of the National Gallery in Dublin. William 
 Dargan's was now the most honoured and the most popular name 
 in the Irish capital, and he was supposed to be among the very 
 wealthiest of her citizens. The reverse was terrible. First a fall 
 from his horse in the beginning of 1866 shattered his frame, then 
 came the commercial disasters, and the over-sanguine man, with 
 his hands full of all sorts of large, and some extremely specula- 
 tive undertakings, was unable to meet his engagements and was 
 declared bankrupt, and, broken in health and spirits, sank into 
 the grave, February 7, 1867. A subscription was entered into 
 for his widow, but the amount raised was insignificant, and a small 
 pension has been granted to her from the Civil List. 
 
 * DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT [E. C. vol. ii. col. 511], 
 was educated successively at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh, and Cam- 
 bridge, at which last place he took his degree of M.A. in 1831. 
 Since 1856 his investigations have been laborious and important. 
 They have related to a subject which had long occupied his mind, 
 
 DAUBENY, C. G. B. 442 
 
 and which he has to a certain extent made his own — viz., the 
 natural causes of the divergence amongst organisms, and of the 
 kind of affinity which appeals to prevail amongst them. In 
 1859 his ' Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection' was 
 published, in which he gives an outline of his views. His 
 theory, stated very briefly, is that organisms multiply at a 
 greater rate than their means of subsistence; that offspring 
 resemble their parents in general points, but vary in minor par- 
 ticulars ; that these variations are of different value as regards 
 the welfare of the being ; that as all cannot live some must die ; 
 that those die which are least adapted to the conditions which 
 surround them ; that in this way those characters or variations 
 are selected which are most for the benefit of the species ; and 
 that these variations are increased in proportion as the medial 
 conditions vary. Its publication was somewhat hastened in 
 consequence of the same views having been arrived at inde- 
 pendently by another eminent naturalist — Mr. A. R. Wallace. 
 The book called forth much opposition, but in course of time 
 a gradually increasing proportion of the scientific world has 
 acceded to the principles enunciated in it, and now his sup- 
 porters are very numerous. His subsequent works have 
 had for their object the supplying the data upon which he 
 founded his conclusions. They are : — 'On the various con- 
 trivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Ferti- 
 lized,' 8vo, London, 1862; 'The variation of Animals and 
 Plants under Domestication,' 8vo, 2 vols. 1868 ; and now we 
 have announced ' Descent of Man, and on Selection in relation 
 to Sex,' as his next contribution to the subject of species and 
 their variations. The great features of these works are the charm 
 of their style, the clearness of their language, and the remark- 
 able powers of observation which they display. These features 
 also mark his papers, more especially those of later date on 
 Primula, on Linum, on climbing plants, and several others. 
 These botanical papers embody accounts of some of the most 
 important discoveries recently made in physiological botany. 
 Thus in his work on orchids he attempts to show that self-ferti- 
 lization is quite exceptional amongst jilants, and that, generally 
 speaking, there are special contrivances to insure crossing ; and, 
 to mention another instance out of many which might be cited, 
 in his papers on climbing plants, he threw an entirely new light 
 upon the subject, and elucidated the true structure and functions 
 of the organs employed in climbing. 
 
 *DASENT, GEORGE WEBBE, who is favourably known 
 as an accomplished student and translator of old Norse literature, 
 was born in 1818, and educated successively at King's College, 
 London, and Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He graduated as B.A. in 
 1840 ; and some years afterwards was admitted to the degree of 
 D.C.L. He became a student of the Middle Temple, and w r as 
 called to the bar in 1852. He is understood to have been for 
 some years concerned in the management of the ' Times ; ' and 
 after having been employed as an examiner in English and 
 foreign modern languages for appointments in the Civil Ser- 
 vice, was in January, 1870, nominated a Commissioner. 
 
 The first literary result of the peculiar direction of Dr. 
 Dasent's studies was the publication of the ' Prose, or Younger 
 Edda, commonly ascribed to Snorri Sturluson. Translated from 
 the Old Norse,' &c, 8vo, Stockholm and London, 1842. His 
 other works include a polyglott rendering and a literary history 
 of the legend of the apostasy and conversion of Theophilus, as 
 circulated, chiefly in the languages of the northern nations, 
 after the original Greek of Eutychianus, in a volume entitled 
 'Theophilus in Icelandic, Low German, and other Languages, 
 from MSS. in the Royal Library, Stockholm,' 8vo, London, 
 MDCCCXLV. ; ' Norsemen in Iceland,' which appeared as one 
 of the ' Oxford Essays, contributed by Members of the Uni- 
 versity,' 8vo, London, 1858 ; ' Popular Tales from the Norse : 
 with an Introductory Essay on the Origin and Diffusion of 
 Popular Tales,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1859 ; second edition, with 
 thirteen additional Tales, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1859, a series ot 
 translations from the ' Norske Folkeeventyr,' collected by 
 Asbjornsten and Moe, of which a children's edition was pub- 
 lished as 'A Selection from the Norse Tales, for the use of Chil- 
 dren,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1862 ; ' The Story of Burnt Njal ; or, 
 Life in Iceland at the End of the Tenth Century. From the 
 Icelandic of Njals Saga,' 2 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1861 ; and 
 ' The Story of Gisli the Outlaw. From the Icelandic. With 
 illustrations by C. E. St. John Mildmay,' 4to, Edinburgh, 
 1866, 
 
 DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE [E. C. vol. ii. 
 col. 515J. The memoir in the E. C. published during Dr. 
 Daubeny's life contains a short account of his scientific work. 
 
443 DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS. 
 
 DAVID, PIERRE JEAN. 
 
 444 
 
 He was born February 11, 1795, at Stratton, in Gloucestershire, 
 and was the third son of the Rev. James Daubeny. He was 
 entered at Winchester School in 1808, and was elected to a 
 demyship at Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1810. In 1814, at 
 the age of 19, he took the degree of B.A. in the second class. In 
 1815 he gained the Chancellor's prize for the Latin essay. Be- 
 tween 1815 and 1818 he studied medicine in London and Edin- 
 burgh. In the latter place the lectures of Professor Jameson on 
 geology and mineralogy strengthened the desire to cultivate 
 natural science, which had already been awakened by the teach- 
 ing of Dr. Kidd at Oxford. The intellectual fight between the 
 Plutonists and Neptunists was then raging at Edinburgh, and 
 Daubeny took a lively interest in it. After quitting Edinburgh 
 he proceeded in 1819 on a leisurely tour through France, col- 
 lecting evidence as to the chemical and geological history of the 
 globe, while his 'Letters on the Volcanoes of Auvergne,' which 
 appeared in ' Jameson's Edinburgh Journal,' 1820 — 21, contained 
 the earliest notices published in England of that remark- 
 able volcanic region. He subsequently visited various parts of 
 Europe for the purpose of studying volcanic phenomena pre- 
 paratory to the publication of his work on volcanoes, which 
 appeared in 1826. Although Dr. Daubeny very properly 
 resented the suggestion when put forward in an offensive form 
 by Dr. John Davy that the leading idea of his theory of vol- 
 canoes was derived from a cast-off theory by Sir Humphry 
 Davy, it is nevertheless true. Sir Humphry's notion was that 
 vast stores of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies exist 
 in subterranean regions, to which water must sometimes pene- 
 trate, and whenever this happened, gaseous matter would be 
 liberated, the metals would combine with the oxygen of the 
 water with sufficient heat evolved to fuse the surrounding 
 rocks ; but when, during an eruption of Vesuvius, Sir Hum- 
 phry failed to detect the presence of hydrogen, he gave up the 
 idea. 
 
 In 1822 Dr. Daubeny succeeded Dr. Kidd as Aldrichian pro- 
 fessor of chemistry, and took up his abode in the gloomy apart- 
 ments below the Ashinolean Museum, in which most of the 
 scientific teaching of Oxford had been carried on from the time 
 of Robert Plot, and was still carried on by gas-light up to 1855. 
 
 In 1834 Daubeny became professor of botany, and went to 
 reside in the " Physic Garden/' as it had been called from the 
 time of its foundation in the reign of Charles I. With liberal 
 aid from the university, and with the doctor's generous manage- 
 ment, the Garden was entirely re-arranged and extended. In 
 this pleasant retreat he passed a third of a century studying 
 various points connected with vegetable chemistry. In the 
 long vacations he visited some part of the continent in company 
 with a scientific or literary friend, or some young Oxonian of 
 promise. During the last few winters of his life he resided at 
 Torquay. He died on December 13, 1867, in his 73rd year. 
 His remains were laid in a vault adjoining the walls of Magdalen 
 College Chapel, in compliance with his own expressed wish. 
 
 In addition to separate volumes, Dr. Daubeny published 72 
 papers on scientific subjects, as appears by the Royal Society's 
 Catalogue. In collecting his papers into two volumes of ' Mis- 
 cellanies on Scientific and Literary Subjects,' published in 1867, 
 his own modest, but, we think, correct, estimate of his large 
 amount of work was, that " however slight their intrinsic value, 
 considered as contributions to the stock of human knowledge, 
 may be, they will serve at least to show, by their number and 
 variety, what might be accomplished by persons gifted with 
 greater energy and more profound attainments through the aid 
 of foundations in which an exemption from domestic cares, and 
 a liberal provision for all the reasonable wants of a celibate 
 life, afford such facilities for the indulgence of either literary or 
 scientific ttistes." 
 
 * DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS, a celebrated 
 French landscape painter, was born at Paris on the 15th of 
 February, 1817. A pupil of Delaroche, and completing his 
 studies in Italy, he acquired a largeness and elevation of style 
 often missed by the mere student of nature. At the same time, 
 whilst his landscapes can never be called untrue, it does happen 
 that they sometimes savour too much of the painting-room. Yet 
 with all his artistic breadth of style he never ventures amidst the 
 grander scenes of nature. There is always something of the 
 homely and the artificial in his views. You are in the country, 
 but you feel that Paris is not far off. He has painted village scenes 
 and views in parks and woodlands, and in the open champagne 
 country, but he is happiest in river scenery, such as a ' Vue des 
 Bords de la Seine ' (in the Museum of Nantes), ' Les Bords de 
 I'Oise/ ' L'Etang de Gylien,' the property of the Emperor, and the 
 
 like. M. Daubigny received a medal of the second class (paysage) 
 in 1848, of the first in 1853, and again in 1857, and in 1859 the 
 cross of the Legion of Honour. Besides his paintings M. 
 Daubigny has made numerous designs for journals and illus- 
 trated books. He is also skilful with the etching needle : among 
 other things, he has produced ' Le Buisson,' and 'Le Coup de 
 Soleil,' after Ruysdael, and several clever original etchings. 
 
 *DAUBREE, GABRIEL, AUGUSTE, aFrench geologist,, was 
 born June 25th, 1814, at Metz. He was educated at the Ecole 
 Poly technique, Paris, and then joined the Corps des Mines. In 1839 
 he was elected Professor of M ineralogy and Geology, at the Academy 
 of Strasbourg, and appointed a local mining engineer. In 1855, he 
 was promoted Chief Engineer of Mines; in 1861, he succeeded 
 Cordier as Professor of Geology in the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory, Paris ; in 1862, he was also appointed Professor of Mine- 
 ralogy in the School of Mines ; and in 1867, Inspector-General of 
 Mines. He is a Member of the Academy of Science, a Com- 
 mander of the Legion of Honour, and has received many 
 other honours. His scientific papers are numerous, and relate 
 to the mode of occurrence of the ore of tin and other metals in 
 veins, of gold in the Rhine Valley, of arsenic in wells and sea- 
 water, and elsewhere ; of iron ores in lakes and mountains, &c. 
 He has succeeded in artificially producing many minerals, such 
 as quartz, several silicates, &c, and has contributed largely to 
 our knowledge of the synthesis and metamorphism of rocks. 
 Amongst his principal separate works, we may cite the follow- 
 ing : — a ' Carte Geologique du Bas Rliin,' with an explanation, 
 1852 ; ' Recherches Experimentales sur les ph6nomenes qui 
 ont pu produire le metamorphisme,' 1857 — 1860 ; ' La Chaleur 
 interieure du Globe, son origine, ses effets,' 18mo, 1866 ; ' Ex- 
 periences synthetiques relatives aux meteorites,' 1866 and 1868 ; 
 ' Rapport sur le progres de la gdologie experimentale,' 8vo. 
 
 DA USSY, PIERRE, was born at Paris, 8th October, 1792. 
 In 1806 he joined the Corps of Hydrogr.iphical Engineers, and 
 after some years became Engineer-in-Chief, and conservator of 
 the charts and plans of the Minister of Marine. He became 
 Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1852, and died in Sep- 
 tember, 1860. His nautical charts are much esteemed. In union 
 with Mathieu and Largeteau he prepared the ' Report on the 
 Determination of the Arc of the Meridian between the parallels 
 of Dunkirk and Formentara.' He also assisted in the preparation 
 of good Tide Tables, based upon observation and sound theory. 
 During many years in this country, and probably also in other 
 countries, tide-tables were based on certain secret processes, and 
 formed a sort of private property, which was not to be infringed. 
 Lubbock in England, and Daussy in France, worked at the sub- 
 ject with good effect, and broke up a very old tide-table mono- 
 poly, by establishing correct formulae for the inequalities of the 
 tides, leaving the magnitudes to be determined by observation. 
 
 DAVID, PIERRE JEAN, known from his birth-place as 
 David D.'Angers, one of the most famous of modern French 
 sculptors, was born on the 12th of March, 1789. The son of a 
 carver of architectural ornaments, he learnt from his father the 
 use of the chisel, and attended a course on design at the Central 
 School of Angers. His father would have preferred a less un- 
 certain calling, but the youth being bent on becoming an artist, 
 a friendly teacher, who prognosticated his future success, fur- 
 nished funds for the journey, and young David started for Paris, 
 1808. There he found employment, at 20 sous a day, in carving 
 the ornaments of the Arch of the Carrousel and at the Louvre. 
 Thus securing a maintenance, he made time for study. His 
 namesake, David the painter, took an interest in him, admitted 
 him to his atelier, taught him to draw with accuracy, and did his 
 best to impress on him the principles of classic art, whilst the 
 sculptor Rolland initiated him in the processes of the sculptor. 
 A willing learner, David made such progress that at the concours 
 d'essai of the Academy, 1809, he was awarded a medal. His 
 native town testified its interest in its young citizen by voting 
 him a subvention of 600 francs ; thus aided and stimulated, he 
 carried off in 1810 the prize for the study of a head, and the 
 second prize for sculpture ; and in, the following year, by his bas- 
 relief of the Death of Epaminondas, the grand prize for sculpture, 
 which entitled him to study a,t Rome. He returned to Paris in 
 1816, a finished sculptor ; his head of Ulysses (which he refused 
 to sell, having designed it for the Museum of Angers), ' Young 
 Shepherd,' aud a ' Nereid carrying the helmet of Achilles,' 
 meeting with general admiration. Before returning to Paris he 
 had visited the chief Italian museums, and he now proceeded to 
 England, in order to examine the sculpture of the Parthenon, 
 then newly purchased by the nation from the Earl of Elgin. 
 He met with a cold reception from Flaxman, and returned to 
 
445 DAVIDSON, SAMUEL. 
 
 Paris somewhat disgusted with English art and artists. His first 
 great public work was the statue of Conde, now in the principal 
 court of Versailles. It was a great success, and his position was 
 assured. In 1825 he received the Cross of the Legion of Honour, 
 and in 1826 he was elected a member of the Institute, and pro- 
 fessor in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Henceforth his life was that 
 of one of the leading artists of France, the years marked chiefly 
 by the commencement or completion of one of his great works (he 
 began his chef-d'oeuvre, the sculptures of the Pantheon, in 1831), 
 or a foreign tour in pursuit of health or information. In one of 
 his visits to Germany he executed a colossal bust of Goethe for 
 the Library at Weimar ; in another, he modelled Rauch, Tieck, 
 and Schelling. Revolutionary movements, however, stirred to 
 its depths the heart of this thorough Frenchman. In 1830 he 
 fought at the barricades ; in 1848 he again came to the front. 
 He was returned by the department of Maine-et-Loir, and took 
 his place among the national legislators, but was for the most part 
 a silent voter. However, he gave substantive form to his idea 
 in a colossal model of the Republic, and, altogether, his re- 
 publicanism was of so marked a kind that he was among the 
 number exiled alter the coup d'etat of Dec. 2, 1851. He went to 
 Athens, whilst there modelled some pieces, returned when per- 
 mitted, but broken in health, to Paris, and there died, on the 5th 
 of January, 1856. 
 
 David D'Angers was a man of genius, of i ml omi table energy, 
 and of amazing industry. The number of his works is surpris- 
 ing. Besides such monumental figures and groups as Marshal 
 Suchet, General Foy, Gobert, Saint-Cyr, and others at Pere 
 Lachaise ; the grand mausoleum of Botzaris, at Missolonghi, and 
 that of Fenelon at Cambray, he executed a very large number of 
 statues of his most distinguished countrymen, including Cuvier, 
 for the Jardin des Plantes ; Racine, for La Ferte-Milon ; Cor- 
 neille, for Rouen; Bernardin de Saint Pierre, for Havre ; Giitten- 
 berg, for Strasbourg ; and, beyond France, Jefferson, for New 
 York. His busts take a still wider range, and several of them 
 are of colossal size. Many of these were not commissions, but 
 executed at his own cost, as a mark of honour for the persons. 
 We have mentioned his sculptures at the Pantheon ; he executed 
 others on a grand scale for the Triumphal Arch, Marseille ; the 
 Hotel-de-Ville, Paris ; the Custom House, Rouen, <&c. ; and he 
 modelled with his own hands many hundreds of medallions, many 
 of which were on a large scale. Works produced in such numbers 
 could not all be of great artistic value ; some, probably, are of 
 very little. But David D'Angers was a true artist, and if he 
 produced too much and too rapidly, it was rather from the 
 energy and impatience of his temperament than from greed. In 
 all he did there was nobility of purpose, originality, power, and 
 feeling. He left all his models, and such of his works as re- 
 mained in his possession at his death, to the Museum of Angers, 
 where thev are collected in a saloon which bears his name. 
 
 * DAVIDSON, SAMUEL, a distinguished theologian, phi- 
 lologer, and biblical critic, was born in 1808 at Ballymena, in 
 the county of Antrim, Ireland. He received his education at 
 the College at Belfast, which he entered in 1825, and where he 
 made himself remarkable for his attainments in philology, 
 philosophy, and divinity ; and in due course received ordina- 
 tion from the Presbytery. In 1835 he was appointed to the 
 chair of Biblical Literature in the Belfast Royal Academical 
 Institution, from which he delivered to the theological students 
 that came under his tuition a course of lectures which he pub- 
 lished with the title of * Lectures on Biblical Criticism, exhibit- 
 ing a Systematic View of that Science,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1839 ; a 
 new edition of which, entirely re-written, and " recast both in 
 substance and form," appeared with the modified title of a 
 ' Treatise,' &c, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1852, with a dedication to 
 Bishop Thirlwall ; and as a supplement to which he published 
 an elaborate work ■wherein he laid down and exemplified the 
 fundamental principles constituting the theory of interpretation, 
 entitled ' Sacred Hermeneutics developed and applied ; including 
 a History of Bible Interpretation from the Earliest of the Fathers 
 to the Reformation,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1843. He had by this time 
 changed his views on ecclesiastical polity, and resigned his con- 
 nection with Belfast College ; and was acting as Professor of 
 Biblical Literature and Ecclesiastical History in the newly- 
 founded Lancashire Independent College at Manchester. In 
 1838 the Senatus of Marischal College and University, Aber- 
 deen, had conferred upon him the degree of LL.D. ; and in 
 1848, on the recommendation of Professors Hupfeld and Tho- 
 luck, he receiv ed the honorary title of D.D. from the University 
 of Halle. He fulfilled the duties of his professorship at Man- 
 chester for fourteen years, esteemed by the students, and re- 
 
 DAVIDSON, SAMUEL. 41(5 
 
 garded by all who knew him as a pious, amiable, and high- 
 minded man, and an industrious and conscientious tutor. He 
 was in fact the pride of his college and his denomination, and was 
 known and admired in all countries in which biblical learning was 
 cultivated. He delivered the 'Congregational Lecture' (thir- 
 teenth series) for 1847 ; and the same was published for the 
 funds of the " Congregational Library," with the title of ' The 
 Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament unfolded, and its 
 Points of Coincidence or Disagreement with prevailing Systems 
 indicated,' 8vo, London, 1848 ; second (new and uniform) 
 edition, 8vo, London, 1854, which, after an estimate of all 
 possible and historical systems of church organisation, con- 
 cluded with a "review and defence" of Congregationalism. 
 At the time of the delivery of the 'Lecture' — a title which 
 hardly does justice to a work of nearly 500 pages — Dr. Davidson 
 was prosecuting the translation, for ' Clark's Foreign Theological 
 Libraiy,' of the first two volumes of the fourth edition of Dr. 
 J. C. L. Gieseler's 'Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte/ or ' Compen- 
 dium of Ecclesiastical History,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1846 and 1848, 
 of which the remaining two volumes, published in 1853, were 
 the work of the Rev. J. W. Hull. Dr. Davidson proceeded to 
 issue an important work, which " enters with considerable 
 fulness into objections that have been urged in modern times 
 against the New Testament Books, and especially against the 
 Gospels," with the title of 'An Introduction to the New Testa- 
 ment ; containing an Examination of the most important Ques- 
 tions relating to the Authority, Interpretation, and Integrity of 
 the Canonical Books, with reference to the latest Inquiries,' 3 
 vols. 8vo, London, 1848, 1849, and 1851 ; and about the same 
 time edited, with Introduction and Notes, Professor Moses 
 Stuart's ' Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament 
 Canon,' 8vo, London, 1849. Up to the year 1856, Dr. Davidson's 
 theological position was unassailed : his works, notwithstanding 
 the free tone of criticism which pervaded them, had never been 
 impeached. In compliance with a request from the proprietors 
 of the Rev. T. H. Home's ' Introduction to the Critical Study 
 and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures,' he undertook to pro- 
 duce a volume which should be substituted, in the tenth edition 
 of that work, for the second volume of the preceding editions, on 
 ' The Text of the Old Testament considered : with a Treatise on 
 Sacred Interpretation, and a brief Introduction to the Old Tes- 
 tament Books and the Apocrypha,' 8vo, London, 1856 ; second 
 edition, revised and improved, and issued as a substantive work, 
 8vo, London, 1859. In the front of this work the name of Dr. 
 Davidson appears as sole author, whilst the volume, as part of a 
 whole, was ostensibly under the joint editorship of Mr. Home, 
 Dr. Davidson, and Dr. S. P. Tregelles, who were severally and 
 collectively understood to have the privilege, and to accept the 
 duty, of examining the statements and opinions which each 
 claimed to contribute to the aggregate production. If each had 
 used this privilege, or discharged this duty, before publication, 
 it was said, there would have been no such repudiation after- 
 wards as took place when Dr. Tregelles protested for himself 
 and Mr. Home, in a letter to the ' Record,' dated October 29th, 
 1856, against the theories and sentiments with regard to Scrip- 
 ture which were advanced by their co-editor. Hereupon the 
 denunciations of Dr. Davidson began ; and he was vaguely 
 characterised as a "German Rationalist," and as "a man who 
 virtually denied the inspiration of the Scripture." On the 24th of 
 November, 1856, the committee of the college appointed a sub- 
 committee to examine into the truth of the allegations which 
 had been made against his orthodoxy ; the report of which, 
 brought up and read by Dr. Halley, concluded by recommend- 
 ing concession and conciliation. Dr. Davidson now prepared a 
 pamphlet of ' Facts, Statements, and Explanations,' 8vo, London, 
 1857 ; after which, in spite of its recognised spirit of moderation, 
 and the guarantees it gave of general "soundness" of doctrine, 
 the author's opponents became more hostile than ever. Finally, 
 on the 10th of June, 1857, the Committee, Having passed a vote 
 of want of confidence in their Professor of Biblical Literature, 
 the latter sent in his resignation, which was accepted at a 
 meeting of the Committee held at Liverpool on the 29th of the 
 same month. Various and valuable expressions of sympathy and 
 regret from students, ministers, and laymen followed him upon his 
 resignation. The Rev. John Kelly, of Liverpool, who was one 
 of his most persistent opponents, published ' An Examination of 
 Facts, &c, of the Rev. Dr. S. Davidson,' 8vo, London and Liver- 
 pool, 1857 ; and the Rev. Thomas Nicholas, Professor of Biblical 
 Literature and Mental and Moral Science in the Presbyterian 
 College, Carmarthen, in a spirit of candour and appreciation, 
 which, by contrast, made him appear an advocate of the accused, 
 
DAVIES, SIR JOHN. 
 
 reviewed the question in 'Dr. Davidson's Removal from the 
 Professorship of Biblical Literature in the Lancashire Indepen- 
 dent College, Manchester, on account of alleged Error in 
 Doctrine. A Statement of Facts, with Documents ; together 
 with Remarks and Criticisms.' 8vo, London, 1860. Dr. Davidson 
 was appointed examiner in the department of Biblical History 
 and Philology in the University of London in 1862 ; and in the 
 same year produced his ' Introduction to the Old Testament, 
 Critical, Historical, and Theological ; containing a Discussion of 
 the most important Questions belonging to the Several Books,' 3 
 vols. 8vo, London, 1862 — 63, in which, unfettered by the obliga- 
 tions of co-editorship, he expresses with greater maturity and 
 development, the views which were less clearly advocated in the 
 volume he contributed to Home's 'Introduction.' Indeed in his 
 researches and Ins results he appears to recognise no such thing 
 as finality ; wherever truth seems to unveil, there he is prepared 
 to worship ; to follow wherever truth seems to conduct. Thus, 
 after constantly revolving in his mind the topics embraced in 
 his ' Introduction to the New Testament,' 1848 — 51, he deter- 
 mined to give to the world the results of twenty years' additional 
 study, in the shape of ' An Introduction to the Study of the 
 New Testament, Critical, Exegetical, and Theological,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, London, 1868. The following sentences from the Preface 
 sufficiently express the author's latest views upon the question 
 on which all his theory of criticism is founded — that, namely, of 
 the scientific limitation of the inspiration of the writers of the 
 Bible. " True critics," he says, " regret to see that religion is 
 often confounded with a system of theological dogmas. If the 
 two things were clearly distinguished as they ought to be, a 
 cessation of that bitterness which theologians often show to one 
 another might be reasonably expected. Not that a religion can 
 exist apart from some theology. Still the amount of theology 
 needed to constitute a religion may be indefinitely small. If 
 men coidd see that the Spirit of God neither dwelt exclusively 
 in apostles nor rendered them infallible, however highly gifted 
 they may have been, the sacred records would be less distorted, 
 and different values would be assigned to the several parts of the 
 volume according to their nature. When these records are held 
 to be absolutely correct in all matters, whether historical or 
 speculative, scientific or doctrinal, they acquire a supernatural 
 and fictitious pre-eminence similar to that which is conferred on 
 the Pope by the theory of papal infallibility : they are called 
 God's word throughout, which they never claim to be, and thus 
 free inquiry into their credibility is at once checked or sup- 
 pressed. God's word is in the Scriptures : all Scripture is not 
 the word of God. The writers were inspired in various degrees, 
 and are therefore not all equally trustworthy guides to belief 
 and conduct. In the Bible may be found all things necessary 
 for our salvation : it is an unwarrantable inference that it 
 contains nothing but what is thus needed for all. The Scriptures 
 contain the highest truth ; but this fact is undisturbed by the 
 possibility that they may contain some things which are not 
 truth." 
 
 Two other productions of Dr. Davidson may be mentioned, 
 of no great bulk, but of great learning and significance — ' The 
 Hebrew Text of the Old Testament, revised from critical 
 sources, being an attempt to present a purer and more correct 
 Text than the received one of Van Der Hooght ; by the aid of 
 the best existing materials : with the principal various Readings 
 found in MSS., Ancient Versions, Jewish Books and Writers, 
 Parallels, Quotations, &c, &c.,' 8vo, London, 1855, an attempt at 
 aiding to do for the Old Testament something like what Gries- 
 bach and others did for the New ; and a ' Preface written for 
 the English Edition of Fiirst's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon 
 to the Old Testament,' first published in that work in 1845, and 
 separately issued in 8vo, London, 1867. 
 
 * DAVIDSON, THOMAS, a well-known authority on Bra- 
 chiopoda, was born at Edinburgh, May 17, 1817. When only 
 six years of age, he was sent to the Continent with French and 
 Italian tutors, with whom he visited France, Switzerland, and 
 Italy. His education was almost entirely received at Paris, 
 where he followed the lectures of Cordier, Constant Prevost, 
 Elie de Beaumont, Valenciennes, Blainville, Geoffroy de St. 
 Hilaire, Dumeril, Brongniart, and other eminent teachers ; and 
 was a pupil of the distinguished French painter, Paid Delaroche. 
 But it was the study of the first edition of Sir C. Lyell's 
 ' Principles of Geology ' that gave him a predilection for geology 
 and palaeontology. In or about 1835 he matriculated at the 
 University of Edinburgh, and became intimate with Professors 
 Jameson and E. Forbes. In the following year he returned to 
 the Continent, most parts of which he explored on foot, and with 
 
 hammer in hand. About this time he formed the acquaintanceship 
 of Baron von Buch, who urged him to take up the study of the 
 Brachiopoda. He acted upon the suggestion, and since then has 
 worked at it with a single-minded purpose and unflagging zeal. 
 In 1849, Professors E. Forbes and Morris requested him to pre- 
 pare a ' Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda,' for the 
 Palseontographieal Society. The first part appeared in 1850, 
 and the last in 1870. The whole forms three large 4to volumes, 
 illustrated with 170 plates, all of which were drawn by himself. 
 In addition to this, he has written upwards of fifty papers, 
 mostly relating to Brachiopoda, but a few to geology. In 1865 
 the Wollaston Medal was awarded him by the Geological Society, 
 and Sir Roderick Murchison presented him with a Silurian 
 medal, for his contributions to the history of Silurian life. He 
 is Vice-President of the Pakeontographical Society, and a Fel- 
 low of the Royal Society, as also of many other learned bodies. 
 
 DAVIES, or DAVVS, SIR JOHN, a poet, lawyer, and 
 statesman, was born at Chisgrove, in the parish of Tysbury, 
 Wiltshire, about the year 1570. His father, a wealthy tanner, 
 who is otherwise spoken of as " late of Gray's-inn," had probably 
 spent suiue time in the study or the practice of the law. Davies 
 was admitted a commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, in 
 Michaelmas term, 1585. After taking a degree in arts, he 
 became a student of the Middle Temple, and was called to the 
 bar in July, 1595. In 1596 he published ' Orchestra ; or, a 
 Poem expressing the Antiquity and Excellence of Dancing, in a 
 Dialogue between Penelope and one of her Wooers,' which was 
 republished in 1622 along with an edition of ' Nosce Teipsum,' 
 &c. To the 1 Orchestra' was prefixed a dedicatory sonnet by the 
 author, "to his very friend, Master Richard Martin." The next 
 instance of this " very friendship" is rather peculiar; for Davies 
 being, according to Wood, " a high-spirited young man, did, 
 upon some little provocation or punctilio, bastinado Richard 
 Martin (afterwards Recorder of London) in the common hall of 
 the Middle Temple while he was at dinner. For which act being 
 forthwith (February, 1797 — 8) expelled, he retired for a time in 
 private, lived in Oxon in the condition of a sojourner, andfollowed 
 his studies, although he wore a cloak. However, among his serious 
 thoughts, making reflections upon his own condition, which some- 
 times was an affliction to him, he composed that excellent, philoso • 
 phical, and divine poem," which he entitled 'Nosce Teipsum : this 
 Oracle expounded in two Elegies — (1) Of Human Knowledge, 
 (2) Of the Soul of Man, and the Immortality thereof,' 4to, 
 London, 1599, with a dedication— dated, probably by some typo- 
 graphical blunder, July 11th, 1592 — to Queen Elizabeth, to 
 whom in the same volume he addressed 26 'Hymns of Astraea, 
 in Acrostic Verse,' celebrating the virtues and the glories of 
 " Elizabetha Regina." This poem was reprinted in 4to, London, 
 1602 ; in 8vo, 1609 ; and again in 8vo, 1622, when it appeared 
 in the same volume with the ' Orchestra.' Nahum Tate wrote a 
 judicious preface to an edition of the second part of ' Nosce 
 Teipsum,' which he brought out as ' The Original Nature and 
 Immortality of the Soul : a Poem, with an Introduction con- 
 cerning Human Knowledge,' 8vo, London, 1697 ; 2nd edition, 
 8vo, London, 1714 ; 3rd, 12mo, London, 1715. The poem on 
 the Immortality of the Soul is conceived in great religiousness of 
 spirit, and is admirable for the easy flow of its language, the 
 clearness of its argument, and the ingenuity, aptness, and grace 
 of its similes and illustrations. 
 
 Through the favour of Thomas, Lord Ellesmere, Lord Keeper 
 of the Great Seal, Davies was restored to his chambers in the 
 Temple, in Trinity term, 1601, and became a counsellor and a 
 member of the Parliament held the same year at Westminster. 
 Upon the accession of King James I., he was taken into especial 
 favour by that sovereign, by whom he was made successively 
 his solicitor-general and attorney-general in Ireland. Davies 
 was knighted at Whitehall, February 11, 1607 ; and in 1612 was 
 appointed one of his Majesty's serjeants-at-law for England, and 
 in that capacity frequently acted as justice of assize in divers 
 circuits. Through the gradations of honour and employment, 
 he came at length to be nominated to the office of lord chief 
 justice, and his robes were already ordered for his settlement or 
 installation therein, when, before they were completed, he died 
 suddenly of apoplexy, on the 7th of December, 1626. 
 
 Sir John Davies wrote, besides several minor works, some of 
 which were left in manuscript at the time of his death, an 
 important treatise upon Ireland, which he entitled ' A Discovery 
 of the true Causes why Ireland was never entirely subdued, nor 
 brought under Obedience of the Crown of England, until the 
 beginning of His Majesty's happy Reign,' 4to, London, 1612 ; 
 4to, London, 1613 ; and with the modified title of ' Historical 
 
449 DAVIS, JEFFERSON. 
 
 Relations,' &c, 8vo, Dublin, 1664 ; 3rd edition, 1666. The 
 'Discovery' was reprinted as an Appendix to Sir James Ware's 
 ' Antiquities and History of Ireland,' folio, London, 1705; and 
 was lately republished in the first volume, 8vo, 1860, of a col- 
 lection of Tracts and Treatises illustrative of the political state of 
 Ireland. Sir John Davies's contributions to the literature of his 
 profession may be represented by his ' Le Primer Reports des 
 Cases et Matters en Ley ; resolues et adjudges in les Courts del 
 Roy en Ireland,' folio, Dublin, 1615 ; folio, London, 1628 and 
 1674, of which English translations were published, and which 
 supplied a large proportion of the matter of Sir John Pettus' 
 volume, entitled 1 England's Independency upon the Papal 
 Power,' &c, 4to, London, 1674. Several of the smaller, chiefly 
 political, productions of Sir John Davies were published after 
 his death. His ' Poetical Works ' were collected into a small 
 volume in 12mo, London, 1775 ; and his 'Historical Tracts' in 
 8vo, London, 1786. 
 
 * DAVIS, JEFFERSON, a distinguished American states- 
 man, and President of the Confederate States in the Civil War 
 of 1861—65, was born in Todd County, Kentucky, June 3, 1808. 
 His father, a planter, removed with his family to Woodville, 
 Mississippi, where young Davis received his early education. 
 Having finished his civil studies at Transylvania College, 
 Kentucky, he entered the United States Military College at 
 West Point in 1824. In 1828 he graduated, and became brevet 
 second lieutenant. In 1831 — 32 he served as staff officer on the 
 north-west frontier, in the Black Hawk war against the Indians. 
 In 1833, as first lieutenant of dragoons, he was employed against 
 the Comanches and Pawnee Indians. Resigning his military 
 commission in 1835, he settled down as a cotton-planter in 
 the State of Mississippi. About the year 1843 he began to 
 take a prominent part in politics, siding with the Democrats, 
 Southerners, or Slave States party ; and he assisted in bringing 
 about the election of Mr. Polk for the Presidency in 1844. When 
 in Congress, as one of the members for Mississippi, he entered 
 eagerly into the debates concerning Oregon, Mexico, the tariff, 
 the militia, &c. In 1846 the 1st Regiment of Mississippi Volun- 
 teers having elected him as their colonel, he resigned his seat, 
 headed the regiment, and distinguished himself during the 
 Mexican war by his gallantry at Monterey and Buena Vista. In 
 1847 President Polk offered him the post of brigadier-general of 
 volunteers. This he declined, on the ground that all volunteer 
 commands ought to be vested in the States, each for itself : a 
 commencement of Mr. Davis's advocacy of State Rights, which 
 in later years became the great principle of his public life. 
 Entering the Senate, he was chosen president of the military 
 committee in 1850 ; but this office he resigned in the following 
 year, in order that he might compete for the presidency of the 
 State of Mississippi, in which aim, however, he failed. He was 
 secretary of war at Washington from 1853 to 1857, under Presi- 
 dent Pierce ; and then simply a senator until 1860. The election 
 of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, in the 
 autumn of the last-named year, gave, a definite direction to Mr. 
 Davis's energy of character. The Democrats or Southerners, 
 defeated at the election, resolved to erect the Slave States into a 
 distinct republic, claiming that, by the original constitution of 
 the United States, each State had virtually the right of secession. 
 This claim was not only not admitted, it was resisted to the 
 uttermost by the Northerners ; and hence the Civil War. South 
 Carolina seceded from the Union in November, 1860, and at 
 various dates the example was followed by Florida, Alabama, 
 Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, 
 Arkansas, half of Kentucky, and half of Missouri. On the 4th 
 of February, 1861, delegates met at Montgomery, Alabama, to 
 constitute the "Confederate States of America;" and in the 
 following May the capital of the new republic was established at 
 Richmond, Virginia, with Mr. Davis as President. The biography 
 of Mr. Davis for the ensuing four years would be virtually a 
 history of the Civil War. Negociations for a compromise having 
 failed, military and naval operations speedily commenced. The 
 capture of Fort Sumter and the United States Arsenal at 
 Harper's Ferry by the Confederates, together with their success 
 at the battle of Bull's Run, rendered a long and fierce war in- 
 evitable. Throughout 1861 the political power and military 
 skill of Mr. Davis enabled him to deal with the numerous diffi- 
 culties under which the new Confederacy laboured. In 1862 he 
 supplied, by great exertions, the men, ammunition, and stores 
 necessary for the operations conducted by Generals Lee and 
 " Stonewall " Jackson against Generals Scott, M'Clellan, Banks, 
 Pope, Burnside, and Rosencranz. In 1863 the actual fighting 
 was mostly in favour of the Confederates ; but their President 
 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 DAWES, REV. WILLIAM RUTTER. 460 
 
 was terribly driven for supplies, being cut off from all communi- 
 cations with other countries by sea. By the month of March, 
 1864, the Federals had 1,000,000 men in arms, against 250,000 
 Confederates ; and Generals Grant and Sherman threw great 
 energy into their operations. Weakened by incessant fighting, 
 the Confederates were forced to yield in April, 1865 ; and the 
 war ended. President Lincoln was assassinated in the same 
 month ; and the Federals, accusing Mr. Davis of complicity in 
 the crime, offered 100,000 dollars for his capture ; he was 
 arrested on the 15th of May, and placed in custody at Fort 
 Monroe, Washington. For nearly two years he lingered in 
 prison, until his health was seriously broken. Opinion in 
 America was greatly divided as to the proper mode of dealing 
 with his case. He was acquitted by the public sentiment of com- 
 plicity in the murder of Lincoln ; but a charge of high treason 
 continued to hang over him. In May, 1867, he was released on 
 bail for six months. A desire gradually spread in the United 
 States to permit him to resume his place as a private citizen ; and 
 the prosecution was allowed to die out. Mr. Davis has since 
 taken to commercial pursuits, his own property in the (former) 
 Slave States having been utterly shattered by the events of the 
 war. Apart from differences of opinion as to the line of conduct 
 he followed, his skill, determination, and energy are generally 
 admitted. 
 
 DAVY, JOHN, M.D. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 525], was born at 
 Penzance, 24th May, 1790, and died at Ambleside, 24th January, 
 1868. He was the youngest of five children, of whom Sir 
 Humphry Davy, born twelve years before him, was the eldest. 
 At the age of eighteen he entered the laboratory of the Royal 
 Institution, at a period (1808) when his brother was at the 
 height of his fame as a lecturer and a discoverer. The two or three 
 years, during which John acted as assistant to his brother, were 
 considered by him as the happiest and best employed of his life. 
 After this he studied medicine in Edinburgh, where he graduated 
 in 1814, in which year he became a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 From 1815 nearly to the end of his life he held various appoint- 
 ments in the army medical department in different parts of the 
 world. During this long period he contributed to the various 
 Transactions and Journals a large number of papers on chemical 
 and biological subjects. The number in the Royal Society's index 
 is 158. He also wrote the history of his brother's life, edited 
 his works, and became the champion of his fame, not only when 
 his memory had been, or appeared to have been, attacked, but 
 also when some of the great chemist's contemporaries and succes- 
 sors extended his discoveries, and made others to which he had 
 no claim. Dr. Davy thus became a partizan of a somewhat 
 unreasoning and unwarrantable kind, and excited the suspicion 
 of men whose good opinion he ought rather to have courted. 
 He could only see one great chemical philosopher in the world, 
 and that was Sir Humphry Davy. He would seem to have acted 
 under the idea that the edifice of chemical science had been re- 
 constructed and completed by his brother, and that any one who 
 presumed to alter the details or add to the building only dis- 
 figured it. 
 
 In addition to his numerous papers, many of which have been 
 collected into three volumes, entitled ' Researches, Anatomical 
 and Physiological,' two of which were published in 1839, and the 
 third in 1863, Dr. Davy published, partly from personal observa- 
 tions, separate works entitled ' An Account of the Interior of 
 Ceylon,' 4to, 1821 ; ' Notes on the Ionian Islands and Malta, 
 with some Account of Constantinople,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1842 ; ' The 
 West Indies, before and since Emancipation,' 1854 ; ' On the 
 Diseases of the Army, with Contributions to Pathology,' 1862 ; 
 ' Lectures on the Study of Chemistry,' chiefly with reference to 
 the agriculture of Barbadoes. He also edited his brother's 
 ' Agricultural Chemistry,' and Dr. Blair's volume on ' The Yellow 
 Fever Epidemic of British Guiana.' He shared his brother's 
 taste for angling, and published two colloquial works on that 
 subject, chiefly with reference to the biological bearings of the 
 sport. 
 
 Dr. Davy adopted a regular and methodical course of literary 
 and scientific work to the last. His powers as an original 
 observer were not of a high order, and accordingly his works are 
 seldom quoted by better men in his own ample fields of rc- 
 S6circli. 
 
 DAWES, REV. WILLIAM RUTTER, an astronomer dis- 
 tinguished for his acuteness as an observer, was born at Christ's 
 Hospital, where his father was mathematical master, March 19th, 
 1799. He studied partly at the Charter-house, partly under the 
 Rev. Thomas Scott, author of the Commentary on the Bible. 
 Although his father intended him for the church, his own incli- 
 
 q a 
 
451 
 
 DEAK, FERENCZ. 
 
 nation led him to the study of medicine, which he pursued at St. 
 Bartholomew's Hospital, under AhernethV and Lawrence. He 
 settled as a medical practitioner at Haddenham, wear Thame ; 
 but removed in 1826 to Liverpool. Attracted by the influence 
 of Dr. Raffles, an eminent Independent minister, Mr. Dawes 
 quitted alike churchmanship and the medical profession, and 
 became the minister of an Independent chapel at Ormskirk. It 
 was soon after this that he commenced the forty years' observa- 
 tions which raised him to a high rank as an astronomer. He 
 began with a very small telescope ; then procured a 5-fcet 
 refractor by Dolland ; and, aided by wonderful keenness of 
 vision, made so many and such accurate observations and 
 tabulations of small stars, as secured his admission into 
 the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1839 he resigned his 
 ministerial functions, and from that year till 1844 took charge 
 of Mr. Bishop's observatory in the Regent's Park. He then 
 removed to Cranbrook, in Kent, where be erected an observatory 
 which was described in the lGtli volume of the Astronomical 
 Society's ' Memoirs.' In 184G he obtained a splendid 8j-feet 
 equatorial, made by Mcrz, of Munich, and made with it an 
 immense number of observations remarkable for their accuracy. 
 In 1850 he removed bis observatory to Wateringbury, near 
 Maidstone ; and in 1857 to Hopetield, Haddenbam. His re- 
 searches were further aided by an 8-ineh (aperture) refractor, by 
 Cooke, of York, and another of 8^-iiieh, by Alvan Clark. In 
 November, 1850, Mr. Dawes and Mr. Bond, the one in England 
 and the other in America, independently discovered the inner 
 dusky ring of Saturn. In 1851 Mr. Dawes went to Sweden to 
 observe the solar eclipse ; and his accurate account of the red 
 protuberances or rose-coloured flames helped to pave the way for 
 the recent discovery of the sun's chromosphere. He invented a 
 solar eyepiece, which has enabled astronomers to discover an 
 interior envelope of the sun's body, not before known. His 
 acuteness of sight enabled him to detect minute features in the 
 so-called '•'willow-leaves" or "rice-grains" on the solar surface, 
 not observable by others except with much more powerful 
 instruments. Mr. Dawes, whose valuable star observations are 
 printed in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, died 
 on the 15th of February, 1868. 
 
 * DEAK, FERENCZ, a statesman of Hungary, and the cham- 
 pion of her nationality, is stated to have been born alternatively 
 on the 13th or the 17th of October, 1803, at Kehida or at Sojtor, 
 which are two out of three estates which formed the patrimony 
 of his family in the comitat, or county, of Szalad. He studied 
 jurisprudence at the College of Raab (Gyor, or Nagy-(Jyor) ; 
 and was admitted to practise as an advocate, but found himself 
 diverted from his profession by the interest he took in the poli- 
 tical fortunes of his native country. He identified himself at 
 the outset with the Liberal party, whose object it was to compel 
 from the court of Vienna the re-assembly of the Hungarian 
 Diet, which had not been convened since the year 1811. His 
 eloquence and position gave him great influence in the provin- 
 cial parliaments in the county of Szalad, of which he was 
 elected a representative at the general Diet convened at Pres- 
 burg in September, 1825, and dissolved on the 18th of August, 
 1827. In the Diet which sat from 1832 to 1836, the happy 
 combination of Deak's diversified gilts raised him to the rank of 
 leader of the opposition ; and in the Diet which assembled in 
 1839 he sustained this position with such effect as to procure, 
 amongst other concessions, the release of Kossuth, who had 
 been arrested in 1837. He saw himself, indeed, in the recog- 
 nised attitude of a mediator between the crown and the nation ; 
 between whom, in 1840, he actually brought about a temporary 
 and formal reconciliation. He was not a member of the Diet 
 which met in 1843, owing to his refusal to secure his return by 
 bribery ; and several of his friends accused him of sacrificing 
 the interests of his party to the ambition of being regarded as a 
 man of exceptional electoral honesty. Yet Zsedenyi, his princi- 
 pal adversary in the Diet, did not hesitate to declare that by his 
 absence the Assembly had lost the services of the purest politi- 
 cal character of Hungary, and the want of his presence was felt 
 to be a national calamity. Meanwhile he retired to his estate of 
 Kehida ; from which, whilst he declared himself the advocate of 
 reform, not of revolution, he continued to advise and direct the 
 Liberal party, as well as to provide against the contingencies of 
 their opposition to the court of Vienna. In 1846 he sought 
 recovery from the prostration of a serious illness by a visit to the 
 baths of his own and of other countries, extending his tour until 
 it had embraced Switzerland, Italy, France, and England. 
 He returned home, however, in too feeble a condition to accept 
 the candidature pressed on him in the elections of 1847 ; and 
 
 emerged from his privacy only to accept, March 17th, 1848, the 
 portfolio of Justice in that first Hungarian administration 
 which Count Louis Batthyanyi was commissioned to construct, 
 and which he formed on principles comprehensive enough to 
 include Szcchenyi as Finance Minister, and Kossuth as Minister 
 of Public Works. Deak was devoting himself to reforms in the 
 administration of justice, and to the bringing about of a good 
 understanding with Austria, when the accession of Kossuth to 
 the premiership, in September, 1848, destroyed all bis hopes of 
 accommodation, and compelled him to resign office in the begin- 
 ning of October, whilst he retained his seat as representative in 
 the Diet. War was now inevitable ; the Austrian troops, under 
 the command of Prince Windiscligriitz, marched into Hungary, 
 and arrived, victorious in the encounters of the 28th and 29th of 
 December, hel'ore the w alls of Jiuda. The Diet now sent a depu- 
 tation, of which Deak was a member, in order to negociate a peace ; 
 but Prince Windischgratz refused to receive it, on the ground that 
 he could not treat with rebels. A continuation of the war was 
 the only alternative, the fortunes of which changed so signally 
 that the Hungarians were able to declare their independence, 
 with Kossuth for President ; and were only subdued after- 
 Russia had despatched a force of 100,000 men to aid the 
 Austrians, who, so assisted, found themselves in October, 
 1849, absolute masters of the kingdom of Hungary. Neither 
 in the successes nor the disasters, which he alike, if not 
 equally, deplored, did Deak take part, except that he suffered 
 for his attitude of mediation by a short imprisonment at Pesth. 
 When Austria wished to re-constitute Hungary, she sought to 
 come to an arrangement with Deak, who, having sold his estate 
 of Kehida, was now resident in Pesth, and who was generally 
 regarded as the representative of all Hungary. He refused, 
 however, to be a party to any settlement which did not recog- 
 nise the Hungarian constitution, apart from which, he told Von 
 Schmerlin" the Austrian Minister, he had no political power, 
 or even existence. 
 
 Deak continued to maintain his privacy until, by the Impe- 
 rial concessions of 1860 and 1861, he found it possible to 
 return to political life, when he was elected on the 11th 
 of March, 1861, representative for the city of Pesth. He 
 became now the leader of the moderate party in the Diet, 
 which he headed, in accordance with the principles of legality 
 and right, against absolutism on the one hand, and anarchy on 
 the other. Determined to uphold the rights of his country, 
 and equally determined to leave nothing untried in order to 
 bring about an understanding, Deak clung to his programme of 
 "Hungarian independence and dynastic union with Austria." 
 But the time for its realisation was not yet come ; and after a 
 five months' agitation on one side and the other of claims which 
 could not be adjusted, the Emperor, on the 21st of August, 1861, 
 dissolved the Diet, wdiich separated with a protest against the 
 illegality of the measure. But time and the course of everts 
 were on the side of Deak, who, after Austria had hardened her- 
 self against several checks -and reverses, found in the battle of 
 Koniggriitz, in 1866, his final and efficient co-adjutor. The 
 humbled Emperor accepted the terms of the Magyar patriot ; 
 restored to Hungary her constitution, and in turn received her 
 crown at Pesth on the 8th of June, 1867. From the splendours 
 and festivities of the coronation, Deak, with his characteristic 
 simplicity of taste and habit, kept aloof, modestly withdrawing 
 from a sight of what was in fact his own achievement. Refusing to 
 take office in the Hungarian cabinet, and generally inaccessible 
 to ambition, he received from the Emperor-King the portrait of 
 the latter with the inscription "Francis Joseph to Francis Deak." 
 His loyalty to the regime which he initiated has been since 
 manifested in more than one circumstance of delicacy and 
 difficulty. He has been described as a man who has nothing iir 
 him of the dashing, sanguine, ostentatious liveliness and impe- 
 tuosity of the Magyar type ; a man of moderate wants, of 
 retiring habits ; for years the tenant of a plainly -furnished 
 upper room in the Queen of England Hotel at Pesth, sitting 
 day after day in the corner of his sofa, the end of a cigar in his 
 mouth, " nursing his right leg on his left knee," accessible to all, 
 an unwearied listener, chary of words, courteous but grave, even 
 to gloominess, with a settled look of care about him almost 
 painful to behold ; a passionless, utterly disinterested man, with 
 clear views, sound reasoning, occasional fluency and even bril- 
 liancy of talk ; ready to give in on trifles, a rock on matters of 
 principle, with something of Cavour's head and Garibaldi's 
 heart — an idol to his countrymen, who have given him Aristides' 
 title, " The Just." His favourite summer retreat is a country- 
 house at Szent-Laszlo, near Sojtor, where he devotes much of his 
 
454 
 
 leisure to carving in wood, an art which he practises with a gra- 
 tifying amount of success. 
 
 * DEBAIN, ALEXANDER FRANCOIS, French musical 
 instrument maker and mechanician, was horn at Paris in 1809. 
 After serving an apprenticeship to the trade of cabinet>makihg, 
 he studied the mechanism of various kinds of musical instru- 
 ments, and obtained employment under Sax, Mercier, and other 
 makers, especially in repairing church organs in country dis- 
 tricts. In 1834 he established a manufactory of organs and 
 pianofortes at Paris, which gradually rose into note. The great 
 attention which he paid to the construction and action of free- 
 vibrators — i.e., slips of metal oscillating or vibrating in cavities 
 just large enough to freely admit them — enabled Debain to make 
 improvements in many kinds of musical instruments, and to 
 invent certain new varieties. One was the concertina, which he 
 improved in many ways ; another was the harmonium, which 
 almost completely superseded the seraphine previously in use ; 
 a third was the harmonichord, a kind of mechanical pianoforte ; 
 a fourth the antiphonel ; a fifth the stenographone, by which a 
 player on a keyed instrument can print or mark down the notes 
 which his fingers play. Many, if not most, of the instruments 
 constructed by him produce their tones by the vibration of 
 metallic tongues or springs ; and he devised a mode of varying 
 greatly the timbre, or quality of tone, irrespective alike of dif- 
 ferences in pitch and in loudness. In 1850, M. Debain con- 
 structed a voting machine for the National Assembly, invented, 
 or at least suggested, by M. de Liancourt. It had a remarkable 
 mode of ensuring that the white ballots (to denote ' pour,' or 
 ' aye,') should, not be able to enter the receptacle intended for 
 the blue ballots (' contre,' or ' no '), and vice versa ; while rigorous 
 precautions were taken, in the form of tell-tale apparatus, to 
 prevent any tampering with the machine. The Assembly voted 
 M. Debain 30,000 francs for its construction. 
 
 DECAMPS, GABRIEL ALEXANDRE, an eminent French 
 landscape painter, was born at Paris on the 3rd of March, 1803. 
 After some preparatory instruction from M. Bouhot, he entered 
 the atelier of M. Abel de Pujol, but, dissatisfied with his man- 
 ner of teaching, left it after a season in disgust, and was thence- 
 forth his own master. Some small landscapes in oil found a 
 purchaser in Baron DTvry, who proved a generous and useful 
 patron. M. Decamps appeared for the first time as an exhibitor 
 at the Salon in 1827, witli a ' Sujet Turc' The picture pleased, 
 but he had not yet been to the East, and he was encouraged to 
 make a voyage to Turkey, which had a decisive influence on his 
 artistic career. In 1831 he contributed ' La Patrouille Turque' 
 and ' L'Opital des Galeus,' and year after year continued to send 
 a '^ Village Turc,' 'la Del'aite des Cimbres,' 'le Bazar Turc,' 
 ' l'Ecole Turque,' ' la Cavalerie Asiatirpie traversant un gue,' 
 and similar subjects, till he became the recognised painter of the 
 East. These pictures were treated in a manner quite new in 
 French art, singularly picturesque in arrangement, very cleverly 
 and carefully composed, painted with a full, rough, patchy im- 
 pasto, but brilliant in colour, and presenting the most striking 
 effects of light. The impression they produced was very great. 
 Painters, indeed, notwithstanding their undeniable technical 
 merits, were anything but unanimous in their praise ; but with 
 the journalists and the public they at once became popular, and 
 they found ready purchasers. M. Decamps followed up his suc- 
 cesses by a large number of similar pieces, but among them were 
 some of a more ambitious character, such as 'Joseph vendu par 
 ses Freres ;' 'Moise sauve des eaux,''la Peche miraculeuse,' 
 &c. ; but in these, as in his ordinary genre pictures, the persons 
 introduced were made subordinate and accessory to the land- 
 scape. Decamps was also skilful in painting animals, and pro- 
 duced a variety of such pictures as'Ane et Chiens savants,' 
 ' Chiens, Poules et Canards,' ' Chevaux de Halage,' and the like, 
 but he was especially fond of painting monkeys engaged in some 
 human occupation, or evincing some human passion, as ' les 
 Singes boulangers,' 'les Singes Charcutiers,' ' le Singe au Miroir,' 
 or 'le Singe Savant;' and when the jury of the Academy 
 Offended him by their rejection or ill-placing of some pictures he 
 retorted on them by ' les Singes Expertes,' in which his practised 
 skill in caricature (displayed of old in ' Le Caricature journal) 
 enabled him to point his shaft with unerring effect. M. De- 
 camps' success raised a host of imitators, and at length, disgusted 
 with the prominence into which they brought the faults of his 
 style, lie sought to fall back upon the more classic mode of 
 Poussin, and failing, declared he would abandon painting alto- 
 gether. Accordingly he retired, in 1852, to a small property he 
 possessed, and for awhile occupied himself with the cultivation 
 of his fields. Tiring of this he returned to his pencil, taking 
 
 up his residence at Fontainebleau, where he died, August 21, 
 I860, from the effects of a fall from his horse. M. Decamps' 
 paintings continue to realise very large prices when brought into 
 the auction-room, and he is the acknowledged head of a school ; 
 but it is gradually becoming recognised, even by his countrymen, 
 that he was at the best a mere mannerist, and that his success 
 was owing rather to the novelty of his subjects and style than 
 to the inherent merits of his works. When, at the Great Ex- 
 hibition of 1855, some 40 of his pictures were brought together, 
 their monotony and trickiness were painfully conspicuous; the 
 jury, however, awarded him one of the ten medals of honour. 
 
 * DECANDOLLE, ALPHONSE LOUIS PIERRE PYRA- 
 MUS, the son of the celebrated Augustin P. Decandolle, was 
 born at Paris, October 27, 1806. He was educated at Geneva. 
 After studying the law, and taking the degree of Doctor in 
 1829, he gave his attention to botany. He succeeded his father 
 as Professor of Botany in the University of Geneva, and also 
 had the care of the Botanic Garden of that city. His principal 
 works are ' Monographic des Campanulces,' 4to, Paris, 1830 ; 
 ' Introduction a l'Etude de la Botanique, on Traite elementaire 
 de cette Science,' 2 tomes 8vo, 1835 ; ' Hypsometric des environs 
 du Geneve,' 4to, Geneva, 1839 ; ' Notice sur B. Delessert,' 8vo, 
 1847, Geneva; 'Geographic botanique raisonnee,' 8vo, 2 vols. 
 Paris, 1855 ; ' Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de Martins, 
 8vo, Geneva, 1856; ' Memoireset Souvenirs de A. P. Decandolle, 
 8vo, 1862. He has also continued the ' Prodromus systematis 
 naturalis regni vegetabilis,' etc., which was begun by his father, 
 as editor and part author. This great work occupied the elder 
 Decandolle during the last 15 or 20 years of his life, and so 
 anxious was he about its completion, that he inserted a 
 clause in his will enjoining his son to undertake the task 
 Alphonse had already shown his ability by his monograph 
 on the Oampanulacese, &c. ; and although, at the time of his 
 father's death in 1841, he was busily engaged collecting materials 
 for his work on geographical botany, he threw aside this for a 
 time, and prepared for the continuation of the larger systematic 
 work. He secured the services of the most eminent botanists, 
 and the work was pushed steadily forward up to the 13th volume, 
 which appeared partly in 1849 and. partly in 1852. From this 
 time delays and difficulties occurred, and progress was slow. 
 The work is now, however, very nearly completed, a portion of 
 the sixteenth volume having been published in 1869. It has 
 had great influence in leading to the adoption of the "natural 
 method" of cl; oiVxation in systematic works, as opposed to the 
 Linnsean system, which formerly prevailed. Alphonse Decan- 
 dolle has also written upwards of 50 papers for scientific jour- 
 nals. He is a member of the Institute and many other learned 
 bodies, and has been elected into the Legion of Honour. His son, 
 
 * Casimir Decandolle also promises to be an eminent 
 botanist. He has written a monograph on the Juc/l indece for the 
 ' Prodromus,' also a memoir on cork, and a few other papers. 
 
 DECAZES, ELIE, DUC, a French statesman, descended 
 from an ancient noble Gascon family, was born at St. Martin de 
 Laye, department of Gironde, September 28th, 1780. In 1790 he 
 entered l'Ecole Militaire, Vendome ; then studied law at Libourne, 
 near the place of his birth, and was admitted to the bar. Re- 
 moving to Paris, he obtained employment under the Minister of 
 Justice ; soon after which a marriage into an influential family 
 opened a path to rapid advancement. In 1805 he was appointed 
 Judge of the Tribunal of the Seine; in 1806, counsellor of the 
 Cour Imperial. He next went to Holland as counsel to King 
 Louis Bonaparte ; and in 1811 became counsel and secretary to 
 Madame Leiitia, the Emperor's mother. As he declared for the 
 Bourbons in 1814, he lost his offices, and was exiled during the 
 Hundred Days ; but after the battle of Waterloo he received 
 from Louis XVIII. the appointment of Prefet of Police at Paris, 
 and afterwards Minister of General Police, in which offices he 
 displayed ability and energy. In 1816 he was made a peer, 
 with the title of Count. In 1818 he succeeded the Due de 
 Richelieu as Minister of the Interior. Although of aristocratic 
 family and leanings, he sought to curb the intolerance of the 
 nobles of the Restoration, by advocating many reasonable mea- 
 sures respecting freedom of election, of debate, and of the press. 
 In 1820 he became Minister of State, or Prime Minister ; but 
 almost immediately afterwards the Due de Berri was assassi- 
 nated, and Decazcs was accused by the aristocratic party of com- 
 plicity in the crime. The King, although the charge against 
 Oecazes was never substantiated, was obliged to dismiss him, 
 but at the same time raised him to the rank of Duke, and ap- 
 pointed him ambassador to the Court of St. James's ; he had 
 already received a similar title (Duke of Glucksberg) from the 
 
456 DECKEN, BARON VON DER. 
 
 King of Denmark, on the occasion of his marriage, 1818, with 
 Mile, lie St. Aulaire, grand-daughter of the last reigning Prince of 
 Nassau-Saarbriick. Returning to Paris in 1821, he resumed his 
 place in the Chamber of Peers, but without office, supporting 
 measures of a temperate kind, in the hope of reconciling extreme 
 parties. He accepted the Revolution of 1830, without directly 
 participating in it. In 1834 he was appointed grand rdferendaire 
 of the Chamber of Peers, the only office which he appears to 
 have held during the reign of Louis Philippe. Retiring from 
 political life after the coup d'etat in 1851, he devoted his atten- 
 tion mainly to schemes for the encouragement of agriculture, 
 industry, and the arts generally. He was the founder of one of 
 the principal metallurgic establishments in France, the iron- 
 works at Decazeville, by which he converted a scantily-occupied 
 district into a busy town and commune. He died on the 24th 
 of October, 1860. During his political career he refused to 
 belong to either of the two leading parties in the Legislature, 
 preferring to hold the balance between them ; as a consequence, 
 lie was in favour with neither. His political conduct has been 
 severely criticised, but it is admitted on all hands that whilst 
 a minister, as afterwards in private life, he was ever one of the 
 most earnest and enlightened promoters of agriculture and the 
 industrial arts in France. 
 
 DECKEN, BARON CHARLES CLAUS VON DER, an 
 African traveller, was born at Kotzen, Brandenburg, in 1833. 
 He early showed a desire for travelling by his study of history 
 and geography, and his aptitude for drawing maps. In 1850 he 
 entered the Hanoverian army as lieutenant ; and in 1858 he made 
 his first visit to Africa, but it was a short one only, owing to an 
 attack of fever. In 1860 he withdrew from the army, and de- 
 voted himself to African exploration. He made two efforts to 
 penetrate into the interior from Zanzibar, but was unsuccessful, 
 owing to want of porters and a mutiny among his followers. In 
 1861 he succeeded in reaching the white-capped mountains of 
 Kilimandjaro, accompanied by a young English geologist. 
 Richard Thornton. In 1862 he again visited Kilimandjaro, and 
 ascended to a height of 14,000 feet above the sea. On this oc- 
 casion he was accompanied by Dr. Kersten, and both assured 
 themselves that the summit of the mountain was covered with 
 snow, a fact which had been stated by Krapf and Rebmann, but 
 had been much disputed about. In 1863 he returned to Europe, 
 received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society of 
 London, and other honours, and again returned to Africa for 
 purposes of exploration. This time he had two steamers con- 
 structed, specially adapted for easy carriage and for river navi- 
 gation, organised a select party of Germans, and, on reaching 
 Africa he ascended the river Juba. One steamer was lost on the 
 bar, and, when about 350 miles up the stream, the other was 
 brought to a stand by rapids. The steamer was left in charge 
 of the main party, while the Baron and Dr. Link returned to 
 Berdera for assistance. This was on September 28th, 1866. At 
 Berdera he was attacked by the natives, and his small party 
 Avas compelled to take to the open country. On October 1, Dr. 
 Link and one boy returned to the camp at the rapids, while the 
 Baron, with three attendants, again went to Berdera. According 
 to Abdio, his guide, he was killed by the people of Berdera early 
 in October, and his body thrown into the Juba. An account of 
 the countries visited by the Baron, and of the animals inhabit- 
 ing them, has been published, under the title of ' Reisen in Ost 
 Afrika in der Jahre 1859 — 65.' The work is intended to be in 
 four volumes, the first and third were published in 1869, the 
 fourth in 1870, but the second has not appeared yet. The gene- 
 ral results are, or will be given in vols. i. and ii., which are by 
 Dr. 0. Kersten ; the other two contain descriptions of the animals 
 collected, and are by Peters, Cabanis, Hilgendorf, E. von Martens, 
 Semper, Finsch, and Hartlaub. The fourth volume is a thick 
 one, and entirely devoted to the birds. 
 
 * DEFB EMERY, CHARLES, a French philologer and 
 orientalist, was born on the 8th of December, 1822, at Cambrai, 
 and became a student at the College de France, where he devoted 
 himself to a diligent cultivation of the Arabic and Persian lan- 
 guages. His first publication, ' Histoire des Sultans du Khar- 
 ezm, par Mirkhond, texte persan, accompagnee de Notes his- 
 toriques, geographiques, et philologiques,' 8vo, Paris, 1842, pro- 
 cured his admission to the membership of the Societe Asiatique 
 of Paris, in 1843. From that time M. Defreniery has contri- 
 buted editions and translations of many works of great value 
 for the light they throw upon the history, geography, and 
 literature of the Oriental nations on this side of the Indus. He 
 lias lor many years been one of the associate editors of the 
 ' Journal Asiatique,' in which several of his works have appeared 
 
 DEGEUANDO, JOSEPH MARIE, BARON. 456 
 
 before receiving a substantive form of publication, For the 
 ' Collection d'Auteurs Orientaux,' now in course of publication 
 by the Societe Asiatique, of which the ' Journal ' is the organ, 
 he edited, jointly with Dr. B. R. Sanguinetti, the ' Voyages 
 dTbn Batoutah, texte arabe et Traduction,' &c, 4 vols, 8vo, 
 Paris, published severally in 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1858, to 
 which an ' Index Alphabetique pour Ibn Batoutah,' was added 
 in 1859. The other more remarkable of the works of M. De- 
 fremery are his 'Histoire des Seldjoukides et des Ismaeliens, ou 
 Assassins de lTran, extraite du Tariki Guzideh ou Histoire 
 choisie d'Hamd-Allah Mustaufi, traduite du persan et accom- 
 pagnee de Notes historiques et g6ographiques,' 8vo, Paris, 1849 ; 
 a subject which he further illustrated in his ' Nouvelles Re- 
 cherches sur les Isma61iens ou Bathiniens de Syrie, plus connus 
 sous le nom d'Assassins, et principalement sur leurs Rapports 
 avec les Etats Chretiens d'Orient, 1854 ; ' Fragments de Geo- 
 graphes et d'Historiens arabes et persans inedits, relatifs aux 
 anciens Peuples du Caucase et de la Russie meridionale, traduits 
 et accompagnes de Notes critiques,' 8vo, Paris, 1849 ; and a 
 translation of Sadi's 'Gulistan, ou le Parterre des Roses, traduit 
 du persan sur les meilleurs Textes, et accompagne de Notes,' 
 12mo, Paris, 1858. His contributions to various journals and 
 periodicals have been published with the title of 'Memoircs 
 d'Histoire Orientale,suivis de Melange de Critique, de Philologie, 
 et de Geographic,' 2 parts, 8vo, Paris, 1854—62. 
 
 * DEGER, EllNST, an eminent German painter, was born 
 April 15, 1809, at Bockeneni, in Hanover. He studied under 
 Von Schadow at Berlin, and afterwards at Diisseldorf, and im- 
 bibed to the full the views of that master. He first made him- 
 self known by ' The. Madonna and Child,' painted in 1837, for the 
 St. Andreaskirche, Diisseldorf, and he afterwards painted nume- 
 rous pictures for the Jesuits' and other churches of that city, 
 several of which came to be widely known by their reproduction 
 in lithography. But his great work was the decoration of the 
 church of St. Apollinaris, at Remagen, on the Rhine, which was 
 erected at the cost of the Graf von Fiirstenberg-Stammheim, and 
 intended by him to illustrate the condition of revived German 
 ecclesiastical art in the middle of the 19th century. To make 
 studies and prepare the cartoons for the pictures, which were to be 
 in fresco, Deger and his colleagues made a special visit to Rome. 
 The pictures illustrate the life of the Virgin and the history of 
 Jesus. The direction of the pointing was entrusted to Deger, 
 and it was completed in 1851. The successful issue of the un- 
 dertaking led to Deger's being commissioned by King Frederick 
 William IV. of Prussia to paint in fresco the chapel of his castle 
 at Stolzeniels. This comprises a series of twelve pictures, which 
 are intended to symbolize 'The Redemption of Mankind from 
 the Curse of Sin.' Deger has painted many easel pictures,butall, or 
 nearly all, of a religious character. He ranks as the chief living 
 painter of the Diisseldorf school of sacred art. His works are 
 distinguished by that mystical sentiment — compound of religion, 
 philosophy, and symbolism — which is distinctive of the school, 
 and, to one who regards them principally as works of art have, 
 with all their undoubted excellence, a feeble, faded, second-hand 
 aspect. Herr Deger was nominated professor by the King ■ { 
 Prussia, and he is an honorary member of the academies of Bel • 
 lin and Munich. 
 
 DEGERANDO, JOSEPH MARIE, BARON, a French 
 statesman, philanthropist, and philosopher, was born on the 29th 
 of February, 1772, at Lyon, and was educated at the College de 
 l'Oratoire of his native city. At first he cherished an inclination 
 for an ecclesiastical career, but was diverted from his purpose by 
 the events and excesses of the Revolution. He assisted in the 
 defence of Lyon against the troops of the Convention in 1793, 
 and was on that account obliged to take refuge, first in Savoy, 
 and afterwards at Naples. An amnesty allowed him to return 
 to France after an absence of two years, and he enlisted in the 
 army as a trooper in a regiment of cavalry. Amidst the dis- 
 tractions of military service he produced a treatise which obtained 
 the prize of the Institute in 1799, and which, under an amplified 
 form, was published with the title of ' Des tSignes et de l'Art de 
 penser, consideres dans leurs Rapports mutuels,' 4 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, An. viii. (1800). He won a like honour from the Academy 
 of Berlin with his essay ' De la Generation des Connaissances 
 humaines,' 8vo, Berlin, 1802, which commenced with a critical 
 review of the various theories upon the subject current both in 
 ancient and modern times, and which grew by a process of 
 natural development and expansion into the elaborate work, of 
 a kind till then unknown in France, entitled ' Histoire comparee 
 des systemes de Philosophie, consideres relativement aux Prin- 
 cipes des Connaissances humaines,' 3 vols, 8vo, Paris, An. xii. 
 
457 
 
 DELACROIX, F. V. EUGENE. 
 
 DE LA RIVE, AUGUSTE. 
 
 458 
 
 (1804), second edition, revised, corected and augmented, 4 vols. 
 8vo, Paris, 1822—23, which was completed by the posthumous 
 publication of four additional volumes, forming a second series, 
 and devoted to a history of modern philosophy, ' Histoire de la 
 Philosophic moderne, a partir de la Renaissance des Lettres 
 jusqu' a la fin du XVIII. e Siecle,' 8vo, Paris, 1847—48. The 
 ' Histoire' procured for its author the patronage of Lucien Bona- 
 parte, and admission to the membership of the Academic des 
 Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, in 1804. About the same time he 
 was promoted to the office of secretary-general to the Ministry 
 of the Interior, and in 1806 to the Mastership of Requests. For 
 brilliant administrative services rendered in Italy between 1808 
 and 1811, he was made in the latter year a Councillor of State, 
 a baron, with a yearly allowance of 25,000 francs, and an officer 
 of the Legion of Honour, being afterwards raised to the rank of 
 commander in 1820 by Louis XVIII. When, on the advice of 
 Degerando, a chair of public and administrative justice was in- 
 stituted in March, 1819, he was elected to be its first occupant ; 
 but in 1821, owing to the expression of sentiments obnoxious to 
 the Government, he was suspended for seven years from his pro- 
 fessorship. The accession of Louis Philippe brought to M. 
 Degerando favour and appreciation ; and on the 3rd of October, 
 1837, he was called to the House of Peers, of which he became 
 an active member. Throughout his career M. Degerando was 
 interested, officially or indirectly, in nearly every benevolent 
 corporation in Paris, to the literary and other advocacy of which 
 he largely contributed. He was one of the founders of the 
 Societe de la Morale Chretienne ; a member of the Societe pour 
 l'Instruction elementaire, and of the Societe des Methodes ; and 
 the founder of the Societe d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie 
 nationale. Not very long before his death, which took place at 
 Paris on the 10th of November, 1842, he visited Germany and 
 Switzerland, for the purpose of discovering what portion of the 
 systems pursued in their hospitals and charitable establishments 
 could be profitably adopted by those of France. 
 
 Besides the works already mentioned, Baron Degerando pub- 
 lished — anonymously, in the first edition — a treatise, which was 
 crowned in 1820 by the Academie de Lyon, and in 1821 by the 
 Academie Francaise, and to which was decreed the Montyon 
 prize, entitled ' Le Visiteur du Pauvre,' 8vo, Paris, 1820, fourth 
 edition, 1837 ; English translation, 12mo, London and Manches- 
 ter, 1833 ; another treatise, to which the Academie Franchise 
 decreed the Montyon prize in 1825, entitled ' Du Perfectione- 
 ment moral; on, de l'Education de Soi-meme,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1824 ; third edition, 1833 ; English translation, entitled ' Self- 
 Education,' &c, third edition, 8vo, Boston and Cambridge, U.S., 
 1860, the object of which was to enforce the fact that the life of 
 man is one great and constant process of education, of which 
 the two great instruments are the love of virtue and the power 
 of self-government ; ' De l'Education des Sourds-Muets de Nais- 
 sance,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827 ; ' Institutes du Droit admini- 
 stratif Fran§ais ; ou. Elements du Code administratif reunis et 
 mis en ordre,' &c, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1829 — 30 ; fourth edition, 
 1845 ; and ' De la Bienfaisance publique,' 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1839, which gives, inter alia, a loose and incomjilete history of 
 the charitable institutions of the Middle Ages. M. Degerando 
 was likewise a contributor to various serial and periodical works 
 — to the ' Archives Iitteraires de l'Europe,' the ' Revue Ency- 
 clopedique,' ' Encyclopedic des Gens du Monde,' ' Biographic 
 Universelle,' ' Journal Asiatique,' ' Dictionnaire Technologique,' 
 and the ' Journal Grammatical et Philosophique de la Langue 
 Francaise.' 
 
 DELACROIX, FERDINAND VICTOR EUGENE [E. C. 
 vol. ii. col. 538]. This very eminent painter, the head of an 
 important school of French art, died on the 13th of August, 1863, 
 aged 64. 
 
 * DELAFOSSE, GABRIEL, mineralogist, was born about 
 1795, and educated at the Ecole Normale. He is the pro- 
 fessor of mineralogy at the Museum of Natural History, Paris, 
 and a member of numerous societies. His principal works are 
 ' Nouveau Cours de Mine>alogie, contenant la description de 
 toutes les especes minerales avec leurs applications directes aux 
 Arts,' 8vo, 3 vols, 1858 — 1862, forming one of the series entitled 
 ' Nouvelles Suites a Buffon ;' and several elementary works, such 
 as ' Notions elementaires d'Histoire Naturelle,' 2nd ed., 3 vols, 
 1856; 'Precis 61ementaire d'Histoire Naturelle,' 12mo, 1st ed., 
 1831 ; 2nd ed., 1862 ; and several others. He has also written a 
 few scientific papers in the ' Comptes llendus,' on the relation 
 between the structure of crystals and their physical properties. 
 Amongst other things he discovered that the hemihedral facets 
 •n quartz and other minerals are connected with, and indicative 
 
 of, the direction in which the colours alter in the rotatory polarised 
 light passing through their crystals. 
 
 DELANpINE, ANTOINE FRANCOIS, was born at Lyon, 
 March 6, 1756. The son of an advocate, he was educated for the 
 bar, and was received as advocate at the Parlement de Dijon in 
 1775, and at that of Paris in 1777, but abandoned law for litera- 
 ture. Among his early works ' L'Enfer des Peuples Anciens,' 
 1784, attracted notice by its erudition, and ' L'Histoire des As- 
 semblies Nationales de France,' 8vo, 1789, by its subject ; the 
 latter securing his election the same year to the States-General. 
 The following year he was appointed librarian to the Academy, 
 Lyon, but his monarchical principles brought him into danger in 
 1793, and he took refuge at Neronde, in Forez. He was, how- 
 ever, arrested and confined in the prison of the Recluses at Lyon 
 till the death of Robespierre. Under the Directory he was ap- 
 pointed professor of legislation at the Ecole Central du Rhone, 
 and on the suppression of that institution he was restored to his 
 librarianship, which post he retained till his death, May 5, 1820. 
 Delandine published a great number of books, but the most use- 
 fid, perhaps, was the edition (13 vols, 8vo, 1804) of Dom 
 Chauclon's ' Nouveau Dictionnaire Historique,' his share in which 
 is noticed under Chaudon [E. C. S. col. 371]. Other works of 
 value are — ' Biblotheque historique et raisonnee des historiens 
 de Lyon et des ouvrages manuscrits et imprimes qui ont quelque 
 rapport a l'histoire ecclesiastique et civile de cette ville et des 
 trois provinces,' 8vo, 1787; 'Catalogue de la Bibliotheque de 
 Lyon, avec des observations iitteraires et bibliographiques,' 3 
 vols, 8vo, 1812 ; and ' Memoires bibliographiques et Iitteraires,' 
 8vo, 1816. 
 
 DELANY, MARY, born May 14, 1700, at Coulton, in Wilt- 
 shire. The daughter of Colonel Bernard Granville, a member 
 of the Lansdowne family, she received a careful education, and 
 at the age of 17 was married to Alexander Pendarves, a wealthy 
 Cornish gentleman, but advanced in years, and an habitual 
 drunkard. He died in a fit in 1724, when it was found that he 
 had neglected to sign his will, and the young widow was con- 
 sequently left in somewhat straitened circumstances. She came 
 to London, and moved much in society; and occasionally visited 
 Dublin, where she was on very intimate terms with Dean Swift, 
 and his clerical circle. In 1743 she married Swift's friend, the 
 Rev. Dr. Delany. The Doctor was a good and able man, held 
 some preferments in the church, and had written boox «nd dis- 
 courses that were praised by Swift and read by the public, but 
 Mrs. Pendarves' friends were shocked that a Granville should 
 mingle with plebeian blood. However, after the marriage they 
 procured him the deanery of Down, that the lady might have a 
 respectable position. The dean died in 1768, and Mrs. Delany 
 returned to England. She resided for a good part of her time 
 with the Duchess of Portland, on whose death, George III., who 
 was a frequent visitor at Bulstrode, conferred on Mrs. Delany a 
 house at Windsor and a pension of 300^. a year. She was a great 
 favourite with the king and his family, and frequently visited by 
 them, and kept up even in her old age a wide epistolary cor- 
 respondence. She died on the 15th of April, 1788. Mrs. Delany 
 was a clever, accomplished, and amiable woman ; her only title, 
 however, to biographical record is ' The Autobiography and Cor- 
 respondence of Mary Granville, Mrs. Delany : with Interesting 
 Reminiscences of King George the Third and Queen Charlotte. 
 Edited by the Rt. Hon. Lady Llanover,' 6 vols. 8vo, London, 
 1861. Covering a period of nearly seventy years, the work is a 
 mine of rare value to the student of the social life and manners 
 of the 18th century ; to the general reader it would have been of 
 much greater interest if reduced to half its present bulk by 
 judicious omission, and the excision of superfluous annotation. 
 
 * DE LA RIVE, AUGUSTE, was born at Geneva, 9th Oct., 
 1801. He was the son of a distinguished medical man and 
 chemist, who died in 1834. He studied science with such success 
 as to obtain the sanction of Arago and Ampere to a memoir pub- 
 lished in the ' Annales de Chimie et de Physique ' in 1822. He 
 investigated the subject of heat in conjunction with Marcel, and 
 was nominated to the chair of physics at the Academy of Geneva. 
 After the political troubles of 1830 he visited England and other 
 countries. On his return home he edited the 1 Bibliotheque 
 Universelle de Geneve' from 1836 to 1841. He applied himself 
 to the study of electricity, and in 1842 obtained the Montyon 
 prize of 3000 francs for his galvanoplastic experiments. In 1830 
 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of France, 
 and in 1864 one of the eight foreign associates of the Academy of 
 Sciences. In 1846 he was elected one of the foreign members of 
 the Royal Society of London. De la Rive's apparatus is known 
 to students in electro-rnagnetism, as also his 'Trait£ d'Electricito 
 
459 
 
 DELAROCHE, PAUL. 
 
 DELESSE, ACHILLE. 
 
 460 
 
 theorique appliquee,' in 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1851—58. He lias 
 also written notices of some of his scientific compatriots 
 1817 — 54. His eldest son, William, is the chief editor of the 
 literary portion of the ' Biluidthfeque Universelle.' 
 
 DELAROCHE, PAUL [E. C. vol. ii. col. 541]. The memoir 
 of this great artist — one of the greatest historical painters France 
 has produced — had heen printed hut a month or two when he 
 laid down his pencil for ever. After a painful illness, he died on 
 the morning of the 4th of November, 1850, at the age of 59. 
 
 * DE LA RUE, WARREN, was horn in or about the year 
 1815. His father, Mr. Thomas De La Rue, a native of Guernsey 
 (born in 1793, died 18(50), after serving an apprenticeship to 
 a printer and publisher, established himself in London. Mr. 
 Warren De La Rue, and another son, assisted the father in 
 developing a stationery manufactory in Bunhill Row, which has 
 grown up to a stage of great magnitude and importance, espe- 
 cially in the departments of playing-cards, envelopes, and postage 
 stamps. The combination of colour-printing and embossing, on 
 line cardboard and fine paper of different kinds, led to the intro- 
 duction of many beautiful products, which in turn rendered 
 necessary the adoption of large manufacturing arrangements. 
 Mr. Warren De La Rue's knowledge of mechanism enabled him 
 to devise the chief parts of the envelope-making machine, 
 patented by him conjointly with Mr. Edwin Hill, and first 
 publicly shown at the Hyde Park Exhibition of 1851. He acted 
 as juror at the four great International Exhibitions of 1851, 
 1855, 1862, and 1807. Gradually withdrawing from commercial 
 and manufacturing pursuits, Mr. De La Rue devoted his chief 
 attention to science, in which both physical and chemical 
 researches were comprised. As a Fellow of the Royal, Royal 
 Astronomical, Chemical, and other learned societies, he has 
 contributed above 50 papers to the Memoirs and Proceedings of 
 those bodies. In his observatory at Cranford, near Hounslow, 
 his tine telescope has enabled him to make numerous valuable 
 astronomical observations, and he has indoctrinated many scien- 
 tific observers in the use of their instruments before setting out 
 on their labours, as M. Lcsueur, now in charge of the great 
 telescope at Melbourne, and Major Tennant for the great eclipse 
 party. He has also set up a speculum grinding machine at 
 Orani'ord, worked by a small steam-engine. Mr. De La Rue's 
 ptinrlmL scientific work has been in the application of 
 phot. iiy to astronomy, especially in relation to solar and 
 lunar phenomena. He was one of the observers who went to 
 Spain in 1800 to make observations during the great solar eclipse 
 of that year. His researches on the sun's spots, the corona, the 
 rose-coloured liames, &c, have helped to pave the way for the 
 grand discovery of the sun's chromosphere by M. Janssen and 
 Mr. Norman Lockyer. The Kew Observatory, belonging to the 
 British Association for the Advancement of Science, has been the 
 scene of many of Mr. De La Rue's labours, relating chiefly to 
 astronomy, meteorology, and the verification of scientific instru- 
 ments. The French Academy of Sciences awarded the Lalande 
 Prize to Mr. De La Rue, in 1860, for his researches in celestial 
 photography, and in the report accompanying the award it was 
 stated that of the 18 years he had heen at Cranford, 15 years had 
 been devoted particularly to celestial photography, chiefly by 
 means of a splendid telescope of 13 inches aperture, made ac- 
 cording to his own designs. In 1801 Mr. De La Rue published 
 in the 'Monthly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society' 
 the first example of heliotypography, by means of which photo- 
 graphs of the sun's spots were reproduced at the ordinary press 
 without the intervention of the draughtsman or engraver. 
 
 * DELAUNAY, CHARLES EUGENE, was born at Lusigny, 
 Department of the Aube, April 9, 1816. He entered l'Ecole 
 Polytechnique in 1834, and quitted it with high honours in 1836. 
 He received in succession the appointment to the offices of first- 
 class engineer of mines, professor of mechanics at l'Ecole Poly- 
 technique, and a similar professorship) to the Faculte des Sciences, 
 He was elected a member of the Institute in 1855 ; and in 1S62 
 titular member of the Bureau des Longitudes. Besides 36 papers 
 in the ' Comptes Rendus,' and the ' Journal de l'Ecole Polytech- 
 nique,' between 1838 and 1863, on various branches of astro- 
 nomy, and especially on the Moon, M. Delaunay has published 
 the following works : — (1) ' Cours Eiementaire de Mecaniquc, 
 theorique et appliquee,' 12mo, Paris, 1851 ; (2) ' Cours Eie- 
 mentaire d'Astronomie, concordant avec les articles du pro- 
 gramme ofiiciel pour l'enseignement de la Cosmographie dans 
 ies Lycees,' 12mo, Paris, 1854; (3) ' Sur une Methode d'in- 
 tegration, applicable au calcul des Perturbations des Planotes 
 et de leurs Satellites,' 4to, Paris, 1855 (inserted in the Memoirs 
 of the Academy) ; (4) ' Traitc de Mecanique Rationnelle,' 12ino, 
 
 Paris, 1856; (5) 'Sur la Ralentissement du Mouvenient de 
 Rotation de la Terre,' 8vo, Paris, 1866. M. Delaunay is presi- 
 dent of the Academic des Sciences, and in March, 1870, succeeded 
 M. Leverrier as director of the Imperial Observatory. He was 
 in February, 1870, awarded the gold medal of the Royal Astro- 
 nomical Society, London, for his ' Thebrie Analytique du 
 Mouvement de la Lune,' as developed in a series of papers 
 contained in the Mem. Acad. Sc. for 1800 and following years. 
 
 * DELEPIERRE, JOSEPH OCTAVE, LL.D., F.S.A., &c, a 
 Belgian lawyer and man of letters, who has been for many years 
 officially resident in London as Secretary of Legation and Consul- 
 General for Belgium, was horn at Bruges in 1804. He studied 
 law at the University of Ghent ; and for some time practised as 
 an advocate at Brussels, until he was appointed attach6 to the 
 Belgian Embassy in London, and finally, in August, 1849, to the 
 oflices which he at present holds. He is a member of several 
 learned societies both in this country and on the Continent, and 
 has devoted himself with much ardour to the illustration of the 
 antiquities, social, historical, scientific, artistic, literary, and 
 topographical, of his native country, and especially of his 
 native city of Bruges. Thus he has published the •' Histoire du 
 Regno de Charles-le-Bon, procedee d'un Resumd de l'Histoire de 
 Flandre, depuis les Temps les plus reculos,' 8vo, Brussels, 1830; 
 ' Vie de Marie de Bourgogne,' folio, Brussels, 1841 ; ' La Belgique 
 illustree par les Sciences, les Arts, et les Lettres,' 8vo, Brussels, 
 1840 ; ' Les Traditions et Legendes de Flandre,' 8vo, Lille, 1834, 
 translated by the editor into English, with the title of 'Old 
 Flanders ; or, Popular Traditions and Legends of Belgium,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1845 ; ' Precis des Annales de Bruges, 
 depuis les Temps les plus recedes jusqu'au commencement du 
 XVII. e Siecle,' &c, 8vo, Bruges, 1835 ; ' Precis analytique des 
 Documents que renferme le Depot des Archives de la Flandie- 
 Occidentale, a Bruges,' 8vo, Bruges, 1840; 'GaleYio d'Artiste3 
 Brugeois ; ou, Biographic concise des Peintres, Sculpteurs, et 
 Graveurs celebres de Bruges,' 8vo, Bruges, 1840 ; Beaucourt de 
 Noortvelde's ' Troubles de la Flandre,' 8vo, Mons, 1845, edited 
 for the Societe des Bibliophiles de Mons, for which he had 
 already translated the ' Vision de Tondalus ; Rccit mystique du 
 douzicme Siecle, mis en francais pour la premiere fois,' 8vo, 
 Mons, 1837, when he was acting as Archiviste de la Flandre- 
 Occidentale ; ' Biographie des Homines remarquables de la 
 Flandre-Occidentale,' 4 vols. 8vo, Bruges, 1843, 1844, 1847, and 
 1849, edited, jointly with three others, by M. Delepierre, for the 
 Societe d'Emulation pour l'Etude de l'Histoire et des Antiquites 
 de la Flandre-Occidentale, of which he was the founder ; and 
 ' A Sketch of the History of Flemish Literature, anil its cele- 
 brated Authors, from the twelfth Century down to the present 
 Time. Compiled from Flemish sources,' 8vo, London, 1860. 
 Amongst M. Delepierre's contributions to more general literature 
 may be mentioned his group of Macaronic volumes, 'Macaroneana; 
 ou, Melanges de Litterature Macaronique des differents Peuples 
 de l'Europe, ' Svo, Paris, 1852 ; 'De la Litterature Macaronique, 
 et de quelques Raretes bibliographiques de ce Genre,' 8vo, 
 London, 1856 ; and ' Nouveaux Melanges de Litterature Maca- 
 ronique,' 8vo, London, 1802 ; together with his 'Histoire litt6- 
 raire des Fous/ 8vo, London, 1800 ; and ' Historical Difficulties 
 and Contested Events,' Svo, London, 1868. M. Delepierre is a 
 Knight Commander of the Spanish Order of Charles III., and 
 also (August, 1870) of the Portuguese Order of Christ. 
 
 * DELESSE, ACHILLE, geologist, was born at Metz in 1817. 
 He is an engineer in chief of mines, professor of geology at the 
 Ecole Normale, Paris, vice-president of the Geological Society of 
 Paris, a foreign member of the Geological Society of London, &c. 
 His writings are numerous, and relate chiefly to the composition, 
 mode of formation, and alteration of rocks and minerals. He 
 has given a great deal of attention to the metamorphism of rocks, 
 and his memoirs on this subject are extremely valuable. They 
 are much scattered as regards place and date of publication, but 
 the following will present a full account of his researches. The 
 special metamorphism of rocks is given in ' Etudes sur le Meta- 
 morphisme' in 'Annales des Mines,' xii. pp. 89 — 288, 417 — 516, 
 705 — 772 (1857) ; xiii. pp. 321 — 416 (1858) ; the general meta- 
 morphism is treated in ' Etudes sur le Metamorphisme des 
 Roches,' 1869 ; while the general considerations on the origin of 
 rocks is in ' Sur l'Origine des Roches,' in ' Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr.,' 
 xv. pp. 728 — 781 (1858), which was published in a separate form 
 in 1805. His memoir entitled ' Recherches sur les p>seudomor- 
 phoses,' 8vo, Paris, 1859, which originaUy appeared in the 
 ' Annales des Mines ' for that year, is an important contribution 
 to our knowledge of the changes which minerals undergo. His 
 papers entitled ' Recherches de l'Azote etdes matieres organiques 
 
461 
 
 DELITZSCH, FRANZ. 
 
 DEMETZ, FREDERIC AUGUSTE. 
 
 dans l'dcorce terrestre' in 'Annales des Mines,' xviii. pp. 151 — 
 324 (1860) ; and ' Recherches sur l'eau dans 1'interieur de la 
 terre/in 'Bull. Soc. Gdol. Fr.,' xix. pp. 64—89 (1861), may be 
 also mentioned for the original views which they contain. His 
 maps of Paris and its neighbourhood are remarkable specimens 
 of their kind, more especially the ' Carte geologique et hydrolo- 
 gique de Paris,' 1861, in which he shows the distribution of the 
 water in the ri icks forming the Paris basin. His more recent maps 
 showing the character of the ground on the sea bottom near the 
 shores of France, in the English Channel, and in most of the seas 
 of the Old World, contain an immense amount of information on 
 the orographic contour and recent geology of Europe. His other 
 productions are far too numerous to name here, but we may 
 just mention his 'Materiaux de Construction de l'Expositioti 
 Universelle en 1855,' 8vo, Paris, 1856 ; and the ' Revue de 
 Geologie'for 1861 and subsequent years, which he has drawn 
 up in conjunction first with M. Laugel, and latterly with M. 
 Lapparent. The latter work is an excellent resume on the 
 progress of geology for the period to which it relates. 
 
 * DELITZSCH, FRANZ, a German philologer and bibli- 
 cal commentator, was born at Leipzig, on the 23rd of February, 
 1813, and studied at the university of his native city, where he 
 devoted himself especially to divinity and oriental learning. In 
 1846 he was appointed ordinary professor of theology at Rostock, 
 a small university in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 whence he removed in 1850 to occupy a like position at the Ba- 
 varian University of Erlangen, which gives its name to a certain 
 school of dogmatic theo" pans, who count Delitzsch amongst 
 their most prominent advocates. Finally, Dr. Delitzsch was 
 made ordinary professor of the Exegesis of the Old and New 
 Testaments, in his own University of Leipzig ; and on the 26th of 
 October, 1 867, delivered an inaugural lecture on Physiology and 
 Music in their Relations to Grammar, &c, which he published, 
 in an amplified form, with the title of ' Physiologie und Musik in 
 ihrer Bedeutung fitr die Grammatik, besonders die Hebriiische,' 
 8vo, Leipzig, 1868. The works of Dr. Delitzsch, which are con- 
 siderable, both in number and in range of subject, include a 
 treatise on the history of Hebrew poetry, ' Zur Geschichte der 
 Jiidischen Poesie, vom Abschluss der heiligen Schriften alten 
 Bundes bis auf die neuste Zeit,' 12mo, Leijizig, 1836 ; a de- 
 scriptive and critical study of the Science and Art of Judaism, 
 ' Wissenschaft, Kunst, Judenthum. Schilderungen und Kritiken,' 
 12mo, Grimma, 1838 ; ' Jesurun ; sive, Prolegomenon in Concor- 
 dantias Veteris Testamenti, a J. Fuerstio editas, libri tres,' &c., 
 8vo, Grimma, 1838 ; Contributions to a Study of the Scholastic 
 Learning of the Jews and Mohammedans of the Middle Ages, 
 'Beitriige zur Mittelalterlichen Scholastik unter Juden und Mosle- 
 men,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1841 ; a treatise on Mysticism and the 
 Mystics, entitled, ' Wer sind die Mystiker ? Eine griindliche 
 Belehrung iiber das was Mysticismus ist und nicht ist. Gegen 
 die Sprachverwirrung unserer Zeit,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1842 ; Studies 
 in Biblical TheoL gy and Apologetic Criticism,' ' Biblisch-theo- 
 logische und apologetisch-kritische Studien,' 2 vols, 8vo, first 
 volume, Leipzig, 1845, and second, Berlin, 1848, produced jointly 
 with Carl Paul Caspari ; On the House of God, or the Church, 
 &c, 1 Vom Hause Gottea, oder der Kirche. Katechismus in drei 
 Hauptstiicken,' 8vo, Dresden, 1849 ; a System of Biblical 
 Psychology, ' System der biblischen Psychologie,' 8vo, Leipzig, 
 1855, second edition, 1861, English translation, in ' Clark's 
 Foreign Theological Library,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1867 ; Discoveries 
 in Manuscripts, ' Handschriftliche Funde,' &c, 8vo, Leipzig, 
 vol. i., 1861, vol. ii., 1862; For and against Kahnis, &c, ' Fiir 
 und wider Kahnis. Kritik der Dogmatik von Kahnis mit 
 Bezug auf dessen Vertheidigungssehrift,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1863 ; and 
 a treatise on the Relation of Government and Labour in the 
 time of Christ, a Contribution to the Contemporary History of 
 the New Testament, being the substance of five Lectures de- 
 livered at the Leipzig Young Men's Association, in the winter of 
 1867 — 68, and puMished with the title of ' Handwerkerleben zur 
 Zeit Jesu. Ein Beitrag zur neutestamentlichen Zeitgeschichte,' 
 8vo, Erlangen, 1868. 
 
 But it is as a biblical scholar, critic, and commentator that Dr. 
 Delitzsch is most widely known ; and in this department, be- 
 sides the works to which allusion has already been made, may 
 be mentioned his ' De Habacuci Prophetae Vita atquc iEtate, 
 Commentatio historico-isagogica, cum Diatriba de Pseudo- 
 dorothei et Pseudepiphanii Vitis Prophetarum,' 8vo, Leipzig, 
 1842 ; 'Syrnbolte ad Psalmos illustrandos isagogicce, Disseritur 
 I. dePsalmorum indole partim Jehovica partim Elohimica ; II. 1 
 de Psalmorum Online ej usque, Causis ac Legibus,' 8vo, Leipzig, 
 1846 ; New Researches into the History of the Canonical Gospels, 
 
 ' Neue Untcrsuchungen iiber Entstehung und Anlage der Ka- 
 nonischen Evangelien,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1853, &c. ; Commentaries 
 upon Solomon's Song, ' Das Ilohelied untersucht und ausgelegt,' 
 8vo, Leipzig, 1851 ; on Genesis, 'Die Genesis ausgelegt,' 8vo, 
 Leipzig, f852, third edition, 1860; on Hebrews, 'Coinmentar 
 zum Biiefe an die Hebriier,' &c, 8vo, Leipzig, 1857; English 
 translation, in 1 Clark's Foreign Theological Library,' 8vo, Edin- 
 burgh, vol. i. 1868. In 1861 Dr. Delitzsch joined with Dr. Carl 
 Friedricli Keil, Professor of Exegesis in the University of 
 Dorpat, to publish a voluminous ' Biblischer Commentar iiber 
 das Alte Testament,' of which the first Part, 'Biblischer Com- 
 mentar iiber die Biicher Mose's,' was published in 2 vols, 8vo, 
 Leipzig, 1861—1862, and translated into English, for ' Clark's 
 Foreign Theological Library,' in 3 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1864-65; 
 second Part, ' Biblischer Commentar uber die prophetischen 
 Geschichtsbucher, &c.,' in 2 vols, 1863 — 64; and a third Part, 
 ' Biblischer Commentar iiber die poetischen Biicher, 1864, &c. ; 
 English translation of the last two Parts, for ' Clark's Foreign 
 Theological Library,' 4 vols, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1865—67. Of 
 the foregoing, Dr. Delitzsch is especially responsible for the 
 Commentary on the poetical books ; and it may be of interest 
 to remark that he, as a commentator on Genesis, and an : sociate 
 commentator on the Pentateuch, refers, with slight reservation 
 as to the manifest continuation, the authorship of the Five Books 
 to Moses, upon whose Law was based the whole of the Ecclesias- 
 tical polity, of the social and national life, and of the poetical 
 and literary activity of the Jews. The Old Testament is the 
 basis of the New ; and the fact that the Pentateuch was the pro- 
 duction of Moses, is insisted upon in order to ascertain the 
 identity of the divine government, and the continuity of purpose 
 in the several Covenants. 
 
 DEMESTE, JEAN, was born in 1743, and died in 1783. He 
 was a military surgeon in the service of the Prince of Liege. 
 He cultivated chemistry and the kindred sciences, but his notions 
 were as fanciful as those of the alchemists. A work by him, 
 once popular, is entitled 'Lettres du Docteur Bernard sur la 
 Chimie, la Docimasie, la Orystallographie, la Lithologie, la 
 Mineralogie et la Physique en general,' 2 vols. 12mo, Paris, 
 1779. A German translation appeared in 1784. Mineralogy is 
 indebted to Demeste for first distinctly pointing out the value of 
 the truncation of the angles and edges of crystals in showing the 
 derivation of new forms, and he is said to have introduced the 
 term. 
 
 * DEMETZ, FREDERIC AUGUSTE, originator of the 
 Mettray reformatory system, was born on the 12th of May, 
 1796; studied law, and was admitted member of the bar of 
 Paris. In 1821 he was nominated juge-supple'ant of the tribunal ; 
 then juge d'instruction ; afterwards vice-president of the Chamber 
 of Correctional Police ; and, in 1832, Conseiller a la Cour. In 
 1836 he went to the United States to study the penitentiary 
 system there adopted. His American inquiries respecting 
 juvenile crime produced a powerful impression, which was 
 deepened by the investigations and experience of the following 
 years. He at length convinced himself that though punishment 
 was inefficacious to deter the juvenile criminal, it might be pos- 
 sible by judicious treatment to reform him, and he resolved to 
 devote himself to the attempt. Aided by a former colleague, M. 
 Bretignieres de Courtelles, he founded at Mettray an Agricultural 
 and Penitentiary College, the purpose of which was to reclaim, by 
 special education, young offenders who had not yet become 
 steeped in vice, and who, under the usual system, would have 
 been imprisoned with older and hardened offenders. Demetz 
 believed that the only chance of reclamation lay in a separation 
 of the two classes, thereby removing the vitiating influence of the. 
 more desperate criminals. He also organised a society of foremen 
 or managers of trades, to teach the inmates of the reformatory. 
 With the countenance and sanction of the judicial authorities, he 
 gradually brought the system into excellent working order, and 
 the results have been most satisfactory. Other colonies on the 
 same plau were established elsewhere ; and there were combined 
 with them correctional schools for children of the higher classes 
 viciously inclined but not actually criminal. Demetz's scheme 
 was described by himself in ' Societe Paternelle ; fondation 
 d'une Colonie Agricole de jeunes detenues a Mettray : Statutes 
 Constitutes de la Societe,' 8vo, Paris, 1839 ; and he has drawn up 
 a series of annual Reports on the progress and actual condition of 
 the establishment at Mettray. In England his system has been 
 described in 'A Collection of Papers on Reformatories,' edited 
 by Mr. Jclinger Symons, 8vo, London, 1855, and is noticed in 
 the Reports, &c, of the Rev. Sydney Turner. The system of 
 M. Demetz lias been taken as the model for most of the reforma- 
 
463 
 
 DE QUINCEY, THOMAS. 
 
 DERBY, EARL OF. 
 
 464 
 
 tories established in this country ; and when he came to England 
 in 1855 to visit these institutions, he was received with a res- 
 pectful regard which he warmly appreciated. M. Demetz is a 
 corresponding member of the Academy of Moral and Political 
 Sciences. 
 
 DE QUINCEY, THOMAS [E. C. vol. ii. col. 5G7]. Mr. De 
 Quincey died on the 8th of December, 1859. 
 
 DERBY, EDWARD GEOFFREY SMITH STANLEY, 
 EARL OF [E. C. vol. ii. col. 568]. In February, 1858, on the 
 resignation of Lord Palmerston, the Earl of Derby found himself 
 for the second time in the position of First Lord of the Treasury, 
 and his cabinet, amongst other difficulties, had to face the 
 question of parliamentary reform, which had been left unsettled 
 by the two preceding administrations. The measure submitted 
 by Mr. Disraeli to the House of Commons did not recommend 
 itself to the adoption of the legislature. Hereupon an appeal was 
 made to the country ; and as the results of the general election 
 did not leave the ministry a working majority, in obedience to a 
 vote of want of confidence, Lord Derby resigned oilice in June, 
 1859. Some real service, however, was effected during his short- 
 lived administration, which, in the face of considerable resistance, 
 succeeded in carrying the India Bill, by which the government 
 of that vast dependency was transferred from the East India 
 Company to the Sovereign. Whatever the ostensible reason of 
 the defeat of Lord Derby's cabinet, it was felt that the true one 
 lay in the complication of foreign affairs, which seemed to the 
 popular mind to demand the direct presidency of Viscount 
 Palmerston, whose party, under his leadership, and, after his 
 death, under that of Lord Russell, swayed for the next seven 
 years the destinies of the nation. 
 
 Freed from the cares of office, the Earl of Derby recurred 
 during this interval to the studies of his youth, in which also he 
 found relief from the attacks of that disease to which he finally 
 succumbed. Whilst at Oxford he had gained, in 1819, the Chan- 
 cellor's Prize for Latin verse by his poem on ' Syracuse ;' and he 
 now caused to be privately circulated — " not published," as the 
 title-page expressly averred — his ' Translations of Poems, Ancient 
 and Modern,' 8vo, London, 1862, a volume in which the poets of 
 Greece, Rome, France, Italy, and Germany, were represented, 
 and which included thirteen English versions of the ' Odes ' of 
 Horace, and the translation of the first Book of the ' Iliad ' — the 
 first instalment of his greatest work in this department. The 
 volume was so well received that its author, who was sensitively 
 alive to the verdict of friendly criticism, was encouraged to pro- 
 ceed in his translation of Homer, which at length appeared, with 
 a dedication to the Prince of Wales, under the title of ' The Iliad 
 of Homer, rendered into English Blank Verse,' 2 vols. 8vo, Lon- 
 don, 1864, fifth edition, 1865, sixth edition, incorporating the 
 'Translations' already mentioned, 2 vols. sm. 8vo, London, 1867. 
 The ' Iliad,' which, without claiming to supersede all other 
 translations, vindicated the scholarly reputation of the author, 
 called forth a number of imitators, and even attracted the critical 
 attention of foreign students ; and, amongst others, that of Dr. 
 Wilhelm Henkel, who published a comparative review of the 
 English translators of the Homeric poems from the time of 
 Chapman, which he entitled ' Ilias und Odysee und ihre 
 Uebersetzer in England, von Chapman bis auf Lord Derby,' 8vo, 
 Hersfeld, 1867. The profits of the translation of the ' Iliad,' 
 which were considerable, were devoted to founding a scholarship 
 at Wellington College. It was also during the lull of political 
 strife that the cotton famine in Lancashire, consequent upon the 
 Civil War in America, called forth one of the most amiable and 
 admirable manifestations of Lord Derby's character. So long as 
 his activity could be beneficial, he, as the head of Lancashire 
 society, acted as chairman of the Central Relief Fund, for which 
 he worked so strenuously, and to which he contributed so muni- 
 ficently — at once heading the list of contributions with a donation 
 of 10,000Z. — that to his providence, and delicate and kindly 
 feeling, more than one generation of operatives will have to con- 
 fess themselves indebted. A single literary souvenir of this 
 disastrous epoch may be mentioned : — ' Speech of the Right 
 Honourable the Earl of Derby, K.G., at the County Meeting 
 held in the Town Hall, Manchester, on Tuesday, December 2nd, 
 1862, in aid of the Relief Fund,' 8vo, Manchester, 1862. 
 
 In the summer of 1866 the Earl of Derby, somewhat re- 
 luctantly, set himself for the third time to conduct an adminis- 
 tration ; for the security and permanence of which it was 
 necessary that his party should outbid the Whigs upon the 
 question of parliamentary reform, now more violently agitated 
 than it had been since his advocacy of the first Reform Bill in 
 1832. He communicated with his colleague, Mr. Disraeli, upon 
 
 whom the "education " of the Tories more particularly devolved, 
 his wish for such a settlement of the question as should remove 
 it from the arena of political and party warfare, and advised that 
 a Reform Bill should be introduced, in which the franchise 
 should be given to the working classes " with no niggard hand." 
 In the House of Commons the conduct of the measure of 1867, 
 which resulted in an Act establishing household suffrage, was of 
 course undertaken by Mr. Disraeli ; but Lord Derby was nnable 
 to further its passage through the House of Lords except by such 
 advice as he could give from his sick chamber whilst prostrate 
 under a more than usually severe and protracted attack of his 
 old enemy, the gout. The responsibilities of office, with his 
 advancing age, pressed upon him with such intensity as to 
 aggravate his disease and to retard his recovery. Accordingly, 
 in February, 1868, he resigned the Premiership, with a recom- 
 mendation, acted upon by her Majesty, that the office should be 
 conferred on Mr. Disraeli. Yet he did not cease to take an 
 interest in public affairs ; and he was frequently in his place in 
 the House of Lords, to speak and to vote for the measures of the 
 Disraeli administration, and afterwards to oppose those of its 
 successors. The last parliamentary speech he delivered was 
 against the second reading of Mr. Gladstone's Bill for the Dis- 
 establishment of the Irish Church. Lord Derby died at 
 Knowsley, at 7 o'clock in the morning, on Saturday, the 23rd 
 of October, 1869 ; and on the 29th of that month his remains 
 were quietly interred in a new family vault in Knowsley 
 Church. 
 
 * DERBY, EDWARD HENRY SMITH STANLEY, EARL 
 OF, whose political reputation has been chiefly gained under the 
 title of Lord Stanley, succeeded his father, as fifteenth Earl of 
 Derby, on the 23rd of October, 1869. He was born at Knowsley 
 on the 21st of July, 1826, and was educated at Rugby and at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in classical 
 honours in 1849. In March of the same year he was an unsuc- 
 cessful candidate for the representation of Lancaster ; whereupon 
 he paid a visit to Canada and the United States of America, 
 making himself acquainted also with the condition of the Eng- 
 lish West India Islands, upon the claims and resources of which 
 he delivered a remarkable speech in the House of Commons in 
 1850. In 1849, whilst still prosecuting his Transatlantic tour, 
 he was elected M.P. for King's Lynn, of which borough, after 
 continuously representing it in Parliament for twenty years, he 
 accepted the high stewardship a few months after his call to the 
 House of Peers. Whilst absent on a visit to India he was 
 nominated to the Under-Secretaryship for Foreign Affairs, in his 
 father's first brief administration in 1852. After the fall of the 
 administration in December of that year, he continued out of office 
 until the second accession of his father to power, when he acted 
 under him as Secretary of State for the Colonies from February 
 to May, 1858, and from the latter month to June, 1859, as 
 Secretary of State for India, in the administration of which he 
 had in 1853 projected important reforms. During the Conserva- 
 tive administrations of 1866 — 68 he held office as Secretary of 
 State for Foreign Affairs, and won great applause for his skilful 
 manipulation of the Luxembourg difficulty between France and 
 Prussia. He has earned the reputation of being amongst the 
 most judicious and progressive members of his party, and his 
 actions and character have been of such a nature as to command 
 the confidence and esteem of all classes. As a Parliamentary 
 committee-man, and as a member of several important Royal 
 Commissions, he has done good service ; and his speeches in the 
 House of Commons have from the first commanded respect and 
 consideration for their ability, judgment, and purity of principle. 
 Some of these have been published ; amongst others, one, de- 
 livered February 21st, 1856, in favour of opening the British 
 Museum and other national institutions on Sunday afternoon, 
 and circulated by the " National Sunday League," 8vo, London, 
 1856 ; and another, delivered on the 13th of February, 1859, 
 ' On the Financial Resources of India,' 8vo, London and Bom- 
 bay, 1859. Lord Stanley was an advocate for the admission of 
 Jews to Parliament ; an opponent of Church rates ; and an 
 active promoter of popular libraries and institutes, and of tech- 
 nical and general education. It has been mentioned that on the 
 death of his father in October, 1869, he succeeded to the Earl- 
 dom of Derby. On the 5th of July, 1870, he was married in 
 the Chapel Royal, St. James's, to Mary Catherine, Dowager 
 Marchioness of Salisbury ; and two days after accepted the high 
 stewardship of King's Lynn, an appointment which was in- 
 tended by the corporation as an integral part of their congratu- 
 lations upon that event. On the 24th of August, 1870, Lord 
 Derby laid the foundation-stone of a hospital for the new 
 
465 
 
 DERMODY, THOMAS. 
 
 DESLONGCIIAMPS, J. A. E. 
 
 400 
 
 borough of Bootle, near Liverpool, the site of which he had 
 presented to the corporation. In the course of his speech, he 
 advocated the claims of medical charities and sanitary reform, 
 and especially insisted that, by a wider and more minute atten- 
 tion to the latter, the former might be rendered less necessary. 
 " Now you have got your hospital," he said, " the next thing to 
 trv for is that it shall have nothing to do." 
 
 DERMODY, THOMAS, whose Life parallels that of Chatterton 
 in genius and misery, was born on the 17th of January, 1775, at 
 Ennis, county Clare, Ireland. From his father, a schoolmaster 
 of some ability, but of reckless habits, he received so good an 
 education that when eight years old he was able to render effi- 
 cient service in the school in teaching Greek and Latin. At ten 
 years of age he is said to have written several short poems, made 
 some spirited translations from Horace and Virgil, and familiar- 
 ised himself with the masterpieces of English literature. In this 
 there is probably some exaggeration, but he no doubt already 
 exhibited remarkable precocity of will as well as of talent. 
 "With only 2s. in his pocket he quitted his father's house (1785), 
 and made his way across the country to Dublin. There he led 
 a strange, vagrant life, finding casual employment, but for the 
 most part roving about the streets in extreme indigence. He 
 was, however, taken notice of successively by a number of 
 friendly persons, who tried in vain to render him assistance, the 
 most persistent in these kindly efforts being Mr. Owenson, the 
 father of Lady Morgan, who, among other kind acts, introduced 
 him to Dr. Young, Fellow of Trinity College (and afterwards 
 Bishop of Dromore), who made arrangements for placing him at 
 college, which were frustrated by his boyish petulance. Even 
 then Mr. Owenson would not give him up, but induced a Mr. 
 Austin to receive him into his establishment, and publish some 
 of his poetry, in the hope of raising a fund in his behalf. Here, 
 however, he disgraced himself, and was dismissed, and again 
 took to his wild course of life, subsisting on the bounty of 
 friends and the uncertain profits of literary contributions to the 
 newspapers. He was now brought under the notice of the Mar- 
 chioness of Moira, who placed him under Mr. Boyd, the trans- 
 lator of Dante, with a view to jirepare him for the University. 
 This time it seemed as though their friendly efforts would 
 succeed. The Attorney-General Wolfe (afterwards Lord Kil- 
 warden) engaged rooms for him at Trinity College, undertook to 
 defray his charges there, and to allow him 301. a year for his 
 personal expenses. But Dermody, now in his 18th year, refused 
 to compromise his independence, broke away from all control, 
 and, entering on a course of reckless dissipation, was soon re- 
 duced to the most abject poverty. Occasional papers for the 
 journals saved him from starvation, though he was compelled 
 once and again to sell his clothes to purchase a meal ; yet during 
 this wretched period he wrote some of his best pieces, both in 
 prose and verse ; of the former class being his pamphlet, occa- 
 sioned by the French revolution, entitled ' The Rights of Justice ; 
 or, Rational Liberty,' 8vo, 1793, at the end of which he added a 
 poem, styled ' Reform.' At length, his resources utterly ex- 
 hausted, he enlisted in the 108th regiment, and embarked with 
 it for England in September, 1794. In this situation his con- 
 duct was unexpectedly good. He was made corporal and 
 sergeant, and on the regiment leaving England, he was, through 
 the interest of Lord Moira, promoted to be second-lieutenant. 
 In Flanders he was wounded, and on his return to England was 
 put on half-pay. Settled in London he again gave way to dissi- 
 pation ; all efforts to reclaim him proved fruitless ; a trifling 
 pension from the Literary Fund served only to eke out his 
 existence, and at length, overwhelmed with disease and poverty, 
 he died in a miserable lodging at Perry Slough, Sydenham, on 
 the 15th of July, 1802, and was buried in Lewisham Church- 
 yard. Dermody published a small volume of poems in 1800, 
 and a second in 1801. In 1806 appeared 'A Life of Thomas 
 Dermody, with Specimens of his Writings, by J. G. Raymond,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, with portrait ; and in 1807 ' The Harp of Erin ; or, 
 the Poetical Works of the late Thomas Dermody,' 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 DESAULT, ITERRE JOSEPH, a distinguished French sur- 
 geon and anatomist, was born at Magny-Vernais, in the depart- 
 ment of Haute Saone, in 1744. His early education was under 
 the Jesuits ; his medical training was completed at the military 
 hospital of Befort, and the great hospitals of Paris. M. Desauit 
 was the first to combine surgery and anatomy in the same course 
 of study, insisting on the importance of correct anatomical 
 Vnowledge to the due performance of surgical operations. A 
 famous operation of his upon a broken clavicle was described by 
 his greatest pupil, Bichat, in the ' Magasin Encyclopedique.' In 
 1776 Desauit was chosen a member of the French College of Sur- 
 BIOG. DIV.— SUP. 
 
 gery ; soon afterwards a member of the Academy; in 1782, 
 surgeon-in-chief to La Charito ; and in 1788, surgeon-in-chief to 
 the Hotel Dieu. He was repeatedly inventing new modes of 
 procedure, and new surgical apparatus ; and created a great school 
 of clinical surgery. In 1792 he was a member of the Health 
 Committee of the army. Although arrested as a suspected per- 
 son by the Jacobins in the following year, he was soon liberated ; 
 and in 1794 was appointed Professor of Clinical Surgery at the 
 newly-appointed Ecole de Sante. His health rapidly declined 
 after attendance upon the hapless son of Louis XVI. in the 
 Temple, and he died on the 1st of June, 1795. Desauit wrote 
 little ; the works bearing his name were written from his notes, 
 by his friends or pupils. His glory is to have been the founder 
 of the French school of clinical surgery. 
 
 DESCAMPS, JEAN BAPTISTE, French artist, and writer 
 on art, was born at Dunkerque in 1714. He learnt the prin- 
 ciples of design from his uncle, Louis Coypel, and completed 
 his artistic training at Paris, where for a time he practised 
 painting. He then removed to Rouen, where he founded a 
 school of art, which, proving successful, was made a public 
 academy, with Descamps for director. He was a good teacher, 
 but a mediocre painter, and is now remembered only as the 
 author of ' Les Vies des Peintres Flamands, Allemandes, et 
 Hollandais,' 4 vols, with portraits, 8vo, Paris, 1753 — 63, long a 
 leading authority on the first of these schools, but which recent 
 research has shown to be too inaccurate to be trusted to alone. 
 Descamps wrote a sort of supplement to this work, and which is 
 frequently bound with it as a fifth volume, ' Voyage Pittoresque 
 de la Flandre et du Brabant,' 8vo, 1769 ; also ' Sur l'utilite des 
 etablissements d'ecoles gratuites de dessin en faveur des metiers,' 
 8vo, 1767. He died at Rouen in 1791. 
 
 DESFONTAINES, RENE LOUICHE, French botanist, was 
 bom in 1751 or 1752, at Tremblay, department of lie et Vilaine, 
 and was educated at the College of Rennes. In 1783 he tra- 
 velled in North Africa under the auspices of the Academy of 
 Sciences. He spent two years in collecting plants, animals, and 
 everything bearing upon the natural history of the countries he 
 visited. On returning to France in 1785 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in succession to 
 Lemonnier. In his old age he lost his sight, but he still con- 
 tinued his botanical studies, and learned to recognise plants by 
 means of his touch. He died November 16, 1833. He wrote a 
 few papers on zoology, but the greater number of his literary 
 productions relate to plants. His botanical papers are largely 
 taken up with descriptions of new forms. One of the most 
 important was a ' Memoire sur l'organisation des Monocotyle- 
 dones, ou plantes a une feuille seminale,' in ' Memoires de l'ln- 
 stitut,' tome i. pp. 478—502 (1797—1798), which contained 
 many original views. His most important separate work is 
 ' Flora Atlantica, sive historia pi ant arum quoe in Atlante agro 
 Tunetano Algeriensi crescunt,' 2 vols. 4to, 1798, with '260 
 plates. He also wrote a work on the trees and shrubs suitable 
 for cultivation near Paris, catalogues of the plants in the Jardin 
 des Plantes, and other Parisian gardens, and a few other books 
 of less importance. 
 
 * DESHAYES, GERARD PAUL, French naturalist, was 
 born at Nancy, May 13, 1795. He was educated at Strasbourg, 
 and in 1819 he went to Paris. He is a professor in the Museum 
 of Natural History, and has been president of the Geological 
 Society of France. He has given especial attention to mol- 
 lusca, both living and extinct, and has written several elaborate 
 and costly works illustrative of their form and structure. He is 
 one of the first living authorities on the tertiary shells of Europe, 
 but especially of France. He wrote the portion of G. Cuvier's 
 ' Regne Animale ' which relates to molluscs, and continued the 
 great work of Ferussac's on the same group of organisms. The 
 great labour of his life has been the account of the fossil shells of 
 the Paris basin, which is embodied in two works, entitled ' Des- 
 cription des coquillagesl'ossi les des environs de Paris,' 3 vols. 4to, 
 1824 — 1837, Paris ; and 'Description des animaux sans verte- 
 bres decouverts dans le bassin de Paris.' 3 vols. 4to, bound in 
 five, 1856 — 65. The last mentioned deals only with shells, and 
 is illustrated with 196 plates. He has also written a ' Traite 
 elementaire de Conchologie,' 3 vols. 8vo, with an 8vo atlas of 
 130 plates, 1834 — 1858, an unfinished work; 'Conchologie de 
 l'ile de la Reunion,' 8vo, 1863, pp. 144, Paris ; a few other 
 works ; and upwards of 70 papers in scientific journals, amongst 
 which may be mentioned his ' Anatomic et Monographic du 
 genre Dentale,' in the ' Memoirs of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Paris,' 
 vol. ii. pp. 321—378 (1825). 
 
 DESLONGCIIAMPS, JACQUES AMAND EUDES, was 
 
 H H 
 
4G7 
 
 bom at Caen, Normandy, January 17, 1794. His parents were 
 poor, but tbey spared no efforts in order to ensure a liberal edu- 
 cation for their son. He attended the scholastic institutions of 
 his native town. In 1812 he was compelled to join the navy, 
 and was appointed an assistant-surgeon in the frigate ' La( Moire' 
 In 1815 he became the surgeon-assistant-major in the military 
 hospital at Caen. Soon after this he left the navy, obtained a 
 degree of surgery at Paris, and returned to Caen in 1822, when 
 lie was elected surgeon to the Board of Relief of that town. 
 During his stay at Paris Cuvier was prosecuting his remarkable 
 researches amongst the mammalian bones of the Montmartre 
 gypsum qnarrie's. Deslongchamps was so interested in them 
 that he began to explore the quarries around Caen as soon as he 
 returned to that town. He found abundance of fossil remains, and 
 amongst others a fine specimen of Tdosanriis (Jadorncnsis. This led 
 to his devoting much time to comparative anatomy, and to palae- 
 ontology. Mis numerous papers on the crocodile-like forms of 
 the secondary period are evidence of his eminence in both 
 these branches of science. These researches brought him into 
 connection with Cuvier, Geoffroy St. Hiiaire, Humboldt; and 
 other eminent men, with whom lie became intimate. He studied 
 corals in company with Lamourorrx, wrote articles in the 'Ency- 
 clopedic Methodi que' and ' Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles,' 
 assisted in founding the Natural History Museum of Caen, and 
 the Linnean Society of Normandy, and contributed most of his 
 papers, which are upwards of 100 in number, to the ' Memoires' 
 of the Society just mentioned. In 1825 he succeeded Lamou- 
 roux as professor of /oology at Caen, and in 1847 was appointed 
 Dean of the Faculty of Sciences. He was a member of numerous 
 learned societies. He died January 17, 1867. His most import- 
 ant papers are t hose on the oolitic Teleosaurians. In 1803 he pub- 
 lished ' Memoires sur les teleosauriens de l'epoque Jurassique 
 du departcment de Calvados : Premiere Memoire.' His last 
 days were spent in finishing the work. His other papers relate to 
 the niollusean, crustacean, and mammalian remains found in the 
 strata around Caen, and to numerous monstrous forms observed 
 by him in plants and animals. His son, 
 
 * Eugene-Eudes Deslong champs, succeeded his father as pro- 
 fessor of zoology at Caen, and has written numerous papers on 
 the geology and palaeontology of his native department. 
 
 DESNOYERS, AUGUSTE GASPARD LOUIS BOUCHER, 
 BARON. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 576J The Baron Desnoyers had 
 ceased to use his graver when the above memoir was written ; 
 but it should have been mentioned that his latest labour was a 
 literary one, ' Appendice a L 7 Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de 
 Raphael, de M. Quatremcre de Quincy 4to, with plates, Paris, 
 1852, to which he afterwards added a supplement. M. Desnoyers 
 died at Paris on the 15th of February, 1857, aged 78. 
 
 * DESNOYERS, JULES PIERRE FRANCOIS STANIS- 
 LAS, historian and geologist, was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou, 
 October 8, 1800. In 1825 he became the secretary of the 
 Societe d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris ; in 1830 the secretary to 
 the Geological Society of France ; in 1833 an assistant palaeonto- 
 logist in the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle ; and in 1834 
 librarian to the last-mentioned establishment. He has been the 
 secretary of the Historical Society of France from its founda- 
 tion, and has served on the committee appointed by government 
 to publish the national historical documents. His historical 
 writings include a ' Histoire du dtcroisement et de la destruction 
 totale du paganisme dans les provinces de l'empire d'Occident,' 
 1832 ; a 'Histoire des differentes incursions des Arabes d'Asie 
 et d'Afrique en Italie, et dans les iles qui en dependant,' 1S38 ; 
 ' Bibliographic historique et archeologique de la France,' 1834; 
 ' Indication des principaux ouvrages propres a faciliter les 
 travaux relatifs a l'histoire de France,' 1837 ; and several other 
 papers, all of which have appeared in the publications of one or 
 other of the historical associations with which he is connected. 
 His geological papers relate to the secondary, tertiary, and post- 
 tertiary deposits of various parts of France. He has given con- 
 siderable, attention to the phenomena presented by caves and 
 their contents, more especially as they bear upon the antiquity 
 of man. In 1863 he discovered some bones of Rhinoceros lep- 
 torhinus, Elephas meridionalis, and several other mammalia, on 
 which were marks analogous to those which are producible by 
 flint implements. The deposit in which the bones were found 
 is assigned to the pliocene period ; and the evidence is consi- 
 dered to demonstrate that man co-existed with the animals men- 
 tioned in this period. If the conclusion is correct, this is one of 
 the earliest records we possess of man in Europe. But the con- 
 clusioii hasb^en contested, on the ground that such markings may 
 I-:\ e heen produced by rodents, some of the living species of 
 
 which groove, striate, chip and dent bones so as to impress 
 markings on them very much resembling those observed by 
 
 Desnoyers. 
 
 * DESOR, EDOUARD, geologist, was born at Friedrichsdorf, 
 near Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1811. In 1832 he went to Paris, 
 and had his attention directed to geology and physical geography 
 by the perusal of Ritter's 'Erdkunde,' vol. l., and by the prc- 
 ception of Prevost, Elie de Beaumont, and others. During a 
 visit to a meeting of naturalists at Neuchatel he became 
 acquainted with Vogt and Agassiz. He lived with the former 
 for some months at Berne ; and he assisted the latter in the pro- 
 secution of his researches, partly by joining him in his field 
 excursions and partly by aiding him in his literary works. In 
 1846 he visited Scandinavia for the purpose of examining the 
 phenomena of boulders ; and in 1847 he followed Agassiz to the 
 United States, but owing to some estrangement their mutual 
 friendship cooled, and Desor worked independently. He was 
 actively engaged in the Coast Survey, in Foster and Whitney's 
 exploration of the Lake Superior district, and in Rogers's survey 
 of Pennsylvania. In 1852 he returned to Neuchatel, and became 
 professor of zoology there. In 1863—64 he accompanied Escher 
 von der Linth and Martins on a scientific expedition to Algeria. 
 His subjects of study have embraced the glacial phenomena, 
 more especially those of the Alps ; the geology of the Alps, 
 France, and parts of America ; echinoderms ; and the antiquity 
 of man. He contributed to the ' Systeme Glaciaire,' 8vo, 1847, 
 by Agassiz and himself ; and has written numerous papers more 
 or less relating to glaciers. His principal geological productions 
 are 'Der Gebirgsban der Alpen,' 8vo, Wiesbaden, 1865; ' De 
 l'orographie des Alpes dans ses rapports avec la Geologie' in the 
 Bulletin of the Natural History Society of Neuchatel, vol. vi. pp. 
 147 — 211 (1861—63); and, in conjunction with M. Gressly, 
 ' Etude geologiques sur le Jura Neuchatelois ' in the ' Memoires ' 
 of the same society, vol. iv. (1859). His contributions to the 
 literature of echinoderms comprise, amongst other things, a 
 ' Catalogue raisonne des families, des genres et des especes de la 
 classe des Echinoderines,' 1847, in which Agassiz was a colla- 
 borator; a 'Synopsis des echinides fossiles,' 8vo, 1858, which is 
 a summary of the published information illustrated with figures 
 of most of the species ; and, along with P. Loriol, ' Echinologie 
 helvetique. Description des oursins fossiles de la Suisse,' 1868 
 — 1869. He has given accounts of his researches on the early 
 history and condition of man as indicated by the lake dwellings 
 of Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, and by various recent 
 deposits. Lastly, he has written several papers on the develop- 
 ment of species of annelids and ]h/dro::oa. 
 
 DESPRETZ, CESAR MANSUETE, a French physicist, was 
 born at Lessines, Hainaut, May 13, 1789. After studying 
 chemistry and physics at Paris, he was appointed by Thenard to 
 the post of repetiteur of his course of lectures on chemistry at 
 l'Ecole Poly technique. ^He rose successively to the offices of 
 professor of physics at l'Ecole Polytechnique, the College Henri 
 Quatre, and (in 1837) at the Sorbonne. He obtained in 1822 a 
 prize offered by the Academy of Sciences for the best memoir on 
 animal heat. In 1825 appeared his Elementary Treatise on 
 Physics, which has gone through several editions. In 1830 he 
 published his Elements of Theoretical and Practical Chemistry. 
 The ' Annales de (Jhirdfe ' and the ' Comptes Rendus,' from 1817 
 to 1858, contain above 40 papers by Despretz on the specific 
 heat of metals, the conductivity of metals, the propagation of 
 heat in liquids, the transmission of heat, the absorption of heat in 
 fusion, the elastic force of vapour, the density and latent heat 
 of vapour, the compressibility of liquids, the density of gases 
 under pressure, the laws of high and low musical notes, freezing 
 points, combustion, expansion, fusion, volatility, decomposition, 
 &c. Despretz succeeded Savart at the Academy of Sciences in 
 1841, and was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society in 
 1862. He died on the 15th of March, 1863. The titles of his 
 separate works are ' Recherches Experimentales sur les Causes 
 de la Chaleur Animale/ 8vo, Paris, 1822 ; ' Traite Elementaire 
 de Physique,' 8vo, Paris, 1825 ; Elements de Chimie theorique 
 et pratique,' 8vo, Paris, 1828 — 30 ; 'Des Colleges, de l'lnstriic- 
 tion Professionelle, des Facultes,' 8vo, Paris, 1847. In the 
 course of his chemical experiments Despretz produced minute 
 diamonds by the slow action of an electric current on pure 
 carbon. 
 
 *DEUTSCH, EMANUEL, a Hebrew, and especially a 
 Talmudic, scholar, was born in Germany, about the year 1834. 
 Having attracted the attention and confidence of the eminent 
 bookselling firm of Ascher, of Berlin, he was by them recom- 
 mended to Sir Antonio, then Mr., Panizzi, principal librarian 
 
DICK, THOMAS, LL.D. 
 
 470 
 
 of the British Museum, through whom he received an appoint- 
 ment in that institution, in which he holds at present ihe posi- 
 tion of an assistant officer in the library department. For some 
 years his knowledge of Hebrew literature was of great practical 
 value, without, however, resulting in any considerable degree of 
 general reputation ; but in 1867 he contributed to the '.Quarterly 
 Review' an article which had the extraordinary effect of sending 
 the number in which it appeared through several editions, and 
 which was separately published as ' The Talmud : a Critical 
 Essay,' &c, 12mo, London, 1868 ; Danish translation, 'Talmud. 
 Efter den Engelske Originals,' 8vo, Copenhagen, 1S68 ; 
 Swedish translation, ' Talmud. Ofversattning friin Engel- 
 skan. Ur Tidskriften Quarterly Review,' 12mo, Stockholm, 
 first and second editions, 1868. Amongst other results of the 
 discussion which the article provoked in England, may be 
 mentioned an anonymous pamphlet entitled ■ The Talmud : 
 being a Reply to a late Article in the " Quarterly Review," ' 
 12mo, London, 1868, the writer of which charges Mr. Deutsch 
 with high colouring, exaggeration and distortion, and indiffer- 
 ence to the dogmas of Christianity, and challenges many of his 
 statements and theories. 
 
 Over and above his purely literary activities, Mr. Deutsch has 
 done good service in the East for the Committee of the Palestine 
 Exploration Fund, at whose instance he not only examined the 
 excavations in progress at Jerusalem, but also investigated 
 various places of archaeological and historical interest throughout 
 Phoenicia and Syria, at which researches had already been 
 instituted, or at which it was desirable that they should be 
 commenced. In the report of May, 1869, which he made after 
 his return to London, to the secretary of the Fund, he states his 
 conclusions (1) that the signs cut or painted on the bottom rows 
 of the wall of the south-east comer of the Harani were on the 
 stones when they were first laid in their present places ; (2) that 
 they do not represent any inscription ; and (3) that they are 
 Phoenician. The original builders of that side of the Temple 
 are thus ascertained to have been of the age of Solomon, and 
 probably the craftsmen of Hiram, king of Tyre. Mr. Deutsch j 
 also succeeded in recovering the lost letters of the Maccabean 
 Hebrew alphabet. In June, 1869, he embodied the more 
 general results ol his investigations in a course of three lectures 
 on Semitic Culture, at the Royal Institution ; in which he 
 surveyed, in its outlines, the intellectual work achieved by the 
 nations conventionally called Shemites, and the influence exer- 
 cised by them upon the life and thought of the ancient and 
 modern world. 
 
 DICK, THOMAS, LL.D [E. C. vol. ii. col. 583]. Dr. Dick 
 died on the 29th of July, 1857. 
 
 DICKENS, CHARLES [E. C. vol. ii. col. 583]. After the 
 completion of ' Little Dorrit,' there was a somewhat longer inter- 
 val than usual before the publication of another important work. 
 In the spring of 1858 Mr. Dickens commenced in St. Martin's 
 Hall, a series of public readings of selected portions of his writings. 
 The novelty of an author of Mr. Dickens's rank occupying so 
 remarkable a position naturally drew great numbers of curious 
 listeners, but his skill, tact, and dramatic power, and the rare 
 subtilty with which he brought out latent and often unsuspected 
 shades of meaning, or touches of pathos, added a new brilliancy 
 to a humorous thought, or rendered a ludicrous passage more 
 irresistibly comical, soon caused the readings to be eagerly sought 
 for their own sakes, and placed Mr. Dickens as unmistakeably 
 at the head of the public readers, as he had long been of the 
 novelists, of England. About this time occurred the separation 
 of Mr. and Mrs. Dickens, to which it would be unnecessary to 
 refer except on account of the publicity he himself gave to it in 
 ' Household Words,' and which having led to a dissolution of 
 the proprietory caused the discontinuance of that journal. 
 
 Mr. Dickens immediately (1859) started a new weekly periodical 
 'All the Year Round,' and continued to conduct it till his death. 
 In it was published, in the first instance, his 'Tale of Two 
 Cities,' and 'Great Expectations,' which last appeared in 1860 in 
 the old orthodox form of a three volume novel, except ' Oliver 
 Twist,' the only one of Mr. Dickens's stories issued in that shape. 
 In the first Christmas Number of ' All the Year Round ' appeared 
 also ' The Haunted House,' and each succeeding year was issued 
 a Christmas Number till 1867, when with the story of ' No 
 Thoroughfare ' he abandoned the field to his multitudinous 
 imitators. ' Our Mutual Friend,' in 1864, was a return to the 
 familiar monthly serial and a renewal of former triumphs, though 
 the story hardly retained to the end the old popularity. 
 
 In June, 1865, he was a passenger in the train on the South- 
 Ear*em Railway which met with a fearful disaster at Staple- 
 
 hurst. The carriage in which lie was sitting was one of the few, 
 if not the only one, which did not go over the embankment ; 
 and he was apparently unhurt and aide to rendei assistance to 
 his fellow-passengers. It has been said that his nervous system 
 received a serious shock, but in the opinion of his medical adviser 
 it left no lasting effect on his system. 
 
 Towards the end of 1867 Mr. Dickens made a second visit to 
 America. In anticipation of it a complimentary farewell dinner 
 on the grandest scale was given to him at the Freemasons' Tavern, 
 November the 3rd, 1867. Lord Lytton presided at the feast, and 
 around the tables sat such an assemblage of distinguished 
 authors, artists, and men of science as has very rarely been 
 brought together. He arrived at Boston November the 19th, and 
 met with a reception as brilliant as had been the farewell. 
 During the five months he remained in America he gave read- 
 ings in most of the principal cities, and his popularity appeared 
 continually to increase. He (putted New York April the 22nd, 
 1868. The state of his health would have justified withdrawal for 
 awhile from public exertion, if not from quiet literary labour, 
 but the amazing success of his American readings had stimulated 
 public interest here, and there appeared to be a general desire to 
 prove to him that the feelings of his English admirers were as 
 ardent as those of their brethren in America. He continued his 
 readings from his return, but in consequence of symptoms 
 which showed themselves in the spring of 1869, when Mi-. 
 Dickens was at Preston, in the course of a country tour, his 
 medical adviser peremptorily stopped all his remaining country 
 readings, and prescribed complete rest. However, in the fol- 
 lowing spring, the last series of London readings was under- 
 taken. Of themselves and disconnected from the trying railway 
 work incident to a country series, it was hoped they would not be 
 injurious ; but whilst giving them he commenced writing ' Edwin 
 Drood,' and there is no doubt that the strain was too severe. 
 On the 5th of March, 1870, he gave his final reading in St. 
 James's Hall. A fortnight later appeared the first monthly 
 part of his last novel, 1 The Mystery of Edwin Drood.' In 
 this he had broken comparatively new ground, and the public 
 were following the story with increasing interest when they were 
 startled by the news of the author's death. Whilst at dinner, 
 June the 8th, 1870, at his residence, Gad's Hill Place, Rochester, 
 Kent, he was seized with sudden illness and rose to leave the 
 room, when he fell heavily. He remained unconscious till his 
 death, a few minutes after 6 o'clock on the following evening — 
 the fifth anniversary of the Staplehurst accident. 
 
 In his will, completed only a week before his untimely death, 
 Mr. Dickens left emphatic injunctions that he should "be buried 
 in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner," 
 and that " no public announcement be made of the time or 
 place " of his burial ; but the national feeling was stirred to its 
 depths by the intelligence of his decease, and the opinion was 
 universal that Westminster Abbey was his most appropriate 
 resting-place ; and there, unostentatiously and without public 
 announcement — the few relatives and private friends who accom- 
 panied the body, and Dean Stanley, who read the service, being 
 the only witnesses — he was laid in Poets' Corner, alongside of 
 Macaulay, and beneath the shadow of Addison's monument. 
 
 In the memoir above cited we have spoken at sufficient length 
 of Mr. Dickens as a Avriter. The general and almost unexampled 
 expressions of regret with which the intelligence of his death 
 was received in America as much as in England, and almost as 
 strongly in those countries where he was chiefly known through 
 the inadequate medium of translations, were a sufficient testi- 
 mony to the hold which his writings had obtained on the public. 
 But along with the feeling arising from admiration of the writer, 
 there was evidenced a warmth of personal sympathy with the man 
 beyond what usually exists between an author, however popular, 
 and his readers. Dickens's thorough honesty of purpose in 
 all that he wrote, strong sense of duty, warm-hearted bene- 
 volence, breadth of sympathy, and catholicity of spirit, were 
 as heartily recognised and appreciated as his originality of 
 genius, his humour, and his pathos. 
 
 The sixth number, not quite completed, of the ' Mystery 
 of Edwin Drood' was left by its author in MS., — "its last 
 entire page had not been written two hours " before his death 
 — and no notes or clue as " to its conduct or catastrophe " have 
 been found : it remains therefore in all respects a fragment, 
 but a fragment that will possess an interest akin to that of 
 Christabel, or " The Story of Cambuscan bold." His other 
 writings, including the 'Christmas Talcs' and the 'Uncom- 
 mercial Traveller,' have been published in a collected form in 
 the ' Illustrated Library Edition,' 26 vols, post 8vo ; the ' People's 
 
 H II 2 
 
471 DIDRON, ADOLPHE-NAPOLEON. 
 
 Edition,' 25 vols. 8vo, and, as the final revision, in the 'Charles 
 Dickens Edition,' 18 vols, royal 16mo. 
 
 DIDRON, ADOLPHE-NAPOLEON [E. C. vol ii. col. 587]. 
 Subsequent to the date of the above memoir M. Didron published 
 ' Iconographie des Chapiteaux du Palais Ducal de Venise,' 4to, 
 Paris, 1857, and ' Manuel des Objets dc Bronze et d'Orfevrerie du 
 Moyen age,' 8vo, with engravings, 1859. He died at Paris on 
 the 13th of November, 1807, leaving his great work on Christian 
 Iconography incomplete. 
 
 * DIETRICH, DAVID NATHANIEL FRIEDRICH, 
 belongs to a family which has supplied botanists for some gene- 
 rations past, and among the living members of which are several 
 cultivators of botanical science. He himself is a botanist of 
 considerable reputation, and is well known for several works of 
 great labour. He was born in 1800, and early in life was 
 appointed to the inspectorship of the botanical garden of Jena. 
 His published works are 'Flora Media,' 8vo, Jena, 1830 ; 'Flora 
 Universalis,' of which he is the editor, and which commenced 
 in 1831 : in 1852 the number of parts published was 392 ; 
 ' Encyklopadie des Pnanzen,' 1841, &c, illustrated by upwards 
 of 30,000 figures ; ' Deutschland's Flora,' 8vo, 1839, &c; 'Li- 
 chenographie Germanici,' 8vo, Jena, 1834 — 37 ; and ' Synopsis 
 plantarum seu enumeratio systematica plantarum plerum que 
 adhuc cognitarum cum dUI'erentiisspecincis et synonymisselectis,' 
 &c, 8vo, Vimaria, 1839—52. 
 
 DILKE, CHARLES WENTWORTH [E. C. vol. ii. col. 592]. 
 Mr. Dilke died at Alice Holt, near Farnham, on the 10th of 
 August, 1864, in his 75th year. His son, Sir Charles Went- 
 worth Dilke, Bart., also noticed as above, was born on the 18th 
 of February, 1800. He was educated at Westminster and Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge, and studied law, but did not practice. He was 
 an active member of several learned societies, but was chiefly 
 known by his connection with the International Exhibitions of 
 1851 and 1862, of which he was one of the commissioners, and 
 for his services in that capacity he received in January, 1862, the 
 honour of a baronetcy. In July, 1865, he was elected M.P. for 
 Wallingford, but failed in securing re-election in November, 1868. 
 In the spring of 1869 he visited Russia, partly in the hope that 
 the trip might benefit his failing health. The climate, however, 
 proved too severe, and he died suddenly at St. Petersburg, on 
 the 10th of May, 1869. He was succeeded in his honours by his 
 eldest son, * Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, Bart., born 1843, 
 who, like his father, entered Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and 
 studied law. He was first in the law tripos, 1865, took the 
 degree of LL.B., and was called to the bar in 1866. In November, 
 1867, he was elected member for the newly created borough of 
 Chelsea, and was selected to second the address to the Queen at 
 the opening of the new parliament in February, 1870. Under 
 the strange title of ' Greater Britain,' he published (8vo, 1868), 
 the results of observations made during a visit to America and 
 some of our colonial possessions. 
 
 DILLENIUS, JOHANN JAKOB [Sherard, William, E. C. 
 vol. v. col. 477]. 
 
 * DILLMANN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST, an 
 eminent German orientalist, was bom on the 25th of April, 
 1823, at Illengen, a village of Wiirtemburg, near the Baden 
 frontier. He was educated at the Gymnasia of Stuttgart and 
 Schonthal, and at the University of Tubingen, where from 1840 
 to 1845 he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, theology, 
 and oriental literature, the last of which he prosecuted under 
 Ewald. Afterwards he acted as a parochial lay assistant for 
 some months of 1845 and 1846 ; and in the latter year com- 
 menced a learned and scientific tour, which embraced Paris, 
 London, and Oxford. At each of these cities he extended his 
 knowledge of the oriental languages ; and at the last two gave 
 important assistance in the scientific arrangement and catalogu- 
 ing of the ./Ethiopian manuscripts. Indeed it is on his labours 
 to restore the /Ethiopian language to its place in comparative 
 philology as the fourth principal language of the Semitic family 
 that his reputation chiefly depends. Upon his return to Tubin- 
 gen in the summer of 1848, he became repetent in the Theolo- 
 gical Seminary there ; established himself in 1852 as tutor in the 
 Old Testament Exegesis, and the oriental languages ; and in the 
 following year was made extraordinary professor. To this 
 period belongs his publication of the ^Ethiopian version of the 
 Book of Enoch, 'Liber Henoch. /Ethiopice ad quinque Codicum 
 fidem editus,' &c, 8vo, Leipzig, 1851, of which a German trans- 
 lation and exposition were given as ' Das Buch Henoch. Ueber- 
 setzt und erklart,' &c, 8vo, Leipzig, 1853. In the autumn of 
 1854 Dr. Dillmann accepted an extraordinary professorship in 
 tfie University of Kiel, where he taught the oriental languages, 
 
 DISRAELI, RIGHT HON. BENJAMIN. 472 
 
 and became ordinary professor in 1860. In April, 1864, he 
 removed to Giessen, to fill the ordinary professorship of Old 
 Testament Exegesis. One of the academical lectures delivered 
 soon after his new appointment had for its subject the Origin of 
 the Old Testament Religion, and was published with the title of 
 'Ueber den Unsprung der Alttestamentlichen Religion. Eine 
 akademische Rede,' &c, 8vo, Giessen, 1865. 
 
 His other works comprise 'Liber Jubilaeoruin qui idem a 
 Grsecis h AEnTH TENE2I2 inscribitur versione Graeca deperdita 
 nunc nonnisi in Geez Lingua conservatus nuper ex Abyssinia in 
 Europam allatus. /Ethiopice ad duorum Librorum manuscrip- 
 torum fidem primum edidit,' &c, 4to, Gottingen, Kiel, and 
 London, 1859, the issue of which was limited to 200 copies, and 
 a German translation of which, ' Buch der Jubiliien,' &c, had 
 been contributed by Dr. Dillmann to Ewald's ' Jahrbuch der 
 biblischen Wissenschaft,' vols. 2 and 3, 1849 — 51, in the 5th 
 volume of which, 1853, appeared Dillmann's 'Das Christliche 
 Adainbuch des Morgenland.es. Aus dcm Aethiopischen mit 
 Bemerkungen, iibersetzt/ &c. ; ' Veteris Testanienti Aethiopica,' 
 &c, 4to, Leipzig, 1853, &c. ; ' Grammatik der Aethiopischen 
 Sprache,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1857 ; and 'Lexicon Lingua? Aethiopieue 
 cum ex opere Ludolliano turn e permultis Libris Manuscriptis et 
 impressis collectum et digestum, 4to, Leipzig, 1862, &c. 
 
 * DISRAELI, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE BENJAMIN 
 [E. C. vol. ii. col. 608]. The Palmerston cabinet fell before the 
 opposition to the Conspiracy to Murder Bill, which appeared to 
 the national jealousy of the time to be too favourable to the 
 French Government; and Lord Derby, in February, 1858, was 
 again summoned to power, and for the second time conferred the 
 Chancellorship of the Exchequer on Mr. Disraeli, who, with that 
 office, resumed the leadership of the House of Commons. At 
 the suggestion of his chief, who wished to carry a substantial 
 measure of electoral reform whilst still the country was free from 
 popular clamour, Mr. Disraeli, in February, 1859, brought 
 forward his elaborate bill, a principal feature of which was to 
 ensure a lateral extension of the franchise, so that the whole 
 body of the educated classes should be admitted to the suffrage 
 without regard to property qualification. The attempt to carry 
 the bill was unsuccessful ; and it was finally defeated in the 
 House of Commons on the 31st of March. An appeal to the 
 country followed ; the results of which were so little cheering 
 to the Derby administration that they resigned in June, 1859, 
 and for seven years thereafter their party remained in the cold 
 shade of opposition. 
 
 Mr. Disraeli is known as an ardent advocate of " that sacred 
 union between Church and State which has hitherto been the 
 chief means of our civilisation, and is the only security of our 
 religious liberties ; " and he signalised his long period of opposi- 
 tion by taking a prominent part, both in parliament and else- 
 where, in confronting the ecclesiastical legislation of the Liberal 
 party. Five of his speeches on church matters, delivered between 
 the 4th of December, 1860, and the 25th of November, 1864— 
 and two of which were severally issued as a ' Speech,' &c, 12mo, 
 London, 1862, and 'Church Policy: a Speech,' &c, 12mo, Lon- 
 don, 1864 — were edited, with a preface, by a " Member of the 
 University of Oxford," with the title of ' Church and Queen,' 
 &c, 12mo, London, 1865. The speeches delivered by Mr. Dis- 
 raeli in the House of Commons in opposition to Mr. Gladstone's 
 Budgets of February, 1860, and April, 1862, were published as 
 strictures on ' Mr. Gladstone's Finance, from his accession to 
 Office in 1853 to his Budget of 1862/ 8vo, London, 1862. To 
 the same period of official vacation belongs the republication, 
 with a dedication to Lord Stanley (now 15th Earl of Derby), 
 and with "purely literary corrections," of the 'Revolutionary 
 Epick,' 12mo, London, 1864, the first small issue of which, in 
 fifty copies, had taken place thirty years before. 
 
 The month of July, 1866, found Lord Derby once more in 
 power, with Mr. Disraeli for the third time as his Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer. They resolved to attempt a settlement of the 
 long-agitated question of Reform, which so many administrations 
 had either failed to solve, or else had agreed to shelve. The 
 franchise was to be given to the working classes, in the words of 
 Lord Derby, " with no niggard hand ;" but, though he found in 
 Mr. Disraeli a willing coadjutor, their course was seriously 
 retarded and embarrassed by the hesitations, fears, and dis- 
 approval of many members of their own party. It was upon 
 Mr. Disraeli that the conciliation and "education" of the mal- 
 contents chiefly devolved ; and in this process he was so success- 
 ful that in 1867 the Tories were induced to accept a policy 
 repugnant to their most cherished traditions, and to pass a 
 measure of Radical Reform which made the Parliamentary 
 
473 DOANE, RT. REV. G. W. 
 
 Franchise depend on household suffrage. The professed hope of 
 the promoters of this measure was that of penetrating to a 
 stratum of Conservative feeling which was said to underlie the 
 Liberalism of the lower middle classes. The attitude of Mr. 
 Disraeli with regard to Reform throughout the larger proportion 
 of his political career is exhibited in a volume, edited by Mr. 
 Montague Corry, a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, and entitled 
 ' Parliamentary Reform. A Series of Speeches on that Subject 
 delivered in the House of Commons by the Right Hon. B. , 
 Disraeli (1848 — 1866). Reprinted (by permission) from Han- 
 sard's Debates,' 8vo, London, 1867. The memorable Speeches at 
 Edinburgh in which Mr. Disraeli claimed to have "educated" 
 his party to the passing of the Reform Bill, and which gave 
 considerable umbrage to some of his adherents, were published 
 " by authority," with the title of ' The Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer in Scotland. Being two Speeches delivered by him in 
 the City of Edinburgh on t he 2.9th and 30th of October, 1867,' 
 8vo, Edinburgh and London, 1667, 
 
 On the retirement of Lord Derby in February, 1868, Mr. 
 Disraeli succeeded him as First Lord of the Treasury ; and his 
 short occupancy of power was signalised by the favour which he 
 showed to the Protestantism, and even the Orangeism, of Ireland, 
 when the question of the disestablishment of the church of that 
 country was agitated by Mr. Gladstone, into whose hands the 
 Premiership fell upon the resignation of Mr. Disraeli in Decem- 
 ber, 1868. On this occasion the latter accepted for his wife a 
 promotion to the peerage of the United Kingdom, with the title 
 of Viscountess Beaconstield. 
 
 As leader of the opposition in the House of Commons, Mr. 
 Disraeli took action against his rival's Bill for the Abolition of 
 the Irish Church Establishment (1869), to which, whilst virtually 
 accepting the disestablishment and disendowment of that 
 Church, he proposed a series of amendments which he soon 
 ceased to defend, and the effect of which, in Mr. Gladstone's 
 calculation, would have been to add one or two millions to the 
 existing endowment of the Church. With reference to the Irish 
 Land Bill, the passing of which was the great work of the 
 Session of 1870, Mr. Disraeli, and some of his adherents, under- 
 took to demonstrate the inconsistency of the Bill with the rights 
 of property, whilst they explicitly or virtually acknowledged 
 the necessity of buying off agrarian disaffection in Ireland. The 
 final adoption of the Bill in its complete form was furthered by 
 the absence of systematic opposition, and more especially by the 
 forbearance of Mr. Disraeli, who, throughout the Session, avoided 
 unnecessary occasions of conflict. 
 
 Mr. Disraeli's latest achievement is, as was his first, of a 
 literary nature, being the production of a novel entitled ' Lo- 
 thair,' 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1870, which has already gone through 
 several editions, and which has circulated by tens of thousands 
 in the United States of America. It is at this present writing, 
 administering to the comfort of the besieged citizens of Paris, in 
 the feuilleton columns of the 1 Soir ;' a translation into Dutch 
 by A. H. Vester is being issued in parts ; and it has been 
 rendered into Russian. Mr. Disraeli holds many honourable 
 appointments : being D.L., J. P., and M.P. for the county of 
 Bucks ; an honorary D.C.L. of the University of Oxford, and 
 an honorary LL.D. of the University of Edinburgh ; a Governor 
 of Wellington College ; a Trustee of the British Museum, and 
 of the National Portrait Gallery. He acted as one of the Royal 
 Commissioners of the International Exhibition, in 1851 ; and 
 in March, 1852, was named a member of the Privy Council. 
 
 DOANE, RIGHT REVEREND GEORGE WASHING- 
 TON, D.D., LL.D., an American poet and divine, second bishop 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the diocese of New Jersey, 
 was bom at Trenton, in that State, in the year 1799, and edu- 
 cated at Union College, Schenectady, where he graduated in 
 1818. He was made deacon by Bishop Hobart in 1821, and in 
 1823 was admitted to priest's orders. From 1821 to 1824 he 
 officiated at Trinity Church, New York; and in the latter year 
 was appointed the first Professor of Belles Lettres and Oratory 
 in Trinity (at that time called Washington) College, at Hartford, 
 Connecticut. He resigned tliis office in i828, and became suc- 
 cessively assistant minister and rector of Trinity Church, Boston. 
 On the 3rd of October, 1832, he was elected, and on the 31st of 
 the same month, consecrated, Bishop of New Jersey ; and from 
 the summer of 1833 conjoined with the oversight of that diocese 
 the rectorship of St. Mary's Church, Burlington, in which city 
 he had his episcopal residence. Here ho died on the 27th of 
 April, 1859, and was succeeded by Dr. W. H. Odenheimer. 
 
 Dr. Doane's incumbency of the see of New Jersey was marked 
 ky an unexampled increase in the number of the parishes, elergVj 
 
 DOLLFUS. 474 
 
 and members of his communion; and he is especially known for 
 his zeal in the cause of education. In 1837 he established St. 
 Mary's Hall, a large female boarding-school, beautifully situated 
 on the shore of the Delaware, in winch two hundred girls, from 
 every part of America, as well as from other countries, were 
 supplied with a comprehensive education in accordance with the 
 tenets of the Episcopal Church, In 1846 he likewise founded 
 Burlington College, under a charter from the State Legislature. 
 He was frequently involved in theological and ecclesiastical con- 
 troversies; and his contributions to polemical literature are not 
 inconsiderable. The number of his several publications is 
 extremely large ; and they comprise Sermons, Addresses, Lec- 
 tures, Charges, Pastorals, Orations, and a few small works of a 
 devotional and biographical nature. A collection of his ' Sermons 
 and Charges' was published in 8vo, London, 1842; and one of 
 his sermons, 'The Child Jesus and the Holy Family/ occurs in 
 the Rev. Alexander Watson's 'Sermons for Sundays, Festivals, 
 and Fasts, and other Liturgical Occasions. Contributed by 
 Bishops and other Clergy of the Church,' three serie-i, in five 
 volumes, 8vo, London, 1845—47. As a poet. Dr. Doane is 
 favourably known for his 'Songs by the Way, chiefly Devo- 
 tional ; with Translations and Imitations,' 8vo, New York, 1824. 
 He has also acted as the American editor of Keble's 'Christian 
 Year.' 
 
 DODERLEIN, JOHANN LUDWIG CHRISTOPH WIL- 
 HELM, VON, a distinguished German philologer, son of Pro- 
 fessor Johann Christoph Doderlein, a theologian and biblical 
 critic, was born at Jena, on the 19th of December, 1791, and 
 received his early education at Windsheim and Schulpforte. 
 Afterwards he prosecuted his philological studies successively at 
 Munich, at Heidelberg, at Erlangen (where he graduated), and 
 at Berlin. In 1S15 he was appointed to the ordinary professor- 
 ship of philology at the Academy of Berne ; and performed 
 the duties of this ollice until 1819, when he became second pro- 
 fessor of philology at the University of Erlangen. In 1827 he 
 was made director of the philological seminary, and died on the 
 9th of November, 1863. 
 
 Doderlein's activity in the department of philology was con- 
 stant and diversified. He published editions of several of the 
 classical authors, especially of Homer, Horace, and Tacitus ; and 
 his other works comprise an important one on Latin Synonyms 
 and Etymologies, ' Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien,' 6 
 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1826 — 38 ; on the Formation of Words in 
 Latin, 'Die lateinische Wortbildung,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1839; 
 Handbook of Latin Synonyms, ' Handbuch der lateinischen 
 Synonymik,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1840, English translation, Svo, 
 London, 1841 ; ' Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie,' Svo, 
 Leipzig, 1841 ; Speeches and Essays, &c, 'Reden und Aufsatze. 
 Ein Beitrag zur Gymnasialpadagopik und Philologie,' 2 vols. Svo, 
 Erlangen, 1843 — 47 ; a Glossary of Homer, 'Homerisches Glos- 
 sarium,' 3 vols. 8vo, Erlangen, 1850 — 53 — 58 ; and Public Lec- 
 tures, &c, ' Oeffentliche Reden, mit einen Anhange padagogischer 
 und philologischer Beitrage,' Svo, Frankfurt and Erlangen, 1860. 
 
 DOLLFUS. Three members of this family, natives of Mul- 
 house, or Mulhausen, in Alsace, have risen to distinction. 
 Charles Emile Dollfus, born on the 10th of April, 1805, 
 was one of four sons of Dollfus-Mieg, a manufacturer who estab- 
 lished large cotton and bleaching works at Mulhouse, in 1802. 
 Charles Emile retired early from the business, and entered into 
 political and administrative life. He was one of the founders, 
 and president, of the Industrial Society of Mulhouse, in 1834 ; 
 mayor of the town in 1843 ; and elected deputy for the depart- 
 ment of Haut Rhin in 1846. He died August 27th, 185S. 
 * Charles Dollfus, nephew of Charles Emile, was born 
 27th of July, 1827. After studying in Switzerland and at Paris, 
 he adopted the profession of the law, and became advocate at 
 Paris and Colmar in 1849 — 52. He has published the follow- 
 ing works : ' Lettres Philosophicpj.es/ 1851 ; 'Le Calvaire,' 1855 ; 
 'Essaisur la Philosopllie Sociale,' 1856; ' Revelation et Reve- 
 lateurs,' 1858 ; ' Etudes sur l'Allemagne,' 1864. In conjunction 
 with Nefftzer, he established the ' Revue Germanique,' in 1857 ; 
 and became editor of the 'Revue Moderne,' in 1865 ; * Jean 
 Dollfus, brother of Charles Emile, and father of Charles, 
 was born on the 25th of September, 1800. In defence of 
 free trade he has published ' Plus de prohibitions sur les files 
 de Coton : Expose des Avantages d'une reforme douainiere 
 en France pour les Articles de Coton,' 1853 ; and ' De la levee 
 des prohibitions douainieres,' 1860. But he is chiefly known 
 as the founder of the cites ouvrieres, or workmen's dwellings, 
 in connection with the factory at Mulhouse. When in London 
 in 1851, he took an interest in the model cottages built 
 
475 DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH L, VON. 
 
 by Prince Albert in Hyde Park. On his return home, lie ob- 
 tained plans from M. Muller, a local architect, for dwellings on 
 a new system, and founded the ' Soeiete des Cites Ouvrieres/ with 
 a capital of 300,000 francs, of which he himself subscribed to the 
 amount of 175,000 francs. The plan adopted was to build four 
 houses under one roof, separated by substantial walls, and each 
 house lighted at front and side ; each house covers 45 scpiare 
 yards, and has about 144 square yards of garden. The arrange- 
 ment is considered to be advantageous for free ventilation and 
 garden-economy ; but it occupies more space than would usually 
 be devoted to workmens' dwellings in England. Each house, 
 with garden, cellar, &c, cost 3,000 francs, or ,£120. They are 
 not merely rented to the workmen, but actually sold : 250 or 
 300 francs are paid down, and the remainder, with the interest;, 
 is spread over monthly instalments for fourteen years. If the 
 workman or his family, through unavoidable exigencies, is under 
 the necessity of leaving the place, the Society adopt a plan for 
 repurchase at nearly the price that has been paid. The holdings 
 under the company are not unconditional, even when the purchases 
 are completed ; for it is found that the comfort and good manage- 
 ment of all are better ensured by some kind of central control. 
 The system is understood to work well, returning to the society 
 a fair interest for the capital expended, and ensuring good and 
 wholesome dwellings for working men and their families. Of 
 700 houses built by the society down to the year 1866, nearly 
 all were disposed of. M. Dollfus has described the system in 
 ' Note sur les Cites Ouvrieres,' 1857, and M. Eugene Veron has 
 treated it more fully in ' Les Institutions Ouvrieres de Mulhouse 
 et ses Environs.' 
 
 * DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ, VON, one of 
 the most distinguished of modern Roman Catholic theologians, 
 was born on the 28th of February, 1799, at Bamberg, an archi- 
 episcopal city of Bavaria. His grandfather had been professor 
 of medicine and physician in ordinary to the Prince-Bishop ; 
 and his father, Ignaz Dollinger, achieved a considerable reputa- 
 tion by his skill and his writings in anatomy and physiology. 
 He studied theology at Wiirzburg and Bamberg ; and in the 
 year 1822 was admitted to the priestho id, after which he offici- 
 ated for a short lime as chaplain at Ober-Scheinfeld. In 1823 
 he became a professor at the ecclesiastical seminary of Aschaffen- 
 berg ; and a few years after published a treatise on the Doctrine 
 of the Eucharist in the first three centuries, 'Die Lehre von der 
 Eucharistic in den drei ersten Jahrhunderten,' 4to, Mainz, 1820. 
 In the same year he was appointed to an ordinary professorship 
 in the faculty of theology in the new University of Munich, the 
 duties of which office, changing only from the chair of ecclesias- 
 tical history to that of dogmatic theology, with an interval of a 
 few months' suspension in the troublous times of 1847 — 48, he 
 has ever since performed. His academical lectures gravitated 
 chiefly towards ecclesiastical history, to which subject he con- 
 tributed, as an instalment of what he proposed to be a very 
 extensive work, the first volume of his History of the Christian 
 Church, ' Ge.-chichte der Christliehen Kirche,' 2 parts, 8vo, 
 Landshut and Vienna, 1833 — 35. Four more volumes which 
 had been announced were never written, but the author, being 
 solicited to compile a smaller history, for more general reading, 
 produced a compendium, ' Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Regensburg and Landshut, 1830 — 38, second edition, 
 Regensburg, 1843. In this work the history of the first six 
 centuries is given with extreme brevity ; but the history of the 
 Middle Ages, though much compressed, displays even more 
 copious erudition than the account of the earlier period in the 
 larger work. Dr. Cox sought to combine the advantages of both 
 these works in a hybrid translation wdiich he entitled ' A History 
 of the Church,' &c, 4 vols. 8vo, London, 1840—42. In 1838 
 Dr. Dollinger became a member of the Bavarian Academy of 
 Sciences, and published an elaborate treatise on the History, 
 Character, and Influence of Islamism, ' Muhammed's Religion 
 nach ihrer innern Entwickelung,' &c, 4to, Regensburg, 1838. 
 From 1845 to 1847 Dr. Dollinger represented the University of 
 Munich in the Bavarian Chamber, where he was regarded as one 
 of the leaders of the Ultramontanes. Several of his speeches 
 have been published. Having been elected a deputy to the 
 National Parliament in 1848, he exhibited himself, both in his 
 speeches and writings, as the exponent of the highest Catholic 
 views and the champion of ecclesiastical freedom. Regarding 
 the oppression of the Church as the safeguard of absolutism in 
 the State, and the faults and errors of 'Catholics as a fruitful 
 source of the divisions and disputes among Christians, he sought 
 to disentangle the essential and true from the accidental and 
 superstitious, to reconcile Protestantism with Rome, and religion 
 
 with modern society and progress. In 1847 he was appointed 
 provost of the Royal Monastery of St. Cajetan, and director of 
 the Chapel Royal. He is known as an advocate for the separa- 
 tion of Church and State, and the surrender of the temporal 
 power of the Pojie, against whose recent assumption of Infalli- 
 bility he has been one of the. most weighty and most prominent 
 protestors. 
 
 Amongst the more important of Dr. Dbllinger's works there 
 remain for special mention his learned treatise, which so far 
 continues to be a fragment, on the History of German Lutheran- 
 ism, entitled the Reformation, its internal Development and its 
 Effects, 'Die Reformation, ihre innere Entwickelung und ihre 
 Wirkungen im Umfangc des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses,' 3 vols. 
 8vo, Regensburg, 1846 — 48; ' Hippolytus und Kallistus; oder 
 die Roinische Kirche in der ersten Halfte des dritten Jahr- 
 hunderts,' &c, 8vo, Regensburg, 1853, a polemical work in which 
 he defended the interests of his church against Gieseler, Baur, 
 Btmsen, Wordsworth, and Lenormant ; Paganism and Judaism: 
 an Introduction to the History of Christianity, ' Heidenthum 
 und Judenthuin. Vorhalle zur Geschichte des Christenthums/ 
 8vo, Regensburg', 1857, English translation by Mr. N. Darnell, 
 ' The Gentile and the Jew in the Courts of the Temple,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, London, 1862; Christianity and the Church in the Period 
 of their Foundation, ' Ohristenthum und Kirche in der Zeit der 
 Grundlegung/ 8vo, Regensburg, 1860, which, regarded as the 
 author's masterpiece, it is understood he intends to continue 
 down to the present time, and which has been translated into 
 English by Mr. Oxenham, as ' The First Age of Christianity and 
 the Church,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1866; 'Kirche und Kirchen. 
 Pabstthum und Kirchenstaat. Historische-politische Betrach- 
 tungen,' 8vo, Munich, 1861, English translation, by William 
 Bernard MacCabe, ' The Church and the Churches ; or, the 
 Papacy and the Temporal Power. An Historical and Political 
 Review,' 8vo, London, 1862. The authorship or supervision is 
 confidently referred to Dr. Dollinger, of the remarkable book by 
 "Janus" which was published as a remonstrance in advance of 
 the declaration of papal infallibility, under the title of ' Der 
 Pabst und das Concil,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1869, which was the expan- 
 sion of an article in the ' Augsburger Allgemeinen Zeitung,' 
 entitled ' Das Concil und die Civilta/aud of which an authorised 
 English translation appeared as 'The Pope and the Council,' 
 8vo, London, 1869, third edition, 1870. Dr. Dollinger is a 
 scholar of extensive culture, and he has published Essays and 
 Lectures on a great variety of subjects, as for example, ' On the 
 Religion of Shakespeare,' a 'Commentary on the Paradise of 
 Dante,' and an academical lecture on ' Error, Doubt, and Truth.' 
 He presided for many years over the ' Historische-politische 
 Blatter,' to which, although not a frequent contributor, he 
 supplied articles on ' The Tractarian Movement,' ' John Huss and 
 the Council of Constance,' and 'The Albigenses;' and to a 
 theological encyclopaedia he contributed articles on 'Bossuet,' 
 ' Dims Scotus,' and ' Luther/ the last of which was separately pub- 
 lished as 'Luther, eine Skizze,' 8vo, Freiburg, 1848, and in 
 English as ' Luther : a Succinct View of his Life and Writings,' 
 18mo, London, 1853. Finally it may be mentioned that Dr. 
 Dollinger was the editor of a magnificent work, of which two 
 volumes were published, under the direct patronage of Maxi- 
 milian II., devoted to the illustration of the Political, Ecclesias- 
 tical, and Social History of the last Six Centuries, 1 Beitrage zur 
 Politischen, Kirchlichen, und Cultur-Geschichte der Sechs 
 letzten Jahrhunderte,' 8vo, Regensburg, 1862—63. 
 
 DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM, D.D., was born in the 
 year 1812, and educated successively at the Universities of Lon- 
 don and Cambridge, at the latter of which he was entered of 
 Trinity College. He took his B.A. degree as a senior optime, 
 and in first class classical honours, his name occupying the second 
 place on the list in 1834, and proceeded M.A. in 1837. He 
 became fellow and classical lecturer of his college ; was made 
 deacoji in 1839, and admitted to priest's orders in 1840 ; and 
 took his B.D. and D.D. degrees respectively in 1844 and 1849. 
 Within five years of bis bachelor's degree he produced his ' New 
 Cratylus, or Contributions towards a more accurate Knowledge 
 of the Greek Language/ 8vo, Cambridge and London, 1839 ; 
 second edition, 8vo, London, 1850; third edition, "revised 
 throughout and considerably enlarged," 8vo, London, 1859. In 
 this work he endeavoured, on the one hand, to establish a con- 
 sistent and intelligible theory of inflected language, considered 
 in its most perfect state, that is, as it appears in the oldest lan- 
 guages of the Indo-Germanic family ; and, on the other hand, 
 attempted to place the Greek scholarship of this country on a 
 somewhat higher footing, by rendering the resources of a more 
 
477 DONKIN, WILLIAM FISHRURN. 
 
 comprehensive philology available for the improvement of the 
 grammar and lexicography of the Greek language, and for the 
 criticism and interpretation of the author.-! who have written in 
 it. In 1841 Mr. Donaldson was appointed to the head master- 
 ship of King Edward's School, Bury St. Edmunds, where he 
 devoted himself for several years to the work of direct educa- 
 tion. His ' New Cratylus ' was followed by a long and success- 
 ful series of publications elucidating the genius and literature of 
 the two classical languages. Amongst these may be particularised 
 his ' Complete Greek Grammar ' and ' Complete Latin Grammar,' 
 which, as well as the ' Exercises,' &c, that were based upon 
 them, went through several editions ; and his ' Varronianus : a 
 critical and historical Introduction to the Ethnography of 
 Ancient Italy, and to the philological Study of the Latin Lan- 
 guage,' 8vo, London and Cambridge ; third edition, 8vo, Cam- 
 bridge, 1860. He superintended several editions of ' The Theatre 
 of the Greeks,' a work which owed its origin to the Rev. P. W. 
 Buckham, of St. John's College, Cambridge. To the sixth edition 
 of this work, the third with which his name was connected, and 
 of which the slightly modified title was ' The Theatre of the 
 Greeks, a Series of Papers relating to the History and Criticism 
 of the Greek Drama,' 8vo, London, 1849 ; seventh edition, 8vo, 
 London and Cambridge, 1860, Dr. Donaldson contributed valu- 
 able Notes, and an Introduction in the shape of a ' Treatise on 
 the History and Exhibition of the Greek Drama.' 
 
 As the result of his study of the oriental languages, which he 
 incorporated with that of the classical, Dr. Donaldson produced 
 a work in which the freedom of speculation on a biblical ques- 
 tion provoked the censure of orthodox critics. This was his 
 celebrated 'Jashar. Fragmenta archetypa carminum Hebrai- 
 cornm in Masorethico Veteris Testamenti Textu passim tesse- 
 lata, collegit, ordinavit, restituit, in unum Corpus redegit, 
 Latine exhibuit, Commentario instruxit/ &c, 8vo, London and 
 Berlin, 1854 ; second edition, " aucta atque emendata," 8vo, 
 London and Edinburgh, 1860. Amongst other opposition, 
 'Jashar' called forth that of the Rev. John J. S. Perowne, who 
 published ' Remarks on Dr. Donaldson's Book, entitled " Jashar," ' 
 8vo, London and Cambridge, 1855 ; to which Dr. Donaldson 
 replied with ' A Brief Exposure of the Rev. John J. S. Perowne, 
 by the editor of " Jashar," ' 8vo, London and Bury St. Edmunds, 
 1855 ; and further replies and rejoinders followed on either 
 side. 
 
 Not long after this controversy Dr. Donaldson gave up his 
 mastership, and resumed his residence at Cambridge. He acted 
 for some time as classical examiner in the University of London ; 
 and was appointed to a like office in his own university for 1861. 
 On the 7th of February, however, he was obliged to resign on 
 account of ill health ; and three days subsequently, on the 10th 
 of February, 1861, he died at his mother's house in London, 
 after a four weeks' severe illness, which is believed to have been 
 induced or aggravated by overwork. 
 
 Dr. Donaldson superintended editions of ' Pindar' and ' Thucy- 
 dides ; ' and produced, in addition to the works already men- 
 tioned, a letter to Lord John Russell, on ' Protestant Toleration,' 
 8vo, London, 1850 ; ' A Comparative Grammar of the Hebrew 
 Language, for the Use of Classical and Philological Students,' 
 12mo, London and Cambridge, 1853; 'Classical Scholarship 
 and Classical Learning, considered with especial reference to 
 Competitive Tests and University Teaching, a practical Essay 
 on Liberal Education,' 8vo, Cambridge and London, 1856 ; an 
 essay on ' English Ethnography,' contributed to the ' Cambridge 
 Essays' for 1856; 'Christian Orthodoxy reconciled with the 
 Conclusions of Modern Biblical Learning, a Theological Essay, 
 with Critical and Controversial Supplements,' 8vo, London and 
 Hertford, 1857 ; ' On some Points connected with the Medo- 
 Persic Dualism, in reply to Mr. Archdeacon Hardwick,' 8vo, 
 Cambridge, 1850 ; and a translation of Dr. K. 0. Miiller's 
 ' History of the Literature of Ancient Greece,' the continuation 
 of which, after the author's death, was supplied by the trans- 
 lator. 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1858. 
 
 * DONKIN, WILLIAM FISHBURN, Savilian Professor of 
 Astronomy at Oxford University, was born about 1813. He 
 Studied at University College, Oxford, and graduated " double 
 first" in 1836 ; in 1837 was mathematical scholar, and in 1847 
 Johnson's scholar. This distinguished academical career was 
 succeeded by one hardly less distinguished as mathematical 
 tutor, and in 1842 he was nominated Savilian professor of as- 
 tronomy in succession to Prof. G. II. Sachevercll Johnson. As 
 a man of science Professor Donkin is chiefly known by a number 
 of valuable papers on probabilities and subjects connected with 
 the higher mathematics, published in various transactions and 
 
 DORK, PAUL GUSTAVE. 473 
 
 journals, of which the following are the more important : — ' An 
 Essay on the Theory of the Combination of Observations,' 1850 ; 
 ' On Certain Theorems in the Calculus of Observations,' 1850; 
 ' On the Motion of a Rigid System about a Fixed Point,' 
 1850; 'On the Geometrical Representation of Quaternions/ 
 1850 ; 'On Arbogast's Method of Derivations,' 1851 ; 'On the 
 Geometrical Theory of Rotations,' 1851 ; 'On certain questions 
 relating to the Theory of Probabilities,' 1851 ; ' Demonstration 
 of a Theorem of Jacobi relating to Functional Determinations/ 
 1854 ; ' On a Class of Differential Equations including those 
 which occur in Symmetrical Problems,' 1854 ; ' On the Equation 
 of Laplace's Functions,' 1856 ; ' On an Analogy relating to the 
 Theory of Probabilities, and on the principle of the Method of Least 
 Squares,' 1857 ; ' On the Analytical Theory of the Attraction of 
 Solids bounded by Surfaces of a Class including the Ellipsoid/ 
 1859 ; ' On an Application of a Calculus of Operations to the 
 Transformation of Trigonometric Series,' 1860 ; ' On the Secular 
 Acceleration of the Moon's Mean Motion,' 1861 ; ' Note on the 
 
 Limits of the Expression [l+~j w , when n is a positive Integer,' 
 
 1862. In relation to the government or management of the 
 university, he published ' A Defence of Voting against the 
 Proposition to be be submitted to Convocation on February 13th, 
 1845.' 
 
 D'ORBIGNY, A. D., and C. D. [Orbigny, D'., E. C. S.] 
 * DORE, PAUL GUSTAVE, a celebrated French painter and 
 the most popular of living designers, was bom at Strasbourg, in 
 January, 1832. Sent to Paris at the age of 12 in order to com- 
 plete his education at the Lycee Charlemagne, he in 1848 
 became a pupil of M. Albert D'Arnoux, better known as Bertal, 
 illustrator of the 'Journal pour rire,' and other popular works. 
 He first exhibited at the Salon drawings of wild forest scenery, 
 which were followed by genre and poetic pictures and battle- 
 pieces, for one of which, the ' Battle of Inkermann,' 1857, he ob- 
 tained a "mention," while another, the ' Battle of Alma/ was 
 generally considered the most successful of its year. Since then 
 he has exhibited ' Dante et Virgile traversant le Styx,' ' Paolo 
 et Franceses di Rimini aux Enters,' and other subjects from the 
 ' Divina Commedia ; ' an ' Episode du Deluge,' and many more. 
 At this present time (1870) a Dore Gallery is open in London, in 
 which are collected his ' Paolo and Francesca/ ' Christian 
 Martyrs,' ' Triumph of Christianity over Paganism/ ' The 
 Neophyte/ ' The Victor Angels,' ' The Flight into Egypt/ ' The 
 Prairie,' 'Spanish Peasants/ 'Mont Blanc,' and other pictures 
 alike important in scale and subject, and amply sufficient to show 
 the reach of his ambition and the diversity of his power. 
 
 Had Gustave Dore been a painter only he would have won a 
 high place by his vivid and daring imagination, decision of style, 
 and the mastery he displays over his materials ; at the same time 
 he would have been considered as an eccentric, often careless, 
 sometimes reckless, and at the best, incomplete artist. There is 
 usually much in the design to arrest attention ; the figures are 
 vigorously, though not always accurately, drawn and well 
 arranged, the effects of light and shadow, however inexplicable, 
 are always cogent and frequently brilliant ; but the whole is 
 flung upon the canvas in the roughest manner. The concentra- 
 tion of unnatural light, the masses of gloom, the coloured haze, 
 and the intensity of atmospheric phenomena — which are be- 
 coming more and more the distinctive element of the artist's 
 style — are all suggestive of an artificial and theatrical splendour, 
 of scenic effects studied on the stage and with the aid of the 
 lime light, rather than of the simplicity, grandeur and solemnity 
 of Nature. 
 
 But Dore's popularity was not won so much by his pictures as 
 by his wood-cut designs. In this line he commenced working 
 while a mere boy on the 'Journal pour rire/ the 'Journal pour 
 tons,' the ' Musee Francais- Anglais/ and other serials, and he 
 has continued to work till now, pouring forth designs with such 
 fabulous fertility that if he had never done anything else it 
 would be a marvel how he could have done so much and so well, 
 and yet, as we have seen, he has painted in addition a large 
 number of important pictures, and executed various etchings 
 and engravings. Fifteen years ago his friend About assured us 
 that Dore had" published more than ten thousand engravings ; 
 how many he has published since it would need a hardy arith- 
 metician to reckon. Doro's earliest decided successes were made 
 by his grotesque and humorous designs, by such as (passing over 
 those made for the journals) the ' Contes Drolatiques' of Balzac, 
 often irresistibly droll, though not seldom coarse and sometimes 
 brutal, faults of his time and country, from which he has happily 
 since worked himself free ; ' Rabelais/ the ' Contes de Perrault/ 
 
479 DORN, JOHANNES ALBRECIIT BERNHARD. 
 
 and ' Le Roi des Montagues' of Edward About; and even in 
 his later works lie lias been least theatrical and truest to liis 
 native genius in his grotesque and humorous designs — his 'Don 
 Quixote' being as much superior to his ' Juif Errant,' as that is 
 to the strained and artificial 'Elaine.' In designs where the 
 grand borders on the horrible, M. Dore, however, stands alone ; 
 into many of the designs for the Inferno the very soul of Dante 
 seems breathed ; and though he has often misread- Milton, some 
 of the renderings of the Satanic scenes, such, for example, as 
 'The Uprising of the Fallen Angels,' are hardly -less than 
 sublime. Dore's other principal illustrated works include 
 Taine's ' Voyage aux Pyrenees,' 359 cuts ; Saintine's ' Chemins 
 dcs Ecoliers,' 450 cuts, and ' Mythologie du Rhin,' 200 cuts ; 
 Segur's, ' Nouveaux Contes dc Fees,' 46 cuts ; the ' Histoire du 
 Capitaine Castagnette,' 4G cuts ; the ' Bible Populaire ;' and 'La 
 Legend du Croquemitaine.' Of late M. Dore's pencil has been 
 tasked for works on a larger and costlier scale, such as the 
 splendid editions of the Fables of Fontaine (230 cuts) Chateau- 
 briand's ' Attila;' Dante's ' Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise,' 140 
 engravings ; and, finally, Tennyson ; ' Paradise Lost,' and the 
 Bible, designed especially for the English market, for which also 
 he is understood to have been for some time past engaged in 
 preparing a series of sketches illustrative of London life. 
 
 * DORN, JOHANNES A LB It K< MIT VA-AlS HARD, a distin- 
 guished German orientalist, was born at Scheuerfeld, in the duchy 
 of Coburg, on the 11th of May, 1805. He was educated at the 
 Universities of Halle and Leipzig, where at first he studied 
 theology, but afterwards directed his more particular attention 
 to Eastern learning. He graduated at Leipzig in 1825 ; and in 
 the same year produced his ' De Psalterio .Ethiopico : assumpto 
 Socio Ed. Fr. Ferd. Beer,' 4to, Leipzig, 1825, which he followed 
 with a treatise on the original affinities of the Persian, Germanic, 
 and Grccco-Latin languages, ' Ueber die Yerwandsehaft des 
 Persischen, Germanischen, und Griechisch-Lateinischen Sprach- 
 stammes,' 8vo, Hamburg, 1827. In 182G he was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Oriental Languages at the University of Charkow, in 
 the Slobodsk-Ukraine, in Russia, although he did not enter 
 upon his duties until 1829, after having devoted a considerable 
 time to a scientific tour in France and England. It was in the 
 latter country that he published his English version of Neamet 
 Ullah's 'History of the Afghans, translated from the Persian,' 
 2 parts, 4to, London, 1829 — 36. After spending six years at 
 Charkow, Dr. Dorn was appointed to the professorship of 
 Asiatic History and Geography in the Oriental Institute of the 
 Foreign Office at St. Petersburg ; and in 1843 was promoted to 
 be Principal Librarian of the Imperial Public Library. He 
 became also director of the Asiatic Museum ; and a member of 
 the Imperial Academy of Sciences, to the 1 Memoirs ' of which, 
 4to, St. Petersburg, Sixth Series, 1840, he contributed his Gram- 
 matical Observations on the Afghan Language, ' Grammatische 
 Bemerkungen uber das Puschtu, oder die Sprache der Aighanen,' 
 a subject to which he returned in his ' Chrestomathy of the 
 Pushtu or Afghan Language ; to which is subjoined a Glossary 
 in Afghan and English,' 4to, St. Petersburg, 1847. His other 
 principal works are his contributions from Mohammedan sources 
 towards the History" of the Countries of the South Coast of the 
 Caspian Sea, ' Muhammedische Quellen zur Geschichte der Siid- 
 lichen Kustenlander des Kaspischen Meeres, heransgegeben 
 erlantert und iibersetzt,' &c.,4 vols. 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1850 — 58 ; 
 Contributions towards a knowledge of the Languages of Iran, 
 ' Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Iranischen Sprache,' 8vo, St. Peters- 
 "burg, 1860,&c.,in which he had the co-operation of Mirsa Muham- 
 med Schafy. Dr. Dorn's more strictly official labours, as Director of 
 the Asiatic Museum, and Imperial Librarian, are represented by 
 his ' Das Asiatische Museum der Kaiserlichen Akademie der 
 Wissenschaften zu St. Petersburg,' 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1846 ; his 
 ' Catalogue des Manuscrits et Xylographes Orientaux,' St. Peters- 
 burg, 1852 ; and his ' Catalogue des Ouvrages Arabes, Persans, 
 et Turcs, publies a Constantinople, en Egypte, et en Perse, qui 
 se trouvent au Musee Asiatique de l'Acadeniie,' 'which occurs in 
 the ' Bulletin ' of the Imperial Academy, 8vo, St. Petersburg, 
 vol. x., 1866. 
 
 DOUDART DE LAGREE, E. M. L. de J. [Lagree, 
 ECS] 
 
 DOUGLAS, GENERAL SIR HOWARD, Bart. [E. C. 
 vol. ii. col. 639.] General Sir Howard Douglas died on the 8th 
 of November, 1861, at the ripie age of 85. 
 
 DOVE, H. W. [E. C. vol. vi. col. 992.] 
 
 DOYLE, JOHN, celebrated as a caricaturist under the 
 pseudonym of H. B., was born at Dublin in 1797. In early 
 manhood he paid much attention to art, and obtained some 
 
 DOZY, REIN HART. 48) 
 
 success in portraiture and in the representation of horses. His 
 celebrity, however, arose from his caricatures of political person- 
 ages — mostly single figures drawn slightly in lithography, but in 
 which the iikeness and attitude were usually caught with the 
 happiest skill, and any peculiarity in either heightened with a 
 refined pungency that hardly ever failed to produce laughter, 
 and to fasten the special phase of aspect or character indelibly 
 on the memory. Cumberland, Wellington, Peel, Morpeth, and 
 Palmerston are photographed by him with iar more mental 
 fidelity than the camera is ever likely to reach. Brougham he 
 mercilessly persecuted, exhibiting the back as well as front view 
 of the many-sided man. and making both alike immortal. Old 
 Glory (Sir Francis Burdett), Hume, Disraeli, Eldon, Lyndhurst, 
 Lord John Russell, and Sir James Graham, the future historian 
 may depend on H. B.'s likenesses of, however much he may dis- 
 trust, and however little he may learn from, those of Lawrence, 
 Richmond, or Grant. Mr. Doyle lived a quiet, retired life, and 
 died at his residence, Clifton Gardens, January 2, 1868. Mr. 
 Doyle was the father of Richard Doyle, so widely known by 
 his quaint, graceful, and humorous designs. [E. C. vol. ii. 
 col. 641 1. 1 
 
 * DOZY, REINHART, a learned Dutch orientalist, descended 
 from a French family who took refuge in Holland upon the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes (October 24, 1685), was bom 
 at Leyden, on the 21st of February, 182u. He was educated at 
 the university of his native city, where he devoted himself with 
 great ardour to the study of oriental languages and the collec- 
 tion of oriental manuscripts. He took his doctor's degree in 
 1844, and in 1850 and 1857 respectively was appointed extraor- 
 dinary and ordinary professor of history in his own university. 
 His literary and professional activity has been chiefly, but not 
 exclusively, directed towards oriental subjects in archaeology, 
 philology, literature, theology, and speculation. His works 
 comprise a ' Dictionnaire detaille des Noms des Vetements chez 
 les Arabes,' 4to, Amsterdam, 1845, which was "crowned" and 
 published by the Third Class of the Royal Netherlands Insti- 
 tute ; 'Historia Abbadidarum, prsemissis Scriptorum Arabum 
 de ea Dynastia locis nunc primum editis,' 2 vols. 4to, Leyden, 
 1846 — 52 ; an edition of the Arab text, with introduction, notes, 
 and glossary in French, of the ' Histoire de l'Afrique et de 
 l'Espagne, intitulee Al-Bayano '1-Mogrib, par Ibn-Adhari (de 
 Maroc), et Fragments de la Chronique d'Arib (de Cordouc). Le 
 tout publie pour la premiere fois, precede, d'une Introduction 
 et accompagne de Notes et d'un Glossaire,' 2 vols. 8vo, Leyden, 
 1848 — 51 ; ' Recherches sur l'Histoire politique et litteraire de 
 l'Espagne pendant le Moyen Age,' 8vo, Leyden, first volume, 
 1849 ; second edition, entirely re-written, 2 vols. 1860 ; an 
 Academical Lecture, delivered at. Leyden on the 9th of March, 
 1850, on the Favourable Influence produced by the French 
 Revolutions, since 1789, on the Study of the History of the 
 Middle Ages, ' Over den Gunstigen Invleed, dien de Oniwente- 
 lingen in Frankrijk, sedert 1789, hebben uitgeoefend op de 
 Studieder Middeleeuwsche Geschiedinis. Redenvoering,'&c.,8vo, 
 Leyden, 1850 ; 'Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, jusqu' a la 
 Conquete de l'Andalousie par les Almoravides (711 — 1110),' 4 
 vols. 8vo, Leyden, 1861 ; a treatise on the Religion of Mohammed, 
 ' Het Islaniisme,' 8vo, Haarlem, 1863, one of a series or collec- 
 tion of works on the Principal Religions of the World, ' De 
 Voornaamste Godsdiensten ' ; the Israelites at Mecca, from the 
 time of David to the 5th century of our era, &c, of which a 
 German translation from the original Dutch, appeared as ' Die 
 Israeliten zu Mekka von Davids Zeit bis ins fiinfte Jahrhundert 
 unsrer Zeitrechnung. Ein Beitrag zur Alttestamentlichen Kritik 
 und zur Erforschung des Ursprungs des Islams,' 8vo, Leipzig 
 and Haarlem, 1864, the object of which was to show that the 
 ancient sanctuary of Mecca was founded about David's reign by 
 a body of emigrating, or rather expatriated Israelites of the tribe 
 of Simeon — that these established the great festival of Mecca, 
 the origin and meaning of which has hitherto lain in obscurity — ■ 
 and lastly, that in the time of the Babylonish captivity a second 
 colony of Israelites, called by the Arabians " the second 
 Gorhum," sojourners, or strangers, arrived at Mecca. Upon this 
 work was founded another, by Dr. H. Oort, pastor of Santpoort, 
 whose book on ' The Worship uf Baalim in Israel ; based upon 
 the Work of Dr. R. Dozy, "The Israelites at Mecca,'" was 
 " translated from the Dutch, and enlarged wP.h Notes and 
 Appendices, by the Right Rev. John William Colenso, D.D., 
 Bishop of Natal," 8vo, London, 1865. Amongst the latest of 
 Dr. Dozy's w T orks is an Expository List of the Words which have 
 been adopted into Dutch from various oriental languages, ' Oost- 
 erlingen. Verklarende Lyst der Nederlandsche Woorden, die 
 
m 
 
 DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM. 
 
 DUBOSCQ, JULES. 
 
 482 
 
 uit het Arabiseh, ITcbreeuwsch, Chaldeeuwseh, Perzisch, en 
 Turksch, afkomstig zijn,' 8vo, the Hague, Leyden, and Amheim, 
 1867. 
 
 * DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM, physiologist and chemist, 
 was born near Liverpool, May 5, 1811. His father was a 
 Wesleyan Methodist minister, and as such was entitled to have 
 his son educated at the school established by the sect at Wood- 
 house Grove. On leaving this school young Draper was taught 
 by private tutors, and then went to the London University, now 
 called University College. In 1833 he went to the United 
 States, where some of his relations were already settled, and 
 attended at the University of Pennsylvania, from which he re- 
 ceived his M.D. degree in 1836. His thesis was especially 
 noticed by the examiners for its excellence. He was immediately 
 appointed to a professorship at Hampden Sidney College, Vir- 
 ginia, but in 1839 he removed to the University of New York, 
 as professor of chemistry and natural history. In 1841 the 
 Medical College connected with the Univeisity was formed, and 
 he was transferred to it ; in 1850 he was also appointed pro- 
 fessor of physiology, and president of the medical faculty. His 
 writings comprise books and papers, but the latter are for the 
 most part incorporated in the former. They abound in original 
 views, and relate largely to some of the most obscure manifesta- 
 tions of natural forces, such as capillary attraction, the proper- 
 ties of the chemical and heat rays of solar light, and catalysis, 
 or as he calls it, the " action of presence." He has written ' A 
 Treatise on the Forces which Produce the Organisation of 
 Plants,' 4to, New York, 1844 ; ' Human Physiology, Statical and 
 Dynamical,' 8vo, New York, 2nd ed., 1858 ; ' History of the 
 Intellectual Development of Europe,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1864 ; 
 and text-books on chemistrv and natural history. 
 
 DREYSE, JOHANN NIKOLAUS VON, inventor of the 
 needle-gun, was born at Sommerda, in Prussian Saxony, Nov. 
 22nd, 1787. After learning the trade of a locksmith, under his 
 father, he went to work at Altenberg, Dresden, and other towns. 
 On his way he stopped at Jena (1806), and visited the field 
 where the great battle had been lost by the Prussians. What 
 he there saw and learned impressed him with the fact that the 
 Prussian muskets must have been miserably ineflicient ; and 
 from that time he resolved on an attempt to improve the infantry 
 weapon. Going to Paris in 1809, he worked for a time as a 
 locksmith, gunsmith, and coachsmith. After a series of ex- 
 periments, he was empowered by Colonel Paoli to construct a 
 new breech-loader for the French Government, but the attempt 
 was not successful. Returning to Prussia in 1814, he worked 
 for some years as a gunmaker ; and in 1821, in partnership with 
 Kronbiegel, established a factory at Sommerda for making 
 various articles in iron by the aid of machine-tools, then for the 
 first time introduced into Prussia. Having his thoughts fre- 
 quently directed to the musket, he patented in 1824 a new per- 
 cussioii action ; and in 1828, new contrivances connected with 
 the lock and trigger. The Prussian, Austrian, and Danish 
 Governments tried some of his inventions ; but he had to contend 
 against many prejudices, which he could not at that time sur- 
 mount. In 1829, however, Prince William of Prussia (tho present 
 King) began to take an interest in the matter, and Dreyse's success 
 was insured. After severe testing between 1830 and 1833, his in- 
 ventions were recognised by the Prussian Government ; and he 
 made his first complete ziindnadelgewehr, or needle-gun, in 1835, 
 with which a rifleman could load and fire 50 shots in 10 minutes. 
 In 1841 a large factory was established at Sommerda, and a 
 supply of these rifles gradually manufactured for the infantry of 
 Prussia and other German states. Dreyse continued to make 
 improvements in various parts of the arm, by which it became 
 the effective weapon which so greatly aided Prussia against 
 Denmark in 1864, against Austria in 18C6, and against 
 France in 1870. In the needle-gun, a steel needle is so placed 
 that, when pressed by a spring acted on by a trigger, it is 
 driven into the heart of the cartridge, where it explodes a 
 small cap of detonating powder. In the Snider-Enfield, used in 
 the British service, a bolt instead of a needle is employed, to 
 give a blow rather than to make a thrust into the cartridge ; but 
 a greater point of difference is in the mode in which the rifle is 
 opened and closed, to insert and fire the cartridge. The French 
 Chassepot rifle is somewhat midway in character between the 
 needle-gun and the Snider ; it is lighter, and fires a smaller 
 bullet, but with a greater range than the needle-gun. The 
 comparative aggregate military excellencies of these rifles is still 
 a matter of controversy. M. Dreyse received numerous medals 
 and honorary distinctions for his needle-gun, which he con- 
 tinued to improve as long as he lived. He died at Sommerda, 
 BIOG. div. — BOP. 
 
 December 9th, 1867. Ferdinand Pflug describes the gun in 
 detail in his ' N. von Dreyse und die Geschichte des Preussischen 
 Ziindnadelgewehr.' 8vo, Berlin, 1866. 
 
 * DROUYN DE LHUYS, EDOUARD [E. C. vol. ii., col. 646]. 
 In 1862 M. Drouyn de Lhuys was re-appointed Minister of 
 Foreign Affairs, in succession to M. Thouvenel, who was under- 
 stood to have shown too warm a sympathy for the newly created 
 Kingdom of Italy. M. Drouyn de Lhuys announced to the 
 diplomatic agents at the various courts that it was the intention 
 of the Government of the Emperor to further by all means the 
 process of conciliation between the Pope and the King of Italy. 
 He gave a peremptory refusal to the demands of Italy for the 
 withdrawal of the French troops from Rome ; yet the great work 
 of his ministry may be said to be the Convention of September 
 15th, 1864, by which he pledged France to withdraw her troops 
 within two years from the proclamation of Florence as the 
 capital of Italy — an agreement, the breach of which has been 
 fruitful of consequences of ill-omen to France. His other 
 principal measures were the treaty of commerce with Italy, 
 January, 1863 ; the fruitless efforts made for interference in 
 the quarrel between the Northern and Southern States of 
 America, and the proposals for a European Congress ; and the 
 ratification, in May, 1865, of a treaty of commerce with Prussia. 
 AVhen the time arrived for carrying out the terms of the Sep- 
 tember convention, the Emperor was unwilling to comply, and 
 M. Drouyn de Lhuys resigned, ending thereby, probably, his 
 political career. M. Drouyn de Lhuys received the Grand Cross 
 of the Legion of Honour in 1853 ; the Grand Cross of SS. 
 Maurizio e Lazzero of Italy, 1863 ; and the Order of the Black 
 Eagle of Prussia, 1865. 
 
 * DUBAN, JACQUES FELIX, an eminent French archi- 
 tect, was bom at Paris, October 14, 1797, and was a, pupil of 
 M. Debret. In 1823 he won the grand prize of the Ecole des 
 Beaux-Arts, which entitled him to study in Italy, where he 
 remained from 1821 to 1829, devoting his attention to the 
 classical works of antiquity and the renaissance. Various 
 restorations of ancient buildings and original designs exhibited 
 by him after his return to Paris were greatly admired by archi- 
 tects and archaeologists ; _M. Duban was nominated inspector- 
 general of works to the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, and shortly after 
 the government confided to him the task of completing the 
 Palais des Beaux-Arts, commenced by M. Debret, a work which 
 he carried out on a scale of much greater splendour than his 
 predecessor had contemplated. Other important works executed 
 by him were the restoration of the chateaux of Blois, of Dam- 
 pierre, and of Gaillon. The government of 1848 appointed him 
 architect of the Louvre, and passed a vote of 2,01)0,000 francs 
 (80,000i.) for its embellishment. During the five years in which 
 he retained this post he restored, or almost rebuilt, the facade of 
 the Louvre fronting the water, the Gallery of Apollo, the Salon 
 Carr6, and the Salon des Sept Cheminees. In January, 1854, 
 he was removed from the Louvre, but shortly after appointed 
 inspector-general of public buildings. He received the cross of 
 the Legion of Honour in 1836, and was named officer in 1851. 
 In 1854 he succeeded M. Visconti at the Institute. He is also a 
 member of the commissions for the conservation of historical 
 monuments, and of religious edifices. 
 
 DUBOIS, PIERRE, a French writer on horology, was born at 
 CMtellerault, department of Vienne, December 15th, 1802. He 
 was employed as a watchmaker under Lepaute of Paris ; and 
 afterwards devoted much attention to the literature of his trade. 
 He wrote on horology and A mechanics in the ' Magazin Pitto- 
 resque,' and in ' Le Moyen Age et la Renaissance ; ' and tried for 
 a time a new periodical under the title ' La Tribune Chrono- 
 metrique,' but unsuccessfully. His chief work was ' L'Histoire 
 de l'Horlogerie Ancienne et Moderne,' 4to, Paris, 1849 — 50 ; this 
 work was illustrated by 400 wood engravings, and comprised 
 biographical notices of the chief watch and clock makers of 
 Europe. A smaller work was ' Des Fabriques d'Horlogerie de la 
 Suisse et de la France,' 18mo, 1853. He also published descrip- 
 tions, in the ' Patrie ' newspaper, of the horological department 
 in the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and 'Collection Archelogique 
 du Prince Pierre Soltykoff,' 4to, 1858. Dubois died at Paris, 
 October 12th, 1860. 
 
 * DUBOSCQ, JULES, born in 1817, served an apprentice- 
 ship to a relative, M. Soleil, an optical instrument maker, to 
 whom he went in 1830. Under him he studied the planning 
 and construction of apparatus for the diffraction and polarisation 
 of light. In 1849 he succeeded Soleil in his business, and after- 
 wards invented many new kinds of photogenic apparatus. One 
 was an electric lamp, especially adapted for use in mines. He 
 
 I I 
 
483 
 
 was among the first to apply the stereoscope successfully to pairs 
 of photographs. His various instruments won for him the 
 Council Medal of the Great Exhibition of 1S51, the first-class 
 medals of the New York Exhibition of 1853 and the Paris Exhibi- 
 tion of 1855, and the Gold Medal of the Societe d' Encouragement 
 in 18G6. After the International Exhibition of 1 802, he was deco- 
 rated with the legion of honour. At the Paris Exhibition in 
 18G7, Duboscq displayed apparatus for the study of optics. He 
 has contributed to the ' Oomptes Rendus ' a 'Note BUT une 
 regulateur electrique,' 1850 ; ' Note sur le Collodion sec,' 1850 ; 
 'Note sur un Nouveau Compensateur pour la Saecharimetre ' 
 (with Soleil), 1850. 
 
 DUBUFE, CLAUDE MARIE, a celebrated French painter, 
 horn at Paris in 1790, was a pupil of Uavid. He at first painted 
 classical and religious pictures in the manner of his master, hut 
 afterwards turned to portraiture, in which he obtained great 
 success. King Louis Philippe and many other distinguished 
 men were among his sitters, but he was most famous as a painter 
 of females, few ladies of the fashionable world of Paris having, 
 it is said, failed to have their charms immortalised by his pencil. 
 To the least attractive he imparted a factitious grace, and the 
 fairest thought her loveliness heightened by his studied senti- 
 ment. His semi-nude damsels in the manner of Greuze were 
 also much admired. One of these, ' The Surprise,' is in the 
 National Gallery (No. 457, Vernon Collection), and its shallow 
 meretriciousness attracts every season numerous copyists. M. 
 Claude Dubufe died April 21, 1864. His son 
 
 * EnouARD DtjbupB (born about 1818) also enjoys a high 
 reputation as a portrait painter. He was the scholar of his 
 father and of Paul Dclaroche. Like his father, he is most cele- 
 brated for his female portraits, but has more purity and manli- 
 ness of style, acquired no doubt in the school i if I lelaroche. The 
 well-known portrait of Iiosa Bonheur, of which a duplicate was 
 in the International Exhibition of 1862, is a good example of his 
 manner. 
 
 DU CHAILLU, F. B. [Chaillu, F. B.,Du, E. C. S., col. 366.] 
 „ DU CHATELET, MARQUISE [Chatelet, Gabrielle 
 Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, Marquise du, E. C. S., 
 col. 370]. 
 
 DUCHESNE, JEAN, an eminent French archaeologist, the 
 son of a well-known writer on natural history, Professor Antoine 
 Nicolas Duchesne, was born at Versailles on the 28th of Decem- 
 ber, 1779. Sixty years of his life were spent among the works 
 he has described. In his sixteenth year he was made assistant 
 in the print room of the Bibliotheque Nationale, and in 1839 
 he rose to be keeper of the collection, which office he retained 
 till his death, March 4, 1855. He published a great number of 
 works, but those of importance are the following : — ' Notice des 
 Estampes exposees h la Bibliotheque du Roi, contenant des 
 recherches histoiiques et critiques sur ces estampes et sur leur 
 auteurs,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1814, of which a fourth edition was 
 issued in 1855 ; ' Essai sur les Nielles, gravures des Orfevres 
 Florentins du quinzieme siecle,' 8vo, 1826, a work of great 
 research and value, which must serve as the basis of whatever is 
 written on the subject ; 'Voyage d'un Iconographile : revue des 
 principalis Cabinets d'Estampes, Bibliotheques et Muse.es d'Alle- 
 magne, de Hollande et d'Angleterre,' 8vo, 1834 ; ' Jeuxde Cartes 
 tarots du quatorzieme au dix-huitieme siecle, representees en 
 cent planches d'apres les originaux, avec un precis historique et 
 explicatif,' fob, 1844, a valuable book, but of which the use is 
 circumscribed, only 132 copies having been printed for the 
 Societe des Bibliophiles Francais. He also wrote the text to 
 the ' Musee de Peinture et de Sculpture, ou recueil des princi- 
 paux Tableaux, Statues et Bas-reliefs des Collections Publiques 
 et Particulieres d'Europe, dessine' et grave a l'eau forte par 
 ReVeil,' 16 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1828—34. 
 
 DUCK, STEPHEN, was born at Great Charlton, Wiltshire, 
 about the year 1700. His parents were poor farm labourers, and 
 Stephen was removed early from the village school and put to 
 work in the fields, "lest he should become too fine a gentleman 
 for the family that produced him," the schoolmaster having re- 
 ported that he learned too fast and too eagerly. He soon forgot 
 what he had learned, but opening manhood brought habits of 
 thoughtfulness, and the sight of some books belonging to an 
 acquaintance who had been in service in London gave him the 
 resolution to master their contents. By the help of a dictionary 
 he and his friend read through ' Paradise Lost ' twice, the ' Spec- 
 tator,' and some other works. Stephen became known as a 
 maker of verses, and his wife vowed that he must have dealings 
 with the devil. Fortunately, or otherwise as some have thought, 
 he was heard of by a young Oxonian named Stanley, who 
 
 assisted his studies, encouraged him in his passion for poetizing, 
 and suggested themes for his Muse, among others his own occu- 
 pation. This led him to write ' The Thresher's Labour,' the best 
 of his verses, and, though now probably never read, with due 
 allowance for the circumstances under which it was written, one 
 of the truest and most pleasing poems of its class in the lan- 
 guage. Duck was now taken much notice of ; his ' Thresher's 
 Labour ' was shown to the Queen, Caroline, wife of George L, 
 who was so pleased with the verses and what she heard of the 
 man, that she sent for him to Windsor, bestowed on him a 
 pension of 30/. a-year, made him one of her yeomen-guards, and 
 shortly alter appointed him keeper of her library at Richmond 
 Park. Swift saw in this a favourable opportunity to wound the 
 Queen through the sides of the Thresher, as he contemptuously 
 designates him in his bitter verses. Duck's 'Poems on Several 
 Occasions' were published by subscription, 4to, 1736, with a 
 preface and memoir by Joseph Spence, the author of ' Polynietis,' 
 a constant friend and judicious adviser of the author. The list 
 of subscriptions was large, and a fair sum was realised. Duck, a 
 simple-hearted, inoffensive, and pious man, was encouraged to 
 study for the Church, and he appears to have done so most 
 conscientiously. In due time he was ordained, and in January, 
 1752, instituted to the rectory of Byfleet in Surrey, which his 
 kind friend Spence had used his influence with the Duke of 
 Newcastle to procure for him. Duck is said to have proved an 
 exemplary clergyman, and he was much esteemed as a preacher ; 
 but he appears to have become doubtful of his own fitness for 
 the charge, fell into a state of despondency, and drowned himself 
 at Reading, May 30th, 175G. Spence's memoir is the chief 
 authority for the life of Duck, but there is a good deal of inci- 
 dental information respecting him in the literature of the day, 
 and Southey has introduced a pleasing account of him in his 
 ' Essay on the Lives and Works of our Uneducated Poets,' 
 prefixed to the 'Attempts in Verse' of Thomas Jones, 8vo, 
 1831. 
 
 DUDLEY, DUD, born at Dudley in 1599, was a natural son 
 of the Earl of Dudley, one of eleven children, whose mother was 
 Elizabeth Tomlinson. So little concealment was there of this 
 relationship, that the lady was named in pedigrees and heralds' 
 visitations as " the concubine of Lord Dudley." At that time 
 there were 20,000 persons employed within ten miles of Dudley 
 Castle in the manufacture of small articles of iron ; but the 
 industry gradually declined, owing to the unwillingness of the 
 Government to permit the use of wood fuel in the furnaces. 
 Dud Dudley, as he grew up to manhood, viewed with regret this 
 decadence, and his thoughts recurred to the thick seams of coal in 
 the neighbourhood. To use his own language, it seemed to him 
 that " God decreed the time when and how the smithies should be 
 supplied, and this island also, with iron ; and most especially 
 that this cole and ironstone should give the first and just occa- 
 sion for the invention of smelting iron with pit cole." Brought 
 home by his father from Balliol College in 1619, Dudley was 
 placed in charge of a small ironwork, and took out a patent in 
 1G20 for using coked coal instead of wood charcoal, and for 
 improvements in the blast. The Government tried some of his 
 new iron in 1621, and pronounced it good ; while a brother-in- 
 law of his made excellent gun-barrels of it. He struggled man- 
 fully against the jealousy of rival ironmasters, and established 
 small works in four different parts of the district. It was 
 regarded as a mighty achievement to have a blast furnace in 
 which he could make seven tons of iron per week. Notwith- 
 standing all this, however, conspiracies of masters to dispute his 
 patent, and riotings by workmen who disliked his new pro- 
 cesses, brought on law-suits, debt, and imprisonment. When 
 the Civil War broke out he abandoned manufactures, and joined 
 the Royalists as a soldier. He was engaged in many of the 
 battles ; was military engineer to plan fortifications at Wor- 
 cester and Stafford in 1G43 ; appointed colonel of dragoons ; and 
 in 1645 general of artillery. Being taken prisoner near Madeley 
 in 1648, he effected a hair-breadth escape, and then lived in 
 concealment and poverty during the Commonwealth. At the 
 Restoration he tried hard to obtain a renewal of his patent, and 
 some return for his faithful adherence to the Royal cause ; but 
 failed in both objects. In 1665 he published ' Mettalium Martis ; 
 or, Iron made with Pit Coale, SeaCoale, &c, and with the same 
 Fuell to melt and fine imperfect Mettals, and refine perfect 
 Mettals.' He re-established a small iron work near Dudley, 
 where he continued to smelt iron with coal. The plan, for various 
 reasons, languished after his time, but to him is due the credit of 
 practically introducing it. Dud Dudley died at St. Helen's, 
 Worcestershire, in 1684. 
 
485 DUFAY, CHAS. F. DE CISTERNAY. 
 
 DUIIAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS. 486 
 
 DUFAY, CHARLES FRANCOIS DE CISTERNAY, was 
 born at Paris, in September, 1698, and died 16th July, 17:39. 
 At the age of 14 he was made lieutenant in a regiment of 
 Picardy, but was more attached to science than to the military 
 art. He accompanied the Cardinal de Rohan to Rome, where he 
 acquired a taste for the study of antiquities. In 1733 he became 
 an Academician, and devoted his studies exclusively to science. 
 He made some capital discoveries in electricity, which are de- 
 scribed by Priestley ('History of Electricity') with his usual 
 felicity of style. Taking up the researches of Grey, who in 
 1729 discovered the properties of conductors, Dufay discovered, 
 he says, " a very simple principle, which accounts for a great 
 part of the irregularities, and, if I may use the term, the caprices 
 that seem to accompany most of the experiments in electricity. 
 This principle is, that electric bodies attract all those that are 
 not so, and repel them as soon as they are become electric by the 
 vicinity or contact of the electric body. . . . Upon applying 
 this principle to various experiments of electricity, any one will 
 be surprised at the number of obscure and puzzling facts which 
 it clears up." 
 
 Again he says : — " Chance has thrown in my way another 
 principle more universal and remarkable than the preceding 
 one, and which casts a new light upon the subject of electricity. 
 The principle is that there are two kinds of electricity very dif- 
 fer nt from one another ; one of which I call vitreous, the other 
 resinous electricity. The first is that of glass, rock-crystal, 
 precious stones, hair of animals, wool, and many other bodies. 
 The second is that of amber, copal, gum lac, silk, thread, paper, 
 and a vast number of other substances. The characteristics of 
 these two electricities are, that they repel themselves and attract 
 each other." 
 
 " The electric spark from a living body, which," says Priestley, 
 " makes a principal part of the diversion of gentlemen and ladies 
 who come to see experiments in electricity, was first observed by 
 Mr. du Fay. . . . The Abbe Nollet says he shall never 
 forget the surprise which the first electrical spark which was 
 ever drawn from the human body excited both in M. du Fay and 
 himself."— (Pp. 46, 47.) 
 
 The important influence of Dufay's discoveries in the science 
 belongs to history, although it is worthy of notice that Franklin's 
 one fluid theory continued during many years to be the favourite 
 mode of explaining electrical phenomena, and it is only in quite 
 recent times that the doctrine of two fluids has been generally 
 maintained. 
 
 Dufay was during ten years superintendent of the Jardin des 
 Plantes. On his death-bed he recommended Buffon as his suc- 
 cessor. Fontenelle wrote his eloge. 
 
 DUFRENOY, PIERRE ARMAND, was born at Sevran 
 (Seine-et-Oise), Sept. 5, 1792. In 1803 he went to the Lyceum 
 at Rouen, where Valenciennes was one of his schoolmates. He 
 was then transferred, first, to the Imperial Lyceum, next to the 
 Ecole Polytechnique in 1811, and in 1813 to the Corps des 
 Mines. When the School of Mines was established he was 
 elected to teach geology and mineralogy, and to be one of the 
 directors ; and his execution of these duties for 40 years had 
 much influence in securing the prosperity of the establishment. 
 During this period he was also actively engaged in various 
 geological and mineralogical inquiries, mostly in conjunction 
 with Elie de Beaumont. Thus in 1823 these two geologists 
 commenced their great work, the geological map of France. 
 Having many views in common they were able to produce har- 
 monious results, whether labouring separately or together. For 
 13 years they explored France, Dufrenoy taking the western 
 portion, and Elie de Beaumont the eastern. For the next five 
 years they were occupied in digesting the information they had 
 collected. And in 1841 they issued their ' Carte geologique 
 generale de France,' while the 'Explication'' thereof, forming 
 three quarto volumes, was published from 1841 to 1848. This 
 map represents not only the distribution of the strata, hut also 
 the soils and physical geography of the country. In the course 
 of their explorations they visited England, and one result of the 
 visit was a 'Voyage metallurgique en Angleterre,' 8vo, Paris, 
 1827, which was enlarged into two volumes in the second edition, 
 published 1837—1839. On a subsequent occasion Dufrenoy 
 visited England alone on a commission to inquire into the ad- 
 vantages the hot blast has over the cold blast in iron- furnaces ; 
 and the results of the inquiry were given in a " Rapport sur 
 l'emploi de l'air chaud dans les usines a i'er de l'Ecosse et 
 de l'Angleterre ' ('Annales des Mines,' vol. iv. pp. 431 — 508, 
 1833). In conjunction witli Elie de Beaumont he also wrote 
 'Memoires pour sei vir a une description geologique de France/ 
 
 4 vols. 8vo, 1830—1838. His 'Traite de Mineralogie/ 1st 
 edition, 1844 ; 2nd edition, 5 vols. 8vo, 1856—1860, is a valu- 
 able work, on account of the wide scope of its information. In 
 addition, he has written numerous papers, several of high im- 
 portance ; we may mention his researches on the volcanic dis- 
 trict of Auvergne, in which he shows how the tertiary strata 
 and lava streams alternate ; his accounts of the Neapolitan 
 volcanic region, in which he distinguishes the different ages of 
 the lavas and other volcanic rocks, and broaches a new theory 
 of the formation of volcanos. His papers were contributed to 
 the ' Comptes Rendus,' the 'Annales des Mines,' and the ' Bul- 
 letins ' of the Geological Society of France. He also wrote for 
 the ' Dictionnaire Universel des Arts et Metiers ' and the ' Dic- 
 tionnaire Tecl^nologique.' He was a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, a commander of the Legion of Honour, an inspector- 
 general of mines, and also belonged to numerous scientific 
 societies. He died March 20, 1857. 
 
 DUGHET, GASPARD [Poussin, Gaspar, E. C. vol. iv. 
 col. 955]. 
 
 DU HALDE, J. B. [Halde, J. B. Da, E. C. vol. iii. col. 2541. 
 
 DUHAMEL, JEAN PIERRE FRANCOIS GUILLOT, was 
 born at Nicorps, near Coutances (Manche), August 31st, 1730. 
 He was educated at the Ecole desPontset Chaussees, the director 
 of which so highly appreciated his talents that he sent him 
 along with M. Jars to study the mines of Germany. The latter 
 published 'Voyages Metallurgiques,' 3 vols, 4to, 1774—1781, 
 Paris, to which Duhamel is understood to have largely contri- 
 buted. In 1764 he became the director of a large foundry, and 
 soon succeeded in so simplifying the process, as to reduce the 
 expense by one-half, at the same time he doubled the pro- 
 duce. He greatly improved the mode of making steel, of 
 liquidating silver, of separating lead from copper in the ores 
 containing both, and various other metallurgical operations. He 
 wrote many papers, but his principal work in literature is his 
 ' Geometrie souterraine elementaire, theorique et pratique, oil Ton 
 traite des filons ou veines mineralogiques et de leur disposition 
 dans le sein de la terre,' 4to, Paris, 178S. It was adopted in 
 many parts of France and Germany as a practical manual in 
 mining. He died February 19th, 1816. 
 
 DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS, was de- 
 scended from a Dutch gentleman who visited France about 1400 
 in the suite of the Duke of Burgundy. He was born at Paris 
 in 1700, and was educated in the college of Harcourt. The 
 course was not to his taste, and he quitted college with only one 
 idea, namely, that men, by studying nature, had created a 
 science called Physics. Being now free, he devoted himself to 
 science, and cultivated the friendship of such men as Dufoy, 
 GeofTroy, Lemery, Jussieu, and Vaillant. At the age of eighteen 
 he was requested by the government, under the advice of the 
 Academy, to inquire into the cause of a disease which afflicted 
 saffron. He traced it to a parasitical plant which attached itself 
 to the bulb, and extended under the ground from one bulb to 
 another. 
 
 Duhamel, ably assisted by his brother, devoted a long life to 
 the cultivation of science and works of utility, especially such 
 as were likely to benefit the poor. He spent much time in 
 endeavouring to promote the cultivation of vegetables, and this 
 led him to study the physiology of trees.. 'His 'Traite des 
 Arbre et Arbustes qui se cultivent en France en pleine terre/ 
 published in 1755, in 2 vols. 4to, with numerous engravings, is 
 a work of considerable value. In 1740 he became an Acade- 
 mician, and from that time until his death in 1781 he published 
 more than sixty memoirs in the Transactions of the French 
 Academy of Sciences, and these embodied a large number of 
 new and important facts, which had considerable influence on 
 the progress of science, although, from our more perfect know- 
 ledge, they are no longer associated with his name. He was the 
 first to prove that soda is a different alkali from potash ; he 
 also pointed out many new properties in ether, the soluble 
 tartars, and lime ; he showed that oil in contact with cloth 
 produces spontaneous combustion ; he studied the formation of 
 bone by feeding young animals alternately with food mixed 
 with madder and with ordinary food ; he kept a regular table of 
 meteorological observations at Pithiviers, with details relative to 
 the direction of the needle, to agriculture, to the medical consti- 
 tution of the year, and to the time of nest-building and the 
 passage of birds. His merits as a vegetable physiologist and 
 agriculturist are of a high order. As Inspector-General of 
 Marine he devoted his attention to naval science, the construc- 
 tion of vessels, the weaving of sail-cloths, the structure of ropes 
 and cables, the method of preserving timber, &c. In these 
 
 I I 2 
 
487 
 
 DUJARDIN, FELIX. 
 
 DUMERIL, AUGUSTE HENRI ANDRE. 488 
 
 varied labours lie never seemed to think of himself. His clear 
 and charming style had but one obscurity for the reader 
 who wished to separate Duhamel's original discoveries and 
 remarks from those of other men. His brother resided upon 
 Duhamel's estate at Denainvilliers, which name lie bore, and 
 the two brothers lived unmarried, and passed a laborious 
 life in the pursuit of science for the good of mankind. After 
 leaving the Academy on the 22nd July, 1781, Duhamel was 
 struck with apoplexy, and died after lingering twenty-two days 
 in a state of coma. He was a fellow of the Royal Societies of 
 London and Edinburgh. 
 
 DUJARDIN, FELIX, was born at Tours, April 5, 1801. In 
 1839 he became professor of mineralogy and geology at Tou- 
 louse, and afterwards professor of zoology at Rennes. His 
 earlier works relate to geological subjects, his later to zoological. 
 He wrote several papers on the lithology and geology of Tou- 
 raine, and many on the lower classes of animals, especially the 
 Infusoria and Kntozoa, although lie also gave considerable atten- 
 tion to the Protozoa, annelids, insects, and to the /.oosperms. 
 His principal works are ' Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes 
 infusoires,' 8vo, Paris, 1841 ; ' Histoire Naturelle des Helrninthes 
 ou vers intestinaux,' 8vo, Paris, 1844 ; and along with 
 M. Hupe, 'Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes echinoderm.es/ 
 8vo, Paris, 18(51. All these form part of the 'Suite* a Buff on.' 
 He founded and edited a scientific journal called ' Hermes,' and 
 wrote ' Promenades d'un Naturaliste,' 1837, some small zoological 
 treatises, and a ' Manuel de l'Observateur au Microscope/ 1843. 
 He died April 8, 1860. 
 
 DULONG, PIERRE LOUIS, was born at Rouen on the 
 12th of February, 1785. At the age of sixteen he' entered the 
 Polytechnic School, but was compelled to quit it after two years 
 under the pressure of ill health. He then studied medicine, 
 and on the completion of his course practised as a surgeon in 
 one of the poorer quarters of Paris. As he could never witness 
 suffering without feeling a strong desire to relieve it, the number 
 of his patients increased, while his fortune diminished. He 
 kept an account at a pharmacist's, where his patients got their 
 medicines made up at his expense. During some time he 
 studied botany, but being attracted by the brilliant dis- 
 coveries of Davy he took up chemistry, and rendered his 
 name famous. He was so fortunate as to secure the post of 
 assistant in Beithollet's laboratory. In 1811 he published a 
 paper on the decomposition of insoluble salts by means of car- 
 bonate of potash or of soda, and in October of the same year he 
 discovered a compound of chlorine and nitrogen of a dangerously 
 explosive character, so that while examining it in the following 
 year he lost an eye and two fingers from its effects. Napoleon 
 requested that the composition might be kept secret, under the 
 idea that the chloride of nitrogen might prove a formidable 
 engine of war, but it was found to be quite unmanageable. 
 Davy, who heard some vague rumours respecting it, succeeded 
 in forming the compound, and also in wounding himself during 
 one of its explosions. Dulong also investigated some of the 
 compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, the acids formed by the 
 union of phosphorus and oxygen, the composition of carbonic 
 acid, &c. He also performed a large number of experiments on 
 the respiration of animals ; but his most perfect work was in 
 conjunction with Petit on the law of cooling — a model of 
 physico-chemical research. 
 
 Dulong was Master of Conferences at the Normal School, and 
 occupied the chair of chemistry of the Faculty of Sciences, and 
 that of the School of Alfort. He died at Paris July the 19th, 
 1838. 
 
 * DUMAS, ALEXANDRE [E. 0. vol. ii. col. 662]. In the 
 reissue of the E. C. reference was made to the Supplement for a 
 further notice of Alexandre Dumas, but the original memoir is 
 so full that we find little of consequence to add. Of his later 
 personal career the most noticeable circumstances are his fan- 
 faronade of his personal friendship with the Emperor ; his 
 travels ; his unexpected appearance as the associate of Garibaldi 
 in his expedition to Naples ; his nomination of himself as the 
 historiographer of the campaign, and his extraordinary appoint- 
 ment by Garibaldi to be director of the Neapolitan museums and 
 picture galleries. Of his various travels and personal adventures, 
 culminating in the Neapolitan campaign, he published ample 
 reminiscences in ' Le Caucase: Voyage/ 1859; ' Les Memoires 
 d'Horace/ 1860 ; ' Memoires de Garibaldi,' 1861 ; in the successive 
 volumes of his own ' Memoires/ and in his 'Causeries' in 'Le 
 Petit Journal,' 1863, and ' Le Grand Journal' which succeeded 
 it. He has also issued many new romances, as ' Les Compagnons 
 de Jehu/ ' Les Louves de Machecoul/ ' Le San Felice/ mostly 
 
 after the old manner, and of little inherent value, as well, of 
 course, as numerous dramas, as ' La Tour St. Jacques la 
 Boucherie/ in 6 acts and 17 tableaux; ' Les Gardes Forestiers/ 
 in 5 acts ; ' L'Envers d'une Conspiration ;' ' Le Gentilhomme de 
 la Montagne;' 'Le Prisonnierde la Pastille ;' 'Les Mohicans de 
 Paris,' the refusal of permission to act which led to his writing 
 the letter to the Emperor which afforded so much amusement to 
 the Parisians. 
 
 * Alexandre Dumas, the younger [E. C. vol. ii. col. 664] 
 has gone on writing almost as abundantly as his father, and 
 of late with at least as great success. His novels and plays, 
 genuine successors of his ' Demi-Monde/ have exactly hit the 
 corrupt and sensualised taste of the Parisian world ; but it is 
 hardly worth while to chronicle their titles here, and we may 
 hope that the terrible trial through which the city of their birth 
 has of late had to pass may do something towards calling forth 
 a condition of moral feeling that will render them no longer 
 endurable even there. 
 
 DUMERIL, ANDRE MARIE CONSTANT, was born at 
 Amiens, January 1, 1774. His successes in early life were 
 remarkably rapid. When only 19 he was appointed demon- 
 strator in the Anatomical School at Rouen. In 1794 he went to 
 Paris, in 1795 he became acquainted with G. Cuvier, in 1798 he 
 obtained his M.D. degree from the Paris University, and in 1799 
 he competed successfully for the directorship of the anatomical 
 works of Paris, Dupuytren being one of his opponents. In 
 1801 he was appointed professor of anatomy; in 1822 this was 
 exchanged for the chair of physiology ; and this again for the 
 chair of internal pathology in 1830. For a short time he , was 
 Cuvier's successor as professor of natural history at the Ecole 
 Centrale of the Pantlieon ; and in 1802 he commenced his 
 lectures on reptiles and lishes at the Jardins des Plantes, first as 
 Lacepede's substitute, and afterwards as his successor : he 
 continued them for upwards of 50 years. In 1816 he was 
 chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, in 1837 he 
 received the cross of the Legion of Honour, of which he was 
 afterwards a commander, and he was a member of many 
 scientific bodies. He filled several offices simultaneously, and 
 discharged them all with remarkable punctuality. Even when 
 over 80 years of age he was rarely absent from the sittings of 
 the Academy of Sciences. He died August 2, 1860. He was 
 always working hard, and hence his writings are exceedingly 
 voluminous. His first work was a paper on the organs of smell 
 in insects, published in 1797, Ins last a large quarto on insects, 
 which appeared in 1860. He assisted Cuvier in editing the first 
 two volumes of the ' Lemons d'Anatomie Comparee.' His papers 
 are 75 in number, and relate to all classes of animals, chiefly 
 regarded from the physiological, anatomical, classificatory, 
 and descriptive points of view ; bixt he also added much to 
 the interest of his observations by his numerous references to 
 habits. A list of his papers is given in the ' Catalogue of 
 Scientific Papers/ published by the Royal Society. Here 
 we append a list of his principal books : — 1 Essai sur les 
 moyens de perfectionner et d'etendre l'art de l'Anatomiste,' 4to, 
 Paris, 1802; 'Traite elernentaire d'Histoire Naturelle/ 1 vol. 
 8vo, 1803; 4th edition, 2 vols. 8vo, 1846; 'Zoologie Analy- 
 tique/ 8vo, 1806 ; ' Memoires de Zoologie et d'Anatomie 
 Comparee/ 1807 ; ' Recueil de quatre cent cinquante formules 
 proposees dans lesjurys de Medecine des departments/ 1811 — 
 1813 ; 'Considerations Generales sur la classe des insectes,' 8vo, 
 1823, which is a revised re-issue of the entomological articles 
 contributed by him to the ' Dictionnaire du Sciences Naturelles' ; 
 ' Dissertation sur les Poissons qui se rapprochent les plus des 
 Animaux sans vertebres/ 1812 ; 'Dissertation sur la Familledes 
 Poissons Cyclostomes pour demontrer leurs rapports avec les 
 Animaux sans vertebres/ 1812 ; ' Erpetologie generale/ 9 vols. 
 8vo, 1834 — 1854, in conjunction with M. Bibron ; ' Ichthyo- 
 logie analytique/ 1856; and 'Entomologie Analytique,' 1860. 
 The last two are given in the 'Memoires' of the Academy of 
 Sciences ; and the last forms a large volume of itself, comprising 
 1336 pages. 
 
 * DUMERIL, AUGUSTE HENRI ANDRE, the eldest son 
 of the foregoing, was bom at Paris, November 30, 1812. He 
 has been assistant naturalist in the Museum of Natural History, 
 Paris, since 1840 ; professor of geology at the Chaptal College 
 since 1847 ; and in 1857 he succeeded to his father's place in 
 the Museum. In 1869 he was chosen to succeed M. Delessert 
 as a member of the Academy of Sciences. He has written 
 numerous papers on reptiles and fishes. His principal works 
 are, ' De la texture intime des glandes et des produits de 
 Secretion en generale/ 8vo, Paris, 1845 ; and ' Histoire Natu- 
 
4S9 
 
 DUMONT, ANDRE HUBERT. 
 
 DUPIN, LOUIS ELLIES. 
 
 490 
 
 relle des Poissons ou Ichthyologie Generate,' 8vo, vol. i. 1865; 
 vol. ii. 1870. 
 
 DUMONT, ANDRE HUBERT, was born at Liege, Feb- 
 ruary 15th, 1809. He early took an interest in geology, and fol- 
 lowed the study of it with so much zeal and skill that his first 
 work, ' Sur le constitution g6ologiirue dc la province de Liege,' 
 which he submitted to the Royal Academy of Belgium in 1829, 
 was crowned with honour by that body, and published in its 
 ' Memoires,' vol. viii. (1832) ; and in 1839 it obtained for him the 
 "Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London. It also 
 led to his being appointed professor of mineralogy and geology 
 at the University of Liege, and to his being ordered by the Bel- 
 gian Government to prepare a geological map of the kingdom. 
 Honours were showered upon him, and he was selected to be the 
 director of the Academy of Belgium, which office he filled in 
 1856, but he had scarcely retired from it when he fell ill, and was 
 carried off in his prime, February 28th, 1857. He spent twenty 
 years in preparing his geological map of Belgium, and personally 
 explored almost every part of the country on foot ; it is esti- 
 mated that he walked 15,000 miles in performing the task. The 
 map was published in 9 sheets, in 1853. The stratigraphical 
 divisions have a peculiar nomenclature, to which objections have 
 been made. The map is distinguished for its great accuracy. 
 The divisions adopted will doubtless be retained in geology, 
 though perhaps not under the names he has selected for them. 
 He relied mainly upon lithological characters in determining the 
 divisions. He wrote numerous papers on the geology of Bel- 
 gium, which abound in information, and which are printed in 
 the 'Bulletins' and 'Memoires' of the Royal Academy of Belgium. 
 
 DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE, tenth EARL OF 
 [E. C. vol. ii. col. 668]. The last years of Lord Dundocald's 
 life were spent in endeavouring to remove from the minds of his 
 countrymen any suspicions they might yet entertain respecting 
 his conduct in those affairs for which he had been subjected to 
 obloquy and persecution. Towards the end of 1858, <: on that 
 day when I shall have completed the 83rd year of a career 
 strangely chequered, yet not undistinguished," he published a 
 'Narrative of Services in the Liberation of Chili, Peru, and 
 Brazil, from Spanish and Portuguese Domination,' 2 vols. 8vo. 
 These volumes, full of narratives of daring adventures and 
 dashing seamanship, describe the services he rendered to the 
 governments of Brazil and the South American Republics, and 
 the wrongs he suffered at their hands. His sufferings from his 
 own government he related at length in ' The Autobiography of a 
 Seaman,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1859— 60. The first volume carries the 
 narrative down to his attack on the French fleet in the Basque 
 Roads, April 11, 1809, which was marred by the inexplicable 
 timidity of Gambier, the admiral in command, and for which, 
 owing to Captain Cochrane's urgency, Admiral Gambier was 
 tried by a court-martial, but acquitted. The second volume is 
 almost wholly occupied with an account of the court-martial on 
 Admiral Gambier and witli Lord Cochrane's own trial for com- 
 plicity with the fraud of De Beranger. A third volume was to 
 have completed the work, but within a few days of the publica- 
 tion of the second volume the author had passed beyond the 
 reach of praise or censure. He died on the 31st of October, 
 1860. His life was a strange and stormy one, but whatever be 
 the verdict in other matters, there can be no question that he 
 was one of the ablest and bravest naval captains of modern 
 times. 
 
 * DUPANLOUP, FELIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT, one 
 of the most prominent divines of the Gallican Church, was born 
 at Saint-Felix, in Savoy, on the 3rd of January, 1802, and in 
 1810 was sent to Paris for education. Here he studied theology, 
 and in 1825 was admitted to the priesthood, and speedily began 
 to give evidence of his remarkable gifts as a preacher and a 
 catechist. In 1827 he was appointed confessor to the Due de 
 Bordeaux, and instructor in the catechism to the young princes 
 of the Orleans family in 1828. In 1835 he became one of the 
 parochial clergy of the church of St. Roch, in Paris ; and in 
 1841 was made professor of sacred eloquence in the faculty of 
 theology in the Sorbonne. Being, however, suspended from his 
 office, he received from Archbishop Afire a titular grand- 
 vicariate, and the directorship of the seminary of Saint Nicolas, 
 after which, upon resigning his functions as grand-vicar, he was 
 made a titular canon. He attended Prince Talleyrand in his 
 last moments, and has the credit of effecting his conversion. 
 His nomination to the see of Orleans took place on the 6th of 
 April, 1849 ; and he -was consecrated at Paris on the 9th of 
 December following. From that time, and indeed during his 
 whole career, Monseigneur Dupanloup— who became, in 1854, 
 
 a member of the Academic Franchise — has taken part in every 
 social, political, and ecclesiastical question of importance ; and 
 his various publications have been largely provocative of dis- 
 cussion and controversy, especially on Church matters, where 
 his principal opponents have been M. Edmond About and 
 M. Grandguillot. He has been a champion for the liberty of 
 the Church, the unity of Christendom, and the temporal power 
 of the Pope, and a particular and ardent advocate for the reli- 
 gious education of all classes, upon the last of which subjects he 
 has written in nearly all its aspects. 
 
 Many of the miscellaneous productions of M. Dupanloup 
 which had been published up to that date, were issued as 
 ' OZuvres Choisies,' 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1862, of which the first 
 volume contained the 'Giuvres Oratoires,' the second and third 
 volumes the ' Giuvres Pastorales,' and the fourth the ' Etudes 
 Eccle'siastiques.' His other works comprise an ' Avertissement 
 h la Jeunesse et aux Peres de Famille sur les Attaques dirigees 
 contre la Religion pas quelques Ecrivains de nos Jours,' 12mo, 
 Paris, 1863, which immediately went through several editions, 
 and which chiefly combated the views of MM. Renan, Littre, 
 Taine, and Maury ; ' Saint Vincent de Paul et ses Giuvres/ 
 12mo, Paris and Orleans, 1863; 'La Convention du 15 Sep- 
 tembre et 1'Encyclical du 8 Decembre,' 8vo, Paris, 1865 ; 
 ' L'Atheisme et le Peril social,' 8vo, Paris, fifth edition, 1866 ; 
 'Femmes Savantes et Femmes Studieuses,' 8vo, Paris, sixth 
 edition, 1868, English translation, by R. M. Phillimore, entitled 
 'Studious Women,' 8vo, London, 1868; 'La Liberte de l'En- 
 seignement superieur,' 8vo, Paris, 1868 ; ' L'Enfant,' 12mo, 
 Paris, 1869; ' Le Mariage Chretien,' 12mo, Paris, 1869; and 
 ' Lettre sur le Future Concile GLconomique,' of which an 
 "authorised translation, with Papal Brief," was published by 
 Messrs. S. H. Butterfield and E. Robillard, as ' The Future 
 Oecumenical Council. A Letter of the Bishop of Orleans to the 
 Clergy of his Diocese,' 8vo, London, 1869. The papal brief 
 extolled the eloquence and clearness with which the author had 
 stated " the sound doctrine on the rights and prerogatives of the 
 Holy See, and on its supreme authority in these kinds of 
 assemblies ; " but it is by this time historically known that 
 M. Dupanloup joined in protesting, May, 1870, energetically 
 against the dogma of papal infallibility, in the promulgation of 
 which the labours of the Council have, so far, culminated. M. 
 Dupanloup, whose works have been translated, almost in the 
 mass, into German, furnished a 'Lettre' in introduction of 
 M. A. de Beauchesne's recent biographical work, entitled ' La 
 Vie de Madame Elisabeth, Soeur de Louis XVI.,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1869. 
 
 DUPERREY, LOUIS ISIDORE [E. C. vol. ii., col. 674]. 
 Since the account of his important scientific voyage was pub- 
 lished, M. Duperrey has contributed largely to our knowledge of 
 the phenomena connected with terrestrial magnetism and ter- 
 restrial physics generally. He died September 10th, 1865. 
 
 DU PETIT THOUARS, L. M. A. [Thouaes, L. M. A. 
 Du Petit, E. C. vol. vi. col. 26]. 
 
 DUPIN, ANDRE-MARIE-JEAN-JACQUES [E. C. vol. 
 iii. col. 675], M. Dupin was re-appointed procureur-general to 
 the Court of Cassation in November, 1857, and continued to 
 take part in public affairs both as procureur and senator as long 
 as his health allowed. He died at Paris on the 8th of Novem- 
 ber, 1865. 
 
 DUPIN, LOUIS ELLIES, a celebrated ecclesiastical his- 
 torian, was bom on the 17th of June, 1657, either in Normandy 
 or in Paris, of an ancient Norman family. At ten years of age 
 he became a pupil of the College d'Harcourt, and graduated as 
 M.A. in 1672. Devoting himself to the ecclesiastical profession, 
 he went through a course of divinity at the Sorbonne ; and 
 after an extensive study of the fathers, councils, and Church 
 writers and historians, took his degrees of B.D. and D.D. respec- 
 tively in 1680 and 1684. Two years after the latter date he 
 entered upon the publication of his great work, entitled ' Biblio- 
 theque des Auteurs Ecclesiastiques, contenant l'Histoire de leur 
 Vie ; le Catalogue, la Critique, et la Chronologie de leurs 
 Ouvrages, le Sommaire de ce qu'ils contiennent, un Jugement 
 sur leur Stile et sur leur Doctrine, et le Denombrement des 
 differentes Editions de leurs Ouvrages/ 8vo, Paris, 1686 — 1714, 
 which, with the ' Bibliotheque des Auteurs separez de la Com- 
 munion Romaine,' &c, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1718, five volumes of 
 'Tables,' three volumes of ' Remarques,' by D. Petit- Didier, 
 and four volumes of ' Critiques,' by Richard Simon, occupies the 
 immense number of 58 volumes. An incomplete edition was 
 published in Holland in 19 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1690 — 1713 ; 
 and the work has undergone a variety of impressions in France 
 
DUPONT, PIERRE. 
 
 and England. The Abbe Goujet published a continuation, with 
 the title of ' Bibliotheque des Auteurs Ecclesiastiques du dix- 
 huitieme Siccle ; pour servir de continuation k cette du M. Du 
 Pin,' 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1736. The ' Bibliotheque,' &c, is lively 
 in style, well-planned, and generally impartial ; but certain 
 opinions expressed by the author upon the fathers and the autho- 
 rity of the Holy See drew down upon him the most severe 
 criticism and opposition. Bossuet arrayed himself against 
 Dupin, and accused his work to M. de Harlay, Archbishop of 
 Paris, by whom it was condemned. Subsequently Dupin, who 
 held the appointment of professor of philosophy in the College 
 de France, having taken the side of the Jansenists against the 
 bull Unigcnitus, was deprived of his chair and exiled to Chatel- 
 lerault. Towards the end of his life he conceived the plan of a 
 union between the Gallican and Anglican Churches, and a 
 memorial of his activity in this direction was published a few 
 years ago, with the title. ' D'uu Pmjd dUniun enfre les Eglises 
 Gallicane et Anglicane. Correspondance entre Wake, Arche- 
 veque de Cantorberi, et Dupin, Docteur de Sorbonne,' 8vo, 
 Oxford, 1864. Having regard to the same object of the restora- 
 tion of the unity of Christendom, Dupin is said to have drawn 
 up a plan, at the request of Peter the Great, at that time in 
 France, for the return of the Greek Church to the orthodox com- 
 munion. Exhausted at length by his uninterrupted labours, Dr. 
 Dupin died at Paris, on the 6th of June, 171!). 
 
 Besides the ' Bibliotheque,' upon which his fame principally 
 rests, he produced numerous works in history, profane and eccle- 
 siastical, and in practical divinity. They comprise ' Nota; in 
 Pentateuchum,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1701 ; ' Le Livre des Pseaumes 
 traduit selon l'Hebreu avec des courtes Notes,' 12mo, Paris, 1691 
 and 1710, which is a translation of 'Liber Psalmorum cum 
 Notis, quibus eorum sensus lilteralis exponitur,' 8vo, Paris, 
 1691 ; ' Traite de la Doctrine Chretienne et Orthodoxe,' 8vo, 
 Paris, 1703 ; ' L'Histoire d'Apollone de Tyane convaincue de 
 Faussete et d'Imposture,' 12nio, Paris, 1705, which was pub- 
 lished under the pseudonym of M. de Claireval ; ' Traite de la 
 Puissance Ecclesiastique et Temporellc,' bvo, 1707 ; 'Biblio- 
 theque Universelle des Historiens,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1707 ; 
 2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1708 ; ' L'Histoire de l'Eglise en abrege 
 par Demandcs et par Reponses, depuis le Commencement du 
 Monde jusqu' h present,' 4 vols. J2mo, Paris, 1712, second 
 edition, 1714; and 'L'Histoire Profane depuis son Commence- 
 ment jusqu' a present,' 6 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1714 — 16, a faulty 
 edition of which was published in 6 vols. 12mo, Antwerp, 1717. 
 
 DUPONT, PIERRE [E. C. vol. ii. col. 678]. Under the 
 Empire Pierre Dupont continued to delight those who were 
 admitted to his intimacy by throwing off his- charming songs 
 with their accompanying airs at the same time as by a single 
 inspiration. But it was long before he published anything. 
 In 1855 appeared the 'Legende du Juif Errant,' with illustra- 
 tions by Gustave Dore ; in 1859, his ' Muse Juvenile : Etudes 
 litteraires, vers et prose ;' and in 1860 'Jean Guetre.' He lived 
 to see the beginning of the reverses of the France he loved so 
 well ; dying at Lyons, July 25, 1870. 
 
 DUPPA, or DE UPHAUGH, BRIAN, an English prelate of 
 the 17th century, was born in the year 1588, at Lewisham, in 
 Kent, and educated successively at Winchester and Christ 
 Church, Oxford, at the latter of which he was entered a student 
 in May, 1605. He graduated as B.A. on the 6th of May, 1609 ; 
 was elected a fellow of All Souls' College in 1612; proceeded 
 M.A. on the 28th of May, 1614; and took the degrees of B.D. 
 and D.D. by accumulation on the 1st of May, 1625. In due 
 course he was ordained, after which he travelled on the Conti- 
 nent ; and, having returned to his university, was elected one of 
 the proctors in 1619. In 1629 he was made Dean of Christ 
 Church ; acted as vice-chancellor of the university for the years 
 1632 and 1633; and in 1634 was collated to the chancellor- 
 ship of Salisbury, with which he held the prebend of 
 Brixworth. In 1638 he was appointed tutor to Charles, Prince 
 of Wales, and afterwards to his brother, the Duke of York ; and 
 was presented to the rectory of Petworth, in Sussex, on the 19th 
 of May; on the 29th of which month he was elected to the 
 bishopric of Chichester. In 1641 he was translated to the 
 see of Salisbury, but received no benefit from his prefer- 
 ment on account of the suppression of episcopacy under the 
 Commonwealth. He now shared for some time the fortunes 
 of the king, and after his death retired to Richmond, in 
 Surrey, where he concerted with the Bishop of Ely and others 
 for the continuance of the episcopal succession. At the Res- 
 toration, Dr. Duppa was elected, September 10th, 1660, to 
 the see of Winchester, in which he was confirmed on the 4th of 
 
 October following ; and about the same time was made lord 
 almoner. He died at Richmond on the 26th of March, 1662, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, on the west side of the 
 
 Confessor's chapel. 
 
 Bishop Duppa was not a voluminous author, and he has left 
 little besides a few sermons and books of devotion. These com- 
 prise ' The Soule's Soliloquie : and a Conference with Conscience. 
 As it was delivered in a Sermon before the King at Newport, in 
 the Isle of Wight, on the 25th of October, being the monthly 
 Fast, during the late Treaty,' 4to, 1648 ; ' Angels rejoicing for 
 Sinners repenting; a Sermon on Luke xv. 10,' 4to, London, 
 1648 ; and ' Holy Rules and Helps to Devotion, both in Prayer 
 and Practice,' 2 parts, 12mo, London, 1675, which was often 
 reprinted, and of which an edition was published in 12mo, 
 Derby, 1835. A French translation appeared as ' Traite de la 
 Priere,' &c, 12mo, Berlin, 1696. 
 
 *DUPUY DE LOME, STANISLAS CHARLES HENRI 
 LAURENT, Chief Constructor of the French Navy, was born 
 at Plccmeur, near L'Orient, October 15, 1816. His father, an 
 officer in the French marine, placed him in 1835 at L'Ecole 
 Polytcchnique, where he studied for the profession of naval 
 engineering. Next he came to England, where his study of 
 iron shipbuilding led him to publish a ' Memoire sur la Con- 
 struction des Batiments en Fer,' 4to, Paris, 1844, with folio atlas 
 of plates. Entering the service of the French government, he 
 constructed the ship ' Le Caton ' at Toulon ; and, as Inspector 
 of the Navy at the same place, prepared reports on the basins 
 and factories necessary for building and repairing war steamers. 
 In 1853 he was appointed first-class engineer. Called to Paris 
 in 1857, he received the appointment of Director of Naval 
 Materiel, or Chief Constructor of the Navy, under the Minister 
 of Marine. He had already gained celebrity by his construction 
 of the 'Napoleon' (1848-52J, the first French war steamer at 
 once large and swift ; it worked well against adverse currents in 
 the Dardanelles in 1853, on the breaking out of the war with 
 Russia, and was adopted as the type of a new class of vessel 
 He was the first to convert war sailing vessels into steamers, by 
 cutting them in twain amidships, and lengthening them, to make 
 room for the steam machinery ; he began this practice with the 
 ' Eglau,' and continued it with many other ships. After having 
 improved the depot of the ' Messageries ' Steam Navigation 
 Company at Marseilles, and introduced for them a new class of 
 steamer, he began for the government the process of armour- 
 plating ships of war, which, first applied to the wooden ship 
 ' La Gloire, was afterwards applied to iron ships of great size 
 and strength. Being made a Councillor of State in 1860, he 
 represented the French Admiralty in the Legislature. He 
 wrote papers to the Academic des Sciences, and also a letter to 
 the 1 Times ' newspaper, on the principles of naval construction 
 as applied to ironclads ; and on all such subjects he is regarded 
 throughout Europe as the leading authority. 
 
 DUQUESNOY, FRANCOIS, known as II Fiammingo, a 
 celebrated Belgian sculptor, was born at Brussels in 1594. The 
 son of a sculptor, he learnt the art from his father, and early 
 acquired so much skill as to be employed in the execution of the 
 statue of Justice for the chief entrance to the Chancellerie of 
 Brussels, two angels for the church of the Jesuits in the same 
 city, figures of Truth and Justice for the facade of the Hotel du 
 Ville, Hal, and other public works. In 1619 he was sent by the 
 Archduke Albert VI. to Rome, where he formed a friendship 
 with Poussin, and under his influence and guidance devoted 
 himself with ardour to the study of the works of classic anti- 
 quity. Duquesnoy soon acquired such renown by the grace with 
 which he sculptured Cupids, bacchanals, and the like, as to be 
 named the Modern Polycletus. Many of these were carved in 
 ivory and in bas-relief. His rilievi of children at play, 
 Cupidons, and the like, are found in most great collections and 
 are reckoned the most perfect examples of their class : indeed, 
 uothing can well exceed their exquisite grace, playfulness, 
 and charm of execution. But his chisel was employed on 
 Christian as well as pagan themes. He executed several figures 
 of saints which were much admired, and the pope, Urban VII., 
 commissioned him to carve the colossal statue of St. Andrew and 
 to ornament the baldachino of St. Peter's. These and other 
 works were thought to have placed Duquesnoy at the head of the 
 sculptors of his time. He was invited to Paris by Cardinal 
 Richelieu to found there a school of sculpture, accepted the 
 invitation, and after partial recovery from a severe illness, set 
 out on the journey thither, but died on the way at Livorno, 
 1640. Eight years later, October 24, 1654, his brother Jerome 
 Duquesnoy (b. 1612), the pupil and imitator of Francois, was 
 
493 DURAN, DON AUGUSTIN. 
 
 condemned to be burned alive at Ghent for an abominable crime, 
 when he is said to have confessed before his death to various 
 atrocities, and amongst others to having poisoned his brother 
 Francois ; but considering the circumstances, and that he was 
 probably tortured to extort confession, we may hope that his 
 reason was affected at the time, and that the statement was not 
 true. Dargenville, in his life of Francois Duquesnoy, gives a 
 list of his chief works. (Vies des Fameux Sculpteurs.) 
 
 DURAN, DON AUGUSTIN [E. C. vol. ii. col. 682], was 
 bom on the 14th of October, 1789, at Madrid, and died in that 
 city on the 1st of December, 1862. 
 
 * DURHAM, JOSEPH, A.R.A., was born in London in 1821. 
 He was a pupil of Mr. John Francis, and was afterwards for 
 some time in the studio of Mr. E. H. Baily, R.A. Like most 
 young sculptors, his early essays were classical and poetical in 
 character, but he first attracted notice by his portrait-busts. A 
 bust of Jenny Lind, exhibited in 1848, at once became popular, 
 and being reproduced in parian, met with an extensive sale. 
 Mr. Durham has since produced many imaginative statues and a 
 few groups, but his chief employment, or rather, perhaps, his 
 distinctive eminence, has been in portraiture. His exhibited 
 busts include many well-known names, as General Sabine, Lord 
 Romilly, Lord Palmerston, Charles Knight, J. P. Gassiot, &c, 
 and they are almost invariably satisfactory as likenesses, and 
 admirably chiselled. He has also executed statues of the Queen, 
 and several of the Prince Consort, the most important being that 
 for the Memorial of the Exhibition of 1851 in the gardens of the 
 Horticultural Society. The statue of Sir Francis Crossley, 
 placed by the townsmen in the park presented by Sir Francis to 
 the people of Halifax, is one of his more celebrated works. He 
 has also produced memorial statues of Caxton, Harvey (for the 
 facade of the London University), Shelley, and others. Among 
 his poetic works may be named ' The Parting of Paul and 
 Virginia ;' the statues of Hermione and Alastor for the Mansion 
 House; Chastity, 1860; Peace, 1861; and 'The Lady of the 
 Lake,' 1865. A series of bronze statuettes of boys cricketing, 
 entitled ' British Sports,' has had great success as reproduced in 
 parian. Mr. Durham was elected associate of the Royal Aca- 
 demy in 1866. 
 
 DYCE, REV. ALEXANDER [E. C. vol. ii. col. 691]. Mr. 
 
 EASTLAKE, SIR CHARLES LOCK. 491 
 
 Dyce published the last volume of his great book, 'The Complete 
 Edition of the Works of Shakespeare ' (0 vols. 8vo), in 1858. 
 The text was declared to be produced on " the only true 
 method," that of a strict adherence to the earliest quartos, hut 
 in 1864 he began a new edition (8 vols. 8vo, 1864 — 68), in which 
 the text was, to use his own words, " altered and amended from 
 beginning to end," whilst it " differed from the former edition 
 as much in the notes as in the text." His first edition was 
 conservative, his last conjectural — and neither is likely to be 
 received as authoritative. In 1856, shortly after the poet's 
 death, Mr. Dyce published ' Recollections of the Table Talk of 
 Samuel Rogers,' a work that went through several editions, and 
 occasioned some discussion on account of the personalities and 
 acerbity of many of the anecdotes. In 1868 he completed an 
 editiog of the ' Dramatic Works of John Ford.' Mr. Dyce died 
 at his residence, Oxford-terrace, Hyde Park, on the 15th of May, 
 1869 ; he was born at Edinburgh on the 30th of June, 1798. 
 He bequeathed his fine library of 13,000 volumes, including the 
 first folio and other rare editions of Shakespeare's plays, to the 
 South Kensington Museum. 
 
 DYCE, WILLIAM, R.A. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 691]. Mr. Dyce 
 continued to work at the frescoes in the Houses of Parliament, 
 but only fitfully, and at length the state of his health compelled 
 him to resign the commission, leaving the largest of the series, 
 ' The Court of King Arthur,' unfinished. Mr. Dyce also executed 
 a number of fresco paintings on the walls of All Saints Church, 
 Margaret-street, but they have unfortunately already required 
 extensive reparation or repainting, and those at Westminster do 
 not promise to be much more permanent. To the Royal Academy 
 exhibitions Mr. Dyce contributed few pictures in his last years. 
 Among them were 1 Titian preparing to make his first essay in 
 colouring,' 1857 ; ' Contentment,' and ' The Good Shepherd/ 
 1859; 'St. John leading home his adopted Mother,' 'The Man 
 of Sorrows,' and ' Peg well Bay,' 1860 ; and 'George Herbert of 
 Bemerton,' 1861, after which he ceased to exhibit. Mr. Dyce 
 was an enthusiast in ecclesiastical church music, composed some 
 pieces, took an active part in choral services, and was one of the 
 founders of the Motett Society. He died at his residence, 
 Streatham, Surrey, February 15, 1864. Mr. Dyce was Professor 
 of the Theory of the Fine Arts at King's College, London. 
 
 E 
 
 EACHARD, JOHN, an Anglican divine of thel7th century, was 
 born in Suffolk, in or about the year 1636, and was educated 
 at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, where he was admitted on the 
 10th of May, 1653. He graduated as B.A. in 1656 ; was elected 
 to a fellowship on the 9th of July, 1G58 ; and proceeded M.A. 
 in 1660. In 1675 he was chosen master of Catherine Hall, and 
 in the following year was created D.D. by royal mandate. He 
 filled the office of vice-chancellor of the university in 1679, and 
 for the second time in 1695. He died, at the age of 61, on the 
 7th of July, 1697, and was buried in the chapel of Catherine 
 Hall. 
 
 Dr. Eachard's works include ' The Grounds and Occasions of 
 the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion enquired into in a 
 Letter to R. L.' [signed T. B.], 8vo, London, 1670, which gave 
 rise to some discussion, and especially elicited ' An Answer to a 
 Letter of Enquiry,' &c, 8vo, London, 1671, to which Eachard 
 replied with ' Some Observations upon the Answer to an Enquiry 
 into the Grounds and Occasions of the Contempt of the Clergy, 
 with additions, in a second letter to R. L.,' 8vo, London, 1671 ; 
 ' Mr. Hobbs's State of Nature considered : in a Dialogue be- 
 tween Philautus and Timothy. To which are added five Letters 
 from the Author of the Grounds and Occasions of the Contempt 
 of the Clergy,' 8vo, London, 1072 ; and ' Some Opinions of Mr. 
 Hobbs considered in a second Dialogue between Philautus and 
 Timothy,' 8vo, London, 1673. Eachard carried on his polemics 
 with wit and humour, and Dryden was of opinion that by his 
 "raillery and reason he had more baflled the philosopher of 
 Malmsbury, than those who assaulted him with blunt, heavy 
 arguments drawn from orthodox divinity, for Hobbes foresaw 
 where those strokes would fall, and leapt aside before they .could 
 descend ; but he could not avoid those nimble passes which 
 
 were made on him by a wit more active than his own, and 
 which were within his body before he could provide for his 
 defence." The •works of Dr. Eachard have gone through many 
 editions, both severally and collectively, of which the most 
 complete is the edition of ' The Works of Dr. John Eachard, &c, 
 with a second Dialogue on the Writings of Mr. Hobbs, not printed 
 in any former edition ; and some Account of the Life and 
 Writings of the Author,' by T. D., 3 vols. 12mo, London, 
 1773—1774. 
 
 EASTLAKE, SIR CHARLES LOCK, P.R.A. [E. C. vol. ii. 
 col. 694]. From the appointment of Sir Charles Eastlake as 
 director of the National Gallery in 1855, he gave himself with 
 rare devotion to the duties of the office. At home and abroad 
 he sought out pictures worthy to form part of a national collec- 
 tion. If he erred at all, it was on the side of over-scrupulous- 
 ness, yet his purchases were attacked in the journals and in 
 Parliament with persevering enmity, but usually in entire 
 ignorance. During the ten years of Eastlake's directorship 155 
 pictures were added by purchase to the collection, while in the 
 previous 32 years only 96 pictures had been purchased ; the 
 details are given in Mr. AVornum's 'Catalogue of the Pictures in 
 the National Gallery : British School,' under Eastlake, pp. 35— 
 36. Sir Charles's purchases included such pictures as the 
 Garvagh Raffaelle, 'the Family of Darius,' by P. Veronese, and 
 some most choice works by Fra Angelico, Pietro Perngino, Lippi, 
 Pollajuolo, and other painters of a class previously unrepre- 
 sented in the gallery. Sir Charles was accustomed to make an 
 annual tour on the Continent for the purpose of acquiring pic- 
 tures for the National Gallery, and in the course of that under- 
 taken in the autumn of 1865 he was attacked by illness at 
 Milan. Having somewhat recovered, he removed to Pisa, where 
 
495 EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE. 
 
 ECK, JOHANN. 
 
 493 
 
 lie had a relapse. After lying for two months unable to he 
 carried farther, he died on the 24th of Decemher, 1865, aged 72, 
 he having been horn on the 17th of November, 1793. His body 
 was brought to England, and interred in Kensal-green cemetery. 
 A brief but valuable ' Memoir of Sir Charles Lock Eastlake,' by 
 Lady Eastlake, is prefixed to a volume of his ' Contributions to 
 the Literature of the Fine Arts/ 8vo, 1870. A second volume 
 of his ' Materials for a History of Oil-Painting,' was published 
 in 1869. A pension of 3001. was in I860 granted from the Civil 
 List Fund to Lady Elizabeth Eastlake, " in consideration of the 
 services rendered by her late husband to the Crown, and of his 
 high attainments in art." 
 
 * Lady Eastlake (Elizabeth, daughter of Edward Rigby,M.D., 
 of Norwich) is the authoress of the popular ' Letters from the 
 Shores of the Baltic,' 1841 ; 'Livonian Tales and other Stories'; 
 atranslation of Kugler's ' Handbook of Italian Painting ;' articles 
 on Dress and Music in the 'Quarterly Review,' and reprinted 
 separately; and a ' Life of John Gibson, R.A., Sculptor,' 1870, 
 as well as of the memoir of her husband mentioned above. She 
 also completed Mrs. Jameson's ' Sacred and Legendary Ai t.' 
 
 * EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE, was born at 
 Warfield, in Berkshire, in the year 1814, and was educated at 
 Charterhouse School, London, and at Balliol and Merton Col- 
 leges, Oxford. He entered the service of the East India Com- 
 pany, and became so distinguished for his attainments in oriental 
 philology that he passed as interpreter in five different languages, 
 and secured his promotion to various offices of honour and 
 responsibility. Returning to this country, he was appointed in 
 1845 to the professorship of Urdu in the East India College, at 
 Haileybury, of which, m 1850, he became librarian. Whilst 
 holding office at Haileybury he published 1 A Concise Grammar 
 of the Hindustani Language ; to which are added Selections for 
 Reading,' 12mo, London, 1847, second edition, enlarged, &c, 
 London, 1858. He compiled for Murray's series of Handbooks 
 ' A Handbook for India ; being an Account of the Three Presi- 
 dencies, and of the Overland Route ; intended as a Guide for 
 Travellers, Officers, and Civilians ; with Vocabularies and Dia- 
 logues of the Spoken Languages of India,' 2 parts, 8vo, London, 
 1859; previous to which he had edited the ' Autobiography of 
 Lutfullah, a Mohammedan Gentleman,' 8vo, London, first and 
 second editions, 1857. On the 6th of June, 1860, he was called 
 to the bar by the Society of the Middle Temple, and on the 1st 
 of the following month set out to undertake the duties of H. M.'s 
 charge d'affaires at the court of Tehran ; after his return from 
 which, in 1863, he published the 'Journal of a Diplomate's 
 Three Years' Residence in Persia,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1864. 
 In June of the latter year he proceeded to Venezuela as Financial 
 Commissioner of the General Credit Company for the Venezuelan 
 loan of 1864 ; and, returning to this country in the last days of 
 October following, contributed several sketches on Venezuela 
 and its people to 'All the Year Round,' during parts of 1865 and 
 1866. The more substantial literary result of his mission was, 
 however, his ' Venezuela ; or Sketches of Life in a South 
 American Republic ; with the History of the Loan of 1864,' 
 8vo, London, first and second editions, 1868. Besides the fore- 
 going works, Mr. Eastwick has contributed to literature editions 
 and translations of various oriental writers, aud especially a 
 translation, partly in verse, of the ' Zartusht-Namah,' or Life of 
 Zoroaster, from the Persian of Zartusht-Behram, which occurs as 
 one of the Appendices to Dr. John Wilson's work on ' The Parsf 
 Religion : as contained in the Zand-Avasta,'&c.,8vo, Bombay, 1843 ; 
 he has also produced a translation of Franz Bopp's ' Compara- 
 tive Grammar of the Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, 
 Gothic, German, and Sclavonic Languages,' 3 parts, 8vo, London, 
 1845 — 50, second edition, 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1856. Mr. East- 
 wick is C. B., and a member of many learned societies — as the 
 Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the Asiatic Societies 
 of Great Britain and Paris, and of the Oriental Society of 
 Germany. At the general election of 1868 he was sent to the 
 House of Commons as representative, in the Conservative inte- 
 rest, of the associated boroughs of Falmouth and Penryn. 
 
 EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUST, a German philosopher 
 and divine, was born on the 31st of August, 1739, at Halber- 
 stadt. From 1756 to 1759 he was a student at the University of 
 Halle, after which, becoming private tutor in the family of the 
 Baron von der Hoorst. whom he accompanied to Berlin, he 
 prosecuted his theological studies in the university of that city. 
 In due course he was ordained, and for some time fulfilled the 
 duties of a pastor at Charlottenhurg. Having become an adhe- 
 rent of Sender, who is known as the father of what has been 
 termed the theory of accommodation in theology, Eberhard took 
 
 the opportunity of propagating his views in a New Apology for 
 Socrates, or the Final Salvation of the Heathen, ' Neue Apolo^ie 
 des Sokrates,' &c, 2 vols. 8vo, Berlin, 1772, third edition, 1788, 
 French translation, by Dumas, 2 vols. Amsterdam, 1773 — 78. 
 The ' New Apology,' from the publication of which is frequently 
 dated the era of the introduction of German " Neology," went 
 far in the direction of placing Socrates on a level with Christ. 
 The book gave rise to much controversy, and was especially 
 attacked by Ernesti and Lessing ; whilst its author saw himself 
 shut out from all chances of professional preferment. He there- 
 fore accepted in 1778 a professorship of philosophy at Halle ; 
 was named a privy councillor in 1805 ; and in 1808 took his 
 degree as doctor of theology. He died on the 6th of January, 
 1809. 
 
 The works of Eberhard include a Universal Theory of Thought 
 and Feeling, 'Allgemeine Theorie desDenkcns und Empfindens,' 
 8vo, Berlin, 1776, new edition, 1786; a Preparation for Natural 
 Theology, ' Vorbereitung zur Naturlichen Theologie,' 8vo, Halle, 
 1781 ; a History, in the form of Letters, entitled 'Amyntor; eine 
 Geschichte in Briefen,' 8vo, Berlin, 1782; Theory of Litera- 
 ture and the Fine Arts, 'Theorie der Schonen Kiinste und 
 Wissensehaften,' 8vo, Halle, 1783, third edition, 1790; a Uni- 
 versal History of Philosophy, ' Allgemeine Geschichte der Philo- 
 sophic,' 8vo, Halle, 1788, second edition, 1796; an Attempt at a 
 Universal Dictionary of German Synonyms, 'Versuch einer 
 allgemeinen Deutschen Synonymik in einem kritisch-philoso- 
 phiscen Worterbuche,' 6 vols. 8vo, Halle, 1795 — 1802; a Pocket 
 Dictionary of German Synonyms, ' Synonymisches Handworter- 
 buch der Deutschen Sprache,' 12mo, Halle, 1802, twelfth edition, 
 Berlin, 1861 ; a Manual of ^Esthetics, 'Handbuch der iEsthetik,' 
 4 vols. 8vo, Halle, 1803 — 5, continued and enlarged by Maas, 
 12 vols. 1818—21, and by Gruber, 6 vols. 1826—30; and the 
 Spirit of Primitive Christianity, 'Geist des Urchristenthums,' 
 &c, 3 vols. 8vo, Halle, 1807 — 8. Eberhard was a frequent con- 
 tributor to various periodicals, and especially to the General 
 German Library, 'Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek,' of Frederick 
 Nicolai, which was the recognised medium of attack upon 
 orthodoxy. 
 
 EBERT, FRIEDRICH ADOLF, an eminent German biblio- 
 grapher, was born at Taucha, near Leipzig, July 9th, 1791. 
 He commenced the study of theology, but directed his attention 
 to general literature and obtained a post in the Leipzig library, 
 and afterwards in that of the university. In 1814 he occupied 
 the office of secretary in the Royal Library, Dresden, where he 
 remained till 1.823, when he was appointed librarian at Wolfen- 
 biittel, but was recalled to Dresden in 1825 as librarian to the 
 king, and in 1828 he became chief of the public library. His 
 whole life was spent in libraries, and he died at his post : his 
 death having been caused by a fall from a ladder as he was 
 reaching some books on the library shelves, November 13th, 
 1834. Ebert had the reputation of being one of the best biblio- 
 graphers of his day, and the book which will preserve his 
 name fully justifies his fame : ' Allgemeines bibliographisches 
 Lexikon,' 2 vols. 4to, Leipzig, 1821—1830. Of great value also 
 are his accounts of the Dresden Library, and his elaborate work 
 on the knowledge of Manuscripts — ' Geschichte und Beschrei- 
 bung der koniglichen bffentlichen Bibliothek zu Dresden,' 8vo, 
 Leipzig, 1822 ; and 'Zur Handschriftenkunde,'2 vols. 8vo,Leipzig, 
 1825 — 1827. He also wrote several biographical and historical 
 works, of which the most valuable are his life of Taubmann, 
 his essays on intellectual culture in Upper Saxony during the 
 Middle Ages, and his review of past and contemporary art and 
 literature, 'Friedrich Taubmann's Leben und Verdienst,' 1814; 
 ' Culturperioden des obersachsichen Mittelalters,' 8vo, Dresden, 
 1825; and ' Ueberlieferungen zur Geschichte, Literatur, und 
 Kunst der Vor-und Mitwelt,' 2 vols. Dresden, 1825—1826. 
 
 ECK, orECKIUS, JOHANN, so called from his native vil- 
 lage of Eck, in Suabia, but whose patronymic was Mayer, was 
 born on the 13th of November, 1446. He was a student of 
 many universities, repairing to one after another in order to 
 prosecute special subjects under their most eminent professors ; 
 and he thus became one of the most distinguished scholars and 
 disputants of the age. He was professor of theology and vice- 
 chancellor of the University of Ingoldstadt, in Bavaria ; and was 
 for some time on terms of close friendship with Luther, whose 
 ' Theses,' however, he attacked in his ' Obelisks' with a virulence 
 which, being reciprocated, put an end to their intimacy. On 
 the 27th of June, 1519, he commenced at Leipzig a discussion 
 of more than a fortnight on Grace and Free-will, with Carl- 
 stadt, a friend and adherent of Luther, who at length, on th» 
 4th of July, became the direct opponent of Dr. Eck on the sub 
 
497 
 
 ELGIN, JAMES BRUCE, EARL OF. 498 
 
 jects, mainly of the papal supremacy and the authority of the 
 Councils. A Report of these discussions was published under 
 the title of ' Disputatio Excellentium D. Doctorum Johannis 
 Eccii et Andreas Carolostadii, qusu cepla est Lipsise, xxvn 
 Junii, AN. MDXIX. Disputatio secunda D. Doctorum Johannis 
 Eccii et Andrea; Carolostadii, qua; cepit xv Julii. Disputatio 
 ejusdem D. Johannis Eccii et D. Martini Lutheri Angustiniani, 
 quae cepit, nil Julii,' 4to, Leipzig, 1519. Not long after Eck 
 published his work on the primacy, ' Summariorum de Primatu 
 Petri adversus Ludderum Joannis Eckii, Libri tres,' folio, Paris, 
 1521. In the beginning of 1820 he repaired to Rome, from 
 which he returned, in September following, as the bearer of a 
 bull of Leo X., in condemnation of the doctrines of Luther, 
 which he caused to be fixed up in public places in Miessen, 
 Merseburg, and Brandenburg. For the space of twenty years he 
 confronted, in a long series of combats, generally, but not ex- 
 clusively, in Germany, the champions of the Reformation. In 
 1530 he took part in the proceedings of the Diet of Augsburg, 
 and argued against the Protestant Confession ; and in 1541 dis- 
 puted at Worms, and, by adjournment, at Ratisbon, with Melanch- 
 thon and other divines, on the question of the continuance of 
 sin after baptism. He died at Ingoldstadt, without the recom- 
 pense of ecclesiastical dignity or emolument, in February, 1543; 
 his last composition being a tract against the articles proposed 
 at the Conference of Accommodation at Eatisbon. 
 
 His works, which are numerous, are chiefly controversial, 
 turning on the subjects in dispute between papists and protes- 
 tants — on the Mass, ' Ad Invictiss. Polonia; Regem Sigismun- 
 dum, de Sacriticio Missaj contra Lutheranos. Libri duo,' 8vo, 
 Ingoldstadt, 1526 ; on the Retention of Images, ' De non tol- 
 lendis Christi et Sanctorum Imaginibus, contra Hceresim 
 Fadicianam sub Carolo Magno damnatam, et jam sub Carolo V. 
 renascentem Decisio,' 4to, Ingoldstadt, 1522 ; on Purgatory, ' De 
 Purgatorio contra Lutherum Hostesque Ecclesirc, Libri quatuor, 
 omnibus vere Christianis utilissimi,' 24mo, Antwerp, 1545. Be- 
 sides these and other works of a like nature, Dr. Eck published a 
 commentary on the prophet Haggai, and a considerable number 
 of ' Homilies.' But that which obtained for him the greatest 
 praise and performed the best service for his cause, was his 
 Manual of Controversies, entitled ' Enchiridion Locorum com- 
 munium adversus Lutheranos,' &c, 4to, Landshut, 1525, and 
 Ingoldstadt, 1525 ; 12mo, Ingoldstadt, 1527 ; 12mo, Antwerp, 
 1535 ; 24mo, Cologne, 1561 ; and other editions. This was a 
 particular apology for all the disputed tenets and practices of 
 the Church of Rome ; and treated the entire series of the sub- 
 jects contested, from the sacrifice of the mass down to tithes, 
 annates and canonical hours. It formed, in fact, to Eck's party, 
 such an apology as the ' Common-places ' of Melanchthon was to 
 the Reformers. 
 
 ECKERMANN, JOHANN PETER, the friend and secretary 
 of Goethe, was born at Winsen on the Luhe, Hanover, in 1792. He 
 served in the army against Davoustin 1813 and 1814,and obtained 
 a situation in the War Office in 1815. He afterwards studied law, 
 as well as philology and history at Gottingen. In 1822 he 
 made the acquaintance of Goethe, through the medium of his 
 ' Beitrage zur Poesie ;' in 1823 became his private secretary in 
 Weimar, and in 1830 accompanied his son to Italy. In 1827 
 he took his doctor's degree in Jena, and in 1838 was made privy 
 councillor and librarian to the Grand Duchess of Saxe- Weimar. 
 He died in Weimar, on the 3rd of December, 1854. Eckermann 
 is chiefly remembered for his ' Gesprache mit Goethe,' published 
 in three parts, Leipzig and Magdeburg, 1836 — 48, several times 
 reprinted, and translated into most European languages. By 
 the testamentary desire of Goethe lie edited, conjointly with 
 Reimer, an edition of Goethe's works, in 2 vols, large 8vo, 
 Stnttgard, 1837 ; and another in 40 vols, 8vo, 1839—40. 
 
 ECKHART, MEISTER, celebrated as the father of German 
 speculation, and one of the most remarkable mystics of the 
 Middle Ages, was probably born at Strasburg, in the latter half 
 of the 13th century. He became a Dominican ; and was 
 successively a student and professor of philosophy in the 
 Dominican College of St. Jacob at Paiis. He received his 
 Doctorate in Theology from Rome, at the hands of Pope 
 Boniface VIII., about the year 1300 ; and in 1304 and 1307 
 respectively was made provincial of his order for Saxony, and 
 vicar-general in Bohemia, where he distinguished himself 
 by an enforcement of reform and discipline. In 1320, at which 
 time he held the office of prior of Erfurt, he had become 
 obnoxious to the charge of heresy ; and in 1327, when he was a 
 resident at Cologne, without ecclesiastical cure or dignity, he 
 found a bitter opponent in the person of Archbishop Heinrich, I 
 BIOO. DIV— SUP. 
 
 who accused him to the Holy See. Eckhart was condemned by 
 a bull of Pope John XII. ; and probably died at Cologne in 
 1329 or the preceding year. He was a bold and profound 
 speculator, an eloquent preacher, and a learned writer. Very few 
 of his writings have been preserved ; but he is known to have 
 produced inter alia a Commentary on Genesis ; on Solomon's 
 Song ; on the Book of Wisdom ; on the Gospel of St. John, and 
 the Several Gospels for the ecclesiastical year ; on the four 
 Books of Sentences ; a book of Sermons for the Church Seasons, 
 and another upon the. Saints. 
 
 _ His imputed heresy was in the direction of pantheism, and 
 his system foreshadowed, in a very remarkable manner, the 
 system of Hegel, who calls Eckhart the author of "a genuine 
 and profound philosophy." Eckhart's theosophy, in fact, is a 
 striking anticipation of modern German idealism. The "ab- 
 stract ground of Godhead " of Eckhart answers almost exactly 
 to Hegel's " Logische Idee." The Trinity of process, the incar- 
 nation ever renewing itself in men, the. resolution of redemption 
 almost to a divine self-development, constitute strong features of 
 family likeness between the Dominican of the 14th century, and 
 both Hegel and Fichte. Several works have lately been devoted 
 to illustrating the life and philosophical position of Eckhart ; 
 and amongst these may be mentioned H. Martensen's ' Meister 
 Eckhart. Eine theologische Studie,' 8vo, Hamburg, 1842 ; and 
 Dr. Joseph Bach's ' Meister Eckhart, der Vater der Deutschen 
 Speculation. Als Beitrag zu einer Geschichte der Deutschen 
 Theologie und Philosophic der Mittleren Zeit,' 8vo, Vienna, 1864. 
 
 EDWARDES, MAJOR-GENERAL SIR HERBERT BEN- 
 JAMIN, K.C.B. [E. C. vol. ii, col. 731]. As Commissioner 
 of the Peshawur Frontier Sir Herbert Edwardes rendered ex- 
 cellent service to the Government of India. By his judicious 
 measures he secured the amity of Afghan, and rendered the 
 district, which was said to be a standing nuisance, one of the 
 strongest places in India ; and when the Sepoy insurrection 
 broke out, so far were the warlike hill-men from sympathising 
 with the rebels, that they came in unasked to beg for military 
 employment, and Edwardes was enabled not only to maintain 
 tranquillity in Peshawur, but also to form and despatch a corps 
 of 5,000 hardy warriors to Delhi, besides sending others against 
 a detachment of the mutineers who had advanced towards 
 Peshawur. In 1859 Sir Herbert visited England, was made 
 a Knight Commander of the Bath, and promoted brevet-colonel. 
 He returned to India in 1862, as Agent for the Cis-Sutlej 
 States and Commissioner of Umballah. Failing health com- 
 pelled him to leave India in 1865, when he received an ad- 
 ditional good-service pension of i'100 ; in 1866 was created 
 Knight Commander of the Star of India, and in 1868 was 
 gazetted major-general in the East Indian Army. His consti- 
 tution was, however, thoroughly shattered, and he died in 
 London, November 23, 1868, at the early age of 49. 
 
 EGG, AUGUSTUS, R.A. [E. C. vol. ii, col. 742J. Mr. 
 Egg was elected an academician in 1S60. Delicate health 
 interfered much of late with his painting, and led him to 
 spend the winter months in Algeria. On one of these migra- 
 tions he died at Algiers, March 26, 1863. Though he painted 
 few pictures, some of his best were produced in these last years. 
 The most powerful, though the most painful, was a social tragedy, 
 in three parts, exhibited without a title in 1858, and selected by 
 Mr. Egg as his representative picture for the International Ex- 
 hibition of 1862. In 1859 he exhibited 'The Night before 
 Naseby ;' in 1860, his last picture, 'Katherine and Petruchio.' 
 The National Gallery (British School) possesses his - Scene from 
 the Diable Boiteux ' (No. 444), but it is an unfavourable specimen 
 of his pencil. 
 
 EKEBERG, CHARLES GUSTAV, a Swedish traveller, was 
 born in 1716. As a pilot and captain in the service of the East 
 India Company of Sweden he visited many places in the far 
 east. He suffered shipwreck, and many of the other hardships 
 incident to a seafaring life. He was of an active and practical 
 turn of mind, and did great service to his country as the first in- 
 troducer of the tea plant into Sweden, and by his successful 
 efforts to induce people to adopt vaccination as a means of 
 warding off the attacks of small-pox. His labours procured him 
 numerous honours, such as medals and pensions from many 
 of the sovereigns of Europe. His best known writings are 
 ' Moyen faciler d'inoculer la petite variole,' and his account of 
 bis travels in 1770 and 1771, written in Swedish, and published 
 in 1773. He also wrote numerous religious tracts. He died 
 April 4, 1784. 
 
 ELGIN, JAMES BRUCE, 8th EARL OF [E. C. vol. ii 
 col. 752]. In March, 1857, hostilities having been for some time 
 
 K s 
 
409 ELKINGTON, GEORGE RICHARDS. 
 
 cavi icd on between England and China in a desultory manner, 
 Lord Elgin was sent to China as ambassador extraordinary, and 
 at the same time invested with large military as well as civil 
 authority. On his arrival at Hong Kong he received intelligence 
 of the Sepoy mutiny, and appreciating the serious nature of the 
 affair, he at once decided to incur the responsibility of diverting 
 the expedition to India. He accordingly sailed on the 2nd of 
 July to Calcutta. He returned to China in September, and 
 active measures were immediately resumed. Yeh, the Chinese 
 Commissioner, resorted to various diplomatic shifts, but at length 
 (December 16) Lord Elgin, in concert with Baron Gros, the 
 French minister, sent in the ultimatum. The bombardment of 
 Canton was commenced on the 28th of December, and on the 
 5th of January the English and French forces entered the city. 
 Lord Elgin followed up the first success promptly, and having 
 ascended the Feilio and threatened Peking, the Emperor of 
 China expressed his willingness to treat. The commissioners met 
 at Tien-tsin, and there treaties dictated by Lord Elgin, which for 
 the first time placed foreigners on an equal footing with the 
 Chinese, opi ned new ports for commerce, regulated transit and 
 other duties! and fixed the relations between foreigners and 
 natives, were signed by Lord Elgin and Baron Gros and the 
 two Chinese commissioners, June 26, 1858. From China Lord 
 Elgin proceeded to Japan, where, after some delay, he succeeded 
 in concluding a satisfactory commercial and political treaty, 
 which was signed at Yedo on the 26th of August, 1858. 
 
 On his return to England the services of Lord Elgin received 
 honourable recognition. In the beginning of 185!) he joined the 
 ministry of Lord Palmerston, as postmaster-general. In No- 
 vember, 1859, he was elected lord-rector of the University of 
 ( ilasgow, his opponent being Mr. Disraeli. But Lord Elgin was 
 not allowed to remain long at home. The Chinese had taken an 
 early opportunity to break the terms of the treaty, and it 
 being found necessary again to despatch a strong expedition to 
 China, Lord Elgin and Baron Gros were sent with it to represent 
 their respective governments. The Tartar troops fought bravely, 
 but were everywhere defeated, and after the capture of the 
 Emperor's summer palace, and preparations being made to 
 bombard Pekin, the Chinese submitted to the terms Lord 
 Elgin demanded. A treaty was signed on the 26th of March, 
 
 1861, and Lord Elgin returned to England. After a brief 
 repose he was appointed, February, 1862, to succeed Lord 
 Canning as governor-general of India. To the duties of this 
 high office he addressed himself with his usual energy, and had 
 already initiated several important measures, when he succumbed 
 to the climate acting on a frame weakened by overstrained 
 exertion. He died at Dhurumsalla in the Punjab, Nov. 20, 1863. 
 
 ELIOT, GEORGE [Evans, Marian, E. C. S. col. 508]. 
 
 ELKINGTON, GEORGE RICHARDS, was born in Bir- 
 mingham, October 17th, 1801. Being engaged in the metal- 
 working trades of that town, he was one of the first to avail 
 himself of the discoveries relating to the electro-deposition of 
 metals. He patented processes of his own, and purchased the 
 use of processes invented by others ; until at length he estab- 
 lished the art of electro-plating or electro-metallurgy as one of 
 the regular trades of Birmingham. Commencing with a small 
 number of helpers in 1839 or 1840, he extended his operations 
 until he had a thousand persons in his employ. Table-plate 
 formed the staple of his manufacture, as of others who have fol- 
 lowed him in the same line ; but he produced high-class works 
 of art in trophies, vases, cups, presentation-plate, &c, some of 
 them in oxidised silver. The Great Exhibitions of 1851, 1855, 
 
 1862, and 1867 contained fine specimens of his work, which ob- 
 tained numerous prize medals. He employed French as well as 
 English artists to produce his designs. Besides two large 
 establishments in Birmingham and London, he was the owner of 
 iron-mines and copper-works in South Wales. Mr. Elkington 
 died at his residence, Pool Park, Denbighshire, September 22nd, 
 1865. The local journals, in announcing his death, spoke of him 
 as " the inventor of electro-plating." This brought forward pro- 
 tests from Mr. Spencer and from the brother of the late Mr. 
 John Wright of Birmingham, disputing the claim. There is no 
 evidence that Mr. Elkington himself claimed to have invented 
 the art, or discovered any of the principles on which it rests ; he 
 made many improvements in it, and succeeded, by the aid of 
 capital, ingenuity, and energy, in founding a great department of 
 manufacture. There was, in fact, no one inventor of electro- 
 plating ; the process was experimentally adopted by Spencer, 
 Jacobi, Jordan, Wright, and others, before Elkington took it up ; 
 but Daniell had preceded them all, by producing an electro- 
 ewpjjer deposit on a plate of platinum. 
 
 ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ. 500 
 
 ELLESMERE, FRANCIS LEVESON GOWER, EARL OF 
 [E. C. vol. ii. col. 765]. The Earl of Ellesmere died on the 18th 
 of February, 1857. He had published in 1856 a volume ol 
 graceful poetry, the ' Pilgrimage and Other Poems,' and his 
 Essays contributed to the ' Quarterly Review,' appeared shortly 
 after his decease. 
 
 ELLIOTSON, DR. JOHN, [E. C. vol. ii. col. 766,] died on 
 the 29th of July, 1868, at the age of 82. 
 
 ELLIS, SIR HENRY [E. C. vol. ii. col. 768]. With his 
 resignation of the office of principal librarian of the British 
 Museum in 18. r >(>, and that of director of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries in 1858, Sir Henry may be considered to have closed his 
 public life, though he edited for the Rolls Series of the 
 Chronicles of Great Britain the ' Chronica Johannes de Oxenedes,' 
 8vo, 1859. Retaining almost to the last his remarkable health 
 and vigour, he died at his residence, Bedford Square, on the 15th 
 of January, 1868, in his 92nd year. 
 
 ELM ES, JAMES, [E. C. vol. ii. col. 771,] died on the 2nd of 
 April, 1862, in his 80th year. 
 
 EMERIC-DAVID, TOUISSANT BERNARD, a celebrated 
 French archaeologist, was born at Aix, in Provence, August 20, 
 1755. He was educated for the bar, and practised as advocate, 
 but he did not like the profession, and gave it up on the 
 opportunity offering of succeeding to the business of his uncle, 
 printer to the parliament at Aix. In 1791 he was elected 
 mayor of that city ; but the Revolution destroyed his business 
 and compelled him to seek safety in flight. When the death of 
 Robespierre permitted him to return to Paris, he resumed the 
 profession of advocate, but devoted his attention more to the 
 study of art, the taste for which had developed itself during a 
 residence in Italy, and which eventually entirely engrossed his 
 attention. He had published some separate papers, when in 
 1800 he won the prize of the Institute by his essay entitled 
 ' Recherches sur 1'art statuaire consider^ chez les anciens 
 et les modernes,' but on its publication in 1805 Giraud,'the 
 sculptor, claimed to have furnished Emeric-David with the 
 materials, and a lively controversy ensued as to the true author- 
 ship. M. Emeric-David's subsequent works sufficiently vindicate 
 his capacity for the production of the treatise, whatever he may 
 have owed to Giraud's suggestions. From 1809 to 1815 he 
 represented the department of Bouches-du-Rhone in the Corps 
 Legislatif, and there voted with the majority for the deposition 
 of Napoleon I., but on the restoration of the Bourbons with- 
 drew from public life. In 1816 he was elected a member of the 
 Institute. He was one of the members of the commission 
 elected by the Academy to continue the ' Histoire Litteraire 
 de France,' and he wrote many articles on the Provencal poets 
 in vols. xvii. — xx. ; but he knew little of the old Provencal 
 literature, and his papers are of no value. He died on the 2nd 
 of April, 1839. Besides the works cited and a large number of 
 articles in magazines and encyclopaedias, M. Emeric-David wrote 
 ' Discours historique sur la gravure en taille-douce et sur la 
 gravure en bois,' Svo, Paris, 1809 ; ' Suites d'Etudes calquees et 
 dessinees d'apres Raphael, accompagnee de gravures de ces 
 tableaux, et des notices historique et critique,' 8vo and fol., 
 1818 — 20 ; 'Jupiter : recherches sur ce dieu, sur son culte et 
 sur les monuments qui le representent : precede d'un essai sur 
 l'esprit de la religion grecque,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1833. M. 
 Emeric-David attached more value to this than to any of his 
 previous works, as in it he set forth in full his theory of 
 the ancient mythology, and he pursued and further illustrated 
 the subject in corresponding essays on Vulcan (1837) and 
 Neptune (1839). But his system found few adherents at the 
 time, and it has long been obsolete ; apart from the theory, 
 however, the works have a substantial value. His ' Histoire de 
 la Peinture au Moyen Age/ 12mo, 1842, and 'Vies des Artistes 
 Anciens et Modernes,' 12mo, 1853, are reprints of papers 
 contributed by him to the ' Annates ' and the ' Biographie 
 Universelle.' 
 
 ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ [E. C. vol. ii. col. 779]. 
 
 This distinguished astronomer was stricken by apoplexy in 
 1859, and was consequently unable to devote much more 
 attention to scientific research. In 1863 he obtained leave of 
 absence from the Berlin Observatory, fearing that his health 
 would give way ; and in 1864 resigned his post altogether, after 
 holding it forty years. These latter years had not, however, 
 been unfruitful ; for, out of the large number of 170 scientific 
 papers written by him, and published between 1815 and 1862, 
 nearly 30 appeared subsequently to the year 1856. They related 
 to comets, telegraphic longitudes, star charts, the existence of a 
 resisting medium in space, &c. He died at Spandau, near 
 
501 ENDLICHER, STEPHEN LADISLAS. 
 
 ERARD, SEBASTIEN, 
 
 502 
 
 Berlin, on the 2nd of September, 1865, three weeks before the 
 completion of his 74th year. 
 
 ENDLICHER, STEPHEN LADISLAS, botanist, was born 
 at Presburg, in Hungary, June 24, 1804. His earlier education 
 was received in his native town, his later in Pesth and Vienna. 
 He then entered the Church, but in the course of a few years he 
 abandoned it, and in 1827 commenced his botanical and lin- 
 guistic studies. In the following year he was charged with the 
 care of the Imperial Library at Vienna. In 1836 he was 
 elected to be the keeper of the Museum of Natural History at 
 Vienna, and in 1840 was nominated the professor of botany in 
 the university, as also director of the botanic gardens. Endlicher 
 was deeply moved by the political troubles of 1848. The turn 
 taken by them disturbed his mind, he fell into a state of 
 gloom and died March 28, 1849. Endlicher's writings arc 
 mostly botanical, but a few relate to ecclesiastical literature. 
 In botany his most important labours have been in connection 
 with the systematic arrangement of plants. One of his earliest 
 works was 1 Flora Posoniensis,' 8vo, 1830, in which he noticed 
 the plants growing about Posen arranged according to the natural 
 system. But this system is more elaborately followed out in his 
 great work, ' Genera Plantarum secundum ordines naturales 
 deposita/ 4to, Vienna, 1836 — 1840. At the time of its publica- 
 tion it was the most important work on systematic botany ; it 
 has had much influence on more recent systems, and even now 
 it is one of the most complete works on the subject. The 
 arrangement and groupings were formed independently of De 
 Candolle's and Jussieu's works. As a sort of companion work 
 to his ' Genera Plantarum,' he published a series of figures under 
 the title of ' Araxra fioravlxa,' 4to, Vienna, 1837 — 40. The 
 figures were drawn by Ferdinand Bauer, who died in 1826, and 
 left numerous drawings rivalling in excellence those of his 
 brother Francis Bauer. In conjunction with Unger, Endlicher 
 wrote ' Grundziige der Botanik,' Svo, 1843, in which he gives an 
 outline of those views of plant structure upon which his classifi- 
 cations were mainly based. Amongst his other works we may 
 notice his ' Prodromus Flora) Norfolkicao,' 8vo, 1833, an account 
 of the plants of Norfolk Island, the figures in which were also 
 drawn by Ferdinand Bauer ; and his contributions to Von 
 Martius's ' Flora Brasiliensis.' 
 
 ENFANTIN, BARTHELEMY (more usually known as Le 
 Pere Enfantis), the chief disciple of St. Simon, was born at 
 Paris, February 8th, 1796. His father, a banker at Dauphine, 
 had him educated first at a Lycee, and then (in 1813) at the Ecole 
 Polytechuique. The youth joined with other studentsin defending 
 Montmartre and St. Chaumont against the enemy during the in- 
 vestment of Paris in 1814. Incurring thereby the displeasure of 
 the Bourbons, he had to turn to a new course of life ; he became 
 commercial traveller to a wine merchant, and visited Russia, 
 Germany, and Belgium. In 1821 he became a banker's clerk at 
 St. Petersburg. Returning to Paris in 1823, he accepted the post 
 of cashier of the Caisse hypothecaire. So far his career had 
 been analogous to that of many other young Frenchmen ; but in 
 1825 his thoughts took a new bent. He formed a friendship 
 with Olinde Rodrigues, and the two studied under St. Simon, 
 adopted his ethical and socialistic views, and resolved to 
 carry out his death-bed instructions. They founded a Socie'te 
 en Commandite, or Limited Liability Company, for the mainte- 
 nance of a journal called ' Le Producteur,' in which Enfantin 
 wrote largely. He gradually formed a circle of adherents, 
 and was at first supported by the French Liberals generally ; 
 but Benjamin Constant and others opposed him when they 
 found to what an excess he carried his favourite doctrines. 
 By the year 1828 he had organised St. Simonian public 
 meetings and lectures, not only at Paris, but at Montpellier, 
 Lyons, Metz, Dijon, and other towns. When the Revolution 
 of 1830 took place he tried to give it a socialistic turn, and 
 obtained the aid of many young men of remarkable ability, 
 who brought the doctrines of their chief before the public in 
 many forms through the agency of the ' Globe.' Enfantin 
 and Bazard were constituted " Peres Supremes " by their 
 followers, but soon after began to diverge in their views ; 
 and Enfantin pushed the doctrines of St. Simonianism farther 
 even than its founder would have done. Dividing mankind 
 into two classes, the philosophical or calm, and the sensitive 
 < r mobile, he declared that the laws imposed by society are 
 unjust towards the latter, especially in relation to the marriage 
 tie. He preached new doctrines, and became the " Living Law," 
 a kind of Messiah, to his adherents, who comprised many 
 women, but also some men who rose afterwards into note. 
 At a model establishment founded at Menilmontant, community 
 
 of goods was declared ; a uniform dress was worn ; manual 
 labour; religious conferences, and symbolic ceremonies, occupied 
 their attention ; and Enfantin, as " Le Pere," was supreme over 
 all. The authorities, in 1832, deemed it right to prosecute him 
 on moral and social grounds ; he asked to be defended as counsel 
 by two female members of his community — Cecile Fournel and 
 Aglae St. Ililaire, on the ground that St. Simonianism is 
 essentially a woman's question ; but this was of course refused. 
 He was sentenced to one year's imprisonment, and a fine of 100 
 francs. On his liberation from prison, Enfantin found his 
 followers dispersed, and he made no effort to rally them, but 
 with about a dozen followers withdrew to Egypt, where he stayed 
 a couple of years. Returning to France, he resumed his ordinary 
 place in society ; became postmaster at Lyons ; and in 1841 was 
 appointed a member of the Scientific Commission to Algeria. 
 He was a director of the Paris and Lyons Railway from 1845 
 to 1848 ; co-editor, with M. Duveyrier, of the journal 'Credit' 
 in 1848-50 ; and afterwards director of the Lyons and Mediter- 
 ranean Railway Company. He died May 31st, 1864. 
 
 Enfantin's published writings mostly related to the strange 
 doctrines in which he was a believer. The chief were the 
 following : — ' Economie politique,' 8vo, 1831 ; ' Morale,' 8vo, 
 1832, a work which was condemned the same year as immoral 
 by the assize court ; ' Le Livre Nouveau,' 8vo, 1832 ; ' Corre- 
 spondance philosophique et religieuse,' 8vo, 1847 ; ' Correspon- 
 dance politique,' 1849 ; 'Colonisation de l'Algerie,' 8vo, 1848; 
 and ' La Vie eternelle passee, presente, future/ 8vo, 1861. He 
 also wrote some controversial pamphlets, and extensively in 
 the journals. 
 
 ENGELBERTSZ, or ENGELBRECHTSEN, KORNELIS, 
 an eminent Dutch painter, was the son of an engraver on wood at 
 Leyden, where he was born in 1468. He was one of the first 
 who introduced oil-painting into Leyden. He drew well and 
 finished carefully, and in his designs showed more freedom from 
 ecclesiastical precedent than his predecessors. Very few authentic 
 works by him are known, many having been destroyed by the 
 iconoclasts of the 16th century. The most important is a 
 triptych with its predella, the centre-piece representing the 
 Crucifixion, in the H6tel-de-Ville, Leyden. The Museum, 
 Vienna, has one, the Museum, Antwerp, two pieces, which are 
 probably authentic : our National Gallery possesses a ' Virgin 
 and Child' (No. 714), of small size, by him. Engelbertsz died 
 at Leyden in 1533. Lucas Van Leyden was his pupil. 
 
 ENTRECASTEAUX, JOSEPH ANTOINE BRUIN, D', 
 was born at Aix in 1734, studied with the Jesuits of that town, 
 and in his 15th year entered the navy. He took an active part 
 in the war then going on, and soon after it was ended he served 
 as commander of a vessel in the Levant, India, China, and other 
 places. In 1791 he was appointed to the command of an expe- 
 dition sent out by the French Government for the purpose of 
 searching for La Perouse. He left Brest on September 28. He 
 was accompanied by several geographers and naturalists, amongst 
 others, Beautemps-Beaupre, Willaumez, and Labillardiere. The 
 expedition passed by the Cape of Good Hope, and proceeded to 
 the Australian seas. On July 20, 1793, Entrecasteaux died of 
 dysentery and scurvy while making for the island of Waigiou. 
 The command passed into other hands. In August, 1794, De 
 Rossel, who then commanded, was taken by the English ; and 
 the natural history specimens and other fruits of the voyage 
 were retained, but ultimately restored to the French at the in- 
 tercession of Banks. This voyage added largely to our knowledge 
 of the geograpjhy and natural history of the area between New 
 Zealand and New Guinea. In addition to discovering new 
 islands, reefs, &c, which were named after the ships or officers, 
 New Caledonia, New Holland, the Louisiade Archipelago, 
 numerous other places were more thoroughly surveyed than 
 they had previously been. Accounts of this voyage have been 
 given by Rossel, Labillardiere, and Freminville. 
 
 ERARD, SEBASTIEN, a fertile improver of the pianoforte 
 and harp, was born at Strasburg, April 5th, 1752, and learned 
 his father's trade of cabinet-making. "When a lad of only thir- 
 teen he showed his daring by climbing the spire of Strasburg 
 Cathedra], and bestriding the cross at the top. Left to his own 
 resources at the age of sixteen, he went to Paris, where he 
 gradually bent his attention to the mechanism of the clavecin — 
 one of the forerunners of the pianoforte. He acquired so much 
 skill that a manufacturer employed him to make a very superior 
 clavecin throughout, with a proviso that the credit of the work 
 should go with the employer and not with the workman. But 
 the truth became known, and Erard's fame established. In 
 1777, after inventing a 'clavecin mccanique,' he was patronised 
 
 K K 2 
 
503 
 
 ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN. 
 
 ERRARD, CHARLES. 
 
 604 
 
 by the Duchesse de Villcroi, who allowed him to fit up a work- 
 shop in her mansion. Here he made, for his patroness, the first 
 pianoforte produced in France, with various improvements on 
 others made in Germany and in England. Being joined by his 
 brother Jean Baptiste, he established a factory in the Rue de 
 Bourbon. His double-stringed, five-octave pianoforte came into 
 great favour ; his ' piano organis6 ' (piano and organ combined) 
 displayed great ingenuity ; while his transposing key-board, 
 enabling a player to shift the whole range of notes one, two, or 
 three semitones higher or lower, won for him the patronage of 
 Queen Marie Antoinette. Another invention of his was the 
 ' orgue expressif,' in which delicate effects were produced by 
 varying the pressure of the finger. The Revolution caused him 
 to remove to London, where he established a large manufactory 
 of pianofortes and harps. After many improvements of a minor 
 kind, he made the admirable combination known as the "double- 
 action," which enables the harp to be played in all keys ; the 
 success was so great that he sold harps to the value of 25,0002. 
 in the first year. He took out his first patent for pianos in 1794, 
 returned to France in 1796, where he remained twelve years ; 
 returned again to London in 1808 ; patented his great harp 
 invention in 1811 ; patented his chief improvement in piano- 
 fortes in 1823 ; and made a fine organ for the Chapel Royal at 
 the Tuileries in 1827. Erard died at Passy, near Paris, August 5, 
 1831. The two large establishments at Paris and London were 
 left by him to his nephew, Pierre Erard. 
 
 * ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN, the conjoint name under which 
 the romances of two popular French writers, Emile Erckmann 
 and Alexandre Chatrian, have been published. 
 
 * Emile Erckmann was born at Phalsbourg, department of 
 Meurthe, on the 20th of May, 1822. The son of a bookseller, 
 he was educated in the college of his native city, and afterwards 
 studied law at Paris, but having formed a close literary partner- 
 ship with Chatrian, he in 1857 definitely withdrew from the 
 bar. 
 
 * Alexandre Chatrian was born at Soldatenthal, in 
 Meurthe, December the 18th, 1826. He was for awhile at the 
 college of Phalsbourg, but his friends having Buffered from re- 
 verses in trade, he was sent, while still very young, to some glass 
 works in Belgium. There he appeared likely to succeed, but he 
 had set his mind on a literary profession, and, in opposition to 
 the wishes of his friends, he returned to Phalsbourg, and became 
 a tutor in the college. Here it was that in 1847 he and M. 
 Erckmann formed so close a friendship. Of the circumstances 
 which led MM. Erckmann and Chatrian to commence their 
 literary partnership we are not informed ; but as early as 1848 
 they began to write some feuilletons together in a local journal, 
 and together made more than one dramatic effort. These, how- 
 ever, met with little success, and while M. Erckmann returned 
 to the law, M. Chatrian took a situation in the oilice of the 
 Chemin de Fer de l'Est. 
 
 They continued, however, to write in conjunction, and their 
 fraternal perseverance met before long with ample recompence. 
 The ' Illustre Docteur Matheus, par Erckmann-Chatrian, 18mo, 
 1859, speedily became popular, and each succeeding volume of 
 Alsatian story deepened the impression made by its predecessor. 
 Still it was not till the publication of the ' Consent de 1813 ' 
 that it was recognised that a new form of the romance of the 
 people had arisen, and that it was the work of a master-hand. 
 Its reputation soon spread beyond France, and now a new story 
 by Erckmann-Chatrian is welcomed throughout the civilised 
 world. The life of the French peasant and labourer, and 
 especially those of Alsace and Lorraine, was never so truly and 
 vividly depicted, and the truth and beauty of the narrative 
 would have alone insured its success. But there was felt to be 
 something beyond that. Although all the characters were per- 
 sons in humble life, and the scene was laid for the most part in 
 a distant province, the sentiment was one in which all would 
 sympathise. Much as had been written on the horrors of war, 
 the sufferings it caused to the poor and the mischiefs of the con- 
 scription were never so distinctly realised in all their extent 
 and bearings ; and then, amidst all the licence of the contempo- 
 rary French romance, the tone of these was invariably pure, and 
 they were at the same time outspoken in their evident truthful- 
 ness, and kind and catholic in spirit. The "romans nationaux" 
 of Erckmann-Chatrian comprise the ' Histoire d'un Paysan ' (the 
 story of the French Revolution as related by a peasant ) ; 
 ' Madame Therese ; ' 1 LAmi Fritz ; ' ' Le Consent de 1813,' and 
 its continuation, 'Waterloo;' 'La Guerre;' ' L'Invasion ; ' 
 ' L'Homme du Peuple,' and ' Le Blocus.' They have also pub- 
 lished ' Oolite's Fantastical es ;' ' Contes de la Montague ;' ' Maitre 
 
 Daniel Rock ; ' ' Contes des Bords du Rhins ; ' ' Le Fou Yegof,' 
 and some others collected in the volume entitled ' Contes ct 
 Romans Populaires.' It is observable that native critics express 
 themselves unable by any difference of style to distinguish be- 
 tween the parts of the stories written by the two authors. 
 ERCOLK DA FKRRARA [Grandi, Rrcole, E.C.S.]. 
 E RDM ANN, JOIIANN EDUARD, was born 13th June, 
 1805, in Wblmar, Livonia. He received his early education at 
 home and in the Military Academy, in 1819 attended the gym- 
 nasium, and in 1823 studied theology at the university in Dor- 
 pat. He afterwards, for two years, went through a course of phi- 
 losophy under Schleiermacher and Hegel in Berlin. In 1828 
 he returned to Wolmar, and the following year was elected 
 pastor there. He returned to Berlin in 1832, took his degree in 
 1834, and in 1836 was made professor of philosophy in Halle. 
 His principal work is an historical review oi recent philosophy, 
 ' Versuch einer wissenschaftlichen Darstellung der Geschichte 
 der neuern Philosophic,' 3 vols, Leipzig, 1834 — 53. His other 
 works include a dissertation on belief and knowledge, ' Ueber 
 Glauben und Wissen,' Berlin, 1837 ; Nature and Creation, 
 ' Natur und Schopfung,' Leipzig, 1840 ; Body and Soul, 'Leib 
 und Seele,' Halle, 1837 ; Elements of Psychology, ' Grundriss 
 der Psychologic,' Leipzig, 1862; Elements of Logic and Meta- 
 physics, ' Grundriss der Logik und Metaphysik, Halle, 1864 ; 
 Lectures on the State, and on Academic Life and Studies, 
 ' Vorlesungen fiber den Staat,' Halle, 1851 ; ' Vorlesungen fiber 
 akademisches Leben und Studium,' Leipzig, 1858 ; Psychologi- 
 cal Letters, 'Psychol. Briefen,' Leipzig, 1863 ; Essays on various 
 subjects, under the title of ' Ernste Spiele,' Berlin, 1855 : a 
 treatise: on dreams, 'Das Traumen,' Berlin, 1861, &c. 
 
 ERICSSON, JOHN [E. C. vol. ii. col. 800]. The statement 
 of Mr. Ericsson's death in the above memoir was premature. 
 He continued to be employed in designing vessels for the United 
 States navy, and among others the celebrated Monitor ; made 
 various improvements in his own system, and engrafted on it some 
 of the main features of that of Capt. Coles. He died in 1869. 
 
 ERICSSON, NILS, the most distinguished of Swedish 
 engineers, was born in 1802. He was the son of Olaf Ericsson, 
 an ironmaster at Langbanshyttan, Wermland, or Vennelaud. 
 Having adopted the profession of civil engineering, he was em- 
 ployed by the government in most of the public works relating 
 to railways, canals, docks, &c. The State railways were planned 
 by him on a principle too much neglected in England, i.e., that 
 of proportioning the cost of the works to the probable amount of 
 traffic. He constructed the docks at Stockholm and the canal 
 from Saimen to the Gulf of Finland, and reconstructed the cele- 
 brated Trollhatten Canal. The Swedish newspapers announced 
 the death of Nils Ericsson at the beginning of September, 1870. 
 
 * ERMAN, GEORG ADOLF, was born in 1806 at Berlin, 
 and there studied those physical and natural sciences which he 
 afterwards cultivated with so much success. At Kijnigsberg he 
 studied under Bessel, who formed so high an opinion of his 
 abilities that he induced him to make a scientific expedition 
 round the globe, and defrayed all the expenses. The principal 
 object Erman was desired to pursue was the collection of facts 
 relating to terrestrial magnetism. About this time (1828) 
 Hansteen was travelling with the same object ; and the two 
 journeyed together as far as Irkutsk, in Siberia. Erman then 
 proceeded onwards alone, traversing the eastern part of Siberia 
 as far as Kamtchatka, then along the west coast of America, 
 round Cape Horn, and along the east side to Rio de Janeiro ; 
 and, finally, from St. Petersburg to Berlin, which he reached in 
 1832. The materials thus collected were published in ' Reise 
 um die Erde durch Nord Asien und die beiden Oceane,' 7 vols., 
 1833 — 42, of which five were devoted to the descriptive, and two 
 to the scientific details. In addition to this he has written 
 largely upon numerous subjects in physical geography, more 
 especially in connection with the Russian empire. Amongst 
 others we may notice his contributions on the specific gravity of 
 oceanic waters, the temperature of Siberia, the meteorology of 
 Russia, terrestrial magnetism in France and Spain, &c. Many 
 of his papers on Russia are given in the ' Archiv fur wissen- 
 schaftliche Kunde von Russland,' of which he has been the 
 editor since its commencement in 1841 ; and some occur in 
 Poggendorf's ' Annalen.' He wrote some papers on shooting 
 stars and eclipses of the sun for ' Astronomische Nachrichten,' 
 and has contributed to several other journals. At present he is 
 professor of physics at the University of Berlin. 
 
 ERRARD, CHARLES, celebrated French painter, was born 
 at Nantes in 1606. He was the son and pupil of Charles Errard 
 (painter in orninary to Louis XIII.), but in 1624 went to com- 
 
505 ERRINGTON, JOHN EDWARD. 
 
 ESQUIROS, HENRI ALPHONSE. 
 
 506 
 
 plete his studies at Rome, where he remained several years, 
 acquired a considerable reputation, and formed a friendship with 
 Poussin. On his return to Paris he was much employed in 
 painting religious pictures for altars, and in decorating the halls 
 and staircases of various chateaux. Among his larger works of 
 this kind were the great hall of the goldsmiths at Paris ; the 
 Palais Royal ; the apartments of Cardinal Mazarin, and those of 
 Anne of Austria at the Louvre ; the theatre of the Tuilieries ; 
 and the chateaux of Fontainebleau, Versailles, and Saint-Ger- 
 main-en-Laye. Errard was one of the twelve original members 
 (anciens) of the Academy of Painting, but he is best remembered 
 as the founder of the Academy of Rome. The plan of this 
 institution — one which has had more influence than perhaps 
 anything else on subsequent French art, — was devised by him 
 and accepted by Colbert, who, in March, 1666, sent Errard to 
 Rome, with twelve pupils, to organise and direct it. Though he 
 formally resigned the presidency in 1683 on account of his age, 
 Errard continued to direct the academy till his death, May 15, 
 16S9. In conjunction with Chambray, Errard wrote a ' Paral- 
 lcle d'Architecture anticpie avec le moderne,' 8vo, Paris, 1666 ; 
 and translated Palladio's ' Architecture,' and Leonardo de Vinci's 
 Treatise on Painting. Errard paid a good deal of attention to 
 architecture, and the church of the Religieuses de l'Assomption 
 in the Rue St. Honore, Paris, was built from his designs, which 
 were, however, modified by Cheret. 
 
 ERRINGTON, JOHN EDWARD, civil engineer, was born 
 at Hull, December 29th, 1806. He first studied under an officer 
 of Royal Engineers engaged on public works in Ireland ; then 
 under a railway surveyor, and then under Mr. Rastrick, the civil 
 engineer. As assistant to Mr. Joseph Locke, he was actively en- 
 gaged in the planning and execution of the Grand Junction Rail- 
 way (Birmingham to Newton), the Glasgow and Greenock Rail- 
 way, and Glasgow Harbour. The formation of an economical 
 railway through a mountainous country from Lancaster to Car- 
 lisle proved to be an important work in connecting the English 
 and Scottish lines, and brought high repute to Messrs. Locke 
 and Errington. The Caledonian, the Clydesdale Junction, the 
 Scottish Central, the Scottish Midland, and the Aberdeen rail- 
 ways all in turn engaged the attention of the firm. Mr. Erring- 
 ton, as engineer-in-chief, planned and executed the Yeovil and 
 Exeter line. The railway bridges over the Thames at Kew, 
 Richmond, and Kingston were from his dosigns. Mr. Errington, 
 who joined the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1837, died July 
 4th, 1862. 
 
 ERWIN VON STEINBACH, a famous German medireval 
 architect, was probably a native of Steinbach, near Buhl, in 
 Baden, though he is claimed by other towns of the same 
 name. While yet young he was of sufficient eminence to be 
 entrusted by Konrad von Lichtenberg, Bishop of Strasburg, 
 with the completion of Strasburg Cathedral. The task assigned 
 to Erwin appears to have been the completion of the nave, the 
 erection of the tower and west front, and the ornamentation of the 
 interior. The foundations were commenced by him in February 
 1276 ; the corner stone was laid with due ceremony May 25, 1277. 
 Earthquakes, lightning, and other misfortunes are said to have 
 hindered the progress of the undertaking, but Erwin laboured 
 steadily on for seven-and-thirty years, and though he left the 
 work far from finished, he lived to see it in so forward a state 
 that its completion would be merely a labour of time and 
 patience. How far he had carried forward the grand front is 
 uncertain, but the design is no doubt in the main his. The 
 upper part of the tower was added long after his death, and evi- 
 dently differs considerably from what he intended. The parts 
 which are understood to be by him, though objections may be 
 taken to the details, place him among the greatest of the archi- 
 tects of the Middle Ages. Whether he built anything else is not 
 known. He is said to have been a sculptor as well as an archi- 
 tect, and to have executed a tribune and other carvings, which 
 were the most admired of any in the cathedral. He died at 
 Strasburg, on the 17th of January, 1318. There is a contempo- 
 rary statue of him in the cathedral, but he was buried in the 
 cemetery of the chapel of St. John. A memorial was erected 
 in his honour by Steinbach, in Baden, in 1845. Erwin's son, 
 Johann", succeeded his father as overseer or architect of Stras- 
 burg Cathedral, and superintended the works till hie death, 
 March 18th, 1339. He was succeeded by Helz of Cologne. 
 Sabina, the daughter of Erwin von Steinbach, attained celebrity 
 as a sculptor. She executed many of the carvings of Strasburg 
 Cathedral, especially those of the south porch. Wenhino, a 
 younger son of Erwin, built the collegiate church of Hasselbaoh 
 in Baden, where his gravestone bears the date of 1330. 
 
 ESCHENBACH, WOLFRAM VON [Wolfram vok Es- 
 OHENBAOH, E. C. vol. vi., col. 792). 
 
 ESCHRICHT, DANIEL FR EDRIK, an eminent Danish 
 zoologist, was born at Copenhagen, March 18, 1798. In 1825 he 
 took his degree of Doctor of Medicine, and went to Nexoe, in the 
 island of Bornholin, in order to follow his practice. This seems 
 to have been somewhat interrupted, owing to his being engaged 
 by the State in making scientific journeys to various coun- 
 tries. In 1830 he became extraordinary, and in 1836 ordinary 
 professor of medicine in the University of Copenhagen. His 
 contributions to science consist of some elaborate and highly 
 valuable investigations on whales, of some elucidations of human 
 physiology, and more or less detailed accounts of entozoa and 
 polyzoa. Amongst the more important may be particularised, 
 ' Description de l'oeil humain,' 1843 ; ' Recherches Zoologi- 
 qr«ies, Anatomiques, et Physiologiques sur les Cetaces des Mers 
 Septentrionales,' 1849; ' Anatomisch - physiologische Unter- 
 suchungen iiberdie Botliryocephalen ' in ' Nova Acta Acad. Coes. 
 Leop.' xix., pp. 1 — 152 (1841) ; ' Undersbgelsen over Hval- 
 dyrene' (Researches on the Cetacea), in ' Det Kongelige Danske 
 Videnskabernes Selskabs naturvidenskabelige og mathematisker 
 Afhandlinger,' xi., pp. 1—378 (1845) ; xii., pp. 225—396 (1846) ; 
 i., pp. 85 — 138 (1849) ; and his paper written in association with 
 Reinhardt, £ Om Nordhvalen' (Balsena Mysticetus L.), in 'Det. 
 Kong. Dans. Vid. Sels. Skrivter.,' v. pp. 433—589 (1861). He 
 died on the 22nd of February, 1863. Just before his death he 
 was preparing a new work on cetaceans, but he had not got 
 beyond a fragment of the introduction, in which he deals, 
 almost exhaustively, with the geographical distribution of these 
 creatures. It appeared in the ' Ann. de Sciences Naturelles,' for 
 1864, pp. 201 — 224. His collection of crania of the races of 
 men of Northern Europe was one of the best in existence. 
 
 ESENBECK, C. G. NEES VON [Nees von Esenbeck. 
 E. C. S.]. 
 
 ESPY, JAMES P., an American meteorologist, was born 
 about 1795. In early life he was occupied in teaching, but 
 owing to his perusal of the works of Daniell and Dalton, he 
 resolved to devote himself to the study of meteorology. He 
 experimented and studied, and the results were given in lec- 
 tures on meteorology, on which lectures he mainly relied for 
 an income. He took an active part in organising the system 
 of meteorological observation adopted in Pennsylvania. He 
 worked out a theory of storms, which received considerable 
 attention. It is developed in a series of papers contributed to 
 the 'Journal of the Franklin Institute' for 1831 and follow- 
 ing years. He died at Cincinnati, Ohio, January 24, 1860. 
 
 * ESQUIROS, HENRI ALPHONSE, a French author who 
 is favourably known in this country for the singular intelligence 
 of English character which his works have displayed, was born 
 at Paris in the year 1814. He made his first literary venture as 
 the author of a volume of poems, entitled ' Les Hirondelles,' 
 8vo, Paris, 1834, which he followed with two romances, ' Le 
 Magicien,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1837, and 'Charlotte Corday,' 
 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1840, an illustrated edition. 4to, 1848, and in 
 ' Les Veillees Litteraires Illustrees,' folio, Paris, 1S50. His next 
 work was an anonymous one, ' L'Evangile du People,' 12mo, 
 Paris, 1840, and as part of ' Les Veillees Litteraires Illustrees/ 
 folio, Paris, 1850, which, nineteen days after its first publication, 
 was seized and destroyed as being a revolutionary and socialistic 
 adaptation of the life of Christ, whilst its author was condemned, 
 January 30th, 1841, to a fine of 500 francs, and to eight months' 
 imprisonment. Upon this he wrote an apologyfor the work, which 
 he called ' L'Evangile du Peuple defendu,' 12mo, Paris, 1841 ; and 
 as the literary results of his captivity, published ' Les Chants 
 d'un Prisonnier,' 16mo, Paris, 1841, and 'Souvenirs Politiques 
 de Sainte Pelagie,' 32mo, Paris, 1841. To these followed a 
 series of small socialistic works on women, ' Les Vierges Folles,' 
 32mo, Paris, first three editions, 1S41 ; ' Les Vierges Martyres,' 
 32ino, Paris, 1842 ; and ' Les Vierges Sages,' 32mo, Paris, 1842. 
 Some years afterwards he produced his ' Histoire des Mon- 
 tagnards,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1847, and in ' Les Veillees Litteraires 
 Illustrees,' folio, Paris, 1850, Spanish translation, 8vo, Bogota, 
 1855; ' Paris, ou les Sciences, les Institutions, et les Mceurs au 
 xix c Siecle,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1847 ; a poem entitled ' Fleur du 
 Peuple,' 12mo, Paris, 1848; and 'Histoire des Amants celebres 
 de l'Antiquite,' 8vo, Paris, vols. i. and ii. 1848, a work which was 
 designed to extend to 6 volumes, and which was undertaken 
 jointly by M. and Madame Esquiros, who were likewise asso- 
 ciated in the production of ' LAccusateur Public,' folio, Paris, 
 1848, and ' Le Peuple,' folio, Paris, 1848, of which four numbers 
 and one number respectively were published. M. Esquiros now 
 
607 ESSEX, WILLIAM. 
 
 became the editor of a journal at Marseille, and was elected to 
 the Assemblee Nationale as representative for the department 
 of Sa6ne-et- Loire, in 1850, in which year be produced his treatise 
 ' De la Vie future au point de Vue Socialiste,' 8vo, Marseille, 
 1850; which he followed with 'Histoire des Martyres de la 
 Liberie,' folio, Paris, 1851, and ' Les Pastes Populaires, ou His- 
 toire des Actes heroiques du Peuple et de son Influence sur les 
 Sciences, les Aits, "Industrie, et l'Agriculture,' 4 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1851 — 52. After the coup d'etat of tlie 2nd of December, 
 1851, M. Esquiros was forced into exile, and resided successively 
 in Belgium, Holland, and England. He devoted much time 
 and sympathetic intelligence to a study of English life and 
 the English people, the results of which he communicated from 
 time to time to the ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' and afterwards 
 gave them a substantive publication with the title of 'L'Angle- 
 terre et la Vie anglaise,' 4 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1859 — G4, English 
 translation by Sir L. Wraxall, as 'The English at Home,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, London, 1801, second series, 1802, and third, 1803. The 
 general elections for the Corps Legislatif in 1809 recalled M. 
 Esquiros to France, and he was chosen as the representative of the 
 4th Circumscription of the Bouches-du-Rhone. Upon the procla- 
 mation of the Republic on the 5th of September, 1870, he was 
 appointed to be prelect of Marseille, where he was enthusiasti- 
 cally received, and where he applied himself at once to the task 
 of raising volunteer reinforcements for the defence of the 
 country. 
 
 The other works of M. Esquiros include 1 La Noerlande et la 
 Vie Hollandaise,' 2 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1859; ' Une Vie 5 Deux,' 
 4to, Paris, 1859; 'Les Moralistes Anglais. Pensees, Maximes, 
 Sentences, et Proverbes, tires des meilleurs Ecrivainsde l'Angle- 
 terre,' &c, 12mo, Brussels, 1859 ; ' Cornwall and its Coasts,' 8vo, 
 London, 1805; 1 Religious Life in England,' 8vo, London, 1807; 
 and ' English Seamen and Divers,' 8vo, London, 1808. 
 
 ESSEX, WILLIAM, an eminent painter in enamel, was the 
 son of an enamcller of watch-dials at Clerkenwell, where he was 
 born August 1, 1785. Some early attempts at painting in enamel 
 obtained him the favourable notice of Flaxman and other artists, 
 and an introduction to Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, who em- 
 ployed him in executing enamel miniatures for jewellery. Some 
 which he painted fot them of George IV. procured him the ap- 
 pointment of painter in enamel to the king ; an appointment he 
 held successively under William. IV. and her present Majesty, 
 by whom he was largely patronised. Essex executed a great 
 number of miniature portraits of distinguished personages with 
 exceeding delicacy and refinement ; but he perhaps acquired 
 more celebrity by his copies in enamel of paintings after the 
 old masters, and Reynolds, Lawrence, Wilkie, and other emi- 
 nent English painters. Some of these are of considerable size, 
 and admirably drawn, whilst the handling, as well as the colour, 
 of the respective painters, is imitated with singular fidelity. His 
 variety of imitative power, rare amongst enamel painters, is well 
 shown in the 'Ecce Homo,' after Correggio, the so-called Gevar- 
 tius, of Vandyck, Reynolds's ' Strawberry Girl,' Wilkie's 
 ' Cottage Toilet,' and Lawrence's ' Master Lambton.' Mr. Essex, 
 who retained his skill of hand till an advanced age, died at 
 Brighton, on the 29th of December, 1809. 
 
 EUSTACE, JOHN CHETWODE, born about 1705, was 
 educated at the Jesuit College, Stoneyhurst ; entered the order ; 
 Mid, about 1795, was appointed professor of literature at the 
 Roman Catholic College, Maynooth. Mr. Eustace wrote an 
 elegy on the death of Burke, and some controversial pamphlets, 
 but he is now only remembered by his ' Classical Tour through 
 Italy, An. MDCCCII.,' 2 vols. 4to, London, 1813. This was the 
 first book of its kind in the language, and though it met with 
 some censure, it was very successful, and secured for the author 
 a high reputation. A second edition, 4to, was published in 1S14, 
 after which it was several times reprinted in 8vo, the 6th edition 
 in 4 vols, appearing in 1821, and the 8th in 3 vols, in 1841. 
 Eustace obtained his acquaintance with Italy and its antiquities 
 during several visits and occasional residence as private tutor and 
 guardian to some young members of Roman Catholic families. 
 The book was valuable at the time of its publication, and may 
 be referred to with advantage even now, but it has been in the 
 main superseded by later works. Eustace was engaged in 
 collecting materials for a Supplement when he was attacked 
 with fever at Naples, and died there in 1816. The Supplement 
 was completed by Sir R. Colt Hoare. Mr. Eustace wrote an 
 account of a visit to Paris with one of his pupils, ' Letters from 
 Paris to George Petre, Esq.,' 8vo, 1814. 
 
 EVANS, GENERAL SIR DE LACY, G.C.B. [E. C. vol. ii. 
 col. 845]. Sir De Lacy Evans was gazetted general in 1861; he 
 
 EVEREST, SIR GEORGE. 608 
 
 had already received the distinction of Grand Cross of the Order 
 of the Bath and Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He 
 continued to represent Westminster and to take his place in the 
 House of Commons until 1865, when increasing years warned 
 him that it was time to retire from public life. He died on the 
 9th of January, 1870, aged 82. 
 
 * EVANS, MARIAN, distinguished as a novelist and poetess 
 under the pseudonym of George Eliot. Miss Evans's first im- 
 portant literary venture was in a field far apart from that which 
 later she cultivated with such eminent success, the translation, 
 namely, of the much-canvassed ' Leben Jesu,' ' The Life of Jesus 
 Critically Examined. By D. F. Strauss. Translated from the 
 fourth German edition,' 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1846. This was 
 followed by a translation of another remarkable German work, 
 ' Das Wesen der Christenthums,' ' The Essence of Christianity. 
 By L. Feuerbach. Translated from the German by Marian 
 Evans,' 12mo, London, 1853. About this time Miss Evans is 
 also said to have been engaged on the editorial staff of the ' West- 
 minster Review,' and to have contributed critical accounts of 
 books of the class indicated by the works above cited. 
 
 The earliest stories from her pen, so far as we know, were 
 ' Scenes from Clerical Life,' 8vo, Edinburgh and London, 1858, 
 which had previously appeared in ' Blackwood's Magazine.' The 
 Scenes attracted considerable attention, and the firm yet delicate 
 drawing of the principal characters was recognised by judicious 
 critics, but the work can hardly be said to have made a very deep 
 impression. 'Adam Bede' (3 vols. 8vo, 1859), however, was 
 instantaneously successful. Speculation was rife as to the real 
 author, and half-a-dozen claimants contended, personally or by 
 their champions, for the honour. But while readers were in 
 doubt and darkness as to the name and even sex of the writer, 
 there was no doubt that in George Eliot England possessed a 
 novelist of original genius. Adam Bede and his mother 'Lisbeth, 
 the gentle semi-quakeress Dinah Morris, and above all, Mrs. 
 Poyser, with her ready proverbs and quaint sententious sayings, 
 were universally recognised as veritable creations, beings pos- 
 sessed of life, breath, and personality. It was felt that it was 
 long since a novel had appeared of such assured simplicity of 
 construction, quiet strength of diction, dramatic power, and 
 sweetness of unobtrusive description, combined with purity of 
 feeling, breadth of sympathy, imagination, pathos, and kindly 
 humour. 'The Mill on the Floss,' 1800, had a severe ordea! to 
 bear as the successor of ' Adam Bede,' but on the whole it sus- 
 tained the trial bravely. 'Silas Marner,' 1861, was a vigorous 
 and spirited, but less ambitious story, in a single volume. The 
 authoress had seemingly reserved her strength for 'Romola,' 
 1863, a story of great and original power, but in quite a different 
 line from its predecessors, the scene being Florence in the time 
 of Savonarola— a story concerning itself with art and poetry, and 
 which might have been a poem. But eloquent and beautiful as 
 it is, it is not the kind of story to suit the ordinary novel reader, 
 and it was far less popular than its predecessors, and is likely 
 to remain so, whatever critics may say. In ' Felix Holt, the 
 Radical,' 1866, the authoress returned to the scenes and per- 
 sonages of her first success, but here the peasants and working 
 men moved in more stirring times, and were in a sterner mood, 
 and altogether the story was of a more elevated tone of thought 
 and feeling. 
 
 From these two the transition was easy to the narrative and 
 dramatic poem. The ' Gipsy Queen,' which appeared in 1868, is 
 poetry of a very high order of excellence, and contains many 
 passages of great beauty, depth, and power, and much noble and 
 subtle thought ; but readers generally, remembering Adam Bede, 
 pronounced it deficient in interest. Her latest production is 
 'Agatha: a Poem,' 8vo, London, 1809. ' Adam Bede ' and the 
 ' Mill on the Floss ' have been translated into German bv J . Frese, 
 the former, 2 vols. Berlin, 1860, the latter, 2 vols. Berlin, 1861. 
 
 EVEREST, SIR GEORGE, a distinguished geodesical sur- 
 veyor, was born at Gwerndale, Brecknockshire, July 4th, 1790. 
 He entered the Military Academy at Woolwich, where he was 
 much noticed by Dr. Hutton, the mathematical master ; and in 
 1806 he went out to India as cadet in the Bengal Artillery. 
 "Whilst serving in Java, from 1813 to 1816, he was employed by 
 Sir Stamford Rallies to survey that island. He was next engaged 
 in establishing a system of semaphore signals or telegraphs, from 
 Calcutta to the north-west of British India. The experience 
 acquired in these services led to his being selected as assistant to 
 Colonel Lambton, Superintendent of the Trigonometrical Survey 
 of India. After this, for a time, lie went to the Cape of Good 
 Hope, where he detected an error in La Caille's measurement of 
 an arc of the meridian ; his papers on this subject, in the 
 
COO EVERETT, EDWARD. 
 
 Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, led to a more 
 .accurate measurement of an arc by Sir Thomas Maclean. On the 
 death of Colonel Lambton, in 1823, Everest was appointed his suc- 
 cessor on the great ordnance survey of India. He completed an arc 
 of the meridian to lat. 24° 7' N. ; and the East India Company 
 supplied him with the means for publishing the result of his 
 labours, in ' An Account of the Measurement of the Arc of 
 the Meridian between the parallels of 18° 3' and 24° 7' ; being 
 a continuation of the grand Meridional Arc of India, as detailed 
 by Lieutenant-Colonel Lambton in the volumes of the Asiatic 
 Society of Calcutta,' 4to, London, 1830. After visiting England, 
 Everest returned to India, with some fine surveying instruments 
 made by Troughton ; and in 1832 he commenced the prolonga- 
 tion of "the arc to the Himalaya. This great work was finished 
 in 1841, and was described in ' An Account of the Measurement 
 of two sections of the Meridional Arc of India, bounded by the 
 parallels of 18° 3' 15", 24° 7' 11", and 20° 30' 48",' 4to, London, 
 London, 1847. He gradually rose to the rank and title of 
 Colonel Sir George Everest, and was elected member of several 
 scientific societies. He died December 1st, 1866. Colonel 
 Everest was the inventor of an instrument for taking angles in 
 the field with great accuracy. 
 
 EVERETT, EDWARD, D.C.L. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 847]. In 
 1860 Mr. Everett was nominated by the Unionist party a candi- 
 date for the vice-presidency of the United States, but was not 
 elected, and thenceforward confined his energy mainly to the 
 furtherance of the moral and intellectual progress of his native 
 State. He was the leader in the movement for the purchase of 
 Washington's estate, Mount Vernon, and its preservation as 
 national property. He died at Boston, January the 15th, 1865. 
 
 * EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST, VON, one of 
 the foremost biblical scholars in Europe, was born at Gottingen 
 on the 16th of November, 1803, and was educated successively 
 at the gymnasium and the university of his native city. In 
 1823 he became a professor at the Gymnasium of Wolfenbiittel ; 
 and in the same year produced the first fruits of his oriental 
 learning, in the shape of a Critical Enquiry into the Composition 
 of the Rook of Genesis, ' Die Composition der Genesis. Kritisch 
 untersucht,' 8vo, Brunswick, 1823. Having, through the recom- 
 mendation of Eichhorn, his former teacher, received in 1824 a 
 licence to lecture as repetent in the faculty of theology in his 
 own university, he returned to Gottingen, where he was 
 appointed, in 1827 and 1831 respectively, extraordinary and 
 ordinary professor in the philosophical faculty, and in 1835 
 professor of oriental languages. After Eichhorn's death in 
 1827 he lectured on Old Testament Exegesis. In the years 
 1826, 1829, and 1836, he travelled, for the purpose of consulting 
 various oriental manuscripts, to Berlin, Paris, and Italy ; and 
 during the same period published several works in oriental 
 philology, ' De Metris Carminum Arabicorum Libri duo, cum 
 Appendice,' &c, 8vo, Brunswick, 1825; 'Liber Wakedi de 
 Mesopotamia) expagnatse Historia e codice Arabico,' &c, 4to, 
 Gottingen, 1827; on some old Sanscrit Metres, ' Ueber einige 
 altere Sanskrit-Metra,' 8vo, Gottingen, 1827 ; ' Grammatica 
 critica Lingua; Arabic* cum brevi Metrorum Doctrina,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, Leipzig, lb31 — 33; Lectures on Biblical and Oriental Lite- 
 rature, ' Abhandlungen zur biblischen und orientalischen Lite- 
 ratur,' 8vo, Gottingen, 1832 ; a Critical Hebrew Grammar, 
 ' Kritische Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache ausfuhrlich 
 bearbeitet/ 8vo, Leipzig, 1827 ; a Grammar of the Hebrew Lan- 
 guage of the Old Testament, ' Grammatik der Hebraischen 
 Sprache des Alten Testaments,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1828, second edi- 
 tion, essentially a new work, 1835, third edition, 1838, and 
 greatly enlarged in successive editions up to the seventh, entitled 
 ' Ausluiiiches Lehrbuch der Hebraischen Sprache des alten 
 Bundes,' Svo, Gottingen, 1863, English translation, by Nicholson, 
 from the second German edition, 8vo, London, 1836; and a 
 smaller Grammar for Schools, 'Grammatik der Hebraischen 
 Sprache in vollstiindiger Kiirze,' 8vo, Leipzig, 1828, the later 
 editions of which, in Svo, Leipzig, 1842 and 1855, and Svo, 
 Gottingen, 1862, are known as 'Hebraische Sprachlehre fiir 
 Anfanger.' 
 
 The first act of the Duke of Cumberland, on his accession to 
 the throne of Hanover in 1837, was the arbitrary repeal of the 
 Hanoverian ' Staatsgnmdgesetz,' or Constitution, against which 
 measure seven professors — Dahlmann, Ewald, Albrecht, Gervinus, 
 Weber, and the brothers Grimm— entered a solemn protest, 
 which, being unavailing, they followed up by resignation. This 
 step, which involved for the time being the destruction of the uni- 
 versity, and its numerical weakness permanently, was honoured 
 by the publication of a series of biographies, with portraits, of 
 
 EYRE, EDWARD JOHN. 510 
 
 tbe patriotic professors, 'Die Sieben Gottinger Professoren nach 
 ihrem Leben und Wirken,' Svo, Brunswick, 1838. Of tin- whole 
 seven, none returned to his duties at Gottingen except Ewald, 
 when the king, in the revolutionary year 1848, invited them 
 back on honourable conditions. Leaving Gottingen on the 12th 
 of December, 1837, he repaired to England, the libraries of v, hicl] 
 he frequented for the same purposes as those for which he had 
 previously visited the libraries of the Continent; and in 1838 
 accepted a call to be ordinary professor of theology in the uni- 
 versity of Tubingen. Whilst filling this office he published his 
 translation of the Prophets, 'Die Propheten des Alten Bundes, 
 erklart,' &c., 2 vols. 8vo, Stuttgart, 1840—41, English translation, 
 in part, comprising ' The Prophet Isaiah, chapters i. — xxxiii.,' 
 8vo, Cambridge and London, 1869 ; and commenced the issue 
 of his History of the J ewish People, ' Geschichte des Volkes 
 Israel,' 7 vols. 8vo, Gottingen, 1843—59, third edition, 1864, of 
 which a partial translation by Professor Martineau was published 
 as ' The History of Israel/ 2 vols, 8vo, London, 1867—69, second 
 edition, 1869, which brought the history clown to the Book of 
 Judges, whilst another portion, the fifth volume, entitled 
 ' Geschichte Christus und seiner Zeit,' was published in English 
 as 'The Life of Jesus Christ,' 8vo, Cambridge and London, 1865, 
 by the Rev. Octavius Glover. 
 
 In 1848, as we have seen already, Dr. Ewald resumed his 
 intermitted functions at Gottingen, and published a pamphlet on 
 his Departure from the University of Tubingen, &c, 'Ueber 
 meinen Weggang von der Universitat Tubingen, mit andern 
 Zeitbetrachtungen,' 8vo, Stuttgart, 1848 ; since which time te 
 has prosecuted his researches into special subjects of Biblical 
 History and Criticism, having produced, as the result of his New 
 Testament studies, a Translation and Exposition of the first 
 three Gospels, ' Die drei ersten Evangelien ubersetzt und erklart,' 
 Svo, Gottingen, 1850 ; a Translation and Exposition of St. Paul's 
 Epistles, ' Die Sendschreiben des Apostels Paulus ubersetzt und 
 erklart,' 8vo, Gottingen, 1857 ; a Translation and Exposition of 
 the Gospel, the Epistles, and the Apocalypse of St. John, ' Die 
 Johanneischen Schriften ubersetzt und erklart, ' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Gottingen, 1861 — 62. Dr. Ewald's other works include a Trans- 
 lation and an Introduction to the Song of Solomon, &c, ' Das 
 Hohelied und der Prediger,' &c, 8vo, Gottingen, 1826 ; 'Com- 
 mentarius in Apocalypsin Johannis exegeticus et criticus,' Svo, 
 Leipzig, 1828 ; the Poetical Books of the Old Testament, ' Die 
 Poetischen Biicher des Alten Bundes, erklart,' 4 vols. 8vo, Got- 
 tingen, 1835 — 37, second edition, with the modified title of ' Die 
 Dichter,' &c., 1840 — 67, being a translation of the Books of the 
 Psalms, Lamentations, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solo- 
 mon, and Job. In addition to the foregoing, Dr. Ewald has 
 produced several works of a local, controversial, and political 
 nature ; and his contributions to oriental learning in various 
 journals have been of great range and frequency. In 1837 he 
 co-operated with other scholars in founding a valuable periodical 
 entitled ' Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes,' which 
 resulted in 1845 in the formation of the German Oriental Society. 
 In 1849 he established the ' Jahrbiicher der Biblischen Wissen- 
 schaft,' to which he was the chief, and sometimes the only con- 
 tributor, and which he continued till 1865 ; and he has furnished 
 learned disquisitions on Phoenician Inscriptions, on the ^Ethiopian 
 Book of Enoch, and on the Sibylline Books, to the ' Gottinger 
 gelehrte Anzeigen,' and especially to the Transactions of the 
 Royal Scientific Society of Gottingen. 
 
 EWART, WILLIAM [E. C. vol. ii. col. 849]. Mr. Ewart 
 continued to represent the Dumfries District of Burghs down 
 to the Dissolution of 1868. He died at his seat, Broadless, near 
 Devizes, Wiltshire, on the 23rd of January, 1869. 
 
 * EYRE, EDWARD JOHN, was born about 1817, in York- 
 shire. When about 16 years of age he went to Sydney, com- 
 menced sheep-farming, and soon rose to opulence. He settled 
 upon an estate which he had bought on the Lower Murray. He 
 was appointed Protector of the Aborigines, and as such was 
 engaged in settling the numerous disputes which arose between 
 the natives and the colonists, a task which he executed with 
 much tact. In 1839 he made an expedition into the interior of 
 South Australia, but did not penetrate far. In 1840, he again 
 tried to work his way north from Port Lincoln, but not suc- 
 ceeding, he made a journey of 1500 miles along the south 
 coast of Australia, and ascertained the general absence of water- 
 courses. After a visit to England in 1845, he was appointed 
 lieutenant-governor of New Zealand, his brother, Sir George 
 Grey, being governor. In 1854 he became lieutenant-governor 
 of St. Vincent ; in 1859-60, he was governor of Antigua. His 
 health being impaired he returned to England, but in 1862 he 
 
511 
 
 FABER, JOHANN. 
 
 FALCON EE, HUGH. 
 
 5V2 
 
 was called out again as governor at Jamaica. While at this 
 post a rebellion broke out among the negroes in October, 1805. 
 which he repressed by declaring martial law and executing or 
 punishing the ringleaders, His measures were considered too 
 severe and arbitrary by some persons ; an inquiry was instituted, 
 and Eyre himself was superseded. The committee of investi- 
 
 gation fully acquitted him of the charges brought against him. 
 but as there was a great deal of ill-feeling prevalent, he was not 
 reinstated in his post. On his return to England he was prose- 
 cuted on a charge of murder, and public subscriptions were 
 raised on both sides in order to defray the legal expenses. This 
 trial also resulted in his acquittal. 
 
 F 
 
 FABER, or FABRI, JOHANN, a prelate of the Romish 
 Church, known, from the title of his principal work, as 
 Malleus Hwrcticorum, was born at Leuckirchen, in Suabia, in the 
 year 1478. He became a member of the Dominican order, and 
 distinguished himself in several of the universities of Germany. 
 In 151!) lie received the appointment of vicar-general to the 
 Bishop of Constance ; and in 1526 that of confessor to Ferdinand, 
 King of the Romans, and afterwards Emperor, who entrusted 
 him with a mission to King Henry VIII. of England. He 
 was much engaged in controversy against the leaders of the 
 Reformation, especially against Luther, Zwingle, and (Ecolam- 
 padius. His manner in argument was impatient and intem- 
 perate ; and, amongst other indiscreet expressions, he is re- 
 ported to have exclaimed, when hard pressed in a discussion with 
 Zwingle, "that the world might very well live in peace without 
 the Gospel." In 1531 he was preferred to the bishopric of 
 Vienna, which gave occasion to Erasmus to say that, " though 
 Luther was poor himself, he made his enemies rich." His death 
 is alternatively stated to have taken place on the 21st of Slay, 
 or the 12th of June 1541. The works of Dr. Faber include his 
 'Moscovitarum juxta Mare glaciale Religio,'4to, Basel, 1526", 8vo, 
 Basel, 1541 ; ' Advcrsus Doctorem, Balthasarum Pacimontanum, 
 Anahaptistarum nostri Saoculi primum Authorem, orthodoxie 
 Fidei Catholics Dcfensio,' 4to, Leipzig, 1528 ; and 'Malleus 
 Hau'eticorum,' folio, 1524, which was reprinted at Rome in 1509. 
 He was engaged in a collective publication of a large portion of 
 his works at the time of his death ; and they were issued as 
 ' Opera,' &c, 3 vols., folio, Cologne, 1537—41. The first and 
 second volumes were devoted to his sermons, containing espe- 
 cially a series of seven Discourses on Baptism ; to a treatise en- 
 titled ' De Fide et bonis Operibus ; ' and to a ' Confutatio gra- 
 vissimi Erroris asserentis in Sacramento Altaris, post Consecra- 
 tionem non esse totum et integrum Christum,' winch was also 
 published separately in 4to, Leipzig, 1537. The third volume, 
 issued in 1541, contained his Homilies, and a Treatise on the 
 Miseries of Human Life, ' Homiliarum de Tempore et Sanctis, 
 Centuria Prima,' and ' Declamationes divina? de humanse Vitae 
 Miseria,' the latter of which had been first published in folio, 
 Augsburg, 1520. 
 
 * FAED, THOMAS, R.A., was born in 1826 at Burley 
 Mill, Kirkcudbrightshire. Following in the footsteps of an 
 elder brother, he went to Edinburgh ; became a student in the 
 Trustees Academy; made himself favourably known by some 
 drawings in water colours, and afterwards by oil paintings of 
 Highland shepherds and other rustic homely srd>jects, and 
 was elected Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. Mr. 
 Faed's great Scottish success, however, was made with his ' Sir 
 Walter Scott and his friends at Abbotsford,' 1849, which was 
 engraved. Soon after this he settled in London, and in 1853 
 succeeded in catching the public eye by a picture in the exhibi- 
 tion of the Royal Academy, ' The Mitherless Bairn.' Thence- 
 forward he continued to furnish a continuous supply of pictures 
 ■ — some years one, in others many — in the same strain, setting 
 forth in a manner that every one could understand and appre- 
 ciate illustrations, painted in a broad, bright, clever, conventional 
 way, of humble Scotch domestic lii'e, Scotch piety, thrift, poverty, 
 humour, sentiment ; and every year he found his popularity 
 increase. His pictures, among a hundred others, include such 
 subjects as — 'The first break in the family,' 1857; 'A 
 Listener never hears gude o' himsel',' 1858 ; ' My ain fire- 
 side,' and 'Sunday in the Backwoods' (a Scotch emigrant 
 family in their settlement), 1859 ; ' His only pair,' 1850 ; ' From 
 Dawn to Sunset,' 1861 ; ' The Silken Gown,' 1863 ; ' Baith 
 Faither and Mither,' 1864; 'The Last of the Clan,' 1865; 
 "Ere care begins.' 1866 ; 'Homeless/ 1869; 'When the day is 
 <$one,' 1870. Mr. Faed was elected A.R.A. in 1861 ; R.A. in 
 
 1865. His elder brother, * John Faed (horn 1820) is also 
 a painter of merit, but more appreciated in Scotland than in 
 England. 
 
 FALCONER, HUGH, palaeontologist and botanist, was born 
 at Forres, in Elginshire, February 29, 1808, and belonged to the 
 old Scotch family of the Falconers of Lethen and Halkerton. 
 He studied fast at the grammar-school of Forres, and afterwards 
 at King's College, Aberdeen. In 1826 he took his degree 
 of M.A. at Aberdeen, and then went to Edinburgh to pursue a 
 course in medicine. Here Professor Graham stimulated his love 
 for botany, and Professor Jameson for that of geology and 
 zoology. In 1829 he took his degree of M.D. ; and in the same 
 year he was appointed an assistant-surgeon in the Bengal army ; 
 but being below the age of admission to duty he spent the few 
 months which were thrown on his hands in assisting Dr. 
 Wallich in the arrangement of his Indian herbarium ; and in 
 examining the collections of fossils in London, and some 
 mammalian remains which were obtained from the banks of 
 the Irawaddy river, by Mr. John Crawfurd. In 1830 
 Falconer proceeded to Calcutta, and at the first opportunity he 
 examined the fossil bones from Ava in the museum of the 
 Asiatic Society at that place, and the results were given in his 
 first paper, entitled 'Note on certain specimens of animal 
 remains from Ava,' in 'Gleanings in Science,' vol. iii. pp. 
 167 — 170 (1831). In the following year he was ordered to 
 Meerut, near Delhi, and was charged with the care of some 
 invalids who were about to proceed to the sanatorium of 
 Landour, in the Himalaya Mountains. In his journey he 
 passed through Suharunpore, where Dr. Royle had the super- 
 intendence of a botanic garden ; and a strong friendship 
 sprung up between them, which had an influence on Falconer's 
 career. When Dr. Royle had leave of absence Falconer was 
 appointed to officiate in his stead, and in 1832, when Dr. Royle 
 left for Europe, the entire management was placed in Falconer's 
 hands as superintendent. Suharunpore is situated in the 
 country between the head waters of the Jumna and Ganges, and 
 a little to the south of a low range of hills, which run in 
 front of, and form a sort of step to, the great Himalaya range. 
 This low range is formed of tertiary deposits, and was called the 
 Sewalik Hills by our subject, a name which had been previously 
 applied rather vaguely, and sometimes to the outer ridges of the 
 true Himalayas. His earliest field explorations had for object 
 the examination of these hills, and partly from some plant 
 remains discovered by Lieutenant (now Sir Proby) Cautley, 
 partly from the character and arrangement of the strata, he 
 determined them to be tertiary. Soon after this conclusion 
 had been arrived at he heard of some obscure fossils which led 
 him to suspect that these strata contained osseous remains. 
 In April, 1834, he found the carapace of a fossil tortoise, and 
 this led to active and extensive operations being undertaken by 
 himself and Captain Cautley, which resulted in the collection 
 of a tropical fossil mammalian fauna of unrivalled richness and 
 variety. It embraced several kinds of creatures related to the 
 elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, camel, giraffe, and 
 many others. Amongst the most striking forms were a four-horned 
 ruminant, Sivatherium , and a gigantic tortoise, Colossochebjs Atlas. 
 There were also numerous birds, reptiles, and fishes. But Fal- 
 coner and Cautley were sufficiently well versed in palaeontology 
 to determine the affinities of the remains found by them, and 
 they lived far beyond the pale of scientific authorities and 
 books. They wrote to Europe for the works of Cuvier and 
 others, but the volumes never reached them. But these obstacles 
 were overcome by dint of enthusiasm and perseverance. They 
 cellected specimens of all the animals of the district, and 
 mounted their skeletons so as to facilitate the determination of 
 the nature of the fossils. This work was carried on steadily 
 
FALCONER, HUGH. 
 
 FARADAY, MICHAEL. 
 
 for years. Other things, however, also occupied Dr. Falconer's 
 attention. In 1834 he recommended the culture of the tea- 
 plant in India, and he spent some time in traversing the Sewalik 
 hills and their neighbourhood in search of suitable sites. As 
 superintendent he himself explored large areas for species of 
 plants, and employed trained collectors for the same purpose ; 
 in which way he added largely to Indian botany. In 1837 he 
 accompanied Bumes's second expedition to Cabul, but when 
 they reached Peshawur he quitted the party, and went to 
 Cashmere, where he lived for many months, busily occupied in 
 making extensive natural history collections. In 1838 he 
 explored the valley of Skuardo and the great glaciers descending 
 from the Muztagh range ; and returned to Cashmere by the 
 valley of Astore, where he discovered Narthex assafcetida, and 
 determined it to be the true source of the assafoctida of com- 
 merce. He worked his way back to Saharunpore through the 
 Punjab, between which tract and Cashmere he discovered fresh 
 evidence of the Sewalik group of beds. The collections formed 
 in this journey filled nine carts, and comprised many new species 
 of plants and mammalia, and hundreds of species of seeds and 
 birds' skins. His incessant activity at all seasons subjected him 
 to numerous attacks of illness, and his constitution was so 
 weakened that he was obliged to return to Europe on sick leave 
 in 1842. The collections he brought home comprised seventy 
 large chests of dried plants, and forty-five cases (weighing in the 
 aggregate five tons) of fossil bones. From 1843 to 1847 he lived 
 in England. In 1840 Captain Cautley gave to the British Museum 
 his collection of fossils, which had cost him ten years' labour, and 
 filled 214 large chests, the carriage of which from India cost up- 
 wards of 6001. The whole series, or the great bulk of it, was in 
 a chaotic state, and the leaders of the scientific world urged 
 upon government the desirability of arranging and displaying 
 it. Dr. Falconer was commissioned to do this, and to draw 
 up a work illustrative of the specimens. This work was the ' Fauna 
 Antiqua Sivalensis.' As fast as the specimens could be cleaned 
 and fitted for exhibition, they were figured by Mr. Ford, and in 
 the course of three years 9 parts of the work were issued, each 
 containing twelve folio lithographic plates. The labour of pre- 
 paring, comparing, and identifying the specimens was so great that 
 little time was available for writing the letterpress; and in Decem- 
 ber, 1847, the further progress of the work was practically stopped, 
 for Dr. Falconer was then compelled to return to India. On his 
 return to India, he succeeded Dr. Wallich as superintendent of the 
 Botanic Garden at Calcutta, and as such was the adviser to the go- 
 vernment on all matters pertaining to Indian plants. He reported 
 on the best means of preserving the teak forests; he recommended 
 and did much towards promoting the cultivation of Cinchona 
 plants in India ; wrote reports on the shawls of Cashmere for the 
 Official Catalogue of the Great Exhibition of 1851 ; on the cochi- 
 neal insect of the Punjab, and on other subjects. In 1854 he 
 undertook to arrange and catalogue the specimens in the Calcutta 
 Museum, a work of unusual difficulty, owing to their being for 
 the most part without date, place, or reference of any kind. His 
 familiarity with Indian fossils greatly assisted him in reducing 
 them to order. In 1855 he retired from the service, and returned 
 to England, visiting the Crimea, the Holy Land, and other 
 oriental places on his way home. He now renewed his palaeon- 
 tologies] researches ; but his health compelled him to spend a 
 large portion of his time in the south of Europe. In 1857 he 
 communicated to the Geological Society an important paper ' On 
 the Species of Mastodon and Elephant occuixing in the fossil 
 state in England.' The first part was published in the 'Quarterly 
 Journal' of the Society for 1857 ; but the second was postponed 
 pending the result of some investigations he was engaged in, and 
 was not published until August, 1865. His attention was also 
 largely given to other mammalian genera, such as Rhinoceros, 
 Plcu/iaulax, Cervus, Spemu/philus, and others; to caves and their 
 fossil contents ; and to the antiquity of man. He took an active 
 part in connection with the exploration of Brixham cave, the 
 caves of Dordogne, and the caves of Gibraltar. It was on his 
 return from this last locality in the beginning of 1865 that the 
 diligence in which he was travelling through Spain broke down, 
 and caused his exposure to severe wintry weather, for which his 
 constitution was quite unfitted ; the result was that he was attacked 
 with rheumatism, . which developed into disease of the heart 
 and lungs, and brought him to his end on January 31, 1865. 
 At the lime of his death he was engaged in writing a work ' On 
 Primeval Man,' for which he had special advantages. He was a 
 member of numerous societies. He took great interest in the 
 foundation of scholarships in the University of Edinburgh for 
 deserving students in natural science, and since his death a 
 bioo. div. — sur. 
 
 ' Falconer Memorial ' has been provided, consisting of two bust-: — 
 one placed in the rooms of the Royal Society, the other in the 
 Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta, — and of a 
 'Falconer Fellowship ' in the Edinburgh University. Dr. Fal- 
 coner had a reputation for a depth and range of knowledge, 
 which his published works scarcely seemed to justify. If, 
 however, he published comparatively little, it was owing to his 
 reluctance to commit himself to statements without having 
 thoroughly satisfied himself of their accuracy. His palaeontologieal 
 writings, a large proportion posthumously published, have been 
 brought together under the title of ' Pala;ontological Memoir i 
 and Notes of the late Hugh Falconer, M.D., etc.,' 2 Tola 8vo, 
 London, 1868, to which is prefixed a biographical sketch by the 
 editor, Dr. Murchison ; from which the preceding details have 
 been derived. His voluminous botanical notes have been placed 
 in the library connected with the Herbarium at Kew. 
 
 FARADAY, MICHAEL [E. C. vol. ii. col. 871], "Born Sep- 
 tember 22nd, 1791, Died August 25th, 1867," is the only inscription 
 on a plain slab that marks the grave of this great man in High- 
 gate Cemetery. The year before his death he wrote, " I have 
 told several what may be my own desire ; to have a plain simple 
 funeral, attended by none but my own relatives, followed by a 
 gravestone of the most ordinary kind, in the simplest eartiilv 
 place." In addition to the notice in the E. G, a few personal 
 particulars may be interesting here. They are derived from the 
 outline contributed by Dr. Bence Jones, F.R.S., Secretary to the 
 Royal Institution, to the obituary notices of deceased Fellows of 
 the Royal Society, and it has the rare merit of making the sub- 
 ject of the notice speak for himself, the writer doing scarcely 
 more than connect Faraday's language into a consistent whole. 
 The notice is divided into a series of headings, giving the age of 
 Faraday, with the date, the first being, "iEt. 1 to 12 (1791 to 
 1S04),"" the second "^Et. 13 to 19 (1805 to 1811)/' the third 
 "yEt. 20 (1812)," after which there are Notices, Extracts from 
 Journals, Letters, &c, for every year down to " JEt. 75 (1867)." 
 Dr. Bence Jones has also published the ' Life and Letters of 
 Faraday,' in 2 vols. 8vo, 1869, and Dr. Tyndall,in a single volume, 
 has given an account of ' Faraday as a Discoverer.' 
 
 Faraday belonged to a religious family of nonconformists, 
 known as Glasites, or Sandenianians, their leading doctrine 
 being that the revealed will of Christ should be the supreme 
 and only law, not only in church questions, but in every 
 thought, word, and deed. Faraday held this doctrine through- 
 out his life, as though it had been a special revelation to himself. 
 
 Faraday was born at Newington, in Surrey, but his father, 
 obtaining work as a blacksmith in Welbeck-street, went to live 
 in Gilbert-street, but shortly after removed to rooms over a 
 coach-house in Jacob's Well Mews, Charles-street, Manchester- 
 square, where Michael lived for nearly ten years. He has 
 pointed out where he played at marbles in Spanish-place, and 
 where he took care of his little sister in Manchester-square. 
 His education consisted of little more than the rudiments of 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic. At the age of thirteen he 
 was placed in a bookseller's shop. No. 2, Blandford- street ; in 
 October, 1805, he was apprenticed to the master of the shop, 
 Riebau, as a bookbinder and stationer, no premium being given. 
 Among the books which Faraday had to bind was Mrs. Marcet's 
 'Conversations on Chemistry,' his first instructor, while the 
 electrical treatises in the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' which he 
 was also employed to bind, taught him the rudiments of the 
 science in which he made so many important discoveries. In 
 his scanty leisure he contrived experiments in chemistry and 
 electricity, and in 1810 — 11 he attended lectures on physics 
 given by Mr. Tatum in Dorset-street, Fleet-street, paying one 
 shilling for each lecture. He also studied perspective, from 
 Taylor's work on that subject. In Tatum's lecture-room he 
 became acquainted with several persons who lent him books, 
 and took interest in his experiments. 
 
 He now felt an intense desire for scientific occupation, even 
 though of the lowest kind, and this, he says, " induced me whilst 
 an apprentice to write, in my ignorance of the world and sim- 
 plicity of my mind, to Sir Joseph Banks, then President of the 
 Royal Society. Naturally enough, ' No answer,' was the reply 
 left with the porter." The very different behaviour of Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy is described in the original memoir. On the 1st of 
 : March, 1813, Faraday was engaged as assistant in the laboratory 
 of the Royal Institution at a salary of 25s. a week, with two 
 rooms at the top of the house. Faraday continued his connec- 
 tion with the City Philosophical Society, founded in 1808 at 
 Mr. Tatum's house, consisting of thirty or forty persons, who 
 met every Wednesday evening for mutual instruction. This 
 1 L L 
 
515 
 
 FARADAY, MICHAEL. 
 
 FARADAY, MICHAEL. 
 
 616 
 
 society was very useful to the members, some of whom adopted, 
 with Faraday, a mutual improvement plan. " It consisted, 
 perhaps, of half-a-dozen persons, who met of an evening to read 
 together, and to criticise, correct, and improve each other's pro- 
 nunciation and construction of language. The discipline was 
 very sturdy, the remarks very plain and open, and the results 
 most valuable. This continued for several years." 
 
 In October, 1813, Faraday accompanied Sir Humphry Davy 
 through France, Italy, Switzerland, the Tyrol, Geneva, &c, and 
 returned in April, 1815. His letters and journal contain some 
 remarkable passages and some interesting particulars respecting 
 Sir Humphry and Lady Davy. Soon after his return his salary 
 was raised to 30s. a week. In January, 1816, he began a course 
 of seventeen lectures on chemistry at the City Philosophical 
 Society, and his first scientific paper was published in ' The 
 Quarterly Journal of Science.' Later in life, when collecting 
 his ' Experimental Researches on Chemistry anil Physics,' he 
 reprinted this paper, which was an account of an analysis of 
 native caustic lime, he says : " I reprint this paper at full 
 length ; it was the beginning of my communications to the 
 public, and in its results very important to me. Sir Humphry 
 Davy gave me the analysis to make as a fir-! attempt in che- 
 mistry, at a time when my fear was greater than my confidence, 
 and both far greater than my knowledge ; at a time, also, when 
 1 had no thought of ever writing an original paper on science. 
 The addition of his own comments, and the publication of the 
 paper, encouraged me to go on making, from time to time, other 
 slight communications, some of which appear in this volume. 
 Their transference from the 'Quarterly' into other journals 
 increased my boldness, and now that forty years have elapsed, 
 and I can look back on what successive communications have 
 led to, I still hope, much as their character has changed, that I 
 have not, either now or forty years ago, been too bold." 
 
 About this time Faraday was incessantly employed, as appears 
 by a letter written in February, 1816, in which he says: — "It 
 is now 9 o'clock p.m., and I have just left the laboratory and 
 the preparation for to-morrow's two lectures. Our double course 
 makes me work enough ; and to them add the attendance re- 
 quired by Sir H. in his researches, and then if you compare my 
 time with what is to be done in it, you will excuse the slow pro- 
 gress of our correspondence on my 8ide." In consideration of 
 the additional labour caused by Mr. Brande's lectures in the 
 laboratory, his salary was increased to 100/. per annum. In the 
 following August, when Mr. Brande left London, he gave the 
 'Quarterly Journal' in charge to Faraday. In 1818 he had six 
 papers in this journal, but the year 1820 was one of the most 
 important of his life, for in this year his first paper was read to 
 the Royal Society, on two new compounds of chlorine and 
 carbon, and on a new compound of iodine, carbon, and hydrogen. 
 In this year, too, he proposed to the sister of his friend, Mr. 
 Edward Barnard, of Paternoster-row, and having obtained per- 
 mission to bring his wife to the institution, was married on the 
 12th of June, 1821. Faraday desired that the day should be 
 considered just like any other day, and some of his relations felt 
 hurt at not being asked to the wedding. As previously arranged 
 by himself, " there will be no bustle, no noise, no hurry occa- 
 sioned even in one day's proceeding. In externals, that day will 
 pass like all others, for it is in the heart that we expect and 
 look for pleasure." 
 
 In this year he published an account of some experiments on 
 electro-magnetism, which now belong to science, but at the time 
 they were supposed by some to have interfered with an inquiry 
 on which Dr. Wollaston was engaged, so that when Faraday 
 became a candidate for admission into the Royal Society, there 
 was some opposition to his election, and Davy even requested 
 him to take down his certificate. Faraday replied, that " he had 
 not put it up ; that he could not take it down, as it was put up 
 by his proposers." At length, however, the opposition was with- 
 drawn, and Faraday was elected January 8, 1824. He was also 
 the oiiginal secretary of the Athena? urn Club; but finding the 
 occupation to interfere with his pursuits, he resigned in May, 
 1824. About this time he was associated with Mr. Brande in 
 the delivery of the morning course of chemical lectures at the 
 Institution, and in 1826 he was relieved from the duty of 
 chemical assistant at the lectures. 
 
 Faraday's position as an original inquirer and lecturer was 
 now fully established, but he preserved the freshness and sim- 
 plicity of his character, as appears by a letter from Mrs. Fara- 
 day's brother, who frequently dined at the Royal Institution. 
 He says, "After dinner we nearly always had our games, just 
 like boys — sometimes at ball, or with horse chesnuts instead of 
 
 marbles, Faraday appearing to enjoy them as much as I did, and 
 generally excelling us all." In 1831, the first series of ' Experi- 
 mental Researches in Electricity ' was read before the Royal 
 Society, a work which was continued to 1856, and afterwards 
 published separately in four volumes octavo. In order to find 
 time for this investigation, Faraday declined a large amount of 
 highly remunerative work, as an analytical chemist and scientific 
 adviser, which was offered to him. Some idea of the amount of 
 self-denial thus required will be gained from the report of a 
 committee of the Royal Institution on the salaries of its officers 
 in December, 1832. "The committee are certainly of opinion 
 that no reduction can be made in Mr. Faraday's salary, 100/. 
 per annum, house, coals, and candles, and beg to express their 
 regret that the circumstances of the Institution are not such as 
 to justify their proposing such an increase of it as the variety of 
 duties which Mr. Faraday has to perform, and the zeal and 
 ability with which he performs them, appear to merit." In 
 1835 Faraday's scientific services attracted the attention of 
 government, and it was proposed to give him a pension. In an 
 interview with Lord Melbourne, his lordship is said to have 
 expressed his opinion that the system of giving pensions to 
 literary and scientific persons was a piece of gross humbug, 
 whereupon Faraday retired, and wrote to Lord Melbourne a 
 letter in which he says : — " I could not, with satisfaction to 
 myself, accept at your lordship's hands that which, though it 
 has the form of approbation, is of the character which your 
 lordship so pithily applied to it." Lord Melbourne had the 
 good sense to write to Faraday a letter of explanation which 
 amounted to an apology, and the pension was granted on the 
 24th of December, 1835. In 1836 Faraday was appointed 
 adviser to the Trinity House, on the condition that the appoint- 
 ment should not involve anything like periodical routine attend- 
 ances, but only occasional consultation. He held this post 
 during thirty years. 
 
 We get a further glimpse of Faraday's domestic life from 
 Miss Reid, a niece of Mrs. Faraday's, who resided during some 
 years at the Institution. She says, " He was fond of all in- 
 genious games and he always excelled in them. For a time he 
 took up the Chinese puzzle, and after making all the figures in 
 the book, he set to work and produced a new set of figures of 
 his own." He also amused himself with papyro-plastics and 
 made a chest- of-drawers, pigeon-house, &c. When dull and 
 dispirited, his wife used to take him to Brighton or somewhere 
 out of town. " Once they had very wet weather in some out- 
 of-the-way place and there was a want of amusement, so he 
 ruled a sheet of paper and made a neat draught-board, on which 
 they played games with pink and white lozenges for draughts.'' 
 He was also fond of bagatelle, "he never missed seeing the 
 wonderful sights of the day — acrobats and tumblers — giants and 
 dwarfs ; " he was also fond of the theatre. 
 
 Faraday often complained, after he had reached fifty years of 
 age, of giddiness and want of memory, but he was greatly re- 
 lieved by rest and travel and change of air ; nevertheless he 
 continued to perform first-rate scientific work. In 1858, Prince 
 Albert offered him a house on Hampton Court green, but as it 
 required repair, he expressed some doubt as to whether he could 
 afford the expense, when the Queen undertook everything that 
 was necessary, and Faraday took up his abode there. In 1860, 
 he gave his last course of Juvenile Lectures ' on the chemical 
 history of a candle,' and on the 20th of June, 1862, he gave his 
 last Friday evening discourse on ' gas-furnaces.' This year he 
 paid particular attention to the magneto-electric light, proposed 
 for light-houses. He was also examined at great length by the 
 public school commissioners, and strongly recommended the 
 study of natural science as a part of education. When asked 
 at what age physical science should be introduced, he said, " I 
 have never found a child too young to understand intelligently 
 what I told him." In 1865 he resigned his office at the Trinity 
 House, and also his position at the Royal Institution, as director 
 of the laboratory. In 1866, Faraday's favourite assistant, An- 
 derson, died, -and at length, in 1867, at the age of 75, died " this 
 blacksmith's son from Jacob's Well Mews, full of religion and 
 gentleness, genius and energy, who searched for anil trusted to 
 facts in his experimental researches, and thus left to science a 
 monument of himself that may be compared even to that of 
 Newton." 
 
 At the request of the Chemical Society, M. Dumas, the per- 
 sonal friend of Faraday, delivered in the theatre of the Royal 
 Institution, an eloquent eloge in the French language, and the 
 council of the Chemical Society founded a Faraday Lectureship. 
 The members of the Chemical Society met at dinner on the 
 
FAREL, GUILLAUME. 
 
 FARINI, LUIGI CARLO. 
 
 518 
 
 occasion of the inaugural Faraday lecture by M. Dumas, and 
 there was also a meeting at the Royal Institution, under the 
 presidency of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, for the purpose of 
 considering what measures should be taken for the promotion 
 of a memorial, when it was resolved that a subscription 
 not exceeding five guineas in amount from any one person, be 
 made for the provision of a public memorial to Faraday. A 
 large sum of money was collected, which it is proposed to spend 
 in the production of a statue to be erected in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral or in the British Museum. An appeal was made to 
 the Government, but as Faraday was only a civilian, there was 
 no precedent for contributing anything from the public purse. 
 It was felt, and is still felt, that a more appropriate memorial 
 would be a Faraday College, in which poor boys in poor schools 
 who display an unusual "amount of talent might be collected 
 together and trained up in science. 
 
 FAREL, GUILLAUME, known as the pioneer of the Re- 
 formation in Switzerland, was the son of a gentleman of Dau- 
 phiny, and was born at Farel, or Fareau, near Gap, in the year 
 1489. He was educated at home as a strict adherent of the 
 Romish Church ; and, contrary to the wish of his father, who 
 intended him for a military career, he elected to devote him- 
 self to a life of study, and about the year 1510 repaired to the 
 Universitv of Paris. After long and severe mental disquietude, 
 he accepted the doctrine of^ salvation by grace, then propounded 
 by Lefevre, the Doctor of Etaples, by whose recommendation he 
 became a teacher in the College of Cardinal Lemoine, one of the 
 four principal houses of the theological faculty of Paris, and 
 equal in rank to the Sorbonne. In 1521 he received an invita- 
 tion from Briconet, Bishop of Meaux, who was favourably in- 
 clined to the Reformation, to preach in that city, where he 
 boldly propagated the new opinions. In 1523, in consequence 
 of the persecution which was commenced at Meaux by the Fran- 
 ciscans, Farel retired to Strasburg, where he was received by 
 Bucer and Capito, as he was afterwards by Zwingle at Zurich, by 
 Haller at Berne, and by CEcolampadius at Basel, where in 1524 
 he publicly defended theses in opposition to the doctrines and 
 usages of the Papists. Being obliged to quit the city, he under- 
 took the evangelisation of Montbeliard, under the protection of 
 the Duke of W urteinburg, the lord of that place. In 1528 lie 
 was commissioned by the Council of Berne to expound the 
 Sciiptures to the people of Aigle and its neighbourhood, and 
 extended his labours to Lausanne and Neufchatel, and after- 
 wards to Geneva, where he openly attacked the tenets of the 
 Papacy. He was obliged to retire from Geneva, however, in 
 consequence of ecclesiastical opposition ; but was recalled in 
 1534, when the inhabitants were inclined to look with greater 
 favour upon the Reformation. Being banished once more from 
 Geneva, in 1538, on account of his contumacy against the decrees 
 of the Synod of Berne, he retired to Neufchatel, where, with in- 
 considerable intervals, he exercised his ministry for the rest of 
 his life, and where he died on the 13th of September, 1565. 
 His works, which are not voluminous, include 1 Theses,' published 
 at Basel, in German and Latin ; ' Disputatio Bernse habita,' 
 1528 ; ' Epistre envoyee au Due de Lorraine,' 12mo, Geneva, 
 1543 ; a book against libertines, entitled ' The Sword of the 
 Spirit,' 1550 ; ' Substance and brief Declaration necessary for all 
 Christians,' 1552 ; and a ' Treatise of the Blessed Sacrament of 
 the Lord, and of His Testament,' 1553. The life and labours 
 of Fare! have been the subject of several works of recent issue 
 in Germany ; and amongst the French and English works con- 
 versant about him may be mentioned ' Farel. Notice par 
 Henri Monod,' 8vo, Paris, 1866 ; a 'Life of William Farel ; or, 
 Life in Action,' &c, 12mo, London, 1848, by " Philos ;" and the 
 Rev. W. M. Blackburn's ' William Farel ; the Story of the 
 Swiss Reform,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1867. 
 
 FARINELLI, whose real name was CARLO BROSCHI, one 
 of the most celebrated singers that ever lived, was bom at Naples, 
 January 24th, 1705. Evincing at an early age a taste for music, 
 he was subjected by his father to an outrage against nature, as 
 a means of obtaining or preserving for him that peculiar kind of 
 soprano or feminine voice which was at that time so much ad- 
 mired in Italy. Having studied music under Porpora and Pis- 
 tocchi, young Farinelli made his debut at the TeatroAlberti, where 
 he at once produced a great sensation by playing female characters 
 — women at that time being forbidden to appear on the stage in 
 the Roman theatres. He warbled a flute composition in competi- 
 tion with the greatest flautist of the age,and won the contest by his 
 marvellous beauty of tone and rapidity of execution. For twelve 
 years he was quite the rage in Italy, meeting with extraordinary 
 success at all the principal theatres and opera houses. In 1734 
 
 there was a remarkable rivalry in London : Farinelli at the Lin- 
 coln's Inn Theatre, under Purpura ; against Oaflarelli at the Hay- 
 market, under Handel. A story is told that Oaffarelli himself 
 admitted that the perfection of singing could be heard only from 
 his great rival. After earning 15,000Z. in three years in Eng- 
 land, Farinelli went for a time to Paris, where he was in im- 
 mense favour with the court of Louis XV. Philip V. of Spain 
 being affected with melancholy, his Queen invited Farinelli, in 
 1737, to come to Madrid, where his singing was more beneficial to 
 the monarch than any medical aid. This led to the bestowal 
 of more honours and influence than were ever before or since en- 
 joyed by a singer. During more than twenty years— first under 
 Philip V., and then under Ferdinand VI. — Farinelli lived at the 
 Spanish Court, receiving a munificent allowance, singing to the 
 King and Queen whenever required, managing an Italian com- 
 pany at the Palace, and possessing great influence in the distribu- 
 tion of Court favours. Dismissed by Charles III. in 1762, he retired 
 to Bologna, built a beautiful mansion, and resided peacefully 
 there. He encouraged Martini to write his History of Music, 
 and collected the best library of music known to that day. He 
 died July 15, 1782. Dr. Burney described Farinelli as being 
 the most exquisite and perfect singer ever known ; while the 
 singer was credited by other writers with many kindly and 
 estimable qualities. 
 
 FARINI, LUIGI CARLO, an Italian physician, statesman, 
 and historian, was born at Russi, in the province of Ravenna, on 
 the 22nd of October, 1812. He was educated at the University 
 of Bologna, where in 1831 he earned off the highest honours of 
 the year. He now became secretary to his uncle, Domenico 
 Farini, then newly appointed as director of police for the pro- 
 vince of Forli, under the provisional government of the Ro- 
 magna, but left the quiet of this employment to take part as a 
 volunteer in the expedition directed against Rome. The Aus- 
 trian invasion arrested the revolution, and young Farini returned 
 to prosecute his medical studies at Bologna. Having completed 
 these, he practised successively in the village of Montessudolo, 
 at Ravenna, and at his native place of Russi ; and gave many 
 proofs of his professional and scientific attainments. His liberal 
 opinions rendered him obnoxious to the government of Gregory 
 XVI. ; and, being expelled from the Roman States in 1843, he 
 first took refuge in Tuscany, and afterwards proceeded to France, 
 everywhere extending his medical experience. The political 
 amnesty granted on the 16th of July, 1846, by Pius IX., who in 
 the previous month had succeeded to the Papal throne, permitted 
 him to return to Italy ; and he accepted, under the new Pope, 
 an honourable professional appointment at Osimo. On the 10th 
 of March, 1848, five days before the proclamation of the Consti- 
 tution, he became Under-Secretary of State, for the Interior, or 
 Home Department ; but resigned with his colleagues after the 
 Allocution of the 29th of April, in which the Pope declared for 
 a policy which favoured Austria at the expense of the hopes of 
 the liberals of Italy. In October of the same year he was made 
 Director of the Board of Health, but was ejected in February, 
 1849, by the Triumvirs of the Republic. He resumed his post 
 on the entry of the French into Rome in J uly following ; but 
 was again dismissed by the Triumvirate of Cardinals. He now 
 took refuge at Turin, where he became a contributor to several 
 journals, but especially to ' II Risorgimento,' the organ estab- 
 lished by Counts Cavour and Cesare Balbo, for the advocacy 
 of Italian unity ; and published the most important of his works, 
 ' Lo Stato Romano dell' Anno 1815 all' Anno 1850,' 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Turin, 1850 ; second edition, " corretta ed accresciuta," 4 vols. 
 12mo, Florence, 1850 — 53, English translation, of which the first 
 three volumes were the work of the Right Hon. W. E. Glad- 
 stone, and the last the work of a lady under his direction, 4 vols. 
 8vo, , London, 1851 — 54 ; French translation, by Jules Amigues, 
 1 L'Etat Romain,' &c, 8vo, Paris, 1862'. Having occupied seve- 
 ral important offices, the provisional government of the Duchy 
 of Modena, on the flight of the Duke in June, 1859, was en- 
 trusted to Farini ; who was sent to Naples in 1860, as Extra- 
 dinary Commissioner from the Government of Victor Emmanuel, 
 to carry out the measures necessary for the incorporation of 
 Southern Italy with the rest of the Peninsula. He resigned 
 this office in January, 1861, and became, soon after, Minister of 
 Commerce and Public Works. In the beginning of 1S62 his 
 health failed, and he refused, in March, to take part in the 
 Ratazzi administration. He was summoned, however, by a 
 decree of the 8th of December, to undertake the presidency of 
 the Cabinet ; and when he was compelled to resign, on the 24th 
 of March, 1863, a liberal pension expressed the national grati- 
 tude for his signal services. He died on the 1st of August, 1866. 
 
 L l 2 
 
619 
 
 FARRAGUT, ADMIRAL. 
 
 520 
 
 Farini addressed letters to Mr. Gladstone on ' La Diplomazia 
 e la Quistione Italiana,' 8vo, Turin, 185(5 ; and in 1858 and 1859 
 to Lord John Russell, on 'La Quistione Italiana,' and ' 11 Conte 
 Buol ed il Piemonte,' which were reprinted as an Appendix to 
 a French ' Memoire sur les Affaires d'ltalie,' 8vo, Brussels, Leip- 
 zig, and Paris, 1859. A French collection of' Farini's political cor- 
 respondence was published with the title of ' Lettres sur les 
 Affaires d'ltalie,' 8vo, Paris, I860. One of his earliest works, in 
 which he combined the views of the statesman and the man of 
 science, was conversant about the cultivation of rice in Italy, 
 ' Sulle Quistioni Sanitarie ed Economiche agitate in Italia in- 
 torno alle liisaie Studi e Ricerclje,' &c, 8vo, Florence, 1845. 
 
 FARR, WILLIAM, M.l). [E. C. vol. vi. col. 993]. 
 
 FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASCOE, an American naval officer 
 of distinction, was born near Knoxville, State of Tennessee, in 
 1801. In 1811 he entered the United States navy as a midship- 
 man on board the 'Essex,' and afterwards served in the line-nf- 
 battle ship ' Independence.' Obtaining his commission of lieu- 
 tenant in 1822, he went a cruise to the East Indies, and was 
 then appointed to a post in the Norfolk Navy Yard. As com- 
 mander, he went to Brazil in the ' Decatur' in 1831 ; then made 
 a cruise in the ' Natchez' to Brazil in 1833, and another to the 
 West Indies in 1838. As captain, he was engaged with the 
 ' Saratoga,' 20 guns, in the Mexican war of 1847. In 1851 he 
 was assistant-inspector of ordnance ; in 1854 he planned a navy 
 yard for California ; and in 1855 commanded the steam frigate 
 'Brooklyn' on the home station. When the Civil War broke 
 out, he was appointed to act with General Butler in the reduc- 
 tion of New Orleans ; he set off in January, 1862, passed the 
 forts at the mouth of the Mississippi, and captured New Orleans 
 on the 28th of the same month. In the following month he 
 took Natchez, higher up the Mississippi. Failing to capture 
 Vicksburg by bombardment (partly owing to the shallowness 
 of the water), he returned to the Gulf of Mexico, and operated 
 against the Confederates on the coast of Texas. Bearing the 
 rank of vice-admiral, he ascended the Mississippi again in 
 March, 1863, steamed boldly past the batteries at Port Hudson, 
 and co-operated with General Grant in the military and navai 
 attack which led to the capture of Vicksburg on the 4th of July. 
 While engaged in operations against forts and vessels at Mobile, 
 in August, 1864, his iron-clad monitor or turret-ship, ' Tecumseh,' 
 was blown up by a Confederate torpedo, with the loss of all on 
 board. He was defeated in an attack on Wilmington in Decem- 
 ber, but succeeded in capturing the place in January, 1865. At 
 the close of the war, the rank of admiral, not till then known in 
 the United States Navy, was created, and bestowed upon Farra- 
 gut. He commanded an American squadron in the Mediter- 
 ranean in 1867 ; and died on the 13th of August, 1870. 
 
 FAUJAS DE ST. FOND, BARTHELEMY, a French geolo- 
 gist, was born at Montelimart, May 17, 1741. He received his 
 education from the Jesuits of Lyon, and qualified himself for 
 legal practice at Grenoble ; but his taste for natural history 
 induced him to forsake the law, and associate himself with 
 Buffon at Paris. He obtained a situation in the Museum of 
 Natural History, and an appointment as mining commissioner. 
 He occupied himself mainly in exploring Europe for the purpose 
 of discovering the structure of the rocks, their mineral riches, 
 and volcanic phenomena. He opened a mine for puozzolano in 
 the Velay, which was largely used for public works, made very 
 extensive geological collections for the Museum, and in many 
 cases was the first to describe fully and accurately extensive 
 areas of country. His writings are very voluminous. The most 
 noteworthy are his ' Recherches sur le volcans eteints du 
 Vivarrais et du Velay,' fol. 1778, Grenoble, in which he endea- 
 voured to prove that volcanic action was the result of the perco- 
 lation of water to the heated interior of the earth ; ' Voyage en 
 Angleterre, en Ecosse, et aux iles Hebrides,' &c, 2 vols. 8vo, and 
 4to, 1797, of which German and English translations have been 
 published ; ' Histoire Naturelle de la montagne de St. Pierre en 
 Maestricht,' 8vo, Paris, 1779 ; and ' Essai de Geologie,' 2 vols. 
 8vo, Paris, 1803 — 1809. In 1793 he was made a professor in 
 the Jardin des Plantes, which office he retained till 1818 ; and 
 on July 18, 1819, he died at St. Fond, in Dauphine. 
 
 * FAVRE, JULES GABRIEL CLAUDE, a French lawyer, 
 orator, and statesman, long recognised as a chief of the demo- 
 cratic party, was born at Lyon, on the 21st of March, 1809, of a 
 mercantile family of Savoyard extraction. He was early destined 
 for the bar, and about the year 1826 proceeded to study law at 
 Paris, where, just before being admitted as an advocate, he took 
 part in the revolution of July, 1830. From this revolution he 
 trusted that a republic would result ; but, being disappointed in 
 
 this hope, he gave vent to his chagrin in the composition of a 
 petition for the abolition of royalty, which he addressed to the 
 'National.' He served in the Garde Nationale during the 
 bloody strife between the ouvriers and the garrison in 1831 ; 
 and, returning to Lyon, became a member of the bar of that 
 city. Here he achieved considerable popularity in consequence 
 of his gratuitous avowal of an article in ' Le Precurseur,' by 
 which he drew upon himself the prosecution hanging over the 
 head of the conductor of that journal. The trial resulted, how- 
 ever, in his acquittal ; and some record of it exists in the 
 'Sixii'ine Proces du " Pr6curseur," ' &c, 8vo, Lyon, 1833, in 
 which year also appeared a brochure, ' De la Coalition des Chiefs 
 d'Atelier de Lyon,' 8vo, Lyon, 1833, and ' Anatheme,' 8vo, Lyon, 
 1833, which is a lamentation over the general adherence of 
 France to the July monarchy. In 1834 he defended the " Mu- 
 tuellistes," a kind of trade-unionists, who were prosecuted as 
 being members of an illegal institution. The trial involved an 
 insurrection ; and it was adjourned in 1835 to Paris, where, 
 before the Cour des Pairs, the young advocate commenced his 
 pleading with the remarkable avowal, " Je suis Republicain." 
 He settled in Paris in 1836 ; and for a few months, jointly 
 with Anselme Petetin, undertook the political direction of 'Le 
 Mouvement,' which had been quitted by Lamennais. After the 
 revolution of February, 1848, he took office as secretary-general 
 to the Minister of the Interior, M. Ledru-Rollin, whose mea- 
 sures he is believed to have inspired, and in whose name he pro- 
 duced the famous circular which called upon the provincial 
 commissioners of the Provisional Government to take energetic 
 action in favour of the new order of things. He resigned office 
 upon the announcement of his election as representative of the 
 department of the Loire in the Assemblee Nationale, and issued 
 a renunciation of public employment, in spite of which, a short 
 time after, he became secretary-general to the Ministry for 
 Foreign Affairs, under M. Bastide. As a member of the As- 
 sembler, he commanded more constant admiration for his talent 
 than sympathy for his conduct, especially in the bitterness which 
 he displayed as a leading member of the commission appointed 
 to investigate the proceedings of MM. Louis Blanc and Caussi- 
 diere. In his various speeches he maintained an independent, 
 position, and voted with the Right or the Left, according to his 
 sense of the propriety of individual measures. He defended the 
 law which re-established the cautionnement of the public 
 journals, and combated successfully the propositions of M. 
 Proudhon. 
 
 After the Presidential election, M. Favre passed over to the 
 Opposition ; advocated the liberty of the press, on which he 
 delivered a discourse, ' La Liberty de la Presse,' folio, Paris, 
 1849 ; attacked the law of deportation, and the foreign policy of 
 the Government, particularly the expedition to Rome, December, 
 1848. After the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December, 1851, he was 
 elected a member of the Council-General in the departments of 
 the Loire and the Rhone ; but, in consequence of his refusal to 
 take the required oath, was obliged to confine his activity to his 
 professional avocations. Various records of his skill and elo- 
 quence as an advocate are extant in volumes and tractates 
 bearing upon the cases in which he was concerned. He dis- 
 played great boldness and power of rhetoric in his defence of 
 Orsini in 1858 ; and in the same year became a member of the 
 Corps Legislatif, where he spoke frequently, and was regarded 
 as the chief of the Opposition called " Les Cinq," which pro- 
 tested firmly against the Imperial Government, and was 
 naturally in a constant minority. In August, 1860, he was 
 chosen batonnier of the order of advocates in Paris, to which 
 post he was re-elected in 1861. In 1863 he was returned as 
 Opposition deputy for the fifth circumscription of Paris, but 
 chose to represent the department of the Rhone, to which he 
 was also elected. He was a relentless opponent of the Mexican 
 expedition in all its phases ; and, interesting himself much in 
 German affairs, professed and sustained, after the convention of 
 Gastein, August 14th, 1856, a protest against the violation of 
 treaties which had been guaranteed by the European powers. 
 In 1868 he became a member of the Academie Francaise, and 
 his candidature for this honour — against which an objection lay 
 that he was an orator and a politician, rather than a man of let- 
 ters — was furthered by M. E. Saint-Hilaire, who, under the pseu- 
 donym of " Evariste Dillot," published 'Jules Favre etl'Acadeniie 
 Francaise,' 8vo, Paris,1867. M. Favre was elected one of the Forty 
 in succession to Victor Cousin ; and his discourse upon admission 
 took, according to custom, the shape of a panegyric on his prede- 
 cessor. It was published as the ' Discours de M. Jules Favre, pro- 
 nonce a la Reception a l'Academie Francaise, le 23 Avril, 1868,' to 
 
521 FAWKNER, JOHN PASUOE. 
 
 which was appended the 'Reponse de M. de Remusat, Directeur 
 de l'Academie Francaise,' 8vo, Paris, 1868. The election was 
 followed by the presentation of the new Academician at the court 
 of the Tuileries, where, at a short interview, the Emperor 
 received from the author's hand, a " splendidly bound " copy of 
 his oration. M. Favre took a prominent part in a general 
 discussion of the laws affecting the Press; and his speech, along 
 with the speeches of eight others, including Berryer, Jules 
 Simon, and Gamier Pages, was reprinted, by permission, from 
 the columns of the ' Moniteur Universel,' as 'La Loi de la 
 Presse,' 8vo, Paris, 1868. On the 10th of January, 1869, M. 
 Favre took advantage of the newly acquired right of public 
 meetings, to deliver a lecture on the ' Influence of Manners upon 
 Literature,' in which, giving a summary history of the latter 
 from Pericles downwards, he affirmed its intimate connection 
 with political liberty ; and concluded by expressing his convic- 
 tion that the sphere of woman would in the future be so enlarged 
 that she would not be merely the mother of citizens, but a citizen 
 herself, emancipated from all fetters but those of duty and 
 morality. In the general election of 1869 he was beaten in the 
 department of the Rhone by M. Raspail, and by M. Rochefort in 
 that of the Seine ; but acquired a seat in the Corps Legislatif. 
 
 M. Favre strenuously opposed the war which was proclaimed 
 against Prussia on the 15th of July, 1870 ; and when its mis- 
 fortunes began to press heavily on France, urged the formation 
 of a strong Defence Committee, and charged the Imperial 
 ministers with having traitorously ruined their country by 
 exposing her unarmed to the overwhelming resources of Prussia. 
 On the 4th of September, two days alter the surrender of 
 Napoleon III. at Sedan, he brought forward a motion declaring 
 the Emperor and his dynasty to have forfeited all rights con- 
 ferred by the constitution. On the day following took place the 
 proclamation of the Republic ; and a Provisional Government of 
 National Defence was formed, of which M. Favre was constituted 
 Vice-President, with the office of Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
 On the 6th of September he addressed a circular to the French 
 diplomatic agents abroad, in which, whilst expressing a desire for 
 an honourable peace, he declared the intention of France, not to 
 " cede either an inch of our territory, or a stone of our fortresses ; " 
 and in which he sought to separate the action of France from that 
 of the Imperial policy. In a second circular, dated September 17th, 
 M. Favre announced the immediate summons of a freely-elected 
 Assemblee, which might confer upon the administration the 
 prestige of formal and legal validity ; accepted the responsibility 
 of France in having tolerated a government which led her to 
 ruin ; and admitted the obligation to repair by a measure of 
 justice the ill it had done to Germany. The moderation and 
 candour of this circular procured from Count Bismarck an 
 expression of his willingness to negotiate an armistice with M. 
 Favre; and accordingly the latter proceeded on the 19th of 
 September to a conference with the Chancellor of the North 
 German Confederation, with whom he had interviews near and 
 at Ferrieres, the head-quarters of the King of Prussia. The 
 conditions insisted on by one side and the other were found to 
 be impossible of adjustment; and M. Favre reported, in an 
 address to his colleagues, dated September 21st, which was 
 received by them with enthusiastic and unanimous approval, 
 that he took leave of the Count in the following words :— " I 
 made a mistake, M. le Comte, in coming here ; but I do not 
 regret it. I have suffered sufficiently to excuse myself in my 
 own eyes, but in any case I only yielded to a feeling of duty. I 
 will report to my government all that you have said, and should 
 they consider it fit to send me again to you, however cruel the 
 task for me, I shall have the honour of returning. I am grateful 
 for the kindness you have shown me, but I fear that all that can 
 be done is to let events take their course. As long as there can 
 be found one element of resistance amongst us, we shall fight 
 you. This becomes an interminable struggle between two 
 nations who should extend their hands to each other. I had 
 hoped for a different solution. I leave, most unhappy, but 
 nevertheless full of hope." 
 
 FAWKNER, JOHN PASCOE, one of the pioneers of Austra- 
 lian civilisation, was born in London in 1792. In 1803 he 
 accompanied his father, one of the soldiers sent out to guard 
 convicts at a new penal settlement to be formed on the shores 
 of Port Phillip. Captain Collins, of the 'Calcutta' (appointed 
 governor), finding the country barren and ill-supplied with 
 water, abandoned the settlement after a few months, sailed to 
 Van Diemen's Land, and there founded the penal colony 
 which afterwards expanded into Hobart Town. Young Fawkner 
 led a singularly varied life, by turns a shepherd, a farmer's 
 
 FEE, ANTOINE L. A. 622 
 
 labourer, a sawyer at Sydney in Australia, a storekeeper at 
 Launeeston in Van Diemen's Land, a bush lawyer, a tavern- 
 keeper, a newspaper proprietor and editor. In 18 55 he joined a 
 party in forming a settlement at Port Phillip, the place which he 
 had visited thirty-two years earlier ; he succeeded, but only 
 after many struggles and difficulties, during wluch Fawkner's 
 occupations were as diversified as in previous years — land specu- 
 lator, sheep grower, and wine-grower being added to those 
 enumerated above. He built the first brick house in what is 
 now Melbourne, and saw the town grow up into a great city. 
 He became, in his old age, a member of the Legislative Council 
 of Victoria ; and when he died (September, 1869) the colonists 
 gave him a public funeral, as their most noteworthy representa- 
 tive man. 
 
 * FAYE, HERVE AUGUSTE ETIENNE ALBANS, a 
 French astronomer, was born at Saint Benoit du Soult, depart- 
 ment of, the Indre, on the 5th of October, 1814. After studying 
 at the Ecole Polyteehnique, he went for a time to Holland, and 
 on his return to France received an appointment at the Paris 
 Observatory. In 1841 he succeeded Damoiseau as member of 
 the astronomical section of the Academie des Sciences. On 
 November 22nd, 1843, he discovered, at the Paris Observatory, 
 the comet since known by his name — one of the comets of short 
 period (7 "44 years) ; it was seen again at the subsequent epochs 
 of 1851, 1858, and 1865 ; this discovery obtained for Faye the 
 Lalande Medal from the Academy of Sciences. In 1846 he 
 wrote a paper on the parallax of one of the stars in Ursa Major ; 
 in the following year one on 'Un Nouveau Collimateur Zenithal, 
 et sur une limite Zenithale Nouvelle ;' and in 1848 one on 
 Saturn's ring. These were followed by a paper ' Sur les decli- 
 naisons Absolues,' 1850 ; and ' Des Legons Cosmographiques, 
 1852. In conjunction with C. Galinski, he translated Hum- 
 boldt's ' Cosmos,' and published it under the title ' Cosmos ; 
 Essai d'une Description Physique du Monde,' 4 vols. Svo, 1847. 
 From 1848 to 1854 he was professor of geodesy at l'Ecole Poly- 
 technique. In the last-named year he received the appointment 
 of rector of the Academie Universitaire at Nancy, and astrono- 
 mer to the Faculty of Sciences at the same place. His next 
 appointment was that of inspector-general of sciences at the 
 [secondary Schools. He was chosen member of the Bureau 
 des Longitudes in 1862 ; in 1864 a member of the Imperial 
 Council of Public Instruction; and he has been promoted officer of 
 the Legion of Honour. Many astronomical papers by him have 
 appeared in the ' Comptes Rendus,' and other scientific 
 journals. 
 
 FEAT HERSTONHAUGH, GEORGE WILLIAM, geologist 
 and traveller, was born in London in 1780. Soon after attaining 
 his majority he travelled through various European countries, 
 then visited the United States, where he married and settled. 
 In 1826 he visited England, formed the acquaintanceship of 
 most of the eminent geologists, attended the lectures of Dr. 
 Buckland, and wrote a short article on the chalk near Norwich. 
 In 1829 he returned to the United States, and drew up an 
 excellent review of ' Geology and its Progress.' In 1831 he 
 commenced the conducting of the ' Monthly American Journal 
 of Geology and Natural Science,' and wrote several articles in 
 it on the progress of science. In 1834 and following years he 
 made extensive explorations in the westernmost wilds of 
 the United States, as a government geologist, and the results 
 were embodied in two reports, published in 1835 and 1836, 
 which gave a general account of the country comprised between 
 the lied River on the south and Lake Superior on the north. 
 From 1839 to 1843 he was engaged in determining the boundary 
 between the United States and British North America. In 
 1844 he was appointed the British Consid at Havre and 
 continued to be so till his death on September 27, 1866. In 
 1844 appeared his ' Excursion to the Slave States,' in two 
 volumes, which contained a large fund of information on the 
 scenery, geology, and inhabitants of the countries he had ex- 
 plored. It was so successful that in 1846 two other volumes 
 were issued, entitled 'A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor, 
 with an account of the Lead and Copper Deposits in Wisconsin, 
 and of the Gold Region in the Cherokee Country,' which, in ad- 
 dition to its mineralogical details, contained very free criticisms 
 on the defects of some of the Anglo-Americans and settlers. 
 As Consul at Havre Mr. Featherstonhaugh was instrumental in 
 facilitating the escape of Louis Philippe to England in 1848. 
 He was a Fellow of the Royal, Geological, and other Societies. 
 
 * FEE, ANTOINE LAURENT APOLLINAIRE, botanist, 
 was born at Ardentes, department of Indre, November 7, 1789. 
 He served in a medical capacity in the army during the Penin- 
 
6i3 
 
 FELL, JOHN. 
 
 FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK. 
 
 521 
 
 sular war, and when the French Empire fell he became a 
 civilian, establishing himself as a druggist in Paris. He spent 
 a large portion of his time in endeavouring to raise the status of 
 his profession, and in 1819 founded a Society of Pharmaceutists 
 for the Seine department, many of the objects of which were of 
 a purely charitable nature. Soon after this he again entered the 
 army, and filled several offices in the military hospital at Lille, 
 from whence he moved to that at Strasbourg in 1832. Here he 
 became the principal professor and pharmaceutist, and was also 
 appointed director of the botanical garden, as well as professor 
 of natural history to the Faculty of Medicine of that place. His 
 writings are numerous and varied. Some of earlier date were 
 literary rather than scientific, consisting of poetry, a tragedy, and 
 an identification of the plants noticed by Virgil. In medical 
 literature his principal production is'Cours d'Histoire Naturelle 
 Pharmaceutique,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris. In botany he is best known 
 for his ' Essai BUZ les cryptogames des ecorces exotiques ofhei- 
 nelles,' 4to, 1824—37; 'Methode liehenograpbique,' 4to, 1824; 
 ' Menioires sur la fainille des Fougeres,' folio, 1844 — 45, Stras- 
 bourg; ' Genera Filicum, 4to, 1850—52; and, in conjunotion 
 with Graziou, ' Cryptogames vasculaires du Bresil,' 1870. Be- 
 sides these, he has written several other books, a number of 
 articles, comprising several monographs relating to botany, and 
 others relating to zoology, biography, and travels. 
 
 FELL, JOHN, a learned prelate of the 17th century, was 
 born at Longvvorth, in Berkshire, on the 23rd of June, 1625. 
 His father was Dr. Samuel Fell, who was first a canon (1619), 
 and afterwards dean (1638—49) of Christ Church, Oxford, 
 where the younger Fell was admitted a student in 1636. He 
 took his B.A. and M.A. degrees successively in 1640 and 1643 ; 
 about which time, as a member of the garrison of Oxford, he 
 shared the vicissitudes of the Royalist scholars of the period. 
 He was ordained in due course ; and having, in 164s, been 
 deprived by the Parliamentary visitors of his University privi- 
 leges, he lived, during the continuance of the Commonwealth, 
 in a "retired and studious condition," at Oxford (says Wood), 
 where " he and others kept up the devotions and orders of the 
 Church of England." But the Restoration brought him back to 
 the line of professional promotion. On the 27th of July, 1660, 
 he was made a canon of Christ Church, in the deanery of which 
 he was installed on the 30th of November following, having 
 been created D.D. on the 3rd of October, and placed on the list 
 of the King's chaplains in ordinary. He was appointed Viee- 
 Chancellor of the University on the 3rd of August, 1666 ; and 
 continued in that office until the 25th of September, 1669, during 
 his incumbency of which he devoted himself with great zeal to 
 the discipline, privileges, prosperity and magnificence of the 
 University. On the 6th of February, 1676, Dr. Fell was conse- 
 crated, in the chapel at Winchester House, Chelsea, to the 
 Bishopric of Oxford, with which he was allowed to retain his 
 deanery in comviendam-, in order that he might be as closely con- 
 nected as before with his college and the University. He died 
 on the 10th of July, 1686, "leaving then behind him the general 
 character of a learned and pious divine, and of an excellent 
 Grecian, Latinist, and philologist, of a great asserter of the 
 Church of England, of another founder of his own college, and 
 of a patron of the whole University." He was buried in the 
 Divinity Chapel, or north aisle, adjoining to the choir of Christ 
 Church Cathedral. 
 
 Dr. Fell brought out several editions of ancient authors, and 
 especially of patristic or early ecclesiastical writers ; amongst 
 which maybe mentioned the 'Phenomena' of Aratus of Soli, 
 8vo, Oxford, 1672 ; 'St. Clement's Two Epistles to the Corinthians, 
 in Greek and Latin, with Notes at the end,' 12mo, Oxford, 1677 ; 
 a translation of St. Cyprian's treatise, ' Of the Unity of the 
 Church,' 4to, Oxford, 1681 ; and an annotated edition of ' Sancti 
 Caecilii Cypriaui Opera recognita et illustrata,' &c, folio, Oxford, 
 1682. His other works include several ' Sermons ;' 'The Life 
 of the most learned, reverend, and pious Dr. Henry Hammond,' 
 8vo, London, 1660, &c. ; ' Grammatica Rationis, sive Institutiones 
 Logicas,' 8vo, Oxford, 1673 ; second edition, 1675. Bishop Fell 
 also published, with a preface containing a biography of the 
 author, ' Forty Sermons, &c, by Richard Allestree, D.D.,' folio, 
 Oxford, 1684. 
 
 FELLENBERG, PHILIP EMANUEL VON, founder of 
 the remarkable establishment at Hofwyl, was born at Berne, in 
 Switzerland, June 27th, 1771. His father was a member of the 
 government, and his mother a descendant from the Dutch 
 Admiral, Van Tromp. Receiving his first education at Colmar, 
 he went to Tubingen in 1789 to study the law. He next spent 
 a few years in travelling through Switzerland, France, and 
 
 Germany, paying particular attention to the economical and 
 moral position of the artisans and peasants of the places at which 
 he stopped. Visiting Paris soon after the fall of Robespierre, 
 he was much impressed with the evidence there afforded that 
 liberty and right cannot really be appreciated except when 
 education is generally spread among the people. In 1798 he 
 tilled a political office in the Canton of Berne, but soon resigned 
 it to carry out the project on which he had set his heart. Pur- 
 chasing an estate at Hofwyl, near Berne, in 1799, he began in 
 1801 to organise an educational and industrial establishment. 
 < 'ombining his own ideas with those of his friend Pestalozzi, he 
 formed a scheme for the simultaneous development of the 
 mental and bodily powers of young persons ; industrial pursuits, 
 athletic exercises, games, were added to the usual mental and 
 moral training. Normal schools, agricultural schools, a scientific 
 school, a school of art, an infant school, and an agricultural 
 implement factory, formed part of the Hofwyl establishment. 
 It acquired great fame. Pupils came to it from various countries, 
 while princes and statesmen studied the details of the system. 
 After Fellenberg's death, which occurred on the 21st of Novem- 
 bar, 1844, the institution was conducted for some years by his 
 son Wilhelm, and then abandoned, but not without sowing the 
 seeds of good in many parts of the Continent. The system 
 pursued at Hofwyl has been described very fully by several 
 writers. Fellenberg himself treated of it in the ' Papers on 
 Rural Economy' (' Landwirthschaitliche Blatter'), 1809 and fol- 
 lowing years, and in other works. Among notices by various 
 hands are the following : ' Coup d'ceil de M. Gautheron sur 
 l'inlluence morale qu' exercera l'etablisseinent d'Hofwyl sur la 
 Masse du Peuple ;' ' Lettre de M. Villevielle sur le parti que le 
 midi de la France peut tirer des Moyens et Methodes Agricoles 
 d' Hofwyl;' ' Vues sur l'Agriculture de la Suisse et les Moyens 
 de la perfectionner ;' 'Rapport sur J'etablissemeiit a Hofwyl a la 
 Nation Helvetique ;' ' What Fellenberg has done for Education,' 
 8vo, London, 1839. Hoffmann and Thaer visited and described 
 Hofwyl by order of the King of Prussia. Other reports and 
 accounts have been written by Capo DTstria, Reugger, Rochholz, 
 Schmertz, Verecour, Pictet, &c. Further details will be found 
 in Hamm's ' Fellenberg's Leben und Wirken,' Berne, 1845. 
 
 FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES [E. C. vol. ii. coL 885— 887J. 
 During the latter years of his life Sir Charles FeUows lived in 
 the Isle of Wight, mainly occupied in agricultural pursuits. He 
 died November the 8th, 1861. 
 
 * FELSING, JAKOB, an eminent German engraver, was 
 born at Darmstadt, in 1802, and learnt the rudiments of the art 
 from his father, J. K. Felsing, an engraver of some note. About 
 1822 he went to Italy, and at Milan engraved Carlo Dolci's 
 'Christ on the Mount,' for which he was awarded the grand prize 
 of the Milan Academy. He afterwards visited the chief cities 
 of Italy, staying a considerable time at Rome, Naples, and Parma, 
 and at the latter place forming an acquaintance with Toschi, 
 whose example had much influence on his manner of engraving. 
 He returned to Darmstadt in 1832, and there executed several 
 excellent plates, chiefly from his Italian studies; among the most 
 popular was Ratfaelle's ' Violin Player.' After visiting Munich 
 he went on to Paris, and there became intimate with Desnoyers. 
 Returning to Darmstadt in 1839, he executed a good plate of a 
 Holy Family after Cornelius, and later others of Steinbriick's 
 ' Genoviva,' ' St. Katharine ' after Miicke, and many more, he 
 having come to be recognised as the representative engraver ot 
 the Diisseldorf school. Felsing is one of the most learned as 
 well as able of living engravers, but his later works have hardly 
 borne out, in firmness of line and richness and brilliancy of 
 colour, the promise of his early plates. Felsing is court-engraver 
 and professor at Darmstadt, and a member of the Academies of 
 Milan, Berlin, and St. Petersburg, and associate-engraver of the 
 French Institute. 
 
 FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK, was born at Edinburgh 
 in November, 1808, and was educated at the Universities of 
 Edinburgh and Oxford, at the latter of which he was a member 
 of Magdalen College. Having taken his B.A. degree in 1832, 
 he spent some months at the University of Heidelberg, for the 
 purpose of studying the philosophy and literature of Germany, 
 with the language of which he proved his intimacy by correcting 
 several important errors in all the English translations of ' Faust.' 
 In 1833 he was called to the Scottish bar, but his philosophical 
 predilections interfered with an exclusive devotion to his pro- 
 fessional avocations. He became a contributor to ' Blackwood's 
 Magazine ' in 1832 ; and amongst the papers which he furnished 
 may be mentioned those on the ' Philosophy of Consciousness,' 
 April, 1838, on the ' Initial Movements of the Cartesian Philo- 
 
625 
 
 FETIS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH. 
 
 FIELD, RICHARD. 
 
 620 
 
 sophy ;' and on ' Berkeley's Idealism,' June, 1842, which De 
 Quincey praised as being the most effectual exposition of that 
 system. In 1842 Mr. Ferrier was elected to the chair of history 
 in the University of Edinburgh; and during the illness of Sir 
 William Hamilton in the session of 1844 — 45, supplied his place 
 in the class of logic and metaphysics. He was elected in 1845 
 to the professorship of moral philosophy and political economy 
 at St. Andrew's, in which position he continued till Ins death on 
 the 11th of June, 1864. He went through two unsuccessful 
 candidatures for chairs in the Metropolitan University — once in 
 1852, when he wished to succeed Professor Wilson, his uncle 
 and father-in-law, in the chair of moral philosophy, and again 
 in 1856, when he sought to occupy the chair of logic and meta- 
 physics left vacant by the death of Sir W. Hamilton. The latter 
 contest was an animated one, and his claims were opposed, 
 among others, by Dr. Cairns, in ' An Examination of Professor 
 Fender's "Theory of Knowing and Being,"' 8vo, Edinburgh, 
 1856, to which Ferrier replied with great vigour in his brochure 
 entitled ' Scottish Philosophy : the Old and the New,' &c, 8vo, 
 Edinburgh and London, 1856 ; and, with a still vivid remem- 
 brance of the contest, wrote ' A Letter to the Right Honourable 
 the Lord Advocate of Scotland, on the Necessity of a Change in 
 the Patronage of the University of Edinburgh,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 
 1858. The work upon which Dr. Cairns had based bis objections 
 to Professor Ferrier was the latter's ' Institutes of Metaphysic : 
 the Theory of Knowing and Being,' 8vo, Edinburgh and London, 
 1854, in which he sought to demonstrate the truth of a series of 
 propositions in the three divisions of philosophy — first, the 
 Epistemology, or theory of knowledge ; secondly, the Agnoio- 
 logy, or theory of ignorance ; and, thirdly, the Ontology, or 
 theory of being. He thus undertook the solution of problems 
 hitherto unattempted in the humbler speculation of this country; 
 and though opinions may differ in regard to the result, the emi- 
 nent ability with which the difficulties of the question are 
 encountered is unanimously conceded. Professor Ferrier was 
 accustomed to diversify his ethical course with lectures on the 
 history of philosophical opinion ; and these were published 
 after his death under the editorial care of Sir Alexander Grant, 
 the author's son-in-law, and Professor Lushington, with the title 
 of ' Lectures on Greek Philosophy, and other Philosophical Re- 
 mains of James Frederick Ferrier, B.A., LL.D.,' &c, 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Edinburgh and London, 1866. It remains to be said that 
 Ferrier superintended the publication of the ' Works of Pro- 
 fessor Wilson,' &c, 12 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1855, &c 
 
 * FETIS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH, a Belgian writer on musical 
 criticism, biography, and bibliography, was born at Mons, March 
 25th, 1784. He studied the compositions of Haydn, Mozart, 
 and other great masters, under his father, wdio was an organist. 
 After producing some trifling compositions as a boy, he was 
 placed in 1800 at the Conservatoire de Music at Paris, under 
 Boieldieu and Roy. In 1803 he commenced a lengthened tour 
 in Italy and Germany, where he paid great attention to the 
 study of mediaeval and classical music. In 1818 he became 
 professor at the Conservatoire, and soon afterwards published 
 his ' Traite de Contrepoint et de la Fugue.' Between 1827 and 
 1835 he conducted the ' Revue Musicale,' and wrote musical 
 articles in many other journals. In 1833 the King of the 
 Belgians gave him the appointment of Chapel Master and 
 Director of the Choir at Brussels. In 1845 he became a member 
 of the Belgian Academy. In 1864, in accordance with a testa- 
 mentary wish expressed by Meyerbeer, he superintended the 
 production of the opera ' L'Africaine.' Fetis composed very 
 little music, except two comic operettas, ' L'Amant et le Maid,' 
 and ' La Vieille,' but he has written largely on musical subjects. 
 Among his works are ' Coup d'ccil sur les qualites de la Musique 
 des Pays Bas;' ' Methode dee Me'thodes de Piano;' ' Sol leges 
 Progressifs ;' ' Musique nvise a la portee de tout le Monde,' 
 afterwards published in English and Italian ; ' Traite Complet 
 de la Theorie et de la Pratique d'Harmonie;' 'Curiosites His- 
 tonques de la Musique.' Reprinted from his Magazine articles 
 are biographical notices of Stradivari and Paganini, with remarks 
 on the construction and playing of bow and string instruments. 
 But the most important work by Fetis is the ' Biographie Uni- 
 verselle des Musieiens et Bibliographic Generale de la Musique,' 
 8 vols. 8vo, Brussels and Paris, 1835—44, second edition, 
 1860 — 65. Although disfigured by many inaccuracies, this is 
 the best work of the kind extant, Fetis having embodied his 
 own researches with previous biographies written by French, 
 German, English, and Italian authors. In 1864 M. Fetis was 
 made officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1869, grand officer 
 of the Order of Leopold. 
 
 FIAMMlNGO, IL, Flemish painter. [Calvert, Denxs, E. C. 
 vol. ii., col. 40.] 
 
 FIAMMlNGO, IL, Flemish sculptor. [Dcquesnoy, Fran- 
 cois, E. C. S., col. 492.] 
 
 * FIELD, CYRUS WEST, one of the chief American pro- 
 moters of the Atlantic Telegraph, was born at Stoekbridge, 
 Massachusetts, November 30th, 1819. Having learned com- 
 mercial routine in a counting-house, he established himself as a 
 merchant in New York. Retiring from business in 1853, he 
 made a tour in South America, and on his return advocated 
 with great energy the establishment of telegraphic communica- 
 tion between America and Europe. He procured a charter or 
 concession from the Colonial Government of Newfoundland, 
 conferring exclusive privileges for laying down submarine cables 
 from that island to the mainland of America and to Europe, and 
 wires across the island itself. He visited England in 1854 and 
 1856 to obtain the aid of capitalists in constructing and laving 
 down an Atlantic telegraph ; and he personally accompanied 
 the two cable-laying expeditions of 1857 and 1858. After the 
 failure of those cables he was equally zealous in prosecuting the 
 measures which led to the final success of the great enterprise in 
 1865 and 1866. When the Earl of Derby conferred baronetcies 
 on Mr. Gooch and Mr. Lamp6on, and knighthood on Mr. Glass, 
 Mr. Canning, Professor Thomson, and Captain Anderson, towards 
 the close of 1866, for their services in relation to this subject, 
 Mr. Field could not participate in the honour, on grounds of 
 nationality ; but he was awarded a gold medal by the Liverpool 
 Chamber of Commerce. At a grand banquet given to him by 
 the New York Chamber of Commerce, on the 15th of November 
 in the same year, he gave an interesting narrative of the eventful 
 history of the Atlantic Telegraph, from the first inception of the 
 scheme to its final completion. 
 
 FIELD, JOSHUA, civil and mechanical engineer, was born 
 at Hackney, near London, in 1786. Having evinced a great 
 taste for mechanical pursuits while a school-boy, and shown his 
 aptitude by repairing the school clock, he began in 1802 to visit 
 all the factories and workshops into which he could obtain ad- 
 mission. He was engaged for a time at the Government 
 machine-works in Portsmouth Dockyard, under Sir Samuel 
 Bentham ; and then went, in 1804, as assistant to Mr. Maudsley 
 in constructing Brunei's block-making machinery. In 1810, 
 when Maudsley established the engineering works still main- 
 tained in the Westminster Road, Field was intimately associated 
 with the operations connected with the construction of steam 
 engines, saw mills, block machinery, mint machinery, &c. ; and 
 became a partner in the firm in 1822. He aided in constructing 
 the remarkable shield with which Brunei excavated the Thames 
 Tunnel. When transatlantic steaming commenced, he devoted 
 special attention to the construction of the engines for the 
 ' Great Western.' He was concerned in the manufacture of the 
 electric time balls for Greenwich, Liverpool, Edinburgh, and the 
 South Foreland. Mr. Field (who was the first Chairman of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, and a Fellow of the Royal Society) 
 died August 11th, 1863. 
 
 FIELD, RICHARD, a learned Anglican divine, was born on 
 the 15th of October, 1561, at Hemel Hempstead, in Hertford- 
 shire, and was educated as a commoner of Magdalen Hall, Ox- 
 ford, where he took his degrees in arts. After he had proceeded 
 M.A., he was for seven years daily reader in logic and philosophy; 
 and won the reputation of being the best disputant of his time 
 in the University. He acted for some time as reader of divinity 
 in the cathedral church of Winchester ; and in 1594, by which 
 time he had graduated as B.D., was chosen reader in that faculty 
 at Lincoln's Inn, which office he filled with so great approbation 
 that he was presented by Mr. Kingsmill, one of the benchers, to 
 the living of Boroughclere. In 1598, being then D.D., he was 
 named one of the chaplains in ordinary to Queen Elizabeth, from 
 whom, on the 20th of March, 1602, he obtained a grant by 
 patent of the next vacant prebend at Windsor, in which he was 
 at length installed on the 3rd of August, 1604. He was con- 
 tinued on the list of royal chaplains by King James L ; and 
 was summoned to the conference at Hampton Court in January. 
 1604. In the year following, when the king was entertained at 
 Oxford, Dr. Field was sent for to assist in the divinity act before 
 his majesty ; and the disputation between him and Dr. Aglionby 
 is said to have been the best ever heard in the schools. He was 
 promoted to the deanery of Gloucester in 1609, — where, however, 
 he habitually resided for only four or five weeks in the course of 
 the year — and was appointed to a fellowship in the college pro- 
 posed to be incorporated at Chelsea. There was every prospect 
 of his speedy elevation to the episcopal bench, when he died of 
 
527 
 
 52? 
 
 apoplexy on the 21st of November, 1616, and was buried in the 
 nave of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. He published 'a Sermon 
 preached before the King at Whitehall, on Jude, ver. 3,' 4to, 
 London, 1604 ; and at the time of his deatli was engaged upon a 
 work which lie proposed to entitle 'A View of the Controversies 
 in Religion, which in these last times have caused the lamentable 
 Divisions in the Christian World.' But of this nothing is extant 
 beyond a portion of the preface. His great work is that 1 Of the 
 Church : Five Books,' only four of which were originally pub- 
 lished, in 4to, London, 1606, which treated (1) of the Church, its 
 constituent Elements, and the Discipline by which, as a visible 
 Society, it is preserved ; (2) of the distinctive Notes or Marks 
 of the Church ; (3) the Demonstration of the true Church by 
 those Notes ; (4) of the Privileges of the Church, as applicable 
 to Articles of Faith, to Discipline, &c. A Fifth Book followed, 
 ' Concerning the Several Degrees, Orders, &c, of Persons to 
 whom the Government of the Church is Committed,' 4to, Lon- 
 don, 1610, to which was added an " Appendix, containing a 
 Defence of such passages of the former Books that have been 
 excepted against, or wrested to the maintenance of the Romish 
 Errors." The complete edition, " very much augmented in the 
 Third Book, and the Appendix to the Same," was published 
 after the author's death, by his son, Nathaniel Field, in 4to, 
 London, 1628. 
 
 In this work, which has gone through numerous editions, 
 the last of which, in 8vo, London, 1843, proceeded no further 
 than the first volume, the aim of the author is to vindicate the 
 antiquity and catholicity of Protestantism, in contradistinction 
 from the spurious claims of Popery. It is contended that the 
 Western, or Latin Church was, and continued throughout, a 
 true Protestant Church ; and that the adherents of Romish 
 errors were no more than a faction in that Church, at the time of 
 the appearance of Luther. 
 
 * FIGU1ER, GUILLAUME LOUIS, was born at Mont- 
 pellier, February 15, 1S19, educated at Montpellier and Paris, 
 and in 1846 became a professor in the School of Pharmacy in his 
 native town, He has been engaged as the scientific editor of 
 4 La Presse ' and other newspapers, has contributed several 
 papers on organic chemistry and the glycogenic function of the 
 liver to the scientific journals, and has written a large number 
 of works, having for object the popular dissemination of in- 
 formation on the natural sciences. These popular compilations 
 are profusely illustrated with well-executed cuts, and have had 
 an extensive sale. He has also published ' L' Annee scientifique et 
 industrielle ;' the first volume is for 1856, and the fourteenth, for 
 1870, appeared towards the end of 1869. 
 
 * FILLMORE, MILLARD, thirteenth President of the 
 United States of America, was born at Summer Hill, Cayuga 
 County, in the State of New York, January 7th, 1800. He owed 
 little of his eventual rank to family connexions or to early educa- 
 tion. His father, Nathaniel Fillmore, was a New England 
 farmer, who removed to New York State in 1819 ; at which 
 time young Millard is said never to have seen a book on 
 grammar or geography. The son had learned the trade of a 
 wool-comber, at the same time striving to supply the deficiencies 
 in his early education ; but after the removal to Cayuga, he 
 entered a lawyer's office there, and also earned a small income 
 by keeping a school. In 1821 he removed to Buffalo, where he 
 pursued his legal studies. He began to practise at Aurora, Erie 
 County, about 1826. In 1829 commenced his political career, lie 
 being elected a member of the State Legislature ; this was fol- 
 lowed in 1832 by his election to Congress, as one of the Whig 
 
 }jarty. Rising to distinction as a speaker and a party politician, 
 le was re-elected in 1836 and 1840, and was appointed on many 
 important committees. In 1841 he filled the post next in rank 
 to the Speaker or Chairman of the House of Representatives, 
 that of Chairman of Committee of Ways and Means ; and it was 
 under his ausjDices and direction that the tariff of 1842 — a very 
 exciting subject at that time — was prepared and carried through 
 the House. Then ensued a temporary secession from parliament, 
 during which he rose to great practice as a lawyer at Buffalo ; 
 he made an • unsuccessful attempt to obtain election to the 
 Governorship of New York State in 1844 ; but was chosen 
 Comptroller of the State in 1847. When General Taylor was 
 elected President of the United States in 1848, Mr. Fillmore was 
 chosen Vice-President by the influence of the Whig party. On 
 the death of Taylor in July, 1850, Mr. Fillmore, in accordance 
 with one of the Constitutional laws of the United States, became 
 President without any further election. Although his party was 
 in a minority in both Houses of Congress, he conducted the 
 business of the country with dignity and impartiality, was suc- 
 
 cessful in his policy, and obtained the respect of the nation 
 generally. It was under his presidency that Commodore Perry 
 was sent out on an embassy to obtain the opening of the Japanese 
 ports to American ships and commerce. Mr. Fillmore's term of 
 office expired on the 4th of July, 1853. He tried for re-election 
 to the Presidency in 1856 ; but was defeated by Mr. Buchanan, 
 who came in on the Democratic interest. Since that date Mr. 
 Fillmore has lived in comparative retirement at Buffalo. 
 
 FILMER, SIR ROBERT, a political writer and a defender of 
 absolute government, was the son of Sir Edward Filmer, of East 
 Sutton, in Kent, and was born there about the year 1588. He 
 was educated at the University of Cambridge, where he was 
 matriculated of Trinity College, on the 5th of July, 16Q4. He 
 married the daughter and co-heir of Martin Heti a l, Bishop of 
 Ely, and was knighted by Charles I., as a recognition of his en- 
 thusiastic loyalty. In the course of the civil wars he suffered 
 much on the King's account ; and it is said that during this period 
 his manor house of East Sutton was ten times plundered by the 
 Parliamentary soldiers, and himself imprisoned in Leeds Castle 
 for his attachment to monarchy. Hasted, in his ' History of 
 Kent,' says that Sir Richard Filmer died at East Sutton, and 
 was buried in the church there, in 1653, a date winch seems pre- 
 ferable to that of 1647, adopted by Wood and others. To 
 assign 1688, as some have done, as the year of Filmer's death, 
 is as absurd as it is incorrect. Filmer wrote a number of politi- 
 cal treatises in favour of arbitrary power, and in an age which 
 teemed and laboured with projects of government, upheld the 
 divine right of kings. His works include 'The Anarchy of a 
 limited and mixed Monarchy,' 4to, London, 1648 and 1652, 8vo, 
 1679, which was produced as an answer to Philip Hunton's 
 ' Treatise of Monarchy,' &c, 4to, London, 1643 ; ' The Necessity 
 of the Absolute Power of all Kings ; and in particular of the 
 King of England,' 4to, London, 1648, second edition, " with a 
 Preface of a Friend," &c, folio, London, 1680 ; ' The Free- 
 holder's Grand Inquest, touching our Sovereign Lord the King, 
 and his Parliament,' 4to, London, 1648, reprinted in 'Political 
 Discourses, &c.,' 8vo, London, 1680 ; ' Observations concerning 
 the Original of Government, against Hobbes, Milton, and Gro- 
 tius,' 4to, London, 1648, new edition, incorporating the 
 'Anarchy,' &c, written against Hunton, 4to, London, 1652, 
 
 1679, &c. ; ' Observations on Aristotle's Politicks, touching 
 Forms of Government,' 4to, London, 1652; 'Advertisement to 
 the Jury Men of England touching Witches, with the Difference 
 between an English and an Hebrew Witch,' 1653 ; ' Quaestio 
 Quodlibetica ; or, a Discourse whether it may be lawful to take 
 Use for Money,' 8vo, London, 1653, new edition, 12mo, London, 
 1678, a work which had been in MS. from about the year 1630; 
 ' Of the Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost,' 1656 ; and ' Pa- 
 triarchs ; or, the Natural Power of Kings asserted,' 8vo, London, 
 
 1680, second edition, by Edmund Bohun, with a " Preface in Vin- 
 dication of Filmer, and a Conclusion, or Postscript," 8vo, London, 
 1685. This work, which had passed from hand to hand in MS. 
 for nearly forty years from the date of its production (about 
 1642), was devoted to the demonstration, in as many chapters, 
 of three propositions : — " (1) That the first Kings were Fathers 
 of Families ; (2) It is unnatural for the People to govern, or 
 choose Governors ; (3) Positive Laws do not infringe the Natural 
 and Fatherly Power of Kings." The ' Patriarcha ' attracted 
 much discussion and opposition. Sir James Tyrrell, the grand- 
 son of Archbishop Usher, attacked it with his ' Patriarcha non 
 Monarcha : or, the Patriarch unmonarched ; being Observations 
 on a late Treatise, and divers other Miscellanies, published under 
 the name of Sir Robert Filmer, in which the Falseness of those 
 Opinions that would make Monarchy jure divino are laid open, 
 and the true Principles of Government and Property (especially 
 in our Kingdom) asserted,' 8vo, London, 1681. But it was 
 Locke who, conferring immortality by his opposition, was the 
 most formidable antagonist of the principles advocated by Filmer, 
 against which he wrote ' Two Treatises of Government : In the 
 former, the False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert 
 Filmer and his Followers are detected and overthrown. The 
 latter is an Essay concerning the true Original Extent and End 
 of Civil Government,' 8vo, London, 1689, second edition, 1694. 
 Against another opponent Filmer found an advocate in Edmund 
 Bohun, who published ' A defence of Sir Robert Filmer against 
 the Mistakes and Representations of Algernoon Sidney, Esq. ; 
 in a Paper delivered by him to the Sheriffs, upon the Scaffold 
 in Tower Hill, on Friday, December 7th, 1683, before his Exe- 
 cution there,' folio, London, 1684. 
 
 FINIGUERRA, MASO, or TOMMASO, a distinguished 
 Florentine goldsmith, to whom is attributed the invention of 
 
5i9 FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY. 
 
 printing from engraved plates, was the son of a goldsmith named 
 Antonio di Tommaso di Finiguerra, and was born at Florence, 
 in January, 1426. He is said to have been a pupil of Lorenzo 
 Ghiberti, and to have assisted him in the execution of the famous 
 bronze gates of the Baptistery at Florence, which were completed 
 about 1450. Baldinucci states that he was the pupil of Masaccio. 
 At this time nielli, that is, silver plates engraved with religious 
 subjects, the incised lines being filled with a black composition 
 (niello), to produce the full effect of the designs, were much in 
 vogue for ecclesiastical purposes, and Finiguerra abandoning 
 sculpture for engraving upon metal, became the most eminent 
 of the Florentine niellatori. About 1450 he was commissioned 
 to make for the baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence a splendid 
 silver pax, partly gilt, and engraved with a representation in 
 niello of the coronation of the Virgin. In order to ascertain the 
 progress of their work, it was usual for the engravers occa- 
 sionally to take sulphur casts, and from these obtain proofs 
 with niello on moistened paper. Whilst engaged on his pax, it 
 occurred to Maso to try whether the proof, might not be taken 
 direct from the plate, the incised lines being filled with niello 
 and the damp paper pressed on it. Vasari says he discovered 
 the process from having let the silver plate, when filled with 
 niello, fall on a piece of moistened paper ; but this is evidently 
 a fable, as proofs exist which were taken from the work, whilst 
 still unfinished. In any case, the process was successful, and 
 first proofs, and afterwards prints, continued to be thus taken. 
 
 This famous pax, still preserved in the Gallery of Florence, is 
 the finest of its kind in existence. It is about eight inches high 
 by three and a half wide. Rumohr has arbitrarily assigned it to 
 Matteo di Giovanni Dei ; but he stands alone in the opinion. 
 Passavant, however, seeks to deprive Finiguerra of a greater dis- 
 tinction than his pax. He labours to prove that the method 
 of taking proofs from plates on paper was known in Germany 
 as early as 1446, and he suggests the probability that Finiguerra 
 was shown the process by the Flemish painter Roger van der 
 Weyden, who was in Florence in 1450, the precise time when 
 Maso was engaged in engraving the Coronation. (' Peintre- 
 Graveur,' vol. i. pp. 191 — 198.) Be that as it may — and it can 
 hardly be affirmed that Passavant has proved either of his points 
 — it is certain that Maso was the first to employ the process in 
 Italy, where he has always been regarded as its inventor, and 
 that it led directly to the engraving of plates for printing designs. 
 It does not appear, however, that plates were actually produced 
 for this purpose in Italy till about 1460 or 1465, at least ten 
 years after Maso took his earliest proofs. [Engraving, in Arts 
 and Sciences Division, vol. iii. col. 884—5.] One of Fini- 
 guerra's proofs from the Coronation Pax is in the British Museum, 
 another in the French National collection, and one or two more 
 exist elsewhere. Duchesne has given a full list of Finiguerra's 
 nielli, and the known impressions from them. Finiguerra's 
 death is placed about 1475. 
 
 FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY, geologist, was born in 
 Dublin, January, 1780. He attended the school and university 
 there, and acquired his degree of B.A. in 1799. In 1808 he 
 entered the University of Edinburgh, where he formed the ac- 
 quaintanceship of John Fleming, Sydney Smith, Jeffrey, Lord 
 Brougham, and others. In 1809 he removed to London. In 
 1811 he began to write geological articles, the first being on the 
 geological structure of the vicinity of Dublin. In 1812 he went 
 to Northampton, and settled as a medical practitioner. He con- 
 tributed numerous articles to the 'Edinburgh Review,' in which 
 he did much to diffuse geological information respecting the dis- 
 coveries of Smith, Buckland, Murchison, and others. As an ori- 
 ginal observer he worked hard from 1824 to 1836 at developing 
 the true order of the secondary strata of England and France ; 
 and the main outcome of his labour was his series of papers on 
 the green-sand beds. First of all a secretary of the Geological 
 Society, he afterwards became its president, in which last 
 capacity he established the Quarterly Journal of the Society, 
 and was influential in promoting the custom of delivering annual 
 addresses. In 1852 the Wollaston medal of the society was 
 awarded him. He was a fellow of the Royal and other scien- 
 tific societies. He died in London, Mav 13, 1861. 
 
 FITZ-ROY, ADM I UAL ROBERT E. C. vol. ii. col. 921], was 
 born at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, 5th July, 1805. He was the 
 youngest son of General Lord Charles Fitz-Roy, by his second 
 wife, Frances Anne, eldest daughter of the first Marquis of Lon- 
 donderry. He entered the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth in 
 1818, and from 1819 to 1828 served in the Mediterranean and on 
 the coasts of South America, and became flag lieutenant at Bio 
 Janeiro. In 1828 he was appointed to the command of the 
 
 BIOO. DIV. — SUP. 
 
 FLAHAUT, COMTE DE. 6^0 
 
 ' Beagle,' one of the two vessels employed in surveying the shores 
 of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. At the end of L830 the two 
 vessels returned to England, and late in 1831, the 'Beagle,' hav- 
 ing been refitted, was again commissioned to renew the survey. 
 During five years a large amount of valuable work was done, not 
 only in correcting the errors of existing maps, but in filling in 
 new details. Every mile of the coast, from the; right or northern 
 bank of the river Plata to Cape Horn, was closely surveyed. 
 Every harbour and anchorage was planned ; 30 miles of the river 
 Negro and 200 of the Santa Cruz were examined and laid down, 
 and a chart was made of the Falkland Islands. Between 47° 
 and the river Guayaquil the coasts of Chili and Peru were sur- 
 veyed, every port and roadstead being entered. Many of the 
 discoveries thus made are recorded in the Journal of the Royal 
 Geographical Society, whose gold medal for 1836 was awarded to 
 Fitz-Roy, the Society at the same time acknowledging the im- 
 portance of the mass of information he had brought home — 
 " perhaps not exceeded by any expedition since the time of Cook 
 and Flinders." An account of the voyage was published in 1839 
 in 3 volumes. Mr. Charles Darwin was on board the 'Beagle' 
 during the whole of her voyage, and collected the materials for 
 his 'Journal and Remarks,' and for geological and other works of 
 permanent value. 
 
 During the survey in 1834 Fitz-Roy was promoted to the rank 
 of captain. Anxious to fill up some details in the survey, Fitz- 
 Roy, after the return of the ' Beagle ' in 1836, hired two vessels, 
 and purchased a third at his own expense, the effect of which 
 was to embarrass him during many years. In 1839 he was elected 
 an Elder Brother of the Trinity House ; in 1841 he sat in the 
 House of Commons as member for North Durham ; in 1842 he 
 was appointed acting conservator of the Mersey ; and in the fol- 
 lowing year he went out to New Zealand as governor, and con- 
 tinued to be such during three years. He became F.R.S. in 
 1851 ; in 1854 he was placed at the head of the Meteorological 
 Department of the Board of Trade. In 1857 he became rear 
 admiral ; in 1862, vice admiral ; and in 1864, corresponding 
 member of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Paris 
 (geography and navigation section). 
 
 In carrying out the duties of his appointment at the Board of 
 Trade, Admiral Fitz-Roy displayed a large amount of conscien- 
 tious zeal. One of his first duties was to supply merchant sea- 
 men and others with instruments and instructions for carrying on 
 meteorological observations in various parts of the world. This 
 led to the collection of a large mass of valuable observations, the 
 reduction of which by a competent staff, under a competent 
 leader, would have been of the greatest service to meteorological 
 science ; but the admiral not having such a staff at hand, and 
 apparently dreading the accumulation of the observations, inter- 
 rupted the system of supplying instruments to merchant captains, 
 &c, and employed the strength of his department in originating 
 storm signals, which became very popular, and in publishing 
 weather reports, &c. The intense anxiety of the admiral to do 
 his duty brought on a nervous attack, which led to his death, 
 under very painful circumstances, on the 30th of April, 1865. 
 Every one who came in contact with the admiral felt that he was 
 in the presence of a courteous gentleman, of a kindly nature, 
 who was most anxious to do his duty in a post for which he was 
 scarcely qualified by previous education or mental power. 
 
 FLAHAUT de la BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES 
 JOSEPH, COMTE DE, a distinguished general and diplomatist, 
 was born at Paris, April 20, 1785. His father, Com te de Flahaut, 
 of an old family of Picardy, was guillotined at Arras in 1793, 
 by order of the revolutionary tribunal. His mother fled to Eng- 
 land, and supported herself and her son by writing French novels. 
 She afterwards went to Germany, in 1798 returned to Paris, and 
 in 1802 married the Portuguese diplomatist, De Souza Botelho. 
 At the age of fifteen young Flahaut entered the army of Na- 
 poleon ; in the Portuguese campaign attracted the notice of 
 Murat, who made him his aide-de-camp ; fought at Austerlitz 
 and Friedland ; was wounded at Ems ; received the Cross of the 
 Legion of Honour, and was promoted to the rank of colonel. 
 Continuing his career of active service, and gaining everywhere 
 credit for courage and conduct, he was made aide-de-camp to 
 Napoleon, accompanied him throughout the Russian campaign, 
 and returned with him to Paris, lie had now acquired the per- 
 sonal favour of the Emperor, who selected him to meet the King 
 of Saxony, and conduct him to the capital, March 10, 1813. For 
 his conduct at the battles of Dresden and Leipzig he was created 
 general of division, and received the title of Count. Flahaut ad- 
 hered to his master to the last, and refusing service under the 
 Bourbons, was one of the first to welcome him on his return from 
 
 M it 
 
531 
 
 FLANDIN, EUGENE NAPOLEON. 
 
 FLOOD, HENRY. 
 
 532 
 
 Elba. In anticipation of the ensuing conflict, he was employed 
 in reorganizing the army, and he was alongside the Emperor 
 throughout the brief campaign which closed at Waterloo. He 
 then returned to Paris, took command of a corps, and was one of 
 the last to lay down his arms. 
 
 Flahaut s name was rescued from the list of the proscribed by 
 the intervention of Talleyrand, who had conceived a high opinion 
 of his ability ; but he found it necessary to leave France and 
 withdraw to England. Here he won the hand of the daughter 
 and heiress of Lord Keith, and her wealth smoothed his future 
 course. When Louis Philippe became king, Count de Flahaut 
 returned to France. He was appointed Ambassador to Berlin 
 in 1831, and from 1841 to the fall of the monarchy he was 
 minister at Vienna. The change of dynasty offered no im- 
 pediment to his prosperous career. He was received into great 
 favour at the Court of Napoleon III. ; in 1853 was made a 
 senator, and in the following year was appointed one of the com- 
 mittee for editing the Despatches, Letters, &c, of Napoleon I. 
 In 1860 he was appointed ambassador to London, and acquired 
 great popularity in the higher circles by the splendour of his 
 entertainments and the munificence of his hospitality. He was 
 named Grand Chancellor of the Legion of Honour in 18(54, and 
 died at the palace of the order on the 31st of August, 1870 — 
 living just long enough to know of the terrific disasters to the 
 French arms, but saved from witnessing the downfall of the 
 dynasty which he had so long and so faithfully served. 
 
 * FLANDIN, EUGENE NAPOLEON, French artist and 
 archaeologist, was born at Najdes, August 15, 1809, the son of 
 a Frenchman in the service of Murat. Fond of travel and of 
 art, he produced, with little aid from masters, his earliest pic- 
 tures, views of places he had visited in travelling about Italy ; 
 in 1836 sent two views in Venice to the Salon, and, after a 
 couple of journeys to Algiers, painted the ' Assaut de Constan- 
 tine,' which was purchased by Louis Philippe, for Neuilly. He 
 was nominated in 1839, in conjunction with M. P. Coste the 
 architect, to accompany M. de Sercey on his embassy to Persia. 
 He remained there two years, and on his return to Paris in 1842, 
 his drawings were ordered to be published, after having been 
 favourably reported upon by the commission appointed to ex- 
 amine them. He applied himself with zeal to the work, but 
 was soon called from it, the Academy having named him to the 
 Government as the most suitable person to proceed with M. 
 Botta to Nineveh, to examine and draw the vestiges of buildings 
 and antiquities, the discovery of which was then attracting so 
 much attention. He brought back with him a prodigious 
 quantity of sketches, plans, and drawings. A special credit was 
 granted by the Chamber of Deputies, and the publication of the 
 two series was prosecuted forthwith. The first appeared under 
 the title 'Voyage en Perse,' 1843 — 54, and consisted of four 
 large folio volumes of plates, illustrating the architecture, sculp- 
 ture, inscriptions, and topography of Ancient and Modern Persia, 
 executed in conjunction with M. Coste, and two octavo volumes 
 of text by M. Flandin. The reproductions of his Nineveh 
 drawings occupy four of the superb folio volumes of M. Botta's 
 ' Monuments de Ninive,' 1844 — 54. M. Flandin also wrote 
 many valuable papers on Nineveh and its remains in the 'Revue 
 des Deux-Mondes.' In 1854 — 56 he published a series of fac- 
 similes, executed in lithography by himself, of 150 of his 
 sketches made upon the Bosphorus, in Constantinople, the Dar- 
 danelles, Smyrna, &c, under the title ' L'Orient.' He has since 
 returned to painting, and has exhibited a large number of pic- 
 tures, chiefly views in the East, but some from Italy. 
 
 FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished recent French painters, was born at Lyon in 1809, 
 and, having learnt painting under the best masters in that city, 
 went to Paris in 1829 and entered the atelier of Ingres. In 
 1832 he obtained the grand prize of Rome, and continued in that 
 city his studies under M. Ingres, who had been appointed head 
 of the French Academy there. From his return to Paris in 
 1838 he each year exhibited religious pictures, or historical or 
 poetical subjects of a religious order, such as 'Christ blessing 
 Children ;' a ' Mater Dolorosa ;' 'St. Louis taking the Cross ;' 
 ' Dante in the Circle of the Envious ; ' and came to be looked 
 upon not only as the ablest of Ingres's pupils, but his probable 
 successor as the head of French historico-religious art. The deep 
 religious feeling which pervaded his pictures, and their largeness 
 of conception and style pointed him out as especially qualified 
 for the execution of some great mural works which had been 
 proposed. First among these was the chapel of St. John in the 
 church of Saint-Severin at Paris. This was followed by the 
 vast frieze of St. Vincent-de-Paul, a work of exceeding loveliness 
 
 and pathos, intended to shadow forth the constant presence of 
 Christ ; the entire wall paintings of the church of St. Germain 
 des Pres, which he unhappily did not live to finish ; and the 
 whole of the decorations of St. Paul de Nimcs. Besides these 
 mural paintings and many easel pictures, M. Flandrin executed 
 numerous portraits, in a broad, manly, vigorous style that left 
 him with few living rivals in that walk of art : two characteristic 
 specimens by him were in the International Exhibition of 1862 — 
 the very remarkable portrait of Napoleon III. and the charming 
 one of Mile. M., exhibited under the title of 'Jeune Fille a 
 l'CEillet.' M. Flandrin received the first medal on three occasions; 
 was decorated in 1841, and promoted to be Officer of the Legion 
 of Honour in 1853, and in the same year elected a member of 
 the Institute. He died at Rome, March 21st, 1864. The 
 ' Lettres et Pensees de Hippolyte Flandrin' were collected and 
 published, with a biographical notice, by M. Laborde, Paris, 
 1865. A younger brother,* Jean Padl Flandrin, born at Lyon 
 in 1811, is one of the best landscape painters in France. 
 
 FLAVEL, JOHN,^, Nonconformist divine, was born about 
 the year 1627, at Bromsgrove, in Worcestershire, where his father, 
 the Kev. Richard Flavel, was at that time minister. He was 
 educated at University College, Oxford, which he entered about 
 1646 ; and having taken his B.A. degree, was settled as a pro- 
 bationer at Diptford, by the Standing Committee for the county 
 of Devon, April 27th, 1650, and received Presbyterian ordination 
 at Salisbury, on the 17th of October following. He succeeded 
 Mr. Walplate, to whom he had been assistant, in the rectory of 
 Diptford ; but resigned that living in order to proceed to Dart- 
 mouth, where he was settled by the Commissioners for the Ap- 
 probation of Public Preachers, by an order from Whitehall, 
 dated December 10, 1656. Being ejected by the Act of Uni- 
 formity, St. Bartholomew's Day, August 24, 1662, he exercised 
 his ministry under difficulties ; and was constrained for some 
 years to seclude himself at Slapton, about five miles from 
 Dartmouth. He fulfilled the duties of his office more openly 
 upon King James's Declaration of Liberty of Conscience, April 
 4th, 1687 ; whilst the fuller toleration of William III. completed 
 his freedom and fortified his courage. He died suddenly, on the 
 26th of June, 1691, at Exeter, whither he had gone in order to 
 be present at a meeting — of which he was elected moderator — of 
 the Nonconformist ministers of Devonshire, held at Topsham, 
 within four miles of the city, for the purpose of considering the 
 propriety of forming a union between the Presbyterians and the 
 Independents —an object which he had much at heart. He was 
 buried in St. Saviour's Church, Dartmouth ; but a monument 
 which was placed there to his memory was removed by the order 
 of the magistrates in 1709, after which it was erected in the dis- 
 senting meeting-house. 
 
 Flavel wrote much, and his several works have been frequently 
 reprinted, both in this country and America. The principal of 
 them are : ' Husbandry Spiritualized ; or, the Heavenly use of 
 Earthly Things,' 4to, London, 1669; 'Navigation Spiritualized. 
 With spiritual Poems,' 8vo, London, 1671 ; ' The Fountain of 
 Life opened ; or, a Display of Christ in His essential and Me- 
 diatorial Glory,' &c, 4to, London, 1672, which is a series of forty- 
 two sermons ; ' A Token for Mourners ; or, Boundaries for Sor- 
 row on Death of Friends,' 8vo, London, 1674 ; ' Divine Conduct ; 
 or, the Mystery of Providence, its Being and Efficacy asserted 
 and vindicated,' &c, 8vo, London, 1678 ; 'The Method of Grace,' 
 &c, 4to, London, 1680, a series of thirty-five sermons ; ' Sacra- 
 mental Meditations,' &c, 8vo, London, 1680 ; ' Pneumatologia ; 
 a Treatise on the Soul of Man,' 4to, London, 1680 ; ' Prepara- 
 tions for Sufferings ; or, the Best Work in the Worst Times,' 
 &c, 8vo, London, 1682 ; a series of Eleven Sermons, collectively 
 entitled, 'England's Duty,' London, 1689: and the 'Reason- 
 ableness of Personal Reformation, and the necessity of Con- 
 version,' &c, 12mo, London, 1691. Flavel's 'Remains' were 
 collected after his death, and published in 8vo, 1691 ; whilst his 
 ' Works,' in 2 vols, folio, as well as in 6 vols. 8vo, have been 
 several times reprinted, as, for instance, at Edinburgh, New- 
 castle, and London. 
 
 FLOOD, HENRY, an Irish politician and orator, son of 
 the Chief Justice of the Court of King's Bench in Ireland, was 
 born in 1732. After studying at Trinity College, Dublin, he 
 went in 1749 to Oxford. At first he relied for distinction on 
 social position and personal qualities ; but under the guidance 
 of Dr. Markham and Mr. Tyrwhitt, he obtained a classical 
 training. In 1759 he became a member of the Irish House of 
 Commons, and was soon recognised as an eloquent and zealous, 
 though not always judicious, advocate of popular rights : urging 
 among other measures, the shortening of parliaments and the 
 
533 
 
 FLORIO, GIOVANNI. 
 
 FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE. 
 
 repeal of obnoxious statutes. In 1769 he fought a duel with Mr. 
 Agar on occasion of an election quarrel. Agar was wounded, but 
 challenged Flood a second time, when Agar was killed : Flood 
 was tried for murder, but acquitted. The affair in no way inter- 
 fered with his prospects or popularity. In 1775 he became a 
 Privy Councillor, and received an appointment under the Irish 
 government ; but he resigned this appointment in 1783, because 
 he disapproved of some parts of the ministerial policy; and his 
 Privy Councilship was at the same time taken away from him. 
 His* own party complained that they could not rely upon his 
 steadiness ; and on one occasion he had a fierce quarrel with 
 Grattan in the House. Almost immediately afterwards he 
 came to England, and was elected member for Winchester in 
 the English House of Commons, and in 1785 for Seaford. 
 Rich and sarcastic in oratory, bitter and formidable in reply, 
 Flood was always eagerly listened to ; but he did not obtain 
 commanding influence as a politician. He made his last speech 
 in 1790, in advocacy of a plan of parliamentary reform, which 
 won the approval of Fox. He died December 2nd, 1791, 
 leaving munificent bequests to Trinity College, Dublin. Besides 
 translations of orations by Demosthenes, Cicero, and iEschines 
 (still in MS.), he wrote a 1 Poem on the Death of Frederick Prince 
 of Wales,' 1751 ; ' Translation of the First Pyrrhic Ode of Pindar,' 
 and an ' Ode to Fame,' 1785 : and a ' Speech on the Treaty of 
 Commerce with France,' 1787. {Life and Correspondence of the 
 Rt. Hon. H. Flood, by W. Flood. 8vo. 1838). 
 
 FLORIO, GIOVANNI, a philologer, self-styled the Resolute, 
 was born in London, in the year 1552 or 1553, an alternative 
 date which is certified by the inscription round the portrait 
 prefixed to ' Queen Anne's New World of Words,' representing 
 him as being " Mt. 58, A°. D'. 1611." His parents were Wal- 
 denses, who had fled from the Valtelline to this country for the 
 freer enjoyment of liberty of conscience. During the reign of 
 Mary they sought a refuge abroad, but returned to England 
 after her death. About 1576 Florio became French and Italian 
 tutor to Emanuel B;irnes, son of the Bishop of Durham, and at 
 that time a commoner of Magdalen College, of which society 
 Florio himself was admitted a member in 1581, and became a 
 teacher of languages in the University. After the accession of 
 James I. he was appointed tutor in French and Italian to Henry 
 Prince of Wales, and to his mother, Queen Anne, to the latter 
 of whom he also became a gentleman of the privy chamber, and 
 clerk of the closet. In the year 1625 Florio retired to Fulham, 
 in order to avoid the plague then raging in London ; but he was 
 overtaken by it in his retreat, where he died in August or Sep- 
 tember of the year just mentioned, and was probably buried in 
 the parish church. 
 
 Florio is characterised by Wood as " a very useful man in his 
 profession, zealous in the religion he professed, and much de- 
 voted to the English nation." His works comprise — 'Florio 
 his firste Fruites ; which yeelde familiar Speech, merie 
 Prouerbes, wittie Sentences, and golden Sayings. Also a per- 
 fect Induction to the Italian and English Tongues,' 4to, London, 
 1578 ; ' Flcrio's Second Frutes, to be gathered of Twelve Trees, 
 of divers but delightsome Taste to the Tongues of Italians and 
 Englishmen,' 4to, London, 1591 ; ' Garden of Recreation, yeeld- 
 ing six thousand Italian Prouerbs,' alternatively entitled in 
 Italian, 'Giardino di Recreatione nel quale crescono fronde, 
 fiori, e frutti,' &c, 4to, London, 1591 ; ' A Worlde of Wordes ; 
 or, most copious and exact Dictionarie in Italian and English,' 
 folio, London, 1598, a " much augmented " edition, dedicated to 
 the wife of James I., and entitled ' Queen Anna's New World of 
 Words,' &c, folio, London, 1611. At present, Florio is remem- 
 bered better than by his works in grammar and philology, as 
 being the possible original of the character of Holofernes, the 
 schoolmaster in ' Love's Labour's Lost ' ; and Shakspere is said 
 to have retaliated in this manner for a passage reflecting upon 
 the English drama and dramatists in ' Florio's Second Frutes ' : 
 — "The plaies that they do plaie in England are neither right 
 comedies nor right tragedies, but representations of histories 
 without any decorum." But he is known best of all by his 
 English translation of Montaigne's Essays, 'The Essayes, or 
 Morall, Politike, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo: Michaell de 
 Montaigne, Knight of the noble Order of St. Michaell, and 
 one of the Gentlemen in Ordinary of the French King. Henry 
 the Third his Chamber,' folio, London, 1603, 1613, 1632, &c. 
 There are several copies of the first edition of this translation in 
 the Library of the British Museum, and two of them are enriched 
 respectively with the autographs of William Shakspere and Ben 
 J orison. 
 
 FLORKE, HEINRICH GUSTAV, botanist, was born De- 
 
 cember 24, 1764, at Alten Kalden, in Mecklenburg. In 1775 he 
 went to the University of Butzow, stayed there three years, and 
 then engaged himself as a tutor in a family living at Kittendorf. 
 After a time his pupil, a young nobleman, went to theGottingen 
 University, and Florke went with him. While here he became 
 acquainted with Bkimenbaeh, Hoffman, and Persoon. In 1794 
 his pupil's family procured him the curacy of Kittendorf, but not 
 being able to make his religious convictions harmonise with the 
 dogmas he was required to teach, he resigned his cure, and went 
 to study medicine at Jena. Too poor to hire conveyance, he 
 travelled there on foot, and collected the plants, especially 
 lichens, which he found. The herbarium thus formed is still 
 preserved at Berlin, to which place he went after completing his 
 studies at Jena. His object in going to, Berlin was to assist his 
 brother in publishing an encyclopaedia of philosophy and tech- 
 nology. His brother died a few months after his arrival ; he 
 married his brother's widow, and undertook the sole editorship 
 of the encyclopaedia. To his deep regret he was compelled to 
 sell his herbarium, which was bought by a society of naturalists 
 at Berlin. While at Berlin he had established his reputation as 
 a lichenographer, and the lichens collected by Tilesius, Bory St. 
 Vincent, and other travellers were entrusted to him for determi- 
 nation. At this time Acharius was at the height of his fame, and 
 the two were rivals throughout their lives. In 1816 Florke was ap- 
 pointed to the professorship of natural history at Rostock, which 
 he retained for 15 years. He gave especial attention to the genus 
 Cladonia, which formed the subject of his most important work, 
 'Commentatio nova de Cladoniis,' 8vo, Rostock, 1828. In 1829 
 he commenced illustrating this work by natural specimens, 
 under the title of ' Cladoniarum exemplaria exsiccata,' of which 
 three parts appeared. In preparing the remaining fasciculi he 
 was struck with apoplexy, and in 1833 and 1834 he did his pro- 
 fessorial work, being carried to his class in a chair. In 1835 a 
 fresh attack of apoplexy quite disabled him, and on November 6 
 of that year he died. His second and principal herbarium is 
 chiefly composed of cryptogams, and is remarkably rich in 
 authentic specimens from Von Martins, Acharius, Agardh, Fee, 
 and many other eminent botanists. The genus Cladonia is 
 illustrated by nearly 50,000 specimens. This herbarium is in 
 the Museum at Rostock. 
 
 * FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF, VON, 
 a musical composer, was born at Teutendorf, Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, April 26th, 1812. His taste for music having deter- 
 mined him in the choice of a profession, he went to Paris, apd 
 studied under Reicha. In 1830 the Revolution drove him back 
 to Germany, where he composed three drawing-room operettas, 
 ' Pierre et Colombine,' ' Rob Roy,' and ' La Duchesse de Guise,' 
 which afterwards came into some favour in France. Returning 
 to Paris, he took with him the MSS. of some operas of greater 
 pretensions, but did not attract much notice till 1838, when his 
 ' Naufrage de la Meduse ' was favourably received at the Theatre 
 de la Renaissance. This opera was afterwards altered, and brought 
 out in German)' under the name of ' Die Matrosen.' It was fol- I 
 lowed by 'Le Forestier,' 1840, afterwards, in German, 'Der 
 Forster ;' ' L'Esclave de Camoens,' 1843 ; the ' Lady Henriette,' a 
 ballet, which afterwards formed the basis for his ' Martha ; ' ' Ales- 
 sandro Stradella,' 1844 ; ' L'Ame en Peine,' 1846. Others were 
 ' Indra,' ' Die Grossfurstin,' ' Rubezahl,' ' Marie Katerina,' and 
 music to the 'Winter's Tale.' The opera of 'Martha,' 1847, 
 was received very favourably, especially when brought out on 
 the Italian stage in England, in 1858. In 1854 Flotow returned 
 to Schwerin, where he became intendant of the Court Theatre. 
 In 1856 appeared his opera ' Albin.' Removing once again to Paris 
 in 1863, he became a corresponding member of the Institute in 
 1864, and produced his opera of ' Zilda' in 1866. His music, never 
 great or original, is often graceful in melody and instrumenta- 
 tion : it partakes somewhat of the styles of Auber and Adam. 
 
 FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE, physiologist, was 
 born at Maureilhan, near B6ziers, in Herault, April 14, 1794. In 
 1814 he went to Paris, and soon became intimate with Chaptal, 
 the Cuviers, and other eminent scientific men. In 1828 he 
 succeeded to Bosc's place in the Academy of Science, and 
 after giving lectures on natural history and anatomy in the 
 College de France and Jardin du Roi, he was appointed a full 
 professor in the former institution in 1835. A few years before 
 this he had been elected the perpetual or permanent secretary of 
 the Academy of Science. These two posts he retained up to his 
 death. He sat in the French Chamber of Deputies, and took 
 part in the municipal government of Paris. He was made Com- 
 mander of the Legion of Honour in 1845, and grand officer in 
 1859 ; he was also member of numerous scientific bodies. He 
 
 M M 2 
 
5C5 
 
 FOLKEMA, JAKOB. 
 
 FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG. 630 
 
 died at Montgeron, near Paris, December C, 1867. His writings 
 are numerous and important : they are remarkable for the clear- 
 ness of their expression, ease of diction, and skilful arrangement, 
 and have won for him a high place in the rank of physiological 
 students. His principal forte was neurology, and his must 
 important discovery was the demonstration that each set of 
 movements and sensations depends upon particular nerves and 
 nervous centres for their execution. He singled out a minute 
 point in the medulla oblongata which he considered to he the 
 essential seat of life, the vital nucleus of the. whole nervous 
 system. These views were published in 1824 and the few fol- 
 lowing years ; and his subsequent researches were in the main 
 amplifications and confirmations of his earlier views. A large 
 proportion of these papers were collected together in his most 
 important wink, under the title of 'Recherches experimeiitales 
 sur les proprieties et les formations des systeme ncrveux dans les 
 animales vertebr6s,' 2nd ed., 8vo, Paris, 1842. His book, 
 entitled ' De la Longevite humaine, et de la quantite de vie sur 
 le globe,' 12mo, 1854, which rapidly passed through three 
 editions, attracted considerable attention. He announced as a 
 law that the full term of life of an animal is live times the period 
 of growth. His other writings, which are partly scientific 
 partly popular in tone, deal with the developeinent of the 
 osseous system, including the teeth ; with the skin of man, 
 which lie states demonstrates the physical unity of man ; the 
 laws of symmetry in animals ; instinct and intelligence ; Dar- 
 win's theory of the origin of species ; accounts of the works of 
 Cuvier, Buifon, and Eontanelle ; and ' Eloges historiques' on the 
 principal naturalists who had died during his perpetual secre- 
 taryship. These ' eloges ' were collected in two volumes in 
 1856 and 1857. 
 
 FOLKEMA, JAKOB, Dutch engraver, was born in 1692 at 
 Dokkum, in Friesland. He engraved many of the designs of 
 Picart, and these, and the series of seven plates of the ' History 
 of Meleager,' engraved for the famous Amsterdam edition of 
 Ovid (fol. 1732), are considered his best subject pieces ; but he 
 was perhaps most successful with his portraits, among which 
 are those of many eminent contemporaries. Dean Prideaux, 
 after Seeman ; Cervantes, after Kort ; Johann Ens, after Colla, 
 are well-known examples. Some of his portraits are from 
 miniatures by his sister Anna. Jakob Folkema died at Am- 
 sterdam in 1767. 
 
 FORBES, JAMES DAVID, geologist and physical geo- 
 grapher, was born in Edinburgh, April 28, 1809. In early life 
 his constitution was so delicate that severe study was for- 
 bidden him. Jameson taught him geology, and encouraged 
 the general bias of his mind. One of his earliest geolo- 
 gical papers was an account of a boulder, in a letter written to 
 Professor Jameson, which is marked by broad generalisations. 
 He was then not more than 20, and in 1833 he was appointed 
 professor of natural philosophy in the Edinburgh University, 
 which post he held till 1859, when he became principal of St. 
 , Salvador and St. Leonard's Colleges at St. Andrews. During 
 his professorship he was in the habit of making frequent visits 
 to the glaciers of Switzerland. He was the first to determine 
 by accurate measurements the varying rate of flow of those 
 bodies of ice, which he regarded as viscous-like masses forced 
 down slopes by pressure, and he added much to our knowledge 
 of glaciers. He confirmed Agassiz's announcement of the former 
 presence of glaciers in the Highlands of Scotland. In 1851 he 
 visited Norway, and drew up an excellent sketch of the glaciers 
 and physical geography of that country. His attention was also 
 given to many other subjects. He wrote largely on volcanoes, 
 Ids first paper, published in 1828, being a long account of Mount 
 Vesuvius, which was followed by seven others on volcanic phe- 
 nomena, under the title of ' Physical Notices of the Bay of 
 Naples,' and published in the ' Edinburgh Journal of Science ' 
 for 1828, 1829, 1830, and 1831 ; on atmospheric pressure ; 
 meteorology ; on heat, which he made the subject of long 
 research ; on steam, in which he discovered many curious 
 optical properties, and showed how they illustrated the pheno- 
 mena of clouds ; on terrestrial magnetism and temperature, 
 &c. He also took great interest in mineralogy. His principal 
 separate works are, ' Travels through the Alps of Savoy and 
 other parts of the Pennine Chain,' 8vo, Edinburgh, 1843 ; 
 Norway and its Glaciers visited in 1851/ 8vo, 1853 ; and ' Oc- 
 casional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers/ 8vo, 1859. He died 
 December 31, 1868. 
 
 FORBES, SIR JOHN, M.D. [E. C. vol. ii. col. 951]. In 1857 
 Sir John Forbes published ' Nature and Art in the Cure of 
 Disease/ " a legacy/' as he wrote, " to his younger brethren," 
 
 intended to guard them against confiding in the curative agency 
 of drugs. He died at the residence of his son, Mr. A. C. Forbes, 
 on the 13th of November, 1801. 
 
 FORCADE, EUGENE, a distinguished French journalist, 
 was born in 1820 at Marseille, where he founded in 1837 a 
 journal called the ' Semaphore/ of which, in spite of his engage- 
 ment in a banking-house, he held the management until his 
 departure for Paris in 1840. About three years after his arrival 
 in the capital he attracted attention by an article which he con- 
 tributed to the ' Revue Independante/ upon ' le Droit de Visite/ 
 and became connected with the ' Revue des Deux Mondes/ to 
 which he contributed with great regularity, particularly dis- 
 tinguishing himself through a series of years for the calm, 
 intelligent, and philosophical method of his fortnightly sum- 
 mary of affairs, entitled 'Chronique de la Quinzaine.' In 
 1845 he founded ' La Revue Nouvelle/ 8vo, Paris, which ex- 
 tended to sixteen volumes, and to the end of the year 1847. To 
 this review he supplied articles on Political Education, &c, 'De 
 l'Education Politique/ / La Dotation du Sdminaire Catholique 
 de Maynooth/ ' De l'Esprit Litteraire/ and many others in 
 literary and artistic criticism, and in general and party politics 
 in England and in France. His next venture was the institution 
 in 1851 of the ' Messager de l'Assemblee, which for its plain 
 speaking on the contemplated coup d'etat was suppressed on the 
 2nd of December, and its editor sentenced to three months' im- 
 prisonment. Besides the above and other journalistic activity, 
 M. Forcade wrote and published in a separate form ' Etudes 
 historiques/ 12nio, Paris, 1853; and ' Histoire des Causes de la 
 Guerre d'Oricnt d'apres des Documents francais et anglais/ 12mo, 
 Paris, 1854, which forms one of the volumes of the second series 
 of the ' Bibliotheque Contemporaine.' Under the strain of ex- 
 cessive work and continued political excitement, his brain at 
 length gave way ; and, after some months of restraint, he died, 
 November 6, 1869. 
 
 FORCELLINI, EGIDIO, an Italian scholar and lexico- 
 grapher, was born on the 26th of August, 1688, at a small village 
 of Treviso, in the Venetian territory ; and studied at Padua, 
 under Facciolati. In due course he was ordained to the priest- 
 hood, and in 1724 became director of the seminary at Ceneda, 
 w here also he filled the chair of rhetoric. In 1731 he returned 
 to Padua, and remained there till 1765, when he retired to his 
 native place. He died at Padua on the 4th of April, 1768. 
 
 Having exhibited rare scholarship and intelligence in some 
 minor philological labours, Forcellini was encouraged by Car- 
 dinal Cornaro, Bishop of Padua, to undertake a lexicon which 
 had been projected by his tutor Facciolati. According to memo- 
 randa in the handwriting of Forcellini, it appears that he com- 
 menced his work about the end of the year 1718, and finished it 
 on the 21st of February, 1753. From the 4th of June, 1753, to 
 the 9th of April, 1755, he was engaged in revision ; and the 
 transcription, which was done by Luigi Violato, was commenced 
 on the 3rd of December, 1753, and completed on the 13th of 
 November, 1761. For ten years the huge MS. lay unpublished, 
 until, three years after the death of Forcellini, the first edition 
 was brought out through the munificence of Cardinal Prioli, to 
 whom it was dedicated. It bore the title of ' Totius Latinitatis 
 Lexicon, Consilio et Cura Jacobi Facciolati, opera et studio 
 iEgidio Forcellini, Seminarii Patavini Alumni lucubratum,' 
 4 vols. 4to, Padua, 1771, second edition, 1805; 'Appendix ad 
 "Totius Latinitatis Lexicon/" folio, Padua, 1816; third edition 
 of the entire work, " auctum et emendatum a Josepho Furlanetto," 
 4 vols, folio, Padua, 1827 — 31; another edition, "correctum et 
 auctum," 4 vols, folio, Sclmeeburg, 1831 — 35, &c. An edition 
 adapted to English readers appeared under the care of James 
 Bailey, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1826, in which English was sub- 
 stituted for Italian, which incorporated the Paduan Supplement, 
 and exhibited upwards of 20,000 words which had been intro- 
 duced by the learned editor. In the Appendices occurred the 
 treatise by Horatius Tursellinus, entitled ' De Particulis Romanse 
 Orationis;' Gerrard's ' Siglarium Romanum ;' and J. M. Gesner's 
 ' Latinitatis Index Etymologicus.' 
 
 FORCHHAMMER, JOHANN GEORG, chemist and geolo- 
 gist, was born July 26, 1794, at Husum, in Schleswig. He studied 
 at Kiel and Copenhagen. In 1818 he accompanied Professor 
 Oersted on a mineralogical expedition to Bornholm ; in the 
 following year he was employed by the State to travel through 
 France, Great Britain, and Denmark ; in 1823 he was appointed 
 lecturer on mineralogy in Copenhagen University ; and in 1850, 
 professor. He was also employed in teaching at several other 
 educational establishments. He was a member of the Academy 
 of Science at Copenhagen from 1825 onwards, and in 1851 sue- 
 
638 
 
 ceeded Oersted as the secretary to tlie academy. He also be- 
 longed to many other societies. His writings are numerous, 
 md take a liigh place in scientific literature. They are written 
 Chiefly in Danish, partly in German, and partly in English. 
 They are for the most part devoted to the mineralogy and rocks 
 •'of Denmark. His most important observations are on meta- 
 morphism, on the relation between the contour of Denmark and 
 its former geological history and changes of level ; and on sea- 
 water. Amongst his separate works we may cite ' Danemarks 
 geognostike Forhold,' 4to, 1835 ; ' Skandinaviens geognostike 
 Natur,' 8vo, 1843 ; and ' Laerobog i Stoffernes almindelige 
 chemie,' 1834—5. He died December 14, 1865. 
 
 *FORCHHAMMER, PAUL WILHELM, younger brother 
 of Johann Georg, is an eminent archaeologist. He was born in 
 Husum in 1803, attended the gymnasium in Lubeck, and later 
 studied philology and archaeology in the University of Kiel, 
 where in 1828 he took the degree of doctor of philosophy, and 
 in 1837 was made a professor of archaeology. In 1830 he under- 
 took a journey through Italy and Greece, and again in 1838 
 travelled in Greece and Asia Minor, Egypt and Rome, for the 
 purpose of investigating the archaeological remains and tracing tire 
 history of classic art. Evidence of his laborious researches will 
 be found in most of his works, which have been of especial value 
 in elucidating the topography of ancient Greece, and showing 
 how the art, literature, history, and antiquities mutually illus- 
 trate each other. His works include ' Hellenika,' Berlin, 1837 ; 
 ' Die Athener und Sokrates, oder die Gesetzlichen und der 
 Revolutionar,' Berlin, 1837 ; ' Apollo's Ankunft in Delphi,' 
 Kiel, 1841 ; 'Die Geburt der Athene,' Kiel, 1841 ; ' Topographie 
 von Athen,' Kiel, 1841 ; ' De ratione quam Aristoteles in dis- 
 ponendis libris de animalibus secutus sit,' Kiel, 1846; ' De 
 Aristotelis Arte Poetica, ex Platone illustranda,' Kiel, 1847; 
 ' Die cyklopischen Mauern,' Kiel, 1847 ; ' Achill,' Kiel, 1853 ; 
 ' Topographs Thebarurn heptapylarum,'Kiel, 1854; ' Ueber die 
 Beinheit der Baukunst, Hamburg, 1856 ; ' Halkyonia,' Berlin, 
 1857 ; ' Ueber den Ursprung der Mythen,' printed in ' Philo- 
 logus,' Gottingen, 1860. Conjointly with Jahn he founded the 
 Archaeological Museum at Kiel. 
 
 FORD, RICHARD [E. C. vol. ii. col. 953]. After an illness of 
 some continuance, Mr. Ford died on the 1st of September, 1858. 
 
 FORMAN, SIMON, physician and astrologer, was born near 
 Wilton, Wiltshire, in 1552. After being a short time at the 
 Grammar-School ol Salisbury, he was apprenticed to a druggist in 
 that city, and there obtained a little knowledge of medicinal 
 plants and pharmacy, at the same time extending his acquaintance 
 with other subjects. He opened a school in 1570, and then 
 went to Magdalen College, Oxford, as a poor scholar. Here his 
 favourite studies were medicine and astrology, and after pursuing 
 similar studies for a time in Holland, he came to London, and 
 practised medicine in Philpot Lane; but not having a licence or 
 a degree, he was four times prosecuted for practising illegally. 
 He thereupon went to Cambridge, obtained a degree, and settled 
 at Lambeth as a physician and astrologer. In 1601 he was 
 charged before the Archbishop of Canterbury as an empiric or 
 cheat; but nevertheless persons of rank and position, among 
 others the notorious Countess of Essex, consulted him, appa- 
 rently more for his astrology and alchemy than for his medical 
 knowledge. He died suddenly while crossing the Thames in a 
 boat, September 12th, 1611, having, according to Lilly, prognos- 
 ticated the exact time of his death on the Sunday before, being 
 then in full health (' Life and Times,' p. 42). His MS. works, 
 relating to the philosopher's stone, magic, astronomy, astrology, 
 natural history, the plague, and other subjects, are partly in the 
 British Museum, partly in the Plymouth Library, but chiefly in 
 the Bodleian Library, Oxford. ' Forman's Autobiography from 
 1552 to 1602,' has been published, under the editorship of Mr, 
 Halliwell. There has also appeared ' Brief Description of the 
 Forman MSS. in the Public library, Plymouth,' 1853. 
 
 * FORSTER, FRANCOIS, an eminent French engraver, 
 was bom at Locle, in Is euchatel, then a Prussian province, 
 August 22nd, 1790 ; entered the atelier of Langlois at Paris in 
 1805 ; and at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts carried off the second 
 prize in 1809, and the grand prize in 1814. The King of Prussia, 
 then in Paris with the allies, presented- him with a gold medal 
 and an allowance of GOl. a year for two years, that he might com- 
 plete his studies at Rome. There he worked hard at the pictures 
 of Raffaelle, but on returning to Paris in 1816, he was compelled 
 for a time to engrave for the booksellers. Gradually he emanci- 
 pated himself from task-work, and produced some of the best 
 plates of the modern French school of line engraving. Among 
 the first are two portraits of Raffaelle, that painter's ' Graces ' 
 
 (a plate of exquisite delicacy and precision of line and refinement 
 of expression), Titian's ' Mistress,' and the Virgin in bas-relief 
 of Lionardo da Vinci. The ' Marie Antoinette,' and ' St. Cecilia,' 
 after Paul Delaroche, and some others from contemporary French 
 painters, are equally excellent in their way. Among his portraits 
 may be mentioned the Duke of Wellington, after Gerard, one of 
 his earliest prints, and Queen Victoria, after Winterhalter, 
 perhaps his latest. Forster was awarded a medal of the first 
 class in 1855, and was promoted to be officer of the Legion of 
 Honour in 1863. He was elected a member of the Institute 
 (Academie des Beaux- Arts) in 1844. 
 
 * FORSTER, RIGHT HON. WILLIAM EDWARD, M.P., 
 the only son of William Forster, Esq., a leading member of the 
 Society of Friends, and for upwards of fifty years a minister in 
 their community, was born at Bradpole, Dorsetshire, on the 11th 
 of July, 1818. He was educated at the Friends' School at Tot- 
 tenham. His mother was the sister of Sir Thomas Fowell 
 Buxton, and his wife, whom he married in 1850, is the eldest 
 daughter of the late Dr. Arnold, of Rugby. He contested Leeds 
 in the Liberal interest in April, 1859, unsuccessfully ; and was 
 first elected to the House of Commons in February, 1861, as one 
 oi the members for Bradford, where he carried on business as a 
 worsted manufacturer, which constituency again returned him in 
 July, 1865, and which he continues to represent. He served as 
 Under-Secretary for the Colonies from November, 1865, to July, 
 1866 ; and in December, 1868, was appointed to be Vice-President 
 of the Committee of Council on Education, and also at the same 
 time a fourth Charity Commissioner. He is J. P. and D.L. for the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, a Fellow of the Royal Geographical 
 Society, and a captain in the 23rd West Riding Volunteers. 
 Mr. Forster took pait in the furtherance of the measures of the 
 Gladstone administration in 1869; and in particular conducted 
 through the House of Commons a Bill for the Reform of 
 Endowed Schools, for the success of which he professed his 
 gratitude for the co-operation of Earl de Grey and Bishop 
 Temple. Addressing his constituents at Bradford on the 
 evening of January 17, 1870, he announced the chief work of 
 his party to be for the future of a constructive character. They 
 must make, he said, such laws for the punishment of criminals 
 as would tend to prevent crime ; must so administer public 
 money as to best promote education ; so administer the Poor- 
 laws as in the best way to check pauperism ; and to some extent 
 remodel the licensing laws so as in the best way to check 
 drunkenness. All these questions were to be considered, and 
 all these problems to be solved, with the utmost regard to the 
 individual liberties of the subjects and the rights of the 
 citizens, as scientific laws which dictate and regulate the bu- 
 siness of society ; and with the view of so shaping the necessary 
 action of the government as not to take away the stimulus from 
 the individual to do his duty. Mr. Forster's chief distinction in 
 the session of 1870 lay in his admirable conduct of the Education 
 Bill, the main principle of which was to lay down as a legal 
 enactment that there should be sufficient schools throughout the 
 country, and that wherever there was proved to be educational 
 destitution, the local authorities should be called upon to supply 
 it. It involved also the abolition of denominational inspectors. 
 After the death of Lord Clarendon, Mr. Forster was promoted to 
 a seat in the cabinet. 
 
 * FORTUNE, ROBERT, was born about 1813. He was first 
 employed in the Botanical Garden at Edinburgh and at Chis- 
 wick, at the same time studying botany under Graham and 
 Lindley ; and then went to China as collector of plants on behalf 
 of the Horticultural Society of London, In this capacity he 
 forwarded numerous new and interesting plants to this country, 
 and met with many adventures. His experience was published 
 in 1847, in 'Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces 
 of China,' which attracted much attention. In 1848 the East 
 India Company sent him out to obtain information respecting 
 tea, and as the result of his investigations he introduced into 
 India many choice varieties of the plant, and improved im- 
 plements and modes of culture. In 1857 the United States 
 Government employed him to introduce the tea plant into 
 America, and he succeeded in carrying to Washington 50,000 
 growing plants. He also introduced to Europe a large number of 
 new and valuable flowers and fruits, and formed a rich entomo- 
 logical collection. His frequent visits to the Celestials led to the 
 production of his 'Journey to the Tea Countries of China,' 8vo, 
 1852 ; and 'Residence among the Chinese ; Inland, on the Coast, 
 and at Sea ; being the third visit, from 1853 to 1856.' His long 
 experience constitutes him one of the highest authorities on all 
 matters relating to Chinese teg and Chinese life. He has wiitten 
 
FOSTER, BIRKET. 
 
 FOULD, ACHILLE. 
 
 510 
 
 several papers on Chinese plants in the Journal of the Horti- 
 cultural Society. 
 
 * FOSTER, BIRKET, landscape painter and designer, was 
 horn at North Shields, Fehruary 4, 1825. At the age of 16 he 
 w as apprenticed to Mr. Landell, the wood-engraver, by whose 
 advice he, after a time, ahandoned engraving for designing on 
 wood. This hranch of art he pursued for several years with 
 great success, and many of the heat landscape illustrations, hoth 
 to books and periodicals, were from liis pencil. Gradually, how- 
 ever, he gave more and more attention to painting in water- 
 colours, and when, in 1859, he was elected an Associate of the 
 Society of Painters in Water Colours, he gave up his practice on 
 wood. At the exhibitions of the Society his pictures were from 
 the first extremely popular, and their popularity has never 
 abated. But of late he has turned by preference to oil as a 
 vehicle, continuing to represent the simple heath and woodland 
 scenery of Surrey and the home-counties, but adopting a broader 
 manner, and dropping the minute detail of Ins water-cole uir 
 drawings. 
 
 FOUCAULT, JEAN BERNARD LEON, was horn at Paris, 
 September 18th, 1819. His father, a publisher, had him taught 
 medicine ; but evincing a preference for observational and ex- 
 perimental science, the young man devoted himself to those 
 studies. When Daguerre's discovery relating to sun-pjictures 
 was published in 1839, Foucault eagerly entered on the matter, 
 studying the optical principles concerned in the phenomena. 
 He next assisted M. Donn6 in preparing a course of lectures on 
 microscopic anatomy. In conjunction with M. Hippolyte Fizean 
 he made photometric comparisons of the solar, electric, and lime 
 lights ; and with M. Regnault, he experimented on binocular 
 vision. In 1844 lie made such improvements in the electric 
 light as to render it available as a substitute for solar light for 
 photographic and optical purposes ; and afterwards invented a 
 self-acting regulator for the same light, whereby the carbon 
 points are always kept at the proper distance apart. He experi- 
 mented on the production of interference-bands, by means of 
 monochrome light and multiple prisms ; on the laws of chro- 
 matic polarisation ; on incandescent foci ; on the interference of 
 calorific rays (by the use of very minute thermometers) ; on the 
 reverse action of the extreme red rays on a daguerreotype pic- 
 ture, in destroying the effect produced by the other rays ; on the 
 relation between frictional and voltaic electricity ; on the use of 
 the conical pendulum as a time-keeper ; on luminous vibrations ■ 
 and on many other subjects. Some of his researches were made 
 for the Bureau des Longitudes, on the suggestion of F. Arago. 
 Many of his experiments were important for their scientific 
 results. It had been deduced from physical and dynamic laws, 
 that if light travels more rapidly through air than through 
 water, great support would be furnished to the undulatory theory 
 of light ; whereas the corpuscular or molecular theory would lie 
 strengthened by an opposite result. In 1850, Foucault under- 
 took to examine the cpuestion experimentally. It was difficult, 
 and required apparatus of a refined and highly sensitive kind ; 
 hut he succeeded, and his results were accepted as favouring the 
 undulatory theory. In 1851 he made his celebrated pendulum 
 discovery. Reasoning from dynamic laws, he believed that a 
 pendulum, oscillating freely for a longtime, would gradually turn 
 round an axis like the hands of a clock ; that the pendu- 
 lum would oscillate in an invariable plane if the earth were 
 still ; but that the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis would 
 give an apparent revolution to this plane. An experiment on a 
 large scale proved that such is really the case ; and it was a 
 brilliant seance when he showed the result to the members of the 
 Institute. The gyroscope, invented by him in 1852, not only 
 confirmed this discovery, but demonstrated that the cardinal 
 points of the horizon can be indicated without any observations 
 of the heavenly bodies, and without any appeal to the compass 
 or magnet. These researches obtained for Foucault the office 
 of physical assistant at the Paris Observatory, and the 
 award of the Copley Medal by the Royal Society of London. 
 Another important discovery made by him was, that if a metallic 
 disc he rotated between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet, the 
 disc becomes heated, and the force required to rotate it increased ; 
 a result accepted as a valuable confirmation of the mechanical 
 theory of heat. In 1857 he invented the polariser known by 
 his name. In the same year he devised a mode of superseding 
 metallic specula for reflecting telescopies, by precipitating silver 
 from a chemical solution upon a concave glass mirror : (he was 
 not aware at the time that Steinheil had done nearly the same 
 thing in 1856). The Paris Observatory was afterwards supplied 
 with two reflecting telescopes on this principle — one 16 inches 
 
 aperture by 8j feet focal length, and the other. 31 inches by 15 
 feet ; and the plan has come largely into use, especially in con- 
 junction with a method, invented by Foucault in 1859, for giving 
 a paraboloidal form to tlie concave surface of his glass. In 1862 
 he made some refined experiments to determine the absolute 
 velocity of light in air, in miles per second. Taking Wheat- 
 stone's apparatus for measuring the velocity of electricity, and 
 adding exquisitely delicate mechanism to it, he found that the 
 real velocity of light is less than had usually been estimated ; a 
 result that confirmed tin- opinion which had been for some time 
 gaining ground, that the distance from the sun to the earth has 
 been over-estimated. In this year he was elected a member of 
 the Bureau des Longitudes, and decorated with the order of the 
 Legion of Honour. In 1863 he invented a new isochronous 
 governor, to equalise rotary motions. In 1864 he was elected 
 foreign member of the Royal Society ; and in 1865 succeeded 
 Clapeyron as member of the Acaddmie des Sciences. In 1866 
 he devised a new mode of applying an extremely thin film of 
 silver to the surface of the object-glass of a telescope, so as to 
 lessen the painful intensity of light when looking at the sun, 
 and yet admit a sufficient number of rays to pass through. His 
 indefatigable labours were brought to a close by a paralytic 
 stroke in 1867 ; he died on the 13th of February, 1868. Most 
 of his scientific papers (more than thirty in number) have been 
 published in the 'Comtes Rendus,' the 'Annales de Chemie et 
 de Physique/ and the ' Bulletin de la Societ6 d'Encouragement.' 
 Two were written in conjunction with Belfield-Lefevre, five with 
 Fizeau, and one with Regnault. He contributed a few treatises 
 to the ' Bibliotheque d'lnstruction Publique.' During many 
 years, beginning with 1845, he wrote the scientific department 
 of the ' Journal des Ddbats.' 
 
 FOULD, ACHILLE, French statesman and financier, was 
 born at Paris, November 17, 1800. His father, a rich Jewish 
 banker (who died in 1855) initiated him into commercial life; 
 and at one time he carried on, in conjunction with his brother 
 Benoit, the banking firm known as Fould-Oppenheitn. After 
 travelling in France, Italy, and the East, he was in 1842 elected 
 a member of the Conseil General of the Hautes Pyrenees. When 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies for Tarbes, he joined the 
 moderate party; Tiut, without taking much part m general 
 politics, he discussed the various questions of finance and 
 political economy which arose, such as taxes, budgets, customs' 
 duties, and the like ; and became an authority on those subjects. 
 The subvention of railways, the establishment of savings' banks, 
 and the consolidation of government stocks, were measures which 
 he assisted to carry. In 1844 he was reporter of the Commission 
 on Newspaper Stamps. Accepting the Revolution of 1848 as an 
 accomplished fact, he was chosen to represent the department of 
 the Seine in the Constituent Assembly. In refutation of certain 
 prevalent doctrines concerning the currency, he wrote two pam- 
 phlets, ' Pas d'Assignats' and 'Opinions de M. A. Fould sur les 
 Assignats.' Having been a valuable member of many com- 
 missions, he was appointed Minister of Finance under the 
 Prince-President, Louis Napoleon. A loan being required, he 
 departed from the usual practice of obtaining it from the great 
 bankers, and received deposits in small sums from the people 
 generally, a plan which met with great success. He brought 
 forward numerous measures relating to the income tax, hy- 
 pothecated credits, octroi duties, register duty, post office, taxes 
 on letters, circulation of bank notes, the Bank of Algeria, the 
 civil pension list, a penitentiary colony at Cayenne, a consolida- 
 tion of the customs' duties with the indirect taxes, the establish- 
 ment of reversionary annuities, &c. M. Fould retained his 
 office after the coup d'etat in 1851, but resigned in 1852 
 because he could not assent to the Emperor's resolution to 
 confiscate the Orleans property. Chosen as a senator, he 
 was soon afterwards appointed to the high offices of Minister of 
 State and Minister of the Emperor's Household. He took a 
 leading part in bringing about the Great Exposition of 1855, 
 and in effecting the vast enlargements and improvements of the 
 Louvre. Recalled to the Ministry of Finance in 1861, he 
 addressed a memoir to the Emperor, recommending a more 
 open statement of the financial position of the legislature than 
 had been customary, and a less lavish use of the system of 
 supplementary credits. Many important fiscal reforms were 
 effected under his ministry. In 1865 he published pamphlets 
 on credits and sinking funds. He resigned office in 1867. M. 
 Fould died suddenly of angina pectoris at his villa, Tarbes, on 
 the 5th of October, 1867. The Emperor, who lost in him one 
 of the few judicious ministers he has called to his councils, 
 honoured his memory with a pompous funeral. 
 
C41 
 
 FOURNET, VICTOR. 
 
 FOWLER, JOHN. 
 
 512 
 
 FOURNET, VICTOR, was born at Paris, May 15, 1801. He 
 was educated at the Ecole des Mines, and on leaving it became 
 director of the metallurgical works at Katzenthal (Bas Rhin). 
 In 1828 he was put in charge of the mines at Pontgibaud, and 
 in 1834 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology at 
 Lyon. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and of 
 numerous other scientific bodies, as also an officer of the Legion 
 of Honour. He died Jan. 8, 1809. His life was a very active 
 one, and he made important contributions to several branches of 
 knowledge, more especially metallurgy, mineralogy, geology, 
 meteorology, and physical geography. He was one of the lirst 
 to show that the coal formations of Western Europe are con- 
 tinued over large areas beneath newer strata in France, Belgium, 
 and Great Britain. He enunciated new and ingenious views on 
 the formation of mineral veins and plutonic rocks. He accounted 
 for many of the phenomena presented by quartz in these places 
 by his theory of surfusion. He found by experiment that silica 
 in unison with certain other substances, melted at a temjjerature 
 lower than silica alone, and that when cooled down slowly it re- 
 tained its viscosity at a temperature far below that required to 
 soften it in the first instance. This state of viscosity below the 
 fusing point he called surfusion. He distinguished two kinds, the 
 igneous and the gelatinous. He applied this fact, or principle as he 
 called it, together with that of the varying mineralogical compo- 
 sition of rocks, according to the rate of cooling, to explain the 
 association of quartz with chlorite, garnet, and felspar. He dis- 
 covered a large sheet of water beneath Lyon, which is now used 
 as the chief source of supply. When the Geological Society of 
 Paris had an extraordinary session at Lyon, he contributed 
 largely to its success, by acting as the guide to the excursion 
 parties, furnishing subjects for discussion, and facilitating the 
 arrangements. He drew up a report of the meeting, under the 
 title ' Geologie Lyonnaise,' 8vo, Lyon, 1862. He also wrote 
 ' Etudes sur les Depots Metalliferes,' and contributed 172 papers 
 to scientific journals, of which the majority were published in 
 the ' Annales,' issued by the Agricultural Society of Lyon ; some 
 in the ' Memoires ' of the Academy of Sciences of that place ; 
 some in the ' Comptes Rendus,' and a few elsewhere. A full list 
 is given in the ' Catalogue of Scientific Papers/ published by the 
 Royal Society. 
 
 FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON, an eminent typefounder, 
 was bom in Paris, September 15th, 1712. He became conversant 
 with typography under his father, who was manager of the printing 
 office of Guillaume Lebe. After studying design under Colson, 
 young Founder practised for a time as a wood-engraver, but soon 
 turned his attention definitely to the designing and engraving of 
 matrices for printing types. In 1737 he published ' Tables des 
 Proportions qu'il taut observer entre les Caracteres,' with a view 
 to a more symmetrical determination of the sizes of types for 
 printing. In 1742 appeared his ' Modele des Caracteres de 
 l'Imprimerie, avec un abrege historique des principaux graveurs 
 Francais,' giving examples of many new and beautiful forms of 
 type. This was followed by ' Epreuves de deux petits Caracteres 
 nouvellement graves et executes dans toutes les parties typo- 
 grapbiques.' Fournier engaged in a controversy on an in- 
 teresting point in the history of printing. He disputed the 
 right of Gutenburg to the honour usually paid to him as the 
 inventor of printing, on the ground that Schoffer was the first to 
 use moveable metal types, Gutenberg having only used moveable 
 wooden types, which were but a slight advance on the engraved 
 wood blocks for block books, until then in use. Fournier 
 maintained his opinions in a ' Dissertation sur l'origine et le 
 progres de l'art de graver en bois,' 1758; followed by ' De 
 l'origine et des productions de l'imprimerie primitive en taille 
 de bois,' 1759. Schopfiin having published a pamphlet, ' Vin- 
 dicise Typografica?,' in 1760, to support the claims of Guten- 
 berg at Strasbourg against those of Schoffer at Mainz, Fournier 
 replied to him in ' Observations,' &c, 1760. Another antagonist, 
 M. Baer, published 'Lettre sur l'Origine de rimprimerie,' 1761 ; 
 • to which Fournier soon afterwards responded in 1 Remari[ues,'&c. 
 and he pursued the subject in ' Lettre a. Freron,' 1763. These 
 were afterwards printed together in one volume, under the title, 
 ' Traites historiques et critiques sur l'origine de lTmprimerie.' 
 Another work by Fournier was ' Traite historique et critique 
 sur l'origine et les progres des caracteres de fonte pour 
 l'impression des caracteres de la musique, avec des epreuves de 
 nouveaux caracteres de musique,' 1765. His chief work, 
 however, was ' Manuel typographique,' 2 vols. 4to, 1764 — 66. 
 The first volume relates to the engraving and founding of types ; 
 the second to an engraved collection of alphabets, 101 in 
 number, ancient and modern, oriental and European. There 
 
 were to have been two more volumes— one on the artof printing, 
 and the other containing notices of celebrated printers, but be 
 did not live to finish them. He died October 8tn, 1768. 
 
 FOWKE, CAPTAIN FRANCIS, R. E., was born, in 1823, 
 at Belfast, and after studying at the Military College, Woolwich, 
 obtained a commission in the Royal Engineers, in 1842, and 
 was ordered to Bermuda. Here he gave much attention to 
 constructive science, and obtaining the confidence of his superiors 
 was entrusted to design and erect several works. On his return 
 to England he built the Raglan Barrack, Devonport, which was 
 believed to be a great advance on previous barracks in its 
 sanitary arrangements, convenience, and economy of construction. 
 In 1853 he was appointed Inspector of the Science and Art 
 Department, South Kensington. Like most government ap- 
 pointments of this order it was made without much regard to 
 the special attainments of the person nominated. Captain 
 Fowke knew little of any science except construction, and less 
 of art, but he possessed great energy and powers of application, 
 and these stood him in good stead. He was soon called away 
 from his inspection of science and art, whatever that meant, to 
 take charge (1854 — 1855) of the machinery department of the 
 Paris Internationa] Exhibition, and shortly after became secre- 
 tary to the English Commissioners, and drew up one or two 
 reports. On the completion of this service he was shifted to the 
 more congenial post of engineer of the South Kensington 
 Museum. In this capacity he made many alterations in the old 
 and temporary buildings, and in 1858 designed the Vernon and 
 Sheepshanks Galleries. In 1860 — 61 he designed and erected 
 the Industrial Museum, Edinburgh, and later remodelled the 
 Dublin National Gallery. About the same time he erected the 
 great conservatory in the grounds of the Royal Horticultural 
 Society, South Kensington, and soon after was called upon to 
 produce the designs for the International Exhibition building of 
 1862. In this vast edifice, which covered an area of 25 acres, 
 Captain Fowke had many difficulties to overcome, and was, it 
 must be confessed, not wholly successful in the result ; but it is 
 due to him to remember that many alterations were made in the 
 designs from time to time in opposition to his opinions and 
 wishes. This was the last undertaking of importance he lived 
 to complete, but he was busily employed not only in superin- 
 tending the works at South Kensington and elsewhere, but in 
 preparing some extensive new designs for the government. One 
 of these was for the scheme of National Museums with which it 
 was proposed to cover the ground occupied by the Great Exhi- 
 bition of 1862. For this a competition was opened in 1864, at 
 which Captain Fowke obtained the first premium of 400Z. by a 
 very grandiose Italian design — but which it is needless to add 
 has passed to the well-peopled limbo of unaccomplished 
 government schemes. His next great work of this kind was a 
 complete and very elaborate series of designs for an entirely 
 new South Kensington Musem in place of the iron and other 
 temporary sheds that had hitherto borne that name. Particulars 
 and engravings of the new museum were published in government 
 blue-books, and the first section of the work was commenced 
 under Captain Fowke's superintendence. It had not, however, 
 proceeded far, when he died at the Museum suddenly, from the 
 bursting of a blood-vessel, on the 3rd of December, 1865. The 
 new buildings of the South Kensington Museum have since 
 been carried steadily forward, but are still very far from being 
 completed or displaying anything like the magnitude of their 
 proportions, though their architectural character may now be 
 understood. The design of the Royal Albert Hall of Science, 
 which is in course of erection a little north of the Horti- 
 cultural Gardens, is stated to be " based on ideas originated by 
 the late Captain Fowke, R.E.," but we are not aware that he 
 made any drawings for it. Captain Fowke, though hardly an 
 architect, and certainly not an artist, was a good engineer, an 
 accomplished gentleman, and an eminent and laborious public 
 servant. Besides his engineering and architectural works, he 
 gave great attention to mechanics, made improvements in the 
 fire-engine and in travelling scaffolds, and invented collapsing 
 pontoons and other useful and ingenious contrivances. 
 
 FOWLER, CHARLES [E. C. vol. ii. col. 979]. Mr. Fowler 
 died at his residence, Western House, Great Marlow, Bucks, 
 September 2, 1867. 
 
 FOWLER, JOHN, inventor of the steam-plough, was born at 
 Melksham, in Wiltshire .July 11th, 1826. In 1847 he was 
 engaged at an engineering factory at Middlesborough-on-Tees. 
 Being in Ireland in 1849, he was struck with the great expanse 
 of waste undrained land, and with the benefit which would 
 accrue from any improved method of sub-soil drainage. In 1850 
 
FOWLER, JOHN. 
 
 FRANCIS JOSEPH CHARLES, EMPEROR. 544 
 
 he joined Mr. Alfred Fry, of Bristol, in a series of experiments 
 on a new draining or drain-tile laying machine', with such a 
 successful result that he was able to bring into use bis draining-' 
 plough, worked at first by horses, but very soon afterwards by 
 steam-power. Tlie etlicacy of this machine in laying down 
 draining-tiles at any depth in the soil brought him large 
 contracts in the south of England. In 1852 he began to attend 
 to the subject of steam-cultivation, especially the application of 
 his steam-plough to arable land. He exhibited some striking 
 results at [pswich in 1856; read a paper on the subject before 
 the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in I N57 ; and received 
 the Royal Agricultural Society's prize of 500/. at the Chester 
 meeting in 1858. In 1861 he joined with Messrs. Hewitson and 
 Kitson in establishing a steam-plough factory at Leeds. Mr. 
 Fowler died December 4th, 1864. 
 
 * FOWLER, JOHN, civil engineer, the eldest son of Mr. 
 John Fowler, of Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield, was born at that 
 place in 1817. He became a pupil of Mr. Leather, of Leeds, at 
 the time when a great reservoir for Sheffield was under construc- 
 tion ; and soon afterwards surveyed a line of railway from Bir- 
 mingham through Dudley and Wolverhampton to Stourbridge. 
 He next acted for a few years as assistant to Mr. Rastrick. In 
 1844 he became engineer of the Manchester, Shellicld, and Lin- 
 colnshire Railway. Settling in London, he was successively 
 engaged on extensive works abroad and at home, chiefly railways 
 and docks. For some years he was consulting engineer to the 
 Department of Woods and Forests, and also to the Great 
 Western Railway Company. As engineer to the Metropolitan 
 and Metropolitan District Railway Companies, he has had very 
 formidable difficulties to contend with in the construction of 
 underground railways in the Metropolis. In encountering the 
 noddle and low level sewers of the great main -drainage system, 
 the smaller sewers and drains, the pneumatic tube at the junction 
 of the Euston and Hainpstead Roads, the water-pipes and mains, 
 the gas-pipes and mains, and the underground springs, the work 
 has been a struggle against obstacles from beginning to end. In 
 1870, Mr. Fowler, convinced of the impracticability of a railway 
 bridge twenty miles long over the English Channel, or a railway 
 tunnel of ecpial length under the Channel, prepared complete 
 plans for a floating ferry or railway ship, to receive a railway 
 train in a specially constructed dock near Dover, to steam with 
 it across the Channel in an hour, to land it in a new harbour to 
 be built between Calais and Boulogne, and there to transfer it 
 to the French railways. Mr. Fowler wrote a paper on the 
 Improvements in the River Tyne, to form part of the ' Indus- 
 trial Resources of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees,' in 1864. He has 
 also written other scientific and professional papers. 
 
 FOX, WILLIAM JOHNSON [E. C. vol. ii. col. 986]. Mr. 
 Fox died on the 3rd of June, 1864, in his 80th vear. 
 
 FRAGONARD, ALEXANDRE EVARISTE, French painter 
 and sculptor, was born at Grasse, in Provence, in 1780, studied 
 under David, and painted such works as ' Maria Theresa pre- 
 senting her Son to the Hungarian Deputies ; ' ' Tasso reading his 
 Jerusalem Delivered to the Duke of Ferrara ; ' ' Female Christian 
 Martyrs thrown to wild beasts in the Amphitheatre,' which were 
 greatly admired. He was, however, even more admired as a 
 sculptor, in which capacity he executed a colossal statue of 
 Pichegru, the Fountain of the Place Maubert at Paris, and the 
 pediment of the Legislative Chamber. He died in November, 1850. 
 
 FRAGONARD, JEAN HONORE, an eminent French 
 painter, was born at Grasse, in 1732. A pupil of Chardin and 
 Vanloo, he won the grand prize in 1752, and went to Rome, 
 where he modelled his style on that of Pietro da Cortona. Re- 
 turning to Paris, he painted historical subjects, and acquired dis- 
 tinction. His ' Coresus et Callirhoe ' was honoured with an elabo- 
 rate descriptive criticism by Diderot, and secured his election 
 into the Academy. His later works were, however, mostly 
 small, brilliantly coloured, and somewhat meretricious amatory 
 pieces, such as ' Le Baiser a la derobee,' ' Le Serment d' Amour,' 
 ' Le Fontaine d' Amour,' and the like, which exactly hit the 
 voluptuous taste of the fashionable society of Paris, and were 
 multiplied by the burins of the best French engravers. But the 
 Revolution of 1789 extinguished the demand for works of this 
 class. Fragonard was appointed by the Assemblee Nationale 
 one of the keepers of the Museum, and had the credit of intro- 
 ducing the arrangement of the pictures by schools. He did not 
 resume his pencils, and died poor, August 22nd, 1806. 
 
 FRAHN, CHRISTIAN MARTIN, German orientalist, was 
 born in Rostock, June 4th, 1782. He studied from 1800 the 
 oriental languages, at his native town and at Gottingen, and he 
 ulterwards passed several years in Switzerland as professor of 
 
 Latin in the Pestalozzian Institute. In 1806 he returned to 
 Rostock, and in 1807, on the recommendation of Tychsen, was 
 made professor of the oriental languages in Kasan. In 1815 he 
 was named member of the Imperial Academy for Oriental An- 
 tiquities, head librarian, director of the Asiatic Museum, and 
 state councillor at St. Petersburg. Friihn was an excellent 
 scholar, and he did much to promote the study of the oriental 
 languages and literature in Russia. He also paid great attention 
 to numismatics, and was commissioned to classify the medals in 
 the Imperial Academy. His numerous papers on oriental coins 
 are among the most valued of his writings. He died in St. 
 Petersburg, August 16th, 1851. His principal works include, 
 ' Ibn-Fosslan's und anderer Araber Berichte uber die Russen 
 alterer Zeit,' St. Petersburg, 1823; ' De Musei Sprewitziani 
 mosquae Numis cuficis nonnullis,' 4to, St. Petersburg, 1825 ; 
 ' Abu' Yhazi Bahadur Chani Historia Mongolomm et Tata- 
 rorum,' fob, 1825; ' Recensio Numorum Muhammedanorum 
 Academiae Imperialis Scientiarum Petropolitanse,' 4to,St. Peters- 
 burg, 1826, to which a supplement was added, edited by B. Dorn, 
 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1855. He also contributed above a hundred 
 and fifty papers to the 'Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences de 
 Saint- Petersbourg,' 1819—26; 'Mines de l'Orient,' fob, 1816; 
 ' Das Asiatische Museum,' by Dorn, St. Petersburg, 1846 ; ' Le 
 Bulletin Scientifique, publie par I'Acadeurie des Sciences de 
 Saint- Petersbourg,' 1836 — 48; 'Journal Asiatique de Paris,' 
 1823—28 ; and 'Journal de Saint- Petersbourg,' 1829—39. 
 
 * FRAIKIN, CHARLES AUGUSTE, a popular Belgian 
 sculptor, was born in 1816, at Herenthalt, near Antwerp. A 
 pupil in the Antwerp Academy, he exhibited for the first time 
 at the Salon, Brussels, in 1816; in the following year acquired 
 celebrity by his statue of 'Cupid Captive,' and ever since has 
 continued to produce works of a similar character. He has, 
 however, executed many official and other commissions of a more 
 pretentious kind , including the tomb of the Queen of the Belgians ; 
 but his nude female statues of Venus, Psyche, Innocence, and 
 such like, have given him his chief celebrity. The softness and 
 delicacy of his finish, and a somewhat extreme sensuousness of 
 style, are doubtless important elements of his popularity. M. 
 Fraikin is a Knight of the Order of Leopold, and a member of 
 the Antwerp Academy. 
 
 * FRANCIS JOSEPH CHARLES, Emperor of Austria. 
 [E. C. vol. ii. col. 995.] The events which led to the remarkable 
 changes which have occurred in the Austrian empire, and in the 
 position of the emperor, since 1858, have been related in con- 
 siderable detail in the Geographical Supplement of the E.C. 
 under the headings of Austria, Italy, Denmark, Schleswio- 
 Holstein, and Prussia. Here, therefore, a succinct narra- 
 tive will be sufficient to carry forward the personal history of 
 the emperor. The first great foreign trouble of the Emperor 
 Francis Joseph occurred at a time of grave domestic trial, arising 
 from the dissatisfaction of large sections of his subjects, and 
 especially the Hungarians, at the heavy imposition of new taxes 
 and the refusal of a satisfactory system of representation. It was 
 probably a knowledge of the straitened financial condition of 
 Austria, and the extent of internal dissatisfaction, that em- 
 boldened Cavour to force matters to a crisis. In the latter part of 
 1858 it became known that a treaty had been concluded between 
 France and Sardinia, by which the former bound herself to sup- 
 port Sardinia in case of an invasion of Piedmont by Austria ; 
 and this invasion Cavour made it his business to bring on. 
 Affairs had become so threatening by the spring of 1859 that 
 Russia proposed a congress for the settlement of the Italian 
 question, to which the other powers assented with real or seem- 
 ing readiness. The preliminary negotiations, however, disclosed 
 incompatible claims, and Austria placed herself in the wrong by 
 insisting on Sardinia disarming before the congress met, and 
 requiring her, by a formal and imperious summons, to do so. 
 Against this England. Russia, and Prussia protested, whilst 
 France prepared to march troops to the assistance of Sardinia. 
 The news created a ferment throughout Italy. In Tuscany 
 the people rose in arms ; the Grand Dukes of Florence and 
 Modena and the Duchess of Parma were forced to fly, and the 
 King of Sardinia was declared Dictator of Tuscany. 
 
 The Austrian army crossed the Ticino in force, April 29, 1859, 
 but a delay of a fortnight followed, and was fatal. Bad weather 
 set in, the rivers were swollen, the fields converted into swamps, 
 the roads became difficult for the movement of infantry, and 
 almost impassable for cavalry. Meanwhile the Piedmontese 
 troops were concentrating, and the French were rapidly pouring 
 soldiers and artillery into Genoa by sea, and to Alessandria by 
 ra Iway, and sending an army across the Alps to Turin. It war 
 
545 FRANCIS, JOSEPH CHARLES. 
 
 FRANCIS, JOSEPH CHARLES. 
 
 546 
 
 not tiU the 20th of May that the first serious encounter took 
 place, at Montebello, between the Austrian and combined 
 French and Sardinian armies. The Austrians fought coura- 
 geously, but were defeated with great loss. Various skirmishes 
 followed with equal ill-success for the Austrians, who were 
 forced back step by step, till, on the 4th of June, they were 
 brought to a stand at Magenta, on the east of the Ticino, and on 
 the direct road from Novara to Milan. Here, after a desperate 
 conflict, which lasted the greater part of the day, the Austrians 
 were repulsed at all points, with a loss of over 8,000 killed and 
 wounded, and 5,000 prisoners. The inhabitants of Milan rose 
 in insurrection, and drove out the garrison ; the Austrians were 
 compelled to evacuate successively all their strong positions in 
 Lombardy, and to continue their retreat, though constantly facing 
 their foes, until, on the 22nd of June, they were obliged to 
 cross to the eastern side of the Mincio. Every exertion had been 
 made on each side to bring up their men. The Emperor of 
 Austria joined his army and assumed the command in chief, 
 making Villafranca his head-quarters. At the head of the 
 French and Italian armies were the Emperor of the French and 
 the King of Sardinia, assisted by Marshals Baraguay D'Hilliers, 
 Canrobert, MacMahon, the Duke of Magenta, and General Niel. 
 Each side had over 150,000 men, the Austrians being the stronger 
 in men but weaker in artillery. The Austrians recrossed the 
 Mincio on the night of the 23rd of June, and occupied a line of 
 aboirt twelve miles, extending from Pozzolengo and Solferino 
 to Castel Goffredo, their artillery crowning the heights of 
 Volta. The battle of Solferino lasted from ten o'clock in the 
 morning till nearly eight in the evening of the 24th, but the 
 Austrian army had commenced to retreat as early as four in the 
 afternoon. The allies lost over 18,000 men in killed and 
 wounded ; the Austrian loss was estimated at 30,000 in killed 
 and wounded, but in addition 7,000 prisoners and 30 guns fell 
 into the hands of the allies. The Italians were burning for 
 the expulsion of the Austrians from Venice as well as from 
 Lombardy, and appearances boded ill for the fortunes of Austria ; 
 but Napoleon III., satisfied with having proved the superiority 
 of his arms, was equally averse to carrying further the hu- 
 miliation of Austria or the elevation of Sardinia. He accorded, 
 July 7th, an armistice ; on the 11th visited the Emperor Francis 
 J oseph at Villafranca, and there agreed to the preliminaries of 
 a peace, the terms of which were comparatively easy, and which 
 the Emperor of Austria, recognizing his defeat, willingly ac- 
 cepted. By the treaty, signed at Zurich, October 17th, 1859, 
 Austria ceded Lombardy, but was to retain Venice and her 
 other Italian possessions. These, however, were to form parts 
 of the Italian Confederation, which, according to the treaty, was 
 to be formed under the presidency of the pope. This portion 
 of the treaty was, however, repudiated by the Italians ; pro- 
 vincial governments were established, Tuscany, Modena, and the 
 Roman Legations declared themselves annexed to Sardinia, and 
 the Emperor of Austria, warned by Napoleon III. that he must 
 not interfere with the internal affairs of Italy, could only 
 protest. 
 
 He now turned his attention to home affairs ; announced his 
 desire to remove the political or social grievances under which 
 any section of his people might be suffering, and appointed a 
 commission to examine and report upon the condition of the 
 finances of the empire, which were in a state of extreme disorder. 
 One of the first important measures which followed was the re- 
 constitution of the Reichsrath, which, by successive enlarge- 
 ments and revision, was at length (July and October, 1860, and 
 February, 1861), changed from a merely consultative body into a 
 deliberative assembly of 343 members assimilating to the English 
 model, the imperial ministers being for the first time declared 
 responsible to the Reichsrath for the maintenance of the consti- 
 tution and the exact fulfilment of the laws. It was an immense 
 advance, but the division into electoral districts gave a great 
 preponderance to the German element, and Hungary, Transyl- 
 vania, and Venice, and subsequently Bohemia, refused to send 
 delegates, and neither persuasion nor threats of coercion would 
 induce them to yield. The emperor persisted in a conciliatory 
 course. The dissatisfied provinces maintained a position of 
 passive resistance, till the attention of all was directed to the 
 Germano-Danish quarrel respecting Schleswig-Holstein. Un- 
 fortunately for Austria, the emperor felt it to be necessary, in 
 order to maintain his equality with Prussia as a leading German 
 power, to join with Prussia in enforcing the decree of the Frank- 
 fort Diet for the separation of Holstein from Denmark. Against 
 this little power the combined forces of Austria and Prussia 
 were, as was to be expected, successful ; and by a treaty signed 
 
 BIOG. DIV.— SCP. 
 
 at Vienna, October 30th, 1864, Denmark surrendered Schleswig- 
 Holstein and Lauenberg to the conquerors. Holstein was 
 assigned to Austria, but Prussia was bent on obtaining po < 
 sion of both the duchies, and when Austria refused to make 
 over her share for a pecuniary compensation, Prussia found 
 matter for complaint in the manner in which Holstein was 
 governed ; the armaments of Austria, moreover, were declared 
 to be menacing, and various pretexts were found for increasing 
 the strength of the Prussian troops in Schleswig out of all pro- 
 portion to those of Austria, and for the mobilisation of her 
 military forces. The time had come for Bismarck to take 
 another step forwards in his great scheme for the aggrandise- 
 ment of Prussia. In the war with Denmark the measure of 
 Austria's military strength and weakness had been accurately 
 taken. Her inferiority in soldiers, armaments, tactics, and dis- 
 cipline was evident, and Bismarck resolved to strike before these 
 could be amended. He was probably not very careful as to the 
 speciousness of the grounds for declaring war, but those he put 
 forward were marked by even more than his usual audacity. 
 He had, however, carefully prepared the means for giving effect 
 to the blow, and among other things in anticipation of the war 
 he had in the previous April entered into a treaty with Italy by 
 which the two bound themselves to act jointly in the event of a 
 war with Austria, and not to conclude a peace without the 
 cession by Austria of Venice to Italy and the Elbe Duchies to 
 Prussia. Hostilities commenced on the 14th of June, 1865, and 
 the Prussian army at once took the field in a state of complete 
 organisation, every man supplied with a needle-gun of the most 
 improved pattern, the artillery numerous and excellent, and the 
 commissariat perfect. The scheme of the campaign had been 
 studiously worked out by Von Moltke, and everything thoroughly 
 arranged. Austria, on the other hand, was wholly unprepared ; 
 her forces were widely scattered, the arms imperfect, and neither 
 plan nor provision made for such a contingency. The Prussians 
 took possession of Cassel, Giessen, and Leipzig on the 15th of 
 June ; seized the city of Hanover on the 17th, and Dresden on 
 the 18th ; on the 22nd the First Army Corps, under Prince 
 Charles, entered Bohemia ; and on the 25th the Second Army, 
 under the Crown Prince, crossed the mountains from Silesia to 
 Nachod and Trantenau. In a series of desperately-contested 
 fights, extending from the 27th of June to the 2nd of July, the 
 Austrians were beaten again and again, but were able to con- 
 centrate their forces between the fortresses of Koniggratz and 
 Josephstadt. Here, July the 3rd, took place the battle, variously 
 called Koniggratz and Sadowa, which decided the campaign. 
 Nearly half a million combatants were engaged ; the fight lasted 
 from dawn till nearly sunset of that long summer's day, but the 
 superior numbers, better arms, and more masterly strategy of the 
 Prussians prevailed. The Austrians lost 32,000 in killed and 
 wounded, and 18,000 in prisoners, and Marshal Benedik re- 
 quested a truce, which, after some negotiation, was granted. In 
 Italy, meanwhile, affairs had worn a somewhat different aspect. 
 The King of Italy, assisted by Generals Marmora and Cialdini, 
 took the field at the head of an army of 120,000 men. The 
 Austrian forces were stronger, but large numbers of men 
 were required to garrison the fortresses of the Quadrilateral. 
 The first, and only general, encounter between the two armies 
 was at Custozza on the 24th of June. The battle lasted from 
 seven in the morning till five in the afternoon, when the Italians, 
 who fought with great bravery and held their positions against 
 repeated charges with admirable tenacity, retreated in good 
 order, the Austrians being too much exhausted to pursue them. 
 At sea the Austrian and Italian fleets came into collision off 
 Lissa on the 20th of July, when, after a smart engagement of 
 four hours, both fleets drew off, the Italians having lost a large 
 iron-clad frigate, the Re dTtalia, and a gun-boat, both of which 
 were sunk during the fight ; whilst the Austrian line-of-battle 
 ship, the Kaiser, was so much damaged that she had to be run 
 ashore. After the battle of Sadowa, the Emperor of Austria, 
 having obtained a few days' truce, applied to the Emperor of the 
 French to mediate for an armistice, as preliminary to a treaty of 
 peace, placing at the same time the Venetian territory at the 
 disposal of Napoleon with the understanding that it should be 
 eventually transferred to Italy. 
 
 The armistice was obtained ; and on the 26th of July a treaty 
 of peace between the belligerents was signed at Prague. By it 
 Austria agreed to transfer the Venetian territory, with the for- 
 tresses of the Quadrilateral, to Italy ; recognised the dissolution 
 of the late German Bund, and a new formation of Germany in 
 which she should have no part ; transferred all her rights in 
 Schleswig an 1 Ilol-tein to Prussia; and undertook to pay an 
 
547 
 
 FRANKLAND, EDWARD. 
 
 FRANKLAND, EDWARD. 
 
 54:8 
 
 indemnity of 40,000,000 Prussian dollars on account of the war, 
 besides abandoning her German allies to the tender mercies of 
 the conqueror. It was a terrible price to pay, but Austria was 
 hopelessly beaten, and Prussia had made the war for a purpose 
 which she was little likely to forego in the hour of victory. 
 Austria would have fared worse but for French intervention. 
 The King of Prussia was not prepaid 1 lor a war witli France in 
 conjunction witli Austria. Ho preferred to deal with each sepa- 
 rately. The time for France was not yet. 
 
 Rendered by these disasters a sadder but a wiser man, Francis 
 Joseph addressed himself resolutely to the settlement of the 
 internal diiliculties of tlic empire. Taking as chief adviser 
 Count Bcust, late minister of Saxony, he announced his deter- 
 mination to adopt to the full the position of a constitutional 
 monarch and to concede as far as practicable self-government to 
 the several provinces, and to carry out such reforms as might 
 appear necessary for the satisfaction ot his subjects, the 
 strengthening of the empire, and the consolidation of the 
 several races united under it. The grand dilliculty of " Hun- 
 garian independence and dynastic union with Austria," on 
 which Hungary, under the leadership of Deak, had persistently 
 insisted, was, after mature deliberation and discussion, now fully 
 conceded, and the dualism of the empire firmly established. 
 Francis Joseph was crowned King of Hungary at Pesth on the 
 18th of June, 18(57, amidst the utmost enthusiasm of the whole 
 Hungarian people, and to the satisfaction of the great bulk of 
 the remainder of the empire, though dualism was, and perhaps 
 still is, far from being universally popular. Francis Joseph has 
 since honestly laboured to fulfil his promises. The finances have 
 been improved, though necessarily they are still in an unsatis- 
 factory condition ; economy has been studiously enforced ; trade 
 and commerce have been encouraged ; education promoted, and 
 released to a great extent from the absolute control of the Roman 
 Catholic clergy ; the Concordat was formally abrogated July, 
 1870, in consequence of the definition of the dogma of papal 
 infallibility ; and peace has been firmly maintained. There 
 have been troubles, an insurrection in Dalmatia, and local dif- 
 ferences from the perhaps excessive claims of other provinces, 
 but they have been successfully got over ; " the empire," as the 
 Reichsrath were told in the speech from the throne at their last 
 meeting, December 13th, 1869, "the empire has undeniably 
 undergone in all directions a progressive development on the 
 basis of constitutional institutions." The emperor, under trying 
 circumstances, has maintained his position as a constitutional 
 monarch, and retains unimpaired his personal popularity. 
 
 FRANKLAND, EDWARD, Ph.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., was born 
 at Churchtown, near Lancaster, on the 18th of January, 1825. 
 He studied chemistry under Dr. Playfair, under Liebig, and at 
 Marburg under R. W. Bunsen. On April 19, 1847, Mr. Frank- 
 land and Dr. Kolbe, then assistants to Dr. Lyon Playfair, in 
 the Museum of Practical Geology, read a paper at the Chemical 
 Society of London ' On the Chemical Constitution of Metace- 
 tonic Acid and some other Bodies related to it.' In this they 
 showed that the nitriles obtained from organic acids are the 
 cyanides of the alcohol radicals of the series next below that 
 to which the acid belongs. Thus they considered the benzoni- 
 trile of Fehling to be the cyanide of phenyl, and pointed out 
 that by boiling the nitriles with alcoholic potash potassium salts 
 of acids richer in carbon were formed ; and they showed that 
 cyanide of ethyl thus treated gave the salt of metacetonic acid 
 (or propionic acid, as it is now caUed), and ammonia. A more 
 complete memoir was subsequently published in the ' Annalen 
 der Chemie unci Pharmacie,' in which this reaction was proved 
 to be general, and to take place equally in the methyl and. amyl 
 series. At the same meeting Dr. Kolbe read his paper on the 
 decomposition of valeric acid by the voltaic current by which 
 the radical butyl of the then unknown butyl series was pro- 
 duced. The importance of these two communications was very 
 great, for the former described the first instance of the synthesis 
 of organic acids, which has since been so much developed ; while 
 the second announced the discovery of the means of separating 
 from these acids the positive radicals which they contain. 
 
 Shortly after the publication of these researches, Frankland 
 and Kolbe proceeded to the laboratory of Professor Bunsen, 
 in Marburg, and in the foUowing year, 1848, they published 
 another joint paper on the action of potassium on cyanide of 
 ethyl, by which they obtained a basic substance, cyanethine, of 
 the same composition as the cyanide, and a gas which they then 
 considered to be methyl, but which was afterwards found to be 
 hydride of ethyl. By the action of chlorine on this gas a body 
 isomeric with chloride of ethyl was produced. 
 
 Mr. Frankland was the first Englishman who took the degree 
 of Ph.D. at the University of Marburg, for which he was ad- 
 mitted to examination in 1849, on the production of his disserta- 
 tion on one of his most important works, viz., the Isolation of 
 the Alcohol Radicals. He found that by heating the iodide of 
 ethyl with zinc to a temperature of 150° C. the radical ethyl 
 was liberated. This is the basis of the series of which ordinary 
 alcohol is a member. At the same time two other gases were 
 formed by the destruction of a portion of the ethyl; one was 
 oleliant gas, and the other was found to be identical with that 
 obtained by Frankland and Kolbe in the previous year from the 
 cyanide of ethyl. This gas, hydride of ethyl, was prepared in 
 the pure state by digesting water, zinc, and iodide of ethyl. 
 
 In the same year Dr. Frankland published in the 'Journal of 
 the Chemical Society ' and in the ' Annalen ' an account of some 
 experiments on the action of zinc on iodide of methyl. This 
 also produced gaseous products, and the residue by the action of 
 water generated pure marsh gas. If, instead of adding water, 
 the contents of the digestion tube were distilled, a volatile 
 spontaneously inflammable liquid, zinc methyl, consisting of the 
 radical methyl united with zinc, passed over. He also found 
 that a corresponding ethyl compound might be obtained in a 
 similar manner. These experiments were continued, and in 
 1850 he published in the same periodicals his further results, 
 and his reasons for considering that the gas, which he first took 
 to be methyl, was in reality the hydride of ethyl. In the same 
 paper he describes the amyl derivatives, and in a subsequent 
 communication the action of light on iodide of ethyl, which in 
 the presence of mercury yields ethyl gas and its products of 
 decomposition. 
 
 In 1851 he communicated to the Literary and Philosophical 
 Society of Manchester the results of some experiments on gas- 
 lighting, during which he examined Whites process, which 
 consists of making water gas by passing steam over heated coke, 
 and transmitting the products thus obtained through a gas retort, 
 in which coal or resin is being distilled. This was found to 
 diminish the amount of tarry matters produced, and to increase 
 the quantity of illuminatbig hydrocarbons, thu3 generating a 
 larger quantity of a richer gas. This paper was printed in the 
 ' Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- 
 chester,' and in the ' Annalen,' and an abstract appeared in the 
 'Journal of the Chemical Society.' 
 
 The ' Philosophical Transactions' for 1852 contain a long 
 memoir by Dr. Frankland, entitled, ' On a New Series of Organic 
 Bodies containing Metals.' In this are described some of the 
 compounds containing tin, which were obtained from the pro- 
 duct of the action of iodide of ethyl on tin in sunlight at 
 ordinary temperatures, or by digestion at 180° C. in sealed tubes. 
 An iodide of stannethyl was thus formed (together with ethyl 
 and olefiant gas) which by treatment with reagents gave a cor- 
 responding oxide, sulpiride, and chloride. The radical itself was 
 liberated by subjecting the iodide to the action of zinc. In this 
 memoir further experiments on zinc methyl are detailed, and 
 also the behaviour of iodide of methyl with mercury under the 
 influence of sunlight, which yielded residts differing from those 
 obtained with the ethyl compound, the iodide of mercury methyl 
 being generated. This important communication concludes with 
 some theoretical considerations, in which the analogy of these 
 organo-metaUic bodies with cacodyl is pointed out, and in 
 which that character of elements which has since been termed 
 "atomicity" was first described. 
 
 In conjunction with Mr. W. J. Ward, Dr. Frankland published 
 in 1853 a description of an improved form of apparatus for the 
 analyses of gases, by the use of which these processes were veiy 
 much facilitated, and the time required for their performance 
 diminished to a very considerable extent. 
 
 In 1855 another paper on the organometaUic bodies was pub- 
 lished in the ' Proceedings of the Royal Society ' and in the 
 ' Annales de Chimie et de Physique,' describing the method of 
 preparing zinc ethyl in considerable quantities ; its properties 
 and compounds were also carefully studied, and an account given 
 of an apparatus for performing digestions at a high temperature 
 and under pressure. The sealed tubes containing the bodies to 
 be heated were enclosed in a strong wr ought-iron steam-boiler, 
 in which they might be heated to temperatures as high as 250 u O, 
 the pressure of the steam on the exterior of the tubes counter- 
 balancing the internal pressure, and thus preventing the de- 
 struction of the glass vessels. This apparatus is now extensively 
 employed by chemists. 
 
 The action of nitric oxide on the zinc compound* of ethyl and 
 methyl was studied in 1856, and resulted in the discovery of two 
 
FRANKLAND, EDWARD. 
 
 FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN. 
 
 WO 
 
 new acids, the dinitromethylic and dinitroethylic acids. These 
 results appear in the ' Transactions of the Royal Soc.,' and in the 
 'Annalen dcr Chemie nnd Pharmacie ;' and in 1857 the inves- 
 tigation of the compounds produced by the union of zinc ethyl 
 with ammonia, aniline, diethylamine, oxamide, and acetamide 
 was published. 
 
 In 1 858 Dr. Frankland was engaged in determining the rate 
 of combustion of candles at different altitudes from the level of 
 the sea ; the first observations were published in the commence- 
 ment of 1859, and the subject has since been continued with 
 very interesting results. It was found that candles burnt at 
 Chamouni and on the summit of Mont Blanc consumed the 
 same quantity of material in ecpial times, though the amount 
 of light produced at the greater altitude was very much less. 
 These experiments were subsecpiently continued at St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Hospital, and extended to the rate of combustion of time 
 fuses used in artillery. They led to the establishment of the 
 law : — " The increments in time are proportional to the decre- 
 ments in pressure," and to the following practical rule : " Each 
 diminution of atmospheric pressure to the extent of one mercu- 
 rial inch increases the time of burning by one-thirtieth." From 
 the researches upon the effect of atmospheric pressure on the 
 light of combustion, Dr. Frankland deduced the following law : 
 " The diminution in the illuminating power of candle and gas 
 flames is directly proportional to the diminution in atmospheric 
 pressure." In the same year (1859) additional experiments were 
 made on the organo-tin compounds, and another compound 
 containing twice as much ethyl as the original stannethyl was 
 prepared, as well as a body in which both methyl and ethyl 
 were in combination with the metal. Some experiments on the 
 mercury compounds and on the preparation of zinc methyl 
 were also described. At the commencement of 1860 Dr. Frank- 
 land published the numbers obtained in the analysis of air 
 which he collected at Chamouni, at the Grands Mulets, and on 
 the summit of Mont Blanc. On June 7 of the same year he 
 delivered a lecture to the Chemical Society on organometallic 
 bodies, and which is printed in the Journal. This contains all 
 that was then known of this class of compounds. In conjunction 
 with Mr. Duppa, he published another paper on boric ethide, 
 which was prepared by the action of zinc ethyl on boric ether. 
 This was printed in the ' Proceedings of the Royal Society.' 
 
 In 1861, Dr. Frankland sent to the ' Philosophical Magazine' 
 a note on the blue line in the spectrum of lithium which is ob- 
 served when the temperature of the flame containing the lithium 
 compound is very high. In 1862, another paper on boron com- 
 pounds was read at the Chemical Society, in which boric methide 
 was described ; and some experiments were made on the tem- 
 perature necessary to inflame hydrogen, carbonic oxide, marsh- 
 gas, and bisulphide of carbon, and mixtures of these bodies. 
 
 Dr. Frankland published, in the ' Proceedings of the Royal 
 Society ' for 1863, a paper on the synthesis of lcucic ether by 
 acting on zinc ethyl with oxalic ether, and treating the product 
 with water ; and, in conjunction with Mr. Duppa, a paper was 
 read at the Chemical Society on the formation of mercuric ethyl 
 by the action of sodium amalgam on iodide of ethyl in the pre- 
 sence of acetic ether. The methyl and amyl compounds were 
 obtained in the same way. In another communicarion they de- 
 scribe the formation of the zinc compounds by digesting the cor- 
 responding bodies containing mercury with zinc. 
 
 In 1864,. Dr. Frankland delivered a Friday evening lecture, 
 and communicated a paper to the ' Philosophical Magazine ' on 
 the physical cause of the glacial epoch. A curious accident 
 is described in the Journal of the Chemical Society for 1864. 
 While compressing oxygen by Natterer's pump, the connecting 
 piece of the receiver burst, and filled the laboratory with a 
 shower of brilliant sparks ; this was found to be due to the ig- 
 nition of the oil of the piston in the compressed gas, and this 
 had set fire to the interior of the metal receiver. 
 
 Dr. Frankland and Mr. Duppa described in the proceedings of 
 the Royal Society for 1864, another mode of preparing leucic 
 ether by digesting iodide of ethyl, oxalic ether, and zinc amal- 
 gam together, and treating the product with water. By substi- 
 tuting iodide of methyl for the ethyl compound, the analogous 
 compound of dimethoxalic acid was generated. In the following 
 year these investigations were continued, and resulted in the 
 discovery of ethoinethoxalic, amylhydroxalic, ethyl amylhydrox- 
 alic, and diamyloxalic acids. In 1865, Dr. Frankland and Mr. 
 Duppa published two more papers in the Proceedings of the 
 Royal Society, on the action of sodium on acetic ether, and the 
 subseciuent treatment of the product by the iodides of ethyl, 
 methyl, and amyl ; they thus obtained several new ketones, as 
 
 diethylacetone, ethylacctone, methylacetone, and dimethylacc- 
 tone, and some acids, viz., ethacetic, identical with butyric acid ; 
 diethacetic acid, isomeric with caproic acid; dimethylaci tic acid, 
 isomeric with butyric acid ; and amylacetic acid, identical with 
 ocnanthylic acid. In this paper (which is also printed in the 
 'Annalen') an improved method for preparing acetic ether was 
 given. The other paper, on the action of torchloride of phos- 
 phorus on leucic ether, was read before the Chemical Society. 
 By this process they obtained ethylcrotonic acid, isomeric with 
 pyroterebic acid ; and from ethoinethoxalic ether, methylcro- 
 tonic acid was prepared ; while dimethoxalic ether gave nietha- 
 crylic ether ; and lactic ether yielded chloropropionic ether. 
 
 Dr. Frankland published, in the Journal of the Chemical 
 Society for 1866, his system of notation, by which the formulae 
 of bodies are made to represent the mode in which the atoms 
 composing them are arranged in accordance with their atomicity. 
 This system has already proved of great service in elucidating 
 the causes of isomerism in organic compounds. This volume of 
 the ' Journal ' contains another of Dr. Fiankland's contributions 
 on the determination of organic matter in water by the addition 
 of carbonate of soda to the water before evaporation and the 
 ignition of the solid residue. The use of a solution of perman- 
 ganate of potash for the same purpose is also described. 
 
 Dr. Frankland delivered a lecture at the Royal Institution in 
 this year on the origin of muscular force, which he attributes to 
 the combustion within the body of the food, and not the decom- 
 position of the muscular fibre, as previously believed. This 
 opinion was supported by numerous determinations of the heat 
 evolved on the combustion of muscle, urea, and various articles 
 of food. 
 
 In 1867, a continuation of the previous experiments on the 
 synthesis of the ethers was communicated to the Chemical 
 Society. In this paper, isopropacetone and isopropacetic acid, 
 one of the isomers of valeric acid, are described. In 1868, Dr. 
 Frankland published, in conjunction with Mr. Armstrong, a 
 paper in the ' Journal of the Chemical Society,' oil the analysis 
 of potable waters, in which they describe a method of determin- 
 ing the carbon and nitrogen of the organic matter present, by a 
 modification of the process of combustion, as used in the analysis 
 of organic compounds, and also other processes for the estimation 
 of the constituents of water. This paper is followed by one by 
 Dr. Frankland, on a simple form of apparatus for gas analysis, 
 which was used in the examination of the gaseous products 
 obtained in the combustion of the water residues. 
 
 In 186S and 1869 Dr. Frankland was occupied in a series of 
 investigations into the cause of luminosity of flames, in continua- 
 tion of his earlier work on this subject. He attributes the produc- 
 tion of light to the density of the gaseous substances undergoing 
 combustion, and not to the presence of solid matter in the flame. 
 Thus hydrogen and carbonic oxide, burnt in oxygen under the 
 pressure of twelve atmospheres produced luminous flames, 
 though in the absence of all solid matter. In 1869 and 1870, 
 Dr. Frankland, in conjunction with Mr. Loekyer, published 
 several notes on the spectra of gases under different pressures, 
 and on the density of the hydrogen of the solar atmosphere. 
 
 The whole of the chemical articles in the Arts and Sciences 
 division of the English Cyclopaedia were written by Dr. 
 Frankland, or under his immediate supervision. 
 
 Dr. Frankland is a member of many learned societies, and has re- 
 ceived numerous honorary distinctions. He was elected Fellow of 
 the Royal Society in 1853, and in 1857 was awarded the Society's 
 royal medal, for his ' Researches on Organic Radicals and Organo- 
 metallic Bodies.' In 1866 he was elected corresponding member 
 of the Institute of France ; in 186S an honorary member of the 
 Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; in 1869 an 
 honorary member of the Royal Academy of Munich ; at the in- 
 stallation of the Chancellor of Oxford, in 1870, he received the 
 honorary degree of D.C.L. ; he is also an honorary member of 
 the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ; and was for some 
 years foreign secretary of the Chemical Society. Dr. Frankland 
 was elected professor of chemistry at the College of Civil En- 
 gineers, Putney, in 1850 ; professor at Owens College, Man- 
 chester, in 1851 ; professor of chemistry at St. Bartholomew's 
 Hospital in 1857 ; professor of chemistry at the Roval Institution 
 in 1864. 
 
 In 1865 he succeeded Dr. Hofman as professor of chemistry 
 to the Royal School of Mines, which important post he still 
 holds. In 1863 Dr. Frankland was appointed one of her Majesty's 
 commissioners to inquire into the means to be adopted for the 
 prevention of the pollution of rivers. 
 
 FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN [E. C. vol. ii. col. 1002.] Franklin's 
 
 N K 2 
 
£51 - FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. 
 
 last expedition left the English shores in May, 1851. His 
 rolonged absence and silence led to a series of searches for him 
 y Sir James Ross, Dr. Rae, Sir Robert M'Clure, Sir F. Leopold 
 M'Clintock, Dr. E. Kent Kane, and Captain Hall. M'Clintock's 
 expedition was fitted out at the expense of Lady Franklin. In 
 M'Clintock's search a cairn was found containing a record of 
 Franklin's expedition. It is dated May 28, 1847, lat. 70° 5' N.; 
 long. 98° 23' W.; and states that the Erebus and Terror 
 ascended the Wellington Channel in 1845 as far N. as 77°, 
 returned southward round Cornwallis Island, and wintered in 
 Beechy Island in 1846 — 1847, according to a facsimile of the 
 papers, but 1845 — 1846 seems to be meant. On the 12th 
 September, 1846, the ships were beset by ice near King 
 William Island. Another record was found under a cairn at 
 Gore Point, a little fartber south, similar to the foregoing, 
 which, however, had marginal additions to the effect that 
 Franklin died June 11, 1847, and that the ships were abandoned 
 April 22, 1848, by 105 survivors, commanded by Captain Crozier. 
 The Esquimaux unanimously reported that all the crew had died. 
 The remains of three bodies and a number of relics were found 
 near Cape Crozier, and other relics have been obtained 1 ly Captain 
 Hall. A statue was erected as a memorial of Franklin near the 
 Duke of York's column, London, at the national expense, in 
 1866. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM IV., King of Prussia [E. C. 
 vol. ii. col. 1031]. Before the close of 1856 it had become 
 known that the health of the King of Prussia was in an 
 unsatisfactory state, and it was rumoured that his mind was 
 failing. One of his latest public acts of importance was to 
 affix his signature, May 26, 1857, to the treaty by which, for an 
 indemnity, he formally abandoned his claim to Neufehatel. In 
 October of the same year a royal decree, in consideration of the 
 King's health, nominated his brother Regent of the Kingdom 
 for the term of three months. The term was renewed again and 
 again, but the King never rallied. He spent the winter of 
 1858 — 59 at Rome, without benefit to either his mental or 
 physical condition. He died at Sausouci on the 2nd of January, 
 1861, and was succeeded by the Regent, who assumed the title of 
 William I. 
 
 * FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS, English historian, 
 was born in 1S23, at Harborne-by-Binningham, and completed 
 his education at Trinity College, Oxford, of which he was 
 elected scholar in 1841 and fellow in 1845, in which last year he 
 graduated, taking second class in litoris humanioribus. Whilst resi- 
 dent in Oxford Mr. Freeman shared in the prevalent enthusiasm 
 for the study of Gothic ecclesiastical architecture ; was an active 
 member, and for some years secretary, of the Oxford Archi- 
 tectural Society, and read before it several papers which were 
 afterwards published, sometimes in an expanded or modified 
 shape. His first independent publication was a ' History of 
 Architecture,' 8vo, London, 1 849, of which the best portion is 
 that devoted to Gothic architecture. His next work was a 
 minute treatise ' On the Tracery of Windows in Gothic Archi- 
 tecture,' 8vo. 1850, the substance of several papers read before 
 the Oxford Architectural Society. Mr. Freeman has continued 
 to write and lecture on architectural subjects down to the present 
 time, but, whilst his later writings show, as might be expected, a 
 constantly widening acquaintance with the subject, they have 
 become less detailed and technical, and are illustrated with riper 
 thought and richer historical knowledge. Among other essays and 
 papers of this class published separately are — ' The Architecture 
 of Llandaff Cathedral,' 1851; 'St. David's Cathedral,' 1860; 
 'Church and Priory of Leominster,' 1863; and ' Wells- Cathe- 
 dral,' 1870. Mr. Freeman also wrote many papers for the 
 ' Archaeological Journal,' ' The Gentleman's Magazine,' and 
 other antiquarian organs, and among them were some on Waltham 
 Abbey Church, which led to a lively controversy with Mr. Parker 
 respecting the date of that building. 
 
 His earliest work in general history was the ' History and 
 Conquests of the Saracens,' 8vo, London and Oxford, 1856, 
 which consists of a course of six lectures delivered at the 
 Edinburgh Philosophical Institution, and is interesting and 
 occasionally brilliant, but adds little to what was already 
 known on the subject. His ' History of Federal Government 
 from the foundation of the Achaian League,' vol. i., 8vo, 1863, is 
 a work of wider research and more independent criticism, and 
 will when completed be a valuable addition to our historical 
 literature ; but Mr. Freeman's claim to permanent remembrance 
 is as a writer on early English history. His 'History of the 
 Norman Conquest of England, its causes and its results,' 8vo, 
 London and Oxford: vol. i. to the Election of Edward the 
 
 FRIES, ELI AS MAGNUS. 552 
 
 Confessor, 8vo, 1867 ; vol. ii. the Reign of Edward, 1868 ; vol. iii. 
 to the death of Harold, 1869, is beyond question the most 
 thorough, the most original, and the most masterly investigation 
 of English history prior to the reign of William which we 
 possess : the fault of the work is its diffuseness and tendency to 
 repetition and dissertation. Mr. Freeman has since published a 
 sort of summary of his great work under the title of ' Old 
 English History for Children/ 12mo, 1869, which, though 
 perhaps beyond the grasp of ordinary children, especially in its 
 later chapters, is an invaluable book for youths and persons who 
 do not make a special study of early English history. He is 
 stated to be now occupied in writing a series of histories for 
 youn" people, which is to be regretted if it diverts him from the 
 completion of his great work. Mr. Freeman is understood to 
 have been a frequent contributor to the ' Saturday Review,' and 
 lie has made some unsuccessful attempts to engage in political 
 life, having been a candidate in the Liberal interest for the 
 representation of Wallingford in 1859, and for Mid Somersetshire 
 in 1868. 
 
 * FRERE, PIERRE EDOUARD, an eminent French painter, 
 
 was born at Paris on the 10th of January, 1819 ; became in 
 1836 a pupil of Paul Delaroche, and afterwards entered the Ecole 
 des Beaux-Arts. From his debut at the Salon in 1843, Edouard 
 Frere has pursued steadily the same branch of art, that, namely, 
 of representing incidents in the daily life of children of humble 
 and ordinarily of rustic parentage. Painting such subjects as 
 ' The Little Gourmand,' ' The Cut Finger,' ' The Lesson,' ' The 
 Sunday Toilet,' ' Going to School,' ' Grandmother,' ' A Snowy 
 Morning,' and the like, for over a quarter of a century, might be 
 expected to lead to monotony and mannerism ; but though y 
 M. Frere has an unmistakeable manner, his pictures are always 
 fresh and always attractive. In the atelier of Delaroche he acquired 
 a breadth and solidity of style which has preserved his works from 
 any approach to insipidity or feebleness, whilst constant study 
 of unsophisticated rural life far away from the capital has 
 enabled him to retain truth and character, and his own genius 
 and sympathy have imparted to his pictures a refinement, grace, 
 and sincerity of purpose which probably no other painter has 
 attained in the representations of the same class of subjects. 
 His pictures are usually small, subdued in colour, and singularly 
 free from all attempts to attract by minute or deceptive imita- 
 tion. In England his pictures are at least as popular as in 
 France, and it is a noteworthy proof of the general favour in 
 which he is held that a special order has been issued to the 
 Prussian soldiers to spare his villa at Ecouen as well as that of 
 Rosa Bunheur. 
 
 * FREYTAG, GUSTAV, a celebrated German writer, was 
 born July 13th, 1816, in Kreuzburg, Silesia. He studied at 
 the gymnasium at Oels and afterwards at the Universities of 
 Breslau and Berlin, at which latter he graduated doctor in 
 philosophy in 1838. He then returned to Breslau as tutor 
 (privat docent) of the German language and literature. He 
 afterwards resided for some years in Dresden, and then removed 
 to Leipzig, where from 1848 to 1861 he conducted the 
 ' Grenzboten ' (Border Messenger) journal, in conjunction with 
 Julian Schmidt. Freytag has written in many styles, but his 
 great success has been as a novelist and describer of German 
 social life and customs. Besides the early thesis, ' De 
 Hrosuitha poetria,' and ' De initiis poeseos scenicse apud 
 Germanos,' he has written ' In Breslau,' 1845 ; ' Die Brautfahrt, 
 oder Kunz von Rosen,' a historical comedy, Breslau, 1844; two 
 dramas, 'Valentine,' Leipzig, 1847; and 'Graf Waldemar,' 
 Leipzig, 1850; 'Die Journalisten,' a comedy, 1854; 'Soil und 
 Haben/ a romance, 3 vols. Leipzig, 1855, which met with 
 remarkable success, the eleventh edition having been issued in 
 1865, and of which, under the title of 'Debit and Credit,' two 
 English versions were published in 1857 — one by L. C. C, with 
 a preface by Baron Bunsen ; the other by Mrs. Malcolm ; ' Der 
 Fabier,' a semi-classical tragedy, 1859 ; ' Bilder aus der deutsch, 
 en Vergangenheit,' 2 vols. Leipzig, 1859, 4th edition, 1863, 
 English translation, ' Pictures from Past Ages in Germany,' 
 I860; and 1 Neu Bilder aus dem Leben des deutschen Volks,' 
 1862 ; on dramatic composition, ' Die Technik des Dramas,' 
 1863; and 'Die verlorene Handschrift,' a romance in 3 vols., 
 Leipzig, translated into English as ' The Lost Manuscript/ 1865. 
 His dramatic works were published in 3 vols. 8vo., Leipzig, 
 1848-50. 
 
 *FBIES, ELIAS MAGNUS, Swedish botanist, was born 
 Au<2. 15, 1794, at Femsjo, in the province of Wexio. Educated 
 at Lund University, he became a teacher in the same, and ulti- 
 mately professor of botany in 1828. In 1834 he also held the 
 
653 
 
 FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH. 
 
 FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY. 
 
 554 
 
 chair of practical economy ; in 1851 that of botany; and in 
 1853 the rectorship in the University of Upsala. He is a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Science at Stockholm, and of other 
 learned bodies. He has written nearly a hundred papers, and 
 numerous books, mostly upon botanical subjects. His reputation 
 is mainly based on his works on fungi, of which the most note- 
 worthy are ' Systema Mycologicum,' 3 vols. Griefswald, 1821 — 
 1830; ' Monographia Hymenomycetum Suecicae;' and ' Icones 
 selectae Hymenomycetum nondum delineatorum,' 1868, 1869. 
 He followed up Persoon's researches on fungi, and did much 
 towards reducing the heterogeneous masses and establishing the 
 true affinity of doubtful forms in Persoon's arrangement. In 
 his earlier studies he could derive but little assistance from 
 microscopic observation, but his extraordinary tact enabled 
 him to arrive at the truth where materials for fair logical 
 deduction were but scanty. He abolished a whole host 
 of genera founded on immature or abnormal forms, detected the 
 relationship of numerous genera which from their appearance 
 were usually considered to be widely separated, and discovered 
 that fungi have more than one form of fructification. In many 
 respects he was a master thinker of the day, and in advance of 
 his time ; but owing to popular theological prejudices he often 
 contented himself with purposely expressing his views obscurely. 
 Hence his facts and opinions demonstrating the reproduction 
 and sexuality of these plants were neglected, but have again 
 acquired prominence owing to the more complete elucidation of 
 the subject by Pringsheim, the Tulasnes, and others. His 
 'Systema Mycologicum' has been the foundation of all sub- 
 sequent works of the same kind. Another work should be men- 
 tioned here, viz., the ' Summa Vegetabilium Scandinavia,' 2 vols. 
 1846 — 48, as it was the first Swedish work in which, the natural 
 system of classification was adopted. 
 
 FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH, a distinguished German 
 metaphysician, was bom August 23rd, 1773, at Barby in Prussian 
 Saxony, studied theology in the seminary of that town, and com- 
 pleted his education at Leipzig and Jena. In 1797 he went to 
 Zofingen as private teacher, but returned in 1800 to Jena, and the 
 next year was permitted to give lectures at the university. In 
 1803—4 he travelled through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and 
 France, and on his return was nominated professor of philosophy 
 at Heidelberg, where he remained till 1816, when he accepted 
 the chair of theoretical philosophy at Jena. From this he was 
 removed in 1824 on account of his advocacy of democratical 
 principles, but some time after was appointed professor of 
 mathematics, which post he retained till his death, August 
 10th, 1843. 
 
 Fries was during his life looked up to as the head of the 
 Jena school of philosophy, an offset from that of Kant, from 
 which it differed chiefly in holding as its basis the doctrine of 
 a pure subjective certainty, and in the adoption of what he 
 called an anthropological system of psychology, an approximate 
 union or connection of physiology with metaphysical reasoning. 
 His terminology is peculiar and unattractive, and his system is 
 now perhaps little studied even in Germany, but it defines a line 
 of thought wldch is now being successfully prosecuted. It is set 
 forth at length, and its divergence from the Critic of Kant 
 explained, in his New or Anthropological Examen of the Under- 
 standing, ' Neuen oder anthropologischen Kritik der Vernunft,' 
 3 vols. Heidelburg, 1807, 2nd edition, 1828—31. The different 
 stages and various bearings of his philosophy are more fully 
 shown in his Philosophical Jurisprudence or examen of all 
 positive legislation, ' Philosophische Rechtslehre, oder Kritik aller 
 positiven Gesetzgebung,' Jena, 1803; System of Philosophy as 
 a certain science, ' System der Philosophic als evidente Wissen- 
 schaft,' Leipzig, 1804; 'System der Logik,' Heidelburg, 1811 ; 
 Manual of Practical Philosophy, ' Handbuch der praktischen 
 Philosophic,' 2 vols. Leipzig, 1817 — 32; Manual of Psychical 
 Anthropology, 'Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologic,' 2 vols. 
 Jena, 1820 — 21 ; ' Mathematischen Naturphilosophie,' Heidel- 
 burg, 1822 ; ' System der Metaphysik,' Heidelburg, 1824; His- 
 tory of Philosophy, ' Geschichte der Philosophic, dagestellt nach 
 den Fortschritten ihrer Entwickelung,' 2 vols. Halle, 1837 — 40. 
 Frie9 also wrote on the German Bund, ' Vom Deutschen Bund 
 und deutscher Staatsverfassung ; allgemeine staatsrechtliche 
 Ansichten,' Heidelburg, 1816 ; an attempt to define the prin- 
 ciples of the theory of probabilities, ' Versuch einer Kritik der 
 Principien der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung,' Brunswick, 1842. 
 and a theological romance, 'Julius und Evagoras,' 2 vols. Hei- 
 delburg, 1822. 
 
 FRITH, or FRYTH, JOHN, a martyr and divine of the 
 Anglican church, was bom in the year 1503 at Westerham, in 
 
 Kent, where his father, who subsequently removed to Sevenoaks, 
 kept an inn. He was educated at King's College, Cambridge, 
 and graduated as B.D. in 1525 ; immediately after which, on the 
 invitation of Wolsey, he migrated to Oxford, in order to become 
 one of the junior canons of Cardinal College, now Christ Church, 
 in that university. He imbibed from Tindal the principles of 
 the Reformation ; and on making a public profession of the 
 same, was imprisoned in Cardinal College on the charge of 
 heresy. At his enlargement he retired from the university, and 
 at length, in September, 1528, took refuge in Holland, where he 
 married and continued for several years. Returning to England, 
 he found his opinions in so evil an odour that he was reduced to 
 a state of destitution ; and on one occasion, on his attempting to 
 pass through Reading, he was put into the stocks as a vagabond, 
 but released through the intervention of Leonard Cox, the 
 famous schoolmaster of that town. From Reading he proceeded 
 to London, where he was engaged in controversy with Sir 
 Thomas More. At length his zeal in the expression of his 
 opinions led to his apprehension. After an imprisonment of 
 some duration in the Tower, he was examined before Archbishop 
 Cranmer ; Lord Chancellor Audley ; Brandon, Duke of Suffolk ; 
 Boleyn, Earl of Wiltshire ; Stokesley, Bishop of London ; and 
 Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester. At his adjourned and final 
 examination before an episcopal commission at St. Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, on the 20th of June, 1533, he persisted in his denial of the 
 doctrines of Purgatory and Transubstantiation, and was con- 
 demned to be burnt as an obstinate heretic. This sentence, 
 which was carried out at Smithfield on the 4th of July, was 
 endured with heroic fortitude. 
 
 Frith was an able disputant and an eminent scholar. His 
 works comprise, ' A Disputacyon of Purgatorye devided in to 
 three Bokes ; the fyrst is an Answere unto Rastell ; the seconde 
 unto S r . T. More ; the thyrde unto my Lorde of Rochestre,' 8vo ; 
 'An other Boke against Rastell, named the Subsedye or Bul- 
 wark to his fyrst Boke,' 8vo ; ' The Testament of Master Wylliam 
 Trade esquier. expounded both by William Tindal and John 
 Frith. Wherein thou shalt perceyve with what charitie y° 
 Chaunceler of Worcester burned whan he toke up the deed 
 carkas and made asshes of hit after hit was buried,' 8vo, 
 Antwerp (?), 1535 ; ' A Boke made by Johan Fryth, prysoner in 
 the Tower of London, answering unto M. More's Letter, which 
 he wrote against the fyrst lytle Treatyse that Johan Fryth made 
 concerning the Sacrament of the Body and Bloude of Christ. 
 Unto which Boke are added in the ende the Artycles of his 
 Examination before the Byshoppes of London, Winchester, and 
 Lincolne, in Paules Churche at London, for which John Fryth 
 was condempned and after brente in Smytfelde without Newgate 
 the forth day of July, Anno 1533/ 16mo, 1533, 8vo, London, 
 1546, 1548, &c. ; 'Letter unto the faithful Followers of Christ's 
 Gospel,' written in the Tower in 1532; 'A Mirror, or Glass to 
 know thyself,' likewise written in the Tower in 1532, and pub- 
 lished in 12mo, London, 1627; 'A Mirrour or Lokyng Glasse 
 wherein you may beholde the Sacramente of Baptisme described,' 
 8vo, London ; ' A Pistle to the Christen Reader, wherein are 
 compared togeder Christes Actes and oure holie Father the 
 Popes,' 8vo, Malborow in the Lande of Hesse, 1529, written 
 under the pseudonym of Richard Brightwell ; and various 
 translations. Most of the foregoing treatises were collected by 
 John Fox, and published, along with those of Tindal and 
 Barnes, in folio, London, 1573. Amongst the modern investi- 
 gations into Frith's history and times may be mentioned his 
 ' Life, with a Selection from his Writings,' winch occurs in the 
 first volume of the ' Fathers of the English Church,' &c, 8 vols. 
 8vo. London, 1807 — 12 ; and ' The Life and Martyrdom of the 
 Rev. John Frith,' 8vo, Bristol, 1827, published by the ' Church 
 of England Tract Society,' instituted at Bristol, 1811. 
 
 *F110UDE, JAMES ANTHONY, an English historian, 
 youngest son of the late Venerable R. H. Froude, Archdeacon of 
 Totness and rector of Dartington, Devonshire, was born on the 
 23rd of April, 1818. He was educated at Westminster and at 
 Oriel College, Oxford, and took his B.A. degree in second class 
 classical honours in 1840, proceeding M.A. in due course. In 
 1842 he carried off the Chancellor's Prize for an English essay 
 on ' The Influence of the Science of Political Economy upon the 
 Moral and Social Welfare of a Nation ;' and in the same year 
 became fellow of Exeter College. He was ordained deacon in 
 1844; and a few years afterwards, under the pseudonym of 
 " Zeta," published a volume entitled ' Shadows of the Clouds,' 
 12mo, London, 1847, which comprised two stories, 'The Spirit's 
 Trials,' and ' The Lieutenant's Daughter.' To this succeeded 
 'The Nemesis of Faith,' 8vo, London, 1848, second edition, 
 
555 
 
 FROUDE, RICHARD HURRELL. 
 
 FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK, VON. 
 
 55G 
 
 1849, which being professedly " a Tragedy," was supposed to 
 have been written as a " Confession of Faith," an autobiographic 
 view of the work which the author, in the Preface to the second 
 edition, repudiated. Yet the 1 Nemesis ' marked his defection 
 from the teaching of the Church, against whose reverence for 
 what lie called the "Hebrew mythology," it is, inter alia, a pro- 
 test. Naturally Mr. Froude did not proceed to priest's orders ; 
 and when he subsequently returned, after his estrangement, to 
 the Anglican communion, it was not as a cleric, but as a 
 layman. 
 
 Mr. Fronde's great work is his ' History of England from the 
 Fall of Wolsey to the Heath of Elizabeth,' 10 vols. 8vo, 1856— 
 G9, second edition, vols. L and II. 1858, fourth edition, 1870, &c, 
 of which the last four volumes were devoted to the reign of 
 Elizabeth. Since the year 1850 he has been a frequent con- 
 tributor to the 'Westminster Review,' and to ' Fra/.er's Magazine,' 
 of which he is now the editor. From these he has reproduced 
 an article on 1 The Book of Job,' 8vo, London, 1854 ; and ' Short 
 Studies on Great Subjects/ 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1867. He has 
 likewise published an ' Inaugural Address delivered to the Uni- 
 versity of St. Andrew's, March 19, 1869,' 8vo, London, 1869. 
 which was given in his capacity of Rector of the University; 
 and has " edited, with notes from the archives at Paris and 
 Brussels," a work by William Thomas, Clerk of the Council to 
 Edward VI., entitled 'The Pilgrim : a Dialogue on the Life and 
 Actions of King Henry the Eighth,' 8vo, London, 1861. Besides 
 this, he has, along with Dr. W. Maziere Brady, been involved in 
 some little controversy about an Irish church question, upon 
 which his views, as propounded in his History, were attacked by 
 the Rev. Dr. Alfred T. Lee, in a brochure entitled 'The Irish 
 Episcopal Succession. The Recent Statements of Mr. Froude 
 and Dr. Brady, respecting the Irish Bishops in the Reign of 
 Elizabeth, examined,' &c, 8vo, London, Oxford, Cambridge, 
 and Dublin, 1867 ; to which Mr. Froude replied in a 'Letter' 
 contained in the fifth edition of Dr. Brady's ' Irish Reformation, 
 or the alleged Conversion of the Irish Bishops at the Accession 
 of Queen Elizabeth,' &c, 8vo, London, 1867. 
 
 FROUDE, RICHARD HURRELL, eldest brother of the fore- 
 going, was born on the 25th of March, 1803, and was educated at 
 Eton and at Oriel College, Oxford, which he entered in 1821. He 
 took his B.A. degree in 1824, and proceeded M.A. in 1827 ; was 
 elected fellow in 1826, and acted as tutor from 1827 to 1830. 
 He was ordained deacon and priest respectively in 1828 and 
 1829. Symptoms of consumption began to show themselves in 
 the summer of 1831 ; and he passed the winter of 1832 and the 
 following spring in the south of Europe. The two next winters 
 and the year between them, 1834, were spent in the West Indies. 
 He died at his father's rectory of Dartington, Devonshire, on the 
 28th of February, 1836. He was a prominent member of the 
 Oxford movement ; and wrote two numbers, 9 and 63, of the 
 ' Tracts for the Times, by Members of the University of Oxford,' 
 8vo, London and Oxford, 1833 — 34, &c, and contributed various 
 poems, with the signature of 0. to ' Lyra Apostolica,' 12mo, 
 1836, and often reprinted. His ' Remains,' 4 vols. 8vo, London, 
 1838 — 39, which were published after his death, include his 
 Journal ; Occasional Thoughts ; an Essay on Fiction ; Sermons, 
 and Letters. From this work a tract on Church and State was 
 reprinted with the title of ' State Interference in Matters 
 Spiritual ; with a Preface by William J. E. Bennett, Vicar of 
 Frome-Selwood,' Svo, London, 1869. 
 
 FUAD MEHMED PASHA, Turkish statesman and minis- 
 ter, was born at Constantinople in 1814. The son of a poet, 
 Izzet Effendi Kischedji Zadeh (better known as Izzet Mollah), 
 and the nephew of a poetess, Leila Hanym, he imbibed in 
 early life a taste for refined studies ; but he received in addition 
 an education unusually good among his countrymen. His 
 father having fallen under the disfavour of the Sultan, and his 
 estates being forfeited, the young Fuad was thrown on his own 
 resources for a living. Between 1828 and 1832 he studied 
 medicine at Galata Serai ; and in 1834, as physician to the 
 Admiralty under Tahir Pasha, he accompanied the Grand Ad- 
 miral in an expedition to Tripoli. On his return to Constan- 
 tinople, Fuad quitted the medical profession and entered the 
 Imreau or department of interpreters, cpialifying himself for 
 future diplomatic employment by studying history, languages, 
 international law, and political economy. In 1840 be was 
 appointed first secretary to Ghekib Effendi, on an embassy to 
 London to negotiate important political arrangements. In 1843 
 be was raised to the post of second interpreter to the Porte, to 
 which was added that of director of the bureau of translation. 
 When sent to Spain to congratulate Queen Isabella, and to 
 
 Portugal to congratulate Donna Maria, on their respective ac- 
 cessions to the throne, Fuad's polished manners and familiarity 
 with the languages and usages of western nations attracted much 
 attention. He was decorated with the Order of Isabella, and 
 that of the Tower and Sword. Among the results of these 
 missions were several well-written diplomatic reports to the 
 Sultan, and a poem on the subject of the Alhambra. In 1845 
 he became chief interpreter to the Porte. In 1848, as grand 
 referendary of the imperial divan, he was named commissioner- 
 general to the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, to reor- 
 ganise matters after the turbulent pi'oceedings at Bucharest and 
 Jass\ r . In 1850 he went on a mission to St. Petersburg to settle 
 a disputed question relating to political refugees; and in the fol- 
 lowing year became minister of the interior under the grand vizier. 
 After a mission to Egypt in 1853, he became minister of foreign 
 affairs, and adopted a resolute attitude towards Russia on the ques- 
 tion of the Holy Places, concerning which he wrote a pamphlet, 
 ' La V6rite sur la Question des Lieux Saints.' Feeling insulted by 
 t he overbeaiing conduct of Prince Menchikoff, the Russian ambas- 
 sador, and not well supported by the Sultan, he resigned. In 1854 
 he went as commissary with Omar Pacha to quell an insurrection in 
 Epirus ; and on his return was appointed member of the Council 
 of the Tanzimat, then first instituted. Restored to the post of 
 minister of foreign affairs in 1855, with the grade of muchir and 
 the title of pa sha, he engaged actively in the preparation of the 
 Hatti Scheriff or constitution of 1856, the improvement of the 
 diplomatic relations of Turkey with foreign governments, and 
 the encouragement of railways and telegraphs. In 1857 he 
 became president of the Council of the Tanzimat. In 1860 he 
 took part in an expedition with the French to suppress the 
 violent proceedings of Mohammedan fanatics against the Chris- 
 tians in Syria. Between that year and 1866 he filled in succes- 
 sion many important offices — president of the council of justice, 
 grand vizier, minister of finance, and seraskier or minister of 
 war. He accompanied the Sultan to France and England in 
 1867. He died at Nice, February 11th, 1869, and was buried 
 with much state ceremonial. Besides the works noticed above, 
 he published in 1852 a ' Grammaire Ottomane.' In 1851 he was 
 elected member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and Belles- 
 Lettres. 
 
 FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK, VON, chemist and mine- 
 ralogist, was bom at Mattenzell, Bavaria, May 15, 1774. He 
 studied, and graduated in medicine, at Heidelberg. He then 
 studied at Vienna, where Jaquin taught him chemistry ; next 
 moved to Freiberg, where he heard the prelections of Lampa- 
 dius and Werner ; to Berlin, where he studied under Karsten, 
 Klaproth, and Valentine Rose ; and lastly stayed in Paris for a 
 short time, and established a friendship with Hauy. In 1805 he 
 began teaching others. For a few months he was at Landshut 
 in a subordinate capacity, but in 1807 he became professor of 
 chemistry and mineralogy at that place. In 1823 he went to 
 Munich, and in 1826 was made professor of mineralogy. To 
 this post several state appointments were added, which left him 
 little leisure for investigations, and in acknowledgment of this 
 and his unusual abilities he was pensioned as chief mining 
 counsellor, which allowed him time for his scientific pursuits. 
 He died March 5, 1856. One of his earliest researches was on 
 some zeolites, in conpmction with Gehlen, which led him into a 
 controversy with Hauy. This ended by the confirmation of his 
 own results, and the consequent establishment of his reputation. 
 In his paper on arragonite and strontianite he very nearly dis- 
 covered the principle of isomorphism which was subsequently 
 announced by Mitscherlich. His researches on lasionite and 
 wavellite, published in 1817, indicated his powers as an analyst. 
 From the composition and characters of lasionite he inferred 
 that wavellite must closely resemble it, although the testimony 
 of previous chemists was opposed to the idea, and he himself 
 had never seen wavellite. His inquiry proved that the two were 
 identical. In 1825 appeared his first paper on water-glass, or 
 soluble silicate of potash, which he recommended as suitable for 
 rendering buildings and fabrics waterproof, for preparing artifi- 
 cial stone, and for cementing broken china, &c. He subse- 
 quently advocated its use for a kind of fresco-painting which he 
 invented, and called stereochromy.' Kaulbach, Echter, Maclise, 
 Herbert, and other artists have adopted it. In 1829 he pub- 
 lished a paper on lime and mortar, and in 1832 a prize essay on 
 hydraulic cements, in which he threw much light on their pro- 
 perties, and pointed out the conditions required for making 
 good hydraulic mortar ; the hardening of the cement he showed 
 to be due to the formation of a hydrated silicate of lime. In 
 1834 he published a paper on opal, in which he fully discussed 
 
FUGA, FERDINANDO. 
 
 FURST, JULIUS. 
 
 558 
 
 the amorphous condition of silica, sulphur, carbon, and other 
 substances ; he endeavoured to show that all crystalline mine- 
 rals require to he amorphous or gelatinous before they can be 
 serviceable in the nutrition of plants and animals. In his paper 
 on theories of the earth, published in 1837, he enunciated 
 views which are antagonistic to the plutonic doctrine, and 
 very boldly imaginative. Many of his positions find little 
 favour now. He was a member of numerous societies, and many 
 honours were conferred upon him by the Bavarian state. 
 
 FUGA, FERDINANDO, a distinguished Italian architect, 
 born at Florence in 1699, was a pupil of Foggini, but owed more 
 to a diligent study of the great architectural remains at Rome 
 and Naples. Having designed some buildings at Naples, and a 
 bridge over the Mincio at Palermo, he was appointed by 
 Clement XII., in 1730, pontifical architect, an office he retained 
 under Benedict XIV. His chief works in Rome were the com- 
 pletion of the Quirinal, the erection of the palaces of the Petronij, 
 the Corsini, and the Consulta on Monte Cavallo, now a barrack ; 
 the churches of S. Apollinare ; della Morte, in the Via Giulia, in 
 the form of an ellipse ; the little church of Gesii Bambino, 
 commenced by Carlo Buratti, and a new fagade to Santa Maria 
 Maggiore. Returning to Naples about 1750, he was ap- 
 pointed principal architect to the king, who in 1751 created him 
 a knight. Here he built the Caramica palace, and commenced 
 the vast Granili and the Albergo reale dei Povero, the largest 
 hospital in Europe, both of which, however, remained unfinished 
 at his death, which occurred in 1780. Fuga was one of the 
 ablest architects of the eighteenth century, and though his 
 works exhibit the faults of the age, they are marked by inven- 
 tion, originality, dignity, and propriety. 
 
 * FURST, JULIUS, an eminent German orientalist, was 
 bom May 12, 1805, at Zerkowo, in Posen. Of a good Jewish 
 family, he was educated for the priestly office, ami had already 
 studied the Hebrew Bible, and much of the Mischna, the 
 Talmud, and rabbinic comment, when, in his 15th year, he 
 entered the Berlin Gymnasium, where he remained till 1825, 
 when he for a short time followed the courses of philosophy and 
 languages at the Berlin University. He then went to the 
 
 Rabbinical school at Posen, but here his studies eventuated in 
 his adoption of views adverse to rabbinical orthodoxy, and the 
 consequent abandonment of his intended profession. He now 
 (1827) proceeded to the University of Breslau, when: he devoted 
 himself to theology, the oriental languages, and archaeology, and 
 in 1831 went to Halle. Having graduated doctor in philosophy, 
 and acted for a time as private teacher at Leipzig, he was 
 appointed lecturer at the university in 1839, an office he retained 
 till 1864, when on occasion of the celebration of his 25th year 
 there he was nominated professor. Fiirst's writings on the 
 Aramaic and Hebrew languages and literature are numerous 
 and of great value, their distinctive feature as contrasted with 
 the writings of Gesenius and Ewald being their greater fullness 
 of Jewish lore and tradition. The following are his principal 
 works :— Principles of Aramaic Idioms, ' Lehrgebaude der arain- 
 iiischen Idiome,' Leipzig, 1835 ; The String of Pearls, a selection 
 of fairy tales and poems, ' Perlenschniire aramaischer Gnomen 
 und Lieder,' Leipzig, 1836 ; ' Concordantia; librorum sacrorum 
 
 Veteris Testamenti hebraica? et chaldaica),' Leipzig, 1837 40 ■ 
 
 ' Pesach-Haggada,' Leipzig, 1838; Sentences from°the Fathers' 
 'Spriiche der Vater,' Leipzig, 1838; on the authenticity of 
 Sohar, ' Ari Nohem oder Streitschrift fiber die Echtheit des 
 Sohar,' Leipzig, 1840 ; the Religious Philosophy of the Jews in 
 the Middle Ages, 'Die judischen Religionsphilosophen des 
 Mittlealters/ Leipzig, 1845; ' Bibliotlieca judaica/ 3 vols. 
 Leipzig, 1849—63 ; ' Das Buch Jozerot,' Leipzig, 1852 ; Hebrew 
 and Chaldean Lexicon, ' Hebriiisches und Olialdaisches Worter- 
 buch,' Leipzig, 1851, &c, and a school dictionary, 'Hebriiisches 
 und Chaldaisches Schulworterbuch,' Leipzig, 1857 — 61, trans- 
 lated into English by Davidson, 1864 ; History of the Learning 
 and Literature of the Jews in Asia, 'Cultur und Literatui> 
 geschichte der Juden in Asien,' first volume, Leipzig, 1849; 
 'Geschichte des Karaerthums,' vols. i. and ii. Leipzig, 1862—65. 
 Fiirst also brought out a new edition of "Winer's Chaldean 
 reading-book, Leipzig, 1864, and contributed a great many 
 papers to * Der Orient,' a journal devoted to the language, litera- 
 ture, history, and antiquities of the Jews, which he edited from 
 1840 to 1851. 
 
 END OF PART L. 
 
 bRADHUItf, UINEW, il CO., TRIKTURS, WUITEFIUAR8. 
 
APPENDIX: 
 
 CONSISTING OP 
 
 TWENTY THOUSAND NAMES, WHICH FROM THEIR LESSER PROMINENCE AND GREAT NUMBER WERE NOT INCLUDED IN 
 
 THE FIRST EDITION OF THE ENGLISH CYCLOPAEDIA. 
 
 PART I.-A TO F INCLUSIVE. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS APPENDIX ARE THE FOLLOWING:— 
 
 udminist. for administrator, 
 agricidt. for agriculturist, 
 antiq. for antiquary, 
 archceol. for archaeologist, 
 archit. for architect, 
 astron. for astronomer, 
 bapt. for baptist, [mentator, 
 bib. comment, for biblical com- 
 biog. or biogr. for biographer, 
 
 chem. for chemist, 
 chronolog. for chronologist, 
 coll. for college, 
 
 congrcg. or congregat. for con- 
 
 gregationalist, 
 diplomat, for diplomatist, 
 drama t. for dramatist, 
 eccles. for ecclesiastic, [palicm, 
 episcop. for episcopal or episco- 
 
 Amer. for American, 
 Eng. for English, 
 Fr. for French, 
 Germ, for German, 
 Ir. for Irish, 
 It. or Ital. for Italian, 
 Portug. for Portuguese 
 Russ. for Russian, 
 Span, for Spanish, 
 
 Other contractions will be readily understood from the context. The letters b. and d. are used throughout to indicate the years of birth and death 
 
 emp. for emperor, 
 
 histor. for historian or historical, 
 
 mathemat. for mathematician, 
 
 min. for minister, 
 
 mils. comj). for musical composer, 
 
 11 uniismat. for numismatist, 
 
 philanthr. for philanthropist, 
 
 ph ilol. or philolog . for philologist, 
 
 philos. for philosophical, 
 
 polit. for political, 
 port, for portrait, 
 presbyt. for presbyter ian, 
 prof, for professor, 
 protest, for protestunt, 
 relig. for religious, 
 Stattim. for statesman, 
 theolog. for theologian , 
 trav. for tra veller. 
 
 AA. 
 
 ACEBEDO. 
 
 Aa, Thierry vander, Dutch painter of flowers and fruit, 1731, <?. 1S09. 
 
 Aacs, Michael, Hungarian theologian, J. 1672, rf. 1711. 
 
 Aagard, Christian, Danish poet, &. 1616, c?. 1664. 
 
 Aagard, Niels, Danish writer on philosophy, i. 1612, r7. 1657. 
 
 Aali, Mustapha, Turkish historian, d. 1597. 
 
 Aali-Pasha, Turkish statesman, poet, philologist, b. 1815, rf. 1871. 
 Aaron, British saint, martyred at Caerleon, 303. 
 Aarsens, Frans van, Dutch statesman, b. 1572, d. 1641. 
 Aartgen, Arthur Claesoon, Dutch painter, b. 1498, d. 1564. 
 Aasen, I war Ander, Norwegian philologist, b. 1813. 
 Abada y Queypea, Manuel, Spanish bishop in Mexico, b. 1775, d. 1828. 
 Abadia, Francisco Xavier, Spanish genera), b. 1774, d. 1830. 
 Abadie, Paul, French architect, 6. 1783. 
 
 Abamonti, Giuseppe, Neapolitan statesman, reformer, b. 1759, d. 1818. 
 Abancourt, Charles X. J. F. d', French statesman, b. 1758, d. 1792. 
 Abancourt, Francois J. V. d', French poet, b. 1745, d. 1803. 
 Abarca, Joaquin, bishop of Leon, Spain, b. 1780, d. 1844. 
 Abase al, Jose F., Spanish general, viceroy of Peru, b. 1743, d. 1821. 
 Abate, Andrea, Italian painter, naturalist, b. 1692, d. 1732. 
 Abatini, Guido Ubaldo, Italian fresco painter, b. 1596, d. 1656. 
 Abannza, Pedro, Spanish jurist, b. 1599, d. 1649. 
 Abbadie, Antoine Thomson, French traveller, b. Ireland, 1810. 
 Abbadie, Arnaud Michel, Fr. traveller, physicist, b. Ireland, 1815. 
 Abbadie, Vincent, French surgeon, b. 1737, d. 1800. 
 Abbal, Basile Joseph, French abbe, politician, biographer, b. 1799. 
 Abbas-Mirza, shah of Persia, b. 1785, d. 1833. 
 Abbas-Pasha, viceroy of Egypt, 1848; b. 1813, d. 1854. 
 Abbati, Ercole, Italian painter, b. 1563, d. 1613. 
 Abbatucci, Charles, French general, d. 1796. 
 Abbatncci, Jacques Pierre, French general, b. 1726, d. 1812. 
 Abbeile, Gaspard, abbe, French poet, b. 1648, d. 1718. 
 Abbiati, Filippo, Milanese historical painter, b. 1640, d. 1715. 
 Abbo Floriacensis, French theologian, chronicler, b. 945, d. 1004. 
 Abbot, Abie], American minister, writer on Cuba, b. 1770, d. 1828. 
 Abbot, Abiel, American preacher, genealogist, b. 1765, d. 1859. 
 Abbot, George, Eng. theologian, commentator on Job, b. 1604, d. 1618. 
 Abbot, Hull, American theologian, b. 1694, d. 1774. 
 Abbot, Maurice, Eng. diplomatist, lord mayor of London, d. 1640. 
 Abbott, Austin, American writer on law, 6. 1831. 
 Abbott, Benjamin V., American writer on law, b. 1830. 
 Abbott, Jacob, American congregational minister, author of books for 
 children, b. 1803. 
 
 Abbott, John S. C, Amer. congreg. minister, historical writer, 6. 1805. 
 Abbt, Thomas, German essayist, translator, b. 1738, d. 1766. 
 Abdallah, last Wahabee chief, executed by Turks, 1818. 
 Abdallah-ebn-Moslem, Arabian historian, b. 828, d. 890. 
 Abdalrahman, founder of the Ommaiades, in Spain, b. 731, d. 787. 
 Abd-el-Hakk-ebn-Ghalib, Arabian poet, theologian, b. 1088, d. 1152. 
 Abd-el-Halim, Egyptian prince, administrator, b. 1826. 
 Abd-el-Hamid bey (Du Couret), French traveller in Africa, b. 1812. 
 Abd-el-Melek, 5th Ommaiade khalif of Damascus, 685, d. 705. 
 Abd-el-Melek-ebn-Mohammed, Persian writer, b. 961, d. 1037. 
 Abd-el-Wahab, founder of Arab sect of Wahabees, d. 1787. 
 Abd-er-Eahman, Muley, emp. of Morocco, b. 1778, succd. 1823, d. 1859. 
 Abdul-Ahmed, sultan of Turkey, 6. 1725, d. 1789. 
 Abdy, Mrs. (Mira Smith), Eng. poetess, essayist, b. 1818, d. 1867. 
 Abeel, David, Amer. missionary in the East, f 1804, d. 1816. 
 
 Abeel, John Nelson, American preacher, New York, b. 1769, d. 1812. 
 
 Abegg, Julius Friedrich Heinrich, German writer on law, b. 1796. 
 
 Abeille, Jonas, French military surgeon, medical writer, b. 1809. 
 
 Abeken, Bernhard Rodolph, German critic, biographer, b. 1780. 
 
 Abel, Carl von, Bavarian statesman, b. 1788, d. 1859. 
 
 Abel, Clarke, English naturalist, traveller, b. 1780, d. 1826. 
 
 Abel, Friedrich Gottfried, German physician, poet, b. 1714, d. 1794. 
 
 Abel, Gaspard, German preacher, historian, b. 1676, d. 1763. 
 
 Abel, John, English judge, baron of exchequer, d. 1323. 
 
 Abel de Pujol, Madame (Adrienne Marie Louise Grandpierre Deverzy), 
 
 French historical painter, b. 1798. 
 Abela, John Francis, vice-chan. of knights of Malta, b. 1582, d. 1655. 
 Abelli, Antoine, French abbe, theologian, 6. 1527, d. 1600. 
 Abelli, Louis, French theologian, b. 1603, d. 1691. 
 Abendana, Jacob, Spanish jew, in London, bibl. comment., d. 1685. ' 
 Abercorn, James Hamilton, 1st duke of, Irish peer, viceroy, 1866-68 
 
 and 1874 ; b. 1811. 
 Abercromby,|Alex., Scotchjudge supreme court, essayist, b. 1745, d. 1795. 
 Abercromby, George Ralph Campbell Abercrornby, 4th lord, Scotch 
 
 peer of United Kingdom, b. 1838, succ. 1852. 
 Abercromby, John, Scotch horticulturist, b. 1726, (/. 1806. 
 Abercromby, Patrick, Scotch physician, military historian, translator 
 
 from French, b. 1656, d. 1716. 
 Abercromby, Sir Robert, Scotch military commander, d. 1827. 
 Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st baron, English peer, 1874; states- 
 man, educationist, b. 1815. 
 Aberli, Jean Louis, Swiss landscape painter, b. 1723, d. 1786. 
 Abernethy, John, Irish presby. min., polemical writer, b. 1680, d. 1740. 
 Abich, Wilhelm Hermann, German naturalist, b. 1806. 
 Abicht, Johann Georg, German orientalist, b. 1672, d. 1740. 
 Abildgaard, Peter Christian, Danish naturalist, b. 1740, d. 1808. 
 Abington, Thomas, English antiquary, b. 1560, d. 1647. 
 Abney, Sir Thomas, English financier, philanthropist, lord mayor 
 
 of London, M.P., b. 1639, d. 1722. 
 Abney, Sir Thomas, English judge of exchequer, 1740, common pleas 
 
 1743 ; d. 1750. 
 
 Aboul-Sooud, Arabian poet, statesman, in Egypt, b. about 1828. 
 Abrahams, Nicolas Christian, Danish philologist, archaeologist, b. 1798. 
 Abrantes, Adolphe Alfd. Michel Junot, due d', Fr. gen., b. 1810, d. 1859. 
 Abresch, Friedrich Ludwig, Dutch philologist, b. 1699, d. 1782. 
 Abreu, Joao Manuel d', Portuguese mathematician, b. 1754, d. 1815. 
 Abruzzo, Balthasar, Sicilian jurist, 6. 1601, d. 1665. 
 Abulgasi Bayatur, Tartar khan, historian, 6. 1605, d. 1663. 
 Abul-Hassan-Khan, Persian diplomatist, traveller, b. 1774, d. 1828. 
 Abu-Said-Mirza, Mogul sovereign, of Tamerlane's line, b. 1427, d. 1469. 
 Abu-Taleb-Khan, East Indian traveller, b. 1752, d. 1806. 
 Abzac, Raymond de Vitrac, vicomte d', Fr. agriculturist, b. 1808. 
 Acca, English prelate, bishop of Hexham, d. 740. 
 Accama, Matthew, Dutch historical and emblem rjainter, b. 1702, d. 1783. 
 Accarisi, Francesco, Italian jurist, b. at Ancona, d. at Vienne, 1622. 
 Acciajuoli, Felippe, Roman musician, poet, b. 1637, d. 1700. 
 Acciajuoli, Salvetti Madeleine, Florentine poetess, b. abt. 1550, d. 1610. 
 Acciajuoli, Zenobio, Italian priest, librarian at Vatican, b. 1451, d. 1519. 
 Accoramboni, Fabio, Italian jurist, b. 1502, d. 1559. 
 Accorso, Francesco, Italian jurist, b. 1182, d. 1260. 
 Accum, Fried., German writer on food adulteration, b. 1767, d. 1833. 
 Acebedo, Don Manuel, Spanish painter, b. 1744, d. 1S00. 
 
3 
 
 ACERBI. 
 
 AFFLITTO. 
 
 4 
 
 Acerbi, Enrico, Italian physician, medical writer, b. 1785, (/. 1827. 
 
 Acevedo, Felix Alvarez, Spanish statesman, reformer, d. 1820. 
 
 Achaintre, Nicolas Louis, French philologist, b. 1771, J. 1830. 
 
 Achard, Adolphe, French comic actor, vocalist, b. 1808. 
 
 Achard, Alexis Jean, French landscape painter, b. 1807. 
 
 Achard, Jacques Michel Fr., baron, French general, b. 1778, d. 1865. 
 
 Achard, Leon, French singer, b. 1831. 
 
 Achard, Louis Ame'de'e Eugene, French dramatic writer, novelist, 6. 1814. 
 
 Achard, Pierre Frdderic, French actor, comic vocalist, b. 1808, d. 1856. 
 
 Achards, Eleazar Francois des, French prelate, in China, b. 1679, d. 1741. 
 
 Achenbach, Oswald, German landscape and architectural painter, 6.1827. 
 
 Achilles, Estaco, Portug. philologist, secretary to Popo Pius V., d. 1581. 
 
 Achilliui, Alessandro, Italian writer on anatomy, b. 1463, d. 1512. 
 
 Achillini, Claudio, Italian poet, jurist, b. 1574, d. 1640. 
 
 Achillini, Giovanni F., Italian poet, b. 1466, d. 1538. 
 
 Achrelius, Erik Daniel, Swedish physician, astrologer, b. 1604, d. 1670. 
 
 Achterfeld, Johann Heinrich, German roman catholic theologian, 
 speculative writer, b. 1788. 
 
 Achtermann, Wilhelm, German sculptor, b. 1799. 
 
 Acidalius, Valens, German philologist, critic, b. 1567, d. 1595. 
 
 Acier, Michel Victor, French sculptor, b. 1736, d. 1799. 
 
 Ackermann, J. Christian Gottlieb, Germ, physician, b. 1756, d. 1801. 
 
 Ackermann, Konrad, German comic actor, b. 1710, d. 1771. 
 
 Acland, Charles, Eng. clergyman, traveller in India, b. 1814, rf. 1845. 
 
 Acland, Henry Wentworth, English physician, writer on health, b. 1815. 
 
 Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, English agriculturist, M.P., b. 1809. 
 
 Acollas, Emile, French jurist, publicist, b. 1826. 
 
 Acoluthus, Andreas, German orientalist, b. 1654, d. 1704. 
 
 Acosta, Cristoval, Portuguese physician, naturalist, d. 1580. 
 
 Acosta, Gabriel, Portuguese theologian, biblical commentator, d. 1616. 
 
 Acosta, Joaquim, South American military engineer, geographer, histo- 
 rian of New Granada, b. about 1800. 
 
 Acosta, Uriel, Portuguese jew, embraced Christianity, returned to Ju- 
 daism ; polemical writer, d. 1647. 
 
 Acquaviva, Andrea Matteo, duke of Atro, printed a cyclopaedia, 
 b. 1456, d. 1528. 
 
 Acquisti, Luigi, Italian sculptor, b. 1744, d. 1824. 
 
 Acrel, Olof, Swedish writer on surgery, b. 1717, d. 1807. 
 
 Acropolita, George, Byzantine chronicler, b. 1220, d. about 1282. 
 
 Acton, Charles J. E., English roman catholic cardinal, b. 1803, d. 1847. 
 
 Adadurov, Vasil Eudokimovitch, Russian philologist, mathematician, 
 b. 1709, d. 1780. 
 
 Adair, James, English serjeant-at-law, recorder of London, d. 1798. 
 
 Adair, James Makittrick, Scotch medical writer, b. 1728, d. 1802. 
 
 Adalberon, French chancellor, archbishop, statesman, d. 988. 
 
 Adalberon, Azelin, French prelate, poet, politician, b. 950, d. 1030. 
 
 Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg, statesman, d. 1072. 
 
 Adalbert, St., of Prague, apostle of the Prussians, b. 939, d. 997. 
 
 Adalbert, Heinrich Wilhm., prince of Prussia, admiral, traveller, b. 1811. 
 
 Adalhard, French abbe, writer on monastic law, b. ab. 753, d. 826. 
 
 Adam, Albrecht, German painter, b. 1786, d. 1862. 
 
 Adam, Alfred Albert, French painter and lithographer, 5. 1825. 
 
 Adam, Billaut (Master Adam), French artisan poet, d. 1662. 
 
 Adam, Sir C, Scotch admiral, govern. Greenwich hosp., 6. 1780, d. 1853. 
 
 Adam, Georg, German landscape painter, b. 1783, d. 1823. 
 
 Adam, Jacques, French historical writer, b. 1663, d. 1735. 
 
 Adam, Jean, French preacher, polemical writer, 6. 1608, d. 1684. 
 
 Adam, Jean Louis, French composer for the piano, b. 1760, d. 1848. 
 
 Adam, Jean Victor, French hist, painter, lithographer, b. 1801, d. 1866. 
 
 Adam, Nicolas, French diplomatist, general writer, b. 1716, d. 1792. 
 
 Adam, Robert, English theological writer, b. 1770, d. 1826. 
 
 Adam, "Will., Scotch chief commissioner jury court, b. 1751, d. 1839. 
 
 Adam, Will. Patrick, Scotch economist, administrator, M.P., b. 1823. 
 
 Adam of Orleton, Eng. statesman, bishop (Winchester), b. 1285, d. 1370. 
 
 Adam of St. Victor, French monk, religious poet, d. 1192. 
 
 Adam-Salomon, Antony Samuel, French sculptor, b. 1818. 
 
 Adam Scotus, Scotch historian, member of the Sorbonne, d. 1180. 
 
 Adamaeus, Theodor, German philologist, jurist, b. 1470, d. 1540. 
 
 Adamberger, Maria Ann, German actress, 6. 1752, d. 1804. 
 
 Adami, Antonio Filippo, Florentine theological writer, b. 1720, d. 1761. 
 
 Adami, Ernst D., Germ, protest, min., writer onmusic, b. 1716, d. 1770. 
 
 Adami, Leonardo, Italian philologist, b. 1691, d. 1719. 
 
 Adams, Chas. Baker, Amer. naturalist, conchologist, b. 1814, d. 1853. 
 
 Adams, C. H., Eng. astronomer, constructor of orrery, d. 1871. 
 
 Adams, Clement, English traveller, b. 1519, d. 1587. 
 
 Adams, Dan., Amer. physician, author of school books, b. 1773, d. 1864. 
 
 Adams, Francis, LL.D., Scotch physician, classicist, b. 1797, d. 1861. 
 
 Adams, George, English physicist, b. 1750, d. 1795. 
 
 Adams, George, English naturalist, writer on the microscope, d. 1786. 
 
 Adams, Hannah, American historian, autobiographer, b. 1755, d. 1831. 
 
 Adams, Isaac, Amer. engineer, inventor of power-printing press, b. 1803. 
 
 Adams, Jasper, D.D., Amer. mathematn., educationist, b. 1793, d. 1841. 
 
 Adams, John, poet, philologist, b. Nova Scotia, 1704, d. 1740. 
 
 Adams, John, English jurist, b. 1786, d. 1856. 
 
 Adams, John Greenleaf, Amer. theologian, temperance writer, b. 1810. 
 Adams, Joseph, English writer on vaccination, b. 1756, d. 1817. 
 Adams, Rich., Eng. judge, baron of exchequer, 1753 ; b. 1710, d. 1773. 
 Adams, Richard, English nonconformist theologian, b. 1630. d. 1698. 
 
 Adams, Mrs. Sarah, English hymn writer, b. 1805, d. 1849. 
 Adams, Thomas, English writer on protestant union, d. 1670. 
 Adams, Thomas, Eng. puritan clergyman, theologian, b. 1580, d. 1656. 
 Adams, Sir Thomas, English merchant, lord mayor of London, 1615 ; 
 
 royalist ; b. 1586, d. 1667. 
 Adams, William, English seaman, traded with Japan, b. 1575, d. 1621. 
 Adams, Win., master Pembroke coll., Oxford, theolog., b. 1707, d. 1789. 
 Adams, Win., Eng. theolog., author of sacred allegories, b. 1814, d. 1848. 
 Adams, William Bridges, English civil engineer, b. 1797. 
 Adams, W. J., English publisher, b. 1809, d. 1873. 
 Adams, William T. [Oliver Optic), American teacher, author of books 
 
 for children, b. 1822. 
 Adamson, Henry, Scotch poet, philologist, d. 1639. 
 Adderley, Sir Charles Bowyer, English statesman, economist, b. 1814. 
 Addington, Anthony, English medical writer, b. 1718, d. 1790. 
 Addington, Henry Unwin, English diplomatist, under-secretary of state 
 
 for foreign affairs, 1842-54 ; b. 1790, d. 1870. 
 Addington, Stephen, D.D., English independent minister, theologian, 
 
 //. 1729, d. 1796. 
 
 Addington, Sir Win., Eng. jurist, London magistrate, b. 1727, d. 1811. 
 Addiscott, Henry, Eng. congreg. min., educationist, b. 1806, d. 1860. 
 Addison, Alexander, American law reporter, b. 1759, d. 1807. 
 Addison, Charles Greenstreet, English jurist, d. 1866. 
 Addison, Lancelot, Eng. ecclesiastic, writer on Barbary, b. 1632, d. 1703. 
 Ade, Charles, English artist, antiquary, d. 1858. 
 Adelaar, Cord Sivartsen, Danish admiral, b. 1622, d. 1675. 
 Adelaide, empress of Germany, wife of Otho I., b. 931, d. 999. 
 Adelaide, princess of Saxe Meiningen, queen of William IV. of England, 
 b. 1792, d. 1849. 
 
 Adelaide, Madame, of Fi ance, daughter of Louis XV., b. 1732, d. 1800. 
 Adelaide, E. Louise, of Orleans, sister of Louis Philippe, b. 1777, d. 1847. 
 Adelbold, bishop of Utrecht, theologian, historian, b. 960, d. 1028. 
 Adelen, Nicolas Philibert, French medical jurist, 6. 1782, d. 1862. 
 Adelung, Friedrich, German philologist, historian, b. 1768, d. 1843. 
 Ademar, Fr. monk of St. Martial, Limoges, chronicler, b. 998, d. 1030. 
 Adet, Pierre-Auguste, Fr. chemist, diplomatist, b. 1763, d. about 1832. 
 Adey, John, English congreg. minister, educationist, b. 1794, d. 1870. 
 Adhad-Eddaulah, emperor of Persia, promoted learning, b. 936, d. 983. 
 Adhemar, Alphonse Joseph, French mathematician, b. 1797. 
 Adie, Alex. J., Scotch optician, inventor, meteorolog., b. 1775, d. 1859. 
 Adimari, Alessandro, Florentine poet, b. 1579, d. 1649. 
 Adimari, Luigi, Florentine satirist, b. Naples 1644, d. 1708. 
 Adkins, Thomas, Eng. congreg. min., philanthropist, b. 1787, d. 1868. 
 Adler, Georg J.. German physician, in America from 1833, linguist, 
 
 lexicographer,, b. 1821, d. 1868. 
 Adler-Mesnard, Bdouard Henri Emman., Fr. histor. writer, b. 1807. 
 Adlerbeth, Gudmund Georg, Swedish writer, b. 1751, d. 1818. 
 Adlerfeld, Gustaf, Swedish historical writer, b. 1671, d. 1709. 
 Adlersparre, G., count, Swedish general, historian, b. 1760, d. 1837. 
 Adlung, Jacques, German organist, musical writer, b. 1699, d. 1762. 
 Adolphe, Joseph Fr., Moravian painter, naturalist, b. 1671, d. 1749. 
 Adolphi, Ciro, Italian painter, 6. 1683, d. 1758. 
 Adolphi, Giacomo, Italian painter, b. 1682, d. 1741. 
 Adolphus, J. Leycester, Eng. county court judge, critic, d. 1862. 
 Adolphus, Prince, of Sayn-Wittgensteiu-Hohenstein, German singer, 
 
 b. 1840, d. 1872. 
 
 Adorne de Tscharner, Marie Augustin, Fr. military surgeon, b. 1784. 
 Adorni, Caterina, Genoese relig. poet, philanthropist, b. 1447, d. 1510. 
 Adorno, Francesco, Genoese theol., writer on discipline, b. 1531, d. 1586. 
 Adrets, Francois de Beaumont, baron, French huguenot, b. 1513, d. 1587. 
 Adrian, Corneille, Flemish preacher against huguenots, b. 1521, d. 1781 . 
 Adrian, Johann Valentin, German miscellaneous writer, b. 1793, d. 1864. 
 Adrian, Robert, Irish mathematician, in America, b. 1775, d. 1843. 
 Adriani, Giovanni Battista, Florentine statesman, hist., b. 1513, (2.1579. 
 Adriani, Marcel V., Florentine statesman, author, b. 1464, d. 1521. 
 Adrichomius, Christian, Dutch geographer, historian, b. 1533, d. 1585. 
 Adry, Jean Felicissime, French bibliographer, b. 1749, d. 1818. 
 Advielle, Victor, French biographical and historical writer, b. 1823. 
 JEgidius, Joannes, Eng. theological writer, physician to Philippe II. 
 
 of France, d. 1253. 
 lEgidius, Petrus, of Antwerp, traveller in the East, 6. 1490, d. 1555. 
 iElnoth, English monk, historian, 24 years in Denmark, d. 1105. 
 JElphage, English archbishop of Canterbury, from 1006, murdered 
 
 by Danes, 1011. 
 .aSmilius, Antoine, French historian, b. 1589, d. 1660. 
 JEmilius, Paulus, Roman consul, conquered Macedonia, d. 168 B.C. 
 iEmilius, Paulus, French ecclesiastic, historian, b. Verona, d. 1529. 
 .Enee, Hendrik, Dutch writer on scientific instruments, b. 1743, d. 1812. 
 iEpinus, Johann, German protest, controversial writer, b. 1499, d. 1553. 
 lEtius, Roman general, under Valentinian, emperor of the West, d. 454. 
 Afanasief, Aleksandr Nikolaevich, Russian antiquary, metaphysician, 
 
 philologist, critic, 6. 1826, d. 1871. 
 Affaitati, Antonio Marco, Italian capuchin, historian, b. 1H60, d. 1721. 
 Affarosi, Camillo, Italian benedictine, historian, 6. 1680, ■'. 1763. 
 Affichard, Thomas 1', French dramatist, 6. 1698, d. 1753. 
 Affleck, Sir James, bart., English general, d. 1833. 
 Afflitto, Giovanni Maria, Italian writer on fortifications, d. 1673. 
 Afflitto, Matteo d', Italian jurist, b. 1448, d. 1524. 
 
5 
 
 AFFRY. 
 
 ALBERTINI. 
 
 6 
 
 AflEry, Louis Auguste P., comte d', Swiss statesman, b. 1745, d. 1810. 
 Arfry, Louis Augustin A. d', French general, b. 1713, d. 1793. 
 Afinger, Bernhard, German sculptor, b. 1813. 
 
 Africaner, Christian, S. African chief, embraced Christianity, d. 1823. 
 Afsos, Mir Shcr 'Ali, Hindostanee histor. and geogr. writer, d. 1809. 
 Afzelius, Arvid August, Swedish pastor, historical and mythological 
 writer, b. 1785. 
 
 Aga-Mohammed, Khan Kajar, founder of the reigning Persian dynasty, 
 
 b. 1734, became shah, 1795, d. 1797. 
 Agar, Sir Emanuel Felix, English politician, soldier, b. 1781, d. 1866. 
 Agar, Jaques, French painter, chiefly of portraits, b. 1640, d. 1716. 
 Agar, Pedro, American naval officer, politician in Spain, d. 1840. 
 Agas, Robert, English landscape and scene painter, d. 1679. 
 Agasses, James, Swiss landscape and animal painter, in England, 
 
 d. about 1846. 
 
 Agay, Francois M. Bruno, comte d', French jurist, b. 1722, d. 1805. 
 Agazzari, Agostino, Italian composer of church music, b. 1578, d. 1640. 
 Agelli, Antonio, Ital. philologist, biblical commentator, b. 1532, d. 1608. 
 Agelnoth, English archb. of Canterbury, from 1020 till his death, 1038. 
 Agier, Pierre Jean, French writer on law and theology, b. 1748, d. 1823. 
 Agilulf, duke of Turin, king of the Lombards, 591 ; d. 616. 
 Agincourt, Jean Bapt., French archajolog., numismat., b. 1730, d. 1814. 
 Agliati, Gerard, Sicilian poet, d. 1590. 
 
 Aglionby, John, Eng. protest, niin., biblical translator, b. 1567, d. 1610. 
 
 Agnel, Emile, French jurist, philologist, b. about 1810. 
 
 Agnelli, Fra Guglielmo, Italian sculptor, b. about 1238, d. 1312. 
 
 Agneni, Eugenio, Italian historical painter, b. 1819. 
 
 Agnew, Sir Andrew, bait., Scotch general, defender of Blair castle, 
 
 1746; 6. 1687, d. 1771. 
 Agnew, Sir Andrew, bart., Scotch M.P., philanthr., b. 1793, d. 1849. 
 Agnew, Thomas, Eng. fine-art collector and publisher, b. 1795, d. 1871. 
 Agobard, St., French prelate, archbishop of Lyons, theologian, wrote 
 
 against duelling, b. 779, d. 840. 
 Agop, Jacob, Armenian ecclesiastic, diplomatist, promoter of European 
 
 ideas and manufactures in Turkey, b. 1807. 
 Agostini, Giovanni degli, Italian critic, historian, b. 1701, d. 1755. 
 Agostini, Miguel, Spanish agricultural writer, b. 1560, d. 1630. 
 Agoub, Joseph, orientalist, b. at Cairo, 1795, d. at Marseille, 1832. 
 Agoult, Charles Constance Ce"sar d', French prelate, writer on finance, 
 
 b. 1747, d. 1824. 
 
 Agoult, Marie de Flavigny, comtesse d', French general writer, under 
 
 the name of Daniel Stem, b. about 1800. 
 Agraz, Antonio, Sicilian writer, politician, at Naples, b. 1640, d. 1672. 
 Agreda, Maria of, Spanish abbess, religious writer, b. 1602, d. 1665. 
 Agresti da Forli, Livio, Italian historical painter, d. 1580. 
 Agricola, Franz, German theologian, controversialist, d. 1621. 
 Agricola, Georg A., German writer on arboriculture, b. 1672, d. 1738. 
 Agricola, Johann Ammonius,-Gerinan medical miter, d. 1570. 
 Agricola, Johann Friedrich, German musical writer, b. 1720, d. 1774. 
 Agrippa, HeinrichC, Ger. physician, cabalist writer, 6.1486, d. 1535. 
 Aguero, Benito Emmanuel, Spanish landscape painter, b. 1626, d. 1670. 
 Aguesseau, Henri C. Jean B., comte d', French statesm., b. 1746, d. 1826. 
 Aguila, C. F. E. H. d', French engineer officer, historian, d. 1815. 
 Aguilar, Grace, English writer of novels of home life, b. 1816, d. 1847. 
 Aguilar, Melchior Louis, marquis d', French poet, b. 1755, d. 1838. 
 Aguillon, Francois d', Flemish jesuit, mathematician, b. 1567, d. 1617. 
 Aguirra, Jose Saenz d', Spanish cardinal, theol. writer, b. 1630, d. 1699. 
 Agujari, Lucrezio, Italian theatrical singer, d. at Parma, 1783. 
 Agylaeus, Henri, French jurist, b. 1533, d. 1595. 
 Ahlborn, Karel, Swedish sculptor, b. about 1815. 
 Ahlbora, Madame (ZeaZMJidgrett), Swedish artist, medallist, b. abt. 1820. 
 Ahle, Johann Georg, Ger. writer on musical harmony, b. 1650, d. 1701. 
 Ahle, Johann Rudolph, German writer on music, b. 1625, d. 1673. 
 Ahlquist, Aug. Enguelbert, Finnish philolog., journalist, b. abt. 1815. 
 Ahlwardt, Christian Wilhelm, Ger. philologist, critic, b. 1760, d. 1830. 
 Ahlwardt, Pieter, German essayist, logician, b. 1710, d. 1791. 
 Ahmed-al-Mekarri, Ben- Mohammed, Arabian histor., b. 1577, d. 1632. 
 Ahmed-ben-Mohammed, Abu-Amru, Arabian poet, d. 970. 
 Ahmed-Besmi-Effendi, Turkish statesman, historian, d. 1788. 
 Ahmed-Fethi-Pasha, Turkish general, d. 1858. 
 
 Ahmed-ibn-Abdi-r-Rabbihi, Arab, poet, histor., b. Cordova 860, d. 940. 
 Ahmed-Khan, Nicodar, Mogul emperor of Persia, d. 1284. 
 Ahmed-Pasha, Turkish general, usurped power in Egypt, d. 1524. 
 Ahmed-Rifaat-Pasha, Egyptian prince, statesman, b. 1825. 
 Ahmed-Shah, founder of Afghan monarchy, 6. 1724, d. 1772. 
 Ahmed- Vefik-Pasha, Turkish statesman, diplomatist, b. about 1818. 
 Ahrens, Heinrich, Hanoverian jurist, psychologist, b. 1808. 
 Aibek, Azed-Eddyn, 1st Mameluke sultan of Egypt, 1250; d. 1257. 
 Aicard, Jean, French critic, biographer, historian, b. about 1815. 
 Aicher, Otto, Germ, benedictine, orator, grammarian, poet, d. 1705. 
 Aidan, St., Scotch monk of Iona, missionary bishop of Lindisfarne, 
 
 or Holy Island, d. 651. 
 Aiffre, Raymond Bene", French port, and hist, painter, b. 1806, d. 1867. 
 Aigenler, Adam, Germ, jesuit missionary, inathemat., b. 1633, d. 1673. 
 Aignan, Erench physician, medical writer, b. 1644, d. 1709. 
 Aignan, Etiennc, French republican, dramat., historian, b. 1773, d. 1S24. 
 Aiguebelle, Paul Alexandre Neveue d', French naval officer in Chinese 
 
 service, b. 1831, 
 
 Aigueberts, Jean Dumas d', French dramatist, b. 1692, d. 1755. 
 Aiken, William, American statesman, philanthropist, b. 1806. 
 Aikin, Edmund, English architect, and writer, d. 1820. 
 Aimard, Gustavo, French feuilletonist, novelist, b. about 1818. 
 Aimerich, Matteo, Span, jesuit, philolog., grammarian, b. 1715, d. 1700. 
 Aimon, Pamphil, Leopold Francois, French musical composer, b. 1779. 
 Ainslie, Gilbert, English clergyman, master of Pembroke college, 
 
 Cambridge, 1828-70, b. 1794, d. 1870. 
 Ainslie, Hew, Scotch poet, 6. 1792, went to U.S. America, 1822. 
 Ainsworth, Win., Fr. English physician, traveller, geologist, b. 1807. 
 Airay, Christian, English clergyman, essayist, b. 1609, d. 1678. 
 Airay, Henry, English theol, vice-chan. Oxford univ., b. 1560, d. 1616. 
 Aird, Thomas, Scottish poet, biographer, journalist, b. 1802. 
 Airey, Sir Richard, English general, gov. of Gibraltar, 1865, b. 1805. 
 Aitken, Robert, Scotch printer in America, economist, published 
 
 1st edition of the Bible in 1782, b. 1734, d. 1802. 
 Aiton, John, Scotch presbyt, writer on church history, b. 1797, d. 1870. 
 Aitzema, Leo van, Dutch historian, diplomatist, &.-1600, d. 1661. 
 Aitzema, Lieuwe van, Flemish painter, b. 1600, d. 1669. 
 Aivazovski, Gabriel, Russian geologist, orientalist, in France, J. 1812. 
 Aivazovski, Ivan, Russian landscape and marine painter, b. 1817. 
 Akakia, Martin, French surgeon, medical writer, b. 1539, d. 1588. 
 Akbar II., king of Delhi, b. 1755, succeeded 1805, d. 1837. 
 Akerly, Samuel, American physician, geologist, founder of asylums 
 
 for deaf mutes, and for blind, b. 1785, d. 1845. 
 Akerman, John Yonge, English antiq., numismatist, b. 1806, d. 1873. 
 Akermann, Anders, Swed. engraver, naturalist, b. 1718, d. 1778. 
 Akers, Benjamin Paul, American sculptor, b. 1825, d. 1861. 
 Akibah-ben-Joseph, rabbi, compiler of jewish traditions, b. 15, d. 131. 
 Akrell, Karel Fredk., Swedish milit. engineer, map-maker, b. 1779. 
 Alaimo, Marc Antonio, Italian medical writer, b. 1590, d. 1662. 
 Alain, Jan, Danish archaeologist, b. 1569, d. 1630. 
 Alain, William, English cardinal, canon of York, biblical critic, b. 
 
 1541, d. at Rome, 1594. 
 Alain Chartier, French chronicler, b. 1386, d. 1458. 
 Alaman, Lucas, Mexican publicist, monarchist, b. ab. 1795, d. 1853. 
 Alamanni, Luigi, poet, diplomatist, b. Florence, 1495, d. Amboise, 1556. 
 Alamanni, Niccolo, Italian antiquary, historian, b. Ancoua, 1583, 
 
 d. Rome, 1626. 
 
 Aland, Sir John Fortescue, English judge (Baron Fortescue, Irish 
 peerage), b. 1670, d. 1746. 
 
 Alandus, Jean, Polish jesuit, biograph., ascetic writer, b. 1561, d. 1641. 
 
 Alanson, Edward, Eng. surgeon, writer on amputation, b. 1747, d. 1823. 
 
 Alanus of Fifedale, Scotch augustinian, logician, d. Rome, 1421. 
 
 Alanus, Jan, Danish philologist, b. 1563, d. 1631. 
 
 Alarcon, Antonio Suarez, Spanish historian, b. 1636, d. 1663. 
 
 Alard, Jean Delphin, French violinist, composer for violin, b. 1815. 
 
 Alard, Lambert, Germ, protest, minister, Denmark, b. 1602, d. 1672. 
 
 Alard, Marie Joseph Louis, French medical writer, b. 1779, d. 1850. 
 
 Alard, Nicolaus, German biographer, b. 1683, d. 1756. 
 
 Alary, Jules A. Eug., French musician, opera comp., b. Mantua, 1814. 
 
 Al-Ashari, founder of Mohammedan sect of Asharites, b. 860, d. 935. 
 
 Alaux, Jean, French painter, b. 1786, d. 1864. 
 
 Alaux, Jules Emile, French poet, essayist, critic, b. 1828. 
 
 Alauzet, Francois Isidore, French publicist, b. Piedmont, 1807. 
 
 Albach, Joseph Stanislas, Hungarian theolog., geogr., botanist, b. 1795. 
 
 Alban, St., British preacher, martyred about 303. 
 
 Albaneze, Italian singer, musical composer at Paris, 1752-62, d. 1800. 
 
 Albany, John Stuart, duke of, Scotch soldier in France, d. 1536. 
 
 Albemarle, George Thomas Keppel, 6th earl of, English peer, states- 
 man, traveller, b. 1799, succ. 1851. 
 
 Alberdingk Thym, Jos. Ant., Dutch archaeologist, art-critic, b. 1820. 
 
 Albergati, Capacelli Francesco, marq. d', Ital. dramat., b, 1728, d. 1S04. 
 
 Alberi, Eugenio, Italian historian, b. Padua, 1817. 
 
 Alberic, French cardinal, legate to Eng. and the East, b. 1080, d. 1147. 
 
 Alberic, Filippo, Italian monk, envoy to Fiance, England, and Ger- 
 many, b. 1470, d. 1551. 
 
 Alberici, Enrico, Italian historical painter, b. 1714, d. 1775. » 
 
 Albers, Johann Abraham, German medical writer, b. 1772, d. 1821. 
 
 Albers, Johann Friedrich Hermann, German physician, medical 
 writer, b. 1805, d. 1867. 
 
 Albert, St., Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, b. ab. 1150, assassinated 1214. 
 
 Albert, Erasmus, German poet, theologian, philologist, d. 1560. 
 
 Albert, Friedrich Rudolph, Austrian archduke, com. -in-chief, b. 1817. 
 
 Alberti, Cherubino, Florentine painter, b. 1552, d. 1615. 
 
 Alberti, Filippo, Italian poet, historian, 6. 1548, d. 1612. 
 
 Alberti, Georg Wilhelm, Hanoverian protestant preacher, philosophical 
 writer, b. 1723, d. 1758. 
 
 Alberti, Giovanni, Italian painter, b. 1558, d. 1601. 
 
 Alberti, Giovanni Andrea, Italian jesuit preacher, at Nice, b. 1611, 
 d. Geneva, 1657. 
 
 Alberti, Giuseppe Ant., Ital. architect, civil engineer, b. 1713, d. 1768. 
 Alberti, Luigi, Ital. theologian, augustinian monk, b. 1562, d. 1628. 
 Alberti, Michael, German medical jurist, b. 1682, d. 1757. 
 Alberti, Salomon, Germ, anatomist, medical writer, b. 1540, d. 1600. 
 Alberti di Villanova, Francesco d', Italian philologist, b. 1737, d. 1S01. 
 Albertini, Ippolito Francesco, Italian physician, writer on heart- 
 disease, b. 1662, d. 1738. 
 
7 ALBERTINI. 
 
 Albertini, Joliann B., Moravn. preacher, botani>t, b. 1769, d. 1831. 
 Albertini, Paolo, Ital. bishop, preacher, theologian, b. 1430, d. 1475. 
 Albertinus, yEgidius, German satirical poet, b. 1560, d. 1620. 
 Albertoli, Ferdinando, Milanese architect, b. 1782, d. 1844. 
 Albertoli, Giacondo, Milanese architect, 6. 1742, d. 1839. 
 Albertsen, Hamilton Hendrik, Danish poet, b. 1592, d. 1630. 
 Albertucci, of Borselli, Girolamo, Italian annalist, b. 1432, d. 1491. 
 Albi, Henri, French jesuit historian, philologist, b. 1590, d. 1659. 
 Albicus, Sigismund, archbishop of Prague, philanthropist, writer on 
 
 medicine, d. 1427. 
 Albina, Giuseppe, Sozzo, Ital. painter, sculptor, architect, d. 1611. 
 Albini, Alessandro, Italian painter, b. 1568, d. 1646. 
 Albini, Franz Joseph, German diplomatist, b. 1748, d. 1816. 
 Albinus, Christian Bernhard, Dutch anatomist, b. 1696, d. 1752. 
 Albinus, Decimus Clodius, Roman general, in Britain, elected emperor 
 
 by army ; beheaded 198. 
 Albinus, Pctrus, German poet, historian, d. at Dresden, 1598. 
 Albisson, Jean, French jurist, b. 1732, d. 1810. 
 Albizzi, Bartolomeo, of Pisa, franciscan monk, biographer, d. 1401. 
 Albo, Jose, Spanish rabbi, theologian, controversialist, d. 1428. 
 Albon, Claude Camille Francois a', French poet, b. 1753, d. 1788. 
 Alboni, Marietta, Italian opera singer, b. 1824. 
 
 Albouis d'Azincourt, Joseph Jean Bapt., Fr. comedian, b. 1747, d. 1809. 
 Albrccht, Balthusar Augustin, Germ, histor. painter, J. 1687, d. 1765. 
 Albrecht, Christian, German missionary, sent to South Africa by 
 
 London Missionary Society, in 1805 ; d. 1815. 
 Albrecht, Joliann Friedrich Ernst, German novelist, b. 1752, d. 1816. 
 Albrecht, Joliann Wilhelm, German medical writer, b. 1703, d. 1736. 
 Albrecht, Wilhelm Eduard, Prussian jurist, b. 1800. 
 Albrizzi, Isabelle Teotochi, coutessa d', Italian biographical writer, 
 
 b. 1770, d. Venice, 1836. 
 Albucasis, Abu-l-Kucim, Arab writer on surgery, at Cordova, d. 1106. 
 Albufera, Louis Napoleon Suchet, due d', French politician, b. 1813. 
 Albumazar, Arabian astronomer, b. 776, d. 885. 
 Alby, Ernest, French novelist, bibliographer, b. 1809, d. 1868. 
 Alcacoba, Sotomayor, Portuguese navigator, employed by Charles V. 
 
 in 1522, d. 1535. 
 Alcadinus, Italian physician, poet, b. at Syracuse, 1170, d. 1234. 
 Alcan, Michel, French engineer, writer on art and industry, b. 1811. 
 Alcazar, Luis d', Spanish jesuit, biblical commentator, b. 1554, d. 1613. 
 Alciat, Andrea, Milanese jurist, philologist, b. 1492, d. Pavia, 1550. 
 Alcionius, Pietro, Venetian corrector of the press, b. 1487, d. 1527. 
 Alcock, Sir Rutherford, English diplomatist, writer on Japan, b. 1809. 
 Alcock, Thomas, English politician, philanthropist, b. 1801, d. 1866. 
 Alcott, Amos Bronson, American teacher, educational writer, b. 1799. 
 Alcott, "William Alexander, Amer. physiologist, b. 1798, d. 1859. 
 Aldegonde, Philip van M., Dutch protestant, philologist, diplomatist, 
 
 b. 1548, d. 1598. 
 
 Alden, Joseph, D.D., American metaphysician, journalist, writer for 
 
 Sunday schools, b. 1807. 
 Alden, Timothy, Amer. congreg. min., bibliographer, b. 1771, d. 1839. 
 Alden, Timothy, American compositor, inventor of machine for setting 
 
 and distributing type, b. 1819, d. 1858. 
 Alder, Joshua, English zoologist, d. 1867. 
 
 Alderson, Sir Edw. Hall, English baron of exchequer, b. 1787, d. 1857. 
 Aldhun, founder of see of Dunholme or Durham, in 995 ; d. 1018. 
 Aldini, Antonio, count, Italian statesman, b. 1756, d. 1826. 
 Aldini, Giovanni, Italian physician, b. 1762, d. 1834. 
 Aldis, Asa, Amer. judge, chief justice of Vermont, b. 1770, d. 1847. 
 Aldrich, James, American poet, journalist, b. 1810, d. 1856. 
 Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, American poet, journalist, b. 1836. 
 Aldridge, Ira, American actor (mulatto), b. 1804, d. 1867. 
 Aldridge, William, English independent preacher, b. 1737, d. 1797. 
 Aldrighetti, Aldrigetto d', Italian physician, writer, b. 1573, d. 1631. 
 Alefeldt, Georg Ludwig, German medical writer, b. 1732, d. 1774. 
 Alefounder, John, English portrait painter, d. East Indies, 1791. 
 Alegambe, Filippo, Ital. jesuit, biographer, philologist, b. 1592, d. 1651. 
 Aleman, Louis, French cardinal, archbishop of Aries; active politician, 
 
 b. 1390, d. 1459. 
 Alembek, Louis Valerian, Polish poet, b. 1620, d. 1690. 
 Alen, Jan van, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1651, d. 1698. 
 Aleni, Tommaso, Italian historical painter in fresco, b. 1500, d. 1560. 
 Alenio, Giulio, Italian missionary, author of books for Chinese, b. 
 
 1582, d. 1649. 
 
 Aler, Paul, German jesuit, philologist, theologian, b. 1656, d. 1727. 
 Ales, John, English theologian, writer on schism, b. 1584, d. 1650. 
 Alessandrini, Giulio, Italian medical writer, b. 1506, d. 1590. 
 Alessi, Galeas, Italian architect, b. 1500, d. 1572. 
 Alexander, St., bishop of Alexandria, 313 ; writer on Canticles; d. 326. 
 Alexander, St., patriarch of Constantinople, 317 ; d. 340. 
 Alexander, English bishop of Lincoln, 1123 till his death, 1147. 
 Alexander, Alexander, LL.D., Scotch liellenist, b. 1787, d. 1859. 
 Alexander, Archibald, D.D., American presbyterian, writer on christian 
 
 evidences, 6. 1772, d. 1857. 
 Alexander, Caleb, American theologian, grammarian, d. 1828. 
 Alexander, Gabriel, English miscellaneous writer, b. 1792, d. 1854. 
 Alexander, James, Scotch engineer, statesman in New York, acted with 
 Franklin in founding American Philosophical Society, d. 1756. 
 
 ALLEN. 8 
 
 Alexander, Sir James Edward, English general, traveller, 6. 1803. 
 Alexander, James "VVaddell, D.D., American presbyterian minister, 
 
 theologian, biographer, 6. 1804, d. 1859. 
 Alexander, John, Eng. congreg. minister, preacher, b. 1792, d. 1868. 
 Alexander, John Henry, Amer. mathemat., physicist, b. 1812, d. 1867. 
 Alexander, Joseph Addison, American orientalist, b. 1809, d. 1859. 
 Alexander, Michael Solomon, D.D., first English protestant bishop of 
 
 Jerusalem, 1841 ; d. 1845. 
 Alexander, Richard Dyke, Eng.philanthrop., Ipswich, b. 1788, d. 1865. 
 Alexander, Stephen, American astronomer, 6. 1806. 
 Alexander, William, American general, astronomer, claimant of earldom 
 
 of Stirling, b. 1726, d. 1783. 
 Alexander, Sir William, Eng. chief baron of exchequer, b. 1761, d. 1842. 
 Alexander, William, English engraver (in China with Lord Macartney), 
 
 b. 1768, d. 1816. 
 
 Alexander, William, Irish prelate, bishop of Derry, poet, b. 1824. 
 Alexander, Sir William John, bart., English barrister, attorney-general 
 
 to duchy of Cornwall, b. 1803, d. 1873. 
 Alexander Halensis, English theologian, metaphysician, d. 1245. 
 Alexander-Jagellon, king of Poland, reigned 1501, till his death, 1506. 
 Alexander Karageorgewitz, prince of Serbia, b. 1806, abdicated, 1857. 
 Alexandre, Charles Francois, French hellenist, b. 1797. 
 Alexandre, Jacques, French benedictine, horologist, b. 1653, d. 1734. 
 Alexandre, Nicolas, Fr. benedic, writer on surgery, b. 1654, d. 1728. 
 Alexandre, Noel, Fr. dominican, ccclesias. historian, b. 1639, d. 1724. 
 Alexandresco, Gregory, Wallachian poet, b. about 1812. 
 Alexandri, Basil, Roumanian poet, novelist, critic, b. 1821. 
 Alfanus da Termoli, Italian sculptor, b. 1062, d. 1087. 
 Alfani, Orazio, Italian painter, b. 1530, d. 1583. 
 
 Alfatah, IbnKhakan, Arabian historian, biographer, b. Seville, d. 1134. 
 Alfen, Danish paint., chiefly miniature, ill enamels and crayons, d. 1770. 
 Alfieri, Boned. Innocenzio, count, Ital. architect, b. 1700, d. 1767. 
 Alfirouzabadi, Ah a- Tain ./--Mohammed- Ibn-Yacoub, Arabian historian, 
 
 lexicographer, b. about 1328, d. 1414. 
 Alfonso, of Carthagena, Spanish historian, b. 1396, d. 1456. 
 Alfonso, of Palcncia, Spanish historian, philologist, b. 1423, d. 1495. 
 Alford, Michael, English jesuit, ecclesiastical annalist, b. 1582, d. 1651. 
 Algazzali, Arabian philosopher in Persia, writer, b. 1058, d. 1111. 
 Alger, Horatio, Amer. unitarianministcr, author of booksforboys,&. 1834. 
 Alger, William Rounseville, American unitarian minister, orientalist, 
 
 poet, bibliographer, b. 1823. 
 Alghisi, Francesco, Italian musical composer, b. 1666, d. 1733. 
 Alghisi, Tommaso, Ital. surgeon, practised lithotomy, b. 1669, d. 1713. 
 Alhoy, Philadelphe Maurice, French writer, b. 1802, d. 1856. 
 Ali-Abu-l-Hassan, Nasrite king of Grenada, d. 1484. 
 Alibert, Jean Louis, baron, French physiologist, b. 1766, d. 1837. 
 Aliberti, Giovanni Carlo, Piedmontese fresco painter, b. 1680, d. 1740. 
 Ali-Bey, Spanish traveller, in Africa and Asia, b. 1766, d. 1818. 
 Aligny, (Felix Claude Theodore Caruelle, called) French landscape 
 
 painter and etcher, b. 1798, d. 1871. 
 Alin-Ib-Hammond, founder of Hammondite dynasty in Spain, d. 1017. 
 Ali-Mustapha-ben-Ahmed, Turkish historian, b. 1542, d. 1599. 
 Alinari, Michele, Florentine photographer, b. 1832. 
 Alinari, Tito, Florentine photographer, b. 1829. 
 
 Alison, William Pulteney, Scotch physician, medical writer, economist, 
 
 b. 1790, d. 1859. 
 
 Alix, Celeste, Vabbe Celeste, French theolog., poet, translator, b. 1824. 
 Alix, Matthieu, French writer on surgery and medical jurisprudence, 
 b. 1738, d. 1782. 
 
 Allain, Andrew, English vice-principal St. Edmund's college, Oxford, 
 
 historian, b. 1655, d. 1685. 
 Allainval, Leonor Jean C. Soulasd', French dramatist, b. 1700, d. 1753. 
 Allan, Alexander, English philologist, b. 1813, d. 1842. 
 Allan, George, English antiquary, historical writer, d. 1800. 
 Allan, George, Scotch poet, journalist, biographer, b. 1806, d. 1835. 
 Allan, Henry Watkins, American general, statesman, b. 1820. 
 Allan, Robert, Scotch weaver, song- writer, b. 1774, d. N. York, 1841. 
 Allan, Robert, Scotch writer on surgery and anatomy, b. 1778, d. 1826. . 
 All^n, Robert, Scotch mineralogist, b. 1806, d. 1863. 
 Allan, Thomas, English mathematician, astronomer, b. 1542, d. 1632. 
 Allan, Thomas, Scotch mineralogist, b. 1777, d. 1833. 
 Allan-Kardec, Hippolyte Leon, French spiritualist, b. 1803, d. 1869. 
 Allantsee, Leonardo, Ital. classical editor, librarian at Vienna, d. 1518. 
 Allard, Guj', French historical and genealogical writer, b. 1645, d. 1716. 
 Allard, Jean-Franjois, French officer, drilled the Lahore army • b 
 
 1785, d. Lahore 1839. 
 Allard, Nelzir, French general, councillor of state, b. 1798. 
 Allarde, Pierre Gilbert Leroi, baron d', Fr. economist, b. 1749, d. 1809. 
 Allartde Meritens, Hortense, Mdrne., Fr. novelist, historian, b. 1801. 
 Allegrain, Christophe Gabriel, French sculptor, b. 1710, d. 1795. 
 Allegrain, Etienne, French painter, b. 1655, d. 1736. 
 Allegranza, Giuseppe, Italian archaeologist, b. 1713, d. 1785. 
 Allegretti, Jacopo, Italian poet, astrologist, d. 1390. 
 Allegri, Alessandro, Florentine poet, dramatist, d. 1596. 
 Alleitt? Richard, English nonconformist, theologian, b. 1611, d. 1684. 
 Alleinf William, Eng. nonconf., writer on the millennium, d. 1677. 
 Allen, Alexander, English philologist, b. 1814, d. 1842. 
 Allen, David O., American missionary, in India, b. 1823. 
 
9 
 
 Allen, George, English architect, I. 1799, d. 1847. 
 
 Allen, James, American minister, writer on diet, b. 1632, d. 1710. 
 
 Allen, John, Irish prelate, archbishop of Dublin, chancellor, writer 
 on canon law, b. 1476, d. 1534. 
 
 Allen, John, English physician, medical writer, d. 1741. 
 
 Allen, John, M.D., Eng. presbyterian min., preacher, b. 1701, d. 1774. 
 
 Allen, John, Scotch historian, physiological writer, b. 1770, d. 1843. 
 
 Allen, John, English archdeacon of Salop, educationist, b. 1810. 
 
 Allen, Paul, American poet, historian, journalist, b. 1775, d. 1826. 
 
 Allen, Richard, English poet, writer of ecclesiastical biography, d. 1717. 
 
 Allen, Richard L., American agriculturist, b. 1803, d. 1869. 
 
 Allen, Thomas, English mathematician, astronomer, b. 1542, d. 1632. 
 
 Allen, Thomas, English nonconformist, chronologer, b. 1608, d. 1673. 
 
 Allen, Thomas, English engraver, topographer, b. 1803, d. 1833. 
 
 Allen, William, American loyalist, judge, promoter of literature and 
 the arts ; in England from 1774, till his death, 1780. 
 
 Allen, William, American unitarian minister, biographer, philanthro- 
 pist, philologist, b. 1784, d. 1868. 
 
 Allen, William Shepherd, English economist, M.P., b. 1831. 
 
 Allerstain, August, German jesuit, missionary to the Chinese, astro- 
 nomer, b. 1700, d. 1777. 
 
 Allerton, Isaac, English commercial pioneer in New England and 
 New York, d. 1659. 
 
 Alletz, Pierre Edouard, French poet, diplomatist, b. 1798, d. 1850. 
 
 Alletz, Pons Augustin, French educational writer, lexicographer, b. 
 1703, d. 1785. 
 
 Alley, Jeremiah, Irish poet, political writer, b. 1760, d. 1827. 
 
 Alley, William, Eng. bishop of Exeter, biblical critic, b. 1500, d. 1571. 
 
 Allhnsen, Henry, English lieut.-col., promoter of volunteer artillery 
 
 corps, b. 1836, d. 1871. 
 Allibond, John, English clergyman, latin poet, philologist, d. 1658. 
 Allibond, Peter, English theologian, writer against transubstantiation, 
 
 b. 1560, d. 1629. 
 
 Allibone, Richard, English judge in king's bench, b. 1621, d. 1688. 
 Allibone, Samuel Austin, American bibliogr apher, b. 1816. 
 Allier, Autoine, French sculptor, b. 1793. 
 
 Allier, Louis, French numismatist, antiquary, b. 1766, d. 1827. 
 Alliey, Frederic, French technologist, writer on chess, b. ab. 1790. 
 Allioli, Joseph Franz, Germ. rom. catholic, biblical critic, b. 1793. 
 Allioni, Carlo, Italian physician, botanist, b. 1725, d. 1804. 
 Alliott, Richard, LL.D., English congregational minister, philologist, 
 
 educationist, b. 1804, d. 1863. 
 Allix, Charles, English agriculturist, b. 1783, d. 1866. 
 Airman, Thomas, Eng. publisher of school books, b. 1791, d. 1869. 
 Allom, Thomas, English architect, book illustrator, b. 1804, d. 1872. 
 Allon, Henry, D.D., Eng. congreg. miuister, educationist, b. 1814. 
 Alloa, Charles Nicolas, French archsologist, b. 1787. 
 Alloury, Jean Louis Autoine, French journalist, b. 1805. 
 Almadhi, Abu-Mohammed-Obeydulluh, founder nf the Fatimides, 
 
 b. 873, d. 934. 
 
 Almakhzonmi, Abul-Motref- Ahmed, Arab poet, hist., b. 1189, d. 1256. 
 
 Almasy, Maurice von, Austrian politician, b. Hungary, 1808. 
 
 Almasy, Paul von, Hungarian politician, b. 1818. 
 
 Almeida de Garette, viscount, Portuguese poet, dramatist, d. 1854. 
 
 Almeida, Antonio d', Portuguese surgeon, naturalist, b. 1761, d. 1822. 
 
 Almeida, Manoel, Portug. jesuit, writer on Abyssinia, b. 1580, d. 1646. 
 
 Almeida Melloc Castro, dorn Joao d', count of Galveas, Portuguese 
 statesman, b. 1757, d. 1814. 
 
 Almeida, Nicolao Tolentirro d', Portuguese poet, b. 1745, d. 1811. 
 
 Almeido, Lourenzo, Portuguese navigator in Indian seas, d. 1508. 
 
 Almeloveen, Theodore Jansson van, Dutchmed. writer, b. 1657, d. 1712. 
 
 Aimer, Jan Christian, Danish painter, b. 1742, d. 1792. 
 
 Almeyda, Theodoro de, Portuguese scientific writer, b. 1722, d. 1805. 
 
 Almodovar, Ildefonso Dias de Ribera, conde de, Spanish general, states- 
 man, b. about 1798. 
 
 Almoff, Nils Wilhelrn, Swedish actor, b. 1799. 
 
 Almonte, Juan Ncpomuceno, Mexican general, of Indian origin, diplo- 
 matist, 6. 1804, d. Paris, 1869. 
 Almquist, Karcl Jonas L, Swedish poet, novelist, b. 1793, d. 1866. 
 Aloncle, Autoine Felix, French engineer, writer on artillery, b. 1824. 
 Alopaeus, David, count von, Russian diplomatist, b. 1769, d. 1831. 
 Alopaeus, Maximilian, Russian diplomatist, b. 1748, d. 1821. 
 Alphand, J. Charles A., Fr. engineer, writer on plantations, b. 1817. 
 Alqnie, Alexis, French physician, medical writer, b. 1812, d. 1865. 
 Alquie, Jean Dominique, French military surgeon, b. 1792, d. 1868. 
 Alsace, Thomas Louis, cardinal d', Belgian prelate, b. 1680, d. 1759. 
 Alsop, John, American bookseller, poet, b. 1776, d. 1841. 
 Alsop, Anthony, Eng. theolog., poet, editor of 'yEsop's Fables, ' d. 1727. 
 Alsop, Richard, American poet, humourist, b. 1764, d. 1815. 
 Alsonfy, Arabian astronomer, b. 903, 986. 
 Alston, Charles, Scotch physician, botanist, b. 1683, d. 1760. 
 Alston, William, Amer. painter, writer on landscape painting, d. 1830. 
 Alstorph, Jan, Dutch antiquary, b. 1680, d. 1719. 
 Alstrbmer, Claz, Swedish botanist, b. 1736, d. 1796. 
 Alt, Francois Joseph Nicolas, baron d', Swiss histor., b. 1689, d. 1771. 
 Altani, Antonio, Italian poet, b. 1505, d. 1570. 
 Altaroche, Marie Michel, French poet, dramatist, novelist, b. 1811. 
 Alter., Karl August, count, Hanoverian general, b. 1764, d. 1840. 
 
 Altenheim, Madame Beauvain d' (Gabriello Soumet), French poetess, 
 dramatist, b. 1814. 
 
 Alter, Franz Karl, Germ, philolog., biblical critic, b. 1749, d. 1804. 
 
 Altham, James, English judge, baron of exchequer, 1607, d. 1616-17. 
 
 Althamer, Andreas, Germ, protest, pastor, philolog., //. 1498, d. 1540. 
 
 Althof, Ludwig Christuph, German medical writer, b. 1758, d. ] 
 
 Althusius, Jan, Dutch jurist, writer on Roman law, b. 1557, d. 1638. 
 
 Alticozzi, Laurenzo, Ital. jesuit, ecclcsiast. historian, b. 1689, d. 1777. 
 
 Altieri, Lodovico d', Italian cardinal, statesman, b. 1805, d. 1867. 
 
 Alting, Jacobus, German philologist, biblical critic, b. 1618, d. 1679. 
 
 Altmann, Johann Georg, German geograph., antiq., b. 1697, d. 1756. 
 
 Altmeyer, Jean Jacques, Belgian historical writer, critic, b. 1804. 
 
 Altomonte, Martino, Italian painter, b. 1657, d. 1745. 
 
 Alton, Joseph Wilhelrn Ed., Ger. naturalist, antiq., b. 1772, d. 1840. 
 
 Alton-Sb.ee de Ligneres, Edmond, comte de, Fr. historian, b. 1810. 
 
 Altorf, Albrecht, German painter and engraver, b. 1488, d. 1538. 
 
 Altovitis of Marseille, Italian poetess, b. 1550, d. Marseille, 1606, 
 
 Altschul, Elias, Germ, homoeop. physician, med. writer, b. 1812. 
 
 Alva y Astorga, Pedro d', Spanish franciscan, traveller, d. 1667. 
 
 Alvanley, Richard Pepper Arden, baron, English peer, chief justice 
 common pleas, b. 1746, d. 1804. 
 
 Alvarado, Pedro de, Span, adventurer, Mexico and California, d. 1541. 
 
 Alvarez, Bernardo de, Spanish ecclesiastic, founder of order of St 
 Hippolytus, b. 1514, d. 1584. 
 
 Alvarez, Gomez, Spanish poet, b. 1488, d. 1538. 
 
 Alvarez, Jose, Spanish sculptor, b. 1768, d. 1827. 
 
 Alvarez, Juan, Mexican popular leader, of Indian origin, president of 
 Mexico, Oct. -Nov., 1855 ; b. 1790. 
 
 Alvarez, Manoel, Portuguese jesuit, poet, b. Madeira, 1526, d. 1583. 
 j Alvarez, Manuel, Spanish sculptor, b. 1727, d. 1797. 
 ' Alvarez, Martin, count of Colomera, Span, general, b. 1714, d. 1819. 
 
 Alvarez da Cunha, Antonio, Portug., philolog. , b. Goa, 1626, d. 1690. 
 
 Alvarez de Castro, Mariano, Spanish general, b. 1775, d. 1810. 
 I Alvarez do Oriente, Fernao d', Portuguese poet, b. Goa, d. 1 595. 
 
 Alvensleben, Albrecht von, Prussian statesman, b. 1794, d. 1858. 
 
 Alves, Robert, Scotch poet, biographer, critic, b. 1745, d. 1794. 
 
 Alvin, Louis Joseph, Belgian dramatist, bibliographer, critic, b. 1806. 
 
 Alvinzy, Joseph, baron d', Austrian field marshal, b. 1735, d. 1810. 
 
 Alxinger, Johaim Baptist von, German poet, b. 1755, d. 1797. 
 
 Aly-Chyr, Persian statesman, poet, d. 1500. 
 
 Alzario Delia Croce, Vinceuzo, Ital. med. writer, b. 1576, d. ab. 1631. 
 
 Alzate y Ramirez, Joseph Antonio, Mexican astronomer, d. ab. 1795. 
 
 Amador de los Rios, Jose, Spanish historical writer, b. 1818. 
 
 Amaduzzi, Giovanni Cristoforo, Italian philologist, b. 1740, d. 1792. 
 
 Amalteo, Corneille, Italian poet, physician, b. 1530, d. 1603. 
 
 Amalteo, Geronimo, Italian poet, medical writer, b. 1506, d. 1574. 
 
 Arn&iteo, Giovanni Battista, Italian poet, b. 1525, d. 1573. 
 
 Amama, Sixtimus, Dutch orientalist, b. 1593, d. 1629. 
 
 Amand, St., bishop of Maestricht, theologian, aiwstle of tlie Nether- 
 lands, b. 589, d. 679. 
 
 Amand, Marc Antony Gerard, Saint-, French poet, b. 1594, d. 1661. 
 
 Amanthon, Claude Nicolas, French jurist, b. 1760, d. 1835. 
 
 Amaseo, Romolo, Italian historian, statesman, b. 1489, d. 1552. 
 
 Amat, Paul Leopold, French musical composer, vocalist, b. 1814. 
 
 Amati, Pasqnale, Italian archaeologist, b. 1716, d. 1796. 
 
 Amato, jjlie d', Italian carmelite monk, linguist, b. 1666, d. 1747. 
 
 Amato, Gesu Maria, Sicilian antiquary, b. 1666, d. 1726. 
 
 Amatus or Amati, Vincenzo, Italian composer of church music b 
 1629, d. 1670. 
 
 1 Amaury-Duval (Eugene Emmanuel A. P. Duval), French portrait and 
 
 fresco painter, b. 1808. 
 , Ambert, Joachim M. J. Jacques Alex. Jules, Fr. milit. writer, b. 1804. 
 j Ambodik, Nester Maximovitch, Russian botanist, b. 1740, d. 1812. 
 : Ambrogi, Antonio Maria, Florentine jesuit, professor of eloquence'aud 
 
 poetry at Rome, b. 1713, d. 1788. 
 j Ambrogi, Domenico, Bolognese painter, d. 1660. 
 
 Ambrogio, Teseo, Italian orientalist, b. 1469, d. 1539. 
 
 Ambroise, general of Camalduli order, Ital. theologian, b. 1378, d. 1439. 
 
 Ambrosch, Joseph Julius Athan., Germ, archaeologist, //. 1804,' d. 1856! 
 
 Ambrosch, Joseph Karl, German musician, b. 1759, d. 1822. 
 
 Ambrosine, Hyacinthe, Italian botanist, b. 1605, d. 1672. 
 
 Ambrosini, Bartolomeo, Italian physician, and botanist, d. 1657. 
 
 Ambrozy, Wenzel Bernhard, Bohemian painter, b. 1723, d. 1806. 
 
 Ambuehl, Johann Ludwig, German poet, dramatist, b. 1750, d. 1800. 
 ; Amburg, Van, Dutch lion-tamer, menagerie proprietor, d. Amer. 1865. 
 ; Amelia Anna, princess of Prussia, musical composer, b. 1723, d. 1787. 
 
 Amelie Marie, wife of Louis Philippe, king of the French, b. 17S2 
 d. England, 1866. 
 
 Amendola, Fcrrantc, Neapolitan historical painter, b. 1664, d. 1724. 
 
 Amenta, Niccolo, Ital. writer of comedies, philolog., b. 1659, d. 1719. 
 
 Amerbach, Vitus, Bavarian critic, philosoph. writer, b. 1487, d. 1557. 
 
 Amerling, Friedrich, Austrian portrait and historical painter, b. 1S03. 
 
 Amersfoordt, Jakob, Dutch philologist, b. 1786, d. 1824. 
 
 Ames, Nathan P., American iron founder, manufacturer of arms and 
 cannon, b. 1803, d. 1847. 
 
 Ames, Nathaniel, American physician, astronomer, b. 170S, d. 1764. 
 
 Ames, William, Eng. nonconf., theolog., in Holland, b. 1576, d. 1633. 
 
 Amet, Madame (Josephine Junotd' Abrantes), French romancist, '>. 1S02. 
 
11 
 
 AMICO. 
 
 ANGIOLILLO. 
 
 12 
 
 Araico, Antonio, Italian antiquary, ecclesiastic, at Palermo, d. 1614. 
 Amico, Etienne d', Sicilian vicar-general of the order of Mont Cassin, 
 
 b. 1562, d. 1662. 
 Amiel, Louis Felix, French painter, b. 1802. 
 Amigoni, Ottavio, Italian fresco painter, b. 1605, d. 1661. 
 Amigues, Jules, French journalist, political writer on Italy, b. 1829. 
 Amman, Jean Conrad, Swiss physician at Amsterdam, instituted 
 
 methods of teaching the deaf and dumb, b. 1669, d. 1730. 
 Amman, Johann, Germ, botanist, at St. Petersburg, b. 1707, d. 1741. 
 Ammanati, Laura Battiferri, Italian poetess, b. 1513, d. 1589. 
 Ammann, Paulus, German physician, botanist, b. 1634, d. 1691. 
 Ammirato, Scipio, Neapolitan jurist, historian, b. 1531, d. 1601. 
 Ammon, Andrea, Italian latin poet, secretary to King Henry VIII., 
 
 b. 1477, d. 1517. 
 
 Ammon, Christoph Fried., German protest, preacher, b. 1766, d. 1820. 
 
 Ammon, Friedrich August von, (ierman physician, b. 1799, d. 1861. 
 
 Ammon, Friedrich Wilhelm Philipp von, German theologian, b. 1791 
 
 Ammon, Wilhelm von, German statesman, b. 18(11. 
 
 Ammonio, Andrei. Italian poet, b. 1477, d. London 1517. 
 
 Ammonius, Alexandrian philosopher, author of a harmony of the gos- 
 pels, b. 160, d. 243. 
 
 Amoretti, Maria Pellegrina, Italian jurist, b. 1756, d. 1787. 
 
 Amoreuz, Pierre Joseph, French physician, naturalist, (/. 1824. 
 
 Amorosi, Antonio, Italian grotesque painter, b. 1685, d. 1740. 
 
 Amort, Eusebius, German theologian, b. 1692, 1775. 
 
 Amory, Thomas, D.D., English presbyt. minister, b. 1700, d. 1774. 
 
 Amos, Wm., Scotch writer on agriculture, farmer in Lincolnsh., 1824. 
 
 Amoudru, Anatolc, French jurist, architect, b. 1739, d. 1812. 
 
 Amphlett, Sir Richard Paul, English judge, b. 1809. 
 
 Ampzing, Jan Assuerus, Dutch physician, writer, b. 1559, d. 1642. 
 
 Amsberg, Aug. P. Christ. Theodor von, Germ, railway promoter, b. 1789. 
 
 Amsler, Samuel, engraver, b. Switz. 1791, prof, at Munich, d. 1849. 
 
 Amthor, Christoph Heinrich, German poet, jurist, ft. 1078, d. 1721. 
 
 Amussat, Jean Zulema, French physician, b. 1796, d. 1856. 
 
 Amyand, Claud, English surgeon, physicist, d. 1740. 
 
 Amyot, Ferdinand, French editor and publisher of works in history, 
 politics, romance, b. 1818. 
 
 Anania, Giovanni, Italian jurist, professor of the civil law, d. 1458. 
 
 Anania, Giovanni Laurenzio, Italian archaeologist, naturalist, d. 1582. 
 
 Anastasi, Auguste, French landscape painter, lithographer, b. 1819. 
 
 Anastasius, St., apostle of the Hungarians, b. 954, d. 1044. 
 
 Anaya, Maldonado don Diego, Spanish prelate, founded college at 
 Salamanca, b. 1360, d. 1440. 
 
 Ancelet, G,abriel Auguste, French architect, b. 1829. 
 
 Ancelon, Etienne Auguste, French physician, medical writer, b. 1806. 
 
 Ancelot, Jacques Arsene Francois Polycarpe, Fr. dramatist, b. 1794. 
 
 Ancelot, Madame (Marguerite L. V. Chardon), French dramatist, 
 novelist, painter, b. 1792. 
 
 Anchersen, Jan Peder, Danish jurist, b. 1700, d. 1765. 
 
 Anchersen, Mathias, Danish philologist, b. 1682, d. 1741. 
 
 Ancillon, Charles, French protestant, historian, b. 1659, d. 1715. 
 
 Ancina, Giovanni Juvenal, Italian prelate, poet, b. 1545, d. 1604. 
 
 Anckarswserd, KarelH., countvon, Swedish polit. writer-,5. 1782, d. 1865. 
 
 Anckwitz, Nicolas, count, Polish diplomatist, b. 1750, d. 1794. 
 
 Ancora, Gaetano d', Neapolitan antiquary, b. 1757, d. 1816. 
 
 Ancrum, earl of, Scotch poet, b. 1578, d. 1654. 
 
 Andala, Ruard, Dutch theolog., writer on philosophy, b. 1665, d. 1727. 
 Andellare, Jules de Jaquot, marquis d', French economist, b. 1803. 
 Anderloni, Pietro, Italian engraver, b. 1784, d. 1849. 
 Anders, Gottfried Engelbert, It. writer on music, biographer, b. 1795. 
 Anderson, Adam, Scotch judge of session as lord Anderson, b. 
 1797, d. 1853. 
 
 Anderson, Alexauder, American physician, naturalist, first engraver 
 on wood in the United States, b. 1775, d. 1870. 
 
 Anderson, Arthur, Londoii merchant, educationist, economist, b. Shet- 
 land, 1792, d. 1868. 
 
 Anderson, Christopher, Scotch baptist minister, philologist, theolog., 
 author of 'Annals of the English Bible,' b. 1782, d. 1852. 
 
 Anderson, Mrs. Elizabeth Garrett, Eng. physician, educationist, b. 1836. 
 
 Anderson, Georg, German navigator, traveller in the East, d. 1675. 
 
 Anderson, George, English historian, India, b. 1760, d. 1796. 
 
 Anderson, George, Scotch merchant, economist, M.P., b. 1819. 
 
 Anderson, Henry, American astronomer, geologist, b. about 1795. 
 
 Anderson, Sir Henry Lacon, English administrator, b. Surat, 1817. 
 
 Anderson, Jas., Scotch agricult. and scientific writer, b. 1739, d. 1808. 
 
 Anderson, Sir Jas., Scotch seaman, capt. Great Eastern steamer, b. 1824. 
 
 Anderson, Jas'. Stuart Murray, Eng. clergyman, histor. writer, b. 1798. 
 
 Anderson, Johann, German geogr., jurist, diplomat., b. 1674, d. 1743. 
 
 Anderson, John Wallace, American physician, philanthropist, b. 1802, 
 d. Liberia, 1830. 
 
 Anderson, Sir John William, bart, Scotch merchant, lord mayor of 
 London, 1797, M.P., b. 1734, d. 1813. 
 
 Anderson, ills. Ophelia Brown, American actress, b. 1813, d. 1852. 
 
 Anderson, T. G. Tony, Scotch episcopal minister, theologian, song- 
 writer, b. 1805, d. 1856. 
 
 Anderson, John, Scotch professor, promoter of technical education, 
 founder of Anderson's Institution, Glasgow, b. 1726, d. 1796. 
 
 Anderson, John, Scotch surgeon, genealogist, b. 1789, d. 1832. 
 
 Anderson, John, Scotch presbyterian minister, poet, b. about 1820. 
 Anderson, Rich. Clough, Amer. lawyer, diplomatist, b. 1788, d. 1826. 
 Anderson, Robert, Scotch physician, biographer, editor of British poctn, 
 b. 1752, d. 1830. 
 
 Anderson, Rob., Amer. general, writer on artillery practice, commander 
 
 of Fort Sumner at outbreak of secession war, b. 1805, d. 1871. 
 Anderson, Thomas, Scotch botanist, at Calcutta, d. Edinburgh, 1870. 
 Anderson, Walter, D.D., Scotch presbyt. minister, historian, writer 
 
 on Greek philosophy, b. 1720, d. 1800. 
 Anderson, William, LL.D., Scotch presbyt. minister, theologian, 
 
 temperance and anti-slavery advocate, b. 1799, d. 1872. 
 Anderson, William, Scotch poet, journalist, historian, b. 1805, d. 1866. 
 Andersson, Charles J., Swedish traveller, naturalist, d. S. Africa, 1867. 
 Anderton, Henry, Eng. artisan, temperance poet, b. 1805, d. 1855. 
 Andlaw, Heinrich Bernhard von, German political writer, b. 1820. 
 Andonille, Edmond, French banker, economist, b. 1804. 
 Andrada, Alfonso d', Spanish jesuit missionary to East Indies, and 
 
 writer, b. 1590, d. 1658. 
 Andrada, Antonio d', Portug. missionary in China, b. 1580, d. 1633. 
 Andrae, Karcl Christoph Georg, Danish mathemat., statesman, b. 1812. 
 Andrassy, Emmanuel, count, Hungarian administ, traveller, b. 1821. 
 Andrassy, Georg, count, Hungarian jurist, philologist, b. 1797. 
 Andrassy, Julius, count, Hungarian statesman, b. 1823. 
 Andre, Christian Carl, German statistical writer, b. 1763, d. 1831. 
 Andre d'Arbelles, French political writer, b. 1770, d. 1825. 
 Andre, Emilias, German forest cultivator, writer, b. 1790. 
 Andre, Jean Francois, French abbe, historian, biogr., b. ab. 1810. 
 Andre, Johann, German musical composer for opera, b. 1741, d. 1799. 
 Andre, Johann Anton, German musical composer, b. 1775, d. 1845. 
 Andre, Jules, French landscape painter, b. 1804, d. 1869. 
 Andre, Louis Jules, French architect, b. 1819. 
 Andre, Rudolph, German agriculturist, b. 1792, d. 1825. 
 Andre, Yves Mary, Fr. jesuit, writer on the Beautiful, b. 1675, d. 1764. 
 Andrea, Geron. d', Neapolitan cardinal, polit. reform., b. 1812, d. 1868. 
 Andrea, Giovanni, Italian prelate, editor of classics, b. 1270, d. 1345. 
 Andreas, Jacobus, German reformer, b. 1528, d. 1590. 
 Andreas, Johann Valentin, German archaeologist, b. 1586, d. 1654. 
 Andreini, Giov. Batt, Florentine poet, dramatist, b. 1578, d. 1650. 
 Andrelini, Publio Fausto, Italian latin poet, d. at Paris, 1518. 
 Andrew of Pisa, Italian sculptor and architect, b. 1270, d. 1345. 
 Andrew, Hugh, English physician, b. 1778, d. 1872. 
 Andrew, James, Scotch grammarian, astronomer, b. 1774, d. 1833. 
 Andrew, John Albion, American statesman, governor of Massachusetts, 
 
 emancipationist, b. 1818, d. 1867. 
 Andrewes, Gerard, D.D., Eng. ecclesiastic, theologian, b. 1750, d. 1825. 
 Andrews, Ethan Allen, American philologist, b. 1787, d. 1858. 
 Andrews, Hen. (Francis Moore, physician), English bookseller, editor 
 
 of 'Nautical Ephemeris,' almanacs, &c, b. 1744, d. 1820. 
 Andrews, John, Eng. historical and political writer, b. 1736, d. 1809. 
 Andrews, Sir Joseph, bart., English philanthropist, d. 1800. 
 Andrews, Joseph, American line-engraver, b. 1806. 
 Andrews, Peter Miles, Eng. dramatic writer, M.P., b. 1737, d. 1814. 
 Andrews, Stephen P., Amer. jurist, journalist, phonographer, b. 1812. 
 Andrews, William D., Amer. hydraulic engineer, inventor, b. 1818. 
 Andria, Niccolo, Italian medical writer, professor, b. 1748, d. 1814. 
 Andrian-Werburg, Victor, baron von, Austrian statesman, b. 1813. 
 Andries, Joseph Oliver, Belgian abbe, liberal politician, b. 1796. 
 Andrien, Bertrand, French engraver on medals, 6. 1761, d. 1822. 
 Andrienx, Emile, French medical galvanist, ophthalmist, writer,®. 1797. 
 Andriveau-Goujon, Gabriel Gustave, Fr. map-maker, geogr.,6. ab. 1808. 
 Androzzi, Gaetano, Neapolitan musical composer, b. 1763, d. 1826. 
 Andry, Charles Louis Francois, French med. writer, b. 1741, d. 1829. 
 Anelli, Angelo, Italian poet, b. 1761, d. 1820. 
 
 Anerswald, Rudolph von, Prussian statesman, b. about 1770, d. 1866. 
 Anethan, Jules Joseph, baron d', Belgian conserv. statesman, b. 1803. 
 Angas, Wm. Hy., Eng. baptist min., theologian, philanthr., d. 1832 
 Ange, Francesco de V, Italian historical painter, b. 1675, d. 1756. 
 Ange de St. Joseph, Pere, Fr. carmelite, orientalist, b. 1636, d. 1697. 
 Ange de S. Rosalie, Francois Vaffard, Fr. genealogist,/). 1655, d. 1726. 
 Angele Merici, Italian nun, founder of the Uisulines, b. 1511, d. 1540. 
 Angeli, Bonaventura, Italian histor., topographer, biographer, d. 1576. 
 Angelico, Michel Angelo, Italian poet, d. at Vienna, 1697. 
 Angelini, Scipione, Italian painter, b. 1661, d. 1729. 
 Angelio, Pietro, Italian satirical poet, diplomatist, b. 1517, d. 1596. 
 Angelis, Girolamo, Italian jesuit, missionary to Japan, b. 1567, d. 1623. 
 Angelis, Pietro de, Neapolitan printer, in Buenos Ayres, b. ab. 1798. 
 Angeli, Joseph K., American jurist, b. 1794, d. 1857. 
 Angeli, Samuel, English architect, b. 1800, d. 1866. 
 Angeloni, Francesco, Italian historian of Roman emperors, d. 1652. 
 Angeloni, Luigi, Italian political writer, b. 1758, d. 1842. 
 Angelus, Christopher, Greek archaeologist, resident in Eng. d. 1638. 
 Angely, Ludwig, German dramatic poet, b. about 1775, d. 1835. 
 Angennes, Claude, French diplomatist, essayist, b. 1534, d. 1601. 
 Angers, Real, Canadian advocate, orator, poet, b. 1823, d. 1860. 
 Angerstein, John Julius, English underwriter, publicist, art-collceh r, 
 
 b. St. Petersburg, 1735, d. 1823. 
 Angeville, Adolphe, comte d', French agriculturist, b. 1796, d. 1856. 
 Angiolillo, or Eoccaderame, Neapolitan painter, d, about 1458. 
 
13 ANGIOLINI. 
 
 Angiolini, Francesco, Ital. jesuit, ed. of Greek tragedies, b. 1738, d. 1788. 
 Angleberme, Jean-Pyrvhus d', French jurist, b. 1479, d. 1521. 
 Anglemont, Edouard Hubert Seipiou d', Fr. poet, dramatist, b. 1798. 
 Anglois, Lnigi, Italian music-writer in double bass, d. 1872. 
 Anglus, Thomas, English rom. catholic ecclesiastic, sub-principal 
 
 Douai college, b. 1582, d. 1676. 
 Angouleme, Louis Antoine Bourbon, ducd', son of Charles X. of France, 
 
 b. 1775, d. 1844. 
 
 Angouleme, Marie Therese Charlotte, duchesse d', daughter of Louis 
 
 XVI., b. 1778, d. 1851. 
 Angus, Joseph, D.D., English baptist minister, theologian, philologist, 
 
 educationist, b. 1816. 
 Angus, "William, English landscape engraver, b. 1752, d. 1821. 
 Anhalt-Bernbourg, Alexander Carl, duke of, b. 1805, d. 1863. 
 Anhalt-Dessau-Ccethen, Leopold Friedrich, duke of, b. 1794. 
 Anicet-Bourgeois, Auguste, French dramatic author, b. 1806, d. 1871. 
 Anich, Peter, German mathematician, b. 1723, d. 1766. 
 Anisio, or Anisius, Janus, Neapol. modern latin poet, 6. 1472, d. 1540. 
 Anitchkok, Dimitre Sergievitch, Eussian mathemat., b. 1740, d. 1788. 
 Anker, Ptder Kofod, Danish jurist, b. 1710, d. 1788. 
 Annand, "William, Scotch episcopalian, theologian, b. 1633, d. 1689. 
 Annat, Francois, Fr. jesuit, writer against jansenists, b. 1590, d. 1670. 
 Anne, Theodore, French dramat., historical writer, b. 1797, d. 1869. 
 Annesley, Arthur, earl of, Irish politician, hist, writer, b. 1614, d. 1686. 
 Annius of Viterbo, Ital. pretended historical writer, b. 1432, d. 1502. 
 Anot de Jtaizieres, Cyprien, French dramat., grammarian, 6. 1794. 
 Anoul, Victor Prosper Ernest, Belgian general, b. 1794, d. 1862. 
 Ansari, Abn-l-Kassim, Persian poet, d. 1040. 
 Ansart, Edmond, French historian, geographer, critic, b. 1827. 
 Anscarius, St., archbp. of Hamburg, apostle of the North, b. 801, d. 864. 
 Anschiitz, Heinrich, German astronomer, b. 1787, d- 1865. 
 Anschiitz, Heinrich, German actor, b. 1785, d. 1865. 
 Anschiitz, Karl, German musical director and composer, in England 
 
 and America, b. 1813, d. New York, 1870. 
 Ansdell, Richard, English animal painter, b. 1815. 
 Anselin, Jean Louis, French engraver, b. 1754, d. 1832. 
 Ansell, Thomas, English physician, naturalist, b. 1798, d. 1866. 
 Anselme, Ant., Fr. preacher, poet, the Little Prophet, b. 1652, d. 1737. 
 Anselme, Jacques Ber. Modeste d', French general, b. 1740, d. 1812. 
 Anselmi, Michel Angelo, Italian painter, b. 1491, d. 1554. 
 Anselmo, St., bp. of Lucca, strenuous defender of the papacy, d. 1086. 
 Anslo, Reinier van, Dutch poet, b. 1626, d. 1669. 
 Anson, Fred., D.D., Eng. dean of Chester, archffiol., 6. 1779, d. 1867. 
 Anson, George, English general, served at "Waterloo, and in the war 
 
 of the Indian mutiny, b. 1797, d. 1857. 
 Anson, Pierre Hubert, French economist, poet, b. 1744, d. 1810. 
 Anspach, Elizabeth Berkeley, margravine of, English writer of travels, 
 
 b. 1750, d. 1828. 
 Anspach, Philippe Leon, French jurist, b. about 1805. 
 Anstett, Ivan Protasius, Russian diplomatist, b. 1760, d. 1835. 
 Anstey, Thomas Chisholm, English publicist, jurist, in China and 
 
 India, b. 1816, d. Bombay 1873. 
 Anstice, Joseph, English clergyman, professor, poet, b. 1808, d. 1836. 
 Anstis, John, younger, English garter king-at-arms, antiquary, 
 
 6. 1708, d. 1754. 
 
 Anstruther, Sir John, bait., Scotch chief justice Bengal, b. 1753, d. 1811. 
 Anstruther, Sir Robert, Scotch economist, political reformer, b. 1834. 
 Anthoine de Saint-Joseph, Francois, baron, French general, b. 1787. 
 Anthony, Francis, English physician, alchemist, b. 1550, d. 1623. 
 Anthony, Susan, Amer. educationist, promoter of female suffrage, b. 1 820. 
 Antigna, Jean Pierre Alexandre, French historical painter, b. 1818. 
 Antillon, Spanish astronomer, geographer, b. 1760, d. 1820. 
 Antimaco, Marc Antonio, Italian Hellenist, b. 1473, d. 1552. 
 Antinori, Antonio Lodovico, Italian antiquary, b. 1720, d. 1780. 
 Antiquario, Jacopo, Milanese ecclesiastic, diplomatist, d. 1512. 
 Antoli, Jacob Bar Sampson, Spanish rabbi, philcsoph. writer, d. 1232. 
 Anton, Gottfr., Ger. writer on Roman and feudal law, b. 1571, d. 1618. 
 Anton, Karl Gottlieb, German historian, antiquary, b. 1751, d. 1818. 
 Anton, Konrad Gottlieb, German philologist, b. 1745, d. 1814. 
 Antonelli, Niccolo Maria, cardinal, Italian jurist, b. 1697, d. 1767. 
 Antoniano, Silvio, Ital. cardinal, philosoph. writer, b. 1540, d. 1603. 
 Antonini, Annibal, Italian grammarian, lexicogr., b. 1702, d. 1755. 
 Antonio, Nicolas, Spanish bibliographer, b. 1617, d. 1684. 
 Antoniotti, Giorgio, Milanese musician, b. 1692, d. 1776. 
 Antonius Nebrissensis, Span, histor., grammarian, b. 1444, d. 1532. 
 Antracino, Giovanni, Italian physician, poet, d. 1530. 
 Antrobus, Sir Edward, bart., English banker, b. 1792, d. 1870. 
 Apaczai, Apapzai Tsere John, Croatian theolog., lexicograph., d. 1659. 
 Apel, Johann, German theologian, jurist, b. 1486, d. 1540. 
 Apel, Johann August, Saxon philologist, dramatist, b. 1771, d. 1816. 
 Apianus, Philip, German mathematician, b. 1531, d. 1589. 
 Apianns, Pieter, German astronomer, b. 1495, d. 1551. 
 Apinus, Johann Ludwig, German medical writer, b. 1668, d. 1703. 
 Apoil, Charles Alexis, French decorative painter, b. about 1816. 
 Apoil, Mdnie. C. A. (Susanne Estelle Beranger), Fr. painter, b. ab. 1822. 
 Apostoli, Pietro Francesco degli, Italian ecclesiastical writer, d. 1650. 
 Appelius, Jean Henri, Netherlands statesman, b. 1767, d. 1828. 
 Appelman, Baient, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1640, d. 1686. 
 
 AliGY. 14 
 
 Appert, Benjamin Nicolas Marie, French traveller, philanthropist, 
 
 promoter of schools in the army, b. 1797. 
 Appert, Eugene, French historical painter, b. 1820, d. 1867. 
 Appiano, Paolo Antonio, Italian jesuit, historian, b. 1639, d. 1709. 
 Applegath, Augustus, English engineer, inventor of steam printing 
 
 press, b. 1788, d. 1871. 
 Appleton, Jesse, American theologian, b. 1772, d. 1819. 
 Appleton, Nathan, LL.D., American economist, b. 1779, d. 1861. 
 Appleton, Samuel, Amcr. merchant, philanthropist, b. 1766, d. 1853. 
 Appold, John George, English civil engineer, b. 1810, d. 1865. 
 Appony, Anton Rodolph, count von, Austrian diplomatist, b. 1782. 
 Aprile, Giuseppe, Neapolitan musician, b. 1746, d. 1798. 
 Aquilano, Sebastiano, Italian physician, d. 1513. 
 Aquin, Louis Claude d', French organist, b. 1698, d. 1772. 
 Aquino, Carlo d', Italian poet, historian, b. 1654, d. 1737. 
 Arago, Emmanuel, French barrister, politician, b. 1812. 
 Arago, Etienne, French dramatist, journalist, politician, b. 1802. 
 Arago, Jacques Etienne Victor, French writer, b. 1790, d. 1855. 
 Aragon, Alfonso d', Spanish jesuit, grammarian, b. 1585, d. 1629. 
 Araktcheief, Alexay Andreevich, count. Russian general of artillery 
 
 b. 1769, d. 1833. 
 
 Araldi, Michele, Italian mathem. and medical writer, b. 1740, d. 1813. 
 Aran, F. A., French physician, writer on auscultation, b. about 1816. 
 Aranda de Duero, Antonio, Span, franciscan monk, traveller, d. 1555. 
 Arany, Janos, Hungarian poet, b. 1819. 
 
 Araquy, Jean Kaymond Eugene d', French soldier, poet, novelist, 
 
 b. U. States of America, 1808. 
 Araujo, Antonio, Portuguese jesuit, lexicographer, b. 1566, d. 1632. 
 Araujo, Francisco di Correa, Spanish organist, musician, d. 1663. 
 Araujo, Joze Boreas de, Portuguese painter, b. 1667, d. 1743. 
 Arbasia, Cesare, Italian painter, d. 1620. 
 Arbaud de Porcheres, Francois d', French poet, d. 1640. 
 Arbois de Jubainville, Marie Henri d', French archaeologist, b. 1827. 
 Arbues, Peter, St., Spanish inquisitor at Saragrosa, b. about 1441, 
 
 murdered 1485, canonized in 1867. 
 Arbuthnot, Alex., Scotch theologian, jurist, poet, b. 1538, d. 1583. 
 Arbuthnot, Alexander, Irish bishop of Killaloe, 1823 ; d. 1828. 
 Arcaeus, Francisco, Spanish surgeon, b. 1494, d. 1575. 
 Arcasio, Giovanni Francesco, Italian jurist, b. 1712, d. 1791. 
 Archdall-Gratwicke, G., D.D., Eng. philologist, master of Emmanuel 
 
 college, Cambridge, 1836-71 ; b. 1787, d. 1871. 
 Archer, John, English judge in common pleas, b. 1598, d. 1682. 
 Archer, John Wykeham, English painter, antiquary, b. 1806, d. 1864. 
 Archer, Thomas, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister in London 
 
 orator, philanthropist, b. 1806, d. 1864. 
 Archinto, Giuseppe, cardinal archbp. Milan, statesm., b. 1651, d. 1742. 
 Arciszewski, Cristophe, Polish general, mathematician, governor of 
 
 Brazil, b. about 1600, d. 1668. 
 Arco, Alonzo del, Spanish painter (deaf and dumb), b. 1625, d. 1700. 
 Arco, Giovanni Battista d', Italian polit. economist, b. 1739, d. 1791. 
 Arcq, Philippe Aug. de St.-Foix, chevalier d', French histor., d. 1779. 
 Arcudio, Pietro, Italian ecclesiastical writer, b. 1570, d. about 1637. 
 Arcy, Patrick d', Irish physician, artillerist, b. 1725, d. Paris, 1779. 
 Ardant, Paul Joseph, French general, b. 1800, d. 1858. 
 Ardell, James Mark, Irish engraver, in London, b. 1710, d. 1765, 
 Ardemano, Teodoro, Spanish painter and architect, b. 1664, d. 1726. 
 Ardente, Alessandro, Piedmontese painter, d. 1595. 
 Arditi, Luigi, Italian musical composer, in London, b. 1822. 
 Arduini, Luigi, Italian agriculturist, b. 1759, d. 1833. 
 Arellano, Pedro, Spanish painter of flowers and fruit, d. 1689. 
 Arenales, Jose", So. Amer. geogr., writer on Buenos Ayres, b. ab. 1790. 
 Arend, Caius, German theologian, b. 1614, d. 1691. 
 Arends, Jan, Dutch painter, b. 1738, d. 1805. 
 Arends, Thomas, Dutch poet, b. 1652, d. 1700. 
 Arendt, Martin Fredrik, Danish antiquary, b. 1769, d. 1824. 
 Arens, Franz Joseph, baron von, Germ, philologist, b. 1779, d. 1855. 
 Arese, Francesco, count, Italian statesman, diplomatist, b. about 1806. 
 Aretin, Christoph, Bavarian statesman and author, d. 1832. 
 Aretin, Karl Maria, baron von, Bavarian soldier, diplomatist 
 
 historian, b. 1796, d. 1868. 
 Arezzo, Francesco d', Ital. franciscan monk, theolog., b. 1553, d. 1616. 
 Arezzo, Lazaro Vasari d', Florentine painter, b. 1380, d, 1452. 
 Arezzo, Scipio Burali d', Ital. cardinal, eccles. writer, b. 1511, d, 1578. 
 Arezzo, Tommaso, Italian cardinal, diplomatist, b. 1756, d. 1832. 
 Argall, John, English theologian, b. 1540, d. 1606. 
 Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, b. 1799. 
 Argellati, Filippo, Italian bibliographer, b. 16S5, d. 1755. 
 Argenson, Marc P., comte d', Fr. administrator, b. 1696, d. 1764. 
 Argentelle, Louis M. A. Robillard d', French naturalist, b. \"u,d. 1828. 
 Argenti, Giovanni, Italian jesuit, jurist, b. 1564, d. 1629. 
 Argentier, Giovanni, Piedmontese medical writer, b. 1513, d. 1572. 
 Argoli, Andrea, Italian mathematical writer, b. 1570, d. 1650. 
 Argoli, Giovanni, Italian poet, b. 1609, d. 1660. 
 Argote, Jeronimo Contador, Portuguese antiquary, b. 1676, d. 1749. 
 Argout, Antoine Maurice Apollinaire, comte d', French statesman 
 
 economist, b. 1782, d. 1858. 
 Argy, Charles Henri Louis d', French military officer, writer on 
 
 gymnastic exercises and military inventions, b. 1505, d. 1870. 
 
15 
 
 ARGYROPOULO. 
 
 Argyropoulo, Pericles, Greek statesman, jurist, b. 1809, d. 1860. 
 Argyropulus, Johannes, Greek philosophical writer, at Florence and 
 
 Rome, b. 1434, d. ab. 1478. 
 Arias, Francisco Gabino, South American traveller, b. about 1808. 
 Arif-hikmet-bey, Turkish statesman, promoter of learning, b. 1786. 
 Ariosto, Gabrielle, Italian poet, brother of Ludovico Ariosto, d. 1552. 
 Arista, Mariano, Mexican general, president of the republic, 1850-3 ; 
 
 b. 1802, d. 1855. 
 
 Aristarchi, Nicolas, Gk. eccles. in Turkey, statesman, b. 1800, d. 1866. 
 Aristotile, orBastiano da Sangallo, It. painter, arcliit. b. 1481, d. 1551. 
 Arkwright, Augustus Peter, English naval captain, M. P., b. 1821. 
 Arlaud, Benedict, Gencvese portrait painter, d. London, 1719. 
 Arles-Dufour, Jean Barthelemy, Fr. manuf., writer on industry, b. 1805. 
 Arlington, Henry Bennett, earl of, English statesman, b. 1618, d. 1685. 
 Arliss, John, English printer, journalist, d. 1825. 
 Arlotto, Mainardo, Italian priest, facetious writer, b. 1395, d. 1483. 
 Arman, Jean Lucien, French shipbuilder, economist, b. 1811. 
 Armand, Alfred, French architect, railway engineer, b. 1805. 
 Armand, Charles, French historical and portrait painter, d. 1720. 
 Armand, Charles Tufin, marquis do la Rouarie, French general, in 
 
 United States of America, b. 1756, d. 1793. 
 Armand, Frangois Victor A., Fr. military surg., med. writer, b. 1818. 
 Armand, Jacques Francois, French historical painter, b. 1730, d. 1769. 
 Armand, Piotro Damicno, Italian general, b. 1778, d. 1865. 
 Armand-Dumaresq, Charles Edouard, French historical painter, b. 1826. 
 Armellini, Carlo, Italian jurist, republican, b. 1777, d. 1863. 
 Armengaud, Jacques Eugene, French engineer, writer on machinery, 
 
 steam-engines, &c, b. Ostend, 1810. 
 Armessin, Nicolas de 1', French engraver, b. 1684, d. 1755. 
 Armfelt, Karl, baron von, Swedish general, b. 1666, d. 1736. 
 Armstrong, Francis, English physician, d. 1789. 
 Armstrong, George, English physician, writer on health, d. 1781. 
 Armstrong, John, English engineer, d. 1758. 
 
 Armstrong, John, American military officer, diplomatist, military and 
 
 agricultural writer, b. 1758, d. 1843. 
 Armstrong, John, Eng. theolog., bp. Grahamstown, S. Africa, d. 1856. 
 Armstrong, John, Scotch poet, politician, b. 1771, d. 1797. 
 Armstrong, Robert Archibald, LL.D., Scotch philologist, author of 
 
 ' Gaelic dictionary,' b. 1788, d. 1867. 
 Arnal, ^tienne, French poet, comic actor, b. 1794, d. 1872. 
 Arnald, George, English painter, b. 1762, d. 1841. 
 Arnald, Rich., Eng. protest., commenta. on Apocrypha, b. 1696, d. 1756. 
 Arnall, Juan Pedro, Spanish architect, b. 1735, d. 1805. 
 Arnason, Jan, Danish jurist, b. 1727, d. 1777. 
 Arnason, Jan Magnus, Danish theologian, b. 1665, d. 1743. 
 Arnason, Jon, Icelandic writer of biography and fairy tales, b. 1819. 
 Arnau, Juan, Spanish historical painter, improver of colouring, b. 
 
 1595, d. 1693. 
 Arnaud, Frederic, French political writer, b. 1819. 
 Arnaud, Georg von, Dutch jurist, b. 1711, d. 1765. 
 Arnaud de Ronsil, George, French surgeon in London, d. 1774. 
 Arnauld, Henri, French bishop of Angers, diplomatist, b. 1597, d. 1694. 
 Arnauld d'Andilly, Robert, French historian, poet, b. 1588, d, 1674. 
 Arnault, Emile Lucien, Fr. administrator, writer, b. 1787, d. 1863. 
 Arnault, Francois Alphonse, French actor, dramatist, b. 1819, d. 1860. 
 Arnault, Lucien, French pantomimist, founder of hippodrome, b. 1816. 
 Arnavon, Francois, French theologian, b. 1740, d. 1824. 
 Arndt, Christian Gottlieb von, German philologist, statesman, in 
 
 Russia, b. 1744, d. 1829. 
 Arndt, Gottfried August, German political economist, b. 1748, d. 1819. 
 Arndt, Johann Gottfried, German historian, b. 1713, d. 1767. 
 Arndt, Josue, Ger. protestant preacher, eccles. hist., b. 1626, d. 1686. 
 Arndts, Ludwig, German jurist, politician, 6. 1805. 
 Arnemann, Justin, German physician, b. 1763, d. 1807. 
 Arnigio, Bartolomeo, Italian physician, meteorologist, b. 1525, d. 1577. 
 Arnold, Christoph, German philologist, b. 1627, d. 1680. 
 Arnold, Edwin, English poet, orientalist, journalist, b. 1831. 
 Arnold, George {McArone), American poet, magazine writer, d. 1865. 
 Arnold, Joseph, English physician, naturalist, b. 1783, d. 1818. 
 Arnold, Josiah Lyndon, American poet, translator, b. 1768, d. 1796. 
 Arnold, Samuel, English dramatic writer, d. 1582. 
 Arnold, Samuel Greene, American historian, U.S. senator, 1863 ; b. 1821. 
 Arnold, T. Kerchever, Eng. clergyman, edit, classics for schools, d. 1853. 
 Arnold, Thomas, Scotch writer on insanity, b. 1742, d. 1816. 
 Arnoldi, Johann, German statesman, jurist, b. 1751, d. 1827. 
 Arnoldi, Wilhelm, German catholic, bishop of Treves, exhibited the 
 
 'holy coat' 1844 ; b. 1798. 
 Arnolfo di Cambio, Italian sculptor, b. 1240, d. 1311. 
 Arnot, Hugo, Scotch jurist, antiquary, topographer, b. 1749, d. 1786. 
 Arnott, Archibald, Scotch physician, b. 1771, d. 1855. . 
 Arnott, George A. Walker, LL.D., Scotch botanist, b. 1799, d. 1868. 
 Arnott, James Moncrieff, Scotch surgeon, in London, b. 1794. 
 Arnould, Ambroisc Marie, French economist, 6. 1750, d. 1812. 
 Arnould, Arthur, French poet, essayist, critic, b. 1833. 
 Arnould, Edmond Nicolas, French philologist, b. 1811, d. 1861. 
 Arnould, Francois Desire, Belgian economist, b. 1788, d. 1860. 
 Arnould, Sir Joseph, English jurist, judge at Bombay, b. 1815. 
 Arnould, Madeleine Sophie, French actress, b. 1744, d. 1803. 
 
 Arnould-Plessy, Madame (Jeanne Plessy), French actress, b. 1819. 
 Arnoult, J. B., Fr. writer of school-books and proverbs, b. 1689, d. 1753. 
 Arnoux, Jean R. C, Fr. engineer, writer on railways, b. 1792, d. 1866. 
 Arnulph, English prelate, bishop of Rochester, theologian, historian, 
 
 b. about 1050, d. 1124. 
 Arnway, John, English theologian, b. 1601, d. 1653. 
 Arondeau, Jean, French publicist, jurist, b. 1802. 
 Arondj, first Turkish ruler of Algiers, b. 1473, d. 1518. 
 Aroux, Eugene, French writer, translator, essayist, b. 1793. 
 Arpe, Peder Frederick, Danish philologist, jurist, b. 1682, d. 1748. 
 Arragos, Guillaume, French surgeon and physician, 6. 1513, d. 1610. 
 Arredondo, Isidore, Spanish painter, b. 1653, d. 1702. 
 Arrhenius, Jacques, Swedish historian, b. 1642, d. 1725. 
 Arriagi, Juan Chrysostom d', Spanish musician, b. 1808, d. 1826. 
 Arrivabene, Giovanni, polit. economist, in Belgium, b. Mantua, 1801. 
 Arrivabene, Giovanni Pietro, Italian writer, 6. 1441, d. 1504. 
 Arrowsnu.V John, English puritan, theologian, 6. 1602, d. 1659. 
 Arrowsmith, John, English geographer, map-maker, b. 1790, d. 1873. 
 Arsakis, Apostolos, Greek physician at Bucharest ; educationist, b. 
 
 1789, d, 1869. 
 
 Arsene Pakradouni, monk of the order of Mekhitharistes of Venice, 
 
 Armenian grammarian, poet, philologist, b. about 1788. 
 Arsenne, Louis Charles, French painter, b. 1790, d. 1855. 
 Arshenevsky, Basil Kondratevitch, Rus. mathemat., b. 1758, d. 1808. 
 Artaria, Mathias, German historical painter, 6. about 1815. 
 Artario, Joseph, Swiss sculptor, b. 1697, d. 1760. 
 Artaud, Jean Baptiste, French dramatist, b. 1732, d. 1796. 
 Artaud de Montor, Alex. F., chevalier, French writer, b. 1772, d. 1849. 
 Artaud-Haussmann, Louis Charles Marie Emmanuel, baron, French 
 
 politician, philologist, b. 1842. 
 Arteaga, Esteban, Span, jesuit, in Italy, musical writer, d. 1799. 
 Arthur, Sir George, bait., English general, governor of Canada, and of 
 
 Bombay, b. 1784, d. 1854. 
 Arthur, T. S., Amer. author of temperance and domestic tales, J. 1809. 
 Artigas, Jose, Montevidean general, b. 1760, d. 1825. 
 Artot, Joseph, Belgian violinist, b. 1815, d. 1845. 
 Artusini, Antonio, Italian poet, jurist, b. 1554, d. 1630. 
 Arum, Dominique van, Dutch jurist, b. 1579, d. 1637. 
 Arundel, Thomas Howard, earl of, English antiquary, collector of the 
 
 Arundel Marbles, b. 1580, d. 1646. 
 Arundel of Wardour, Sir Thomas Arundel, 1st lord, English soldier 
 
 with emperor Rodolph against the Turks, d. 1639. 
 Arwidsson, Truls, Swedish engraver, b. 1660, d. 1705. 
 Asam, Cosma Daman, German historical painter, d. 1739. 
 Asboth, Alexander, Hungarian general, diplomatist, in America from 
 
 1851, d. Buenos Ayres, 1868. 
 Asbury, Francis, American methodist bishop, b. England 1745, d. 1816. 
 Asch, George Thomas, baron d', Russ. military surg., b. 1729, d. 1807. 
 Ascham, Anthony, Eng. political writer, diplomatist, d. Spain, 1650. 
 Aschbach, Joseph, German historian, b. 1801. 
 Ascher, J., Eng. mus. comp., pianist, in France, b. 1829, d. 1869. 
 Asclepi, Giuseppe, Italian physician, b. 1706, b. 1776. 
 Asgill, Sir Charles, Eng. gen. in Amer. and Flanders, b. 1762, d. 1823. 
 Ash, Edward, English physician, d. 1829. 
 
 Ash, John, LL.D., Eng. dissent, min., philologist, b. 1724, d. 1779. 
 
 Ash, John, Eng. physician, writer on mineral waters, b. 1723, d. 1789. 
 
 Ashburnham, Sir Thomas, English general, in India and China, 6. 
 about 1808, d. 1872. 
 
 Ashburton, William Bingham Baring, 2nd baron, English peer of 
 United Kingdom, statesman, b. 1799, d. 1864. 
 
 Ashburton, Francis Baring, 3rd baron, English peer, statesm m, 
 succeeded 1864, d. 1868. 
 
 Ashbury, James Lloyd, English railway director, M.P., b. 1834. 
 
 Ashbury, Joseph, English comedian, b. 1638, d. 1720. 
 
 Ashby, George, English theologian, antiquary, b. 1724, d. 1808. 
 
 Ashby, Sir John, English admiral, b. 1642, d. 1693. 
 
 Ashby, John Eyre, LL.D., English congregational minister, mathe- 
 matician, physicist, educationist, b. 1820, d. 1863. 
 
 Ashe, Andrew, Irish flute-player, b. 1756, d. 1838. 
 
 Ashley, Henry, London solicitor, and author, b. 1790, d. 1867. 
 
 Ashley, Robert, English barrister, poet, historian, b. 1565, d. 1641. 
 
 Ashmead, Isaac, Amer. printer, inventor, philanthr., b. 1790, d, 1870. 
 
 Ashmun, Jehudi, American philanthropist, one of the founders of 
 the State of Liberia, b. 1794, d. 1828. 
 
 Ashpitel, Arthur, English architect, archaeologist, b. 1807, d. 1869. 
 
 Ashwell, George, English theologian, b. 1612, d. 1693. 
 
 Ashworth, Caleb, D.D., English nonconformist minister, mathema- 
 tician, author of a hebrew grammar, b. 1721, d. 1774. 
 
 Askew, Anthony, English physician, bibliophile, 6. 1722, d. 1773. 
 
 Aslacus, Conrad, Norwegian theologian, b. 1564, d. 1624. 
 
 Asopios, Constantin, Greek historian, prof. Corfu university, 6. ab. 1791. 
 
 Asp, Mathias, Swedish philologist, theologian, b. 1690, d. 1763. 
 
 Asp, Pehr Olof, Swedish diplomatist, b. 1745, d. 1808. 
 
 Asper, Hans, Swiss animal and portrait painter, b. 1499, d. 1571. 
 
 Aspertino, Amico, Bolognese painter, b. 1474, d. 1552. 
 
 Aspertino, Guido, Bolognese historical painter, b. 1460, d. 1500. 
 
 Aspilcuetta, Martin, Spanish jurist, b. 1493, d. 15S6. 
 
 Aspull, George, English pianist, b. 1813, d. 1832. 
 
17 
 
 ASQUINT. 
 
 18 
 
 Asquini, Basilio, Italian biograph. and liistor. writer, b. 1682, b. 1745. 
 Assafadi, Arabian biographer, critic, b. 1296, d. 1362. 
 Assaki, George, Moldavian poet, historian, journalist, b. 1788. 
 Assalini, Pietro, Ital. army surgeon, with Najioleon I., 6. 1765, d. 1840. 
 Assarotti, Giovanni Battista, Italian monk, founder of school for deaf- 
 mutes at Genoa, b. 1753, d. 1829. 
 Asseline, Gilles Thomas, French religious poet, b. 1682, d. 1767. 
 Asseline, Louis, French critic, philologist, materialist writer, b. 1829. 
 Asselineau, Charles, Frencli historian, bibliographer, b. 1821. 
 Assemani, Joseph Louis, writer on the Eastern church, b. Tripoli, 1710, 
 
 d. Rome, 1782. 
 Assen, Jan van, Dutch painter, b. 1635, d. 1695. 
 Assereto, Giovacchino, Ital. painter, rich colourist, b. 1600, d. 1649. 
 Assigny, Marius d', English theologian, b. 1643, d. 1717. 
 Assing, Rose Maria, German poetess, b. 1783, d. 1840. 
 Assisi, Luigi Andrea, Ital. fresco painter (became blind), b. 1470, d. 1556. 
 Assollant, Jean Baptiste Alfred, French novelist, essayist, b. 1827. 
 Assum, Johann Augustin, German biographer, b. 1577, d. 1634. 
 Assum, Johann Christoph, German jurist, b. 1581, d. 1651. 
 Assumpcao, Joze'de, Portuguese theologian, d. 1751. 
 Astea, Andrea dell', Neapolitan painter, b. 1683, d. 1721. 
 Astesati, Giov. Andrea, Ital. benedictine, histor., b. 1673, d. 1747. 
 Astie, Jean Frederic, French historical and religious writer, b. 1822. 
 Astley-Reading, Sir James, English royalist general, d. 1651. 
 Aston, Sir Arthur, English royalist commander, governor of Drogheda, 
 
 killed there, 1649. 
 Aston, Sir Arthur Ingram, English diplomatist, b. 1798. 
 Aston, Louisa, Germ, writer on emancipation of women, b. about 1820. 
 Aston, Sir Thomas, English writer against presbytery ; high-sheriff of 
 
 Cheshire ; d. 1645. 
 Astor, John Jacob, American merchant, chief developer of fur trade, 
 
 founder of public library, New York, b. Heidelberg, 1763, d. 1848. 
 Astorga, Emmanuel, baron d', Ital. musical comp., b. 1686, d. 1755. 
 Astori, Giovanni Antouio, Ital. ecclesiastic, antiq., b. 1672, d. 1743. 
 Astorini, Elias, Italian theologian, b. 1651, d. 1702. 
 Astros, Paul Therese David d', French cardinal archbishop, theologian, 
 
 b. 1772, d. 1851. 
 
 Atcheson, Nathaniel, English solicitor, antiquary, writer on laws 
 
 affecting neutrals, b. 1771, d. 1825. 
 Athanasio, Pedro, Spanish historical painter, b. 1638, d. 1688. 
 Athenas, Pierre Louis, French archaeologist, b. 1752, d. 1829. 
 Atherstone, Edwin, English poet, novelist, b. 1788, d. 1872. 
 Atherton, Sir William, English jurist, b. 1806, d. 1864. 
 Atkinson, Thos. Witlam, Eng. archit., travel, in Russia, b. 1798, d. 1861. 
 Atkyns, Ed., English judge, lord chief baron of exchequer, 1686; 
 
 I. 1630, d. 1698. 
 
 Atkyns, Richard, Eng. writer on history of printing, b. 1615, d. 1677. 
 Atkyns, Sir Rob., Eng. topographer, of Gloucestershire, b. 1646, d. 1711. 
 Atlay, James, D.D., English bishop of Hereford, theologian, b. 1817. 
 Atlee, Washington L., American physician, medical writer, b. 1808. 
 Atrocianus, Johann, German poet, botanist, d. 1540. 
 Attaignant, Gabriel Charles de 1', French poet, b. 1697, d. 1779. 
 Attaignant, Pierre, Parisian printer, d. 1556. 
 Attaji or Athadji Neur-Zade, Turkish poet, 6. 1583, d. 1635. 
 Atterbury, Lewis, English theologian, b. 1631, d. 1693. 
 Atterbury, Lewis, Eng. theolog., jurist, translator, b. 1656, d. 1731. 
 Attumonella, Michele, Neapolitan physician, writer, b. 1753, d. 1826. 
 Attwood, George, Eng. mathematician, physicist, b. 1746, d. 1807. 
 Attwood, Thomas, Eng. chief judge in Dominica, historian, d. 1793. 
 Attwood, Thos., Eng. economist, political reformer, M.P., d. 1856. 
 Atwell, Hugh, English actor, d. 1621. 
 
 Atwood, Hemy Adams Sergison, Eng. clergym., hymn writer, b. 1800. 
 Anbanel, Joseph Marie J. B. Theodore, French printer, critic, b. 1829. 
 Aubaret, Louis Gabriel Galderic, Fr. naval officer, orientalist, b. 1825. 
 Auber, Charles, French abbe, poet, biographer, arehajologist, b. 1804. 
 Auber, Harriet, English writer of devotional poetry, b. 1773, d. 1862. 
 Auber, Theophile Charles Emmanuel Edouard, French physician, 
 
 medical writer, 6. 1804. 
 Aubernon, Philippe, French statesman, b. 1757, d. 1832. 
 Aubert, Alexander V., English antiquary, b. 1729, d. 1805. 
 Aubert, Jean Ernest, French engraver, lithographer, b. 1824. 
 Aubert, Madame (Constance Junot d'Abrantes), French novelist, writer 
 
 on luxury, V. 1803. 
 Aubert, Pierre, French jurist, b. 1642, d. 1735. 
 
 Aubert, Pierre Francois Olivier, French mus. comp., b. 1763, d. 1830. 
 
 Aubert de la Chesnaye des Bois, Francois Alexandre, French miscel- 
 laneous writer, b. 1699, d. 1784. 
 
 Anbert de Vitry, Francois J. Ph., French economist, b. 1765, d. 1849. 
 
 Aubert du Bayet, Jean Bapt. Annibal, Fr. general, b. 1759, d. 1797. 
 
 Aubert-Boche, Louis, French physician, medical writer, b. 1810. 
 
 Anbertin, Edme, French protestant theologian, 6. 1595, d. 1652. 
 
 Aubery, Antoine, French biographer, author of ' Lives of the Cardinals,' 
 b. 1616, d. 1695. 
 
 Aubery, Louis, French traveller, historical writer, d. 1687. 
 
 Aubery du Boulley, Prudent Louis, French musical comp., b. 1796. 
 
 Aubespine, Madeleine d', French poetess, b. 1546, d. 1596. 
 
 Aubignac, Francois He"deliii, abbe d', French writer, b. 1604, d. 1676. 
 
 Aubigne, Theodore Agr. d', Fr. historical writer, b. 1550, d. 1630. 
 
 Aublet, Jean Baptiste C. F., Fr. botanist, traveller, b. 1720, d. 1778. 
 Aubrey, Sir John, bart., D.C.L., English statesman, M.P. 1768-1826, 
 
 in 12 parliaments, b. 1740, <l. 1826. 
 Aubrey, AVilliam, English jurist, b. 1529, d. 1595. 
 Aubriet, Claude, French natural history painter in water-colours, and 
 
 miniature painter, b. 1651, d. 1743. 
 Aubriot, Ungues, French architect, constructor of the Bastille (1369), 
 
 in which he was afterwards imprisoned for heresy, d. 1382. 
 Aubry, Charles Marie Barbs A^ntoine, French jurist, b. 1803. 
 Aubry, Maurice, French banker, economist, b. 1820. 
 Aubry de la Boucharderie, Claude Charles, comte, French military 
 
 engineer, b. 1773, d. 1813. 
 Aubry-Lecomte, Hyacinthe Louis Victor Baptiste, French designer, 
 
 lithographer, b. 1797, d. 1858. 
 Aubryet, Xavier, French novelist, essayist, b. 1827. 
 Auchmuty, Robert, American jurist, publicist, d. 1750. 
 Auchmuty, Robert, American judge, royalist, d. in England, 1788. 
 Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, English general, in the West Indies, and in the 
 
 Peninsular war, b. 1780, d. 1868. 
 Auckland, Robert John Eden, 3rd earl of, Irish peer, bishop of Bath 
 
 and Wells 1854-69, b. 1799, d. 1870. 
 Auckland, William Eden, earl of, Irish peer, statesm., b. 1750, d. 1814. 
 Auckland, William George Eden, 4th earl of, Eng. diplomat., b. 1829. 
 Aucoc, Jean Leon, Frencli jurist, administrator, b. 1828. 
 Audebert, Germain, French latin poet, b. 1518, d. 1598. 
 Audebrand, Philibert, French journalist, novelist, b. 1816. 
 Audenaerd, R. van, Flemish painter and engraver, 6. 1663, d. 1743. 
 Audifret, Charles L. Gaston, marquis d', French economist, b. 1787. 
 Audifret, Jean Baptiste, French geogr., diplomat., b. 1657, d. 1733. 
 Audiganne, Armand, French barrister, publicist, b. 1814. 
 Audigier, Charles L. Alexandre Henri, comte d', French critic, 
 
 biographer, journalist, b. 1828. 
 Audin, J. M. V., French historian, librarian, 6. 1793, d. 1851. 
 Audinet, Phil., French engraver, b. 1776, d. 1837. 
 Audley, Sir James, Eng. military governor of Aquitaine, b. 1312, d.. 1386. 
 Audot, Louis Eustache, Fr. editor, writer on horticulture, b. 1783. 
 Audouin, Francois Xavier, French economist, b. 1766, d. 1837. 
 Audouin de Geronval, Maurice Ernest, French agricultural and political 
 
 writer, 6. 1802, d. 1839. 
 Audran, Charles, French painter and engraver, b. 1594, d. 1673. 
 Audran, Claude, French engraver, b. 1592, d. 1677. 
 Audran, Claude, Fr. histor. and port, painter, engraver, 6. 1639, d. 1684. 
 Audran, Claude, French decorative painter, b. 1685, d. 1734. 
 Audran, Germain, French engraver, b. 1631, d. 1710. 
 Audran, Jean, Fr. engr. of hist, and scripture subjects, b. 1667, d. 1756. 
 Audran, Louis, French engraver, b. 1670, d. 1712. 
 Audran, Prosper Gabriel, French orientalist, b. 1744, d. 1819. 
 Aue, Hartmann vonder, German poet, b. 1170, d. 1235. 
 Auer, Alois, German printer, philologist, director of Imperial Printing- 
 office at Vienna, 6. 1793. 
 Auer, Anton, German painter on porcelain, at Munich, b. 1777, d. 1814. 
 Auerbach, Johann Gottfried, Germ, portrait painter, b. 1697, d. 1753. 
 Auersperg, Adolph Willi. D., prince von, Austrian statesman, b. 1821. 
 Auersperg, Anton Alex., count von, German poet, novelist, b. 1806. 
 Auersperg, Carl W. Philipp, prince von, Austrian statesman, b. 1814. 
 Auffenberg, Joseph, baron von, German dramatist, b. 1798, d. 1857. 
 Auffray, Jean, Frencli political economist, b. 1733, d. 1788. 
 Aufrere, Anthony, Eng. writer and translator, b. 1756, d. Pisa, 1833. 
 Augenio, Horatio, Ital. med. and philosoph. writer, 6. 1527, d. 1603. 
 Auger, Athanase, French philologist, critic, b. 1734, d. 1792. 
 Auger, Edmond, Frencli jesuit preacher, theologian, b. 1530, d. 1591. 
 Auger, Hezekiah, American sculptor, b. 1791, d. 1858. 
 Auger, Hippolyte Nicolas Just, Frencli novelist, dramatist, b. 1797. 
 Auger, Louis Simon, French critic, editor, b. 1772, d. 1829. 
 Augier, Guillaume Victor Emile, French dramatic poet, b. 1S20. 
 Augu, Henri, French journalist, novelist, b. Bavaria, 1818. 
 Augurelli, Italian poet, chemist, 6. 1454, d. 1537. 
 Augus, Robert, English landscape painter, b. 1619, d. 1679. 
 Augusta, Princess, 6th child of King George III., b. 1768, d. 1840. 
 Augusta, Johann, Bohemian theologian, b. 1500, d. 1575. 
 Augusti, Friedrich Albrecht, Germ, protest., theolog., b. 1696, d. 1782. 
 Augusti, Johann Christian Wilhelm, Germ, theolog., b. 1772, d. 1841. 
 Augustino, the Venetian, Italian engraver, 6. 1490, d. at Rome 1540. 
 Augustino, Antonio, Span, bishop, jurist, numismat., b. 1517, d. 1586. 
 Aulagnier, Antonin, French musical composer, publisher, b. 1800. 
 Aulich, Ludwig, Hungarian general, b. 1792, d. 1849. 
 Auliczeck, Domenick, Bohemian sculptor, b. 1734, d. Munich, 1803. 
 Aulisio, Domenico d', Neapolitan linguist, b. 1649, d. 1717. 
 Aulnaye, Francois Henry Stanislas de V, French general writer, b. 
 
 Madrid, 1739, d. 1830. 
 Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orleaus, due d', French 
 
 general, governor of Algiers, 1847-8, president at trial of Marshal 
 
 Bazaine, 1873 ; b. 1822. 
 Aumont, Antoine, French marshal, governor of Paris, b. 1601, d. 1669. 
 Auriac, Phil. Eugene J. M. d', French journalist, arcba?olog., b. 1815. 
 Aurifaber, Andrew (Latin form of Andreas Goldschmidt), German 
 
 physician, b. 1512, d. 1559. 
 Aurifex Buonfigli, Nicolas, Italian carmelite, theologian, b. 1529, d. 1601. 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 20 
 
 Aurivillius, Erik, Swedish jurist, d. 1702. 
 Aurivillius, Karel, Swedish orientalist, b. 1717, d. 1786. 
 Aurogallus, Matthaus, German philologist, b. 1480, d. 1543. 
 Austen, Ralph, English writer on fruit trees spiritualised, d. 1676. 
 Austin, Benjamin, American democratic writer, b. 1752, d. 1820. 
 Austin, Henry, English civil engineer, d. 1861. 
 
 Austin, Sir Horatio Thomas, English admiral, 40 years in active service, 
 
 in America, Africa, Arctic regions, Syria, d. 1865. 
 Austin, John, English rom. catholic, theologian, b. 1613, d. 1669. 
 Austin, Joseph, English actor, theatrieaimanagcr, b. 1734, d. 1821. 
 Austin, Samuel, American theologian, b. 1760, d. 1830. 
 Austin, William, English physician, b. 1754, d. 1793. 
 Austin, William, American lawyer, essayist, b. 1788, d. 1841. 
 Autelz, Guillaume des, French poet, b. 1529, d. 1576. 
 Autenrieth, Johann Hermann F. von, Germ, physician, b. 1772, d. 1835. 
 Automne, Bernard, French jurist, writer on civil law, b. 1587, d. 1606. 
 Auton, Jean, French poet, chronicler, b. 1466, d. 1527. 
 Autran, Joseph, French poet, b. 1813. 
 
 Autreau, Jacques d', French painter, dramatic poet, b. 1656, d. 1745. 
 
 Auvergne, Antoine d', Fr. musical composer for opera, b. 1713, d. 1797. 
 
 Auvigny, Jean du Castre d', Fr. historian, drama t., b. 1712, d. 1743. 
 
 Auvity, Alphonse, French general, b. 1799, d. 1860. 
 
 Auvray, Felix, French historical painter, b. 1800, d. 1833. 
 
 Auvray, Louis, French sculptor, writer on art, b. 1810. 
 
 Auvray, Philippe Pierre Joseph, Fr. painter, b. Saxony, 1778, d. 1815. 
 
 Auzoles, Jacques d', French chronologist, b. 1571, d. 1642. 
 
 Auzou, Louis Napoleon, abbe, French eccles. reformer, essayist, b. 1806. 
 
 Auzoux, Theodore, Fr. physician, anatom., physiolog., b. about 1797. 
 
 Avantio, Giovanno Mario, Italian jurist, historian, b. 1564, d. 1628. 
 
 Avanzini, Giuseppe, Italian mathematician, b. 1753, d. 1827. 
 
 Aved, Jacques Andre Joseph, French portrait painter, b. 1702, d. 1766. 
 
 Aveling, Thomas W.B., Irish congregational minister in England, 
 
 theologian, religious poet, philanthropist, b. 1815. 
 Avellaneda, Gertrudis Gomes de, Span, poetess, b. Cuba, 1816, d. 1864. 
 Avellar, Francisco Gomez de, Portug. bishop, statesman, d. 1816. 
 Avellino, Francesco Maria, Neapolitan archaeologist, b. 1788, d. 1850. 
 Avellino, Giulio, Italian landscape painter, b. 1645, d. 1700. 
 Avellino, Onufrio, Neapolitan painter, b. 1674, d. 1741. 
 Avenarius, Johann, German protestant, theologian, b. 1520, d. 1590. 
 Avenarius, Johann, German protestant, theologian, b. 1670, d. 1736. 
 Avenel, Denis Louis M., Fr. journalist, essayist, historian, b. 1789. 
 Avenel, Paul, French poet, dramatist, b. 1823. 
 Aventine, Johann, Bavarian annalist, 6. 1466, d. 1534. 
 Averara, Giovanni Battista, Italian painter, b. 1508, d. 1548. 
 Averbach, Johann G., Germ. port, and histor. painter, b. 1687, d. 1743. 
 Averdy, Clement Charles Francois de V, French jurist, statesman, 
 
 6. 1723, guillotined 1793. 
 Averhausen, Joseph, German theologian, b. 1664, d. 1734. 
 Averoldi, Giulio Antonio, Italian antiquary, b. 1651, d. 1717. 
 Avesbury, Eobert of, English chronicler, d. 1360. 
 Avezac-Macaya, Marie Armand Pascal d', Fr. ethnologist, b. 1799. 
 Avezzana, Joseph, Italian patriot, military commander, afterwards 
 
 merchant in New York, b. 1797. 
 
 Avicebron, Salomon -ben- Gabirol, Span, jew, Arab, philosoph., d. 1070. 
 
 Avicenna, Ibn-Sina, Arab physician, mathemat., b. 980, d. 1037. 
 
 Avigador Kara, Jewish rabbi, at Prague, d. 1439. 
 
 Avila, Juan d', Span, preacher, apostle of Andalusia, b. 1500, d. 1569. 
 
 Avisseau, Jean Charles, Fr. artist, ceramic collector, b. 1796, d. 1831. 
 
 Avisseau, Jean Charles, Fr. artist, collector of ceramic ware, b. 1831. 
 
 Avitus, Marcus Msecilius, emperor of the West, d. 456. 
 
 Avogaro, Azzoni Hambaldo, count, Ital. archseolog., b. 1719, d. 1790. 
 
 Avond, Auguste, French barrister, politician, 6. 1819, d. 1866. 
 
 Avonmore, Barry, lord, Irish peer, chief baron Ir. excheq., 1782, rf. 1805. 
 
 Avrigny, Charles Joseph L. d', Fr. poet, dramatist, b. 1760, d. 1823. 
 
 Avril, Jean Jacques, French engraver, b. 1744, d. 1832. 
 
 Avril, Jean Jacques, French engraver, b. 1771, d. 1831. 
 
 Avril, Sophie Eniile Philippe, French engineer, b. 1797. 
 
 Awhadi, Maragha, Persian poet, d. Ispahan, 1297. 
 
 Axayacatzlin, Aztec emperor of Mexico, d. about 1477. 
 
 Axehjelm, Jan, Swedish jurist, antiquary, 6. 1608, d. 1692. 
 
 Axtel, Daniel, Eng. parliamentary soldier, gov. of Kilkenny, d. 1660. 
 
 Axtmann, Leopold, Austrian animal painter, b. 1700, d. Prague, 1748. 
 
 Ayala, Balthasar de, Dutch jurist, b. 1548, d. 1584. 
 
 Ayala, Pedro Lopez de, Spanish poet and historian, b. 1332, d. 1407. 
 
 Ayala, Sebastian, Sicilian jesuit, philologist, b. 1744, d. 1817. 
 
 Aycard, Marie, French novelist, b. 1794, d. 1859. 
 
 Aylies, Raymond Andre Severin, French politician, jurist, b. 1798. 
 
 Aylmer, Matthew Whitworth, 5th lord, English general, governor- 
 general of Canada, 1828-33 ; b. 1775, d. 1850. 
 
 AylofF, William, English judge of queen's bench, 1577, d. 1585. 
 
 Aylward, Theodore, English musical composer, organist, d. 1801. 
 
 Ayre, John, English clergyman, philolog., bibl. critic, b. 1799, d. 1869. 
 
 Ayremynne, Richard de, English keeper of the rolls, 1324-5; d. 1340. 
 
 Ayremynne, William de, English keeper of the rolls, 1316, bishop of 
 Norwich, d. 1336. 
 
 Ayrer, Georg Heinrich, German jurist, b. 1702, d. 1774. 
 
 Ayrer, Jacobus, German dramatic poet, d. about 1605. 
 
 Ayrton, Acton Smee, English liberal politician, administrator, b. 1816. 
 
 Aytoun, William G., English poet, general writer, b. 1813, d. 1865. 
 
 Ayzac, Felicie Marie E. d', French poetess, novelist, archaiolog., b. 1801. 
 
 Azanza, Jose Miguel de, Spanish statesman, b. 1746, d. 1826. 
 
 Azara, Felix de, Spanish naturalist, b. 1746, d. 1811. 
 
 Azari, Sheikh, Persian poet, b. about 1388, d. 1460. 
 
 Aze, Louis Valere Adolphe, French historical painter, b. 1823. 
 
 Azevedo, Alexis Jacob, French musical critic, biographer, b. 1813. 
 
 Azevedo Coutinho, Jose Joaquim da Cunha, Portuguese bishop of Per- 
 nambuco, publicist, b. Brazil, 1742, d. 1821. 
 
 Azizi-Kara-Chelebizande, Turkish poet, historian, 6. 1591, d. 1667. 
 
 Azorius, Juan, Spanish jesuit, theologian, b. 1533, d. 1603. 
 
 Azzi, Francesca Maria d', Italian poet, b. 1655, d. 1707. 
 
 Azzi ne' Forte, Faustina d', Italian poetess, b. 1650, d. 1724. 
 
 Azzoguido, Germano, Italian physiologist, b. 1740, d. 1811. 
 
 Azzoguido, Valerio Felieio, Ital. notary, archaeologist, b. 1651, d. 1728. 
 
 Azzolini, Decius, Italian cardinal, politician, b. 1623, d. 1689. 
 
 Azzolini, Lorenzo, Italian prelate, satirical poet, d. 1632. 
 
 B 
 
 Baader, Clement Alois, Bavarian councillor, bibliog., b. 1762, d. 1838. 
 Baader, Franz van, German writer on philosophy, b. 1765, d. 1841. 
 Baader, Johann, Bavarian historical painter, d. 1779. 
 Baale, Hendrik van, Dutch dramatic poet, d. 1822. 
 Baarsdorp, Cornells, Flemish physician, medical writer, d. 1565. '. 
 Baba-Ali, first independent dey of Algiers, d. 1718. 
 Babarcky, Anton, Hungarian statesman, b. 1813. 
 
 Babbini, Matteo, Italian operatic singer, b. 1754, d. 1816. 1 
 Babbitt, Isaac, American engineer, inventor, b. 1799, d. 1862. : 
 Babel, Hugues, Flemish grammarian, rhetorician, d. 1556. 
 Babel, P. E., French architectural and ornamental engraver, d. 1770. '. 
 Babell, William, English musical composer, b. 1690, d. 1722. 
 Babenot St. Huber, Ludwig, Germ, philosoph. writer, b. 1660, d. 1726. 
 Baber, Henry Hervey, Eng.clergym., archajol., bibl. crit. b. 1775, d. 1869. 
 Babet, Athanase Marie Pierre, French lawyer, revolutionary politician, '. 
 
 b. 1744, d. 1815. 
 Babet, Hugues, French philologist, poet, b. 1474, d. 1556. 
 Babeuf, Emile, French librarian, politician, b. 1785. 
 Babie de Bercenay, Francois, French publicist, historian, biographer, 
 
 b. 1761, d. about 1830. 
 Babin, Francois, French theologian, prof, of divinity, b. 1651, d. 1734. 
 Babinet, Jacques, French physicist, astronomer, map-designer, b. 
 
 1794, d. 1872. '■ 
 Babington, Benjamin Guy, Eng. physician, med. writer, 6. 1794, d. 1866. 
 Babington, Churchill, English ecclesiastic, archaeologist, b. 1821. 
 Bablot, Louis Nicolas Benjamin, French physician, philosophical '. 
 
 writer, promoter of vaccination, b. 1754, d. 1802. 
 Babo, Joseph Maria, German dramatic poet, b. 1756, d. 1822. 
 
 Babo, Lambert Joseph Leopold, baron von, German agriculturist, 
 
 writer on vine-culture, 6. 1790, d. 1862. 
 Babois, Marguerite Victoire, French poetess, b. 1760, d. 1830. 
 Babou, Hippolyte, French journalist, critic, satirist, b. 1824. 
 Babou, Jean, baron de Sagonne, French statesman, b. 1529, d. 1569. 
 Bac, Jean Baptiste Theodore, French barrister, orator, b. 1809, d. 1865. 
 Baccarini, Jacopo, Modenese historical painter, b. 1630, d. 1682. 
 Baccelini, Matteo, Italian monk, poet, d. 1614. 
 Baccelli, Geronimo, Florentine physician, classicist, b. 1515, d. 1581. 
 Baccherelli, Vincenzo, Florentine painter, b. 1672, d. 1745. 
 Bacchini, Benedetto, Ital. theolog., histor., statesm., 6.1651, d. 1721. 
 Baccillerio, Tiberio, Italian physician, classical commentator, d. 1511. 
 Baccio del Bianco, Florentine burlesque painter, b. 1604, d. 1656. 
 Baccuet, Osee, Genevese pastor, physician, philanthropist, d. 1649. 
 Baccular y Sanna, Vincenzo, marquis St. Felipe, Spanish military 
 
 commander, statesman, historian, biographer, d. 1726. 
 Bacellar, Antonio Barbosa, Portuguese poet, histor., b. 1610, d. 1663. 
 Bach, Alexander, baron von, Austrian statesman, diplomat., b. 1813. 
 Bach, Georg, German philosophical writer, d. 1649. 
 Bach, Johann August, Germ, jurist, classical editor, b. 1721, d. 1759. 
 Bach, Lothaire de, French mathematican, musician, b. 1661, d. 1727. 
 Baehaczek, Martin, Bohemian cosmographer, d. 1612. 
 Bacharach, Henri, French grammarian, translator, b. about 1810. 
 Bache, Franklin, American chemist, one of the founders of the 
 
 American Philosophical Society, b. 1792, d. 1864. 
 Bache, William, American physician, chemist, naturalist, d. 1797. 
 Bachelet-Damville, Louis Alexandre, French general, b. 1771, d. in 
 battle, 1813. 
 
21 BACHELET. 
 
 Bachelet, Jean L. Theodore, Fr. histor., biographer, essayist, ft. 1820. j 
 Bachelier, Jean Marguerite, French lawyer, republican, religious poet, 
 
 ft. 1793, d. 1843. 
 Bachelier, Nicolas, French sculptor and architect, d. 1554. 
 Bachelier, Pierre, French philanthropist, b. 1611, d. 1672. 
 Bachelot, Jean Alexis Augustin, French theologian, roman catholic 
 
 missionary to Sandwich Islands, b. 1790, d. 1838. 
 Bachelot de la Pylaie, Aug. Jean Marie, French botanist, b. 1786, d. 1856. 
 Bachman, Georg, Austrian painter, of altar pieces, portraits, d. 1651. 
 Bachman, John, D.D., Amer. lutheran theolog., ornithologist, b. 1790. 
 Bachmann, G. Ludwig Ernst, German antiquaiy, philolog., b. 1792. 
 Bachmann, Gottlob, German musical composer, b. 1763, d. 1810. 
 Bachmann, Karl Friedrich, Ger. philosophical writer, b. 1785, d. 1855. 
 Bachovius, Reiner, German calvinist, jurist, b. 1554, d. 1614. 
 Backer, Adrian von, Dutch historical painter, b. 1643, d. 1686. 
 Backer, Augustin de, French priest, bibliographer, d. 1873. 
 Backer, Jacob, Dutch painter, b. 1530, d. 1560. 
 Backer, Nicholas, Dutch portrait painter, b. 1648, d. 1689. 
 Backus, Charles, D.D., American theologian, b. 1749, d. 1803. 
 Backus, Isaac, Amer. bapt. min., historian of N. Eng., b. 1724, d. 1806. 
 Bacler d' Albe, Louis Albert Ghislin, baron, French painter, biographer, 
 
 geographer, b. 1762, d. 1824. 
 Bacmeister, Adolf, German classicist, d. 1873. 
 
 Bacon, Sir Henry Hickman, bart., premier baronet of England, captain 
 in dragoon guards, 6. 1820, d. 1872. 
 
 Bacon, Sir James, English vice-chancellor, 1870, chief judge in bank- 
 ruptcy, b. about 1800. 
 
 Bacon, John, English antiquary, b. 1738, d. 1816. 
 
 Bacon, Leonard, D.D., Amer. congreg. min., theolog., critic, b. 1802. 
 
 Bacon, Sir Nathaniel, English landscape and portrait painter, d. 1615. 
 
 Bacon, Nathaniel, English judge, historical writer, d. 1660. 
 
 Bacon, Nathaniel, American republican leader, b. Eng. 1649, d. 1676. 
 
 Bacon, Phanuel, D.D., Eng. clergym., poet, dramatic writer, d. 1783. 
 
 Bacon, Robert, English friar, preacher, biographer, 6. 1198, d. 1248. 
 
 Bacon, Thomas, American episcopal minister, financial writer, d. 1768. 
 
 Bacon, William Thompson, Amer. congregational min., poet, b. 1814. 
 
 Bacques, Henri, French publicist, b. 1825. 
 
 Bada, Jose, Spanish architect, b. 1719, d. 1756. 
 
 Badaro, Giovanni, Italian botanist, b. 1793, d. 1831. 
 
 Badarocco, Giuseppe, II Sordo (deaf), Genoese histor. painter, d. 1657. 
 
 Badby, John, English artisan, protestant martyr, burnt 1409. 
 
 Badeley, Edward, English roman catholic jurist, b. 1800, d. 1868. 
 
 Baden, Jon, Danish philologist, b. 1735, d. 1804. 
 
 Badens, Frans, Dutch histor. and portrait painter, b. 1571, d. 1603. 
 
 Badens, Jan, Dutch historical and portrait painter, b. 1576, d. 1613. 
 
 Badger, Eastwood, Eng. jurist, reader Inns of court, b. 1823, d. 1866. 
 
 Badia, Domingo, Span, traveller, diplom., orientalist, b. 1766, d. 1818. 
 
 Badiali, Alessandro, Bolognese historical painter, 6. 1626, d. 1671. 
 
 Badiche, Marie L^andre, French abbe, educational writer, 6. 1798. 
 
 Badile, Antonio, Italian painter, b. 1480, d. 1560. 
 
 Badiou de la Tronchere, Emile, French sculptor, b. 1826. 
 
 Badoaro, Federico, Venetian statesman, diplomatist, d. 1593. 
 
 Badoaro, Pietro, Venetian jurist, d. 1591. 
 
 Baduel, Claude, French protestant minister, mathematician, in Switzer- 
 land, d. 1561. 
 
 Baeck, Abraham, Swedish physician, naturalist, b. 1713, d. 1795. 
 Baecker, Louis de, French archaeologist, b. 1814. 
 Baengius, Peder, Swed. bishop, comment, on Hebrews, b. 1633, d. 1696. 
 Baez, Buenaventura, (mulatto) president of Hayti, 1856-8, 1865-6, 
 
 1868 : b. 1820. 
 Bagard, Cesar, French sculptor, b. 1639, d. 1709. 
 Bagard, Charles, French physician, b. 1686, d. 1772. 
 Bage, Robert, English quaker, paper-maker, novelist, J. 1728, d. 1801. 
 Bagelaer, Ernst WillemJan, Dutch painter, engraver, b. 1775, d. 1837. 
 Bagford, John, Eng. shoemaker, pamphlet collector, b. 1650, d. 1716. 
 Baggallay, Sir Richard, Eng. barrister, attorney -general, 1874; b. 1816. 
 Baggesen, Zens, Danish poet, b. 1764, d. 1826. 
 Baglione, Giovanni, Italian painter, b. 1572, d. 1642. 
 Baglioni, Cesare, Italian painter of history and still life, d. ab. 1596. 
 Bagot, Sir Charles, English diplomatist, governor-general of British 
 
 North America, 1842, b. 1781, d. 1845. 
 Bagot, Lewis, English prelate, bishop of St. Asaph, writer on prophecy, 
 
 ft. 1740, d. 1802. 
 
 Bagot, W. Bigot, baron, Eng. agricult., naturalist, b. 1775, d. 1856. 
 Bagration, prince Peter Ivanov., Russian statesm., b. 1765, d. 1812. 
 Bagshaw, Edward, Eng. republican, became royalist, b. 1604, d. 1662. 
 Bagshaw, Edward, Eng. clergyman, political -writer, b. 1629, d. 1671. 
 Bagshaw, Henry, English clergyman, theologian, b. 1632, d. 1709. 
 Bagshaw, John, English economist, 6. 1784. 
 
 Bagshaw, William, English nonconformist, theologian, apostle of the 
 
 Peak, b. 1628, d. 1702. 
 Bagster, Jonathan, English bible publisher, ft. 1813, d. 1872. 
 Baguenalt de Puchesse, Fernand, French publicist, essayist, b. 1814. 
 Bahr, Joseph Friedrich, German theologian, 6. 1713, d. 1775. 
 Eahr, Professor, German classicist, historian, d. 1872. 
 Baikie, William Balfour, Scotch physician, R.N., African explorer, 
 
 philologist, ft. 1820, d. 1864, 
 Bailey, Crawshay, Eng. ironmaster, railway promoter, ft. 1790, d. 1872. 
 
 BALFOUR. 22 
 
 j Bailey, Gamaliel, Amer. physician, journalist, philanthropist, d. 1859. 
 Bailey, Henry, 15. D., English theologian, mission secretary, ft. 1814. 
 Bailey, Jacob Whitman, Amer. naturalist, chemist, 6. 1811, d. 1857. 
 Bailey, Nathan, English Lexicographer, educationist, d. 1742. 
 Bailey, Peter, English humorous poet, d. 1823. 
 Bailey, Samuel, English economist, essayist, 6. 1787. 
 Bailey, Thomas, English poet, historian, journalist, 6. 1785, d. 1856. 
 Bailey, Walter, Eng. physician, writer on eye diseases, ft. 1529, d. 1502. 
 Baillarger, Jules G. Francis, French physician, writer on mental 
 
 diseases, 6. 1806. 
 Bailli, Roche, French alchemist, d. 1605. 
 
 Baillie, Charles, Scotch judge of session, as Lord Jerviswoode, ft. 1804. 
 Baillie, John, Scotch lieut. -col. in India, orientalist, ft. 1773, d. 1833. 
 Baillie, Robert, of Jerviswood, Scotch patriot, executed 1684. 
 Bailliere, Jean Baptiste Marie, French publisher of works on medicine 
 
 and natural science, ft. 1797. 
 Baillon, E. H., French physician, naturalist, 6. 1827. 
 Baillot, Pierre, French writer, classical translator, ft. 1752, ft. 1815. 
 Bailly, Antoine Nicolas, French architect, ft. 1810. 
 Bailly, Charles Francois, French physicist, scientific writer, 6. 1800. 
 Bailly, Jacques, French portrait painter, ft. 1629, d. 1682. 
 Bailly, Joseph, Fr. physician, writer on agriculture, ft. 1779, d. 1832. 
 Bainbridge, John, English physician, astronomer, ft. 1582, d. 1643. 
 Bainbridge, William, American naval commander, ft. 1774, d. 1833. 
 Baines, John, English mathematician, 6. 1786, d. 1835. 
 Baird, George Husband, D.D., Scotch theologian, principal of Edin- 
 burgh university, 6. 1761, d, 1840. 
 Baird, Robert, D.D., American presbyterian minister, biographer, 
 
 educationist, traveller, temperance writer, ft. 1798, d. 1863. 
 Baird, Spencer Fullerton, LL.D., Amer. naturalist and writer, ft. 1823. 
 Baird, Win., Scotch naturalist, Brit, museum, 1841-72; ft. 1803, d. 1872. 
 Baiter, Jean George, Swiss philologist, 6. 1801. 
 
 Bajardo, Giovanni Battista, Swiss historical painter, ft. 1620, d. 1657. 
 Bajza, Anton, Hungarian poet, historian, 6. 1804, d. 1858. 
 Bake, Johan, Dutch philologist, 6. 1787, d. 1864. 
 Baker, Ann Eliz., English topographer, archjeolog., 6. 1786, d. 1861. 
 Baker, B. B., English philologist, traveller, d. 1868. 
 Baker, Benjamin Franklin, American musical writer, ft. 1811. 
 Baker, David Erskine, English dramatic biographer, d. 1770. 
 Baker, Sir Geo., bart., Eng. physician, med. writer, ft. 1722, d. 1809. 
 Baker, George, English topographer, historian, ft. 1781, d. 1851. 
 Baker, George E., American philanthropist, editor, 6. 1816. 
 Baker, John, English admiral, at taking of Gibraltar, d. 1716. 
 Baker, John, English painter of fruit and flowers, ft. 1736, d. 1790. 
 Baker, Thomas, English mathematician, ft. 1625, d. 1690. 
 Baker, Thomas, Eng. theolog., antiq., MSS. collector, 6. 1656, d. 1740. 
 Baker, Thomas, Eng. clergym., philanthr., ft. Ireland, 1784, d. 1866. 
 Baker, Thomas B. L., English philanthropist, educationist, ft. 1807. 
 Baker, William, English printer, classical critic, 6. 1742, d. 1785. 
 Bakewell, John, English preacher, editor of 'Methodist New Con- 
 nexion Magazine,' ft. 1802, d. 1863. 
 Bakewell, Mrs. John, English writer and editor of religious and 
 
 educational works, ft. 1801, d. 1866. 
 Balard, Marie Francaise J. A., French poetess, 6. 1776, d. 1822. 
 Balassi, Mario, Florentine portrait painter, ft. 1604, d. 1667. 
 Balbao, Vasco Nunez de, Span, discoverer in Amer., ft. 1475, d. 1517. 
 Balbo, Cesare, count, Sardinian statesman, political writer, d. 1853. 
 Balbuena, Bernard de, Span, poet, bishop of Porto Rico, 6. 1568, d. 1627. 
 Balcanquel, Walter, Scotch presbyterian minister, theolog., d. 1616. 
 Balcanquel, Walter, D.D., Scotch ecclesiastic in Church of England, 
 
 educationist, royalist, d. 1645. 
 Balcarres, Alexander Lindsay, carl of, Scotch general in North America, 
 6. 1752, d. 1825. 
 
 Bald, Robert, Scotch mining engineer, writer on mines, and on the 
 
 coal trade, ft. 1776, d. 1861. 
 Baldasseroni, Giov., Tuscan economist, finance min. 1850, ft. 1790. 
 Baldi, Camillo, Italian philologist, metaphysician, ft. 1548, d. 1634. 
 Baldi, Francesco Antonio, Italian philol., bibliogr., ft. 1749, d. 1826. 
 Baldi, Lazzaro, Italian historical painter, ft. 1624, d. 1703. 
 Baldi, Valentino, Italian historical painter, 6. 1744, d. 1816. 
 Baldi d' Urban, Bernardino, Ital. mathem., philolog., ft. 1553, d. 1617. 
 Baldini, Giovanni Ant. , Italian diplomat., philolog., ft. 1654, d. 1725. 
 Balduccio di Pisa, Giovanni, Tuscan sculptor, ft. abt. 1300, d. abt. 1347. 
 Balduin, Christian Adolph, German statesm., chemist, ft. 1632, d. 1682. 
 Baldus, Edouard Denis, French artist, photographer, 6. 1820. 
 Baldwin, Abraham, American statesman, philanthropist, founder of 
 
 university of Georgia, ft. 1754, d. 1807. 
 Baldwin, Henry, American j mist, 6. 1779, d. 1844. 
 Baldwin, Thomas D.D., American baptist minister, theologian, 
 
 magazine editor, ft. 1753, d. 1825. 
 Bale, John, English theolog., protest, bp. of Ossory, ft. 1495, d. 1563. 
 Balen, Mathias, Dutch antiquaiy, ft. 1611, d. 1677. 
 Balfour, Alexander, Scotch poet, novelist, ft. 1767, d. 1829. 
 Balfour, Sir And., bart., Scotch botanist, physician, 6. 1630, d. 1694. 
 Balfour, Sir George, Scotch major-general Madras artillerv, adminis- 
 trator, 6. 1809. 
 
 Balfour, Sir James, of Pittendreich, Scotch president of court of 
 session, d. 1583-4, 
 
23 
 
 BALFOUR. 
 
 BARJAVEL. 
 
 24 
 
 Balfour, Sir James, Scotch poet, annalist, herald, b. abt. 1597, d. 1657. 
 Balfour, Robert D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, theologian, one 
 
 of the founders of Glasgow Missionary Society, b. 1748, d. 1818. 
 Balfourier, Adolpho Paul Emile, French landscape painter, b. 1816. 
 Balguerie, Stuttemberg, French merchant, economist, promoter of 
 
 trade companies, b. 1779, d. 1825. 
 Baliol, Sir John de, founder of Baliol college, Oxford, d. 1269. 
 Ball, Sir Alex. John, English naval commander, gov. of Malta, d. 1809. 
 Ball, Ephraim, American agricultural inventor, b. 1812. 
 Ball, John, Eng. puritan clergym., writer against dissent, b. 1585, d. 1640. 
 Ball, John T., LL.D , Ir. barrister, attorney-general for Ireland, b. 1815. 
 Ball, Dr. Robert, English zoologist, b. 1803, d. 1857. 
 Ball, Thomas, English puritan theologian, d. 1659. 
 Ball, Thomas Ball, American sculptor, b. 1819. 
 Ballanden, John, Scotch poet, theolog., historian, d. Rome, 1550. 
 Ballantine, James, Scotch artist in glass, poet, novelist, b. 1808. 
 Ballantyne, James, Scotch printer, journalist, b. 1774, d. 1833. 
 Ballantyne, John, Scotch printer, b. 1776, d. 1821. 
 Ballard, George, English philologist, biographer, d. 1755. 
 Ballard, Jean Baptiste Christophe, French music printer, d. 1750. 
 Ballard, Volant Vashon, English sailor, with Vancouver, rear-admiral, 
 
 1825; b. 1774, d. 1832. 
 ■Sallexferd, Jacques, Swiss physiolog., educationist, b. 1726, d. 1774. 
 <5alliani, Giovanni Battista, Genoese physicist, b. 1586, d. 1666. 
 Ballin, Claude, French artist in gold and silver, b. 1615, d. 1678. 
 Ballingall, Sir Geo., Scotch physician, writer on milit. surgery, d. 1855. 
 Ballou, I [osea, Amer. theologian, founder of univrrsalism, b. 1771, rf.1852. 
 Ballou, Uosea, D. D., American universalist minister, historian, editor, 
 
 traveller, b. 1796, d. 1861. 
 Ballu, Theodore, French architect, 6. 1817. 
 Ballue, Hippolyte Omer, French painter, b. 1820, d. 1867. 
 Bally, Victor, French physician, medical writer, b. about 1780. 
 Balme, Claude Denis, French physician, med. writer, b. 1742, d. 1805. 
 Balmer, Robert, D.D., Scotch theologian, professor of divinity, writer 
 
 on the atonement, 6. 1787, d. 1844. 
 Balmerino, Arthur Elphinstone, lord, Scotch jaoobitc, b. 1688, d. 1746. 
 Balmez, Diego L., Span. rom. catholic, theol., polit. writer, b. 1810, d. 1818. 
 Balogh, Janos, Hungarian patriot, statesman, b. 1800. 
 Balsamo, Paul, Italian ecclesiastic, agricultural writer, b. 1763, d. 1818. 
 Balston, Edward, English clergyman, philologist, b. 1803. 
 Baltacchini, Savero, Italian poet, b. 1800. 
 
 Balthasar, J. A. Felix de, Swiss statesman, patriotic writer, d. 1810. 
 Balthazar, Casimir Victor Alexandre de, French historical and portrait 
 painter, b. 1809. 
 
 Baltus, Jean Francois, French jesuit, controversialist, b. 1667, d. 1743. 
 Baltzer, Johann Baptist, German catholic, theologian, b. 1803. 
 Baltzer, Wilhelm Eduard, Prussian founder of a free church, b. 1814. 
 Baluffi, Gaetano, Ital. cardinal, historian, theolog., b. 1788, d. 1866. 
 Balzac, Charles Louis, French architect, poet, d. 1820. 
 Baize, Jean Antoine Raymond, French historical painter, b. 1818. 
 Baize, Jean .ctienne Paul, French historical painter, b. Rome, 1815. 
 Bambini, Giacomo, Italian historical painter, b. about 1560, d. 1622. 
 Bambridge, Christoph., Eng. cardinalarchbp. of York, diplomat., d. 1514. 
 Bamestier, Johann, German historical painter, b. 1500, d. 1598. 
 Bamford, Samuel, Eng. poet, polit. -writer, journalist, 6. 1788, d. 1872. 
 Bampfield, Francis, English nonconformist clergyman, writer on the 
 
 hebrew language, d. 1684. 
 Bampton, John, English ecclesiastic, founder of the Bampton lecture, 
 
 Oxford, b. 1689, d. 1751. 
 Banchi, Seraphin, Florentine monk, archbp. of Angouleme, d. 1622. 
 Banck, Lawrence, Swedish lawyer, writer on the papacy, d. 1662. 
 Banck, Pierre Vander, Flemish engraver, b. 1649, d. 1697. 
 Bancroft, Aaron, American unitarian minister, biogr., b. 1755, d. 1839. 
 Bancroft, Edward Barth., Eng. physician, naturalist, novelist, d. 1821. 
 Bancroft, John, English prelate, master of University college, 1609, 
 
 bishop of Oxford, 1622 ; d. 1640. 
 Bandini, Angelo Maria, Italian antiquary, bibliographer, d. 1800. 
 Banfield, Charles Thomas, English economist, b. about 1795. 
 Bang, Fredrik Lewis, Danish physician, med. writer, 6.1747, d. 1820. 
 Bangius, Pedr, Swedish theologian, ecclesiastical historian, d. 1696. 
 Bangius, Thomas, Swedish philologist, theologian, b. 1600, d. 1661. 
 Banim, Michael, Irish novelist (Abel ffHara), b. about 1798. 
 Banister, John, English musical composer, violinist, d. 1679. 
 Banister, John, American naturalist, writer on Jamaica, d. 1693. 
 Bankes, George, English agriculturist, legislator, b. 1788, d. 1856. 
 Bankes, Henry, Eng. histor. writer, hellenist, legislator, ft. 1757, d. 1835. 
 Bankes, Sir John, Eng. chief justice com. pleas, royalist, b. 1589, d. 1644. 
 Banks, John, English bookseller, writer on Cromwell, b. 1709, b. 1751. 
 Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, Amer. federal general, statesman, b. 1816. 
 Banks, Robert Richardson, English architect, b. 1813, d. 1872. 
 Bannatyne, Geo., Scotch poet, editor of Scottish poetry, b. 1545, rf. 1607. 
 Bannatyne, Sir William M., Scotch judge, essayist, b. 1743, d. 1833. 
 Banneker, Benjamin, negro astronomer, in Maryland, b. 1731, d. 1806. 
 Bannerman, James, D.D., Scotch free church theologian, d. 1868. 
 Bannier, Jan, Swedish military commander, b. about 1600, d. 1641. 
 Bannister, Charles, English actor, b. 1741, d. 1804. 
 Bannister, John, English comic actor, and vocalist, 5. 17*30, d. 1836. 
 JJannister, John, D.D., English philologist, lexicographer, d. 1873. 
 
 Banti, Brigida Georgi, Italian opera singer, 6. 1756, d. 1806. 
 
 Banville, Theodore, de, French poet, novelist, b. about 1820. 
 
 Bar, Georg Ludwig, baron von, German critic, b. 1701, d. 1767. 
 
 Bara, Jules, Belgian barrister, statesman, b. 1835. 
 
 Barabas, Nikolaus, Hungarian portrait and historical painter, b. 1810. 
 
 Barabbino, Simone, Genoese historical painter, b. 1585, d. 1640. 
 
 Baraillon, Jean Francois, French physician, politician, b. 1743, d. 1816. 
 
 Baralt, Rafael Maria, Venezuelan historian, in Spain, b. about 1805. 
 
 BaranofF, Nikolaus de, Esthon. painter, in Germany (deaf-mute), b. 1810. 
 
 Baranov, Alexander Andrew Voth, Russian commercial adventurer, 
 governor of colonies in America, b. 1746, d. 1819. 
 
 Baranzano, Redcmptus, Italian monk, astronomer, b. 1590, d. 1622. 
 
 Barateau, Emile, French poet, novelist, b, 1792, d. 1870. 
 
 Baratta, Eumenio, Italian sculptor, b. 1825. 
 
 Baratta, Francesco, Genoese historical painter, b. about 1805. 
 
 Barbacena, Fehaberto Caldiera Brunt, marquis of, Brazilian states- 
 man, b. 1772, d. 1842. 
 
 Barbalho Bezerra, Agosthino, Brazilian traveller, d. about 1667. 
 
 Barbancois, Charles Helion, marquis de, Fr. agriculturist, d. 1822. 
 
 Barbanson, Jean Pierre, Belgian barrister, statesman, b. 1797. 
 
 Barbantine, Louis Antoine de Robin, comte de, French agriculturist, 
 b. 1812, d. 1869. 
 
 Barbara, Louis Charles, French novelist, dramatist, b. 1822, d. 1866. 
 Barbarigo, Gregorio, Italian cardinal, educationist, b. 1625, d. 1697. 
 Barbaro, Daniele, Venetian ecclesiastic, diplomatist, d. 1570. 
 Barbaro, Ermolao, Venetian eccles., poet, diplom., b. 1454, d. 1493. 
 Barbaro, Francesco, Venet. statesm., essayist, orator, b. 1398, d. 1454. 
 Barbarous, Charles, French girondist, physicist, b. 1767, d. 1794. 
 Barbarous, Charles Oze, French jurist, historian, b. 1792, d. 1867. 
 Barbatelli, Bernardino, Italian historical painter, b. 1542, d. 1612. 
 Barbazan, Arnold Guill., Fr. general, Irreproachable knigM, d. 1432. 
 Barbazza, Andrea, count, Italian poet, b. 1582, d. 1656. 
 Barbe Marbois, Francois de, marquis, French diplom., b. 1745, d. 1837. 
 Barbedienne, Ferdinand, French art manufacturer, b. 1810. 
 Barbello, Jacopo, Ital. hist, painter, oil and fresco, b. 1590, d. 1656. 
 Barber, James, American statesman, b. 1775, d. 1842. 
 Barber, John Warner, American historian, b. 1798. 
 Barbereau, Auguste Mathurin Balthazar, French mus. comp., b. 1799. 
 Barberini, Francesco, Italian poet, jurist, b. 1264, d. 1348. 
 Barbet, Auguste, French political economist, b. about 1800. 
 Barbet de Jouy, French archaeologist, journalist, art-critic, b. 1812. 
 Barbetti, Angelo, Italian sculptor, b. 1803. 
 Barbey d'Aurevilly, Jules, French novelist, journalist, b. 1810. 
 Barbiani, Andrea, Italian historical painter, 6. 1680, d. 1754. 
 Barbiani, Giovanni Battista, Italian painter, fresco and oil, (/. 1650. 
 Barbier, Antoine Alexandre, French bibliographer, 6. 1765, d. 1825. 
 Barbier, Henri Aug., Fr. satirical poet, Shaksperian translator, b. 1805. 
 Barbier, Louis Nicolas, French bibliographer, archaeologist, b. 1799. 
 Barbier, Nicolas Alexandre, Fr. landsc. painter, b. ab. 1800, d. 1865. 
 Barbier, Olivier Alexandre, French bibliographer, 6. 1806. 
 Barbier, Paul Jules, French dramatist, b. 1822. 
 Barbier de Maynard, C, French orientalist, b. 1827. 
 Barbieri, Fran. Legnano, Ital. histor. andlandsc. painter, b. 1623, d.1698. 
 Barbieri, Paolo Antonio, Italian painter of flowers and animals, d. 1640. 
 Barbiers, Bartholomseus, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1740, d. 1808. 
 Barbosa, Arias, Portuguese poet, grammarian, d. 1540. 
 Barbosa, Augustine, Portuguese prelate, theologian, d. 1648. 
 Barbosa, Duarte, Portuguese voyager, b. 1495, d. about 1521. 
 Barbosa, Joze, Portuguese historian, b. 1674, d. 1750. 
 Barbosa, Machado Ignazio, Portuguese historian, b. 1686, tZ..1734. 
 Barbosa, Pedro, Portuguese jurist, chancellor, d. 1596. 
 Barbot, Pierre, French landscape painter, b. 1798. 
 Barbour, Philip Pendleton, American judge, statesman, d. 1841. 
 Barca, Vicente Calderon de la, Span, historical painter, 6. 1645, d. 1685. 
 Barclay, David, Scotch soldier, became a quaker, b. 1610, d. 1686. 
 Barclay, David, Engl, quaker, merchant, philanthr., b. 1729, d. 1809. 
 Barclay, George, English engraver, b. 1800, d. 1871. 
 Barclay, James Wm., Scotch merchant, economist, M.P., b. 1832. 
 Barclay, John, Scotch physician, anatoni., physiol., b. 1759, d. 1826. 
 Barclay, Thomas, D.D., Scotch philologist, principal of Glasgow univer- 
 sity, b. 1792, d. 1873. 
 Barclay de Tolly, prince, Russian field-marshal, statesman, d. 1818. 
 Bard, Samuel, Amer. physician, horticult., philanthr., b. 1742, d. 1821. 
 Bardaji y Azara, Eusebio de, Span, statesm., diplom., b. 1765, d. 1844. 
 Barde, John de la, French historian, diplomatist, b. 1602, d. 1692. 
 Bardeleben, Kurt von, German political reformer, b. 1796. 
 Bardenfleth, Karl Emil, Danish statesman, b. 1807. 
 Bardsley, Sir James Lomax, Eng. physician, medical writer, b. 1801. 
 Bardwell, Thomas, Eng. port, painter, writer on perspective, d. 1780. 
 Bareille, Jean Franfois, French abbe, biographer, critic, b. 1813. 
 Barentz, Wilhelm, Dutch arctic navigator, d. 1597. 
 Baret, Eugene, French philologist, translator from Spanish, b. 1816. 
 Baric, Jules Jean Antoine, French designer, caricaturist, b. 1830. 
 j Baring, Charles, D.D., English theolog., bishop of Durham, b. 1807. 
 Baring, Sir Francis, bt, English merchant, statesm., b. 1737, d. 1810. 
 Baring, Sir Francis Thomas, English statesman, b. 1796, d. 1866. 
 Baring, Thomas, English banker, economist, b. 1800, d. 1873. 
 Barjavel, C. F. H., Fr. physician, naturalist, bibliogr., b. ab. 1805. 
 
25 
 
 BARKER. 
 
 BAlTI.STA. 
 
 it 
 
 Barker, Edward, English chemist, mineralogist, b. 1799, d. 1832. 
 Barker, Matthew Henry, 'The old sailor,' Amer. novelist, d. 1845. 
 Barkly, Sir Henry, English colonial governor, b. 1815. 
 Barlow, George Hilaro, English physician, 6. 1806, d. 1866. 
 Barlowe, William, English eccles., inventor of compass-box, d. 1625. 
 Barnard, Sir Andrew Francis, Irish general, b. 1773, d. 1855. 
 Barnard, Lady Anne, Scotch poetess, song-writer, b. 1750, d. 1825. 
 Barnard, Mrs. Charles, Claribcl, Eng. lyrical writer, b. 1834, d. 1869. 
 Barnard, Frederick A. P., D.D., American clergyman, mathematician, 
 
 promoter of teaching of deaf mutes, b. 1809. 
 Barnard, Henry, LL.D., Amer. administrator, educationist, b. 1811. 
 Barnard, Sir Henry William, English general, d. at Delhi, 1857. 
 Barnes, Albert, American presbyterian minister, biblical commentator, 
 
 temperance writer, b. 1798, d. 1870. 
 Barnes, Daniel H., American conchologist, b. 1785, d. 1818. 
 Barnes, Joshua, English theologian, classical editor, b. 1654, d. 1712. 
 Barnes, Philip, English naturalist, founder of Royal Botanic Society, 
 
 1838 ; b. 1791, d. 1874. 
 Barnes, Robert, D.D., English theologian, martyred 1540. 
 Barnes, Thos., Eng. journalist, editor of the Times, b. 1786, d. 1841. 
 Barnes, Thomas, English physician, b. 1792, d. 1872. 
 Barnett, John, English musical composer, b. 1802. 
 Barnett, Moses, English comedian, d. 1856. 
 Barnett, N. H., English journalist, b. 1829, d. 1872. 
 Barni, Jules Romain, French metaphysician, critic, translator.^. 1818. 
 Barnstorf, Bernhard, German physician, b. 1625, d. 1686. 
 Barnuevo, Sebastian de Herrara, Span. hist, painter, b. 1611, d. 1671. 
 Barnum, Phineas Taylor, Amer. exhibitor, lecturer, autobiog., 6. 1810. 
 Baroche, Pierre Jules, Fr. advocate, statesman, b. 1802, d. 1870. 
 Baron, Bonaventure, Irish theologian, at Rome, d. 1696. 
 Baron, Delphine (Madame Marc Fournier), Fr. actress, artist, b. 1828. 
 Baron, Henri Charles Antoine, French genre painter, b. 1817. 
 Baron, Sir John, English traveller, b. 1765, d. 1848. 
 Baron, Vincent Alfred, French actor and sculptor, b. 1820. 
 Barot, Francois Odysse, French journalist, critic, translator, b. 1830. 
 Barozzi, Giacomo, Italian architect, writer, b, 1507, d. 1577. 
 Barral, Octave Philippe Anne Aniedee, vicomte de, French senator, 
 
 author, b. 1791. 
 Barral, Pierre, French abbe, classical antiquary, d. 1772. 
 Barras, Charles M., American dramatist, d. 1873. 
 Barrau, Pierre Bernard, French economist, b. 1767, d. 1843. 
 Barrau, Theodore Henri, Fr. historian, educationist, b. 1794, d. 1865. 
 Barraud, Emile, French socialist writer, b. 1800, d. 1869. 
 Barraud, Pierre Constant, French abbe, archaeologist, b. 1801. 
 Barrault, Alexis, French engineer, b. 1812, d. 1865. 
 Barranlt-Boullon, Chas. Hipp., Fr. military writer, b. 1788, d. 1869. 
 Barre, Louis Fr. J. de la, Fr. historian, numismatist, b. 1688, d. 1738. 
 Barreiros, Ga.spar, Poruguese geographer, d. 1574. 
 Barreswil, Charles Louis, Fr. chemist, technologist, b. 18r7, d. 1871. 
 Barrett, Eaton Stannard, Irish novelist, poet, b. about 1785, d. 1820. 
 Barrett, George, English water-colour painter, d. 1842. 
 Barrett, Henry Michael, English actor, b. 1804, d. 1872. 
 Barrett, John, Irish clergyman, orientalist, astron., b. 1753, d. 1821. 
 Barrett, Rich., Eng. merchant, temperance advocate, b. 1785, d. 1855. 
 Barrett, William, English topographer, Bristol, d. 1789. 
 Barri, Giacomo, Italian painter, engraver, b. 1630, d. 1686. 
 Barrias, Felix Joseph, French historical painter, b. 1822. 
 Barringer, Daniel Moreau, American statesman, b. about 1807. 
 Barrington, George, Eng. naval officer, legislator, b. 1794, d. 1835. 
 Barrington, John Shute, 1st visct., Eng. statesman, b. 1678, d. 1734. 
 Barrington, Geo. Wm. Barrington, 7th visct., Irish peer, M.P., b. 1824. 
 Barrington, Sam., Eng. rear-admiral, atrelief of Gibraltar, b. 1729,^.1800. 
 Barrington, Shute, English bishop of Llandaff, 1769, Salisbury, 1782, 
 
 Durham, 1791, controversial theologian; b. 1734, d. 1826. 
 Barrington, Wm. Wildman, 2nd visct., Eng. statesm., b. 1710, d. 1793. 
 Barritt, Frances Fuller, American poetess, b. 1826. 
 Barron, Hugh, English portrait painter, musician, b. 1746, d. 1791. 
 Barrosa, Miguel, Spanish historical painter, b. 1538, d. 1590. 
 Barrot, Victorin Ferdinand, French imperialist politician, b. 1806. 
 Barmndia, Jose Francisco, Honduras statesm., presid. 1829 ; b. 1779. 
 Barry, Alexander, English chemist, physicist, d. 1832. 
 Barry, Sir David, Irish military physician, b. 1789, d. 1835. 
 Barry, Edward, D.D., Eng. theologian, medical writer, b. 1759, d. 1822. 
 Barry, Franyois Bernard, Fr. landsc. and marine painter, b. ab. 1815. 
 Barry, James, Irish chiefjustice king's bench, writer on tenures, d. 1673. 
 Barry, John, American naval commander, b. Ireland, 1745, d. 1803. 
 Barry, Sir Redmond, judge in Victoria colony, b. Ireland, 1813. 
 Barry, Spranger, Irish tragedian, b. 1719, d. 1777. 
 Bartels, Ernst Daniel August, German medical writer, b. 1778, d. 1838. 
 Barth, Jean Baptiste Philippe, Fr. physician, medical writer, b. 1812. 
 Barthe, Felix, French jurist, senator, b. 1795, d. 1863. 
 Barthe, Nicolas Thomas, French dramatic writer, b. 1733, d. 1785. 
 Barthel, Johann Christian Friedrich, German painter, engraver, ft. 1775. 
 Barthelemy, Anatole Jean Baptiste Autoine de, Fr. arch.eologist, b. 1821. 
 Barthelemy, Antoine Joseph, Belgian jurist, b. 1764, d. 1832. 
 Barthelemy, Augustc Marseille, Fr. satirical poet, b. 1796, d. 1867. 
 Barthelemy, Charles, French archaeologist, educationist, b. 1825. 
 Barthelemy, Edouard Marie dc, French archaeologist, critic, b. 1830. 
 
 Barthelemy, Francois, marquis de, French diplomatist, b. 1747, d. 1830. 
 Barthelemy-St.-Hilaire, Jules, French classicist, critic, b. 1805. 
 Barthet, Armand, French dramatist, poet, b. 1820, d. 1874. 
 Barthold, Friedrich Wilhelm, German historian, l>. 1799, d. 1858. 
 Bartholdy, Jacob Solomon, Prussian diplomatist, <1. 1826. 
 Bartholin, Gaspard, Danish medical writer, l>. 1650, d. 1705. 
 Bartholomew, Alfred, English architect, b. 1801, d. 1845. 
 Bartholomew, Mrs. (Anne Fayermann), Eng. artist, b. ab. 1806, d. 1862. 
 Bartholomew, Valentine, English water-colour painter, b. 1799. 
 Bartholony, J. Francois, Fr. administrator, railway promoter, b. 1796. 
 Bartin, E., French journalist, d. 1871. 
 Bartleman, James, English opera singer, b. 1769, d. 1821. 
 Bartlet, William S., Amer. episcopal clergym., biogr., orator, b. 1809. 
 Bartlett, Elisha, Amer. physician, lecturer, mod. writer, b. 1804, d. 1 855. 
 Bartlett, John Russell, Amer. archaeologist, bibliographer, b. 180S. 
 Bartlett, Josiah, Amer. physician, judge, statesman, b. 1729, d. 1795. 
 Bartlett, W. H., English artist, d. 1854. 
 Bartoli, Guiseppe, Italian antiquary, b. 1717, d. 1788. 
 Bartolini, Giuseppe Maria, Italian painter, 6. 1657, d. 1725. 
 Bartolomeo, Andreas de, Ital. ecclesiastic, jurist, b. 1400, d. 1479. 
 Barton, Andrew, Scotch naval com., 'high admiral,' d. about 1510. 
 Bartram, John, Amer. quaker, physician, botanist, b. 1710, d. 1777. 
 Bartram, William, American naturalist, traveller, d. 1823. 
 Barttelot, Wal. Barttelot, Eng. lieut.-col. rifle volunteers, M.P., b. 1820. 
 Baruffoldi, Geronimo, Italian dramatist, essayist, b. 1675, d. 1753. 
 Barwick, John, English theologian, royalist, b. 1612, d. 1664. 
 Basan, Pierre Francois, French engraver, antiquary, b. 1723, d. 1797. 
 Baseillac, Jean ( Frere Come), French surgeon, lithotomist, d. 1781. 
 Basevi, James Palladio, English military engineer, d. India, 1871. 
 Basevi, Nathaniel, English jurist, b. 1792, d. 1869. 
 Basilius, Friedrich Wilhelm, Pruss. diplom., archreol., b. 1753, d. 1822. 
 Basilowitz, John, emperor of Russia (first Czar), d. 1584. 
 Basin, Thomas, French prelate, historian, essayist, b. 1402, d. 1491. 
 Basinio de Basanii, Italian poet, b. about 1425, d. 1457. 
 Basire, Isaac, Eng. ecclesiastic, traveller in Greece, b. 1607, d. 1676. 
 Basmadji, Abraham, Hungarian philolog., printer in Turkey, d. 1746. 
 Bass, George, Eng. naval surg., geograph. discoverer, b. 1759, d. 1800. 
 Bass, Michael Thomas, English brewer, legislator, b. 1799. 
 Bassano, Francesco da Ponte, Italian painter, b. 1475, d. 1530. 
 Bassano, Hugues Bernard Maret, due de, French statesman, b. 1758. 
 Bassano, Napoleon Joseph Hugues Maret, due de, French diplomatist, 
 senator, b. 1803. 
 
 Bassanville, Anais Lebrun, comtesse de, French educational writer, 
 novelist, b. 1806. 
 
 Basseporte, Madeleine Francois, Fr. painter of birds, b. 1700, d. 1780. 
 
 Bassermann, Friedrich David, German economist, b. 1811. 
 
 Bassett, Francis, English banker, M.P., b. 1820. 
 
 Bassett, Richard, American statesman, judge, d. 1815. 
 
 Bassetti, Marco Antonio, Italian painter, engraver, b. 1588, d. 1630. 
 
 Basseville, Nicolas JeanH.de, Fr. diplom., assassinated at Rome, 1793. 
 
 Bassi, Francesco, Italian historical painter, b. 1642, d. 1710. 
 
 Bassi, Francesco, Bolognese painter, b. 1664, d. 1693. 
 
 Bassol, John, Scotch monk, physician, metaphysician, d. 1347. 
 
 Bast, Dominique de, Flemish painter, b. 1782, d. 1842. 
 
 Bastiami, Giovanni, Florentine sculptor, b. 1830, d. 1868. 
 
 Bastide, Jules, French journalist, publicist, statesman, b. 1800. 
 
 Bastide, Louis, French poet, b. about 1805. 
 
 Bastide, Marc Antoine de la, Fr. financier, diplom., b. 1624, d, 1704. 
 Baston, Robert, English carmelite monk, poet laureate, d. 1310. 
 Batbie, Anselme Polycarpe, French jurist, b. 1828. 
 Batcheldor, Thomas, English lawyer, antiquary, b. 1796, d. 1866. 
 Batchelor, William, English surgeon, temperance reformer, d. 1843. 
 Bate, Julius, Eng. philologist, biblical translator, b. 1711, d. 1771. 
 Bate, William, Eng. physician, medical writer, b. 1778, d. 1821 
 Bate, William Thornton, English naval officer, hydrographic surveyor, 
 
 astronomer, b. 1820, d. 1857. 
 Bateman, Joseph, English barrister, writer on excise laws, d. 1863. 
 Bateman, Kate Josephine (Mrs. George Crowe), Amer. actress, b. 1S42. 
 Bateman, T. Eng. physician, writer on skin diseases, b. 1779, d. 1821. 
 Bateman, W., Eng. bish. of Norwich, founder Trinity hall, Camb., d.1354. 
 Bateman, William, English engraver, topographer, b. 1806, d. 1833. 
 Bates, David Stanhope, American mathematician, judge, canal and 
 
 railroad engineer, b. 1777, d. 1839. 
 Bates, Edward, American jurist, b. 1793. 
 Bates, Edward, English merchant, legislator, b. 1816. 
 Bates, John, English musician, b. 1740, d. 1799. 
 Bates, Stewart, D.D., Scotch presbyt., temperauce reformer, d. 1856. 
 Bates, William, Eng. nonconf., thelog., biographer, b. 1625, d. 1 
 Bathurst, Henry, earl, Eng. lord chancellor, 1771-8 ; b. 1714, d. 17i'4. 
 Bathurst, Henry, English bishop of Norwich, b. 1744, d. 1837. 
 Batsch, Augustus Johann G. Karl, Germ, naturalist, b. 1761, d. 1801. 
 Batta, Alexander, Dutch violoncellist, b. 1816. 
 
 Battaille, Charles Amable, French singer, writer on the voice, b. 1S22. 
 Battely, John, English ecclesiastic, archaeologist, b. 1747, d. 179S. 
 Batteux, Charles, French poet, critic, essayist, b. 1713, d. 17S0. 
 Battie, William, Eng. physician, writer on insanity, b. 1704, d. 1116, 
 Battishall, Jonathan, English musical composer, b. 1738, d. 1801. 
 Battista, Guiseppe, Neapolitan poet, theologian, dramatist, if. 1675. 
 
17 
 
 Batty, Lieut. -coL, English topographer, artist, b. 1789, d. 1848. 
 Batz, Jean, baron de, French general, histor. writer, b. 1760, d. 1822. 
 Bauchart, Alexandre Quentin, French administrator, senator, b. 1809. 
 Bauchart, Quentin Francois, French jurist, b. 1829. 
 Baudelocque, Jean Louis, Fr. writer on midwifery, b. 1746, d. 1810. 
 Baudelocque, Louis Auguste, French writer on surgery, 6. about 1798. 
 Baudement, Kmile, French naturalist, b. 1810, d. 1864. 
 Baudin, Jean B., Fr. physician, writer on inflammation, b. 1801, d. 1851. 
 Baudin, Nicolas, French navigator, naturalist, b. 1750, d. 1803. 
 Baudin, Pierre Charles, French republican writer, b. 1751, d. 1799. 
 Baudin des Ardennes, Charles, French vice-admiral, b. 1784. 
 Baudissin,OttoF. Magnus von, Danish milit. commander, b. 1792,^.1864. 
 Baudissin, Wolf Heinrich Friedrich Karl, baron von, German philolo- 
 gist, critic, b. 1789, d. 1866. 
 Baudius, Dominique, French poet, historiograph, of Holland, (/. 1613. 
 Baudot de Juilli, Nicolas, French historian, d. 1759. 
 Baudouin, Jean Magloire, French mathemat., educationist, b. 1819. 
 Baudrand, Michel Antoine, French eccles., geograph., b. 1633, d. 1700. 
 Baudrillart, Henri Joseph Leon, French economist, b. 1821. 
 Baudrimont, Alexandre Edouard, French chemist, b. 1806. 
 Baudry, Frederic, French philologist, grammarian, h. 1818. 
 Baudry, Frederic Paul, French archaeologist, b. 1825. 
 Baudry, Paul Jacques Aime, French histor. and port, painter, /). 1828. 
 Bauduins, Anthony Francis, Flem. engraver, painter, b. 1640, d. 1700. 
 Bauer, Aurel Reinhard Edwin, Saxon theologian, historian, b. 1816. 
 Bauer, Bernard, Fr. abbe, preacher, of Jewish family, b. Pesth, 1829. 
 Bauer, Charles Louis, German philologist, b. 1730, d. 1799. 
 Bauer, Edgar, German publicist, b. 1821. 
 
 Bauer, Jean Guillaume, painter, engr., of Strasburg, b. 1610, d. 1640. 
 Baugniet, Charles, Belgian designer, port, and genre painter, b. 1814. 
 Bauldri, Paul, Dutch historian, chronologcr, J.1639, d. 1706. 
 Baulot, Jacques, French surgeon, lithotomist, 6. 1651, d. 1720. 
 Baumer, Johann W., Germ, physician, mineralogist, b. 1719, d, 1788. 
 Baumgftrten, Sigismund Jacques, German theolog., b. 1706, d. 1755. 
 Baumgartner, Andreas von, Ger. physicist, statesm., b. 1793, d. 1865. 
 Baumgartner, Gallus Jacques, Swiss publicist, polit. writer, b. 1797. 
 Baumgartner, Karl Heinrich, German physician, physiolog., b. 1798. 
 Baumstark, Anton, German philologist, b. 1800. 
 Baumstark, Eduard, German economist, b. 1807. 
 Bauny, r/tienue, French theolog., writer on canon law, b. 1564, d. 1649. 
 Baur, Fried. Wilhelm von, Germ, engineer in Russian service, d. 1783. 
 Baur, Johann Wilhelm, Germ, architectural painter, b. 1738, d. 1813. 
 Bause, Johann Friedrich, German engraver, b. 1738, d. 1813. 
 Bausset, Louis Francois de, French cardinal, biographer, b. East 
 
 Indies, 1748, d. 1824. 
 Bautain, Louis E. Marie, Fr. abbe, thcol., mctaphys., b. 1796, d. 1867. 
 Baux, Jean Martin Jules, French archivist, b. 1806. 
 Bava, Giovanni Battista Eusebio, baron, Piedmontese military com- 
 mander, b. 1790. 
 Bavoux, Francois Nicolas, French jurist, b. 1774, d. 1848. 
 Baxter, Sir David, bt., Scotch manufac, philanthr., 6. 1793, d. 1872. 
 Baxter, George, English printer in oil-colours, b. 1806, d. 1867 
 Baxter, William, English writer on botany, b. 1787, d. 1871. 
 Baxter, Wm. Edward, Scotch merchant, econom., administ, b. 1825. 
 Bayard, Antoine, French vaudevillist, b. 1807. 
 Bayard, James A., American statesman, diplomat., b. 1767, d. 1815. 
 Bayen, Pierre, French chemist, b. 1725, d. 1798. 
 Bayer, Hieronymus Johann Paul, German jurist, b. 1792. 
 Bayer, Theophile Sigefroy, French orientalist, b. 1694, d. 1738. 
 Bayes, Joshua, English presbyt. minister, physicist, b. 1671, d. 1746. 
 Bayes, Thomas F., Eng. dissenting min., physicist, b. 1702, d. 1761. 
 Bayle, Marc Antoine, French eccles., preacher, poet, biogr., b. 1825. 
 Bayley, Anselm, English theologian, hebraist, d. 1791. 
 Bayley, F. W. N., English poet, magazine writer, b. 1808, d. 1852. 
 Bayley, Sir J., Eng. judge, ■writer on commercial law, b. 1773, d. 1841. 
 Bayley, Rich., Amer. physician, writer on fever, b. 1745, d. 1801. 
 Bayley, Thomas Haynes, Eng. lyric poet, novelist, b. 1797, d. 1839. 
 Bayly, Sir Henry, Eng. lieut.-col., in Peninsula, b. 1790, d. 1867. 
 Bayly, Lewis, English bishop of Bangor, author of ' Practice of 
 
 Piety,' b. 1565, d. 1632. 
 Bayne, W., Scotch presbyt. minister, theologian, writer against the 
 
 stage, b. 1710, d. 1790. 
 Bayntun, Sir William Henry, English admiral, at Trafalgar, and La 
 
 Plata, b. 1765, d. 1840. 
 BayrhofFer, Karl Theodor, German metaphysician, democrat, b. 1812. 
 Bazaine, Dominique, French railway engineer, b. 1809. 
 Bazaine, Francois Achille, French marshal, imperialist, sentenced, 1873, 
 
 to twenty years imprisonment for surrendering Metz, in 1870, to 
 
 the Germans ; b. 1811. 
 Bazancourt, Cesar, baron de, French military historian, novelist, b, 
 
 about 1810, d. 1865. 
 Bazard, Amand, Fr. founder of 'Charbonnerie' society, b. 1791, d. 1832. 
 Bazin, Antoine Pierre Ernest, French writer on skin diseases, b. 1807. 
 Bazin, Antoine Pierre Louis, French orientalist, b. 1790, d. 1863. 
 Bazin, Pierre Charles, French painter, b. 1802, d. 1829. 
 Bazire, Victor, French writer on surgery, translator, b. 1836, d. 1867. 
 Bazley, Sir Thomas, English manufacturer, economist, b. 1797. 
 Beach, Sir Michael Edward Hicks, English administrator, b. 1837. 
 
 Beadon, Richard, English bishop of Gloucester, 1789, Bath and 
 
 Wells, 1802, b. 1737, d. 1824. 
 Beal, William, English clergyman, archieologist, educationist, b. 1815. 
 Beale, Lionel J., English surgeon, b. 1797, d. 1871. 
 Beaton, Jas., Scotch roman catholic bishop of Galloway, 1508, lord 
 
 chancellor of Scotland, archbishop of St. Andrews, 1523; d. 1#39. 
 Beaton, James, Scotch roman catholic archbishop of Glasgow, di- 
 plomatist, benefactor to the Scots college in France, b. 1517, d. 1603. 
 Beatson, Robert, LL.D., Scotch military historian, b. 1742, d. 1818. 
 Beatson, William Ferguson, Scotch military commander, in India 
 
 and Turkey, b. 1804, d. 1872. 
 Beattie, Alexander O., M.D., D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, 
 
 theologian, educationist, b. 1783, d. 1858. 
 Beattie, James, a Scotch village shoemaker, who for sixty years taught 
 
 from thirty to forty children daily without charge, b. 1781, d. 1867. 
 Beaubrunn, Henri, French portrait painter, b. 1603, d. 1677. 
 Beauchesne, Alcido Hyacinthedu Boisde, Fr. poet, biographer, b. 1804. 
 Beauclerc, Lord Frede rick, Eng. naval commander, b. 1808, d. 1865. 
 Beauclerck, Lord Aubrey, English naval commander, d. 1740. 
 Beaufort, Louis de, French writer on ancient Roman history, d. 1795. 
 Beaufort D'Hautpoul, Chs. Marie Napoleon, Fr. general, 6. Naples, 1804. 
 Beauharnais, Alexandre de, French vicomte, first husband of empress 
 
 Josephine, d. 1794. 
 Beauharnais, Hortcnse, queen of Holland, mother of Napoleon III., 
 
 b. 1758, d. 1837. 
 
 Beaulieu, Johann P., baron von, Austrian general, b. 1725, d. 1820. 
 Beaulieu, Sebastien de Pontault de, Fr. military engineer, d. 1674. 
 Beaume, Joseph, Fr. histor., portrait, and marine painter, b. 1798. 
 Beaume, Louis Alexandre, French jurist, b. 1827. 
 Beaumont, Claude fitienne, French architect, b. 1757, d. 1811. 
 Beaumont, Claudio, II Cavalierc, Italian painter, b. 1694, d. 1766. 
 Beaumont, Elie de, French advocate, jurist, b. 1732, d. 1785. 
 Beaumont, Felix Bellator, comte do, Fr. agriculturist, b. 1793, d. 1866. 
 Beaumont, Francis, English judge of common pleas, d. 1598. 
 Beaumont, Gustavo Auguste, comte de, Fr. senator, b. 1802, d. 1866. 
 Beaumont, John Thomas, Eng. topographer, patriot, b. 1774, d. 1841. 
 Beaumont, Thomas, Eng. surgeon, temperance reformer, b. 1795, d. 1859. 
 Beaumont, Wentworth Blackett, Eng. magistrate, M.P., b. 1829. 
 Beaumont, Mdme. de, Fr. novelist, writer for youth, b. 1711, d. 1780. 
 Beaumont de Perefix, Hardouin, archbp. of Paris, historian, d. 1670. 
 Beaumont Vassy, edouard Ferdinand, vicomte de, French publicist, 
 
 historical writer, b. 1816. 
 Beaune, Floriment de, French mathematician, d. 1652. 
 Beaunoir (Alexandre, Louis B. Robineau, called), French dramatist, 
 
 b. 1746, d. 1823. 
 
 Beaurain, Jean de, Fr. geographer, milit. historian, b. 1697, d. 1771. 
 Beauregard, Peter G. T., Amer. confed. general, milit. engineer, b. 1817. 
 Beaurepaire-Bohan, Henrique de, Brazilian officer of engineers, 
 
 traveller, of French origin, b. about 1818. 
 Beauvais, Guillaume, French numismatist, writer on medals of the 
 
 .Roman empire, b. 1698, d. 1773. 
 Beauvallet, Leon, Fr. theatrical journalist, dramatic, miter, b. 1829. 
 Beauvallet, Pierre Francois, Fr. tragedian, dramatist, b. 1801, d. 1873. 
 Beauvilliers, Francois de, ducde St. Aignan, Fr. poet, b. 1607, d. 1687. 
 Beauvoir, Roger de (Edouard Roger de Bully, called), French 
 
 dramatist, poet, novelist, b. 1809, d. 1866. 
 Beavan, James, English theologian, prof, of divinity, Toronto, b. 1800. 
 Beaver, Philip, English navigator, explorer in Africa, b. 1760, d. 1813. 
 Beazley, Charles, English architect, b. 1759, d. 1829. 
 Seazley, Samuel, English architect, dramatic writer, b. 1782, d. 1851. 
 Beccadelli, Antonio, Sicilian historian, 6. 1374, d. 1471. 
 Beccadelli, Luigi, Italian ecclesiastic, biographer, d. 1572. 
 Beccafumi, Domenico, Micarino, Italian painter, b. 1484, d. 1549. 
 Beccari, Agostino, Italian pastoral poet, d. 1520. 
 
 Beccari, Giacomo Bartolommeo, Italian physician, philosophical 
 
 writer, b. 1682, d. 1766. 
 Becerra, Gaspar, Spanish painter, sculptor, architect, b. 1520, d. 1570. 
 Bechamp, J. A., French physician, writer on fermentation, b. 1816. 
 Bechard, Jean Jacques Marie Ferdinand, French publicist, b. 1799. 
 Becher, Daniel, German physician, medical writer, d. 1670. 
 Becher, Seigfried, Bohemian economist, statistical writer, b. 1806. 
 Bechstein, Johann Mathias, German ornithologist, forest cultivator, 
 
 b. 1757, d. 1822. 
 
 Beck, Christian Daniel, German philologist, historian, b. 1757, d. 1832. 
 
 Beck, Dominique, German mathematician, naturalist, 6. 1732, d. 1791. 
 
 Beck, Johann Ludwig Wilhelm, German jurist, b. 1786. 
 
 Beck, Karl, German poet, son of a jewish merchant, Hungary, b. 1817. 
 
 Beck, Michael, German theologian, hebraist, b. 1653, d. 1712. 
 
 Beck, Theodoric Romeyn, American physician, botanist, chemist, 
 
 medical jurist, b. 1791, d. 1855. 
 Becker, Jacobus, German historical painter, b. 1810. 
 Becker, Julius, French musical composer, critic, b. 1811. 
 Becker, Karl Ferdinand, German philologist, b. 1774, d. 1849. 
 Becker, Karl F., Saxon archaeologist, writer on music, organist, b. 1804. 
 Becker, Wilhelm Gottlieb, Germ, agricult., archaeol., b. 1763, d. 1813. 
 Bcckerath, Hermann von, German statesman, b. 1801. 
 Beckingham, Charles, English dramatic writer, b. 1699, d. 1730. 
 Beckles, Ed. Hyndman, D.D., Eng. bishop of Sierra Leone, 1859 ; b. 1816. 
 
28 
 
 BECKR. 
 
 BENOtT. 
 
 30 
 
 Beckr, Pierre Jean, Belgian ecclesiastic, general of the order of Jesuits, 
 1853, theologian, b. 1795. 
 
 Beckwith, Sir George, English military commander, b. 1753, d. 1823. 
 
 Beckwith, William, English general, served in Peninsula and at 
 Waterloo, b. 1796, d. 1871. 
 
 Beclard, Jules, French physician, medical writer, b. 1818. 
 
 Beclard, Pierre Auguste, Fr. anatomist, physiologist, b. 1785, d. 1825. 
 
 Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo, Spanish poet, journalist, d. 1870. 
 
 Becquerel, Louis Alfred, French physician, b. 1814, d. 1862. 
 
 Bedaff, Anthony Aloisius Emanuel van, Dutch painter, b. 1787, d. 1829. 
 
 Bedell, Gregory T., D.D., Amer. prot. episc. theolog., b. 1793, d. 1834. 
 
 Bedford, Arthur, Eng. theol., writer against the stage, b. 1668, d. 1745. 
 
 Bedford, Hilkiah, English clergyman, jacobite writer, d. 1724. 
 
 Bedford, John RusseU, duke of, Eng. agriculturist, b. 1766, d. 1839. 
 
 Bedford, Paul, English comedian and singer, b. 1798, d. 1871. 
 
 Bedwell, William,"Eng. clergym., topog., bibl. transl, b. 1562, d. 1632. 
 
 Beecher, Catherine Esther, Amer. promoter of female education, 6.1800. 
 
 Beecher, Edward, American author, preacher, professor, b. 1804. 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward, American preacher, journalist, emancipa- 
 tionist, b. 1813. 
 
 Beekerk, Herman Wouters, Dutch histor. painter, b. 1756, d. 1796. 
 
 Beeldemaker, Frans, Dutch histor. and port, painter, b. 1669, d. 1736. 
 
 Beer, Georg Joseph, Austrian oculist, med. writer, b. 1763, d. 1821. 
 
 Beer, Joseph von, Dutch historical painter, b. 1550, d. 1596. 
 
 Beer, Michael, Bavarian dramatic author, d. 1833. 
 
 Beer, Wilhelm, German astronomer, d. 1850. 
 
 Beerblock, Jan, Dutch fresco painter, b. 1736, d. 1806. 
 
 Beerings, Gregory, Flemish painter, b. 1500, d. 1544. 
 
 Beffroy de Reigny, Louis Abel, Cousin Jacques, French dramatic 
 author, b. 1757, d. 1811. 
 
 Begat, Pierre, French engineer, geographer, b. 1800. 
 
 Begeyn, Abraham, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1650, d. 1710. 
 
 Begin, Auguste Emile, French physician, biogr., historian, b. 1803. 
 
 Begue de Presle, Achille Guillaume le, Fr. naturalist., b. 1735, d. 1807. 
 
 Beguillet, E., French agriculturist, historical writer, d. 1786. 
 
 Behadar Shan, mogul emperor, 2nd son of Aurungzebe, b. 1642, d. 1712. 
 
 Behan, Thomas, Eng. journalist, edit. London Gazette, b. 1803, d. 1869. 
 
 Behic, Armand, French statesman, economist, b. 1808. 
 
 Behrens, Konrad Barth. , Ger. physician., med. writer, b. 1660, d. 1736. 
 
 Bearing, Vitus, Swedish poet, historian, b. 1617, d. 1675. 
 
 Beich, Jacobus Franz, Germ, landsc. and cattle painter, b. 1655, d. 1748. 
 
 Beinaschi, Giov. Battista, Piedmontese histor. painter, b. 1634,;?. 1688. 
 
 Beisler, Hermann von, German statesman, political writer, b. 1790. 
 
 Bek, Anthony de, Eng. prelate, bp. of Durham, milit. leader, d. 1310. 
 
 Bekker, Elizab., Dutch novelist, with Agatha Deken, b. 1738, d. 1804. 
 
 Bekynton, Thomas, English prelate, bishop of Bath and Wells, diplo- 
 matist, secretary to King Henry VI., b. about 1390, d. 1465. 
 
 Bel, Jean le, Belgian chronicler, d. about 1390. 
 
 Bel, Jean Jaques, French philologist, critic, d. 1738. 
 
 Belair, Alexandre Pierre Julienne de, French general, b. 1747, d. 1819. 
 
 Belanger, Jean Bapt. Charles Joseph, French mathematician, b. 1790. 
 
 Belcamp, Jan van, Dutch painter in England, d. 1653. 
 
 Belcher, Jonathan, Eng. governor of Amer. colonies, b. 1681, d. 1757. 
 
 Belcher, Jonathan, Eng. chief justice of Nova Scotia, b. 1708, d. 1776. 
 
 Belchier, John, English surgeon (Guy's hospital), 6. 1706, d. 1785. 
 
 Belcredi, Richard, count, Austrian political administrator, b. 1823. 
 
 Belden, Joshua, American physician, philanthropist, b. 1768, d. 1818. 
 
 Belgiojoso, Cristina T., princess, Italian patriot and writer, b. 1808. 
 
 Belgrado, Manuel, military commander, forS. American States, d. 1820. 
 
 Belhomme, Jacques Etienne, French physician, med. writer, b. 1800. 
 
 Belin de Ballu, Jacques Nicolas, French hellenist, b. 1753, d. 1813. 
 
 Belin de Launay, Jules Henri Robert, Fr. histor., geographer, b. 1814. 
 
 Beling, Richard, Irish political writer, d. 1613, d. 1677. 
 
 Belio, Baron, orientalist, hellenist, at Vienna, d. 1839. 
 
 Bell, Alex. Montgomerie, Scotch jurist, professor, b. 1810, d. 1866. 
 
 Bell, Benjamin, Scotch surgeon, writer on surgery, b. 1749, d. 1806. 
 
 Bell, James, Scotch geographer, b. 1769, d. 1833. 
 
 Bell, Jean Adam Schall de, Fr. astron., orientalist, b. 1591, d. 1666. 
 
 Bell, John, English bookseller, journalist, b. 1745, d. 1831. 
 
 Bell, John, Scotch orientalist, b. 1793, d. 1826. 
 
 Bell, John, English sculptor, b. 1812. 
 
 Bell, Patrick, Scotch presbyt. min., inventor of reaping machine, d. 1809. 
 Bell, Sir Robert, English publicist, speaker of house of commons, 
 
 chief baron of exchequer, d. 1577. 
 Bell, Kobert, Irish journalist, b. 1766, d. 1826. 
 Bell, Robert, Scotch jurist, antiquary, b. 1782, d. 1861. 
 Bell, Thomas, English surgeon, anatomist, naturalist, b. 1792. 
 Bell, William, English painter, d. about 1804. 
 
 Bell, William, Eng. theol., writer on the Lord's Supper, b. 1731, d. 1816. 
 Bellagatta, Angelo Ant., Ital. physician, med. writer, b. 1704, d. 1742. 
 Bellaguet, Louis Francois, French historian, critic, b. 1807. 
 Bellamy, Joseph, Amer. congregationalist, theolog., b. 1729, d. 1790. • 
 Bellanger, Francois Joseph, French architect, b. 1744, d. 1818. 
 Bellardi, Carlo Luigi, Italian physician, botanist, b. 1741, d. 1828. 
 Bellarini, Giovanni, Italian theolog., writer on doctrine, d. 1630. 
 Bellay, Giovanni, Italian cardinal, papal envoy to Henry VIII., poet, 
 
 historian, b. 1492, d. 1560. 
 Bellay, Rene du, French prelate, bp. of Mans, horticulturist, d. 1546. 
 
 Bellecourt, Rose Petronillc le Roy de la Corbinaye, Madame (wife ol 
 
 J. C. Gillos), French comedian, b. 1730, d. 1799. 
 Bellegingue, Pierre, French physician, med. writer, h. 1 7.".:', '/. 1 
 Bellepierre de Neuve-Eglise, Louis Joseph, French agriculturist, I>, 
 
 1727, d. about 1790. 
 Bellermann, Johann Jacobus, Germ, theolog., antiq., b. 1754, d. 1842. 
 Belleteste, B., French orientalist, translator, geogr., b. 1778, d. 1808. 
 Belleval, Pierre Richer de, Fr. physician, botanist, b. 1558, d. 1623. 
 Bellew, JohnC. M., English dramatic reader, elocutionist, b. 1823. 
 Belliard, Aug. Daniel, count de, Fr. general, diplom., b. 1733, d. 1822. 
 Bellievre, Pompone de, French statesman, b. 1529, d. 1607. 
 Belloc, Madame (Anne L. Swauton), daughter of an Irish officer, trans- 
 lator of Eng. works into Fr., promoter of female education, b. 1790. 
 Belloc, Jean Hilaire, French histor. and port, painter, b. 1787, d. I860. 
 Belloc, Jean Louis, French surgeon, writer on .surgery, medical jurist, 
 
 b. 1730, d. 1807. 
 Bellocq, Alexandre, French photographer, b. about 1815. 
 Belloguet, Dominique Francois Louis, baron Roget de, French 
 
 archajologist, b. 1796, d. 1872. 
 Belloi, Pierre Laurent Burette de, French dramatist, b. 1727, d. 1775. 
 Belloni. Geronimo, Boman banker, writer on commerce, d. 1760. 
 Bellot, Pierre, French poet, b. 1783, d. 1855. 
 Bellot, Pierre Francois, Genevese jurist, b. 1776, d. 1836. 
 Bellotti, Bernardo, Venetian architectural painter, 6. 1724, d. 1780. 
 Bellowski, Augustus, Polish poet, histor. writer, librarian, b. ab. 1806. 
 Belloy, Auguste, marquis de, French poet, b. about 1815. 
 Belloy, Pierre Laurent Buyratte de, French dramatist, b. 1127, d. 1775. 
 Bellucci, Giovanni Battista, Roman historical painter, b. 1506, d. 1541. 
 Belluci, Antonio, Venetian painter, b. 1654, d. 1726. 
 Belmas, Louis, French prelate, bishop of Cambray, b. 1757, d. 1841. 
 Belmontet, Louis, French poet, dramatist, legislator, 6. 1799. 
 Belmore, Somerset Richard Lowry Corry, 4th earl of, representative 
 
 Irish peer, colonial governor, b. 1835. 
 Belosielsky, Prince, Russian poet, d. 1809. 
 Belot, Adolphe, French dramatist, novelist, b. 1830. 
 Belson, Geo. John, Eng. lieut.-gen.; in Peninsular war ; b. 1788, rf. 1868. 
 Belsunce, Henri Francois Xavier de, French prelate, bishop of Marseille, 
 
 theologian, b. 1671, d. 1755. 
 Belton, Mrs. Frances Elizabeth, English actress, d. Exeter, 1867. 
 Beltramelli, Giuseppe, Italian antiquary, collector of MSS. and medals, 
 
 b. 1734, d. 1815. 
 Belvedere, Andrea, Neapolitan painter, b. 1646, d. 1689. 
 Belville, John Henry, English astronomer, b. 1797, d. 1856. 
 Bembo,Pietro Luigi, Italian publicist, in Austrian service, b. 1825. 
 Bemmell, Pieter van, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1669, d. 1723. 
 Bemmell, Willem, Dutch marine and battle painter, b. 1630, d. 1703. 
 Benaglia, Antonio, Roman sculptor, b. about 1800. 
 Benalcazar, Sebastian de, Spanish conqueror of Popayan country in 
 
 South America, d. 1550. 
 Benary, Franz Ferdinand, German orientalist, critic, b. 1805. 
 Benaschi, Giovanni Battista, Piedmontese painter, b. 1634, d. 1688. 
 Benavides, Vincente de, Spanish painter, b. 1637, d. 1703. 
 Bendel, Bernhard, Bavarian sculptor, d. 1736. 
 
 Bender, Jean Valen., Belgian musician, mus. director, b. 1802, d. 1873. 
 Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, Italian mathematican, d. 1590. 
 Benedetti, Tommaso, Roman engraver, b. 1797. 
 Benedetti, Vincent, French diplomatist, b. Corsica, 1815. 
 Benedettis, Dominico de, Piedmontese painter, b. 1610, d. 1678. 
 Benedetto, Castiglione, Italian pastoral painter, b. 1616, d. 1670. 
 Benediktof, Vladimir Grigorievich, Russian lyric poet, b. 1806, d. 1873. 
 Benedix, Julius Rod., Saxon drainat., writeron comedy, b. 1811,rf.l873. 
 Benefiali, Marco, Roman historical painter, b. 1684, d. 1764. 
 Benevoli, Antonio, Italian surgeon, writer on surgery, b. 1685, d. 1756. 
 Benezeck, Charles, English historical and portrait painter, d. 1794. 
 Benezet, Anthony, American philanthropist, b. France, 1713, d. 1784. 
 Beni, Paolo, Italian philologist, critic, d. 1627. 
 Benignus, Julius, Roman theologian, jurist, d. 1628. 
 Benini, Sigismond, Italian landscape painter, b. 1675, d. 1725. 
 Beniowski, B., Polish major, in England, inventor of automaton printing 
 
 machine, b. 1801, d. 1867. 
 Benjamin, Park, American poet, journalist, lecturer, d. 1864. 
 Benkert, Johann Peter, German sculptor, b. 1709, d. 1760. 
 Bennett, Mrs. A. M., English novelist, d. 1808. 
 
 Bennett, Charles H., English artist, illustrator cf 'Pilgrim's Progress,' 
 
 ' Punch,' &c, b. 1830, d. 1867. 
 Bennett, James, D.D., Eng. congreg. min., theolog., b. 1774, d. 1862. 
 Bennett, James Gordon, Scotch journalist in Amer., b. 1800, d. 1872. 
 Bennett, John Hughes, English physician, medical writer, b. 1812. 
 Bennett, Wm., Eng. landsc. painter in water colours, b. 1811, d. 1871. 
 Bennett, William Cox, English poet, educationist, b. 1820. 
 Bennett, William Jas. Early, Eng. clergym., ritualist, theolog., b. 1805. 
 Benning, Johan Bodecher, Dutch poet, essayist, b. 1606, d. 1642. 
 Benningsen, L. Aug., baron, Puss, general, b. Hanover, 1745, d. 1826. 
 Bennis, Geo. Geary, Irish theolog. , writer on life insurance, b. 1703. 
 Bennitski, Alexander Petroviteh, liussian poet, b. 1780, d. 1808. 
 Benoiston de Chateauneuf, Louis F., Fr. economist, b. 1776, d. 1850. 
 Benoit, Elias, Dutch protestant, theologian, historian, b. 1640, d. 1723. 
 Benoit, Philippe Martin Narcisse, Fr. topographer, engineer, b. 1791. 
 
31 
 
 BERTOLOTTI. 
 
 32 
 
 Benomont, Pierre, French physician, philanthropist, b. 1679, d. 1772. 
 Benouville, Francois Leon, French painter, b. 1821, d. 1859. 
 Benouville, Jean Acliille, French landscape painter, I. 1815. 
 Benozzo, Florentine historical and portrait painter, b. 1539, d. 1607. 
 Benson, Christopher, Eng. clergym., master of Temple, b. 1788, d. 1868. 
 Benson, Edward, English artist, b. 1809, d. 1863. 
 Benson, George, D.D., English socinian theologian, b. 1699, d. 1762. 
 Benson, Sir John, Irish civil engineer, b. 1812. 
 
 Benson, Joseph, English wesleyan, bibl. commentator, b. 1748, d. 1821. 
 
 Bent, Jan van der, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1650, d. 1690. 
 
 Bentall, Edward Hammond, English ironfounder, agricultural imple- 
 ment maker, b. 1814. 
 
 Bentham, Sir Samuel, English architect, naval engineer, general in 
 Russian service, b. 1756, d. 1831. 
 
 Bentinck, Baron, Dutch diplomatist, musical amateur, b. 1798, d. 1868. 
 
 Bentinck, Geo. Aug. F. Cavendish, Eng. barrister, administ., h. 1821. 
 
 Bentivoglio, Cornelio, cardinal, Ital. poet, diplomat., b. 1668, d. 1732. 
 
 Bentley, J. C, English landscape engraver, b. 1810, d. 1851. 
 
 Beutley, Richard, English publisher, 6. 1794, d. 1871. 
 
 Bentley, Samuel, English printer, archaeologist, b. 1786, d. 1868. 
 
 Benton, Thomas Hart, American lawyer, senator, political historian, 
 b. 1783, d. 1858. 
 
 Benvenuti, Pietro, Italian historical painter, b. 1769, d. 1844. 
 
 Benvoglienti, Ubcrto, Italian historian, b. 1668, d. 1733. 
 
 Benwell, J. II., English portrait painter, b. 1764, d. 1785. 
 
 Benzel-Sternau, Christian Ernst, count vou, German statesman, 
 humourist, dramatist, b. 1767, d. 1832. 
 
 Benzelius, Eric, Swed. theologian, historian, linguist, b. 1675, d. 1743. 
 
 Benzelius, Hendrik, Swedish traveller, 6. 1689, d. 1758. 
 
 Beolco, Angelo, Italian comic poet, b. 1502, d. 1542. 
 
 Beranger, Charles, French landscape and portrait painter, b. 1816. 
 
 Berard, Auguste, French surgeon, founder of "Society de Chirurgie," 
 writer on surgery, b. 1802, d. 1846. 
 
 Berard, Auguste Simon Louis, French administrator, bibliogr., b. 1783. 
 
 Birard, Frederic, French physician, medical writer, b. 1789, d. 1828. 
 
 Berard, Jacques Etienne, French chemist, b. 1789, d. 1869. 
 
 Berauld, Nicolas, French philologist, essayist, b. 1473, d. 1550. 
 
 Berault, Josias, French legal antiquary, b. 1563, d. 1640. 
 
 Berchem, or Berghem, Nicholas, Dutch painter, b. 1624, d. 1683. 
 
 Berchere, Narcisse, French landscape painter, b. 1822. 
 
 Berchet, Giovanni, Italian poet, b. 1784, d. 1852. 
 
 Berchet, Toussaint, French philologist, protest, writer, b. 1540, d. 1605. 
 
 Beregani, Niccolo, count, Ital. dramat., poet, histor., b. 1627, d. 1713. 
 
 Berends, Julius, German political reformer, b. 1817. 
 
 Berenger, Alphonse M. M. T., French jurist, b. 1785, d. 1866. 
 
 Berenger, Giacomo, Italian physician, anatomist, d. 1550. 
 
 Berenger, Laurent Pierre, French philologist, d. 1822. 
 
 Berenger, Rich., Eng. poet, writer on horsemanship, b. 1720, d. 1782. 
 
 Beresford, Dr. Beresford, Irish prelate, protestant bishop of Dromore, 
 1780, Ossory 1782, archbp. of Tuam, 1794-1819, 6. 1743, d. 1819. 
 
 Beresford, J., Eng. eccles., general writer, satirist, b. 1764, d. 1840. 
 Beresford, Marcus, Eng. merch., hon. col. of rifle volunteers, M.P., 6. 1818. 
 
 Beresford, Marcus Gervais, D.D., Irish archbp. of Armagh, b. 1801. 
 Beresford, William Carr, lstvisct.,Eng. milit. commander, 6. 1768,^.1854. 
 Beresford-Hope, Alex. J. B., Eng. archaeolog., educationist, M.P., b. 1820. 
 Berettini, Pietro, Italian painter, architect, b. 1596, d. 1669. 
 Berg, Jens Christian, Norwegian jurist, publicist, b. 1775. 
 Berg, Otto, German naturalist, writer on botany, b. 1815, d. 1866. 
 Bergalli, Luiza, Italian dramatic poetess, b. 1703, d. 1760. 
 Bergen, Nicholas von, Dutch painter, b. 1670, d. 1699. 
 Berger, Johan Eric de, Danish philosophical writer, b, 1772, d. 1833. 
 Bergeret, Jean Pierre, French physician, botanist, b. 1751, d. 1813. 
 Bergeron, Louis, French journalist, b. 1811. 
 Bergery, Claude Lucien, French mathematician, b. 1787, d. 1863. 
 Berggreen, Anders Peder, Danish musical composer, b. 1801. 
 Bergier, Nicolas Sylvestre, French antiq., theologian, b. 1718, d. 1790. 
 Bergius, Peter Jonas, Swedish physician, botanist, d. 1790. 
 Bergk, Theodor, German linguist, classical editor, critic, b. 1812. 
 Bergmann, Frdderic Guillaume, French philologist, b. about 1810. 
 Bergmann, Ignaz, German painter, lithographer, b. 1797. 
 Bergmuller, Johann G., Bavarian painter, engraver, b. 1687, d. 1762. 
 Bergne, John Brodribb, English numismatist, b. 1800, d. 1873. 
 Bergounioux, Edouard, French novelist, 6. 1805. 
 Bergouzini, Lorenzo, Italian histor. and port, painter, 6. 1646, d. 1722. 
 Beringer, Beatus, Fr. inventor of improvements in fire-arms, b. 1801. 
 Berington, Joseph, English roman catholic theologian, controversial 
 
 writer, biographer, b. about 1744, d. 1828. 
 Beriot, Charles Aug. de, Belgian composer, violinist, b. 1802, d. 1870. 
 Berkeley, Francis Henry Fitzhardinge, English political reformer, 
 
 parliamentary advocate of the ballot in elections, b. 1794, d. 1870. 
 Berkeley, George, earl of, English statesman, essayist, d. 1698. 
 Berkeley, Sir George Cranfield, English admiral, b. 1753, d. 1818. 
 Berkeley, Hon. George C. Grantley, English novelist, b. 1800. 
 Berkeley, James John, English civil engineer, b. 1819, d. 1862. 
 Berkeley, Sir R., English judge of king's bench, b. 1584, d. 1656. 
 Berkheyden, Gerard, Dutch architectural painter, b. 1645, d. 1693. 
 Berkley, Sir William, English royalist governor of Virginia, d. 1677. 
 Berkruans, Henrik, Dutch histor. and port, painter, b. 1629, d. 1679. 
 
 Berling, Johan K. Ernst, Danish printer, journalist, statesm., b. 1812. 
 Berlinghieri, Andrea Vacca, Ital. writer on surgery, b. 1772, d. 1826. 
 Bermudez de Castro, Salvator, marquis de Lema, Spanish statesman, 
 
 diplomatist, b. ab. 1814. 
 Bermudoz, Jodo, Portuguese naturalist, patriarch of Ethiopia, d. 1575. 
 Bernard, abbot of Aberbrothwiok, chancellor of Scotland, d, 1327. 
 Bernard, archdeacon of Aosta, founder of monastery of St. Bernard, b 
 
 923, d. 1008. 
 
 Bernard, Auguste Joseph, French archaeologist, b. 1811. 
 Bernard, Catherine, French poetess, dramatist, b. 1662, d. 1712. 
 Bernard, Jacques, Fr. protest, theologian, historian, b. 1658, d. 1718. 
 Bernard, Jan, Dutch painter, b, 1765, d. 1833. 
 
 Bernard, Johan Stefan, Germ, physician, philologist, b. 1718, d. 1793. 
 
 Bernard, Mdme. (Lame de Lagrave) Fr. writer for young persons, b. I 799. 
 
 Bernard, Richard, Eng. puritan theolog., classicist, b. 1566, b. 1641. 
 
 Bernard, Samuel, French miniature painter, b. 1615, d. 1687. 
 
 Bernard, Simon, French military engineer, b. 1779, d. 1839. 
 
 Bernard, Thomas, LL.D., Irish bishop of Killaloe, 1780, Limerick, 
 1794 ; b. 1726, d. 1806. 
 
 Bernard, William Bayle, American comedian, b. 1808. 
 
 Bernard, duke of Weimar, Swedish general, b. 1604, d. 1639. 
 
 Bernard du Grail de laVillette, Chas. de, Fr. novelist, b. 1805, d. 1850. 
 
 Bernard le Trevisan, Italian alchemist, b. 1406, d. 1490. 
 
 Bernardez, Manoel, Portuguese writer, b. 1644, d. 1710. 
 
 Bernardi, August Friedrich, German philologist, b. 1768, d. 1820. 
 
 Bernasconi, Lauro, Roman painter of flower-pieces, b. 1622, d. 1675. 
 
 Bernatowicz, Felix, Polish novelist, b. about 1785, d. 1836. 
 
 Berneck, Karl Gustav von, Bcmdvon Guseck, Germ, novelist, b. 1803. 
 
 Berners, Henry W. Wilson, 6th baron, Eng. peer, agriculturist, b. 1797. 
 
 Bernhard, Karl Saint Aubin, Danish novelist, b. about 1805, d. 1865. 
 
 Bernhardy, Gottfried, German philologist, b. 1800. 
 
 Bernini, G. L., Neapolitan painter, sculptor, archit., 6. 1598, d. 1680. 
 
 Bernis, Francois J. de, cardinal, French poet, diplom., b. 1715, d. 1794. 
 
 Bernstein, Johann Gottlieb, Germ, medical writer, b. 1747, d. 1835. 
 
 BernstorrT, Arthur von, count, Prussian diplomatist, ambassador in 
 England, b. 1808, d. 1873. 
 
 Beroaldo, Filippo, Italian teacher of eloquence, b. 1453, d. 1505. 
 
 Beroaldo, Filippo, the younger, Italian poet, bibliographer, d. 1518. 
 
 Beroldingen, Francois, baron de, Swiss mineralogist, b. 1740, d. 1798. 
 
 Beroldingen, Joseph Ignaz, baron von, Germ, statesm., diplom., d. 1780. 
 
 Berquin, Arnauld, French writer for young people, b. 1749, d. 1791. 
 
 Berre, Jan Baptist, Dutch landsc. and cattle painter, b. 1777, d. 1828. 
 Berretini, Pietro da Cortona, Italian historical and landscape painter, 
 
 b. 1596, d. 1669. 
 Berriat Saint-Prix, Aime Julien Felix, French jurist, 6. 1810. 
 Berriat Saint-Prix, Charles, French jurist, essayist, b. 1802. 
 Berriat Saint-Prix, Jacques, Fr. jurist, histor. writer, b. 1769, d. 1845. 
 Berridge, John, English puritan, theologian, b. 1716, d. 1793. 
 Berriman, William, D.D., Eng. theologian, critic, b. 1688, d. 1749-50. 
 Berrington, Joseph, English historian, b. 1760, d. 1827. 
 Berruguette, Alonso, Spanish painter, sculptor, architect, d. 1545. 
 Berruyer, Joseph Isaac, French jesuit, historian (his works censured 
 
 by the Pope), d. 1658. 
 Berry, Cornelius, Eng. congreg. min., philanthropist, b. 1788, d. 1864. 
 Berry, Sir Edward, Eng. admiral (Nile, Trafalgar, S. Domingo), d. 1831. 
 Berry, Sir John, English naval commander, b. 1635, d. 1691. 
 Berry, William, Scotch intaglio and seal engraver, b. 1730, d. 1783. 
 Berry, William, English writer on heraldry, d. 1851. 
 Bersezio, Vittorio, Italian novelist, dramatic author, b. 1830. 
 Bersmann, Georg, German classical editor, poet, b. 1538, d. 1611. 
 Bert, Jean Baptiste Eugene (Ansclme), French actor, b. 1820, d. 1858. 
 Berta, Francesco, Italian ecclesiastic, bibliographer, b. 1719, d. 1787. 
 Bertall (Charles Albert d'Arnoux, called), French designer, carica- 
 turist, b. 1820. ( 
 Berten, Edouard Felix, Belgian general, statesman, b. 1806. 
 Berthelin, Max, French architect, designer, b. 1811. 
 Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcellin, Fr. chemist, chem. writer, b. 1827. 
 Berthier, Guillaume Francois, Fr. philologist, poet, b. 1704, d. 1782. 
 Bertholon, N. de St. Lazare, French chemist, electrician, d. 1799. 
 Berthot, Jean Baptiste Eugene, French engineer, b. 1800. 
 Berthoud, Ferdinand, Swiss writer on horology, b. 1727, d. 1807. 
 Berthoud, Samuel Henri, French novelist, journalist, editor, b. 1804. 
 Berti, Alessandro P., Italian historical writer, 6. 1686, d. 1752. 
 Berti, Giovanni Lorenzo, Italian poet, general of the Augustin order, 
 
 6. 1696, d. 1766. 
 Bertin, Antoine, French poet and soldier, b. 1752, d. 1790. 
 Bertin, Armand, French political writer, d. 1854. 
 Bertin, Jean, French agriculturist, b. 1750, d. 1803. 
 Bertin, Joseph, French physician, anatomist, b. 1712, d. 1781. 
 Bertin, L. Francois, French journalist, publicist, b. 1766, d. 1842. 
 Bertin, Nicolas, French landscape painter, b. 1667, d. 1736. 
 Bertinazzi, Carlo Antonio, Italian comedian, at Paris, d. 1783. 
 Bertini, Henri Jerome, French pianist, 6. 1798. 
 Bertins, Pierre, French mathematician, geographer, b. 1565, d. 1629. 
 Bertoja, Giacinto, Italian historical and fresco painter, b. 1515, d. 1550. 
 Bertoli, Giovanni Domenico, Italian antiquary, b. 1676, d. 1758. 
 Bertolli Scamozzi, Ottavio, Italian architect, b. 1726, d. 1800. 
 Bertolotti, Giovanni Lorenzo, Genoese painter, b. 1640, d. 1721. 
 
33 
 
 BERTON. 
 
 BIRD. 
 
 31 
 
 Berton. Charles Francisque Montan, French actor, b. 1820. 
 Bertram, Cornelius Bonaventure, Swiss hebraist, b. 1531, d. 1504. 
 Bertrand, l'abbe, Fr. astron., mathematical writer, b. 1755, d. 1792. 
 Bertrand, Alexandre, French mechanician, conductor of a marionette 
 
 theatre 1690-1712 ; d. 1740. 
 Bertrand, Frangois Marie, French abbe, orientalist, b. 1807. 
 Bertrand, Henri Gratica, count, French general, b. 1770, d. 1844. 
 Bertrand, Jean Baptiste, Fr. physician, med. writer, b. 1670, d. 1752. 
 Bertrand, Jean Elie, Swiss preacher, philologist, promoter of printing, 
 
 b. 1737, d. 1779. 
 
 Bertrand, Joseph L. Francois, French mathemat., physicist, b. 1822. 
 Bertrand, Michel, French physician, med. writer, b. ab. 1775, d. 1857. 
 Bertrandi, Giov. Ambrogio Maria, Ital. surg., anatom., b. 1723, d. 1765. 
 Bertucci, Lorenzo, Florentine painter, musician, b. 1620, d. 1680. 
 Bertusio, Giovanni Battista, Italian historical painter, d. 1650. 
 Bertuzzi, Ercole Gaetano, Italian portrait painter, b. 1669, d. 1722. 
 Berville, St.-Albin, Fr. barrister, biographer, critic, b. 1788, d. 1868. 
 Berwick, Walter, Irish judge in bankruptcy, d. 1868. 
 Berzelius, Jacob, Swedish chemist, b. 1779, d. 1848. 
 Berzsenyi, Daniel, Hungarian lyric poet, b. 1776, d. 1836. 
 Beseler, Willem Hartwig, Danish barrister, political partisan of the 
 
 insurgent duchies, exiled 1848 ; b. Oldenburg, 1806. 
 Besensi, Paolo Emilio, Italian historical painter, b. 1624, d. 1666. 
 Beskow, Bernard, baron de, Swed.poet, dramat., essayist, b. 1796, d. 1868. 
 Besoigne, Jerome, Fr. theolog., biographer, his tor., b. 1686, b. 1763. 
 Besolde, Christoph, Austrian statesman, historian, b. 1577, d. 1638. 
 Besozzi, Ambrogio, Milanese architectural painter, b. 1648, d. 1706. 
 Besschey, J. F., Dutch landscape painter, b. 1739, d. 1799. 
 Bessel, Gottfried von, German chronicler, b. 1672, d. 1749. 
 Best, Willem, Dutch jurist, b. 1683, d. 1719. 
 
 Bestoujef-Rumine, Alexis Petrovitch, count, Russian diplomatist, h. 
 1693, d. 1766. 
 
 Besuchet, Jean Claude, Fr. physician, medical writer, biogr., b. 1790. 
 Bethencourt, Jean de, Norman baron, took Canary Islands, d. 1425. 
 Bethencourt y Molina, Augustin de, Spanish engineer, b. Teneriffe 
 1760, d. 1826. 
 
 Bethmann Hollweg, Moritz August von, German jurist, b. 1795. 
 Bethune, Alexander, Scotch peasant, tale-writer, b. 1804, d. 1843. 
 Bethune, Divie, Scotch philanthropist in America, b. 1771, d. 1824. 
 Bethune, George W., D.D., American minister of the Dutch reformed 
 
 church, poet, humourist, theologian, 6. 1805, d. 1862. 
 Bethune, Sir Henry Lindesay, bart, Scotch military commander, in 
 
 Persia, b. 1787, d. 1851. 
 Bethune, John, Scotch peasant, poet, essayist, b. 1810, d. 1839. 
 Bethune d'Orval, Anne Leonore de, Fr. ascetic author, b. 1657, d. 1733. 
 Betti, Padre Biagio, Italian painter, b. 1545, d. 1615. 
 Bettini, Geremio, Italian tenor singer, 6. 1821, d. 1865. 
 Bettoni, Carlo, Ital. count, agricult., philanthropist, b. 1735, d. 1786. 
 Betts, Henry John, English baptist minister, lecturer, temperance 
 
 reformer, b. 1825. 
 
 Betts, R. Wye, English congreg. minister, philanthr., b. 1826, d. 1869. 
 
 Beuckelaer, Joachim, Dutch painter of still life, b. 1530, d. 1610. 
 
 Beuckels, Willem, Dutch fisher, introduced curing of herrings, d. 1449. 
 
 Beudant, Francois Sulplice, French mineralogist, b. 1787, d. 1852. 
 
 Beudin, Jacques Felix, Fr. banker, novelist, dramatic writer, b. 1796. 
 
 Beuf, Jean le, French antiquary, b. 1607, d. 1670. 
 
 Beukelaar, Heinrich, Dutch historical painter, b. 1809, d. 1839. 
 
 Beurnonville, Pierre Riel, comte de, French marshal, b. 1752, d. 1821. 
 
 Beurs, Willem, Dutch landscape and port, painter, b. 1656, d. ab. 1090. 
 
 Bever, Thomas, English jurist, judge of cinque ports, d. 1791. 
 
 Beverninck, Jerome van, Dutch statesman, b. 1614, d. 1690. 
 
 Beverwyck, Jan van, Dutch physician, med. writer, b. 1594, d. 1647. 
 
 Beville, Charles, French landscape painter, b. 1651, d. 1716. 
 
 Bewer, Clement, German historical painter, b. 1820. 
 
 Bewick, William, English historical painter, b. 1796, d. 1866. 
 
 Bexfield, W.R., English musical composer, b. 1823, d. 1853. 
 
 Bexon, Gabriel Leopold Ch. Ami, Fr. naturalist, b. 1748, d. 1784. 
 
 Bezard, Jean Louis, Fr. histor., port., and allegorical painter, b. 1800. 
 
 Bezborodko, Alexander Alexandrovitch, count, Russian statesman, 
 b. 1742, d. 1799. 
 
 Bezeredy, Stefan, Hungarian economist, b. 1796, d. 1856. 
 
 Bezout, Etienne, French mathematician, b. 1730, d. 1783. 
 
 Bezozzi, Ambrogio, Milanese painter, b. 1648, d. 1706. 
 
 Bezzi, Giovanni Francesco, Bolognese painter and teacher, d. 1571. 
 
 Bezzuoli, Giuseppe, Florentine historical painter, b. 1784. 
 
 Biamonti, Giuseppe Luigi, Italian ecclesiastic, grammarian, poet, 
 biblical translator, b. 1730, d. 1824. 
 
 Bianchi, Baldassare, Bolognese historical painter, b. 1614, d. 1679. 
 
 Bianchi, Barthelemy Urbain, French philosophical instrument con- 
 structor, 6. 1821. 
 
 Bianchi, Federigo, Milanese fresco painter, b. 1626, d. 1670. 
 
 Bianchi, Francesco, IlFrari, Modenese histor. painter, b. 1447, d. 1510. 
 
 Bianchi, Giovanni, Italian physician, naturalist, b. 1693, d. 1775. 
 
 Bianchi, Giovanni Battista, Italian anatomist, writer, b. 1681, d. 1761. 
 
 Bianchi, Isidoro, cavaliere, Milanese fresco painter, 6. 1626, d. 1670. 
 
 Bianchi, T.S., Dutch portrait painter, 6. 1767, d. 1826. 
 
 Bianchi, Thomas Xavicr de, Frencli orientalist, b. 1783, d. 1864. 
 
 Bianco, Baccio del, Florentine painter, b. 1604, d. 1656. 
 
 Biancucci, Paolo, Italian painter, b. 1583, d. 1653. 
 Biber, Geo. Edw., LL.D., Eng. elcrgym., educationist, b. Germany, 1 80] . 
 Bibesto, Ceo. Demet., hosjUidar of Wallaehia 1843-48, 1857-62 ; b. 1804. 
 Bibiena, Ferdinand® Calli, Bolognese painter, b. 1657, d. 1743. 
 Bicci, Lorenzo di, Florentine painter, architect, b. 1375, d. 1459. 
 Bickersteth, Edward, English ecclesiastic, theologian, b. 1814. 
 Bickersteth, Robert, D.D., English prelate, bishop of Ripen 1866, 
 
 theological writer, b. 1816. 
 Bida, Alexandre, Frencli designer, portrait painter, 6. 1813. 
 Bidderman, Johann Gottlieb, German philolog., bibliographer, d. 1772. 
 Biddle, Nicholas, American naval commander, b. 1750, d. 1778. 
 Biddle, Nicholas, American lawyer, banker, editor, b. 1786, d. 1844. 
 Biddle, Richard, American maritime discoverer, d. 1847. 
 Biddulph, Michael, English magistrate, M.P., b. 1834. 
 Bidlake, John, English theologian, poet, b. 1755, d. 1814. 
 Biedermann, Fried. Karl, Saxon economist, writer on philosophy, b. 1812. 
 Biefield,, Jacobus Friedrich von, German statesman, d. 1770. 
 Biefve, Edouard de, Belgian historical painter, b. 1808. 
 Biehl, Charlotte Dorothy, Danish poetess, translator, b. 1731, d. 1788. 
 Bielke, Stenon Karel, Swedish botanist, chemist, b. 1709, d. 1754. 
 Bielowski, August, Polish poet, histor. essayist, translator, 5. ab. 1 806. 
 Bienaime, Paul Emile, Fr. mus. composer, teacher, 6. 1802, d. 1869. 
 Bienayme, Irenee Jules, French mathematician, economist, h. 1790. 
 Biener, Friedrich August, German jurist, 6. 1787. 
 Biennourry, Victor Francois J^loi, French historical painter, b. 1813. 
 Biercher, Matthseus, German architect, b. 1797. 
 Biermann, Karl Eduard, Prussian landscape painter, b. 1797. 
 Biesenthal, Johannes Heinrich, Polish Jew, embraced Christianity, 
 
 biblical critic, missionary to Jews at Berlin, b. ab. 1802. 
 Biet, Leon Marie Dieudonne, Frencli architect, b. 1785, d. 1856. 
 Bieville, Charles Henry Desnoyes de, French vaudevillist, b. 1814. 
 Biezelinghen, Christian Jans van, Dutch painter, b. 1558, d. 1600. 
 Bigelow, Jacob, American physician, botanist, technologist, b. 1787. 
 Bigelow, John, American publicist, diplomatist, b. 1817. 
 Bigg, William Redmore, English painter, d. 1828. 
 Biggar, Joseph Gillis, Irish merchant, M.P., b. 1828. 
 Bigland, John, Eng. schoolmaster, geographer, histor., b. 1750, d. 1832. 
 Bignan, Anne, French poetess, b. 1795, d. 1861. 
 Bignicourt, Simon de, Fr. jurist, philosoph. writer, b. 1709, d. 1775. 
 Bignon, Jean Paul, French orientalist, bibliographer, d. 1743. 
 Bignon, Jerome, French classical writer and editor, b. 1589, d. 1656. 
 Bigot, Americ, French philologist, librarian, b. 1626, d. 1689. 
 Bigot, Hugh, English judge, chief justiciary, d. 1266. 
 Bigsby, Robert, English antiquary, poet, b. 1806, d. 1873. 
 Biletta, Emanuele, Italian musical composer, in London, b. 1825. 
 Bilezikdji, Pascal Arutin, Turkish designer, architect, b. 1814. 
 Bilfinger, Georg Bernhard, Germ, philosoph. writer, b. 1688, d. 1750. 
 Bilguer, Jean Elrie, Swiss surgeon, writer on amputation, d. 1790. 
 Bilivert, Giovanni, Florentine historical painter, b. 1576, d. 1644. 
 Bill, Robert, English mechanician, proposer of improvements in ship- 
 
 _ building, b. 1754, d. 1827. 
 Bille, Steen Andersen, Danish naval officer, historical and technical 
 
 writer, author of narrative of voyages, b. 1797. 
 Billing, Sigismond, Fr. soldier, political reformer, b. 1773, d. 1832. 
 Billings, Elkanah, Canadian geologist, palaeontologist, b. 1820. 
 Billings, William, American musical composer, b. 1746, d. 1800. 
 Billingsley, Sir Henry, English mathematician, lord mayor of 
 
 London 1596 ; d. 1606. 
 Billingsley, John, English presbyterian min., theolog., b. 1658, d. 1722. 
 Billnark, Karel Jan, Swedish lithographer, b. 1804. 
 Billoni, Giovanni Battista, Ital. histor. and port, painter, b. 1576, d. 1636. 
 Bimbenet, Jean Eugene, French archaeologist, b. 1801. 
 Bimbi, Bartolommeo, Florentine painter of flowers, b. 1648, d. 1728. 
 Binder, Wilhelm Christian, German historical essayist, critic, b. 1810. 
 Bindes, Jan, Flemish portrait painter, d. 1670. 
 
 Bindley, Charles, Harry Hieovcr, Eng. sporting writer, b. 1796, d. 1859. 
 Bineau, Amand, French chemist, b. about 1810. 
 
 Binet, Jacques Philippe Marie, French astronomer, mathematical 
 
 writer, b, 1786, d. 1856. 
 Bing, Valentin, Dutch painter, b. 1812. 
 
 Bingham, William, American statesman, b. 1751, d. England 1804. 
 Bingley, William, English clergyman, naturalist, author of books for 
 
 the young, d. 1823. 
 Binney, Horace, LL.D., American barrister, emancipationist, b. 1780. 
 Binning, Hugh, Scotch preacher, theolog., philolog., b. ab. 1627, d. 1653. 
 Binns, Edward, Eng. physician, writer on sleep, b. 1765, d. 1851. 
 Binns, John, American journalist, autobiographer, b. 1772, d. 1860. 
 Bioche, Charles Jules, French jurist, b. 1805, d. 1866. 
 Bion, Louis Eugene, French sculptor, b. 1807, d. 1860. 
 Bion, Nicolas, French mathematician, d. 1733. 
 
 Biondi, Giovanni Francesco, Italian historian, diplomatist for James I 
 
 of England, b. 1572, d. 1644. 
 Birch, John, English baron of exchequer, 6. 1515, d. 1581. 
 Birch, Samuel, lord mayor of London, 1814-15, colonel of the first 
 
 regiment of volunteers, b. 1757, d. 1841. 
 Birch, Thomas, English judge of common pleas, b. 1690, d. 1757. 
 Birch-Pfeiffer, Charlotte, German dramatist, actress, b. 1800, d. 1S6S. 
 Bird, Robert Montgomery, American novelist, b. 1803, d. 1854. 
 
 D 
 
85 BIRKBECK. 
 
 Birkbeck, Morris, English settler in Illinc'.s, 'emperor of the 
 prairies,' d. 1825. 
 
 Birks, Thomas Rawson, Eng. clcrgym., metaphysician, theolog., b. 1810. 
 Birnie, Sir Richard, Scotch police magistrate, London, b. 1760, d. 1832. 
 Biscaccianti, Eliza (Ostinelli), American vocalist, b. 1825. 
 Bischoff, Ludwig, German musical writer and critic, d. 1867. 
 Bischop, Johan de, Dutch histor. and landscp. painter, b. 1646, d. 1686. 
 Bishop, Anna, Lady, (Mrs. Schulz), Amer. opera singer, b. Lond. 1814. 
 Bishop, Robert Hamilton, D.D., American presbyterian preacher, 
 
 metaphysician, economist, b. Scotland 1777, d. 1855. 
 Bishop, Samuel, English clergyman, poet, essayist, b. 1731, d. 1795. 
 Bisi, Era Bonavcntura, Bologneso painter, b. 1631, d. 1662. 
 Bisi, Luigi, Italian painter, b. 1814. 
 
 Bismarck, F. Willi., count von, Germ, milit. commander, b. 1783, d. 1860. 
 
 Bissat, Peter, LL.D., Scotch jurist, poet, orator, d. 1569. 
 
 Bisset, Charles, Scotch surg., writer on fortifications, b. 1717, d. 1791. 
 
 Bisset, James, Scotch antiq., naturalist, in Eng., b. 1762, d. 1832. 
 
 Bisset, James, D.D., Scotch presb. minister, theolog. b. 1794, d. 1872. 
 
 Bissett, Robert, LL.D., Sc. biog., political essayist, b. 1758, d. 1805. 
 
 Bissing, Fran von (Henrietta Krohn), German novelist, b. 1798. 
 
 Bisson, Auguste Rosalie, French photographer, b. 1826. 
 
 Bissoni, Giovanni Battista, It. hist, and port, painter, b. 1576, d. 1G36. 
 
 Bitaube, Paul Jere'mic, French poet, classicist, b. 1732, d. 1808. 
 
 Bizzelli, Giov., Florentine histor. and port, painter, b. 1566, d. 1612. 
 
 Bjbrnstaehl, Jakob Jonas, Swed. traveller, orientalist, b. 1731, d. 1779. 
 
 Blaas, Karl, German historical painter, b. 1815. 
 
 Blaauw, Pieter Aartse, Dutch painter, b. 1744, d. 1808. 
 
 Blaauw, William Henry, English arclneologist, b. 1793. 
 
 Blacas, Pierre Jean Casimir, due de, French diplomatist, collector of 
 gems and medals, egyptologist, b. 1770, d. 1839. 
 
 Black, Adam, Scotch economist, legislator, publisher, b. 1784, d. 1874. 
 
 Black, Alexander, English architect, b. 1808, d. 1868. 
 
 Black, James, English physician, geologist, b. 1788, d. 1867. 
 
 Black, John, Scotch journalist, in London, b. 1783, d. 1855. 
 
 Black, W. H. , Eng. orientalist, archaeologist, minister of ' Seventh-day 
 baptists,' b. 1798, d. 1872. 
 
 Blackadder, John, Scotch presbyt. min., theolog., b. 1615, d. 1685. 
 
 Blackburn, Sir Colin, Scotch judge of queen's bench, b. 1813. 
 
 Blackburn, John, English clergyman, physicist, b. 1788, d. 1870. 
 
 Blackburn, Lancelot, Eng. prelate, archbishop of York, 1724 ; d. 1743. 
 
 Blackburn, William, English architect, b. 1750, d. 1790. 
 
 Blackburne, F. , Eng. clergy m. , wrote in f avour of dissent, b. 1 705, d. 1 787. 
 
 Blackburne, Francis, Irish lord chancellor, b. 1782, d. 1867. 
 
 Blackburne, John, English philologist, 6. 1663, d. 1741. 
 
 Blackett, Henry, Englisli publisher, b. 1826, d. 1871. 
 
 Blackie, David, Scotch lawyer, journalist, d. 1832. 
 
 Blackie, John, Scotch printer, publisher, editor, b. 1782, d. 1874. 
 
 Blackie, John, Scotch printer, publisher, editor, b. 1805, d. 1873. 
 
 Blackley, Henry, Eng. lieut.-gen., served in Spain 1812-14, d. 1868. 
 
 Blackley, William, English clergyman, theologian, b. 1813. 
 
 Blacklock, H., Eng. publisher of railway guide books, b. 1819, d. 1871. 
 
 Blackstone, James, English jurist, b, 1764, d. 1831. 
 
 Blackwell, Alexander, Scotch agric. writer in Eng. and Swed., d. 1747. 
 
 Blackwell Elizabeth, Eng. phys., trained in Amer., b. Bristol ab. 1820. 
 
 Blackwood, Henry, Scotch physician, teacher of philosophy at univer- 
 sity of Paris, medical writer, d. about 1613. 
 
 Blackwood, Robert, Scotch presbyterian minister, in Nova Scotia, 
 b. about 1786, d. 1857. 
 
 Blackwood, William, Scotch publisher, founder of ' Blackwood's Mag- 
 azine,' b. 1766, d. 1834. 
 
 Blagrave, John, English mathematician, writer on dialling, d. 1611. 
 
 Blagrove, Henry Gamble, Eng. musician, composer, b. 1811, d. 1872. 
 
 Blain, Jean Bapt,, Fr. painter of flowers and insects, b. 1654, d. 1715. 
 
 Blair, James, Scotch episcop. min. in Amer., philologist, d. 1743. 
 
 Blair, John, LL.D., Scotch ecclesiastic in Church of England, theolo- 
 gian, chronologist, d. 1783. 
 
 Blair, Robert, Scotch president of court of session, b. 1741, d. 1811. 
 
 Blaise, Adolphe Gustave, French economist, b. 1811. 
 
 Blake, Barnett, English journalist, educationist, b. 1812, d. 1866. 
 
 Blake, Joachim, Spanish general, statesman, d. 1827. 
 
 Blake, John Bradley, English botanist, b. 1745, d. 1773. 
 
 Blake, John Lauris, D.D., American educationist, biographer, author 
 of school text-books, b. 1788, d. 1857. 
 
 Blake, William, English comedian, d. 1835. 
 
 Blake, William Rufus, American comedian, b. 1805, d. 1863. 
 
 Blakely, Johnston, American naval capt., b. Ireland 1781, d. 1814. 
 
 Blakeney, Sir Edward, Eng. field-marshal, governor of Chelsea hospital, 
 b. 1778, d. 1868. 
 
 Blakesley, Joseph Williams, Eng. clergym., classical editor, b. 1808. 
 Blakey, Robert, English metaphysician, b. 1795. 
 
 Blakeston, John, Eng. major (India and the peninsula), 5.1785, d. 1867. 
 Blamire, Susanna, Eng. poetess (Cumberland dialect), b. 1747, d. 1794. 
 Blanc, Etienne, French jurist, b. 1805. 
 
 Blanc, Jean Bernard de, Fr. critic, wrote on English, b. 1707, d. 1781. 
 Blanc, Ludwig Gottfried, Pruss. philol., edit, of Dante, b. 1781, d. 1866. 
 Blanchard, Edward Laman, Eng. journalist, dramatic writer, b. 1820. 
 B lan chard, Henri Pdtros Leon Pharamond, French painter, b. 1805. 
 Blanchard, Jean, French historical painter, b. 1595, d. 1665, 
 
 BOOKING. 30 
 
 Blanchard, William, English comedian, b. 1769, d. 1835. 
 
 Blanchet, Alexandre Louis Paul, French physician, advocate for music 
 
 in training the deaf and dumb, b. 1819. 
 Blanchet, Francois, French novelist, bibliographer, b. 17o7, d. 1748. 
 Blanchet, Thomas, French painter, 6. 1617, d. 1689. 
 Bland, Elizabeth, English hebraist, d. 1720. 
 
 Bland, Maria Theresa, English singer and actress, b. 1770, d. 1837. 
 
 Bland, Miles, D.D., Eng. mathematician, antiquary, b. 1786, d. 1867. 
 
 Bland, William, Eng. architect, writer on agriculture, b. 1789, d. 1870. 
 
 Blankhof, Jan Teunisz, Dutch marine painter, b. 1628, d. 1670. 
 
 Blanqui, Jerome A., French political economist, b. 1798, d. 1854. 
 
 Blanqui, Louis Auguste, Fr. communist leader, journalist, b. 1805. 
 
 Blaquires, Paul, French composer of popular songs, b. 1833, d. 1868. 
 
 Blasius, Ernst, German surgeon, writer on surgical practice, b. 1802. 
 
 Blasius, Gerard, Flemish physician, anatomist, d. 1682. 
 
 Blayney, Benjamin, D.D., Eng. biblical translator and critic, d. 1801. 
 
 Blaznavatz, Milivoye Petrovitch, Servian general, statesman, b. 1826. 
 
 Bleeck, Pieter van, Dutch portrait painter in England, d. 1764. 
 
 Bleecker, Ann Eliza, American poetess, essayist, b. 1752, d. 1783. 
 
 Bleecker, Anthony, American lawyer and poet, b. 1778, d. 1827. 
 
 Blencowe, Sir John, English judge of common pleas, b. 1642, d. 1726. 
 
 Blery, Eugene, French designer and engraver, b. 1808. 
 
 Blesson, Ludwig Johann Urbain, Prussian milit. engineer, b. 1790. 
 
 Blewitt, J.W., English musical composer, b. 1780, d. 1853. 
 
 Bligh, Sir Richard Rodney, English admiral, b. 1738, d. 1821. 
 
 Blin de Sainmore, Andre Michel Hyacinthe, Fr. poet, b. 1733, d. 1807. 
 
 Bliss, John, English physician, botanist, b. 1761, d. 1832. 
 
 Bliss, Philip, D.C.L., English antiquary, editor, principal of St. Mar- 
 garet's hall, Cambridge, b. 1788, d. 1857. 
 
 Blittersdorf, Fricdrich Landolin Karl von, German statesman, 
 journalist, b. 1792, d. 1861. 
 
 Block, Daniel, German portrait painter, b. 1580, d. 1661. 
 
 Block, Francois Eugene de, Belgian painter, b. 1812. 
 
 Block, Jacob Roger, Dutch portrait painter, b. 1580, d. 1632. 
 
 Block, Johanna K., Dutch artist in cuttings of paper, b. 1650, d. 1715. 
 
 Block, Maurice, French economist, b. 1816. 
 
 Blockland, Anton van Montford, Dutch hist, painter, b. 1532, d. 1583. 
 Bloemen, Jan Frans van, Flem. historical painter, b. 1656, d. 1740. 
 Bloet, Robert, English prelate, bp. of Lincoln, chancellor, d. 1123. 
 Blom, Karel Magnus, Swedish physician, naturalist, b. 1737, d. 1815. 
 Blomfield, Charles G., English commandant of Malabar police force. 
 
 orientalist, b. 1828, d. 1867. 
 Blommaert, Philipp, Elemish poet, historian, journalist, b. about 1809. 
 Blondel, Robert, Fr. historical and didactic poet, b. about 1390, d. 1461. 
 Blondlot, Nicolas, French physician, medical writer, b. about 1810. 
 BlondofF, Dimitri von, Russian statesman, b. 1785, d. 1864. 
 Bloomfield, John Arthur Douglas Bloomfield, 2nd lord, Irish peer, 
 
 diplomatist, b. 1802. 
 Bloomfield, Joseph, Amer. general, governor of New Jersey, d. 1823. 
 Blosset, Sir Robert H., Eng. chief justice of Bengal, b. 1776, d. 1822. 
 Blosseville, Benigne Ernest Poret, vicomte de, French journalist, 
 
 biographer, archaeologist, b. 1799. 
 Blosseville, Jules Alphonse Rene Poret, baron de, French explorer, 
 
 geogr. writer, b. 1802, not heard of after sailing for Greenland 1833. 
 Blount, Sir Henry, Eng. traveller, satirical writer, b. 1602, d. 1682. 
 Bluhme, Christian Albert, Danish jurist, statesman, b. 1794, d. 1866. 
 Blum, Isaac Auguste, French mathematician, b. 1812. 
 Blum, Joachim Christian, German lyric poet, b. 1739, d. 1790. 
 Blum, Karl, Germ, poet, dramatist, musical comp., b. 1788, d. 1844. 
 Blum, Robert, Germ, bookseller, polit. reformer, b. 1807, shot 1848. 
 Blumauer, Ludwig, German satirical poet, b. 1755, d. 1798. 
 Blumenhagen, W., German novelist, b. 1781, d. 1839. 
 Blumner, Heinrich, German dramatist, b. 1763, d. 1839. 
 Blundell, James, English physician, medical lecturer, b. about 1802. 
 Blundell, Thomas Leigh, English physician, b. 1788, d. 1872. 
 Blunt, Edmund, Amer. hydrographical surveyor, b. 1799, d. 1866. 
 Blunt, John James, English clergyman, theologian, b. 1794, d. 1855. 
 Bluntschli, Jean Gaspard, Swiss jurist, b. 1808. 
 
 Bluteau, Rafael, Portuguese priest, author of Portuguese and Latin 
 dictionary, d. 1734. 
 
 Blyenburg, Adrian van, Dutch poet, b. 1560, d. 1599. 
 
 Blyth, John, Eng. prelate, bp. of Salisbury, master of the rolls, c?. 1499. 
 
 Blyth, Robert, English engraver, 6. about 1750, d. 1783. 
 
 Boaden, James, English dramatist, biographer, critic, b. 1762, d. 1839. 
 
 Boag, John, Scotch congregational min., philolog., b. 1773, d. 1863. 
 
 Boardman, Henry A., D.D., American presbyterian minister, theo- 
 logian, political writer, b. 1808. 
 
 BobrofF, Simon Sergievitsch, Russian lyrical poet, d. 1810. 
 
 Boccaccino, Francesco, Italian mythological painter, b. 1680, d. 1750. 
 
 Boccacenagra, Pedro Atanasio, Span, histor. painter, b. 1638, d. 16S8. 
 
 Boccaci, Camillo, Italian historical painter, b. 1511, d. 1546. 
 
 Boccanini, Faustino, Ital. landsc. and battle painter, b. 165'J, d. 1742. 
 
 Bocciardo, Clemente, Genoese historical painter, b. 1620, d. 1658. 
 
 Boccone, Paolo, Italian naturalist, b. 1633, d. 1704. 
 
 Bock, Karl Ernst, Saxon anatomist, b. 1809. 
 
 Boekhorst, Jan van, Dutch hist, and battle painter, b. 1661, d. 17-1. 
 Bockhout, Johan Joseph van, Flemish political writer, d, 1827. 
 Booking, Eduard, Prussian jurist, b. 1802, 
 
37 BOC'QUILLOT. 
 
 Bocquillot, Lazarc Andre, French theologian, biographer, d. 1728. 
 Bodaeus a Stapel, Jan, Dutch physician, botanist, d. 1636. 
 Bodda, Mrs. Frank (Louisa Fyne), English opera singer, b. 1832. 
 Bode, Christoph Aug., Germ, theolog., orientalist, critic, b. 1722, d. 1706. 
 Bodekker, Jan Frans, Dutch musician, portrait painter, b. 1660, d. 1727. 
 Boden, James, English congregational minister, a founder of London 
 
 Missionary Society, b. 1757, d. 1841. 
 Bodenstedt, Friedrieh Martin, Germ, philolog., historian, poet, 6, 1819. 
 Bodewyns, Nicolaus, Flemish landscape painter (figures painted in by 
 
 Frans Bout), d. 1700. 
 Bodichon, Eugene, French physician, writer on Algeria, b. about 1810. 
 Bodichon, Madame, English painter, educationist, b. 1827. 
 Bodin. Felix, French historian, political essayist, b. 1795, d. 1837. 
 Bodington, William, English surgeon, b. 1790, d. 1872. 
 Bodkin, Sir William Henry, English judge of the Middlesex sessions, 
 
 educationist, 6. about 1792, d. 1874. 
 Bodmer, Gottlieb, Bavarian artist, lithographer, b. about 1808. 
 Bbe, Frank D., Norwegian painter, b. 1820. 
 Boeck, A. J., Norwegian naturalist, d. 1873. 
 Boeswillwald, Emile, French architect, b. 1815. 
 Boetie, Etienne de la, French philosopbical writer, b. 1530, d. 1563. 
 Boetto, Giovanile, Italian fresco painter and engraver, d. 1683. 
 Bofondi, Joseph, cardinal, Italian jurist, b. 1796, 6. 1867. 
 Bogan, Zachariah, English philologist, theologian, b. 1625, d. 1659. 
 Bogardus, James, American mechanician, inventor, b. 1800. 
 Bogdane, James, Hungarian self-taught painter, in England, d. 1702. 
 Boguslawski, Albert, Rus. dramatist, actor, translator, b. 1752, d. 1829. 
 Bohm, Johann Daniel, Hungarian sculptor, b. 1794. 
 Bohm. Wilhelm Anton, German theologian, b. 1673, d. 1732. 
 Bbhmer, Georg Wilhelm Rodolph, Germ, protestant theolog., b. 1800. 
 Bohmer, Johann Friedrieh, German historian, b. 1795, d. 1863. 
 Bd'hmer, Just Henning, German jurist, polit. writer, b. 1674, d. 1749. 
 Bohn, Henry G., English publisher, editor, translator, b. 1796. 
 Bohrer, Anton, Bavarian violinist, musical composer, b. 1783. 
 Bohrer, Maximilian, Bavarian violinist, musical composer, 6. 1785. 
 Bohtz, August Wilhelm, German critic, writer on taste, b. 1799. 
 Bohusz, Xavier, Polish historian, b. 1746, d. 1825. 
 Boichot, Jean, French sculptor, b. 1738, d. 1814. 
 Boichot, Jean Baptiste, Fr. communist, writer of school books, b. 1820. 
 Boieldieu, Adrien, French musician, musical composer, b. 1815. 
 Boileau, Gilles, French classical translator, b. 1631, d. 1669. 
 Boilean, Jean Jaques, French theologian, d. 1735. 
 Boileau, Sir John Peter, English antiquary, b. 1795, d. 1869. 
 Boileau, Louis Auguste, French architect, archaeologist, b. 1812. 
 Boileau, P. Prosper, Fr. mathemat., writer on practical science, b. 1811. 
 Boindon, Nicolas, French dramatic writer, d. 1751. 
 Boinvilliers-Desjardins, J. E. J. Forestier, French grammarian, 
 
 dramatist, b. 1764, d. 1830. 
 Bois, Ambrose du, Flem. liistor. painter, Fontainebleau, b. 1543, d. 1615. 
 Bois, Francois Victor, French railway and telegraph engineer, b. 1813. 
 Bois, Gerard du, French priest, historian, d. 1696. 
 Bois, Philippe du, French theologian, classical editor, d. 1703. 
 Bois le Comte, Alexandre Joseph, vicomte de, French general, b. 1704. 
 Bois le Comte, Andre' Olivier Ernest Sain de, Fr. diplomatist, b. 1799. 
 Bois le Comte, Charles Joseph Edmond, comte de, French diplomatist, 
 
 b. 1796, d. 1863. 
 
 Boisot, Charles, Flem. jurist, councillor of state to Charles V., d. 1546. 
 
 Boissard, Geo. David Fre'ddrie, Fr. protestant theolog., b. 1783, d. 1836. 
 
 Boissard, Jean Jaques, French antiquary, d. 1602. 
 
 Boissier, Marie Louis Gaston, French philologist, critic, b. 1823. 
 
 Boissieu, Alphonse de, French archaeologist, b. about 1810. 
 
 Boissien, Arthur de, French satirist, humourist, d. 1873. 
 
 Boissy, Hilaire E. O. Rouille, marquis de, French statesman, b. 
 
 1798, d. 1866. 
 Boissy, Louis de, French writer of comedies, d. 1758. 
 Boit, Karel, Swedish enamel painter, in London and Paris, d. 1726. 
 Boitard, Pierre, French botanist, technologist, b. 1789, d. 1859. 
 Boitean, Dicudonne Alexandre Paul, French novelist, critic, b. 1S30. 
 Boivin, Jean, French translator from Greek, bibliographer, d. 1726. 
 Boivin, Louis, French advocate, 2>oet, historical writer, d. 1724. 
 Boivin de Villeneuve, Jean, Norman classical writer, d. 1726. 
 Bojer, Wcnccslas, German naturalist, traveller, /;. 1797. 
 Boker, George Henry, American dramatic poet, b. 1824. 
 Bokhary, or Abou Abdallah Mohammed, Mussulman theologian, jurist, 
 
 b. 810, d. 870. 
 
 Bol, Pieter, Flem. painter of fruit, flowers, and animals, b. 1626, d. 1680. 
 Bolanger, Giovanni, Italian historical painter, b. 1606, d. 1660. 
 Bold, John, English clergyman, preacher, b. 1670, d. 1751. 
 Boldini, Sigism., Milanese physician, philos. writer, b. 1597, d. 1630. 
 Boleslas V., duke of Poland, b. 1220, d. 1279. 
 
 Bolgeni, Giovanni Vincenzo, Ital. jesuit, theologian, b. 1733, d. 1811. 
 Bolland, Sir William, English judge, baron of exchequer, 1829-39 ; 
 
 antiquary, founder of the Roxburghe club, b. 1772, d. 1840. 
 Bolliac, Cajsar, Roumanian poet, b. 1813. 
 
 Bologna, Lattanzio di, Bolognesc historical painter, b. 1570, d. 1597. 
 Bolognese, Carlo, Bolognesc fresco painter, b. 1665, d. 1718. 
 Bolognini, Giacomo, Bolognese historical painter, b. 1661, d. 1710. 
 Bolognini, Luigi, Italian jurist, diplomatist, b. 1147, d. 1508. 
 
 BO II HE. 33 
 
 Bolsec, Jeroino, French carmelitc, became protestant, then returned to 
 
 Catholicism ; biographer ; 1582. 
 Bolton, Frank, English military officer, telegraphist, b. 1830. 
 Bolton, liobert, English ecclesiastic, didactic writer, d, 1763. 
 Bolton, Sir William, English naval captain, nephew of lord Nelson, 
 
 b. 1777, d. 1830. 
 
 Bolzani, Urbano Valeriano, Venetian monk, grammarian, d. 1524. 
 Bom, Pieter, Flemish landscape painter in distemper, b. 1530, d. 1572. 
 Bombelli, Sebastiano, Ital. histor. and port, painter, b. 1635, d. 1685. 
 Bomberg, Daniel, Dutch printer, printed the Bible and the Talmud, 
 d. 1549. 
 
 Bombino, Pietro Paolo, Ital. historian, orator, b. ab. 1575, d. 1648. 
 Bommart, Amedee Alex. Hippolyte, French engineer, b. 1807, '/. 1805. 
 Bonafous, Mattco, Piedmontese agriculturist, b. 1701, if. 1852. 
 Bonald, Victor, vicomte de, Fr. philosophical writer, b. 1779, d. 1871. 
 Bonamy, Pierre Nicolas, Fr. historian, journalist, b. 1694, d. 1770. 
 Bonanni, Filippo, Roman jesuit, historian, antiquary, d. 17_'.">. 
 Bonaparte, Carlo, Corsiean patriot, father of Napoleon I., d. 1785. 
 Bonaparte, Madame (Maria Letizia Ramolini), mother of Napoleon I., 
 
 b. Corsica 1750, d. Rome 1836. 
 Bonaparte, Jerome Napoleon, Amer. agriculturist, b. 1805, d. 1870. 
 Bonard, Louis Adolphe, French admiral, b. 1805, d. 1867. 
 Bonarelli, Guido Ubaldo, Italian poet, b. 1553, d. 1608. 
 Bonati, Giovanni, Italian historical painter, b. 1635, d. 1681. 
 Bonati, Teodoro Maximo, Ital. physician, mathemat., b. 1724, d, 1820. 
 Bonchamp, Artus de, French Vendean royalist general, d. 1793. 
 Boncour, Anna Charlotte von, Dutch port, painter, b. 1748, d. 1802. 
 Boncuore, Giovanni Battista, Italian histor. painter, b. 1645, d. 1699. 
 Bond, Daniel, English landsc. and decorative painter, b. 1764, d. 1804. 
 Bond, Henry, Amer. physician, antiq., genealogist, b. 1790, d. 1859. 
 Bond, John, English physician, classical editor, d. 1612. 
 Bondam, Pieter, Dutch voluminous commentator, b. 1727, d. 1800. 
 Bondi, Clemente, Italian poet, d. 1816. 
 
 Boner, Charles, English traveller, journalist, essayist, b. 1815, d. 1870. 
 
 Bonesi, Giovanni Girolamo, Bolognese hist, painter, b. 1653, d. 1725. 
 
 Bonfini, Antonio, Ital. philolog., historian, translator, b. 1427, d. 1502. 
 
 Bonham, Sir Samuel George, Eng. colonial governor, b. 1803, d. 1863. 
 
 Bonheur, Francois Auguste, French landscape painter, 6. 1824. 
 
 Bonheur, Jules Isidore, French sculptor, b. 1827. 
 
 Bonheur, Juliette, French artist, b. 1830. 
 
 Bonheur, Raymond, French artist, d. 1853. 
 
 Bonhome, Ignace Francois, French painter, b. 1809. 
 
 Boni, Giacomo, Bolognese historical painter, b. 1688, d. 1766. 
 
 Boni, Maurizio, Genoese monk, bibliogr., archaeol., b. 1746, d. 1817. 
 
 Bonifacio, Balthasar, Venetian bishop, historian, poet, d. 1659. 
 
 Bonisoli, Agostino, Italian historical painter, b. 1633, d. 1700. 
 
 Bonito, Giuseppe, Neapolitan historical painter, b. 1750, d. 1789. 
 
 Bonjean, Louis Bernard, French jurist, imperialist, b. 1804. 
 
 Bonn, Anders, Dutch physician, medical writer, b. 1738, d. 1819. 
 
 Bonnafont, Jean Pierre, French surgeon, b. 1805. 
 
 Bonnar, William, Scotch histor. and port, painter, b. 1800, d. 1853. 
 
 Bonnard, Auguste Henri de, French geologist, b. 1781, d. 1857. 
 
 Bonnasieux, Jean Marie, French sculptor, b. 1810. 
 
 Bonne, Eigobcrt, French geogr., nautical engineer, b. 1727, d. 1794. 
 
 Bonner, John, Amer. histor. writer, translator, b. Canada 1828. 
 
 Bonnet, Pierre Ossian, French mathematician, b. 1819. 
 
 Bonnetty, Augustin, Fr. theolog., orientalist, philosoph. writer, b. 1798. 
 
 Bonnycastle, Charles, English mathematician, professor at university 
 
 of Virginia, b. 1792, d. 1840. 
 Bonomi, Joseph, Eng. egyptologist, curator Soane museum, b. 1796. 
 Bonsignore, Ferdinando, Turin architect, d. 1844. 
 Bonstetten,C. V. de, Swiss naturalist, philosoph. writer, b. 1745, d. 1832. 
 Bonzi, Pietro Paolo, Italian histor. and port, painter, b. 1580, d. 1640. 
 Boodle, James, English solicitor, journalist, b. 1809, d. 1866. 
 Booker, Luke, English clergyman, poet, essayist, 6. 1762, d. 1835. 
 Boon, Daniel, Dutch grotesque painter, in England, d. 1698. 
 Boonen, Arnold, Dutch painter of portraits, and of subjects by candle 
 
 light, b. 1669, d. 1729. 
 Boonen, Gaspard, Dutch painter of portraits and night-pieces, d. 1729. 
 Boosey, Thomas, English bookseller, music publisher, d. 1871. 
 Booth, Charles, Scotch journalist, philologist, b. 1807, d. 1866. 
 Booth, Edwin F., American tragedian, b. 1833. 
 
 Booth, Sir Felix, English distiller, promoter of arctic exploration 
 b. 1755, d. 1850. 
 
 Booth, James, D.D., English mathematician, educationist, b. 1814. 
 
 Booth, James C, American physicist, writer on chemistry, b. 1810. 
 
 Booth, Junius Brutus, American tragedian, b. 1796, d. 1852. 
 
 Booth, Laurence, Eng. statesm., archbishop of York, chancellor,*?. 1480. 
 
 Booth, Mary L., American historian, translator from French, b. 1831. 
 
 Booth, Sir Robert Gore, Irish magistrate, M.P., b. 1865. 
 
 Booth, Sarah, English actress, b. 1792, d. 1S67. 
 
 Booth, William, Eng. lieut.-gen., India and Burma, b. 1791, d. 186S. 
 
 Borcht, Hendrik van der, Flemish painter and engraver, in England, 
 
 b. 1583, d. 1660. 
 Bordazar de Artazu, Antonio, Spanish printer, 1671, d. 1744. 
 Borde, Alex. Joseph la, Fr. count, oriental traveller, b. 1774, d. 1842. 
 Bordelon, Laurent, Fr. dramatic and general writer, b. 1653, d. 1730. 
 Borden, Simeon, Amer. railway and telegr. engineer, b. 1798, d. 1856. 
 1 d 2 
 
so 
 
 BORDELON. 
 
 BOYLE. 
 
 Bordier, Henri Leonard, French archaeologist, b. 1817. 
 
 Borghi, Giuseppe, Italian poet, 6. 1790, d. 1847. 
 
 Borghi-Mamo, Signora (Adelaide Borghi), Italian opera singer, b. 1829. 
 
 Borgianni, Orazio, Roman historical painter, b. 1580, d. 1630. 
 
 Borjesson, Jan, Swedish poet, dramatic writer, b. 1790. 
 
 Borkh, August, German theologian, b. 1785, d. 1867. 
 
 Borkhausen, Moritz Balthasar, German naturalist, writer on geology 
 
 and botany, b. 1760, d. 1806. 
 Borland, J., English physician, b. 1776, d. 1863. 
 Borlase, George, English clergyman, metaphysician, d. 1809. 
 Born, Ignatius, baron, German mineralogist, b. 1742, d. 1791. 
 Borrekens, JohanP. F., Dutch landsc. and histor. painter, 6.1747, d. 1827. 
 Borroni, Giovanni Angelo, Italian histor. painter, b. 1684, d. 1772. 
 Borrowes, Sir Erasmus 1)., Irish clergym., antiquary, b. 1799, d. 1866. 
 Borsato, Giuseppe, Italian architectural painter, b. about 1800. 
 Borsini, Lorenzo, Italian satirical poet, 6. 1800. 
 Borsteegh, Cornelis, Dutch painter and designer, b. 1773, d. 1834. 
 Borunda, D. Manuel, Mexican archaeologist, d. about 1795. 
 Borzone, Francesco Maria, Gcnoeso landscape and marine painter, 
 
 b. 1625, d. 1679. 
 
 Borzone, Luciano, Genoese port, and histor. painter, b. 1590, d. 1645. 
 Bos, Gaspar vanden, Dutch marine painter, b. 1634, d. 1666. 
 Bos, Jerome, French grotesque engraver, painter, b. 1470, d. 1530. 
 Bosanquet, George Jacob, English diplomatist, b. 1791, d. 1866. 
 Bosanquet, John Bernard, English judge of common picas, linguist, 
 
 writer on prophecy, b. 1773, d. 1847. 
 Bosbroom, Johannes, Dutch architectural painter, b. 1817. 
 Boscawen, Edward, English poet, philologist, critic, b. 1752, d. 1811. 
 Boscawen, William, English commissioner of bankrupts, classicist, 
 
 poet, b. 1752, d, 1811. 
 Bosch, Jakob vanden, Dutch painter of fruits, b. 1636, d. 1676. 
 Boschaert, Nikolas, Flem. flower and fruit painter, b. 1696, d. 1746. 
 Boschi, Francesco, Florentine historical paintor, b. 1619, d. 1675. 
 Boscoli, Andrea, Florentine landscape painter, b. 1550, d. 1606. 
 Bosio, Astyanax Scevola, French sculptor, b. about 1798. 
 Bosman, Bernard, Dutch miniature painter, b. 1742, d. 1807. 
 Bosschaert, Guillaume Jacques Joseph, Belgian jurist, b. 1737, d. 1815. 
 Bosschaert, Thos. Willeborts, Dutch histor. painter, b. 1613, d. 1656. 
 Bossu, Rene lc, French critic, philosophical essayist, b. 1631, d. 1680. 
 Bos well, Sir Alexander, Scotch autiq., song-writer, b. 1775, d. 1822. 
 Boswell, James, Scotch critic, Shaksperian editor, b. 1779, d. 1822. 
 Boteville, Francis, English chronicler (with Holinshed), d. 1580. 
 Botfield, Beriah, English antiquary, bibliogr., M.P., b. 1807, d. 1863. 
 Botius, or De Boodt, Anselme, Flemish mineralogist, poet, painter, 
 
 6. 1552, d. 1632. 
 
 Botschild, Samuel, Saxon historical painter, teacher, b. 1640, d. 1707. 
 Bott, Thomas, English artist, painter on porcelain, b. 1829, d. 1870. 
 Botta, Signora (Anne Charlotte Lynch), Amer. poetess, b. about 1830. 
 Botta, Marco Ant, Genoese hist, and port, painter, b. 1572, d. 1648. 
 Bottala, Giovanni Maria, Genoese historical painter, b. 1613, d. 1644. 
 Bottani, Giuseppe, Ital. landsc. and histor. painter, b. 1717, d. 1784. 
 Bbttcher, Christian, German painter, b. 1818. 
 Bottesini, Autonio, Italian musician, musical composer, b. 1823. 
 Botticelli, Sandro, Florentine historical painter, b. 1437, d. 1515. 
 Bbttiger, Karel Willem, Swedish poet, b. 1807. 
 Bb'ttiger, Karl Wilhelm, German historian, b. 1790, d. 1862. 
 Bottomby, Joseph, Eng. musician, writer on music, 6. 1786. 
 Bottoni, Alessandro, Roman historical painter, b. 1662, d. 1706. 
 Boubec, Nerfie, French geologist, b. 1806, d. 1863. _ 
 Bouchardat, Apollinaire, Fr. physician, medical writer, b. ah. 1810. 
 Bouchardy, Joseph, French dramatist, b. 1810. 
 Bouchene-Lefer, Adele Gabriel Denis, French jurist, b. 1796. 
 Boucher, Jean, Fr. controversial theolog., satirical writer, b. 1548, d. 1644. 
 Boucherie, Auguste, French chemist, inventor, b. 1801, d. 1871. 
 Boucheron, Carlo Emanuele, Piedm. philolog., theolog., &. 1773, d. 1838. 
 Bouchet, Frederic Jules, French architect, b. 1799, d. 1860. 
 Bouchier, Barton, Eng. clergym., biblical commentator, b. 1794, d. 1865. 
 Bouchitte, Louis F. Herve, Fr. metaphysician, historian, b. 1795. 
 Bouchut, Eugene, French physician, medical writer, b. 1818. 
 Boucicault, Dion, Irish dramatist, actor, manager, novelist, b. 1822. 
 Boucicaut, Jean de Meingre de, marshal of France, b. 1365, d. captive 
 in England 1421. 
 
 Boucquet, Victor, Flem. histor. and portrait painter, b. 1619, d. 1660. 
 Boudinot, Elias, American lawyer, statesman, philanthropist, b. 1740, 
 d. 1821. 
 
 Boudoin, James, American statesman, educationist, b. 1727, d. 1790. 
 Bouet-Willaumez, L. Edouard, comtc, Fr. admiral, naval writer, b. 1808. 
 Bouffe, Marie, French actress, b. 1800. 
 
 Bougainville, Jean Pierre de, Fr. chronolog., dramat, b. 1722, d. 1763. 
 Bougron, Louis Victor, French sculptor, b. 1798. 
 Bouguereau, Adolphe William, French historical painter, b. 1825. 
 Bouhat, utienne, French painter, b. 1780. 
 
 Bouillaud, Jean Baptiste, French physician, medical writer, b. 1796. 
 Bouille, Frangois Claude Amour, marquis de, French general, historian, 
 
 b. 1759, d. 1800. 
 Bouillier, Francisque, French metaphysician, critic, b. 1813. 
 Boujas, Juan Antonio, Spanish historical painter, b. 1672, d. 1726. 
 Boulanger, Franc, ois Louis Florimond, French architect, b. 1807. 
 
 Boulanger, Gustave Rodolphc Clarence, French painter, b. 1824. 
 Boulanger, Louis, French painter, b. 1806. 
 
 Boulanger, M. C, Fr. painter, classical antiquary, b. 1796, d. 1842. 
 
 Boulanger, Nicolas Ant., Fr. mat.hemat, engineer, b. 1722, d. 1759. 
 
 Boulard, Antoine Marie Henri, French philolog., 6. 1754, d. 1825. 
 
 Boulay-Paty, Evariste Cyprien Felix, French poet, b. 1804, d. 1864. 
 
 Bouley, Henri, Fr. surgeon, writer on veterinary hygiene, b. ab. 1815. 
 
 Boulgarine, Thaddeus, Polish novelist, satirical writer, b. 1789, d. 1859. 
 
 Boullee, Aime" Auguste, French historian, b. 1795. 
 
 Boullier, David Renaud, Dutch protestant theologian, of French 
 origin, b. 1699, d. London 1759. 
 
 Boullongne, Genevieve, French historical painter, b. 1645, d. 1708. 
 
 Boullongne, Louis, the elder, French histor. painter, b. 1609, d. 1674. 
 
 Boullongne, Louis, French allegorical painter, b. 1654, d. 1734. 
 
 Boulter, Hugh, Eng. archbp. of Armagh, economist, b. 1671, d. 1742. 
 
 Bou-Maza, Si Mohammed ben Abdallah, Arab chief, colonel in French 
 army, b. about 1820. 
 
 Bouquet, Jean Claude, French mathematician, b. 1819. 
 
 Bourasse, Jean Jacques, French abbd, archaeologist, naturalist, b. 1813. 
 
 Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sautcr, French imperialist general, of Greek 
 origin, b. Paris, 1816. 
 
 Bourchier, Legendre C. , English military commander, in West and East 
 Indies, b. 1815, d. 1866. 
 
 Bourdon, Jean Baptiste Isidore, French physiolog., b. 1796, d. 1861. 
 
 Bourdon, Madame (Mathildc Lippens), French writer of religious bio- 
 graphies, tales, and devotional books, b. 1817. 
 
 Bouree, Nicolas Prosper, French diplomatist, b. 1811. 
 
 Bourgade, Francois, French abbe, missionary in Algeria, philologist, 
 b. 1806, d. 1866. 
 
 Bourgeois, Constant, French painter, b. 1768, d. 1843. 
 
 Bourgoing, Paul Charles Amable, baron de, French diplomatist, 
 statesman, 6. Hamburg 1791, d. 1864. 
 
 Bourke, John, Irish architect, educationist, d. 1871. 
 
 Bourke, Hon. Robert, Irish barrister, administrator, b. 1827. 
 
 Bournons, Rombaut, Flemish mathematical writer, d. 1788. 
 
 Bourquelot, Louis Felix, French archseolog., bibliogr., b. 1815, d. 1868. 
 
 Bourqueney, Francois Adolphe, baron, Fr. statesman, b. 1800, d. 1869. 
 
 Bourrit, Marc Theodore, Genevese alpine traveller, b. 1739, d. 1819. 
 
 Bousquet, Georges, French musician, musical composer, b. 1818. 
 
 Boutaric, Edgar Paul, French historian, architect, b. 1829. 
 
 Bouteux, Pierre le, French historical painter, b. 1692, d. 1750. 
 
 Boutillier, Maximilien Jean, French dramatic writer, b. 1745, d. 1811. 
 
 Boutiot, Joseph Tbeophile, French archaeologist, b. 1816. 
 
 Boutowski, Aleksander, Russian political economist, b. 1814. 
 
 Boutwell, George S., American politician, financier, b. 1818. 
 
 Bouverie, Edward Pleydcll, English political reformer, b. 1818. 
 
 Bouvet, Francois Joseph Francisque, Fr. publicist, journalist, b. 1799. 
 
 Bouys, Andre, Fr. port, painter, mezzotint engraver, b. 1681, d. 1730. 
 
 Bouzales, Adrien, French artist, b. 1807, d. 1867. 
 
 Bovill, Sir William, Eng. chief justice common pleas, b. 1814, d. 1873. 
 
 Bovy, Jean Francois Antoine, French medallist, b. Geneva, 1803. 
 
 Bowditch, Nathaniel Ingersoll, American lawyer, genealogist, philan- 
 thropist, 6. 1805, d. 1861. 
 
 Bowdler, Hannah, English poetess, essayist, b. 1754, d. 1830. 
 
 Bowdler, Thomas, English physician, editor of the 'Family Shaks- 
 peare,' b. 1754, d. 1825. 
 
 Bowdoin, James, American statesman, governor of Massachusetts, 
 b. 1707, d. 1790. 
 
 Bowen, Francis, American philosophical writer, critic, b. about 1814. 
 Bowen, Sir Geo. F., Irish colonial governor, writer on Greece, b. 1821. 
 Bowers, George Hull, English theologian, philanthropist, educationist, 
 b. 1794, d. 1872. 
 
 Bowers, John, English wesleyan minister, theolog., b. 1796, d. 1866. 
 Bowie, Robert, English physician, of London, and in Victoria colony 
 
 philanthropist, b. 1788, d. 1869. 
 Bowkett, Thomas, English physician, originator of Bowkett Building 
 
 Societies, b. about 1806. 
 Bowly, Christopher, English philanthropist, temperance reformer 
 
 b. 1773, d, 1851. 
 
 Bowman, William, English surgeon, writer on pl^siology, b. 1816. 
 
 Bowness, William, English portrait painter, b. 1809, d. 1867. 
 
 Bowring, Edgar Alfred, English economist, poet, educationist, b. 1811. 
 
 Bowyer, Sir George, D.C.L., English barrister, jurist, M.P., b. 1811. 
 
 Boyd, Henry, Irish clergym., theol., poet, translator of Dante, d. 1832. 
 
 Boyd, Hugh Macauley, Scotch political essayist, d. 1791. 
 
 Boyd, James R., American critic, editor of English poets, b. 1804. 
 
 Boyd, Mark Alex., Scotch soldier, philol., latin poet, b. 1562, d. 1601. 
 
 Boyd, Robert, lord, Scotch judge, politician, d. 1470. 
 
 Boyd, Robert, of Trochrig, Scotch protestant preacher, philologist, 
 
 bibl. expositor, principal of Edinburgh university, b. 1578, d. 1627. 
 Boyd, Zachary, Scotch presbyterian minister, philolog., poet, d. 1653. 
 Boydell, Josiah, English portrait painter, engraver, b. 1750, d. 1817. 
 Boye, Gaspard Jan, Danish poet, b. 1791, d. 1863. 
 Boyer, Abel, French lexicographer, b. 1664, d. 1729. 
 Boyer, Alexis, baron, Fr. surgeon, writer on surgery, b. 1757, d. 1833. 
 Boyer, Jean Baptiste Nicolas, Fr. physician, medical writer, d. 1768. 
 Boyle, David, Scotch judge of session, lord justice clerk 1811-41 lord 
 
 president 1841-52 ; b. 1772, d. 1853. 
 
(1 
 
 Boyleston, Nicholas, American merchant, founder of rhetoric chair 
 
 in Harvard, university, d. 1771. 
 Boyleston, Zabdiel, Am. physician, used inoculation, b. 1680, d. 1721. 
 Boys, "William, Eng. surgeon, antiq., topographer, b. 1735, d. 1803. 
 Boyse, John, English biblical translator and critic, b. 1500, d. 1643. 
 Braccini, Niccolo (II Tribolo), Tuscan sculptor, b. 1485, d. 1550. 
 Braccioli, Giovanni Francesco, Ital. bistor. painter, b. 1698, d. 1762. 
 Bracciolini Dell 'Api, Francesco, Italian eccles., poet, b. 1565, d. 1645. 
 Brace, Charles Loring, Amer. minister, philanth., ethnologist, b. 1826. 
 Bracelli, Giovanni Battista, Genoese engraver, d. 1609. 
 Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, American judge of the supreme court of 
 
 Pennsylvania, d. 1816. 
 Brackett, Joshua, American physician, naturalist, d. 1802. 
 Bradberry, David, English nonconformist theologian, 5. 1736, d. 1803. 
 Bradbury, Thomas, English independent preacher, b. 1677, d. 1759. 
 Bradbury, William, Eng. printer, publisher oi Punch, b. 1797, d. 1869. 
 Braddon, Mary Elizabeth, English novelist, magazine editor, b. 1837. 
 Bradford, John, English protest, minister, burnt at Smithfield 1555. 
 Bradford, John, English nonconformist theologian, b. 1751, d. 1805. 
 Bradford, Samuel, English prelate, bishop of Rochester, editor of 
 
 'Tillotson's Sermons,' d. 1731. 
 Bradford, Thomas, American printer, successor to Benjamin Franklin, 
 
 b. 1743, d. 1838. 
 
 Bradford, William, quaker, printer of first newspaper in Philadelphia, 
 
 America, 1725 ; b. England 1658, d. 1752. 
 Bradford, William, American jurist, governor of Pennsylvania, b. 
 
 1755, d. 1795. 
 
 Bradley, Ed. (Cv.thbertBc.de), Eng. clergym. , essayist, arcliajolog. , b. 1827. 
 
 Bradley, George Granville, English clergyman, philologist, b. 1821. 
 
 Bradshaw, George, Eng. publisher of railway guides, b. 1800, d. 1853. 
 
 Bradstreet, Anne, American poetess, b. 1612, d. 1672. 
 
 Brady, Sir Francis, Irish chief just. Newfoundland, b. 1809, d. 1871. 
 
 Brady, John, Irish physician, magistrate, legislator, b. 1S12. 
 
 Brady, Sir Maziere, Irish jurist, lord chancellor 1846-67 ; b. 1796. 
 
 Bragg, Braxton, American confederate general, b. 1815. 
 
 Bragge, Robert, English nonconformist theologian, b. 1665, d. 1737. 
 
 Braham, John, Eng. tenor singer, musical composer, b. 1774, d. 1856. 
 
 Bramwell, Sir George W. Wilshere, Eng. baron of exchequer, b. 1808. 
 
 Brancas, Lauraguais, ducde, French scientific discoverer, b. 1735,(2.1824. 
 
 Brand, Henry Bouverie William, English legislator, administrator, 
 speaker of house of commons 1872 ; b. 1814. 
 
 Brandao, Antonio, Portuguese historian, b. 1584, d. 1637. 
 
 Brandel, Peter, Bohemian historical painter, b. 1660, d. 1739. 
 
 Brandenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, count von, Prussian general, states- 
 man, b. 1792, d. 1850. 
 
 Branders, Gemmy, Fr. musical editor and publisher, b. 1823, d. 1873. 
 
 Brandes, Ernest, Hanoverian statesman, polit. writer, b. 1758, d. 1810. 
 
 Brandis, Johannes, German archfeologist, numismatist, d. 1873. 
 
 Brandmuller, Gregory, Swiss hist, and port, painter, b. 1661, d. 1691. 
 
 Brandt, Georg, Swedish physicist, d. 1768. 
 
 Brant, Joseph, American Indian missionary to Indians ; head of Mohawks 
 
 on Grand River, 'Chief of the Six Nations,' b. 1742, d. 1807. 
 Brassey, Thomas, English railway engineer, b. 1805, d. 1870. 
 Brassey, Thomas, English barrister, economist, founder of volunteer 
 
 naval reserve, M.P., 6. 1836. 
 Brattle, William, Arner. lawyer, physician, preacher, soldier, d. 1775. 
 Bravo, Gonzales, Spanish statesman, b. 1817. 
 Bravo-Murillo, Juan, Spanish statesman, diplomatist, b. 1803. 
 Bray, Mrs. Ann Eliza, English novelist, traveller, artist, b. ab. 1791. 
 Bray, William, Eng. antiq., editor of 'Evelyn's Diary,' b. 1736, d. 1832. 
 Braybrooke, R. C. Neville, baron, Eng. archajologist, b. 1814, d. 1861. 
 Braybrooke, Richard Neville Griffin, baron, English peer of Great 
 
 Britain, archaeologist, b. 1783, d. 1858. 
 Breckinridge, John C, Amer. politician, confederate general, b. 1821. 
 Breda, Jan van, Flemish landsc. and histor. painter, b. 1685, d. 1750. 
 Bredael, Pieter van, Flemish landscape painter, b. 1630, d. 1681. 
 Bredenbach, Mathias, Germ, theolog., commentator, b. 1489, d. 1559. 
 Bredsdorff, Jacob Hornemann, Danish naturalist, b. 1790, d. 1841. 
 Bre"e, Matthew Ignatius van, Belgian histor. painter, b. 1773, d. 1839. 
 Breitinger, Jean Jacques, Swiss protestant theologian, political writer, 
 
 b. 1575, d. 1645. 
 
 Brenkenhoff, Franz B. Schocnberg, German agricult., b. 1723, d. 1780. 
 Brenkmann, Hendrik, Dutch jurist, b. 1680, d. 1736. 
 Brenner, Hendrik, Swedish orientalist, bibliographer, d. 1733. 
 Brentana, Simone, Venetian historical painter, b. 1656, d. 1726. 
 Brentel, Friedrich, Germ, histor. and landsc. painter, b. 1570, d. 1622. 
 Brenton, Edward, English naval officer, author of ' Naval History of 
 
 Great Britain,' d. 1839. 
 Brerewood, Edward, English mathematician, astron., b. 1565, d. 1613. 
 Brescia, Francesco Giov. Mariada, Ital. fresco painter, b. 1460, d. 1510. 
 Breslaw, Henry, dukeof, leader of Poles, against Tartars, b. 1171, d. 1241. 
 Breton, Nicholas, English pastoral poet, b. 1555, d. 1624. 
 Breton, Raymond, French missionary in W. Indies, philolog., d. 1679. 
 Breton de Champ, Paul Emile, French engineer, mathemat., b. 1814. 
 Breton de log Herreros, Manuel, Span, satirical poet, b. 1796, d. 1873. 
 Bretschneider, Carl Gottlob, Germ, biblical critic, /). 1776, d. 1848. 
 Brevern, Hermann von, Livonian statesman, b. 1663, d. 1721. 
 Brewer, C. Babington, Eng. judge in Victoria colony, b. 1813, d. 1868. 
 
 Brewer, Thomas, English educationist, promoter of Sacred Harmonic 
 
 Society, b. 1807, d. 1872. 
 Brewer, William, English physician, legislator, educationist, b. 1812. 
 Brewis, William, English congregational minister, philanthropist, 
 
 temperance reformer, b. 1804, d. Penrith 1869. 
 Brewster, Abraham, Irish justice of appeal 1865-67; lord chancellor 
 
 1867-70 ; b. 1796. 
 
 Brewster, Patrick, Scotch prcsbyterian minister, temperance and 
 
 political reformer, d. 1859. 
 Brewster, William, Eng. schoolmaster and printer at Leyden ; emigrated 
 
 to Amer. 1620 ; minister at Plymouth, N. Eng. ; b. 1560, d. 1644. 
 Breydel, Peter, Flemish portrait and histor. painter, b. 1679, <i . 1750. 
 Breyer, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von, Germ, historian, b. 1749, d. 1777. 
 Brialmont, Alexis Henri, Belgian journalist, military writer, 6. 1821. 
 Brialmont, Laurent Mathieu, Belgian general, b. 1789. 
 Brida, Giano, Italian musical composer, pianist, b. 1836, d. 1872. 
 Bridaine, Jacques, French itinerant preacher, poet, b. 1701, d. 1767. 
 Bridan, Charles Antoine, French sculptor, b. 1750, d. 1805. 
 Bridel, Louis, Swiss protestant pastor, orientalist, b, 1760, d. 1821. 
 Bridges, Thomas, English botanist, in South America and British 
 
 Columbia, d. 1865. 
 Brienne, Walter de, French crusader, king of Sicily, d. 1205. 
 Brienne, Walter de, king of Sicily, taken by Saracens, d. 1251. 
 Briey, Camille, count de, Belgian statesman, diplomatist, b. 1799. 
 Brigham, Amariah, Amer. physician for the insane, b. 1798, d. 1849. 
 Brigham, Nicholas, English lawyer, poet, biographer, d. 1559. 
 Bright, Henry, English painter in water-colours, b. 1814, d. 1873. 
 Bright, John, English physician, b. 1782, d. 1870. 
 Bright, Jonathan B., American merchant, genealogist, b. 1800. 
 Brinkman, Karel Gustaf von, Swedish statesman, b. 1764, d. 1847. 
 Brinley, Francis, American jurist, journalist, biographer, b. 1800. 
 Brinton, William, English physician, physicist, b. 1824, d. 1867. 
 Brisbane, Sir Thomas Makdougall, Dart., Scotch general, astronomer, 
 
 governor ,of N. S. Wales 1821-5, b. 1773, d. 1860. 
 Brissibare, Edouard Louis Alexandre, French dramat., b. 1811, d. 1871. 
 Bristed, Charles Astor, Carl Benson, American journalist, humourist, 
 1820, d. 1874. 
 
 Bristol, Frederick Hervey, earl of, Irish peer, antiquary, art-connoisseur, 
 
 philanthropist, b. 1730, d. 1803. 
 Bristol, John Digby, earl of, English diplomatist, b. 1580, d. 1653. 
 Britannicus, Giovanni, Italian critic, grammarian, d. 1510. 
 Brito, Bernardo de, Portuguese historian, b. 1569, d. 1617. 
 Britton, Thomas, English musician, the 'musical small-coal man,' 
 
 b. 1654, d. 1714. 
 
 Broadfoot, William, Scotch presbyterian minister, Orkney and London, 
 b. 1775, d. 1837. 
 
 Brocacenagro, Pedro Atanasio, Span, histor. painter, b. 1638, d. 1688. 
 Brock, Isaac, English military comm., killed in action, Canada, 1812. 
 Brockedon, William, English artist, inventor, b. 1785, d. 1854. 
 Brockes, Barthold Heinrich, German poet, b. 1680, d. 1747. 
 Brockett, William Henry, English antiquary, journalist, b. 1804, d. 
 Newcastle 1867. 
 
 Brockhaus, Friedrich Arnold, German publisher, editor of ' Conversa- 
 tions-Lexikon,' b. 1772, d. 1823. 
 
 Brockhaus, Hermann, German orientalist, b. 1806. 
 
 Brocklehurst, William Coare, English manufacturer, M.P., b. 1818. 
 
 Brockmann, Johaun F. Hieronymus, Germ, comedian, b. 1745, d. 1812. 
 
 Brodhagen, Pieter Hein. Christoph, Germ, mathem., b. 1753, d. 1805. 
 
 Brodhead, John Romeyn, American historian, b. 1814. 
 
 Brodie, Alexander, Scotch sculptor, b. 1831, d. 1867. 
 
 Brodie, George, Scotch historian, b. 1786, d. 1867. 
 
 Brodzinski, Casimir, Polish poet, prof, of esthetics, b. 1791, d. 1835. 
 
 Broers, Jacobus Karl, Dutch physician, b. 1795, d. 1847. 
 
 Brogden, Alexander, English ironmaster, magistrate, M.P., b. 1825. 
 
 Broglie, Achille Charles L. Victor, due de, French diplomatist, states- 
 man, b. 1785, d. 1870. 
 
 Broglie, Victor Frangois, due de, Fr. royalist general, b. 1718, d. 1S04. 
 
 Broglio, Claude Victor, prince de, French field-marshal, republican, 
 b. 1757, d. 1794. 
 
 Broglio, Victor Maurice, corate de, French marshal, b. 1647, d. 1727. 
 Broke, Sir Philip Bowes Vere, English admiral, took the ' Chesapeake ' 
 
 frigate 1813; b. 1776, d. 1841. 
 Bromby, Charles Henry, English theologian, bishop of Tasmania, 
 
 writer on the liturgy, b. 1812. 
 Brome, Alexander, English attorney, satirical poet, b. 1620, d. 1666. 
 Bromfield, William, Eng. physician, medical writer, b. 1712, d. 1792. 
 Bromley, John, English mezzotint engraver, b. 1795, d. 1839. 
 Bromley, Sir Rich. Madox, Eng. financial administ., b. 1S13, d. 1865. 
 Bromley-Davenport, William, English magistrate, M.P., b. 1821. 
 Bromme, Traugott, German geographer, d. 1865. 
 Brongniart, Auguste Louis, Fr. chem., lecturer on science, d. 1804. 
 Broocman, Karel Ulric, Swedish educationist, d. 1812. 
 Brook, Charles, English magistrate, philanthropist, b. 1S13, d. 1872. 
 Brooke, Frances, English novelist, dramatic writer, d. 1789. 
 Brooke, Gustavus Vaughan, Irish tragedian, b. 1818, d. in the wreck 
 
 of the ' London ' steamship 1806^. 
 Brooke, Mrs. G. V. (Avonia Jones), English actress, b. 1839, d. 1867. 
 Brooke, James, English poet, political journalist, d. 1S07 
 
43 BROOKE. 
 
 Brooke, Sir Robert, English jurist, chief justice of com. pleas, d. 1558. 
 Brookes, Joshua, English anatomist, physiologist, b. 176], d. 1833. 
 Brookes, Paul, English naturalist, b. 1763, d. St. Petersburg 1827. 
 Brookhouse, Joseph, English hosiery manufacturer, introduced 
 
 machinery for spinning worsted, b. 1778, d. 1831. 
 Brooks, Charles T., American unitarian minister, translator from 
 
 the German, poet, traveller, b. 1813. 
 Brooks, John, Amer. physician, gov. of Massachusetts, b. 1752, d. 1825. 
 Brooks, Maurice, Irish merchant, lord mayor of Dublin, M.P., b. 1823. 
 Brooks, Nathan Covington, American teacher, writer of English 
 
 classical school books, b. 1809. 
 Brooks, William, English architect, philanthropist, b. 1787, d. 1867. 
 Brooks, William Cunliffe, English banker, barrister, M.P., b. 1819. 
 Brooksbank, Joseph, English congregational minister, a founder of the 
 
 London Missionary Society, b. 1762, d. 1825. 
 Broschi, Carlo, Neapolitan singer, at Spanish court, b. 1705, d. 1782. 
 Brotero, Felix Avellar, Portuguese botanist, b. 1745, (/. 1820. 
 Brotherton, Joseph, English political and temperance reformer, M.P., 
 
 b. 1784, d. 1857. 
 
 Brotherton, Sir Thomas William, English general, b. 1785, d. 1868. 
 Brotier, Andre Charles, French abbe", royalist writer, d. 1798. 
 Brough, John Cargill, English chemist, librarian of London Institution, 
 6. 1834, d. 1872. 
 
 Brough, Robert 13., English farce writer, journalist, b. 1828, d. 1860. 
 Brough, William, English journalist, dramatist, b. 1826, d. 1870. 
 Broughton, John Cam Hobhouse, baron, English statesman, poet, 
 
 traveller, 6. 1787, d. 1869. 
 Broughton, Robert, English naval captain, explorer in the Pacific Ocean, 
 
 b. 1763, d. 1821. 
 
 Broughton, Thomas, Eng. cedes., theologian, dratnat. writer, d. 1774. 
 Broughton, William R., Eng. geographical explorer, b. 1762, d. 1821. 
 Broukhuysen, Janus, Dutch poet, classicist, b. 1649, d. 1707. 
 Broussais, Francois Joseph Victor, French physician, medical writer, 
 b. 1772, d. 1838. 
 
 Broussonet, rierre Auguste Marie, French naturalist, b. 1761, d. 1807. 
 Browallius, Jan, bishop of Abo," Finland, naturalist, 1755. 
 Browell, William R., Eng. clergyman, editor, educationist, d. 1867. 
 Brown, Ford Madox, Eng. histor. and fresco painter, 6. Calais 1821. 
 Brown, Goold, American teacher, grammarian, b. 1791, d. 1857. 
 Brown, Henry Kirke, American sculptor, b. 1814. 
 Brown, Hugh Stowell, English baptist minister, lecturer, b. 1823. 
 Brown, Isaac Baker, English surgeon, writer on obstetric science, 
 
 founder of the Surgical Home, b. 1812, d. 1873. 
 Brown, James, Scotch philologist, traveller, b. 1709, d. 1788. 
 Brown, J. Ross, American writer and traveller, diplomatist, b. 1817. 
 Brown, John, English painter, and engraver, b. 1742, d. 1801. 
 Brown, John, Scotch portrait painter, in black lead pencil ; writer on 
 
 music ; b. 1752, d. London 1787. 
 Brown, John, American abolitionist, organised an invasion of Virginia 
 
 to free the slaves ; was taken, and executed ; b. 1800, d. 1859. 
 Brown, John, LL.D., Scotch physician, naturalist, critic, b. 1810. 
 Brown, J. C, Scotch painter, b. 1805, d. 1867. 
 
 Brown, John Porter, Amer. diplomatist, orientalist, b. 1814, d. 1872. 
 
 Brown, Joseph, English clergyman, philanthropist, b. 1800, d. 1867. 
 
 Brown, Mather, American painter, in England, d. 1831. 
 
 Brown, Moses, Amer. merchant ; freed his slaves 1773 ; b. 1738, d. 1836. 
 
 Brown, Robert, Scotch agriculturist, b. 1758, d. 1831. 
 
 Brown, R. P., English architect, b. 1803, d. 1873. 
 
 Brown, Samuel Gilman, D.D., Amer. metaphysician, biogr., b. 1813. 
 
 Brown, Simon, Eng. writer on christian evidences, b. 1680, d. 1753. 
 
 Brown, Thomas Richard, English clergyman, orientalist, b. 1791. 
 
 Brown, William, gem engraver, Paris and London, b. 1748, d. 1825. 
 
 Brown, William, Eng. merchant, philanthropist, M.P., b. 1784, d. 1864. 
 
 Brown, William, Scotch theologian, professor St. Andrews university, 
 b. 1800, d. 1868. 
 
 Brown, William Haig, English clergyman, educationist, b. 1823. 
 
 Brown, William Lawrence, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, philo- 
 logist, poet, writer on christian evidences, b. 1753, d. 1830. 
 
 Browne, Arthur, American protectant episcopal minister, theologian, 
 b. Ireland 1699, d. 1773. 
 
 Browne, Charles F., Artemus Ward, American humourist, lecturer, 
 b. 1834, d. England 1867. 
 
 Browne, Edward Harold, D.D., English bishop of Ely 1864, Winchester 
 1873, philologist, theologian, b. 1811. 
 
 Browne, Frances, Irish poetess, novelist, b. 1816. 
 
 Browne, Hablot Knight, Phiz, English humorous designer, b. 1815. 
 
 Browne, Henry, English clergyman, biblical archaeologist, b. 1804. 
 
 Browne, Isaac Hawkins, English barrister, poet, b. 1706, d. 1766. 
 
 Browne, Moses, Eng. clergyman, writer on angling, b. 1703, d. 1787. 
 
 Browne, Robert Palmer, English architect, b. 1803, d. 1872. 
 
 Browne, Sir William, English physician, b. 1692, d. 1774. 
 
 Browning, Wm. Shergold, Eng. novelist, historian, essayist, d. 1874. 
 
 Brownlie, James, Scotch presbyterian minister, theologian, d. 1821. 
 
 Brownrigg, Sir Robert, bart., English general, governor of Ceylon, 
 6. 1759, d. 1833. 
 
 Bruand, Anne Joseph, Fr. archaeol., writer on music, b. 1787, rf. 1820. 
 Bruce, Archibald, Eng. antiq., writer on popery, b. ab. 1750, d. 1816. 
 Bruce, Lord Ernest Aug. C. Brudenell, Eng. administrator, M.P., b. 1811. 
 
 BU RDEK. 4 1 
 
 Bruce, Sir Frederick W. A., Scotch diplomatist, b. 1814, d. 1867. 
 Bruce, George, Scotch printer, typefounder, in Amer., b. 1781, d. 1866. 
 Bruce, Sir J. L. Knight, English vice-chancellor, b. 1791, d. 1866. 
 Bruce, John, Scotch historian, archaeologist, M. P., b. 1744, d. 1826. 
 Bruce, John, D.D., Scotch presbyt. min., theolog., b. ab. 1790, d. 1 872. 
 Bruce, John Collingwood, Eng. antiq., educationist, b. 1805, d. 1809. 
 Bruce, Robert, Scotcli major-general, b. 1813, d. 1862. 
 Bruennich, Morton Thrane, Danish naturalist, b. 1737, d. 1827. 
 Brughl, Hans Moritz, German astron., political econ., b. 1688, d. 1742. 
 Brugnatelli, Luigi, Italian physician, chemist, b. 1726, d. 1818. 
 Brunacci, Vincenzo, Italian mathematician, b. 1768, d. 1818. 
 Brunet, Jacques Charles, French bibliographer, b. 1780, d. 1867. 
 Brunnow, Ernest Philipp de, Germ, diplom., in Russian service, b. 1797. 
 Brunton, Mrs. (Mary Balfour), Scotch novelist, b. 1778, d. 1818. 
 Bryant, Gridley, American railway engineer, b. 1798, d. 1867. 
 Bryant, James, English archaeologist, b. 1716, d. 1804. 
 Bryant, John Howard, American poet, b. 1807. 
 
 Bryant, Michael, English art-critic and collector, biographer of 
 painters, b. 1757, d. 1821. 
 
 Bryce, Alexander, Scotch presbyt. min., mathemat., b. 1713, d. 1786. 
 
 Bryce, Sir Alexander, English military engineer, d. 1832. 
 
 Brydon, William, English army physician, the sole survivor of the 
 Cabul massacre in 1842, d. 1873. 
 
 Brydone, Patrick, Scotch traveller, physicist, b. 1741, d. 1818. 
 
 Bryson, Alexander, Scotch physician, director of navy medical depart- 
 ment, b. 1802, d. 1869. 
 
 Bryson, Alexander, Scotch mathemat., physicist, b. 1816, d. 1866. 
 
 Buchan, David Stuart Erskine, 11th earl of, Scotch peer, founder of 
 Antiquarian Society of Scotland, biographer, b. 1742, d. 1829. 
 
 Buchan, William, Scotch physician, medical writer, author of 'Domes- 
 tic Medicine,' b. 1729, d. 1805. 
 
 Buchanan, Sir Andrew, Scotch diplomatist, b. 1807. 
 
 Buchanan, Dugald, Scotch philolog., author of gaelic poems, d. 1768. 
 
 Buchanan, Francis, Scotch naturalist, traveller, b. 1762, d. 1829. 
 
 Buchanan, Isaac, Canadian statesman, 6. Scotland 1810. 
 
 Buchanan, Robert, English physician, b. 1786, d. 1872. 
 
 Buchanan, Robert, LL.D., Scotch philologist, b. 1801, d. 1871. 
 
 Buchanan, liobert, Scotch poet, critic, translator, b. 1841. 
 
 Buchanan, Walter, English writer on art, b. 1777, d. 1864. 
 
 Buchwald, Joseph Hendrik de, Danish poet, essayist, b. 1787. 
 
 Buck, Charles, English preacher, author of ' Religious Anecdotes, ' 
 b. 1772, d. 1815. 
 
 Buckingham, Leicester, English dramatist, critic, b. 1826, d. 1867. 
 Buckingham, Rich. Plantagenet Temple Nugent Brydges Chandos 
 
 Grenville, 2nd duke of, English peer, statesman, 6. 1797, d. 1861. 
 Buckingham and Chandos, Richard Plantagenet C. T. N. B. Chandos 
 
 Grenville, 3rd duke of, English peer, statesman, b. 1823, succ. 1861. 
 Buckland, C. Hen., Eng. musician (St Paul's eathed.), b. 1825, d. 1867. 
 Buckminster, Joseph, American preacher, writer on religious subjects, 
 
 b. 1752, d. 1812. 
 
 Buckner, John, D.D., English bishop of Chichester, b. 1734, d. 1824. 
 Buckstone, John Baldwin, English comedian, dramatist, b. 1802. 
 Budgett, Samuel, English merchant, philanthropist, b. 1794, d. 1851. 
 Buel, Jesse, American judge, agricultural improver, b. 1787, d. 1839. 
 Buelow, Ludwig Fr. V. H., count von, Ger. jurist, b. 1774, d. 1825. 
 Buerger, Gottfried August, German poet, b. 1748, d. 1794. 
 Bufalini, Maurizio, Italian physician, medical writer - , b. 1787. 
 Buff, Heinrich Ludwig, German chemist, b. 1827, d. 1872. 
 Bugenhagen, Johannes, German theologian, b. 1485, d. 1558. 
 Bugge, Thomas, chevalier, Danish astronomer, b. 1740, d. 1815. 
 Buist, George, LL.D., Scotch naturalist, scientific writer, educationist, 
 
 in India, b. 1805, d. 1860. 
 Bulgaris, Demetrius, Greek statesman, b. about 1801. 
 Bull, Ole Borncmann, N orwegian violinist, b. 1810. 
 Sullen, Mrs. (Mary Swinton Legare), American artist, promoter of 
 
 female education, b. about 1800. 
 Buller, Sir Anthony, Eng. judge at Calcutta 1816, b. 1780, d. 1866. 
 Bulow, Fred. Kubeck Hendrik de, Danish general, diplomat., b. 1791. 
 Bulow, Heinrich von, Prussian diplom., statesman, b. 1790, d. 1846. 
 Buloz, Francois, French critic, founder of ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' 
 
 b. Switzerland 1803. 
 Bunge, Alexander, Russian botanist, b. 1803. 
 
 Bungener, Louis Felix, French protestant preacher, biographer, 
 
 theologian, b. 1814. 
 Bunting, Jabez, D.D., English wesleyan min., theol., b. 1778, d, 1858. 
 Bunting, William Maclardie, English wesleyan min., b. 1806, d. 1866. 
 Buol-Schauenstein, Karl Ferdinand, count von, Austrian statesman, 
 
 diplomatist, b. 1797, d. 1865. 
 Buonarotti, Filippo, Italiau political reformer, 6. 1761, d. 1837. 
 Buoncompagni, Baldassare, Italian mathematician, biographer, scientific 
 
 writer, b. 1821. 
 
 Buoncompagni di Mombello, Carlo, Italian jurist, statesman, writer on 
 
 the temporal power of the Pope, b. 1804. 
 Buonmattei, Benedetto, Italian grammarian, b. 1581, d. 1647. 
 Burchard, bishop of Worms, compiler of church canons, d. 1026. 
 Burdach, Ernst, Saxon physiologist, b. 1801. 
 
 Burder, John, English congregational minister, temperance advocate, 
 6. 1785, d. 1867. 
 
45 BORDER. 
 
 Burder, W. C, English meteorologist, b. 1771, d. 1865. 
 Burdett-Coutts, Angela Georgiana, baroness, Eng. philanthr., b. 1811. 
 Burdon, Win., Eng. essayist, author of 'Materials for Thinking,' d. 1318. 
 Burgermeister, Johann Stephan, German jurist, b. 16b'3, d. 1722. 
 Burgess, George, Amer. bishop of Maine, poet, historian, b. 1809. 
 Burgess, John, English painter in water colours, 6. 1788, d. 1803. 
 Burgess, Richard, English ecclesiastic, nrclneologist, b. 1795. 
 Burgess, Thomas, English bishop of Salisbury, theologian, antiquary, 
 
 critic, b. 1756, d. 1837. 
 Burgh, James, Scotch classicist, philosophical writer, b. 1714, d. 1775. 
 Burgh, Walter Hussey, Irish chief baron of exchequer, b. 1742, d. 1782. 
 Burgon, John William, English poet, theologian, b. 1819. 
 Burgoyne, Hugh Talbot, English naval commander, drowned in 
 
 'Captain' ironclad turret ship, b. 1822, d. 1870. 
 Burke, Sir J. Bernard, English genealogist, b. 1815. 
 Burke, John Doly, Irish historical writer, in America, d. 1808. 
 Burke, Peter, Irish jurist, antiquary, biographer, b. 1813. 
 Burkel, Heinrieh, German landscape painter, b. 1802, d. 1869. 
 Burlingame, Anson, Amer. diplomatist, sent by Chinese government as 
 
 envoy to U. States and Europe, b. 1822, d. St. Petersburg 1870. 
 Burn, William, Scotch architect, b. 1789, d. 1871. 
 Burnaby, Andrew, D.D., Eng. eccles., trav., theolog., b. 1733, d. 1812. 
 Burnand, Francis Cowly, English burlesque writer, dramatist, b. 1836. 
 Burnap, Geo.W., D.D., Amer. unitarian writer, theol.,6. 1802, d. 1859. 
 Burnet, James, Scotch landscape painter, b. 1788, d. 1816. 
 Burnet, John, Eng. congregational min., philanthi'., b. 1789, d. 1362. 
 Burnet, Thomas, English theologian, writer on natural philosophy, b. 
 
 1635, d. 1715. 
 
 Burnet, William, Eng. colonial governor, theolog., b. 1688, d. 1729. 
 Burnett, Sir William, English physician, b. 1779, d. 1861. 
 Burney, Charles, D.D., English clergyman, philologist, d. 1817. 
 Burney, James, English admiral, geogr. , physicist, b. 1739, d. 1820. 
 Burney, William, LL.D., English naval biographer, meteorologist, 
 b. 1762, d. 1832. 
 
 Burns, Elizabeth (Mrs. Thomson), daughter of the poet Robert Burns, 
 b. 1790, d. 1873. 
 
 Burns, Islay, D.D., Scotch presbyt theologian, biogr., b. 1817, d. 1872. 
 Burns, Jabez, D.D., Eng. bapt. min., temperance reformer, b. 1805. 
 Burns, James Glencairn, Scotch lieutenant colonel in India, son of 
 
 the poet Burns, b. 1794, d. 1865. 
 Burns, John, Scotch physician, medical writer, religious essayist, b. 
 
 1774, d. 1850. 
 
 Burns, William, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, temperance 
 
 reformer, b. 1776, d. 1856. 
 Burns, William Nichol, Scotch colonel in India, son of the poet Burns, 
 
 b. 1791, d. 1872. 
 Burr, Aaron, American theologian, philologist, b. 1714, d. 1757. 
 Burr, Joseph, American philanthropist, d. 1828. 
 
 Burrell, Win. H., Eng. physician, hospital inspector, 6. 1795, d. 1866. 
 Burroughs, Jeremiah, English nonconformist minister, London and 
 
 Rotterdam, theological writer, b. 1599, d. 1646. 
 Burrow, Reuben, English mathematician, d. 1791. 
 Burt, Thomas, Eng. secretary of Miners' Association, M. P., b. 1837. 
 Burton, Edward, D.D., English philologist, classicist, b. 1794, d. 1836. 
 Burton, John, D.D., Eng. poet, editorof Greek tragedies, b. 1696, d. 1771. 
 Burton, Warren, American minister, phrenologist, promoter of home 
 
 education, 6. 1800. 
 
 CAFFL 46 
 
 Burton, Sir Win. Westbrooke, Eng. jurist, statesm. N. S. Wales,//. 1791. 
 
 Bury, Lady Charlotte, English novelist, b. 1775, (/. 1861. 
 
 Bury, William Coutts Keppel, viscount, English legislator in Canada 
 
 and England, b. 1832. 
 Bus, Cesar de, French founder of the ' Congregation of the Christian 
 
 Doctrine,' b. 1544, d. 1607. 
 Bus, Francois Louis Joseph du, Belgian statesman, b. 1791. 
 Busch, August Ludwig, German astronomer, b. 1804, d. 1855. 
 Busche, Herman von, German poet, philologist (aided Luther), d. 1534. 
 Busching, Anton Friedrich, German statistical writer, b. 1724, d. 1793. 
 Bush, George, American orientalist, swedenborgian writer, biblical 
 
 annotator, b. 1796, d, 1859. 
 Bushe, Sir Charles Kendal, Irish chief justice, statesman, d. 1843. 
 Bushnell, Horace, D.D., American theolog., critic, orator, b. ab. 1804. 
 Busk, Hans, English barrister, promoter of riHe corps, b. Wales 1815. 
 Buss, Franz Joseph, German publicist, b. 1803. 
 Bussel, Aloys Joseph, German novelist, dramatist, b. 1789, d. 1842. 
 Bussy-Rabutin, Roger, 1 comte de, French general, satirical writer, 6. 
 
 1618, d. 1693. 
 
 Butcher, Samuel, Irish prelate, bishop of Meath, theologian, 
 
 archaeologist, critic, b. 1811. 
 Bute, John Crichton Stuart, marquis of, Scotch peer of United Kingdom, 
 
 agriculturist, b. 1793, d. 1848. 
 Bute, John Patrick Crichton Stuart, 3rd marquis of, Scotch peer of 
 
 United Kingdom, mine and dock owner, b. 1847. 
 Butler, Benjamin Franklin, American federal gen. , publicist, b. 1818. 
 Butler, George, D.D., Eng. eccles., theologian, b. 1775, d. 1853. 
 Butler, John, D.D., English theologian, bishop of Hereford, d. 1802. 
 Butler, John, English physician, ophthalmist, medical writer, b. 1791. 
 Butler, Samuel, D.D., English educationist, head master of Harrow 
 
 school, b. 1775, d. 1853. 
 Butt, Isaac, Irish barrister, advo. of home rule for Ireland, M.P., b. 1813. 
 Butterworth, Joseph, English law publisher, M.P., b. 1770, d. 1826. 
 Buttner, Christoph W., Germ, naturalist, philolog., b. 1716, d. 1801. 
 Buxhowden, Friedrich Wilhelm, count, German military commander 
 
 in Russian service, d. 1811. 
 Buxton, Charles, English essayist, M.P., b. 1822, d. 1871. 
 Buzacott, Aaron, English congregational minister, missionary to 
 
 South Sea Islanders, b. 1800, d. 1864. 
 Buzzola, Angelo, Venetian composer of sacred and operatic music, d. 1871. 
 Byam, Richard Burgh, English clergyman, antiquary, philanthropist, 
 
 b. 1785, d. 1867. 
 
 Byerley, Thomas, Scotch journalist, Sholto Percy, co-editor of ' Percy 
 
 Anecdotes,' b. 1789, d. 1826. 
 Bylart, Jan, Flemish historical and battle painter, b. 1603, d. 1661. 
 Byles, Sir John Barnard, English jurist, judge of common pleas, b. 1801. 
 Byles, Mather, D.D., American theologian, poet, d. 1788. 
 Byng, George, English legislator, M.P. for Middlesex for 57 years, 
 
 b. 1764, d. 1857. 
 Bynner, Henry, English philologist, journalist, b. 1773, d. 1867. 
 Byrne, Oscar, Irish dancer and ballet master, d. 1S67. 
 Byrne, William, English engraver, d. 1805. 
 
 Byron, George Auson, lord, English writer of 'Voyage to Sandwich 
 
 Isles,' b. 1789, d. 1868. 
 Byron, John, English poet, essa3'ist, stenographer, b. 1691, d. 1763. 
 Bytemeister, Heinrieh Johann, German bibliographer, b. 1698, d. 1746. 
 Bythner, Victorinus, Polish physician, poet, in England, d. 1664. 
 
 c 
 
 Caballero (Cecilia B. deArron, called Fernan), Span, novelist, b. 1820. 
 Caballero, Finnin Agosto, Spanish polit. econ., journalist, b. 1800. 
 Caballero, Eaiinundo Diosdada, Spanish bibliogr., b. 1740, d. Rome 1820. 
 Cabarrus, Francois, count, Fr. financier in Spain, b. 1752, d. 1810. 
 Cabassut, Jean, of Aix, French priest, jurist, b. 1604, d. 1685. 
 Cabat, Nicolas Louis, French landscape painter, b. 1812. 
 Cabbedo de Vasconcellos, Miguel, Portug. poet, jurist, b. 1525, d. 1577. 
 Cabel, Adrian van der, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1631, d. 1695. 
 Cabel, Madame (Marie Josephe Drculett), Belgian singer, b. 1827. 
 Cabot, George, American senator, political econ., b. 1752, d. 1823. 
 Cabot, John (Giovanni Gabotto), Venetian merchant, in England, 
 
 geographer, d. 1499. 
 Cabrera, Kamon, duke de la Victoria, Span. Carlist general, b. 1810. 
 Cacciatore, Onufre, Italian astronomer, b. 1802, d. 1867. 
 Caccini, Giulio, Italian musician, musical composer, d. 1615. 
 Cacciuoli, Giovanni Battista, Bolognese hist, painter, b. 1635, d. 1675. 
 Cachin, Joseph Maria Francois, baron, French civil .and military 
 
 engineer, b. 1757, d. 1825. 
 Cada Mosta, Luigi, Venetian geographical discoverer, Africa, d. 1464. 
 Cadell, Francis, Scotch Australian explorer, b. 1822. 
 Cadell, Robert, Scotch publisher, b. 1789, d. 1849. 
 Cadell, Thomas, English publisher, alderman and sheriff of London, 
 
 b. 1743, d. 1802. 
 Cadell, William, publisher in London, b. Bristol 1712, d. 1802. 
 
 Cadenhead, William, Scotch poet, b. 1819. 
 
 Cadet de Gassicourt, Claude Louis, French chemist, b. 1731, d. 1799. 
 Cadet de Gassicourt, 0. L., French chemical writer, b. 1769, d. 1821. 
 Cadet de Vaux, Antoine Alexis, French chemist, physician, writer on 
 
 agriculture, journalist, b. 1743, d. 1828. 
 Cadogan, William, 1st earl of, Eng. gen., with Marlborough, d. 1726. 
 Cadogan, William, Eng. physician, writer on gout, b. 1711, d. 1797. 
 Cadogan, Hon. William Bromley, English clergyman, theologian, 
 
 biographer, b. 1751, d. 1797. 
 Cadoudal, Louis Georges de, French historian, critic, essavist, b. 1823. 
 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, 660—686 ; d. at Rome 703. 
 Cadwallader, John, American general, polit. writer, b. 1743, d. 17S6. 
 Cadwallader, Thomas, American physician, anatomist, medical writer, 
 
 b. 1707, d. 1779. 
 Cadwallon ab Cadvan, prince and bard of North Wales, d. 660. 
 Cadwgan, AVelsh prince, d. 1110. 
 
 Caesar, Sir Charles, Eng. master of the rolls, 1639-42; b. 1589, d. 1642. 
 Caesar, Sir Thomas, Eng. baron of exchequer, 1610 ; b. 1561, d. 1610. 
 Cafarelli du Fulga, Louis Marie Joseph Maximilieu, French general, 
 
 b. 1756, killed at the siege of St. Jean d'Acre 1799. 
 Caffa, Melchior, sculptor, b. Malta, worked at Pome, d. 1637. 
 Caffarelli, Gaetano Majorana, Italian singer, d. 17S3. 
 Carle, Paul Louis Balth., Fr. physician, ophthalmist, b. Savoy, 1S03 
 Caffi, Ippolito, Italian painter, writer on perspective, b. 1314. 
 
47 CAFFIAUX. 
 
 Caffiaux, Joseph, French monk, genealogist, musical writer, d. \771. 
 Caffin, SirJas. Cradfonl, Eng. admiral, writer on naval gunnery, h. 1812. 
 Cagnatus, Marsilius, Veronese, rued, writer, lecturer, at Rome, h. 1640. 
 Cagnoni, Antonio, Italian musical composer, b. 1828. 
 Cahours, Augusta Andre Thomas, French chemical writer, b. 1813. 
 Cahusac, John Arthur, Irish antiquary, philanthropist, b. 1804, d. 1867. 
 Caiet, Pierre Victoirc Palma, Fr. theolog., historian, b. 1525, d. 1610. 
 Cail, Jean Francois, French chemist, engineer, b. about 1804. 
 Caille, Nicolas Louis de la, Fr. mathemat., astron., b. 1713, d, 1762. 
 Caillet, Vincent Marie, French mathematician, astronomer, b. 1811. 
 Cailliaud, Frederic, French traveller, mineralogist, b. 1787. 
 Caillouete, Louis Denis, French sculptor, b. 1791. 
 Cain, Auguste, French sculptor, b. 1822. 
 
 Caird, James, Scotch agriculturist, journalist, legislator, b. 1816. 
 Cairns, John, D.D., Scotch presbyt., theolog., metaphys., I>. 1816. 
 Cairo, Francesco, Milanese hist, and port, painter, b. 1598, d. 1674. 
 Caithness, James Sinclair, 14th Scotch earl of J lord Barrogill in 
 
 British peerage ; scientific inventor, b. 1821. 
 Caius, Thomas, Eng. master University coll., Oxford, classicist, d. 1572. 
 Calamatta, Louis, French engraver, of Italian origin, b. 1802. 
 Calamy, Benjamin, D.D., Eng. clergym., controversial theol., (/. 1686. 
 Calamy, Edmund, Eng. dissenting min., theol. writer, b. 1671, d. 1732. 
 Calcagnini, Ccelio, Italian soldier, diplomatist, poet, d. 1541. 
 Calder, John, D.D., Scotch dissent, min., in London, b. 1733, d. 1815. 
 Calder, William, Scotch bookbinder, poet, journalist, b. 1804, d. 1845. 
 Calderinus, Domitius, Italian classicist, comment., b. 1445, 1477. 
 Calderon, Serafin-Estevan, Spanish poet, critic, novelist, b. 1810. 
 Calderon de la Barca, Madame (Frances lnglis), Scotch writer on 
 
 Mexico, b. about 1812. 
 Calderon-Collantes, Saturnine, Spanish statesman, b. about 1795. 
 Caldicott, John, English journalist, b. 1799, d. 1872. 
 Caldwell, Charles, Amer. medical writer, biogr., b. 1772, d. 1853. 
 Caldwell, Elias Boudinot, American lawyer, philanthropist, d. 1825. 
 Caldwell, Howard 11., American poet, b. 1832. 
 
 Caldwell, Merritt, Amer. metaphysician, economist, b. 1807, d. 1848. 
 Caldwell, William W., American poet, b. 1823. 
 Calef, Robert, American merchant, writer on witchcraft, d. 1719. 
 Calentius, Elisius, Neapolitan poet, writer on punishments, d. 1503. 
 Caletti, Giuseppe, II Cremoncse, Italian painter, d. 1660. 
 Caley, John, English antiquary, b. 1763, d. 1834. 
 Calfa, Ambroise (Yousouf Bey), Armenian histor., mathemat., b. 1830. 
 Calfa, Corene (Yousouf Bey), Armenian poet, lexicographer, b. 1835. 
 Calfhill, John, Eng. clergyman, latin poet, dramat., b. 1530, d. 1570. 
 Calhoun, John Caldwell, Amer. statesman, vice-presid., b. 1782, d. 1S50. 
 Calhoun, John Ewiug, American lawyer, senator, b. 1749, d. 1802. 
 Calignon, Soffrey de, French protestant minister, historian, satirist, 
 
 b. 1550, d. 1606. 
 Calixtus, Georg, German lutheran theologian, b. 1586, d. 1614. 
 Call, Sir John, bart., English engineer, in India, statesman, d. 1801. 
 Callan, George, American artist and traveller, b. 1795, d. 1873. 
 Callanan, James Joseph, Irish poet, b. 1795, d. Lisbon, 1829. 
 Callander, John, Scotch antiquary, translator, editor, d. 1789. 
 Callemard de la Fayette, Charles, Fr. dramatic poet, agricult, b. 1815. 
 Callender, John, Amer. baptist min., histor. writer, b. 1707, d. 1748. 
 Callender, Wm. Romayne, Eng. manufacturer, antiq., M.P., b. 1825. 
 Callery, Joseph Matthieu, French philologist, b. 1810, d. 1862. 
 Calliot, Victor, French architect, engraver, writer on art, b. 1801. 
 Callisen, Adolph Karl Peder, Danish physician, b. 1786. 
 Calloigne, Jean Robert, Flemish sculptor, architect, b. 1775, d. 1830. 
 Cally, Pierre, French Cartesian philosopher, b. about 1655, d. 1709. 
 Calmeil, Juste Louis, Fr. physician, writer on nervous disease, b. 1798. 
 Calonne, Alphonse Bernard, vicomte de, French publicist, b. 1818. 
 Calovius, Abraham, German lutheran theologian, b. 1614, d. 1686. 
 Calprenede, Walter de Costes, lord of, Fr. romancist, b. 1612, d. 1663. 
 Calthorpe, Frederick Henry William Calthorpe, 5th baron, British 
 
 peer, philanthropist, b. 1826. 
 Calvert, F. Crace, English physicist, analytical chemist, d. 1873. 
 Calvert, Frederick, English designer for lithography, d. 1835. 
 Calvert, George, Eng. surgeon, med. writer, translat., b. 1795, d. 1825. 
 Calvert, George Henry, American poet, phrenologist, b. 1803. 
 Calvert, Sir Henry, bart., Eng. general, gov. Chelsea hospital, d. 1826. 
 Calvert, James, English nonconformist theologian, d. 1698. 
 Calvert, William, English clergyman, poet, didactic writer, b. 1819. 
 Calvo, Carlos, Paraguayan publicist, diplomatist, b. 1824. 
 Calza, Antonio, Veronese battle and landsc. painter, b. 1653, d. 1714. 
 Cambridge, Adolphus Frederick, duke of, 1 0th child of King G eorge III., 
 
 b. 1774, d. 1850. 
 
 Cambridge, George William Fred. Charles, 2nd duke of, English com- 
 mander-in-chief, b. 1819. 
 
 Cambridge, Richard Owen, English mathemat., philologist, historian, 
 satirical poet, b. 1716, d. 1802. 
 
 Camden, George Charles Pratt, 2nd marquis, British peer, archaeologist, 
 b. 1799, succeeded 1840, d. 1866. 
 
 Camden, John Jeffreys Pratt, marquis, English statesman, viceroy of 
 Ireland, b. 1759, d. 1840. 
 
 Cameron, Sir Alan, Scotch lieutenant-general, d. 1828. 
 
 Cameron, Charles Duncan, Scotch military captain, linguist, diplomatist, 
 freed from captivity in Abyssinia by Lord Napier, b. 1827, d. 1870. 
 
 CAPASSO. 48 
 
 Cameron, Charles, LL.D., Scotch physician, journalist, M.P., 1841. 
 Cameron, Donald, Scotch magistrate, diplomatist, M.P., b. 1835. 
 Cameron, Sir Duncan Alexander, Scotch lieutenant-general, served 
 
 in the Crimea, and New Zealand, b. 1808. 
 Cameron, Sir Evan, Scotch jacobite, chief of his clan, d. 1719. 
 Cameron, James, Scotch physician, in New York, b. 1791, d. 1851. 
 Cameron, John, Scotch theologian, in France, hcllenist, b. 1580, d. 1625. 
 Cameron, Simon, American printer, senator, secretary of war, b. 1792. 
 Camidge, Dr., English musician, b. 1781, d. 1859. 
 Camillo, Francisco, Spanish historical painter, b. 1635, d. 1671. 
 Caminade, Alexandre Francois, French histor. painter, 6. 1783, d. 1862. 
 Cammerhof, Frederic, bishop of Moravian brethren in America, d. 1751. 
 Campanus, Giovanni Antonio, Italian bishop, poet, b. 1427, d. 1477. 
 Campbell, Sir Alexander, Scotch military commander, b. 1759, d. 1824. 
 Campbell, Alexander, Scotch musician, poet, traveller, 6. 1764, d. 1824. 
 Campbell, Alexander, D.D., American founder of a sect of baptists, 
 
 editor, debater with Owen on socialism, b. Ireland 1788, d. 1855. 
 Campbell, Archibald, Scotch bp. of Aberdeen, theolog. writer, d. 1744. 
 Campbell, Sir Archibald, G.C.B., Scotch military commander, d. 1843. 
 Campbell, Sir Archibald Islay, bart., Scotch lieutenant-colonel of rifle 
 
 volunteers, legislator, b. 1825, d. 1866. 
 Campbell, George W., American senator, diplomatist, b. 1768, p. 1848. 
 Campbell, Sir Islay, Scotch judge, president of court of session 1789- 
 
 1808, b. 1734, d. 1823. 
 Campbell, James Colquhuon, D.D., English bishop of Bangor, 6. 1813. 
 Campbell, John, Scotch jurist, judge of session as Lord 8toneneld,rf. 1801. 
 Campbell, John, Scotch lieutenant-colonel, served in America, Africa, 
 
 India, b. 1753, d. 1784. 
 Campbell, John Archibald, Scotch archteologist, b. 1788, d. 1866. 
 Campbell, John McLeod, Scotch theologian, b. 1800, d. 1872. 
 Campbell, Sir John, Scotch general, b. 1807, d. at Scbastopol 1855. 
 Campbell, Sir Neil, Scotch gen., gover. of Sierra Leone, b. 1770, d. 1827. 
 Campbell, Peter Colin, D.D., Scotch theologian, principal of Aberdeen 
 
 university, b. 1810. 
 Campbell, Sam., Amer. revolutionary officer, b. Ireland 1738, d. 1824. 
 Campbell, William W., American biographer, historian, b. 1806. 
 Campbell-Bannerman, Henry, Scotch economist, administrator, 1836. 
 Campe, Joachim Heinrich, German philologist, novelist, b. 1746, d. 1818. 
 Campeggio, Lorenzo, Italian cardinal, bp. of Salisbury, d. 1539. 
 Campello, Pompeo de, Italian count, dramatist, 6. 1803. 
 Camperdown, Robert Adam P. H. Duncan Haldane, 3rd earl of, British 
 
 peer, naval administrator, b. 1841, succ. 1867. 
 Camphausen, Wilhelm, Prussian battle painter, b. 1810. 
 Campi, Galeazzo, Italian historical painter, b. 1475, d. 1536. 
 Campineano, Jean, Wallachian statesman, b. about 1798. 
 Camus, Jean Pierre, French bishop, sarcastic preacher, 6. 1582, d. 1652. 
 Camusat, Nicolas, French historical writer, b. 1575, d. 1655. 
 Camuset, Francois Denis, French critic, bibliographer, b. 1697, d. 1732. 
 Canal, Bernardo (count Belotti), Italian painter, b. 1725, d. 1780. 
 Canani, Giovanni Battista, Italian physician, anatom., //. 1515, d. 1579. 
 Canaye, Philippe de la, French diplomatist, traveller, b. 1551, d. 1610. 
 Candlish, John, English alderman, legislator, economist, b. 1816. 
 Cane, John Vincent, English franciscan friar, theologian, d. 1672. 
 Caner, Henry, D.D., English episcopal minister, in America and 
 
 England, b. 1700, d. 1792. 
 Canfield, Francesca Anna, Amer. poetess, philologist, b. 1803, d. 1823. 
 Canfield, Henry Judson, Amer. agriculturist, writer on sheep, b. 1789. 
 Canina, Luigi, Italian architect, archaeologist, b. 1795, d. 1856. 
 Caninio, Angelo, Italian philologist, orientalist, d. 1557. 
 Canisius, Heinrich, German jurist, ecclesiastical antiquary, d. 1610. 
 Cannabich, Johann Giinther Fried., Germ, geograph., b. 1777, d. 1859. 
 Cannes, Francisco, Spanish grammarian, philologist, b. 1737, d. 1795. 
 Canning, George; English barrister, translator, poet, d. 1771. 
 Cannon, James Spencer, D.D., American theologian, metaphysician, 
 
 historian, b. 1776, d. 1852. 
 Canonge, Jules, French poet, b. 1812. 
 Canoniea, Luigi, Italian architect, b. 1762, d. 1844. 
 Canstein, Carl Hildebrand, baron, Ger. improver of printing, d. 1719. 
 Cant, Andrew, Scotch presbyterian preacher, covenanter, d. 1664. 
 Cant, Andrew, Scotch prelate, bishop of Glasgow, theologian, d. 1728. 
 Cantacuzenus, Constantin, Roumanian statesman, b. about 1810. 
 Cantacuzenus, John, elected emperor of Constantinople, d. 1411. 
 Cantebrig, John de, English judge of common pleas 1331-5 ; d. 1335. 
 Cantemir, Antiochus, Moldavian prince, poet, translator, d. 1774. 
 Canterbury, Charles Manners Sutton, 1st viscount, speaker of house of 
 
 commons 1817-35 ; b. 1780, d. 1845. 
 Canterbury, John H. T. Manners Sutton, 3rd viscount, governor of 
 
 Victoria colony, b. 1814. 
 Cantilupe, St. Thomas de, bishop of Hereford, the last Englishman 
 
 canonised, b. 1219, d. 1282. 
 Cantilupe, Walter de, English prelate, bishop of Worcester, d. 1265. 
 Cantilupe, William de, English itinerant justice, d. 1238. 
 Canton, John, Eng. physician, astronomer, electrician, b. 1718, d. 1772. 
 Cantu, Cesare, Italian historian, poet, b. 1805. 
 Cantwell, Andrew, Irish physician, medical writer, d. 1761. 
 Canuti, Domenico Maria, Bolognese histor. painter, b. 1620, d. 1678. 
 Cap, (Paul Antoine Gratacap, called), French med. writer, b. 1788. 
 Capasso, Niccolo, Italian theologian, jurist, poet, b. 1671, d. 1746. 
 
19 
 
 CAfE. 
 
 Capo, J. M. English journalist, biographer, d. 1874. 
 
 Capel, Richard, English physician, previously a clcrygman, hut resigned 
 
 rather than read the book of sports in church, b. 1586, d. 1G50. 
 Capelli, C. Cicoguani, Italian mathematician, b. 1783, d. 1838. 
 Capen, Joseph, American minister, poet, b. 1659, d. 1725. 
 Capen, Nahum, American historian, biographer, phrenologist, b. 1801. 
 Capenda, Ernest, French novelist, dramatist, b. 1820, d. 1868. 
 Capern, Edward, English postman, rural poet, at Bideford, b. 1819. 
 Capitaine, Ulysse, Belgian bibliographer, b. 1828. 
 Capo de Fueillide (Jean Gabriel Cappot, called), French publicist, 
 
 b. 1800, d. 1863. 
 Caporali, Ccsare, Italian satirical poet, b. 1530, d. 1601. 
 Cappelini, Giovanni Domenico, Genoese hist, painter, b. 1580, d. 1651. 
 Cappella, Simone, Neapolitan historical painter, b. 1580, d. 1641. 
 Capponi, Gino Alessandro Giuseppe G., marquis, Italian statesman, 
 
 philologist, antiquary, b. 1792. 
 Capra, Mariano Antonio, Italian poet, b. 1739, d. 1793. 
 Caprara, Cardinal, Italian Bonapartist partisan, b. 1733, d. 1810. 
 Capron, Elisha S., American lawyer, historian, b. 1806. 
 Caque, Augustiu Armand, French engraver, medallist, b. 1793. 
 Caracciuoli, Giambattista, Neapolitan hist, painter, b. 1580, d. 1641. 
 Caradog, British chronicler, d. 1156. 
 
 Caraguel, Clement, French journalist, political satirist, b. 1819. 
 Caraman, Victor Antoine Charles Riquet, due de, French historian, 
 critic, b. 1810. 
 
 Caratheodory, Etienne, Greek physician, philologist, b. 1789. 
 Carausius, a Belgic sea-captain, usurped power in Britain, d. 293. 
 Carayon, Auguste, French jesuit, historian, b. 1813. 
 Card, Nathaniel, English quaker, philanthropist, founder of United 
 
 Kingdom Alliance against the liquor traffic 1853; b. 1806, d. 1856. 
 Carden, Sir Robert "Walter, bart, English banker, lord mayor of 
 
 London 1857-58 ; b. 1801. 
 Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, 7th earl of, English peer, general 
 
 of hussars, b. 1797, d. 1868. 
 Cardisco, Marco, II Calabresc, Calabrian historical painter, d. 1542. 
 Cardonne, Dominique de, French orientalist, b. 1720, d. 1783. 
 Cardwell, Edward, English principal of St. Alban hall, Oxford, b. 
 
 1788, d. 1861. 
 
 Cardwell, Edward, 1st viscount, English peer of the United Kingdom, 
 
 statesman, army reformer, b. 1813. 
 Carette, Antoine Ernest Hippolyte, French military engineer, writer 
 
 on Algiers, b. 1808. 
 Carew, Sir George, English diplomatist, d. 1614. 
 Carew, John, English sculptor, b. about 1805. 
 Carew, John Edward, Irish sculptor, in London, b. 1785. 
 Carew, Richard, English topographer of Cornwall, b. 1555, d. 1620. 
 Carey, David, Scotch journalist, poet, essayist, b. 1782, d. 1824. 
 Carey, George Saville, English singer, dramatist, b. 1743, d. 1807. 
 Carey, Henry Charles, Amer. publisher, statistical writer, b. 1793. 
 Carey, John, Irish lexicogr., editor, translator, b. 1756, d. 1829. 
 Carey, John L., American journalist, political economist, d. 1838. 
 Carey, Joseph, French printer, improver of stereotype, d. 1801. 
 Carey, Matthew, American author, publisher, philanthropist, b. Dublin 
 
 1760; emigrated 1784 ; d. 1839. 
 Carey, "William Paulett, Irish poet, critic, orator, in England, b. 
 
 1768, d. 1839. 
 
 Cargill, Donald, Scotch presbyterian minister, covenanter, 6, 1610, 
 executed 1681. 
 
 Carhart, Jeremiah, American musical mechanist, inventor, d. 1868. 
 Caristie, Auguste Nicolas, French architect, b. 1783, d. 1862. 
 Carl, duke of Schleswig-Holstein Sonderburg Glucksburg, b. 1813, 
 succeeded 1831. 
 
 Carleton, George, Eng. prelate, bishop of Chichester, theolog., d. 1628. 
 Carlingford, Chichester S. P. Fortescue, 1st lord, Irish peer of United 
 
 Kingdom, statesman, b. 1823. 
 Carlisle, Charles Howard, earl of, Eng. diplomatist, traveller, 
 
 d. 1686. 
 
 Carlisle, Frederick Howard, 5th earl of, English peer, statesman, poet, 
 
 viceroy of Ireland 1780-2 ; b. 1748, d. 1825. 
 Carlisle, Nicholas, English antiquary, librarian, b. 1771, d. 1847. 
 Carlo Alberto, king of Sardinia, b. 1798, succeeded 1831, d. 1849. 
 Carlowitz, Aloyse Christine, baroness, French novelist, b. Illyria, 
 
 1797, d. 1863. 
 
 Carlson, Fredrik Ferdinand, Swedish historian, educationist, b. 1811. 
 
 Carlton, Osgood, American mathematician, geographer, d. 1816. 
 
 Carlyle, Alexander, Scotch presbyterian minister, theologian, auto- 
 biographer, b. 1721, d. 1805. 
 
 Carlyle, Joseph Dacre, English clergyman, poet, orientalist, biblical 
 critic, b. 1759, d. 1804. 
 
 Carmichael, J. "Wilson, Scotch marine painter, b. 1808, d. 1868. 
 
 Carmichael, Richard, Irish surgeon, writer on skin diseases, founder 
 of Medical School, Dublin, b. 1779, d. 1849. 
 
 Cannoly, Eliacin, French hebraist, magazine editor, b. 1805. 
 
 Cannouche, Pierre Francois Adolphe, French actor, dramatist, manager, 
 b. 1797, d. 1868. 
 
 Carnandet, J., French archaeologist, bibliophile, b. 1820. 
 
 Carnarvon, Henry George Herbert, 2nd earl, English statesman, 
 traveller, b. im,>d. 1833. 
 
 Carnarvon, Henry J. G. Herbert, 3rd carl, English peer, traveller, 
 poet, b. 1800, d. 1849. 
 
 Carnarvon, Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, 4th carl, English 
 peer, statesman, high steward of university of Oxford, //. 1831. 
 
 Carne, John, English traveller in East, biographer b. 1789, d. 1844. 
 
 Carnot, Lazare Hippolyte, French statesman, publicist, b. 1801. 
 
 Caro, Elmo Marie, French historian, metaphysician, b. 1826. 
 
 Caroselli, Angiolo, Roman hist, and portrait painter, b. 1573, d. 1651. 
 
 Carove, Friedrich "Wilhelm, German historical writer, b. 1789, d. 1852. 
 
 Caro y Sureda, Don Pedro, marquis de la Romano, Spanish general, 
 b. 1763, d. 1811. 
 
 Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, French sculptor, b. 1827. 
 
 Carpenter, Mrs. (Margaret Geddes) Eng. port, painter, b. 1793, d. 1872. 
 
 Carpenter, Mary, English educational philanthropist, b. 1820. 
 
 Carpenter, Nathaniel, English clergyman, philosophical writer, theo- 
 logian, b. 1588, d. 1635. 
 
 Carpenter, R. C, English architect, b. 1812, d. 1855. 
 
 Carpenter, Stephen Cullen, Eng. trav., editor, in America, d. 1820. 
 
 Carpenter, "William, English biblical critic, journalist, 6.1797, d. 1874. 
 
 Carpenter, "William Hookham, English artist, antiquary, collector of 
 engravings, b. 1792, d. 1866. 
 
 Carpinoni, Marziale, Italian historical painter, b. 1644, d. 1722. 
 
 Carpioni, Giulio, Venetian historical painter, b. 1611, d. 1674. 
 
 Carpzovius, Benedict, German jurist, b. 1595, d. 1666. 
 
 Carr, George, Scotch episcopal minister, theologian, b. Newcastle, 
 1704, d. 1766. 
 
 Carr, Sir John, English barrister, poet, traveller, b. 1772, d. 1832. 
 
 Carr, "William Holwell, English clergyman, archaeologist, art collector, 
 b. 1758, d. 1830. 
 
 Carr, Major, English linguist, in India, d. 1871. 
 
 Carrasco, Eduardo, Peruvian geographer, b. 1779, d. 1865. 
 
 Carraud, Madame (Zulma Touranger), French educationist, b. 1793. 
 
 Carre, Louis, French mathematician, d. 1711. 
 
 Carre, Michel, French dramatist, librettist, b. 1819, d. 1872. 
 
 Carre, Thomas, English roman catholic theologian, founder and con- 
 fessor of Sion nunnery, Paris, d. 1674. 
 
 Carreira, Luiz Antonio d 'Abreu e Lima, conde de, Portuguese states- 
 man, peer, senator, diplomatist, b. 1785. 
 
 Carrenho, Juan de Miranda, Spanish fresco and portrait painter, 
 b. 1614, d. 1685. 
 
 Carrer, Luigi, Italian poet, d. 1850. 
 
 Carrera, Rafael, presid. republic of Guatemala 1847-65 ; S.1814, (11865. 
 Carrick, John D., Scotch histor. and biogr. writer, b. 1786, d. 1837. 
 Carrier, Joseph Auguste, French landscape and port, painter, b. 1800. 
 Carriere, Moritz, German philosophical critic, b. 1817. 
 Carrington, Sir Codrington Edmund, English jurist, chief justice, 
 
 Ceylon 1801-5 ; M.P. 1826-31 ; b. 1769, d. 1849. 
 Carrington, Edward, American military commander, statesman, b. 
 
 1749, d. 1810. 
 
 Carrington, Noel Thomas, English poet, b. 1777, d. 7 830. 
 Carrio, Ludovicos, Flemish philologist, classical critic, d. 1595. 
 Carro, Antoine, French archaiologist, b. 1797. 
 
 Carroll, Charles, American statesman, survived the other signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, b. 1737, d. 1832. 
 
 Carroll, John, American rom. catholic archbishop, first bishop in 
 United States, diplomatist, b. 1735, d. 1815. 
 
 Carson, Aglionby Ross, LL.D., Scotch philologist, b. 1779, d. 1850. 
 
 Carson, Kit, American trapper, guide in the Rocky Mountains district 
 d. 1868. 
 
 Carte, Samuel, English theologian, antiquary, d. 1740. 
 
 Cartellani, Fortunato, Italian cultivator of the fine arts, d. 1865. 
 
 Carter, Ezra, American physician, philanthropist, b. 1719, d. 1767. 
 
 Carter, Francis, English traveller, philologist, d. 1783. 
 
 Carter, James, English artisan, writer of 'Memoirs of a Working Man ' 
 
 b. 1792, d. 1853. 
 Carter, James G., American educationist, d. 1849. 
 Carter, John, English engraver, d. 1855. 
 Carter, John Bonham, English administrator, b. 1817. 
 Carter, Lawrence, English judge, baron of exchequer 1726-45 ; b. about 
 
 1672, d. 1745. 
 
 Carter, Nathaniel Hazeltine, Amer. poet, traveller, b. 1788, d. 1830. 
 Carter, Thomas, Irish musician, comp. of song music, b. 1758, d. 1804. 
 Carteret, Sir Geo., native and gov. of Jersey, royalist, b. 1599, d. 1679. 
 Cartier, Sir Geo. Etienne, bart., Canadian statesman, b. lS15,rf. 1873. 
 Cartwright, Christopher, Eng. theologian, orientalist, b. 1602, d. 165S. 
 Cartwright, Edmund, English poet, didactic writer, inventor of the 
 
 power- loom, b. 1743, d. 1823. 
 Cartwright, Joseph, English marine painter, b. about 1789, d. 1829. 
 Cartwright, Thomas, Eng. puritan controversialist, b. 1535, d. 1603. 
 Caruelle, Felix Claude Thdodore, French landscape and historical 
 
 painter and etcher, b. 1798, d. 1871. 
 Cams, "William, English clergyman, biographer, b. 1804. 
 Carus-Wilson, Wni, Eng. clergyman, philanthropist, b. ab. 1S0O. 
 Carver, John, English puritan, first governor of Plymouth colonv New 
 
 England, d. 1621. 
 Carver, Jonathan, Amer. explorer to the Pacific, b. 1732, d. 17S0. 
 Carwithen, John Bay ley Somers, English clergyman, historian, writer 
 
 on Brahmiuism, b. 1781, d. 1832. 
 
 E 
 
01 CARY. 
 
 Cary, Alice, American poetess, novelist, b. 1821, d. 1871. 
 
 Cary, George Hunter, English barrister, attorney- general and legislator, 
 
 Vancouver's Island, b. 1831, d. 1866. 
 Cary, Henry John Waters, American essayist, b. about 1798, d. 1858. 
 Caryl, John, English poet, dramatist, secretary to Mary, queen of 
 
 James II., d. about 1718. 
 Caryl, Joseph, Eng. nonconformist, bibl. comment., b. 1602, d. 1673. 
 Carysfort, Granville Levcson Proby, 3rd carl of, Irish peer, baron of 
 
 United Kingdom, admiral, b. 1781, d. 1868. 
 Carysfort, John Joshua Proby, 1st earl of, Irish Deer, diplomatist, b. 
 
 1751, d. 1828. 
 
 Casabianca, Francois Xavier, comte do, Fr. statesman, b. Nice 1706. 
 
 Casali, Andrea, Italian historian, painter, in Eng., b. 1720, d. 1770. 
 
 Casanova, Francis, landscape painter, b. London 1727, d. 1805. 
 
 Casanova, John Baptist, painter, writer on art in Germany, b. Lon- 
 don 1730, d, 1798. 
 
 Casanova, Marco Antonio, Venetian (latin) satirical poet, d. 1527. 
 
 Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Giacomo, Venetian adventuror, b. 
 1725, d. 1803. 
 
 Casati, Gabrio, conte de, Italian statesman, 6. 1798. 
 
 Casati, Paolo, Italian jesuit, mathematical writer, b. 1617, d. 1707. 
 
 Case, John, English physician, writer on Aristotle, d. 1600. 
 
 Case, Thomas, English nonconformist, theologian, b. 1599, . rf. 1682. 
 
 Casel, Johann, Germ, classicist, letter writer, b. 1533, d. 1613. 
 
 Cash, "William, English merchant, temperance reformer, d. 1849. 
 
 Casolani, Alessandro, Italian historical painter, b. 1552, d, 1606. 
 
 Cassan, Stephon Hyde, Eng. clergyman, biographer, b. 1789, rf. 1841. 
 
 Cassana, Giovanni Francesco, Genoese painter, b. 1611, d. 1691. 
 
 Cassana, Nicolo, Nicoletto, Venetian historical painter, b. 1659, d. 1713. 
 
 Cassas, Louis Francois, French artist, trav., antiq., b. 1756, d. 1827. 
 
 Cassell, John, English publisher, temperance advocate, educationist, 
 b. 1817, d. 1865. 
 
 Casserio, Giulio, Italian anatomist, b. 1545, d. 1616. 
 
 Castelar, Emilio, Spanish journalist, orator, president of tho Republic 
 1873 ; b. 1832. 
 
 Castell, Edmund, English theologian, philologist, b. 1606, d. 1685. 
 Castellane, Esprit V. E. B., comte de, Fr. marshal, b. 1788, d. 1862. 
 Castelli, Francesco, Flemish historical painter, b. 1586, d. 1636. 
 Castelli, Giovanni Battista, Italian histor. painter, b. 1500, d. 1570. 
 Castelli, Juan del, Spanish historical painter, b. 1584, d. 1644. 
 Castelli, Valerio, Genoese histor. and battle painter, b. 1625, d. 1659. 
 Castello, Gabriele L., Sicilian antiquary, b. 1727, d. 1794. 
 Castello-Branco, Antonio, Portug. jesuit, mathemat., b. 1556, d. 1643. 
 Castello-Branco, Caniillo, Portuguese novelist, 6. about 1825. 
 Castello y Saavedra, Antonio del, Spanish painter, b. 1603, d. 1667. 
 Castelnau, Michel de, French statesman, diplomatist, d. 1592. 
 Castiau, Adelson, Belgian advocate, political reformer, b. 1801. 
 Castiglione, Carlo Ottavio, Italian philologist, numismatist, b. 1795. 
 Castiglione, Giovanni Benedetto, Genoese painter, b. 1616, d. 1670. 
 Castilho, Antonio Feliciano, Portuguese poet, b. 1800. 
 Castilla, don Ramon, Peruvian general, president of tho Republic, 
 b. 1797, d. 1867. 
 
 Castille, Charles Hippolyte, Fr. journalist, novelist, historian, b. 1820. 
 Castillon du Portail, Louis Auguste, Belgian chemist, b. 1794. 
 Castlecomer, Christopher Waudcsford, viscount, English peer of Ire- 
 land, statesman, theologian, b. 1592, d. 1640. 
 Castro, Juan de, Portug. gov. of East Indian scttlem., b. 1500, d. 1548. 
 Caswall, Henry, D.D., Eng. trav. in America, histor. writer, b. 1810. 
 Caswell, Richard, Amer. governor of N. Carolina, b. 1729, d. 1787. 
 Cat, Claude Nicolas le, Fr. surgeon, writer on surgery, b. 1700, d. 1768. 
 Catafago, Joseph, French orientalist, lexicographer, b. 1821. 
 Catalan, Eugene Charles, French mathematician, b. 1814. 
 Catardji, Barbo, Roumanian statesman, b. 1808, assassinated 1862. 
 Catel, Simone, French musical composer, b. 1773, d. 1830. 
 Catenacci, Erculo, Italian painter, b. 1816. 
 
 Caterina di Siena, Sta., Italian nun, mystic writer, b. 1347, d. 1380. 
 Catesby, Sir John, English judge of common pleas 1481-6, d. 1486. 
 Catesby, Mark, English naturalist, traveller, b. 1680, d. 1749. 
 Catharinns, Ambrogio, Italian archbishop, writer against Luther, 
 b. 1487, d. 1553. 
 
 Cathcart, Charles Murray, earl, Scotch general, military writer, b. 
 1783, d. 1859. 
 
 Cathcart, J. L., Eng. actor, Dublin, London, Manchester, 5.1800, d.1866. 
 Cathcart, William Schavv, 10th Scotch baron, 1st earl, general in 
 
 America, Holland, and at Austerlitz ; diplomatist, b. 1755, d. 1813. 
 Cathrall, Isaac, Am. physician, anatom., med. writer, b. 1764, d. 1819. 
 Catlin, Jacob J., D.D., American theologian, 6. 1758, d. 1826. 
 Catlin, Sir Robert, Eng. chief justice queen's bench 1559-74; d. 1574. 
 Cato, Valerius, Latin grammarian, poet, d. 30 B.C. 
 Catrou, Francois, Fr. jesuit, histor., classical editor, b. 1659, d. 1737. 
 Cattaneo, Carlo, Ital. polit. reformer, journalist, b. ab. 1815, d. 1869. 
 Caulaincourt, Armand Auguste Louis de, due de Vicenza, French 
 
 general, diplomatist, statesman, b. 1772, d. 1827. 
 Caulfiel, James, English biographer, print collector, b. 1764, d. 1826. 
 Caumont, Aldrick Isidore Ferdinand, French writer on maritime law, 
 
 and on universal telegraphic language, b. 1825. 
 Caumont, Arcisse de, French geologist, archseolog., b. 1802, d. 1873. 
 Caunter, John Hobart, English poet, b, 1794, d, 1852. 
 
 CHALLIS. 52 
 
 Caussidiere, Marc, French prefect of police, b. Geneva 1808, d. 1861. 
 Caussin de Perceval, Amand Pierre, Fr. orientalist, b. 1795, d. 1872. 
 Caussin de Perceval, Eugene, French jurist, b. 1797, d. 1865. 
 Caussin de Perceval, Jean J. Ant., French orientalist, b. 1759, d. 1835. 
 Caussin, Nicolas, French jesuit, writer on eloquence, b. 1580, d. 1651. 
 Causton, Sir Joseph, Eng. type-founder, alderman, b. 1816, d. 1871. 
 Cautley, Sir Proby Thomas, English general of engineers in India, 
 
 palasontologist, b. 1803, d. 1871. 
 Cauvain, Henri Alexis, French jurist, journalist, b. ab. 1815, d. 1858. 
 Cavalcanti, Bartolomeo, Italian soldier, diplomatist, b. 1503, d. 1562. 
 Cavalcanti, Uuido, Florentine poet, philosophical writer, d. 1300. 
 Cavalier, Jean, French peasant leader of Camisords, b. 1679, d. 1740. 
 Cave, Elizabeth Marie Blavot, Fr. painter in water colours, b. ab. 1810. 
 Cave, Francois, French mechanician, inventor, b. 1794. 
 Cave, Stephen, English barrister, administrator, b. 1820. 
 Cave, William, D.I)., English writer on primitive Christianity, b. 
 
 1637, d. 1713. 
 Cavedone, Giacomo, Italian painter, b. 1577, d. 1660. 
 Cavelier, Pierre Jules, French sculptor, b. 1814. 
 Cavendish, Lord Frederick, English field-marshal, b. 1729, d. 1803. 
 Cavendish, Lord Fred. Charles, English administrator, M.P., b. 1836. 
 Cavendish, Sir John do, Eng. chief-just, of king's bench 1372; d. 1381. 
 Cavendish, John, Lord, English statesman, d. 1796. 
 Cavendish, Sir Wm., Eng. statcsm., biogr. of Wolsey, d. 1505, d. 1557. 
 Cawley, diaries Edward, English engineer, alderman, b. 1812. 
 Cawton, Thomas, Eng. nonconf., philologist, at Rotterdam, d. 1659. 
 Caxes, Eugenio, Spanish histor. and portrait painter, b. 1577, d. 1612. 
 Caxes, Patrizio, Italian painter, at Spanish court, d. 1625. 
 Caxias, Louis Alvez de Lima, due de, Brazilian marshal, b. 1803. 
 Cayley, George, English physician, d. 1831. 
 
 Cayley, Sir George, English agricultural improver, b. 1773, d. 1857. 
 Caylus, A. Claude Ph., comte de, Fr. writ, on fine arts, b. 1720, d. 1 765. 
 Cazeaux, Paulin, Fr. physician, writer on obstetric science, b. 1808. 
 Cazotte, Jean, French poet, royalist, b. 1720, guillotined 1792. 
 Ceba, Aufaldo, Genoese poet, dramatist, historian, d. 1623. 
 Cecco de Ascoli, Ital. physician, charged with magic, burnt 1327. 
 Cecil, Lord Eustace H. Brownlow Gascoyne, Eng. administr., b. 1831. 
 Cecil, Richard, Eng. clergyman, theolog., biographer, b. 1748, d. 1810. 
 Celeste, Madame (Celeste Elliot), Fr. opera dancer in Eng., b. 1814. 
 Cellier, Rem, French benedictine ecclesiastic, histor., b. 1688, d. 1761. 
 Cels, Jacques Martin, French botanist, b. 1743, d. 1806. 
 Celsius, Olaus, Swedish theologian, naturalist, b. 1670, d. 1756. 
 Celtes, Konrad, Ger. poet, historian of Nuremberg, b. 1459, d. 1508. 
 Cenac-Moucaut, J., Fr. histor. romancist, essayist, b. 1814, d. 1871. 
 Cendrier, Francois Alexis, French architect, b. 1803. 
 Cene, Charles le, Fr. protest, theol., bibl. translator, b. 1648, d. 1703. 
 Centofanti, Sylvestro, Tuscan poet, biographer, trans}., 6. ab. 1796. 
 Ceratinus, Jacobus, Dutch philologist, professor of Greek, d. 1530. 
 Cercean, Jean Antoine, Fr. poet, critic, play-writer, b. 1670, d. 1730. 
 Cerda, Juan Luis de la, Spanish philologist, classicist, b. 1562, d. 1643. 
 Cerfberr de Mendelsheim, Maximilien Charles Alphonse, French 
 
 publicist, b. 1817. 
 Cenni, Giovanni Domenico, Ital. historical painter, b. 1606, d. 1681. 
 Cerini, Giuseppe, Italian poet, dramatist, b. 1738, d. 1779. 
 Cerise, Laurent Alexandre Philibert (Cerisi, called), French physician, 
 
 medical writer, b. Piedmont 1809, d. 1869. 
 Cerito, Francesca or Fanny, Neapolitan dancer and ballet-writer, b. 1821. 
 Cernti, Federigo, Italian educationist, classical editor, b. 1541, d. 1579. 
 Cerntti, Joseph Ant. J., Fr. jesuit, author, journalist, b. 1738, d. 1792. 
 Cesarini, Virginio, Italian poet, classicist, b. 1595, d. 1624. 
 Cesena, Amedee Gayet de, Fr. journalist, publicist, b. Sardinia 1810. 
 Cesi, or Cesia, Carlo, Italian historical painter, b. 1626, d. 1686. 
 Cespedes, or Cedaspe, Pablo de, Spanish painter, b. 1538, d. 1608. 
 Chabaille, Francois Adrien Polycarp, Fr. bibliogr., b. 1796, d. 1863. 
 Chabal-Dussergy, Pierre Adrien, French painter, b. ab. 1815. 
 Chabanon, De, French critic, classicist, b. Amer. 1730, d. Paris 1792. 
 Chabas, Francois Joseph, French egyptologist, b. 1817. 
 Chabaud-Latour, Francois Ernest Henri, baron de, French general of 
 
 engineers, b. 1804. 
 Chabret, Pierre, French writer on the monarchy, d. 1786. 
 Chabry, Mark, French painter and sculptor, d. 1727. 
 Chacaton, Jean Nicholas Henri (called) de, French painter, b. 1823. 
 Chacornac, Jean, French astronomer, b, 1823. 
 
 Chaderton, Lawrence, D.D., English clergyman, theologian, biblical 
 
 translator, b. 1546, d. 1640. 
 Chadwick, David, English journalist, economist, b. 1821. 
 Chadwick, Jabez, American theologian, writer on baptism, author of 
 
 ' New Testament Dictionary,' b. 1779. 
 Chailly, Nicolas Charles, French physician, b. 1805, d. 1866. 
 Chais, Charles, Swiss protest, theolog., at the Hague, b. 1701, d. 1785. 
 Chaix d'est-Ange, Gustave Louis Adolphe V. C, Fr. jurist, b. 1800. 
 Chalcondyles, Demetrius, Greek grammarian, philologist, d. 1513. 
 Chales, Claude Francis de, French mathemat., hydrographer, d. 1678. 
 Challamel, Jean Bap. Marie Augustin, Fr. histor., art-critic, b. 1818. 
 Challamel, Pierre Joseph, French painter, lithogr., art-critic, b. 1813. 
 Challe, Charles Michel Ange, French painter, professor of painting at 
 
 Paris Academy, d. 1778. 
 Challis, James, English clergyman, astronomer, physicist, b. 1803. 
 
53 
 
 CHALLONER, 
 
 CTIAUNCEY. 
 
 64 
 
 Challoner, Richard, D.D., English roman catholic bishop in America, 
 
 theologian, biographer, b. 1691, d. 1781. 
 Chalmers, George, American lawyer, economist, writer on English 
 
 law, 6. 1743, d. 1825. 
 Chalmers, James, Scotch printer, journalist, b. 1742, d. 1810. 
 Chalmers, Lionel, Amer physician, writer on fever, b. 1615, d. 1677. 
 Chalmers, Patrick, Scotch antiq., journalist, b. 1802, d. Rome 1854. 
 Chalmers, William, Scotch physician, writer on hernia, d. 1792. 
 Chalon, Alfred Edward, English portrait painter, b. 1780, d. 1860. 
 Chalon, Heny Barnard, English animal painter, b. 1770, d. 1849. 
 Chaloner, Edward, English preacher, chaplain to James I., d. 1625. 
 Chaloner, James, English legislator, d, 1660. 
 
 Chaloner, Sir Thomas, Eng. statesman, diplomatist, b. 1515, d. 1565. 
 Chaloner, Sir Thomas, Eng. physicist, chemical writer, b. 1559, d. 1615. 
 Chalybaus, Heinrich Moritz, Germ, philolog., critic, b. 1796, d. 1802. 
 Chalybaus, Karl Theodor, German art-critic, historian, b. 1803. 
 Chambard, Louis Leopold, French sculptor, b. about 1812. 
 Chambaud, Louis, French philologist, author of school books, d. 1776. 
 Chamber, John, English writer against astrology, d. 1549. 
 Chamberlain, Hugh, English writer on midwifery, b. 1664, if. 1728. 
 Chamberlain, Levi, American missionary superintendent in Sandwich 
 
 Islands, b. 1792, d. 1849. 
 Chamberlain, Sir Neville Bowles. Eng. adjutant-gen., Bengal, b. 1820. 
 Chamberlain, William, English portrait painter, d. 1807. 
 Chamberlaine, Robert, English poet, play-writer, d. 1637. 
 Chamberlayne, Israel, D.D., Amer. theol., temperance writer, b. 1795. 
 Chamberlayne, Sir Thomas, English judge of common pleas, d. 1625. 
 Chambers, David, Scotch clergyman, historian, judge (as lord 
 
 Ormond) ; b. about 1530, d. 1592. 
 Chambers, David Noble, Scotch publisher, in London, advocate of 
 
 an untaxed press, b. 1820, d. 1871. 
 Chambers, Montague, English barrister, b. 1800. 
 Chambers, Sir Robert, English chief-justice, Calcutta, d. 1803. 
 Chambers, Robert, English champion rower 1859-65, d. 1868. 
 Chambers, Robert, LL.D., Scotch publisher, antiquary, educationist, 
 
 b. 1802, d. 1871. 
 
 Chambers, Sir Thomas, English barrister, philanthropist, b. 1814. 
 Chambers, William, American physician, d. 1827. 
 Chambers, Sir William, English physician, d. 1855. 
 Chambre, Sir Alan, Eng. judge of com. pleas 1800-15 ; b. 1739, d. 1823. 
 Chambre, Francois Illharrart de la, Fr. theologian, 6. 1698, d. 1753. 
 Chambre, Marin Ceureau de la, French naturalist, b. 1594, d. 1669. 
 Chambrun, Jacques Pineton van, Dutch protestant pastor, b. 1637, d. 
 London 1689. 
 
 Chamier, Daniel, French protestant theologian, jurist, d. 1621. 
 Chamier, Frederic, English captain R.N., writer of sea novels, b. 
 1796, d. 1870. 
 
 Chamillard, Etienne, French jesuit, archaeologist, b. 1656, d. 1730. 
 Champagne, Philip de, Flemish painter, in Paris, b. 1602, d. 1674. 
 Champ agny, Francois Joseph Marie Therese de Nompere, comte Franz 
 
 de, French publicist, b. Vienna, 1804. 
 Champeaux, Guillaume de, Fr. bishop, theologian, philosopher, d. 1121. 
 Champfleury, (Jules Fleury, called), Fr. journalist, novelist, writer of 
 
 pantomimes, b. 1821. 
 Champier, Benoit Curtius Symphorien, French physician, founder of 
 
 College of Physicians, Lyon, b. 1472, d. 1540. 
 Champin, Jean Jacques, French painter, b. 1796, d. 1860. 
 Champion, Maurice, French archaeologist, critic, b. 1824. 
 Champlin, James Tift, American philologist, grammarian, b. 1811. 
 Champneys, William Weldon, Eng. ecclesiastic, educationist, b. 1807. 
 Chance, R. L., English manufacturer, improver of glass-making, b. 
 
 1782, d. 1865. 
 
 Chancellor, Richard, English navigator, founder of English Russian 
 
 Company, d. 1556. 
 Chandler, Edward English bishop of Durham, writer on evidences, 
 
 b. 1671, d. 1750. 
 Chandler, Elizabeth M., American poet, b. 1807, d. 1834. 
 Chandler, Joseph R., Amer. politician, orator, grammarian, b. 1792. 
 Chandler, Samuel, English nonconformist, theologian, biblical critic, 
 
 b. 1693, d. 1766. 
 
 Channell, Sir William Fry, English jurist, baron of exchequer 
 
 1857-73 ; 6. 1804, d. 1873. 
 Channing, Edward Tyrrell, LLD., American rhetorician, editor, 
 
 biographer, b. 1790, d. 1856. 
 Channing, Walter, American traveller, writer on midwifery, 6. 1786. 
 Channing, William Francis, American physician, electrician, b. 1820. 
 Channing, Wm. H., Amer. unitarian preacher, London, biogr., 6.1810. 
 Chantereau le Febvre, Louis, French antiquary, b. 1588, d. 1658. 
 Chantreau, Pierre Nicolas, French historical and philosophical writer, 
 
 diplomatist, traveller, b. 1741, d. 1808. 
 Chapelle, Armand von, Dutch theologian, bibliographer, d. 1746. 
 Chapin, Alonzo B., D.D., Amer. theolog., reviewer, b. 1808, d. 1858. 
 Chapin, Calvin, D.D., Amer. theol., temperance writer, b. 1764, d. 1851. 
 Chaplin, Henry, English magistrate, legislator, 6. 1840. 
 Chapman, E. T., English analytical chemist, physicist, in Germany, 
 
 b. 1846, d. 1872. 
 
 Chapman, Fredrik Hendrik, Swedish admiral, writer on ship build- 
 ing, d. 1808, 
 
 Chapman, Geo., Scotch printer, educationist, poet, b. 1723, d. 1806. 
 
 Chapman, J. M., English physician, hellcnisr, b. 1795, d. 1865. 
 
 Chapman, John, Eng. writer in defence of Christianity, b. 1704, (/. 1784. 
 
 Chapman, John James, English artillery captain, geographer, physi- 
 cist, b. 1789, d. 1867. 
 
 Chapman, Nathaniel, Amer. physician, med. writer, b. 1779, d. 1853. 
 
 Chapman, Thomas, D.D., English philologist, b. 1717, d. 1760. 
 
 Chapman, Walter, Scotch printer, privileged by James IV. 1507 ; b. 
 1480, d. about 1528. 
 
 Chappell, William, English clergyman, bishop of Cork, autobiographer, 
 b. 1612, d. 1649. 
 
 Chappell, Wm., English musician, historian of English music, b. 1809. 
 Chappelow, Leonard, English orientalist, b. 1683, d. 1768. 
 Chappie, Sir W., Eng. judge of king's bench 1737-45 ; b. 1677, d. 1745. 
 Chappie, William, English topographer, magazine writer, d. 1781. 
 Chappuzeau, S., Swiss writer of comedies, translator, b. ab.1625, rf. 1701. 
 Chapuy, Nicolas Marie Joseph, French architect, lithographer, b. 1790. 
 Chapuys-Montlaville, Benoist Marie Louis Alccste, baron de, French 
 
 publicist, b. 1800, d. 1868. 
 Charbonneau, L. E., Fr. rom. cath. missionary, India, philolog. , d. 1873. 
 Chardigny, Pierre Joseph, French sculptor, b. 1794. 
 Charenton, Joseph Nicolas, Fr. jesuit missionary in Persia, d. 1735. 
 Charette de la Cointre, Francois Athanase de, French royalist general 
 
 in La Vendee, d. 1796. 
 Charke, Mrs. Charlotte (daughter of Colley Cibber), English actress, 
 
 dramatist, autobiographer, d. 1760. * 
 Charlemont, James Caulfeild, earl of, Irish patriot, b. 1728, d. 1799. 
 Charlemont, Tobias Caulfield, lord. Eng. commander, b. 1565, d. 1627. 
 Charles I., hospodar of Roumania, prince of Hohenzollern-Sigma- 
 
 ringen, d. 1839. 
 
 Charles XV., king of Sweden and Norway, writer on military questions, 
 
 b. 1826, succ. 1859, d. 1872. 
 Charles Louis, archduke of Austria, marshal, writer on strategy, b. 
 
 1771, d. 1847. 
 
 Charlesworth, Maria Louisa, English essayist, author'of religious tales, 
 b. 1830, d. 1869. 
 
 Charleton, Sir Job, Eng. judge of com. pleas 1680-6 ; b. 1614, d. 1697. 
 Charleton, Lewis, English bishop of Hereford, theologian, mathema- 
 tician, d. 1369. 
 
 Charleton, Sir Robert de, English chief justice of common pleas 1388: 
 d. about 1394. 
 
 Charleton, Walter, English physician, naturalist, 6. 1619, d. 1707. 
 Charlotte Augusta, English princess (daughter of George IV.), wife of 
 
 Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, b. 1796, d. 1816. 
 Charma, Antoine, French archa?ologist, philosophical writer, b. 1801. 
 Charner, Leonard Victor Joseph, French admiral, b. 1797, d. 1869. 
 Charnock, John, English naval officer, biographer, publicist, writer 
 
 on naval architecture, b. 1756, d. 1807. 
 Charras, Jean Baptiste Adolphe, French military commander, tactician, 
 
 statesman, b. 1810, d. 1865. 
 Charrerie, Madame de St.-Hyacinthe de, Fr. novelist, dramat, d. 1800. 
 Charriere, Joseph Francois Bernard, French surgical instrument 
 
 maker, b. Switzerland 1803. 
 Charton, Mademoiselle, French actress, b. 1809, d. 1872. 
 Chartres, Robert Philippe Louis Eugene F. d'Orleans, due de, J. 1840. 
 Chase, Samuel, American statesman, judge of supreme court 1796- 
 
 1811, b. 1741, d. 1811. 
 Chase, Simon Portland, American statesman, chief justice of United 
 
 States, b. 1808, d. 1873. 
 Chase, Stephen, American mathematician, b. 1813, d. 1851. 
 Chasles, Gre"goire, French naval officer, traveller, biographer, d. 1720. 
 Chasles, Victor Euphe"mion Philharete, French critic, b. 1798, d. 1873. 
 Chassaignac, E., French physician, surgeon, anatomist, b. 1805. 
 Chassang, Alexis, French classicist, critic, biographer, b. 1827. 
 Chasseloup-Laubat, Justin Napoleon Samuel Prosper, marquis de, 
 
 French statesman, educationist, b. 1805. 
 Chassepot, Antoine Alphonse, French inventor of rifle gun, b. 1833. 
 Chasseriau, Frederic Victor Charles, French statesman, naval historian, 
 
 biographer, b. 1803. 
 Chasseriau, Theodore, French painter, b. 1819, d. 1856. 
 Chastelain, Claude, French biographer, martyrologist, b. 1639, d. 1712. 
 Chastellux, Francois Jean, marquis de, French marshal, traveUer, b. 
 
 1734, d. 1788. 
 
 Chateaubrun, Jean Baptiste V. de, French dramatic writer, d. 1775. 
 Chatel, Ferdinand Toussaint Francois, French abbe - , reformer, b. 1795, 
 d. 1857. 
 
 Chatel, Pierre du, French bishop of Orleans, classicist, d. 1552. 
 Chatelain, Anatole Julieu, French geographer, b. 1817. 
 Chatillon, Andre" Marie, French architect, b. 1782. 
 Chatrousse, Emile, French sculptor, b. 1830. 
 
 Chatterton, John Balsir, English musician, harpist, b. 1S05, d. 1871. 
 
 Chauffard, Marie Denis Etienne Hyacinthe, French physician, anato- 
 mist, medical writer, b. 1796. 
 
 Chaulnes, Marie Joseph d' Albert, due de, Fr. chemist, b. 1741, d. 1793. 
 
 Chaulnes, Michel Ferdinand d' Albert, due de, French general, mathe- 
 matician, astronomer, b. 1714, d. 1769. 
 
 Chauncey, Charles, American theologian, president of Harvard college 
 1654 ; b, 1589, d. 1671. 
 
 E 2 
 
55 CHAUNCEV. 
 
 Ciauncey, Sir Henry, Englisli antiq., judge in Wales, b. 1G32, d. 1719. 
 
 Ohauncey, Isaac, American commodore, diplomatist, d. 1840. 
 
 Chausse, Michel Ange de la, French archaeologist, d. 172-1. 
 
 Chaussier, Francois, French physician, anatomist, b. 1749, d. 1828. 
 
 Chauveau, Adolphe, French jurist, b. 1802, d. 1868. 
 
 Chauvenet, William, American mathematician, b. 1820, d. 1870. 
 
 Chauvin, ^tienne, French protest, theolog., philolog., b. 1640, d. 1725. 
 
 Chavannes, Pierre Puvis de, Fr. painter, d. in defending Paris 1871. 
 
 Chavee, Honor6 Joseph, Belgian writer on philology, b. 1815. 
 
 Chavistelli Jacopo, Florentine fresco painter, b. 1621, d. 1698. 
 
 Chazal, Charles Oamille, French painter, b. 1826. 
 
 Chazal, Pierre Emmanuel Fdlix, baron, Belgian statesman, b. 1808. 
 
 Chazallon, Antoine Marie Remi, Fr. hydrographer, engineer, b. 1802. 
 
 Chazelles, Jean Mathieu de, Fr. mathemat., astron., b. 1657, d, 1710. 
 
 Cheever, Ezekiel, American teacher, writer on Latin accidence, I: Eng- 
 land 1617, d. 1708. 
 
 Cheever, George B., D.D., Amer. congreg. minister, poet, trav., b. 1807. 
 
 Chelius, Maximilian Joseph, German writer on surgery, b. 1794. 
 
 Chemnizer, Ivan Ivanovich, Russian soldier and poet, b. 1744, d. 1784. 
 
 Chenavard, Marc Antoine, French architect, b. about 1810. 
 
 Chenavard, Paul, French historical painter, b. 1808. 
 
 Chenevix, Richard, Irish chemist, dramatic writer, essayist, b. 1774, 
 d. Paris 1830. 
 
 Chenier, Louis Joseph Gabriel de, French military writer, b. 1800. 
 Cherbonneau, Jacques Auguste, French orientalist, b. 1813. 
 Cherbuliez, Antoine Elisde, Swiss economist, b. 1797, d. 1869. 
 Cherbuliez, Joel, Swiss protestant writer, bibliographer, b. 1806. 
 Cherer, Madame Talbot, English public singer, b. 1837. 
 Cherif Pasha, Egyptian statesman, b. about 1819. 
 Cheron, Amedee Paul, French bibliographer, antiquary, b. 1819. 
 Cheron, Elizabeth Sophie, French portrait painter, poetess, d. 1711. 
 Cheron de Villiers, Pierre Thdodore, Fr. journalist, publicist, b. 1827. 
 Cherrier, Claude Joseph de, French historian, biogr., b. 1785, d. 1872. 
 Cherry, Andrew, Irish dramatist, comic actor, b. 1762, d. 1812. 
 Cheruel, Pierre Adolphe, French historian, b. 1809. 
 Chervin, Claudius, French classical and mathematical writer, author of 
 
 books for deaf and dumb, b. 1824. 
 Chesebro, Caroline, American novelist, b. about 1828. 
 Chester, Harry, English educationist, d. 1868. 
 
 Chester, Joseph Lemuel, Amer. poet, philanthropist, antiq., b. 1821. 
 Chetham, Humphery, English merchant, founder of college and library 
 
 at Manchester, d. 1653. 
 Chetwood, Knightly, Eng. ecclesiastic, classicist, biographer, d. 1720. 
 Chetwynd, John, Eng. theologian, historian, b. 1623, d. 1692. 
 Chevalier, Antoine Rodolphe de, Fr. philologist, in England, rf. 1 572. 
 Chevalier, Casimir, French ecclesiastic, archaeologist, b. 1825. 
 Chevalier, Charles Louis, French optician, b. 1804, d. 1859. 
 Chevalier, Thomas, English surgeon, anatomist, naturalist, d. 1824. 
 Chevallier, Jean Baptiste Alphonse, French chemist, physician, writer 
 
 on public health, b. 1793. 
 Chevallier, Temple, English clergyman, philologist, mathematician, 
 
 astronomer, b. 1794, d. 1873. 
 Cheverus, Lefebvre de, bishop of Boston, U. States, cardinal archbishop 
 
 of Bordeaux, b. 1768, d. 1836. 
 Chevillier, Andre, Fr. priest, antiquary, bibliogr., I. 1636, d. 1700. 
 Chew, Benjamin, Amer. presid. of court of appeals, b. 1723, d. 1810. 
 Chew, Samuel, American quaker, advocated defensive warfare, d. 1744. 
 Cheyne, James, Scotch professor of philosophy in Flanders, d. 1602. 
 Cheyne, Sir William, Eng. chief just, king's bench 1424-39, d. 1442. 
 Cheynell, Francis, English nonconformist, theolog., b. 1608, d. 1665. 
 Chiarini, Luigi, Florentine orientalist, b. 1789, d. 1832. 
 Chicheley, Henry, archbishop of Canterbury, Eng. statesman, founder 
 
 of All Souls college, Oxford, b. 1362, d. 1443. 
 Chichester, H. T. Pelham, earl of, Eng. peer, philanthropist, b. 1804. 
 Chichester, Thomas Pelham, earl of, Eng. peer, states., b. 1756, d. 1826. 
 Chiffley, Jean Jacques, French med. writer, histor., b. 1588, d. 1660. 
 Chiffley, Pierre Francois, Fr. theologian, antiquary, b. 1592, d. 1682. 
 Child, Coles, English archaeologist, 6. 1814, d. 1873. 
 Child, Mrs. (Lydia Maria Francis), American biographer, writer against 
 
 slavery, didactic writer, b. about 1802. 
 Child, William, English musician, musical composer, d. 1697. 
 Childe, John, American engineer, inventor, b. 1802, d. 1851. 
 Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley, English statesman, b. 1827. 
 Childrey, Joshua, D.D., English naturalist, astrolog., b. 1623, d. 1670. 
 Childs, G. Wm., Amer. publisher of educational works, b. 1S29. 
 Childs, Timothy, American physician, patriot, b. 1748, d. 1821. 
 Chilly, Charles Marie de, French actor, director, b. 1807, d. 1872. 
 Chilmead, Edward, Eng. philolog., writer on music, b. 1610, d. 1653. 
 Chimay, Joseph Philippe Francois de Riquet, prince de, Belgian diplo- 
 matist, b. 1808, d. 1865. 
 Chintreuil, Antoine, French landscape painter, b. 1814, d. 1873. 
 Chipman, Nathaniel, American jurist, Vermont state, 6. 1752, d. 1843. 
 Chipman, Ward, Am., chief just, of New Brunswick, b. 1786, d. 1851. 
 Chirzac, Pierre, French surgeon, writer on wounds, b. 1650, d. 1732. 
 Chishull, Edmund, Eng. clergyman, antiq., theolog., b. 1670, d. 1733. 
 Chishull, John de, Eng. keeper great seal, bp. of London 1273, d. 1280. 
 Chittenden, Thomas, Eng. gov. of Vermont state, b. 1730, d. 1797. 
 Chitty, Joseph, Eng. special pleader, jurist, reporter, b. 1776, d. 1S41. 
 
 CLARE. 5G 
 
 Chivot, Henri, French vaudevillist, b. 1830. 
 
 Chlapowski, Desire, Polish general, agriculturist, b. 1788. 
 
 Choate, Rufus, American lawyer, orator, senator, b. 1799, d. 1859. 
 
 Chodzko, Alexander, Polish orientalist, historian, b. 1804. 
 
 Chodzko, Ignacc, Polish historian, philologist, b. 1795. 
 
 Chodzko, Jakob Leonard Boreyko, Polish historian in France, b. 1800. 
 
 Choke, Richard, Englisli judge of common pleas 1461-83, d. 1483. 
 
 Chokier, Jean Ernest de, LL.D., French jurist, b. 1571, d. ab. 1651. 
 
 Cholmley, Sir Roger, English chief baron of exchequer 1545-52, chiel 
 justice of king's bench 1552-3, d. 1565. 
 
 Cholmondeley, George Horatio, 2nd marquis of, English peer of United 
 Kingdom, statesman, philanthropist, b. 1782, d. 1870. 
 
 Chonski, Henri de, Polish political economist, b. 1801. 
 
 Chopin, Jean Marie, Fr. writer on Scandinavian literature, b. 1795. 
 
 Choris, Louis, Russian traveller, artist, b. 1795, d. 1828. 
 
 Chorley, Henry Fothergill, Eng. musical critic, b. 1808, d. 1872. 
 
 Chorley, John Ruttcr, English philologist, d. 1867. 
 
 Chorley, William B., English poet, translator, b. about 1800. 
 
 Chotek, Franz Xaver, German musical composer, b. 1800. 
 
 Choulant, Ludwig, Saxon physician, medical writer, bibliog. , b. 1791. 
 
 Choules, John Overton, D.D., American baptist minister, traveller, hist- 
 orian of missions, b. England, 1801, d. 1856. 
 
 Choumara, Pierre Marie Thdodore, French military engineer, writer on 
 fortifications, b. 1787. 
 
 Chretien, Florent, Fr. poet, play-writer, translator, b. 1541, d. 1596. 
 
 Christian, H.R.H. Prince, of Schleswig-Holstcin-Sondcrburg-August- 
 enburg, b. 1831, married, 1866, Princess Helena of Great Britain. 
 
 Christian August, duke of Schlcswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustcn- 
 burg, b. 1798. 
 
 Christian, Edward, Eng. jur., prof, of laws of Eng., Cambridge, d. 1823. 
 
 Christie, Hugh, Scotch grammarian, educationist, writer against 
 Church establishments, b. 1730, d. 1774. 
 
 Christie, James, English auctioneer, antiquary, b. 1772, d. 1831. 
 
 Christie, Thomas, Scotch histor. and philosoph. writ., b. 1761, d. 1796. 
 
 Christmas, Joseph S., Am. presbyt. minis, in Canada, b. 1803, d. 1830. 
 
 Christophe, Henry, presid. of Hayti, 1807, king, 1811, b. 1767, d. 1820. 
 
 Christy, David, American geologist, agricultural chemist, b. 1802. 
 
 Chrzanowski, Adalbert, Polish general, b. about 1789, d. 1861. 
 
 Chubb, John, English patentee of safety locks, 6. 1815, d. 1872. 
 
 Chudleigh, Lady Mary, English poetess, essayist, b. 1656, d. 1710. 
 
 Church, Sir Richard, Greek general, councillor of state, writer on the 
 boundaries of Greece, liberator, b. 1785 of Irish family, d. 1873. 
 
 Church, Thomas, D.D., Eng. theol., controvers. writer, b. 1707, d. 1756. 
 
 Churchill, Sir Winston, English royalist, chronicler, b. 1620, d. 1688. 
 
 Churchyard, Thomas, English poet, b. 1520, d. 1604. 
 
 Churton, Edward, Englisli ecclesiastic, theologian, poet, b. 1800. 
 
 Churton, Ralph, Eng. ecclesiastic, theolog., biograph., b. 1754, d. 1831. 
 
 Chytraeus, David, Ger. lutheran theologian, historian, b. 1530, d. 1600. 
 
 Chytraeus, Nathan, German latin poet, b. 1543, d. 1598. 
 
 Ciaconius, Alfonso, Span, ecclesiastic, histor., bibliog. b. 1540, d. 1599. 
 
 Ciaconius, Pedro, Span, philolog., classical antiquary, b. 1525, d. 1581. 
 
 Ciampini, Giovanni Giustino, Italian biographer, archaeologist, mathe- 
 matician, b. 1633, d. 1698. 
 
 Cibber, Mrs. Susanna Maria Arne, English actress, b. 1714, d. 1769. 
 
 Cibot, Francois Barthdlemy Michel Edouard, French painter, b. 1799. 
 
 Cibrario, Giov. Antonio Luigi, Ital. politic, histor., b. 1802, d. 1871. 
 
 Ciceri, Pierre Luc Charles, Fr. operatic scene painter, b. 1782, d. 1868. 
 
 Ciezar, Miguel Geronimo, Spanish historical painter, d. 1667. 
 
 Ciezkowski, Auguste, count, Polish economist, b. 1814. 
 
 Cignani, Felice, Bolognese historical painter, b. 1660, d. 1724. 
 
 Cino da Pistoja, Italian poet, jurist, d. 1336. 
 
 Cioli da Settignano, Simon, IlMoscha, Tuscan sculptor, b. 1496, d. 1554. 
 
 Cipolletti, Domenico, Italian astronomer, d. 1874. 
 
 Circignani, Nicolo, Dalle Pomcranio, Ital. painter, b. 1516, d. 1588. 
 
 Cirillo, Domenico, Italian botanist, physician, b. 1730, d. 1799. 
 
 Cirillo, Niccolo, Italian physician, b. 1671, d. 1734. 
 
 Citadella, Alfonso, Lombardi, Italian sculptor, b. 1487, d. 1539. 
 
 Cito, Baldassare, Italian statesman, b. 1698, d. 1797. 
 
 Cittadini, Celso, Italian philologist, antiquary, b. 1553, d. 1627. 
 
 Civiale, Jean, French physician, lithotritist, b. 1792, d. 1827. 
 
 Civinini, Giuseppe, Italian journalist, humourist, b. 1837, d. 1872. 
 
 Claeyssens, Pierre, Flemish painter, b. about 1500, d. 1576. 
 
 Claggett, Thomas John, American bishop of Maryland 1792 ; d. 1816. 
 
 Clair, Arthur St., American general, b. Scotland 1734, d. 1818. 
 
 Claire, Sta., Ital. founder of an order of nuns, b. about 1193, d. 1253. 
 
 Claire d' Assisi, Sta., Italian nun, b. 1312, d. 1352. 
 
 Clairville, (Louis Francois Nicolaie, called), Fren. dramatist, b. 1811. 
 
 Clajus, or Clay, Johann, Ger. poet, grammar., theolog., b. 1533, d. 1592. 
 
 Clanricarde, Ulrick de Burgh, marq. of, Eng. statesm., b. 1604, d. 1658. 
 
 Clanricarde, Ulick John de Burgh, marq. of, Ir. peer, baron Somerhill 
 
 of the United Kingdom, diplomatist, administrator, b. 1802, 
 
 d. 1874. 
 
 Clanwilliam, Richard Charles French Meade, 3rd earl of, Irish peer, 
 baron of United Kingdom, diplomatist, 5.1795, succeeded 1805. 
 
 Clap, Thomas, American mathematician, astronomer, b. 1703, d. 1767. 
 
 Clapham, Samuel, English clergyman, theologian, b, 1754, d. 1830. 
 
 Clare and Hertford, Roger de Clare, earl of, English itinerant judgo 
 1170; d. 1173. 
 
57 CLARENDON. 
 
 Clarendon, Henry Hyde, earl of, lortl-lieutenant of Ireland, historian, 
 b. 1638, d. 1709. 
 
 Claridge, Richard, English quaker, theologian, It. 1649, d. 1723. 
 
 Clarina, Eyre Massey, baron, Irish peer, general, b. 1717, d. 1804. 
 
 Clarinval, Jean Baptiste Emile, French engineer, technologist, b. 1826. 
 
 Claris, John Chalk, English poet, journalist, b. 1796, d. 1866. 
 
 Clarisse, Joannes, Dutch theologian, b. 1770, d. 1846. 
 
 Clarisse, Walrand Cornelis Lodewijk, Dutch archceol., b. 1811, d. 1845. 
 
 Clark, D. W., D.D., Amer. methodist mill., author, editor, b. 1812. 
 
 Clark, John, Scotch physiciau, trav., med. writer, b. 1744, d. 1805. 
 
 Clark, John Kendall, English architect, b. 1S28, d. 1863. 
 
 Clark, Thomas, Scotch physician, chemist, b. 1801, d. 1867. 
 
 Clark, Thomas, D.D., American theologian, protestant bishop of 
 Rhode Island, b. 1812. 
 
 Clark, William, English naturalist, anatomist, b. 1781, d. 1869. 
 
 Clark, Willis Gaylord, Amer. poet, essayist, journ., b. 1810, d. 1841. 
 
 Clarke, Abraham, Aunrican statesman, b. 1726, d. 1794. 
 
 Clarke, Cliarles, English baron of exchequer, 1743, d. 1750. 
 
 Clarke, Charles Cowden, Eng. critic, Shaksperiau editor, b. ab. 1812. 
 
 Clarke, Mrs. Cowden (Mary Novello), English, novelist, essayist, com- 
 piler of ' Concordance to Shakspeare,' b. 1809. 
 
 Clarke, Sir Charles Mansfield, bart, Eng. physician, b. 1781, d. 1857. 
 
 Clarke, Edward Hyde, Eng. writer on West Indian questions, d. 1873. 
 
 Clarke, Harriet Ludlow, English artist, b. 1818, d. 1866. 
 
 Clarke, Henry, English mathematician, b. 1745, d. 1818. 
 
 Clarke, James Freeman, D.D., American unitarian minister, theologian, 
 devotional writer, b. 1810. 
 
 Clarke, James Stanier, English clergyman, antiquary, histor., d. 1834. 
 
 Clarke, Jeremiah, English musician, writer of anthems, d. 1707. 
 
 Clarke, John, D.D., English ecclesiastic, philosophical writer, d. 1759. 
 
 Clarke, John, English ecclesiastic, theologian, d. 1729. 
 
 Clarke, John Erskine, Eng. clergym., editor of 'Parish Mag.', b. 1828. 
 
 Clarke, McDonald, 'The Mad Poet' of New York, b. 1798, d. 1842. 
 
 Clarke, Sir Robert, Eng. baron of exchequer 1587—1606-7, d. 1606-7. 
 
 Clarke, Samuel, English nonconformist clergyman, biographer, 
 martyrologist, b. 1599, d. 1682. 
 
 Clarke, Samuel, Eng. clergym., biblical translator, b. 1623, d. 1699. 
 
 Clarke, Samuel, D.D., English clergyman, mathematician, theologian, 
 philosophical writer, b. 1625, d. 1729. 
 
 Clarke, Samuel, Eng. clergym., bibl. commentator, b. 1626, d. 1700-1. 
 
 Clarke, Sir Thomas, English master of the rolls 1754 ; d. 1764. 
 
 Clarke, Thomas Cowden, English magazine writer, b. 1791, d. 1867. 
 
 Clarke, William, English clergyman, antiquary, writer on ancient 
 coins, b. 1696, d. 1771. 
 
 Clarke, William, Eng. banker, philologist, traveller, b. 1753, d. 1805. 
 
 Clarke, William, American explorer in the Rocky Mountains, d. 1838. 
 
 Clarkson, David, English nonconformist, writer against episcopacy, 
 b. 1620, d. 1686. 
 
 Clason, Isaac Starr, American actor, poet, b. 1798, d. 1834. 
 
 Clater, Francis, English veterinary surgeon, writer, b. 1748, d. 1823. 
 
 Claudius, Matthias, German poet, b. 1743, d. 1815. 
 
 Claughton, Piers Calveley, D.D., English bishop of Colombo, b. 1814. 
 
 Claughton, Thomas, English prelate, bishop of Rochester, poet, 
 educationist, b. 1808. 
 
 Claus, Emmanuel Joachim Joseph, Belgian jurist, b. 1784, d. 1848. 
 
 Clausen, Hendrik Nikolas, Danish theologian, biblical critic, states- 
 man, b. 1793. 
 
 Claver, Pedro, Spanish jesuit preacher, apostle to the negro slaves in 
 
 North America, b. 1583, d. 1654. 
 Clavering, Robert, English theologian, bishop of Peterborough, 
 
 hebraist, d. 1747. 
 Claviere, Etienne, Swiss financier, revolutionist in France, d. 1793. 
 Clay, Cassius Marcellus, American statesman, diplomatist, enemy of 
 
 slavery, b. 1810. 
 Clay, James, English economist, b. 1805, d. 1873. 
 Clay, John, English prison chaplain, temperance reformer, d. 1858. 
 Clay, Joseph, American judge, baptist minister, b. 1764, d. 1811. 
 Clay, Sir Wm., bt., Eng. economist, writer on currency, b. 1792, 
 
 d. 1869. 
 
 Clay, William Keatinge, English clergyman, antiquary, writer on 
 
 liturgies, b. 1797. 
 Claye, Jules, French improver of printing, b. about 1804. 
 Clays, Pierre Jean, Belgian painter, 6. 1819. 
 Clayton, Alfred B., English architect, 6. 1785, d. 1855. 
 Clayton, George, Eng. congregat. minister, theologian, b. 1783, d. 1862. 
 Clayton, John, Amer. physician, botanist, b. England, 1686, d. 1773. 
 Clayton, John, English congregational minister, b. 1780, d. 1865. 
 Clayton, Joshua, American physician, governor of Delaware state 
 
 slavery, 1793-96, d. 1799. 
 Clayton, Rob., Ir. bp. of Clogher, writer on prophecy, b. 1695, d. 1758. 
 Clayton, Sir William Robert, bart., English general, b. 1786, d. 1866. 
 Cleaveland, John, English poet, loyalist, b. 1613, d. 1659. 
 Cleaveland, John, American minister, thcol. writer, b. 1722, d. 1799. 
 Cleaveland, Nehemiah, American physician, b. 1761, d. 1837. 
 Cleaver, Euseby, D.D., English archbishop of Dublin, d. 1819. 
 Cleaver, William, D.D., English theologian, bishop of Chester 1787, 
 
 Bangor 1799, St. Asaph 1806 ; bibliog., hellenist, b. 1742, d. 1815. 
 Cleemann, Andreas Christian, German philologist, b. 1713, d. 1766. 
 
 COBBEHAM. 59 
 
 Cleghorn, George, Scotch regimental surgeon, anatomist, writer on 
 diseases in the island of Minorca, b. 1716, d. at Dublin 1789. 
 
 Cleghorn, George, Scotch critic, writer on art, d. 1855. 
 
 Cleland, James, Scotch physicist, statistical writer, b. 1774, d. 1840. 
 
 Cleland, William, Scotch colonel, poet, covenanter, b. ab. 1001, killed 
 at Dunkeld 1689. 
 
 Clemens, August, duke of Bavaria, archbp. of Cologne, b. 1700, d, 1761. 
 Clemens, Samuel Langhome, Mark Twain, American humourist, b. 1835. 
 Clement, Felix, French musician, writer on music, b. 1822. 
 Clement, Jean Pierre, French economist, historian, b. 1809. 
 Clement, Knut Jungbohn, Danish historian, linguist, b. 1803. 
 Clement, William, English clergyman, theologian, librarian of Sion 
 
 college, b. 1711, d. 1799. 
 Clench, John, English judge of exchequer 1581, queen's bench 1584- 
 
 1602 ; d. 1607. 
 Clerget, Jacques Jean, French architect, b. 1808. 
 Clerk, Sir George, bart., Scotch advocate, publicist, musical amateur, 
 
 b. 1787, d. 1867. 
 
 Clerk, Sir Geo. Maxwell, Scotch agricultural improver, h. 171.', d. IT- 1. 
 Clerk, Sir George Russell, Scotch governor of Bombay; member of 
 
 Indian council, b. 1801. 
 Clerk, John, Scotch judge, as lord Eldin, 5. 1757, d. 1832. 
 Clermont-Tonnerre, Aime Marie Gaspard, due do, French general, 
 
 statesman, b. 1780, d. 1865. 
 Clermont-Tonnerre, Antoine Jules de, French cardinal, bishop of 
 
 Chalons, biographer, b. 1749, d. 1839. 
 Clerrisseau, Charles Louis, French architect, at St. Petersburg, d. 1820. 
 Clesinger, Jean Baptiste Auguste, French sculptor, b. about 1820. 
 Clesse, Antoine, Belgian poet, b. 1816. 
 
 Cleveland, Aaron, American poet, theologian, b. 1744, d. 1815. 
 Cleveland, Charles Dexter, Amer. classicist, educationist, b. 1802. 
 Cleveland, Henry R., American educationist, biogr., b. 1808, d. 1848. 
 Cleveland, Henry Vane, 2nd duke of, English peer, general, b. 
 1788, d. 1864. 
 
 Clevenger, Shobal L. Vai, American sculptor, b. 1812, d. 1843. 
 
 Clifford, Arthur, English archaeologist, topographer, b. 1777, d. 1830. 
 
 Clifford, Henry, lord, English chief at Flodden Field, cultivator of 
 science, b. 1459, d. 1528. 
 
 Clifford, John, lord, English military commander, b. 1435, d. 1461. 
 
 Clifford, Martin, English writer on human reason, d. 1677. 
 
 Clifford, Robert de, English lord high admiral, d. 1314. 
 
 Clifford, Roger de, Eng. itinerant judge, justice of N. Wales, d. 1280. 
 
 Cliffton, William, American poet, b. 1772, d. 1799. 
 
 Clift, William, English naturalist, b. 1775, d. 1849. 
 
 Cline, Henry, English surgeon, anatomist, b. 1750, d. 1827. 
 
 Clint, George, English artist, b. 1770, d. 1854. 
 
 Clinton, Charles John Fynes, English clergyman, editor, b. 1799. 
 
 Clinton, George, American general, governor of New York, vice-presi- 
 dent United States, b. 1740, d. 1812. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, English general, in America, d. 1795. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, English lieut. -general, b. 1772, d. 1829. 
 
 Clinton, James, American statesman, soldier, b. 1736, d. 1812. 
 
 Clissold, Augustus, English clergyman, swedenborgian writer, b. 1797. 
 
 Clissold, Henry, English clergyman, theologian, b. 1795, d. 1866. 
 
 Clive, Mrs. Caroline Archer, English poetess, novelist, b. 1801, d. 1873. 
 
 Clive, Sir Edward, English judge of exchequer 1745-53, common pleas 
 1753-70, d. 1771. 
 
 Clive, George, Eng. cursitor baron of exchequer 1735-9, 6.1666, d. 1739. 
 Clodt-Juergensbourg, Peter von, Russian sculptor, b. 1805. 
 Cloncurry, Lord, Irish political writer, b. 1772, d. 1853. 
 Cloncurry, Valentine Brown Lawless, 2nd lord, Irish peer, statesman, 
 b. 1793, d. 1869. 
 
 Clopton, Sir Walter de, English chief justice of king's bench 1388 ; 
 
 in 1400 resigned, and became a friar minor, d. 1400. 
 Cloquet, Germain Jules, French physician, writer on anatomy, b. 1790. 
 Close, Sir Barry, bart., English major-general in India, philologist, 
 
 diplomatist, d. 1813. 
 Close, Francis, D.D., English ecclesiastic, educationist, temperance 
 
 reformer, 6. 1797. 
 
 Close, James, English banker at Naples, resident at Antibes, promoter 
 
 of public improvement, b. 1799, d. 1866. 
 Clot, Antoine, Clot Bey, French physician in Egypt, founder of hospital 
 
 of Abou Zabel, near Cairo, b. 1795, d. 1868. 
 Clovio, Giulio Giorgio, Croatian hist, painter at Rome, b. 1498, d. 1578. 
 Clowes, John, Eng. clergyman, swedenborgian writer, b. 1743, d. 1831. 
 Clubbe, John, English clergyman, satirical writer, d. 1773. 
 Clubbe, William, English clergyman, poet, classicist, d. 1814. 
 Clutterbuck, Robert, Eng. chemist, topogr., antiq., b. 1772, d. 1831. 
 Clymer, George, American merchant, statesman, b. 1739, d. 1813. 
 Coates, Benjamin H., American physician, physiologist, b. 1787. 
 Coates, Reyncll, Amer. phys., writer on physiology, reviewer, b. 1S02. 
 Cobb, Howell, American statesman, b. 1815. 
 
 Cobb, James, English dramatic poet, secretary of East India Co., b, 
 
 1756, d. 1818. 
 Cobb, Samuel, English poet, classical critic, d. 1713. 
 Cobb, Sylvanus, American journalist, novelist, b. 1823. 
 Cobbeham. John de, English baron of exchequer, 1276, d. 1301. 
 Cobbeham, Reginald de, English justice itinerant, 1248 ; d. 1257. 
 
59 
 
 COBBOLD. 
 
 COLMAN. 
 
 60 
 
 Cobbold, Richard, Englisli clergyman, novelist, b. 1797. 
 Cobden, Edward, D.D., Eng. clcrgyni., poet, tlieolog., essayist, d. 1764. 
 Cobentzel, Karl von, German count, statesman, diplomatist, b. 1712, 
 d. 1770. 
 
 Cobentzel, Ludwig von, Austrian count, statesman, diplom., d. 1809. 
 Coblence, Samuel Victor, French printor, discovered electrotype 
 
 processes, b. 1814. 
 Cocceius, Heinrich, Dutch jurist, a baron of the empire, b. 1644, d. 1719. 
 Cocceius, Johan, Dutch biblical critic, philologist, b. 1603, d. 1667. 
 Coccia, Carlo, Italian musical composer, d. 1873. 
 Cochard, Nicolas, Francois, French topographer, statistical writer, b. 
 
 1763, d. 1834. 
 
 Cocheris, Hippolyte Francois Jules Marie, French philologist, palaeo- 
 grapher, b. 1829. 
 
 Cochet, Jean Bcnoit Desire, French abbe, archaeologist, b. 1812. 
 
 Cochin, Charles Nicolas, French designer, engraver, b. 1688, d. 1754. 
 
 Cochin, Pierre Suzanne Augustiu, French publicist, writer on education 
 and social reform, b. 1823. 
 
 Cochon de Lapparent, Charles, French statesman, b. 1750, d. 1825. 
 
 Cochran, John Webster, American inventor, manufacturer of fire-arms 
 and projectiles, 6. 1814. 
 
 Cochran, William, Scotch historical painter, b. 1738, d. 1785. 
 
 Cochrane, Sir Alex. Forrester Inglis, Scotch admiral, b. 1758, d. 1832. 
 
 Cochrane, Hon. Basil, Scotch economist, writer on vapour-baths, b. 
 1753, d. 1826. 
 
 Cochrane, John Dundas, Scotch captain R.N., traveller in Russia 
 andTartary, b. 1780, b. 1825. 
 
 Cochrane, Sir Thomas John, Scotch admiral, governor of Newfound- 
 land, b. 1789, d. 1872. 
 
 Cochut, Andre, French economist, b. 1812. 
 
 Cockayne, John, English judge in exchequer and common pleas 1400- 
 1429, d. 1438. 
 
 Cockburn, Sir Alexander James E., bart., English chief-justice of 
 common pleas, b. 1802. 
 
 Cockburn, Mrs. Alice, Scotch poetess, song writer, b. ab. 1710, d. 1794. 
 
 Cockburn, Mrs. Catherine Trotter, English poetess, dramatist, philo- 
 sophical writer, b. 1679, d. 1749. 
 
 Cockburn, Henry Thomas, Scotch judge of session (as lord Cockburn), 
 biographer, autobiographer, b. 1779, d. 1854. 
 
 Cockburn, John, D.D., English clergyman, theologian, writer against 
 duelling, d. 1729. 
 
 Cockburn, John, of Ormiston, Scotch politician, promoter of agriculture 
 
 and manufactures, b. about 1700, d. 1758. 
 Cockburn, Patrick, Scotch orientalist at Paris, biblical critic, d. 1559. 
 Cockburn, Patrick, English clergyman, theologian, writer on the 
 
 deluge, I. 1678, d. 1749. 
 Cocker, Edward, English arithmetician and penman, h. 1632, d. 1677. 
 Cockton, Henry, English novelist, b. 1808, d. 1853. 
 Coda, Benedetto, Italian historical painter, b. 1460, d. 1520. 
 Codazzi, Agostino, Italian military engineer, traveller, geogr., b. 1792. 
 Coddington, William, English founder of Rhode Island settlement, b. 
 
 1601, d. 1678. 
 
 Codrington, Christopher, native of Barbadoes, founder of All Saints 
 
 college, Oxford, b. 1668, d. 1710. 
 Coe, Richard, American poet, b. 1820. 
 
 Coelln, Daniel Georg Conrad von, Germ, theologian, b. 1788, d. 1833. 
 Coello, Alonzo Sanchez, Portug. painter, at Span, court, b. 1515, d. 1590. 
 Coen, Jan P., governor of Dutch East India Settlements, founder of 
 
 the colony of Batavia, d. 1629. 
 Coffey, Charles, Eng. poet, dramatist, editor of Drayton's poems, d. 1745. 
 Coffin, Sir Isaac, English admiral, b. 1759, d. 1839. 
 Coffin, Sir Isaac, English lieutenant-general, in India, b. 1801, d. 1872. 
 Coffin, J. G., Amer. physician, educational writer, b. 1770, d. 1829. 
 Coffin, Robt. S., Amer. printer, 'The Boston Bard,' 6. 1797, d. 1827. 
 Cogalniceano, Michael, Roumanian advocate, publicist, b. ab. 1806. 
 Cogan, Thomas, English physician in Holland, medical and theological 
 
 writer, essayist, b. 1736, d. 1818. 
 Coggeshall, George, American captain, traveller, poet, writer on 
 
 letters of marque, b. 1784. 
 Coggeshall, Wm. T., Amer. essayist, writer on spirit rapping, b. 1824. 
 Cogniard, Hippolyte, French vaudevillist, b. 1807. 
 Cogniard, Theodore, Fr. vaudevillist, theatrical director, J. 1806, d. 1872. 
 Cogniet, Leon, French historical painter, b. 1794. 
 Cogswell, Joseph Green, LL.D., American naturalist, bibliographer, 
 
 superintendent of Astor Library, editor, b. about 1786. 
 Cogswell, Mason Fitch, American physician and surgeon, founder of 
 
 institution for deaf and dumb, b. 1761, d. 1830. 
 Cogswell, William, D.D., American theologian, editor, critic, his- 
 torian, b. 1788, d, 1850. 
 Cohausen, Johann Heinrich, German physician, writer on longevity, 
 
 b. 1666, d. 1750. 
 Cohen, Joseph, French journalist, writer on Algeria, b. 1817. 
 Cohendy, Michel, French archivist, b. 1811. 
 Cohorn, Menno, baron, Dutch military engineer, d. 1704. 
 Coignard, Louis, French painter, b. about 1812. 
 Coignet, Giles, Giles of Antwerp, historical painter, b. 1530, b. 1600. 
 Coignet, Jules Louis Philippe, French painter, b. 1798, d. 1860. 
 Coigny, Antoine Francois, due de, French marshal, b. 1670, d. 1759, 
 
 Coigny, Augustin Louis Joseph Casimir Gustavo de Franquetot, due 
 de, French general, b. 1788, b. 1865. 
 
 Coin-Delisle, Jean Baptiste Cesar, French jurist, b. 1789, d. 1865. 
 
 Coke, Henry John, English traveller in California, novelist, b. 1827. 
 
 Coke, Thomas, LL.D., American mcthodist bishop, traveller, b. 
 Wales, 1747, d. 1814. 
 
 Coke, William, English judge of common pleas 1552; d. 1553. 
 
 Cokefield, John de, English justice of king's bench, d. 1272. 
 
 Colani, Timothee, French protcstant theologian, critic, 6. 1824. 
 
 Colardeau, Charles Pierre, French poet, b. 1732, d. 1776. 
 
 Colban, Erik Andreas, Norwegian theologian, b. 1761, d. about 1828. 
 
 Colbert, Auguste Marie Francois, French general, b. 1777, d. 1809. 
 
 Colbjoernsen, Christian, Danish jurist, b. 1749, d. 1814. 
 
 Colbrun, Eugene Auguste, French actor, b. 1833, d. 1866. 
 
 Colburn, Zerah, American methodist preacher ; precocious, when a 
 boy, in powers of computation, 6. 1804, d. 1839. 
 
 Colchester, Charles Abbot, 2nd baron, English peer, admiral, states- 
 man, b. 1798, d. 1867. 
 
 Colden, Cadwallader D., Amer. jurist, statesman, philanthr., d. 1834. 
 
 Cole, Charles Nalson, Eng. lawyer, legal antiquary, b. 1722, d. 1804. 
 
 Cole, Sir G. Lowry, Eng officer, gov. of Cape Colony, b. 1772, d. 1842. 
 
 Cole, James L., American poet, b. 1799, d. 1823. 
 
 Cole, Thomas, English theologian, principal of St. Mary's hall, Oxford, 
 ejected for nonconformity, tutor to John Locke, d. 1697. 
 
 Cole, Thomas, Amer.landsc. and port, painter, b. England 1802, d. 1848. 
 
 Cole, Vicat, English landscape painter, b. 1833. 
 
 Cole, William, English botanist, herbalist, secretary to bishop of Win- 
 chester, b. 1628, d. 1662. 
 
 Cole, William, English clergyman, antiquary, collector of portraits and 
 MSS., b. 1714, d. 1782. 
 
 Colebrooke, Sir William Macbean George, English lieutenant-general, 
 Colonial governor, b. 1787. 
 
 Coleman, John, D.D., Amer. clergyman, thcolog., editor, b. 1803. 
 
 Coleman, Lyman, D.D., American philologist, writer on biblical geo- 
 graphy and ecclesiastical antiquities, b. 1796. 
 
 Coleman, Obcd B., American musician, musical inventor, b. England 
 1817, d. 1845. 
 
 Coleman, Thomas, English surgeon, b. 1791, d. 1872. 
 
 Colepeper, John, English judge of common pleas 1406, d. 1414. 
 
 Colepeper, John, lord, Eng. judge, master of the rolls 1643, d. 1660. 
 
 Coleraine, Henry Hare, lord, Irish peer, philologist, antiquary, 
 b. 1693, d. 1749. 
 
 Coleridge, John Duke Coleridge, first baron, English jurist, chief justice 
 of common pleas 1873 ; b. 1820. 
 
 Coleridge, Sir John Taylor, English judge of queen's bench 1835-58 ; 
 editor of Blackstonc's Commentaries, b. 1790. 
 
 Coleridge, William Hart, D.D., English bishop of Barbadoes, theolo- 
 gian, 6. 1790, d. 1850. 
 
 Colesworth, Daniel Collins, Amer, poet, journalist, publisher, b. 1810. 
 
 Colet, Madame (Louise Revoil), French novelist, poetess, dramatist, 
 6. 1810. 
 
 Colfax, N., Amer. statesman, vice-presid. of U. States 1868 ; b. 1823. 
 Colin, Alexandre Marie, French painter, b. 1798. 
 Colin, Jean Jacques, French chemist, b. 1784. 
 
 Collado, Diego, Span, philolog., author Japanese dictionary, d. 1638. 
 
 Collan, Karel, Swedish philologist, poet, musical composer, d. 1871. 
 
 Collange, Gabriele de, French writer on polygraphic writing, d. 1572. 
 
 Collardeau du Heaulme, Charles Fe"lix, French mathematical instru- 
 ment maker, b. 1796, d. 1869. 
 
 Colle, Charles, Fr. singer and dramatic author, critic, b. 1709, d. 1783. 
 
 Colleone, Bartolomeo, Ital. free soldier, Venetian commander, d. 1475. 
 
 Collier, Sir Robert Porrett, English judge, member of judicial com- 
 mittee of privy council 1871 ; b. 1817. 
 
 Collin D'Arville, Jean Francois, Fr. poet, dramatist, b. 1750, d. 1806. 
 
 Collinges, John, English presbyterian theologian, biblical commen- 
 tator, writer of allegories, b. 1623, d. 1690. 
 
 Collingwood, Robert Gustavus Adolphus, English surgeon, medical 
 and scientific writer, antiquary, b. 1783, d. 1866. 
 
 Collins, Arthur, English genealogist, biographer, 6. 1682, d. 1760. 
 
 Collins, David, English military officer, governor of Van Diemen's 
 Land, historian of Botany Bay, d. 1810. 
 
 Collins, John, English mathematician, accountant, b. 1624, d. 1683. 
 
 Collins, J. R., English novelist, dramatist, b. 1821, d. 1865. 
 
 Collins, Thomas, English actor, theatrical manager, b. 1744, d. 1807. 
 
 Collinson, Peter, English botanist, b. 1694, d. 1768. 
 
 Collinson, Septimus, D.D., English clergyman, provost of Queen's 
 coUege, Oxford, b. 1740, d. 1827. 
 
 Colman, Henry, Amer. agricult., unitarian minister, b. 1785, d. 1849. 
 
 Colmeiro, Manuel, Spanish political economist, b. 1818. 
 
 Colnaghi, Paul, English printseller, publisher, b. 1751, d. 1833. 
 
 Colocotronis, Theodoros, Greek popular leader, d. 1770, d. 1843. 
 
 Colomban, Andre, French architect, b. 1474, d. 1549. 
 
 Colombo, Michele, Italian philologist, b. 1747, d. 1838. 
 
 Collyer, Joseph, English engraver, d. 1827. 
 
 Collyer, William Bengo, D.D., English nonconformist preacher, 
 
 theologian, poet, b. 1781, d. 1854. 
 Colman, Benjamin, D.D., American minister, Boston, theological 
 
 writer, b. 1673, d. 1747. 
 
61 COLONNA. 
 
 Colonna, Michel Angelo, Italian fresco painter, b. 1600, d. 1687. 
 Colonsay, Duncan MacNeill, 1st baron, Scotch judge, peer of United 
 
 Kingdom, b. 1793, d. 1874. 
 Colpoys, Sir John, English admiral, gov. of Greenwich hospital, d. 1821. 
 Colquhuon, Lady (Janet Sinclair), Scotch religious writer, philanthropist, 
 
 b. 1781, d. 1846. 
 
 Colquhoun, John Campbell, Scotch protestant writer, biographer, 
 b. 1803, d. 1870. 
 
 Colquhoun, Sir Patrick MacC. de, Eng. judge in Ionian Islands, b. 1815. 
 
 Coltman, Sir Thomas, Eng. just, of com. pleas 1837 ; 6.1781, d. 1819. 
 
 Colton, Caleb C, English poet, laconic writer, d. 1832. 
 
 Colton, Calvin, American episcopal minister, biographer, journalist, 
 economist, b. 1789, d. 1857. 
 
 Colton, Walter, Amor, navy chaplain, traveller, b. 1797, d. 1851. 
 
 Columbus, Bartholomew, Genoese geographer, younger brother of Chris- 
 topher; founded the town of St. Domingo; b. about 1436, d. 1514. 
 
 Colvile, Sir James William, Scotch judge in British India, b. 1S10. 
 
 Colwell, Stephen, American lawyer, iron merchant, economist, b. 1800. 
 
 Combalot, Theodore, French abbe, preacher, theolog. writer, b. 1798. 
 
 Combe, Bryce, Eng. barrister, Lond. police magistr., b. 1789, d. 1804. 
 
 Combe, Charles, English physician, antiquary, b. 1742, d. 1817. 
 
 Combe, Taylor, Scotch antiquary, numismatist, at the British Museum, 
 b. 1774, d. 1826. 
 
 Combe, Thomas. M.A., English printer to university of Oxford, phil- 
 anthropist, b. 1796, d. 1872. 
 
 Comber, Thomas, English ecclesiastic, theologian, b. 1645, d. 1699. 
 
 Combes, Charles Pierre Mathieu, French engineer, writer on mines, 
 heat, and steam, b. 1801. 
 
 Combrouse, Guillaume, Fr. archasologist, numismat., b. 1808, d. 1873. 
 
 Comi, Siro, Italian archaeologist, b. 1741, d. 1821. 
 
 Conunandino, Federigo, Italian mathematician, b. 1509, d. 1575. 
 
 Commerson, Philibert, Fr. physician, botanist, biog., b. 1721, d. 1773. 
 
 Commire, Jean, Fr. jesuit, latin poet, writer of fables, d. 1702. 
 
 Comonfort, Ignacio, Mexican statesman, president 1855-8 ; b. 1812, 
 murdered by banditti 1863. 
 
 Compagnoni, Giuseppe, Italian historian, b. 1754, d. 1833. 
 
 Compagnoni, Pietro, Italian painter, b. i802, d. 1833. 
 
 Comparetti, Andrea, Italian physician, anatomist, b. 1746, d. 1801. 
 
 Compe, Jan Ten, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1713, d. 1761. 
 
 Compston, S., English congregational minister, philanthropist, temp- 
 erance reformer, b. 1816, d. 1870. 
 
 Compte, Louis le, Fr. Jesuit missionary to China, mathemat., d. 1729. 
 
 Compton, Henry, Eng. theologian, bishop of London, b. 1632, d. 1713. 
 
 Compton, Henry, English actor, b. 1818. 
 
 Compton, Thomas, Eng. quaker, philan., temperance reform., d. 1850. 
 
 Comstock. Mrs. Elizabeth A., Amer. poetess, essayist, b. 1817, d. 1860. 
 
 Comte, Francois Charles Louis, French publicist, b. 1782, d. 1837. 
 
 Comtois, Armand, French banker, member of the French reformed 
 church, founder of Religious Tract Society, Toulouse, d. 1865. 
 
 Comyns, Sir John, Engl, jurist, chief baron of excheq., b. 1667,6.1740. 
 
 Conant, Mrs. Hannah Chaplin, American biographer, translator from 
 German, b. 1802, d. 1865. 
 
 Conant, Sir Nathaniel, English barrister, metropolitan police magis- 
 trate, b. 1746, d. 1822. 
 
 Conant, Thomas J., Amcricau'orientalist, biblical critic, b. 1802. 
 
 Concha, Josd de la, marquis of Habana, South American general 
 and statesman, in Spain; captain-general of Cuba 1849-52; pre- 
 sident of Spanish senate 1864 ; b. 1800 ; killed in action 1874. 
 
 Concha, Manuel dc la, marq. of Duero, Span, geuer., statesm., b. 1794. 
 
 Conconi, Maur, Milanese historical painter, b. 1815. 
 
 Condamine, Charles M. de la, Fr. mathemat., gcogr., b. 1701, d. 1774. 
 
 Conder, John, D. D., Eng. nonconformist theolog., b. 1714, d. 1781. 
 
 Condie, D. Francis, American physician, medical writer, 6. 1796. 
 
 Coney, John, Eng. architectural designer, topographer, b. 17S6, d. 1833. 
 
 Congleton, Henry Parnell, first baron, English peer of United Kingdom, 
 political reformer, d. 1842. 
 
 Congreve, Richard, English metaphysician, expounder of Comte's 
 Positivism, 6. 1818. 
 
 Coningham, William, Irish officer, economist, educationist, b. 1815. 
 
 Coningsby, William, English judge of king's bench, d. 1540. 
 
 Conington, Francis Thirkill, English chemical writer, b. 1828, d. 1863. 
 
 Connaught, Arthur William Patrick Albert, duke of, English prince, 
 military officer, b. 1853. 
 
 Connell, Arthur, Scotch advocate, mineral analyst, d. 1863. 
 
 Connolly, Thomas, Irish legislator, d. 1803. 
 
 Connor, Bernard, Irish physician, at Warsaw, historian, d. 1698. 
 
 Conolly, Col., Eng. gcograph. explorer, d. captive at Bokhara 1843. 
 
 Conquest, John T., English physician, medical writer, biblical editor, 
 b. 1789, d. 1866. 
 
 Conrad, E. E., German painter, d. 1873. 
 
 Conrad, Robert T., Amer. judge, orator, dramatist, 6. 1808, d. 1858. 
 Conring, Elisa Sophia, German poetess, d. 1718. 
 
 Coming, Hermann, German historian, medical writer, philologist, 
 
 b. 1606, d. 1681. 
 Consalvi, Ercole, Italian cardinal, statesman, b. 1757, d. 1824. 
 Consoni, Taddeo de', Italian writer on magnetism, b. about 1801. 
 Constable, Archibald, Scotch publisher, editor, b. 1775, d. 1827. 
 Constant, Pierre, French poet and jurist, b. 1560, d. 1595. 
 
 CORDOVA. C2 
 
 Constant de Rebecque, David, Swiss theologian, b. 1638, d. 1733. 
 Constant de Rebecque, Samuel, Swiss writer of letters, proverbs, 
 
 comedies, and children's stories, /;. 1729, d. 1800. 
 Constantine, Nikolaivich, Grand duke, Russian admiral, b. 1827. 
 Conte, Jacopo del, Florentine historical and portrait painter, b. 1510, 
 
 d. Pome 1558. 
 
 Conte, Nicolas Jaques, French painter ; ingenious mechanician, b. 1755, 
 d. 1803. 
 
 Contilli, Giovanni, Italian philologist, /». 1754, d. 1834. 
 
 Converse, Charles Crozat, {Karl Ucdcn, E. C. Bevoris, and C. O. Ni vert) 
 
 American barrister, musical composer, ballad writer, b. 1831. 
 Conway, Henry Seymour, British general, statesman, b. 1720, d. M'.i'i. 
 Conybeare, John, English theologian, bishop of Bristol, writer on 
 
 christian evidences,?). 1692, d. 1755. 
 Conybeare, John Josias, English clergyman, philologist, chemi 
 
 mineralogist, b. 1779, d. 1824. 
 Conynghame, George Lenox, English administrator, 50 years in office of 
 
 secretary of state for foreign affairs, b. 1798, d. 1867. 
 Cook, Eliza, English poetess, magazine writer, b. 1818. 
 Cook, George, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, historian, leader of 
 
 the Moderate party, b. 1773, d. 1845. 
 Cook, Henry, English painter, pupil of Salvator Rosa, d. 1700. 
 Cook, John, D.D., Scotch presbyt. min., theolog., histor., b. 1808, d. 186D. 
 Cook, John Douglas, English journalist, editor, d. 1868. 
 Cook, John Esten, American essayist, novelist, journalist, confederate 
 
 ' officer, b. 1830. 
 Cooke, Jay, American banker, economist, b. 1821. 
 Cooke, Elisha, American physician, author, b. 1637, d. 1715. 
 Cooke, Elisha, American judge, statesman, d. 1737. 
 Cooke, George, English engraver, b. 1781, d. 1834. 
 Cooke, George Frederick, English actor, b. 1756, d. 1812. 
 Cooke, George Wingrove, English barrister, journalist, biographer, 
 
 b. 1814, d. 1865.' 
 
 Cooke, Henry, D.D., Irish presbyterian minister, theologian, contro- 
 versialist, b. 1784, d. 1868. 
 Cooke, J. H., American general, temperance reformer, b. 1780. 
 Cooke, Thomas, English poet, b. 1702, d. 1756. 
 
 Cooke, Thos., Irish vocalist, musical conductor, Lond., b. 1781, d. 1848. 
 
 Cooke, T. P., English actor, b. 1786, d. 1864. 
 
 Cooke, William, Irish poet, biographer, b. 1752, d. 1824. 
 
 Cooke, W. B., English engraver, b. 1778, d. 1855. 
 
 Cookesley, William Gifford, English clergyman, classicist, b. 1802. 
 
 Cooley, Dr. Abdiel A., Amer. mechanician, inventor, b. 1782, d. 1858. 
 
 Cooley, Thomas, Irish architect, b. 1740, d. 1784. 
 
 Coombe, Thomas, D.D., American clergyman in Church of England, 
 
 preacher, poet, b. 1747, d. 1S22. 
 Coombe, William, English novelist, satirical writer, b. 1740, d. 1823. 
 Cooper, Bransby Blake, Eng. surgeon, medical writer, b. 1792, d. 1853. 
 Cooper, Charles Henry, English legal antiquary, b. 1808, d. 1866. 
 Cooper, Edw., English clergyman, theolog., writer on prophecy, d. 1833. 
 Cooper, John Gilbert, English poet, biogr., philolog., b. 1723, d. 1769. 
 Cooper, Mrs. (Miss Bransey), English novelist, d. 1S07. 
 Cooper, Myles, D.D., American president of King's college, New York, 
 
 b. 1735, d. Scotland 1785. 
 Cooper, Peter, American merchant, educationist, 6. 1781. 
 Cooper, Samuel, American theologian, critic, b. 1725, d. 1823. 
 Cooper, Susan Fenimore, American naturalist, novelist, b. 1815. 
 Cooper, Thomas, Eng. theolog., bish. of Winchester, archa;olog. d. 1594. 
 Cooper, Thomas, LL. D., American physician, jurist, economist, b. 
 
 London 1759, d. 1839. 
 Cooper, Thomas, English poet, baptist preacher, lecturer against secu- 
 larism, b. 1805. 
 Cooper, Thomas Apthorpe, American actor, b. 1776, d. 1849. 
 Coopmans, George, Dutch physician, b. 1717, d. 1800. 
 Coote, Holmes, English surgeon, b. 1818, d. 1872. 
 Copland, James, physician in London, medical writer, b. Orkney 1793. 
 Coppee, Henry, American military instructor, philologist, writer on 
 
 logic, biographer, b. 1821. 
 Coppenole, Francois Bernard van, Belgian surgeon, b. 1777, d. 1824. 
 Copping, Edward, English journalist, novelist, editor, b. 1828. 
 Copway, George, (Kahgegwagebow), Indian Ojibway chief, American 
 
 journalist, lecturer, translator of the Acts of the Apostles into 
 
 Ojibway language, b. 1820. 
 Coq, Paul, French economist, writer on finance and bankruptcy, b. 1810. 
 Coquebert de Montbret, Charles Etienne, baron, French archajologist, 
 
 b. 1755, tf.1831. 
 
 Coquelin, Charles, French political economist, b. 1S03, d. 1852. 
 Coquereau, Felix, French abbe, preacher, b. 1808, d. 1866. 
 Corbauz, Fanny, English water-colour painter, biblical critic, b. 1812. 
 Corbet, Reginald, English judge of queen's bench 1559 ; d. 1566. 
 Corbould, Edward Henry, English historical painter, b. 1815. 
 Corbould, Henry, English artist, b. 1787, d. 1844. 
 Cordara, Giulio Ccsare, Italian jesuit, historical and satirical writer, 
 6. 1701, d. 1784. 
 
 Cordell, Sir William, Eng. master of the rolls 1557, publicist, d. 15S1. 
 Cordier, Maturin, French classicist, author of 'Colloquies,' d. 1546. 
 Cordiner, Charles, Scotch antiquary, topographer, artist, b. 1746, d. 1794. 
 Cordova, Fernand Fernandez de, Spanish general, statesman, b. 1792, 
 
03 
 
 Cordova, Filippo, Ital. barrister, orator, statesman, b. ab. 1802, d. 18G8. 
 Cordus, Eurieius, German physician, poet, b. ab. 1475, d. 1538. 
 Cormeaux, Francois George, Fr. missionary, b. 1746, guillotined, 1794. 
 Cornaro, Flaminio, Venetian statesman, historian, b. 1093, d. 1778. 
 Cornaro-Piscopia, Elena Lucrezia, Italian poetess, 5. 1646, d. 1685. 
 Cornbury, Edward Hyde, lord, English governor of New York, rf. 1723. 
 Corneille, Michel, Fr. historical painter, engraver, b. 1642, d. 1708. 
 Cornelissen, Egide Norbert, Belgian author, b. 1769, d. 1849. 
 Cornelius, bishop of Rome 251, didactic writer, d. 252, 
 Cornelius, Elias, American physician, patriot, b. 1758, d. 1823. 
 Cornelius, Elias, D.D., American educationist, editor, b. 17'.». r >, 1832. 
 Cornell, William Mason, American physician, preacher, religious and 
 
 medical writer, b. 1802. 
 Corner, Julia, English historian, novelist, b. 1815. 
 Corney, Bolton, English antiquary, critic, essayist, b. 1784, d. 1870. 
 Cornhill, William, do, English justiciar, bishop of Lichfield and 
 
 Coventry 1215 ; d. 1223. 
 Corniani, Giovanni Battista, Italian dramatist, writer on literary 
 
 history and on agriculture, b. 1742, d. 1813. 
 Cornic-Duchene, Charles, French naval commander, b. 1731, d. 1809. 
 Comings, Benjamin N., American physiologist, b. 1817. 
 Cornplanter (Garyan-wah-gah), Seneca chief (half-breed) : an eloquent 
 
 temperance lecturer; b. about 1730, d. 1836. 
 Cornwallis, James, earl, Eng. peer, bishop of Lichfield, b. 1744, d. 1824. 
 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, Span, explorer in N. Mexico, d. 1542. 
 Coronelli, Vincenzo, Venetian geogr., mathemat., bibliog., d. 1718. 
 Coroneos, Pavos, Greek colonel, revolutionary leader, b. 1811. 
 Coronini-Cronberg, Johann Baptiste Alexius, Austrian general, b. 1794. 
 Corradini de Sezza, Pietro Marcellino, Italian cardinal, literary 
 
 antiquary, b. 1660, d. 1743. 
 Corranus, or Bel Carro, Antonio, Spanish protestant theologian, in 
 
 England, grammarian, b. 1529, 1591. 
 Correa, Manoel, Portug. jesuit, missionary to Brazil, b, 1712, d. 1789. 
 Correa da Serra, Jose Francia, Portug. ecclesiastic, botanist, diplomat, 
 
 founder of Academy of Sciences at Lisbon, b. 1750, d. 1823. 
 Corri, Domenico, Italian musical composer, song-writer, in London, 
 
 b. 1737, d. 1825. 
 
 Corrigan, Sir Dominic John, bart., Irish physician, philanthropist, 
 
 medical lecturer, b. 1802. 
 Corry, Henry T. Lowry, Irish statesman, educationist, in England, 
 
 b. 1803, d, 1873. 
 
 Corsini, Andrea, prince, Italian political reformer, b. 1804, d. 1868. 
 Corsini, Eduardo, Ital. monk, mathematician, antiquary, b. 1702, 
 d. 1765. 
 
 Corsini, Tommaso, Italian political reformer, b. 1767, d. 1850. 
 Corte, Gottlieb, German jurist, classical editor, b. 1698, d. 1731. 
 Cortereal, Gaspard, Portuguese navigator, d. 1501. 
 Cortesi, Giuseppe, Italian geologist, b. 1760, d. 1838. 
 Cortez, Gregorio, Italian cardinal, theologian, author of familiar 
 epistles, d. 1548. 
 
 Cortezi, Paolo, Italian philosophical writer, bishop of Urbino, 
 
 b. 1465, d. 1510. 
 Corti, Constantino, Italian sculptor, d. 1873. 
 Corticelli, Salvatore, Italian philologist, d. about 1770. 
 Corvetto, Luigi Emmanuele, Ital. economist, in France, b. 1750, d. 1822. 
 Corvinus, Matthias, king of Hungary 1458, collected a library of 
 
 00,000 volumes, promoted arts, b. 1442, d. 1490. 
 Corvisart-Demarets, Jean Nicolas, French court physician, writer on 
 
 heart disease, b. 1755, d. 1821. 
 Corvo de Camoens, Joao dc Andrade, Portug. naturalist, dramat., b. 1824. 
 Coryat, George, English theologian, latin poet, d. 1G00. 
 Cosimo, Pietro da, Florentine historical painter, grotesque style, 
 
 6. 1441, d. 1521. 
 
 Cosme, Jean de Saint Basseillac, French friar, surgeon, lithotomist, 
 
 b. 1703, d. 1786. 
 Cosse, Charles de, French marshal, diplomatist, b. 1506, d. 1563. 
 Cosson, Daniel, Dutch archaeologist, b. 1648, d. 1688. 
 Costa-Cabral, Antonio Bernardo da, comte de Thomar, Portuguese 
 
 statesman, diplomatist, b. 1803. 
 Costa Furtado de Mendoza, Hip. J. da, Portuguese diplomatist in 
 
 English service, d. 1824. 
 Costanzo, Angelo di, lord of Cantalupo, Neapolitan poet, historian, 
 
 b. 1507, d. 1590. 
 
 Coste, Jean Francois, French military physician, medical writer, 
 
 b. 1741, d. 1819. 
 Coste, Pierre, French protestant translator, biographer, d. 1747. 
 Costello, Dudley, English novelist, essayist, b. 1803, d. 1865. 
 Costello, Louisa Stuart, Eng. tray., biogra., novelist, poetess, d. 1870. 
 Costello, W. B., Eng. writer on medicine and surgery, b. 1800, 
 
 d. 1867. 
 
 Cosway, Richard, English miniature painter, b. 1740, d. 1821. 
 Cotelier, Jean Baptiste, French theologian, critic, archaeologist, b. 1627, 
 d. 1686. 
 
 Cotesmore, John, English judge of common pleas 1429 ; d. 1439. 
 Cotin, Charles, French poet, member of the Academy, b. 1604, d. 1682. ] 
 Cotta, Georg von Cottendorf, German publisher, b. 1796, d. 1803. 
 Cotta, Johann Friedrich, German publisher, economist, b. 1764, d. 1S32. 
 Cotte, Robert de, French architect, b. 1057, d. 1735. 
 
 Cottenham, Charles Christopher Pepys, 1st earl of, English judge, 
 master of the rolls 1834, lord chancellor 1836-1841, 1846-50, b. 
 1781, d. 1851. 
 
 Cotterell, Sir Charles, English linguist, jurist, d. 1687. 
 
 Cotterill, Henry, D.D., English theologian, bishop of Graham's Town, 
 Africa, b. 1812. 
 
 Cotting, John P., Amer. congreg. min., naturalist, b. 1784, d. 1874. 
 Cottingham, Lewis Nockells, English architect, b. 1787, d. 1847. 
 Cottle, Amos Simon, English antiquary, translator of Icelandic 
 
 poems, d. 1800. 
 Cottle, John Morford, English surgeon, b. 1803, d. 1873. 
 Cotton, Sir Arthur, English engineer, promoter of irrigation and cotton 
 
 cultivation in India, b. 1803. 
 Cotton, Sir Charles, English admiral, d. 1812. 
 
 Cotton, George Edward Lynch, D.D., English theologian, educationist, 
 
 bishop of Calcutta, b. 1813, d. 1866. 
 Cotton, Henry, Irish ecclesiastic, biblical critic, antiquary, b. 1790. 
 Cotton, John, English puritan clergyman, emigrated to Boston, United 
 
 States, patriarch of New England, b. 1585, d. 1652. 
 Cotton, John, American minister, revised and corrected Eliot's Bible 
 
 for the Indians, b. 1640, d. 1699. 
 Cotton, Josiah, American judge, preacher to Indians, b. 1680, d. 1750. 
 Cotton, Nathaniel, English poet, physician, b. 1707, d. 1788. 
 Cotton, Peter, French jesuit, theological writer, b. 1564, d. 1626. 
 Cotton, Sir Sydney, English commander in India, b. 1792. 
 Cotton, William, English merchant, bank director, philanthropist, 
 
 6. 1786, d. 1867. 
 
 Cotugno, Domenico, Neapolitan anatomist, physician, b. 1736, d. 1822. 
 
 Couchaud, Andre, French architect, b. 1813, d. 1849. 
 
 Coulton, David Trevena, English journalist, novelist, b. 1811, d. 1857. 
 
 Coulvier-Gravier, French meteorologist, astronomer, b. 1803, d. 18G8. 
 
 Couper, William, Scotch naturalist, b. 1791, d. 1857. 
 
 Coupin, Marie Philippe, French historical painter, b. 1759, d, 1851. 
 
 Couplet, Philip, Flemish jesuit, missionary to China, essayist, d. 1093. 
 
 Courayer, Pierre Francois, D.D., French rom. catholic theologian, 
 in England, writer in defence of Eng. episcopal orders, b. 1681, d. 1770. 
 
 Cournot, Ant. Augustin, Fr. mathemat., philosophical writer, b. 1801. 
 
 Courtanvaux, Francois Caesar le Tellier, marquis, French general, 
 astronomer, d. 1781. 
 
 Courten, Sir William, English silk and linen manufacturer, b. Nether- 
 lands 1572, d. 1030. 
 
 Courten, William, English naturalist, and collector, b. 1642, d. 1702. 
 
 Courtenay, A., English surgeon, temperance reformer, d. 1855. 
 
 Courtenay, Edward H., Amer. mathemat., engineer, b. 1803, d. 1853. 
 
 Courtenay, John, Irish traveller, p°et, philosophical writer, b. about 
 1741, d. 1816. 
 
 Courtenay, Reginald, Eng. prelate, bishopof Kingston, Jamaica, b. 1813. 
 Courteneye, William de, English chancellor, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 
 b. about 1327, d. 1396. 
 Courthope, William, Eng. barrister, Somerset herald, b. 1808, d. 1866. 
 Courtiliz, Gam en de, French military officer, historian, biographer, 
 
 b. 1644, d. 1712. 
 
 Courtivron, Gaspard lc Compasseur de Crequi, marquis de, French 
 
 writer on optics, and on casting, b. 1715, d. 1785. 
 Courtnay, Henry Reginald, D.C.L., English bishop of Exeter, d. 1803. 
 Courtois, Jacques, 11 Borgononc, French painter of battle scenes, d. 1676. 
 Courtois, Richard, Belgian botanist, b. 1806, d. 1835. 
 Courvoisier, Jean J. Antoinc, French orator, essayist, statesman, 
 
 b. 1770, d. 1835. 
 
 Cousin, Gilbert, French grammarian, critic, essayist, b. 1506, d. 1567. 
 Cousin, Jacques Antoine Joseph, French mathematician, astronomer, 
 6. 1739, d. 1808. 
 
 Cousin, Louis, French historian, philologist, translator, b. 1627, d. 1707. 
 
 Couthon, George, French advocate, revolutionary partisan, d. 1794. 
 
 Coutts, Thomas, Scotch banker, in London, b. 1735, d. 1822. 
 
 Couza, Alexandre Jean, prince of Moldavia, b. 1820. 
 
 Covell, John, Eng. theolog., writer on the Greek church,&. 1638, d.1722. 
 
 Coventry, Andw., Scotch physician, agricult. writer, professor, d. 1830. 
 
 Coventry, Francis, English poet, agriculturist, d. 1759. 
 
 Coventry, Henry, Eng. essayist, author of 'Letters of Philemon,' d. 1752. 
 
 Coventry, John, English ingenious mechanician, d. 1812. 
 
 Coventry, Thomas, lord, Eng. keeper of great seal 1625 ; b. 1578,e?.1640. 
 
 Coventry, Sir Thomas, English judge of common pleas, d. 1006. 
 
 Coventry, Sir William, English political writer, b. 1626, d. 1686. 
 
 Coward, William, English physician, poet, writer in defence of 
 
 materialism, b. 1656, d. 1725. 
 Cowell, John, Eng. antiq., writer on laws of England, b. 1554, d. 1611. 
 Cowell, Joseph, English comedian, writer on theatrical experiences in 
 
 England and America, b. 1792, d, 1863. 
 Cowell-Stepney, Sir John Stepney, Welsh military commander, 
 
 legislator, b. 1791. 
 Cowen, Sir Joseph, Eng. alderman, economist, M.P., b. 1800, d. 1873. 
 Cowie, Benjam. Morgan, Eng. clergym., mathemat., educationist, ft. 1816. 
 Cowley, Henry Richard Charles Wellesley, carl, Eng. diplomatist,6.1804. 
 Cowley, Henry Wellesley, lord, English diplomatist, b. 1773, d. 1847. 
 Cowper, Douglas, English painter, b. 1817, d. 1839. 
 Cowper, Francis Thomas de Grey Cowper, 7th earl, British peer, 
 
 administrator, b. 1834. 
 
65 
 
 COWPER, 
 
 CROMPTON. 
 
 60 
 
 Cowper, John Curtis, English actor, in England and Amcr., b. 1830. 
 Cowper, Spencer, Eng. justice of common pleas 1727 ; b. 1669, d. 1728. 
 Cowper, Spencer, D.D., English clergym., theologian, 6. 1713, d, 1774. 
 Cowper, William, Scotch bishop of Galloway, biblical expositor, 
 b. 1566, d. 1619. 
 
 Cowper, William, English surgeon, writer on anatomy, b. 1 666, c/. 1709. 
 Cowper, William, earl, English 'lord keeperl705, 1st lord high chancellor 
 
 of Great Britain 1707-1718 ; b. about 1664, d. 1723. 
 Cowper, William, English physician, topographer, d. 1767. 
 Cowper-Temple, William Francis, Eng. statesman, educationist, b. 1811. 
 Cox, Edward William, Eng. barrister, journalist, writer on law, b. 1809. 
 Cox, Frederick Augustus, U.D., English baptist theologian, historian, 
 
 traveller, b. 1783, d. 1853. 
 Cox, George William, English clergyman, poet, critic, writer on 
 
 mythology, b. 1827. 
 Cox, Jacob IX, American statesman, b. Canada, 1812. 
 Cox, James, Eng. preacher, in West Indies, temperance reformer, d. 1859. 
 Cox, John, English copper plate printer, antiquary, b. 1771, d. 1825. 
 Cox, John Edmund, Eng. clergym., protest, writer, biographer, b. 1812. 
 Cox, Lemuel, Amer. royalist, engineer, bridge-builder, b. 1730, d. 1806. 
 Cox, Packard, English protestant, biblical translator, bishop of Ely, 
 
 b. 1499, d. 1581. 
 
 Cox, Sir Richard, Irish judge, lord chancellor of Ireland, historical and 
 philosophical writer, b. 1650, d. 1733. 
 
 Cox, Samuel Hanson, D.D., American presbyterian minister, temper- 
 ance and anti-slavery advocate, b. 1793. 
 
 Cox, William Hayward, English clergyman, critic, educationist, b. 1803. 
 
 Cox, William Sands, English surgeon, writer on anatomy and surgery, 
 fonnderof Queen's college and Queen's hospital, Birmingham, I. 1802. 
 
 Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, D.D., American writer of sacred dramas and 
 poems, b. 1818. 
 
 Coxe, Henry Octavius, Eng. clergym., antiquary, bibliographer, b. 1811. 
 Coxe, John Redman, American physician, medical writer, introduced 
 
 vaccination in Philadelphia, b. 1773, d. 1864. 
 Coxe, R. C. English ecclesiastic, theologian, b. 1799, d. 1865. 
 Coxeter, Thomas, English literary collector, editor, b. 1689, d. 1747. 
 Coyer, Gabriel Francois, abbe, Fr. writer of travels, biogr., J. 1707//. 1782. 
 Coyne, Joseph Sterling, Irish dramat., critic.in London, b. 1805, d. 1868. 
 Cozens, Alex., Eng. landsc. painter, writer on art, b. Russia, d. 1786. 
 Cozzens, Frederick Swartwout, American humorous writer, biographer, 
 
 b. 1818, d. 1869. 
 Craan, Guillaume Benjamin, Belgian engineer, b. 1776, d. 1848. 
 Crabeth, Walter, Dutch painter on glass, b. 1570, d. 1624. 
 Cracherode, Clayton Mordaunt, English antiquary, collector of books 
 
 and prints, latin poet, b. 1729, d. 1799. 
 Cradock, Samuel, Eng. nonconform., biblical expositor, b. 1620, d. 1706. 
 Cradock, Zacharv, D.D., English clergyman, theologian, provost of 
 
 Eton, 1672 ; b. 1633, d. 1695. 
 Crafts, William, Amer. barrister, poet, essayist, orator, b. 1787, d, 1826. 
 Craig, James, Scotch theologian, religious poet, b. 1682, d. 1744. 
 Craig, Sir James Gibson, bart., Scotch publicist, political reformer, 
 
 b. 1765, d. 1850. 
 
 Craig, Nikolas, Danish philolog., histor., diplom., b. ab. 1549, d. 1602. 
 Craig, William, Scotch theologian, classicist, b. 1709, d. 1783. 
 Craig, William, Scotch judge of session (as lord Craig), b. 1745, d. 1813. 
 Craig, Sir William Gibson, bart., Scotch advocate, administ., b. 1797. 
 Craigie, David, Scotch physician, surgeon, medical writer, editor, 
 6. 1793, d. 1866. 
 
 Craik, James, D.D., Scotch presbyt. minister, preacher, &.1802, d. 1870. 
 
 Crakanthorpe, Richard, Eng. clergyman, theologian, b. 1567, d. 1624. 
 
 Cramer, Jean Isaac, Swiss physician, anatomist, medical writer, 
 6. 1641, d. 1724. 
 
 Cramer, Johann Andreas, German mineralogist, b. 1710, d. 1777. 
 
 Cramer, Johann Adreas, German poet, b. 1723, d. 1788. 
 
 Cramer, Johann Jacobus, Gorman theologian, orientalist, d. 1702. 
 
 Cramer, Johann Rodolf, German protestant theologian, hebraist, 
 6. 1678, d. 1737. 
 
 Crampton, Sir John F. T., bart., Irish diplomatist, b. 1807. 
 
 Crampton, P. C, Irish judge of queen's bench, b. 1782, d. 1862. 
 
 Cranch, Christopher Pearse, American preacher, satirical poet, land- 
 scape paiutcr, b. 1813. 
 
 Cranch, Richard, Amer. judgo, writer on prophecy, b. Eng.1726, d. 1811. 
 
 Cranch, William, LL.D., American judge, biographer, temperance 
 writer, b. 1769, d. 1854. 
 
 Crane, T. English clergyman, antiquary, numismatist, d. 1820. 
 
 Cranworth, Robert Monsey Rolfe, baron, English baron of excheq. 1839, 
 vice-chanc. 1850, chancellor 1852-8, 1866-7 ; b. 1790, d. 1868. 
 
 Cranz, David, Moravian missionary to Greenland, historian, d. 1777. 
 
 Craton, or Crafftheim, Johann, German physician, medical writer, 
 b. 1519, d. 1585. 
 
 Craufurd, Edward Henry John, Scotch barrister, reformer, b. 1816. 
 Craven, William, D.D., English theologian, orientalist, b. 1731, d. 1815. 
 Crawford, Adair, Eng. physician, chemist, naturalist, b. 1749, d. 1795. 
 Crawford, David, Scotch lawyer, historian, dramatist, antiquary, 
 b. 1665, d. 1726. 
 
 Crawford, Richard Borough, English naval officer engaged in African 
 
 .squadron against slavers, b. 1803, d. 1865. 
 Crawford, Robert Wigrair, English banker, economist, b. 1813. 
 
 Crawford, Thomas, D.D., Scotch prcsb., theologian, professor, 1812. 
 Crawford, Thomas, American sculptor, b. 1814, d. England 1857. 
 Crawford, William, English painter, h. 1825, d. L868. 
 Crawford, William Harris, American statesman, judge, diplomatist, 
 b. 1772, d. 1834. 
 
 Crawford, Win. Sharman, Irish M. P., advocate of tenant-l ight, d. tEOl. 
 Crawford and Balcarres, Alex. Win. Crawford Lindsay, earl of, pi 
 
 earl of Scotland, baron Wigan of the United Kingdom, b. 1812. 
 Crawford and Lindsay, John Lindsay, earl of, Scotch representative 
 
 peer, military commander, b. 1702, d. 1749. 
 Crawley, Sir Francis, English justice of common pleas 1632, deprived 
 
 1645, d. 1649. 
 
 Crawley, Francis, English cursitor baron of exchequer 1670, d. 1683. 
 Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd, English historian, chief justice of Cey- 
 lon, b. 1812. 
 
 Creech, William, Scotch bookseller, author, b. 1745, d x 1815. 
 
 Creighton, Robert, D.D., Scotch bishop of Bath and Weils, philolo- 
 gist, preacher, b. 1593, d. 1672. 
 
 Creighton, Robert, English theologian, musical composer, royalist, 
 6. 1639, d. 1736. 
 
 Crell, Johann Friedrich, German physician, b. 1707, d. 1744. 
 
 Crell, Lorenz Florenz Fried, von, German naturalist, b. 1745, d. 1816. 
 
 Crell, Ludwig Christian, Gorman protestant theologian, philosophical 
 writer, b. 1671, d. 1735. 
 
 Crelle, Christoph G., Prussian architect, d. 1835. 
 
 Cremieux, Gaston, French dramatist, d. 1872. 
 
 Cremieux, Isaac Adolphe, Fr. barrister, republican statesman, b. 1796. 
 Cremonini, Cresar, Italian critic, commentator on Aristotle's philosophy, 
 b. 1550, d. 1630. 
 
 CreniuSj Thomas, Dutch corrector of the press, editor, philologist, 
 b. 1648, d. 1728. 
 
 Crescenzio, Juan Bautista, Spanish painter of fruit and flowers, b. 
 
 1595, d. 1660. 
 Cresheld, Richard, English judge 1648, d. 1652. 
 Crespi, Luigi, Italian artist, writer on art, d. 1779. 
 Crespigny, Sir Win, Champion de, bart., Eng. antiq., b. 1764, d. 1829. 
 Crespin, Jeau, Fr. printer, philologist, martyrologist, d, 1572. 
 Cressey, Hugues, French roman catholic theologian, controversialist, 
 
 b. 1605, d. 1674. 
 
 Cressingham, Hugh de, Eng. state treasurer, fell at Stirling 1297. 
 
 Cresson, Elliott, American merchant, promoter and president of Pennsyl- 
 vania African Colonisation Society, b. 1796, d. 1854. 
 
 Cresswell, Sir Cress well, English judge of court for probate and matri- 
 monial causes, b. 1794, d. 1863. 
 
 Creti, Donato, Italian historical painter, b. 1671, d. 1747. 
 
 Creutz, Gust. Philip, count of, Swed. statesm., poet, b. 1726, d. 1785. 
 
 Creuze de Lesser, baron, French poet, romancist, d. 1839. 
 
 Crevecoeur, Hector St. John, French agriculturist, traveller, philanthro- 
 pist, b. 1731, d. 1813. 
 
 Crewe, Nathl., lord, English bishop of Durham, b. 1633, d. 1721. 
 
 Crewe, Sir Ranulphe, English speaker of house of commons 1614 ; 
 chief justice king's bench 1625-6 ; b. about 1558, d. 1646. 
 
 Crichton, Sir Alexander, Eng physician, in Russia, b. 1763, d. 1856. 
 
 Crichton, H, D. D., Scotch presbyt. theolog., b. 1799, d. L'pool, 1871. 
 
 Crillon, Louis de Balbes de Berton de, French general, knight of Malta, 
 b. 1541, d. 1615. 
 
 Crillon-Mahon, Louis de Berton, due de, French officer, military writer, 
 b. 1718, d. 1796. 
 
 Crinesius, Christoph, Bohemian protestant theologian, orientalist, 
 
 b. 1584, d. 1629. 
 Crinitus, Pietro, Italian biographer, latin poet, b. 1465, d. 1504. 
 Criol, Nicholas de, English baron of exchequer, d. 1272. 
 Crispin, Gilbert, English ecclesiastic, abbot of Westminster, writer 
 
 against Judaism, d. 1117. 
 Crispo, Antonio, Sicilian religious teacher, physician, medical writer, 
 
 b. 1600, d. 1688. 
 
 Crispo, Giovanni Battista, Neapolitan preacher, poet, biographer, 
 </. about 1595. 
 
 Cristall, Joshua, English water colour painter, b. 176S, d. 1S47. 
 Croes, John, D.D., American protestant bishop of N. Jersey, b. 
 1762, d. 1832. 
 
 Croes, Gerard, Dutch protestant theologian, author of 'History of 
 
 the Quakers,' b. 1642, d. 1710. 
 Croft, George, D.D., Eng. orientalist, theolog., polit. writer, d. 1S09. 
 Croft, Herbert, English bishop of Hereford, theolog., b. 1603, d. 1691. 
 Croft, Sir Herbert, bt., Eng. clergyman, poet, biogr., b. 1751, d. 1816. 
 Crofton, Edward Hen. Churchill Crofton, third lord, Ir. peer, b. 1S34. 
 Crofton, Sir Walter Fred., English director of prisons, Ireland, b. 1815. 
 Croius, Jean, French protestant, theologian, critic, orientalist, d. 1659. 
 Croke, Sir George, English judge common pleas 1625, king's bench 
 
 1628 ; b. 1559, d. 1641-2. 
 Croke, Sir John, English speaker of house of commons 1601, judge 
 
 king's bench 1607 ; b. 1553, d. 1620. 
 Crokesley, Richard de, abbot of Westminster, English baron of 
 
 exchequer, diplomatist, d. 1258. 
 Crome, J. B., English landscape painter, b. 1793, d, 1S42. 
 Crompton, Sir Chas., Eng. justice queen's bench 1S52 ; b. 1797, d. 1865. 
 Crompton, Joseph, Eng. philanthr., temperance reform., b. 1S06, d. 1870. 
 
 F 
 
67 CROMWELL. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, English solicitor, descendant and biographer of the 
 
 Protector, b. 1742, d. 1821. 
 Cronholm, Abraham, Swedish historian, b. 1809. 
 
 Cronyn, Benjamin, Eng. theologian, bishop of Huron, ft. 1790, </. 1871. 
 Cropsey, Jasper Francis, Amer. landscape painter and designer, b. 1823. 
 Crosby, Alpheus, American philologist, mathematician, b. 1810. 
 Crosland, Mrs. Newton (Camilla Toulmiu), English poetess, novelist, 
 
 spiritualist, b. 1812. 
 Cross, John, English artist, d. 1861. 
 
 Cross, Richard Assheton, English barrister, statesman, b. 1823. 
 Crossley, Sir Francis, bait., English manufacturer, philanthropist, 
 b. 1817, d. 1872. 
 
 Crossley, Joseph, Eng. manufacturer, philanthropist, b. 1812, d. 1868. 
 Croswell, Win., D.D., Am. episcopal minister, poet, b. 1804, d. 1851. 
 Crowder, John, Eng. printer, lord mayor of London, b. 1746, d. 1830. 
 Crowder, Sir Richard Budden, English justice of common pleas 1854 ; 
 
 b. about 1795, d. 1859. 
 Crowe, Mrs. (Catherine Stevens), English novelist, essayist, b. 1803. 
 Crowe, Eyre Evans, English historian, journalist, b. 1799, d. 1868. 
 Crowell, William, American writer of Sunday school books, b. 1806. 
 Crowther, Jonathan, English wesleyan minister, editor, classical 
 
 tutor, b. 1775, d. 1856. 
 Crowther, Sain. Adjiii, D.D., African bish. of Sierra Leone, b. ab. 1815. 
 Croze, Mathurin Veyssiere la, French orientalist, b. 1661, d. 1739. 
 Criiger, Hermann, Germ, naturalist, in Trinidad, b. 1819, d. 1864. 
 Cruickshank, William, Scotch surgeon, in London, naturalist, writer 
 
 and lecturer on anatomy, b. 1745, d. 1800. 
 Cruikshank, Robert, English artist, b. 1790, d. 1856. 
 Cruttenden, David H., American philologist, mathematician, b. 1816. 
 Cruveilhier, Jean, French pathological anatomist, b, 1791, d. 1874. 
 Csaszar, Franz, Hungarian poet, publicist, b. 1807. 
 Csillag, Rosa, Hungarian operatic singer, b. 1836. 
 Csokonal Vitez, Mihali, Hungarian poet, b. 1774, d. 1808. 
 Cubitt, William, English builder, lord mayor of London 1860-1, 
 
 1S61-2, legislator, b. 1791, d. 1863. 
 Cucheval-Clarigny, Athanase, French journalist, imperialist, b. 1821. 
 CufFee, Paul, Amer. Indian preacher to his countrymen, b. 1757, d. 1812. 
 Cullen, Paul, Irish cardinal, roman catholic archbishop of Dublin, 
 
 educationist, b. 1803. 
 Cullum, Sir John, English clergyman, antiquary, b. 1733, d. 1785. 
 Culpeper, Thomas, lord, Eng. governor of Virginia 1680-1683, d. 1719. 
 Cumberland, George Clifford, earl of, English naval commander, 
 
 b. 1558, d. 1605. 
 
 Cumberland, George Frederick Alexander Charles Ernest Augustus, 
 
 duke of, King of Hanover 1851—1866 ; b. 1819. 
 Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, English military commander, 
 
 b. 1721, d. 1765. 
 
 Cumin, or Comyn, John, English diplomatist, justiciar, archbishop of 
 Dublin 1182, founder of St. Patrick's church, Dublin, d. ab. 1213. 
 
 Cuming, John, American physician, philanthropist, b. 1728, d. 1788. 
 
 Cumings, Asa, D.D., American theologian, editor, b. 1796, d. 1856. 
 
 Cumming, Robert Gordon, Scotch hunter and explorer in Africa, 
 6. 1820, d. 1866. 
 
 Cummins, Maria S., American novelist, writer for young people, 
 
 6. 1827, d. 1866. 
 Cundy, James, English sculptor, d. 1826. 
 
 Cunha Barbosa, Januaro da, Brazilian prelate, statesman, poet, histo- 
 rian, b. 1780, d. 1846. 
 
 DALLAS. 68 
 
 Cunha, Mattos Raymunde Jose da, Brazilian general, b. 1776, d. 1840. 
 Cunich, Raimondo, Italian poet, b. 1719, d. 1794. 
 Cuninghame, John, Scotch judge of session (as Lord Cuninghame), 
 b. 1783, d. 1854. 
 
 Cunningham, Alex., Scotch historical writer, diplom., b. 1654, d. 1737. 
 Cunningham, John, D.D., Scotch presbyt., church historian, b. 1819. 
 Cunningham, J. W., English clergyman, philanthropist, author of 
 
 'The Velvet Cushion,' b. 1780, d. 1861. 
 Cunningham, Thomas Mounscy, Scotch poet, b. 1776, d. 1834. 
 Cunningham, William, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, theologian, 
 
 critic, b. 1805, d. 1861. 
 Cuno, Anton Werner, German philologist, b. 1635, d. 1707. 
 Curio, Ciclius Sccundus, Picdmontesc protestant theologian, b. 1503, 
 
 d. 1569. 
 
 Curling, Thomas Blizard, English surgeon, writer on surgery, b. 1911. 
 
 Currie, Sir Frederick, bait., English administrator in India, b. 1799. 
 
 Curtis, Alva, American physician, medical writer, critic, b. 1797. 
 
 Curtis, Benjamin R., American judge, law reporter, b. 1809. 
 
 Curtis, George Ticknor, American jurist, writer on the constitution of 
 the United States, b. 1812. 
 
 Curtis, George William, American journalist, essayist, lecturer, b. 1824. 
 
 Curtis, John, English physician, naturalist, b. 1755, d. 1829. 
 
 Curtis, M. A., D.D., Amer. naturalist, mycologist, b. 1808, d. 1872. 
 
 Curtis, William, Eng. writer on botany and entomol., b. 1746, d. 1799. 
 
 Curtis, Sir William, bait., English banker, M.P., lord mayor of 
 Loudon 1795, b. 1753, d. 1829. 
 
 Curwen, J., English agriculturist, b. 1756, d. 1828. 
 
 Cusa, Is'icolas de, French cardinal, diplomatist, mathematician, d. 1464. 
 
 Cusack-Smith, Thomas Berry, Irish master of the rolls 1840, 
 b. 1797, d. 1866. 
 
 Cushing, Caleb, American judge, general, topographer, b, 1800. 
 
 Cushing, Luther Stearns, American writer on law, b. 1803, d. 1856. 
 
 Cushing, Thomas, American speaker of house of representatives, Massa- 
 chusetts, b. 1694, d. 1756. 
 
 Cushing, William, LL.D., American judge supreme court, United 
 States, b. 1735, d. 1810. 
 
 Cushman, Charlotte Saunders, American actress and singer, b. 1816. 
 
 Cust, Sir Edward, English general, military historian, b. 1794. 
 
 Cutbush, James, American editor, writer on chemistry, d. 1823. 
 
 Cuthbert, St., English bishop of Northumberland, d. 686. 
 
 Cutler, Ephraim, American judge, b. 1767, d. 1853. 
 
 Cutler, George W., American poet, d. 1865. 
 
 Cutler, Manasseh, LL.D., American preacher, botanist, b. 1742, d. 1823. 
 Cutler, Timothy, D. D., Amer. orientalist, president of Yale college 
 
 1719-22, afterwards episcopal minister in Boston, b. 1683, d. 1705. 
 Cutter, William, American historian, poet, b. 1801. 
 Cuvillier-Fleury, Alfred Auguste, French journalist, historian, b. 1802. 
 Cuyler, Cornelius C, D.D., American presbyterian minister, president 
 
 of Jefferson medical college, b. 1784, d. 1850. 
 Cybulski, Adalbert, Polish philologist, historian, b. 1812. 
 Czarewitch, Alexander Alexandroviteh, Russian, grand duke, b. 1845. 
 Czayskowski, Michel, or Sadyk Pasha, chief of the Cossaks in the 
 
 Turkish empire, poet and novelist, b. 1808. 
 Czermak, Professor, German physiologist, d. 1873. 
 Czerni-Georg, George the Black, of Servia, made a prince of Russia, 
 
 b. 1765, d. 1817. 
 
 Czerski, Johann, German seceder from roman catholic church, b. 1815. 
 Czetz, Johanu, Hungarian revolutionist leader, philologist, b. 1822. 
 
 Daa, Ludwig Kristensen, Norwegian statesman, publicist, b. 1809. 
 
 Daball, Nathan, American mathematician, b. 1750, d. 1818. 
 
 Dabney, Richard, American poet, philologist, b. about 1786, d. 1825. 
 
 Bach, Simon, German poet, critic, b. 1605, d. 1659. 
 
 B'Achery, Jean Lucas, Fr. theolog., eccles. historian, b. 1609, d. 1685. 
 
 Bacier, Anne Lefevre, French translator, classicist, b. 1651, d. 1720. 
 
 Ba Costa, Isaac, Dutch theologian, poet, b. 1798, d. 1860. 
 
 Bacres, Sir Sidney Colpoys, English admiral, governor of Greenwich 
 
 hospital 1873, b. 1805. 
 Badd, George H. , American physician, writer on veterinary science, -b. 
 
 England 1813. 
 Badda, Vincenzo, Italian jurist, b. about 1769, d. 1828. 
 Baehnert, Johann Carl, German philosophical writer, b. 1719, d. 1785. 
 Bael, J. F., Flemish painter, b. 1764, d. 1840. 
 
 Baendels, Herman Willem, Dutch general, governor of Batavia, b. 
 1762, d. 1818. 
 
 Baggett, David, LL.D., Amer. judge, Connecticut, 6. 1765, d. 1851. 
 Baggett, Naphtali, D.D., American theologian, president of Yale 
 
 coUege, b. 1728, d. 1780. 
 Bagnan, Isidore, French painter, b. 1794. 
 B'Aguesseau, Henri Francois, French jurist, b. 1668, d. 1751. 
 Baguet, Alexandre, Swiss historian, journalist, b. 1816. 
 Baher-Omar, Arabic author, b. about 1401, d. about 1460. 
 Bakins, William, English theologian, biblical translator, d. 1607. 
 
 Balayrac, Nicolas, French musical composer, b. 1752, d. 1809. 
 Balberg, Karl Theodor Anton M., German baron, archbishop of Ratis- 
 
 bon, b. 1744, d. 1817. 
 B'Albert, Charles, French musical composer, in England, b. 1815. 
 B'Albret, Charles, constable of France, leader at Agincourt, d. 1514. 
 Balcho, Frederick, American physician, episcopal minister, theologian, 
 
 botanist, b. England 1769, d. 1836. 
 Bale, David, Scotch cotton manufact. , educationist, b. 1739, d. 1806. 
 Bale, Richard, American naval commander, b. 1756, d. 1826. 
 Bale, Samuel, Eng. physician, botanist, med. writer, b. 1659, d. 1739. 
 Bale, Sir Thomas, English governor of Virginia colony 1609-11, 
 
 1614-16, d. East Indies 1616. 
 Bale, Thomas, Eng. ecclesiastic, theologian, preacher, b. 1798, d. 1870. 
 Balechamp, Jacques, French physician, botanist, b. 1513, d. 1588. 
 Balgairns, Wm., Scotch physician, Bombay, b. 1796, d. Scotland 1866. 
 Balglish, Robert, Scotch merchant, economist, b. 1808. 
 Balhousie, Fox Maule Ramsay, 11th Scotch earl of, baron Panmurc 
 
 of United Kingdom, statesman, b. 1801, d. 1874. 
 Balin, Olof af, Swedish poet, essayist, dramatist, b. 1707, d. 1763. 
 Ballas, Alexander James, American jurist, statesman, b. Jamaica 
 
 1759. d. 1816. 
 
 Ballas, Alexander James, Amer. naval commander, b. 1788, d. 1844. 
 Ballas, Alexander Robert Charles, English clergyman, promoter of 
 Irish missions, b. 1791. 
 
69 DALLAS. 
 
 Dallas, Sir George, bark, English publicist, writer on East Indian 
 
 affairs, b. 1758, d. 1833. 
 Dallas, Sir Robert, English chief justice of common pleas, d. 1824. 
 Dallas, Robert Charles, English novelist, historian, poet, b. Jamaica 
 
 1754, d. 1824. 
 
 Dalling and Bulwer, Henry Lytton Earle Bulwer, baron, English 
 peer, diplomatist, essayist, b. 1804, d. 1872. 
 
 Dallington, Sir Robert, English master of Charterhouse school, his- 
 torical writer, b. 1561, d. 1637. 
 
 Dall' Ongaro, Francesco, Ital. politician, dramatist, journalist, b. 1808. 
 
 Dall' Oste, Pietro, Italian physician, b. 1790, d. 1822. 
 
 Dalman, Johan Wilhelm, Swedish botanist, b. 1787, d. 1826. 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir Adolphus John, bart., Scotch general, b. 1784, d. 1866. 
 
 Dalrymple, Charles, Scotch barrister, legislator, b. 1839. 
 
 Dalrymple, Donald, English physician, philanthropist, economist, 
 b. 1814, d. 1873. 
 
 Dalrymple, Sir Hew Whiteford, bait., Scotch general, b. 1750, d. 1830. 
 Dalrymple, James Ritchie, Scotch presbyterian minister in Scotland, 
 
 Canada, and Australia, b. 1808, d. 1858. 
 Dalrymple, Sir John Hamilton Magil, Scotch baron of exchequer, 
 
 historian, b. 1726, d. 1810. 
 Dalrymple, Leighton Cathcart, Scotch lieut. -colonel, d. 1820. 
 Dalrymple, Samuel, Scotch lieut. -colonel of artillery, in India, d. 1821. 
 Dalrymple, Sir Samuel, Scotch general, b. 1760, d. 1832. 
 Dalrymple, William, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, theologian, 
 
 b. 1723, d. 1813. 
 
 Dalrymple, William, Scotch general, governor of Chelsea hospital, 
 
 6. 1736, d. 1807. 
 Dalrymple, William Tombes, Scotch general, b. 1737, d. 1832. 
 Dalton, Charles, English major-general in the royal artillery, served in 
 
 the Walcheren expedition, and at Flushing, b. 1789, d. 1871. 
 Dalton, John, D.D., Eng. clergyman, theolog., poet, b. 1709, d. 1763. 
 D'Alton, John, Irish barrister, poet, biog., historian, b. 1792, d. 1867. 
 Dalton, John S., Eng. writer on banking and statistics, b. 1816, d. 1852. 
 Dalton, Michael, English writer on offices of sheriff and justice of 
 
 peace, b. 1554, d. 1620. 
 Dalton, Richard, English antiquary, artist, b. 1720, d. 1791. 
 Dalton, Tristram, Amer. lawyer, merchant, senator, b. 1738, d. 1817. 
 Dalton, William, English journalist, author of books for boys, b. 1821. 
 Dalway, Marriott Robert, Irish economist, philanthropist, b. 1832. 
 Daly, Cesar, French architect, b. 1809. 
 
 Daly, Charles, LL.D., American judge, historian, orator, b. 1816. 
 
 Daly, Daniel, Irish dominican, statesman, diplomatist, in Portuguese 
 service, b. 1595, d. Lisbon 1662. 
 
 Daly, Sir Dominic, Irish colonial statesman, governor of South 
 Australia, 6. 1798. 
 
 Dalyell, Sir John Graham, Scotch antiq., physicist, b. 1778, d. 1851. 
 
 Dalzel, Andrew, Scotch philologist, heflenist, b. 1742, d. 1806. 
 
 Dambray, Charles Henri, chancellor of France, b. 1760, d. 1829. 
 
 Damiano, Pietro, Italian cardinal, theologian, diplomatist, biographer, 
 6. about 988, d. 1072. 
 
 Da Monte, Giovanni Battista, Italian physician, b. 1489, d. 1551. 
 
 Dampier, Sir Henry, English judge of king's bench, b. 1758, d. 1816. 
 
 Dana, Charles Anderson, American journalist, editor, b. 181!). 
 
 Dana, Francis, LL.D., American statesman, chief justice, Massa- 
 chusetts, b. 1742, d. 1811. 
 
 Dana, James, D.D., Amer. theologian, metaphysician, b. 1735, d. 1812. 
 
 Dana, Jas. Freeman, Amer. physician, chem., geolog., b. 1793, d. 1827. 
 
 Dana, Samuel Luther, American physician, chemist, agriculturist, 
 b. 1795, d. 1868. 
 
 Danaeus, Lambert, Fr. prot. theolog. , bibl. comm., b. ah. 1530, d. 1596. 
 Dance, Charles, English writer of comedies, b. 1794, d. 1863. 
 Dance, George, English clergyman, hymn writer, in Latin and English, 
 b. 1818, d. 1866. 
 
 Danckelmann, Eberhard Christoph Balthasar von, German statesman, 
 b. 1643, d. 1722. 
 
 Danckert, Cornelius, Dutch engraver, printscller, b. 1561, d. ab. 1620. 
 Danckwart, Johann, Livouian theologian, b. 1747, d. 1803. 
 Dandini, Ccsare, Florentine historical painter, b. 1595, d. 1658. 
 Dandini, Ercolc Francesco-, count, Italian jurist, b. 1696, d. 1747. 
 Dandini, Geron., Italian jesuit, teacher of philosophy, b. 1554, (/. 1634. 
 Dandolo, Andrea, doge of Venice, historical writer, b. 1310, d. 1354. 
 Dandolo, Simonc, Venetian senator, d. 1360. 
 
 Dandolo, Vinccnzo, Venetian chemist, Italian patriot, b. 1758, d. 1819. 
 D'Andrada, Antonio, Portuguese jesuit, traveller, discovered Cathay 
 
 and Tibet, d. 1634. 
 D'Andrada, Diego de Payvu, Portug. controversial theolog., d. 1575. 
 Dandre-Bardon, Michel Francois, Fr. painter, teacher, b. 1700, d. 1783. 
 Dane, Nathan, American statesman, jurist, b. 1752, d. 1835. 
 Danedi, Giovanni Stefano, MontaUo, Italian painter, b. 1608, d. 1689. 
 Danedi, Giuseppe, Italian painter, b. 1618, d. 1688. 
 Danes, Pierre, Fr. bp. of Lavanr, philolog., classicist, b. 1497, d, 1577. 
 Danet, Pierre, French abbe, classical antiquary, d. 1709. 
 Danforth, Samuel, American theologian, philologist, author of ' Indian 
 
 Dictionary,' b. 1666, d. 1727. 
 Danforth, Samuel, American physician, loyalist, b. 1740, d. 1827. 
 Danforth, Thomas, American judge, deputy governor of Maine, b. 
 
 England 1622, d. 1699. 
 
 DAUSQUE. 70 
 
 Dangan, Isidore, French landscape painter, h. 1781, d. 1873. 
 D'Angely, Regnault de St. Jean August, French count, field-marshal, 
 
 commander of imperial guard, b. 1794, d. 187n. 
 D'Anghiera, Pietro Martiro, Italian historian, />. 1455, d. 1526. 
 Danician, Andre, PMUdor, French chess-player and writer, </. 1795. 
 Daniel, George, English antiquary and author, //. 1790, d. 1864 
 Daniel, Joseph Henri, French sculptor, h. 1804. 
 
 Daniel, Pierre, French philologist, jurist, antiquary, b. 1530, d. 1603. 
 Daniel, William Barker, English clergyman, writer on rural snorts, 
 b. 1753, d. 1833. 
 
 Daniele, Francesco, Italian historian, antiquary, b. 1740, d. 1812. 
 Daniell, Samuel, Eng. artist, traveller, in Africa and Ceylon, d. 1811. 
 Daniell, Thorn. W., Eng. painter, of oriental scenery, b. 1745, d. 1840. 
 Daniell, William, English landscape painter, d. 1837. 
 Danilo I., Petrovitch-Nicgosh, prince of Montenegro, b. 1826, I860. 
 Danleux, Pierre, French histor. and portrait painter, />. 1745, d. 1809. 
 Dann, Christian Adam, German theologian, b. 1758, d. 1837. 
 Dannecker, Heinrich von, German sculptor, b. 1758, d. 1841. 
 Danneskjold-Samsoec, Frcdrik Grcve, Danish admiral, b. 1703, d. 1770. 
 Danovius, Ernst Jakobus, Prussian theologian, b. 1741, d. 1782. 
 Dantan, Antoine Laurent, French sculptor, b. 1798. 
 Dante, Pietro Vincenzo, Italian poet, mathematician, archit., d. 1512. 
 Dante, Vincenzo, Tuscan sculptor, b. 1530, d. 1576. 
 D'Antine, Francois, French philologist, historian, b. 1688, d. 1746. 
 Dantz, Johann Andreas, Germ, theolog., orientalist, b. 1654, d. 1727. 
 Dantzell, Joseph, French engraver and medallist, b. 1805. 
 D'Anville, Jean Baptisto Bourguignon, French geographer, antiquary, 
 
 b. 1697, d. 1782. 
 Daoud Pasha, Armenian governor of Lebanon, b. 1816. 
 Daran, Jacques, French military surgeon, b. 1701, b. 1784. 
 Darboy, George, D.D., French archbishop of Paris, theological writer, 
 
 b. 1813, d. 1871. 
 Darby, William, American engineer, geographer, d. 1827. 
 Darby, William, American geographer, statistician, b. 1775, d. 1854. 
 Darcet, Jean, French chemist, physician, b. 1725, d. 1801. 
 D'Arcon, Jean Claude E. L., French military engineer, b. 1733, d. 1800. 
 Daremberg, Victor Charles, French physician, medical writer, h. 1817. 
 D'Argensola, Bartolome, Spanish priest, historian, d. 1631. 
 D'Argensola, Lupercao Leonardo, Spanish poet, statesman, at Naples, 
 
 b. 1565, d. 1613. 
 
 D'Argenson, Mark Rene le V. P., marquis, French statesman, 
 
 b. 1662, d. 1721. 
 Daries, Joachim Georg, German jurist, b, 1724, d. 1791. 
 Darimon, Alfred, French democratic journalist, b. 1819. 
 Darley, Felix O. C, American artist, book-illustrator, b. 1822. 
 Darley, George, English poet, critic, mathematician, d. 1846. 
 Darling, Sir Charles Henry, English governor of Victoria colony, 
 
 b. 1809, d. 1870. 
 Darling, Grace, English lighthouse attendant, b. 1817, d. 1842. 
 Darling, Noyce, American agriculturist, 1782, d. 1846. 
 Darlington, William, LL. D., American botanist, medical writer, 
 
 biographer, b. 1782, d. 1863. 
 Darnley, Henry Stuart, lord, Scotch noble, husband of Queen Mary, 
 
 b. 1546, d. 1567. 
 
 D'Arquier, Angus, French physicist, astronomer, b. 1718, d. 1802. 
 Dartmouth, George Legge, baron, English naval commander, iacobite, 
 b. 1647, d. 1691. 
 
 Dartmouth, Geo. Legge, earl of, Eng. peer, statesman, b. 1755, d. 1810. 
 Darton, William, English engraver, publisher of illustrated books for 
 
 children, />. ab. 1757, d. 1819. 
 Daru, Napoleon, comte, French statesman, b. 1807. 
 D'Arusmont, Madame Francis (Fanny Wright,) American dramatic 
 
 writer, traveller, b. 1795, d. 1852. 
 Darwin, Charles, English physician, medical writer, b. 1758, d. 177-?. 
 Darwin, Sir Francis Sachcvcrcl, English physician, d. 1859. 
 Dassier, Jacques Antoine, Genevese medallist, engraver in London 
 
 Mint, d. Copenhagen 1759. 
 Dassov, Heinrich, German theologian, b. 1627, d. 1680. 
 Dasypodius, Conrad, Alsatian mathematician, b. 1532, d. 1600. 
 Datle, Johann August, Saxon orientalist, bibl. critic, b. 1731, d. 1791. 
 Dati, Agostino, Italian grammarian, theologian, b. 1420, rf. 1478. 
 Dati, Carlo Roberto, Florent. grammarian, biographer, h. 1019, d. 1679. 
 Daubeny, Charles, English ecclesiastic, theologian, biblical expositor, 
 
 writer on church principles, b. 1744, d. 1827. 
 Daubeny, D., English physician, chemist, botanist, b. 1795, d. 1S07. 
 Daubuz, Charles, French protcstant clergyman, in Church of England, 
 
 biblical commentator, b. 1670, d. 1740. 
 Dauglish, John, English physician, patentee of aerated bread, 
 
 b. 1825, d. 1866. 
 
 Daumas, Melehior Jos. Eug., Fr. general, writer on Algeria, b. 1S03. 
 Daumesnil, French general, gov. of Vinccnnes state prison, (/. 1832. 
 Daumer, Georg Friedrich, German poet, ethnologist, b. 1800. 
 Daumier, Henri, French political caricaturist, b. 1S10. 
 D'Aumont, Jean, comte de Chatcroux, French marshal, governor of 
 
 Brittany, b. 1522, d. 1595. 
 Daunou, Pierre Claude Francois, French savant, b. 1761, d. 1840. 
 Daurat, Jean, French poet, b. about 1507, d. 1588. 
 Dausque, Claude, French philologist, critic, naturalist, b. 1566, d. 1044. 
 
 f 2 
 
71 
 
 DEHEQUE. 
 
 72 
 
 Daussy, Pierre, French hydrographical surveyor, astronomer, b. 1792, 
 d. 1861. 
 
 D'Auvergne, Theophilo do la Tour, French captain of grenadiers, 
 
 lexicographer, b. 1743, d. 1800. 
 Dauzats, Adrien, French landscape painter, b. 1808. 
 Daval, Peter, English barrister, mathematician, translator, d. 1763. 
 D'Avalos, Ferdinando Francesco, marquis of Pcscara, Neapolitan 
 
 general, essayist, b. 1496, 1525. 
 Daveluy, Amcdec, French philologist, director of French school at 
 
 Athens, b. 1799, d. 1867. 
 Davenant, John, English theologian, bishop of Salisbury ; attended the 
 
 synod of Dort ; b. 1570, d. 1641. 
 Davenport, Abraham, American judge, col. in army, b. 1714, d. 1789. 
 Davonport, Addington, American episcopal minister, b. 1700, <l. 1746. 
 Davenport, James, American revivalist preacher, b. 1712, d. 1757. 
 Davenport, John, English puritan clergyman, first minister of New 
 
 Haven, Massachusetts, b. 1597, d. 1670. 
 Davenport, John, American theologian, orientalist, b. 1659, d. 1731. 
 Daverne, Jean Jacques, French horticulturist, //. about 1799, d. 1845.. 
 David I., king of Scotland, succeeded 1124, d. 1153. 
 David II., king of Scotland, son of liobcrt Bruce ; prisoner in England 
 
 1343-1357 ; b. 1315, d. 1371. 
 David, Christian George Nathan, Danish publicist, diplomatist, b. 1793. 
 David, Emerie, French artist, b. 1755, d. 1839. 
 David, Ferdinand, German violinist, b. 1810, d. 1873. 
 David, Maxime, French miniature painter, b. 1798. 
 Davidson, James, American philologist, b. 1732, d. 1809. 
 Davidson, John, Eng. trav. in Amcr., India, Africa, Palestine, d. 1836. 
 Davidson, Lucretio Maria, American poetess, b. 1808, d. 1825. 
 Davidson, Margaret Miller, American poetess, b. 1823, d. 1838. 
 Davie, Sir Henry 1!. Ferguson, bart., Scotch general, publicist, b. 1798. 
 Davies, Benjamin, Welsh philanthropist, temperance reformer, 
 
 b. 1808, (/. 1869. 
 
 Davies, Edward, Welsh clergyman, Celtic antiquary, b. 1756, d. 1831. 
 Davies, John, Welsh translator, from French into English, of history and 
 
 travels, b. 1625, d. 1693. 
 Davies, John, D.D., Eng. clergym., classicist, critic, b. 1679, d. 1731-2. 
 Davies, Robert, Welsh bard, grammarian, b. 1770, d. 1836. 
 Davies, Samuel, D.D., American minister, orator, president of Princeton 
 
 college, b. 1724, d. 1761. 
 Davies, Sneyd, D.D., English clergyman, poet, d. 1769. 
 Davies, Thomas, Scotch bookseller, actor, biographer, in London, 
 
 b. 1712, d. 1785. 
 
 Davies, Walter, Welsh clergyman, reviver of Welsh language, agricul- 
 turist, 6. 1761, d. 1840. 
 
 D'Avila, Sancho, Spanish commander, killed at Maestricht 1579. 
 
 Davis, Andrew Jackson, American ' Poughkeepsie seer and clairvo- 
 yant,' writer on spiritualism, b. 1826. 
 
 Davis, Charles Henry, LL. D., American rear-admiral, mathematician, 
 marine surveyor, founder of ' Amer. Nautical Almanack,' b. 1807- 
 
 Davis, Edward, English painter, b. 1833, d. Eome 1867. 
 
 Davis, Edwin Hamilton, American physicist, archaeologist, b. 1811. 
 
 Davis, Henry Winter, American barrister, statesman, b. 1817, d. 1865. 
 
 Davis, Isaac P., American antiquary, b. 1772, d. 1855. 
 
 Davis, John, LL.D., Amer. judge, historical writer, b. 1761, d. 1847. 
 
 Davis, John A. G., American jurist, b. 1802, d. 1840. 
 
 Davis, J. P., English historical painter, b. 1783, d. 1862. 
 
 Davis, Matthew L., American printer, biographer, b. 1766, d. 1850. 
 
 Davis, Nathan, Christian jew, missionary, archseol., traveller, b. 1812. 
 
 Davis, Richard Brigham, American poet, b. 1771, d. 1799. 
 
 Davis, Rowland, LL. D., Irish ecclesiastic, controversial theologian, 
 b. 1649, d. 1721. 
 
 Davis, Thomas, Irish journalist, repealer, b. 1815, d. 1845. 
 
 Davis, William, Irish landscape painter, b. about 1813, d. 1873. 
 
 Davison, J. Robert, English barrister, jurist, b. 1826, d. 1871. 
 
 Davison, John, English ecclesiastic, writer on prophecy, theologian, 
 b. 1777, d, 1834. 
 
 Davy, John, English musical composer, b. 1765, d. 1824. 
 
 Davys, George, D.D., Eng. bishop of Peterborough, b. 1780, d. 1864. 
 
 Dawe, George, English historical and portrait painter, at court of 
 Russia, biographer, b. 1781, d. London 1829. 
 
 Dawes, Lancelot, D.D., Eng. clergyman, theologian, b. 1580, d. 1653. 
 
 Dawes, Manasseh, English barrister, jurist, metaphysician, d. 1829. 
 
 Dawes, Richard, D.D., English ecclesiastic, dean of Hereford, educa- 
 tionist, b. 1795, d. 1867. 
 
 Dawes, Rufus, American poet, dramatist, novelist, b. 1803, d. 1859. 
 
 Dawes, Thomas, American judge, poet, orator, b. 1757, d. 1825. 
 
 Dawes, Sir William, English prelate, archbishop of York, preacher, 
 theologian, b. 1671, d, 1724. 
 
 Dawison, Bogumil, Polish tragedian, in Germany, b. 1818, d. 1872. 
 
 Dawson, George, English dissenting minister, popular lecturer, b. 1821. 
 
 Dawson, George Pearson, English physician, medical writer, b. 1783, 
 d. 1829. 
 
 Dawson, Henry Barton, American military historian, biographer, 
 
 temperance writer, b. England, 1821. 
 Dawson, John, English mathematician, b. 1734, d. 1820. 
 Dawson, J. W., geologist, educationist, Nova Scotia, b. 1820. 
 Dawson-Damer, Lionel Seymour Wm. , English legislator, b. 1832. 
 
 Dax, Armand Jean Antoinc Louis, vicomtc do, French naturalist, 
 
 traveller, b. 1816. 
 Day, George E., English physician, medical writer, translator, b. 1815. 
 Day, Henry N., American professor and writer on rhetoric and 
 
 elocution, b. 1808. 
 Day, Jeremiah, D.I)., Amer. educationist, molaphys., b. 1773, d, 1867. 
 Day, or Daye, John, English printer, master of stationers' company, 
 
 b. 1522, d. 1584. 
 
 Day, Mahlon, American publisher, philanthropist, b. 1790, d. 1854. 
 Day, Martha, American poetess, mathematician, b. 1813, d. 1833. 
 Day, Richard, English clergyman, printer, poet, translator, d. ab. 1582. 
 Day, Stephen, English printer, the first in the American colonies, 
 
 b. 1611, d. 1668. 
 Day, Thomas, LL.D., American jurist, b. 1778, d. 1855. 
 Daycs, Edward, English miniature and landscape painter, d. 1804. 
 Dayton, Elias, American general, philanthropist, b. 1736, d. 1807. 
 Dayton, Jonathan, LL.D., American statesman, b. 1755, d. 1824. 
 Dayton, William Lewis, American diplomatist, b. 1807, d. 1864. 
 Deacon, Thomas, English non-juring bishop, physician, theologian, 
 
 b. 1698, d. 1753. 
 
 Deacon, Wm. Frederick, Eng. journalist, poet, critic, b. 1799, d. 1845. 
 Dealtry, William, I). 1)., English ecclesiastic, mathematician, theolo- 
 gian, b. 1775, d. 1848. 
 Dean, Amos, American metaphysician, phrenologist, b. 1803. 
 Dean, Gilbert, American judge, statesman, b. 1802, d. 1870. 
 Dean, John Ward, American historian, genealogist, antiquary, b. 1815. 
 Dean, Julia, American actress, b. 1830, d. 1868. 
 
 Deane, Charles, American merchant, historian, antiquary, biblio- 
 grapher, b. 1813. 
 
 Deane, Samuel, D.D., American theologian, writer on agriculture, 
 b. 1741, d. 1814. 
 
 Deane, Silas, American patriot, diplomatist, d. 1789. 
 
 Deane, Sir Thomas, Irish architect, b. 1791, d. 1871. 
 
 Deane, William Reed, American merchant, genealogist, b. 1809. 
 
 Deane, Marco Antonio, Italian preacher, Father Pacifico, b. 1775, rf.1824. 
 
 Deane, W. W., Eng. architect, painter in water colours, b. 1826, d. 1873. 
 
 Dearborn, Ben jamin, American mechanical inventor, b. 1756, d. 1838. 
 
 Dearborn, Henry, American general, diplomatist, b. 1751, d. 1829. 
 
 Dearborn, Henry Alexander Scammell, American general, military 
 engineer, biographer, b. 1783, d. 1851. 
 
 Dearborn, Nathaniel, American topographer, promoter of wood en- 
 graving, b. 1786, d. 1852. 
 
 Deasy, Sir Richard, Irish baron of exchequer, b. 1812. 
 
 Debay, Auguste Hyacinthe, French painter, sculptor, b. 1804, d. 1865. 
 
 Debay, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French sculptor, b. 1779. 
 
 Debay, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French sculptor, b. 1802, d. 1862. 
 
 De Belloguet, Roger, baron, French ai cha;ologist, d. 1872. 
 
 Debon, Hippolyte, French historical painter, b. 1816. 
 
 De Boni, Filippo, Italian dramatist, philosophical writer, d. 1871. 
 
 De Bow, James Dunwoody Browuson, American journalist, statistical 
 writer, b. 1820, d. 1867. 
 
 Debret, Jean Baptiste, French historian, b. 1768, d. 1848. 
 
 Debrett, John, English genealogist, editor of ' Peerage,' d. 1822. 
 
 De Bure, Guillaume, French bibliographer, b. 1734, d. 1820. 
 
 De Bure, Guillaume Franc,ois, French bookseller, bibliographer, 
 b. 1731, d. 1782. 
 
 De Bure-Saint-Fauxben, Jean Francois, Fr. hellenist, b. 1741, d. 1825. 
 
 Decaisne, Joseph, French botanist, horticulturist, b. 1807. 
 
 Decaisne, Pierre, Belgian physician, military surgeon, writer on 
 
 surgery and anatomy, b. 1809. 
 Decatur, Stephen, American naval commander, b. 1779, d. 1820. 
 Decembrio, Pietro Candido, Venetian classicist, biographer, b. 1399, 
 
 d. 1477. 
 
 Dechamps, Adolphe, Belgian statesman, political writer, b. 1807. 
 
 De Charms, Richard, Amer. writer on swedenborgianism, b. 1796, d. 1864. 
 
 De Cherrier, French historian, b. 1795, d. 1872. 
 
 Decock, Nicolas Jacob, Belgian philosophical writer, b. 1800, d. 1851. 
 
 De Coetlogon, Charles E., English calvinist theologian, d. 1820. 
 
 Deconinck, Lewis Charles Fredrik, Danish theologian, b. 1779, d. 1811. 
 
 DeDeyster, Anne, Flemishhistoricalaudlandsc. painter, b. 1696, d. 1746. 
 
 De Deyster, Louis, Flemish painter, musician, engraver, b. 1656, d. 1711. 
 
 De Dieu, Louis, orientalist, minister of French protestant church, 
 Flushing, b. 1590, d. 1642. 
 
 Dedreux, Alfred, French genre painter, b. 1812, d. 1860. 
 
 Deems, Charles F., D.D., American poet, chemist, theologian, b. 1820. 
 
 Deering, Charles, English physician, botanist, writer on small-pox, 
 b. Saxony, d. 1749. 
 
 Deering, John Peter, English architect, d. 1850. 
 
 Deering, Nathaniel, American dramatic poet, novelist, b. about 1785. 
 
 Defrance, Jacques Louis Marie, French geologist, b. 1758, d. 1850. 
 
 De Gerstner, Francis A. G, Austrian engineer, b. 1S02, d. Phila- 
 delphia 1846. 
 
 De Grey, Thomas Philip de Grey, carl, English peer, archaeologist, 
 
 writer on architecture, b. 1781, d. 1859. 
 De Haas, Moritz F. H., Dutch marine painter, in America from 1859 ; 
 
 b. about 1830. 
 
 De Haven, Edwin J., American arctic explorer, b. 1819, d. 1865. 
 Deheque, Felix Desire, French hellenist, b, 1794. 
 
73 
 
 DEIION. 
 
 74 
 
 Dehon, Theodore, D.D., American protcstant bisliop of S. Carolina, 
 
 theologian, b. 1776, d. 1817. 
 De Hondt, Francois, Flemish engraver, medallist, b. 1786. 
 Deidier, Antoine, French physician, medical writer, d. 1716. 
 Deiman, Jolian Rudolph, Dutch physician, chemist, b. 1743, d. 1808. 
 Dejoux, Claude, French sculptor, b. 1731, d. 1816. 
 De Kay, James E., American zoologist, b. 1702, d. 1851. 
 Deken, Agatha, Dutch poetess, novelist, with Elizabeth Bekker, 
 
 b. 1741, d. 1804. 
 Dekker, Jeremias de, Dutch poet, b. 1610, d. 1666. 
 Delacapede, Bernard G. S. L., French naturalist, b. 1756, d. 1825. 
 Delacour, James, Irish poet, b. 1709, d. 1781. 
 
 De la Fage, Eaimond, French artist, pen-and-ink draughtsman, 
 b. 1648, d. 1690. 
 
 Delafite, Henry Francis Alexander, English clergyman, physicist, 
 
 translator, d. 1831. 
 Delafosse, Antoine, French dramatist, b. 1653, d. 1708. 
 Delafosse, Charles, French historical painter, b. 1640, d. 1716. 
 Delahunty, James, Irish merchant, economist, b. 1808. 
 Delalande, Jean Marie, French naturalist, b. 1807, d. 1851. 
 De Lancey, James, chief justice of New York, b. 1703, d, 1760. 
 De Lancey, William Heathcote, D.D., American protestant bishop, 
 
 theologian, b. 1797. 
 Delane, John Thadeus, English barrister, editor of The Times, b. 1S17. 
 Delangle. Claude Alphonse, Fr. statesman, jurist, b. 1797, d. 1869. 
 Delaporte, Michel, French vaudevillist, b. 1802, d, 1872. 
 De la Rive, Pictet, Swiss anatomist, zoologist, b. 1809, d. 1872. 
 De la Rue, Charles, French jesuit, theologian, editor of the delphin 
 
 classics, b. 1643, d. 1725. 
 Delarue, Joseph Amedec, French architect, b. 1790. 
 De la Rue, Thomas, German printer, publisher, manufacturer of 
 
 stationery, in London, b. 1793, d. 1866. 
 Delaulne. Etienne, French engraver, b. 1520, d. 1595. 
 Delaval, Edward Hnssey, English chemist, physicist, scientific writer, 
 
 b. 1728, d. 1814. 
 
 Delaval, Pierre Louis, French historical painter, b. 1790, d. 1867. 
 Delavan, Edward C, Amer. philanth., temperance reformer, b. 1793. 
 Delavigne, Casimir, French poet, dramatist, b. 1794, d. 1843. 
 De la Zouche, Robert Curzon, 14th baron ; English peer, traveller, 
 
 diplomatist, orientalist, b. 1810, d. 1873. 
 Delbene, Benedette, Veronese agricult., antiquary, b. 1749, d. 1825. 
 D'Elci, Angelo Maria, Italian poet, b. 1754, d. 1824. 
 Delecluze, Etienne Jean, Fr. novelist, art-critic, b. 1781, d. 1863. 
 Delescluse, Louis Charles, Fr. revolutionary journalist, b. 1809, d. 1871. 
 Delessert, Francois Marie, Fr. botanist, philanthr., b. 1780, d. 1868. 
 Deleyre, Alexandre, French poet, physicist, b. 1726, d. 1797. 
 Delft, Jakob Willem, Dutch port, painter, engrav., b. 1580, d. 1640. 
 Delft, Jakob Willem, Dutch port, painter, engrav., b. 1619, d. 1661. 
 De Liefde, John, Dutch protestant minister, biographer, jihilanthro- 
 
 pist, b. 1814, d. 1869. 
 Dehn, Jacobus Josephus, Belgian historian, b. 1796, d. 1835. 
 Delisle, Jean Baptiste Isoard,Fr. novelist, sceptical writer, b. 1743,^.1816. 
 Delisle, Leopold Victor, French historian, palaeographer, b. 1S26. 
 Delisle, Louis, French astronomer, geographer, d. 1741. 
 Delius, Christoph Fraugott, German mineralogist, b. 1728, d. 1779. 
 Delius, Heimich Friedrich von, German physician, b. 1720, d. 1791. 
 Dell, John, English poet, b. 1757, d. 1810. 
 
 Delia Maria, Dominique, French musical composer, of Italian family, 
 b. 1764, d. 1800. 
 
 Delloye, Henri Joseph, Belgian publicist, b. 1752, d. 1810. 
 
 Delmar, Alexander, American statistician, b. 1836. 
 
 Delmotte, Henri Florcnt, Belgian biogr., humourist, b. 1779, d. 1836. 
 
 Delpini, Carlo Antonio, Italian dramatist, burlesque actor, d. 1828. 
 
 Delrio, Martin Antonio, LL.D., Spanish jesuit, philologist, biblical 
 commentator, b. Antwerp 1551, d. 1608. 
 
 De Luc, Jean Andre, Swiss geologist in England, b. 1727, d. 1817. 
 
 Delvaux, Laurent, Flemish sculptor, b. 1695, d. 1778. 
 
 Delvito, Niccolo, Neapolitan portrait, historical, and fresco painter, 
 b. 1435, d. 1496. 
 
 De Lynes, Due, French peer, antiquary, philanthropist, d. 1867. 
 
 De Lyra, Nicolas, French franciscan, converted jew, biblical com- 
 mentator, d. 1340. 
 
 Dc Mabusc, or Maubeuge, Jean, Flemish historical painter, d. 1562. 
 
 Demainbray, Stephen Charles, English electrician, astronomer, b. 1810, 
 d. 1872. 
 
 Demaus, Robert, Eng. clergym., biogr., educationist, b. 1829, d. 1874. 
 De Maynak, Andre, Flemish painter in Rome, b. 1738, d. 1814. 
 Dembinsky, Henry, Polish general, b. 1791, d. 1864. 
 De Meulemuster, Joseph Chas., Flcm. painter, engra., b. 1771, d. 1836. 
 Demeunier, Jean Nicolas, French translator from English, of voyages 
 
 and travels, biographer, b. 1751, d. 1814. 
 Demidoff de San Donato, Anatolc, conite de, Russian prince, art-cr tic, 
 
 author of narrative of travels, b. 1813, d. 1870. 
 De Morgan, George Campbell, Eng. mathematician, b. 1811, (/. 1867. 
 Demours, Pierre, French physician, oculist, translator from English to 
 
 French, b. 1702, d. 1795. 
 Dempster, George, Scotch advocate, agricultural and fishery improver, 
 
 b. 1735, d. 1818. 
 
 Dcnham, Dixon, English lieutenant-colonel, traveller, governor of 
 
 Sierra Leone, b. 1786, d. 1828. 
 Denina, Giacomo Maria Carlo, Italian historian, b. 1731, d. 1813. 
 Denis, Jean Ferdinand, French traveller, b. 1798. 
 Denis, Michael, German bibliographer, b. 1729, d. 1800. 
 Denison, Edmund, English legislator, philanthrop., b. 1811, d. 1870. 
 Denison, Edward, Eng. thcolog., bishop of Salisbury, //. 1801, d. 1854. 
 Denison, George Anthony, Eng. thcolog., archdeac. of Taunton, b. I<-h5. 
 Denison, Sir William Thomas, English general, governor in Australia 
 
 and the East Indies, b. 1804, d. 1871. 
 Denman, Sir George, English judge of common pleas, 181 9. 
 Denman, Thomas, English writer on midwifery, 1733, d. 1815. 
 Denne, John, D.D., English theologian, antiquary, b. 1693, d. 1767. 
 Denne, Samuel, English clergyman, archaeologist, b. 1730, d. 1799. 
 Denner, Ralthasar, German miniature painter, 1685, d. 1717. 
 Dennie, Joseph, Oliver Oldschool, Amer. essayist, b. 1768, d. 1812. 
 Dennistoun, James, Scotch archaeologist, art-critic, b. 1803, d. 1855. 
 Denny, H., English naturalist, antiquary, b. 1803, d. 1871. 
 Denon, Dominique Vivant, baron, French designer and engraver, 
 
 b. 1745, d. 1825. 
 
 Denton, Thomas, English clergym., poet, biographer, b. 1724, d. 1777. 
 Denvir, Cornelius, D.D., Irish roman catholic bishop of Down and 
 
 Connor 1835-65, educationist, philologist, d. 1866. 
 De Pelichy, Gertrude, Flemish painter, architect, b. 1744, d. 1825. 
 Depkin, Liborius, Courlander, theologian, b. 1652, d. 1708. 
 Derby, Alfred T., English miniature painter, d. 1873. 
 Derby, James Stanley, earl of, English royalist, historian, d. 1651. 
 Derby, Edward Stanley, 13th earl of, Eng. naturalist, b. 1775, d. 1851. 
 Derby, Eliza Farren, countess, Ir. actress in early life, b. 1759, d. 1829. 
 Derby, William, Eng. portrait and miniature painter, b. 1786, d. 1847. 
 Dercsneyi, Jean Louis, baron de, Hungarian publicist, b. 1802. 
 Dering, Edward, Eng. puritan clergyman, controversialist, d. 1576. 
 D'Erlach, Johann Bernhard Fischer, baron, German architect, 
 
 b. 1650, d. 1724. 
 
 De Ros, William Lennox Lascelles Fitzgerald de Ros, 21st baron, 
 English peer, b. 1797, d. 1874. 
 
 De Rouge, vicomte Emmanuel, French egyptologist, b. 1811, d. 1873. 
 
 Derrick, Charles, English naval historian, d. 1831. 
 
 Dervick-Pasha, Turkish general, diplomatist, b. 1817. 
 
 Deryck, Pieter Cornells, Flemish landscape painter, b. 1568, d. 1630. 
 
 De Sacy, Louis Isaac le Maistre, French jansenist theologian, biblical 
 critic, b. 1613, d. 1684. 
 
 De Sales, St. Francis, Swiss rom. catholic theologian, b. 1567, d. 1622. 
 
 De Salles, Eusebe, French orientalist, novelist, d. 1873. 
 
 De San, Gerard, Flemish historical and portrait painter, b. 1754, d. 1829. 
 
 De Sanley, Louis Fe'licien Joseph Caignait, French antiquary, numis- 
 matist, orientalist, b. 1807. 
 
 Desaussure, Henry W., American statesman, jurist, b. 1764, d. 1839. 
 
 Des Barres, Hon., judge supreme court, Newfoundland, b. 1793, d. 
 England 1866. 
 
 Desbois, Francois Alexandre A. de la Chesnaie, French lexicographer, 
 genealogist, b. 1699, d. 1784. 
 
 Deschamps, Antony, French poet, satirist, b. 1800. 
 
 Deschamps, Emile, French poet, librettist, critic, b. 1791, d. 1871. 
 
 De Schweinitz, Lewis D., American secular chief of Moravian Society, 
 botanist, b. 1781, d. 1834. 
 
 Desclee, Mdlle., French actress, d. 1874. 
 
 Descotils, Victor Collet, French chemist, b. 1773, d. 1815. 
 
 Deseine, Louis Pierre, French sculptor, b. 1750, d. 1822. 
 
 Deseze, Raymond, French advocate, counsellor for Louis XVI., after- 
 wards judge, b. 1750, d. 1828. 
 
 Desgodetz, Antoine, Fr. architect, professor, waiter, b. 1653, d. 1728. 
 
 Deshayes, Jean Baptiste Henri, French historical painter, b. 17-?9 
 b. 1765. 
 
 Desiderius, or Didier, last king of the Lombards, 756-774 ; d. ab. 775. 
 
 Desjardins, Abel, French historian, diplomatist, b. 1814. 
 
 Desjardins, Ernest, French historian, geographer, b. 1823. 
 
 Desmaiseux, Peter, Fr. biographer, editor, in England, b. 1666, d. 1745. 
 
 Desmares, Toussaint, French priest of the oratory, preacher, theo- 
 logian, b. 1599, d. 1687. 
 
 Desmarest, Ernest Leon Joseph, French barrister, essayist, b. 1815. 
 
 Desnoyers, Louis Claude Joseph Florence, French journalist, novelist, 
 humourist, b. 1805, (/. 1868. 
 
 De Soto, Fernando, Spanish explorer, discoverer of the Mississippi, b. 
 about 1500, d. 1542. 
 
 Despautere, John, Flemish grammarian, b. ab. 1460, d. 1520. 
 
 Despierres, Johan, D.D., Flemish benedictiue, mathematician, instru- 
 ment makci-, b. 1597, d. 1664. 
 
 Desportes, Eugene Henri, French physician, medical writer, b. 1782. 
 
 Desportes, Francis, French painter, b. 1661, d. 1743. 
 
 Desportes, Philippe, French poet, philologist, b. 1546, d. 1606. 
 
 Desprez, Louis, French sculptor, /'. 1799. 
 
 Des Roches, Johan, Dutch linguist, b. 1740, d. 1787. 
 
 Desrosiers, Pierre Antoine, French printer, b. ab. 179S. 
 
 Dessaignes, Francois Philibcrt, French publicist, b. 1805. 
 
 Dessalines, Jean Jacques, negro emperor of Hayti, b. 1760, d. 1806. 
 
 Dessene, Alexandre Joseph, French designer, 6. 1783, d. 1S27. 
 
 Dessenius, Bernhard, Dutch physician, medical writer, b. Iol0,d. 1574. 
 
D'ESTE. 
 
 DIXON. 
 
 70 
 
 D'Este, Sir Augustus, son of Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, b. 
 1794, d. 1818. 
 
 Des Vergers, Marie Joseph Adolphc Noel, French orientalist, b. about 
 1810, d. 1867. 
 
 Des Voeux, Sir Henry William, hart, Irish lieut. -col., b. 1806, d. 1868. 
 Deusingius, Anthon, Dutch physician, medical writer, mathematician, 
 
 physicist, b. 1612, d. 1666. 
 De Vaux, M., Belgian mineralogist, b. 1795, d. 1866. 
 De Vaux, Paul Louis Isidore, Belgian statesman, b. 1801. 
 De Vere, Sir Aubrey, hart., Irish poet, d. 1846. 
 De Vere, Aubrey Thomas, Irish poet, political writer, 6. 1814. 
 Devereux, Nicholas, D.D., Irish protestant ecclesiastic, theologian, b. 
 
 Jersey 1799, d. 1867. 
 Deveria, Eugene Francois Mario Joseph, Fr. painter, b. 1805, d. 1865. 
 Deveria, Jacques Jean Marie Achille, French painter and designer, b. 
 
 1800, d. 1857. 
 
 Deville, Jean Achille, French antiquary, archaeologist, b. 1789. 
 Devis, Arthur, English portrait painter, b. 1708, d. 1787. 
 Devis, Arthur William, English historical painter, b. 1762, d. 1822. 
 De Visch, Mathias, Flem. painter, teacher of painting, b. 1702, d. 1765. 
 Devon, Hugh de Courteneyc, carl of, English judicial commissioner 
 
 1330 ; 6. 1275, d. 1340. 
 Devon, William Reginald Courtcnay, 11th carl of, English peer, 
 
 administrator, b. 1807. 
 Devonshire, Charles Blount, carl of, English military commander, 
 
 b. 1563, d. 1606. 
 
 Devonshire, Elizabeth Hcrvcy, duchess of, editor of Horace and 
 
 Virgil, English classicist, b. 1759, d. 1824. 
 Devonshire, Georgiana Cavendish, duchess of, English poetess, b. 1757, 
 
 d. 1806. 
 
 Devonshire, Win. Cavendish, duke of, Eng. statesman, b. 1610, d. 1707. 
 Devonshire, William Cavendish, 7th duke of, English peer, chancellor 
 
 of university of Cambridge, b. 1808. 
 Devrient, Carl August, German actor, comedian, b. 1798, d. 1872. 
 Devrient, Edward Philip, German actor, writer on the theatre, b. 1801. 
 Devrient, Emilius, German comedian, d. 1872. 
 Devrient, Gustav, German actor, b. 1803. 
 De Vries, David, Dutch singer, b. 1815, d. 1872. 
 De Wet, Gerard, Dutch painter, b. 1616, d. 1679. 
 Dewey, Chester, D.D., American naturalist, educationist, writer on 
 
 caricography, b. 1784, d. 1867. 
 Dewey, Daniel, American judge, supreme court, Massachusetts, 
 
 b. 1765, d. 1815. 
 Dewey, George W., American poet, essayist, b. 1818. 
 Dewey, Orville, D.D., American unitarian preacher, critic, b. 1794. 
 Dewez, Louis Dieudonne Joseph, Belgian historian, b. 1760, d. 1834. 
 Dewhurst, John Bickerton, Euglish dissenting minister, philologist, 
 
 biographer, critic, b. 1778, d. 1812. 
 De Wrht, Peter, Eng. landsc. painter in water colours, b. 1783, d. 1849. 
 De Witt, Benjamin, Amer. physician, chemist, writer, b. 1774, d. 1819. 
 De Witt, Jacobus, Dutch hist, and portrait painter, b. 1696, d. 1754. 
 De Witt, John, American minister, Dutch reformed church, biblical 
 
 critic, b. 1788, d. 1831. 
 De Witte, Emanuel, Flemish portrait and architectural painter, b. 
 
 1607, d. 1692. 
 
 De Witte, Kaspar, Flemish landscape painter, b. 1612, d. 1673. 
 De Witte, Pieter, Flemish painter in oil and fresco, b. 1548, d. 1604. 
 De Wyck, Thomas, Dutch marine painter, b. 1616, d. London 1686. 
 Dexter, Henry Martyn, American congregational minister, theologian, 
 
 historian, 6. 1821. 
 Dexter, Samuel, LL.D., American statesman, b. 1761, d. 1816. 
 Deyling, Solomon, German protestant, orientalist, biblical critic, b. 
 
 1677, d. 1755. 
 
 D'Eymar, Ange Marie, French statesman, b. 1747, d. 1S03. 
 D'Eyncourt, Tennyson, Eng. barrister, police magistrate, b. 1784. 
 Deyns, Jacques, Flemish painter, 6. 1645, d. 1704. 
 Deynum, Johan Baptist van, Flemish historical, portrait, and miniature 
 
 painter, b. 1620, d. 1669. 
 Deyster, Ludwig, Flemish painter, b. 1656, d. 1711. 
 Dezallier d'Argenville, Antoine Joseph, French naturalist, biographer, 
 
 b. 1680, d. 1765. 
 
 D'Hooghe, Antoine, Flemish landscape and miniature painter, b. 1630, 
 d. 1662. 
 
 Dhuleep Singh, maharajah of the Punjaub, embraced Christianity, and 
 
 took up his residence in England, b. 1838. 
 Dianti, Giovanni Francesco, Ital. historical painter, b. 1510, d. 1576. 
 Diaz, A. Gonsalvez, Brazilian poet, b. 1823. 
 Diaz, Bartholomew, Portuguese navigator, d. 1500. 
 Diaz, Diego Valentin, Spanish painter, d. 1660. 
 Dibdin, Charles, Eng. dramat., theatrical manager, b. 1769, d. 1833. 
 Dicey, Edward Stephen, English journalist, biographer, b. 1820. 
 Dick, Sir Alexander, Scotch physician, naturalist, b. 1703, d. 1785. 
 Dick, Andrew Coventry, Sc. advoc, writer on church polity, d. 1870. 
 Dick, John, D.D., Scotch presbyterian theologian, biblical expositor, 
 
 b. 1764, d. 1833. 
 
 Dick, Sir Robert Henry, Scotch military commander, in the Peninsula 
 
 and the East, d. 1846. 
 Dick, William, Scotch veterinary surgeon, b. 1793, d. 1866. 
 
 Dickinson, Anna Elizabeth, American orator and reformer, writer on 
 
 'Woman's Work,' b. 1842. 
 Dickinson, Edmund, English physician, philologist, antiquary, 
 
 />. 1024, d. 1707. 
 
 Dickinson, John, Amer. statesman, political writer, b. 1732, d. 1808. 
 Dickinson, Jonathan, American presbyterian minister, theologian, 
 
 physician, h. 1688, d. 1747. 
 Dickinson, Moses, American presbyt. min., theolog., 1696, d, 1778. 
 Dickons, Mrs. (Miss Poole), Eng. operatic singer, 1793-1818; d. 1833. 
 Dickson, David, Scotch presbyterian theologian, biblical expositor, 
 
 !>. 1583, d. 1663. 
 Dickson, James, Scotch theologian, writer on agriculture, d. 1776. 
 Dickson, James, English botanist, horticulturist, d. 1822. 
 Dickson, Sir James Hamilton, English physician, naturalist, inspector 
 
 of hospitals and llects, b. 1780, d. 1850. 
 Dickson, Samuel Henry, American physician, professor, medical and 
 
 temperance writer, b. 1798. 
 Diday, Francois, Swiss painter, in France, b. 1812. 
 Didier, Kusc, French comedian, d. 1871. 
 Didot, Alfred, French philologist, translator, b. 1828. 
 Didot, Ambroise Firmin, French printer, b. 1790. 
 Didot, Firmin, French printer, writer, translator, b, 1764, d. 1836. 
 Didot, Francoi3 Ambroise, French printer, publicist, improver of 
 
 typography, b. 1731, d. 1804. 
 Didot, Hyacinthe, French printer, b. 1794. 
 Didot, Paul, French printer and chemist, ft. 1826. 
 Dieffenbach, Johann Friddrich, German surgeon, b. 1795, d. 1848. 
 Dieffenbach, Laurenz, German philologist, theologian, b. 1806. 
 Diemen, Anthony van, governor of Dutch E. Indies, geographer, rf.1645. 
 Diemerbroeck, Isbrand van, Dutch physician, b. 1609, d. 1674. 
 Diepenbeck, Abraham van, Flemish painter, designer, b. 1607, b. 1675. 
 Diest, Adrian van, Dutch portrait and marine painter, in England, 
 
 b. 1655, d. 1704. 
 
 Diesterweg, Friedrich Adolph Wilhelm, German philologist, 
 
 mathematician, b. 1790, d. 1866. 
 Diesterweg, Wilhelm Adolph, German mathematician, d. 1835. 
 Dieteric, Johann Conrad, German protestant theologian, Hellenist, 
 
 b. 1612, d. 1669. 
 Dieterici, Friedrich, German orientalist, b. 1821. 
 Dietrich, Carl Wilhelm Ernst, German painter, b. 1712, d. 1774. 
 Dietterlin.Wendelin, Gcr. painter, writer on architecture, b. 1540/?. 1599. 
 Dieudonne, Jacques Augustin, Fr. sculptor, medallist, b. 1795, d. 1873. 
 Digby, Lord George, English royalist, politician, b. 1612, d. 1676. 
 Digby, Kenelm Henr}', Irish roman catholic essayist, antiq., b. 1800. 
 Digby, William, Irish clergyman, theologian, b. 1783, d. 1866. 
 Digges, Dudley, English poet and linguist, b. 1612, d. 10 43. 
 Dignum, Charles, Eng. actor, singer, ballad composer, b. 1765, d. 1827. 
 Dilherr, Johann Michael, Germ, protestant, theolog., //. 1004, d. 1646. 
 Dillingham, William H., American author and orator, b. 1790, d. 1854. 
 Dillon, Edward, Irish congregational minister, in England, preacher, 
 
 philanthropist, b. 1799, d. 1867. 
 Dillon, John Blake, Irish nationalist, politician, journalist, b. 1814, 
 
 d. 1866. 
 
 Dilly, Charles, English publisher, b. 1740, d. 1807. 
 
 Dilworth, Thomas, Eng. schoolmaster, author of school books, d. 1780. 
 
 Dimsdale, Thomas, English physician, banker, writer on inoculation ; 
 
 created baron of the Russian empire, for introducing inoculation 
 
 iuto Russia ; b. 1712, d. 1800. 
 Dimsdale, Thomas Robert, 4th baron (of Russia), English magistrate, 
 
 b. 1796, d. 1866. 
 Dinez da Cruz, Anthony, Portuguese poet, b. 1730, d. 1798. 
 Dingelstedt, Franz von, German poet, b. 1814. 
 Dingley, Robert, English puritan, theologian, b. 1619, d. 1654. 
 Dinnen, John, English naval engineer, inspector of steam machinery, 
 
 b, 1806, d. 1S66. 
 
 Dinouart, Antoine Joseph Toussaint, French ecclesiastic, historical 
 
 writer, b. 1715, d. 1786. 
 Diodati, Domenico, Italian archaeologist, b. 1736, d. about 1801. 
 Dionis du Sejour, Achille Pierre, French mathematician, astronomer, 
 
 b. 1734, d. 1794. 
 
 Dionis, Pierre, Fr. surgeon, writer on anatomy and midwifery, d. 1718. 
 Dionysius Alexandrinus, a learned christian writer, d. about 263. 
 Dippel, Johan Conrad, German physician, alchemist, b. 1672, d. 1734. 
 Dirckinck-Holmfeld, Constant Pieter Hendrik, baron von, Danish 
 
 publicist, b. 1799. 
 Dircks, Henry, Euglish civil engineer, scientific writer, biographer, 
 
 b. about 1815. 
 
 Discepoli, Giovanni Battista, Italian historical painter, b. 1590, d. 1660. 
 Disney, John, English theologian, jurist, b. 1677, d. 1729-30. 
 Distelmeyer, Lamprecht, German statesman, b. 1522, d. 1588. 
 Dithmar, Justus Christoph, German jurist, b. 1677, d. 1737. 
 Dix, Dorothea Lynde, American philanthropist, writer for children, 
 
 also on prison discipline, and on lunatic asylums, b. about 1800. 
 Dix, John Adams, American general, politician, diplomatist, b. 1798. 
 Dixon, George, English merchant, economist, educationist, b. 1820. 
 Dixon, James, D.D., English wesleyan minister, theologian, b. 1788, 
 
 d. 1871. 
 
 I Dixon, Joseph, D.D., Irish roman catholic archbp. of Armagh, d. 1866. 
 
DOWNES. 
 
 78 
 
 Dixon, Joshua, English physician, sanitary improver, biographer, 
 
 b. 1745, d. 1825. 
 Dixon, William, Irish bishop of Down ami Connor 1785, d. 1804. 
 Dixon, William Frederick, Eng. manufacturer, M.P., b. 1825, d. 1867. 
 Dlugosz, (latin, Longinus) Jan, Polish historian, b. 1415, d. 1480. 
 Doane, Augustus Sidney, American physician, medical writer, b. 1808, 
 
 d. 1852. 
 
 Dobbin, Orlando Thomas, LL.D., Irish clergyman, reviewer, b. 1814. 
 Dobell, Sydney, English poet, critic, political essayist, b. 1824. 
 Dobson, William Charles, English historical and landscape painter, 
 
 b. Hamburg 1817. 
 Dod, Albert B.,D.D., Amer. theolog./mathcmat., metaphysician, rf.1840. 
 Dod, Charles Roger, English biographer, editor of ' Peerage, ' journalist, 
 
 b. 1793, d. 1855. 
 
 Dod, John, English puritan clergyman, royalist, biblical expositor, 
 
 b. 1547, d. 1645. 
 Dodart, Denis, French physician, botanist, b. 1634, d. 1707. 
 Dodd, Charles, Packard Tootle, English roman catholic clergyman, 
 
 historian, d. 1745. 
 Dodd, George, English civil engineer, designer of Waterloo Bridge, 
 
 London, b. 1783, d. 1827. 
 Dodd, George, English industrial writer, b. about 1812. 
 Dodd, James A., American mathematician, b. 1807. 
 Dodd, Ralph, English civil engineer, b. 1761, d. 1822. 
 Dodd, William, English clergyman, traveller, theologian, philologist, 
 
 b. about 1806, d. 1866. 
 Doddridge, Sir John, English judge of king's bench, writer on law, 
 
 b. 1555, d. 1628. 
 Dodds, James, Scotch solicitor in London, poet, lecturer, b. 1815. 
 Ddderlein, Johann Christoph, German lutheran theologian, biblical 
 
 critic, b. 1746, d. 1792. 
 Dodge, David L., American merchant, philanthropist, promoter of 
 
 bible, tract, and peace societies, b. 1774, d. 1852. 
 Dodge, Mary Abigail, Gail Hamilton, American authoress, b. ab. 1838. 
 Dodoens, Rembert, Dutch physician, botanist, b. 1517, d. 1585. 
 Dods, John Bovee, American theologian, writer on mesmerism and 
 
 spiritualism, b. 1795. 
 Dodson, James, English mathematician, d. 1757. 
 Dodson, Sir John, Eng. judge of prerogative court, b. 1780, d. 1858. 
 Dodson, John George, English barrister, deputy speaker of the house 
 
 of commons 1871-4 ; b. 1825. 
 Dodson, Michael, English barrister, jurist, commentator on Isaiah, 
 
 b. 1732, d. 1799. 
 Dodvens, Willem, Dutch historical painter, b. 1630, d. 1697. 
 Dodwell, William, D.D., English clergyman, writer against scepticism, 
 
 b. 1709, d. 1785. 
 
 Doebereiner, Johann Wolfgang, German chemist, b. 1781, d. 1849. 
 Does, Jakob van der, Dutch painter, 6. 1623, d. 1673. 
 Does, Johan van der, Dutch soldier, philologist, b. 1545, d. 1604. 
 Does, Simon van der, Dutch lands, and port, painter, b. 1053, d. 1717. 
 Doggett, Thomas, English actor, dramatic poet, founder of London 
 
 Waterman's coat and badge prize, d. 1721. 
 Dogherty, Thomas, Irish jurist, special pleader, in England, b. 1805. 
 Dohm, Christian Conrad Wilhelm von, German jurist, historian, 
 
 b. 1751, d. 1820. 
 Doig, David, LL.D., Scotch philologist, b. 1719, d. 1800. 
 Dolben, John, D.D., English archbishop of York, royalist, theologian, 
 
 b. 1625, d. 1686. 
 
 Dolce, Luigi, Venetian poet, biographer, translator, b. 1508, d. 1568. 
 Dolet, Etiennc, French printer, historical and classical writer, b. about 
 
 1509, burnt at the stake 1546. 
 Dollond, Peter, English optical instrument maker, b. 1730, d. 1820. 
 Dolman, John Thomas, English physician, b. 1811, d. 1867. 
 Dombey, Joseph, French botanist, philanthropist, b. 1742, d. 1796. 
 Dombrowsky, Jan Henryk, Polish general, b. 1755, d. 1818. 
 Domeniqne, Alexis, Greek painter, at Toledo, d. 1625. 
 Domingo, Luis, Spanish painter and sculptor, b. 1718, d. 1767. 
 Dommerich, Johann Cristoph, German metaphysician, philologist, 
 
 b. 1723, d. 1767. 
 
 Domville, Sir William, bait., English bookseller, lord mayor of 
 
 London 1813-14 ; 6. 1744, d. 1833. 
 Don, George, English naturalist, b. 1798, d. 1856. 
 Donado, Hernando Adriau, Spanish monk, painter, d. 1630. 
 Donaldson, Andrew, English landscape painter, d. 1846. 
 Donaldson, John, Scotch poet, artist, writer on beauty, b. 1737, d. 1801. 
 Donaldson, Jos., Scotch soldier, writer of military adventures, d. 1830. 
 Donaldson, Sir Stuart Alexander, English merchant, statesman in 
 
 N. S. Wales 1856-9 ; b. 1812, (/. 1867. 
 Donati, Vitaliano, Paduan physician, naturalist, b. 1717, d. 1763. 
 Donati, Signor, Italian physicist, professor of astronomy, b.lS2tS,d. 1873. 
 Donducci, Giovanni Andrea, Jl Mastcllctta, Bologncso histoiical and 
 
 landscape painter, b. 1575, d. 1655. 
 Dondus, Giacomo, Paduan physician, horologist, d. 1350. 
 Dongen, Dionysius van, Dutch painter, b. 1748, d. 1819. 
 Donici, Alexander, Moldavian poet, judge of appeals, b. about 1795. 
 Donizetti, Gaetano, Italian musical composer, b. 1797, d. 1848. 
 Donkin, William Fishbourne, English astronomer, Savilian professor 
 
 at Oxford, b. 1810, d. 1869. 
 
 Donn, Abraham, English mathematician, b. 1718, d. 1746. 
 
 Donn, Benjamin, English mathematician, editor, writer on geography 
 and navigation, d. 1798. 
 
 Donner, Georg Raphael, Gorman sculptor, l>. 1695, d, 1741. 
 
 Donner, Raphael Austin, German sculptor, l>. 1680, d. 1740. 
 
 Donnet, Ferdinand Francois Auguste, French cardinal, archbishop of 
 Bordeaux, b. 1795. 
 
 Donoso, Josef, Spanish painter, b. 1628, d. 1686. 
 
 Donoughmore, Richard H. Hutchinson, fourth earl of, Irish peer, 
 viscount Hutchinson, Un. Kingdom, statesman, b. 1823, d. 1866. 
 
 Donovan, Edward, English naturalist, writer on birds, /). 1765, d. 1837. 
 
 Donzelli, Doraenica, Italian opera singer, b. 1789, d. 1873. 
 
 Doolittel, Thomas, English nonconformist theologian, b. 1030, d. 1707. 
 
 Doolittle, Amos, American engraver, b. 1754, d. 1832. 
 
 Doolittle, Mark, American lawyer, writer . i temperance and agricul- 
 ture, b. 1781. 
 
 Dora d'Istria (Hclene Ghika, princess Koltzoff Massalsky), Wallachian 
 
 authoress and landscape painter, b. 1829. 
 Doran, John, Ph.D., Irish biographer, journalist, antiquary, b. 1807. 
 Dorat, Jean, French poet-laureate, hellenist, b. 1507, tf.-1588. 
 Dorchester, Dudley Carleton, visct., Eng. statesman, b. 1573, d. 1032. 
 Dorchester, Guy Carleton, lord, British general in American war, 
 
 governor N. Amer. colonies, b. Ireland, 1724, d. 1808. 
 Dorigny, Louis, French historical painter, engraver, b. 1654, d. 1742. 
 Dorigny, Michel, Fr. painter, engraver in aquafortis, b. 1017, d. 1665. 
 Dorn, Heinrich Ludwig Egmont, German musical composer, b. 1804. 
 Dorney, Henry, English tradesman, theologian, b. 1613, d. 1683. 
 Dornford, Joseph, English ecclesiastic, theologian, b. 1794, d. 1868. 
 Dorow, Wilhelm, German archaeologist, b. 1790, d. 1845. 
 Dorr, Benjamin, D.D., American protestant episcopal theologian, 
 
 biographer, traveller, b. 1796. 
 Dorr, Julia C. E., American poetess, magazine writer, b. 1825. 
 Dorsch, Everard, Nuremburg gem-engraver, b. 1649, d. 1712. 
 Dorset, Edward Sackville, earl of, English military commander, 
 
 diplomatist, statesman, b. 1590, d. 1652. 
 Dorsey, John Syng, American physician, anatomist, surgeon, medical 
 
 writer, b. 1783, d. 1818. 
 Dosi, Girolamo, Italian architect, b. 1695, d. 1775. 
 Dossabhoy, Sorabjee, Hindostanee orientalist, historical and religious 
 
 writer, b. 1786. 
 Dost Mahommed, sovereign of Afghanistan, d. 1863. 
 Douay, Charles Abel, French general, b. 1809, d. 1870. 
 Doubleday, Edward, English naturalist, b. 1810, d. 1849. 
 Doubleday, John, English naturalist, medallist, antiquary, assistant at 
 
 British Museum, b. 1799, d. 1856. 
 Doufflest, Gerhard, Flemish historical painter, 6. 1594, d. 1660. 
 Doughty, John, D.D., Eng. ecclesiastic, theologian, b. 1598, d. 1672. 
 Doughty, Thomas, American landscape painter, b. 1793, d. 1856. 
 Douglas, Andrew, Scotch physician, medical writer, b. 1736, d. 1806. 
 Douglas, David, Scotch botanist, b. 1798, d. 1834. 
 Douglas, James, Scotch physician, anatomist, b. 1675, d. 1742. 
 Douglas, John, D.D., Scotch bishop of Carlisle 1787, Salisbury 1791, 
 
 theologian, critic, political writer, b. 1721, d. 1807. 
 Douglas, Sir Neil, Scotch lieut. -gen. (at Waterloo), b. 1774, d. 1853. 
 Douglas, Stephen Arnold, American statesman, b. 1813, d, 1861. 
 Douglas, Sylvester (lord Glenbcrvie), Scotch law reporter, biographer, 
 
 in England, b. 1747, d. 1823. 
 Douglas, William, American physician, writer on small-pox, b. Scot- 
 land, d. 1752. 
 
 Douglas, William, Scotch miniature painter, b. 1780, d. 1832. 
 Douglass, David Bates, LL.D., American civil and military engineer, 
 
 mathematician, architect, b. 1790, d. 1849. 
 Douglass, Fred., Amer. slave, whose freedom was purchased by friends 
 
 in Scotland, in 1847 ; lecturer for emancipation ; journalist ; b. 1816. 
 Douglass, Henry Grattan, English army surgeon, philanthropist, 
 
 statesman N.S. Wales, b. 1792, d. 1865. 
 Doujat, Jean, French jurist, philologist, b. 1609, d. 1688. 
 Dousa, Georg, Dutch linguist, traveller, b. 1574, d. 1599. 
 Dousa, Janus, Dutch poet, historian, classicist, b. 1545, d . 1604. 
 Dousa, Janus, Dutch poet, mathematician, b. 1571, d. 1598. 
 Dove, Henry, D.D., English ecclesiastic, theologian, d. 1694-5. 
 Dove, John, English tradesman, hebraist, 'the hebrew tailor,' d. 1772. 
 Dove, Patrick Edward, Scotch journalist, essayist, b. 1815. 
 Dover, George James Welbore Agar Ellis, baron, English peer of United 
 
 Kingdom, historian, biographer, art-critic, b. 1797, d. 1833. 
 Dow, Alexander, Scotch lieut.-colonel, orientalist, historian, d. 1779. 
 Dow, Lorenzo, Amer. methodist preacher, traveller, b. 1777, d. 1S34. 
 Dow, Neal, American federal general, philanthropist, proposer of 
 
 the Maine liquor law, b. 1803. 
 Dowbiggin, Montagu Hamilton, English lieut.-colonel of dragoons, in 
 
 the Crimea, India, and China ; b. 1S32, d. 1S66. 
 Dowling, Vincent, English journalist, editor of Bell's Life in London, 
 
 b. 1783, d. 1852. 
 
 Downame, or Downham, George, D.D., English bishop of Deny, theolo- 
 gian, metaphysician, d. 1634. 
 
 Downes, John, American mathematician, b. 1799. 
 
 Downes, William Downes, baron, Irish peer, chief justice of king's 
 bench, Ireland, 1803, b. 1752, d. 1S26. 
 
79 
 
 DOWNING. 
 
 DUGUET. 
 
 80 
 
 Downing, Andrew Jackson, American landscape gardener, writer on 
 
 horticulture, b. 1816, d. 1852. 
 Downing, McCarthy, Irish solicitor, political reformer, h. 1814. 
 Downman, Hugh, English physician, poet, b. 1740, d. 1809. 
 Dowse, Richard, Irish baron of exchequer, b. 1824. 
 Dowse, Thomas, American bibliophile, founder of Dowse library, 
 
 Boston, b. 1772, d. 1856. 
 Doxat, Lewis, English journalist, editor of The Observer for 58 years, 
 
 b. 1773, d. 1871. 
 
 Doyen, Gabriel Francois, French historical painter, b. 1720, d. 1806. 
 Doyle, SirCharles William, Irish lieut. -general, served in Spain, d, 1843. 
 Doyle, James, D.D., Irish roman catholic bishop of Kildare, d. 1834. 
 Doyle, Sir John, English military commander, governor of Jersey, 
 b. 1746, d. 1834. 
 
 D'Oyly, George, D.D., Eng. theolog., bibL annotator, b. I778,d. 1846. 
 Draghi, Giovanni Battista, Genoese painter, b. 1657, d. 1712. 
 Dragonetti, Domenico, Italian musical composer, b. 1756, d. 1846. 
 Dragonetti, Luigi, Italian economist and writer, b. ab. 1798. 
 Drake, Anders van, Swedish statesman, b. 1682, d. 1744. 
 Drake, Benjamin, Amer. lawyer, journalist, biographer, b. 1794, d. 1841. 
 Drake, Charles D., American barrister, writer on law, b. 1811. 
 Drake, Daniel, American physician, medical writer, topographer, tem- 
 perance advocato, b. 1785, d. 1852. 
 Drake, Francis, English surgeon, antiquary, d. 1770. 
 Drake, Friedrich, German sculptor, b. 1805. 
 
 Drake, James, Eng. physician, anatom., political writer, b. 1667, d. 1707. 
 Drake, Joseph Rodman, American physician, poet, b. 1795, d. 1820. 
 Drake, Samuel G., American bookseller, historian, antiquary, b. 1798. 
 Drake, William, English clergyman, antiquary, b. 1722, d. 1801. 
 Drant, Thomas, English clergyman, theologian, poet, d. about 1578. 
 Draper, Daniel J., English wesleyan minister in Australia, theologian, 
 
 b. about 1810, drowned in the wreck of the Lomlon, 1866. 
 Draper, Sir Wm., Eng. military officer, polit. writer, b. 1721, d. 1787. 
 Draudius. Georg, German bibliographer, b. 1573, d. 1630. 
 Drayton, Henry, American siuger and actor, d. 1872. 
 Drayton, John, American judge, governor of S. Caroliua, historian, 
 
 editor, b. 1762, d. 1822. 
 Drayton, William H., American statesman, judge, political writer, 
 
 6. 1742, d. 1779. 
 Dregt, Jan van, Dutch landscape painter, b. 1737, d. 1807. 
 Dreiling, Melchior, Courland statesman, b. 1623, d. 1682. 
 Drelincourt, Charles, French protestant theologian, writer on death, 
 
 6. 1595, d. 1669. 
 
 Drelincourt, Charles, French physician, anatomist, medical writer, 
 b. 1663, d. 1697. 
 
 Dresserus, Matthteus, Ger. philol., philosoph. writer, b. 1536, d. 1607. 
 Drevet, Pierre, French engraver, b. 1664, d. 1739. 
 Drevet, Pierre, the younger, French engraver, b. 1697, d. 1739. 
 Drew, Andrew, Eng. admiral, served in Europe, Africa, Amer., b. 1792. 
 Drew, Samuel, English wesleyan local preacher, metaphysician, biog- 
 rapher, writer on christian evidences, b. 1765, d. 1833. 
 Drexelius, Jeremiah, Germ, jesuit, preacher, theolog., b. 1581, d. 1638. 
 Dreyschock, Alexander, Bohemian pianist, b. 1818, d. 1869. 
 Drielst, Egbert van, Dutch painter, b. 1746, d. 1818. 
 Drisler, Henry, American philologist, lexicographer, b. 1818. 
 Drolling, Martin, German painter, in Paris, b. 1752, d. 1817. 
 Drolling, Michel Martin, French painter, b. 1786, d. 1851. 
 Drollinger, Carl Friedrich, German poet, b. 1688, d. 1742. 
 Drost, N., Dutch landscape and historical painter, b. 163S, d. 1690. 
 Drouais.Jean Germain, French painter, b. 1763, d. 1788. 
 Drouet, Louis, Dutch flutist, b. 1792. 
 
 Droz, Henri Louis Jacquet, French automaton maker, b. 1759, d, 1791. 
 
 Droz, Jean Pierre, Swiss mechanician, b. 1746, d. 1822. 
 
 Droz, Pierre Jacquet, Swiss mechanician, b. 1721, d. 1790. 
 
 Drummond, D. T. K., Scotch episcopal minister, theologian, b. 1806. 
 
 Drummond, George, Scotch royalist, six times lord provost of Edin- 
 burgh, promoter of city improvements, b. 1687, d. 1766. 
 
 Drummond, Robert Hay, D.D., English archbishop of York, theologian, 
 statesman, b. 1711, d. 1776. 
 
 Drummond, Sir WiUiam, Scotch antiquary, physicist, diplomatist, 
 sceptical writer, b. about 1770, d. Bomo 1828. 
 
 Drury, Dm, English jeweller, naturalist, writer on insects, d. 1804. 
 
 Drury, Joseph, Eng. ecclesiastic, philol., educationist, b. 1750, d. 1834. 
 
 Drusius, Jan, Flemish protestant orientalist, critic, b. 1550, d. 1616. 
 
 Dryander, Jonas, English naturalist, bibliographer, b. 1747, d. 1810. 
 
 Drysdale, John, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, theological writer, 
 b. 1718, d. 1788. 
 
 Duane, William, American journalist, in India, England, America ; 
 
 traveller, b. 1760, d. 1835. 
 Du Bartas, Guillaume de Saluste, Fr. protestant, poet, b. 1544, d. 1590. 
 Diibner, Frederic, French philologist, b. 1802, d. 1867. 
 Duboeage, Marie Anne le Page, Fr. poetess, traveUer, 6. 1710, d. 1802. 
 Dubois, Charles Francois, French ecclesiastic, theologian, biographer, 
 
 b. 1661, d. 1724. 
 
 Dubois, Edmond Paulin, French astronomer, hydrographer, b. 1822. 
 Du Bois, Edward, English barrister, judge, journalist, burlesque writer, 
 b. 1775, d. 1850. 
 
 DuBois de Crance, Edmund Louis Alexis, Fr. statesman, b. 1749, d. 1814. 
 
 Dubois, Emilie, French actress, b. 1838, d. 1871. 
 
 Dubois, Eugene Joseph Napoleon Louis, comte, French statesman, 
 
 b. 1812, d. 1868. 
 Dubois, Francois, French historical painter, b. 1790. 
 Dubois (d'Amiena), Frederic, French physician, b. 1797. 
 Dubois, Guillaume, French cardinal, statesman, b. 1656, d. 1723. 
 Dubois, Paul Antoine, baron, French physician, b. 1795. 
 Du Bosc, Pierre Thomines, French protestant minister, theologian, 
 
 orator, b. 1623, d. 1692. 
 Dubourcq, Picta Ludwig, Dutch painter and engraver, b. 1815. 
 Duboy de Laverne, Philippe Daniel, French printer, orientalist, 
 
 b. 1755, d. 1802. 
 
 Dubraw, John, Bohemian bp. of Olmitz, historian, diplomatist, d. 1553. 
 
 Dubray, Gabriel Vital, French sculptor, b. 1818. 
 
 Dubrunfaut, Augustin-Pierre, French chemist, b. 1797. 
 
 Duby, Pierre Anchor Tobiesen, Swiss archaeologist, linguist, medallist, 
 
 b. 1721, d. 1782. 
 Ducart, Isaac, Dutch painter, b. 1630, d. 1697. 
 
 Ducasse, Jean Baptiste, Fr. naval officer, gov. of St. Domingo, d. 1715. 
 Ducasse, P. Emmanuel Albert, Fr. milit. historian, critic, b. ab. 1815. 
 Duchal, James, D.D., Irish protestant dissenting minister, theologian, 
 
 b. 1697, d. 1761. 
 Duchat, Jacob le, French lawyer, editor, b. 1658, d. 1735. 
 Duchatel, Charles Marie Tanneguy, count, French statesman, promoter 
 
 of fine arts, b. 1803, d. 1867. 
 Duche, Jacob, D.D., American episcopal minister, loyalist, b. about 
 
 1738, d. 1794. 
 
 Duchesne, Joseph, French physician, medical writer, d. 1609. 
 Duchesnois, Josephine Rufin, French actress, b. 1777, d. 1835. 
 Ducie, Henry J. Reynolds Moreton, earl, Eng. economist, b. 1827. 
 Ducis, Jean Francois, French poet, dramatist, b. 1733, d. 1816. 
 Duck, Arthur, English jurist, biographer, b. 1580, d. 1649. 
 Duckett, Sir Geo., bart., Eng. administrator, economist, b. 1724, d. 1822. 
 Duckett, Sir George Floyd, bart., English publicist, author of 'Techno- 
 logical Military Dictionary,' b. 1811. 
 Duckett, Guillaume, French journalist, lexicographer, b. about 1805. 
 Duckwitz, Arnold, German economist, b. 1802. 
 
 Duckworth, Robert Robinson, English clergyman, philologist, b. 1834. 
 Ducoux, Francois Joseph, French physician, administrator, b. 1808, 
 d. 1873. 
 
 Ducq, Joseph F., Flemish historical and portrait painter, teacher, b. 
 1762, d. 1829. 
 
 Ducros. Pierre, Swiss engraver, painter, b. 1745, d. 1810. 
 Ducrow, Andrew, English equestrian performer, b. 1793, d. 1842. 
 Dudith, Andreas, Hungarian bishop, poet, biographer, mathematician, 
 
 b. 1533, d. 1589. 
 
 Dudley, Benjamin Winslow, American surgeon, successful operator for 
 
 stone, b. 1785. 
 
 Dudley, Dean, American antiquary, genealogist, biographer, b. 1823. 
 Dudley, Sir Henry Bate, bart, English ecclesiastic, journalist, 
 
 dramatist, b. 1745, d. 1824. 
 Dudley, John William Ward, earl of, English peer, statesman, critic, 
 
 6. 1781, d. 1833. 
 
 Dudley, Joseph, American statesman, governor of Massachusetts, 
 
 b. 1647, d. 1720. 
 
 Dudley, Paul, American chief justice of Massachusetts, naturalist, b. 
 1675, d. 1751. 
 
 Dudley, Sir Robert, English economist, improver of port of Leghorn, 
 b. 1573, d. 1630. 
 
 Dudley, Thomas, English governor of Massachusetts, b. 1576, d. 1652. 
 Duenz, Johann, Swiss painter, b. 1645, d. 1736. 
 Duer, John, LL.D., American jurist, biographer, b. 1782, d. 1858. 
 Duer, Wm. Alexander, Amer. judge, presid. Columbia college, b. 1780. 
 Dufau, Fortune, French painter, pupil of David, b. St. Domingo, d. 1821. 
 Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas, French statesman, jurist, b. 1798. 
 Duff, Robert William, Scotch naval officer, economist, M.P., b. 1835. 
 Dufferin, F. T. Blackwood, earl, Irish governor of the dominion of 
 
 Canada, author of travels, b. 1826. 
 Duffield, George, American presbyterian, theologian, b. 1732, d. 1790. 
 Duffield, George, American presbyterian, theologian, writer on 
 
 prophecy, b. 1794. 
 Duffield, Matthew Dawson, English clergyman, educationist, antiquary, 
 
 b. 1792, d. 1866. 
 
 Duffy, Sir Chas. Gavan, Irish journalist, statesm. in Victoria, b. 1816. 
 Duflos, Claude, French engraver, b. 1678, d. 1747. 
 Dufour, Alexandre, French architect, d. 1835. 
 Dufour, Auguste Henri, French geographer, b. about 1795. 
 Dufour, Leon, French naturalist, b. 1778, d. 1865. 
 Dufour, Selim Francois, Fr. journalist, musical critic, b. 1799, d. 1872. 
 Dufourny, Leon, French architect, b. 1734, d. 1818. 
 Dufresnoy, Nicolas Longlet, Fr. priest, historian, satirist, b. 1674, d. 1755. 
 Dufresny, Charles Riviere, French dramatist, facetious writer, 
 b, 1648, d. 1724. 
 
 Duganne, Augustine Joseph Hickey, Amer. poet, novelist, critic, b. 1823. 
 Dugard, Wm., Eng. schoolmaster, grammarian, painter, b. 1605. d. 1662. 
 Dugue, Charles Oscar, American barrister, author of poems and dramas 
 
 in the French language, b. 1821. 
 Duguet, Jacques Joseph, French theologian, b. 1694, d. 1733. 
 
81 DUIIAMRL. 
 
 Duhamel, Jean Marie Constant, French physicist, b. 1797, d. 1872. 
 Duigenan, Patrick, Irish jurist, political writer, b, 1735, d. 1816. 
 Duke, Sir James, bart., Scotch merchant in London, lord mayor 
 
 1848-9, M.P. for the city, b. 1792, d. 1873. 
 Duke, Richard, English ecclesiastic, poet, theologian, d. 1711. 
 Dulk, Friedrich Philip, German chemist, b. 1788. 
 Dullaert, Heyman, Dutch painter, b. 1636, d. 1684. 
 Dullo, Hermann Friedrich, Courland theologian, b. 1745, d. 1826. 
 Dulon, Louis, German flutist, musical composer, b. 1769, d. 1826. 
 Dulon, Rodolph, German controversial theologian, b. 1807. 
 Dumaniant, Jean Andre, French actor, dramatist, b. 1754, d. 1828. 
 Dumaresq, Daniel, D.D., Eng. eccles., educationist, b. 1710, d. 1805. 
 Dumaresq, Henry, English soldier, commissioner New South Wales, 
 
 b. 1792, d. 1838. 
 Dumas, Johann Baptist, German chemist, b. 1800. 
 Dumeril. Edelestand, French philologist, palaeontologist, b. ab. 1810. 
 Dumesnil. Marie Franchise, French tragedienne, b. 1713, d. 1803. 
 Dummer, Jeremiah, American agent in England, political and theological 
 
 writer, b. 1679, d. 1739. 
 Dummer, William, governor of Massachusetts, founder of Dummer 
 
 academy, b. 1679, d. 1761. 
 Dumont, George, French economist, historical writer, b. 1725, d. 1788. 
 Dumont, Jean, Fr. jurist, historian (Austrian baron Carlscroon), d. 1726. 
 Dumont, Pierre Etienne Louis, Swiss jurist, b. 1759, d. 1829. 
 Dunbar, David, Scotch sculptor, d. 1866. 
 
 Dunbar, George, Scotch philologist, Greek lexicographer, b. 1775, d. 1851. 
 
 Dunbar, E. Nugent, English traveller, naturalist, author of ' Beauties 
 of Tropical Scenery,' d. 1866. 
 
 Dunbar, William, American astronomer, naturalist, d. 1810. 
 
 Dunbar, Sir William, Scotch economist, b. 1812. 
 
 Duncan, Alex., D.D., Scotch presby t. min. , theolog., b. 1777, d. 1844. 
 
 Duncan, Andrew, Scotch physician, medical writer and lecturer, horti- 
 culturist, b. 1744, d. 182S. 
 
 Duncan, Andrew, Scotch physician, medical writer, b. 1773, d. 1832. 
 
 Duncan, Daniel, French protestant, physician in England, Germany, 
 Holland, writer on natural chemistry, b. 1649, d. 1735. 
 
 Duncan, Henry, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, economist, 
 naturalist, b. 1774, d. 1846. 
 
 Duncan, John, LL.D., Scotch presby t., orientalist, b. 1796, d. 1870. 
 
 Duncan, John, Scotch traveller in Africa, b. about 1810, d. 1849. 
 
 Duncan, Mark, Scotch metaphysician, b. about 1570, d. 1648. 
 
 Duncan, Philip Bury, D.C.L., English naturalist, antiquary, philan- 
 thropist, b. 1772, d. 18G3. 
 
 Duncan, Robert, Scotch presbyt. minister, bibl. critic, 6. 1699, d. 1729. 
 
 Duncan, Thomas, LL.D., Scotch mathematician, b. 1778, d. 1858. 
 
 Duncan, Thomas, Scotch painter, b. 1807, d. 1845. 
 
 Duncan, William, Scotch metaphysician, classicist, b. 1717, d. 1760. 
 
 Duncombe, John, English poet, antiquary, b. 1730, d. 1785-6. 
 
 Duncombe, Thomas Slingsby, English political reformer, b. 1796, d. 1861. 
 
 Duncombe, William, Eng. poet, dramatist, classicist, b. 1689-90, d. 1769. 
 
 Dundas, Sir David, Scotch writer on milit. manoeuvres, b. 1735, d. 1820. 
 
 Dundas, Sir David, Scotch barrister, M.P., b. 1799, d. 1867. 
 
 Dundas, Frederick, Scotch political reformer, b. 1802. 
 
 Dundas, George, Scotch judge (as lord Manor), b. 1803, d. 1869. 
 
 Dundas, J. C., English barrister, political reformer, b. 1808, d. 1866. 
 
 Dundas, Sir James Whitley Deans, bait., Scotch admiral, b. 1785, d. 1862. 
 
 Dundas, Sir Richard Saunders, Scotch admiral, b. 1802, d. 1861. 
 
 Dundas, Robert, of Arniston, Scotch judge, president of the court of 
 session, b. 1685, d. 1753. 
 
 Dundas, Robert, of Arniston, Scotch judge, president of the court of 
 session, b. 1713, d. 1787. 
 
 Dundonald, Archibald Cochrane, 9th earl of, Scotch scientific inventor, 
 chemist, agriculturist, b. 1748, d. 1831. 
 
 Dunfermline, James Abercromby, 1st baron, Scotch peer of the United 
 Kingdom, speaker of house of commons 1835-9, d. 1858: 
 
 Dunfermline, llalph Abercromby, 2nd baron, Scotch peer of the United 
 Kingdom, diplomatist, b. 1803, succeeded 1858. 
 
 Dungannon, Arthur Hill Trevor, 3rd viscount, Irish peer, historian, 
 V. 1798, succeeded 1837. 
 
 Dunglison, Robley, LL.D., English physician, in America, physiolo- 
 gist, medical writer, b. 1798, d. 1869. 
 
 Dunham, Josiah, American editor, orator, b. 1769, d. 1844. 
 
 Dunham, S. Astley, LL.D., English historian, biographer, d. 1858. 
 
 Dunkellin, Ulick Canning de Burgh, lord, Irish administrator, b. 1827, 
 d. 1867. 
 
 Dunker, H, German landscape painter, d. 1836. 
 Dunlap, John, Irish printer, publisher, in America, b. 1747, d. 1812. 
 Dunlap, Wm., Amer. painter, dramatist, biographer, b. 1766, d. 1839. 
 Dunlavy, Francis, Amer. judge, opponent of slavery, b. 1761, d. 1839. 
 Dunlop, Alexander, Scotch philologist, author of ' Greek Grammar,' 
 
 b. America 1684, d. 1742. 
 Dunlop, Alex. Murray, Scotch barrister, economist, b. 1799, d. 1870. 
 Dunlop, John, Scotch historical essayist, writer on temperance, b. 
 
 1789, d. 1868. 
 
 Dunlop, William, Scotch philologist, b. about 1645, d. 1700. 
 Dunlop, Wm., Scotch presby., theolog., hist, writer, b. 1692, d. 1720. 
 Dunmore, John Murray, earl of, last English governor of Virginia, 
 afterwards governor of Bermuda, d, 1809. 
 
 DUVERGIEIi. 82 
 
 Dunois, Jean, count of Orleans, Fr. military comm., b. 1402, d. 1468. 
 
 Dunraven, Edwin Richard Wyndham Windham Quin, 8rd earl of, 
 Irish peer, baron Kenry of United Kingdom, geologist, archaeo- 
 logist, astronomer, b. 1812, d. 1871. 
 
 Dunsany, Edward Plunkett, 16th lord, Irish peer, admiral, b. 1808. 
 
 Dunstable, John, English musician, astronomer, d. 1458. 
 
 Dunster, Charles, English clergyman, biblical critic, d. 1816. 
 
 Dunster, Henry, American orientalist, 1st president Harvard college, 
 1640-1654, b. England, d. 1658. 
 
 Dunten, Theodor von, Courland astronomer, b. 1644, d. 1685. 
 
 Du Pan, Ja-s. Mallett, Swiss political writer, b. 1749, d. England 1S00. 
 
 Dupaty, Charles Mercicr, French sculptor, b. 1771, d. 1825. 
 
 Duperron, Jacques Davv, Swiss protestant, became a roman catholic, 
 and a cardinal, b. 1556, d. 1618. 
 
 Du-Petit-Thouars, Abel Aubert, French admiral, b. 1793, d. 1864. 
 
 Dupin, Philippe, French jurist, b. 1795, d. 1846. 
 
 Dupleix, Scipion, French historiographer, b. 1566, d. 1661. 
 
 Duplessis, Joseph Sirfiede, French painter, b. 1725, d. 1802. 
 
 Duponceau, Poter Steph., LL.D., Fr. philolog., jurist, b. 1760, d. 1844. 
 
 Dupont, Gainsborough, English painter, d. 1797. 
 
 Dupont, Paul, French printer, b. 1796. 
 
 Dupont de Nemours, Pierre Samuel, Fr. economist, b. 1739, d. 1817. 
 Duport, James, D.D., Eng. ecclesiastic, philologist, b. 1606, d. 1679. 
 Duppa, Richard, English biographer, historian, botanist, art-critic, 
 
 6. 1766, d. 1831. 
 Duprat, Pierre Pascal, French publicist, I. 1815. 
 Dupre, Giovanni, Tuscan sculptor, b. 1817. 
 
 Dupre, John, D.D., English clergyman, teacher, theologian, b. 1752, 
 d. 1835. 
 
 Dupre de St. Maur, Nicolas Francois, French translator of Milton, 
 
 b. 1695, d. 1774. 
 Duprez, Madame, French singer, d. -1872. 
 Dupuis, Charles, French engraver, b. 1685, d. 1742. 
 Dupuis, Nicolas Gabriel, French engraver, b. 1696, d. 1770. 
 Dupuy du Grez, Bernard, French advocate, writer on painting, founder 
 
 of painting school at Toulouse, d. 1720. 
 Dupuytren, Guillaume le, baron, French anatomist, surgical operator, 
 
 b. 1781, d. 1835. 
 
 Duque Cornejo, Pedro, Spanish painter, engraver, sculptor, architect, 
 
 b. 1677, d. 1757. 
 Duquesne, Abraham, French naval officer, b. 1610, d. 1688. 
 Durand, Amedee, French sculptor, b. 1789, d. 1873. 
 Durand, Asher Brown, American painter, engraver, b. 1796. 
 Durand, David, D.D., French protestant preacher, Savoy church, 
 
 London ; theologian, historian, philologist, b. 1681, d. 1763. 
 Durandi, Giacomo, Italian poet, b. 1739, d. 1817. 
 Durando, Giacomo, Italian general, journalist, b. 1807, d. 1869. 
 Durant, Susan, English sculptor, d. 1873. 
 
 Durbin, J. P., D.D., American methodist theologian, mission secre- 
 tary, writer of travels, b. 1800. 
 
 Durel, John, D.D., minister of French church, Savoy, London, theo- 
 logical writer, b. Jersey 1625, d. 1683. 
 
 Durell, David, D.D., Eng. clergym., hebraist, b. Jersey 1728, d. 1775. 
 
 Durfee, Job, American poet, and judge, b. 1790, d. 1847. 
 
 Durham, James, Scotch presbyterian minister, theologian, biblical 
 expositor, b. 1622, d. 1658. 
 
 Durham, Sir Philip Charles Calderwood, Scotch admiral in West 
 Indies, b. 1763, d. 1845. 
 
 Durham, Wm., Eng. clergym., theolog., biograph., b. 1611, d. 1686. 
 
 Durivage, Francis Alexander, American historian, dramatist, b. 1814. 
 
 Durnford, Richard, D.D., Eng. theolog., bishop of Chichester, b. 1802. 
 
 Durno, James, English historical painter, b. 1750, d. 1795. 
 
 Durrand, Sir Henry Marion, Eng. administrator, India, b. 1811, d. 1871. 
 
 Durrant, Isaac, English clergyman, philanthropist, b. 1821, d. 1873. 
 
 Duruy, Victor, French statesman, historian, b. 1811. 
 
 Du Santoy, William Stevens Oliver, English clergyman, military 
 chaplain, b. 1809, d. 1866. 
 
 Dusevel, Francois Hyacinthe Guy, French archaeologist, b. 1796. 
 
 Dussard, Hippolyte, French economist, b. 1798. 
 
 Dussault, Jean Joseph, French critic, journalist, b. 1769, d. 1824. 
 
 Dussaulx, Jean, French writer against games of chance, and lotteries, 
 6. 1728, d. 1799. 
 
 Dussieux, Louis Etienne, French historian, geographer, b. 1815. 
 
 DuTerrail, Pierre Alexis Ponson, vicomte, Fr. dramat., b. 1799, d. 1870. 
 
 Dutton, Matthew Rice, Amer. mathemat, physicist, b. 1783, d. 1825. 
 
 Duval, Alexandre Vincent P., French philologist, b. 1767, d. 1842. 
 
 Duval, Ainaury, French artist, b. 1759, d. 1838. 
 
 Duval, Andre, French superior of Carmelites, ultramontane theologian, 
 b. 1564, d. 1638. 
 
 Duval, Jules, Fr. journalist, writer on colonial policy, b. 1813, d. 1S70. 
 Duval, Valentine Jameray, French numismatist, librarian at Vienna 
 
 originally a shepherd-boy, b. 1695, d. 1775. 
 Duvau, Auguste, French botanist, b. 1771, d. 1S31. 
 Du Veil, Charles Marie, D.D., French converted jew, baptist ministo 
 
 in England, biblical expositor, d. about 1700. 
 Duvenede, Mark van, Flemish historical painter, b. 1674, d. 1729. 
 Duverger, C, French architect, b. 1799, d. 1838. 
 Duvergier de Hauranne, Prosper, French statesman, b. 1798. 
 
 G 
 
83 
 
 DUVERNEY. 
 
 EDWARDS. 
 
 84 
 
 Duverney, Joseph Guichard, French anatomist, ft. 1648, d. 1730. 
 
 Duvernoy, Charles, French musician, vocalist, director, d. 1872. 
 
 Duyckinck, Evert Augustus, Amer. critic, bibliogr., essayist, ft. 1816. 
 
 Duyckinck, George Long, Amer. reviewer, biographer, b. 1823, d. 1803. 
 
 Duysing, Justin Gerhard, German physician, ft. 1705, d. 1761. 
 
 Dwarkanauth Tagore, Baboo, liberal Hindu merchant, d. 1846. 
 
 Dwight, Henry C, American writer of travels in Germany, d. 1832. 
 
 Dwight, Joseph, American general, judge, b. 1703, d. 1765. 
 
 Dwight, Sereno Edwards, D.D., American minister, teacher, biog- 
 rapher, b. 1785, d. 1850. 
 
 Dwight, Theodore, Amer. journalist, philanthropist, b. 1765, d. 1846. 
 
 Dyce, Archibald Brown, Scotch general, India, b. India 1800, d. 1866. 
 
 Dyce, Robert, Scotch professor of midwifery, b. 1798, d. 1869. 
 
 Dyckman, Jacob, American physician, pathologist, medical writer, 
 b. 1788, d. 1822. 
 
 Dyer, Charles, English architect, b. 1794, d. 1848. 
 
 Dyer, Sir Edward, English poet, chancellor of the order of the garter, 
 
 b. 1540, d. about 1610. 
 Dyer, Eliphalet, American judge, Connecticut, b. 1721, d. 1807. 
 Dyer, H. M. Willis, English botanist, b. 1777, d. 1841. 
 Dyer, Sir James, English chief justice of common pleas, speaker of 
 
 house of commons, b. 1512, d. 1581-2. 
 Dyer, Samuel, English orientalist, mathemat., b. about 1725, d. 1772. 
 Dyer, Thomas Webb, English physician, botanist, d. 1833. 
 Dyer, William, English nonconformist clergyman, ejected 1662, joined 
 
 the quakcrs, theological writer, b. 1636, d. 1696. 
 Dyke, Daniel, English puritan, theologian, d. about 1614. 
 Dymond, Jonathan, Eng. quaker, metaphysician, b. 1796, d. 1828. 
 Dymond, Joseph S., English quaker, philanthropist, b. 1764, d. 1809. 
 Dyson, David, English naturalist, b. 1823, d. 1856. 
 Dyxhoorn, Pieter Arnout, Dutch painter, b. 1810, d. 1839. 
 Dzierzon, Johann, German naturalist, cultivator of bees, b. 1811. 
 
 E 
 
 Eadie, John, D.D., Scotch presbyt. min., theolog., bibl.critic, b. 1813. 
 
 Eames, John, English mathematician, physicist, d. 1744. 
 
 Eardley, Sir Culling Eardley, Eng. econo., philanthr. b. 1805, d. 1863. 
 
 Eardley-Wilmot, Arthur Parry, English naval commander, writer on 
 naval discipline and reform, and on signals, b. 1815. 
 
 Eardley-Wilmot, Sir John, English judge of king's bench 1755, chief- 
 justice 1766-71 ; b. 1709, d. 1792. 
 
 Eardley-Wilmot, John, Eng. jurist, horticult., M.P., b. 1748, d. 1815. 
 
 Eardley-Wilmot, Sir Jehn Eardley, bart., English jurist, writer on 
 parliamentary and law reform, biographer, d. 1810. 
 
 Earl, Jabez, D.D., Eng. dissent, min., theolog., poet, b. 1676, d. 1768. 
 
 Earl, Sir James, English surgeon, writer on surgery, b. 1744, d. 1817. 
 
 Earle, James, American portrait painter, d. 1796. 
 
 Earle, John, Eng. bp. Salisbury, essayist, translator, b. 1601, d. 1665. 
 
 Earle, Ralph, American portrait painter, b. 1751, d. 1801. 
 
 Earle, Eichard T., American chief judge, Maryland, b. 1767, d. 1843. 
 
 Earle, William Benson, English physicist, writer on earthquakes, 
 philanthropist, 6. 1740, d. 1796. 
 
 Early, Peter, American state governor 1813-15, judge supreme court, 
 Georgia, d. 1817. 
 
 Eason, Alexander, English military surgeon, medical writer, d. 1796. 
 
 Eastburn, James Wallis, American minister, poet, b. 1797, d. 1819. 
 
 Eastburn, Jeremiah, American preacher to seamen, b. 1748, d. 1828. 
 
 Eastburn, Manton, D.D., American protestant bishop, theologian, 
 biblical critic, b. England 1801. 
 
 Easthope, Sir John, bt., Eng. polit. reformer, journal., b. 1784, d. 1865. 
 
 Eastman, Charles Gamage, American journalist, poet, b. 1816. 
 
 Eastman, Mrs. Mary H., American novelist, writer on American 
 Indians, b. about 1810. 
 
 Easton, John, American governor Rhode Island 1690-5; b. 1620, d. 1705. 
 
 Easton, Nicholas, Eng. governor Rhode Island 1650-5; b. 1592, </. 1675. 
 
 Eaton, Amos, Amer. geologist, mineralogist, lecturer, b. 1776, d. 1842. 
 
 Eaton, Cyrus, American teacher, poet, annalist (blind), ft. 1784. 
 
 Eaton, Daniel Isaac, English sceptical writer, d. 1804. 
 
 Eaton, John, English antinomiau theologian, ft. 1575, d. 1641. 
 
 Eaton, John Henry, American general, biographer, 6. 1786, d. 1856. 
 
 Eaton, Joseph, English merchant, philanthropist, temperance re- 
 former, ft. 1792, d. Bristol 1858. 
 
 Eaton, Joshua, American lawyer, minister, theologian, d. 1772. 
 
 Eaton, Samuel, American minister, physician, ft. 1737, d. 1822. 
 
 Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims, French theologian, d. 851. 
 
 Ebedjesu, Bar Brika, Nestorian bishop of Nisobis 1286, writer on 
 church canons and orders, d. 1318. 
 
 Eberhard, Conrad, Bavarian artist, professor, ft. 1766, d. 1836. 
 
 Eberhard, John Augustiu, Swedish theologian, philosophical writer, 
 ft. 1727, d. 1796. 
 
 Ebers, Emilius, German painter, ft. 1807. 
 
 Ebert, Johann Arnoldus, German poet, philologist, ft. 1725, d. 1795. 
 
 Ebert, Karl Egon, Hungarian lyric poet, dramatist, ft. 1801. 
 
 Eberus, Paul, Ger. theologian, ecclesiastical reformer, ft. 1511, d. 1589. 
 
 Eberwein, Carl, German musician, ft. 1787, d. 1868. 
 
 Ebrard, Johann Heinrich Aug., Germ, protestant theolog., ft. 1818. 
 
 Ebury, Robert Grosvenor, 1st baron ; English peer of the United 
 
 Kingdom, philanthropist, church reformer, ft. 1801. 
 Ecchellensis, Abraham, Maronite orientalist, translator, ft. Syria, 
 
 d. Italy 1664. 
 
 Eccles, Ambrose, Irish philologist, Shaksperian critic, d. 1809. 
 Eccles, John, English musical composer, d. 1735. 
 Eccleston, Thomas, English agricultural improver, ft. 1751, d. 1809. 
 Echardt, Johann Giles, German portrait painter, in England, d. 1779. 
 Echinus, Sebastiano, Venetian noble, writer on medals, d. 1585. 
 Eckford, Henry, American naval constructor, b. Scotland 1775, 
 
 d. Constantinople 1832. 
 Eckhard, Johann, French philologist, bibliographer, 6. 1723, d. 1794. 
 Eckhard, Johann Georg, German antiquary, historian, ft. 1674, d. 1730. 
 Ecking, Samuel, English baptist theologian, ft. 1757, d. 1785. 
 
 Eckley, Joseph, D.D., American minister, theolog., ft. 1750, d. 1811. 
 Ecluse, Karl, Flemish botanist, ft. 1526, d. 1609. 
 Eddy, John H., American geographer (deaf mute), ft. 1784, d. 1817. 
 Eddy, Thomas, American merchant, philanthropist, ft. 1758, d. 1827. 
 Edelcrantz-Clewberg, Abraham Nieldo, baron, Swedish economist, 
 
 physicist, ft. 1754, d. 1821. 
 Edema, Gerard, Dutch landscape painter, in England, ft. 1652, d. 1700. 
 Edema, Nikolas, Dutch landscape painter, ft. 1666, d. London 1722. 
 Eden, Hon. Emily, English writer on India, ft. 1797, d. 1869. 
 Eden, Sir Frederic Morton, English statistical writer, d. 1809. 
 Eden, Robert, English clergyman, teacher, theologian, 6. 1803. 
 Eden, Robert, D.D., English bishop of Moray in Scottish episcopal 
 
 church 1851 ; ft. about 1804. 
 Eden, Robert John, D.D., English bishop of Bath and Wells, 3rd lord 
 
 Auckland, biographer, ft. 1799, d. 1869. 
 Edenborough, W., English physician, 6. 1780, d. 1865. 
 Eder, Georg, German roman catholic theologian, rector of university of 
 
 Vienna, ft. 1524, d. 1586. 
 Eder, William, American physician, biographer, ft. 1809. 
 Edes, Benjamin, American printer, journalist, ft. 1723, d. 1803. 
 Edgar, King of Scotland, succeeded 1098, d. 1107. 
 Edgeworth, Roger, English chancellor of Wells, roman catholic theo- 
 logian, d. about 1560. 
 Edhem Pasha, Turkish statesman, 6. about 1823. 
 Edinburgh, Alfred Ernest Albert, duke of, prince of Saxe Coburg and 
 
 Gotha, English prince, captain R.N., ft. 1844. 
 Edinburgh, Marie Alexandrovna, duchess of, only daughter of 
 
 Alexander II., emperor of Russia, ft. 1856, married 1874. 
 Edlin, Peter Henry, English judge, Middlesex sessions, ft. 1819. 
 Edmond, John, D.D., Scotch prcsbyterian minister, theologian, in 
 
 London, 6. 1820. 
 
 Edmondes, Sir Clement, English remembrancer of city of London, 
 
 editor of Ca;sar's Commentaries, ft. 1566, d. 1622. 
 Edmondes, Sir Thomas, Eng. statesman, diplomatist, ft. 1563, d, 1639. 
 Edmonds, John Worth, American jurist, judge supreme court 
 
 1847-53 : ft. 1799. 
 Edmondson, Henry, Eng. schoolmaster, philologist, J. 1607, d. 1659. 
 Edmondson, Joseph, English barber, afterwards heraldic painter, 
 
 genealogist, d. 1786. 
 Edmonstone, Sir Archibald, bt., Scotch poet, trav., ft. 1795, d. 1871. 
 Edmund, St., king of East Anglia 855, martyred 870. 
 Edmund, St., Eng. archbp. of Canterbury, logician, theolog., d. 1242. 
 Edridge, Henry, Eng. landsc. and miniature painter, J. 1768, d. 1821. 
 Edwardes, Richard, English diplomatist, ft. 1807, d. 1866. 
 Edwards, Amelia Blandford, Eng. novelist, magazine writer, ft. 1831. 
 Edwards, Bela Bates, D.D., American editor, biographer, biblical 
 
 critic, ft. 1803, d. 1852. 
 Edwards, Edward, English teacher of perspective, at Royal Academy, 
 
 biographer of painters, ft. 1738, d. 1806. 
 Edwards, Edward, Eng. bibliographer, biographer, educationist, ft. 1812. 
 Edwards, George, Eng. physician, naturalist, traveller, ft. 1694, d. 1773. 
 Edwards, GuiUaume Frederic, French naturalist, ft. Jamaica 1777, 
 
 d. Versailles 1842. 
 Edwards, H. Sutherland, English novelist, biographer, translator, 
 
 writer on Russia, 6. 1820. 
 Edwards, John, D.D., English clergyman, calvinist theologian, 
 
 ft. 1637, d. 1716. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, D.D., Welsh clergyman, in England, theologian, 
 ft. 1629, d. 1712. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, D.D., American theologian, philologist, son of 
 
 1st president Edwards, ft. 1745, d. 1801. 
 Edwards, Jonathan W., American barrister, orator, ft. 1772, d. 1831. 
 Edwards, Justin, D.D., American minister, secretary to temperance 
 
 society, biblical expositor, ft. 1786, d. 1853. 
 Edwards, Morgan, American baptist minister, theologian, historian, 
 
 ft. Wales 1722, d. 1795. 
 
85 EDWARDS. 
 
 Edwards, Pierrepont, American statesman, ji.ugc, b. 1750, d. 1826. 
 Edwards, Richard, Eng. clergym., poet, dramatist, b. 1523, d. 1565-6. 
 Edwards, Thomas, English preshyterkn minister, writer against in- 
 dependency, d. Holland 1647. 
 Edwards,Thomas,Eng. barrister, poet, Shakspcrian critic, i.l 699, riU 757. 
 Edwards, Thomas, D.D., English clergyman, arminian theologian, 
 
 biblical translator, b. 1729, d. 1785. 
 Edwards, Tryon, D.D., American theologian, biographer, editor, writer 
 
 for youth, b. 1809. 
 Edwards, William, Welsh mason, bridge builder, b. 1719, d. 1789. 
 Edwards, William, American colonel, manufacturer, temperance 
 
 advocate, religious teacher, b. 1770, d. 1851. 
 Edwin, John, English comedian, b. 1749, d. 1794. 
 Eelles, Samuel, American minister, physician, b. 1745, d. 1808. 
 Egbert, Anglo-Saxon archbishop of York, b. 678, d. 766. 
 Egede, Paul, son and assistant of Hans Egede, Moravian missionary in 
 
 Greenland, philologist, grammarian, d. 1789. 
 Egerton, Daniel, English landscape painter, d. Mexico, 1842. 
 Egerton, John, English bishop of Durham, b. 1721, d. 1787. 
 Eggeling, Johann Heinrich, Ger. antiq., philologist, b. 1639, d. 1713. 
 Egger, Emile, French hellenist, classical antiquary, b. 1813. 
 Egilssohn, Dr. S., Icelandic translator of classics, d. 1852. 
 Eginton, Francis, English painter on glass, b. 1737, d. 1805. 
 Eginton, Harvey, English architect and glass painter, b. 1809, d. 1849. 
 Eglinton and Win ton, Archibald William Montgomery, 13th earl of, 
 
 Scotch statesman, lord lieutenant of Ireland, b. 1812, d. 1861. 
 Egmont, John Perceval, 1st earl of, Irish peer, statesman, biographer, 
 
 first president of Georgia, b. 1638, d. 1748. 
 Egmont, John Perceval, 2nd earl of, Irish peer, political writer, 
 
 b. 1711, d, 1770. 
 Egnazio, Battista, Italian classical biographer, b. 1473, d. 1553. 
 Egressy, Gabriel, Hungarian actor, b. 1810, d. 1866. 
 Ehninger, John Whetton, American painter, art designer, b. 1827. 
 Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried, German naturalist, b. 1795. 
 Ehrenstal, David Clocker de, Swedish portrait and historical painter, 
 
 b. 1629, d. 1698. 
 
 Ehret, Georg Dionysius, German botanical painter, in England, b. 1710, 
 d. 1770. 
 
 Eichberg, Julius, Germ. mus. comp., teacher, in America, b. 1825. 
 Eichens, Philip Hermann, Prussian engraver, lithographer, b. 1811. 
 Eichhoff, Frederic-Gustave, Fr. orientalist, professor, author, b. 1799. 
 Eichthal, Gustave d\ French publicist, b. 1804. 
 
 Eichwald, Edward, Russian pnysician, traveller, philologist, palceon- 
 tologist, b. 1795. 
 
 Eimmaert, Georg Christoph, Germ, painter, engraver, b. 1638, tf.1705. 
 
 Eisen, Francis, Flemish engraver, b. 1700, d. 1777. 
 
 Eisenmenger, Johann Andreas, German writer on jewish traditions, 
 
 b. 1654, d. 1704. 
 Ekels, Jan, Dutch painter, b. 1724, d. 1781. 
 
 Elbee.Gigot d', Fr. military leader of Vendeans, 1793 ; b. 1752, d. 1794. 
 Elcho, Francis Wemyss Charteris, lord, Scotch legislator, administrator, 
 
 president National Rifle Association, b. 1818. 
 Elias, Matthams, German painter, at Dunkirk, b. 1658, d. 1741. 
 Eliot, Andrew, D.D., American theologian, b. 1719, d. 1778. 
 Eliot, Charles, D.D., American methodist minister, theologian, in 
 
 Ireland, b. 1792. 
 
 Eliot, Jared, Amer. physician, theologian, physicist, b. 1685, d. 1763. 
 Eliot, John, D.D., Amer. theologian, antiq. ,biographer,6. 1754,rf. 1813. 
 Eliot, Samuel, American historian, biographer, b. 1821. 
 Eliot, Thomas, English philologist, d. 1546. 
 
 Elis, John, Welsh clergym., writer on thcthirty-nine articles, d. 1665. 
 Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia, English princess, eldest daughter of 
 
 James I., and mother of Sophia, electress of Hanover, b. 1596, d. 1662. 
 Elkins, William Henry, 'English bookseller, antiq., b. 1805, d. 1864. 
 Ellenrieder, Maria, German painter, b. 1791, d. 1863. 
 Ellerton, John Lodge, English amateur musical composer, d. 1873. 
 Ellery, William, American statesman, astronomer, educationist, 
 
 enemy of slavery, b. 1727, d. 1820. 
 Ellesmere, Francis Charles Granville Egerton, 3rd earl of, British peer, 
 
 promoter of art and literature, b. 1847. 
 Ellet, Charles, jun., American engineer, economist, constructor of 
 
 steam rams 1855 ; b. 1810, d. 1862. 
 Ellet, William Henry, American physician, chemist, b. 1804, d. 1859. 
 Ellet, Mrs. W. H. (Elizabeth Fries Lummis), American novelist, 
 
 essayist, biographer, b. 1818. 
 Ellice, Edward, English statesman, b. N. York 1783, d. 1862. 
 Ellice, Edward, Scotch magistrate, political reformer, M.P., b. 1810. 
 Ellicot, Andrew, American mathematician, astronomer, civil engineer, 
 
 b. 1754, d. 1820. 
 
 Ellicott, CharlesJohn, D.D., Eng. bishop of Gloucester, theolog.,&.1810. 
 Elliger, Ottoman, the younger, Dutch painter, b. 1666, d. 1732. 
 Elliot, Sir Charles, K.C. B., Scotch diplom., colonial governor, b. 1801. 
 Elliot, Sir George, Scotch admiral, b. 1784, d. 1862. 
 Elliot, Sir Gilbert, Scotch politician, orator, song writer, d. 1777. 
 Elliot, Gilbert, D.D., Scotch dean of Bristol, theologian, b. 1800. 
 Elliot, W., English engraver, b. 1727, d. 1766. 
 
 Elliott, Charles, D.D., Irish methodist minister, in America, editor, 
 philologist, theological writer, b. 1792. 
 
 EMPIS. 80 
 
 Elliott, Charles Lorfng, American portrait painter, b. 1812, d. 1868. 
 Elliott, Charles Wyllys, American horticulturist, a founder of Children's 
 
 Aid Society, historical writer, b. 1817. 
 Elliott, Edward Bishop, Eng. clergyman, writer on prophecy, b. 1795. 
 Elliott, Frank R., American horticultural writer, b. 1817. 
 Elliott, Hon. Henry George, Scotch diplomatist, b. 1817. 
 Elliott, Sir Henry Miers, English orientalist, historian of India, b. 1809, 
 
 d. 1854. 
 
 Elliott, Jonathan, Amer. printer, politician, b. England 1784, d. 1846. 
 
 Elliott, Stephen, LL.D., American banker, botanist, b. 1771, d. 1830. 
 
 Elliott, William, Amer. soldier, senator, philanthropist, b. 1761,^.1808. 
 
 Elliott, William, American senator, agriculturist, economist, b. 1788. 
 
 Ellis, Clement, English ecclesiastic, poet, theologian, b. 1630, d. 1700. 
 
 Ellis, George Edward, D.D., American unitarian professor, editor, 
 biographer, b. 1815. 
 
 Ellis, Henry, Eng. arctic explorer, colonial governor, b. 1721, d. 1806. 
 
 Ellis, John, English poet, b. 1698, d. 1791. 
 
 Ellis, John, English naturalist, 6. 1710, d. 1776. 
 
 Ellis, John M., American pastor, educationist, b. 1793, d. 1855. 
 
 Ellis, Thomas Flower, English judge, educationist, b. 1796, d. 1861. 
 
 Ellisson, Adolph, German poet, historian, critic, b. 1815. 
 
 Elliston, W. G., English journalist, b. 1799, d. Hobart Town 1873. 
 
 Ellman, John, Eng. critic, agriculturist, sheep farmer, b. 1787, d. 1867. 
 
 Ellsworth, Oliver, LL.D., American chief justice, diplomatist, philan- 
 thropist, b. 1745, d. 1807. 
 
 Ellwood, Thomas, English quaker, theologian, poet, autobiographer, 
 b. 1639, d. 1713. 
 
 Ellys, Anthony, D.D., English bishop of St. David's, theologian, 
 b. 1693, d. 1761. 
 
 Ellys, Sir Richard, baronet, English biblical critic, antiquary, 
 
 philanthropist, M.P. 1715-34, d. 1741-2. 
 Elmsley, William, English barrister, county court judge, b. 1797, 
 
 d. Derby 1866. 
 
 Elmsly, Peter, Scotch bookseller, in London, b. 1736, d. 1802. 
 Elphinston, James, Scotch teacher in London, poet, advocate of 
 
 phonetic orthography, b. 1721, d. 1809. 
 Elphinstone, Sir James Dalrymple Horn, bart., Scotch administrator, 
 
 M.P., b. 1805. 
 
 Elphinstone, Mountstuart, Scotch governor of Bombay, promoter of 
 native education, author of 'History of India,' b. 1778, d. 1860. 
 
 Elrington, Thomas, D.D., Irish protestant bishop of Ferns, writer on 
 christian evidences, mathematician, editor of Euclid, d. 1835. 
 
 Elsholtz, Franz von, German dramatic poet, b. 1791, d. 1872. 
 
 Eisner, Jacobus, D.D., Prussian theologian, orientalist, b. 1692, d. 1750. 
 
 Eisner, Johann Gottfried, German economist, b. 1784. 
 
 Elssler, Fanny, Viennese theatrical dancer 1830-51, b. 1811. 
 
 Elssler, Theresa, V.iennese public dancer 1830-51, b. 1808. 
 
 Elsynge, Henri, English jurist, clerk of house of commons, writer on 
 parliament, b. 1598, d. 1654. 
 
 Elton, Sir Arthur Hallam, bart., English economist, writer on social 
 questions, b. 1818. 
 
 Elton, Sir C. A., bart., English classicist, b. 1778, d. 1853. 
 
 Elton, Romeo, D.D., American baptist minister, theologian, orientalist, 
 in England, b. 1792, d. 1870. 
 
 Elvius, Peder, Swedish mathematician, b. 1710, d. 1749. 
 
 Elwart, Antoine Amable jjlic, French musical composer, writer on 
 harmony, b. 1808. 
 
 Elwin, Whitwell, English clergyman, critic, editor of Pope, b. 1816. 
 
 Elwyn, Richard, Eng. clergym., master of Charterhouse school, b. 1827. 
 
 Ely, David, D.D., American minister, theologian, b. 1749, d. 1816. 
 
 Ely, Ezra Styles, American presbyterian minister, journalist, meta- 
 physician, b. 1786, d. 1861. 
 
 Emanuel, king of Portugal, promoted maritime discovery and com- 
 mercial intercourse with Africa, succeeded 1495, d. 1521. 
 
 Embury, Mrs. (Emma Catherine Mauley), American poetess, novelist, 
 b. 1806, d. 1863. 
 
 Emdin, John, English ballad composer, b. 1784, d. Bristol 1827. 
 
 Emerson, George Barrett, American teacher, naturalist, lecturer on 
 education, b. 1797. 
 
 Emerson, William, American minister, hymn writer, editor, 
 b. 1769, d. 1811. 
 
 Emery, John, Eng. actor, chiefly in rustic characters, b. 1777, d. 1S22. 
 Emiliana-Giudici, Paolo, Sicilian historian, political reformer, editor 
 
 of Dante, b. 1812, d, England 1872. 
 Emin, Muklis Effendi, Turkish statesman, b. 1811. 
 Emly, William Monsell, baron, Irish peer of United Kingdom 1874 ; 
 
 administrator, postmaster-general 1872-74 ; b. 1812. 
 Emmett, Robert, Irish barrister, Secretary of United Irishmen, b. 1780, 
 
 executed for treason 1803. 
 Emmett, Thomas Addis, Irish barrister 1791, a leader of United 
 
 Irishmen ; American barrister 1804 ; b. 1764, d. 1827. 
 Emmons, Ebenezer, American geologist, physician, b. 1799, d. 1S63. 
 Emmons, Nathaniel, D. D., American theologian, b. 1745, d. 1840. 
 Empis, Adolphc Dominique Florent Joseph Simonis, French dramatist, 
 
 b. 1795, d. 1868. 
 Empis, Madame A. D., French landscape painter, b. 1S09. 
 Empis, M. S. Georges Simonis, French physician, medical Writer, 
 
 b. about 1829. 
 
 a 2 
 
87 
 
 EMPSON. 
 
 88 
 
 Empson, "William, English clergyman, critic, editor of ' Edinburgh 
 
 Review,' b. 1790, d. 1852. 
 Endecott, John, English administrator, 1st governor of Massachusetts, 
 
 b. 1590, d. 1665. 
 
 Engel, Christian Gottlieb F., Germ, mathemat., artist, b. 1805, d. 1866. 
 Engel, Johann Jakob, German philosophical writer, b. 1711, d. 1802. 
 Engelstoft, Christian Thorning, Danish theologian, secretary of 
 
 Danish Bible society, b. 1805. 
 Enghien, Louis, prince of Conde, due d', Fr. general, b. 1621, d. 1686. 
 England, John, D. D., American roman catholic bishop, writer on 
 
 slavery, b. 1785, d. 1842. 
 England, Sir Richard, Canadian general (in Caffraria, India, Crimea), 
 
 b. 1793. 
 
 Englefield, Sir Henry Charles, English philologist, chemist, antiquary, 
 
 astronomer, b. 1752, d. 1822. 
 Engleheart, Francis, English engraver, b. 1776, d. 1849. 
 English, George 15., American sceptical writer, b. 1788, d. 1828. 
 English, Thomas Dunn, Amcr. physician, ballad writer, dramat.,M819. 
 Engstroem, John, Norwegian physician, poet, traveller, b. 1794. 
 Ennis. John James, Irish magistrate, political reformer, b. 1842. 
 Enslen, Johann Karl, German panorama painter, 1758, d. 1848. 
 Ent, Sir George, English physician, medical writer, b. 1601, d. 1689. 
 Entick, John, Eng. clergyman, grammarian, historian, b. 1713, d. 1773. 
 Epifanio, Raimondi, Neapolitan historical painter, h. 1440, d. 1482. 
 Epps, James, English astronomer, b. 1774, d. 1839. 
 Epps, John, English homreopathic physician, medical writer, d. 1869. 
 Erben, Charles Jaromer, Bohemian historian, b. 1811. 
 Erbstein, M. K. F. "W\, Saxon antiquary, numismatist, b. 1757, d- 1836. 
 Erdelyi, John, Hungarian poet, novelist, b. 1814. 
 Erdeswicke, Sampson, English antiquary, d. 1603. 
 Erdmann, Axel Joachim, Swcd. mincralog., geolog., b. 1814, d. 1869. 
 Erdmann, Otto Linne, Saxon writer on chemistry, b. 1804, d. 1869. 
 Eremita, Daniel, Flemish jurist, secretary to duke of Florence, 1613. 
 Erie, Sir William, English chief justice of common pleas, b. 1793. 
 Ernest Augustus, English prince, duke of Cumberland, king of 
 
 Hanover 1837, b. 1799, d. 1851. 
 Ernst I., Anton Karl Ludwig, duko of Saxc-Coburg-Gotha, father of 
 
 Albert, Prince Consort, b. 1784, d. 1844. 
 Ernst II., duke of Saxc-Coburg-Gotha, b. 1818, succ. 1844. 
 Ernst, H. W., German musician, b. 1814, d. 1865. 
 Errante, Giuseppe, Sicilian historical painter, writer on painting, 
 
 b. 1760, d. 1821. 
 Erskine, Hon. Andrew, Scotch poet, critic, b. 1739, d. 1793. 
 Erskine, David, of Dun, Scotch judge of supreme court, writer on law, 
 
 b. 1670, d. 1755. 
 
 Erskine, David Montague, baron, English diplomatist, b. 1777, d. 1855. 
 Erskine, Henry, Scotch prcsbyteriau minister, biblical expositor, 
 b. 1624, d. 1696. 
 
 Erskine, Henry, Scotch lord advocate, publicist, orator, b. 17S6, 
 d. 1817. 
 
 Erskine, John, of Dun, Scotch ecclesiastical reformer, b. 1508, d. 1591. 
 Erskine, John, Scotch jurist, author of ' Institutes of the law of 
 
 Scotland,' b. 1695, d. 1768. 
 Erskine, John Elphinstone, Scotch admiral, M.P. 1865-73 ; b. 1806. 
 Erskine, Robert, Scotch geographer, surveyor-general to the U. States 
 
 army, b. 1735, d. 1780. 
 Erskine, T. Americus Erskine, 3rd baron, Brit, peer, diplomat., b. 1802. 
 Erskine, Thomas, of Linlathen, Scotch theologian, b. 1789, d. 1870. 
 Erslew, Thomas Hansen, Danish philologist, biographer, b. 1803. 
 Erving, John, American merchant, royalist, b. Scotland 1692, d. 1786. 
 Erxleben, Johann Christian Folycarp, German physician, naturalist, 
 
 b. 1744, d. 1777. 
 
 Esaad Eftendi, Mohammed, Turkishhistor., diplomatist, judge, b. 1790. 
 Escalante, Juan Antonio, Spanish historical painter, b. 1630, d. 1706. 
 Escayrac de Lauture, comte d', French orientalist, traveller, b. 1822, 
 d. 1868. 
 
 Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio, Spanish jesuit preacher, theologian, 
 
 b. 1589, d. 1669. 
 Escoiquiz, Juan, Spanish historian, diplomatist, b. 1762, d. 1820. 
 Escosura, Patricio de la, Spanish statesman, poet, dramatist, b. 1807. 
 Esling, Mrs. (Catherine Waterman), American poetess, b. 1812. 
 Esmenard, Joseph Alphonse, French poet, dramatist, politician, 
 
 b. 1770, d. 1811. 
 
 Esmonde, Sir John, bart., Irish barrister, administrator, M.P., b. 1826. 
 Esper, Johann Friedrich, German naturalist, astron., b. 1732, d. 1781. 
 Espercieux, J. J., French sculptor, b. 1758, d. 1840. 
 Espinasse, Esprit Charles Marie, French general, b. 1815, d. 1859. 
 Espinosa, Giacinto Geronimo de, Spanish historical painter, b. 1600, 
 d. 1680. 
 
 Espremenil, Jacques Duval d', French royalist, statesman, d. 1793. 
 Espronceda, Jose de, Spanish lyric poet, b. 1801, d. 1842. 
 Essen, Peter, count, Russian general, .statesman, b. 1780. 
 Esser, Heinrieh, German musician, opera director, b. 1819, d. 1872. 
 Estcourt, Richard, English comic actor, b. 1668, d. 1713. 
 Estcourt, Thomas S. SotheranB., English administrator, b. 1801. 
 Esterhazy, Prince Paul Antoine, Hungarian diplomatist, statesman, 
 b. 1786, d. 1866. 
 
 Estius, William, D.D., Dutch biblical commentator, b. 1542, d. 1613. 
 
 Estlin, John Prior, LL. D., English dissenting minister, philologist, 
 
 theologian, b. 1766, d. 1817. 
 Etex, Antoine, French sculptor, b. 1808. 
 Etex, Louis Jules, French painter, b. about 1810. 
 Ettmuller, Ernst Maurice Ludwig, German philologist, b. 1802. 
 Eu, prince Louis Philippe M. F. G., comte d', son of due de Nemours, 
 
 French general in Brazilian army, b. 1842. 
 Eudes-Deslongchamps, Jacques Amand, French naturalist, b. about 
 
 1800, d. 1867. 
 
 Eugenie, Bernardino Desiree Clary, queen of Sweden and Norway, 
 b. 1781, d. 1861. 
 
 Eugenie de Montijos, Spanish countess of Teha, b. 1826, married to 
 Emperor Napoleon III. of France 1853, deposed 1870. 
 
 Eugenius Carthaginensis, bishop of Carthage 480 ; banished for 
 teaching the doctrine of the Trinity 484 ; d. 505. 
 
 Eugenius Toletanus, archbp. of Toledo 646 ; thcolog., poet, d. 657. 
 
 Euler, Johann Albrccht, German mathematician, b. St. Petersburg 
 1734, d. 1800. 
 
 Euler, Karl, Germ, physician, astron., b. St. Petersburg 1740, d. 1766. 
 Eulogius Alexandrinus, St., patriarch of Alexandria 581 ; d. ab. 608. 
 Eusden, Laurence, English clergyman, poet laureate, d. 1730. 
 Eustace, John Skey, American general, and author, b. 1762, d. 1805. 
 Evans, Augusta J. (Mrs. Wilson), American novelist, b. 1836. 
 Evans, Caleb, D.D., English baptist minister, Bristol, theologian, 
 
 writer on American colonies, b. 1737, d. 1791. 
 Evans, David Meyrick, English baptist minister, biographer, critic, 
 
 b. 1827, d. 1870. 
 
 Evans, David Morier, English journalist, critic, writer on commerce 
 
 and banking, b. 1819, d. 1874. 
 Evans, Evan, Welsh clergyman, poet, b. 1730, d. 1790. 
 Evans, Frederick Mullett, English printer, publisher of Punch, b. 
 
 1804, d. 1870. 
 Evans, Hugh Davy, LL.D., American jurist, b. 1792. 
 Evans, James Harrington, English clergyman, afterwards baptist 
 
 minister, preacher, theologian, b. 1785, d. 1849. 
 Evans, John, Welsh dissenting minister, in London, theologian, b. 
 
 1680, d. 1730. 
 
 Evans, John, AVelsh baptist minister, in London, theologian, author 
 of a ' Sketch of Religious Denominations,' b. 1767, d. 1827. 
 
 Evans, John, Welsh congregat. minister, preacher, b. 1779, d. 1862. 
 
 Evans, Joshua, English commissioner in bankruptcy, b. 1782, d. 1864. 
 
 Evans, Nathaniel, American poet, episcopalian missionary, New Jersey, 
 d. 1767. 
 
 Evans, Oliver, American ironfounder, writer on engineering, b. 1755, 
 
 d. 18T.9. 
 
 Evans, Richard, Welsh merchant in London, philanthropist, b. 
 
 1792, d. 1832. 
 
 Evans, Rbt. Harding, Eng. antiq., book auctioneer, b. 1777, d. 1857. 
 Evans, Robert Wilson, English ecclesiastic, theologian, biographer, 
 
 b. 1789, d. 1866. 
 Evans, Thomas, English publisher, b. 1738, d. 1803. 
 Evans, Thomas, Eng. publisher, literary antiquary, b. 1742, d. 1784. 
 Evans, William, English painter in water colours, b. 1809, d. 1858. 
 Evans, William Edward, English ecclesiastic, poet, naturalist, b. 
 
 1801, d. 1869. 
 
 Evanson, Edward, English clergyman 1768 ; resigned 1778 ; writer 
 
 against doctrine of Trinity ; b. 1731, d. 1805. 
 Evarts, Jeremiah, American missionary secretary, religious writer, 
 
 editor, b. 1781, d. 1831. 
 Eveleigh, John, D.D., Eng. clergyman, theologian, b. 1747, d. 1814. 
 Evelyn, Sir George Augustus William Shuckburgh, bart., English 
 
 legislator, physicist, b. 1751, d. 1804. 
 Evelyn, John, English poet, author of Greek poem, translator, b. 
 
 1654, d. 1698. 
 
 Everard, Johannes Secundus, Dutch poet, latin secretary to Charles 
 
 V., 6. 1511, d. 1536. 
 Everardi, Angelo, the Fleming, I tab battle painter, b. 1647, d. 1678. 
 Everdingen, Qesar van, Dutch painter and architect, b. 1606, d. 1679. 
 Eversley, Charles Shaw Lefevre, 1st viscount, English peer of United 
 
 Kingdom ; speaker of house of commons 1839-57 ; b. 1794. 
 Exelmans, Joseph Maurice, French admiral, b. 1816. 
 Ewald, Johan, Danish poet, b. 1743, d. 1781. 
 Ewbank, J. W., English artist, b. 1779, d. 1847. 
 
 Ewbank, Thomas, English manufacturer, in America, writer on prac- 
 tical mechanics, traveller, b. 1792, d. 1870. 
 
 Ewing, Alexander, Scotch mathematician, astronomer, d. 1804. 
 
 Ewing, Alexander, D.C.L., Scotch bishop of Argyle and tho Isles, 
 theologian, metaphysician, b. 1814, d. 1873. 
 
 Ewing, Greville, Scotch baptist minister, philologist, theologian, b. 
 1767, d. 1841. 
 
 Ewing, Humphrey Ewing Cram, Scotch merchant, political reformer, 
 
 b. 1802. 
 
 Ewing, John, D.D., American presbyterian minister, mathematician, 
 
 astronomer, b. 1732, d. 1S02. 
 Ewing, Thomas, American statesman, jurist, b. 1789. 
 Exeter, Henry Cecil, marquis of, LL.D., English peer, arclncologist, 
 
 b. 1753, d. 1804. 
 Eximeno, Joaquin, Spanish painter, b. 1674, d. 1751. 
 
so 
 
 FASOLO. 
 
 90 
 
 Eyck, Teter, tlvc Old, Dutcli painter, 5. 1599, d. 1649. 
 
 Eykyn, Roger, Kn^lisli magistrate, M.P. 1806-73, 5. 1830. 
 
 Eyling, W., Dutch physician, temperance reformer, b. 1793, d. 1858. 
 
 Eyma, Louis Xavier, Fr. novel., econom., writer, b. Martinique 1816. 
 
 Eynden, Franz van, Dutch painter, b. 1694, d. 1742. 
 
 Eyre, Francis, English historical essayist, b. 1732, d. 1804. 
 
 Eyre, Sir .Tames, Eng. chief justice of common pleas, b. 1734, d. 1799. 
 Eyre, John, English clergyman, a founder of London M i 
 
 Society, first editor of Eiaiujclical Ma'jazinc, b. 1 754, d. 1803. 
 Eyre, Willm., Eng. nonconf., calvinist, theologian, b. 1613, d. 1670. 
 Eyre, SirWilliam, English military commuudcr (Crimea, and Canada), 
 
 b. 1806, d 1859. 
 
 Faber, Basil, Soranns, German hithcran theologian, b. 1520, d. 1575. 
 Faber, Frederick William, D.D., English roman catholic monk, 
 
 theologian, b. 1815, d. 1863. 
 Faber, Jacobus, Stapidcnsis, French theologian, early reformer, 
 
 b. 1455, d. 1536. 
 
 Faber, Johan, Dutch designer and mezzotint portrait engraver, in 
 
 England about 1695 ; d. 1721. 
 Faber, Johan, the younger, Dutch mezzotint portrait engraver, in 
 
 England, d. 1756. 
 Faber, Johann Ernst, German orientalist, b. 1745, d. 1774. 
 Faber, Johann Ludwig, German poet, 6. 1635, d. 1678. 
 Faber, Samuel, German philologist, poet, b. 1657, d. 1716. 
 Fabert, Abraham de, French general, b. 1599, d. 1662. 
 Fabre, Francois Xavier, French portrait and historical painter, 
 
 b. 1766, d. 1837. 
 
 Fabre, Jean Claude, French historian, philologist, a father of the 
 
 oratory, b. 1668, d. 1753. 
 Fabre, Jean Michel, Fr. engineer, statistician, agriculturist, b. 1782. 
 Fabre, Paul Andre, French advocate, jurist, b. 1809. 
 Fabre, Xavier, Spanish painter, b. 1767, d. 1837. 
 Fabricius, Frans, Dutch protcstant theologian, preacher, 5.1663,(11736. 
 Fabricius, Georg, Saxon schoolmaster, latin poet, b. 1516, d. 1571. 
 Fabricius, Johann, German theologian, philologist, bibliographer, 
 
 b. 1644, d. 1729. 
 
 Fabricius, Johann Albrecht, D.D., Saxon bibliographer, preacher, 
 
 professor of eloquence, b. 1668, d. 1736. 
 Fabricius, Karl, Dutch portrait painter, careful in perspective, 
 
 5. _ 1624, d. 1654. 
 
 Fabrizzi, Antonio Maria, Italian historical painter, b. 1594, d. 1649. 
 
 Fabroni, Angiolo, Italian biographer, b. 1732, d. 1802. 
 
 Fabroni, Giovanni, Italian political economist, agriculturist, physicist, 
 
 6. 1752, d. 1823. 
 
 Fabroti, Charles Annibal, French jurist, b. 1580, d. 1659. 
 
 Fabry, Jean Baptiste Germain, French administrator, essayist, 
 
 6. 1780, d. 1821. 
 Faccini, Bartolomeo, Italian architectural painter, d. 1577. 
 Fachetti, Pietro, Mantuan portrait and landscape painter, b. 1535,rf.l613. 
 Facini, Pietro, Bolognese historical and landsc. painter, 6. 1562, d. 1602. 
 Facis, Friedrich Wilhelm, German medallist, b. 1764, d. 1843. 
 Fage, Raimond de la, French designer and engraver, b. 1656, d. 1684. 
 Fagel, Caspar, Dutch statesman, aided William III. of England, 
 
 b. 1629, d. 1688. 
 
 Fagel, Robert, baron, Dutch general, diplom., b. 1772, d. Paris 1856. 
 Fagiuloli, Giovanni Battista, Italian comic poet, b. 1660, d. 1742. 
 Fagius, Paul, German ecclesiastical reformer, schoolmaster, minister, 
 
 b. 1504, came to England 1549, d. 1550. 
 Fahie, Sir William Charles, English admiral ( West Indies, Nova Scotia), 
 
 b. 1763, d. 1835. 
 
 Fahlcrantz, Christian Erik, Swedish theologian, journalist, poet, 
 b. 1790, d. 1866. 
 
 Fahlcrantz, Karel Johan, Swedish landscape painter, b. 1774. 
 
 Faidherbe, Louis Leon C6sar, French general, in Africa, and against 
 Prussians in France, 1870-1, military engineer and writer, b. 1818. 
 
 Failly, Pierre Louis Charles Achille de, French senator, general in 
 Italy, at Pome, in France 1870-1, b. about 1808. 
 
 FairbaiVn, Sir Peter, English civil engineer, 5. 1799, d. 1861. 
 
 Fairbairn, Thomas, English civil engineer, promoter of Art Ex- 
 hibitions, b. 1823. 
 
 Fairfax, John Contce Fairfax, 11th baron; Scotch peer, physician, in 
 Maryland, U. States, b. 1830. 
 
 Fairfax, SirWilliam George, Scotch vice-admiral, b. 1738, (/. 1813. 
 
 Fairfield, Genevieve Genevra, American novelist, b. 1832. 
 
 Fairfield, John, Amer. statesman, governor of Maine, b. 1797, 18 48. 
 
 Fairfield, Sumner Lincoln, Amer. poet, magazine writer, 5. 1803, r/.184 4. 
 
 Fairholt, Frederick William, English artist, antiquary, 5.1813,^.1806. 
 
 Fairman, David, American engraver, 5. 1782, d. 1815. 
 
 Fairman, Gideon, American engraver, 5. 1776, d. 1827. 
 
 Fairman, Richard, American engraver, 5. 1787, d. 1821. 
 
 Faistcnberger, Anton, German landscape painter, 5. 1678, d. 1722. 
 
 Faithfull, Emily, English essayist, editor, promoter of female employ- 
 ment, 5. 1835. 
 
 Faithorne, William, English engraver, crayon portrait painter, 
 5. 1629, d. 1691. 
 
 Faithorne, William, the younger, English mezzotint portrait engraver, 
 
 5. 1656, d. 1686. 
 Faloieri, Biagio, Italian historical painter, 5. 1628, d. 1703. 
 
 Falck, Jeremiah, German designer and engraver, 5. 1629, d. 1709. 
 Falco, Juan Conchillos, Spanish historical painter, 5. 1651, d. 1711. 
 Falcon, Marie Cornelie, French opera singer, 6. 1814. 
 Falcone, Aniello or Angelo, Neapolitan battle painter, engraver, 
 5. 1600, d. 1680. 
 
 Falconer, Thomas, English archa;ologist, religious writer, chronologer, 
 5. 1736, d, 1792. 
 
 Falconer, Thomas,. English theologian, philologist, critic, d. 1839. 
 
 Falconer, William, English physician, naturalist, writer on health, 
 5. 1743,, d. 1824. 
 
 Falconet, Etienne Maurice, French sculptor, 5. 1716, d. 1791. 
 
 Falconetto, Giovanni Maria, Veronese historical and portrait painter, 
 architect, 5. 1458, d. 1534. 
 
 Falconnet, Ernest, French jurist, essayist, 5. 1815. 
 
 Fales, Mrs. Almira L., American philanthropist, volunteer nurse to 
 sick and wounded in the civil war 1861-65 ; d. 1868. 
 
 Falieri, Marino, Venetian general, doge, conspirator, executed 1355. 
 
 Falk, Johann Daniel, Prussian satirist, religious writer, b. 1770, d. 1820. 
 
 Falkenstein, Johann Heinrich, German antiquary, 5. 1682, d. 1760. 
 
 Falkenstein, Johann Paulus, Saxon statesman, jurist, 5. 1802. 
 
 Falkland, Henry Lucius Cary, viscount, English dramatist, d. 1663. 
 
 Falkner, Thomas, Eng. surgeon, jesuit missionary, Patagonia, d. 1780. 
 
 Falle, Philip, Eng. clcrgym., writer on Jersey, 5. Jersey 1655, d. 1742. 
 
 Fallersben, Hoffmann von, German poet, critic, d. 1874. 
 
 Falloux, Alfred Frederic Pierre, conite de, French historian, journa- 
 list, 5. 1811. 
 
 Falret, Jean Pierre, French physician, writer on insanity, 5. 1794. 
 
 Fals, Raymond, Swedish medallist, 5. 1658, d. 1703. 
 
 Fancourt, Samuel, English dissenting minister, commenced a circu- 
 lating library in London, 5. 1678, d. 1768. 
 
 Fane, Hon. Julian H. C, Eng. diplomat., lyric poet, 5. 1827, d, 1870. 
 
 Faneuil, Peter, American philanthropist, founder of Faneuil Hall, 
 Boston, d. 1743. 
 
 Fanniere, Francois Auguste, French chaser-sculptor, 5. 1818. 
 
 Fanniere, Francois Joseph, French chaser-sculptor, 5. 1822. 
 
 Fanning, Golbert, American biblical critic, agriculturist, d. 1810. 
 
 Fanoli, Michele, Italian painter, lithographer, 5. 1807. 
 
 Fanone, Stefano, Neapolitan painter, 5. 1318, d. 1387. 
 
 Fansago, Cosimo, Italian sculptor and architect, 5. 1591, d. 1678. 
 
 Fanshawe, George, Eng. general, in Russian service, 5. 1789, d. 1867. 
 
 Fanti, Manfred, Italian general and statesman, 5. 1810, d. 1865. 
 
 Fantin des Odoards, Louis Florimond, Fr. general, 5. 1778, d. 1866. 
 
 Fare, Charles Auguste, marquis de la, French poet, historian, military 
 officer, 5. 1644, d. 1712. 
 
 Fares Ecchidiak Sheikh, Syrian christian in England and France, 
 poet, translator of New Testament into Arabic, 5. about 1796. 
 
 Farey, John, Eng. geologist, surveyor, agriculturist, 5. 1766, d. 1826. 
 
 Faringdon, Anthony, English clergyman, ejected for nonconformity, 
 preacher, 5. 1596, d. 1658. 
 
 Farington, George, English historical painter, England and India, 
 5. 1754, d. 1788. 
 
 Farington, Joseph, Eng. landscape painter, engraver, 5. 1742, d. 1821. 
 Farmer, Hugh, English dissenting minister, theological writer, 
 5. 1714, d. 1787. 
 
 Farmer, John, Amer. histor., geogr., antiq., genealog., 5. 17S9, d. 1S38. 
 
 Farneworth, Ellis, English clergyman, biographer, translator from 
 Italian and French, d. 1763. 
 
 Farnham, Mrs. (Eliza W. Burhans), the American Elizabeth Fry, 
 writer on criminal jurisprudence, traveller, 5. 1815, d. 1864. 
 
 Farnham, Luther, American congregational minister, editor, journa- 
 list, bibliographer, 5. 1816. 
 
 Farnham, Thomas J., Amer. traveller, philanthropist, 5. 1804, d. 1S48. 
 
 Farochon,Jean Baptiste Eugene, Fr. sculptor, engraver, medallist, 5.1S07. 
 
 Farquhar, Sir Robert Townscnd, bait., English governor of Mauritius, 
 5. 1777, d. 1830. 
 
 Farquharson, J. J., English sportsman, 5. 1785, d. 1871. 
 
 Farr, Samuel, English physician, medical writer, 5. 1741, d. 1795. 
 
 Farrand, Daniel, American minister, physicist, 5. 1720, d. 1803. 
 
 Farrant, Francis, Eng. col. E. Indian army, diplomat., 5. 1S04, d. 1S6S. 
 
 Farrar, John, LL.D., American mathematician, physicist, secretary to 
 American academy, 5. 1780, d. 1853. 
 
 Farren, William, English comedian, 5. 1787, d. 1861. 
 
 Farrer, Nicholas, English portrait painter, 5. 1750, d. 1S05. 
 
 Farrington, Mrs. (Sarah Payson Willis), Fanny Fern, American 
 novelist, essayist, autobiographer, 5. 1811, d. 1S72. 
 
 Fasolo Giovanni Antonio, Italian historical painter, b. 1528, d. 1572. 
 
FASQUELLE. 
 
 Fasquclle, Jean Louis, LL.D., philologist, author of French and 
 English school books, b. France 1808, settled in U. States 1834. 
 
 Fassin, Karl Nicholaus Hendrik J., Flemish landscape painter, 
 b. 1728, d. 1811. 
 
 Fastolf, Sir John, English military officer, promoter of learning, 
 b. 1377, d. 1459. 
 
 Fauche, Hippolyte, French orientalist, poet, novelist, translator from 
 
 Sanskrit, b. 1797, d. 1869. 
 Fauchet, Claude, French archaeologist, historian, d. 1601. 
 Faucit, Helen (Mrs. Theodore Martin), English actress, b. 1817. 
 Faugere, Armand Prosper, French religious and political writer, 
 
 biographer, editor of Pascal's works, b. 1810. 
 Faugeres, Margarotta V., Amer. poet, essayist, dramat., b. 1771, <•/. 1801 . 
 Faulkner, Benjamin P., English portrait painter, b. 1787, d. 1849. 
 Faulkner, George, Irish printer and bookseller, journalist in London, 
 
 d. Dublin, 1775. 
 Faulkner, Thomas, English topographer, b. 1776, d. 1855. 
 Faure, Jean Baptiste, French opera singer, b. 1830. 
 Fauveau, Felicie dc, French sculptor, b. 1802. 
 Fava, Pietro, count, Bolognese historical painter, b. 1669, d. 1744. 
 Favart, Charles Simon, French dramatic poet, b. 1710, d. 1792. 
 Fawcett, Benjamin, English dissenting minister, theologian, writer on 
 
 religious melancholy, b. 1715, d. 1780. 
 Fawcett, Henry, Eng. professor of polit. econ., Caxnb., M.P., b. 1833. 
 Fawcett, John, D.D., English baptist minister, theologian, hymn 
 
 writer, b. 1739, d. 1817. 
 Fawcett, John, English actor, theatrical manager, b. 1769, d. 1837. 
 Fawcett, Joseph, Eng. dissenting minister, thcolog., agricult., d. 1804. 
 Fawcett, Sir William, English general, military writer, translator, 
 
 governor of Chelsea hospital, b. 1728, d. 1804. 
 Fawkes, Francis, English clergyman, biblical expositor, poet, classicist, 
 
 b. 1721, d, 1777. 
 Fay, Andreas, Hungarian poet, b. 1786, d. 1864. 
 Fay, Charles Pranvois dc Cisternal du, French chemist, /'. 1698, d. 1739. 
 Fay, Jonas, American statesman, judge, b. 1737, d. 1818. 
 Fay, Joseph, German painter, b. 1813. 
 
 Fay, Theodore Sedgwick, American novelist, poet, diplom., b. 1807. 
 
 Faye, Anders, Norwegian pastor, teacher, historian, b. 1802. 
 
 Fazy, Jean Jacques, Swiss statesman, journalist, b. 1796. 
 
 Fea, Carlo, Eoman ecclesiastic, archaeologist, b. 1756, d. 1836. 
 
 Fearne, Charles, English jurist, metaphysician, b. 1741, d. 1794. 
 
 Fearnley, Thomas, Swedish artist, b. 1801, d. 1842. 
 
 Featley, or Fairclough, Daniel, D.D., English clergyman, calvinistic 
 
 theologian, allegorical writer, b. 1582, d. 1644. 
 Featley, John, D.D., English preacher, in W. Indies, then in 
 
 England, theological writer, d. 1666. 
 Featley, Richard, English nonconformist minister, writer against 
 
 popery, b. 1619, d. 1681. 
 Fechner, Gustav Gottfried, German physician, poet, philosophical 
 
 writer, b. 1801. 
 
 Fechter, Charles Albert, English actor, theatrical manager, b. 1824. 
 Feckenham, John de, Eng. abbot of Westminster, theolog., philanthr., 
 
 last mitred abbot who sat in house of peers, d. in prison 1585. 
 Feddes, Pieter, van Ilarlingen, Dutch portrait painter, b. 1588, d. 1634. 
 Fehling, Heinrich Christoph, German fresco painter, b. 1653, d. 1725. 
 Fehrman, Daniel, Swedish medallist, b. 1710, d. 1780. 
 Feild, Edward, D.D., English bishop of Newfoundland, theolog., b. 1801. 
 Feillet, Alphonse, French historian, biographer, b. 1824. 
 Feldmann, Leopold, Bavarian humourist, writer of comedies, b. 1803. 
 Felinski, Sigismund Felix, Polish roman catholic prelate, archbishop 
 
 of Warsaw 1862, patriot, b. 1824, d. 1862. 
 Felix, Kaphael, French theatrical manager, in London, b. 1826, d. 1872. 
 Fell, John, Eng. dissenting minister, theolog., essayist, 6. 1735, d. 1797. 
 Feller, Francis Xavier, Flemish historian, astronomer, b. 1735, d. 1802. 
 Feller, Joachim, German poet, bibliographer, b. 1638, d. 1691. 
 Feller, Joachim Friedrich, German editor, antiquary, d. 1726. 
 Fellowes, Robert, Eng. political and religious essayist, b. 1770, d. 1847. 
 Felon, Joseph, French painter, sculptor, lithographer, b. 1818. 
 Felton, Henry, D.D., English clergyman, principal St. Edmund's 
 
 hall, Oxford, theologian, grammarian, b. 1679, d. 1740. 
 Feltro, Morto da, Florentine grotesque painter, b. 1468, d. 1513. 
 Fenn, Sir John, Eng. antiq., edited 'Paston Letters,' b. 1739, d. 1794. 
 Fennell, James, English actor, author, dramatist, b. 1766, d. 1816. 
 Fenner, William, Eng. puritan elergym., theolog., b. 1600, d. ab. 1640. 
 Fenouillet de Falbain, Chas. Georges, French dramat., b. 1728, d. 1801. 
 Fenton, Edward, English navigator, naval officer, d. 1603. 
 Fenton, Sir Geoffrey, English statesman, in Ireland, historian, d. 1G08. 
 Fenton, William, English journalist, b. 1800, d. 1871. 
 Fenwick, Benedict, Amer. roni. catholic bishop, preacher, b. 1782, d. 1846. 
 Fenyes, Alexis, Hungarian geographer, b. 1807. 
 Feraud, Jean Francois, French grammarian, b. 1725, d. 1807. 
 Ferber, Johann Jakob, Swedish mineralog., traveller, b. 1743, d. 1790. 
 Ferdinand, duke of Saxe-Coburg, Gotha, b. 1785, d. 1851. 
 Fere, Charles Octave, French novelist, b. 1815. 
 
 Ferg, Paulus Franz, Austrian landscape and architectural painter, in 
 
 Saxony and England, b. 1689, d. 1740. 
 Fergushill-Crawford, Andrew, Scotch physician, at Winchester, 
 
 philanthropist, b. 1798, d, 1867. 
 
 Ferguson, Duncan, Eng. surgeon, chemist, botanist, b. 1824, d. 1850. 
 Ferguson, Eliz. Graham, Amer. poetess, classicist, b. 1740, d. 1801. 
 Ferguson, G., Scotch judge of session (as lord Hcrmand), b. 1747, 
 d. 1827. 
 
 Ferguson, Robert, English nonconformist minister, partisan of 
 
 the duke of Monmouth, d. 1714. 
 Ferguson, Robert, Scotch physician, in London, b. 1799, d. 1865. 
 Ferguson, Robort, LL.D., Scotch congregational minister, in England, 
 
 theologian, biographer, critic, b. about 1815. 
 Ferguson, William, Scotch painter of still life, and of game, d. 1690. 
 Fergusson, Robert Cutlar, Scotch publicist, judge advocate general, 
 
 political reformer, b. 1769, d. 1838. 
 Fergusson, Sir William, hart. , Scotch surgeon, anatomist, in London, 
 
 writer on practical surgery, b. 1808. 
 Ferland, M. J. B. A., French ecclesiastic, historical and geographical 
 
 writor, b. 1805, d. 1864. 
 Fernande, Joseph, Flemish sculptor,, J. 1741, d. 1799. 
 Fernandez, Luis, Spanish historical painter, b. 1596, d. 1654. 
 Fernandez D' Arias, Antonio, Spanish hist, painter, b. 1604, d. 1646. 
 Ferni, Carolina, Italian violinist, b. 1841. 
 Ferni, Virginia,, Italian violinist, b. 1840. 
 Feron, Firmin Eloi, French painter, b. 1802. 
 Ferrabee, James, English consulting engineer, b. 1818, d. 1873. 
 Ferracino, Bartolomeo, Paduan mechanician, b. 1695, d. 1764. 
 Ferramola, Fioravante, Italian painter, d. 1528. 
 
 Ferrar, William Hugh, Irish philologist, professor of latin, Trinity 
 
 college, Dublin, b. 1836, d. Australia 1871. 
 Ferrara, Francesco, Italian economist, b. 1810. 
 Ferrari, Antonio Felizio, Ferraresc fresco painter, b. 1668, d. 1719. 
 Ferrari, Francesco Bernardino, Milanese bibliogr., b. 1577, d. 1669. 
 Ferrari, Francesco, Italian historical and architectural painter, teacher 
 
 of painting, b. 1634, d. 1708. 
 Ferrari, Gaudcnzio, Qaudenzio Milanese, Italian painter, b. 1484, d. 1550. 
 Ferrari, Giov. Andrea, Genoese historical painter, b. 1599, d. 1669. 
 Ferrari, Giuseppe, Italian essayist, philosophical critic, b. about 1811. 
 Ferrari, Gregoriodc, Genoese painter, in oil and fresco, b. 1644, d. 1726. 
 Ferrari, Lorenzo Abbate, Genoese historical painter, b. 1680, d. 1744. 
 Ferrari, Luigi, Bolognese mathematician, b. 1522, d. 1565. 
 Ferrari, Luigi, Italian sculptor, b. 1810. 
 Ferrari, Orazio, Italian historical painter, b. 1606, d. 1657. 
 Ferrari, Ottavio, Milanese historian, philologist, b. 1607, d. 1682. 
 Ferrari, Pictro, Italian architect, engineer, b. 1753. d. 1825. 
 Ferraris, Joseph von, Austrian count, marshal, military engineer, 
 
 b. 1726, d. 1814. 
 Ferrars, George, English poet and lawyer, b. 1512, d. 1579. 
 Ferri, Giro, Roman historical painter, architect, 6. 1634, d. 1689. 
 Ferriar, John, Eng. physician, medical writer, critic, b. 1763, d. 1815. 
 Ferriers, J. C, English physician, temperance reformer, d, 1849. 
 Ferrucci di Fiesole, Andrea, Tuscan sculptor, b. 1465, d. 1526. 
 Ferry, Jules, French advocate, journalist, politician, b. 1832. 
 Fessenden, Thomas Green, American poet, satirist, temperance and 
 
 agricultural writer, b. 1771, d. 1837. 
 Fessenden, William Pitt, Amer. economist, statesin., b. 1806, d. 1869. 
 Feti, Domenico, Roman historical painter, b. 1589, d. 1624. 
 Fetis, Adolphe, Belgian musical composer, critic, b. 1821, d. 1873. 
 Fettes, Sir Wm., Scotch educationist, philanthropist, b. 1750, d. 1836. 
 Feuerbach, Ludwig Maria, German philosoph. writer, b. 1804, d. 1872. 
 Feuillet, Louis, Fr. natura., mathemat., geograph., b. 1660, d. 1732. 
 Feuillet, Octave, Desire Hazard, Fr. novelist, dramatist, critic, b. 1812. 
 Feuillet de Conches, Felix Scbastien, baron, French biographer, 
 
 essayist, b. 1798. 
 Feval, Paul Henri Corentin, French novelist, b. 1817. 
 Feversham, William Duncombe, second baron, British peer, agricul* 
 
 turist, philanthropist, b. 1798, succeeded 1841, d. 1867. 
 Feversham, Wm. Ernest Duncombe, first earl of, British peer, b. 1829, 
 
 succeeded as third baron, 1867 ; earl, 1868. 
 Fevre, Claude le, French portrait and landscape painter, engraver, 
 
 b. 1633, d, England 1675. 
 Fevre, Tanaquil, Fr. classical translator, commenta., b. 1615, d. 1672. 
 Fewster, Thomas, English merchant, philanthropist, temperance 
 
 reformer, b. 1811, d. Hull, 1870. 
 Feyjoo y Montenegro, Benito Geron., Span, essayist, b. 1701,'rf. 1764. 
 Fiammingo, Arrigo, Flemish historical painter, 6. ab. 1524, d. 1602. 
 Fiaselli, Domenico, II Sarzana, Genoese portrait and historical painter, 
 
 b. 1589, d. 1669. 
 
 Ficherelli, Felizio, Felizio Miposo, Florentine historical painter, b. 
 1605, d. 1660. 
 
 Fichte, Emmanuel Hermann, German philologist, editor, writer on 
 
 philosophy, b. 1797. 
 Ficquelmont, Count, Austrian political writer, b. 1780, d. 1857. 
 Ficquet, Etienne, French engraver, b. 1731, d. 1794. 
 Fiddes, Richard, Eng. elergym., theolog., biographer, b. 1671, d. 1725. 
 Field, David Dudley, American barrister, jurist, b. 1805. 
 Field, Edwin, English solicitor, painter in water colours, d. 1871. 
 Field, Frederick, English clergyman, biblical critic, editor, b. ab. 1800. 
 Field, Joseph M., American actor and dramatist, b. England, d. 1856. 
 Field, Richard, Amer. physician, botanist, journalist, b. 1768, d. 1829. 
 Fielding, Sir John, Eng. magistrate, philanthropist (blind), d. 1780. 
 
98 
 
 FIELDING. 
 
 FOBES. 
 
 94 
 
 Fielding, Sarah, Eng. novelist, biogr., translator, b. 1714, d. 1768. 
 Fielding, Win., Eng. metropolitan police magistrate, d. 1740, d. 1820. 
 Fields, James Thomas, Amcr. poet, editor, publisher, Boston, b. 1817. 
 Fiennes, Nath., Eng. popular leader, political writer, b. 1608, d. 1069. 
 Fife, Sir John, English physician, b. 1796, d. 1871. 
 Figaniere, Joaquim Cesar de, Portuguese historian, geographer, b. 1798. 
 Figgins, James, English type-founder, M.P. 1808-73, b. 1811. 
 Figueroa, Bartolome, Spanish poet, b. 1510, d. 1570. 
 Figuerola, Laureano, Spanish economist, statesman, b. 1816. 
 Figuier, Madame G. L. (Juliette Bourcaret), French novelist, b. 1829. 
 Filandro, Guillame, French writer on architecture, canon of Bhodes, 
 
 b. 1505, d. 1565. 
 Filangieri, Carlo, Neapolitan general, b. 1803, d. 1867. 
 Fildes, Samuel Luke, English painter, book illustrator, b. 1844. 
 Filhol, Antoine Michel, Fr. engraver and printseller, b. 1759, d. 1812. 
 Filicaija, Vinceuzo da, Italian poet, governor of Pisa, b. 1642, d. 1707. 
 Filicus, Jan, Dutch portrait and conversation painter, b. 1660, d. 1719. 
 Filipowski, Herschel, Polish physicist, b. 1819, d. 1872. 
 Filippi, Filippo de', Italian physician, naturalist, b. 1814. 
 Filippi, Sebastiano, Italian historical painter, b. 1552, d. 1602. 
 Filon, Charles Auguste Desire, French historian, b. 1810. 
 Finch, Francis Oliver, English water-colour painter, d. 1862. 
 Finch, Eobert, English traveller, antiquary, b. 1783, d. Borne 1830. 
 Fincham, John, English writer on ship-building, b. 1784, d. 1859. 
 Finelli, Julian, Italian sculptor and architect, b. 1602, d. 1657. 
 Finlaison, John, English actuary, b. 1783, d. 1860. 
 Finlay, John, Scotch poet, biographer, b. 1782, d. 1810. 
 Finley, Eobert, D.D., American theologian, president of university of 
 
 Georgia, promoter of African colonization in Liberia, b. 1772, d. 1817. 
 Finley, Samuel, D.D., Irish presbyterian minister, theologian, 
 
 president of New Jersey college, b. 1716, d. 1766. 
 Finn, Henry J., American actor, dramatist, humourist, b. 1781, d. 1840. 
 Finney, Charles G., American congregational minister, professor, and 
 
 president of Oberlin college, theologian, revival preacher, b. 1792. 
 Finnie, WiUiani, Scotch barrister, political reformer, M.P. 1868-73, 
 
 b. 1828. 
 
 Finnis, Thomas Quested, English merchant, geographer, lord mayor 
 
 of London 1856 ; b. 1800. 
 Finzi, Felizio, Italian orientalist, b. 1847, d. 1872. 
 Fiore, Cola Antonio del, Neapolitan histor. painter, b. 1375, d. 1444. 
 Fiori, Cesare, Milanese fresco painter - , b. 1636, d. 1702. 
 Fiorini-Hazzanti, Elizabetta, countess, Italian botanist, b. ab. 1812. 
 Firmenich, Johann Matthias, German poet, dramatist, b. 1808. 
 Firmin, Giles, English nonconformist, physician, b. 1615, d. 1697. 
 Firmin, Thomas, Eng. manufacturer, philanthrop., b. 1632, d. 1697. 
 Fischer, Chr. August, Saxon philol., writer of travels, b. 1771, d. 1829. 
 Fischweiler, Julius von dem, German physician, b. 1757, d. 1866. 
 Fish, Phineas, American missionary to Indians, b. 1785, d. 1854. 
 Fish, Simon, English lawyer, satirist, theologian, d. 1531. 
 Fisher, Alexander M., American mathematician, b. 1794, d. 1822. 
 Fisher, Alvan, American portrait painter, b. 1792, d. 1863. 
 Fisher, Charles, New Brunswick statesman, jurist, federalist, 6. 1810. 
 Fisher, John, D.D., English bishop of Exeter 1803; Salisbury 1807; 
 
 theologian, b. 1748, d. 1825. 
 Fisher, Jn. Dix, Am. physician, teacher of the blind, b. 1796, d. 1850. 
 Fisher, Jon., Amer. minister, poet, portrait painter, b. 1769, d. 1848. 
 Fisher, Joshua, American physician, medical writer, b. 1748, d. 1833. 
 Fisher, Myers, American quaker, lawyer, orator, writer against Paine's 
 
 'Age of Beason,' b. 1748, d. 1819. 
 Fisher, Payne, English poet laureate, writer on heraldry, d. 1693. 
 Fisher, Bcilwood, American economist, statistician, b. 1783, d. 1856. 
 Fisk, Elisha, American minister, theologian, b. 1769, d. 1851. 
 Fisk, Ezra, D.D., Amer. professor of eecles. history, b. 1788, d. 1833. 
 Fisk, Pliny, Amer. missionary in tho east, orientalist, b. 1792, d. 1844. 
 Fisk, Wilbur, D.D., American methodist minister, traveller, president 
 
 of university, Connecticut, b. 1793, d. 1839. 
 Fisk, W.j English historical and portrait painter, d. 1872. 
 Fiske, Catherine, American teacher, philanthropist, b. 1771, d. 1837. 
 Fiske, John, D.D., American minister, missionary to Indians, b. 
 
 1771, d. 1855. 
 
 Fiske, Moses, American tutor, preacher, editor, farmer} opponent of 
 slavery, b. 1760, d. 1843. 
 
 Fiske, Nathan, D.D., American pastor, theologian, b 1733, d. 1799. 
 
 Fiske, Nathan W., American philologist, professor of Greek, d. 1847. 
 
 Fitch, Ebenezer, D.D., American, president of Williams college, 
 1793-1815 ; b. 1755, d. 1833. 
 
 Fitch, John, American silversmith, inventor, map-maker, patented a 
 small steamboat in 1786 ; b. 1743, d. 1798. 
 
 Fite-Goula, Senora Dioncsia, Spanish singer, b. 1848, d. 1873. 
 
 Fitz, Henry, American telescope maker and improver, b. 1808, d. 1863. 
 
 Fitzgerald, Lord Edward, Irish insurgent leader, b. 1763, d. 1798. 
 
 Fitzgerald, John David, Irish judge of queen's bench, b. 1816. 
 
 Fitzgerald, John Foster Vesey, Irish statesman N. S. Wales, b. 1818. 
 
 Fitzgerald, Lord Otho Augustus, Irish administrator, political re- 
 former, M.P. 1865-73, b. 1827. 
 
 Fitzgerald, W. I!. S. Vesey, Eng. barrister, governor of Bombay, b. 1817. 
 
 Fitzgerald, William, D.D., Irish protcstant bishop of Killaloe, theo- 
 logian, metaphysician, b. 1814. 
 
 Fitzgerald and Vesey, William Fitzgerald, baton, Irish peer, states- 
 man, b. 1786, d. 1843. 
 
 Fitzhardinge, Maurice F. F. 15., baron, Eng. admiral, b. 1788, d. 1867. 
 
 Fitzherbert, Sir Anthony, [English judge of common pleas, </. 1538. 
 
 Fitzherbert, Nich., Eng. writer on rom. Catholicism in England,^. 1612. 
 
 Fitzherbert, Thomas, Eng. essayist, writer against Machiavelli's system, 
 b. 1552, d. 1640. 
 
 Fitzhugh, William Henry, American agriculturist, promoter of African 
 
 colonization, b. 1792, d. 1830. 
 Fitzmaurice, Lord Edmund G., Eng. political reformer, M.P., b. 1846. 
 Fitzmaurice, Wm. Edward, Scotch traveller, artist, inventor, b. 1805. 
 Fitzpatrick, Benj., Amer. statesman, gov. Alabama, //. 17'J'J, </. 1869. 
 Fitzpatrick, J. Wilson, Irish magistrate, political reformer, b. 1809. 
 Fitzpatrick, William John, Irish biographer, critic, b. 1830. 
 Fitzwilliam, Hon. Charles William Wentworth, English diplomatist, 
 _ M.P., b. 1826. 
 
 Fitzwilliam, Richard, viscount, English peer of Ireland, antiquary, 
 b. 1745, d. 1816. 
 
 Fitzwilliam, William Thomas S. Wentworth Fitzwilliam, fourth earl, 
 
 English peer of Great Britain , 6. 1815. 
 Fitzwilliam, Wm. Went. Fitzwilliam, earl, peer of Ireland, and of 
 
 United Kingdom, lord lieut. of Ireland 1795 ; b. 1748, d. 1833. 
 Fizeau, Hippolyte Louis, French mathematician, b. 1819. 
 Flaccius, Illyricus Matthseus, German lutheran theologian, orientalist, 
 
 b. 1520, d. 1575. 
 
 Flachat, Eugene, Fr. civil engineer, writer on public works, b. 1802. 
 Flagg, Edmund, A,mer. traveller, diplomatist, journalist, b. 1815. 
 Flamery, Nicolas Etienne, French dramatist, musical composer, critic, 
 
 b. 1745, d. 1810. 
 Flammarion, Camille, French astronomer, b. 1842. 
 Flan, Marie Alexandre, French dramatic critic, antiquary, collector, 
 
 b. 1827, d. 1871. 
 
 Flatman, Thomas, English miniature portrait painter, J. 1633, d. 1688. 
 Flechier, Esprit, Fr. historian, biographer, theolog., b. 1632, d. 1710. 
 Fleetwood, William, English historian, recorder of London, d. 1393. 
 Fleetwood, William, D.D., English bishop of Ely, theologian, 
 
 antiquary, b. 1656, d. 1723. 
 Fleischer, Heinrich Lebreclit, Saxon orientalist, b. 1801. 
 Flemael, Bertholet, Flemish histor. painter, archit., b. 1614, d. 1675. 
 Fleming, Caleb, English soeinian theologian, b. 1698, d. 1779. 
 Fleming, Charles, Scotch jmilologist, in France, lexicographer, b. 1806. 
 Fleming, John, D.D., Scotch presbyterian minister, naturalist, 
 
 b. 1785, d. 1857. 
 
 Fleming, Robert, Scotch presbyt. minister, theolog., b. 1630, d. 1694. 
 Fleming, Robert, Scotch minister, Leyden, Rotterdam, aud Loudon, 
 
 writer on prophecy, d. 1716. 
 Fleming, Sir Valentine, Irish barrister, chief justice of Tasmania, b. 1809. 
 Fleming, William, D.D., Scotch theologian, metaphysician, orientalist, 
 
 b. 1798, d. 1866. 
 
 Flemming, Richard, English bishop of Lincoln, supported and then 
 
 deserted Wycliffe, d. 1431. 
 Flers, Camille, French landscape painter, b. 1802, d. 1868. 
 Fletcher, Abraham, English mathematician, astrologer, botanist, 
 
 b. 1714, d. 1793. 
 
 Fletcher, Alexander, D.D., Scotch dissenting minister, in London, 
 
 theologian, preacher to children, b. 1776, d. 1860. 
 Fletcher, Andrew, Scotch judge of session (as lord Milton) 1724-48, 
 
 keeper of the signet 1748 ; b. 1692, d. 1766. 
 Fletcher, Angus, Scotch sculptor, b. about 1804. 
 Fletcher, Giles, LL.D., English judge, poet, diplomatist, d. 1610. 
 Fletcher, James, English poet, historian, b. 1811, d. 1832. 
 Fletcher or Flechiere, John, English clergyman of Madely, friend of 
 
 John Wesley, b. Switzerland 1729, d. 1785. 
 Fletcher, Joseph, D.D., English congregational minister, theologian, 
 
 b. 1784, d. 1843. 
 Fletcher, Richard, English protestant bishop of Loudon, d. 1596. 
 Fletcher, Richard, English congregational minister, in Victoria colony, 
 
 6. 1800, d. 1861. 
 
 Fletcher, Thomas, American evangelist, divinity tutor, b. 1791, d. 1846. 
 Fleurieu, Charles Pierre Claret, comte de, French hydrographer, 
 
 b. 1738, d. 1810. 
 Fleury, Emile Felix, French imperialist general, b. 1815. 
 Fliedner, Theodor, German pastor, philanthropist, b. ab. 1798, d. 1864. 
 Flint, Austin, American physician, b. 1760, d. 1850. 
 Flint, James, D.D., Amer. minister, poet, hortieult, b. 1782, d, 1855. 
 Flipart, Jean Jacques, French engraver, b. 1723, d. 1782. 
 Flocon, Ferdinand, French statesman, journalist, b. 1S0O, d. 1S66. 
 Floquet, Pierre Amable, French historian, archaeologist, b. 1797. 
 Florencourt, Franz Chassot von, German political writer, b. 1S04. 
 Floresco, Jean Emmanuel de, Roumanian general, b. 1819. 
 Florestan, prince of Monaco, b. 1785, d. 1856. 
 Floris, Franz, Flemish historical painter, b. 1520, d. 1570. 
 Flourens, Gustavc, French ethnographer, republican writer, b. 1838, 
 
 killed in battle 1871. 
 Floyer, Sir John, Eng. physician, medical writer, b. 1649, d. 1734. 
 Fludd, or Flood, Robert, Eng. writer on alchemy, b. 1574, d. 1637. 
 Flugel, Gustav Lebreclit, German orientalist, b. 1S02. 
 Fobes, Perez, LL.D., Amer. minister, inathemat., b. 1741, d. 1S12. 
 
FOERSTER. 
 
 FOX. 
 
 Foerster, Ernst Joachim, German painter, writer on art, b. 1800. 
 Foerster, Friedrich, German military historian, editor, biographer, 
 
 b. 1792, d. 1868. 
 Fogarassy, Jean, Hungarian jurist, lexicographer, b. 1801. 
 Foggo, George, English historical painter, b. 1793, d. 1869. 
 Foglietta, Uberto, Genoese historian, orator, b. 1518, d. 1581. 
 Fogo, James, Scotch lieutenant-gen. of artillery, b. 1787, d. 1806. 
 Foix, Paul de, Fr. archbp. of Toulouse, diplomatist, b. 1528, d. 1584. 
 Foler, Antonio, Venetian historical painter, b. 1530, d. 1626. 
 Foley, Sir Thomas, English fear-admiral, served with Nelson, b. 1767, 
 
 d. 1831. 
 
 Follen, Carl T. C., LL.D., German philologist, critic, clergyman, in 
 
 America, b. 1796, d. 1840. 
 Follett, Sir "William Webb, English barrister, attorney-general, 
 
 b. 1798, d. 1845. 
 Folo, Giovanni, Italian engraver, b. 1761, d. 1836. 
 Foltz, Philip, German portrait and landscape painter, b. 1805. 
 Fonblanque, John do Grenier, English banister, jurist, writer on 
 
 equity, b. 1759, d. 1837. 
 Fonblanque, John Samuel Martin, English jurist, commissioner in 
 
 bankruptcy, b. 1787, d. 1865. 
 Fonesca, Elenora, marchesa da, Neapolitan botanist, republican, 
 
 b. 1768, d. 1799. 
 
 Fonseca, Antonio Manoel da, Portuguese histor. painter, b. ab. 1795. 
 Fontaine, Pierre la, Fr. painter, dealer in pictures, b. 1758, d. 1835. 
 Fontana, Annibale, Ital. engraver on precious stones, b. 1540, d. 1587. 
 Fontana, Carlo, Italian architect, b. 1634, d. 1714. 
 Fontana, Domenico Maria, Italian architect of many public buildings 
 
 in Koine and Naples, b. 1543, d. 1607. 
 Fontana, Felix, Tyrolese naturalist, at Florence, b. 1730, d. 1805. 
 Fontana, Francesco, Neapolitan astronomer, (/. 1656. 
 Fontana, Gregorio, Tyrolese mathematician at Pisa, b. 1735, d. 1805. 
 Fontana, Lavinia, Bolognese painter, b. 1552, d. 1614. 
 Fontanelle, Jean Gaspard Dubois, French dramatist, novelist, 
 
 b. 1737, d. 1812. 
 
 Fontanes, Nathaniel, English clergyman, antiquary, theologian, b. 
 1717, d. 1757. 
 
 Fontebasso, Francesco, Venetian painter, engraver, b. 1709, d. 1769. 
 Fontenay, Alexis Dalige de, French painter, b. 1815. 
 Fontenay, Jean Baptiste Blain de, French painter of flowers, 
 b. 1654, d. 1715. 
 
 Fontyn, Pieter, Dutch portrait painter, of interiors with figures, 
 b. 1773, d. 1839. 
 
 Foot, Jesse, English surgeon, traveller, biographer, b. 1743, d. 1826. 
 
 Foot, Joseph J., D.D., American theologian, president of Washington 
 college, Tennessee, b. 1796, d, 1840. 
 
 Foot, Samuel Augustus, LL.D., American senator, governor of Connec- 
 ticut, b. 1781, d. 1846. 
 
 Foppa, Vineenzo, founder of Milanese school of painting, d. 1492. 
 
 Foppeus, Jean Francjois, French historian, biographer, d. 1761. 
 
 Forabosco, Girolamo, Venetian portrait painter, b. 1600, d. 1660. 
 
 Forbes, Alexander, lord (of Pitsligo), Scotch jacobite leader, essayist, 
 b. 1678, d. 1762. 
 
 Forbes, Alexander Ponrose, Scotch bishop of Brechin, devotional 
 writer, b. 1817. 
 
 Forbes, Charles Stuart, British naval commander, writer on Iceland, 
 I. 1829. 
 
 Forbes, Eli, D.D., American missiouary to Indians, theologian, 
 
 b. 1727, d. 1804. 
 Forbes, Hon. Francis Reginald, British diplomatist, 6. 1791. 
 Forbes, George, Scotch metaphysician, professor at McGill college, 
 
 Montreal, 6. 1841, d. 1871. 
 Forbes, Horace Courtenay Forbes, lord, premier baron of Scotlaud, 
 
 b. 1829, suceeeded 1868. 
 Forbes, John Hay, Scotch judge (as lord Medwyn), b. 1777, d. 1854. 
 Forbes, Sir William (of Pitsligo), Scotch banker, b. 1739, d. 1806. 
 Forbin, Louis Nicolas Philippe Auguste, conte de, French painter, 
 
 antiquary, traveller, b. 1779, d._ 1841 
 Forcade-Laroquette, Jean Louis Victor Adolpho de, French statesman, 
 
 b. about 1820. 
 
 Force, Peter, American printer, journalist, annalist of United States, 
 
 b. 1790, d, 1868. 
 Ford, George, English congregational pastor, theologian, d. 1821. 
 Ford, Sir John, English civil engineer, royalist, b. 1605, d. 1670. 
 Ford, Thomas, D.C.L., English clergyman, Shaksperian critic, b. 
 
 1742, d. 1821. 
 
 Fordyce, David, Scotch metaphysician, classicist, b. 1711, d. 1751. 
 
 Fordyce, George, Scotch physician, in London, medical writer and 
 lecturer, chemist, physicist, b. 1736, d. 1802. 
 
 Fordyce, James, D.D., Scotch preacher, poet, in London, author of 
 'Sermons to Young Women,' writer on preaching, b. 1720,rf. 1796. 
 
 Fordyce, Sir William, Scotch military surgeon, medical writer, philan- 
 thropist, in London, b. 1724, d. 1792. 
 
 Fordyce, William Dingwall, Scotch political reformer, M.P., b. 1836. 
 
 Forerius or Foreirio, Francesco, Portuguese ecclesiastic, theologian, 
 b. 1523, d, 1581. 
 
 Forestier, Henri Joseph, French artist, b. St. Domingo 1787, d. 1872. 
 Forey, ijlie Fr^de'ric, marshal of France, senator, b. 1804, d, 1872. 
 
 Forgach, Antoine de, Hungarian count, statesman, b. 1819. 
 Forgues, Paul Einilc Durand, Old Nick, French humourist, translator 
 
 from English and Italian, b. 1813. 
 Fornerod, Constant, Swiss statesman, president of Confederation 
 
 1857, b. 1820. 
 
 Forrest, Edwin, American tragedian, philanthropist, b. 1806, d. 1872. 
 
 Forrest, Robert, Scotch sculptor, b. 1790, d. 1852. 
 
 Forrester, Alfred Henry, Alfred Crowquill, English humourist, aiti I, 
 
 writer of books for children, b. 1805, d. 1872. 
 Forshall, Josiah, English clergyman, biblical critic, bibliographer, 
 
 b. 1794, d. 1863. 
 
 Forster, Charles Irish clergym. in England, orientalist, b. ab. 1790. 
 
 Forster, Charles, English barrister, political reformer, 6. 1815. 
 
 Forster, Charles de, Polish historian, essayist, b. 1800. 
 
 Forster, Francois, French engraver, b. 1790, d. 1872. 
 
 Forster, Josiah, English philanthropist, quaker, temperance roformer, 
 
 b. 1782, d. 1870. 
 Forster, Karl, German art-critic, philologist, b. 1784, d. 1841. 
 Forster, Nathaniel, English clergyman, theologian, orientalist, b. 
 
 1717, d. 1757. 
 
 Forster, Thomas Ignatius, English meteorologist, b. 1789, d. 1862. 
 Forsyth, Alexander John, Scotch presbyterian minister, discoverer of 
 
 percussion of gunpowder, b. 1769, d. 1843. 
 Forsyth, John, American statesman, orator, governor of Georgia, 
 
 b. 1780, d. 1841. 
 
 Forsyth, William, Scotch horticulturist, antiquary, writer on culture 
 
 of fruit trees, 6. 1757, d. 1804. 
 Forsyth, William, English jurist, critic, biographer, b. 1812. 
 Forteath, Alexander, Scot, physician, army surgeon, b. 1822, d. 1860. 
 Fortescue, Hugh Fortescue, 3rd earl, Eng. peer, educationist, b. 1818. 
 Fosbroke, J. D., English clergyman, antiquary, archreologist, d. 1842. 
 Fosdick, William Whiteman, American poet, b. 1825, d. 1862. 
 Foss, Edward, Eng. solicitor, antiquary, biographer, b. 1787, d. 1870. 
 Foss, Hendrik Hermann, Norwegian poet, statesman, b. 1790. 
 Fossati, Giovanni Antonio Laurenzo, Italian physician, phrenologist, 
 
 b. 1786. 
 
 Fosse, Charles de la, French historical painter, b. 1640, d. 1716. 
 
 Foster, Alfred Dwight, American lawyer, senator, b. 1800, d. 1852. 
 
 Foster, Benjamin, D.D., American baptist minister, theologian, 
 orientalist, b. 1750, d. 1798. 
 
 Foster, James, D.D., English independent preacher, theologian, educa- 
 tionist, b. 1697, d. 1753. 
 
 Foster, John G., American military engineer, commander, b. 1824. 
 
 Foster, Lafayette S., Amer. statesman, vice-pres. U.S. 1865; b. 1806. 
 
 Foster, Sir Michael, Eng. jurist, judge of king's bench, 6. 1689, d. 17i>:'>. 
 
 Foster, Stephen C, Amer. mus. composer, songwriter, b. 1826, d. 1864. 
 
 Foster, Stephen Symonds, American journ list, anti-slavery advocate, 
 b. 1809. 
 
 Fotherby, Martin, D.D., English bishop of Salisbury, theologian, b. 
 1559, d. 1619. 
 
 Fothergill, George, D.D., English theologian, president St. Edmund's 
 
 hall, Oxford, 6. 1705, d. 1760. 
 Fothergill, Samuel, English physician, d. Jamaica 1822. 
 Foucat, Philippe Edouard, French orientalist, b. 1811. 
 Foucher, Paul Henri, French dramatist, journalist, b. 1810. 
 Foucher, Victor Adrien, French jurist, b. 1802. 
 
 Foucher de Careil, Fr. philosophical writer, editor of Leibnitz, b. 1826. 
 
 Foulstone, J., English architect, b. 1774, d. 1842. 
 
 Fountaine, Sir Andrew, English antiquary, philologist, d. 1753. 
 
 Fouquieres, Jacob, Flemish landscape painter, b. 1580, d. 1659. 
 
 Fourau, Hugues, French painter, 6. 1803. 
 
 Fourichon, Martin, French admiral, statesman, 6. 1809. 
 
 Fourmont, Etienne, French orientalist, historian, essayist, 6.1683,^.1745. 
 
 Fournal, Marie Jerome Henri, French engineer, writer on Algiers, 
 
 communist writer, 6. 1799. 
 Fourneyron, Benoit, French engineer, b. 1802, d. 1867. 
 Fournier, Edouard, French dramatic critic, historian, b. 1819. 
 Fournier, Henri, French printer and publisher, b. 1800. 
 Fournier, Marc Jean Louis, French dramatist, b. Geneva 1818. 
 Fournier, Narcisse, French dramatist, novelist, b. about 1809. 
 Fowler, Alfred, English civil engineer, d. 1863. 
 
 Fowler, Edward, English bishop of Gloucester, theologian, writer on 
 christian liberty, b. 1632, d. 1714. 
 
 Fowler, Orin, American minister, theologian, temperance and anti- 
 slavery writer, 6. 1791, d. 1853. 
 
 Fowler, Orson Squire, American psychologist, writer and lecturer on 
 phrenology, b. 1809. 
 
 Fowler, Richard, English physicist, b. 1765, d. 1863. 
 
 Fowler, Robert, D.D., English bishop of Killaloe 1771 ; archbishop 
 of Dublin 1778 ; b. about 1727, d. 1801. 
 
 Fowler, Robert Nicholas, English banker, philanthropist, M.P. 1S6S-73, 
 b. 1828. 
 
 Fowler, Thomas, English physician, writer on medical effects of 
 
 tobacco and arsenic, b. 1731, d. 1801. 
 Fowler, William, Eng. designer, engraver, antiquary, b. 1759, d. 1S32. 
 Fox, Charles, English landscape and miniature portrait painter, poet, 
 
 b. 1749, d. 1809. 
 Fox, Charles, English engraver and botanist, b. 1795, d. 1849. 
 
07 
 
 FOX. 
 
 98 
 
 b. 
 
 5. 
 
 Fox, Sir Charles, English civil engineer, erected Crystal Palaces, Hyde 
 
 Park 1851, and Sydenham 1854, b. 1810. 
 Fox, Charles Richard, English lieut. -general, numismatist, b. 1796, 
 
 d. 1873. 
 
 Fox, Edward, Eng. bp, of Hereford, statesman, diplomatist, d. 1538. 
 Fox, George, English antiquary, topographer, b. 1802, d. 1871. 
 Fox, Henry Stephen, English diplomatist, b. 1846. 
 Fox, Sir Stephen, English statesman, royalist, b. 1627, d. 1716. 
 Fox-Strangways, William Thomas Horner, English diplomatist, 
 1795, d. 1865. 
 
 Foxcroft, Thomas, American minister, theologian, b. 1697, d. 1769. 
 Fraccaroli, Innocenzio, Italian sculptor, b. 1803. 
 Francatelli, Charles Elme, English cook, b. 1805. 
 Franceschi, Paolo, Paolo Fiammingo, Flemish historical painter, 
 1540, d. 1596. 
 
 Franceschini, Baldassare, 11 VoUerrano, Italian historical and land- 
 scape painter, b. 1621, d. 1689. 
 
 Franceschini, Marc Antonio, Bolognese fresco and oil painter, b. 1648, 
 d. 1729. 
 
 Francesco II., king of Naples 1859-60, b. 1836, expelled 1860. 
 Francesco V., duke of Modena 1840-59 ; b. 1819, expelled 1859. 
 Franchi, Antonio, Italian historical painter, b. 1634, d. 1709. 
 Franchi, Francesco Bona vino, Ausonio, Italian roman catholic priest, 
 
 afterwards rationalist, b. 1820. 
 Franchi, Giuseppe, Italian sculptor, professor of architecture, Milan, 
 
 6. 1806. 
 
 Francia, Domenico, Italian historical painter, b. 1702, d. 1738. 
 Francia, Francesco, Bolognese hist, and fresco paint., b. 1450, d. 1533. 
 Francia, Francesco Maria, Bolognese engraver, b. 1657, d. 1735. 
 Francillon, James, English county court judge, author of lectures on 
 
 English law, b. 1802, d. 1866. 
 Francis, Ann, English poetess, versifier of Song of Solomon, d. 1800. 
 Francis, George Henry, English joiirnalist, political biographer, essayist, 
 
 b. 1816, d. Paris 1866. 
 Francis, Gilbert Y., Virginian adventurer, d. New Orleans 1839. 
 Francis, John, English sculptor, b. 1780, d. 1861. 
 Francis, John Wakefield, LL.D., American physician, biographer, histor., 
 
 writer on medicine and medical jurisprudence, 6. 1789, d. 1861. 
 Francis, Samuel W., American physician, medical writer, novelist, 
 
 biographer, b. 1835. 
 Francis, William Francis, English naturalist, b. 1818, d. 1865. 
 Franck, Adolphe, French philosophical writer, editor, b. 1809. 
 Franck, Gustav von, German painter, d. 1860. 
 Francke, Carl Philip, Holstein statesman, b. 1805. 
 Francklin, Thomas, D.D., Eng. theologian, translator, b. 1721, d. 1784. 
 Francks, Francis, Flemish historical painter, b. 1544, d. 1616. 
 Franco, Battista, IlSemelei, Venetian painter, engraver, b. 1498, d. 1580. 
 Francois, Alphonse, French advocate, journalist, dramatist, b. 1802. 
 Francois, Lucas, Dutch histor. and portrait painter, b. 1574, d. 1643. 
 Frankel, Zacharias, Bohemian hebraist, journalist, b. 1801. 
 Franken, Frans, Dutch painter of Scripture subjects, b. 1546, d. 1616. 
 Franken, Frans, the younger, Dutch painter of Scripture subjects, b. 
 
 1580, d. 1642. 
 
 Frankl, Ludwig August, Bohemian jew, poet, historian, b. 1801. 
 
 Franklin, Eleanor Anne Porden, 1st wife of Sir John Franklin, 
 English poetess, b. 1795, d. 1825. 
 
 Franklin, Jane Griffin, 2nd wife of Sir John Franklin, English philan- 
 thropist, b. 1805. 
 
 Franklin, William, last British gov. of New Jersey, b. 1731, d. 1813. 
 Franklin, William, American botanist, d. 1819. 
 
 Franks, Augustus Wollaston, English antiquary, archaeologist, b. 1826. 
 Franquaerts, Jacob, Flemish historical and portrait painter, b. 1596, 
 d. 1666. 
 
 Franzen, Frans Michael, Swedish poet, b. 1771, d. 1846. 
 
 Franzius, Wolfgang, D.D., German lutheran theologian, biblical 
 expositor, '>. 1564, d. 1628. 
 
 Frapolli, Luigi, Italian statesman, geologist, b. 1815. 
 
 Fraser, Alexander, Scotch painter, b. 1786, d. 1865. 
 
 Fraser, Alexander Campbell, Scotch metaphysician, critic, b. 1819. 
 
 Fraser, Charles, Amer. lawyer, miniature painter, poet, b. 1782, d. 1860. 
 
 Fraser, James, Scotch publisher, m London, d. 1841. 
 
 Fraser, James, D.D., English bishop of Manchester 1870, educa- 
 tionist, philanthropist, b. 1818. 
 
 Fraser, .fames Baillie, Scotch novelist, traveller in the East, b. 1784, 
 d. 1856. 
 
 Fraser, John, Scotch prcsbyt. minister, theologian, b. 1745, d. 1819. 
 Fraser, Robert, Scotch poet, journalist, philologist, b. 1798, d. 1839. 
 Fratelini, Giovanni, Florentine miniature painter, b. 1666, d. 1731. \ 
 Frazee, John, American sculptor, architect, b. 1790, d. 1852. 
 Freculphus, bp. of Liseux ab. 825, ecclesiastical administrator, d. 850. 
 Frederick VI., king of Denmark, b. 1768, d. 1839. 
 Frederick VII., king of Denmark, b. 1808, d. 1863. 
 Fredrik Willem Karl, prince of the Netherlands, Grand master of 
 
 Freemasons, Netherlands, b. 1797. 
 Freebairn, Alfred, English engraver, b. 1795, d. 1846. 
 Freebairn, Robert, English landscape painter, b. 1765, d. 1808. 
 Freeman, Nathaniel, Amer. judge, physician, general, b. 1754, d. 1S20. 
 Freemantle, Sir Thomas, English admiral, b. 1765, d. 1819. 
 
 Freer, Martha Walker (Mrs. Robinson), English historian, and 
 
 biographer, b. 1822. 
 Freiligrath, Ferdinand, German lyric poet, b. 1810. 
 Freind, John, English physician, medical writer, chemist, translator, 
 
 6. 1675, d. 1728. 
 
 Freind, Robert, English poet, classical editor, master of Westminster 
 
 school, b. 1671, d. 1754. 
 Frelinghausen, Theodore, LL.D., American statesman, philologist, b. 
 
 1787, d. 1862. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, Frederick, American general, b. 1753, d. 1804. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, Theodore James, American minister, Dutch reformed 
 church, b. Holland, d. 1754. 
 
 Fremiet, Emmanuel, French sculptor, b. 1824. 
 
 Fremy, Arnould, French novelist, dramatist, b. 1809. 
 
 French, George, Scotch physician, chemist, b. 1751, d. 1833. 
 
 French, Henry S. G., American missionary in Siam, b. 1806, d. 1842. 
 
 French, John, D.D., Scotch presbyter ian, theologian, b. 1794, d. 1858. 
 
 French, L. Virginia, American poetess, b. about 1830. 
 
 French, William, D.D., Eng. thcolog., mathemat., b. 1785, d. 1849. 
 
 Frend, William English unitarian minister, writer on popular science 
 b. 1757, d. 1841. 1 1 
 
 Freneau, Peter, American journalist, philologist, b. 1758, d 1811 
 
 Freneau, Philip, American poet, b. 1752, d. 1832. 
 
 Frenicle de Bessy, Bernard, French mathematician, d. 1675. 
 
 Frere, Charles Theodore, French painter, b. 1815. 
 
 Frere, Edouard Benjamin, French publisher, bibliographer, b. 1797. 
 
 Frere, John Alexander, English clergyman, theologian, b. 1814 
 
 Frere, John Hookham, English poet, antiquary, philologist states- 
 man, b. 1769, d. 1846. 
 
 Frere, Sir Henry Bartle Edward, English governor of Bombay, member 
 of the council of India, geographer, philanthropist, b 1815 
 
 Frere-Orban, Hubert Joseph Walther, Belgian advocate ' states- 
 man, b. 1812. 
 
 Frerichs, Friedrich Gottfried, German physician, anatomist, physio- 
 logist, b. 1819. 
 
 Freund, Hermann, Danish sculptor, d. 1840. 
 
 Freund, Wilhelm, German lexicographer, b. 1806. 
 
 Freundweiler, Daniel, Swiss portrait painter, b. 1793, d 1827 
 
 Freundweiler, Henri, Swiss portrait and historical painter, b 1755 d 
 1795. 
 
 Frewen, Accepted, English archbishop of York, b. 1589, d. 1664 
 Frey, Jacques, Swiss engraver, b. 1681, d. 1752. 
 Frey, Joseph S. C. F., American baptist minister, converted iew 
 b. 1771, d. 1850. 1 ' 
 
 Freyt ag^Friedrich Gotthilf, German burgomaster, literary historian, 
 
 Freytag, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, Germ, orientalist, b. 1788, d 1861 
 Fnas, Victoire Balfe, duchesse de, English operatic singer d 'lS71 
 Fnedemann, Friedrich Fraugott, Ger. philologist, grammarian b 1793 
 Fnederich, Andre, French sculptor, b. 1796. 
 Friedrich, Caspar David, German artist, b. 1776, d 1840 
 Friedrich August, king of Saxony, b. 1797, succ. 1836, d. 1854 
 Friedrich Christian August, prince of Schleswig Holstein Sond'erburg 
 
 Augustenburg, b. 1829, succ. 1869. ° 
 Friedrichsthal, E. R., Germ, traveller, orientalist, antiquary d 184' 
 Fries, Anders Peter, Swedish physician, d. 1804. 
 Fries, B. F., Swedish physician, naturalist, b. 1800, d. 1839 
 Fries, Ernst, German landscape painter, b. 1801, d. 1833. 
 Fries, Johan, Swiss philologist, b. 1505, d. 1565. 
 Fries, Johan Jakob, Swiss bibliographer, b. 1547, d. 1611. 
 Fries, Johan Konrad, Swiss portrait painter, b. 1618, d. 1693. 
 Fries, Konrad Jakob, German physician, anatomist, 'b. 1769 d lSl? 
 Frisbie, Levi, American metaphysician, b. 1784, d. 18" ' 
 Frisch, Johann, Germ, pastor, naturalist, philologist, b~166Q d 1743 
 Friswell, James Hain, Eng. novelist, essayist, editor, critic b 1S°7 
 Fritzsche, Franz Wolkmar, German philologist, b. 1806 ' 
 Fritzsche, Otto Fridolm, German protestant theologian biblical 
 
 translator, b. 1812. 
 Friuli, Michel Duroc, due de, Fr. marshal, diplomatist I 177' d 1S13 
 Frodoard or Flodoard, French chronicler, b. 894, d. 966. ' 
 Froehlich, Abraham Emmanuel, Swiss poet, b. 1796. 
 Frolich, Erasmus, Austrian historian, numismatist, b. 1700 d. 1758 
 Froment, Paul Gustave, French optician, b. 1815, d. 1S05. ' 
 Fromentel, Louis Edouard Gourdan de, French palseontolo^ist b. 1824 
 Fromentin, Eligius, American senator, judge, b. 1822. ° ' 
 Frontenac, Louis, French count, governor general of Canarfi 
 
 b. 1621, d. 1698. 
 Frossard, Charles Auguste, French general, b. 1807. 
 Frost, George, English landscape painter, b. 1744 d. 1821. 
 Frost, John, English mayor of Newport ; leader in Chartist riots 
 
 1839 ; b. 1780. 
 
 Frothingham, Richard, American historian, journalist, b. 1S1 9 
 Frowde, Philip, English poet, dramatist, d. 'J72S. 
 Frugoni, Carlo Innocenzio, Genoese poet, b. 1092, d. 1768. 
 Frumentin, Eugene, French painter, //. 1S20. 
 
 Fruytier, Philip, Flemish miniature portrait painter, b 1625 d 1677 
 Fry, Caroline, English essayist, author of 'The Listener,' and other 
 religious books, b. 1787, d. 1846. 
 
99 
 
 FEY. 
 
 FYT. 
 
 100 
 
 Fry, Edmund, English philanthropist, educationist, tcmpcranco and 
 
 peace advocate, b. 1812, d. 18(57. 
 Fry, John, English bookseller, bibliographer, d. Bristol, 1822. 
 Frye, Thomas, Irish portrait painter, mezzotint engraver, in England, 
 
 J. 1710, d. 1762. 
 
 Frythe, John, English protestant preacher, burnt at Sniithfield 1533. 
 Fryxell, Anders, Swedish historian, b. 1795. 
 Fua, Erminia, Italian poetess, b. 1834. 
 
 Fuca, Juan de (Apostolos Yalerianos), Cephalonian pilot, in South 
 
 America, geographical discoverer, d. Zante 1632. 
 Fuchs, Gottlieb, German poet, rural pastor, </. 1810. 
 Fuente, Juan Leaadro de la, Span, historical painter, b. 1600, d. 1664. 
 Fuentes, Giorgio, Italian decorative painter, b. 1757, d. 1821. 
 Fuertes, Mariano Soriano, Spanish musical composer, writer on history 
 
 of music, b. 1820. 
 Fuessli, Henri, Swiss landscape painter, 6. 1755, d. 1829. 
 Fuessli, Jean Gaspard, Swiss artist, biographer of artists, b. 1706, 
 
 d. 1781. 
 
 Fuessli, Jean Melehior, Swiss engraver, b. 1677, d. 1736. 
 Fuessli, Jean Uodolph, Swiss painter, b. 1710, d. 17f3. 
 Fuessli, Jean Rodolph, Swiss painter, engraver, b. 1737, d. 1806. 
 Fiiger, Eriedrich lleinrich, German historical and portrait painter, 
 b. 1751, d. 1818. 
 
 Fulda, Carl Fricdrich, German protestant pastor, antiquary, b. 1722, 
 d. 1788. 
 
 Fulford, Francis, D.D., English bishop of Montreal 1850, metropolitan 
 
 of Canada, b. 1803, d. 1868. 
 Fulke, William, English puritan, theologian, writer against popery, 
 
 biblical critic, b. 1561, d. 1589. 
 Fuller, Francis, English nonconformist, theologian, biblical critic, 
 
 b. 1636, d. 1701. 
 
 Fuller, Isaac, English portrait and historical painter, b. 1606, d. 1672. 
 Fuller, Nicholas, Eng. ecclesiastic, theological critic, b. 1557, d. 1622. 
 
 Fuller, Samuel, English settler at Plymouth, Massachusetts, physician 
 and surgeon, d. 1633. 
 
 Fuller, Thomas, D.D., English ecclesiastic, historian, biographer, 
 theologian, b. 1608, d. 1661. 
 
 Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, English novelist, writer in English and 
 in French, b. about 1813. 
 
 Fullerton, John, Scotch judge (as lord Fullerton), 6. 1776, d. 1853. 
 
 Fullom, S. \V., English journalist, military editor, d. 1872. 
 
 Fulman, William, English antiquary, b. 1632, d. 1688. 
 
 Fulton, George, Scotch teacher, elocutionist, lexicogr., b. 1752, d. 1831. 
 
 Fulton, John, Scotch mathematician, astronomer, mathematical instru- 
 ment maker, b. 1800, d. 1853. 
 
 Fumagalli, Iguazio, Portuguese artist, b. 1778, d. 1842. 
 
 Funes, Gregorio, La Plata patriot, ecclesiastic, historian, d. 1829. 
 
 Furetiere, Antoine, French ecclesiastic, philologist, b. 1620, d. 1683. 
 
 Furietti, Giuseppe Alessandro, Italian cardinal, writer on mosaic 
 painting, b, 1685, d. 1764. 
 
 Furman, Pichard,D.D., American baptist minister, theologian, d. 1825. 
 
 Furneaux. Philip, D.D., English nonconformist, writer on toleration, 
 b. 1726, d. 1783. 
 
 Furstemberg, Ferdinand de, Westphalian bishop, antiquary, b. 1626, 
 
 d. 1683. 
 
 Fuss, Nikolaus von, Swiss mathematician in Russia, astronomer, 
 
 b. 1755, d. 1826. 
 
 Fust, Sir Herb. Jcuncr, Eng. Judge of court of arches, b. 1777, d. 1852. 
 
 Fuster, Joseph Jean Nicolas, French physician, medical writer, b. 1801. 
 
 Futrado, Abraham, French jew, writer, orator, b. 1759, d. 1817. 
 
 Futteh Ali Shah, sovereign of Persia, d. 1835. 
 
 Fux, Johann Joseph, German musical composer, b. 1660, d. 1750. 
 
 Fydell, Samuel Richard, Eng. philauthr., educationist, 6. 1 771, d. 1808. 
 
 Fyfe, Andrew, Scotch surgeon, writer on anatomy, d. 1824. 
 
 Fyfe, Andrew, Scotch physician, chemist, anatomist, b. 1792, d. 1861. 
 
 Fyt, Jan, Dutch painter of game, fruit, flowers, dogs, b. 1625, d. 1671.